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THE
JOURNAL
OF THE ©
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
INDEX AND TITLE PAGE
SUWIAN Mayon
oh
Zar\i' fon
Ls a
(s SEP 7 1927
VOL, Xxx \ ;
Veg chy
PARTS 3 & 4
MADRAS
PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
1926
THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
EDITED BY
SIR REGINALD A. SPENCE, KT., F.Z.S., P. M. D. SANDERSON, F.Z.S.,
and S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S.
VOL. XXX. | 217469
ae Cy , “4
rb a} ”
e a
Parts 3 & 4.
Containing 44 Black and White Plates, 29 Text-figures
and a Map.
. Date of Publication.
Part Ill. (Pages 509 to 718) ... 30th June 1925.
Pe IV. ( ,, 719 to 927) ... 15th December 1925.
LONDON AGENTS
DULAU & Co., Ltd., 34—36, Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, W.
PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS.
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'
GONTENES OFF VOLOGOMTIE XXX,
No. 3.
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE ADJACENT
Hive PRovincus. Patt lV. (With a plate and 11 text
NILES Sami aypae Ole eh ins VVIAEC acai taaaccl Banh wed se eee
BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S MAMMAL SURVEY OF
INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON. Report No. 37 (a), Nepal.
EKARLY STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME Eeree
WATER FISHES IN THE PUNJAB. (With 3 plates.) By M.
Eianic nana MiSC:CEeRNGS.s ont a TAS tae ens as
THE CREMASTOGASTER ANT. (With a plate.) By Major
Eee Wis, Gra ato StOM), iM. Gs Tally ML st Oe ioc tM
SomME New ALPINE GRASSHOPPERS OF THE GENUS
Conophyma Zub., from Central Asia. By B. P. Uvarov,
12) OSB eae Oa ra LS Bile PR ee va re treaty Ree
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA. Part
XOING (Wath a, feng teeure.). “By, b. IR. Bell,, Crass,
Meee Seb OINCEG I) Mie Tl etek ate ll bate ah newts cv at \Nagl aa tall ml Ie aon
Two New BurRMESE SNAKES. (With a plate.) By Col. F.
AVERY Us Wiest 5) EXE GOR MAAS TN Gi MR RUE Oe alia be red kee Na aces,
NOTES ON CHAROPHYTES FROM GONDA, U.P. (With 5 plates.)
iva Gra Oe Ailey Me © Shes 5 Nl ads crea Mans even aye ae:
BirpD’s NESTING wITH A CAMERA IN INDIA. Part IV. (With
CP DIGIES Nam oy Oat. Is io. Bales lea, aisle deanna ee
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. Part VII.
(With plates.) By Col. W. H. Evans, D.S.0., F.Z.S., F.E.S.
NOTES AND DESCRIPTION OF INDIAN ASE aas Parti lh By
de [UAW Ved sia) id (SV IRG annie ee cnr oR ara) eariniy CO Mene RMR ner
AN ENCOUNTER WITH A FIGHTING TIGER. (With a ae
By Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.)
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXI. (With 1 plate and 1 text
figure.) By Major F. C. Fraser, I.M.s., F.E.S.. ss
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM Fea Part
(With a plate.) By Herbert Stevens, M.B.O.U. ..,..
PAGE
509°
525
531
541
Jol
561
587
589
600
610
640
652
657
664
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX.
REvVIEWS—IN THE HIGHER HIMALAYAS. By H. Whistler,
EDITORIAL
BZ Se sh tcastere ciee's SO ele ected eater ORE AER epee
A GENERAL TEXT BOOK OF ENTOMOLOGY. Be
A. D. Imms
eeoeeeteeermeceerer eC Geez eese ove SKU FeH8ee2F HH CHO
eeeoseeecee- eeoveattereereese ose Oree.eorceereetoeos Fee i eee eetoortzseh eos
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
Ie
Be
XT.
XIV:
DN
XVI.
Breeding season of the Nilgiri Langur. By Rev.
Cs Leigh, Soy 0 ae, wun caetecer eae ene eee
Wild Dogs and Jungle ‘Tragedies. fe ReyeC.
MLO REIS. oj Wasa odelg te tennareo sa Nate Aiken ee schars Suee eee eas
‘Wild Animals ,.of. Central, India.’ . By. RK. jC:
Morris (with a Note by A. A. Dunbar Brander)
A Black Jackal. By M.S. Tuggerse ...............
The Record Sind Wild Goat. (Capra hircus
blytht.) (With a plate.) By R. L. McCulloch...
The Allied Grosbeak (Perrisospiza atfinis Blyth).
By, Ho Whistler, BE St pe. 2000 JW, suena eaiaanenacineds
On the breeding of the Indian Tree Pipit (dAzthus
hodgsont) in Kulu. By H. Whistler, F.L.s., F.z.S.
The Cotton Teal. By Sir Harcourt Butler .........
Occurrence of the Scaup Duck (Fuligula marila)
in Northern India. By S. H. Prater, c.M.z.s....
The length attained by and the habits of the
Ghavial (G. gangeticus..) By Major C. R. S.
Pitman
eC RG eeSeceoeeGeeeesescseeeesGeceeF CHESS Lor eoecePOseeeereoseoee
Boa Constrictor vs. Alligator. (With a phot) By
Editors
e7FFreeees eR CHOCHHHSOHF Cee eee FEFOHEEREHOLECHO HELE ee ee COS OCE
Tiger killed by a Cobra. (With a photo.) By
Editors 2 eA ba ee Ae
Record of a death from bite of the Hamadryad or
King Cobra (aia hanna.) By C. Theobald,
Recovery from the bite of Echzs carinata. By
Capt. 71. J. “Rice, MS); 4:5 ues ee eee
Viper and White Throat. By B. B. Osmaston,
LPS. (Retds) 7.12 g/ ie ee
A List of Fishes obtained in the Saran District,
Bihar, chiefly from the Ghogra River, near the
town of Chapra and in its vicinity. By E. A.
D’ Abreu, F.z.s.
S meeeeernerne SP eereoeet® tt Coewoesewe Qergesees %®
797
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX.
XVII. The Occurrence of the Spiny-Eel. By E. A.
PARC PAZ his Ad none ce eh TC eM
XVIII. Formula for estimating weight of Mahseer. By
Majom Wi B. TGeviemen. o.\ tue. tii ss cease coun es
XIX. The Ceylon Races of TZerias blanda Bdv., and
sa7z, Horst. By H. T. G. Watkins ........, ee
12215. OX) 2 58 DIT CRS) eA | ee Pe Re Ry TE
No. 4.
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE ADJACENT
Hitt Provinces. Part V. (With a plate and 3 text
Lngunesn) oe, iy: COlonel na Ty. Ward 3: 6y5 4.9). ces eee ees
BIRDS OF THE PERSIAN GuLF ISLANDS. (W7th4 plates and a
Map.) By Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.B.O.U.,
Major-General Sir Percy Z. Cox, G.C.M.G., G.C.1.E.,
K.C.S.I., M.B.o.U. and Major R. E. Cheesman, M.B.0.U.,
REGO Maer etre NIN eat AI yore, Ante nce oaict winner hs getvitoas nanny rslat Maem
NEw SNAKE FROM BurMA. By Col. F. Wall, C.M.G., K.H.S.
AN ORIENTAL HuntTinGc Wasp (Sphex lobatus.) By Major
R. W. G. Hingston, 1.M.s. ........ bie Sates hae eee teat
AN ACCOUNT OF SOME FRESH WATER CILIATES FROM
LAHORE. (With 2 plates.) By Amar Nath Gulati, mM.s.c.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. Part VIII.
(With a plate.) By Col. W. H. Evans, D.S.0., F.Z.S., F.E.S.
ON THE ANTIQUITY AND THE THERAPEUTIC USES OF THE
INDIAN SPIKENARD. (With a plate.) By S. C. Sinha,
NII ae acess oth pAccctic ies cearpis eiausla ciate citlotctttetec asset iela sn easetH Me ainatle Sete aistoaneinieisa
Two New THYSANOPTERA FROM SOUTH INDIA. (With a
plate and a text figure.) By T. V. Ramakrishna lyer
BIRDS NESTING WITH A CAMERAIN INDIA. Part V. ce
5 plates.) By Capt. R. 8. P. Bates.. SE SSERR
NOTES ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURMA IN 1924, By Col.
WAN COMINGS KEES ero 2. eo arck po guetoa paz bob aatine bsjep'h epee soes
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA. Part
MOXVE) Bytl. Ko Bellic1.,,/a-Fs.(Retd.)-..
A Few Days AFTER URIAL IN THE PUNJAB. By fe -Col.
Ree Wee Binion. siAcr (ICO: ) Wicca o. avacnnttinecnnoe centage be'paceae
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXII. (Witha plate and 10 text
iocanes) way Niajor FCP raser, Li.) BE-S.c¢t pence. sense
Gals)
725
734
735
744
756
dh
788
793
805
822
838
846
vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX.
NOTES ON A NEST OF THE CoMMON INDIAN Hornet. (With
a plate.) By B. Chopra, D.Sc.
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE THYSANOPTERA KNOWN
FROM INDIA AND CEYLON. By T. V. Ramakrishna Iyer.
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. Part VII
(Concluszon) ais eC ane By Herbert Stevens,
M.B.O.U. ed Arak ule amen mance Se av
REVIEWS :—THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS. fy Lewis R. W.
LOW cacteeaceease peaieistas
A MONOGRAPH OF THE Ne omen OF pea or I.
By H. Kirke Swann, F.z.S., M.B.O.U.
NATURE AT THE DRFSERT’S EDGE. By R. W. @
Hingston, M.C., M.B., I.M.S. TiS ce wactea seca.
FAMILIAR FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA. By
TaacColthurstiee se ie dr Nd eRe
OBITUARIES :—Prof. H. M. MAxwEeLL LEFROY; PRor. F.
HALLBERG 3" Mr. U. JOSE DG WICK, 1Cis eee.
PADTTOR TAT cde cuecarhe sssewe eter boas cee es oe
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
l.. The Slow Loris.. By Major. Jo DScale*.2e..
Il. Phe 'Occutrence::of *"Hodeson’s Bat. , By 7.4.
D’ Abreu, F.zZz.S. eee: Sea EO en we
{Il.: The. *Sambhar Cal’ see ee pee. ie ee Ne
Dunbar Brander .. :
IV. Tiger-netting in Ree By 1 Toe oe VDA Onoenede:
D.F.O. Sie sie pice Lickatchcteleb einig moved nee ened ROR
V.. Panther with abnormai a By Maharaj Kumar
Shree Vijayarajji
VI. Abnormal Clavicle Bones of a Tiger. By Lt.-Col.
Wo Giitchinso ti 2i¢.c. saa eae eee eer eee
Vil. ‘Panther ‘and. Wild Dogs. > By :Lt!-Col) RoudWw:
IDMTCOMt ceo. Ae Sta Awake Suen
VIII. -A Hybrid Biack Bae and Gites. 1. (With a photo.)
By Maharaj Kumar Sri Sadul Singhji Bahadur.
IX. Duel between two Bull Elephants. By H. F.
Mooney, I.F.S.......
x: “An Elephant Trap.) By C:.G; Seligman’ 2222'..4.
XI. Crow’s Nests and Eleetric Cables. By S. H.
Prater, CoM.Z-S. : ses
PAGE
858
861
872
894
894
896
898
899
902
904
905
905
907
909
910
910
911
912
912
93
MIT
XITI.
EVE:
GV
Dovel:
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XO.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX.
Predatory Habits of the Magpie. By Lt.-Col.
F. M. Bailey... ais
Fresh Light on tiie Taentity of the ‘ Deen Bird.’
Biya FiGILOUS 2s. escene csc
Hawks and Se aTienes
D.S.O., O.B.E. af
An Albino Hoopoe. win a t pte) By fs
elpe Ke IN iGlaiiseneaes ccc
enai
By F. Field . arene ome ee
Breeding of the Painted eae Grace in the
Punjab Salt Range. By H. W. Waite, F.z.s.,
M.B.O.U. és . Meee
The Nesting of the Se ne eesa in the
ns Major J. D. Scales,
Occurrence of the eet at
Mussoorie.
‘Kalij
District of 24-Pergannas. ae, a ese By
Satya Churn Law ...........
Weights of Woodcock in Shillong. “By I Lt.-Col.
Gk. Ow, Toa (etd) . uta | ease stte
Records with Snipe. By Udaji E RAO, Pur we:
The Snake Watrix venningi (Venning’s Keelback.)
By Wee Cosi, VW allt Sosa aes tte sadiees ocho
The Common ‘ Fire Fishes’ of Madras. By S. T.
MOSES %..c.-u2.
A Run of pene on he iotieame. falline 4 into mae
Yamdrok Tso. By Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey
Extraordinary Display of ‘ Leucodice soracte’ of
the Genus ‘AportA.’ (With a plate.) By
Rae VE NG OTS CAG: feentae cancer tess ti hint sein eee
Captosoma ostensum, Dist. and its enemy Syzza
melanaria, Muls. By TT. V. Subramanyam,
AG See a ney an ebro omnes a eNO cabal eciucea mele tee aca
esaeeee
PAG) GEE IEG She oceans iret ae Wala s wise be beau spa cacau eevee
vii
PAGE
914
914
vYilis
916
S27
ois
918
923
924
926
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF VCON TRIBE TOS.
VOLUME XXX
PAGE
AIVAR, T. V. RAMAKRISHNA ;
Two new TZhysanoptera from
South India (wzth J plate and 1
text figure) ie Pre cicte:
= ; An annotated List
of the TZhysanoptera known
from India and Ceylon . 861
ALLEN, ‘G.O., 1:C.S.-; Notes on
Charophytes from Gonda, U. P.
(with 5 plates) tes DoW
BAHADUR, MAHARAJ KUMAR SRI
SADUL SINGHJI; A Hybrid
Black Buck (A. cervicapra) and
chinkara (G. bennetit) (with
a photo) F a. coe ML
BAILEY, LT.-CoL. F. M. ; Preda-
tory Habits of the Magpie =< O14
A run of Fish on the
streams falling into the Yam-
drok Tso a whe tee
BATES, CAptT,. R...S, Pe: Birds
nesting with a camera in India—
Part IV. (wth 6 plates) . 600
Part V. (with 5 plates) ERE)
Bre De. SC alah ween.
(Retd.) ; The Common Butter-
flies of the plains of India—
Part “XXXIV (weth- dy. text
figure) Peon
Part XXXV 6 oy Occ
BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SocieEty’s Mammal Survey
No. 37(a) Nepal ... Puy)
BRANDER, A. DUNBAR; Com-
ments on Wild Animals of
Central India aan «»» 696
ae —— —; The
Sambhar Call of Tiger . 905
BURTON, LT.-Cor. R. W.,<1) A;
(Retd.) ; An encounter with a
fighting Tiger (w7th a photo) ... 652
| Cox, MAJOR-GENERAL SIR PERCY
PAGE
BURTON, Lt.-CoL. R. W., I. A.
(Retd.) Panther and Wild Dogs. 910
BUTLER, HARcouRT ; The Cotton
Teal . 702
CHEESMAN, Mayor R.E., see
Ticehurst, Dr. C. B.
CuHopra, B., D.Sc.; Note on a nest
of the Common Indian Hornet
(Vespa cincta, Fabr.) (with a
plate) :
Zi. = see Ticehurst, (or..Ce B.
D' Abreu, E.cA., E:Z:3S:" A. List
of Fish obtained in the Saran
District, Behar, chiefly from
the Ghogra River, near the
town of Chapra and in its
vicinity ae a OV
; Formula for esti-
mating weight of Mahseer pedal
; The occurrence of
Hodgson’s Bat (JZyotis formo-
sus) in the Central Provinces ... 905
DELANOUGEREDE, L. J., D.F.O.;
Tiger-netting in Assam (wth 1
plate and 2 text figures) . 907
EpItToRS; Boa Constrictor ws.
Alligator (with a text figure) ... 704
; Tiger killed by a
Cobra (with a text figure) ... 705
——_——_——-; Fresh light on the
identity of the ‘ Devil Bird’ ... 914
Evans, COLONEL W. H., D.S.O.,
HZ... bao.) nem identi:
cation of Indian Butterflies—
Part VII (wzth I plate) sae OO
Part Vill (w7tk 7 plate) 4756
FIELD, F.; Occurrence of the
Nepal Kalij Pheasant (G. leu-
comelanus) at Mussoorie 5 Shy
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PAGE
FowLerR, Henry W.; Notes and
Descriptions of Indian Fishes—
Part III ea ... 640
PRASER, Mayor F. C., 1.M.S.,
F.E.S.; Indian Dragonflies,
Pato xX (orth 1 plate and J
text figure) see aay
; Indian Dragonflies
(with 1 plate and 3 text figures).
Fry, T. B., see Bombay Natural
History Society’s Mammal Sur-
vey of India, Burmah and
Ceylon = oe eee yas)
GULATI, AMAR NatH, M.NSC. ;
An account of some Fresh-
Water Ciliates from Lahore ...
Hincston, Mayor R. W. G.,
I.M.S.; The Cremastogaster
Ant (wth a plate) . O41
; An Oriental Hunt-
(Sphex lobatus)
Part ee oe a is)
HUTCHINSON, LT.-CoL. W. G.;
Abnormal Clavicle Bones of a
Tiger es es Pe ou
KHAN, -Me°Hamip, M.Sc.,
F.R.M.S.; Early Stages in the
Development of some Fresh-
water Fishes in the Punjab
(wth 3 plates) sis 2 oon
LAW, SATYA CHURN; The nest-
ing of the Little Green Heron
(Butorides striatus javanica) in
the District of 24-Pergannas
846
744
ing Wasp.
(with a photo) f. son GS
LeIcH,C.S.J. - Breeding season
of, the Srileta Langur 2 O08
McCuttoun, R. L.; A Record
Sind Wild Goat (wth I plate). 699
MOONEN,* Els Ei; LE.S.; Duel
between two Bull Elephants ... 912
Moors, J. PERcy ; Wanted: In-
formation on Indian Leeches...
Morris, R. C.; Wild Dogs and
Jungle omeedies : SOO
; Wild Animals of
Central India . 694
MorSHEAD, R. Y. A. apoteen
ordinary Display of ‘ eee
sovacte’ of the genus (Aporid)
(with a plate) 23
925
—- ————
oe
PAGE
Moszs, S. T.; Two Common
‘ Fire-Fishes ’ of Madras
(Pterois russellit, Van Hass.)
and (P. volitans, Linn.) A preli-
minary note on their variations.
OsMASTON, B. Be, LFS; (Retd.);
Viper and White-throat
Pirman, Major C. R. S.; The
length attained by and the
habits of the Gahrial
PRATER, Sl, © MEZ5.; Oran
rence of fie Scaup Duck
(Fuligula marila) in Northern
India
—; Crows Nests and
Electric Cables ...
PUAR, UDAIT “RAO;
with Snipe . es oes
Rick, Cari. fH. 4 1M. Re-
covery from the bite of Achis
carinata see of
Row, sEr.-Cor, Le A. (Retd. e
Weights of Woodcock in
Shillong
RUDKIN, Mrs. H. K.: one Aino
Hoopoe (Upupa Bins 7naica)
(with a photo)
SCALE, MAJOR: J.D: The Siow
Loris (Nycticebus ime
SCALES, Major J. D., D.S.O.,
O.B.E.; Hawks and Swallows.
SELIGMAN, C. G.; An Elephant
Trap
Sinha. C.. On ihe Antiquity
and the Therapeutic uses of
the Indian Spikenard (wth a
plate)
STEVENS, HeReEee M. B. OF U.:
Notes on the Birds of the
Sikkim Himalayas—
Part VI. (with 2 plates)
Part VII (conclusion) (with 2
Records
plates) ; re a
SUBRAMANYAM, T. V., B.A. ;
Coptosoma ostensum Dist.
and its enemy Syuzd melana-
via, Muls. (with I plate)
THEOBALD, CHARLES, F.Z.S.,
Record of a death from a bite
of the Hamadryad or King
Cobra (Nazia hanna)
921
107
706
. 919
. 916
. 904
915
Bs hes
ot hd
. 664
Ore
ieee
. 706
PAGE
TIcHHURST, Dr.C. B., M.R.C:S.,;
M. B.O.U., Cox, Major-General
sit Percy, 24.0" Gie MeG..
GeO. be (K.C.8-1, MaB.0-U.;
and Cheesman, Major, R. E.,
M.B.O.U. Birds of the Persian
Gulf Islands (w7zth 4 plates and
QUAD) © Vass obs Pe 35)
TUGGERSE, M.S.; Black ane 698
Uvarov, B.P., F.E.S., Some
new Alpine Grasshoppers of the
genus Conophyma, Zub. from
Central Asia Bes ie 52. OL
VIJAYARAJJI, MAHARAJ KUMAR
SHREE ; Panther with abnormal
feet . sas PRU,
WAITE, H.W. “BZS. ;M.B OU;
Breeding of the Bamed Sand-
Grouse (Plerocles indicus) in the
Panjab Salt Range ie Pe DL)
WAEL;, COLONEL FF. ©.M-°G:.
K.H.S., I.M.S. Two new
Burmese Snakes (with Z plate). 587
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PAGE
WALL, COLONEL F., C.M.G.,
K.H.S., I.M.S., A new snake
from, Burman 9 ee BRA w. 734
~; Notes on Snakes
collected in Burma in 1924 ...
; The Snake Natrix
venningt (Venning’s Keel-
back) a correction ee
WARD, Cot. A. E.; The Mam-
mals and Birds of Kashmir and
adjacent Hill Provinces—
Part 1V (wth 1 plate and 11
text figures)... ‘ »- 009
Part V (with 1 plate ae. }
text figures) .. us ery Ike)
WATKINS, H. T. ae The Gesion
races of Zerzas brah ae. Bdv.,
and sarz, Horsf. . 714
WHISTLER, HUGH, F. Z. S.. The
allied Grosbeak Vee ie
arfinis,; Blyth)... ven 100
; Oni the Breediny of
the Indian Tree Pipit (Azthus
hodgsont) in Kulu Poe eo OL
805
LESTAOT PEAICES,
VOLUME XXX
No. 3
PAGE
The Mammals and Birds of Kashmir and the adjacent Hill Provinces—-
Tibetan Antelope (Panthalops hodgsont) - ins ee @ 909
Early Stages in the Development of some Fresh Water Fishes ia the
Punjab—
Plate I—Ophtocephalus marulius ace ay, tei, -OOe
Plate Il—Wallago attu sie Be dee Pw 2535
Plate I1I—Zabeo gonius ei =~ A eee 030
The Cremastogaster Ant (C. aubertz) ... wii ee ql OE
Two New Burmese Snakes—
(A) Natrix nigriventer bs: fee i egae OO7
(B) Matrix githodest ... eee as oy 5 © OF
Charophytes from Gonda. U.P.—
Plate I—Fig.1. Chara brachypus bs a ese 2,890
Fig. 2. Tyriplostichous ... ae ae Pe eu
Fig. 3. Dzplostichous ... ing ae Fen owl)
Plate II—Fig.1. Nitella amminata - eee Pool
Pig 2. »5, mirabilis at re? J. eog6
Plate WI— Chara braunii = ae 33 a) Oud
Plate [V— Chara wallichit as an ies sas 098
Plate V—Chart rae noe te aes Mee ye eee,
Birds Nesting with a Camera in India—
Plate I—(A) The Indian Great Reed-Warbler (Acrocephalus sten-
toreus brunnescens ) .. 600
(B) The Paddy-Field Warbler t dopocPbralis Wot 600
Plate II—(A) The Common Coot (Fulica atra atra) _... 601
(B) The Central Asian Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis faa) 601
(C) The Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirur-
gus) ioe 601
Plate III—(A) The White-eyed Pochard Nip ruta Pues ; 604
(B) Hodgson’s Yellow-headed Wagtail (Motacilla
cttreola citreoloides) on ie .. 604
Plate 1V—(A) The Eastern Baillons Crake ( Porzana pusilla pusilla) 605
(B) The Northero Ruddy Crake Oa aie fuscus
bakert) oe oe OOS
Plate V—The Indian Little Grebe lPoaivepes ruticollis pReinse 606
Plate VI—The Little Bittern (/vobrychus minutus minutus ) ee OUT
The Identification of Indian Butterflies—
Plate I-LYCAANIDA:, Amblypodia a eth mee!)
3
xii LAST OL TAILATES
PAGE
Indian Dragonflies—
Plate I—Figs. 1-2. Gomphus personatus 62 ans Rr oes)
Fig. 3 dy nilgivicus Ew. oo Bane = OSS
Fig. 4. a o’doneli 8 Ap ae ies Oe
Fig. 5. Heliogomphus ceylonicus & BR PERO Ghote)
Fig. 6. e promelas 8 AS ee) Se)
Fig. Tis 3 nietneri & aes eo OS
Birds of the Sikkim: Himalayas—
Plate I—(A) Above Karponang ... bee ne a. 008
(B) Lachung Valley above Kedom 668
Plate II—(A) Lachung Vailey. Looking North-east elevation, 9, 000 674
(B) Lachung Valley, elevation, 8,800’ 5p nite AO!
A Record Sind Wild Goat—
Capra hircus blytht oe es ese ane er hOO9
No. 4
The Mammals and Birds of Kashmir and the SIGNS Hill Provinces—
Shou (Cervus wallicht) .. sas be woe ses Tu ttlo
Birds of the Persian Gulf Islands—
Sketch-Map of Persian Gulf and Islands oa ene § E725
Plate I—The Home of a Crab Plover Colony, Warba Island here ee ti4e}
Plate I[—Cormorants nesting on Halul Islands a! See ae,
Plate III—(A) Cormorant (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis) Colony on
Halul Islands oe Ge
(B) Young Cormorants (P. nigrogularis) in Ge mown
on FarsilIsland ... oes ee OD
Plate IV—(A) Young Ospreys in nest Halul Islands ia ete OO
(B) Site of Osprey’s nest on Halul Islands... creas oo
Plate I. Fresh-water Ciliates from Lahore ... aa eset. ZO
Plate Il. is 3 sas ae SOAR lO)
The Identification of Indian Butterflies—
Plate XXIX—LYCANIDA. Surendra, Loxura, Spindasis,
Tajuria, Jacoona, Marmessus, Horaga, Catapeecilma,
Hypolycena and Artipe Are ie: “a OO
Indian Spikenard (Vardostachys jatamansi) ... at ene SAME.
Kleothrips subramanii ... Be sae ui ie PEO
Birds Nesting with a Camera in India—
Plate I—The Common Sandpiper (7rzmga hypoleuca) ... ves: 194
Plate II—(A) Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail (Motacilla alba hodgsoni).... 795
(B) The Common Sandpiper (7vinga hypoleuca) Perper ics)
Plate III--(A) The Common Sandpiper (7ringa hypoleuca) & 798
(B) Jerdon’s Little Ringed-Plover (Charadrius BD es
jerdont) — 798
(C) Jerdon’s Little Ringed: Plover (Charadrius es
jerdont) ile —. 79S
PlateIV—(A) The Indian Pied Kingfisher i\Gne rudis leucome-
lanura) ee 10o
(B) Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail (Motacilla alba eon map) Le)
(C) Kashmir Roller (Coracias garrula semenowt) reg 2 RE)
LIST OR PEATES
Plate V—Jerdon’s Little Ringed-Plover (Charadrius dubius jerdont)
Indian Dragonflies 1—3 Cyclogomphus ;—4-7 Microgomphus
Nests of the Common Indian Hornet (Vespa Caer)
Birds of the Sikkim Himalayas—
Plate XII—(A) Crags, North-west of Lachung Village
(B) Lachung Valley above the village
Plate XIII—(A) Sandakphu from Kalo Pokhari
(B) Kalo Pokhari Camp 10,160’ ...
Tiger-netting in Assam—
Plate I—No. 1. Men pulling on one of the ‘ Dhenki’ Ropes
No. 2. Asmall portion of the spectators
No. 3. Tiger rushing across the enclosure
Crow’s Nests and Electric Cables—
Plate :—No. 1. Crow’s nest (weight 11 ib ) made almost entirely
of wire, built on the side strain insulator
Brackets
Crow’s nest of wire in process of construction on
the over-head girder
A Butterfly swarm. (Leucodice soracte)
Synia melanaria, Muls., Predator on Coptosoma avon: Dist.
Xiil
PAGE
802
854
858
876
876
886
886
807
907
907
913
913
923
924
INDEX FO ILLUSTRATIONS
VOLUME XXX
PAGE PAGE
Acrocephalus agricolus, P\. fig. 2 600 | Colpidium striatum, Pl. fig. 13... 750
-stentoreus brunnes- Colpoda cucullus, Pl. fig. 16... 750
cens Pl. hig. 1 ar .. 600 | Coptosoma ostensum, Pl. figs. ... 924
Alcedo atthis pallasii, Pl. fig. 2... 601 | Coracias garrula semenovi, Pl.
Amaurornis fuscus bakeri, Pl. fice 3) a 799
igen | as ‘3 -- 605 Corvus splendens, Pl. eee OS
Amblypodia, sp. PI. + 629 Cremastogaster auberti, Pl. ie
Antilope cervicapra, fig. 2 wos DZ 1.23 a 54]
Artipe, sp. Pi. figs. ... 796 | Cyclidium panies Rive. : 195.8750
Butorides striatus javanica figs... 918 | Cyclogomphus gynostylus, P1. fig. 854
Capra hircus blythi, Pl. JeGO9 tN a cas oe aig er ae figs. ... 856
Capreolus pygargus, fig. Ae mre re wilkinst, Pl. fig. 2. 854
Catapacilma sp., Pl. fig. LEET56 | Re a eer ae ay figs. 856
Cervus wallicht, Pi. ih 7A) ——_-—-__ypstion, Pl. fig. 1. 854
Ceryle rudis leucomelanura, Pl. Ege Serena a al figs. 856
fig. 1 on a .. 799 | Didinium balbianit, Pl. fig. 6 ... 746
Chara brachypus, Pl. fig. 1 PASCO hepa nasutum, Pl.fig.5 ... 746
brachypus, Pl. v, fig. _ 599 | Dileptus gigas, Pl. fig. 7 ... 746
_—__— braunii, PI. iii. .. 597 | Diplosctichous, Pl. 1, fig. 3... 590
ie ee IV ... 599 | Felts tigris ... “Se sh be, (NS
contraria, Pl. v, fig. _.. 599 | Formicomus ninus, Pl. fig. 2:... S41
—_-corallina, Pl. v, fig. _ 599 | Mulica atra atra, Pl. fig. ] ... 601
EMSA) 2011S el. N 5 fig. ... 599 Gastrostyla setifera, Pl. fig. 24 ... 750
s gymnopitys, Vv, fig. . 599 | Gazella bennetii, fig. 11 £4592
_____hydropitys, Pl. v, fig. et SOQ ti =e - fuscifrons, fig. 10 ne Oy
aes ___wallichii, Pl. iv. _., 598 | -——— gutturosa CULOtCH, iS. O17
ibid ro BY yy ap 41.500) .| age (Procapra) gutturosa,
= zeylanica, Pl. v, fig. ns 009 Fig. 4 Ba ae ore oe NG)
Charadrius dubius jerdont, Pi. ———-~ setstanica, fig. . ee 520
figs. 1-2 ... ae .. 795 | ———- subgutlurosa satrensis,
eee ee Pis02 Fig. 7 ee sek at = 3519
Chilodon cucullus, Pl. fig. 11... 746 | ———-suggutturosa subguiturosa,
Coleps hirtus, Pi. fig. 4 Lan74e Hig i620. 2% foe ses ee LO
Colpidium colpoda, Pl ie elo wc: OU —_—-—yarkandensts, fig. 8 ... 519
———— |
compyla, Pl. fig. 14... 750 | Glaucoma scintillans, Pl. fig. 12. 750
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Gomphus nilghiricus, Pl. fig. 3... 659
——-— o0’doneli, Pl. fig. 4 . 659
——-—— personatus, wings of %. 657
Be fol Seuss @ 659
Halophrya simplex, P\. fig. 1... 746
Ftalteria grandinella, Pl. fig. 21. 750
Heliogomphus ceylonicus, P|.
HO Si i... as .33 650
—_-—- — nietnert, Pl. fig. 7. 659
—--——-—-— promelas, fig. . 846
—_—-——- -_- —_____—P]. fig. 6. 659
fioraja; sp., El. igs: . 756
Hydrophasianus chirurgus, Pi.
fie 3 oe oe is. ... 601
Hypolycaena, sp., Pl. figs. 2.5 790
Lxobrychus minutus minutus, P\. 607
Jacoona, sp., PI. figs. ie FO
Kleothrips subramanit, Pl. - TBF
Labeo gonius, Pl. figs. 12, 13 . §33
Lacrymarta striata, P\. fig. 3 . 746
Leeuwenta karnyt, fig. ... eho
Leucodice soracte, Plate ., 923
Loxophyllum meleagris, Pi. fig. 8 746
Loxura, sp., Pl. figs. . 156
Lychnothamnus barbatus, PY. v,
fig. aa wat 599
Marmessus, sp., Pl. figs. 756
Microgomphus burmicus, Pl.
fig. 6 ... 854
—— fig. 3... 856
—_——_——_-——_/illiputians, Pl.
fic. 7 os wo» 854
- ———souteri, Pl. fig. 5. 854
——————-——-—— fig. 1... 856
- torguatus fig. 2 ... 851
—————_—_—_— ———— Pl. fig. 4 854
PEAT Sa figs 2 ..8,000
Moschus moschiferus moschiferus,
fig. aes mee eee
Motacilla alba hodgsont, Pl. fig. 1 795
Br ne. 2799)
—_— ——-- cilreola citreoloides, Pl.
fig. 2 a ae .. 604
Nardostachys jatamansi, Pl. Teh
Nassula ambigua, Pl. fig. 10 .. 746
4
XV
PAGE
Nassula rubens, Pl. fig. 9 . 746
Natrix gilhodesi, P1. fig. 2 et OW,
- —nigriventer, P|. fig. 1 587
Nitella acuminata, P\. ii, fig. 1... 596
—————— ——— PI. v, fig. 2 ... 599
——— batvachosperma, Pl. v,
fig. 10 jon VSR)
-hyalina, P|. v, fig. 16 BSN!
—Mirebilts,. PlNii, iS. 2° a. O96
Pl. v, fig. 1 . 599
mucronata, Pl. v, fig. 5... 599
Nyroca rufa rufa, Pl. fig. 1 . 604
Ophiocephalus marulius, P). figs.
1-6, 14-19 Ma SqeIOe
Pandion haliaétus, P\. eae 2)
Panthalops hodgsoni, P. . 509
Phalacrocorax nigrogularis, Pls.
728, (32
Pleurotricha grandis, Pl. fig. 23... 750
Podiceps ruficollis albipennis, P|. 606
Porzana pusilla pusilla, P\. fig. 1. 605
Procapra przewalskit, fig. 3 sees DLO
Saiga tartarica, fig. 1 > o10
Stgmostomum indicum, P1. fig. 20 750
Spathidium spathula, PY. fig. 2 ... 746
Spindastis sp. V1. figs. = 756
Suastus gremius, fig. ae 7A)
Surendra sp., Pl. figs se. 700
Synia melanaria, P|. figs. .. 924
Tajuria sp., Pl. figs. see ZOO
Lelotrochidium natthaii, P\. fig.
18 ie re 7 OU
Tolypella prolifera, Pl. v, fig. ... 599
Tringa hypoleuca, P\. ae 74
———————-—— Pl. fig. 2 Be RE
— Ply fiona .. 798
Triplostichous, Pl. 1, fig. 2 oe O00
Upupa epops indica, fig. «= 916
Urocentrum turbo, Pl. fig. 17 ~~ ... 750
Urostyla weissi1, Pl. fig. 22 seu /O0
Vespa cincta, Pl. .. 858
Wallago attu, Pls, figs. 7-11 eS)
ERRATA
Page ii, line 4 for marzlla read maria.
,, 17 legend for fig. 4 vead fig. 5.
,, 020 line 5 from bottom for yarkandentsis read yarkandensts.
», 603 ,, 3 for Zersebhone read Terpsiphone.
,, 604 legend for Vycroca read Nyroca.
,, 677 line 35 for fusctphaga read fuciphaga.
,, 682 ,, 21 for xanthorhunchus read xanthorhynchus.
,, 688 ,, 11 from bottom for Psztaacula read Psittacula.
» 688 ,, 32 for Rostratulla read Rostratula.
, 4/03 ,,.2 for marilla read marila.
ae OO vurnt eGe aa r F -
,, 726 ,, 33 for Phaleropus read Phalaropus.
,, 728 ,, 25 for Hirunda read Hirundo.
, (29 ,, 35 for Caladris read 'Calidvzs:
,, 429 ,, 37 for Phaleropus read Phalaropus. |
, /87 plate illustrating Aleothrips subramanii should face page
789.
,, /98 line 4 from bottom for garulla read garrula.
, 799 legend - i s
,, 893 line 6 from bottom for ruficollies read ratficollzs.
,, 896 ,, 5 for Acctpier read Accipiter.
» 926 legend for Epopa read Upupa.
INDEX OF SPECIES
Accipiter affinis ...
——-—— nisus Pclsnocanietne
Aceros nipalensis
Acineta tuberosa :
Acrocephalus agricolus ..
Aidon ¢. familiaris
Aeolothrips fulvicollis
Aeromachus indistincta
jhora
Aeshna ceylonica
ues Promelas
H#gypius monachus ose
Aithopyga gouldiz gouldie ...
———--— ignicauda ignicauda
——_— ——_ nipalensis nipalensis
——-—--——— Saturata
—— siparaja seherize
Ailia coila
Alauda arvensis leiopus
— gulgula euttata
Alcedo atthis bengalensis
-——-— -——- pallasii
-—— iredalei
Aleurodothrips iaccia penis
Alophonerpes pulverulentus harterti...
Alsocomus pulchricollis
Aimaurornis fuscus balicri
Ambassis nama ...
——---—— ranga ...
Amblopala avidiena
Amblyceps mangois
Amblypodia aberrans
-—— abseus abseus
indicus
mackwoodi
eee VGA
————---—— adatha regia
-——_— ---——— adorea
—-——.-- ——. adriana
--———--—— xeta
--——— stentorlus brunnescens.
PAGE
880
880
675
753
606
600
727
864
835
835
849
848
873
666
665
666
666
665
709
664
664
674
600
674
869
671
885
608
710
710
622
709
637
637
637
637
635
629
629
638
635
Amblypodia agaba agaba
---———. ——--- qurelia
———---——— agelastus ..
—_——--—— agesilaus ...
———--——. agnis
-_—_---——- agrata Z
~_—_—.---———- alaconia operant
——— --———. albopunctata
—_—_— --——— alea alea 3
constancex ..,
—____—- ---——— alemon
~———~--——— alesia ie
—_—_—_--——- alitaeus fens
a OO ManLeoaimantes
—____---—— --__-- amatrix...
-——_---—— ammonides ammonides...
-_————. ariel
——--——— amphimuta
——---———-— anarte en
pa eras Mella arco ley.
a = eis antheaw.
—--——-— ———— anthelus
——---——-— antimuta ...
-——---——— apha 2
—— --——-— apidanus oleae
apidanus
——— = =
BPI
——__———---— areste areste
| -——---——-— ——_-- arestina
—---——. — ariana
— -——--~—— arvina
——_—. -- ——_ asoka
—_———---——. asopia
——— --——_ atosia aricia
-- atosia
atrax
bazaloides
—_——--—— bazalus
belphebe .
—__—— -- —— birmana ‘ale
———-----—— camdeo camdeo ...
ee =
PAGE
630
630
634
627
626
629
634
628,
630
630
631
633
628
632
632
636
636
627
625
638
625
625
635
629
638
638
629
638
638
628
635
638
634
657
627
628
633
632
635
636
626
XViii
Amblypodia camdeo varro
——--——— canaraica ...
centaurus centaurus
--—_——- ——_—- —— -——-_ coruscans
—See
— ———- —-- — pirama
—————_—_—_ ——--—— pirithous
chinensis ...
comica
=a =-—____— Cooperi ane
corinda acestes ...
diardi
dispar
dodonea ...
duessa
ellisi seh
-—_—_— -—— epimuta elsiei ... dee
eumolphus eumolphus...
nellenore
————— -—______— maxwelli
fulgida :
—_——_—_——— fulla andamanica
—_—__—_—_ ——-- ignara
~=—_—__——- ganesa ganesa
-watsoni ... mae
hewitsoni.. “jee
horsfieldi a ieratones A he
——_——__———. karennia ...
—— —— Khamti
——_—_—__——-- metamuta...
—__—_—__——— moolaiana
SO SC
—_—_—_——- opalina
—__—_—_——-_ pagaiensis
—___—___—_—_ paraganesa paraganesa..
zephyretta...
paralea
paramuta...
perimuta perimuta
-——_—_———
ns a
———$ ——— —_- — revia ..
—_——— ——— phoenops aroa
pryeri
——. -- —-— rafflesii
rama rama
—_—__ ——_—— ——- ramosa
silhetensis arama
——- ————- silhetensis
singla
subfasciata
—— — -——-_ suffisa
vihara
woodii
—
PAGE
626
630
631
631
631
631
638
634
631
633
637
626
634
635
637
627
632
632
632
637
639
639
636
636
630
632
626
629
627
627
629
626
627
636
636
631
634
635
635
630
630
628
634
634
629
628
632
625
626
633
633
INDEX OF SPECIES.
Amblypodia zeta
Amphileptus gigas
Ampittia dioscorides
Ampulex assimilis
Anaphothrips oligochztus
—_——-——. ramakrishnze
Anas acuta acuta
-——- penelope
——- platyrhyncha pletyahynieta
——- strepera
Andropogon Scheananthee
Androthrips flavipes
——_ --———— ramachandrai
Anguilla bengalensis
Anisogomphus nietneri
Anser indicus :
Anthracoceros pornnate: Hanes
Anthus campestris griseus
- hodgsoni
triviates triviates
Antilope cervicapra
Apistus carinatus :
Apodemus (nemomys) pier
Aporia leucodice soracte
Aptinothrips rufus, var.
cornis nee °
Aquila nipvalensis Aan:
Arachnothera magna magna ...
Araotes lapithis ... i
Arborophila mandellii...
-——-—— rufogularis rufogularis ...
-———_-——. torqueola ...
Ardea insignis
Ardeola ralloides
Arenaria interpres
Arnetta vindhiana aes
Arrhenothrips ramakrishnze
Artipe eryx woe ae a4: ae
—— v,, Skinner «..
Arvicola He has
Asio flammeus flammeus
leucopsis
Aspidisca costata
—--—— lynceus
Astur badius dussumieri
—- gentilis schedowi...
—-trivirgatus rufitinctus ...
Austrothrips cochinchinensis,
Aviceda jerdoni jerdoni
Ayyaria chaetophora ... Nes oa
Bactridothrips cerraticornis
connati-
PAGE
635
747
832
735
871
871
893
893
608
893
780
869
871
709
847
892
675
figel
701
728
911
641
530
923
867
875
667
775
890
889:
889.
892
733
729.
574
869
770
770
530
684
684
793
753
879
879
880
868
881
871
870
INDEX OF: SPECIES
Bagarius yarrellii
Bandicota nemorivaga
Barbus crysopternus
—parrah
———-sarana
—stigma ae
—stoliczkanus ers
Barilus bola
Batrachostomus Hodgson:
Belone cancila see
Biduanda melisa cyara
—__—__—_—__-——- melisa
——~—--—nicevillei
—-—scudderii
——-——thesmia fabricii
—thesmia
Bindahara phocides areca
—_—_ —_- —________moorei
-————phocides ...
eee
——————— ee
Biscunedens perfuscus ad
Blythipicus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis
Boiga cynodon ee
Boleophthalmus Godaners
Bosephalus tragocamelus
Botia dario
——gelo ‘
Brachytrypes Relarnns
Bregmatothrips parviceps
-ramakrishne ...
Britomartis buto
—— -——-—-cleoboides ...
Bubulcus ibis coromandus
Bungarus fasciatus
—_——_—magnimaculatus
—multicinctus
Butastur teesa
Buteo ferox ferox
hemilasius
japonicus ...
Butis butis
——-caperatus ae es
Butorides striatus javanicus ...
Cacomantis merulinus passerinus
--——querulus
Calandrella acutirostris tibetana
ee
ee
——_———-brackydactyla dukhunensis.
Calidris alba ‘
Callichrous pineaiaeus.
Calliophis macclellandi
Callophrys chalybeia
PAGE
709
528
708
708
708
708
708
708
678
710
766
766
767
767
767
767
774
774
- 774
530
671
818
644
523
708
708
135
867
867
761
762
892
819
820
819
877
878
878
878
644
643
918
631
681
664
664
729
709
820
619
XIX
PAGE
an ae leechii 619
ee rubi 619
Canis indicus 527
Capella nemoricola 891
solitaria 892
892
Capra hircus blythi 699
Capreolus pygargus or 721
Caprimulgus indicus jotaka ... 678
—macrurus nipalensis 677
Carchesium epistylidis 753
-——_— —polypinum 755
Casarca ferruginea 893
Catla buchanani 708
Catopeecilma delicatum 768
—— -elegans major 768
———_______-+__-——__myositina 768
————-subochracea 768
Cecidothrips bursarum ; 868
- Centropus bengalensis RAT Sets 2 | O83
sinensis sinensis 683
Cephalothrips hispanicus 868
Cerchneis tinnunculus saturatus 881
—_—_—___—___-——-—sub-sp. ? 881
Cervus albirostus 720
—wallichi ai 719
Ceryle lugubris guttulata 674
- rudis leucomelanura 799
Ceyx tridactylus tridactylus 674
Chaetoprocta odata ae 622
Chaimarrornis leucocephala .. 799
Chalcococcyx erythrorhynchus 682
wa —--maculatus ‘ 682
Chalcoparia singalensis singalensis ... 668
Chalcophaps indica .. O84
Chara brachypus 597, 599
- braunii 597, 599
—contraria .. 597
‘corallina ... 597, 599
fragilis 597, 599
—_——gymnopitys 597, 599
hydropitys 597, 599
———wallichii 597, 599
= zeylanica ... 597, 599
Charadrius Ate ance ralesnaiiine
(20,5120
ae curonicus dubius 729
SS DIS Curonicus 726
See —jerdoni 795
—_————leschenaultii 729
-~.—— -———monjolus atrifrons .. 729
INDEX OF SPECIES
XxX
PAGE
Charana cepheis... 764
—_———-mandarinus 764
——_-——flavigula 528
Chela gora 708
Cheritra freja freja 766
——-—— jaffra 766
—___-——_—— pseudojaftra 766
— = regia 766
Cheritrella truncipennis 765
Chetusia leucura . 891
Chilaria kina cachara ... 769
kina 769
——_——-merguia merguia 769
—_——— watsoni 769
Chliaria othona ... ey see, 2/09
Chilodon cneullus fe. 49521095409
Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni 726, 733
Chlidonias leucopareia indica... 605, 606
Choridactylus multibarbis 642
Chrysocolaptes gutticristatus Pate
cristatus.. 671
enmconeles, ornata 819
Chrysophlegma flavinucha Anaagens 569
Cinclus paliasii tenuirostris 800
Circus cyaneus cyaneus 878
-—-—— macrourus 878
melanoleucus 878
-——— pygargos... 877
- spilonotus 605
Cirrhina latia He sees 17708
mrigala 531, 537, 538, 708
——-—— reba 2 708
Clamator coromandus ... 682
—_——— jacobinus 682
Clarias magur 709
Clupea chapra 708
- ilisha 708
Cocotropus echinatus 643
Coenurothrips affinis 868
Coleps hirtus 793
kenti These
uncinatus 753
Collacalia fuciphaga Heeuinestns 677
Colpidium colpoda 748, 753
——— comyla 748, 753
——- striatum 748, 753
2 — truncatum .. ces OD
Colpoda cucullus 748, 753
Coluber leonardi 813
——_—— porphyraceus 812
——_——— prasinus 812
PAGE
Coluber radiatus a 813
| Columba leuconota gradaria .. 884
——_——_-——_- ——— leuconota 884
— rupestris turkestanica pelt OOF
Conophyma fedtschenkoi 559, 560
——- 7?kONNIROVI Sp. n. 559, 560
—- jacobsoni sp. n. 554, 560
———_——-- miram@ sp. 0. $53; 4.500
—_———-—— mitchelli ; 552, 5500
-—_——-—— plotnikovi sp. n. ... 556, 560
—_——-—— pylnovi sp. 0. 558, 560
—— -— semenovi 551, 560
—————- simile 556, 550
—_—__—- sokolowi 554, 560
—- —- uvarovi 560
—— -—_—_—-- weberi aie! aH OOO)
~ -—— zubovskyt sp. n. 551.7560
Coptosoma ostensum : we co24
Coracias benghalensis beaanalents | 673
— garrulus semenowl 732,93
Corvus corax ruficollis ... 12D, ALO.
———- coronoides intermedius 802
604, 798
= - splendens JS
Coryllis vernalis 684
Cothurnia sp. 753
Coturnix coturnix coturnix 889
Cremastogaster auberti sorokini 941
Creusa culta Hg ae ocean AO,
Crocopus SHOeRibOnters phoenicoptera. 883
Cryptocheilus rubellus 735
Cryptothrips longus 869
Ctenogobius cyanomos... 646
——_- — -——- gTiseus 648
—-——-— horai sp. n. 645
——-—-——_ masoni aon 648
—- —-—— /uticorinensis sp. n. 645
——-—-——_ viridipunctatus ... 647
Cuculus canorus subtelephonus 728
a telephonus 678
——_——interinedius interme anus 679
————-micropterus micropterus 679
———_——optatus 675, 802
Cuncuma leucorypha ... 877
Curetis acuta dentata ... 623
——— bulis bulis 623
——— malayica ... 623
——-—phoedrus ... 623
—saronis gloriosa... 623
——— -———nicobarica 623
—_-——--——saronis 623
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Curetis sperthis . 623
———thetis 623
Cursorius cursor... 729
—————-gallicus 729
Cyanops asiaticus asiaticus 673
——-—duvanceli cyanotis 673
——-—franklini franklini 673
Cyanosylvia suecica magna eo Coo |
Cyclidium glaucoma 705.750
Cyclogomphus gymnostylus 856
—— -—— ——torquatus 852
——-—— ——wilkinsi 856
———————-ypsilon ... 856
Cylindrophis rufus 506
Cynopterus sphinx 529
Cypselurus unicolor : 640
Cyrtostomus asiaticus selene 666
Dacalana pennicilligera 760
——-—— vidura burmana ... 760
Demiegretta sacra asha 1265 7305139
Dendrelaphis subocularis 813
Dendrophis pictus 813
Dendrothripoides ipomex 866
Dendrothrips bispinosus 865
—-——indicus... 865
—— —-——sexmaculatus 865
Dendrotreron hodgsoni S84
Deudoryx epijarbas amatius ... : 770
= - ————-v. diara... 770
—_—-- ——- —— ——ancus 770
——___-——__-—_—-epijarbas... 770
—-—--——hypargyria gaetulia 770
a ———hypareyria 770
Diacaiothrips bruneitarsis 870
--— crassiceps... 870
——-——__- dal la-torrensis 870
—_——_--——-g reenei 870
—__—_—_-- levis 870
—-—- novus 870
—_——_--——- procer 870
——~-—- ———proximus... 870
Diaphorothrips unquipes 870
Diastatomma pars : 657
Diczeum chrysorrhoceum nutenelnn 667
-—- ——ignipectum ee 667
—minullum olivaceum ... 667
Dichoceros bicornis 675
Dicrurus macrocercus Aer : 802
Didinium nasutum 746, 753, TS
—~ ——balbianii 746, 753
Dileptus gigas ar 747
Dinothrips furcifer...
————— sumatrensis...
Dinurothrips rutherfordi
Dipsadomorphus hexagonotus
a multimaculatus
Dolichothrips ochripes...
varipes
Doryichthys cuncalus
——
| Dremomys lokriah lokriah
Drina donina
| —-—-maneia “ae
Dryobates cathpharius chitipnarits wae
————— darjellensis..
os hyperythrus iypeeyiiae =
——-- macei macei
Dormas ardeola...
Dryophis mycterizans ...
————prasinus ;
Ducula insignis insignis
Keacantnrothrips sanguineus...
Echis ceerinata
Elanus ceeruleus yoteuus
Eleotris fusca
Elephas maximus oe
Emberiza cineracea semenowi
-hortulana
— melanocephala
Enchelys arcuata
Entomothera coromanda eotonionan
Eothrips floriperda
Eoxylides tharis
Epistylis articulata
Erethistes hara ...
Erionota acroleuca
Euaspa milionia.,
Eugraulis tilara .
Eumorphothrips Fister
Euplotes charon ie
Eurystomus orientalis erentalie
Euthrips citrianictus
mavicinctus
Eutroptichthys vacha
Falco severus indicus
——subbuteo centralasiz
tinnunculus
tinnune Giles
Peete AMUNENCIS. 27
Felis affinis
——-pardus
—-tigris
ae a 652, 905,
seo lee
XXi
PAGE
870
870
867
818
818
871
568
709
528
75/
Tis
670
670
669
670
IR)
$19
819
883.
867
706
877
710
728
733
728
758
675
871
767
733
709
586
585
619
708
868
753
673
866
867
709
831
881
728,
es =/08
AS)
888
927
909, 910
907, 910
xxii INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Formicomus ninus 549
Frankliniella sulphurea 865
Frontonia leucas (93
Fuligula manta ... 703
Gavialis gangeticus See | 4038
Galerida cristata 120, 720
Gallinago ¢.' gallinago 608
Gallinula chloropus parvifrons 890
Gallus ferugineus murghi 887
Gangara thyrsis ... 582
Gastrostyla setifera 7 52, 133
Gazella bennetti ... us e5i4s 522, Old:
: —fuscifrons re 514, 521
‘ -gutturosa altaica Teka 516, 507
—__—__—_——__—— gutturosa 514, 516
4. __-siestanica cs 514, 520
-subgutturosa saviensis 514, 517, 518,
519
Peel eee ep etburocawol 4, oly
518
_—- ——- —_ - ——~—typica 513
< -yarkandensis 514, 519
Gecinulus grantia grantia 669
Gennzeus leucomelanos melanotus .. 887
2 leucomelanus 917
Gigantothrips spinosus 870
pet ——- tibialis 870
Glareola nordmanni 733
Glaucidium brodiei brodiei 873
—— -—~ cuculoides cuculoidés 873
Glaucoma pyriformis BAS Decor)
ee scintillans 748, 753
Gomphius ceylonicus 849
—— nietneri 847
— nilgiricus 660
pow © done, $7 OO?
____———personatus 657, 638
+——— promelas 848
we xan tuenatis 658
Gunomys bengalensis ... 529
Gynaikothrips annuticornis 869
—__—_ —— fasciata 869
+. --___-——interlocatus 871
—--—___—_-—karnyi 869
eee mirabilis 869
2.2) _ ___ plantaginis 869
— ——watsoni... 869
Gypeetus barbatus grandis 874
Gyps fulvus fulvescens... 873
.—+— himalayensis 873
~—- indicus tenuirostris 874
PAGE
Heematopus ostralegus longipes 726
Haliastur indus indus ... 877
Halteria grandinella 751
Haplothrips ceylonica ... 868
_ ganglbaueri 868
———— pictipes 868
—_——-—--—ramakrishneze 871
SPS soror 868
———--———sororcula .. 868
—_—_—-———tenuipennis 868
—-—-- terminalis io oOe
Heliogomphus ceylonicus 849, 850
—— -—--—--——nietneri ... Hs 847, 850
—_—_—_—_—_—-—-promelas ... 846, 848, 850
——_— -———_——pruinans 848
a —selysi sp. n. ne. BOO
—— —walli sp. n. 849, 851
Heliophorus androcles androcles 618
—— —— - coruscans 618
——_— -——— brahma ds 618
——--——— moorei birmana... 618
——-———_ — sena 618
—_——-----——-- tam 618
ss iri dipuactata eae 618
eee -- ~ viridipunc-
tata : ‘ 618
Heliothrips DE aNBeIDeATS 865
—_——— heemorrhoidalis 865
——--——_ indicus 865
- minutissimus 865
Heodes casyapa evansii 617
-- -— susanus 617
-___-~ kasyapa ... 617
Es 4 --— V, zariaspa 617
—_—_——. - pavana a 616
-__—-- phleas flavens ... 617
i 2 indies. 616
—____- ——-—-- stygianus 616
._—- phoenicurus 617
- solskyi aditya 617
-__—- tseng mandersi Wi,
Herpestes'auropunctatus Sa
——---—.nipalensis 527
Jee ee nval 527
Heliophous epicles facie 618
Spe oss aie ee 2 kohimensis 618
Hieraetus fasciatus fasciatus .. 875
Hierococcyx fugax nisicolor ... 681
2 ee = sparvenoides 680
Ui 4 varius 681
868
Bie alecekna apicalis
Hippolais languida
Hipposideros armiger ... Fe
Hirudapus caudacuta nudipes
Hirundo daurica nepalensis ...
-————— rufula
——_——- rustica ... #
gutturalis
Helophrya annandalei ...
—— bengalensis
-———-—— - indica
—_—— —— lateralis
— simplex
Homalopsis buccata
Hoplopterus ventralis ...
Horaga albimacula
— halba .
-~ onyx cingalensis
————— onyx ...
—-—— rana ...
—_———
- viola oe we
Horsfieldia anita andamanica
--—_——-——. anita...
—____——__—_——— v. darana
-—___——_—_—— _ naradoides ...
—— narada taooana
Huhua nipalensis
Hurria rhynchops
Hydatothrips ramaswamiah
Hydrophasianus chirurgus
Hypolyczena erylus andamana
himavantus
Miloirica -...
————— thecloides
Hypsirhina enhydris
-—— plumbea
Ibidorhyncha struthersi
Ictinaetus malayensis perniger
Idacapus sylvatica
Idolothrips halidayi
schentilingi
Indicator xanthonotus ...
Irania gutturalis...
Iraota rochana boswelliana
Iraota timoleon nicevillei
— ———_-—- timoleon
Ischyrothrips crassus
niger
obscurus ... :
Ithagenes cruentus cruentus ...
Ixobrychus minutus minutus ...
_
ere
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE |
745,
thecloides nicobarica ..
124
526
677
601
731
728
601
qe
732
192
752
752
817
891
768
768
768
768
768
768
624
624
624
624
624
872
817
871
605
769
769
769
769
769
817
817
891
875
677
870
870
672
728
624
624
624
869
869
869
888
601
Iyngipicus semicoronatus
Iynx torquilla japonica
Jacoona anasuja... :
Jamides bochus bochus
——— cerulea...
——-- celeno bairana
celeno
kinkurka
————__— ——— nicevillei
tissama
cleodus pura
coruscans
————-- elpis eurysaces
kondulana
———-- —— meilichius
————-- jesous gamra...
———-- kandena kandena
ot
lacteata
———_-——— lugine purpura
———— philatus subdita
—--—— ubaldus
—— — uranus
—— urios wed
Ketupa ceylonensis nigripes
-———-~ flavipes ...
— zeylonensis
Kleothrips subyvamanii sp. 0. ...
Soe 575
Labeo gonius
rohita ae
Lacrymarta striata sp. n.
-—— vermicularis
Lanuis excubitor
e. aucheri
——— isabellinus
—— nubicus ak
—— phoenicuroides ...
———- schach erythronotus
senator niloticus .
vittatus os
fuscus taimyrensis
gelastes
—-— genei
hemprichi
——— ridibundus
Leeuwenia coriaceus
——— engeniae
———-——- indicus
karuyi sp. 0.
Lepidocephalichthys gantea
Larus
nicobaricus ..
— pseudelpis ...
Xxill
PAGE
746,
671
672
765
613
613
615
614
614
614
614
614
614
615
614
615
614
615
615
615
614
615
614
615
615
615
872
872
914
788
538,708
708
Zoo
753
726
727
Va!
ipa
42h
798
727
712i
73
726
731
it
731
870
870
870
789
708
XXIV
Leptogomphus nietneri
Lepus ruficaudatus
Lerwa lerwa
Liopeltis dorix
— frenatus
Liothrips niger
-————-- ordinarius
——-—— sp. ae
Liphyra braseolis
Listeria dudgeoni bt
Lobivanellus indicus aigneri .
Lophastur leuphotes leuphotes
Lophophorus impejanus
Lophotriorchis kieneri
Loxodes rostrum
Loxophyllum fasciola ...
PAGE
847,
747,
a -———— puryabensis ...
meleagris
Loxura atymnus arcuata
——--—— atymnus
—_—--. prabha
— --—_—_- -——— sury
Lyceena fusca cymbia ...
a fusca
———— tessellata ...
Lyceenesthes emolus andamanicus
—-—_- — --——-——- emolus
—_—--——— lyczenina lycambes
a lyceenina
Lychnothamnus barbatus
Lycodon aulieus
———— fasciatus see
Lyncornis cerviniceps cerviniceps
Macaca mulatta
Macrocarpus integrifolia
Macrones aor
—-——- cavasius
——-—— tengara
Macropygia tusalia tusalia
Mahathala ameria
— atkinsoni
Maneca bhotea
Manto hypolenea eee
Mantoides licinius
Mareca penelope
Marmessus lisias boisduvali
Mastacembelus armatus
pancalus
Matapa aria
Megalema virens raat sett
Melanocorypha maxima
097,
710,
850
530
890
816
816
567
867
867
775
619
726
881
887
875
(53
753
793
125
757
TYE
aD,
737
616
616
616
615
615
616
616
599
811
812
678
525
865
709
709
709
886
624
625
761
765
765
608
767
7pet
ck
o/7
672
664
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Melittophagus erythrocephalus
erythrocephalus 674
Mergus merganser orientalis ... 893
Merops apiaster 728
———~ orientalis orientalis 604, 674
——~—- persicus persicus 728
Mesodinium pulex (33
Mesothrips angusticornis 869
———. — apatelus &71
———-—— brevis 869
——-———- indicus 869
————— karnyi 869
——-—-—— melinocnemis 871
Microgomphus burmicus sp. n. 854, 856
———_-——__———- chelifer ... 856
—-———— — — lillipulians, sp. n. 855
——_— ———_ —_— souteri 853, 856
we torquatus .. 851, 852, 856
—_——-- ———- verticalis 857
Microhierax czerulescens ferniecnene: 882
Micropternus brachyurus phaioceps... 671
Micropus affinis affinis ... 676
-—- melba melba 676
Micropus murinus 725
~——-——-— murinus 728
Microscelis psaroides psaroides 842
Microtus sikimensis 530
Milvus lineatus soesh OWE
- migrans 720;,./29; £32
—__—.-— -———. govinda 877
Minous monodactylus ... 642
Mollotus phillippinensis 784
Monacanthus setifer kis ee O50
Monticola saxatilis 728, (32, 733
Moschus myschiferus 530
—— —--_— — Hee EMEC TaS 723
ete ees sifanicus 724
Mota massyla ; ci LOO
Motacilla alba dalimedsie 728, 731
- --- hodgsoni 604, 795
——-—— cinerea 728
lacs cera melanope 799
——-—— citreola citreoloides 606
—_———.-— feldegg melanogriseus 728
—_-—--— flava beema MALS POLO?
Mugil corsula 710
Muntiacus crinifrons (22
—— vaginalis 530, 722
Mus brunneusculus 929
—— dubius 529
—— homourus 529
INDEX OF SPECIES
Mus manei
—— rattus
—— urbanus
Muscadivora zena eyivatica
Muscicapa hypolema semitorquata ...
Mustela subhemachalana
Mycterothrips setiprivus
Myiophoneus horsfieldi temmincki ...
Myotis formosus
—-——— sicarius
Nacaduba akaba SythiOn
-—— aluta ccelestis
—_——--— ancyra
-——--—— angusta kerriana
-———--— atrata euplea
-_—_—— ---—-——— promineus
-__—— --— berenice nicobaricus
-———--— bhutea
———--— dana ...
-———--—- dubiosa araaees
fulva
—__-—___--—-—_ indica.
—_— ——_ ———-— nora
—_——_—_—_ — -——-—_ sivoka
——--—— hermus nabo
= —— Ora af
—----—— noreia hampsoni
ee TOTEIA
————— pactolus andamanicus
————-—— — —— ceylonicus
———-— — ——— — continentalis
ee ee — macropthalma
——— pavana
————— sinhala
————— vajuva
————— viola Merona
Peay sidoma
Naia hanna :
—-— hannah re ae Ss
—-— naia.
Nandus Be, Oraithls
Nangra viridescens
Nardostachys jatamansi
Nassula, sp.
——-—— ambigua
———— rubens ...
———— stromphii sites
Natrix bitentata, sp. n,
——-— clerki, sp. n. ; sen
——-— gilhodest, sp. n. a
748, 753
587, 808
PAGE
og
529
529
883
727
528
871
800
905
926
612
612
611
610
612
612
612
612
613
613
E13
613
613
613
610
612
613
613
610
610
610
610
611
612
611
611
611
611
706
820
820
710
709
Fa
753
747, 753
793
806
809
Natrix khasiensis
——-— leonardi...
——-— nigriventer, sp. n.
— —-— nuchalis...
———- venningi
Nemachilus botius
—_——-—-— tibetanus
Nemomys gurkha
Neniorhzedus hodgsoni
Neocheritra amrita
--- —— fabronia
Neodon sikimensis
Neoheegeria citripes
——indica
—_——_——~——fumipennis
zizyphi
Neolyczena sinensis
Neomyrina hiemalis
Neophron percnopterus
Nerodia modesta
piscator
Ninox scutulata lugubris
Nitella acuminata
—batrachosperma
—-hyalina
-——._-niirabilis
———- -—mucronata
Notopterus chitala
—_——-——kapirat as;
Numenius arquatus lineatus ...
Nuria daurica
Nycticebus coucang
Nycticorax n. nycticorax
Nyctiornis athertoni
Nyroca rufa rufa Ane
Ochotona roylei nepalensis
Odontogobius byncensis
(Edicnemus oedicnemus astutus
(Enanthe deserti atrogularis ..
——_—-—-isabellina :
————--leucomela leneomelas
———--cenanthe
—picata ©
Oligodon albocinctus
———-calamaria
———-cyclurus
——_ - — hamptoni
——-herberti
—_———-major |
—— —--purpurascens
—-——--rappi
—— —--splendidus
——
XXV
PAGE
tee
808
898
588
808
921
708
ves
530
530
765
765
530
868
868
868
868
618
766
726
509
809
873
598
598
597
598
yeeiete:
708
708
726
708
904
605
674
608
530
649
729
(eH
Gad
730
731
727
815
816
814
814
813
816
815
816
816
XXvi
Oligodon theobaldi
eno LOL acts
——-——--- tricolor
————-violaceus
Ophichthys boro
Ophiocephalus gachua
marulius
a I NCLAEES
—
eri}
— ——--— striatus ...
Ophryoglena sp. »
Oriolus oriolus Anco!
Otocorys alpestris elwesi
Otostoma carteri
Otus bakkameena lettia
——--SCOps pennatus
—— pulchellus ...
——-spilocephalus
Ovis vignei punjabensis
Oxytricha fallax ©
Oxyurichthys tentacularis
Pachyglossa melanoxantha
Pachyura sp.
—-perrotteti
Paguma grayi
Palumbus palumbus casiotus
Panchoetothrips indicus
Pandion haliaetus
——-- halizetus
Pantholops hodgsoni
Parachceturichthys polynema
Paramececium aurelia
—_——— bursaria
—-—- caudatum
Parexoccetus mento
Parus major kashmiriensis
Patrinia jatamansi
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
534,
534,
Oe, GUE
728;
e200, 029;
eee
7193;
Penthoceryx sonneratii sonneratii
Perissospiza affinis
Perissothrips parviceps
Pernis cristatus ruficollis
Petaurista caniceps
ee magnificus
————— nobilis
Pheethon zetherius indicus
Phalacrocorax carbo
——————— fuscicollis
———-- nigtigularis
Phalaropus lobatus
Phloeothrips anacardii ...
stenomelas
oe) Zonal eu.
731,
72;
815
814
816
814
709
710
Sol
710
534
710
753
804
664
753
873
872
732
872
838
759
650
667
526
yar!
527
884
867
73
867
880
528
528
528
/3i
726
892
(se
729
867
867
ee C8
PAGE
Phoenicurus ochruros phoenicuroides.. 728
——_——_——- pheenicurus mesoleucus. 728
———_————_ ———- pheenicurus 732
Photodilus badius nie ae .. 684
Phoxothrips breviceps 2 Sse BOAO
————— ceylonicus cue were OO
a Ga SANS gerne cif nee O00
Phylloscopus c. collybita Nae wad bh SOE
— CY tristis a. ays see SO HET
Physothrips andrewesi ... ae be OG
— = brunnercormiss (2... iz, £866
—_——-——-- flavidulus ... be 2, O06
——————-- lefroyi er Be: Aeraieco| oS)
—. -longiceps ... ane et Ae OO
—_—_————- minor ts be Pia OOO
~———_——- peculiaris ... Be SO oa LOS
— -—usitatus ©... ie rie BBS
——- vitata oes a ee oOo
Pica pica bottannensis a4
Picumnus innominatus imnomintiek 672
Picus canus gyldenstolpei oes a 1669
—chlorolophus chlorolophus ... 669
Pipistrellus babu ae ade syA6.
Piprisoma squalidum sae thie Mens ynOO7
Pithecus schistaceus, 72. ae ne eo
Pitta-brachyura....j<:0:. ate petal (O10)
—- cucullata Praise td rae O06
-——- nipalensis nipalensis ... ee OOS
Pitymys an abt te 0)
Plagiopholis pine atin ae on OLO
Planesticus unicolor ... we eae Oe
Plastingia submaculata Ne near O03
Pleurotricha grandis... Sue (IELTS
Plurlatis dominicus fulvus —... pee Lucky!
Podiceps ruficollis albipennis YS OZ,
————————— capensis ... ia EtOOD
Podisina almasyi ae or oy OO
Podophrya fixa ... ApS: a bagi hos)
ea libera a ye Se wits)
Polyodontophis collaris ae so. er B06
Polyrhachis an 546
Porphyrio potiocephats ae ey
lus ; A Se is sc27 | O90
Portax Borde sie ae . F523
Porzana bicolar ... oe ee Sar stotell)
———-- fusca bakeri ... ae Res exotes0)
———-- pusilla pusilla at --» - 608
Pratapa cleobis ... ae ee bis Ol
———--cotys ... Le a3 ave 760
———--ctesia ... | «. a ee /O0
———-- deva deva aes uct Bestiee Ol
INDEX OF SPECIES
Ptyas mucosus oat
——- nigromarginatus ...
Puffinus persicus
Purlisa gigantea
Pycnonotus leucotis
Pyrotrogon erythrocephalus Syeo.
cephalus
Python molurus
Pyxicola carteri te
Ramaswamiahella eapatculs
Ramakrishnaiella unispina
Ramphalcyon capensis gurial
Rapala abnormis
———.- buxaria ... ;
———- dieneces aeneces
——_—-——-—_—-- intermedia
———- hades
———- jarbas
—-—-— kessuma ASioeiue
-lankana
-melampus
| ee
PAGE
Pratapa deva lila 761 | Rapala micans selira
——-—--- icetas extensa ... 761 | ——-—nissa nissa
—— icetas 761 | ——————nissoides
ee mishmia 761 | —————— rectivittay i.
———-- icetoides carmentalis 761 | —————————— v. rosacea
ae icetoides 761. | ——-— pheretimus pheretimus
———-- lucida argentea 760 | —————-——— petosiris
a minturna .. 760 | ———+refulgens ...
Procapra gutturosa 514, 516 | ———schistacea ..
——-——- picticaudata ... ve .. 14 | ———scintilla :
ae przewalskii de oO, 017) |) oD x fA OCCUS 2,
Prorodon eudentatus 753. | ——————— sphinx
oe teres 753 | ———subguttata...
Psammochares metas 735 | —-——suffusa rubicunda
Se rutilus’-<.. 735 | —————— suffusa
Psammadynastes pulverulentus 818 | ————tara sae
Psarisomus dahousix 669 | ————-varuna grisea ...
Pseudeutropius garua ... w. =. 09 | ———_—-—_—_— lazulina...
‘Pseudodendrothrips oraaeeGuna 865 | | ——__-___—_ orseis
Pseudogyps bengalensis 874 | —-——-—-_—_—- rogersi ...
Pseudeutropius murius 709 | Rasbora daniconius
Psittacula alexandri fasciata ... 683 | Rathinda amor
————— eupatria indoburmanica ... 683 | Rattus eha
a schisticeps schisticeps 683 | ———- fulvescens
Pterocles indicus 917 | —-—— niveiventer =
————- senegallus 729 | ———- rattus brunneusculus ...
Pterois russellii or oN. 921 | ——————- rattoides ...
———- volitans ... 921 | Rhabdophis speciosus, sp. n....
Pteromys caniceps $28 | —————-— stolatus
————- magnificus 928 | ———-—_-— subminiatus
812 | Rhabdops bicolor
812 | Rhamphothrips lineata
730 | Rhinolophus a. himalayanus...
765 || ———_—. ——luctus perniger ..
726 | —-——_—_-__rouxi
Rhipiphorothrips bicolor
076 | cruentatus ..
806 | Rhopodytes tristis
753 | Rhynchobdella aculeata
871 | ————_-_—__— dhanashorii
871 | Rhyacornis fuliginosa ..
674 | Rhynehothrips pallipes...
771 | Riparia riparia
773 | Rita buchanani ..
773 | Rohtee cotio
ai
XXV11
PAGE
773
773
Fie
773
773
773
713
771
772
V2
Gz
Whe
Tigh
rigs
771
TEL
Te
772
772
dda
708
767
529
529
529
529
529
734
810
810
810
866
526
526
526
865
865
683
710; 740
fA
799
871
(ou
708
708
773 | Rostratula Hone nalensle mehenalensis 608
772 | Rousettus leschenaulti ...
7/3 | Saccobranchus fossilis ...
771 | Saiga tartarica .
771 | Sarcogrammus maces eaten
773 | Sasia ochracea ochracea
bys)
709
510
890
672
XXVili INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Saxicola torquata maura se See URS.
Schizopygopsis younghusbandi the ie
scicena coitor' ... bes sae See vahie LO
Scirtothrips dorsalis... bh «865
—_—_——-— signipennis... a sac BBS
Sciuropterus caniceps ... te eer ole)
—————— chrysothrix ee aoe OLS.
—————— magnificus a al O28
a ne@bilis ... ae 22) OLS
ae senex me ie i, SOLS
Scolopax rusticola Hn Bie ais QL
———-——— —— — rusticola ... w. O91
Scyphidia formentelii ... ee soa OD
Selenothrips mendax ... me «2. 865
Saat mibrocinctus "7.2. ws 865
Semanga superba ae aa FOF
Scrilophus lunatus sanispeeaee ». 668
Sigmustomum indicum sp. 0... ise, VO
Silundia gangetica ie i seo +, #09
Sinthus nasaka amba ... a w. 774
—————-—— pallidior es Sn
Sinthusa chandrana chandrana as 774
——————-——— grotei .. dees (AAA
a v. albidus ga
i v rubidus sic ATE
————— virgo... ae ee Swart TAA
—--— ———— Vv, Comitusa: yt. eae Ai
Sisor rhabdophorus ... ee beet OOO
Sithon nedymond ismarus ... ea ALS
Slylothrips brevipalpis... fon eo ROTEL
Soriculus caudatus ee ne ear sy4 5)
—_——-— nigrescens centralis se 4O26
Spathidium spathula moniliforme ... 745
——— — ————— —-— var. monileforme
bhatia ie eee Sy.
Spheerophrya sp. ane as Leos
——-—_——— pusilla... 5 ee OO
Sphenocercus apicauda ee a2 3883
———_—_--—-— sphenura sphenura .... 883
Sphex lobatus ... ; a Agen koe
Spilornis cheela oieeler She eer? wOLO
Spindasis abnormis _... ats seat 2798
———-— acamas chitralensis.. ee NSS
——--—_——— a rea ose) OS
—————elimaelima ... te Peo yor)
—__—___—__—--. fairliei Key eke oS)
—_____——_—-- uniformis ... OO
——_—_—+-— elwesi ... ae as poeta ot)
———_-—— epargyros.... coe OW,
—_—_-— 1ctis Ceylanica re shane (LO
-— ictis oth 90 Se A ThSS)
tee ee
SX
es
Spindasis lohita himalayanus
— —- —-—- lazularia
- seliga
zoilus
——-—— lilacinus
——_——-- maximus
——~—- — Nipalicus ‘evansil
———_—_——_—-—— nipalicus
SS EE a
_— ————— _
——-—-— nubilus
————- rukmini a
————-- sehistacea gabriel ..
plea eee hd Ce ip mac Steen
———-— syama peguanus
————- vulcanus fusca
—— tavoyana ...
ge Se ee vulcanus ...
Spizaetus cirrhatus ASE
lip a ep ceylonensis
———-— nipalensis nipalensis
Squatarola s. squatarola
Stentor ceeruleus sige
Streptopelia chinensis suratensis
————_-—-- orientalis agricola
ae ee meena
eae an to stale lr orientalis
—-—_-. = —__ ffirtur arenicolor
Sterna albigena
PAGE
760
760
760
760
758
tao
759
759
759
758
799
758
758
759
758
758
758
914
915
876
729
755
886
886
885
885
733
"es
——-— anzthetus rales 1. F260; 729; 730,
——-— bengalensis bengalensis
———- bergii velox
——-— repressa 726; 729, 730;
—-——- s. sandwichensis
Stigmostomum indicum g.n. sp. Nn.
Strix aluco nivicola
——- indrani newaxensis
Strymon mackwoodi
————--— sassanides
Suasa lisides
Suastus bipunctus
——-—- gremius
Surendra amisena
a florimel
oe quercetorum bipiveiare
—— discalis
—— quercetorum.
—_._.-— todara distorta
oe eee tees ICE TN a
eee eet Odand
731, 139
726,
7315733
726, 713
73%,,'738
726
(ss)
684
684
619
619
765
573
568
756
756
756
756
756
756
756
756
INDEX OF SPECIES
Surniculus lugubris dicruroides
Sylvia curruca affinis
——— h. crassirostris
——— mystacea
——— n. nana
Synia melanaria
Syrrhaptes tibetanus
Taccocua leschenaultii infiiseata
Taeniothrips major
Tajuria albiplaga
———- cippus cippus ..
—_—— longinus
diaeus
———- donatana
——-— iliurgroides
illurgis
——-—- isaeus
———- ister
———- jalindra indra
—__——_———-—- macarita
——— —-———- tarpina
——— - jangala andamanica ..
ao ravata
———- jehana vat des
—— var. ceylanica ...
———- luculentus nila
———- maculata
———- mantra
———- megistia Meee
———- mela stigma
-——~---—-—— oeeta
mm, 7 Osyac>
———— sebonga
———- thyia
———- yajna ellisi
—_———_——- istroidea ..
———— ——- yajna
Taractrocera ceramas ...
we meevius
Telotrochidium matthaii sp. n.
———————- natthait sp. n.
Terias blanda
-——— rotundalis
——— sari
——— silhetana ...
-——— templetoni
——— uniformis es
Terpsiphone paradisi paradici
Tetraogallus tibetanus tibetanus
Tetrodon cutcutia
PAGE |
735
682
707
724
aa,
727
924
887
683
865
763
764
764
768
762
764
764
763
763
764
764
764
762
762
764
764
764
764
763
762
762
763
763
763
763
763
762
762
762
824
829
754
749
714
714
714
714
714
714
603
896
(14
Thaduka multicaudata kanara
—— multicaudata
Thamala miniata
Thecla ataxus ataxus
—-——-—hbirupa
———-doni
———- duma duma
we dumoides :
— Vv. fnitermedia.
ee es
———-jicana
———-jakamensis
———-kabrua
———-~khasia
——-—-kibariensis
Se giic
——-—-paona
———-pavo
rola
———-syla assamica
———-vittata
———-ziha
———-70a fs
Thereiceryx lineatus mod econ
Thrips colorata wees Bid eee
———-~florum
———-longalata
———-magnipes
———-nigriflava
———-oryzce
———-parva
———-pallida
———-pallidulus
——-—-striatopennata ..
———-sulphurea
Ticherra acte
Tiga shorei
Tokophrya Maanparcts
Tolypella prolifera
Tomeutes lokroides ...
Torgos calvus
Tragopan satyra : nae
Treron curvirostra nipalensis
Trichoda pura
Trichogaster lalius
Trichothrips fructuum
Trichothrip; hadrocerus
Sus,
XXX
Trimeresurus gramineus
——_————-monticola
Tringa hypoleucus
———-ochropus
Trirhinopholis nuchalis
Tryphactothrips mundus
— octarticulata
Sot aE rutherfordi
Turdoides somervillei
Turdus unicolor
Turnix dussumieri
———-pugnax ocellatus
———-tanki tanki
Typhlops diardi
Upupa epops epops
ee indica
——— orientalis
—— saturatus
Urocentrum turbo
Uroleptus mobilis
Uroloncha malabarica ...
Urostyla weissii
Urotricha globosa
Vaginicola sp.
Valeriana jatamansi
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
726,
728,
... 604, 676,
749,
(sP4
821
821
798
891
Sil
871
867
867
687
804
890
890
890
805
731
916
802
676
sys)
(ist)
728
(es)
793
193
Valeriana officinalis
a wallichii
Vespa cincta
——w—orientalis
Vibris anser
Vipera lebetina
———-russelli
PAGE
Virachola isocrates isocrates ..
——— rosacea
—_——— perse ghela
Viverra zibetha
Vorticella campanula
————— citrina
-_———— convallaria ...
—_———— microstoma ...
————— pattellina
Wallago attu
Xenopeltis unicolor
Yasoda tripunctata
Zamenis korros
Zeltus etolus
Zesius chrysomallus
Zographetus ogygia
Zosterops palpebrosa el wesi
Ai Paavo)! rove ton
784
782
858
S50:
747
707
821
770
770
770
FFA
Sy)
7o3
753
753
793
753
709
806
757
812
769
760
5/5
665
ie
y
THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
Bombay Natura Higrory Socrery.
’ EDITED: BY
R. A. SPENCE, F.Z.S., P. M. SANDERSON, F.Z.S., and
S. H. PRATER, G.M.Z.S. _
eee
VOL, XXX, No. 3.
eae ess
Date of Publication, 30th June 1925.
ESE
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Tart MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE ADJACENT Hitt Provincxs. Part LV,
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Bompay NAtTuRAL History Socirety’s MAMMAL Survey or Inpia, BURMA AND
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Woe NANO STATIONS). s.cis oye shelele' + watelclmieusieyein ots be alas al sty 4 sat enh
IVa aebiecki Jackal. By M. Si Tuggerse uci...) 25 ti. .g clo actos Sings o aralece cele «
V. The Record Sind Wild Goat (Capra hircus blythi). (With a plate.) By R.
eae SCO Geli reps namy ley cave h echoes Meek netfee lace, 5.8 SR cle onus caupetave
VI. Phe Allied Grosbeak (Perrisospiza affinis, Blyth). By H. Whistler, F.z.s...
Pack.
509
CONTENTS (OF Vole ZAAK NO. 3:
On the breeding of the Indian Tree Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni) in Kulu. By H.
Whistler; p88 aegis, 30d ae hee ee oh i ait La,
Whe, Cotton Leal. \ By isir Harcourt Butler a...” «ee ane cre eee
Occurrence of the Scaup Duck (Fuligula marilla) in Northern India. By
S2(JH. Prater, CO: MeZiS) osc ce b te Ne leige eh Hats eee: cco GN ee eee ee
The length attained by and the habits of the Gharial (G. gangeticus). By
Major’ C..R. Si Pitman i oo eee. resists aioe tie Bosse eae enya
Boa Constrictor vs. Alligator. (With a photo.) By Editors..............
Tiger killed by a Cobra. (With a photo.) By Editors...................
Record of a death from bite of the Hamadryad or King Cobra (Naia hanna).
By..C. Theobald, BiZiSi0 1. sieia'ais «jets ol lecane the ticgete iets © tale ehchs («openers
Recovery from the bite of Echis carinata. By Capt. H. J. Rice, IM.s.
Viper and White-Throat. By B. B. Osmaston, 1.F.s. (Retd.) ............
A List of Fishes obtained in the Saran District, Bihar, chiefly from the
Ghogra River, near the town of Chapra and in its vicinity. By E. A.
DEN DEW EZ. ee CS eae a A Ae fee a anand a
The Occurrence of the Spiny-EKel. By E. A. D’ Abreu, F.2z.S... .......0.0.-
Formula for estimating weight of Mahseer. By Major W. B. Trevenen. ..
The Ceylon Races of T'erias blanda, Bdv., and Sari, Horsf. By H. T. G.
VV URIS! {oP oo 2 ais ster, a i Lec uay eeoaners ate ean eetone Meera Peas de a Aun
PROCEEDINGS. ...
‘(tuosbpoy sdojuyjung)
AdOTHINY NVGIAALL
‘20S "1SIH 3eN Avquiog “uanor
<All lid ti 7e
~~ AVAL ALS Walid sy; ;
ZaQae Mi]
JOURNAL ,, SEP 7 1927
OF THE SaTionaL MUS
Bombay Natural History Society.
JUNE, 1925. VOLy ROUX. No.
o2
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE
ADJACENT HILL PROVINCES.
BEING NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
BY
Cou, A. E. Warp.
PARD LY).
(Continued from page 131 of this Volume.)
(With 1 plate and 11 text figures.)
Family—BOVID 2.
The present article deals with some members of this family which were
excluded from my previous article on the Bovide. The various Indian
Central Asian Antelopes, Gazelles, the Saigas and the Nilgai are grouped in the
following 4 sub-families :-—
I. Saigine (The Saigas).
II. Panthalopine (The Tibetan Antelope).
III. Antelopine (Antelopes and Gazelles).
IV. Tragelaphine (Nilgai).
510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Voli XXX, 3
I. Sub-family—SAIGIN A,
Fig. 1.—Saiga Antelope (Saiga tartarica),
THE SarGa ANTELOP E—Saiga tartarica.
The late Mr. P. W. Church mentions having seen a pair of horns at Urumtsi
and heard of these Antelopes to the North (Urumtsi is between 400 and 500 miles
west of Kuldja); he mentions that as the horns are considered to have medi-
cinal properties they may have come from other parts. However he was not
very far from the habitat of the Saiga. It lives in Siberia and Western Turkis-
tan, to the westward and northwestward of Kuldja and in Southern Russia.
Reports of this animal were received from my collectors high up in a branch
of the Volga near the Ural mountains and this tallies with the habitat assigned
to it.
I am greatly indebted to Messrs. Rowland Ward & Co. for the illustration
reproduced above which shows the curious inflation of the nose and the pecuilar
THH MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR. 511
ewe of the nostrils, the animal was shot by Mr. 8. H. Miller. The dimen-
sons of the horns are :—
Length 13”, Girth 5)”, Tip to tip 32” ; they are light coloured.
in the anime the summer coat of yellow fawn begins to assume a whitish
tinge and in winter it is said to become pure white. “The height of a buck is
about 29 inches. Some are said to be taller.
Il, Sub-family— PA NTHALOPHIN 4.
TIBETAN ANTELOP E—Pantholops hodgsont.
The Chiree of Ladak—Tsus and Choosh further northwards.
Habitat—The great plateaux of Tibet. It is mostly met with by sportsmen
in the Chungchenmo and during migrations in the Karakoram at elevations up
to 18,000’ and seldom under 14,500’. Plate 1 shows the kind of ground on
which the Chiree dwell.
The colouring varies according to season and not infrequently to a consider-
able extent in individuals. The face is brown, or at times nearly black, but
above the nose there is nearly always a blackish patch. The accompanying
plate does not show the curious swelling on the nose distinctly, this is very mar-
ked at all seasons of the year. The buck in the photo was shot before it had lost
its winter coat: this coat ccnsists of an extraordinarily dense mass of upright
wool of a very pale brown colour often with a pinkish tinge ; when the dead body
is handled this wool comes away in handfuls, it literally peels off in lumps—this
is the protective portion of the winter coat and is the outside fleece, in this res-
pect it differs from the Ibex and other upland animals, i in which the pushm or
under fleece provides the required warmth. The side of the head and neck aie
grey with sometimes a shade of brown. Inside the ears and the stomach are
greyish white, the forelegs are partly blackish brown, and the hind legs are
generally entirely of that colour, but in the colouring of the legs, there is often
slight but distinct variation. Most of the buck I have shot were obtained in
May, when the colour is hard to describe, they were ragged with part of the
winter and part of the summer coat showing. One or two months later in the
year the colour might be described as reddish ight brown on the back.
On shooting a buck and carefully looking it over, the large inguinal glands
will attract attention and the already mentioned thickening of the nose, also
the coat of wool which is2” or more in depth. Compared with the black buck
as to size, the Tibetan animal is larger, the skull, which has a large nasal cavity,
is considerably longer and the height and length greater,
The following are measurements made in May and June.
Height including woolly ceat. Weight. Horn. Locality.
35” 85 Lbs. 24” Under the Demjor-lo
36” 85 lbs. 2627 Kyam Changchano.
35” 20 Ibs. 24” Kieung-la.
Some writers put the maximum weight at 120 lbs. I doubtit, in the autumn
probably all the three bucks mentioned might have increased by 10 lbs. but
not more and many full grown animals are smaller. An average length of horn
is 22” to 24” by 6” girth. A female stood 28” but another was nearly 30”. The
record horns of the buck are I think 28”.
General Notes.—The sma!l bore high velocity rifle makes the stalk much easier
than it was yearsago. Look atplate1, and see the ground to be crawled over.
There must be large numbers of this migratory antelope still existing, for
immense herds were to be seen in favourable localities at certain seasons. When
migrating they follow the same tactics as many of the Gazelles, the sexes
separate and move in herds of many hundreds. When on the grazing land, they
are found in flocks of from 3 to 10 or more, then they may get amongst the
ravines, and into the fairly steep hill sides, but I have never seen an antelope
on what could be called rocky slopes.
They are greatly pestered by Bot flies, on removing the skin, scares of the
grubs of this fly are found, they do not penetrate the flesh.
512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi, XXX.
At first Antelope steak is rather a welcome dish, but try it for every meal
for six weeks and you will hate the mention of it for ever.
The statement so often made that the horns of Tibetan Antelope are in shape
very similar is to a great extent true but there are exceptions. All horns have
at times “ freaks.’’ Amongst a group of bucks was one with lyre-shaped horns
which tuxned rather outwards and then curved inwards right up to the tips:
the length was 20 inches. The bucks had scooped out the sand and I fondly
hoped that the lyre-shaped horns might belong to some Gazelle, but all the same
I was very pleased not to miss my shot when the Antelope stood up, until it did
so there was nothing at which to shoot.
In a hollow in a hill side I found a single horn in a wolf’s den, which was erect.
at first and then turned inwards rather abruptly, but this horn was short.
III. Sub-family—ANTELOPINA,
ANTELOPES—Genus—A N TELOPE.
THE Biack Buck or InpIaAN ANTELOPE—Antelope cervicapra.
Fig. 2. THe Buacx-Buckx (Antilope cervicapra), JHIND STATE,
Right horn 30”; Left horn 313”.
j
h
rs Se ee
~——%
——
—— ae
SS ee a ee
'
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR. 5138
Hiran and Herna of the Dogras and in India.
So few Black Bucks are left near Jammu, the only province which interests
the reader, that it is scarcely worth while to enter this Antelope in our lists.
Dunbar Brander in his “ Wild Animals in Central India”’ gives a long descrip-
tion, and very interesting reading it is.
Unlike the Tibetan Antelope the suborbital glands are present. The inguinal
glands though large are notnearly so much developed asin the Tibetan animal.
‘he male when young is coloured fawn like the doe but gradually assumes a
darker tone becoming practically black on the back making a sharp contrast
with the white belly. There has been a good deal of correspondence regarding
“ brown-backed bucks’. Some fully matured animals with fine horns are for
a Jong time brown.
The size of this Antelope seems to vary but little in the numerous districts it
inhabits, the measurements given by Dunbar Brander.
Height at shoulder Length Weight
32” ee 901bs.
represent a well developed animal.
The photo of the head figured above, kindly supplied by the Bombay
Natural History Society, is the record. Other horns are 30”, 29”, 282”.
Albinos are rare. I have however seen two in a wild state. There are several
known instances of the female carrying horns. One I shot in the Moradabad
District, U. P., had the horns lying flat close to the skull curving from the
ears backwards.
As to the controversy regarding this Antelope drinking, they certainly do so
in the hot weather—when camped on the borders of the Rewa State, close to
jheel, both Chital and Black Buck came regularly to drink, of course Chital are
thirsty animals, but Antelopes certainly drink.
As a rule the largest horns are found in certain fixed localities.
i never succeeded in getting a big head in Aligarh from amongst the enormous
number seen, but curiously enough I shot a very fine head at Amsote not
far from Hurdwar, and a head which measured nearly 30” (horns) was killed bet-
ween Fattehpur and Mohan, on the Saharanpur-Mussoorie road.
Many people have kept tame black buck, they are apt to be vicious. In a
very large enclosure where Antelope, Chital, Sambhar and Hog Deer wandered,
a very fine Black Buck was the one animal to be avoided, eventually it slew a
male Hog Deer.
Fighting bucks were often kept by Indian princes, the animals are generally
keen to go at one another, but as they are roped up by the keepers, and
pulled back not much harm isdone. Judging by the distance which a herd
buck will in a wild state sometimes chase an interloper, the use of the rope in
these encounters is probably a necessity.
GAZELLEs—Genus—GAZELLA.
Lydekker when dealing with the gazelles of Ladak and Central Asia, in his
book ‘‘ The Game Animals of India, Burma and Tibet’? adopted as his
type for these Gazelles a race of the Persian species and called it Gazella subguitu-
rosa typica, giving as his reason, that this was the only gazelle found within the
area included in his book. These articles however go much further afield, so
there is no reason to follow the same course.
I have endeavoured with all the information, coupled with what knowledge I
have, to try and indicate the locality occupied by each race, but this is not easy,
especially when dealing with the different allies of the ‘ gutturosa gutturosa ’
type.
514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SCCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The Central Asian and Indian Gazelles included in the genus Gazella are
divided into two subgenera as follows :—
I.—Sub-genus—Procapra.
includes the following species :-—
1. Gazella (Procapra) picticaudata.
2. Kr B przewalskil.
Se - ve gutturosa. -
2 races of No, 3 are recognised :—
A. Gazella gutturosa gutturosa.
B. % Re altaica.
II. Sub-genus—Gazetia,
4, Gazella sub-gutturosa.
2 races of No, 4 are recognised :—
A. Gazella sub-gutturosa sub-gutturosa,
‘Be a me sairensis,
Gazella yarkandensis.
Gazella siestanica.
> | fuscifrons.
>», bennetti.
In order to follow the geography of the countries where these animals are
found it will be necessary to look at the map of Ladak and of Sikkim and Southern
Tibet for No. 1. Then that of Mongolia for No. 2. Turn to Western China for
No. 3. Next for No. 4 part of the country from Asia Minor—Persia to China has
to be studied. For No. 5 the maps of Yarkand and Kashigar suffice. It is rather
a relief to look up Seistan bordering on Baluchistan and Afghanistan for No. 6
and 7, for these countries are near to India. While No. 8 is purely Indian.
Material aid will be got from Rowland Ward’s 8th Edition of the Big Game
Records, in regard to Kennion’s Gazelle a specimen of which I have never
seen in the body.
Some of the photographs from which the plates are herein produced are pro-
bably taken from the same specimens as in Lydekker’s work for owing to the
kindness of the British Museum, Colonel Harry Ward was able to give me a great
deal of assistance (see part 1V—Game Animals of Kashmir etc., page 882 of the
Journal, 20 Dec. 1922) and took the photographs in the B. M. Other photos are
reproduced from the B. M. Catalogue of Ungulate Mammals.
Sub-genus—PRocAPRA. i
TIBETAN GazELLE— Gazella (Procapra) picticaudata,
Goa ot Tibet; Ragco in Northern Ladak.
Distribution.—This is the Gazelle which is best known to the majority of
sportsmen who shoot on the borders of Central Asia. It is an inhabitant of Nor-
thern Ladak—Spiti and Tibet. It lives on the plateaux in the open country
and is seldom seen on the mountain sides, it does not descend in Ladak
much below 14,C60’, and is found at higher elevations in summer time.
Colcur—The plateaux of Tibet are very hot at midday and the winters are
intensely cold, hence as must be expected, the Goa assumes a long coat at the
latter season, this is a grizzled and sandy colour. In summer the hair is pale
rufuous and comparatively short. The buttocks are white, the tail is dark
brown and very short: the disc round the tail is white. The lower parts are
lighter than the back and gradually merge into almost pure white underneath.
No suborbital gland, or knee tufts. Females hornless. Height at shoulder 23
to 24”—weight 40 to45 lbs. The horns are much curved backwards then slightly
forward at the tips and are covered with rings almost to the top.
_Notes.—It is rare to see more then 8 to 12 in a herd. In the country, more
accessible to most sportsmen, this gazelle is scarce, and does not appear ever to
collect in large flocks.
En
w t
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR. St
Blanford quotes a recorded length of horn at ‘‘ 15:75,” measured along the front
curve, and a basal girth of 4”. This length is very great and Ludlow’s trophy
of 142” by 32” has not I believe been excelled in recent dates.
PRZEWALSKID'S GAzELLE—G. (Procapra) przewalskir.
Fic. 3.—Prezewalski’s Gazelle (Gazella (Procapra) przewalskit).
Distribution —This Gazelle is said to have its habitat in parts of China from
Kansu northwards to the bend of the Yellow river, and also in Mongolia—also
eastward to the north of Pekin.
Notes.—The head figured above is that of an animal in winter coat and is
reproduced from the B. M. Catalogue. The pronounced inward turn of the
horns at the tips appear to form a character by which it is considered a
distinct species. The most that can be said in support of this distinction is
the shape of the horns and the large size.
Tt closely resembles the Goa, perhaps in summer it is rather more brown.
_ Females are hornless.
The bucks carry horns of about 12” in length, and these are rather stouter
than those of the Goa.
516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
THe Moneorran GazeLrLE—Gazella (Procapra) gutturosa..
The Hwung—Yang or Yellow Goat of China.
The Djeron—Terrev (Turki).
These names are however employed locally for most of the Gazelles. If the
Altai animal is distinct the following two races may be recognized, 1.e..
Gazella gutturosa guiturosa and Gazella gutturosa altaica :—
Fie. 4. Mongolian gazelie—(G. gutturosa guiturosa).
The name gutturosa was given because the throat of the bucks swells during
the pairing season, this is due to the dilation of the larynx which gives a swollen
appearance to the upper portion of the neck.
Distribution —The habitat of the typical race gutturosa gutturosa is Northern
and North-East Mongolia to the vicinity of the Gobi desert, to the hills north-
ward of the Tian-Shan and also tothe north and north-east of Pekin. A
closely allied race comes from part of the Altai.
Notes.—The Mongolian Gazelle is as far as is known the largest of any of the
Central Asian races. One shot north of the Gobi measured 28”, a second 273”,
in some books it is stated that this Gazelle stands as high as 30” at the shoulder.
The skulls illustrated show the heads of the typical race gutturosa guiturosa,
The tail is very short like that of the Goa. There are indications of knee tufts.
No face marking. The rump is white. Females are hornless. A gooc pair of
horns on an old buck measured 12” in length by 43” in girth, they are of a grey-
ish brown hue, and are stout and strong.
This is not a ‘‘ Gazelle of the desert ’’ nearly to the same extent as are other
races, nor is it addicted to resting during the day in an oper. bare grassless plains.
Unless much worried by men or wolves, it does not penetrate far into the hills,
but is found on grass flats and in the ravines in the lower hills.
Like the Tibetan Antelope and some of the Tibetan Game Animals, the does
congregate in the spring, the herds running into many hundreds, they then
move into reasonably good and open grazing ground, there in May and June the
young are born: wonderfully active the little creatures are,"and they need to be
if the wolves are not to take too heavy a toll. !
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR, 517
The Jate Ney Elias mentions coming across herds of hundreds all the way
from the benc of the Yellow river to the Altai—most of these were probably
the Mongolian Gazelle, though some were probably G. procapra przewalsku :
this was about 40 years ago—and it was from that intrepid traveller’s specimen
of this Gazelle that Blyth gave the name “‘ procapra gutturosa.”’ It was about
1879 that Biddulph shot a then unknown Gazelle on the Maralbashi country,
this*must have been the Yarkand race (the ‘‘ Saikik ’’).
Fic. 4. Altar Gazeile—Gazella gutturosa altaica.
Distribution—The typical locality of the Altai race (G. guttwrosa sairensts)
is given as the ‘‘ Suok Plains near the little Atlai, N. W. Mongolia. The
photos above illustrate the Altai race. The colour of the animal is a light
fawn with pale cheeks, the small suborbital glands are to be seen. The face
is devoid of markings. a
The record horns are I believe just under 14” and I see Rowland Ward
quotes 132” by 42”. The horns of the specimen figured above are 11 inches.
Sub-genus—GazZELLA.
Tue GoIreRED GazeELLE—Gazella sub-gutturosa,
Persian name ‘* Ahu ”’,
The various races of the Goitered Gazelle wander over a very large area In
Asia Minor, Northern Persia, the Caspian Provinces—Turkestan and parts of
China proper.
G. sub-gutturosa is essentially a desert animal and is found in small herds,
which probably do not get together except when migrating. They have not
the habit of going much amongst broken country and are hard to stalk.
They are often found in the open desert during the day time.
It is hard to give the limits of the habitat of the races and still harder to say
when the variations are sufficiently constant and marked to separate the races
(9) a
oo
518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
or tend towards establishing a distinct species. Two races are recognised :—
(A) Gazella subgutturosa subgutturosa and (B) Gazella subgutturosa satrensis.
Via. 6. (4) Goitered Gazelle (G. subgutturosa sub-gutturosa).
The Goitered Gazelle (G. S. sub-guttwrosa) is the typical race from Persia and
the Caspian.
The Goitered Gazelle stands about 26” at the shoulder, thus it is considerably
larger than the Goa, and is smaller than the Mongolian gutturosa gazelle.
The photo above shows heads of the typical Persian race, these specimens are
in the Hume collection.
The tai! is long, and measures about 8 inches, it is dark coloured. Knee tufts
are well developed, cheek marks are more or less clearly defined; suborbital
and groin glands exist.
Colour.—The colouring of the upper parts is rufuous, the lower parts lighter,
buttocks white, with a clear brown line separating the white from the rufuous
fawn above and at the sides. On the younger bucks a dark line extends from
below the eyes to the base of the horns and there joins, and forms a frame to the
white or pale fawn on the upper part of the face but this marking is faint on old
bucks. The bucks appear to carry finer and less stumpy horns than the Mongo-
lian race. The horns of a good specimen tape 14%” with a girth of 4)” with
the ridges clearly marked.
The second race of goitered gazelle (G. subgutturosa sairensis) is the form
jrom N. W. Mongolia.
Jairam of Turkistan.
The typical locality of the race is given as ‘‘Saiar, or Jair Mountains, Zungaria,
The Gazelle of the Saiar is larger than the typical Persian race, standing 27”
at the shoulder but with smaller horns.
~ re
519
THE MAMMALS AND RIRDS OF KASHMIR.
Fie. 7. (b) Sair Goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa sairensis).
The heads figured show distinctly the dark lines under the eyes but the face
in front is devoid of the markings or nearly so, they were probably buck.
killed in the winter.
Fig. 6. shows a typical but very fine pair of horns, for as a rule the Gazelle
from the Sair carries a poor head.
THE YARKAND GazELLE—Gazella yarkandensis.
Fie, 8. Yarxand Gazelle (Gazella yarkand ensis).
520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX,
The Jeron or Saikik.
Distribution The Type locality is given as the “plains of Yarkand, Chinese
Turkestan.” This Gazelle is found in the vicinity of Kashgar and Yarkand
and eastward of the Khotan river to the Tarim country and Lob-nor, this is
the country to the southward and westward of the habitat of the Mongolian
species. Itis a large sized gazelle.
The ears are long and the face markings very pronounced, unfortunately I
have no photograph of a set up head.
The colour above is fawn, so also is the forehead, in thisit differs from other
allied races. ‘
The Gazelles afford sport to hawking parties, in Kashgar an eagle is flown
which pitches on the heaa of a doe and pecks viciously, whilst the flapping of
its wings bewilders the gazelle, and enables the horsemen to ride up and catch it.
Hawking used to be a very popular recreation in many parts of Central Asia.
Fig. 7 illustrates a head in the Hume Collection, it represents a very fine
specimen. The horns, 16” in length, are densely ridged which was not always
the case in the Yarkand specimens first obtained in 1879.
The record horns are I believe those figured in Rowland Ward’s | Eighth
Edition of records, page 237, they are 17’—43”.
THE SEISTAN GAZELLE—Gazella seistanica,
Fic. 9. Seistan Gazelle (Gazella seistanica).
Distribution .-—Apparently Northern and Eastern Persia.
The Type locality is given as ‘‘ Seistan, Eastern Persia ”
This, I take it, is the name now given to the gazelle which is found in Seistan,
to the north-west of Baluchistan and te the pour of Afghanistan. It is figured
in Rowland Ward’s Records, and the locality of the recorded heads are Northern
Persia.
The bucks appear to carry horns which are generally smaller, but rather
resemble those of yarkandensis, see photo ot yarkandenisis.
I was under the impression that the gazelles which were very occasionally to
be seen and still more rarely to be shot to the westward of the Peshin Valley
were the same as this animal—but I have not enough to go upon. However
seistanica is described in the British Museum Catalogue as being “ closely allied
ESS
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR. 521
to yarkandensis ”; and although yarkandznsis and seistanica are now regarded
as distinct species [ am however inclined to adhere to the original idea that
these gazelles are merely races of G. subgutturosa sub-guttiurosa. .
At the risk of boring the readers of the Journal I propose to dwell on the
recorded distinctions between yarkandensis and seistanica, the most noticeable is
the ‘‘ white muzzle of the latter.” Next the forehead is sometimes greyish in
seistanica, this is a slight difference and may be simply ‘‘old age,’ and there
isa whitish band at the base of the horns and an indistinct nose spot above
the white muzzle. I have never seen this on any specimen of a Yarkand
Gazelle. As to the smaller amount of white on the buttocks in seistanica,
there is no doubt that the white varies in different individuals of yarkandensis
but it has to be admitted that the small extent of white if constant, creates
a difference, because the tendency towards white is one of the distinguishing
features of the Seistan animal. Still it would appear as if the evidence to
justify establishing distinct species amongst many of the Central Asian animal
is not sufficient.
At one time I was in correspondence with an eminent American Naturalist
who deplored the hasty decisions to sub-divide species, but, as he remarked, ‘‘ it
is easier to do this, than to rectify the error when done.”
The animal figured above is from a photo by Col. Kennion and is reproduced
from the B. M. Catalogue.
KeEnnion’s GazELLE—Gazella fuscifrons.
No. 10. Kennion’s Gazelle (Gazella fuscifrons),
From Lydekker, Proc. Zool Soc. 1911.
622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
é
.
Distribuiion.—Seistan and the borders of Baluchistan.
This Gazelle is, as far as I can ascertain, closely allied to the Chinkara. The
female carries horns of considerable length which have frontal ridges. Appa-
rently the horns tend towards a turn inward at the tips and the maximum length
of a buck’s horns is about 14 inches.
ee
I have not had the pleasure of meeting Col. Kennion since he shot this
gazelle and have not in consequence been able to get any information
In the B. M. Catalogue of Ungulates Kennion’s gazelle is described as
being “‘ apparently somewhat smaller than siesianica’’ (shoulder height probabiv
about 28"), the male is without a ‘goitre’. There is no marked inturning of the
horns as in siestan’ea. I have already commented on the colour differences.
Tut INnIAN GazELLE—Gazella bennetii.
No. 11. Indian Gazelle (Gazella bennett),
Tue Chintara on ** RAVINE DEER ”’ OF SPORTSMEN,
tn former years a few of these Gazelles were to be found in the foot hills border-
ing on the Punjab, they have now been practically shot out from South and
South East of Jammu—hence it is only in Baluchistan and in Persia, to the
West cf Khelat, that this Indian Gazelle is found in the country mentioned in '
these articles. 7
Male—Height at shoulder 25”, at croup 28” (from a big buck), length 40” to
42”—the ear 1s about 6” long—horns 11” to 14’—record 152’—weight from 45 .;
os, to a little over—horns rather upright, curve quickly backward and slightly
forward at tips, which are from 4” to 8” apart. :
Female—Weight 30!bs. horns from about 5” to 7’—as long as 8” are
recorded.
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR. 523
1 have not kept records of many measurements, and have in fact only shot
one female which was of the weight mentioned. The horns of the male have
many ridges almost to the tips—those of the females are generally devoid of
these rings or ridges but are not invariably smooth. I saw a pair of horns in
Quetta and in Peshin which were distinctly ridged. Dunbar Brander men-
tions that female Chinkara in certain localities in the C. P. carry annulated
norms.
Colour.—The colour of the upper part is a fawn chestnut, the chin and lower
parts and inside the thighs white. Tail blackish. The knee tufts generally
very dark brown, the white caudal disk, which is present in the Tibetan Gazelle,
is absentin the Chinkara. Face markings of white with a rufuous border and
from the horns to above the nostrils a darker tinge of rufuous.
Some of the Northern India animals are very much paler in colour, and the
gazelles of S. E. Persia seem to be closely allied.
General Notes.—Chinkara are gregarious, it is however rare to see more than
half a dozen together. They inhabit broken grcund and eschew the open
plains, thus differing in their habits from their Central Asian allies. It is
not at all uncommon to see twins—but probably one young one at a birth is
the general rule. With alight small bore rifle the pursuit of this daintv
gazelle is rather an entrancing kind of sport which can be indulged in without
going into camp, the drawback is that this animal does not show up well in
the daytime, for it generally rests until late in the evening. Outside the area
with which we are now concerned Chinkara are found in most parts of
Northern India and southwards into Mysore. |
The photograph is by Major C. H. Stockley.
Sub-family—TRAGELAPHINAE.
Genus—BosELAPHUS.
THE Nizeat (Bosephalus tragocamelus), Poriax pictus of Jerdon.
This well known animal is common in Jammu, it is sometimes called Roz
but Ne is the common name.
This is the only representative of the subfamily in India, for others we have
to turn to Africa.
The suborbital glands are present, so are the interdigital, there are no ingui-
nal glands.
Colowr.—The colour of a bull is either bluish brown or bluish grey, the female
is a brownish grey, both sexes have white on the cheeks, and white rings on the
legs above and below the fetlock. The stomach is whitish and there is a white
throat patch. There is a tuft of black hair on the throat of the male and both
sexes have manes. The voung are brown. The female is hornless. The male
earries horns of 8” to 9” long and about 8” in girth. A very exceptionally long
horn was 11”. Two heads of 12” have been recorded in the Society’s Journal.
Measurements of a large bull shot in Kumaon.
Height. Length. Tail.
54” 86” 184 exclusive of the tuft.
The weight was about 580 Ibs., but the scale was not very accurate when
_ weighing heavy animals.
General Notes.—Nilgai live in the so-called Game reserves in Jammu, and
wander where they please. As a-rule they live in the scrub jungle during the
day, but in the mornings and evenings and sometimes throughout the day
they graze in the fields. Much damage has been done by the herds of Nilgai
hence they are now out of favour, but until lately the mantle of sacredness has
protected them.
A big blue bull is often solitary, otherwise Nilgai are seen in small herds.
How deceiving the lumbering gallop of the bullis! It takes a gooc horse
to overtake a Nilgai, and a very good one to run down a female but if on
easy ground both car be ridden down and speared. When at all hemmed
524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
in the blue bull will charge if wounded. I can remember being out on two
occasions when this occurred.
We were riding in line through a detached piece of grass looking for a wounded
bull which got up between two horses and made straight at the nearest, luckily
on the right side. On the other occasion I did not see the charge, but one horse
was upset though not damaged. In captivity they are dangerous. There is a
grim satisfaction in shooting females and even young Nilgai, for they are
absolutely pestilential in the crops. Certain parts of Kumaon jungles hold
numbers—any way they are not wasted when dead for the Mahouts will eat them
although they do not appreciate an old bull, but for the skin they get rupees,
hence they are quite ready to load the carcass on to a pad elephant.
(To be continued .\
525
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY'S
MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMAH AND CEYLON,
Report No. 37(a), NEPAL.
By
TB,’ fry.
COLLECTION .. oy, sh Noy 37 (@).
Locality i eh ein ) Nepal:
DATE : sie -. May 17, 1922 to May 17, 1923.
COLLECTED BY : .. N. A. Baptista.
A Collection made by Col. R,. L. Kennion between August 19 and December
23, 1920, and another by N. A. Baptista between January “VT and April 20. 1921,
were:examined and commented upon by Mr. M. A. C. Hinton in Report Ne. 37%
(Nepal) ; and in addition to considering the actual specimens obtained he wrote
very fully on the known fauna of this country.
Later during the period May 17, 1922, to May 17, 1923, Mr. Baptista working in
the districts lying to the west of Katmandu collected son.e 591 specimens, most
of which belong to species to which reference was made in the above mentioned
Report ; infact only two new species were discovered, viz., A podemus (Nemomys)
gurkha described by Mr. Thomas in ‘Scientific Results,’? and Neodon sikimensis,
to which attention will be drawn under their respective headings.
In view of the foregoing facts no detailed report of this Collection appears to
be necessary so the following List only, with occasional remarks, is subn ittec. for
publication in the Society’s Journal.
(1) Macaca MuULATTA, Zimm.
The Bengal Monkey.
(Synonymy in No. 7).
Chengli, ¢1 ; Bouzini, 5,000’, 2 1.
‘* Found in large troops in Nepal, not sacred, period of gestation about six
months, usually only one young at a birth, do much damage to crops.
“Vernacular names :—latio Bandar (Pahari) ; Mugger (Bhotia) "—N. 4. B.
(2) PiraEcus scuistaceus, Hodgs.
The Himalayan Langur.
(Synonymy in No. 15.)
Satthar, 11,000’-12,000’, ¢ 1.
‘“ These animals are said to pair in February and the young to be born in May,
but this needs verification. They are not destructive to crops like other mon-
keys.”°—N. A. B.
(3) ROUSETTUS LESCHENAULTI, Desm.
The Fulvus Fruit Bat.
(Synonymy in No. 11.)
Boitari, 4, 94.
(4) CYMOPTERUS SPHINX, Vahl.
The Southern Short-nosed Fruit Bat,
(Synonymy in No. 6.)
Satthar, 12,000’, ¢ 3, 2 1.
“ Common in Nepal, frequently found on plantain trees. It breeds in Decem-
ber. Eaten by Passis only.”—WN. A. B.
* Jou”. Bom. Nat. Hist. Scc., Vil XXIX, p. 399.
526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
(5) KRHINOLOPHUS AFF, HTIMALAYANUS, K, And.
The Himalayan Horse-shoe Bat.
(Synonymy in No. 37.)
Bouzini, 5,000’, 3 1.
(6) KRHINOLOPHUS LUCTUS PERNIGER, Hodgs.
The Great Black Horse-shoe Bat.
(Synonymy in No. 14.)
Banss Bahari, @ | ; Bouzini, 3,000’, 92 1.
(7) RHINOLOPHUS ROUX!, Temm.
The Rufous Horse-shoe Bat.
Sipuri, 6,000’-8,0U0’, @ 1.
(8) HIPPosIDEROS ARMIGER, Hodgs.
The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat,
(Synonymy in No. 14.)
.
Hathiban, 5,000’, 2 5; Bouzini, 5,000’, @ 1, 2 4; Bachek, g 3, Q 5
Dano Kharka, 12,000’, 2 4; Bachek, @ 3, Q 5.
(9) PrIpistRELLUS BABU, Thos.
The Babu Pipistrel,
(Synonymy in No. 26.)
Bouzini, 5,000’, @ 2; Sipuri, 2 1.
(10) Myotis stcarius, Thos.
The Sikkim Myotis.
(Synonymy in No. 26.)
Banss Bahari, 2 4.
(11) Sorzrcunus caupatTus, Horsf.
The Sikkim Brown-tocthed Shrew.
(Synonymy in No. 15.)
Satthar, 12,000’, @ 1; Apoon Hill, 12,000’, 2-1, 2 3; Apoen Sotti-
danda, 12,000’, @ 1.
‘’ Very common at about 12,000’ ; trapped on steep rocky banks.
Vernacular :—Chichunder (Nepalese), Heimboo (Bhotia).”—N. A. B.
(12) SorIcuLUS NIGRESCENS CENTRALIS, Hint.
The Nepal Dusky Shrewlet.
(Synonymy in No. 37.)
Satthar, 12,000’, 2 1; Bouzini, 5,000’, ¢@ 4, 9 5;Sipuri, @ 1; Tarro
Bir, 76 ale
Probably rarer than §. caudatus.
(13) PacHyURA, sp.
Gorkha, 31,2 1; Chengli, ¢ 1; Deorali, $1; Boitari, 2 2 ; Dorom.
danda, 12,000’, @ 1.
This genus has still to be studied. Eventually it may be found that two cr
three distinct species occur in Nepal.
MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON. 527
(14) PacHYyURA PERROTTETI, Duvern.
The Indian Pigmy Shrew.
(Synonymy in No. 4.)
Knaping, ¢ 1.
_ Probably comparatively rare but owing to its small size it may easily escape
notice,
(15) Frvis aFFrnis, Gray and Hardw.
The Jungle Cat.. .
Hathiban, 5,000’, ¢ 2 ; Syartang, ¢1 ; Satthar, 12000’, 3 1 ; Mircourt,
361,92; Knaping, ¢ 2, 9 1; Manglopani,2 1.
(16) ViIvERRA ZIBETHA, L,
The Large Indian Cwet.
(Synonymy in No. 14.)
Banss Bahari, ¢ 1 ; Gorkha, ¢ 1;Chengli,? 1; Boitari,g 1, 2 1;
Satthar, 12,000’, 2 2; Syartang, 5 2, 2 2; Mircourt,? 2.
(17) PacumMa GRAYI, Benn.
The Himalayan Palm Cwvet.
(Synonymy in No. 15.)
Hathiban, 5,000’, 2 1; Bachek, 9 1.
(18) Herpestes auropuncratus, Hodgs.
The Small Indian Mongoose.
(Synonymy in No. 27.)
Hathiban, 5,600’, 1, 9 1.
(19) HERPESTES NIPALENSIS, Gray.
The Small Bengal Mongoose.
(Synonymy in No. 19 under H. auropunctatus.)
Sepetar, gj 1; Boitari,2 1; Satthar, 12,000’,g 1°; Knaping,? !-
Syartang, @ 1; Mircourt, J 2, 9 1; Manglopani, d 1.
H, npalensis differs but slightly from H. auropuncitatus, the grizzling being
finer and the under parts lighter coloured, but it is note-worthy that the two
forms are found in Nepal.
(20) HeErprstes urRvA, Hodgs.
The Crab-eating Mongoose.
(Synonymy in No. 23.)
Gorkha, 2 1; Chengli,2 1; Boitari,? 1.
(21) Canis inpicus, Hodgs.
The Jackal.
(Synonymy in No.1. under C. aureus.)
Hathiban, 5,0C0’,g 2; Syartang,? 1; Doromdanda, 12,000’,
eo. ; ;
** Destructive among poultry, and does damage to corn and sugar-cane “"—
Nee Atel,
528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
(22) CHARRONIA FLAVIGULA, Bodd.
The Northern Indian Marten.
(Synonymy in No. 15.)
Sepetar, d 1; Satthar, 12,000’, ¢ 1, 2 2; Mircourt,? 3; Apoon Hill,
12,000’, @ 1, 2 3; Knaping, 2 1 ; Syartang,Q 1.
(23) MusTELA SUBHEMACHALANA, Hodgs.
The Himalayan Weasel.
(Synonymy in No. 23.)
Barpak, g 1.
“* Lives on small birds and eggs.” —. A. B.
(24) PrTAURISTA CANICEPS, Gray.
The Grey-headed Flying Squirrel.
1842, Sciwropterus caniceps, Gray, A. M. N. H., x., p. 262.
1843. Sciuropterus senev, Hodgson, J. A. 8. B., xiii, p. 68.
1889, Pteromys caniceps, Blanford, Mamn., No. 231.
Apoon, 12,000’, 4,9 1; Barpak,@ 1, 9 2.
(25) PrETaurRisTa MAGNIFICUS, Hodgs.
Hodgson’s Flying Squirrel.
1836. Sciuropterus magnificus, Hodgson, J. A.S. B.. v., p. 231.
1842. Sciuropterus nobilis, Gray, A. M. N. H., x., p. 263.
1844, Sciuropterus chrysothrix, Hodgson, J. A. 8. B., xii, p. 67.
1889. Pteromys magnificus, Blanford, Mamm., No. 229.
Satthar, 12,000’, d 5,9 2.
(26) PETAURISTA NOBILIS, Gray.
The Himalayan Flying Squirrel. °
(Synonymy in No, 23.)
Tarro Bir, 3 1.
This and the foregoing squirrel are much alike, but each shows certain well
marked characters, which appear to be stable and not merely seasonal, which
suffice to distinguish the one from the other.
(27) DREMOMYS LOKRIAH LOKRIAH, Hodgs,
The Orange-bellied Himalayan Squirrel.
(Synonymy in No. 20.)
Sipuri, 6,000’-8,000’, ¢ 1; Satthar, 12,000’, ¢ 1, Q 2.
(28) ToMEUTES LOKROIDES, Hodgs.
The Hoary-bellied Himalayan Squirrel.
(Synonymy in No. 23.)
Hathiban, 5,000’, 2 2; Chengli, ¢ 1; Kuwapani, ¢ 2, 92 2.
(29) BanpicoTa NEMoRIVAGA, Hodgs.
The Bengal Bandicoot.
(Synonymy in Ne. 19 under B. elliotana.)
Manglopani, 12,00’, @ 1.
anes BP;
MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON. 529
(30) GUNOMYS BENGALENSIS, Gray and Hardw.
The Bengal Mole-Rat,
Chengli, ¢ 2 (1 juv.), @ 1; Mircourt, g¢ 1;Syartang, ¢ 1.
‘* Eaten by most people.”’—WN. A. B.
(31) Rattus EHA, Wr.
The Spectacled Rat.
(Synonymy in No. 23.)
Apoon Hill, 12,006’, 2 1.
Highteen specimens of this rat were collected in ‘Sikkim by Mr. Crump, and
were “recognised as a new species by the late Mr. Wroughton.
(32) RatrTus FULVESCENS, Gray.
The Chestnut Rat. .
(Synonymy in No. 15.)
Bouzini, 5,000’, ¢ 2, 2 2; Apoon Hill, 12,000’, ¢ 2, 9 1; Satthar,
12,000’, @ 2, 2 1.
(33) RatTTUS NIVEIVENTER, Hodgs.
The White-bellied Rat,
(Synonymy in No. 15.)
Satthar, 12,000’, @ 2, @ 2.
(34) RaTTUS RATTUS BRUNNEUSCULUS, Hodgs.
The Common Nepal Rat.
1845. Mus brunneusculus, Hodgson, A. M. N. H. (1), xv, p. 267;
1889. Mus rattus, Blanford, Mamm., No. 272.
Gorkha, 3 1, 9 2 ; Chengli, J 5, 2 3; Deorali, J 13; Syartang, ¢ 1 ;
Manglopani, 12,000’, @ 1, 9 1.
(35) RATTUS RATTUS RATTOIDES, Hodgs.
The Nepal House Rat.
(Synonymy :—See R. brunneusculus.)
Satthar, 12,000’, 2 1.
(36) Mus Homourvs, Hodgs.
The Himalayan House Mouse.
(Synonymy in No. 15.)
Satthar, 12,000’, @ 2, 2 1; Apoon Hill, 12,000’, 9 1; Barkek, ¢ 1;
Syartang, ¢ 3, 9 2; Laprak, ¢ 1.
The name M. homourus has been retained to distinguish this bluish-bellied
mouse from the darker form lM. urbanus.
(37) Mus urpanus, Hodgs.
The Common Indian House Mouse,
(Synonymy in No. 5.)
Bouzini, 5,00C’, ¢ 1.
This dark-bellied mouse has been noted in various Reports as M. manew, M.
dubius and M, urbanus but it has lately been settled that the last name should
be accepted for the present.
530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
(38) APODEMUS (NEMOMYS) GURKHA, Thos.
The Nepal Apodemus.
1923. Apodemus (Nemomys) gurkha, Thomas, J. B. N. H.S. Vol. X XIX,
p 888.
Satthar, 12,000’, Q 1; Apoon Hill, 12,000’, ¢ 2; 9 2; Apoon Sotti-
danda, 2 2; Barpak, g 2; Laprak, ¢d 4, 9 3.
Mr. Thomas published a description of this new species in the Journal under
« Results.”
(39) NE@poN sIKImENsISs, Hodgs.
The Fiower Mouse of Sikkim.
1849. Neodon sikimensis, Hodgson, A. M. N. H. (2), iii, p. 203; genotype, J.
sikimensis.
1863. Biscunedens, Hodgson, in Gray Cat. Spec. and Drawings, Mamm. and
Birds, etc., of Nepal and Tibet, Brit. Mus., ed. 2, p.2; genotype, B. perfuscus
apparently a M. 8. name for NV. sikimensis. Arvicola, Microtus, and Pitymys ot
later authors.
Apoon Hill, 12,000, g. 1.
In January 1923 Mr. M. A. C. Hinton after studying a large number of voles
collected by Mr. G. Forrest in Yunnan published a paper in the Ann. and Mag.
N. Hist. Ser. 9, Vol. xi, p. 145, in which he revived the name Neodon.
“The name Neodon, applied long ago by Hodgson to the Flower Mouse of
Sikkim (Microtus sikimensis, ot current literature), is available for this genus,
since this species proves on examination to be ‘a conspicuous member of the
group, although its characters and relationships have hitherto been but
imperfectly understood.” —M. A. C. H.
The present specimen is rather young and cannot be satisfactorily distinguish-
ed from NV. sikimensis and it is therefore hoped that more specimens from
Nepal may be forthcoming.
(40) Lepus RUFICAUDATUS, Geoff.
The Common Indian Hare.
(Synonymy in No. 15.)
Bouzini, 5,050’, ¢ 2,92 2; Sipuri, 61, 9 1; Deorali, 91; Boitari.
Q1;Syartang, ¢ 1, juv.
(41) OcHOTONA ROYLEI NEPALENSIS, Thos.
The Nepal Mouse Hare.
Satthar, 12,000’, ¢ 3, 2 2; Apoon Hill, 12,000’, 2 1; Apoon Sotti-
danda, ¢ 4, 2 6; Barpak, ¢ 7, 2 4.
(42) NEMORHAEDUS HODGSONT, Pocock.
The East Himalayan Goral.
(Synonymy in No. 37.)
Deorali, g 1, 9 1; Apoon, 12,000’, @ 1.
(48) Munttacus vaGiInatis, Bodd.
The Bengal Rib-faced Deer.
(Synonymy in No. 2.)
Banss Bahari, g 1; Chengli, @ 1; Doromdanda, 12,000’, 2 1;
Deorali, g 1; Mircourt, 9 1.
(44) MoscHus moscuirerus, L.
The Indian Musk Deer.
(Synonymy in No. 23.)
Apoon Hill, 12,000’, 3 1.
7
"
53l
EARLY STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME FRESH
WATER FISHES IN THE PUNJAB.
BY
M. Hamip Kuan, M. Sc., F.R.M.S.
_ With three plates.
Material for study was collected during the breeding seasons of 1921-24 from
Departmental farms at Madhopur, Chhenawan, and from different places near
the River Beas. The specimens were examined in the living state under a
microscope and fixed in different reagents for further study. It is, however,
intended to give in these pages a_ bare outline of the early stages, without going
into microscopical details, with a view to help a fish-culturist ‘“‘ to differentiate
between the successive ages and stages of growing fish, and between fry of the
same age, belonging to species, which may be closely allied zoologically, though
far apart economically ’’(17).
Ophiocephalus marulius is taken as a type of the Ophiocephalide, Wallago
ati of the Siluride, and Labeo gonius, Cirrhina mirgala of the Cyprinidae.
Ophiocephalus marulius.
Freshly laid eggs were taken from the pond, and kept in a live-car under
observation, and their growth and development was from time to time compared
with those in the pond.
Outline of the embryo becomes defined within twelve hours. The embryo
appears on the left side of the yolk in a belt-like manner. The tail end is
swollen, transparent and granular, while the head end is darker. Overnight
stage shows the appearance of unpigmented eyes, auditory vesicles and heart.
Just before hatching, heart gives off aorta, which passes dorsally to the posterior
end to turn back into caudal vein. The latter vessel passes 2 toto into subintes-
tinal vessel just near the attachment of the tail to yolk sac. Subintestinal vessel
is formed by the vitelline veins which receive yolk capillaries, and anteriorly
open into the heart. Anterior caudal vein brings blood from head, and emerges
from behind the auditory vesicle, and breaks up into a set of venous spaces,
which together with vitelline network spreads over the surface of the yolk
and then goes to the heart (Fig. 1).
The embryonic development goes on rapidly, but depends considerably on the
temperature of water, and hatching takes place within 30 to 65 hours. Some
eggs hatched out while examining under microscope. The movements of tail
ruptures the vitelline membrane, and the embryo appears like an egg with a
whip like addendum at one end. Total length is 4°5 m.m., head with yolk sac
being 2 m.m. and tail2°5. The newly hatched larvee lie on one side, and move
their tails now and then, and when they swim they either rotate or spin round.
The eyes are colourless, black pigment being confined to the lower portion
of the yolk in a semicircular band (Fig. 2.). A few hours later yolk
circulation becomes complicated and the caudal vein breaks up into branches,
and is joined by the posterior cardinal vein near the bend of the yolk sac (Fig. 3).
Blood in the latter vessel flows backward, so that the aortic and cardinal blood
circulation is in the same direction. Eight hours after hatching the tail has
elongated to3 m.m. Pigment has appeared in the eyes. Yolk sac circulation
forms a complicated system of cappilaries. An invagination, which later on
forms anus, is seen in the tail region. Hinder extremity of notochord lies
straight and there is amassing of tissue a little before its extremity forming the
primordium of the caudal ray system. Heart beats 238 timesin a minute. Ten
hours later, dorsal aorta and caudal vessel have lengthened backwards, and in
the anterior part of the caudal region, close to the posterior extremity of the
5382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vil XXX.
yolk sae aorta gives off intersegmental vessels along the anterior face of myotome
septa. These vessels run dorsally to form a pair of parietal vessels, which
anteriorly fall back into the dorsal aorta just anterior to the auditory vesicle.
At this stage pigment becomes scattered and appears in the form of stellate
cells in the region of yolk.
Second day hatchings grow trom 5°6 mm. to 6 mm. Head becomes dis-
tinctly marked off from the yolk sac, and an invagination for the future mouth
appears antroventrally (Fig. 3). Eyes are profusely pigmented. Stellate
pigmented cells spread round the notochord, multiply. extend to the anterior
region of the head, and tend to make the anima! opaque. Intersegmental
vessels are seen in the head region as well, and their blood circulation is very’
irregular: in some it flows dorsally to the parietals and in others reversely
without any definite alteration or arrangement. Pectoral fins appear as slight
bud like out-growths, just behind the auditory vesicles. The posterior part
of the embryonic fin shows fine striations.
Third day animals measure 7 mm. mouth is open, and respiratory movements
have begun. There are no external gills. Lower jaw is well developed, and
shows regular rythmic movements. The head is thickened dorsoventrally.
The pectoral fins are well developed, and help the animals in their rapid move-
ments. ‘hey swim on the surface of water with yolk sac directed up, but when.
disturbed they go at once to the bottom and remain there for considerable time.
Gut is visible as simple tube with muscular rectal walls, but not yet opened post-
eriorly. Yolk is reduced. Pigment cells are scattered throughout the whole
body; and the dorsal and ventral embryonic fins are equally pigmented.
Nostrils appear anterior to the eyes.
Next day larvee measure 7 to8 mm. Air sacs appear dorsal to the yolk bag,
anteriorly, just behind the pectoral fins; and the animals now swim with the
yolk sac directed downwards. Pigment cells have become rounded in many
places, and lie more on the ventral surface than on the dorsal.
Kifth day shows no increase in length and the animals remain at the bottom
for a long time. Spherical-pigment cells are arranged in rows on the anterior
extremity of the upper and lower jaws, where later on teeth are formed.
Alimentary canal is convoluted and opens to the exterior posteriorly, while yolk
disappears completely. Black pigment is now visible only in the ventral em-
bryonic fin. Notochord is curved dorsally at its posterior enc. Pectoral fins
have enlarged and are striated, and have stellate pigment cells (Fig’ 4).
Next two days neither show any increase in length nor any other remarkable
change. It may be noted here that since the formation of ailmentary canal
and the disappearance of yolk, the growth has not been uniform ; but the rate
of growth so far has been practically the same between the animals kept in
live-car for observation and those in the pond with the parents. The total
length in both cases is8 mm.; head3 mm.; tail 5 mm. The structure is
also the same for the obvious reason that so far they have been getting their
food supply mainly from the yolk.
On the eighth day the young ones in the pond, which so far have remained
in one place, leave their nest and wander about along with their parents. It
is now that .a remarkable difference in growth occurs between animals in their
natural environments ard those kept in confinement. The animals kept in
live-car, were fed on minced sheepliver, sieved through a piece of muslin cioth,
er with liver-soup and sometimes with infusions of bacteria and mosquito larve.
They were kept under the same environmental conditions as the fry in the pond,
but still they did not show healthy growth. Further structural changes, forma-
tion of caudal rays and development of external form of body which took a
week in the pond specimens, were completed in three weeks in those kept in
captivity and their critical stage appeared with the formation of caudal rays,
they became sickly, were attacked with fungus and died in large numbers.
ee
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate 4,
t
£
f
§
é
j
:
53
4 = K hoo a or
Karly stages in the development of some fresh water shes in the Punjab.
(For explanation see end of article.)
Journ, Eombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Mea OBOE Xa - Plate
s in the development of some fresh water fishes in the Punjab.
Early stag
(For explanation see end of article.)
DEVELOPMENT OF SOME FRESH WATER FISHES. 533
On the eighth day circulation in the tail has reached the posterior extremity.
The intersegmental vessels are present in the posterior region as well. The
pigment cells are round, and are found in a group on the ventral surface of noto-
chord near the posterior end ; and to this mass is given off from aorta a capillary
vessel, which turns back and pours its blood in the caudal vein. This is the
beginning of caudal capillary system which forms the basis of caudal circulation
and marks the developmeat of caudal rays. Next four days show the complica-
tion of capillaries, increase of pigment cells (Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17). Pigment
cells become arranged in radial rows throughout the caudal fin and the blood
vessels too, take the same direction.
Formation of caudal rays depends mainly on the healthy growth of the fry.
In warm water, rays first appear on the 10th day, while in cold temperature
the growth is retarded. Development of rays begin from the ventral surface
and as notochord curves dorsally the rays are drawn towards dorsal surface.
The caudal rays appear as transparent yellowish white strips, in between the
radially arranged pigment cells. The loops of blood vessels join together
and combine into one. The vessel which carries blood to the ray flows beneath
it while the afferent ones lie on its either side. Three basal pieces are also seen.
On the twelfth day (Fig. 5), eleven fully developed caudal rays are visible,
segmented at their free ends and striated. Four basal cartilages can be dis-
tinctly traced. Caudal circulation is typical (Fig. 18). Just below the posterior
end of notochord, the caudal artery branches, and each branch carries bloodtothe
finary, and then turns back near the end of the fin, and pours its blood into
another system of capillaries, which run on both sides of the fin rays and join
to form the caudal vein. The length of bodyis10 m.m. On the sixteenth day,
caudal fin shows indication of separation from the embryonic fin. The animals
have become very active. They come to the surface, exude small air bubbles
and then go down and come up, thus causing small whirlpocis, which make their
presence visible from a distance. Some fry were kept in a dish: They at
first came to the surface after 30 to 36 seconds, but later on their breathing be-
came quicker and they were seen rising up after 10 to 26 seconds.
On the 17th day length varies from 15 to 20 mm. Caudal fin is separated
of ventrally while dorsally itis still continuous. Eighteenth day marks the end
of the larval period by the appearance of ventral or pelvic fins as rudimentary
buds in the mid ventral line, a little behind the level of the pectoral fin. The
caudal fin separates off completely from the embryonic fin. On the 21st day
there are 16 caudal rays; and a yellow band runs dorsally and laterally from
the eye to the end of the caudal fin, covering seven caudal fin rays. The fry
hide at the bottom when approached, and remain under water for considerable
length of time.
Rate of growth of the same lot and of the same year shows considerable diffe-
rence, and is considerably affected by change in weather, temperature and other
environmental conditions. Measurements for the last three years from the same
locality Go not correspond. For the first four or five weeks the difference in
growth is remarkable. Some of the measurements for the last two years are
given below:—
1922. 1923.
Ist Week. § mm. 8 mm.
2nd Week. 15 mm. 10 mm.
ord Week. rae arin, 14 mm.
4th Week. 42 mm. 24 mm.
5th Week. 51 mm. 42 mm.
6th Week. 58 mm. 58 mm.
Tth Week, selec 63 mm.
8th Week. 74 mm. 67 mm.
” 11th Week. 90 mm. 80-83 mm.
12th Week. 98 mm. 99 mm.
5384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Caudal ocellus near the proximal end of the caudal fin appears, in fry ranging
trom 70 to 90 mm., as a reddish yellow mark, in which later on black oval area
becomes visible. Black area measures 1°5X 2 mm. and yellow one 5X3 mm.
At this stage fry has white ventral surface, dark grey dorsal and yellowish
green sides with one deep yellow lateral band running from the eye to the end
of the caudal fin just above the lateral line, and four distinct and two indistinct
bluish green transverse bands, running across the body and over the dorsal
surface, but interrupted at the lateral band (Fig. 6). Caudal fin is
bluish black, pectoral yellow with blue tips, dorsal is dark, grey, while
pelvic and anal are yellowish in zolour. <A. few weeks later ventral surface be-
comes silvery white with slight bluish tinge, while dorsal is of dark greenish
blue colour. The lateral band is deep bluish brown and loses itself in the dark
back ground of the dorsal surface and becomes less perceptible. Below this
band the colour of the body is light yellow mixed with blue and green. There
are six to seven transverse bands of bluish green colour. Caudal fin is yellowish
tinged with black, dorsal is dark grey and other fins are reddish yellow. The
age of the fry at which ocellus appears varies from eight to eleven weeks.
Willey (17) gives his observations on Ophiocephalus striatus and 8.
Rai (15.) briefly describes the. development of O. punctatus and O. gachua,
but the life history of O. marulius has not yet been studied. Though it does
not differ much from its allied species in its general outline, yet the short time
taken to finish its larval development, is remarkable. A comparison is there-
fore made of the corresponding stages of O. marulius and O. siriatus.
Ophiocephalus marulius.
Days after | Total length. Principal events.
hatching.
i |
Ist ais .. |4°5-5 mm. .. |Yolk sae circulation at first simple be-
comes complicated. Black pigment
less becomes pigmented. Invagina-
| cells appear and eyes at first colour-
| tion for future anus visible.
|
2nd
opens for respiratory movements.
Pectoral fins arise. Posterior part of
embryonic fin shows striations.
3rd ais Remar, 8 aye .. |Pigment scattered equally. Gut visible
| as simple tube. Caudal vessels are
| drawn backwaras.
| . ‘Air sacs formed and embryo swim with
| | yolk bag directed downwards. Pig-
| | ment cells spherical in some places and
| lie more on the ventral surface.
17-8 mm. .. |Yolk completely disappears. Black pig-
| ment cells on ventral surface only,
| while dorsal is yellowish. Spherical!
oh Gra eee ae pee pigment cells appear. Mouth
|
|
4th ae .. 17-8 mm.
5th ate +s
pigment cells in rows on anterior ex-
tremity of jaws. Alimentary canal
opens to the exterior posteriorly. Pec-
toral fin striated and has stellate
pigment cells.
—s
DEVELOPMENT OF SOME FRESH WATER FISHES. 539
Days after Principal events.
hatching.
6th
8th
9th-l1th ..
12th
13th-17th
18th
19th-21st
2&3
12-15
28
. 13°5 mm.
. 4°5-5 mm.
. (7 mm.
Total length. |
Sal Ocrannany a we, ae
6
. {8 m.m.-10 mm. ..
110-20 mm. ae,
. (15-26 mm. a
!
: 26 wm. Nes fe
Ophiocephalus
|
|
. (6°75 mm.
|
|
}
{Dorsal aorta and caudal vein have reach-
| ed the end of notochord.
Amassing of pigment cells on ventral
surface of caudal fin and beginning of
caudal capillary circulation.
Arrangement of spherical pigment cells
in radial rows, appearance of caudal fin
rays and complication of capillary
system. Posterior end of notochord
is turned up.
Eleven caudal rays jointed and articu-
lated with basal cartilages.
(Caudal fin separated off ventrally anc
| movements are very active and the fry
| rise to surface to take in air.
|Rudiments of ventral fins appear. Cau-
| dal fin is separated off completely from
the dorsal and anal fins.
|
A yellow band runs on the dorsal surface
and ventral one has bluish colour with
black tinge.
sirvatus (Willey).
: Yolk sac circulation established, pigment
cells develop their black coloration ;
pigment begins to appear in the eyes.
.. |Pectorai fins arise, mouth opens and
respiratory movements commence.
Larve leaving the surface and swimming
freely at all levels. Bright yellow
spots over eyes.
. |Larve swimming and turning in unison at
the slightest concussion. Caudal car-
tilages appear.
. |Posterior end of notochord bends up.
. |Caudal rays jointea and articulated with
the basal cartilages. Larve rise to
surface to take air.
36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
|
Days after | Total length. | Principal events.
hatching.
{
37 a6 10 mm. .. (Primordia of dorsal and anal rays.
40 hd us eae ds mm. .. |Rudiments of ventral fins appear. Dor-
| sal and anal fins separating from eau-
_ dal.
63 S: sion) Lido OM. 1. |
73 Pty aealeo, ams .. |The fry hide in the mud.
|
In Ophiocephalus striatus ‘* sixty-three days old fry are coloured a soft reddish
brown or brown and pink, quite different from the black and yellow of O. punc-
tatus. The general colour-effect is dominated by a broad lateral reddish orange
band occupying almost the entire height of the myotomes, commencing from the
eye on each side, and ending behind with a rounded edge at the base of the caudal
tin concentric with the terminal contour of the latter. The iris is golden with a
red flush; there is a bright golden occipital point; and the basis of the anal
fin is dense black along its‘whole length. The colour of the fry is essentially
that which it had acquired at half the size ; and it retains this colour until it
has doubled the size, after which the definitive markings begin to appear.
Instead ci the reddish brown sub-translucent ground colour of O. striatus fry,
O. punctatus fry are characterized by a blackish ground colour, upon which the
bright golden yellow bands stand out clear, namely a pair of lateral bands
about half the width of O. striatus fry bands, occupying the central third of
the height of the myotomes and ending behind in a point extending about one-
third of the length of the caudal fin into the substance of the fin. Along the
length of the back is a golden yellow line running along the basis of the dorsal
fin and presenting a more or less distinct interruption in the occipital regicn 11
front of the fin at the spot where there is a minute golden speculum in O.
striaius fry. Besides all this, the O. punctaius fry present a clear yellow spot on
the snout and do not possess the black basis of the anal fin.’? (16).
Fungus belonging to Saprolegniacee. attacks both the adult as well as the fry.
It possesses a non-septate branched mycelium, multiplies asexually by club-
shaped sporocysts, producing numerous bi-cilliate swarm spores, which emerge,
move about in water and finally germinate in another place and produce a new
individual of Saprolegria. Huxley’s (5) investigations show that the
fungus settles on the portions cf the skin of an apparently healthy fish, where
there are no scales, and send mycelial or rhizoidal branches through the epider-
mis into the inner layers of the skin, causing at first local and then general dis-
turbance of the system. Experiment by Rushton (14) on Rainbow trout
supporting that of Patterson shows, that Saprolegnia is not the first cause but
cnly a secondary one and only follows a bacillus or attacks on injured surface.
Tn one of our fish tanks owing to the stoppage of water supply for over two months
two fish out of thirty-seven survived in 1917. In December 1920 two
big fish died in the same tank and they had patches of fungus growth on their
bedy. Inspection of tank showed an overabundance of spiroguvra and other
Algal plants which were immediately removed and no death occurred in the
adult fish after that. Fungus again appeared in July 1921 among fry kept in
captivity in live-cars. In many cases the fry had their caudal portions dis-
coloured with distinct filamentous outgrowths of Saprolegnia. The live-cars
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate Ill.
Hi. Khon.
Karly stages in the development of some fresh water fishes in the Punjab.
(for explanation see end of article.)
DEVELOPMENT OF SOME. FRESH WATER FISHES, 537
were then smeared with powdered salt, dried in the sun and washed in running
water and fry put in there. These precautions reduced the death rate by 79
per cent. The following causes may, therefore, be assigned for its appearance :—
(1) Overabundance of Spirogyra and other algal plants.
(2) Injuries due to rough handling and hehe SACL
(3) Collection of food in the live-car.
(4) Incomplete aeration or stagnant water.
The treatment for fungus should commence as soon as it appears’ if not it
soon eats into the body and weakens the fish, making the cure more doubtful.
The growth of young fry with their parents is, as already remarked, far better
than that of those kept in confinement in their earlier days. After six weeks the
fry begin to scatter about, and it is then that they are taken from the tanks and
kept in live-car and fed on minced goat’s liver, goat’s blood mixed with wheat
flour or minced fish of cormon local variety. The growth of Ophiocephalus
marulius is remarkably rapid and depends much upon the quantity and quality
of food. Seventeen weeks’ fry measure 118 m.m., from the tip of the snout to
the end of the tail fin. Power of endurance possessed by Ophiocephalide is a
well known fact and adult fish O. marulius have been carried long distances
by road, while six months old fry have been carried by rail over 200 miles in
ordinary tin carriers, and long distances by road for more than forty hours, with
frequent change of fresh water and suitable food at regular intervals.
Of all the Ophiocephanide, O. marulius, O. striatus are the best sporting as well
as edible fish—and most profitable from the point of breeding. The mature fish
grow to more than three feet while other members do not attain more than one
foot in length. Ophiocephalide are becoming very rare in the Province and are
seldom seen in the market. They are considered a delicacy and fetch good price
but their cannibalistic habits, as well as limited number of eggs, together with
the fact that their fry are scattered during rains, which set in, soon after they
have spawned and are lost and destroyed in large numbers in their wanderings,
do not in any way tend to increase their numbers.
Culture of Ophiocephalide is not a difficult process as they are purely tank
fish, and do not require any special environment for spawning. Fifteen hundred
fry, three to four months old, were kept in.two pits dug near a persian wheel
well, supplied with fresh water from the well and fed on minced sheep liver twice
aday. They were taken out after a month and were found to be in extremelv
good condition. It may therefore be said that any pond with fresh water will
do for Ophiocephalhde.
Cyprinide.
Karly stages of Labeo gonius, Carrhina mirgala and other members of the family
differ much from the corresponding stages of Ophiocephalide and there is no mis-
taking of the two at any stage of their life. Ophiocephalide, moreover, spawn
' before the rains set in, while Cyprinide@ lay their eggs during the rains. In Labeo
gonius, twelve hours after spawning, embryo is clearly differentiated with a
pair of colourless eyes (Fig. 12). Heart appears a few hours later, as simple
tubular structure giving off aorta and receiving vitelline veins. Newly hatched
embryo, has a posteriorly drawn-out yolk bag with a band of black pigment.
Blood circulation is that of typical Teleostean embryo. Eight: hours after
hatching pigment appears in the eye and intersegmental vessels are given off by
aorta (Fig. 13).
Second day shows opening of the mouth and commencement of the respiratory
movements. Pectoral fin appears as bud like structure. Blood circulation has
become complicated, owing to the formation of aortic vessels to the external
gills. From the ventral aorta are given off aortic arches, uniting to form the
dorsal aorta, which gives off intersegmental vessels in its route and then turns
5388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SCCIETY, Vel XXX,
back posteriorly to join the caudal vessel. Anterior and posterior cardinals
are also present.
Yolk 1s absorbed on the 3rd day. Air sacs are visible. Stellate pigment cells
are scattered over the body. Pectoral fins are well developed and help the fry
to move about in the little pools, in which they have been left: by their parents,
in search of food. Caudal vessels are drawn to the extreme end. On the fourth
day, the notochord is bent dorsally, and caudal capillary system is formed. In
two days the vessels take on racial direction, and rays begin to appear on the
6th day. On the 9th and 10th days there is well defined curve of the notochord
with 18 caudal rays and typical caudal circulation. Length varies 7 to $8 mm.
Alimentary canal is simple tubular structure. Black pigment cells are rounded
on the head, while stellate on the body and intestine, Ventral surface is silvery
and saudal fin is slightly forked.
Stages in the development of caudal fin uwlestrate the fact, that homocercal
tail of the adult is secondarily derived. Fin rays appear on the ventral side.
The region where they are present soon forms a lobe ; and an externally hetero-
cercal tail is produced. Dorsal embryonic lobe is without fin rays and contains
the notochord. The ventral lobe continues to develop; and soon projects
beyond the dorsal, which gradually atrophies and finally disappears, and the
ventral lobe forms the permanent tail fin, which, though internally asymmetrical,
assumes an externally symmetrical form.
On the eleventh day the length is9 mm. Dorsal fin is becoming marked off
from the embryonic fin. On the sixteenth day six rays are seen in the dorsal fin
which is now separated off completely from the caudal fin. Body is opaque
owing to pigment cells. Dorsal surface is of dark colour, while ventral is brill1-
ant white mixed with yellow and blue tinge. Iris is bright scarlet with yellow
around and black pigment dorsally. On the severteenth day, length has in-
creased to 10 mm., and caudal fin becomes constricted off ventrally as well.
from the embryonic fin. One row of scales is visible dorsally as tiie like cover-
ings. Twenty days old fry are bluish silvery white in colour on the ventral
surface ; greenish blue with purple in visceral region and reddish in the head.
Caudal fin is completely separated off on the 21st day and more scales appear.
A great deal yet remains to be done in connection with the study of develop-
mental stages of Cyprinde. To this group belongs a vast number of edible and
sporting fishes and their culture should be the main object of a Pisciculturist.
They yield far larger number of eggs than any other fresh water group of Fishes.
Siluride.
Wallago atiu embryos difter from those of Labeo gonius and Cirrhina mirgala
in possessing a round yolk sac like that of Ophiocephalide (Fig. 7). Embrvo
differentiates in less than twelve hours and hatches out in twenty-four hours
(Figs. 8,9). Newly hatched out embryo shows two pairs of lobular projections
at the antro-ventral end of the head : these grow to form the barbels. On the
second day pectoral fins appear ; and mouth opens for respiratory movements,
(Fig. 10). Pigment cells are scattered. Gut lies dorsal to yolk sac, which is
much reduced. Eyes are pigmented. Head is broad and flattened. External
gills are present. Caudal circulation has reached the posterior extremity.
Intersegmental arteries are also developed from dorsal aorta. Third day shows
the formation of capillary vessels in the caudal portion (Fig. 11). Gut opens
to the exterior. The embryos are very active. Their mouths are wide, and
tails Jong. They attack each other and catching their fellow from its thinner
posterior portion, whirl it to and fro, break it into two and devour it.
LITERATURE.
(1) Balfour, F. M. ah .. ‘* Comparative Embryology.”
(2) eben Al akl. v. A .. ‘‘ A plea for the systematic study of fish
diseases.’’ Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 1909.
DEVELOPMENT OF SOME FRESH WATER FISHES, 539
(3) Budget hy: ae .. ‘* Budget Memorial.” Edited by G. Kerr
(4) Dwight Lydell is .. ‘* The habits and culture of the Black
) Bass.”? U. S. Fish Comm. Bull., 1902,
pp. 39-44.
(5) De Barry .. oy .. ‘* Comparative Morphology and Biology of
the Fungi, Mycetozoa and Bacteria.”’
(6) Holt, E. W. L. ab .. “* On the eggs, and larval and post-larval
stages of Teleosteans ’’. Sc. Trans. Roy.
Dub. Soc., Vol. V. (Series IT). July 1893.
(7) Jenkinson, J.W. .. .. “ Vertebrate Embryology,” Oxford, 1913.
(8) Kerr, J.G. .. ae .. ‘* Text Book of Embryology’. 1919.
(9) Kingsley, J. S., and Conn, ‘** Some observations on the Embryology of
EW: the Teleosts.”’ Mem. Bost. Soc. of Nat.
p Hist, Vol. Ill, No. VI, Ap. 1883.
(10) Kuntz, A. .. ans oe Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish., Vol. XXXIV, 1914,
pp. 407-29.
(11) Kuntz, A and Radcliffe, L. Bull. U.S: Bur, Fish., Vol. XXX,
1915-16, pp. 87-134.
(12), Lechmere, ACH: .-... .. Methods of Reproduction in the Sapro-
legniaceee ’’, New Phytologist, Vol. X,
1911.
(13) MecIntosh,W.C. .. .. ‘* On the life-history of the Shanny (Blen-
nius pholis. L.)” Wissenschaftliche
Zoologie, Nov. 1905, pp. 368-378.
(14) Rushton as = .. “Salmon and Trout Magazine’. No. 23,
Sept. 1920.
(15) Raj, S. We a .. ‘* Ree. Ind. Mus.”. Vol. XII, 1916.
(16) Willey, A. .. .. ‘* Spolia Zeylanica ’’. Vol. V, 1908, p. 145.
(17) Willey, A. .. a .. ‘* Spolia Zeylanica ”, Vol. VI, Pt. XXIT,
Dec. 1909.
Explanation of the Plates.
av.c.=anerior vena cava; b==barbel; bl.v. blood vessel; c.a. = caudal
artery ; c.c. caudal capillary ; c.v.=caudal vein ; c.r.=caudal ray ; d.a.—dor-
sal aorta ; E—embryo ; e-eye ; fy—fungus filament ; h=heart ; 0.f.=auditory
sac; p. f.=fectoral fin ; pg.c.—pigment cells ; p.v.=parietal vessel ; p.v.c.=
posterior vena cava ; s.i.s.=subintestinal vessel ; Sp.—sporocyst of Saproleg-
nia ; Spr.—Spores ; s.v.=intersegmental vessel ; t.0.=tail ocellus ; v.=vitelline
membrane ; y.c.=yolk capillaries ; y.s.==yolk sac.
Ophiocephalus marulius.
Fig. 1: Egg with Embryo fully developed, two hours before hatching.
Fig. 2: Newly hatched Embryo.
Fig. 3: Second day Embryo (after hatching).
Fig. 4: Fifth day Embryo.
Fig. 5: Twelfth day Embryo.
Fig.6: Fourteen weeks old fry, with caudal ocellus.
Figs. 14, 15, 16 and 17 show development of caudal capillaries and formation
of caudal rays in the tail fin of O. marulius.
Fig. 18 shows caudal circulation.
Fig. 19 : caudal portion with fungus growth.
Fig. 20 : Sporocysts of Saprolegnia with spoxes.
5
£40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Wallago attu.
Fig. 7: Egg with Embryo, twelve hours stage
_ Fig, 8: Egg with Embryo fully developed.
Fig. 9: Newly hatched Embryo. |
Fig. 10: Second day Embryo.
Fig. 11: Third day Embryo.
Labeo gonius.
Fig. 12 : Twelve hours stage.
Fig. 13 : Newly hatched Embryo.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
1
Pa
3.
oe ie 2 ae), 5
Vm fy ay A,
i SRN =
a
\ OFT.
The Cremastogaster Ant.
Cremastogaster auberti. X& 10,
Beetle (Formicomus ninus) that mimics ant. X 10.
Byre of Cremastogaster Ant, composed of seeds.
Natural size.
541
THE CREMASTOGASTER ANT,
BY
Mason. R. W. G. Hineston, I.M.S,
(With a plate.)
Common Ants of Baghdad—Characters of Cremastogaster—Its nest—Food
supply— Treatment of dead and wounded—Erection of abdomen—Pastoral activi-
dies—Architecture of byres—Care of cattle—Instinct of communication—Olfac-
tory sense—Judgment of workers—A beetle mimic.
The observer at the fringe of the Baghdad oasis cannot fail to find his notice
soon directed to the varied kinds of ants. The most prominent are those which
inhabit the soil. There is Messor, the harvester, a maker of roads.
It loves to establish itself near some cultivated field where it fashions a smooth
‘and conspicuous thoroughfare between the harvesting area and the granaries
in the nest. This thoroughfare is the highway for the movements of the ants
along which they incessantly pass to and fro. We see them first exploring the
field of harvest, then converging with their burdens to the extremity of the path,
then advancing steadfastly along the road until they disappear through the
entrance of the nest. None can fail to notice these industrious streams, so
constant in purpose, so determined in effort, so free from all obstruction or con-
fusion, so striking an example of well organised labour in which each is fulfilling
its share in the toil.
In the vicinity we are sure to find another kind of ant. This is the large and
formidable Myrmecocystus, which digs deep galleries into the bare sand, select-
ing if available some sloping bank. The workers are very different from the
peaceful harvesters, their character being that of the rapacious hunter, active,
‘swift, individually powerful, and capable of overwhelming all kinds of insects
which they drag as provender into the nest. In their movements they are not
confined to special roads, but they scour the sand in all directions, each worker
-securing its individual capture by virtue of its own activity and strength. At
the nest we will observe the more remarkable of their performances, such as
their skill in evacuating large piles of sand, their manner of ejecting dead
-dnsect shells, their wonderful method of conducting a migration by which one
worker seizes hold of a comrade and transports it bodily to the new home.
The habits of these species I have elsewhere discussed*, For new material
‘we must turn to more secluded haunts. In the shady gardens we will meet with
-another kind, one smaller and less conspicuous than the inhabitants of the sand,
a species that keeps almost exclusively to the vegetation and known to science
as Cremastogaster auberti (var. sorokint),
It is not likely to attract immediate attention, being peaceful in its habits,
methodical in its behaviour, and neither like Messor going in search of seeds, nor
like Myrmecocystus pursuing prey. It indulges rather in the tranquil occupation
of a quiet pastoral life. Its length does not exceed one-seventh of an inch, though
it is of moderately sturdy build. In front is the somewhat square-shaped head
with minute black eyes and club-like antenne. Behind this comes the thorax
raised into an arch and furnished with two projecting spines. A slender nodu-
lated waist connects this with the abdomen, of which the noticeable feature is
the triangular shape with the base in front where it joins the waist and termi-
nating in a sharp apex behind. There is some variety in its pattern of colour,
the head and thorax being a reddish brown, the abdomen a glossy black. Its
body is altogether naked save for a trace of fine silky hairs. (See Plate).
The nest is constructed in the hollow of a tree, often in some crumbling cavity
ot the trunk, or, if near the ground, in a decomposing root. Occasionally they
May occupy a crevice in the soil or the tubular cavity of a\dead_ hollow stick, In
* In “A Naturalist in Himalaya.”
542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
India I have seen an allied kind choose the thorns of an acacia and empty the
pith from a stalk of elephant grass in order to establish a suitable nest. The
broken end of a branch is a favoured situation. There the exposed wood soon
passes to decay. It becomes soft, is easily tunnelled, and falls to the attack of
boring beetles which perforate the decomposing stump. The ants take advantage.
of the beetles’ excavations and appropriate the tunnels for their own use.
The entrance to the nest is but a. mere slit, quite unlikely to attract attention.
and with little or no excavated debris outside. The interior is hollowed into.
smooth chambers which communicate with one another by narrow galleries and
contain the usual larve and eggs. Males and females also will be found in the:
passages, and, of course, a number of the worker caste. From the gateway
proceeds a steady line of ants, some ascending, others descending, up and down
the trunk of the tree. As excavators they show no conspicuous talent, never
heaping up piles of ejected debris after the manner of the vigorous inhabitants.
of the soil.
They gain most of their sustenance through pastoral activities, attending on
different kinds of bugs which supply them with a limpid juice. Much also is.
obtained by just biting at the foliage or at the young unopened buds. Certain
leaves have little glands which emit fluid, and this excretion is acceptable to
the ants. They will carry off small particles of animal matter. The minutest
insects too will be taken to the nest, some of which are probably captured alive.
But, like many ants, it is fluid that they really seek, and will accept either animal
or vegetable juice. They will suck up the liquid from a disembowelled insect,
or encircle a drop of syrup in peaceful contentment, all crowding round the deli-
cious nectar in a greedy motionless ring.
These ants are partial to many kinds of trees, being commonly found on the:
poplar and mulberry, less often on the pomegranate and palm. The cultivated.
fig is a particular favourite, since its leaves are often crowded with the liquid-
giving cattle and its timber honeycombed by insect pests. The ants are thus
supplied with their two requirements, a profusion of food distributed through
the foliage and nesting places dug into the branches and trunk. A species of
Capparis also attracts them, its beautiful white flowers and purple. tipped
stamens being one of the chief adornments of this soil. They are constantly
licking at its stems and leaves, though they come to it mainly for the buds and
fruit. Indeed every part of this thorny shrub appears capable of supplying
something to the ants. At the buds they chew the soft external coat and reach.
the vegetable tissue direct. The fruit supplies them with a richer provender.
It opens widely so as to expose the seeds which are sunk in a sweet gelatinous fluid
coloured a bright red. Round this viscid material the ants collect, often a large
number at one open fruit all eagerly sipping at the juice.
Their peaceful character is evident in their treatment of the dead and wounded-
Most ants, when they meet with an injured comrade, are thrown into the great-
est flurry and excitement, often dashing at it with wide-open jaws, attacking
it with the same intensity and vigour as if it were an enemy rather than a friend.
They often treat it after the manner of cannibals. The Myrmecocystus, for ex-
ample, after first lynching it, drags it for provender into the gate. The (o-
phylla employs it to a simlar purpose, the workers coming round it in a murder-
ous ring and literally stretching it to death, They treat their dead with the
same disrespect and bring them to the formicary for use as food. Itis otherwise
in the case of the peaceful Cremastogaster. I place some dead and injured com-
.rades near the nest. There is no display of violent hostility, no indication of
any serious alarm, After a little while the workers take up their dead, carry
them quietly to some distance from the formicary where they lodge them ina
retired nook amidst the leaves. Thus these ants make some decent disposal of
their dead which to other kinds are of value solely as food.
THE CREMASTOGASTER ANT. 543
It is a well-known habit of the Cremastogaster ants that they erect their abdo-
mens at right angles to their bodies when they happen to be alarmed. In this
Jittle species the behaviour was not conspicuous. At times, when closely
pressed, it would certainly do so, but never in that persistent angry manner
which we observe in some of the larger kinds. In a previous book I have made
mention of this special habit, and suggested that its purpose was to serve as a
balance during the ascent and descent of a tree. But I now feel sure that this
explanation is incorrect. The behaviour is part of a defensive plan. At the tip
of the abdomen is a fragile sting, so minute as to be invisible without the help of
a lens and suitable only for delicate work. It cannot, for example, pierce the
skin of the hand, but, in other parts, such as the neck, where the integument is
thin, the spear can give a sharp prick. A reservoir of poison communicates with
‘the weapon, and the fluid may be seen exuding from its tip in the form of a watery
drop. When the Cremastogaster meets with an insect enemy, as I have observed
‘in the larger kinds on Indian trees, it immediately erects the triangular abdomen
-and emits the venomous juice. The attacker, which may for instance be a Pre-
nolepis ant, knows clearly the meaning of this abdominal erection. It hurriedly
withdraws from the danger signal and thus escapes any injurious effect. The
‘elevation of the abdomen is a warning act, part of the defensive scheme of opera-
‘tions associated with the possession of poison and sting.
Such strategy can be of use against only the smallest enemies. It could scarce-
ly serve as a protection from birds. But birds, as a rule, are not partial to
ants. They probably dislike the formic acid taste. The woodpecker, however,
is a formidable enemy. Though in Mesopotamia it is extremely rare, yet in
wooded districts no other bird feeds so habitually on Cremastogaster ants. More-
over, the ants seem aware of their enemy, at least the larger species on Indian
‘trees instinctively adopt a method of escape. With the edge of my killing-
bottle I have sometimes struck the tree immediately below a Cremastogaster ant.
It was a sharp and sudden tap such as a woodpecker makes on the bark when
hammering with its chisel beak. And often when I did so the ant stood still,
fixed itself motionless close against the bark. No doubt it imagined that its
enemy had arrived, and instinctively felt that the immobile attitude supplied °
the best chance of its being passed unseen.
These ants, as I have said, are of a pastoral disposition, depending in the main
on other insects which, like cattle, supply them with a valuable juice. In this
connection the aphids are of great importance. The workers go in search of
them all over the tree. They find numbers on both the stems and leaves of the
poplar, but the place of selection seems to be the stalk close to its junction with
the leaf. In their search they employ the plan of circumnavigation, especially
when investigating the smaller leaves. This is a methodical system of examina-
tion, the ant running round the edge of one leaf before passing on to explore the
next. It is a good example of their orderly activities as a result of which the
whole mass of the foliage is surveyed.
When they find a group of aphids they pay it close attention. The workers
collect around it in a cluster, not displaying any emotion or excitement, but just
‘quietly attending the herd. Their antenne may be seen in continuous motion,
since these organs are made to stroke the bodies of the aphids as if to induce
them to render forth their juice. At intervals we will observe the emission to
take place. Lach. little aphid hoists up its abdomen, squeezes out from the tip
@ drop of limpid fluid which the ant that is stroking it immediately devours. All
‘over the tree we may detect these little parties, each a quiet pastoral association
in which the ants are the herdsmen and the aphids the herds.
This poplar aphid is very minute, to the naked eye little more than a speck.
The members of the herd are usually wingless, being for the most part young
and immature forms. At this stage they are somewhat fusiform in shape. The
head end is blunt, supplied with eyes and antennz, while the hind extremity is
544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
distinctly pointed and prolonged into a kind of tail. Its structure is so delica!e
as to be almost transparent, and its general colour is a pale green with a tinge of
brown upon the head. At the tail extremity is the tiny pore through which the
excretion is emitted to the ants. Here and there in the clusters we meet with an
adult, a little insect of graceful and delicate structure with a dark body and white
lacy wings. It receives the same attention from the herdsmen as is given to the
undeveloped forms. Its association with the herd is only temporary. Hither-
to it has been a mere reservoir of liquid, a stationary apparatus for the with-
drawal of sap. But now it has developed gauzy wings ; its reproductive instinct
claims attention, and it flies off to find another resting place where it becomes.
the parent of a new group.
The strength of a commune of Cremastogaster ants will depend in the main on
the numbers of these herds. <A tree covered with cattle will maintain a multi-.
tude, while one that bears a few scattered groups can support only an impover-
ished nest. These aphids withdraw a great quantity of sap and must often do:
considerable injury to the trees. This is particularly the case with the apricot.
They infest the tree in immense numbers, so much so that the fluid falls from
them like rain and coats the verdure in a sticky juice. Other insects then come
to reap the harvest, especially the hornets and certain species of wasps which
eagerly drink the sweet honey-dew.
The special preference which Cremastogaster gives to the fig is due, like the
poplar, to the cattle on its leaves. Almost every fig tree in these shady gardens:
maintains its quiet procession of ants, The herd is, however, different from
that on the poplar. It is composed of a cluster of scale insects or coccids, another
of the heterogeneous group of bugs. This little insect is oval in shape, soft and
delicate, looking almost structureless except for the fact that its margin is sinuous
and its body divided into rings. It is hidden from view in a kind of fluffy mate-
rial, the preduct of its cast-off skins. These accumulate around it so as to form
a white coat which makes it look like a flake of snow.
The coccids usually occupy the base of a leaf. They also align themselves
along the midrib, wrap themselves around the green stalk or assemble on the
stem of the fruit. Often they collect in a dense cluster with their edges over-
lapping like a heap of coins and buried in their discarded skins. Both old and
young are represented in the herd. The foliage around them often glistens as if
with varnish. This is due to the viscid secretion of the coccids having escaped
and then dried into an inspissated layer. The ants attend these cattle in the
same way as they do the aphids, standing around them like patient herdsmen
and titillating persistently with their attennary threads. :
These ants, like certain other kinds that tend on cattle, construct special
habitations for the shelter of the herd. But the byres of the Cremastogaster are
neither very common nor are they built in that wonderfully elaborate manner
such as is displayed by the Polyrhachis ants. I found one of their sheds in the
tork of a pomegranate tree. It was a triangular shaped edifice wedged into the
cleft and somewhat less than an inch in length. Its structure was composed of
delicate material, an assortment of fine particles of vegetable tissue built into a.
compact wall. Inhabiting this tabernacle was a pair of coccids, a meagre collec-
tion for so elaborate a shed, Yet even so few were of great value to the ants ;
otherwise they would never have expended the labour of enclosing them in a
firm wall. The reason is, of course, that their value is continuous. Day and
night they give forth their droplets of fluid which is probably sufficient for a.
number of the ants.
I found another exquisite type of chamber fashioned exclusively from downy
seeds. There is a profusion of such material at the end of the summer, the trees
being in places so laden with fluff as to appear under a fleece of snow. Some is
shed from the seeds of the poplar ; more from the smaller plants. The byre
THE CREMASTOGASTER ANT. BAB
composed of it was on the trunk of a poplar tree. It was oval in shape, about.
the size of a walnut, smooth in the interior, but on the outside rough so as to
look like a fluffy ball. Though delicate in structure, it was closely interwoven.
the downy plumes being so knit together as to form an unbroken wall. At one
extremity was a small gateway, the only opening into the cavity of the cell. It.
was merely a slit of the narrowest dimensions and just sufficient to permit the
entrance of the ants. Some stems of the poplar passed through the interior
round which the aphids were closely packed like cattle stabled within a shed.
The whole habitation was delightfully snug, as soft and cosy as if composed of
. wool, and a most efficient protection for both the cattle and the ants. (See
plate).
A neat pattern of byre is occasionally met with fashioned out of a poplar leaf..
The leaf has been folded longitudinally so that the lateral edges come together
and the midrib marks the line of the fold. The edges are observed to be connect-
ed with silk which results in the formation of a leafy tube. The open ends of
the tube must then be secured, and the ants effect this by constructing a wail.
From below they carry up minute particles of debris which they build into a
barrier at the ends of the tube. Near one edge of the barrier they leave a narrow
slit, just wide enough to give them entrance into the tunnel, and, since a similar
slit is made at both extremities, they are provided with two opposing gates.
The resulting habitation is about an inch in length. It is shaped in the form of
a fiat triangle with a fissure-like cavity enclosed all round. Within, of course,
is the accustomed herd ieeding on the tissue of the leaf.
The folded structure of this leafy habitation reminds us of the architecture of
the red ant. This latter species habitually nests in the foliage, drawing a number
of leaves together and uniting their edges with a layer of silk. Sometimes, how-
ever, it emplovs a single leai, bending it transversely so as to bring the apex to.
the base and then connecting the margins all round. This habitation of the
Cremastogaster is, therefore, somewhat similar. A single leaf is taken and bent
upon itself. It differs in that the fold is longitudinal instead of transverse,
but more essentially in the fact that the Cremastogaster uses debris tor the pur-
pose of closing the ends of the tube. The red ant has no notion of such building
operations. It is most expert at folding and approximating leaves and at
weaving quantities of delicate silk, but it knows nothing of the art of accumula-
debris tingor of the building of such material into a wall. When a gap exists in
the nest of the red ant, the only method of securing the opening is by closing it
with layers ot silk.
But we must be careful not to overestimate the skill of the Cremastogaster.
The tunnel, thus fashioned, is a complex piece of work, its edges being linked
with threads of silk, its extremities ciosed with walls. It seems as if this ant
combines two separate instincts, the erection of debris and the elaboration. of
silk. ut this, I think, would be a false conclusion. Itis greatly to be doubted
if the occupying ants were responsible for the silken portion of this byre. Ff
have never seen them employed in the manufacture of such material, though
other kinds, of course, produce it in abundance, employing their larve for the
generation of the threads. In this instance it seems more probable that a species
of spider was responsible for the silken portion of the byre. The ants found:
the habitation partially constructed, its edges in apposition and connected with
threads. They took the spider’s industry to their own use, strengthened the
chamber, added walls to its extremities, and thus by a combination of robbery
and workmanship fashioned an excellent byre.
An idea can be gained of their mode of architecture when a breach is made in
the wall of a byre. A few workers come out to attend to the damage and allo-
cate to themselves the business of repair. They pull the little fragments back
into place, piling them up and so adjusting them as to restore the broken pari of
546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
the wall. I see no special mechanism for holding them together, nothing analo-
gous to the interlacing of threads such as other ants employ to bind the bricks.
The architecture of the Cremastogaster is more primitive and simple. The bricks
just naturally adhere to one another through the intertangling of loose shreds of
tissue or the interlacing of plumed seeds.
On neighbouring trees we will find another type of byre-builder. This is a
species of Polyrhachis, a larger, more powerful and more expert ant. Itis partial
to a different kind of vegetation, frequently choosing the orange and the peach.
As an architect it is far more elaborate than the Cremastogaster since it spreads
long tunnels over the trunks and branches,constructing them of debris interwoven
with silk, The Cremastogaster can claim none of such remarkable efficiency ; it
superimposes and to some extent interlaces its fragments, working more like a
bird at the building of its nest.
These works of construction are sufficient to indicate that the ants take great
care of their valuable herds, Some workers remain continually with them,
since those cattle, which have involved the ants in such labour, must on no ac-
count be left to themselves. Here is an example of their watchful care. I cut
away a byre and thus expose the herd which had been enclosed probably for
many weeks, But the workers in the vicinity soon came to the rescue and gave
attention to their precious charge. Each took up an aphid in its jaws, some
managed to get hold of two or three, and they, quickly conveyed the exposed
cattle to the shelter of the main nest.
Although these ants do not combine for the purpose of aggression, nor join
their forces for the shifting of loads, nevertheless they possess that instinct of
communication by which one ant can call out its comrades from the nest. In
most ants the instinct is for the purpose o1 attack or in order to rescue a captured
prey, but it has for the Cremaswgaster the more peaceful use of bringing others
tc a discovered herd, Its manner of operation is according to principle, being
conducted after the plan of the Phidole or the Camponotus which has been else-
where described. Nevertheless there are certain details of interest which deserve
a tew brief notes. In order to see the operation I give a dead grasshopper to an
ant. The wanderer is attracted to this rich morsel, immediately attaches itself,
then bites at the integument, but soon, realizing the immensity of the discovery,
runs down the branch in the direction of the nest. Ifit happens to meet a com-
rade the information is communicated. We observe the manner in which their
antenne meet. It is not just the usual passing touch such as occurs when the
ants move ordinarily about. This is amore prolonged and agitated titillation,
and has the effect of transferring to the second ant the enthusiasm possessed by
the first. Then they separate and move in opposite directions, the discoverer
descending to the main nest, the other ascending to where the treasure lies.
We follow the discoverer down to the gate. Almost immediately on its entrance
the workers issue forth. They do not emerge in any special formation. It is
not a multitude like the legion of the Phidoie nor a compact troop as in the
Camponotus ants. The party of the Cremastogaster is a straggling line, each
worker separately emerging from the gateway and independently ascending the
branch. The discoverer does not lead them. On the contrary they are des-
patched and the ant that has brought the news may not emerge until many of
the party have been sent on their course, Thus the instinct in Cremastogaster
has reached considerable perfection in that the issuing column can reach
‘the treasure without further help from the discovering ant.
The interrupted file ascends the tree, hastily, enthusiastically, i in a long pro-
cession, and obviously aware of the good things in store. Reaching the grass-
hopper, each ant takes a grip of it ; more and more follow and join in the combi-
nation until very soon the discovered insect is enveloped in a black mass of ants.
‘T'he behaviour that follows is somewhat different from that of other species.
Ny
aid
THE CREMASTOGASTER ANT. 547
The Phidole army, for instance, falls violently on its victim, the troop of the
Camponotus tears it limb from limb. Here, however, we observe a more quiet
assemblage. The workers gather round it in great numbers, They bite at the
integument, suck the exposed flesh, sometimes pile themselves thickly over it
and ericircle it in a dense ring. But there is no display of hostility or anger.
Each worker merely tries to get a fragment for itself. This is in accordance
with Cremastogaster habits. These ants are conspicuously individual in charac-
ter ; each one is in the habit of waiting separately on cattle and independently
taking its share. Thus when they come forth to this rich discovery, they cannot,
dike other ants, combine to make use of it, but each pursues an individual course.
It is for this reason that the issuing party is so straggling. The Phidole must
‘advance in a multitudinous body in order to overwhelm and subdue the prey.
The Camponotus for the same reason must join in a compact troop. But for this
ant such immediate combination is unnecessary ; hence the workers can emerge
in a broken file.
As the Cremastogaster does not combine for the subjection of a victim,.so also
it cannot join to transport the mass. The Phidole or the Camponotus would
have quickly moved it and transferred it bodily to the safety of the nest.. But
the Cremastogaster workers simply heap themselves about it. Each tries to break
away a little fragment or to fill its belly with a droplet of the juice. But never
do they make the slightest effort to shift it. They lack completely that instinct
of combined transportation, and just feed on the carcass till it is an empty shell.
The reason is that under ordinary circumstances the Cremastogaster ant sum-
mons forth its comrades because it has happened to find a new herd. Their
combination is peaceful, while in other ants it is aggressive. For their pastoral
‘operations the art of capture is unnecessary, nor is the instinct of transportation
required, It is easy to observe how they call assistance to the cattle. To a
vigorous community I give a fresh herd. The ants had spent the season with
aphids on the poplar, so I supply them with coccids on the leaf of a fig. The
strange herd and foliage did not in the slightest disconcert them. The first
worker that discovered them realized their value, but made no attempt to keep
the treasure to itself. On the contrary it hurried down to the nest, distributed
the news of the new fountain above, and very soon the snow-white heap of
coccids was enveloped in a crowd of ants. Thus the workers in their discoveries
‘show no greed for themselves. Their object is to tell of each fresh addition so
that all may partake of the liquid store.
I have discussed in connection with other kinds of ants the mechanism by
which this communication is performed. It has been shown that the discoverer,
on returning to the nest, lays out behind itself a line of scent, and that the ants
aiter emergence reach the treasure by following back along the scented track.
There can be little doubt about their sense of smell. I place a nodule of camphor
across their path. They are immediately disturbed by it and are reluctant to
touch it. They come close up with the object of examining it, but quickly with-
‘draw from the unpleasant odour and make a detour in order to get round. It
is not that they are affected by the sight of the camphor, for other white objects
are touched without hesitation when similarly placed so as to obstruct their
tine. Like other kinds of ants that move in files, they recognise their road by
this faculty of smell. Anything that disturbs the scent confuses them and
checks the ordered progress of their march.
But we are here considering the mechanism of communication, so [ will men-
tion an experiment connected with the act to show how precise is the olfactory
sense. A long straight branch ascends from a nest and divides some distance
higher up into three subsidiary stems. At the tip of one stem I give an insect to
a worker. Very soon it establishes a line of comrades which moves first up the
main branch, then out along the special stem. While this is in progress I do the
6
548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
‘same on a second stem. The second ant hurries back with the news, and, on
reaching the main ascending branch, runs direct into the file that the first ant.
called forth. It communicates with them, evidently tries to turn them, but
the workers, though obviously excited by its touch, yet refuse to deviate from
the correct path. They move out along the stem of the first experiment, that
is the one to which they were primarily despatched. The second ant can gain.
no assistance from those despatched by the first ant ; it must complete the journey
to the nest in order to send forth a party for itself. The fact is that the ants will
not be confused when confronted with two diverging lines of scent. Certainly
they show some little hesitation on reaching the point where the main branch
divides. A few may move an inch or two in the wrong direction, many waver
before choosing the correct stem. The diverging attractions obviously perplex
them ; but this, we will notice, is little more than momentary, and all in the end
take the right course. The ants will thus stick to the line of scent which the dis-
coverer supplies them at the gate of the nest. Though other discoverers may
meet them on the journey and though they may be agitated by this further in-
formation, nevertheless they keep to the primary impulse and maintain the line
of the original scent. I repeat the operation on the third stem. In this way
another discoverer is started, which on its descent to the main branch comes in.
contact with a pair of streams. Again I observe the same result. These streams
will not be turned from their original directions. The third discoverer must
descend all the way to the nest before it can collect its own party and despatch
them to its individual find.
Thus, in this way, three streams pour forth from the nest. While on the main
branch they all unite, and the ants ascend ina common flow. But where the
stems diverge the stream breaks into tributaries, each tributary representing that
particular portion despatched by the separate ants. How wonderfully efficient
is the faculty of smell which results in such precision and accuracy of movement
when confronted with diverging streams.
Another interesting point about the act of communication is that the instinct
of the ants seems tempered with judgment in that the number of the workers.
called forth to the discovery is proportionate to the bulk of the find. Some of
the first arrivals, after a preliminary investigation, make their way back again
to the nest in order to summon still more to the scene. But they do not act
imprudently, nor wasté their numbers ; sufficient only for the purpose are des-
patched. An experiment will indicate this resourcefulness of operation, I cut
a grasshopper into three unequal portions. The first is one-fifth of an inch in.
length ; the second is twice the bulk of the first, and the third twice the bulk of
the second. I give these three pieces to separate workers on different parts of
the same tree. Each discoverer, of course, brings back the news, and in a few
minutes three streams of ants are ascending to the pieces of flesh. I give them.
plenty of time to continue the operation, not meddling with them for forty
minutes, by which time the business must be absolutely complete. I then count
the ants at the different pieces. Twenty-eight have been despatched to the
smallest fragment, forty-four to the one of intermediate size, and eighty-nine
to the largest piece. These numbers, it will be noticed, are roughly double of
one another, which is the same proportion that exists between the bulk of the
fragments supplied.
This same relationship may be observed to exist wherever the ants attend to
their herds. A few aphids will have with them only two or three workers, while a
large and vigorous cluster may attract twenty or more. One might imagine that
all would crowd to the spot whenever a store of precious food wasfound. But
they do not adopt such indiscriminate action ; they are possessed of a better and
more frugal organization, and will not unnecessarily waste their strength. There
seems to be some element of judgment in the act. If they sent forth the
numbers for the purpose of capture or to carry off a burden, as in the case of the
THE CREMASTOGASTER ANT. 549
Phidole, then it would be easier to understand the behaviour. It would merely
be a case of the accumulation of reinforcements until sufficient had arrived either
to quell the struggles or to cause the burden to move. The accomplishment
of the purpose for which the ants were summoned would be the sign that suffi-
cient had arrived. But these ants, as we have seen, do not combine for such an
object. They all appear to act individually, each carrying off its own morsel
to the nest. It would, therefore, seem that they are able to exert some little
judgment, and to realize just how many are sufficient to deal with each source
of supply.
In our observations of the habits of this Cremastogaster species we are sure to-
meet with a little beetle which forms an interesting association with the ants.
It is not of the kind that visits the nest, but one that joins in the outdoor acti-
vities of the workers, especially in their domestic operations on the trees. It is.
most likely to be found on a bush of poplar, particularly one where crowds ot
ants are industriously tending their herds. If we are to find it we must search
with considerable care, since it bears a very remarkable resemblance to one of
the ordinary ants. It is in fact an excellent mimic, fashioned and clothed in such.
a manner that it can scarcely be distinguished in the midst of its friends.
This beetle is Formicomus ninus of Laferte and belongs to the family Anthi--
cidae. {See plate).
Let us place it side by side with a worker ant and observe the resemblance:
between the two. In size and conformation they show very little difference.
The beetle’s head, though smaller than that of its model, resembles it in general
shape. It has similar black spots to serve as eyes, and the antenne are super--
ficially like these of the ant. Behind it has the same kind of constricted neck,.
an ant-like thorax raised into an arch ; a fair attempt has been made at the-
triangular abdomen by means of the pair of close fitting shards which are given
that characteristic shape. But the most interesting feature is to be found in
the coloration. The general scheme bears a perfect resemblance, the reddish
brown of the head and thorax, with the glistening black of the triangular abdo-
men, being identical with that of the ant. The beetle, however, has something
additional of which its model does not show a trace. There is on the back of
its wing-covers, just behind the waist, two patches of white, one on either side.
Each of these spots is oval in shape ; it extends to the outer edge of the wing-
cover but does not quite reach in to the middle line. Thus this part of the beetle
presents the following appearance. On either side there is a light-coloured.
area, and between the two a line of black connecting the triangulated wing-
covers with the chest.
An examination of the ant will explain the reason. It possesses a remarkably
constricted waist, in fact the thorax is linked to the abdomen by little more than:
a mere thread. There is nothing of the kind in the conformation of the beetle,
since it is the natural characteristic of this Order to have a broad, or at least, a
moderately broad waist. Here, therefore, we observe a marked defect in the
close resemblance between the beetle and the ant. In the one the waist is a.
broad hinge ; in the other a slender thread. But the plan of colouration just
described has for its object the restoration of this defect. Its purpose is to pro-
duce a false impression by giving the beetle the appearance of a waist. The two
white patches on the sides of the wingcovers do not appear as if part of the beetle.
They contrast so markedly with the surrounding black that their appearance is
that of a deficiency in structure, as if a notch had been cut out of either side.
The black line between them seems to be the true connection, and thus thorax
and abdomen appear linked together by a slender artificial waist. Nature has
thus wonderfully clothed the beetle, even to so minute a detail in its conforma-
tion, in order to make perfect its resemblance to the ant. Its bodily structure:
cannot be sufficiently altered, hence recourse has been had to a method of decep-
tion through the production of a false effect.
550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
This little beetle, so remarkably adapted, wanders about on the stems and
leaves. It lives in the open, seeking no concealment, and moves freely in the
midst of the ants. Its accustomed haunts are identical with theirs, the cattle-
laden foliage being the place of selection, though it also descends to explore the
bark or investigate the debris underneath the tree. All its actions are peculiarly
antlike. It has their rapid mode of ordinary progression, its legs working and
antenne trembling in their characteristic agitated way. Also, when engaged in
searching the vegetation, it is in the habit of working round the edges of the
leaves after the same methodical manner as the ants. Thus not only in struc-
ture, but in habits and behaviour there is a marked resemblance between the two.
The beetle seems to live a vegetarian existence, frequenting the poplar for the
sake of its sap, as is also the purpose of the Cremastogaster ants. The beetle,
however, receives the liquid direct, while the ants obtain it through the inter-
mediation of the herd. In its wanderings we will frequently observe it to halt
and commence to lick at the surface of the leaf. It may remain for a long time
biting at the foliage as though able to get out the sap. These halts frequently
take place near the base of a leaf, at which point there is a pair of minute papillae
that seem to attract the beetles to the spot. These are little glands which secrete
a fluid that supplies the beetles with their most abundant food. The mimics
and the ants live in perfect harmony. I never see a sign of hostility or friction.
Though both compete for the precious fluid, yet they work together in rural
peacefulness, the one existing on the products of the vegetation, the other, it
may be said, domesticating a herd. The beetle is thus solely an outdoor visitor,
a companion of the ants in their pastoral life.
We have here an excellent example of mimicry, since the beetle, as a conse-
‘quence of its close resemblance, is lost to all but the most observant eye. There
can be little doubt that the purpose of the mimicry is to supply the beetle with
a garment of defence. These worker ants live a life of comparative immunity.
Had they many enemies, they could not work with such freedom on the foliage,
tending their herds in these conspicuous heaps. They are supplied with a sting
and a reservoir of acid which must be sufficient to keep enemies off. But the
little mimic, on the other hand, is altogether unprotected, having no weapons,
nor poison, nor any knowledge of attack. Its search after sap must take it into
the foliage where it will be fully exposed to view. Numerous dangers will there
confront it, and, in all likelihood, it would cease to exist unless supplied with
some suitable defence. It has, therefore, assumed the appearance of a worker,
and, by living in the midst of the busy commune, is mistaken for one of the well-
protected ants.
In this study of the habits of the Cremastogaster we have not met with any-
thing of very striking originality, though we have observed a combination of
organized methods different from that of any other kind of ant. The points of
interest are the peaceful character of the workers and their peculiar love for
‘certain types of vegetation because of the rich liquid food. Their pastoral acti-
‘vities take most of their attention, and they expend much labour in the erection
of byres, though they have not arrived at the most perfect type. They are
efficient enough in conveying information, in despatching their comrades to
new supplies of provender, and are wonderfully skilful in following a path by
means of their sense of smell. They are totally deficient in the capacity for
transportation, at least beyond the carrying of an individual load, On the other
hand they show some judgment in the distribution of their forces, despatching
sufficient, and no more than sufficient, to deal with each source of supply. Lastly
we have observed their companionship with a beetle which they effectually but
unconsciously protect.
551
SOME NEW ALPINE GRASSHOPPERS OF THE GENUS
CONOPHYMA ZUB. FROM CENTRAL ASTA.*
By
B. P. Uvarov, F.ES.
Sub-family—CaTANTOPIN&.
Conophyma zubovskyi, sp. n.
Closely allied to C. semenovi, Zub,
Larger than any known species of the genus. Antenne longer than the
head and pronotum together. Head moderately reclinate. Frontal ridge
slightly convex in profile, narrowed at the fastigium, practically
parallel-sided elsewhere, obliterate about half-way between the ocellum and
clypeus, sulcate in the middle, punctured between antenne. Face with
coarse, but sparse, punctures and rugulose. Cheeks coarsely punctured
and rugose. Vertex moderately sloping, longer than broad, scarcely
conyex and coarsely punctured in front, smooth and _ practically fiat
behind; median carinula irregular and low, but well distinct; lateral
margins punctured, very obtuse, carinated only behind. Pronotum cylindrical,
thick; its disc very coarsely, though not deeply, punctured and rugulose;
distinctly convex ; first transverse sulcus irregular, nearly obliterated, not
cutting the keels; second sulcus well developed, broadly bi-sinuate, cutting
all three keels; third sulcus straight, cutting deeply all three keels; median
keel low, thick, irregular, partly obliterated by the rugosities of the disc, more
especially so at the front margin and in metazona ; lateral keels distinct only
in front of the second sulcus, practically obliterate behind it, slightly convergent
backwards and feebly concave between the front margin and the second sulcus,
slightly divergent behind it; prozona 23 times as long as metazona; hind
margin slightly roundly excised. Lateral lobes gibbose between the sulci,
concave in the lower hind portion, coarsely rugose. Mesonotum somewhat
longer than one half of metazona, coarsely punctured and rugose except
at small irregular spaces on its sides at the anterior margin; median keel
very low, subobliterate. Metanotum;not quite twice as long as metazona
of pronotum, coarsely punctured and rugose, except at fairly large semi-oval
spaces at the sides; hind margin straight ; median keel low, thick. Abdomen
with the first tergite slightly longer than metazona, coarsely punctured and
rugose ; the following tergites also punctured, but the coarseness and depth
of punctures decrease gradually; median keel developed throughout the
abdomen, although low. Last tergite with two large lobes, shaped as_ equi-
lateral triangles, their distance from each other being less than the basal
width of one lobe. Supraanal plate transverse, trapezoidal, slightly widened
behind, with two triangular, rounded apically teeth, placed close to the
lateral margins near their middle and connected by a fine transverse suture ;
the surface impressed, moredeeply so near the hind angles which are rounded,
incrassate and very finely punctured and rugulose; median sulcus distinct in
the basal half, with its margins convex distally obliterate ; hind margin scarcely
bi-sinuate, with a short, broadly triangular median lobe. Cerci strongly com-
pressed, slightly incurved, projecting well beyond the supra-anal plate, rounded
apically.
The types of new species described in this paper are in the Zoological Museum
of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrograd ; some para-types are in the British
Museum (Natural History) and in the collection of the Turkestan Entomological
Station, Tash-Kent.
*The present paper is a supplement to Mr. Uvarov’s previous paper on the
Acrididae of C. Asia published on page 260 of this vclume.
552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Coloration blackish-olivaceous, shining. Laterallobes of pronotum testaceous-
‘yellow below, blackened above. Abdomen with testaceous submedian spots
-at the anterior margins of the tergites 3-6. Supra-anal plate nearly black.
Hind femora brownish, without any pattern; the knees blackish. Hind
‘tibie pale olivaceous-yellow.
Q (paratype). Only the third sulcus cutting the median keel of pronotum.
Median keel sharp and distinct throughout pronotum and abdomen. Lower
valvae of ovipositor minutely serrulate, without teeth. Coloration
‘olivaceous-green ; no submedian spots on the abdominal tergites.
& (type.) Q (paratype).
Length of body .. No iF on He 21 mm. 27 mm.
+) pronotum Se be ve we 5) 6
hind femur be oe : ne 12 13
Described after 4g ¢ and 22 9 from Ladyar-Tau, distr. Osh, province
Ferghana, 20, vi, 1913; and 1g from the Alai mountains, Ferghana, in Prof.
R. Ebner’s collection.
The female of this species is extremely alike a female of C. semenovi,
differing from it only in the somewhat larger size and in more roughly punc-
tured and rugose body, but the structure of the male genitalia, and
particularly of the supra-anal plate is very peculiar in the new species.
It is obvious, however, that the plate of C. zubovskyi represents no
entirely new features not observed in C. semenow, but may be regarded
as a further stage of specialization. Indeed, the remarkable sublateral teeth
on the plate of C. zubovskyi may have developed out of low gibbosities
observable in C. semenovi and connected in that speciesalso by a transverse
suture (not mentioned in the original description, because it is not always dis-
tinct). The new species is also well separated from C. semenovi geographically.
It gives me a great pleasure to be able to dedicate this remarkable
‘species to the author of the genus, the well-known Russian orthopterist Mr. N.
N. Zubovsky whose unfortunately not numerous papers on <Acridide of Siberia
and Central Asia represent a standard of clearness and fulness in systematic
“work,
Conophymea mitchelli, Uv.
This species has been described by me (Ent. Mon. Mag., 3rd Ser. vii, p. 269)
after a single female from Srinagar, Kashmir, about 12,000 feet, and a fresh
lot of insects collected by Mr. F. J. Mitchell in the Kashmir between 11-13,000
‘feet and sent by the Bombay Natural History Society to the Imperial Bureau
of Entomology includes another female and the undescribed male, which gives
me an opportunity of describing it here, as follows:
G. Smaller than the female and much more slender. Antenne a
little shorterthan the head and pronotum together. Face strongly reclinate.
Frontal ridge sulcate throughout. Fastigium of vertex narrow and long,
‘with the lateral carine well developed, but without the median carinula ;
temporal foveole as in the female. Eyes about as high as _ the
‘subocular distance (in the female distinctly less than that). Pronotum
more elongated than in the female, and more rugose; transverse sulci well
developed; metazona equal to one half of the prozona; the median keel
developed throughout; lateral keels in the first section of the prozona
distinct, though somewhat irregular, almost straight, somewhat convergent
backwards ; between the sulci and in the metazona they are very irregular,
gradually divergent. The two oval impressions on the upper part of the lateral
lobes are marginated from below by thick folds (which are present in the
‘female also, but no so well developed and regular), Hind margin of the
jpronotum obtusely excised, with the margins convex. Mesonotum,.
NEW ALPINE GRASSHOPPERS, | 593
metanotum and abdomen as _ in female. Last tergite with two
rounded triangular teeth, about as broad. as they are long and separated
from each other by an interspace distinctly broader than one of the teeth.
Supra-anal plate scarcely longer than it is broad, slightly narrowed behind,
with the hind angles broadly rounded ; hind margin with a triangular median
projection, which is shorter than it is wide at the base. Cerci conical, slightly
incurved, projecting beyond the anal plate, but their actual length is not more
than that of the plate. Subgenital plate obtusely conical recurved.
Coloration of the male (as well as that of the female in the collection
studied) is somewhat different from the type. Male is blackish-brown from
above, and in both sexes the angulated black fascia on the lateral pro-
notal lobes is well in contrast with the brick-red (brighter in the female)
of their front margin and of the hind lower portion. In both sexes the sides of
the abdomen are black, but all these differences from the type cannot be
regarded as important.
Measurements of the male are, as follows : length of body 15 mm. ; pronotum
3°25 mm. ; metanotum 1°5 mm.; hind femur 8°5 mm.
The discovery of the male of C. mitchelli enables me to state definitely that my
doubts as to the species belonging really to the genus Conophyma are not justi-
fied. Thisisa true member of the genus, although very distinct from other
known ones by the strongly rugose body. The zoo-geographical value of
this conclusion is in the fact that all other species of Conophyma are known from
the high mountains of the Russian Turkestan, and C. mitchelli appears to be the
most southern representative of the genus which gives an evidence of a close
relationship between the alpine faunas of all the great mountain ranges of Central
Asia. It makes it also highly probable that other species of Conophyma will
be discovered in Himalayas.
Conophyma mirame, sp. Nn.
Similar to C. sokolowi, Zub., but belonging to the group of C. semenovi, Zub.
in the structure of male genitalia. ¢. Size under medium for the genus.
Antenne in the type broken. Head moderately reclinate. Frontal ridge some-
what convex in profile, gradually widened downwards, more strongly so below
the ocellum, obliterate near clypeus, shallowly sulcate throughout except in
the dilated lower portion. Vertex sloping, nearly twice as long as broad, nar-
rowed anteriorly, slightly impressed behind, without the median carinula and
with the lateral carinulz well distinct between the eyes but obliterated in front.
Pronotum short; its disc practically flat, feebly bi-concave and with faintly
indicated large punctures near the lateral keels in front of the first sulcus, in-
distinctly rugulose in metazona, bearing four pairs of very low, scarcely per-
ceptible, smooth tubercles arranged as follows ; the first pair close to the front
margin of disc, equidistant from the median and the lateral keels, second pair
in front of the first sulcus and the third pair between that and the second sulcus,
nearer to the median keel than to lateral ones ; the fourth pair of elongate tuber-
cles between the second and third sulcus, nearer to the lateral keels than to
the median one and each of the tubercles enclosed between two shallow impress-
ions. Transverse sulci all cutting lateral keels; first one shallow, nearly
obsolete, straight ; second sulcus well developed except:-near the median keel
where it is obsolete and does not cut the keel; third sulcus well developed
throughout, cutting all keels, broadly rounded-angulate in the middle. Median
keel obliterate close to the front margin, well raised and convex in profile in the
rest of prozona, quite distinct in metazona. Lateral keels well developed,
callous throughout except between the first and the second sulci where they are
obliterate, straight and slightly convergent backwards in front of the first
sulcus, very slightly concave and divergent behind the second sulcus. Pro-
zona two and a half times as long as metazona ; the latter very obtusely excised
behind. Lateral lobes deeper than long, not strongly gibbose between the
554. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XX>3.
sulci, smooth, with large, nearly obliterate punctures in the lower third, more-
distinctly rugulose in metazona. Mesonotum subequal in length to metazona,
with the median keel replaced by an indistinct smooth line and without the.
lateral keels. Metanotum not twice as long as metazona; its disc distinctly
bi-concave, with practically obliterate punctures near the lateral keels ; me-
dian keel obtuse, tectiform; lateral keels obliterate near the front margin
thick and callous in the rest, convergent backwards, incurved at both ends.
First tergite of the abdomen slightly longer than metazona of pronotum ; its disc
tectiform, strongly bi-concave laterally and with large punctures especially near
the lateral keels; median keel well raised ; lateral keels very thick, callous,
scarcely convergent, but distinctly incurved apically, behind ; sides of the tergite-
rugulose. The following tergites with some scattered punctures and a lateral
line of foveole, adjoining the lateral keels, which are low, but perceptible on
the second and third tergites and obliterate in the rest; median keel is also:
lowered and obliterate from the third tergite backwards. Last tergite with two
small triangular submedian lobes, separated by the width of one lobe. Supra-
anal plate trapezoidal, distinctly narrowed apically, shorter than broad at the
base surface concave at the sides of tke median ridge which is moderately
raised, thick, sulcate in the distal half; close to the each lateral margin there:
is an acute, rounded apically, flattened tooth, directed backwards, but slightly
projecting sideways ; hind margin sinuate on each side of the median lobe which
is broadly triangular, short, with the apical angle about 90° and pointed ; hind
angles of the plate slightly projecting, rounded. Cerci strongly compressed
laterally, somewhat incurved, with the apex rounded. Subgenital plate obtuse.
Coloraiion above brownish and black, with yellowish and testaceous pattern.
Pronotum dull blackish-brown along the middle, with broad and indefinite tes-
taceous fascie ; lateral lobes ivory-white below, shining black, turning brownish
above, in the rest. Mesonotum, metanotum and abdomen black, dull on the
meso and metanotum and the first tergite, shining in the rest, with broad _tes-
taceous fasciz along the lateral keels; an indefinite pale testaceous median
fascia begins from the third tergite, becoming broader, paler and more distinct
backwards. Pleure shining black with an oblique, callous, ivory-white
stripe. Hind femora testaceous, without definite fascie. Hind tibiz pale san-
guineous.
d (type).
Length of body as aie oe ae te .. 12mm.
a pronotum ops “ee fe its Bye Wate
Et hind femur te a a Sa te Bp Nye 7
Described after a single male from the range Alexandrovsky, distr. Aulie-
Ata, 23, vi, 1920.
This is an extremely well-marked species, easily recognisable by the peculiar
sculpture of pronotum, metanotum and of the first tergite, but especially by its
genitalia, reminding those of C. zuwbovskyi, m.
The species is named after Miss Emilia Miram, assistant in the Orthoptera
room of the Petrograd Zoological Museum and author of several valuable papers
on Russian Orthoptera.
Conophyma jacobsont, sp.n.
Related to C. sokolowi, Zub., but larger.
&. Antenne distinctly longer than head and pronotum together. Head
reclinate. Frontal ridge slightly convex in profile, shallowly sulcate through-
out, gradually and feebly widened below the ocellum, obliterate near clypeus.
Vertex strongly sloping, about half again as long as broad, slightly narrowed
anteriorly, scarcely concave, punctured in the fastigium, with a feeble median
carinula and low, disappearing in front, lateral carinule. Pronotum elongate,
NEW ALPINE GRASSHOPPERS, «655
slightly widened behind; disc obtusely tectiform, shallowly and indistinctly
punctured and callously rugulose, more distinctly so in metazona ; first sulcus
completely obsolete ; second distinct, but not deep; third fairly broad, but
not deep, cutting the median keel ; median keel sharp, in profile convex, in the
metazona low, but distinct ; lateral keels well distinct throughout the prozona,
slightly convergent from the anterior margin towards the second sulcus, but
distinctly bent outwards just before it, feebly divergent behind it; metazona
shorter than one-half of prozona ; lateral lobes, slightly longer than deep, feebly
gibbulose between the sulci, smooth, with but few minute punctures, more
distinctly punctured in metazona. Mesonotum scarcely longer than the metazona
of pronotum ; median keel very feeble; lateral keels distinct only at the very
hind margin, low, slightly more approached to each other than the keels of
pronotum. Metanotum not twice as long as metazona, obtusely tectiform, its
disc slightly concave laterally, with shallow and broad punctures and indistinct
callous rugosities ; median keel quite distinct, tectiform, not sharp; lateral keels
callous, obtuse, obliterate at the anterior margin; lateral lobes with a large,
shallow, oblique impression, punctured behind it. rst tergite obtusely tecti-
form, its disc somewhat concave laterally, punctured and rugulose as the meta-
notum; median keel tectiform, low; lateral keels callous, thick, distinctly
displaced outwards from the keels of metanotum, convergent backwards, Second
tergite with very feeble median and lateral keels, the following tergites without
keels. Last tergite with two triangular lobes, which are about as long as_ broad
and separated by an interspace half again as broad as one of the lobes. Swupra-
anal plate trapezoidal, slightly broader than it is long; hind angles obtuse and
rounded, hind margin slightly convex, with the median lobe short, rounded,
occupying about one-third of the width of hind margin; median ridge broad,
convex, scarcely narrowed posteriorly, slightly sulcate at the base. Cerca
compressed, elongate-triangular in profile, rugulose, extending a little beyond
the plate.
Coloration above shining-black with ivory-white pattern, below and on the
legs pale yellowish-testaceous. Head duli-black above, with faint, narrow
testaceous postocular fasciz. Pronotum with the lateral ivory-white fascicz
moderately wide; lateral lobes shining black above, ivory-white below. Me-
sonotum brownish black, with the fascie developed in its hind half only, slightly
more approached to each other than those of the pronotum, emitting forwards
very faint, not callous, pale stripes converging to the metazona. Metanotum
with the fasciz as broad ason pronotum. Pleure black, with an oblique ivory-
white fascia. Abdomen with the median line (except on the first tergite) and
two continuous fasciz ivory-white. Hind femora without any trace of fascie.
Hind tibiee red throughout.
Q (paratype). Pronotum, metanotum and first tergite distinctly rugosely
punctured, with the keels low, not callous, but distinct. Head above and discs
of pronotum, mesonotum, metanotum and of first tergite pale greenish-grey,
with brown, grey and blackish punctures. The rest of abdomen above cas-
taneous, with the fasciz testaceous. Bands on the laterallobes of pronotum,
pleure and on the side of abdomen, black. Lower valve of ovipositor with
strong, but short teeth.
& (type) @ (paratype)
Length of body zh av be 7.) Oem, 23 mm.
ap pronotum a ne an seh SOR TD 4 +25
3 hind femur... A! e. RAW Se 9
Described from 5 ¢ @ (including the type) and 49 2 from Tchimgan, distr.
Tashkent, 21, vi—2, vii, 1920; 1 ¢ and 3Q Q from Ak-Tash, distr. Tashkent,
23, vii, 1920;14 and 1Q from Tchervak, distr. Andizhan, 16, vi, 1913.
7
556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The series before me shows very little variation in the coloration of males
in which the fasciz are sometimes pale sulphur-yellow, sometimes testaceous;
females vary more widely, the black fasciz on the sides of body tending to dis-
appear. Some females are practically unicolorous brownish, without distinct
fasciz. The shape of the male supra-anal plate is also not quite constant, some-.
_ times being nearly quadrate, but with the hind angles always‘rounded, hind
margin convex and the apical lobe broad, which separates the species from
C. sokolowi, apart from the different sculpture of pronotum, differently shaped
lateral keels of the latter and coloration. Especially noticeable are the unband-
ed hind femora.
According to Mr. Plotnikov’s communication, the species is quite common
and numerous in the mountains at Tchimgan, near Tashkent.
I dedicate this species to Mr. G. G. Jacobson, of the Zoological Museum of the.
Academy of Sciences, Petrograd, the compiler of the best existing work on
Palzarctic Orthoptera + which stimulated greatly the interest of Russian ento-
mologists in this group of insects and educated several orthopterists, myself
included.
-
Conophyma plotnikovi, sp. n.
Apparently near to C. simile, Zub. |
&. Small. Antenne slightly longer than head and pronotum together. Head
reclinate. Frontal ridge slightly convex in profile, distinctly sulcate, narrowed
at the ocellum, widened and obliterate near clypeus. Vertex sloping, concave,
without median carinula, with feeble, convergent forwards lateral carinule.
Pronotum short and broad, cylindrical, scarcely widened behind, its disc slightly
convex, but very distinctly gibbulose with shallow round impressions and
callous tubercles between the suici, punctured at the anterior margin, and very
coarsely punctured and rugulose in metazona; sulci deep, but only the third
one cutting the median keel ; median keel thick, smooth, slightly convex in
profile, distinctly lowered near the anterior end, distinct in metazona ; lateral
keels thick and low, but distinct in front of the first sulcus, subparallel for a
short space at the front margin, then strongly convergent towards the first.
sulcus, behind which they are practically obliterate, very irregular and very
strongly divergent towards the second sulcus, displaced sideways and quite.
irregular behind the latter, obliterate in metazona ; metazona shorter than one
half of prozona, rotundate-truncate behind; lateral lobes about as long as deep,
strongly gibbose in the upper half of prozona, densely punctured and rugulose
in metazona. Mesonotum slightly longer than metazona of pronotum, with fine
median keel behind, without lateral keels, with elongate shallow impressions
on the sides. Metanotum not twice as long as metazona of pronotum, very
obtusely tectiform, with the disc slightly concave on each side of the median
keel, which is well distinct, but not sharp ; lateral keels distinct in its hind two-.
thirds only, low, callous, irregular; two shallow oval impressions near the lower
hind angles (just above the pleural suture). Pleurze with shallow, broad im-
pressions. Abdomen with the three keels on the first tergite only ; this tergite.
shallowly concave on the disc, on each side from the median keel. Last ter-
gite with two widely distant triangular lobes, which are longer than at the
base broad. Swupra-anal plate quadrangular, slightly broader than long, with
lateral margins feebly concave; apical margin feebly convex, with a small
emargination in the middle, where a short, narrow lobe is projecting; hind angles.
{ Orthoptera and Vseudoneuroptera of the Russian Empire (In Russian),
Petersburg, !1916—Ihe Oothcptera part cf the beok has been done by G.G.
Jacobson, that on Pseudoneuroptera by V, L. Bianchi. The work has been based cn
Tumpel’s book, but only modesty of the authors caused them to undertcne that, as
The centents and scope of their book required an enormous amount of original
work,
NEW ALPINE GRASSHOPPERS: °° BGT
practically straight, somewhat attenuate (owing to concavity of lateral mar-
gins ); surface raised along the middle in shape of a low ridge, narrowed post-
eriorly (where it forms the median lobe), sulcate in the basal half, distinctly
separated by oblique sulci from the slightly incrassate lateral margins and froni
the oval convexities placed at the hind angles. Cerci short, compressed, elongate
triangular in_ profile. :
Coloration pale buff below, shining black and blackish-castaneous with buff
pattern, above. Head above testaceous-brown, marmorated indistinctly with
brown. Pronotum with the disc black along the middle, turning castaneous
on the median keel and in metazona, with two buff fascie, moderately broad
and strongly convergent backwards in front of the first sulcus, suddenly dilated
and displaced outwardly behind it, gradually narrowed and divergent back-
wards ; lateral lobes with the upper half shining black. Mesonotum testaceous
brown, with four large round blackish spots across its anterior half, separated
with testaceous-buff color. Metanotum with the disc blackish-brown, fading
into testaceous behind ; a little more than anterior half of the median keel,
triangular spots narrowed backwards on the lateral keels, and short streaks
above the pleural sutures, buff. Pleure black in a little more than upper
half only. First abdominal tergite blackish-testaceous on the disc, fading into
testaceous behind, with the median keel buff in more than anterior half, with
broad, narrowed posteriorly irregular buff spots on the lateral keels ; the rest of
abdomen with a broad pale-buff median fascia, and a lateral row of elongate
irregular buff spots. Hind femora with the faintest traces of testaceous
fasciz above. Hind tibie very pale sanguineous in the apical half,
(paratype). Reddish-ochraceous, dull, with some black, or blackish
marks distributed, as follows: a small indefinite spot in the middle of prozona,
four spots across the mesonotum, middle parts of discs of metanotum and
first tergite, large lateral spots on the second tergite with pale centres, a double
submedian row of small spots on the other tergites, hind femora with a small
basal spot, a black dot on the upper carina before the knee and two fascie in
the upper areas extended also half-way down the inner and outer surface.
Front and middle legs in small blackish spots; lower valve of ovipositor with
strong teeth.
d (type) ? (paratype)
Length of body it Se iF .. 14 mm. 18mm.
» pronotum x ue a Bee oO 3
3 ind femur -<.; te: ae bi 7:5 8
2 5 gand 3Q 9 from the summit of the Malyi Tchimgan, distr. Tashkent,
10, vii, 1920; 12 and 19 from the pass Pessotchny, Tchimgan, distr. Tash-
Kent, 16, vii, 1920.
This species is represented by two very distinct color forms, one marked
strikingly in black and buff, as described for the male type, another is protectively
colored in reddish-ochraceous with obsolete brown and blackish marks (see
description of the female paratype) ; to the latter belong 1 J and 292 2 from the
Lesser Tchimgan. As there are no structural differences between the two forms,
I have no doubt that they are con-specific and represent only either individual
variations, or, more likely, are connected with different kinds of environment ;
in the latter case they may be distinguished as two morphe of the species, but
direct observations on the spot are necessary to verify this conclusion.
C. plotnikovr differs from C. simile, Zub., in the structure of pronotum, in co-
loration and in the shape of the male supra-anal plate.
The species is named after my friend Mr. V. I. Plotnikov, Director of the
Turkestan Entomological Station, who has done much to advance our knowledge
of the insect fauna of Turkestan.
558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
Conophyma pylnovi, sp. n.
Resembling C. plotnikovi m. in the structure of pronotum, but differing from
it strongly by the male genitalia,
¢. Antenne longer than head and pronotum together. Head not strongly
reclinate. Frontal ridge slightly convex in profile, distinctly widened between
the antenne, feebly sulcate, not reaching the clypeus. Vertex strongly sloping,
about half again as long as broad, flat, median carinula slightly perceptible
at the very apex, no lateral carinule. Pronotum very short and thick; its
disc practically flat, even slightly concave before the first sulcus and between
the second and third sulci, dull, but not rugulose or punctured in prozona,
distinctly rugulose in metazona; all sulci deep; the first sulcus straight, cutting
the lateral keels deeply, but not the median keel ; second slightly sinuate, cut-
ting the lateral keels, and very nearly cutting the median keel; third deep,
obtusely angulate, cutting all three keels; median keel in profile slightly convex,
distinctly lowered at the second sulcus and interrupted by the third, low, thick,
in metazona quite low and irregular ; lateral keels before the first sulcus quite
distinct, slightly convex, strongly convergent backwards, low, thick and irre-
gular farther backwards, distinctly divergent between the first and second sulcus,
less so between the second and third sulcus, hardly perceptible in metazona ;
lateral lobes slightly deeper than long, strongly gibbose in their upper parts,
with the broad foveole adjoining the lateral keels marginated below by dis-
tinctly raised ridges, the surface obsoletely punctured, and rugullose except
in metazona which is coarsely punctured. Mezonotum somewhat longer than
metazona of pronotum, smooth, with faintly indicated median keel, but with-
out the lateral keels. Metanotwm not quite twice as long as metazona, very
obtusely tectiform, bi-impressed ; median keel very low; lateral keels thick
and.low, not developed in the anterior third. J irst tergite as long as meso-
notum, tectiform, bi-impressed, with the median keel thick, but well raised ;
lateral keels thick, slightly convergent backwards. The following tergites
with only a smooth median line instead of the keel, without lateral keels.
Last tergite with two small, rounded lobes, slightly longer than they are broad,
separated from each by an interspace half again as broad as one of the lobes.
Supraanal plate trapezoidal, slightly longer than broad, with the hind angles
rounded ; hind margin slightly convex on each side of the median lobe which
is short, triangular, not broader than one-fourth of the hind margin ; surface
practically flat impressed at the hind angles, with the median ridge scarcely
raised, feebly sulcate basally and more distinctly so at the apex. Cerci com-
pressed, reaching to the apex of the median lobe, strongly narrowed apically.
Coloration dull blackish-brown, variegated with brown and brownish-festa-
ceous above, testaceous below. Pronotum without fasciz on the disc ; lateral]
lobes blackish-brown above, shining black in the rest, except the hind angles
which are reddish-brown. Mesonotum, metanotum and first tergite dull
blackish-brown above. Pleurz shining black. Abdomen shining blackish-
brown, with an indefinite median fascia and very irregular, interrupted lateral
testaceous fascie with blackish dots. Hind femora with scarcely distinct
dark fasciz; sanguineous below. Hind tibiz sanguineous.
Q (paratype). Sulci of pronotum not deep, but distinct and all of them cutting
the lateral keels. Coloration dark reddish-brown, dull, densely dotted with
black, without definite fascie. Hind femora more distinctly fasciated than
in the male. Lower valve of ovipositor with strong, sharp teeth.
3d (type) ? (paratype)
Length of body Ae Ae "G aie ai Lo Ta, 18.5 mm,
pronotum a aie aia Re) 3:5
hind femur 56 te aie ts eo 9°5
NEW ALPINE GRASSHOPPERS. 559
Described from one male and one female, taken at Ak-Tash, distr. Tash-
kent, 23, vii, 1920.
A very distinct species, showing a peculiar structure of pronotum and resem-
bling somewhat in this respect C. mitchelli, m., from Kashmir.
The species is named after my much regretted friend, young and very promi-
sing Russian orthopterist E. V. Pylnov, who died prematurely from typhus
as one of numberless victims of the recent disastrous events in our country.
Conophyma ikonnikovi, sp. n.
Allied to C. fedtschenkoi, Zub.
&. Antenne about as long as head and pronotum togéther. Head strongly
reclinate. Frontal ridge shallowly sulcate, slightly widened between the
antenne, obsolescent near the clypeus. Vertex moderately sloping, nearly
twice aslong as broad, somewhat narrowed anteriorly, scarcely impressed
without median carinula, with lateral carinulz feeble. Pronotum cylindrical,
very slightly widened posteriorly; its disc somewhat convex, gibbulose
between the sulci, which are all three well developed ; median keel well
developed throughout, cut by the third sulcus and distinctly lowered at the
second sulcus; lateral keels practically obliterate throughout, slightly perceptible
only anteriorly where they are distinctly converging backwards, and between
the sulci where they are very irregular and diverging backwards; metazona
shorter than one-half of prozona, very feebly sinuate-emarginate behind ;
Jateral lobes distinctly longer than deep, gibbose. Mesonotum somewhat
longer than metazona of pronotum, with the median keel very feeble. Metano-
tum twice as long as metazona of pronotum, obtusely tectiform, with the median
keel distinct and the lateral ones very obtuse and irregular, nearly obliterate.
Abdomen with the median keel well developed on the first tergite only and
subobliterate in the rest; lateral keels scarcely perceptible: irregular on the
first tergite only. Last tergite with a broad, straight emargination behind,
bearing in its middle two elongate obtusely conical, thick, slightly incurved
lobes separated from each other by the space as broad as one of the lobes at
its base. Supra-anal plate about as long as it is broad, trapezoidal, broadest
behind ; lateral margins strongly sinuate at the very base, straight in the rest;
hind margin straight with a short rectangular lobe ; hind angles a little less than
90°, rounded; surface impressed like a trough, with the sloping sides under the
angle of 45°, and the median part (bottom of the trough) somewhat convex,
sulcate along the middle in the basal third and, less distinctly, at the apex.
Cerci quite twice as long as the plate, projecting beyond it by two-thirds of
their length, practically straight, slightly compressed laterally at the base,
inflated inwardly at the base of the apical third, with the apices pointed and
very slightly bent outwards and downwards. Subgenital plate short, obtuse
conical.
Coloration pale greenish-testaceous below, on the legs, apex of abdomen and
face, above shining black, with yellowish-buff pattern. Head blackish above,
with the postocular fasciz scarcely perceptible, brown. Disc of pronotum
dull black, in the metazona brownish, with shining yellowish-buff lateral fasciz,
which are obtuse-angulate inflexed at the first sulcus, diverging both forwards
and backwards; surface of fascie irregularly punctured ; lateral lobes shining
black in more than upper half, greenish testaceous below, finely transversely
rugulose, more densely so in metazona, and with fine scattered punctures. Meso-
notum blackish-brown, dull, with the lateral fasciz obsolete in front, much more
approximated to each other than the pronotal fascize. Metanotum and the
first tergite dull-black, with the lateral fasciz distinct, still nearer to each other
than in mezonotum. Pleure shining black, with an oblique yellowish fasciz
on metapleure. Abdomen shining black above and on the sides, with the
560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX,
median line and ‘moderately broad, irregular lateral fasciz,, yellowish-buff. Hind
femora with two very faint brownish fascize above. Hind tibize pale
greenish-testaceous.
Q (paratype). Blackish- sel Fiheoatee sid natted with black, with the
typical pattern in pale sulphur-yellow and broader than in the male. Lower
valve of ovipositor acutely dentate.
3 (type.) & (paratype)
Length of body (without Ceo) 15.5mm, 19
ao pronotum 3.5 4
ae hind femur 8.5 10
ae cercl 3 1.5
Two males and two females from Southern Bokhara, 1914.
Differs from C. fedischenkoi, Zub., which has been only briefly diagnosed, in
the very remarkable development of male cerci, as well as in other details of
the male genitalia and in coloration.
The species is named after my friend Mr. N. F. Ikonnikov, who hasdone some
excellent work on systematics of the Acrididae of various parts of Russia.
A list of species of the genus Comophyma.
1. C. semenovi, Zubovsky, 1898; Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. St. Petersb, iii
p. 106 (Semiretchye).
Synonym: Podisma Almasyi, Kuthy, 1905; Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungar.,
ili, p. 218 (Semiretchye).
?
2. C. zubovskyi, Uvarov, 1924: see above (Ferghana).
—
C. mirame, Uvarov, 1924; see above (Alexandravosky range).
4. CO mitchelli, Uvarov, 1921; Ent. Mon. Mag., 3rd ser., vii, p. 268; also
above (Kashmir).
5. C. sokolowi, Zubovsky, 1899; Hore Soc. Entom. Ross., xxxii, p. 588
(Tash kent.)
6. C. uvarovi, Semenov, 1915; Revue Russe d’ Entom., xv., p. 453 (Kopet
Dagh.)
7. CO. jacobsoni, Uvarov, 1924; see above (Tchimgan, near Tashkent.)
8. C. simile, Zubovsky, 1899; Hore Soc. Entom. Ross., xxxii, p. 591
(Samarkand district).
9. C. plotnkovi, Uvarov, 1924; see above (Malyi Tchimgam, near Tashkent.)
10. C. pylnovi, Uvarov, 1924; see above (Ak-Tash, distr. Tashkent).
ll. C. weberi, Zubovsky, 1899; Hore Soc. Entom. Bee XXxii, p, 584
(Samarkand distr.)
12. C. fedtschenkoi, Zubovsky, 1900 ; Hore Soc. Sahar Roe XXXIV, -p. 23
(valley of the upper Zeravshan).
13. C. ikonnikovi, Uvarov, 1924; see above (S. Bokhara),
561,
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS
OF INDIA.
(INCLUDING THOSE MET WITH IN THE HILL STATIONS OF THE
BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.) |
BY
T. BR. Bent, C.1.2., 1.F.S., (Retd.)
(Continued from page 305 of this Volume).
Part XXXIV.
(With a text figure).
Sub-family (4)—PLASTINGIINa.
This sub-family is composed of the genera, eighteen in number :—
Plastingia, Suastus, Arnetta, Zographetus, Lotongus, Zela, Nidari,
Pirdana, Crane, Creteus, Pithauria, Pithauriopsis, Pedestes, Suada,
Isma, Scobura, Ltys and Sebastinyma. Ot these the first, Plastingua,
has eight species in British India and twenty more in Sumatra, Java,
Borneo, Celebes and the Philippines. Swastws has six in British
India and only three in Singapore and Java, the Philippines and
Islands between these ; Arnetta has three which are all found in India
and Burma ; Zographetus four in British India and three more outside
in the Malayan Islands; Lotonqus three, with ten outside ;
Zela one and another outside ; Hidari two, with seven foreign ; Paxdana
two and fiva in the Malayan region; Crane is represented by
a single species with two in Malayan countries ; Creteus 1s a genus of
a single species ; Pithauria has two British Indian only ; Pothauriop-
sis has only one ranging from Assam to Borneo ; Pedestes two occurring
respectively in N. W. Himalayas, Sikkim and Burma with another
pair in Tonkin and Pulo Laut; Suada has one, with three eastern
relations ; [sma one and four; Scobura one and eight ; [tys one and
one and, finally, Sebastonyma a single species in Sikkim, Assam and
Burma.
The four first genera are the only ones out of the eightean that
interest us and out of their twenty-one British Indian species only
five come in here, a single Plastingia, two Suastus with one each of
Arnetta and Zographetus. The early stages of two only are known.
These two are Plastingia submaculata and Suastus gremius. It is
a very small basis to found any conclusions upon :—incomplete infor-
mation about two genera out of a total of eighteen. There is a very
cursorv reference to the larva and pupa of Hidarz thraz in Lepidoptera
Indica, (vol. x, p. 227,) from which we learn that the caterpillar feeds
apon Palms—the cell would seem to be made much in the manner
ot that of Hyarotis adrastus (Cramer).
Imago.—The butterflies are of moderate size or smaller with the wings brown
or blackish above, generally with subapical dots and a series of disc-spots on
562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
the fore wing; more rarely immaculate. The hind wing is immaculate above
but has some black spots (or darker spots) below generally, often on a greyish
ground.
Antenne.—i ot long but longer than two-thirds length of the costa of fore
wing; the club gradual and bent over.
Palpi.—Various, porrect or otherwise, the third joint long or not.
Hind tibie.—Fringed and with two pairs of spurs; naked in Pithauria
Pithaurtopsis.
Fore wing.—Vein 12 ending before end of cell or at end of cell; cell less than
two-thirds length of costa; vein 3 ends well before enc of cell ; vein 2 from middle
or before middle; vein 5 very weak; discocellulars straight, outwardly
oblique, faint.
Hind wing.—Vein 3 from close to angle of cell, vein 2 from after middle ; vein
5 all but absent; discocellulars straight, inwardly oblique, faint.
Egg.—Dome-shaped, twice as broad as high or even much more; with some
dozen or more strong meridional ribs from top to bottom ; the whole standing
upon a narrow, inclined basal ring or base. The surface is moderately shining.
The colour is brownish or red with the ribs pure white.
Larva.—Of the ordinary hesperid shape, fattest in the middle, broadly rounded
at anal end and there flattened ; with a large, semi-elliptical head and a very
distinct neck ; the head is not bilobed. Surface of body is extremely minutely
haired, the hairs hardly visible they are so small and there are some tiny, round
shining glassy-looking spots on some of the segments. The colour is light green
with the hair-dots darker.
Pupa.—Rather stout and with the frons only slightly prominent between
the eyes with a more or less spatulate cremaster set round the edge with small
hooked shafts. Spiracles of segment 2 provided with conspicuous large, more
or less ear-shaped or semi-circular expansions. Surface set with compara-
tively long, more or less decumbent hairs, those on head pointing forwards,
those on abdomen directed backwards. Colour more or less light green with
a covering of cereous, white powder ; the abdomen often with a yellow shade.
Habits.—The eggs are laid on the tops of the leaves of Palms in-
cluding Calamus or Canes. The egg-larva and eggs in the only two
known specizs are red-brownish or red as are the eggs they come out
of. The larva make the same style of cell, one as the other, des-
cribed below and eventually when about to pupate, cut it off the leaf
so that 1t falls to the ground. The butterflies are fast fliers and rest
with their wings upright over the hack, sitting on leaves at night.
They visit flowers and suck at bird-droppings on leaves and damp
places in nalla-beds.
Genus 16.—PLASTINGIA.
Imago.— This is very like that of Suastus gremius in colouring having the same
brown upperside with white spots to the fore wings, with a similar underside
having black spots on the hind wings.
_ Antenne.—-Quite two-thirds the length of costa of fore wing ; club slender
gradual, rather long, gently curved at end which is pointed.
Palpi.—Prominent, curving round upwards; second joint densely scaled,
third joint small, conical, obtuse.
Hind tibie.—Slightly tringed on the side and with two pairs of spurs.
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA, 563
Fore wing.—Neuration as in Suastus gremius.
Hind wing.—As in Suasius.
Egg, larva, pupa, habits—See below under description of the only species.
submaculata, that is known in the early stages. ©
204 Plastingia submaculata (Standinger)—Male. Upperside; dark olive-
brown blackish when quite fresh fading to olive-brown. Fore wing with
a thick powdering of bright-yellow scales from base above cell and
nearly to its end; some yellow, decumbent hairs below the cell also at
base as far as inner margin ; another streak of bright-ochreous; scales just
above vain from base to half the length of wing; two small white spots.
towards end of cell, the lower just above junction of vein 2 with bottom of cell,
the upper further out; a 1-5mm.—square white, hyaline spot in interspace 2
below junction of vein 3 with end of cell and another similar, smaller in inter-
space 3 beyond and well separated from it ; no subapical dots ; and there is very
little sign of fringe of hairs along inner margin. Hind wing without markings.
but with some decumbent, ochreous hairs from base in cell and extending below
to beyond its end. Cilia of both wings whitish with the base brown as well
as small brown areas at ends of veins. Underside: Dark greenish-yellow
according to Colonel Swinhoe but really more grey with a slight lilac tinge and
a sprinkling of ochreous scales along costa of fore wing and at base of hind
wing. Fore wing with the lower half darkish-brown including cell but the-
whole of the area from the middle of interspace 1 to inner margin from base out--
wards to outer-margin along vein 12 shining white-ochreous; the white hyaline
spots of upperside showing through, a quadrate brown spot bordering the one-
in interspace 3 exteriorly and, above this, an outwardly-curved series of purple-
tinged, brown, smaller spots in interspaces 4 to 8. Hind wing with black spot in.
middle of discocellulars at origin of vein 5 and an all-round series of black
spots beginning with two in interspace 7, one in the middle and one further:
out forming the uppermost of a curve consisting of one about the middle of inter-
spaces 6, 5, 4, 3 and just below this last in interspace 1 in which there is still
another inwards about its middle ; besides this the outer margin of the wing is
narrowly brown sometimes stretching very slightly inwards in an_ obscure
lunular manner, the anal angle more extensively brown. Antenne black,
the shaft with ochreous dots on inner side, the club with an ochreous medial
band above, dull-orange beneath; palpi with the basal joint and underside.
ochreous, the upperside of second and minute conical, third joint (that is nearly
hidden in the heavy covering of hair-like scales) dark-brown ; head and body
concolourous with wings, the head with ochreous scales, the thorax with ochreous:
hairs, the blacker abdomen with ochreous segmental bands, beneath the body
is greenish-ochreous, the tibie and tarsi brown, the segmental bands of abdomen,
whiter. The antenne are strongly hooked, the club gradual and acute, about
%mm. long as compared with a wing-length of 16mm. Female exactly similar
to male. Expanse from 35 mm. to nearly 40 mm.
£g99.—It is rather peculiar in shape : circular, the sides sloping and straight,
the top broadly flattened with a smaller middle again somewhat couvex ; it is
like a very broadly truncated cone with a height under half the diameter ; the
structure stands upon a 0-075 mm. broad ring or band which has a greater slope -
than the sides of the egg. The surface feebly shining and feebly cross-
rayed between 14 or 15 meridional ribs, the number being sometimes 14, at
others 15; these ribs are 0-05 mm. broad and about the same height and are flakily
rough along their crests, they extend from the very outside circumference of
the basal band (although only feebly indicated on the band) to the margin of —
a circular, smooth, slightly convex apical surface of 0-55 mm. diameter, in the-
centre of which is the 0.05 mm. wide micropyle ; outside this smooth surface,
and for a distance of 0:2 mm. from its edge, the surface is very regularly,.
8
-)64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX,
transversely rayed between the ribs with little raised, flaky-crested low ribs
which are 0-025 mm. apart; this clearly transversely rayed zone is produced
outwards along each rib triangularly, for another 0-05 mm. and the top ends of
the ribs, on the other hand, reach beyond it towards the apex; the ribs are
‘0-05 mm, apart at their apical ends and 0: 4mm. apart at the base of the egg.
Colour brownish with the ribs and prominent cross-rays white. B. 2-2mm.,
H. 0:8 mm. |
Larva.-—-Is of the ordinary hesperid shape with a large head compared to the
neck and a body which is depressed on the ventral surface but otherwise circular
‘in transverse section, stoutest in the middle, fining gently to each end, the anal
segment being a semi-circle, sloping evenly with the rest of the body. The head
is more or less regularly semi-elliptical in shape, but is higher than broad ; the
“surface of head is reticulate-rugose, the reticulations forming irregular cells
of about 0:1 mm. in diameter without hairs of any sort except round the edges
of the ligula; the true clypeus is an equilateral triangle with a very acute apex;
the false clypeus a very narrow strip outside it, gradually widening convexly
-toform a narrow arc over the true clypeus, the former reaching to just above
the middle of face, the latter to just below ; the labrum, glassy-soiled whitish
‘in colour, is transverse, longer than half the true clypeus with its front
margin square ; the ligula more or less parallel-sided with the frontal sinus
deep and triangular, the lobes on each side narrow, round-ended, the whole as
long as the labrum and rusty-brown ; the basal antennal joint is greenish, the
~second brown; the mandibles large, light-rusty with a narrow, basal much darker
band and entir e, dark-rusty- brown ends; the eyes are arranged in a gentle curve
as concerns the top four, all equidistant from each other, the sixth 3 xas far
from the fourth, and below it in a line with itand 3, the 5th behind 6 and 2x the
distance from it that 3 is from 4 ; the colour of the head is a light honey-yellow
‘with a white, subdorsal, narrow band, more or less strongly expressed, this band
broadening out and curving round above the mouth opening on each side of the
-elypeus ; after this the labrum and ligula and a space on each side of clypeus
-above mouth-opening brownish ; there may be a dorsal, brown line or even
band from hinder margin to apex of clypeus, also the hinder margin of the head
may be broadly brown and the neck opening is never without a thin line along it
‘at any time and there is generally a short, brown, carved, dorsolateral line in the
‘middle of the face from above the clypeus-apex down to the level of the clypeus
base ; the height of the head is 4mm., its breadth 3 mm. The surface of
the body is transversely lined as usual from hinder margin of each segment for-.
wards, there is a flat, glassy, lateral, tubercular, light-brown spot on the anal
segment about 0'01mm. in diameter and several, shining, invaginated, similar
tubercles, green in colow, in the dorsolateral region on segments 7-10; there
are many, small, green, concave dots or tubercles (7) all over the body, some
of which bear little glassy, conical tubercles, each surmounted by an extremely
light, fine, erect hair hardly visible even with a lens ; some 0. 5mm. long, similar,
fine, white hairs along the free margin of anal segment. Spiracles rather small,
oval, flush, yellow ; those of segment 12 larger, those of 2 still larger and rounder.
Colour of larval body is very glaucous, light green, the dots and spots, about from
'0.05 mm. to 0.1 mm. apart, darker green ; beneath yellowish-green. L: 25mm.
when at rest; B: 4mm.
Pupa.—Is rather like that of Suastus gremius ; the shape somewhat stout in
the front part where the head is broad with prominent eyes, and slightly bowed,
‘rather square in front and,with segment 2,slightly constricted laterally at hinder
margin; the shoulders about the same width as head, then about the same breadth
until segment 8 after which the body tapers to the end gradually; the transverse
~section from segment 3 to segment 12 is circular; the frons is in a plane
“perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pupa, the vertex inclined
“thereto at an angle of about 30°, with the hinder margin straight; segment 2 a
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA. 565
transverse band, about as long as the vertex of head, with the hinder margin
straight and, at the lateral ends, curved strongly forwards to take the upper
ends of the ear-shaped spiracle-expansion which is very large; the thorax
very little humped, the hinder portion parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the pupa, the front portion in a plane very little inclined towards it, the
hinder margin a parabolic curve meeting the wings in a very ‘shallow,
broadly rounded angle of about 90°; segment 4 rather shorter than segment 2
which is, in its turn, about one-fifth the length of thorax; segment 5
slightly longer than segment 4; segment 6 nearly half as long again; 6 to
11 about co-equal with this last; 12 shorter by about one-third; segment 13
not haif 12; the anal segment with the basal half solid, more or less ‘conical,
rouna topped, the diameter at base about eyualling the height with the
Jatter half produced out in the same plane as the longitudinal axis of the pupa
from its dorsal surface, flat, spatulate, with the suspensory hooklets (here they
are simply fine hairs) at the very extremity, the dorsum limited on each side by a
prominent ridge which runs backwards, the two converging strongly towards each
other towards the hinder margin, the basal, solid portion of the segment with its
dorsal surface inclined to the other half very slightly, the ventral portion of the
basal half occupied by the scar of the anal prolegs inclined from the perpendicular
(to the longitudinal axis) forwards considerably ; ; head with the small clypeus
triangular, the ligula (?) a small diamond let in between the two halves of the
proboscis, this proboscis exceeding the wings and free beyond their ends; though
pressed into the surface, as far as the middle of segment 9, slightly thickened
before end, the fore and midlegs embraced by the antennz which are curved
in at their ends and reach to about three-quarters the length of wings;
the hind legs appearing on each side of the free proboscis- tip, themselves also
there free, both between the somewhat produced apices of wings; the antennze
are cross-rayed only on the clubs. Surface of pupa rough with. transverse rows
to each segment of appressed, bristle-like hairs directed regularly backward :
some short, erect hairs, fine and longer, on cremaster and all ventral proleg-
scars as well as on the head ; the segments well-marked. Spiracles of segment 2
with a large, ear-shaped (semi-circular) red-brown, slightly raised expansion, its
diameter on the common margin of segments 2, 3, its surface shelving to the
perforation, near its anterior, lateral corner, with a fringe of stiff bristles lying
across the perforation from the portion of the base not occupied. by that
perforation, this expansion is about as long as segment 2(the length of expansion
considered to be transverse to pupal length); the other spiracles very small,
shining, raised, roundly oval, darker than the colour of the body. Colour : the
head green with a shade of brown; the thorax green; the abdomen waxy
yellow; the whole covered over with a white, cereous powder. L: 20mm.
B: 5mm.
Habits.-—-This butterfly was discovered in N. Kanara some twenty
or more years ago by the writer of these papers sitting on a leaf of
Calamus pseudotenuis, Becc., a very common species of Cane in the
evergreen jungles of the District where it often forms dense thickets
that are extremely difficult to get through because of the exces-
sively spiny stems of che plant and its long flagella or whip-lash tike
productions of the stem-sheaths (it is these that are so thorny) that
hang down from above in all directions, set at short intervals along
their length with a half-ring of three or four very stout, hooked spines.
that are thick at the base, short and excessively sharp. After that
the quest for the larva. was a iong one and success was a long time
in coming. Perseverence, long searchings and a great measure
of patience finally brings its reward in everything and so it was here.
566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The discoveries are chronicled in Lepidoptera Indica, vol. X, p. 218
by Colone] Swinhoe published in the year 1912-13. The habits of
the butterfly are there given in a condensed form trom information
gleaned in Kanara. The eggs are laid on the uppersides of leaves,
always singly, often on the withered leaves near the ground, as the
msect likes dark places for the purpose of oviposition ; although
they may ke laid on perfectly green, fresh leaves further up where
there is plentiful, thick shade from overhead trees. These canes
are extensive climbers growing to the height of large trees they find
as supports but many seedlings are always to be found which start
as ordinary palm-like growths before they begin to climb. Th:
butterfly has never been seen in the open and is impatient of pro-
longed exposure to sun. It flits abou: very rapidly in the checkered
shade in short flights, settling with closed wings in little spots of sun-
light on the uppersides of leaves. It visits flowers sparingly but
may he seen sucking the moisture out of bird-droppings that fall on
leaves ; but it is at all times a scarce thing to see and its capture is
always an event to be remembered. The caterpillars, however, when
diligently hunted, are not very difficult to find and the skippers can
always be bred from them. Cane withers quickly and, where it has
to be brought trom a distance, does not last for more than a day or two
in a fis condition for food. The larva makes a cell very much like
that of Suastus gremius but the edge of the cover is always scolloped
all round the edge. ‘The original cell, the one made by the egg-
caterpillar, is an oblong piece ot the edge of the leaf turned over on
to the underside and is very tightly closed all round the free margins
except at one end next the hinge where the hole of entrance is situ-
ated against it. This method of building is kept up to the end except
that, of course, finally, the midrib of the leaf is made to serve as
hinge ; and, often, this cell is then isolated in the middle of a long
length of midrib as the leaf is eaten away completely on both sides ;
the side towards the tip of the leaf is often out off and, in the end,
when the time tor pupating has arrived, the midrib at the other side
is also gnawed through before the final closing of the habitation,
with the result that the whole house descends to the ground. Just
before the end the lining of silk inside the cell is thickened, both
ends are webbed strongly and the larva emits from the body bet-
ween the prolegs at the sides, a cereous powder which is spread all
over the interior both on webbing and lining. The use of this powder
is to keep ous the damp or wet and it does so very effectively. Canes
often grow over nallas and in more or less swampy places so that
the cells, when cut loose, drop into water which would in the ordi-
nary course get in and drown the caterpillar. Most ot the breeding
goes on in the monsoon months and everything, then, in the places
where cane grows, is of course extremely wet. The leaves and
ground-rubbish get swamped down the hills.as oiten as not and, with
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA, 567
it, the cells that lie amongst it. If one of these is examined it will
be found that not a drop of water has got in—they fetch up _bet-
ween stones or amongst heaps of dead leaves lett after the flow of water
has stopped. One of the most satisfactory ways of collecting speci-
mens is by looking for fallen cells under cane-bushes upon which are
the signs of eating. Often they are to be found where they have
dropped for, naturally, many escape being flooded away—when
they have come from bushes that happen to be situated upon slight-
ly raised ground out of the way of the course of water in the torm
of moving currents. The style of eating is not at all difficult to re-
cognise for several reasons. To begin with most larve make several
cells before they are contented, or make several efforts at it, with
the consequence that there are generally more than one entire end
ot leaf upon the ground below—the part cut off beyond the cell.
Upon the plant exist the remains of the partially completed ones.
Then there are the signs of eating during the caterpiller’s whole life—
quite a considerable amount ; and the remains of the various sized
houses it has made as it became larger and larger. One of the best
ways to rear larvee is to tie them out upon cane- -bushes under a mos-
quito net ; there they are practically in natural conditions and un-
disturbed ; they make their regulation number of cells and can stick
to each as long as they like. In cages m a bungalow the cells natu-
rally wither with the leaf and it is sometimes diffic ult to keep them,
for the larvee are prone to desert withered habitations and have to
make new ones at short intervals. This mnterteres with their growth
and one gets small specimens of the imago. In a cage 15 1s advisable
to cut the cells away from the original leat and pin them on to the
new on? whenever change of food is necessary as 1t avoids too fre-
quent disturbance of natural habits. The growth of these larv
is rasher slow and, notwithstanding that Cane is an evergreen plant,
sowards the end of the monsoon, though there never at any time
can be a want ot fresh food, they will remain unchanged in the fallen
cell for quite long periods before pupating—probably during the
quiescent stage of the sap and consequent comparative want of
moisture in the leaves. Colonel Swinhoe informs us that the type
came from Palawan Island of the Celebes group; that de Nicéville
records it from Kanara (the one recorded above), Cachar, the Daunat
Range, Burma, Parak and Pulo Laut. And he says * Davidson,
Bell and Aitken also record it from Kanara, their specimen, which
was submitted to de Nicéville and identified by him, a perfect spe-
cimen, has been Jent to us for figuring; before seeing de Nicéville’s
notes in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal we had come
to the conclusion that the two Pedestes erected by Elwes and EKd-
wards, maculicorins and fuscicornis,. with recurved terminal crook
to theic antenns, were indentical with Plastingia submaculata.”
568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SGCIETY, Vol. XXX
Genus 17.—Svastvs.
Imago.—These are medium-sized butterflies with the coloration always dark-
brown on the uppersides of both wings and on the undersides of fore wings; the
undersides of the hind wings often washed or covered with grey scales and with
black spots between some of the veins. The fore wings generally have subapi-
cal hyaline dots and a series of discal hyaline spots. ji
Antenne.—Long, nearly two-thirds length of costa of fore wing, the club
gradual, the tip shortly bent over.
Palpi.—Upturned, curving over head, second joint densely scaled, the third
slender, long and pointed.
Hind tibie.—Fringed and with two pairs of spurs.
Fore tibie.—With epiphyses.
Fore wing.—Vein 12 ends on costa before end of cell; vein 11 from upper
middle of cell and free ; vein 5 a little nearer 4 than to 6 ; vein 3 emitted some
distance before end of cell, 2 from well before middle ; cell less than two-thirds
length of wing; upper discocellular short, distant; middle and lower disco-
cellulars inwardly oblique and in a straight line; costa gently, evenly arched,
apex subacute, the outer margin convex ; inner margin about as long as outer
in male, rather shorter in female.
Hind wing.—Vein 7 emitted slightly before end of cell; 5 not Visible, vein 3
from close toend of cell with 2 from one-fourth before end; discocellulars
straight, inwardly oblique; costa arched before base, outer margin evenly
rounded.
The above description would absolutely suit Plastengia submaculata
Staud., except that the third jomt of the palpus is quite short.
There are two species existing in Bombay, six in British India ,
the two here being gremius, F. and bipunctus, Swinh., that are dis-
tinguished by the undersides of the hind wings most easily, the fer-
mer being grey with a number of clearly defined jet-black spots ; the
latter having that underside slightly ochreous with a smgle black
spot at end of cell.
Egg, larva, pupa and habits are only known for S. gremaus and are
all deseribed in detail under that species.
205. Suastus gremius (/’.).—-(Pl. M, figs. 79¢,79a2).—Male. Upperside:
olive-brown. Fore wing with ochreous-white spots, a small one in the middle
of the discocellulars, sometimes a minute one above it, three subapical, small
spots, the uppermost usually minute ; three larger, discal spots in an oblique
line, the upper one before the middle of interspace 3, the second somewhat oval
and before middle of interspace 2, the lowest about middle of interspace | ; these
spots varying a good deal in size. Hind wing somewhat paler than fore wing
with a broad, dark margin, being without the long, decument, yellowish hairs.
that occupy the rest. Cilia of both wings brownish-ochreous. Underside: grey
with a slightly-lilac tinge when fresh. Fore wing with the inner portion below
the subcostal vein suffused with blackish leaving the apex broadly grey; the
spots showing through from the upperside with the one in interspace | blurred,
narrower and longer than on upperside. Hind wing clearer grey,sparsely covered
-with whitish scales, a black spot near upper end of cell with three in an
oblique row in interspaces 1, 2, 3 and 6, all ringed with whitish, a white streak
along vein 1, Female. Usually paler than the male with the markings similar
but the spots on the fore wing much larger, the two upper, discal spots square,,
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA, 568»
the middle one excavated on the outer side ; two conjoined, large spots at end.
of cell. Antenne black, speckled obscurely with white, tip of club dull
orange, the underside of it at base and upper end of shaft white; eyes. bordered
white behind ; body and head above more or less concolorous with wings, .
the thorax in fresh specimens witha greenish gloss; the abdomen with
obscure, greyish segmental bands ; underneath: the palpi, chest and abdomen
and legs grey, the tarsi with an orange-brown tinge. There is only the very:
slightest fringe of hairs along inner margin of fore wing; fore wing with
ochreous scales at base and broadly along inner margin to the middle on the-
upperside. Expanse 35-45mm.
The males are almost invariably smaller than the females. In underbred
specimens, such, that is, that are starved, the black spots on the underside of -
hind wing tend to disappear. Amongst many dozens that have been bred in
Kanara and elsewhere there was a very large preponderance of females, per-
haps four times as many as males.
Egg.—The shape is that of a hemisphere more or less, the top somewhat
flattened ; it stands, besides, upon a narrow, inclined, colouriess rim or foot.
Surface moderately shining and minutely cellular-pitted as well as extremely
finely cross-rayed,the rays being about0:025mm. apart ; besides, there are thirteen .
broad, high, meridional ridges from the base to near the apex where they lose
themselves in the surface; their greatest breadth is 0°05 mm. which is about equal
to the intervals between them at the top where they disappear : they are rounded
in transverse section and finely pitted; the micropyle-surface occupies the.
apex of the egg and iscircular, 0°035 mm. in diameter ; round the base of the egg
the ridges are 0'035 mm. apart. Colour of the egg is dark red-brown with the -
meridional rays pure enamel-white; turning black before the larva emerges ;..
finally whitish. B. 1:5 mm.; H.0°85mm.
Larva.—The shape is that of the Baoris group owing to the flat anal segments .
and the habit of the larva of hunching its body in front and lying closely applied |
to the resting-surface ; the anal end is broadly rounded, somewhat thickened
round the margin and, therefore, depressed just inside the margin, the dorsum
being considerably flattened, the dorsal line sloping at an angle of about 20° °
to the longitudinal axis; segment 13 is a short, transverse strip ; segment 2
is much narrower than the head as well as thinner all round and is unmarked
except for the large, deep-brown spiracles ; the body is stoutest in the middle -
when stretched and moving but about segment 5 when at rest and hunched up
with segments 1-3 contracted, the head laid back. Thehcadis more or less oval,
higher than broad but, of course more or less truncated across mouth-opening: it
is rounded on vertex with the central dorsal line hardly depressed on vertex, the .
surface is rather distantly pitted ; the clypeus less than one-quarter the height
of the face, acutely triangular, slightly longer than broad; the false clypeus
is a narrowish strip outside it, not very distinct, half the height of face, the
apex rounded ;the labrum is transverse, red-brown as is the more or less |
parallel-sided ligula with its deep acutely angled sinus on the front margin ;
the mandibles and second, antennal joint are red-brown, the antennal,
basal joint light in colour ; the eyes, arranged in a gentle circle of four with
the other two far below and behind, are white with the middle two of the
curve black; there isa fringe of rather long, porrect, reddish hairs along the -
edge of the mouth-opening but no others. The colour of the head
is whitish remaining pure in a _ band across face just over the:
mouth-opening and labrum as well as on the cheeks between a more o1
kess oval patch on each lobe that starts thin on each lobe-vertex and
_ broadens out towards middle, ending at transverse band over labrum and-
another triangular patch at base of cheeks behind the eyes: both patches ;
being suffused, darkish brown with light spots (not regular) of ground-colour
$70 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX,
‘showing on them ; besides this the hinder margin of head is narrowly darker
brown sometimes coalescing with the basal cheek-patch; the central |
‘(dorsal) line of head is sometimes ground-colour, sometimes has a dark line
down the middle of it as farasapex of false clypeus; the true clypeus has
a fine brown border and there is a chevron-shaped black mark forming
the upper half border of the false clypeus over the apex of the true clypeus.
The surface of the larva is dull, smooth, except for extremely minute,
-erect, light hairs, visible only along the dorsoventral line where they are a
bit longer ; there are six strong, reddish, much longer hairs pointing straight
-out round the anal margin;the segments are quite distinctly marked with the
usual transverse folds on the posterior portions; also the usual hair-tubercles.
‘(subdorsal, dorsolateral, supraspiracular, &c.) are present as minute, shining
raised ovals which are rather difficult to see; the flat, dorsal surface of the anal
segment is minutely roughened-tubercular. Spiracles are of ordinary size
roundly oval, slightly raised, dark-brown ; those of segments 2 and 12 much ©
larger. Colour of body is glaucous-green, spotted all over with small, darker
green dots except segments 2, 3 and the anal segment; the anal segment margi-
ned round the free margin with whitish and there is a very dark-green, dorsal
‘slightly pulsating, thin band or broad line from segment 4 to segment 13;
-ventrum darkish green. L. 27 mm.; B. 4°55 mm.
Pupa.—tIt is more or less typical in shape, slightly bent
down at the anal end, the dorsal line from segment 8 to end
forming a considerable curve, the ventral line being straight
throughout except at segment 13, whence it is also bent:
the broadest part of the pupa is at the point of the shoulders
whence the breadth decreases very gently as far as the hinder
margin of segment 10, thence more rapidly to the extremity
of 13 after which follows the still more rapidly decreasing
cremaster : this cremaster is more or less triangular in shape
and the posterior half is somewhat suddenly narrowed to a
conical point, the dorsal surface of the whole cremaster from
base to just before the absolute extremity being flat and
bordered laterally by a raised ridge; at the apex of the
point—the absolute extremity of the pupa that is—there is a
minute truncation and it as well as the lateral surface of the
cremaster are clothed with stiff, bristle-like hairs sparsely,
the hairs being red, extremely minutely and distantly fea-
thered under a strong lens, reddish in colour and directed back-
wards: the whole cremaster is red-brown in colour; segment
13 is, practically speaking, the transverse base of the cre-
master and is about half its length, becoming non-existent
ventrally segment 12 is about as long as 13 and only little
shorter than 11; segments 10,9 slightly longer than 11 ard
very slightly shorter than 6-8; segment 5 shorter than 6
and 4 very short—all these comparisons being taken on the
dorsal line ; segment 4in the dorsal line forms part of the
dorsal, posterior slope of the thorax and its lateral portions
are much broader because of the hinder margin of the thorax
meeting the wings in a widely open, rounded angle of about
80° ; the hinder margin of thorax isa gentle curve of less
than a quarter circle and a very even curve; the hinder
margins of head and segment 2 (front margin of thorax) are
Suastus gremius. absolutely straight and parallel to each other and throughout
at right angles to the longitudinal axis. Head is very broad,
“Cell of pupa on little less broad than the pupa at shoulders and the front slop
palm leaf, of the thorax, the dorsal slope of segment 2 and that of the
head-vertex are in absolutely the same plane of about 30°
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA. 571
to the longitudinal axis of the pupa: the head-vertex is more or less flat; the
frons, which is ina plane nearly at right angles to the longitudinal axis, is only
slight ly convex and slightly depressed in the dorsal line ; the whole head is slightly
constricted behind laterally ; segment 2 short: about equal to segment 5 in
length, measured onthe dorsal line; the thorax is only slightly convex, the
apex being close to the front margin whence the dorsal slope to hinder margin
is slight and nearly straight. The surface of the pupa is dull except on thorax,
head and wings which are slightly shining; transversely, irregularly, finely
aciculate-rugose on the first three segments, more roughly similarly rugose
on the rest ; the abdomen and thorax and vertex of head bear a sparse covering
of stiff, reddish, simple {under a strong lens extremely minute and distantly
feathered) hairs which are directed forwards on the head, segment 2 and thorax
and backwards on the other segments; the wings are naked; the proboscis
reaches just beyond the hinder margin of segment 8 ; the bevilled edges of seg-
ment 9, 10 (and 8, 11) present nothing peculiar and are all not strongly
developed. Spiracles of segment 2 rather conspicuous by reason of a strong
thickening in the shape of a Imm. long slightly curved oblong on the front
margin of segment 3 which faces slightly forwards and dips into the spira-
cle-opening, faced, on the depressed portion of the hinder margin of seg-
ment 2, by a fringe of stiff, minute hairs which extend back over that opening
at the upper end; the oblong is red-brown in colour and tubercular-roughened;
the rest of the spiracles are longly oval, not large, slightly raised and very light
‘soiled-yellow in colour. Colour of pupa is grass-green on head, segment 2 and
thorax and wings; the rest being a very light greenish-yellow. The whole
covered over with a white, cereous excreted powder more or less densely. L:
18mm. B: 4mm.
Habits.—The egg is laid on the top surface of the leaf and, gene-
rally, near the point or an edge. It is laid single, although, as often
as not, two or more are laid on the same plant. The leaves chosen
for oviposition are generally such as are neither very young nor
too old and tough. In three days’ time the young larva eats its way
out atthe top ofthe egg making a circular aperture exactly large
enough forthe big head to come through, when it emerges without
ado. It sometimes eats the shel! sometimes not, before wandering
off down the leaf and, sometimes, on to another. Generally, however,
it does not go far but chooses a place at the edge where ic commences
to eat a short lme from the margin inwards for about a distance
of its own small length ; then another, a short way further on, thus
making a short, free, oblong piece which it turns over on to the upper
or under surface and fastens down tightly along the long edge, leav-
ing the two short ends free. In this manner it makes a more or less
oblong cell in which it takes up its abode and gradually lines thickly
and very strongly with a dressing of web—single silks woven in every
direction until a very perfect matting or thin cloth is formed. The
first stage is passed in this. As it grows, in the second and third
stages, it makes a new and lerger cell in exactly the same way. In
ie last but one and the stage before pupa sion, when it is full grown,
it makes the cell much in the same way but uses the whole half-side
oi a blade or segment of leaf—the term “leaf” is erroneously used
above for a segment or blade—for the purpose. At first it ventures
only just outside the cell but, later on, as it gecs bigger, often wanders
9 ,
572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
quite a long way to feed. When full-grown and fully fed it makes
a cell in & similar fashion but closes it at one end completely and
draws the purposely fashioned, jagged pieces of leaf at the other
end together loosely ; the inside 1s coated thickly with a carpet of
silk, the loosely closed end is spun with a few cross-silks amongst
which are incorporated little pellets of the white cereous excretion
of the larva; at the closed end of the abode are generally a few
pellets of the excreta and the discarded skin. The pupa is but very
loosely attached by the end of cremaster to the silken carpet, often
it is not fastened at all--indeed there are no hooklets existing by
which the attachment could be effected in any but a slight way.
The egg-larva is generally red, bright red and this red hue subsists
up to the end of the second stage and, slightly, into the third ; aftar
which a greenish coat is assumed to culminate in the glaucous-green
of the mature caterpiller. Prior to fastening up the pupal cell, the
larva often still eats a little and, always, gnaws away the blade on
each side of the midrib for some way behind as well as_ the whole
portion of the blade towards the tip which then fails to she ground.
The midrib still attaching the abode to the plant is then partially
eaten through so that, generally, after a bit, the cell, with the pupa
in it, falis to the ground where it is often swamped away by rain or
blown about by the wind. The mixture of cereous matter with the
web in the part of the cell in front of the pupa, the loosely closed end
is seemingly designed to prevent the ingress of water which it cer-
tainly does most effectually. The rest is too tightly cemented to-
gether to let anything in. The genus Halpe (at least as composed
ot the species hyrtacus, astigmatu, moorer and honorer) adopts
a similar method of guarding the pupa against death by drowning for
the larve of the insects composing it all cut the cells loose from the
leaf of the foodplant when about to pupate. The skipper Suastos
gremius is an insect with a robust thorax and wings well adapted to
rapid flight. It has a very strong flight and extremely quick as well.
It is difficult to follow ail the eye when on the wing and never
dawdles about. or flutters or hovers : it is suddenly there, on a flower
or on a leaf and, the next instant, it is gone; the line taken is, as far
as can be observed, iairly straight and with very little “skip” in it ;
alchough it turns with ease and great suddenness from 1ts course when
it so desires. It comes readily to flowers and may also be found,
occasionally, sucking moisture on the ground or on the top of a leat;
it is quite commonly found tasting hird- droppings on leaves in the
jungles with its long proboscis. It is fond of sunlight though, where
possible, the eggs are laid in shaded spots. The male basks with the
hind wings depressed horizontally, the fore. wings slightly open ;
but it is not, on the whole, a basking butterfly and is practically
never found on the tops of high hills amongst these species that
indulge commonly in that habit. The foodplant of the larva consists
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA, 573 |
of species of palms, and generally, in India, among the indigenous
ones, that most affected is the wild date-palm, Phoenix sylvestris
which is tound in many parts ot India; Bengal, Guzerat, Western
Peninsula, Coromondel Coast in its different forms: humilis trom
India, China and Cochin China; acaulis in Kanara, North, Centra!
and Western India, Burma; robusta from the Deccan. The distri-
bution of the butterfly is India, Ceylon and Burma.
The larva also feeds upon several of the introduced species of
palms, especially commonly on a small, fan-leafed one which is grown
in the verandahs cf bungalows in Bombay ; aiso wpon the wild Car-
yota urens or Vish-tailed Palm. It is certain to eat others also.
The black spots on the underside of the hind wing of the butter-
fly may vary in number as, in the dry weather, they seem to be
liable to disappear or only exist as small, whitish marks—some,
however, are always present. Swinhoe has named what he con-
siders aseparate species from Southern India Suastus bipwnctus from
the fact that only two of the black spots are present on the under-
side of the hind wing. Ii is quite probable that the torm is only one
of the dry-weather gremzus.
The figures of the mago, 79 and 79a of Plate M, are not at all good
in the matter of colour although correct in pattern. The temale
insect, 79a, 1s the better of the two but the underside—the pair o!
wings on the right—is too pink and the grey of the hind wing should
be quite clear or pure. The male underside, right-hand wings of
figure 79, should be similar to the female ; in the picture they are
absurdly dark.
206, Suastus bipunctus (Swinhoe)—Male and female. Upperside : black
or very dark blackish-brown. Fore wing with three or four minute, white spots
in an oblique line across the disc, varying somewhat in size and number in differ-
ent examples, one in each of the interspaces 2 and 3 and two towards apex ; in
the female the spots are usually larger and the lower spot is quadrate:
but all these spots vary much in size in both sexes in different examples. Hind
wing without markings, Cilia of both wings blackish-brown. Underside :
paler than the upperside, Fore wing with the spots asaboveand a small suffused
white space in the middle of interspace 1. Hind wing paler than the forewing,
the inner portion suffused with ochreous scales, a dark spot at end of cell and a
discal series limiting the ochreous suffusion. Antenne black with whitish dots
on the underside ; palpi, head and body blackish-brown above and below with
white hairs on the underside and whitish, segmental bands on the abdomen
with a whitish patch at its base; legs blackish-brown. Expanse 30-35mm.
The habitat is given as Nilgiri Hills and Burma by Colonel Swin-
hoe from whom the above description has been taken (Lepidoptera
Indica, vol. X, p. 152). He states that the type is in the B.M. and
several examples of both sexes are in his collection from the Nilgiris
and in the B. M. from Haundraw, Attaran Valley and the Daunat
Range, Burma. A single specimen was caught in Kanara District
in the Bombay Presidency but no other has ever been seen. It must
be a very rare species in Bombay and nothing is known about the
early stages in consequence.
574. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Genus 18.—ARNETTA.
Imago.—This genus consists of three species ; vindhiana from 8. India,
atkinsoni from Sikkim, Assam and Burma; and binghami from the Salween
Valley and Tavoy in Burma. They are all medium sized butterflies with the
appearance of those of the genus Parnara, that is olive-brown on the upper-
sides with immaculate hind wings and mostly smali-spotted fore wings (apical
and discal, semihyaline white spots) with the undersides variously suffused
in a clouded manner with russet or yellowish-brown and with some obscure
whitish dots. Vindhiana, the only Indian Plains species is apparently con-
fined to S. India. Swinhoe gives its distribution as follows :—‘‘ The type
comes from Jubbulpur ; Evans records it from the Palni Hills; we took it at
Matheran, Lanaoli and Mhow ; Betham records it from the Central Provinces :
Aitken and Comber fromthe Konkan; Hampson from Nilgiris and Aitken
from Thana near Bombay; the types of ilgiriana and modesta are from
Koonoor.’’ Itis quite plentiful, really common, throughout the Surat Dangs
and west Khandesh District but has never been seen in the heavier jungle-
country south of Bombay in the Presidency, that isin Belgaum, Dharwar or
the 8. Kanara Districts. In the Surat Dangs a hundred might be caught any
morning. They were found there sitting on the ground on dry leaves, blades
of grass, &c., and often would get up by the dozen as one walked along under
the teak trees. They may be said to live in dry bamboo-growing hilly
country. The general flight is very similar to that of Parnara as is also the
way of sitting ; they visit flowers busily and play about much in the same
way as the insects of that genus. The foodplantsare unknown—if, indeed.
there is more than one; and this, notwithstanding diligent search in the
Dangs extending through weeks.
Antenne.—Less than two-thirds the length of costa of the fore-wing ; club
slender, moderately long and with a short, pointed crook.
Palp:.—Palpi porrect, second joint densely sealed, third joint projecting
horizontally in front of face, short and obtusely conical.
Hind tibice.—With two pairs of spurs.
Fore wing.—Vein 12 reaches costa opposite end of cell; discocellulare
suberect, the lower a little shorter, 5 arising a little below the middle; 3 from
one-sixth before lower end of cell ; 2 from middle ; cell less than two-thirds length
of costa ; costa gently arched, apex subacute, outer margin convex and about
equal to inner margin.
Hind wing.—Vein 7 from close to upper end of cell; discocellulare
and vein 5 faint ; 3 from close to lower end of cell, 2 a short distance from bass
of 3: outer margin evenly rounded.
Egg, larva, pupa. —Unknown. The larva probably feeds upon some coarse
grass; but this is only a conjecture.
207. Arnetta vindhiana (M.)—Male and female. Upperside: Olive-
brown with a slight ochreous tint. Fore wing with no fringe of hair on inner
margin and none on base of wing or elsewhere ; a small, hyaline-white spot at
upper end of cell ; three subapical, similar dots near bases of interspaces 6, 7, 8
ina nearly straight line downwards and two larger,quadrate spots one immediate-
ly below the other and touching, the upper, smaller in base of interspace 3, the
other, longer, in the middle of interspace 2. Cilia of both wings grey or ochre-
ous-grey with the bases brown. Underside : light rusty brownish-grey (Swinhoe
calls it “‘brownish- pinkish- ochreous’). Fore wing: the middle portion from
base to near outer margin blackish-brown, spots showing through from upper-
side. Hind wing : (the upperside of this is immaculate with longish, brown
hairs in cell and on hinder half.) One indistinct, rusty spot at end of cell and
one or two more in a straight line above it; an indistinct series of simi-
lar, discal spots between the veins well beyond the cell. Antenne blackish-
brown, banded with yellow narrowly on top, completely yellow below and dull
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA, 575
‘orange-red at tip of club ; palpi, head and body brown above with some ochre-
ous, short hairs; beneath greyish-white. Expanse 30mm.
All that is known about this species is given above under the
genus under “ Imago.”
Genus 19.—ZoGRAPHETUS.
A genus of four species in British India—there are three more
in the Malayan Sub-region. In British India there is satwa from the
N. W. Himalayas, Sikkim, Assam, Burma ; flavipennis from Sikkim,
Bhutan, Burma and the Andamans ; and flavalum from Sikkim (a
unique specimen at the time it was described). The only species
that interests us 1s Zographetus ogygia from South India, Burma,
Borneo and Sumatra; the type coming from Sumatra was named
by Hewitson. The single specimen that was obtained in 8S. India
came from Kanara and was identified by de Nicéville ; 16 was caught
near the sea-coast In semi-evergreen jungle, about 800’ above sea level
during the monsoon. That was many years ago and nothing has
ever been seen of it since.
Imago.—The butterflies are rather like Arnetia in facies; are medium-
sized and brown on the uppersides with the usual Parnara—like hyaline-white
spots on the fore wings and occasionally also on the hind wings. Underneath
they are all yellow of different shades, rusty or brownish, and have discal, black
spots between the veins, variously arranged.
Antennee.— About two-thirds the length of costa of fore wing, the club
moderate, elongate, the point short and crooked.
Palpi.slightly upturned, second joint densely scaled, third obtuse-conical,
Hind tubie.—With two pairs of spurs.
Fore wing.—Males with two pairs of linear, glandular streaks on the upper-
side ; the upper pair on either side of vein 2, at its bifurcation, the lower two
immediately beneath these on either side of vein 1. Vein 12 ends at a little
before end of cell on costa; discocellulars suberect, the lower slightly shorter
than the middle one, vein 5 nearer to 4 than to 6 ; vein 3 from near lower end of
the cell, 2 close to base of cell; costa gently arched, apex somewhat produced
subacute ; outer margin convex, shorter than hinder margin.
Hind wing.—Vein 7 slightly before one-third before upper end of cell ; 3 from
near lower end, 2 from one-fourth before end ; lower margin of cell slightly
angled at vein 2; outer margin rounded in male, somewhat produced at apex
in female.
Egg, larva, pupa.—Unknown.
Habits.—As far as they are known for ogygia, these are given above.
208: Zographetus ogygia (Hewils.).—Male. Upperside: dark-brown,
Fore wing with two yellowish-white spots at end of cell, the upper minute; a
larger, subquadrate spot immediately below them in interspace 2 ; a small round
spot close outside the junction of the subquadrate spot with the lower cell spot m,
interspace 3;a small spot above in interspace 6 and two minute dots immediately
above it forming the subapical series. Hind wing without markings. Cilia
white with thin, brown base. Underside: paler, of a pinkish-brown colour.
Fore wing with its middle narrowly blackish spots as on upperside. Hind wing
with a brown spot in cell, another at its end and a discal, curved series between
the veins, all very indistinct. Antenne black, ringed with white, the upper part
576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
-of the club white on the underside tip orange-red ; palpi, head and body above
and below including the legs, concolourous with the wings.—Female. Like
the male but. with an additional whitish spot in discal series of fore wing in
intecspace 1 against the middle of the submedian vein ; and the ground colour
of the underside of the hind wing is paler. Expanse 35mm.
Habitat.—Burma. S. India, Borneo, Sumatra.
Distribution The type is from Sumatra ; Watson records it from the Chin
Hills ; Davidson, Bell and Aitken from Kanara; it is in the B. M. from Thoung-
-ye, Burma; Elwes records it from Pulo Laut and Labuan. (Lepidoptera Indica,
vol. x, p. 188).
Egg, larva, pupa, habits-—Unknown except as mentioned above.
Sub-family (5)—Erionorin2.
Imago.—All have the eyes red, a character that lasts for years after death,
The subfamily consists of five genera in British India; Hrionota, Gangara,
Pudicitia, Paduka and Matapa. The last consists of Medium sized insects,
the others comprise some forms that are the largest of the Skippers with
others that are well over the medium dimensions. Nearly all, except Matapa
(with 5 species) and Paduka (one species, lebadea) males which are immaculate,
are marked with exceptionally large, hyaline, discal spots of a generally golden
vellow colour (Hrionota attina only has them grey-white) on the fore wings.
Antenne.—More than haif the length of fore wing, the club gradual,
azuminate, the end bent over.
Palpi. Upturned in front of the face ; second joint densely scaled, pressed
close against the face ; the third joint concealed.
Fore tibie.—With epiphyses.
Hind tubie.—With two pairs of spurs,
Fore wing.—Vein 12 ends on costa about end of cell ; 11 free; the cell com-
paratively short, 3 from near its lower end, 2 from about its middle.
Hind wing.—Vein 7 from before end of cell, 3 from near end, 2 various ; dis-
cocellulars faint, 5 not traceable, outer margin slightly sinuate.
Egg.—Dome-shaped about twice as broad as high with about 40 thin meri-
dional ribs that are difficult to see ; the colour white or pinkish for Gangara
thyrsis and Matapa aria.
Larva.—Somewhat elongated, anal end rounded, head large compared to the
neck, heart-shaped or rounded, black or grey (in which case it is spotted-
Paduka) ; covered (in Erionota, Gangara) with a thick coat of cereous excretion
which, in the case of Gangara thyrsis, takes the form of numerous short threads ;
in Matapa and, apparently, in Paduka, naked, the colour is white or grey ; Gan-
gara has red markings under the cereous covering.
Pupa.—Rounded at fore-end but witha more or less conical boss between
the eyes in cases (Paduka apparently and Hrionota thrax) ; abdomen elongated
with end turned down and a strong cremaster ; the proboscis generally slightly
reaching beyond ends of wings free ; in Gangara thyrsis of extraordinary length
the free portion reaching a length of 30 mm. while the whole length of pupa is
only 35mm.
Habits—The butterflies are all crepuscular; they fly first thing
in the morning or just afcer sunset in the evening and visit flowers,
settlng upon them to suck their juices. The flight is rapid and
strong and the insecis are difficult to follow with the eve on the wing
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA. 577
notwithstanding their large size. They rest in dark places during
the day in corners of walls, underneath foliage or in large hollows in
tree-trunks and sit with their wings tightly closed over the back.
In dark places in the jungles and in groves of palms the butterflies
keep on the wing later in the morning and appear earlier in the even-
ing. The eggs are laid on the uppersides of leaves and the food-
plants of the larve are Palms, Plantains and Bamboos, she last for
Matapa aria, the first for Gangara thyrsis, Paduka lebadea ; plantains
tor Erionota thrax—-belonging to the families Palmacee, Graminewe
and Scitaminea. These larvee make spiral cells more or less cylin-
drical in shape in which they eventually pupate, making the first
of course small, others to suit their size as they grow. The pupa
rattles about violently inside when disturbed or even when the cell
is touched ; it 1s strongly attached by the tail and covered with
cereous powder. It is “doubtful whether any Matapa ever occurs
in the Plains or away from jungles and hills. Hrvonota thrax and
acroleuca ‘as well as Gangara thyrsis appear, on the other hand, to be
found wherever there are Planiains and Palms. It is therefore thought
advisable to include the two Hrionota in the following descriptions
although they are not in the original key.
Genus 20.—MatTaAPA,
Imago.—Five species, all quite immaculate above and below except for an
oblique, glandular streak on the disc below the cell of the fore wing in the male,
present in all five. They are all medium-sized insects, chocolate-brown or
olive-brown in colour on the upper sides of both wings. M. aria (M.) is the
only one that comes in here.
Antenne.—More than half the length of costa of fore wing; club somewhat
thickened with a rather long, pointed crook. :
Palpi.—With second joint densely scaled, pressed against face, upturned ;
the third concealed.
Hind tibie.—With two pairs of spurs.
. Fore wing.— Vein 12 ends on costa opposite end oi cell; discocellulars strongly
inwardly-oblique, 5 arising from their junction; 3from less than one-sixth
before end of cell; 2 from a little before middle ; lower margin of cell slightly
angled at origin of 3; the cell rather less than two-thirds length of costa ; costa
slightly arched near base, afterwards straight to the slightly produced, sub-acute
apex; outer margin slightly convex, about equal in length to the hinder
margin in male but shorter than that margin in female which has a compa-
ratively longer wing.
Hind wing.—Vein 7 irom more than one-fourth before end of cell with disco-
cellulars faint, vein 5 obsolete, 3 from very close to lower end and almost
touching it, 2 from about one-sixtr before end, outer margin evenly rounded
except between veins 3 and | where it is slightly exusey
Egg, larva, pupa, habits—See belew.
209 Matapa aria (M.)—Eyes red: Male. Upperside: dark chocolate-brown
without any markings except the glandular streak on the fors wing which
is straight, grey, edged inwardly with dark-brown; the costa above the vein
-is often strongly light-rusty to about half way to apex on the fore wing and there
are some brown decumbent hairs at base of wing and a slight fringe of similar
578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
ones along inner margin. On the hind wing the whole cell and area behind it
including the abdominal fold is set with long brown hairs rather thickly. Cilia
of both wings very light-yellow tinged with orange at anal angle of hind wing
and towards apex. Underside: Fore wing dark-brown or ferruginous except the
middle portion from the base and including the cell to outer margin whih is
blackish-brown, the inner margin below vein 1 much paler. Hind wing uniformly
rusty ferruginous of rather a dark shade. Antennz black obscurely ringed with
greyish above, greyish ringed with black beneath; the club with the end bent
over at right angles, the bent-over portion yellow below, dull-orange above.
Palpi densely scaled with third joint minute, hidden; separated by the coiled
proboscis, brown above ferruginous beneath. Head and abdomen above
concolourous with the wings, the collar often ferruginous ; thorax and proximal
segments of abdomen with long, thick hair: below more or less concolorous
with wings, including the legs—Female. Like the male but paler and more
ochreous-brown, the ferruginous of undersides much brighter ; the abdomen
with ochreous tip. Expanse up to 40mm., the female generally the larger.
Egg.—A low dome in shape standing upon a flattened, rather broad, irregular-
ly circular ring which is quite transparent and lies on the surface of the leaf or
blade, it is in no way ribbed; the egg is as broad at extreme base as it is for some
way up. Surface slightly shining with about 40 meridional ribs—it is nearly im-
possible to count them even with a lens as they are extremely fine and low
and only exist from the base up about as far as the periphery of the top third—
which are white ; the interspaces between them and the top third of the egg are
indistinctly and rather roughly or coarsely shallow-cellular, the moderately
large, more or less circular, somewhat flattened space round the invisible
micropyle being more minutely cellular still. To the unaided eye the whole
surface is smooth but is obscured by a thick covering of the scales from the anal
end of the butterfly which adhere to the whole surface irregularly in patches of
light fawn and dark brown. Colour: Somewhat pinkish, soiled and, later on,
with some red-orange spots and marks on the upper part. B. 1:8 mm;
H. 0-9 mm.; the transparent, basal rim about 0-3 mm. in width.
Larva.—The body is more or less circular in transverse section—cylindrical
in shape that is : but it is, of course, somewhat flattened ventrally and is in this
case, swollen laterally in segment 12 so that that segment is the thickest part
of the body, or looks it; segment 13 sloped dorsally behind segment 12, is convex
transversely and about the same length as segment 14 and little shorter than 12;
the anal segment is more or less semi-circular and in the same dorsal slope as
segment 13—about 30° or more to the longitudinal axis of body; segment 2 has
a moderately broad, shining-black collar from spiracle to spiracle interrupted
narrowly dorsally as usual, situated just behind the front margin. Head is semi-
elliptical in shape, only slightly higher than broad (at base : across mouth-open-
ing) ; the vertex innocent of sinus; the surface shining and shallowly reticulate
rugose; the true clypeus triangular, apex acute, one-third the height of face:
false clypeus slightly outward-curved as to sides, also triangular with apex
acute, about half the height of face ; the colour is orange, sometimes with large,
black frontal blotch on each lobe reaching from eyes about three-quarters of the
way up and conjoined to an apical black blotch on same lobe; the labrum is
transverse and not clearly defined, same colour as rest; the lingula is white,
translucent circular nearly, with a deep triangular sinus, with a few shining,
orange hairs at ends of each lobe; antennal, basal joint is small, sullied,
orange, third joint whitish; mandibles dark red-brown; eyes black, four in
a slight curve, the three lower co-equal, the top one slightly smaller. Surface
of larva covered with extremely minute, erect, fine, whitish hairs with a
subdorsal and dorsolateral, oval, black dot, both widely separated, as also
a supraspiracular ditto to each segment; hairs on segments 13, 14 very
much longer and not all of the same length and some somewhat longer
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA, 579
hairs (than the short body-hairs) on the dorsoventral margin and legs; the
segment margins impressed—marked thinly with six parallel, well-separated,
thin, depressed lines in front of each. Spiracies conspicuous jet black very
broadly oval, those of segments 2 aad 12 twice as large as the rest, none
are small. Colour of body is greenish chalky-white with the segment-
margins and depressed lines looking conspicuously darker ; ventrum and legs
all similarly white. LL. 25 mm,; B. over 3 mm.
The 12th segment is not so much broader as higher than the rest of the bov'y;
although it is strikingly swollen looking.
Pupo.—tThe pupa ig very similar to that of Gangara thyrsis in general shape
but is without the great length of proboscis that distinguishes that species. it
has the thorax very humped and by far the highest point of body at its apex,
the portion in segment 4,5 being lowest, segments 6, 7 being again
higher than 4, 5; the front slope of thorax, segment 2 and the head-vertex are
all in one plane at an angle between 45 and 30° to the longitudinal axis of the
body, the hinder slope shorter than the anterior one and ending rather abruptly
in a sudden short fall to segment 4, the hinder margin a curve rather longer
than a quarter-circle and meeting the wing-lines in an open, rounded angle
of about 90°; segment 4 sloping down to segment 5 and only slightly shorter
than it, segment 6 double the length of 5; head as said, with the vertex dorsal,
the frons in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, both lightly convex,
the basis of antenne slightly prominent, the eyes also very prominent so that
the head is slightly constricted behind them, and an unusual, small, rounded
tubercle at their interior lower margin, just where the proboscis takes its origin;
this proboscis produced free to the end of segment 10 but closely applied to the
body ; the part of the body from the hinder margin of segment 10 strongly
decurved with segment 11 one-quarter as long again as 12; segment 13 a short
transverse piece forming the posterior slope of segment 12, or rather the posterior
part of the slope of that segment, the anal segment consisting of a short, trans-
verse, thicker base from which the semi-circular, rather thin (ventrodorsally) end
piece proceeds backwards, this bearing at its apex a short, oblong projection, the
projection being broader than long and being set with alot of short, orange,
hooked shafts at the end by which the pupa attaches itself. Surface moderately
shining more or less smoothly and covered with a cereous excretion all over, at
the most, transversely fine-aciculate, the segments of the body are well-marked,
segments 10, 11 being especially tumid-looking; the bevilled margins of segments
8-11 short behind and rather long-sloping in front, notin any way particularly
modelled as to surface ; avery slightly roughened, orange more or less oval
surface on apex of thorax on each side of the dorsal line and central, nearly
touching each other—what for ? Spiracles of segment 2 oval, flush, colour of
pupa nearly ; rest narrow-oval, dull whitish, not large. Colour greenish-white,
darker on thorax, sometimes honey yellowish on thorax; the orange, apical,
thoracic, transversely long-oval surface of thorax, the little tubercles at anterior,
lower margin of eye and two small tubercles on shoulder (not prominent either)
all orange. L. 24 mm.; B. 4:5 mm. at middle of body which equals the
H there: H of thorax 5-5 mm,
Habits.—The egg, very large for the butterfly, is laid singly on the
top of a bamboo-ieaf, anywhere on the surface, chiefly about half
way up, rarely near the tip; the bamboos chosen being generally
rather small and on the edge of an opening in the forest, a path for
example being a favourite situation and the leaf is generally one from
three to six feet from the ground in a shady place under the over-
head protection of large trees. The little larva eats its way out
through the top, making a large hole of egress because of the large
10
580. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
head ; it does not eat the shell after crawling out of it but walks off,
very actively spinning silken steps as it goes, moving the front part
of body continuously with the head alternately from one side to the
other in the ordinary way used when spinning. Eventually, after
wandering about aimlessly to all appearance, it comes to rest at the
point where it makes a roomy cell for itself by drawing the edges
together from the excreme point backwards. For this purpose,
after the first couple of silks have been spun from edge to edge to make
a preliminary half-open funnel-shaped cell, it eats away a 4 mm.-
broad space from the edge inwards to the midrib and at right angles
to the edge and at a distance from the point of anything up to 40mm.
It then brings the triangular (more or less) piece of the side thus
separated from the main leaf over underneath on to the undersurface
of the other side, using the midrib as a hinge and fastens it down all
round the edge very firmly by pads and strands of silk; the inside is
lined with a silken carpet and in this large cell the little larva passes
its first stage or two. It is bright blood-red when it first emerges,
about 4mm. long by 0.75 mm. or less in width with an enormous,
black, triangular head whith is thick, shining, naked and very
slightly bilobed on the rather narrow vertex ; segment 2 is yellowish
with the narrow, transverse, chitinized, black collar of the mature
larva already existing ; the surface is ronend with a few minute,
erect hairs and there are some very much larger ones round the anal
margin. The little larva--and the big one too, us a matter of fact,
behaves in exactly the same way as that of Gangara thyrsis ; making,
just as chat one does, a spiral cell eventually which hangs on to the
main part of the leaf by a thin thread of blade left for that purpose.
The final cell is thickly lined with silk and the larva leaves it only at
night-time or in the dusk of the evening or at or just before dawn
in the morning to feed—in dull weather feeding time is prolonged.
Pupation takes place in this final cell or one like it in which the
_ silken lining or carpet is made much thicker especially in the trans-
verse lines or steps that always exist inside the houses of these
species (Gangara and Matapa); the carpet being thickest at the
lower end, 2. e. the top end really where the head of the pupa is, for
the cell hangs down by its supporting thread and the opening, always
protected by web spun across, 1s directed downwards. The pupa is
attached strongly to the upper end and hangs head-down and shivers
violently when touched producing a ioud, rustling noise, exactly im
the same manner as does that of Gangara although the special adap-
tation of the proboscis and ventral segments is not present here.
The proboscis is closely applied to the ventral segment 9 where there
is a depression to receive it but there are no ridges on either surface.
The butterfly nearly always emerges towards the small hours of the
morning and remains motionless all day until the late afternoon,
sometimes taking a preliminary flight after completely hardening.
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA, 581
It is a strong flier, quick and devious, hardly ever flying straight
ahead. It is fond of flowers and may be found at them any day in the
late afternoons, choosing such as grow close to the ground in very
shady places. It often rests on leaves and is easily caught. The
wings are held closed over the back and the fore wings do not seem
ever to be drawn much into the hinder ones, neither have they ever
been observed even slightly opened. This species is very plentiful
on the Western Ghats, both above and below, wherever bamboo is
tound. The iarva feeds indifferently on any bamboo— Bambusa
arundinacea, Dendrocalamus strictus, Oxytenanthera or Ochlandra
Talboti, Brandis. The habitat of the insect is India, Ceylon, Burma,
Andamans, China, Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago. Swin-
hoe says “ the types are marked Bengal ; we have it in our collection
from the Donat Range, Ataran Valley, Ceylon, Hue, Annam, Brun-
nei, Borneo, the Philippines, Karwar and many examples from the
Khasia Hills cf both sexes ; Hlwes records it from Masuri; Fer-
gusson from Travancore; Betham from the Central Provinces ;
Aitken and Comber from the Konkan ; de Nicéville from Calcutta; J.
J. Walker from Hongkong; Wood-Mason and de Nicéville from
Cachar and the Andamans.” Ié is also found in the Thana District
of Bombay and in Kanara, Belgaum, the western parts of Dharwar
and all along the Western Ghats.
Genus 21—GENGARA.
There is only a single species, thyrsis, (F.). This is figured on
Plate N, figures 84 and 84a, representing respectively che male and
the female. The figures are rather too dark and, in the male, neither
the tufts of hair on the front half of the back of the abdomen nor
the tufts on the underside of tore wing in the middle of the hinder
margin, extending up to vein 1, are at all evident.
Imago.—Very large, up to 75mm. in expanse, or 3”, even occasionally slightly
more. Dark glossy-brown on the upperside when fresh, fading with age; the
fore wings with three subapical dots and three large, discal ones, all golden-
yellow ; hind wings immaculate. Underneath it is dark-brown with cloudy
powdering of blue-whitish scales on both wings.
Antenne.—More than half length of costa of fore wing; club gradual, of
-moderate thickness, the end bent over more or less at a right aoe ending
in a fine point.
Palpi.—Upturned, second joint densely clothed, pressed clos against the
face, reaching just to level of vertex of head; third joint minute, nearly
concealed. The palpi are always well-separated by the proboscis.
Hind tibie.—Longly fringed and with two pairs of spurs.
Fore wing.—Vein 12 ends on costa before end of cell; cell short and little
mere than half length of costa, its upper end bent somewhat down; a short
internal vein from near base of vein 3; upper discocellular very short, mid-
dle and lower strong and in an almost erect, straight line, the lower the
shorter ; vein 5 theretore nearer to 4 than to 6, strong ; 3 about one-sixth from
. lower end of the cell, 2 from about one-third from base ; costa arched at base,
then evenly, gently curved to apex; apex blunt, somewhat truncate; wing
582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol.. XXX.
long ; outer margin nearly straight from tornal angle to the truncation at
apex and shorter than inner margin. In the males on the upperside,
there is a glandular streak above the middle of vein 1 and a double streak on
each side of basal half of vein 2; on the underside there is a patch of erectile,
yellow hairs extending from middle of inner margin to vein 1.
Hind wing.—Vein 7 from about one-fourth before and of cell; upper
discocellular faint, erect, shorter than lower which is well developed and
outwardly oblique ; 3 from just before end of cell, 2 from before middle ; outer
margin sinuous and broadly, shallowly lobed towards anal angle. In the
males the lower margin of the cell between veins 3 and 2 as well as the
basal halves of these veins are considerably swollen ; on the upperside the
wing thickly clothed with long hair from its base concealing the swollen
veins,
Abdomen.—In the male with thick dorsal tufts of hair on the two or three
proximal segments.
210. Gangara thyrsis, (F.)—(P!. N. figs. 84¢¢, 849).—Male. Upperside
dark chocolate-brown. Fore wing with semihyaline, gold-ochreous,
quadrate spots ; a very large one filling up the cell near extremity, excavated
on its outer side ; another, slightly smaller, filling up the middle of interspace 2
and a much smaller one further out in the middle of interspace 3, slightly irregu-
lar in shape ; two small spots before middle of interspaces 7, 8 before apex and
close together with another further out in middie of interspace 6. Hind wing
without markings. Cilia of fore wing brown, becoming whitish towards the
hinder margin ; of hind wing whitish throughout, but suffused brown in centre.
The fore wing is also provided with long hair on the upperside at base extending
outwards along inner margin as a fringe, much longer and thicker in the male
than in the female, Underside: dark-brown, variegated with a clouding of bluish-
grey. ore wing with some whitish scaling in three patches towards apex ; the
hinder marginal space broadly whitish under the tuft of yellow hairs; spots show-
ing through from upper side. Hind wing with the whitish scaling in four more or
less distinct, parallel bands transversely across the wing, leaving the abdominal
fold mostly unmarked. Antenne black fading to brown, the club and upper part
of shaft beneath greyish, the turned-over part dull-orange. The eyes bright
red—Female. Like the male but without glandular streaks or sex-tufts; the
dorsal tufts of hair on abdomen also much smaller ; the truncation of apex of
fore wing slightly less defined. Expanse of female up to 80mm; of male
somewhat less.
Egg.—A nearly perfect hemisphere in shape, standing on a narrow inclined
(outwards) band that is hardly as broad ag the distance between two ribs. Sur-
face shining, very minutely punctured rough, generally covered with blackish,
dust-like, very fine hairs only visible under a lens ; sculptured with 40 very thin,
low, indistinct meridional ribs that go on to the basal band, none of these ribs
reaching the actual apex of dome. Colour. livid white B: 2.25mm; H:
1.25mm.
Larva.—Subcylindrical in shape, fattest about segment 5 when at rest and
slightly hunched; after which the diameter decreases little te the anal end which
is still high at 12, sloping afterwards to the broadly-rounded end of segment
14 ; prolegs short : head more or less triangular in shape, the face convex, broad-
est at base, the apex narrowly rounded ; the surface of the head is cellular-rough,
the cells flat-bottomed with very thin walls that are also very low ; on the cheeks
above the eyes and upwards to vertex there are little tubercular points, longest
on lower cheeks but never even then as high as a diameter of one of cells of the
roughness; there are many soft, light-coloured, decumbent hairs all over, all
pointing downwards but these are not easily visible ; true clypeus long-triangular
twice as high as broad, the sides slightly concave-curved in about the middle;
the apex acute with a slight media] ridge from it to base in dorsal line ; false
6
ay
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA. 583
clypeus, if present, not visible; labrum short, lozenge-shaped, transverse,
whitish ; yellow ligula rather large and circular with the frontal sinus triangular
and deep, brown-shining ; both antennal joints brown; eyes arranged with the
three uppermost, numbers 1, 2, 3, equidistant from each other in a slight curve,
number 4 twice as far from 3 as 3 is from 2, number 5 the same distance from 4
and behind it, 6 forming the apex of an equilateral triangle with 4 and 5 ; colour
of head dark-chocolate brown but always covered with a thick coating of white
powder which completely conceals the surface. The height of the head is 6mm,
and the breadth at base is about 5mm. Surface of body slightly haired with
short, erect hairs that are longest along the dorsoventral margin; this surface
exuding a cereous white secretion all over that forms long threads of a flaky
looking consistence that completely hide the surface of the body; this excretion
is easily removed by the touch and is not formed if the caterpillar is in bad
health ; it forms in bunches of threads everywhere except on ventrum and is
densest, thickest on segments 3 to 5 and 12 to 14. Spiracles not possible to see
because of the dense coating of white powder. Colour of body rose-brown, even
reddish dorsally except on segments 2, 3 where itis sea-green like the ventrum
and spiracular region. L: 45mm; B: 7mm at thickest part.
Pupa.—tThis is rather abnormal in shape; the front rather exceptionally
humped at thorax and stout, or appearing such because theabdomen is rather
elongated; the thorax is quite evenly rounded ; the head without protuberances,
the dorsai constriction behind thorax slight, the shoulders very slightly convex
prominent with the lateral outline behind them as far as 8 very shallowly concave:
the head is somewhat narrow with prominent eyes, narrowing very slightly back-
wards ; the vertex is inclined at about 45° or less to the longitudinal axis of
body; the frons, about as long as vertex, is perpendicular to the axis and
rather convex, the convexity somewhat flattened, low ; the clypeus is semi-
circular, the eye-crescent linear ; the fore legs reach middle of wings, the mid
legs reach three quarters the length of wings ; the antennez are somewhat longer
than mid legs and have the clubs prominent and cross-rayed ; the proboscis is
extremely long, free beyond the ends of wings and there curled into a spiral of
one and a half convolutions reaching sometimes, even thus curled, the end of
the body, the free portion, if stretched out, sometimes reaching 30mm. in length; °
the whole proboscis, in one case, reached, mzasured from base to tip, 47mm; the
free portion of this proboscis runs in a groove in the middle of ventrum of seg-
ment 9 and on each side of this groove are two transverse, short ridges abutting
immediately against the proboscis; a similar arrangement is situated on segment
10 ; the proboscis-sheath is transversely ridged completely round and very
closely throughout the free portion, these ridges being quite sharply prominent
whete the proboscis passes between the large ridges of the ventrum of abdomen
in the groove and, when the body is suddenly bent down, as it is when the
pupa is touched, a hissing sound is produced by the arrangement ; the proboscis
is more or less rigid from end of wings to the end of segment 10, fitting
closely into the grooves of 9 and 10 after which it sweeps out into the curve
and is much more pliable; segment 12 is also abnormal:—it is as long as 11 and
the dorsoventrai edge beyond the spiracle is produced outwards and backwards
into a strong, conical tooth that really includes segment 13 which is a very
short transverse piece in a plane nearly at right angles to the longitudinal axis
of pupa; the pupa is as broad at the hinder margin of 12, therefore, because of
these teeth, as anywhere else; segment 14 is all cremaster, about as broad as one-
third of 13, oblong or slightly oval-truncate, as long as 124-13, down-curved,deep
at base coming to an edge at hinder margin, concave dorsally, the concavity
bounded by well-defined, sharp edges, the sides perpendicular to dorsal portion ;
the ventral aspect flat also, the hinder margin somewhat concave, emarginate
and set with a bunch of closely-packed hooked shaftlets that are very short
and dark-rusty in colour; segment 2 is a transverse piece, straight on both
marging, rather longer than the vertex of head with a dorsal inclination to axis
584. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXX
of about 40°; thorax about 3 x the length of segment 2, evenly rounded, not very
prominently humped, the apex about half way between front and hinder |
margin (a little nearer the hinder), the hinder slope rather less than the front
slope, the hinder margin equilaterally triangular with apex rounded, the sides
meeting wings in an angle of about 45°, this angle deep although rather widely
rounded ; the dorsal outline after thorax and the ventral outline as far ag
segment 11 are practicaliy straight ; the segments are all well marked. Surface
dull except on head, thorax and wings where it is shining, slightly transverse-
aciculate; segment 10 with two thin, brown ridges parallel to each other and tc
front margin near that margin with another, shorter, near middle of segment; the
former two straight dorsally but curving back laterally and then forwards in
front of spiracle ; segment 11 similarly ridged but without the one in middle of
segment ; segments 12 and 13 with each a ridge close to front margin ; all three
segments (10, 11, 12) with hinder margin slightly raised, dirty, wrinkled,
segment 13 with it clearly ridged ; veins of wings slightly but obscurely promi-
nent. Spiracles of segment 2 longly-oval, light-brown; others narrow, three
times as long as broad, light-yellow, each about one-sixth of a segment-
length. Colour soiled light brownish-yellow except on head, thorax and wing
which are clear, watery light-green. L: 35 mm; of which cremaster is about
3mm,.; B: 8mm, at shoulders, 6 mm, at head, 7-5mm, at middle.
The whole pupa is covered with a thick coating of white, cereous powder that
is also spread over the inside of the cell.
Habits —The egg is laid on the upper surface of a leaf; the little
larva, emerging, makes a shelter by turning over a triangular portion
from edge of leaf and makes a more or less tubular cell of it, generally
at the tip. Later on it uses the whole leaf-breadth and makes a
spirally-coiled cylinder inside which it pupates. The pupa is strongly
attached by the tail and shakes itself violently up and down as well
as sideways when disturbed producing a rattling noise against the
cell-surface, augmented by the - hollowness of cell, besides hissing
as stated above. The vibrations of the “rattling” are very rapid.
The larva lies inside the cell with its head turned on its side when at
res;; moves sluggishly at all times and grows rather slowly. The
butterfly flies very fast and is on the wing at dusk and at the first
dawn, visiting flowers busily upon which it settles to suck the juices.
It rests in dark places during the bright daylight. The larva feeds
upon Palmacee and has been found on Canes, Cocoanut palms, Fish-
tailed palms and others. Jt exists wherever its food is found.
The habitat of the butterfly is India, Ceylon, Burma, the Andamans,
Malay Peninsula and the Malay ee It is a common
species everywhere it exis:s.
In the pictures of this insect in Swinhoe’s Lepidoptera Indica,
vol. X, pl. 735, figs 1, la and 1b. there is no sign of any spot on
the upperside cf fore wing in the middle of inter space 1, whereas,
in very many of the specimens bred in the N. Kanara District
of the Bombay Presidency, there is such a spot, similar in
colour to the others, varying in size from a mere dot to an
obliquely-placed oval of 2mm. in length by about half the width,
slanting outwards, situated just above and touching vein l in
the direction of a line passing along the outer margin of the upper
large, discal spot and along the inner margin of the lower spot.
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA, 585
The larval cell is made by cutting or eating a piece out of one-half
of the leaf from the edge to the midmb and at an angle of 45 degrees
to the midrib from above downwards, then in a concave curve out-
wards to or nearly to a point on the same edge at right angles to the
point where the slanting line hits the midrib; the very edge of the
concavity is then brought up agamst the underside of the leaf by
degrees by starting weaving ropes across the corner where the slant-
ing line meats the concave edge, continuing outwards wiih the effecs
of bending the leaf until the cell-cylinder has its longitudinal axis at
right angles or more to the basal portion of leaf. The lower end of the
cylinder is left open, the inside 1s covered with a thin carpet of web ;
until, before changing to the pupa, the larva more or less closes it
by spinning more silk-ropes across the entrance ; it also coats the
inside with powder. Sometimes, after the cylinder is made, the
midrib is nearly gnawed through and the leat is eaten through all
round the cover (so to speak) so that the whole cell hangs just by the
midrib which connection occasionally separates with She result that
the house falls to the ground.
There is another genus Erionota with two species, thrax, (L.) and
acroleuca, (Wood-Mason and de Nicéville) which may be considered
to be butterflies of the Plains as they have been found at Kolar
(acroleuca) and the other in the Dun—this latter being hardly however,
plain country. The genus has much the same characters as Gangara
but the males have no sexual marks to distinguish them from the
females. The larva appears to be similar to that of Gangara in that
it 18 white, 1s covered wlth a waxy powder and makes a spiral cell.
The food of the caterpillar of thrax is said to be. plantain leaves, the
wild or cultivated Musa, botanically belonging to the same family,
Scitaminec, as the Gingers.
The followmg is taken direct out of Swinhoe’s Lepidoptera Indica,
vol. X, pp. 157 to 159:
Erionota thrax, (L.)—Male. Upperside: chocolate-brown with an
ochreous tint. Fore wing with three large, semihyaline, ochreous spots of
which one is semiquadrate with its outer edge excavated, filling up the outer
part of cell but not reaching its end ; another, longer, quadrate spot filling up
the middle of interspace 2, sometimes with even sides, sometimes one or other
or both sides excavated ; much smaller spot of irregular shape before the middle
of interspace 2. Hind wing without markings. Cilia of both wings grey.
Underside: pale chocolate-brown, spots of fore wing as above, the inner part
of the wing suffused with blackish-brown ; the hind wing generally uniformly
coloured, sometimes with some indistinct, brownish suffusion on its inner
portion.—Female, Like the male but larger. Antenne black, the club greyish
white on the underside ; head and body above and below and legs concolorous
with wings. Expanse up to 80mm.
Larva.—W hite covered with a waxy powder and has a black, heart-shaped
head. It lives in a shelter made of a portion of a rolled-up leaf. To make this
shelter it has to cut into the edge of the enormous leaves of the wild or cultivated
Musa or plantains, to obtain a suitable segment to be rolled up.
586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Pupa.—Whitish, covered with the same white powder as is the larva and is
hidden from view in its dining-room. The powder is of the greatest service to
the animal as, in consequence of the heavy showers of rain of the Tropics, much
water often collects in the rolled up leaf and the pupa, if not so protected, wouid
soon be drowned and rot ; as it is the powder keeps the pupa dry until the water
has dried away or dried up.
The butterfly emerges from the pupa in the afternoon at 2 or 3 p.m. and is on
the wing before sunrise or after sunset (de Nicéville and Martin).
Habitat.—India, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Hong-
kong. .
Distribution.—A species widely spread al! over India ; we have it from many
parts; it does not appear to occur in Ceylon or the Andaman or Nicobar
Islands.
As yet it has not been obtained in the Bombay Presidency.
Erionota acroleuca (W-M. & de N.).—Male. Upperside dark-brown
somewhat olive-brown of an entirely different shade of colour to that of thraz.
Fore wing with apex. pale, generally ashy-white; spotting similarly to thraz,
Hind wing without markings. Cilia dusky at apex of fore wing, gradually becom-
ing pale-yellow towards the hinder margin and all pale-yellow on the hind wing.
Underside very little paler than on the upperside, purple-tinted in parts, making
the surface somewhat variegated ; markings as in thrax. Antenne black, club
on the underside pure-white, the terminal crook red beneath ; palpi, head and
body above and below and legs concolorous with wings. Eyes red. Female-
like the male, the spots larger. Expanse up to 60mm.
Habdbitat.—Sikkim, Assam, Andamans, Nicobars, 8. India.
Distribution —The types from the Andamans are in the Indian Museum,
Calcutta. We have it from the Khasia Hills and from Kolar, South India. The
type of larva came from the Nicobars ; de Nicéville records it from Sikkim,
(To be continued.)
Journ. BomBay Nat.Hist. Soc.
Vases £
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John Bale,Sons & Danielsson, U4
|, Natrix nigriventer. 2, Natrix gilhodesi.
587
TWO NEW BURMESE SNAKES.
BY
F. WALL, C.M.G., K.H.S., COLONEL, I.M.S.
(With a Plate.)
In a small collection of snakes sent to me from Huton, Bhamo District
430 miles north-east of Bhamo ; circa 4,500 feet ; Lat. circa 97° °33 ; Long. circa
24°-24), I find two species that are new to Science. I propose to call one of
these after the Revd. Father Gilhodes, to whom my thanks are due for the
~ specimens, all of which were coliected in June 1924.
Natrix gilhodesit spec. nov.
g is
No less than six specimens of this well defined species came to hand. That
selected as the type may be described as follows.
Length— $518 mm. (1 foot 84 inches) ; tail 175 mm. (7 inches).
Lepidosis—Rostral : Depth about three-fourths its breadth; hardly visible
from above; the rostro-internasal, and rostro-nasal sutures subequal, and longer
than the rostro-labials. Jniernasals: Two; truncate anteriorly; the suture
between them slightly less than that between the praefrontals, Praefrontals;
Two; the suture between them hardly half the length of the frontal. Swupra-
oculars: Length rather less than the praefrontal and internasal taken together,
three-fifths the parietals. Breadth about two-fifths the frontal along a line
connecting the centres of the eyes. Frontal: Length rather greater than its
‘distance to the end of the snout, two-thirds the parietals. Nasals:
Divided. Loreal: Three-fifths the length of the nasals. Praeocular: One.
Postoculars: Three. Temporals: 2+1+2. (Inall other specimens 1+1-+2.)
Supralabials : 9; the lst and 2nd touching the nasals ; 4th, 5th and 6th the eye ;
7th and 8th the anterior temporal. IJnfralabials: 7; the 5th, 6th and 7th
touching the posterior sublinguals. 7th about three-fifths the length of,
and rather broader than the posterior sublinguals. Sublinguals: Two pairs;
the posterior rather the longer and separated by 1+1-+2 scales, succeeded by
a narrow Ist ventral. Costals: In 19 rows two heads-lengths behind the head,
19 at midbody, 17 two heads-iengths before the vent. The reduction of rows
from 19 to 17 takes place about three or four heads-iengths behind midbody,
-and is due to the fusion of the 3rd and 4th rows above the ventrals. Keeled
to the penultimate row at midbody. Slightly emarginate apically. No lateral
facets. Vertebrals. Breadth about two-thirds their length, three-fifths the
ultimate row. Ultimate row. Breadth about two-thirds their length.
Ventrals: 157, Anal: Divided. Subcaudals: 110, divided.
Colouration—Dorsally dark brown, with an ill-defined, reddish stripe on the
-5th and 6th rows above the ventrals where the rows are 19, and on the 4th and
dth where 17. This begins near the neck and ends at the vent. Ventrally
whitish, the edges of the ventrals brown as on dorsum. Top of head dark
brown leaving an interrupted white moustachial stripe., which is continued
--interruptedly to the side of the neck. In general appearance it reminds me
forcibly of Natrix khasiensis.
Dentition—Maxillary 26, anododont, syncranterian, coryphodont; the
last three teeth distinctly enlarged and subequal. Palatine: 15 on left side
16 on right; anododont, isodont. Pterygoid : 27 left, 15 right; anododont
feebly kumatodont. Mandibular: 30 on left side, 29 right ; anododont, feebly
kumatodont.
__ Remarks.—The other five specimens agree except in the following points :—
The ventrals vary from 147 to 157, and the subcaudals from 97 to 110. In all
11
588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XX X.
the temporals are 1+1-+2. In one specimen there are dubiously two praeocu-.
lars. One has only two postoculars on both sides and another on one side only..
The 4th and 5th supralabials are confluent in one example, making the total.
8, of which the 4th and 5th only touch the eye.
The greatest length is that of a 9 +z. 530 mm. (1 foot 9 inches) ; the tail 17
mm. (7 inches). The colour in one has a marked ruddy tinge dorsally. One
measuring 478 mm.(1 foot 6§ inches) was egg-bound, and contained one elongate.
egg 31x 6 mm. (14 j of an inch).
Natrix (7) nigriventer spec. nov.
This species is represented by a single specimen which is probably juvenile.
Being unique and small I have preferred not to risk damage to it by an investi-~
gation of the maxillary teeth; but place it provisionally in the genus Natrizx.
It was captured in June 1924 at Huton, Bhamo Dist. Length. 318 mm.
(123 inches); tail 112 mm. (4 inches). ,
Lepidosis.—Rostral: Depth about three-fifths its breadth; hardly visible
from above; the rostro-nasal and rostro-labial sutures equal, and rather greater
than the rostro-internasals. Internasals: Two; truncate anteriorly. The
suture between them equal to that between the praefrontals. Praefrontals 3.
Two. Supraoculars: Length a shade less than the praefrontals and internasals.
taken together, rather less than the frontal, three-fifths the parietals. Breadth.
about two-fifths the frontal along a line connecting the centres of the eyes.
Frontal: A little longer than its distance to the end of the snout, two-thirds:
the parietals. Nasals: Divided. Loreal: About three-fourths the length
of the nasals. Praeoculars: Two. Postoculars: Three. Temporals ; 1+1+2..
Supralabials, 9; the 1st and 2nd touching the nasals; 4th, 5th and 6th the eye ;
7th and 8th the anterior temporal. Infralabials: 7 on the right side; 8 on the.
left, the last about half as long and about as broad as the posterior sublinguals.
Sublinguals; The posterior pair rather longer than the anterior, and in contact.
with the 5th, 6th and 7th on the right side, the 6th, 7th and 8th on the left.
Entirely separated by 1+3 small scales which are succeeded by a pair before the
Ist ventral. Costals: In 17 rows in the whole body length; keeled to penultimate.
row at midbody; emarginate apically ; with no.(?) lateral facets. Vertebrals.
About three-fifths their length, three-fifths the breadth of the ultimate row..
Ultimate row. Breadth of scales subequal to their length. Ventrals: 157.
Anal: Divided. Subcaudals: 127. Divided. Colouration: Dorsally blackish-.
brown. A dull ochraceous stripe on the 5th row above the ventrals, interrupted
to form a macular chain in the neck and forebody, and continuing on to the base.
of the tail. A largish, ochraceous spot behind the 9th supralabial not meeting:
its fellow over the nape. Ventrally uniform blackish-brown with throat and
chin dirty yellowish mesially. Head blackish above with obscure lighter vermi-
culations. Upper and lower labials with blackish posterior margins. A dull
ochraceous oblique streak on the posterior temporal, and upper half of last.
labial.
589
NOTES ON CHAROPHYTES FROM GONDA, U. P.
BY
G. O. Auten, I.C.S.
(With 5 plates.)
With such a brief acquaintance with this group of plants [ have only ventured
to publish these notes in the Journal from the fact that nothing of the sort
has previously appeared therein. The occasion may perhaps be opportune
owing to the recent publication by Mr. James Groves, F.L.8., the well known
expert on this group, of a paper ‘‘ Notes on Indian Charophyta ” in the
Linnean Society’s Journal (Botany vol. xlvi, April 1924). This will be of
the greatest value to any who have studied these plants at all out here and
will no doubt stimulate fresh interest in them. The key to the Indian species
will also prove of much assistance, particularly in a country where
botanical literature is often not readily available.
In the Introduction to “ British Charophyta”’ by Groves ana Bullock-Webster
there is a remark that “‘ it may be safely conjectured that the majority of well
informed people are not even aware of their existence.” If this is the case in
England it applies with still greater force, I imagine, to India where compara-
tively few have any out-door tastes other than games and sport. It will be
obvious that the following notes are meant as an elementary introduction for
those who are more or less unacquainted with the subject and as a record of a few
personal observations.
It will be as well to commence by touching briefly on the general features of
these plants, generalisations being meant to apply to species found in India.
They comprise a small group of cryptogams of entirely aquatic habits and can
be fairly easily recognised at sight by their green colour (though this is sometimes
rather obscured by incrustation of lime) and the whorled arrangement of the
branchlets. Their structure is so unique as to separate them off clearly from all
other groups of plants and botanists have now elevated them, though so inferior
numericaily, to equal rank along with the four great divisions of the vegetable
kingdom.
Beautiful as many of these plants are to the naked eye it is not until they are
seen under the microscope as well that their full charms are revealed. It is this
combination of field work with plenty of scope for examination at home that
makes their study so attractive. Judging from the paucity oi published records
these plants seem to have attracted singularly little attention as yet from bota-
nists in India with the result that there is a wide field for interesting ‘‘ finds ”’.
Of several recorded species further material is badly needed for expert examina-
tion. The total number of species recorded in the world is estimated to be not
much over 200. This neglect in India may doubtless be partly attributed to
their having, sofar as I am aware, no economic value as yet and partly also to
the scarcity of literature on the subject (most of which is unfortunately in Ger-
man) and the consequent difficulty in identifying the different species. The work
referred to above, British Charophyta, (by the Ray Society ) will be founa
extremely useful even for Indian workers, the Introduction being particularly
instructive. It also contains a full glossary of terms used in connection with this
group. I may mention here that I shall be glad to receive specimens from any
locality and send others in exchange and at the same time render any little
assistance that I can.
Among the most striking characteristics of this group are the simplicity of
their general structure and the large size of their cells, which incidentally show
cyclosis extremely well, combined with the extremely complicated structure of
590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
the reproductive organs. It is this latter peculiarity which is the main ground
for their separation from the Algae,the division to which they are otherwise most
allied. A remarkable fact about the oogonium (the female organ) differing as
it doesfrom that of any other plant is that it has persisted in its present form
from at least Oolitic, if not Carboniferous times. Owing to the affinity of these
plants for lime numerous fossil fruits and also parts of stems of various species
of Chara and also of a Niiella have been found in a.wonderfully good state of
preservation, considering the frail nature of the plant in the living state. The
study of fossil Charophy tes is only in its infancy. Use has been made of them for
zonal work.
Charophytes are partial to still or very slowly running clean and usually shal-
low water, They are always entirely submerged except where by accident they
may find themselves in a rapidly drying pool but they do not flourish out of their
element. Where they occur they often form the chief feature of the aquatic
vegetation of the spot. They are partial to sunlight. The Charas in particular
often grow in great dense masses. Charophy tes however are not adapted to
put up much of a fight against more aggressive types of water plants though the
incrustation of lime which is a common feature in some genera is considered to
be an effort on the part of the plant to strengthen its position in life. The large
shallow open jhils of Northern India appear to be well adapted to the needs of
these plants while flooded rice fields appear particularly favourable surroundings
for the smaller species. The more vigorous growers often suffer from over-
crowding, finer specimens being obtained where the plants have more room to
spread themselves.
A few hints on collecting may not be out of place, Charophytes prefer to grow
as arule in soft mud. Wading is the best means of gathering them, a method
often quite feasible in Indian waters. Where the water is deep the grapple and
line may have to be resorted to but this is apt to cause much damage to the
material collected and entails much patience in disentangling the frailer species.
Good specimens in fruit should be carefully selected and dug up
entire by hand. They should then be washed gently in order to remove
the larger portions of extraneous attachments, the fine mud from
the rooting portion being easily separated by gentle hand pressure while
the plant is floating in the water. They should not be jumbled up
anyhow but the more delicate kinds brought home in glass tubes filled with
water and the larger ones either in an earthenware pot with a large mouth or in
a vasculum of the ordinary type. In the hot weather they shrivel up extremely
quickly if not kept in water. The assistance of a companion often comes in
handy for carrying the pot as both hands are generally wanted for the prelimi-
nary process of cleaning and gathering and when wading there is nowhere to put
any thing down. The importance of obtaining some ripe fruit cannot be insisted
on too strongly as it is sometimes practically impossible todetermine a species with
any certainty without an examination under the microscope of the ripe oospore
the membrane of which often bears a characteristic design. In the case of dice-
cious species specimens of both sexes should of course be taken. On getting
home it is as well to go through ones gatherings carefully as a delicate species
whose presence is unsuspected may sometimes lurk among the stouter kinds.
Specimens which it is desired to mount dry should be dealt with as soon as
possible. The gathering should be placed in a white basin and the selected
portions there freed as far as possible from Algae and other forms of “‘rubbish.”’
The very robust species can then be arranged on mounting paper and the surplus
water allowed to drain off. It is not always desirable to separate each stem,
often a most tedious task : a loose clump arranged in as natural a position as
possible generally best illustrates the manner of growth. They should be
covered with a piece of clean linen or calico to prevent the plant adhering to the
drying paper. A few sheets of newspaper serve the purpose of drying paper
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NOTES ON CHAROPHYTES FROM GONDA, U. P. 591
extremely well. Some weight should be placed on the plants according to the
nature of their build. Some of the stouter Charas require very considerable
pressure, the delicate Nitellas only a little. The secret of success is to remove
the linen at latest the next day. The old newspaper is then replaced by dry
pieces, the plant being left as itis on the white paper mount. Even with the
robust forms a little manipulation with the needle either before pressing or an
hour or two later when the plants are half dry will often improve the arrange-
ment but in the majority of cases and especially with the delicate forms such as
Nitellas a different procedure has to be adopted. After being cleaned in the
same way the specimens must be floated on to the mounting sheet which should
be supported on a sheet of perforated zinc, a most valuable aid in getting the
plants to assume a natural position. A small oblong zine tank with sloping
sides about three inches high and just large enough to enable the perforated zinc
to be easily removed considerably adds to ones comfort. The water should not.
be deeper than is really necessary. This process is occasionally rather a tedious
task but the beautiful results that mayoften be obtained in this way fully repay
the trouble bestowed. The rest of the procedure is the same as already
described.
A few Nitellas have a mucilaginous jelly-like coating over them, particularly
over the younger shoots and even the Charas sometimes have sticky globules of
Algae firmly adhering to them. In such cases a piece of oil cloth must be substi«
tuted for the linen. This jelly coating presumably serves to protect the young
parts and reproductive organs in some way. When one comes to mount for
example a specimen of NV. hyalina one finds it a mass of particles of dirt which it
is very cifficult to detach.
After the drying is completed with several changes of newspaper the plants
can be secured to the mounting sheet by little pieces of transparent gummed
paper. Nitellas are often sufficiently fastenea by the pressure during drying
and require nothing further. A safer method, though it takes much more time,
is to paint over the plant with gum and then turn the whole sheet over on top
of the final mounting paper and detach the original sheet, damping the back of
the latter in places if found necessary for its removal. I have not personally
tried this method but beautiful mounts are thus obtainable and unless very care-
fuily stored and handled specimens only fastened with gummed paper are likely
to getdamaged. Hach sheet should have a label attached and a number assigned
for each separate gathering.
What is not required for mounting dry can either be grown in glass jars for
purposes of observation or to obtain ripe fruit or if already in this condition
some may be kept in tubes of weak formalin for mounting portions as micros-
copical slides or as a reserve for distributing or exchanging specimens. Immature
specimens as well should be mounted dry and some kept in fluid.
Lime incrustation sometimes assumes a curious form. In some Charophytes
especially Nitellas and the ecorticate Charas, though I have found it also in C.
zeylanica a corticate species, the incrustation is annular. This takes somewhat
different forms : in some the bands are wide, in others mere rings.
Ordinarily a 2 per cent. solution of formalin is quite strong enough for preserv-
ing Charophytes satisfactorily. This is readily made by mixing one part of the
usual 40 per cent. formalin with 19 parts of water. |
In mounting for the miscroscope it will often be necessary to soak the selected
portion for a few minutes in dilute nitric or hydrochloric acid to remove the
lime. This destroys of course the beautiful green colour of the plant but it is
often impossible to make anything of the structure withcut the specimen being
subjected to this process. After the acid has been washed away with water the
specimen must be carefully cleaned with a camel’s hair brush to remove the
Algae and multifarious small animals that often infest these plants.
When the portion being mounted has ripe fruit on it the greatest care has to be
\
592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
taken not to dislodge it as the ripe oogonia are only loosely attached at this
stage. Plants in thiscondition are frequently very dirty but it is often better
not to attempt too much cleaning:‘rather than risk spoiling the specimen. Very
delicate attention with a fine brush and the needle is all that can be done. (It
is desirable of course to mount specimens in different stages : for it is often much
easier to make out the structure with young shoots.) The specimen can then
be mounted straight away in formalin or more satisfactorily in dilute or pure
glycerine. A mixture of equal parts of glycerine and water is often employed.
With the more delicate species much care has to be exercised in adding the gly-
cerine to avoid the cells collapsing. This is a matter of experience. It is safer
as a rule to let the object soak for twenty-four hours at a time in successively
stronger solutions of glycerine. This may be effected by mounting in formation
and putting a drop or two of glycerine on the slip on either side and leaving it to
find its way gradually under the cover glass: when this soaks in as the formalin .
dries up more glycerine can be added in the same way. A mixture of one part
rectifiea spirit, two glycerine and three water often works well as a start. The
mounts can then be sealed in the usual way with gold size, either a built up cell
being employed or in the case of stout specimens vulcanite or rubber ones. It is
not of course necessary to seal up the mountsif they are not likely to be con-
stantly removed from place to place. The specimens may be simply kept soaked
in glycerine with a cover glass lightly placed on top. This enables them to be
freely examined at any time though dust cannot be easily removed from the
cover glass,
Before commencing to describe the different parts of a charophyte I insert
here a simple guide to the genera found in India as reference will be made to it
in what follows:
NITELLEA—Coronula of ten cells in two tiers ; branchlets usually furcate :
ecorticate.
1. Nitella—Antheridia apical in the furcations (several species).
2. Tolypella—Antheridia lateral at branchlet nodes (three species).
CHAREA—Coronula of five cells in one tier.
3. Nitellopsis—No stipulodes : branchlets of two or three very long seg-
ments : very long bract cells (one or two to the branchlet) : ecorti-
cate : (one species).
4. Lychnothamnus—Long stipulodes: stem corticate, branchlets ecorti-
cate: gametangia side by side, one oogonium between two
antheridia : (one species).
5. Chara—Stipulodes always present, sometimes rudimentary : branchlet,
never furcate: stem and branchlets either corticate or ecorticates
oogonium above the antheridium : (many species).
It will be seen from the above that Charophytes are divided into two families
the Nitellee and the Charee which are distinguished by the nature of the coro-
nula (a little structure crowning the oogonium) though the two chief genera,
Nitella and Chara, will be readily recognised by other characteristics. The
other three genera differ so markedly from Nitella and Chara that it will be as
well for the most part to describe them separately. Up to the present sixteen
species of Nitella have been recorded from India, fifteen of Chara and three of
Tolypella while the other two genera comprise but one species each.
The most important parts of the plant to be studied, under the microscope in
particular, are the stem, the branches, the stipulodes, the branchlets and the
reproductive organs.
BRANCHES,
There will be no difficulty in recognising the fact that the stem consists of nodes
and internodes. At the nodes are produced the branches, usually one at a node
NOTES ON CHAROPHYTES FROM GONDA, U. P. 593
in Chara, two in Nitella and several in Tolypella : they resemble the stem and are
‘of unlimited growth. It is at the nodés also that the whorls of branchlets are
given off and at the base of these latter the stipulodes if present are found. The
reproductive organs are borne on the branchlets.
STIPULODES,
The stipulodes may be considered first. They are one celled organs. varying
much in size from mere rudiments to a substantial length, though always much
shorter than the branchlets, and form a single or double circle which will easiiy
be made out under the microscope. It is important to note that stipulodes are
only found in Lychnothamnus barbatus and all species of the genus Chara. It
will be seen that for the purposes of classification the primary division oi this
genus is into those species with one and those with two circles of stipulodes.
Where there is a double row the upper one points upwards and the lower one
downwards. Normally the number of stipulodes where the circle consists of
two rows is in each row double the number of branchlets while if there is only
a single row the number may be the same as or double the number of branchlets.
It may not be always easy at first to make out the number but for purposes of
identification it is ordinarily sufficient simply to determine whether the row is
a double or a single one. (See plate I Fig. 1.)
STEM,
In treating of the stem we come to one of the most characteristic features of a
charophyte, namely the cortex. This calls for close study as much of the classi-
fication of the genus Chara is based on it and the details of structure are some
what difficult to make out at first. It occurs in the branchlet as well but I am
only referring just now to the stem cortex. A stem cortex is found in Lychno-
thamnus and all the species of Chara (except the three largest in which the stem
and branchlets are entirely ecorticate).
The cortex is a sheath of cells covering the internodes of the stem. This
sheath consists of a number of longitudinal rows of cells lying alongside one
another and normally entirely hiding the original stem thus giving it a regularly
Striped appearance. These rows of cortical cells are produced in a remarkable
manner, At each stem whorl two circles of cortex cells start growing one up-
wards and the other downwards, the cortex of each internode being theretore
the joint production of cells which starting from the nodes immediately above
and below grow in opposite directions till they meet about the middle of the inter-
node, The primary rows (figs. 2 and 3) of cortical cells themselves consist of
alternating nodes and internodes, ‘These internodes go on increasing in length
while the nodes do not. The latter however increase laterally (it is this struc-
ture that calls for careful examination) but these outgrowths on either side of
the node become at once elongated and take their place alongside the original
row (the primary cortical series) to form the secondary cortical series. If the
species under observation be one that bears spines the primary series will be at
once distinguished as the spines are produced at the cortex nodes which as
already stated occur in the primary series only.
These secondary cells vary in length in different species. Where they are
about the same length as the internodes of the primary series it follows that they
occupy the whole of the rows immediately on either side of the primary row and
consequently between any pair of adjacent primary rows there will be two rows
of secondary cells, one arising from each of the respective primary rows. This
kind of cortex is called Triplostichous because for every branchlet there are
three rows of cortical cells, the centre one being the primary row and the two
others, one on either side of it, the secondary rows, This may sound rather
complicated butareference to the diagrammatic figure (see Plate I fig. 2) will
I hope, help to make the structure clear,
594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
In another type of stem cortex the. secondary cells are only about half the-
length of the internodes of the primary row and hence there is room for the-
secondary cells to accommodate. themselves in one row between two primary
rows, this one secondary row being built up of cells arising partly from the.
primary row on one side of it and partly from the primary row on the other
side of it. This kind of cortex is called Diplostichous since for every branchlet
there are two rows of corticate cells, one primary and one secondary. This type
is easier to make out than the former one as there is more space round the
stem for the rows which are consequently rather wider. (see Plate 1 fig. 3.)
So long as the ends of these secondary cells are squarish they fit on top of one
another like stones in a column and recognising whether the cortex is triplos-
tichous or diplostichous presents no serious difficulties. An intermediate
arrangement however occurs when the ends of the secondary cells taper and over-
lap the ones above and below them. Under these circumstances a transverse.
section of the stem would sometimes show two secondary rows and sometimes
only one between an adjacent pa‘r of primary rows. This condition is known,
as sub-tripiostichous, It isnot very common but judging from my own experi-
ence it is the most difficult to make out. In one species of Chara,—C. can-
escens, recorded from Quetta there is no secondary cortex: the same applies to.
Lychnothamnus barbatus. The cortex is then known as MHaplostichous.
This is of course the easiest type of ali to distinguish. Usually the cortical cells
are contiguous: in L. barbatus there are spaces between them, —
In examining the structure of the cortex cutting transverse sections will afford
both interest and assistance, particularly in determining the relative sizes of
the cells in the two series. In some species they are of equal size: in others
either may be the larger. This question of relative size is of importance for
purposes of classification. If the primary cells are the more prominent (they
may be distinguished as stated above by the spines if they happen to be present
or by the nodes) the condition is known as Tylacanthous the spines appearing
to be situated on ridges. If the reverse, it is called Aulacanthous the spines
appearing to lie in furrows. It is not always easy by any means to make out
the relative size of these cells of the two series from every portion of the stem.
The specimen has often to be searched under the microscope until a suitable
portion is found that will settle the point. A young portion of the stem shows
this best.
The stem of a Charophyte is often subject to torsion : the cortex where present
follows the twist of the stem, which always ascends from left to right and thus
in the opposite direction to the spiral in the oogonium. Spines are a second
form of outgrowth from the cortical cell nodes. They vary considerably
in size and generelly single. Those arising nearest the stem nodes are
usually larger and tend to point towards the middle of the internode 2.e.,
those on the descending cortex point downwards and those on the ascending
upwards. Asa rule stipulodes spines and bract cells in any species agree
in being well developec or otherwise. A remarkable exception is N. obtusa
which has extremely long single bracts but no stipulodes and naturally no
spines, the stem being ecorticate.
In this connection a passmg reference may be made to the rooting system.
When the oospore begins to germinate there are formed the pro-embryo from
-the node of which the stem starts and the primary root. The latter elongates
and forms nodes at which rhizoids are produced. Rhizoids are also formed at
the lowest nodes of the stem. The rooting part of the plant appears white
as it contains no chlorophyll, Its only purpose is to attach the plant to the
mud.
Bulbils may also be briefly noticed. They are reserves of starch formed at
the lower stem nodes and root nodes. ‘They consist as a rule of a large spherical
NOTES ON CHAROPHYTES FROM GONDA, U.P. | 595
cell proceeding from a root node only or a roundish mass of small cells at the
stem nodes, They have only been recorded in the case of a few species but may
often have been overlooked. Personally I have only noticed stem bulbils v7z.,
on C. zeylanica.
BRANCHLETS,
Branchiets as already mentioned arise at the stem nodes in whorls and are one
of the most obvious features of a Charophyte. The branchlets it will be remem-
bered bear the reproductive organs, In the Miiellewe and in MNitellopsis the num-
ber is usually six while in the restit varies from seven to sixteen. All the branch-
lets in any whorl are as a rule similar (the genus Tolypella and N. hyalina form
exceptions). In the older parts of the plant they decay just as the leaves of a
iand plant do. In the youngest parts they tend to curve inwards or be closely
addressed to the stem whilst as they grow they open out, the ends pointing up-
wards though not necessarily in a stift and regular manner. It will be sufficient
to pay particular attention at first to the differences between the branchlets in
the genera Chara and Nitella. Nittellopsis and the species of T'olypella present
considerable modifications and the first finds are more likely to consist of a Chara
or a Nitella,
The branchlet in Chara (as also incidentally in Z. barbatus) consists of three
or more nodes and internodes after the manner of the stem though the growth
is in this case limited and at each node there is a whorl of one-celled bract cells.
These latter are usuaily shorter on the outer side of the branchlet and vary a
good deal in shape and size in the different species.
In Nitella the antheridium or male reproductive organ is terminally situated
instead of laterally as in Chara with the result that at the node a furcation into
two or more lateral members occurs, though it by no means follows that there is
always an antheridium at every furcation. These lateral members may furcate
again at their nodes and further lateral members be formed. An original branch-
let may thus divide up into a number of forks. This furcation is characteristic
of a Nitella and will at once serve to distinguish it from a Chara and all other
genera. A pine tree with its branchlets and tufts of slender needles and dotted
about with cones sometimes reminds me of a gigantic Nitella. The ultimate
rays of the final fureation are called dactyls. These dactyls may be one celled
(as in NV. acuminata and N. mirabilis) or more usually two celled or occasionally
three.
The nature of the furcation is of importance for purposes of classification.
Species differ in the number of furcations, in the number of rays given off at these
_ points and in the nodes where reproductive organs are found as well as in the
shape and structure of the dactyls. The branchlets at each stem whorl are
similar in every species except N. hyalina which may be at once identified by
there being two different kinds, a long and a short (actually arranged in one
circle of long branchlets and two of short). In Nittellopsis the branchlet has
generally only one node and instead of a whorl of short bract cells there are pro-
duced one or two long though still one celled bract cells on the inner side of the
branchlet.
In Tolypella there are sterile branchlets as well. These are simple 1.e., no
furcations of any kind. The fertile branchlets consist of one or two cells followed
by a node and then by several elongated cells. At the node of the branchlet
instead of one celled bracts being produced there occur members made up of a
pane of cells. This all makes the branchlet of Tolypella a more complicated
affair,
¢ BRANCHLET CORTEX.
In nearly ail the species of Chara the branchlets are also corticate though the
cortex is simpler than that of the stem, There is no division into primary aud
12
596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY; NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
secondary cortex and there are no cortical nodes and internodes or spines, The
branchlet cortex is formed in .the same way as the stem cortex 7.e., a ring of
cells starts from one node and grows downwards tc meet a similar ring growing
upwards from the node below. These rings meet more or less evenly in the
middle of the internode. Generally there are two cortical cells to each bract
cell with the result that the bract cell lies opposite the dividing line between
two cortical cells. In some Indian species the branchlet cortex is triplostichous
1.e., three cortical cells to each bract which is consequently opposite the middle
one of the three. In a very few Indian species the lowest branchlet segment is
ecorticate and in some cases the branchlets are entirely ecorticate although the
stem has a cortex. In the younger parts of a plant it sometimes happens that
the segments towards the free end of the branchlet have no cortex. This is often
the case with C. contraria, a feature which is regarded as rather characteristic
of the plant.
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.
We now come to the remarkable reproductive organs, the antheridium and
oogonium, ‘These are situated on the branchlets at the nodes and sometimes
also at the base of the branchlet. Their actual position differs in the various
genera. In Nitellathe antheridium :s solitary (Except in N. mirabilis where
they are in clusters) and situated terminaily at the end of a brancnhiet
ray and the oogonia are laterally placed at tne same spot but
below the antueridium. In one species, N. mirabilis, which is dioecious, the
reproductive organs are both staiked. In Tolypella the antheridium is also soli-
tary but both it and the oogonium are laterally placed. The organs being rather
crowded it is not always easy to see how they lie in this genus. In Chara the
antheridium and oogonium are placed together laterally on the inside of the
branchlet, the former below the latter. The antheridium is a very remarkable
organ. It is spherical in shape and the outside consists of eight convex shields
with much indented margins which fit into those of the adjoining shields. At
the centre of the inner surface of each shield there is an elongated cell like a
handle that is directed towards the centre of the antheridium. This is styled
the manubrium. At the free end of it are attached a large number of filaments
which contain antherozoids, If an antheridium be crushed on the microscope
stage these filaments will easily be discerned in any number and the beautifully
marked shields will be also more clearly displayed. These antheridia are
very conspicuous objects to the naked eye being brightly coloured in orange or
red,
The oogonium is also a wonderful and beautiful object. It consists of an inner
oosphere surrounded by an envelope of five elongated cells. These cells are more
or less straight in the early stages but soon become spiral always-ascending from
right to left. At the top of the envelope a little crown aptly termed the coronula
is formed. In Nitella and Tolypella this coronula consists of a double tier, each
tier composed of five cells. In all the other genera there is a single tier of five
cells. This forms a distinguishing mark between the two main divisions of
_ Charophytes.
As the oogonium ripens it becomes sperical or ovoid in shape and the oosphere
turns as a rule reddish brown or black in colour. After fertilisation which is
effected through an opening at, or near the top, of the oogonium the oosphere
becomes an oospore and the enveloping cells disappear except along their lines
of union which thus form a series of spiral ridges. The oospore is full of starch
and fat granules. Surrounding it are a number of thin membranes, some colour-
ed some colourless. The outer coloured membrane generally has some kind of
decoration on it which often serves as a useful guide in distinguishing different
species, Most Charophytes are moncecious though a few are dicecious.
T come at last to the particular title of this paper. Gonda is the headquarters
of the district of that name and is about seventy miles N. E. of Lucknow 7.e., in
(‘ozIs TRangeuU JTVY URY} Sse] 19049” 47)
‘d ‘q ‘anduvieyeg ye spuod morpeys ut poyooqfoo suoutosdg
"JPIISPION SaprqnswU 07709 N “UNI DIDUUNIN 117990 NT
e e é
d ‘() “LOIMLSIGQ VONO WON SALAHAONVHD
"tl 93¥id "90S °3S5IH '32EN AeCqwog “usnor
Plate Ill.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
CHAROPHYTES FROM Gonpa District, U. P.
bo. a? HERB GO) ALLIES
‘ees A ke fe Peaks te. : Gan ef.
Sid fa ke
tek Kudo wo frees s g? £ dea dom.
£2.62°83 MAA,
$
Qhara Braunii Gmel.
(Rather less than half natural size.)
NOTES ON CHAROPHYTES FROM‘GONDA, U. P. E97
the North of Oudh, the latitude and longitude being about 26 N. and 82 E., res-
pectively. This area lies between the Ghogra river and the outer Himalayas,
Nepal forming the Northern boundary. The district is fringed along this latter
border with forests but it is of the less picturesque portions that I write. Over
6 per cent.of the whole being under water the district is well suited for the study
of aquatic vegetation and from my brief experience a particularly favourabie
one for Charophytes.
Though strictly outside the scope of my subject, I may be excused if I mention
my first experiences. In 1920 I had the good fortune, whilst on leave, to meet
Mr. Groves and finding he had been studying Charophytes for a great number
of years I suggested that perhaps I might be able to send him some material on
my return to India. It was not till I happened to pay a brief visit to Sirinagar
a year later about the end of September 1921 that finding these plants numerous
in the Dhal Lake I collected a few and despatched them to Mr. Groves on the off
chance of their proving of interest to him. In due course I was delighted to find
that my first gathering included (in addition to ZL. barbatus and C. fragilis
specimens both ¢ and 2 of N. obtusa in excellent condition. Prior to this
the plant had only been put down with an element of doubt as Asiatic on the
strength of a specimen without gametangia of either kind that had been collected
in Upper Burma twenty nine years before. My specimens thus definitely settled
the species as Asiatic, previous records with the exception of the Burma one
having come from Europe only. This early success stimulated me to further
efforts on my return to Gonda. During the cold weather of 1921-22 I found
several species in this district, my special prize being VN. mirabilis. This plant
had not been recorded trom India before : in fact it had only been mentioned in
MS. by Dr. Nortsted from a specimen found in China in 1908. It is a most beauti-
ful plant, the remarkable feature being the clusters of long stalked gametangia.
My collecting ended with the approach of the hot weather about March and I
commenced again towards the end of the rains in September and continued
throughout the cold weather of 1922-23 till I left India on leave in March, I
found several fresh species that I had not come across the previous year this
being partly due to my starting collecting rather earlier. My most important
“finds ’” were C. wallichii, Tolypella prolifera and WN. batrachosperma. C.
wallichit had only been recorded once before namely by Dr. Wallich in 1809
and then only the male plant. I found both sexes and the 9 has now been
described by Mr. Groves in his recent paper. 7’. prolifera had not been recorded
from India before, the only other Asiatic record being from China.
The delicate little N. batrachosperma had also not been recorded from India
before.
The full list of species that I found in Gonda is as follows: WN. mirabilis,
N. acuminata, N. mucronata, N. batrachosperma, N. hyalina, T. prolifera, L.
barbatus, C. wallichit, C. eorallina, C, braunti, C. gymnopitys, OC. hydropitys,
C. contraria, C. fragilis, C. brachypus, and C. zeylanica.
I have included C. gymnopitys though it cannot be said with certainty whe-
ther it was this species or C. flaccida owing to the specimens that I gathered
having no ripe fruit on them. Under C. flaccida there is a passage in the Notes
on Indian Charophyta as follows ‘*‘ The golden brown ripe oospores afford the
only character that I know of to distinguish this from the next species and in
many specimens which have passed through our hands the fruit was immature.”
The “‘ next species ’’ referred to is C. gymnopitys in which the ripe oospores are
black. My impression is that my specimens were more probably ©. gymnopitys.
That I should have been able to add a few new records for India and gather
sixteen species in so short a time in Gonda goes to show what a little explored
field there is here calling for study. The main structures can be readily made
out under a low power and there is also plenty of field work to be done as
598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
many points about these plants can only be satisfacterily settled by a study of
them on the spot.
My collecting was nearly all done in flooded rice fields and a shallow jhil (a
depression below an old river bank) within a mile of my bungalow with occasional
visits to the river Tehri which winds about not far away. This fascinating
stream takes its rise in the neighbouring district of Bahraich and is fed by the
waters of the great Baghel Tal at Pyagpur. It flows deep and sluggish in a well
defined narrow bed fringed by swampy ground and has numerous more or less
stagnant backwaters that are utilised as rice fields in the rainy season. It was
these swamps and offshoots that I found so rich in Charophytes. The moist
area of the district also contains numerous horse shoe shaped jhils that mark
the old beds of meandering streams but I did not find any opportunity to search
them : in fact I found my available time fully occupied by frequent visits to two
or three spots near at hand. And there was nearly always something fresh to
note: for one peculiar feature that I noticed was the rapid way the different
species succeeded one another. One or two continued throughout the cold
weather but several disappeared after a short time although flourishing freely
for a while. These rapid changes may perhaps be attributed to differences in
temperature (for the cold weather sometimes sets in quite suddenly) or to some
of the earlier localities getting dried up. The only species I found in the cold
weather of 1921-22 that I failed to find the following cold season was. C. Braunii
but Charophytes are often very capricious in their appearance. Very roughly
the periods during which I found the different species to last are as follows :—
(The numbers prefixed are taken from the key to the species in “ Notes on
Indian Charophyta ” by Mr. Groves.)
Stagnant water is the natural habitat for Charophytes. I think the only
species I found growing in water that had an appreciable current was C, waili-
chit a powerfully built plant. One or two species seemed to be confined to parti-
cular spots. For instance 7’. prolifera, I only came across in a shallow pool near
the jhil and it was in evidence for a very short time. N. mirabilis too, I found
growing in abundance only at the shallow end of this jhil. N. hyalina was the
most widespread of all any shallow water appearing to suit it. C. hydropitys
and C. gymnopitys both of small stature seemed particularly partial to cut rice
fields where they might be found in water about a foot deep. As these spots
dried up I failed to come across them anywhere else. C. wallichii soon dis-
appeared in Gonda as I specially searched for it when I heard it had not been
recorded for 113 vears I found it however growing in a jhil at Lucknow at the
beginning of January. WN. batrachosperma too I only came across at one spot
in the jhil.
1 have included four plates from photographs kindly taken for me at the Forest
Research Institute Dehra Dun. They are of dried specimens actually gathered
at Saharanpur U. P. but these species are similar to those found at Gonda.
Plates illustrating other species are to be found as follows :-—
N. mirabilis—Plate 35 in Notes on Indian Charophyta Journ. Linn. Soc.
Botany Vol. xlvi, V. mucronata, N. batrachosperma, N, hyalina and T’. prolifera
in British Charophyta : C. Braunii in‘ Journal of Botany ” for January 1884.
There should be no great difficulty in identifying these Gonda species with the
help of the key in the “Notes.” I append a few notes that may be of some
assistance.
N. acuminata and N. mirabilis are the only two Nitella with the ultimate
rays (dactyls) always one-celled.
N. mucronata has the last cell but one of the dactyl rounded off and the
ultimate cell perched on it: a common plant.
N. batrachosperma is a very delicate little plant growing in small clumps in
shallow water in very finely divided mud, Although from its name one would
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate IV.
CHAROPHYTES FROM Gonpa District, U. P.
Pa
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NOTES ON CHAROPHYTES FROM GONDA, U. P. 599
expect this plant to be enveloped in mucous I found none at all. N. hyalina is
easily distinguished by its whorls of different lengths. An abundant plant in
the shallower water. Always thickly coated in mucus except quite the oldest
parts.
T. prolifera with its long sterile branchlets bears little resemblance to any of
the other genera.
L, barbatus is appropriately named as the long stipulodes and bracts give it a
bearded appearance. Though it is not very easy to make out the gametangia
at first through the mass of bracts the one oogonium between two antheridia
distinguishes it from all other Indian Charophytes. C. Wallichu, C. corallina
and C’, Braunii are alike in being entirely ecorticate and they are all large plants.
The first is dicecious while the other two are moneecious. C. Brawnii is readily
distinguishable from C. corallina by the reproductive organs being produced
only at the nodes of the branchlets whereas in the latter they are produced at
the base of the whorl as well. C. corallina is a very brittle plant.
C. hydropitys and C. gymnopitys are both much smaller plants than the last
three. The former has the lowest branchlet segment ecorticate, the rest of the
branchlet being corticate. This fact will separate it from all others except C.
zeylanica which does not resemble it in other respects. C. gymnopitys has
the branchlets entirely ecorticate. The remaining four all bear a general resem-
blance and are much larger than the last two but not so stout in build as the
ecorticate Charas. C. contraria is distinguished from the other three by the
rows of stem cortical cells being only double the number of the branchlets (diplo-
stichous) whereas the others all have three to the branchlet (triplostichous).
This plant most nearly resembles C. vulgaris, a very common species though
I did not happen to find it at Gonda. C. fragilis is likely to be confused with
C. brachypus but the former has the stipulodes small and blunt and almost
rudimentary while the spine cells and bract cells are not acute. C. brachypus
has the stipulodes sharp and well developed and the spines and bract cells acute.
Another distinguishing point about C. brachypus is the fact that the lowest
branchlet segment in addition to being rather short is colourless or nearly so.
C. zeylanica is readily distinguished from the two foregoing by the lowest branch-
let segment being ecorticate. This plant seems to prefer the rainy season as
I found it abundant in great masses at the end of the rains but no sign of it later,
In spite of the very great assistance I have derived from ‘“‘ British Charophyta ”
and much instructive correspondence with Mr. Groves I fear there are likely to
be some inaccuracies in the above though I hope but few.
600
BIRDS NESTING WITH, A CAMERA IN INDIA.
Part IV.
THE Dat Laxe AND Hokra.
BY
. Capt, BR. S; P. Barus.
(Continued from page 313 of this volume.)
(With 6 plates.)
Alas! I lack descriptive powers and am by no means of a literary turn of mind.
However, as this is primarily an article on birds and their habits, I presume such.
qualities are not here essential. Even so, it would give me a great deal of satis-
faction to be able to describe adequately my thoughts and feelings on the first,
no, not only on that first occasion, but whenever I find myself on the clear placid
waters of the Dal Lake. Those lotus covered reaches, interspersed with patches
of tall and swaying reeds; their background of slender poplars, surrounding
the chalet-like cottages ; the whole dominated by the towering forest-clad heights
culminating in snow-capped Haramouk, fill the heart of the most casual
visitor with admiration for their beauty, grandeur and peacefulness. But in
me the emotions are additionally intensified by the pulsating life all around
one : the strange cat-like mewing of the Pheasant-tailed Jacanas ; the chizacking
noisy Reed-Warblers, and the plaintive bubbling voice of the Little
Grebe from the rushes hard by; the wheeling graceful terns and the
slow beat of a Heron’s wings, as it majestically sails over the green-carpeted
water towards its haven in the giant trees of the Shalimar Bagh. All these
combined with that subtle atmosphere of peace and rest, which the
Kashmir lakes seem to engender, serve to make one feel at peace with
allmen, and nature too. Those motionless fishermen, still as statues, standing
or kneeling in the prows of their quaint shikaras with uplifted trident ready
to make a lightening and unerring thrust into the limpid depths at any un.
suspecting fish that may venture within their range—what patience they
possess ; they too add to the calm tranquillity of-the-whole and seem the very
personification of the spirit of Kashmir.
Immediately on passing through the Dal gate certain birds claim one’s instant
attention. Of these first and foremost comes the beautiful little Central Asian
King-fisher (Alcedo atihis pallasiz), which, practically indentical with that seen
more or less sparingly in England, is excessively common throughout the happy
valley, and almost before one is through the gate, is certain to be seen sitting
on the prow of a house-boat, on a drooping reed, or on a branch of one of the:
small willows with which the canal banks are lined, every now and then bobbing
its head in a most curious manner, as if possessed of terrible indigestion, and no
wonder if this really is so, seeing that they insist on swallowing at a gulp fish
half as long as themselves.
The Indian Great Reed-Warbler (Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens) is to
be heard rather than seen, as its loud hoarse chattering, proceeding from
every reed-bed, is a striking feature of these jhils. The bird itself is rather
a retiring creature, though less so than most species of Reed-Warblers, and spends
much of its time creeping up and down the rushes in search of insects, occasionally
ascending into a tree for the same purpose or to give vent to quite a pleasing
little song.
As soon as the reeds have attained to a convenient height, building operations
are begun—this is usually about the end of May. The nest, a very deep cup to
prevent the eggs being tipped out when the reeds are swaying excessively, is
suspended between 3 or 4 reeds about two to four feet above the water. The
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BIRDS NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA. 601
eggs, up to 4in number, are pale green or grey fairly thickly spotted and blotch-
ed with varying shades of grey, red and purple, and are about °9” by °6” in
length and breadth respectively.
I have said above that this bird is rather timid. I have found however that
birds of the same species often vary enormously in temperament and this Reed-
Warbler is no exception. I was once inspecting the contents of a nest—3
eggs —and actually had my fingers resting on one side of it, when the owner,
swearing loudly, pitched on the opposite rim and looked down into its nest
as if to see what damage I was doing. Of course, as is generally the case,
the reflex was not handy and a perfect opportunity was missed. Usually
they are content to creep up unseen and only betray their presence by clamouring
loudly a few yards off in the reeds.
The familiar Eastern Swallow too is always to be seen either skimming over
the surface of the water or feeding a row of hungry fledglings seated on a
horizontal and swaying reed. A Water hen or a Dabchick will probably swim
out from the cover, and then, seemingly surprised at its own unwonted
boldness, hurriedly sneak back again, bubbling with satisfaction at having
been so brave as to show itself to the outside world.
The Little Bittern (Ivobrychus minutus minutus) may here often be observed
seated on a bent reed or paddling amongst the lotus. Why this bird should
prefer to gaze fixedly skywards when apparently fishing for its daily bread
is to me a mystery. There he will sit, long neck and dagger-like bill forming a
straight line, looking a perfect moonstruck lunatic.
The Central Asian Kingfisher breeds from April to about July in the bank
of the canals and rivers and in the sides of the katcha wells, digging a hole from
2 to 4 feet deep with a round chamber at its end, in which it deposits from 5 to
7 glossy white eggs, rounded ovals in shape and about °8” in length bv °68” in
breadth. A Kingfisher’s nest containing young ones is as unsanitary as a
Kashmir village in wet weather, and this, I might explain, is saying a great
deal. The passage is floored with a slimy mass of disgorged fish bones, the odour
from whichis very far from pleasant: yet the youngsters emerge from their
dark and odiferous cavern as gorgeously arrayed and apparently as spotlessly
clean as their parents.
The Eastern Swallow (Hirundo rustica gutturalis) is an early breeder. By half
way through June young birds are to be seen everywhere, though still under
their parents’ care. Their saucer-shaped mud nests, which are softly lined
with feathers, are attached to the rafters and beams of the dwelling houses,
with the inmates of which they live on the best of terms. The post-office
in Srinagar is an excellent example of their partiality for and fearlessness towards
human beings, as there they nest in numbers within the rooms crowded with
clerks, flitting in and out of the windows close to one’s head while one is being
attended to. One nest I noticed was within about eighteen inches of a babu’s
ear and contained young ones, which the parents were feeding every few
moments most unconcernedly. On Lake Gagrabal, whose water by the way is
most extraordinarily clear, I noticed many Hodgson’s Striated Swallows
(Hirundo daurica nepalensis), t.e., the Red-rumped Swallow of Jerdon. These
differ in habits from the Eastern Swallow, in that they build a closed nest with a
tubular entrance either in a building or on rocks and cliffs.
The Little Bittern builds from about the end of May a nest of rushes about
eight inches to a foot in diameter either on or just above the water. This is
anchored amongst the reeds, a few of which are often bent over the nest into a
sort of lattice-work roof. The eggs 3 to 5 in number are white rather oval thick
shelled and chalky 1-3” long and 1” broad.
Having practically come to the end of my leave, and especially wanting photos
of a Little Bittern’s nest, I decided to spend a morning searching the reed-beds of
602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
the Dal Lake. The day very nearly started with tragedy. Water was plentiful
that year with the result that the current through the gate was like that of a mill-
race. A heavy dunga, a country boat, was vainly attempting to force its way
through, the crew chanting rythmically as some pushed with long poles and others
pulled on the chains on the gate wall. The occupants of a shikara, three well-
made Kashmiris, also desirous of getting into the lake, were taking advantage
of the dunga by pulling themselves along its side. We followed suit. The gap
between the dunga side and the wall was not much more than a yard in breadth.
The leading shikara was well in this gap when the current caught the dunga's
prow and swept it across with considerable force, thus pinning the frail boat.
Something had to happen and it did very quickly. The shzkara was crunched
up like a piece of match-wood, and its crumpled remains forced under water
the crew jumping into the dunga in the nick of time, so saving themselves a nasty
wetting and possibly worse.
This part of the proceedings was merely highly amusing, as evidenced, by the
glee of the crowd that invariably collectson the road over the gate when a boat
is going through, even when the water level is normal. We of course enjoyed
the play as much as those above, but it was now our own turn to come into the
lime light, and our untimely mirth was cut short by the waterlogged remnants of
the shikara, which suddenly came up underneath us. My 4-plate camera took
a great objection to the awful list of our boat and fell overboard, but as luck
would have it I was just in time to grab the strap and pull it inboard before it
had had time to get thoroughly wet.
Straight opposite the gate and not 200 yards from it, where the main canal
forks, one arm leading direct to that portion of the lake known as the Lokut
Dal, the other winding through orchards and vegetable gardens and the pictures-
que village of Renawari with its massive moghal bridge to the Bod Dal and the
Nasim and Shalimar baghs, is a triangular patch of reeds. This I considered
too small and too public to yield anything, nevertheless I sent in a man to have
a look round having first explained my usual scale of rewards. The promise
of afew annas is a great incentive to a Kashmiri. In a few moments he re-
turned with a Moorhen’s egg, anxious to know whether this counted, as I had
only mentioned large white eggs and small spotted ones. To encourage him
I said it did, and duly paid the reward. He was soon back again with a Little
Grebe’s (Podiceps ruficollis albipennis). This time I personally went to investi-
gate, thereby somewhat upsetting the equilibrium of a dear old lady in a
passing shikara, as I lowered myself into about 4 feet of water with all my clothes
on. The result is shown in the full page illustration.
That meagre patch of reeds yielded no less than the nests of 3 pairs of Little
Grebes, 3. of Little Bitterns, 1 of Indian Great Reed-Warblers, as yet empty,
and 2 of Moorhens. In a patch on the opposite side of the canal I obtained the
photograph of the Reed-Warbler’s nest, which is also reproduced here.
Having exhausted the neighbourhood, I was about to move on to the lake
itself to look for Pheasant-tailed Jacanas, when another of my minions, whose
luck had been out, informed me that he had found a new nest, the reward for
which would surely be a large one. - What I found was a Reed-Warbler’s nest
completely filled by, and nearly collapsing under, the weight of two Little Bit-
tern’s eggs, which the scoundrel had filched from a nest close by. Curiously
enough another man had tried to play practically the same trick on me a couple
of weeks previously by putting a Bittern’s egg into a crow’s nest.
Passing along these canals, which wind for the most part through orchards
before finally debouching into the lake, one is likely to notice the following birds
in addition to those so far mentioned—the Indian Oriole and Tickell’s Ouzel, the
Common Indian Bee-Eater, Rufous-backed Shrike, Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail,
Kashmir Jackdaw, Indian House Crow, Common Pariah Kite, Himalayan Star-
ling, Common Myna, and the Cashmere House Sparrow. In the evenings and
early mornings chiefly the European Bee-Eater, a strong and graceful flier,
BIRDS-NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA. 603
may be seen floating overhead, drawing attention to itself by its pleasant whist-
ling note, and last but not least that graceful poem, the Indian Paradise Fly-
catcher (Terpsephone paradisi paradisr) will be espied flitting amongst the
fruit trees like an undulating mass of snow-white cotton-wool. The head and
perky crest of the adult male are a beautiful metallic glossed green or rather
greenish black, almost the entire remaining plumage is pure white, and the two
centre tail-feathers are prolonged into slender appendages some 12 to 14 inches
long. At rest, these hang down in a graceful curve: In flight, they wave
behind, making the bird appear to ripple through the air,
Before attaining to this amazing perfection, the bird undergoes many changes.
On leaving the nest one might quite well take it for a bulbul of some sort, as 1
for one did, when I first made its acquaintance in Rajputana soon after my arri-
val in India, even though armed with that admirable little book for beginners,
Douglas Dewar’s ‘“‘ Bird Calendar for Northern India.” At this stage the
plumage with the exception of the head and crest, which are glossy black from
the outset, is largely chestnut, and the centre tail feathers are not elongated.
The female never doffs this garb, and the male not until his second autumn moult,
and it is not until he is some four years old that his metamorphosis is
complete.
The nest of the Paradise Flycatcher is nearly as beautiful as the bird, being a
neatly woven fairly thin-walled cup of grass plastered with cobwebs and lichen
and lined with hairs. It is placed either in a slender fork or on top of a more or
less horizontal branch, usually no great height up and more often than not in a
fruit tree. The eggs up to 4 in number are a beautiful pink, sometimes quite
salmon, spotted and speckled with red, rather resembling those of our common
Swallow.
All the above-mentioned with the exception perhaps of the European Bee-
Katers will be found breeding about the end of May. The Indian Orioles will
be building their basket-like nests in the fruit trees or chenars or even the willows
lining the canal banks. The nest is a most interesting structure, and is built as
follows. A strip of fresh bark is wound round one limb of a forked branch and
carried thence to the other limb, A rough equilateral triangle with about a six
inch side is thus formed, Other strips are then wound on until a cradle is ob-
tained and in this the grass nest is woven. The eggs two or three in number
are tairly large about 1-1” by -8” rather blunt ovals, and are white with a num-
ber of either dark red or black spots distributed over the surface. The Oriole,
although its nest is generally in a well protected situation, or even in an inacces-
sible one—I have spotted nests in the topmost and slenderest branches of giant
chenar trees—is a very light sitter ;: such a light sitter indeed that one will hardly
ever be permitted a glimpse of her at home. The Orioles too possess some fine
liquid notes, which one cannot fail to remark. A description of the bird is un-
necessary, the only other bird, which at all resembles it, and one which I have
seen pretty frequently in Srinagar itself, being the Black and Yellow Grosbeak
(Perrisospiza icteroides icteroides), which of course is a finch, black-headed and
much smaller,
The Rufous-backed Shrike (Lantus schach erythronotus) literally forces itself
on one’s attention from the moment the happy valley is entered. Every few
yards a nest will be noticed built against the trunk of one of the poplars, which
so closely line the main-road, and usually about 10 or 12 feet up amongst the
cluster of fine twigs and smaller branches which commence about that height
from the ground. How many hundreds of these nests, old and new, there must
be. between Baramullah and Srinagar it is impossible to say. Some day perhaps
an enthusiast who is really hard up for a job, will count them and publish the
result of his census in the Strand Magazine or the Daily Mail, in the space usually
reserved for telling us the height of a pyramid built of the Maconachie rations
consumed by the British Army during the war and other such world-shaking
13
004 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
information, At any rate the Rufous-backed Shrike may be put down as one
of the commonest birds of the valley, and besides frequenting these poplars is
to be found in every orchard and garden and round every village. It is a verit-
able bird of prey, although its victims are nothing more formidable than grass-
hoppers and beetles, and occasionally, I believe, though I have never witnessed
it myself, a young bird. They are certainly very fierce, and up to mobbing
birds much bigger than they themselves. They perch a few feet from the ground
in a tree or bush and sail down at an angle on to their prey. The extent of
their breeding season is considerable and commences about the beginning of
May. The nest is rather bulky and often loosely constructed, containing a
considerable amount of rubbish such as_ dirty rags, bits of paper, leaves, etc.
The eggs 3, 4 or 5 are somewhat larger than one would expect measuring about
°9” by -7”, and are rather pretty, being greenish white with fairly large spots
and sometimes blotches of different shades of red and brown.
The Common Indian Bee-Eater (Merops orientalis orientalis) is very common
throughout the length and breadth of India, and must be familiar to any one
long before they reach Kashmir, as one cannot help seeing hundreds during
any railway journey sitting on the telegraph wires quite unperturbed by the
passage of the train. The side of any bank, ditch or sandy mound affords a
position for the entrance to the narrow tunnel which the birds dig for their home.
This is sometimes as much as five feet long and terminates in a rounded chamber
in which the 5 white eggs are deposited. These measure about ° 8” by ° 7’.
Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail (Motacilla alba hodgsoni) is quite a confiding bird
and often utilizes the roofs of the house-boats, or the inside of a rolled-up
‘ chick ’ for its nesting site. On one occasion I picked up my boat at Baramullah,
and was joined, as we left, by a pair of these wagtails, which at once commenced
building inside a chick intended for the verandah. As the boat was on the move
they occasionally got left quite a distance behind, as they had perforce to visit
the river banks to collect material. At Bandipur they left me, as I am sorry to
say the boatman, against orders of course, let down the chick and destroyed the
nest, which was already of quite decent proportions.
From the beginning of May they breed freely wherever found, other and more
usual situations being in cavities in the river and canal banks, under stones
and in the masonry of bridges, or in the roots of bushes close to the water’s edge,
etc., and by half way through the month I have found many nests containing
young ones. The latest date on which I have found a nest with eggs (near Pahl-
gam in the Liddar Valley) was July 8th and these, 5 in number, were quite fresh.
The Indian Hoopoes (Upupa epops orientalis) are early breeders in Kashmir,
and by the beginning of June have practically finished operations for the year.
Holes at the bases of the walls of the dwelling houses are their favourite abodes,
though hollows in trees are also patronised. Like the Kingfishers too by no
manner of means can they be congratulated on their sanitation.
Tickell’s Ouzel (Planesticus unicolor) is a common bird in the gardens of
Srinagar and round about the villages. The nests are like those of the Black-
bird at home, and built in a fork of a bush or tree at anything from 6 feet or so
upwards. ‘They are not conspicuous birds but have a very pretty song and
occupy the same position in Kashmir as the Blackbird does at home. Their
eggs too are like those of the Blackbird resembling them very closely indeed
though the markings are perhaps redder, and they are to be obtained from about
the end or possibly half way through May.
The Kashmir Jackdaw (Corvus monedula soemmeringit) is another very com-
mon bird inthe Happy Valley, and very much outnumbers the Indian House
Crow. Every Chenar of decent proportions holds its quota, as the many holes
in these magnificent trees afford the most excellent sites for the nests of this
species, one tree often containing many pairs. The Jackdaws are also well
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BIRDS-NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA. 605
ahead of the House Crows in domestic duties and have young out by the end of
May, when the latter are but just commencing to build.
In Srinagar a favourite situation for the nests of the Crows is upon the wooden
stanchions holding up the projecting upper stories and balconies of the houses
overhanging the river. Midway through May I noticed a good many nests being
built on the low trees of the small island one passes immediately on entering
the Bod Dal, but at the beginning of June they appeared to have got no further _
on, and I conclude that their eggs must be taken by the natives.
The Common Pariah Kite of Kashmir, besides being considerably larger than
his plain’s brother, has very much more pronounced whitish patches on the
underside of the wing. Their large untidy stick nests may be noticed high up
in the chenars round about the villages and by May those eggs which are still
to be found are almost certain to be well incubated. These kites are arrant
baby-snatchers, and the shouts of the Kashmiri womenfolk are continually to
be heard during the hours of daylight, as they attempt to keep them off their
chickens and ducklings, often unsuccessfully I fear.
On emerging from the canal into the Bod Dal, one passes through floating
gardens and large patches of green and swaying reeds until confronted by a small
island bearing an enormous half dead chenar, in the upper branches of which
is generally a Kite’s nest, In May the lotus has hardly made its appearance
except in the shallower reaches, and as one slides peacefully past the isle a wide
stretch of deep blue water suddenly meets the eye, over which may be seen a
few Whiskered Terns (Chlidonias lewcopareia indica) gracefully dipping to the
water, while uttering their harsh and rasping call. An occasional Night Heron
(Nycticorax nycticorax nycticoraz) perched on a bent reed or an awkward Little
Bittern may be remarked close to the reed-beds one has just passed through, and
an Eastern Marsh Harrier ;Circus spilonotus) will probably be descried gliding
over the tops of the reeds, every now and then descending into them after its
prey. But the strangest bird and the one that will arrest the attention 1mme-
diately is the Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus). The weird
cat-like cries of these peculiar birds alone cannot fail to strike one, but the more
one discovers about them the more one’s wonder grows. Surely they were once
common or garden chickens, which in some remote age forgot themselves and
took to the water, thereby perhaps giving rise to the term water-fowl as opposed
to the fowls of the air, and the barn-door fowl. Who knows! The male in
breeding plumage with his long black tail-feathers certainly resembles a quainitly
coloured cockrel, an unhappily coloured cockrel, the mixture and arrangement
of its black white and yellow plumage being decidedly trying in my opinion,
Many of these birds may be seen, most of them fairly close to the shore or reed
patches, but some in the very centre of the lake, apparently walking on the
surface of the water. In reality these last are on the weeds which are now just
reaching the surface, and the ease with which they progress without sinking is
due to the exceptionally long toes with which they are provided, the centre toe
of a Pheasant-tailed Jacana being as much as three inches in length and the hind
toe, the greater part of which is claw, two. The nest of this bird is a mere pad
of weeds or rushes varying considerably in scantiness, as evidenced by the photo-
graph reproduced here, in which I failed to discover any materials at all. This
nest was on a thick layer of soggy weed, so the owner probably thought and
rightly so that materials were unnecessary. A more usual situation is out
amongst the lotus leaves, but on this occasion, a backward year, the lotus had
hardly made its appearance when I left Kashmir half way through June, The
photo was actually taken on June 7th. The eggs are as strange as the bird,
being flat topped and tappered to a pretty sharp point at the small end. In
colour they vary considerably and I have seen green eggs, clay coloured eggs
and bronze eggs, and one clutch I took looked just as if they had been painted
with gold size and absolutely sparkled. I am afraid I ravished this, the only
nest I found that day, as I had discovered that they knock the much vaunted
606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX,
Plover’s egg intotiddlesticks. The white is beautifully clear and the yolk lite-
rally melts in the mouth like butter. In fact Ican thoroughly reeommend
them to the epicure. They are quite a respectable mouthful too, measuring
about 1°5” by 1°1”.
While crossing the lake to where I found this Pheasant-tailed Jacana’s nest,
which by the way was not far distantfrom the entrance of the canal to the
Shalimar Bagh, I was very much Surprised to come upon an Indian Little
Grebe finishing off a nestin the very centre of the lake, literally miles from
the shore or any of the reed beds and absolutely unconcealed in any way, a
most strange situation for so shy a bird, though last year on the Ulsoor Tank
in the middle of Bangalore I noticed two nests in the open water only a
few yards from the bank, alongside which runs a busy thoroughfare. I sup-
pose the lake must have been fairly shallow at this point as the weeds were
just appearing on the surface over a considerable area, and it was in this patch
that the nest was being built.
The Indian Whiskered Terns (Chlidonias leucopareia indica), which make
their nests, untidy pads of weeds and rushes, in colonies on the surface of all
the jhils of the valley, have a very hard time of it in the Dal Lake I am afraid,
and few, if any, can ever succeed in raising a family. I particularly
wanted a photograph, but the nearest 1 came to finding a nest with the
requisite number of eggs in it, was seeing a fisherman collect literally every
single egg he could irom the colony I was heading for, and make off before I
could get close enough to tell him what I thought of his ancestors, himself
and all his offspring. One solitary egg was all he had left behind him, and
there must have been at least twenty nests. I mustadmit that these eggs
too are undoubtedly good eating, and I have on occasions abetted these egg
thieves by buying their ill-gotton spoils from them.
A common bird about the main portions of the lake is Hodgson’s Yellow-
headed Wagtail (Motacilla citreola citreoloides) though I have not actually
found their nests in the Dal, but both this bird and the Paddy-Field Warbler
(Aerocephalus agricolus), which one may also come across in certain parts of
the lake, breed very freely on Hokraand other jhilsof a similar type, andin
consequence I will describe what I found on a couple of visits to that jhilon
June iSth and 21st, 1921, incompany with Captain Livesey, who kindly
obtained a permitfor me along with his own.
I appear to have forgotten all about the spry little Kashmir Grey Tit (Parus
major kasnmiriensis), a bird rather resembling the Great Tit of the British Isles,
both in appearance and habits. I was struck by the numbers of this species
exploring the leafy pall of the magnificent chenars in the Nasim Bagh. On the
19th May I took one of their nests in a hole in the bank of a canal leading into
the Anchar Lake. I was looking for Kingfisher’s nests and seeing a likely look-
ing excavation gently pushed a stick down it. I was startled by a violent hiss,
which was repeated every time the stick was moved. I thought it must be
emitted by a snake, so out of mere curiosity set to work to open up the place,
digging downwards from a point which I judged to be directly over the end of
the hole. When I got into it, 1 was more than surprised to see a very angry look-
ing Grey Tit, with large lumps of fallen earth almost burying 1t, sitting tightly on
a large pad of wool which completely filled the floor of the chamber [I had laid
bare. Thedefensive attitude of these birds on the nest issomewhat strange.
The tail is spread wide into a sort of fan and the head sunk into the soft wad
of the nest so that the billis almost invisible and a pair of very beady black
eyes just peep over the rim. The bravery of this particular little heroine was
such that she actually allowed me to remove the debrisfrom the nest and her
back, only hissing loudly when my fingers came close to her head. She allow-
ed me to fix up the camera with its staring lens but a couple of feet or so from
her, and would, I am sure, have let me get all the photos I wanted, had not
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
THE INDIAN LITTLE GRE BE.
Podiceps ruficollis albipennis.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
THE LITTLE BI
[xobrychus minutus
‘TERN.
minutus
-BIRDS-NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA. 607
a sudden gust of wind blown the focussing cloth right off the camera on to
her long-suffering head. This proved too much for her nerves and she fiutter-
ed out of the hole disclosing seven red-spotted egg, which, on immersion in the
canal, proved to be quite fresh.
Hokra Jhil is within a few hundred yards of the main Baramullah-Srinagar
road opposite Shaltin, but one would certainly never suspect its presence, even
if told where it lay, as a low bund lies between, and it is surrounded by ricefields
and nearer at hand by a considerable strip of low lying more or less wet spongy
ground, covered with soft grass of varying length interspersed with a few
scraggy little bushes, mere prickly stalks a few inches toa few feet in height.
lt is on this wet ground that from about the commencement of June, Hodg-
son’s Yellow-headed Wagtails may be found breeding in their hundreds. The
nest is rarely if ever on really dry ground and its base in fact is often wet.
It is generally a well built cup of grass placed in the centre of a tuft or at the
foot of a bush or even in soft grass of a length barely sufficient to hide the
nest and may contain from 3 to 5 eggs. These vary very considerably but
all are of a most decidedly greenish tinge, mottled or streaked with greyish
or reddish brown, many of them rather resembling those of the Grey Wagtail
(Motacilla cinerea melanope), than which however they are slightly bigger and
more oval in shape. On June 21st I found one nest containing a pair of well-
developed young ones, but all the other nests, and we hit upona good many,
still held eggs, a number not even their full quota. A very noticeable feature
about the nesting females of this species was the considerable variation of the
brightness of their colouration, many of them evidently breeding while still
in different stages of immature plumage. The nest illustrated here was in a
patch of reeds, which had been cut down to their roots. The ground was so
waterlogged that the base of the nest was soaking wet and even the lining
quite damp. It was dangerous stuff to walk on and swayed perilously,
evidently being but a layer of tangled roots floating over deep water.
In places the soft grass attains a length of three or even four or more feet,
and in this and in the slender reeds, which in places grow amongst it, the
Paddy-field Warblers conceal their nests. These are neat little cups of grass
and moss suspended in exactly the same manner as those of the Indian Great
Reed-Warbler and are generally very well hidden, as the tangle of soft grass,
in which they are usually placed pretty low down, affords complete conceal-
ment from view. They are not really shy and by patiently watching them
from a short distance away, one should be able to mark down the position of
a nest to within a few feet, after which a thorough search will do the rest.
The eggs of this little warbler are by no means unlike those of the Indian
Great Reed-Warbler, but are smaller, generally more elongate, and less thickly
marked.
On June 18th we were only able to find a couple of nests both of which were
‘still being built, but on the 21st we found another containing 3 eggs, the photo-
graph of which is reproduced here. The Paddy-field Warbler is very much
smaller and also quieter than its strident voiced cousin ; the tail is more graduat-
ed and the throat of a deeper rufous tinge.
The Indian Great Reed-Warblers were of course breeding as profusely here as
elsewhere in the valley, and their harsh grating voices were to be heard emanat-
ing irom all the coarser reed patches, and other nesting birds, which I have
already mentioned as inhabiting the Dal, were Moorhens, Little Grebes, Little
Bitterns, Pheasant-tailed jJacanas and Whiskered Terns. Coots also were
common. The Coot’s nest in the illustration was not actually taken at Hokra,
but I include it here as it is interesting on account of the young one, which
appeared to me to be in quite a fit state to take to the water. In fact, after
procuring the photograph, I put it into that element and it swam off quite
strongly into the reeds, where it probably joined its brothers and sisters already
608 JCURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
in hiding. These youngsters are as a rule capable of swimming practically
from the moment they are hatched, and at the approach of danger immedia-
tely leave the nest and hide in the surrounding cover. Why this one had not
dene so I cannot imagine. It will be noticed that another is on the point of
emerging from the egg. The hard whitish nob on the tip of the upper
mandible can be seen quite plainly.
Hokra, being a state “rukh” and sa undisturbed by the spring influx of tour-
ists, iS a sanctuary where the shyer and more seclusion-loving waterfowl be-
take themselves. or rather remain, atter the spring migration has taken place,
and White-eyed Pochard (Nyroca rufa rufa) and Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha
platyrhyncha) breed in considerable numbers. I also remember seeing many
Teal and a few Widgeon ({ Mareca penelope).
A White-eyed Pochards’ nest containing ten eggs, fairly well advanced in in-
cubation, and surrounded by a goodly quantity of down, was discovered in the
centre of a very tangled mass of reeds, The eggs were a very pale cafe-au-lait
and had a aseideal y satiny surface,so, say amongst their dark-hued padding,
they made a most pleasing picture.
Quite close in a most awkward spot to reach, owing to the amount of water
and thickness of the reeds, was a Mallard’s nest. This contained a large number
of ducklings when first discovered, but all but two of them and one which still
had a considerable portion of the shell attached to its rear end, escaped into the
surrounding reeds while [ was struggling to reach the nest. Two chipped eggs
also remained, The photo I obtained did not come up to expectations and is
not worth reproducing here, that is useless it were intended to show how perfectiv
the colouration of a duckling ean blend with its normal background of reeds, as,
though the image is perfectly sharp and the head alone the size of a pea, it is
most difficult to pick it out.
One of our chief reasons in obtaining permission to visit Hokra was that we
hoped to find the Snipe with eggs, but though we put up a considerable number
we were unsuccessful in our search. The Common Fantail Snipe (Gallinago
gallinago gallinago), and also that fraud, so far as shooting is concerned, the Paint-
ed Snipe (Rostraiulla benghalensis benghalensis) are both to be found breeding
around these more sequestered and marshly jhils with their surrounding area of
spongy ground, which the Fantails seem especially to seek after in Kashmir,
but I think one should look for their nests earlier than towards the end of June,
even though they do appear to nest rather later here than is usually the case
with this species,
On the 18th before we had progressed a hundred yards round the edge of the
jhil, an Eastern Baillon’s Crake (Porzana pusilla pusilla) was flushed off its nest
of five eges. These tiny little rails are very common in Kashmir, and as they
sit verv close and often fly straight off the nest, their abodes are not over difficult
to find. How these minute birds , the aeliene of all our rails, manage to cover
their numerous eggs is beyond me. They lay anything from 5 up to 9 and these
are decidedly large in proportion to the size of the bird, whose body really can-
not be much larger than that of a sparrow. Yet the average egg measures
about 1:2” by °85”. The nest is composed of a small collection of grass or reeds
and is often placed in soft marsh grass, in the grass on the side of a bank, or at
the foot of a bush, and resting on more or less solid ground, and possibly more
frequentiy anchored over water amongst reeds, a number of which are bent ovex
the eggs into a cancpy. In fact the situations are much the same as those cho-
sen by the Northern Ruddy Crake (Amaurornis fuscus baker) with the exception
perhaps of the first named and the fact that whereas the former has a_pre-
delection for the vicinity of jhils, the latter appears to shun them.
The latter also breeds commonly in the Valley, and on both occasions eggs
were brought to us. One enterprising youth brought the female bird also, which
he had managed to catch on the nest, quite how I don’t know, She had an egg
BIRDS-NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA, 609
in the oviduct which could be easily felt. and as easily seen, as they too are de-
eidedly large in proportion to the size of the bird. We let her go, but rather
than exercise her wings, she dropped straight on to the water and went swimming
off up a side ditch, sneaking along its edge and swimming with the same jerky
motions as the Moorhen. The Ruddy Crake does not seem to like the large
reed-covered jhils, but shows a great preference for the rice-fields and the ditches
which supply them. Their nests are to be found on the banks, which divide
the fields, in tangled undergrowth in their vicinity and also attached to the rice
stalks or reeds, a number of which are bent over the nest to form a partial roof,
giving to the nest a most pleasing appearance. June is really a bit too early to
expect to find full clutches, as they are rather late breeders, and it was only well
on in July, just before I went down from Kashmir, that I found nests with
their full compliment of eggs.
(7o be continued).
610
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES.
By Cotonzt W. H. Hvans, D.S.0., F.Z.S., F.E.S.
(Continued from page 351 of this Volume.)
Part VII.
(With one Plate.)
H. 30. Nacaduba.—The Lineblues. (Plate 27.)
Dark blue with borders linear in ¢ ; aboveand below brown with a number
of parallel whitish lines. Q @ discally pale blue or white with broad dark
borders.
la (a). Unfno pale basal lines, only a pair end celland a discal pair in addition
to the marginal markings.
1 (2a). Unh prominent round black spot at apex, ¢ upf purple blue with a
more or less prominent diffused discal white patch on F. 2 white. Below white,
the 2 submarginal rows of dark linear spots prominent, other markings pale
brown and obsolescent.
*angusta kerriana, Dist. (32-35). The White Lineblue. Karens—S. Burma.R.
2a (I). Unh no prominent apical black spot. Below brown with white lines
discal markings prominent, submarginal not more prominent. @ 9 pale blue
or violet.
2b (5). Unt outer discal line does not meet inner submarginal line at v3.
- Above lines from below not showing through by transparency.
2 (3a). Unf inner submarginal line broad, diffused and continuous, all mark-
ings broad and yellowish. Unh inner submarginal line consists of broad, straight
strigz. Above ¢ dark purple brown, paler in a side light, border narrow, but
not thread-like. @Q variable, purple blue, paling outwardly. Wings broad, ~
rounded.
a. Below markings narrower and paler; unf inner submarginal line becomes
obsolete towards apex.
pactolus ceylonicus, Fruh. (34-38.). The Large 4 Lineblue. Ceylon. R.
68. Below markings wider and inner submarginal line unf even,
* nactolus continentalis, Fruh. Sikkim-Burma. NR.
+. Below darker, markings broad and sharp; unf inner submarginal line
not broader than the rest.
pactolus andamanicus, Fruh. Andamans. NR.
5. Smaller. Above more plumbeous. Below markings narrow pale and
rather obscure.
pactolus macropthalma, Fd. (32-35). Nicobars. NR.
3a (2). Unf and unh inner submarginal line consists of narrow, separate
lunules ; all markings narrow, more discontinuous and whiter. Wings produced
at apex F and tornus H.
3 (4). og above rather plumbeous blue, violet in a side light. Unf the
upper edges ofthe inner submarginal and outer discal lines are close together.
hermus nabo, Fruh. (30-35 ). The Pale 4 Lineblue. Ceylon S. India. Sikkim-
Burma. NR.
ee:
LHE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 611
H.30. Nacaduba.—(contd.)
vsidoma, Fruh. unh the upper discal area darkened,obscuring the lines. NR,
(3). @ above dark shining violet, no plumbeous tinge. Unf upper edges
of the inner submarginal and outer discal lines separate.
*vajurva, Fruh. (30-35) The Violet 4 Lineblue. Sikkim-Burma. NR.
5 (2b). Unf outer discal line meets inner submarginal line at v3, appearing as
a continuous line from costa to dorsum. Below submargina! lines appear
to enclose 2 rows of prominent dark spots ; pale brown, markings rather broad,
white and continuous. @ above pale blue, lines from below showing through
by transparency. Much smaller ; wings broad and very rounded.
* pavand, Hors, (26-28). The Small4 Lineblue. Tavoy—S. Burma. Anda-
mans. R.
6a (la). Unf an additional pair of lines in cell near base.
6 (7a). Uph and unh 2 prominent black spots at tornus, prominently orange
crowned below. Below pale grey, markings wide, submargina] lines highty
lunulate. Unf basal pair of lines usually to vl. @ above rather pale blue.
Tailed.
*ancyra, Fd, (27-29). Felder’s Lineblue. Karens—S. Burma. Nicobars. R
7a (6). 3 uphno tornal black spots or only showing through by transparency;
2 asingle spot. Unh usually only black spot in 2 prominent, the orange crown
faint and narrow.
7 (8a). dG apex F produced and pointed, termen straight from apex. ¢ ?
H produced and termen straight. Tailed. Below lines pale brown and no
darkening of the ground between lines ; unf basal pair to vl.
a. © above dark shining violet blue. Q plain brown, no blue; prominent
black spot at tornus H and obscure submarginal white spots above. Below
rather pale ochreous brown.
viola viola, M. (22-25). The Pointed Lineblue. Ceylon S. India. R.
B. As last, but below plain brown, no ochreous tinge. @ smalt blue, broad
borders or plain brown. ;
* yiola merguana, M. Sikkim—Burma. Andamans. NR.
8a (7). @ apex F may be produced, but the termen is rounded at least at
the apex.
8b (15a). H always tailed.
8c (12a). Unf discal lines on either side of v3 more or less straight and the
spaces between not darkerthanthe ground (except sometimes in the DSF
of No. 8).
8d (10a). Wings produced, termen F straight or nearly so.
8 (9). ¢ above rather pale violet blue, markings from below showing through
by transparency (except in Nicobar specimens); discs not clothed with short
fine hairs (visible with a hand lens). Below all markings prominent, white.
Unf markings regular, continuous and straight, submarginal lines not lunular,
Unh markings very broken the usual dorsal Y, formed by the discal lines and the
lines end cell, barely traceable due to the inner discal line in 3 meeting the outer
line end cell; discal line in 4 separate from the line end cell. © above bases
pale metallic blue, disc F whitish, but never any white spotsonthe inner edge
of the dark border in 1-3; below markings much broader and in DSF often
filled in darker, forming emda
a. Below ¢ markings broad, a distinct central whitish line showing between
each pair of lines.
14
612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H. 30. Nacaduba—(conid.)
*atrata prominens, M. (28-32). The T.ansparent 6 Lineblue. Ceylon. C,
6. Below markings narrower.
atrata eupled, Fruh. S. India. Sikkim—Burma. Andamans, Nicobars. C.
9(8). o above dark opaque shining violet blue; discs clothed with short
white hairs. Below all markings much duller and narrow, more bent on F, but
on H the dorsal Y is much easier to trace. Qdisc upf metallic blue,no white,
but traces of whitish spots in 1-3,
akaba gythion, Fruh. (27-31). The Opaque 6 Lineblue. Ceylon. S.
India. Sikkim-Burma. Andamans. C.
10a (8d). Wings rounded, termen F highly convex; discs above covered
with fine white hairs.
10 (11). @ above pale violet biue, all markings show through by trans-
parency and ground colour darkens towards termen. Below markings very
broad and white; unf submarginal markings highly lunulate. @ bases pale
milky blue, discs white, whitish spotsin 1-3 F. Occurs in a dwarf form, as well
as the normal form.
sinhala, Ormiston. (18-30). The Ceylon 6 Lineblue. Ceylon. C.
11 (10). $ above dark violet blue, opaque. Below markings very dull
and narrow ; submarginal markings F lunulate ; H dorsal Y prominent and inner
discal line joins outer line end cell at their lower ends. @ disc upf and base H
violet blue.
berenice ceylomca, Fruh. (22-30). The Rounded 6 Lineblue. Ceylon, NR,
B. Darker.
berenice plumbeomicans, WM., (22-30). Tavoy—S. Burma. Andamans. R.
y. A& above much darker purple brown. Below markings very dull and
tornal ocellus H unusually large.
berenice nicobaricus, WM. (24-30). Nicobars. R.
12a (8c). Unf discai lines on either side of v3 very irregular, especially the
outer upper discal line and spaces between usually filled inas dark bands.
12 (13a). Below rather dark brown, bands F broad and nearly black; H.
basal bands black, discal band and band end cell coalesced to form a large black
discal area. @ above pale shining violet blue, with a broader border, Imm,
than any other Nacaduba. 3 upf lower discal area and base H pale metallic blue.
*aluta coelestis, DeN. (23-25). The Banded Lineblue. Kumaon—N. Burma
Andamans. R.
13a (12). Below bands narrow, only a little darker than the ground.
@ above dark purple blue or purple brown with very narrow border. Below
pale to dark brown with or without an ochreous tinge of varying intensity. 2
plain brown, sometimes with a bluish lower discal patch F.
13 (14). Unf basal band confined to cell; discal band not below v2 or some-
times there is a dot in l.
bhutea, DeN. (25-28). The Bhutya Lineblue. Sikkim—Assam. NR.
14 (13). Unf discal band continued at full width to v1 and basal band reaches
vl except in faintly marked specimens. Below very variable; may be dark
brown with white lines to yellow or grey with dark bands.
*nora, Fd. (18-25.) The Common Lineblue. Ceylon India, Burma.
Andamans C.
15a (8b). Htailless. 15b (18) Unf base not darkened.
15¢e (17). g above dark purple. Below bands darker than the ground ;
unh tornal spot in 2 large, much larger than the spot in 1.
13
fon)
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES.
H. 39. Nacaduba—(con‘d.)
15 (16). Cilia uniform brown throughout. Very like No. 15.
a. Seasona! forms very alike; below brown, bands only slightly darker than
the ground, very irregular on F.. 9 brown, base I blue or violet blue more or
less. Unf basal band to vl.
dubiosa indica, Evans, (22-26). The Tailless Lineblue. Ceylon, India, C.
B. WSF as last. DSF © below pale ochreous with dark bands and on H pro-
minent marginal spots increasing in size to costa, spot at apex being as large as
the tornal spot in 2 ; unf basal band not to vl;. above plain dark brown, traces
of blue scales at base F.
dubiosa sivoka, Hvans; (22-26). Sikkim—Burma. C.
+ As last, but DSF 9 below bright yellow and marginal spots H absent.
dubiosa fulva, Evans, (22-26). Andamans. C.
(dubiosa, Snell, is from N. Australia and is the oldest name for what is usually
called the tailless form of ardates, M.=nora).
16 (15). F cilia white at apex. Unf basal band not below mv. Below as No.
14a.
a. Smal! and faintly marked below. .
norera noreia, Fd. (22-25). The White-tipped Lineblue. Ceylon, N. Burma. BR.
8. Larger and more prominently marked below.
noreia hampsoni, DeN. (26-28). S. India—Mussoorie. R.
17 (15c).. ¢& above rather pale dull violet blue, border lice: Below pale
brown, bands not darker than the ground, white lines faint ; F basal lines con-
fined to cell; discai band does not extend below v2 or there is a much narrower
spot in 1 set against the outer edge of the spot in 2; H tornal spotsin la and
2 small and equal. @Q plain brown, may have whitish discal area F.
*dana, DeN. (24-28). The Dingy Lineblue. Ceylon. 8. India. Kumaon—
Burma, Andamans. N.R.
18 (15b) Unf basal + black. Otherwise very like bhuteant, DeN. (26). De
Niceville’s lineblue. Karens—S. Burma. R.
H, 31. Jamides, The Ceruleans (Plate 27).
Above from milky white to deep metallic blue. Below brown with parallel
white lines, filled in between as bands in the DSF forms of some species. Unf
no basal lines. @ with broad dark border and apex F and marginal spots H.
la (7a). Unf upper outer discal line to v3; lower outer discal line more or
less joins inner upper discal line.
1b (8a). Unf upper discal lines bent in at v6. Unh discal lines broken at
every vein.
1 (2). Below ochreous brown or brown, inner submarginal line not lunulate,
markings dull and narrow. 6 above brilliant dark metallic blue, border and
apex F broadly black, H border narrow ; borders narrower in DSF. @ non-
metallic blue.
a. o upf costa black.
bochus bochus Cr. (25-34). The Dark Cerulean. Cevlon, India, Burma,
Andamans. C.
8B. upf costa blue, at least at base.
bochus nicobaricus, WM. Nicobars. NR.
2(1). Below dark grey, inner, submargina! line highly lunulate ; markings
white and prominent. ¢ above rather dark shining biue, border Imm,
even width. @ pale blue.
coruscans, M. (27-35), The Ceylon Cerulean. Ceylon. R.
614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H.31. Jamides—(contd.)
3a (1b). Unf upper discal lines not bent in at v6, but may be broken at vs.
4 and 6 ;unh markings more continuous.
3b (5a). Unf no white dashes on costa internal to the discal lines.
3 (4). Unh orange crown to tornal spot narrow, half the width of the spot.
Below grey markings wide. ¢ above very pale shining metallic blue, border a
thread ; 2 nearly white.
lacteata, DeN. (28-40). The Milky Cerulean. Ceylon. R.
4 (3). Unh orange crown to tornal spot very large, twice the width of the
spot, Below dark grey, markings narrow, prominent, very straight and regular.
dg rather pale shining blue, border a thread. 2 pale blue ; uph marginal spots
very prominent and inner dark border to them very lunulate.
philatus subdtta, M. (28-35). The Burmese Cerulean. 8. Burma. NR.
5a (3b). Unt always 2 or 3 white costal dashes internal to the discal lines above
lines end cell. Seasonal forms well marked. WSF with white lines on a dark
grey Or brown ground as usual. DSF filled in dark between pairs of lines,
forming, broad bands, which on H may be darkened over making them
indistinct, while on F the disc between the bands is more or less white. g
above very pale blueish white ; 2 similar with broad dark border and apex F.
5 (6). @ upf bordera thread and not dilated at apex; more metallic and
shining. <A forest insect, not found in the open as next.
cleodus pura, M. (27-38). The White Cerulean. Assam-Burma. R.
6 (5). @ upf border a thread at tornus, gradually widening to Imm. at apex.
a. above bluer and darker; uph with submarginal spots.
celeno tissama, Fruh. (27-35). The Common Cerulean. Ceylon. C.
6. Above whiter ; uph no submarginal spots.
* celeno celeno, Cr, (27-40). India, Burma. C.
y. Aboveas last ; uph with submarginal spots. No DSF.
celeno Oblairana, Hvans. (27-35). Andamans. C.
5. o& above with an inner fuscous border.
celeno kinkurka, Fd. (27-32). Kar Nicobar.
n. & above entirely overlaid fuscous scales, leaving only a narrow pale sub-
marginal fascia. Larger.
celeno nicevillei, Hvans. (30-37). Great Nicobar and Kondul. NR.
7a (la). Upf upper outer discal line ends at v4; lower discal lines join the
lines at end cell; upper discal lines angled or broken in at v6; inner upper
discal line to v3. Q pale blue.
7 (8a). uph a complete submarginal row of flat spots separated from the
marginal line by a white line bordering each spot. Apex F more or less pro-
duced, more so in DSF than WSF.
a. As next, but uph border more marked.
elpis meilichius, Fruh. (30-40). The Metallic Cerulean. Ceylon. C.
8. o uph border broad, 1mm, slightly increasing to apex and slightly diffuse
more especially at apex ; rather narrower and less diffuse in DSF. Above pale
shining blue, transparent in WSF, milkier and opaque in DSF. Below WSF
grey to brown; DSF pale ochreous brown.
*elpis eurysaces,Fruh, (30-44). S. India. Sikkim-Burma, Andamans. C.
ee
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIKS. 615
H. 31. Jamides—(conid.)
y. @ upi dark terminal line preceded by fuscous strigz outwardly resting
on an obsolete whitish line. ¢ above slightly shining bluish white.
elpis kundulana, Fd. (40). Nicobars. R.
8a (7). g uph no submarginal markings except at tornus, where there may be
traces of spots in la-2, border a thread. Below pale greyish brown to brown
markings very narrow and sharp.
8 (9a). @ upf border a thread, slightly thicker than the border H. Above
pale shining blue, darkening towards costa and apex I’, where it is opaque,
elsewhere transparent. Wings rounded, termen F more or less convex.
kankena pseudelpis Bui. (28-36). The Glstening Cerulean. Sikkim-
Burma, NR :
g. Smaller. Darker metallic blue, opaque.
kankena kankena, Fd. (28-32). Nicobars. NR.
9a (8). @ upt border Imm increasing to 2mm. at apex.
9 (10). Above brilliant shining sky blue, darker than in the last two and
everywhere onayue. Below darker than in last. Wings rounded and termen
convex.
cerulea, Druce (32-35). Assam-Burma. The Royal Cerulean. R.
10 (9). Upf border diffused. Above dusky purple blue. Wings produced
and termen straight.
lugine purpura, Evans. (35). The Dusky Cerulean. 8S. Burma. R.
H, 32. Azanus.—The Babul Blues. (Plate 27).
Small blues with catenuiated spots below. Unh prominent black tornal
spots in la and 2; basal and costal spots also black.
la (4). Unf no spot in cell.
1 (2-3). ¢ above bright lilac blue, the scales modified in the centre of the
disc F’, where the blue colour appears darker, borders broad increasing at apex
F and H. Below markings well developed. @ brown, no blue at base.
Unh a basal costal brown streak.
*ubaldus, Cr. (20-25). The Bright Babul Blue. Ceylon, India, N. Burma. C.
2 (1-3). o duller violet blue, more uniform, area with modified scales pre-
sent, but inconspicuous. @ blue at bases. Below usually markings faint.
uranus, But. (20-25). The Dull Babul Blue. India. C.
3 (1-2). As No. 2, but with broad dusky borders and darker below. Unh,
no basal costal streak.
urios, Ril, (28). The Siam Babul Blue. Burma. VR.
4 (la). Unf a spot in cell; unh prominent upper basal streak. <¢ as last
above, but no modified Venioas 2 blue at bases, prominent spot end cell and
whitish beyond it.
-jesous gamra, Led, (21-26). The African Babul Blue. Ceylon, India,
Burma. R.
H, 33. Lyczenesthes.—The Ciliate Blues. (Plate 27).
Above uniform biue, no border; 9 brown with blue bases and dark marginal
spots H. Below with broad catenulated bands. Unh eae orange crown-
ed biack marginal spot in 2.
1 (2). Unh spot base 7 large, of the ground colour ; discal band more or less
continuous. Unf discal band continuous or broken at v2. 3 above dark purple
blue. H. rounded.
a. Paler and markings below more regular.
616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAZ HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H. 33. Lycznesthes—(conid )
emolus emolus, God. (28-35). The Ciliate Blue. S. India. Sikkim—Burma. C,
g. Darker, smaller. Unf discal spot in 1 inclined inwards, pointing to
spot end cell. ;
emolus andamanicus, Fruh. (25-28). Andamans. NR.
2(1). Unh spot near base 7 small and black ; discal band broken at v6. Unf
discal band broken at v3. 4 above much paler and bluer. H produced.
a. Below paler and edges of discal bands very irregular.
lycaenina lycaenina, Fd. (24-29). The Pointed Ciliate Blue. Ceylon. S.
India. R.
g. Below darker; edges of discal bands much more regular.
*Jycaenina lycambes, Hew. Sikkim-Burma. Andamans. NR.
H. 34. Niphanda.—The Pointed Pierrot. (Plate 27).
Above ¢ dark purple blue, markings from below show through faintly on F.
@ disc whitish, prominent discal markings. Unf prominent dark streak from
base along upper edge cell; spot mid cell continued to dorsum ; lower part of
discal band in 1 and 2 much shifted in. Unh spot base 7 and discal spots in
6 and 7very prominently black, contrasting with rest.
a. Small, apex F and tornus H not much produced. ¢ above the blue
shading to a broad fuscous margin, H with marginal spots. 2 above no blue,
white areas F and H often extensive. Unf streak from mid cell to v1 of nearly
even width, upper end slightly tapered.
*fusca cymbia, DeN. (26-30). The Pointed Pierrot. Sikkim—Dawnas R.
g. Larger; tornus H and apex F very produced. ¢ above much clearer
blue and border reduced toa fineline. Q light blue, white beyond cell F and H.
Unf streak from mid cell with lower part much enlarged. Unh spots on dorsum
prominently black.
fusca tessellata, M. (30-38). Java—S. Burma. R.
H. 35. Heedes.—The Coppers. (Plate 27).
Mostly copper coloured above and spotted as Lycaena below.
la (6a). H termen excavated between vs 1 and 2.
1b (3a). Unf lower discal spots 1-3 not in line, spot in 2 shifted prominently
out, ground colour orange with a brown border. Upf copper red, broad border,
spotted as unf. Uph dark brown with submarginal red band. Unh grey brown
with reddish margin. ‘Tailless.
1 (2). Unh spots prominent, discal series resting outwardly on a white band
and the red submarginal band is bordered on both sides by biack spots. Unf
brown margin even and submarginal black spots complete. ¢ upf unsullied
copper; 2 basal half dark brown ; uph with faint purple suffusion. |
*navand, Koll. (37-40). The white-bordered Copper. Kashmir-Kumaon. C.
2 (1). Unh spots minute, no white band or submarginal spots ; uni apex broad
grey brown. Uph often with small bluish discal spots. ¢ upf more or less
suffused dark scales. Very variable.
a. Smatl, pale. Brown suffusion usualiy scanty.
phleas stygianus, But. (26-30). The Common Copper. Baluchistan—
Chitral and Ladak. C.
g. Larger. Upf brown suffusion intense, leaving only the base metallic
copper.
phiceas indicus, Evans (28-34). Outer Hima'ayas, Kashmi.-Kumaon. C.
*1 Large, pale but bright. Brown suffusion scanty: upf veins black.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 617
H.35. Heodes.—(contd.)
* phl eas flavens, Ford (30-34). Interior Himalayas to Sikkim, S.E. Thibet.
C
3a (1b). Unf lower discal spots in 1-3 in line.
3 (4a). Unh reddish brown with 2 narrow discal pale lines, pale line end cell
and 2 or 3 basal black spots ; markings very obscure. Above ¢ shining purple
with dark border and prominent spot end cell, margina! orange lunules at dorsum
F and along margin H. 9 above dark brown, outer area F orange with blue-
edged black spots. Unf orange with blue edged black spots. Tailless.
*tseng mandersi, Hl. (31-35). The Chinese Copper. Shan States. VR.
4a (3). Unh white, prominently spotted.
4 (5). Unf spot in 2 in line with spots in 1 and 4 ; white, more or less overlaid
yellow. ¢ above brilliant golden copper, unspotted and border Imm,, widening
at apex and macular on H. @ yellow, fully spotted, base F and entirely on H
suffused dark scales. Tailless.
*solskyi aditya, M. (32-36). The Golden Copper. Chitral—Ladak. R.
5 (4). Unf spot in 2 in line with spot in 1 and spot end cell. Below both
wings white with a somewhat diffused submarginal reddish band. Tailed. 6
above purple brown basal two thirds purple glossed, spots from below show faint -
ly on F and end cell H; 9 dark brown, upf outwardiy more or less oxange and
with orange marginal spots H.
phoenicurus, Led. (28-35). The Baluchi Copper. -Baluchistan. R.
6a (la). H termen evenly rounded.
6 (7). Unh white with prominent and regular spots and a red submarginal
band spotted on either side. d Q above purple brown, basally purple glossed,
upf with a spot end and mid cell. Unf orange discal spots small, regular, be-
coming obsolete posteriorly ; sutmarginal spots small.
a. Tailed. Paler above and below.
casyapa susanus, Swin. (29-35). The Purple Copper. Baluchistan. R.
B. Tailless. Darker above and below. :
*casyapa evansit, DeN, Chitral. R.
7 (6). Unh entirely verdigris green, spotless or with very tiny basal and discal
spots. Unf orange with green border; in @ the orange area partly or wholly
suffused green ; discal spots in pairs in echelon, but upper pair shifted right in.
Above @ bright copper, border, 1}mm., inwardly suffused purple; upf fully
spotted and uph prominent spot end cell and discalrow. Y dark brown, upf
more or less orange outwardly. ‘Tailless.
kasyapa, M. (39-36). The Green Copper. Chitral—Musscorie. NR.
v. zariaspa, M. (27-32). S$ above much duskier and entirely suffused
purple ; upf spots smaller and regular, the lower discal spots not elongated as
in typical form and never a spot base2. @ darker, less orange F. Below much
bluer. NR.
H. 36. Heltophorus.—The Sapphires. (Plate 26).
Below ochreous with a broad red border H. H usually tailed at v2 or at least
toothed.
1 (2a). Unh prominent costal and dorsal black spots near base. @ above
dark shining violet with a broad border F and red submarginal band H. 9°
dark brown, the red submarginal fascia continued on F. Below pale ochreous
to ochreous brown, a prominent white line inside the red submarginal area.Tailed
618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H. 36. Heliophorus—(conid.) )
*sena, Koll. (28-33). The Sorrel Sapphire. Chitral—Kumaon. C.
2a (1). Unh no prominent basal spots (may be minute ones in No. 2).
9 above dark brown with a broad orange upper discal fascia on F and a red
submarginal band on H.
2 (3a). Below no markings beyond sometimes a few dots between the base
and the red marginal area, which is very dark and continued on toapex F. ¢
above dark shining purple. Tailed.
a. Very variable. upf border broad, over 14mm.; often with an orange
area beyond the cell; uph purple much restricted and red margin very pro-
minent. ¢ F apex sharp and termen straight.
epicles indicus, Fruh. (28-34). The Purple Sapphire. Kumaon—Dawnas,
Middle Andamans. C.
sg. od upf border narrow, lmm. and uph orange markings reduced. Q upf
orange band wider. ¢ apex F more rounded.
epicles kohimensis, Tyt. Nagas. NR.
3a (2). Below with a dark discal line and a iine end cells, usually obsolete
on H, but at least line end cell on F is traceable ; red margin not continued to
F and tornal spot F prominent.
3 (4a). Hno tail, only a tooth at v2. d above deep rich, non-metallic blue,
border broad, but varies with season. Unf discal line straight and macular,
if present. @ unfa large irrorated orange discal patch.
tamu, Koll. (30-35). The Blue Sapphire. Chitral—Kumaon. NR.
4a (3). H with long tail; 9 unf no orange patch.
4 (5-7). 3 above brilliant metallic green: inner edge dark border F straight.
a. @ metallic green with no bronzy tint.
androcles coruscans, M,. (30-35). The Green Sapphire. Kashmir-Kumaon,
N.R.
8 & with a more bronzy tinge.
androcles androcles, Hew. Assam. N. Burma. N.R.
5 (4,6, 7). o brilliant metallic biue: inner edge dark border F curved.
* moores moorei, Hew. (30-35). The Azure Sapphire. Chumbi, Bhutan. NR.
B. Duller.
mooret birmana, Fruh. (32-36). Manipur—N. Burma at high elevations
N.R.
6 (4, 5, 7). o above powdered dark metallic green scales.
a. OUOpf green colouring as extensive as in No 4.
viridipunctata viridipunctata, DeN. (34-40). The Powdery Green Sapphire.
Kumaon—Sikkim. NR.
g. Upf green colour much restricted.
viridipunctata kala, Tyt. Nagas. NR.
7 (4-6). od above iridescent golden bronzy.
brahma, M. (32-38). The Golden Sapphire. Kumaon—N, Burma. NR
H. 37. Neolyczeena.—The Persian Hairstreak.
Above dark brown, cilia chequered. Below brown. Unh with irregular
waite discal and postdiscal streaks ; 2 rows of black su marginal dots, white
margined inside and yellowish between the rows. Very like an ordinary Lycaena
in general appearance.
sinensis, Alph, (32-34). The Persian Hairstreak. Baluchistan. VR.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. 619
H.38. Callophrys.—The Tailless Hairstreaks.
1 (2,3). Below dull green with a row ot small obsolescent discal white spots
on H. Above plain dark brown.
rubi, DL. (28-32). The Green Hairstreak. Baluchistan—Chitral. R.
2 (1, 3.) Below bright ferruginous, base, H darker ; a narrow irregular dark
‘discalline. Above rather pale blue with a broad dark border and apex F.
leechit, DeN. (30). The Ferruginous Hairstreak. Assam. VR.
3 (1, 2). Below dark brown with dark lines across base H, ends cells and 2
across disc, also submarginal diffused line H. Above plumbeous blue.
chalybeia, Leech. (28-32). The Plumbeous Hairstreak. N. Burma, VR.
H.39. Strymon.—The White-line Hairstreaks. (Plate 26).
Above dark shining brown. Below pale to dark brown, a narrow discal white
line across both wings, inwardly black edged ; a more or less obsolete series of
black submarginal spots, inwardly white edged and a subterminal white line ;
H tornal lobe and spot in 2 black, prominently crowned orange.
1 (2). H single tail at v3. Unhdiscal line regular; submarginal spots E.
obsolete on H and on F only in 2 and 3.
*sassunides, Koll. (28-35). The White Line Hairstreak. Baluchistan—
Chitral—Mussoorie. NR.
2(1). H tailed at vs 2 and 3. Unh white discal line distorted to a W near
dorsum,
mackwoodi, Evans. (34). Mackwood’s Hairstreak. Manipur, N. Shan States.
VR.
H.40. Listeria.—Lister’s Hairstreak. (Plate 26).
dg above bright blue, very broad blackapex F; 2 duller. Unf smoky
brown, outer } broadly paler and bearing an obscure wide fascia; a pale
spot end cell. Unh basal 4 black, rest reddish brown, very obscurely marked.
*dudgeont, DeN. (26-28). Lister's Hairstreak. Mussoorie—Sikkim. VR.
H.41. Euaspa.—The Water Hairstreak. (Plate 26).
& 2 above rather pale blue, broad black apex F and an upper white discal
patch Fand H. Below dark chocolate brown, broad whitish border and margi-
nal white ringed spots, orange circled at tornus H. Lobe small.
*milionia, Hew. (30-34). The Water Hairstreak. Murree—Kumaon. NR.
H,42. Thecla—The Hairstreaks. (Plate 26).
Mostly metallic green above in @. @ blue purple or brown with 2 orange or
white discal spots on F. Below usually with dark edged white lines and more
or less prominent tornal orange and black spots H. All tailed except No. 17.
la (5, 6a, 12a). @Q upf basally purple with 2 orange discal spots, end cell
and mid 3; uph plain dark brown.
lb (3a). g above dark powdery green, or dull purple; upf black
border 3mm., vs black. @ purple colour confined to base, orange spots small.
Below brown to ferruginous with broad dark bands consisting of a bar end
cell, discal band, marginal and submarginal bands; discal bands more or
less edged outwardly by a silver line.
1 (2). Unh discal band very broad, coalesced to bar end cell, outwardly
silver edged, straight to v2, then zigzagged to dorsum; innner submarginal band
lunulate ; prominent orange crowned tornal spots. Below rather pale brown,
bands dark brown. Unf discal band straight and increasing to costa. Above
dark powdery green. Wings produced. Q purple absent.
wana, M. (40-45). The Dull-green Hairstreak. Kulu—Kumaon. R.
2 (1). Unh discal band narrow and quite separate from the bar end cell;
inner submarginal band lunulate. Below markings ferruginous; unf disca]|
band of even width. Above purple. Wings rounded.
15
820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H. 42. Thecla—(conid.
a. Below ochreous brown, discal band outwardly silver edged and on F
angled at v3; on H straight to v2, thence zigzagged to dorsum ; tornal spots
traceable, but very obscure.
*bieti dohertyi DeN. (40-45). The Indian-purple Hairstreak. Kulu-Garhwal. R.
p. Aslast, but upf base only violet and uph all dark brown.
bieti mandara, Doh. (40). Kumaon. VR.
y. o aboveasa, but darker purple. Below very dark brown, silver edging
to discal band obsolete ; discal band on F evenly curved and on H only slightly
zigzagged at lower end ; all markings very deep ferruginous and tornal spots
H absent.
biett irma, Evans. (38). Bhutan. R.
3a (1b). ¢ not dull or purple green. Unh tornal orange spots prominent.
Wings rounded.
3 (4). gd marked like Q ; upf peacock purple with broad dark brown apex
and termen and 2 small yellow discalspots. @ duller, orange spots much larger,
coalesced. Unf dark brown, powdery purplish white discal band, inwardly
silver edged and a submarginal white line; in 2 orange discal spots show as
above. Unh dark brown base, broad irregular discal band, and broad submarginal
band powdery purplish white.
*pavo, DeN. (35-38). The Peacock Hairstreak. Bhutan---Nagas. VR.
4 (3). 3 abovemetallic green. 9 as @ of last. 4 below silver white, no
submarginal markings, dark bar end cells, narrow brown discal band often
obsolete on F, and irregular dark brown central markings on H, often obsolete.
2° unt pale brown, dark discal and submarginal markings, separated by a broad
silver band ;unh as @ but markings broader and silver ground, especially to-
wards base, tending to become pale brown,
a. upf black margin 2mm. to 5mm. at apex.
*ataxus ataxus, Db, (40-46). The Wonderful Hairstreak. Murree-Kumaon. R,
6. o& upt borders much narrower,
ataxus zulla, Tyt. Nagas. VR.
5 (la. 6a. 12a.). 9 above metallic sky blue, very faint traces of orange discal
spots upfand borders broad. o¢ above bronzy metallic green with a violet sheen,
border, 1}mm to 5mm at apex; uph a terminal blue line dorsum-v3. Below
dark brown with silver white lines ; unfline end cell, discal line and 2 submarginal
lines ; unh line through mid cell to v8, discal line very zigzag at lower end,
submarginal and diffused marginal lines, tornal orange spots prominent.
suroia, Tyt. (40-42). Manipur. The Cerulean Hairstreak. Manipur. R.
6a (la-5-12a). od upf dark brown, upf with a large coalesced orange discal
spots in mid 3 and end cell, spot in 3 often continued into 2. Below pale to dark
brown ; unf silver or pale edged dark bar end cell, dark discal band, outwardly
silver or pale edged, 2 whitish submarginal lines; unh similarly marked and
margin powdered whitish scales, tornal spots prominent and area between
discal and submarginal lines often pale brown or white powdered.
6b (9a). Unh basal line mid 7 present, though often obscure.
6 (7a). Unh basal line in 7 crosses cell, but cell portion may be obsolete espe-
cially in Q; upper end bar end cell nearer basal than discal line. 2 unf orange
spots show prominently and in ¢ there are some obscure orange scales in middle
of cell bar. Below dark brown, area between discal and submarginal lines pro-
minently silver powdered. @ above metallic green, border 15 mm,
eee eT Oly
; a sp
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTEKFLIES, _ 621
H. 42. Thecla—(conid.)
vittata, Tyt. (41-44). Tytler’s Hairstreak. Manipur—Nagas. R.
7a (6). Unh basal line does not enter cell ; upper end cell bar much closer
to discalline. @ unf no traces of orange spots.
7 (8), Above ¢ metallic green ; border 1-2mm., sharp defined.
a. Unh basal area pale, same shade as area between discal and submarginal
‘lines.
duma duma, Hew. (42-48). The Metallic Green Hairstreak. Sikkim—
Nagas. NR.
6. Unh basal area dark, same shade as between marginal pale area and
submarginal line.
* duma dumoides, Tyt. (44-48). Manipur. NR.
v. intermedia, Tyt. (38-44). Smaller and ¢ border F narrower.
8 (7). Above ¢ powdered dark green scales, border 4mm., meeting black
apex at v4 (Manipur, at v6 in Sikkim). Below uniform very dark brown, silver
discal line prominent, remaining markings obscure and pale postdiscal areas
absent.
zoa, DeN. (42-46). The powdered Green Hairstreak. Sikkim—Manipur. R.
9a (6b). Unh basal silver line absent.
9 (10a). Above ¢ powdered dark green scales, border 4mm., meeting black
apex at v6. Very like No. 8, but paler below and smaller.
doni, Tyt. (36). The Suroifui Hairstreak. Manipur. VR.
10a (9). Above metallic green with sharp defined border.
10 (11). Below uniform brown, areas between discal and submarginal lines
not conspicuously paler. @ above as ataxus.
letha, Wat. (40). Watson’s Hairstreak. Assam. Chin Hills. VR.
11 (10). Below silvery fawn colour, area between submarginal and discal]
lines conspicuously paler, nearly white, silver lines absent. Uph o terminal
metallic blue scales dorsum-v3.
kabrua, Tyt. (36-40). The Kabru Hairstreak. Manipur, Nagas. R.
12a (la-5-6a). 2 above more or less rather pale blue with 2 large whitish
spots end cell and mid 3. Below grey brown to silvery bluish marked as in
last group.
12b (18). S metallic green with well defined black border.
lZc (17). H tailed.
12d (15-16). Unh discal band straight and continuous from v2 to costa.
12 (13-14). Below grey brown, not silvery. ¢ above border even and
broad, 2mm., F and H. @Q only traces of blue on F and H all dark brown.
Below markings very even ; H tornal orange spots prominent.
birupa, M. (38-40). The Fawn Hairstreak. Simla—Kumaon. NR.
13 (12-14). Below greyish white, not silvery. ¢ above border F as last, H
narrower and irrorated bluish scales. @ blue colour extensive Fand H. Unh
markings pale and diffuse, no tornal orange spots H.
jakamensis, Tyt. (40-42). The Jakama Hairstreak. Manipur, Nagas. R.
14 (12-13). Below bluish silvery. ¢ F border narrower, even.
a. Larger. @ border H as broad as on F and no blue scales on it. 9 H
blue colour much restricted.
622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H, 42. Thecla—(conid.)
* syla syla, Koll. (42-45). The Silver Hairstreak. Safed Koh. Chitral—
Kumaon. C. 154
g. Smaller. <6 border H narrower than on F and irrorated blue scales.
Below markings narrower, tornal orange spots H obscure. @Q uph blue colour
extensive, usually to termen.
syla assamica, Tyt. (36-38). Sikkim—Manipur. R.
15 (12d-16). Unh discal line very irregular, much bowed out opposite end
cell. o above margin very narrow. 9 and below as No. 14 8.
kirbariensis, Tyt. (36-38). The Kirbari Hairstreak. Manipur, Nagas. R.
16 (12d-15). Unh discal line broken into semi-detached streaks, bowed in
opposite end cell. Unf discal line also of detached streaks. @ 9 above as
No. 15, but uph with a blue terminal line on either side of tail.
paona, Tyt. (46-47). The Paona Hairstreak. Manipur. VR.
17 (12c). Tailless. ¢ 2 above as No. 15, border in ¢ broader. Below as
No. 16, markings smaller and often obscure ; no tornal orange markings.
khasia, DeN. (36-38). The Tailless Metallic Green Hairstreak. Assam—
Manipur and Nagas. R.
18 (12b). @as 2. Tailed. Above blue colour extensive ; H margin nar-
row, containing a narrow pale blus line running along entire termen. Below
white, not silvery ; F discal band black, also submarginal band, which ends in
2 very large spots in 1 and 2; other markings pale brown ; H tornal orange
spots prominent.
* ziha, DeN. (35-38). The White-spotted Hairstreak. Murree—Kumaon. R.
H: 43. A Chaetoprocta.—The Walnut Blue. (Plate 26).
Above ¢ 2 dark shining purple, border and apex broadly black, broader
in 2. Below white, marked as in H. 42-14; bands on H and end cell F pale
and obscure ; discal band F black also marginal spots F, that in 1 being very
large. Qwith a prominent tuft of closely set yellow hairs at end of abdomen.
Lobe fairly well developed and H angled at v3.
* odata, Hew. (32-36). The Walnut Blue. Chitral—Kumaon. C.
H. 43 B. Amblopala. The Chinese Hairstreak.
Above ¢ ¢& metallic blue with broad dark brown borders and an orange
discal spot in 4-5 F. Unf pale brown, apex and mazgin chestnut, a
silver bar end cell and a silver discal line. Unh chestnut, a central silver Y
band from mid costa to tornus.
avidiena, Hew. (32). The Chinese Hairstreak. Naga Hills, VR.
H. 44. Curetis. The Sunbeams. (Plate 27).
‘$ golden red above: 2 with red or white discal areas. Below silvery
white with obscure bands.
la (4a). Below not covered with minute black dots. Unf discal and sub-
marginal bands parallel. Unh discal band far from end cell. 4° upf black
border not or only very slightly continued along the dorsum. H only slightly
produced and termen rounded. |
1b (3). Q above with broad white discal patches.
1 (2). @ above copper of a pale tint : upf dark border very narrow, often
reduced to a thread at dorsum and angled at the apex more or less. Below
postdiscal line on both wings fairly straight and regular,
_— pe opie
ee,
¢
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. 623
HH. 44. Curetis—(conid.)
phedrus, F. (40-48). The Malabar Sunbeam. Ceylon. S. India—Bengal.
NR,
2 (1). ¢ above darker: upf dark border broader and more even. Below
postdiscal line separately curved in. each space and varies in distance from
base ; unh line on either side of v5 markedly nearer the margin.
thetis, Dry. (40-48). The Common Sunbeam. India, Burma. NR.
3 (1b). Q with orange or obscure whitish discal areas. <d above with
broad, evenly curved, dark border. Unf postdiscal lunules in 5 and 7 well
beyond the others and not in line with rest as in No. 2.
a. & with orange areas. Always larger than #.
saronis gloriosa.M.(44-48). The Burmese Sunbeam. Cachar—Burma. NR.
p. As last, but smaller.
saronis saronis, M. (40-44). Andamans. NR.
7 o aslast. @ with obscure whitish discal areas.
saronis nicobarica, Swin. (40-44). Nicobars. NR.
4a (la). Below covered with minute black dots. do upf border continues
along dorsum.
4 (5a). EF termen convex and H termen rounded. <6 uph base and tornus
broadly darkened. @ with broad orange areas, which are darker and more
restricted than usual : on H bar end cell not-sshowing and the red area usually
does not reach the costa. Below discal and submarginal bands nearly parallel.
sperthis, Fd. (30-40). The Rounded Sunbeam. Mergui. R.
5a (4). F termen straight or concave and H tornus produced. Unf discal
and submarginal bands convergent to apex.
5 (6), @ with orange discal areas. Unh portion of discal band in 6 and 7
variable, but not in line with bar end cell.
a. 6 above very variable and difficult to distinguish from No. 6: darker
and usually no tooth end cell upf: uph base darkened, leaving a red discal
area, which narrowly reaches the costa, as a rule.
bulis bulis, Db. (35-45). The Bright Sunbeam. Mussoorie—N. Burma. R.
sg. o& much brighter: uph all red with a prominent black streak from the
base over the mv: ends veins black.
* bulis malayica, Fd. (40-45). Karens—S. Burma. NR.
6 (5). @Q with white discal areas of variable extent. Unh the portion
of the discal band in 6 and 7 in line with the bar end cell, seen best by
transparency from above. 6 above paler red than usual and usually a tooth
end cell upf. F apex very produced and may be falcate : tornus produced and
termen straight or concave. H tornus much produced and termen produced
in middle, being sharply angled at v4.
acuta dentata, M. (40-50). The Angled Sunbeam. S. India. Central Pro-
vinces. Mussoorie—Burma. C.
H. 45. Iraota.—The Silverstreak Blue: (Plate 27).
Above bright shining blue with broad borders. Below dark ferruginous;
unf a silver streak and discal spots ; unh usually a broad irregular basal silver
streak, obscure zigzag discal markings and usually ochreous towards termen.
1 (2). ¢ tail only at vl; 2 also tail at v2; margin more or less crenulate.
Unh silver streak never to margin and sometimes completely absent. 2 purple
with broad borders.
624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
H. 45. Iraota— (conid.)
a. above green rather than blue; unh silver streak, when oe cloud-
ed ferruginous.
timoleon nicevillei, But, (40-48). The Silverstreak Blue. Cey Ba. R.
-p. & above blue. Unh silverstreak, if present, clear.
* timoleon timoleon, Stoll. S. India—Mussoorie—Buima. NR.
2(1). ¢ tailat vs land 2; 9 with an extra tail at v3. ¢ above deeper:
blue; 9 entirely dark brown. Below silver markings more extensive and
wider ; F discal spot in 4 elongate, nearly to termen; H a basal streak along
costa and usually the broad irregular streak reaches termen and throws down
a bar across end cell; discal zigzag silver markings prominent, margin broadly
pale ochreous.
rochana boswelliana, Dist. (40-48). The Scarce Silverstreak Blue. Mani-
pur—Burma. R.
H: 46. Horsfieldia.—The Leaf Blue. (Plate 27).
Above blue'or purple with dark borders. Below dark ferruginous in ¢,
rather pale brown in 2, with a prominent black discal line across both wings,
more or less irrorated with dark scales, presenting a leaflike appearance as in
Kallima.
1 (2). o above purple with border of even. width.
a. Smaller and darker. @Q in 2 forms, typically smalt blue to purple.
anita naradoides, M. (42-52). The Purple Leaf Blue. Ceylon. NR.
@v. darana, M. Above plain brown. R.
gB. Larger. Q above smalt blue. @ above border narrower.
*gnita anita, Hew. (50-55). S. India. Sikkim—Burma. NR.
+. @ bluer above and darker below. Q blue area larger and extending
to H.
anita andamanica. Ril, (50-55). Andamans. NR.
2 (1). o& above rich deep blue; 2 purple blue, always more extensive,
especially on H. @ above border narrows to dorsum.
narada tacoana, M. (50-55). The Blue Leaf Blue. Dawnas—S. Burma. R.
H: 47. Thaduka.—The Many -tailed Oakblue. (Plate 27).
a. 6 2 above pale silvery blue, black border=3 the wing Fand H. Below
base F and all H very dark brown, outer half F pale brown, with a discal band
of black spots ; H spotting very obscure; a prominent white spot mid cell F
and usually some metallic green spots at bases F and H and above the tails.
*multiceudata kanara, Evans. (35-45). The Many-tailed Oakblue. 8S.
India. R.
g. Above darker, Unf cell spots and unh spot base 7 dark.
multicaudata multicaudata, M. S. Burma. R.
H: 48. Mahathala.—The Falcate Oakblues (Plate 27).
1 (2). H margin smooth.. ¢ above rich deep blue with narrow borders:
? purple with broad borders. Below rufous brown, markings obscure : F white
lines across cell and a broad continuous dark discal band; H a pale fascia from.
mid dorsum to apex and a similar submarginal fascia, obscure spots at base.
*ameria, Hew. (38-42). The Falcate Oakblue. Bengal—Burma. R.
2 (1). H margin crenulate. ¢ 9 above blue with broad borders and black
veins ; costa upf chequered black and white. Below paleto dark brown; H
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JoURN. BomBay Nat, Hist. Soc. Puate XXVIII,
he
Pe ante,
&
€
H. Lycaenidae. H. 49. Amblypodia.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. 625..
H. 48. Mahathala—(conid.)
with obscure confused markings asin H. 47; F with 6 white bars across the
cell, a highly waved postdiscal line and a square large pale patch mid 1, with 2
smaller square spots in 2 and 3; H some tornal metallic green scales.
*atkinsoni, Hew. (35-40). The Crenulate Oakblue. Manipur—S. Burma. R.
H:. 49. Amblypodia.—The Oakblues. (Plate 28).
Above all shades of blue and purple and even metallicgreen. Below ae
with the same pattern. Unf 3 spots in the cell, including the spot at the end
of the cell; often with a costal spot in 10 over the spot end cell and more rarely
with one or more spots nearer the base in 11 and at the bases of 10 and 11; a
more or less continuous discal band, which may be broken at v4 and may or
may not be continued to vl ; a spot at base 2 and a dark areaat base 1; a sub-
marginal dark line. Unha more or less prominent spot or half spot at base 8 ;
a basal row of 4 spots (7, cell, 1 and dorsum) ; a central row of 3 spots (7, celland
2); a continuous band made up of spots from the costa to dorsum, the shape of
which varies in different groups, more especially as to the shape and position
of the two uppermost spots (in 7 and 6), whether the dislocation at v2 is partial
or complete and whether the band runs continuously to the dorsum or not ;
more or less prominent tornal green or blue metallic scales and a single broad
or 2 narrow submarginal lines. May be tailed at v2 and lobed at the tornus H.
la (72a). Unf with 3 normal dark cell spots. |
1b (16a). Unh with the discal spots in 7, 6 and 5 with their centres in line,
more or less rounded ; spots in 7 and 6 in echelon, inner edge of spot in 6 more
or less in line with the outer edge of the spot in 7 (seealso Nos.27and 28). Tailed
or tailless.
Anthelus Group.
Ie (lla). Tailed.
ld (4%). Unf cell spots abnormal, not confined to cell; discal band broken
_at v4. Unh tornal green scales diffused, lobed. H produced.
1 (2-3). Unf spot end cell extended to costa and 3 prominent whitish costal
| spots, including upper spot of discal band ; unh discal band completely broken
at v2 and continuous to dorsum. Below chocolate with on H a broad white
band from base cell to apex and below this band the ground colour is much paler.
Above @ @ pale blue, border F }mm. at tornus to 5 at apex, H no border.
*subfasciata, M, (40-46). The White-banded Oakblue. Dawnas—S. Bur-
ma. NR.
2 (1-3). Uni basal and central spot extended to v12 and 2 prominent costal
spots ; unh an additional costal spot at base 8, discal band partially broken at
v2 and discontinuous to dorsum. Below ochreous brown, spots on F and about.
costa H very dark. @ above metallic blue changing to purple, border F 3mm.
at tornus to 3 at apex ; Q paler metallic blue, borders broad ; tornus H fuscous.
a. Above paler. Below pale ochreous. Unh other than costal spots obscure.
. *anthelus anthelus, Db. (50-60). The Multi-spotted Oakblue. Dawnas.
R.
8B. Aboveand below much darker. Unh all markings prominent,
anthelus anthea, Hvans. Tavoy—S. Burma. NR.
3 (1-2). Unf central cell spot only extended to v12 and a single costal spot:
in 10 over spot end cell; unh discal band completely broken at v2 and continuous
to dorsum. Below pale ochreous brown, spots large, rounded and only slightly
darker than the ground, apex and outer part of H may be whitish. <¢ above
pale metallic blue changing to violet, no border; 2 more violet, border broad
and a spot at end cell F.
anarie, Hew. (62-65). The Magnificent Oakblue. Manipur—S. Burma.
626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX
H. 49. Amblypodia—(conid.)
4a (1d). Unf cell spots normai and at most a single costal spot.
4 (5a). Below rosy purple. Unf discal band continuous or slightly broken
at v2, no costal spot. Unh discal band partially broken at v2 and continuous
to dorsum, tornal green scales diffused. @above dark purple blue, border F
4mm.; uph costa broadly fuscous: 9 with broad borders.
suffusa, Tyt. (40-50). Tytler’s Rosy Oakblue. Manipur-Dawnas. R.
5a (4). Below brown or ochreous brown.
5b (10). @ upf no discal area of modified scales. Unf discal band comple-
tely broken at v4 ; unh discal band partially dislocated at v2 and more or less
continuous to dorsum,
5c (9). Unf no costal spot in 10 over spot end cell.
5d (8). Unf discal spots separated by white irides. Below pale brown with
large prominent spots. Unh tornal green scales diffused ; lobed.
5a (7). Above ¢ pale violet blue, border a thread, a black spot end cell sur-
rounded by a white area. 2 paler, becoming whitish outwardly, spot end cell
and a spot beyond conjoined to the costal border. Unf discal spots in 2 and 3
elongated towards the spot end cell.
5 (6). Unf discal spots well separated.
a. Paie and large. Below markings small in DSF, being very black on F
and about costa H.
camdeo camdeo, M. (52-56). The Lilac Oakblue. Sikkim—N. Burma. R.
gs. Smaller and darker. 2 more uniform violet blue.
*camdeo varro, Fruh. (42-50). Karens—S. Burma. VR.
6 (5). Unf discal spots large with irides conjoined.
dispar, Riley. (44-52). The Siam Oakblue. Assam—Dawnas. VR.
7 (5a). @ above pale silvery metallic blue, border O to Imm. at apex.
2 bltish white, border broad and a spot end cell. Unf spots in 2 and 3
rounded ; unh whitish below costa inside the discal band.
*karennia Evans. (48). The Karen Oakblue. Karens. VR.
8 (5d). Unf discal spots not separated by white irides, upper spot of discal
band shifted in. Below rather dark b.iown, all white edgings prominent. ¢
pale silvery violet blue, no border, a more or less prominent discal white spot
upf. 2 darker and border broad : spot end cell, not joined to costal border,
opalina, M. (48). The Opal Oakblue. Assam—Tavoy. VR.
§ (5d). Unf costal spot in 10 over cell spot in continuation, of upper spot
of discal band, nospotin1. Below hair brown, irides pale brown, not prominent;
& above metallic violet blue, no border ; 2 violet blue, borders broad, no spot
end cell. Unh tornal green scales sharp defined.
agnis, Fd. (56-58). The Large Metallic Oakblue. Dawnas—S. Burma. R.
10 (5b). @ upf with a discal area of modified scales. Unf discal band vari-
able, may be broken at v4, only sinuous, or spot in 4 may be shifted out ; usually
costal spotin 10. Below hair brown, markings dull ; unh discal band completely
dislocated at v2 and continuous to dorsum ; tornal green scales sharply defined,
lobed. ¢ above metallic violet blue, becoming violet outwardly; 2 with
broad borders, no spot end cell, but with ill-defined spots beyond conjeineg to
the costal border.
a, Paler and more silvery, border F in a thread.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 627
H. 49. Amblypodia—(conid.)
. atosuva aricia, Stg. (42-46). The Tailed Disc Oakblue. Pegu Yoma—Karens,
8. Darker, border F in ¢imm.
* atosia atosia, Hew. Dawnas—S. Burma. C.
lla (1c). Tailless. Below hair brown, markings dull ; unf no spot in 1] and
costal spot obscure or absent : unh lobed and tornal green or blue scales sharply
defined. @ border broad, no spot end cell, but may be spots beyond joined to
the costal border. Wings rounded and costa F highly arched.
11b (13a). Unh discal band completely dislocated at v2 and continuous to
dorsum, Below more or less obscurely purple washed.
11 (12). Unf costal spot in 10, discal band broken at v4 and usuaily spot in
4 shifted out. @ 2 above asin No. 10, but border Fin g¢ upto Imm. (Paler
and bluer than typical epimuta from Java). .
epimuta elsiei, Evans, (37-43). The Tailless Dise Oakblue. Tavoy—S.
Burma. NR.
12 (11). Unf costal spot in 10 obscure or absent, discal band bent at v4 and
spot in 2 shifted out; darker below. ¢ above shining metallic blue, comple-
tely overlaid violet on F, border F 14mm.
* metamuta, Hew. (36-40). The Bicolor Oakblue. Karens—S. Burma. R.
13a (11b). Unh discal band partially dislocated at v2, more or less continu-
ous to dorsum. Unf no costal spot in 10 ; discal band bent at v4.
13 (14-15). above pale metallic blue shading to violet, border F 3mm,
Small.
payaiensis, Ollen. (38-40). The Pale Arched Oakblue. Dawnas—S. Burma. R.
14 (13-15). ¢G above darker and much larger.
* moolaiana, M, (42-50). The Large Arched Oakblue. Karens—S. Burma.
R.
15 (13-14). ¢ above dark uniform violet blue, @ uph, border broad.
Below darker and markings more prominent.
15a (15b). Border F 1 mm.
agesilaus, Stg. (43). The Dark Arched Oakblue. Mergui. VR.
15b (15a). Border F a thread.
amphimuta, Fd. (43). The Malay Arched Oakblue. Mergui. VR.
16a (1b). Unh discal spots in 7, 6 and 5 with centres not in line, 7 and 6
more or less quadrate, conjoined. (See Nos. 27 and 28).
16b (65-a). Unf no spot base 11 between basal and central cell spots.
16c¢ (36a). Unh discal band completely dislocated at v2 and usually centi-
nuous to dorsum. Always tailed and F termen never concave just below the
apex ; lobed.
16d (21a). Unf discal band completely broken at v4, spot in 4 being shifted
out of line with the rest ; usually a well defined costal spot in 10 and often spot
in 1] and at base of 7 and 10. Unh tornal green scales prominent, though scme-
times diffuse.
Atrax Group.
16 (17a). Below dark chocolate, all markings broken up and consisting of
small white lines and dashes. Unh discal spot in 6 large, overlapping spot in 5
and end cell, outwardly concave. 6 above pale metallic silvery blue shading
to violet at apex F, border 4mm. ; 9 pale blue with broad borders F.
16
628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H 49. Amblypodia.—(contd.) x eas
* albopunctata, Hew. (34-38). The White Spotted. Oakblue. Karens—S.
Burma. NR. ; a 3
17a (16). Below grey brown to ochreous or purple brown with a purple to
pinkish wash. Unh discal spots in 7 and 6 conjoined and placed between spot
end cell and spot in 5.
17 (18- 20). ¢ above dark shining purple blue, border F 14mm. to3 at. |
apex ; 9 shining blue, border F 2mm. to 5 at apex; costal border 1mm. leaving
blue over cell, a black area beyond cell conjoined to black apex. Below very |
distinct, dark purple brown with prominent white edged broad markings, more
irregular than usual; F costal spots prominent; 2 zigzag submarginal lines.
Wings rounded.
* alitaeus mirabella, Doh. (36-38). The Purple Brokenband Oakblue. Tavoy—
S. Burma. R. | : :
18 (17-19-20). ¢ above dark shining purple blue, border 14mm. to 3 at
apex; 9 shining blue, border 3mm., all costa and apex black to v4, a small
spot mid 3. Below grey brown to purple brown, markings prominent but much
more regular and narrower ; unh discal band usually discontinuous at dorsum.
Apex F produced and termen straight.
atrar, Hew. (32-38). The Dark Brokenband Oakblue. Shan States—S..
Burma. NR.
19 (17-18-20). 3 above shining violet blue, or silvery blue, overlaid violet :
border F 1mm.—1 at apex. Q pale blue, border 14mm.—5 at apex, }mm. |
on costa, leaving blue above the cell, the black apex angled at v4. Below rather
pale ochreous or grey brown with slight pinkish wash. Very variable above
and below.
* ariana, Evans. (35-42). The Pale Brokenband Oakblue. Dawnas—S.
Burma. R.
20 (17-19). o above purple, border ?mm.; 9 as last. Below ochreous.
brown to slightly purple brown. Wings much more rounded than in the rest
of the group and unh tornal green scales much more sharply defined.
raffiesvi, DeN. (37-40). Raffles’ Oakblue. Mergui—S. Burma. R.
21a (16d). Unf discal band not much dislocated at v4, spot in 4 never pushed
out and never more than a single costal spot (in 10 over the end cell spot).
21b (25a). Of large size, over 45mm. Unh diséal band in 2-5 straight, con-
fluent and directed to the tornal lobe ; tornal green scales prominent and usually
diffuse ; discal spot in 6 with its outer edge oblique and well inside the inner
edge of the spot in 5.
silhetensis Group.
21c (24). Below ochreous brown:
21d (23). Unf discal band dislocated at v4, lower part shifted in ; always a
costal spot in 10. Unh discal band slightly dislocated at v4.
21 (22). Unf costal spot in 10 never so wide as the spot end cell ; upper part
of discal band straight or uppermost spot shiftedin. Termen F straight.
a. @ above violet blue, border F 2mm. Below greyish ochreous; bands.
and spots large and prominent ; unh tornal green scales faint or absent.
* silhetensis silhetensis, Hew. (50-56). The Sylhet Oakblue. Sikkim—N.
Burma. R. |
gs. above shining purple blue, border F 4mm. Below clear ochreous.
brown, spots usually small and sharply defined.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. 629»
’ H. 49. Amblypodia—(conid.)
stage arama, DeN. (50-56). Karens—S. Burma, R.
2 (21). Unf costal spot in 10 very large, as wide as the spot end cell ; upper
na of discal band arched. 4 above shining purple blue, border Fjmm. @
border broad, and may be a spot end cell and a black patch beyond. hese tor-
nal green scales prominent.
* adorea, DeN. (46-50). The Singapore Oakblue. Dawnas—S. Burma. PR...
| 23 (21d). Unf discal band not dislocated at all at v4, may be slightly sinu-
ous there ; costal spot in 10 present or absent. Below variable, may be slightly
purple washed. 6 above shining purple blue, border 1}mm.—5 at apex ;:
© paler, bluer, border 23—7mm.
* adatha regia, Evans, (48-50). The large Mergui Oakblue. Mergui. RB.
24 (21c). Below rosy purple to purple brown ; unf costal spot in 10 present
or absent. < above shining purple blue, border F Imm. Q paler, border
3mm., a dark patch beyond end cell.
~ apha, DeN. (46-50). The Vinous Oakblue. Dawnas—S. Burma, VR.
25a (21b). Not larger than 45mm. Unh discal band in 2-5 more irregular
and discal spot in 6 with its outer edge more or less joining inner edge of spot
in 5.
Phaenops Group.
25b (29a-3la). Below dull ochreous hair brown. Rather large and wings.
produced. Unf discal band sinous, no spot in 10.
25 (26a). Below rather dark brown, markings very wide and prominent-
ly outlined white. Unh central row spot enlarged ; discal spot in 6 very large,
overlaps spot in 5 and usually not up to the spot end cell ; tornal green scales
diffused. 3 above shining violet blue, border 1mm. to 2 at apex, veins black,
especially on H.
arata, Tyt. (44). Tytler’s Dull Oakblue. Manipur. VR.
26a (25). Below markings dull and narrow.
26 (27a). Unh discal spot in 6 midway between the spot end cell and the
spot in 5 or nearer the former ; tornal green scales sharply defined, prominent.
3 above very deep purple blue, border mm. ; 2 paler and borders very broad.
agrata, DeN. (44). DeNiceville’s Dull Oakblue. Manipur—Burma. R.
27a (26). Unh discal spot in 6 much nearer the discal spot in 5 ; spots in
7, 6 and 5 in echelon with their centres more or less in line. Below markings.
very obscure. |
27 (28). Unh no tornal green scales. 6 above bright violet blue, border
limm; Q as next.
enea, Hew. (46). Hewitson’s Dull Oakblue. Sikkim—Assam. R.
28 (27). Unh with more or less prominent metallic green scales at torus.
3 above dark purple blue, border 4mm; @ purple blue costal and terminal
border F 4mm. and on H blue only about cell.
khamti, Doh. (46). Doherty’s Dull Oakblue. Sikkim—N. Burma. NR.
29a (25b-3la). Below rather dark ochreous hair brown with prominent
markings and tornal green scales H ; rarely a very faint purple wash. Unt
usually a spot in 10, discal band variable, may be straight, sinuous or slightly
broken at v4 ; unh discal ene in 6 overlapping spot end cell or intermediate
between it and the spot in 5. @ purple with broad borders.
630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX,
H. 49. Amblypodia—(con/d.)
29 (30). od above bright shining deep blue, border F Imm. @ purple
colour extending into the black apex, thereby forming a black patch end cell.
* phoenops aroa, Hew. (34-40). The Bright Oakblue. Karens—S. Burma.
NR.
30 (29). @ above dark purple blue, border Flmm. @ purple colour not
extending into the black apex. Wings much more rounded.
pryert, But. (38-42). The Roundwinged Bright Oakblue. Dawnas—S.
Burma, R.
3la (25b-29a). Below with a more or less well developed rosy, pinkish to
purple gloss. Unfa more or less prominent costal spot in 10.
3lb (33a). Unh discal spot in 6 more or less overlapping the spot end cell
and the centres of spots in 7 and 6 in line with spot end cell.
31 (32). Unh discal spot in 5 well separated from the spot end cell. Below
variable, the rosy pink gloss variable in shade and intensity.
a. Unf discal band usually broad, curved, sinuous, upper portion oblique :
unh tornal green scales prominent. <o above bright deep blue, border F 13—
2mm. @ shining blue with broad borders. Very variable.
* alea aiea, Hew. (34-40). The Rosy Oakblue Karens—S. Burma. NR.
8. Unf discal band straight and narrow. Unh tornal green scales faint.
do above bright deep blue, border 1}mm. Q shining blue.
alea constancee, DeN. (40). Andamans. VR.
32 (31). Unh discal spot in 5 conjoined to spot end cell or only separated
by a double white bar ; discal band very irregular. Unf discal band continu-
ous, straight or slightly curved. Below purple brown with a purple glaze ;
unh tornal green scales rather faint.- ¢ above dark shining violet blue; 9
paler purple blue, border broad and with more or less of a spot end cell.
a. Below uniform. Unh inner submarginal line prominently zigzag. 6
border F Imm,
agaba aurelia, Evans. (36-44). The Purple-glazed Oakblue. Manipur—N.
Burma. R.
8. Below patchy, apex and costa F and H except termen, as wellas all the
markings with a whitish glaze. Unh inner submarginal line obscured. @
border F 3mm.
* agaba agaba, Hew. Karens—S..Burma. NR.
33a (3lb). Unh discal spot in 6 with its inner edge clear of the outer edge of
the spot end cell. Unf discal band unbroken and on H discal band in 2-5 very
compact. Unh tornal green scales usually faint and diffused.
33 (34-35). Below rather pale purple brown with a purple wash. Unf no
spot in 10. Unh basal and central spots unusually small and bar end cell very
narrow. _ ¢ above dark shining violet blue, border lmm.; 9 paler purple, a
spot end cell F and on H the purple colour confined to the cell.
canaraica, M. (44-45). The Kanara Oakblue. S. India. R.
34 (33-35). Below pale grey brown, more or less washed pinkish. Unf with
a costal spot in 10, discal band very straight. Unh discal band almost conti-
muous from 2-7. < above dusky purple, border F 2mm. to 4 at apex, H blue
to just beyond end cell. @ border 3mm. to 6 at apex and on H blue colour
absent or with traces at base.
* hewitsoni, BB. (34-40). The Indian Oakblue. S. India—Dun—Dawnas, C.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 631
H.49. Amblypodia—(conid.)
35 (33-34). Below pale silky ochreous brown. Unf with costal spot in 10-
discal band very straight and a prominent oblique spot in 1. Unh discal band
almost continuous from 2-7. g above dusky purple, 2 blue; border F 3mm.
to 6 at apex, a spot end cell and a whitish streak beyond ; on H blue to just
beyond cell. Wings produced. :
* alemon, DeN. (35-44). The Silky Oakblue. Manipur—Dawnas. C.
36a (16c). Unh discal band never dislocated at v2. (except No. 56).
36b (50a-54a). Tailed and F termen never concave just below the apex.
Centaurus Group.
36c (44a). Unh discal spot in 6 overlapping spot end cell and the spot in 5,
its outer edge concave.
36d (39a). Unf discal band continuous, not broken at v4; spot in 10 over
end cell obscure or absent.
36 (37a). Unf an oblique discal spot in 1 ; unh tornal green scales faint or
absent, no lobe or tornal black spots. Below dark ochreous brown, markings.
obscure ; unf markings in cell defined by vertical silver lines, discal band sinu-
ous ; unh markings faint, discal spot in 5 close to spot end cell. <¢ above dark.
violet blue; 9 paler with broad borders. F apex produced and termen straight.
a. g@ borderFlmm. @ @ paler basally.
centarurus pirama, M, (53-62). The Centaur Oakblue. Ceylon, S. India..
NR.
g. 6 borderfjmm. @ 2 uniform above.
centaurus pirithous, M. Kumaon—Assam. NR.
y. o border$}mm. @ 2 uniform above. —
* centaurus centaurus, F. Burma. NR.
5. ¢ border 4mm. Bases conspicuously paler, especially in 2.
centaurus coruscans, WM. Andamans. NR.
37a (36). Unf no discal spot in 1 or only a faint one in continuation of the-
discal band. Wings rounded.
37 (38). Below purple brown. Unh discal spot in 5 well separated from the
spot end cell, tornal green scales more or less prominent and with a small lobe.
Below purple brown with a conspicuous glaze. Above ¢ dark shining blue,
border F 14mm. increasing to 3 at tornus and apex and on H; 9 paler, border
4mm. and a black spot end cell.
paralea, Evans. (40-45). The Glazed Oakblue. Manipur—Shan States. R..
38 (37). Below ochreous brown with prominent markings ; unf with a costal
spot in 10 and discal band sinuous ; unh sharply defined tornal green scales and
lobe, discal spot in 5 well separated from the spot end cell. Above @ shining
purple blue, border F 1mm.
cooperi, Evans. (42-44). Cooper’s Oakblue. Mergui. VR.
39a (36d). Unf discal band conspicuously broken at v4, lower part shifted
in and upper part oblique. Unh lobe well developed and always with more or
less diffuse tornal green scales.
39 (40a). Unf dark area under cell produced along 1 to the discal band ; no
costal spot in 10. Unh discal band very sinuous, spot in 5 at right angles to the
spot in 4. Below grey brown to dark ochreous brown, markings prominent.
Above ¢ dark shining blue; 2 brighter and paler with broad borders and a
spot end cell.
€32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
H. 49. Amblypodia—(contd.)
a. oo above border F Imm,
amantes amantes, Hew. (45-57). The Large Oakblue. Ceylon, S. India—
Dun—Sikkim. NR.
B. & borderupf 4mm.
* amantes amatrix, DeN, Manipur—Dawnas. NR.
40a (39). Unf dark area under cell quite separate from the discal band ;
usually prominent costal spot in 10. Unh discal spots square, moderately re-
gular, in a stepped line. . |
40b (42a). @ above purple; 2 uph no blue and on F the broad dark border
‘continued a little along the dorsum.
40 (41). Unh the central cell spot joined to the central costal spot. Below
rather pale brown, apex F whitish ; H centre of disc and margin shining yellow.
¢& above dark purple, border F 2mm. and a spot end cell; Q rather pale purple.
*singla, DeN. (44-48). The Yellowdisc Oakblue. Sikkim—Karens. NR.
41 (40). Unh central cel) spot never joined to central costal spot. Below och-
reous brown to brown with a silky gloss; F apex whitish ; H prominently, but
‘sparsely sprinkled white scales, margin and markings more or less shining yellow.
d& above very dark purple, very nearly black, border F lmm., 2 on H; 92.as last.
*bazalus, Haw. (44-48). The Powdered Oakblue. Sikkim—Karens. NR.
42a (40b). @ above green. @ with more or less blue colouring on H. Unh
‘bar end cell well separated from the spot in 5.
42 (43). ¢ above bright metallic brassy green, border F under 3mm. Un-
bar end cell narrow. @Q purple blue with broad borders.
a. Wings rounded. < upf border from 2mm at apex to 4 at tornus; H
green to just beyond the cell. Below uniform rather pale brown with a silky
gloss; H tornal green scales diffused. @ borders very broad and continued
along dorsum.
*eumolphus eumolphus, Cr. (44-50). The Green Oakblue. Sikkim—Karens:NR.
g. Apex F produced. <¢ upf border Imm at apex to 3 at tornus, green area
more extensive on H. Below as last, but apical area F and H broadly pale,
‘whitish. @Q border narrower, not continued along dorsum F.
eumolphus hellenore, Doh. Assam—Tavoy. NR.
y Wings rounded. <o¢ above ag last. Below uniform ochreous brown,
no silky gloss ; H tornal green scales sharply defined, brilliant.
eumolphus maxwelli, Dist. Mergui. VR.
43 (42). og above metallic peacock green, border F 6mm. at tornus to 9 at
apex. Q bright shining blue, border narrower than in ¢ 4mm. and a_ black
spot end cell. Below very dark ochreous brown, 2 ferruginous brown, markings
wider than usual, tornal green scales sharply defined, brilliant.
horsfieldit eurysthenes, Fruh, (40-46). The Peacock Oakblue. Dawnas—S.
Burma. R.
44a, (36c). Unh discal spot in 5 outwardly rounded, not overlapping both
‘spot end cell and the spot in 5, usually central, just filling the gap. Unfno spot
in 10. Lobed.
44b (46a). Unh more or less a white scales.
4 (45). Below entirely overlaid white scales except for the markings on F
and about costa H, which are dark chocolate ; unf discal band slightly broken
at v4; unh tornal green scales sharply defined. dg above dark shining purple
border imm. Qentirely dark brown. |
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. 633
4
H. 49. Amblypodia—(conid.)
ormistoni, Riley. (46). Ormiston’s Oakblue. Ceylon. VR.
45 (44). Below apex F and H inside the wavy submarginal line and below
v8 overlaid white scales, remainder dark chocolate. Unf discal band completely
broken at v4 and the discal spot in 3 joining spot end cell ; markings prominently
outlined white. Unh discal spot in 7 larger than the spot in 6, both prominently
chocolate as also are the central and basal spots in 7, which are close together
and conjoined to the chocolate area in 8 ; tornal green scales obscure. <¢ above
purple, border F 2mm to 3 at apex and torus. @ purple, paler, border 4mm,
running along dorsum and very broad at apex ; H only cell purple.
*bazaloides, Hew. (44-47). The Tamil Oakblue. S. India, Assam—N.
Burma. R.
46a (44b). Unh not overlaid white scales.
46b (49). Below ochreous hair brown; unh tornal green scales pro-
-minent, discal band continuous to dorsum.
46c (48). Unf discal band slightly broken at v4.
46 (47). Unf base 1 under cell entirely filled dark brown up to origin of
v2. Below markings very large. ¢ apex F pointed ; above very deep purple
blue, border F 4mm and veins brownish. @ bright purple blue, border F
1-5mm at apex, black spot end cell.
corinda acestes, DeN, (50-55). The Ultramarine Oakblue. Mergui. VR.
47 (46). Unf no prominent dark basal area under cell. Below dark ochreous
brown. ¢ above shining purple blue, border F 13mm., veins outwardly narrowly
' black.
vihara, Fd. (52). Felder’s Oakblue. Mergui. VR.
48 (46c). Unf discal band unbroken but bent at an angle of 140 degrees at
v4. Below rather pale ochreous brown. <6 Q alike rather pale blue, border H
and at tornus F 2mm to 6 at apex.
woodii, Ollenbach. (40-50). Wood’s Oakblue. Tavoy—S. Burma. R.
49 (46b). Below pale grey brown turning whitish at apex F and H. Unt
spot base 3 joining spot end cell and the spot base 2 ; discal band broad, conti-
nuous, directed to tornus, spot in 3 slightly elongated inwards ; dark broad sub-
marginal spots in 2 and 3; all markings black, except upper part of discal band,
which is whitish. Unh all markings pale, black edged, more markedly
- so near costa, discal spot in 3 shifted in, joining spot end cell ; no tornal green
‘scales. Above pale silvery blue, border F 4mm. ; Q with black spot end cell.
alesia, Fd, (42-44). The Pallid Oakblue. Dawnas—S. Burma, Anda-
mans. R.
50a (36b. 54a). F termen pointed and sharply concave below the point. Unh
discal band discontinuous to dorsum, tornal green scales absent or faint. Tailed
or tailless ; small lobe.
Rama Group.
50b (53). Tailed.
50c (52). Below markings regular. Unf discal band continucus, slightly
broken at v4, at most a single costal spot in 10. Unh discal band not broken at
v2.
50 (54). Below pale silky ochreous brown, markings prominent on F, faint
on H ; unh discal spot in 6 between spots end cell and in 5, not overlapping
either. Aboved Q alike, pale blue, border F 4mm. to 6 at apex, slightly conti-
-nued along dorsum, a spot end cell and whitish beyond ; H border 4mm. vs
blackish. Termen F' crenulate.
634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX
H. 49 Amblypod ia—(conid.)
*dodonaea, M. (38-44). The Pale Himalayan Oakblue. Chitral—Kumaon. (.
51 (50). Below purple brown with-a silky gloss. Unh discal spot in 6 large,
overlapping spot end cell and spot in 5 and outwardly concave. Above ¢
dark violet blue; 2 purple with broad borders and a spot end cell F.
a. above border 13-2mm. and extending slightly along dorsum; on H
3mm. @ border 4-7mm. and on H blue to just beyond cell. Below markings
dull and faint.
rama rama, Koll. (38-40). The Dark Himalyan Oakblue. Kashmir—
Sikkim. C.
8. border F Imm. and on H just under Imm; 9? purple more extensive.
Below markings darker and better defined.
*rama ramosa, Evans. (34-40). Manipur—Dawnas. NR.
52 (50c). Below ochreous with dark irregular markings. Unf 2 costal
spots, discal band very irregular and broken. Unh markings rather obscure,
discal band completely broken at v2. Wings very produced especially at tornus
H. 35 2 above shining purple, border F 4mm. to 7 at apex and a spot end cell ;
H only purple at base.
comica, DeN. (42). The Comic Oakblue. Manipur—Shan St. VR.
53 (50b). Tailless. Below ochreous brown, markings inconspicuous and as
in No. 51; unf cell spots may be obsolete. Wings rounded ¢ above dark violet
blue, border F 2mm. ; H blue to just beyond cell. @2 purple with broad
borders, a spot end cell F and on H cell only purple.
*paramuta, DeN, (30-35). The Hooked Oakblue. Sikkim—Karens. NR.
54a (36b-50a). Tailless and F not concave below apex. Unh discal bana
discontinuous to dorsum ; unf no costal spot in 10.
Agelastus Group.
54b (59a). Below rough looking, ochreous brown to grey brown. Unf dis-
cal band straight, not sharply angled at v4, usually a spot base 3.
54 (55a). Unh central cell spot large, its iris touching the iris of the spot
end cell. Below ochreous brown, all markings large and prominent, ringed pale
yellow and with pale yellow patches at apex F and on H ; unh inner submar-
ginal line zigzag, small black lobe and faint tornal green scales. Above ¢ pur-
ple with broad borders F and H: 2? rather pale blue, border F 3mm. to 5 at apex.
*alaconia oberthuri, Fd. (38-40). The Patchy Oakblue. Karens—S. Burma. R.
55a (54). Unh central cell spot small, well separated from spot end cell.
Unf often a broad dark area under cell ; discal band variable, often very broad.
55 (56a). Unh with tornal green scales. Below ochreous brown. Below
markings may be wide and confluent, pale edgings dull. ¢ above shining
purple, border F 2mm to 5 at apex; 9 brilliant shining blue, borderasin g.
*agelastus, Hew. (39-42). The Green-edged Tailless Oakblue. Shan States—.
S. Burma. NR.
56a (55). Unh no tornal green scales.
56 (57-58). @ above violet blue, 2 pale blue, rather dusky, border F 3mm
to 6at apex. Below uniform ochreous brown, markings well defined : may be a
purplish wash.
asopia, Hew. (42-46). The Plain Tailless Oakblue. Manipur—S. Burma,
NR.
57 (56-58). o shining purple, 2 pale blue, border F and H 4mm., “even.
Below paler, greyish ochreous brown, darker at base H, markings prominent,
Wings very rounded and smaller.
THE 1!DENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 635
H- 49 Amblypodia—(contd.)
zeltt, M. (30-36). The Andamans Tailless Oakblue. Andamans. R.
58 (57-56). ¢ above shining purple, @Q pale purple, rather dusky; d
border 2mm., 4 4mm.; 9 H blue colour confined to cell. Below over laid -
pinkish grey on costa and apex F and on all H, markings prominent.
eweta, DeN. (38). The Dawna Tailless Oakblue. Dawnas. R.
59a (54b). Below smooth looking; unf discal band bent at v4, no spot base 3.
59b (63a). Below uniform.
59 (60a). Unf spot mid cell very large, reaches mv. Below purple brown
all markings very large and basal spots H crowded together ; no tornal green
scales. @ above light dull purple blue, border F 2mm. to 6 at apex.
belphobe, Doh. (40). The Large-spotted Oakblue. Tavoy (Doh). VR.
60a (59). Unf spot mid cell does not reach mv ; unf discal band prominently .
bent at v4.
60 (6la). Below dark ochreous hair brown, with narrow, dull, regular mark-
ings, tornal green scales sharply defined, brilliant. @ above dark shining
purple blue, border F tmm., @ blue, border 4-6mm.
* antimuta, Fd. (30-36). The Small Tailless Oakblue. Karens—S. Burma,
NR.
6la (60). Below glazed purple brown, markings prominent, but edging
dull ; unh no tornal green scales and discal spot in 6 more or less excavate
outwardly. Tornus H angled and slightly lobed.
61 (62). ¢ above rich shining dark purple, no border. @ rather pale blue,
border F 3mm. to 6 at apex, narrow on costa and no spot end cell or beyond.
*arvina, Hew. (38-42). The Purplebrown Tailless Oakblue. Dawnas—
S. Burma. R.
62 (61). ¢ above rather pale shining blue, border F Imm. to 4 at apex
and a black patch beyond cell, joined to the costal border ; @ border 3mm. to
7 at apex and the black area beyond cell coalesced to apex.
adala, DeN. (38). The Ladylike Tailless Oakblue. Dawnas—S. Burma,
VR.
63a (59b). Below not uniform. Unh no tornal green scales or lobe.
63 (64). Unh centre of wing broad yellow, base, margin and all F washed
purple over purple brown ; unh markings obscure. 6 border F 2mm. to 3 at
apex; 2 paler, border 3-6mm.
a. o above dark shining violet blue.
* nerimuta perimuta, M. (30-87). The Yellowdisc Tailless Oakblue. Sik-
kim—Tavoy. NR.
gB. o above bright shining metallic blue.
perimuta regia, Evans. (36-38). Mergui—S. Burma. NR.
64 (63). Unh centre of wing and apex whitish violet, rest rather pale purple
brown, washed pale purple ; unf discal band unusually broad and running to
tornus ; unh markings well defined. ¢ @ above shining metallic blue, purple
in a side light, border 2mm. to 5 at apex ; H only indications of blue in cell.
* duessa, Doh. (32-38). The Violetdise Oakblue. Dawnas—S. Burma, R,
65a (16b). Unf with a costal spot base 11 between basal and central cell
spots ; also costal spots over central and end cell spots. Unh basal and central
spots crowded together, irides touching, a prominent spot base 8, discal band
completely dislocated at v2 and discontinuous to dorsum.
17
636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H. 49 Amblypodia—(covid.)
Ganesa Group.
65b (71). Unf discal band continued full width to v2 and often extending
into 1, usually broken more or less at v4 ; inner cell spots reaching nv.
65 (66a). Tailless. ¢G Q above rather pale blue, border F 3mm. to 6 at
apex, a prominent spot end cell on either side of which there is a whitish patch.
Unh no tornal green scales. Apex F acute and inner margin much produced ;
-H costa concave, apex pointed, termen straight to v6.
a. Below creamy white, markings F prominently dark brown, but some-
what overlaid whitish ; nearly invisible on H.
* ganesa ganesa, M. (32-37). The Tailless Bushblue. Chitrali—Kumaon. C*
8. Below bases rather pale purple brown; markings F more prominent,
not overlaid whitish ; H markings prominent.
ganesa watson, Evans. Assam—Shan States. R.
66a (65). Tailed. Below rather pale to dark chocolate brown with white
patches ; spots large, prominent, white edged.
66b (69a). Unf discal band more or less broken, but never so that the inner
edge of the spot in 4 is in line with the outer edge of the spot in 3.
66c (68). Unf discal spots not so regular as in 68.
66 (67). Unh no prominent white patch mid costa and uph blue colour con-
fined to cell. Unh no tornal green scales. H costa straight and apex sharp.
a. & above dull violet blue, border 3mm. to 5 at apex, prominent spot end
cell and a whitish patch beyond. @ duller, white area F extending to inside
cell.
paraganesa paraganesa, DeN. (30-34). The Dusky Bushblue. Kumaon—
Bhutan. NR.
g. above entirely dark brown except for a few scattered blue scales at «
base F. Q blue scaling as extensive asin ¢ of last.
paraganesa zephyretia, Doh. Assam—Shan States. R.
67 (66). Unh prominent white patch mid costa, as prominent or more so
‘than the apical patches F and H.
a. Very muchas f, but ¢ above purple instead of blue.
_ ammonides ariel, Doh. (29-31). The Malayan Bushblue. Assam—N.
Burma. VR.
B. o& above pale metallic blue, border2mm. Fand H,to dat apex F. 2
paler and duller. Below dark purple brown rendering white patches very pro-
minent. Wings very rounded. No tornal green scales.
ammonides ammonides, Doh. (29-31). Dawnas—S. Burma. R.
68 (66c). Unf inner edges of spots in 5 and 6 in line and regular, also inner
edge spot in 4 against middle of spot in 3. dG above rather dull violet blue,
border F 1-24 mm. to 3-4 at apex, extending along the costa. @ rather pale
blue, border 24-5mm., a white patch on either side of the black spot end cell ;
Imm. on H and veins widely blackened just before the border. Below rather
dark purple brown, white patches more or less prominent and may obscure the
‘markings : unh with tornal green scales.
birmand, M (30-39), The Burmese Bushblue, Manipur—Shan States. NR.
69a (66b). Unf discal band completely dislocated at v4, so that the inner
edge of the spot in 4 is in line with the outer edge of the spot in 3. 2 as No.
“5 but paler and the white patch on F is larger and extends well into the cell.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. 637
H. 49. Amblypodia.—(contd.)
& above pale violet blue. Unh tornal green scales more or less prominent,
Below much as No. 68. F dorsum produced. Uph cilia nearly uniform.
69 (70). 3 border less than Imm. on Fand H. Below uniform pale brown
all over, white patches obscure.
aberrans, DeN. (32-38). The Pale Bushblue. Manipur—Shan States. R.
70 (69). _ & above border 1mm. to 2 at apex, F, continued slightly inwards
along the veins. Below bases pale brown, rest whitish. Uph cilia chequered
white at end of each vein. 7
* ellisi, Evans (37-42). Ellis’ Bush-blue. Manipur—Shan States. R.
71 (65b). Unf discal band continued full width to v3 only, a small spot
against the outer edge in 2 ; band irregular, semi-broken at v5, inner spots in
cell small, not extending to my. Below dark purple brown, washed purple,
outer half F and margin H pale brown. H apex very dark and usually a promi-
nent quadrate white patch mid costa ; discal band attenuate towards dorsum ;
with tornal green scales. Very short tail at v3 and usual tail at v2. Lobed.
a. 6 above shining violet blue, border 2mm. to 5 at apex, 2 on H. Wings
very rounded. Unf discal band unbroken.
abseus mackwoodi, Ril. (32-35). The Aberrant Bushblue. Ceylon. R.
B. 6 above dull purple, border 4mm. to 7 at apex,5o0n H. @ pale blue,
border 3-6mm. and a spot end cell.
*abseus indicus, Riley. Sikkim—Tavoy. NR.
d above brilliant deep purple blue, border 2mm. to 4 at apex, 2 on H.
© pale metallic violet blue, borderas ¢.
abseus abseus, M. Tavoy—S. Burma. R.
72a (la). Unf cell spots abnormal.
72b (80). Unf very dark brown, cell usually containing a pale spot near end
and sometimes a second spot nearer base, no dark spots: discal band continu-
‘ous, bent at v4, flanked by a pale area on either side, no costal spots ; pale areas
vary from purple brown to violet or whitish. Unh with a dark basal area or
basal spots absorbed into a dark sub-basal band.
Apidanus Group.
72¢ (75a). Unh discal spots in 7 and 6 from a dark bar coalesced to the
‘dark spot end cell, all inner edges in line. H lobe prominent and with
tornal green scales.
72d (74). H with a well defined tail at v2. Below markings large, well de-
‘fined on a violet brown ground. Apex F and tornus H produced.
72 (73). Unha large basaily bifid black spot mid costa not reaching the
black area, which extends from base to mid cell and from costa to dorsum. @
‘above deep rich purple blue, no border. @Q bright purple, borders broad and
‘continued along dorsum F.,
*diardi, Hew. (40-54). The Bifid Piushblue. Sikkim—Dawnas. NR.
73 (72). Unh spot mid costa continued as a broad band across cell to base
dorsum, above it there is a pale area from the base along the costa. @ 2 above
‘as last.
fulgida Hew. (36-46). The Shining Plushblue. Sikkim—Shan States.
NR.
74 (72d). Tailless. Wings producedin ¢, rounded in 2. J above most
brilliant dark purple blue, no border. @ pale blue shading to purple,
‘borders broad. Unf lower outer area pale brown, discal band abbreviated
688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H.49. Amblypodia.—(conid.)
Unh almost entirely dark brown with a whitish violet fascia from mid termen
to mid dorsum, a small apical patch and another mid costa, which sometimes
extends to the dorsum; markings as last, but nearly invisible, basal third
all black.
*anniella artegal, Doh. (34-44). The Brilliant Plushblue. Shan States—
S. Burma. R. :
75a (72c). Unh discal spots in 7 and 6 much more macular and irregular,
inner edge of spot in 6,in line with outer edge of spot end cell. Wings rounded.
75b (78a). Tailed and lobed.
75 (76a). Unh basal area very broadly dark brown, unmarked ; central,
area broadly pale brown, followed by a dark oblique submarginal area and about
tornus pale again ; metallic green scales at tornus well developed.
a. & above purple blue, border F Imm. to2 at apex, 13 on H. Q pale blue
borders broad.
*apidanus ahamus, Doh. (34-40). The Plain Plushblue. Cachar—Karens.
R.
B. @ above darker, border less than Imm. Q as last.
apidanus upidanus, Cr. Dawnas—S. Burma. R.
76a (75). Unh basal area variegated ; extreme base at costa pale, discal
markings shining purple brown on a dark area, central and tornal areas pale.
76 (77). Unh no metallic tornal green scales, lobe small; sub-basal dark band
extends to mid cell. <¢ above bright purple blue, border 2 mm to 8 at apex, 3
onH. @ rather pale purple, borders broader.
adriana, D N. (38-44). The Variegated Plushblue. Sikkim—Shan States.
NR.
77 (76). Unh with tornal green scales, lobe prominent; sub-bagal dark band
to dorsum. Above as last.
asoka, DeN. (40-44). The Spangled Plushklue. Sikkim—Shan States.
NR.
78a (75b). No lobe or tail. F slightly concave below the sharply pointed
apex, above shining deep rich ultramarine blue. 9 purple with very broad
borders.
+
78 (79). Unh broad basal dark area crossed near base by a pale band from
base to costa, pale area beyond the dark basal area narrow, tornal green
scales prominent. Unf obscure short reddish streak along costa from base. ¢
above border a thread, Imm. at apex ; H toothed at each vein especially at v2,
margin F rather crenulate.
chinensis, Fd. (43-46). The Chinese Plushblue. Sikkim—Assam. NR.
79 (78). Unh no pale band on the dark basal area ; pale discal area much
broader.
ae Unh no tornal green scalés, all markings obscure. Unf pale cell spots
prominent. Margins not so crenulate as last. ¢ above border from Imm. to
2 at apex. Blue colour deeper than in last.
areste areste, Hew. (40-46). The Tailless Plushblue. Sikkim-Assam. R
g. Unh with tornal green scales; all markings more prominent. Margins
more crenulate. Unf pale cell spots obscure. < border narrower.
areste arestina, Evans. (41-46). N. Shan States. R.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. 639
H. 49 Amblypodia—(conid.)
80 (72b). Below pale ochreous brown devoid of markings except for a narrow
obscure dark brown postdiscal and marginal fascia and some very obscure basal
spots H. <6 above bright shining violet blue, becoming purple outwardly. 9
paler and bluer. Apex F pointed ; H rounded, no tail or lobe or tornal green
scales unh.
‘““a.” above border under Imm, Q border 2-6 Fand 1 on H.
* fulla ignara, Riley. (36-38). The Spotless Oakblue. Sikkim-Burma. R.
B. 6 above border 1-24 at apex; 2 paler than last.
fulla andamanica, WM. (38-39). Andamans. R.
The following are new names :—
Nacaduba dubios« indica and fulva (H. 30:15); Jamides celeno blairana
and nicevilleti (H. 31:6); lugine purpura (H. 31°10). Thecla bieti irma.
(H42°2); Thaduka multicaudata kanara (H. 47); Amblypodia karennia
(H. 49.7) ; anthelus anthea (H. 49-2); epimuta elsiea (H.49°11) ; arcana
(H. 49:19) ; agaba aurelia (H. 49°32); parelea (H. 49°37); coopers
(H. 49°38); perimuta regia (H. 49°63); areste arestina (H. 49°79) ;
Heodes phiaeas indicus (H. 35-2).
(To be continued.)
640
NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIAN FISHES.
BY )
Henry W. Fow.er.
Or tHE AvaDEMy OF Natura SCIENCES oF PHILADELPHIA.
Part III.
( Continued from page 321 of this volume.)
The specimens sent from the Madras Fisheries Department in August 1922
embrace nineteen species, two of which appear to benew. Aset of the duplicates
have since been returned to the Madras Fisheries Department for their use as.
records. According to the labels given, the localities are Tuticorin and Madras.
It is with pleasure that I acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. James Hornell,
WL.S., FLR.A.L., late Director of Fisheries, Madras, for the opportunity to
study this interesting collection.
EXOCETID #3
Parexocoetus mento (Valenciennes).
Head 4; depth 4 ; D.i, 10, i; A.i, 10,i; P.i, 11; V.i, 5; scales 39 from
gill-opening above to caudal base and 2 more on latter; 5 scales above lateral
line, 2 below ; 25 predorsal scales; snout 32 in head measured from upper jaw
tip; eye3; maxillary 33; interorbital 3.
Body elongately fusiform, deepest about ventral origin, well compressed.
Caudal peduncle compressed, least depth 2 its length on 32 in total head length.
Head width 2 in its length. Snout conic, rather wide, length 2 its width. Hye—
large, slightly impinging on upper profile, hind pupil edge midway in head length ;
diameter greater than snout, 1} in interorbital. Mouth small, lower jaw well
protruded. Maxillary short, reaches opposite middle of nostril, largely concealed ;
expansion 2? ineye. Narrow band of fine teeth in jaws, on vomer and palatines,
and patch on tongue. Nasal aperture small, triangular, close before eye. In-
terorbital Jevel. Gill-rakers—7 + 18, lanceolate, 14 in gill-filameats or 22 in
-eye. Scales—with 4 to 6 imperfect basal radiating striae, edge lobate; circuli
moderate, complete. Lateral line not extending far as end of anal base, tubes
simple, slender. F%ms—Third dorsal ray reaches caudal base, equals total head
length ; second anal ray 24 in head ; upper caudal lobe 3? of lower which 32 in
combined head and trunk; pectoral reaches about opposite base of fifth
dorsal ray, 2 in combined head and trunk ; second and remaining pectoral rays all
branched ; ventral inserted midway between mandible tip and caudal base,.
fin reaching ;*, te anal or 1/in_ head.
Colour—Back olivaceous neutral tint, sides and lower surface whitish. Side of
head, including lower sides of preorbita! whitish. Edges of jaws brown. Deorsai
neutral-dusky, blackish terminally. Caudal with each lobe dusky medianly,,
edges whitish. Anal whitish, middle of fin dusky. Pectoral neutral-dusky
above, lower half whitish. Ventral white. One example, 115 mm. Madras.
Cypselurus unicolor (Valenciennes),
Head 4; depth 54); (Dit, 1024; Ali as Poa, 1d) Vi. 1, Oss scales 40
from gill-opening above to caudal base and 4 more on latter; 6 scales above.
lateral line, 3 below to anal origin; 35 predorsal scales; snout 33 in head
measured from upper jaw tip; eye 31; maxillary 4; interorbital 2?.
Body elongately fusiform, deepest at ventral origin, but slightly compressed.
Caudal peduncle compressed, least depth 12 its length or 33 in total head length.
Head width 12 inits length. Snout broad, obtuse, length 2 its width. Hye—
large, slightly impinging on upper profile, hind pupil edge midway in head length
=
=~
oS —
far as base of last dorsal ray or caudal base, 12 to 12 in combined head and trunk.
NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIAN FISHES, 641
diameter greater than snout, 14 ininterorbital. Mouth small, lower jaw slightly
protruded. Maxillary short, reaches opposite middle of nostril; expansion 4 in
eye. ‘Teeth fine, obsolete, short narrow band of very minute ones anteriorly ;
apparently none on palate or tongue. Nasal aperture small, triangular, close:
before eye. Interorbital broadly and slightly concave. Gill-rakers—7 + 24:
lanceolate, 1 ,% in gill-flaments or 2 in eye. WScales-—adherent, narrowly,.
imbricated ; basal radiating striae 3, edge !obate; circuli fine, concentric..
Lateral line not extending beyond depressed dorsal, not reaching caudal base ;.
preventral tubes finely venulose. Fins—First branched dorsal ray 32 in total
head length ; first branched anal ray 43, fin origin opposite that of dorsal ; caudal
widely forked, upper lobe 14 of lower, which 33 in combined head and trunk ;
pectoral reaches scale beyond base of last dorsal ray, second and following rays
branched ; ventral origin slightly nearer caudal base than hind eye edge, reaches
middle of depressed anal, 34 in combined head and trunk.
Colour—B8ack neutral-olivaceous; sides and under surface whitish. Gray dots
sprinkled all along side. Lower side of head, including preorbital, whitish. Dorsal
-and caudal dull gray-brown. Pectoral with membrane dusky-neutral, above and
below pale to whitish. Anal white. Ventral pale, front edge whitish. One.
example, 197 mm. Madras.
Agrees in many ways with the figure by Jordan and Seale of their Cypsilurus.
unicolor except that is shown as more slender and with little longer ventr 1. The
flying-fishes of this group (Hzonautes) are often with scme form of external
parasite. The above example has a long dark Penella, a lernean opepod,
protruding from along the anal base.
SCORPANIDA.
Apistus carinatus (Schneider).
Head 23 to 22; depth 3} to 34; D. xiv, I. 8,1; A. iti, 7,1; P.12 +i;
scales 43 to 48 in Jateral line to caudal base and 3 more on latter; 7 scales above
lateral line and 14 or 15 below to anal origin; 4 predorsal scales; snout 3 to
4 in head measured from upper jaw tip; eye47> to 44; maxillary 2 to 24;
interorbital 1024 to 114.
Body elongately ovoid, compressed, deepest at ventral origin. Caudal
peduncle well compressed, length 4 its least depth which 3% to 4 in total head
length. Head width half its length. Snout conic, length 4 its width. Hys—
impinging on upper profile, hind edge midway in total head length ; diameter
1toliinsnout. Mouth large, mandible protruded. Maxillary reaches opposite
hind pupil edge ; expansion 14 to 2 in eve. Bands of minute, villiform teeth
in jaws, on vomer and palatines. Symphyseal barbel 334, to 31 in total head
length ; lateral mandibular 34 to4;,. Nostrils near together on side of snout ;
front one at first 2, hind cne lower and at last 2. Interorbital slightly concave.
Antero-supraorbital slightly raised, with 5 or 6 strong keels on front face. Strong
median spine from preopercle at end of suborbital stay and 2 broader, shorter
points below. Preorbital with 2 short points on lower edge forward and strong
spine behind parallel with upper maxillary edge fof eye. Opercle with 2 spines
and like most of surface of cheek with broken striae or short keels. Low keel
ending in short spines behind, above opercle, followed by suprascapular spine.
Parietal keel double each side and also postocular. Gdl-rakers—ii,4+11, ii,
lanceolate, 14 in eye, twice gill-filaments. Scales—with 8 to 12 broad radiating
' strie ; 5 apical pointed lobes, each with keeled midrib, edges of lobes minutely
and sparsely dentate; circuli fine. Small patch of scales on cheek behind.
maxillary, head otherwise naked. Fins—Tenth dorsal spine 17 to 275 in tota!
head length ; first soft dorsal ray 14 to 12 ; third anal spine 24 to 23; second anal
ray 13 to 2; caudal rounded behind, 14 to 14 ; ventral 12 to 14. Pectoral reaches
——
1 Bull. Bur. Fisher, fr.,S., 25, 1905 (1906), p. 209, fig. 12.
642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Colour—Pale brownish, whitish below. Dorsals pale, with black blotch larger
than eye on posterior spines marginally. Front dorsal spines with dusky blotches
terminally. Soft dorsal and caudal pale, with 2 dusky cross-bands. Anal
grayish, with deeper blotches. Pectoral blackish, pale basally. Ventral whitish,
dusky on inner rays terminally. Two examples, 82 to 99 mm. Madras.
Choridactylus multibarbis Richardson.
Head 31; depth 23; D. xii, 9: Ala; 85°P.1;°6, i+; snout 25> ine
head ; eye 4; maxillary 2? ; mouth width 4; interorbital 3.
Body well compressed, back elevated close behind head where greatest body
depth, sloping down gradually behind. Caudal peduncle well compressed, least
depth 34 in head. Head width 1 in its length. Snout broad, depressed, very
steeply abrupt, about wide as long. Hye—elevated, greatly impinging on uppei
profile, hind edge midway in head length; fringed flap above long as pupil ;
diameter 2 in snout, 14 in interorbital. Mouth moderate, wide, mandible slightly
shorter than upper jaw. Maxillary little inclined, reaches opposite eye center ;
expansion 2 in eye. ‘Two fleshy mandibular barbels each side, front one longer,
equals eye. Narrow band of villiform teeth in each jaw; palate edentulous.
Nostrilsin 2 short tubes, separated, near middle of snout, anterior slightly longer.
Interorbital deeply concave. Supraorbital with broad antero and postero-
marginal spines. Postocular spines 2, followed by larger suprascapular. Strong
preorbital spine nearly long as eye, with 2 small shorter ones in front basally.
Preopercle with strong spine, long as eye. Gili-rakers—3--8, short knobs,
barely + of gill-filaments, which 12 in eye. Head with numerous small variable
fleshy excrescences ; minute short filaments on dorsals and caudal, outer face of
pectoral and base of ventral. Row of 14 fleshy points along lateral line. Fins—
Third dorsal spine 1$in head ; fourth dorsal ray 12; fifth anal ray 14; caudal
rounded behind, 14; ventral 1. Pectoral 24 in combined head and trunk.
Colour—Pale purplish-brown generally. White blotch from behind third dorsal
spine down opposite pectoral. Another at front of soft dorsal and dewn on trunk
above anal, followed by 3 below, of which last largest. Caudal dusky basally
and terminally, medianly white. Pectoral largely dusky marginally, pale medi-
anly. Ventral and anal neutral black, margin of latter narrowly pale. Under
surface of head, breast and abdomen whitish. Sides of abdomen finely spotted
whitish. One example, 78 mm. Madras.
Minous monodactylus (Schneider).
Head 24 to 22; depth 22; D.ixor X,ii; A. ii,9; snout 22 to 22 in head
measured from upper jaw tip; eye 41 to 44+; maxillary 2,4 to 24; interorbital
44 to 43.
Body elongately ovoid, well compressed, deepest at pectoral base. Caudal
peduncle well compressed, least depth 43 to 44 in total head length. Head width
li to lj initslength. Snout obtuse, broad, length 3 to ¢ its width. Hye—mid-
way in head length, 1$ to 14 in snout, equalsinterorbital. Mouth broad, man-
dible projecting. Maxillary reaches eye ; expansion 102 ineye. Teeth in villi-
form bands in jaws and patch each side of vomer, none on palatines or tongue.
Front nostril in short tube at first 2 in snout; hind nostril smaller, abcut last
fourth in snout. Interorbital deeply concave. Supraorbital ridge serrate, with
broad serrated spine behind. Pair of large rugose parietal spines each side, large
suprascapular further back, which preceded by row of 3 large rugose post-
oculars. Preorbital with long spines nearly equal to eye; small short one in
front basally. Preopercle with spine equal to eye and 4 strong broad ones
around edge of flange. Giuill-rakers—5-+-12, larger clavate, 4 of gill-filaments,
which ljin eye. Skin smooth; rew sf short supracrbital filaments, few fleshy
papille on maxillary expansion; f-eopercle flange with few flaps and few
NOLES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIAN FISHES. 643
along mandible. Fins—First dorsal spine 22 to 22 in head ; first dorsal ray 24
to 23: third anal ray 34 to 32; caudal rounded behind, 14 to 12; pectoral 14 :
to 14, filaments 12 to 14; ventral 14 to 14.
Colour—Back purplish-gray, with pale line above lateral line longitudinally
and another close below similar. Lower surface whitish. Dorsals dusky margi-
nally, with blackish marginal blotch at front of soft fin. Longitudinal] whitish
line on spinous dorsal medianly, also on soft dorsai. Anal neutral-black. Caudal
whitish, with 3 transverse dusky cross-bands, median closer to outer, though
fin edge narrowly whitish. Pectoral dusky-brown terminally, lower ray whitish.
Ventral dusky-brown terminally, basally whitish. Five from Tuticorin, 80 to
94 mm.
Cocotropus echinatus (Cantor).
Head 2 to3; depth 24to2¢; D. xiv, 19 or 11; A.ii; 8; snout 3 to 3} in
head measured from upper jaw tip ; eye 32 to 34; maxillary 24 to 3}; interor-
bital 4 to 44.
Body compressed, elongate, deepest at pectoral base and tapering down
behind. Least depth of caudal peduncle 24 to 3 in total head length. Head
width 14 to 14 in head. Snout obtuse, slightly broader than long. Hye~--elevated,
hind pupil edge midway in head length; diameter 14 to 14 in snout. Mouth low,
mandible protruding. Maxillary reaches opposite eye; expansion 2 in eye.
Minute villiform teeth in bands in jaws, patch each side of vomer, none on _pala-
tines or tongue. Front nostril larger, in short tube at last 2 in snout; hind
nostril smaller, similar, close before upper front eye edge. Interorbital convex,
with 2 median parallel ridges from oceiput to snout tip. Preorbital with strong
bifid spine. Preopercle with 4 strong spines, upper largest. Opercle with 3
spines. Gill-rakers—5 low short knobs on lower branch of first arch, greatly
shorter than gill-filaments, which 14 in eye. Lateral line of 11 long slender
tubes to caudal base; 1 more on latter. Trunk with minute scattered papille,
most abundant and crowded on lower surface. Fins—First dorsal spine 1} to 13
in head ; first dorsal ray 24 to 23; first analray 34to 34; caudal rounded
behind, 14 to 12; pectoral 1} to 14; ventral 13 to 14.
Colour—Back purplish-brown generally, becoming white below. Fins all
brownish, obscurely spotted or mottled with darker. Three examples, 38 to
51 mm. Madras.
Day describes fine brown radiating lines from the eye which are not clearly
evident in my examples.
GOBIID #.
Butis caperatus (Cantor).
Head 22 to 24; depth 32 to4; D.vi—i, 8or9; A.i,8; scales 22 to 25
from gill-opening above to caudal base medianly and 3 or 4 more on latter ;
9 scales transversely between soft dorsal and anal origins; 12 or 13 predoral,
scales; snout 32 to4in head measured from upper jaw tip; eye 31 to44 ;
maxillary 24 to 24; interorbital 53 to 53.
Body compressed, elongate, deepest at pectoral base. Caudal peduncle well
compressed, least depth 24 to 24 inits length or 3} to 34 in total head length.
Head width 12 to 2 in its length. Snout convex, length 2? ite width. Hye—large,
slightly impinging on upper profile, hind edge midway in head length, long as
mouth. Mouth large, lower jaw protruding. Maxillary reaches opposite middle
cfeye; widthito4ofeye. Teeth in outer row large, uniform ; inner band villi-
form in both jaws; palate and tongue edentulous, latter truncate in front.
Front nostril in short tube at last third in snout ; hind nostril simple pore close
before eye. Interorbital deeply concave. Supraorbital, frontal and upper
18
644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
preorbital edges with rather firm short points. Gull-rakers—5-+4 slender, lanceo-
late, little longer than gill-filaments on 12 in eye. Scales—with 13 to 21 basal
parallel striz ; row of 15 to 21 + 18 to 21 apical denticles; circuli moderate,
Predorsal scales only encroach on hind portion of interorbital. Cheek scaly
above, 8 rows across, lower half naked. Fins—Dorsal spines flexible, third 24
to 22in head; first ray 1% to 1; eighth ray 2; seventh anal ray 1,4 to 24;
caudal ends in narrow point behind, 14; pectoral 1i to 14; ventral li to 1%.
Anal papilla large.
Colour— Brown generally. Each row of scales longitudinally with pale median
line. Trunk with 8 transverse darker brown cross-bands. Dorsals neutral-dusky,
soft dorsal with 2 rows of pale spots basally. Anal dusky. Caudal pale, dusky
basally. Pectoral pale with black round spot at hases of lower rays. Ventral
dusky-black. Side of head with 4 transverse or vertical deep brown bands.
One from Tuticorin 37mm., and 7 from Madras 35 to 55 mm.
Butis butis (Buchanan-Hamilton).
Head 2%; depth 54; D. vi—i,9; A. i, 8; scales 21 from gill- opening above
to middle of caudal base and 2 more on latter; 7 scales transversely at soft.
dorsal and anal origin ; 17 predorsal scales ; snout 32 in head measured from
upper jaw tip; eye 43,; maxillary 2 ; interorbital 2 in eye.
Body elongate, fusiform, midway in spinous dorsal length. Caudal peduncle
compressed, least depth half its length or 4 in total head length. Head width
half its length. Snout conic, length ? its width. Hye—high, superior, hind edge
midway in head length. Mouth large, mandible well protruded. Maxillary
reaches opposite hind pupil edge, narrow. Teeth in 2 rows in each jaw, conic
some uneven or others larger; palate and tongue toothless, latter emarginate
in front. Nostril close before eye. Interorbital narrow, level. Gull-rakers—2+-5,
short dimentary points, longest barely } of gili-filaments, which about 2 in eye.
Scales—with 8 to 11 radiating basal striae ; apical denticles in row of 14+ I6to
19 ; cireculifine. Scales become smaller on ‘predorsal anteriorly, sides and front of
head. US rate dorsal spine 2 in total head length ; ; second dorsal ray 12;
seventh anal ray 23}; caudal rounded, 14; pectoral 13; ventral 14.
Colour— Brownish, scarcely paler below. Spinous dorsal blackish. Caudal with
blackish basal blotch, median rays dusky to ends. Other fins pale with dark
blotch at base of each ventral. Pectoral base with median pale spot, dark
spot above and below. One from Tuticorin 40 mm.
Boleophthalmus boddaerti (Pallas).
Head 34; depth 54; D. v—25,i, A.1,24; scales 60 from gill-opening above
to caudal base me dianly and 5 more on latter; 18 scales transversely from
soft dorsal origin to that of anal; 26 predorsal scales to eye; snout 32 in head
measured from upper jaw tip ; eye 7; maxillary 24; mouth width 23.
Body long, compressed, deepest at soft algneel origin. Caudal peduncle
compressed, least depth 3 in total head length. Head width 3 in its length.
Snout broad,profile steeply oblique, length # its width opposite end of maxillaries.
Eye—elevated half diameter above upper profile, center at first third of head
diameter 2 in snout. Mouth large, little inclined, lower jaw slightly included
Maxillary reaches opposite hind eye edge, width $ of eye. Upper lip with broad
cutaneous flap over front side of each maxillary. Teeth in jaws uniserial ;
upper with 6 flattened partially enlarged incisors in front, others conic ; lower
with lateral teeth compressed, bifid, small and small pair of wide-set canines
anteriorly well inside; no teeth on palate or on thick rounded fleshy tongue
Interorbital narrow, with deep concave median depression. Gill-rakers—6
+ 7; short flexible points, + of gill-filaments, which 12 in snout. Scales—small,
thickly cover most of head, pectoral and caudal base; 20 or 21 waved
radiating basal striae; 3 to 6 short apical radiating striae; circuli fine.
a ere
NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIAN FISHES. 645
Fins—Dorsal spines filamentous terminally, median long as head ; twenty-second
ray 2; twenty-third anal ray 42; caudal ends in median point behind,
1; pectoral 12; ventral 12.
Purplish-gray above, pale to whitish below or on under surface of head and
abdomen. Spinous dorsal neutral-black, with scattered pale dots. Soft dorsal
and caudal dusky, dark terminally. Pectoral and anal dark grey, former with
upper edge narrowly dusky. Ventral disk whitish, with outer rays grayish.
Sides of head all finely dotted with dusky. ‘Traces of about 7 slightly oblique
deeper brown cross-bands. One from Madras, 112 mm.
Ctenogobius hovai new species.
Head 33 ; depth 54; D. vi—i,9,i; A.i, 9; scales27 from gill-opening above
to caudal base medianly and 3 more on latter ; 8 scales transversely from soft
dorsal to anal origin ; snout 4 in head; eye2; maxillary 21; interorbitai 24
in eye.
Body well compressed, elongate and tapering slightly back from spinous
dorsal origin, where greatest depth. Caudal peduncle well compressed, least
depth 2 in its length or 24 in total head length.
Head moderate, cheeks little swollen, width 14 in its length. Snout obtuse,
convex over surface and in profile, length 2 its width. Hye—large, slightly
impinging on upper profile, center at first third in head; diameter greater than
snout. Mouth moderate, closed mandible even with upper jaw tip. Mandible
shallow. Maxillary reaches opposite first third of eye, rather slender. Teeth
minute, slightly even, conic, in very narrow bands or rows in each jaw; 1 or 2
close-set recurved canines each side of mandible. Tongue little rounded
convexly in front. Front nostril small pore at first 2 in snout length; hind
nostril simple pore little nearer front nostril than eye. Interorbital very
narrow, with slight median groove. Preopercle edge entire, without fringe or
spine. Gill-opening restricted, only extends opposite last fourthin head. Gill-
rakers—2 + 5, short points, scarcely 4 of gill-filaments, which ]1#in eye. Isthmus
broad. Scales—absent from predorsal, apparently from prepectoral and chest.
Seales on trunk very caducous, most all fallen. Row of fine papillae from behind
eye and along its loweredge; 2 rows horizontally across cheek and another
below extended forward on mandible below, also vertical row down opercle
anteriorly.
Fins—Spinous dorsal origin little behind that of pectoral, spines rather flexible
and fin rounded, none produced as filaments; third spine 12 in head. Soft
dorsa! origin little nearer caudal basethan snout tip, rays graduated posteriorly,
where ending in point not quite reaching caudal base;eighth ray slightly less than
head. Anal origin little behind that of soft dorsal, fin similar; eighth ray 1} in
head. Caudal ends in median point behind, 22 in combined head and trunk.
Pectoral with upper rays not silky or detached, reaches anal, 32 in head.
Ventral reaches vent, which short space before anal ; equals head.
Colour—in alcohol pale brownish generally. About 13 transverse whitish
lines on trunk, darker interspaces greatly wider. Vertical fins and ventral dusky,
at least terminally. Spinous dorsal with black blotch behind middle. Caudal
with traces of transverse darker bands. Pectoral pale.
Length 30 mm. One example from Tuticorin. This species is unique
among those of its genus in the transverse lignt lines on its trunk,
Named for Dr, Sunder Lal Hora, the accomplished Ichthyologist of the Indian
Museum.
Ctenogobius tuticorinensis new species.
Head 3; depth 4; D. vi—i, 9, i; A.i, 8, i; scales 28 from gill-opening above
to caudal base and 3 more on latter; 11 scales transversely from soft dorsal
origin to that of anal; 9 scales along side of predorsal to gill-opening ; snout 32
in head measured from upper jaw tip ; eye 3: maxillary 3 ; interorbital 33 in eve.
646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
Body elongate, compressed, deepest at spincus dorsal origin and tapering
back moderately. Caudal peduncle well compressed, least depth 1% in its
length or 3 in total head length. Head large, robust, width 13 its length,
cheeks but little swollen. Snout convex, obtuse, length? to Zits width. Hye—
large, slightly impinging on upper profile, much greater than snout. Mouth
large, mandible slightly protrudes. Maxillary about reaches opposite front of
pupil, narrow. Teeth small, conic, in2 rather wide-set rows in each jaw, outer
little enlarged, at least anteriorly; outermost mandibular slightly recurved
canine ; no teeth on palate or tongue which latter convexly rounded in front.
Nostrils well separated ; front one at last 2 in snout ; hind one close before eye.
Interorbital very narrow, concave. Preopercle edge entire, without fringe or
spine. Gill-opening extends forward about last fifth in snout. Guill-rakers—
4 + 6. lanceolate, 2 of gill-filaments, which 22 in eye. Isthmus wide. Head
scaleless, also predorsal. Caudal base scaly, also chest and belly. Scales—
with 12 to 15 basal radiating striae ; apical denticles 11 or 12 + 12 to 14, in one
row ; circuli fine basally. Cheek with 3 rows of fine papillae horizontally, now
along preopercle edge and mandible ; 4 longitudinal predorsal rows.
Fins—Spinous dorsal origin about over first third of depressed pectoral, fin
rounded, spines rather flexible ; third spine 12 in total head length. Soft dorsal
orgin midway between hind eye edge and caudal base, rays graduated down to
last, first longest or 1+ in head. Anal origin opposite that of soft dorsal, seventh
ray longest, 1? in head. Caudal with median rays longest, rounded, slightly
shorter than head. Pectoral without upper rays silky or free, reaches vent ; 12
in head. Ventral reaches vent, which shortly before anal, 14 in head.
Colour—in aicohol pale brownish generally. Sidesand back with variegated
waved deeper brown blotches, bars or short lines, on back as 2 pairs of predorsal
transverse bands, then 4 broader deeper saddles. Alternating on side 4 deep.
blotches of dusky brown, little below median axis forward, where first on opercle.
Fins all pale generally. Spinous dorsal with 2 dusky-black horizontal bands,
upper terminal. Soft dorsal with few rather large dusky blotches, also2 or 3
series on caudal. Anal with basal and submarginal horizontal blackish line.
Daik band from lower front eye edge to middle of maxillarv. Length 48 mm.
One from Tuticorin.
Among the species of Ctenogobius this may be known by its large eyes and
contrasted dark blotches on the trunk.
_ Also 7 other examples, same data, which show the following: Head 3 to 3;
depth 41 to 42; D. vi or vii—i, 9,i or 10,i; A. i, 8,1; scales 29 or 30 from gill-
opening above to caudal base medianly, with 3 or 4 more on latter ; 12 scales
transversely between soft and dorsal and anal origins ; 8 to 10 predorsal scales
laterally to gill-opening ; snout 33 to 3? in head measured from upper jaw tip;
eye 22 to3 ; maxillary 22 to 2; interorbital 24 to 33 in eye. Length 27 to48 mm.
Ctenogobius cyanomos (Bleeker).
Head 32 to 33; depth 44 to54+; D. vi—i, 10,1; A. 1,8,1 or 9,1; scales 27
to 30 from gill-opening above to caudal base medianly and 3to7 more on
latter; 9 or 10 scales transversely from soft dorsal to anal origin; 10 to 18
predorsal scales ; snout 31 to 32 in head; eye 3}to 42, maxillary 2} to 232;
interorbital 8 to 10, or 12 to 24 in eye.
Body elongate, well compressed, deepest at soft dorsal origin. Caudal peduncle
well compressed, least depth 13 its length or 22 to 23 in head. Head width
1 to 12 its length. Snout obtusely convex, length 3 its width. Hye—large,
very slightly impinging on upper profile, hind edge midway in total head length,
diameter equals snout. Mouth large, little inclined, lower jaw shorter. Max-
illary reaches first third in eye, rather slender. Teeth in villiform bands in jaws,
with outer enlarged chiefly anteriorly, in mandible as single enlarged canine
1)
caudal rounded behind, 1 tol7s ; pectoral rays all firm, none silky, 14 to 13;
NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIAN FISHES. 647
each side; no teeth on palate or tongue, latter rounded in front. Nostril at
last fourth in snout. Interorbital narrow, level. Guill-rakers—3 + 5, lanceolate,
+ of gill-filaments,2ineye. Scales—with 7 to 19 radiating basal strive; apical
denticles in row of 15 to 24+4+-17 to 19 ; circuli moderate. Predorsal scales extend
only about half way to eyes, variously completed and head otherwise naked;
chest, belly and prepectoral base scaly. F%ns—Second dorsal spine 2 to 27; in
head, spines flexible; ninth dorsal ray 1% to 1,°,; eight anal ray 2 to 27,
ventral 14 to 14.
Colour—Pale brown generally, edges of scales on back all slightly deeper
brown. About a dozen narrow saddle-like blotches of deep brown down middle
of back. Row of about 6 median deep brown blotches along side, last at
caudal base. Dark line from behind eye to deep brown suprascapular blotch.
Fins all pale. Spinous dorsal with deep brown blotch medianly, little back.
Caudal with many transverse dusky or brownish streaks. One from Madras
§1 mm., and 15 from Tuticorin 41 to 68 mm.
This species may be known by the combination of the uniform pale or white
ventrals, included mandible and row of dark median rounded lateral spots.
My largest example has the third dorsal spine prolonged in a filament nearly
long ashead. Day’s figure shows it greatly longer or estimated to reach base of
last dorsal ray. None of my examples carry the pair of symphyseal mandibular
barbels as Day describes and figures. He gives the jaws of equal length, though
in my examples, the lower is usually a little shorter. All my examples also differ
in that a median lateral row of darker spots is present, most distinct in the smaller
ones, though at least present in all and possibly intensified to amore or less
extent through formaline or other preservative fluids. The largest examples
have the outer submarginal portion of the ventrals broadly blackish, much
_paler in smaller examples. The largest specimens also show a dark slaty
‘line, variously distinct, from the lower front eye edge to the hind end of
maxillary. Al! most all have about 6 dark brown median predorsal blotches
to the eyes, the anterior 3 or 4 of which are usually paired.
Ctenogobius viridipunctatus (Valenciennes).
Head 31 to 32; depth 4 to44; D.v or vi—i, 10,i; A.i,9, i; scales 35 or
36 from gill-opening above to caudal base medianly and 4 more on latter;
11 scales transversely between soft dorsal and anal origin; 30 to 32 predorsal
scales ; snout 34 to4 in head measured from upper jaw tip; eye 4to44; maxil-
lary 24 to 22; interorbital 14 to 24 in eye.
Body compressed, deepest at middle of spinous dorsal. Caudal peduncle com-
pressed, least depth 14 to 12 in its length or 24 to 2? in total head length. Head
width 12 to 1# its length. Snout obtuse,length 4 to 2 its width. Hye—center at
first 2 in head length, at first third in younger examples; diameter equals
or slightly less than snout. Mouth large, mandible slightly protruded. Max-
illary oblique, reaches = to $ in eye, narrow. Teeth biserial, usually outer row
more or less larger; wide-set pair of upper canines and pair close-set or single
each side of mandible, littlerecurved ; noteeth on palate or tongue, latter convex
in front. Front nostril lower, in cutaneous tube about midway in snout ; hind
nostril simple pore, about last fourth in snout. Interorbital narrow, concave.
Gill-rakers 3 + 12, lanceolate, + of gill-filaments, which half of eye. Scales—with
12 to 18 basal radiating striz ; apical denticles 26 to 33 + 22 to 32; circuli fine.
Predorsal with finely crowded scales and caudal base finely scaled. Cheeks with
3 rows of fine papillz horizontally, uppermost along lower eye edge and interme-
diate spaces with many short vertical series ; row along preopercle edge out over
mandible. Fims—Second dorsal spine 2; to 24 in head; seventh dorsal ray
lZto 1$; eighth anal ray 1? to 2; caudal with median rays longest, rounded
behind, 1 to 175; pectoral without free silky rays above, 14 to1z2; ventral
lito li.
648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX, |
Colour—Brown above, pale to whitish below. Upper surface with 6 transverse
predorsal deep brown bars and as many obscure saddles for rest of extent of
back. Alternating along side 6 median lateral deep brown blotches, with small
dark spot at caudal base medianly. Dusky streak from eve to suprascapula,
ending in black blotch. Another from lower eye edge to middle of pectoral
base, also dark blotch on cheek below ard on preorbital. Dark blotch cn opercle
aboveand upper prepectoral. Dorsal grayish, spinous fin with broad dusky
base. Soft dorsal with submarginal dark line and another median longitud-
inally. Anal grayish, with median Jongitudinal dusky line. Caudal variegated
dusky, darker behind, upper edge pale. Pectoral pale. Ventral dusky. Six
from Tuticorin 50 to 78 mm.
Cienogobius griseus (Day).
Head 34; depth 4; D. vi—i, 10,1; A.i, 9,i; scales 33 from gill-opening
above to caudal base medianliv and 5 more on latter; 11 scales transversely from
soft dorsal origin to that of anal ; 30 predorsal scales; snout 4 in head measured
from upper jaw tip; eye 54; maxillary 22; interorbital 53.
Body elongately ovoid, well compressed, deepest at spinous dorsal origin.
Caudal peduncle well compressed, least depth 1% its length or 2% in total head
length. Head width 12 its length. Snout convex over surface and in profile,
length 2 its width. Zye—small, center in first third of total head length ; diameter
1iin snout. Mouth oblique, mandible protruding. Maxillary reaches eye
center, slender. Teeth fine, in narrow bands in jaws, outer row ir each little
enlarged ; mandible with slightlv larger recurved lateral canine each side; no
teeth on palate or tongue, latter rounded convexly in front. Nostrils not
very distinct, front one about last. 2 in snout. Interorbital slightly concave.
Gill-rakers—5+12, lanceolate, slightly less than gill-filaments, which 12
in eye. Scales with 11 or 12 basal radiating strie ; apical denticles in row of
16 to 20+16 to 18; circuli fine. Scales—finely crowded on predorsal, also on
caudal base, few on opercle. Cheek with 3 horizontal rows of fine papille, row
below eye and back to suprascapula; 4 short rows parallel and longitudinal on
occiput ; row along preopercle edge and mandible. #ins—Third dorsal spine
22 in head; ninth dorsal ray 2; eighthanal ray 2; caudal with median rays
longest, 14; pectoral 14, ventral 1}.
Colour—Brown generally, lower surface of head and abdomen but little paler.
Few scattered deep brown dots on side of abdomen. Fins grayish-dusky, all
darker or blackish terminally. Ventral largely dusky-biack. One from
Tuticorin, 60 mm.
Differs a little from Day’s figure in a more abrupt snout. His account
gives slightly more scales.
Ctenogobius masoni (Day).
Head 31; depth 44; D. vi—i, 10,1; A i,9,i; scales 26 from gill-opening
above opercle to caudal base and 5 more on latter ; 9 scales transversely between
soft dorsal and anal origins ; 26 predorsal scales ; snout 4 in head measured from
upperjaw tip; eye 6; maxillary 24; interorbital 64.
Body elongate, well compressed, deepest at spinous dorsal origin. Caudal
peduncle well compressed, least depth 1} in its length or 23 in total head length.
Head width 14 inits length. Snout conic, convex over surface, length 2 its
width. Hye—elevated, impinging on upper profile, center at first third in head.
Mouth large, oblique, mandible protruding. Maxillary reaches opposite hind eye
edge. Teeth in 3 or 4 rather irregular rows in jaws anteriorly, fewer laterally,
conic, small ; 4 small canines above anteriorly ; small recurved canine each side
below ; no teeth on palate or tongue, front of latter obtuse. Front nostril
about midway in snout, hind one close before eye. Interorbital very slightly
convex, supraorbital ridges entire. Gull-rakers—2+7, feeble short points,
greatly less than gill-filaments, which 1? in eye. Scales—with13 to 18 basal
NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIAN FISHES. 649
radiating striae; apical denticles 17 to 20+17 to 20,in one row; circuli fine.
Scales smaller and crowded on predorsal. Large scales well over caudal basally.
_ Head naked, except scales on occiput and few on opercle above. Prepectoral
scales small. Cheek with 4 horizontal rows of fine close-set papillae. Fins—
Second dorsal spine 1;§ in total head length. spines flexible ; first dorsal ray 2 ;
eighth anal ray 12; caudal (damaged) long as head at least, apparently
rounded; pectoral 14, none of rays above silky or detached ; ventral 14.
Colour—Dull uniform brownish generally, Fins al] dusky-neutra! terminally.
One from Madras, 60 mm.
Paracheeturichihys polynema (Bleeker).
Head 33 to 32; depth 43 to &; D. vi—i, 10,1; A.i, 9,1; scales 30 or 31
‘from gill-opening above to caudal base medianly and 4 or 5 more on latter ; 9 or
10 scales between soft dorsal and anal origins; 16 or 17 predorsal scales ;
snout 32 to 4 in head measured from upper Jaw tip; eye 42 to 5; maxillary 24
to 22; interorbital 5 to 54.
Body elongate, well compressed, deepest about middle of spinous dorsal.
Caudal peduncle compressed, least depth 14 its length or 23 in total head length.
Head width 14 to ld initslength. Snout broadly convex, length 2 to 3 its width.
Eye—superior, center near first 2 in total head length ; diameter 14 to 14 in snout
Mouth large, broad, mandible slightly protruding. Maxillary reaches little
beyond front of eye, not quite to pupil, narrow. Teeth fine, conic, in narrow
bands in jaws, outer row little enlarged, with 10 or more in front of each jaw more
or less conspicuous, especially outermost of mandible ; palate and tongue tooth-
less, latter broadly rounded in front. Row of 7 short filaments along each mandi-
bular ramus below. Nostrils well separated ; front one about midway in snout ;
hind one close above upper front eye edge. Interorbital slightly convex. Gill-
rakers—5 + 8, clavate, about halfof gill-filaments, which 1} in eye. Scales—with
10 to 12 basal radiating striae; apical denticles 37 to 43 by 41 + 43, in one
row; circuli very fine. Head largely scaly, except muzzle. Cheeks with 5
herizontal rows of papillae, row from below eye and behind to suprascapula, an-
other along preopercle edge and mandible. Fins—Third dorsal spine 2 in head ;
eighth dorsal ray 14 to 14; seventh anal ray 14 to 14; ventral 14. Caudal ending
in long median point behind, 24 to 24 in combined head and trunk ; pectoral
3? to 3d.
Colour— Body olivaceous above, paler or whitish on under surface of head and
abdomen, with 4 obscure deeper blotches along back. Fins neutral-dusky,
especially marginallv. At bases of uppermost caudal rays black ocellus, little
larger than eye and bordered with whitish. Three from Madras, 135 to 140 mm,
Odontogobius bynensis (Richardson).
Head Cpa depth 445) Dy was, 13.15 Ania )12,)7 5. scales-).50') from: ‘gill:
opening above to caudai base medianly and 5 more on latter ; 15 scales between
soft dorsal and anal origins ; snout 4; in head ; eve 34; maxillary 31; interor-
bital 5.
Body moderately elongate, well compressed, deepest at middie of pectoral,
Caudal peduncle well compressed, least depth equals its length or 2 in head.
Head width 12 its length. Snout widely convex, length about 2 its width. Hye—
large, close to upper profile, hind edge midway in head. Mouth small, mandible
slightly included. Maxillary slender, reaches opposite front pupil edge;
width 14 of eye. Teeth in about 2 rows, at least in mandible, finely conic ; mandi-
bie with recurved tooth each side medianly ; no teeth on palate or tongue, which
rounded and fleshy infront. Nostrilssmall;front one about midway in snout
jength ; hind one close before eve. Interorbital depressed, slightly concave. nar-
row. Gull-rakers—O+8, lanceolate, 2 of gill-filaments, which I} in eye. Scales—
650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
with 7 to 9 basal radiating striz ; apical denticles 10 or 11 + 10to14,inone row;
circuli fine. Head naked, except predorsal, from which all small scales now
fallen ; breast and belly firmly scaled. F%ns—Fourth dorsal spine 14 in head ;
twelfth dorsal ray 2;eleventh anal ray 12; caudal apparently rounded
behind, !{; pectoral 1; ventrals not cup-like, united, 14.
Colour— Brown above, paler below. Dorsals, anal and ventral dusky terminally.
Pectoraland caudal pale, later with smail round jet-black spot at base of upper
median rays. Dusky streak from each side of snout tip to eye, then from back
of last to suprascapula, Traces of dark blotch in prepectoral, before pectoral
base. Back with about 7 obsolete vertical transverse dark bars. One from
Tuticorin, 40 mm.
My example smaller than Day’s figure, showing Jower jaw shorter than upper,
slightly fewer soft dorsal and anal rays and larger eye.
Oxyurichthys tentacularis (Valenciennes).
Head 34 to 4; depth 53 to 52; D. vi—i, 12,1; A.i., 13,1; scales 48 to
50 from above gill-opening to caudal base and 5 more on latter; 14 to 16 scales
between soft dorsal and anal origins ; 16 to 18 predorsal scales; snout 34 to
33 in head measured from upper jaw tip; eye 3ito4; maxillary 2 to 24; inter-
orbital 1¢ to 2 in eye.
Body elongate, compressed, deepest at spinous dorsal origin, rather slender.
Caudal peduncle compressed, least depth 1 to 12 in its length or 21 to 23 in total
head length. Head width 14 to 17 its length. Snout conic, length # to its
width. Hye—elevated, hind edge midway in head length ; diameter 14 in snout,
slightly longer than snout in young. Mouth large, oblique, lower jaw protruding.
Maxillary to first third in eye, to eye center in young. Teeth curved uniserial
above ; lower ones biserial, rows widelv spaced ; no canines; no teeth on palate or
tongue, latter pointed in front. Nostrils well separated ; front one small pore
at first fourth in snout; hind one much larger, higher, midway in snout. In-
terorbital narrowly concave. Fleshy pointed tentacle 3 of eye at its upper
hind edge, absent in sma]lexamples. Gll-rakers—3 + 8, lanceolate, 4 of giil-
filaments, which 12 in eye. Scales—with 29 to 36 basal radiating strie ; apical
denticles 12 to 17 + 13 to 15; circuli fine. Body scales small anteriorly,
become larger posteriorly. Rows of fine papillee across occiput close behind eyes,
with 38 parallel rows each side, uppermcst along each side of median low pre-
dorsal keel, lowest till above pectoral base and median about opposite half
extent of opercle; several short branches extend down from infraorbital ; on
preorbitals extend down then bend suddenly back opposite front part of eye
horizontally across cheek, Fins—-Dorsal spines filamentous, third longest, 34 in
combined head and trunk; tenth dorsal ray 1i to 14 in total head length;
eleventh anal ray 1} to 15; ventral 1. Caudal ends in long slender point, 1
to 23 in combined head and trunk ; pectoral 24 to 32, long, pointed.
Colour— Brown, but little paler below. About 9 pairs of close-set saddles on
back, first 2 pairs on predorsal. On side row of 6 rounded dark blotches and
last as small round spot size of pupil at middle of caudal base, these blotches
more or less joined forward with alternate dorsal saddles. Dorsals, anal and
caudal pale, spotted with neutral dusky. Dusky bar across pectoral base.
Dark brown infraorbital blotch. Pectoral brown. Ventral dusky. Twenty
from Tuticorin 47 to 110 mm.
MONACANTHID &.
Monacanthus setifer Bennett.
Head 2%; depth at base of pubic spine 14,; D.i—27 to 29; A. 28 or 29,
P. 1] or 12; snout 14 to 1° in head ; eye 3 to 345; interorbital 32 to 4.
NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS ON INDIAN FISHES. 651
Body well compressed, rather elongately ovoid. Caudal peduncie well
compressed, without spines or armature, length ? to 4 its least depth, which 23
to 2% in head. Head width 2} to 22 inits length. Snout compressed, profile
straight, width at front of eves 24 to 22 in its length. Hye—high, hind edge
opposite that of giil-opening ; diameter 2} to 2? in snout. Mouth small, terminal,
lips about even in front and cover teeth. Latter moderate, larger ones with slight-
ly emarginate edges. Nostrils small, together, nearly level with upper rim of eye,
front one little less than half of eye-diameter before front eye edge. Interorbital
convex. Gill-opening 1} to 1} ineve. Body finely velvety to touch, little more
granular around eye and on interorbital. Finms—Dorsal spine 11 to 1+ in head,
front edge and surface minutely asperous, hind edge each side with 11 antrorse
serrae, some of lower bifid ; sixth dorsal ray 2} to 23; sixth anal ray 25 to 2g;
caudal rounded behind, 14 to 13; pectoral 2} to 24. Ventral ends in short
movable spine with coronet of 5 denticles, 2 to 23 in eye; its basal process with
4 denticles across front and 2 each side. Ventral flap moderate, not extendin z
out beyond spine and roughened each side.
Colour—Grayish, with few obscure darker cloudings, usually as 2 blotches of
darker on each rayed dorsal and anal and annectant region of trunk. Ventral
flap little dusky. Fins all pale. Caudal with 2 darker transverse bands.
Three from Madras, 68 to 77 mm.
19
652
AN ENCOUNTER WITH A FIGHTING TIGER.
By
Lr.-Cot. R. W. Burton, I. A. (Ret.)
(wii a photo.)
The shooting of a tiger is mostly a somewhat uneventful affair, of interest
only to the sportsman himself and those who may he with him at the time.
The present writer was fortunate early, last year, in bagging a tiger under, what
may be correctly described, as somewhat exciting circumstances, which may be
of interest to others besides himself, and the following account is taken from
the shikar diary written up,shortly after the occurrence. It is reproduced with
the necessary polishing up and with a photograph.
In the month of February the fire lines of the Forest Reserves in the Sal
forests in the Terai are burnt by the Forest Department, these operations
include miles of grass land, covering certain areas which have also to be burnt
as a pretection to the adjacent jungles,
On the 24th February 1924 the shooting camp was comfortably settled for a
few days at a Forest Rest House situated in one of these extensive open spaces
which had recently been burnt. In this space, which is about 5 miles long, and
averages a mile to two miles in width, is the Railway Station—the Forest Rest
House being a mile tothe east of it. The Railway runs through the clear-
ing longitudinally, and two hundred yards north of the line, and about half a
mile from both the Railway Stationandthe Rest House, is a patch of jungle
more or less circular in shape and some 200 to 250 yards in diameter. Fire had
been through the whole of this forest patch when the grassy plain was burnt some ~
ten days previously, but some few patches of long grass remained unburnt, or
partly burnt, and there were also evergreen trees and bushes here and there.
It was about seven o’clock when the elephant took me up the 85 feet fire line
to the north to visit a buffalo which had been tied oat ona cart track run-
ning through the forest, and this done, the heavy jungle to the west was searched
for an hour or more with a view to finding some bears which were said to have
been seen there the previous day. At about 9-30 the elephant emerged from the
Sal forest into the burnt maidan, and it was decided to take this small! patch of
jungle on the way back to the Rest House.
When crossing the open space two pigs were seen going away from the patch
of jungle and I remarked to the mahout that there might possibly be a panther
there as it seemed curious that pig should be moving in the open at this time of
the day. So we went quietly backwards and forwards on the alert for any
movement. Almost on the east edge there was a small sambur stag which
stared at the elephant with mild enquiring gaze and without alarm.
Quietly we turned and paced slowly on. Suddenly, where a moment before
there was nothing,! saw a tiger about twenty-five yards away, which when sight-
ed, was about to enter a small patch of very tall and dense grass which had mostly
escaped burning. There was not much time to think; the first thought was that
the tiger was not likely to remain long in such cover and, once lost sight of, would
probably be well on the way to the main forest and give no chance. By the
time the rifle was raised, a fraction of a second, all that was visible was the hind
quarters, all forward of the loins being hidden by the grass. The tiger stopped
fora moment, and I fred quickly seeing that my solid soit lead bullet (-500 black
powder 5 drams) would probably rake forward and possibly kill the beast right
away. At the shot the tiger gave a couple of grunts and disappeared. Cir-
cling the long grass we went into the open country, towards the main forest, in
AN ENCOUNTER WITH A FIGHTING TIGER. 6538
case the tiger should have goneon. There being nosignof him, and no tracks,
we retraced our steps and began to search. Not finding the beast, it was neces-
sary to circle back to find the place where the shot was fired and in doing so the
cause of the tiger’s presence in such a spot was discovered. The carcase of
a sambur stag was at the edge of the thick grass into which the tiger had dis-
appeared.
Marking the line which the animal would have taken in his rush when wound-
ed we got round the grass and soon located our quarry by his deep rumbling
growls which changed into the well known coughing grunts as he charged at the
- elephant from underneath some thick evergreen creepers and trees.
The old elephant, with visitle marks on several parts of her wrinkled hide of
previous encounters with wounded felines turned and bolted, with the tiger
at her heels, giving me no chance of doing anything but cling on with my left
hand to a rope and fire two ineffectual shots over her tail with myright. The
shikar{ clung with both hands and well drawn up feet. Having put the ele-
phant to flight the tiger drew up, with lashing tail, and it was seen that bis off
hind leg was badly damaged. Then he turned off into some partly burnt grass
and was lost to sight. We could see that he was a large and massive tiger
with fine ruff, and broad chest. His bow-legged appearance as he came on
behind us was very marked, Also we saw that he had fine teeth and was ex-
ceedingly angry. So ended the first round.
The ancient mahout pulled up the equally ancient elephant within about
fifty yards, and after a short rest we started to again draw the foe. Advancing
slowly the obedient elephant pushed down several small trees to clear the
arena. As each tree crashed, growls were elicited from amongst the grass,
which could be seen shaking violently as the tiger tore at it in his rage. As
we got within,what our opponent evidently considered the ‘‘ring’”’ limit, out he
came a second time and the performance was repeated. Again the elephant
bolted; again the tiger pursued ; again my puny right arm let off two ineffectual
shots. Let the reader sit on the edge of a sofa, without any rest for the feet
and try to fire a heavy rifle with one hand. He will find that the weight of
the rifle will release the trigger as the barrels are dropped to take aim.
On this occasion the tiger retired further into the grass, and there being no
movement it could not be known exactly where he was. Two shots fired into the
cover had no result, so the elephant again advanced, pushing down trees as
before, and now, being herself somewhat excited, there was some difficulty in
restraining her from advancing to do battle on her own account. Such a proceed-
ing would very probably have had disastrous results, as she might have been
pulled down on to her knees and one can imagine that any one or more of us
might have been shaken off. The mahout was, however, equal to the occasion,
and kept the elephant under control. I now told him that the only way
would be for me to get into a tree and for the elephant to then draw the tiger
and so give me a chance. It was obviously hopeless to attempt anything off
the elephant.
Here it may be explained that there was only a pad onthe elephant and
no rests for the feet and those who ‘have riddenona pad _ elephant can
realize that it isnot easy to shoot off a pad at any time, when it is further
explained that the writer is unable, owing to an injury of long standing, to sit
astride, with one leg on each side of the mahouts back, as is usually done, then
it can be well imagined what a hopeless affair it was to attempt to kill this
Tampaging tiger off old ‘‘ Kandan Piari’’ running away with the action of a
boat in a choppy sea.
Dut let us résume the stirring tale. Theéviolent exertions of the elephant had
caused the ropes securing the pad to get considerably loosened and the pad was
654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
slipping over to the right. It was necessary therefore for me to sit with
my legs dangling over the left side : ready to pivot back to the right on the
tiger sounding ‘‘ active front” as firing the rifle at all with my left hand
was quite impossible. I practised this manceuvre several times. This was
necessary as my knees do not bend very much and my heels had to clear the
mahout’s head !
Before attempting any climbing into a tree, we had first to again locate
the tiger so an advance was made from another direction, some more trees
being pushed down, and we soon found ourselves within the tiger’s fighting
limits, and he came with the same horrid demonstrations and again the same
proceedings on our part, except that this time the mahout pulled up too quick,
or else the enemy had more pace, as he got home, as we found later, with the paw
on the elephants near hind leg. I thought this had happened as I was unable
to get off my usual second ineffectual shot because the furious beast was out of
sight under the elephant’s rump! but I got off the second shot, both hands
holding the rifle for the first time, as the tiger halted for a second before
subsiding under the low hanging branches of an evergreen tree, and thought
I might perhaps have hit him by a lucky fluke.
We now had the tiger in a better position as there was a small tree, close to a
large one with a straight trunk, in which, if the tiger would allow meto take my
stand, I could be ready for him when once more drawn. by the now highly
excited elephant.
The third round was over and the points were in ‘our adversary’s favour.
Nine shots had been fired, the first only being a hit. Six ineffectual shots had
been loosed off during the attacks and two into the grass to elicit indications
of his whereabouts. Three cartridges only now remained.
Slowly the elephant was taken up to the desired tree and, naturaily thinking it
was to be pushed down, she was with difficulty restrained from demolishing it.
There were several pushes and resulting anxious cracks on the part of the tree.
We were on the very border of the ‘‘ ring ”’ and all this time the tiger kept up a
continuous rumble. It was necessary to kneel on the pad, prepared to return in-
stantly to the sitting position, should the charge be made. Several times it seemed
to be imminent. At last there seemed to be a favourable moment and into
the tree I got. Taking out of my pocket the length of cord always carried for
such purposes, I quickly passed it round a branch of the tree and my waist :
took the rifle and made ready. The movement of the elephant leaving the tree
almost brought out the tiger. Seeing the leaves moving I very nearly got a shot
but the chance was momentary and instantly gone. The distance was a short
thirty yards.
The final round was now about to commence. It was after eleven o’clock and
the first insulting challenge had been delivered at 9-40 a.m.
Once again the old elephant demonstrated, there was more pushing down of
small trees, and after some little delay out came the tiger. I expected him across
my left front but he took a_ short cut, as the elephant bore to my right, and
my position was very awkward for firing. Both my shots missed! The first ?
I can’t say why! A branch of the tree arrested my arm as I pulled the trigger
for the second barrel. The shots, however, seemed to have the effect of stop-
ping the charge, a longer one than the previous three, and the tiger retreated
some thirty yards as on the former occasions, and sat himself down not thirty
feet away.
The opening of my rifle and the inserting of the twelfth and last cartridge
attracted his attention. Looking up he peered malignantly at me round the
trunk of a sapling. This prevented my aiming at his head. Just as well per-
haps, head shots often go wrong. Ability to fire from either shoulder here came
‘0, as ON some previous occasions, asa very useful accomplishment. Leaning
AN ENCOUNTER WITH A FIGHTING TIGEER. 655
much to my right the strain taken by the waist cord and getting the butt of
the rifle against the biceps of my left arm it was possible to get the sights on
to his back, behind the shoulder and to left of the spine. Tothe shot the tiger
subsided—he had been supporting himself on his forepaws his head fell back
and his gallant fight was over.—
Eleven thirty a.m.—one hour and fifty minutes. No less gallant and beyond
all praise was the conduct of old Ghulab the mahout who kept his head and
managed his elephant admirably, throughout. Not once did he suggest a retreat,
or urge, as he might have done, that he could not risk his elephant, and the old
elephant—Kandan Piari—what of her ! Had she been permitted she would have
been on top of the enemy. Twice before had she been mauled bya tiger. The
shikari behaved well also though all he had to do was to cling on: he did
that without unnecessary fuss !
The fight is over: now for the measurements. Laid on his back—nose
pressed down and knives stuck into the ground at nose—root of tail—tip of
tail gave a straight line measurement of nine feet one inch, the curve measure-
ment being nine feet seven inches. The tail was two feet nine inches. The
girth fifty-five inches. A massive tiger and beautifully marked.
The initial shot, and the last shot, were the only ones that hit the beast.
The first shot fired when only hind quarters and a bit of the flank visible, could
not, short of killing the animal outright, have been better placed. It entered
at centre of buttock and smashed the thigh bone to pieces a few inches below
the hip socket. It was found mushroomed perfectly, against the skin
inside the stifle, and, had the penetration been sufficient, would have travelled
forward and traversed the stomach to the vital parts of the chest. A°470 high
velocity bullet would probably have done this and deprived our readers of this
exciting tale. Had the hindleg not been broken we might have fared less
fortunately than we did.
I wanted the carcase of the sambur left alone as quite possibly a prowling
panther might have been found near it on some other day: but some Thadus,
members of that curious tribe which inhabit the Terai forests, skinned and
eut it up and brought the malodorous remains for me to see!
656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The stag had been killed about four days previously and had not been eaten
at all: after killing, the tiger had gone for a walk and killed another sambur
elsewhere. His stomach contained skin and hair of sambur showing this to
have been the case. His return to inspect the first kill was his undoing.
The morning after this exciting day I asked the old mahout if he and his
elephant had slept well. He replied that he had slept but little! I own that
IT was so excited as not to be able to get to sleep until near midnight. Such
incidents as this live in one’s memory. They come but seldom: but all sports-
men who persistently adventure in pursuit of dangerous game have ex-
perienced incidents of the nature here recited and the best one can wish them
is “Good hunting”? and many more like them—ail with equally satisfactory
results.
-——=
69/
([NDIAN DRAGONFLIES.
BY
Magsor F. C. Frasmr, I.M.S., F.E.S.
Part X XI,
(With one Plate and 1 Text-figure.)
(Continued from page 405 of Vol, XXX.)
Genus—Gompsus Leach.
mee @nen Oy Nise
taken AT A
Reet ap eco tona aces egue ns:
ORES
Fig. I—Wings of Gomphus personatus Selys. Male.
Gomphus. Leach, Edinb. Encycl., ix., p. 137 (1815); Selvs, Bull. Acad.
Belg., xxi., (2) p. 44 (1854); id. Mon. Gomph., p. 115 (1857) ; Will. Proc.
U.S.Nat. Hist. Mus., xxxiii, p. 304 (1908) ; Selys, Mon. Lib. Eur., pp. 77-80
(1840); id. Revue des Odonates, pp. 8! and 82 (1850).
Aeshna. Fabr. Syst. Ent. p. 424 (1775) ; Latr. Gen. Crust. Ins., iii., p. 286
(1862) ; Kirby Cat. Odon., p. 64 (1890).
Diastatomma pars. Burm. Handb. Ent., ii p. 831 (1839); Charp. Lib. Eur.,
p- 15 (1840).
I have based the characters of this genus on a comparative examination of
the following species, for the American examples of which I am indebted to Mr.
E. B. Williamscn of Bluffton, Indiana: Gomphus personatus Selys, G. nilgiricus
Laid., G. o'doneli Fras., G. nevadensis Kenn., G. ventricosus Walsh, G.
fraternus Say, G. vastus Walsh, G. grasinellus Walsh, G. olivacens Selys, G.
sobrinus Selys, and G. donneri Kenn.
The first three species are the sole representatives in India of this large genus,
the other eight species mentioned are all from America. Gi. personatus and
nigiricus, by reason of the preponderance of the coal black ground-colour,
stand rather apart from American examples of the genus, but o’doneli agrees
with the latter, not only hy the large extent of its yellow markings, but also by
its robust, stocky build. Gomphus promelas Selys and G. ceylanicus Selys
belong to Laidlaw’s genus Heliogomphus, the former being synonymous with
658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXA.
Heliogomphus pruinans Fras. Gomphus o’doneli is from Bengal, G. personatis
from Assam and Upper Burma, whilst G. nilgiricus isfrom the Western Ghats
of India. With the exception of the three Indian species and a few neotropic
in distribution, the majority of the species are palearctic and nearctic, and are
found widely distributed throughout Europe and North America,
CHARACTERS OF THE GENUS.
Moderately large to large insects, with body colouring of black marked with
yellow. Wings hyaline, reticulation close, base of hind wing of male rather
deeply excavate, tornus prominent. Arc usually between antenodals 1 and
2, occasionally opposite 2, more rarely a little distal of 2 ; two rows of postanal
cells in forewing, 4 to 6 in the hind, the first postanal cell of hindwing entire, small
and extending basad for only about half the length of the base of subtrigone ; 1 to 2
rows of cells between Mi and Mia; pterostigma rather small, braced less,than one-
fourth the length of distance between the node and outer end of pterostigma,
only a single cubital nervure in all wings; 2 rows of discoidal cells in forewing
widening to at least 3 rows at level of node; 2 transverse nervures between
Mi-wi and Miv in forewing, only 1 in the hind; all trigones, subtrigones and
hypertrigones entire ; Cui and Cui in hindwing nearly parallel as far as hinder
margiy of wing.
Legs variable in length in the species, but hind femora always extending
beyond hinder border of thorax and often as far as apical border of segment
1, less rarely overlapping segment 2, hind femora closely and minutely spined.
Body markings usually constant, but personatus shows considerable and wide
variations.
Anal appendages of male equal, or subequal, both superior and branches of
inferior widely and equally divaricate, simple, unbranched.
Genitalia variable in the species. Vulvar scale usually small and deeply
cleft (but in nilgiricus it departs from type and is long and markedly projecting).
Genotype—Gomphus vulgatissimus, (Lin.)
Gomphus personatus Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg., (2) xxxvi, p. 197 (1873),
ibid. (2) xlvi, p. 454 (1878), Will, Proc. U.S. Nat. Hist. Mus., Vol. XX XI,
p. 305 (1908), Laid., Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. XXIV, pp. 396-398 (1922).
Gomphus xanthenatus. Will. l.c.p. 305-308 fig. 32 (1908).
Male: Abd. 42-45mm. Hindwing 37-39 mm.
Head: labium with middle lobe blackish, lateral lobes yellow, labrum glossy
black marked at the base with two oblong bright yellow spots, bases of mandibles
yellow, ante-and post-clypeus black, the latter with a large lateral spot of yellow
against the eye and a variable small medial spot of the same colour, frons bright
greenish yellow except the lower part in front and its base above which is marked
with a fine crenulate black basal line. Rest of head black but the occiput
variably bright to dull yellow at its centre, black laterally, fringed with black
hairs, very long in the male but shorter in the female. Occiput of male straight,
in the female a little sinuous and usually with one or two small spines on either
side, and with the yellow much more extensive than in the male.
Prothorax black marked with bright citron yellow, a broad anterior collar,
a small medial spot and a much larger lateral one on the posterior lobe.
Thorax black marked variably with citron yellow as follows :——a mesothoracic
collar slightly broken at its middie by the black middorsal carina, and confluent
at its outer end with straight antehumeral stripes which run from the antealar
sinus parallel with the dorsal carina, thus forming an inverted figure seven on
each side, a variable humeral marking represented, in a slight majority of speci-
mens, by a small upper spot, but in others by a sinuous stripe which expands
4
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate I
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.
For explanation see on the reverse.)
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.
Explanation of the Plate.
!, Gomphus personatus 3 from Maymyo.
2. Gomphus personatus ¢ from Shillong.
3. Gomphus nilgiricus ¢
4, Gomphus o’doneli @
5. Helogomphus ceylonicus 9°
6. Heliogomphus promelas ¢
7. Heliogomphus nietneri J
The size of the figures is purely aroitrary, measurements are given in
the text. Fig. 5 is constructed from the Selysian description, the other
figures are drawn from life.
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES, S59
into an upper spot and which may be broken at its middle. In Shillong specimens
both forms are met with; in a pair taken by Col. F. Wall at Maymyo, Upper
Burma,the stripe is well formed, in Williamson’s variety xanthenatus from Burma,
the stripe is absent in three specimens, incomplete and broken in a fourth.
Laterally more or less broadly yellow marked with two narrow black lines on
the lateral sutures.
In Williamson’s vanthenatus these two lines are more or less confluent and almost
obliterate the included yellow; in the pair from Maymyo, the lines are well
separated throughout their entire length by the yellow ; in Shillong specimens
the line on the anterior suture is invariably broadly broken, being represented
by a small upper section and a longer lower which begins at the spiracle. The
line on the posterior suture is much finer and the lateral yellow corres-
pondingly much more extensive.
Legs black, anterior femora with a yellow stripe oa the inner side, hind femora
with a row of short, robust, moderately widely-spaced, gradually lengthening
spines.
Wings hyaline, very palely and evenly enfumed ; pterostigma dark brown
between black nervures ; costa reddish brown ; 2 rows of cells between M7 and
Mia at level of outer end of stigma, but 4 rows at the apex of wing; a basal
incomplete antenodal nervure frequently present, in the Burmese pair from May-
myo it is present in three wings of the male but entirely absent in the female,
in Williamson's Burrrese specimens, it is present in all wings of two specimens,
in the front wings only of another specimen and entirely absent in a fourth
specimen. In Shillong material itis more rarely present and in four corsecutive
specimens exan.ined, it was present in only one of the forewings of two specimens,
absent in all other fourteea wings.
Anal triangle of 3 to 5 cells; 4 to 5 rows of postanal cells in the hindwing;
3 rows of cells at level of node in the discoidal field ;
14-18)17-15 12-14:15-1z
nodal index—-—}|-—-—, Sa ae mew brane obsclete.
13-11\11-13 14-10/11-13
Abdomen tumid at base and from segment 7 to 10, thin and cylindrical between
these two parts, black marked with bright citron yellow as follows :—a broad
continuous stripe on the sides of segments 1 to3, tapering apical-wards on the
latter segment and very short in the male, and not quite extending to apex of
segment in the female, a large apico-dorsal spot on I, a trilobed stripe on dorsum
of 2 extending the whole length of segment, a tine dorsal cariral stripe on 3 tapering
apicad and_ with a slightly crenate edge, segments 4 to 6 with small baso-lateral
spots and larger baso-dorsal triangular spots which taper along the carinal
ridge for a variable distance, on segment 7 these spots are confluent to form a
basal annule which extends for a short distance apicad along the carina, markings
on segment 8 extremely variable, usually a narrow apical ring which expands
on the sides into a triangular point directed basac, a small triangular baso-
dorsal spot, and a largish ventrco-lateral elongate spot. Variations of this
pattern exist as a complete absence of the apical ring, or two irregularly
shaped lateral spots at the apex, the ventral spot may be very minute or entirely
absent, the carinal spot may extend as far as the apical border and show a medial
expansion, in short there seems to be no limit to the number of variations which
these three markings may not assume. Segment 9 with a broad apical ring of
variable thickness and extending nearer the base on dorsum than on the sides.
In some specimens it extends as far a« base of segment, in others it is quite
fine and its basal border is serrated. usually however it covers about half the
segment. Segment 10 entirely unmarked or more rarely with a fine broken
apical ring.
20
660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Anal appendages az long as segment 10, of equat length and equally divaricate,
black. The superior tapering to a point, curling evenly down nearly to apex
which is directed abruptly straight back ; inferior deeply cleft into two branches
which lie parallel to the superiors, hollowed out above, curling evenly upward.
Genitalia: lamina cowl-shaped, projecting slightly; hamules very robust
and projecting almost perpendicularly from the genital sac, their apices turning
rather abruptly forward, black : lobe matt black, very large and tumid, projecting
as & massive funneil-shaped organ.
Female. Abdomen 42 to 45 mm. Hindwing 38 to 42 mm.
Almost exactly similar to the male except in those points already mentioned
above. The abdominal markings more extensive, thus the carinal stripe forms
an almost complete stripe from segment 1 to 6 and is often confluent with the
baso-lateral spots. Segment 8 has a fine apical ring and less rarely a small
triangular baso-dorsal point. The apical border of segment 1C, the anal appen-
dages and a conical prominence between them yellow. In some, the anal
appendages are black and marked with vellow on the dorsum only.
Vulvar scale not quite half the length of segment 9, bifid for about half its
length, narrow and subtriangular.
Distribution, The type comes from the Khasia Hills, Assam and was described
by Selys from a specimen with a complete humeral stripe. The above descrip.
tions have been made from a large number of specimens collected by Mr, Bain-
brigge Fletcher in the Khasia Hills, Assam (Shillong, during May and June),
and from a pair collected at Maymyo, Upper Burma, by Col. E, Wall, in June,
whilst Mr, Williamson’s specimens come from the Toungoo and Karen districts
of Burma. In regard to these latter specimens, it will be seen that they grade
almost imperceptibly through the Maymyo specimens into the Shillong ones,
the only real point of difference being the lateral sutural black lines which are
complete in Burmese material. put invariably broken in Assam specimens
I do not think that this slight difference is sufficient to constitute even a local
race, sc that they are here treated as mere varieties.
Gomphus nilgiricus Laic., Rec. Ind. Mus., le. pp. 397, 398, 419 and 420. fig.
16 and pi. xi, fig. 5 (1922) ; Fras., Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. XXVI, pp. 476-477 (1924).
Male: Abdomen 46mm. Hindwing 35mm.
Head: labium pale brownish yellow; labrum, bases of mandibles and
anteclypeus dark brown ; postclypeus and front of frons black, upper part of
frons bright greenish vellow, rest of head black.
Occiput black, slightly raised in the middle.
Prothorax black marked with citron yellow as follows:—an anterior collar,
a transversely oval spot on the dorsum of hinder lobe and a smali paired spot
just in front of and confluent with latter.
Thorax matt black marked with greenish yellow as follows :—-straight ante-
humeral stripes running paralle! with the mid-dorsal carina, gradually broacen-
ing below where they are confluent with a widely interrupted mesothoracic
collar. Laterally broadly greenish yellow marked with two moderately broad
biack stripes on the lateral sutures, often confluent with one another so as
to split up the intervening yellow into two or three spots.
Legs black, robust, hind femora extending well on to the second abdominal
segment, minutely and densely spined.
Wings hyaline, pterostigma braced, over 4 to 5 ceils, dsrk brown between
: 13-13/15-12 :
black nervures; nodal index ies membrane obsolete; 1 to 2 rows
of cells between Mi ano Mia at the outer end of pterostigma ; 2 transverse
nervures between Mi-2ii and Miv in the forewing, only I in the hind; 5 to ¢
,
v
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES, 661
rows of postanal cells in the hindwirg, the first entire, extending basad for a
little more than half the length of base of subtrigone ; a basal incomplete ante-
nodal nervure variably present (present in both forewings of one male, in both
forewings of two females, in all wings of two males, but apparently more often
present in the forewing than hind) ; 2 to 3 rows of discoidal cells at level of node,
usually 3; only 1 cubital nervure in all wings.
Abdomen tumid at base, moderately and squarely dilated from seomont 7 to
10, slender ane cylindrical between these parts, black marked with bright prim-
rose yellow as follows :—the sides of segments 1 and 2 at and below level of
oreillets, the latter margined with black, a dorsal spot on segment 1 widening
apically, a trilobed band on mid-dorsum of segment 2, extending the whole length
of segment, a n id-dorsal lire on 3 tapering rapidly from its hase and not quite
reaching apical border of segment, a triangular basal spot on the sides of this
segment, paired basal, dorsal spots on segments 4 to 7 and confluent with one
another at the base, segments 8 and 10 unmarked but 9 with its apical half
yellow, the border of this wide annule markedly crenate or serrate and resemb-
ling a similar marking seen in personatus.
Anal appendages black, about as long assegment 10, the superiors and
branches of inferiors widely and equally divaricate, the superior tapering to a
fine point, curved evenly down but the apex turned rather abruptly back aad
up ; inferior with its branches first directed down ard then curling up, of the
same length as superiors.
Genitalia: lamina depressed, broad and shallowly arched: hamules very
robust, broad at base, tapering to a point, projecting markedly from the genital
sac with a slight posterior slope, black ; lobe large and prominent, funnel-shaped,
black.
Female: Abdomen 43 mm. Hindwing 38-40 mm.
Closety similar to the male save for sexual differences. Abdomen thick and
robust, cylindrical throughout.
Wings rather broader, pterostigma pale brown, over 4 to 6 cells ; nodal index
considerably higher. Abdominal markings broader, the dorsal basal spots
entirely confluent and continued along the mid-dorsal carina as fine lines. The
basal lateral spot on segment 3 much larger, confluent with the lateral yellow on
the two previous segments and continued nearly to apical end of segment.
Segments 8 and 10 are unmarked as in the male, but 9 bears a similar broad
apical ring. Unlike personatus, the markings of this insect are remarkably free
from variation.
Vulvar scale of great length, projecting from the abdomen at an angle of about
45 degrees, consisting of two closely apposed scales, which taper from a moder-
ately broad base to a fine point.
Anal appendages small, conical, black, the conical protuberance between
them yellow.
Disiribution—A rare insect found sparcely throughout the Western Ghats
of India. A few specimens have been taken on streams flowing down the Metta-
palavam and Gudalur ghats, Nilgiris, I have taken 5 males at the head of the
Sampaji river and ona small stream above the Hatti river, Coorg. Major Frere
found it in larger numbers on the Bear and Cinchona streams, Kodai-kanal,
Palnai Hills. The larva, which burrows in sand, is of the long, cylindtical,
torpedo type. The female deposits her eggs by stabbing them into wet sand
in the beds of rocky mountain streams. The range of this species seems to be
confined to altitudes between 3,000 and 7,000 ft. The males are usually found
settled on rocks in midstream or on cane fronds overhanging streams. It is
the only Gomphine so far taken in the Palnai Hills, which may explain its greater
prevalence there. In the Nilgiris and Coorg, it is faced with the formidable
ey ace of Lamellogomphus, Megalogomphus, Heliogomphus and Burmagom-
phus,
662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NA TURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XX& .
Gomphus o’doneli Fras., Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. XXIV, pp. 420-421 (1922).
Male: Abdomen 42 mm. Hindwing 30 mm.
Head: labium pale yellow, the middle lobe bordered with black; labrum
glossy black with two small basal yellow spots; rest of face and head black
except for a narrow transverse stripe of yellow on crest of frons. Occiput
emarginate, fringed thickly with black hairs.
Prothorax black, the posterior lobe, a small spot on either side of it, a duplicated
spot just in front of it and an anterior collar yellow.
Thorax black marked with yellow as follows :—oblique ante humeral stripes
which are confluent with a slightly interrupted mesothoracic collar, a small
upper humeral spot. Laterally the greater part of the sides yellow marked
by a broad medial band of black which is itself marked by three small yellow
spots. Most probably this black band originates from the fusion of two black
stripes on the lateral sutures.
Legs short, robust, entirely black, Hind femora coated with small spine
and with a single larger spine at the distal end.
Wings hyaline; pterostigma dark brown, braced, rather small; membrane
almost obsolete, dark brown ; 2 nervures between Mi-iii and Miv in the forewing,
only 1 in the hind; only 1 row of cells between Mi and Mia at level of distal
end of pterostigma ; Cut and Cuii nearly parallel in the hindwing ; nodal index
9-16 14-9
t-10 11-10
ot postanal cells in hindwing, the first postanal (the vestigial anal loop) very
small, entire, extending inwards towards base of wing for only half the length of
the base of subtrigone ; no incomplete basal antenodal nervure in either sex.
; 3 rows of discoidal ceils at levei of node in forewing ; 3 to 4 rows
Abdomen tumid at base, the base of segment 7 anc 8 anc 9 broadly dilated
although not winged, segments 3 to 7 narrow and cylindrical.
Black marked with yellow as follows :—a triangular dorsal spot at apex of
segment | and a broad lateral spot on each side, segment 2 with a trilobed dorsal
stripe, the oreillet and a large lateral spot beyond it, 3 with the dorsum narrowly
at the base and a large lateral basal spot, 4 to 6 with dorsal basal spots rather
widely confluent across the carina, 7 with a broad basal annule prolonged
apicad along the dorsal carina, 8 with a small spot on the middorsal carina at
the base and another larger angulated spot on the middle of each side, 9 with
the whole of the ventro-lateral border broadly yellow, 10 unmarked.
Anal appendages black, widely and equally divaricate, the superiors slightly
longer than branches of inferior and about equal in length to segment 10, very
robust, very thick at base, at first directed obliquely out, the apex then sharply
angulated back so that the outer border presents a prominent angle, the apex
itself rapidly tapering to a sharp point. Infericr deeply and broadly cleft into
two strongly divaricate branches, short, broad anc with the apex ending in a
minute upturned spine.
Genitalia: lamina depressed, broad ; hamules very robust, projecting almost
perpendicularly from the genital sac, ending in a robust, slightly forwardly
directed spine ; lobe of great size, bulbous, funne!-shaped, black.
Female. Abdomen 42 mm. Hinawing 32 mm.
This sex which has not been described before, resembles the male in its robust
stature and general colouring. The abdomen is a little thicker at the middle
segments but is not of that even width generally seen in female gomphines.
Differs from the male in the following respects :—In addition to the two small
basal spots on labrum, there is another smaller but brighter spot on the outer
side of each ; the anteclypeus is very dark brown and there are two small median
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. 663
yellow spots on the lower border of postclypeus and a very obscure spot on the
same structure at the border of eyes. The occiput is fringed with short black
hairs, simple, its extreme edge brown, but behind, as seen by tilting the head
forward, the occiput is bright yellow.
Prothorax and thorax similar but the mesothoracic collar barely interrupted
and the upper humeral spot nearly obsolete. Legs black, the hind femora with
a row of gradually lengthening, closely-set, very robust spines, the distal one
of great length.
Wings similar to the male, nodal index not differing ncticeably. —
Abdomen with the basal spots so confluent as to form rather broad basal
rings from segment 3 to 7, the mid-dorsal stripe on segment 2 tapering apicad
more than in the male, the lateral spot on segment 8 not angulate but quadrat
and extending to base of segment, an additional small baso-dorsal spot one
segment 9 and the lower part of the sides of 10, as well as 9, yellow.
Anal appendages very small, pointed, yellow. Vulvar scale rudimentary
merely a small broad short projection of the apical border of segment 8 but
slightly overlapping 9 ; the expanded borders of the segments here functiorate
for the vulvar scale.
Distribution.—A single pair only of this rare species is known, which were
collected by Mr. H. V. O’Donel at Hasimara Tea Estate, Duars, Bengal. In
general facies they recall strongly species of the genus from North America
and cannot be readily confused with either personatus or nilgiricus.
(Since the above was written, Mr. O’Donel has taken another male at
Hasimara. )
(To be continuzd.}
664
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS.
By
Hereert Stevens, M.B.0.U.
Part VI.
(With 2 plates.)
(Continued from page 379 of this Volume.)
344. Elwes’s Horned Lark. Otocorys alpestris elwesi.
Blanf,
Recorded for Sikkim at nearly 18,000’ at which elevation Blanford met with
this Lark. (Kongra Lama Pass between 15-16,000’. Donkia Pass, 18,0007.)
345. The Long-billed Calandra Lark. Melanocorypha
maxima. (zould.
Recorded for the higher parts of Sikkim. Cbserved up to 15,200’ in Tibet.
(Waiton.)
346. The Tibet Skylark. Alauda arvensis leiopus Hume.
I have not been fortunate to meet with any species of Skylark in these hills,
though I have a distinct impression of a crested Lark without any pronounced
form ane colour characters, seen in the winter of early March 1920 at 8,800’ in
Lachung ; this records might also in the circumstances refer to Galerida sp ? as
it was not secured. Mr. N. B. Kinnear regards Alauda inopinaia Bianchi as
a purely Tibetan species ; until specimens actually turn up from the Sikkim
Himalayas for identification and comparison the status of any species of Alanda
must remain very obscure. <A. inopinata was obtained at Khamba Dzong at
15,000’ in June and July by the Mount Everest Expedition.
347. The Small Kashmir Skylark. Alauda gulgula guttata.
Breoks.
Evidently obtained by Mandelli in June from somewhere in the far interior
as Kinnear refers to four skins in the National Collection, one of whichis from
Sikkim.
348. The Rufous Short-toed Lark. Calandreila brachy-
dactyla dukhunensis. (Sykes.)
IT saw undoubted birds of a species of Calandrella or Murafra and took their
eggs at about 7,500’in the Mai Khola in East Nepal, unfortunately I failed to
secure any specimens. Bianford records it as common in all the higher valleys of
Northern Sikkim above 12,006 especially abundant at Yumthang, 12,000’, Momay
Samdong, 15,000’ and Phalung, 16,060’. “* At the latter place early in October,
the Short-toed Larks were in flocks of several hundreds just as they are found in
March in the plains of India”. These records refer to Alauda brachydactyia but
might well include the next species. Obtained by the Mount Everest Expedi-
tion up to 17,000’.
Brook’s Short-toed Lark. Calandrella acutirostris tibetana
Brooks.
Obtained by the Mount Everest Expedition at 14,000’.
Possibly may occur in the extreme north which remark also applies to
Galerida cristata leatungensis (Swich.).
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. 665
249. The Western White-eye. Zosterops palpebrosa ciwesi.
‘ Stuart Baker.
Commonly and generally distributed up to 5,000’ at all events. Occurs at
Gopaldhara, 4,700’, during the cold-weather months ¢ 31-12-11]. In all likeli-
hood reaches an elevation of 7,000’ as recorded for the Himalayas.
350. The Himalayan Yellow-backed Sunbird. AEthopyea
siparaja seheriz (Tick.).
Recorded for the ‘‘ Himalayas up to 7,000’ in summer’. This elevation is
entirely erroneous for the Sikkim Himalayas. Confined to low elevations only
Entirely absent from the valleys of the foot-hills in the west which do not support
a plains-fauna. Nurbong at 2,000’, 21-2-14, conspicuous by their numbers.
Obtained in the Tista Valley up to an elevation of 3, 600’. (G. E. Shaw).
351. The Fire-tailed Yellow-backed Sunbird. AEthopyga
ignicauda ignicauda (Hodgs:.).
Irregularly distributed from 2,000’ and undoubtedly lower on occasions, up
to over 10,000’ in winter and higher in summer Phalut, 11,860’, August. This
Sunbird ascends the highest of the several species represented in the Sikkim,
* Himalayas.” “Observed by Blanford at 11,000’. Kalo Pokhari, Nepal-
Sikkim Frontier, 10,160’ These sunbirds were often seen in parties during
brief, sunny spells of weather haunting the birch and rhododendron trees, when
in flower in late March and early April, all vegetation and the surroundings
being enveloped in a coating of snow at this time. A drop in the temperature or
the wafting up of the clouds would force them into the valley below. Nurbong,
2,000’, an immature male observed on the 20th of February and a similar male
in March 1914. Eighteen specimens examined. Gopaldhara, 4,720’, ¢
16-11-20 (a), juvenile no moult, breast suffused with orange-red, remainder
of lower plumage greenish-yellow, rump yellow, upper tail-coverts crimson ;
in all other respects similar to the adult female. 4,700’ ¢ 28-12-11, (b), juvenile,
similar to (a) with the exception that the red on the breast is wanting, the tail
is margined externally with rufous, a few feathers on the upper surface showing
signs of the change into the adult plumage. 4,720’, gd 16-11-20, (c), similar
to (a) excepting the tail is margined externally with rufous, and one middle
feather is 63mm. longer than the next pair; evidently an abnormality for
this juvenile.stage of plumage. Kalo Pokhari, 10,000’, 2 18-3-12, partial
aA
moult on crown. 8,500’, ¢, 28-3-12, partial moult on crown and throat.
Kalo Pokhari, 10,000’, @ 18-3-12, partial moult, middle pair of tail feathers
shorter than the remainder, measuring 80 mm. in total length. 8,500’, ¢ 19-3-12,
in moult. Darjeeling, 6,500’, ¢ 13-304, partial moult. Gopaldhara, 6,000’, 3
10-38-18, in moult; ¢ 10-3-18, in moult; ¢ 10-3-18, in moult. These five
specimens agree with the first specimen in respect to the middle pair of the tail
feathers, which measure in the order taken, 24, 32, 24, 30 and 39 mm. respec-
tively.
Kalo Pokhari, 10,160’, ¢ 17-38-12. adult, middle pair of the tai! feathers
longer than the next pair by 24mm. 20-3-12; ¢ ,22-3-12; 5 2-4-12;5 3-4-12.
These four adult specimens agree with the first specimen in having the middle
pair of tail feathers longer than the next pair in the order taken by 1°, 25, 16
and 26 mm. respectively. Five others collected, but not available for com pari-
son : these did not vary in any appreciable extent from the average. ‘Thus the
elongated middle pair of tail feathers of the adult male; the measurement of
which is given byQates as exceeding the next pair in length by2.7”=69mm. takes
several months to reach their extreme length which is probably not attained
before July and may not always be reached within the year, and this is further
666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
confirmed by an adult ¢ 11-8-05 showing a measurement of 61 mm. in this
respect. 4
Blanford’s record refers to the Cho La Range, 11,000’, August.
352. Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird. AEthopyga gouldiz gouldiz
(Vig.).
Uncommon. Found at all elevations of from 4,006’-10,000’ according to
season. Once observed on the Mirik Ridge above Namsoo at an elevation
of 4,000’, exact date overlooked, probably late March or early April. Kalo
Pokhari, 10,160’, ¢ 2 17-38-12 ;¢ ¢ 22-3-12. With the exception of one other
female these specimens constituted the sum total of this Sunbird’s: appearance
on the Ridge, which occurred duriny a few days of tropical heat ; they had come
up from the densely wooded valley below, on the Sikkim side of the Frontier.
Gopaldhara, 4,720’, d 15-3-16,* ¢ 16-11-20, only this single male secured ; as I
failed to discern the female which was in all likelihood mixed up with the numer-
ous immature males and females of 4. agnicauda. 33 5,2 2-11-21. First
arrivals, which appeared immediately the cherry blossom opened.
This Sunbird was much in evidence at this time, dwindling down gradually
until the 13th of this month when the flowers had mostly set and the last
bird had disappeared: two males are in partial moult not having yet
attained the full adult plumage.
353- The Black-breasted Sunbird. Acthopyga saturata
(Hodes.).
Generally distributed. Occurs up to an elevation of 6,000’ at all events in
‘the rains’’. During “ the cold weather” it keeps to the warmer bottoms of
the valleys. Gopaldhara, 4,720’ Only a few birds of this speciesare to be seen
in this ‘‘ Sunbirds’ pararlise’? when the cherry trees are in blossom in
November, as there is no appreciable augmentation of their numbers as is so
noticeable with 4. ignicauda and in some measure 4%. gouldiw at this
favourable time; yet they frequent scattered cherry trees .at lower limits
to some extent along with 4. nipalensis, During late April, I have seen odd
birds probing the flowers of the cardamom at ground level.
354. The Nepal Yellow-backed Sunbird. A<thopyga
nipalensis nipalensis. (Hodgs.).
Found at all elevations of from 3,500’-10,000’ beth in the Interior of Sikkim
and on the Outer Ranges. Only recorded up to 6,000’ for the Himalayas.
Gopaldhara, 3,500’, ¢ 17-1-19, the tail in this male has not acquired its full
lensth, 4,700,¢ 24-12-11, the head, throat, breast and back are undergoing
moult into the adult stage of plumage. Sonada, 6,500’, J 6-2-17, adult. Lep-
cha Jagat, near Ghoom, g 28-5-16*. Common around Singhik at an elevation
of 4,600’ during the second week of March, 1920. Kalo Pokhari, Nepal-Sikkim
Frontier, 7,000’-10,000’. A series of 10¢ ¢, 42 9 collected during March
and April 1912; all of which are fully adult. Oates remarks the female is un-
distinguishable from the female of Al. scherie. A comparison of a series
of both species shows 42, nipalensis to have the back a more defined yel-
lowish-green, the throat to breast to be darker than in any specimens of A’. seherie,
also some females of 4. seherie have the mantle feathers tinged in places with
ved. All these characters are easily Jiscernable in well-prepared skins.
355. The Purple Sunbird. Cyrtostomus asiaticus asiaticus
(Lath.).
A plains-species. Recorded as found up-to 5,000’ (Himalayas). This elevation
is certainly not applicable to the typical form for Sikkim. It occurs in the
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. 667
Eastern Dooars at Kumargram on the borders of Assam; where it does not
encroach on the heavily forested region at the base of the hills. Specimens
collected hereabouts in the plains in January 1922, have the back and upper
tail-coverts of a steely-blue in comparison with the purple tone of specimens
from farther west (Behar).
356. The Larger Streaked Spider-hunter. Arachnothera
magna magna (Hodgs.).
Commonly occurs in the Rungbong Valley up to an elevation of at least
6,000’, wherever it can find the clumps of plantain trees in the folds of whose
leaves it constructs its nest. Obtained around Mangpu at an clevation of 3,600’,
(G.E. Shaw.) and at Turzum, 5,200’, 17-4-21, (O. Lindgren). Gopaldhara,
4,720’, 21-5-23* seen to take a spider out of a bed of Nicotiana flowers and
demolish it on the ground.
357. The Sikkim Yellow-vented Flower-pecker. Diczum
chrysorrhcum intensum Stuart Baker.
A Piains-Flower-pecker obtained at elevations of 590’ at Golar Ghat, Mahanuddi
River, 3 29-12-20, up to 2,500’, J 23-2-21 in the Tista Valley. (G.E. Shaw).
358. The Fire-breasted Flower-pecker. Diczeum ignipec-
tum (Hodgs.).
Generally distributed from 3,500-10,000’. Only recorded up to 7,000’ for the
Himalayas. Partial to forest; during ‘*the cold weather” it may be found in
sparsely wooded tracts. Commonly occurs around Gopaldhara, 3,500’, ¢ 31-1-19;
5,000’,2 2 5-1-12;¢5 19-1-19; 4,900’, 2 21-12-19, obtained amongst the
tangled growth of a lofty tree. 5,500’, ¢ 21-12-19, shot whilst pecking away
at the berries of a forest-tree,—name unknown. 5,800’,2 17-2-18; 5,000’, 9
2-3-18.; ¢ 16-3-16. 6,000’,¢ 10-3-18. In March 1919, females were much
more in evidence than males ; all were gaily chattering from the topmost bran-
ches in an incessant volume of song for such a small bird. Equally plentiful at
elevations of 4,600’-4,800’ around Singhik on the 23-2—12-3-20.
359. The Plain-coloured Flower-pecker. Dicz#um minul-
lum olivaceum Wald.
In all probability occurs at the base of the hills in the Terai. Easily overlooked.
Found in fair numbers in the densely forested area at the foot of the hills of
Bhotan on the Raidak River in the Eastern Dooars, at the end of January 1922.
Very noisy as they poured out their lively trill from the tops of the lofty trees.
Specimens collected 25-1-22, showed the birds to be about to nest.
Soft parts: Iris brown; bill plumbeous-grey, upper mandible and tip ot
lower mandible blackish-plumbeous ; tarsus plumbeous horny; soles grey.
Diceum cruentatum cruentatum (L.) is only likely to be found at plains-levels.
360. The Thick-billed Flower—pecker. Piprisoma squalidum
squalidam. Burton.
Recorded for the ‘‘ Himalayas at low elevations from the Sutlej Valley to
Sikkim.” I have seen no specimens collected nearer to these hills than Tirhut
in Behar. C.M. Inglis.
361. The Yellow-bellied Flower-pecker. Pachyglossa mela-
noxantha. Hodgs.
Evidently rare and extremely local. Obtained near Sonada at 6,500’, d in
May 1920 and ¢ 27-3-21. I am under the impression several scattered males,
the females possibly overlooked, came under my observation in December 1911,
when working the Semana-Mirik Ridge above Gopaldhara at an elevation of from
5,500 ’-6,000’. At the time I took them for Chalcoparia singalensis, a bird
21
-
668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
which could not possibly occur hereabouts ; as no specimens were secured this
record lacks substantiation. Mr. G.E. Shaw’s specimens are the only ones I
have seen.
362. The Ruby-cheek. Chalcoparia singalensis singalensis
(Gmel.).
This species is gregarious in the cold-season when it occurs at this period in
parties. Obtained at Bhotan Ghat on the Raidak River Eastern Dooars, in
January 1922,¢ 9 22-]-22. There was quite a crunching noise audible,
caused by this small party of birds, out of which one pair was secured, as they
probed vigorously with their bills, sometimes hanging on with their feet to the dry
leaves reminding me more of the actions of White-eyes without their delicate move-
ments.
Soft parts: Iris red-brown; bill black; tarsus yellowish-plumbeous,
soles similar, ©
363. The Blue-naped Pitta. Pitta nipalensis nipalensis
(Hodgs.).
Occurs sparingly around Gopaldhara upto 5,000’ or thereabouts, and up to
3,700’ at all events at Mangpu, (G. E. Shaw), at this same locality Gammie
obtained it breeding twice at 5,000’ in June.
d Juvenile, 16-6-16, agrees with Oates’s description in so far as that goes.
Forehead to nape, feathers centred with pink, shading into pale ochreous, giving
it a streaky appearance; upper portion of orbital ring fulvous ; upper plumage
black with broad fulvous spots, very prominent on the wing-coverts ; primary-
coverts black ; wing and tail ochreous-green, the tips of the tail with ochreous
centres ; chin and throat, pink merging into fulvous and black of the posterior
and upper portions of the ear-coverts and sharply defined from the black,fulvous-
tipped feathers of the breast ; belly, entirely pink with faint dusky edges ; under
tail-coverts with broad-white tips, tinged with ochreous and pink.
Soft parts : Juvenile. Iris hazel-brown ; bill orange lobster-red ; upper man-
dible dusky in centre ; tarsus pale dusky lobster-red.
364. The Indian Pitta. Pitta brachyura (1).
I have observed this beautiful Pitta on one occasion 11-6-19* only, at a low elev-
ation in the Great Rangit Valley. The B. M. Coll. also contains a single specimen
collected by Mandelli from the Lower Hills in April 1874. The nearest locality
where it commonly occurs is Bshar and it is well represented by Hodgson’s
specimens in the National Collection.
365. The Green-breasted Pitta Pitta cucullata cucullata.
Hartl. e
Probably confined to the Terai and Foot-hills only, in a similar lay of land and
heavy forest to that,in which it occurred on the North frontier of
Assam. Jerdon records obtaining one specimen breeding at 1,200’ in the
Gt. Rangit Valley. There are numerous specimens of this species from the
lower hills in the B. M. Collection.
366. Hodgson’s Broadbill. Serilophus lunatus rubropygius
(Hodgs.).
Recorded for the ‘‘ Himalayas below about 5,000’.”’ Evidently does not occur
much beyond the plains-level as I have nothing to record in support of this state-
ment excepting negative evidence. Gammie is mentioned by Hume, as having .
obtained it breeding at Mangpus around an elevation of 3,000’ on one occasion.
Mr. G. E. Shaw has so far not obtained it from this same locality so it appears
to be confined to lower limits. generally.
Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PuaTE X,
H. S. Photo.
ABOVE KARPONANG. March, 1917.
Haunts of Conostoma emodius, Suthora fulvifrons, Pteruthius xanthochloris,
Lidiscopus himalayanus, Carpodacus thura, Lophophorus wmpejanus,
Ithagenes cruentus, &c., &e.
H. S. Photo.
LACHUNG VALLEY ABOVE KEDOM.
Looking north. 11th Marcb, 1920.
A Palearctic Avi-fauna below the region of the Pines. Swthora wnicolor,
_ Aegithaliscus touschistos, Yuhina occipitalis, Proparus chrysotis, &c., &¢.,
in the valley-bottom.
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NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF TRE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. 669
367. The Long-tailed Broadbill. Psarisomus dalhousiz
(Jameson).
This beautiful Broadbill is generally distributed up to an elevation of 5,000’
in the Rungbong Valley ; it appears only sporadically, and these movements
are difficult to follow. Recorded up to 6,000’. Gopaldhara, 4,720’, 13-1-18,*
calling adjacent to the bungalow and heard for some time previously, again on
the 28-3-15.* 5,000’ upwards, calling in the forest, 22-4-16* and also heard at a
similar elevation 14-20-5-15. Sepoydoorah to Tindharia, 2,500’, 13-3-14,* much
in evidence. Gammie obtained it breeding at 2,500’in April in the Tista Valley.
368. The Assam Black-naped Green Woodpecker. Picus
canus gyldenstolpei Stuart Baker. ‘“ Larchi Paharis,
Used without distinction for all Woodpeckers.
In the vicinity of Gopaldhara occurs up to an elevation of 5,500’ or somewhat
higher. Found in open, sparcely forested tracts, as well as the defined forested
areas.
The young ¢ (Assam) 7-8-04, has the crown merely tipped with fulvous, and
with the exception of the head, the whole of the upper and lower plumage,
especially the upper tail-coverts and tail are in moult ; in this last condition
resembles an adult ¢ 31-7-64.
369. The Small Himalayan Yeilow-naped Woodpecker.
Picus chlorophus chlorophus. Vieill.
Commonly occurs at plains levels. In the Rungbong Valley is found up to
an elevation of 5,000’ at all events. Recorded upto about 10,000’. [ have noth-
ing to mention in support of this statement. Nine examined: Some females
show a tendency to resemble the male in having a ‘‘few’’ feathers of the forehead
over the black stripe and in front of the eye coloured red.
370. The Large Yellow-naped Woodpecker. Chrysophie-
gma flavinucha flavinucha (Gould).
Recorded for the Himalayas chiefly between 2,000’ and 7,000’. I have
noted this Woodpecker at all elevations from 600’ upto 5,500,’ and it possibly
exceeds these limits to some slight extent. Whilstit occurs commonly at plains-
levels, the recorded limit is likely to be rarely reached.
371. The Northern Pale-headed Woodpecker. Gecinulus
grantia grantia McClell.
‘Recorded chiefly between 2,000’ and 5.000’. Evidently locally distributed.
Occurs in the Tista Valley, and obtained below Mangpu at 3,500’. (G. E. Shaw).
My only information respecting this Woodpecker was obtained in the Plains
of Upper Assam.
372. Rufous=bellied Red Woodpecker. Dryobates hypery-
thrus hyperythrus (Vie.).
Occurs along the Singile La Ridge from Tonglo to Phalut at 10,000’—12,000’
during June to August. In the winter it is decidedly rare at these high eleva-
tions. I cannot follow Blanford’s statement: ‘‘ the commonest Woodpecker
in the pine forests of Sikkim at 9,000’-12,000’” which would very aptly apply
to D. darjellensis, and as I note the Lepcha name is given for the latter and not
for D. hyperythrus I surmise the letterpress has been somehow transposed.
Three examined: Tonglo, 9,000’, East Nepal, ¢ 3-2-12. Nepal-Sikkim
Frontier, 3 30-6-04. (C. M. Inglis). Phalut, 11,600’, ¢ 9-8-05. (C.M. Inglis).
The two last specimens evidently obtained in the Pine forests. I am wrong in
my surmise but allow the original note to stand and quote Blanford’s remarks.
“The change from the fauna of outer Sikkim where Wocdpeckers abound as
670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
they do throughout Malayasia, is strikingly exemplified by this family. It is
doubtful if P. hyperythrus has been obtained in the neighbourhood of Darijeel-
ing; specimens reported to have been brought thence were probably shot in the
interior.”’ He speaks of it as rare in the Pine forests where two specimens were
obtained at 9,000’, Lachen and 10,000’, Lachung. It has of course, a decided
Palearctic status.
373. The Darjeeling Pied Woodpecker. Dryobates darjel-
lensis (Blyth).
Recorded for the Himalayas in Nepal and Sikkim from about 3,000’-12,006*
elevation. This distribution is totally incorrect, although it has been obtained
below the Sonada to Kurseong Ridge at 6,000’; this elevation may well be
considered the extreme, lowest limit, as it does not appear to be found much
below 8,000’ in winter. Obtained on Tonglo at 10,000’, 10-2-12. Commonly
occurred around Kalo Pokhari during April 1912, at a similar elevation. Obtained
south of Lachung at 8,600’, 26-2-20. Observed at close quarters south of
Senchal at 8,200’, ¢ 24-3-15*. Obtained above Mangpu at 6,000’. (G. E.
Shaw). Mai ‘‘ Khola ’’, East Nepal. Several clutches of two and three eggs.
28x20 average, taken in April and May at elevations of from over 8,000’-16,000’.
Ten specimens examined.
SG Wing 126-129, av. 127°3. 2 wing 123-127, av, 124-4.
There is some individual variation in the depth of tone and in the intensity of
the black streaks on the underside in adults.
Two immature ¢ ¢ obtained on Tonglo at 10,000’, 6-7-04, (C. M. Inglis.),
and between Dentam and Chiabanjan 7-8-05, have the whole crown tipped with
crimson-red and orange-red respectively ; this coloration is evidently a distinct,
characteristic phase of the immature male and substantiates Scully’s description
to which Blanford merely makes passing mention. Wing in both examples
122.
374. The Lesser Pied Woodpecker. Dryobates cathpharius
cathpharius (Blyth).
Recorded with a range similar to D. darjellensis (Blanford). I have failed
to meet with this Woodpecker at such high elevations as the former. The
zonal distribution of this species is mainly between 5,000’-6,000’, and though
these limits are exceeded in both directions, there is only a remote chance of
- meeting with it at 3,000’. Occurs in the Rungbong Valley from 4,500’-7,0007
and also occurs in East Nepal at similar elevations; 7,000’, 9 22-5-12. Obtained
around Mangpu from 5,600’-6,000’, (G. E. Shaw). Observed near Kedom at
7,000’, in March in the Lachung Valley and at Mangam below Ringim Gompa
at 4,300’, in February, in the interior of Sikkim. Even in the winter, I have
always found D. darjellensis above the highest limit of D. cathpharius.
Hight specimens examined : :
3S Wing 99-102, av. 100°5; ¢ juv. wing 95. 9 wing 96-101, av. 98°6.
Soft parts: Iris red-brown ; bill plumbeous-horny ; tarsus ‘“‘ greenish ”—
plumbeous, claws, similar only horny.
375. The Fulvous-breasted Pied Woodpecker. Dryobates
macei macei (Vieill.).
Occurs in the Rungbong Valley up to an elevation of about 3,500’, and is
found chiefly in the bottom of the valley and not in the thick forest which is
above the limit of its range; so far it has not been obtained above 2,400’ in the
Tista Valley (G. E. Shaw ), where it might be expected to reach a higher limit.
than in the minor valleys to the west.
bis
‘yp
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS, 671
There appears to be well-defined limits in the distribution of each of the members
of this genus, particularly where competitive forms have to maintain their status
in a limited forested area, as is the case where cultivation has altered the face of
the country through depletion of the forests.
Three specimens examined: Rungbong Valley, Darjeeling, (December)
3 wing 108; 2 2 wing 105-109, av. 107, compared with five Assam skins,
3 Swing 102°5-104, av. 103°3; ¢ wing 103. This disparity in size is signi-
ficant and almost points to the formation of a race, distinct from the plains
bird.
376. The Darjeeling Pigmy Woodpecker. lIyngipicus semi-
coronatus (Malh).
Recorded for Sikkim at elevations above about 3,500’.
Occurs in the Rungbong Valley at elevations of from about 3,400’-4,500”, In
the Tista Valley occurs as low as 1,100’ to 3,800’, (G. E. Shaw). Observed and
obtained in pairs, four to five miles out from the Hills in the plains of the Eastern
Dooars, between Jainti and Hathipotha and onthe Raidak River in January
1922. Found in light, tree-growth outside the limits of the heavy forest. Gopal-
dhara, 3,500’, 19-5-20. Three to four, or probably, two to three males and
an odd female, the males vieing with each other for the possession of the female,
they were so mixed up in their movements, I failed to count the exact number
and the preponderant sex.
Five examined: ¢ Wing 83-88 av. 85°7;9 wing 84-87, av. 85°5.
377. The Red-eared Bay Woodpecker. Blythipicus pyrr-
hotis pyrrhotis (Hodgs.).
Confined strictly to close forest with heavy undergrowth. Occurs around
Gopaldhara at from 4,700’ to higher limits on the Nepal Frontier at 7,660’ or
even appreciable higher in the Mai ** Khola”’. This Woodpecker feeds in a great
measure on the ground in such dense cover asseems more in keeping with the
habitat of some of the Laughing-Thrushes. Seven specimens examined :
S$ Bill from feathers 47-48, av. 47-5; wing 145-148, av. 146-5.
9 At base 45-48, av. 45°6; wing 146-149,av. 147°4.
All my Sikkim skins have the tail barred throughout; in a single example
from Assam, this character is only faintly indicated, the centre pair being uniform
rufous.
378. The Northern Rufous Woodpecker. Micropternus
brachyurus phaioceps_ Blyth.
Gammie mentions this species as breeding at 2,600’ in the Tista Vailev.
Obtained around Mangpu at 3,800’ (G. E. Shaw).
Absent at much lower elevations in the west of the Darjeeling district. I have
failed to meet with it anywhere in the Rungbong Valley at its lowest limits.
379. The Himalayan Golden-backed Three-toed Woodpecker
Tiga shorei (Vig.).
Recorded for the lower valleys of the Himalayas as far to the east as Bhotan.
So far I have failed to locate it, and it is ony likely to be found along the Terai
of the foot-hiils.
380. Tickell’s Golden-backed Woodpecker. Chrysocolaptes
gutticristatus gutticristatus (‘Tick.).
Confined to low elevations, probably not occurring much above 2,000’.
381. Hesse’s Great Slaty Woodpecker. Alophonerpes pul-
verulentus harterti (Hesse).
Evidently does not occur higher than the Terai, as it is only likely to be
found in heavy, forested tracts.
672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX,
| 382. The Himalayan Speculed Piculet. Picumnus innomi-
natus innominatus Burton. |
Recorded up to 6,000’ and even ascending to 9,000’ (Stolickza) ; which latter
extreme height evidently refers to a locality in the North-West Himalayas.
Apparently does not occur at a higher elevation than 4,500’ or thereabouts. 4,700:
(G. E. Shaw.), both in the interior of Sikkim and on the Outer Ranges. Occurs
sparingly around Gopaldhara; noted at Singhik, 4,600’, and is generally
distributed.
383. The Indian Rufous Piculet. Sasia ochracea ochracea
Hodgs.
Occurs around Gopaldhara up to an elevation of 6,000’ at all events, and
plentifully distributed throughout the whole area, both in the valleys and on
the ridges. My observations place this Piculet with a somewhat higher distri-
bution than P. innominatus. Observed commonly between Singhik and Dikchu
in March, around an elevation of 3,500’. Gammie mentions this Piculet as breed-
ing at 4,000’ in the Tista Valley, which locality probably refers to Mangpu.
384. The Japanese Wryneck. Jynx torquilla japonica
Bp.
Represented in the National Collection by one specimen from Sikkim, January
1873. Evidently only occurs rarely at moderate elevations during ‘‘ the cold
weather ”’; as there is certainly no well-marked migration route through Sikkim
as was obvious in Upper Assam, when it commonly occurred on its descent to
the plains and at its time of departure. The few birds occurring on migration,
may of course, pass over unnoticed without breaking their journey, though it
seems hardly feasible. It is certainly remarkable that only a single occurrence
has come to my notice during a period of ten years, when one was secured at
4,200’ in December 1911], below Gopaldhara; on the ground as on every former
occasion. As this form has a wide distribution, I have considered it expedient
to examine my Assam material. Nine specimens measure:
3 Wirg 82°5-86, av. 84°5;9 wing 80-85, av. 82°3.
S$ Billfrom base, 15-19, av., 16°8; 2 15°5-17, av., 16-2.
Dr. Hartert gives the wing measurement, Ussuri, 80-86; Japan, 80-85; China,
80-86, thus the size of this Eastern form is fairly constant and Assam cold-
weather migrants show similar measurements.
385. The Yellow-backed Honey-Guide. Indicator xantho-
notus Blyth.
Recorded for Sikkim, ‘‘ very rare’’ which is undoubtedly the case. Repre-
sented in the Tring Museum by one specimen ex. Elwes Collection, and in the
British Museum from Native Sikkim as tollows : ¢ October, 9 December 1878,
25 5 February 1879, 2 March 1874, $ April 1879. I have not been fortunate
to meet with it. Evidently resident somewhere in the interior.
386. The Great Himalayan Barbet. Megalzema virens
marshallorum Swinh. ‘“Newal’ Paharia,
Recorded for the Himalayas between 3,000’ and 8,000’. Breeds commonly
above Gopaldhara up to 6,500’ at all events, and observed in the interior of
Sikkim at Dikchu at 2,150’ in February and March. Also heard calling in the
foot-hills of the Bhotan Dooars near the Raidak Gorge in January ; none however
were actually seen at plains-levels. Gopaldhara, 4,720’, 15-7-14 ; a party daily
frequent the pear trees in the compound. 20-6-28, youngster brought in
almost ready for flight, safely hand-reared to maturity.
“I
Ce
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. 6
The monotonous, wailing call of this Barbet is one of the most noticeable
characteristics of the birds hereabouts.
387. The Assam Lineated Barbet. Thereiceryx lineatus
hodgsoni_ (Bonap.).
Recorded for the Lower Himalayas, not ascending more than 2,000’ or 3,000’.
_ These limits are too great an extreme for Sikkim. This Barbet appears to be
confined to its distribution area by the belt of heavy forest at the base of the hills. I
found it to be common in the sparsely wooded country, four to five miles away
from the hills in the Eastern Dooars. |
388. The Blue-throated Barbet. Cyanops asiaticus asia-
ticus (Lath,).
Recorded for the Lower Himalayas up to 3,500’ or 4,000’.
In the Rungbong Valley occurs up to 4,500’, and observed on one occasion
at 5,200’, 26-12-21; also obtained up to an elevation of 6,000’, above Mangpu.
(G.E. Shaw).
389. The Indian Blue-eared Barbet. Cyanops duvauceli
cyanotis (Blyth).
Recorded for Sikkim. I have seen specimens from the Terai where it is pro-
bably far from common. It appears to be strictly confined to the base of the hills
in the Eastern Himalayas.
390. The Golden-throated Barbet. Cyanops franklini
franklini (Blyth).
This Barbet commonly occurs in the Rungbong Valley from 4,500’ up to
7,000’, and may on occasions considerably exceed the higher limit. Whilst it is
found as low as 3,500’ in the interior of Sikkim; it appears not to be found
below 4,500’ in the hills to the west of the Tista Valley as there is practically
no overlapping with C. asiatica in any areas of its distribution though both species
meet ; apart from some dispersal which causes a slight perceptible interming-
ling during the winter, when food is none too plentiful. This movement does
not affect the distinct breeding areas of either species.
Gopaldhara, 5,000’, 11-9-21. Two youngsters about to leave the nest; evi-
dently this Barbet is double-brooded, judging by this late date.
The young bird has the head golden-green; forehead crimson and patch
on occiput faintly tinged with crimson; ear-coverts shading into bluish-green
throat and spot at base of lower mandible pale yellow; primary-coverts on carpus
bluish-green ; otherwise the general coloration is as well defined as in the adult.
Taken young, these birds make charming pets, readily taking food out of one’s
hand ande larning to recognise their master’s voice and step. Tonglo, 10,000’,
§-2-12.* I saw an unmistakable Barbet which could only have been this bird.
although no Barbets were calling at this high elevation in January and February.
3901. The Northern Indian Roller. Coracias benghalensis
benghalensis (L.).
Occurs at plains-levels only ; observed at Rungpo, on the maidan, in the Tista
Valley in Sikkim (March).
392. The Indian Broad-billed Roller. Eurystomus orient-
alis orientalis (L.)
Recorded for the base of the Himalayas up to 3,000’. Another plains and
low elevation Roller; obtained up to an elevation of 2,000’ in the Tista Valley
674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX,
(G. E. Shaw.), and reported to me as having actually been seen on the Chowrasta
in the Station of Darjeeling by the late Mr. E. A. Wernicke.
393. . The Common Indian Bee-eater. Merops orientalis
orientalis Lath.
Commonly occurs at the plains-level, where it has been obtained in the south
of the Darjeeling District at 500’, (G. E. Shaw). I noted it as being plentiful
in the open country in the Eastern Dooars in January.
394. The Chestnut-headed Bee-eater. Melittophagus ery-
throcephalus erythrocephalus (Gmel.).
This Bee-eater has been obtained at the foot of the hills (G. E. Shaw).
305. The Blue-bearded Bee-eater. Nyctiornis athertoni
(Jard. & Selby).
Observed in the Rungbong Valley at an elevation of 3,500’ in December 191],
and obtained up to an elevation of 1,800’ on the 1-9-20, in the Tista Valley,
(G. E. Shaw). Recorded distribution up to about 4,000’. There is only a remote
chance of meeting with it, except on rare occasions as above mentioned ;
as it appears to be strictly confined to the base of the Lower Foot-hills and Plains.
396. The Himalayan Pied Kingfisher. Ceryle lugubris
guttulata Stejn.
Wherever this fine Kingfisher can get a sustenance , it is to be found on every
river of consequence. Inthe Rungbong River, an odd pair or two reach the upper
limits at an elevation approaching 4,750’. I have no information as to how far
it penetrates into the interior by way of the Tista River ; ‘it has, however, been
obtained on the “‘ jhoras ’’ in the lower portion of the valley up to an elevation
of 1,200’. (G. E. Shaw).
397. The Common Indian’ Kingfisher. Alcedo atthis
bengalensis Gmel.
Occurs in the Tista river and all tributaries where it has been obtained up to
1,900’, (G. E. Shaw). On the Rungbong River it ascends as far as there is a
sufficiency of water, but as the river gets depleted in ‘‘ the cold weather” from
December to March, it is found more noticeably to frequent the lower reaches
from 3,500’ downwards.
398. Blyth’s Kingfisher. Alcedo iredalei Stuart Baker.
Recorded for the Lower Foot-hills of Sikkim.
399. he Indian Three-toed Kingfisher. Ceyx tridactylus
tridactylus (Pall.),
Obtained on one occasion at Mangpu 3,600’, 6-9-13. (G. E. Shaw). This beauti-
ful miniature Kingfisher seems addicted to wandering away from its accustomed
haunts during “‘the rains’ as was frequently noted in Assam, which accounts for
it turning up in the most unexpected places.
400. The Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher. Ramphal-
cyon capensis gurial (Pearson).
T always regarded this Kingfisher as being strictly confined to the “ Jhils ”
and sluggish streams of the Plains, until one was obtained adjacent to the
Rungbong River during a dry spell of weather at 3,400’ on the 27-4-17, 9; this
specimen is altogether paler than any of my Assam skins: the point of the bill
is much worn as a result of securing its food in the shallow water and stony bed
PrarEe XI,
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LACHUNG VALLEY.
Looking north-east, elevation 9,000’.
11th March, 1920.
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LACHUNG VILLAGE, elevation 8,800’.
10th March, 1920.
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NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. 675
of the river. Observed flying up stream on the 29-11-18,* at an elevation of
3,750’, and since this date I have seen it on several occasions over long periods
though these occurrences have not been duly jotted down. It may ascend some
the other swift-flowing, minor rivers of the foot-hills in a similar manner,
401. The Indian Ruddy Kingfisher. Entomothera coro-
manda coromanda (Latb.).
Recorded for the Lower Himalayas up to about 5,000’ for Sikkim.
No evidence has come to my knowledge in substantiation of its claim, As it
is a rare bird generally and as there is a strong likelihood of it occurring at the
foot of the hills “in forest’? and being easily overlooked ; it is worthy of inclu-
sion on the recorded statement,
402. The Great Hornbill. Dichoceros bicornis (L.). “Kodong”
Lepcha.
This exceptionally grand bird, attached to which there is so much interest
in regard to its habits and in particular its nidification, may be regarded as the
representative of the remarkable family of Hornbills; the different genera of
which are worthy of more than casual notice.
Evidently sparingly distributed throughout the Tista Valley up to an elevation
of 4,500’ at all events. More generally confined from the base up to a limit
of 2,000’-3,000’ in the foot-hills, As it is only to be found in heavy forest ; there
can be little doubt that: it formerly covered a wider tract of country but
extensive cultivation, and improvident and disastrous methods in clearing
the land have resulted more often than not in producing nothing more than a
barren waste in place of magnificent forest. Nurbong, 2,500’, 14-3-14,* a
party of four birds seen to settle in the almost inaccessible forest on the left
bank of the Mahanuddi. Heard calling on rare occasions in the Balasan Valley,
some miles above Panighata.
Hathipota, Eastern Dooars, 6-1-22,* I was gratified to come upon a party
of six to eight birds in occupation of some lofty trees in virgin forest, but judging
by the systematic harassing, amounting almost to persecution, by hoards
of Paroquets (Psittacula a fasciata), there was little chance of ever obtaining
that desired peace and quietness which the Hornbills stood sadly in need of.
There is every reason to suspect that a similar state of affairs exists towards
the breeding season, as these pests will do their utmost to appropriate every
nesting cavity, whether in occupation by the rightful owners or not. When
competition for the right of survival becomes more acutes through the deple-
tion of the forested tracts; the status of all our Hornbills is certain to be
detrimentally affected. Opinions may differ as to the correct methods to
adopt in this difficult question of giving protection to one species at the
expenses of another. A drastic thinning-out of such Paroquets, as haunted
the vicinity of their breeding haunts, would have a beneficial effect, and would
seem to be the only feasible and correct course of action to ensure the
hornbills them the necessary protection. As the broad facts of the preserva-
tion of our wonderful and rich avi-fauna unfortunately concern only a
limited few, and are not rightly understood; it is premature to expect anv
efforts to be centred on special cases calling for protection, therefore mean-
while it would be advisible to confine all attention to the reservation of
sanctuaries, and endeavour to create a healthy public interest in this direction.
403. The Large Indian Pied Hornbill. Anthracoceres.
coronatus affinis (Blvth).
Recorded for the Lower Himalayas.
404. The Rufous-necked Hornbill. Aceros nipalensis
(Hodgs.). ‘Kolep? Lepcha.
Recorded for the Himalayas of Nepal, Sikkim and farther east from 2,000’
to about 6,000’, My first acquaintance with this Hornbill was noted as follows:
22
676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
Nurbong, 1,800’, 10-3-14.* A large dark coloured Hornbill; bill, white, no
perceptible casque ; tips of wings white, and a heavy patch similarly coloured at
end of the tail, uttering a call somewhat resembling the syllables “‘ ghwa”’
“‘ cghawa.”
Since this occasion I have seen a few obtained in the Tista Valley. Formerly
Hornbills used to ascend to the upper limits of the Rungbong Valley in the
recollection of the oldest residents, but have long since disappeared when their
favourite trees had been felled. In the event of such an occurrence happening
nowadays, I should almost doubt my powers of vision at such a surprise. In
Hume’s “ Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds’’ (Oates) Vol. II], p.77, is an interest-
ing and long account by Gammie of the nidification of this species in May
at Poomong. Reported to me as having been seen above Gopaldhara in March
1922, whena nest was found this year in Nepal. Obtained also in 1922
above Rungmook, in pairs on both occasions.
405. The Tibetan Hoopew. Upupa epops saturatus. Lonnb.
This Hoopoe is a common and familiar bird during the winter in the Plains
and occurs at moderate elevations on migration. Gopaldhara, 4,720’. Odd
Hoopoes make a brief sojourn almost yearly, on their descent to the plains:
whilst the majority evidently pass over on migration. During the time they
remain, are remarkably tame and as one or two invariably frequent the com-
pound their arrival is always looked forward to with interest.
Earliest arrivals—7-9-17,* 11-9-17,* 26-9-18,* 19-9-20,*-2-10-21.*
All these records refer to the bungalow elevation of 4,720’, and to single birds.
3,500’, 28-9-21,* single bird. Mr. G.E. Shaw has seen it on migration at 5,300’,
and at 8,000’. The earliest ar.ival noted at Mangpu, 3,860’, being on the 3-10-15,
Latest departures, 30-3-18,* Nagri, 4,500’. 17-3-20, above Turzum, 5,650’.
406. The Indian Hoopoe. Upupa epops orientalis Stuart
Baker.
If I rightly understand the nomenclature and distribution of the forms of
the resident, plains Hoopoe was previously denoted under U. epops indica I
take it the Hoopoes observed on the following dates at Gopaldhara on the
22-8-18* and 30-9-19* refer to this race, as these were probably the resident,
plains species ; some slight doubt exists as to the former record, whilst the latter
record undoubtedly has reference to a richly coloured bird. As no resident
Hoopoe occurs in the Rungbong Valley, these occurrences denote a partial
migratory movement before the termination of “ the rains ”’.
During the Mount Everest Expedition, Mr. A.F.R. Wollaston saw this Hoopoe
several times flying over a glacier at an altitude of about 21,000’ in September
and Mr. N.B. Kinnear remarks on this extraordinary altitude for a bird of such
weak flight. For a list of the birds found at these extreme altitudes, consult his
paper to which reference is made under other species. Kinnear refers these
Hoopoes to “ orientalis’? and not “‘ saturatus.”’
407. The Alpine Swift. Micropus melba melba (L.).
Recorded for Darjiling, though apparently there are no specimens in the
B.M. Coll. from the Sikkim Himalaya. It is well represented by a fine series
from Simla, soit evidently has a clearer defined status in the North-West
Himalayas.
408. The Common Indian Swift. Micropus affinis affinis
(Gray).
Recorded as ascending the Himalayas up to about 6,000’.
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SiKKIM HIMALAYAS. 677
This Swift, wherever stablished in the verandahs of dwelling-houses, invariably
usurps the bulky mud structure of the Swallow ( Hirundo daurica nipalensis ),
and having cnce obtained possession, its occupancy becomes a permanency.
At Gopaldhara, one such nest has been occupied for ten years ; the birds remain-
ing the whole year round. There is little doubt, they cover enormous distances
when climatic conditions are not favourable ; and when the whole surrounding
hills are enveloped in mist, it is nothing short of miraculous how readily they
locate their quarters and dash in with arrowy flight. I noted these Swifts to
he ve young on the 6-5-15; and young birds to leave the nest on the 31-5-16*: a
brood of the following year. They are absent for the whole day during the cold-
weather months, and at Nurbong 2,050’, observations extending over a period of
eight days from the 19—26-1-14. I noted the pairs arrived between 4-50 p.m.
and 5-30 p.m. at the nests almost simultaneously, having been absent the whole
day. Okayti, 7-6-23. I counted thirty-eight nests, comprising a colony,
when every available site appeared to be occupied under the eaves of an oitice
outbuilding.
Obtained in the Mai “‘ Khola”’, East Nepal, ¢ 2 23-5-12.
409. The White-necked Spine-tail. Hirundapus cauda-
cuta nudipes. (Hodgs.).
Recorded as throughout the Himalayas. Specimens in the B. M. Coll. from
Sikkim are dated March, April, May (Mandelli.), onefrom Nepal (Hodgson.),
and one from Bhotan (Pemberton). I have observed it on very few occasions ;
once above Okayti at 5,600’ approximately,* probably in May, when there was
a party taking their food without anv appreciable effort during a bright morning
and at the Turzum factory when a pair were seen at an elevation of 4,900’ appro-
ximately, 24-6-21* ; on this occasion they showed their wing power to the best
advantage, when climatic conditions were not so congenial as on the previous
occasion. Often observed at Gopaldhara at the oncoming of a storm half-a
-dozen birds seen on the 28th April in company with several Swallows and
again 31-5-23, on this occasion exclusively.
410. The White-rumped Spine-tail. Idacapus sylvatica
(Tick.).
Recorded for Sikkim. Not represented in the National Collection by any
Sikkim specimens.
411. The Hymalayan Swiftlet. Collocalia pusciphaga
brevirostris (Mec Clell.).
Occurs at all elevations up to 12,000’, but its appearances are very erratic.
Several observed on the Singile La Ridge near Phalut at 11,700’ on the 19-2-12,
a d secured out of a number at evening, a Kalo Pokhari at 10,160’ on the 22-5-12.
Numbers observed hawking for food around the Gopaldhara Bw. at 4,720’ on the
15-8-15*. Obtained in the Tista Valley at 3,600’, ¢ 2-9-20. (G. E. Shaw).
Blanford also records it from the Cho La at 12,000’ (August) and throughout the
Tista Valley at low elevations in the autumn of 1870.
Hume records finding the Indian Crested Swift Macropteryx coronatus
(Tick.) breeding in May in the Darjeeling Terai.
412, The Nepal Long-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus
macrurus nipalensis Hariert.
This Nightjar is more a bird of the Plains than the Hills, and I have failed to
locate it in the valleys to the west. Obtained at elevations of from 2,500’-3,760’
in the Tista Valley. (G. H. Shaw) JI have gone through all my Assam skins.
678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Nine cxamined: Juvenile, 2 (June) wing 193; ¢ (July) wing 200, probably
not quite fully grown. Adult gd wing 204-219, av. 210°8. Adult 2 wing,
211-219, av., 214°3.
‘These specimens are very variable in the depth of tone and the barring on the
underside.
413. The Himalayan Jungle Nightjar. Caprimulgus indicus
jotaka. (Temm. « Schleg.)
Occurs up to 7,000’-8,000’ during ‘the breeding season and found at all inter-
mediate heights from the base of the hills in “the cold weather.” Gopaldhara,
3,500’, 31-10-14, several in evidence. 3 ¢ ¢ 23-12-11. Mai Khola, East Nepal,
22-5-12, wing 200; obtained with two eggs which measured 30x19, av.
Five males examined: 3 ¢ ¢ Sikkim, wing 203-206; av. 205-7.
Bhotan Dooars, 27-1-22, ¢ wing 193. Assam, 12-2-05, 3 wing 199.
Dr. Hartert gives the wing measurement for “indicus” 197-203, and for
*‘jotaka’”’ type, locality Japan, d¢ 212-224.
In size my specimens are nearer the typical form.
414. Gould’s Great-eared Nightjar. Lyncornis cerviniceps
cerviniceps Gould.
Included on the recorded specimen said by Jerdon to have been obtained in
the Tista Valley.
415. Hodgson’s Frogmouth. Batrachostomus hodgsoni
(G. R. Gray).
Recorded for Sikkim at low elevations. Great Ranjit Valley, 3,000’ and 4,000’
(Hodgson), Namchi (Mandelli). Evidently as rare as it was in the Foot-hills of
Assam.
416. The Red-headed Trogon. Pyrotrogon erythrocephalus
erythrocephalus (Gould),
Recorded for the Himalayas up to 5,000’ at which elevation it occurs at Gopal-
dhara,and ag it is strictly a forest species it would appear to be isolated hereabouts
at the upper limit of its range from its main distribution area, as for instance at
Gopaldhara where to the south the country is under cultivation until the torest
reserve is reached at about 2,000’, with the exception of sparsely wooded areas
intervening.
417. The Asiatic Cuckoo. Cuculus canorus telephonus Heine.
With the commencement of the hot weather, it is possible to trace the ascent of
the Cuckoo, as the birds commence calling almost immediately, when they enter
the valleys, and announce their arrival according to the distance and elevation
reached. Its appearances around Gopaldhara take place with marked regularity;
and invariably occur during the latter days of March or the first week in April.
Its arrival has been noted over a number of years. Gopaldhara, around 4,720’.
First heard calling on the 1-4-14, and noted again on the 12th to be calling up to
6 p.m. The last occasion when I heard the familiar call being on the 11-7-14.
The following year on the 31-3-15. Noted to be calling a few times at 6-30 a.m.,
on the 6-5-15. Calling somewhat inaudiblv on the 23-3-16 ; its full note heard
on the 27-3-16, and remarked as silent during July 1917 prior to the 21st; when
it was heard to call, 31-3-17, heard again on the 2-4-17, and almost daily after-
wards when the air resounded with each male bird endeavouring to outdo his
neighbour. Heard above Avongrove at 5,500’ on the 3-4-18, having been report-
ed to me on the Ist at 4,500’ around Sungma. (C. E. Brown). In 1919 calling
commenced as early as the 19th of March, though the birds did not attain their full
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. 679
vocal powers until a few weeks later. This cuckoo appears to ascend wp to
about 9,000’ on the Outer Ranges, around which elevation, I came across it in the
Mai Valley in Nepal. Mr. G. E.Shaw has so far not obtained it above Mangpu
beyond an elevation of 3,800’. Birds collected in April 1921, on the 13th were
feeding on the earliest to appear, cicada (Geana sulphurea Hope.), which was
plentiful, and C. optatus was also taking this Cicada in numbers as was proved on
dissection. During 1923 at Gopaldhara in the Rungbong Valley ; the first
arrival was noted on the 2nd of April, and while one bird was calling at
evening on the 13th of June, its utterances being nothing more than a choking
effort ; another bird was heard on the 10th of July at its best and others
were in evidence calling audibly on the 16th or 27th of the same month.
Six specimens examined: 3 Wing, 220-230, av., 225; 92 wing, 204.
Soft parts: ¢ Iris gamboge-yellow; orbital skin yellow; bill greenish-black,
deeper on culmen, a defined patch of yellow at the base of the upper mandible-
yape bright orange; tarsus yellow. @Q Iris, yellow; bill horny, greenish ;
yellow on the lower mandible ; tarsus yellow.
418. The Himalayan Cuckoo. Cuculus optatus Gould.
The first of the migratory Cuckoos to put in an appearance, arriving at
Gopaldhara in the Rungbong Valley about the middle of March ; when it ascends
to an elevation of over 7,000’. Jerdon has aptly described the call of this Cuckoo
which is a sonorous “ whut”’ of four syllables, and the preparatory note at the com-
mencement is quite audible at close quarters. Heard calling on the 27-3-16, and
possibly earlier, but not noted down. 12-38-18, calling at mid-day, and possibly
few a days earlier. 19-3-19, first occasion heard. 16-3-20, calling for the
first time and again on the 19th. On the 25-5-20 T heard this Cuckoo calling
at an elevation of 3,550’, but most of the birds appear to be confined from about
5,000’ and upwards.
Six specimens examined: Collected from the 31st of March to the 25th of
May. o Wing 182-195, av. 186.
419. The Small Cuckoo. Cuculus intermedius intermedius
Vahl.
I have no information respecting the exact date of arrival of this Cuckoo at
Gopaldhara but my record of specimens obtained when the birds are parti-
cularly noisy, point to the end of May, and this in accordance with Jerdon’s
statement as quoted by Oates.as to it being rarely heard at Darjeeling before
this time, The earliest date at an elevation of 4,720’ being 11-5-21, and the
remainder from the 25th of May to the 5th of June. In the Mai Valley, 24-5-12,
7,000’, circum, With this exception all were collected at elevations of
from 5,750’-5,700’, chiefly above 5,00’. Turzum, 5,200’, 12-9-17, 2 (a) juvenile,
rolling in fat; caught at a strong moth lamp. (O. Lindgren). Obtained at as
low an elevation of 800’ in the Tista Valley. (G. E. Shaw). Eight specimens
examined : One 9 5-6-20, is in the hepatic stage, so that more than one year
must elapse in some cases before the adult plumage is attained. One gd 27-5-20,
(6) shows signs of immaturity in that some of the greater-coverts and primary-
coverts have not been moulted, the under feathers of upper tail-coverts are
tinged with rufous, a few feathers on the forehead and crown are also rufous. It
has a loud call, somewhat resembling the syllables “quik ” “‘ four ” times rapidly
uttered and this is the only call I have heard it produc».
Wing, 2 (a) 150. 3 (6) 146. 55 d wing, 151-157, av., 154. @ wing, 141.
420. TheIndian Cuckoo. Cuculus micropterus micropterus
Gould.
This Cukoo is more frequently heard, if not actually seen at lower elevations
than its near congeners. It arrives at Gopaldhara about the second week in
680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
April and does not appear to transcend an upward limit of 5,000’ where it gives
ground to C. optatus, whereas C. canorus appears not to be hampered by any ©
such restrictions. The surprising number of this parasitic group of birds, both in.
regard to species and numerical strength is no better proof of the wealth of bird-
life in general which can support them all. In 1914 noted to be calling as late
as the 4th and 11th of July. First heard calling during the following years :
12-4-15, when on the 19th one call was heard at night. 20-4-16, 10-4-17,
and noted as calling after sunset on the 23rd, 12-4-18, 11-4-19, 10-4-21. It
is generally silent during July but in 1916 they were noted to have their full
vocal powers previous to the 21st. I have not had the opportunity of watching
the courtship of any of the Cuckoos with the exception of C. canorus.
The well-known call of this Cuckoo has been rendered into common parlance
by tea-planters as being best expressed in the term of ‘‘make more _ pekoe,”’
though it may not always be advisable to take the hint and which might be better
defined at times as an imprecation. In addition to this vocal effort a rapid
thrice or twice repeated “‘ quik ”’ is uttered on occasions. The females seem to be
More secretive and do not lend themselves to observation, which is natural
during the egg-laying period. During 1923 at Gopaldhara in the Rungbong
Valley ; the first arrival was noted on the 6th April, calling at night and
replied to by another. On other occasions heard on the morning of the 14th
of June; on the 19th had lost none of its sonorous notes and still in evidence
on the 25th. These latter occasions being the only records noted towards the
close of its seasonal vocal efforts. Five specimens examined: j Wing 194-200,
av. 197°6.
421. The Large Hawk-Cuckoo. MHierococcyx sparverioides
Vig.
Recorded as ascending the Himalayas in summer up to 9,000’ or more.
Resident in the RungbongValley,being confined during ‘“ the cold weather ”
chiefly to the forest at elevations around 5,000’. These may be birds which have
descended from higher limits ? As their place is vacated others probably arrive
from lower limits as its numbers are certainly augmented during March and April.
The silence of these birds during ‘“ the cold weather ” is quite as pronounced a
feature of their existence as their noisiness is towards the breeding season.
So far I have not obtained it above 6,000 while 4,000%,is the highest limit above
Mangpu for Mr. G. E. Shaw’s records, ,
The following dates have reference to the period of its greatest activity.
Gopaldhaza, 4,720’. First heard calling on the 8-3-15, and again on the 15-3- 15.
During May there was a jull amongst all the Cuckoos with a recommencement at
the last week. Finally heard on the 14-8-15, but only a feeble effort. 14-3-16,
calling at evening and again on the 27-3-16. Noted to call on as late a date as
the 21-7-16 and on a single occasion on the 11-10-16 which was most unusual,
as during July there is a pleasant respite from the interminable volume of sound
which prevails throughout April and June. During 1917 a single bird with no
others in evidence was calling as late as the 27-7-17. 3,550’, on the 23-2-18,
one bird was observed to attempt calling but only managed to effect a two note
utterance, the completed effort being attained on the 5-3-18; when a bird was
heard to call around an elevation of 4,720’ for three times at 6 p.m. on a dull
day. 4,720’. First heard 19-3-19. Gangtok, around 6,000’ much in evidence
on the 14-3-20. Gopaldhara at 4,720’ first time heard on the 9-3-21. ‘The
rains’ of 1923 were remarkable for spells of sunny weather, most of the rain
falling in heavy showers at night which apparently had some influence on the
Cuckoos as the pandemonium which reigns all day long and throughout the
long hours of the night was certainly not so prolonged as is generally the case.
Noted as calling on the 14th of June and during the first week in July when
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. 681
the other species had for the most part finished. The preliminary “chu”
“‘chu”’ “chu” call heard on the 12th also finally in evidence on the Ist
August.
Nine specimens examined: ¢ Wing 217-230, av. 224:2; 9 wing 217-221, av.
219.
422. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo. Hierococcyx varius
(Vahl.).
Recorded for the Himalayas as far aseast as Bhotan, ascending the hills in
summer to about 7,000’. I have no knowledge of the status of this Cuckoo in the
hills. It occurs commonly in the plains around Jalpaiguri; on the 18-2-15, it was
in evidence judging by its clamorus call emanating on all sides. Not represented
in the B. M. series from the Sikkim Himalayas.
423. Hodgson’s Hawk-Cuckoo. Hierococcyx fugax nisico=
lor (Blyth).
Recorded for the Himalayas as far west as Nepal. Its distribution is extended
by the record of a specimen obtained at 4,500’ above Mangpu, ¢ 7-5-20, (G. E.
Shaw), in the hills to the west of the Tista River, though Mandelli is mentioned p.
384 in Vol. II of “‘ Hume’s Nests and Eggs” (Oates) as having obtained an
oviduct egg from aspecimen, exact locality not stated.
424. The Rufous-bellied Cuckoo. Cacomantis merulinus
querulus Heine.
Recorded for the Eastern Himalayas from Nepal. I have no knowledge
of this Cuckoo ; which commonly occurred in the plains of Upper Assam, as to
its: status in these hills. Not represented in the B. M. series from the Sikkim
Himalayas,
425. The Indian Plaintive Cuckoo. Cacomantis merulinus
passerinus (Vabl,).
This Cuckoo occurs around Gopaldhara as a migratory bird in the summer,
yet its appearance is somewhat irregular. During 1916, first heard to call on the
27th of March and in evidence on the 15th of August. During 1920, two ¢ ¢
obtained in the compound at 4,720’, 14—16-5-20, and noted again on the 19th.
It has two calls: the first is best described in the syllables “pe”? “ peah ’’ and
to be often followed by a mournful effort of three notes, generally uttered in
semi-tones thrice in an ascendant scale rendered in syllables “ tay ’’ “ ta”’ “ tay ”
or “dhay” “da” “‘dhay’’, but more effectively.
During 1923 the preliminary call was first heard on the 4th of April. In
evidence on the 15th of June and from the lith to the 16th of July which
last date was the final occasion on which it came under my notice.
Two specimens examined: 3 Wing, 115-120.
Soft parts: Iris venetian-red or pale crimson-brown ; tarsus dusky-yellow ;
soles ochreous; claws dark horny-yellow.
426. The Banded Bay Cuckoo. Penthoceryx sonneratii
sonneratii (Lath.).
Obtained on one occasion in the Tista Valley at 2,000’. (G. E. Shaw). Represent-
ed in the B. M. series by one specimen from Darjeeling and one specimen
from Sikkim, April 1873.
682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
427. The Emerald Cuckoo, Chalcococcyx maculatus (Gm.)
A summer migrant of rare and irregular occurrence to the Rungbong Valley
Easily overlooked in dense foliage. Onits arrival at Gopaldhara in April, it
is remarkably devoid of fear and shows a disinclination to avoid any possible
chances of danger, trusting to its harmonizing plumage and unobtrusive habits
for protection. I regret my inability to describe its call which is quite distinc-
tive from any of the other Cuckoos and notwithstanding its weakness in volume
savours of cuculine pecularities. On occasions its vocal strains are produced
during the stillness of the night. Information in respect to it is as follows:
Gopaldhara, 4,500’, 2 11-4-18, ovaries active ; a few birds seen, but the first to
be obtained by a youth who had knocked it down at short range, 4,250’, ¢
2-5-18. Three birds reported to me as having been seen by an intelligent
chaprassi on the 22-4-18. 4,720’, 17-4-19. My attention was drawn to two pairs
of this beautiful Cuckoo this morning as they were busily occupied making a
systematic search of the foliage of the cherry trees. They were allowed to
complete their task without molestation and the caterpillars suffered a dimi-
nution of their numbers accordingly.
During a_ partially weak ? monsoon in 1920, they appeared to be totally
absent. The “Fauna” key tothe species of this genus, as always seemed
confusing, the distinguishing characters between thefemale of this species
and ‘‘xanthorhunchus”’ are evidently transposed, and comparison and checking
by the description shows this to have been the case.
1923. Gopaldhara, 6,000’. Juvenile females within a few days of leaving
the nest were brought in on the 18th of June and 7th of July, The nests of
the foster parents (Cryptolopha castaneoceps) out of others which I got eggs,
having been found on previous Occasions.
428. The Indian Drongo Cuckoo. Surniculus'§ lugubris
dicruroides (Hodgs,).
This Cuckoo arrives in the Rungbong Valley about the middle of April, or
in some years, during the first week in April. At Mangpu, 3,860’, seen and heard
as early as the 25-3-15. Gopaldhara, 4,720’, heard on the 2-4-15. 3,500’, in
the bottom of the valley, 13-4-16, and again at 4,720’ on the 25-4-16, finally
noted as calling on the 19-7-16. 4,720’, in evidence, 19-4-18.
I have gone into a long list of dates in reference to many of these Cuckoos
at the period of intense sexual activity, as an aid in determining its duration,
and at the same time in fixing their arrival, if not always their departure.
Meanwhile my notes on oology will of necessity have to stand over until a
future occasion.
429. The Pied Crested Cuckoo. Clamator jacobinus (Boda).
Recorded for the Lower Himalayas. Unknown to either Mr. G. E. Shaw or
myself. It would be an interesting fact, if the route were known of the specimen
obtained at Tingri, 14,000’, by the Mount Everest Expedition. (vide Kinnear
N. B., Ibis, Vol. IV, No. 3, July 1922, p. 504.)
430. The Red-winged Crested Cuckoo. Clamator coroman-
dus (L.). ;
Recorded for the base of the Himalayas and farther east. The only locality
known to me is that supplied by Mr. G. E. Shaw from below Mangpu at elevations
of from 2,500’-3,600’ in the Tista Valley where specimens have been obtained
as follows: 2,500’, 3 5-6-19. 3,500’, 2 22-4-19. 3,600’, 2 16-4-20. Mandelli
appears to have obtained it from Namechi,
- NOPES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. 683,
431. The Large Green-billed Malkoha. Rhopodytes tristis
(Less. ).
Recorded for the Outer Himalayas below about 8,000’. Obtained up to an
elevation of 3,860’ at Mangpu. (G. E. Shaw). In the Rungbong Valley, it has an
extension to the head of the valley up to 3,600’, being confined to the river-
bed and surroundings as a resident. So far I have not seen it in any other
locality hereabouts.
432. The Hill Sirkeer Cuckoo. Taccocua leschenaultii
infuscata Blyth. '
Recorded for the Lower Himalayas, and evidently referable to this form
which, however, js unknown to me.
433. The Chinese Crow-Pheasant. Centropus_ sinensis
sinensis (Steph.).
Occurs in the Tista Valley up to 3,600’ below Mangpu. (G. E. Shaw).
I have no record of its occurrence in the minor valleys to the west.
434. The Indian Lesser Crow-Pheasant. Centropus benga-
lensis bengalensis (Gm.)
Recorded as occurring up to about 5,000’ in Sikkim according to Gammie,
Once only observed at Gopaldhara in the Rungbong Valley at an elevation of
3,440’, 28-1-15* ; when it was flushed out of a reed-bed. As these Coucals are
dependent on the necessary dense cover; it can only be locally distributed
and absent from large tracts of the country.
435- The Large Assam Paroquet. Psittacula eupatria
indoburmanica (dume.).
Recorded for the Sikkim Terai; which statement also refers to
Psittacula cyanocephala cyanccephala (L.), and
Psiitacula cyanocephala bengalensis (Forst.).
436. The Slaty-headed Paroquet. Psittacula schisticeps
schisticeps (Hodgs.).
Recorded throughout the Himalayas below about 8,000’. This Paroquet
performs an upward movement into the Rungbong Valley at the end of ‘the
rains,’’ when large parties may be observed in flight, attracted to their favourite
feeding grounds which consist of berry-laden trees. Blanford gives P. s. schisti-
ceps with a wing measurement of 6:5” —: 165, and a total length of 16” against
P.s. finschi with a wing measurement of 6”=152 in males and a total length ot
17”. These total length measurements evidently require reversal as the former
is the bigger bird of the two.
437. The Indian Red-breasted Paroquet. Psitaacula alex-
andri fasciata (P. L.S. Muller).
‘Recorded throughout the Lower Himalayas up to about 5,000’.
Obtained in the Tista Valley up to 3,800’. (G. E. Shaw). Only seen in the
Rungbong Valley during “ the cold weather’; which is a movement evidently
connected with the shortness of the food supply, necessitating a wider area to
be covered. As is well known these Paroquets in common with the rest take
safety in numbers, and whilst the screeching that takes place may be the means
of warning all laggards ; it can only result in drawing attention to the flight,
even if undertaken with great rapidity. The breeding habitat lies in the foot-
hills to which reference has previously been made.
22
684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
438. The Indian Loriquet. Coryilis vernalis (Sparm.).
Recorded from the Darjeeling Terai, eastwards to the Bhotan Duars and
Assam. Authentic reports of its occurrence under the foot-hills of Bhotan have
been given me, but so far I have not been able to substantiate its reported
occurrence in the Rungbong Valley during “the cold weather’, in which case it is
a similar extension upwards along the bed of the river, at a time of food shortage.
439. The Bay Owl. Photodilus badius (Horsf.).
Strictly confined to the heavy forest of the Foot-hills from where I have seen
only a few specimens, inclusive of a record for the Tista Valley,2,000’, 20-11-15
(G. E. Shaw).
44¢. The Short-eared Owl. Asio flammeus flammeus
(Pontoppidan).
An irregular cold-season visitor on the Outer Ranges at moderate elevations on
ats southerly migration to the plains. Observed quartering the “dharas”’ at
Okayti on the evening of the 27-12-21.* My specimens have been obtained in
exposed ground on the ridges on both sides of the Rungbong Valley. Gopaldhara,
6,100’, Q 24-2-18. Turzum, 5,200’, Q 2-2-15. (O. Lindgren).
These two specimens compare similarly in colour and measurement witha Q
from Tirhut, 21-12-04. (C. M. Inglis). The three 2? 2 measure: Wing 307-310,
av. 309. whilst a ¢g from Hessamara, Upper Assam, is altogether paler with
the streaks on the under surface much finer. Wing 294. Dr. Hartert does not
consider this specimen to be referable to “‘leucopsis” (Brehm). The status of this
Eastern form is obscure,
441. The Himalayan Wood-Owl. Strix aluco nivicola—
, (Blyth).
Recorded for the Sikkim Himalaya at elevations of 6,000’-14,000’.
This owl may not be so rare as it is generally supposed to be, in cansequence
ofits nocturnal habits and high altitudinal distribution. Tonglo, Nepal-Sikkim'
Frontier, 10,000’. The first clue to this bird’s whereabouts was the finding of .
a few feathers in the vicinity of some huge boulders in January 1911 ; evidently
one of its haunts on the south face of the mountain, but it was not until the
17-5-12 ; when in camp at Kalo Pokhari at 10,160’, that Iwas able to obtain a
specimen, a male being brought in by a “‘ paharia’”’ youth from the valley below
in Nepal. Wing 290. Bill greenish-yellow. Stomach contained remains of
Coleoptera, also a portion of a vole’s skull, probably Microtus sikkimensis,
several of which were trapped near my camp.
442. The Himalayan Brown Wood-Owl. Strix indrani newar-
ensis Hodgs.
Recorded from the base of the hills up to 13,000’ in Sikkim.
A nocturnal owl, sometimes to be seen on occasions in the depths of forest
towards evening, at elevations of from 5,500’-6,000’ at Gopaldhara; when it is
on the alert, as if anticipating an attack from above and not as mindful of danger
from below. The bird takes flight on the slightest audible noise at one’s appro-
ach, and this is unavoidable as it is impossible to avoid crunching the
thick layer of dry decayed leaves which carpet the ground, so common a feature
in tropical forests and forests of moderate elevations in ‘‘the cold weather”. It
frequents the wooded portions in the station of Darjeeling,and occurs around
Mangpu at elevations of from 3,600’-3,800’. (G. E. Shaw). Messrs. Barrett and
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. 685
Shaw have both kept this Owl in semi-captivity, and it makes a docile and
interesting pet when taken young. A pair disturbed in the forest at 6,000’ on
‘Gopaldhara, 13-5-23*.
Three specimens examined : Gopaldhara, 6,000’, 2 27-1-18, one of a pair,
wing 381. J 10-3-18, wing 363; testes well advanced in development, 5,500’,
G 17-5-20, wing 385. Iris brown ; bill pale greenish-horny.
(T'o be continued.)
686.
REVIEWS.
I. In THE HicHER Himatayas, By H. Whistler, F.Z.S8., with 31 Illustrations
from the author’s photographs. 219 pp. Witherby & Co., London, 1924, 15 s,
Our well-known member and writer on the Birds ofthe Punjab, Mr. H.
Whistler, has now given us a book on his travels and exploration ‘“‘In the
High Himalayas’ It is well named as the author deals with nothing
under 10,000 feet in height and confines his account prettv well to
the little known provinces of Lahul and Spiti, the last outposts of the
administration of the Punjab ere Tibet and Ladak are reached. The
author starts us off up the Rhotang Pass from Kulu into Lahul and thence
by easy stages to Gondla, where the Thakur of the Lahulhas his castle.
The author describes, as only one who is trained in natural history can do, the
natural features, peoples, religion, customs, vegetation and fauna of this little
known part ; something of interest about all these being worked into a very
readable narrative, since the chapters are not a mere diary but, a masse account
from more than one visit. From Divil Daras and the Patseo Fair—the Wembley
of the Tibetans and Lahulis—which are well described, we are introduced to
the Ibex of Lahul, opportunities being taken en route for a little Shikar, some-
times successful, sometimes otherwise ; but the difficulties of climbing and
stalking at 13,000 feet or more mustindeed be great while many a good chance
is spoilt by the ‘* Guardian of the Ibex’’, the great Snow Cock, as he rattles off
down the hill side.
A detour through Spiti, a very little known country, is described with a wealth
of detail which makes very interesting reading and an insight into the manners
and customs of these remote people is afforded, while a visit to the famous Kyi
monastery was successfully accomplished despite the obvious suspicions of the
Lamas. A chapter itself is devoted to the wild Sheep of Spiti and the Burhel—
and a cheerless camp at 16,000 feet on a bare hillside was compensated by some
good stalks and fine heads.
The final chapters give a good account, unexaggerated and unadorned, of a
day’s Monal shooting witha dogand a 20 boreanda graphic account of a bear
hunt in the Solang Nullah in Kulu, while the sights and attractions to visitors
to the Kulu Valley has a chapter to itself. Lastly there is a short Resume of the
birds ordinarily encountered in Lahul and Spiti and how the traveller may
recognize each,
The book is wellillustrated by photographs from the author’s camera and a map.
is given to shew the position of the places visited. A very readable book. Those.
who know and love the Himalayas should get it. those who have never been
there should read it and take it with them when they go as it is full of useful tips
on travel and sport.
Con,
TI. Brrps or an InpiaAN GarpEN. By T. Bainbrigge Fletcher ana C. M.
Inglis. With 30 coloured plates and numerous Illustrations in the Text. 161 pp.
Thacker Spenk & Co., Calcutta, 1924. Rs. 12.
There has recently appeared in the Indian Agricultural Journal a series of
papers on ‘‘ Some Common Indian Birds”’ under the joint authorship of Mr.
Bainbridge Fletcher and Mr. C. M. Inglis. These are now _ being published in
book form, in parts, under the title of ‘‘ Birds of an indian Garden. ”’
Thirty different birds are dealt with and the book contains articles on the
Jungle Crow, Indian House Crow, Bengal Tree Pie, Bengal Jungal Babler,
Bengal Red-vented Bulbul and King Crow, etc.
The author has been well advised in following the nomenclature of Mr. Stuart
Baker’s list and the new volumes ofthe Fauna, but we think thatin a popular work
i RUPE WS eB EAN os Yeo 687
-of this kind trinomials are out of place and to the general public the Indian
Tree Pie, whether it comes from Calcutta or Madras, is one andthe same bird.
In the case of the familiar Seven Sisters surely it would have been better to
head the article ‘‘ Jungle Babblers ’’ and to mention the various common species
found in different parts of the country. Asitis the common Babbler of Bombay
-Turdoides somervillie isnot even alluded to.
Under each species there is a general description of the bird and an account
of its habits, next eggs and food, as far as is known. Coloured plates from
paintings by Mr. Inglis accompany all the articles, and considering the price
of the work these are quite wellreproduced. but we would recommend Mr,
Inglis not to attempt birds in flight—a very difficult subject and one seldom
correctly achieved even by professional artists. The black and white drawings
are the work of the artists at Pusa who are obviously more at home in draws
ing insects than birds, otherwise the Indian Tree Pie and Drongo would be more
comfortable on their perches.
In spite of these drawbacks the illustrations will be very helpful in identify-
ing the different birds and nature lovers in India will find much of interest in what
Mr. Fletcher has to say about the various species.
This is we believe the first time a popular book with coloured plates has been
published on Indian birds and we hope it will be the forerunner of many more.
The Society has a comparatively small number of Indian members, but that
is not surprising since there is a great dearth of popular works with coloured
plates on common Indian animals to rouse an interest in Natural History. A few
more books like the present one should do much to help and, indirectly let us
hope at the same time add to the membership of the society.
N. B. K.
TI. A Generat Text Boox or Enrtromotocy, By A. D. Imus.
London Methuen & Co.;March 1925; pages XIJ-+698 with illustra-
tions ; 36 shillings nett. ;
Ox the general subject of Entomology books a-many fili our shelves and
bear witness to the progress of our knowledge of the study of insects.
The earlier ones, of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, were
usually writtea in Latin, and are exemplified by Goedart’s Metamorph tOSUS
et Historia Naturalis Insectorum (1662) and Swammerdam’s Historia Insec-
forum Generalis (1733), with their quaint illustrations. The introduction
of the binomial system, by which all animals were given a generic and
a specific name, facilitated the recognition of different kinds of insects
so that the second half of the eighteenth century saw the issue of
numerous descriptive and iconographic works, of which those of Fabricus
and Cramer may be taken as examples. About the same time the use of
Latin began to fall into disuse, at least in the case of books on insects of
local interest or of essentially popular publications, such as Yeats’
Institutions of Entomology (1773). These led the way to more detailed
books, such as Kirby and Spence’s Introduction to Entomology, and this
period closed about the time of the issue of Westwood’s excellent
Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects (1839). Thereafter there
- commenced the period of specialization as, with the growth of knowledge,
it soon became impossible for any one man to become and keep himself
aequainted with progress in all branches of Entomology. Oliver Wendell
Holmes drew an intentional caricature in his pen-portrait of the Scarabee,
who could not claim to be an entomologist, or even an authority on
Beetles, but who devoted himself to one group of these insects only ;
but here once more truth has outrivalled fiction and the present day sees
688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
the Scarabee himself divided into specialists in various groups of Scaraba-
eid beetles. The growth of specialization is not, of course, peculiar to.
Entomology but has proceeded equally in all branches of knowledge, yet.
it is usually not realized what an enormously large field is covered nowa-
days by the study of insects, a field whose boundaries impinge on those
of Commerce, Agriculture, Forestry, Medicine, Veterinary Science,
Education, Zoology, Geology, Genetics and numerous others. General
Text-books on Insects therefore meet a need of all modern entomologists
as well as of those with amore general interest in the subject, and this
need has been met by the issue of numerous publications of which it would
be tedious to give any detailed list. One of the most successful of the
English text books has been Sharp's two volumes in the Cambridge Natural
History (1895, 1899) but these, though excellent in their day, have been
rendered rather out-of-date by the very considerable accessions to know-
ledge during the last thirty years.
It is, therefore, with considerable interest that the working entomolo-
gist examines each new Text-book as it appears to see how far it will help
him in his work. Many are merely elementary or popular, some are frank-
ly poor, and others are excellent. In this last category we may place
Dr. Imms’ General Text-book of Entomoiogy, which has just been published,
and whose aim, in the author’s own words, “ has been to present the chief
facts concerning the structure, physiology, development and classification
of the Insecta and the biology of their more important representatives... ..
.... The object throughout the book has been to present before the reader
essentials but, at the same time, to indicate where fuller information is.
available.”” These objects have been admirably attained, the subject-
matter being dealt with in three sections, (1) Anatomy and Physiology,
(2) Development, and (3) Classification, each section being fully illustrated
and accompanied by adequate lists of literature.
This book comprises 700 pages and is throughout well-written, well-
illustrated and-well-produced. ‘There are afew minor corrections which
will doubtless find their way into a second edition : meanwhile, Dr. Imms’
Text-book should find a place, and largely replace Sharp’s volumes, in
every entomolovical library and laboratory.
iB,
689 ©
EDITORIAL,
THE Committee of the Society wish to record their thanks to Mr. F. V. Evans
of Hayman’s Green, West Derby, Liverpool, for the valuable books recently
presented by him to the Library. The books received are Gould’s “ Birds of
Asia” in six volumes and a “ Hundred Birds of the Himalayas” by the
same author. The books are beautitully illustrated. Mr. Evans has also
expressed his willingness to present the Library with such other books as we
may he in particular need of. The Society is further indebted to Mr. Evans for
his presentation of oil paintings and prints illustrative of old Bombay and its.
neighbourhood. It has been decided to place these pictures on exhibition in
the Art Gallery of the Prince of Wales’ Museum, where they will be of no little
interest to both visitors and residents of this City. We feel sure that members
of the Society will join us in expressing our appreciation of Mr, Evans’ very
generous donations.
The Museum has also been fortunate in receiving some valuable gifts among
which is a fine head of the Himalayan Grey Goral (NV. goral). The horns measure:
91”, arecord! The head was presented by Mr. H. Simmons who shot the animai
some years ago in the neighbourhood of Mussoorie. A photograph and a reference:
to this trophy appears in Co]. Ward’s serial on the ‘“‘ Game Animals of Kashmir
and the Adjacent Hill Provinces” on page 130 of this volume. Another fine
acquisition is the head of a Nilgiri Thar (H. hylocrius) with horns measuring:
163” x92” presented by Capt. H. R. Irvine. This is very nearly the record.
These trophies make very welcome additions to the Society’s collection of heads.
of Indian Big Game now exhibited in the Prince of Wales’ Museum. Continuous
progress has been made in the Museum during the past year—in addition to the
mounted Gaur recently placed on exhibition we have now been able to show a.
fine example of a fully set-up Kasbmir Stag received from Col. Burton.
Col. Burton has also presented the museun with a good example of the C, P.
‘ Barasingh’ cr Swamp Deer, Good complete skins of the Sambhar, the Brow-
antlered Deer and the Hog Deer wre still required to complete our exhibit of
Indian Deer. We hope that next shooting season some reader of the Jour-
nal wili help us to fill these deficiencies, The subject of shooting prompts us to.
refer to the further notes and comments on Mr. Dunbar Brander’s ‘* Wild
Animals of Central India” published in the present issue. Mr. Dunbar
Brander’s book is unquestionably the best and most informative work of its
kind that has appeared within recent years and the comment it has occasioned
sufficiently indicates the general interest it has aroused. In a review of the
book which was printed in Vol. XXX, No. 1 of the Journal, the
reviewer in commenting on the manner in which the Sloth Bear
attacks human beings, remarked that the question is one of some interest
and that careful and detailed reports by Civil and Agency Surgeons and their
subordinate medical establishments, as to the cases of mauling by bears which
come to their notice, would probably clear up the question. He now writes to
the effect that it is more than likely that many injuries said or supposed to have
been caused by the claws are the result of bites and that such a case has come
within his own knowledge and observation. Will members of the Society, both
those of the Medical profession and others who are in a position to make notes.
on such cases or to cause them to be made, collect as much material as possible
to confirm or refute this view. The point raised is one among many which.
might well be answered by sportsmen-naturalists,
few countries in the world offer such unlimited scope as India does to the
Amateur Naturalist for the prosecution of his hobby. To take for example the
subject of Indian Bird Life in which sc many are interested—how little is known
of the local migration of Indian Birds; certain common species appear in a
given locality at a certain date and depart at another. What is the date of
arrival and departure ? The subject of distribution of Indian Birds, both
general and altitudinal, has still to make considerable headway before we can
690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
be abreast of what is known of this in Western countries. There are
besides such interesting subjects as colour variation and _ hvbridization
in Birds. In the Field of April 30th, 1925, there isa beautiful drawing
by Frohawk of a hybrid Mallard and Pintail which was shot in
Sussex; many instances of hybridization amongst our wild duck must
come under the notice of shikaris, a list of these occurrences would be of
no small value. Further there are observations to be made on the food
and feeding habits of birds, their methods of courtship and display, nesting
habits, variation in the eggs, size of clutches, ete. All accurate observation on
these phases of bird life would be valuable and merit placing on record. In
Western countries an enormous mass of information has been made available by
numerous observers whose initial interest in the subject can be traced to the
numerous, easily accessible, cheap, readable and well illustrated books on the
Natural History of the country. That there is a dearth of such books in reference
to India we have already pointed out. It is for this reason that books, such as
‘* Birds of an Indian Garden ”’ by Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher and C. M. Inglis which
is reviewed in the present number, are always welcome. The book, as the authors
state in the preface, is mainly intended for those whose pleasure in observing our
Common Indian Birds is in a great measure lessened by their want of knowledge
of the birds concerned. There must be many in India both European and Indian
to whom the “‘ Birds of an Indian Garden ” will appeal and to these we gladly
recommend the book. We also take this opportunity of congratulating the
authors on the able manner in which they have helped to fill a long felt want.
The book is illustrated by 31 coioured plates and is remarkably cheap at the price
at which it is offered. Naturally, coloured illustrations are an asset to a work of
this type as they go a long way in helping the reader to recognise the species
described. This bring us to the point that the present number of the Journal
is the first for many years which is not prefaced with the usual coloured plate
illustrating Mr. Stuart Baker’s popular serial on Indian Game Birds. Mr. Stuart
Baker, in addition to the arduous task of rewriting the Volumes on Birds in the
Fauna of British India series, has found time to maintain unbroken the sequence
of his very interesting articles on Game Birds. He now proposes to complete
the work by a seria} on the Wading Birds, but unfortunately the Manuscript and
the coloured plate were not ready in time for inclusion in this issue, we hope,
however to be in a position to commence the series in the next number.
By the time the Journal is in the hands of members the monsoon will be on us
and the rains will inevitably be followed, in most districts, by redoubled activity
on the part of the pestilential mosquito. It willcome as news to many that the
Coconut Palm stands condemned asa potential nursery for these disease-bearing
insects. A mosquito survey of the palm trees in Tanga, East Africa, by
Dr, Haworth has led to the conclusion that the local mosquitoes breed freely on
the crowns of the coconut palms almost continuously throughout the year and
even in times of comparative drought, when collections of storm water have
subsided and when rot holes in trees have evaporated, the crowns of the palms
appear to act as reserve breeding grounds from which other suitable places may
be stocked wherever these appear later from rainfall or other causes. In a
notice of Dr. Haworth’s report which appears in the review of Applied Entomo-
logy for March 1925 it is stated that “‘ what has been demonstrated for a portion
of the East Coast of Africa is probably taking place in tropical lands throughout
the world, wherever the coconut palm flourishes, and no successful anti-mos-
quito campaign can therefore ignore the coconut palm as a possible breeding
place for these insects. . . . The treating of the crowns with oily or larvici- |
dal substances, owing to the labour involved and the periodical mechanica!
damage to the crowns, would be impracticable. The clearing of coconut palms
from the neighbourhood of all inhabited areas would be economically impossi-
ble, but it is suggested that the planting of coconuts should be prohibited
within towns and _ cities and that all Government owned palms should be
immediately removed. ”
——
691. Bh
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
No. I.—BREEDING SEASON OF THE NILGIRI LANGUR.
Does the Nilgiri Langur breed twice a year, or does the breeding season
‘differ according to latitude, or according to altitude? I append the following
observations in reference to the subject :—
(1) At Kodaikanal, 7,000 feet altitude.
8th May 1919, I shot a large female; a fully formed young one in
the womb.
5th June 1919, I saw.a female with a young one clinging to her breast.
20th April 1920, I shot a female with a young one in her arms, I
tried to rear the one, but it died after two days.
(2) At Kattali Malai, 20 miles west of Ambasamudram in the Tinnevelly
District, 4,000 altitude.
28th December 1924, a friend of mine fired at a langur, which got away
leaving behind a young one.
29th December 1924, another young one was brought to me by a
shikari. Yhese two were only a few days old. They died three
days later in spite of all our efforts to rear them.
C. LEIGH, 8. J.
TRICHINOPOLY,
13th January 1925,
* No. Il-—WILD DOGS AND JUNGLE TRAGEDIES,
Dunbar Brander, writing on the Wild Dog in his excellent book ‘‘ Wild Ani-
mals in Central India’’ (which by the way all should read), says he has never
heard of wild dogs attacking bear or bison, but that he has no doubt that the
latter are sometimes killed. I sometime back sent you a note* on wild dogs
attacking a bear, an occurrence witnessed by Col. H. K. of Bangalore and myself
while out after bear in these jungles (the Billigirirangans) last May. The bear
was making for its cave, but I doubt whether it would have reached it. Its pro-
gress was very slow, attacked as it was, by about eight to a dozen dogs all round
it. Dogs in front would engage its attention while those behind attacked its hind
quarters ; the bear would then turn round on the latter and instantly the dogs in
front would again divert its attention to them by rushing in, but out again before
the bear could touch them. The bear let out a series of coughing roars each time
he turned on his tormentors in his rear. It was a bear my friend was out after
and the bear was therefore bagged, and I regret to say that we were unable to
slay a single dog. .
With regard to wild dogs killing bison I have never heard of cases of mature
bison being killed by them but. I have twice come across cases of bison calves
having been killed by them and in each case I think the dogs had stampeded
the herd and cut off the calf.
I have twice come across sambar standing in water up to their shoulders and
screaming and once swimming, and in all cases the dogs were all round them and
hanging on to them. On each occasion I drove the dogs off, bagging several,
but I fear that they got on their victim’s tracks again.
In 1916 I saw the remains of a panther that had been killed by wild dogs in a
Sholaga’s ‘‘ podu’’. The Sholagas described the fight to me, it had been fast
and furious, the panther rushing backwards and forwards was eventually dis-
embowelled by the dogs that kept pace with it. I could find no traces of any
dogs having been killed and the Sholagas declared that none were injured.
The scene took place in clear view of their huts. That however the reverse
* Vide Vol. XXX, Miscellaneous Notes, p, 218.
24
692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
gyometimes occurs is proved by the fact that Mr. C. W. G. M., of these hills, not.
long ago came across the remains of two wild dogs that had been killed and
eaten by a panther.
Cases have undoubtedly occurred of tiger being killed by the dogs. I was.
informed of a case of this nature by my tracker some years back and his story
was corroborated by others who were co-witnesses of the scene and I have no.
reason to doubt their tale. In this case apparently the men saw the tiger loping
along at a good pace with dogs keeping pace with him and snapping at his sides.
and hindquarters: they then saw the tiger leap on to a tree which leaned over
nearly horizontally. The dogs trotted all round while one, apparently the leader,
of the pack, leaped into the air repeatedly, ineffectively trying to reach the tiger.
After a time the tiger, tiring of his uncomfortable position, suddenly made a tre-
mendous leap over the dogs’ heads to the ground and here met his death, being:
disembowelled by the dogs as he barely touched the ground.
Wild dogs attacked a sounder of pig last year in the shola behind my bun-
galow and tore two sows to pieces before they were driven off by my servants.
Although some distance away I heard the sows screaming and later saw what.
was left of them.
Wild Dogs are not the only perpetrators of tragedies in the jungle: tiger
and panther take their toll on deer and antelope and on other game: Dunbar
Brander mentions coming on a bear blinded in a fight with a tiger and Capt.
H. J. L. F., of these hills, not long back came on a spot in these jungles where a.
tiger had attacked and killed a bear after a terrific battle, and had then eaten it.
In the same way some years back I discovered-traces of a fight between a tiger
and a bear after hearing a hideous din the previous night: I was in camp at.
the time, the noise lasted for about half an hour. There was a good deal of
black hair lying about, a little of the tiger’s hair, and a fair amount of blood:
there was nodrag. In 1916 I saw the remains of two big bull bison that had
been killed by a tiger, one a fortnight after the other: and I have twice seen
the remains of cow bison that had been also killed and eaten by tiger. I was.
informed by the Sholagas that a tiger would follow and attack a bull bison for
days until it fell an easy prey through utter weariness. In 1915 Mr. C. W. G.
M. saw a tiger attempting to stalk a herd of bison, but in this case the herd
had already seen the tiger: Mr. M. managed to bag the tiger. Tiger generally
avoid a conflict with wild boar, but I have frequently seen remains of sows.
killed by tiger, and on one occasion those of a large boar, which the tiger had
evidently caught unawares, Mr. C. W. G. M. once bagged a tiger standing
over the body of a fine stag sambar hwhich it had just killed, the death cries
of the stag in fact having drawn Mr. M. to the spot: the tiger’s sides were still
heaving with the exertion of pulling down the stag. I witnessed a never to
be forgotten sight in November 1917; a stag sambar, after belling three
times suddenly dashed out of a shola not far from me followed a few paces
behind by a large tiger: the stag had not as yet got into its full stride and in a
moment the tiger had overtaken and brought it down: I had a clear view of
the stag crashing down with the tiger on its back and in a second the tiger was
at its throat and all was over. In my excitement it never occurred to me that
I was in full view of the tiger till teo late, the tiger saw me and slunk quickly
off into longer grass, giving me no chance to get in a shot, and then into a shola
which the grass led up to. I need not here describe how I lost this tiger entire-
ly through bad management on my part. I have known animals meet their
death in unusual ways in the jungles: I once came on the remains of a pan-
ther that had met its death by attacking a porcupine: its decomposed head
was run through and through by no less than seventeen quills, two of which
had penetrated the eyes into its brain. Its paws were also full of quills, The
panther had evidently rushed the porcupine which, seeing it in time, had quite
obviously whirled round presenting its back to the panther with quills erect,
De.
MISCELLANEOUS NOT'ES.,: eae 693.
such being their method of defence. There was no sign of the porcupine hav-
ing been killed.
A few years back Mr. C.W.G.M. hota stag sambar which; in attempting
to escape, had got itself entangled in a mass of stout creepers in an extraordinary
fashion. The stag was undoubtedly being throttled. In 1918 three cow Ele-
phants died within a few yards of each other not far from my Estate: the local
Forest, Ranger put their deaths down to anthrax, but I doubt this as these
‘elephants had formed part of a large herd and no further deaths were reported.
Sholagas informed me that they had probably died through eating poisoned.
pumpkins in the fields at the foot of these hills. This herd had been in the
habit of visiting the cultivation down below and the idea was that the ryots
had put out poisoned pumpkins in the hopes of killing off one or two, if so, their
hopes were amply fulfilled! It is anyhow most remarkable that the three
‘elephants should have died in a bunch as it were. I visited the spot as soon
as the state of the remains had got beyond the overpowering stage; the ele-
phants had died not twenty yards from each other. I now come to an event.
which to my mind is the most extraordinary occurrence I have ever witnessed
or heard ot. In September 1915, while out on shikar, I wounded a wild boar
in a deep valley and on following it up came on it lying down about half a mile
further up the valley. The jungle here consisted of dense bamboo of the
smaller type. I put a shot into the old boar which finished it off, and imme-
diately after heard crashes to my right and left front, the next second a
tusker and a large solitary bull bison appeared in view careering from opposite
directions along two elephant paths that ran, cutting each other, across our
front and away from us (two trackers were with me), and behind a clump of
-bamboos, where the two paths crossed, the tusker and the bull bison met..
There was a tremendous thud and the bison was lifted off its feet and flung
against another bamboo clump where it lay with a gaping hole in its left side
caused by the elephant’s left tusk. As they met the elephant emitted a noise:
through its trunk like escaping steam. The tusker did not pause but carried.
on along the path and later met my tiffin cooly and, the man said, chased him,
with disastrous results to my lunch. I approached the bison: it seemed in-
capable of moving and ay breathing heavily, obviously dying. I finished
it off with a throat shot. The elephant’s tusk had penetrated the bison’s body
to the depth of a foot or more. The bison carried quite a good head. Now
the question arises, did the two animals accidently collide ? or, finding himself
in such close proximity to the bison and thinking the latter was responsible
for the disturbance, did the tusker deliberately ram the bison? I am inclined
to the latter view and my trackers agreed with me. I think that both animals
could have swerved sufficiently to allow each other to pass without colliding
had they so desired: possibly the bison did swerve but the elephant probably
counteracted this by swerving inwards or keeping straight on. It is unfor-
tunate that the actual impact took place behind bamboos and was thus hidden.
from our view. Both animals had been thoroughly disturbed by my shot
which in the valley had been magnified. The wind was blowing down the
valley which accounted for the fact that my first shot had not worried them..
A year or two later a well known Planter and Sportsman of Coorg told me that.
a very similar occurrence had been witnessed by his Kurumba tracker in those
jungles, the elephant in this case being a rogue. In May 1919 Capt. H. J. L.
F, shot a proscribed rogue elephant in these parts: near by were the remains
of a solitary bull bison that had been killed and trodden out flat by the ele-
phant. It should be interesting to hear of further details of tragedies in jungle
life observed by members of the B. N. H. Soc.
R, C. MORRIS.
ATTIKAN tia Mysore,
S. Inpia, October 15th, 1924.
(694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
No, III.—‘*‘ WILD ANIMALS OF CENTRAL INDIA ”,
Panther.—-In hisChapter on Leopards and Panthers in ‘‘ Wild Animals of Central
India’ the author mentions that three or four leopards will sometimes be seen
together. In 1921,a family of 6 panthers were killing on the borders of my
Estate: the family comprised the parents, two three-parts grown panthers, and
twosmallcubs. Onapproaching their kill the family would come out of the Shola
in the above order, one behind the other. Needless to say the family did not
remain long united, the parents and the three-quarter grown ones being bagged
in a very short time.
Sambar.—Writing of the sore place so commonly seen at the base of a Sam-
bar Stag’s neck the author remarks that he has associated the phenomenon as
being in some way connected with the new growth of hair. I think he is mistaken
in this, as I have seensambar with this sore place from September to April both
on these hills (the Billigirirangans) and on the Nelliampathies ( Malabar). It is
generally an open sore about the size of a rupee in some cases, and much larger
in others, surrounded by a large bare hairless patch. I have never seen a hind
bearing this sore, and not all stags have it. I should say it was undoubtedly
formed by a fungus that grows in the hair or skin, as in ringworm, the bare patch
round it being the result of the sambar rubbing itself against branches, etc.
Chital.—Writing on the chital stag’s roaring the author describes it as ‘‘ of
the nature of a whistle but louder and longer than the cry of alarm’. I would
not describe the call as in the nature of a whistle at all. In fact the call, as I
have heard it uttered on innumerable occasions at the foot of these hills, is not
unlike the hoarse cry of a man, lowering in note as it ends off.
Muntjac or Barking Deer.—In writing of the“ clicking’ noise muntjac are
irequently heard to make when galloping off the author says: ‘‘ Several previous
writers have referred to a peculiar rattling noise they make when moving away
a Aas ere I have no doubt that the sound referred to is the same as that which I
have described above ”’ (here the author refers to his description of the muntjac’s
short, sharp, jerky barks frequently given out while galloping off in alarm), On
reading the above one cannot but gain the impression that the author has not
heard the ‘‘rattling noise’ other writers have referred to, for no one who has heard
this peculiar clicking noise could possibly confuse it with the short jerky barks
given out by a muntjac when alarmed and bounding off. This rattling or clicking
noise can best be described as the noise made by knocking two bones together
sharply and rapidly with a pause between every third stroke. I share the belief
that this noise is caused by the cloven hoofs of the animal coming together at
every bound. The noise is only heard when the muntjac goes off in a clumsy
bounding gallop, and never when it rushes off at full speed.
With regard to the muntjac’s pedicles I have seen several heads of muntjac
shot here with 5” pedicles. Another interesting fact is that the muntjac on these
hills isa larger animal in body and skull altogether than those elsewhere in
South India.
The Four-Horned Antelope-—The author remarks that in some cases the
growth of the anterior horns of this little animal ‘‘ seems to be altogether arrest-
ed.” This certainly applies tothe Four-horned Antelope to be found on these
hills, which have only two horns (the posterior ones—a good head carrying horns
about 43” in length), no sign of the anterior horns being apparent. The author
further remarks that this little antelope “ is not gregarious, and is found
singly or in pairs, the two fawns accompanying the parents until the rains”
this issoasa rule, but I have however on two or three occasions seen groups of
5 or6 mature four-horned antelope, especially on one favourite hill-top here.
Bison.—In his chapter on the Indian Bison or Gaur the author writes: ‘‘Two
bulls of about the same age often consort together and I once shot two old bulls,
right and left, leaving a village tank in Chanda. This is the only case in which I
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. — © 695.
have ever known bison to approach the habitations of man*’’, Bison, however, at
the foot of these hills nightly enter the fields in spite of the watchmen’s shouts.
It is a fact that two bulls often consort together, but my experience has been that
in nearly every case one of the bulls has been an older and finer animal than the
other. The younger one has always seemed to me to be rather more on the alert,
and in many ways gives one the impression that he acts as his companion’s “‘fag.”’
During the breeding season they attach themselves to a herd and fight each other
furiously. The author, writing on the sounds uttered by bison, says: ‘*‘ Bulls.
when breeding, and in the herd for that purpose, utter the most absurd piping or
whistling sound, more like the call of a bird than anything else, and absurd by
reason of it emanating from so large and powerful an animal’. I know the
sound the author refersto well, and have frequently heard bulls utter it from
November to February, but I should describe it rather as a sing-song humming
or moaning sound, often, starting shrill and gradually lowering and deepening
in note until it dies away. I once hearda solitary bull making a most
extraordinary noise which I thought was being uttered by an elephant.
On being assured by my Sholaga trackers that the sound emanated from
a bull-bison we approached in the direction the sound was coming from
and observed a solitary bull tramping steadily along and every now and
then making a noise something akin to the prolonged trumpet of an
elephant. The month was April so well out of the breeding season although
my trackers informed me that it was calling for a mate. Jam unable to account
for its unusual behaviour. In discussing the method of shooting bison the author
says: ‘‘ One of the first difficulties the novice encounters is to distinguish bulls.
from cows’. I cannot agree with this: a good shootable bull stands head and
shoulders higher than a cow: he is an immense animal with an enormous dorsal!
ridge, and coal black; and, unless the shootable bulls in the Central Indian jungles.
are very much smaller than those to be found in these parts, I cannot conceive
how any mistake can possibly be made, the difference being so marked. The
author goes on to say that frontal shots should be avoided, and that only solid
bullets should be used. On both these points I disagree with him also: a well
placed chest shot is very fatal, and there is nothing in my opinion against the
sportsman using soft-nosed bullets (with high-velocity rifles) when shooting bison
I do not consider that anything smaller than a°450 bore rifle should be used how-
ever. Ispeak from experience: I have shot a good many bison and have just
as frequently been out with others after bison,and in every case soft-nosed bullets
have been used with success. Referring to the colour of a bison’s eyes the author
writes: ‘‘I agree with Major Stockley in stating the iris to be brown : any blue
that exists is confined to the cornea”: nevertheless the impression conveyed to.
one when observing a bison’s eyes (whether living or dead) is that they are blue.
This is due to the fact that the centre of the eye is blue, and rimmed with brown.
Tiger.—l am afraid I cannot agree with the author also, when he writes that
the use of an electric lamp when sitting up over a kill for tiger oversteps the mark,
that is to say if his remarks are meant to apply to the South Indian jungles as,
well. Kills on these hills occur more often than not in dense jungle through
which the brightest moonlight barely penetrates, and if the sportsman does
not have the assistance of artificial light he might just as well not sit up at
all. I have not found that << the tiger standsin stupid wonder gazing at what it
no doubt considers some phenomenal star’’: only on one occasion dida tiger give
me an easy stationary shot on turning on the, light—and I missed !! In the
majority of cases the tiger, I have found, bounds away alarmed and a quick and
often difficult shot has to be taken. Mr. Dunbar Brander’s opinion on_ this
matter may be the correct one in connection with the jungles he writes of, but
not I think in regard to the South Indian hill jungles. Quite recently, a tiger
* There is an old record in the journal of a pair of Bison appearing on the rifle range at Kam pice,
C. P., while musketry practice was in progress the exciting hunt that ensued resulted intone of the
animals being doneto death in Kamptee Bazar.—Eds.
696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX,
never even gave me the slightest chance of gettingina shot, although it came
to the kill three times the tiger was out of the area lit up by the light within a
fraction of a second of the light being turned on each time.
Flying Squirrels —Writing of the Flying Squirrel the author describes the
‘ booming”’ noise these animals make when they emerge from their holes after
dark. He omits to mention however the Flying Squirrel’s common call which
‘somewhat resembles a long-drawn-out throaty cat’s ‘‘me-ow’’ cften ending in a
‘deep ‘‘ o-0o-oom ”’. It is curious that the author has not included the Indian
Pangolin (often miscalled the Armadillo) in his chapter on ‘“* Other jungle
‘animals”’: and this omission leads one to gather that this scaly little animal
does not occur in the Central Indian Jungles, and I should like to know if this
is so: It is extremely nocturnal, in 13 years I have only seen one in daylight; but
they are fairly common in these jungles. I recently came on the remains of
‘one that had been killed and eaten by a panther. The Badagas on the Nilgiris
and on these hills prize the larger scales through which they bore a hole and
wear them as rings. Their food consists of ants and insects and one comes
across the small holes they scrape out in the jungle quite often.
RALPH C. MORRIS.
Honnametti Estate,
ATTIKAN via Mysore,
24th February 1925,
We append the following comments by Mr. A. Dunbar Brander on the
-above.
Sambar.—The sore patch on the necks of sambar is not common in the
‘Central Provinces. There are many other parts of India where the phenomenon
can be observed more frequently, giving more opportunity of discovering the
‘cause. My remark in ‘* Wild animals in Central India” is as follows—‘ occurring
‘as they (the spots) do in the region of a hair whorl or centre I have associated the
phenomenon as being in some way connected’ with the new growth of hair.” It
is obvious this is a mere theory : as much so as Mr. Morris’ explanation is. Mr.
‘Morris says he has only seen the sore on stags. Can he explain why the ring
worm should confine itself to one sex *?
Chital—Great numbers ot your readers must have heard chital calling
hundreds of times. Written language is a poor medium by which to convey
‘sound. JI much prefer my own description of the sound to Mr. Morris unless,
that is to say, the Chital of Southern India makes a different call to those of
‘Central India.
Muntjac——Mr. Morris must give me the credit for having heard the noise
referred to. Supporting the views that he does, it is surprising that he does not
refer to the well known fact that the domestic sheep can and does click its toes
or hoofs. In writing my book there was a simple explanation to offer, but there
was no temptation to make use of it as I did not think the noise made by the
Muntjac emanated from the feet and I had to say so. To have said otherwise,
would have been to have abandoned my beliefs, because an obvious and handy
explanation was forthcoming. Can Mr. Morris explain the pause between every
third stroke if the noise is to be ascribed to the hoofs coming together at every
bound ? And how is this accomplished on the very uneven ground they so con-
‘stantly frequent often making anything in the nature of a rythmic action
impossible.
Four-horned Antelope.—This animal is not gregarious in the Central Provinces.
‘Mr. Morris refers to having seen 5 or 6 mature animals together “* especially on
-one favourite hill top.’ Their association together might have been due to the
attraction of ‘‘ the favourite hill top ’’ and not any desire of consorting with each
* In Vol. XXVIII, p. 1125 of the Journal, Mr. R. A. H. McConneli records tbe
‘shooting of a sambar hind with*sore neck’.—Edg.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 697
other. The point is worth considering, I have seen African duikers and four-
‘horned antelope on hundreds of occasions and I have never known them to be
gregarious.
Bison.—It is very satisfactory to have confirmation of the very peculiar cry
made by bulls when breeding as, so far as I know, I am the first author who has
referred to this call. If Mr. Morris had had as much experience of enforcing the
game laws as I have had he would know the ease with which a cow can be mis-
taken for a bull, one does not expect sportsmen with Mr, Morris’ experience to
make mistakes, but possibly 90 per cent. of the permit holders are novices.
‘What frequently results in a cow being shot is the sportsman firing at what he
thinks is the biggest animal—and it often appears to be so. Imagine a herd of
bison grazing m a grass maidan, the grass 4 to 5 ft. high, a very common occur-
rence. The ground is uneven, there are slight depressions and eminences.
A cow happens to be on some slight eminence concealed by grass and unknown
‘to the sportsman, The bull may be ina depression, at any rate a cow on an emi-
nence of even a foot seems to dominate the whole herd, is at once selected
as the bull and downed. The advice was therefore tendered not to trust to
apparent bulk for identification, and it is sound advice. It was never even hinted
that the bull is not considerably larger than the cow, but in the Central Provinces
the difference in size is not so marked as Mr. Morris’ language would imply.
There is often no difference, absolutely, in colour. I would always tender the
advice to avoid frontal shots. This of course does not mean to say that a
frontal shot is not to be taken if no other seems possible, but where a choice of
angle is procurable avoid the frontal shot.
I absolutely join issue regarding the use of soft-nosed bullets from either a iow
or a high velocity rifle and, in point of fact, better results are often made by the
former weapon with this class of projectile. The modern soft-nosed bullet
fired from a high velocity rifle is often most unsatisfactory. They are apt to fly
to pieces on hitting a large bone, especially so on a surface bone. The great
point however about using solid bullets is that they will do everything to a beast
like a bison that a soft-nosed bullet will, and in addition they will do a great deal
more, Angle need not be considered to the same extent—the bullet will rake the
beast. I once knocked down a bull which never rose again, with a solid hardened
°577 bullet fired into its tail as it went away : an impossible shot with a soft-nosed
bullet. Soft-nosed bullets are often exceedingly crue! and wounded bison
Sometimes escape or are only killed after a long hunt.
Bison can be killed and often are, in a most satisfactory manner by sort-
nosed bullets: they would have been equally well killed however by a _ bullet
having more consistency and it is only a question of time in order to come across
a case in which the soft-nosed bullet fails and one regrets not having used a harder
and more consistent projectile. In the course of my experience I have dropped
3 bison in their tracks with a soft-nosed bullet fired from a Standard Mauser
rifle and I fired no other shots at bison from this weapon, but I do not therefore
recommend either the bullet or the weapon. I entirely agree with Mr. Morris’
remarks about the bison’s eye : it gives off a blue light as described by him. The
blueness is not in dispute, its source is. I have never seen a bison with an eye
which could be described as having a blue iris in the ordinary accepted sense of
the term. \There are a number of the best herd of Aberdeen Angus Cattle in the
Spey Valley, they are readily accessible to me: they all have the typical bison’s
eye and can be studied at leisure.
Tiger.—It was never expected that my criticism of the electric lamp would
have general acceptance ; all the same I have had a great deal of encouragement
from perfect strangers. I only used the electric lamp as an experiment as long
ago as 1905. I found that unless the tiger became aware of one by movement
or noise in turning over the light they behaved as described. African observers
have confirmed this behaviour with respect to other animals. Since 1905 the
electric light has come into general use there are bound to be sophisticated tigers,
!
698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
— Flying Squirrels—I expect Mr. Morris’ description of the call and mine refer-
to the same noise as he ends up his attempt to reproduce the call with 0-0-00m.
I made no attempt to reproduce the call but referred to it as a ‘* booming ”
noise.
Pangolin.—A reference to this animal appeared to me to be outside the scope
of the declared purpose of the chapter on ‘‘ other animals :” as a matter of fact
I drafted a page on it and then cut it out. It is rare and still more rarely seen.
In some districts the jungle tribes know nothing of it. I found more evidence:
of it in the Seoni and Melaghat divisions than elsewhere. In the latter I met
a fair number of old Korkus who had come across one, perhaps two, in their lives..
I have only seen two myself. Jungle fires sometimes produce their shells. I
daresay professional snake catchers might produce one, given a reasonable time,
certainly no one else could and the animal is so outside the ‘‘ Ken’ and the
‘* interest ” of the average visitor to the Central Provinces I think was rightly
omitted.
_A. A, DunBAR BRANDER
Ivy Bank, Exein,
SCOTLAND, March 1925.
No. [V.—BLACK JACKAL.
A black jackal was seen by me on the evening of the 19th April 1924, at about
5 p.m. near Shirali, a village, on the south border of the Kanara District,
about 2 miles from the sea. I was ina motor car when it passed across the road.
in front of the car going towards the riverside. At first I thought it was a dog ;
but when I saw 2 or 3 other jackals of the ordinary colour following it and also.
when I observed its tail closely I suspected it was a jackal. It ran on stopping
every little while to look behind—a thing which jackals usually do. I then
wrote to Mr. T.R. Bell, C.I.E., and also to the Bombay Natural History Society
and was told that they were not aware of the existence of a black jackal. I
then tried to catch it alive. The usual haunt of this queer animal was found
out. This was in a small woodland within the village in which there were some
small rocky caves. The villagers told me that this jackal had been observed
very often in the village, during the last two years. It used to go to the river-
side for fishing. I sent down a big box-trap, fitted with a small compartment for
the bait. Fowls and fish were daily putin as bait; but neither this jackal nor
others would come near them, We next tried to catch it in a net by beating
the jungles, but it eluded us. At last on the lst of January it was luckily
caught in a net along with a normal-coloured female jackal. Both were put
into the box. It gave some trouble but the man boldly pushed it in. While
with me for 2 or 3 days, I put live chickens inside the box for its food; but
though the chickens walked over its body, its mouth, etc., it did not touch
them during the day time, but at night it used to finish off everything that
was put into its cage and drink water copiously.
There are some black dogs in the village and it is possible that the animal is
a cross- breed, 7.e. a hybrid dog-jackal.
M. 8. TUGGERSH,
Divisional Forest Officer.
KanaRA Coast DIVISION,
Honavak, 8th February 1925.
[The animal was forwarded to Bombay through Mr. T. R. Bell and is now in
the local Zoo—there seems to be no doubt that it is a hybrid dog-jackal and
not amelanistic form of the common jackal. The back and head of the
animai are black. It has a brown spot above each eye, the chin and lips are
white—the underparts creamy, and there is a certain amount of
rufous on the legs. The tail is black and quite bushy. Interbreeding between
hedge athe, (Oe ee SEE S|
Journ., Bombay Nat. Histe Soc,
REcorRD Sinp Witp Goat, (CAPRA HIRCUS BLYTHI.)
Length 527%”, gitth 73”.
MISCELLANEVUS NOTES. 699
domesticated dogs and cats with corresponding wild species undoubtedly occurs,
though authenticated records are rare. Many of the tame village cats are very
similar in colour and markings to the common wild cats, while the jackal-like
appearance of many pariah dogs andthe wolf-like appearance of others seems
to indicate that cross-breeding does take place.
The origin of the domestic dog is still involved in mystery, some Naturalists
believe it be a distinct species descended from one that no longer exists in wild
state, others trace its ancestors to the wild or half wild races either of true
dogs, wolves or jackals, while others believe it to be the result of mingling of
two or more wild species or races. Blanfordis of opinion that the common
Indian pie-dogs may be in part descended from wolves, he adds however that
they are probably chiefly derived from Jackals.— EDs.
No. V.—A RECORD SIND WILD GOAT.
(CAPRA HIRCUS BLYTHI.,)
(With a plate.)
Early in November, 1912, I was again able to visit the Khirthar Range in
Sind (for the third time) and on this occasion my camp, consisting of one small
raoti for myself and one for my servants, was pitched half way up the hiil, near
a pool of clear water in the bottom of a ravine which had not then dried up.
The local *‘ shikaris”, disdaining such comforts, were content with a camel hair
blanket and a good fire at night. We started early in the morning, reaching the
top of the hill before the sun rose and then working our way across a succession
of rather steep ravines. About 9 o'clock we came on a heard of Ibex, slowly
feeding their way upwards, with one quite good head amongst them ; but my
chief ‘** shikari ”—a ‘‘ Baluch”’ by caste and the best of stalkers—implored me
not to shoot as the big head they had marked down a few days previously was
probably not far off. So, skirting the herd with caution, we went on again and
an hour later spotted another herd, which must have numbered at least 60,
spread out on the opposite side of the ravine to where we were lying. Almost
on a level with us, and well above the rest of the herd, a fidgety nanny was con-
tinually stamping and snorting, effectively preventing us from examining those
animals which were down in the bed of the ravine. The “ shikaris”’ however
were convinced that this was the herd they were looking for as they had seen a
big male with one horn among those visible, which they assured me belonged
to the same herd as the big one. The animals had taken up their position for
the day and, as they were not likely to move for some hours, we sat down for a
bite and a rest, one of the party keeping an eye on the herd. About 3 o’clock the
herd began to move and, led by the fidgety female, moved up and over the oppo-
site side of the ravine at a slow walk. Those in the bed of the ravine got up one
by one and followed the others. Amongst these were several big heads and each
time one appeared I looked enquiringly at the head “* shikari’’ but each time he
shook his head. The last to appear was a big buck-goat with very curly horns and
I proceeded to get my sights on to him, making sure that he was the big one. A
sharp hiss and a violent shake of the head from the “‘ shikari’’ stopped me and
I again watched. After a perceptible interval, when I was beginning to think
that the big head only existed in the “‘ shakari’s ” imagination, an Ibex suddenly
got up from behind a bush and stood for a minute looking alternately down
the valley and towards the rest of the herd, the last of whom must have been
100 yards away from him.
I then saw that the ‘‘ shikari’”’ had spoken the truth, as although in actual
body he was on the small side his horns looked enormous, He took some time
25
400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
to make up his mind to follow the others, and it was probably owing to this
habit of his of hanging behind that he had escaped so long. Finally he moved
up slowly after the herd, giving me a crossing shot at about 200 yards. What
with the excitement of watching for so long, and the actual sight of the big Ibex,
I was none too steady as my first shot was too high and, as I afterwards dis-
covered, did little damage. He stood perfectly still at the shot, puzzled as to
where it had come from. While he was still thinking a second bullet caught
him behind the shoulder and he rolled down the ravine about 30 yards, finally
getting caught in a bush where he hung by his horns. In this position his throat
was cut by a wildly excited “‘ shikari’”’ who fled down the hill regardless of his
neck in order to get him before the last breath was out of his body. Meanwhile
I, on the top of the ravine, was thumping the head ‘‘ shikari’’ on the back in
honour of the occasion. Two days later I got the curly-horned buck out of the
same herd. His horns were 463”. We took the big Ibex back to camp in
triumph and I measured him next morning.
The following are the measurements recorded by me :—
Right Horn .. .- 52,5 (Broken tip).
iLeft Horn)... eek Moles
Girth yf. oe is
The right horn measured 52?” when the animal was shot, the subsequent
reduction being due to shrinkage.
The above measurements have been verified by Major W. B. Trevenen, at
Poona. I enclose two photographs of the head in question.
I may add that I have shot many animals of the species between the years
1910-1918. The following measurements of heads in my possession shows the
average size of a really good head of the Wild Goat in Sind.
One head of 473’, one head 463”, 6 heads 45” and one head 423”, All shot
in the Khirthar Range and in my possession at present.
‘* RyEcoTES,’” YERAVDA, R. L. McCULLOCH.
Poona, February 9th, 1925.
[There is a head of a Sind Wild Goat in the British Museum measuring 523” x
72” shot by Col. F. Marston—Eps. |
No. VL—THE ALLIED GROSBEAK (PERRISOSPIZA AFFINIS Blyth.)
This grosbeak was originally described by Blyth (J.A.S.B. xxiv. 179, 1855)
From the‘ Alpine Punjab,’ but in spite of this fact, and Jerdon’s further state-
ment (B.I. ii. 385) that ‘“‘ It has only hitherto been sent from the extreme
north-west, viz., the Alpine Punjab’, doubt has persistently been thrown on the
authenticity of the specimen in the Pinwell collection (British Museum)
labelled Dharmsala,
The following remarks by Surg.-General L. C. Stewart (Zoologist, 1886. p. 290)
however settle the question of typel ocality, which should be restricted to
Hazara. He says ‘‘ On looking over a collection of birds belonging to Major
Blagrave of the Trigonometrical Survey, I found some examples of a large
rosbeak which seemed different from any of the above-named and which
had been shot in the hills beyond Murree in the far north-west. On sending
them to Calcutta they were pronounced new and named by Blyth Coccothra-
ustes affinis,””
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. ii |
The Dharmsala locality has now been confirmed by my obtaining a male
from a pair which were evidently breeding in the Kharshu Oak (Quercus semi-
-carpifoliata) forest about the Kareri Lake 10,000, just west of Dharmsala.
The species is widely distributed and locally common in Central and Upper
Gahrwal (Jour. B. N. H. S., xxviii, 151) and therefore clearly extends through-
out the whole of the Western Himalayas. In view therefore of the coincidence
in the ranges of Perrisospiza icteroides and P. affinis they must be treated as
‘separate species and not as races of one bird.
BATTLE, SUSSEX, HUGH WHISTLER, F.Z.S.,
26th No. ember 1924. Indian Police.
No, VII—ON THE BREEDING OF THE INDIAN TREE PIPIT
: (ANTHUS HODGSONI) IN KULU.
This Pipit has long been known to breed in Kulu, as one of the first recorded
eggs was received by Hume from the snowy range bordering on Spiti in Upper
Kulu where it was taken on 3rd June (N. and E., 2nd ed., II, 209). There are
however few accounts on record of the nidification of this bird so it may be of
interest to relate the following experience.
On 16th June 1922 I stole a day from my official duties in order to visit the
far-famed and beautiful Jalouri Pass (10,500’) which carries the trade road ~
from Inner to Outer Saraj in Lower Kulu. Magy interesting birds were found
to be breeding in the forests that clothe the Jalouri ridge, and these delayed
and entertained my ascent of the Pass.
As soon however as we climbed on to the open ground of the ridge to the
east of the actual Pass we met with the males of the Indian Tree Pipit which
were all in song. There were a number about and they kept on flying into
the air for a short distance and then volplaning down to the ground or the
topmost twig of an oak, with wings and tail outspread, singing loudly all the
while. The song was lark-like in character, rather than the usual wheezy
characteristic song of the Pipits. The back of the ridge was here very open
and bare, save for a short crop of grass dotted with anemones, and a search
failed to reveal any nests: it is possible that the nests belonging to these males
were in the oak woods that clothed the slopes on both sides, though I hardly
believe so.
We then proceeded further along the bare and narrow ridge; the northern
‘slope was free of forest for some distance below the summit doubtiess owing
to the cold winds that swept continuously up from the valley, though here and
there thickets of rhododendron and other bushes withstood its force. The
‘southern slopes, which face towards Simla, were, however, covered with an
unbroken forest of Kharshu Oak (Quercus semicarpifoliata) which stretched
up to within a few yards of the top of the ridge; here it left a small area, warm
and sheltered in the sunlight, and covered with large patches of Cotoneaster
microphylla ; this is a curious evergreen creeping shrub, with thick woodin
stems and tiny round leaves and flowers, which forms a dense rough carpet
on the ground. This sheltered portion of the ridge proved to be the nesting
ground of the Pipit and here four nests were soon discovered in less than quar-
ter of a mile, though no males were observed in this area, nor was their song
heard,
The first nest was found by my orderly in the course of a general search.
It contained 4 eggs nearly ready to hatch, though the bird was not present
at the moment of discovery. However when we returned later to the spot
I flushed her from the nest and she flew up into an oak tree where I shot her.
702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The site of this nest was typical of all that we saw, it was placed in a hollow
of the ground under the interlacing stems of the Cotoneaster, being
almost concealed by them from sight and very difficult to discover in
consequence.
A second nest with 4 fresh eggs was revealed by the bird which flew off just
in front of us as we slowly searched another patch of Cotoneaster ; each time-
this bird was flushed she flew up into the oaks at the edge of the forest.
A third nest found in the course of our search contained three slightly in-.
cubated eggs, one of which was damaged. It was deserted, and doubtless the
sitting bird had been attacked by some enemy, possibly a snake as there were
some about.
The fourth nest was again revealed by the bird leaving it in front of us. She
however did not fly up into the oaks, but each time fluttered along the ground
into a patch of scrub and so on down the steep hill side, with the action
characteristic of most hill-breeding Pipits.
The last three nests were similar in construction, a mass of moss and dry
grass with a well constructed cup of fine dry grass stems lined with a few hairs.
The first nest differed slightly in that there was practically no moss in the
foundations, and there was a thick lining of the curious spine-like hairs of the
musk-deer.
Next day I found one egg in a deserted nest which was littered with a few
feathers as if the bird had been caught on it. This nest was rather wider and
lined with coarse grass, and the situation was more open at the foot of a clump
of growing bracken. It was on the northern slope of the hill, 500 feet lower
than the other nests, and in a more open situation further from the oak forest..
The eggs obtained were all typical in colour and size.
BATTLE, SUSSEX, HUGH WHISTLER, F.LS., F.Z.S.,
31st December 1924. Indian Police.
No, VITI—THE COTTON TEAL.
You may be interested to hear that on the 28th August this year a cotton teal’s.
nest was discovered in a box-like hole at the end of a coping on the roof of Govern-
ment House, Rangoon, 68 feet from the ground. There were 13 young birds
which had apparently been pushed out by the mother and fallen to the ground,
some of them hitting some telephone wires about 15 feet from the ground. A
servant, who saw some of them falling, was emphatic that they fell like a stone
for a long distance and then fluttered and broke the fall as they approached the
ground. He did not see any of them being carried down by the mother in her
feet. The mother and the whole brood were caught, but in the night the
mother escaped and all efforts to save the young birds by artificial feeding
failed.
GOVERNOR’S Camp,
BuRMA,
25th August 1924. HARCOURT BUTLER.
[The lofty situation of the nest above the ground is remarkable. Stuart Baker
(vide Indian Ducks, etc.) could not recall from his observations any that were
above 15 or 16 feet from the ground. He mentions Oates’ record of a nest on a
mango tree 30 feet from the ground and quotes Cripps who says that the birds
even ‘ laid their eggs in the factory chimneys.”’ The method by which the
newly hatched goslets are brought to the ground, asreported by Sir Harcourt
Butler throws fresh light on the nesting habits of the species ——Eps.]
=
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES, 703
No, IX.—OCCURRENCE OF THE SCAUP DUCK (FULIGULA
MARILLA) IN NORTHERN INDIA.
Anexample of the Scaup duck (Nyroca marilla) was sent to the Society by Mr.
G. J. Monahan, I.C.S8. It was shot in the north of the Monghyr District,
Bengal, on the 31st December 1924. The Scaup isa duck of very northern lati-
tudes “* breeding in the Palaeartic and Nearctic regions in the extreme north of
Europe, Asia and America up to, if not beyond, north-east latitude 70°,
in Asia.” Itis described asa very rare winter visitor to India. A second
example, a female, was forwarded by Mr. J.C. Higgins. The bird was shot at
Ipop, 15 miles south of Imphal, Manipur. The taking of this duck in the
Monghyr District and in Manipur adds to the existing records of its very
occasional occurrence in India.
Bompay NatuRAL History Society. S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S.
5th March 1925.
No, X.—THE LENGTH ATTAINED BY AND THE HABITS OF THE
GAHRIAL (G4, GANGETICUS),
In reply to an article | recently wrote for Blackwood’s Magazine on the subject
of ‘‘ Crocodiles ’-—a correspondent (whom I have never met) has sent me a
letter in which he states that the biggest Gahriais he shot were in the Gogra at
Fyzabad in 1920—which attained a length of 21’-6” in one case—and between 18’
and 19’ in the other. I would invite correspondence on this subject, and request
information of authentic instances of Gahrial attaining a greater length.
My correspondent also stated that the largest specimen which was killed during
August 1920, contained *‘ besides pounds weight of native glass and metal
‘ornaments, the entire hind-quarters of a dhob?’s donkey”’,
It is quite probable that I am completely at fault but I was always under the
impression that gahrial lived exclusively on fish—and I also believed that the
formation of its throat, precluded any possibility of its swallowfag such huge
morsels as a donkey’s hind quarters, or portion of human beings and corpses.
I request enlightenment on this point.
Kenya Cotony, East Arrica, C. BR. 8. PITMAN,
31st October 1924, Major.
[Bangles and other human ornaments are found quite often in the stomach of
the Gahrial—the name Gahrial by the way is said to be derived from the
likeness of the large knob or, protuberance, seen on the snouts of old males to a
gahra or earthen pot used by the natives of N. India. These finds are generally
regarded as evidence of the reptiles having dined off a carcase. The slenderness
of the jaws and the fineness of the teeth, compared with those of the mugger, are
believed to restrict the gahrial to the capture of fish and smaller prey and to
prevent its attacking larger quarry—but there is nothing in the structure of
the reptile to prevent it from swallowing quite large mouthfuls, as has been
indicated in the present instance. The stomach of a crocodile is small but
this does not prevent him from making a large meal, as a great portion of the
704. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
food is first stowed away in a capacious gullet. Stones are frequently found
within the stomach, these are usually malodorous and bear evidence of having
been in the stomach for some time. They are presumably swallowed as an
aid to digestion, in the same manner as a bird stocks its gizzard with grit and
sand.
The largest of the 3 Indian Crocodiles is the Estuary Crocodile (C. porosus)
of the East Coast, the Sunderbunds, Ceylon and the back-waters of Travancore
—a specimen 33 feet long is on record—but doubts have been cast on the
correctness of this measurement. Readers of this Journal will probably be
able to furnish authentic measurements of large mugger, gahrial, and estuary
* crocodiles shot by them.—Eps. |
No, XL—BOA CONSTRICTOR vs, ALLIGATOR.
(With a Block.)
With reference to Mr. Coleridge Beadon’s note on a python swallowing a
monitor on page 229 of this volume, we publish the accompanying photo of an
alligator killed by a Boa Constrictor on the River Masparito, Venezuela. The
alligator was 10 feet long and the snake about 20 feet. The photo was sent by Mr.
Sydney P. Mortimer, Mariacarbo, Venezuela, to ‘‘Overseas’’, the monthly Jour-
nal of the Overseas League. The largest of the South American Boas is the
Anaconda (Hunectis murinus) ; which is stated to commonly reach a length of
33 feet. Our reticulated Python (P. reticulaius) of Burma and the Malay coun-
tries runs it very close with 30 feet. The true Boas, as distinguished from the
Pythons, are common to the hotter regions of South America and Madagascar—
the only true Boas (Bowne) which occur within Indian limits are the small
Black Earth Boa (Hryx jaculus) and the Red Earth Boa (Eryx conicus).
[Eprrors. |
#
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 705
No. XII.—TIGER KILLED BY A COBRA.
Strange Foster parents!
The following is an account of a tigress which disd as a result of its being
bitten by a cobra inthe Jamnagar Zoo, Kathiawar. <A correspondent report-
ing the case in the Times of India writes as follows :—
‘* An incident which is probably unprecedented in the case of animals in
captivity occurred recently in the Zoological Gardens at Jamnagar. Among
the fine specimens, kept there by His Highness the Jam Saheb, was a tigress
with three cubs. On going his rounds early one morning the keeper was not
a little surprised to find the tigress stark and stiff. Immediate search for
the cause of this sudden demise: on the part of what had been overnight a
thoroughly healthy animal, revealed a cobra sleeping peacefully coiled up ina
corner of the cage. A gun speedily did the needful despatch. On examination
the tigress was found to have been bitten in the cheek. The three cubs were
all very much alive and well. How they failed to attract a bite is ‘‘ wrapt in
mystery’’. Or perhaps the cobra, having expended its venom on the tigress,
may have bitten one and proved harmless. However, no mark of such a bite
could be traced, and the three cubs are now as lively as crickets, the cynosure
of many curious and admiring eyes. His Highness’ guests are often at the
Zoo handling these playful little beasts and watching them at feeding time,
In this function a trio of sturdy goats plays an important and, it must be said,
extraordinarily complaisant part. The foster mothers play the game in most
sporting fashion and very seldom attempt to butt their sturdy ‘‘ offspring.”’
Doubtless the time is not far distant when sharper claws and teeth will bring a
change on the scene, but at present the trio of budmashes is thriving apace and
looking very well upon its enforced diet.”’
706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The following extract from the report of the Veterinary Surgeon in charge
of the Zoo was forwarded to us by the Private Secretary to H. H. the Maha-
raja of Jamnagar.
“The tigress Sunder was alright on the 9th December. Next morning
when the keeper of the animals went to see them as usual, he found the tigress
dead. He informed me, whereupon I went there. The tigress was taken out
of the cage. On an examination it was found that she was bitten on the lower
jaw just below the angle of the mouth on the left side. The part bitten was
swollen and there was hemorrhage from the nostrils and from the rectum. —
On a post-mortem examination it was found that all the organs inside were
little or more congested and blood was found coagulated on exposure to at-
mosphere, 1.e., after removal from the blood vessels.”’
‘* The tigress left three cubs—two females and one male about a month old.
For their nourishment she-goats are kept and they are suckling them. The cubs
are quite well and in good condition. The incident occurred during the night.”
We are indebted to the Editor of the T%mes of India for gee to pub-
lish the interesting photo reproduced above.
[Eprrors. |
No. XIJI—RECORD OF A DEATH FROM BITE OF THE
HAMADRYAD OR KING COBRA (NAIA HANNA),
In your Journal, Vol. XXX, No. 1, ist October 1924, on page No. 194, in
the paper by Col. F. Wall, I.M.S., read before the B.N.H.S.’s meeting held on
22nd July 1924, it says :—
‘* T know of no case of a bite in a European.”
About 10 or 12 years ago, Mr. Slater of the Geological Dept. of the Mysore
Service was bitten by a King Cobra.
This happened at Hoonsakoltti, near Thirthally, in the Shimoga District,
Mysore State, 8. India.
The Forest Ranger informed me that Slater and a cooly were going out one
morning with a 12 Bore gun. Close to the Traveller's Bungalow they saw
the snake lying sunning itself. The cooly begged of Slater to shoot it. But
Slater was keen on snakes, and finding that the Hamadryad was lying quiet
went up and put his foot on its head. He was wearing long boots or leather
leggings. But the snake managed to wrench its head loose and struck Slater
above the knee, and escaped.
Slater cut the wounds and sucked the blood, and put ligatures, etc.
The nearest doctor was sent for and everything possible was done. But Slater
died in the evening.
The Thirthally jungles are noted for Hamadryads and local people hold it
in great dread.
Mysorg, S. Inp1a, CHARLES THEOBALD, F.Z.S.
4th December 1924.
No. XIV.—RECOVERY FROM THE BITE OF ECHIS CARINATA.
The subject bitten was an Indian woman aged about forty years. The
snake attached itself to her bare ankle and was killed by her husband, who was
accompanying her,
She was seen by me five Tmates later.
The snake was recognised to be an Echis carinata.
SymptToms.—Very severe pain in the right foot at the seat of the injury.
Pain running up the inner side of the leg. Vomiting. No = ule oun of fear
exhibited. Pulse normal.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 107
Examination showed the foot to be swollen. There was a small raised patch
immediately below the right internal malleolus. On the summit of this there
were two small punctures from which there wasa slight discharge of blood-
stained serum.
TREATMENT.—A rubber torniquet was immediately applied below the knee.
A local anesthetic was injected into the surrounding tissues and a large crucial
incision was made over the bite. The four resulting triangular flaps were
dissected back. As much blood as possible was squeezed from the wound and
then Potassium Permanganate crystals were well rubbed in. Calcium Chlo-
ride grs. 20 were given by the mouth.
The tourniquet caused so much pain that it had to be removed after three
hours. Following this there was a moderate amount of bleeding which was
checked by tight bandaging. The patient had a sleepless night owing to the
pain. She was given Calcium Chloride grs. 15 t.i.d. and kept in a recumbent
position.
From this on, her recovery was uneventful. She was allowed to sit up on
the fourth day. Her wound healed by the eighth day. She is now quite well.
Station Hospitat, H. J. RICE,
SATARA, Capt., I.M.S.
27th September 1924.
No, XV.—VIPER AND WHITE-THROAT.
On the 23rd July while looking for Birds’ nests on a hill-side at about 6,000
feet altitude near Pari Mahal (Srinagar-Kashmir), I came across a White-
throat’s nest (Sylvia curruca affinis) in a low thorny bush, about 2 feet from the
ground. To my surprise I saw the nest was occupied by a small snake.
I despatched the snake which was a viper, dark greyish brown in colour
and 16 inches in length. |
The viper had a marked bulge in its body which on dissection was found
to be caused by the mother white-throat’s body which had evidently been
swallowed quite recently. The nest was empty, but the eggs or young had
probably been disposed of by the snake before tackling the parent bird though
I could not detect them in the snake’s internal economy. ‘This Viper is, I
think, somewhat rare in Kashmir though the Pit Viper (Ancistrodon hima-
layense) is very common, This latter snake does not however climb bushes.
Srinagar, B. B. OSMASTON,
Kashmir, I. F.S. (retired).
[The viper referred to is possibly the Levantine viper (Vipera lebetina.)
—KEps. ]
No. XVI.—A LIST OF FISH OBTAINED IN THE SARAN DIS-
TRICT, BEHAR, CHIEFLY FROM THE GHOGRA RIVER
NEAR THE TOWN OF CHAPRA AND IN ITS VICINITY.
This collection was made many years ago during a period of about a year. Only
a few of the smaller species were preserved in spirit but drawings to scale wers
made of most of the larger ones after they had been identified. Although the
list shows some sixty species, more would have been added if observations had
been prolonged over a longer period. Several common forms are not recorded
and Elasmobranchs, in the form of Rays, are certainly found, for they are very
common in the Ganges and even ascend the Jumna and it is at Chapra that the
Ghogra joins the Ganges.
26
708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX,
Some of these records are, nevertheless, interesting especially those of
Ophichthys boro and of the Pipe Fish Doryichthys cuncalus. Local vernacular
names of the fishes are given and in most cases the date and locality in which
each specimen was taken. I have used for the species the nomenclature of Day
in the Fish volumes of the Fauna of British India and have given his numbers
after the serial number.
Order TELEOSTEI.
Suborder MALACOPTERYGI. ~-
Family NroprEerips.
1, 519. Notopterus kapirat, Pallas. Golar Moi.
Common. R. Ghogra Darauli, 3-10-06.
2. 520. Notopterus chitala, H.B. Chapra, R. Moi.
Ghogra, 8-10-06 Common :
Family Clupeide,
3. 469, Olwpea chapra, H. B. Ghogra R. 20-10-06. Suaia.
4, 470. Clupea ilisha, H. B. Plentiful oe the
monsoon .. Hilsa,
D 498. Hugraulis tilara, H. B. Ghogra R. 21. 9 06. Phussia.
Suborder OSTARIOPH YNSI.
Family CYPRINID#.
Subfamily Cyprinine.
6. 295. Labeo gonius, H. B. Ghogra R. 3-10-06 .. Kursa.
7. 297. Labeo rohita, H. B. Ghogra R. 30-8-06.
Very common .. Rahu.
8. 321. Cirrhinamrigaia, H. B. Ghogra R. 30- 7-06. Nainee.
9. 322. Currhina latia, H. B. Ghogra R. 4-10-06 . Rewa.
10. 323. Currhina reba, H. B. Ghogra R. 30-10 Gh ~ Bunsa.
ll. 332. Catla buchanani, Cuv and Val yee R.
25-10-06 on : Cutla,
12. 341. Barbus sarana, H. B. Bd Durhee.
13. 375. Barbus parrah, Day. Telpa, Ghogra R.
4-10-06... a Phurrah.
14. 391. Barbus stoliczkanus, Day % ee ae Hurda.
15. 398. Barbus stigma, Cuv and Val. Chapra,
shogra R, 22-10-06. Very common ... Pottiah.
16. 399. Barbus crysopternus, McClell bi ae Pottiah.
17. 409. Nuria danrica,H. B. Common .. a Dahwiee.
18. 411. Rasbora daniconius, H. B. Common.
19. 417. ohtee cotio, H. B. Chiran, Ghogra R.
14-10-06... : Gurda.
20. 435. Barilus bola, H. B. Chapra, Ghogra R.
17-10-06... Girgittee.
21. 449. Chela gora, H. B. Chapra, Ghogra R. 2- 10- Chelhua.
06. Very common. Subfamily Cobitidine.
22. 230. Botadario, H. B. Jelalpur, R. Ghogra
LAO ts “if ae ae Baghwa.
23. 231. Botiagelo, H. B. Jelalpur, ener R.
14-1-07 .. Baghwa.
24. 237. Lepidocephalichthys guntea, Te Be ‘Chapra,
25. 247. Nemachilus botius, H. B, Chapra, Ghogra R.
9-1-07 ae ie Lis 4 Nuktee.
26.
ail.
42.
43.
44,
46,
121.
131.
1361.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
Family SILuRIDz.
Subfamily Clariine.
Clarias magur, Ey. Biel a ie
Subfamily Silurine
Amblyceps mangois, H. B, Chapra, Ghogra R.
20-11-07 os LS E ihe ap
Saccobranchus fossilis, Bloch. Ghegta,
Ghogra R. Common.. bes it By
Wallago attu, Bl. Schn. Khanua nulla,
Ghogra R. ..
Eutropiichthys vacha, He B. Chapra, Ghogra
R. 2-10-06. Common :
Callichrous bimaculatus, Bloch. “Chapra,
Ghogra R. 27-9-06. Very common
Arlia coila, H. B. Indaie, Ghogra R. 30-9- 06
Pseudeutropius murius, H. B. Ghegta,
Ghogra R. 14-10-06. Common -
Pseudeutropius garua, H. B. Chapra, Ghogra
R, 22-9-06. Very common ..
Stlundia gangetica, Cuv, and Val. Very com-
mon
Subfamily Bagrine.
Macrones aor, H. B. Chapra Ghogra
R. 13-9-06. Very common .
Macrones cavasius, H. B. Chapra, Ghoora R.
27-9-06. Very common a
Macrones tengara, H. 8B. Telpa, Ghogra R.
19-10-06. Very commen ..
Rita buchanani, Bleeker, ae Ghogra R.
6-10-06 Common
Subfamily Doradine.
Sisor rhabdophorus, H. B. Chapra, Ghogra R.
Not common. Only observed once.
Bagarius yarrellii H, B. Revelgung, Ghogra
R. 20-9-06. Common
Erethistes hara, H. B. Chapra, Tel nulla,
Ghogra R. 30-10-06.
Nangra viridescens, H. B. nage pe. R.
14-10-06
Sub order APODES.
Family ANGUILLID&,
Anguilla bengalensis, Grey and Hardw. Bam.
Not common, but taken now and then.
Ophichthys boro, H. B. Chapra, Ghogra R, ..
Sub order CATOST'KOME.
Family SYNGNATHID&.
Doryichthys cuncalus, H. B. Ghogra R.
709
Mangri.
Banguri.
Singhee.
Boyart.
Pias.
Ghuktee.
Suthree.
Bachua.
Ghorua Bachua.
Silond.
Tangra.
Susna Tangra.
Pulwa Tengra.
Reta,
Chennuah.
Goshta.
Nunra Tangra,.
710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
47.
48,
49,
50.
ol,
2.
50.
57,
58.
59.
1182,
827.
628.
629.
868.
1215.
1093.
Sub order PERCESOCES.
Family ScoMBRESOcIDa,
Belone cancila, H. B., Chapra, ae R.
21-9-06. Very common i Lae Kowal.
Family MuGiILip2.
Mugil corsula, H. B. rea a com-
WON! y.\. : Arwart.
Family OPpHIOCEPHALIDS,
Ophiocephalus gachua, H. B. Michela x
Ghogra R. 5-1-07. Common.. .. Charna,
Ophiocephalus striatus ' oe an Gurrai.
Ophiocephalus punctatus, Bloch., Tank,
Chapra, 1-10-06. Common ae nite Ghurrar.
Sub order ACANTHOPTERYGLII.
Division PERCIFORMES.
Family NANpDID.,
Nandus marmoratus, Cuv, and _ Val.
Newajitola, Ghogra R, 30-10-06 te, Dhalo,
The specimen figured is rather pale and
devoid of all marblings on the body but
some are present on the head and there
is a dark spot on the free portion of the tail.
Family SERRANID2,
Subfamily Ambassine,
Ambassis nama, H. B, Chapra, ee
27-10-06. Very common .. : Tikulia,
Ambass's ranga, H. B. Very common af Tikulia.
Family Sc1Znip&,
Sciena coitor, H. B. Ghogra R. 30-9-06.. Puthree.
Family OspHROMENID,
Trichogaster lalius,.. FE 1B. on Kouthries
Chapra, Ghogra R. 17-10-06. Very common. Dhal,
Division GOBIFORMES.
Family Gopip2.
fleotris, fusca, Bl. Schn, Bulla. Chapra,
Ghogra R. 16-10-06. , Sy. *.
Sub order OPISTHOMT.
Family MastacEMBELID#.
Rhynchobdella aculeata, Bloch., Chapra,
Ghogra R, 25-9-06 .. ay ae x Gaichee,
Mastacembelus armatus, Lacep. Chapra,
Ghogra R, 29-9-06 .. ae ne ile Bamie,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 711
Sub order PLECTOGNATHI.
Family GYMNODONTEs.
G0, 1406, Tetrodon cutcutia, H. B., Newajitola, Ghogra,
R, 16-9-06 ae ise Dathkirwa.
E. A. D’ABREU,
Curator,
Nagpur Museum.
No. XVII—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE SPINY-EEL (RH YNCHOB.-
DELLA ACULEATA BLOCH), IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCES
AND EXTENSION OF ITS HABITAT.
The distribution given by Day for this fish in India is limited to the brackish
waters within tidal influence in the deltas of the larger rivers.
It really ascends the rivers to a far greater distance, and will probably prove
to have a much wider range even in fresh-water tanks far from tidal-influence.
It is common in the Ganges at least as far as Patna and Chapra
and is even found in the Ghogra. In Behar, it is well known and has a dis-
tinct vernacular name ‘Gaichee’ ; differentiating it from Bamie and Bam, the
terms applied to Mastacembelus armatus and other eels, I was not a little sur-
prised when I found I had taken two specimens from an inland tank at Nagbhir
in the North of the Chanda district in these provinces.
Other spiny-eels found locally are M. armatus and M. pancalus. The former
may easily be recognised by its continuous dorsal, caudal, and anal fins.
R. aculeata resembles M. pancalus in having the caudal fin disconnected with
the dorsal and anal, but may be distinguished by having the snout transversely
striate below and by the ocelli on the dorsal fin. The only other known Indian
representative of this genus is Rk. dhanashorit, Hora, described in the Records
of the Indian Museum, Vol. XXIi, p. 205, from a single individual obtained in
Dhanashori stream, about a mile from Dimapur, Assam. It was also taken far
inland and in fresh water. This species differs from fk. aculeata in having a
characteristic colouration quite unlike aculeata. It is dull olivaceous with pale
lines extending downwards and forwards from the base of the dorsal fin and
becoming obscure in the belly region. Behind the vent these lines are joined
together in an irregular manner to form a reticulation. A pale longitudinal band
extends backwards from behind the eye and becomes obscure in the post
anal region. The lower surface is pale, speckled with black on the lower surface
of the head, The fins are dark, minutely banded and speckled with dull white;
there are no ocelli on the dorsal fin. Its proportions are also different and the
caudal and pectoral rays are 16 and 17 respectively, while in aculeata they are
15 and 23.
Basa) D ABREU; E:Zis:
CENTRAL MUSEUM,
Nagpur, C. P.,
8th November 1924.
No. XVIIIL—FORMULA FOR ESTIMATING WEIGHT OF
MAHSEER.
For several years past I have always made it a practice to carefully measure
my fish in addition to weighing them, and, with a very few exceptions, have not
been satisfied that the most generally recognised formula for estimating their
weight from the measurements is as correct as it might be, at any rate when
applied to Lake Mahseer, such as are caught in Lake Fife, Khadakwasla, near
Poona.
712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The earliest reference to any formula for this purpose is so far as Iam aware,
that referred to on page 74 of ‘The Angler’s Handbook’ by G. H.
Lacey and Dr. E, Cretin, and is, I think, the one most generally accepted, reading
as follows :— .
‘* First take the length and girth of the fish in inches; add ‘‘ together the
jength, and one-thira of the length; multiply the result by the square of the
girth,and divide by 1,000, and the result will be the weight of the fishin pounds.”
This formula may briefly be written down thus :—
(L + 3L) x (G)
== OW.
1000
The author states that he has tried this formula with fish of all sizes up to 61
lbs., and found it approximately correct, 7.e., within 2 lbs. of actual weight in all
fish up to 50 lbs., the tendency being to be a little in excess of actual weight. He
further goes on to describe how the measurements should be taken:—‘* The
length for this calculation is taken from the mouth (closed) to the end of
the tail, and the girth is that of the thickest part of the fish’s body........ the
tail should not be closed when measuring for the data for this calculation. It
should be expanded or stretched to its full extent as if the fish was swimming.”
Another formula is given on page 139 of the same edition under the heading
‘ Weighing Giant Fish.’ :—‘‘ Take the length of the fish in feet, leaving out
the tail; cube the number thus got, the product will be the weight in pounds,
z.e., Weight — (length in feet) 3.”
This is obviously a much too rough and ready rule to apply to smaller fish
weighing from twenty to thirty pounds, and, as Thomas points out on page 37
of ‘ The Rod in India’ (third edition), entirely ignores the question of girth
which obviously must be taken into consideration in order to arrive at any
approximately correct result. As regards this omission of girth the latter
author goes on to say :—‘‘ This omission...... is met by a kindly correspondent
writing to me that he has found the following pretty correct :—‘ Take’ he says,
‘the length and girth in inches. Add together, and divide by two. This gives the
weight in pounds pretty near.’ ”’
As Thomas then proceeds to point out, however, this formula cannot possibly
be applied to small fish. His remarks are as follows :—‘‘ Possibly it does when
fish run over a certain weight, say ten or fifteen pounds, but it must be surely
very much out when they are smaller. For instance a masheer of twelve inches
long, without adding anything for girth, can never weigh six pounds.” Even
for larger fish I found this formula hopelessly inaccurate as the following two
instances taken at random from my records of weights and measurements wil]
show—
A ten pound fish measured 30” in length and 17” in girth.
A 15 lbs. fish eg 333” ie ee +
According to the above formula the former should weigh 23 lbs. and the latter
27 lbs., the error in one case amounting to 134 lbs. and to 12 lbs. in the other,
which results speak for themselves.
‘ Skene Dhu’ in referring to the first of the three formulae mentioned above
states on page 193 of ‘The Mighty Mahseer’ that it is generally fairly accurate
with mahseer. He does not however state how the length of the fish is to be
taken, so presumably his method of measurement is the same as previously
quoted.
The above are the only three formulae with which I am acquainted and, for
reasons shown above, we need only concern ourselves with the first when dealing
with mahseer, this being :—
(L + $L) x (G)
== W where L is the extreme length
1000 in inches when the tail is opened
1tand G the girth, W being the weight in pounds.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 713
TI will in future refer to this formula as‘ A.’
I have now very carefully measured forty fish of all sizes ranging from 2 lbs.
to 214 lbs. In applying the formula‘ A’ I found that in every case the result
was an error in excess, the actual amount of error increasing more or less propor-
tionately as the size of the fish measured also increased, thus proving that, as
the percentage of error was fairly constant, the fault lay in the formula.
I thereupon adopted the same formula but with the following alteration,
t.e., that the length was taken from the mouth (closed) to the fork of the tail.
I will call this amended formula ‘ B.”’
I then applied formula ‘ B’ to the same forty fish, but found that although
this was considerably more accurate than‘ A’ the general tendency of the error
was still in excess, there being only four cases where the error was a‘ minus’ one,
and of these cases the amount of error in three was negligible.
I therefore again modified the formula by substituting ‘+ length’ instead of
‘i length ’, this final formula which I will call‘ C,’ reading as follows :—
(L + ZL) Xx (G)e
— W_ where G is greatest girth and L
1000 is the length from the closed mouth
to fork of tail.
On applying formula ‘ C’ to the same forty fish again the results were even
better than I had hoped.
Out of the forty fish measured in 31 cases ‘C’ was more accurate than‘ B’,
whilst in only 3 cases did ‘A’ give a more correct result than ‘ C ’,
In only three cases did ‘ C’ show an error in excess of one pound, (but
under 2 hbs.), and these three fish were all abnormal.
In two cases the girth measurements were abnormally large in proportion to
the length, and the errors shewn by‘ A ’ for both these fish exceeded 4 lbs., whilst
‘ B’ also showed an excess error of more than 23 lbs. in both instances.
In the third fish the girth was abnormally small, and in this case‘ A’ was the
most correct formula of the three.
The errors under ‘ C’ were more or less evenly divided under + and —
heads, but the general tendency (excluding the three abnormal fish) was to
very slightly under-estimate.
The summarised statement below gives the net results of the experiments with
the three different formulae, and also the average errors both including and
excluding the three abnormal fish referred to above.
All the fish which were measured were caught in Lake Fife, and it is possible
that these fish are of a‘stockier’ build than those taken from running water. It
would be interesting if other anglers would apply this formula to river fish and
state the results. At any rate I feel certain that, so far as Lake Mahseer are
concerned, it will be hard to evolve any other formula which will give better
results than‘ C,’ a net error of less than one pound in nearly four hundred
pounds of fish weighed being an extraordinarily accurate result.
All the fish were weighed on a fixed spring balance which has been carefully
checked with standard weights and found absclutely correct.
SUMMARY OF TESTS.
Number of fish Actual aggregate weight
weighed. of fish in pounds,
40 393.00
Net Errors oF FORMULAE IN POUNDS,
6 A 3 ‘6 B >) 6 @ ?
+64°64 +25°82 + °79
AVERAGE ERRORS OF FORMULAE IN POUNDS,
ra A b) ‘ B b] ° C ?
1°61 69 °3)
714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
AVERAGE ERRORS OF FORMULAE IN PoUNDS
(when excluding the three abnormal fish referred to aboye).
‘ A > c B > : 4 C >
1-49 “59 ae
(Lie gly iG)?
Formula ‘ A’ ——- ———__—_—| = W Where L = extreme length
1000 from mouth to tail.
Formula ‘B’ ————-———————————- = _ W Where L = length from mouth
1000 to fork of tail.
L+4}L+(G)2 |
Formula ‘¢)————————_———__—_ = W Where L = length from mouth
1000 to fork of tail.
W. B. TREVENEN,
Major.
C.W.I., Poona, February 1925.
No. XX.—THE CEYLON RACES OF TERIAS BLANDA,
Bdv., AND SARI, Horsf.
In 1881 Moore in his ‘‘ Lepidoptera of Ceylon’’ described and figured under
the name of Terias rotundalis what he supposed to be the two sexes of a single
species, but which we now know belong to different, species, blanda and sari,each
represented in Cevlon by a distinct race; and as the same name cannot be borne
by two species or races in the same genus, the question arises which is to have
it. Inall matters of naming we museum ‘‘naturalists’’, a maligned but harmless
and even necessary crowd, grope our difficult way by means of the rules and deci-
sions laid down by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature,
helped out, as are all laws, by common usage. In this particular case there
seems to be no definite decision that applies, but in practice it has been thought
to be in accordance with the general ‘law of priority”? that the sex whose des-
cription comes first in the text usually the ¢, should retain the name, and that
what follows about the Q(or of course the dif that comes last) should be
treated as a mistaken addition and disregarded.
In cases however where the first-mentioned is already provided with a valid
name, then to prevent the new name being wasted, the second partner in the
ill-assorted union has been allowed in usage to retain it, and this seems on
the whole a sensible plan. But in the case of rotwndalis this concession does
not apply. There was no valid prior name, for the name citrina introduced by
Moore on the preceding page had been already used in the genus Terias and so
was “‘stillborn’’.
Consequently, it seems to me that the first-mentioned, the @ needs the name
and must have it, and no subsequent names (wniformis, templetonii) applied to
the subspecies of blanda which the @ represents can alter this fact, or permit -
the transfer of the name rofundalis to the 2 which represents the sari sub-species.
Hence Bingham in 1907, keeps the name rotundalis under silhetana (=blanda)
and when we find Ormiston (Spolia Zeylanica xi,p. 135-p. 158, Oct. 1919)
describing and figuring the ¢ together with its proper 5 as rotundalis, for the
reasons given above 1 hold his action invalid, and propose to rename the
Ceylon race of sari as ormistoni, nom. nov. and to restrict the name rotundalis
to the race of blanda. ;
Type, Moore’s original ¢ specimen, now in B. M. Description figures ¢ 2,
as above.
British Museum (Naturau History),
8. KENSINGTON. H. T. G. WATKINS.
715
PROCEEDINGS,
Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting held on the 4th February 1925.
The annual general meeting of the members of the Bombay Natural His-
tory Society was held in the Board Room of the Prince of Wales’ Museum on
February 4 at 6 p.m. The Hon, Sir Norman Macleod presiding.
The following 21 new members were elected since the last meeting :—Mrs.
J. R. Hood (England), Mr. F. X. Miranda (Savantwadi), Captain S. L. Bhatia
(Bombay), Dr. R. Wittwer (Bombay), Major J. D. Scale (Assam), Mr. R. C.
Richardson (Khandwa, ©. P.), Mr. E. 8. Lewis (Delhi), The Principal (ex-
officio), of the Royal Institute of Science, Bombay; Mr. E. Sheehy (Bombay),
Mr. V. 8S. Kupuswamy (Bellary), Dr. J. N. Leith (Lumbding, Assam), Mr. T. K,
Mirchandani (Dharwar), Mrs. O. A. Geoghegan (Dera Ismail Khan), Mr. B. H.
Osmaston, (Haldwani, U. P.), Mr. J. I. Miller (Calcutta), Mr. J. E. Duncan,
(Mandalay), Mr. Wm. T. Tallent-Bateman (Bombay), The Mess Secretary,
5-12th F. F. Regiment, Q. V. O. Corps of Guides, Aden; Mr. E. P, Laurente
(N. Shan States, Burma), Lt.-Col. F. C. Bewsher (Saraband, Palestine), Lt. L. A.
G, Pinhey (Delhi).
The appointment of offices for the ensuing year was as follows :—Patron:
H. R. H. the Prince of Wales, Vice-Patron—H. H. the Maharao of Cutch,,
President—H. E, the Rt. Hon. Lt.-Col. Sir Leslie Wilson ; Vice-Presidents—The
Hon. Sir Norman Macleod, H. H. the Maharao of Cutch, Rev. E. Blatter, s.s.;
Managing Committee—Mr. T. Bainbridge Fletcher, Pusa; Mr. T. R. Bell,.
Karwar ; Mr. RB. D. Bell, Bombay ; Mr. J. P. Bradshaw, Bombay ; Mr. H. A. W.
Brent, Bombay ; Lt.-Col. W. H. Evans, Simla; Major F, C. Fraser, Mercara ;
Dr. F, H; Gravely, Madras; Prof. V. N. Hate, Bombay; Mr. J. E. B. Hotson,
Bombay ; Mr. C. M. Inglis, Darjeeling ; Mr. F. Ludlow, Tibet ; Sir Henry Mac-
naghten, Bombay ; Mr. J. G. Ridland, Bombay ; Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, Cal-
cutta; Major C. H. Stockley, Kohat, N. W. F. P.; Dr. D. A. Turkhud, Madras ;
Col. F. Wall, Maymyo; Mr. H. Whistler, Punjab ; Ex-officio Members—Mr, R. A.
Spenee, Honorary Secretary ; Mr. G. F. J. Cumberlege, Honorary Treasurer.
-The Honorary Treasurer Mr. G. F. J. Cumberlege placed before the meeting
the audited statement of accounts, which, together with the Treasurer’s report,
will be published in full in the Journal.
Continuous progress has been made in the Natural History Section of the
Prince of Wales’ Museum.
Members were able to inspect the new fully mounted Gaur or Indian Bison
presented to the Society by the Forest Department. The animal, which is a
splendid bull gaur, stands nearly 6 feet at the shoulder and carries a grand pair
of horns. It was mounted in the Society’s Laboratories, under the Curator’s
supervision, by Mr. C. McCann, the Society’s Assistant Curator, and does great.
credit to the high standard of work achieved by the Preparation Department.
The animal gives a graphic impression of the massive proportions of the Indian
Gaur, the largest of existing bovines, and makes a splendid acquisition to the.
Mammal Gallery.
Mr. S. H. Prater, the Curator, delivered an interesting lecture on Indian Rep-
tiles. The lecturer carried his audience back to the remote past, millions of
years before man’s appearance, when reptiles held dominance over the earth.
He showed how reptiles were at that time adapted to every mode of existence.
At the present day reptiles no longer possessed the mastery of the earth, the
sky or the sea. No reptiles possessed the power of true flight—and if we excluded
the sea snakes which were comparatively small in size—no reptiles were truly
marine, even the sea turtles had to come ashore to deposit their eggs. On
land the reptiles no longer compared in size to their gigantic ancestors—some
of them found refuge as burrowers in the earth or by hiding on its surface,
others found food and shelter on trees while a number led a semi-aquatic
existence on marshes, lakes and rivers,
27
716 J@URNAL, SOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
After defining exactly what was meant by the term reptiles, the lecturer pro-
ceeded to deal with four main classes ox reptiles, the crocodiles, tortoises, lizards
and snakes,
Coming finally to the treatment of snake bite the lecturer explained that
the trying of a ligature, incision of the wound or even amputation of the limb
though recommended as being useful in reducing the amount of venom taken
up in the system were of little value if a lethal dose had already been absorbed.
Science had provided an efficient remedy against the bite of the Cobra and the
Russel’s Viper in the anti-serum now manufactured at Kassauli and available
at the Parei Laboratory. No serum was available against the bite of the Krait ;
the Phoorsa and other poisonous snakes because a sufficient quantity of the
venoms of these snakes was not available for the manufacture of anti-serums on
a commercial basis but for this we would have a remedy against the poison ot
any snake. The lecture was illustrated with a fine series of lantern slides
reproduced from photographs by the Assistant Curator, Mr. C. McCann.
ACCOUNTS FOR 1924
The Honorary Treasurer Mr. G. F. J. Cumberlege placed the audited statement
of accounts before the meeting. He said—‘The first thing that will probably
strike you is the closing accounts of Rs. 6,564-0-7 which is about Rs. 29,000 less
than we opened with two years ago. The Journal Account and the Game Bird
Books are the heaviest drain on our funds and it is interesting to note that about
Rs. 30,000 are locked up in stock of Journals and Rs. 25,000 in Game Books—a
total of Rs. 55,000. It is estimated that the other books and charts published
by the Society have a value of Rs 6,000, so that in all Rs. 60,000 is locked up in
stock and over Rs. 20,000 is still due to the publishers and binders for Game
books not included in the above estimate. It is not very gratifying to learn
that only 18 copies of each volume were sold last year. Enquiries are being
received for the next volume of the Game book, but there can be no talk of
fur ther publishing activities till funds are forthcoming, and the only way we can
aise funds is by members doing all they can to rope in new members and to
a them buy the Society’s publications. Last; year the Honorary Treasurer
said he hoped the Publishers of the Journal would reduce their charges, but you
wil! see that this item has, in fact, increased, by about Rs, 1,300. No doubt the
Honorary Secretary will tell us of his unsuccessful efforts to get the better of
the publisher.
At the close of 1923 the number of members on the books were:—Life members
155 and ordinary members 1,131. At the close of 1924 the Life members number
161 and ordinary members 1,122, showing an increase of 6 Life members and
a decrease of 9 ordinary members, 81 members joined during the year and deaths
and resignations amount to 93. In terms of cash it means that our subscrip-
tions have dropped by Rs. 3,828-7-3.
Salaries show a saving of Rs. 3,049-11-8, the increase of Rs 3,200-0-0 last year
being due to Mr. Ellison’s gratuity. Excluding this item, salaries have in-
ereased by Rs. 151. The Prince of Wales Museum still contributes half the
salary of certain of the Society's employees.
With the exception of rent practically every other item of expenditure has
been reduced, thanks to the energy of the Hon. Secretary.
The Mammal Fund. This shows a further drop, the closing balance being Rs.
4,298-2-9 against an opening balance of Rs. 10,153-5-7. Colonel Meinetzhagen
is however kindly paying Mr. La Personne’s salary for the next eighteen months
under an arrangement which is very satisfactory to the Society. Mr. La-
Personne’s salary is by far the heaviest item of expenditure in the Mammal
Fund.
It is proposed shortly to close the Mammal Fund and merge it into the common
account. There seems no point in running two accounts and, in fact, by doing
#0 we lose interest’ on our funds,”’
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' ©‘Game Animals of India, Burma,
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Bombay Natura! History Society, Bombay.
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THE
JOURNAL
-Bompay Natura History Socipry. -
EDITED BY
R.A. SPENCE, F.Z.S., P. M. SANDERSON, F.Z.S, and
. S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S.
Ton Uj
ous 1927) Mi.
Ke SEP { alt vi |
Naa TIONAL mush |
Date of Publication, 15th December, 1925.
ne.
naa 3 : ce
Ie Sl MOLE XXK., Nos 4,
_ _ Price to Non-Members ro -- fs. 12-0-0
: cor 168.
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ie ye} LONDON AGENTS:
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THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS.
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Identification of Poisonous Snakes — :
Hanging Wall Chart, 30” x 40”. Rs. 5
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Wood-Destroying White Ants of the Bombay Pre idency by Rev. J. ASSMUTH,
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_ CONTENTS OF Vol. XXX, No. 4.
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE ADJACENT HILL
PROVINCES. Part V. By Col. A. E. Ward. (With a plate and
LORPRTUSILV ES) pion teosgectassscisastscedecaetosesenpesiehecatmecasepeenenensncesnaesnicncde®
BIRDS OF THE PERSIAN GULF ISLANDS. By C.B. Ticehurst, M.A.,
M.R.C.S., M.B.0.U. (With 4 plates anda map.)
@ccerseoor 27 2077288 80F% 08%
A NEw SNAKE FROM BuRMA. By Col. F. Wall, C.M.G., K.H.S.
ee00ee eee
AN ORIENTAL HuntTING Wasp (Sphex lobatus). By Major R. W.G.
Hingston, I.M.S.
20 0OOC STH OFTH HHL HHTTHH DSH HHHSFTSSSSSFOTHEEODFTAOSHHOHHGAFSEHF THT HBSHBHH TOON ®
AN ACCOUNT OF SOME FRESH WATER CILIATES FROM LAHORE. By
Amir Nath Gulati, M.s.c..( With two plates).
ee ee ee ee ee
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. Part VIII. (Witha
Pplaren), By Col Ww, i. Evans, D.S:0., K:Z.S,, B.E-S,
ON THE ANTIQUITY AND THE THERAPEUTIC USES OF THE INDIAN
-SPIKENARD. By S.C.Sinha, mM.a. (With a plate.)
eeeeeseceeorer sar oe
Two NEw THYSANOPTERA FROM SouTH INpiIA. By T. V. Ramakrishna
Iyer. (Wttha plate and a text-figure.)
Soe SOT ESCH SCAHSEHO HHH STOR SOSH OOH OOM
BIRDS NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA. Part V. (With 5 plates.)
By Capt. R. 8S. P. Bates
NOTES ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURMA IN 1924. By Col. F. Wall,
CiM.G:, K2H<S.
SCOOT FS HHOTHHSOHSAHOASTSHSHTHOSHOHHGHESO aH HD BETHTALTTOHH HORM * HOD
CMP SCSOHSHSHOOCHHSEHHHSHHOSOPFHR ODOT F FH FHS HHSFFS GHA EH! OOKREOH ESOT HSH KDETHSRESOOOSD
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA. Part XXXV.
Byol. &. Bell CAE, 1.8.Sy (Retd, )
ee ee ee
A FEW DAYS AFTER URIAL OF THE PUNJAB. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton,
mA CRetd, )
SOHKTSSCATHHSHLHTHOHHOHHSHEHHHTHAHHHO THO THHSFOHHOHHTOTHO OSH SHHHTLOHHHSOHHHOCHFHOHRBOHHOOLO®
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXII. (With a plate and text-figures.)
By Major F. C. Fraser, I.M.S., F.E.s.
Poel Seesseeseeese2eGrae LHe HTFOF02H DEFER 29B00
NoTE ON A NEST OF THE ComMON INDIAN HorRNET. (Witha plate.)
By B. Chopra, D.Sc.
SER CSCHCOCHHTLOHGLOHTHHOHHH FHS HHOHFHA2HOCAGOSLHOHHHOHTHALOTHSOCHROHMLHSHDOLOe
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE THYSANOPTERA KNOWN FROM INDIA AND
CEYLON. By T. V. Ramakrishna Jyer.
NOTES ON THE ‘BIRDS OF SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. PartT VII.
(Conclusion.) By Herbert Stevens, M.B.O.U.
SOCCHTO TOOTH HOHHHLARZHVHOSHMPOOOO
REVIEWS :— THE PROTECTION OF BirpDs. By Lewis R. W. Loyd.........
A MONOGRAPH OF THE BIRDS OF PREY. Part I. By
H. Kirke Swann, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.
SoS SSSCOOFTAS HEEFT HAOXF FF FHS2OOe
NATURE AT THE DESERT’S EDGE. ByR. W. G. Hingston,
M.C., M.B., I.M.S.
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FAMILIAR FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA. By Ida Colthurst.
OBITUARIES :—Prof. H. Maxwell Lefroy; Prof. F. Hallberg; Mr. L. J.
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719
725.
734
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744
756
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805
822
ii CONTENTS OF Vol. XXX, No. 4
PAGE
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— .
I.—The Slow Loris. By Major J. D. Scale ........ Caan Behan 904
Il.—The Occurrence of Hodgson’s Bat. By E. A. D’Abreau,
EIDSS. dish atsacncddtebbian's dare gwhaws cavers otabeesd abe ed aceite ses teke ne ese 905
III.—The ‘Sambhar Call’ of the: Tiger. By A. A. Dunbar
Brander. an.sstesteateees van bees EG. couse eratinieaysvancr entero enucteers 905.
IV.—Tiger Netting in Assam. By L.J. Delanougerede, p.F.o. ... 907
V.—Panther with abnormal feet. By Maharaj Kumar Shree
VIJAVATAIII. (¥ vccwsesdvonsvcateietcbeetivenss-oeuuretenousstoemuccenes cere reees 909
Vi.—Abnormal’’ clavicle. bones. of a’ Tiger. “By. Lt.-Col.
Wi Gt EIUteRinsony) i idacccs he deen etdsevceuetacsecse rec cous eonvenesres 910
VII.~-Panther and Wild Dogs. By Lt.-Col: R. W. Burton. ......... 910
VIII.—A Hybrid Black Buck and Chinkara. (Witha photo.) By
Maharaj Kumar Sri-Sadul Sinehji Bahadur... .:....0..c2s0..<s 911
[X.—Duel between two Bull Flephants. By H. F. Mooney,1.#.s.. 912
X;—An Elephant Trap. By CG, Selignman. | isiipe.cesscee es 912
XI.—Crows’ Nests and Electric Cables. By S. H. Prater,'c.M.z.s.. 913
XII. —Predatory Habits of the Magpie. By Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey... 914
XIII.—Fresh Light on the Identity of the ‘ Devil Bird.’ By Editors. 914
XIV.—Hawks and Swallows. By Major J. D. Scales, D.s.0., 0.B.Ee. 915
XV.—An Albino Hoopoe. (Witha photo.) By Mrs. H. K. Rudkin. 916
XVI.—Occurrence of the Nepal Kalij Pheasant at Mussoorie. By
Bis PH LOL Cs ot) nacsecaiace sccnceadondtuaceoecesscetcercetsanessatanmencm ramen O17
XVII.—Breeding of the Painted Sand-Grouse in the Punjab Salt
Range. “By HW... Walte; FiZ.Sh, oo B.O1U. sree eee S17
XVIII.—The Nesting of the Little Green Heron in the District of
24-Pergannas. (With a photograph) By Satya Churn
LGA WL opebecal de cemaaenateas ddceeceeceteet sues line dceueaeeudeeeeerteet nea Tame 918
XIX.—Weights of Woodcock in Shillong. By Lt.-Col. G. R. Row,
TAA CINGC D) ioe, sce on canwetey senmeletunaecseasespsceneemr nen scenette: eae * 919
XX.—Records with, snipe. By Udaji Rao Puar. | <..s).:2.ccs.cccssnecee 920
XXI.—The Snake Natrix venningt. (Venning’s Keelback). By Col.
BU Wallicy Gee ca sunita wetaecwastulomser aueesesnemtac ves. ceeds nem a eee ae 92]
XXII.—Two Common ‘Fire Fishes’ of Madras. By S. T. Moses 921
XXIII.—A Run of Fish on the Streams falling into the Yamdrok Tso.
By) bs-Col. GE. MM. OBailey:. )eqaecence das exsweatnn toes eae ete 922
XX1V.—Extraordinary Display of ‘ Leucodice Soracte’ of the Genus
‘Aporia.’ (Witha plate). By R. Y. A. Morshead. ...... Vae)t) SOLE
XXV.—Coptosoma ostensum, Dist. and its enemy Synia melanaria,
Muls.* By Vv. “Subramanyam, Bea. “eh. et ee 924
PTOCECCINGS ws ai tisusteesesereuses ties ocetiiae eer eens eeae snide sen siuatiecemannan tc nee 926
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Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
SHOU (Cervus wallicht)
Shot by Major A. de C, Rennick
SHOU (Cervus wallicht)
Bombay Nat. Hist. Society’s Collection
JOURNAL
OF THE
Bombay Naturai History Society
Drec., 1925 | Vout Xoo No. 4
THE MAMMALS AND ) BIRDS OF KASHMIR “AND THE
ADJACENT HILL PROVINCES
BEING NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
BY
Cot. A. E. WARD
PART V.
(Continued trom page 524 of this volume.)
(With one plate and three text figures.)
1CERVIDAE : The Deer (contd.)
The Shou.— Cervus wallicht.
There seems to be little doubt as to the habitat of this fine deer,
which may be briefly stated as Northern Bhutan and the Tangpo
and Brahmaputra Valleys and Southern Tibet.
Not many Shou have been shot by Europeans, but several pairs of
horns have been purchased or given to travellers.
The head figured on the plate isinthe Bombay Natural History
Society’s collection. Plate 1 also shows a Stag shot by Major A. de
C. Rennick, who kindly sent me the photograph. Rowland Ward
gives the measurements :—
Outside curve Girth Tip to tip Points
46” 5 and $ Zo” 5+°5
Colonel F. M. Bailey, to whom I am much indebted, shot a Shou
on September 12, 1913; the description was published in 7he Field,
October 3, 1914. Reference can only be made to Bombay Natural
History Society’s Journal, XXIV, No. 1, where Bailey’s interesting
notes from Southern Tibet are published.
Hodgson, many years ago, presented a head (553” « 64”) of ten
points to the British Museum. Major Rennick also gave his
specimen and Mr. A. O. Hume had two or three pairs of horns and
* The previous article on the Cervidae of Kashmir appeared on pages 253
et seq. of this volume.—Eps.
720 -JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol] XCee
these he bequeathed to the same Museum. Colonel Bailey aiso
found horns of 54” and Colonel Tanner brought down from
Northern Bhutan a beautiful head, of the same length. This
was in Simla for some years and was greatly admired. Ido not
know from where Lydekker copied the Shou’s head he shows asa
typical specimen, but it is very like Tanner’s. The. brow. antler
appears to be short, as is the case generally with the Hangul or
Kashmir Stag, but exceptions are found to occur in both species—
the third tine is shorter than the second in most antlers. On
Major Rennick’s specimen the brow antler is well developed.
Compared with the Kashmir Hangul the skull of the Shou is very
much larger: the Hangul’s skull is in extreme length from 154” to
16” whilst the skull of a Shou is 17§” and Blanford gives a measure-
ment of 184”.
Judging from the comparatively few antlers about whose identity
there is no doubt, the number of points are, like the Kashmir Stag,
normally 5 + 5 in number; but one of Mr. Hume’s specimens was
7 + 6, and Rowland Ward gives two others as 8 + 6 and 6-+ 5.
Again, Lydekker mentions a head with 13 points from a valley not
far from Lhassa.
The Shou is amongst the largest of the Red deer, the antlers are
not unlike those of the Hangul, the beam bends forward from the
trez tine and the shape of the beam is not unlike that of the Spotted
deer.
The subdivision of the Shou deer into two races appears to be
unjustifiable, and the report of its existence near the sacred lakes
of Mansarowar appears to be untrue, anyone who has gone up the
Sutlej to its source inust know that there is no grazing or browsing
to be had. Not very far to the southward is the Tarai where there
are no Shou, and the Tarai is the only forest in which this huge
deer could exist.
Thorold’s Deer.—Cervus albirosiris.
Thorold’s Deer is of mediuin size ; it is brown in colour with the
inner portion of the ears white ; soalso isthe muzzle. The yellow
on the buttocks is very plainly to be seen. There is no trez tine.
It is believed that Przewalski first obtained this deer, and
Dr. Thorold undoubtedly obtained two specimens north of Lhassa ;
in consequence arose the name of ‘ Thorold’s’ deer or ‘ Cervus
thoroldz.. The habitat is northwards and north-eastward of
Lhassa. |
The largest horn is mentioned on page 31 of Rowland Ward's
Records of Big Game (eighth edition of 1922).
Length of horn on : : Snaee :
iene Vo cee Tip to tip Widest inside Points
47” 344” 364” 5+ 5
The locality is Central Tibet: what is exactly meant by Central
Tibet it is difficult to determine, but probably the Son given
above is more appropriate.
The only photograph I have is not my property nor.do.J know
where the horn was found.
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR 721
Knowing so little about the deer I propose to conclude this
portion of the article with the remark that Thorold’s deer is a
distinct species. | Liga | )
Having now dealt with the Elaphine group of deer let us take up
the beautiful Roe that is called the Siberian Roe’deer or the
Asiatic Roebuck.
Genus CAPREOLUS: RoE DEER.
The Siberian Roe.—Capreolus pygargus.
f
THE SIBERIAN ROE.—Capreolus pygargus.
The common native name is ///zk. The late Mr. Church writes on
the subject of this animal, giving details of its pursuit. The
distribution is the Altai, parts of the Caucasus, Turkestan, etc.
* The typical race is from the Semiretshinsk Altai,
722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The Thian Shan race is called ‘ ¢tzanschanicus’. Some of the finest
heads are from the Thian Shan, notably one shot by Col. C. B.
Wood, who very kindly contributed the beautiful photograph.
Length on Circumference Tip to tip
outside curve
17" 43 123"
These are Rowland Ward’s measurements. One longer is
mentioned on page 85 of his records. Numbers of this animal
have been shot.
Years ago I arranged with the late Rajah Sir Amar Singh to
endeavour to import and acclimatize the Siberian, or as it is
generally called, the Manchurian Roe in the State Game Reserves
belonging to His Highness the Maharajah. The plan fell through
when I left Kashmir in 1908; since then, the importation of this Roe
has been talked about. Roe deer are difficult to deal with in
captivity, but if they could be brought down safely they ought to do
well, provided the leopards and Indian martens could be kept down.
The climate of Kashmir would be quite suitable.
Genus: Wluniiacus : BARKING DEER.
The BARKING DEER.—Jluntiacus vaginalis.
The Barking deer is widely known in India and in the Himalayas
as the Ahakur. Ihave never heard the name /Jungly Bakri except
in parts of the Central Provinces.
The range includes India, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Siam,
Java, Sumatra, Borneo, etc. The several races that are distribut-
ed over this wide area need not be dwelt upon in the present paper.
A short—horned species known as Muntiacus crinifrons occurs in
Eastern China.
Distribution. Throughout most parts of India, in Burmah, Ceylon,
etc.—in most of the hilly tracts.
Most sportsmen have shot the Barking deer, coming on the
nimble little animal suddenly in the more open forest, or hearing
its peculiar startled call in the dense ringal clumps or amongst
bush jungle—the startled call is distinctly a bark of fright.
Personally, I have always had a dislike to shooting this delightful
deer owing, as I do to it, success in getting a tiger, that was the
terror of the lower Siwalik Hills, and in ridding the vicinity of hill
stations of dog-eating leopards.
The Barking deer has long upper teeth or tusks protruding from
the gums. With these tusks the animal can cause gashes. Gunga,
a grand companion who followed me for years, was once badly cut
in the fleshy part of the thumb, by the tusks‘of a Muntjac ; the wound
took weeks to heal.
If the Barking deer can be got to feed :and are allowed to be
loose they thrive well. Being inordinately fond of grain, they must
be carefully guarded on the march. A tame. barking deer used to
jump up into a Bunniah’s cart; finally it succumbed to eating too
much grain.
Dunbar Brander puts the weight. of a good buck at 48 lb., height at
shoulder 24 inches. A female weighed close on 38 ]b., that is an
THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR 733
abnormal weight. The average of five very large bucks was—height,
26”; weight 46 lb. A really good horn is given on page 217 in
Mr. Dunbar Brander’s delightful work, Wzld Animals in Central India.
Horn outside curve Girth Tip to tip
Vig 33” SEG
The hairy pedicle which carries the horn measures about 4”. Barking
deer cast their horns annually. I see no reason to doubt this fact,
undoubtedly the horns are shed in the summer months when few
sportsmen care to tramp about amongst the hills, and as the horns
are generally hard by October the idea has been formed that this deer
does not shed its horns year by year. Living as I have done in the
jungles throughout the year I have always seen hornless muntjac
in July and August and have frequently picked up fallen horns.
The colouring varies from dark to fairly light red ; the stomach,
under the jaw and part of the throat are white as a rule.
Females are said to be of a lighter red, but this is not very
marked.
Genus Moschus : Musk DEER.
The Musk Deer.—Moschus moschitterus moschtterus.
THE Musk DEER.—WMWVoschus moschtterus moschtterus.
Kastura (=Musk) is the native name in most of the Himalayas—
Rebjoin Laddak. ous and Kastura in Kashmir.
724. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Distribution.—The Himalayas extending from the East to Gilgit
on the west. Found also in China and Siberia. The Chinese race
to the westward is called Moschus moschiferus sijanicus.
The Musk deer varies considerably in size, ranging from 22 to 30
lb. in weight with a shoulder height of about 19 inches; the hind
quarters have frequently a height of 21 to 22 inches. ‘The fur is
coarse and brittle, in fact, the body covering is more in the nature
of soft spiky hair, which breaks easily. This renders the skin
useless as a trophy.
This deer is hornless in both sexes. The only trophy obtainable
is the pair of tusks in the upper jaw, which measure from about 2 to
34 inches; these tusks are imbedded in the gums. The maximum
total length of the tusk is about 3$ to4inches. The glandular pouch
which holds the musk is greatly sought after, as much as Rs. 32
being, at times, paid for what is called the musk pod. Consequently
in spite of all precautions Musk deer are decreasing in numbers year
by year, and, but for this deer being preserved as a ‘ royalty ’, (i.e.,
belonging to the ruling chief), it would have become extinct in
Kashmir.
Very little sport is to be obtained from the pursuit of the Musk
Deer. Afterapair of the canine tusks have been secured these small
animals should be left in peace; sufficient enemies exist, without
bringing the modern small bore rifle to lessen the numbers of a
forest-living animal. The nets and shot guns of poachers and
leopards, wild dogs, Indian martens, foxes, etc., all prey on the
Musk deer. ;
Years ago at Badiar in the Jinsar Forests of the United
Provinces an effort was made to populate with these deer a fairly
large tract of hillside. Every aid was afforded by nature and suitable
food, shade, rocks and shrubs existed. At first many Musk deer
tenanted the country which was preserved. One morning, whilst
out after Cheer pheasants; I put up many without any beaters, a few
years afterwards not a single Musk deer was to be found, they had
all dispersed. This’ only shows how fruitless it is to try and
interfere with the laws which govern wild animal life. Whether
the Musk deer objected to being overcrowded, or had eaten up the
selected portions of the herbage it is impossible to say—perhaps
disease had occurred—it.is useless to speculate. Undoubted'y it is
always the case that overcrowding causes disease and at f aat we
must leave it. But for the intervention of man, wild animals would
still be plentiful, the reproduction of the jungle fatina if left alone
would be balanced by nature, the numbers would possibly fluctuate
as the vermin gained the ascendency ; as the game decreased the
flesh-eating animals would wander off to better hunting grounds,
the numbers of the animals on the devastated ground would again
increase and so on ad infinitum.
(To be continued )
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.
BIRDS OF THE PERSIAN GULF ISLANDS
BY
CLaup B. TICEHURST, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.B.O.U.
(LATE CAPT., R.A.M.C.)
ASSISTED BY
MajJOR-GENERAL SIR PERCY Z. COX, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., K.C.S.I., M.B.O.U,
AND
Mayor R. E. CHEESMAN, M.B.O.U., F.R.G.S.
(With four plates and a map)
During the last four or five years a considerable amount of information has
been gathered together about the bird ‘life on various isiets in the Persian
Gulf, with a large collection of skins and series of eggs. The skins were
presented to the British Museum and the Bombay Natural History Society
and the eggs to the British Museum and Mr. E. C.S. Baker. Some islands
were visited by Sir Percy Cox and Capt. R. E. Cheesman personally and to
others Sir Percy Cox sent his collector Mr. La Personne to investigate.. I have
considered it best to refer to the avifauna of each island separately as the
islets visited extend from the extreme north-west to the extreme south-east of
the Gulf, a matter of some 550 miles. This paper is founded therefore on
notes made by the above three observers and on specimens brought home.
Notes on the eggs of the Tropic Bird and Cormorant have been kindly
supplied me by Mr. Stuart Baker.
Starting at the south-eastern end at the entrance to the Cull
I. GREAT AND LITTLE QUOIN.
Two rocky islets, with a lighthouse, situated under Ras Masandan, the
high rocky headland of Oman. Visited by Sir Percy Cox and Capt. Cheesman,
September 23, 1920, who landed on Little Quoin. Several pairs of Phaéton
etherius indicus were flying round and in and out of crannies and probably
had bred there. An Osprey and a pair of Corvus corax ruficollis seemed to
be the only inhabitants. I may state that I have seen a clutch of three eggs
of the Osprey said to have been taken on this island prior to 1914. On
March 16, 1921, Swifts were seen doubtless, JMicropus murinus, entering
crevices in the cliff on the south side, the flock composed quite 200 birds but
Capt. Cheesman could not be sure that they were breeding there. A few
Phaétons were seen near the island.
On May 6, some Persian Shearwaters were seen off the islands; on April 9,
many were seen at sea off Ras-al-Hadd, Gulf of Oman, flying south, where also
thousands of Red-necked Phaleropes were observed in flocks of 10 to 20.
‘These flocks fly in the trough of the waves and just skim the crest. They
swim with ease in a rough sea and are always very wild. (R. E. C.)
Il. HENJAM.
This small island, five miles long and 23 broad, lies_on the Persian
side of the Straits of Ormuz under the lee of Kishim Island which itself is
separated from the Persian mainland by Clarence Strait. on the north.
It is an important cable station of the. Indo-European Telegraph Company
and port of call for the B. I. Company’s,steamers. There is a native village
with 30 houses and date groves on the western side and a larger village
exists in the south,
124: JOCK NAL; BOMBAY NATORAL HIST. SOCIZIV, Volo.
Col. Butler was there for three days, May 17 to 20, 1877 (S. &, vol. v) and
Capt. Cheesman spent a few hours ashore on March 15 and 17, 1921. It is of
volcanic formation with strata of shells, rocks and larva, and very little sand.
At the south end there are a few bushes and about half a dozen Sidera trees
(Zizyphus sp.) up to twenty feet high are dotted about the island. Hills rise
350 feet and are very bare. The following are recorded :—
Raven. Corvus corax subsp. A raven wasseenon March 15 which Chees-
man thought was ruficollis.
Crested Lark. Galerida cristata subsp. A few pairs are resident, noted by
Cheesman and Butler. No specimens.
White-eared Bulbul. Pycnonotus leucotis subsp. A few pairs are resident.
Cheesman saw old nests in the Sidera trees. No specimens.
Great Grey Shrike. Lanius excubitor. Butler records this in May as
luhtora ; more probably it is aucheri and it must be resident.
Osprey. FPandion haliaétus. A pair wereseen on March 15 by Cheesman ;
they were ‘ very agitated ’ so probably had a nest on the island. |
Black Kite. J/ilvus migrans. Seen on March 15.
Egyptian vulture. evphron percnopterus. Several seen on March 15.
Possibly resident.
Macqueen’s Bustard. Chlamydotis undulata macqueent. Butler was told
that a pair had been shot in the first week of April 1877 and that the female
had an egg ready for extrusion.
Cormorant. Phalacrocorax carbo? Cheesman saw numbers in the vicinity
on March 15.
Red-wattled Lapwing. Lodtvanellus indicus aigneri. This Lapwing was
noted by Butler and must have been resident.
Kentish Plover. Charadrius aclexandrinus alexandrinus. Noted in March
and May 20, is doubtless resident.
Little Ringed Plover. Charadrius dubius curonicus. Obtained on March 15.
Oystercatcher. Hematopus ostralegus longipes.
Curlew. Numentus arguata lineatus. Noted on March 15.
Common Sandpiper. 7vringa hypoleucus.
Red-necked Phalerope. Phaleropus lobatus. Noted at sea in the vicinity in
March and as late as May 17.
Reef Heron. Demuegretta sacra asha.
Slender-billed Gull. Larus genez (= gelastes). Noted on March 15.
Black-headed Gull. Larus ridibundus.
Sooty Tern. Sterna anethetus fuligula. \ Noted on March 15
Lesser Crested Tern. Sterna bengalensis bengalensis. and May 17. ©
Large Crested Tern. Sterna bergii velox.
Sandwich Tern. Sternas. Sandipenere
White-cheeked Tern. Sterna repressa. \
Noted on May 17.
Obtained on March 15 at Kishim.
III. TANB AND NABI-U-TANB.
Tanb Island situated at the eastern end of the Persian Gulf in Lat. 26°
16”N. and Long. 55° 19’E. will be familiar to those who have gone from Indian
ports up to Basra, as the British India Company’s ships pass within a mile
or soof the island. Asthere is a lighthouse and water on the island it was
chosen by Sir Percy Cox as a suitable place to send a collector in order to
see to what extent migration could be observed and what species halted there
during the spring passage. After a preliminary visit by Sir Percy Cox and.
Capt. R. E. Cheesman and with the kind co-operation of the Director, Royal
Indian Marine, the collector was sent to live on the island during the period
March 13 to April 14, 1921.
The island is about eight miles in circumference and consists of a volcanic
nucleus with a large accretion of coral round it. On the east side isa flat
shelving silvery'strand and towards the centre of the island the land rises by
a series of ridges of volcanic rock to 165 feet where the hghthouse stands.
The light is visible for twenty-one miles. ‘The western side is rocky with
occasional sand beaches. On the north-east the land ends in a cliff thirty to
forty feet high. At the south end there is an Arab village with three wells, a
clump of date palms, two banyan trees anda small amount of cultivation.
Most of the island is desert, the low parts support a certain amount of Sueda
BIRDS OF THE PERSIAN GULF ISLANDS 727
bushes while in the valleys between the ridges there are dwarf acacias some
of which attain the size of bushes fifteen-feet high.
The lighthouse failed to add a single specimen ; no doubt in the clear
atmosphere of the Persian Gulf night, birds are not attracted to the lantern
and I found the same thing at Manora Light, Karachi.
Nabi-u-Tanb lies seven miles south-west of Tanb and is one mile long and
three and a quarter miles broad with a rocky hill 116 feet high ; it is barren,
uninhabited and without water.
Sixty-three species are now recorded from the two islands and in nearly
every case the identifications are borne out by specimens ; only seven species
are resident—Raven, Great Grey Shrike, Crested Lark, Osprey, Norfolk
Plover, Kentish Plover and Reef Heron. Three are breeding visitors—Sooty
Tern, White-checked Tern and Tropic Bird. The rest are passage migrants
except perhaps a few Waders, Chiffchaff, Isabelline and Desert Wheatears
which may be winter visitors, while the exact status of several are doubtful :—
Brown-necked Raven. Corvus c. ruficollis. One pair inhabits the island,
breeding on the ledge of a clay cliff. On March 24 they had three young.
Grey-backed Warbler. <Aédon g. familiaris. One on March 24; a few on
March 29 in scrub on the hillside.
Upcher’s Warbler. flip polats languida, Fairly common on April 2 when
there was a small ‘rush’ of Warblers which took shelter under walls and in
thorn bushes in the small bushy valleys ; one secured April 3.
Eastern Orphean Warbler. Sylvia h. crasstrostris. Noted from March 30
to April 2 during the rush.
Menetries’ Warbler. Sylvia mystacea. Camein in numbers on April 1 and 2.
Desert Warbler. Sylvian. nana. One obtained in bushes on the hill—top
on April-2.-
Chiffchaff. Phylloscopus c. collybita. A female W 58 obtained March 29 is
quite indistinguishable from English specimens.
Brown Willow Warbler. Phylloscopus c. tristis. One obtained on March 30.
Chiffchaffs were present on the island on arrival on March 13 and an influx
took place on March 30. They frequented the date garden chiefly.
Great Grey Shrike. Lanztuse.auchert: Resident and one of the commonest
birds on the island, frequenting the acacias. In about every fifth bush there
were nests of varying ages. On March 19a nest contained young already, but
some were building yet and in some cases old nests appeared to be repaired.
Eggs were found upto April 12 and four seemed to be the usual clutch. A
larder discovered on March 21 close toa nest contained a chick of a Wader
(probably Kentish Plover) and two shrike chicks belonging to some other
pair. Shrikes were present on the island on September 23.
Bay-backed Shrike. Lanzus vittatus. Two seen and one obtained March 24,
Status doubtful. This is the most western record of this Indian species, of
which a point from 100 miles W.N.W. of Bampur in Persian Baluchistan
has hitherto been the western limit.
Masked Shrike. Lantus nubicus. Several noted and obtained on passage
between March 24 and 28 frequenting low acacia bushes. This is an exten-
sion of this bird’s range eastward ; Blanford -did not meet with it in
Eastern Persia.
Isabelline Shrike. Lanius tsabellinus. On passage from March 22-to 30.
Red-tailed Shrike. Lanztus phanicuroides. On March 28 and April 2 a few in
the date grove.
Woodchat Shrike. Lanius senator niloticus. Single bird obtained on
March 19 and 20. Scarce. The previous easternmost record of this bird is
from Niriz (east of Shiraz) where it breeds.
Pied Flycatcher. Muscicapa hypoleuca semitorquata. On March 22, 1918,
Isaw a male on board when off Tanb Island ; this is the most eastern record
that I am aware of.
Indian Pied Wheatear. Crnanthe picata. Noted as fairly abundant on
March 27. :
Pied Wheatear. CGinanthe leucomela leucomela. Obtained on several
dates, on March 27 to April 7, presumably on passage.
Isabelline Wheatear. Cnanthe tsabellina. ‘Fairly abundant up to end of
March, probably a winter visitor.
Desert Wheatear. Cinanthe desertt atrogularis. Abundant on arrival on
March 13 ; probably a winter visitor ; last noted on April 2,
2
728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Stonechat. Sazicola torqguata maura, One obtained on March 23,
Redstart. Phenicurus phenicurus mesoleuca. Obtained on passage on
March 23 and 27, both males. The known breeding quarters and winter habitat
(Abyssinia, etc.) of this bird lie well to the west of TanbIsland. Blanford did
not meet with it in Eastern Persia.
Black Redstart. Phenicurus ochruros phenicuroides. Several on passage
on March 27 to 30. Breeds in Persia.
White-throated Robin. Jrania gutturalis. A male obtained on March 29
Was the only one seen.
Rock Thrush. Monticola saxatilis. One obtained on April 6.
White-breasted Munia. Uvoloncha malabarica. One obtained on April 7,
the only one seen. This bird must, I think, have been a stray ; it may possibly
occur further west into Persia than is known. ‘There are two in the British
Museum from Muscat collected by Sir Percy Cox, but its occurrence on Tanb
is the furthest west that I am a ware of.
Ortolan Bunting, Hméeriza hortulana. One caught ina rattrap in the
date garden on March 27,
Grey-headed Bunting. Hmberiza cineracea semenowt. One obtained on
March 23 on passage. This must be about the most eastern record of this
bird.
Black-headed bunting. Hmberiza melanocephala. Several arrived on April
3; the next day a flock of 20-30 (nearly all males) were seen in some new
wheat, by April 7 all had gone. The large east to west migration of this
species therefore touches this island.
Common Swallow. Hirunda rustica, Several seen on April 4, and some
passed over to the north on April 14. Apparently only a passage migrant.
White Wagtail. Motacilla alba dukhunensis. Plentiful in the date garden
and in the lighthouse quarters on March 27. Breeds in Siberia.
Blue-headed-Wagtail. Motacilla flava beema.
Black-headed-Wagtail. Motacilla feldegg melanogriseus. An arrival of
wagtails took place on March 22 and more on the next two days—they
frequented chiefly the sandy plain and were gone by March 25. Several
specimens of these two forms were obtained of both sexes.
Grey Wagtail. J/otacilla cinerea. Several with the yellow wagtails were
obtained. ‘Tail 100-103.
Tree Pipit. Anthus trivialis trivialis. A few with larks on March 29.
Crested Lark. Galervida cristata subsp. Resident and common. Unfortu-
nately noseries of the Crested Lark was obtained. There are two freshly
moulted specimens obtained on September 23, and two worn bleached birds
on March 28 and Apri! 2. The former of course are not necessarily the resident
bird, they are both males with wing 109-105 which is small for magna nor do
they resemble magna quite in colour. They are darker, not so grey as
chendoola, though odd ones of the latter race come very near them ; on the other
hand I have seen no chendoola with a wing aslong as 109. They do not appear
either to be Zardinata, not having the breast and back so coarsely marked. The
two breeding birds have wing measurements ¢ 104 2 98,much smaller than any
magna, and they are far more worn and bieached than specimens of chendoola
are at the same time of year.
Common Bee-eater. MWJerops aptaster. First seen on March 17, two on
April 3.
Persian Bee-eater. MJerops persicus persicus. First noted on April 1.
Hoopoe. Upupa epops epops. ‘Two seen on March 14.
Pallid Swift. Micropus murinus murinus. A flock of about 20 was on the
island on arrival and were seen on and off to the end of the month. Status
doubtful.
Cuckoo. Cuculus canorus subtelephonus. One obtained, a female, on April
13 ; two had been on the island for some time ; a very pale bird with wing 190.
From an examination of Central Asian cuckoos 1 am inclined to think that
Zarudny’s subtelephonus should be recognized: the grey parts are distinctly
pale, they are mostly finely barred and have short wings.
Scops Owl. Otus scops pulchellus. One caught on March 20, one on March
16; heard on March 24 and 27. Single birds on passage.
Osprey. Pandion haliaétus. A pair frequented the island and were
obtained ; the Osprey does not breed on Tanb and the organs of these birds
were minute. Another pair however frequents Nabi-u-Tanb and nests on the
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BIRDS OF THE PERSIAN GULF ISLANDS 729
top of the islet (100 ft). Two nests were examined there, both were empty on
April 9 and appeared to be alternative nests.
Black Kite. J/ilvus migrans. Two seen on April 11.
Harrier. Czrcus sp. Two seen on September 23.
Kestrel. Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus. Odd ones seen from time to time,
one obtained on March 26. Probably a winter visitor.
Turtle dove. Strepiopelia sp. A Turtle Dove was seen on April 13.
Probably S. ¢. avenicolor or S. senegalensis.
Spotted Sandgrouse. Pterocles senegallus. Flock noted several times
between March 13 and April 7 ; on being disturbed they flew out towards the
Persian mainiand and may have been visitors thence. No evidence of breeding
could be obtained.
Stone Curlew. Cdicnemus edicnemus astutus. At least one pair resident
on theisland. A male obtained on March 29 had an incubation patch. W. 225.
Cream-coloured Courser. Cursorius cursor (= gallicus : auct.). Seen
between March 14 and 25. Status uncertain.
Turnstone. Avrenaria interpres. Flock on the shore during last half of
March ;one windswept bird was blown into the loose folds of an Arab’s
garment and captured.
Grey Plover. Sguatarola squatarola squatarola. ‘Two obtained on March 20
were the only onesseen. ¢ W. 197, B. 30; 9 W. 191, B. 29. ; obviously belong to
the typical race.
Little Ringed Plover. Charadrius curonicus dubius. A few inhabited the
sandy plain away from the seashore up to April 6.
Kentish Plover. Charadrius alexandrinus alexandrinus. Common, resi-
dent and breeding. Nest with 3eggs on March 15, five yards from edge of sea
cliff four feet high. Another nest with three eggs was made of afew twigs
and a single goat’s-dropping in sandy soil amongst short scrub, also near the
cliff’s edge on March 28. 3% W. 110-115, B. 15°5-17°5 (exp). 72 2 W. 108-112,
B. 15°5-17°5. This series is not,distinguishable from aseries from Egypt.
Mongolian Sand Plover. Charadrius mongolus atrifrons. Winter visitor ;
one obtained from a flock September 29 and another on April 11.
Geoffrey’s Sand Plover. Charadrius leschenaultii, ‘Two obtained out of a
large flock on September 23; probably also a winter visitor.
Sanderling. Caladris alba. A flock frequented the beach most of the time.
Oystercatcher. Hematopus ostralegus. Flock seen on March 13.
neues Phalerope. Phaleropus lobatus. Seen near the isiand on April
3 and 9.
Hemprich’s Gull. Larus hemprichi. Three seen, two obtained on Nabi-u-
Tanb on April 9. No sign of breeding.
White-cheeked Tern. Sterna repressa. Many on the island at the south
end on September 23; Sir Percy Cox found a colony of 2-300 preparing to
breed on the sandy plain on the south-east promontory on May 28, 1905 ;
natives say they breed in great numbers. Another large colony were begin-
ning to breed on Nabi-u-Tanb on May 28, 1905. La Personne does not record
any terns so that presumably none arrive at the nesting ground as early as
April 14. Many breeding on Nabi-u-Tanb on June 30, 1923.
Sooty Tern. Sterna anethetus fuligula. Siz Percy Cox found a colony on
Nabi-u-Tanb on May 28, 1905. Breeding there on June 30, 1923 in numbers.
Cormorant. /Phalacrocorax sp.? Seen on March 13 near the island.
Tropie Bird. Phaeton etherius indicus. This Tropic Bird does not breed
on Tanb itself, but on Nabi-u-Tanb, an islet seven miles west of Tanb;
young and old birds were brought to La Personne by fishermen in the
first week of April 1921 and on the ninth he paid a flying visit to the islet.
The islet is about a mile in diameter and except for a short beach is girt by
high cliffs, which, on their interior face slope down to the centre, forming a
bowl where at that time there was aswamp. ‘There are no trees, but there is
some scrub on the plain. At the base of the sea cliffs are many water worn
fissures, mere cracks at the top and eight inches to two feet wide at the base
and going in some six feet some ending in an enlarged chamber ; it was in
these fissures that the Tropic Birds were breeding. A good many were seen
to be flying in and out of the fissures entering and leaving close to where the
fissures met: the beach. It seems that only one pair occupied each fissure ;
most nesting sites held one young bird but from one two young and a rotten
egg were taken as well as a pair of adults. The egg appeared to be a year
730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
old, and it is not recorded whether the two young were together or not. The
young taken varied in size, a few were just feathering, but most were nearly
ready to fly. On March 24, 1923, La Personne paid another flying visit and
obtained one egg almost ready to hatch.
The young in down is well covered with greyish-white down, darker grey
on the occiput. The young fully feathered resembles the adult except for
colour of bill and feet and that the central tail feathers are short and tipped
with black. 4 ¢ ¢ W. 282-295, B. 52-55 (exp.) ; central tail feathers exceed
the rest by 225-235. 5 2 2 W. 284-293, B. 52-56°5 (exp.) ; central tail feathers
exceed the rest by 176 (worn) to 235. Bill orange; feet blue and chrome
yellow.
In no case were the long central feathers perfect : either one was broken or
moulting or missing.
The first absolutely authentic egg ever taken of this bird was one procured
by La Personne on April 9, 1921, at Nabi-u-Tanb Island. The ground
colour of this egg is a pale reddish cream and itis densely covered all over
with freckles and tiny specks of darker reddish brown. ‘Towards the broader
end these spots become larger; much more numerous and much darker,
forming a blackish red cap at the extreme end, the spots running into one
another and forming big patches. The texture, like that of all Tropic Birds,
is very coarse, the surface being rough to the touch and altogether glossless.
In shape, it is a long and blunt oval, and it measures 58°0 X 42°6 mm.
The other egg in the Cox-Cheesman collection and labelled ‘ Unknown’ is
undoubtedly also an egg of this species. It was taken on Nabi-u-Tanb
Island on April 23, 1923, and like the last described egg, was very hard set,
in this egg the bird being almost ready to hatch. The egg differs considerably
from the last. The ground colour is a dull white, only very faintly tinged
with cream. The markings consist of deep red—brown blotches, numerous
and large at the extreme larger end, very sparse and much paler elsewhere.
The texture is the same, but it is a small, proportionately rather broader egg,
measuring 54°6 X 41°6.
‘T have a third egg of this species in my collection taken by Major Pitman
in April on one of the.small islands in the Persian Gulf. This is a much
larger egg, measuring 64:0 X 48:1, and was not identified by Major Pitman,
who thought it might be that of an Osprey laid by accident on the ground.
It is, I think, however, undoubtedly the egg of this Tropic Bird. It differs
considerably from either of the two eggs already described. ‘The ground
colour is dull white, with hardly any markings at all over the greater part of
the surface, but with a broad scattered ring of dull light brown blotches and
smears at the larger end.’
These three eggs will probably be found to represent the extreme range of
colouration in the eggs of this Tropic Bird, and they can be exactly matched
with eggs of Phaéthon rubricaudus.
Persian Shearwater. Puffinus persicus. Seen on March 14 off the island ;
apparently does not breed on Tanb. The breeding ground remains unknown
though it must be in this neighbourhood somewhere. The type was obtained
between Gwader and Muscat on February 21, 1872 and is moulting its wings.
The only other specimen in the British Museum was obtained between
Gwadar and Henjam by Butler on May 17, 1877, when he found it common but
very shy. On March 22, 1918, I found it swarming in the Straits of Ormuz and
saw. one flock of over 200 birds, but saw none west of Tanb. At the same
place on November 17, Isaw none. Untilit can be ascertained what month
this bird breeds in it is hopeless to try and find its nesting place.
Reef Heron. Demiegretta sacra asha. Twoseen. Anest with three eggs
was found by Sir Percy Cox on Nabi-u-Tanb on May 28, 1905.
IV. -NABI-UL-FARUR.
Is 4 miles long and 23 broad and rises in dark volcanic hills toa height of
465 feet. The iirm belief that this might be the breeding ground of the
Persian Shearwater led Sir Percy Cox to send La Personne to investigate the
island in 1923. Visited by La Personne on July 6, 1923. 45 miles W. by 8. of
Tanb Island.
Sooty Tern. Sterna anaetheta fuligula and White-cheeked Tern. Sterna
vepressa. 4 :
Were nesting in large numbers ;,eggs fresh. Between this island and
BIRDS OF THE PERSIAN GULF ISLANDS 73)
Abu Musa several flocks of Persian Shearwater Puffinus persicus, 22-30 in
each flock, were seen by Cheesman on March 18, 1921. The birds appeared
to be feeding on surface fry.
V. Srr-Bu-Na’ AIR.
Sixty-five miles south of Nabi-ul-Farur. Visited by Sir Percy Cox on May
29, 1905. Northern half is a waste of volcanic debris ; southern half holds
some scanty salsola vegetation.
White-cheeked Tern. Sterna repressa, Sooty Tern. Sterna a. fuligula
and Lesser Crested Tern. Sterna 6. bengalensis. Were seen in numbers,
together with afew Large Crested Tern. Sterna bergit velox and Hemprich’s
Gull. Larus hemprichi. No birds were as yet breeding.
VIL; HaLuL ISLAND.
Is 13 miles long and 1 mile broad and about 115 miles W. by N. of Sir-bu-Na’
Airand 75S. E. of Ras Rakan. Visited by Sir Percy Cox on July 25, 1906 and
by Capt. Cheesman, March 19, 1921.
A rocky island with small cone-shaped hills rising to 100 feet, rocks dark red
with iron oxide ; at the north end a gravel plain half a mile across ending in
small cliffs to the sea ; at the south end there is some scrub (Halopeplis per-
foliata).
The following birds were recorded :—
Common Wheatear. Cinanthe enanthe. Pied Chat. C. leucomela.
Blue-headed Wagtail. Motacilla flava. White Wagtail. JZ. alba.
Common Swallow. Afirundo rustica. Red-rumped Swallow. AH. rufula.
Tawny Pipit. <Axzthus campestris griseus. Sand Martin. Azparia riparia.
Hoopoe. Upupa epops. All halting on passage March 19, 1921.
Tropic Bird. Phaeton indicus. 'Three seen on March 19.
- Black+headed Gull. Larus ridibundus. Few.
Slender-billed Gull. Larus genet. ‘Thousands ; on March 19.
Lesser Black-backed Gull. Larus fuscus tatmyrensis. A good many round
the island ; these birds appeared over the cormorant colony as scon as the
latter were disturbed, swooping down to devour eggs and chicks as well as
regurgitated food thrown out by the young and the parent birds.
White-cheeked Tern. Sterna albigena, Sooty Tern. Sternaa. fuligula and
Lesser Crested Tern. Sterna 6. bengalensis are recorded by Sir Percy
Cox on July 25, 1906, but apparently their eggs had been recently taken by
Arabs. Cheesman saw many terns off the island during his visit.
Osprey. Pandion haliaétus. ‘Two pairs were breeding during Cheesman’s
visit ; from one nest the young had already flown and the youngsters were
found on the shore. The nest was situated on the top of a cone-shaped hill
and held only fish remains and remains of young cormorants. The other
nest, also situated on a cone-shaped hill, held two young almost ready to
fly. The nest was made of sticks of adead salt bush (Sa/sola ?) and was
about 1 foot thick and 5°6 feet across ; by the nest were the remains of a tern,
a slender-billed gull and fish. On January 21, 1919, Capt. Poyntz, R. I. M.,
took 3 eggs from one of the nests. Another disused nest was probably an
alternative site.
Socotra Cormorant. Phalacrocorax nigrogularis. The most interesting
discovery made during the exploration of the Persian Gulf Islands was the
finding of the breeding quarters of this cormorant. ‘This species was first dis-
covered on the island of Socotra on December 7, 1898 (see Szirds of Socotra,
p. 49) since when little or nothing seems to have been published about it. On
March 19, 1921, R. I. M.S. ‘Nearchus’ anchored off Halul Island and Capt.
Cheesman was able to go ashore. Ten miles distant from the island a thin
cloud of Cormorants could be seen wending their way towards land and from
the numbers subsequently seen it was surmised that a vast colony must here
exist. Capt. Cheesman timed one flock which was leaving the island for the
fishing grounds and found it took 8 minutes to pass a fixed point at the rate of
20 per second—roughly 10,000 birds ina flock. Thecolony was located on the
gravel plain at the north end with no difficulty—indeed it could be smelt half
a mile away ! Here cormorants were standing about like black ninepins in
thousands while another army were esconced on the cliff’s edge. On being
disturbed the colony began to walk towards the sea, some rising on the wing
4389 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
after aclumsyrun, afew remaining on their nests till approach was made
within 30 yards. No sooner had the cormorants departed than fifty Black-
backed Gulls (L. ¢aimyrensis) appearing from nowhere swooped down to
seize such eggs and young as they could and to gobble up the fish ejected by
the frightened parents and young. ‘The nests were either scratched depres-
sions in the gravel or slightly raised above the surface, no material but
gravel being used ; the nests almost touched each other, some contained three
eggs, some two or only one, while others had young in all stages. The young,
blind and naked at first, later on when they can walk get acoat of white
down. ‘T'wo birds shot off the nest proved to be males.
The adult has the feet and gular pouch black, iris green, bill black. An
immature bird (a year old ?) hasthe feet pink-brown, iris whitish, gular pouch
pinkish, bill light brownto bluish. The nestling iscovered with pure white
down except round the eyes and upper part of neck and gular region ; the
iris is pinkish white, legs and feet ivory white.
It is very remarkable to find that the chick of the cormorant has whitedown
as those of carbo, javanicus and graculus have dark brown or black down.
Whether this Cormorant nests on Socotra and intermediate islets between
the Persian Gulf and that island oris only a non-breeding visitor there
remains to beseen. Capt. Cheesman probably hit off the tail end of the breed-
ing season on Halul as the Captain of the ‘ Nearchus’, Capt. Poyntz, visited
the island on January 21, 1919 and found multitudes of eggs and young, but at
the end of April 1920 no birds were to be seen there. Moreover by March 19,
Cheesman found many young on the wing.
Measurements of 3 ¢ 4. W. 285 (worn) 297, 289 ; Bill from angle 74, 73, 71 ;
Ts. 73 ; Md. toe with claw 93.
According to Ogilvie Grant the three Socotra birds in the British Museum
measure ¢ W. 298-310; 9 275 mm.
The eggs of this bird are probably the most interesting in many ways taken
by Sir Percy Cox and Major Cheesman, and form a most remarkable varia-
tion from any previously known eggs of cormorants or darters. In ground
colour they are a pale blue similar to all other cormorants’ eggs and like the
latter are normally covered all over with a heavy deposit of calcareous matter,
though in many cases this isnot nearly so thick as it is in most birds of this
genus. In afew the deposit is almost wanting.
Unlike all other birds of this genus, or indeed family, there are well-defined
dark amber brown blotches for the most part confined to the larger end, but
in some equally, though sparsely, distributed all over the egg. These
markings, although in many instances concealed or semi-concealed by the
lime deposited over them, are the same as primary or superficial markings
on the eggs of other birds. In some cases there are also subsidiary under-
surface markings which appear to be a pale neutral tint, or grey, though if
sufficient of the shell ‘is scratched off, they would of course appear to be
amber brown like the rest.
The eggs do not vary muchin size, ranging between 53°6 by 34:6 and 48°7
by 33°5, and in breadth between 50°1 by 33:1 and 52:0 by 36:0 mm. An egg
ee ae Jourdain’s collection from some island in the Persian Gulf is larger,
TK ol +.
VII. Farst AND ARABI.
Two island sandbanks 10 feet and 3 feet respectively, above high water,
about fifteen miles apart, situated almost in the centre of the Gulf between
Bushire and Ras-al-Bidya on the Arabian Coast. Visited by Lapersonne
April 23, 1921.
Fars.
The more northerly of the two and the larger, consists of about 5 or 6 acres
of sand with a fringe of rocks off the north beach. There is some low
vegetation in the centre and the south end. :
Terns and cormorants were seen and the latter evidently bred there.
Several halting migrants were seen and the following species obtained :—
Rock Thrush. Monticola saxatilis, Blue-headed Wagtail. MJotacilla flava
sub. sp., 2; Common Redstart. Phaenicurus ph. pheenicurus, Bluethroat,
Cyanosylvia suecica magna. Common Roller. Coracias garrula semenouwt,
Scops Owl. Otus scops pulchellus; Black Kite. Milvus migrans and
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III,
Cormorant (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis) Colony on Halul Islands.
Gulls waiting overhead to prey on eggs when Cormorants leave.
(Photo by Major R. E. Cheesman).
Us
Young Cormorants (P. zztgrogularis) in white down on Farsi'Island.
(Photo by Lt. Hindman, R.1.M.)
BIRDS OF THE PERSIAN GULF ISLANDS.
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV.
Young Ospreys
in nest.
Halul Islands.
Site of Osprey’s nest on Halul Islands.
(Photos by Major R. EF. Cheesman).
BIRDS OF THE PERSIAN GULF ISLANDS 733
Kestrel. Falco tinnunculus were also seen. In 1878 Col. Butler received
many eggs of Sterna bengalensis from an island ‘ close to Arabi.’
Arabi,
Is a sandbank fringed with rocks just above sea-level, and is only 100 yards
square ; it has no vegetation.
A few Terns and Cormorants were seen and they are said to breed ; numbers
of dead young Cormorants were found on the beach. The following passage
migrants were obtained :—
Ortolan Bunting. Emberiza hortulana, Rock Thrush, Monticola saxatilts.
Eastern Turtle Dove. Streptopelia turtur arenicolor, Nordmann’s Pratincole,
Glareola nordmannt.
VII. Um-AL-MARADIM AND QARU.
Visited by Sir Percy Cox on June 11, 1905.
Um-Al-Maradim. A sand islet situated about 20 miles off the Koweit
Coast about half mile in extent, 20 feet high and covered with scrub. White-
cheeked, Sooty and Lesser Crested Terns, Sterna vrepressa, S. anetheta
fuligula, and S. 6. bengalensis were found nesting. Here and there among
small colonies of bengalensis was a nest of fudigula under any little bush
which happened to be in the former’s territory. In one or two cases a small
colony of repressa were nesting in the middle of colonies of Jdengalensis. A
small group of Crab Plover, Dromas ardeola were seen and corpses of young
Cormorants were found.
Qaru.
An islet about 15 miles north-east of Um-al-Maradim. The same. terns
were seen on this islet, but it was apparently not used as a breeding ground.
A flock of Cormorants were seen and the island was strewn with dried-up
corpses of half—grown young.
IX. KUBBAR.
A small sand islet 8 feet high and covered with scrub. Situated about
30 miles north of the last group and about 20 from the Koweit Coast and
32 from Koweit. Visited by Sir Percy on Cox June 9, 1905 and by La Personne
on April 24, 1921.
Sir Percy Cox found the following :—
White-cheeked Tern. Sterna repressa. Small separate colonies in the
Open ; some attempt was made at a nest ; two eggs seemed the usual number
and they varied much in colour in the same nest.
Sooty Tern. Sterna anetheta fuligula. Breeding in small colonies and
also scattered singly all over the island.
Lesser Crested Tern. Sterna bengalensis bengalensis, Breeding in numbers.
La Personne found :—
Crab Plover, Dvromas ardeola. Many holes on the higher ground and a
flock was seen.
Reef Heron, Demiegretta sacra asha, Six or eight nests, these consisted
of twigs placed on masses of weeds a foot and a half high. The nests
contained 3 to 4 eggs.
A, AUBAE;
Situated 3 miles off the south-west of the inhabited island of Failakah
which is at the entrance to Koweit Bay. A rocky islet reduced at high water
to an area of 200 X 300 yards, there is little or no scrub. Visited by La
Personne on June 12, 1923.
_ Crab Plover. Dromas ardeola. Breeds in numbers. The parent birds
were seen carrying pulped crabs to young in the holes; the young in down
walk with difficulty and make a noise like the young of chickens,
Squacco Heron, drdeola ralloides. One obtained on passage near Auhah
on April 25, 1921.
White-cheeked Tern. Sterna repressa.
S. 6. bengalensis.
Sooty Tern. Sterna a. fuligula. Nesting in disused holes of Dromas
ardeola, the single egg being placed about six inches down the hole. The
eggs were fresh.
Houbara. Chlamydotis houbara macqueeni. One seen by Capt. Cheesman
off the Shat-al-Arab bar flying north on November 5, 1923,
Breeding in great numbers.
A NEW SNAKE FROM BURMA
BY
Core FE: WALL, C.M.G., K.H.S.
Among a collection of snakes: from Huton, Kachin Hills (4,500 feet)
aggregating 79 specimens, received recently through the kindness of the
Rev. Father Gilhodes, I find three specimens of a species of MRhabdophis
hitherto indescribed, which I propose to designate.
khabdophis speciosus sp: nov:
Type. ¢. 805 mm. (2 feet, 73 inches), the tail 218 mm. (8% inches),
GENERAL CHARACTERS. Snout, moderately declivous, moderately narrowed.
Nostril, moderate, situated in both nasals, and occupying the 2nd and 3rd
fifths of the nasal suture. Eye, large, its diameter equals its distance to
the anterior edge of the nostril. Pupil round. Neck, moderately contracted.
Body, moderately robust, cylindrical. Tail, rdther long.
Lepiposis. ostval—Rostro-nasal sutures rather longer than the rostro-
internasals; portion visible above about half the suture between the
internasals. Jnuternasals, two; the anterior border about two-thirds the
length of the posterior border ; the suture between them a shade less than that
between the praefrontal fellows. Praefrontals, a pair. Frontal, a shade
longer than the snout. Vasals, two. Loreal, about three-fifths the length
of the nasals. Pr@ocular, one. FPostoculars, three. Temporals, two anterior.
Supralabials, eight; the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, 4th and 5th
the eye, and the 6th and 7th the anterior temporals. Sudlinguals, two
pairs, the posterior rather longer than the anterior, separated by three
azygos and a pair of scales, behind which is the narrow first ventral.
Infralabials, the 5th, 6th and 7th touch the posterior sublinguals. Costals,
in 17 rows two head-lengths behind the head, 19 at midbody, 17 two heads-
lengths before the vent. About three heads-lengths behind the head a new
row of scales appears on each side of the vertebrals. The rows remain 19
to about four or five head-lengths behind midbody when the fourth row
above the ventrals disappears. Keels present in all rows at midbody. Apical
facets in pairs, very distinct. Apical emargination present. The scales of the
vertebral row are about half as broad as their length, and half the breadth
of those in the ultimate row. The scales in the ultimate row are not quite
as broad as long. Ventrals, 166, the two first narrow. Amal, divided.
Subcaudais, 87, paired. 7 aha ta
CoLour. Dull olive-green dorsally, with a series of closely set; vertical
pale spots on the 4th and 5th rows above the ventrals, continued well down
the tail. <A fairly distinct chequering of blackish and ochraceous yellow spots
in the anterior part of the body, and a bright ochraceous bar across the occiput,
a little behind the parietal shields. Belly dirty whitish, peppered with black
and grey spots, denser on the basal parts of the ventral and subcaudal
shields, and in the posterior part of the body. Anteriorly this peppering is
chiefly lateral. Head olive-brown above merging to dirty white on the lip.
The posterior edges of the supralabials dark, black and conspicuous on the
5th and 6th of the series. Lower lips and sublingual region palest buff,
immaculate. |
DENTITION. From specimen No. 3. JMazxilla, carries 29 teeth. Diacran-
terian. ‘The praecranterian 27, anododont, isodont. Cranterian 2, obliquely
set and fully twice the length of the preceding. ‘The praecranterian space
would accommodate one tooth. Palatine, 19 left, 20 right ; anododont, isodont,
not quite so long as the maxilla. Pterygoid, 26 left, 27 right ; anododont,
isodont ; about as long as the palatine. Mandibular, 31 left, 32 (33?) right ;
anododont, kumatodont ; the median as long as the maxillary.
REMARKS. Specimens 2 and 3 agree with the type except that the ventrals
number ¢ 168, 2 167; and the subcaudals ¢ 86, 9 87. The number of costal
rows anteriorly is very unusual for a species of this genus. Specimen 2 is a
¢ 710 mm. (2 feet, 4 inches) long, the tail 188 mm. (7 inches). Specimen 3 is
a 2 622 mm. (2 feet and 3 an inch) long, the tail 168 mm. (6 inches),
AN ORIENTAL HUNTING WASP SPHEX LOBATUS
BY
Mayor R. W. G. HINGSTON, I.M.S.
PART -J
GENERAL HABITS
Home ot sphex—Her appearance—General habtis— Manner ot
hunting—Excavations—Ex pulsion of cricket-— Mode of battle—Storing
of victim—A pplication of egg.
I recall a wide expanse of river-bed. It isa mere neglected
sandy plain, a dusty waste, swept with ripples, fissured by the sun,
and thirsting for the vivifying rains of summer to inundate its
crumbling soil. Rank weeds are rooted in its ruts and furrows, a
coarse and brittle jungle-grass clothesit in a withered scrub, while
here and there some hardy tamarisk adorns it in a more luxuriant
garb. For four months in the year it is a waste of water, caused
by the floods of the neighbouring river that submerge it at the time
of the monsoon. But at other periods it is a sun—baked plain, a
broad wilderness of desiccated sand.
' This is the type of district beloved of the sphex. The blazing
sun of early May, the crumbling, coarse and parched soil, the sands
that burn to the humantouch, these are the particular attributes of
Nature in which this solitary wasp delights. Let us seek her when
the sun stands high in the heavens, for it is then that she rejoices
at her work. Nor is the beauty and the splendour of her colouring
out of harmony with the full blaze of light.*
The species Irefer to is the Sphex lobatus, a sparkling gem of
metallic splendour not uncommon on the Indian plains. She is to
be found throughout the whole of the peninsula, and also in Burma
and Ceylon. To the east she extends to China and the Malayan
region ; to the west into the continent of Africa.
Let us glance fora moment, ina little detail, at the glorious
magnificence and beauty of her dress. Her head isin the form of
an oval disc that looks forward from a narrow neck. It glistens
with a brilliant metallic green; round about the ocelli there is a
gleam of yellow, and on either side are the large black eyes. From
in front project the sensitive antennae, delicate elastic—jointed
rods that naturally assume a spiralturn, while below are the toothed
and intercrossing jaws, each with its sickle-shaped point. Her stout
thorax gleams with the iridescence of the head. Behind it is
adorned with fine transverse lines that seem to strengthen the
lustrous glow; in front it 1s a pure and polished green with
* Naturalists interested in the hunting-wasps will find the habits of the
following species, Ampulex assimilis Psammochares metas, Cryptochetlus
rubellus, Psammochares rutilus, described in detail Nature at the Desert’s
Edge, Witherby and Co., 326 High Holborn, London,
3
736° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCRAL HIST. SOCIELNY, Volo
evanescent tints of gold. The same splendour is extended even to
the thread-like waist, and the conical abdomen is a dazzling sheen,
a mingling of yellow and blue and purple and gold according to the
angle of the light. Her long scintillating wings give forth a red-
dish gleam and terminate in purplish tips, while her legs, well
armed with numerous spines, are refulgent in green and blue. In
body length she is exactly one inch, and her showy integuments are
like an armour, for they are as solid as a coat of mail.
A record of the operations of this Indian sphex is a piecework of
scattered facts. She wanders alone on the sandy waste without
any settled abode. We are sure not to find her at the time we
want her ; then suddenly, at some unexpected moment, she hap-
pens to cross our path. Nor is she so common as to be daily
encountered, at least in this neglected tract. Wemust make the
most and best of every opportunity and patiently depend on chance.
On each occasion she will tell us something fresh about herself,
and by blending the records of these accidental meetings we will
learn the details of her work.
A tireless industry, an incessant activity, an outburst of glowing
energy and enthusiasm when approaching the object of her desire,
these are the most striking features in the disposition of this
hunting-wasp. She is naturally timid except when busily engaged.
Her powers of vision are excellent and she sees an intruder from a
distance. On his approach she either immediately takes to her
wings, or, if engaged at hunting, she will just flit away a little dis-
tance and wait until the object that disturbed her has passed. She
needs the glare of sunlight for her work. It is then that we find
her feverishly digging in the soil, but when the clouds appear she
seeks seclusion. I then see her hiding in the midst of the tamarisk,
clinging motionless to a cluster of leaves. She is strictly solitary
in her general habits : her explorations, her excavations, the slaying
of her victims are always conducted alone: At only one time do I
see a trace of any social instinct. It occurs at the close of the day’s
work. The sphex then retires to the shelter of the tamarisk where
she prepares to spend the night. I sometimes see three or four of
them in the same bush, often hidden in the densest part and fixed
to the stems and leaves. It is the only indication of any feeling of
companionship in their otherwise solitary lives.
Asa rule we will encounter her when seeking her prey. In the
reproductive season the greater part of her time seems to be spent in
the labours of the chase. The object of her search is the rachy-
try pes achatinus, a stout-built cricket of great strength and unusually
massive size. Its body isa smooth and shining brown that passes
into yellow beneath. Its huge head presents a formidable appear-
ance. On either side are the piercing coal-black eyes ; between
them the projecting filiform antennae, and below the sharp and rigid
lip that protects the thick grinding jaws. The sphex will not find
this monster on the surface ; it lives inthe bottom of a deep burrow
from where it emerges only by night. Its capture necessitates a
long search followed by a slow and laborious excavation into the
depths of its subterranean retreat.
She confines herself strictly to this one species. For some reason
AN ORIENTAL HUNTING WASP 737
the Brachytrypes, and this kind alone, is best suited for the purpose
in view. There are numerous other kinds of crickets that inhabit
this soil. Some live near the surface or just under the clods and she
could take them with the greatest ease. But she despises all the
smaller and more common kinds ; she must have the great monster
beneath.
The Brachytrypes is most partial to the sloping ground at the
margin of the river-bed. It seems to like those places where the
once swollen river touched upon the shelving bank. This, there-
fore, is the ground best suited for our purpose. If gifted with
patience, we may here disentangle the successive stages in the
operations of the sphex. Here she comes, like a green sparkling
gem, hurrying over the dusty soil. She runsin and out amongst the
tussocks of grass, round about the thicker stumps of the tamarisk,
then out upon the open space of hot and crumbling sand. Her
golden wings are constantly quivering, and those wonderfully sensi-
tive points, the antennae, are perpetually touching and testing the
soil. She is systematic in all actions, and maintains a constant and
persistent search. She explores little hollows, plunges down into
tunnels and thoroughly investigates every place she meets. She
gives most attention to the gloomiest nooks, to the depths of the
burrows, to the under surface of the clods ; no likely spotis passed
unnoticed ; nothing is missed in her untiring search. Here and
there she scuffles a little in the soil as though she imagined that
something lay hidden beneath. At times she digs a little deeper,
perhaps down to the base of her wings. But the excavation usually
results in nothing; she expends in this way much fruitless effort and
then runs off to repeat the process elsewhere. At other times she
is more persistent in her excavations ; she returns to the same place
again and again, as though she feit that, in spite of failure, same-
thing must surely lie buried beneath. Butin the end she will
usually desert this spot also, often rising on her powerful wings
and disappearing in a green flash of light.
At length she will find some spot of particular interest. Instead
of just a few casual shuffles she will burrow excitedly into the soil.
Let us now watch her with a little care. We will probably be not
alone in our attentive observation; there is frequently another
creature watching her too. A little fly is hovering stationary in
the air. It has fixed her with its penetrating eye. It holds itself
at a height of about a foot above her anda similar distance behind.
From its czrial watch-tower it follows every movement ; it advances
when she advances; it turns when she turns; if she stops to dig, it
just hovers in its place giving forth a gentle hum. It always holds
itself at the same distance from her and follows her wherever she
goes. Thus together we watch the operations. Both of us are eager,
though for different reasons, to witness the fulfilment of the work.
The soil is ideal for the purpose of excavation, being loose and
sandy and easily thrust aside. At first she may hesitate as to the
best place to dig. As aconsequence she often scuffles in three or
four places before she alights on the exact spot. At length, having
found it, she bursts into enthusiasm. Before her lies a mound of
upturned soil, ejected debris scattered on the surface which has
738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST, SOCIETY, Vol XOX
been thrown up from some cavern beneath. Into this she plunges,
raking and scuffling ; she must know that the object that calls forth
such energy lies buried deep down inthe earth. She is an expert
in the art of mining operations. Her excavation advances with
great rapidity and in a minute or two she has shaped a hollow in
the sand. Any obstructing herbage she thrusts forcibly to one
side. With her fore legs she rakes back the looser debris, working
them alternately with such energy and speed that the sand is shot
backward jet after jet in an almost continuous stream. The spouts
issue forth between her hind legs like a miniature volcano of dust.
She employs her mandibles for the coarser work. With these she
tears away the roots and the stems, hoists out the bulkier nodules
of earth and drags them to the mouth of the hole. Often she is not
satisfied at just leaving them near the entrance ; the larger pieces,
the clods, which to her must be enormous boulders, the stems,
which in proportion are like trunks of trees, these she designedly
drags farthest away so as to prevent them slipping back again into
the hole. Thus she advances by raking and digging. Whatever
obstructs her she breaks it down, applying to it her jaws or her
vertex or her legs.
As she descends she has not only to eject the soil, but she finds
that the material shot backward between her legs tends in part to
fall back on her again. A loose hillock of debris accumulates at
the mouth which threatens to collapse into the hole. She realizes
the danger and takes steps to meet it. At intervals she backs
upward out of the burrow, ascends the hillock, scatters back the
dust until it is swept clear of the hole. Then she immediately
plunges back into the tunnel, and soon digs herself down out of sight,
though the signs of her excavation are still apparent from the
succession of jets that come shooting from the hole.
At length the volcano suddenly ceases. We no longer see the
sphex backing up to the surface, and the work of excavation seems
to have come to anend. She has broken through the barrier that
obstructed the gateway and is now in the cricket’s den.
For a variable time everything is silent. It may be half a
minute; it may be a minute or more before the next step in the
drama occurs. Then a huge head appears at the aperture. Two
glaring eyes peer forth into the open and two long antennae are
thrust through the gate. The brown fleshy body quickly follows,
and soon the whole of the enormous cricket emerges with a sudden
rush. Close upon its heels comes the excited wasp, mad with
enthusiasm, her colours flashing as though the ardour of the chase
had added to her sheen. Ina few swift leaps the cricket is away,
with the mouth of the burrow a yard or two behind. For a moment
the wasp may be temporarily at fault. She rushes about in search
of her quarry, sometimes hunting in the wrong direction, but soon
she finds the track of her spoil. Then commences the chase in the
open. The sphex, all aglow with excitement and anger, pursues
her quarry with a passionate rush. Away goes the cricket leap
after leap, and after it the murderous sphex. She reaches it, comes
up from behind it, for she dare not face its powerful jaws. She
clutches at it; there is for a moment a swift and disordered scuffle,
AN ORIENTAL HUNTING WASP 739
but the cricket manages to break away. The chase continues ; the
cricket makes a longer leap than usual, with the result that the
sphex for a moment loses it, but she soon recovers the trail. Again
she seizes it; this time her grip is rather more secure, and she
makes an effort to apply her sting. The moment, however, has
not yet come: the cricket a second time struggles from her grasp,
again it breaks into a succession of leaps, but the wasp is now
close up behind it, soon she has it gripped for the third time and
the cricket is now doomed. This time she clutches it firmly by
the back. She fixes her mandibles on one of its wings, she clings
onto its body with her curved claws, she curls her abdomen round
one of its flanks and thrusts the tip underneath its chest.
Immediately she attempts to sting her victim; two or three times
we see her pointed spear project, but the thrusts which she gives
it are so quick and sudden that we cannot tell if it is driven home.
Soon, however, she changes to a steadier operation. She presses
forward her abdomen right under the thorax until its point is almost
at the cricket’s head, then out comes the long and quivering sting
which she plunges into the cricket’s neck. This is quite different
from her previous efforts. It is not just a sudden, almost
instantaneous, act, the mere insertion of the spear for a moment
after which it is as quickly withdrawn. This is a long and steady
and determined effort. For half a minute she remains thus locked
with her victim, her body curled around its flank and her sting
embedded in its neck. She makes not a movement of any kind,
with her claws and her mandibles she just maintains a grip while
the deadly poison takes effect.
In this one stroke the battle is finished. This last thrust secures
immediate conquest, but, in order to be effective, it must be perfect
and precise. It is not easy for her to achieve this final stroke,
hence it is that the cricket so frequently escapes. ‘The wasp must
first adjust herself round the flank of her victim, gain a suitable
purchase with her claws and mandibles, before she can apply her
sting. It is difficult to do this with a struggling victim, and thus
the cricket often manages to shake her off. But once the final
plunge is made, once the tissues of the throat are pierced, then the
struggle is instantaneously ended and the cricket rolls over in a
helpless heap as though it were struck dead. Its legs fall, its
antennae droop, it lies on the sand without a trace of motion, to all
appearances a lifeless thing.
The sphex now steadily withdraws her weapon and awakens from
that fixed immobile attitude which held her while her thrust was
being driven home. She scarcely waits a moment; she seems to
know clearly that her conquest is complete. Getting astride her
victim, she seizes it by the antenne and immediately commences
to draw it away. I take the prostrate victim from her jaws. To
all appearances it is absolutely dead. Nota heave of the body,
not a tremor of the limbs, even the antennz hang limp and
motionless ; the cricket, in fact, is so completely paralyzed that it
shows not a trace of life.
Let us pause for a moment over some details of this contest ; it
is the most important and exciting episode in the life of this
740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
animated sphex. The battle is by no means a one-sided affair with
certain victory assured to the wasp. The cricket is not lacking in
the capabilities of defence. Though its fleshy body is deficient in
armour, yet it 1s supplied with powerful instruments of battle and
is superior in muscular strength. Its hind thighs are stout and
fusiform-shaped rods that can kick with tremendous force, while
the shanks are armed with double rows of backwardly projecting
spines. Its mandibles are massive triangular structures, each
being obliquely cut into a curve and fixed on a pyramidal base.
Their opposing surfaces are sharpened to an edge, their extremities
terminate in in-turned points, and the cutting margins are suitably
provided with blunt and jagged teeth. Such are the weapons that
the wasp must circumvent before she can apply her sting.
We will see that the cricket in the final struggle can sometimes
use these weapons to effect. Six times have I been witness to the
expulsion of the monster ; on five occasions the fascinating contest
followed, not brought about by any artifice of my own, but a battle
fought on the open sand ina free and unfavoured field. Four times
victory fell to the wasp; twice the cricket escaped. The first
conflict was that which I have just described and is typical of the
general character of the fight. On the second occasion the tables
wereturned. Thesphex managed tocome upon her victim clumsily.
Instead of approaching it skilfully in the rear, she happened to
advance with a rush upon its head, and, instead of getting her sting
underneath the thorax, she drove if ‘against the crickets face.
This was a fault in fundamental tactics; it was probably due to a
simple error, Since the cricket at the time lay crouching on the sand
and the wasp must have mistaken its head for its tail. Her
adversary instantly seized the advantage ; it closed its massive jaws
upon her leg and held her witha firm grip. She drew back ina
frenzy, dragged and struggled, and at length managed to tear
herself away. But she clearly had received the worst of the tussle.
For a little while she lay half collapsed on the ground, then walked
slowly and haltingly off, and refused to come again to the fight.
Through the clumsiness of her attack the cricket had conquered ;
nor was it at a loss to make the most of its advantage, for it left
the arena in a few hurried leaps and soon dug itself into the sand.
On the third occasion also the cricket escaped. This time it did
not gain the victory in battle ; it eluded its pursuer by the strength
of its legs and the rapidity ofits successive leaps. Its first jump
carried it far from the burrow, after which it did not rest till it was
yards away, with the result that the wasp on coming to the surface
was unable to take up the pursuit.
The fourth was one of the deadly contests. This time the wasp
at her first grip got a hold of the cricket by a hind leg. Then very
deftly she worked herself forward until she obtained the usual
purchase on a wing. Again I observed the same detailed
operations, the adjustment of the sphex to the cricket’s flank, the
few preliminary strokes underneath the thorax, and then the final
deadly thrust straight into the victim’s neck. The one detail of
the operation that still remained uncertain was the nature of
these swift preliminary strokes. Are they actual poisonous thrusts,
Py oO N A i Mit )> ,
AN ORIENTAL HUNTING WASP 741
genuine stings which penetrate the integument, or are they mere
external probings which fail to be driven in? They are quick and
sudden and utterly unlike the prolonged thrust that finally quells
the struggles of the prey. In this contest they scarcely seemed to
pierce the body, nor did the cricket seem much the worse for their
effects. At first it appeared as though they were not real stings,
but the searching and probing of an excited sphex eagerly feeling
for the point at which to strike.
On the fifth occasion I saw only one preliminary sting. The
wasp first gripped her victim by a hind leg, then, bending forward
beneath its body, drove her lance into the abdominal mass. After
this she took her customary hold upon a wing and plunged her
sting into the tissues of the neck. Thus the preliminary stinging
is variable in position and number; it is the final act that never fails.
The sixth contest disclosed additional variations. It was a battle
greatly to the advantage of the sphex, for she had fallen on her
victim at the mouth of the burrow when it was entangled in a
tussock of grass. I here had a good view of the preliminary
perforations. Three times I saw her thrust her sting into the
thorax, after which she made a fourth stab into the abdomen,
followed by a fifth into the side of the chest; then she came forward
into the final position in order to reach the neck. The cricket
seemed injured by these five preliminary stings, not, however, to
any very great extent. The stab had to be made deep into the neck
before quiescence occurred.
With the help of the records of these successive contests we can
summarize the deadly strategy of the sphex. Her first grip is
usually made on the cricket’s hind leg, and the wasp, without
waiting another moment, immediately applies her sting. Her first
thrusts are merely of a preliminary nature; they are swiftly made,
rapidly repeated, vary from about two to five in number, are applied
to the under-surface of the thorax and abdomen, and, though they
impede the cricket to some extent, yet they fail to produce a
condition of paralysis, because they just penetrate the surface
integument and do not reach the nervous chain. Thus, these
preliminary stings are auxiliary blows; they are given in order
momentarily to stagger the cricket and so enable the wasp to curl
herself forward into the position for the final stroke. The last
thrust is utterly different from the rest. The plunge into the neck
is the blow of victory ; it is from this alone that helplessness results.
The cricket, being vanquished, must next be removed. The
wasp stands astride of it, her legs wide apart. She seizes the
thread-like antenneze in her mandibles and walks her burden over
the sand. It is a heavy load to which she has applied her strength:
the monster may appear eight or ten times her size, yet she drags
at it impetuously, hauling it over the leaves, round about the loose
clods of earth and through the stiff stems of the grass. She makes
no attempt to raise her victim. Her wings may vibrate with
excitement or anger, but so massive a burden makes flight
impossible, so she is compelled to keep her transportation to the
soil. If the cricket is small and satisfactorily paralysed, she can
move it along at a walking pace. Butif it is large or has some
142, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATOCRAL FIST. SOCILTY) Valeo
power of moveinent, then she may burst into a frenzy of passion,
seize it by the throat, crush it with her mandibles and tear apart
the tissues of its neck. This is, however, not a general occurrence,
it is but a rough accessory to the more perfect operation, and is
usually reserved for a victim that is regaining its strength before
she has time to bury it underground.
She drags it off to the burrow from where it was expelled. It
may be a journey of only a foot or two, but, on the other hand, it
may be atedious business if she has been involved in a difficult
chase. When she reaches the gateway she thinks of storing her
burden. Nowshe may often desert it for a little while ; she may
either have some difficulty in finding the entrance or she may pay a
visit to the interior of the tunnel to see if itis suitably prepared. At
length she returns, finds her burden at the place where she left it,
and then drags it to the edge of the gate. She places the cricket in
such a position that its head is turned towards the entrance of the
shaft. Again the sphex enters and for a moment disappears.
Almost immediately she returns, takes hold of the cricket by the
antennae and pulls it head first into the tube. For about a minute
she remains below ; then, on emerging, she takes a stand over the
entrance, shuffles back the sand into the tunnel and thus seals the
open gate. This last is arapid and skilful operation: the soil is
loose and she is an expert at the work. Ina few minutes the gate-
way is sufficiently closed, and, satisfied with this, she disappears.
Let us now investigate what has happened within. I follow down
the tunnel into the sandy soil. It is astraight tube, slightly oblique
in direction, and about equal to a middle finger in width. Its upper
portion lies in the crumbling sand, but its lower half enters a more
compact stratum which is pleasantly moist and cool. After tracing
it down for fourteen inches Icome upon the blind end. There is no
special dilatation to be seen, nothing in the nature of an artificial
chamber ; itis merely a straight blind tube. The cricket is crou-
ching at the bottom of this tunnel. It is seated with its head
looking towards the gate. I expectto find it paralysed and helpless,
for such it was when being dragged in. But it is seated erect
looking out through the. tunnel. I disturb it and it advances,
coming forward on to the upturned soil. This, indeed, is a
surprising resurrection. It took scarcely fifteen minutes to uproot
the burrow, yet in that time the cricket has thrown off its stupor
and returned to vigorous life. It is certainly enfeebled to some
degree, but, on my interference, it goes off with a rush, itsantennae
quiver, its body pulsates, it can run and leap and make good efforts
to escape ; moreover, when I capture it to bring it back to the tube
it attacks me with its powerful jaws.
In conclusion let us examine it with a little care. ‘To the front of
its chest, a little to one side, the sphex has affixed an egg. It is of
a narrow, elongated, oval shape, white in colour, and three-quarters
of an inch in length. The wasp always anchors itin the same
position, transversely across the cricket’s breast. There is a good
reason for this fixity of instinct. The object in view is the security
of the egg. It isa structure composed of the most delicate sub-
stance: the slightest pressure will destroy its vitality, and friction
AN ORIENTAL HUNTING WASP 743
will tear it from its hold. Moreover, the cricket regains such
strength that the egg will be exposed to many vicissitudes while
its development is taking place. Hence it must be fixed to some
special place where it will be free from external hurt. The most
suitable spot is the cricket’s breast ; there it is lodged in a deep
recess, anchored to a surface which is free from movement and
protected laterally by the bases of the limbs. There too it is
sufficiently raised from the ground to pocepe friction when the
cricket moves.
All the stages in the drama which 1 have here described, the
laborious search, the frenzied excavation, the expuision, the
battle, the incarceration in the sand, all have been directed to the
one purpose, the affixation of this tiny egg. With this act the
duty of the hour is finished. The victim is stored, the egg is layed,
the mouth of the tunnel is tightly closed. This episode in the life
of the sphex is over ; she thinks no more of her buried treasure,
but goes off to repeat the drama elsewhere.
(Zo be continued)
AN ACCOUNT OF SOME FRESH WATER CILIATES FROM LAHORE
BY
AMAR NatH GuLATI, M.Sc.
(With two plates)
Before unacrtaking the description of the various forms a few words about
the Ciliates in general will not be about of place.
The Ciliates are the most abundant and familiar of microscopic forms of
life. They derive their popular name ciliate on account of the presence of
small vibratile locomotary appendages called cilia. They are also cailed
Infusoria, a term which was generally used to denote the various microscopic
organisms which make their appearance in infusions exposed to air, but now
the limits of the term have been narrowed down to denote Ciliata and
Suctoria only.
They are mostly free-living aquatic forms, both marine and fresh water,
but a large number of parasitic forms are also known to occur 1n the digestive
tract of man, mammals and other vertebrata.
They are considered to be the highest of Protozoa, because in no other
class namely Rhizopoda (amceba-like) Flagellata, or Sporozoa, does the cell-
body attain so great a complication of parts, or so high a degree of
structural differentiation. Unlike the above-named three classes, the Ciliata
possess a well-developed mouth, sometimes a gullet also, an anus ; quite often
organs of offence and defence, nuclei typically two in number : macronucleus
and micronucleus, besides cilia the typical organs of locomotion which are
again modified into simple cilia, cirri, membranelle, and undulating
membranes according as to the use they are put to, viz., cilia for swimming,
cirri for creeping on the mud at the bottom of pools, and membranelle and
undulating membranes for assisting in prehension of food.
The present paper is based on the examination of samples of water from
various localities in the near vicinity of Lahore. Several ponds, ditches,
artificial small ponds (chabacha), small pools on the banks of the River
Ravi, and the Chota Ravi, and the bed of the drying up canal-water course,
were ‘occasionally visited at different hours of the day for making such collec-
tions. Samples of running water were also often examined.
The observations were carried on during a period of ten months from June
1923 to April 1924, i. e., to include the physical conditions of the above-named
localities, during the hottest, the rainy and the coldest months of the year.
The bottom collections were always seen to be full of Protozoon life. The
surface water, when covered over with whitish or green vegetable scum also
showed a great number of these organisms.
The special features of the localities visited were that the ponds were
covered over with a thick scum of duck-weed ; the ditches and artificial small
ponds had putrifying dry leaves in them, and only those small pools on the
banks of the river were selected for taking samples of water which had a
thick whitish scum over the surface, for the reason that the thicker the scum,
the larger was the number of organisms found in it.
The ciliate Protozoa were seen to live in association with flagellate Protozoa
and Rotifers in the surface collections and the bottom collections showed the
presence of several Nematode larve and other Oligocheata.
Ciliates of the genera. Holophrya, Spathidium, Lacrymaria, Coleps,
Didinium, Dileptus, Loxophyllum, Nassula, Chilodon, Glaucoma, Colpidium,
Colpoda, Urocentrum, Cyclidium, Sigmostomum, Oren. hie elotrochidium,
Halteria, Urostyla, Pleurotricha and Gastrostyla were found; some of the
species being new and others being described for the first time in India.
The only recent work on the fresh-water protozoan fauna of India is that by
Professor B. L. Bhatia, and Professor E. N. Ghosh of Calcutta Medical
College. I have referred to the former’s papers, being unable to get hold of
FRESH WATER CILIATES FROM LAHORE 745
Professor Ghosh’s papers some of which have been published in comparatively
little-known local journals, I have simply referred to the brief notes about his
ppaers in the abstracts in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society.
The only previous work worth mentioning is that of J. H. Carter, who studied
these forms in Bombay towards the middle of the last century, and published
a number of papers in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 1 could
not refer to these papers, but I got the list of forms recorded by him from the
table given in Professor Bhatia’s papers. I have followed Schewiakoff’s
classification of these organisms as given by Hickson in Lankester’s system.
For specific diagnosis I have referred to Saville Kent’s Manual of the
Infusoria and Eyeferth’s Hinfachste Lebensformen and Fresh-water Biology
by Ward and Whiple. Various other papers the loan of whi:h [| obtained
from Professor B. L. Bhatia, and others that I was able to consult in from
various journals, are arranged in alphabetical order in the reference list given
at the end.
I wish to take this opportunity of expressing my indebtedness to Professor
B. Bhatia for his valuable guidance.
Order—HOLOTRICHA.
Sub-order—GYMNOSTOMATA.
Family—HOLOPHRYINA Petty.
Genus—Holophrya Ehren.
Holophrya simplex Schewiakoff, (Plate I, fig. 1.)
Body 52 X 39 mic., oval, cylindrical, a little less than one and a half times
as long as broad. Entirely ciliate, cilia small, and close set. Body full of
vegetable matter, so details of internal structure could not be seen in the
living specimens. Oral aperture at the anterior end, not projecting ; pharynx
absent. Contractile vacuole single, subcentral. Macronucleus oval in shape,
situated in the middle of the body; micronucleus, a small round structure,
lying near the periphery. Habitat: stagnant water covered over with thick
green scum ; surface sample,
A few specimens of this species, as defined above were found in a temporary
collection of water in a ditch on the road-side in front of the Biological
Laboratory, Government College, Lahore, on the 25th January 1924, at about
9Qa.m. It was only occasionally that specimens of this species were found in
collections from this water. ‘lhe arrangement of cilia in longitudinal striz
could not be made out on account of their being full of vegetable matter.
Only one contractile vacuole was seen. No feeding vacuoles were seen, due
probably also to the dark appearance of the body. There were no trichocysts.
The shape of macronucleus described in this species is globular, but in the
specimens obtained by me the shape is ovoidal. They correspond with the
description given in Eyeferth in all other respects.
This species is being recorded for the first time in India.
Genus—Spathidium Dujard.
Spathidium spathula O. F. Muller, var. moniliforme B. L. Bhatia. (Plate I,
He. 2
Body 112 X 85 mic. ; flask-shaped, neck of the flask being extremely small ;
flexible ; anterior end narrower than the middle of the body ; width increases
posteriorly, the posterior end being broadly rounded. Mouth occupies almost
completely the narrow anterior end. The margins of the oral portion are
padded. The general surface of the body appears to be striate. The ciliation
is uniform except that the cilia round the anterior end are slightly longer.
The movements of the animal are slow. Contractile vacuole is poster-
terminal. Macronucleus consists of along chain of small beads. Length is
one and a half times as long as the width. It differs from the description
given by Professor B. L. Bhatiain the proportion of length to width, the
width noted by him being only 29 mic. against 105 mic. of its length, while in
the specimens obtained by me length is only 13 times as long as broad. Only
7446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
a few specimens were obtained so the measurements have not been considered
as a specific character.
Habitat : Stagnant water from a drain in February.
Genus—Lacrymaria Ehren.
Lacrymaria striata sp. novo. (Plate I, fig. 3.)
Body 90 X 43 mic. ; elongated ; ellipsoidal in shape; anterior end shaped
like the cork of a bottle, and surrounded by a ring of cilia ; the body tapers to
anarrow posterior end, which is completely occupied by the contractile
vacuoles. Greatest width lies in front of the middle. Mouth at the anterior
tip without any gullet. ‘The whole of the body has a dark brown appearance
except at the two ends, where it is transparent. Striations are both longitu-
dinal and transverse. The anterior end is separated from the rest of the
body by a constriction. Locomotion is not very swift. It hasa calm, gliding
movement, rotating round its axis. Length is twice as much as the breadth.
Macronucleus oval, lies a little below the middle of the body. Micronucleus
small, and round, lies about the middleof the body, alittle in front of the
macronucleus.
Habitat: From the stagnant water of a drain. The specimens encountered
differ from all other known species of the genus as regards the general form
of the body ; of the longitudinal and transverse striations of the cuticle; and
the contractile vacuole, which occupies the whole of the posterior end. The
name L. striata is suggested. Specimens obtained were few.
Family—COLEHPINA Ehren.
Genus—Coleps Nitzsch.
Coleps hirtus O. F. Muller. (Plate I, fig, 4.)
Body 52 X 24 mic., ovate, sub-cylindrical, more or less barrel-shaped ;
persistent in form ; about twice aslong as broad. Anterior margin denti-
culate ; three spinous processes developed at the posterior extremity ;
cuticular surface usually longitudinally and transversely furrowed, and thus
divided into quadrangular areas. Ciliated all round, cilia round the oral
aperture are slightly larger than those on the general body surface. Anal
apertures are situated at the anterior and posterior ends respectively.
Macronucleus is spherical and centralin position. Contractile vacuole is
single, and is situated posteriorly. Brisk movement ; rotates vigorously on
its own axis, when it wants to throw out excreta. ‘The colour of the animal is
dark brown.
Habitat ; Pond water among duckweed and alge, more generally at the
bottom. From asmall pond near Data Ganj Bakhash.
Family—CYCLODINA Stein.
Genus—Didinium Stein.
Didinium nasutum Stein. (Plate I, fig. 5.)
Free-swimining animal-cules ; body 102 X 40 mic., ovate, or stb-cylindrical,
about one anda half times as long as broad, the anterior border produced
into a snout-like process ; it is a protrusible, tubular projection, at the. distal
extremity of whichis the oral aperture. Cilia restricted to two girdles, sub-
servient merely to the purpose of locomotion. Anterior girdle of cilia is
developed close to the base of the proboscis. The posterior girdle is ata
distance of one-third of the total length of the animal from the posterior
extremity. Micronucleus: band-like, curved into a horse-shoe, lying close to
the anterior girdle of cilia. Contractile vacuole postero—terminal. Anal
aperture at the posterior extremity close to the position of the contractile
vacuole. Greenish or white in colour.
Habitat : Pond water brought along with frogs from near Chauburji.
Didinium balbianii Butschli. (Plate I, fig. 6.)
Specimens of this rare form were met with in thesame water from which
the other species D. wasutum was found. This is characterized by the
presence of a single ‘girdle of cilia situated near the base of the proboscis,
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
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FRESH-WATER CILIATES FROM LAHORE
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FRESH WATER CILIATES FROM LAHORE 47
Macronucleus is seen to lie along the long axis of the body. It is band-like
and only slightly curved at the two ends. The contractile vacuole. is
posteroterminal. Length 50 mic., width 35 mic.
It is conceivable that forms described as D. balbtaniz are only individuals
resulting from a transverse division of individuals of D. xasutum which have
not had time to develop a posterior ciliary girdle. But further observations
are regarded essential to establish the specific identify of the two.
Family—TRACHELINA Stein.
Genus—Dileptus (Dujardin) emend. Wrzeaniowski.
Dileptus gigas (Clap. and Lachm.) Wrzeaniowski.
(Syn. Vibris anser O.F. Muller; Amphileptus gigas Clap. and Lachm.).
Plate I, Fig. 7. |
Body elongate, lanceolate, pointed posteriorly, the anterior trunk-like
appendage equals one half of the total length of the entire body. The body,
and the neck showed movements characteristic of the species, locomotion
consisting chiefly of swift progression in a straight forward direction,
accompanied by rotation of the body on its long axis, the proboscis meanwhile
being thrust around in a tentative manner in search of prey. The specimens
obtained by me are on an average 150 mic. in length. The cilia covering the
body are very fine and close-set, and the neck shows a narrow groove along
which the strong adoral cilia are situated. The body does not show any
longitudinal striations, but the endoplasm is finely granular. The proboscis
is transparent, while the rest of the body appears darker on account of the
greater density of endoplasm in that region. Macronucleus consists of two
rounded bodies placed side by side. Micronucleus is present and lies near the
macronucleus. Pharynx cylindrical, at the top of which the mouth is situated,
lies near the base of the proboscis.
Habitat : Found in small pools on the bed of the drying up water-course
running through Gol Bagh.
Family—AMPAHILEPTINA Butschli.
Genus—Loxophyllum Dujard.
Loxophyllum meleagris Ehren. (Plate I, fig. 8.)
Free swimming ; flattened ; flexible; finely and entirely ciliate, lanceolate,
the anterior extremity bluntly pointed, and curved, the posterior end is
somewhat rounded. Lengthisto breadthasSistol. Average length 70 mic.,
average breadth 14 mic. Locomotion, quiet and gliding. Trichocysts
present along one border. Mouth ventrally situated. Contractile vacuole lies
near the posterior extremity. Cilia arranged in longitudinal striations on the
general body surface. Macronucleus long, cord-like, twisted round itself like
a rope.
Habitat : Bottom samples of stagnant water. I obtained only two specimens
in the month of October 1923.
This species is being recorded for the first time from India. |
Family—NASSULINA Butschli.
Genus—Vassuia Ehren,
Nassula rubens Clap. and Lachm. (Plate I, fig, 9.)
Body 90 X 50 mic., ovate, cylindrical; flexible ; not polymorphic, equally
rounded at the two ends. Evenly ciliate. Brick red, or rose colour.
Pharyngeal armature consisting of distinct rod-like teeth ; the tube formed by
them is slightly wider anteriorly. Trichocysts are abundant all round.
Contractile vacuole is single, subcentral. Macronucleus consists of chromatinic
masses within the nuclear membrane. Micronucleus: small, rounded lying
near pharyngeal tube. These specimens differ from those described by Kent
as regards the ratio between length and width only.
Habitat ; Found in pools on the bed of the drying up water-course running
through Gol Bagh.
This species is being recorded for the first time in India.
748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Nassula ambigua Stein. (Plate I, fig. 10.)
Body 80 X 50 mic., oval ; anteriorly deflected a little along an oblique row of
cilia ; equally rounded at both extremities about one and a half times as long
as broad. Evenly ciliate. Pharynx consists of a horny tube dilated
anteriorly, and has got no rod apparatus. Contractile vacuole single, spherical,
central in position. Macronucleus rounded, micronucleus could not be seen.
Beautifully coloured with red and green dots.
Flabitat : Pools on the bank of the water-course in the Gol Bagh.
This species is being recorded for the first time from India.
Family--CHLAMYDODONTA Stein.
Genus—Chilodon Ehren.
Chilodon cucullus Muller. O.F. (Plate I, fig. 11.)
Body 45 X 28 mic., flattened, persistent in shape, sub-ovate, produced
anteriorly into a lamellar, flexible, lip-like prominence, sharply pointed and
curved towards the left. Locomotion gliding and undulating. The lip-like
projection is obliquely striate ; but the general body surface bears cilia along
fine longitudinal striations; cilia are close-set and fine. Mouth, in the
anterior one-third of the body, is succeeded by a tubular pharynx containing
delicate rods. Numerous small vacuoles are distributed in all parts of the
body. Macronucleus oval, with one or more big chromatin masses, micronucleus
lies close to the macronucleus; contractile vacuoles more than one, and
irregularly distributed.
Flabitat: Found in large numbers in the month of February 1924, from
small pools on the bank of the Chota Ravi.
Sub-order— HYMENOSTOMATA Delage.
Family—CH/LIFERA Butschli.
Genus— Glaucoma Ehren.
Glaucoma scintillans Ehren. (Plate II, fig. 12.)
Oval in form; persistent in shape, with a convex dorsal and a flattened
ventral surface. Oral aperture is situated ventrally towards the anterior
extremity, and is associated with a minute vibrating flap-like membrane. ‘The
contractile vacuole is posteriorly located. Cilia are evenly distributed all over
the body, being disposed in longitudinal striz on the general body surface.
Macronucleus oval, shows a granular structure and lies in the centre of the
body. Micronucleus small, rounded, lies on one side of the macronucleus.
There are several food vacuoles in the body cavity distributed round the
macronucleus in an irregular manner. Length is one and a half times as long
as the width. Colour is greenish white.
flabitat : Found from the ditch outside the college laboratory in January
1924.
This species is being recorded for the first time from India.
Genus—Colpidium Stein.
Colpidium striatum Stokes. (Plate II, fig. 13.)
Body 35 X 17 mic., egg-shaped, anterior end thinner than the posterior ;
persistent in shape. Mouth near the anterior end with two undulating
membranes, one of which is continued down into the gullet. Cilia evenly
distributed, arranged in longitudinal rows on the body surface. Length is
about twice as long as the breadth. Contractile vacuole single, lies near the
posteriorend. Macronucleus isa rounded structure with a central big chromatin
mass. Micronucleus small, situated a little in front of the centrally located
macronucleus.
Habitat : Infusion of dry leaves and hay.
This species is being recorded for the first time from India.
Colpidium compyla Stokes. (Plate II, fig. 14.)
Body ellipsoidal, more elongated than in C. s/rzatum, persistent in shape,
sharply rounded at the two ends, length is four times as long as the breadth.
Cilia are evenly distributed all over the body and are arranged in longitudinal]
FRESH WATER CILIATES FROM LAHORE 749
rows. Mouth as in other members of the genus. Contractile vacuole is single
posteroterminal. Macronucleus rounded, lying in the anterior half, near the
centre of the body. Micronucleus lies near the contractile vacuole near the
posterior extremity. Stained preparation show the micronucleus distinctly.
Length 70 mic. width 17 mic.
Habitat: Hay infusion.
This species is being recorded for the first time from India.
Colpidium colpoda Stein. (Plate lI, fig. 15.)
Body egg-shaped, anterior end seems to be twisted round the body, mouth
followed by a short gullet supporting an undulating membrane which projects
out in a tongue-like manner ; cilia evenly distributed all over the body, oblique
rows of cilia on the general surface. Contractile vacuole is single and
posteroterminal. Macronucleus centrally placed shows two big chromatin
masses and small particles of chromatin besides. The body is filled up with
numerous food vacuoles. The cysts are rounded and burst open to set free at
least 4 individuals, when the conditions are favourable. Length twice as much
as the breadth, 1.e., 70 mic. and 35 mic. respectively.
flabitat ; Infusion of dry leaves.
Genus—Colpoda Muller.
Colpoda cucullus Ehren. (Plate II, fig. 16.)
Body 46 X 28 mic., kidney-shaped ; not persistent, protoplasm seems to flow
into different forms ; the anterior end is curved. Length is to breadth as three
is to two. Ciliation even, in oblique longitudinal rows on the general body
surface. Contractile vacuole single, sub-central. Macro and micro-nuclei both
present, situated posteriorly. Locomotion swift.
Habitat : Infusion of hay and dry leaves.
It is very similar to Colpidium colpoda, except in its kidney-like form which
exhibits changeability.
This species is being recorded for the first time from India.
Family—CROCENTRINA Clap and Lach.
Genus—Urocentrum Nitzsch.
Urocentrum turbo. Ehren. (Plate II, fig. 17.)
Body 45 X 32 mic., almost cylindrical; rounded anteriorly and posteriorly.
Locomotion quick ; darting off like an arrow, with simultaneous rotation on
long axis, and showing jerks among changes of direction. Cilia reduced to
two bands, one anteriorly and the other posteriorly. ‘The anterior band consists
of many rows of cilia. There is a bunch of long cirri at the posterior end.
Mouth on the ventral side with a flap-like undulating membrane, leading into
a gullet which opens near the contractile vacuole to the out by the side of anus.
The contractile vacuole is spherical, and is seem to be formed by the
coalescence of four long canals. Macronucleus: horse-shoe shaped, shows a
granular structure ; micronucleus was not seen.
Habitat: Found in a pond near Data Ganj Bakhash and in a small pond
in Gol Bagh in October and February respectively.
This genus and species is being recorded for the first time from India.
Genus— 7elotrochidium Kent.
Telotrochidium natthaii sp. nov. (Plate II, fig. 18.)
Animalcules entirely free swimming, ovate, companulate or sub-quadrate,
with a round convex anterior margin, and a knob-like projection is protruded
asymmetrically on one side of the posterior margin. ‘This knob is retractile
and the retracted specimens appear cup-like. Cilia are restricted to two
girdles only, each consisting of a single row of cilia all round. The posterior
girdle is hidden from view on retraction. Mouth lies about the middle of the
body on the ventral side and leads into a ciliated gullet which opens out by the
anus situated close to the posterior projection. There are one or some times two
contractile vacuoles which lie in the neighbourhood of the mouth. Macro-
nucleus is a long ribbon with numerous karyosome-like bodies, The two
extremities are curved up to give it a horse-shoe appearance.
130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX,
Micronucleus oval or rounded, usually found lying at one of the angles
of the macronucleus. The usual ratio between the length and the breadth is
as 4:3. Fission is always longitudinal, animalcules increase in breadth and.
ratio of length to. breadth becomes 5:7. A constriction appears in the hinder
region by the formation of an other knob-like projection on the other side..
The constriction deepens and the two animals appear as if fused together.
The macronucleus is now a straightened ribbon stretching at its full length
along the width of the animal. The micronucleus divides but the process of
division has not been determined, but probably it is by mitosis as the two
halves have been seen to be united by a thin cord. These animalcules go on
dividing by binary fission till the size is reduced to one-fourth of the parent
form. ‘These appear more or less like the gametes of Vorticella. Some
of these are rounded and others become elongated, the latter are smaller in
size, They do not seem to possess any mouth or anus probably because the
process of division becomes rapid and the formation of these organs cannot keep
pace with the division rate. The nucleus in these forms has been seen to be
oval in form. No micronucleus was seen. Rounded and elongated forms were
seen to come together and fuse completely, till the elongated small individual
had flown completely into the rounded individuals and was one with it.
Nuclear changes of this process could not be observed, because the above-
noted stages were encountered in a hanging drop preparation. The individual
thus formed had got encysted on the second day. Normal individuals were
also seen to encyst in such preparations after two days at the most. The cysts
are spherical, with a thick outer coat. There are two or more vacuoles inside
each encysted individual. The whole of the protoplasm is seen to rotate’
in freshly encysted individuals. The structural appearance is granular witha
darker granular zone along one margin showing the position of the nucleus.
Length 145 mic., breadth 108 mic., greatest breadth in the anterior half in the
region of the anterior girdle of cilia.
Habitat : Found in a ditch where dried leaves were rotting.
Specimens were found in great abundance and they were later on grown on
Schewiakoff’s culture fluid in which they flourished and multiplied in large
numbers. At first sight they present a resemblance to detached vorticelle,
but on more intimate acquaintance, they showed resemblance to Uvocentrum
in many respects and so they have been referred to that family group. ‘The
organism however differs from the genus Urocentrum, in the mode of loco-
motion ; the character of the ciliary girdles, which are only one row thick as
also in the anterior girdle of Urocentrum, but the posterior girdle runs obliquely
here almost along the posterior border, while it runs transversely in Urocentrum
about one-third of its length from its posterior end ; mouth is without a flap-like
undulating membrane, only one or at the most two or three caudal bristles
replace the bunch of caudal cirri found in Uvrocentrum, and also in its mode of
binary fission. It showsa good deal of resemblance to a genus Telotrochidium
discovered by Kent as regards its shape, mode of locomotion, presence of two.
ciliary girdles only one row thick, and in the longitudinal mode of fission. It
however differs from Telotrochidium in the following respects :—
(1) The posterior girdle of cilia runs obliquely almost along the posterior
border, which runs transversely across the body in Zelotrochidium, at about
one-third of the length of the body from the posterior end.
(2) There is no thick annular border associated with the anterior girdle of
cilia, as described in the type Species of the genus Telotrochidium.
(3) The posterior end is not described as retractile in Zelotrochidium, while
it is so in these animalcules. The organism retracts this posterior end with a
jerk recalling the contraction of a vorticellid.
Taking into consideration the above-mentioned points, the specific name
matthait is suggested as asmall tribute of gratitude to my worthy teacher,
Professor George Matthai.
Family—PLEHURONEMINA Butschli.
Genus—Cyclidium Clap. and Lach.
Cyclidium glaucoma Ehren. (Plate II, fig. 19.)
Body 25 X 14 mic., egg-shaped ; broader at the posterior extremity witha
long bristle posteriorly. Locomotion very swift, shooting like an arrow,
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II.
FRESH-WATER CILIATES FROM LAHORE
>
FRESH WATER CILIATES FROM LAHORE , 7ok
alternating with standing still. Very quick, changing its directions, often-in a
jerky manner. The cuticular surface is longitudinally striate, the peristome
does not extend much further behind the middle of the body, and the
undulating membrane is large, hood-like and extensile. The macronucleus is
central and spherical with a karyosome in the centre, The contractile vacuole
is situated near the posterior end,
Habitat; Stagnant water in pools on the bank of the Chota Ravi in
November.
Family—CH/LIFERA Butschii.
Genus—Szgmostomum Gen. Nov.
Stgmostomum indicum sp. nov. (Plate II, fig. 20.)
Body 145 X 52 mic., oval, anterior end a little broader than the posterior end.
Cylindrical, persistent in shape. Eugulfs large filamentous alge, as big as its
own length or even larger. In the latter case the wall of the body gets projected
out at a point where the filament pushes it. Often one end of the algal filament
is seen projecting out of the mouth opening or the anal opening. Cilia are
evenly distributed all over the body. Mouth is situated on the ventral surface
in the anterior half of the body, and there is no peristomial field leading to it.
There is no gullet. Mouth is an S shaped slit lined by undulating membranes
on both the lips. Locomotion swift, restless, rotating round its axis.
Contractile vacuole single, spherical, situated near the periphery at about
equal distance from either end of the body. ‘Trichocysts studded all round
below the outer layers of the ectoplasm. They are shot out on application of
various fixatives or even very weak grades of alcohol. Macronucleus is oval in
shape, lies in the posterior half of the body and presents a granular structure ;
these granules seen to be united by a reticulate net-work. Micronucleus small,
lying by the side of the macronucleus, is also oval in shape. Length is about
three times the breadth.
Habitat ; Pond water, surface collections covered over with filamentous
alge. I found it from small temporary collections of water near the fountain
pond opposite the Town Hall.
The organism is placed in the family Chzlzfera by virtue of its possessing the
following characters :—
1. Absence of peristomial field.
2. Mouth in the anterior half.
3. Gullet scarcely developed.
4, Undulating membranelless at the edge of the mouth.
The organism differs from any of the genera described in this family in the
combination of the following characters :—
Mouth not situated at the anterior end, curved in the form of an S and
provided with undulating membranelless along with lips, gullet completely
absent, posterior end of the body without a caudal cilium. The contractile
vacuole in the middle of the body, macronucleus oval, trichocysts well-
developed, persistent shape of the body, and the locomotion being always
accompanied with rotation on its own axis.
It comes nearest to the genus Glaucoma in the combination of the above
characters but differs from it by the fact that there is a membranelle all round
the margin of the mouth instead of a continued undulating membrane. The
macronucleus is oval and the contractile vacuole is situated in the middle of
the body.
The name Szgimostomum is suggested for this genus and the species is
proposed to be called S. tudicum.
Order—HETEROTRICHA Stein.
Family—HALTERINA Clap and Lach.
Genus—Haltferia Dujard.
FHlalteria grandinella Muller. (Plate II, fig. 21.)
Body 28 X 28 mic., free swimming animalcules. Form somewhat spherical,
usually terminating posteriorly in a somewhat narrower obtusely rounded point ;
and a small triangular depression at the anterior end associated with a spiral of
fine cilia ; a zone of long hair-like sete or springing hairs are developed round
3
1752. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
the central region of the body, the flexure of which enables the animalcules to
progress through water, by a series of leaping movements. Contractile vacuole
in the anterior half, spherical in form. Macronucleus: oval or kidney shaped,
with one or two karyosome-like bodies in it.
Habitat : Fresh-water from little pools on the bank of the canal water
course in Gol Bagh.
Order~-HyPpoTRIcHa Stein.
Family—OXYT7RICHA Stein.
Genus— Urostyla Ehren.
Urostyla weissii Stein. (Plate II, fig. 22.)
Body 130 X 42 mic., elongated elliptical, flexible to a high degree. ‘Three to
five frontal cirri and 7-8 anal cilia. Colour yellowish. Anterior is narrower
than the posterior ; greatest width in the posterior half of the body. Peristome
field forming an acute angled triangle extending to a little beyond the anterior
one-third of the body. ‘There are five median rows of short ventral sete.
Marginal cilia form a continuous row. Contractile vacuole single sub-central.
Macronucleus broken up into many small oval bodies ; micronucleus not
distinguishable.
Habitat : Surface collections of water among algal filament.
This species is being recorded for the first time from India.
Family—PLEUROTRICHINA Butschli.
Genus—FPleurotricha Stein.
Pleurotricha grandis Stein. (Plate II, fig. 23.)
Free swimming. Persistent in shape; elongate elliptical, length twice as
much as the width. Peristome not extending up to the middle. Six frontal
cirri well-developed ; three or four scattered ventral sete ; anal sete disposed
in two groups, each 5-6in number, two of them are projecting posteriorly
much beyond the margin. One or more rows of cilia supplementing the
modified cirri on the ventral side. Contractile vacuole near the peristomial angle,
Habitat ;: In infusion of dry leaves.
Genus—Gastrostyla Engelmann.
Gastrostyla setifera Engelmann.
Plate II, fig. 24.
Body 90 X 30 mic., elongated, widest centrally, about two and a half times as
long as broad. Peristome field hardly extending up to the middle of the body;
its reflected border bearing a band-like undulating membrane. Eight frontal
styles disposed of in a definite arrangement supplemented by two short rows of
ventral setz; five anal styles besides. Contractile vacuole single, spherical.
Macronucleus consists of two pear shaped bodies. Micronucleus was not seen.
Habitat : From a small pond near Data Ganj Bakhash in October.
This genus is being recorded for the first time from India.
GENERAL SUMMARY
To summarize, I have, in all come across 20 genera in 29 species of fresh
water ciliates as represented in the table below. Out of these 17 genera have
already been recorded by the previous workers. Out of the remaining 5
genera, 4 are being recorded for the first time from India and one I propose to
call new to science. I have, however, in the present paper restricted to the
description of those species only where I had something to add to the already-
known facts about them or that they were either new species to science or were
described for the first time in India. The following is the table of the Indian
species of ciliates :—
Species Other authors By the author
Holophrya lateralis 8. K.
indica Bhatia Ses
bengalensis Ghosh —
annandalet Ghosh Bs ise
simplex Schew ae aah a
Le)
»)
| ++++
|
99
99
FRESH WATER CILIATES FROM LAHORE 753
Species Other authors Sy the author
Urotricha globosa Schew.
Enchelys arcuata Clap. and Lachm. avs
Spathidium spathula var moniliforme bhatia ...
Prorodon teres Ehren. ...
a eudentatus Clap. and Lachm.
Lacrymaria vermicularis Ehren.
striata sp. nov.
Coleps hirtus Muller
kentit Bhatia
,, wnctnatus Clap. and Lachm..
Didinium nasutum Stein.
Be balbiant Butschli. ;
Mesodinium pulex Clap. and Lachm.
Loxophyllum fasciola Ehren. us
e sub. sp. punjabensis
9)’
bade a lS Wreteste tale
Bhatia
meleagris Ehren.
Loxodes rostrum Ehren.
Nassula sp.
stvomphit Ehren. ae
rubens Clap and Lachm. ...
a ambigua Stein ...
Chilodon cucullus Muller
Glaucoma pyriformtis (Stein) ?
ie scirilillans Ehren.
Trichoda pura Ehren.
Frontontia leucas Ehren.
Ophryoglena sp. (Otostoma carteri §. K. )
Colpidium striatum Stokes ae
comyla Stokes
re colpoda Stein
Colpoda cucullus Ehren.
Paramoecium aurelia Muiler
caudatum Ehren.
bursaria Ehren.
Urocentrum turbo Ehren.
Telotrochidium matthait sp. nov.
Cychidium glaucoma Ehren. ne
Sigmostomunt indicum g.Nn. Sp. nov.
Pleurotricha grandis Stein 5
Urostyla weissi Stein
Gastrostyla setitera Engelmann
Euplotes charon Muller ...
Aspidisca costata Dujard
lynceus Ehren.
Scyphidia formenteliz S. A.
Vorticella microstoma Ehren.
patellina Muller
convallaria L
campanula Ehren.
Vorticella citrina Ehren.
Carchesium epistylidis Clap. and Lachm.
polypinum Ehren.
Epistylis galea Ebren.
e plicatilis Ehren.
mn articulata From
Cothurnia sp. (= Pyxicola carteri S: K),
Vaginicola sp. ase
Spharophrya sp.
se pusilla Clap. and Lachm,
Podophrya fixa Ehren. ... ane ae
a libera Perty ... oes
Tokophrya quadripartita Clap. and Lachm. cee
Acineta tuberosa Ehren. ve
)
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9)
”)
5)
snl es Sn SS Sc en SL a ec ee ee Dp oe
ery tte eel ates fe (ta Tete! essere ia eas A oceans ais
754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The freshwater Protozoa are no doubt cosmopolitan in their distribution and
the conclusions drawn by Schewiakoff after an elaborate study of their
distribution, and as already confirmed by Professor Bhatia can be confirmed
by me also in so far as they apply to the group Cz/zata. Out of the 32 species
studied by me as many as 29 are such as are already described from other
countries. Only three of them I am proposing to call new species. Two of
these new species I have studied in detail as much as the circumstances
allowed. I grew one of these species, namely Telotrochidium matthai in
Schewiakoff’s culture fluid with a little modification. However my observation
could not cover the whole life-history of this species,
Works dealing with Indian forms References for best figures and
(1) Annandale, N.—The Fauna of Brackish description
Ponds at Port Canning, Lower Bengal. As to the best references for
Rec. Ind. Mus., i; pt. 1 (1907). e d “nti
; ny ae ee: gures and descriptions of the
(2) Bhatia, B. L.—Notes on the Ciliate species, the author has found
Protozoa,of Lahore, /67d.; xii," pt. 5. numbers IB and 22.08 the
No, 15 (1916). reference list at the end of the
(3) oo a D0; Notes on Fresh-water paper to be the best. Another
Ciliate Protozoa of IndiaI and II Journ. book on fresh water Biology by
Roy. Micr. Soc. (1920) and (1922) vols. Ward and Whiple, is also re-
(4)" Carter, HH. J. Murther Observations ont nora mended:
the Development of Gonidia, ete.
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (2) (1856)
(5) Do. Notes on the Fresh-water
Infusoria of the Island of Bombay.
Loid:, xviii, (2), Nos. 104,105 (1856):
(6) Notes and Corrections on the Organi-
zation of Infusoria, etc. /ozd., viii.
(3), No. 46 (1861).
(7) Notes on the Filigerous Green Infusoria
of the Island of Bombay. Jdzd., iii.
(4) No. 16 (1869).
(8) Ghosh, E.—Studies on Infusoria, II.
Rec. Ind. Mus., xvi, pt. 1 (1919).
(9) Grant, G. W.—In Th. Cantor’s paper
on General Features of Chusan, with
remarks on the flora and fauna of
that island’) Ann, MacocNat.. Hist.
XVili;.(2)), (1856).
(10) Mitchell, J.—Notes from Madras.
Ouarter; Jour, Micr. Sei, ais, ai.
(1862).
(11) Simmons, W. J.—Note on species of
podophyra found in Calcutta. Amer.
Monthly Micr, Journ., x. :
LIST OF THE BOOKS CONSULTED
1. André, E. (1914). Récherchés sur la faune pelagique du Leman et
Description de nouveaux genére d’Infusoire. Reveue Suisse de Zoologie.
Andre, K. (1915). Contribution a 1l’étude de la faune infusorienne du lac
Majeur. Revue Sutsse de Zoologie, vol. 23, No. 4.
Andre, E. (1916). Contribution a 1’étude de la faune infusorienne du
leman. evue Sutsse de Zoologie, vol. 24, No. 10.
Bhatia, B. L. (1919). Notes on the ciliate Protozoa of Lahore. Records
of the Indian Museum, vol. XII, Part V, No. 15.
Bhatia, B. L. (1920). Notes on fresh water ciliate Protozoa of India.
Jour. R. Micr. Soc, pp. 257-67.
Bhatia, B. L. (1922). Notes on fresh water ciliate Protozoa of India,
vol. LI. Jour. R. Micr. Soc., pp. 27-36.
Bodine, J. H. (1923). Excystation of Colpoda cuculus ; some factors
affecting excystation on its resting cysts. Journ. Exp. Zool. vol. 37.
Busch, W. (1921). Studies uber ciliation des Nordatlanti-schen ozeans
und schwarzen Meerss. Arch. f. Prot Bd. 42.
39.
40,
FRESH WATER CILIATES FROM LAHORE 755
Calkins, G. N. (1901). The Protozoa. New York.
Caikins and Cull. (1907). The conjugation of Paramoectum aurelia
(caudatum) Arch. f. Prot. Bd. X.
Calkins, G. N. (1911). Effects produced by cutting Paramcecium cells
Biological Bulletin, vol. xx1, No. 1.
Calkins, Ge IN. (1921). . Cvolepins moors. Engelm. LV... Eiect of cut-
ting during conjugation. Journ. Exp. Zoo., vol. 34, No.3.
Claus and Grobben (1910). Lehrbuch der Zoologie. (Marburg in
Hessen).
Cordero, E. H. (1918). Estudios sobre algunos Protozoarios ciliados de
las aguas dulces del Uruguay. Amales de la faculté de Medicina,
Montevideo, Tomo 3, fasciculo 89.
Dawson, J. A. (1919 and 1920). An experimental study of an amicronu-
cleate oxytricha. Journ. Exp. Zoo, vols. 29-30.
Dehorne, A. (1920). Contribution a 1’étude comparée de Il’appareil
nucleaire des infusoires cilies (Paramoecium caudatum, et Colpidium
trauncatum) des Euglenes et des Cyanophycess. Arch. Zoo. Exp. et
Gen., Tome 60, fascicule 2.
Delage and Herouard (1896). Traite de Zoologie Concrete Tome 1 Paris.
Eyeferth, B. Einfachste Lebensformen des tier-und Pflanzenreichs. 4
Auflage Von W. Schoenichen und A. Kalberlah.
Gray, J. (1922). The mechnism of ciliary movement. Proc. Roy. Soc.,
Bx Vole OS:
a (1923). The mechnism of ciliary movement. IIL The effect
Temperature. Proc. Koy. Soc. B., vol: 95. -
Gregory, L. H. (1922). The conjugation of Oxytricha fallax. Journ.
Morphology, vol. 37.
Hartmann, M. (1907). Das System der Protozoon. Arch. f. Prot.
Ba 10.
Hartog, M. M. (1891). Abstract Maupas’s researches on multiplication
and fertilization in ciliate infusorian. Q. J. 17. S., vol. 32.
Hartog, M. M. (1906). Protozoa, Caméridge Natural History, vol. 1,
London.
Hickson, S. J. (1913). Protozoa, Infusoria. A Treatise on Zoology, vol. 1,
London.
Hollis, H. B. (1922). Biolgin del Chilodon cucullatus. Revista Mexicana
de Biologia.
Juday, C. (1919). A fresh water anzerobic ciliate. Aiological Bulletin,
VOL, wavy, INO. 2.
Kent, S. (1880-1881). A Manual of Infusoria, London, vols. 2 and 3.
Lankester, E. R. (1873). Blue Stentorian. The colouring matter of
Stentor caerulus. Q.J.M.S., vol. 13.
a (1908). A Treatise on Zoology, vols. 1 and 2.
Mast, S. O. (1917). Conjugation and incystment in Didinium nasutum
with special reference to their significance. Journ. Exp. Zoo., vol. 23,
NO. 2.
‘ “Minchin, E. A. (1909). On mounting rotifers and protista in Canada
balsam. “O. J: 17.55 Vol. 53.
Ss (1912). An introduction to the study of Protozoa, London.
Parker, T. J. and Haswell, W. N. (1897) A Text Book of Zoology. London,
Philips, R. L. (1922) The growth of Paramecium in infusions of known
bacterial contents. Journ. Exp. Zoo., vol. 36.
Sallitt, J. A. (1884). On the chlorophyll corpuscles of some infusoria.
ONS ML. Se COL. oF
Taylor, C. V. (1923). A contractile vacuole in Euplotes an example of the
sol gel reversibility of cytoplasm. Journ. Exp. Zool., vol. 37.
Woodruff, L. L. (1921). Thepresent status of the long continued pedigree
culture of Paramecium aurelia at Yale University. Proc. National.
Acad of Science, vol. 7.
Woodruff, L. L. and Spencer, H. (1922). On the method of macronuclear
disintegration during endomyxis in Paramecium aurelia. Proc. Soe.
Exp. Biology and Medicine.
Note. * Marks the best references for figures and description of species.
Young, B. B. (1922). A contribution and morphology and physiology of
the genus Uvonychia. Journ. Exp. Zoo., vol. 36, No. 3.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES
By CoLONEL W...H: EVANS) -D?S.0O87:Z.S., EES
(Continued from page 639 of this Volume.)
Part: Vill
(With I Plate)
H.50. Surendra.—The Acacia Blues. (Plate 29.)
la (4). Above purple with broad dark borders. Below dark brown with
very narrow black markings, some of which may be outwardly silver edged ;
unf aspot middle and end cell, 2 costal spots, a highly irregular discal line
and submarginal spots. Unh basal and discal irregular line and submarginal
dots; lobe black and a black spot in 2 with obscure green metallic scales ;
ground colour darkened mid termen F and about discal line H.
Ib (3). ¢ tailed at v25.° atwo2and,3.
1 (2). H highly excavated between 1 and 2, anal lobe large. ¢ upf dark
purple blue ; 9 brown, paler brown on disc.
a. Small. @ pale discal area usually sharp defined. ¢ blue on H.
guercetorum discalis, M. (30-34). The Common Acacia Blue. Ceylon. C.
B. Small. 2 pale discal area F diffuse. ¢ blue colour more restricted
and absent on H.
guercetorum biplagiata, But. S. India. C.
y. Larger, Qas last. ¢ with blue on H. Specimens from Assam, N.
Burma and the Andamans are larger than from elsewhere.
*guercetorum quercetorum. MM. (30-40). Dun—Burma. Andamans. C.
2 (1). H straight between vs. land 2, lobe small. ¢ above dark purple
blue, borders half as wide asin last. Q dull lilac blue, shading basally to
dull metallic blue ; variable, may be all dull metallic blue. Tails very short
and narrow.
amisena, Hew. (32-40). The Burmese Acacia Blue Tavoy—S. Burma. R.
3 (1b). ¢@ Tailless, only a tooth at v2. ¢ above dark purple blue, borders
as last. @ dark brown, bases broadly paler.
florimel, Doh. (36). The Tailless Acacia Blue. Tavoy—S. Burma. R.
4 (la). Below pale ochreous brown, glossed vinous, no cell or costal spot
unf. Unf a waved silvery discal line ; unh an irregular silver line near base,
another through end cell anda third post discal ; tornal markings small.
Single tail at v2. ;
a. (gf above deep shining purple, border 2mm to 5 at apex. Q pale purple
blue, more restricted than in ¢.
todara todara, M. (34-38). The Silver streaked Acacia Blue. 5S, India. R.
B. daslast. Qrather pale purple, not purple blue.
* todara distorta, DeN. Sikkim—Shan States. R.
Y, @ pale metallic blue, border 1mm to 4at apex, a black spot end cell. ©
Below darker and markings rather differently arranged, being a cross
between No. 4 and No. 1; unf discal line obliquely bent in from v3 to costa ;
unh central line asin No. 1 and post-discal line obscure as in No. 1.
todara karennia, Evans. (32). Karen-Dawnas. VR.
H.51. Mota—The Saffron. (Plate 29.)
¢ above dark purple with a broad dark apex and narrow border ; 2 purple
blue, paler, border F broad and all H dark brown. Below saffron ; unf a dark
bar end cell, a post discal and submarginal line, area between clouded ; unh
almost entirely covered with large dark brown irregular markings, white
edged and coalesced, lobe ochreous and termen irrorated white scales.
* massyla, Hew. (42~35). The Saffron. Bhutan—Burma. R.
H.52. Semanga—The Rededge. (Plate 29.)
Above shining violet blue, border F 2mm. to 4 at apex; H costa broadly
dark, tornus orange from dorsum to 3, crowned black. Below pale ochreous
Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Porn 3x be
Groups 50-52. Surendra: 58-55. Loxura.
H. Lycaenidae. 56-57. Spindasis: 58-63. Tajuria: 64-70. Jacoona: 71-78. Marmessus:
79-80. Horaga: 81. Catapoecilma: 82-84. Hypolycaena: 86.98. Artipe.
y ; '
5 — =
~ =
o . ’
~
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4
:
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’
=
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—
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:
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a wf «
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 757
H.52. Semanga—(con?d.)
brown ; Fa discal and submarginal ferruginous line ; H basal area unmarked,
outer half ferruginous red, inwardly with series of oblique metallic blue
streaks, centrally with large obscure black spots, most prominent in 2 and 6
irrorated white scales along termen, especially near tornus.
* superba, Druce. (32). The Rededge. Mergui. VR.
H.53. Loxura.—The Yamfly. (Plate 29.)
Above orange, broad black apex and termen F, narrow berder H, bases
more or less suffused dark brown. Below ochreous with more or less obscure
pale brown basal spots, discal and submarginal bands.
a. Upf inner edge of black apex evenly arched ; bases slightly darker,
suffused.
atymnus arcuata, M. (36-40). The Yamfly. Ceylon. NR.
8. From as nexttoadark orange with broader black apex, extending to
base along costa, inner edge evenly arched, bases broadly suffused, vs 6 and 7
H prominently black. Apex F more rounded.
atymnus surya, M. 8S. India. NR.
y. Dark apex narrower, inner edge obtusely angled, DSF not basally
suffused, vs 6 and 7 H not black. Paler than last.
* atymnus atymnus, Cr. Central India—Mussooria-Burma. C.
6. Larger, brighter orange, apex broader, evenly arched and penetrated
by yellow veins, base prominently suffused dark brown and in H practically
the whole wing suffused.
atymnus prabha, M. (40-42). Andamans. Nicobars. NR.
H.54. Yasoda.—The Branded Yamfly. (Plate 29.)
Above orange witha black apex and border F ; upf witha black bar end
cell and 3 discal spots ; uph a bar end cell and an oblique discal band ; the
black markings may be reduced or absent. Below ochreous to ochreous
brown with more cr less obscure black rings, arranged irregularly towards
base and asa discal band, which turns white towards dorsum H ; tornal
markings obsolete ;
*tripunctata, Hew. (42-40). The Branded Yamfly. Sikkim-Burma. R.
H.55. Drina.—The Yams. (Plate 29.)
1 (2). ¢Q2 above dark brown, outwardly darker; H discal row white
spots followed by a submarginal row, larger in 2. Below silky white, narrow
discal and submarginal brown bands, tornal markings H obscure.
*donina, Hew. (45-48). The Brown Yam. Lushai Hills—Burma. NR.
2(1). gd upf except for base and broad termen, shining purple blue and
the veins on the blue area pale yellow; @2 all dark brown; uph dark brown
with 2 iarge tornal white spots and a broad white sub-tornal band. Below
white, apex and margin F broad dark chocolate brown, the inner third of the
dark area being darker ; unh upper half of termen dark brown and a broad
sub-tornal dark band.
maneta, Hew. (42-46). The Blue Yam. Mergui. R.
H.56. Spindasis—The Silverlines. (Plate 29.)
Below with silver centred broad dark bars and spots ona pale ground.
Above dark brown, more or less shot blue, or fulvous; tornus H usually
broadly orange.
la (2a). Unf sub-apical markings form a Y, consisting of a bar mid 4-5
placed centrally below 2 costal spots. Above mostly tawny, no blue; tornus
uph and unh not orange.
1A (1B). Above bases clear yellow. Upf pale apical spot in 6 only and
never white. Dorsum F excavate posteriorly. Unf Submarginal band in-
wardly edged by crescentic lines.
epargyros, Evers. (30-34). The yellow Silverline. Baluchistan, R.
1B(1A). Above bases grey. Upf pale apical spot in 6 may extend into
5 and 4 and is white. Unf submarginal band inwardly edged straight lines.
Dorsum F evenly convex.
a. Unh lowest of the 3 sub-basal spots rounded or elongate. Above bright
tawny, base only suffused brown scales, black bands prominent in ¢, may be
obsolete in 2; on F marginal and submarginal black bands well separated,
758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Kol. XXX.
H. 56. Spindasis—(con?d.)
acamas hypargyros, But, (30-36). The Tawny Silverline. Cutch. Sind,
Baluchistan. Punjab. R.
8. Below as last. Above much darker, suffused brown scales ; in ¢ leaving
only some tawny colour round the black spots F and very little on H : 9 more
tawny : marginal and submarginal lines widened and often confluent, forming
a single very broad dusky band.
acamas chitralensis, Riley (34-38). Chitral. NR.
2a (la). Unf sub-apical markings consist of an inner short and an outer
iong bar, each made up of 2 conjoined spots ; these bars may be parallel or
may forma V.
2b (14). Unh sub-basal band ends on v1 and is never continued along it.
2c (10a). Unf with a basal streak along the costa from the central cell
bar ; this streak in the DSF may only be indicated by a few silver scales and
be hard to see. The basal markings in the cell unf consist of a streak from
the base under the scv and a spot beyond, the two being conjoined or
separate ; in the DSF the streak may be absent.
2d (4a). Unhsub-basal band entirely confluent from the costatovl. Below
yellow with conspicuous red bands, more or less black edged.
2 (3). ¢ above not or only very faintly blue shot, 2 without conspicuous
plumbeous scales.
a. Upf orange areas restricted. Unh central band more separated from
the postdiscal band, rendering discal yellow area wider.
vulcanus fusca, M. (26-34). The Common Silverline. Ceylon. C.
B. Upf orange areas wider. Unh bands more evenly spaced.
*yulcanus vulcanus, F. India. C.
Y. d@ upf orange markings reduced to a few streaks ; 2 plain dark brown..
Below bands very wide.
vulcanus tavoyana, vans. Tavoy. R.
3 (2). & uph blue shot; 2 with plumbeous scales on H and dorsal area
F. Upf orange areas pale, restricted and suffused darker scales.
a. ¢ above pale blue shot only on H.
schistacea schistacea M. (28-37). The Plumbeous Silverline. Ceylon. S.
India. INR. :
B. & above lower half F and all H pale blue shot.
schistacea gabriel, Swin. (30). N. Burma. R.
4a (2d). Unh sub-basal band broken into 3 spots, the upper 2 of which
may be conjoined. .
4b (9). Unf arrangement of sub-apical spots normal, outer spots in 4 and
6, inner spots in 5 and 7, each pair one above the other and conjoined ; the
inner edge of the spot in 6 may touch the outer edge of the spot in 5 thereby
forming a rough V, submarginal line never continuous.
4 (5-6a). C¢ above iridescent pale blue, 2 dull blue ; no orange patches upf
or plumbeous scales. Below pale brownish ochreous, bands concolorous with
ground and faintly outlined black, silver centres prominent. Very variable.
lilacinus, M. (32-36.) The Liiac Silverline. Bangalore, Kasauli, Assam,
Mhow, Malda, Hardwar. R.
5 (4-6a). ¢ above dusky violet brown at apex F, rest dull greenish grey,
shot light blue. @ except for dark apex shining plumbeous silvery. Below
dull reddish brown, markings very narrow.
abnormis, M. (40-44). The Abnormal Silverline. S. India. VR.
6a (4-5). 4 above dark blue shot, 2 dark brown, the blue colour more or
less replaced by plumbeous scales. :
6 (7a). Below brick red with well defined markings. ¢ above intense black,
shot dark blue up to v3. Qupf with a small diffuse orange spot, the blue
shot replaced by a slight dusting of blue scales.
nubtlus, M. (27-32). The Clouded Silverline. Ceylon. R.
7a (6). Below not brickired:
7 (8). Q with plumbeous scales above. ¢ 2 with a well defined triangular
orange patch upf. ¢ upf blue shot area not above v2.
a. ¢ upf dark brown with a more or less well defined orange patch upf,
large and extending into 2 in the WSF, small and obscure in the DSF ; WSF
only shot blue in 1, in DSF carried up into 2 and 3. Below pale yellow in
WSF with well-defined markings, DSF khaki to reddish brown with markings
tending to become obsolete. ;
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 759
H.56, Spindasis.—(contd). iB:
ictis ceylanica, Fd. (27-32). The Common Silverline. Ceylon. C.
B. Larger. Upf orange patch well defined and almost invariably present.
WSF below with very well defined dark bands : DSF khaki with bands nearly
obsolete.
ictis ictis, Hew, (30-35). India, Cw
8 (7). Q aboveno plumbeous scales. ¢ upf at most a small obscure orange
patch ; in? the patch is oval or circular, not triangular and does not extend
below V3. Below khaki to reddish brown, markings well defined in WSF,
faintin DSF, ¢ upf shot blue area above v2,
a, Comparatively small.
elima fatrliet, Ormiston. (28-35). The Scarce Shot Silverline. Ceylon.
NR
6B. Ratherlarger. Very variable.
elima elima, M. (32-38). India. R.
Y. Much datger.
elima untformis, M. (36-42). Chitral—Kashmir. NR.
9 (4b). Unf sub-apical markings abnormal; 3 outer spots in 4, 5 and 6
that in 5 slightly shifted in ; single inner spot in 7 midway between the outer
spots and the discal band. ¢ above dark brown with a prominent orange
patch upf, most of F blue shot, which colour extends over the orange area,
presenting a peculiar appearance. 2 dark brown, no plumbeous scales.
Below khaki with narrow markings rather as in the DSF of tctts.
maximus, El, (35-42). The Karen Silverline. Shan States—Karens.
R
10a (2c). Unf no costal markings above the scv, between the central cell
bar and the base.
10b (13). Unf basal markings in cell as for 3c.
10 (lla). Unf sub-marginal line obscure, absent or discontinuous. Below
bands very narrowly black-edged. Above dark brown, ¢ blueshot F and H ;
© with the blue shot replaced by plumbeous scales.
a. Below pale ochreous, bands concolorous or slightly darker than the
ground, silver line often absent. ¢& Q with a more or less well developed
orange patch upf, often absent.
nipalicus nipalicus, M. (36-42). The Silvergrey Silverline. Kuiu—
Nepal. R.
8. Below pale cinnamon red, bands darker, silver line obsolete, ¢ @ usually
with a prominent orange patch.
nipalicus sant, DeN. Sikkim. R.
Y. Below as last, rather darker. ¢ upf darker, no orange patch. Below
pale to dark cinnamon red, silver lines may be prominent ; lobe maroon or
black ; discal band F and H more broken. Q above no orange, H and discal
area F pale silver grey, scales closely set, not sparse as in other races.
nipalicus evansit, Tytler. Nagas Shan States—Karens. R.
lla (10). Unf submarginal line continuous and sharply defined.
11 (12). Below khaki with narrow dark bands. Above dark brown, ¢ shot
blue and with no orange patch upf. .
rukmint, DeN. (33-38). The khaki Silverline. Sikkim—Assam. VR.
12 (11). Below pale yellow, with broader black bands. shot blue, often
with small orange spot upf: 2 brown, with broad orange area.
elwest, Riley (MS). Elwes’ Silverline. Kumaon to Assam. VR.
13 (10b). Unf base cell with a continuous club-shaped streak. Above dark
brown, no orange on F; ¢ shot blue F and H. Below pale yellow with biack
bands to cinnamon red with red bands.
*syama peguanus, M. (26-40). The Club Silverline. Orissa. Sikkim—
Burma.
14 (2b). Unh sub-basal band continued along v1 to or nearly to the lower
end of the central band, sometimes macular. Unf basal marking consists of
a broad bar across the cell, the upper edge of which is joined to the base by a
streak over the scv and on either side of it, which streak does not reach the
central cell spot ; submarginal line usually continuous, but may be merged
to the sub-marginal line ; sub-apical spots V shaped. Above as last.
a. Below bands very broad, ground colour pale yellow to reddish ochreous,
bands usually red, very rarely black or nearly so, unh the sub-basal band in
the DSF may not be continued along vl,
6
760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX,
H.56. Spindasis.—(condd.)
lohita lazularia, M. (36-42). The Long-banded Silverline. Ceylon. S.
India R.
8B. Below pale yellow, bands black to red, very variable. Unf sub-marginal
line wide and joined to the marginal line in the WSF., thin and macular in
the DSF.
lohita himalayanus, M. (30-42). Sikkim—N. Burma. C.
y. Aslast, but smaller. Unf submarginal line always narrow and con-
tinuous.
lohita seliga, Fr. (28-34). Karens—S. Burma. C.
o. Below bands always black, submarginal line narrow and continuous,
Unh sub-basal band always meets the central band.
lohita zoilus, M. (30-36). Andamans. NR.
H.57. Zesius.—The Redspot. (Plate 29.)
& above copper red outwardly darker and inwardly glosed violet with a
fuscous border, lmm.; Q rather pale powdery blue, may be purple tinged,
with broad borders of variable width ; uph with 2 tornal black spots, orange
crowned in. Below pale grey with white edged brown markings, turning
reddish towards base, arranged asin Amb/ypodia ,; discal bands fairly regular ;
tornal spots black, crowned orange or entirely orange.
*chrysomallus, Hew. (38-44). The Redspot. Ceylon. S. India. Orissa.
NR.
H.58. Dacalana.—The Tufted Royal. (Plate 29.)
& above pale shining azure blue, border F 3mm.-5 at apex; uph witha
white patch mid costa; 2 paler, with a prominent white patch end cell F.
Below rather pale brown, crossed by an even white band, central on F, discal
on H and followed by a thin sub-marginal black line; tornal lobe black and
an orange crowned black spot in 2 with white scales between. Cunf witha
tuft of white hairs mid dorsum ; uph brand above base 6 covered with blue
scales and on a polished area.
1 (2). F v9 absent. Unh white band very narrow, just under 1mm. Con-
siderable seasonal variation.
pennicilligera, DeN. (38-42). The Assam Tufted Royal. Assam—Dawnas.
INK.
2 (1). F v9 present. Unh white band just over 1mm.
vidura burmana, M. (35-38). The Malay Tufted Royal. Dawnas-S.
Burma, NR.
H.59. Pratapa.—The Tufted Royals. (Plate 29.)
Above blue with broad black apex F and H and borders F. Below pale
brown to white with a thin discal line and tornal orange spots.
1 (2a). Below pale brown with a white band as in Dacalana, but broader
and expanding towards the dorsum and costa. Above as WDacalana ;
considerable seasonal variation in width of borders. ¢ unf tuft black; brand
uph dark brown, oval, on a polished area.
cotys, Hew. (33-37). The White banded Royal. Sikkim—N. Burma. NR.
2a (1). Below no white band. Q uph veins darkened.
2 (3a). Below polished silver grey with a discal series of separate black
spots, broad bars end cells anda prominent spot mid7H. CG upf bright
shining blue; upf a large black spot bases 2 and 3 and another mid 1. @ pale
purple blue turning whitish towards apex F. Gunf tuft brown; dark brand
uph on a black polished area.
* ctesia, Hew. (38-40). The Bi-spot Royal. Kumaon—Shan States, NR.
3a (2). Below a narrow dark discal line, no spots.
3 (4a). Unf discal line not below v2; unh upper bar of discal linein 7
shifted in. Below ¢ polished silver ; 2 white with an ochreous tinge ; no bars
end cells. ¢ above shining blue; 2 pale blue. ¢ unf tuft black ; uph brand
large and dark.
a. above paler and greenish. Below discal line faint and macular.
lucida argentea, Aur. (37-42). The Silver Royal. S. India. R.
B. ¢ upf with blue streaks on the black apex. Uph blue extends into 6,
Below discal line continuous.
lucida minturna, Fruh. (30-40). Sikkim-Dawnas. R.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 763
H.59. Pratapa.—(con/d.) i
4a (3). Unf discal line continued to vl except in faintly marked specimens.
4 (5a). Below white, discal line macular, bars end cells faint ; unh upper
bar of discal line in 7 shifted out. above shining blue, 2 pale blue or
purple blue, turning whitish outwardly on F. ¢ unf tuft black; uph dark
brand very large and conspicuous on a dark area. |
@. og above darker, border F straight to dorsum or nearly so. Below
discal line often faint.
deva deva, M. (32-40). The White Royal. Ceylon, S. India—Central
Provinces. R.
B. 3g paler. WSF ¢ upf border prominently angled mid 1 and continued
along dorsum.
*deva lila, M. Mussoorie-Rangoon. NR.
oa (4). Unf discal line continuous, not macular.
5 (6a). Below pale grey with a white bar endcell, prominent on F. ¢
above shining deep blue. @ pale violet blue, white beyond end cell F. Lobe
dark orange. ¢ unf tuft dark brown ; brand uph small and inconspicuous.
@. above blue restricted on F, just enters cell and not into 2, border
angled mid 1 and continued to mid dorsum. @2 uphall dark brown, powdered
with violet blue scales.
icetas 1cetas, Hew. (30-37). The Dark Blue Royal. Kangra-Kumaon. R.
B. g upf blue crosses cell and enters base 2; border angled mid 1 and
continued 4 along dorsum. @ uph violet blue.
wcetas extensa, vans. Sikkim-Karens. R.
Y. o above blue paler and with a greenish tinge, much more extensive,
entirely fills cell and extends to base 3; border not angled mid 1 or continued
along dorsum.
icetas mishmia, Evans. Mishmi Hills. VR.
6a (5). Below no bars end cells.
6 (7). Below pale brown discal line on F inwardly curved at upper end,
outwardly white edged. ¢ upf blue to base 4. 2 above pale dull powdery
blue, border broad and angled midlonF, broadon H. ¢ unf tuft pale
yellow ; uph brand large, but inconspicuous.
a. above shining purple blue ; H border 1mm.
* icetotdes carmentalis, DeN. (30-32). The Blue Royal. Assam. NR.
B. og above shining blue; H border a thread. Unh tornal orange area
large, portions in la and 2 united.
icetoides icetoides, Hl. Karens—S. Burma. R.
7 (6). Below creamy brown, unf discal line straight at costa, lower part
curved, nearer end cell than termen. (¢ above pale shining blue, apex F
very broadly black, but border reduced to a thread at tornus, no border H.
2 pale purple blue. ¢ unf 2 tufts, inner long and black, outer short and
white. Wings produced ; inner tail broad and ciliate.
cleobis, God. (27-38). The Broadtail Royal. S. India. Dun—N. Burma. NR.
H.60. Maneca.—The Slate Royal.
3 above dull slatey blue, broad dark apices and border F, border H 2mm.
and veins dark. Q slightly paler and border narrower. Lobe prominently
ochreous and cilia white. Below greyish white with narrow bars ends cells
and a macular discal line ; tornal markings H reduced. ¢ uph brand large
and black.
bhotea, DeN. (26-27). The Slate Royal. Sikkim—Assam. R.
H.61. Britomartis.—The Baby Royals.
Very similar to Pratapa, but smaller. Body blue above. Below pale brown,
discal line orange, no bars ends cells, marginal markings obscure; tornal
markings H prominent and a broad orange area.
1 (2). Unf discal line midway between end cell and termen ; unh orange at
tornus in la and 2 not coalesced. ¢ above rather pale shining blue, black
apex F extends into end cell and all space 3, border at tornus 1mm. and a
thread on H. CJ pale dull slatey blue, border not quite so broad as in ¢ and
H costa and apex broadly dark brown. No ¢ brand.
buto, DeN. (32). The Baby Royal. Assam—Burma. NR.
2 (1). Unf diseal line much nearer end cell than margin ; unh tornal orange
in la and 2 coalesced. 3 above shining cerulean blue, apex F reduced, inner
762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Val. XXX.
H.61. Britomartis.—(cotd.)
edge curved, not straight. ¢ upf a large prominent patch of modified scales
before end cell and in bases 2 and 3, which disappears with petrol.
cleoboides, El. (25-28). The Azure Royal. Karens—S. Burma. R.
H.62. Creusa.—The Black-branded Royai.
¢ above pale shining greenish blue, apex F broadly black reducing to 2mm
at the tornus, bases 2 and 3 blue; a black brand in outer half and cell; H
apex dark brown. @ paler and blue more extensive. Below very pale brown,
no bars end cells, discal line dark ferruginous, on F nearer cell than termen ;
H tornal markings small; orange crowns separate and well separated from
the discal band.
culta, DeN. (32). The Black-branded Royal. .Assam. R.
H.63. Tajuria.—The Royals. (Plate 29.)
Very like Pratapa and the 2 @ are hard to distinguish, but in Pratapa the
veins on the hindwing are dusky, which is not the case in Tajuria.
a (10a). Unhirrorated white scales in 1 extend sideways into la and 2 and
sometimes into 3.
b (5a). Below ochreous or ferruginous.
1 (2a). Unh tornal spots crowned by a metallic green line. {above dark
purple blue, very restricted. Q paler, blue colour enters 30n F. Below ¢
dark chocolate, = yellow to pale ferruginous.
a. ¢ upf blue in lower half of cell, basal § of la and 1.
jangala ravata, M. (32-42). The Chocolate Royal, Sikkim—Burma. C.
Bee ape blue powdery, confined to basal ¢ of la and 1.
jangala andamanica, WM. Andamans. NR.
Za. (3). Unhmno metallic green line over tornal spots.
2 (3a). Below yellow, no discal line ; unh tornal irrorated area surmounted
by a white irregular line. ¢{ above rich shining dark bluein ja and 1 F and
just entering cell; H blue with broad dark border.
donatana, DeN. (32). The Dawna Royal. Dawnas. VR.
a (2). Below discal line prominent and white edged.
3 (4). Unha white irregular line over the tornal irrorated area. Below
yellow, discal line unf about midway between the termen and end cell. Upf
& black: 9 lower discal area pale blue.
a. ¢ uph costa only pale blue, extending tovS5. @ blue just enters base
2; uph with only sparse blue scales about base to middle.
eee megistia, Hew. (32-34). The Orange and Black Royal. Assam.
R
6B. J uph all pale shining blue, except for narrow black termen. 2 blue
more extensive on F and Hall blue except apex.
megistia thria, DeN. Dawnas—S. Burma. R.
4 (3). Unh no white line over the tornal irrorated area. Below chestnut,
discal line unf much nearer end cell than termen.
a. ¢ upf black ; uph costa only pale blue, extending to v5 and into cell.
Unf discai line sinuous.
yajna yajna, Doh. (34). The Chestnut and Black Royal. Mussoorie.
Kumaon. VR. |
B. Aslast, but uph blue costal area extends to v4 and intocell. Unf
discal line straight. 92 upf lower discal area and uph pale powdery blue.
*vajna istroidea, DeN. (32-34). Sikkim—Assam. R.
yY. ¢ upf shining pale blue in la and 1, not reaching vl; uph all blue
except for narrow terminal border. Below. paler. Lobe above mostly
fulvous.
yajna ellist, Evans. (34). N. Shan States. R.
5a (1b). Below pale brown to brown sometimes rosy in No.8. <Q above
pale blue except for costa and apex and termen F.. Q upf denser black
beyond end cell (except 7b).
5b (7a). Below with bars end cells F and H; brown discal line midway
between termen and end cell and area beyond paler ; unh upper end of discal
line usually shifted out.
5 (6). ¢ shining green, on F in basal 3 of 2 and 3 of 3; a blue in 3 of 2 and
40f3; uph lower of 6 blue to termen and in 2 basal 3 of 6 blue. Unh
orange tornal spots prominent.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 763
H.63. Tajuria.—(con?d.)
mantra, Fd. (42-44). Felder’s Royal. Tavoy—S. Burma. VR.
6 (5). ¢ pale non-shining blue, on F only to base2; Qin z of 2 and3z
of 3. f 2 uph blue only in base of 6. Unh orange tornal spots very reduced.
oeeta, DeN. (47-48). DeNiceville’s Royal. Karens—S. Burma. VR.
7a (5b). Below bar end cell absent on H and at most faint on F ; unf discal
line nearer termen than end cell ; ground colour uniform.
7b (6). Below brown, discal! line not prominently white edged. Qupfa
prominent fuscous area of modified scales, disappearing with petrol, at and
beyond endcell. ¢ upf blue in 3 cell, la and 1; in 9 extending into 2 and 3.
7 (8). Unh discal line not conspicuously broken at v4. ¢ above pale shin-
ing greenish blue; uph costa broadly dark brown, filling all 6 except extreme
base.
ogyges, DeN. (47-48). The Large Branded Royal. Moulmein—S. Burma.
VR
8 (7). Unh diseal line conspicuously broken at v4; below often rosy,
especially in 2. @ above pale blue.
mélastigma, DeN. (40-46). The Branded Royal, N. Kanara, Kumaon—
Burma. R.
9 (7b). Below very pale brown, discal line prominently white edged ; tornal
orange markings H large. <Q above pale blue, rather powdery, extending
on Fin ¢ into basal3zor 3 of 2, in Q up to base 3 and most of 2; uph lobe
orange crowned.
. tster, Hlew. (32-39). The Uncertain Royal. Assam. VR.
10a (la). Unh tornal white irrorations confined to 1. Below white to pale
brown, discal line not white edged.
10b (27). Unf no broad discal band.
10c (17a). Unh nospot on dorsum between end of discal line and base.
Below with a narrow discal line, which may be absent.
10d (15a). Below discal line about midway between termen and end cell,
continuous.
10 (1la). Unh discal line not paraliel to termen, very straight and conti-
nuous to the middle of 2 from the costa. Below pale brown, discal. line
ferruginous, submargina! line prominent, no bars end cells. (¢ above pale
blue in DSF, reaching base 3 ; WSF darker, blue more restricted ; 9 paler,
with a white spot beyond end cell F ; uph lobe mostly red.
diaeus, Hew. (33-36). The Straightline Royal, Mussoorie—N. Burma. R.
lla (10). Unh discal line parallel to termen, very irregular, brown. Below
cell bars usually present. Uph lobe mostly black.
1lb (14). Above pale cerulean blue ; ¢ upf blue in most of celi and to v3,
terminal border narrow in la and 1:@ blue very extensive. Below white to
grey.
1I (12-13). above very pale cerulean blue, entering 3 upf; 9 area beyond
cell upf prominently very pale.
albiplaga, DeN. (34-37). The Pallid Royal. Sikkim—Tavoy. R.
12 (11-13). Darker; ¢ upf no blue in 3. Below darker, discal lines promi-
nent, tornal spots reduced. Often no tail at v2.
sebonga, Tyt. (35). Tytler’s Royal. Manipur. R.
13 (11-12). As last. Below paler, discal lines absent, tornal spots promi-
nent. 2 upf black apex broader, evenly curved, no tooth.
wsaeus, Hew. (35). The Bornean Royal. ‘S. Burma (DeN). VR.
14 (11b). Above dusky dark powdery blue; { upf blue colour may just
enter 2, terminal border broad ; Q blue colour just enters base 3. Below pale
brown : considerable seasonal variation.
thyta, DeN. (30-36). The Dusky Royal. Assam. R.
15a (10d). Below discal line much nearer termen than end cell, macular
and may be absent ; pale grey to white, barsend cells present or absent ; ; on
H discal line broken i in at 3 and 4, so that lower part is shifted in compared
tc the upper part ; tornal markings more or less prominent. Quph nearly
always with a wavy black discal line.
15 (16). Above cilia conspicuously white. (% above slatey blue, on F in
lower } of cell, basal 4 of la and 1, but may extend to base 3; on H there may
bea wavy discal line as in Cre ee upf blue more extensive, to beyond end cell
Bee it is paler, sometimes whitish. ¢Quph 2 tornal black spots in 1
an
464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H.63. Tajuria.—(conid.)
jehana, M. (30-37). The Plains Blue Royal. Ceylon. S. India—Bengal
and Dun. :
3. v. ceylanica, Riley, Blue upf extending above v2. NR.
16 (15). Cilia brown, or long hairs only white. ¢ above dark shining blue
or greenish blue; upf cell blue and may extend to base 3. Q greyish blue,
becoming whitish outwardly on F.
a. Darker blue. Smaller.
* cippus longinus, F. (31-45). The Peacock Royal. Ceylon. C.
6. Mpnighter, Warser:
cippus cippus, PF. India, Burma. C.
17a (10c). Unh a small black spot on dorsum between the end of the discal
band and the base. Below white; H tornal markings very reduced.
17 (18a). Unh no black spot in 8 internal to the discal band. Below bars
end cells wide, discal line broken very irregular on H; unh black spot at
apex. Upf disc white, turning bluish at base and dorsum, broad black border
extending along dorsum, bluish white scales at tornus ; uph bluish, turning
white beyond end cell and base 6, rest of 6 dark brown to costa. 2 as ¢ but
wings more rounded.
* Ulurgis, Hew. (38-42). The White Royal. Mussoorie—N. Burma. R.
18a (17). Unh a black spot just below v8 between end cell and base.
18b (20). Below with a narrow irregular discal line, bars end cells
narrow.
1@ (19). Unf discal line in 1 not concave. Above as in last with white pat-
ches F and H.
wllurgtoides, DeN. (38-42). The Scarce White Royal. Mussoorie—Assam.
R
19 (18). Unf discal line concave in]. Above ¢ pale blue, extending on
upf to termen in 1 and filling basal 3 of 2. 2 with broad dark border at
termen upf and along costa uph ; upf blue colour extending to 3 and turning
whitish on disc.
luculentus nila, Swin. (38-42). The Chinese Royal. Assam. VR.
20 (18b). Below no discal line, but with several large irregularly placed
black spots. Above pale blue turning whitish on disc F and beyond cell H,
with broad dark borders F and costa H, extending along costa F. 2 white
with borders asin @.
* maculata, Hew. (36-44). TheSpotted Royal. Sikkim—Burma. NR.
21 (10b). Below white with a broad dark discal band, no bars end cells.
Above ¢ shining violet blue, border Imm to 3 at apex F. 9 dark brown.
a. Lobe above mostly black. Q@ uph with arow of submarginal white
spots. Below discal band dark brown, outwardly defined by a white line,
diffused outwardly; H a waved line above tornus quite separate from the
tornal markings, black spot in 2.
jalindra macarita, Fr. (36-44). The Banded Royal. S. India. R.
B. Aslast. Q uph a white subterminal line in 1-2. Below discal band
chocolate ; H tornal green scales more prominent ; white diffused areas beyond
discal band more extensive.
*jalindra indra, M. Orissa. Sikkim—Karens. NR.
y. Lobe above mostly orange. Q uphno white spots. Below ground
colour bluish white, discal band ferruginous brown, on F only separated from
the marginal ferruginous area by a narrow white line to v2; H discal and
marginal dark areas coalesced, no wavy discal line above tornus ; tornal
orange very extensive.
jalindra tarpina, Hew. Andamans. NR.
H.64. Charana.—The Mandarin Blue. (Plate 29.)
1 (2). @ above pale blue, black apex fills 3 of cell and the dark border
extends along the dorsum; H costal border broad. 2 above dark brown,
tornal area H white with black spots. Below discal band ferruginous brown,
confluent with paler ferruginous brown marginal area: marked as in H 63-21,
*mandarinus, Hew. (40-44). The Mandarin Blue, Sikkim—Burma. An-
damans. NR.
2 (1). ¢ above rich deep blue, much restricted. Q tornal white area uph
reduced. Below border purple brown with no white submarginal line.
cepheis, DeN. (45). The Cachar Mandarin Blue. Assam. VR,
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 765
H.65. Jacoona—The Great Imperial.
& above pale shining blue at base F and H anda blue bar beyond the cell
F on the black apex; 2 dark brown: uph tornal area white with two large
black spots. Below white, apex F broadly and H narrowly silky ochreous ;
unh tornal spots prominent and irrorated metallic scales, a very broken black
discal line from la to 4. ¢ upf black brand on disc only showing with
etrol.
: anasuja, Fd. (46-50). The Great Imperial. N. Shan States.—S. Burma,
VR.
H.66. Manto.—The Green Imperial.
3 above bright shining greenish blue with a broad black apex F, @ dark
brown with a broad white tornal area uph bearing black spots, Below ¢
chrome yellow outwardly darker; @ paler; H with prominent tornal spots.
hypoleuca martina, Hew. (44-47). The Green Imperial. Tavoy—S, Burma,
R. .
H.67. Mantoides—The Brush Imperial.
3 & above dark brown with a broad white tornal area uph, bearing black
spots. Below silky ; F dorsum broadly white, remainder ochreous, darkening
towards apex; H white, costa and apex ochreous ; a discal black line, very
obscure on F and prominent tornal spots H.
licintus, Druce. (36-44). The Brush Imperial. Dawnas-—S. Burma. VR.
H,68. Neocheritra.—The Grand Imperials. (Plate 29).
1 (2). @ upf base shining pale blue, apex dark brown, inwardly angled
and there may be a white patch in 2; uph dark brown, tornal area broadly
white, crowned by some scattered blue scales and bearing black spots. 2 dark
brown with sometimes a white discal patch F; H tornal areaas ¢. Below
white, apices ochreous brown, broad in F and bearing two suffused white
fascize, narrower on H and bearing one white fascia: H with an irregular
discal line from lato 2 and prominent tornal black spots, sprinkled with
metallic blue scales.
*fabrvonia Hew. (37-44). The Pale Grand Imperial. Sikkim—Burma. R.
2 (1}. ¢ above dark purple blue with broad black apex F and border H
tornus whitish, with a black spot in 1. Q dark brown with the tornus H
white, bearing two confluent black spots. Below white with unmarked bright
ochreous apices and the usual tornal markings H.
amrita, Fd. (35-50). The Dark Grand Imperial. Karens—S. Burma. VR.
H.69. Purlisa-The Giant Imperial.
¢ above shining blue with broad black apex F and border H. Below dark
ashy with a darker postdiscal band and submarginal lunules ; tornal area
sprinkled metallic scales.
giganiea, Dist. (52). The Giant Imperial. S. Burma. VR.
H.70. Suasa.—The Red Imperial. (Plate 29.)
¢ upf orange wita black apex and border, base powdered bright blue scales,
veins black ; uph pale blue with black apex and costa, black tornal spots in
laand 2. 2 upf orange with dark brown apex and border and base broadly
darkened; uph dark brown with tornal white area, bearing black spots.
Below white; F a broad ochreous brown discal band from costa to v3
continuing to vl, as a narrow brown line, margin broadly ochreous brown ; H
a prominent black spot in 7 near base in ¢ only, a narrow discal and sub-
marginal brown line, ending in prominent black spot in 7, prominent tornal
spots.
*listdes, Hew. (27-30). The Red Imperial. Assam—Burma. R.
H.71. Cheritrella.—The Truncate Imperial. (Plate 29.)
3 upf dark purple blue with broad black apex and border ; uph pale shining
blue with broad dark brown borders, lobe ochreous. Q much paler blue with
two discal white spots upf. Below rather pale ochreous brown with darker
markings, few and obscure on F, numerous on H ; tornal markings H absent
except for some white irroration.
truncipennis, DeN, (32-36). The Truncate Imperial. Sikkim—Karens, R.
766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL VIST. SOCIRIV.. Val, XXX,
H.72. Neomyrina.—The White Imperial. (Plate 29.)
& 2 above white with broad black apex F, shot bluein %. Below white
with broad grey, black edged, markings arr anged as in Amblypodia and with
‘tornal black spots, crowned with metallic green scales.
*hiemalis, God, (50-58). The White Imperial. Dawnas—S. Burma. NR.
H.73. Cheritra.—The Common Imperial. (Plate 29.)
_ 6 & above dark brown with a purple tinge in $; a white tornal area H,
bearing black spots. Below very faint bars at ends of celis; a narrow discal
line F ; a discal and submarginal line H and tornal black spots. Crowned
metallic scales.
a. Below pure white, apex F faintly tinged ochreous ; unf discal line black,
highly waved and macular.
freja pseudojatfra, M. (38-42). The Common Imperial. Ceylon. NR.
Unf discal line regular and continuous, Uph white area more extensive.
freja jatfra, But. S. India. NR.
Yy. Below 3 pale ochreous, darkening at apex and termen F and apex Hi.
© white, outwardly ochreous. Unf discal line ochreous.
*freja treja. F. Kumaon—Tavoy. NR.
6. Below ¢ 2 white; ¢ costa narrowly, apex and termen broadly bright
ochreous ; 2 the ochreous apex unf very wide. Unf discal line ochreous.
freja regia, Evans, Mergui. C.
H.74. Ticherra.—The Blue Imperial.
3 above dark purple blue, border 1mm ; black tornal spots H coalesced and
crowned by two white spots. @ dark brown, Below WSE bright ochreous,
faintly marked as in Cheritra; DSF pale brown, markings more prominent
and some obscure central markings.
acte, M,. (34-38). The Blue Imperial. Kumaon—Burma. NR.
H.75. Biduanda.—The Posies. (Plate 29.)
la (3a). Unf white, discal band not of same width throughout and broken
in middle; unh upper spot of discal band in line with rest. Unf prominent
chocolate spots in cell, narrow ferruginous or brown line end cell and a
chocolate discal band, which is very wide to v3 and merges into the chocolate
apex ; margin below v3 ochreous, inwardly edged by a dark line. Unh white
with basal brown rings or spots, an irregular double discal line, the upper end
of which is darker and filled in as a single line, a very narrow submarginal
line ; prominent black spots and metallic scales. Tails v1 4 mm, v2 7mm,
2 v3 13mm ; no ¢ brand.
Hen 2 a Unf discal band well separated from line end cell; a narrow dark
line beyond upper part of discal band, the outer edge of which ‘and of the discal
band is obscurely white edged ; the discal band in 2 consists of 2 narrow
chocolate or ferruginous lines, which may coalesce, and in 3 of 2 chocolate lines,
which are often coalesced. ¢ above dark brown ; costa H orange and tornal
area broadly pale shining blue with black marginal spots in la and 2.
a. Below markings not so pronounced and paler. ¢ above paler ; upf with
a sharply defined white patch at bases 2 and 3. @ dark brown with an orange
discal patch on F and some faint tornal grey scales H.
melisa cyava, Hew. (20-25). The Blue Posy. Sikkim—N. Burma. VR.
8. Below strongly marked. ¢ upfno white patch. @2 dark brown with a
small orange spot end cell F, which may be obsolete or diffused ; pale tornal
area of variable extent and colour from bluish to white and more or less divided
by darker veins.
*melisa melisa, Hew. Karens—S. Burma. NR.
2(1). Unf upper part of discal band coalesced to upper part of bar end
cell and to line beyond, outwardly edged by a narrow, clearly defined,
irregular white line ; discal band in 2 consists of a single ochreous line and in
1 of a single chocolate line (or 2 spots) ; submarginal line regular, not waved,
widened inwardly in 1 nearly to the discal band. Unh 2 narrow single lines
at end cell (in me/isa there is an outer narrow line and an inner double line,
which may be coalesced). (above dark shining violet blue, border 1mm,
tornal spots in 1 and 2 crowned by bluish white scales. Q2 dark brown, a
prominent orange discal spot on F ; a broad bluish my bitte tornal area H, which
is not divided by darker veins.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 767
H.75. Biduanda.— (conzd.)
nicevillet, Doh, (30-33). The Violet Posy. Tavoy—S. Burma. R.
3a (la). Unf ochreous, apex broadly washed brown, markings brown on
the brown area, ochreous elsewhere ; discal band of even width, unbroken.
Unh very like 1a, but upper part of discal band in 7 shifted in to over cell
bar. Unf spot base cell, bars mid and end cell. Q dark brown, a broad
orange discal patch F and bluish tornus H.
3 (4). gno brand. Above dark brown ; upf with an orange discal patch,
beyond which the apex is deep violet blue, sparsely frosted white scales ; uph
termen and tornus frosted white scales, mixed anteriorly with blue scales.
Tails vl 2mm, v2 5mm, v3 Imm.
scudderit, Doh. (27-30). The Frosted Posy. DawnastoS. Burma. VR.
4 (3). ¢@ uph a shining dark brown brand about base 6 and shining yellow
beyond. ¢ above dark violet blue, no border ; amore or less obscure or
obsolete reddish discal patch on F. Tails v1 4mm, v2 10mm, v3 inQ 2mm.
*thesmia fabricit, M. (32-35). The Dark Posy: Dawnas—S. Burma. NR.
B. ¢ upf, discal red patch more prominent ; 9 orange red area more
restricted. Unf apex not brown washed.
thesmia thesmia, Hew. S. Mergui. R.
H.76. Marmessus.—The Common Posy. (Plate 29.)
Upf orange red, base and apex dark brown ; ¢ uph pale shining blue,
becoming purple towards apex and cerulean towards tormus ; 2 uph dark
brown witha more or less prominent orange discal patch. Below as H 74.4,
but unf all ochreous and unh upper part of discal band in 6 and 7 shifted in,
apex broadly pale ochreous. Tails vl 4mm, v2 10mm, v3 2mm.
*lisias botsduvali, M. (26-30). The Common Posy. Karen—S. Burma. C.
H.77. Eoxylides.--The Branded Imperial.
Above dark brown ; ¢ upf some sparse blue scales above mid dorsum ; uph
a broad white tornal area to v5, lobe black and two confluent tornal black
spots, the white area edged bluishin ¢. Below bright ferruginous : F
unmarked ; H tornal area as above, an irregular black discal line and a white
bar end cell. Tails vl 2mm, v2 10mm, v3 2mm.
tharis, Hub, (34-36). The Branded Imperial. S. Burma. VR.
H.78. Thamala.—The Cardinal. (Plate 29.)
& above brilliant deep scarlet ; upfadark border and scme of the veins
black. 9 dark brown ; a large central orange area F intersected by a broad
dark brown streak from base running below cell ; uph tornus widely irrorated
bluish scales. Below crimson overlaid ochreous scales, obscure bars end cells
a narrow dark obscure waved discal line ; tornal markings reduced and some
sparse white scales, There is a second form of underside, ochreous not
overlying crimson scales ; dusky in ¢ and markings obscure ; clear in 2 and
markings prominent. Tails v] 2mm, v2 3mm in; in 9 vl 3mm and v2
7mm.
mintata, M. (34-36). The Cardinal. Bhamo—S. Burma. NR.
H.79, Rathinda.—The Monkeypuzzle. (Plate 29.)
& 2 above dark brown ; a white spot end cell F continued into 2 and 3 ; 2
black tornal spots H crowned by a dark ochreous fascia. Below ochreous
brown to white ; on F some irregular dark basal markings, a curved white
discal band, beyond which the apex is ochreous brown, bearing a white
submarginal line ; H covered with numerous irregular markings. H angled
at v4. Tails v1 2mm, v2 6mm, v3 25mm.
* amor, F. (26-28). The Monkeypuzzle. Ceylon. S. India.—Assam. NR.
H.80. Horaga.—The Onyxes. (Plate 29.)
Mostly cyaneous blue above with a dark blue apex F and a prominent white
discal patch. Below ochreous or brown with a prominent white discal band
across both wings to middle of 1 on H, whence to the dorsum there is a
metallic green line ; tornal markings prominent and crowned by a metallic
green line, which may run to costa. ¢ in Nos. 1 and 2 has an oval ochreous
brand along basal half of v1, dorsum bowed. ‘Tails v1 2mm, v2 4mm, and
v3 Imm.
Ja (3a). Unf ¢ with a well defined brand, Unh white band well defined,
7
768 JQURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTHIY, Waieeces
H.80. Horaga.—(contd.)
1 (2) ¢ 2 above cyaneous blue, but shade is very variable. Unf either the
white band or the dark line bordering it outwardly extends well above v6.
a. Upf blue colour paler and brighter, extending well beyond the end of
the discal white patch in 2 and 3 ; white patch not into]; H blue to termen.
Unf discal band to costa. Unhdiscal band of even width. Below ochreous
to ochreous brown. ‘Tail at v3 nearly obsolete.
onyx cingalensis, M. (30-33). The Common Onyx. Ceylon—S. India. R.
B. Upf blue colour darker, but very variable, never extending beyond the
discal white patch, which always enters 1; very variable below. Tail at v3
short.
* onyx onyx, M. (27-31). Kangra—S. Burma. NR.
Y. ¢ upf white patch small, divided by black veins and not below v2 ;
blue colour absent or restricted to powdery scales at base ; H greenish. 9
white patch very large ; base sprinkled dull blue scales ; H all brown. Below
dark ochreous brown. ‘Tail at v3 comparatively long.
onyx rana, DeN. (30-33). Andamans. NR.
2 (1) Q above shining violet. upf white patch very small, 1mm. Below
ochreous brown, white band very narrow and straight and on F neither the
white band nor the dark line bordering it extend above v6.
halba, Dist. (28-30). The Malay Onyx. Mergui. VR.
$a (la). No ¢ brand. Unh white band very narrow and sullied. Unf
discal band never above v6.
3 (4). Unh white band diffused outwards, straight. ¢ upf dark brown,
white patch nearly tovl; H shining violet nearly to termen. Below dark
ochreous brown, outwardly paler.
. albimacula, Wm. (25-27). The Violet Onyx. Andamans. VR.
4 (3). Unh discal band not diffused outwards, somewhat convex. ¢ Q
above dark brown or violet brown, discal white patch F may extend into l.
Below uniform, rather dark brownish ochreous.
viola, M. (22-28). The Brown Onyx. S. India. Kangra—Burma. R.
H.81. Catapoecilma.—The Tinsels. (Plate 29.)
Termen scalloped and cilia prominently chequered ; H not angled, lobe ill
developed also. tornal markings below. Tails vl 1mm, v2 4$mm and v3
smm.
la (3). Below with numerous more or less regular ochreous bands and
spots, edged metallic green and black.
1 (2). Below rather pale brown, bands and spots comparatively irregular,
upper part of discal band on F broken up and post discal band beyond highly
irregular ; on H spots at base and mid 7 separate. o above dark violet blue,
border 1mm. @ pale violet blue, border broader.
a. In®@ borders above narrower and inwardly scalloped along termen F.
elegans myositina, Fruh. (28-32). The Common Tinsel. Ceylon, S. India. R.
8. Borders broader ; in Q 3mm and inwardly even along termen F.
"elegans major, Fruh. Orissa. Mussoorie—Burma. NR.
2 (1). Below bright ochreous, bands and spots regular. Above as last.
subochracea, Fl. (27-29). The Yellow Tinsel. Nagas—Tavoy. R.
3 (1a). Below no regular spots or bands ; chrome yellow, densely and evenly
striated with black and bearing scattered greenish silver metallic scales and
streaks. ¢ above smoky purple black, obscurely violet shot ; on F near base
there may be some powdery dull blue scales; Q as No. 1.
delicatum, DeN. (32-35). The Dark Tinsel. Sikkim—Assam. R.
H.82. Chliaria. The Tits. (Plate 29.)
la (3). Unha prominent black spot in 7 towards base; unf discal band
completely broken at v4.
1} (2). Unf small black costal spot above mid cell. (above pale blue with
broad black apex and termen F, narrow black costa and apex H; the black
apex F shot deep purple blue ; blue colour Fof very variable extent. 2 brown,
lower part of disc F may be whitish ; H tornal area broadly blcish white and
veins darkened. Below white, faint bars end cells, making ochreous, black
edged ; upper part discal band on F much wider than lower part ; discal band
on H broken in 4 and 6; tornal spots prominent, orange crowned. Tails
delicate, vl 4mm and v2 2mm, A
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 6
“NI
ae)
H.82. Chliaria.— (cozfd.)
othona, Hew. (24-27). The Orchid Tit. South India. Dun—Burma. An-
tae: NR.
2 (1). Unf no spot on costa. above pale blue, broadly black bordered,
the inner portion of the border shot iridescent purple blue. @ dark brown,
discs whitish. Below pale grey, marking concolorous and black edged. Tails
vl 3mm and v2 lgmm.
a. Unh upper spot of discal band black. ¢ blue colour very restricted.
kina kina. Hew. (26-29). The Blue Tit. Dun—Kumaon. R.
8. Unh upper spot of discal band as rest. Blue colour very variable.
*kina cachara, M. (27-31). Sikkim—Dawnas. NR.
3 (la). Unh no spot in 7 towards base. ¢ above dark purple blue, except
for black apex and border shot shining purple. Q brown, prominent white
tornal area H, bearing marginal black spots. Below faint bars end cells ;
discal band narrow, ochreous, white edged, placed much nearer end cell than
margin, straight and continuous on F, broken sharply on H at v4; very little
orange at tornus.
a. Larger. Below white, apex F broadly ochreous. ‘Tails vl 8mm and v2
4mm.
merguia watsoni, Swin. (27-239). The Purple Tit. Chin-Karens. R.
B. Smaller. Below grey, apex F broadly pale ochreous. Tails v1] 8mm
and v2 4 mm.
merguia merguiu, Doh. (21-24). Dawnas—S. Burma. R.
H.83. Hypolycaena.—The Tits. (Plate 29.)
la (3). Unha prominent spot in 7 near base. Tails v1 5mm v2 4mm,
1 (2). Unh basal spot in 7 black. ¢ above dark reddish purple brown ; 2
dark brown, obscure black tornal spots H, crowned deep orange. Below white,
faint bars end cells ; black edged obscure ‘ochreous discal band, broken at v4 on
F and H and upper part wider ; small tornal spots, obscurely yellow crowned.
nilgivica, M,. (28-32). The Nilgiri Tit. Ceylon, S. India. R.
- 2 (1). Unh basal spot in 7 ochreous. Above very dark shining brown. (¢
paler and duller, prominent orange crowned tornal spots H. Below white, all
markings narrow ochreous, white edged.
a. Uph spot in 2 only crowned ochreous. Unf discal band slightly shifted
in at v4, apex broadly and margin narrowly ochreous ; unh discal band broken
at v4 and slightly at v6: tornal markings prominent, space 1 inostly ochreous.
*theclotdes theclotdes, Fd. (30-32). The Brown Tit. Tavoy—S. Burma. R.
B. Uphk ochreous tornal area wider, from la to 3. Unf discal band straight,
termen only narrowly ochreous. Unh discal band straight to v4: ochreous
crown to spot in 2 prominent, but hardly spreading sideways, space 1 being
mostly dark.
thecloides nicobarica, Evans. (31-33). Nicobars. R.
3 (la). Unh no spot in 7 near base. <¢ above changing from black to
shining purple except for black borders. Upf prominent black area of modified
scales on disc. Q above dark brown; uph an obscure white disconnected
discal fascia in 1-3: tornal spot in 2 prominently white edged and a narrow
white submarginal fascia in 3-4. Below grey with faint ochreous tinge,
double bars end cells; an ochreous, white edged, discal line, continuous or
F, broken on H at v4 and v6, tornal spot in 2 prominent, ochreous crowned.
Tails v1 6mm and v2 5mm.
a. Smaller. In @ uph tornal spot in 1 hardly defined.
erylus himavantus, Fruh. (32-36). The Common Tit. Sikkim—Burma. C.
B. Larger. In @ uph tornal spot in 1 defined by white edging.
erylus andamana, Fruh. (34-38). Andamans. NR.
H.84. Zeltus.—The Fluffy Tit. (Plate 29.)
cf above very pale blue, powdery on F and confined to base; the broad
black apex F and H shot deep purple. 2 dark brown, tornal spots in la and
2 prominently white ringed and on a white area. Below bluish white, apices
broadly pale ochreous brown, markings darker; double lines end cells; a
narrow discal line, continuous on F, broken at: v3, 4 and 6 on H; prominent
black costal spot near base 7 ; tornal spots prominent, but not crowned orange.
‘Pails fluffy at v1 13mm, at v2 7 mm.
* etolus, F. (28-32). The Fluffy Tit. Sikkim—Burma. NR,
770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H.85. Artipe.—The Green Flash. (Plate 29.)
3 above shining blue, black bordered; @ dark brown; lobe green, black
centred. Below verdigris green with a narrow white discal line and end cell
bars ; in 2 tornal area H broadly white.
hth L. (640,256). The Green Flash. Sikkim—Burma. Andamans.
v. skinnert, Wm. Below yellow. VR.
H.86. Deudoryx.—The Cornelians. (Plate 29.)
& above red with broad dark brown border, 2 brown with sometimes the
disc F paler. Below with cell bars and a discal band ; H lobe black, orange
crowned, a black spot in 2 and some metallic scales in 1. Above lobe black
centred.
1 (2). Below markings very broad, continuous. Below uniform brown,
markings white edged. (scarlet above.
a. Smaller. Below rather dark brown.
eptjarbas epijarbas, M. (34-38). The Cornelian. Ceylon, S. India—Orissa.
NR
B. Larger. Pale brown below.
epijarbas ancus, Fruh. (38-43). Chitral—Kumaon. NR.
Y. Very variable ; usually rather dark brown below.
epijarbas amatius, Fruh. (36-44). Sikkim—Burma, Andamans, Nicobars,
C )
* uv. diava, Swin. Below very dark brown, outer part of the disc F and
upper half H white, crossed by black veins. R.
2 (1). Below pale polished grey, outwardly pale ferruginous ; markings
narrow, catenulated, prominently white edged, slightly darker than the
ground, of separated spots on F, conjoined on H ; discal band H much nearer
margin and upper spot inline. ¢ above palerred; Q may havea pale red
discal area on F.
a. Beiow markings prominent, complete.
hypargyria gaetulia, DeN. (40-44). The’Scarce Cornelian. Assam—N.
Shan otates. Rk.
8. Below markings becoming obsolete and may be reduced to spots in 2,
3, 4H.
hypargyria hypargyria, El. Karens. VR.
H.87. Virachola.—The Guava Blues. (Plate 29.)
Below markings broad, bars end cells more or less white edged, discal band
and tornal markings as in Deudoryx.
1 (2). Below pale brown, markings slightly darker; no spot in cell F nor
near base7H. ¢ above dark fuscous brown sometimes paler on disc, shot
brilliant violet blue on lower part of disc F and on most of H ; tornal spot in
2 usually present and some bluish scales between it and the lobe. @ paler
fuscous brown, darker towards end cell F, beyond which there is an ochreous
patch and sometimes a similar tornal patch; H marginal spot in 2 usually
prominent and orange crowned.
tsocrates tsocrates, F. (40-44). The Common Gtiava Blue. Ceylon, India,
pB. Termen F convexin ¢. ¢ above dull purple, glossed pink. Below rich
dark vinous buff, markings very obscure.
tsocrates rosacea, Tytler. Manipur. R.
2 (1). Below very variable, pale to dark brown, often purple washed ;
markings darker than ground, centrally brown, outwardly black and more or
less white edged ; discal band on F anteriorly oblique and may be broken at
v4; aspotincell. H nearly always with a prominent spot base7. ¢ above
blue with a broad dark brown border F, much blacker in cell, beyond which
there may be a dark ochreous patch. Q blue colour paler and more extensive,
a whitish or pale ochreous patch beyond cell F.
a. above pale, shining blue. Q pale blue, white patch diffused. Below
dull, markings less prominent. ;
perse ghela, Fruh, (48-52). The large Guava Blue. Ceylon, 8. India.
NR.
B. Darker, but very variable above and below. Q upf white patch smaller,
not diffused. Unf very rarely a spot incell. jg unf a brand above mid vl,
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 771
H.87. Virachola.—(contd.)
perse perse. Hew. Kangra—Assam, Orissa. N. Burma. NR.
y. Unf always aspotincell. Upf ¢ 2 ochreous or white patch absent.
perse smtlis, Hew. Andamans. S. Burma. R.
H.88. Rapala.— The Flashes. (Plate 29.)
Normal pattern below consists of a bar end cell and a discal band followed
by a more or less distinct submarginal line ; tornal spots more or less distinct,
Nos. 1-3 are abnormal.
la (7a). ¢ uph brand fills base of 6 or (in Nos. 5, 6and 6a) has a detached
portion along the base of v6.
1 (2a). ¢ uph brand enters cell. ¢ above dark indigo, shot brilliant deep
blue, borders broad; @ shining indigo blue with narrower border. Below
purple brown, washed shining purple and bearing a number of large, white
ringed, dark spots ; F spot in cell, double spot end cell, 3 discal and 3 apical
spots; H 2 costal spots in 7, inner one very large, spot in cell double, spot
end cell and discal row. ¢ brand shining dark blue; tuft brown, prominent.
*subguttata, Hl. (32-35). The Spotted Flash. Karens—S. Burma. R.
2a (1). ¢ uph brand not into cell. Below banded, not spotted.
2b (4). Below pattern abnormal.
2 (3). Below rather pale brown, marked with narrow white lines ; F line
near end cell, continued into 1, a pair of discal lines joined at the lower end, a
short apical line and lunular submarginal lines ; H line through centre of cell
from 1-8, a discal pair, broken at 1, a postdiscal line and 2 submarginal
lunular lines ; prominent tornal black spots, crowned orange and metallic
scales. above brilliant shining blue, confined to base un F. @ dull pale
purple blue, bases darkened and borders broad. ¢ brand small, pale grey in
centre of polished patch ; tuft black, prominent.
kessuma deliochus, jZew. (30-33), The Whiteline Flash. Shan States—S.
Burma. VR.
3 (2). Below yellowish white, F and H avery large greenish white patch end
cell and a very broad discal band, margins greenish brown ; tornal markings
small, no orange. ¢ above dark shining purple, shot brilliant blue on H.
borders black on F. 2 unknown. ¢ brand pale brown, circular, behind
origin v7 and with a detached portion at base 6 ; tuft brown, short.
*abnormis, Hl. (30-33). The Abnormal Flash. Karens—S. Burma. R.
4a (2b). Below pattern normal.
4b (6b). ¢ unf tuft mid dorsum.
4 (5-6a). Below very pale brown, markings obscure, broad, white edged
either side. dabove shining purple blue, broad black border on F. @ paler
duller and border narrower. ¢ brand dark brown, elongated, runs along
over v7 and fills base 6; tuft pale brown inconspicuous. Apex F and tornus
H more produced than usual.
rvetulgens DeN. (31-33). The Refulgent Flash Assam—Karens. VR.
5 (4-6). Below bright ferruginous with a dark ferruginous discal band,
normally placed on H, but on F just beyond end cell; no bars end cells ;
tornal markings reduced, but crowned powdery white scales. ¢ above purple
brown, shot deep blue at base F and over most of H; 9 pale ferruginous; lobe
ferruginous. ¢ brand pale yellow, circular, above origin v7 and with a
detached portion along the SCV between origins vs6 and/7=; tuft brown,
inconspicuous.
lankana, M. (38-41). The Malabar Flash. Ceylon. S. India. R.
6a (4-5). Below bright ochreous. 2 paler ; discal line narrow, brown, out-
wardly white edged and on F curved in at upper end. ¢ abovered, broad
border F running from la along dorsum ; black border F and red area H shot
rich purple. Q brown. ¢ brand as in last ; tuft pale ochreous to ferruginous.
a. of above coppery red. @ often paleron disc upf. Below pale yellow.
Very variable.
*suffusa suffusa. M. (33-37). The Suffused Flash. Assam—S. Burma. NR.
B. ¢ above bright red, not entering cell F and veins not black ; H cell and
dorsum and veins black ; 2 cupreous on disc. Below ¢ coppery ochreous ; 2
pale yellow, markings prominent ; tornal spot in 2 crowned ochreous.
sutfusa rubtcunda, Hvans. (33-35). Andamans. R.
6b (4b). ¢ unf no tuft mid dorsum ; brand uph as in No. 6a, but smaller,
Above dull red with broad fuscous borders F and dusky veins ; the red colour
772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H.88. Rapala.—(conid.)
may be more or less fuscous overlaid, especially in 9. Lobe small, ochreous.
Below pale brown, single white bars end cells, discal bands rather broad,
slightly darker than ground, white edged outwardly and on F much curved in
apically ; on H curved parallel to termen. ¢ tornal spots in 2 prominent,
orange crowned.
hades, DeN. (39-44). The Malay Flash. Dawnas—S. Burma. VR.
is (la). 3 uph brand entirely above v7 and mostly behind its origin.
7 (8a). ¢ unf large polished area mid dorsum ; brand brown, large, circular ;
tuft dark brown, prominent ; upf a black discal ‘patch of modified scales.
3 above very dark blue, shot brilliant deep blue; 2 dull purple, shading to
the dark brown border. Below 3 DSF greenish ochreous, WSF ochreous
brown ; 2 bright ochreous ; discal line narrow, outwardly white edged, broken
on H.
tara, DeN. (33-41). The Assam Flash. Kumaon—Assam. NR.
8a (7). ¢ unf no polished area.
8b (16a). -Unh discal band more or less curved and parallel to termen.
8c (12a). ¢ above blue.
8 (9a). Below bands very dark brown, broad, not white edged ; ground
colour variable from uniform pale to dark ochreous brown, bases often darker.
Body below prominently ochreous. ¢ above dark blue, shot most brilliant
rich deep blue, border F broad. @ above rich shining blue, veins black. ¢
brand as No. 7; tuft dark brown, broad.
a. Upfno brand i belie Variable with the season.
Sphinx sphinx F. (36-38). The Brilliant Flash. Assam— —Rangoon. Ke
8. Upfa sharpiy defined brand at bases 2 and 3 in ¢.
sphinx rhoecus, DeN. S. Shan States—S. Burma. R.
Ya (8). Below bands white edged ; unh band white edged both sides and
lower edge cell bar touches the discal band or nearlyso;tornal markings
prominent, spot in 2 orange ringed and crowned.
9 (10a). Unf discal band double, comparatively broad and white edged on
both sides. ¢ above dark shining greenish indigo blue, shading on F toa
shining black border ; not shot blue. Q pale shining steely blue, more or less
purple glossed. Below from slatey brown, often with a purple or greenish
gloss to nearly white inthe DSF ; markings always darker than the ground,
sometimes asnarrow asin No. 10 orso wide that the discal band coalesces
with the cell bars. ¢ brand pale brown, circular ; tuft black or dark brown ;
upf bases vs. 2, 3 and 4 denuded of scales and more or less darkened.
a. Smaller, paler and narrower banded below.
varuna lazuliua, M, (28-32). The Indigo Flasn. Ceylon, S. India, NR.
6. Similar. Very pale below.
varuna grisea, M. (28-32). Kangra—Kumaon, R.
Y. WSF always larger. Very variable above and below, often very broad
banded.
- varuna orsets, Flew. (29-35). Sikkim—Burma. Andamans. NR.
6. unh tornus broadly white powdered.
varuna rogerst; Swin. (32). Nicobars. R.
10a (9). Unf band single, only white edged outwardly. ¢ above dark
slatey blue, shot more or less brilliant deep blue. 92 as No.9, rather darker
and more purple. ¢ brand as No. 9, darker ; tuft dark brown.
10 (11). Below pale brown to slatey brown, sometimes with a purple wash ;
2 sometimes ochreous brown. ¢ above shot on lower part of disc F and most
of H. Considerable seasonal variation.
schistacea, M. (30-33). TheSlate Flash. Ceylon. India—Burma. An-
damans. C.
1 (10). Below very pale greenish grey. ( above only shot blue on
scintilla, DeN. (30-32). The Scarce Slate Flash, Sikkim—Burma. R.
12a (8c). ¢ above some shade of red. @ dull blue, brown coppery or red.
12b (14a). Below some shade of ochreous. ¢ dull blue or brown.
12 (13), ¢@ .above’coppery red. 2 dull blue or purple blue shading to fus-
cous. brand pale grey, oval: tuft brown.
a. of above dark copper red colour extensive, border not continuing along
dorsum F ; H red to termen, lobe ochreous. Below ochreous brown, markings
dark . brown, white edged outwardly; unf a spot in cell nearly always
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 773
H.88. Rapala—(contd.)
present in ¢, usually absent in 2; unha spot near base 7 nearly always present
ing
*pheretimus petosiris, Hew. (38-42). The Copper Flash. Sikkim—Burma.
NR
B. 3 above darker, copper red area F confined to a patch in middle of disc
and very restricted on H; @ dull shining blue; lobe black. Below darker,
discal bands more irregular ; unf spot in cell present in ¢, absent in; urh ¢
no spot in 7.
pheretimus pheretimus, Hew. (36-40). Victoria Point, S. Mergui. NR.
13 (12). @ above bright scarlet, may be very obscurely purple shot ; border
broad and continued along dorsum F ; H base and dorsum broadly black ; lobe
ochreous. 2 plain brown. Below coppery ochreous of a variable shade,
markings narrow, tornal spot in 2 ochreous crowned. J brand pale ochreous,
brown or grey, small and oval; tuft brown.
@. & above red colour extends into 4 F ; veins more or less black. Below
DSF pale brownish ochreous ; WSF coppery ochreous.
dieneces dieneces, Hew. (30-36). The Scarlet Flash. Bengal. Assam—
Burma. NR.
B. & above red coiour not above v4 on F; vs F not black, on H all black
and red colour of equal extent in 6 and 5. Below darker, copper brown.
dteneces intermedia, Stg. Andamans. NR.
ld4da (12b). Below slatey grey, no ochreous tinge. ¢ brand dull brown,
not conspicuous. In ¢ dark border on F not continued along dorsum.
14 (15). @& above bright red ; shot purple; border broad and vs F black,
but not markedly so; WSF duskier and border broader. @ paler red. Lobe
black with a few orange and: metallic scales. Unh tornal spot in 2 not pro-
minent nor orange crowned.
melampus, Cr. (33-38). The Indian Red Flash. Ceylon, S. India—Orissa,
Mussoorie—Kumaon. NR.
15 (14). ¢ above bright red; vs. 2,35 and 4 on F prominently black; H
all red except in 7 and veins not black (DSF may be dusky red with vs. on H
black). Q coppery brown, with fuscous border as in ¢. Lobe red. Unh
tornal spot in 2 prominent, orange crowned.
jarbas, F. (35-41). The Common Red Flash. Sikkim—Burma. C.
16a (8b). Unh discal band straight to v2 or at least to v3, sometimes even
convex to termen, further from termen at upper than at lowerend. ¢ brand
dark brown, inconspicuous, behind origin v7, tuft pale brown, often incon-
spicuous or absent in Nos. 16 and 17, always absent in No. 18. Tornal spots
unh not prominent, spot in 2 always orange crowned.
16b (18). Above blue.
16 (17). ¢ above dark purple blue, shot brilliant deep blue, broad border
on F. Q paler, steely blue above. Below rather pale ochreous brown, some-
times purple glossed, discal bands prominently dark brown, obscurely white
edged outwardly.
byuxaria, DeN. (38-42). The Shot Flash. Sikkim—Assam. R.
17 (16). g above not shot blue. Very variable above and below. ¢
above dark steely blue to purple, border broad on F and often with an orange
discal patch; @Q paler. Below very pale brown to dark ochreous brown,
with or without a purple or rosy gloss; discal band narrow ferruginous or
dark brown, outwardly obscurely white edged.
a. Generally paler and smaller.
nissa nissa, Kollar. (34-38). The Common Flash. Kashmir—Sikkim.
8. Generally larger and brighter.
nissa rectivitta, M. (36-40). Sikkim—Assam. C.
v. rosacea, DeN. Belowrosy. R.
Y. Always with a large orange spot upf; steely blue above.
nissa nissoides, Swin. N. Burma—Shan States. C.
18 (16b). ¢ above dark brown, obscurely purple glossed with large central
red areas F and H of variable extent and more extensive in the 2; on H red
area crossed by black veins ; lobe red. Below rather pale brown, double faint
bars end cells ; discal band broad on F, narrow on H, slightly darker than
ground, prominently white edged outwardly, on F slightly broken in.
_ micans selira, M. (32-34). The Red Himalayan Flash, Chitral—Kumaon. C,
774 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
H.90. Sinthusa.—The Sparks. (Plate 29.)
ra markings very much as in Rapala, bars end cells and discal band.
1 (2a). Below white, markings yellow centred and black edged; discal
band catenulated, broken usually at v4 F and H; unh dark bar mid cell and
another in 7 above it ; tornal spots prominent, orange obscure, metallic scales
in 1. ¢ above greyish white, base F suffused dark brown and border very
broad. 2 as ¢ but pale area much more extensive. Lobe ochreous. ¢ unf
no tuft, but with an oval orange patch of modified scales along vl.
virgo. El. (32-36). The Pale Spark. Sikkim—Manipur. VR.
2 v. confusa, Tyt. The greyish white colour replaced by shining light
blue. VR.
a (1). Below not usually white and markings not yellow centred. ¢ unf
with atuft. Lobe above black centred with orange and metallic scales. ¢
above very deep blue, shot rich blue, border F broad ; H rich shining purple
blue ; black portions of wing with a bronzy gloss. @ brown, often with a pale
disca! patch F and pale tornal area H.
2 (3). Below pale grey, no ferruginous tinge, markings broad, dark grey,
white edged both sides ; F discal band irregular, broken at v4; on H broken
at 2,4 and 6; cell bars nearly coalesce with the discal bands; H black spot
‘ mid cell and a larger one above itin 7. @ uph blue colour extends from v1 to
v6 and through lower half of cell.
a. Below markings comparatively narrow, catenulated, marginal markings
obscure. @ dark brown, may be slightly paler on disc F and before margin
H and there may be some obscure bluish white patches in 1-4 H.
chandrana chandrana, M. (28-32). The Broad Spark. Kangra—Kumaon.
R
B. Below markings broader; in WSF marginal markings prominent: DSF
sometimes nearly white below. ‘Typical Q as ina.
*chandrana grotet, M. Sikkim—Burma. NR.
© v. albidus, Evans. Upf with a sharply defined or diffused yellowish white
discal patch ; uph from as in typical form to almost entirely bluish white.
2 v. rubidus, Evans. Upf with a more or less distinct red discal patch.
3 (2). Below bars and cells and discal band very narrow, nearly linear,
ferruginous, outwardly white edged ; on F discal band continuous, unbroken :
on H broken at v2 and 4. 2 asin No. 2 @ above.
a. @ uph blue colour confined to margin in 1, 2 and 3, extending to end
cell in3 and 4. Below pale grey with a ferruginous tinge; in 9 apex F pale
ferruginous.
nasaka pallidior, Fruh, (28-32). The Narrow Spark. Kangra—Kumaon.
R
e. ¢ uph blue in 1-4 from margin to mid cell and along margin to 6.
Below darker, markings more prominent. Unf termen ferrvginous.
nasaka amba, Kirby. Sikkim—Burma. R.
H.91. Bindahara.—The Planes. (Plate 29.)
3 above velvet black ; above tail H as well as tail and lobe pale ochreous.
Q dark brown ; tornal area, lobe and tail white, veins black, prominent marginal
spot in 2. Below ¢ ochreous ; F outer half and H apex dark brown ; 2 white ;
F broad dark brown band through mid cell and a broad discal band, broken
out at v4; H 4 basal spots, double spot end cell and a much broken discal
band consisting of 2 parallel lines, the interval between in the ¢ and sometimes
in the Q being filled in dark brown in 6 and 7; black tornal spotsin 1 and 2
crowned metallic scales and by the submarginal dark line.
a. d& uph margin brilliant purple blue in 3-5, followed by green in 2.
Below ¢ pale ochreous: dark bands very prominent in 9.
*phocides moorei, Fruh, (38-42). The Plane. Ceylon, S. India. R.
B. @& uph uniform dark brown. Below darker ochreous.
phocides phocides, F. (36-40). Sikkim—Burma. Andamans. R.
y. As last, but below paler and all markings tend to complete obsolescence.
9 below markings pale ochreous.
phocides areca, Fa. (36-40). Nicobars. R.
H.92. Araotes.—The Witch. (Plate 29.)
¢ upf black, basal half shot brilliant blue; uph brilliant deep blue, except
for dark brown costa, @ dark brown, disc F obscurely reddish ;.H tornal
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 775
H.92. Araotes.—(contd.)
ar2a bluish white, veins black. Below white; F basal 4 and apical $ ochreous,
black edged ; H base and disc with irregular black markings, apex ochreous ;
tornal marking prominent, crowned metallic scales.
*lapithis, M. (28-32). The Witch. Sikkim—Burma. R.
4.93. Sithon.—The Piush. (Plate 29.)
& above brilliant deep shining blue, border 2mm. to 3 at apex; H terminal
4 blue, rest black. @ dark brown, reddish on F; tornal area H bluish white
and veins black. Below white outer + F and outer 4 H dark chocolate brown
in ¢, bright ochreous in 9 ; F dark area divided by a white discal line, beyond
which. the apex is paler; H apex and upper part termen paler, black discal
line in la and 1; tornal area narrowly black, outwardly white edged and
crowned metallic green scales in 1 and 2, a second metallic green line in 1 and
a terminal line in Ja,
*nedymond ismarus, Fruh. 30-34. The Plush. Dawnas—S. Burma. NR.
H.94. Liohyra.—The Moth Butterfly. (Plate 27.)
Above brown to rich yellow with an irregular, broad black border; upf a
large black spot at end cell, extending into bases 2 and 3; upha black spot
end cell and large spots at bases of 2 and 3. Below dull yellow, marked rather
as above.
*brassolis, Wd. (86-92). The Moth Butterfly, Sikkim—Burma. VR.
Notr.—(1) From an examination of the types, I am satisfied that Poritia
geta (H. 2.4) is a race of pleurata ; typical plewrata is hardly separable from
vegia. Fruhstorfer in Arch. Nat. 1917, puts geta as hewitsont, which is
incorrect. Mr. G. E.R. Cooper obtained 2 examples of a Szmzskina in Mereui,
which differed from examples of pediada I had from Tavoy: I find that
his specimens correspond exactly with Hewitson’s type of fedzada and that my
Tavoy insect is a race of paszra, JJoulton, from Borneo and I have called it
dohertyi: it differs from pasira in being browner below. (H3. 2 and 4).
Fruhstorfer follows Swinhce in keeping pofzza distinct from phalia; from an
examination of the types I am certain that they are conspecific, though I
cannot say what species Swinhce’s blue 2 from Labuan pertains to. (H 3-5).
To Mr. Cooper belongs the credit of establishing e/szez (H. 3. 7).
(2) The Genus Wacaduba (H. 30) has given a great deal of trouble. I have
examined the types of Javana, hermus, atrata, prominens and akaba, while
Mr. Riley had kindly dissected a number of specimens on my behalf and
Mr. Ormiston has studied most carefully the members of the genus occurring
in Ceylon. The results are given in the key and, though finality has by no
means been reached, some progress has, I think, been made. What kas
generally been accepted as pavana by all recent authors including Fruhstorfer
in Leiden Zool. Med. 1915, covers 3 species, two of which are without doubt
pavana and hermus ; the 3rd I have called vazuva, Fruh, but cannot say if this
name is correct. ‘The names in the atrata group are, I think, correct : it will
be noted that Mr. Ormiston has established the existence of a hitherto unsus-
pected species in Ceylon. Mr. Ormiston has also established the identity of
Nacaduba noreia, kd. and its relationship to hampsoni seems clear: Major
C. H. Stockley obtained a specimen of zoreia in Burma recently.
(3). Fruhstorfer in Arch. Nat. 1915, produced a revision of the genus
Jamides (late Lampides) (H. 31). He gives pura as a synonym of celeno,
from which it is perfectly distinct. He places coruscans and singalensis, as
races of swidas, Fd., and kondulana but both are to my mind very distinct
species, which cannot be linked up with Malayan species. He also places
pseudelpis as a race of kondulana: the type of kondulana is in Vienna and I
have not seen it, nor I believe had Fruhstorfer : for the present I prefer to treat
it as a race of e/fzs and to treat pseudelpis as a separate species.
(4) Curetis (H. 44) has been treated in accordance with Chapman’s revision
in N.Z. 1915. Personally I am not as yet able to agree to the conclusions
therein arrived at. I have not seen a white 9 of the thetis group from Burma,
nor a yellow @ of the dudzs group from N. of the Karen Hills. More material
is still wanted to clear up this genus.
(5) As may have been expected the genus Amblypodia (late Arhopala)
(H. 49) has given a lot of trouble and here again Mr. Riley has helped me
with dissections, thereby clearing up the camdeo group. I have sunk Bethune
8
6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL AIST. SOCIZTY, Vorweeoe
H.94, Liphyra.—(cont?d.)
Baker’s micevillez and oberthuri to silhetensis and alaconia, respectively. I
find that atrax=aida, DeN, and mindanensis, BB.: the type of alea, Hew is
lost, but Mr. Riley and I are satisfied that it is synonymous with selta, Hew.
constancew, DeN, appears to be a race of the very variable alea from the
Andamans and Mr. Ollenbach has presented a pair of this variety to the B. M.
I cannot see that perissa and founguva can be maintained as species distinct
from agelastus and asopia.
(6) Hveres parrhasius rileyt, Godfrey, isI think a synonym of assamica,
Tytler. (H17.3). Strymon saitua, Tytler, of mackwoodi (H 39.2) and Tajuria
tyvoa, De of'isaus, Hew. -(H, 63.13).
(7) The following are new names: Amblypodia adatha regia (H. 49.23).
Surendra todara karennia (H. 50.4). Spindasis vulcanus tavoyana (H. 56.2).
Pratapa icetas extensa and mishmia (H. 59.5). Tajguria yvajna ellist (H. 63.4)
Hypolycaena thecloides nicobarica (H. 83.2). Rapala suffusa rubicunda
(H. 88.6). chandrana grotet 2 vars albidus and rubidus (H. 90.2).
(8) The following are MS names: Sinthusa virgo 9 v. confusa (H. 89.1)
of Major-General H,.C. Tytler... Spindasts elwest (H. 5642) -of Mr? NB)
Riley.
(9) The following are new to the Indian Empire :—
(a) Obtained by Mr. G. E. R. Cooper in Mergui:— Portia philota (H. 2,2).
Simiskina pediada (11.3): “pharyoe (E. 3:3). Logantavsviwa Nano
Lycaenopsts cossaea distantt (H. 20.11 B). Amblypodia agesilaus (H. 49.15A):
amphimuta. (H. 49.15B). cooperi (H. 49.38). Drina maneta (H. 55.2). Purlisa
gigantea (H. 69).
(6) Obtained by Mr. F. Mackwood in Mergui: Lycenopsis haraldus
ananga (H. 20.1). Amblypodia karennia (H. 49.7). Rapala pharitimus
pheretimus (H. 88.12).
(c) Obtained by Col. C. H. Haswell, R. E.:—Folyommatus iolas (H.
24 4).
(7d) Obtained by Messrs. Ollenbach and Field, Amblopala avidiena
(H.43B)
(e) Obtained by Major-Genl. H. C. Tytler :—Lycena astorica (H. 23.8).
(f) Obtained by Mr. O. ©. “Ollembach: Azanus. yurios® (ELA 32:3)
Callophrys chaiybeita (HH. 38.3).
(g) Obtained by myself and from miscellaneous sources—Lycena Sylaon
indica (H. 23.4), Polyommatus poseidon poseidonides (H. 24.3). Jamides
lugine purpura (H. 31.10). Hleodes phanicurus (H. 35.5). Amblypodia
dispar. (H. 49.6). artana (H.. 49.19). adatha vegza (Hi 49.23).) pryev
(H. 49.30). paralea (H. 49.37) : corinda acestes (H. 49.46).
(2) Obtained by Major F. M. Bailey :— Thecla bieti irma (H. 42.2)
(z) Capt. N. D. Riley has recently (N. Z. 1925) pointed out the differences
between acamas ana epargyros : he has transferred these two species, as well
as dilacinus, from Spindasis (H. 56) toa new genus Apharitis, distinguished
by having an ill-developed lobe and by the tail at v 2 being half as long as
the tail at v 1, instead of equal to it.
(7) The genus Thamala (H. 78) requires more study : mznzatais probably
conspecific with marciana, Hew and there are certainly two races, perhaps
two species flying in Burma.
(To be continued)
OS
Bs
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
INDIAN SPIKENARD.
Nardostachys jatamansi. (After Royle.)
ON THE ANTIQUITY AND THE THERAPEUTIC USES
OF THE INDIAN SPIKENARD
BY
DS. Cs. pitinay My As
Protessor of Botany
Presidency College, Calcutta and Lecturer, Calcutta University
(With a plate) Z
Its Antiguity.—A very remote antiquity is assigned to the use of
the spikenard as a valuable drug andas a perfume. Among the
ancients, it long maintained its reputation as the principal aromatic
ingredient of many precious ointments. Its use as a medicine in
Asiatic countries extends back into the dim past. The medicinal
virtues of /Jatamanst were known to the Hindus long before the
Christian era. The spikenard was highly esteemed by the Romans
and Syrians for its fragrance and was much used by them in per-
fuming their baths. Frequent references to the spikenard and its
use as a cosmetic are found inthe Bible. It is strongly believed
that the essential oil yielded by this plant formed an aromatic
adjunct to the ointment of spikenard alluded to by St. John
xii1. 3.—‘ Then took Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard,
very costly and anointed the feet of Jesus..... and the
house was filled with the odour of the ointment’; and by St. Mark
xiv. 3.—‘ There came a woiman having an alabaster box of
ointment of spikenard very precious; and she broke the box, and
poured it over his head.’ The spikenard was in great demand at
Jerusalem and at Rome, and was sold, according to Pliny, at 100
denari1! per pound. The word ‘nard’ occurs in the Song of
solomon. The plant is mentioned by. Theophrastus? in his
History of Plants. Dioscorides, the famous writer on Vateria Medica,
who flourished in the first century or about the beginning of the
second century of the Christian era, describes three kinds of Nardin,
viz., the first kind having two varieties, (2) Syrian and (4) Indian,
also called Gangites, from the River Ganges which flows from the
foot of the mountains where the plant grows, the second kind is called
‘Celtic’, and the third ‘ Mountain nard’. Pliny (a.p. 79) remarks
that the leaf nard or spikenard held the first place in Rome among
the aromatic ointments of his day; and he observes (xii. 26) ‘ Leaf
nard varies in price according to the size; for that which is known
by the name hadrospherum, consisting of the larger leaves, sells
at 40 denarii per pound. When the leaves are smaller, it is called
mesospherum, and is sold at 60. But that which is considered the
most valuable of all, is known as microsbherum, and consists of
* Denarius is a silver coin of ancient Rome, worth about 73d. English, first
coined 269 B.c.
2 Circa 372:287 Bic.
478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
the very smallest of the leaves, it sells at 75 denarii per pound. All
these varieties of nard have an agreeable odour, but it is most
powerful when fresh. If the nard is old when gathered that which
is of a black colour is considered the best’.‘ It is said that the
spikenard referred to in Mark? was valued at 300 denarii per pound
(Pliny). Ptolemy (A.D. 151) describes the plant under the name of
‘nardus’ and Galen (A.pD. 130-200) under the name of ‘ Nardo-
stachys’. The plant is mentioned by Horace who remarks (II, vii,
89) that spikenard was one of the most treasured ingredients of the
ointments and perfumes of the Roman Empire.
Although the word ‘nard’ is mentioned by the early Greek
writers, Theophrastus, Dioscorides and Galen, and among the
Romans by Horace and Pliny, it is in reality a Persian word signi-
fying a part of avegetable. The Arabs have borrowed the word
‘nard’, but used it in the sense of a ‘compound medicinal unguent’.
The Arabic word ‘ Senbel’ has long been substituted as a synony-
mous name. The word ‘ Sumbul’ which signifies in Arabic
vocabulary anearor spike was always considered by Arabian
authors as synonymous with the Nardos of Ptolemy and the
Nardostachys or spikenard of Galen.
Under the name ‘ Sumbul’ four separate articles are described
(1) Sumbul-hindee, (2) Sumbul-roomee, called also Sumbul-ukletee
and Narden-ukletee, evidently the Nardin of Dioscorides, said also
to be called Sumbul-italioon, i. e., Nard which grows in Italy ; (3)
Sumbul-jibullee or Mountain Nard and (4) Sumbul-farsee which
is a bulbuous plant and probably a kind of hyacinth (Dr. Royle).
Sumbul-hindee is the plant with which we are concerned. The
Persian lexicographers give the following synonyms:—Arzadzc,
Sumbul-ool-teeb or fragrant nard; Greek, Narden; Latiz, Nardoom ;
Hindee; Balchur and Jatamasee. The Mussulman physicians des-
cribe Jatamansi of the Hindus under the name of Sumbulu’l Hind
and distinguish it from their Sumbul-i- Roomee or Ukletee ( Valerzana
celtica), the fragrant root of which is much used in Turkey and
Egypt as a perfume. The authoroft Makhzen-el-Adwiya compares
Jatamansi root to the tail of a Sable. The: Sumbul of: India is
described by Mussalmans as a‘ herb without flower or fruit’ (per-
haps only the drug is referred to) like the tail of an ermine, or of a
small weasel, but not quite so thick and about the length of a finger.
It is darkish inclining to yellow, and very fragrant; it is brought
from Hindusthan and its medicinal virtue lasts 3 years. (Sir We
Jones). The spikenard is referred to asa valuable drug under the
names Mamsi and Nalada in the Bower Manuscript (8th century).
LIdentiticatton.—Much difficulty was experienced in botanically
determining the spikenard of the ancients. On account of the
inaccessible habitats of the plant and the consequeut difficulty in
procuring living specimens and also of the philological confusion in
the terms nard and spikenard, it long eluded the researches of the
investigators. It was through the laborious researches of Sir
William Jones that the spikenard was correctly identified with
‘Jatamansi’ of the Hindus. A distinction is usually drawn between
2 Schoff, Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. 2 St. Mark xiv. 3.
ANTIQUITY AND THERAPEUTIC USES OF SPIKENARD 779
the nard and the spikenard. Nard has been generally supposed to
be a grass. Linnaeus described nard as a graminaceous plant
and a species of Andropogon. For a long time spikenard was
erroneously identified with Azdropogon jwarancusha. In many
botanical works of Europe, the spikenard was long marked as
‘unknown.’ Although Linnaeus described ‘nard’ as a kind of
grass he expressed his doubt as to the proper systematic position of
the true spikenard. Koenig described Indian nard asa kind of
grass, but he was not certain as to what the Greek writers under-
stood by the nard of India. Axdropogon schoénanthus, a sweet-
scented grass, anativein the West Punjab, Beluchisthan, Central
India, Arabia and Persia, was once supposed to be the source of
Indian spikenard. The spikenard was even mistaken for its
highly fragrant odour for Cetaca or Pandanus which ‘is an in-
comparable plant, and cultivated for its odour, which it breathes so
richly, that one or two spikes, ina situation rather humid, would
be sufficient to diffuse an odoriferous air for a long time through a
spacious apartment; so that the natives in general are not
solicitous about the living plants but purchase the spike ata great
price’. It was sometimes confounded with a species of Cyperus or
with a kind of Pimenta (a species of AZyrile). But the elaborate
researches of Sir William Jones embodied in his classical paper on
the ‘ Spikenard of the Ancients’ published in the Aszatic Soctety’s
Researches dispelied all doubts and settled all disputes as to the
identification of the Indian spikenard with Jatamansi of the Hindus.
It has been proved beyond doubt that the spikenard and Jatamansi
are one and the same plant. The word ‘spikenard’ owes its origin
to the resemblance of the drug to a spike, when it is dried and not
to the configuration ofits flowers. The fibrous part above the root
looks like a spike and was long mistaken for it. The stachys or
spike which is the characteristic of the inflorescence of .0. gra-
mine perhaps gave rise to this wrong notion. ‘The dried speci-
mens which look like the tails of ermines, rise from the ground,
resembling ears of green wheat bothin form and colour, a fact
which perfectly accounts for the names Stachys, Spica, Sumbul, and
Kushah, which Greeks, Romans, Arabs and Persians have given to
the drug, though itis not properly a spike.’ (Sir W. Jones.)
Distribution.—The plant which is the source of Jatamansi or
Indian spikenard is a native of the Alpine Himalaya and usually
grows at great elevations (11,009-15,000 feet). In the parts of the
Himalayas visited by Dr. Royle, it was found on such lofty mountains
as Kedarkanta and Shalma which are elevated at 9,000 feet and
which remain covered with snow for nearly six months. Ptolemy
fixes its native soil in the most remote and hilly parts of India
near Nepal, Morang and Bhutan (Sir W. Jones). Inthe mountainous
region, west of the Indus near Nysa, Curtius Rufus, at the time
of Alexander’s invasion of India (about 326 B.C.) saw the crags
frequently overhung with thickets of laurels and spikenard. Nysa
was perhaps the city which Ptolemy calls Nagara or Dionysopolis
or Nagarahara of Sanskrit, an ancient capital, the ruins of which
have been traced at a distance of four or five miles west from
Jellalabad. The place was also called Udyanpura or the City of
730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Gardens. The plant was also found at Rhadamarkotta, identified
by Saint Martin with Rangamati, an ancient capital situated on the
western bank of the lower Brahmaputra (Ptolemy—about the middle
of second century A.D.). Yule mentions Rangamati as Ranga-
mritica. Aristoboulos says that the Gadrosian desert (on the
Beluchistan coast) yields an abundance of sweet-scented roots of
nard which the Phoenicians collected ; and much of it was trodden
down by the army of Alexander on its homeward march and the
sweet perfume thus crushed out of it was from its great abundance
diffused far and wide over the country. It is now believed that the
nard alluded to above is not the true spikenard but a kind of
odoriferous grass (probably a species of Azxdropogon). It is
interesting to find the mention of spikenard among the few
aromatic substances described by Theophrastus as being brought
from India. Cosmas Indicopleustes mentions that spikenard is
found at Sindu which is on the Indian frontier (sixth century
A.D.). Strabo (A.D. 21) mentions that India, like Arabia and
Ethiopia, produces cinnamon, spikenard and other aromatics.
Marco Polo, a Venetian, in the thirteenth century describes the
spikenard as the produce of ‘ Bengala.’+ Garcia d’Orta, for many
years, during the sixteenth century, Physician to the Viceroy’s
Court at Goa, speaks of the spikenard as procured from Mandu
and Chitor in Central India. It seems likely that he confused
Andropogon with Nardostachys, as Azdropogon Schenanthus (an
odoriferous grass) is found to grow luxuriantly at those localities.
A similar confusion with regard to the native soil of this Himalayan
plant is made by Linschoten in the account of his voyage to the
East Indies.
Spikenard as a Commercial Commodity.—India, in the remotest
antiquity, was highly famed for the variety and richness of its
peculiar products which were well known to and highly esteemed
by all the most ancient and civilized nations. The valuable
products of India offered sufficient inducement to distant nations
to establish commercial intercourse with India and to visit India or
its shores. So varied and so precious were the Indian products
that, in ancient times, India became the cynosure of the eyes of all
nations and became the ultimate object of those long and arduous
journeys and circuitous and adventurous voyages of antiquity. The
earliest historical and commercial records incontestably prove the
antiquity of the commerce of Indian products. Indian aromatics
and spices, pearls and precious stones, cotton and wool formed
early articles of export in ancient days. Egypt was the seat of the
highest civilization in the remotest antiquity and was much
frequented by the Greeks who derived their arts and sciences in
the first instance from Egypt. There was extensive commercial
intercourse between ancient Egypt and India and the trade between
India and Egypt was in the hands of the Arabians and Phoenicians.
It is said that more than seventeen centuries prior to the Christian
era the Ishmaelites from Gilead used to carry the spices and
2 W. Marsden, 7ravels of Marco Polo, Book II, ch. xlv.
ANTIQUITY AND THERAPEUTIC USES OF SPIKENARD 781
aromatics of India to Egypt fora market.! The Indian products
in ancient times reached Caubul, Persia and Babylon by the north
and up the Eupbrates or across Arabia to Syria, Palestine and
Egypt. Ancient historical records show that the products of the
East reached the West by the Red Sea, Arabia and Egypt and by
the Euphrates through Palmyra to Syria.
The spikenard was a peculiar Indian product known to ancient
commerce. It was highly praised on account of its sweet fragrance
and medicinal virtues and was in great demand in Egypt, Arabia,
Rome and Jerusalem. It was sold by the Indians to the Persians
and Arabs from whom the Syrians and Romans used to receive it.
It was a very costly article and was extremely dear at Jerusalem
and Rome and was sold, according to Pliny, at 100 denarii per
pound at Rome. The spikenard referred to by St. Mark in the
Bible was valued at more than 300 denarii per pound (Pliny). (A
denarius = 7$d.). At the time of Periplus (a.p. 40-70) spikenard
was shipped in considerable quantity to Nelcynda, where the
Romans found it. Nelcynda was the port probably in the back-
waters or thoroughfares behind Cochin, very near the modern
Kottayam. Among the articles of trade mentioned in the Perzp/us,
we find spikenard as a vegetable product exported from India
through Scythia and through Poclais. We find the mention of
spikenard as an aromatic product among the articles subject to duty
at Alexandria. ?
Cosmas Indicopleustes® tells of Ceylon and its trade in the sixth
century A.D. In his account of the trade of Ceylon ‘the great
island of the ocean, situated in the Indian Sea; -which is called
Sielediba’ he mentions that Spikenard is found at Sindu which is
‘the beginning of India; for the River Indus, which empties into
the Persian Gulf, separates Persia from India’ and is one of the
best-known market-towns of India. Marco Polo* in the thirteenth
century describes spikenard as the produce of Bengala, to purchase
which the merchants from various parts of India resort thither.
Dr. Royle> remarks that the roots of Jatamansi, no doubt the
spikenard of the ancients are brought down in large quantities from
the Himalayas to the plains, when they are distributed over every
part of India. Atkinson® states that its roots are sent down to the
plains to the extent of about twenty maunds a year. The article is
hardly in demand in these days and practically there is no export
out of India. Thebazaar price of Jatamansi, which was once a very
costly article, has now come down to a few annas per pound.
Exact Botanical Determination—It has been definitely ascertained
that the product ‘ Jatamansi’ or the Indian spikenard is derived from
the plant, Nardostachys jatamanst DC. Sufficient proofs have
been adduced by Sir W. Jones in his valuable and elaborate
* Remark of Dr. Vincent in Prl. Disq. to Transl. of Arrian’s Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea.
? Rescript concerning Eastern Trade in the digest of the Roman Law.
3 Christian Topography, Book XI.
* Travels of Marco Polo, Book II, ch. xlv.
> Dr. Royle, //lustrations of the Botany, etc.
® Atkinson, Gazetteer of the Himalayan Districts.
782. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX,
researches on the Indian spikenard to establish the fact that the
spikenard of the ancients, the nardus of Ptolemy, the Indian
sumbul of Persians and Arabs, the Jatamansi of the Hindus are
one and the same plant which is synonymous with MWardostachys
jatamanst of modern botanists. Sir W. Jones and Dr. Roxburgh
named the plant Valeriana jatamanst but the plant figured by
them (as shown in the plates accompanying their papers) represents
V. wallichit DC, a plant of the same natural order but found at a
much lower attitude on the Himalaya. Although Sir William was
mainly instrumental in exactly determining the plant, he failed to
procure a specimen of true Jafamanst. ‘It is most probable that
the wrong plant was purposely sent to Sir W. Jones, in place of the
true Jatamanst, which appears to have been so highly valued by
the Bhutan authorities that strict orders had been given forbidding
the exportation of living plants from that country. Dr. Wallich and
Dr. Royle independently detected the imposture, and the true plant
was sent home and described by Don in his Prodromus Flor. Nep.
under the name of Patrinia jatamanst. It was afterwards removed
by DeCandolle to the genus Wardostachys.’ (J. F. Duthie).
Sir William Jones and Dr. Roxburgh obtained specimens of
Valeriana wallichi?, the plant which was wrongly identified by them
with V. jatamanst and was supposed to be the source of Jatamansi
root of commerce. This error, however, was subsequently rectified
by Dr. Wallich and Dr. Royle, and Wardostachys jatamanst, DC. is
now authoritatively recognized as the source of the Indian spikenard
or Jatamansi. In this connection Sir J. D. Hooker remarks ‘ The
name V.. jafamansz is hence to be suppressed.’ }
Sptkenard in Botany of to-day.—The plant belongs to Valerianee
which is a small natural order consisting of only 300 species and is
distributed over all cool and temperate regions except South Africa
and Australia. ‘This order is found at different elevations (11,000-
17,000 feet) on the Himalayas, proceeding along Caucasus to the
Himalayas. It is not seen in the plains of India, but one species,
V. villosa is found to occur at Dehra Dun (Dr. Royle). V. celtica
occurs in the mountains of Austria.
Description of the plant.
Nardostachys jatamansi, DC.
Flabitat.—Alpine Himalaya (altitudes 11,000-15,000 feet) extending eastwards
from Garhwal, and ascending to 17,000 feet in Sikkim. Occurs in Nepal,
Bhutan and Sikkim. It is found to occur at Ralam and Milam at altitudes
12,000-13,500 feet, and also in China.?
Syn.—Patrinia jatamanst, Don; Valeriana jatamansi, Wall.
Vern.—Hind. Jatamasi, bal-chhar; Beng. Jatamansi; Bomb. Sumbul ;
Arab—Sumbulu’l-hind ; Pers. Sumbuluttib; Sans, Jatamansi. It is sometimes
called Bhutakeshi (demon’s hair). In the Deccan it is often called Billi-lotan,
cats being supposed to be fond of the smell of the root of this plant.* In
Sanskrit it is known under various names—‘ Zapasvini, Jatamansi, Jatila,
lomasha, misht.’— Amarkosh.
1 Sir J. D. Hooker, Flora of British India, vol. iii.
2 Strachey, Catalogue of Kumaon Plants. (Based on the collections by
Strachey and Winterbottom within province of Kumaon and in adjoining parts
of Garhwal and Tibet during 1846-49).
5 Valerian oil is frequently used by the Society’s Collectors for trapping the
smaller Felid@e.—-Eds.
ANTIQUITY AND THERAPEUTIC YSES OF SPIKENARD 783
It is an erect perennial herb. Rootstock—long, woody, covered with reddish-
brown fibres, the remains of the petioles of withered leaves. Radical leaves,
longitudinally nerved, slightly pubescent, narrowed into the petiole ; cauline,
one or two pairs sessile, oblong or subovate. Flowers-bracts, oblong, usually
pubescent ; calyx-limb, 5-lobed ; Corolla-tubular, somewhat hairy within, lobes
5, spreading ; the corolla tube enclosing 4 stamens ; ovary—inferior, 3-celled,
l-ovuled, two of the compartments of the ovary being empty; style-liner ;
Fruit-obovate, 3-celled, 1-seeded, the two barren cells smaller than the fertile,
covered with white hairs, crowned by the ovate, acute often dentate calyx-
teeth.
Parts used—(1) Rootstock and (2) Oil.
The drug.—The drug Jatamansi which is manifestly the spikenard
of the European druggists appears in the form resembling the tail
of asable. It consists of a short portion of the rootstock about the
size of aman’s little finger, of a dark grey colour, clothed by fine
yellowish-brown fibres cohering in a bundle. The fibres are the
remains of the withered petioles of the radical leaves and are matted
together, the whole presenting the appearance of a matted lock of
hair, the Sanskrit name J/atamansi having a reference to this
resemblance. ‘The radical leaves, rising from the ground and
enfolding the young stem, are plucked up with a part of the root,
and being dried in the sun or by an artificial heat, are sold as a
drug which from its appearance has been called spikenard.’ (Sir
W. Jones). Sometimes the entire plant is collected before the
radical leaves have unfolded themselves from the base of the stem
and is sold as a drug.
Adulteration.—Pliny mentions a kind of nard growing in the
vicinity of the Ganges, which is condemned as utterly bad. It
bears the name of Ozzenitis and emits a foetid smell. It is now
considered as a variety of Andropogon. Sometimes ‘the nard is
adulterated with a plant called pseudo-nard which grows everywhere
and has a leaf unusually thick and broad and a sickly colour
inclining to white. It is further adulterated by being mixed with
its own root to give it additional weight—a purpose for which gum
and the litharge of silver are also employed, and sometimes
antimony and cypirus or at least cypirus bark. Its purity is tested
by its lightness, the redness of its colour, the sweetness of its smell
and more particularly the taste, which parches the mouth, while at
the same time the flavour is most delicious.’ (Pliny).?
The odour of the drug is heavy and peculiar, the taste bitter and
aromatic. It is remarkable for the presence of an essential oil.
Chemical com posttion :—
Ozl.—The oil of Spikenard is obtained from JV. jatamanst.
Kemp (1884) distilled 56 Ibs. of Jatamansi and obtained three fluid
ounces of the oil having an optical rotation of—19°5 in 100 mm.
and the sp. gr. 0:9748 at 82°F. 100 lbs. of the root, subjected
to distillation with water by Messrs. Kemp and Co. (1890) yielded
15 oz. (fifteen ounces) oil and a faintly acid distillate. The oil is
pale yellow in colour; and ‘a fine violet or bluish colour is
produced as with oil of Valerian, by mixing a drop or two of the
oil with about twenty drops of carbon bisulphide and a drop of
1 J. W. M’Crindle, Ancient India,
9
784 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol.- XXX.
strong nitric acid. With H, SO, the oil gives a reddish brown
colouration. On boiling the oilacquires a darker hue and a greenish
fluorescence’ (Dymock quoting J. G. Prebble). In the East it is of
much value as a perfume, but in western countries its use is
practically replaced by that of oil of Valerian.
Oil of Valerian—is usually obtained from the root of Valeriana
officinalis, B. P. by distillation. For this purpose the Dutch and
Thuringian herb was mostly used in Europe ; but nowadays the oil
is mainly extracted from the Japanese root (the variety agwustzfolia).
The Japanese root yields from 6 to 7 per cent of oil, whereas the
European root yields only 1 per cent. The oils in both cases are
quite similar and show the same properties. The sp. gr. of the
oil from European variety is -930 to -960 and the oil from the
Japanese variety known as Kesso oil, has a sp. gr. °985 to :995.
Valeriana celtica, growing in the Swiss Alps and the Tyrol yields
an essential oil of sp. gr. -960 to °970, the yield being about
1 per cent. The oil is mainly used for medicinal purposes and to
a certain extent in soap perfumery. (E. J. Parry).
Valertanic acid :—F¥ree Valerianic acid does not occur in the fresh
root but is generated from the volatile oil on exposure to the air.
It is an oxidation product. It is an oily liquid, of a characteristic
sweet taste used in preparing various valerianates, as valerianates
of iron, zinc, ammonium and quinine. (Khory and Katrak).
Dye :—‘ Mc. Cann states that the rootstock of this plant is used
in Lohardaga (Bengal), as an auxiliary in dyeing along with
Kamalagundi (JZallotus phillippinensts). (J. F. Duthie).
Therapeutics :—The medicinal virtues of the spikenard or Jata-
mansi havelong been known and appreciated in Arabia, Persia and
India. It is generally agreed that the nations of the East were the
first to use the drug medicinally. It has long been used and highly
valued in Indian medicine being mentioned by Susruta and in the
Bhavprakash and other ancient Sanskrit works on Medicine.
Susruta prescribes the drug as a remedy for epilepsy. Itis also
referred to in Charaka, the oldest Sanskrit work on Hindu Medicine
and probably almost contemporary with Susruta. There it is stated
that the clothings of a new-born baby are to be disinfected by fumi-
gating them with Jatamansi and other aromatic substances.? In
Sanskrit Raj Nighantu it is described as cold, bitter, aromatic and
as a remedy for morbid heat and biliousness.
‘Suravi Kashayva Katu Sitala Kafahrit
Bhutaghni Dahaghni Pittaghni Cha.’?
It is also regarded as a remedy for leprosy and erysipelas.
‘Tikta Kashaya medhya Kantida Balya
Svadurhima tridosha raktadaha bzsharpa
Kushthaghni Cha.’ 3
1 Charaka, Swarirsthan, chap. 8 (55). 2 Raj Nighantu,
° Bhaba Prakash.
ANTIQUITY AND THERAPEUTIC USES OF SPIKENARD 785
If it is used to anoint the body, it soothes the system and bring
down the temperature of the body in fever, thus acting as
febrifuge.
‘ Tadanoolepanam Jwaraghnam rookshataghnam Cha’.}
It is generally used by Hindu physicians as a nervine tonic and
stimulant. In India it is much employed as an aromatic ingredient
in the preparation of medicinal oils and ghri/as. It is regarded as
one of the most important medicines in the Hindu Pharmacopceia.
Numerous references to the medicinal use of the spikenard are
seen in the Bower Manuscript? where it is described under the
names of Mamsi and Nalada. As is usual in Hindu medicine, it is
rarely given alone, but enters as achief ingredient in a number of
complex prescriptions, each of which is supposed to possess some
special virtue. Mamsi is used as an ingredient in the preparation
oi medicines for the diseases of the eyes and for ailments caused
by the derangement of bile.* It is said to be useful as an antidote
for poison, especially to remove the effects of spider’s poison.? It
is employed in making the Haridra Powder of the Asvins which is
regarded asa cure of indigestion, retention of discharges, costi-
veness, etc.> The same drug described as Nalada is used in the
preparation of Asvagandha Oil, along with many other medicines
as a remedy of apathy, dumbness, lameness, stammering, paraple-
gia, etc.© Itforms an ingredient in the formula for the cure of
hemorrhage.” It is prescribed, with other medicines in the
diseases of the mouth and in the most excruciating earache.® It
is employed as the chief ingredient in the preparation of a valuable
medicinal oil, ‘The Siddhartha Oil, devised by Narayana.’ ?
This oil is regarded as a remedy tor the lame, in short, for those
suffering from rheumatic diseases and distorted bones. It is truly
called Szddhdrtha or ‘efficacious’ asit is recommended as acure oi
almost all the ills that flesh is heir to, and is said to promote the
life of man.
Arab and Persian physicians consider the drug as very useful in
various disorders of the digestive and respiratory organs and
recommend it as a nervine tonic in hysteria. Itis popularly
believed to promote the growth and blackness of hair. It is said
to be usefulas an expectorant, and as deobstruent, stimulant and
diuretic.
Ainslie observes that in Lower India the Vytians prepare from
this drug an aromatic and soothing liniment which is applied to the
head. Jatamansi is also used by them internally as a purifier of
the blood. O’Shaughnassy finds Jatamansi, from his experience,
1 Razbaliav.
2 Bower Manuscript (translated by Hoernle) is named after its discoverer,
Major-General H. Bower, C.B. It ‘ fell into the hands of that officer, early in
the year 1890, in Kuchar where he had gone on a confidential mission from the
Government of India’. Kuchar is in Khotanin Eastern Turkistan on the
Caravan route toChina, ‘The Manuscript in guestion is a very ancient Putht.
3 Bower Manuscript, vol. i, 91, 107. = J07d., Vol. i, 97.
5 lbid., vel. 11, 96. S /bid., vol. ii, 345, 354.
7 Totd., vol. ii, 419. 8 Jb1d,, Vols 11; 555, 10/3 a;
® Ibid., vol iii, 40.
186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
a perfect representative of Valerian and recommends it as a good
substitute.! The drug has acquired a considerable reputation in
European medicine too.
Valerian is used as a stimulant and antispasmodic for the treat-
ment of hysteria, epilepsy, St. Vitus’ dance and other nervous
affections. In moderate doses, if continued for some time, it may
improve the appetite and move the bowels. When taken in very
large doses (2drachms at a single dose) it acts as a powerful irri-
tant of the gastro-intestinal tract causing eructations, vomiting,
colic and diarrhoea, attended witha sense of heaviness and heat in
the abdomen, and perspiration or frequent passage of urine. In
smaller doses its action is chiefly confined to the nervous system
producing exhilaration of spirits, and rendering the mind tranquil
and active. Sometimes it produces heaviness and pain inthe head
attended with a sense of confusion. If long continued, it may lead
to melancholia. In full doses it stimulates the heart and often
promotes sexual powers.” Although Valerian is often employed
in the treatment of hysteria it is not regarded asa cure for the
disease but acts as a most valuable palliative in hysteria, in its
various manifestations, its pain and its headache. It is especially
useful in the case of weakly females of excitable temperament. In
all convulsive affections, and in mild cases of mental derangement
or cerebral congestion and cerebral anzemia, it is found to be bene-
ficial as an efficient palliative. In all these cases Valerian acts like
asafcetida or musk. Ammoniated tincture of Valerian is often
successfully administered in nervous headache. In cases of flatu-
lence, accompanied with palpitation of the heart, Valerianate of
ammonium is sometimes prescribed along with a carminative
tincture. It is efficient in relieving infantile colic. (Dymock).
It is sometimes found to be beneficial as a vermifuge, and is
recommended to be administered by enema as aremedy for ascarides
of the rectum. It is found to be beneficial in cases of dysmenorrhcea
and diabetes insipidus. ‘ Bouchard claims that when the urine
contains an excess of urea (azoturia) or of sugar (glycosuria),
Valerian diminishes the amount of solids discharged and thus acts
as a conservator of tissue and of force (Stille and Maisch).’3 Itis
sometimes prescribed in mild forms of delirium tremens following
any injury or surgical operation.
Valerianic acid.—‘ Given to rabbits in doses of from one to three
drachms, Valerianic acid renders the heart’s action more rapid, but
feebler, the respiration is hurried at first and then slower; and ,
death usually takes place in three or four hours, preceded by
prostration and convulsions. If death occurs speedily, the gastric
mucous membrane is pale but if delayed it may be congested; the
kidneys are apt to be congested and the urine bloody... .
Valerianic acid, applied to the human skin, produces a white spot,
followed. by irritation and redness, and upon the tongue it may
cause the epithelium to exfoliate.’ 4
1 Bengal Disp., p. 404. 2 Khory and Katrak, Materia Mediéa,
3 Pharmacographia Indica. * Jbid.
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Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
NEw THYSANOPTERA FROM SOUTH INDIA,
Kleothrips subramanii Ramakrishna.
1. Male insect X 12,
2 a; anterior region X 30.
io a 7” 4 antenna X 60.
4 nA - right foreleg X 60.
5. Female anterior region X 30.
. 6 ,, left fore leg X 75.
ANTIQUITY AND THERAPEUTIC USES OF SPIKENARD 787
Oil of Valertan.—Lessens the excitability of the spinal cord and
even paralyses it and also produces numbness in the brain. ‘2 cgm.
(1/3 gr.) injected under the skin of frog have been found capable
of preventing tetanic spasms after a like injection of 5 mgm.
(1/12 gr.) of Strychnine. Given alone to these animals (rabbit and
frog) hypodermically it impairs mobility and sensibility (Dymock).
The oil is very efficient in the coma of typhus fever (Khory and
Katrak). Oil of Valerian dissolved in ether is sometimes
administered by inhalation in nervous headache or in cerebral
congestion. The oil is used to a considerable extent on the
continent of Europe as a popular remedy for cholera, in the form
of cholera drops (BE. J. Parry).
Jatamanst is still regarded as a valuable medicine in India and is
much used by Ayurvedic physicians.
TWO NEW THYSANOPTERA FROM SOUTH INDIA
(With a plate and a text figure)
BY
T. V. RAMAKRISHNA AIYAR
The two forms of ‘ thtips’ noted below do not appear to have been recorded
tillnow and are therefore described as new species. The first one is described
as a species of the genus Aleothrifs, Schm. of which there are no previous
records from India, and the second asa species of Leeuwenia Ky. ; of this
latter, however, Bagnall has described three Indian species, two L. coriaceous
and L. zudicus from Dehra Dun and Moulmein, andthe third LZ. eugeniae
from Kodaikanal, the last from material ‘submitted by the writer. The very
interesting fact with regard to the species of Leeuwenia described so far from
different localities is, that most of them have been found on species of the plant
Eugenia.
IDOLOTHRIPIDA&
KLEOTHRIPS SUBRAMANII (ew species)
Male.—(Macropterous.) (See Fig. 1) Length6to8 mm. General colour
dark brown to black; the junctions of the abdominal segments and patches on
the basal region of head and on the thorax appear reddish brown ; this is
particularly soin some specimens. The bulged-out portions of the eyes, of a
light greyish brown colour. Antenna: the first segment and the basal two-
thirds of the second dark brown ; the distal third of the second light reddish
brown and the sixth, seventh and eighth dark greyish brown ; the third, fourth
and fifth segments yellowish white covered with greyish brown at the distal
region. Inthe third the greyish patch is found only at the extreme distal end,
while in the fourth and fifth this colour covers a third to half of the segment
towards the distal region ; in the fifth the greyish colour is of a dark hue and
resembles the colour of the distal segments.
Fore femora dark brown, of a lighter tinge atits junction with the coxa.
Fore tibia and tarsus (except the distal portion which is dark) reddish to
yellowish brown, the lateral margins of the tibia dark, and the tarsus and
tarsal tooth of a distinctly lighter colour approaching yellow. Intermediate
and hind femora dark brown ; the tibia also of same colour but with the basal
and distal regions yellowish brown. Wings clear with the cilia having light
brownish tinge. The Cephalic spines and bristles dark, those on legs and
antenne light to dark reddish brown, and those at the sides of the abdomen
and at the end of the tube are of a yellowish brown colour.
Head :—'The vertex before the eyes very strongly produced carrying the two
antennze far forwards ; the produced portion from before the eyes to the base
of the antenne is 1:25 times as long asthe portion behind the eyes and five
times as long as the breadth of head across eyes. (See Fig. 2) The head is
broadest at the base close to the prothorax and narrowest just in front of the
eyes. The vertex is distinctly narrower than the basal region and its sides are
more or less parallel but diverge a little at the extreme anterior end where the
antennee are attached ; as such the vertex is broadest just behind the bases of
the antennze. On both margins of the head from behind the base of the
antenne right up to the prothorax are numerous spines and bristles, but
TWO NEW THYSANOPTERA FROM SOUTH INDIA 789
those on the vertex are not so conspicuous as those on each genal margin
behind the eyes ; on each side of the vertex there are from 8 to 12 small sharp
bristles and of ‘these the basal two, one on each side in front of the eyes are
the most prominent. Behind the eyes on each side of the head there are five
or six well-developed sharp and conspicuous spines some of which arise from
short warts. In addition to these there is a very long and slender supra-ocular
bristle projecting forwards and outwards above the eyes. Some of these
cephalic bristles often break off while handling and are not therefore complete
in many specimens. =
Eyes prominent and bulging out; about 1/10 the length of the whole head.
Anterior ocellus situated in the middle of the base of the vertex just in front of
the eyes, the other two not clearly seen.
Antenne (See Fig. 3) length 2-2°125 mm. 11/3 times as long as the whole
head. The first and the second segments short stout and more or less cup-
shaped with a few sharp bristles at the sides. Third segment very long, consi-
derably longer than every other segment. The third, fourth and fifth each
bears a prominent long bristle at the distal end directed outwards ; in the
fifth there is a similar one at the same region directed inwards. ‘The sixth has
a pair of similar bristles at its middle one on each side. Besides these, there
are smaller bristles and hairs in all the segments and groups of sense cones in
the distal ones. The terminal segment which is not acutely pointed has a hair
at its tip.
Prothorax.—*26 times as long as head and including the coxe it is 1°875
times as wide as long; in shape more or less hexagonal and provided with a
few bristles ; the bristle at postero-lateral margin is sharp and conspicuous ;
there are only oneor two small ones on the antero-lateral margins. The
posterior angle of the coxa also bears a prominent bristle parallel to the one
on the postero-lateral margin cf the prothorax.
Legs.—(See Fig. 4) Fore femora broad and swollen, broadest just before
middle and then narrowing towards tibia; both margins well supplied with
several long and short sharp spines ; those along the outer edge more numerous
and some of them are strong and rise from warts—about a dozen such spines
at the outer and about 8 or 10 along the inner margin. Fore tibia with the
inner margin distinctly curved, broadest just before its junction with tarsus ;
at this point the inner edge forms a small conical projection bearing two or
three transparent hairs. The tibia bears only a few inconspicuous bristles and
that along the outer margin. The tarsus has a prominent long basal tooth
rising at right angles from its inner margin ; the tooth is as long as the tarsus
itself.
The intermediate and hinder legs are normal in structure, the femora are not
swollen or unusually broad, the tibiz not short and curved, nor do the tarsi
bear any tooth ; there are, however, bristles conspicuous along the outer
margins of the femora and tibie.
Wings.—Uniformly broad, with the marginal cilia long and numerous.
About thirty accessory hairs on hind margin near apex. The wings do not
extend beyond the 5th abdominal segment.
Abdomen.—Long and gradually narrowing towards the tube measuring over
2/3 of the whole body, breadth of 8th segment half the breadth of the abdomen
‘at base just behind last leg. Tubel 1/3 times as long as eighth segment,
breadth at tip 2/3 of that at its base with half a dozen long bristles at the tip.
The abdominal segments have each a group of three yellowish white bristles on
each lateral margin ; some of those on the 9th segment are particularly long.
Measurements of holotype male : Total length 7 mm.
Head.— Length 1°442 mm. ; length of produced portion of head in front of
eyes ‘756 mm. ; length of eyes ‘126 mm., length of basal portion of head behind
eyes ‘560 mm., breadth across eyes *28 mm., in front of eyes °154 mm., behind
eyes ‘266 mm., at base of head °315 mm. Prothorax length *364 mm., width
including coxa ’*770 mm. Abdomen greatest breadth *630 mm. Tube, length
‘525 mm., breadth at base ‘105 mm., breadth at apex ‘70 mm.
Antenna total length ‘1,953 mm.
Antennal segments I. 140 V. 266
Length in (z) II. 105 VI. 140
III. 840 VII. 70
IV. 315 VIL. 77
790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
‘Female macropterous.—Length from 5to5°5mm. General colour similar to
male. In structure there are definite variations. The produced vertex in front
of the eyes is not so long as in the male, the fore femora are not so broad and
swollen, and the fore tarsal tooth is very much smaller and reduced to a small
short and curved tubercular projection.
Head.—(See Fig. 5) About three times as long as breadth across eyes ; the
length of produced portion of head in front of eyes is only, *75 of the length of
the basal portion behind eyes, and is 1‘1 times as long as breadth across eyes.
Besides the long and weak supra-ocular bristle the usual cephalic bristles
are present, though they are fewer and somewhat weaker than those in
male.
Prothorax--2°34 times as broad as long with the usual bristles. Legs.—(See
Fig. 6) Fore femora and tibia not so swollen and broad as in male
and provided with fewer bristles, fore tibia not curved, fore tarsus with a
small tooth-like curved projection at its inner margin very much smaller
and weaker than the one in the male. Hinder legs normal with the usual
bristles.
Abdomen.— Broader than male at base, 1°2 times as broad as Pterothorax.
Tube is 1°8 times as long as eighth segment and ‘6 times as long as head,
ristles of ninth segment very long.
Measurements of allotype 2 Total length 5°5mm. Head, length *826 mm.
length of vertex before eyes, ‘308 mm., of eyes ‘112 mm. and of basal portion
behind eyes ‘406 mm., breadth across eyes *266 mm., in front of eyes *133 min.,
behind eyes °259 mm., and at base of head °322 mm. fPvothorax, length
*315 mm., breadth with coxa‘'595mm. Abdomen greatest width °735 mm.,
length of eighth segment °280 mm., Tube length -490 mm. Axntenna total
length, I-197 mm.
Antennal segments, length in (2)
I. 105 V. 168
fr. 7 VI. 105
III. 420 WAT 2-56
IV. 189 WAGES OH,
Described from about ten specimens of each sex. Collected from galleries
in the leaves of the palmyra palm (Borassus sabelliformis) damaged by the
caterpillar Vephantis serinopa, aserious caterpillar pest of palms in South India,
in the Chingleput District, South India. They were collected on three different
occasions by my colleague, T.V. Subramanyam, after whom 1 have named the
interesting species. Mr. Subramanyam says ‘Though this ‘‘thrips’’ was
collected from Nephantts attacked leaves on all the occasions, the economic
relation between the two is not yet clear. One specimen was noted to iay 18
eggs on the palmyra leaf. The peculiar habit of brooding over the eggs was
observed for a whole day after egg laying. On the second day the eggs get a
brownish tinge and on the following day they hatch. The young larva has the
body tapering at each end. I could not rear out the nymph any further, as I
was not able to find out the actual food of the insect.’
Pre-adult nymph of male has the body bright red and the wing rudiments
and limbs transparent shining white, eyes and apex of tube dark.
The insect is without doubt an undescribed form and I have made it out to
be a species of Aleothrifs Sch. Dr. Karny to whom specimens were submitted
for specific determination is of opinion that the insect is quite different from
all species of Kleothrifs known to him, that it closely resembles his genus
Acrothrifs and may even be anew genus allied to these two genera, because
of the extraordinary length of the vertex of the head and the abnormal length
of the third antennal segment. I have, however, described it as a Kleothrips
for the present, and as far as I could make out is distinct from the few known
species described till now by Schmutz, Karny, and Hood. ‘This appears to be
the first record of a species of A/eothrips from India, the few previous records
being from Ceylon, Malayasia, Africa and Australia.
TWO NEW THYSANOPTERA FROM SOUTH INDIA 791
HYSTRICOTHRIPIDAE.
LEEFUWENIA KARNYI Ramakrishna (mew species)
Length including tube 3to4 mm. General colour dark to light chocolate
brown. Eyes dark, ocelli brown, pigment reddish brown. First segment of
antenna concolourous with head, second of a light brown and third to eighth
clear pale yellow. The median dorsal region of head, all the femora and the
front tibia: of a more or less lighter brown than the rest of the body. The
genal and prothoracic spines, the lateral abdominal spines and the bristles at
apex of tube transparent light yellowish brown. Wings infumated along
middle with a light brown patch, Cilia dark brown.
X 84 X 28 X 84
Fig. 2 Fig. 1 Bigs 3
LEEUWENIA KARNYI Ramakrishna
Fig. 1—Adult Insect X 28.
Fig. 2—Anterior region X 84
Fig. 3—Hind region X 84,
Head.-—1'25 times as long as wide, broadest at the base, the sides gradually
narrowing towards eyes ; eyes large and prominent, oval, 3 as long as the whole
head, and, the breadth across the eyes § of that at base ; ocelli clear, the hind ones
placed at the anterior edge of the vertex just below the base of the antennze
and on a line with the anterior edge of the eyes, the front ocellus overhanging
at edge of the vertex. Cheeks behind the eyes finely crenulated with one
conspicuous spine on each side midway between the eye and the base of head ;
there are in addition a few very minute isolated sete arising out of the
crenulated cheeks, especially just behind the eyes. Antenne, nearly 1°75 times
as long as head, first and second joints short and stout, the first equal in length
to the last, third longer than the fourth, fourth equal in length to seventh and
eighth together ; the fourth, fifth and sixth are broader distally. Mouth cone
broadly conical extending beyond the middle of prosternum.
Thorax.—Prothorax—about $ as long and 1°5 times as broad as head ; short
anteriorly directed spine at the antero-lateral angle and a stout long one
directed backwards sideways at each posterior lateral angle, the latter rises
10
792 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
from a tubercle and is slightly longer than the one in each cheek. These
spines get broken and are not visible in many prepared specimens.
Legs.— Fore femora flattened and with crenulated edges, fore tarsus unaimed,
hind legs normal. Wings moderately broad and reaching to 7th segment of
abdomen ; no accessory hairs on post margin.
The body surface on the head, thorax and the fore femora clearly reticulated
showing numerous small cellular spaces.
Abdomen.—Stout built, the surface at the base reticulate ; at base 1'°5 times
as broad as the prothorax and gradually narrowing to tube. The abdominal
segments are distinctly transversely produced and each has a strong conspicuous
spine at the postero-lateral angle on each side; these spines are directed
backwards and are tuberculate at base. The spines of the 2nd and 3rd
segments small, whereas those of the 6th, 7th and 8th are very prominent ; on
the 8th and 9th segments there are one or two extra bristles near the above.
Tube a little more than four times as long as head and slightly shorter than
all the other abdominal segments together ; breadth almost uniform throughout;
frinsxed with sete but they are weaker and fewer than in gladiatrizx, Ky., a
little more than a fifth of the tube at the apical end without any sete.
Measurements of holotype. ‘Total length including tube 3°8 mm.
a tw) Ol head: °336 mm.
é ay ©6CYeS: ‘105 mm.
a te ee nOLMNOnre x. ‘210 mm.
5 tube, 1:4 mm.
Breadth across eyes. *230 mm.
», at base of head. °294 mm.
,, Of prothorax. °420 mm.
,, Of base of abdomen, °*630 mm.
Breadth of tube at base ‘091 mm. Breadth of tube at apex ‘063 mm.
at middle. ‘077 mm.
Antenna total length. ‘581 mm.
Length of segments in (2)
Psi rag Nee cal
iS oc VI. 84
TT E2 VII. 56
IV. 98 VIII. 42
Described from ten specimens collected by me on leaves of Augenia
jambolana, Bangalore, January 1924.
Although in some features this species approaches Karny’s gladiatrix from
Java and Bagnall’s Burmese form indicus, it 1s distinetly different. It is also
quite different from L. eugene recently described by Bagnall from South
Indian speciniens I submitted to hima few years ago. From gladiatrix it
differs by the weaker setz on the tube, in ewgenie the tube is weaker than in
this forrn and very sparsely clothed with short sete. Karny’s aculeatrix and
caelatrix have the tube wider in the middle and covered with numerous
conspicuous setee. His seriatrix also has the tube covered with longer sete.
In zudicus the tube is longer than the other abdominal segments and the wing
retaining spines very poorly developed. The distinctive features of this
species are the conspicuous single spine on each cheek and the transversely
drawn out abdominal segments with the strong tuberculated spine at the
posterior-lateral angle of each segment. Specimens were examined by Dr.
Karny and he concurs with mein the opinion that itis anew species. I take
the privilege of naming this species as a mark of my regard to this well-known
authority on Thysanoptera,
BIRDS NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA
Part V
BY
CAPT ORY 5. PP. BATES
(continued trom page 609 of thts volume.)
(With 5 plates.)
Ever since my arrival in india my ambition has been to depict,
by means of the camera, the wonders of its immensely-varied
avifauna. But, as the reader will readily understand, the difficulties
in the way of the bird-photographer in this country are many;
especially so in the case of the photographer who can only devote
a very limited amount of his time to the task. True, the East has
certain advantages over the West, as for instance the ease and
cheapness with which one can move one’s apparatus by means of
that poor down-trodden human beast of burden, the Indian coolie.
At home the ordinary mortal can only take outa we5y condensed
equipment, as it generally means carrying it on one’s own back,
whereas here the quantity is only limited by the number of coolies
one can afford to pay. In Kashmir when out in camp I invariably
had an immediate following of three trekking along with me,
consisting of two coolies carrying my two half-plate cameras, and
their sheaths for a couple of dozen plates, a quarter plate reflex,
and a case of lenses consisting of a Zeiss convertible, a Ross
telecentric, and a Zeiss telephoto lens. The latter incidentally
I have never used, although I certainly ought to have employed it
on the Sooty Flycatcher’s nest, the small photo of which appeared
in the first of these articles. This nest was overlooked from an
immense boulder atadistance of afew yards. These two men
also carried my food for the day as an added burden, as well as
sundry articles for use in constructing ‘hides.’ The third member
was a shikari, who has now developed into an ardent egg-collector.
He was of great use in looking for rests and of course carried my
gun. I was thus enabled to travel unencumbered, my sole equip-
ment being a pair of binoculars, a small folding hatchet and chisel
clipped on to my belt anda long ‘khud’ stick. Nevertheless I fear
the disadvantages of the climate very much outweigh the
advantages, except of course in the hills, whither however this
luckless mortal can only betake himself for but a short part of the
year. In the plains the grilling heat of the summer renders the
use of the ‘hide’ almost an impossibility. Can any one imagine
the inside of a stuffy little tent about three feet square in a
shade temperature of anything up to 110° or even more? The
sequel to acouple of hours so spent I think I can weil foresee; a
hospital ward, hushed voices, and later a firing party. Developing
is another difficulty during the summer months, since out in the
704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
blue one cannot ‘procure tons of ice with which to cool one’s
solutions, and I well remember once losing a whole batch of
excellent negatives in Rajputana, seeing them melt away before
my very eyes before they could be dried.
There are of course other means to be employed in obtaining
records of the birds themselves besides using a ‘hide’ as for instance
the distant release, and the reflex camera, but both these are very
limited indeed in their scope of application. The first method
entails disturbing the bird after each exposure, and I have never
yet discovered a device of this nature, which worked really
satisfactorily. As regards the use of the reflex I have been in
possession of a really suitable one for some time now, and have as
yet produced but one entirely satisfactory negative with it, that is
using it legitimately as a super hand-camera. Still I have great
hopes, as I cannot conceive of a more certain method of obtaining
good results amongst nesting colonies of water-birds, such as
Egrets, Cormorants, Painted Storks, etc., than the reflex, and I am
consequently looking forward to the coming breeding season of
these birds with considerable eagerness.
On the occasion of my second visit to Kashmir, the climate of
that glorious country being all that could be desired, rendering the
use of a ‘ hide’ both possible and pleasant, I determined to see what
I could do with atent I had ordered to be made at a Cawnpore
firm and forwarded to that very well known personage in Srinagar,
Mr. Samad Shah, to await my arrival.
Being India, of course the order of things was reversed, and it
appeared that I was expected to waste my leave awaiting the
arrival of the tent. I struck, with the result that I reached Bandipur
on the shores of the Wular lake on 22nd May, with nothing more
suitable than one of those large umbrellas usually associated with
surveyors. Asamatter of fact it turned out to be invaluable and
under the circumstances I could not have had anything better,
although the next time I go to this particular spot, I shall take with
me a collapsible canvas box, which | am having constructed with
the outside camouflaged to represent a boulder. This I think will
simplify matters considerably, as building a ‘hide’ from sods or stones,
or even putting up and camouflaging the usual type of tent, is apt
to waste valuable time, and the two former being immobile all the
resultant photos can only be taken from the one standpoint. Of
course nothing can be more suitable than a hide constructed from
the very material in the vicinity of the nest, as harmonization is
often half the battle. Also a ‘hide’ of a fixed shape cannot always
be employed, so sucha box in the outfit would only be supplementary
to the ordinary hiding tent.
I had the houseboat towed laboriously up the Madmatti as
far as it could be got, and then set off along the river bank to see
what I could find in the couple of hours of daylight which still
remained. Rounding a bend only a few hundred yards above the
boat, I came in sight of a small patch of stones on the opposite side
of the river, in the middle of which two stranded logs lay one across
the other with a small heap of brushwood lodged against them.
My eye at once caught the movement of a Jerdon’s Little Ringed
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
THE COMMON SANDPIPER
(Tringa hypoleuca)
“(vonapog hy vFurs Wi )
UHdIdGNVS NOWWO) SHY,
(su0s3poy vgzp 211190] 0ff/ )
TIVLOVM GHIg $,NOsoadoPy
‘20S ‘}SIPY ‘yeyY Aequiog
‘uanor
BIRDS NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA 795
Plover (Charadrius dubius jerdont) between these logs and_ the
water’s edge, and watching it carefully through the glasses, I saw
it settle down in a slight depression only a couple of yards from
them. As luck would have it, this turbulent river was here broader
than usual, so I was able to ford it, and, on reaching the spot, I
found a nest containing but one quite fresh egg, only after a
considerable search however, as the egg so blended with the
shingle amongst which it lay, that unless one looked straight at it,
it literally melted into its background.
With the assistance of the shikari whom I had taken out with me
I pulled down the upper log and laid it parallel to the other one,
thus making an excellent foundation for a ‘hide’ to use when the bird
commenced sitting. As a matter of fact next morning the egg had
disappeared. Why I wonder ?
A little further up I found a Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail’s (Motactlla
alba hodgsont) nest with large young ones in it. It was inside a
wide cavity under the overhanging bank of the river, and would not
have made a good photograph. Their nests are excessively common
in May and I was certain to find other and more suitably placed
ones, so I left them in peace and went on beyond the little village
of Dachhgam to where there are large patches of stones and shingle
on either side of the river, on which I knew from my experiences
there the year before, that the Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plovers breed
in considerable numbers. Nor was I disappointed on this occasion,
as I soon spotted many of them pottering about, some undoubtedly
attending to young ones.
I then followed out my usual procedure; walked boldly into the
middle of a large patch to disturb any birds which might be sitting,
and then retreating about a hundred yards, I took up a convenient
position screened from view by a tree trunk, and got out the glasses.
Very soon I noticed a bird making its way back across the stones
in short runs, halting between each little advance to spy out the
land. At length it appeared to have reached its objective, and to
have settled down. I now set off towards the spot, never taking
my eye off it for an instant; yet, when | arrived there, nothing
whatever could I see beyond endless stones. ‘The bird had slipped
away of course the moment I left the shelter of the tree, running in
a series of short zigzags until it reached the river bank, and was
now whistling plaintively from the opposite side of the river whence
it had betaken itself on my nearer approach. I repeated the
performance a second, and yet a third time, and was almost on the
point of giving up the search, when I discovered that I was standing
within six feet of a nest of four eggs. At times I must have been
within an ace of treading on it. It is really almost unbelievable
how one can fail to pick out these eggs from their surrounding’.
A more striking example of protective colouration it is impossible
to cite. The birds, too, blend extraordinarily well with the stones,
and even with binoculars it is most difficult to keep them in view,
except when they are actually moving. This nest turned out to be
in practically the identical spot, in which I took a nest the previous
year on the very same date.
This time there were no convenient logs, so I impressed two
196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL WisT (SOCIETY, Vol: BOOS
villagers into my service, and in a very short time we had raised a
low circle of stones eight or nine feet from the nest, and about two |
and a half feet high. Just roomy enough inside to take myself
cross-legged and my camera.
Returning next morning, I was gratified to make out the bird
sitting quite peacefully on the nest. Iwassoon inside the ‘ hide’ with
the half-plate camera in position. Samad Shah’s khaki umbrella made
a perfect roof to the sangar, and when covered with a few leafy
branches did not look a bit terrifying. I was really very comfort-
able and quite cool, the chinks between the stones providing quite
good ventilation as well as the requisite peep-holes. The only
difficulty was that the pole of the umbrella impeded my movements
somewhat, as I had to sit with a leg on either side of it, and work
with it just in front of my nose the whole time.
I was engrossed placing slides and other paraphernalia in more
Convenient positions, when, glancing through a chink I had
purposely left open as my main spyhole, I was surprised to find
that the bird was already seated calmly on its eggs. She must have
returned the very moment my minions had left the stones. I had
expected a considerable wait, as we had been working around the
sangar for a good half hour, and it certainly must have looked a
much more formidable structure than it did before our advent.
She sat quite still and broadside on, only looking to right or left
every few seconds, so I was very soon at work.
The click of the shutter had no effect on her at all, but in
changing the plate holder, I inadvertantly knocked it against the
umbrella pole. The sudden rap made her jump off the eggs ina
bit of a hurry, but she only ran a couple of yards, then, seemingly
thinking better of her cowardice, turned round and walked slowly
back to the nest, close to which she stood for a moment, eyeing
the ‘hide’ with a certain amount of distrust before settling down on
the eggs again. She never seemed to notice the camera at all;
partly I suppose, because it was well back in the shadow, the walls
of the sangar being about 18 inches thick; and partly because
I was only using the back components of the lens in order to geta
larger image. As I was using a Zeiss convertible lens with a
between-lens shutter, only the black shutter-leaves presented
themselves toher. After two or three more exposures she entirely
ignored the slight noises I was making in changing plates and
resetting the shutter. In fact the more I made the stiller she
became, which of course was all the better for me. I supposed,
wrongly as it happened, that far from ignoring these sounds, as
time went on, she was growing more and more suspicious and so
listening the more intently ; and I felt certain that it would take
very little indeed to make her quit the nest. Some species, many
of the Thrushes for instance, obviously behave in this manner.
Yet on the other hand it is patent that with many other birds,
suspicion only tends to make them move the more. Their heads
go twisting round in every direction and they become so
restless that it is almost impossible to get unmoved negatives of
them.
-I now bethought myself of trying to obtain a negative or two of
BIRDS NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA 797
the bird standing over the nest, and with this purpose in view I
lightly tapped the umbrella post to induce her to getup. To my
surprise she never moved: a hiss produced no result: I mewed
like a cat: I whistled: I spoke: I shouted: I went through my
entire repetoire of popular ditties in the hopes that she might turn
out to hate rag-time as much as I! do: all to no purpose. She sat
like a rock, evidently being quite used to subterranean noises, even
of the strangest character. In despair 1 moved the camera, and
pushed out a corner of the red focussing cloth. She went off like
a streak: I feared for good and all, so, instead of replacing the
half-plate, I leisurely rigged up in its piace a quar.er plate reflex,
which, I am sorry to say, I had also brought out with me. The
entire batch of plates, which I had bought forthis camera in Murree
on my way up, turned out to be bad, and I exposed half a dozen
on her in most excellent positions, before I closed down operations,
not one of the resultant negatives of course turning out satis-
factory.
Incidentally she had returned just as the reflex was ready, and
had posed most beautifully for the first exposure, standing just
behind the eggs looking down admiring them. I could have gone
on exposing plates on her all day, making as much noise as I
liked. Such behaviour on the part of so wily and shy a bird is
almost unbelievable, but, as I have remarked elsewhere, birds vary
in temperament as enormously as do human beings, and it is quite
on the cards that the next Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover, on which
I experiment, will be too shy to put in any appearance at all. |
have since had further experiences of the same sort and it is now
quite plain to me that to a great extent with birds ‘ only seeing is
believing.’ The evidence of hearing may arouse their suspicions
but it is not enough, and as time goes on they pay less and less
attention to the noises from the inside of the hide. Itis not until
they have the actual evidence of sight that suspicion turns to fear
and that they can appreciate the presence of danger. I find that
after being in the ‘hide’ for a time one can often talk and make as
much noise as one likes, but if one accidentally or intentionally
hits the sides of the tent so that movement becomes apparent
the bird will leave the nest like a flash in an absolute panic. Inthe
dark room, besides discovering that the quarter plates were all
spoilt by damp, I was rather annoyed to find that the half-plate
negatives were all pretty badly under-exposed. Asthe day had been
an excellent one for photography, there being a thin film of cloud,
just sufficient to soften the shadows somewhat, this was rather
mystifying, until it dawned on me that I had completely over-
looked the fact that I had been using only half the lens, and had
stopped down the aperture, as if I had had the complete lens in
use. Accordingly the next morning I returned once more to my
scene of operations—only to find an empty nest. These eggs, too,
had disappeared? I strongly suspect that the shikari was the
culprit. He probably thought that I had finished with the nest.
In Kashmir large numbers of Terns’ eggs are taken by the
villagers. In fact it is a marvel to me that the Terns manage to
breed at all. Hence I see no reason why they should not also
798. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXX.
have discovered that these Povers’ eggs too, are a great
delicacy. The gentleman in question of course denied all my
accusations.
On the way back to the boat for tiffin I investigated an Eastern
Jackdaw’s (Corvus monedula semmeringiz) nest in a hole ina high
bank just opposite the village. I seem to remember taking eggs
from this very hole the year before. ‘This time it contained four
young ones. I tried to get a photo of the parent birds entering
it, using a distant release, but they objected strongly to the bright
lens of the camera, and would not approach anywhere near it. In
a tree close to the house boat was a Rufous-backed Shrike’s
(Lantus schach erythronotus) nest, containing five eggs.
The next day I left the boat, and moved up the river as far as
Sonarwain. I was now keen on trying my luck with Common
Sandpipers (7vinga hypoleuca), as on the islands, and to a iesser
extent along the banks of this river, these birds breed most
profusely. The islands, to which I have referred, are most
numerous, and vary in size from little stoney patches a few yards
long to well-covered stretches up to two or even three hundred
yards in length. They are generally clothed with a sufficiency of
low brushwood and soft undergrowth. Stranded logs and
driftwood are dotted along their edges, the stones of which are
continually moistened by the drifting spray from the boiling waters
of the torrent. ‘To reach many of the islands is an arduous and
somewhat hair-raising task, as one would have a pretty rough time
of it, should one loose one’s balance and get swept off one’s feet.
We used to link arms, and work our way across in a string of three
or four. We could then help one another over the difficult bits.
The roar and swirl of the water used to half hypnotise me, and at
times I really and truly felt it quite an effort to concentrate my
mind on the task of standing up against the buffeting of the
powerful current.
To show to what an extent the Sandpipers patronize these
islands, I remember that in the. previous year on one small island
only about 40 or 50 yards long we found four nests, and during a
morning spent in going from one island to another, we found so
many that we didn’t trouble to keep count of them. As far as I
recollect the majority of these nests were above Sonarwain, and on
this occasion I only found one with eggs below that place. There
were plenty of birds about however, and I noticed a good many
scratches. ‘This nest could not have been in a better situation for
my purpose, so after its discovery I did not take so much trouble in
looking for others, which probably accounts, of course, for their
seeming scarcity as compared with the previous year. As before
we built a small sangar of stones, but this time only six feet away
from the nest, and left it till the following day for the bird to get
used to it.
Continuing up stream, I came across two nests of the Kashmir
Roller (Coracias garulla semenow7), both containing fresh eggs; one
three ; the other four. These were both in cavities in the river bank,
and in one the eggs could be plainly seen without enlarging the
entrance, as it was merely a large chamber about a foot deep and
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
THE COMMON SANDPIPER
(Tringa hy poleuca)
©
as
a
Ae
is
JERDON’S LITTLE
RINGED-PLOVER
(Charadrius dubius jerdoni)
JERDON’S LITTLE
RINGED-PLOVER
(Charadrius dubius jerdon?)
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. ; |
THE INDIAN PIED KINGFISHER
(Ceryle rudis leucomelanura)
HoOpDGSON’S PIED WACTAIL
(Motacilla alba hodgsont)
THE KASHMIR ROLLER
(Coracias garulla semenowt) |
BIRDS NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN [NDIA 799
nine inches wide with a slightly narrowed doorway. The eggs lay
on the bare sand, amongst which I noticed many small particles of
the hard parts of those large flying beetles. As I expected,
Hodgson’s Pied Wagtails proved very common, and I lit on no
fewer than four nests before tiffin; two with eggs and two with
young. I completely failed as regards Indian Pied Kingfishers
(Ceryle rudis leucomelanura). ‘They were numerous along the lower
reaches of the river, and at this very time in the previous year I
found two nests with fresh eggs. As I badly wanted a half-plate
photo of a nest of these birds, I was rather disappointed not to be
able to repeat the performance this time, especially as I also
wanted to see whether fish bones are always made use of, as the
eggs inthe one and only nest I have ever opened up were on
quite a thick layer of small bones, which, by the way, are plainly
visible in the photograph. A coolie brought me one of these birds,
which he had actually caught in its tunnel, which however contained
no eggs. When I took it from him it snapped at my hand, so to
test its strength I let it nip one of my fingers. I very quickly
regretted it too as the edges of its bili were decidediy sharp, and
it hung on so firmly, that had I attempted to slide my finger out.
without first prizing its mandibles open, it would certainly have cut
through the skin. As it was the flesh felt bruised for some time
afterwards. Incidentally it made no attempt to transfix me with
the sharp point of its dagger-like bill, which I should have thought
would have been a much more suitable means of attack for such
a bird. At the bridge at Sonarwain I met with the little Plumbeous.
Water-robin (Rhyacornis fultginosa). From here onwards they are
quite common along with their near relative the White-capped
Redstart (Chazmarrornis leucocephala). Below this point I have
never seen either of these pretty little birds.
On this day I got one very interesting photograph of two young
Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plovers. I was walking over a large patch
of stones, across the middle of which there flowed a tiny stream.
Hearing a very agitated plover about fifty yards off on the opposite
side of the beck, I looked round to see what the trouble was, just
in time to see two baby plovers struggling through the water.
They gained the other side, and started off to where the mother bird
was still plaintively calling to them, but as soon as I approached, they
hid behind a stone little larger than themselves. During the whole
time I was operating upon them with the camera, they never moved
a muscle, but, as soon as I turned my back to go my way, they
scrambled off towards their perturbed parents.
After tiffin I built a rough ‘hide’ close to a Grey Wagtail’s
(Motacilla cinerea melanope) nest in the roots of a bush on a small
island just above the bridge, and from this I exposed the entire
contents of another box of quarter plates. These incidentally were
as bad as the others, so after this I gave up all idea of using the
reflex at all. The bird was. inordinately tame, and after I had
made a couple of exposures, I demolished the greater part of the
hide, and sat almost in full view of her. She continued to sit
quite peacefully for a number of exposures, but when I completed
the demolition process, she seemed to think that I had carried
BE
800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
things a bit too far, and leisurely walking off the eggs, refused
absolutely to pose any longer.
The following morning I went down to try conclusions with the
Sandpiper. ‘The umbrella was fitted on top of my sangar as before,
and well covered with leaves, branches and grass, and I prepared
to await the arrival of my victim. I had only about quarter. of an
hour to wait, but soon realized that here was a very different
personage from the Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover. Never still for
an instant, she was possessed of the most acute hearing, and
glanced to right, left or behind her at the slightest sound, continually
bobbing her head, as if suffering from a severe attack of the
hiccoughs. I began to despair of getting good negatives, as I
wanted to give exposures of at least half a second. However, she
seemed to quieten down a bit after ten minutes or so, so I determi-
ned to press the release immediately after one of her habitual
hiccoughs, and trust to luck. She seemed to meto be off her
nest almost. before the shutter had opened, but as a matter of fact
this turned out to be the best negative of all. Although she had
left so abruptly, I could see her standing at the water’s edge only
about three yards off, evidently thinking things over, and almost
before I had had time to change the plate, she was on the way
back.
I now made a horrible discovery. A piece of black cloth, draped
across the window of the sangar just below the level of the liens,
had fallen outwards, and she was certain to see my hand the
moment I attempted to reset the shutter. However I had to risk
it, and it would be interesting to see what she would do. She was
now at the nest again, but away she went the moment my fingers
appeared by the lens. Nevertheless within ten minutes she was
back at her post once more, but this time facing the spot whence
the terrifying apparition had emerged. ‘The noise of the shutter
alarmed her, but she remained sitting, until my hand once more
appeared on the scene. This time it was over twenty minutes
before she dared to come back, and after a third exposure and its
attendant reappearance of my hand, she gave way to her fear
and refused absolutely to come anywhere near.
I have often wondered what her thoughts were, when the top of
what I presume she took for a more or less inoffensive heap of
brushwood and stones, probably harbouring a snake at most,
suddenly heaved up, and gave forth that much feared and clumsy
animal a human being; for, when I lifted the umbrella and stepped
out from my cramped quarters, she was standing on a stone in the
water about fifteen yards away. Four days later, when I again
passed the spot, I was very gratified to make her out still sitting on
her eggs, beside a tumbled-down ‘< hide.’
I moved my tent next day further up stream, to where the hills
close in on either side, and the river is narrowed down to a boiling
torrent sweeping round and over high boulders, whose ledges and
clefts provide perfect situations for nests of the Himalayan Whistling
Thrush (Alyiophoneus horstieldit temminckit) and the Indian Brown
Dipper (Cinclus pallasiz tenutrostris), Plumbeous Water-robins and
White-capped Redstarts are here commoner than ever. Hodgson’s
BIRDS NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA 801
Pied Wagtail does not appear to come up as far as this, but the Grey
Wagtail is plentiful. These latter are pretty early breeders, and at
the end of May I failed to obtain fresh eggs. I discovered one
soiled and three perfectly neat and clean nests of the Himalayan
Whistling Thrush, but was unable to find one with eggs, and as
regards the Brown Dipper I was even more unsuccessful, as but one
decidedly ancient nest was all my search could reveal.
My one and only discovery here was a nest of the Plumbeous
Water-robin with four well incubated eggs in it. It was in deep
shadow and in rather an awkward position, being in the main fork
of a willow, and about six feet off the ground. However a bank
rose abruptly fairly close to it, so I decided to test the outcome of
a brain-wave that had occurred to me after the unfortunate experi-
ence with the Sandpiper. Fortunately I did not expect to produce
good photographs. Still I did obtain one passable negative, but it
certainly is not worthy of reproduction.
I possess two half-plate cameras; one with an ordinary Thornton-
Pickard shutter—my favourite one; the other with a ‘ Koilos’
shutter, and ] had found that I could screw in the lens and shutter of
the latter camera on the inner side of the panel, and so inside the
camera, so I cut a small hole in the bellows, through which I
pushed the antinous release, and packed black tape round the hole
to make certain that no light could get through to fog the plate. In
this way after focussing, I had only to fold back the focussing
screen, and I could see exactly what I was doing in the way of
setting the shutter and the lens aperture, as I had the whole
‘works’ facing me. After the first exposure on the Sandpiper I
had wanted to alter the exposure, but was unable to do so, as I
could not possibly see what I was doing. Another advantage of
this arrangement was that there was nothing bright and terrifying
to startle the bird, there being merely a small black circle ‘ the
shutter’ (when using one half of the lens only) in the middle of a
plain wood panel.
The experiment began just on nine o’clock in the morning with
the lens and shutter in their ordinary position, and before I had
been five minutes in the hide, the female flew up to the edge of the
nest. She spotted the lens immediately and flew down to a boulder
in mid-stream, before I had had time to press the release, even if I
had wanted to, which I did not, as I think it tends to allay whatever
suspicions the bird may have, if one waits a bit and lets her settle
down. Until 11°30 o’clock she kept up a continual plaintive
wail, occasionally flying up into the tree and approaching to within a
foot or so of the nest, but never actually daring to come out into
full view of the camera. During all this time I only saw the male
once. For about ten minutes he added his voice to the lament, and
then flew unconcernedly up stream again.
I then changed the lens and shutter round, screwing them on
inside the bellows as I have described, and lo! and behold the next
time she flew up into the tree she straightway hopped onto the nest
and settled down on the eggs. Either the click or the. movement
of the shutter itself startled her, and she went off again, and could
pot pick up courage to come to the nest for another half hour. It
802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
took me a whole hour to get off three exposures on her, and
altogether I was sitting in that ‘hide’ for three and a half hours.
Still I am quite certain that I could have sat there the whole day
with the works in their ordinary position, and would then have
been compelled to give up in the evening without having exposed
a single plate. Thus the experiment was really quite a success.
It made all the difference to me inside the hide, as I could see
absolutely what I was doing, and could alter the exposure or other
gadgets without ever moving the camera, and risking giving my
presence away, and the absence of anything startling facing the
nest undoubtedly made a great difference to the bird’s behaviour.
In fact I think had I started off with the shutter reversed, I would
have been able to get as many negatives as I wanted, as those two
and a half hours of anxiety must have made her very jumpy.
In the afternoon, feeling a bit limp after my morning’s work on
the Water-robin, I lazed outside my tent, writing up my diary.
The tree, under which I was seated, was frequently visited by two
or three Himalayan Black Bulbuls (A@icroscelis psaroides psaroides),
and after an hour or so of their raucous voices, I had serious
thoughts of shouting for my gun. I have met with few more noisy
and less musical birds than these, and with their untidy plumage
they are veritable street arabs amongst birds. I could occasionally
hear the hoopoe-like voice of the Himalayan Cuckoo (Cucalus optatus)
higher up the forest clad hillside, and once or twice the familiar
Asiatic Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus telepbhonus) reminded me of its
presence. In the evening one of the latter actually came down to
my camp for afew minutes. I had two Himalayan Jungle Crows’
(Corvus coronotdes intermedius) nests within a couple of hundred yards
of me, one of which was not more than fifteen or twenty feet up in
a slender pine, and I was quite pleased to see these black bullies
and arrant egg-stealers being thoroughly mobbed by a pair of
ferocious Himalayan Black Drongos (Dicruras macrocercus albtrictus),
which, judging by their aggressiveness, most probablv had a nest
in the vicinity, though I was unable to spot it.
An Indian Hoopoe (Upupa epops orientalis) was frequently visiting
the patch of grass on which my tent was pitched, and flying off
with the grubs he extracted therefrom to a wall about a hundred
yards away, over which he disappeared at exactly the same spot on
every occasion. I thought that there must be a nest in the base of
the wall on the far side, but it turned out to be in a hollow trunk
just beyond. There was a small entrance hole about two feet from
the ground, and facing the wall, and from this were emitted loud
squeaks at each visit of the parent bird. That evening I built a
small sangar only four feet from the tree, using the stones of the
wall for this purpose.
Next morning, when I awoke, it was raining hard and so dark
that it was obvious that photography was out of the question.
However I had made arrangements to set off for the boat at
midday and did not want to alter my plans, as I had already fixed
everything up for a lengthy trip into the Lolab, which, as it
happened, I never completed, as I went down with a bad dose of
fever. I therefore had myself roofed into the ‘hide ’, setting up the
Journ.
Bombay
Nat.
Hist. Soc.
JERDON’S LITTLE RINGED-PLOVER
(Charadrius dubius jerdont)
i
see
Fe
BIRDS NESTING WITH A CAMERA IN INDIA 803
camera in case it cleared, but mainly with the idea of noting the
behaviour of the birds.
The proximity of the ‘hide’ and the round black patch of the
shutter impressed the Hoopoe so little, that he arrived the moment
I was left alone. He did not enter the nest however, the food
being taken from him at the entrance, but whether by a young one
or the female I could not ascertain.
However after his third or fourth visit a fully-fledged young one
poked its head out of the hole, and for about half a minute
surveyed the outer world. Then afew moments later a bird flew
out, too quickly for me to be able to see whether it was an adult
or one of the young ones, but I rather think it must have been the
female, as afew minutes later both adult birds appeared on the
scene, and one of them immediately went-in, the other flying away
again after first transferring a grub to the birds inside. After this
the old procedure was restarted. It looks therefore as if the male
did all the grub hunting, while the female superintended the
feeding of the youngsters within. This is not always the case
however, as last April while on parade I noticed a nest high up in
a crevice in a banyan tree. On this occasion both birds were
equally industrious in hunting for their offsprings’ food, and in
twenty minutes between them they visited the nest no less than
twenty-one times, after which they rested from their labours.
There was no transferring of food from one adult to the other, but
both entered the nest irrespective of the other’s whereabouts.
Judging from their antics, their chief prey appeared to be small
grey grasshoppers which abounded on the sandy parade ground.
As the weather had not cleared by about ten o’clock, and it was,
if anything, darker still, I decided to push off, but exposed two
plates giving as long an exposure as the movements of the bird
would permit, but, as I expected, they were so underexposed as to
be practically useless. Incidentally the bird took not the slightest
notice of the snap of the shutter.
Thus ended my first experiences in the use of a ‘hide’. I cannot
say the camera results were very satisfactory, but I certainly learnt
a lot, and in consequence have since been more successful. Of
the many lessons I imbibed, two stand out well above the others.
The first that far longer exposures are required than one would
ever suspect, so in order to cut them down as much as possible one
shouid use the largest stop one can afford to: the other, that, in
the case of a sitting bird at any rate and provided one is careful,
one can give exposures of considerable length without undue risk
of getting a moved image, as, even if the bird is startled, it seems
to take quite an appreciable time before its brain can communicate
with its muscles so to speak and put it in motion. In bird-photo-
graphy, when the subject is close to the camera, one has to
remember that the long bellows extension makes an appreciable
difference in the length of the exposure required. In talking of the
near proximity of the subject to be photographed it also behoves
me to mention hére that one can make a great mistake by trying to
approach too close up. There are distinct limits, which are not
only bounded by the fact that the nearer the ‘hide’ the shyer the
804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
subject is likely to be. It is far better to get a small but entirely
sharp image which can subsequently be enlarged to almost any
degree, than to get a large image half of which will probably be
out of focus owing to the fact that to stop down the lens to get the
necessary depth of focus will unduly prolong the exposure beyond
the bird’s capacity for stillness. Another point of considerable
importance is that most birds undoubtedly fear the bright lens,
probably mistaking it for the eye of some outlandish animal, so as
it often cannot be done away with by having the shutter in front of
it, it should certainly be shaded as much as possible. Lastly, it is
obvious that birds very rapidly become used to noises from inside
the hide, so, once the bird has shown itself to be used to the noise
of the shutter, one may not be too fearful of the sounds one is
bound to make at times changing plates, and so forth. This fact
really should be quite patent to any one. ‘Trees and bushes are for
ever creaking and rustling ina breeze, and if every bird left its
nest in a panic at the slightest noise in its vicinity, it would indeed
have a thin time of it.
Just before I reached the boat, I saw a Tickell’s Thrush (7urdus
wnicolor) carrying material to a nest it was building ina willow
close to the path. It was obtaining its material from an old nest
in another tree about 50 yards away. Ialso noticed an Indian
Oriole (Oriolus ortolus kundoo) building almost at the very top of an
enormous chenar, and a Rufous-backed Shrike sitting on a nest on
a branch overhanging the path.
NOTES ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURMA IN 1924
BY
COLONEL F: WALL, 'C.M.G.,.K.H.S.
In response to an appeal to various residents in Burma I obtained 323 snakes
during 1924, representing 57 species. ‘These include four new to Science, viz.,
Natrix bitentata, Natrix gilhodest, Natrix nigriventer, and Natrix clerki; a
new colour variety of Calliophis macclellandi, viz.—concolor ; further the collec-
tion adds to the list of the Burmese anguifauna four more species, viz.—Watrix
nuchalts, previously known from China, Rhabdops bicolor, Nerodia modesta
and Ptyas nigromarginatus previously known from Assam.
I take this opportunity of thanking those who have assisted me in advancing
our knowledge of the fauna of this province. The Rev. Father Gilhodes
rendered signal service in procuring 104 specimens from the Kachin Hills, an
area little exploited, and his material has been specially interesting as the fauna
so closely approximates to that of the Western Chinese hills. He has been
responsible for adding two species new to Science. Mr. Clerk also worked for
me in the Kachin Hills, and obtained one new species and many specimens that
had previously been considered very rare. Mr. P. M. R. Leonard procured
many very valuable specimens from the Northern Shan States, including one
new species. Major Rodrigues acquired many interesting specimens in the
Southern Shan States. Working ashe did ina locality that had been previously
exploited by the late Colonel Bingham, it was hardly to be expected that he
would find a new species. His material however was valuable in confirming
and amplifying the work of his notable predecessor. Captain Treston, I.M.S.,
succeeded in throwing much light on the local species at Myitkyina. Captain
Wilkinson and Assistant Surgeon O’Reilly contributed to our knowledge of the
snakes in and about Mandalay.
Names of localities are spelt in accordance with the latest maps of the
Geological Survey of India.
Family—TYPHLOPID&
Typhlops diardi Schlegel
Fourteen examples of this common snake were acquired, all of which were
quite typical except one large adult twelve inches long, which was a uniform
pale grey in colour. As far asI could judge this was not due to impending
desquamation. I referred to a similar variety from Assam in my paper on this
snake in this Journal (vol. xxv, p. 381) and proposed the name cinereus
fOr 1€.
Dr. Malcolm-Smith (Jour. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam., vol. 6, p. 53) suggests
that 7. tephrosoma, a similarly coloured snake described by me from the Khasi
Hills, Assam, should be regarded as 7. diardi as he has found typical dzardi
in Siam with 28 scale rows. This view is probably correct.
Fors. Two specimens measuring 96 and 288 mm. (3g and 11% inches) were
recovered from the stomach of a Macclelland’s coral snake (Calliophis
macclellandt).
BREEDING. (a) Genitalia. One male specimen had the claspers extruded.
These organs are duplicated as in other snakes. Each clasper is cylindrical,
with a ‘raphé’ running from behind outwards to the tip, which is swollen and
thrown into folds like a rosette. ‘There are no recurved processes such as one
sees in Colubrine and Viperine species.
(b) Season. Three females measuring 275, 305 and 342 mm. (11, 12 and
134 inches) were egg-bound. The first killed on the 10th of June contained 7
eggs, the second killed on the 30th of June showed 3 follicles obviously
impregnated, and the third killed in July contained 8 eggs.
GrowTH. One female was exceptionally large measuring 417 mm. (1 foot,
> inches).
806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL THUST. SOCIETY, Vole
DISTRIBUTION, ‘This species which is so common in the plains of Burma as
far north as Fort Hertz, Putao District, occurs up to'over 5,000 feet. Eight
Specimens were sent to me from Huton in the Kachin Hills (4500 feet).
Venning obtained it in the Chin Hills at Minkin (5,600 feet), Also taken at
Taunggyi, Southern Shan States (5,000 feet).
Family—BOID
Sub-family—PYTHONINE
Python molurus (Linné)
One small female (?) specimen came in from Myitkyina, measuring 915 mm.
(3 feet), the tail 112 mm. (43 inches). This ‘was killed between the Ist and
24th of June. The ventrals numbered 259 and subcaudals 68 of which the last
8 were entire.
DISTRIBUTION. Probably occurs throughout Burma. Localities actually
known to me are Arakan (near Akyab) ; Pegu District (Pyinbongyi) ; Magwe
District (Minhla) ; Myitkyina ; Tennasserim District (Tavoy) ; North Shan
States (Mayinyo).
Family—ILYSIIDZE
Cylindrophis rufus (Laurenti)
Two specimens were sent in from Bhamo, and Mandalay. A freshly-killed
specimen was black with an ultramarine fluorescence in reflected light. The
dorsal bars were faint orange anteriorly and deep orange posteriorly. ‘The
anal region was bright canary, and the tail brilliant orange beneath. One of
these was killed in a house at night.
The eye in life is completely black so that the shape of the pupil is not
visible.
DISTRIBUTION. An uncommon species occurring in the basin of the
Irrawaddy from Bhamo to Ava and its tributary the Tsamon river (Pyawbwe);
the Pegu river (Pegu) ; the Sinthe river (Pyinmana) and in the Tenasserim
District. It occurs also in the hills up to about 5,000 feet. North Shan Hills
(Maymyo) ; South Shan Hills (Taunggyi).
Family—XENOPELTIDAL
Xenopeltis unicolor Reinwardt
All the thirteen specimens received came from Myitkyina, all collected
between the Ist of June and 15th of November.
Foop. Two had recently fed. One of these contained two full grown
munias (Uroloncha punctulata) and the other the remains of what appeared to
be a callow young shrew.
BREEDING. None showed any evidences of impregnation.
GRowTH. Two young killed between the 24th of August and the 15th of
November measured 317 and 342 mm. (123 and 133 inches). The largest
specimen was a female which taped 818 mm. (2 feet 84 inches).
Lepiposis. ‘The ventrals ranged from 182 to 189 and the subcaudals from
24 to 25.
DISTRIBUTION. It appears to be restricted to the basin of the Irrawaddy
from Myitkyina southwards, and to river basins further east. Has been
recorded from Myitkyina, Ava, Tharawaddy, Prome, Pegu, Rangoon, Bassein,
Tenasserim District (‘'avoy, Mergui).
Family—COLUBRIDZ
Polyodontophts collarts (Gray)
Five specimens from the Kachin Hills (Huton 4,500 feet). Three of these
contained skinks (Lygosomata ?) in the stomach.
Natrix bitentata sp. nov.
A small snake sent to me by Mr. P. M. R. Leonard from Kutkai, North Shan
States (4,500 feet) which J at first took to bea specimen of Ahabdophis parallelus
Boulenger, proves to be a very distinct species. I prepared the skull of a
similar specimen from Sinlum Kaba, Kachin Hills (6,000 feet), and find that the
NOTES ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURIZA 1N-1924 807
maxillary dentition is syncranterian, whereas in parallelus from the Khasi
Hills, Assam the dentition is diacranterian. An exainination of all the
specimens, identified as parallelus in the Bombay collection and the Indian
Museum, shows that those collected in the Eastern Himalayas and the Assam
Hills agree with parallelus in dentition, whereas the specimens from Burma
(Kachin Hills and North Shan Hills) and ali those collected by Anderson in
the Yunnan Expedition of 1868, conform to the type of ézt@nzata. Reference
to Boulenger’s Catalogue (vol. i, page 223), shows the author based his
description of parallelus on six specimens from Sikkim, the Khasi Hills, Sanda
on the upper Irrawady (1,500 feet ; Lat. 24° -30, Long *95°), and the Hotha Valley,
Yunnan, the two latter specimens being collected by Anderson during the
Yunnan Expedition. It seems probable that the two last will be found to
conform with ézfewniafa, and that the remaining four only should be retained
as types of parallelus. For many years I have been puzzled to know why
Boulenger placed parallelus in the subgenus Tropidonotus (=Natrix), as
my skulls from Khasi Hill and Sikkim specimens show the maxillary dentition
to be diacranterian and conforming to the dentition of the genus Ahabdophis.
The explanation seems to be that when examining the dentition he had before
him one of Anderson’s specimens.
I have now seen ten specimens of 6zt@niata, seven of which are Anderson’s
Yunnan examples in the Indian Museum. I have notes on eighteen specimens
of parallelus from the Eastern Himalayas, and Assam Hills.
I have critically examined, side by side, Anderson’s seven exainples with
several specimens of parallelus from the Eastern Himalayas, and the Assam
Hills. They are surprisingly alike. I can find no constant character in the
lepidosis to distinguish one from the other, and the few differences in markings
are trivial. Were it not for the marked difference in the maxillary dentition,
nobody would suppose them different.
The differences noted by me are :—(1) In Jarallelus there is a dark preeocular
streak sometimes extending to the rostral. There is no such streak in
bitentata. (2) The postocular streak in parallelus is not so broad, or so well
defined as in dz¢enzata, and is interrupted at the gape, i.e., not connected with
the lateral black body stripe. Jn dzf@niata the postocular stripe is continuous
with the lateral body stripe. (3) In paradlelus the blackish lateral body stripe
on the 3rd and 4th rows above the ventrals, is not so well defined or conspicuous
as in dztaeniata. As regards lepidosis, in paradlelus the anterior temporal
shields are usually single, in 6z/@nzata usually two.
Leprposis. Aostral, just visible above, depth about three-fifths the
breadth. Jzternasals, a pair, truncate anteriorly; the suture between them
subsequal to that between the praefrontals. Pyraefrontals, a pair; the suture
between them about two-fifths the length of the frontal. fyvontal, greater
than its distance to the end of the snout ; breadth, ashade more than twice that
of the supraocular at mid orbit. Loreal, one. Praeocular, one. FPostoculars,
three. Zemporals 2+1. Supralabials, 8; the Ist and 2nd touching the
nasals, 3rd, 4th and 5th the eye; 6th and 7th the lower temporals. Posterior
Sublinguals, rather longer than the anterior; divergent posteriorly ;
touching the 5th, 6th and 7th infralabials ; partially separated by two small
azygos scales and one pair, after which is a narrow Ist ventral. Costals, two
heads-lengths behind the head 19, midbody 19, two heads-lengths before the
vent 17. Keeled to the penultimate row in mid body. Emarginate apically.
No. (?) apical facets. Ventrals, 164. Anal, divided. Swécaudals, 86 pairs.
In a ¢ from Sinlum Kaba the anterior temporals are single, ventrals 172, and
subcaudals 92. In another from Sinlum Kaba the anterior temporal is single,
the 4th and 5th infralabials only touch the eye, the ventrals are 160 and
subcaudals 83.
DENTITION.* Maxzilla, 23 teeth ; syncranterian, anododont, coryphodont.
Patatine, 17; feebly kumatodont. /Prerygoid, 30 to 34; feebly scaphiodent.
Mandibular, 28 to 29; anododont, feebly kumatodont.
1 The teeth in three skulls of ARhabdophis parallelus in my collection from
Sikkim are as follows:—/MWazilla, 18 to 21; diacranterian. The cranterian
teeth not twice the length of the preceding. /falatine. 14 to 16, Prerygoid,
20 to 26. Mandibular, 24 to 27.
12
808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol... XXX.
DISTRIBUTION. Surma North Shan Hills (Kutkai) ; Kachin Hills (Sinlum
Kaba); Upper Chindwin (Sanda). Chima. Yunnan.
Natrix gthodest + Wall
Nineteen specimens of this snake, recently described by me in this Journal
(vol. xxx, p. 587) were sent to me by the Revd. Father Gilhodes from Huton,
Kachin Hills.
LENGTH. The largest specimen proved to be a female 486 mm. (1 foot 10%
inches), tail 182 mm. (7% inches).
LEpiposis. Praeoculars, fivespecimens had two on each side. Postocu-
lars. ‘There were two only on the left side in one specimen and two on both
sides in another. Suwpralabials, the 4th and 5th were confluent in one
Specimen making a total of 8, the 4th and 5th only touching the eye.
Ventrals, 146 to 157. Subcaudals, 92 to 108. The 2nd entire in one specimen.
Foop. One contained a frog in the stomach.
BREEDING. ‘Three examples proved to be egg-bound, the eggs being of such
a size as to make it fairly certain that the speciesis oviparous. One killed in
June contained one elongate egg, 31mm. (14; inch) in length. One killed
between July and October contained twoeges, and one killed between October
and December two eggs, 26to 28mm. long (1 tolginch). The smallest dam
taped 434 mm. (1 foot 4% inches). It would appear from the growth of
specimens given below that the species is sexually mature when two years old.
GROwTH. Inthe months October to December one specimen 218 mm. (8#
inches) long was killed which is obviously this year’s production. Four others
ranging between 380 and 442 mm. (15 and 173 inches) represent young of 1923,
showing that the species about doubles its length in the first year of life.
Another specimen 575 mm. (1 foot 10$ inches) in length, probably represents
one hatched in the year 1922.
DENTITION. From one skull in my collection. Mazilla, 26 teeth;
syncranterian, anododont, coryphodont; the last 3 teeth enlarged but not
twice the length of the preceding. Fadlatine, 14 to 16; anododont, isodont.
Pterygoid, 25 to 27; anododont, feebly scaphiodont ; the teeth except posteri-
orly about the same size as the palatine, Mandibular, 28 to 30; anododont
feebly kumatodont.
Natrix nuchalis (Boulenger)
I described, as a new species in this Journal, a snake under the name of
NV. leonardi (Journ, B. N. H. §., vol. xxix, p. 466). Mr. Parker writes to me
from the British Museum that he has compared this with the type of VV. nuchalis,
and several other specimens of the latter from the Tonkin Hills in China, and
thinks that my /eonardi cannot be separated from Boulenger’s zuchalis.
LEprposis. I received onespecimen from Sinlum Kaba, Kachin Hills, which
differed from my typeof NV. leonardi in having the scale rows 19 two heads-
lengths behind the head, 17 in midbody, and 15 two heads-lengths before the
vent, as compared with the type where the rows numbered 17, 17 and 15. Miss
Procter who preceded Mr. Parker examined my type of VV. leonardi and while
remarking on its affinities to zuchalis noted that the scales in my leonardi are
strongly keeled, whereas in zuchalzs they are feebly keeled. Mr. Parker found
in some of the Tonkin specimens alluded to, the scale rows numbered 19, 17,
15. There appears therefore to be no doubt that my J/eonardi cannot be
retained as a species distinct from muchalis. ‘The ventrals in my specimen
number 149, and the subcaudals 48. It has two postoculars and two anterior
temporals on the left side. The supralabials are 6. The 5th is avery long
shield which appears to be a confluence of two. However this is a constant
feature, not an aberrant one, as surmised in my original description, where I
1 Mr. Parker writing to me from the British Museum doubts whether this
species is entitled to rank as such, distinct from VV. khaszensis. However there
can be no doubt in my mind. Ihave one skull of khaszensis from Shillong,
Khasi Hills. The maxilla holds 22 to 23 teeth, the palatine 16, the pterygoid
25 to 26, and the mandibular 31 to 32,
NOTES ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURMA IN 1924 — 809
recorded these shields as 7. It is a female measuring 580 mm. (1 foot 11 inches)
the tail 112 mm. (43 inches).
DISTRIBUTION. .A local hill snake which appears to be confined to an
altitude above about 5,000 feet since no specimen was included among the 104
snakes received from Huton (4,500 feet) in the same Hills.
Natrix clerki sp. nov.
A single specimen of a snake which I consider deserves specific rank as a new
Natrix, was sent to me by Mr. Clerk from Sinlum Kaba, Kachin Hills.
This isa ¢ measuring 565 mm. (1 foot 103 inches), the tail 170 mm. (62
inches. )
Leriposis. Aostral, just visible above. Juternasals, a pair; the suture
between them equal to that between the pracefrontal fellows; truncate
anteriorly. Pyraefrontals, a pair. Frontal, length greater than its distance
to the end of the snout. Loreal, one. Praeocular, one. Postoculars, three.
Temporals, 1+ 2. Supralabials, 8; the lst and 2nd touching the nasals, 3rd,
4th and Sth the eye, and the 6th and /7th the anterior temporal. Posterior
Sublinguals, rather longer than the anterior ; divergent posteriorly ; touching
the 4th and 5th infralabials. Separated posteriorly by one azygos and a pair of
scales and succeeded by a narrow first ventral. Costals, two heads-lengths
behind the head 19, midbody 19, two heads-lengths before the vent 17. Keeled
to the last row in midbody. Emarginate apically, No. (?) apical facets.
Ventrals, 175. Anal, divided. Suébcaudals, 106 ; divided.
COLOURATION. Blackish-olivaceous dorsally to the edges of the ventrals. A
series of ill-defined light roundish spots on the 5th row above the ventrals and
the adjacent halves of the 4th and 6th rows, continued to the base of the tail.
Belly yeliowish anteriorly, merging to pale salmon posteriorly, suffused more
deeply laterally ; with an occasional small dark round spot on the edges of the
ventrals. Head blackish-olivaceous. A short mesial light streak just behind
the parietals. <A light well-defined V on the nape beginning behind the gape.
First 5 supralabials with black posterior borders A black postocular stripe to
the sides of the neck. Chin immaculate.
Nerodia piscator. (Schneider)
Thirty-three specimens from Myitkyina, Mandalay, Maymyo and Huton.
The usual variety is one with large black spots. Olive specimens with a light
chequering were received from Maymyo and Huton.
Nerodia modesta ? (Gtinther)
I received one specimen of a snake I refer with some doubt to this species.
Lepiposis. Juternasals, narrowed anteriorly. Loreal, present. Prae-
oculars, two. Postoculars, three. Temporal, one anterior. Supralabials, 9;
the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, 4th, 5th and 6th the eye, and the 7th and
8th the anterior temporal. Costals, 19 two heads-lengths behind the head, 19 in
midbody, 17 two heads-lengths before the vent. Keeled to the penultimate row
in midbody. Ventrals, 147. Anal, divided. Swzécaudals, 84 (tail broken),
divided.
CoLouRaTION. Darkish brown. A dorsal yellowish ill-defined lateral
stripe on the 5th and 6th rows above the ventrals, with lighter spots incorpo-
rated. A series of blackish ill-defined spots below the light stripe and a less
distinct series of blackish spots above the light stripe. Belly yellow with a
squarish black spot near the edge of each ventral, forming a stripe from throat
to tail tip. Head dark brown with pale vermiculations, anda pair of pale
spots, one on each side of the interparietal suture. Supra and infralabials
with blackish sutures. An ill-defined short yellowish temporal streak to the
side of the neck.
LENGTH. 310 mm. (1 foot and 4%-of an inch), tail, broken; 87 mm. (3%
inches.)
Hapitat. Huton, Kachin Hills. This adds another species to the Burmese
anguifauna.
DENTITION. Maxilla, supports dubiously 28 teeth, anododont, syncran-
terian, coryphodont. (In my only skull of modesta from Cherrapunji, Khasi
Hills, Assam, the maxillary teeth number 22.)
810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Rhabdophis stolatus (Linné)
Twenty-two specimens from Myitkyina, Bhamo, Mandalay, Rangoon,
Maymyo, Kutkai and Huton.
All the specimens from Maymyo were of the vermilion variety, and several of
those from Mandalay, and Bhaino.
Hapits. One was killed at Bhamo in a bungalow at night.
Foop. A frog found in the stomach of one.
BREEDING. One egg-bound @ from Mandalay killed in August or September
contained 5 eggs about 25 mm. (one inch) long. Mrs. Swithinbank found eggs
in her garden in Rangoon which hatched out about three weeks later. On
September 27 one broke its shell at 10-15 a.m. another at 1-15 p.m. a third at
2-10 p.m. and a fourth at 2-20 p.m. The first left its egg at 4 p.m. but the rest
remained within their eggs, being found outside them on the following
morning.
Rhabdophis subminiatus (Schlegel)
Twenty specimens from Huton, Kachin Hills; Kutkai, Tawongnga, and
Maymyo in the North Shan States, Taunggyi in the South Shan States, and
Maungdaw near Akyab.
Hapits. Two of these were captured alive. They erected themselves and
flattened the fore body making a great demonstration of anger, but refused to
bite on provocation.
DISTRIBUTION. ‘This common species is universally distributed in Burma.
It is a somewhat uncommon snake in the plains, but a common one in the Hills
up to 6,500 feet. Blyth records itfrom Arakan. I have records from Maungdaw
on the coast above Akyabe and Myitkyina; Tharawaddy District (Rangoon).
Pegu District (Pegu, Tadungu); Thaton District (Thaton, Shwegun) ; Amherst
District (Kawkareik) ; Kachin. Hills’ (Huton) ; Chin ‘Hills ‘( Maka); )Peou
Yomas (Hinyachaung); North Shan Hills (Maymyo, Kutkai, Tawongnga),
South Shan Hills (Taunggyi).
khabdops bicolor (Blyth)
A single adult specimen was sent to me from Huton, Kachin Hills. This
adds another snake to the Burmese anguifauna. It was previously only known
from the Khasi Hills in Assam, and from Yunnan. 3
COLOURATION. The specimen, a recently killed one, is olivaceous-green
dorsally, to the edges of the ventrals. The scales are narrowly edged with
black, forming interrupted linear stripes except on the two lowest rows where
the black, is modified to a mottling. The belly is uniform canary yellow. The
head is olivaceous, this hue extending beneath the chin, and becoming a
mottling on the posterior sublingual shields.
Leprposis. The ventrals number 188, and the subcaudals 57 (the tip of the
tail slightly deficient). The lateral scales in the anal region are not tuber-
culate.
DISTRIBUTION. This is a hill snake living at an altitude above about 4,000
feet. Only recorded in Burma from the Kachin Hills.
Plagiopholis blakewayi Boulenger
Nine specimens 6¢ and 32 were received from Sinlum Kaba, Kachin Hills.
COLOURATION. The dorsal colour varies considerably. Some specimens are
a blackish brown, others a rich lustrous terracotta. Many of thescales are edged
with black, others in the flanks have their lower borders, where overlapped,
white, or salmon-pink, in the ruddy specimens. A black zig zag line borders
the ventrals. The belly is dirty yellowish in the dark specimens, and dull
salmon in the ruddy examples. A sparse and irregular mottling of fine black
spots, very variable in extent, is seen on the belly. A more or less conspicuous
black arrow head on the nape. Ruddy spirit specimens when skinned are
found to have tinged the tissues a salmon-pink.
LEPIDOSIS. There are several notable features in the scaling of this species.
Supralabials, number 5 only, of which the Ist and 2nd touch the nasals,
the 3rd the eye, and the 4th or 4th and 5th the anterior temporal.-- Loreal,
absent: except in one specimen. /osterior temporal, a _ single shield.
Infralabials, the Ist do not touch, so that the mental forms a considerable
NOTES.ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURMA IN 1924 811
suture with the anterior sublinguals. Costals, in 15 rows in the whole length
of the snake. The lateral scales in the anal region of males are strongly
keeled, in their anterior halves, as one sees in males of the genus Aspzdura.
Ventrals, ¢ from 126 to 130, 2 from 126 to 132. Anal, entire. Sudcaudals,
Bro tOr2 he 21.
LENGTH. The longest ¢ measured 398 mm. (1 foot, 3$ inches) ; the longest
Ors62 mim. (1 foot, 27 inches. )
Foop. One that had recently fed contained an earth worm in the stomach,
and this explains the semi-liquid mud found in the intestines of other
specimens.
GROWTH. One juvenile specimen taped 127 mm. (6 inches: )
DENTITION. From two skulls in my collection. J/axilla, 18 to 20 teeth ;
anododont, syncranterian, feebly kumatadont. Falatine, 15 to 20 ; anododont,
isodont. Pterygoid, 21 to 23; anododont, isodont. Mandibular, 25 te 26;
anododont, scaphiodont.
DISTRIBUTION. ‘The fact that so many specimens were obtained at Sinlum
Kaba at an altitude of 6,500 feet, while none came in from Huton (4,500 feet) in
the same hills out of one hundred and four specimens seems to indicate that it
is confined to what one may call an Alpine elevation. ‘The type and another
examined by me were obtained at Taunggyiin the South’Shan Hills (5,000 feet).
Trirhinopholis nuchalis Boulenger
Thirteen specimens were sent in, eleven from Huton, Kachin Hills ; and two
from Kutkai, North Shan Hills.
COLOURATION. These specimens vary in their prevailing colour very much
as does the last species. Some are blackish brown dorsally, others of a ruddy
brown tinge. Many of the scales are edged with black, and many have white
or pinkish yellow edges which overlapped, producing a variegation. The belly
is yellowish-salmon finely peppered with black spots. There is also a lateral
series of irregularly distributed squarish or oblong black spots. The head is
olivaceotss-black to the edge of the lip. A conspicuous black arrow head on
the nape, its apex reaching the tip of the parietal shields. Some of the
infralabial sutures black.
Lepiposis. Loreal, present, Supralabials, 6; the Ist and 2nd touching
the nasals, 3rd and 4th the eye, and the Sth the anterior temporal. The 5th
is an unusually large shield. Posterior temporals, 2. Infralabials, the 1st
do not meet, so that the mental forms a considerable suture with the anterior
sublinguals. Costals, in 15 rows in the whole body length. The lateral
scales in the anal region of males are keeled as in the last species. Ventrals,
@ 127 to 131, 9 138 to.141. Anal, entire. Subcaudals, 3 23 to 29, 9 22 to 27.
2nd and 3rd entire in two examples, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th in one.
LENGTH. ‘The largest ¢ measured 474 mm. (1 foot 6% inches), and the largest
09293 mom’. (114 inches).
Foop. Many specimens had recently fed and all contained earthworms in
the stomach, and much semi-liquid mud in the intestines.
DENTITION. From three skulls in my collection. Waxilla, 19 to 23 (24?)
teeth ; anododont, syncranterian, feebly kumatodont, Palatine, 15 to 19;
anododont, feebly scaphiodont. /P#erygoid, 21 to 29; anododont, scaphiodont.
Mandibular, 24 to 27 ; anododont, feebly kumatodont.
DISTRIBUTION. It has usually been recorded from hills about 4,000 feet and
over East of the Chindwin in the North, and East of the Tsamon and Sittang
rivers further South. Foot hills in Katha District (Mansi) ; Kachin Hills
(Huton, Sima, Sinlum Kaba); Ruby Mines District (Mogok); North
Shan Hills (Kutkai); South Shan Hills (Taungegyi); Hills in Toungoo
District (Thaudaung 3,500 feet); Karen Hills, exact locality not recorded,
but probably from a range between the Salween river and its tributary the
Pawn which averages 4,000 feet. It willalmost certainly be discovered in the
Tenasserim Hills as Malcolm-Smith records it from Ratchaburi, two miles
east of the Tenasserim border.
Lycodon aulicus (Linné)
Twenty specimens from Mandalay, Myitkyina and Rangoon.
BREEDING. ‘lwo females 412 and 480 mm. (1 foot, 43 and 1 foot, 7 inches)
killed in Mandalay between August and October were ege-bound and contained
3 eggs each.
812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Lycodon fasciatus (Anderson).
Ten specimens from Maymyo, Kutkai, Taunggyi, and Huton.
Lepiposis. Ventrals, these range between 203 and 215. Swdcaudals, 78
to 85.
Foop. One had swallowed a skink, and another contained the tail of a
lizard (skink ?) in the stomach.
DENTITION. From four skulls in my collection. MMJazilla, carries 9 to 11
teeth ; oinododont, diacranterian, anisodont. The first 4 teeth progressively
increase, the 5th is equal to the 4th, and is followed by a short edentulous
space. ‘The praecranterian series number 2 to 3, and are isodont. Cranterian
2, subequal and larger than the praecranterian. Falatine, 13 to 15; anodo-
dont, isodont. Plerygoid, 19 to 29; anododont, scaphiodont. Mandibular,
15 to 17 ; oinododont, anisodont, The first 4 or 5 progressively increase in size,
the 5th (4th) is as long as the 4th (3rd) and succeeded by a short edentulous
space. The postnodal number 10 to 12, and are scaphiodont. ‘This species
connects the genus Lycodon with Dinodon. It agrees with other Lycodons in
having 2 instead of 3 cranterian teeth but it resembles Diznodon in having 6 to
7 praenodal teeth instead of 4 to5. The praecranterian series resemble those of
Dinodon in numbering 2 or 3 instead of from 4 to 12 as in other species of
Lycodon.
DISTRIBUTION. Itis a hill snake occurring at an altitude above 3,000 feet.
Katha District (Mansi) ; Kachin Hills (Sima, Huton) ; Chin Hills (Haka) ;
Ruby Mines District (Mogok); North Shan Hills (Maymyo, Kutkai) ;
South Shan Hills (Taunggyi).
Ptyas nigromarginatus (Blyth)
One specimen was obtained at Huton, Kachin Hills. This species adds
another to the Burmese anguifauna. It was previously known from the
Eastern Himalayas, Assam Hills and Yunnan.
The specimen was a small one measuring 348 mm. (1 foot, 1? inches).
Ptyas mucosus (Linné)
Only four specimens were sent in from Mandalay and Maymyo. This is due to
the fact that I asked various collectors to send in nothing more than a yard
long.
Zaments korros (Schlegel)
One juvenile female specimen was sent in from Huton, Kachin Hills,
measuring 368 mm. (1 foot, 24 inches).
Lepiposis. Ventrals, 191, Subdcaudais, 139.
Coluber prasinus Blyth.
Five examples were received from Huton, Kachin Hills.
Leprposis. Ventrals, 197 to 209. Subcaudals, 105 to 111.
GrowrH. One, apparently a hatchling with patent umbilicus, killed
between July and October measured 315 mm. (1 foot, 3 of an inch). Another
killed between October and December measured 334 mm. (1 foot, 1$ inch).
Ecrozoa. The hatchling was infested with scarlet mites (J/zcrotrombidia ?)
attached between the costals and ventrals.
DISTRIBUTION. This is a hill species occurring above about 4,000 feet.
Recorded from Putao District (Gauri, Lat. 27°°31, Long. 97°°46); Katha District
(Mansi) ; Kachin Hills (Huton) ; Ruby Mines District (Mogok) ; South Shan
Hills (Taunggyi) ; Chin Hills (Haka). .
Coluber porphyraceus Cantor
Five examples came in from Sinlum Kaba, Kutkai, Maymyo and Taunggyi.
DisTRIBUTION. A hill snake occurring usually above about 3,000 feet.
Recorded from Chin Hills (Haka, Tiddin, Falam); Manipur; Katha District
~ (Junction of the Mu and Kodan tributaries of the Chindwin) ; Kachin Hills
(Sinlum Kaba) ; Ruby Mines District (Mogok) ; North Shan Hills (Kutkai,
Maymyo) ; South Shan Hills (Taunggyi, Pwehla, Loilem) ; East of Salween
river.
NOTES ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURMA IN 1924. 813
Coluber radiatus Schlegel
Five specimens from Huton, Mandalay, and Taunggyi.
GrowtH. A young specimen 368 mm. (1 foot, 24 inches) was killed in
Mandalay between September and November, and another 398 (1 foot, 3%
inches) at Huton between October and December.
DISTRIBUTION. This isa common species throughout Burma in the plains,
and ascends the hills up to about 5,000 feet.
Coluber leonardi Wail.
Two fine specimens were sent in from Sinlum Kaba.
LENGTH. One specimen measured 780 mm. (2 feet, 6% inches), the tail
118 mm. (4% inches).
Lepiposis. Fraefrontal. Confluent with the praeocular on the right side
in one example. Loreal, wanting as in the type. Ventrals, 208 and 225.
Subcaudals, 53 and 51.
DENTITION. From one skull in my collection. Mazilla, carries 16 to 17
teeth ; anododont, syncranterian, feebly kumatodont. Palatine, 10; anodo-
dont, feebly kumatodont. Ptlerygoid, 12 to 13; anododont, scaphiodont.
The low number of teeth is unusual in Indian species of this genus. Ovrycep-
halus, has 12, cantoris, hodgsoni, helena, melanurus, porphyraceus, prasinus,
radiatus, and teniurus have from 15 to 30 teeth. Mandibular, 21; ancodo-
dont, scaphiodont.
VERTEBR2. As in other Indian species of the genus, the hypapophyses
disappear in the second eighth of the body.
DISTRIBUTION. Has only been found in Burma in the Kachin Hills
(Sinlum Kaba, whence I have seen’ four examples). There is a specimen in
the Bombay collection from Assam exact locality not on record.
Dendrophis pictus (Gmelin)
Four specimens from Huton, Kachin Hills and Hsen-wi, North Shan States.
This is a fairly common snake in Burma, occurring throughout the plains,
and up to an elevation of about 4,500 feet.
Dendrelaphis subocularis (Boulenger)
One ¢ specimen from Huton.
LENGTH. 805 mm. (2 feet, 72 inches), the tail 232 mm. (94 inches).
LEepiposis. Ventrals, 168. Anal, divided. Sudbcaudals, 103.
DENTITION. From two skulls in my collection. Mazzlla, carries 16 to 18
teeth ; anododont, syncranterian, kumatodont. Fadatine, 11 to 13; anodo-
dont, feebly scaphiodont. Ptlerygoid, 18 to 22; anododont, scaphiodont.
Mandibular, 17; anododont, kumatodont.
DISTRIBUTION. Has only once before been recorded from Burma, viz., from
Bhamo. This record probably means Bhamo District, and the specimen is
probably from the Kachin Hills.
Oligodon herberti Boulenger
Two fine examples from Huton, both females.
LENGTH. 490 mm. (1 foot, 113 inches). The tail 65 mm. (28 inches).
Lepiposis. J/nternasals, absent. Nasal, entire. Loreal, absent.
Postocular, One. Costals, 13 in the whole body length. Ventrals, 212.
Subcaudals, 35 and 38. Not angulate.
Foop. A material in the stomach of one suggests yolk of eggs, but no egg
cases were found.
BREEDING. One killed between July and October contained five eggs, in
the oviducts, about 18 mm. (# of an inch) long.
DENTITION. From one skull, in my collection, J/axilla, supports 7 teeth ;
anododont, syncranterian, strongly coryphodont. An edentulous space
anteriorly that would take about twoteeth. Palatine, 2to 3; an edentulous
space anteriorly. Teeth small. Pterygoid, completely edentulous. J/anat-
bular, 9; anododont, feebly kumatodont. No edentulous space anteriorly.
DISTRIBUTION. Evidently a hill snake occurring above about 4,000 feet.
me from Ruby Mines District (Mogok) ; Kachin Hills (Huton, Sinlum
aba),
814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voli XXX.
Oligodon hamptonit Boulenger
A female example from Sinlum Kaba.
LENGTH. 486 mm. (1 foot, 74 inches).
Lepiposis. J/nternasals, absent. Nasal, entire. Loreal, absent. FPosto-
culars, 2. Supralabials, 5, the 1st only touches the nasal, the 2nd and
3rd the eye, and the 4th the temporal. Costa/s, 15 in the whole body length,
Ventrals, 175, not angulate. Szdbcaudals, 30.
Foop. Two flaccid soft-shelled eggs (of lizard ?), were found in the stomach,
and four empty egg cases in the upper intestine.
DENTITION. From one skull in my collection. JMJazzlla, carries 8 teeth ;
anododont, syncranterian, strongly coryphodont. An edentulous space
anteriorly that would support 3 or 4 teeth. Falatine,5; an edentulous space
anteriorly and posteriorly. Pterygoid,6; a long edentulous space anteriorly
and posteriorly. Mandibular, 12 to 13; anododont feebly kumatodont. No
edentulous space anteriorly.
DISTRIBUTION. Evidently a hill species occurring above about 5,000 feet.
Has been recorded from the Ruby Mines District (Mogok) ; Kachin Hills
(Sinlum Kaba).
Oligodon torquatus (Boulenger)
Thirteen specimens 6 ¢ and 7 2 all from Myitkyina.
LENGTH. All of these which were collected between the Ist of June, and
the 15th of November ranged between 229 and 275 mm. (9g and 11 inches).
The largest ¢ measured 265 mm. (108 inches), and the largest 2 275 mm. (11
inches).
LEeprposis. JVasal, entire. Ventrals, subangulate; ¢ 149 to 157, 9 156
to 161. Sudcaudals, g 30 to 32, 2 25 to 28.
Foop. One example contained a soft-shelled egg (of lizard ?) in the gullet.
One contained a large brown hairy spider in the stomach which in life with
legs outspread would have been probably one and a half inches across. Three
contained brown crickets ‘in gastro’, one of these having swallowed three.
Two contained a Scolopendrum in the stomach, which Mr. Baini Pershad,
Acting Director of the Indian Museum, has had identified as an Ofostigmus,
probably rugulosus.
DISTRIBUTION. Appears to be avery local snake confined to the Valley of
the Irrawaddy between Myitkyina and Bhamo. It is evidently common at
Myitkyina as thirteen specimens out of fifty-five proved to be this species,
* Oligodon violaceus * (Cantor)
Two specimens a ¢ from Taunggyi, and a 2 from Thandaung. The
former conforms to variety multifasciatus (Jan.). The latter to cinereus
(Gtinther).
*T received two specimens of Olzgodon from Thandaung, both sc much
alike in colouration and lepidosis (except the costal rows) as to justify
some doubt as to whether the two species vzolaceus and cyclurus, could
any longer be regarded as distinct. I presented both to the British Museum,
and Mr. Parker wrote in reply ‘I must confess I am somewhat uncertain as to
their true nature. A comparison with the descriptions in Boulenger’s Catalogue
. certainly leads one to believe that the specimen with 19 scale rows is cyclurus
whilst that with 17 is vzolaceus. I have also compared the two specimens with
numerous examples of both species from the collection, and find that the
specimen A (19 rows) resembles cyclurus in all respects excepting a trifling
difference in the caudals (35 instead of 37); specimen B (17 rows), however
agrees more nearly with vzolaceus, differing from cyclurus in the number of
scale rows, the shape of the loreal and parietals and the number of subcaudals.
The two species appear to one to be very closely related, if they are really
specifically distinct, the one apparently constant character which separates
them is the number of scale rows.’ I have one skull of vzolaceus from
Samaguting, Assam (C 17. V 131. S 34) and fourcyclurus, three from Burma
and one from Sikkim. All have 19 scale rows. The only differences I can
find in these skulls are (1) in cyclurus there is a short edentulous space at the
back of the palatine which is not present in violaceus, (2) There is a short
NOTES ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURMA IN 1924 815
Lepiposis. Nasal, divided in the 9, semi-divided in the ¢. Ventrals,
angulate ; 165 in the %, 181 in the 9. Swécaudals, 30 in the ¢, 35 in the &.
Foop. In the Taunggyi specimen I found an unbroken snail shell about
10 mm. (2% of an inch) in diameter, the occupant in a much digested state.
DISTRIBUTION. Occurs throughout Burma in the plains, ascending to about
5,000 feet into the hills. Recorded from Arakan Hills ; Rangoon ; Insein ;
Mingladon; Tenasserim ; Toungoo Hills (Thandaung circa 3,500 feet);
North Shan States (Kunchoung) ; South Shan Hills (Taunggyi. 5,000 feet) ;
Katha District (Katha. Mansi). ;
Oligodon theobaldi (Ginther)
Twelve specimens, including 6 ¢ and 6 9, all from Mandalay.
Lepiposis. Ventrals, angulate; ¢ 163 to 173, 2 169 to 177. Swbcaudals,
3 39 to 41, 2 27 to 37.
HABITS. A cat was found confronting one in a verandah at night.
Foop. A much digested gecko was found in the stomach of one, and a
brown cricket in the stomach of another.
GROWTH. One measuring 112 mm. (43 inches) was killed between the 25th
of August and the 15th of November. The largest ¢ measured 395mm. (1
foot, 33 inches). The largest 2 was 380 mm. (1 foot, 3 inches).
GENITALIA. The claspers of one were found to be cylindrical organs beset
with minute recurved processes.
BREEDING. Three proved to be egg-bound, one containing two, one three,
and one five eggs. ‘These were killed between August and October.
DISTRIBUTION. A snake of the plains. It is an uncommon snake except at
Mandalay where twelve examples were taken out of forty-eight snakes received.
It seems to be restricted to the valley of the Irrawaddy, and further East from
Shwebo in the North to Tenasserim in the South. Has been recorded from
Shwebo ; Yeu ; Mandalay ; Myingyan. Meikila ; Minhia ; Thayetmyo ; Toungoo ;
Pegu; Rangoon; Tenasserim.
Oligodon albocinctus (Cantor)
Four specimens three 2 and one not sexed from Huton.
Leprposis. Ventrals, not angulate; 187 to 204. Swzbcaudals, 49 to 58.
Foop. One contained a mouse in the stomach, onea large brown cricket
and a third a flacid soft-shelled lizard’s (?) egg.
DISTRIBUTION. This is an uncommon snake in Burma occurring only in hills
between about 2,000 and 6,000 feet. Has been recorded from Kachin Hills
(Sima, Sadon, Huton) ; Chin Hills (Haka) and Arakan Hills. I have
had a specimen this year (1925) from North Shan Hills (nr. Maymyo).
Oligodon purpurascens (Schlegel)
Two specimens from Maymyo, and Lashio.
COLOURATION. The Maymyo specimen conforms to variety (B) of Boulenger’s
Catalogue (vol. ii, p. 220), and is intermediate between varieties A (b) and
A (c) of my paper on the genus Olzgodon, in this Journal (vol. xxv, p. 329).
The Lashio specimen accords with variety (F) of Boulenger’s Catalogue and
variety O. p. maculatus of my paper. It has twelve large, dark, bisected,
dorsal spots on the body, and three on the tail. Belly immaculate.
LEepiIposis. Costals. In the Maymyo specimen 19; in the Lashio 21.
Ventrals. In the Maymyo specimen 177; inthe Lashio 191. Swécaudals. In
the.Maymyo specimen 42 ; in the Lashio 43.
edentulous space in the front of the pterygoid in wzolaceus which is not seen in
cyclurus. In my paper on the genus Olzgodon in this Journal (vol. xxv, p. 305
et seq) I also reported another difference (pp. 333 and 334) viz., that in cyclurus
the parietal bone does not contribute to the orbital ring whereas in wzolaceus
it does. This is a mistake, the parietal does not contribute to the orbital ring
in either species,
At present the only external character which separates the two is the number
of scale rows.
13
816° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIERY,, Vol OO.
DISTRIBUTION. This is a common species throughout the plains of Burma,
and occurs in hills up to an altitude of 5,000 feet. Has been recorded from
Diamond Island ; Rangoon ; Mingledon ; Pegu ; Watiya ; Shwegun ; Tenasserim
Province (Moulmein, Tavoy, Mergui) Chin Hills (Haka) ; South Shan States
(Kalaw, Taunggyi) ; North Shan Hills (Lashio, Maymyo), Karen Hills.
Oligodon splendidus (Gtinther)
One female specimen from Mandalay.
Lepiposis. Ventrals, 187. Subcaudals, 39.
BREEDING. This specimen proved to be egg-bound, but the date of its
capture is not on record. The eggs numbered two, and were large, measuring
$9 12; (1X 3 ansinch)):
DENTITION. From two skulls in my collection. Jaxzxilla, supports 10 to
11 teeth; anododont, syncranterian, strongly coryphodont. No edentulous
space anteriorly. /alatine, 7 to 9; anododont, feebly kumatodont. No
edentulous space anteriorly or posteriorly. Pterygoid. 8 to 15; anododont,
feebly scaphiodont. An edentulous space anteriorly, and posteriorly. J/andi-
bular, 13 to 14; anododont, kumatodont. No edentulous space anteriorly or
posteriorly.
DISTRIBUTION.* A snake of the plains, occupying a restricted area in the
valley of the Irrawaddy between Shwebo and Pakokku, and the lower parts
of its tributaries, the Chindwin, and Tsamon rivers where it is not uncommon.
Recorded from Rybu Mines District (1,000 feet) ; Shwebo ; Monywa ; Sagaing ;
Mandalay ; Kyaukse; Pakokku; Pyawbwe ; Yamethin.
Liopeltis dorie (Boulenger)
One specimen from Huton, 295 mm. (11 inches) long, the tail57 mm. (23
inches).
Leprposis. Costa/s, in 15 rows in the whole body length. Ventrals, 184.
Anal, entire. Subcaudals, 74. Supralabials, 8; the 3rd divided into an
upper and lower part ; the upper part of the 3rd, the 4th and the 5th touching
the eye.
DENTITION.* From one rather poor skullin my collection. J/azzlla, carries
29 to 30 teeth ; anododont, feebly kumatodont. Palatine, 25 to 26; anododont,
feebly kumatodont. Plerygoid, 33? ; anododont, feebly kumatodont. J/andt-
bular, 30 to 31; anododont, feebly kumatodont.
DISTRIBUTION. Apparently a rare snake confined to hills above about 4,000
feet. Once before taken in the Kachin Hills. Recorded also from Manipur,
Assam, and Yangtse Valley, China.
Liopeltis frenatus (Gtnther)
Two adult specimens from Huton, one 9 and one unsexed.
Lepiposis. Ventrals, 152 and 158, Sudcaudals, 96 and 98.
DENTITION. From three skulls in my collection. MJazxilla, supports 19
to 21 teeth; anododont, isodont. Falatine, 12 to 14; anododont, isodont.
Pterygoid, 13 to 17; anododont, coryphodont. Mandibular, 21 to 27;
anododont, scaphiodont.
DISTRIBUTION. A rare hill snake occurring usually above about 4,000 feet.
Only once previously taken in Burma. Has been recorded from the foot
of the Hills in the Katha District (Mansi) ; Kachin Hilis (Huton, Sinlum
Kaba).
* This amends the distribution in my paper on Oligodon in this Journal
(vol. xxv, p. 331), and my Hand List (vol. xxix, p. 631) in which some of the
Districts cited are incorrect.
2 The dentition is very different from four other species placed in this genus
by Boulenger, of which I have skulls, viz., calamaria, rappi, frenatus, and
major. The maxillary teeth in these four range between 19 and 26, the
palatine 11 to 20, the pterygoid 13 to 24 and the mandibular 18 to 27. I have
not seen a skull of Cope’s ¢vicolor so am unable to compare it with the type of
the genus.
NOTES ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURMA IN 1924 817
Series—OPISTHOGLYPHA.
Sub-family-- HOMALOPSIN.A.
Hypsirhina plumbea (Boie).
One juvenile specimen from Mandalay.
LENGTH. 212 mm. (83 inches).
Lepiposis. Ventrals, 137. Subcaudals, 29.
DISTRIBUTION. An uncommon water snake occurring in lakes and rivers.
The specimen now recorded came from the moat around Fort Dufferin. Has
been recorded from Meiktila where there is a lake, Pyawbwe on the Tsamon
river and Rangoon.
Hy psirhina enhydrts (Schneider)
Eleven specimens from Mandalay. 7 ¢,5Q, and one uncertain.
LEpiposis. Costa/s, two heads-lengths behind the head 23, midbody 21,
two heads-lengths before the vent 21 in all the specimens. The scales reduce
from 23 to 21, one or two heads-lengths before midbody by a fusion of the
3rd and 4th rows above the ventrals. Ventrals, § 161 to 171, 2 159 to 163.
Subcaudals, $ 74 to 78, 2 59 to 64.
BREEDING. A male anda female, both adults, were found in company on
10th May. A female measuring 642 mm. (2 feet 13 inches) came into Sergeant
Murray’s quarters about 9 p.m. one night in Mandalay in August 1923.
The Sergeant struck it, and after the blow, the snake proceeded to give birth.
Seven young were born before she died, and two unborn young were found
in sacs within her subsequently. The brood comprised five males and three »
females, one with a damaged tail being unsexed. The males measured from
201 to 206 mm. (8 to 8} inches). The females measured from 185 to 193 mm.
(7% to 7¢ inches). The genitalia of the unborn male were not extruded.
DENTITION. From three skulls in my collection. J/axilla, supports from
17 to 20 teeth; diacranterian. The praecranterian set anododont, feebly
coryphodont. Cranterian. A pair of subequal, grooved, obliquely-set teeth
rather longer than the last praecranterian. /alatine, 10 to 11; anododont,
isodont. Pterygoid, 20 to 24; anododont, strongly scaphiodont. Mandibular,
23 to 25; anododont, feebly kumatodont. I could discover no foetal tooth in
the born and unborn young.
DISTRIBUTION. A common water snake in Burma living in rivers, inland
waters and marshes. Has been recorded from Bassein Rivers (Ngathaing-
gyaung) ; the Irrawaddy River (Mandalay, Sagaing, Prome, Thayetmyo) ;
Rangoon River (Rangoon, Hmawbi) ; Pegu River (Pegu) ; Bassein River
(Bassein) ; Sittang River (Toungoo) ; West of the mouth of the Salween River
(Thaton) ; Tavoy River (Tavoy).
Homalopsis buccata (Linné)
One specimen from Victoria Lake, Rangoon.
_ Leprposis. Costals, two heads-lengths behind the head 41, midbody 41,
two heads-lengths before the vent 33. Ventrals, 161. Subcaudals, 69.
BREEDING. ‘This specimen measuring 798 mm. (2 feet, 7% inches) proved
to be egg-bound, and my donor says it was killed about two months before he
sent it. This would be early March. It contained seven elliptical eggs about
28 X 15mm. (1g X 3 of an inch), which appeared to be sterile.
DENTITION. From four skulls in my collection. Mazxilla, carries 11 to 12
teeth ; diacranterian. The praecranterian series anododont, kumatodont,
fluted on their outer and inner faces basally. The cranterian number two,
obliquely-set, and deeply grooved on their anterior faces ; little longer than the
last praecranterian. Palatine, 9; anododont, isodont. Pterygoid, 17 to 21;
anododont, scaphiodont. Mandibular, 14 to 17; anododont, kumatodont,
fluted basally on their outer and inner faces. oy
DISTRIBUTION. Lower reaches of the Bassein, Rangoon and Salweeyn
‘Rivers and adjacent lakes.
Hurvia rhynchops (Schnieder)
One specimen from Rangoon.
818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Sub-famliy— DIPSADOMORPHINA.
Dipsadomorphus multimaculatus (Boie)
One female specimen from Rangoon.
Lepiposis. Ventrals, 240. Subcaudals, 97.
Foop. Enormously distended with a large lizard (Calotes versicolor ?).
BREEDING. Contained seven small eggs in the oviduct. Date of capture
not on record.
DENTITION. From three skulls in my collection. MJazxilla, diacranterian.
The praecranterian series 10 to 11; anododont, feebly kumatodont. Cranterian
2; subequal; deeply grooved on their anterior faces; obliquely placed ; not
twice as long as the posterior praecranterian. Palatine, 6; anododont,
scaphiodont. Pterygoid, 8 to-12; anododont, scaphiodont. Mandibular, 14
to 18 ; anododont, strongly kumatodont.
DISTRIBUTION. A common snake in the plains of Lower Burma, and the
Southern part of Upper Burma, ascending to an altitude of about 5,000 feet.
Seems to be restricted to the valleys of the Irrawady river, South of Mandalay,
the Salween river and intermediate streams. Has been recorded from
Mandalay ; Thayetmyo ; Maungmya ; Pegu ; Rangoon ; South Shan States
Taungeyi (5,000 feet) ; Fort Stedman (3,000 feet) ; Moulmein.
Dipsadomorphus hexagonotus (Stoliczka)
Two specimens from Mandalay and Maymyo.
Lepiposis. Costals, in 19 rows two heads-lengths behind the head 19
in midbody, 15 two heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals, 239 and 233.
Subcaudals, 101 and 102 ? (damaged).
Foop. A large lizard of the genus Cadotes in the stomach of one.
DENTITION. From’ two skulls in my collection. Mazxilla, diacranterian.
The praecranterian series 9 to 11; anododont, kumatodont. Cranterian 2,
subequal; deeply grooved on their anterior faces; obliquely set. Palatine,
6 ; anododont, feebly kumatodont.
Pterygoid, 8 to 10; anododont, scaphiodont. Mandibular, 14 to 15;
anododont, kumatodont.
DISTRIBUTION. An uncommon snake in the plains of Burma ascending to
about 6,500 feet elevation. Haka (Chin Hills) ; occurs in the valleys of the
Chindwin, Irrawady, Sittang and Salween rivers from Bhamo and their
surrounding hills. Has been recorded from Bhamo; Katha; Kunchoung ;
Mandalay; Meiktila; Thayetmyo; Pegu; Rangoon; Nathaing-gyaung ;
Bassein ; Hakai; North Shan Hills (Maymyo) ; South Shan Hills (Taungegyi) ;
Kawkareik in Tenasserim ; at the Western foot of the Dawna Hills.
Boiga cynodon (Boie).
One specimen from Myitkyina.
LeEpiIposis. Costals, two heads-lengths behind the head 23, midbody 23,
two heads-lengths before the vent 15. Ventrals, 251. Subcaudals, 118.
DENTITION. From three skulls in my collection. Mazxilla, Diacranterian.
Praecranterian teeth 10 to 11; anododont, kumatodont. Cranterian 3;
scaphiodont ; deeply grooved on their anterior faces ; obliquely set. Palatine,
5to6; anododont, kumatodont. Pterygoid, 8to 10; anododont, scaphiodont.
Mandibular, 19 to 20; anododont, kumatodont.
DISTRIBUTION. An uncommon species occurring in the plains. Has been
recorded from Myitkyina; Thayetmyo; Toungoo; Rangoon; Burma—Siam Hills;
Mergui.
Psammodynastes pulverulentus (Giinther)
Five specimens from Kutkai and Huton.
BREEDING. A female 515 mm. (1 foot, 83 inches) long, killed at Kutkai on
the 8th of October contained five eggs in the oviducts.
DENTITION. From three skulls in my collection. A/azxzlia, diacranterian.
Praecranterian teeth 10 to 11; anododont, anisodont ; first three progressively
increasing, 4th and 5th subequal and about twice as long as the 3rd, succeeded
by 5to 6 isodont teeth, Cranterian, 2; obliquely set; deeply grooved on
their anteriorfaces ; twice or more than twice the preceding. Palatine, 8 to
NOTES ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURMA IN 1924 819
11; anododont, kumatodont. Plerygoid, 21 to 23; anododont, scaphiodont.
Mandibular, oinododont, anisodont. Praenodal. The first 2 or 3 progres-
sively increase in length, the next 2 are subequal, large, and about twice the
preceding. Postnodal, 13 to 15; feebly kumatodont.
DISTRIBUTION. Rather an uncommon snake occurring in the plains through-
out Burma, and ascending the hills to about 6,500 feet. Haka (Chin Hills).
Has been recorded from Kindat; Chin Hills; Katha; Mogok; Ruby Mines
District; Wumbeza;:-Toungoo District; Pegu; Rangoon; Huton; Kachin
Hills ; Kutkai; North Shan Hills ; Moulmein ; Tavoy ; Mergui Archipelago.
Dryophis prasinus Boie
One specimen from Huton.
DISTRIBUTION. A fairly common denizen of the plains throughout Burma,
ascending hills to about 5,000 feet elevation. Has been recorded from Mansi
at the foot of the hills in the Katha District ; Shewbo District (Yeu) ; Toungoo;
Pegu District (Pegu, Tadangu) ; Rangoon ; Bassein ; Maungmya; Kachin Hills
(Huton) ; South Shan Hills (Taunggyi) ; Burma—Siam hills.
Dryophis mycterizans (Linné)
Six specimens from Mandalay and Maymyo.
DISTRIBUTION. A common snake throughout Burma, ascending hills to an
altitude of 5,000 feet (Taunggyi). Has been recorded from Bhamo District ;
Shwebo District (Shwebo, Yeu); Mandalay; Myingyan District (Pagan) ;
Toungoo; Pegu District (Tadangu, East of the Yomas) ; Tharrawaddy
District (Shwegyin) ; Rangoon; North Shan Hills (Maymyo) ; South Shan
Hills (Taungegyi).
Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw)
Fifteen specimens from Mandalay, Lashio, and Rangoon.
Hapits. Lieut. Kurup gave me a specimen he killed in Rangoon which he
says leapt from a tree and alighted close to him. Heestimated the height of the
leap as between twenty and twenty-five feet. He says the snake was extended
in its volplane until it reached the ground. Some coolies were in a tree
opposite trimming the branches and the snake was probably disturbed by
them. Lieut.-Colonel Bell told me of a specimen that jumped from a tree in his
compound, and alighted near him but he did not see the whole leap. This
was apparently disturbed by a little owl that was in the branches above.
LENGTH. A small specimen, evidently a hatchling from Mandalay measured
225'mm. (9 inches).
DISTRIBUTION. A common snake in the plains of Burma, ascending hills to
at least 5,000 feet (Taunggyi). Has been recorded from Sandoway ; Mandalay ;
Thayetmyo ; Prome District (Shwedaung) ; Tharawaddy District (Shwegyin) ;
Toungoo; Pegu District (Pegu, Tadangu); Rangoon; Moulmein ; Tavoy ;
“Mereui ; North Shan Hills (Lashio) ; South Shan Hills (Taunggyi).
Series—PROTEROGLYPHA
Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider)
‘I‘wo specimens from Myitkyina and Taungegyi.
DISTRIBUTION. A common species in the plains, ascending the hills to
about 5,300 feet. Has been recorded from Myitkyina ; Sagaing ; Ruby Mines
District; Meiktila District (Meiktila, Pyawbwe) ; Toungoo; Tharawaddy ;
Pegu ; Rangoon ; Moulmein ; Tavoy ; South Shan States (Taunggyi).
Bungarus multicinctus Blytho
One specimen from Namkham.
LENGTH. A fine female specimen measuring 790 mm. (2 feet, 73 inches),
the tail 130 mm. (5% inches).
Leriposis. Ventrals, 219. Subéaudals, 55.
BREEDING. This contained four large eggs in the oviducts measuring 31 & 7
mm. (14 X ~, of aninch). This was encountered on the night of the 3rd of
April,
$20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
DISTRIBUTION. A distinctly uncommon snake in Burma, confined to the
plains. Has been recorded from Lower Chindwin (Monywa) ; North Shan
States (Namkham) ; South Shan States; Meiktila ; Toungoo ; Rangoon.
Bungarus magnimaculatus Wall and Evans
One female specimen from Mandalay.
Lupiposis. Ventrals, 216? Subcaudals, 47.
DISTRIBUTION. An uncommon snake occurring in the Irrawaddy Valley
from Shwebo to Minbu, and the lower reaches of its tributaries the Chindwin
and Tasmon rivers. This corresponds to the dry zone where the annual rain
fall is less than fifty inches. Has been recorded from Shwebo ; Mandalay ;
Monyawa ; Minbu ; Meiktila and Pyawbwe.
Nata hannah (Cantor)
One from Taunggyi, and the heads of three others from Taunggyi, Maymyo
and Mandalay (killed in the neighbouring jungle).
Leprposis. Costals. Two heads-lengths behind head 15, midbody 15, two
heads-lengths before vent 15. Ventrals, 243. Subcaudals, 87.
BREEDING. lowe special thanks to Mr. Plunkett, I. F.S., fora very valuable
note on the breeding of this snake. When beating jungle for game in April, a
great clamour among the beaters announced something unusual had been
encountered. On proceeding to the spot he found two large snakes wreathed
together. He shot first one and then the other, and when examined after
death they were found ‘in copula,’ and still united. They were dragged
apart, and he amputated the male organ and preserved it in spirit. It appears
to be the diramic organ of one side. This he presented to me and I have
transferred it to the British Museum. The organ is so markedly different
from specimens of these organs in the Cobra (aia maia) in my cabinet
collection, as to justify WW. hannah being placed in a distinct genus. Each
limb of the organ is about 152 mm. (6 inches) long, from the point of
bifurcation to the extremity. A vaphé passes up the posterior part. The
basal four-fifths is surrounded by prominent transverse, somewhat imbricate,
folds resembling the gills of a mushroom. Most of the folds extend uninter-
ruptedly right round the organ, others are discontinuous. Inthe distal fifth
the folds are broken up to forma sort of honeycomb. The male measured
3,685 mm. (12 ft. Linch) and the female 3,125 mm. (10 ft. 3 inches).
DISTRIBUTION. This is a fairly common snake in the plains and hills
throughout Burma, and ascends to an altitude of 6,500 feet (Sinlum Kaba).
Has been recorded from around Mandalay ; Meiktila District (Mount Popa) ;
Thazi Hills (east of Yamethin) ; Magwe District (Sun Choung river, Minhla) ;
Toungoo District (in the hills) ; Tharawaddy District (Shwegyin) ; Pegu ;
Rangoon ; Moulmein ; Kawkareik on the western foot of the Dawna Hills ;
Kachin Hills (Sinlum Kaba); Chin Hills (Haka); Ruby Mines District
(Mogok) ; North Shan Hills (Lashio, Maymyo) ; South Shan Hills (Tuanggyi,
Kalaw).
Naia nata (Linné)
Seven specimens from Myitkyina, Mandalay, Taungeyi.
VARIETY. All conform to variety fasczata. One (with 19 scale rows) from
Mandalay appeared at first sight an anocellate specimen but when pegged out
six small blackish spots on the left side and three on the right are so distributed
as to suggest the usual elliptical mark of fasciata.
Leprposis. Costals. One had 19 scale rows, and the rest 21,
DISTRIBUTION. A very common snake in the plains throughout Burma,
ascending the hills to an altitude of at least 5,000 feet (Taunggyi).
Calliophis macclellandi (Reinhardt)
Six specitnens fron Maymyo and Huton.
COLOURATION. The four specimens from Maymyo conform to variety
C. m. macclellandi ; the two from Huton constitute a new variety for which I
propose the name concolor. It is a uniform rich brown dorsally, with no trace
of the black transverse bars, typical of C. m. macclellandi, or of the vertebral
NOTES ON SNAKES COLLECTED IN BURMA IN 1924 821
stripe of C. m. univirgatus. Ventrally it has the large black irregularly-
shaped spots, typical of C. m. macclellandt. The head is adorned with the
usual ivory-white band bordered anteriorly and posteriorly with black.
HABITS. One was encountered one evening in Maymyo. It escaped quickly
into a bamboo clump. Captain Donelly seized it by the tail, and pulled it
out, but narrowly escaped being bitten by a determined snap of its jaws.
Foop. This specimen had just swallowed a Diard’s blind snake ( 7yphlops
diardt), 288 mm. (114 inches) long, which lay fully extended in the gullet and
stomach. Another smaller specimen of the same snake 85 mm. (3 inches)
long, lay similarly extended in the stomach.
DISTRIBUTION. A fairly common hill species occurring above about 3,000
feet. Has been recorded as follows. C. m. macclellandi :—Chin Hills (Haka),
Ruby Mines District (Mogok) ; North Shan Hills (Maymyo) ; Pezu Yomas,
South Shan Hills. C.m. gorei, Kachin Hills (Sinlum Kaba). C.m. concolor :—
Kachin Hills (Huton).
Family—VIPERIDAi
Vipera russelli (Shaw)
One specimen from Mandalay.
DISTRIBUTION. A very common snake in the plains of Burma and univer-
sally distributed.
Trimeresurus monticola (Gtinther)
Two specimens from Taunggyl.
LENGTH. One of these is the largest on record. It taped 977 mm. (3 feet 23
inches) ; the tail 118 mm. (4¢ inches).
DISTRIBUTION. A rather uncommon species confined to the hills above
abont 3,000 feet. Has been recorded from Myitkyina District (Hpimaw) ; Chin
Hills (Haka) ; Ruby Mines District (Mogok) ; Toungoo District (Thandaung) ;
South Shan Hills (Taunggyi) ; Dawna Hills (Mount Mulehyit).
Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw)
Five specimens from Huton, Maymyo, and Taunggyi.
DISTRIBUTION. A fairly common snake in the plains of Burma, ascending
the hills to about 5,000 feet (Taunggyi). Has been recorded from Bhamo ;
Shwegyin ; Rangoon; Maungmya; Moulmein; Tavoy District (Egaya) ;
Mergui and the Archipelago; Kachin Hills (Huton); Chin Hills (Haka.
Falam) ; North Shan Hills (Maymyo) ; South Shan Hills (Taunggyi).
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA
(INCLUDING THOSE MET WITH IN THE HILL STATIONS
OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY)
BY
a DEE, C.0.b,, ES, (Rect)
(Continued from page 588 of this Volume)
PART. XXXV
Sub-family (6)—PAMPHILIN&
This group consists of the genera Pamphzla with two species only
found in the Himalayas and northwards to Amurland and in Burma
with eleven others purely palearctic. Zavactrocera with eight species
in British India and thirteen others in the Malayan Sub-region;
Ampittia with two species, one Indian, one Burman ; and Aéromachus
with five Indian and two others, the one from China, the other from
the Philippines; also Ochus with a single species from the N.W.
Himalayas to Sikkim and Burma. The genera that are of interest
here are Zaractrocera, Ampittia and Aéromachus (as represented
by Swinhoe’s genus MWachachus) ; the first of four species that come
into these papers; the second of a single species and the third
containing two. The species of Zavactrocera are me@vius (F.);
ceramas (Hewits); mzcevzllet, Watson and oberthiriz, Elwes and
Edwards. <Ampittia is represented by doscorides (F.) formerly
known as mayo (F.)
Taractrocera me@vius is an unmistakable species ; 7. ceramas, nice-
villet and oberthirz, all three from 8S. India, are very doubtfully
distinct and are probably only climatic varieties. Machachus jhora
(de N.) and zzdzstzncta (M.) may possibly be different from each
other.
Imago.— These are all insects of smal] size living near the ground where they
fly over the grass and low herbage with a weak, somewhat fluttering flight,
settling often and frequently with the wings more or less parted and spread,
showing the upperside ; especially do they do this when basking in the sun;
they all effect grass lands and, even in jungle country, are chiefly found in
clearing where the grass grows. They all feed upon the juices of low-lying
flowers such as Vetches and small Acanthacee that are found amongst the
grass. They rest at night on dead grass-stems, dry leaves and twigs, always
near the ground and keep the wings closed over the back at that time. Most
of the species are black or very dark brown with many grey or yellow markings
on both wings on the uppersides, but Ochus and Aéromachus may occasionally
be nearly immaculate. On the undersides of the wings the colours are much
the same although differently disposed.
Antenne.—'These are short with a stout, blunt club without apiculus of any
kind.
Palpi.—Prominent, well separated ; second joint roughly scaled, third erect
or conical, prominent, sometimes slender.
Fore tibie.—With epiphyses except in Pampihila.
Hind tibie.— With two pairs of spurs (again excepting Pamphila which has
only one pair),
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES. OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA. 823
Fore wing .—Cell less than two-thirds length of costa; vein 12 ends on costa
before end of cell ; vein 5 from bélow middle of discocellulars ; 3 from before
end of cell; 2 from beyond middle.
Hind wing.—Vein 7 from before end of cell; discocellulars and vein 5,
faint ; 3 from close to lower end of cell, 2 from beyond the middle of cell.
Fgeg.—Dome-shaped, rather higher than half the breadth; minutely pitted
on the general surface, shining, with a faint cellular network of extremely
fine, obscure lines (Zaractrocera, Pamphila) or meridionally ribbed in
Ampittia and Aéromachus. Colour very light-yellow, sometimes blotched red.
Larva.—Of normal shape, the skin translucent, showing the white tracheal
tubes through or not ; body surface covered with minute, whitish, erect, simple
hairs not visible to the naked eye except against the light; the head round-
triangular or semi-elliptical in shape and naked ; the colour is light-green with
a pulsating, dorsal, darker longitudinal line as well as iateral and spiracular
whitish line or darker green with still darker dot-spots and subdorsal, dorso-
lateral and subspiracular, white, longitudinal lines.
Pupa.—Moderately stout with moderate constriction at segment 5, a well-
developed cremaster ending in a tiny point on each side at extremity, the free
end between them fringed with simple hairs without hooks or the cremaster-
end rounded and set with weak little hooked shafts ; there are well-developed
expansions to the spiracles of segment 2 of various shapes ; the head has two
points on the frons in Ampzttia, a horny plate resembling a lappet in
Taractrocera and is convexly rounded in Aéromachus in which genus segment
5 has a small point directed forwards on front margin in the dorsal line under
which the body-string passes, the surface of the pupz is minutely haired when
examined under a strong lens. The colour is green of some shade.
Flabits.—The butterflies rest with their wings closed over their
backs, but bask with them partially opened ; they are all insects of
grass lands and fly low down above the surface of the earth in a
half-fluttering sort of way though they can go fast enough when
necessary ; they do not fly for long distances and are often seen
feeding at flowers growing on the ground. ‘They sit more than fly
although they occasionally play about with each other on the wing.
At night they sleep close tothe ground. The eggs are laid on grass-
blades, on stalks and occasionally on a dead leaf, dead stalk and
such like objects that are to be found amongst the grass. The larve
live on the undersides of the blades but often go down to the roots
and are rather given to wandering as is only to be expected where
they cannot get away from their food. ‘They all make cells of a
kind, some cylindrical by joining both edges of the blade together
at the tip or by turning over an oblong piece from the edge, or by
turning over the tip at right angles to length of blade like the larve
of many moths of the genus Azvula (in this case the cell is more
triangular). Ampztiza pupates quite in the open, lying along a
grass stalk with tail-attachment and body-band ; Aévomachus pupates
on the underside of a grass-blade in the hollow made by drawing
the edges together but not joining them—as is the habit in the
genus Parnara.
Genus 22.—TARACTROCERA.
Imago.—All small butterflies of a dark-brown colour on the uppersides, both
wings heavily marked with grey or yellow spots which in some species may run
into bands or even patches.
Antenne.—Short, about half costa of fore wing; the club short, broad, in
the form flattened, concave disc.
Palpi.—Upturned ; second joint densely scaled; third rather long and
slender, erect, pointed, reaching above vertex.
Fore tibie.—With epiphyses,
ile:
824. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol, XXX.
Hind tibice.— With two pairs of spurs.
fore wing.—Vein 12 reaches costa well before end of cell; upper
discocellular very short, middle and lower ones erect, the lower slightly
shorter; 5, therefore, from below middle and is curved down somewhat at its
base ; 3 from a little before lower end of cell; 2 a little before the middle ;
wing short triangular, costa very slightly arched, outer margin evenly convex,
shorter than hinder margin ; cell less than two-thirds] ength of costa,
Hind wing .—Vein 7 a little before end of cell, discocellulars bent somewhat
inwards, faint ; 5 not traceable; 3 from close to lower end of cell ; base of 2
close to base of 3, hardly one-eighth removed from end of ceil ; costa and outer
margin evenly rounded.
FEgg.--Dome-shaped, shining, the surface covered with microscopical,
superficial cell-like network of lines. Colour very pale-yellow, immaculate
or blotched.
Larva.—Light-green covered all over with tiny darker-green dots, the bases
of the microscopical hairs with which the body is covered ; a dark, pulsating,
dorsal, longitudinal line and signs of a subspiracular, yellowish one; a
shinine-black collar to segment 2. Head rather broadiy semi-elliptical in
shape, shallowly bilobed ; surface rugose-cellular, covered with appressed,
fine hairs with a large clypeus ; some of the hairs round free edge of anal
segment much longer than the generality.
Pupa.—Fairly stout with the front square, the eyes being prominent though
rather ventral; a large semi-circular raised disc-like surface on frons; the
cremaster ending in two short points with a fringe of straight hair between
them instead of hooked shaftlets. Surface of body covered with tiny, erect,
reddish hairs except on wings and thorax—these hairs not in any way
obscuring the surface of course. Colour that of a bone, very pale-yellowish.
Habits.—Eggs laid anywhere practically ainongst the grass.
Larva makes a longitudinal cell at point of grass-blade by drawing
the edges together. Pupates in suchacell, generally a close fit and
always with some excreted cereous powder as a covering. For
detail see under the species below.
The species are all Indian and Malayan. There are altogether 21
known. Of these 8 occur within the limits of British India includ-
ing Burma. They are Zaractrocera mevius (P.), ceramas (Hewits) ;
nicévillet, Watson ; oberthiri (Elwes and Edwards); danna (M.);
samadha, Frihstorfer ; guzzta, Swinh. ; atvopunctata, Watson. Danna
comes from the N. W. Himalayas ; samadha from Burma ; guznta
from Burma and Assam ; atvopunctata from Burma and Hongkong.
The other four all come from 8. India and, for mzevzus only, the rest
of India as well and Ceylon and Burma.
211. Taractrocera ceramas (H/ewzts.). (Pl. M. figs. 74 ¢, 74a 2)—Male
Upperside dark-brown with small orange spots. Fore wing with eight spots,
one in the cell, three conjoined from near the costa before the apex, two in the
middle of the disc and tco close to the outer margin below the apex. Hind
wing with two pairs of spotsin the disc ; one pair inthe middle, the other
near the apex. Cvz/ia of both wings pale-brown. Underside: Fore wing
blackish-brown, the spots as on upperside but paler and duller in colour and
there isa dull. orange streak between the costa and subcostal vein. Hind
wing paler, markings as above but with an additional spot at the end of the
cell and the entire wing more or less covered with minute, . orange scales.
Antennae black, the lower half of the club white at sides, the shaft with
white dots : palpi, head and body concolorous with the brown of the wings ;
beneath palpi grey, the abdomen with obscure grey bands. Expanse up to
25MM.
The above description is taken from Swinhoe’s Lepzdoptera Indica,
vol. x, pp. 116-117. He gives it quite separately from that of Zavac-
trocera nicevillez, Watson, the next immediately following and says
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA 825
that it is found (the species) in ‘ South India’; specifying as locali-
ties where it has been taken; ‘ The type is marked Nilgiris ; we have
both sexes from Ootacamund ; Evans records it from the Palni
Hills, Aitken from Igatpuri; Elwes from Travancore and Malabar.’
He figures the species on Plate 784, figure 2 male, 2a female and 2b
the underside. In both the sexes there is a spot onthe upperside
of the hind wing about half way across the disc at the upper end of
the cell and outside it more or less and this spot is not mentioned
in the description.
Compare with the above the description of Zavractrocera nicévillet
immediately following :—
‘Male. Upperside rufous-brown with rather large, more or less quadrate,
orange spots. Fore wing with an elongate spot at end of cell divided into
two by the fold and a short adjoining streak above it ; a spot near the costa
before apex divided into three by the veins ;a spot outside, its upper, inner
end often touching the lower, outer end of the other spot ; two spots in the
middle of the disc with two or three spots below it decreasing in size, all joined
together into a discal based. Hind wing with a lunulate spot at the end of cell
that is often indistinct and three discal spots, the middle one outside the
others and largest, the upper one small, the lower one generally divided inte
two by vein 3. Czlza of both wings grey with an inner, dark band. Underside
like the upper. Fore wing with thecosta narrowly suffused with orange and
a marginal row of obscure, dull-orange spots from apex to end of vein 2. Hind
wing with the discal spots larger than on upperside, consequently all more
of less conjoined ; an additional spot at the end of cell ; the wing sparsely
covered with minute orange scales and indications of some obscure, small,
orange spots on theouter margin. Antenne black, ringed with white witha
white patch at the base of the club beneath ; palpi grey beneath; brown above :
head and body above and below concolorous with the wings ; abdomen with
whitish segmental bands on the underside. Female like the male, but with
all the orange spots much smaller'as a rule and more separated from each
other than in the male; and, in the fore wing, the spots joined hind-wards to
the two spots inthe middle of the disc are often wanting.’
The expanse of Zaractrocera ceramas is given as up to 25mm. ; of mzcévillei
as up to 28mm.
On comparing along series of the Kanara species, both caught
and bred, it is found that these spots on the wings are very variable,
they may be small or they may be large, some of them may even be
entirely wanting. There is one specimen with only the very top
part of the outermost discal spot on the upperside of hind wing
present without a sign of any other markings whatever. On the
forewing the spot in interspace 2 immediately below that in inter-
space 3 may be exactly equal in size to that of interspace 3 or may
be larger and the spots below it may be present, quite separated
from each other or they may be conjoined into a band or they may
be totally wanting ; the costa may be ochreous or not, it generally
is; the marking at the end of the cell may be very bold or it may be
quite small. The underside may, on the hind wing, be much suffus-
ed with orange or it may be less, the markings may be very clear or
they inay be blurred; the area along the hinder margin behind vein
1, that is the abdominal fold, may be very black or it may be
suffused with orange. Finally, some of the orange spots may even
be whitish or grey, especially on the upperside of hind wing. The
cilia usually more or less grey above although, even there, often
orange in places: while below they are orange always, although,
896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
above and below, the brownish, basal band is there. The markings
of the antennz may be grey or orange in different specimens.
Under the circumstances, as Zaractrocera nicevillet is from Kanara
and the type is from Bombay, taken by Colonel Swinhoe, and
apparently exists nowhere else and the insect is very variable in
every particular that is supposed to separate it from ceramas, it is
not likely to be specifically distinct and is probably only a local
variety if it is even that.
There is still another species Zaractrocera oberthiiri, named by
Elwes and Edwards from Trichinopoly, a single female; and Swin-
hoe states there are two males from the Anamally Hills in the
British Museum. This is, according to the pictures in Lepidoptera
/ndica, much more heavily marked than either ceramas or nicévillei ;
but the material upon which it was based, a single female, appears
to be very inadequate in view of the variations in specimens from
Kanara.
In the form zzcévillez, the imago has the ochreous costa of the
fore wing onthe upper side due to orange scales; and there are
also some similar scales from base for a short way out in the cell,
others forming an obscure streak along inner margin from base out-
wards sometimes as far as half the length of that margin; there is
a fringe of fuscous hairs along the inner margin too. On the hind
wing there are some longish, decumbent hairs in cell and below it
reaching to about middle of disc.
The early stages of the Kanara form given as J7avractrocera nicévillei in
Lepdioptera Indica are given below.
Egg.—Dome-like in shafe, more than half as high as broad. Surface
extremely minutely tuberculate-frosted covered with very superficial, extremely
finewalled, hexagonal cells under the microscope, each cel! about 0°033mm. in
diameter ; the whole shining. Colour very light yellow immediately after it
has been laid ; soon becoming largely red biotched, the blotching consisting
of an irregular band of considerable width round the broadest part anda big
blotch on apex. B:0°8mm.; H: 0°5mm.
Larva.—'This larva is rather of the Udaspes or Notocrypta type in general
shape ; it lies hunched with the segments 2-5 highest of the whole body; the
head, however, is rather larger in proportion than in the larvee of those two
genera, the neck or segment 2 is rather thicker ; the anal end has segment 13,
a transverse piece of about one-third the length of 12; segment 14 is. large,
very broadly and bluntly semi-elliptical in shape, convex transversely and tumid
round the margins, rather rough tuberculate—this segment remains intact when
the skin is cast, that is it is then as broad and as long as ever on the end of the
‘shrivelled rest ; the claspers, pseudolegs and true legs are all short and rather
weak, the transverse section of the body is circular from segment 2 to segment
12; segment 13 is shailower and segment 14 is flattened ventrally much more
than the others and considerably over-reaches and overhangs the anal claspers.
The Aead is large compared to segment 2 and is as high and broad as segment
3 at front margin ; it is broadly semielliptical in shape, rather thin and has a
very Slight, shallow sinus on vertex; the surface is rugose-reticulate, the
‘threads’ of the reticulation occupying much less space than the hollows and
being shining while the hollows are dull, covered with appressed, short, light,
hardly visible hairs and with some much longer, erect, shining hairs about
mouth opening ; the true clypeus is narrow, about half the height of the face
(rather less) and lozenge-shaped with the lower end truncated at labrum, the
apex acute; the false clypeus broad outside it, also acute at apex, nearly
mucronate, about two-thirds the height of the face; the labrum is small,
transversely lozenge-shaped, reddish ; the ligula is of medium size with a large
triangular sinus that is-both deep and broad, the colour black ; the antennal
basal joint is black, the second light ; the mandibles are dark, the eyes black ;
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA 827
the colour of the head is black or very dark brown with the false clypeus
soiled-white and a soiled-white, narrow band or broad line starting from the
edge of the mouth-cavity and running up to the front vertex of each lobe
where it is joined to another soiled-white, equally broad, straight line which
has its origin on the margin of the false clypeus at the height of the apex of
the true clypeus ; the true clypeus is also really soiled-white but darker than
the other marks and its dorsal line only is black. Swrface of body is dull,
covered with minute, conical, brown tubercles from each of which springs an
erect, fine, conical, light hair about as long as the distance between two
adjacent tubercles and the distance between two tubercles is about four times
the diameter of one of them ; there are a few erect hairs more than twice the
length of these on each segment, but it is not sure that these are symmetrically
arranged—any way there seems to be one dorsolateral on each; on the anal
segment there are a lot of still longer erect hairs all over the tumid border as
well as a dorsolateral one on each side in the middle—some of these are as
long as half the length of the whole segment; each segment is transversely
impressed parallel lined in the posterior half, parallel to the hinder margins as
usual; there seem to be about five such lines to each. Spzracles very small
and nearly round, slightly raised, light yellowish ; those of segment 2 much
larger and those of segment 12, perhaps, slightly smaller than those of segment
2. Colour of larva is light glaucous green dotted all over with darker green
round dots ; a darkish purple, dorsal line and signs of a similar dorsalateral
one as well as athin, yellowish, subspiracular line ; the ventrum not glaucous ;
the anal segment darkish on dorsum anteriorly ; segment 2 with a shining
black collar from spiracle to spiracle; feet whitish ; true legs very light
yellowish, L: 20mm.;B: 3mm.
The black collar of segment 2 is broken narrowly in the dorsal line, the
Spiracles are broadly oval; there are about I5 rows of tubercles to one
segment-length which is about 2'25mm.; that is each tubercle is about
0°15mm., from the next. :
Pupa.—The body of the pupa is cylindrical in shape, very slightly fattest in
the middle, from the shoulders to segment 9 inclusive, after which it gradually
thins down to the broad, blunt end, segment 13 being distinct, transverse and
less than half the length of segment 12—a narrow, transverse ring—which
is the same length as 11, but the pupa has the dorsal line sloping
considerably from 11 backwards while the ventral line is throughout more or
less straight except at the very end where the anal segment 14 is bent down
somewhat and of a peculiar shape: it is very little narrower than segment 13,
very nearly as long dorsally as segment 12 but very short ventrally so that its
hinder face slopes in ventrally, its dorsal surface being flat (very slightly
convex) and transversely broad-oblong, divided from the lateral faces by a
strong, prominent ridge on each side, these ridges diverging slightly back-
wards and each ending in a short tooth or point, the free margin (end of pupa)
between them quite straight ; the ead is also somewhat peculiar: it is broad
with the vertex fully exposed and dorsal, twice as long as the narrow, oblong
segment 2 with straight margins behind it, sloping with segment 2 at an angle
of about 30° to the longitudinal axis of pupa, the frons at right angles to that
axis with a peculiar, circular, slightly rugose, generally black disc or plate in
its centre, this plate graduaily rising from the surface and free in its anterior
quarter (pointing downwards), the eyes prominent and somewhat ventral ; the
shoulders evenly rounded, well-developed ; the thorax with its first third with
the same dorsal slope as segment 2, gradually becoming parallel to the
longitudinal axis, the segment nearly as broad as long, the hinder margin a
somewhat pointed quarter-circle meeting the wings in a broadly rounded angle
of nearly 90° ; segment 4 about half the length of 5, thorax a little less than
4, 5 and 6 together ; the segment-margins well marked the bevilled edges of
segments 8-1] flat ; the proboscis reaches free beyond the wings to the end of
segment 9; the antennz are short and club-shaped at ends reaching only
about half way towards end of wings. Surface not particularly shining, with
a clothing of little reddish, erect or semi-recumbent, short hairs everywhere
except on the segmental membranes, wings, shoulders and a large portion of
the dorsal, posterior part of thorax, head and segment 2, these hairs not
obscuring the surface anywhere; fringe of hair at posterior and anterior
margins of eyes and a conspicuous row of longer, stiff bristle-like hairs along
the posterior margin of anal segment that are as long asthat segment itself,
828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
about 20 or 25 in number, simple, reddish, pointing straight back. Spiracles
of segment 2 are indicated by each a large oval, convex, red plate or rising,
about as long as segment 2 is long, with a plushlike, grey bloom on the
surface in certain lights; the rest small, narrow ovais, yellowish in colour.
Colour is yellowish dead-bone with the cremastral (ana!) sezsment red-brown
of a bright shade, the wings somewhat lighter than the general body-colour
and the head and segment 2 slightly soiled. -L:13mm.; B: 3mm:
Flabits.—The egg is laid as a rule on the underside of a blade of
grass; but, occasionally, practically anywhere ; on the stem, ona
dead leaf fallen amongst the grass, etc. The little larva emerges
therefrom in three to five days according to weather and warmth of
the sun; it eats the shell and then proceeds to the tip of a grass-
blade and makes a house by joining the edges of the leaf together,
often quite a long cell for such a tiny thing. It coats the inside with
silk. although not very thickly and lies along the midrib. This
method is persisted in throughout its life, making the house some-
what larger when big of course. It feeds, at night and in dull
weather often also during the day, at first close to the cell, later
wandering quite a lot. It is active and runs out of the cell
sometimes, when disturbed, quite quickly ; also, if the disturbance
is continued, falls to the ground and curls up, feigning death.
When about to pupate, the larva makes a cell often of a withered
leaf, closing both the ends with silk, one rather lightly through
which the butterfly will emerge, the other tightly ; the pupa is no
way attached inside and is covered with a waxy, white powder
which also clothes the walis of the cell. The pupa is a close fit and
the cells are often found, detached from anything, on the ground
amongst the grass. Occasionally several dead leaves are used to
make the pupal cell. One lot of caterpillars were obtained in
October and had ceased eating by about the 25th of that month.
These remained as caterpillars in a pupal cell until February 12
of the next year when they pupated. The butterfly appeared
in about a week afterwards.
The head of the egg-larva measured 0°45 mm. & 0°55 mm.; was
black, shining-smooth, semi-elliptical with a single row of tiny pits
along the dorsal line and sides of clypeus ; a very few erect hairs
about the mouth. In the second stage the head was 0:65mm. by
O'7 mm.; the same as in preceding stage short, erect hairs on
surface; eyes glassy. Third stage 0°925mm. by 1mm.; nearly
black, shining, reticulate-rugose with simiiar hairs to last stage.
Fourth stage 1:‘6mm. by 1-4mm.; more rugose, the hairs longer,
stronger, downcurved, black, about 0°‘OS5mm. apart and as long
(0°05 mm.). Final stage 1:75 mm. by 1:5 mn. with details as above
described.
The food of the larva is grass of any species as long as it is not
too hard and big ; rice is quite an ordinary thing to find it upon.
The habitat of Zavactrocera nicévillez is S. India and it is commonly
to be found in the grassy glades in the jungles of N. Kanara
District, as well asin the neighbourhood of forest both on the coast
(on the hills near it at a height of 1,000’—some are not more thana
mile or two from the sea-shore) and above the ghats at 1,000’ and
upwards. It is probably a butterfly of heavy rainfall absent from
the Plains. The insect never rises high off the ground, is not .very
LHE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA 829
partial to sunlight and may be found flitting just above the tops of
the grasses settling at frequent intervals onablade or stem, often
even on the bare ground; frequently in the basking position with
the front wings slightly opened, the hind wings more opened still.
Two individuals will often play with each other in the air, circling
at alow elevation within a small area ; the ordinary flight is of the
usual skipping or jerking variety from which the family has got the
name of Skippers.
The figures of the male and female, No. 74 and 74a respectively
on the coloured plate M are quite good but as usual a trifle too
red. :
212. Taractrocera mevius (7.)—(P1l. M., figs. 76, 76a).—Male. Upperside
olive-brown with white markings. Fore wing witha short streak on and
above the median vein (the bottom of the cell) inthe middle of the cell;
another above it at upper end of cell with two (or one) short streaks between
it and the costa, sometimes connected together ; a series of spots in two parts
across the disc, three conjoined from the costa near the apex in interspaces 6,
7 and 8 and four commencing with one near the base of interspace 3 sepa-
rated by the vein from another nearly in the middle of interspace 2 separated
again from the third and fourth that form an inwardly oblique band in the
two interspaces below ; these last four spots quadrate and slightly excavated
on outer side ; two more spots beyond towards margin in interspaces 4 and 5.
Hind wing with a series of small spots in almost a straight line in the middle
of the disc, fourin number in interspaces 2, and 4, 5, the latter slightly out-
wards ; another above and further in in interspace 6 and two at end of cell ;
the ones at the end of cell and the other single, uppermost spot may be
extremely faint at times. Cz/za of both wings grey with white tips, more
prominently white towards tornal angle of fore wing andin hinder part of
hind wing. Underside with the colour similar, almost as dark as on upper-
side with the markings similar but, on the hind wing, there is a bar across
end of cell and spots in interspaces 6 and 7 beyond. Antenne black ringed
with white, the club witha white basal patch on underside ; head and body
concolorous with wings ; abdomen with white, segmental bands.—Female.
Upperside like the male but somewhat paler, the spots larger and more
prominent. Underside with the markings as on the upperside. Fore wing
with the costal and apical portions whitish, the veins below the costa and at
the apex white ; a narrow, white outer, marginal band and a black, marginal
line. Hind wing entirely suffused with white, all the veins pure white.
Expanse up to 27mm. or slightly more ; the males smaller (Swinhoe, Lepfzdo-
plera Indica).
In a large series bred in the Dharwar District, Bombay Presi-
dency, there is a short ochreous band of scales from base of fore
wing along the costa over cell and a very pale blue scale-band
along the inner margin from base to half way with another, shorter,
above vein 1, and there is a sparse fringe of grey hairs along inner
margin. On the upperside ofhind wing there are some long, grey
hairs decumbent in cell and more numerous ones below cell from
base to quite three-quarters way to outer margin. Underneath on
both wings there are ochreous scales, the hind wing being covered
with them ; all the veins have white scales along their whole length
on the hind wing and apical portion of fore wing ; the abdominal
fold of hind wing is sprinkled with white scales only. The hairs
of the patagia are tipped with yellow where they abut on the costal
yellow band of fore wing, the palpi are clothed with brown and
yellow scales above; the third joint being black. Numbers of the
females have the spots on fore wing yellowish, all the males have
them white.
830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ATST. SOCIETY. Vol nA.
figg.—Dome-shaped; rather higher than half the breadth. Surface is
shining somewhat, covered with a network of lines under a strong lens
under the microscope they are minute, thin-walled, low cells of about
0:025mm. diameter ; on the top is a smooth space; circular, darker than the
rest. Colour that of adry bone. B:0°925mm. ; H: 0°6mm.
Larva.—The shape is that of any of the genera Telicota, Halpe, etc. The
head rather small for the larva though, as usual, large for segment 2; on the
whole body is thickest about middle though little thicker there than at
segment 4 or segment 11; the anal flap is large and a short semi-ellipse in
shape, overhangs the anal claspers by a considerable amount, is flattened
a good deal on the dorsal aspect, is not particularly thickened round the
edge and is quite as broad as segment 13 for half its length ; segment 13 is a
transverse band about one-third the length of segment 12. The head is a little
broader than segment 2 and a good deal higher, somewhat deeply—though
not very considerable—bilobed, the lobes somewhat moderately broadly
rounded, the sinus on vertex separating them triangular and inclined to be
broad ; the general shape is more than half a short ellipse; the face is
moderately convex ; the clypeus is large, reaching more than two-thirds of
the height of the head—this may be the false clypeus and then the true
clypeus is not distinguishable easily—and the sides of the clypeus are out-
wardly somewhat convexly-curved ; the surface is finely honeycombed-rugose
and covered with minute, short, simple hairs which are only visible under a
lens, the colour is black-brown with the false clypeus outlined somewhat
diffusely and not very narrowly soiled yellow-white ; inside this, again, the
true clypeus is triangular, higher than broad by a good deal (perceptible as
clypeus in certain good lights 1 see now) and may be outlined also thinly
soiled yellowish-white ; besides these markings there is a similar white band
running up the face parallel to the central or dorsal line, subdorsal on each
side to vertex of each Jobe where it turns sharply down again to nearly reach
the eyes separating the face from the cheeks ; the subdorsal band does not go
further than the upper part of the white bordering of the false clypeus ; there
is a soiled yellow-white, rather large spot below and behind the eye curve ;
the labrum is very narrow and not long, glassy in colour; the ligula roundly
kidney-shaped and soiled red-brownish; the antennal joints light; the
mandibles dark-tipped ; the eyes dark. The spiracles are small, roundish,
light brownish-yellow, those of segment 2 oval and much larger, those of
segment 12 only slightly larger: all very slightly raised. Surface of body is
dull, covered all oyer with minute, short, erect, simple hairs with afew on
each segment slightly longer ; the hairs round the anal flap-edge much longer,
especially some four or six of them, light in colour. Colour light opaque-
looking yellowish-green with a dark-green, pulsating dorsal line and a lateral
less dark-green shade. L: 20mm. ;B: 3mm.
The transverse, thin, impressed, parallel lineS towards the hinder part of
each segment are also here as usual. Segment 2 has a broad-linear, shining,
chitinized, black collar from over spiracle on one side across dorsum to the
same place over the opposite spiracle. Ventrum green; proleys ditto; true
legs shining green with black extreme tips. ‘The body colour is punctuated,
so to speak, by little darker green dots which indicate the bases of the little
body-hairs ; segments 2, 3, 4 have these dots still smaller and blackish.
Pupa.—lit is somewhat of the shape of those of the genera Halse, Telicota ;
rather long and slim with the front end broadly blunt and very slightly convex,
the anal end narrowly blunt, the sides parallel, the shoulders slightly broader
than the head and the segment 2 (which are of the same breadth one as the
other), a very slight constriction between shoulders and head ; the breadth the
same practically from shoulders to segment 8, afterwards thinning very
gradually to segment 11, more rapidly, then, to anal extremity ; segment 13 a
complete band, half the length of the segment 12; the cremastral segment
transverse oblong a little longer than segment 13, the posterior side (extremity
of pupa) rounded and ledge-like between the posterior corners which are each
thickened (with the lateral side) and produced out backwards into a short,
conical pointed tooth, the two teeth diverging from each other or from dorsal
line of pupa; underneath this ledge, indeed from ventral surface thereof,
proceeds a fairly dense fringe of simple hairs all along its length, these hairs
golden orange and directed straight backwards and all about the same length
as the segment or nearly as long; the ead frons is perpendicular to the
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA 831
longitudinal axis of the pupa and very slightly convex with, at its lower edge,
in the dorsal region, a curious little lappet which covers the base of the
ligula: this lappet shaped like three-quarters of a circle and free (though, of
course, rigid) round the edge (the rounded part) though continuous with frons
at base (the base or origin, the upper or posterior part), the breadth of this
lappet about half that of the whole frons, though only one quarter of the
whole breadth of front of pupa; the vertex of head short, slightly inclined
towards longitudinal axis of pupa and composed of an anterior simple half
and a posterior half divided into two lateral, oblong strips, one on each side
of dorsal line continued to the base of antennze on each side and coming to
points where they meet in the dorsal line—which is all, both the lappet and
these strips, a characteristic arrangement or developmeut ; thorax with the
front margin straight, the whole segment evenly rounded, of moderate
length, the front slope at about 30° to longitudinal axis, the apex or highest
point about the middle of the segment with a very slight and gradual fall to
the hinder margin which is a parabolic curve with somewhat excessively
diverging arms (or an equilateral triangle with the apex broadly rounded)
meeting the wing lines in a broadly-rounded angle of about 45° so that
segment 4 is largely exposed in the lateral region on each side though of
normal length in the dorsal line ; the proboscis reaches free beyond the ends
of wings as far as the posterior margin of segment 9 and beyond to the middle
of segment 10. Sfzracles of segment 2 large, longly oval, considerably
convex bodies or surfaces on the front marginal surface of segment 3 which
is gently produced forwards for the purpose of accommodating them: the
colour being golden-orange- brown ; all the other spiracles are very small and
oval, slightly raised and light brownish-yellow in colour. Surface of pupa
dull, slightly and finally aciculate-scratched transversely and covered very
sparsely with small, short, erect, reddish, pointed hairs, these hairs (none of
them are easily seen except with lens) longer and stronger on the upper and
lower ‘eyelids,’ less strong laterally on posterior and anterior thorax,
laterally on segment 4 and ventrally on the lateral portions of abdominal
seyment, especially segment 14. The colour is livid very light yellow—the
colour of a fresh bone, the lappet on head-frons brown, the tail points and
ledge red-brown. L:13mm. B:3mm. The pupa is covered with a slight
cereous powder ; white.
Habits.— The eggs are always laid singly on the blades of grass,
either on the upper surface or on the under. The little larva eats
the shell completely and immediately proceeds to make a cylindrical
cell either at the side of the blade by turning over the edge or at
the tip by doubling the leaf and fastening the edges together. The
cellalways is atight fit for the larva andis only changed when
necessitated by the gradual growth. The growth is not rapid.
Eggs were laid at the end of July and beginning of August; on
August 4 there were some small larve on the grass; none of
these pupated until September 4 so that one month is about
the period for complete growth. The pupation takes place ina
tight cell made of a blade or blades of grass which is ciose-fitting
and well-closed ; the grass may be withered or not but not dry and
hard. Practically any grass is eaten by the larva. The butterfly is
common in Dharwar in the grass-lands round about. It is found
also locally below-ghats:in Bhatkal near the coast and round
Gokarn. Notseenin Karwar. It flies low and rather weakly over
the grass, resting often on the ground or ona low leaf, basking in
the sun with its wings half open ; itrests at night amongst the grass
or under the shade of bushes on their leaves ; it visits flowers
frequently and never flies very far ata time, nor high. It is not
scarce in the grass lands on the open country above the Western
Ghats. Swinhoe gives its: habitat as India, Ceylon and Burma,
15
832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The distribution he gives as follows:— ‘In our collection from
Mhow ; Poona ; Ranikhet ; Maymyo, Upper Burma and Trincomali
in Ceylon ; recorded by Elwes from Sikkim ; Calcutta and Ganjam ;
by Hannyngton from Kumaon ; by de Rhé-Philipe from Lucknow and
Masuri ; by Aitken and Comber from the Konkan ; by Fergusson
from Travancore; by Moore from Kangra; by Doherty from
Kumaon and by Adamson from Toungoo and Moulmein ; it is
widely spread all over India, Burma arid Ceylon but is very local.’
The figures of the male and female butterfly on Plate M,
numbered 76 and 76a respectively are not bad ; but, again, they are
much too red ; the underside of the hind wing of the male should
have the veins white as well as the spots.
Genus 23.—AMPITTIA.
Imago.—Small butterflies of the aspect of Zaractrocera but the males with
the yellow developed inte large patches divided into large conjoined spots by
the black veins ; the undersides of hind wings more yellow with black spots
than black (or brown) with yellow spots and the abdominal fold concolorous
with the rest, not blackish asin Yavactrocera. There are two species, one
dioscorides (F.) and maroides, deN. The latter is from Burma and Perak and
is not easily distinguishable from dzoscorides, if it is, indeed, a different
species.
renner snore about half the length of costa of fore wing ; theclub
moderated, straight, blunt.
Palpi.—Upturned, densely clothed; third joint erect, its tip, which is bluntly
conical, reaches over vertex of head.
Fore tibie.—With epiphyses.
Hind tibie.—With two pairs of spurs.
Fore wing.—Vein 12 reaches costa well before end of cell; upper
discocellular very short but distinct in almost a straight line with the middle
and lower, the last somewhat shorter than the middle one, vein 5 therefore
slightly nearer 4 than to 6 ; vein 3 from a little distance before end of cell in
the male, from close to end in female; 2 from alittle beyond middle ; cell
less than two-thirds the length of costa, shaped like an elongated triangle,
lower margin somewhat inwardly curved from base of 2, bent upwards from
3to the end. Wing short and broad ; costa very nearly straight, apex
angular ; outer margin very convex, a little shorter than hinder margin.
Male with a short, glandular streak on upperside immediately below origin
of vein 2 but not touching either Zeon.
Hind wing.—Vein 7 emitted one-third from upper end of cell, curved up
at its base, the outer margin of cell inwardly curved from origin of 7 to end
which is rounded ; discocellulars faint ; 5 not traceable ; 3 from very close to
end of cell ; practically touching it ; 2 from less than one-fourth before end ;
costa and outer margin evenly rounded.
213. Ampittia dioscerides. (/.)—Male. Upperside bright golden-yellow ;
costal line black, after margin with a broad, even, black band, very slightly
but squarely bulged inwards at the hinder angle ; a broad, black band on the
hinder margin with two golden-yellow spots in it, one a little before middle,
the other a little beyond middle; a black band running up from the middle
of hinder marginal band to costa one-third before apex, throwing out a cross-
band from above its middle and joining the marginal band ; in some speci-
mens this discal band is disconnected from the costa from the cross-bar.
Hind-wing blackish-brown with an irregular-shaped, short, broad, discal,
golden-yellow band, composed of spots divided by the veins, the two central
ones elongated, the lower ones small. Czlza brown, touched in parts with
golden-yellow, especially at anal angle. Underside : Fore wing as above but
the extreme outer margin is more or less golden-yellow. Hind wing with the
ground-colour golden-yellow, most of the wing covered with minute, brown
scales ; the discal patch as above, edged with pale-brown and a series of pale-
brown, submarginal spots all round the wing from base to anal angle.
Antenne black ringed with yellow ; the club yellow onthe underside and at
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA 833
tip ; palpi, head and body brown above, palpi and head marked with yellow ;
beneath all yellow.—Female. Upperside: dark-brown. Fore wing with a
yellow spot at end of cell and a discal series of yellow spots ; two, sometimes
three, divided by the veins, from near the costa one-sixth from apex and two
in the middle of the disc in interspaces 2 and 3 with another small, in inter-
space 1 ; an indistinct series of submarginal, yellowish spots on upper half of
wing. Underside : paler. Fore wing has the spots as above, but larger ;a
yellow, subcostal streak from base to beyond middle. Hind wing with many
minute, yellow scales in parts, a discal series of yellowish spots and a sub-
marginal series. Expanse up to 25mm. (Swinhoe, Lepidoptera [ndica.)
The description is not very good. In bred specimens there is,
on the upperside of fore wing in the male, an orange streak along
the inner margin, and a streak above it from base to one-third of
the way out instead of a broad, brown band; there is also a thin
orange line parallel to outer margin in the middle of the broad
marginal, brown band reaching from costa just before apex to vein
4; the cz/za have orange brown interspaces as broad as the orange
ones at ends of veins, the basal half all brown. ‘There is a brown
fringe of hairs along the inner margin. The antennz have the
club with a dull-orange tip; on the hind wing upperside there are
some long yellow hairs in the cell, decumbent and a line of similar
ones along veinl. Underside: hind wing orange with a series of
brown, largish spots between the veins just inside the margin, all of
them powdered with orange scales; the discal orange markings of
upperside showing through and outlined by brown powdered with
orange scales ; a large brown spot in interspace 7 and a somewhat
smaller one above it in interspace 8, the absolute base of wing also
brown. In the female all the male markings are present but so
reduced in size as to give the insect the appearance of a Zaractrocera
nicevillec ; and they are more yellow than orange. ‘The males are
really very like Padraona gola to look at.
Figg.—The shape is that of a dome, rather unusually high. Surface shining
and sculptured with 24 meridional ridges from base up to more than three-
quarters the height where they lose themselves ; the top obscurely, minutely
reticulate-lined, even slightly concave. Colour light-yellow becoming light-
Crecmicome tiine ater itis laid.. B:.0:9 mm); El? 06mm.
Larva.—Of the usual shape, thickest in the middle, fining to both ends;
circular in transverse section except head and anal segment; the latter rather
longly semi-elliptical, sloping at about 30° to longitudinal axis of body and
somewhat flattened ; the head about as broad as middle of segment 3, broader
than segment 2 and slightly higher. ead nearly round but slightly higher
than broad with a triangular clypeus which is higher than broad, reaches
more than one-third way up the face; outside it is the false clypeus reaching
more than half way up, also triangular and slightly curvilinear, the sides
convex outwards; the apex acute; the surface is shallowly cellular-rugose,
covered with extremely short, erect white hairs, all of the same size or length
and light in colour; only visible under a lens and then only when looked at
sideways; the labrum, lgula and antennal joints and the ground colour of
the head rather soiled yellowish white with two reddish longitudinal stripes
on each lobe and yellowish’ white mandibles with dark-brown tips; eyes
dark and light : some the one, others the other. SAzracles soiled white, small,
broadly oval, somewhat convex, those of segment 2 much larger, those of
segment 12 alittle larger. Surface as usual with this type of skipper, covered
all over with minute, erect, rather densely disposed hairs which are white in
colour and all of one length, visible only under the lens ; those on the anal
segment reddish and more visible, those round the margin of that segment a
gcod deal Jonger and white. Colowr grass green with a broad longitudinal,
subdorsal, white stripe, a dorsolateral and supraspiracular, narrow white band
834 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
or line anda spiracular, thin, yellowish line; the true legs, ventrum prolegs
green ; the whole dorsal surface (as distinguished from the ventral) slightly
glaucous except the dorsal broad line which is the only really grass green part.
be 22mm.4.6 2 omme
There is a small, deep-black dot or spot dorsolaterally on segment 2 which
is the only mark of any importance besides the longitudinal white stripes
already mentioned in the description above.
Pupa.—A little, green pupa formed on the stem low down, the head always
pointing down. It is abnormal in having a short frontal process on each side
of dorsal line of the Zead which springs from the dorsolateral region and is
directed out sideways in front of the eye the upper hinder margin of which it
just over-reaches ; it is directed also slightly forwards away from the frontal
surface and is triangular flattened anteriorly and posteriorly, with somewhat
broken edges, and the outer surface is roughened : the two together, seen from
above, looking like a short pair of horns with a wide sweep. The shape of
the pupa is nearly circular in transverse section from the thorax to segment 13,
the ventrum slightly flattened, the greatest breadth at the shoulders whence
it gradually thins to the strong, triangular, broadly round-topped, somewhat
down-curved cremastral segment which is nearly as long as segments 11, 12
together, rather thin through with the dorsum mostly occupied by a longitudinal
depression which is triangular in transverse section : the suspensory hooklets
small and at the extremity spread out fan-wise ; the highest point is the apex
of the thorax whence (from just behind the shoulders) the dorsal slope to
frons is a straight line at an angle of about 45° to the longitudinal axis of the
body ; the head-vertex forms the front base of this slope, and it has its hinder
margin curved convexly towards segment 2 ; segment 2, immediately following
it is about the same length, with its hinder margin straight; the thorax is
smoothly rounded, rather humped, the shoulders hardly at all prominent,
the hinder margin of the segment a more or less parabolic curve meeting the
wings in arather broad, deep, rounded angle of somewhere about 44° ;
segment 4 in dorsal line slightly shorter than segment 5; segment 13 very
short; segment 12 half the length of segment 11; the proboscis alone but
none of the legs or antennz reaches the ends of the wings. Spzracles of
Segment 2 are indicated by, each, a rather large, very slightly-raised, fiat,
opaque-white, semicircular space on the surface of segment 3 immediately
behind each ; the rest are small, nearly round, slightly raised, yellowish. The
surface of the pupa is shining, very finely and shallowly transversely aciculate
and granulate, perceptible only under the lens—except the frontal processes
which are as above described. The colour is grass-green, light and slightly
glaucous, with the white markings of the larva ; the thorax, head and wings
hardly glaucous ; there is a minute lateral and dorsolateral, shiny-smooth dot
just behind the front margin of segment 2. L: 26mm.;B: a little over 3mm.
Habits.—The butterfly lays its eggs singly upon the leaves of the
rice. The little larva eats from the edge of the leaf and lives ina
cell made at first by joining the edges of the leaf at the point, when
more grown by turning over the top of the blade at right angles to
the length of it, coating the inside with silk. Pupation takes place
in the open; the pupa is attached, head down, by the tail and a
body-band toa rice-stem just over the surface of the water.
Twenty-five eggs were dissected out of a female. ‘The butterflies
are generally found round the rice-fields in Kanara in the monsoon
months but also elsewhere in open spaces where there is grass.
The larva was first discovered in N. Kanara District on rice and
the first pupa was also found in arice-field in the position just noted.
That was in the year 1894. Many more butterflies have been bred
since those days and the pupa always is formed along a stem in the
same way even when there is no water. They are weak fliers and
flit about over the rice in much the same way those of the genus
Taractrocera do over grass ; sitting in the same way to bask on the
leaves with the wings partly open to the sun. At night they rest
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA 835
with them closed over the back. The habitat is given by Colonel
Swinhoe as Sikkim, S. India, Ceylon, Burma, Malacca, Annam and
Sumatra (Lepidoptera Indica, vol. x, p. 126; figures are given on
Plate 786 of the male upperside No. 1, male underside No. 140,
female upperside la and underside lc together with larva and pupa
No. 1d); the distribution is alluded to as follows :—‘ The type of
dioscorides, a female, came from Tranquebar and is in the Museum
at Copenhagen; the type of maro, in the Banksian cabinet in the
B.M. from Ceylon; we have both sexes from Hue, Annam ;
Trivandrum ; Madras and.Ceylon; Evans records it from the Palni
Halise. Perousson from. (Travancore; Betham from the ©: Po;
Watson from the Chin Hills, Beeling and Pegu; Moore from Mergui
and Ceylon ; de Nicéville from Sikkim ; Davidson, Bell and Aitken
bred it in Kanara; we give copies of Davidson’s original drawings
of larva and pupa.’ He says positively that there is no difference
between dzoscorides and maro.
Genus 24.—AEROMACHUS.
This is divided into two by Swinhoe ; one genus he calls by the original name
and reserves for those species that, in the male, have a sex-mark ; the other
he has christened Wachachus for those which have none. ‘The only species
that concerns us here comes into this latter. Swinhoe has two species of
Aéromachus named stigmata (M.) and dudbtus (El. and Ed.), the former from
N. W. Himalayas, Sikkim and Assam; the latter from the Palni Hills,
Peermade, Travancore. In Machachus he places three called jhora (deN.),
kali (deN.) and indistincta (M.) from, respectively, Sikkim, Assam and
Burma; Sikkim and Burma; 8S. India, Ceylon, Burma, Java, Sumatra.
Imago.— These are the smallest of Indian Skippers, varying from 20mm. to
25mm. inexpanse. They all have the uppersides of both wings immaculate
brown except for, in some, on the fore wing, a postdiscal series of always
small, whitish dot-spots between the veins from interspace 2 to interspace 8,
this series forming an absolutely even curve. The undersides are generally
somewhat lighter with the postdiscal series of spots showing through and a
similar series on the hind wing.
Antenne.— With the club robust, blunt (at least in the Kanara species under-
stood to be ;hora from Swinhoe’s description) at the end, although conical.
Palpt.—With the second joint pressed closely against the face, third joint
porrect, not particularly short, conical.
Hind tibie.— With two pairs of spurs.
Fore wing.—Vein 12 ends on costa before end of cell; 5 from below middle
of discocellulars, 3 from before lower end ; 2 from about one-third before end ;
cell less than two-thirds length of costa ; costa slightly, evenly curved; apex
well pronounced ; outer margin convex and shorter than hinder margin.
Hind wing. —Vein 7 from before upper ‘end of cell; discocellulars and 5
faint ; 3 from close to lower end ; 2 from beyond middle.
Egg, larva, pupa, habits.—See ‘below under jhora, the only species for which
they are known.
214. Aeromachus jhora, Szvzz. » indistincta (J7.).—Upperside : uniform olive-
brown without any markings ; in some individuals there are faint indications
of some discal and submarginal markings. Cz/za concolorous with the wings,
the tips paler. Onderside paler; a small whitish spot at end of cell, some-
times absent ; an indistinct, whitish, outwardly-curved, discal band, thin and
from near the costa half way down the wing ; the upper and outer portions of
the wirg covered with minute, white scales. Hind wing entirely covered with
minute, white scales; traces of a whitish, outwardly-curved, discal band, a
very faint series of submarginal spots a little darker than the ground colour.
Antenne black, ringed with white; the club whitish on the underside, all
except the tip; palpi, head and body above concolorous with the wings,
whitish on the underside. (Swinhoe in Lepidoptera Indica, vol. x, p. 196.
Figures are given on Plate 802 of the same book, No. 5 of the male, 5a of the
female, 56 of the underside).
336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL, HIST. SOGlEIY VOL Ce
Egg.—The shape is that of a somewhat elongated hemisphere or dome.
Surface is shining, minutely pitted under the microscope and having 19
meridional tuberculate ribs which do not reach the bottom and lose themselves
at about two-thirds the way up in knobs ; these ribs have the intervals between
them cross-rayed, the intervals between the cross-rays being 0°02mm. ; the ribs
are 0'01mm. thick and the greatest breadth between them is ten times that or
0-lmm. (this is of course at their lower ends) ; there are four tiny tubercles
to each 0'05mm. length of rib. Colour slightly soiled-whitish or very pale
honey-yellow with, sometime after laying, an irregular, blotchy, blood-red
band round the middle and some separate ring-spots, also a patch on vertex
made up of ring-spots and blotching of red. B:0°65mm.; H: 0‘'4mm.
Larva.—l\s very similar to those of Ampzittia dioscorides. 'The caterpillar’s
head is half-elliptical in shape, higher somewhat than broad with the surface
rough-cellular and some hairs about the lower part round mouth-opening, the
colour being green with yellow mandibles. The shape of the body is subcylin-
drical, thickest in middle or about segment 5 when at rest ; segment 2 not as
broad as head, the neck still narrower ; anai end flattish, broadly rounded at
extremity with some hairs on the free margin. Surface dull, under the lens
covered with minute, erect hairs; the segments all well marked. Spzracles
very small disc-like, yellow, very round ; those of 2 much the largest. Colour
light-green, glaucous-looking with darker green dots, the hair-bases; a
darkish dorsal, longitudinal line, a white, lateral, distinct, longitudinal line
and an indistinct, subspiracular one; two yellow bodies, one on each side of
dorsal line, showing through the skin in the male. L:19mm.; B: 2.5mm.
Pupa.—Much the same shape as that of Ampittia ; the head square in front,
eyes prominent, the frons with a short beak or conical;boss or snout, porrectly
pointing out in front ; thorax convex-humped ending somewhat abruptly be-
hind ; segment 2 long, convex transversely, less inclined to the longitudinal
axis of the body than front of thorax ; no constriction at 5 ; under the lens
segment 4 is somewhat lower than 3 and 5 is again ever so little higher than 4,
the front margin being provided in the dorsal line witha little point that is
directed over 4 and under which passes the body-band that serves to keep the
pupa against the surface it is fixed to by the tail ; wings very little thickened
along inner margins behind the rounded shoulders ; the outline is straight on
dorsum from thorax-end to cremaster ; circular in transverse section from
shoulders to 13; segments 13 and 14 are exactly the same width to end of
cremaster which isa thin, oblong piece with the extremity rounded and set
with fine, white hairs. Surface set with extremely minute, erect hairs under
the lens ; segments distinct. Sfzracles small, oval, whitish, that of segment 2
with a rather large, broad, flush, yellow mark like a note of exclamation.
Colour dark, semitranslucent green with a fine subdorsal and lateral,
longitudinal, white line and an obscure spiracular one. L: 14°2mm. ; B:
2°9mm. ; snout 0’lmm. long.
Habits.—The eggs are laid on dead blades of grass or green
ones, generally on the undersides. The larva makes a loose cell
by joining the edges of the blade in a slovenly way, lying on the
underside of the blade. It pupates in an opencell similar to those
Parnara makes by just drawing the edges of the blade together but
not joining them. The pupa is attached by the tail and a body-
band. The hairs at the end of the cremaster of the pupa must have
minute-hooked tips to fasten into the silk-pad. The butterflies are
weak fliers, frequenting grass in the open places in the jungles but
are difficult to see owing to their small size andto their com-
paratively fast flight. ‘They rest on the ground or on leaves, etc.,
close to it ; never rise any distance from it and are fond of flowers
upon which they feed, choosing suchas grow amongst the grass,
mostly leguminous. Asa sort of example of the vicissitudes that
attend the pursuit of breeding butterflies in India the following
extracts from a diary of 1918 may perhaps be of some interest :—
Monday, September 9.—A dull morning ; it had been raining all the night |
THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA 837
Walked and bicycled down the 1,500’ to the foot of the Gund Plateau and the
remaining twelve miles or soto Sulgeri on the Kalinadi River. Collected
various plants. ... After we got in to the bungalow we went down to
the river and looked in the grass for Aévomachus indistincta and after a bit,
found there were a lot of them about—they are so small that, at first, before
we became accustomed to them, we hardly saw one ; they fly fast and in long
jerking, deviating way ; settling rather rarely except occasionally on flowers
in thegrass ; they do not often sit. Later on about 1 or 2 p.m., however,
they settled much oftener and M. managed to catch three after vain efforts
with a tumbler and a finger bowl, stalking them with great care and popping
the thing over them on the ground, The servants brought no butterfly net
with them so Isent back for one and a cage and to-morrow we hope to get a
lot to breed from.
Tuesday.—After breakfast went ott with the net that had arrived and
managed to catch seven Aéromachus to put in the cage with grass for them to
lay on. Hopetocatch more to-morrow. The catching of these britterflies
and determining plants took us until tea-time after 4 p.m.
Wednesday.—Got back to the bungalow at: about 11 a.m. and found.
Ibrahim had caught two Aévomachus, He had taken all the morning over it.
So we set to work and caught fourteen in half an hour which we put into the
cage. Then we had breakfast sandwiches, hard-boiled eggs, buns and cold
coffee. After which we packed up everything, It was after 1. Went to
Kadra in the afternoon.
Friday 13.—In the evening examined all the grass in the cage in which
we had put the Aéromachus. ‘They were all dead except one.. There were,
however, eight eggs laid by them. Leaving Karwar to-morrow for Dharwar
and shall take an egg to describe ; leaving the others to be looked after here
by Taku and Waman.
Thereafter Dharwar, Poona, Bombay, the influenza epidemic and a bad
attack of that followed by dysentery brought the time up to. November 20.
On Octeber 10 or about that date two or three butterflies of Aéromachus
came out of pupz resulting from the eggs laid in September. No more;
for Waman and Taku, the boys looking after breeding operations in Karwar,
had got influenza and, although not badly, they were so fiightened because
of the reports of deaths everywhere in the Presidency that they neglected
everything and, it appears, stayed at home in the village, lying down.
In the specimens caught that September and other captured since in N.
Kanara District, many have the discal series of white scale dots on the fore
wing (they are not semihyaline at all) very distinct while others have it abso-
lutely wanting ; some have a white dot at the end of cell on the upperside of
fore wing also. On the underside of the fore wing the discal series consists of
one each in interspaces 1 to 8, the one in the first being sometimes hardly
visible—on the upperside there are generally only the last 5; there is an
indistinct series, submarginal, of three spots in interspaces 5,6 and7: in the
hind wing, similarly, the discal series consists of one in each of the same
interspaces 1 to8 with a submarginal series of Sanda single one at end of
eell. The fringe of hair along inner margin of fore wing is very slight ; the
long decumbent, brown hairs in cellon upperside of hind wing and below
cell are also very few. ts
Swinhoe informs us that the habitat of the butterfly is 8S. India, Ceylon,
Burma, Java and Sumatra and that the type came from Salween, Moulmein,
that Moore records it from Mergui ; Elwes from Bernardmyo, Tavoy in Burma
and from Java; de Nicéville and Martin from Sumatra ; Adamson from
Toungoo ; Hampson from the Nilgiris, de Nicéville from the Palni Hills,
Davidson, Bell and Aitken bred it at Karwar but unfortunately did not figure
the larva and pupa; and that he has it in his collection from the Ataran
Valley in Burma and from Sumatra.
There are seven extra Indian species of the genus Aéromachus coming from
Japan, W. China, Amurland (zzachus, Ménétriés); from Thibet (catocyaneus
Mabille) ; from Moupin, E. Thibet (pzceus, Leech) ; W. China (chznensis, E1.
and Edw.) ; W. Java (javanicus, El. and Edw.) ; the Philippines (sasca,
Mabille) ; and from Shanghai, Ichang (#zanuus, Leech.)
A FEW DAYS AFTER URIAL OF THE PUNJAB |
By. Lr.-Cot. R. W. BURTON, 1.4. (Retired)
The Urial of the Punjab (Ovzs vignet punjabensis) is to be found
in several localities, readily accessible to the sportsman in need
of a few days holiday, and the pursuit of this handsome variety of
the wild sheep of Asia can afford excellent sport and can, at the
same time, furnish a handsome trophy—as an addition to the
collection of heads of Indian large game.
Early in December 1920, the writer was able to avail himself of a
few days’ leave for a much coveted shoot in the Kala Chitta Range;
and, at the same time, to see something of the wonders of the
ancient city of Taxila, now under excavation by the Archeological
Department of the Government of India.
On the way to Taxila, the motor car was stopped in a deep cutting
above which is an obelisk erected to the memory of General John
Nicholson. It occupies a fine commanding position and is visible
for many miles. In the cutting on one side of the road is a
fountain for drinking water and opposite to it are stone slabs,
inscribed in English and Urdu, to the memory of the famous
soldier. Proceeding along the Peshawar road, and turning off past
the Railway Station of Taxila, the car took me to within half a
mile of a large stupa the masonry work of which is of three kinds,
dating to different periods, the earliest being about 300 B.c. Some
of the stucco figures on this stupa are still in fair preservation.
From this place, by a drive of some three miles, a visit was made
to a monastery excavated out of the hillside. ‘These buildings
were, at the time of my visit, the most interesting and in the best
preservation of all those hitherto exposed to view. The small carved
figures surrounding the pedestals of some of the sculptures are
very grotesque though wonderful in execution, illustrating in a
most amusing way the strenuous efforts of men, monkeys,
elephants, camels, oxen and other animals, in supporting the
structure. Many of the sculptures are very beautiful with marked
Grecian features.
Others of the widely scattered excavated buildings were seen, as
also the extensive excavation, then under progress and by now no
doubt greatly advanced, by which a whole city is being laid bare.
The main street is about twenty-five feet wide, the side streets
being some ten to fifteen feet in width and at right angles to the
main road of the city. The rooms of the houses strike one as
extraordinarily small. The earthenware pipes by which the city
received its water-supply can be seen, much as they existed 2000
years ago. But all this is not urial shikar, and those of our
readers who have seen these wonderful ruins at a later period of
their exposure to modern eyes, and have also for reference a copy
of Sir John Marshall’s most interesting and informing handbook
A FEW DAYS. AFTER URIAL.OF THE. PUNSAB 839
concerning this ancient city, will rapidly pass by these few very
inadequate notes regarding it.
On atrival at the small wayside railway station, from which my
Shooting: oround | was) not fan distant, Wowas) sreeted: iby the
news that on the previous evening dacoits—probably trans-Indus
Pathans—had raided the railway station. The station buildings,
including the quarters of the station master and his assistant, were
seen to be completely gutted. The assistant was seated amidst the
charred remains of furniture, busily ticking away at his telegraph
instrument. The dacoits, having completed the work of collecting
everything of any value to themselves, had piled all the furniture,
drenched it with kerosine oil, and set the place on fire. The
women of the two households had been obliged to make over all
their gold and silver ornaments, but had not been otherwise
molested. The old station master had received a punch in the
chest from the butt end of a pistol.
The place was full of police, and I was escorted to the small
bungalow, situated on rising ground some three hundred yards
away, where I was to pass the night. When the gang, which
consisted of only three or four men, was busy on the railway
premises, one of their number went to this bungalow, occupied that
afternoon by an Indian official who was travelling, on transfer,
with his family. The young ruffian—he was said to be only about
eighteen years of age—entered into amicable conversation with
the official, and having learned all he could enquired whether a
pistol was carried. The reply being in the negative he promptly
produced his own weapon. Having obtained a. large sum of
money and all the ornaments of the women, he brutally shot the
unfortunate man in three places, and made his way back to his
companions. All this took place in broad daylight,.the setting sun
going down on the blazing buildings. The blood of the victim
was fresh on the whitewashed walls, the plaster of which was
scarred by bullets. Fortunate for me that I had not arrived twenty-
four hours earlier: weapons in locked cases are not of much avail
against the sudden appearance of a determined ruffian arined with
arevolver. This gang was not, I believe, brought to book on this
occasion; but met with. just deserts at a later period in con-
sequence of further murderous outrages in the Attock District.
The next day an early start was made. The camp was found
ready pitched at the foot of the hills, and two local shikaris, father
and son, produced the usual assortment of chits. In the afternoon
the rifle—-375—had to be tried at various distances, as a new batch
of cartridges loaded with a—to me —new kind of powder (Moddite)
had to be brought into use. It was found that the hundred
yards sight was good for any distance up to 250 yards and more.
This had been found to be the case with other cartridges in many
parts of the hills and plains, especially with. cartridges - of
foreign manufacture. Small bore rifles are mostly considerably
over-sighted. Moddite proved quite satisfactory, but it is best to
try and keep to one kind of powder and one maker. Every new
batch of cartridges ect however, be tested with a few trial
shots.
16
840 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIELY. Vol, XXX.
Leaving camp early next morning half-an-hour’s walking found
us—myself, the two shzkarzs, and a tiffin cooly—working along the
lower slopes of the rocky and scrub-covered hills. Soon after
daybreak—the rifle sights were as yet scarcely visible—a hissing
sort of whistle, the alarm note of the urial, drew our attention toa
couple of rams with horns of about 20 to 25 inches. They were
above us and soon made off uphill.
After that first view of game, until leaving the hills at four inthe
afternoon, we were seldom out of sight of and must have
seen over a hundred animals. Of all these, many of course being
ewes, only about half a dozen had good heads: by which I mean
horns of well over 30 inches. It was agreat pleasure to watch
these handsome game-like sheep with their reddish brown coats,
dark saddle backs, and long beards. Unfortunately the rutting
season was past, so those exciting battles between the rams could
not be watched.
At one time, early in the day, I was within sixty yards of a fine
fat fellow with fair horns. He was standing on his hind legs
feeding on the leaves of a thorny tree. It was interesting to watch
him, and those of his companions who were visible among the
scattered thorn and privet bushes of the ravine. Suddenly they
took alarm and galloped off up the opposite hill side. A slant of
wind no doubt. Such a stampede! A number of them stood on
a spur and gazed in our direction, presenting quite a small forest of
horns. They were only a hundred yards away and stared for quite
a long time.
About twelve o’clock a halt for ‘lunch’ was made. Packing up
was nearly done when the old shkzkarvi hastily signalled tome. A
number of urial were coming up the slope from the valley below
and would soon top the ridge to our side. Almost before the rifle
could be got ready the first comers arrived amid much clattering of
stones. Several sheep of both sexes appeared, paused to stare,
and dashed off up the ravine. Then came a ram with horns
of massive appearance. Evidently he was the owner of a fine head.
He halted exactly where the other animals had paused and a quickly-
sighted right shoulder shot at 120 yards dropped him where he
stood. This was a somewhat fortunate shot, as my right eye is not
inclass A 1, but for very quick shooting it must needs be trusted.
A great aid to quick aim is atin funnel, fitted over the backsight,
by means of which it is in constant shadow and all glare cut off.
This was the best head of the trip, and the owner of it was named
‘f/tifak’ on account of his chance appearance on the scene. The
horns presented almost a perfect circle, the tips touching the hair of
the cheek bones. Right horn 344 inches, left 33 inches, the circum
ference at the base being 103 inches. The beard was mostly white
and the photograph taken was an excellent one.
After this, within half an hour, another good -bead should
have been secured. The sun being in my eyes, and the beast
in shadow, a miss was scored over the top of his back. Perhaps,
also, I was a bit too hurried as the urial were on the move. One
must sometimes make excuses for such happenings.
During the past few days there had been a very keen wind and I
A PEW DAYS APLTER ORIAL OF THE PUNSAL ‘841
must at some time have exposed myself without being aware of it.
All day there had been a feeling of being chilled and this, in spite of
a warm vest, flannel shirt, cardigan waistcoat and puttoo coat! A
rising temperature and aching legs warned me to be off to camp
which was reached about five o’clock. Suitable treatment enabled
me to shake off the threatened attack of fever, so fears of
the shoot being cut short proved unfounded. In the evening
the younger shzkavz brought me a pigeon, minus its head, which I
identified as the Indian Stock Dove. He had killed it with a stone.
A number of these birds were round about camp, also some coveys
of chukor.
Next morning all the aches and pains were gone and a start was
made by seven o’clock. A bitterly cold wind was blowing from the
north, where snow-covered hills could be seen in the far distance.
By half-past eight four rams, all about 25 inches, were seen
and after that until past midday, nothing but one small ram and
some ewes. Probably most of the animals were sheltering among
the bushes and in the ravines. Gradually we made our way to the
highest part of this portion of the range, where there is a white
rock called ‘Chitta’. The whole range bears the name of Kala
Chitta. The old shtkarz says there is a black rock at the other end
of this range of hills, hence the name: may be so. Soon after
leaving ‘ Chitta’ some urial were sighted far below, down the
slopes of a wooded ravine, and the telescope disclosed that the
gentleman of the party was a white-bearded old fellow the posses-
sor of what seemed to be a perfect head of 32 or 33 inches. The
line of approach was down the reverse side of a very rocky
and precipitous ridge, and we eventuaily found ourselves a bit above
the patriarch who was on the opposite ridge, about 200 yards away,
and partly hidden by a bush. Our descent of the hill had not been
entirely noiseless and the animals were evidently on the alert.
There was no time to be lost, soa sitting position was quickly
gained under cover of a small rock. The shot went over or else
the beast was killed, as he instantly disappeared: but I knew it must
have been a miss. The strenuous climbdown had made me
shaky. After going to see whether, by any chance, the animal had
been hit, we rested fora while and a much-needed meal was
discussed. The next move was to work across the neighbouring
ravine to another ridge. From there the keen-eyed shikari drew
attention to a white speck far up the hill and the telescope disclosed
to view another patriarch, quite possibly the same beast recently
missed. He was along way cff in a small open space among the
shrubs with which the hill side just there was thickly covered.
Viewed through the telescope he made a handsome picture. He
was lying down with head erect, facing exactly towards me, his
horns forming a perfect circle on either side while his long white
beard was very conspicuous. It was this patch of white among the
green which gave him away : a younger animal, with a black beard,
would probably have escaped notice.
Leaving a man on the watch and giving him a whistle, we
recrossed the ravine to make our way up the reverse side of the spur
to that on which the former animal had stood when I missed him,
849° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCRALAASTASOCILTY V0 eae
Then one of the men was sent higher upto disturb the ram, as it
was hopeless to attempt to get near him where he lay. The s/z-
kart and I also climbed :higher up to a place where the valley was
fairly clear of bushes. No warning whistle came to us from below,
but we had hardly got there, and I had only just selected a place on
the steep hillside on which to sit, when a clatter of stones
announced an animal travelling at speed and a ewe was seen to
cross the bed of the ravine and make her way diagonally across the
opposite slope of the hill. ‘This gave the probable line of retreat
for the remainder. Soon some other ewes appeared and then the
ancient one. He crossed the za/a out of sight, going fast, but
halted—a fatal pause—in an open space on the opposite side of the
valley. A good and quick shot from the left shoulder took him at
200 yards through his right shoulder. Stone dead, he slithered down
the slope until fetched up by a small shrub. So much was he dead
mutton that he could not be hallaled. He proved to be a very old
animal, several teeth gone, hair turning white on shoulders and rump
while his beard was quite white. The saddle on his back was very
clearly marked. Horns 31 inches only. They had seemed bigger
than that. However he was a fine trophy and well deserved.
‘Dada’ was the quite appropriate name given tc him by the
men.
The third day new ground was tried and many urial were seen.
Early in the morning a good beast was missed. The approach was
not too easy: it was necessary to crawl some distance and be
careful to keep in shadow of bushes as no animals have more keen
eyesight than the ever-watchful wild sheep. The twigs of green
privet stuck in my sun topee enabled a sitting position by side ofa
bush to be slowly gained. Alas! I had omitted the morning routine
of wiping out the oiled barrel and a high miss was the inevitable
result—the ram gave no secondchance. On the shot being fired two
other rams ran back towards me and walked across our front at close
range, without detecting us, as we crouched crouched motionless
admiring their stately paces. The next valley was bare of cover, con-
taining only a few small gatherings of sheep with no shootable ram
among them. A long climb took us toa high ridge, on the other side
of which was a deep and precipitous ravine. Urial could be seen
some distance away ; but the wind was wrong, and the only thing to
do was to send a man round and above to give them his wind and so
enable the telescope and field glasses to get to. work. This was
done and from where merely a few animals lying down had been seen
a long procession of sheep now came into view. There were some
fair heads in this large flock of nearly a hundred animals, but none
of outstanding size. One of the ewes was obviously a tame sheep
strayed who now ran bleating loudly with her wild sisters.
Slowly following the long procession—the ‘ /zssala’ the men called
it—appeared two splendid looking rams. Evidently but little alarm-
ed, they branched off by themselves and lay down, out of shot, under
athorny tree. After a wait of over an hour some urial came from
below and, going upwards, climbed towards the big fellows who
had meanwhile got up and, with frequent halts, were coming along
towards them and so nearer to us, When the lower party, slowly
ALSHEW DAVS AFTER ORIAL-OF THE PUNJAB 843
pacing, suddenly caught sight of the heads of the veterans, or,
perhaps, merely heard the slight noise of their movement, they got
a great scare and wildly bolted in the opposite direction. The two
old gentlemen came quietly on. Foolishly becoming nervous as to
the distance, which, owing to the deep and wide intervening ravine
was not easy to judge, I put up the 200 yards leaf and twice went
over the back of the larger one of the pair. There was not much
to choose between them. He turned uphill, and the third shot,
aimed much lower, got him through the body and pulled him up
short; a. fourth bullet broke his neck. The man up the hill came
flying down, at such a pace as only these hill men can attain, his
knife glittering in the rays of the sun, now getting low in the sky, and
on reaching the ram called out that he was dead. ‘ Hallal karo,
Flallal karo’ yelled the three men with me and this was done amid
great reverberating shouts of ‘ Allaho Akbar’ from our side. This
patriarch also had an almost wholly white beard. His horns were
32 inches being very symmetrical and massive. The tips were
worn and not broken. He was ironically named the ‘ Szfah Salah’
on account of his having taken up a strategic position, with his
‘ Adjutant-General’ in attendance.. This was the suggestion of the
man added to our party this day and who had done some military
service.
We were far afield, camp was not reached until dark and the
unfortunate ‘ Szfah Salah’ was pronounced by the village mullah
to be unlawful meat as he had no breath in him when hadllaled.
This. was certainly the case as his neck was broken: but if blood
flows that should suffice. However the strict Muhammadans of
this. part of the country will not allow even that small latitude in
the matter. This mullah had a fine voice andit was most impressive
to hear his sonorous call to prayers ringing out over the country
side, especially in the early hours of the coming day.
This long day’s work over the knife-€dged rocks and rough stony
hills completely finished the new rope soles with which the shoot
was commenced. I took to the chapli of the country after this, and
also when in the Salt Range where the going is even worse than in
the Kala Chitta Hills.
There was said to be an albino ram in this part of the range,
‘white as your handkerchief’ the shikari described him. Much to
my regret he was not seen. On the way back to camp that day we
came down a rocky ravine which somewhat reminded me of an
immense gorge lately seen in a side valley of the Sutlej River, far
up on the Tibet border, where huge pieces of the hill side had been
displaced by a recent earthquake: so said the local people. Telling
the men of this they enquired the cause of earthquakes which was
explained to best of my ability. I was then informed that the
mullah’s explanation was that a big bull supported. the earth on his
horns, one horn at a time, and the earthquake occurred when he got
tired, which was at very long intervals, and had to change the
weight from one horn to the other! Perhaps the jovial fellows were
pulling my leg.
The fourth day of this most enjoyable outing was a day of
misses ; very suitably, four misses! A fine ram was found at about
844" JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ALY SOCLEI wa eo
eleven o’clock and missed at some 220 yards: a down hill shot.
Later on a real good head was seen. After a long stalk, very
skilfully conducted by the younger shtkarvz—the old man was bowled
over by raging toothache—a shot was obtained on the opposite side
of aravine, at a beast which I took to be the animal we were after.
The lad said I went over him. Just after firing this shot there was
a slight noise behind us and there were half a dozen rams with the
big one among them! They were watching curiously, wondering
no doubt why we were crawling about, and made off rapidly to
quickly disappear among the many rocks and bushes. The big ram
was not again seen. Much ground was covered and yet another
miss ata goodram. Still over the top says the shikari. On the
way to camp the remains of an urial, evidently killed some days
previously by a baniet, were found. Doubtless the few panthers
which inhabit those! hills take full toll of these wild sheep and are
seldom in want of a meal.
Discouraged by want of success we slowly picked our way ne
descending paths. The bearer of a shootable head was spied far
down the hill and the stalk resulted in yet another miss! my
‘little Mary’ was somewhat uneasy and may be that affected my
shooting during this day. A number of good heads had been seen ;
the best of them about 33 inches.
It seems however, that the real reason why there was no success in
that day’s shikar was, that we met an old woman on leaving the village
in the morning ; and one of the coolies saw a hare. With two such
bad omens how was it possible for the rifle to hit anything ? Hada
jackal been seen matters would have been entirely different! In
Kashmir also it is considered very unlucky if women are met when
men are setting out for shikar.
On the last morning, the fifth day of the shoot, a fox was seen;
not good, but later on a jackal crossed our path and this counter-
acted the former malign influence so we soon sighted urial. The
stalk was not difficult as there was an icy wind and the animals were
all sheltering from it in aravine. The only rain of any size proved
to be certainly under 30 inches. A stone thrown down the hill side
moved these animals and also some others which had been lying
up, unseen, on our side of the ravine. They soon came into view.
One ram appeared to bear a good head and the shot, taken tail on
at 120 yards, took him at the place aimed at, the centre of the left
buttock, travelling forward to the chest, and he only moved a couple
of yards. ‘(his time the meat was ‘lawful’; very much so quite
judging by the shambles the men made of the place. An old beast
he was, turning grey as to beard, but not, a ‘patriarch’. His horns
were very much broken at the tips, and also at the bend, probably in
fighting, and as he was evidently something of a bruiser they named
him ‘ Pahkiwan ”.
Four heads 344”, 33”, 32” and 30” had been obtained, enough in-
deed, and no more coal be shot. The old shikari, who had hunted
urial of these hills for thirty years, told me he only once saw a head
of 36 inches, and that in 1918. Anything of 32 inches and over is
quite good, and I was fortunate in the heads I secured. Protection
appears to have come into force about twenty years ago, and to
A FEW DAYS AFTER URIAL' OF THE PUNJAB 845
have been much needed, as urial were becoming scarce. The men
said there was a good deal of poaching going on in some parts, also
grazing of cattle and goats, so disturbing to the sheep, but that the
forest guards were powerless in the matter. That can be readily
imagined. The people of these parts are not of the most law-
abiding in the land. On a later occasion I again visited this locality
but saw no heads better than that of ‘ Pahlwan’; perhaps the sheep
had moved ground, or the grey-beards been shot by other sports-
men.
The urial of the Salt Range are smaller animals than those of the
Kala Chitta Hills both as to bulk of body and size of horns. I saw
nothing there over 26 inches. Probably the more arid nature of the
country and the inferior feeding has something to do with the
matter. Animals were not plentiful and as strict protection as it is
possibje to attain seemed indicated, in the block I was shooting
in at any rate, and probably in the other blocks as well. This was |
in 1923. Chinkara with heads running to 13 inches are to be found
in the Salt Range and in some places chukor, see-see, and grey
partridges are plentiful. The walking is atrocious.
On my way from camp to railway station, the old shzkarz
accompanying me as I was taking him to a doctor who would
extract the offending tooth,—a chinkara with horns 114 inches in
length afforded a somewhat difficult stalk which ended in a success-
ful shot at about 180 yards. A few others were seen, all of them
very wild, and so the blackened ruins of the station were gained by
sun down and this most pleasant and successful outing came to an
end.
My train was due to leave at 4 a.m., and I had a somewhat rest-
less night on the station platform, one of my awakenings being
due to the rumbling arrival of a bullock cart bringing the coffin
containing the mortal remains of the unfortunate victim of the
dacoity. He had died that morning and his body was being
conveyed to his native place in the same train by which If was to
travel, a coincidence which occasioned sundry sober reflections as
to what ‘ might have been.’
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES
BY
Major F. CC. PRASER, LMS. oF iS
Part XXII
(With one plate and 3 text-figures. )
(Continued from page 663 of Vol. XXX.)
TAP e
eee
oa — Ren
Size
4
anal
Fig. I—Wings of Hleliogomphus promelas (Selys.) Male
Genus~— HELIOGOMPHUS Laid
Insects cf moderate build, limited to the Oriental Region, all very similar in
appearance, ccloured black marked with bright greenish yellow.
Venation moderately close; wings long and narrow, base of hindwing
oblique, approaching that of Anisogomphus ; pterostigma small, less than
one-third the length of distance between node and distal end of pterostigma,
rarely braced and then only imperfectly so; basal incomplete antenodal
nervure absent ; arc usually between the second and third antenodal nervures
or more rarely opposite the second; sectors of arc approximating to each
other immediately after their origin, and in some wings, of individual
specimens, actually fused for a short distance as in the Lzdbel/ulinae (but there
is always a short separation after their origin); 1 to 2 cubital nervures
in all wings; only a single row of postanal cells in the forewing, 3 to 4
in the hind; first postanal cell of hindwing always entire, small, not nearly
extending to proximal angle of subtrigone; 5 to 6 traversing nervures
between JM/1-227 and Mzv in forewing, 3 to 4 in the hind; forking of J/-7
and 4/i1z in both wings unsymmetrical; only a single row of cells between
Mi and Mia; 3 to 4 rows of -cells in discoidal field at level of node in the
forewing ; only two rows of cells posterior to Cuzz in the same wing, this
nervure being flat or only slightly pectinate ; trigone moderately elongate, its
costal border in the hindwing nearly twice the length of base, entire in
all wings.
Head very narrow from before back, very wide from side to side, almost
Zygopterous in shape, that of the female especially, bearing a strong
resemblance to a female Pseudophaea.
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 847
Legs rather long, hind femora extending to apical border of segment one,
or slightly overlapping segment two; in the female armed with two rows of
rather wideiy spaced, everly-sized, rather elongate spines. (Somewhat similar
to those of /udogomphus.) In the male, the femora armed with rows of very
minute, very closely: set spines.
Abdomen of male tumid at segments 1 and 2, thin and cylindrical from
three to the proximal end of seven, the apical half of the latter and segments 8
to 10 evenly and rather widely dilated laterally and dorso-ventrally. Abdo-
men of female cylindrical and of even width throughout.
Genitalia prominent, vesicle rather large, hamules small. Vulvar scale
small and rudimentary. Anal superior appendages lyrate, inferior cleft.
Distribution. Assam, Burma, the Western Ghats of India, Ceylon, Java,
Indo-China and Borneo.
Genotype. —Fleliogomphus nietnert (Selys).
Heliogomphus nietneri (Selys) (Leptogomphus nietneri) (Gomphus nietneri
and Anisogomphus ? nietnert) Bull. Acad. Belg., (2), xlvi, p. 449 (1878) ;
Kirby, (Auisogomphus nietnert), Cat. Odon. p. 69 (1890) ; Will. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Hist. Mus.; vol. xxxiil,p. 295 (1907); Laid. Rec. Ind: Mus.,
vol. xxiv, pp. 379-380 (1922) ; Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxvi, .p. 416
(1924.)
Male. Abdomen 35mm. Hindwing 30 mm.
Head. Labium pale yellow, middle lobe bordered with brown; labrum
giossy black marked with two moderately broad, closely apposed, bright
citron yellow spots ; face black, frons traversed by a broad stripe of greenish
yellow which slightly overlaps the foreborder ; vertex black, occiput yellow in
its anterior third, black posteriorly, depressed, its crest slightly elevated,
fringed with short black hairs.
Prothorax black with a broad anterior collar of greenish yellow.
Thorax coal biack marked with greenish yellow as follows :—A slender
mesothoracic collar, slightly interrupted at its middle, a narrow oblique
antehumeral stripe not confluent below with the collar, nor extending up as
far as alar sinus, pointed below, squared above; a small upper humeral
spot. Laterally the sides greenish yellow marked with two broadish black
stripes, the anterior one the broader, the posterior nearly terminal. Beneath
pale yellow. (The position of the hinder stripe as given by Selys seems to me
rather doubtful and is more probably situated along the lateral suture.)
Legs black, femora brown within and outward at the base.
Wings hyaline, costal border finely yellow; 2 cubital nervures in the
forewing ; anal border of hind very oblique ; pterostigma yellow, 2°5 to3 mm.
siender, over 33 cells, not braced; membrane absent; nodal index 16/17
antenodals, 14 postnodals.
Abdomen with large rounded oreillets on the second segment, bearing
minute black denticles along the hinder border. Abdomen black marked
with bright yellow as follows :—Segment one with a triangular dorsal spot,
segment two with a bilobed dorsal spot, 3 to 7 with only the dorsal carina
finely marked, but segments 6 and 7 with larger basal spots, the sides
of segments 1 and 2 broadly yellow, 3 to 8 with baso-lateral spots tapering
apicalward, 8 and 9 with apico-lateral spots, 10 unmarked.
Anal appendages. Superior 1:5 mm. long, rather longer than segment 10,
white turning to brown at the tips, flat and very broad as seen from above,
converging at extreme base, turning at first out and then in, so as to enclose
a minute foramen, the tips nearly touching, an outer tooth near the base,
expanding immediately after this and with the extreme tip turned up and out.
Laterally the appendage thickened at its middle, truncate at the end, the tip
rising almost perpendicularly. The two appendages are lyrate and may be
likened to the curling horns of a cow.
Inferior appendage only about half the length of superiors, broadly cleft
and forked, the tips of its branches projecting latterally from beneath the
superiors.
Habitat. Ceylon in montane or submontane areas such as Rhambodah.
The type, a male, is the only specimen known of this insect, but I have a
single male in my collection from Kallar, South India, which seems to fall
midway between this and the next species to be described. Type in the
Hagen collection.
17
848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Heligomphus promelas (Selys) (Gomphus promelas) Bull, Acad. Belg.
(2), xxxv, p. 759 (1873) ; Kirby (Aeshna promelas), Cat. Odon., p. 68
(1890) 3 Will. Proc. UsS..Nat.Hist:, lcs, p. 305 (4907) Laid lke, aes
(1922) ; Fras. l.c., pp. 416-417 (1922), and p. 473 (1924), (Helzogomphus
pruinans).
Male. Abdomen 42 mm. Hindwing 32 mm.
Head black marked with yellow ; labium yellowish brown ; labrum black
marked with two basal greenish yellow spots whose opposing borders are
concave; mandibles greenish white; face black, the frons marked above
with a greenish white transverse stripe; occiput black, depressed; eyes
bottle-green.
Prothorax black, the posterior lobe, a geminate spot in front of it, and an
anterior collar yellowish green, beneath pruinosed white.
Thorax black on the dorsum, greenish yellow on the sides marked as
follows :—A complete metothoracic collar, short antehumeral stripes not quite
reaching the alar sinus above and not nearly reaching the mesothoracic collar
below, parallel with the middorsal carina. Laterally the two sutures mapped
out in black. Beneath and below pruinosed white, especially in very adult
specimens.
Legs black, the hind femora armed with a row of very closely-set, very
small spines.
Wings hyaline, occasionally slightly enfumed ; pterostigma blackish brown,
very rarely braced and then only poorly so and not usually in more than one
or two of the wings; only asingle cubital nervure to all wings; costal side
: : ' : ‘ 11-15/15-12
of trigone of hindwing twice as long as the basal; nodal index {221112219
other points as for genus.
Abdomen black marked with pale greenish yellow as follows :—A narrow
middorsal stripe extending from segment 1 to 5, thickest on 2 where it may be
lobulated, a large lateral spot on segment 1 and a similar, but larger one, on
segment 2 which envelops the oreillett, small baso-lateral spots on segments
3 to 6, growing progressively smaller as traced from segment to segment, 7
with a ring occupying about its basal third, lastly an occasional dorsal spot
on segment 8, remaining segments entirely black.
Anal appendages lyrate as for genotype. Superiors black at base, pale
green to yellow at apices, which curl first in, then out and up. Inferior black.
Genitalia: lamina very depressed, deeply bifid, hood-shaped; inner
hamules narrow, stillete-shaped, pointed ; outer much more robust, elongate,
the inner side of apex curling slightly up; vesicle of penis black, globular,
rather prominent, its upper border narrowly but rather deeply notched.
Female. Abdomen 39-42 mm. Hindwing 35-38 mm.
Very similar to the male but more robust. Occiput simple, depressed.
The antehumeral stripes rather longer and sometimes confluent at a point
with the mesothoracic collar. The yellow spots on the sides of abdomen
more extensive, those on 3 to 6 extending from base to the transverse suture
and on 3 to 5 continued after a short interruption as an elongate spot which
does not quite reach the apical border of segments. On segment 6 there may
be a vestigial medio-lateral spot.
Legs with longer spines on the femora. Vulvar scale triangular, extending
for about one-third the length of segment 9, glossy black.
Wings usually distinctly saffronated at the extreme base, broader, nodal
12-15]15-11
index ic 12213" Anal appendages black with inner yellow stripe.
Distribution. Nilgiris, Coorg and Kanara. I described this species from a
single pair taken at Burliyar, Nilgiris, South India, 1,500 ft., 29, vii. 21, under
the name of A. pruinans. Subsequently whilst endeavouring to place
Gomphus promelas Selys, which was described from a single female from
‘Madras ’, I was struck by the extreme improbability of such a species being
taken at sea-level, and conjectured that the Presidency and not the city had
been meant for the locality given.
Knowing that most of the types of Odonata coming from the presidency had
been taken in the Nilgiris, I read over the description with all female
Gomphines coming from the Nilgiris and found that it compared exactly
with AY. pruinans.
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 849
As the old Ghat Road by which all Madras civilians travelled to the Hills,
traversed the bed of the Burliyar river at the spot where I had taken
fH. pruinans, I have little doubt but that the type of promelas was taken at
the same spot.
The insect is comparatively rare in the Nilgiris, but is equally common in
Coorg, especially in the river running through Hallery Estate, six miles from
Mercara, 3,000 ft. It also breeds in the upper course of the Sampaji river,
Mangalore Ghat.
Heliogomphus ceylonicus (Selys) (Gomphus ceylonicus), Bull. Acad. Belg.
(2) xlvi, p. 455 (1878) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. (Aeshna ceylonica), p. 68
(8390) 7 Willa l.-c., p. S0>: (190A) Ey aide se.) 91.399) (1922).
Male. (Female unknown) Abdomen, 41mm. Hindwing 39 mm.
The close resemblance of this species to the female of promelas, and the
unbraced character of the pterostigma places it without doubt in genus
Fleliogomphus. Although clearly very closely related to other species,
it differs in so many respects that it deserves to retain its specific
rank.
Head, labium pale brown; labrum black marked with two basal yellow
spots; base of mandibles yellow; ante- and post-clypeus black, the latter
with a medial yellow spot and another on each side against the eyes; frons
black with its crest broadly yellow ; upper surface of head black including the
occiput, which is fringed with long, black hairs, is slightly raised in the
middle in a small, triangular obtuse point and has six teeth near the eyes,
finally a rough tubercle behind. Back of eyes glossy black with a spot of
bright yellow at the middle. (Prothorax undescribed. )
Thorax black marked as follows:—A broadly interrupted mesothoracic
collar, narrow, oblique antehumeral stripes not extending as far as the alar
sinus above or the mesothoracic collar below, a small upper humeral spot.
Laterally greenish yellow marked by two narrow-black stripes on the lateral
sutures. All these stripes confluent below at the trochanters.
Wings hyaline ; pterostigma large, broad, pale yellow (possibly teneral),
3-4 mm. long, over 3-4 cells, unbraced ; nodal index 14-16/16-14.
Abdomen shaped as for genus, black marked with yellow as follows :—
A fine middorsal line running from segment 1 to 6 tapering apicad on
segments 1 and 2, finer on remaining segments and not extending quite to
apex of segment 6. Segment 6 with a broader and basal marking.
The sides of 1 and 3 broadly yellow, 4to9 with small baso-lateral spots, a
larger one on each side of 7.
Legs black, armed as for genus.
Anal appendages and the conical protuberance between them black.
Distribution. Ceylon. A single female from the Rhambodah Pass, collected
by Mr. Nietner. Selys remarks that the species is closely related to Aromelas.
The differences between this and other species are tabulated below.
Heliogomphus walli sp. nov.
Female. (Male unknown). Abdomen 38mm. Hindwing 36 mm.
Head, labium dark yellow, the lobes tipped with brownish black ; !abrum
black with two large triangular yellow basal spots; rest of face, frons and
upper surface of head black save for a narrow yellow stripe on crest of frons,
which is narrowly interrupted at its middle. Occiput simple, naked ; back of
eyes glossy black, unmarked with yellow.
Prothorax black, a narrow anterior collar yellow.
Thorax black marked with yellow as follows :—A very deep mesothoracic
collar not interrupted at its middle, very short oblique antehumeral stripes
widely separated from the alar sinus above and from the mesothoracic collar
below ; no upper humerai spot. Laterally the sutures narrowly mapped out
in black.
Wings hyaline, very palely enfumed; pterostigma blackish brown, over
44 to 5 cells, poorly braced in two wings, unbraced in the others ; nodal index
a es 2 cubital nervures in three of the wings, 1 in the other (hindwing) ;
sectors of are fused for a short distance at origin ; three rows of postanal cells
in hindwing.
Legs black, hind femora dark yellow, paler within, armed as for genus,
850 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Abdomen black marked with yellow as follows :—Segment 1 with a broad
triangular apical spot on dorsum and the lower part of the sides from level of
oreillet ; 3 to 6 with the middorsal carina finely yellow and a broadish yellow
stripe on the ventral border, which is interrupted slightly by the transverse
suture on segment 4, more widely so on segments 5 and 6, segment 7
similar, but both dorsal and lateral stripes considerably broader, the baso-
lateral part of stripe expanding into a spot; remaining segments unmarked.
Anal appendages pale yellow, small, conical.
Vulvar scale barely one-third the length of segment 9, triangular,
slightly bifid at apex, black. (A few eggs attached to it are pale yellow,
narrow, oval and with rounded ends.)
Distribution. A single female coilected by Col. F. Wail, 1.M.s. at Nalande,
Ceylon, 10. ix. 24. Type will be deposited in the B. M.
Closely related to ceylonicus, nietneri and promelas.
Heliogomphus selysi, sp. nov. (Leptogomphus nietnert) Selys, Odonates de
Birmanie, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov., xxx. (1890) ; Laid. (Helzogomphus
nietnert) 1. c., pp. 379, 380 (1922).
Male. (Female unknown). Abdomen 32-35 mm. Hindwing 28-30 mm.
Head, labium dark yellow ; labrum glossy black with two small triangular
basal whitish green spots ; bases of mandibles greenish yellow ; rest of face,
frons and upper surface of head black save for a transverse stripe of yellow on
crest of frons constricted at its middle.
Occiput simple, low, slightly convex, fringed with short hairs.
Prothorax black, a geminate spot in front of posterior lobe, a small lateral
spot and a narrow anterior collar of yellow.
Thorax black, marked as for promelas, the mesothorocic collar usually
finely interrupted.
Legs black, armature of femora as for genus.
Wings hyaline ; nodal index 11-16/15-12 ; 2 cubital nervures in all wings ;
pterostigma short, over 4 to 5 cells, dark brown.
Abdomen black marked with greenish yellow as follows :—A fine dorsal
stripe from segment 1 to 6, becoming very obscure on segment 4, and variably
present or absent on 5 and 6. Laterally segments 1 and 2 including the
oreillets broadly yellow, a_ baso-lateral spot on segment 3, remaining
segments unmarked.
Anal appendages. Superior yellow or in some specimens blackish brown
at the base, pale yellow thereafter, the outer tooth at the base more robust
than in promelas. Inferior black, as for promelas.
Distribution. The type is a male from Leito, Burma, collected by Mr. Fea
and now in the Selysian collection. A pair belonging to the same species in
the Indian Museum Collection, Calcutta, collected by Dr. Kemp (No. H7977/
Hi), from the Garo Gills, Tura, Assam, 1,500 ft., have been described by Laid-
law. who expresses doubt as to whether they are really conspecific with
nietnert. Mr. T. Bainbrigge / Fletcher has also taken this insect on the
Gauhati road near Shillong, Assam, 1000 ft., 2. viii. 19. This species appears
to be the sole representative of its genus in Northern India and Burma ; it is
easily distinguished from all others by the total absence of abdominal mar-
kings after segment 4. In the following table, the specific points of all five
species are shown:—
Heliogomphus nietneri (Selys). Upper humeral spot present, which character
it shares with the next species ; 2 cubital nervures, and well-marked
lateral abdominal stripes as far as segments 8 or 9.
Heliogomphus ceylonicus (Selys). Upper humeral spot present, a lateral spot
on the postclypeus (only present in this species), and the mesothoracic
collar broadly interrupted.
Heliogomphus selysi sp. nov. Has the transverse stripe on crest of frons
constricted at its middle, the mesothoracic collar interrupted, no lateral
yellow markings after segment 3 and no markings whatever after seg-
ments 5 or 6, lastly there are 2 cubital nervures in ali wings.
Holiogomphus promelas (Selys). Mesothoracic collar interrupted or entire,
antehumeral stripes very long, longer than in any other species of the
genus and occasionally even confluent below with the mesothoracic
collar, lastly segment 7 with a broad basal yellow ring (only present in
this species).
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 851
Heliogomphus walli sp. nov. Has the lateral abdominal markings very well
developed as far as segment 7, none on segments 8 or 9, the meso-
thoracic collar unusually deep and broadly confluent, the hind femora
dark yellow, paler within (the only species in which the legs are not
entirely black), 2 cubital nervures in most wings, lastly the transverse
stripe on crest of frons interrupted (the only species in which it is so.)
Genus--MICROGOMPHUS SELYS.
Big; -2.
Fig. 2. Wings of Wicrogomphus torquatus (Selys) male.
Insects of small size, the smallest within the family Gomphidae, breeding in
streams in submontane areas in the oriental region.
Venation. Wings of moderate length, narrow ; reticulation close ; base of
hindwing very oblique, shallowly excavate ; costa uncoloured ; pterostigma
braced or only poorly so, about one-fourth the length of distance between the
node and distal end of pterostigma ; incomplete basal antenodal nervure
absent : arc between the first and second antenodal nervures ; sectors of arc
approximated immediately after their origin ; 1 cubital nervure to all wings ;
1 row only of postanal cells in forewing 2 te 3 inthe hind ; first postanal cell in
hindwing entire, extending basad for only about half the length of subtrigone ;
5 to 6 transverse nervures between J/7-272 and J/iv in forewing, 3 to 4 in the
hind ; forking of M4/-22 and Mit unsymmetrical in all wings ; 1 row of cells
between J/7z and Aa ; 3 rows of discoidal cells in forewing at level of node;
Cuit slightly pectinate, one or two rows of cells between it and hinder margin
of wing in the male, 2 in the female; trigone of hindwing subequilateral,
costal and basal sides almost equal, proximal side often slightly but distinctly
angulate—this character also being shared by the trigone of the forewing ; all
trigones entire.
Head narrow from before back, transversely elongate, but not to the extent
seen in Heliogomphus.
Legs slim, moderately long, overlapping base of second segment, armed in
the male with rows of very closely-set, very minute, evenly-sized spines
(serrate), in the female with robust, widely-spaced, rather long, sub-equal
spines (pectinate.)
Abdomen tumid at the base, very slim and cylindrical from 3 to the apical
end of segment 7, slightly widened and dorso-ventrally expanded from the
apical half of 7 to 10.
Anal appendages. Superior chelate, rather widely divaricate, with an inner
branch which gives them the chelate appearance, longer than segment 10 ;
852 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
inferior variable, slightly or much shorter than superiors, slightly bifid at
apex or subtriangular with subacute apex.
Genitalia. Hamules rather long, vesicle of penis tumid, approaching that
of Cyclogomphus but not nearly so exaggerated. Vulvar scale well-defined,
triangular, extending for nearly half the length of segment 9, the extreme
apex bifid.
Distribution. Throughout the oriental region, in regions of heavy rainfall,
in montane and submontane areas only. Within Indian limits from the
Western Ghats and west of the Deccan, Burma and Assam.
Species of this genus are arboreal by nature, but they often descend to
settle on rocks in the bed of their parent streams, from which, when disturbed,
they rise to the branches of trees high overhead. Settled in such situations,
their shagreen colour renders them remarkably inconspicuous. Flight
although short, is swift.
Genotype.—JAficrogomphus chelifer Selys. (Malaysia.)
Microgomphus torquatus (Selys) Cyclogomphus torquatus, Bull. Acad. Belg.,
xxi (2), p. 63 (1854) ; Kirby (Cyclogomphus torquatus), Cat. Odon., p.
69 (1890) ; Mon. Gomph., p. 108 (1857) ;;Will (Cyclogomphus torquatus)
l. c. p., 297 (1922)°;.Laid. (AZzcrogomphus torguatus) 1. c., pp. 380-383
(1922) ; Fras. l. c., p. 474 (1924).
Male. Abdomen 22-24mm. Hindwing 21mm. (PI. fig. 4.)
Head. Labium yellow ; labrum greenish yellow, the base and front border
narrowly black, the basal marking produced as a triangular mark in the
middle line; frons, bases of mandibles, ante and post-clypeus greenish
yellow, the frons with a broad black transverse stripe where it joins the
postclypeus and sending downwards a short oblique submedial prolongation
on the postclypeus at either side; vertex and occiput black, the latter with a
low, slightly concave crest which is bordered with about ten minute spines.
Prothorax black with an anterior collar, a small medial spot on the
posterior Jobe and a larger spot on each side yellow.
Thorax black marked with yellow as follows :—A complete mesothoracic
collar which is confluent with a fine line of yellow on the lower part of the
middorsal carina, a very oblique fusiform antehumeral stripe not confluent
with the mesothoracic collar, nor reaching the alar sinus above. Anu upper
humeral spot which splits the humeral black above so as to form an upright
black ‘Y’. Laterally greenish yellow marked by a black stripe on the
posterior suture, which is joined at its middle by a narrow oblique black line
descending from beneath the forewing and is thus converted into a second
Dlacks:Y\t.
Legs black, the hind femora striped on the extensor surface with greenish
yellow which tapers apicad, hind femora armed as for genus.
Wings hyaline; pterostigma pale brown between black nervures, unbraced,
over four cells; three rows of postanal cells in forewing; nodal index
9-12)12-8
9-10} 9-8"
Abdomen black marked with bright greenish yellow as follows :~—Segment
1 with an apical spot on middorsum, narrowly confluent with a broad lateral
fascia along the apical border of segment, segment 2 with a middorsal
bilobed spot not quite reaching the apical border, the sides broadly yellow
including the large oreillets, the subdorsal black curving down behind the
oreillets, segment 3 similarly marked, but the lateral yellow usually finely
divided by the black transverse suture, 4 and 5 with broad basal rings
occupying about one-third the length of segments, a longitudinal oval spot on
the middorsal carina at the middle of each segment, segment 6 similar but
the dorsal spot absent, the basal ring on the sides overlapping the transverse
suture for a short distance, segment 7 with its basal half or more yellow,
this colour extending nearer the apical border on the sides than on the
dorsum, segment 8 very similar to 7 allowing for the difference in
length and breadth of the segments, segment 9 with only a small ventro-
lateral medial spot, 10 unmarked.
Anal appendages as for genus, superiors yellow tipped on the outer side
and bordered beneath with black, conical, tapering to a fine point, rather
longer than segment 10, furnished with fine finger-like branches on the inner
side, which spring from a point slightly basal to middle of appendage and
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 853
converge inwards until their apices meet slightly before the level of the apex
of superior appendages. Inferior black shorter than superiors, subtriangular,
the apex markedly bifid, the two branches turning rather abruptly outward.
Big onc.)
ih many specimens the superior appendages have a minute but distinct
spine present on the outer side near the apex, but it does not appear to be at
all constant.
Genitalia : lamina black depressed deeply notched in a rounded arch ; inner
hamules slim, spine-like, shorter than outer which are robust, parallel-sided,
with the outer corner acutely spined and project back and down from the
genital sac, yellow at base, black at apex; lobe of penis bulbous black,
deeply notched, very prominent.
Female. Abdomen 27mm. Hindwing 23 mm.
Closely resembles the male, but more robust and larger. Occiput shallowly
concave, with 4 to 5 minute black spines bordering it on either side of the
middle line.
Lateral markings of abdomen more extensive, segments 4 to 6 with a
long oval spot on the middle of each side. The middorsal oval spot on
segment 5 absent; segment 7 with the lateral yellow finely divided by
the black transverse suture, 8 with the basal ring interrupted on the
middorsal carina.
Anal appendages very small, yellow, conical, pointed.
Wings saffronated at the bases; nodal index rea two rows of cells
between Cuzz and the hinder margin of forewing.
Vulvar scale bright yellow, triangular, half the length of segment 9
bifid for half its length, the branches closely apposed.
Distribution. The western parts of the Deccan, Poona and Satara. The
type, a female in the Selysian collection, probably comes from the former
locality, where 1 have found it rather common during the wetter months of
the year. Males may be seen resting on stones or rocks in the bed of the
Byrobah Nullah and also in the neighbouring canal and Mullah River, or they
may be beaten up from evergreens bordering these streams.
Microgomphus souteri Fras. (J/icrogomphus torquatus soutert) \.c. p. 474
(1924). (Pl. fig. 5.)
I had regarded this species as a subspecies of forqguatus, but now, with
more material available, see that the differences are so broad that the
relationships must be much wider than I at first thought them to be.
Male. Abdomen 29mm. Hindwing 24mm.
Head. Labium pale yellow ; labrum glossy black with two large triangular
greenish white spots nearly confluent at the middle of labrum and separated
from the front border by a narrow stripe of black; anteclypeus greenish
white ; postclypeus and front of frons glossy black, the lower outer part of
the former greenish white continuing the colour of the anteclypeus as a
transverse stripe, which traverses the whole face at that level ; upper surface
of frons greenish white, vertex and occiput black, latter slightly concave,
fringed with yellow hairs but no minute spines visible; eyes bottle
green.
Prothorax black with a broad greenish yellow anterior collar.
Thorax black, markings differing from those of forguatus as follows :—
The mesothoracic collar slightly interrupted in the middle, the middorsal
carina unmarked with yellow bellow, no upper humeral spot, antehumeral
stripes narrower and shorter, finally the black stripe on the postero-lateral
suture is broader, and usually so broadly confluent with the shorter oblique
stripe that the enclosed yellow ground colour is generally blotted out. Legs
entirely black. ;
Wings not differing from those of forguatus, but reticulation closer and
9-15|16-11
12-11}11-11
Abdomen black marked with greenish yellow as follows:—Segment 1
with a narrow apical border, 2 with a broad basal ring, which includes the
oreillets and a short apico-lateral spot not always present, 3 to 6 with
narrow basal rings occupying about one-sixth of the segments, 7 similar
nodal index higher
854 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
but the ring occupying the basal third and laterally overlapping the trans-
verse suture, 8 to 10 unmarked.
Anal appendages as for genus but differing markedly from forguatus. as
follows :—The inner branches are much longer, in that they not only spring
from the appendages much nearer the base, but extend also beyond their
apices. The small outer spine near the apex of superior appendages is much
more noticeable. Inferior appendage more robust, slightly longer than
in forguatus (Fig: 3. 1.)
Genitalia similar to that of Zorguatus but the apex of outer hamules curling
forwards.
Female. Abdomen 28mm. Hindwing 25 mm.
Very similar to the male, its markings differing in the same respects as does
the female from the male of forvguatus, thus there are lateral oval spots on
segments 4 to 6 but much smaller than in forguatus, and segments 8 to 10 are
without markings, The basal marking on segment 7 is strictly limited
behind by the transverse suture.
Distribution. Confined to Coorg and South Kanara. ‘Types in the B. M.,
- paratypes in Mr. C. A. Souter’s and my. own collections. Habits similar to
the last. Breeds in the Sampaji and Hallery rivers, Coorg, and I have also
taken it on the Kibribetta stream, 2,000 to 3,500 feet.
The differences between this species and forguatus are so numerous and
marked that it is hardly necessary to point them out, but it will suffice to
mention that in the former the face is largely biack, whilst in forguatus it is
largely yellow, in the former also the abdomen has the abdominal markings
much more restricted, the upper humeral spot absent and lastly the inner
branch of the superior appendage springs from nearer the base and extends
beyond the appendage.
Microgomphus burmicus sp. nov. (Pl. fig. 6.)
Male. Abdomen 3! mm. Hindwing 28 mm.
Head: labium pale whitish green, the middle lobe with its base and free
border blackish brown ; labrum black with two large rounded whitish green
spots situated at the outer corners (a very unusual situation for this marking) ;
bases of mandibles greenish white and a transverse stripe of the same colour
at middle of anteclypeus ; rest of face and upper surface of head glossy black
except for the crest of frons which is greenish white, finely divided at its
centre bya narrow isthmus of black. Occiput concave at its centre with a
slight angular projection at its outer ends.
Prothorax black marked with greenish yellow as follows :—Very oblique
broad antehumeral stripes which run from near the alar sinus and which are
broadly confluent with an interrupted mesothoracic collar below, finally a
small upper humeral spot; the sides broadly greenish yellow marked with a
broad black stripe on the first lateral suture and a short vestigial remnant of a
similar stripe on the lower part of the second suture (another unusual type of
marking).
Legs entirely black, armature as for genus and sex.
Wings hyaline, very palely enfumed; pterostigma dark brown between
black nervures, over four cells, short, unbraced, or the brace poorly developed
and arising from the costa a short distance from the pterostigma ; nodal index
soo ; three rows of postanal cells in hindwing, two rows of cells
between Cuiz and the hinder margin of forewing, other details as for genus.
Abdomen black, marked with greenish yellow as follows:~Segment 1
with the sides broadly and a medial stripe on the middorsal carina, which is
flanked by a broad black stripe subdorsally, segment 2 similar, the lateral
yellow including the oreillet, the dorsal yellow on the carina tapering apicad
and expanded at the level of transverse suture; 3 with the middorsal
carina finely yellow and a large ventro-lateral basal spot on each side, 4 to 6
with small triangular basal spots on each side, 7 with a _ broad basal
yellow ring occupying the basal fifth, remaining segments unmarked.
Segment 9 shorter than 8, and 10 shorter than 9.
Anal appendages as for genus, superiors very robust, widely divaricate,
tapering to a point, greenish white tipped with black. From the middle of
the inner side, a slim pale yellow branch springs and inclines inwards to meet
its fellow from the opposite side, the extreme apex of each branch strongly
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES,
Microgomphus torquatus, 6
1. Cyclogomphus ypsilon, 6 4,
2. C. wilkinsi, 6 5. Microgomphus souteri, 2
3. C. gynostylus, 6 6. MM. burmicus,
se
7. M. lilltputians,
Pan
“
4
Poy,
INDIAN. DRAGONFLIES 855
recurved outwards. ‘The fusion of these branches with the maim appendage
is demarcated by a fine groove, so that it is easy to understand’ that an
increase in the size and robustness of the branch with a corresponding atrophy
of the distal part of the appendage, would result in the evolution of the lyrate
appendages of Heliogomphus (from which genus Microgomphus is hardly
separable and not at all on venational grounds). Inferior appendage trian-
gular, not bifid as long as superiors, black (Fig. 3. 3.).
Genitalia: hamules broad, short, tipped by a small spine ; vesicle of penis
bulbous, globular, black.
Female of the same size as male, very similar to the male in its markings,
but these, on the abdomen, more extensive. On segments 3 to 6a large
triangular baso-lateral spot which extends to the transverse suture, beyond
which, and only narrowly separated from the basal spot, is a narrow stripe
extending almost to apex of segments. In one specimen there is also a
minute basal lateral spot on segment 8.
Thorax and prothorax pruinosed white beneath, in adults.
Anal appendages short conical, pale greenish white.
Legs entirely black, armature as for genus and sex.
‘Wings palely enfumed in the adult, slightly saffronated at the base in
13-15{16-12 11-16)15-10
12-13]12-12* 10-12|11-10’
Distribution. One male and two females collected by Col. F. Wall, I.M.s.,
at Maymyo, Northern, Shan States, Upper Burma, 19-26. vi. 24 and 10. vii. 24.
This species is remarkable for its large size (the largest known of the genus)
and for the two unusual types of markings found on the labrum and sides of
thorax. The two rows of cells between Cuzz and the hinder margin of the
forewing is clearly a response to the need of a greater wing area to support a
weightier insect, and brings the venation of MWicrogomphus into line with that
of Heliogomphus, insects of similar size to this particular species. The
relationship of the superior appendages to this genus has already been
commented upon above.
other details as for genus.
tencrals ; nodal index
Microgomphus lilliputians, sp. nov. (Pl. Fig. 7.)
‘Female. (Male unknown.) Abdomen 20mm. Hindwing 18 mm.
‘Head: labium pale yellow spots; bases of mandibles yellow, ante and
post-clypeus black, the former with a central oval spot, the latter witha
yellow spot on each side against the eyes: frons with the crest traversed with
yellow, rest of head including the occiput black, latter simple, sinuous, a
little notched at its middle.
Prothorax with a smal! spot on the posterior lobe and a larger at the sides,
otherwise black.
Thorax black marked with bright yellow as follows:—An interrupted
mesothoracic collar, oblique antehumeral stripes which are broadly confluent
with. the mesothoracic collar and form with it inverted ‘7’ s; laterally
greenish yellow marked on the postero-lateral suture by a thick black stripe,
which by joining an oblique black shorter stripe, running from beneath the
forewing, forms a black ‘ Y.’
Legs entirely black, spines on hind femora rather widely-spaced and more
robust than usual in the genus.
Wings hyaline, saffronated at the bases, this probably an expression of their
tenerality, reticulation rather close for so small an insect, trigones and
subtrigones all angulated where joined by secondary nervures, sectors of arc
apposed for a long distance, especially in the hindwings, discordal field in
the forewings beginning with a single row of cells and continued as such for
a distance of 3 rows, Cuzz in forewings with only a single row of cells between
it and hinder border (and only 6 cells in length}, only 2 rows of cells in
postanal area of hindwing; pterostigma brown, unbraced in two of the
wings, poorly so in the others, over 3 cells ; nodal index a =.
Abodmen black marked with yellow as follows:—Segment 1 wholly black,
2 with broad subdorsal longitudinal stripes confluent over the base of segment
and finely divided transversely by the transverse suture, 3 with a continuation
of these stripes which do not however extend as far as the apical border, 4 to 7
18
856 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST! SOCIETY, Vole XXX.
with broad basal rings extending as far as the transverse sutures, remaining
segments unmarked. |
6 peas 8
ari
Fig. 3. 1. Analappendages of MWicrogomphus souteri Fras, seen from above.
2. The same of J. torguatus (Selys). 3. The same of 7. burmicus sq. nov.
4. Dorso-lateral view of anal appendages of Cyclogomphus gynostylus, male,
sq. nov. 5. Anal appendages of C. wilkinst sq. nov. seen from above. 6.
The same seen trom the side in profile. 7. Genitalia of Cyclogomphus wilkin-
sz, lateral view. 8. The same of C. ypszlon Selys.
Anal appendages small conical, yellow tipped with black.
Vulvar scale rudimentary.
Distribution. A single female from Tenasserim, Lower Burma, 18. iv. 23.
This species, which is the smallest known Gomphine, closely resembles
Tetrathemts platyptera in size and general appearance, and in several respects,
in its neuration also, thus the discoidal field beginning with a single row of
cells. The only species likely to be confounded with it, is AWicrogomphus
chelifer from the Malay Peninsula, which is somewhat larger, has a higher
nodal index, the lateral thoracic stripe simple and not ‘Y’ shaped. The two
are closely related and may even be conspecific. JAZ. lilliputians is the only
species in which the discoidal field of forewing begins with a single cell and it
is the only female which has only one row of cells between the hinder margin
of forewing and Cuzz (in so far as I have examined). Just as we notice an
increase in this latter area in the male of the former species J/7. burmicus to
accommodate its greater weight, so here we see a corresponding decrease in
response to the lessening need for a iarge wing area,
INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 857
Microgomphus verticalis (Selys) (Cyclogomphus verticalis) Buli. Acad. Belg.
(2) xxxvi, p. 501 (1873) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. pp. 296-297 (1907).
Female. (Male unknown) Abdomen 27 mm. Hindwing 25 mm.
Similar to JZ. torguatus, differs only by the markings being less extensive,
especially of the face, which is largely black.
Labrum with the yellow entirely enclosed as two largespots ; ante and post-
clypeus black with a medial spot of yellow and another on each side against
es eyes. Frons similar but the vertex marked by a small yellow spot between
the eyes.
The short description given by Selys, meagre as it is, clearly shows this
species, which he classed asa Cyclogomphus, is really a Microgomphus, and
that it is closely related to, if not conspecific with forgwatus. The where-
abouts of the type is unknown, but it was said to be in the Moore collection,
aud is given as from ‘ India’
(fo be continued)
NOTE ON A NEST OF THE COMMON INDIAN HORNET
VE SPACING LAVAS R:
BY
B. CHopra, D.Sc., ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT, ZOOLOGICAL
SURVEY OF INDIA, CALCUTTA.
| Read at the tweltth meeting of the [ndian Science Congress held at
Benares, and published with permission of the Director, Zoological
Survey of [ndzta. |
(With a plate.)
The nest with which the present note deals was recently acquired
by the Zoological Survey of India, and is now being exhibited in
the public insect gallery of the Indian Museum. It is believed to
be one of the largest, if not the largest, specimen of its kind so far
recorded.
The nest was found attached to the stem of a small Bael tree
(degle marmelos) in a garden in South Intally, Calcutta. It
was fixed at a height of about 4 feet from the ground, and
was full of hornets of the species Vespa cincta at the time. So far
as can be ascertained the hornets started building this nest in
spring last year (1924). It was first noticed in March, and being
no larger than a dae/ fruit was mistaken for it; in May it was the
size of a man’s head, and towards the end of October had attained
its maximum size—over 34 feet from top to bottom.
The nest was principally attached to the tree-trunk on one side
near its (nest’s) base, but it was also fixed to a fairly stout
branch at its apex. Besides this several small branches passed
right through the nest and gave it a fair amount of additional
support.
The nest, as seen in the accompanying illustration (fig. 1) is
perfectly pear-shaped. It is about 109 cm. long from apex to
bottom, and over 64 cm. at its greatest breadth near the base.
The outer envelope with its striking pattern of incomplete con-
centric circles completely encloses the nest, except at two nearly
circular openings on the two sides near the base. Both of these
serve for ingress and egress of the hornets, and the smaller of the
two is seen in the reproduction.
The envelope, as is usual in the family Vespzdae, is made of
some papery material, which is believed to be a mixture of chewed
wood and some glandular secretion. In nests of most hornets the
envelope is made of some extreinely soft and delicate material, but
in the present case it was hard enough to stand a fair amount of
rough weather. ‘The present nest no doubt stood successfully the
full force of the Calcutta monsoon for a whole season, and was in a
perfect weather-proof condition at the time of its discovery.
On breaking open the envelope (fig. 2) on one side we
see tiers of combs lying horizontally one above the other, and
(-2791,40 JO pua aas uollvUun]g xa 404 )
2 Blq ‘LT ‘Sl
‘Iqey vjgu1z2 vDgSaJ
"20¢CG e
Serer an _
Or
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a
NOTE ON A NEST OF THE COMMON INDIAN HORNET 859
supported by short vertical pillars formed in between respective
tiers. The combs consist of a very large number of cells and
are the habitations of thousands of adults and young members of
this vast colony. The lower three or four tiers of combs are seen
to be full of larvae and pupae, while the upper ones which appear
deserted, are evidently used by the adults. The cells housing the
pupae are covered at their mouths with silken caps. The combs
are not attached to the envelope, but there is a large amount
of space left between the two, so that access is available to each
comb all round. The envelope, especially in its upper parts, is
several layers thick, and in its structure contains a net-work of air-
pockets which give the appearance of tunnel-like passages connect-
ing the upper tiers with the general space round the basal combs.
I am unable to say whether these passages are used by the hornets
or not, but as, on killing the colony with potassium cyanide,
several of them were found lying dead in these passages, it
is quite possible that they form at least a secondary means of
communication.
Vespa ctncta is a common species in the plains of India, but is
not quite so common as the smaller V. ortentalzs. The latter is
known to build very large nests, but, so far as I am aware, no
large nest of the former has so far been recorded. V. cincta
generally lives in thick forests, and is said to build its nests in the
holes of large fig and other forest trees.
De Saussure,! the monographer of social wasps, has classified
them according to the architecture of their nests. The classifi-
cation is far from satisfactory, but is still the only standard
work of its kind. I do not propose going here into the details of this
classification, but according to de Saussure Il’. cincia would come
in his principal class Stelocyttares, sub-class Calyptodomes. These
wasps have nests which are characterized, among other things, by
the possession of an envelope, which is not attached to the combs,
and by the combs being supported on one another by vertical
pillars. The sub-class Calyptodomes has two types depending
upon the nature of the envelope. In the first the envelope is
‘foliacée, composée de feuillets concentriques’ while in the second
the envelope is ‘celluleuse’* V. czncta with its nest having an
envelope formed of several leaf-like layers would seem to belong to
the first category. There is still another division based upon the
mode of attachment of the nest. When the nest is supported by a
central pedicle the term ‘rectinides’ is applied, but if the support is
lateral the nest is ‘letérinide.’ There are still further sub-divisions,
but it would be useless to discuss them here.
Savin? has quite recently written an interesting note on the nests
and habits of some American social wasps. The paper, though it
contains some good photographs of Vespid nests, deals chiefly with
the common yellow wasp FPoltstes.
+ De Saussure, Monographie des Gupés Sociales, pp. cc. and 256, pls. i-
xxxvii, Paris and Geneva (1853-1858).
“De Saussure, 09. 622.,.p. V1.
So Savith, JVGls /17St5,-XXV,. DP. 51-00) (1925),
860 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX
In the end I would like to express my appreciation of the way
in which Mr. R. Hodgart, the energetic collector of the Zoological
Survey, in spite of the risk involved in it, managed to bring this
very interesting nest to the Museum intact.
Explanation of Plate
Both the figures are from direct untouched photographs of
the nests. .
1. Complete nest, showing, -the. smaller opening for the
entrance and exit of the hornets.
2. The same, with a part of the envelope removed on one
side to show the air pockets in the upper portion and the tiers of
combs in the lower. The vertical pillars between the various tiers
are also visible.
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE THYSANOPTERA KNOWN
FROM INDIA AND CEYLON
BY
T. V. RAMAKRISHNA AIYVAR
Agricultural College, Coimbatore.
In 1919 the writer published a small note? on Indian Thysanoptera, and it
may be gathered from it that prior to 1912 hardly anything of importance was
known or on record regarding the Indian representatives of the group
Thysanoptera, in spite of the fact that the group is one of the major divisions
into which insects are divided and that members of this group are very
commonly met with all over India; and naturally therefore, practically no
attention appears to have been devoted to the scientific or economic importance
of these insects in Jndia. In fact the Indo-Ceylonese region practically
remained a ferra incognita to Thysanopterists till the year 1912. Prior to
this period we have only two records, one of two Indian forms described by
Newman? in 1856, viz. J/dolothrips halidayi and Phleothrips anacaradti
collected on a species of Anacardium in Mysore, and another in 1909 by Kieffer
(‘ Cecitdothrips’ from Trichinopoly, S. India) in ‘ Marcellia’ VII. In his mono-
graph of the order mostly including European forms, Uzel® has just copied the
two descriptions of Newman without any further record from India, but adding
one species from Ceylon Phlwothrips stenomelas, Wik., the description of which
is also copied from that of Walker (A. M. N. H. 1859). In 1912 Mr. Bagnall the
eminent English Thysanopterist described * an interesting species of thrips
Panchetothrips indicus from material collected and sent to the Indian
Museum by the Madras Revenue Board in 1889. From the year 19J3 onwards
our knowledge of Indo-Ceylonese forms gradually began to increase as may be
found from the series of systematic papers ° on the group published by Bagnall
since then. However, all forms recorded by him up to 1919, are only North
Indian and Ceylonese ones, and none from South India. With regard to South
India a regular collection and a study of the bionomics of South Indian
Thysanoptera might be said to have commenced in 1915 when the material of
‘ Paddy thrips’ collected by the writer and forwarded to the Imperial Bureau
of Entomology, London, was described by Mr. C. B. Williams © as anew species
Thrips (Bagnallia) oryzae. Since then all records from South India refer to
material brought together by the writer and mostly collected by himself. In
1916 a small lot of South Indian forms was forwarded to Mr. J. D. Hood, the
well-known American expert on the order, and he published in 1919 a paper 7”
based on that material, and this may be regarded as the first connected paper
on South Indian Thysanoptera. Meanwhile, Mr. Bagnallalso kindly undertook
to help, and material was submitted to him in 1919. ‘hough he has not been
able to work out the whole lot sent to him, he has been publishing descriptions
of some new forms from the material, on and off since 1919. As to Ceylonese
forms of the order, a fairly good number have been described by Bagnall in his
On our present knowledge of ‘ the Indian Thysanoptera and their economic
importance.’ pp. 618-22. Report of the 3rd Entomological Meeting at Pusa
in 1919-20.
2 Transactions of the Entomological Society, London, 1856. ;
3 Monographie der Ordnung Thysanoptera by Heinrich Uzel, Konigegratz,
1895,
* Records of the Indian Museum, p. 257, Vol. VII, 1912.
5 Bagnall’s serial papers on the group began with paper No. 1 in 1913 and
No. XIV appeared in December 1924; all in the Annals and Magazine of
Natural History, London.
S p. 353, Bulletin of Entomological Research, Vol. VI, London, 1915.
7*On some new Thysanoptera from South India by J. D. Hood, pp. 90 103.
Insecutor Insectiz Menstruus,’ xii, 1919, Washington,
862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCRAL AIST) SOCIETY V0l. Tee
serial papers in the Annals. The only connected paper on ceylonese forms,
however, is that of Karl Schmutz? in 1913; the descriptions and synonymy in
this paper have, however, been somewhat severely criticized by other workers,
chief among them being Dr. Karny, the famous Austrian specialist on the
group.
In ‘this paper an attempt is made to catalogue the known Thysanoptera of
India and Ceylon as a working reference list, and as a sort of preliminary
preparation for detailed papers, whenever possible in future, on the systematics
and bionomics of the Thysanoptera inhabiting the Indo-Ceylonese region.
All records as far as possible up to 1924 have been included here and it is
believed the list is more or less up to date. The records include species so far
known from the region divided among 47 genera. Of these about half a dozen
are recently erected genera and all species except about half a dozen are new to
science. Compared to the 3 or 4 forms alone that were known from the
region in 1912, this addition must be admitted to be substantial. There is
hardly any doubt that a good many new forms will be described from the
author’s unworked material ? (a good portion of which is now with Dr. Karny
in Java), while numerous unexplored tracts of the country are sure to contain
novelties awaiting the discovery of enthusiastic workers.
Now that the importance of this order of insects, both from the scientific and
economic aspects, is beginning to be realized, it is hoped, that these insects
might receive the attention they really deserve, and it 1s believed that this list,
with all its inevitable shortcomings, may serve some useful purpose, at least
to those who might contemplate working at this group. The author is greatly
indebted to Messrs. Hood, Bagnall, and Dr. Karny for the help received from
them, and particularly to Dr. Karny for the valuable suggestions and
encouragement ever since the author had the honour of his acquaintance.
The arrangement followed in the list is more or less based on the synoptical
tables of Dr. Karny. It may not be out of place here to append Dr. Karny’s *
synopsis of the major sub-divisions of the order, since that appears to be the
most recent and perhaps, up-to-date classification. Though the greater
portion of Karny’s arrangement is that of Hood, * the former has made some
deviations. The translation’ of the German synopsis was made by the author
himself with the help of Hood’s tables, but it is not unlikely there may be
some errors. .
‘ey to the sub-divisions and families of
THYSANOPTERA
I. Female with an ovipositor formed of two pairs of gonapophyses from
8th and 9th abdominal segments. Terminal abdominal segment seldom
tubular, that of female longitudinally divided beneath and usually conical,
that of male usually bluntly rounded, never tubular. Wings microscopically
pubescent ; forewing with marginal vein and at least one longitudinal vein
reaching tip.
DUD EOLCEE ee crass TEREBRANTIA
A. Ovipositor curved upward. Wings broad and rounded at tip. Body
not depressed. Antenne nine jointed.
Super family... c..... AEOLOTHRIPOIDEA, Hood.
Includes only one family—AEOLOTHRIPIDG, Uzel.
1K, Schmutz-Zur Kenntnis der Thysanopterenfauna von Ceylon, pp.
991-1091 with 6 plates in Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Math. Nat., Kl., Vienna, 1913.
2 Dr. Karny has now prepared a monograph on this material submitted to
him and it is being published. Tne paper includes 50 records, with four new
genera, and eighteen new species.
3 Thysanopetera—Uebersichtstabelle. Karny, pp. 231-61. ‘ Treubia, vol.
To livre 1921,
* An outline of the sub-families and higher groups of the order ‘Thysanop-
tera by J. D. Hood, pp. 53-60, Proc. Biol. Socy., Washington, XXVIII, 1915.
5 Since submitting this paper to the press, the author has seen a translation
of Dr. Karny’s full synopsis in the Bulletin (No. 168 of the Florida University,
Published December 1923) on N. American Thysanoptera by J. R. Watson,
; AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE THYSANOPTERA 863
_ -B. Ovipositor curved downward. Wings narrower and almost always
pointed at tip. Body more or less depressed. Antenne six to eight jointed
(exceptionally nine jointed).
Super family......... THRIPOIDEA, Hood.
(a) Antenne nine segmented, without apical stylus, 3rd and 4th segments
enlarged and conical without sense cones but with sensory band
at apex. Fore tarsus with claw like appendage.
Pail y sie ce ciees HETEROTHRIPIDA, Bagnall.
(a?) Antenne six to eight segmented, usually with an apical stylus of
one or two segments, rarely the 6th segment with a transverse line
making the antenna appear nine segmented. Segments 3 and 4
not conical, usually with sense cones, rarely with a sensory band
at apex. Fore tarsus never with an appendage.
(6) Antenne not moniliform, six to eight sezemented always with a
one or two jointed apical stylus, 3rd segment usually 4th
always with sense cones, never with a tympanum like sense
area on dorsum of apex. Pronotum without longitudinal
dorsal sutures, anterior and posterior femora not enlarged.
Tip of abdomen usually sharply conical. Ovipositor almost
invariably well developed.
(¢) Sixth antennal segment large, never small in comparison
with fifth, generally the largest in the whole antenna.
(d) Last abdominal segment of female conical, not well chiti-
nized, seldom stronger than the preceding segments,
bristles on segments 9 and 10 not very long or stout,
never thornlike.
Bamihyonessass THRIPIDA, Uzel.
(q*) Last abdominal segment of female cylindrical, very
heavily chitinized bristles on 9 and 10 segments excep-
tionally long, stout and thornlike,
Bamathys iets. PANCHAETOTHRIPID&, Bagnall.
(c1) Sixth or sixth and seventh antennal joints small, styliform,
minute in comparison with the fifth which is the largest
in the whole antenna.
Bamily siise. os CERATOTHRIPIDA, Bagnall.
‘6*) Antennze moniliform eight segmented, without apical stylus,
third and fourth segments without sense cones, each witha
tympanum like sense area on dorsum of apex. Pronotum
with longitudinal dorsal sutures, anterior and _ posterior
femora greatly enlarged. Abdomen blunt, ovipositor very
weak, probably functionless.
Bamily.ngsees MEROTHRIPID#, Hood.
II. Female without ovipositor. Last abdominal segment in both sexes
always continuous beneath, almost invariably tubular. Wings without
pubescence forewing with at most a single abbreviated median vein.
Sub-order..,c::..; TUBULIFERA
A. Maxillary palpi2segmented. Antenne eight, rarely seven segmented,
middle coxez more apart from each other than front and hind coxe. Ninth
abdominal segment not or rarely longer than the eighth. Terminal abdominal
hairs rarely much longer than tube.
SS UPen fail Viccsecs ss PHLG@OTHRIPOIDEA, Hood.
(a) Last abdominal segment absolutely not tubular, greatly swollen,
parabolic in dorsal aspect. Tergum of abdominal segments 2 to 9
transversely linear.
Mamily. fo. 036 PYGOTHRIPID2&, Hood.
(a*) Last abdominal segment slender, cylindrical or tubular, forming the
tube. Tergum of abdominal segments 2 to 9 not transversely
linear.
(6) Hind end of 8th abdominal segment without hook or cone-
shaped projections.
(¢) Tube (last segment) much shorter than the remaining
segments together.
19
864, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. XXX.
(d) The third segment of antenna with strong crest-like
large sense cones at its distal part.
Ramily. 2223: ECACANTHOTHRIPID#,!? Bagnall.
(d*) Sense cone of third antennal segment not more
strongly developed than in the other segments.
(€) Sense cone of antenna usually long and pointed ;
near each there is an accessory cone or a long
slender bristle in addition; on this account
the antennal segments are markedly swollen.
The eyes are unusually large, close together,
mouth cone pointed.
Baily ccwsare EUPATHITHRIPIDAE,* Bagnall.
(e') Sense cone of feeler not specially well developed,
eyes smaller.
(f) Male without a tube like projection on each
side of sixth abdominal segment.
(g) Head not produced in front of the
eyes, vertext not sharply conical,
rarely prominently overhanging base
of antenne.
Family 3cc02 PHLOEOTHRIPIDAE, Uzel.
(g?) Head more or less produced in front
beyond the eyes, vertex conical,
usually over hanging base of
antenna, bearing the anterior ocel-
lus at its extremity and usually with
a strong bristle in front of the eye.
Watnily seer IDOLOTHRIPIDA, Bagnall.
(f7) Male with stout tube like projection on each
side of the sixth abdominal segment.
Hamitlycs..teee: MEGATHRIPIDA, Karny.
(c*) The tube greatly elongate, three or four times as long
as the head, and nearly as long as all other abdominal
segments together.
atari yiereveesss HYSTRICOTHRIPID#2, Karny.
(6*) Hind end of 8th abdominal segment with a hook or cone-
shaped process, the antenne and tube short and thick.
Pamiily ors CHIROTHRIPOIDIIDA, Bagnall.
B. Maxillary palpi one jointed. Antenna four to seven segmented. Hind
coxe more widely separated than the front and middle pairs. Ninth
abdominal segment longer than the eighth. Terminal bristles of abdomen
much longer than the tube.
Super familys... UROTHRIPOID2, Bagnall.
Only one famiil yer... UROTHRIPID# Bagnall.
Dr. Karny’s synopsis of Keys to the known genera is not added here as it is
pretty long. ‘The Keys in the same publication (Treubia Vol. 1) and the same
author’s numerous Keys for distinguishing the described spp. of various
genera found in the pages of Zt. fur. Wissen Insektenbiol, 1914-16, will be
very useful to workers on this group.
LIST? OF INDO-CEYLONESE THYSANOPTERA
Sub-order—TEREBRANTIA
AEOLOTHRIPIDE
Aeolothrips, Haliday
A. fulvicollis, Bagnall, p. 253. A. M. N. H., iv, 1919. In Verbascum flowers,
very close to 4. fasciatus, L. (Imms. Coll.), Cawnpore.
' Hood considers that these two families erected by Bagnall are synonyms of
Phloeothripidce Uzel, and gives reasons, vide pp. 7-12. Psyche, xxiii,
1916.
2 Only the more important references are given under each species ; the same
is the case with regard to synonyms, localities and host plants.
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE THYSANOPTERA 865
THRIPIDZ
Scirtothrips, Shull
S. stgnipennis, Bagnall, p. 22, A.M.N.H., xiii, 1914. Under leaf sheaths
OM DAN ANA, Acckeheneeescts Peradeniya, Ceylon.
S. dorsalis, Hood, p. 90. Ins. Incis. Menstr. April 1919. In shoots of
@aston amd chilliesie a. sacsnec. eres Coimbatore. (Ramakrishna Coll.)
Pseudodendrothrips, Schmutz
Pe oynarissima, Schmutz, <p. *999, -Sitzper:. Akad. — Wiss., cxxtl, 19132 70n
NIACVOCAYPUS CNLELTITOIIG ,occcecessoavestos Peradeniya. Ceylon.
Dendrothrips, Uzel
D. sexmaculatas, Bagnall, p.. 401, A. M. N. H., xvii, 1916. Peradeniya.
Ceylon.
Dewndaicis, bacnall, p. Zola; Mo NE iv, 1919.) Im arrew-roo0t leaves
Taliparamba, S. India. (Ramakrishna Coll.)
Very near sexmaculatus, B. differing in colour of abdomen and wings.
D. bispinosus, Bagnall, p. 455, Bul. Ent. Res., xiv, 1924. On tea leaves
Seehedis ssceesses cs NUICInIS.. (NGanido salvaisi-7,) Uzel\.)
Rhipiphorothrips, Morgan
FR. (Retithrips) bicolor, Bagnall, p. 290, A.M. N.H., xi, 1913. On vine
Ae ee Ceylon.
R. cruentatus, Hood, p. 94, Ins. Insc. Menst., April 1919. On grape vine
WEA V ESC cee anhes cea nenesy eae Coimbatore. (Ramakrishna Coll.)
OMAGAHEY WiC DOVER = weccccatrecseaceennen Ceylon. (Rutherford Coll.)
Selenothrips, Karny
S. (Physopus) rubrocinctus, Giard. Bull. Soc. Ent. France, p. 263, 1901,
and also Trop. Agri., xxvii, 1906. Cacao thrips. (W. Indies). Noted
also in mango in Florida.
=S. mendax, Schmutz, p. 994, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913. On
AN ACAVALUIN OV TENTALE .05.cabeuncseveocon seseeses Peradeniya. Ceylon.
Heliothrips, Haliday
H. indicus, Bagnall, p. 291, A.M.N.H., xii, 1913. On onion, brinjal, and
OMmeMGI SOs ccwssseccss sehen Sirsiah (Behar) and Surat (Bombay).
H. brunnetpennis, Bagnall, p. 318, A. M.N.H., xv, 1915. On Litsea leaves
Rana e re eee eee Peradeniya. Ceylon.
Hi. minutissimus, Bagnall, p. 260, A. M.N. H., iv, 1919 in Violet flowers
preheat suntan stancneesensemae’s Surat.
H. hemorrhoidalis, Bouche var Ceylonica, Schmutz, p. 992, Sitzber. Akad.
WiSSs, ecxxi,, L913 SOmicacao= sc. cates Peradeniya. Ceylon.
Frankliniella, Karny
F. sulphurea, Schmutz, p.1019, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913; in flowers
Of LAURE ZIG GLALG, .eccdceseectcasecess Peradeniya. Ceylon.
For other spp. see below under Physothrips.
Taentothrips, Serville
7. major, Bagnall, p. 216, A.M. N. H., xvii, 1916, in Ahododendron
TOWELS ea cotecas Secor sas ..Garhwal, N. India.
Physothrips, Karny
Paleryroy:, Bagnall’ p. 292, A. Ms NOH it, 1933 sin Tea Howers. sc: 043.00. :
Darjiling ; also p. 63, Bull. Ent. Res., ix, 1918.
P. usttaius, Bagnall, -p; 293, A. M,N. H.,. xii; 1913; in flowers of Butea
frondosa. Allahabad, N. India; Frankliniella nigricornis and F.
ooscuricornis of Schmutz, pp. 1020 and 1022 Sitzber, Akad. Wiss., exxii,
866 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
1913 on coffee and crotalaria from Ceylon are according to Karny same as
P. usitatus, Bagnall, vide p. 365. Zt. Fur. Wissen. Insekt, x, 1914.
. longiceps, Bagnall, p. 220, A. M. N. H., xvii, 1916 in Ahododendron,
HO WEDS snces cieesseecnsee cues Garhwal. N. India.
(Frankliniella) vitata, Schmutz, p. 1023, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii,
1913; in Thunbergza flowers......... Peradeniya. Ceylon.
. Setiventris, Bagnall p. GL Bull) Eat. Ress ax. 1918. SOnidean. see:
Darjiling. N. FE. India; also'p. 305, Preubia, in 1923,
. brunneicornis, Bagnall, p. 218, A M.N. H., xvii, 1916, first noted from
Japan. p:' 206, A. MON OE 1018) /on Roses, Darniline.
. pecultavis, Bagnall, p..206, A. M.-N..H., 1, 1918 on “Lucernes )Pusa:
N. India, also p. 305, Treubia, ii, 1923.
, minor, Bagnall, p., 393, A. M. N: H., viii, 1921; in leaves ofa/pomea
SLOPHVITIA acticeece Maddur, and Coimbatore, S. India (Ramakrishna Coll.)
. andrewest, Bagnall, p. 394, A.M. N. H., viii, 1921. Darjiling.
flaviadulus, Bagnall, p..628),A..MoON. .,. xii, 1923.5) in flowersofee720-
botyia japonica. Dehra Dun ; also noted at Bhowali (Kumaon).
SD te 0 Ue
Thrips, Linnaeus
Thrips striatopennata, Schmutz, p. 1002, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913.
on grass; Nuwara Eliya, Ceylon.
T. florum, Schmutz, p. 1003 do. do. do. In Cinnamomum
OWES sce sees oeeestee Peradeniya. Ceylon.
(7. magnipes, Schmutz, p. 1006 and 7. rhodamnine, Schmutz, from Ceylon on
clerodendron and Rhodamnia, p. 1008 do. do. are contracted
specimens of 7. flora, Schmutz according to Karny, vide p. 109, Jour.
Siam. Socy.2, xvi; 1923;)
T parva, Schmutz, p. 1004, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913 in Cinna-
WROMUIM TOWELS... osestso0ness0e3<s Ceylon.
T. longalata, Schmutz, p. 1009 do. do. do. , on
Cinnamomum and Clerodendron leaveS...rccccccsceceees Peradeniya. Ceylon.
T. sulphurea, Schmutz, p. 1011 do. do. In Cinnamomum flowers.
SF sfate cisiuaisewe te alen's Peradeniya. Ceylon.
T. nigriflava, Schmutz, p. 1012 do. do.. do.
T. colorata, Schmutz, p. 1013 do. do. do.
( This is regarded by Karny as a colour var of 7. florum.)
7. palizda,. Schmutz, ‘p.~ 1015,, -Sitzber.. Akad.” Wiss.,, cxxil, \19137027.:
seca eNeiesincte is cts Peradeniya. Ceylon (Some of the above spp. of Schmutz are
regarded as synonyms of florwm, Sch. by Karny.)
7. (Bagnallta) oryzae, Williams, p. 353, Bull. Ent. Res., 1915, on young
paddy, Chingleput. S. India (Ramakrishna coll.) ; see also p. 109, Jour.
Siam. Socy., xvi, 1922, noted in Java (Karny).
7. palliduius, Bagnall, pi424, WA. Mo AN, «a Pit, O24 tein tae ne Pusa.
Rhamphothrips, Karny.
R. lineata, Schmutz, p. 997, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913. Peradeniya,
Ceylon. This is described by Schmutz as Brachythrips. See p. 295,
Zt. f. Insekt, 1914, for Karny’s note.
Dendrothripotdes, Bagnall.
D. ipomee, Bagnall, p. 625, A.M. N. H., xii, 1923, in leaves of /pomea
SLA PAVUTIION estes cee cee Maddur, Mysore (Ramakrishna coll.)
Euthrips Targ-Tozz.
(Hood objects to the use of the name Euthrips.?).
i. titricinctus, Bagnall, p. 270, A.. M. N.\H., iv, 1919: On Arrow-root
VCAVES cn serene tru cuversen: Taliparamba. South India. (Ramakrishna coll.) ;
very close to Karny’s &. flavicinctus from Java.
1 On proper generic names for certain Thysanoptera of economic importance
Hood,, pp. 34-44, Proe. Ent. Soey., Washington, xiv, 1914.
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE THYSANOPTERA 867
EL. flavicinctus, Karny, p. 115, Marcellia, xi, 1912, in galls of Hlomalomena
avomatica in Java. See also p. 55, Bull der. Tard, Bot. Buitenzorg,
sO St
=Neophysopus medioflavus, Schmutz, p. 1017, Sitzber. Akad.
Wiss:, cxxit, 1993s ode Karny, pu 35/,/2t2 Pur, Wissen lnseke,
1915, Peradeniya. Ceylon.
Aptinothrips, Haliday.
A. rufus var. connaticornis, Uzel-Bagnall, p. 205, A. M. N. H.,i, 1918, in Tea
HOWETS.scscedueccts Sih TERM mecca eecestones seen cueueeee Darjiling.
Perissothrips, Hood
P. parviceps, Yiood, p: 92, Ins: lasc. Mens:;* vil, .4919,..in Shoots vor
Atlanthus excelsa. Coimbatore (Ramakrishna coll.) near Chilothrips and
oxythrips.
Bregmatothrips, Hood.
B. Ramakrisinge, Basnall, -p. 625,:A. M. N. H., xi,-1923,. inside. -tips<of
rolled up sugar-cane leaves. Palur. South India (Ramakrishna coll.)
Tryphactothrips, Bagnall.
Dinurothrips rutherfordi, Bagnall, p. 319, A.M. N. H., xv, 1915.
=—l7yphaciothrips do: . Bagnall, p. 257. do. iv,, 1929.
On allamanda leaves. See also p. 264. do. do, 1921; Ceylon,
This is the type of Bagnall’s genus.
wT. octarticulaia, “schmutz,~ p. 993, sitzber. Akad. ‘“Wiss.,, exxii, 1913.
Peradeniya. Ceylon. This species is described by Schmutz as a
Parathenothrips, Uz.
Bagnall is of opinion that ‘ Dinurothrips ’ should be placed near Heliothrips
and not with Panchetothrips.
PANCHZTOTHRIPIDZ
Panchetothrips, Bagnall
P. indicus, Bagnall, p. 257, Rec. Ind. Mus., 1912, on Curcuma longa.........
Madras, also on Arrow-root leaves, Taliparamba. S. India. (Ramakrishna
coll. )
Sub-order—TUBULIFERA
ECACANTHOTHRIPIDZ
a Ecacanthrothrips, Bagnall.
£..sanguineus, Bagnall, p. 321,,A..M..N. H:, xv, 1915, and also p. 201.
Rec. Ind. Mus., 1913.
Acanthothrips sanguineus, Bagnall (1908)
ormothrips sanguineus, Bufta (1910)
Do. stetnsky, Schmutz. (1913)
(See p. 277, ‘ Treubia,’ iii, :1923, for these synonyms.) Under tree bark ;
recorded from Peradeniya, Ceylon, —and North India.
Ul tl
PHLC@OTHRIPIDZ
Phlaothrips, Haliday
P. anacardiiz, Newman, p. 266, Trans. Ento. Soc., 1855, on Anacardium.
Mysore.
Wea STCVOMCLAS» NV AIKCI De 22a yoke New tie LOS Doc. csscsescccscace Ceylon.
Liothrips, Uzel
L. ordinariuws, Hood, p. 101, Insc. Mens., vii, 1919, in shoots of Sesbanza
grandaitlora...... ......Coimbatore. (Ramakrishna coll. )
L. niger, Schmutz, p. 1080, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913, Peradeniya.
Ceylon ; described as an /schyrothrips. See also reference by Karny
pp. 46 to 49, Treubia, ii, 1921.
L. sp. Kieffer, ‘ Marcellia,’ 1905 in galls of Quercus apicata. North India,
868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Dolichothrips, Karny
D. varipes, Bagnall, p. 359, A. M. N. H., vii, 1921, on wild bush.
Coimbatore. (Ramakrishna coll.)
Cephalothrips, Uzel
C. hispanicus, Bagnall, p. 629, A. M. N. H., 1923, in Rhodhodendron flowers.
Ba schol Seales sae cn cco aces Garhwal, North India.
= Malacothrips, Bagnall. See p. 635, A. M. N. H. (9), xiv, 1924.
Hindsiana, Karny
H.. apigaits; Bagnall, pr 325, A.-M. IN. Hy xv,7 1915, on uncle plants
Edad see crscie ice Ui tetctesatatefatateaty 8 Almora, North India.
Ha plothrips, Serville
. tenuipennis, Bagnall, p. 210, A. M. N. H., i, 1918, on Tea bushes and rose.
aig eee scene racine gies Darjiling. (Andrews coll.)
Ss
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=)
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s.
fa
schmutz,. p. 1033. Sitzber:.. Akad. (Wiss:; icxxii, 1913; Jon
DAT DOD ss 5: ori tecvanebachntenteenge ees Ceylon. See also ‘ Treubia,’ ii, p. 32, 1921.
Karny thinks this is probably a Mesothrips.
. céylonica,, Schmutz, p. 1038, Sitzber. Akad: Wiss.,7cxxii, “1913;5.10
CUOLQIGT1G HOW CTS 3 ctepacasnapactanes scene nee Peradeniya. Ceylon.
soror, Schmutz, p. 1039. do. do. do. Ceylon.
. ganglbauert, Schmutz, p. 1034. do. do. do. Peradeniya. Ceylon.
. Ssovorcula, Schmutz, p. 1036. do. do. do. in Crotolaria flowers.
Sesnastilanaiacdsisvecasmasane Peradeniya. Ceylon.
A long note by Karny on this genus and some Ceylon spp. of Schmutz is
found on p. 87, Zt. fur. Wiss. Insekt, xi, 1915.
TET y
Neoheegeria, Schmutz
N. fumipennis, Bagnall, p. 360, A. M. N. H., vii, 1921. Kurseong.
Himalayas. (Gravely coll.)
N. citripes, Bagnall, p. 360. do. do. an <Adbutilon
TULUM. tidied es sak dac de cau eaveeenes Pusa.
N. indica, Hood, p. 96, Ins. Insc. Mens., vii, 1919, in Azlanthus excelsa shoots.
Coimbatore. (Ramakrishna coll.)
NV. zizyphi, Bagnall, p. 629, A. M. N. H., xii, 1923, on Zzzyphus rupzosa,
Paresnath, Bengal.
Cecidothrips, Kieffer
C. bursarum, Kieffer, p. 165, ‘ Marcellia,’ vii, 1909, from unknown plant
galls. Trichinopoly, South India.
Cenurothrips, Bagnall
C. affinis, Bagnall, p. 361, A. M. N. H., vii, 1921, among -cotton, -Ceylon.
Austrothrips, Brethes
A. cochinchinensis, Karny, p.- 113, Jour. Siam. Socy., “xvi; 1923.. Vety
common in galls of Calycopteris floribunda. Western Ghats. (Y.R. Rao
and Ramakrishna coll.)
Originally described by Karny from Siam collected in leaf galls of
Hymenodictyon parvitlorum. (See also p. 436, Agrl. Jour. India, July 24.)
Trichothrips, Uzel
T. (Neosmerinthothrips) fructuum, Schmutz, p. 1052, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss.,
GUN OWS 4s eo caacabessecss chessscenm dees Peradeniya. Ceylon.
Eumorphothrips, Schmutz
&. albicornis Schmutz, p. 1050, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913, in
CINNAMHOIIIIUMOWETS Seas ccaecelesscsscesseneeueesscnas Peradeniya. Ceylon.
(See pp. 145 and 147 of Zt. Fur. Wiss. Insekt, xi, 1915 for notes by Karny.)
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE THYSANOPTERA 869
Androthrips, Karny
A, flavipes, Schmutz, p. 1031, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913, Ceylon.
A. flavipes, Bagnall, p. 27, A. M. N. H., xiii, 1914. Ceylon; On MWemexylon.
Under the same name the above two spp. are described by different authors
and it is not known whether the two are synonymous. Seep. 94, Zt. Fur.
Wiss. Insekt, xi, 1915, where some differences are noted by Karny.
Aleurodothrips, Franklin
A. fasciapennis, Franklin-Bagnall, p. 324, A. M. N. H., xv, 1915, among
scale insect Sp....... AISPLALOLWS, VALOTLVGE2. Menwacae aera soete ences Ceylon, described
by Franklin in 1908, p. 727, Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum., xxxiii.
Gynatkothrips, Limmerman=Chromatothrips, Schmutz
G. karnyi, Bagnall, p. 28, A. M. N. H., xiii, 1914, in marginal leaf galls
OMPCP Elascsccsacss ones sesmeneensoesss Peradeniya. Ceylon.
Guauraciies, ochmutz, p. 10415) Sitzber, *Akad. Wiss; ¢xxi, 1913) “on
Pavetta hispida sus jsasuisnehceces sum tise se aae secon cs Ceylon.
G. (chromatothrips) fasciata, Schmutz, p. 1044, Sitzber. Akad Wiss., cxxii,
1913. Peradeniya. Ceylon.
G. (chromatothrips) annulicornis, Schmutz, p. 1045 do. do. do.
G. (chromatothrips) plantaginis, Schmutz, p. 1047 do. Nuwara Eliya.
Ceylon.
G
. watsoni, Karny, p. 104, Ent. Mitteil., ix, 1920, Bentotta. Ceylon
Cryptothrips, Uzel
C. longus, Schmutz, p. 1054, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913, on Pavedta.
Ceylon.
This and another C. pavethae on p. 1055 above are described as ‘ Mesothrips.'
Karny considers them to be Cryptothrifs and synonyms.
Arrhenothrips, Hood
A. Ramakrishneé, Hood, p. 99, Ins. Insc. Mens., vii, 1919, producing galls
in leaves of Mimusops elengi, Coimbatore. (Ramakrishna coll.)
Mr. Bagnall in his recent paper’ considers this insect to be a Mesothrips
close to M/. lewitsi, B., though Karny disagrees with this view.
Mesothrips, Ziramerman
M. indicus, Bagnall, p. 365, A. M. N. H., vii, 1921, from Sal bark. Dehra
Dunia IN. India.
Mr. Bagnall in his recent paper describes the following Sfp. of MWesothrips
from this ae
M. brevis, B., p. 636, A. M. N. H., xiv, 1924, in pepper galls, Ceylon
with Androthrips flavipes, chs
M. angusticornts, B., p.638 do. do. on bushes, Peradeniya, Ceylon.
M. karnyi, B., p. 639 . do. do. in pods of <Albizzia lebbeck
Dehra Dun, N. India.
Ischyrothrips, Schmutz
I. crassus, Schmutz, p. 1076, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913, in Bauhinia
trianadra SNOots.....05.$0:- Ceylon.
I. obscurus, Schmutz, p. 1074 do. do. do. do. Karny
thinks this may be a Mesothrips.
I. niger, Schmutz, p. 1080 do. do. do. Peradeniya
Ceylon.
? Annals and Magazine of Natural History, xiv, December 1924.
870: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,-Vol- XXX,
Dinothrips, Bagnall
D. sumatrensis, Bagnall, p. 11, Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northuld, iii, 1908.
For synonyms see ‘ Treubia,’ iii, p. 293, 1923. See also p. 203, Phil. Jour.
HOC., XV1ii} 1920; “Burma, Philippines,
PD). furciter, Schmutz, p.« 1026, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., exxii, 1913..........0.4. :
Peradeniya. Ceylon.
Diaphorothrips, Kerny
D. unguipes, Karny, p. 186, Ent. Mftteil., iv, 1920. Bentotta. Ceylon ;
also py. 299, \)-Treubia, 11, 1923. 78
_ IDOLOTHRIPIDA
Dicaiothrips, Bufta
D, dalla-torrensits, Schmutz, p. 1067, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Vien., 1913
Ceylon ; referred to by Karny also, p. 65, Treubia ii, 1921, from Java. .
D. proximus, Bagnall, p. 289. A. M. N. H., xiii, 1914, in Crotalaria pods.
Ceylon.
D.. greent, Bagnall, p.289, A. M..N.. H..;. xi, J9)4, from) decayed pods (of
LPH OSCQUUS Ai cect wacksacteees Ceylon.
D. levis, Schmutz, p. 1072, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxii, 1913. Peradeniya, Ceylon.
do. do. Karny, p. 189, Ent. Mitteil., ix, 1920. Puttalam, Ceylon.
Dcrassiceps, Bagnall, p. 399; AG MIN y EL. viel Gam, eid cepesyenaemeaaee Burma.
1). procer, Schmutz, p. 1063, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss.; cxxii, 1913. Ceylon.
D. novus, Schmutz, p. 1066, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., cxxii, 1913. Ceylon.
D. bruneitarsis, Schmutz, p. 1070. do. do. Peradeniya. Ceylon.
Gigantothrips, Ziramerman
G. tibialis, Bagnall, p..364, A. M. N. H., vii, 1921,.0n Carvea aroborea.........
enest eee Ceylon.
G. Spinosus, Schmutz, p. 1078, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss., .cxxii, 1913; Ceylon.
(This is described.as an /schyrothrips by Schmutz.)
Phoxothrips, Karny
iP .Oveuiceps. Baenall, p. 380; Asi Neon, exiv, 1OL4s a caer: Simla,
Kleothrips, Schmutz*= Dracothrips, Bagnall (1914) near A7ecynothrips.
K stgans; “schmutz, p.°- 1058, _ Sitzber.’ ¢Akad> Wiss: ‘exxit | ToS em
Waterman t GUts ese ete. tec te Peradeniya. Ceylon.
K. ceylonicus, Bagnall,: p: 290, A. M. N. H.; x xili,- 1914. : Ceylon: «(See p.
219, A. M. N. H., i, 1918 for synonymy. )
Idolothrips, Haliday
L. halzdayz, ‘Newman, p. 265, ‘T.. E: S.:1855:0n' Anacardiiwm, Sp. ..5.:.: Mysore.
L. Schenklingi, Karny, p. 189, Ent. Mitteil, ix, 1920. Puttalam. Ceylon.
MEGATHRIPIDZ
Bactridothrips, Karny
B. serraticornis, Bagnall, p. 397, A. M. N. H., viii, 1921, described from one
1 ALS OMY iilcsc. ches cas eegere Pundaluoya. Ceylon.
HYSTRICOTHYVIPIDZ
Leeuwenta, Karny*
I. (Paneurathrips). corraceus,, Bagnall, . p..:216, (A.M. (Noe EL ix, 19n2:
Saas: Dehra Dun (N. India) ; see also p. 640, R.M.N.H., xiv., 1924.
L.. indicus, Bagnall, p. 377, A. M.N, H., xiv, 1914. “Moulmein; Burma:
L engeniae, Bagnall, p. 640, A. M. N. H., xiv, 1924, on Augenia. Kodai-
kanal, Pulney Hills.
* The author has since noted and described a new species of each of these
genera in this Journal, see p. 788.
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE THYSANOPTERA 871
The following is a list of the new forms, described in the forthcoming
paper of Dr. Karny on Indian Thysanoptera.
Terebrantia Tubulttera
1. Hydatothrips ramaswamiah, z. sp. 1. Rhynchothrips pallipes, . sp.
2. Tryphactothrips mundus, z. sp. 2. Dolichothrips cchripes, 2. sp.
3. Ayyaria chaetophora, 2. genandsp. 3. Haplothrips ramakrishnae, 7. Sp.
4, Mycterothrips setiprivus, z. sp. 4. ‘Trichothrips hadrocerus, 7. sp.
9. Anaphothrips oligochaetus, 2. sp. 5. Eothrips floriiperda, 2. sp.
6. A. ramakrishnae, 2, sp. 6. Androthrips ramachandrai, 7. sp.
7. Stylothrips brevipalpis, 2. gez and 7. Mesothrips melinocnemis 7. sp.
SP On Nieeapatelusy 7. Sp.
8. Ramaswamiahella? subnudula mz. 9. Ramakrishnaiella unispina, 7%.
gen and sp. gen. and sp.
10. Gynaikothrips intcrlccatus 2. sp.
LIST OF REFERENCES CITED IN THE LIST
Bagnall, R.S. ... Transactions of the Natural History Society, Northumber-
land, 1908.
ne ... Records of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, 1912.
i. .. Annals and Magazine of Natural History from 1908
onwards.
an .. Bulletin of Entomological Research, London.
Floods) «19: ... Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington,
xiv, 1914.
3 ... Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington,
CHES),
54 .... Insecutor, Insectiae Menstruns-Washington, 1913, 1919.
im .. &syche,. Philadelphia, xxii1, 1916.
Karny, H.H. ... ‘ Treubia,’ Buitenzorg, Java, vols. i to iii, 1921-24.
; es ... Philippine Journal of Science Manilla, xvii, 1920.
* ... Entomologische Mitteilungen, Berlin, ix, 1920.
Journal of Siam Society, xvi, 1923.
Kieffer | ~ ‘ Marcellia.’
Newman .. Transactions of the Entomological Society, London,
1856.
Schmutz, K. .. sitzungsberichte der Kaiser. Akademie der Vienna,
cxxit, 1973.
Wzelje tet. .. Monographie der ordnung Thysanopfera, Konigegratz,
1895;
Walker. G. Annals and Magazine of Nattiral History, London, 1859.
Williams, C. B. ie Bulletin of Entomological Research, London, 1915.
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS
BY
HERBERT STEVENS, M.B.O.U.
PaRT VII
(Conclusion)
(With 2 plates)
(Continued from page 685 of this Volume).
443. The Himalayan Brown Fish-Owl. Ketupa zeylonensis nigripes (Hodgs.).
This form is larger, and on the underparts somewhat paler. Wing 2-3c.m.
longer than in the typical ‘ zeylonensis.’ Dr. Hartert gives the distribution
Himalayas, exact distribution not known. Unknown to me, but a Ketupa was
seen on a few occasions around Hathipota in the Eastern Dooars and could
hardly have been referable to this form as it is only likely to be found above
the base of the hills, though my largest ¢ (wing of 405) was obtained in the
plains of Upper Assam. The wing measurement of typical ‘ zeylonensis’ is
given 39-41'5c.m. (Hartert).
444. The Tawny Fish-Owl. Ketupa flavipes (Hodgs.).
Recorded for the Lower Himalayas at elevations not exceeding 5,000’. The
only specimen that I have seen in recent years is one secured in the Tista
Valley by Mr. H. P. P. Barrett. This specimen is in the Darjeeling Museum.
445. The Forest Eagle-Owl. Huhua nipalensis (Hodgs.).
Recorded for the Himalayas at elevations not exceeding 7,000’.
Mai (‘ Khola’) Valley, East Nepal, 9 14-4-12, wing 450, obtained along
with a single youngster from the nest. The latter became quite one of the
attractions to the paharia youths who frequented my camp, being accommo-
dated during the day in the nook of arock, with snug quarters at night, as it
was wont to sit at the foot of my stretcher inside my tent, and invariably
awakened me with a friendly chuckle. After many vicissitudes and trials from
the penetrating cold of these high altitudes to the steamy heat (100° in the
shade) of Calcutta in May, and a rough voyage home in the S. W. Monsoon ; it
was safely deposited in the Regent’s Park Collection where for several years it
was an inmate. Mr. G. E. Shaw had one in semi-captivity for many years.
Turzum, 2 29-5-15, wing 441 (O. Lindgren). Sungma, ¢ 27-12-18, wing 438
(C. E. Brown), procured at mid-day whilst demolishing the remains of a
Kalij Pheasant when disturbed by the beaters. Reported to me on a few
occasions in the Rungbong Valley, where these two last specimens were
obtained at elevations below 5,000’.
446. The Himalayan Scops Owl. Otus scops pennatus,(Hodgs.).
Obtained on one occasion only at Turzum, ¢ 29-10-18, at an elevation of
5,200’ (O. Lindgren.), and seen at Gopaldhara on a few occasions at early day-
break and often suspected of being in the vicinity of the Bw., but itis a
strictly nocturnal owl, difficult to locate. In this specimen the wing is 140.
Coloration: a dark phase, scuptlars buff and white mixed, Ist quill longer
than the 8th ; 4th quill longest and slightly longer than the 3rd. This bird is
evidently referable to Hodgson’s ‘ pennatus,’ but is darker than any specimens
in the B. M. from Nepal. O.s. sumnia Hodgs., appears to be the bird which is
scattered over the plains of Northern India. One very rufous specimen I have,
was collected by Mr. C. B. Antram in the Luskerpore Valley in South Sylhet.
In this example the Ist quill shorter than the 8th; 4th quill longest and more
pronounced in length to the 3rd than in the previous example. .
447. The Spotted Himalayan Scops Owl. Otus spilocephalus (Blyth).
Apparently generally distributed, though few specimens are actually secured.
Obtained around Mangpu at 5,000’, above the Tista Valley. (G. E. Shaw).
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS 873
Nagri, Rungbong Valley, 3,700’, 9 11-1-12 (S. F. Boileau.) ; wing 150, ovaries
well developed. ‘This specimen agrees well with Assam birds which are very
variable in coloration from russet-red to brown, 2¢ ¢ wing 142 42 2 wing
142-150, av. 147. Recorded for the Himalayas ‘at elevations between about
3,000’ and 6,000’, but it occurred at lower limits in Upper Assam, being found
at the base of the hills. Gopaldhara. Two youngsters brought in 7-7-23 which
wete safely reared to maturity.
448. The Himalayan Collared Scops Owl. Otus bakkamvena lettia (Hodgs.).
This Scops owl is the commonest nocturnal owl in well-wooded tracts
in the Rungbong Valley, and is frequently heard though rarely seen.
{It appears to occur up to at least 5,000’. Gopaldhara, 4,720’, 24-4-16; three
almost fully developed youngsters brought in. ¢ 8-7-20, juvenile. ¢ 26-4-21,
juvenile ; from which it may be inferred the nesting season is a prolonged
period. One specimen was deposited in March 1922 in the Regent’s Park
Collection.
449. The Larged Barred Owlet. Glaucidium cuculoides cuculoides (Vig.).
This common Owl is widely distributed on the Outer Ranges up to an
elevation of over 7,000’. Obtained at Sonada, 6,600’, 2 8-2-17. Frequently
seen in the Rungbong Valley in broad daylight in open tracts.
450. The Collared Pigmy Owlet. Glaucidium brodiei brodiei (Burton).
Recorded from the base of the hills to a considerable elevation in Sikkim.
I have seen it in the deep valleys of the interior at low elevations, and it has
been obtained at Gopaldhara around an elevation of 5,000’, where it is
occasionally to be met with. The Paharias attribute a call to this Pigmy
Owlet, though it is almost an impossibility to locate the quarter from which
the sound emanates. On rare occasions I have heard it uttered well on into the
morning and frequently at night under the foot-hillsin Upper Assam. There
is every reason to believe this ventriloquist is the culprit as there appears to
be no other feasible explanation of the riddle.
451. The Brown Hawk-Owl. Ninox scutulata lugubris (Tick.).
The specimens obtained in the Tista Valley at an elevation of 2,900’ (G. E.
Shaw.) may be referable to this race and not to durmanica Hume. Dr. Hartert
gives the distribution : India from Rajputana to Benga]. Wing between 205-
228, and whereas the exact distribution of dwrmanicais not known; it is
the breeding bird of the Naga Hills in Assam, Cachar and Burma.
452. The Osprey. Pandion haliaetus haliaetus (L.).
I have not been fortunate enough to have seen the Osprey in the Tista River
where it is surely to occur. In January 1922, a fine bird was frequenting the
Gorge and lower reaches of the Raidak River at the base of the hills ; when on
more than one occasion, I had the opportunity of watching its methods of
grasping captured fish.
453. The Cinereus Vulture. A2gypius monachus (L.).
Recorded distribution in the “ Himalayas as far east as Bhotan, and there
can be no doubt this bird breeds 1n the Himalayas.’
454. The Black Vulture or Pondicherry Vulture. Torgos calvus (Scop.).
Occurs at frequent intervals in the Rungbong Valley, and may on occasions
be seen above the station of Darjeeling where it pa ekce an altitude of over
7,000’ at all events.
455. The Eastern Griffon Vulture. Gyps fulvus fulvescens Hume.
Recorded as far east as Nepal and Sikkim.
456. The Himalayan Griffon. Gyps himalayensis Hume.
Recorded for the Himalayas from Cabul to Bhotan being confined to the
mountains. Inthe precipitous rocky mountains on the west side of the valley,
at an elevation of 10,000’ upwards, above Lachung, in March 1920; I daiiy
observed a huge congregation of several species of vultures which were un-
doubtedly breeding. They were never seen away from these haunts around
which they sailed in majestic fashion. Mr. A. F. R. Wollaston during the
874 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Mount Everest Expedition mentions seeing it in the gorges of the main
Himalayan Range, up to 14,000’, but not on the Tibetan plateau, where only
Gypaétus barbatus grandis occurred.
457. The Himalayan Long-billed Vulture. Gyps indicus tenuirostris Hodgs.
Recorded throughout the Lower Himalayas and near their base. Evidently
occurs in Sikkim as Blanford quotes the Lepcha name.
458. The Indian White-backed Vulture. Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmel.).
Recorded, ‘‘not found above moderate elevations in the Himalayas.”’ It
appears to ascend to over 8,000’ on the Outer Ranges at which elevation, a 2
was obtained in the Mai ‘ Khola’ in East Nepal on 24-3-12. This bird
was knocked over by some youths, when on the ground, and brought into
my camp at 10,160’, it was ajuvenile with black billand dark back. At varying
periods, three other species of vultures were seen in some numbers, which in
many cases appeared to be Gyps himalayensis, none were obtained with this
exception as I must confess to an avowed aversion in the preparation of
vultures’ skins. Gopaldhara: I disturbed a single bird on my way home on
the evening of 6-3-18 ; which had evidently settled for the night in a crypto-
meria tree below the compound, 4,720’. I identified the vultures, which
were breeding in January 1922 in the village of Kumargram in Eastern Bengal,
to be this species, judging by their roaring though I failed to observe the white
parts of the adult. For a better acquaintance with this group of birds, no
more advantageous place for observation in the hills can be afforded than the
municipal slaughter house at Darjeeling, where there is every chance of
meeting with all the species that occur in the district. The whole surrounding
ground is in occupation of vultures with kites and crows in attendance. The
late Mr. J. L. Macintosh availed himself of this opportunity, and did not miss
the humorous side of their habits in his description of their jaunts on the wire-
ropeway which carries the refuse to its destination. It requires the enthusiasm
of an ardent ornithologist but the results would justify the olfactory
inconvenience.
459. The Bearded Vulture or Lammergeyer. Gypaetus barbatus grandis Storr.
‘Lhema gida’ Paharia.
There can be few more impressive sights in connection with any bird, than
to be fortunate in seeing the majestic Lamergeyer proudly keeping ahead of an
approaching storm, as the clouds roll along the ridge with an enveloping mist
or whilst under more favourable circumstances, it soars at an intense height
over the sublime depths of the valley below. They appear to have regular
beats along the ridges and spurs, and at the close of the breeding season, extend
over a wider area, as single birds may be seen as far out as Mirik or Kurseong,
though I have no record of their descending to a lower limit than 4,800’ when
on one occasion it was observed flying leisurely above my home on 29-6-18.
I have seen it on the Outer Ranges, Phalut, 11,811’, 17-2-12. Sandakphu,
11,923’, 8-3-12; when one passed overhead several times in company with
vultures, and on this and similar occasions its curiosity was so aroused as I
reclined on the ground to bring it within measurable distance, when the rich
ferruginous tint of the breast feathers, and piercing eye, heightened by the
blood-red membrane were seen to perfection. I have never seen more than
a solitary bird on any one oceasion,? which trait in its habits, almost discounts
any near relationship with the vultures. Mr. H. P. P. Barrett informs me,
whenever it appears with the latter at their feeding grounds it keeps aloof
from the common herd. One specimen he obtained had its gullet and stomach
crammed with undigested bones. This well-known fact prompted me to test
the extent of the Bungalow chauwkidar’s knowledge at Sandakphu in reference
to its habits, and as the old man vividly described what he had witnessed ;
I was content to let him have his final assurance that this bird was no ordinary
‘ Gida.’ It occurs frequently over Ghoom and was noted daily in the Lachung
Valley in March, when an adult bird was wont to wend its flight down the
valley. I have only once seen it settle in a tree and remain there for some
* I have since seen three birds soaring at an immense height over the
Gopaldhara Bw. 7-5-23. This occurrence most likely pointed to adverse
conditions in the weather in the high upper regions.
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS 875
time. They seem to spend only brief intervals on the ground, when they are
attracted to their favourite repast. One adult 2 was obtained in this manner
by trapping near Kurseong on 11-1-20, wing, 830. Soft parts: Iris pinky
yellowish-white ; sclerotic membrane blood-red; bill horny, tip dark ;
tarsus plumbeous-grey, stippled with oxide of iron? Kalo Pokhari, camp,
10,160’, 4 24-5-12. This specimen was in extremely ragged condition ; as it
was in the so-called immature plumage ; some years must: elapse before the
full adult garb is attained, otherwise this record nullifies the usual accepted
data in regard to this phase being a mark of the young bird. To me it seems
akin toa melanistic phase. This bird in its dark plumage and blackish-brown
head in flight appeared lke a huge J/ctinaétus. Wing abraded. Soft parts :
Iris stone-yellow ; sclerotic membrane, dull orange ; gape, blue.
Mr. A. I’. R. Wollaston records seeing this bird flying at a height of not less
than 24,000, during the Mount Everest Expedition.
460. The Eastern Steppe Eagle. Aquila nipalensis nipalensis Hodgs.
Blanford gives the Lepcha name for this Eagle. Mr. G. E. Shaw appears
to have obtained it at Mangpu at 3,860’. Probably occurs with more frequency
in the Tista Valley than in the minor valleyson the west. As these large
Eagles have so many different phases of plumage, and opportunities seldom
come one’s way in the well-wooded country of the Eastern Himalayas for
observation, I am unable to fix the identity of afew aquiline birds which
have come under my notice which at sight appeared to be referable
to this species.
461. Bonelli’s Eagle. Hieraetus fasciatus fasciatus. (Vieill.).
It is with some diffidence that this fine Eagle is included in this list as, so far,
Ihave seen no specimen from Sikkim, or the lower foot-hills, though this
country is well within its recorded distribution. My observations point to its
having some status, but until specimens have been actually obtained, its
inclusion only rests on circumstantial evidence. The National Collection is
represented by two specimens from Nepal (Hodgson and Scully) and one
from the Bhotan Dooars collected in March 1875 by Mandelli. Afzeraaétus
pennatus (Gmel.) by one Sikkim skin, dated 1872, in the Hume collection and
one specimen from Nepal collected by Hodgson. My thanks are due to Mr.
N. B. Kinnear for supplying me with this infoimation.
462. The Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle. Lophotriorchis kieneri (De Sparre).
This grand bird is apparently confined to the Tista and Great Rangit
Valleys, occasionally straying to the surrounding hills. Reported to me as
known by a few careful observers, and within recent years has been obtained
at Bannockburn Estate at 5,000’, 3, 18:4-18 by the late Mr. E. A. Wernicke and
aQ below Mangpu at 3,300’ on 31-8-20 by Mr. G. E. Shaw. Observed at
Gopaldhara at about 4,000’ in the Rungbong Valley on 9-2-19 when the
rich ferruginous underparts were prominent, and a wild resounding call was
uttered on its taking flight.
463. The Indian Black-Eagle. Ictinaetus malayensis perniger (Hodgs.).
The Black-Eagle has recently been recorded at the foot of the hills at 500’
by Mr. C. M. Inglis. It is generally distributed at elevations of from 2,000’ —
10,000’, on the Outer Ranges and occurs in the Interior around Gangtok at
5,800’, in February and March. I have noted its appearances, which have
attracted my notice, though excepting the period, when it is occupiedin
breeding ; it is often to be seen leisurely quartering the wooded ‘ kholas’ of the
hill-sides. Gopaldhara, occasionally seen in January 1912. Observed the first
week inJuly 1914. On 13-5-16, pursued Drongos (Chaptia nea), several of
which are addicted to mob it daily, as it appears on its rounds. Sandakphu,
11,923’, 1-3-12, several hereabouts. In flight it shows some resemblance to the
laboured motion of the Marsh Harrier ; this trait is more noticeable as it passes
overhead than from a broadside aspect.
Four specimens examined : Rungbong Valley, Sungma, 4,500’, J 29-9-14,
(C. E. Brown), wing 572. Nagri, 4,300’, ¢ 11-2-16, wing 576. Gopaldhara,
6,000’, 2 4-11-19, wing 580‘ worn’ ;a bread patch of white on the throat
extending behind the ear-coverts with the chin and a gular stripe black, other-
wise in the rich deep black plumage of the adult female. The gullet and crop
876 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
contained the carcases of six or more young field-mice. Balasan Valley,
Pussimbing, 4,500’, circum. @ 15-12-15, wing 585.
Soft parts: (Iris stone-brown ; cere deep ochreous-yellow ; base of
bill greenish-yellow ; bill black ; tarsus ochreous#yellow ; claws black.
© tris brown ; cere and gape gamboge-yellow ; bill basal half, yellowisn-
green, remainder bluish-black darkening towards the tip; tarsus dark
ochreous. ‘ A Synopsis of the Accipitres’ (Kirke Swann.) gives the measure-
ment of the wing, as 550-600.
464. The Himalayan Hawk-Eagle. Spizaetus nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgs.).
This bold and aggressive eagle is the great terror of the country-side. It is
generally distributed in the forested tracts at elevations of from 2,500’-10,000’
on the Outer Ranges. Often to be seen around Gopaldhara. Being a wary
bird, it is difficult to obtain. Sungma, 4,500’, Q 10-1-12. Sandakphu sum-
mit, 11,800’, 8-3-12. This day, I was the witness of the manceuvres of a
pair of these grand birds, as they were too wary to allow of a near
approach, I had to be well content with the excellent view attained from a
secluded vantage point amongst the rocks. Attimes they remained stationary
in the clear atmosphere, hovering perceptibly against the wind, occasionally
making some terrific dashes in a down-ward direction, closing the wings at
each attempt; in one instance this feat was performed by a single bird as
it came to roost on the topmost, naked branch of a tall, commanding pine-
tree ; but more frequently these acts were performed in combination, in true
exuberance of spirits. Ambootia, 3,000’ approx., 18-4-15. I watched a
prolonged bout in mid-air at a great height up, between a pair of these eagles
endeavouring to seize a domestic pigeon, which eventually escaped after an
exciting time to the accompanied shouts of the owner of the bird to which the
eagles were oblivious. Nigali, 5,000’ approx., 28-1-16; a Kite (A/tlvus
lineatus) was brought in to me withits throat ripped open by one of these
eagles, the combat, which took place .in mid-air, was witnessed by my
informant. Gopaldhara, a large ‘ utis’ tree adjacent tothe bungalow has been
a favourite roosting place on more than one occasion and a date against this
fact is 18-9-15*. Seen to take a Kalij Pheasant from the ground and carry
it away with perfect ease. Three specimens examined : Ghoom, 6,590’, 3
18-1-19, wing 462 ; the whole of the lower parts from the chin to the under tail-
coverts without streaks or bars. 2 the pair to this male, is in a melanistic
phase, with black head and bars on the tail well defined, throat and breast
with heavy dark streaks, and the whole of the lower surface dark and barred
throughout to the under tail-coverts, wing, 465. Rungbong Valley, 10-1-12, 2
wing 432; this appears to be a younger ? bird but with crest fully developed,
gular stripe on throat and streaks on breast well defined, lower parts pale with
barring on the flanks, abdomen, thighs and under tail-coverts also prominent.
Kirke Swann gives the wing measurement of this form as ¢ 450-460, 2 485-495.
In my‘ Notes on the Birds of Upper Assam’ I recorded a ¢ from Dejoo,
N. Lakhimpur, 30-11-08, under this species which on further examination is
referable to Spzzaétus cirrhatus limnaétus (Horsf.), being the pale phase
(S. caligatus Raffles). This species appears to be restricted to the Lower
Himalayas along the base of the hills ; the wing in this specimen is 440.
465. The Crested Serpent Eagle. Spilornis cheela cheela (Lath.).
A common and generally distributed eagle. It occurs on the Outer
Ranges and well into the Interior, where I have observed it around Singhik in
the Tista Valley. Amongst the numerous occasions it has come under my
notice, the following records have been duly noted. Gopaldhara, 4,720’,
7-4-19. * Turzum, 5,200’, one secured, minus one tarsus, on 25-7-17.
(O. Lindgren.) 25-2-21, ¢ wing 495. Seeyok, ¢ 31-3-20, wing 493. Thurbo,
Q 1-5-21, wing abraded.
Kirke Swann gives the wing measurement of this form as 2 (Himalayas)
495-532, ¢ 500-510 and that of .S. c. albidus (Temm.) ¢ (Assam) 430-443 ; 2 430.
I find five ¢ 4% measure (a) 405, (b) 455, (c) 460, and (d) 485 respectively whilst
a single 2 measures only (e) 415. Some of these low wing-measurements for
Assam specimens are significant. Whilst the single female (e) refers to an
adult in typical dark plumage, male (a) is in the pale phase; throat entirely
white, breast white with centre streaks, abdomen banded, head and nape
showing a preponderance of white, upper surface fringed with white; (c) isa
JOURN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. ° PLATE XII
H. S. Photo,
CRAGS, NORTH-WEST OF LACHUNG VILLAGE.
Haunts of Vultures sp.?, Pyrrhocorax graculus, Grandala ce@licolor, &e.
7th March, 1920.
LACHUNG VALLEY ABOVE THE VILLAGE.
Looking north. ‘‘An excellent example of a glacial valley.”
Pines in foreground chiefly Abies smithiana, the Spruce of Hooker.
Haunts of Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax, Columba leuconota, &c., &c. Tth March, 1920.
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS 877
still paler bird which almost discounts this phase of plumage being a mark of
immaturity. Stuart Baker restricts aléida to Southern India. Kirke Swann
gives the distribution of this form.—E., C. and S. India from Assam to
Travancore ; whereas Kirke Swann restricts rutherfordi to Hainan Isl. and
French Indo-China. Stuart Baker gives the distribution of this form.—Assam,
Burma and Siam to Hainan Isl. My specimens show much disparity in size
and thus best agree with the last-mentioned distribution,
466. The White-eyed Buzzard-Hawk. Butastur teesa (Frankl.).
_ The only record for this species is that of a ¢ obtained at Mangpu, 3,800’,
on 19-2-21. (G. E. Shaw). A bird seen at Chungthang on 11-3-20*
appeared to be referable to this Butastur, as it was not secured, this occurrence
lacks substantiation. Blanford refers to this species as wanting in the
Himalayas. The above record is apparently az extension of its distribution
area.
467. Pallas’s Sea Eagle. Cuncuma leucorypha (Pall.).
Obtained on one occasion in the Rungbong Valley at Sungma 4,500’, ¢
16-6-19 (C. E. Brown.), wing, 585. Kirke Swann gives the wing-measurement
of this species : ¢ 563-573; 2 600-618. j
468. The Brahminy Kite. Haliastur indus indus (Bodd.).
Apart from a few birds occurring in the cold weather, there appears to bean
influx into the hills of this kite on the advent of the S. W. Monsoon. Obtained
at Turzum at 5,200’, 11-12-21. (O. Lindgren.) Gopaldhara, a single bird
seen on 8-4-19, and a pair in evidence at Nigali, 5,200’, on 14-6-15. ‘This kite
ascends to 7,000’.
469. The Indian Kite. Milvus migrans govinda Sykes.
Recorded as ‘ found in the Himalayas up to an elevation of about 12,000’,
but is uncommon above about 8,000’.’ I have identified this kite from a few
low elevation specimens, Nurbong, 2,000’, 18-3-14. I picked upa bird with a
wing-measurement of only 13§” =350, and I have received specimens from
Thurbo in January 1916, and from Sungma, 11-5-15, wing, 19” = 483,
3 Wing, 430-450. 2, 460-480. (Kirke Swann.).
Blanford records this kite from Lachung, 8,000’ and Yumthang, 12,000’,
(September). All the birds I saw in Lachung in March were referred to the
next species.
470. The Black-eared Kite, Mitvus lineatus (Gray).
The following information has reference to thislarge kite. I have neglected
to obtain specimens, since a number were obtained in Assam. Balasan Valley,
Namsoo, 2,000’. Observed in some numbers frequenting the river-bed in the
first week in January 1912. Kalo Pokhari, Nepal-Sikkim Frontier, 10,160’,
29-3-12. Not much in evidence at these heights but a single pair seen to-day
and a solitary bird on 1-4-12. Jalapahar, 7,500’ circ., 9-4-17. Numerous
kites congregating hereabouts, disporting in ahigh wind on a bright after-
noon. Lachung, 8,800’, 9-3-20. Numbers in evidence around the village.
During the Mt. Everest Expedition observed in the Kharta Valley up to
17,000. (A. F. R. Wollaston). @ Wing 475-485 ; 2 500-530; tail 300-335.
(Kirke Swann).
471. The Indian Black-winged Kite. Elanus ceruleus vociferus (Latham).
During the early summer in 1921 there appeared to be an extension of this
kite into the hills, as both Mr. O. Lindgren obtained it at Turzum in May at
5,200’ in the Rungbong Valley and Mr. G. E. Shaw below Mangpu at 3,700’,
© 15-4-21 ; 3,800’, § 16-4-21.
472. Montagu’s Harrier. Circus pygargus (L.).
Evidently occurs sparingly in the Rungbong Valley during the ‘cold
weather.’ Turzum, 5,200’ circ., 2 12-1-21 (O. Lindgren.), wing 338; both
ovaries well defined. Iris brown; bill black ; tarsus yellow; claws black.
As will be noted from the wing measurement this bird is a diminutive specimen.
& Wing 350-370, (one 340 and one 380mm.) Q@ wing 350—380 (one 335).
British Birds, vol, it, p. 153, Witherby.
878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
473. The Pallid Harrier. Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmel.).
This harrier most likely occurs under favourable conditions in ‘ the cold
weather.’ On the west side of the Rungbong Valley, all harriers give the
wooded tracts a wide berth, and on no single occasion, have I ever seen a bird
on Gopaldhara ; yet they occur in the valley fairly frequently, but much more
commonly on the bare, open ground around Pokharibong and Mirik.
474. The Hen Harrier. Circus cyaneus cyaneus (L..).
This harrier is probably the commonest of all the members of this genus,
Rungbong Valley, Selimbong, @ 20-1-16, wing, 398. Iris gamboge-yellow ;
this specimen is a fine adult bird. A female observed at Mirik, 29-3-20.
475. The Pied Harrier. Circus melanoleucus (Forst.).
I have seen it on a few occasions, and it has been reported to me at other
times. It evidently extends into the hills, covering a wider area in ‘the cold
weather.’
476. The Long-legged Buzzard. Buteo ferox ferox (S. G. Gmel.).
This buzzard appears to be more common in the North-West, than
in the Eastern Himalayas. Recorded for Sikkim, and I obtained it under
the hillsin Upper Assam. <A further examination proves the specimen to be
the typicalform. It is quite impossible to distinguish between adults in the
pale phase of this species and Luteo japonicus = B. plumipes (Hodgs.), unless
they are available for comparison, when the former shows a more decided
ferruginous coloration generally ; which is pronounced on the tail, the inner
webs of which have a preponderance of white. Birds from the eastern limits
of its range appear to have the naked portion of the tarsus in front reticulated
and not scutellate as in European examples. Buzzards seen on several
occasions on the Singile La Ridge during the winter of 1911-12, in particular
near Phalut on 16-2-12 and 19-2-12, some of which were dark coloured
birds, and at Sandakphu, 15-3-12, and Kalo Pokhari in March 1912; which
latter records to refer to very pale birds may have in some cases been this
species, though no definite certain indentification was possible, and this
remark applies to birds seen on various occasions at much lower limits.
477. The Upiand Buzzard. Buteo hemilasius Temm. & Schleg.
Dr. Hartert treats this buzzard as a race of B. ferox and Buteo leucocephalus
and Archibuteo strophiatus (Hodgs.) are synonyms. Both these two latter
birds have been recorded from Sikkim. On Sandakphu, 3-3-12, I saw a large
bird with a dark head, inclined to black, breast distinctly ferruginous, tail
much rounded ; as it soared overhead it uttered a plaintive, mewing cry. To
all appearances it seemed too large for a buzzard but might have been this
species. The few small birds in the gully below which, at the time, I was
watching were a pair of Redstarts (P. schisticeps) a Wren (7. nuipalensis)
and several Cole-Tits (ZL. rufonuchalis beavani and L. dichrous), but these
suffered no molestation, whilst busily occupied in and about the dwarf
rhododendron bushes.
478. The Japanese Buzzard. Buteo japonicus (Temm. & Schleg.).
This is the B. plumipes (Hodgs.). Kirke Swann queries the Himalayas in
his, distribution key. Rungbong Valley, Turzum, 5,000’ circ. ¢ 18-11-19,
wing, 380. This example is in the stage of plumage which is probably
referable to a not yet adult bird and has the zone on the abdomen, which Kirke
Swann has very aptly compared with /agopus. Iris stone yellow (pale brown) ;
ceregreenish yellow ; bill slaty-black ; tarsus scutellate in front, dull ochreous.
Stomach contained remains of a mouse, some Orthoptera and a skink
in the gullet. 5,200’, 2 16-2-21, an adult, wing, 412. Very similarto some
specimens of 4. fervor without the rufous markings, tail uniformly dark. Iris
pale stone-brown ; cere greenish ochreous; bill black ; tarsus reticulate in
front, dull ochreous; claws black. Stomach contained remains of a field-
mouse and a chameleon. Lachung, 10,000’, ¢ 3-3-20, wing, 360; this example
has the bare portion of the tarsus reticulate in front, and is in a melanistic
phase of plumage throughout. Several buzzards were seen in this Valley,
when on occasions they have been observed to descend with closed wings in a
terrific swoop but which calmy ended by settling on a tree-stump or other
NOTES. ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. 879
equally accommodating perching site. This buzzard is frequently to be seen
in the Rungbong Valley during the ‘ cold weather,’ and I saw a fine pair of
birds at Mirik, which had taken up their quarters in a lofty tree adjacent to
the swampy ground in the winter, 1921-22 ; when odd birds were to be seen
around Gopaldhara, a specified date being 28-10-21. Blanford records it from
Yumthang, 13,000’. (September).
479. The Siberian Goshawk. Astur gentilis schedowl Menz.
The only specimen that I have seen from these hills is a Q obtained on the
18-11-18 at Sungma, 4,500’ inthe Rungbong Valley by Mr. C. E. Brown, to
whom I am indebted for many interesting Accipitres. The wing of this
example measures 337, tarsus 83. It is richly suffused with cream colour and
heavily blotched on the underside so, is apparently in the immature stage of
plumage. This bird was molested by a pair of Jungle-Crows, being driven
from tree to tree. Iris bright golden-yellow ; cere greenish-yellow ; gape
yellow ; bill, bluish, shading towards tip into black ; tarsus, lemon-yellow ;
claws black. Stomach contained only two small fragments of micaceous
gravel, being absolutely empty of any food.
480. The Shikra. Astur badius dussumieri (Temm.).
The Shikra breeds at moderate elevations and is generally distributed.
After an examination of my material from the Eastern Himalayas, I can
detect no differences from extreme limits, which are not explained by seasonal
change, and my conclusion is that all these birds must be relegated to one form.
A. 6. poliopsis (Hume.) is said to be darker grey above; with broader and
brighter vinous bands below whilst A 6. dussumiert is above lighter grey, below
paler rufous in comparison with the typical form (Kirke Swann) ; there is
apparently no difference in the size of these two forms, which are larger than
A. 6. badius (Gmel.). ;
Adult males, all very similar on upper side.
Sikkim Himalaya. Rungbong Valley, Turzum, 5,200’ cire., ¢ (a)
8-3-19. (O. Lindgren.), wing 182. Iris crimson; bill bluish at gape, sheath,
horny bluish-black, deepening towards tip; cere bluish and yellowish on top
of culmenal base ; tarsus dull yellow ; claws black.
Sungma, 4,500’, (6) 2-4-20 (C. E. Brown), wing 186; the palest example
of all, gular stripe best defined. Iris orange-yellow ; bill bluish at base,
varying to the dark tip, cutting edge of upper mandible yellow ; cere bluish-
yellow ; tarsus dusky-yellow ; claws black ; testes active. Stomach contained
remains of Lezothrix lutea calipyga, identified by the bill, which was intact.
Upper Assam. Dibrugarh, Rungagora (Plains), ¢(c) 4-7-03, wing 187.
Iris crimson; the darkest example of all, traces of the bars indicated on the
thighs, otherwise showing the white under tail-covertsas in the rest.
Sibsagar, Komilabari (Plains), ¢ (d) Ist-13-9-04, wing 178, bars not as deep in
colour as (¢c) but brighter than (a), identical with an example from the
Luskerpore Valley, South Sylhet, month not noted, wing 190.
Immature males, all showing the rufous fringes to the feathers of the
upper side, and bloched below.
Upper Assam. N. Lakhimpur, Dejoo, ¢ 23-7-04, wing 191, ¢ 5-8-04,
wing 188; <¢10-8-07, wing, 192. Irispale yellow ; the darkest example in
this series.
Sikkim Himalaya. Rungbong Valley, Gopaldhara, 4,700’, ¢ 5-8-20, wing
182. Iris pale yellow.
Adult females, all very dark on the under side with the head slaty in
example (#) which is brownish-slaty inthe rest ; bars on thighs well defined
in (g), only faintly indicated in (/) ; gular stripe most prominent in (f).
Sikkim Himalaya. Rungbong Valley, Gopaldhara, 4,700’, 2 (e) 15-7-16,
wing, 209, a breeding bird, tailin heavy moult. Sungma, 4,500’, 2 (f) 7-8-17
(C. E. Brown.), wing 214, a breeding bird, tail in moult.
Upper Assam. Nth Lakhimpur, Dejoo, @ (g) 15-9-08, wing 216. 2 (Z)
21-10-08, wing, 214.
Immature females. Upper Assam. Nth. Lakhimpur, Dejoo, 2 2-8-04, wing
208. South Sylhet. WULuskerpore Valley, 2 wing 207. Sikkim Himalaya.
Rungbong Valley, Gopaldhara, 4,720’, 9 18-9-21 wing 201. Iris pale yellow,
cere greenish-yellow ; bill black at tip, gape and basal half of lower mandi-
ble, bluish ; tarsus dingy-yellow ; claws black. This bird flew into the
bungalow verandah at 3 p.m. in a bold endeavour to seize a caged barbet.
2]
880 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, (Vol WX
481. The Larger Crested Goshawk. Astur trivirgatus rufitinctus McClell.
Recorded for Sikkim, but apparently occurs more commonly farther to the
east and is evidently a bird of low elevations. Mandelli obtained it breeding
at Mantchu ? (Namchi) in May.
481 (a). The Larger Besra Sparrow-Hawk. Accipiter alfinis Gurney.
This Sparrow-Hawk occurs, yet is apparently far from common. Turzum,
5,200’, @ 28-12-15. (O. Lindgren.) wing 203, tail, 156, this example is a fine
adult bird. Gopaldhara, 6,000’, @ 5-11-19, wing 196; tail 138; this last
example is an immature bird ; both specimens were obtained in the Rungbong
Valley. A female observed in December 1911 near Thurbo at 4,600’ was
certainly referable to this species.
482. The Indian Sparrow-Hawk. Accipiter nisus melanoschistus Hume.
An examination of my material is detailed, as it seems to me impossible to
separate this form from #zsosztmzlis as far as cold-weather birds ,are concern,
ed. The measurements overlap and colour differences are an unstable guide-
due to age and seasonal change. ‘The distribution of the two races appears to
be not yet clearly defined, especially if the two forms intermingle in their winter
limits ; if this is the case; there must be some confusion in an exact
determination.
Nepal-Sikkim Frontier, Kalo Pokhari, 10,160’, (a) ¢ 22-3-12, wing 204;
tail 142; this example is an adult. Iris orange-yellow. Upper parts dark
slaty, head still darker and the whole of the lower surface rusty-red, oblite-
rating the bars, excepting on the abdomen and flanks,
Rungbong Valley, Thurbo, 4,500’, (6) ¢ 25-1-16, wing 212 ; tail 143, not
quite as dark as the previous example, bars on the under surface defined and
suffused with rufous.
Upper Assam, N. Lakhimpur, Dejoo, ¢ (¢) 2-12-10, wing 216, tail 150.
Similar to (6) lower surface strongly suffused with rufous ; bars distinct.
Dibrugarh, Rungagora, ¢ (d) 6-4-03, wing 205; tail 142; an immature
example in abraded plumage. < (¢) 26-1-04, wing 216; tail 150; an
immature example in fresh plumage.
Sikkim, Lachung, 10,000’, 2 (f) 3-3-20, wing 253; tail, 183. Left ovary
developed, stomach empty. Ox migration, held up with a snow storm. This
example is the darkest of six females, and has the head almost black, yet this
bird was accompanied by the next specimen which is equally adult 9 (g) but
which is correspondingly in a lighter phase of colouration, wing 247 ; tail 162 ;
both ovaries showing signs of activity, stomach empty.
Rungbong Valley, Thurbo, 4,500’, 2 (#) 28-11-20, wing 253 ; tail, 169 ;
head and nape showing more white than is usually present in adult females,
with the under surface and bars dark and well defined. Attracted to the pre-
cincts of the bungalow by the Pigeons. Q (7) 24-12-21, wing 240 ; tail, 156 ; an
immature bird in fresh plumage, 2 (4) 20-1-19, wing, 258, tail, 180 ; a fine
adult bird with the head dark slaty, contrasting with the back and wings
which are a slaty-brown ; an altogether paler phase than (f). Gopaldhara,
3,500’. 2 (2) 30-1-19, wing 245; tail, 160, evidently an immature bird in
slightly abraded plumage. Males Nos. (6) & (c) in comparison with (a) and
female (£) in comparison with (f) might be referred to A. m, nisosimilis
(Tick.) provided the specimens with which they have been compared are
typical and in normal plumage,—not the result of excessive vigour or a phase
of melanism.
Blanford refers to asparrow-hawk as common in the Lachen and Lachung
Valleys after the middle of September, evidently migrating southward but
none were seen on the Cho La Range at the end of August 1870.
483. The Indian Crested Honey-Buzzard. Pernis cristatus ruficollis Less.
This Buzzard occurs with frequency in the hills at moderate elevations. An
adult @ obtained in the Rungbong Valley in late March 1912. Wing 452 ;
underparts more white than cream-coloured with the streaks well defined on
the breast. Sungma, 4,500’, 2 14-10-19 (C. E. Brown.), this example is a very
fine adult bird, showing a rich creamy suffusion over the whole of the lower
surface, particularly marked on the breast; the streaks are well defined.
Wing 448. Soft parts: Iris gamboge-yellow; bill greenish-plumbeous at
base of both mandibles, upper mandible plumbeous-black, darkening towards
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS 881
the tip; lower mandible bluish-plumbeous darkening similarly; tarsus
dusky-yellow.
A few observations have been duly noted. Gopaldhara, 9-10-16.* <A kestrel
seen in company with a honey-buzzard when the former was observed to
harrass it, but this act could hardly amount to a serious effort as it was glorious
weather at the time and seemed to be more of an ebulition of spirits in sheer
delight ; even the Butterflies (Papilio philoxenus) which usually flitted about
the compound at no great height, were this morning disporting some hundreds
of feet above their accustomed realm, when they appeared like dimunitive birds
in the clear atmosphere. Nagri Spur, 31-3-17*. Mangpu, 3,800’. ¢ 5-5-20 ;
& 13-8-21. (G. E. Shaw). For comparison my specimens from Assam,
3 29 Wing, 412, 415, 432, ¢ 398. The measurements of my adult birds exceed
Kirke Swann’s: 2 405-418, ¢ 380- 390.
484. The Biack-crested Baza. Lophastur leuphotes leuphotes (Dumont).
Sparingly distributed and confined to low elevations. Reported to me from
few localities but evidently breeds on the Nagri Spur at an elevation not higher
than 4,250’. Two specimens examined from this locality for which I am
indebted to Mr. E. G. Birch. ¢ 26-6-19, wing 232; tail 122 ; bill from cere,
18; tarsus 36. Iris hazel; bill plumbeous-blue, darker at tip; tarsus
plumbeous ; claws plumbeous-horny. @ 10-7-20, wing 242 ; tail 128 ; bill from
cere, 18, tarsus, 34. Iris, brown; cere, dark bluish-plumbeous ; bill, pale-
blue, tip and edges of notches of upper mandible dark ; tarsus, pale bluish-
plumbeous ; claws dark horny. Stomach contained insect remains entirely—
grasshoppers and caterpillars.
485. Blyth’s Baza. Aviceda jerdoni jerdoni (Blyth).
Recorded from Kurseong, 6,000’, by Mr. E. A. D’Abreu and by Mr. A. M.
Primrose from the foot-hills, 1,200’-2,000’, in this Journal, vol. xx, pp. 518
and 1152, respectively. It has since been obtained by Mr. G. E. Shaw at
Mangpu, 5,500’, ¢ 13-12-20.
486. The Indian Hobby. Falco severus indicus A. B. Meyer & Wiglesw.
The only specimen obtained in recent years tomy knowledge was shot by
the late Mr. E. A. Wernicke at Bannockburn Estate below the station of
Darjeeling. Observed in lofty forest on the left bank of the Raidak River in
January 1922.
487. The Central Asian Hobby. Falco subbuieo centralasie (Buturlin).
' The typical form appears to be a winter visitor to North-West India, where
iny specimens have been obtained. Until the following specimens from these
hills have been compared, it is impossible to decide whether they refer to this
form or Fs. streicht Hart. & Neum. Mangput, 3,850’, 3 10-18. ¢& 11-10-19.
(G. E. Shaw.). Both of us observed a hobby to take up its position in the
trees facing the bungalow at Mangpu on 16-10-18* when its identification
was fixed. Observed at Gopaldhara on 19-10-18* and again at 3,700’, 7-2-19*,
single birds on both occasions.
488. The Eastern Red-footed Falcon. Falco vespertinus amurensis Radde.
A single 2 obtained at Mangpu at 3,860’, on 18-10-18, (G. E. Shaw.) is the
only record that | am aware of for these hills within recent years.
489. The Himalayan Kestrel. Cerchneis tinnunculus saturatus. (Blyth.).
490. The Eastern Kestrel. Cerchneis tinnunculus subsp. ?
So far as can be ascertained, no reason has been cited for the acceptance of
McClelland’s zuterstinctus in place of Blyth’s saturatus. McClelland’s
type came from Assam, where two or more races are likely to occur. While
some of my skins from the Sikkim Himalaya are without doubt referable to
saluratus ; this appears not to be the case with my Assam skins, as the
majority of my specimens are not ‘ saturatus.’ This kestrel is resident in the
Rungbong Valley, and breeds sparingly around Gopaldhara from 5,000’
upwards. It seems to lay fewer eggs in the clutch than the typical form. A
single youngster, taken from the nest in early 1915, either in March or April,
was afemale. This bird is now in the Regent’s Park Collection.
882 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX
Six specimens examined: Gopaldhara, 4,720’, 9 16-1-12, wing and tail in
heavy moult. Thurbo, 4,500’, ¢ 20-8-21, wing 243; tail 146, first two
primaries in process of growth. 92 March 1919, wing 259 ; tail150. 9 22-11-21,
wing, 234; tail, 132; wanting the deep rufous suffusion on the breast,
probably not fully adult, otherwise agrees with the rest, in the average run of
coloration ; noted to be in fat condition.
Turzum, 5,000’, 2 17-9-20 (O. Lindgren.), wing 253; tail 144, not fully
adult. 9 8-11-20, wing 257; tail 149, a fine adult bird ; stomach contained
Diptera Larve and parasitic filarie.
My Assam specimens and with these are included one ¢ from the Sikkim
Himalaya, approach nearer to japonicus Temm and Schleg., in coloration,
but are far too large for this race, yet at the same time are too small for
dorriest Kirke Swann. Another race has been described from Fusan and
Corea, 1907 :—perpallida Clark.
The measurements of my specimens are detailed.
Assam. ¢ Wing 250; tail 149 (November), Immature.
e a gs 250; ,, 141 (April), in change of plumage.
: Jo i 2005. 4, a20 (December. Adit:
% Ce oS 296 ;- ,, -158 (November), Adult.
Sikkim. -,, Zoo ss, 7149 (January) yo dulte
Assam.2 sis 254; ,, 156 (November), Immature.
258.3. 45.-> laA Ap) sAault:
This series I consider to be well removed from ‘saturatus’ and sub-specifically
underterminable. ‘The elucidation and correct identification of these eastern
forms is most desirable. Numbers of kestrels are to be seen during ‘the
cold weather’ at moderate elevations in these hills, and a few pairs were
observed in the Lachung Valley up to 9,000’ at a similar period of the year,
where Blanford records first seeing it on the 9th of September when it made
its appearance a few days sooner than the sparrow-hawk, which evidently
refers to the cold-Season migrant.
491. The Red-breasted Pigmy Falcon. Microhierax cerulescens cerulescens (L.).
The true home of this interesting, miniature falcon is the deep, hot valleys
and at the base of the heavily forested hills. It has come under my observa:
tion at limits of from 800-1,700’, and I have not seen it at a higher elevation in
the interior of the country ; whilst on the outer hills. it has been obtained up to
3,860’ at Mangpu, 16-2-18, as well as at 1,100’, 2-3-20 (G. E. Shaw.), and
reported from the Nagri Spur at 4,000’ by Mr. E. G. Birch, and from Bloom-
field at 6,000’ near the station of Darjeeling by Mr. H. P. P. Barrett. I have
seen anumber of specimens from the Terai. ‘There is little doubt that it
disperses over a wider area after the breeding season, notwithstanding its
distribution limits are strictly confined to low elevations. Towards April they
congregate in small colonies at their nesting haunts and are then partial to
clusters of lofty ‘ simal’ trees in open tractsin preference to the dense forest,
when towards evening, they become very active, enlivening the air with their
bold, dashing flight, which partakes of the combined actions of Arfamus and
Cypselus, and though they eventually settle on the naked branches at a great
height from the ground, they often dash overhead within a few feet, uttering
all the while a shrill whistle. At midday it is no unusual sight to observe an
odd bird enjoying a siesta in the open branches of any diminutive tree
by the road-side, and even in a village quite oblivious to the daily
routine of its human occupants; unless one is acquainted with this habit it
might be mistaken for a shrike. I have found their breeding haunts entirely
deserted at other times. In one day, 28-3-17, I had the gratification of
observing six birds, at scattered intervals, along one valley. My observations
have reference to the years 1917 and 1920 in March between periods covering
the 12th-28th.
Four ¢ ¢ examined: Bill from cere, 10-11, av. 10-4; wing 99-104, av.
100°8.
One @ examined : Bill from cere 11 ; wing 100 ; ovaries developed but not
breeding, 28-3-17. Several filariz taken from behind the eye of one of these
specimens. I have come across them in other birds of diverse genera such as
Spilornis, Motacilla, Siphia, &c., &c.
Soft parts : Iris brown ; tarsus greenish-plumbeous.
I have refrained in this solitary instance from stating the exact locality as
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS 883
it would be quite within the realms of possibility for an over-zealous or selfish
collector to decimate the birds at their breeding colonies to such an extent to
disastrously affect their status. As the eggs are very rare, or even not known
of this form in collections, no such charge can yet be brought against the
brother Oologist, and he well might havea grievance against the skin
collector.
492. The Bengal Green Pigeon. Crocopus pheenicoptera phcoenicoptera (Lath.).
Entirely a plains-species. [ found it plentiful around the village of Kumar-
gram in East Bengal near the Assam boundary.
493. The Thick-billed Green Pigeon. Treron curvirostra nipalensis (Hodgs.).
Evidently confined to the base of the foot-hills and adjacent forested
country of the plains.
494. The Pin-tailed Green Pigeon. Sphenocercus apicauda (Hodgs.).
Recorded for the Himalayas below 5,000’ or 6,000’. This pigeon cnly
appears in the Rungbong Valley zu the cold weather, and is then generally
found below 4,700’ or thereabouts. Gopaldhara, 3,500’, 30-1-I9. I counted
twenty-six Pin-tailed Pigeons at rest on the bare branches of a tall ‘ siris’
(Albizzia stipulata) tree at the bottom of the valley. Obtained in the Tista
Valley at 2,000’. ¢ 26-3-19. (G. E. Shaw)
495. The Kokla Green Pigeon. Sphenocercus sphenura sphenura (Vig.). ‘ Halisa’
Paharia.
Recorded for the Himalayas between 4,000’ and 7,000’ at which limits it is
generally distributed in well-wooded tracts of the Outer Ranges during the
summer. It breeds around Gopaldhara at elevations of from 3,440’-6,000’
during ‘the rains’ ; a few birds remaining around 5,000’-6,000’ throughout
the ‘cold weather’ though the majority migrate ; in what direction can only be
conjectured. It is recorded to the west of Nepal in summer, but stated to
remain throughout the year in Nepal and farther east which requires modi-
fying for the Sikkim Himalaya. I have heard the delightful notes of this
Green Pigeon in the station of Darjeeling, where the birds are quite at their
ease amongst the trees with no likelihood of being molested. Evidently
double-brooded, as young birds have been found in the nest as late as
14-9-15 when I saw two nestlings at Okayti. As soon as they arrive or shortly
after their arrival at Gopaldhara, they commence calling, when on 24-5-18
between a limit of 3,500’-4,720’ I noted this to be the case. 5,000’, 16-10-14,
much in evidence in the forest. 8-10-21, half-a-dozen birds congregated ; on
24-10-21, apparently had deserted this same patch of forest and evidently
had migrated. In evidence on 27-7-15. Specimens obtained 4,720’, 2-10-19,
juvenile male, 5,800’, ¢ 23-11-20, when several pairs were in evidence feeding
on a dark purple berry. 6,000’ and below. 2 30-1-19; @ 21-12-11.
The rufous of the crown, orange wash of pink on the upper breast is wanting
in the young male of the .year which is in similar coloration to the adult
female, inclusive of the under tail-coverts ; while there is an entire absence of
the maroon on the back, a few feathers of the lesser wing-coverts showing
this character, which is faintly indicated on the median wing-coverts. On
several occasions I have seen these birds called up to within measurable dis-
tance by an almost perfect imitation of their familiar notes.
496. The Green Imperial Pigeon. Muscadivora enea sylvatica (Tick.)
Recorded for the base of the Himalayas from Sikkim eastwards. Evidently
confined to the Terai and Plains. It is entirely absent from the Rungbong
Valley even as a straggler.
497. Hodgson Imperial Pigeon, Ducula insignis insignis Hodgs ‘ Hukas ’ Paharia.
Recorded for the Himalayas at moderate elevations, ‘ about 2,000’-6,000’’.
Obtained in the Tista Valley at 2,200’, 3 29-7-20, 2,500’, ¢ 9-7-18, elevation ?
do 6-8-15 ; 3,500’, 2 6-3-21. (G. E. Shaw). I observed it in small parties in the
rocky, wooded ground on the precipitous right bank, in the Gorge of the
Tista River at Dikchu, at an elevation of 2,800’ in March 1920. I signally
failed to locate any Imperial Pigeons in the Eastsrn Dooars, in January 1922.
My impression is these birds ascend in ‘the cold weather,’ as it is only at
this period of the year they occur spraingly in the minor valleys on the west.
$84. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCGRAL HIST. SOCLEIY, Vounkxx.
A pair was obtained in the vicinity of the Gopaldhara Bw. at 4,720’ in
January 1914. I had an excellent view of a pigeon at 3,500’ on 14-11-19*
which could only have been this species but the fact of its being single and
showing a decided chestnut colouration, intensified by a white crown; were
this area within the distribution limits of Alsocomus puniceus ; this record
would have been nearer the mark by a reference to this last species.
498. The Bronze-winged Dove. Chalcophaps Indica (L.).
Generally distributed at all elevations from the plains-level up to 6,000’.
Equally plentiful in the valleys of the interior, where it occurs commonly
in winter, as it is on the outer ranges throughout the whole year.
499. The Blue Hill-Pigeon. Columba rupestris turkestanica But.
Recorded under ‘‘ specimens labelled Kashmir, Sikkim, and Darjeeling in
the British Museum Collection probably came from more northern localities’’.
During the Mouut Everest Expedition, Mr. A. F. R. Wollaston found this
Pigeon above 12,500’ below this elevation occured the next species.
500. The White-bellied Snow-Pigeon. Columba leuconota leuconota Vig.
Recorded for the Himalayas, 10,000’ —14,000’ in summer, but descending to
lower elevations in winter. The Snow-Pigeon was reported to come down on
the maidan at Chungthang, 5,350’, in the interior during severe weather,
which is quite feasible. The forest officer who supplied me with this
information had a sound local knowledge of the birds. I met with it on the
first occasion at about 6,000’ on 26-2-20, when a solitary bird was disturbed
out of some growth above a huge projecting boulder along the path to
Lachung ; in its flight it crossed the foaming river before a clear view was
obtained, once it had taken up its fresh quarters amongst the trees! During
my stay in Lachung up to the 10th March ; it was an every-day occurrence for
large parties to settle in the rough ground surrounding the village, and on
the morning we left, a last impressive view was obtained of a large flock
in the valley, at just about the most distant point reached by the Choughs
after a fall of snow in the higher reaches. Seen at a distance, long before it
is possible to distinguish the form of the birds as they move over the ground,
bunched together ; one can aptly describe their rippling motion only by com-
paring it to that of a forthy sea lapping an open beach. Numerous Fritillaries
(Argynnts lathonia issea) chiefly, with a sprinkling of Swallow tails (Papzlio
machaon sikhimensis) were on the wing, and as we reached the wooded glades,
a further acquaintance with the rare vivid Blue (Hlerda sooret) was in store.
On leaving Lachung my thoughts were expressive of regret in taking leave
of its primitive people—nature’s gentle-folk, still isolated from the turmoil of
life ; and if smiling countenances heightened by rosy cheeks are any criterion
of a happy disposition ; here was\ample evidence that, the fewness of their
wants more than compensated for any questionable advantages that are likely
to accrue from the penetration of Western influences.
Dr. Hartert gives the wing measurement of this form as 233-245.
My three specimens measure : ¢ ¢ Wing 239-243 ; 9 wing 241.
501. The Tibetan Snow-Pigeon. Columba leuconota Gradaria Hart.
This form is recorded from Gnatong in the Chumbi Valley, and there is a
strong likelihood of it occtrring within the frontier of Independent Sikkim.
The wing measurement is given by Dr. Hartert as 239-262.
502. The Speckled Wood-Pigeon. Dendrotreron hodgsoni (Vig.).
Recorded for the Himalayas at elevations of from 10,000’-13,000’ in sum-
mer, and at 6,000’-9,000’ in winter, Obtained at Gopaldhara at 5,000’, 92
7-1-12, when feeding on *‘ Jinghana ’ berries in the forest, and also at Mangpu
at 5,500’, ¢ 2-4-20. (G. E. Shaw). Elwes obtained it on the Tankra La at
13,000’ in the autumn of 1870. (Blanford).
503. The Eastern Cushat. Palumbus palumbus casiotis Bp.
Reported to have been obtained on J'onglo on several occasions. Up to
the present itis unknown to me. Information in respect to its status, if
actually occurring in these hills, is desirable. Stuart Baker records it from
the better wooded parts above Gyantse and further north. (ludian Pigeons
and Doves).
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS 885
504. The Ashy Wood-Pigeon. Alsocomus pulchricollis (Blyth).
Recorded for the Himalayas at elevations of from 7,000’-10,000’ or higher.
I have seen specimens obtained on Senchal at 8,000’ during the winter
(H.-P. P, Barrett). It is said: to have formerly frequented the station of
Darjeeling in flocks of ten or thirty from November to April, and odd parties
probably occur at the present day in the well-wooded portions on occasions.
During the cold-season, when on the ridge above Gopaldhara at 6,000’ I
saw large flights of this pigeon presumably, descending in a southerly
direction, possibly under stress of weather.
Obtained by Messrs. E. O. Shebbeare and W. P. Field from the plains at
Gorumara to the east of the Tista River. Recorded Ibid. Vol. XXV, page
300. (C. M. Inglis.).
505. The Indian Turtle-Dove. Streptopelia orientalis meena (Sykes).
This Dove isthe 7urtur ferrago (Eversm.) of Blanford’s ‘ Fauna.’ As there
is some confusion with the forms of the orzentalis group, both in the nomen-
clature and recorded distribution ; the following extracts have been collected
for future information, as correctly identified specimens, from any locality
and every month, from the hills in particular, area desiderata. The nomen-
clature here followed is in accordance with Dr. Hartert’s treatment of the
group. Recorded as breeding in the Himalayas as far east as Sikkim at
elevations of from 4,000’-8,000’ from May to August. Migratory in the winter
throughout the whole of India as far east as Behar, from whence my speci-
mens have come. ‘Tirhut. (C. M. Inglis). So far, I have failed to locate this
form in the Sikkim Himalaya. All the formsin the orientalis group differ
from the ¢urfur group in having the tips to the feathers of the neck patch
grey, meena is the palest form of the three here mentioned: the throat is
albescent and the belly is almost white, which last character cannot be lost
sight of in life. For the purpose of discrimination between the other two
forms when available for examination: vent and flanks very pale grey and
under tail-coverts white. (Stuart Baker). ¢ 2 Wing 187-202, maximum 195.
(Hartert).
506. The Rufous Turtle-Dove. Streptopelia orientalis orientalis (Lath.).
Recorded from ‘ East Tibet to Nepal and Sikkim, at all events the northern
boundary of the latter State, also from Bhamoin Upper Burma ; probably
also in northern Assam as an occasional visitor’. (Hartert.) According to
Stuart Baker, Nepal birds are true orzentalis as are those from Sikkim and
Tibet while Darjeeling specimens in the B. M. Coll. are mostly (meena =
agricola 'Tick.), and recorded as resident in the extreme north. Vent, flanks
aud under tail-coverts pale grey. (Stuart Baker.). ¢ Wing 190-204; in most
cases smaller in @ 180-198 (Hartert). ¢ 185-200, 2 176-195 (Witherby).
Specimens obtained around Maling, near Ringim, 4,590’, in the early Summer
of 1920 are referable to this form, which appears to be found at all events is
the interior, though the exact determination of the birds which occur on the
outer ranges around Mirik, sparingly in winter at 6,000’ ; when I last observed
one on the 6th of November 1921, remains doubtful, until specimens have been
actually secured. In the Mai (‘ Khola’) Valley in East Nepal all birds
obtained are intermediate orientalis XK meena where at an elevation of
about 7,009’, a pair of breeding birds with a clutch of two eggs were taken
en 2-5-12, ¢ wing 191; 2, 193. In the female the under tail-coverts and
the broad tips to the tail feathers on the underside are white equally ; these
characters are less pronounced in the male, which remark applies to another
specimen obtained from this locality on 19-4-12, wing 185 ; which agrees
move with orzentai/s on the upper surface and in showing less rufous and no
white tips to the lesser and median wing-coverts, scapulars and tertiaries ; and
while the underside approaches nearer to ‘ orientalis’ there is no plumbeous
suffusion as is the case with a bird from Kumargram, 2 14-1-22, wing 182.
This was certainly the typical form ; as this specimen was neither the pale
meena nor the rich vinaceous agricola. It also showed more plumbeous
on the forehead and crown than is the case with agricola. Inthe Eastern
Dooars in January, this dove was fairly common in the open cotntry
around the villages, but did not occur in the heavily wooded tract at the base
of the hills; unfortunately I failed to make the most of my opportunities,
886. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol.. XXX.
These doves never seem to be plentifulin the hills, and I have never seen
them in the well-wooded portions of the country, which was not the case
with the next form in Upper Assam.
507. The Indian Rufous Turtle-Dove. Streptopelia orientalis agricola (Tick.).
Recorded for Assam, Cachar and Sylhet, the Bhotan Dooars and the Terai,
south of the last form eastwards to Burma, etc. (Hartert.) It is thus recorded
from the Bhotan Dooars and Stuart Baker mentions it as resident in Darjeeling.
This is the form with vent, flanks and under tail-coverts dark grey. (Stuart
Baker). Wing measurement between 165-191. (Hartert). Blanford did not
recognize this form in the ‘ Fauna’ treating it as a synonym of orientalis. In
my ‘ Notes on the Birds of Upper Assam’ (Ibid. vol. xxiii, No. 4, 1915,
page 722), reference is made to the typical form No. 368 which requires
alteration to agricola. It was common at the foot of the hillsin N. Lakhim-
pur in Upper Assam, where in July 1904, I obtained two pairs of this form.
While ‘meena’ may extend on its descent to the plains somewhat to the
east of its breeding range. It appears as if, where the birds are not actually
resident, a straight descent from their breeding habitat is all that is accom-
plished, and the cold-weather distribution area is almost as well defined as the
breeding lateral distribution, at all eventsin the country along the foot of the
hills. This group affords an interesting illustration of the overlapping of the
several geographical races and we can only expect to find typical birds at the
centre of each distribution area.
508. The Spotted Dove. Streptopelia chinensis suratensis: (Gm.).
Recorded for the Himalayas up to 7,000’. This little dove arrives at
Gopaldhara about the last week in March, when. it immediately becomes a
familiar object in the bungalow compound at 4,720’. One pair accommodates
to the ramblers growing around the porch of ‘the verandah as_ there
is generally one nest in this situation. It breeds commonly up to an elevation
of 5,500’ in the open country. The majority leave about the first week in
October. First arrivals seen on 17-3-20*, but heard a few days previously.
During 1921 the first birds arrived on 25-3-21*, and several departed on
16-10-21*, a pair still about on 29-10-21, whilst a straggler was in evidence
9-11-21 up to the first few days in January 1922. I anticipate the wet and cold
which was experienced later on, would compel it to leave ; however, I was
unable to follow this out. This late stay is most unusual, as crowds are to be
seen at the foot of the hills throughout the winter, and are then everywhere
obtrusive. Gammie says this ‘Dove leaves in November in reference to its
disappearance from Mangpu during ‘ the cold weather.’ Gopaldhara, 4,720’.
Whenever unmolested in the quiet hours at midday they congregate at the
godown, picking up the remains of the pony food : twelve observed in a cluster
on the 8th and eight on 12-6-23.*
509. The Bar-tailed Cuckoo-Dove. Macropygia tusalia tusalia (Hodgs.).
Recorded in its distribution from 3,000’ to about 10,000’. Resident and
generally distributed at all elevations from 3,500’-6,000’ in the Rungbong
Valley, and in the Tista Valley from 1,500’-6,000’. (G.E. Shaw). A number
of birds breed in the bottoms of the valleys and they scatter over a wider area
during ‘ the cold weather,’ so that they may be found on the wooded ridges
at that period of the year. It commonly occurs in the interior of Sikkim.
Obtained above Dikchu at 3,000’, approx. on™ 22-2-20, and commonly
observed around Singhik at 4,500’, 13-3-20*, when they were in parties on
both occasions. Noted as plentiful in forest at Gopaldhara around an
elevation of 6,000’ on 24-10-21. Obtained at 5,800’, ¢ 23-11-20; 5,900’,
& 3-1-15 ; 5,500’, 4 27-12-14; 4,000’-5,000’, 4 ¢ 2—7-1-12 ; 2 30-1-16; 3,500’,
¢ 15-2-16, wing 189.
The deep sounding note of this dove is characteristic of the bird-life in
forest at moderate elevations. The young ¢ (February) has the crown barred,
the throat and abaomen barred in patches, whilst the breast and remainder of
the plumage is similar to the adult. One ¢ obtained on 23-11-20 had the
testes showing signs of activity. Seven adult specimens examined: 5 ¢ ¢
wing 190-219, av. 202°2. Q@ wing 188. The depth of colour on the belly and
under tail-coverts 1s subject to variation. The barring on the tail is more pro-
nounced in some specimens ; whilst in others, it is almost obsolete.
Journ. BompBay Nar. Hist. Soc. PuatTE XIII,
H. S. Photo.
SANDAKPHU FROM KALO POKHARI.
Nepal-Sikkim Frontier. May, 1912
H. S. Photo.
KALO POKHARI CAMP, 10,160’.
May, 1912.
Surroundings, the haunts of Agithaliscus vouschistos, Suthora wnicolor,
Xiphirhynchus superciliaris, Myzornis pyrrhoura, A’thopyga gouldie, &c., &e.
NOTHS ON THE BIRDS OF THE, SIKKIM HIMALAVAS 887
510. The Tibetan Sand-Grouse. Syrrhaptes tibetanus Gould.
Recorded for the country north of Sikkim, strictly not within our limits,
though there is every likelihood of it occurring in the snowy ranges in the
extreme north. Blanford only met with it beyond the actual borders of
Sikkim.
511. The Common Jungte-fowl. Gallus ferrugineus murghi. Robinson & Kloss.
Records of the Indian Museum, 1920, vol. xix, pp. 13-15, 181-183.
Gallus bankiva ferrugineus Stuart Baker.
Recorded up to about 5,000’ in the Himalayas as a breeding bird, keeping
much to the valleys. Commonly met with in the Tista Valley and reported
as occurring up to an elevation of 5,500’, circ. above Chungthang in the
interior of Sikkim. It occurs very sparingly in the Rungbong Valley up to an
elevation of 4,500’ or thereabouts, yet formerly, according to local information,
it was to be found at somewhat higher limits. The few birds obtained in the
Rungbong Valley were shot in ‘ the cold weather.’ I have no record of their
breeding at anything approaching an elevation at which they are occasion-
ally reported to breed. Insufficient protection, accounted for by the clearing
of the forest and molestation at the nesting season are no doubt the main
. causes of its disappearance in many parts of the country, where it was formerly
comparatively common. The Jungle-fowl delights in the warmth of the deep,
hot valleys ; and provided there is a sufficiency of suitable cover such localities
are ideal breeding haunts. In the foot-hills at and around 2,000’ in 1914, I
heard the first bird to commence calling during the second week and again on
the 2lst of February at evening, when it was to be heard daily afterwards.
The Peacock, Pavo cristatus L. is recorded as ascending the Himalayas to
about 2,000’ and locally somewhat higher. I have only seen them on the level
ground at the base of the hills in the Eastern Dooars.
512. The Biack-backed Kalij Pheasant. Gennaus teucomelanos melanotus (Hutton).
The distribution of this Kalij Pheasant is recorded as 1,000’-8,000’, chiefly
2,000’-6,000’, Sikkim Himalayas. Obtained as far west as the Mai ‘ Khola’,
East Nepal. Its ideal habitat is the densely overgrown, steep gullies of the
hill-slopes on the Outer Ranges, where they manage to maintain a precarious
existence, for their numbers are undoubtedly diminish wherever their haunts
are brought into cultivation, and when they are not assured protection from
molestation during the breeding season. Pine Martens account for much
destruction of the eggs and young birds, and this Kalij suffers, in
common with other ground game, from the depredaiions of these
animals. They are partial to dense cover in close proximity to running
water, moving out in the mornings and evenings, when feeding, to more
open cover and apparently do not frequent forested land to any appreciable
extent. Gopaldhara, 23-4-17. Observed to be by no means shy and fairly
numerous, as I saw a cock bird on my way down, flushed out of ‘ the tea’ by
my dog; when it took refuge inan adjacent tree, paying little attention to me
as it gave vent at this annoyance toa loud scolding; seen on my return in
much the same place. 11-5-15, a single youngster in evidence. 10-6-16
remains of a female found on a secluded path with the eggs mashed in the
nest. 15-8-16, a party of two adults and four youngsters seen in ‘ the tea.’
Females are subject to marked differences in the varying depth of the
coloration asa whole. Some males show a preponderance of white on the
long lanceolate feathers of the breast, which appears like a patch, at the same
time the upper tail-coverts have well defined white tips, which is indicated to
a less extent over the whole of the back, whereas some examples have the
upper tail-coverts devoid of these white markings which are only fairly
indicated on the back; but most show the white shaft character onthe upper
back. The first-mentioned characters seem to be a sign of full maturity.
Gopaldhara. Observed on two or three occasions during May and June 1923
in forest at 6,000’ circ.
Six specimens examined: ¢ ¢ wing 234-240, av. 235°5. @ wing 216-223.
513. The Monal. Lophophorus impejanus (Lath.).
Blanford records the zonal distribution of this Pheasant in Sikkim in summer
at elevations of 10,000’-15,000’, in winter lower. Whilst Dresser states 8,000’-—
10,000’ in summer and as low as 4,500’ in winter. This latter records may
22
888 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
refer to the N. W. Himalayas but is entirely inaccurate for the Sikkim
Himalaya. Thelowest limits reached according to my observations and where
specimens have been obtained is 9,500’ during the winter at Karponang and
below Changu in the mountains of the /uferior, when birds were often to be
flushed out of the dense bamboo-growth on the rockey slopes with the ground
under snow, in fact most of the birds were well above the winter snow-line.
All efforts to trace it on the Singile La Ridge at elevations of from 10,000’-
12,000’ during a severe winter in 1911-12 totally failed, and the Nepalis assured
me its whereabouts was unknown to them. Reported by a competent observer
to have been seen on Senchal, and said to have been obtained on the above-
mentioned Outer Ranges ; I prefer to keep an open mind in respect to these
latter statements. Around Lachung it was said to occur, but no trace of it
was to be had above the snow-line, and there is little doubt that the villagers
had reduced its numbers for some miles, beyond the village. It is very
probable that it formerly occurred in the afore-mentioned localities even if
never numerous, and its disappearance partial or complete, must be put down
to persecution. Blanford found it above the level of the forest, 14,000’-15, 000’
(September). Three? 2 in wing measurement are 260,267 and 282 respec-
tively.
514. The Crimson Horned Pheasant. Tragopan satyra (L.).
This Pheasant—the ‘Monal’ of the Paharias, occurs on the Outer Ranges and
in the Interior of Sikkim at altitudes of from 7,000’-9,000’, March and April,
and probably as low as 6,000’ in the Interior during the winter and ascends
to 12,000’ in the summer. A large number of specimens collected have
enabled me to fix its breeding habitat at much lower limits than L. zmpejanus.
It is very restricted in its zonal distribution but widely spread wherever it has
the necessary dense cover. Immature males, assuming the adult plumage,
present a patchy appearance with the red and ocellated feathers distributed
irregularly on the under surface. Its call resembles the syllables ‘ wak’
repeated several times in aloud pitched tone. Blanford never met with it
below 8,000’ and bears out its lower distribution zone in comparison with L.
impejanus. 1 have had specimens from the above-recorded low limits above
Mangan, in the interior. Breeding commences on the Outer Ranges in late
March orearly April. An oviduct egg has been extracted as early as the
5th of April. Available for comparison : Twenty specimens. The wing of four
immature ¢ ¢ measures from 249 (18th March)—260 (Sth April), av., 257. 11
adult ¢ ¢ 265-277, av. 270°6. 42 2 216-245, av. 231. My female skins thus
show a decided difference in size, which seems to be the case with the females
of some of the other pheasants.
515. The Blood Pheasant. Ithagenes cruentus cruentus (Hardw.).
During the winter it occurs only sparingly on the Singile La Ridge at
70,000’-12,000’. It is plentiful in the Interior of Sikkim at similar elevations
throughout the winter keeping well within the snow-line, yet under excep-
tional stress of weather it is sometimes driven down to the clear ground below;
this is more likely to take place on the Outer Ranges towards the end of
March, and when this event happens, the males generally announce their
arrival, and if it is possible then to surround the patch of dense growth ;
their stupidity gives every opportunity to secure them as they do not readily
take to flight; a female was secured alive in this way, 23-3-12. It is somewhat
surprising, yet at the same time gratifying to know they exist in substantial
numbers along the mountain ranges in the interior ; which is accounted for by
their occupying the wilder tracts beyond the villages, as to get at their
habitat entails some considerable hard toil.
The flesh is the least appetising of our game birds ; but if considered as a
change of diet, when only tinned food is available, can never be entirely
spurned. A number of specimens have passed through my hands from various
localities in Sikkim. Fifteen specimens, 8 ¢ ¢ and7 Q Q are available for
comparison. The presence or absence of the blood splashes on the breast
apparently has nothing to do with age as the smallest ¢ with a wing of 202,
though minus the spurs has some crimson spots, whilst a ¢ with the maximum
wing measurement 214, is devoid of any of these markings. A not quite
mature 2, witha wing of 183 shows the minimum measurement ; it had a pro-
portion of the crest feathers, banded with fulvous, which appears to be a sign
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS 88%
‘of immaturity ; after eliminating three birds which are obviously not fully
mature. 6 ¢ gf measurein wing 210-214, av. 212°3. 6 9 9187-205, av.193. The
males are very variable in regard to the crimson spots on the breast which may
be entirely absent or more or less indicated or heavily splashed; all show a trace
of crimson on the upper black band where it meets the lower band behind the
eye ; someexamples have an almost complete crimson band with traces of
crimson on the forehead and lores, or only on the forehead, but in a single
example which is also the densest crimson-splashed on the breast, all the
black feathers of the forehead and lores are fringed with crimson and, after
comparison with the type, is very near to ¢zbetanus of Stuart Baker. ‘This
bird was obtained along with others—showing all these variations in colour
characters. ‘The females vary slightly in the depth of the tone of the ground
eolour and in a few examples there is a distinct trace of crimson on the
lores, under the eye and on the lower posterior portion of the band above the
eye.
516. The Common or Grey Quail, Coturnix coturnix coturnix (L.).
A cold-season visitor to elevations of from 5,000’-6,000’ on their descent to
the plains ; they mostly disappear as it becomes colder with the advancement
of this period. Its numbers vary each year and sometimes it may be regarded
as plentiful. A few birds are generally to be met with in the roughly cut
‘makai’ ‘ baris’ around Gopaldhara. Unfortunately, very few specimens have
been examined and none actually compared, so that it is uncertain whether
C. c. japonica Temm. and Schieg. is to be alsofound. This Eastern Quail
has been recorded on the evidence of a female skin from Bhotan. In this race
‘the adult male has the sides of the head, chin, and throat dull vinous-red
without black marks, the female and young male have the feathers of the
throat and chin elongate and lanceolate, especially those on the sides of the
throat.’ (Blanford). Dr. Hartert gives the wing measurement of this form,
3 98-102; 2 100-106, and in the typical form, ¢ 104-115, most 108-111; 2 up
to 117. Behar birds are the typical form, but these probably descend to the
plains by way of the North-West. Coturnix coromandelica (Gm.) has been
reported to have been obtained in the Rummam Valley where it may possibly
be resident to some extent.
517. The Common Hili-Partridge. Arborophila torqueola (Valenc.).
Recorded ‘‘ commonest between 5,000’ and 8,000’ or 9,000’, occasionally
found at 14,000’.’’ This partridge is, in my experience, much more plentiful
on the Outer Ranges than it is in the Interior, yet occurring at similar altitudes.
It may possibly reach this recorded lowest limit of 5,000’ in the interior, which
is however erroneous for the outer ranges, as there is no overlapping in the
zonal distributions of this species and A. rufogularis where they meet.
Neither do they move to any extent during the winter. A fine series secured
in the Mai ‘ Khola’ in East Nepal at elevations of from 7,000’-10,000’ during
March and April, and obtained in the Lachung Valley at 8,000’, 2 26-2-20,
one of apair. It breeds at the end of April andin early May. Twenty-three
specimens examined: 16 ¢ ¢ wing 144-155, av. 150°5; 72 2 wing 136-145,
av. 142.
Soft parts: Iris brown ; bill black; tarsus ochreous-salmon in the male,
with a more decided ochreous tinge (dusky salmon-pink) in the female.
518. Blyth’s Hill-Partridge. Arborophila rufogularis rufogularis (Blyth).
Recorded from the base of the hills up to 6,000’, which is substantially
correct for these hills. I have no definite information of its lowest limits, but
it is fairly plentiful in forest around Gopaldhara at from 5,000’-6,000’, where
I have obtained many during December to February.
It appears to have a somewhat higher zonal distribution in the Tista Valley
where it apparently does not come into competition with A. forgueola, as
Mr. G. E. Shaw reports it at elevations of from 3,000’-8,400’ below and above
Mangpu. This partridge is often to be heard calling before and after rain
when | have known this to happen after a thunder-storm as late as the 20th of
July. Towards the breeding season they comimence to call in the foot-hills
around 2,000’ as early as the 21st of January. The chick soon after hatching,
actually gives utterance to the identical call of the adult.
890 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY; Vol. XXX.
Seven eggs are sometimes laid, one such clutch averages, 4234; all are
somewhat conoidal, and in three in the same clutch, this character is much
pronounced.
Twelve specimens examined: 9 ¢ ¢ Wing 138-149, av. 143°6; 3 29 2 wing
133-142, av. 435°7.
519. The Red-breasted Hill-Partridge. Arborophila mandeliii Hume.
Recorded for the Lower hills of Sikkim at elevations of from 1,000’-6,000’.
The Tibetan Partridge PERDIX HODGSONIZ HopGSdNIa (Hodgs.) is
recorded for the Tibetan Plateau, north of Sikkim, strictly not within our
limits, but in all probability occurs at extreme elevations in Sikkim.
520. The Tibetan Snow-Cock. Tetraogallus tibetanus tibetanus Gould.
Recorded for very high tracts in Sikkim and as rarely descending below
15,000’ in summer. Blanford refers to a Captain Chamer having obtained it
at Phalung near the Kangra Lama Pasa.
521. The Snow-Partridge. Lerwa lerwa (Hodgs.).
Recorded for the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhotan and farther east at
elevations of 10,000’-14,000’ in summer ; lower in winter. Reported to have
been obtained ‘formerly on the Singile La Ridge between Sandakphu and
Phalut but these records require confirmation. Blanford met with it at
Thangu and Yumthang. (September and early October). Not seen below
17 000’ by the Mount Everest Expedition.
522. The Himalayan Bustard-Quail. Turnix pugnax ocellatus Blyth.
Recorded for the ‘ Eastern Himalayas, ascends to 7,000’ ’. Occurs at
moderate elevations in the foot-hills and breeds around Gopaldhara during
‘the rains’. Gammie mentions it as equally common from 2,000’-4,000’
breeding in May and June on the eastern side of the Darjeeling district.
Gopaldhara, 28-5-23, 9 taken with clutch of four eggs. Soft parts: Iris
white ; bill pale plumbeous, culmen and tip of both mandibles horny, base
of upper mandible whitish ; tarsus pale plumbeous, claws yellowish.
523. The Little Button-Quail. Turnix dussumieri (Temm.).
Recorded for the ‘Lower Himalayas up to about 6,000’,’ though not
represented in the National Collection from the Sikkim Himalaya.
524. The Indian Button-Quail. Turnix tanki tanki Blyth.
Recorded for the ‘ Himalayas up to about 4,000’,’ Bhutan Duars, etc.
525. The Ruddy Crake. Porzana fusca bakeri Hart.
Recorded ‘ Lower Himalayas, probably occurs in Sikkim.’ No authentic
data of its occurrence in these hills are known to me.
526. Elwes’s Crake. Porzana bicolor Walden.
When I was in camp at Kalo Pokhari, 10,160’, on the Nepal-Sikkim Frontier,
22-5-12, two ¢ ¢ and one @ were brought in by some Paharias, who said they
had been captured at an extreme height between 12,000’ and 13,000’. I did
not place full reliance on their word, as the tarn or ‘ pokhari’ where they were
likely to have been obtained was probably not at this extreme height, but might
well have been a long distance from my camp in Nepal; these birds were taken
alive. Obtained below Nagri, 4,250’ circ. in the Rungbong Valley, 2 27-3-18
(F.S. Boileau) ; an oviduct egg was extracted from this bird. Four specimens
examined : ¢ Wing 113-116 ; 9 wing 110-117.
Soft parts: Iris crimson; orbits, venetian red; bill, sap-green, dusky
grey at tip with a tinge of venetian-red at the base of both mandibles, inside
gape slaty colour; tarsus dull lobster or venetian-red, dusky at front; claws,
horny.
527. The Eastern Moorhen. Gallinula chioropus parvifrons Blyth.
Certain to occur at plains-levels, which remark also applies to the following.
528. The Purpie Moorhen. Poryphyrio poliocephalus poliocepahlus (Lath.).
529. The Red-wattled Lapwing. Sarcogrammus indicus indicus (Bodd.).
Obtained by Mr. G. E. Shaw at an elevation of 500’ at the foot of the hills.
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS 891
530. The Indian Spur-winged Plover. Hoplopterus ventralis (Wagl.).
This Plover occurs at low elevations along the Tista River.
531. The White-tailed Lapwing. Chetusia leucura. (Licht.).
Recorded for Sikkim. Unknown to me.
532. The Eastern Golden Plover. Pluvialis dominicus fulvus. (Gm.).
{ have seen this Plover in open country at the foot of the hills, Sukna,
28-2-15*, observed a party of twelveto twenty settle on the east side of the
Railway line. Some of the Ringed-plover (Charadius) are certain to occur in
the bed of the Tista River and possibly also in the minor rivers.
After making a further examination of my Assam material, which is now
available for comparison; there can be little doubt that two forms of this
genus breed at allevents in the river-beds at the base of the hills on North
Lakhimpur, Upper Assam, though probably, only sparingly, and the eggs yet
remain to be discovered. I have recorded obtaining placidus in July, ¢
7-7-04 and two ¢ ¢ obtained on 7-1-11 are in breeding plumage with the
testes well advanced in development. ‘These specimens were secured in the
bed of the Dejoo River where there was ample scope and suitable gravelly
stretches of ground for nidification in ‘the cold weather’. ‘The other bird is
evidently zerdonzt with a wing measurement far in deficit of the true cold-
weather migrant: a ¢ obtained on the Subansiri at Hessamara, 31-12-05, wing
103, isin full breeding plumage ; whilst another example obtained on the
Runganuddi. ¢ 6-5-04, wing 100, isin similar plumage, but showing signs of
moult. Three specimens obtained at Gogaldhubi bhil, 9 8-12-05, wing 115; 92
11-12-05, wing 116; ¢ 18-12-05, wing 114, are in winter plumage and are
evidently the typical form duétus to which I refer a @ obtained on the
Dibru River at Rungagora on 15-4-03, wing 107°5; though this example
has assumed the summer plumage with the exception of the black ear-coverts.
I am confident that a systematic search from January.to March will eventually
prove my surmise to be correct in respect to these breeding birds. The fact
that Ringed-plover occur at the same period of the year in both summer and
winter plumage, if not remarkable, is of interest. The winter migrants appear
to frequent the soft, muddy ground around the ‘ bhils’’ in company with other
numerous non-resident waders and not the sandy beds of the rivers, then
occupied by the breeding race.
533. The Green Sandpiper. Tringa ochropus. (L.).
This sandpiper commonly occurs in all hill rivers at low elevations. Others
of this genus are certain to be found if sought for.
534. The Ibis-bill. Ibidorhyncha struthersii Vig.
Recorded by Blanford from the interier of Sikkim at 12,000’ at Yematong
(Yumthang) in September. It has been obtained during ‘the cold weather’
in the Tista and Great Rangit River beds. I saw it frequently on the Raidak
River in January, in small parties. It evidently occurs on all the rivers of the
Eastern Himalayas at the foot of the hills in the winter.
535. The Woodcock. Scolopax rusticola rusticola L. ‘ Simkukra ’ Paharia.
~The Woodcock is widely distributed at moderate elevations in the cold-
season, though they apparently do not extend into the plains, as was the case
in Upper Assam. In the Rungbong Valley it does not appear to be as plentiful
as formerly. It is partial to strips of ground under cardamom cultivation
along the ‘ kholas’, when the soft soilat the edge of the running water,
wherever these birds have taken up their quarters, is pitted with probings.
They arrive at Gopaldhara in late September or early October, 3,500’, 30-10-14*.
One noted at evening flying south, evidently ‘intent on settling, and another
observed the next day during the evening. A pair were often to be seen at
Lachung, 8,800’, in early March 1920, in the bed of a small water course over-
grown with scrub vegetation, during the frosty days ; at early morning they
came out more into the open.
-' $36. The Wood-Snipe. Capella nemoricola (Hodgs.).
The generic name Gallinago is discarded for the earlier name Capella of
Frenzel which takes precedence over the former.
$92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Recorded as breeding at 7,000’-12,000’ in the Himalayas. A few are
obtained in the Rungbong Valley nearly every ‘ cold weather.’ Previous to the
draining of the ‘ pokhari’ at Mirik, this locality must have been a sanctuary
for numerous Warblers, Rails and Snipe. Mr. G. E. Shaw has obtained it at
Mangpu 3,5C0’-—400’.
537. The Pintail Snipe. Capella stenura (Bp.).
This Snipe occurs at moderate elevations, though I anticipate the majority
of the birds descend to lower limits which is apparently the case also with the
Fantail Snipe.
538. The Himalayan Solitary Snipe. Capella solitaria (Hodgs.).
Very few specimens are shot of this rare Snipe. I observed a pair on Tonglo
at 10,000’, a short distance below the summit level on the Nepal side of the
Frontier in the bed of a mountain stream in January 1912. I am indebted to
Mr. A. J. H. Tietkins for a 9 which he obtained at Tukdah on the 14-11-21.
wing, 160. Iris hazel; tarsus pale yellowish-olivaceous. This snipe is
recorded at 9,000’-15,000’ or higher at the breeding season. Inglis obtained a
of in the Rungbong ‘ jhora’ at Sukna, 9-12-19.
539. The Indian Shag. Pahalacrocorax fuscicollis Steph.
This is evidently the cormorant or Shag which commonly occurs on all the
large’ rivers ; it has been frequently observed on the Tista River. On
the Raidak River observations pointed to this species. Probably the Large
Cormorant. occurs, but no specimens have been obtained to settle this point
beyond doubt.
540. The Great White-bellied Heron. Ardea insignis Hodgs.
Observed on a few occasions on the Tista River below Birik, when it kept
well over to the uninhabited left bank, with little chance of molestation.
541. The Cattle Egret. Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Bodd.).
Commonly occurs at low elevations.
542. The Little Green Heron. Butorides striatus javanicus (Horsf.).
This species frequents the Rungbong River up to at least 3,600’ and possibly
right up to the head of the valley. Obtained below Turzum on 15-2-20
(O. Lindgren), and Mr. G. E. Shaw has also secured it in the Tista Valley at
an elevation of 1,400’.
543. The Barred-headed Goose. Anser indicns (Lath.).
This goose has occurred in the Rammam River, from whence Mr.
H. P. P. Barrett has shown me a specimen obtained out of a small party in
‘the cold weather.’ The following records refer to unidentified geese on the
upward migration : Sandakpu, 11,929’, summit level, Nepal-Sikkim Frontier
2-3-12. Fourteen geese passed overhead going north ; on reaching the-summit,
they paused in their flight after an apparent momentary impulse; as they
quickly assumed their accustomed V formation and again headed north. At
their oncoming I was located below a spur on the wind-ward side of the
mountain ; and thus was unable to follow their movements, after they passed
my field of vision. 7-3-12. From sixty to seventy geese passed overhead at an
immense altitude cackling at the time. On reaching the summit they dispersed
into three parties, of which, the two outer gaggles were much the more numerous,
probably to unite again once the direction was decided upon, though I could
not follow out this conclusion. They were heading north, in the same direction
generally as the previous lot, which would take them over the ‘ Everlasting
Snows,’ Every appearance of hot weather in the plains yet on 15-4-12, the
worst snow-storm during this winter was experienced, which lasted for several
days.
Jalpaiguri (Plains of N. Bengal), 27-2-15*. Two huge migrations of geese
occurred this morning heading north in a leisurely manner; the second
congregation consisted of several V shaped companies which appeared to
intersect each other at many points as to cause an apparent break. in their
formation, but on careful, observation this proved not to be the case ; the white
plumage was enhanced at certain strokes of the wing in the strong ight.
NOTE SONGIHE- LIRDS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS, 893
Gopaldhara, 4,720’, 11-4-16, 10 a.m. Geese estimated between three and four
hundred leisurely wending their flight in a northerly direction ; another lot
passed over at evening 7 p.m.
12-4-16, 10 a.m. On this occasion I estimated about one hundred geese to
pass overhead, going north.
544. The Ruddy Sheldrake. Casarca ferruginea (Pall.).
Kalo Pokhari, 10,160’, Nepal-Sikkim Frontier, 28-3-12.. A pair of Brahminy
Duck passed over Sandakpu this morning, heavy north-west and north-east
gales accompanied with falls of snow the following two days. 1-4-12. This
afternoon during a heavy, dense mist I heard these birds in evident distress at
their inability to find their bearings ; they failed to negotiate the ridge, as their
cries became fainter as they retreated down the valley. They migrate in pairs
and keep in close company at all times. Blanford records a pair on the lake
Bidan near the Jelep-lain the Cho La Range when one was shot by Elwes
(August).
545. The Gadwall. Anas strepera L.
The Gadwall is to be found on occasions in small parties on the large rivers
before the upward migration commences.
546. The Wigeon. Anas penelope L.
Obtained on the upward migration in the Lachung River on 8-3-20, 2
during a bad spell of weather, when the birds were forced to seek shelter in the
river-bed at an elevation of 8,700’.
Soft parts: 2 Iris brown ; tarsus greenish-plumbeous ; bill slaty-blue,
nail, black, terminal portion.
547. The Pintai!. Anas acuta acuta L.
Two ¢ ¢ obtained on 8-3-20 in the bed of the Lachung River on the
same occasion as the previous records were obtained out of a small partv. One
bird was ‘ rolling in fat’, but the stomach only contained small seeds. ‘There
had been a heavy snow-storm at this time.
548. The Eastern Goosander. Mergus merganser orientalis Gould.
Recorded, ‘summer in pairs at 10,000’ and upwards on the Himalayas.’
They commonly occur at the foot of the hills on all fair-sized rivers and may
be seen for along way up the Tista River. When in the Gorges they almost
clip the water in flight, while on their return at evening, to the more open
water in the plains they fly at a considerable height and with rapidity,
generally in a well-separated cluster and it requires accurate shooting to bring
a bird down. Unless it can be put to some useful purpose ; there is no object
served in such a wanton act, as this handsome Duck is every bit a part of
the attractions which go to complete many an entrancing picture of wild-life.
On numerous occasions have I watched them busy at work diving in the clear,
flowing water or resting contentedly at mid-day, allowing the current to carry
them on its course. While it is no unusual sight to see a group sunning them-
selves in shallow water, when every now and then, they assume an erect
position with much beating of the wings.
549. The Indian Little Grebe. Podiceps ruficollies capensis Salvad.
It is generally conceded that the Grebe which Mandelli obtained in Sikkim
and described by Blanford as P. albescens is an albino ; which record probably
refers to this species.
Note.—A number of additional records have been inserted since the compil-
ation of this paper bringing it up to date 31st August, 1923.
igus
REVIEWS
THE PROTECTION OF BirRDS. AN INDICTMENT by Lewis R. W. Loyd
(Longmans. London 1924).
We have received a little book with the above title from the pen of
Mr. L. R. W. Loyd. It appears to be a piece of propagandist literature with
reference to the Wild Birds Protection Act of 1923 sponsored by Lord Grey ;
and to have been written more immediately in response to a book by Miss Linda
Gardiner entitled Rare, Vanishing and lost British Birds. ‘This latter work
has been sponsored by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.
We may start by saying that both Mr. Loyd and the Society have the same
object at heart; they both desire to protect the Avifauna of the, United
Kingdom. Where they differ is over the methods of attaining their end.
Mr. Loyd’s charge is that the affairs of the Society are managed by people
who, with all other qualifications for the work, fail in one essential particular,
that they are not experienced ornithologists. Asa result of this he believes
that they are working on wrong lines ; that the protection which they advocate
and help to establish is based on sentiment rather than commonsense, and that
the result of it is to protect species which need no protection at the expense of
scarcer and more interesting forms. In support of this belief he adduces a
number of interesting examples and evidences.
We do not wish to enter into the controversy on one side or the other ; all we
should like to remark is that in this and similar controversies there is seldom
any sharply defined path of right or wrong Mr. Loyd has however undoubted-
ly marshalled a selection of facts which are worthy of consideration and we
hope that the Society will at least thoroughly examine the point of view for
which Mr. Loyd stands. For behind him directly and indirectly is ranged a
large body of collectors and scientific ornithologists who are entitled to be
heard in the matter, and whose opinions the Society cannot afford to flout in
their entirety without incurring a charge of levity and prejudice in the conduct
of its trust.
There is a grave tendency on the part of a large proportion of the supporters
of the Society to regard scientific naturalists and collectors with horror and to
treat them as the professed enemies of all bird life; and this attitude in many
cases has undoubtedly destroyed the fairness and impartiality of judgement
which are ever an aid to the true realization of all worthy aims.
The name of Science in the past has frequently been blackened by the acts of
unworthy votaries and hangers on. Jt is too much to hope that it will never
again be smirched in the future. But many of the truest friends and preservers
of the British avifauna have been found in the ranks of Science and not in the
membership of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.
Tremendous changes are occurring in the face of the British Isles; the
advent of the motor and the great arterial roads and the consequent opening
up of vast tracts of country to the builder and the small holder form a danger
to our native avifauna greater than it has ever had to meet before. Our plea
therefore to both sides in this controversy is to join forces and fight shoulder to
shoulder for their common aim: to this end certain prejudices may have to be
sacrificed and certain concessions made ; but the danger is pressing and let all
men look to the end rather than dispute about the best means.
H.W.
‘A MONOGRAPH OF THE BIRDS OF PREY’, PaRT I. By H. KIRKE SWANN,
F.Z.S., M.B.O.U. (Wheldon and Wesley, Ltd.) Price 26s. net.
We welcome Part 1 of Mr. Kirke Swann’s A Monograph of the Birds of
Prey withits three beautiful coloured plates of Vultures, one of eggs anda
photogravure plate depicting a Griffon Vulture’s nest and young. The coloured
plates are all by H. Gronvold, with whose work most bird lovers are familiar
and who needs no introduction in these pages.
REVIEWS 895
The monograph is to see the light of day in twelve parts and if the remain-
ing eleven are up to the standard of this first part ornithologists, the world
over, will have nothing to complain of.
In his introduction the author informs us that he has divided the diurnal
Birds of Prey of the Order AccIPITRES, into four families comprising 100
genera, including 322 species which, with their sub-divisions, comprise 692
forms. Part 1 deals only with 28 forms of vultures of which 17 belong to the
Old World and 11 to the New and on pp. v and vi of the Introduction will be
found a most useful table giving, at a glance, the world distribution of every
genus, thus :—
oO re
re fa q @
= S A co S =
G a = a q & om & S
- wn
enera @ Qo ss ae ea es sf cS
5 = 2 = a wie ee = 2
(o) ee} B) U4 Pa ey ~ o oO
a, Quy Za <q i He <q Ay Zi
Fam. CATHARTIDE—
1. Vultur eas 1 if
2. Sarcorhamphus.. 1 if
3. Coragyps 2 a)
CLC. etc.
The author states that he has altered the boundaries of some of these zoo-
geographical regions ‘for the sake of convenience in classifying the forms,’
but as he defines each region carefully the alterations make but little difference.
The 692 forms dealt with are represented very unevenly throughout the above
regions. We find 110 are Palaearctic, 63 Nearctic, 138 African, 52 Indian, 93
Indo-Malayan, 44 Australian, 22 Polynesian and 170 Neotropical. This,
of course, does not mean that the forms of one region do not find their way over
into those adjoining and we, in India, have to thank the Palaearctie regions for
a good many of our winter migrants.
Mr. Kirke Swann gives us four very interesting pages on the ancient sport of
kings—‘ Falconry and Hawking,’ and, as he says, ‘no monograph of the
Accipitres could be considered complete unless it dealt with this fascinating
subject.’ He traces the art of falconry back to 1700 B.c. in Persia, and tells
us that 1t probably existed in China even before that.
We are told that the ‘ Boke of St. Albans’ (1486) enumerates the falcons
and hawks then in use, with the classes of society they were proper to’ and it
is interesting to note that the eagle had pride of place as being ‘ proper to’ an
Emperor and the gyrfalcon and its tiercel to the King, and thus down a long
list to the priest who had to be content with a sparrow-hawk and the holy-
water clerk with the humble, muskayte, or male sparrow-hawk !
What we, however, do not quite follow is the author’s assertion that a falcon
will not ‘ bind’ to its quarry after striking it in the air and nor does it sirike it
on the ground. We quote the passage referred to :—‘ The true falcons, it
should be noted, kill their quarry with a terrific blow of the half closed ‘‘ fist ’’
after dropping onit from above in one of those magnificent stoops that
always thrill the observer, whether performed by the wild falcon or the
reclaimed bird. The flight generally commences by the quarry, well aware of
the power of its terrible adversary, endeavouring to escape its fate by wildly
soaring up and up, while the falcon, circling always, rises until it obtains a
favourable position above its quarry before making the fatal stoop. If the
first blow is not effective the falcon will follow its victim down and strike again,
but it does not ‘‘ bind’? to tt, nor does it strike it on the ground.’ (The italics
are ours.)
Many readers of the B. N. H. Society’s Journal will not be inclined to agree
with this statement. How often have we seen a saker ‘ bind’ to a kite in mid-
air, after a bout of stooping ; or a peregrine bring down a heron firmly bound
to the latter’s wing. Again, how often have we seen an houbara, pirouetting
beside a friendly bush, with wings drooping to the ground and tail spread, fan-
like, over his back, ready to show fight sent staggering by a stooping falcon,
showing that falcons both bind to their quarry in the air and also strike it on
the ground.
o3
896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOGIETY, Volo Xxx.
Weare entirely in agreement with the author when he says ‘I disagree
entirely with the present attempt to split up such genera as Sfzzaétus so that
practically every species forms a separate genus. We have such splitters on
the one hand, while on the other we have conservative ornithologists like Dr.
Hartert, who would unite both Astur and Accipier in one huge unwieldy
ents.
fi Considering, as the author points out, that such groups contain about one-
fifth of the hawks of the world, to unite them under one genus is asking
for ‘deplorable confusion ’ and so long as we have good characters such as the
difference in the middle toe, in these two genera, why not keep them apart.
So far as this Part 1 of the monograph is concerned, we who are chiefly
interested in the avifauna of India might consider ourselves somewhat
shabbily treated, even though we get a very good share of the world’s vultures.
Six Indian forms are dealt with which are included in the Family AXGyvPripa&
the Old World Vultures. These are :—
1. MA&gypius monachus better known to us as Vultur monachus (Fauna of
Br. India.)
2. Gyps fulvus fulvescens Ol Gy PSHILL IES.
3 Gyps himalayensis.
4. Gyps indicus.
5. Gyps indicus tenuirostris
6. Pseudogyps bengalensis
7. Sarcogyps calvus oa eh LOL DS CALLOUS
The author quotes extensively from previous publications and, in so far as the
Indian forms are concerned, Hume and Mr. Stuart- Baker are his chief
authorities. It is not possible that in a work of this nature, every reader will
see eye to eye with the author or the descriptions he has quoted from other
authors, but this is a negligible atom when we consider the excellence and
magnitude of the work as a whole. For instance, when dealing with the
Indian White-backed Vulture Pseudogyps bengalensis the author quotes from
Mr. Jesse (/ézd., 1993, p. 66) as saying ‘it is common and permanent in the
Lucknow District and when too high in the air for its white ‘‘ waistcoat ’’ to be
seen can be distinguished from Sarcogyps calvus by the more pointed pinions of
the latter.’ This is rather misleading, and one would infer from it that
the under wing of the Indian White-Backed Vulture was black, asin the
Pondicherry Vulture, but this is by no means the case. ‘There can be no possi-
ble confusion between the adults of the two species at any height. In Sarcogyps
calvus the under parts are black, except for the white crop and thigh patches,
whereas in P. bengalensis one gets the impression of a bird that is almost half
white and half black. The entire body and tail will appear black and the
wings half white and half black.
Moreover we are told that this bird does not range high in the Himalayas as
it is not a mountain bird, and yet it is now pretty common in most of our hill
stations such as Simla and Murree.
Similarly, the author informs us that the Pondicherry Vulture, (Sarcogyps
calvus), ‘is widely distributed in India but is nowhere very abundant. It
occurs in the lower Himalayas, but is rare in the Punjab and Sind.’
We can hardly consider this vulture vave in the Punjab as one can seldom see
a flock of vultures anywhere without seeing one or two of this species among
them, though. they are more often seen alone or in pairs.
We have seen them as high up as 9,000 ft. in the Himalayas.
We cordially recommend this part of the monograph, with its beautiful
illustrations, to our members and meanwhile will await the appearance of its
successors with a pleasurable anticipation of joys to come.
a. oe ,, G. tenuirostris.
C.7EL Dy
NATURE AT THE DESERT’S EDGE. (Studies and observations in the Bagdad
Oasis). By' R. W. G. Hineston; MM. C.; MB. 1. Mes. cH B&G. Witherby-
326 High Holborn, W. C., 1925, 299 pages, 11 plates. . Price,.15/ shillings net.
This exceedingly interesting book is the latest of the series of natural history
volumes which have made their author so popular among students of insect
life. The book begins with a brief note regarding the physical features of
Iraq and life in an oasis in the desert, which was the venue of the activities so
REVIEWS 7 897
carefully studied and so beautifully pictured. ‘The main theme of this volume
is the study of the senses, instincts and behaviour of insects, spiders and
other related animals. The first portion deals with the wasps of which the
author has selected four examples: Ampulex assimilis, Kohl., Psammochares
melas, Ki., P. rutilus and Cryptochetlus rubellus, Er. The habits of these
‘hunter’ wasps as the author designates them, their pursuit of prey, combat,
capture and stinging have been described in a most vivid manner. Simple
experiments which were introduced to test author’s theories of behaviour add
still further to the interest of the subject. The most impressive features of the
lives of these tiny creatures are:—‘ A solitary toil, a persistency of effort, a
glowing enthusiasm and a deadly skill.’
From the wonders of the armour and skill of the ‘ hunters’ the author goes
on to describe the wonders of the defence of the ‘hunted.’ The life-histories
and habits of the caterpillars of Dicranura vinula, L., Taragama siva, Lep.
and Detlephila neriz, all members of the Order Lepidoptera, are described
and structural details added.
The author has made a special study of concealing coloration, alarming
attitude and warning markings, sudden jerky frightening movements, display
of hidden structure, and finally the most effective of all weapons the corrosive
liquid, as means of concealment and defence.
From the ‘ hunter’ the author passes on to the ‘stranglers’ who use their
nets to capture the prey and wind ropes of silk to strangle it and poison it
when he is properly secured. These arethe spiders. Here again, the author
expounds his theory of perfect concealment of these spiders to catch their prey
unawares.
The next two chapters are devoted to the Solifugids and their habits and an
exciting description is given of the warfare of a Solifugid with a Scorpion.
The book is brought to a close with an account of a locust swarm.
All through the book the author has endeavoured to prove the perfection of
various adaptations met with in the wasps which have to catch their prey and
paralyse it, and caterpillars which have to defend themselves against attacks,
particularly of birds and parasitic insects and in places his vivid descriptions
make his arguments very convincing. While describing the defensive
mechanism of the Puss moth caterpillar he says ‘up go the tails the long
telescopes protrude, the scarlet filaments curl and quiver’ and finally the
corrosive liquid is squirted. Certainly a very convincing account of the
efficacy of the defensive organs. The warning attitude, armour of long setz
and sudden display of hidden structure, etc., are, according to the author, the
means of frightening away birds and the insect parasites. Man looks at
every thing from his own point of view and it is doubtful how far this
anthropomorphic explanation is the correct interpretation of actual facts, It
is highly problematic if toads, and frogs, lizards and birds get frightened by
such behaviour. And we are not certain if insect parasites search their prey
with their sense of vision. It is very likely that the visit of a tiny Chalcid
parasite is not even noticed till the deed has been accomplished. Further it
remains to be proved whether the worst enemies of insects are not protozoa
and bacteria and fungi, rather than other insects and bigger animals.
All arguments of adaptations are based on the fundamental conception of
the utility of everything produced by Nature. The author has on every
occasion argued to prove the wonderful perfection of structural adaptations
and intelligence of insects and spiders, and even the Solifugid has got his
share of praise. It is here that one would differ from the author. No praise
is sufficient for the skill of the hunter or the war tactics of the spider or the
solifugid but does all this show intelligence of a high degree. Just as one
could place the gaudiest of animals in surroundings where it will be perfectly
concealed, similarly one could read intelligence in the working of the
‘meanest’ of animals. Yet the author himself while describing the march of
the locust says: ‘What an excellent example of instinct of direction. How
blind in its relentless, its undeviating course. Better self-destruction than
instinctive deviation. For nothing must check the all powerful impulse. ...
The living machine must fulfil its purpose though annihilation lies ahead.’
Is not this then the true explanation of the behaviour of animals whatever
their position in the scale of evolution? Are not the wasps, the caterpillars,
the spiders all living machines though perhaps little more complicated than
the locust ?
898 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
The wonderful attraction which the beauty of Nature has for the author is
depicted in the last page of the book, and the last sentence is truly
representative of the spirit dominating all his ideas. ‘ We perceive at last her
infinite domain, her infinite wonder, her infinite beauty, her infinite work,
her infinite power.’ The description of the working of Nature would have
been complete if the author had added ‘her infinite horrors, her infinite
disharmonies and her infinite absurdities ’ for Nature has these in quite as
great an abundance as the attributes mentioned by the author.
The book is exceedingly entertaining and written in a lucid and captivating
style, scientific details have been described in a non-technical language
without sacrificing accuracy.
It should be in the hands of every naturalist young or old.
M.A. H.
FAMILIAR FLOWERING TREES IN [INDIA _ by Ida Colthrust (Thacker,
Spink & Co., Calcutta. Price Rs. 1-6-0.)
This useful little volume will be warmly welcomed by all lovers of nature.
The need of such a useful book was greatly felt by the wayfarer and it is well
supplied by the authoress. There are many whose vocations in life do not
permit them to indulge, as much as they would like toan intimate knowledge
of trees, and it is for these in particular that this book has been written and
illustrated.
The object of this volume is to enable us to name our common trees on sight
without much labour in hunting forthem in learned text-books. A popular
subject has been treated in popular language andin a popular style. All the
most common flowering trees are lucidly described and the reader is provided
with a succinct key which enables him toname the more familiar plants he
sees. One very useful feature of the book are the beautiful illustrations which
are so very essential and helpful. The illustrations are not only happy but also
very accurate and they give a very vivid picture of the trees under description.
The value of the book is further enhanced by the vernacular names of the
trees.
The book does not pretend to treat the subject exhaustively, neither are all the
flowering trees described, as the authoress confesses in the Preface, but in spite
of its size it goes a great way to relieve the embarrassed wayfarer who meets
with flowering trees on his way.
We recommend this useful little volume to all lovers of Nature.
OBITUARIES
PrRoFEsSsoR H. MAXWELL LEFROY
The recent death of Professor Harold Maxwell Lefroy, Professor of
Entomology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, marks
the passing of a distinguished Economic Entomologist and investigator. The
tragic circumstances under which he met his death places him amongst the ranks
of those men who have given their lives in the cause of science, for it will be
remembered that Professor Lefroy was overcome by gas fumes while experim-
enting in his laboratory at the Imperial College.
During the years of his service in India as Imperial Entomologist, 1907 to
1912, Lefroy served on the Managing Committee of this Society and was a
frequent contributor to the pages of its Journal in which he published several
notes on the life histories of Indian Insects, particularly on those of economic
importance.
We publish below an extract from an obituary notice which appeared in the
Times :—
Harold Maxwell Lefroy was born on January 20, 1877, the son of a country
squire, at Itchei Manor, Crondall, Hants. He was sent to Marlborough
College, and went up to King’s College, Cambridge, graduating with first-class
honours in the natural science tripos in 1898. He had collected insects as a
boy, and at Cambridge specialized in entomology. In 1899 he was appointed
Entomologist to the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies,
a post which he held until his appointment as Imperial Entomologist for India.
When in 1912 the Imperial College of Science and Technology at South
Kensington decided that the training of entomologist, for work in the Empire
should form an important part of its functions, Lefroy was called to the new
chair from India, as his experience in the tropics, scientific knowledge and
enthusiasm, and great success in dealing with the administrative and practicai
sides of insect-pest problems were pre-eminent. Although his professorial
duties had to yield to special war problems, Lefroy showed as much energy and
ability in creating a school as in administrative work, and entomologists trained
by him at South Kensington soon began to fill important posts in every part
of the Empire.
Lefroy’s method was to study the life-history of insects of economic import:
ance in the field, as he believed that there could be found somme weak link in
the chain, some phase in the insect’s life, in which it could be most easily
attacked if it were noxious, or encouraged if it were useful. He followed this
up by translating the methods he devised from a state in which they could be
applied only by highly skilled persons to a form suitable for mass application.
He showed great ingenuity in adapting elaborate methods for large-scale use
and in devising regulations for their employment. ‘The silk and cotton
industries owe much to him, and his advice on the destruction of the insect
enemies of tropical agriculture generally has been of great service. His results
were published in the West Indian Bulletin, the Agricultural Journal of India,
in many official papers, and in three important books—/udian Insect Pests
(1906) ; Zudzan Insect Life (1910); and Manual of Entomology (1923).
When the war came Lefroy was one of the first to appreciate the great danger
to armies in the field and to people at home from the house-fly. He was
honorary curator of the Insect House at the Zoological Gardens in London,
and with the concurrence of the Council devoted time and energy to a
campaign againat these pests of humanity. He conducted experiments into
modes of destroying them or preventing them from breeding, arranged an
exhibition to impress the public with the dangers arising from them and the
modes of dealing with them, and used his great powers as a convincing lecturer
in teaching sanitary officials, doctors, and Army officers. In 1916 he was
attached, with the temporary rank of Lieutenant-Colonel, to the Field Force in
Mesopotamia with the specific duty of conducting sanitary measures against
flies. He was recalled to London to deal with an equally important problem,
the destruction of vast stores of wheat awaiting shipment to this country in
900 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX:
Australia, the agent being several species of small beetles. A committee of
the Royal Society propounded several solutions effective on the laboratory
scale, but impracticable on the scale required. Lefroy, on behalf of the Royal
Commission on Wheat Supplies, after a rapid survey of the problem in this
country hurried to the United States and there inspected the existing methods
of cleaning wheat on a large scale. He then went on to Australia and in a few
weeks discovered how the mountainous piles of sacks became infected, devised
simple methods of preventing this, and also designed an improved and rapid
way of removing a very large percentage of the beetles from wheat already
infected. When this task had been accomplished he returned to England and
resumed his work of teaching and investigation at the Imperial College. The
next problem to which he gave attention was the ravages of the Death-Watch
beetle in the timbers of old buildings. He studied the question first in
connexion with the roof of Westminster Hall and soon devised an effective
metiiod. Thereafter he was consulted by the guardians of many famous
buildings and old churches in this country.
There were three forms of attack on insect pests in which Lefroy specialized.
He believed that it was often possible to encourage the natural insect enemies
of insects, and some of his most interesting work was the result of observation
in the field of what species of insects preyed on others and how these
benefactors could be transferred to areas in which their services were required.
He had made many observations on the fashion in which insects were lured by
specific scents, sometimes not appreciable by the human nose and he
conducted a large series of investigations into appropriate baits by which
noxious insects might be lured to their destruction. But his favourite method
was the employment of suitable chemical poisons, and his investigation of
these led him deep into purely chemical work. His private laboratory at the
Imperial College, accordingly, was usually extremely un-pleasant and often
dangerous. But Lefroy had no thought of personal discomfort or risk when he
was hot in pursuit of an idea and more than once nearly succumbed to the
gases with which he was experimenting.
PROFESSOR F. HALLBERG
On November 2nd last, Mr. F. Hallberg died in the Medical College Hospital,
Calcutta. He was a Swede by birth, did a brilliant course in Mathematics and
Physics at Upsala University, taught Mathematics in St. Xavier’s College from
1915 till 1922, was examiner in Mathematics for the M. A. & M.Sc. during that
period, and published original work in Geometry. Mr. Hallberg was a
singularly gifted nature. His mind felt at home in the most abstruse
speculations, he took delight in philosophical discussion, and read widely.
Though Mathematics was his speciality, he was far too many-sided to feel
satisfied with one discipline. Before coming out to India he was for two years
Observator at the Meteorological and Seismologic Station at Vassijanre,
Lappland, and after that, extraordinary Amanuensis at the Meteorological
Observatory at Upsala. As soon as he had joined St. Xavier’s College, he
seized the opportunity of taking up Botany: all his spare time was spent in the
Botanical Laboratory, his holidays were given to collecting. A large number
of original papers were published, the joint work of I*r. Blatter and Mr.
Hallberg. So distinguished did he become, that he was selected to makea
Botanical Survey of Kashmir; that was work which appealed to his
venturesome spirit.
To be alone in the heart of wildest nature, to tramp untrodden lands, to
discover hidden things, to face difficulties and hardships, to live untrammelled
by convention was his delight ; one of his dreams was to ioin the Mt. Everest
expedition, He may almost be called reckless of his life and health. When
in the first ecstacy of motor-biking, speed became a passion. He had a serious
nccident which nearly crippled him for life, but scarcely had he dropped
crutches and was able just to hop along, when he got a side-car, nothing
undaunted by the awful sufferings he had so lately gone through.
In 1923 he went to Europe to study the Santonin question. On his return in
January 1924 he went to Kashmir in search of the anthelmintic plant which yields
Santonin. He was working as scientific adviser to the ‘Indian Santonin
Syndicate.’ But his health had been undermined by strain, and an operation
undergone in Calcutta could not save him. Hedied an untimely death. His
OBITUARIES 901
breezy, cheerful character, his refinement and accomplishments, his wonderful
and varied experiences, his depth and range of knowledge, his sociableness
made hiin a fascinating companion. That somany gifts and talents were not
more husbanded, not granted a chance of reaching their full measure, fills all
friends of Mr. Hallberg with the keenest regret.
In a letter to Fr. Blatter, Dr. C. C. Calder, Director of the Botanical Survey
of India, wrote: ‘I am very sad at Hallberg’s death. He was an upright
man with very much that was loveable.’—
Mire. J: SEDEWICK es 1C.S.
All who knew Mr. L. J. Sedgwick of the Indian Civil Service must have
been grieved to learn that he died on the 27th June in Bombay. The Times
of India brought the following notice on the 30th of June:
‘The sudden death of Mr. L. J. Sedgwick, who was a particularly brilliant
member of the I.C.S., will be widely regretted. As far as we are ourselves
concerned, this means a great loss to our weekly books page. Mr. Sedgwick
made a hobby of reviewing books for us, and his reviews were always of the
same high standard. Though he was a Classics man at Cambridge and had
afterwards become proficient in Sanskrit, Gujarati, Marathi and Kanarese,
Mr. Sedgwick never spoke about these achievernents, but preferred to review
books dealing with scientific subjects, particularly botany, of which he had an
accurate knowledge. In his reviews Mr. Sedgwick took great care to avoid
any parade of learning andto write something that wouid be interestirge to
everybody, but nobody ever convicted him of a misstatement or even a rash
expression of opinion. If he had lived he would, no doubt, have written other
books besides the Bombay Census Report of 1921.’
His work was equally appreciated by the Government of Bombay in their
resolution of the 8th July in which they say :
‘Government have heard with great regret of the death on Saturday, the
Z2/th of June last, of Mr. lL. J. Sedgwick of the Indian Civil Service. Mr.
Sedgwick displayed throughout his official career of over 18 years a steadfast
devotion to duty which gained for him alike the confidence of his superior
officers and the affection and respect of the people among whom he worked.
He was a scholar of conspicuous ability and his special aptitude for ethnology
and languages rendered his services of particular value in the responsible post
whick he held in 1921 of Superintendent of Census Operations. He was at the
time of his death engaged in important investigations as Officiating Director
of the Labour Office, Bombay.’
A few days later Dr. B. H, Namvatty of Ahmedabad wrote in the 7zmes
of India: ‘I had the pleasure of being rather intimately acquainted with him.
I was impressed by his deep knowledge of several Indian languages as well as
of science and arts, for he was a brilliant graduate of Cambridge University.
His ways were gentle, unassuming and modest, and a very agreeable and
prominent feature of his character was that he was devoid of all false or
exaggerated notions of pride of race, power or position. He was readily
accessible to all, to the influential and to the poor alike.’
By Mr. Sedgwick’s death our Society has lost an enthusiastic worker in
Botany. He wasakeen observer of nature. All his spare-time was devoted
to botanical investigations. As aCivil Servant he was’stationed in many places
and had, therefore, splendid opportunities for the study of plant-life in many
parts of this Presidency, from Upper Sind down to Northern Kanara.
Wherever he was he added new material to his extensive Herbarium which,
during his life-time, was acquired by the Botanical Department of St. Xavier’s
College, Bombay.
He published valuable papers in the Journal of our Society, in the /udian
Forester, and in the Records of the Botanical Survey of India. His
publications show an independent mind which refuses to be tied down by
general statements that are not sufficiently supported by facts.
As to his own statements he was almost scrupulously modest and accurate.
He had a vast knowledge of systematic Botany. Though of a strictly scientific
turn of mind, it had always been his fond intention to popularize Botany in our
Presidency. It is a great pity that death put a stop to all his plans and
ambitions, .
EDITORIAL
We are pleased to be able to announce that Her Highness Maharani Akhand
Saubhagyavati Laxmi Bai Sahib Puar of Dhar, who shares with His Highness
the Maharaja a keen interest in Natural History and Sport, has recently
consented to become a Vice-Patren of the Society and that Her Highness has
signified, by a donation of Rs. 5,000 toward the expenses of the museum her
approval of the work that the Society is doing in the Prince of Wales’ Museum.
The Managing Committee of the Society take this opportunity of expressing their
appreciation of Her Highness’ interest in the affairs of the Society and thanking
her on behalf of the members for her generous gift.
As pointed out in the recently issued ‘ Annual Report of the Natural History
Section, Prince of Wales’ Museum’ for the year 1925-26, the Annual Grant
received from Government for the maintenance of the Natural History Section
makes little provision for the supply of show cases and equipment, and the
Museum is largely dependent for these on the generosity of private individuals,
whose assistance affords us no small encouragement in carrying out the work we
are doing. Thke Curator’s Report, to which we refer above, shows that
extensive progress has been made in the various galleries of the Section. It is
regrettable therefore to read that the absence of suitable show cases for the
Reptile and Fish Galleries has largely prevented the development of these two
Sections of the museum. ‘The report also indicates that a very urgent need is
the building of a suitably equipped laboratory in the museum grounds. At
present the work of the Museum Preparation Department is carried on in the
Society’s Rooms at 6 Apollo Street, which are inconvenient and unsuitable for
the purpose. The transport of large exhibits from the laboratory to the
musettim is one of the minor difficulties with which the department has to
contend, particularly when, as was the case with a fully mounted Bison, the
windows and masonry have to be removed before the transfer can be effected.
A suitable site for the laboratory is available in the museum grounds and it is
estimated that a sum of Rs. 15,000 would go far towards meeting the cost of
erection but,—there is always a but—it is almost superfluous to add that funds
are needed for carrying out the work.
The present issue of the Journal contains a review of Mr. L. R. Loyds’
recent book on ‘ Bird Protection.’ The author of the book is at variance with
the attitude adopted by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. He
believes that the methods they advocate are prompted more by sentiment
than commonsense. We hove that the Society will carefully consider the case
as put forward by Mr. Loyd and the facts which he brings forward in support
of his claim. For behind hiin, as our reviewer points out, is ranged a large
body of Scientific Ornithologists and Collectors, amongst whose ranks may be
found inany of the staunchest supporters of Bird Protection and whose opinions
on a subject, on which they are naturally qualified to speak, are worthy of
respect and consideration and whose co-operation in a matter of common
interest would go far towards the attainment of the end the Society has in view.
The subject of Bird Protection in England brings us to a matter nearer at
band, it concerns the lifting of the present embargo on the export of egret
plumes from India. Readers of this Journal will recall the various illustrated
articles on the subject of Egret Farming in Sind and other parts of India.
These farms are now well established and the trade in their produce could, it is
believed, form the basis of a flourishing cottage industry provided the present
Plumage Act was amended for their special benefit.
The Government of India are now considering the question of lifting the
embargo on the export of azgrettes subject to certain conditions. In the main
these are as follows :—
Farms would either be licensed or run by Government or recognized
Co-operative Societies, subject to such conditions as the local Government
might choose to impose. To facilitate despatch through the Customs, the
feathers licensed for export would be contained in sealed packets of standard
pattern, sizes and weights. Large amounts would be put up in specially sealed
bales, These standard containers would be issued by Local Governments
EDITORIAL 903
and carry the name of the district or sub-division and have a serial number and
the date stamped on them. The farmers would be required to bring their
produce once or twice a year to the district fashil Head-quarters, where they
would be examined and sealed up in the standard containers, the farmer
paying the requisite fees. He would then be at liberty to take over the sealed
packets and dispose of thein as he liked.
In producing the feathers the farmer would be required to show his farm
license, the amount of the yield being checked against the anticipated output
of the farm. If Local Governments appointed Inspectors, it is presumed that
they would be able to tell whether the farmer was supplementing his legitimate
stock with feathers of wild birds. In such cases the license would be with-
drawn. Certain provisions ave to be included to give facilities to middlemen
and exporters who would be permitted to examine the contents of the packages
either before sealing or under supervision of a Customs Officer.
The lifting of the embargo would of course only concern the prodtce
of licensed farnis, the ban on the export of plumage of w.ld b:rds, would
remain in force as at present.
We welcome the opinions of members of the Society, particularly from
those conversant with or interested in the subiect, as these proposals are now
being considered by the Society’s Committee who have been requested to
acauaint Government with their views on the matter.
In a letter received by the Editors of the journal, the writer comments on
the apparently reckless shooting indulged in by the author of an article
recently published in the Society’s Journal—the Editors wish it to be known
that the publication of an article without editorial comment does not imply
approval of the metnods adopted by the author.
Col. W. H. Evans’ profusely illustrated serial on the identification of Indian
Butterflies is now nearing conclusion and we are sure that entomologists and
collectors would welcome the proposal which we are now considering to issue
the series in book form. Every effort will be made to keep the price of the
book at the lowest possible figure so as to bring it well within the reach of all
who are interested. The edition will be limited to 200 copies. Those desirous
of securing a copy should communicate with the Honorary Secretary.
Re-publication will of course depend largely on the number of applications
received.
Col. R. Meinertzhagen, who has recently returned from a collecting trip
in Kashmir and the countries beyond, writes to solicit the help of members
in certain investigations which he is now undertaking.
It appears that something can be learned from a study of the grit which
certain groups of birds swallow in order to assist them in digesting their food.
An appenl is therefore made to those who shoot the following birds, to extract
the stomach (gizzard), an operation which any cook can do, and forward them
to Colonel R. Meinertzhagen C/o Bombay Natural History Society. The
stomach should be complete and undamaged. Six or seven stomachs of each
of the small species and four or five of the larger would suffice. It these
stomachs are allowed to dry in the open air, or are even cooked they will
travel in a small box without smell. The following data with each batch of
stomachs is essential—species, Iccality, month of year. The groups from
which stomachs are required are, all Game Birds, including Pigeons and Doves,
Sandgrouse, Peafowl, Crane, Bustard, Geese and Duck and Quail. With
regard to Game Birds it will be worth examining these in the neighbourhood
of the Ruby mines in Burma. Amongst the societys treasures (Burglars
please do not note) are 13 Sapphires found in the gizzard of a jungle Cock shot
near Mogok.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
No. I.—THE SLOW LORIS (NYCTICEBUS COUCANG)
Apropos of the note on the Slow Loris which appeared in a recent issue of
the Journal (vol. xxi, No. 1, p. 215) we publish below an extract of a letter
received from Major J. D. Scale :—
This curious little animal, from its nocturnal habits and its shyness, is, in
these hills, very seldom seen and rarely captured. In addition, the superstition
which attaches to it among the non-Christian Lushais, i.e., that disaster will
befall the house and inmates responsible for its capture makes it very difficult
to obtain a specimen. In some places even to see it is exceedingly unlucky so
that I counted myself fortunate to have the opportunity a few days ago of
handling one which had been brought in by a Christian Lushai. The man
while climbing a tree had seen it asleep in a hole in the trunk below him and
had effected its capture with much difficulty, by dragging it from its retreat
with nooses of jungle creeper. When brought in, it was trussed up into a ball,
but when loosed was in excellent condition, save fora gallon the hind legs
from its bonds. It wasa male. Its moments were slow and well considered,
it never took a pace unless certain of its foot hold, and its power of hold was
prodigious. For three days it lived in the bungalow of its owner, sleeping by
day on the top of an almirah and at night climbing about everywhere. It ate
bananas, fruit and fowl’s eggs broken forit. On the third day, whether with
the connivance of non-christian friends or no is doubtful, it returned to the
jungle and though searched for high and low has not been since seen. There
is no doubt that it could shake off its lethargy and move fast if necessary as
on one occasion as I was trying to prevent it climbing out of reach, it struck’
with lightening-like swiftness, and bit my sleeve. The Lushais firmly believe
its bite causes vomiting, anda creditable informant states he saw a half-witted
boy, who was incapable of reasoning, knew nothing of the superstition and
thought that the Loris he had captured was a monkey, vomiting for some time
after being bitten. I did zof attempt to disprove the belief. Its Lushai name
‘ Sa-huai’ means the haunted animal and the story goes that ‘Once upon a
time the great chief Thlangrukpa gave a feast to all living creatures. In order
that even the most delicate of them, whom the sun’s rays might injure, should
be present, the banquet was held at night. So enjoyable was it that at sunrise
they were still making merry, so a message was sent to the sun asking him to
postpone his coming. Very kindly he agreed but being very curious to see the
show he peeped over the horizon at which many of the smaller guests scattered
away. The loris, sprightly and nimble in those days, was dancing a passeul
and furious at the sudden interruption to his ‘‘turn’’ told the sun what he
thought of his behaviour. The sunin anger at the insult, swore the loris
should never look him in the face again, or wander abroad in his light and
from that minute this little creature was afflicted with the groping gait he has
to-day.’
LUSHAI HILLS, J.-D. SCALE:
ASSAM. Major.
| The bite of the Slow Loris is held to be highly poisonous by certain tribes in
Assam and the neighbouring provinces. Frayerin his 7hanatophidia of India
gives avery interesting account of the harmful results which followed a bite from
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 905
a Slow Loris. He quotes the instance as indicating how great is the liability
to error ; even when the evidence is complete. This slow, gentle and harmless
creature is convicted on the best evidence of poisoning a man by its bite as a
venomous snake would have poisoned him. In commenting on the case Frayer
wrote: ‘The effects so well described by the author were probably due to
mental causes, with some co-incident disorder. This is a good example of the
necessity of extreme caution in arriving at conclusions, or generalizing on
insufficient data.’ ds.]
No. Il.—THE OCCURRENCE OF HODGSON’S BAT (MYOTIS
FORMOSUS) IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCES
While compiling a list of the mammals inhabiting the Central Provinces and
on going through and examining the material in the Nagpur Museum, I was a
bit doubtful of the identity of a bat, presented by my predecessor, which I
had put down as Hodgson’s Bat, Vespertilio formosus. Ihave now sent the
specimen for verification to the Bombay Natural History Society and they have
confirmed my identification. It was taken at Nagpur in a bungalow which it
had entered.
NAGPUR MUSEUM, E. A. D’ABREU, F.Z.S.
30th June, 1925
[The distribution of this beautiful bat is given as the ‘ Himalayas near
Mussorie up to 3,500 feet, Nepal, Sikkim Assam, Khasi Hills, Bengal, Calcutta,
Purneah, Chabassa and China. Its discovery in Nagpur, C, P., indicates an
extension of its known habitat.’ Eds.]
No. HI.—THE SAMBHAR CALL OF TIGER
Your readers will be much interested in Major James’ letter and your
suminary of the various notes on the above subject (Journal, B.N.H.S.,
vol. xxx, p. 462). You will pardon me however, if I venture to differ in your
interpretation of Major James’ experience.
Major James does not say that the tiger was meditating any attack on the
Sambhar or that it was even stalking it : in fact the whole behaviour of the tiger
contradicts this : had it been intending an attack its whole attention would have
been focussed towards the sambhar—it would either have been almost invisible,
or proceeding towards the sambhar at a belly crawl, or in flashes, like a live
wire, and instead of this it was standing up, flanks heaving and head lowered,
to make the call. This is not the way a tiger hunts. Major James specially
mentions tigers are scarce when he met this one. Is it not more likely that the
tiger heard the sambhar moving without knowing what it was, and gave
it a call?
In your summary of views on the subject you have been good enough to
refer to my brief remarks on the subject contained in Wzld Animals in Central
Zndia. Imay be permitted to amplify these. There are many baffling points
in connection with this call. To begin with no two people interpret the
noise in the same way. Does the call vary to the extent one would suppose,
and is there more than one call? I have only heard one: like a soft low
sambhar call. The only medium of describing sound is to liken it to some
other sound.
Again, tiger are much more addicted to the call in somé places than in others.
I have only once heard the sound outside saZ forest and, but for this instance,
I would have been almost tempted to say that it is not uttered in the teak
forests. It is significant however that all the calls of tiger are far more
commonly made in sal/ forest as compared with teak forests. A friend of
mine, of vast experience and a most accurate observer, has never heard it in
teak forests. It is a fact that the most experienced shikaris exported say from
t
9066 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
Chanda to Mandla or Balaghat will not credit the local Bazgas when they
assert that the noise is made by a tiger. Col. Faunthorpe, late Commissioner
of Lucknow and a:mighty hunter; told me he had never heard it... His
experience was of the Terai.
I am convinced the origin of the call has to do with a mate: this includes
finding a mate; keeping in touch with a mate, or a note of zaferrogation or
enguiry for purposes of identification towards a noise or a disturbance: a
potential mate? ‘These are the only motives which are consistent with my
experience. A number of times I have been able to follow the course of a
tiger striding across a grass maidan in Mandla by the call being repeated
every two or three hundred yards. There is no element of fear or disturbance
in this. Two tigers together, one or both being disturbed, keep in touch with
each other by this call. There is no essence of hunting in this; and I have
never known a case of a single tiger make the call when the disturbance
has been identified, but they will making it when they do not know what is
afoot. It is very difficult to be certain if a tiger has identified a disturbance :
also whether it is in touch with a mate or not: the fact that the great mass of
tigers on thousands of occasions make no noise on being disturbed makes
it necessary to look for some other cause or causes for the call than disturbance
alone. It must be borne in mind that in a great number of cases in which the
call is heard disturbance is taking place: there is a very great danger there-
fore of associating the call with disturbance, without searching for deeper
causes.
Since the publication of ‘ Wild Animals in Central India’ 1 have received
a number of very interesting letters from all parts of the world from perfect
strangers. One of these was from Mr. Robert Cardwell of the Eastern
Express Telegraph Co. Ltd., Cocos-Keeling Island, December 3, 1924. He is
evidently well acquainted with the Malay Peninsula, an interesting country
about which little is published. I make him my apologies for quoting from his
letter without having obtained his permission. He writes as follows :—
‘i am particularly interested in’ your description of the tiger’s peculiar
‘“* fook ”’ or ‘‘ koi’’ as I interpret it—for so many books seem to ignore or say
very little about it, and often when hearing the cry I have wondered the reason
for its utterance. It would appear that this cry is uttered far more frequently
in some places than in others. In Cochin China, or at least in those parts that
I have shot over, this call may be heard almost nightly and particularly so at
certain seasons when the young grass is springing up after having been burnt,
with the consequent influx of deer and other game. Sometimes it is uttered
so frequently that it is quite possible to tell in which direction the tiger is
moving. As you say, it is quite out of the question it being uttered as a decoy
cry : for no one who has heard it a few times could possibly mistake it with the
belling, or even the note of alarm of sambhar, so that there is no possibility of
any deer being taken in by it.
I think that your explanation of it being a mate call must be the correct one,
but, so far as my observations go, the call is seldom answered by a second tiger.
A peculiar incident happened to me once when crossing a small plain by
bullock cart on the way to some tsaine ground. I shot at and wounded, a hog,
deer which we could not find at the time in‘the knee high grass : but on our return
after nightfall, a dog, which was following the cart-discovered the wounded
animal which started to cry out on being worried by the former. Before we
could reach the deer two tigers ‘‘ fooked ’’ from the nearby jungle, one of which
approached at a rapid pace across the plain towards the deer, still
‘“ fooking ’’ all the while: when it got within a hundred yards or so off us,
(as seen next day)—it evidently discovered our presence for it turned away,
still *‘ fooking’’ tillit had entered the jungle once more on the opposite side
of the plain.’
In reply I asked Mr. Cardwell if the pericd when the grass is burned
coincided in any way with the approach of the mating season. It is obvious
that the concentration of game means also that of tigers and this without other
reasons would account for the greater frequency of the call. The story of these
two tigers is only consistent with the call being a mate call.
March 24, 1924, ' A, A. DUNBAR BRANDER.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 907
No. IV.—TIGER-NETTING IN ASSAM
The indigenous plains population of Assam are notoriously a pleasure-loving,
simple, and more or less idle folk.
| Ce At least so reckoned in present times
when everyone must be up and doing
if he is to survive in the struggle for
i Existence,
| In this Province, where the soil is
- rich, the people’s requirements few
and easily met, and with a traditionally
benevolent Government, the people
are extremely improvident, and give
up much time to festivity, revelry,
and romantic idleness.
The women-folk perform not only
all the household duties ; the nursing
and tending the children, the collec-
tion of fuel, and the cooking of the
food, but also bear the brunt of the
work in the fields.
From the-time of harvesting the
mustard crop, till the rains have pro-
perly set in and the ground is nice and
soft for ploughing, i.e. from about
the end of February till about the end
of May or beginning of June, we find
the fields abandoned, cattle let out to
graze untended, all grass lands con-
tiguous to habitations burnt (to secure
safety for the cattle, to provide fresh
crops of grass for the cattle, to render
themselves immune from accidental
firing of such grass areas, and largely to provide themselves with a supply of
fuel from the unburnt ekra stems) and all the inhabitants holding inter-village
carousing.
At this time whether on account of the opportunity afforded by the absence
of cattle attendants, or due to the fact that it coincides with the breeding
season of tigers, or that the cattle wander further afield, or the combination of
all these circumstances, the number of cattle killed even in a single day seems
sometimes incredible.
The wholesale destruction of their cattle soon rouses the inhabitants from
their supine placidity, to combine and take concerted action against the
common enemy, on the shortest notice at a given signal.
In this District the people who go in for tiger-netting are the Lallungs, the
Cacharies, the Koches and a few Hera villages.
For this purpose each male adult of the village has to provide two nets, made
from 4% inch diameter jute rope; each net being about 100 feet long by about
15 feet wide, with meshes 6 inches square. A rope about ~ inch diameter
passes along both top and bottom of the net and serves for binding the
two ends.
New nets are used each year, or where old nets are used they are doubled.
Having cecided to net a tiger, the first kill that occurs is closely examined
by a party of about ten to fifteen men who go out armed with spears to
investigate. If they are satisfied that the tiger is still not very far from the kill,
messengers are sent out in all directions to neighbouring villages (some
sometimes 5 miles away) to call all able-bodied men, and to bring all available
nets, spears, bamboos, drum, cymbals, and every other contrivance for pro-
ducing the most diabolical noises conceivable.
The spot most likely to hold the tiger is then partly netted on the outer side,
white the rest of the area or adjoining area, if very large, is divided into two or
three blocks by breaking down the grass in straight lines. A systematic beat of
each block is then carried out, beating towards the netted area; at the same
time men are posted along the cleared lines to intimate when a tiger or tigers
break across.
Bamboos in position with men on
the look out.
908 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
When a tiger is driven into the partly-netted area, the men promptly form a
cordon round, whilst others complete the surround with nets as quickly as
possible. The top of each net is kept in position by passing the main top rope
of the net and one of the meshes over and into the horns formed from bamboo
uprights, while the bottom is similarly held down by inversed bamboo forked
pegs. The bamboo uprights are about 8 to 10 feet long of which about one
foot is driven into the ground.
Long bamboos with the side branches left for about 6 to 8 inches from
the culm are then erected all around the enclosure, and serve as look-out posts,
to watch the movements of the tiger and to direct the dragging of the log to be
described hereafter. (The Photo alone shows these bamboos in position with
the men keeping a look-out.)
Men entering the nets.
Having located the tiger at one side of the enclosure, the Kaviraj or tiger-
doctor performs his mantras and enters the net at the opposite side. He is
then followed by about 60 to 80 men armed with spears. (Photo 2 shows the
men entering the nets.—The Kavira7 is shown by a X.)
These men proceed to break down the erass, i.e. the front ranks break down
the grass whilst the rear ranks form a semi-circle with their spears, in case the
tiger should charge from a side.
Finally having reduced the area to about 50 yards diameter, with the grass
broken down all round inside to a width of 10 to 15 feet, a log of wood called a
‘ dhenki’ is fastened at the two ends by two long bamboo ropes (about 3 inches
diameter) and dragged backwards and forwards, to break down the grass, as
well as to make the tiger rush about the enclosure to the amusement of the
spectators. The ‘ dhenki’ is about 10 feet long and about 10 inches diameter.
(In the Plate, Fig. 1 the men pulling one of the ‘dhenki’ ropes are clearly
seen.
At ee outset the tiger often rushes the nets and could be easily despatched,
but, according to custom, strict orders are given not to do this, to allow spectators
for miles around to come and see the ‘tamasha’. When the tiger rushes the
nets he is beaten back with the buts of the spears. (Fig. 2 of the Plate shows
only a very small percentage of the spectators who often number several
thousands. )
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 909
Watch is kept day and night, and the place takes on the appearance of a
circus or theatre. The performance sometimes lasting five days, by which time
the tiger is well nigh dead of thirst and exhaustion, while the netters themselves
can scarce keep up the strain which earlier excitement had helped them to
undergo, and they decide to finish him off. (Fig. 3 shows the tiger in one of
his rushes across the enclosure).
At the signal for finishing him off, each man ona bamboo arms himself with
a spear.—The ‘dhenki’ is dragged towards the tiger who, as it approaches,
charges it, sometimes biting the rope in two, and then makes for some point in
the nets, where he is greeted with a flight of spears, both from the men on
bamboos as well as the men surrounding the nets. ‘The end is speedy; for as
the tiger is more or less pinned down the men see red and the lust for blood is
given full rein to, the crowd surges forward pushing in the nets and were hea
leopard he would have as many spear thrusts as he has spots. (Photo 10 shows
the last of a notorious cattle-lifter. )
NowGonc, ASSAM, L. J. DELANOUGEREDE,
June 1925, YB Wey fe (ON
No. V.—PANTHER WITH ABNORMAL FEET
Abnormal Feel of a Panther.
‘.On' the 28th January, 1925, I shot a Panther at a place about 2 miles to the
north of the village of Jhikadi in the Bhuj District. He was a full-grown male,
in excellent! condition and measured 6 feet 113 inches between uprights and 7
feet, 1 inch' along the curves. He had an extra abnormal toe on each hind
foot' on the inner side of the leg. These toes were little round balls of fleshy
substance with no bones in them and were merely attached by the skin, but
there was a claw (non-retractile) on each toe. The toes were placed in a line
with the back of the pads, rather high, but the extra claws were quite tseless.
A freak of this kind has probably been noticed before, however, the present
instance may be worth recording and the photographs accompanying this note
may interest the readers of the Society’s Journal.
BHUS,. KUTCH, MAHARAJ KUMAR SHREE VIJAYARAJJI.
29th April, 1925.
In Volume XI, p. 734 of this Journal Mr. S. Eardley-Wilmot refers to a
panther, shot by him in Oudh, with five fully developed claws and toes on
each hindfoot, ds,
910 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
No. VI.~-ABNORMAL CLAVICLE BONES OF A TIGER
Abrormal Clavicle Bones of a Tiger.
I enclose a photograph of two clavicle bones taken from a9Q feet 7 inches
tiger which I shot on the 29th April in the Pahalgarh Estate, Gwalior. The
tiger, though not very long, was extraordinarily massive and heavy.
I believe the shape of these clavicle bones is unique. The upper one is
4} inches long round the curve measured from the red mark on the outside of
the flattened head. The lower bone is 33 inches in length.
MANPUR via MHow, . W. Gy HUTCHINSON,
14th May, 1925. Lieutenant-Colonel.
[The clavicle or collar-bone is often rudimentary and very frequently entirely
absent in mammals ; in the Primates the collar bone is well developed, in the Bats
it is very long and curved ; in a few forms of the /odeniza it is altogether absent
in Cetaceans and in Ungulates itis always absent. In the Carnivores the clavicle
is sometimes absent and varies much in its development, thus, none of the Fin-
footed Carnivora (Pinnuipeda) such as the Seals, etc., possess a clavicle bone.
When present, it varies much in its development, but is always rudimentary and
suspended in the muscles, that is to say, instead of the collar-bone forming a bar
to connect the shoulder blade with the breast-bone, as in man, it merely forms a
splint of bone embedded in the muscles of the chest between these two points.
In the Felide@ it is slender and curved—being longer than in any other members
of the order—in the Canzd@ it is very short and rather broad and flat—in most
of the Bears itis absent. ds.]
No. VII.—PANTHER AND WILD DOGS
On the evening of 31st May, 1925, I had a clear case of a large male panther
driving wild dogs off his kill.
A tethered buffalo calf had been killed by this panther, but a thunderstorm
prevented my going to the sachan until late in the evening. —Two men went on
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 911
in advance to tidy up the screen. Following a few minutes later I found them
returning to say that the nullah was full of wild dogs and they had been afraid
to go on. I sent back to camp— —not far away—for my shot gun; and by the
time I got to the place, shot gun in hand, the light was very bad. There were
no wild dogs, but a large grey shape could be seen tugging at the kill. The
nullah being wide and stony no nearer approach could be made. ‘The distance
was 50 yards. ‘T'wice the panther’s head could be made out turned in the
direction of myself and the man with me, but he seemed little concerned and
renewed his efforts to remove the kill. Exchanging the gun for a °470 rifle I sat
down, raised the enamel foresight disc., and took a careful shot, fully hoping
to lay the beast. out. The bullet went high, doubtless because the back sight
was not sufficiently defined.
Except for the fore part of the kill the dogs had picked the bones of the
carcase pretty clean. At daybreak next morning they turned up again; two
large dogs and seven pups of some 7 to 8 months old, as far as I could judge by
dentition of one I shot.
It was fully evident that the panther had arrived on the scene, immediately
after the two coolies turned back, and driven the dogs’ away. Had the pack
contained more full-grown dogs he would probably have been less successful,
QUETTA, L@.-COL,..-R. W.. BURTON.
7th Juiy, 1925, Indian Army (Retd.)
No. Vill.—A HYBRID. BLACK BUCK (4. CERVICAPRA), AND
CHINKARA (G. BENNETTI)
(With a Photo) -
Hybrid.
The Hybrid as, you will see from the photographs is an extraordinary animal,
and was found with a herd of Blackbuck. It used to fight and drive away the
other Blackbuck in the herd and was an absolute master of the herd. The
colour was almost that of a Chink but some black hair were visible here
and there. It was bigger than the ordinary Chink and the shape of the
20
912: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAT ORAL GIST SOGE LY, VOL.
face was not altogether that of a Chink, but somewhat resembled a young
Blackbuck. The tail was black exactly like a Chink. In build it was slightly
bigger than a Chink. The horns were a curious mixture of Blackbuck and
Chinkara. They started out of the head like the horns of a Blackbuck whilst the
tips resembled those of a Chink. Its action and the way it carried its head were
more like a Blackbuck than a Chink. As this animal lived in a Blackbuck
herd, I presume that the father was a Chink whilst the mother was a Blackbuck
doe, for if the mother had been a Chink it would not have been found with
a Blackbuck herd.
BIKANER, MAHARAJ KUMAR SRI SADUL
I3th February, 1925. SINGHJI BAHADUR
No. IX.—DUEL BETWEEN TWO BULL ELEPHANTS
The folowing incident which resulted in the death of two wild elephants took
place in the Feudatory State of Athmallik, which borders on the Mahanadi River
in Orissa. The story was related to me by a local official and I visited the
scene of the struggle about four months after its occurrence. The State
contains some extensive tracts of forest watered by perennial streams which
afford a sanctuary to wild elephants throughout the year.
During the month of February 1924 news reached the head-quarters of the
State that two bull elephants had been fighting and that one had been killed.
This news was received four days after the actual combat took place, and on
further investigation the body of one elephant was found while the second was
discovered in the jungle close by badly wounded. The survivor was successfully
captured by means of trained elephants and was kept tied up in the vicinity for
a few days but when an attempt was made to take him out of the forest he
succumbed to his injuries.
Unfortunately four months elapsed between the above occurrence and my visit
to the scene, so that although I saw what remained, it was impossible to detect
any of the injuries from which the elephants died. Both were single tusker
bulls, the tusks weighing 45; and 444 lbs. respectively.
I relate the above episode as I should imagine that it rarely that one of these
combats ends in a double fatality, although many must be severely injured
during such encounters.
SAMBALPUR, B.N.Ry. He Eee MOONE Y= ib.S:
No. X.—AN ELEPHANT TRAP
There is a form of trap figured in Sir Aurel Stein’s Serzndia, which is widely
used in Africa and I am anxious to discover how far it is stillin use in Asia.
I append an extract from Bell’s book Wanderings of an Elephant Hunter
which describes the method of tising the trap.
‘A well frequented elephant path is chosen and somewhere near the spot
‘decided upon for a snare a large tree is cut. Judgement in the choosing of
‘this must be exercised as if it is too heavy the snare will break, and if too light
‘the snared elephant will travel too far. A tree trunk, which ten or twelve men
‘can just stagger along with, seems to be the thing. This log isthen brought
‘to the scene of action and at its smaller end a deep groove is cut ail round to
‘take the noose at one end of the rope. After this noose has been fitted and
‘ pulled and hammered tight--no easy matter—the log is laid at right angles to
‘the path with the smaller end pointing towards it. A hole, a good bit larger
‘than an elephant’s foot is then dug in the path itself to a depth of two feet or
‘so. Over this hole is fitted a wooden frame work similar in shape to a cart
‘wheel with spokes but without a hub. Round its rim the large noose of
‘the snare is laid and the whole is covered carefully over with earth to resemble
‘the path again. The snare is now laid, and if all goes well some solitary bull
‘comes wandering along at night, places his foot on the earth borne by the
‘sharp spokes of the hubless wheel, goes through as the spokes open down-
‘ wards, lifts his foot and with it—the wheel bearing the noose well up the ankle,
‘strides forward and tightens the noose. The more he pulls the tighter draws
‘the noose until the log at the other end of the snare begins tomove. Now
‘alarmed and presently angry, he soon gets rid of the cart wheel, but its work
‘is already done, that does not matter. The dragging log is now securely
‘attached to the elephant’s leg, and it is seldom that he gets rid of it unless it
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
No.1.
Crow’s nest (weight 11 1bs.), made almost entirely of wire, built on the side
strain insulator Brackets.
No. 2.
Crow’s nest of wire in process of construction on the over-head girder.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 913
‘should jamb in rocks or trees. Soon he becomes thoroughly alarmed and sets
‘off at a great pace, the log ploughing along behind him. Should a strong,
‘ vigorous young bull become attached to a rather light log, he may go twenty
* or thirty miles.’
CourT LEYS, C. G. SELIGNMAN.
Toot BALDONE, OXFORD.
No. XI.—CROWS NESTS AND ELECTRIC CABLES
The G. I. P. Railway, since the inauguration of the new electric service in
Bombay, was faced with a novel problem intimately connected with the nesting
habits of the Bombay crow.
The Bombay crow on looking round for a nesting place decided that the
overhead gear which carries the electric cables offered a safe and satisfactory
haven in which to bring up its family. The Bombay city crow has advanced
ideas in nest architecture and commonly builds itself a nest of wire or hoop iron
in preference to the more common-place twigs.
Mr. R. McLean, agent, G. I. P. Railway, has very kindly forwarded us the
following particulars :—
During the months of March, April, May and June 62 insulators were
damaged by crows, causing a loss of 43 hours on the service ; this loss was spread
over 433 trains. From observations taken the trouble was usually caused by
the crows either attempting to builau their nests on the side strain insulator
brackets, as shown in photograph No. 1 or by the crow alighting on the struc-
ture near the ‘ live’ line with a length of wire in its break and the wire coming
in contact with live metal. The wire started an are which, though small at
first, spread to the heavier metal of the line and structure and so continued until
the insulator was completely burnt down.
In one instance the Catenary Cable, 1 inch in diamater was burnt through.
The crow apparently prefers metal such as wire, hoop iron, etc., to twigs for
building its nest, for it was noticed that wherever such material was available,
the nest was composed entirely of wire with a thin lining of straw or cocoanut
fibre. The compositions of the nests varied on different sections of the line.
Near Masjid (in the heart of thecity), the nests were of small pieces of light
hoop iron, probably brought from the metal yards in the neighbourhood. Near
the Cotton Green, they were of iron wire such as is used in reinforced concrete
construction. Near Kolwada in the suburbs, where no such supplies of metal
were available, the nests were of twigs and were not dangerous from our point
of view. Near Kurla, they were of twigs and wire.
The crows were most persistent in building on the structure where they had
first chosen to build and after the nest had been taken down, returned time
after time to rebuild. Early in the season they would rebuild the nest in about
three days, but later the new nest would be built in a few hours.
Another interesting point noticed was that the crow did not sit in the nest at
night if it was composed of wire, but roosted in a tree close at hand. The wire
nests in such cases were found to be quite warm even at 2 a.m.
The statement made in the press that only one crow had fallen a victim to
the power is incorrect. Twenty-nine crows were found dead at the site of
accidents. They were invariably badly burnt and nearly all their feathers were
charred. In two instances a crow flew away leaving its legs behind stuck to
the structure as an effect of the arc.
As an emergency measure the railway decided to fix asbestos sheets over the
brackets to prevent wires from resting on the ‘live’ ‘ pull-off’ rod, and so far
the fitting of these sheets has been entirely satisfactory.
The crow, however, not to be defeated, has now moved his habitation higher
up the structure and photograph No. 2 shows a nest in the overhead girder itself.
The chances of wires coming into contact with live parts of the structure are,
of course, very much less in the new location, but an examination of the
photograph with a magnifying glass will show the great lengths of wire that
have been used in making his nest, so that the danger is by no means entirely
eliminated.
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, ». Hi PRATER,
15th June, 1925. CiIEZ:S:
914 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
No. XII,—PREDATORY HABITS OF THE MAGPIE
In the Tsangpo valley on 14th July, came on a Black-rumped Magpie (Pica
pica bottannensis) having an almost fully-fledged lark in its mouth. The
parent lark was attacking it and the young bird struggling to be free. I rode
after it to try and make it drop its prey but it refused to do so and flew on a
few yards atatime. At last seeing that the young lark was dead, I left: the
Magpie to its meal.
GANGTOK, SIKKIM F. M. BAILEY,
llth May, 1925. Lieutenant-Colonel.
[The food of the European Magpie (Pica pica) is stated to consist mainly of
insects but also carrion, small mammals (rats, mice, voles), young birds of
many species and eggs and vegetable matter. The other forms of the species
which occurin N.-W. Africa, parts of Asia and N. America are probably
equally carnivorous. ADS.]
No. XII.—FRESH LIGHT ON THE IDENTITY OF THE
“DEVEL BIRD.
With reference to the note on the above subject which appeared in the last
~ issue of the Journal, our readers will be interested in the following extract from
a paper on ‘ The Devil Bird’ read by Dr. Spittel before the Natural History
Society of Ceylon and printed in the Zzmes of Ceylon, 11th June, 1925. Dr.
Spittel gives an exhaustive and interesting account of the many theories which
throw light or tend further to obscure the identity of this elusive creature, and,
from questioning scores of people met with during his wanderings, sifting
carefully the evidence he got and discarding all doubtful data, he has come to
the conclusion that :—(1) the Devil Bird was no owl but an eagle and was
crested ; (2) it was a large bird and (3) was streaked in its breast plumes
rather like a jungle hen.
Dr. Spittei writes :—
‘I had come to a dead end ; for I knew that with my limited opportunities
for visiting the jungle, | could not hope to add the final touch of proof
necessary, by securing for myself a specimen of the bird while it cried, or even
seeing one that had been shot by a reliable informant.
I now told Mr. E. C. Fernando, the Colombo Museum taxidermist, all I
knew about the Devil Bird and suggested to him that the only way to clinch the
doubt would be for him to try and shoot the bird while it cried. This, I had
no doubt, he would, sooner or later, have the opportunity to do when camping
in the jungle collecting specimens ; for he is a young and ardent sportsman
with a good knowledge of birds.
A couple of months ago I was pleasantly surprised to hear from him on
the telephone saying he had shot the Devil Bird and had several specimens
to show me.
‘What bird is it? ’ I eagerly asked.
‘The Sptzaétus cirrhatus,’ said he.
Then felt I like some watcher of the skies !
The circumstances under which he had shot the bird were these :—
Towards the end of November 1924 he was camping at Divulana, when
often at night he heard the hoots of the Devil Bird, coming from a certain
direction. He also observed that a ‘harsh cough’ often immediately
preceded the hoo-oo, and conjectured that the first note might be the male’s
and the second the female’s.
May I be permitted a digression here. ‘he triple ‘ hu-hoo-hu ’ cry of the
Brown Fish-owl (Ketupa zeylonensis) almost running into a single note, very
likely comes from two birds; the first‘ hee’ of the male usually being
immediately succeeded by the hoo-hu of the female. Calling my attention to
these notes, a forest Tamil once told me that the male owl tells the female,
‘when I cry once, if you don’t quickly cry twice, I shall choose another mate. ’
Who knows but that some such understanding may also exist between Devil
Birds! But this I rather doubt ; and it may be that the same bird tunes up
from the harsh guttural to the higher and purer note. On the other hand, there
can be little doubt that it only indulges in one or other of these notes at
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 915
different times ; for those acquainted with the ‘ hoo’ have often not heard the
‘strangulation cry’ and vice versa.
To come back to Mr. Fernando’s experiences: One afternoon he shot a
large bird that had swooped down on some prey on the dund of Divulana Tank.
A few days later he shot another on a big tree in a close forest. It did not
occur to him to associate these birds with the sounds he had heard at night.
On his return journey, he spent ten or twelve days at a forest ranger’s
bungalow at Vellavaly—the veritable home of the Devil Bird for here it could
be heard invariably every night.
Some 30 yards from the bungalow was an ‘ aar’ flanked by giant kumbuks.
Towards dusk he often noticed that certain large birds came there to roost ; it
was from this direction the cries came. At about 6-30 one evening he was
loitering under these trees when the harsh throaty chuckle he had so often
heard proceeding the ‘hoo’ cry made him look up ; and there, seated on a branch
was the bird from whom the horrible noisés came. He shot it. It was not
different from the two birds he had secured on the Diyulana bund. They
manifested the essential particulars I had given him of the Devil Bird—a large
crested bird mottled like a jungle hen in its breast feathers, and its back
feathers the colour of burnt earth as Veddas had put it.
The next day, when it was even darker, he shot a similar bird, making
the same noise, on a neighbouring tree ; but its plumage was much lighter than
that of the others —presumably a maturer bird. Two days later he shot a fifth
bird under similar circumstances. All the specimens were those of the Ceylon
Hawk-Eagle (Spzzaétus cirrhatus ceylonensis). He saw no other bird about
that might possibly have uttered the cries.
In the stomach of two of these birds he found weaver birds, and in that of
another, a green lizard. These birds are said: to breed early in the year, and
that perhaps accounts for their being so noisy about December.
The bird is evidently diurnal in its habits but like the fishing eagle cries
fitfully at night while roosting on large trees by ‘ aars.’ WVeddas have told me
that they plume their arrows with the feathers of ‘ Ulamas’” and owls which
they pick up along dry stream beds.
The cry of the Devil Bird is generally heard early in the night, at mid-
night, and towardsdawn. The ‘hoo’ cry can beheard far, the guttural gurgle
only at close quarters.
Two Devil Birds are seldom or never seen in company. While foraging
singly during the day, they apparently roost together at night, but often
perhaps wander away started by what power who knows, waking the forest
with their unearthly cries.
This is the evidence I have that the Devil Bird is none other than the
Hawk-Eagle (‘ Sfzzaétus cirrhatus’). To meat least it'seems convincing. I
feel we owe Mr. E. C. Fernando a great debt of gratitude for taking us well
towards the solution of a difficult problem.’
‘(Commenting on the above Mr. A. P. Kinloch’ writes :—‘ The shrieks of a
pair of Birds are heard at a distance, answering each other they gradually
approach and then recede and die away.— Does the Hawk Eagle go in for such
lengthy nocturnal promenades? Why should a bold diurnal bird like the
Hawk-Eagle reserve this cry for the still watches of the night ? It isas unlike
his ordinary cry as a bulbul’s conversation is to a racket-tailed Drongo’s
carellon of bells.’ ADS.]
No. XIV.—HAWKS AND SWALLOWS
The following curious information may be of interest, and similar cases may
be known to readers of the Journal, in which case I should be glad to have the
facts substantiated. Iam told that there is a high cliff in this district which is
the nesting place of innumerable swallows. My informant visited the place
many years ago and gives the following details. Every ledge and crany
is covered with nests, globular in shape and made of mud, each nest having in
front of the entrance a hanging curtain of mud mixed with fine feathers. This
is apparently a precautionary measure, a means of camouflaging their abode
from the enemy above, for the cliff overhead is the haunt of a species of small
hawk known to the Lushai as Wu-ral (swallow — killer). These birds live on
their neighbours below, taking continual toll from the swarms always flying
about the cliff. There is nothing very strange about this, but what is curious is
916 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
that the hawks are gourmets of the most merciless kind in as much as all they
deign to ‘eat is the brain of their capture and strew the ground below with
bodies uninjured except for the skulls. If this is the case, and I see no reason
to doubt the veracity of the narrator, it would be interesting to know how this
epicurean taste originated, necessitating, as it must do, somuch more effort.
The story seems vaguely familiar, though possibly this may be due to its
recalling the blood-thirsty habits of the Kea Parrot of New Zealand. Is it not
possible that originally the hawk struck at the baby heads peering out of the
nest thereby gaining the ‘brain’ taste, and also causing the hanging of
the camouflage curtain. Now that the nests are no longer easy of attack, he
has to be content with the older birds ?
The scene of this swallow tragedy is over forty miles distant from my head-
quarters, through dense jungle and is therefore difficult to visit but should no
verification of the facts from other localities be available, I hope to substan-
tiate the story before leaving the district. A detailed description of the hawk is
unluckily not obtainable.
AIJAL, LUSHAI HILLS, MAJOR J. D. SCALES, D.S.O.,
9th March, 1925. OBE.
(Major Scale’s note regarding the hawks which live on swallows and the
formation of the latter’s rest is of very great interest, especially the fact
that they only eat the brain of the birds they catch. ‘This is very unlike any of
the hawk tribe, for, though every hawk loves the brain and eats it first, they are
not given to wasting any portion of their victims. Mr, C. H. Donald, to whom
we submitted Major Scale’s note, suggested that the hawk referred to is possi-
bly a hobby that has taken to eating swallows and given up its usual diet of
insects. We look forward to receiving from Major Scale a specimen of the
hawk referred to by him and also examples of the swallows with their curious
nests. ‘The protective screen described by Major Scale is a feature which we
have not seen connected with the nest architecture of any of our Indian
swallows. EDS. ]
No. XV.—AN ALBINO HOOPOE (£POP4 EPOPS INDICA)
(With.a Photo)
ae
I send herewith a photograph of.a‘white'shoopoe, taken in our garden at
Bikaner. The bird is totally white, including its crest. Other hoopoes display
no hostility towards it, but it seems to be tamer than most and seldom leaves
the garden.
DURNAM COTTAGE, DALHOUSIE, (MRS.) H. K. RUDKIN.
2nd July, 1925.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 917
No. XVI.—OCCURRENCE OF THE NEPAL KALIJ PHEASANT
(G. LEUCOMELANUS) AT MUSSOORIE
I am sending you the skin of Genneus leucomelanus, the Nepal Kalij
Pheasant, shot here in December last year. It may be of interest to record this,
as, as far as I can find out, no one has either observed or recorded this bird from
anywhere here. The books too, do not mention Musscorrie or it neighbourhood.
There is only one place here where it is found to my knowledge, i.e., Lyndhust
Spur near the Botanical Gardens. I got the birds in this spur—one, the
present skin and another young cock. Unfortunately I missed the hen that got
up with the bunch.
I have made enquiries from a number of old shikari residents and no one
appears to have noticed this bird about here. It does not seem to be generally
distributed about these hills as I have never seen it, though may have over-
looked it with G. albocristatus which is very common about the hills round here.
Of course others may have overlooked it also or failed to notice it.
MuUSSOORIE, U. P., iH FIED
Isth April; 1925:
[The skin sent by Mr. Field is undoubtedly an example of the Nepal Kalij
Pheasant G. leucomelanus, there may bea possibility that some Raja main-
tains an aviary near Mussoorie, the specimen sent by Mr. Field certainly
does not look like a captive Bird. [ADS.]
No. XVII.—BREEDING OF THE PAINTED SAND-GROUSE
(PTEHROCLES INDICGS) IN THE PUNJAB. SALT’ RANGE
On 16th March this year, in the Jhelum portion of the Salt Range, I shot
a hen Painted Sand-Grouse from a nest containing two eggs. The locality was
the stony hills lying south of the village of Dalwal, at an altitude of from
2,000 to 2,500 feet. The nest was on a rocky slope rising gradually from
cultivated fields and seamed with small nullahs. The slope was covered every-
where with loose stones and dotted with small bushes, chiefly ‘ Bahekar’
(Adhatoda vasica) and a very thick and prickly bush known locally as
‘Kander.’ There were also a few stunted ‘ Phulah’ (Acacia modesta) and
Lahura ( Zecoma undulata) trees.
The nest was a slight depression scratched in the earth between some stones,
aud the eggs were lying on a small pad of dry grass much resembling chaff.
The nearest bush was a ‘ Bahekar ’ about five yards distant. On my approach
the bird sneaked away from the nest, and after going a few yards squatted flat
between two stones, assimilating so with its surroundings as almost to defy
detection. Having been watched thus for about a minute it rose and flew into
a small nullah close by. I followed and secured it when it rose again, almost
from my feet.
The two eggs were slightly incubated and dissection showed no trace of a
third.
For the correct identification of the bird I am indebted to Mr. H. Whistler, to
whom the skin was sent.
A clutch of three similar eggs, in an advanced stage of incubation, was
brought to me last year, having been taken from a nest a few hundred yards
from that described above. ‘The parent bird was not secured, hence my visit
to the neighbourhood on the present occasion.
Another clutch of 3 eggs, slightly incubated, of this bird have since been
brought to me by a shikari, who found them on the 25th March, on stoney
ground dotted with bushes at the southern base of the Salt Range, within the
limits of the village of Kandwal.
,
JHELUM, We Wi WALDE. E25, MIB. OLUs
3lst March, 1925, Indian Folice.
918 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
No. XVIII.—THE NESTING OF THE LITTLE GREEN HERON
(BUTORIDES STRIATUS JAVANICA) IN THE
DISTRICT OF 24-PERGANNAS
(With a photograph)
(Green Heron Fledglings)
Instancesof the occurrence ,of the Juittle Green Eleron. throughout \ the
district of 24-Pergannas that have come to my notice are so numerous
that to call Butorides javanica a rara avis in this part of the country
will be a travesty of fact. But the bird is very sparingly distributed
and never abundant even in its favourite haunts. ~ Although extremely
Sensitive to human intrusion, it is found to frequent tree-overshadowed
tanks and jheels within a village. Treeless places and open stretches
of cultivation with pools of water are never to its liking. Edges of
tanks overgrown with jungle, low bushes and pendant leafy boughs over-
hanging the water are its hunting ground. Making its abode in the heart of a
village, it so adjusts itself to its environment and regulates its activities as to
escape detection altogether. Less nocturnal than other herons, it is active in
the day time, but its movements are secretive and noiseless. It is unsociable to
a remarkable degree, and I have seldom found more than a pair frequenting a
particular place. It is in its breeding season that villagers get some remote
chance of discovering its existence. Its call, scarcely audible at other times is
now heard and gives a clue as to its movement and flight which now centre
chiefly round some village tank surrounded by large trees and dense foliage.
Nidificatory duties compel the bird’s frequent attention to and descent on the
edges of the above tank where its prey 1s available.
Munn in his note on the Birds of the Calcutta District (The-Ibis, 1894) records
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 919
the occurrence of 4. javanica in the neighbourhood of Calcutta in the district
of 24-Pergannas, and at Mogra on the E. I. Railway which is in the district of
Hooghiy. But he says nothing as to the time of its nesting in these localities.
Oates in the Fauna of British India (vol. iv, p. 396) mentions May to August as.
its nesting season in most parts of India. I was, however, fortunate enough to
have several nests of &. javanica under my observation this year. I found the
bird began nesting as early as March, and in April, I observed the young ones
sufficiently grown up and fully feathered. To quote from my Diary :—
‘March 22, 1925.-—Locality : Debandipur, two miles roughly N. E. of Sodepur
Railway Station : Nests with two eggs of B. avanica in a Tamarind tree (which
now becomes bare by the shedding of its leaves) overhanging a village tank ata
height of 30-35 feet. Inspected this nest again on April 22 and found two
erown-up young fully feathered sitting by the nest and at our approach creeping
and skulking along the branches. The latter are photographed on April 26.
March 27, 1925.—Loc : Village Nimté, off Belgharia due East. Stick-nest with
a newly laid egg of B. javanica in a Mango branch (about 15 feet high) within a
compound in the heart of the village; a large tank near by. Inspected this
nest again two days later, i.e., on the 29th and saw 3 eggs in it. Shot the hen
bird in the legs and bagged her alive.
April 3, 1925.—Loc: Nimté, East of Belgharia Rifle Range. Another nest
on a lofty mango tree near the site in which I discovered the nest of March 27 ;
contains two newly laid eggs. 3
April 17, 1925.—Loc: Natagar, a village of Sodepur: Stick-nest in a short
mango tree overhanging a tank ; found the bird sitting on three egys.’
I find that A. javanica raises a second brood not earlier than June, so that all
nests of this bird that come to our notice between March and May contain, more
often than not, their first brood. A slight structure of sticks, shallow but not
without an appreciable depression in the centre, makes up its nursery, which is
generally found in these parts of Bengal in branches of mango and tamarind
trees overhanging or very neara village tank. Invariably in all the instances
of nesting referred to I noticed the behaviour of the nesting couples (notably
that of the hen) to undergo a remarkable change soon after the eggs were laid.
At the approach of the climber they showed little nervousness, moved slowly
up, when he was very near, to the next higher branch and stepped down to the
nest again as soon as or even before the climber set his foot on ferra firma.
CALCUTTA, SATYA CHURN LAW.
17th July, 1925.
No. XIX.—~WEIGHTS OF WOODCOCK IN SHILLONG
In reading Mr. Stuart Baker’s article on the Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola)
in his Game Birds of India, Burmah and Ceylon, vol. ii, and noting that
further information is required on the weights of Indian Woodcock, I send you
the record for the 26 birds shot by me round Shillong in the past season,
1924-25.
The first ‘Cock seen were on 14th October, 1924 and I shot a couple on 2nd
April, 1925, the last l saw. In 1923 I shot one on 10th October.
8 Ozs. 1 10——ozs. Pa 3 LEI] *OZS: 6]
ene i i 1070's, of 3 ie 35 2
qT o45 or 2 103, ee 1 113 SC, i
F- 55 ne 3 We ae 2 12; —,, 1
3 1 — — 13 2
4 ”) eee ” eee ”) eee “
All the birds shot after the middle of March, which includes those over 12 ozs.
weighed 11 ozs. and over.
The Woodcock has become a comparatively rare bird in the neighbourhood
of Shillong mainly owing to the great increase in potatoe cultivation, which,
according to the Khasi system, necessitates the cutting down and burning, for
the sake of the ashes, of all undergrowth in the vicinity of potatoe, and to the
fact that the fire paths, most of which happen to be near the best Cock nullahs,
have been let out to cultivation. A bag of thirty Woodcock in the season would
now be considered good and one has to go further afield to get even that
number.
SHILLONG, G. R. ROW,
25th May, 1925, Lieutenant-Colonel (1. A. Retired),
26
920 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALYVHIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XXX.
[In April, 1925, we received a skin of a Woodcock from Lt.-Col. Sir Francis
Humphrys, H. M. Minister, Kabul. The weight of the bird is stated by Sir
Francis to have been 1430z.—a very unusual weight for an Eastern specimen.
EDS.
No. XX.—RECORDS WITH SNIPE
I should like to invite your attention to the reference given by Mr. Stuart
Baker (p. 558 of Vol. XX, Journ., Bombay Natural History Society)
regarding the best snipe shooting by Mr. Cornish, then Superintendent of Police,
Orissa. I wonder if you or any of the Members of the Society would kindly
enlighten me whether this record has been beaten in India or elsewhere, even
supposing the sportsman had the advantages of light, wind and ground and
that he picked his own shots.
In his Game Birds of India (Volume II, page 67) Mr. Stuart Baker writes
that Mr. Cornish’s performance was the result of a bet of 25 to one that
he could not shoot 100 birds with 100 cartridges, 10 to 1 that he would not
get 96 and, 3 to 1 that he would not get 90. ‘Mr. Cornish got upto his fiftieth
bird without a miss, and eventually failed by exactly 4 birds to get his 100 birds
in a 100 shots.’
The following are extracts from letters which I have written on the above
subject to the Field which I include with a view to eliciting further information
on this topic from readers of this Journal :—
‘So far as my limited experience and observation carry me, I venture to think
that in India the question of ground, wind and light plays a great part in the
chances of success in snipe shooting.’
GROUND—is one of the main factors for consideration in this connection. There
are varieties of ground in India that we come across. In some places there are
long stretches of paddy fields where a sportsman’s foot will hardly go ankle-deep
in mud or water—‘ easy walking’ with the kind sun behind and cool breeze,
which so much helps the sportsman to feel his day’s exertions less tiresome.
What better conditions would a sportsman wish than these for his‘ ideal day ? ’
In other parts of the country the picture is quite a different one, where a
sportsman who is out for a day’s shoot with some desire for a decent bag has
often to cover a chain of tanks situated at some distance from one another. He
has not only to do hard walking, often over rough ground, but at times just as
the bird gets up before he finds his leg, all of a sudden, going into a
waist-deep hole. He has sometimes to make his way through long, dry and
thorny grass and weeds as high as himself and to make matters more ‘ sportive,’
he has the bright Indian Sun shining clear on the sheet of water in front of him
to dazzle his eyes and generally cause him to miss his bird. ‘Those sportsmen
who have the experience of an Indian Sun will, Iam sure, bear me out that the
Indian Sun if he liked, could be unpleasant to a sportsman on any day, even
in the cold weather, if the wind got absolutely still.
All these things go to make ‘ walking’ heavy and tiresome, especially where
there is no ‘ Kachha’ or fair weather road between the tanks so that they could
be negotiated either by a motor car or a country bullock cart; the sportsman
has to walk the whole distance.
WIND—is not a small factor. Every sportsman knows how aright ‘ kind’
wind can help to make his chances of the day successful and how, if it chose
to be unkind, it can reverse them. I mean high cold wind accompanied by
winter rains and bad light.
I have already said enough about the light elsewhere and I do not propose to
make special mention of its effects in determining the chances of good sport.
In fact prospects of snipe shooting, whether for ‘ average’ or sport largely
depend on the above three chief conditions.
I give below extracts from old pages of my shooting Diary :—
In 1908 I got 24 snipe for 33 cartridges.
3? 1914 9 40 OED) 7) 61 39
)’ 1922 >) 52 a2 >) 122 >”
””) 1923 Pde 59 ”) >” 102 ”)
SL OZE I ee TA) Res EOD
I caa attribute these good days only to the sun, wind and ground being
favourable to me and, though last but not the least, also to the snipe being kind
to me on those days.
THE PALACE, DHAR, C.E., UDAJI RAO PUAR
27th May, 1925.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 92]
No. XXI.—THE SNAKE NATRIX VENNINGI (VENNING’S
KEELBACK)
A CORRECTION
In looking into my note-books I find that I committed an error when des-
cribing this snake in this Journal (vol. xx, p. 774), which should have been
rectified long ago. I recorded the costal scales as 19 at midbody, whereas
they are normally 17 in the whole body length. In four out of ten specimens
the rows reduce to 16 before the vent. They hand-list (vol. xxix, p. 601) calls
for the same correction.
Mayvmyo, F, WALL,
Ll0th August, 1925, Colonel.
NO. XXII.—TWO COMMON ‘FIRE FISHES’ OF MADRAS
(Pie OTS OS STAG NEAIN, AOS. oN ID (i) OL 1 NS
LINN.), A PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THEIR VARIATIONS
During my stay at the Madras Aquarium, with which institution my official
connection lasted for over four years (1919-1923) the fire-fishes, sometimes
referred to as Scorpion Fishes, had always attracted me not only by their
movements but also otherwise. Many of their characters seemed to vary so
greatly as to make me think it was just possible that the validity of the two
species may not stand rigid tests. The results of an enquiry in the course of
‘ which thirty-seven Madras specimens besides two from Tuticorin, one from
Cochin and one from Ganjam were examined are set forth in this preliminary
paper, along with a few other observations on these fish.
These somewhat conspicuously colored fishes are among the most striking
residents of the aquarium. ‘They are brought to the aquarium by line-fisher-
men who go, for fishing, to some ‘ pars’, hard rocky banks, four or five miles
off Madras. Their Tamil and Malayalam name ‘ ¢humdz’ refers to the insect-
colored markings. As the body in the case of our two species is generally
reddish with vertical brown bands alternating with paler ones they are named
‘ Senthumot.’ With their elongated finrays, inter-spinous and inter-radial
membranes and other leafy outgrowths simulating seaweeds, these flags, etc.,
are perhaps responsible for the Telugu name Kodipunjulu—they look like stones
docked with fluttering weeds especially while in their favourite posture of
floating listlessly, displaying no perceptible signs of movement. ‘The apparent-
ly undue development of the fins misled the ancients to believe the fish was able
to fly. Hence the name flying dragon, as also the specific name volztans.
They are normally very lethargic and when they do swim they do so very
slowly, with halts at frequent intervals. Even while sailing, the only movement
seen is the gentle quiver of the fins. When disturbed, tred upon or otherwise
touched, the lethargy vanishes ; the dorsal fin is erected as if in obedience to the
order ‘ Carry swords’ and the fish viciously strikes the intruder either upwards
or sideways apparently with all the force at its command. It directs its blows
with an accuracy which will do credit to a champion game-cock. ‘The wounds
show inflammation and cause acute pain. Of the three dangerous residents of
the aquarium, the seasnakes, the catfishes and the firefishes, the last is the most
dreaded and the aquarium coolies are very chary while cleaning the firefish
tank. During my tenure of office at the aquarium, one cooly was unfortunately
stung by a Pferots. Assoon as he was stung he said he felt as if his foot, where
he was stung, had suddenly come into contact with flaming fire—hence the name
firefish. The wound which was linear in form, all the spines having run their
tips along the same furrow, bled profusely for a short while only. With the
stoppage of bleeding he did not feel very uncomfortable and managed to walk
home. About an hour later his foot became swollen and the slight pain which
he compared to that resulting from a scorpion sting—hence the name scorpion-
fish —assumed intense proportions. He was taken to the hospital for treatment
and was able to resume his duties on the third day.
All the twelve dorsal spines are grooved the terminal portions being deeply
so. The groove is lined by a tubular duct which leads from a pear-shaped gland
located at the base of the spine, and opens out at the tip. From the glands a
milky white fluid may be squeezed out.
One specimen in the aquarium after some days of ‘ gas eye’ lost its left eye-
ball. After some months the socket was healed, though empty to such an
922 JOCRNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL AISTESSOCGIE TYR Ol eXCaxe
extent as to get even the colored band to run across it as of old. This made it
well-nigh impossible for observers, casual or otherwise, to detect the absence of
the leit eye:
Scorpion-fishes occupy in the aquarium a tank with the angjers
(Antennarius spp.) which are spoonfed by a long-reed with a piece of fish
transfixed at the tip being dangled over their heads. The philosophers
however take a long time to make up their minds and, more often than not,
a firefish pounces on the morsel and snatches it away. Once an angler
(A. hispidus) 5°6” in length died in an unsuccessful attempt to swallow a
firefish as long as itself. The operation whicn ended fatally to both the
performers stopped when the jaws met the base of the dorsal and pectoral fins
which were erect and spreading. The two were found thus interlocked the
next morning.
Of the 37 Madras specimens examined 23 were P. russelliz and the remaining
14 P. volitans. The 2 Tuticorin specimens and the one from” Ganjam
belonged to the species volitans while the one from Cochin was P. russellit.
From the finray formula and the proportionate measurements of head, eye,
etc., worked out, the range of variation may be given as follows :—
Pterois russellit.—-Branchiostegals 7, Dorsal 12/1/11-12, (12/1/11-12)
Pectoral 13 (13), Ventral 1/5, Anal 3/7-8 (3/7-8), Caudal 14 (14), Lateral
row 71-75/64-68 (71/66), Lateral transverse 11/30-33 (11/33), Pyloric caeca 3,
Length of head: Length of body: 3°7-4°4 (4) Height of body: Length of
body : 3°5-4°2 (4) and Diameter of the eye: Length of the head: : (4°43 °5)
(43-5).
Pterois volitans.—Branchiostegals 7, Dorsal 12/1/10-11, (12{1/10-11),
Pectoral 14, Ventral 1/5, Anal 3/6-7 (2-3/7-6), Caudal 14, Lateral row 89-94
(90) Lateral transverse 13/89-174? (13/—). Phyloric caeca 3, Length of
head : Length of body: : 3°4-4°6 (3°6-4°3) Height of body: Length of body: :
2°8-3'5 (3-3°3) and Diameter of the eye: length of the head: : 4-4°5 (4-4°5).
Dr. Day’s figures, taken from his volume II of Fishes of the ‘ Fauna of
British India’ series, are given in brackets. It will be seen that the finray
formula is a constant factor, but that the proportion of the height of the body
to its length is very variable. The shape of the body depends upon the size
which is of course a question of age. The spots on the caudal fin form another
variable future. The 23 Madras P. russelliz ranged in size from 4” to 95”. Eleven
(4-6”) had the caudal fins unspotted but 7 (5-8”) had the caudal fins unspotted
except on the edge while 5 (7-93”) had them spotted. The one partially
swallowed by the angler had it unspotted. The Cochin specimen, 5” long, had
the caudal fin unspotted. Of the 14 Madras specimens belonging to the
species volztans 11 had the caudal fins spotted. Of these one was 13” and the
others ranged from 5-10”; 3 which were 4, 4 and 4°5” had these fins unspotted.
The 2 Tuticorin specimens which measured 4 and 4°2” and the Ganjam one
which taped 5” had the caudal fins spotted. Thus one characteristic used by
Dr. Day to separate the 2 species is seen to be very variable. One impression
left on my mind is that young fire-fishes, though without spots at first, developed
the spots later as growth progressed. Iam however unable to definitely assert it
since no fishes were marked and this statement verified. Butthis is supported by
the fact that the unspotted ones are invariably the smaller-sized fishes and the
spotted ones the larger. It is indeed curious that color pigments absent early in
life should develop later, asin the many examples I have come across at the
aquarium, for example Lutzanus flavocaeruleus, a blue fish with yellow fins and
yellow jaws which gradually drops the yellow as it grows, or Lutianus sebac
whose bright crimson bands fade as the fishes grow older, the reverse holds
good. ‘The angler fishes (A. hAispidus), however, which are dull yellow with
brown spots and streaks, assume brighter hues as they increase in size. But this
is a case of mere intensification and not the development of new pigments.
MADRAS FISHERIES DEP., CALICUT, S. T. MOSES,
bth April, 1925. Zoological Assistant.
No. XXIII.—A RUN OF FISH ON THE STREAMS FALLING
INTO THE YAMDROK TSO
When crossing a bridge over a small fall from a smaller lake into the
Yamdrok Tso, | noticed numbers of fish jumping up the fall much as salmon
do. The fish ran to about } of a lb. weight and were all very much the same
size.
WUVMS ATHAALING VY
"20¢ "}sSIH] “3eNe Aequiog -usmore
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 923
The next day at Pete Dzong, we noticed a similar thing: a stream 5 or 6
yards wide had overflowed its banks owing to heavy rain, and the overflow fell
into the lake by a separate stream. During the night this overflow ceased to
run and in the early morning we found the overflow stream dried up except for
a few pools. The stream bed was littered with thousands of dead and dying
fish, while the few remaining pools were packed with fish so that they could not
move. I made the villagers fill baskets and also their coats with the fish, which
were not quite dead and, in this way, had hundreds carried back to the stream
and ake, ‘The fish were all about to spawn, and it was curious to see that the
instinct to go up the stream was so strong that almost dead fish on being put
into the stream, instead of resting in the stiller water, immediately joined the
rush to goup. We noticed that all streams were crowded with fish going up,
and at stiller places near the banks they were so massed that they were almost
pushed out ; so thick were they that a marauding dog was able to take a fish
out of the mass and eat it on the bank. Hundreds of Brown-headed gulls
(Larus bruneicephalus) were taking advantage of this state of affairs, but
curiously enough the gulls only eat the heads, leaving the bodies lying about,
ravens and village dogs were also feeding on the dead fish.
The Tibetan explanation was that at the head of each stream was a ‘ snow
frog ’ who fertilized the spawn of the fish.
Specimens have been identified by Dr. Hora of the Indian Museum as
Schizopygopsts younghusbandt and Nemachilus tibetanus.
GANGTOK, SIKKIM, ¥, M. BAILEY,
5th November, 1925. Lieutenant-Colonel.
No. XXIV.—EXTRAORDINARY DISPLAY OF ‘LAUCODICE SORACTE’
OF THE GENUS =APORTA.’
(With a Plate)
The accompanying photograph shows masses of this butterfly clustering on a
common plant growing by the Himalayan roadside leading from Dalhousie to
Chamba, at about nine thousand feet elevation. The sky was also full of them
—so much so—that they looked like snow-flakes.
Curiously enough, at the same time as I took this photograph I caught the
only two examples I possess of aporia agathon phryxe ( Bar.) of the same genus.
The A. leucodice soracte appeared in May; but by June seemed to have
totally disappeared.
The various species of this genus evidently display the same characteristics—
For Pallas tells us a similar story with regard to A. crataegi (Linn.), as he
observed them in Siberia. I might add that I carefully noted at the time there
was no single instance of any bird attacking them, though there were some
birds about.
In England in 1923 similar scenes, but on asmaller scale perhaps, occurred
with rvape@ (Linn.) of the allied genus Pzeris. For here too the sky was full of
them—equally so on the hill tops, 400 feet high, as over their usual haunts.
Luckily, however, for our gardens, nature seems in the case of rape to
compensate for the unusual numbers of the butterfly by a corresponding
scarcity of its larvee in the following year, for there were very few larve in
1924.
I shall be interested to hear whether this is equally true of the species of
Aporia, and whether the scene in the photograph is of usual occurrence or not.
TIPTON ST. JOHN, DEVON R. Y. A. MORSHEAD,
9th February, 1925. Late 4th Devon Regt.
Col. Evans has written the following comment on the above note :—
In 1919 when I first went to Murree, the same butterfly was at the same game
in early May—just like a fall of snow on the Mall. I have seen trees covered
with butterflies, also patches of damp sand, but never in masses in the air like
soracte; soracte only flies fora month, when the horse chesnut is in bloom,
and at the end of May dead bodies are found all over the place. It is certainly a
protected species—very flimsy and slow flying.
I cannot vouch for the larva theory. The larva of A. /. soracte feeds on Berberis
lycitum and is brown with fine soft hairs all over it. Numbers of them can be
seen on the foot plant. [ADS.]
24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WNALTCGRALEIST. SCOELIY, Vol XX
No. XXV.—COPTOSOMA OSTENSUM, DIST. AND ITS ENEMY
SYNIA MELANARIA, MULS.
In the arboretum established in front of the Agricultural College,
Coimbatore, there is one particular Palas tree (Butea frondosa) out of several
planted therein, that has been observed to be specially subject to an infestation
by asmall Pentatomid bug—Coptlosoma ostensum, Dist. These insects have
been found breeding continuously during the past three years on this particular
tree and have sometimes been found crowding onthe undersurface of the
leaves in big swarms and causing them todry up. Itis rather curious that
they should have shown a peculiar attachment to this particular tree all these
three years, for there are other specimens of Butea frondosa very near on the
Estate which have not been attacked up to the present. Young nymphs were
introduced on another tree near by and throve on it, but subsequently when
they became adults they were found to leave the tree, so that no specimens of
the bug were noticed on it later in the year. This curious phenomenon
appears to me to be inexplicable and is well worth investigation, perhaps from
the chemical or physiological point of view.
The adult bug is small, somewhat rounded narrower anteriorly than
posteriorly. Elytra yellow with black reticulations, scutellum with a narrow
yellow transverse band anda pair of median black dots. Prothorax yellow
with a black line on either side. Head yellow : eyes black and anterior; the
antennee four-jointed, yellow, rising from under the eyes. Ventral surface
black ; openings of the stink glands black, eyelike. The proboscis sharp and
yellowish orange. The legs yellow. In the male the genital organs appear as
a pair of stylets enclosing a pointed rod, and in the female they assume the
form of a depression with a semi-circular ridge. Individuals in copulation pair
back to back as usual in most bugs.
The female bug lays a large number of whitish eges singly on the underside
of the leaf on either side of the veins. The eggs are oval in outline with a
slight flattening at one end and have the characteristic sculptured lid of a
Pentatomid egg. :
The nymphs emerge by pushing open the lid. ‘They station themselves
along the sides of the veins of the leaves for feeding. When just hatched they
are small pretty creatures covered with a delicate pubescence all over the body,
flattened in shape, and yellowish’ white in colour with one or two orange
patches in the abdomen. ‘The full-grown nymphs are dark brown and are also
flattened and covered by brownish hairs all over the body. After the final
moult the adult bugs emerge.
I am indebted to M.R.Ry. T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar for drawing my atten-
tion to the presence among the nymphs of the bugs, of the grubs and adults of
a certain Lady-bird beetle. I found that the beetle was Syuza melanaria and
that the grubs of this beetle were predaceous on the nymphs of the bug.
Lady-bird beetles are generally known to feed on Aphids, Scale insects,
Thrips; etc., but so far as is*known to the writer there is no record of a
Coccinellid preying upon a Pentatomid Bug.
The adult of this predator beetle is black and almost circular in outline.
Elytra, black. Prothorax, orange yellow and its lateral margins are produced
forwards so as to encircle the prominent black eyes. Head yellow, mandibles
orange, and the clubbed antennz orange yellow. Ventral surface orange
yellow, with the black edges of the elytra forming a ledge on either side. Legs
orange yellow. There is no external character by which the sexes can be
distinguished excepting the comparatively bigger size of the female.
The beetle lays eggs in groups of 10 to 15, placed on end on the underside of
leaves infested with Coptosoma ostensum. 'The eggs are cigar-shaped, yellow
and smooth—about 3 mm. in length and 1 mm. thick in the middle; they
turn orange the second day and on the third day hatch into tiny greyish black
erubs with a white line across the body posteriorly. They have a flattened body
slightly convex dorsally, tapering towards the hind end and covered all over by
short black hairs. They are about 23 mm. in length and have well-developed
greyish legs. The ventral side of the body is lighter in colour. As soon as
they hatch out they begin to run about and feed on the nymphs of the bug.
After two days they undergo their first moult; during this process they fix
Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Synia melanaria, Muls., Predator on Coptsoma ostensum, Dist.
(Hor explanation see reverse.)
eo
ra)
CONAM PWN
SYNIA MELANARIA, MULS.,
Predator on
COPTOSOMA OSTENSUM, DIST.
Explanation of the Plate.
Coptosoma ostensum, Dist.—Portion of Butea lea. show-
Synia melanaria, Muls.
Do.
Do.
Do:
Do.
ing eggs and nymphs.
Grown-up nymph (enlarged).
Egg (der 4:
Young nymph (Edo. .):
Grown-up nymph( do. ).
Adult beetle ( do. ).
Egg (er Clones)
Young grub € dow. 3:
Grown-up grub ( do._ ).
Pupa ( Sox %):
A group of Synia melanaria preying on a nymph of
Coptosoma ostensum.
(enlarged).
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 925
themselves to the surface of the leaves or any other support by the tail end and
undergo a moult, the skin splitting open longitudinally along the back. Soon
after a moult the legs appear brick-red and are held straight. The head
appears likewise to be brick-red. The grubs are 5 mm. long, the prothorax
pinkish with a median black patch, the rest of the thorax black with a white
longitudinal patch, the abdomen banded with white intersegmentally. The
grubs feed voraciously during this and the subsequent stages, burying their jaws
into the abdomen of the nymph from underneath, and when the grub finishes
feeding the skin of the prey is left intact, so that it looks as if the nymph had
been completely sucked dry. The grubs undergo three more moults. After
every moult they grow in size and the white markings on their body become
more and more pinkish until, when about to pupate, they are nearly 8-10 mm.
long and correspondingly stout and all the white markings are completely red.
About 9 days after hatching, the grubs attach themselves to the leaf or some
other support by their tail ends and transform themselves into pupze which are
more or less round and about 5 to 4 mm. in size. They are pinkish red in
colour. The head has two longitudinal black streaks and the thorax two pairs
of black dots along the median line and one on either side along the edges.
The abdomen has two longitudinal black median streaks and a cross line on
either side anteriorly extending up to the outer margins.
In 6 or 7 days after pupation the adults emerge; during this process the
pupz undergo a few convulsive movements whereby a break in the pupal
skin occurs in the middle just behind the thoracic region and the adults emerge
by pushing asunder the two halves of the pupal skin. The freshly transformed
adults look entirely red in colour but gradually the colour of the elytra begins
to darken and becomes completely black in the course of aday. The adult
beetles have not been found to feed on the bugs, but judging from the habits of
other predaceous Lady-bird beetles it is likely that they too may be predaceous.
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, T. V. SUBRAMANYVAM, B.A.,
COIMBATORE. Assistant in Entomology.
WANTED: INFORMATION ON INDIAN LEECHES
The undersigned is desirous of bringing together as complete information as
possible relating to the natural history of Indian leeches for use in a volume on
the Hirudinea for the ‘ Fauna of British India’ and appeals to naturalists,
medical men, sportsmen, stock-raisers and others for help.
Any data, whatever whether publisked or not, relating to any phase in the
lives or activities of either land or aquatic leeches, or any specimens of leeches
or their egg cases will be of value and any data published will be fully credited,
of course.
Among the subjects on which information is particularly desired are the
habitats, hosts or prey, breeding times and habits, length of life, enemies,
effects of bites on man or other animals, relation to transmission of disease,
economic importance, etc.
In connection with the /and leeches we are particularly ignorant of the
ecological relations of the several species, their manner of spending the dry
season, breeding, the sense through which they detect the presence of their
victims, the exact manner of using the sucker in locomotion, especially on
Metbacc, crc.
Exact information concerning the life-history of the cattle leech which enters
the nares of buffaloes, yaks, and other mammals is much wanted.
The undersigned will be pleased to correspond with any one able to furnish
any such information.
J. PERCY MOORE,
Zoological Laboratory,
University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, Penna,
PROCEEDINGS
Proceedings of the meeting held on July 22, 1925
A meeting of the members of the Bombay Natural History Society and their
friends took place on Wednesday, Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson presiding.
The following 56 new members were elected since the last meeting :—Major
Je-W.. (Gordon, Jodhpur; Mr; M:oS~ Tuegerse, Bo .52 Karwar ovis:
Campbell, Saklipur, Murshidabad ; Mr. J. D. Lewis; Bombay; Capt. A. J.
Hemmons, Bassein, Burma; Mr. A. J. Jones, Moulmein, Burma; Mr. F. V.
Evans, Europe; Mr. C. W. G. Morris, Attikan, Mysore; Mr. Albert Sherriff,
Europe: Mr. L.C. Oliver, Attikan, Mysore ; Mr. I. A. Ingram, Khanewal, Punjab;
Capt. A. W. Ibbotson, M.C., M.B.E., I.C.S., Ghazipur ; Mr. L. E. Saunders
Koraput, *Vizavapatam Dist. ; .Mr..C.B. Capito, O:B.E.; MLC... Bushire:
Mr. J. K. Swaine, Matang, F.M:S:; Mr. J.C. ‘Laidlay,, Hurope); Mrs Ac M-
Rogerson, Rangoon; Mr. E. O. Sampson, I.F.S., Satara; Mr. J. H. Lindsay,
L-C.S., Calcutta ; Mr. John’ HieBarmsley Cocanaday5.ioiy MajorhaG-inckie:
L:A.S.C., Quetta; , Mons. Jean: Delacour,hrance ; (Capt: Habla nh. eckson,
R.H.A., Meerut ; Capt. F. W. Hasweil, Bombay ; Madamoiselle F. M. d’Orle,
Udaipur; Capt. °F. O2 ‘Cave, Peshawariy Mr bi). “Atkinsony 2S san aseiar
L.. “Busma ; Mr.-A. Forrington, “Bombay -soMr Es. Martnoll oi BS. lout.
mein, Burma; Mr.-T. H.O. Collings, Delhi; Mr: .P- J: “Murphy, abengaly
Mr. S. W. Walton, Bombay; Capt. Wm. Bird, R.A.M.C., Simla Hills; Her
Highness Maharani Akhand Saubhagyavati Laxmi Bai Saheb, Puar, Dhar;
G. N. Richmond, Bhamo, Burma; Rao Gopal Sinha Rathor, Ajmer.
IMPROVEMENTS TO GALLERIES
Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, the Honorary Secretary, drew the attention of the
members present to the improvements that had been made in the galleries of
the Natural History Section, Prince of Wales’ Museum. A recent addition to
the mammai gallery is a beautifully mounted exainple of the Kashmir stag
presented by Col. Burton and set up in the Society’s laboratory. The Kashmir
stag makes perhaps one of the grandest trophies that is possible to obtain in
India and the specimen exhibited carries a very fine spread of horns. The
Curator has been doing his best to improve the lighting ahd ventilating
arrangements in the galleries. The exhibits suffered very greatly from cross
lighting and reflections, but by screening off the lower portions of the windows
and cutting off direct light a great improvement has been effected. A notable
addition to the Bird Gallery is a nesting group of night herons. Night herons
are quite common birds in Bombay, but they are not generally seen as they fly
after dark. During July and August they breed in colonies on large trees and
there are quite a number of such colonies in Bombay. The group in ithe
museum faithfully reproduces the nesting site of a pair of night herons. The
parent birds and young are shown while a young night heron in immature
plumage occupies the background. The group is one of a series which the
Curator hopes to prepare to illustrate the nesting habits of Indian Birds. ‘Those
present inspected a very fine Bison head which was mounted for one of the
menibers of the Society by Mr. McCann in the Society’s laboratory.
ANIMALS OF THE PAST
Mr. Prater the Curator, gave an interesting lantern lecture on ‘ Animals of
the Past ’ illustrated by a series of very fine slides. The lecturer after explaining
how fossils came to be formed, proceeded to trace the history of animal life
from the earliest known fossil forms to those of more recent origin. He
explained that the earliest known fossils were those of highly developed animals
and that practically all traces of the lower organisms which preceded them had
been lost. He explained how the earth and the seas were ruled by successive
races of creatures who held sway foracertain period and then perished and
became extinct. Thusin the sea the bony armoured fish gave place to the sharks
and these in turn gave way to the great Marine reptiles, These had their day of
PROCEEDINGS 927
~geveral thousand years and then perished. The lecturer illustrated the earliest
known type of fossil birds and showed that in their structure, particularly in the
earlier types-Birds show evident traces of their reptilian ancestry. He came
finally to the last group of animals—the mammals which culminated in man.
The lecturer referred to the various animals which were co-existent with man
in primitive times. Among these were the horse, the mammoth and the
reindeer. The mammoth he explained was probably the great great grandsire
of the modern Asiatic elephant and we could trace the ancestry of the elephant
back through a series, of stages to the earliest known form, the Meretherium,
a small pig like animal with a long, bony face end quite normal teeth.
A DIFFICULT QUESTION
The question as to why animals became extinct was avery difficult one to
answer. In some cases a species did not become extinct at all. It was merely
replaced by other species more adapted to survive in changing conditions. Then
there were creatures like the gigantic extinct reptiles, who were so highly
specialized that they were unable to respond to conditions of change however
slight and so they perished and yet again we have creatures like the great
marine reptiles who were quite as adapted to tkeir condition of life as our
whales are to-day and yet these died out. Why? Wedonot know. It was
formerly customary to ascribe the extinction of creatures to great catastrophies
such as earthquakes, volcano eruptions, etc., but it is conceded that these
must have been purely local in their effect. Man has, however, been a great
instrument in the extermination of many species. He destroys animals, takes
away their food and cuts down their forests and literally drives them out of
existence but at the same time we must remember that the gueatest changes
took place long before man even came into existence. ‘These are some of the
various explanations put forward, but it must be remembered that they «are
merely conjectures. As Dr. F. Lucas tells usin his ‘ Animals of the Past ’—
‘‘Man is an animal that wants to know the why and wherefore of every-
thing and he cannot rest content until he has formulated some theory to
explain the many problems before him and hence from his knowledge of
apparent fact he formulates a theory to explain the extinction of various
creatures which has been taking place ever since living beings came into
this world and were pitted against one another and against their surroundings
in that ceaseless struggle for existence which has waged since the dawn of
stlime *.
Printed by George Kenneth at the Diocesan Press, Madras, and published by
R.A. Spence for the Bombay Nattiral History Society, Bombay.
Ai
WARD TAXIDERMY FAMOUS FOR OVER 100 YEARS.
Revised Edition, Illustrated, Rs. 16.
LYDEKKER’S
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By J..C.sDOLLMAN.
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Price, Rs. 43-12.
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