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THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
INDEX AND TITLE PAGE
VOL. XXXVIII
a gp ELIE RE a 2
1 1 Rie jae a
Ft AR 183777 Uj;
J 1ga
ws , om
- 4 *
2 ~o” . t; + : “
NOS. 1&2
Price ante Rs. 2-4-0
MADRAS
PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
1936
INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER
‘The contents of these; two parts: should be anenee in -the
following order when they are being bound :—
Title page |
Contents of Nos. land 2 of V - XXXVII
List of Contributors ay a See oe
s
Listiof Plates 2: en
Index to Illustrations
Errata
Index to Species Pe ... To go at the end of
? two numbers.
THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
EDITED BY
P. M. D. SANDERSON, F.Z.S., S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S., M.L.C., J.P.
& C. MCCANN, F.L.S.
VOL. XXXVIII
Nos. | & 2
Containing 4 Coloured Plates, 36 Black and White Plates,
and 12 Text-figures.
Dates of Publication
Part I. (Pages 1 to 228) 15th August, 1935.
Il. ( ,, 229 to 414) .., Ist December, 1935.
99
LONDON AGENTS
DAVID NUTT, Esq., 212, Shaftesbury Avenue, London, W.C. 2.
PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS
1936
“CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVITI.
No. 1
THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN Empire. By E. C. Stuart
Bake CalsEs OO, ben BSZtS.45 F.lS4 )M.B.O.U., HF.AVO.Uz
Vol. V. Part XXII. (With a coloured plate of Temminck’s
~Stint Lrolia temminckii and the Dunlin Zrolia alpina
LUPUT A et ROP oh Gs Shee Peace ce Peng ata cage anes eben en eee
REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. By
the late Rev. E. Blatter, s.J., ph.p., F.L.S. Part XXVII.
A GAME SANCTUARY IN CRYLON. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton,
Indian Army (Retired). (Wzth one black and white plate).
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS.
(Ornithological Section). By H. Whistler, M.B.0.Uv., assist-
eG. bye Na Bh Minnear, M.B-O:U... Part Xlie.0 4 a ei scene
Tia Sew U REE Isy J... Canis, S.J... Gs ends ee teres
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN. By
Salim Ali, with notes by H. Whistler. Part II. (With
OU UO ONAL ECOG a went lets nots tote octsaceses Gale ae mrea dee nn ousted oats eos
SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. By the late Rev. E. Blatter,
Sha PieD.y Bees., and VW. o.iviillard, 7.z.s. —Part cy Li.
(With one coloured plate and two text-figures)..criccccccveeee.
A LisT.OF THE BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES. By E.
A. D’ Abreu, F.z.S.. se eR oe Ae
THE FLOWERING OF SSK ee in 1934. By M. E.
Robinson: (W214 CLG Ht PIGLES) <corcca veg teen den cch hee ote vgtinss
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (7AICHOPTERA). By Martin E.
Mosely, F.B.E.S. Part II. (Wath thirteen plates).........
A DESCRIPTION OF THE NotropontTID MotH Dudusa nobilis,
Walker, and its early stages. By T. R. Bell, L.F-.s.
CD ALG WESTON SELLER Ree Ole PEPE gO ae Tene eee eee
RHINOCEROS SHOOTING IN BuRrMA. By W.S.’Thom. (With
one plate) . : ES
AN ACCOUNT OF THE OCCURRENCE OF ere ae Wie
MASK, AND Laccifer lacca, KERR, ON GRAPE FRUIT IN
RAxcHI District, CHota NAGPUR, WITH A NOTE ON
THE CHALCIDOID PARASITES OF Aspidiolus orientalis,
Newst. By M.P. Glover, B.sc. (With a plate)..
‘NOTES ON THE SYSTEMATIC PosiTION OF! Sansevieria GROWING
IN INDIA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO Sansevierta
lauveni71, WIEDEMAN. By K. Biswas.... ....
PAGE
61
a3
v5
ila by)
123
134
r3/
I5%
154
iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI
SoME Birps OF CHITTAGONG. By Major R. S. P. Bates,
M.B.O.U.. = ss eee
THE Nope AND POreoNous Caneeen OF Tear “Ee
J; PCaiuis.:Saig sR 0:S.c.5 oon. oneal eee Ten eee
REVIEWS :—
TI. PoPpULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDsS............
Il. TIGER AND MENSCH.. hse
III. Zur KENNTNIS NORCeRAG Ee eone Wace
IV. Lac anp INDIAN Lac RESEARCH Suing oe:
V. THE Fauna oF BritisH InpiA (Reptiles and
Amphibians) ts..2- ago ac ase ort cee ee eee
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
I. -A note on the Discovery of Prpzstrellus mordax
Peters, the Grizzled Bat in Ceylon. By W. A.
A. Phillips... P Rr rt He ae een
II. Tigers in the Sige nes Be T. V. Dent; 1.3.
Ill. Tiger killing solitary Bull Bison Bee Zaurus).
By R. C. Morris, F.L.S., F.R.G.S..
IV. Tigers burying their Kill. By T. R. ence
V. How Tigers kill their Prey. By T. R. Livesey.
VI. Note on the Record Indian Lion. By P. R.
Cadell.. diene Gata cheacictee eee
VII. Anti-rabic ieatiieats hee an Siac Fisae See P;
R. Cadell.. a pay
VIII. Abnormal Dena Goawthes ina Tate eee R. L.
Soni, M.B., B.S.. ae Sabie saan areas
IX. Birth of an bicphant Calé (Biephas maximus).
By. A: C.. - Tutem-Nolthenmius... 3320-245 a0occon
X. Growth and Shedding of Antlers of Sambur and
Swamp Deer in Assam. By Viscount Ed. de
Poncins..
XI. Some little- owen Bites, of SNotibera” eae
By:.J. 1K. Stantlords eG /S5 gasses ase Saiecaeemee cyst
XII. Mating Habits of Mynahs and Crows. By K. I.
Var SHES, Ms Aaataaee sca atiasnen sen ie ee ee
XIII. Nidification of the Shan States Bar-wing (Actzno-
dura vansayt ramsayt hee (With a
plate)... 2:
ALY, Morne ten a Sie Blacwheaden| Babies (elon:
cichla a. atriceps Oates). By F..N. Betts.......
PAGB
158
163
171
171
174
175
175
Laz
178
179
179
180
181
181
181
183
185
185
186
187
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVIII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXII.
XXXII.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVIII
On the Occurrence of the Tibetan Siskin (SAzzus
thibetanus) in Northern Burma. By J. K.
Stanford, C.S.3 0044 ve
Vultures feeding at night. eee R. C. Starnes es
Peregrine and Spur-winged Plover. By T. R.
Livesey... sf ee Oe
Distribution ec Te vinelene THeabee. “Upon
epops orientalis Stuart Baker). By W. H.
Matthews.. a
The Lesser mieican (Sp phcoides ee Miller)
in the Konkan. By S. H. Prater.................
Some Notes on Woodcock (Scolopax r. rusticola
Linn.) in Burma. By J. K. Stanford, 1.c.s.....
Albino Fan-tail Snipe (Capella g. gallinago Linn.)
By*r. C.aMls Dini, eRe cna icine aes
A Second Record of the Occurrence of the Long-
tailed Duck ee eee” in India. By
R. E. Parsons.. ;
The Occurrence of ae Gore: Cie oca mar eae
Linn.) in the Bhavnagar State. By K. S.
Dharmasvkumarsiniajl. 4. i000 cc hen tact ee ee
The Bronze-capped Teal (Luzetta falcata Georgi)
in the Samastipur District, Bengal. By C. I.
Patt.
Occurence “of a haubied Soya ee ere
angustirostris Ménétriés) near Poona. By
PeeG- Pickio we teCole ware. eo ludeowikbe se cota
The Sheldrake (Zadorna tadorna Linn) and the
Comb Duck. (Sarkidiornis melanotus aes.
in Sind. By.C. B. Rubie, Lt.-Col.. :
Arrival Dates of Migrant Birds in Gobo. ee F.
N. Betts.. :
An addition he the Dene of rice oe Bone ane
Salsette (Coronella brachyura). By H. Aili......
A Further List of Snakes from Ahmednagar,
By K. G. Gharpurey, Lt.-Col., I.M.s..
Mating of the Hamadryad or King Cobnal (Naia
bungarus Schleg.). By W. J. L. Smith. .....
Occurrence of Dzipsadomorphus multimaculata
Schleg.) in Assam. By S. H. Prater, c.M.z.s.
The Common Chameeleon (Chameleon zeylanicus,
Laurenti) mGujarat. sBy and barry... ss.
13
195
195
126
196
197
197
198
200
201
201
vi CONTENTS. OF VOLOME XXXVIIIL
XXXIII. Rate of Growth of the Mugger (Crocodilus palus-
iyis uesson).) By. AAD Abremirezsese ee
XXXIV. -Butterflies of Lahore.” By D wk eine ee
XXXV. Mimicry: Being Notes on certain Indian Butter-
flies. By D.G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. he
XXXVI. A Preliminary List of the Pyralide of Caleutta:
By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. ee 5
XXXVII.. A Note on (Alymnias ieee 272: Tie zs
Drury). By D. G.Sévastopulo,(E.R-E-s.:
XXXVIII. Wax-production in Mealy Bugs: Mis Pde:
By VG; Deshpande; istes, se hepe ae eae
XXXIX. An Annotated List of Indo-Ceylonese Termites.
By V. Margabandhu... n
XL. A Note on the Dist anen Ovpsien aa
Parental Care of Scutigerella ungutculata Han-
sen var. zzdica Gravely. By S. Jones...........
XLI. Observations on the Oviposition and Development
of a species of Polyxenus. By 8S. Jones.. ..
XLII. . Precocious. Germination... By N:cK.Tiwary...:..2..
XLIII. . Root Formation from Leaf-cuttings. By N. K.
Tiwary... sek
Proecedince of Hie. Atal Mesias
No.
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. ae the late Rev. B. Blatter,
S.J., Ph D.;: Fil.S.; sand WW. - Milllard? 16.7.9 haists oe:
(With two Monee plates, one black and white plate ae
VUO LOXTTLOUU GS. wera thine tas eee : ed uoocoe
THE VERNAY Seance Se OF THE peers GHATS
(Ornithological Section). By H. Whistler, m.3.o.v.,
assisted by JN. B.. Kinnear; plo... Patt XTi
PARLY DAVS IN -MEALAYA. By Hoe bureess: <a. peo
SOME BUTTERELIES oF NEPAL. By Major W. G: FH: @cucn
2nd. Kk. E,.O“Gurkhae Rifles: ae
CocKoo-LorE,. By Lieut. Col: R, W. SHOR a IA. eae ane
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN. By
Salim Ali. With Notes by H. Whistler. Part III. (Wzth
twa.plates)... noise o stole ahs WS easels pales ae eee
FEEDING OF ee IN Cnn 3, Dros. Ge Tscher-
bakoff. (from the Haffkine Institute, Bombay)...
THR BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI DISTRICT. ‘By J. Ae
Vatess isc seety cal, eae eee
com eee reese ep cee res eeesroe
204
206
208
Bac Oe
211
213
216
219
229
yall
330
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVIII Vii
PAGE
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS oF INDIA. By
JE. (Cais; ’S.3.,°F.L:.S.. bhai Siete anes FOL
EARTH-EKATING AND SALT- CeIn IN aes one Jo. Candis:
S.J.5,F.L:8. and 5.K. Chhapgar, ese... (Sf. Xavier's College,
TSOMUDLY) ee Pre Se sit, CAREC ARNE se Gaited RMT alan en sees SOZ
REVIEWS :—
ie rine BER DS-OR Nippon. Volsle “Bart Si22.1...26.0~ 378
II. Tar NATURAL HIstTorRY OF CENTRAL ASIA. Vol. X.
‘The Reptiles of China’. ee ee et eta EOS
Ill. AuFSTILLEN PFADEN. Gnome ecien ae aca < OO)
IV. A FLOWER BOOK FOR THE Becmaiee Mle Pe ct eee OOO,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
Iz he Lion in Baluchistan.= By IR. I. Pocock, F.R:S.. 331
II. A Pair of Indian Lions presented to the British
Museum. by H. H. The Nawab of Junagadh. By
R. I. Pocock, F.R.S.. Phe fate MA ORD APRA SUBS Yo
IiI. A Short-tailed iccee one The Maharaja of
SSL Es MUI Aes aa Peres sysccn feats ute ccarsselcemeeee wane Coen tae ene 384
IV. A Case of Tiger Eating Salt-Lick Earth. By R.C.
VEGTTRIS Hc ven keeles Botte, Myer, Reid te Sarit ead tee akin 385
V. Tiger Feeding on a Live Cow. By R.C. Morris.. 386
VI. Distribution of the Hunting Leopard (Acinonyx
jubatus Erxl.) in South India. By R.C. Morris... 386
VII. ‘A Fight between a Cat and a Viper. By T. V.
SUbrahmaiyams..... OF eet Dae a Sa A eas es is ae 387
VIII. Bandicoots attacking a Cobra. By 5. C. Culler 388
IX. Behaviour of the Wild Dog Cuon dukhunensts
SUKCS i me yy ele mR Lot OSC Vea Maratea sisels Sais seavarertitle 388
xX. Ratels and: Corpses; by... C.- Clifford Eurst.-. 3 390
XI. Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus Shaw) Attacking a
Dive bait. By Dhe Maharaja, of SuroUja......2 Sill
XII. Age of Puberty in the Indian Elephant (4lephas
7 LUPIN AY en Er NOOUe. rence 392
XIII. Social Behaviour of Bison (Biba Zaurus EL Sits)
Byeien Ce Motidsn aaa 393
XIV. The White Bison ee gaurus a: ion) a Shen
Coimbatore: Bye. GeMorisi. 850s. na ete Bao
XV. Length of Horns in Tsine (Bib0s bantéeng birmani-
CUS LY Oty pen en WE ASU Csr te cc acke 12 Pomc tees 394
XVI. Habits of the Hog-Deer (Hyelaphus porcinus
Zimm.) By J. B. INOW MUTCOs Leb Sues os presse naeaeass 396
vill
XVII.
XVIII.
XX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XT:
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVIT.
XXVIII.
X XIX.
KXX,
XXX.
XXXII.
XXXII.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVITI
Distribution of Chital (Axzs axts Erxl.) in Assam.
By ReN. De\1.8.s:: Mas
The Status of the Brown Shee We Be oe
tus Linn.) in the S. Shan States, Burma. By
T. R. Livesey...
Habits ofthe Bares Stotie- Chat (Suaicala. papeale
ipa InaeD Stuart Baker). By T. R. Livesey...
Cuckoos in the 8. Shan States. By T.R. i acsers
Speed of the Golden Oriole (Orzolus 0. kundoo
Sykes.) By H..N. Acharya;F-2.S.;. HoOR.Gs. 4.2
On the Occurrence of the Ibis Bill (/6¢lorhyncha
strutherstt Sige in. Upper aburma.: By: Jack.
Stantond, vi.c2S.: sae te
Occurrence of the npidenes (Phochitobteris Fibee
antiguorum) in North Gujarat. By H. N.
Acharya, F.Z.S., F.R.G.S.. es A smatepiatte stalk
Some Rare Birds in Notthern: Basis =By Jo Ke
Stanford, I.¢.s..
Notes on some Birds Baeceead: eetaeen: Nataae
and Gyantse, Tibet. By Capt. R. K. M. Battye...
A large Mugger (Crocodilus palustris Lesson) from
Bikaner—a Correction. By The Secretary to
the Heir-Apparent of Bikaner.. ee
The Mugger (Crocodilus palustris Teegean) fecaineee on
large Water Beetles (Cydzster sp.) By C. McCann.
Male Rat-Snakes (Zaments mucosus por
fighting. By C. McCann..
Precocity in Young Bull- Frogs Rane. Meepee
Daud.) By C. McCann.....
Ants attacking Rubber Goode
pion-Jones... Ngee a
Occurrence of he Beatle Sere: Hees in
Waziristan. By Capt. D. G. Lowndes.. a
Patental care in Scorpions. By E. Ernest Gace
Abnormal Flowers of the Radish (Aaphanus satt-
dus Iginn.); by Aga Mohammadss ss... 442
PLOCEEGING Sy. eas seca oe eee emetic eee ee a One arene
Be R. N. Chae
SUPPLEMENT :—The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire and
the Problem of their Preservation, Part IV......,
PAGE
396
397
398
401
403
403
404
404
406
408
409
409
409
410
411
411
412
414
ALPHABEEIGAL LIST OF CONLTRIBOTORS
VOLUME XXXVIII
Nos. 1 and 2
ABDULALI, HumMAyuNn; An
addition to the List of Snakes
of Bombay and _ Salsette
(Coronella brachyura)
ACHARYA, ~-Hi ON.,” “FsZ.S.,
F.R.G.S. ; Speed of the Golden
Oriole (Oriolus 0. kundoo) ...
Occurrence “of the
Flamingo (/Phoenicopterus
ruber antiquorum) in North-
ern Gujarat
Aut, SALIM ; The Onitnolses
of Travancore and Cochin,
with note by Hugh Whistler,
Part Il. (With two plates) ...
—;Part HI. (With
three plates) :
; The Preserva-
tion of Wild Life in India
No. 8, Hyderabad State.
Supplement.
BAKER, E. C. STUART, 'C.I.E.,
O.B.E.,F.Z.S., F.L.S.,M.B.O.U.,
H.F.A.O.U.; The Game Birds
of the Indian Empire, Vol. V,
Part XXII. (With one plate
coloured) ee oa
BARRY, AGNES T.; The Com-
mon Chamaeleon (Chamae-
leon zeylanicus) in Gujarat...
BATES, Major. R.S.P.; Some
Birds of Chittagong a
BATTYE, Cart. R.K.M. Sores
on some birds ébtenred
between Yatung and Gyantse,
Tibet a tbe
BELE, UC. R.,.1-F:S. (Retired) ;
A Description of the Noto-
dontid Moth (Dudusa nobilis)
and its early stages. (With
two plates) :
Betts, F. N.; eaNvaidcation of
the Black- Headed Babbler
(Lehopocichla a. atriceps)
; Arrival Dates
of migrant Birds in Coorg ...
—$_—_—$——=
PaGE
403
404
231
158
406
134
189
197
BIKANER, The Secretary to the
Heir-Apparent of; A large
Mugeger (Crocodilus palustris)
from Bikaner—A
tion : a -
Biswas, Katrpapa; Notes on
tho Systematic position of
Sansevieria growing iu Indit
with special reference to
S. laurentii :
BLATTER, The late Rev. E.,
C.J. baeD 4 PileSea Revision
of the Fauna of the Bombay
Presidency. Part XXVII
and MILLARD,
W.S., F.Z.S.; Som: Beauti-
ful Indian Trees. Part XVIII.
(With one coloured plate and
two text-f1 sure)
> art, SLX; ( With
two Paired plates, one black
and white plate and two text-
figures)
BurGEss, H. E.;
in Malaya
Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W.,
A Game Sanctuary ia oe
(With one plate)
CoOrrec-
——__—_—_——
ae ly Days
d
Cuckoo-Lore
CADELL, P. R.; Note on tiie
Record Indian Tiong (Panthera
leo persica) a ae
; Anti-Rabic
Treatment of an Indian Lion
(Panthera leo persica)
CAIUS, J. F.5 Sidi BiLl-S:
Papaw Tree
; The
; The
Poisonous
oe een ee
Medicinal and
Sedges of India
-—— ; The
Medicinal and Poisouous
Ferns of India oe
and
Sc. ;
CHHAPGAR, S. K., B.
PAGE
408
154
93
229
241
181
181
41
163
341
LIST,OF, CONTRI BOTORS
Earth-Eating and Salt-Lick-
ing in India ¢
CHAMPION-JONES, R.N. ate
attacking Rubber Good
PPABREU, Hy. Aw Baz. Soe
List of the Birds of the
Central Provinces ... ‘ae
—-; Rate
of Growth of the Mugger
(Crocodilus palustris)
Ds, R.-N., 1-8S: 5 Distribation
of ‘Chital) (Aa7s 202725). 10
Assam
DENT, I: VV. Risers in ve
Sunderbans
Dr Lasrio; Di A. Siganeer of
Horns in Tsine eee. ban-
teng birmanicus ( photo) |
Dr PONCINS, VISCOUNT ED. ;
Growth and Shedding of
Antlers of Sambur and
Swamp Deer in Burma
DESHPANDE, V. G., M.Ag.,
ph.p.; Wax-production in
Mealy Bugs: Aleurodide
Dumas, ADMIRAL PHILIP;
The Lion in Baluchistan
DUNN, -H. C.-M., ET.; R.A.
Albino Fan-Tail Snipe
(Capella g. gallinago)
EpiTors; Birth of Elephant
Calves ee oe
; Mating habits of
Arabs and Crows
; On some Snakes of
Bones and Salsette
—-——; On record size of
——
Hamadryad ast a
——-; Butterflies of
Lahore. Fh a
-——-; The Lion in Balu-
chistan ace Son
—-_——; Fight between - Cat
and bea mes
| Hermaphroditism in
bomen
- —; Distribution of the
ae Deer
; Colour-phases of the
Brown Shrike (Lantus c.
cristatus) weet e -
PaGe
362
410
95
202
396
178
394
185
206
381
193
184
186
198
201
203
382
387
390
397
397
FIELD, THE EDITORS oF THE;
The Lion in Baluchistan ...
Foot, A. E.; Age of Puberty
in the Indian Elephant
(Elephas maximus) a
GHARPUREY, K. G., Lt. ‘core
A ESS ueeetat! 24 eer List of
Snakes from Ahmednagar ...
GLOVER, P.M 5:se; -) An
account of the occurrence of
Chrysomphalus aurantii and
Laccifer lacca on Grape Fruit
in Ranchi District, Chota
Nagpur, with a note on the
Chalcidoid Parasites of
Aspidiotus orientalis. ee
one plate) :
GouGH, Mayor WwW. G. H.
Some Butterflies of Nepal
GREEN, It. ERNEST; Parental
Care in Scorpions (photo)
Hickig, F.C., Lt.-Col.; Occur-
rence of the Marbled Duck
(Marmaronetta angustiros-
tris) near Poona a
Hurst, ‘b:: 1. -CLIFFORD::
Ratels and Corpses
JONES, S:, B.A.3 A Note on fe
Distribution, Ouinesion and
Parental care of Scutigerella
unguiculata var. indica.
(With two text-figures)
——_———- —-——- ; Observations
on the Oviposition and Deve-
lopmental stages of a species
of Polyxenus. (With two
plates)
KINNEAR, N.B. ; See ‘Whistler,
Hugh
KUMARSINHJI, K.S. Dae
The Occurrence of the Scaup
(Nyroca m. marila) in the
Bhavnagar State
LIivESEY, T. R.; Tigers Bone
ing their kill
-; How Tigers
kill their prey ; ae
; Nidification of
the Shan States Bar-wing
(Actinodura vramsayt ram-
sayt). (With a plate) ae
PaGE
381
392
198
196
390
209
“abl
195
179
180
187
LIST. OF CONTRIBUTORS
LIVESEY, T. R.; Peregrine and
spur-winged Plover
-—_———_——--——-; Behaviour of
the Wild Dog (Cuon dukhu-
NeNS1S) se aoe
; The Status of
‘: the Brown Shrike (Lanius c.
cristatus) in the: S. Shan
States, Burma
——-—— ; Habits of a
' Burmese one: Chat (Saaz-
cola caprata burmanica)
;Cuckoos in the
S. Shan States are
LOWNDEs, Capt. | OP cael Cae
Occurrence of the Beetle
(Sternocera chrysis) in Wazi-
ristan
McCann, C.; The aero
( Crocodilus ees feeding
on large Water-Beetles (Cy-
OUSIEF SD.) <5
; Male Rat- rake (Za-
ments mucosus) fighting
-~——; Precocity in young Bull-
Frogs (Rana tigrina) ;
MARGABANDHU, V., An Ainiio®
tated List of Indo-Ceylonese
Termites...
MatTTHEWwS, WW. H.; Dis-
tribution of the Indian
Hoopoe (Upupa epops orien
talis) Te
MILLARD, W. S., F.Z.S.3; See
BUALTER, EH. ons
MOHAMMAD, AGHA ; Abnormal
Flowers of the Radish (Ra-
phanus sativus)
MORRIS oR ©). F.Z-Ss, FeR.G.S;,
Tiger Killing Solitary Bull
Bison (260s gauris) ;
——_——; Vultures feed-
ing at night oe
—; Comments on
Mr. Richmond’s note on the
Preservation of Wild Life in
India. Supplement
Eating Salt-Lick earth
——; Tiger Feeding on a
Live Cow,
; A Case of Tiger
PaGeE
190
388
397
411
409
409
409
208
TSN
385 |
386
Morris; Distribution of the
Hunting Leopard (Acinonyx
jubatus) in S. India
— ; Social Behaviour of
Bison (Bibos gautus) :
; The White Bison (&z60s
gaurus) of South Coimbatore
(photo) as -
Mosety, MARTIN E., F.B.E.S.
ihe: trdian Gaadic: fics
(Zrichoptera) . Part, elle
(With thirteen plates)
PARR, C.I., The Bronze-cap-
ped Teal (Zunetta falcata) in
the Samastipur District, Ben-
gal - a ss Ma
PARSONS, R. E.; A scecond Re-
cord of the Occurrence of the
Long-tailed Duck (Clangula
hyemalis) in India. (With a
photo) an Pe
PETIT, S. C.; Bandicoots At-
tacking a Ghee
PHILLIPS, W. A. A. iNote: on
the Discovery of Bonirelas
mordax The Grizzled Bat
in Ceylon
PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, Major E. G.
The Preservation of Wild Life
in India No. 9, Mysore
Pocock, R I., F.R.s. The Lion
in Baldehietan
; A pair of
Indian Lions Presented to
The British Musuem by H. H.
The Nawab of Junagadh
PRATER so.0 LCM. 7a5. hhe
Lesser Florican ( Sypheotides
inidca) inthe Konkan
; Occurrence
of Dipsadomorphus multima-
culata in Assam
Proceedings of the Annual Mest:
ting of the Bombay Natural
History ge : me
PURT a Da KS ens of
Lahore |
REVIEWS ;—
Popular Handbook of Indian
Birds, Second Edition
Tiger und Mensch ...
xi
PaGE
386
393
393
123
195
193
388
177
(S.) 241
381
382
191
yl
ry
xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PaGE
Zur Kenntnis Nordorstasia -
tischer Vogel 174
Lac and Indian Lac Recearon
Institute 175
The Fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and
Burma. Reptilia and
Amphibia, Vol. ii Pecos Wis)
The Birds of Nippon 378
The Natural History’ of
Central Asia Vol. x ‘ The
Reptiles of China’ 378
Auf Stillen Pfaden (Guja) 379
A Flower’ Book for the
Pocket : 380
RICHMOND, R. D.; The Pieces:
vation of Wild Life in India
No.7, The Madras Presidency
Provisions for the Protection
of Wild Life (S) 229
RoBinson, M. E.; The Flower-
ing of Strobilanthes in 1934.
(With eight plates) 117
ROWNTREE, J. B., I.F.S.; Habits
of the Hog Deer (eifelap lies
porcinus) ae wee 4390
Rusieg, C. B. Lt.-Col. The
Sheldrake ( Tadorna tadorna)
and the Comb Duck
(Sarkidiornis melanotus) in
Sind : i254 “SO
SEVASTOFULO, D. ce F.R.E.S.
Mimicry: Being ioe on
certain Indian Butterflies 203
—; A Prelimi-
nary List of the Pyvalid@ of
Caicutta ne vas 204
— -——— A note on
Elymnias hypermnestra undu-
laris ae ap a 206
SmItH, W. J. L.; Mating of the
Hamadryad or King Cobra
(Naia bungarus) swe. 200
Soni, R. L,, M.B.,B.S.; Abnor-
mal Dental growth in a Rat.
With a photo) e 181
STANFORD, J. K. ; Some Little-
known Birds bE Northern
Burma aan a en elSO
STANFORD ; On the occurrence
of the Tibetan Siskin (Spiznus
thibetanus )
Burma,
; Some Notes on
the Woodcock (Scolopax r..-
rusticola) in Burma -
_ ; On the occur-
rence of the [bis-bili (/ézdor -
hyncha struthersi) in Upper
Burma
>Some Rare Birds
in Northern Burma ae
SUBRAMANYAM, T. V.; A Fight
between a Cat and a Viper ...
SuRGUJA, Maharaja of; A Short-
tailed Tiger (fho/o) zn
; Sloth Bear (J7el-
ursus Ursinus)attacking aLive
Bait
TuHoM, W.S.; URTINDCEECE ane
ing in HGreen (With one
plate) a3
Tiwary, N.K. Brecncious ger-
mination
; Root Maoenarion
from Leaf Gane
TSCHERBAKOFYF, Dr. S.G.; Mecd:
ing of Cobras in Captivity
TUTEIN- NOLTHENIUS, A. C.;
Birth of an Elephant Calf
(Elephas maximus) ae
VARGHESE, K.I., M.A. ; Mating
habits of Mynahs and Crows
WHISTLER, Hugh, M.B.O.U. and
KINNEAR, N. B., M.B.O.U.;
The Vernay Scientific Survey
of the Eastern Ghats (Ornz-
thological Section). Part XI...
— ;Part XII. ..
Hugh ; see (ALT)
WHISTIER,
Salim
WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN
EMPIRE; and tke Problem
of their Presei vation. Part lV.
Plate 16 (coloured) and Plates
in Northern.
PaGk
18
192
403
404
387
384
391
137
213
216
321
183
186
232
Jiii—]xvii (uncoloured) (S.) 189-219
Yates, J. A; The Butterflies of
the Nilgiri District oe
330
ISL OF PLATAS
VOLUME XXXVIII
Nos. 1 and 2
The Game Birds of the Indian Empire—
Plate
Temminck’s Stint (4rolia temminckt), The Dunlin
(Erolia alpina alpina)
Ceylon, a Game Sanctuary in—
(A) Crossing the Menik Ganga
(B) Spotted Deer (427s avis) at margin of forest...
The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin—
Plate
I.
Il.
(A) House Crows (Corvus splendens) bathing
(B) Jungle Crows (C. macrorhynchus) at a back-
water fish-yard .. bee
(A) Red- nbictered Bulbul (Oracon ea: emeria) on
nest in Cycad palm
(B) Nest of White-browed Bulbul (Pycnonotus
luteolus) with chicks 9 days old
Some Beautiful Indian Trees—
26. Roxburgh’s Kydia ( Kydia calycina)
Strobilanthes kunthianus in flower on a fillside a in
the Pulneys, 1934
Strobilanthes kunthianus Be
Strobilanthes foliosus and S. zenkerianus
Strobilanthes consanguineus ...
Strobilanthes lawsoni
Strobilanthes wightianus
Strobilanthes perrottetianus ...
Strobilanthes urceolaris
1. Eubasilissa mclachlanit, 2. EF. regina, 3. E. tibe-
tana .. cee
Eubastlissa eon cenieelia) fig. 4 dorsal fig. 5
lateral, fig. 6 ventral : Aa
Eubasilissa mclachlani (genitalia) fee 7 dorsal,
fig. 8 lateral, fig. 9 ventral, fig. 10 penis and
inferior appeadages obliquely from beneath
Fubasilissa mclachlani, fig, 11 aa 3d, fig. 12 apex
of posterior wing Q oer oe
Eubastlissa tibetana, fig. 13 y wings? ...
Oobterygia brunnea J fig. 14 wings, fig. 15 penitia
lateral, fig. 16 ventral, fig. 17 dorsal .
Ocplerygia asiatica Z fig. 18 wings, fig. ‘Ig sesarae
lateral 2
Coplerygia minor ye fig. 20 mines Ae "21 eenialia
dorsal, fig. 22 lateral, fiy. 23 ventral, oblique,
slightly from behind
Plate
Plate 1;
Plate Il.
Plate III.
Plate IV.
Plate V.
Plate VI.
Plate VI.
Plate VIII.
Indian Caddis-Flies—
Plate I,
Plate II,
Plate III.
Plate IV.
Plate V.
Plate Vi.
Plate Vil
Piate Vill.
Plate IX,
Agrytnia picta var. tibetana & fig. 24 aritoes fig’. 25
genitalia, fig. 26 dorsal plate st
PAGE
19
62
88
93
117
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
123
126
127
127
127
128
129
129
129
xiv LIST OF PEATLES
PaGk
Plate X. Limnocentropus insolitus $ fiz. 27 genitalia lateral,
flg. 28 dorsal, fig. 29 ventral 130
Plate XI. Limnocentropus insolitus Q fig. 30 wings, fig. 31
genitialia dorsal : 131
Plate XII. Limnocentropus insolitus Aseiel EP ipaero 9
fig. 32 wings, fig. 33 genitalia dorsal . 132
Plate XI. Limnocentropus tletcheri & fig. 34 pene tera
fig. 35 dorsal, fig. 36 ventral, fig. 37 wings ote hy oes ko)
Plate I. ‘Yellow Peril’ moth (Dudusa nobilis) male and
female aa 134
Plate if. “* Yellow Peril” mothaa. nobiles) ara and ise 135
Rhinoceros Shooting in Burma—
Plate (A) Asiatic two-horned Rhinoceros &. sumat-
VensiS)
(B) The author’s best Asiatic two-horned Rhino-
ceros ae an eae say poke
Red Scale (Chrysomphalus aurantit)—
Plate Dorsal view of the pygidial margin and fringe we. 2 VEST
Ramsay’s Bar-wing (Aclinodura ramsayt)—
Plate (A) Bird in the nest
(B) Nest and eggs aes Ses Go LOZ
Diplopod (Polyxenus sp.)
Plate I. (1) Ordinary setae, (2) Defensive setae, (3) Pupa
front view as 212
- Plate II. (4) Moult of mate, (5) moult of female, (6) mass or
eggs with the setae all round dee ie Golo
Some Beautiful Indian Trees—
Plate 27. The Noble Amherstia (Amherstia nobilis) Ee es
Plate XXVIII. Amherstia nobilis, a flowering spray oP a a ce?49 (0)
Plate XXIX. The Noble Amherstia Tree Amherstia nobilis Ae |
Plate XXX. (A) Colville’s Glory (Calvillea racemosa) (Tree):
(B) Colville’s Glory (Colvillea racemosa) (Flowers). ° 231
Plate 28. Colville’s Glory (Colvillea racemosa) eee ol
The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin—
Plate I. (A) Shifting Camp across Periyar Lake, ca. 3,000 ft.
(B) Indian Robin (Saxicoloides f. fulicata) 2. ... 285
Plate 1b Shooting the Rapids—Periyar River below
Thattakad oe ce .. 288
The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire. Part IV—SupPLEMENT
Plate LIT. Skull of Large Civet (Viverra zibetha) ... (S.) 189
(A) Feet of (Viverra zibetha)
Bs LIV. | (B) Feet of Palm Civets (Paguma: Ee. j Oe
Plate LV. LargeIndian Civet (Viverra zibetha) ... (S.) 193
Plate LVI. Small Indian Civet (Viverricula indica). (S.) 195
Plate LVII. (A) Inferior view of the anal glandular area of
Large Civet (Vizverra zibetha) (Male)
(B) Inferior view of anal glandular area of The
Common Palm ‘Civet (Paradoxurus herma-
bhroditus) (Male) eae es ae (S.) 196
Flate LVIII.. Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus herma-
phroditus) tre ae (S:), 197
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Piate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
LIX.
x
LX.
LXIT:
LXII.
LXIV.
16.
EY.
LXVI.
LXVII.
LIST OF PLATES
Chinese Palm Civet (Paguma larvata) ...
Binturong or Bear Cat (Arctitis binturong).
Spotted Tiger Civet (Pr7onodon pardicolor).
White-eared Palm Civet (Arctogalidia leucotis) .
Common Mungoose ( Herpestes edwards).
Small Indian Mungoose (Herpestes auropunc-
tatus) ba ie; bes
(coloured) Stripe-necked Mungoose (Herpestes
vitticollts) ce se ie
Skull of Striped Hyaena (AHyaena hyaena).
(A) Left fore-foot of Large Civet (Viverra
21betha) ae eee
(B) Right hind foot of Common MHyaena
(Hyaena hyaena)
Striped Hyaena (4/3 aena hyaena)
XV
PAGE
(S.J 2109
(S.) 201
(5) 202
(S.) 204
(S.) 209
(Sor2ir
(S.) 214
(S.) 216
(S.) 217
(S.) 218
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
VOLUME XXXVIII
Nos. 1 and 2
PAGE PAGE
Actinodura ramsayi, Pl., fig. Pl., genitalia ra ae 2G
A. Bird in the nest 187 | Hubarilissa tibetana.
Fig. B. Nest and eggs ... 187 Pl, fig 3, 123
Agrypnia picta tibetana, Pl., Pl., wings 127
Wings and genitalia . 129 | Felis tigris.
Ambherstia nobilis, Pls. 229752305 ‘Close up’ of Tiger show-
231 ing the short tail - 385
Arctictis binturong, Pl. (S.) 201 | Herpestes aurotunctatus, P\.,
Arctogalidia leucotis, Pl. (S.) 204 (oe) ele
Axts axis s ar 19 | ——-—— edwards, Pl., (S.) 209
Bibos banteng hp nOniEAS: fiecs. 395 | ——--— vitticollis, P1., (S.) 214
—- gaurus. Hlyaena hyaena, P1., (S.) 216,
Herd of semi-domesticated pA te:
(photo) 394 | Kydiacalycina, Pl., ... ae 93
Buthus sp. Limnocentropus fletchert, P\.,
Female scorpion aceea S genitalia and wings... 133
her young, fig. 411 —- insolitus.
ae A Game Sanctuary in, Pl., genitalia 130
1, (A) Crossing the Meni Pl., wings ae : 131
el (B) Spotted Deer —_———_— —— — —— —- hima-
(Axis axis) 5 = 19 layanus, P!., wings and
Chrysomphalus auraniii, Pl. ... 151 genitalia 132
Clangula hyvemalts, fig. 194 | Oopterygia asiatica, Pie, es mines
Cobras in Captivity. and genitalia see 48)
Two types of cages, figs. 321 — brunnea, Pl., wings
Colvillea racemosa, Pl., Za and genitalia iets.
Corvus macrorhynchos at a back- —- minor, Pl., wings
water fish yard, Pl. I, figs. B. 62 and genitalia 129
——-— splendens, bathing, Pl.
aio eA. ne “oe on 62
Dudusa nobilis, Pl., Male and
Female... 124
——— Pl., Larva and pupa 139
Erolia alpina alpina, P1., fig. 2. 1
= 1CNMINGEL: Pile, NO. 1 ee 7
Eubasilissa mclachnani.
Pie figs sd. ae ao 928
Pl., genitalia 5 roe eee
Pl., wings 127
—- regina.
Pl. be. 2. 123
Oloconipsa emeria, on anest in
Cycad palm Pl (ag 88
Paguma ltarvata, Pls., figs.,
(S.) 191, 199
Paradoxurus hermaphroditus,
Pls., (S.) 196, 197
Polyxenus sp.
PlateI. Fig. 1. Ordinary
setae, fig. 2. Defensive
setae, fig. 3. Pupa, front
view se ae sien
Plate II. Fig. 4. Moult of
male, fig. 5. Moult of
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
female, fig.6. Egg mass
with the setae all round. 213
Prioncdon pardicolor, Pl., ($2) 202
Pycnonoltus luteolus, with chicks
9 days old Pl. Hf, (B) 88
Raphanus sativus, abnormal
flowers, fig’. 412
Rattus norwegicus, fig. 182
Rhinoceros sumatrensts, Pl. ley
Saxtcoloides f. fulicata, QV1.... 284
Scutigerella unguiculata var.
indica.
Fig. 1. Cluster of three eggs 210
Fig. 2. Egg-mass 211i
Strobilanthes consanguineus,
Jeg
Xvii
PAGE
Strodbilanthes foliosus, Pl., fig.
1. a oy ~. 120
- kunthianus, Pls.,
fee G E 117, 120
-——— -———- lawsoni, Pl. 120
oo - perrottetianus, Pl. 120
UP CEGIarIS, P\., ... 120
——_—.-———.- wighlianus, Pl.... 120
—_——_—_-——_-- zenkertarus, Pl.,
Os, 2: ne oe 120
Travancore and Cochin.
Shifting Camp, Plate (A)... 284
Shooting the Rapids, P!.... 288
Vizerra ztbetha, Pls.,
(S189) 491,
HOS, 196; 217
Viverricula indica, V\.,
(S.) 195
Page
3)
ERRATA
ii. line 2 from bottom for fuzlcata read falcata.
pula
whe}
102,
103;
106,
i ea
114,
102;
195,
196,
29
386,
387,
241,
738:
3 and 4 for Sarkidiornis mezlanotus read Tadorna
tadorna and vice versa.
21 for Leucocera read Leucocerca.
4 from bottom for Dendronothus, read Dendro-
nezthus.
,, ll for campertris read campestris.
2 from bottom for coramandus, read coromandus.
5 for Hypotaenida, read Hypotaenidza.
4 from bottom for Dep2tro, read Dupetor.
15 for Streptopclia, read Streptopoelia.
30 for fulcata, read falcata.
21 for Sarkidiornis melanotus, read Tadorna ta-
dorna and vice versa.
20 & 45 for Eumiyas, read Eumyaas.
12 from bottom “The Animal he ‘saw’ should
read ‘‘ The Animal he ‘shot’.
1 from top for the word ‘uzknow2’ read ‘ancommon.’
29
ay
93
7)
oe)
)
oe)
)
a
9
9)
ot)
Wild Animal Serial
line 19 from bottom for the word ‘herd’ read
‘head’.
VOL. XXXVII No. 3
Misc. Note No. XIV Title.
for Scolobax r. rusticola, read Capella nemort-
cola, Hodg.
INDEX OF
PAGE
Abisara echerius suffusa 334
-fylla 264
Acanthylis sylvatica 33
Accipiter nisus nisosimilis 108
Acinonyx jubatus 386
Acridotheres ginginianus 101
tritis tristis 101, 160, 186
{
Acrocephalus agricola agrico'a 99
- dumetorum <= oo
- stentoreus brunnescens oe)
Actiniopteris dichotoma 343
Actinodura ramsayi ramsayi ... 187
Adiantum aethiopicum 347
- -- capillus-veneris 346
—_———--- caudatum 345
—__——--- cuneatum 248
-—-———-- emarginatum 347
-- -- flabellulatum 348
-- lunvlatum 344
-~ -- pedatum 348
-- tenerum 346
——_——- -- venustum 345 |
A githina nigrolutea 96
— - tiphia humei ... 85, 96 |
——_——_— — - multicolor 82
—-tiphia ... 159
Aegypius monachus 107
Aeromachus pygmeus... 337
Aethiopsar fuscus fuscus 160
Aethopyga siparaja seheriae 103
Agrostemma SP. : 215
Agrotera basinotata is 205
Agrypnia picta var. tibetana ... ee loo
Alauda guigula guigula 103, 160
Alaudula raytal raytal 103
Alcedo atthis bengalensis 161
——~ taprobana 1€5
Alcippe poiocephala brucei 06
—_——- poiocephala 79
Alseonax latirostris 98, 298
—- muttui muttut 295), 300
—_——---- ruficauda 360
— —- ruficaudatus ee 98
Amandava amandava 101
SPECIES
PAaGk
Amaurornis akool akool 111
—_———+-- phoenicurus chinensis 111, 162
Amblypodia abseus indicus 339, 340
—_——_-——-- amantes amantes 335
= este saresue 265
——-— —~--- bazaloides 339, 340
——— ——_-- canaraica : 335
= -- centaurus pirama 339
—— -- eumolphus eumolphus... 265
Aimherstia nobilis on wes 209
Ammomanes phoeenicura phoenicura. 103
Ampittia dioscorides 337
Aralyta melanopalis 205
— sigulatis A 205
Anas poecilorhyncha Secon nenees 115
——- platyrhyncha platyrhyncha 115
Anastomus oscitans F i114
Ancylolomia chrysographeila ... 205
Androcryphia ae ee 26
Anhinga melanogaster ... 113; 162
Anser anser Er tS
—-—-~ indicus 115, 406
Anthropoides virgo OE
Anthus campestris griseus 103
- hodgsoni hodgsoni 1690
- leucophrys jerdoni 103
- richardi richardi 103
Sa —- thermophilus .. e105
- - rufulus 163, 160
= = fwialis retain Oe 102
Sen —- trivialis 103
Antigastra catalaunalis 205
Antigone antigone antigone ae
Apatura parisatis atacinus Sa0
Apharitis lilacinus o39
Apbytis chrysomphali ... 153
Aporia agathon ean 209
Appias albina darada. : 331
— -——— darada var. <eaudaya. 331
—_——-- indra shiva 331
———-- libythea libythea Sou
-__—-- lyncida latifaciata 331
-- paulina wardi ... Bo
Apus melba bakeri side aes 29
Aquila clanga
hastata
heliaca oe
nipalensis nipalensis
———— rapax vindhiana
-
Archernis tropicalis Rad TY aie
Arctictis binturong
Arctogalidia leucotis
—— macra
— millsi
-- trivirgata
Ardea cinerea rectirostris
———- goliath
imperialis
-——— purptrea manillensis
Ardeola grayii
Argya caudata caudata
malco]mi ...
subrufa
Argynnis hyperbius Avprds
——_——— _ -_ _ ——__ —
——--—__- childreni childreni ...
————-- hyperbius hyperbius
——-——.- lathonia issoea
Arnetta vindhiana
Artamus fuscus ...
Asarcornis scutulatus
Asio fammeus flammeus
Aspidiotus orientalis
Aspidium falcatum
—_— ——-- filix-mas
————-- polymorphum
——- wildeanum
Asplenium adiantum-nigrum ..,
ceterach
——— falcatum
——___——- furcatum
-—_—-—---—— ruta-muraria
—— trichomares
Astictopterus jama mercara
Astur badius dussumieri
-——- trivirgatus indicts
Atella alcippe mercea ...
phalanta ...
Athene blewitti ...
———-- brama brama
—_—_ —-__ -- indica
———- malabaricus
Athyrium filix-foemina...
ex plex sp:
Aulocera saraswati
———
albifrons ..
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
107
107
107
1¢7
107
205
S205
(S) 201
(S) 204
S) 204
S) 204
S) 204
14, 162
114
186
114
114, 162
74, 75, 95
793,95
oe 75
334, 339
263
- 204, 263
263
oa OO,
159, 314
ae ES
105, 232
151
348
355
349
3595
350
356
350
B51
350
ae 349
339, 340
108
108
we, ooo
263, 334
107
236
10751612257
238
Sot
215
261
PAG
Avena sativa ae a8 ae ee AS
Avicennia on oe ay Fis sri) Us
Axis axis an ae Bee 04296
Azanus jesous ... et ie ee OSG
= SaMTa. a, Ane 334, 339
- ubaldus ... aoe ae Re eRe!
Bacamia exclamationis ae 2055. 990.
Baoris agna des ee sass Vege OOS
——— bevani bevani. ... aM 265, 33%
—— canaraica be anh SOOO
—— conjuncta Sine nae 20S
a ——-- narooa aes Ane potes
——-- contigua ... BS sae eats,
—— eltola ae ae Pes cron 8 70
euttatus bada ... as 265, 338
——-- — eguttatus ee fe e200
——-— kumara kumara... ae Fem fos rs)
————— mathias mathias ar oo
ocela farri ee one as 33S
-——— philippinna belli a Pele wists)
—-——— sivensis sinensis ae sae 205
—_—— subochracea ... Petsuk oro
zellericinnara ... he Se LOG
Baracus hampsoni eas a Peaicemerey
--- vittatus subditus ae 3072339
3atrachostomus moniliger ... s&s 39
Relenois mesentina mesentina wi acon
Bibasis sena sena a ee eaoeemre role)
Bibos banteng birmanictus .., 140, 394
——-- gaurus ee ee 1:79, 393
Bindabara phocides moorei... rien GO
Blechnum orientale was ste can Ge aon
Bocchoris acamasalis ... a woe 205
Beotaurus stellaris stellaris ae oe alla
Botrychium lunaria ase aes ee SO
——-ternatum ... aS: ee MOOS
—-—-~——- virginianum ee BO 352
Botyodes asialis ... oss we on 20D
—- flavibasalis ... eer tae 40/5)
Brachvpodius cinereoventris ... a 159
Brachypternus benghalensis honenry
lensis ... 104, 160
—.-§ ——__—__ —_ —_ —- puncti-
collis... 104
Brachypteryx major albiventris seek eOe
Bradina admixtalis see Lae in 205
Brugiera ae A ES 215
Bubo bubo panenienee at 106, 234
—- coromandus oe .-. 106, 161, 235
—-—~ nipalensis meg eA OSES
Bubulcus ibis coronene. eh 114, 162
INDEX OF SFECTAS
PAGE
Buceros bicornis 26
— birostris 26
_——- coronatus 26
— griseus si 27
eee barbata ties 15
————— capillaris var. tela 15
-——_———. puberula oe ay
Bungarus caeruleus eee 119
Buhinus oedicnemus indizus ... 111
Bultastur teesa 107
Buteo ruiinus 108
Buthus sp. ie 411
Butorides striatus Javanicus 114
Byasa aristolochiae ee 203
“ aristolochiae 258
hector be 203
philoxenus anloeonus 259
——- polyeuctes 259
By blia ilithyia Rs sa 334
Cacomantis merulinus passerinus 105
———_—_—___--—-——-- querulus 275
——- passerinus.. 209, 279
Calandrella brachy Pacis agi huneasis. 103
Calliope calliope... oF
Callophis trimaculatus x Sj BES)
Capella gallinago gallinago ... 113, 162, 193
————— nemoricola ante 2's)
_ — stenura ate do. Loz
Caprimuleus asiaticus ... ee 106
-—____-—___— ———-—-- asiaticus 38
~~ ——— —- minor . 39
a indicus hazarae ... a 37
——— -- indicus ... 37, 106
ee -- jotaka ae 37
= macrourus albonotatus. 36, 106
—_—_— — -———- atripennis 30
mahrattensis 38
—_— monticolus : 106
——_ —— -——- burmanus ... 38
ey -——- monticolus. 38
Caprona ransonettii lanka B57,
——— - ransonnetti Bay,
or - taylorii Sov
Carex baccans 9,17
———~ breviculmis ak:
—— brunnea IL,
—-—— cernua 164
— condensata 7
—— cruciata Te lve
— filicina 8
-————- filicina var, meiogna 17
xxi
PAGE
Carex filicina var. minor liv
——-— flacca e
foliosa i517
glauca nee 9
— var. cuspidata ... ST
halleriana 10, 17
— Ande yaned: a7. sition 2. 17,
mercarensis 8
- muricata var. foliosa 8
nilagirica 7
nubigena (EO
royleana 10
-_-_——. setigera - 10
—_—-—_—- var. cchlapintweilne: 10, 17
——~— speciosa eee
——- wallichiana 7
Carica hermaphrod'ta 41
papaya . 4]
Carpodacus erythrinus ... 101
Casarca ferruginea 115, 486
Castalius caleta decidia 334
————-- ethion ethion 33
——-———-- rosimon rosimon 334
Catachrysops lithargyria .. 264
- - strabo ‘ 264, 335
Catapoecilma elegans an esOuUNe x ~—336
Catopsilia crocale 260, 331
—--——-- florella gnoma 260, 331
————-- pomona mH * 260
—_ ——-- var. catilta i BeOS
——-- pyranthe minna 260, 331
Celaenorrhinus ambareesa Shvi
-- leucocera leucocera ... 371
--- - pulomaya 265
-- ruficornis area... S37
Centropus sinensis intermedius 161
--—_—__ ——-- parroti 195
Cephalopyrus flammiceps 160
Ceratarcha ambrosa 205
Ceratopteris thalictroides 303
Cercomela fusca : SVE
Ceryle rudis Toucomenades 105
Ceterach officinarum 356
Cethosia biblis tisamena 263
— nietneri mahratta 234
Chaetornis striatus | 100
Chaetura giganteus indicus 32
Chaleocoeccyx maculatus 276
—- - xanthorhynchus earth
orhynchus 276
Chalcophaps indica 109
XxH
PAGE
Chamaeleon calcaratus 201
- zeylanicus laurenti sees LOL
Chaptia aenea malayensis 997-318
Charadrius dubius curonicus ... baa et
—— --—_——- jerdoni 112
Charana jalindra macarita 336
Charaxes fabius fabius 333
—- polyxena imna ieee 2050
Chaulelasmus streperus lols
Cheritra freja jaffra | 336
Chibia hottentotta o 319
-——-- Roteneots 99
Chilades laius laius 335
Chilanthes tenuifolia 353
Chilasa clytia 203
- clytia 330
—_—— _-——-- dissimillima 203
——- -— -—- dissimilis 203
- var, dissimilis 330
Chliaria othona ... ie rn Sore)
Chlidonias RECOR ATES indica 112
——-- leucoptera 112
Chloropsis aurifrons davidsoni .. 84, 96
Oe frontalis .., e4
ee - - insularis : 84
— jerdoni 260,06
——— —— malabaricus : 84
Choaspes benjamini benjamini Fe ecko)
Choriotes nigriceps shail
Chrysocolaptes festivus 104
Chrysommia sinensis sinensis ... 96
Chrysomphalus aurantii eee)
Chrysophlegma flavinucha Anvinena 160
Cibotium barometz 353
— - glaucum 353
Ciconia nigra ae 186
Cinnyris asiatica asiatica 103
--— zeylonicus 103
Circaetus gallicus ae iow 2108
Circus ceruginosus zeruginosus 108, 162
cyaneus 108, 161
Circus macrourus 108
melanoleucus 108
———— Py oarous Es 108
Cirrhochrista brizoalis ... 205
Cirrochroa thais thais : 334
Cisticola exilis erythrocephala 100
-——_—— juncidis cursitans 100
Citrus decumana 151
Clamator coromandus ... 278
—— —-- jacobinus we 269, 278
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Clamator jacobinus..pica 105
Clangula hyemalis UR
Cnaphalocrocis medinalis 205
Coladenia dan dan SNE
——-- indrani indra 337
Colias croceus edusina ... 260
—— — hyale hyale 260
—— nilagiriensis Solis ao
Colotis amata modesta 332
-————- aurora Bog
-—_——- danae danae 332
-—_-_—_- etrida etrida 332
- eucharis ... 332
- fausta fulvia 332
Collocalia brevirostris 406
= -- fuciphaga Be 406
———_~ ————- pfeyirostie 34
—— =dinicolor-... 34
—— ——- pellos ... 406
Coluber helena ... ate 199
Columba leuconota erntiara see 407
——.- livia intermedia’ 109, 162
——- rupestris turkestanica 407
Colvillea racemosa Zou
Comperiella bifasciata . 153
--___-+—_+-- indica 153
Copsychus saularis Splorerse 287
ae — saularis 97, 159
Ccracias benghalensis affinis ... 161
= —— - benghaiensis... 105
Coronella brachyura
Corvus corax laurencei 95
tibetanus... 407
-——-- coronoides intermedius 407
- levaillanti andamanensis 158
—_——- macrorhynchus culminatus. 61, 95
—-—-——- splendens protegatus ... aN 62
-—-—— -—.-—--———- splendens ... 95, 158
Coryilis vernalis vernalis eit
Coryptoplectron erythrorhynchum .
blewitti... 110
Coturnix coromandelica 110
——_——. coturnix coturnix 110
Courtoisia cyperoides 14
Crateropus striatus 74
Crinum sp. ; 215
Crocidolomina binotalis 205
Crocodilus palustris ...
-—-—— —— porosus ee aes
Crocopus phcenicopterus chlorogaster.
-—~—--—-- phoenicopterus 109
2197, 1985-200
.. 202, 408, 409
255, 408
109
INDEX OF SPEGIES
PAGE
Crocopus pheenicopterus viridifrons. 162
Croton sp. Bias 215
Crypsirhina cucullata 404
Cryptocoryne sp. A ZS
Cuculus canorus 160, 268, 270
— bakeri 272, 401
a telephonus ... 104, 272
——--- micropterts 209R 273
———— -- mic ontennc 104, 161
-- poliocephalus ... ; 269), 273
_-_—___ —_______——- poliocephalus 104
-- saturatus 2E2
Cucurbita sp. oui fs 214
Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis 98, 301
Cuon dukhunensis 388
Cupha erymanthis lotis 263
—____——_-- maja 334
Cupitha purreea purreea 338
Curetis acuta dentata Sa)
- thetis : 200; 300
Cursorius coramandelicns 122
Cyanops asiatica asiatica 160
Cyanosylvia suecica 97, 285
Cynthia erota saloma 334
Cyperus arenarius 13
-- aristatus 1]
—— -- articulatus pe 135165
———--- atkinsoni pon aie! WA
———-- bulbosus A 13
-—_——--- castaneus sti o o LY,
———.-- cephalotes AS ld
——-- -- compressus T3
~- conglomeratus “ne Ie
-- corymbosus aellvenes
-- difformis 13
-—— —- digitalis 8)
-- distans see 13
- effusus 13, 17, 18
— —-- cleusinoides ve 13
-- esculentus He eld,
-- exaltatus 3
-- flavidus ae 13
-- glaber : Spells tte:
-- haspan 330 ‘ 13
———— -- irla iss 13, 164
-———-- leucocephalus ... 13
-- longus 165
-——_———--- macer 13
———-- malaccensis as 1S
——-—-- meeboldii secloetL7
———-- niveus 13
XXlil
PAGE
Cyperus nutans “13
—- pilosus 13
——-- platyphyllus een 168
———--. platystylis pe dose dlZ
————— = procerus ne 13
———--- pulcherrimus ... pe eas 7)
—--—--- rotundus 41, 13, 168
——-— =- scariosus sa 06
-- stoloniferus Pw oi
—_—~-- teyetiformis da
= —- tegen a
——— --. fénerifize 13
———---- tuberosus 11
- —- uncinatus 13
Cypselus affinis 31
———-. -— balassiensis a2
——.--— hatasiensis pytasienkis 161
——--—— leuconyx s. 30
—-—-——-- parvus batassiensis ... 32
——_——— —- palmarum 32
Cyrestis thyodamas ganescha e262
—_—__ ——-— -——. indica eo 23383
Cystopteris fragilis © (354
Dafila acuta 115
Daimio bhagava pha Sana 337
Danais aglea 204
———— ——-_ aglea ESR
—— — melanoides af 260
aes 204, 260
— ~~ 2ar, alci Bpoace oe B32
— limniace mutina... 203.3072
melissa dravidarum O32
—__- ——-—--- septentrionis 260
—-_—-—-- nilgiriensis sae ae soO2
plexippus ...204, 260, 332
tytia tytia , 204
Davallia tenuifolia 361
Delias aglaia 209)
belladonna ithiela 259
——-—— descombesi leucacantha ene 39)
———— eucharis 2507331
— singhapura eaten 259
thysbe pyramus 260
Delichon urbica : ase 405
-— cashmeriensis 102
—-—~— whiteleyi 405
Demiegretta asha 114
Dendroceros aes s Be 216
Dendrocitta ieaconacna 64, 95
———_ — ——~ rufa... 158
——— -——- vagabunda parvula 63
Xxiv INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Dendrocitta vagabunda vagabunda ... 95 | Echis carinata
Dendrocygna fulva 115 | Egretta alba modesta
———— ——- javanica ... a5 ~ garzetta garzetta
Dendronanthus indicus 102 —--—-- intermedia intermedia
Deudoryx epijarbas amatius 265 | Elanus caeruleus vociferus
—— -————-- ancus 265 | Elephas maximus
SS -——-— - epijarbas . 336 | Eleocharis atropurpurea
Diagora persimilis persimilis 262 —— capitata
Diczeum concoior subflavum ... 103 | ———— chaetaria
-- cruentatum cruentatum 160 | ————— congesta
———-- erythrorhynchos erythrohyn- a fistulosa
chos 104 | --—-——— palustris
Dichoceros bicornis re re a: 26 —-—— plantaginea
-—— evaxalis - .. 205 | ——-——— spiralis
Dicrurus cerulescens czerul escens “99, 318 | Elymnias hypermnestra eanete
———— leucophzus longicaudatus ... cg | ——-——- hypermnestra undularis
—_—_— — minimvs... 317, —— - malelas malelas
—— -—— longicaudatus longicaudatus. 317 | Emberiza buchanani
— —— macrocercus albirictus 159, 316 Baers — icterica
Se —-—-——- peninsularis. 99, 315 | -—-~——- melanocephala
Diplacrum caricinum 16,17 | -——-——- stewarti
Dipsadomorphus m ‘diem acuiata 201 | Epilobium s@.
a — trigonatus 199 | Ercta elutalis
Discophora lepida lepida 333 | -- ornatalis
Dissemurulus lophorinus .. 319 | Erebia annada coeca
Dissemurus paradiseus ceylonensis ... 320 - hyagriva
—— grandis 99 - scanda
malabaricus. 99, 319 | Eremopterix grisea
Dissoura episcopa episcopa 114 ——— grisea ose
Dodona adonira adonira 264 | Ergolis ariadne indica
-- dipoea nostia 264 | ——-—-————- pallidior
-- durga 264 - merione merione
ae COCon ue 264 | Eriboea athamas agrarius
—-- eugenes eugenes 264 -- schreiberi wardi
—_—-- —- venox 264 | Erionota thrax thrax
- ouida ouida .,. 264 | Eriophorum comosum ..,
Doleschallia bisaltide malo 333 | Erolia alpina alpina
Dracaena sp. OT Aa Ge -_—— pusilla
Drymoglossum carnosum 357 oe schinzii
Drynarvia quercifolia 354 | —— minuta es
Dryobalanops camphora 215 ‘temminckii se wee
Dryobates hardwickii hardwickii 104 | Eryx conicus
—-- macei ee 169 | Esacus recurvirostris
— aynicaener 104 | Eubasilissa mclachlani ...
Dryonastes nuchalis 405 | —— ---regina
——-- ruficollis 158 | —---—-—- tibetana
Dryopteris filix-mas 355 | Euchrysops cnejus F
Dudusa nobilis ie 134 —- contracta en es
Dumetia hyperythra . ... 96 -———- pandava pandava
—__—__—- aibonalens 77 | Enuclasta defamatalis
ape tor flavicollis flavicollis ... 114 | Eudynamis scolopaceus
PAGE
114,
183,
204,
204,
264,
200
i114
162
114
108
S92
14
14
333
206
262
102
102
102
102
215
205
205
261
261
261
103
160
334
263
334
333
339
265
15
113
Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus ...
Eumyias albicaudata
——— ceylonensis
———— sordida 3
———— thalassina thalassina.
Eunetta falcata ...
Euploea core
core
——_———- vermiculata
——— coreta coreta ...
———— crassa kollari ...
——-——- mulciber mulciber
—— Sp. te ae
Euripus consimilis consimilis ...
~ meridionalis
Eurrhyparodes bracteolalis
———_—— tricoloralis
Euthalia evelina laudabilis
———_ garuda meridionalis
——-—— lepidea lepidea
———__ —_—--——-- miyana
--——— lubentina arasada
—_-—— nais nae ?
——— sahadeva sahadeva ...
— telchinia
Euzophera perticella
Everes argiades diporides
parrhasius parrhasius ...
Excalfactoria chinensis...
Falco chiquera chiquera
- haliaétus
——- jugger me
——-~ peregrinus babylonicus ..,
— calidus a
=—— perecrinator
——- subbuteo subbuteo
——- tinnunculus objurgatus ...
Fegatella ...
Ficus religiosa ee
Fimbristylis acuminata
-——- aestivalis
—_—_— —
———-—--- annua var. diphylla
-—— --+_——- argentea
——-——- complanata
—— -———-- dichotoma
—————_-—_-- digitata
ees - ferruginea :
EERE - junciformis aoe
—--——-——-- miliacea
-——>—_- monostachya
PAGE
105,
161,297
297
298
298
US; 297
195
he! 203
261, 332
261
332
332
261
204
262
333
205
205
333
333
262
333
B83
333
262
339
205
264
334
be SO
109, 161
238
109
109
109
109
109
109
216
216
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
area
14, 1€8
14
14
INDEX OF SPECIES
XXV
PAGE
Fimbristylis polytrickoides 14
Se NG MaAnoUldiis v5 14
————-———-- schoenoides ae 14
——-————- spathacea... 14
—— -——-- tenera 14
——_ - ————- tetragona ... 14
—-——- woodrowili 14
Fittonia verschaffeltii ... 217
Francolinus francolinus asiae 110
—— ICius Dallas 110
——-- ——- -—-- pictus er Ld)
——- pondicerianus interposi-
tus 110
Franklinia buchanani 100
—-——-—— gracilis 100
Fuirena ciliaris eh at
— umbellata ne ee 15
~ uncinata ee sy,
— wallichiana iS
Fulica atra atra ... ‘ Hy
Fulvetta manipurensis ... 405
Galerita cristata chendoola 103
-- deva 103
Galleria meilonella 205
Gallinula chloropus indicus islet
Galloperdix lunulata re 110
——- spadicea spadicea 110
Gallus bankiva £ 110
-- murghi... 162
sonneratii 110
Gangara thyrsis thyrsis 337
Garrulax delessertii 68
————-— gularis 405
———— leucolophus “ 269
Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica 112
Gennaeus horsfieldii horsfie] dii 162
Geokichila citrina citrina 97
~-- cyanotis Dieecol
—— wardi 291
Gerydus biggsii ... 339, 340
Glareola lactea HZ
— maldivarum base 142
Glaucidium cuculoides rufescens 161
—- radiatum malabaricum... 238
———--——_ —— -——_ radiatum 10749237
Gleichenia dichotoma 356
Glottis nebularia 11357162
Glyphodes bicolor 205
——————. bivitralis 205
——— caesalis 205
——_—-——- canthusalis .. » 205
XXv1
Glyphcdes hilaralis
—— indica
—————- laticostalis
——___—— marginata
——_—_ -—— negatalis
psittacalis
~—-—— —— pyloalis
—— —— stolalis
-—_—-—— _ unionalis
—— vertumnalis ...
Gomaliaelma _...
— alboiasciaca
Gonepteryx aspasia zaneka
-—— rhamni nepalensis
Gracula religiosa intermedia
Graucalus javensis maceii
Grus grus lilfordi
- leucogeranus
- nigricollis
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
101,
99,
Gymnoris xanthocollis manthocallia ae
Gypaétus barbatus grandis
Gyps fulvus fulvescens
——- indicus indicus
-nudiceps ...
Haematornis cheela minor
Halcyon smyrnensis fusca
Haliaétus leucorypha ... aie
Haliastur indus indus
astigmata
egena ceylonica
honorei
hyrtacus
moorei moorei
sitala sitala
Harpactes fasciatus maalabeniods
Hasora alexis alexis
- badra badra ie
—— taminatus taminatus ...
Hebomoia glaucippe australis...
—— ——-—— glaucippe
Heliophorus epicles indicus
Helminthostachys zeylanica
Hemicercus canente cordatus ...
Hemidictyum ceterach ...
Hemigalus derby anus ...
Hemiprocne coronata ...
Hemipus picatus picatus
Hemitragus hylocrius ...
Herculia igniflualis
—— —— nigrivitta
——~—— suffusalis
——_—_— -
205
205
205
205 |
205
205 |
205
205
205
205
O90
339
260
260
159
314 |
11
Vad
407
101
407
107
239
161
108
161
168
161
338
338
338
338
338
338
28
336
336
336
332
260
265
356
104
356
206
106
308
Zee
205
205
205
Herpestes auropunctatus
—o= —__.
———— helvus
_—— -— ES
——-——- birmanicus
—— — edwardsi ee ie
— -——- —- — _carnaticus
SS a eee LC Oe Nens
-——_-—_ ——_——— moerens
——-———- ——-—— pallens
——-——— fuscus
——--~-— nipalensis
——- —— smithi
__ SS
caneus
jerdoni
rusanus
zeylanicus
SE me LN el
—— -—— vitticollis
Hesperia galba re
Hestia lynceus malabarica es
Hestina nama
Heterotermes mualabanicne
Hibiscus diversifolius
Hieraé:tus fasciatus fasciatus .
—-—— pennatus
Hierococcyx nanus
—_—— --——~— nisicolor
sparveroides
--—— varius
Himantopus h. himantopus
Hirundapus
Hirundo coronata se
-———— daurica erythropygia
—_——— ———~ nepalensis
———— fluvicola aes
——-———- rvustica rustica
—--- smithi filifera
—-———. unicolor
Holostomis niclachlani
-—— regina
Hoplopterus duvaucelli
Horaga onyx cingalensis
- viola
Horsfieldia anita dina
Huhua nipalensis blighi
nipalensis ...
—_——_— --
-—-—--- pectoralis
Huphina nadina remba
————- nerissa evagete
Hyaena hyaena
pallipes
105, 269,
105, 269,
1255
PAGE
(S.) 211
(Spat
(S.) 211
(S2)) 211
(S.) 209
(S.) 209
(S.) 209
(S.) 209
(S.) 209
(S3)-213
(Saecul
(S.) 212
(S522
(So )a2L2
CSajnzd2
(S.) 212
(S.) 208,
215
(S.) 214
265
332
204, 262
209
215
107
107
274
274
273
274
112
32
34
102
102
102
102
102
34
126
125
112
336
335
335
235
235
235
331
331
(S, ) 218
Hyaena hyaena indica ...
Hyarotis adrastus adrastus
-———- basiflava
Hydrocissa coronata
Hydrophasianus chirurgus
Hydrorybina bicolor
‘Hyelaphus porcinus
Hypenoptychis sordida ..
Hypolais rama rama
Hypolimnas bolina
--——. misippus
INDEX OF SPECIES XX Vii
PAGE
(S.)
26,
262,
"204, 262,
——_-- —— ——-——_. var. alcippoides
Hypolycaena nilgirica
Hypolytrum latifolium
Hypotaenidia striata gularis
Hypothymis azurea ceylonensis
styani
Hypsipetes psaroides ganeesa...
Hypsopygia mauritialis
Iambrix salsala luteipalpus
Ibidorhyncha strut hersii
Ichthyophaga humilis plumbeus
ichthyaétus
Ictinaétus malayensis perniger
Indicapus sylvaticus
Iole icterica
Ipomea glaberrima
- peltata
Iraota timoleon ...
——-—— arsaces
Ismene ajina fergusoni ...
- gomata kanara ...
Isocentris filalis ... ee
Issoria sinha sinha
Ixias marianne ...
—- pyrene frequens
satadra....
Ixobrychus cinnamomeus
sinensis sinensis
Iynx torquilla
Jamides alecto eurysaces
— — bochus bochus..,
————-celeno celeno ...
—-— elpis eurysaces
Juncellus alopecuroides
——-——- inundatus
——-—— laevigatus
——--— michelianus ...
———-—=— PYOMBus ~~ te,
————— $a HEY, iINAria
355,
JS, 159;
108,
33,
335,
260,
114,
264,
254,
218
338
338
106
staal
205
396 |
205
100
100
333
333
333
333
339
16
111
304
304
96
2)5
337
403
108
161
108
196
89
215
215
339
339
336
336
205
263
331
331
260
162
162
104
335
335
335
265
12
168
12
12
1]
PAGE
Juncus sp. . uae taue mee teen weld
| Kallima ect huegeli a a = 262
—- inachus a mee EPZOZ
—_—- philarchus horsfieldii... fie UGS
Kalotermes (Neotermes) andamanensis 208
—_—_~—— /( ‘ ) bose... ee 1208
— ( a ) gardneri ... 209
Ketupa zeylonensis hardwickii sy L0G
leschenaul ti . 234
Kineta microstictum ... ae 339, 340
Kittacincla malabarica malabarica 97, 288
Krimnochelidon concolor ae co HO
Kydia calycina ... sien son see 38)
Kyllinga brevitolia Yas est 12, 169
———— melanosperma ae a 12
——-——— monocephala.... Ge 12, 168
-—-—-——— squamulata ... ove aa 12
——-—— triceps ... _ ae 12, 169
Laccifer lacca_.., us ep esi
Lalage melanoschista miclanoccni san g9
sykesi ae oe ae 99, 313
Lampides boeticus sa my ° & 2649335
Lamprocorax panayensis affinis as she]
Lanius cristatus cristatus See sis oN ole
3O7
excubitor lahtora Be as 98
nasutus nigriceps ot AEE 98
schach caniceps ... at 28, 306
-— erythronotus ... mem 98
a tephronotus ... ach 98
— vittatus ... aA 98, 305
Larus argentatus SaGhinnAGs are eee 2
——- brunnicephalus ... er Se eZ
Larvivora brunnea ie ee .. 269
Lastrea filix-mas . Bs : Tees
Leptocoma peatica mrenmeaie »» 160
Leptoptilus javanicus ... es sac
Leptosia nina nina - a? su) pa Sol
| Lepyrodes geometralis ... be = 205
—- neptis... ees _ eects
Lethe confusa confusa ... ze ge.» 261.
-_—— drypetis todara .... _ me 4) code
europa ragalva ... oe ‘sees
insana dinarbas ... a ele
rohria dyrta et ee a) econ
—. ——-——_ nilgiriensis Ses POUL
sidonis vaivarta ... aes eeecol
——-verma sintica... Bn ia 261
Leucinodes apicalis ... or acy 205
--—~ orbonalis ... ses pac 0S
Leucocerca aureola aureola ... a at 98
XXviil
PAGE |
Leucocerea aureola compressirostris 98, 304
——-— —— pectoralis ...
Libythea lepita lepita
lepitoides
——-—— myrrha carma...
——_————- sanguinalis ...
Limenitis dudu
——— procris procris
——.-__——__—— undifragus
Limnaetops cirrhatus cirrhatus
——_-_-——-~- nepalensis nepalensis
Limnocentropus fletcheri
insolitus
——_ ooo
Limosa limosa limosa
Lioparus chrysotis forresti
Lipocarpha argentea
triceps
Lobipluvia malabarica .
Lobivanellus indicus Aone ena
—__—___—__——_-——_ indicus ...
Locustella naevia straminea
Lophodium filix-mas
Loxura atymnous atymnus
Luffa cylindrica ... a
Lycaenesthes emolus aol
-—— -_———— lycaenina peta
Lycaenopsis akasa mavisa
—_—_—--——- albidisca 2
———-——_ argiolus jynteana...
—_—_—---—— lavendmlaris limbata
———--—— lilacea
-___—-——— limbata placida
———--——— marginata ..
~——- puspa gisca
Lycodon aulicus ...
—— -— flavomaculatus
Lygodium flexuosum
—— japonicum
pinnatifidum
Lygropia quaternalis
Lymnocryptes minima .. :
Lyncornis macrotis bour dilloni
98,
131,
himalayanus
335,
330,
264,
Machlolophus xanthogenys aplonotus.
ae COs
rensis
Macropisthodon plumbicolor ...
Macrorhamphus semipalmatus
Malacocircus malabaricus
orientalis ..
Marasmia trapezalis
305
264
334
334
254
232
262
330
108
108
132
132
SZ
112
405
1S)
15
iat
162
{2
99
355
335
215
539
335
335
339
264
339
B30
264
264
339
198
200
30/7
358
357
205
113
39
95
66
198
13
(4
73
205
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Marasmia trebiusalis 205
—— -—— venilialis 205
Mareca penelope... 115
Mariscus blatteri pe ee)
—-—-—— bulbosus ou 13
——-— compactus... 13
——-—— konkanensis ... 13
——-. —— paniceus 13
-—— pennatus ah 13
Marmaronetta angustirostris ... His. 195, 196
Maruca testulalis... 205
Matapa aria 338
Megalurus palustris 100
Megesba malaya thwaitesi 335
Melanitis leda ismene 261, 332
. phedima varaha 332
- zitenius gokala 332
Melitaea didyma 202, 203
trivia 203
Melocanna pammbacoidess 214
Melophus lathami subcristata ... 102
Merganser merganser orientalis 116
Mergus albellus 116
— merganser ae eine ist 406
Mermecodia sp. ... 214
Merops orieatalis orientalis 105, 161
- superciliosus javanicus. 105;, 1611
Metopidius indicus LTE, 62
Micropternus brachyurus phaioceps .,. 104
Micropus affinis abessynicus “ss 32
—— -—— affinis 30, 105
—-— g alilejensis 31
—-— nipalensis : 3
——-—— subfurcatus .. 315161
——--—— melba bakeri 29
—---—— melba 106
——-—— pacificus leuconyx 30
Microscelis psaroides ganeesa 86
Microtarsus poiocephalus ae 9?
Microtermes beesoni 209
championi 209
pubescens ae 209
Mlivus migrans govinda 108, 161
———- ~ lineatus 108
Mirafra assamica assamica 103
- erythroptera 103
~ javanica cantillans 103
Mixornis gularis rubricapilla 96, 159
Molpastes cafer ... Re let,
—— --——__ ——-- cafer 87, 96
- —-- —— leucogenys leucotis ... 96
INDEX OF SPECIES
XXIX
PAGE PAGE
Monticola cinclorhyncha 97, 292 | Neophron percnopterus ginginianus. 107, 239
1 solitaria .. 159 | Neopithecops zalmora ... 334
ee pandoo 97, 293 | Nephopteryx leuncophaela 205
Meschothera civettina : (S) 193 ———— pauroseimna 205
on megaspila (S) 194 | Nephrodium filix-mas 355
Motacilla alba dukhunensis .. 102 Neptis columella nilgirica 333
aoe personata 102 hordonia hordonia 333
= -—— cinerea caspica 102 hylas adara 232
——.-——- cinereola werz 102) | ==" = astola -. 262
—_—-- -—— feldegg feldegg 102.) 9 <<» —_-- varmonad 202, 350
___.—_— flava beema 102 | —-—— jumbah jumbah ... gag
ee hunbervi 102 | ——— nandina hampsoni 330
—-——— - maderaspatensis 102 | -——— soma kallaura 333
Munia atricapilla a 10) soma 262
——--—— rubronigra ... 160 viraja kanara 333
malacca a ae 101 | Netta rufina 116
Muscadivora aenea sylvatica ... 109 | Nettion crecca crecca 115
Muscicapa latirostris 175 | Nettopus coromandelianus 115
—— poonensis es 175 | Neurocyta arenata 129
Muscicapula pallipes pallipes... 295 | Neuronia asiatica 128
rubeculoides rubecu- ———--—— machlachlani 126
loides 296 -— regina... 125
ane superciliaris supercilia- Nirox scutulata hirsuta .. 238
ris i 93 | ~—— ——— lugubris 107, 238
-—— tickelliee tickellie 98, 296 Noorda blitealis ... 205
Mycalesis adol phei 332, 339, - fessalis way 205
cacleeae anaxias anaxias 332 , Notocrypta curvifascia ... ; PANS Keb
6 Fen as be ~ 332 0 --———-- feisthamelii alysos 265
——-—— khasia orcha ... 332 | —--——-—— paralysos alysia 337
—— --— lepcha lepcha ... 261 , Numenius arquata arquata a gee
——-—— mineus mineus © 261. ——---—— - orientalis ... 112
—-— - polydecta 332 | Nycticorax n. nycticorax 114
——-—— patnia junonia 332 Nyctiornis athertoni 105
——-—— perseus typhius 332. Nymphula crisonalis 205
——-—— subdita .. 332, —~-—-—— depunctaiis ... 205
—— -—— visala visala ... 332, 339 | —— fluctuosalis ... 205
Myophoneus horsfieldi ... ...97, 294 Nyroca ferina ferina 116
Nacaduba beroe gythion 335. | - fuligula ... 195
—— dana .. i 335 | ——- -- fuligula 116
—_—— —— dubiosa indica 335 | ————- marila marila 195
————_—— helicon viola 535 - rufa rufa 116
— hermus nabo 335 | Ochromela nigrorufa J0%
———_—. kurava euplea 335 | Odontoptilum angulata sura oo/
-—-—- — nora nora 335 | Cenanthe opistholeuca ... 97
—- noreia hampsoni 3354) = —ptymatura... 286
— pactolus continentalis 339 | Oenopopelia tranquebarica 110
Naia bungarus .. 200 Oligodon subgriseus 199
——-tripudians ... ee 199, 321 | Oligostigma bilineale 205
Nasutitermes anamalaiensis 209 Oopterygia asiatica ee 125
——_—— ---—_—. fletcheri 209 | -——— brunnea 127, 128
———--- gardneri ... 209 | === = minor 128
XSX
PAGE
Ophioglossum vulgatum 358
Oreocincla dauma neilgherriensis 292
Oriens concinna ... 338
- goloides 338
Orinoma damaris eeu uO
Oriolus oriolus kundoo ... 101, 403
-xanthornus maderaspatatus. 101
—__—- ————_--——_ xanthornus 159
Orsotrioena medus mandata 332
+ —— medus 261
Orthotomus sutorius guzurata 99
_—— —— patia 159
Osmunda claytoniana 359
—— regalis.. 353
Otocompsa Alavi enttie Aaviventtis 96 ©
—-—— jocosa 159 |
a emeria 96
——— — —— TUSCieaudata 88, 96
Otus bakkamoena bakkamoena 235) |
—— bengalensis 234
—— sunia rufipennis 236
—— ——- sunia... 167
Pachynoa sabeliatis 205
Pachyzancla licarsisalis 205
Padraona pallida pallida 338
—-— palnia palnia : 338
———_ -—— pseudomaesa poeadomeceet 338
-— tropica diana Se 338
Paguma grayi (S) 199
-- lanigera bap (5 )<199
— larvata ... (S) 199
-- leucomystax (S) 199
Pagyda traducalis 205
Pandion haliaétus haliaétus 107, 238
Panthera leo persica 181
Pantoporia cama : 262
—- nefte inara ... 333
—— —— opalina opalina 262
—_—__ —— - orientalis Hoe = 262
——— --— perius 232,-333
333
—_-_—_——— selenophora kanara 333
Papaver somniferum 215
Papaya carica 41
- communis 4)
- cucumerina 4]
- sativa 4]
- vulgaris 4]
Sp. 214
Papilio buddha 331
- crino 331
——
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Papilio demoleus demoleus 299, 331
- demolion liomedon 331
——- dravidarum 331
- helenus daksha .. 331
———— - —_—_- helenus 259
———- memnon agenor sen, eo
———-- onomulus 2035931
= - paris tamilana ... 330
- polyctor ganesa 259
-———- polymnestor polymnestor 330
- polytes es 203, 33]
= = = TOMS .: 203, O31
———- protenor euprotenor 259
- v. stichius AG 203, 259
Paradoxurus hermaphroditus . (S) 197
jerdoni (S) 198
Parantirrhoea marshalli 339, 340
Pareba vesta vesta as 2€4
Pareronia ceylanica ceylanica 332
——-—— ceylonica : 204
——-—— valeria hippia 204, 332
Parthenos sylvia virens 333
Parus major mahrattarum 65, 95
Passer domesticus indicus a 2 al02
——— -—--—-—— _nigricollis 160
Pastor roseus woo LOL
Pathysa antiphates naira S31 3305 1340,
— nomius nomius 331 -
Pavo cristatus os 110
Pelecanus onocrotalus ... 113
philippensis A ae oe Ge
Pellaea calomelanos eB OO
Pellia ee ERAS
Peliorneum FanGepE 158
————_- --—— granti 78
ee ——-——.fruficeps ... ane 96
Penthoceryx sonneratii sonneratii 105, 275
Perdicula asiatica argoondah 110
oo. -—— aSiatica lO
Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris... 99
—-— erythropygius 99, 313
oe flammeus Sh
ees peregrinus povion eee 312
— ——_ —_____———-- malabaricus S12
eee ee ee See pallidus: s) 2.5) soil2
ee Se ee peregrinus .. 99
——' = FOSEUS TOSeUS POE Sito
wale As spectosus semiruber ... wh)
Perais ptilorhynchus ruficollis 109, 162
Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis 113
= fuscicollis 113
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Phalacrocorax niger 113
Philomachus pugnax 113
Phiniconaias minor es ee a lS
Phoenicopterus ruber ptiquenur 115, 404
Phoenicurus ochurus phoenicuroides. o7
—____ --_—___--_ rufiventris 159
Phryganea maclachlani 126 |
Phycta hemixanthella 205
Phylloscopus collybita tristis ... 100
——— eriseolus .., 100
—— inornatus humei... 100
—__—_—_——_ nitidus nitidus 100
-————_ - ———- viridanus 100
—_——_-——. magnirostris 100
—.—_——. occipitalis 302
-—~ occipitalis 100
Pica pica ... 408
Picus Penonyee .. 104
Pieris canidia canis Solkeodg
-——- —__- -——- indica 259
Pionea albicostalis 205
leucanalis 205
Pipistrellus mordax 177
Piprisoma agile agile lod
Pitta brachyura ... ; 104
Plastingia submaculata anata, 339
Platalea leucorodia major 113
Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus 114
Pleopeltis lanceolata 360
Ploceus atrigula atrigula 160
-- benghalensis 101
-- philippinus 101
Pluviatis dominicus fulvus 112
Podiceps cristatus cristatus . =. 185
ruficollis capensis 116, 162
Polyodontophis subpunctatus 200
Polyplectron bicalcaratum bicalcaratum 162
Polypodium filix-mas 309
—— nemorale ... 309
-——— quercifolium 354
Polystichnum abbreviatum Bhp)
- durum 355
~—__——__—— filix-mas ... 355
induratum Pe ech)
_ Polyxeaus lagurus 2115-213
Pomatorhinus horsfieldi eecearus 96
SSS - - travancoriensis 76
a ae melanurus 76
eee SCHISLICCDS 76 |
Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus ee
Porzana porzana vagy LL
XXxXi
PAGE
Porzana pusilla pusilla... va til
Pratapa blanka sudica ... 336
— cleobis 336
-- deva deva ad OU)
Precis almana almana ... fe 263, 333
——-- atlites ae be ms 263, 334
——-- hierta hierta re ee 262, 333
-—- magna 263
——-- iphita iphita 263
———-- - ——_ pluviatalis 334
—— --—— siccata 263
-——-- Jemonias persicaria 263
—— -- ——-——-_ vaisya 3o3
——-- orithya ocyale Me sve) COS
—_—.- swinhoei me 263, 333
Prinia inornata inornata Te 100, 159
——-- socialis . 100
——-- sylvatica sylv BCA 100
Prioneris sita aes es mn woo
Prionodon lisang a Felwou cee, 20s
— pardicolor ... ar (S) 202
- ——_—--- persina ... (S) 203
Prophryganea picta zs 130
—-— —_ — var tibetana 130
Pseudibis papillosa Ae “ae coor te
Pseudogyps bengalensis el O74 dOdeeceo
Pseudotantalus 1. leucocephalus 114
Psittacula alexandri fasciata = JG!
———— cyanocephala cyanocephala 105
———— eupatria nepalensis .,. 105
krameri manillensis ... 105
Psittiparus g. gularis 185
Pteris aquilina 360
Pterocles exustus eieneen 110
——_——— indicus 110
Pycnarmon caberalis 205
———— meritalis 205
—__——- virgatalis 205
Pycnonotus gularis re 90
——- luteolus insulae as 91
—————————— luteolus. 91, 97
— --- xantholemus 90
Pycreus albomarginatus 12
- flavescens le
-- globosus 12
-- hyalinus 12 Z
-—-- latespicatus 12
———-- malabaricus ~ 12
-- odoratus 12
== pumillus 12
-- punticulatus 12
SXx1i
PAGE
Pycreus sanguinolentus i244
Pygospila tyres 205
Pyralis manihotalis 205
—-— pictalis 205
Pyrausta incoloralis 205
Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 407
Pythou molurus ... 198 |
reticulatus 198
Querquedula querquedula 115 |
Rallus aquaticus korejewi 111
Ramila marginella a 205
Ramphalcyon capensis gurial... 105
Rana tigrina 4C9
Rapala distorta 335
lankana 336
——— melampus 336
-—_——— nissa nissa 265
—— schistacea 336
——— variuna lazulina... 336
Raphanus sativus 412
Rathinda amor 336
Regina mclachlani 126
- regina vis Beales
Remirea maritima 16, 175 18; 169
Rhapidura leucopygialis aes Ane So
Rhinoceros sondaicus ... ae wie oe
oa CInMathensis 137. 39
Rhinoptilus bitorquatus 112
Rhizophora sp. ... oa aes Eee Zito
Rhopalocampta benjamini benjamin 265
Rhopocichla atriceps bourdilloni 81
Rhopodytes viridirost ris 105
Rhynchops albicollis 112
Rhyncospora corymbosa 16
—- wallichiana 11
—__-——-——- wightiana : sats 16
Riparia paludicola brevicaudata 102, 160
Rostratula benghalensis benghalensls 111
Rucervus duvaucelli 185
Salposnis spilonotus 97
Sameodes canceilalis 205
Sancus pulligo subfasciatus 337
Sansevieria burmanica ... 350, A nod:
ee guineensis 154, 155
— lanuginosa ... fom lod
— laurentii 154, 156
ee nilotica ait 154s 157
— ——- — var laurentii cee Oy
—_-——— roxburghiana 154
—— trifasciata “154, 157
—__—_—— zeylanica 154
INDEX OF SPECIES
Pact
Sarangesa dasahara davidsoni 337
Sarcogyps calvus an 107 FOIE 239
Sarkidiornis melanotus 115, 196
Saxicola caprata atrata rer W204
-——- bicolor be 97
—— —— —— —— burmanica ... 97, 284, 398
—— — torquata 159
——_—_—_-——_ indica 97
Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis 97
——--—_--—- fulicata ... 285
re -—— intermedia 97
Schoenobius adjurellus 205
—-- —— bipunctifer 205
—_—_—__————- immerritalis 205
incertellus 205
Schoenus nigricans 16 17
Scirpophaga auriflua Seb)
Scirpus articulatus wile L70
——.-— corymbosus weet a, 170
——-——- erectus Ses 16)
——— - grossus Ti, 155-170
-—_—— - holoschoenus colony,
- kyllingoides oS 7
————-- kysoor e190; 17
- lacustris 170
-———- littoralis Nee 15
- maritimus 15, 170
-———-- michelianus LT
———— - mucronatus 15
- - quinquefarius 15
- Squarrosus “its
——— -- supinus Be 15
- triqueter ... Oe
Scleria annularis na 16
cochinchinensis ... ey: 1€
corymbosa Sel AL7
hebecarpa 16
lithosperma aes 16
poaeformis 2 26 e
stocksiana 16
tesselata .. 16
Scolopax r. rusticola 192
Scops bakkamoena marathi 107
rufipennis és ee 7236
Scutigerella unguiculata var, iidieare 209
Seicercus burkii ... 100
Sephisa chandra 262
Simotes arnensis ze 199
Siphia parva albicilla 159, 295
parva 98
Sitta castanea 68
Sitta castanea castanea
prateri
-—- corallina
——-- frontalis
-—__— - frontalis
-——- himalayensis
Spalgis epius
Spatula clypeata
Sphenocercus sphenura
Spindasis abnormis
--— elima
— —_--—_— -——- elima ..
————-+— ictis ictis : :
———--— lohita himalayanus
———__-—---- — lazularia
—— -—schistacea .. fe
——--— vyulcanus vulcanus
Stenoloma chinensis
Sternocera chrySsis
Stictospiza formosa
Sterna melanogaster
-— seena aes
Stibochiona nicea nicea
Streptopelia chinensis suratensis
——--——-- tigrina
_—--—~-—— decaocto decaocto
—__—------ orientalis ferrago
-——__--- -—-—-- meena
Strix brama
—--coromanda
— - hirsuta
——- indranee ‘indranee
- ochrogenys
—- leschenaulti
--—- longimembris
——- ocellata
-——- radiata ao
Strobilanthes consanguineus ...
-foliosus ...
- kunthianus
- lawsoni
ma ss Petrottetianus: ...
- urceolaris
—- —--—- wightianus
——____—--——_.- zenkerianus
Sturnia malabarica malabarica
Sturnopastor contra
Sturnus vulgaris poltaratskii
Suaeda.- a ee
Suastus gremius gremius
3
————
—. ____,
——$——$——
INDEX OF SPECIES
-~-—— senegalensis cambayensis
XXxili
PAGE
Suastus rama bipunctus ” 337
Surendra quercetorum biplagiata 335
-— todara todara e239
Surniculus lugubris dicruroides 277
stewarti L277
Sus barbatus ee 254
Suthora brunnea brunnea. 405
Sylepta aurantiacalis 205
-- derogata 205
- lunalis 205
Sylvia curruca affinis 100
hortensis jerdoni -- 100
Symbrenthia hippoclus khasiana 263
hypselis cotanda 263
Syngamia floridalis 205
Syntarucus plinius ine OO
Sypheotides indica cL Be)
Syrichtus galba 337
Syrnium ocellattum 233
ochrogefiys oi 233
Taccocua leschenaulti affinis as Wiectinreetee Fle) |
—- sirkee ... 105
Tachornis batassiensis palmarum .:.. 106
Tadorna tadorna : . 196
Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa Say!
—- menaka 265
—- obscurus athos * 337
Tajuria cippus cippus... 336
- jehana 336
——--- melastigma 336, 339
- maculata 336, 339
Talanga sexpunctalis 205
Talicada nyseus nyseus 334
Tamraca torridalis - Aa 405)
Tapena thwaitsei hampsoni Dod
Taractrocera ceramas ceramas 33:5
——- maevius sagara 338
‘Tarsiger brunnea brunnea 283
Tarucus ananda ... 334
— nara 334
Tatobotys varanesalis 205
Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster ... 302
saan paradisi 98, 302
Tectarea filix-mas 355
Telchinia violae ... 334
Telicota augias augias 338
== — Janka ; 338
‘Temenuchus pagodarum 101
| Tephrodornis gularis sylvicclor 309
aS pondicerianius affinis olf)
pi — pallidus... 310
XXXIV
PAG
Tephrodornis pondicerianius pondiceri-
anus ..
Terastia meticulosalis ...
Terias andersoni ormistoni
blanda silhetana
———— drona :
hecabe fiabiatal
——— -—— - hecabe
-— simulata...
—-~ — lacteola Sarinoides
laeta
-——_-———-- laeta
venata venata
Termes (Gyclotermes) almoreasie
—-—_— (Termes) dehraduni
( ,, ) malabaricus ..
Tetranema mexicana
Tetridia caletoralis ae
Thaduka multicaudata aaa
Thereiceryx lineatus hodgsoni
--— --—-— zeylanicus caniceps
Threskiornis melanocephalus ...
Timalea pileata ...
Tockus birostris ..
- griseus a7
Trialeurodes vaporariorum
Trimeresurus anamalensis
- gramineus
Tringa alpina
-- glareola...
= hypoleuca
- ochropus
- stagnatilis
- totanus
Trochalopteron ae att pineal
ee ee ee MCTIiOnalis.-
————__——__ — lineatum .o
Trogon malabaricus
Troides aeacus
- helena minos
Tropidonotus piscator ...
——————-- stolatus ...
Tros aristolochiae afstéldehiae
—— hector ee
—— jophon pandiyana
Turdoides griseus
—— --——. somervillei malabaricus ...
———— orientalis,
——--——— striatus polioplocamus
——- - striatus
197,
113,
.98 159,
309
205
331
260, 331
331
260
260 |
331 |
260 |
260 |
331
260
209
209
209
215
205
335
160
104
114
158
26, 106
27, 106
206
198
197, 198
1
113
162
162
113
113
” 69, 71
71
269
28
258
330
198
198
330
330
330
74
72
73
74, 95
37
113,
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Turdoides terricolor terricolor 12,95
Turdus kinnisi 290
— - nigripileus ct ee 43)
- simillimus ponrailont 289, 290
-——__ -——__- - mahrattensis 97, 288
—_____ —— — - simillimns . 291
= Unicolore.. 97
Turnix dussumieri ae 110
- - maculatus tanki 11]
- suscitator plumbipes ... 162
——- —— taijoor 110
Typhlops acuta 197
— —— braminus 198
—— —— porrectus sun 2200
Tyto alba stertens Aeon. 106, 232
——- longimembris are 106
—_- —_—__--—_ longimembris 232
Udaspes folus 265, 337
Upupa epops ee lonene 27, 106
-——— epops 28, 106, 161
—______ —— orientalis ... 28, 106, 191
——— saturata .... 28, 106, 408
- indica ies 28
Uroloncha malabarica .. 101
——-—— punctulata Paeorente! 101
——-——— striata striata 101
Vanessa canace canace ... Sa e203
—-—— viridis Ses) Oe
— cardui sh _ 263, 334 -
-___— — cashmirensis aesis 263
- indica indica 263
- pholae ste «= 34
Vipera russelli 199, 387
Virachola isocrates <p a8
—— -—— perse ghela ... 336
--—— perse bay Eye Acs!
Viverra zibetha (S:.) 192, 193
~ —— ashtoni (S.) . 193
——_ ——_ --— picta (S.) . 193
—__-———_—_—— pruinosa (S.) 193
————— surdaster (S.) | 193
Viverricula indica baptistae (S.)peloe
- —-bengalensis (S.) 195
——_ - —— .—— deserti (Sa) ales
—— indica Pal tsi) ) Sales)
—— —— -—-— klossi CS.) 1195
—— ——-—— mayori he ht 195
— ——- —— -— - thai (S.) 195
—_-—_ —— - — wellsi (S.) 195
Vultur bengalensis owe. 1880
o>— calvus 239
Vultur ginginianus
indicus wee
Xantholaema Heemateomala is
indica
Xenorhynchus asiaticus asiaticus
Ypthima asterope mahratta
—-—— avanta avanta
striata
-—~—— baldus madrasa
—— —-— ceylonica
--—— -—— chenui . ;
——-—— hubneri mubded
——-—— lycuslycus ... See
——-—— nareda newara wise
——-——- philomela tabella
sakra austeni
nikoea ...
—— -——— sakra
Zamenis fasciolatus
————- gracilis...
——— eee
ee
re
—_— -—___
INDEX OF. SPECIES
PAGE
Ore,
332,
330,
239
Zoo
104
160
1l4
Soe
261
339
332
332
039
261
261
261
339
261
261
261
199
Zamenis mucosus
Zeltus etolus és
Zemeros flegyas mdieds
Zesius chrysomallus aoe
Zetides agamemnon agamenmnon
—— menides ...
— cloanthus
- doson eleits
~ sarpedon sarpedon
a —- teredon
Zinckenia fascialis
Zipoetis satis
Zizeeria lysimon...
- gaika
———-- maha maha
—_—_——- --——. ossa
— otis discreta
~ trochilus putli ...
Zosterops palpebrosa cacharensis
—__——— occident
So SS
XXXV
PAGE
199, 409
336
264
339
256
Sol
259
331
259
331
205
332
264, 335
335
264
335
335
330
165
103
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i: i] pene tae Z = =
Oe ES eg Ee A eS a EE ee ee LST Ty ee .
tone . = aks =
Fe I gc oe ON Re ORE EERO PT ROE TREES, Tee
Pees
fe aT ie Re cee
ee
CONTENTS OF VOLOME MX XV ITI, No.7.
PAGE
THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. By E. C. Stuart Baker,
Cu E.. O1B.E.. FZ.S,, F.b:S.,. M B.O.U:.. “H.F.A.0.U. Vol. V. Part
DOGO V1 a COLOUFEAUDUALEN, oe ceeic ee sue te Te bk ebe cabs Oba whcek eueme estas il
REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. By the late
INeVeRE) gplAaGter, Stn PUSD.ReiS. “Part 2OXVIT oilee .c.sccctaeeee as. 6
A GAME SANCTUARY IN CEYLON. By: Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, Indian
Army (retired). (Wzth one black and white plate) — eviccccccecsercenees 19
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GuatTs. (Orni-
thological Section). By H. Whistler, m.s.o.u., Assisted by N. B.
LSC AG eine On Uinemil aT Dubay 2 cecal lamas sues fou praise aceon) moeaors aed eeaelonde aber 26
fide MPAWarERIE. ay Jaji Oars, ‘Siie, hil Sie. ste, dk tec ts cme ckewereaves : 4]
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND CocHIN. By Salim Ali. With
Notes: by atl. Wiistler. Part Ilya ( W722i (wo plates), siccsss.csines sess 61
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES.’ By the late Rev. E. Blatter, s.J.,
Ph.D., F.L.Ss., and W. S. Millard, F.z.s. Part XVIII. (With one
COOUUED PIALC ZANE LWO,TOXILIL UVES) | Fewtavasieisted tarseeiated aise ss nencencraa 93
A List OF THE BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES. By E. A.
1D) ANOS SARS ay Reet cos cael eon wens ttein, «See URY ta ey ty Vavawnate Coameaan es 95
THE FLOWERING OF Strobtlanthes IN 1934. By. M. E. Robinson.
(With etght plates) _..--s+. neuae tenes. Aral Giasiln seen CaN gha s SCC ARSE Rae MMU eee Ly,
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (7richoptera). By Martin E. Mosely,
BABE Se Dati lam (CLA URIS 1CCI PLATES i Ciakes suucugetoaw ek ue sean me saes 123
A DESCRIPTION OF THE NOTODONTID Motu Dudusa nobilis WALKER,
AND ITS EARLY StaGes. By. T. R. Bell, 1.f.S. (Retired). (With
DECOMPULECS) MAM aan ee Sas eae Setiaicle tists Pee a waione Foe can tide scans Sea vecwectsahevsstassceab 134
RHINOCEROS SHOOTING IN BURMA. By W.S. Thom. (Wz2th one plate). 137
AN ACCOUNT OF THE OCCURRENCE OF Chrysomphalus aurantit, MASK
AND Laccifer lacca, KERR ON GRAPE FRUIT IN RANCHI DISTRICT,
CHOTA NAGPUR, WITH A NOTE ON THE CHALCIDOID PARASITES OF
Aspidiolus orientalis, NEwst. By P. M. Glover, B.sc. (Witha
DULG Rete orice Patt mtk sen tee cancer los megiebeters aie wnctinndel sede sed eties ChacCaeeee rl aes 151
NOTES ON THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF Sanseviervia GROWING IN INDIA
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO S. Laurentit WILDEMAN. By K.
PIS NWAS It ces ee c's Pe ee Nee Wak Gh sic eo oiere Sais Gia are Nak G2 7 ccs acon Soe die delta sabhic eens steCens 154
SOME BIRDS OF CHITTAGONG. By Major R.S.P. Bates, M.B.o.U. ... 158
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SEDGES OF INDIA. By J. F. Carus, S.J.,
ce: Os reso eee wah es HC RE TGs aie insta moth sia Sains cole cule bua tunseriessesbateenboesaedes 163
REVIEWS—
ib— Popular Handbook of Indian Birds. ics vs.0essecdee os secsecs es 7d
ME Aer i Ce NCIS Clits toccasscuatdtesesscsetes cee ves «bo sbceaseeede eae cacene duit
Mit—Zur Wenntiuis, Nordostasiatischer VO@e) ici. se. disccecesceecsssee 174
iv—Lae ang lndian Lac Research Institute 20... i ..iccccsce sep ceeees 175
V.—The Fauna of British India (Reptiles and Amphibians) ... .. 175
li CONTENTS (OF Vol. XXXVI, No. 7
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
I.—A Note on the Discovery of Pipistrellus mordax (Peters),
the Grizzled Bat in Ceylon. By W. A.A. Phillips
eeccee
II.—Tigers in the Sunderbans. By T. V. Dent., 1.5.8. .2....0.00+--
IlI.—Tiger killing solitary Bull Bison (Bibos gaurus). By R.C.
Morris, F.Z.S., F.R.G.S.
1V.—Tigers burying their Kill. By T. R. Livesey.
Ceeeceese 80008 CCE
V.—How Tigers kill their Prey. By T. R. Livesey.
eoececsen
Vi.—Note on the Record Indian Lion. By P. R. Cadell.
VII.—Anti-rabic Treatment of an Indian Lion. By P. R. Cadell.
VIII.—Abnormal Dental growth in a Rat. By R.L. Soni, M.B , B.S.
IX.—Birth of an Elephant Calf (Zlephas maximus). By A.C.
Tutein-Nolthenius, 22... 00 Saesolneciecustntcn eaubeatie css eer ecuaseretnes
X.—Growth and Shedding of Antlers of Sambur and Swamp
Deer in Assam. By Viscount Ed. De Poncins.
XI.—Some little-known Birds of Northern Burma. By J. K.
Stanford.
CeeeoeeeeeoeGeeeseGeonecee SOOOCHCHCHHCC AES HCHHCHOHHHOHHSHLCHEHCCHHSCHEHHEHEETEH EOS
XI!.—Mating Habits of Mynahs and Crows. By K I. Varghese,
M.A.
eoeoece Seeveeee Seececceoecge OOCCHELEHSOHECHHCAE LOCH CEL ORECELOCL COE EROS eegee
XIII.—Nidification of the Shan States Bar-Wing aod ve
ramsayt (Walden)). By TPoRclivesey. «io.icccec.cte casero.
XIV.—Nidification of the Black-headed Babbler (/hopocichla a.
atriceps (Oates). By F. N. Betts. ...scccee Kostestisecensinscmaaes
XV.—On the Occurrence of the Tibetan Siskin (Spinus thibetanus)
in Northern Burma. By J. K. Stanford, I.c.s.
XVI.—Vultures Feeding at Night. By R.C. Morris. ..................
XVII.—Peregrine and Spur-winged Plover. By T. R. Livesey. ......
XVIII.— Distribution of the Indian Hoopoe (Upupa efops orientalis
Stuart Baker). «By. W «H.. MAtthews..... ccc. ssceceeec sssornecenes
XIX.—The Lesser Florican (Syfheotides indica Miller) in the
Konkan. “By S. Ho Pratetiecccsdasssccsscowecnacevossssesceaucs scree
XX.—Some Notes on Woodcock (Scolopax r. rusticola Linn.) in
Burma? (By. oK.: Stanford iiGisS siciscscsseececces coc cse sect
XXI.—Albino Fan-tail Snipe (Capella g. gallinago Linn.) By
H.C. M. Dian Ur RA ee ose rete ttice sracessepaccuecaemmes
XXI1.—A Second Record of the Occurrence of the Long-tailed Duck
(Clangula hyemalis) in India. By R. E. Parsons. .........
XXIII.—The Occurrence of the Scaup (Vyvoca marila Linn.) in the
Bhavnagar State. By K.S. Dharma Kumarsinhji. ......
XX1V.—The Bronze-capped Teal (Zunetta fulcata Georgi) in the
samastipur District, Bengal. By ©. 1. Parr.) eecpeceo se, co:
PAGE
CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXVIII, No. 1 “e
PAGE
XXV.—Occurrence of the Marbled Duck (MWarmaronetta angustt-
vostris Ménétriés) near Poona. By F. C. Hickie, Lt.-Col. ... 196
XXVI.—The Sheldrake (Sarkidiornis melanotus Penn.) and the Comb
Duck (Zadorna tadorna Linn.) in Sind. By C. B. Rubie,
ME t= CO llee eeasnet tice eee Aatcedie se Pace hee scarcer sevuies. ccna Svcs Peasuyentieeewee 196
XXVII.—Arrival Dates of Migrant Birds in Coorg. By F. N. Betts... 197
XXVIII.—An Addition to List of Snakes of Bombay and Salsette:
Goronella orachyura. By Ps Ali cesssavesecs cevcsvsessevitaece eos 197
XXIX.—A Further List of Snakes from Ahmednagar. By K. G.
Gilat pUrey,, tsb -COlss EMS. <cisisescucescsdduesenesesssueteese veces 198
XXX.—Mating of the Hamadryad cr King Cobra (Naza bungarus
Schileo, a By Wadia, UAT, Sbasecese cocostee severe <csuc esses 200
XXXI.—Occurrence of Dipsadomorphus multimaculata Schleg. in
Acsameuu by SorEbe Eraten,, Cont 2.5. watsetercanitre secs cence 201
XXXII.—The Common Chamaeleon (Chamaeleon zeylanicus Laurenti)
in Gujarat. By As DT. Barry. scicsessccossseccesscvssks Picinee: 201
XXXIII.—Rate of Growth of the Mugger (Cvocodilus palustris
Lesson). By BSA. D’ Abreu, F.Z.S,.) sccscsscdssovsdasedecessves 202
XXXI1V.—Butterflies of Lahore. By D. R. Puri ....c.......,ccceescsscenceses 202
XXXV.—Mimicry: Being Notes on certain Indian Butterflies. By
IDM Ge SeVASlOPUlO, HR sSe gestetas soe avusume cc saaaeeaett sstecet see 203
XXXVI.—A Preliminary List of the Pyralidae of Calcutta. By D. G.
Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. Py ee eens Ome
XXXVII.—A Note on Elymnias hypermnestra undularis Drury. By
D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. ..... dst teneenencecer ee iver ene eneees 206
XXXVIII.—Wax-production in Mealy Bugs: Aleurodidae. By V. G.
Deshpande, M.Ag., Ph.D.
sGteedegisereucee tee ctirestececcstiameads 206
XXXIX.—An Annotated List of Indo-Ceylonese Termites. By V.
MarGabanG hy .2.c.0-s0e0ecsssesses ses cses Lars ake Cubs aren cae 208
XL.—A Note on the Distribution, Oviposition and Parental Care
of Scutigerella unguiculata Hansen var. indica Gravely.
TD Ypo a OMC Sa uae ses Acrinacoe ane st ser cccasaaesansceessen estan teeser tice? 209
XLI.—Observations on the Oviposition and Development of a
SPECles Of FOL MENUS. BY S. JONES.) “yiccesscriciorcensses seca veces 211
XLII.—Precocious Germination. By N. K. Tiwary. — ...... ascsssssoee 213
XALII.—Root Formation from Leaf-cuttings. By N. K. Tiwary. ... 216
Proceedings of Che Annual Meeting, — .s.isccccacscostecsaceseeecvess 219
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JOURNAL
OF THE
Bombay Natural History Society.
Auaust, 19385. V Ole Oe CV ED. No. 1.
THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.
BY
EK. C. Sruarr Baker, C.1.E., 0.B.E., F.Z.S.,F.L.S., M-B.0.U., H.F.A.0.U.
Vou. V.
THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS.
Parr XXII. |
(With a coloured plate).
(Continued from page 254 of volume xxxvii).
EROLIA ALPINA ALPINA.
The Dunlin.
Tringa alpina Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th ed., vol. i, p. 149 (1758)
(Lapland).
Erolia alpina alpina Fauna B.I., Birds, vol. vi, p. 241 (1929).
Description.—Breeding plumage. A narrow line next the bill
and a faintly indicated supercilium white, streaked with black;
upper plumage bright deep rufous, each feather broadly centred
black and some of the longer scapulars and innermost secondaries
terminally edged with white; hind-neck greyish-white streaked with
black: lower back and rump dark grey-brown, showing little rufous
or black; sides of rump and lateral tail-coverts white; central tail-
feathers blackish-brown, the lateral grey with white edges; wing-
coverts grey-brown with darker centres and pale or whitish edges;
the greater coverts with broader white edges; primary coverts and
primaries blackish, the former narrowly edged whitish, the latter
white-shafted, but the bases and tips of the shafts of the second
and third primaries brownish; outer secondaries nearly all white
with dark centres; sides of head, chin, throat and upper breast
white streaked with blackish, often suffused with rufous, especially
on the chin and fore-neck; centre of breast and abdomen blackish-
brown; flanks, axillaries and under tail-coverts white, the last
streaked with black.
9 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Colours of soft parts.—Iris hazel or dark brown; bill and legs
black.
Measurements.—Wing 104: to 120 mm.; tail 46 to 51 mm.;
tarsus about 21 to 26 mm.; culmen 25 ‘to 31 mim.
In Winter.—Upper plumage ashy-grey, the feathers of the head
with darker brown streaks, the remainder with dark shaft-stripes
only; innermost secondaries darker and browner with narrow
whitish or rufescent-white edges; lores, sides of the head, neck and
foré-neck fulvescent-grey with dark brown streaks, remainder of
lower plumage white.
Young Birds have the upper plumage. like the adult in breeding
plumage but are much less richly rufous and have more white
edges to the feathers of the mantle, the fore-neck is dull pale
rufous and the underparts are white, more or less spotted with
brown.
Young in down.—Centre of crown and centre of -back deep
chestnut surrounded by black; a black line through they eye, be-
coming chestnut posteriorly; a narrow line on the wings black; a
black ‘patch on each side of the europygium and a line across
joining the black round the centre of the back, the down ending
in little whitish tufts; rest of upper surface rich rufous-buff; Inellon
whitish-buff, the chin, throat and breast darker.
Distribution.—Hurope, from Lapland to Eastern Russia, but re-
placed in the south during the breeding season by #H. a. schinaii.
(Northern Asia). In India, it is common during the winter in
Sind and the north-west, extending as far south as the Deccan
and east to Nepal, Eastern Bengal and Assam, though it is rare
east of the United Provinces. All our specimens from India
appear to be typical E. a. alpina and not the more tawny-headed
schingii. I cannot separate EH. a. pusilla, the supposed Eastern
and Indian form, from the typical bird. Within Indian mits
this little wader is very common on the coasts of north-western
India. Inland it is very much less common, though during migra-
tion it occurs on some of the rivers and on some of the larger
lakes. In eastern India it is certainly sometimes to be seen on
the great tidal rivers running into the Bay of Bengal and I have
myself seen them on the Brahmaputra about 700 miles from the
sea. On the Megna, Hoogli and Ganges they cannot be said to
be rare and I have seen them haunting mud flats in company
with other small waders, sometimes singly or in pairs, or, very
occasionally, in small flocks. Ticehurst (Ibis 1924, p. 111) says
that the Dunlin is exceedingly abundant in Karachi harbour and
the creeks and mud flats of the coast line, but that he seldom
saw it inland, except on the Indus.
Nidification. -——The Dunlin breeds over the whole of the northern
portions of its summer haunts from the Scandinavian countries to
somewhere in central Siberia. We found them breeding on tundras
on the shores of the Arctic Ocean in Lapland, where very fre-
quently nesting sites were chosen quite close to the houses of a
tiny fishing village. One, indeed, I found within 50 yards of the
nearest house. They breed both on the low-lying swamps close
to the sea coast and on the wide tundra far inland, and: Dr.
THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS 3
Hortlng and I were surprised to find birds breeding in swamps
almost in the centre of inland. I do not think they ever breed
at any great distance from water and always in swampy ground
and in open country. Even in Finland and Lapland, where so
many waders breed on the outskirts of forests or even some dis-
tanee inside them, the Dunlin never seems to choose a site for
its nest in any marsh on which trees are growing. The nest
itself is a very neat httle cup of grass bents, either made from
the actual living, growing grass or from bents which have been
gvathered by the bird for the purpose. This latter is especially the
case when, as sometimes occurs, the birds choose a site among
the roots of a juniper or creeping birch clump in which to build.
Generally the nest is placed in grass, while a very favourite posi-
tion is the summit of some small hummock in a sea of swamp.
Here among the grass and moss on the top, the nest is carefully
tucked away and concealed. Another favourite position is in the
small patches of short thin grass growing on dry ground in what
is otherwise all marsh land. In this, frequently, concealment: is
very indifferent and I have seen nests in which the. eggs were
perfectly visible from a distance of some yards. On the other hand,
when the bird breeds in thick cover, as it often does, the nest is
extremely difficult to find and sometimes even when the bird has
risen almost at my feet I have taken some minutes to discover
its home.
The eggs are, of course, always four in number and are of
the usual rather long peg-top shape, like those of other small
waders. They vary very greatly in colour, the majority having
the ground of pale yellowish or olive stone and_ being densely
marked with small and large blotches of colour varying from bright
reddish brown to deep umber brown. In most eggs the impression
given is that of rather greenish eggs, the ground colour almost
invariably showing up well and the blotches being most numerous
at the larger end and rather scanty elsewhere. The secondary
markings are all lavender or rather inky grey but are, as a rule,
inconspicuous. Occasionally the blotches at the larger end are
much bigger than elsewhere and form indefinite groups, the marks
coalescing and running into one another. A few eggs are stippled
rather than blotched and in these the stipples are generally numer-
ous all over the egg, a little larger and denser at the big end,
The general impression of these eggs 1s rather bright: reddish
brown. In a collection of eggs belonging to Dr. Wasenius there
are two very beautiful clutches of the Dunlin, one of which is of
four eggs, pure pale blue, while in the second clutch the eggs
have the same ground with a few faint lavender marks. In
Witherby’s Handbook of Birds, p. 571, Jourdain gives the follow-
ing measurements for 100 eggs: average 84.38 by 24.4, maxima
$8.8 by 25.4 and 85.0 by 25.8, minima 31.3 by 23.2 and 82.0 by
23.0. Jourdain also draws attention to the fact that the mark-
ings very often show signs of rotary movement in the oviduct.
His remarks, it should be noted, refer to both the British form,
schingii and to the true alpina.
In the more southern portions of the breeding area the Dunlin
4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXViti
commences to breed about the middle of May and in very warm
seasons a week earlier than this, while in the extreme north I
have taken perfectly fresh eggs up to the end of June.
At the same time it is extraordinary in what difficult cireum-
stances these little birds sometimes breed. A few years ago, when
on the shores of the Arctic Ocean, I found a nest of this bird
containing four hard-set eggs in the first week of June. At the
time if was snowing hard, a bitter east wind was blowing and
all round the nest were several inches of snow, yet the eggs
seemed to be in no way damaged. The little bird sat until I
almost touched it and returned to the nest within a minute of
my leaving it. As is well-known, the Dunlin often feigns injury
or sickness in order to attract intruders from its nest. Recently
it has been asserted that this action is merely due to a sudden
fright and uncontrolled emotion and, therefore, quite purposeless.
I cannot, however, for a moment believe this to be the case. I
remember on one occasion Dr. Hortling and I found a Dunlin’s
nest in very open ground in a swamp. The bird sat on the nest
until we were within two or three yards of it, when she flew
quickly off. Then, seeing that we had noticed her, she at once
fell to the ground, fluttering her wings as if seriously injured. As
we approached she dragged herself away fluttering and continued
to perform her antics so long as we followed her. However,
directly we returned to the nest, she at once got up and flew per-
fectly soundly back to within a few yards of us, and seeing she
had attracted our attention, she again went through her tricks.
She repeated her attempts to attract us away three or four times
and it was perfectly obvious that she carried them out with the
intention of making us leave the nest and her precious eggs. At
other times when disturbed from her nest the Dunlin leaps into
flight, starting with three or four twists and little zig-zag motions,
then mounting high in the air, she clears off altogether.
Both sexes take part in incubation and I think it is very prob-
able that the male bird does the greater part of incubation by
day. Certainly of those we got or shot during the day time at
least 2 out of 8 were males. According to Evans the period of
incubation is 22 days.
General Habits.—In western India, the first Dunlins arrive in
the country very early in August and most of these are birds which
have bred very early. They are generally in worn breeding dress
and are undoubtedly adults and, according to Ticehurst, the
younger birds arrive later. In Siam and Bengal I think few birds
arrive in India before the end of August and these seem to be in-
differently adults in worn breeding plumage and young birds. From
these provinces most birds have left by the end of April, very
few being seen in the first few days of May. In Sind, however,
the majority seem to depart in the second and third week of May.
Ticehurst saw a few as late as the 5th June and he remarks
‘odd ones over-summer and unlike most waders are in summer
dress’. Those, however, which wintered in eastern India left
either in winter plumage or had only partially acquired breeding
plumage. In their actions and feeding there is little to distin-
THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS 5
cuish Dunlins from other small waders. They may be seen
scurrying hither and thither over their feeding ground, generally
the coast line or muddy banks of rivers. They feed on the same
sort of food, i.e., mollusca, snails, slugs, worms, sand-hoppers and
all kinds of insects. They sometimes eat small seeds and various
forms of grain, but this is perhaps exceptional. When at rest, the
Dunlin sits with its head tucked close into its shoulders but, for
the most part, it is constantly running rapidly from one place to
another hunting for its food. In winter, its ordinary call note is a
prolonged ‘wee wee-e-et’ and. it is said also to have a soft ‘purr’.
These are the only notes we hear in India. In the _ breeding
season, however, it has a very pretty little trillng love song which
it utters fluttering in the air or, very occasionally, when perched
on a high post or a bare limb of a tree.
Although its flight is rapid and well sustained, it is usually
easy to approach, it cannot be placed among true sporting birds.
The only specimen I have ever eaten was very plump and in taste
like a dry snipe.
(The end).
REVISION OF
THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.
BY
THE LATE H,-~ BLATTEeR, 8.J., Ph.D.,; F.u.S:;
Part XXVII.
(Continued from page 779 of volume xxxvii).
CYPERACEAE.
BY
THE LATE H. BLATTER, §.J.,. Ph.D., F.L.S., and C. McCann, F.L.S.
20. Carex Linn. (Cke. 11, 905).
Species 900.—Cosmopolitan, especially temperate, in marshes.
Cooke gives 8 species: C. condensata, C. mercarensis and C. speciosa. C.
condensata has to be changed into C. cruciata and C. mercarensis will be put
as var. under C. Lindleyana.
We add 9 more species which were not known to Cooke as occurring in
the Presidency.
Kei:
A. Style 2-fid
Terminal spike female at base, male at top
1. Spikes short, ovoid or oblong
a. Utricle many-nerved on both faces ... 1. C. nubigena.
b. Utricle nerveless on plane face ae Sea fOLIOSE,
2. Spikes linear-cylindric, peduncled, in- :
florescence loose abe i Os C UTunned.
B. Style 3-fid
I. Terminal spike female at base, male at top,
or when spikes very numerous, many male
at top, terminal spike sometimes wholly
male
1. Spikes short, very numerous
a. Nut fitting utricle pretty closely, ellip-
soid, substipitate, pyramidal at top;
style- base scarcely dilated 4. C. cruciata.
b. Nut ovate-elliptic. Style-base slightly
thickened 3 d. C. filicina.
c. Nut ovate, short- stipitate 6. C. Lindleyana.
2. Spikes long- cylindric 7. C. baccans.
3. Not to be placed among a and b 8. C. speciosa.
II. Terminal spike wholly male. Spikes not very
numerous, occasionally 12. Utricle hairy
or minutely setulose Ba
1. Glaucous a Ae Be EO. dG. nglaucas
REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 7
2. Not glaucous
a. Rhizome long, creeping, many stolons 10. C. setsgera.
b. Rhizome short, stems caespitose ... > Ll. C. Hallertana,
c. Rhizome creeping, stems caespitose ... 12. C. breviculmis.
1. Carex nubigena D. Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv (1825) 326; C. B.
Clarke—in-.:-Hook.. f. F.B.I. vi, 702.
Description: Stems 15-75 cm., caespitose on a tough perennial rhizome;
rhizome short or 0. Leaves long, narrow, incurved when dry. Inflorescence
from 1.3 cm.,-dense, ovoid, to 12.5 cm., linear, interrupted, greenish becoming
brown; lowest bract usually much overtopping inflorescence, sometimes not
6 mm. Spikes 5 mm., dense, ovoid, androgynous; male at top forming an
ovoid oblong or interrupted linear compound spike. Female glumes ovate,
scarcely apiculate, shorter than utricle. Anthers linear-oblong, very shortly api-
culate. Style 2-fid, occasionally 3-fid. Utricle small, of thin texture, plano-
convex, green or pale brown, 9-ll-nerved on plane face, 11-15 on convex; small
red glands frequently scattered all over utricle between the nerves; beak not
winged, commonly quite smooth, not rarely scabrid, sometimes almost hispid.
Nut hardly 34 utricle, compressed, obtuse, brown.
Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke).
Distribution: Himalaya, 5-13,000 ft., Khasia to Muneypoor, 4-600 ft., Sind,
Nilgiris, Anamalais, Pulney Hills, Ceylon, Afghanistan, Malaya, China, Japan.
2. Carex foliosa D. Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv (1825) 327.—C. Walli-
chiana Spreng. Syst. i (1826) 812 (non Presc.).—C. muricata var. foliosa C. B.
Clarke in. Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, .703. :
Description: Rhizome short, woody, caespitose. Stems up to 90 cm., strict,
firm, triquetrous, very scabrous above. Leaves shorter or longer, 3-5 mm.
broad, flat, sheaths thickened at the mouth, not longer than the base of the
lamina; ligule broader than long, with a brown margin. Spikelets numerous,
many-flowered, crowded towards the apex, the lower ones remote, compound,
often setaceous-bracteate, forming an interrupted, 3-9 cm. long spike. Glumes
ovate, acuminate-aristate, pale with a green keel. Utricle much exceeding the
glumes, 3.5 mm. long, pale green, glabrous, almost nerveless, ovate or ovate-
lanceolate below, narrowed into a slender 2-fid beak, margins scaberulous. Nut
oval, filling the utricle. Base of style thickened. Stigmas 2.
Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke).
Distribution: Himalaya, 6,000-9,000 ft., from Kashmir to Nepal and
Sikkim, Khasia, Sind, Nilgiris, Pulney Hills, 6,500-8,000 ft.
3. Carex brunnea Thunb. Fl. Japon (1784) 38; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f.
F.B.I. vi, 705.—Ibidem synonyms.
Description: Rhizome oblique. Stems 380-90 cm., slender. Leaves 2 stem,
4 mm. broad. Cauline sheaths somewhat distant, lowest usually above middle
of plant. Inflorescence long, lax. Peduncles often several from each sheath,
lowest exsert 2.5-20 cm., slender, nodding, sometimes bearing 3-10 spikes, often
2 or more from one sheath. Spikes 3.8-5 cm., slender. Male glumes obtusely
triangular, reddish brown; female glumes ovate, acute or scarcely mucronate,
apex triangular, ultimately ferruginous-brown. Utricle rather small, not
parallel-sided, 9-15-nerved on each face, minutely hairy on nerves, suddenly
narrowed into a beak about half utricle; beak linear, shortly bifid, lobes erect;
ripe utricle brown ellipsoid, much flattened, pilose (in Indian examples), striate.
Nut much flattened, ovoid, suddenly narrowed at top, yellow-brown, nearly
filling utricle except beak. Exsert portion of stigmas about as long as utricle.
Style 2-fid, about as long as beak, slightly swollen, contracted at base; branches
long, very brown.
Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke).
Distribution: W. Himalaya, Assam, Burma, Muneypore, Sind, Nilgiris,
Anamalais, Pulneys, Tinnevelly Hills.—Ceylon, Mascarene Isles, Mauritius,
China, Japan, Korea, Australia, Philippines, Sandwich Islands, Yunnan.
4. Carex criaciata Wahlenb. in Vet.-Akad. Handl. Stockholm xxiv (1803)
149; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 715.—C. condensata Nees in Wight
Contr. (1834) 123: (excl.: var.); C..B. Clarke 1.e. .
8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Description: Rhizome woody horizontal, over 15 cm. long. Culms 60-90 cm.
tall. Leaves linear acuminate, 30-60 cm. long, 6-13 mm. wide, margins at tip
scabrid. Panicles narrow, strict, erect, 5 cm. long, branches short pubescent.
Spikelets 2.5-6 mm. long; flowers few. Glume ovate acuminate or mucronate,
keeled. Utricle longer, ovate, yellow, orange, or olive-coloured, ribbed, beak
long curved, margins scabrid entire. Nut ovate-elliptic.
Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke).—W. Ghats: Mahableshwar (Dalzell
& Gibson ex Cooke).—Not seen by Cooke.
Distribution: Himalaya from Kumaon to Sikkim and Bhutan, Khasia,
Tenasserim and Malacca, Central Provinces, Sind.—Tonkin, China, Yunnan,
Formosa, Madagascar.
5. Carex filicina Nees in Wight Contr. (1834) 126; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f.
F.B.I. vi, 717.—C. nilagirica Hochst. ex Steud. Synops. Cypera. (1855) 207.
Description: Glabrous, except the minutely hairy panicle brarches.
Rhizome very woody, short (no long stolons). Stems 30-90 cm. Leaves very
long, often as long as stems, flat, thin. Inflorescence elongate of distant pyra-
midal compound panicles. Panicle usually more than half stem; partial panicles
often very dense; branches much slenderer than in ‘C. cruciata or condensata.
Spikes small often very many on slender branches not congested. Female
glumes commonly small, not (or scarcely) mucronate, ovate, as long as utricle
(without beak), sometimes elliptic-lanceolate, glabrous or minutely hairy, chest-
nut in South Indian form, often paler or ferruginous in the Khasian. Style
8-fid. Utricle 2.5 mm., trigonous, fitting the black nut very closely, about
15-nerved, glabrous, tapering or suddenly narrowed at top; beak oblique, curved,
subrecurved or straight, more or less scabrous-hairy, mouth very small, shortly
bifid.
Var. meiogyna Strachey Cat. Pl. Kumaon (1854) 73.
Description: Glumes smallish, ovate, mostly paler. Utricles broader, beak
shorter.
Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke).
Var. minor Boott Illustr. 11 (1862) 106, t. 317-18.
Description: eaves narrower, inflorescence paniculate, depauperate.
Utricles shorter. Othrwise like metogyna.
Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke).
Distribution of species: Nilgiris, Pulneys, throughout the Himalayas,
Assam, Burma.—Ceylon, Tonkin, China, Yunnan, Java, Borneo, Sumatra.
6. Carex Lindleyana Nees in Wight Contr. (1834) 121; C. B. Clarke in
Hook. 4, BVB fyi, 721:
Var. major Fischer in Flora Madras ix (1931) 1687.—C. mercarensts Hochst
ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Cyper. (1855) 194, var. major Steud. l.c.; Cke. ii, 906.
Description: Cke. 1.c.
Locality: Without locality (Dalzell !).—Konkan: Ambewadi (Patwardhan
1104 !).—W. Ghats: Matheran (Herb. St. X:C. C20 ! C21 !, H.E.B.B. !);
Mahableshwar (Ezekiel !, Woodrow 79 ex Cooke), Bombay Point (Fernandez
C152 !), Fitzgerald Ghat, 3 miles from Mahableshwar (Blatter C154 !, Mc-
Cann !); Panchgani (Talbot 4475 !, Blatter & Hallberg B1737 !); common
(McCann !); Londa (Woodrow ex Cooke); Castle Rock, 1,700 ft., rainfall 200 in.
(Herb. Sedgwick & Bell 5552 !, McCann C23 !, Gammie 15765 ! 15887 !).—
S. M. Country: Belgaum (Hole 28 !).—N. Kanara: Arbail Ghat, 2,000 ft.,
rainfall 200 in. (Sedgwick 3129 !); Anmod, forest, 2,000 ft., rainfall 200 in.
(Sedgwick 3453 !); Devimane Ghat (Hallberg & McCann C24 !); Kilkund
(Talbot 35381 !); Yellapur (Talbot 667 !); Jugglepet (Talbot 1564 !); Armhi
Ghat (Talbot 1821 !); Guddehulli peak, Karwar (Bell 7737 !).
Flowering & fruiting: March 1918 (Matheran); March 1919 (Castle Rock);
March 17th 1917 (Mahableshwar); September 21st 1883 (Yellapur); September
25th 1884 (Yellapur); October 1920 (Panchgani); October 10th 1885 (Armhi
Ghat); October 11th 1928 (Mahableshwar); October 28th 1902 (Castle Rock) ;
REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 9
October 29th (Panchgani); November 1910 (Kanara District); November 1917
(Arbail Ghat); November 1929 (Fitzgerald Ghat); November 14th 1885 (Juggle-
pet); December 1917 (Anmod); December 1920 (Guddehulli); December Ist
1895 (Nilkund); December 12th 1896 (Matheran).
Field notes: A monsoon species in deciduous forest, but it lasts longer in
evergreens, practically throughout the year. The flowering commences about
the middle of September.
A weak looking sedge growing in tufts under the shade of trees. The
rhizomes are black and woody. They persist for years.
Distribution: Deccan, S. M. Country, N. Kanara, Mercara, Attapadi, Ana-
malais, Pulney Hills, High Wavy Mountain, 5,000-8,000 ft.
7. Carex baccans Nees in Wight Contr. (1834) 122; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f.
Habs d Vay 4122.
Description: Robust, glabrous. Rhizome very stout, short, horizontal, with
approximate stems. Stems often 0.9 m. Leaves often overtopping inflorescence,
8 mm. broad. Inflorescence 30-45 by 7.5-10 cm. (small examples occur); bracts
much overtopping inflorescence; lowest peduncle usually distant, exsert; partial
panicle often 5-12.5 by 2.5-5 em. Spikes 3.8 by 0.6 cm., male portion dark
red when young. Female glumes ovate or obovate, acute or obtuse, often
cuspidate sometimes (even in large examples) muticous. Utricle in the fully
developed state 2.5 mm. diameter, nearly globose, wall thickened more or less
succulent, red, nearly glabrous rarely obscurely scabrous-hairy near top; utricles
in the half-ripe state usually olivaceous with more prominent recurved beak.
Nut ellipsoid-trigonous, pyramidal at both ends, black, much narrower than
utricle; style-base linear.
Locality: Without locality (Dalzell !)—W. Ghats: Mahableshwar (Herb.
Sedgwick & Bell 7285 !, Blatter 1594 !).
Flowering & fruiting: November 1919 (Mahableshwar); November 1929
(Mahableshwar).
Distribution: Nepal, Sikkim, Khasia and Naga Hills, Upper Burma, Gan-
jam District, W. Ghats of Madras Presidency, 3,000-7,000 ft., Mysore.—Ceylon,
Cochin-China, Malay Archipelago, Philippines, Formosa, South China.
8. Carex speciosa Kunth Enum. ii (1837) 504; Cke. ii, 906.—For synonyms
seo C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 729.
Description: Cke. l.c.
Locality: N. Kanara: Hulgi, in mixed forest (Talbot 3142 !, 2 sheets,
Talbot 2282 ex Cooke).
Flowering & fruiting: April 20th and 28th 1894 (Hulgi).
Distribution: Throughout India.—Tonkin, Borneo.
9. Carex glauca Murr. Prodr, Stirp. Gotting. (1770) 76; Kiikenth. in
Engler’s Pflanzenr. iv, 20 (1909) 416.—C. flacca Schreb. Spic. Fl. Lips.
Append. (1771) 669.
Description: Rhizome producing long stolons. Culm 20-45 cm. high, rigid,
obsoletely triquetrous, smooth, leafy below. Leaves shorter than the culm,
2-4 mm. broad, with the margins revolute, keeled, glaucous, patent, the lower
sheaths brown-purple. Spikelets 4-5, the upper 2-3 (rarely 1) male, cylindrical,
the lower 2-8 female (at the apex often male), thinly cylindrical, 2-3 cm.
long, dense-flowered, more or less pedunculate, erect or finally pendulous,
peduncles setaceous, scabrous. Bracts foliaceous, the lowest often exceeding
the inflorescence, sometimes shortly sheathing. Female glumes ovate or oblong-
ovate, slightly acute, black-brown, often very shortly mucronate. Utricles -
slightly exceeding the glumes, finally membranous, ovate-ellipsoid or subobo-
vate, subinflated trigonous, 8 mm. long, straw-coloured-greenish, nerveless ex-
cept 2 marginal nerves, truncate at base, on the margins above sometimes
sparingly scabrous, beak very short, truncate, often curved outwardly. Nut
obovate, trigonous. Stigmas 3.
Var. cuspidata (Host.) Aschers. et Graebner Synops. Mitteleurop. FI. ii, 2
(1902-03) 138.—C. cuspidata Host. Gram. Austr. i (1801) 71, t. 97.—C. flacca
¢. B, Clarke in Hook. f; F-B.I. -vi,_-742,
10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. XXXVIII
Description: Female spikelets slender, pedunculate, erect. Male ‘glumes
narrowed, female mucronate or aristate. Utricles shorter than the glumes,
ellipsoid, olivaceous, acute at apex. res
Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke). :
. Pig hoe of var.: Mediterranean, North Africa, Western Asia, Orient,
Sind.
10. Carex setigera D. Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv (1824) 330; C. B. Clarke
in Hook. #. F.B.I. vi,*743.
Decsription: Glabrous, stoloniferous. Rhizome long, creeping, 2.5 mm. dia-
meter. Stems 30-60 cm. Leaves nearly as long as stem, 3-4 mm. broad.
Spikes 4-8, 3.8-5 cm. long, cylindric, distant, terminal 1 (or 2-3) male, lowest
female, peduncled erect, female up to 8 mm. broad; spike often male at top,
rather lax, often interrupted at base. Female glumes as long as utricle, with
a bristle much overtopping utricle in the standard form (which is often small
or disappears) usually with bright brown sides and scarious margins (but
the colour of male and female glumes varies widely). Utricles 2-5.2 mm.;
ovoid, hispid, suddenly narrowed into small oblong notched beak, brown-green,
very hispid, nerveless, strongly 2-edged, the concave face only obscurely ridged
by the angle of nut, margined by the incurved edges. Nut ellipsoid, trigo-
nous, narrowed much at base, dark brown; style slender, glabrous, 3-fid,
base not dilated; exsert part of branches about as long as _ utricle.
Var. Schlagintweitiana (Boeck) Kikenth. in Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 20 (1909)
419.—C. Schlagintweitiana Boeck. Cyp. Nov. i (1888) 48; C. B.. Clarke l.c.
Description: _lueaves Parrower. Spikelets narrower, often shorter. Female
glumes mostly only mucronate. Utricles small, with a shorter beak.
Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke).
Distribution of var.: Yarkand, W. Himalaya, Yunnan, Sind.
11. Carex Halleriana Asso Synops. Stirp. Arag. (1779) 133. t. 9, fig. 2;
C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 745.—Ibidem synonyms.
Description: Rhizome stout, densely caespitose, many-branched. Culm
¥0-40, cm. high, weak, obsoletely triquetrous, upwards scabrous. Leaves shorter
than the culnma, 1.5-2.5 mm. broad, with the margins revolute, scabrous above,
bright green, subrigid, lower sheaths brown. Spikelets 8-6, the terminal one
male, linear-oblong, 1-1.5 cm. long, sessile or shortly pedunculate, lateral ones
2-5 female (at the apex often male), ovate, few and subdensely flowered, 8-10 mm.
long, the upper 1-3 spikelets male, approximate, subsessile, the lower 1-2 very
long—unequally pedunculate, capillary peduncles decumbent, sparsely scabrous.
Bracts scale-like, amplexicaul, the lowest shortly setaceous. Female glumes
lanceolate ovate, muticous or mucronate, chestnut or copper-coloured, the mar-
gins white-hyaline, on the back greenish 8-nerved. Utricles longer than the
glumes, finally obliquely patent, membranous, obovate-oblong, trigonous,
4-5 mm. long, brownish green, minutely and sparsely pubescent, many-costate,
long-attenuate into a winged stalk. Nut tightly enclosed oblong-obovate, stipi-
tate; base of style thickened. Stigmas 3.
Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex, Clarke).
Distribution: . Mediterranean, Europe, N. Africa, W. Asia, Orient, Sind.
12. Carex breviculmis R. Br. Prodr. Nov. Holl. (1810) 242; C. B. Clarke
in Hook. f:.F.B.I. vi, 746.—C. Royleana Nees ex Wight Contr. (1884) 127.
Description: Slender, glabrous, except utricles. Rhizome creeping. Stems
eaespitose, 10-40 cm. Leaves often 2 stem, 3 mm. broad, flat. Spikes 2-5,
oblong, rather small, usually approximate, subsessile; terminal one. male pale,
lowest. female sometimes 15 cm. distant on 5 cm. peduncle, with 8-14 utricles.
Female ripe spikes 8 by 4 mm. Female glumes with long bristle much ex-
ceeding utricles. Style 2-fid, at base dilated green, sometimes forming a
button as in the nuts of Eleocharis. Utricle small, ellipsoid, trigonous, slightly
hairy, tip pyramidal.
Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke).
Distribution: N.-W. Himalaya, Assam, Khasia Hills, Nilgiris, Pulneys.—
Tonkin, China, Japan, Formosa, Korea, Australia, New Zealand.
REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 11
Tour CyPRRACEAE IN COOKE AND THE PRESENT PAPER.
Sp. in Cooke. Sp. in this paper.
1. . Kyllinga net sat 2 5
2. Pycreus me aa he 10 *under Cyperus.
3. Juncellus es Ae on 3 | *under Cyperus.
4. Cyperus ot a 27 35
5. Mariscus ae: fa aie 6 | *under Cyperus.
6. Courtotsia we va 1 1
4... Feleocharis- --~3.: ae gl 8
8. Fimbristylis ... se 17 18
9. Bulbostylis |... ne it 3
10.. Sczrpus °~". , 1l 13
ll. Eriophorum ... ae 1 ]
12. Futrena a ee: 4 4
13. Lipocarpha ... at 2
14. Rhyncospora .. 3 2
15. Schoenus 1
16. Remirea one 1 i
17. Hypolytrum. ... ee l 1
18. Scleria a oh 6 8
19. Diplacrum i
LOS Carex 3 12
We have combined Cyperus tegetiformis and C. tegetum with C. corymbosus
Rottb.; C. tuberosus with C. rotundus; Scirpus Michelianus with Juncellus pyg-
maeus; and Scirpus Kysoor with S. grossus.
We have excluded from the Bombay Flora Rhyncospora Wallichiana.
' DISTRIBUTION OF GENERA IN THE PRESIDENCY. .
O >,
— ap elale)eldis18|s
et . ; x C ee
Ps gis (S| Se) Sj ae) Ora te
oS) 2) sts! s | a | ol 6 hes hese oe
wr, Za Ne SAPs ORAM SA ise ale a
1, Ajtlinga re 5 1 Ee eee ia, Fae 2 A Rha 4. 4
2. Pycreus see | LO 3 1 3 ] 5 8; 9] 6 8
3. Juncellus ors gaat 1 2 1 3 2 3 2 eee! 3 2
4. Cyperus Sores HetG ES I I3e 2 1g yay 188 22
5. Mariscus a Gig the lorcet set eee: Klenee 1 3 Soe 3
6. Courtoisia ee ee ret Re | ee (errs a eae I 1
7. Eleocharis 8.4 4 7 3 il ] is) ALS 6
8. Fimbristylis 18 | 10 1 PLZ Ae GUS 12 7) 1a. 16
9. Bulbostylis 3 i et ae 1 sa ieee eee ak Gos 3
10. Scirpus 1S dO 20. Ale B82 2s) 4) Bet S41 5 | 8
J]. Eriophorum 1 ] oe ] ] Ry peewee | eee Sicee | ei
12. Futrena Ait .. il ] i Z 1 3 De aa
13. Lipocarpha sis Z oe 1 1 | 2
14. ARhyncospora oe 2: ies 1 a 2 TA se
15. Schoenus 1 ee —- EVeae
16. Remirea je ies ioe il
17. HAypolytrum ye, Re ec eee eae ‘| il
18. Scleria 8 erly SINGS Oo.) cape oF
19. Diplacrum Lee coe | eee eet tees Ve came eaemien ame dy ccrgailiac cent ert
20. Carex | 12 OTS eae ager iad ieee an eee ost |i ] 3 1 2
Total... 136 60/14] 5] 50/17] 44| 274] 72 | 69 | 92
i
12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES IN THE PRESIDENCY. :
~
ns
He é q|-:
“| B) blo q z os Pla
EG) aos ie (au) Mw . (a4
D/O /S 19/819 \a/O ls iM
Alslalsialolol- li] .
DIO IM | MO IM IE | |
KYLLINGA |
1. triceps sea ll gleselea li gleechegl gl gh geet Conctd.-in. the Deccan:
2. melanoSperma ... |...) al atel oa less lees Pa elie
3. sguamiulala swelled eel eal tocelae'e este) el paeg eon te
4, brevitolia wes tlnoadiye | ieee walamoltcas) eee lias ae
5. monocephala | #| +| «| x| Conctd. in the Konkan.
Total... .. Iie.) 2) 435 ‘ 4
PYCREUS
1. flavescens lpealeealtnuleasl ris
2. latespicatus | x! | «! «| «| Conctd. in the Deccan.
3. MGIGRATICUS ~ aoe | eel ec easlncelews lessees a Veceloce
A, SANGUINOLENLUS ... | gleeciece|eee|s--| &| x] a! #| a| Concetd. in the Deccan.
5, puncticulatus 0. |...\.0. sal eat cealiee alte
6. albomarginatus.., |...b...'ee Boe Baad «| «| «| «| Conctd. in the Konkan.
7. globosus -| «| ol «| al.%! #1 «| Conetd. in the Deccan:
8. odoratus liege betel belle »| *| | Conetd. in N. Kanara.
QO. hyalinus ~ - scales. rales] nal eee aoe glasdeesisee
|
10. pranilus Been Ne (eae | ic leeal well ele eles
a
Total ... K 1. 3 1 5 : 9| 6} 8
| |
JUNCELLUS |
1. alopecuroides pu iylive 2M linsel cial felt og
2. Michelianus ...1... é «lca sel oe Rt el
3. laevigatus 2 pe | al eieenltels
| |
Totals: 2 1 4] 3 2) ss) 1 3) 2
REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY
13
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES IN THE PRESIDENCY.—contd.
5B
a] |. JalBle
=e Sle/ Sidi gi Slols
4 c aS te Uv. fa) ® eel 5 a0}
S/S /S12/ 81318 Cis] z
Slplalslay;olol-| | .
PAO 11 IM JO IM |F [wy Iz, |
CYPERUS.
1. cephialotes pataeelren |realeasle calace i
2 platystylis ahs lever lieedie uae leanne aes ea he ”
3. castaneus bs lat: ie
4. uncinatus ploatecd! aie alge
GeeLVCCOOLEI i ewe) ee oon aioe sien) x we
6. QIfLOVINES) van aes l vas Me aw lhae eee ieee
7. pulcherrimus ae ana hawile be siladcleae esas caine
8. flavidus —_ z.._ |. Giese ee Blivatl Selucg |e
9. Haspan (5 elects gieesiles
10. Zeneriffae ss sslees! plesslieet | gyleae
ll. nzveus : gieesl) Wesetee etic: \aee
12. leucocephalus A pie len | 2
13. arenarius oe Glee gels elves ce ‘
14. conglomeratus ... | 4| « «| x ah ae
15. effusus , bees liees Rial gavel
16. Atkinsont giles 3as eos oe eetl
17: compressus *|° Ye wl selicel gl og
18. glaber *l° See leenlane ls
19. aristatus Sele pie seh tall ah plete
20, Irza a] efter] ok *| | «| |
21. distans bile lh alee de
22, nutans aele *| *) x] oe] o*
23. eleusinoides Ricslees Paley eral eee
QEEDULOSUS > = ace | casi neel thaloh ely ee tee lve
25. PYOCEYUS ——— aoe | eva loeelore yree|oeefeee fee Baar bes
26. malaccensts gelesen st ee Voce lee a
27. bulbosus Paral eel Rulers lead ene
28. articulatus — ... | cal eee|oes lee Aeclt gl cal lee
29. corymbosus sl giles ae alas eo alles
Un IHUCEH oe. lee slices feo. al aloes | foe oe P
31. rotundus a| oe Ue lates eel pig ea el coe
B32). ESCULEHIUS sae \.52| 36h ewe ile Ne "
33. stoloniferus elles heal Nel eed ese ¥
34. exallatus pie ea Sel ale
35. digitatus cealoee ile. EME ee
Total 17| 911 16] 5 |13]21117118)22
MARISCUS
Nee OLOLLEDE © ease Wee cee laos ache ete leet ales
Dee CULOOSUS seal? |ndelees (oon eo |sae:|<0-|- SAlesclbegiiars
3. PANICEUS — nae |ooclese| oe] sa lfece feos ate aa a,
A. ROMRANENS1S — 120 |aoeleee|-oelees|ere jel eg Melle
5. pennatus Addllasctoaailes sal, le e}fae| isc
6. compactus ie ra Nate | eit tale’ ta =| eee eed
Total | 1 1 3| 51 3| 3
Conctd. in the Deccan,
Conctd. in the Deccan and
Konkan.
Conctd. in N. Kanara.
Conctd. in the Deccan and
N. Kanara.
Conctd. in the Deccan chiefly
and N. Kanara.
Conctd. in the Deccan and
Konkan.
Conctd. in the Deccan.
Conctd. in the Deccan and
Konkan.
Conctd. in Sind, Deccan and
Konkan.
‘|Concentrated in the Konkan .
14
JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.
XXXVIIL
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES DN rr, PRESIDENCY. s—eontd.
ah oh
° x 2 — 3
a! l4i-lilegie
amen eee el ole Ol
Ja) S)S}ola)elclO]a
ol(o|alv|SlolSlOl elm
qlee yp Slo; a) =
Sis} @8] 51a} o] oO {|
BIO |S |O IMO IM 1S | (A
CoURTOISIA
1. cyperoides — ... |...)-+. --| x/-+-| «| *! Concentrated in the 'S. M.
Country.
Total Wie eallied
ELEOCHARIS
1. plantaginea . ae Paes ere a
2. fistulosa s sellatgll tale (
3. spiralis ae : Pe Che es
4. atropurpurea... x Beles eal ge eg etl ae
5. capitata + *| x! x! #/ x} x] Concentrated: in ae Deccan
; | and Konkan.
6. palustris i seeleceleee lens
ie chaetaria eolece|sarleee! seelee * ol &) ox Concentrated in N, Kanara.
8. congesta saleool cer neteleaelast la | scoala
|
Total Al is \aee| 3) ol. ; 4156
FIMBRISTYLIS
1, detragond R. Brivjetecs| ofeejeeel a] oe] ae] x]
2. ACUMINALA —saalins|eveleveloe [reeleeeeeelere] ak]
3. POlylrtChotdes ..)...Joeeeeefeee cecleee gleee|en -| Concentrated im the enkann
4. schoenotdes Pere ae ae aah ai auelece
5. argentea : Pie Blegalwes :
6. “aesiiodlgs * a. re a sel cteg lel ee
7. dichotoma #[ete] #) #) ¥| & x) *] *] &! Concentrated in Gujerat,
| Khandesh and Deccan.
8. spathacea Pe *; eee] *] x] Concentrated in the Konkan.
9. annua Var.
diphylla k #ltte} x) oe] oe! *] &! Concentrated in the Deccan.
10. ferruginea z| afer] xl #l oe x} #t #] «| Concentrated in the Deccan
we | and N. Kanara.
11. digitata _ wa here arael etal eccell cae lho
12. Woodrowtt , loss eeeitee eleaale |
13. tenera ; veel «| *| &! *| *) *le--| Concentrated in the Konkan,
14. junettorinis ‘ #/ e+] #) ater) #/ «| Concentrated in the Konkan.
15. mtliacea BEAD Reese lst n wl
16. guinguangularis, ,)...\...| [sl elie icles
17. complanata gleael gal gl aglivent CO Megaleee
18. smonostachya ele glsealaeitoelenclieee lee
REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY id
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES IN THE PRESIDENCY.—contd.
a
iS
. Fs (e} .
i Als | a|a|- =
: Pia nuit a H
mo} C}a O19 5 q oO = we
Blslalsislojols|.|:-
NOW OMIA |X Sin |Z,
BULBOSTYILIS | |
1. éarbata ile e Pa | oe]
2. captillaris var.
trifida £) oR, OK
3. puberula peo errs (Mea Peere AN Deer roe a2
Total: .4| 4 ] \.. 1) 2} 3
SCIRPUS
IAL OLOSCHOCHUS 6.) | Haltos
2. supinus glen Pee foxy el oC ’
: : td: inthe Deccan.
3. avticulatus xe lees 4° *] ox *| vies : eee
4. guinguefarius ..\ | ole] alecl al aloo Conctd. in the Konkan.
5. corymbosus Sea lome lglg leer ae acael selina
6. maritimus a loco pees alow ak | ok i
7. trigueter ’ = eallt , Dee OLG ie: a Pie calgel
8. gvossus A eee Giles wet arce Gank : i
é . onctd. in the Konkan.
10. mucronatus aoe ee | oe] x]
ll. erectus Vee Aas eet
12. kyllingoides : : &,
13. sguarrosus ¥ * | *
Totals ailore 1 Si2 \A6 751518
|
ERIOPHORUM |
1. comosum a | Gales lore Was ea |: rel ae
l
MOU ral vbleeateecl sl yall diver el ae
FUIRENA . | | | | |
ne wallichiana secleee Blige selon, mee Concentrated in the Deccan.
2. ciliaris #) kieeefees) oe] oe] &] x} Concentrated in the Konkan
a and $.M.C.
Su CILGLILOUR den eaten wl enslloee ne Ae eee .
4. wmbellata serfeoel «x's x!+-] 4] Concentrated in the S. M,
| | | Country.
| | |
TROtGH eaes iit e Les he 2ie8 si
LIPOCARPHA | | |
1. argentea | lee : Liens
2. triceps Bees Atiye cles ee ale
|
RO taller a lcsclesd laa, [- pe les | a,
i6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVitt
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES IN THE PRESIDENCY .—contd.
qe
ss
, bay aa
é} a) | |alSl8
aa : Bilis} o ais =z |.° <
a/S/ S/S ai sisiCla i a
S/ZiSl8ia/sia\Cla
SIsls/slslo/sl_- l=! .
BIO |M |G | 1M JE I lS
RHYNCOSPORA | |
1. wightiana wee leeclee ale nalts: ace .| m=l-s-| «| Concentrated in the Deccan
and Konkan.
2. corymbosa Gee |ee-|ens|epeleae|e-alawel per oalyecal ale SOCAL y COU entll:
Total ee : VB 2) 12
SCHOENUS
1. nigricans eee legal dorleare lireie I eulheaal | ees
Total 1 - eee He ne
REMIREA |
1. maritima eerilcolh satel stor | oo eal etl eel tose Des *
|
otal: |} alee | realete | awe - i!
HvpoLyTRUM
1. Jlatifolium oo eal ohalaeellecal ss ua lees
|
Total’ Acie Se Nec Nach elses ee
SCLERIA :
Wsca GLOSSCL QL 2. 1 Madose| oes Svalleaeleaaeo sie le aliee se
2. lithosperma ...|... eblGeclnealaalee! Ue Conctd. in N. Kanara.
3. 1COPMLOOSH * ae Ne ee sbeee cations Uieeelacad geal
4, hebecarpa —— ...\.e.lee-[ecalee.[eo-|-e- Meare tse Conctd. in N. Kanara.
5. poaeformtis : eh eeet Beeps
©. COCHINGRINEISIS \. Niles les
7. annularis —4s.|... Soa scelicedla ae ee eee
8. SLOCKSIGNGY? ten| a . Be op hai a
Total ...} .. US ear,
DIPLACRUM
Le Gar iCi nw seed ac hacleetheattntlon: efoee ;
Total ccAlcshectleclicchles! ae pale | i}
|
eee ee
REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 17
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES IN THE PRESIDENCY.—contd.
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Somr Norus ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CYPERACEAE
IN THE PRESIDENCY.
Of the 185 species recorded so far from the Presidency 16 are peculiar
to Sind, viz.:
Cyperus pulcherrimus Willd. Carex nubigena D. Don.
_ Cyperus effusus Rottb. Carex foliosa D. Don.
Cyperus Atkinsoni C. B. Clarke Carex brunnea Thunb.
Cyperus glaber Linn. Carex filicina Nees var. metogyna et
var. minor.
Eleocharis palustris R. Br. Carex glauca var. cuspidata.
Scirpus Holoschoenus Linn. Carex setigera var. Schlagintweitiana.
Scirpus triqueter Linn. Carex Halleriana Asso.
Schoenus nigricans Linn. Carex breviculmis R. Br.
One to Gujerat: Cyperus esculentus Linn.
2 to the Konkan: Pycreus hyalinus Don, and Cyperus castaneus Willd.
2 to the W. Ghats: Mariscus Blatteri McCann, and Cares baccans Nees.
3 to the Southern Maratha Country: Cyperus Meeboldti WKiikenthal, Eleo-
charts congesta Don, and Scleria corymbosa Roxb., and 9 to N. Kanara.
Cyperus cephalotes Vahl. Remirea maritima Aubl.
Cyperus platystylis R. Br. Scleria poaeformis Retz.
Bulbostylis puberula Kunth. Diplacrum caricinum R. Br.
Scirpus kyllingoides Boeck. Carex speciosa Kunth.
Fuirena uncinata Kunth.
How are we to explain this peculiar distribution? The large number of
species peculiar to Sind may be accounted for by the presence of the Indus
River as it may be responsible for the introduction of some of the species from
the northern part of India. But this alone does not seem to account for this
2
18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
distribution. Sind is the wintering ground for many wild fowl such as ducks
and waders, some of which never descend lower down into the Presidency. A
great ATA Roe of these migrant birds come from the North, North-West and West
and in so doing bring along the seed of various plants in the mud that fre-
quently adheres to their bills, feet and plumage, and have in this way added to
our Cyperaceous flora especially as this order comprises plants that are in-
habitants of marshes and stretches of water. For example Cyperus glaber is
so far only recorded from Sind, the distribution is given as ‘Westwards to
Sicily’; similarly C. effusus has also only been recorded from Sind the distri-
bution being given as westwards to N. Africa. Is it not possible that these
two species were introduced by aquatic birds? Some of these records are over
thirty years old and it appears strange that since that time (Pinwill) they
have not been obtained again. It seems very probable that these were just
chance specimens which happened to survive for a short time in the new
locality and then died out. Sind is poorly explored, and this may also account
for the absence of further data.
Khandesh is in a similar position as Kathiawar, but for the few records
places are unexplored from a Cyperologist’s point of view as is easily seen
from the records we have at hand. Fr. Blatter collected in Cutch during
the winter of 1907-08, but as these plants are so much dependent on water
it was an unsuitable time. Kathiawar is almost a blank; there is not the
slightest doubt that it still remains a closed book as there has never been
any serious collecting done in the area.
Khandesh is in a similar position as Kathiawar but for the few records
from the West and along the Tapti River made by Fr. Blatter, the late Prof.
Hallberg and Mr. McCann during the winters of 1916-17 and 1918-19. Both
these trips were of short duration and the time was most unsuitable for
Cyperaceae. We are sure that with the further investigation of these areas
the distribution of some of the species will be extended.
Coming down to the W. Ghats 2 of the 8 species are from the Mahablesh-
war ranges, whose heavy rainfall might well be compared with that — of
N. Kanara. The demarcation between the W. Ghats and the Konkan is very
vague and it is difficult to attribute this or that species to one or the other
of-these areas. 'T'wo species are peculiar to the Konkan. The Southern Maratha
Country yields three species peculiar to it but as there is no saying where the
S. M. Country ends and Kanara begins perhaps a few more species might as
well be added to those already mentioned for Kanara.
How are we to account for the large number of species peculiar to Kanara?
Kanara was well explored by Talbot, whose large collections testify to this,
and also by subsequent collectors. This may he one of the reasons but the
Konkan has also been well explored and yet the number is small compared
with that for Kanara. It is possibly due to the heavy rainfall Kanara receives
and also to the dense evergreen forests. The Nilgiris hold some of the species
and perhaps also the adjoining country which is still unexplored. Is it possible
that some of these plants have come with wandering animals, such as elephants,
bison and deer? But we know very little on this point to draw any definite
conclusions. Most of the species that occur in Kanara are forest species,
Remtrea alone occurring on the sandy seacoast.
(To be continued).
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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Spotted Deer (Amis axis) at margin of forest.
A GAME SANCTUARY IN CEYLON.
BY
Lizut.-CoLt. R. W. Burton,
Indian Army (retired).
(With a plate).
It was with the kind permission of the Minister for Agriculture
and Lands, and in the company of the Government Agent for
the Southern Province (Mr. J. D. Brown), and his Assistant for
the District of Hambantota (Mr. F. L. Leach), that the writer
had the privilege to visit the Yala Game Sanctuary in February
1988.
This Sanctuary came into existence in February 1899, the area
set apart being bounded on the east by the IKumbukkan-oya, on
the south by the sea, the west by the river Menik Ganga, and the
north by a demareation line cleared through the jungle. In length
about 16 miles by 10 miles wide the Sanctuary has an area of
approxunately 170) square miles which is under the supervision of
a Ranger, with twelve watchers under his control. The area is
further protected on three sides by Reserved Forests patrolled by
game watchers.
Having been furnished with letters of introduction to the
President and to the Honorary Secretary of the Ceylon Game
and Fauna Protection Society, also to Mr A.C.Tutein-Nolthenius,
F.Z.8., of the Executive Committee, by our late Honorary Secre-
tary Sir Reginald Spence, it was under very favourable auspices
that the visit was made.
On the evening of the 9th February 1988 we all met together at
the Tissamaharama Rest House, the party of five including Mr.
A. R. Hughes, ornithologist and expert amateur photographer.
The care with which all Rest Houses in Ceylon are provided with
a mosquito-proof room and a full supply of mosquito curtains was
much appreciated, for we all enjoyed a good night’s rest un-
disturbed by the singing whine of the myriads of these pests for
which Tissa is famed.
On our way through the Palatupane Reserve on the following
day the country was verdant from the recent unusually prolonged
monsoon rains; many pretty wild flowers bordered the paths; and
the sweet scent of flowering shrubs and creepers was in the air.
A skylark enchanted us with his aérial song so reminiscent of the
home land; in and around the open sheets of water were a num-
ber of birds—redshanks, sandpipers, stints, godwits, golden-
plover, cattle egrets, terns, painted storks, and many _ others.
Green bee-eaters hawked the air ‘chasing the purple butterflies’,
a pied crested cuckoo was seen Jumping after insects in the grass;
while kites and hawks cireled in the clear blue sky. All nature
seemed to smile in approval of our peaceful mission.
20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
A few miles beyond the Palatupane Rest House we emerged
into a large open space in the centre of which was a pool of water.
The scene was reminiscent of an African game country. Buffalo
and spotted deer lay peacefully about or grazed on the short her-
bage; sambur rested or fed along the edge of the forest; sounders
of wild pig rooted in the grass; and some jackals were observed
returning from a drink at the pool.
These jackals were fine dark-coloured animals, seemingly larger
and more handsome than the Indian species. There are no wild
dogs in Ceylon. Jackals have been seen hunting in packs to pull
down the smaller deer, but now the animals took no notice of
them.
Other similar scenes were observed further on—good augury
for what we would enjoy in the Sanctuary—and as the sun sank
behind the sand-hills separating us from the sea, we arrived at the
Yala Ranger's Bungalow on the bank of the Menik Ganga. Soon
the full moon soared above the trees on the further side to flood
our camp with its welcome light; a sambur hind voiced her alarm
at the scent of a prowling leopard; the nasal croaking of the bar-
bets was unceasing. _
We looked apprehensively upon the turbid flood of the river
rolling toward the sea and wondered whether the carts could make
the crossing in the morning. All of us, men and cattle alike, had
earned a night’s rest after the long march of some twenty-six
miles, and lulled by the ceaseless surge of the waves upon the
shore were soon soundly sleeping.
The camp was early astir as the crossing of the river might be
a lengthy business, and there would be twelve miles of mostly
sandy track before tents could be pitched.
~The ford is about half a mile up stream. One of the game
watchers entered the water, found the end of the wire hawser
broken by some tree trunk hurled down the river in a recent flood.
Gaining the further bank he quickly procured a length of liana,
strong as any hawser, to make the necessary connection to the
other side. It was a relief to see that the depth would not prevent
the passage of the carts.
We all stripped and crossed to watch the baggage being carried
over on the men’s heads. Then the empty carts were driven down
the steep bank to be hauled through the strong stream by the
diminutive bullocks sometimes swimming and sometimes wading
and all the time encouraged by much noise as is the custom in
the East. Safely across, the seven carts were soon again plodding
along beneath the shade of the fringe of tall evergreen trees
bordering the river banks to emerge under a hot sun into the
more or less open country which was our first view of the Sanctuary,
and through which the cart track leads to Pahala Potana.
Roaming about in advance of the carts, I failed to get a snap-
shot of a bull buffalo in a wallow; but by careful stalking managed
to photograph a small herd feeding close to a reedy pool, obtaining
a second ‘shot’ as they moved off.
..The open spaces were alive with parties of buffalo, while all
along the fringe of. the jungle were groups of spotted deer. The
A GAME SANCTUARY IN CEYLON L OF
animals merely moved quietly away on the appearance of the long
string of carts and men; but only with a telephoto lens would it
have been possible to obtain effective pictures. We hoped that
those taken by Hughes would prove successful.
The heat was considerable, and as the day drew to a close
these spaces would be covered with animals. Pig we saw, and
signs of elephant; the sambur were all in the shade of the trees
along the sand dunes, the area in the Sanctuary to which many
of them are particularly partial.
At the place where we stopped for lunch was the skull of a
long-defunct elephant which afforded a seat, and by the side
of the path were the leg bones which had been used as a fire-
place. During the wanderings in these jungles the remains of four
elephants were seen, but of buffalo and other animals no bones were
found.
It was when the shadows were fast lengthening that we neared
the camping ground. Many herds of spotted deer scattered before
the rumbling carts, and on emerging from the forest we gazed in
astonishment at the scene before us. All about the plain, through
the mile-long length of which meanders a running stream, were
scattered herds of buffalo; along the further side were large herds
and parties of spotted deer numbering perhaps seven hundred, while
within the fringes of the forest were more animals. Probably there
were a thousand deer, but the failing light prevented a more accur-
ate computation. Sounders of pig wandered about, the tiny
porkers scuttling to and fro, fencing with one another on their hind
legs, and generally behaving like playful puppies; jackals roamed
unconcernedly among the beasts whose bones they would some day
pick when they fell victims to leopards or disease, for in Ceylon
there are no vultures to dispute the feast.
It was only the centre part of the long plain which was in
view as the ends curled out of sight. It was realized that the
stock of game is very abundant, and this was confirmed by similar
sights observed by the Government Agent, and other members of
the party, who went further east on the following day to Uda
Gajabawa and other open spaces. Everywhere roamed herds of
buffalo and deer. | '
The night passed quietly. There were no alarm calls of sambur
or spotted deer, no trumpetings of elephant, yet leopard and
elephant must have been in the vicinity. The hours of darkness
seemed to brood and be expectant, for one peoples the night with
one’s fancies. Lying awake I called to mind many forest vigils
'when the quiet of the jungle had sunk to night’s absolute stillness
and the ear was cocked to hear the sound of heavy footsteps. I
could picture the deer moving fearfully, peering, sniffing, treading
delicately lest a twig should snap, a branch rustle, ears moving
to catch every little sound. Later in the night there would be
absolute stillness, but in the early hours there is always the noise
of little things on the prowl; quick stealthy noises, little rustlings
and patterings, little sudden pouncings. Ah! the delight of those
forest vigils! And so came dreamless sleep.
It was most interesting the next morning to see the cameras
22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
set for flashlight pictures, and I learnt from Hughes much of this
fascinating pursuit. On our way to find a suitable ‘run’ a fine
leopard was seen lapping at a pool. Buffalo and deer stared, but
little perturbed by the unwonted sight of human beings. Were
the Sanctuary more accessible to visitors— as it will be some day
when it is a National Park—the animals would be less timid, for
with familiarity would come the confidence born of the knowledge
that man is not an enemy.
On our way back to camp a fine bull was spied in his. wallow
in the open plain. Stooping low and stepping warily in light
rubber shoes I got to within fifteen feet of the reeumbent form.
He was not asleep, but did not hear the slight click of the shutter.
The film wound off ready for another ‘shot’, a small piece of mud
roused the old fellow from his siesta. Up he got with astounding
agility for so bulky an animal and was twenty yards away in a
second. Then he wheeled around to stare at the intruder and
afforded a second ‘shot’. Now Hughes advanced on him to take
his picture with the telephoto lens, but even then he only walked
slowly off to stand disgruntled with the stolid bovine stare of his
species. On return to camp one of the servants, hearing the
story related, enquired, ‘Did he come to bite you?’ at which there
was much amusement.
In the open plain were two big bulls who appeared to have
fixed a bend in the stream as the dividing line of each other’s
territory. One of them had his left horn broken off about a foot
from the tip, no doubt in one of the terrific battles they have from
time to time. They appeared to be surly brutes, and the Ranger
begged me not to try and take a close ‘shot’, so I left them alone.
In the evening another camera was set for flashlight, and on
return of the Government Agent at sunset we heard of all that had
been observed towards the eastern boundary. Tutein-Nolthenius,
keen naturalist and expert collector of the smaller mammals, re-
lated much that was of interest concerning the fauna of Ceylon.
Recently he had obtained most rare and interesting specimens of
wild cats in the coastal area near Hambantota.
As the shades of evening deepened animals began to come into
the open, but not in such numbers as were seen on our arrival.
No doubt the sight of the tents, the voices of the camp, and the
light of the fires had scared the beasts accustomed to solitude.
Watching with field-glasses, until the darkness descended and
night stretched its smooth veil over the magic scene, it could be
observed that more and more shadowy forms were advancing into
the open. The buffaloes loomed as large as elephants.
Tt was dark now and the sky unclouded, but soon the round
disc of the moon appeared, the trees threw queer shadows, and
the camp fires blazing up spouted arrows of gold and scarlet against
the dark background of the forest.
When living close to Nature one is early awake. The gentle
wind that ushers in the dawn of day came scent-laden with the
freshness of the blossoming forest trees and the camp was quickly
astir. On this, the last day of our stay, three of us were to go
to a small range of hills some five miles to the north, while Messrs.
A GAME SANCTUARY IN CEYLON 23
Brown and Hughes stayed to attend to camera work and complete
the list of birds observed in the Sanctuary, which is appended to
this article.
That expedition through the forest has unforgettable memories.
Of all the party—which included the Ranger and four of his
watchers—-none had been there, and it seems that no one has
visited those hills for many years.
About a mile from camp we came upon the Nabbadagas Wewa,
a reed-bordered tank in which grow a number of thorn and other
trees. Here was a colony of snowy white egrets, while in and
around this jungle lake were many species of birds: a paradise
this for the ornithologist and the wild life photographer for here
we saw sambur and spotted deer, and all the animals of the
Sanctuary visit the place.
Proceeding on our way a herd of spotted deer afforded a photo-
graph; then a fine bull buffalo, stalked to within fifteen feet, was
alarmed by some movement of one of the party peering behind
to see the fun and away in that unexpectedly rapid manner before
his picture could be taken; for it is not easy to retain such quick-
moving objects in the small view-finder.
More buffalo were seen, also pig and deer, and a cow elephant
moved quickly across an open space. I was just too late to
‘shoot’ her before she gained the shade of a tree, so we all sat
down and watched, not twenty yards away, secure from detection
as the steady wind was in our favour. A herd was somewhere
about but time did not permit of delay so its picture is not
with me.
More animals we met, and a leopard was seen by one of the
men. Then came the struggle up the steep hillside through the
weeds and undergrowth and the finding of a game track to take
us to the summit ” of Mandagala, as the hill is called. The highest
point is 523 feet above sea level and on it is a cairn of stones
erected by the Survey Department.
Seated on the top of the hill we had a grand view of all the
Sanctuary. The long plain of Pahala Potana, the line of the sea
coast, the Little Basses light-house, a great passenger liner bound
for Colombo, the trees marking the course of the Kumbukkan-oya
to the east, the darker greenery marking the extensive but now
empty bed of the Mandagal a tank just ‘below the hill, and the
similar indication to the west of the Athurumithuru Wewa the
drainage from which forms the streams which run to the Pahala
Potana; all these we saw, and also a few small open spaces in
which were buffalo in their wallows and sambur and deer in the
shade of trees.
One’s thought naturally turned to the needs of the Sanctuary.
These will be ably set out in the Official Report of the Govern-
ment Agent but can be confidently anticipated to include :—an
improvement to the water supply of the area by repair of such tank
embankments as can be carried out; the opening up of the coun-
try by means of ‘rides’, after the manner of fire lines of Indian
forests, to facilitate proper watching and inspection; the clearing of
more open spaces to improve the grazing.
24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
The thirty-six years of protection has evidently permitted the
animals to greatly increase, and now they ask for more grazing
and more water so that they can spread more widely through the
forests. The photographs taken show how poor in condition are
the buffalo in comparison to the wild animals of the Central Pro-
vinces of India, and this at a season when they have had the
fortune of a North-East Monsoon far in excess of the average and
extended much beyond the usual date. In this, the dry zone,
where the rainfall is but 20 to 50 inches, the animals must suffer
much during the hot months from overcrowding at the water pools.
Reluctantly we made our way down the hill to retrace our steps
to camp. All the time we saw animals, and close to the egret
pond there was a crocodile basking on the grass. He wasn’t as
fast asleep as he seemed, for he made off just as he had been satis-
factorily posed in the view-finder. The two surly buffaloes were
still eyeing one another; a fine bull was making affectionate de-
monstrations to a ponderous spouse at the lower end of the plain;
a large snake swished away in the grass; and then, wading through
the warm waters of the stream, we arrived at camp as the declin-
ing sun turned the leaves of the trees into glowing copper. So
ended a glorious day and we slept wrapped in the mystery of the
tropic night.
When leaving the camp next day on our return journey, a herd
of some twenty elephants was close to the path. The cover was
too thick to admit of an attempt at photography so two of our
party crept quite close to see the shadowy forms of big mothers
and small calves. Further on many deer were viewed, and an
elephant hurried to cover on the approach of the carts to the lake
and open space of Uda Potana. It was sad to know that all the
water we were seeing would be soon dried up, and the herds:
forced to congregate along the banks of the river the waters of
which would have dwindled to scattered pools.
The crossing of the Menik Ganga presented no difficulty. Then
came lunch and a bathe and so to camp, where the buffalo grazed |
unconcerned a couple of hundred yards away.
The morning of the 15th February I set out in company with
Mr. Brown to work through the jungle and see the Elephant
Rock, that conspicuous landmark so well known to many Ceylon
sportsmen, and with this further insight into the forests of Ceylon
my most interesting visit came to an end.
With all the memories of those five days, followed by three days
at the Wirawila Bird Sanctuary in the charming company of Mr.
Charles Northway, renowned elephant hunter and sportsman (since
deceased and greatly regretted by all who knew him), and our xpert
ornithologist Mr. Hughes who drove me the 167 miles to Colombo
along the picturesque coast road, there is a deep debt of gratitude
to all those who made the visit possible and so enjoyable im every
way.
IT have had the good fortune to see a number of game preserves
and sanctuaries. The Pidoung Sanctuary in Upper Burma; the
wonderful herds of swamp deer in the Kheri forests of Oudh; the
Sanctuary in the Orrcha State where. you may almost: stroke the
A GAME SANCTUARY IN CEYLON 25
noses of the sambur; that now unique herd of some 5,000 antelope
in the Punjab; the hundreds of Urial in the preserve of a Punjab
Landowner; the elephant and bison around the Peryar Lake in
Travancore; but nowhere have I seen so much varied wild life
in its natural state as in the Yala Sanctuary.
IT shall live in hope of an opportunity to again see, not the
Yala Sanctuary, but the YALA NATIONAL PARK renowned
through the East for the wonders of the Wild Life it contains.
Since the above was written some commencement has been
made as to clearing inspection paths, but without an allotment of
funds by the Ceylon Government the increased grazing and water
which the herds require cannot be provided and the unfortunate
animals must inevitably greatly suffer during those blazing months
when the whole country is parched and dry. It is not difficult to
picture to oneself the terrible sufferings of the thronging herds—
insufficient water, no grazing; horrible.
For thirty-six years the Yala Sanctuary animals have multi-
plied in peaceful security and it is now the obvious duty of the
Government to allot funds for the conservation of the poor beasts
which, in the absence of speedy action, had better have been
left to the more tender mercies of the meat poachers and the
purveyors of hides!
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE
HASTERN GHATS.
(ORNITHOLOGICAL SECTION),
BY
HucH WHISTLER, M.B.0.U., assisted by N. B. KInnEAR, M.B.0.U.
PART
(Continued from page 763 of volume xxxvii).
Dichoceros bicornis (Linnzeus).
_ Buceros bicornis Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 104—China errore,
Travancore.
The Great Hornbill is not found on the eastern side of the Presidency. On
the west it is well distributed. William Davison states that he found it not
uncommon in the forests of the Wynaad, once seeing as many as 50 together
in the cardamom forests of the Peria Ghat. On the slopes of the Nilgiris it
is less common. Davison never saw it above Burhar; Jerdon says it occurs
up to 5,000 ft. on the eastern slopes; and Mr. Betts tells me that the only
one he saw was at 4,500 ft. in the Ochterlony Valley.
Kinloch considered it very common in the Nelliampathies. Fairbank does
not seem to have met it in the Palnis but Terry found one in the Pittur Valley.
The Great Hornbill occurs, according to Bourdillon, throughout the whole
range in Travancore, a pair or so being found in every glen or valley of any
size, the bird being numerous nowhere except perhaps in some of the wilder
jungles on the lower slopes of the hills. Here the breeding season is said
(Stuart Baker, Nidification, iii, 4380) to be in February, March and April.
According to Bourdillon (N. & E., ii, 70) the old birds pair in January and
the young first show themselves in May, shortly before the rains of the S.-W.
Monsoon commence.
As no specimens of this and the next species were obtained by the Survey
I have not attempted to check their systematic status or possible races.
Hydrocissa coronata (DBoddaert).
Buceros coronatus Boddaert, Tabl. Pl. Enlum. (1788), p. 53 based on PI.
Enlum., pl. 873-—Phihppines errore—Malabar.
The Malabar Pied Hornbill was not observed by the Survey and on the
eastern side of the Presidency it is only recorded as occurring at Gumsoor in
Ganjam (Jerdon, B. of I., i, 246) on the southern boundary of its range in
the Chota Nagpur area.
On the west it occurs, according to William Davison, in the evergreen
forests of the Wynaad and on the lower slopes of the Nilgiris. Kinloch says
that it is very common in the Nelhampathies. In Travancore, according to
Ferguson, it is by no means common and is locally distributed in forest land
about the foot of the hills.
The breeding season in the Presidency is not recorded.
Tockus birostris (Scopoli).
Buceros birostris Scopoli, Del. Flor. et Faun. Insubr.,° vol. it-(1786), sp... 67
—Coromandel,
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 27
Specimens collected:—252 ¢ 19-5-29 Shevaroy Hills 4,000 ft.; 289 9
29-5-29 Chitteri Range 2,000 ft.; 7382 ¢ imm. 22-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.
Measurements :—
Bill* Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
6 ad. 104 209 ~ Q54 42 mm.
3d mmm. 84 204 246 44 mm.
Q oa 203 252 42.5 mm.
The Common Grey Hornbill has not been recorded in the Presidency north
of the Palkonda Hills where the above specimen was obtained by the Survey.
Captain Bates informs me that, though he has never seen it in the vicinity of
Madras in spite of the well- wooded character of the country, it occurs com-
monly in the hilly country between Ranipet and Chittoor. There is a speci-
men from Udayagiri in the Madras Museum.
In Salem District, LaPersonne reports that it was not common in the
Shevaroys at 4,000 ft. and that isolated pairs were met in the forest tracts
of the Chitteri range. At Kurumbapatti it was fairly common.
On the western side there are only two records. A male, now in the
British Museum, was obtained on the Coonoor Ghat by Wardlaw Ramsay on
12 September 1876 and Fairbank obtained a specimen in the avenues of the
town of Palni in October 1876,
This species has no races.
Tockus griseus (Latham).
Buceros griseus Latham, Index Orn., vol. i (1790), p. 147—New Holland
errore—Malabar.
In the Presidency, the Malabar Grey Hornbill is confined to the western
side. There, according to William Davison, it occurs throughout the Wynaad
and all about the base of the hills though it does not ascend their slopes. In
the Nelliampathies it is very common (Kinloch). Fairbank records (S.F., v,
395) that he obtained a specimen from a flock at the eastern base of the Palnis
in 1867 though he seemed afterwards to have some doubt about the correctness
of his identification. In Travancore, Bourdillon says (S.F., iv, 887) that it is
common in heavy jungle from 1,000 ft. to 8,000 ft., but Ferguson says that it
is commonest at about 3,000 ft. especially on the Cardamom Hills. The latter
shot it as high as 5,000 ft. on the High Range and at 4,000 ft. on Chimunji.
In Nidtfication, ui, p. 441, however, Bonrdillon is quoted as saying that it is
more common below than above 2,000 ft. and actually sometimes occurs and
breeds in the plains. The breeding season is said (loc. cit.) to be from January
to early April, most eggs being laid in February.
Tockus gingalensis Shaw of “Ceylon is very close to the Malabar Grey Horn-
bill, but may perhaps be considered to have attained the rank of a full species.
Upupa epops ceylonensis Reichenbach.
Upupa ceylonensts Reichenbach, Handb. Spec. Orn., Scans. (1851), p. 320—
Ceylon.
Specimens collected :—533 ¢ 8-7-29 Vyampatti, Trichinopoly; 573 Q 21-7-29
Gingee; 1018 ¢ 19-11-29 Nallamalai Range 2,500 ft.
Measurements :—
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
2d 58.5-60.5 132-132.5 92.5-95 21-21.5 mm.
i. © 46 126 87 18.5 mm.
There is little on record about the status of the Hoopoe on the eastern
side of the Presidency. With the exception of the above specimens and Mr.
LaPersonne’s note that in Salem District it ascends the hills to 4,000 ft. and
ig common on the Chitteri Plateau as well as in the open forests round Tirtha-
malai, we only know that it is common round Madras (Dewar).
* From base of casque to tip of bill in a straight line.
28. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
In Coorg, Mr. Betts considers it uncommon, to be seen occasionally in the
cold weather on dry open maidans. William Davison says that it is a not
uncommon resident in the Wynaad and on the Nilgiris and their slopes.
Kinloch says that it is uncommon on the Nelliampathies, but may be found
in pairs in certain favoured localities. In the Palnis it is generally distributed.
In Travancore, according to Ferguson, it is most common in the drier
regions of the south in the low country. He adds that during the hot weather
about March it may be found in the hills, even ascending the High Range.
The breeding season in the Nilgiris is said to be in April and May (Cock-
burn and Davison, N. & E., ii, 3384), but Major Phythian-Adams considers that
it nests chiefly in February (Birds of S. India, p. 188).
All the Hoopoes that I have examined from the Presidency undoubtedly
belong to the richly coloured form which is found in Ceylon. This is a small
bird. Six specimens from Ceylon (¢¢) have wings measuring 120,.5-134 mm.,
and Presidency specimens measure:—-ll ¢ wings 131.5-138.5 mm., 5 Q wings
128-1830 mm. This race Mr. Stuart Baker (New Fauna, iv, 312) considers to
extend up to about the Deccan and the Bombay Presidency, intergrading on a
line roughly about the latitude of Khandesh with a paler and larger race
E. e. orientalis. This however does not agree with the results of my examina-
tion of the group. I can see no constant difference in colour in the resident
Hoopoes anywhere from Cape Comorin up to Futtehgarh and Ktawah in the
Western United Provinces and two birds labelled Naini Tal (but perhaps from
the terai below) in the Hume Collection also agree with them. As to size
sixteen specimens from Futtehgarh and Etawah in the British Museum measure
119-140 mm., the sexed birds being as follows :—
6 $ wings 181-140 mm., 5 Q wings 119-132 mm.
In the Punjab grading into the typical race begins. Punjab breeding birds
are pale in colour, approaching the typical race, and in size they are small
approaching ceylonensis. The wings of 5 males in my _ collection measure
133-148.5 mm., of 3 females 128-130 mm. For this intermediate race—if it
is worth recognition—we may use Stuart Baker’s name Upupa epops orien-
talis | Bull., B.O.C., xli (29 November 1921), p. 29] which is merely a new
name without description for Upupa indica Reichenbach (Handb. Spec. Orn.,
Scans. (1853), p. 320—India). This name I now restrict to Ambala, as Stuart
Baker evidently had in mind (New Fauna, vol. iv, p. 811). His measurements
(wing 128-160 mm., average 1385 mm., practically all sexed males have a wing
of over 150 mm.) are far too large whether for his or my use of the name and
must be due to confusion with immigrants of the typical race. I accept Madame
Koslov's view (Ibis 1932, p. 589) that Upupa epops saturata is not a good race.
[Upupa epops epops Linnzus.
Upupa epops Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. -117—Europe,
restricted to Sweden.
Although I have examined no Hoopoe from the Presidency which can be
attributed to the typical race there can be little doubt that it occurs as a
winter visitor. Ball records it from Jeypore (S.F., vii, 209) and Fairbank
definitely states (S.F., v, 399) that he shot a specimen in the Palnis. It has in
any case been obtained just on our borders for two specimens were collected
by Mr. Salim Ali during the Hyderabad Survey at Paloncha 300 ft. on 21 Nov-
ember 1931. ]
Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus (Gould).
Trogon malabaricus Gould, P.Z.8., 1834 (June 9), p. 26—Malabar Coast.
No specimens of the Malabar Trogon were procured by the Survey though
Mr. LaPersonne reports that a pair were seen at Sankrametta at 4,000 ft.
It had already been reported in this area by Ball who states that he met it
on two occasions at Jeypore (S.F'., v, 413). Blanford obtained a male. north of
Ellore on 7 April 1871 and this specimen is in the British Museum.
In the west of the Presidency it is much better known. A pair from Calicut
are in the Hume Collection. William Davison says that this Trogon, though
nowhere abundant, occurs all through the Wynaad and up the slopes of the
Nilgiris to at least 6,500 ft. He observed it in the forests of the Droog, at
Coonoor, at Pykarra and Neddivattum. Phythian-Adams (Birds of S. India,
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 29
p. 190) considers it distinctly uncommon in the Nilgiris, remarking that in the
past three years he had only seen one, at Madumalai at 3,000 ft.
Kinloch considered it common in the Nelliampathies. Fairbank met with
three in his visit to the Palnis and secured a female at Vengayam (east
base) on 28th May and a male at Shemiganur 5,000 ft. in June (S.F., v, 398).
The latter is in the British Museum. ;
In Travancore the Trogon is said to be not uncommon at heights above
1,000 ft. in heavy jungle. A nest with two slightly imcubated eggs was obtained
by Bourdillon on 22 March 1878 and is described in S.F., vu, p. 172. The
breeding season in Travancore is said to extend from February to May (Stuart
Baker, Nidification, i, p. 448)
I have not been able to examine any specimens of this Trogon from the
Chota Nagpur-Vizagapatam area to verify this subspecific agreement with birds
from the Malabar Coast. The typical race from Ceylon is distinctly smaller
though the difference in colour is not very marked except in the female. The
New Fauna does not make it quite clear how far north the Malabar race
extends. Although James Davidson does not include it in his list of species
from Western Khandesh (S.F'., x) there are specimens from Ihandesh in both
the T'weeddale and Hume Collections and after the date of his list Davidson
himself procured a male (now in the British Museum) on 25 April 1886 in
the Dangs, Khandesh. Three of these Khandesh specimens are markedly paler
than Malabar birds but I am not yet satisfied that the difference is subspecific.
Micropus melba bakeri (Hartert).
Apus melba bakert Hartert, Nov. Zool., vol. xxxiv (1928), p. 368—Catton
Estate, Ceylon.
No specimen of the Alpine Swift was procured or reported by the Survey.
It is very difficult to unravel the meaning of the movements of this Swift as
we have no accurate conception of the distances it may fly during the day from
its roosting places. ‘These may well be very great. There is a well known
roosting place—and probably also breeding place—in the cliffs of the great
hie Galen Gairsoppa in North Kanara, described by Jerdon (B. of I., i, 176)
and by James Davidson (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 47). Here vast numbers arrive nightly
and Vidal (S.F., ix, p. 48) suggests, with the greatest probability in my opinion.
that this is the roosting place to which the numbers he saw flying southwards
every evening in the South Konkan were bound, to which stream are also
probably added the birds that pass over Belgaum (Butler, S.F., ix, 879). This
roost doubtless draws the birds also from the south as Jerdon remarks that at
Tellicherry he frequently saw the birds flying southwards early in the mornings.
All the Presidency birds do not however come from Gairsoppa. H. R. P.
Carter saw parties flying from 8.-E. to N.-W. near Coimbatore in the early
morning of 5 October (S.F., i, 474). William Davison (S.F., x, 347) says that
there is apparently a permanent colony at St. Catherine’s Falls at Kotagherry'
and a few are generally to be seen at the falls at Kartary (Karteri) and Pykarra.
Terry also suggests that there is a roosting or breeding place on one of the
cliffs near Pittur in the Palnis (S.F., x, 469). It is not clear why Kinloch
suggests that it is only common during the cold weather on the Nelliampathies,
and Ferguson’s statement that Alpine Swifts are to be seen in numbers at grass
fires on the High Range of Travancore is very inadequate.
Jerdon says that occurring all along the line of the Western Ghats down
to Cape Comorin, being at times very abundant on the Nilgiris, this Swift
extends its daily flights often to the western seacoast and occasionally eastwards
to Salem, Madura and even Madras. He adds that on several occasions he
saw large flocks flying eastwards towards the sea from the rocky hills near
Madura about sunset. On another occasion he saw an enormous flock flying
eastwards from the same range a little south of Madura. The eastward move-
ment at sunset suggests that the big colonies in Ceylon mentioned by Legge
and more recently by WwW. W. A. Phillips (Ceylon Jour. Science, Section B,
vol. xviii, p. 252) supply their quota of daily visitors to the Presidency.
The small number of Presidency specimens available for examination all
belong to the small form poparaice by Hartert. Eleven eens from the
* According to ME Salim Ali ioe investigated fle Genesntoed in 1932.
this colony has now disappeared—EDs.
30. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVUI
Presidency aud Ceylon measure: bill 16-17.5 mim., wing 198-213 mm., tail
70-78.5 mm. as compared with a series from Europe and Upper India wing
206-224.5 mm., tail 68-87 mm. In colour they tend to be darker. The two
specimens from Ceylon in the British Museum are very dark indeed, being
very close in colour to M. a. africana, though this latter usually has the white
parts black shafted. The Presidency birds vary in colour and some are no
darker than birds from Northern India, but no doubt sun and air pressure
bleach the plumage very rapidly. I have at any rate seen no specimens that
I could unhesitatingly refer to the typical form south of Belgaum and Raipur.
In Nidification, ii, 452 My. Stuart Baker can only record reputed breeding
places of the Alpine Swift in India. It is well to emphasise therefore that
James Davidson took a half-feathered chick, now in the British Museum, at
Saptashring, Nassik, on 11 April 1887, while Rattray caught a young bird
at a nest near Dunga Gali (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, p. 660).
[Micropus pacificus leuconyx (Blyth). |
Cypselus leuconyx Blyth, J.A.8.B., vol. xiv (after July), 1845, p. 212—
Deccan.
Jerdon states that he obtained a specimen of the White-rumped Swift in
the western part of the Deccan and several in Malabar (B. of I., vol. i,
p. 180). This record was viewed with some suspicion in both the Old and
New Faunas, but there seems no reason to discredit it in view of John David-
son’s experience of its abundance along the coast in North Kanara (J.B.N.H.S,,
xii, p. 47). It is therefore not unlikely to visit the Presidency and Baker
and Inghs (Birds of S. India, p. 192), indeed, state that it occurs in the
Nilgiris where it may sometimes ba seen in compainy with M. affins and
M. melba. It should not however be definitely admitted to the Presidency list
until specimens have been procured for proper identification. |
Micropus affinis affinis (Gray).
Cypselus affinis Gray, Illustr. Ind. Zool., vol. i (March 1830), pl. 35, fig. 2
—Ganges.
Specimens collected :-—589 ¢ 28-7-29 Gingéee; 811 ¢ 12-9-29, 819 Q 27-9-29
Kodur; 872 ¢ 3-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
3d 8-10 122-125.5 39-40.5 9 mm.
An C 8.5 123 37.5 = mame
The Common Indian Swift has not been recorded in the Presidency from
anywhere north of the Krishna River. South of that it occurs at Bellary
where Captain Horace Terry wrote about a possible connection between its
breeding habits and the rains in June and later (N. & EH., i, 238). The
above Survey specimens and Dewar’s remark that it is not very frequently
seen at Madras complete the records for the eastern side. ee
In Coorg, according to Betts, it is fairly common but its numbers vary
greatly. One day it may be seen in large flocks and then it disappears for
several weeks. It apparently does mot breed in Coorg.
William Davison records (8.F., x, 347) that he saw it at Ootacamund on
several occasions in January as also Baker (Birds of 8. India, p. 192). Betts
informs me that in his experience it is not common in the Nilgiris though
flocks may be seen occasionally along the edge of the Ghat, especially in the
evening.
In the Nelhampathies Kinloch only found it on the Lily downs where it
was fairly common (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 565).
As regards the Palnis, Fairbank tells us that he saw a dozen hawking at
3,000 ft. Terry, however, found it not uncommon at Pittur and Kukal.
In Travancore Ferguson says that he did not meet it himself though his
collectors found a colony breeding in January 1903 in the Registrar’s office
in N. Parur.
The only breeding records for the Presidency are mentioned above and
here, as in many other parts of India, there is considerable difficulty in under-
standing the status of this Swift.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 81
There are few birds which have given more trouble to the taxonomist
than this Swift. The questions of the. identity of Indian and African birds
and of the division of Indian birds into races have been discussed on many
occasions. Unfortunately the Survey did not profit by the chance of obtaining
a good series in the south from whence birds are most needed.
In the New Fauna (vol. iv, pp. 832-335) Stuart Baker divides Indian
birds as follows (the wording of the distributions is his) :—
Micropus affinis galilejensis—Sind and portions of North-West Provinces.
M. a. affinis—North-West Provinces except along the Afghan and Balu-
chistan boundaries: Punjab, United Provinces, Bihar, extreme Western Bengal,
south to Belgaum, Rajputana, Deccan and Central Provinces.
. M. a. nipalensis—Nepal, east to Kamrup in Assam and Bhutan; Bengal,
Duars, Orissa to Madras; South Deccan, Southern Bombay Presidency from
a little south of Belgaum, Mysore and ‘Travancore.
M. a. subfurcatus—Assam; Chittagong and Comilla in Eastern Bengal,
Manipur.
This division is certainly not satisfactory as a whole.
M. a. affinis and M. a. subfurcatus are of course two perfectly coe and
recognisable races and they were in fact regarded as two species in the Old
Fauna (vol. 1, pp. 168-170). M. a. subfurcatus differs from the typical race
in having the head, nape, wings and tail and the tail-coverts blacker so that
there is less contrast between them and the mantle and back. The tail is
longer and distinctly subfurcate.
M. a. -galilejensis (type-locality Galilee, Palestine) 1s very similar to M. a.
affinis in that the tail is short and there is a distinct contrast between the
head and nape and the mantle. It is merely a paler and larger form of it.
The palest parts of the head, namely the forehead and a short connected
superciliary streak, may become almost white. Wing 182-137.5 mm., tail 40-
45.5 mim.
This form is however only recognisable if a series of Palestine birds is
compared with a series of South or Central Indian birds. Individual specimens
cannot always be recognised and I certainly cannot find any value in attempt-
ing to maintain a distinguishable distribution of M. a. galilejensis in N.-W.
India.
A series from the Punjab in Mr. Waite’s and my own collections measures : —
Wing. Tail.
9 5 125-133.5 39-44
13 9 127.5-182.5 38-43
This series is quite indistinguishable in colour from the Survey series and
other birds from Central and Southern India. It is however slightly larger.
Mr. Bannerman (/bis 1932, p. 687) measures 22 examples of affinis as having
wings 112-134 mm., seldom over 180 mm. In 11 examples of affinis measured
from Bombay Survey series—I find a variation
of wing 124-130.5 mm., tail 38-41.5 mm. except for one bird with a wing of
116 mm. We may accept the fact that a shght grading in size from north
-to south exists but it is not marked enough for racial recognition. Southern
Indian birds are as much smaller than Northern Indian birds, as these latter
are than true galilejensis from Palestine. They are as close in colour to ‘North
Indian birds as these latter are to true galilejensis. The intergradation between
the three areas is complete and it is therefore as illogical in theory as it is
in practice valueless to place the division between the two forms somewhere in
N.-W. India instead of between Palestine and India. In my opinion galilejensis
may be removed from the Indian list.
There remains the question of M. ua. nipalensis. This form is the inter-
mediate between M. a. affinis and M. a. subfurcatus both in colour and size
(Nepal wing 127.5-133 mm., tail 44-48 mm.). It may be recognised if desired
in this sense but I find no evidence whatever for including with it birds from
Orissa, Deccan and the Madras a Bombay Presidencies, which in my opinion
are quite indistinguishable from M. a. affinis.
Stuart Baker has however Sianentea on the fact that birds from Ceylon
are dark. This is correct. The three specimens in the British Museum are
alike in having the head, tail and upper tail-coverts all practically black,
almost the same colour as the mantle. In other words they agree in colour
82. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
with subfurcatus rather than affinis, though they differ from the former in
their smaller size (wing 128-132.5 mm., tail 42-43.5 mm.). They certainly can-
not be included with M. a. affinis. It would be dogmatic to pronounce on
their identity until a better series is available but the probability is that
they are identical with the African M. a. abessynicus. The only two speci-
mens which I have examined from ‘Travancore agree with Ceylon birds rather
than true affinis.
Cypsiurus parvus batassiensis (Griffith).
Cypselus balassiensis (error for batassiensis) Griffith in Cuvier’s Animal
Kingdom, vol. vii (Aves, vol. ii), 1829, p. 60—India, restricted to Calcutta.’
Specimens collected: —5-6 ¢ 92 9-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 1722 ¢ 23-4-30 Jeypore
Agency 2,000 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Central tail. Outer tail. ‘Tarsus.
2d 7.5-8.5 115-120 30.5-32 60-61 28-30.5 mm.
1@Q 8 BEL 25) 31 61 28 mm.
The Palm-Swift is doubtless generally distributed throughout the Presidency
wherever the Tad Palm (Borassus flabellifer) is found. Where that may be
I find but few details. Jerdon’s statement that the Swift is common in
the Northern Circars and Carnatic and Dewar’s statement that it is very
common at Madras furnish the only records for the eastern side in addition
to the three Survey specimens.
On the west, Hume stated that he had received a specimen from Sultan’s
Battery, Wynaad (S.F., x, 348). Fairbank observed it about Tad Palms in
Periakulam near the eastern base of the Palnis. It is very abundant in South
Travancore where its host palm takes the place of the cocoanut in the low
country about Cape Comorin, extending in smaller numbers as far north as
Trivandrum and Quilon. In this last area it is said to breed from February
to June. It is evidently a strictly resident species.
Stuart Baker has divided the Palm-Swift into two Indian races, the typical
race in his opinion occurring from Bengal and Upper Assam, through Orissa
and. Madras to Ceylon, whilst the rest of the Indian range (which as Tice-
hurst has pointed out, J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, 473, is more restricted than Stuart
Baker realises) 1s given to a paler race palmarum. Specimens of this Swift
are not numerous in collections and a large proportion are poor and greasy
so that I have had great difficulty in assuring myself that this division is
correct. One would hardly expect it. In the first place this Swift is so defin-
itely a parasite’ on the Borassus palm that its limited habitat and _ the
restricted range of the palm in India, which is no doubt based on uniform-
ity of certain ecological conditions, would hardly be expected to allow the
formation of races. While, secondly, birds which have a very wide range
outside India do not as a rule tend to break up into races in India. In my
opinion we can only consider batassiensis and infumatus as races of the widely
spread African Palm-Swift Cypsiurus parvus, which is also a parasite on
certain palms and particularly on Borassus flabellifer.
Chaetura giganteus indicus Hume.
Chaetura indica Hume, Stray Feathers, vol. 1 (1873), p. 471—Andamans.°
The Brown-throated Spine-tail was not reported by the Survey. It is
however very numerous in parts of the Presidency, though its movements are
not easy to understand.
* Stuart Baker, New Fauna, iv, 386..
° A slight misuse of this term may perhaps be forgiven. The Swift does
not of course feed on the palm.
> For the use of the generic name Chaetura and not Hirundapus see Stein-
bacher Die Végel der paldark. Fauna, Erganzungsband Heft. iv, p. 356. The
type-locality for indica was restricted to Aneichardi, Travancore by Stuart Baker
(J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, p. 822) but unnecessarily as Hume (loc. cit) clearly men-
tions the Andamans as his first locality. ;
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 38
In Coorg it is not very common, according to Betts, being found in small
parties. Jerdon says that he met with it very frequently in the Wynaad and
at times on the seacoast of Malabar. Once, sometime after sunset he saw
an enormous flock pass over the bungalow at Canote, about 14 miles from
the coast at Tellicherry. They were flying nearly. due west towards the sea
(B. of I., i, 172). He first met with it at the foot of the Nilgiris near Meta-
polliam and again at Goodalore on the western side of the hills. Vipan (S.F.,
i, 496) reports that he shot it on the Coonoor Ghat. William Davison (S.F.,
x, 347) is more detailed. On the Nilgiris and their slopes, according to him,
this Spine-tail occurs at odd intervals, in parties of 12 to 50 individuals. They
generally arrive from the east and disappear westwards. This statement agrees
with the experience of Mr. H. R. T. Carter at Coimbatore (8.F., i, 474), who
found that the Spine-tails were accustomed to pass over in a line from the
Anamallais over the Palghat gap to the Nilgiris, travelling very fast. His
account is too long to be quoted here and it is not altogether clear but he
evidently considered that the passage was seasonal and apparently dependent
on the 8.-W. Monsoon. June, July and October are mentioned and birds col-
lected in those months are in the British Museum.
In the Nelliampathies Kinloch says that this species is common in the
cold weather. In spite of this statement and Mr. Carter’s experiences I do
not think that the bird is a migrant in the true sense and its spectacular
movements are probably dependent on meteorological conditions. North Kanara
is the northern limit of its recorded distribution in Southern India (J.B.N.H.S.,
xii, 48), James Davidson considered it a resident and in Travancore, Bourdillon
(S.F., vil, p. 34) clearly says that it is abundant at all times of the year when
the weather is fine and clear though during the early showers of April a
flight. of Swifts is a pretty sure indication of the approach of a storm. The
breeding season in ‘Travancore is almost confined to March and April (see
Stewart, J.B.N.H.S., xxii, p. 393 and apud Stuart Baker, Nidification, iii,
pp. 465-467) and most nests are to be found at elevations between 1,000-
2,000 ft. in thick forest. These Swifts roost in colonies in trees but the
circumstances of their breeding in the base of hollow trees separates the pairs
at that period.
Although largely confined to the rain forests of the western hills it is not
surprising that this Swift travels to the east of the Presidency on occasion, as
Carter mentions (loc. cit.) that he had seen it at Salem and further north Hume
mentions specimens from Bangalore (S.f., x, 347).
The statement in the New Fauna (iv, 8438) and Nidification (iii, 465) that
the northern limit of this Swift in Southern India is latitude 12° is of course
a slip. It is common in North Kanara.
Indicapus sylvaticus (Blyth)
Acanthylis sylvatica Tickell, J.A.S.B., vol. xv (1846), p. 284—Central India
—restricted to Maunbhum.
Not obtained by the Survey. Very little is known about the White-rumped
Spine-tail in our area. William Davison met a party hawking about over
a stream on Ist May in the Peria forests of the Wynaad and a specimen that
he obtained on that occasion is in the British Museum. It has been recorded
from Coonoor (Old Fauna, 11, 175) but it must have been only a straggler there
as no one appears to have met it again in the Nilgiris. I cannot trace the
authority for the statement in the New Fauna (iv, 345) that it occurs in the
Palnis.
In Travancore this Spine-tail was apparently overlooked by the Bourdillons
and Ferguson and it was first recorded by Mr. J. Stewart (J.B.N.H.S., XG,
394) who says ‘breeds on the Travancore Hills in open forest at elevations of
about 2,000 ft. It hawks about during the day in parties of about a dozen
birds, but does not breed in colonies’. Mr. Stewart was also successful in
obtaining nests and accounts of the breeding habits in Travancore will be found
in the New Fauna, iv, 146 and WNidification, in, 345. The breeding season
is in March and April and Stewart obtained a few eggs in the first half of
May.
There are no races of this bird in India and the very similar Rhaphidura
leucopygialis (Blyth) can hardly be considered a race of it owing to the
3
84. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIILI
elongated upper tail-coverts, which are paralleled by Chaetura sabini of West
Africa. Mention should however be made of the fact that Chaetura thomensis
Hartert, restricted to the island of Sao Thomé in the Gulf of Guinea, would
certainly pass on its characteristics as a race of our Indian bird. The genera
of these Swifts are evidently in need of revision.
Collocalia fuciphaga unicolor (Jerdon).
Hirundo unicolor Jerdon, Madras Jour. Lit. Sei., vol. xi (1840), p. 288—
Coonoor Pass.
Not procured by the Survey as in the Presidency it is confined to the western
side. The Indian Edible Nest Swift is the commonest Swift on the western
hills where it is evidently a resident. In Coorg according to Betts it is always
present in large numbers. William Davison mentions it as very abundant in
the Brahmagherries while Jerdon includes the Wynaad in its range. In the
Nilgiris it is of course very well known, especially about Ootacamund. It
must occur between all these hills and the coast as Jerdon has left an account
of the breeding colony on Sacrifice Rock, 20 miles south of Tellicherry, which
he visited in March 1849 (N. & E., iu, 29).
It is found in large numbers in the Palnis, especially about the lake at
Kodaikanal and Foulkes (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 727) gives an interesting account of
how these Swifts dip into the water as they fly, occasionally with sufficient
violence to be upset and drowned.
It is similarly abundant on the hills of Travancore.
The breeding season is somewhat extended from March to June and we
have more detailed accounts of the breeding of this Swift than of almost any
bird in the Presidency. The chief references for it are Stray Feathers, iv, 3874
(Bourdillon), Nests and Eggs, ii, 28-33 and Nidification, iu, 468.
Dr. Stresemann has devoted special attention to the difficult group of these
Swiftlets and his latest conclusions will be found in Bull. Raffles Museum,
No. 6, December 1981. I do not therefore propose to go into the affinities
of this species in any detail. I should however like to remark that in my
Opinion it is quite incorrect to attribute the Himalayan and the South Indian
forms to two different species. They are evidently two races of one species.
In colour they are identical except that the Himalayan bird C. f. brevirostris
(McClell.) is a shade darker and more glossy on the upper plumage and it
is also slightly larger :—
Wing. Tail.
C. f. brevirostris (haves 121-131.5 51.5-58 mun.
C. 7. unicolor 6 113-117 47.5-54.5 mm.
It is commonly stated that wnicolor has the tarsus naked and_ brevirostris
feathered. If this is correct—and I am aware that Hume believed in it
(S.F., 1x, 289 and xi, 33)—the difference is certainly not appreciable in skins
and at best is so slight that no great importance need be attached to it. It is
valueless for a key.
The reason for keeping unicolor as a separate species to brevirostris has no
doubt been the belief that both forms occur in the Western Himalayas. This
is based solely on a small series of unicolor in the British Museum, labelled
Koteghar 1868. These skins are not very satisfactorily labelled and one of them
has had Koteghar substituted for Etawah. It may be that Koteghar has some-
how been confused with Kotagiri or the skins have been wrongly labelled for
some other reason. At any rate I am personally quite satisfied that only one
form of Swiftlet occurs in the Western Himalayas and it is undoubtedly
brevirostris. 'This point should materially assist Dr. Stresemann’s further
studies of the group.
Attention may be directed to the remarkable development of the salivary
glands in the breeding season, connected with the curious nesting habits.
Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell).
Hirundo coronata Tickell, J.A.S.B., vol. ii (November 1833), p. 580—Bora-
bhum.
Specimens collected :—269 J 28-5-29, 279 Q juv. 24-5-29 Shevaroy Hills;
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 35
735 Q 28-8-29, 744 Q 24-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 1667-8 ¢@ 6-4-30
Sankrametta 38,500 ft.; 1691 J 17-4-30 Jeypore Agency 3,000 ft.
Measurements :—
Bill. Wing. Central tail. Outer tail. ‘Tarsus.
mae I VASIIB 141-156 41-45.5 no Eakis tyes, 7-8.5 mm.
3° aol 150.5-159.5 40.5-45 126.5 7-8 mm.
The Indian Crested Swift has not been recorded from the eastern side of
the Presidency except for the above Survey specimens and Jerdon’s remark
that he had got it from the Nellore Ghats. It is not very common on_ the
west either. Mr. Betts did not include it in his Coorg list, though he later
informed me that a pair had been seen about some paddy fields on several
cecasions until the monsoon apparently drove them away. William Davison
met them occasionally in the Wynaad but not in the Nilgiris. They occur
there however as Jerdon says that they extend up to 4,000 ft. and Hume
(N. & H., iii, 36) mentions that he received eggs from the Nilgiris.
Kinloch found the Crested Swift in the Nelliampathies in the cold
weather. In the Palnis Fairbank says he only met with a single immature
specimen at the eastern base and this specimen (S$ juv. 25-6-1877) is now
in the British Museum. Terry, however, considered it pretty common on
the slopes of the Palnis and at Pulungi, and he obtained a single much in-
cubated egg in the Pittur Valley on 7 April. The taking of this nest is de-
scribed at length in N. & H., iu, p. 37.
In Travancore Ferguson considered it by no means common, remarking
merely that the museum contained a few specimens without locality and thai
he had only had one brought in by his collector.
Terry’s nest furnishes the only breeding record for the Presidency and the
bird’s status does not appear very clear.
The Crested Swift has no races in India. Nothing is known about the
meaning of the patch of silky downy feathers on the flank or of the curious
decomposed edges to the tertiaries which in some specimens make a conspicuous
patch.
Caprimulgus macrourus atripennis Jerdon.
Caprimulgus atripennis Jerdon, Illus. Ind. Orn. (March 1845), letter press,
pl. 24—Eastern Ghats to west of Nellore.
Specimens collected : —335 Q 5-6-29, 489 9 18-6-29 Chitteri1 Range 2,000 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
209 90-21.5 174.5-179 193.0-127 16-18.5 imm:
Very little is accurately known about this race of Horsfield’s Nightjar in
the Presidency. Jerdon obtained his type, which is still in the British Museum,
from the Eastern Ghats, west of Nellore, and Roscoe Allen met with the species
at Horsleykonda in April (J.B.N.H.S., xviii, 905). LaPersonne reported some
species of Nightjar to be very common throughout the district of Salem and
the two specimens procured, one of which was killed from a nest with one
egg, both belonged to this species.
Jn Travancore Ierguson only procured two specimens, both of which were
shot on the High Range. Kinloch took a clutch of eggs in the Nelliampathies
in February, according to Stuart Baker (Nidification, ui, 479), but the species
is not included in Kinloch’s published list of the birds of those hills and
as on p. 482 Kinloch is also credited with having obtained the eggs of the
large Northern race C. m. albonotatus in the same hills it is evident that
these records require some confirmation.
Further north William Davison says that he only met with it at Manan-
toddy, Wynaad, and in that immediate neighbourhood and this record is verified
by two skins in the British Museum. He adds that it does not seem to occur
on the Coonoor, Neduvattum or Seegore side of the Nilgiris, but that it occurs
below Kotaghery. A female obtained in the last locality by Miss Cockburn
on 15 April 1871 is in the British Museum.
Nothing appears to be known accurately about the breeding season in the
Presidency.
386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Further northwards this race may be accepted as reaching to N. Kanara
and the Godavery Valley. On the eastern side it gradually grades into the
larger albonotatus.
In the New Fauna Mr. Stuart Baker accepts Ceylon birds as belonging to
C. m. atripennis. This, however, does not appear to be correct. There is
a good series of specimens from Ceylon in the British Museum and they are
definitely darker in tone throughout the whole upper surface, this being parti-
cularly marked on the collar, which is chocolate as opposed to rufous brown,
and on the tails.
The series from Java in the British Museum is very poor but so far as it
goes I am unable to see any difference between Ceylonese and Javan birds
and, therefore, attribute the former to the typical form, thus providing another
example of the close connection between the Cinghalese and Malaysian faunas.
The only description’ which I can find of the call of this race is by James
Davidson (J.B.N.H.8., xii, 50) who says it is an almost metallic cry of four
notes. This would seem to be confirmed by Butler’s remark (J.B.N.H.S., xu,
423) that the Ceylon form has also a call which is ‘invariably a low liquid
chuckle of three or four notes’. But there may be some mistake as Legge
says that the call of the Ceylon bird resembles the sound of striking an axe
on a thin plank, a call which is very definitely known to belong to other races
of this species.
It should be remarked that an important difference between birds from
Northern India (albonotatus) and birds from Southern India (atripennis) and
Ceylon (macrourus) appears to have been overlooked. In the first named the
females have the tips of the outer tail feathers pale yellowish buff, so that
they are easily distinguished from the male. In the other two races the tips
are normally white as in the males.
Caprimulgus macrourus albonotatus Tickell.
Caprimulgus albonotatus Tickell, J.A.S.B., vol. ii (after December 1883),
p. 580—Borabhum.
Specimen collected: —1771 ¢ 5-5-1980 Anantagini 3,000 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. — Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
22.5 210 169 20.5 mm.
This specimen provides the first record of this race of Horsfield’s Nightjar
in the Presidency and, according to LaPersonne, it was common throughout
the hills of the Vizagapatam district. The testes were very greatly enlarged,
s0 it is evident that the breeding season here includes May.
T am not able to follow Stuart Baker (New Fauna, iv, 364-3865) in his
division of this Nightjar in Northern India into two forms. Birds from the
Hastern and Western Himalayas appear to me to be identical in colour and
size and with them must be grouped the winter series from the United Pro-
vinces. They run only slightly larger than the small series of birds available
from the Chota Nagpur area. These topotypical birds are in truth intermediates
between the large pale birds of Northern India and the small dark atripennis
of the south, but as they are far closer in size to and agree in colour with the
northern birds they may well give their name to the whole area. I have
seen no evidence for the extension of the range of this race, or indeed any
race, to the Northern Bombay Presidency.
The note of MHorsfield’s Nightjar is well established. Long ago I wrote
(Ibis 1926, 747) ‘the call of this bird is a very loud resonant chaunk freely
repeated, like the blows of an adze on a plank, or even the sound of felling a
tree. It is audible a great distance away and when heard close at hand emits
a great volume of sound. It is uttered from the bare branch of a tree.’ B. B.
Osmaston says ‘its loud reverberating call chounk chounk .. . repeated any
* There has been and still is so much confusion over the calls of the various
Indian Nightjars that it has seemed to me useful to summarise such accurate
information that I can find on the call of each species.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 37
number of times from 1 to 50... This call is repeated at the rate of 5 in
4 seconds’ (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 949). Mr. A. E. Jones considers it a rich
double call note chaunk-chaunk which reverberates through the jungles. He
confirms that the call is only given from a bush or tree (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 286).
Caprimulgus indicus indicus Latham.
Caprimulgus indicus Latham, Index Orn., vol. ii (1790), p. 588—India.
The Jungle Nightjar was not procured by the Survey and in the Presidency
it is as yet only recorded from the western side except for Jerdon’s statement
that he procured it in the Carnatic.
In the Wynaad it occurs sparingly according to William Davison who
considered it common on the Nilgiris. Here Jerdon says it occurs on the
summits but Mr. Betts informs me that it occurs all over the hills. Kinloch
is said to have taken eggs in the Nelliampathies (Nidification, in, 484). Terry
says that it is common in the Palnis, especially at Pulungi and Pittur; at the
latter place their calling was a positive nuisance to the camp.
In Travancore it is common and Bourdillon considered it a winter visitor
but Ferguson has corrected this. In his opinion it is a winter visitor to the
lower slopes of the hills, apparently retiring about May to the High Range.
In the Nilgiris William Davison gives the breeding season as the latter
end of February and the earlier part of March. At Kotaghery Miss Cockburn
considered it February, March and April. In the Nelliampathies Kinloch’s
eggs were taken in February. In Travancore Bourdillon says it breeds from
January to March.
There are two points on which I am unable to agree with Stuart
Baker (New Fauna, vol. iv, pp. 866-369). First of all I cannot agree to the
extension of the Ceylon race C. c. kelaarti to Southern Travancore. There
are only three specimens from Ceylon in the British Museum and these may
just be separable from the typical race on their smaller size (2 @ wing
174-180 mm., tail 126 mm.; 1 9° wing 174 mm., tail 116 mm.) and on having
the tail darker with heavy barring, though a better series may prove that this
distinction does not hold good. Travancore birds however—and of these I have
examined quite a. good series—do not appear to me to be separable from those
throughout the rest of Peninsular India either in size, in the prevailing grey
tint of the plumage, the finer streaking of the back or in the finer barring of
the tail. There is of course a good deal of individual variation but as Hume
showed long ago (S.F., iv, 881 and vi, 56) it is not consistent with distri-
bution.
Himalayan birds are, however, separable from those of the Peninsula. In
a series the general tone of colouration is warmer and browner, the markings
on the back are heavier and the barring of the tail is broader. Whilst not
absolutely larger in a series, as individuals they tend to average larger.
These Himalayan birds Stuart Baker attributes to Caprimulgus indicus
jotaka Temm. & Schl. (Japan) and this is the second point on which TI differ
from him. In my opinion Japanese birds—if Himalayan and Japanese are
compared in a good series—are a much colder, more smoky grey in colour, with
the upper parts more uniform and less heavily marked especially on the mantle
and tertiaries. The lower tail-coverts are usually unbarred and the white patch
on the outer tail feathers is usually further from the tip of the tail. There
appears to be no existing name applicable to Himalayan birds and so T propose
to call them
Caprimulgus indicus hazarae subsp. nov.
Type in the British Museum. ¢ 38 May 1871 Abbottabad, Hazara (A. O.
Hume).
Kast and West Himalayan birds are identical.
There are three specimens from Hazara in the British Museum as_ well
as specimens from the Simla and Mussoorie Hills so Stuart Baker is wrong
in giving Kumaon as the western limit in the Himalayas. It is doubtless
a slip that in Nidification (11, 483-484) indicus indicus is given as breeding
round Naini Tal, while indicus jotaka is said to breed in Kumaon.
There seems to be little doubt about the call of this species which is very
noisy and a good idea of it will be obtained from the different versions that
’
38. - JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL Aisi. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
have been given. Butler (S.F., i1) says it is ‘loud and peculiar, resembling
the words chuck chuck chur-r-r repeated several times continuously. James
Davidson says that it is either ‘tuk’ ‘tuk’ constantly repeated or this with an
occasional ‘tukkoo’ ‘tukkoo’ (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 50). Whitehead considered it
‘cuckoo’ (the u pronounced like the uw in luck) and said that it was used by
both sexes (J.B.N.H.S., xxi, 166). B. B. Osmaston goes into more detail :—
‘its call is of two kinds. Firstly a monosyllabic, chuck, chuck, chuck
repeated about half a dozen times at the rate of 5 ‘chucks’ in 2 seconds.
It has a second call, not so commonly heard, which is made up of dissyllables
‘chucker-chucker-chucker’—repeated at the same rate as the first call
(J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 949). With this description A. EH. Jones concurs, adding
that the males utter a soft not unmusical note ‘you-you-you’ while chasing
another bird, probably the mate (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 286). Finally Mr. Salim
Ali (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvil, 138) says that ‘the call is usually uttered from the
branch of a tree on which the bird crouches lengthwise. The notes I have
likened to water dripping on water (but much louder) at the rate of about
2 drips, a second, connected as it were by the echo of the dripping; chuck-ko,
chuck-ko, chuck-ko and so on’. This recalls Legge’s version of long ago
chump-pud, chump-pud, repeated for several minutes.
Caprimulgus monticolus monticolus Franklin.
Caprimulgus monticolus Franklin, P.Z.S. 1880-81 (October 25, 1831), p. 116
—Ganges between Calcutta and Benares and in the Vindhyian Hills between
the latter place and Gurra Mandela on the Nerbudda.
Franklin’s Nightjar was not observed by the Survey and there appear to
be only three records of it in the Presidency. There is a male in the British
Museum collected by Blanford fifty miles north of Ellore on 11 February 1871.
Jerdon (B. of I., i, 199) says that he obtained a specimen at Nellore. A
female collected by Surgeon-General Fry in Travancore is in the British Museum.
The status is of course unknown. So far as I can see there is only the one
race of this Nightjar in. India. Stuart Baker [Bull. B:0.C.; ti, No,“ -ccel
(April 1981), p. 102] separated birds from Sikkim to Eastern Assam, Burma,
etc. as Caprimulgus monticolus burmanus but he has presumably since given up
this race as it does not appear in Nidification, vol. 111.
There need be no difficulty in identifying the call of this Nightjar which is
very distinctive and once heard cannot be mistaken. Osmaston (J.B.N.H.S.,
xxvil, 949) described it as a ‘rather sharp penetrating note like ‘‘choo-ee”’
uttered on the wing’. I considered it ‘like a loud grating chirp, which close
at hand resolves itself almost exactly into the sound of a whiplash cutting
through the air’ (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 284). Jones calls it ‘a loud piercing
‘‘chweep’’’ (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 286), and Waite repeats Mr. Osmaston’s des-
cription (J.B.N..S., xxxi, 821). Salim Ali (/.B.N.4.8., xxxvii, 1138), ‘calls
it a ‘loud penetrating call of a single note ‘‘sweesh’’’. It is uttered both
from the ground and on the wing and sometimes from the top of a bush. In
the pairing season it may be heard all might long, before dark and after dawn.
When flushed during the day the bird gives a low chuckle.
In the interests of accuracy it may be as well to leave on record the fact
that the specimen of Caprimulgus mahrattensis recorded from Gorakhpur
(J.B.N.H.S., xxii, 541) is really a juvenile of Caprimulgus monticolus. It is
in my collection together with the rest of Mr. A. E. Osmaston’s skins.
Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham.
Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham, Index Ornith., vol. ii (1790), p. 588—India,
Bombay.
Specimen collected:—876 ¢ 5-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.
Measurements :—Bill 19 mm., wing in moult, tail 105 mm., tarsus 19 mm.
The above specimen provides the only reliable record of the Little Indian
Nightjar on the eastern side of the Presidency. On the west there are more
records. Betts tells us that in Coorg it is very common and that numbers
may be seen sitting on the roads at night, their eyes showing up in the head-
lights of cars as ruby specks. As, however, he mentions no other species
this record no doubt refers in part to other species as well,
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 39
Fairbank obtained a single specimen, now in the British Museum on
5 June 1877 at the eastern base of the Palnis and remarks that it was the
only Nightjar seen or heard in five weeks.
In the low country of Travancore it is very common according to Ferguson.
Nothing has been recorded about the breeding season in the Presidency.
I have not been able to understand the division of this Nightjar into races
satisfactorily. There are at any rate three colour phases, pale sandy, brown
and grey and there appears to be some correlation of these phases with locality,
the pale sandy birds coming from the North-West, the grey birds from the
Deccan and the brown birds from other localities. The phases, however, so
grade into each other and there seem to be so many exceptions to their con-
nection with special localities that I hesitate to consider these colour phases
as definitely subspecific.
Parrot, Orn. Monatsb., 1907, p. 170, separated birds from Ceylon as Capri-
mulgus asiaticus minor on the ground of size. Ceylon birds are very small;
wing in males 141.5-145 mm. whereas males from North-Western India
measure 144-156 mm. There is complete intergradation between these two
extremes though birds from Travancore and Mysore appear to be as small as
those from Ceylon. Untal I have seen more specimens, to determine these ques-
tions of colour and size, it seems more satisfactory to attribute all Indian
birds to the typical race, accepting minor as the insular race.
The call of this species is well known and fully authenticated. It is
often compared to the sound of a stone skidding quickly across ice. James
Davidson (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 50) syllabilises it as tuk tuk tuk tookmaluk but
I think most people would prefer the rendering chak chak chak char-r-r-r
(B. B. Osmaston, J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 949) or tuk tuk tuk tukeroo of the Fauna.
Lyncornis macrotis bourdilloni Hume.
Lyncornis bourdillont Hume, Stray Feathers, vol. ii (1875), p. 302—Kalland
Khauni, 8. Travancore.
In Southern India the Great Eared Nightjar is entirely confined to 'Travan-
core and there is really very little on record about its actual distribution. The
type was obtained on the 15th January at Kalland Khauni on the banks of
the Peenaven-aur, about 15 miles north of Mynall at 600 ft., and Bourdillon
then gave some note of its habits. His next communication on the snbject in
a letter to William Davison will be found in the Jbis for 1888, pp. 146-7 with
reference to meeting it at Konegur. Ferguson’s account appears to have been
merely taken from Bourdillon and what little more we know about it is due
to Stewart (apud Stuart Baker, New Fauna, iv, 875 and Nidification, wi, 490).
It is there said to be confined to Central and South Travancore and to be
moderately common from sea-level up to 2,000 ft.
The principal nesting months are February and March, but Stewart took
eges from the first week in January to the Ist of May.
In ‘i'enasserim, William Davison found that this Nightjar spent the day in
caves (S.F., ix, 151), but this habit has not yet been noted in Travancore.
The ‘wailing call’ of the male as mentioned in the New Fauna is probably
that described by Davison (loc. cit.)\—‘a full clear whistle which can be heard
a very long distance off; it might be syllabilized two-wee-oo, each syllable length-
ened out but specially so the middle one. Occasionally the first syllable is
double and shortened too-too-wee-oo; this whistle the bird repeats at irregular
intervals, one calling and another answering.’
The Indian forms are evidently subspecies of Lyncornis macrotis (Vigors)
of the Philippines as pointed out by Hachisuka (Birds of the Philippines, Pt.
iy ps 114):
Batrachostomus moniliger Blyth.
Batrachostomus moniliger Blyth, J.A.S.B., xviii (1849), p. 806—Ceylon.
The Ceylonese Frogmouth was not met by the Survey as it is confined to
the South-Western Ghats and Ceylon. The distribution given in the New
Fauna (iv, 382) and Nidification (iii, 494) is not extensive enough. ‘This species
is common in North Kanara (James Davidson, J.B.N.H.S., xii, 50).
40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
In the Presidency it was seen in Coorg by Jerdon (J.A.S.B., xiv, 209)
who also tells us (B. of I., i, 189) that Capt. Roberts of the 36th N. I.
obtained it on the Peria Pass leading from Malabar into the Wynaad.
In Travancore according to Bourdillon (S.f., iv, 376) it is not uncommon
about 2,000-3,000 ft. elevation in the hills. Stewart (apud Nidification, iu,
494) says that it is most common at about 2,000 ft., occurring also up to
4,000 ft. and nearly down to the level of the plains. The normal breeding
season is according to him from January to April, but odd eggs were taken
from June to September.
The call does not yet seem to be properly identified. James Davidson
(loc. cit.) attributed ‘a wailing cry’ to it. Bourdillon on the other hand
(S.F., iv, 876) considered it had a ‘loud chuckling cry, with somewhat the
tone of a Goatsucker and not unlike the laugh of some Kingfishers, a difficult
cry to describe’. Legge agrees with this description as representing a call
which he also attributed to this species. In the New Fauna the ordinary
call is said to be a soft kooroo-kooroo repeated several times.
I have at present no reason to separate Indian and Ceylonese birds as the
plumage is variable and I have only seen a poor series. The whole group
appears to be in need of revision as regards the specific and subspecific arrange-
ment of the various recognised forms.
(To be continued).
THE PAPAW TREE.
BY
J. #, CAIUS; .9.3., F.L. 8.
The CARICACEAE, natives of tropical America and Africa, are a
small family of plants, including 4 genera and 45 species.
The family has been named after one of its genera, the genus
Carica. This generic name is derived from the Greek word Karikos
which means of or from Caria, a province of Asia Minor, erro-
neously supposed at one time to have been the habitat of the
papayads. The genus Carica numbers 80 species, inhabiting warm
America. :
The papayads are small trees, generally without branches.
They have large palmately-lobed leaves, and on being wounded in
certain parts they exude an acrid milky juice. Their flowers are
borne in racemes proceeding from the bases of the leaf-stalks, the
male and female flowers being usually on different trees. The male
flowers have a funnel-shaped corolla, into the throat of which the
ten stamens are inserted in two rows of five, one above the other;
and the female flowers have a corolla of five distinct petals. The
fruit is fleshy, and does not split open when ripe.
The most remarkable species is the PAPpAW TREE, known to
botanists as: Carica Papaya, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1086; C. hermaphro-
dita, Blanco, Fl. Filip., ed. i, 205; Papaya Carica, Gaertn. Fruct.
ii, t. 122; P. communis, Noronha, in Verh. Batav. gen. v (1790),
ed. i, Art. iv, 28; P. cucuwmerina, Noronha, loc. cit.; P. sativa,
Tuss. Fl. Antill., iii, 45; P. vulgaris, DC. Poir. Encyel., v, 3.
OCCURRENCE.
Carica Papaya Linn. is considered a native of the West Indies,
the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and perhaps of Brazil. Its
specific name ‘papaya’ is evidently American, whether derived
from the Carib ‘ababai’ or not. The tree has now become accli-
mated in the hot regions of three continents; and the zone of most
abundant growth seems to lie on either side of the Equator where
the mean annual temperature is 77°F., provided soil and rainfall
are favourable. It is grown by cultivation north and south of that
zone. It is to be found throughout India, from Delhi to Ceylon;
but it cannot be cultivated on the hills, except in the south where
it is productive up to 4,000 ft.
Tt is quite common for numerous papaw plants to spring up
from seeds scattered by birds over a portion of land which, accord-
ing to tropical custom, has been cleared by burning away the
trees and undergrowth. There are, however, no forests of papaws
because the plants need sun and room. They are seldom seen
among dense growths, nor do they propagate in clusters.
The papaw seems to be at its best in the rich humus of a
hillside, and rarely takes to a swampy or sandy soil. It grows at
the edge of the sea with the waves washing its roots; it prospers on
42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the high mountain plateaus of all the windward and _ leeward
islands; it flourishes—but does not attain to any great height—on
the bare coral rocks of Yucatan; it thrives in the sandy soil of
Venezuelan ravines, where rain averages one metre per annum and
the climate is very equable; it grows prolifically without much
cultivation or care in Peruvian valleys; it shoots up to a height
of over one hundred feet in the trans-Andean regions; it appears
spontaneously in waste places on the islands of Guam, where it
receives but scant attention from the natives. However, those
places seem best suited to the papaw where it does not rain but
always pours, where daily rains abound throughout the year—
pouring, soaking rains with a fierce bright sun shining all through
the downpour.
CHARACTERISTICS.
Papaw trees present a striking appearance with their straight
slim shiny trunks, and their bright green umbrella tops; but
whether they are a thing of beauty is a matter of personal taste.
‘This well known tree’, says Woodrow, ‘has been subjected to ill-
merited abuse, described as ugly and everything that is disagree-
able, yet it may be questioned if there is a more handsome or
generally useful tree in Indian gardens.’
The Papaw tree suggests a palm in its habit of growth. It has
a single, supple, slim, straight stem, terminating in a crown of
large leaves, and branching only when its growth is interfered
with. Cultivated plants attain a height of from 10 to 30 ft.; wild
varieties push up to 60 or even to 100 ft. Near the base of mature
trees the diameter ranges from 6 in. to 1 ft., the stem tapering
eradually to about 4 or 5 in. at the summit. In a young plant
the stem consists of a cellular pith filled with water; in a matured
tree that portion of the trunk immediately under the bark is fibrous
for a few inches, followed by a soft inner layer one inch or more
thick terminating in the central portion which is hollow. At inter-
vals through the hollow centre are to be seen membranous tissues
dividing the cavity into sections, and in the rainy season, for a
considerable height up the trunk, this central cavity is filled with
water. The wood is soft, white and spongy; it cuts easier than
a potato, so that the trunk can be chopped through by a single
stroke of a cutlass; it is full of water, decays rapidly, and does
not serve any useful purpose. The trunk is covered with a grey
(green at the top) smooth, tough bark laid on in folds, which at
intervals form ridges.
A large turnip-shaped tap root reaches deep down into the earth
to seek nourishment and to give stability to the tree. This root
is similar in structure to the trunk, except for a white bark, and
possesses an odour of cabbage and a peculiar taste suggesting
radishes.
The leaf-stalks diverge almost horizontally from the trunk; they
are large and hollow, cylindrical toward the leaf and flattened at
the point where they join with the stem. The leaves are fre-
quently as much as two feet in diameter, deeply cut into broad
lobes terminating in sharp points and having their margins irre-
gularly waved or gashed; they are dark green on the upper and
THE PAPAW TREE 43
light green on the under side; they are shortlived and, as the tree
shoots upwards, they drop off, leaving scarry marks on the bark of
the tree trunk. |
Pitcher formation was observed by Miss Mozelle Isaacs in the
leaves of trees growing in the grounds of the Dadar Parsi Colony
and of St. Xavier’s College, both in Bombay. Pitchers may be best
described as modified leaves; and as they only show during the
monsoon, it has been surmised that they are due to the vigorous
growth of plant life during that period and to the lack of the
necessary space for them to develop into ordinary leaves. For in
the process of pitcher formation, always found in female plants
which usually have larger leaves than the male plants, new veins
find themselves impeded from developing normally in the plane of
the old leaf as all the available space is already occupied by many
strong veins issuing from the same point; these new veins are
consequently pushed upwards, and they develop into stalked simple
leaves with a basal pocket. |
Circumstances of climate, soil and cultivation may, however,
‘so modify the characteristic features of the plant that discrepant
descriptions and statements are on record. Among the notable
varieties are the green and the violet papaw. ‘This latter variety,
which exhibits a purple stem and purple leaf-stalks, has had con-
siderable attention paid to it and is more highly esteemed for cul-
tivation. While young the trees are kept in the shade and pruned
to prevent their growing tall; portions of the flowers are picked off
to favour fruiting; and the smaller fruits are removed when green,
so that the remainder may grow larger and stronger—indeed a fruit
weighing 20 pounds is no rarity. The violet papaw is such a plant
plant that horticulturists boast of having produced a dwarf variety.
But the green papaw is less adaptable; though it grows to a greater
height, its fruit is smaller and possesses a less pleasant flavour.
The male tree produces long hanging clusters of narrow trumpet-
shaped flowers having 10 anthers inserted on the throat of the
corolla. The female tree bears single flowers with a white, yellow,
or purple corolla of 5 sessile petals, and one pistil bearing a 5-rayed
stigma. The female flowers grow in considerable numbers at the
apex of the stem, which pushes rapidly upwards and puts out new
leaf-stalks. Occasionally, bisexual flowers are produced by either
male or female trees.
There is no definite flowering season, and the tree bears fruit
all the year round. The fruit develops so rapidly that buds of
flowers and ripe fruits are often found on a tree at the same time.
The fruit grows from the axils of the lower leaves, the normal
fruit from the female flowers being sessile while that from the her-
maphrodite flowers is borne on long pedicels. It varies consider-
ably in form as well as in size, resembling an orange, or a gourd,
or a cocoa pod, or a musk melon, or even a water melon. It is of
a green or purplish colour turning yellow when ripe:
‘The slim papaya ripens its yellow fruit for thee’—(Bryant).
Its skin is smooth and thin. The flesh of the green fruit is
white, tough and watery; but as the fruit ripens its flesh becomes
44. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI
juicy and assumes a pinkish or orange hue, or turns to musk-melon
yellow. The fruit has a central cavity which contains the seeds
arranged in five lines along the whole length of it, and attached
to, and held together by, a delicate membrane which constitutes
the inner skin of the fruit. The fruit does not last long after ripe-
ness sets in.
Miss Mozelle Isaacs has noted the presence of large white
parenchymatous masses in the fruit of the papaw tree. She has
also recorded the occasional appearance of long leafy structures:
‘in some cases the funiculus is elongated, the integuments of the
ovule absorbed in the elongation of the stalk, and the cotyledons
and plumule of the seedling inside exposed giving the appearance
of vivipary inside the fruit.’
Different names are sometimes employed to distinguish various
forms of the fruit, as ‘Ceylon’, ‘Madagascar’, ‘West Indies’, ete.;
these names are, however, misleading, for nowhere in the Eastern
Tropics is the tree indigenous, and everywhere, as already stated,
there occurs a good deal of variety as regards size and shape.
The seeds are of. the size of small peas; about 230 when fresh
go to an ounce, or 500 when partly dried. When fresh, they are
dark brown changing to black on drying. Before desiccation their
outer membranous coating is transparent and slimy; the inner
coating is hard, horny and wrinkled; and between the two coatings
there is a mucilaginous substance containing myrosin. The inner
shell contains the leaf-like cotyledons, veined at the base with an
albuminous homotropal embryo with a roundish radicle easily dis-
tinguished when slightly magnified. The seeds when dried resemble
pepper-corns; they are aromatic, pungent, piquant—but not so
sharp as mustard—and their taste slightly suggests water cress.
All the parts of the plant abound in milky juice or latex,, which
is found most abundantly just under the skin of the fruit before
ripening.
HERMAPHRODITISM,
It is a common belief in the Gold Coast Colony that a male
papaw can be made to bear fruits. This is done sometimes by
cutting off the top of the male tree, which is then believed to
produce fruit-bearing stalks. Another method is to make one or
two holes right through the stem below the flowers, a stone or
piece of wood being occasionally inserted to keep the hole open.
As a matter of fact the papaw plant is extremely variable in
regard to its sexual characteristics. There are two extreme types
—one strictly dioecious, the other monoecious—and many interme-
diate forms. In the strictly dioecious type, the fruit-bearing plant
has pistillate flowers only, while the male plant produces almost
exclusively staminate flowers in bunches towards the end of long
peduncles: each flower has a rudimentary ovary and a style with-
out stigma, being thus incapable of bearing fruit.
Tt sometimes happens that male trees produce hermaphrodite
and pistillate flowers abruptly and unexpectedly. This monoecious
type of plant bears fruit in every case; but the trees look from a
distance as if they were female plants of the dioecious type. They
generally produce two kinds of flowers. the one staminate and the
THE PAPAW TREE 45
other perfect. The perfect flower is quite different in shape from
the pistillate flower of the dioecious type. Its ovary is much more
elongated, being almost cylindrical. The stamens are usually
placed on the inner walls of the petals midway down, with the
anthers surrounding the lobes of the stigma. The fruit of this type
differs from that of the dioecious type in the same way as the
ovary, and is often called a ‘long papaw’.
Another monoecious form is the plant in the process of chang-
ing its sex. It is not at all uncommon for a male plant, after
producing staminate flowers for some time, to bear hermaphrodite
flowers which in their turn are succeeded by pistillate fruit-bearing
flowers. Miss Mozelle Isaacs has, moreover, witnessed the process
of change exhibited by a female plant at Santa Cruz, near Bombay.
She observed a fruit-bearing tree growing near a drain, changing its
sex subsequently on the closing of the drain: the flowers became
gradually smaller, lost their ovary, and began to appear in bunches
on longer and longer branched inflorescences instead of singly in
the axils of the leaves.
It has been repeatedly stated that the removal of the terminal
bud causes male papaws to change their sex, and that trees treated
at definitely recurring periods are the ones that exhibit this pheno-
menon. It is suggested that the plant has definite short cycles of
growth and that it may be necessary to remove the top at some
definite phase of this cycle in order to foster the development of
fertile flowers.
To test the correctness of this statement L. B. Kulkarni selected
a dozen male plants in the Ganeshkind Botanical Gardens, near
Poona, and ‘had their growing tips nipped off at the time of flower-
ing. In a fortnight, there appeared a cluster of flowers round the
eut portion; on examination eleven trees showed all male flowers,
and one plant was found to have produced one hermaphrodite flower
among clusters of male flowers. The male flowers on all plants
were normal. The one hermaphrodite flower that was produced
had five stamens attached to the base of the petals and placed
round the synearpous ovary. The fruit formed was a little oblong.
This fruit dropped before ripening. The rest of the trees continued
to produce male flowers on long peduncles as usual. The only
effect of the pruning of the top was that the trees produced three
or four branches.’
This finding supported that of the Hawai Agricultural Experi-
ment Station: ‘It has been reported that staminate trees have been
caused to produce pistillate flowers and fruit by beheading them.
None of these means have proved to be successful from a practical
standpoint.’ It may, therefore, safely be concluded that the change
of sex displayed by the male papaw does not appear to be in any
way connected with the removal or retention of the terminal bud.
It would be puerile to attempt to describe all the intermediate
forms which have been observed, for their name is legion and the
difference among them is often trivial. However, mention ought
to be made of two forms which, strangely enough; have been
reported from such widely separated places as Ganeshkind
and Hawai. In the words of L. B. Kulkarni: ‘(a) One plant
46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIil
produced four types of flowers, namely: (1) staminate flowers, (2)
and (3) two forms of perfect flow ers, and (4) one form of pistillate
flowers. ‘The staminate flowers were exactly like those of the
second or monoecious type above described. Of the two perfect
flowers, one form corresponded precisely with that of the monoe-
cious type, while the other had an ovary in shape like that of the
pistillate flowers of the dioecious type. There were usually ten
stamens attached to the base of the petals round the ovary in the
first form—and only five stamens similarly attached in the second
form. The pistillate flowers were exactly like those of the dioecious
type.’ ‘(b) Two plants bore only staminate flowers, but these
flowers were carried close to the stem in the axil of the leaf. This
is peculiar, as the trees usually producing staminate flowers have
their flowers on long peduncles.’
There is, nevertheless, no doubt that the wild papaw in its
natural habitat is unisexual. Sex perversion is one of the effects
of migration and cultivation.
CULTIVATION.
Rusby has stated that this tree ‘can be propagated and grown
with great readiness, that its vitality is so great that it is with
difficulty destroyed until its natural course has been run.’ On the
other hand six years’ observation has convinced Kilmer that the
papaw is exceedingly difficult of cultivation, and that the cultivated
trees are most easily destroyed by adverse conditions.
The wild plants do not seem to be attacked by disease except
after injury, but the cultivated plants are very susceptible to every.
sort of malady. Insects attack the tender leaves of the young
plants and they wither. Fungi and bacteria find in the papaw
suitable conditions for growing “and multiplying, and they do grow
and multiply at the expense of their host’s vitality. After fruit-
ing, and especially if the fruits are bled, the tree will suffer from
general debility and become the prey of every adverse cireum-
stance. And the trouble, whatever its nature, may be said always
to arise from the inherent weakness of the cultivated plant in its
altered environment.
It is, nevertheless, reported that in Ceylon, in Brazil, in Algeria
and in the islands of La Reunion and the West Indies, successful
and extensive cultivations have been earried out.
It is mentioned in the Hawai Agricultural Experiment Station
Report for 1911 that ‘there is no means available for the propa-
gation of the papaya by asexual parts, as cuttings, buds, scions,
etc., hence seed varieties must be established by methods probably
similar to those used in breeding varieties of vegetables and flowers
which are not propagated by budding and grafting.’ But Burns
wrote in 1918: ‘This excellent fruit is easily grown. It is propa-
gated by seeds, but may also be propagated by cuttings.’ And
propagation by grafting has been tried with some success at Luck-
now, at Ganeshkind, and also in the United States of America.
Propagation by cuttings or by grafting may perhaps not have
yielded results which would commend it to the cultivator as a
means to increase his harvest. Nevertheless this propagation is
THE PAPAW TREE 47
not without its experimental value; for, if persistently carried on,
it may contribute towards the’ solution of a problem which has
hitherto battled scientists and cultivators alike. One never knows
what a seedling is going to develop into, and the question of the
inheritance of characters in the papaw is one which needs answer-
ing very badly; for there happen to be such differences between
papaw and papaw that no two trees resemble each other—which
is a source of constant anxiety to the cultivator as will be presently
shown. |
To begin with, the seeds vary considerably in number: in some
fruits there are five; in others, over five hundred. But this does
not mean five or five hundred potential trees. Thus, for example,
when in the West Indies a native wishes to grow a single tree he
buries two or three such fruits in the ground; for he knows by ex-
perience that at most two or three plants will result. Nothing
could show more clearly that very few seeds are fertile, so that a
discriminate selection becomes imperative. Experiments were,
accordingly, carried out and it was found that seeds taken from
the central portion of the largest and finest fruits were the most
likely to be fertile. Seeds selected with extreme care from strong
and healthy trees, the fruit of which would weigh fifteen pounds,
were then sown: only a portion of the plants took after the parent
stock, the other portion reverted to the wild prototype and yielded
fruits the size of a hen’s egg. In another series of plantings con-
ducted with thorough preparation of the ground and selection of
seeds, together with care for the young plants, only a small pro-
portion came to maturity, and of these only a few bore fruit: none
of the plants or their fruits was as large as those of the parent
stock. |
But still more perplexing are the vagaries of sex relation, which
make the proper adjustment of the sexes difficult and exasperat-
ing. It is generally agreed that for fertilization one male to ten
female plants is the proper ratio; but Kilmer speaks of numerous
instances where acres of land were planted with thousands of
papaw plants in which the males were in the majority of over
fifteen to one. And as it is not until the flowers appear that the
two kinds of tree, male and female, are distinguishable, one can
imagine the cultivator’s dismay when he finds at the end of all his
toil and waiting—which may be as much as twenty months—that
he has a plantation of unprofitable male plants.
It is best to sow the seeds in well-drained porous soil covering
them about half an inch deep. In from two to six weeks the seed-
lings appear, germination being hastened by heat. In about a
month after germination the seedlings are large enough to be trans-
planted to pots in which they remain for another month before
being placed in the orchard where holes four feet deep and four
feet wide were dug previously. The distances between trees should
be about ten feet in each direction. Seeds may also be sown at
stake, allowing five or six to each hole, leaving afterwards one
good seedling to each hole.
The papaw tree likes deep humous or loamy soil, and flat or
gently sloping well-manured land. The following fertilizer has been
-
48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
successfully tried at the Hawaii Experimental Station on young
plants: superphosphate, 800; sulphate of potash, 3815; nitrate of
soda, 250; sulphate of ammonia, 190; and black sand (volcanic ash),
445 parts. This has been applied at the rate of one pound. per
tree at planting time. In the Bombay Presidency, house, farm,
or stable refuse, twenty cartloads per acre, has been used with
success. It has also been found that two ploughings and two har-
rowings just before sowing the seed improve the growth.
Once established, the plant is capable of enduring a wide. range
of moisture variations in the soil, but it is very sensitive to water-
logging. Until the blossoming stage is reached the two kinds of
tree are indistinguishable, and hence twice the desired number of
seedlings must be planted, and all the males, except four per
acre, cut out when they are recognisable. In some localities the
plant begins to grow fruit in seven months; in others, eighteen to
twenty months from the seed. The fruiting is abundant and con-
tinuous. In the course of one season a wild tree has been known
to yield from two to three hundred fruits varying in size from a
golf ball to a cricket ball. The cultivated plants may be made to
yield from twelve to sixty fruits, weighing from five to twenty
pounds each.
The fruits of the papaw are borne round the stem in such a
way. that they interfere seriously with one another’s growth. It is,
therefore, advantageous to remove a certain number of them to
allow the rest to develop better. The difficulty is to hit on exactly
the right amount of thinning to get the greatest weight compat-
ible with the greatest number of fruits. This can only be obtained
by practice and in the meantime it is advisable to remove only
such fruits as are obviously going to be badly squeezed.
It is also a good thing to cut off the top of the young tree,
thus forcing it to branch. Each branch bears fruits, and the
bearing capacity of the tree is multiplied. It has also been ob-
served that the branched plants were less frequently damaged by
winds, and that the fruit was easy to watch and to harvest. The
system of branching is very beneficial in places where the nights
are cold, since the plant is protected from frost, and the fruit is
produced near the ground.
The fruits on the tree must be protected from the direct rays
of the sun or they scorch and split. The dead leaves of the tree
should be removed as they dry up. The fruit is to be cut from
the tree when full sized, but green, and is laid on soft straw to
ripen. The even ripening of the papaw is a matter of consider-
able practical difficulty.
As a rule the tree is played out after five years’ continuous
cropping. Kilmer reports that a rare specimen was observed
which was eighteen years old, and was bearing one to two fruits
each year.
Domestic Usss.
In Africa, America, and the West Indies the bark of the stem
is used in the manufacture of ropes.
THE PAPAW TREE 49
The hollow leat-stalks are often used as trumpets by the natives
of Guam, some of whom excel in sounding military bugle calls
upon them.
The property of the papaw to render meat tender is commonly
made use of by cooks, who wrap the leaves round fresh meat, or
place a piece of the green fruit in the water in which the meat
is being boiled, or drop a little of the fresh juice in the vessel
in which the meat is being cooked. In its tropical home the
papaw is put into the pot with meat, and enters into cereals,
soups, stews and other dishes. Most of the half-breeds in South
America and the adjacent islands are particularly given to meat
diet; many of them eat it raw, sometimes in a state of partial
decay; and here the papaw is brought into use, being eaten with
the flesh or rubbed over it before it is eaten.
In the Gold Coast Colony the leaves are added to the water
when washing clothes to remove stains. In the Philippine Islands
water in which the leaves have been boiled is used to wash off blood
stains. In the West Indies the green leaves or slices of the green
fruit are rubbed over soiled and spotted clothes, and its power of
dissolving stains has earned for the papaw the name of ‘melon
bleach’. Elsewhere water in which a portion of the fruit has been
steeped is used in washing dyed (especially black) clothes without
in any way discolouring them,
Again, women in Brazil and the West Indies use the juice of
the unripe fruit as a cosmetic; they apply it for freckles and for
making the skin smooth and delicate. Says Kilmer: ‘The strange
and beautiful races of the Antilles astonish the eyes of the traveller
who sees them for the first time. It has been said that they have
taken their black, brown, olive and yellow skin tints from the
satiny and bright-hued rinds of the fruit which surround them.
If they are to be believed, the mystery of their clear, clean com-
plexions, and exquisite pulp-like flesh arises from the use of the
papaw fruit as a cosmetic. A slce of the ripe fruit is rubbed over
the skin and is said to dissolve spare flesh and remove every
blemish. It is a toilet requisite in use by the young and the old,
producing according to the words of a French writer ‘“‘the most
beautiful specimens of the human race’’.’
When the natives of New Caledonia run short of tobacco they
smoke the leaf of the papaw as a substitute. Writing from Nuka-
hiva in 1879, M. Jouan, capitaine de vaisseau, tells of the trouble
he experienced to keep donkeys away from his papaw trees, such
was the attraction of the leaves for those animals! On the other
hand, the French sailor says that the smell of the seeds was too
much for the cats which turned up their noses and beat a hasty
retreat.
That asses, however, are not the only members of the equine
family that have a craving for the papaw, was observed by a most
reliable witness, Brother Joseph Pascual, now residing in St.
Xavier’s College, Bombay, and from 1922 $0; 1923 1m Goaarse ot
Gayaba, a plantation situated ten miles from Madang in pre-war
German New Guinea. According to the witness, Mauritz, a small
long-tailed chestnut horse, imported into New Guinea from one
4
50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
of the neighbouring islands, was always inclined to leave the beaten
track and to make a bee line for the nearest papaw tree—papaws
grow wild in those parts—and Mauritz’s rider could neither doze
nor daydream, else he would be brought back to the stern reality
under a papaw tree with Mauritz greedily devouring the leaves.
But it was not only the leaves that Maunitz ate; he also sampled
the fruits which he took whole—skin, flesh and seeds. And it the
fruit happened to be somewhat over-ripe it was a sight to see
Mauritz gobbling up the dainty with his heart in his mouth, and
with the golden coloured juice and squash dripping from the
corners of his lower lip.
It would also seem that in South America the younger gene-
ration makes use of the seeds to indulge their sporting propen-
sities. As the seeds are encased in a slimy coating advantage is
taken of this by playful youngsters who spread them out on a
board, and by this means form a ‘slide’, the counterpart of the
frozen gutter so agreeable to northern urchins!
In Upper Tongking, among the Tho and Man hill tribes, the
fruits are fed to pigs. Throughout the West Indian islands the
fruits and the leaves are fed to old hogs or poultry in the belief
that their flesh will without fail become tender.
Foon.
The papaw is not everywhere held in lke esteem. The natives
of Guam and the Marquesas do not seem to set any store by it,
they only eat it when there happens to be a scarcity of other
kinds of fruit. This is all the more strange because the inhabit-
ants of the Loyalty Islands and of the other coral islands in the
Pacific relish the papaw as a welcome addition to their otherwise
scanty fare.
Elsewhere the papaw is considered a wholesome and _ nutri-
tious food, and consumed in large quantities at all stages of its
development. In every West Indian and South American village
one will find a place where the native products are bought and
sold, and where the wayfarer is sure to come upon an abundant
supply of papaws.
As an article of food the papaw is prepared in a score of ways
and made into a variety of edible dishes and delicacies.
The green fruit is cooked in curries, and is made into plain
and spiced pickles which are highly esteemed. It is also boiled
or stewed, and served as a vegetable. In this form it makes a
splendid addition to poultry mash; and, if mixed with lme Juice
and sugar, is an excellent substitute for apple sauce. Europeans
in Indo-China prepare it as they would salsify or artichoke.
In Malaya the green fruit, peeled, boiled, cut into small pieces,
and dressed with oil, vinegar, salt and pepper is served as a
vegetable. It is said to be very palatable and very similar to
squash in taste.
The half-ripe fruit lightly fried in butter is a good addition to
meat @ la jardiniére, and also a good ingredient in chicken or
lobster salad.
The following is a useful recipe for the preparation of papaw
THE PAPAW TREE 51
jam: ‘Choose truit three-quarters ripe; remove all skin and seeds,
chop up the fruit into small pieces; weigh; add equal weight of
sugar, also some green ginger (cut into small pieces), 2 oz. of
the latter beimg sufficient for 6 lb. of fruit; cover up the fruit
and sugar, and let the latter dissolve during the night; boil up the
next morning until done.’
When not quite ripe the fruit makes a good salad if cut into
slices, dressed with oil, vinegar, salt and pepper, and prepared one
hour before it is served. In combination with lettuce and sliced
cucumber, papaws make a wholesome and nourishing salad.
The fruit, just before ripening, is peeled and sliced, macerated
in cold water, with frequent changes of water for some hours;
the macerated fruit is then dropped into boiling water, boiled
sharply, and served as a vegetable.
The ripe fruit is generally esteemed as a table fruit, and is
then eaten uncooked. It has been described as sweet, refreshing,
and agreeable; but, every one will admit that it may be sickly,
sweet, and insipid. The sweetness of its resinous, pulpy juice often
clings to the tongue and remains prevalent for hours. In fact the
stranger has first to develop a taste before he can enjoy the flavour
of the fruit, and acquire a liking for it. Some people prefer to
eat the papaw with salt, with salt and pepper, with a little sugar,
with fresh lemon or lime juice, with sherry and cream.
In the Gold Coast Colony the ripe fruit is sometimes cooked
together with corn and palm oil. In the West Indies and South
America it is combined with some acid fruit and made into tarts;
and at the sugar houses slices of the papaw are often seen seeth-
ing in hot syrup, and pies, shortcakes, sherbets, and pickles from
the fruit are greatly relished.
Excellent preserves are made of the ripe fruit, which, for this
purpose, is boiled down in sugar and candied. In Indo-China the
preserves are flavoured with kirsh or marasquino.
The ripe papaw is also made into jam, marmalade, jelly; it is
candied, iced, crystallized and made to rival the best products
of the confectioner’s shop. ‘Le fruit du papayer se transforme,
par la confiserie, en un fruit confit d’un gott tres fin et délicat
rappelant celui du marron glacé associé a celui de la noisette.’
The seeds are eaten as a delicacy. They have an agreeable
taste somewhat like water cress; and a piquancy suggestive of
mustard. Macerated in vinegar they are served as a condiment.
The natives of the tropics quite often chew them to quench their
thirst.
In Malaya the small fragrant flowers of the male plant are
used in the manufacture of a syrup.
Finally, when a tree has become unproductive and is cut down,
the soft, pithy heart is carefully removed and grated and served in
just about the same manner as a cocoanut.
PopuLAR BELIEFS.
The papaw is credited to be possessed of latent and strange
powers, some of them so strange that they are here set down
under the heading of popular beliefs.
52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
In Barbados the flesh of animals is reported to be hung in the
papaw tree overnight in order to soften it. The same idea pre-
vails all over India and this practice is no doubt resorted to by
domestic servants and meat and fowl are often hung in the
branches of a papaw tree to make them soft and tender.
The statement has likewise passed current that the emanations
from the papaw tree will dissolve and digest albumin. Another
statement has it that if male animals browse under the papaw
tree, they thereby become emasculated.
In Africa the odour emitted by the flowers is believed to be
a cause of disease.
A popular belief prevails amongst all classes of women in
Southern and Western India that if a pregnant woman partake of
even a moderate quantity of the fruit or of the seed, abortion will
be the probable result.
In Tongking people suffering from fever are told not to eat
of the papaw fruit.
In Kelantan the milky juice of the unripe fruit, mixed with
the juice of the immature capsules of the horse-radish tree and the
white of a lizard’s egg, is used as a poison; when taken internally
this is said to be followed by great abdominal pain and the pre-
sence of blood in the urine.
The papaw has been alluded to as the mustard tree of the
Scriptures.
MEDICINAL USEs.
A plant so universally distributed and possessed of such varied
properties, naturally occupies an important place in native materia
medica. Though of relatively recent introduction into India it is,
nevertheless, a part of the armamentarium of Ayurveda and
Yunani practitioners alike. Medicinal properties are ascribed to
practically every part of the tree: the root, the leaf, the seed,
the fruit, and the milky juice.
To begin with the root, it is said to be a generative tonic.
In Cambodia it is considered diuretic, and it is given internally to
arrest the flow of blood in abnormal uterine haemorrhage. In
French Guinea it is credited with anthelmintic properties, and as
a vermifuge a preparation is recommended consisting of leaves and
twigs of purslane 2.8 gram, fresh papaw root 0.75 gram, water
48 oz., the whole boiled down to 82 oz. In the Gold Coast Colony
it is said to cure yaws and also piles: the root is ground up and
mixed with salt forming a paste which is then treated with water,
and the resulting solution is used as an enema; this is supposed
to cause abortion in pregnant women, and its use is probably
restricted to educated native women of social standing. In Mauri-
tius the dry root has been used successfully in the treatment of
kidney trouble.
As regards the leaves, they are used as a worm remedy in
French Guinea. A decoction is given as a purgative to horses,
and has been recommended for the treatment of bots; but Steyn
in South Africa has experimentally disproved its efficacy for this
purpose. In the Gold Coast Colony the dry leaves are steeped in
THE PAPAW TREE 53
water and the yellowish-red liquor is drunk to cure stomach
trouble. In the Philippine Islands a decoction of the leaves is
applied as a lotion to wounds and atonic ulcers, or the boiled
leaves are crushed and made into a poultice. In the Santal
Parganas of India the leaves are reputed to promote the secretion
of milk: they should be gently bruised and heated in a pan and
applied warm to the breast. In Western India the leaves are
used externally for nervous pains; the leaf may be either dipped
in hot water or warmed over a fire and applied to the painful
part. Jn Southern India the bruised leaves applied as a poultice
are said to have an excellent influence in reducing elephantoid
growth. They are also used to extract guinea-worms: an ounce of
the leaf is rubbed with sixty grains of opium and sixty grains of
common salt, and the paste applied to the affected part—‘of course
the worm has to be wound out in the usual manner, but it always
comes out more quickly and easily when treated in this way’.
To come to the seeds, wherever the papaw tree is found grow-
ing its seeds are used as anthelmintic and emmenagogue. In India
their juice is made into pessaries to procure abortion. The juice,
or a paste obtained by grinding the seeds with glycerin, is used as
a cure for ringworm and psoriasis. Mixed with honey the seeds
are given to expel roundworms; they are also said to be useful in
dyspepsia and in enlargement of liver and spleen. In Cambodia
they are prescribed in bites and stings of poisonous insects. In
Central and South America they are given as a thirst quencher,
and they form a component part of a drink used in fever; they
are also used as a carminative.
Furthermore, the ripe fruit is alterative. It acts as a mild
laxative and, if regularly eaten every morning, corrects the habitual
constipation so common in India. It also acts as a mild chola-
gogue; hence its use for piles, and for enlarged liver and spleen;
to reduce an enlarged spleen the fruit is preferably taken dry and
salted. In some parts of India the ripe fruit is said to be useful
in chronic diarrhoea, and in some of the Malay islands it is given
in dysentery. Syrups, wines, elixirs made from ripe fruit are said
to be expectorant, sedative and tonic. The green fruit is a mild
laxative and diuretic; when made into a curry it is eaten by women
to excite secretion of milk; it possesses ecbolic properties and is
often resorted to by natives to induce criminal abortion. The
mature green fruit, sliced, dried and powdered, is given in doses
of from 5 to 20 grains for dyspepsia. In the Philippine Islands,
more especially in the province of Bulakan and in Pampanga, a
decoction of the green fruit is a popular remedy for indigestion.
In the West Indies a slice of the green papaw is rubbed over the
pimples which accompany the first stages of the yaws, to abort
them; and it is claimed that the ulcers which follow the pimples
may also be cleaned in a similar manner. In one instance appar-
ent clinical benefit from eating the fruit was claimed by a diabetic
patient; but Bischoff, Long and Sahyum failed to discover any
hypoglycaemic action when feeding the fruit to rabbits.
Finally the milky juice or latex has among others a well known
medicinal property, for the discovery of which the world is in
54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the first instance indebted to an old negro woman. Cossigny
relates that on her master’s farm this woman was entrusted with
the humble task of feeding the pigs. Now it happened that she
was suffering from worms and had tried many a remedy, but thus
far without any success. In course of time she noticed that when-
ever she fed her charges with slices of green papaw, the animals
passed worms. Putting two and two together she started eating
sliced green papaw and was relieved of her trouble. On hearing of
this unexpected cure the men of science attributed it to the milky
juice or latex contained in the green papaw; and a series of experi-
ments afterwards proved that their surmise was correct.
The milky juice of the unripe fruit has ever since been con-
sidered anthelmintic and used as such, especially against round-
worms. The following mode of administration is still adopted in
Mauritius: ‘Take of the fresh papaw milk and honey, of each ‘a
tablespoonful; mix thoroughly; gradually add three or four table-
spoonfuls of boiling water, and when sufficiently cool take the
whole at a draught, following its administration two hours subse-
quently by a dose of castor oil to which a portion of lime-juice
or vinegar may be added. This may be repeated two days succes-
sively, if required. The above is a dose for an adult, half the
quantity may be given to children between seven and ten years
of age, and a third, or a teaspoonful, to children under three years.
If it cause griping, as it occasionally does, enemas containing sugar
have been found effectual in relieving it.” In Brazil the juice is
given in very small doses to avoid intestinal inflammation.
The medicinal uses of the latex are not however lmited to
the removal of worms. The author of the Makhzhan mentions it
as a remedy for haemoptysis, bleeding piles, and ulcers of the uri-
nary passage; it is also useful in dyspepsia; rubbing the milk in,
two or three times, cures ringworm or psoriasis causing a copious
exudation attended with itching. The juice is often used exter-
nally to prevent suppuration. Kilmer writes: ‘A malady which
the natives call the “cocoa bag’’ is a troublesome tropical disease,
reputed to be hereditary and contagious; at all events it seems
to lurk in the blood of persons of otherwise apparently good health
and habits. Suddenly the victim becomes a. mass of offensive
sores, debilitated, etc. The native doctors add the papaw fruit to
the diet drinks used in this disease, and succeed in moderating
its violence at least. To the sores a paste made with the papaw
milk as one of the constituents is also applied.’ Again: ‘I wit-
nessed a most striking cleansing of a black foot in which the chiga
had bored and laid its eggs, producing a mass of foulness beyond
description. Here a paste of the papaw milk was pushed into the
seething mass and kept for forty-eight hours. It was then flush-
ed, curetted, and antiseptics were applied. A clean wound which
readily healed resulted.’ The juice will remove pimples and: thick-
ened skin as in eczema and corns. It has been used successfully
for stomach trouble; it is a reliable stomachic, and is slightly
laxative; but it should not be given to pregnant women, as it is
emmenagogue. It is applied locally to the os utert to procure
abortion. It is also said to be a certain remedy in cases of scorpion
THE PAPAW TREE 55
sting, a statement which has been experimentally disproved by
Caius and Mhaskar. The milk has been employed in splenic and
hepatic enlargements with good results; a teaspoonful with an
equal quantity of sugar divided into three doses was administered
daily.
The latex is shghtly caustic and irritating to the skin, so much
so that the collectors get blistered fingers. It has great digesting
properties; if dropped on raw meat it dissolves it in a few minutes,
and it is, no doubt, to this property that it owes its reputation
as a digestive. It has long been used for whooping-cough in
Honolulu. It has also been given with good results in, diphtheria.
A solution of 10 to 80 drops, applied as a paint, rapidly dissolved
the false membrane. A number of cases in a hospital for children
were cured by this treatment.
The milky juice is extracted by making shallow incisions with
a bone or ivory knife, or a wooden splinter, in the rind of the
mature but unripe fruit; the juice rapidly exudes from the cuts
and is collected in a cup held beneath, then spread on glass to
dry in the sun or, if the weather be wet, over a stove or in a
hot-air chamber. Drying should be effected without delay but
should not be too rapid, a temperature of about 100°F. being the
best. The process should be completed in about 24 hours. When
the material is crisp-dry, it is reduced to a fine powder, or made
into a granular form, and marketed as ‘papain’. About 5 to 8 oz.
dried papain may be obtained per tree in a year, or an average
of about 150 Ibs. per acre. The fruits may be tapped at intervals
of two or three days, and are not removed from the tree until
they cease to yield. Good quality papain may fetch from 7 to
15s. per lb.; but the demand is lhmited and irregular.
PAPAIN.
The term ‘papain’ is unfortunately applied both to the dried
juice of the papaw and to an albuminous digestive ferment obtain-
ed from this by precipitation with alcohol. In commerce there
are a number of preparations claiming to be the ferment of the
papaw, sold as papain, papayotin, papoid, caroid, vegetable pepsin,
etc. On examination several of these substances were found to
be merely the dried and powdered latex of the papaw, bearing the
same relation to the true separated ferment as the dried mucous
membrane of the stomach might bear to purified pepsin. As con-
fusion reigns supreme in the literature referring to this subject, and
as, except for a possible question of degree, the properties and
uses of the latex and the ferment are the same, no attempt has
been made here to treat the two separately.
As it occurs in commerce, papain is a greyish, fine powder,
which in appearance, odour, and taste strongly suggests pepsin.
Its natural colour is light brown; but bleaching is commonly
practised by manufacturers. In fact much sophistication obtains
in the preparation of papain. The French product is usually mixed
with starch which is added as a preservative. As starch, however,
is not naturally present in the fruit, it rightly figures in the list
of adulterants which also includes bread, arrowroot, the milk of
56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the wild cactus, the milk of gutta percha, boiled rice, ete. Adul-
teration with boiled rice, to the extent of 10 per cent, is a clever
Indian adulteration difficult to detect.
Papain, which acts as a digestant in acid, alkaline, and neutral
media, is used to prepare foods for assimilation, and figures largely
and prominently in foods for invalids and children, in chewing
gums, etc. It is extensively used as a digestive in France and
Germany, and has been given with good results to children.
Nevertheless, the digestive power of the papaw falls greatly short
of the claims made for it. It is commonly asserted that, when
the stomach is acid, it is much superior to pancreatin, because its
action is not markedly affected by contact with the acid; but in
experiments made by Wood with a papoid from one of the most
renowned manufacturers no digestion occurred, and it is probable
that most of the article of commerce is inert. As a matter of
fact many practitioners prefer to papain the milky juice fresh from
the tree, which is not only more efficacious as a digestive, but is
in addition a good taeniacide. It has been, moreover, shown that
the bleaching of papain is a great mistake and that in a representa-
tive preparation the ferment action is most marked when all the
proteis are associated together in the natural form.
‘Acid glycerole of papain’ is largely used in dyspepsia as it
dissolves mucus in the stomach, which prevents the absorption of
food in eases of indigestion, colic, flatulence, gastric ulcers; and it
is also greatly recommended as an aid to the nutrition of patients
suffering from phthisis. The liquid preparations are said to be
suitable to reduce enlarged tonsils and adenoids, but unless there
is some contra-indication to thorough surgical procedure, the prac-
tice is not particularly good. For this purpose a solution of 1 to 2
of papain in 10 each of glycerin and water is swabbed over the
parts. <A solution of this strength is used as an application to
fissures and ulcers of the tongue; though lozenges are usually pre-
ferred for syphilitic ulcers of the tongue and throat. <A stronger
solution, 1 part of papain in 2 parts each of glycerin and water,
is sprayed into the throat to dissolve false membrane, and is
applied in compresses to warts to effect their dispersion and to
malignant ulcers to cleanse them. It has even been used as a
local application in epithelioma; but papain as a curative agent
in cancerous affections has been unanimously found wanting. A
5 per cent solution with 2% per cent of sodium carbonate is used
as drops into the ear in chronic otorrhoea. For thread-worms
papain, 5 or 10 grains in a half pint of water, may be thrown: into
the colon as high as possible. A pigment well rubbed is used to
remove corns, warts, or any hardness of the skin, and in chronic
eczema. 3
The proteolytic power of papain is exerted on living as well as
on dead proteins, and injections into the tissues bring about topical
destruction. Intravenously administered it destroys the blood cells
and acts as a powerful poison. Injections into tumours: have been
made in the vain hope of destroying their vitality, but it has been
used with more or less success for the removal of false membrane
from the pharynx. Hypodermic injections in cases of elephantoid
THE PAPAW TREE 57
growth usually results in fever and intense local irritation pointing
to the unadvisability of adopting such a mode of treatment.
For internal use papain may be encapsulated or dissolved or
emulsified with glycerin and aromatics, a solution of this kind
making an admirable vehicle for salicylates, mercurials, iodides,
iron salts, and other medicaments that might irritate the stomach.
It may likewise be associated with diastase or pancreatin and
given about two hours after meals, or sooner if distress be felt.
Like all the digestive ferments, it must be withdrawn after a short
course, except in cases in which there exists some organic
lesion from which recovery cannot be expected, and artificial diges-
tion has become a constant necessity. It has no antiseptic power
and even strong solutions will putrefy.
PA-PAY-ANS.,
In the words of Kilmer, ‘the papaw has been brought to America
as a cure for the national disease, dyspepsia’. Indigestion, to call
it by its name, 1s one of the most unpleasant joy-killers to which
the normally healthy man is subject. Unless it becomes too
obnoxious, it 1s usually endured as an annoyance, and treated as a
natural consequence of the daily routine. The sufferer means to
reform his habits some day. His intentions are determined while
an attack is on; but when the discomfort passes and temptation
again beckons, forgetting all his good resolutions he fills himself
with what Shakespeare calls ‘the perilous stuff that weighs about
the heart’. Hence the shelves of the chemists are replete with
brands of pills, lozenges, tablets, powders, wines, and elixirs with-
out end for ‘removing flatulence, vertigo, weakness, and other
symptoms of indigestion quickly and pleasantly’... and for ‘pro-
moting appetite, digestion, and the elimination of toxic and waste
material’.
One such a drug is ‘Pa-pay-ans (Bell)’, the selling poimt of
which was the supposed presence of papain. This ferment, Bell
and Company alleged, was present in their tablets and they claimed
it to be ‘the digestive principle obtained by our own exclusive
process from the fruit of Carica papaya’. As long ago as 1909,
the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry endeavoured to detect the
presence of papain and to determine the digestive power of the
tablets, but with negative results. The efforts of other chemists
proved equally futile. Pa-pay-ans was essentially: charcoal,
baking soda, ginger, and oil of wintergreen. And, consequently,
the drug possessed the virtues—and they are few—and the hmita-
tions—and these are many—inherent to a mixture of baking soda,
ginger, and charcoal.
In January 1914, Bell and Company changed the name of the
product ‘Pa-pay-ans (Bell)’ to ‘Bell-ans’. As the Journal of the
American Medical Association remarked soon after, it seemed pro-
bable that, as the name of a nostrum of this kind is the manu-
facturer’s most valuable asset, the name was hardly changed, as
was alleged, for purely euphonious reasons. It seemed more likely
that as analyses had indicated there was not, and probably never
had been, any appreciable amount of papain in the product, the
58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
change of name might be due to the fear that some day the mis-
leading name might bring the preparation in conflict with the
Federal Food and Drugs Act.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
Upon standing for a few minutes the juice separates into two
parts, an aqueous liquid and a white somewhat coagulated pulpy
mass. In the aqueous portion is an albuminous substance possessed
of enzymic properties, papain. According to the researches of
Martin—-and others—papaw juice contains besides papain, a water-
soluble lipase, a lab or milk-curdling ferment, globulin, albumin,
and two phytalbumoses. No peptones occur in the juice, but leucin
and tyrosin are present.
The seeds contain a glucoside, caricin, which resembles sinigrin.
They also contain the ferment myrosin, and by the reaction of the
two a volatile pungent body is produced, smelling lke oil of
mustard.
The leaves have been reported to contain a glucoside, carposide.
The fruit contains vitamin C in abundance, with less of vita-
min A, and still less of B.
An alkaloid, carpane, was obtained by Greshoff from the fruit
and seeds, but especially from the leaves, of the papaw tree, and
was afterwards studied by Merck, van Rijn, and Barger. Accord-
ing to Plugge, the alkaloid depresses the action of the heart and
adversely affects respiration; whilst von Oefele recommends its
application by subcutaneous injections as a substitute for digitalis
in cardiac diseases. Chopra records that ‘from the data already in
hand, it is evident that it is not very toxic. A dose of 5 mgm.,
when injected intravenously in experimental animals, causes only
a slight fall of blood pressure which, however, returns to the normal
level within a very short time. The action of the heart is depress-
ed and both the ventricles and auricles show evidence of slight
depression. The respiration is not depressed to any great extent.
The volumes of the different organs are very slightly affected, if
at all. The alkaloid has not been used in therapeutics. ’
Merck list carpaine hydrochloride as a cardiac tonic, and diu-
retic; for use in mitral insufficiency and aortic stenosis.
COMMERCIAL POSSIBILITIES.
By way of conclusion a few words may be said about the com-
mercial and tradal prospects of either the papaw or papain. As
far as the fruit is concerned its marketability depends evidently
on three factors: transportation, demand, and supply.
The transportation question should not offer any difficulty as
long as sufficiently large quantities can be procured for exportation
from the plantation to the consumers. The art of transporting all
kinds of fruit has reached such a degree of perfection, that there
is no reason why the papaw should prove an exception to the rule
as far as its preservation on board ship is concerned. In fact,
successful experiments have already been made in this line be-
tween Honolulu and San Francisco,
THE PAPAW TREE 59
A far more doubtful factor is the creation of a market for the
papaw from a consumer’s point of view. The papaw is in no way
superior, and perhaps not even equal, to the home-grown fruits
of those continents where it would have to be marketed. In
America, Australia, and Europe apples, pears, peaches, plums,
cherries, apricots, and so on are more tasty than the papaw; and
this would really be a case in which a liking for the fruit would
have to be gradually developed among would-be consumers. Such
an experiment is likely to prove expensive; its success may be
slow in coming, if it comes off at all.
Besides this, suppose a demand for the papaw should even-
tually materialise, there is no guarantee that the grower could be
able to provide the needed supply. This brings us to consider the
question whether by any means the growers can increase their
harvest of papaws according to the need of the market. From
what has been said when describing the fruit-bearing capacities of
the tree it follows that the grower is for ever facing the unknown.
It seems to be all a question of luck whether the growing plant
will prove useless or fruit bearing; and, as long as these circum-
stances prevail, the very idea of creating a market for the papaw
is somewhat in the nature of a wild goose chase.
Finally as regards the commercial prospects of papain; the
latter article being a medicinal drug with well defined therapeutic
properties, it stands to reason that the market for papain will
mainly be determined by the needs of manufacturers of pharma-
ceutical products. As was already pointed out, the demand for
papain has, in fact, been both limited and irregular; and there is
no likelihood of its ever becoming a widespread constantly used
commercial commodity.
The United States of America, the largest consumer, import
annually to the value of from £15,000 to £16,000. Ceylon is one
of the principal exporters: from 1911 to 1913 the exports amounted
to 6,111; 12,920, and 18,548 lbs. representing a value of 34,221;
50,668, and 71,849 rupees—numbers which in respect to quantity
and value bear no comparison with other commercial commodities.
There is, therefore, very little hope of a prospective boom either
in papaws or in papain.
VERNACULAR NAMES.
Adang: Adiba—; Annam: Du du, Phan qua thu, Trai du du—;
Arabic: Aanabahe-hindi, Amba hindi—; Ashanti: Bororfere, Bror-
fenini, Brosownini—; Awuna: Adiba, Aduba, Yevudiba—; Bengal:
Papeya, Pappaiya, Pepiya—; Betsimisaraka: Papay, Voapaza—;
Bombay: Papai—; Brazil: Mamamoeiro, Mamao, Mameo, Mame-
rio, Mamoeiro, Papai—-; Burma: Pimbosi, Simbosi, Thimbaw, 'Tim-
bosi—: Cambodia: Lohong si phle, To hong phle—; Canarese:
Goppe, Pangi, Pappayi, Parangi—; Carib: Ababai—; Cochin-
China: Du du, Kay du du—; Cutch: Papaya—; Deccan: Popai—;
Egypt: Babas—; English: Melon Tree, Papaw, Papaya, Papeta,
Pawpaw, Tree-melon—; Hwe: Adiba—; Fanti: Borosow, Boro-
sownyin—; French: Figuier des iles, Figuier des negres, Melon
60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
des tropiques, Papayer, Papou—; Fulah: Budibaga—; Ga: Ak-
pakpa—; Gujerat: Chibda, Erandakakdi, Jhadchibhadi, Kath,
Papayi, Papia—; Hausa: Gwanda, Gwanda masar—; Hindi: Anda-
kharbuja, Papaya, Pepiya, Popaiya, Urunkhurbooza—; Konkan:
Popai—; Krobo: Gor—; Kwang Tung: Mou Koua—; Laos: Mak
hung—; Madagascar: Mapaza, Paza—; Malaya: Papaya, Pohun-
betek—; Malayalam: Kappalam, Karmmosu, Pappayam—-;
Marathi: Papaya—; Maya: Put—; Mexico: Chakarateca, Jacarata,
Lechoso, Melon zapote, Papaya, Papaya los pajaros, Papayo—-;
Mundari: Ambritdaru, Amritdaru, Dindapabita, Jomejaradaru,
Pabitadaru—; Paraguay: Mamon—; Persian: Aanabahe-hindi,
Ambahindi—; Philippines: Capayo, Kapayo, Papaya—; Portu-
guese: Papaia—; Punjab: Arandkharbuza, Kharbuza—; Samoa:
Esi, Ksi fafine, Esitane—; Sanskrit: Chirbhita, Erandachirbhita,
Malikadala—; Sinhalese: Copal, Cucaracho—; Sind: Chilbhado,
Katha, Katha chibhadu, Paputa—; Sinhalese: Papaw, Pepol—;
Spanish: Papaya—; Tagalog: Capayas—; Tamil: Pappali, Pap-
payi, Parangiyamanakku, Pasalai Telugu: Boppayi, Madana-
naba, Madhurnakamu—; Tongking: Du du—; Tulu: Bappan-
sayi—; Twi: Brorfre—; Urdu: Erand-kharbujah—; Uriya: Omry-
tobhonda, Popoya—; Visayan: Capayas—; Yemen: Amba hindi—;
Yueatan: Chich put, Put—.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN.
BY
SAuLmm ALI.
With Notes by HucH WHISTLER.
PART Li.
(With two plates).
(Continued from page 843 of volume xxxvil).
SYS THMATIC. LISL.
FAMILY: CORVIDAE.
Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes. The Southern Jungle Crow.
Not collected by the Survey, but 9 specimens were kindly procured from
the Trivandrum neighbourhood by the Superintendent of the Museum in con-
nection with the revision of this form in the Eastern Ghats Survey. Mr.
Whistler measures these as follows:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
5303 54.5-59 273-294 157-169.5 mm.
4 0° 52-62 264-270 152-169 mm.
(The above measurements include adults and first year birds.)
Noted at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft——only once !), Thattakad (200 ft.), Neria-
mangalam, Kotamangalam, Kottayam (ca. 8.L.), Peermade (8,200 ft.), Kumili
(3,000 ft.), Periyar Salk Environs, Camp Deramalai (8,000 ft.), Rajampara
(1,350) it.), ‘“‘Renmalai (500 ft.), Trivandrum. (ca. §.L.), Cape Comorin (ca. §.L.),
Aramboli (250 ft.), Chalakudi, Wadakkancheri (400 ft.), Nemmara (800 ft.),
Trichir, Kartpadanna (ca. §.U.), Hrnakulam, Cochin Town.
The species was absent at Munnar (5,000 ft.), Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.),
Kariarkatti (1,600 ft.) and Padagiri (8,000 ft.). The last agrees with Kinloch’s
statement that it does not occur in the Nelliampathies at all. It was ex-
ceedingly rare at Maraiyur (8,500 ft.), Santhanpara (8,500 ft.), Peermade
(8,200 ft.), Kumili (8,000 ft.), Camp Deramalai (8,000 ft.) and Rajampara
(1,850 ft.), only one or two examples being noted at each of these camps.
It appears to avoid the hilly tracts and prefers the low country where it
frequents the neighbourhood of towns and villages and is abundant, often
to the point of being an unmitigated nuisance as any one who has had the
pleasure of staying in the Trivandrum Dak Bungalow can testify. According
to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 255) the Jungle Crow does not frequent the
hills in South Travancore, but is common at Peermade. During my camp at
this place between 20 and 26 February I only saw a single example which
also appeared as if it had urgent business elsewhere! It arrived from nowhere,
perched on a tree-top for a few minutes and then disappeared.
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 407) does not appear to have seen it
above Vilpati village, ca. 5,500 ft.
The race culminatus occurs throughout Ceylon, and birds from that island
and from the Travancore-Cochin area appear identical in all respects.
Breeding: On 4 March (Periyar Lake Environs) an individual was
observed carrying a twig in its bill, and another on 30 March was similarly
occupied. '
Ferguson gives the nesting season ‘in the hills and also in the low country’
as April to June. ‘Bourdillon and others took eggs from 27 February to 20 May
in Travancore’ (Nidification, i, p. 9).
62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
In Ceylon Legge gives the breeding season as ‘May, June and July, most
nests being built in May’ (Birds of Ceylon, p. 348). Wait on the other hand
says the breeding season is ‘from June till August’ (2nd ed., p. 12).
Corvus splendens protegatus Madarisz. The Ceylon House-Crow.
Specimens collected: 506 Q 2-4-83 Trivandrum (8.L.); 567 ¢ 11-4-33 Cape
Comorin (8.L.); 787 ¢ 28-7-83 (Martthankizhi 50 ft.) Trivandrum Environs.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.), Neriamangalam, Kotaémangalam,
Kxottayam (8.L.), Wadakkancheri (400 ft.), Nemmara (800 ft.), Trichir, Kari-
padanna (8.L.), Ernakulam, Cochin Town.
Absent at: Maraiyur (3,500 ft.), Muinnar (5,000 ft.), Peermade (8,200 ft.),
Kumili (8,000 ft.), Camp Deramalai (3,000 ft.), Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.),
Kuriarkutti (1,600 ft.), Padagiri (3,000 ft.). According to Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S.,
xxvli, 939) it does not occur in the Nelliampathies at all.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; mouth brownish-slate; bill, legs, feet
and claws black. Gape in juvenile pink.
[The series obtained by the Survey consists of one adult G and two im-
mature birds, and unfortunately I have been unable to supplement these with
other Travancore specimens. ‘There are none in the British Museum which
has a very poor series of this common bird. The specimens measure:
Bill, Wing. Tail,
56i-o- ad, 5d:5 284 169 mm.
737 ¢ imm. 58 253 146.5 mm.
506 9 imm. 46.5 259.5 156 mm.
The available series of C. s. protegatus in the B.M. consists merely of
one pair of adults and one pair of immature birds. These measure:
Bilt. Wing. Tail:
o ad. 50.5 268 163 mm.
go imm. 49 235 131 mm.
Q ad. 46.6 251 152.5 mm.
OQ imm. 45 220 130 mm.
In a variable species lke the Crow—and the adult ¢ is much larger than
the average of the House-Crows which I have measured—this series is not suff-,
cient to settle whether Travancore and Ceylon birds are the same in size,
though it suggests that the Ceylon bird is really smaller. In colour both series
agree, and if the Travancore specimens are compared with specimens from
the centre of the Peninsula, the difference in colour is most marked. Our
Travancore specimens must therefore be considered to be protegatus unless
and until evidence is forthcoming that Travancore birds definitely differ in
size from those of Ceylon.—H. W.]
The House-Crow is a common and abundant species throughout the low
country especially about towns and villages and in the neighbourhood of the
homesteads and ‘Kopra’ depots along the backwaters. I found it most abundant
in Trivandrum town, where its numbers are about equal to those of the
Jungle-Crow. At Aramboli it was noted as less numerous than the latter.
It is absent in the hills as will be seen from the above list of localities.
In the Palni Hills also, Fairbank (S.F., v, 407) found it only at the base.
Breeding: As early as 31 January (Karupadanna) a bird was observed
feeding two full-fledged young with pink gapes, evidently lately out of the nest.
On 15 February (Kottayam) a nest containing 3 eggs was located at the base of
the leaves of a small coconut palm, about 14 ft., standing on a bund among
submerged backwater paddy-fields. Apparently brooding had not yet com-
menced. On 9 April (Cape Comorin) an individual was observed carrying a
thorny twig into the top of a Borassus palm.
Specimen No. 567 (11 April) had one testis measuring 24x18 mm., the
other being aborted and discoloured. It was observed that the bird had the
leg on the side of the aborted testis missing from the tarsal joint. .
On 14 April (Cape Comorin) a nest was noted in a Borassus palm at about
25 ft. in which the young could be seen moving.
PAE th.
House Crows (Corvus splendens) bathing.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
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THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 63
T. F. Bourdillon was of opinion that in Travancore although they built in
May and earlier, they hardly ever laid before June. The evidence obtained by
the Survey does not bear him out; Ferguson also mentions taking eggs in the
Public Gardens at Trivandrum as early as February, and it seems more than
likely that the majority of young, at any rate, have left the nest before the
first furious onslaughts of the §$.-W. Monsoon in June.
According to Legge (Birds of Ceylon, p. 352) the breeding season in Ceylon
is from May until July. Wait (2nd ed.) gives it as ‘May to August, but
mainly in May and June’ (p. 18).
Dendrecitta vagabunda parvula Kinnear and Whistler. The Tree-Pie.
Specimens collected: 380 Q 7-1-3338, 87 ¢ 18-1-33 Maraiyur 3,500 ft.; 265
Q 11-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 291 9 16-2-33 Kottayam 100 ft.; 411 ¢, 412 @
6-3-383 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 648 ¢ 21-4-88 Aramboli 250 ft.; 706 ¢ 22-7-338
Trivandrum 100 ft.; 760 @ 31-7-33 (Maruthanktzhi 50 ft.); 886 ? 11-8-33
(Pilayanarkotta 200 ft.) Trivandrum Environs; 906 9 26-11-33 Wadakkancheri
400 ft.; 1026 g 27-12-33 Karupadanna ca. 8.L.
Hilsewhere noted at: Rajampara (1,350 ft.), Cape Comorin (ca. §.L.),
Chalakudi, Nemmara (800 ft.), Trichar.
Absent at: Munnar (5,000 ft.), Santhanpara (8,500 ft.), Peermade
(3,200 ft.), Camp Deramalai (8,000 ft.), Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.), Kuriar-
kutti (1,600 ft.), Padagiri (3,000 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris orange- to reddish-brown; bill slaty-black, paler
at gape and chin; mouth slate colour; legs and feet brownish-slate; claws
horny-brown or horny-black.
| Measurements :
Bill. | Wing. Tail.
Bad. dd 31-33.5 137-150 909-221 mm.
Bad. 09 29-31.5 131-144 196-204 mm.
With the exception of Nos. 411 and 412, the pair from Kumil, which
are rather pale, this series supports the division of South Indian birds into
a pale race on the east and a dark race on the west, and* the race parvula
must undoubtedly be recognised. It only differs from the typical race in
size, and of course intergrades with it.—H. W.]
The Tree-Pie is a common species in the low country, in open deciduous
forest, and as Ferguson remarks, it does not (as a rule) ascend the hills,
although at Maraiytr (8,500 ft.) it was present in small numbers. Kinloch
also found it in the Nelliampathies, but very rare (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 989-44).
In the hills this species is usually replaced by D. leucogastra as was the case
in most of the localities where I have marked it absent. In localities lke
Thattakad and Rajampara, where rubber plantations were surrounded by or
alternated with tropical evergreen forest, both the Pies were met with side
by side.
A favourite resort is rubber plantations of which there are several near
Thattakad, between Kottayam and Mundakayam, and elsewhere. The birds
are also partial to the gardens of cocoanut, jack-fruit, mango, plantain and
cashew which usually surround the homesteads by the backwaters and are such
a feature of the countryside here.
Tree-Pies are invariably present among the localised associations of mixed
bird species that move about in the deciduous forest in search of food, principally
insects. In the evergreens their place is filled by Dendrocitta leucogastra,
whose constant association with Dissemurus paradiseus has often been com-
mented upon, e.g. by Isinloch in the Nelliampathies (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 294).
As I have already pointed out in the report of the Hyderabad Survey
(J.B.N.H.8., xxxvi, 370) there is nothing mysterious about this association.
Tt is merely the result of a convergence of interests which, as a rule, involves
many other but perhaps less conspicuous species as well. The largest and most
prominent members of such associations in dense evergreen jungle are usually
the South Indian Tree-Pie and the Racket-tailed Drongo, and these two have
naturally attracted the most attention from observers.
64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Peepal figs (ficus religiosa), when available, form an important item in
the dietary of these birds, and they unfailingly resort to the trees to feed in
mixed avian company. At Maraiyur they were noted as partial to plantain
(Musa) gardens, singly or in pairs, tearing off and feeding on the inflorescence
and doing considerable damage.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 407) obtained it at 5,000 ft. in the Palni Hills.
Breeding: Specimen No. 291 (16 February) had a clearly granulated ovary
with the follicles measuring 1 mm. in diameter.
Nos. 411 and 412 (6 March), a pair, were both carrying twigs for a nest
in leafless deciduous jungle, and were obviously ready to breed. The testes
of the male measured 9X5 mm. (slaty pigmented) while the largest ovarian
follicle of the female was about 2.5 mm.
On 18 April (Aramboli), H. took a clutch of 4 fresh eggs from a_ nest
in a Neem tree at about 25 ft., in the Camp Shed compound. The nest was a
flimsy structure of Babool and other twigs surrounding a_ shallow cup of
finer twigs and rootlets through which the contents were visible from below.
The eggs were very pale reddish-white in ground colour, sparsely speckled with
light brown, and measured 27X21 (2), 26x21 and 26.5x21 mm.
The male of this pair, which had the central tail feathers missing (No. 648)
was shot on 21 April. Its testes measured 9X5 mm. By 28 April, when
the place was re-visited, the female had apparently provided herself with another
mate and laid again (?), as one of the birds was observed to leave the nest
on which it had been sitting !
On 21 April—by which date only pairs were in evidence and everywhere
chivvying and chasing off Jungle Crows etc. from the neighbourhood of their
territories—another nest was found in a Thespesia populnea tree, at about
12 ft., growing on a bund in a coconut plantation. It was! similar in structure
to the first and contained 5 eggs, also of the same type.
None of the other specimens showed any genital development.
From the evidence it appears that it is perhaps an earlier breeder on the
whole than suggested by Ferguson’s ‘It breeds during the §.-W. Monsoon’,
i.e. between the middle of May and the middle of September, though some
birds may of course do so during that period. It is significant also that none
of the 8 specimens collected in the environs of Trivandrum in July and
August show any departure in their gonads from the normal non-breeding
condition, while two of the birds are even undergoing complete post-nuptial
moult. The third (11 August) is immature in post-juvenal body moult. ‘Bour-
dillon and Stewart found it breeding almost entirely in March and April,
though a few birds continued to lay, until the end of June’ (Nidification, 1, 38).
Dendrocitta lencogastra Gould. The Southern Tree-Pie.
Specimens collected: 200 @ 3-2-8383, 266 ¢ 11-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 456
S 17-3-838 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 672 ¢ 26-4-33 Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.).
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (at 4,500 ft.), Kumih (8,000 ft.), Camp
Deramalai (8,000 ft.), Kuariarkitti (1,600 ft), Padagiri (8,000 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris dark crimson; bill horny-black; mouth dark
slate; legs, feet and claws blackish-brown.
[Other specimens examined:
Sparrow Coll.: Q 20-38-14 Cardamom Hills. Wings albinistic.
Brit. Mus. Coll.: Q 17-12-78, ¢@ 18-10-78, g no date, ¢ 27-11-74 Mynall,
Travancore (Bourdillon); ¢ no date, Travancore (Bourdillon).
Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Coll.: GQ 14-8-93 Thekadi, Travancore (J. P. Cook),
$ 80-12-94 Ponnalore, Travancore (IF. J. Inglish), ¢ -12-90 Ponmudi.—H. W.]
The Southern Tree-Pie is essentially a bird of evergreen rain forest and
sholas, and completely replaces D. vagabunda in such biotope. In _ localities
like Thattakad and Rajampara, however, where there is a mixture of the two
types of forest, with either preponderating in adjacent areas, both the species
may occur side by side. Cardamom sholas are a favourite haunt; the birds—
pairs or small parties—are very regular components of the localised bird asso-
ciations in forest, of which Dissemurus paradiseus is another constant member,
and Tchitrea, Hypothymis, Culicicapa, Phylloscopus occipitalis, Sitta frontalis
and Machlolophus some of the usual but less obtrusive partners.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN .. 65
The call-notes of this species are loud and more metallic than those of
D. vagabunda, and often closely resemble those of its habitual companion the
Racket-tailed Drongo. The bird has a habit of raising its tail and depressing
the forepart till the body assumes a horizontal stance, and then of ludicrously
bobbing or ‘jumping’ up and down on its perch as it utters a throaty ‘chough-
chough-chough’ like some Japanese clockwork toy!
This Tree-Pie does not occur in Ceylon.
Breeding: In specimen No. 200 (8 February) the ovary appeared to be
maturing, some of the largest follicles being about 2 mm. in diameter. No. 266
(11 February) had testes measuring 9x6 mm. and it was in freshly moulted
immaculate plumage. No. 456 (17 March) from its narrow central tail feathers
was apparently a first year bird with testes in normal non-breeding condition.
No. 672 (26 April) had its testes enlarged to breeding size—8x6 mm.—and
it had a prominent incubation patch.
Bourdillon states that its eggs may be obtained in March and the begin-
ning of April at elevations of 2,000-3,000 ft. above sea-level. My notes tend
to confirm this statement in the main, though perhaps February to April would
be more correct. In suitable localities (cf. Thattakad, Rajampara) however,
it doubtless breeds at considerably lower elevations.
According to J. Stewart (quoted by Baker, Fauna, i, 52) it breeds in
Travancore again in August, but of this I have no confirmation.
On p. 388, vol. i, Nidification of Indian Birds, Stuart Baker remarks on the
similarity of the eggs of this Tree-Pie to those of the formosae and not the
vagabunda group. Its closer relationship with the former is also confirmed
by the immature plumage. First winter birds, which of course retain juvenile
wings and tail, can only be distinguished from adults by the narrower, less
spatulate tail feathers as in formosae, lacking the pale rufous tips of vagabunda.
Mr. Whistler describes the juvenile plumage from a specimen in the British
Museum as being exactly similar to the adult, save for the shape of the tail
feathers and a slight brown fringing to the tips of the lesser wing coverts and
rump.
Famity: PARIDAE.
Parus major mahrattarum Hartert. The Southern Grey Tit.
Specimens collected: 90 G 14-1-33 Maraiytr 38,500 ft.; 880 9, 3881 ¢
1-3-8383 Kuimili 3,000 ft.; 907 ? 26-11-83 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
“Elsewhere noted at: Rajampara (1,850 ft.).
Absent at: Thattakad (200 ft.), Peermade (8,200 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill blackish-brown; mouth pinkish; legs
and feet slaty-blue; claws horny brown. -
[The Survey specimens measure :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
carcine) I
aso j 11-11.5 61-66 52-55 mm.
Further specimens examined :
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 3 16-38-95 Motachi-mali [?], 8S. Travancore (Bourdillon) ;
S$ 21-38-95 Mynall, Travancore (Bourdillon).
This race has an unusually wide range in India and Ceylon, yet no further
subspecies can be made though in the South the central tail feathers are slightly
blacker than in Rajputana. Travancore and Ceylon birds are inseparable.—
H. W.]
This is a bird of open and light deciduous or secondary forest and avoids
evergreen jungle. Small flocks or pairs were met with, usually among the
localised bird associations. Rajampara is the only locality where it was noted
as fairly common.
In the Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 478) found it in the Pittur Valley.
The Grey Tit is fairly generally distributed in Ceylon. .
Breeding: Specimens Nos. 3880 and 881 (1 March), a pair, were evidently
breeding from the condition of their organs, presence of incubation patch and
worn plumage. The testes of the ¢$ measured 6x4 mm., the largest ovarian
follicles in the @ being about 1.5 mm. They were hopping about on the
ground among fallen leaves etc. in open deciduous ‘forest, collecting vest-lining
5
66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
material. This would make it appear that the breeding season in Travancore
agrees with that in the Nilgiris—February to May.
The main breeding season in Ceylon seems to be March to July.
Machlolophus xanthogenys travancoreensis JKinnear and Whistler. The Travan-
core Yellow-cheeked Tit.
Specimens collected: 134 ¢ 28-1-38, 141 9, 142 ¢? 24-1-38, 162 9 imm.,
163 ?, 164 2 imm. 26-1-38, 178 Q 28-1-83 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 425
9-3-3838 Camp Deramalai 3,000 ft.; 976 3, 978 $ 18-12-33 Padagiri 3,000 ft. |
Elsewhere noted only at Munnar (5,000 ft.), and as absent at Thattakad
(200 ft.)-and Peermade (8,200 ft.). .
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris brown; bill (¢) horny-black or (Q) horny-
brown; mouth pink; legs and feet bluish-grey; claws duskier. Immature:
Gape yellow; commissure and tip of lower mandible whitish; mouth yellowish-
pink; rest as in adult.
[Comparison of this fine series with the Eastern Ghats and Hyderabad
Survey specimens—all fresh skins in which museum fading has not had time
to take place—shows that the new race travancoreensis is a very good one.
Compared with aplonotus the upper parts are a duller more saturated green,
and the yellow of the lower parts is duller and more washed with olive green.
The other differences in the wings noted in the original description (J.B.N.H.S.,
xxxv, 519) are not confirmed as constant, but the white tips to the tail-feathers
are smaller in travancoreensis than in aplonotus.
Mr. Salim Ali has contributed to the problems connected with the plumages
of the species as given under the above reference. Nos. 1384, 142, 976 and 978
are all adult males with a glossy black crest and a broad glossy black ventral
band, that is to say in the plumage commonly accepted as adult plumage for
both sexes. Nos. 141 and 178 are both adult females, adult in the sense that
the juvenile wings and tail have been moulted and the ovaries enlarged and
granular. These birds have the green crest and olive-green ventral band al-
ready described (loc. cit.) from six specimens in the British Museum (marked
36, 2, 2, &, two unsexed). As similarly mature females are found with
black crests and black ventral stripes and there is no evidence to suggest that
this species takes more than the customary 12 months of the genus to reach
plumage maturity, one can only draw the conclusion that the females of this
tit are dimorphic. If the ¢ (10-12-74 Mynall, Bourdillon Collection, British
Museum) is correctly so sexed, the dimorphism must extend rarely to the adult
males, but I suspect an error in sexing. This bird is not itself fully adult.
In these green crested birds the black shaft-streaks in the crest are variable
In 8siZe, being in one specimen almost wanting.
No. 425 is a male in juvenile plumage. Tt is black-crested and black-banded,
differing from the adult male merely in the details usual to tits, viz., the crest
is shorter and a duller less glossy black; the white spots on the median and
greater coverts are washed with yellow, as are also the white outer webs of
the tertiaries; the black ventral band is dull and restricted in size. Nos. 162
and 164 are both females in juvenile plumage. They are black-crested but have
the olive-green ventral band as in the two adult females, that is to say they
agree with the three juveniles of this form already described (loc. cit.) from
the Nilgiris. None of these specimens have started their post-juvenal moult
so we have no means of knowing whether these black-crested green-banded
juveniles turn into green-headed green-banded adults or what. In M. «x. aplo-
notus green-banded adult females have black crests and no green-crested female
has been recorded. The dimorphism in the female plumage is evidently a
racial characteristic of M. x. travancoreensis.
Further specimens examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: @ 4-6-77 Kodaikanal (Fairbank); ¢ Q 12-11-78 Mynall,
Travancore (Bourdillon).—H. W.]
The Yellow-cheeked Tit was fairly common in hilly afforested localities,
but absent in the low country. It was usually met with in pairs or small
parties and almost invariably as a member of the localised bird associations
which comprised besides of Phylloscopus occipitalis, Culicicapa, Sitta frontalis
and other species, hunting for insects among the foliage of lofty trees such as
may be found in cardamom sholas.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 67
Black-crested black-banded, black-crested green-banded and _ green-crested
green-banded examples were frequently met in one and the same flock. Of a
pair observed at Muannar on 16-1-38, one was black-crested black-banded, while
in the other the crest and ventral band were greenish-grey. This was also
the case with another pair at Santhanpara (21-1-33) but in this case I am not
sure whether the green-banded individual had a green or a black crest. At all
events I never saw a pair or flock in which both or all the individuals were
green-crested which precludes the suggestion of the green-headed birds belong-
ing to a separate species and supports Mr. Whistler’s conclusion that the
females of this tit are dimorphic. _
According to Kinloch (J.B:H.N.S., xxvii, 989-944) the Yellow-cheeked Tit
is extremely common in the Nelhiampathy Hills. Bourdillon and Ferguson
both record it to be a high elevation bird in Travancore, abundant from 3,000 ft.
upwards. It is not found in Ceylon.
In the Palni Hills Fairbank (S.F., v, 407) found it sparingly at Kodaikanal
and Terry (S.F., x, 478) in small parties at Pulungi and Kukal.
Breeding: No. 976 (18 December) had testes measuring 7X5 mm. and had
obviously just finished breeding as it was in_ post-nuptial moult (body and
rectrices). It was accompanied by a green-banded green-crested (?) individual.
No. 978 (14 December)—testes 6X4 mm.—was also undergoing post-nuptial
moult, as also was No. 134 (practically completed 23 January) with testes
6x4 mm. Nos. 162 and 164 (26 January) were young birds with imperfectly
ossified skulls, in juvenile plumage with the post-juvenal moult not yet started.
They were of a family party of which No. 163 (in worn plumage, moult
only just starting on breast) was presumably one of the parents. The latter
was badly shot and could not be sexed. No. 178 (28 January)—green-crested
green-banded—had a distinctly granular ovary and was undergoing complete
post-nuptial moult. It was accompanied by a black-crested black-banded indi-
vidual. No. 425 was also in juvenile plumage, with the post-juvenal moult not
yet started.
There seems to be no recorded evidence of any nest having been taken in
Travancore. Kinloch who found several nests in the Nelliampathies fails to
give the dates. From the evidence obtained by the Survey, I would extend
the breeding season in Travancore as suggested in the Eastern Ghats Report
viz. ‘July to August and possibly even later’—to the end of October or the
middle of November.
Faminy: Srrripak.
Sitta frontalis frontalis Swainson. The Velvet-fronted Nuthatch.
Specimens collected: 182 9, 183 ¢ 29-1-83 Santhanpara at 5,000 ft.;
390 3, 391 Q 3-38-33 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 984 ¢ 15-12-83 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiytr (3,500 ft.); Munnar (5,000 ft.); Thattakad
(200 ft.), Urambikera Res. Forest near Mtndakayam (ca. 1,000 ft.), Peermade
(8,200 ft.), Camp Deramalai (3,000 ft.), Rajampara (1,350 ft.), Balamore
Estate (2,000 ft.), Kuriarkutti (1,600 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris lemon-yellow; orbital skin yellow; bill coral
red, brownish at tip; palate coral, gullet pink; legs and feet brown with orange
tinge; claws horny-brown.
[Other specimens examined :
Brit. Mus. Coll.: G 20-11-75, ¢ 2-10-78 Mynall, Travancore (Bour-
dillon); 9 21-6-77 Palnis (Fairbank).
Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Coll.: & 29-1-01 Devicolam, Travancore; ¢ 3-38-94
‘Pulney Ghat’ (J. P. Cook).
Sparrow Coll.: G 21-38-14 Cardamom Hills.
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
12 3¢ 16-17.5 77-80.5 39.5-43.5 mm.
499 16-17 75.5-80 895-425 mm.
The correct type locality of this species is Ceylon as was pointed out in
the Journal N. H. Society, Siam, vol. v, pt. 8, p. 334 (1924) and this was
@8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
accepted by Mr. Stuart Baker in his vol. vii, p. 25. It is unfortunate there-
fore that in Nidification, vol. i, p. 99, he has returned to the initial mistake
of the New Fauna, vol. i, p. 182, of stating the type locality to be Java.
It is not, therefore, as he says (loc. cit., p. 99) a question of separating the
Javan and Indian birds and using Hodgson’s name corallina for the Indian
bird, but a question of separating the Ceylon and Himalayan birds and using
jrontalis for the former and corallina for the latter. Our Travancore birds
agree with those from Ceylon and therefore belong to the typical race.—H. W.]
This Nuthatch is essentially a bird of evergreen jungle and is found wherever
this occurs in the Travancore-Cochin area, from almost the level of the low
country to the highest sholas. It is usually met with in pairs running up
and down the trunks or along and around the moss-covered branches of forest
trees, frequently chnging back downwards and working along their undersides.
They are regular members of the mixed hunting parties. il have only once
observed them venture into open leafless deciduous jungle bordering an ever-
green shola. This was such an unusual occurrence that the birds (Nos. 390
and 391) were mistaken for Sitta castanea, and promptly shot.
+ In the Palni Hills both Fairbank (S.F., v, 399) and Terry (S.F., x, 472)
found it common in the well-wooded portions and sholas.
' This Nuthatch occurs throughout Ceylon, and Travancore and Ceylon birds
are quite indistinguishable.
Breeding: Specimen No. 984 (15 December) had its testes enlarged to
7x4 mm. and was in fresh plumage. Of a pair, Nos. 182 and 183 (29 January),
the ovary of the female was undeveloped while the testes of the male measured
3x2 mm. and appeared to be maturing. They were both completing a general
moult. In another pair, Nos. 890 and 391 (8 March) the male’s testes
measured 7X4 mm.; the ovary of the female was distinctly granular, the fol-
licles measuring about 1 mm. in diameter. A prominent incubation patch
confirmed the presumption that the birds were breeding.
Apparently no nests have been recorded from Travancore or Cochin, but
the breeding season here appears to be from December to March or there-
abouts, and therefore somewhat earlier than that given for the Madras Presi-
dency—I’ebruary to April.
According to Davison the most normal breeding months in South India are
April and May. In Ceylon ‘Breeding season appears to be from February to
May’ (Waite, 2nd ed., p. 17).
FamMity: ‘TIMALIIDAE.
Garrulax delesserti (Jerdon). The Wynaad Laughing Thrush.
Specimens collected: 179 ¢, 180 ¢ juv. 29-1-33 Santhanpara at 5,000 ft.;
273 9, 274 gd imm. 12-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 675 9? 27-4-88 Balamore Estate
2,000 ft.
Klsewhere noted at: Tenmalai (500 ft.), Padagiri (8,000 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris scarlet (‘maroon-brown’ according to
Kinloch); gape and upper mandible dark horny-brown, lower mandible pale
yellowish flesh-colour; palate yellow, gullet pink; legs, feet and claws pinkish
flesh-colour with grey tinge. Juvenile and Immature: (Nos. 180 and 274) Iris
pale pinkish-buff; upper mandible horny-brown except tip, nostrils, lores and a
spot on culmen near forehead, which yellow; gape and lower mandible bright
yellow; eyelids bright yellow; orbital skin and aural opening paler yellow;
legs and feet dusky yellow; claws paler.
In No. 675 (age ?) Iris brownish-orange; upper mandible horny-brown,
lower mandible pale yellow or cream; a bare post-orbital patch bluish-slate;
legs and feet dirty brownish-grey; claws creamy-white.
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. ie Rank
3:4 & ad. and imm,- 30.5-381 100-108 99-102) mm.
miles 31.5 108.5 101 mm.
Further specimens examined :
.- Brit..Mus..Coll.: -3-8:1-738 Assambo. Hills; @ - 80-12-94 Bonacaud, Travan-
core (A. N. Nair); Q 27-4-74: Mynall (Bourdillon).
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 69°
Stuart Baker says (New Fauna, vol. i, p. 149 and’ Nidification, vol. i,
p. 111) that this Laughing Thrush is confined to the hills of South-West India
from the Wynaad to South Travancore. This distribution is manifestly in-
correct as in the next paragraph he goes on to quote the discovery of the
nest by John Davidson in North Kanara. It is, as a matter of fact, common
almost throughout the hills of North Kanara (Davidson, J BéN sds S%5) Xi, 009)
and--South Kanara (Bell apud LaPersonne, J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 508).
The juvenile plumage does not appear to be represented in any collection,
but from specimen No. 180 which is in post-juvenal- moult, it is evident’ that
the juvenal plumage is—as one would expect—very similar to that of the
adult. It, and therefore the first winter bird (No. 274), show the normal
differences of young Timaliine birds, namely a soft blunt first primary and
marrow pointed tail-feathers. As the breeding season is evidently late in
the heaviest part of the monsoon the post-juvenal body moult is taking place
about January-February. The adult post-nuptial moult therefore is probably
about November-December, but no specimens have been seen.—H. W. |
This Laughing Thrush is also confined to the heavy rain-forest areas of
Travancore-Cochin. The Surveys came across it from almost the level of the
low country (Thattakad 200 ft.) to about 5,000 ft. in the Cardamom Hills at
Santhanpara, and it probably occurs, as Ferguson says, at all elevations. It
goes about in noisy flocks of 6 to 10 birds, keeping principally to the dense
cane-brakes and evergreen undergrowth, preferably on the edge of footpaths
and cardamom clearings, where they rummage among the fallen leaves and
mulch in search of insects, in the manner of the family. They are great
skulkers when alarmed, and give vent to a variety of squeaky shrieks 4s
they scuttle away from danger.
This Laughing Thrush is not found in Ceylon.
Breeding: Specimen No. 179 (29 January) had testes measuring 10x6 mm.
(slaty pigmented). No. 180, a member of the same flock, was juvenile with
very imperfectly ossified skull and in heavy post-juvenal body moult. It was
probably not more than 1-14 months old. No. 273 (12 February) had a mature
ovary, the largest follicles measuring about 2 mm. in diameter, and the bird
was in worn breeding plumage. It was of a flock from which also was
secured No. 274, an immature ¢ with partially soft skull and in heavy general
moult in which the tertiaries were also involved. No. 675 (27 April) was
undergoing a body (post-nuptial ?) moult.
Tt would appear from the above that the breeding season in this area
is somewhere between December and the first two or three months of the year.
What is more probable, however, is that as in some of the other members of
this family, it is rather erratic and ill-defined. Ferguson says that it breeds
in June. He quotes the description of a nest found by T. F. Bourdillon
(J.B.N.H.S., xv, 257) but omits to give the date.
Stewart took nests and eggs in the Ventura Valley, Travancore, from 7 April
to 28 August. According to him, it breeds principally during the South-West
Monsoon when the rainfall is about 150 inches. Normal c/3 or c/4, but 2
nests contained 6 and 7 eggs each presumably laid by 2 hens (Nidification,
Le, lei),
T. R. Bell says (apud LaPersonne, J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 503) that in Kanara
it invariably nests in or on ‘Karvi’ (Strobilanthes) stems and nearly always in
the monsoon months—July to September—in anything from 250-350 inches
rainfall.
Trochalopteron jerdoni fairbanki Blanford. The Travancore Laughing Thrush.
_ Specimens collected: 19 9. 6-1-83 (4,500 ft.), 57 gd, 58 9, 59 ¢g 10-1-33
(7,000 ft.) Maraiyur; 101 Q 17-1-33, 106 ¢, 107 dg, 108 9 imm. 18-1-33,
117 oS 20-1-88 Munnar 5,000 ft.; 145 S 24-1-33 (4,500 ft.), 181 9 .29-1-33
(5,000 ft.) Santhanpara.
Not met with elsewhere. es
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris reddish-brown; bill horny-brown;
mouth pink; legs and feet slaty-brown; claws brown; soles of feet greyish-
yellow. Immature (No, 108); Iris brown; mouth pale yellowish-pink; rest as
in adult, re
~ ‘
70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
6 doo 21.5-23 82.5-89.5 85.5-93 mm.
5 QQ 19.5-23 83-86 86-91 mm.
(Che above include both adult and immature birds.)
No. 108 is still in juvenile plumage and is similar to the adult except
that the crown and nape are not so dark, contrasting therefore less with the
mantle. The shape of the first primary and tail-feathers is rather variable in
this species, making it more difficult to distinguish by them adults and. first-
year birds—doubtless another manifestation of the plastic nature of this species
which has produced three races in a small area. |
Of the series obtained, two adults are in complete moult in January which
suggests that the breeding season must extend later than 30 May as given in
Nidification, vol. i, p. 140.
The distribution of this species was given wrongly in the New fauna
(vol. i, p. 178), South Travancore having been erroneously mentioned instead
of the High Range of North Travancore. It is again incorrect in Nidification
(vol. i, p. 1389) where the Travancore area is totally omitted !—H. W.] —
The Travancore Laughing Thrush is a bird of high elevations, never in my
experience met with below 4,000 ft., and thence up to the highest limits of
suitable biotope. As I have pointed out elsewhere, they appear to be in-
separable from the facies in which the wild Raspberry plant (Rubus) grows—
in Travancore also from an elevation of about 4,000 ft. up.. Whenever this
elevation was reached and Rubus appeared, I invariably found Trochalopteron;
nowhere below. They move about in- flocks of 6-10 birds, frequenting dense
scrub and undergrowth, preferably bordering hill streams. When alarmed,
the birds utter a low ‘wit-wit-wit’ and disappear through the undergrowth
hke Dumetia, rarely showing themselves. They are inveterate skulkers and
can seldom be made to leave cover even when pelted at with stones. The
alarm notes or squeaky shrieks are similar to those uttered by Turdoides somer-
villei, but louder and somewhat shriller.
These thrushes were extremely common at Munnar (5,000 ft.—Kannan
Dévan Hills) where they kept to the scrub of Rubus and bracken bushes lining
streams and nullahs through the extensive tea plantations, and on the out-
skirts of the town. At Santhanpara (above 4,000 ft.—Cardamom Hills) they
were partial to the dense growth of Eeta (Ochlandra travancorica) and secon-
dary jungle bordering cardamom cultivation among the higher hills. They are
very fond of the berries of Maesa perrottetiana D.C. and Trema orientalis Blume
which comprised a large portion of their food at this season.
The statement of Ferguson’s that this race is found from the Achankovil Gap
(lat.. 9°5’ N.) northwards through the High Range into the Annemalais and
Palnis is probably correct, though I was unable to verify the exact limit of
its southern distribution. Kinloch does not record it in the Nelliampathies,
neither did I come across the birds in these hills during the Cochin Survey.
However, I never seem to have struck the required Rubus facies though the
hills up to about 4,500 ft. were worked fairly thoroughly. In the Annemalai
Hills about Kauriarkitti, both Rubus and Trochalopteron were absent to an
elevation of about 3,800 ft.
Both Fairbank (S.F., v, 404) and Terry (S.F., x, 475) found this Laughing
Thrush very common in the shélas above 5,000 ft. in the Palni Hills. It
is said to damage peaches and raspberries at Kodaikanal.
This species is not represented in Ceylon. It must be far more sedentary
than most to have attained the unusual distinction of producing three races
within so small an area of South-West India, and to be represented by a
distinct species in the Nilgiris.
Breeding: Specimen No. 108 (18 January) was an immature bird with
very soft skull and in juvenile plumage with some feathers still ensheathed
and growing. It was probably not more than 1} months old. An adult male
on the same date was in worn breeding plumage with testes measuring
5x3 mm. : ‘
Specimen No. 181 (29 January) on the other hand, was in fresh plumage
with a firm and granulated ovary in which the follicles measured about 1 mm,
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN TL
in diameter. It was, moreover, one of a pair and presumably preparing to
breed.
From the evidence, I am inclined to the opinion that the breeding season
in the Travancore-Cochin area at any rate, is far from well-defined and extends
over the greater part of the year except perhaps the two or three months of
heaviest rainfall. Possibly, of course, some months as between March and
June may be more favoured than others.
Terry gives the following records of nests found by him in the Palnis: c¢/2
fresh eggs, 80 May, Kodaikanal; c/2 fresh eggs, 20 May, Kukal; c/1l very
hard set, 6 June, 2 young birds about a week old on 8 June.
Trochalopteron jerdoni meridionale Blanford. Blanford’s Laughing Thrush.
Specimens collected: 667 ¢ juv., 668 Q juv., 669 $ imm., 670 J 25-4-33
Miuthikuzhi 4,000 ft. (Ashambut Hills).
Elsewhere not met with.
Colours of bare parts: Adult (No. 670): Iris crimson; bill horny-brown;
mouth pink; legs and feet brownish-slate; claws horny-brown; soles yellow.
Immature (No. 669): Iris olive-brown; mouth pinkish-yellow; rest as in adult.
Juvenile (Nos. 667, 668): Iris olive-brown; bill horny-brown except commis-
sure and extreme tip, which yellow; gape and mouth bright yellow; legs,
feet and claws as in adult.
[It may be useful to summarise from fresh specimens the differences betw een
this and the last form:
T. j. fairbankt. T. 7. meridionale.
1. Crown and nape dark sooty 1. Crown, nape, ~ upper __ parts,
brown, in some specimens almost | wings and tail dull sooty greyish-
blackish, remainder of upper plumage | brown throughout. with no contrast
wings and tail olive-brown, contrast- | between them.
ing with the crown and nape.
2. Supercilium long, broad, clearly 2. Supercilium short, narrow, ill-
defined and pure white. Below it a | defined and mostly grey. Blackish
blackish stripe through the eye from | stripe below only distinct on the
the lores, contrasting with the grey | lores.
cheeks. 3. Chin, throat and breast more
3. Chin, throat and breast more | white than grey, the white extending
grey than white. Centre of abdomen | down the centre of the abdomen to
rufous, a little paler than the flanks. | the vent.
Further specimens examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 8 from Mynall (Bourdillon); 1 from Ponmidi 8,500 ft.
(ferguson and Nair); 1 from Colathorpolay (Kolatttipizha) 8,800 ft., Patnas
(Hume Collection); 7 from Chimpani (Davidson).
In Nidification (vol. i, p. 140) the mistake of attributing those localities
to North Travancore (which would mean that the 2 races ee and meridi-
onale were found together) made in the New Fauna (vol. i, p. 179) is repeated
inspite of its having been corrected in J.B.N.H. se) XXXV, 324 eel ale OK
This race replaces fairbanki in the hills of South Travancore—according to
Ferguson from the extreme south to the Achankovil Gap. The exact limits. of
its range have not been determined by the Survey. In haunts and habits there
is no difference to record from the last.
Breeding: Nos. 667 and 668 (25 April) from the same flock and apparently
of the same brood, had very soft skulls (cf. also colours) and were in juvenile
plumage which is evidently similar to that of the adult. I estimate that they
were about a month old. No. 669 was slightly older, aged perhaps 13-2 months,
and No. 670, in spite of the size of its testes (8x5 mm.) was undergoing com-
plete post-nuptial moult.
Ferguson says: *. . . as I shot a young bird in March just out of the
nestling plumage, I conclude that the breeding season is about May and June’.
Tt is difficult to follow his line of argument, but the Survey specimens suggest
72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
that in March breeding is certainly in progress. Like the foregoing, however,
it may also breed over other months of the year.
Two clutches found by Mr. J. Stewart on 10 June 1906 and 4 June 1912
(at 8,000 ft. in thick evergreen forest) are recorded in Nidification, i, 140.
There may, however, be some mistake over the identity as the eggs are de-
scribed as being not like those of the foregoing form, but exactly like those
of the Nilgiri Blackbird!
Turdoides somervillei malabaricus (Jerdon). The Malabar Jungle Babbler.
Specimens collected: 284 Q 7-2-8383 Thattakad 200 ft.; 864 Q 14-11-33,
889 Q 21-11-33 Kiuriarkitti 1,600 ft.; 901 Q Wadakkancheri 400 ft.; 1029 ¢
Kartpadanna ca. 8.1.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyir (between 3,500 ft. and 4,500), Kottayam
(ca. S.L.), Kamili (8,000 ft.), Rajampara (1,350 ft.), Tenmalai (500 ft.).
Noted as absent at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft.), Trivandrum and Cape Como-
Tin. (ca, S.i.), Aramboli (250) 16.):
Colours of bare parts: Iris creamy- or yellowish-white; bill and circum-
orbital skin pale yellow; gape and mouth bright deep yellow; legs, feet and
claws pale yellow.
In this species the bright colour of the juvenile gape persists in the adult,
and the mouth also retains to a large extent the conspicuous juvenile colouring.
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail,
es 24 107.5 105 mm.
4 9Q 24-245 101-107 99-101.5 mm.
This species is not represented in the British Museum by any specimens
from Travancore and at the time of writing my report on the birds of the
Eastern Ghats Survey I had seen no specimen from that State. I had there-
fore no reason to differ from the commonly accepted view that only one race
of this Babbler—T. s. malabaricus—was found in Southern India. The five
specimens procured by the Travancore-Cochin Surveys clearly show that view to
be wrong. When they are compared with the fine series obtained by the
Eastern Ghats Survey it is seen that the upper parts are a darker richer
brown, particularly noticeable on the rump, upper tail coverts and tail. The
lower plumage also is darker and more richly coloured throughout, the fulvous
wash on the breast and abdomen being deeper and more richly coloured. It
is, therefore, necessary to establish which of these two South Indian forms
should rightly bear the name of malabaricus and whether any other name is
available for the other. Luckily there is no difficulty about the matter.
Jerdon described his Malacocercus malabaricus from the ‘forests of Malabar,
and on the sides of the Neilgherries up to the very edge of the Hills’. It is
never quite clear what is meant by the ‘Malabar’ of the older writers, but
Jerdon’s use of the term in many cases, and evidently in this case too, often
refers to Travancore where indeed he had been previous to the publication of
this name. The matter is made clearer from his description at the same time
of another new form Malacocercus orientalis’. Jerdon described it as ‘found
in the jungles of the Carnatic, and more especially amongst those of the
Eastern Ghats, where it is very abundant, whence the name I have proposed’.
The difference of colour between malabaricus and orientalis given in the
description shows that Jerdon in these two names was deliberately describing
the two South Indian forms now obtained by the Surveys. He also made it
clear that neither had anything to do with the somervillei of Sykes and Bombay.
Blyth, no doubt, later suggested to Jerdon that his two forms were based
on individual differences, for in the Birds of India, vol. ii, p. 63, the latter
says in 1863: ‘In my “‘Tllustrations’? I separated those from the Eastern
- Bete te
" This name in the New Fauna, vol. vii, p. 86, for some reason is placed
as a synonym of Turdoides terricolor terricolor (rectius T. somerville. terricolor)
but there the type-locality is omitted and the type-locality alone is sufficient to
show that the attribution is wrong.
7;
“>
N
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 73
Ghauts under the name of M. orientalis. This race, however, has not been
considered distinct from malabaricus, and I have accordingly merged it in
that species. Malabar specimens appeared to me to have more rufous; those
from the Eastern Ghauts more grey.’
Our Travancore-Cochin series, therefore, represents the true malabaricus of
Jerdon. The better-known race of the Jungle-Babbler found throughout the
greater part of the Madras Presidency, and hitherto known as malabaricus,
must in future be known as Turdoides somerville: orientalis Jerdon (Ill. Ind.
Orn., text to pl. 19, 1845 (March), type-locality: Hastern Ghauts), and under
that name, therefore, should be listed all the specimens listed as T. s. mala-
baricus on p. 878 of the J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxv, Eastern Ghats Survey, and
on p. 3873, vol. xxxvi, Hyderabad Survey.—H. W. ]
The Jungle Babbler is a common bird in the ‘Travancore-Cochin area,
though patchily distributed. Flocks frequent deciduous and bamboo forest or
scrub jungle with Lantana etc., where they rummage among the fallen leaves
for insects. It avoids evergreen jungle, but may sometimes be met with in
the secondary growth on its outskirts. The flocks habitually form the nucleus
of the localised bird associations and are seldom met independently of them.
They are also partial to the neighbourhood of homesteads along the back-
waters, frequenting the mango, jack-fruit and cashew gardens, often in associ-
ation with Turdoides striatus. As I have remarked before in the Hyderabad
Survey Report (J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxvi, p. 873) my experience does not bear
out the statement on p. 737, vol. xxxv, that it does not mix with the White-
headed Babbler. It is true that as a rule the two species inhabit different
facies, but where these overlap, the birds may frequently be seen in associ-
ation with each other and with other avian species.
A flock at Maraiyir (14 January) was noted in my field-book as composed
of particularly rufous tinged individuals, very reminiscent of typical somer-
villec of Bombay. The rufous colour was no doubt accentuated by some pecu-
harity in the lightning conditions, but its presence is now confirmed and ex-
plained by Mr. Whistler’s note.
A habit with this species when curious or agitated, is to fluff out its
plumage especially that of the back which assumes an arched appearance, droop
the wings at the sides, spread and depress the tail and pivot uneasily from
side to side, peering at and chivvying the intruder the while.
As pointed out in the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 788) the
statement in the Fauna (vol. i, p. 195) that TJ. s. somervilleit occurs from
Travancore to Bombay along the West Coast is apparently based only on
wrong identification of the ferruginous stained specimens of T. striatus polio-
plocamus obtained at Kolachal (Travancore).
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 405) found it common at the base
and in thin jungle on the sides up to 4,500 ft. He procured a ¢ at Vengayam
Parry on 1 June. Terry (S.F., x, 475) describes it as rather rare at Pulungi,
but very common lower down on the slopes and in the Pittur valley.
It does not occur in Ceylon, where according to Whistler (J.B.N.H.S.,
xxxv, 738) T. striatus striatus represents both the Jungle and White-headed
Babblers and is a connecting link between them.
Breeding: No. 234 (7 February) had a mature ovary with follicles measur-
ing 1-15 mm. In No. 1029 (27 December) the testes were enlarged to
7x5 mm., and both these individuals were either breeding or ready to breed.
The specimens obtained in November and December were not in moult. A
(7 February) had slight traces of moult on head and neck.
The above specimens suggest December to February as being at least part
of the breeding season in the Travancore-Cochin area. The probability, how-
ever, is that it breeds irregularly more or less throughout the year as in other
parts of the range of the species.
Bourdillon and Stewart record January to March as the principal breeding
months in Travancore though they also say that breeding is fitful and very
irregular. In the Nelliampathy Hills (Cochin) A. P. Kinloch took most nests
in bamboo clumps in mixed scrub and bamboo jungle, often at considerable
elevations (Nidification, i, 154). No date!
In the Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 475) records nests as follows: c/3, in-
cubated, 5 April—Pulungi; c/2, incubated, 6 April—Pittur Valley.
74 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST..SOCIETY, Vol.‘ XXXVITI
Turdoides striatus polioplocamus Oberholser. The White-headed Babbler.
Specimens collected: 18 ¢ 5-1-33, 86 2 18-1-33 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 504 9,
505 Q 2-4-83 Trivandrum ca. 8.L.; 53838 Q 8-4-8383 Cape Comorin ca. 8.L.;
569 ? naked chick ex nest 11-4-338; 610 9 17-4-838 Aramboli 250 ft.; 683 9
imm. 17-7-38 (Pattom 50 ft.); 728 9 .25-7-38 (Thirtmalai 120° ft.); 813 9
8-8-3838 (Mukunnimalaéi 800 ft) Trivandrum Taluk; 908 9Q 26-11-8383 Wadak-
kancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Chalaktdi, Nemmara (800 ft.), Trichtr, Karipadanna
Cav cbs
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris from creamy- or greyish-white to pale
sky blue; bill, legs, feet and claws pale sickly yellow; mouth pale pinkish-
yellow. Immature (No. 683): ‘lower mandible, legs, feet and claws greyish-
white’ (Pillai).
[The Survey series measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
1 3 20.5 108.5 103 mm.
9 OQ 19-23 99-110.5 97-109 mm.
The specimens definitely belong to this form and not to the Ceylon race,
which appears to be intermediate between this bird and the Jungle Babbler,
connecting them.
This species has normally a complete post-nuptial moult which takes place
from June to November. In practice, however, the body moult seems to be
carried out in such an irregular and dilatory fashion that some feathers are
being moulted all the time and practically no bird will be found with all
feathers in the same state of freshness or wear. The red patches, found on
some specimens, appear to have nothing to do with erythrism but to be due to
the combined effects of wear and bleaching and staining.—H. W.]
The White-headed Babbler was met—with one exception, Maraiytir—only
in the low country and about the lower foot-hills in the comparatively drier
localities of the States, chiefly in the precincts of villages and human _habita-
tions. It was common everywhere. In the gardens about the backwater home-
steads near Kartpadanna, and in the scrub and secondary jungle surrounding
the camp-shed and the terraced paddy fields at Maraiytr, it was frequently
found in association with T. s. malabaricus. Its food consisted to a large
extent of the berries of Lantana camara, a species which everywhere was a
conspicuous feature of its biotope.
Breeding: Specimen No. 13 (5 January) had testes measuring ca. 5X3 mm.
and apparently developing. Nos. 504 and 505 (2 April) both had mature ovaries
with follicles 1-1.5 mm. in diameter. No. 533 (8 April) had apparently lately
finished breeding. Its ovary was as yet conspicuously granular; the plumage
was worn and an incubation patch present. It was accompanied by another
adult bird and a full-fledged young. On the same date Humayun observed
pair feeding a 3 grown Clamator jacobinus. On 11 April (Cape Comorin)
he took a naked chick (No. 569) from a nest in .a Babool tree (at about 5 ft.)
which contained 8 others in the same stage. On 15 April a nest containing
4 eges was found in a branch of an Acacia planifrons (at 12 ft.) overhanging
a dry sandy nullah on the edge of a patch of Babool jungle in the Aramboli
Gap. No. 683 (17 July) was a young bird. with soft skull, while No. 813
(8 August) had the largest ovarian follicle measuring about 3 mm. and was
evidently breeding.
Stewart took nests in Travancore as early as February (Nidification, i, 156).
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 258) says that striatus breeds in Travancore in
April and May while griseus (obviously referring to the same bird) does so in
June. From the evidence collected by the Survey, however, the breeding
season appears to be as ill-defined as in the case of some of its nearest relatives.
It is possible that as elsewhere in the Madras Presidency (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv.
740) the majority of eggs are laid between March and July. |
Argya caudata |caudata] (Dumont). The Common Babbler,
No specimens were obtained by the Surveys, but there is one (labelled
Crateropus striatus 1) in the Trivandrum Museum with the data ‘Aramboly,
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 75
Travancore, 14-6-10’, From the fact, however, that the label is not original
and quite new, Mr. Whistler is of opinion that this cannot be accepted as an
authentic record in the absence of any other confirmation from Travancore. He
thinks that probably the specimen came from elsewhere and there was some
msitake during re-labelling.
Aramboli is the western (Travancore) extremity of a gap or pass through
the barrier of hills that form the boundary between the Madras district of
Tinnevelly and the Travancore State. It is in effect a miniature repetition
of the Palghat Gap on the northern frontier of Cochin, and lke it, functions
as a channel of exchange for many plant forms between the two areas for
some distance on either side. Through this gap also there was noted an exten-
sion into T'ravancore of Lanius vittatus, not met with elsewhere within the
area, and it is readily conceivable that A. caudata may do so in the same way.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 405) found the Common Babbler plentiful at the base of
the Palni Hills and there seems no biological reason why it should not extend
southward thence through the Ramnad into the Tinnevelly District, and thence
through the pass to Aramboli where the facies is of a character eminently
suited to it.
While the Survey was working this area, I have a record in my diary
that Argya caudata was heard. By itself this note would have been valueless
and I should probably have omitted it but for the support now accorded by
the Trivandrum Museum specimen. In my opinion the two records confirm
each other sufficiently to be accepted until definite information to the contrary
is forthcoming,
Argya malcolmi (Sykes). The Grey-headed Babbler.
Not met with by the Surveys.
In the Palni Hills Terry (S.F., x, 475) met it once ‘far down the slopes
towards Pulney’, The record is vague and gives no idea of the exact locality
or the facies in which the birds were seen.
Breeding: ‘Bourdillon obtained several nests in Travancore where, how-
ever, he says it is not common. . . In Nilgiris and Travancore, most eggs
are laid in March . . .’ (Nidification, i, 162).
I consider that the occurrence of this Babbler in the Travancore-Cochin
area needs confirmation.
Argya subrufa (Jerdon). The Rufous Babbler.
Specimens collected: 1389 ¢ 24-1-33 Santhanpara 3,700 ft.; 361 J 25-2-38
Peermade 3,200 ft.; 696 Q (juv.) 20-7-88, 799 SG (juv.) 6-8-33 (Thirimalai
120 ft.) Trivandrum Taluk; 869 ¢@ 15-11-33 Kiuriarkutti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyir (3,500 ft.), Thattakad (200 ft.), Kottayam
(at ca. 100 ft.), Kamili (8,000 ft.), Rajampara (1,350 ft.), Tenmalai (500 ft.),
Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.), Padagiri (3,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Adult and Immature (No. 799): Iris creamy-white;
upper mandible dark horny-brown except at gape; lower mandible, gape and
mouth bright yellow; legs and feet dusky-yellow or yellowish-brown; claws
dusky. Juvenile (No. 696—apparently younger than No. 799): Iris dark grey;
legs patchy brown and yellow in front, yellow behind; rest as above.
[Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
33d —— 22..5-25 92-92.5 115-116.5 mm.
1 Q a 91 103.5 mm.
In juvenile plumage (Nos. 696 and 799) the wings and tail (full-grown)
are considerably shorter: CQ wing 83.5; tail 99; @ wing 85.5 mm.
The juvenile plumage is exactly similar to that of the adult except that
the upper parts are a rather deeper richer brown.
Further specimens examined :
Bom. Nai. ‘Hist.’ Soc. Coll.: Q 27-8-938 Thekadi, Travancore (J. P.
Cook).
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 1 from Tiramalai, Trivandrum (A. N. Nair).—H. W.]
76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
A fairly common species, flocks usually of 6-8 birds frequenting well-wooded
areas and keeping mostly to dense scrub and secondary growth, preferably
where intermixed with tall grass and on the edge of forest clearings. I did
not meet it above 3,500 ft. It was usually shy and a great skulker, and beyond
occasional fleeting glimpses, much oftener heard than seen. It has a_ series
of squeaking notes, not unpleasant, something between those of Argya caudata
and Turdoides striatus. Its food consisted very largely of Lantana berries,
while in tea planting localities the flowers of the Hrythrina lithosperma shade-
trees invariably attracted flocks to the nectar, the birds obviously assisting in
their cross-pollination. When venturing into the open branches of these trees,
they were extremely wary, and dived headlong into the undergrowth on the
slightest suspicion.
As pointed out in the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S.,-xxxv, 740) the
distribution given in the New Fauna (vol. i, p. 202) is wrong. No mention is
there made of its occurrence in Travancore-Cochin, while from Bett’s account
(J.B.N.H.S., xxxiii, 548) where he confusedly records this species as Argya
caudata, it would seem to be common in Coorg also.
Kinloch’s failure to record it in the Nelliampathies was doubtless due to
oversight. At Padagiri—not far from the Palagapandy Estate where he worked
and from the Lily Downs referred to in his notes—I came across flocks on
several occasions.
Breeding: The facts that two juveniles were obtained at the end of July
and the beginning of August, that No. 869 (adult) was in complete moult: in the
middle of November, and the other two specimens were freshly moulted in Janu-
ary and February all suggest that the normal breeding season is later than
is usually stated viz. Febri wary to May. It is, however, probably far from well-
defined.
According to Bourdillon the usual nesting season in Travancore is March
and April, but he also took a clutch of eges on 23 February (Nidification, i, 164).
Pomatorhinus horsfieldii travancoriensis Harington. The Southern Scimitar
Babbler.
Specimens collected: 5 ¢ 4-1-38, 10 Q 5-1-3383 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 144 d
24-1-83 Santhanpara at 4,500 ft.; 822 dG 21-2-83 Peermade 38,200 ft.; 392 ¢
3-3-3833 Kimili 3,000 ft.; 678 Q 27-4-83 Balamore Estate 2,000 ft.; 885 9 20-11-33
Kiriarkutti at 2,500-3,000 ft. :
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.), Camp Deramalai (38,000 ft.),
Rajampara (1,350 ft.), Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Colours: of bare parts: Iris reddish-brown to brownish-crimson; bill yellow
except basal half of culmen including nostrils, which horny- brown; mouth
pinkish flesh-colour (in No. 892 yellow and brownish-pink !); legs and feet
slaty or greyish-brown; claws horny-brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
Mecires 28-31 93-98 97-106.5 mm.
799 28-31.5 89-98.5 93.5-100 mm.
Additional specimens examined:
Brit. Mus. and Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Colls.: G&G 23-38-94, 0? 10-4-94
Kodaikanal (J. P. Cook); ¢ 1-7-93 Palnis (J. P. Cook); 9 14-5-17 High Wavy
Mountains, Maditra District (S. H. Prater); 92 15-12-79, :Q. 20-4-80 Mynall
1,000 ft., Travancore (Bourdillon); Q 21-4-88 Pitttr, Palnis (Terry); 0? -3-75
Eridge, South Travancore (Hume Collection). :
A very good race. Represented in Ceylon by the bright ferruginous race
melanurus which is, however, clearly connected with horsfieldii by olive-brown
intermediates. These ferruginous birds have the sides of the neck and fringe
to the plastron identical in colour with those parts in Pomatorhinus schisticeps,
and I think it is quite probable that schisticeps and its races mgm all be well
considered races of horsfieldu.—H. W.]
The Scimitar Babbler is common in all evergreen and bamboo forest tracts
throughout the area, whether up to 5,000 ft. in the hills (perhaps also higher)
or in the low country as at Thattakad. Pairs or flocks of up to about ten birds
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 77
(according to season) were met with either feeding on the ground in the under-
growth of Strobilanthes, wild Zingiber or Cardamom plants or up among the
moss-covered branches of forest trees, and frequently as members of the local-
ised bird associations or mixed hunting parties. They were also partial to
thorny scrub, like Acacia intsia or Lantana, on the edge of hill-paddy ‘toungya’),
tea or cardamom clearings.
The members of the pairs or flocks keep in touch with one another by
mellow bubbling or gurgling calls. When disturbed, the birds hop along the
branches with great agility as if to get under weigh before taking off into
the air.
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank did not consider it abundant at Kodaikanal
in June, judging from the calls (S.F., v, 404).
This species is replaced in Ceylon by P. melanurus (vide H. W.’s note,
supra).
Pres diva In specimen No. 885 (20 November} the ovarian follicles were
considerably enlarged (damaged by shot!). There were no signs of moult,-
and a distinct incubation patch was present. The birds at this time were
mostly seen in pairs.
In No. 5 (4 January) the testes measured 5x4 mm. It had a strip of
something like the outer fibrous skin of a banana stem in its bill and was |
accompanied by its mate which was also carrying similar building material.
This suggests that both sexes partake in nest building. They were working
in a patch of thick impenetrable scrub consisting of Lantana, Acacia intsia and
other thorny bushes. No. 10 (5 January) had a soft egg in the ovary, was
one of a pair and breeding. On 15 January another bird was observed carrying
fibrous strips of plantain bark into some dense scrub on a hillside. Nos. 3822
(21 February) and 892 (8 March) also had somewhat enlarged testes, while
673 (27 April) had obviously finished breeding and was undergoing complete
post-nuptial moult.
Bourdillon took many nests in ‘Travancore and describes them as _ usually
domed affairs made of leaves and grass, lined with roots. They are said to
breed principally from December to February, but Stewart took one nest as
late as 2 May. Both Stewart and Bourdillon say that c/2 or c/3 is the normal
in this part (Nidification, 1, 178-4).
From the evidence afforded by the Survey specimens, I am inclined to con-
sider that in the Travancore-Cochin area, breeding commences rather earlier
than has been recorded, i.e. by about the second half of November.
In the Palnis, Terry (S.F., x, 474) found a nest with 8 very hard-set. and
one ‘fresh’ (probably addled!) egg on 80 March, and another with 83 incubated
eggs on 4 April. He identified the female shot off the latter as melanurus,
doubtless misled by the rich colour of this race.
(On p. 211, vol. i, of the Fauna, it is stated about P. h. horsfieldii: ‘This
is a subspecies of the low country, it being represented by other races in the
vigher hills’. What is exactly meant by ‘low country’ is not clear; Maha-
bleshwar and Khandalla are included in its ‘Distribution’, the former being
4,500 ft. and the latter about 2,000 ft. !).
Dumetia hyperythra albogularis (Blyth). The White-throated Babbler.
Specimens collected: 17 ¢ 5-1-33 Mardaiyur 3,500 ft.; 140 ¢ 24-1-33, 170
O
28-1-83 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 345 0? 24-2-38, 359 © 25-2-33 Peermade 3,200-
ea ft.; 485 Q 21-83-88 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 652 ¢ 24-4-83 Balamore Estate
000 ft.
Hlsewhere noted at: Kumili and Periyar ake JEnvirons (8,000 ft.);
Wadakkancheri (400 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris creamy-white; bill pale horny-brown, paler on
lower mandible; mouth pale yellowish-flesh to pink varying apparently with
age; legs and feet yellowish-flesh colour, duskier on anterior tarsus; claws
brown.
[The sexed Survey specimens measure:
Bil. Wing. Maile
Seite) 14.5-15.5 57.5-65 62-66 mm.
1) ROM®) 14 53.5 55.5-60.5 mm.
78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. .SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Further specimens examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 0? 16-38-75 Mate-ard (?), §. Travancore (Bourdillon) ;
juv. -6-74 Lower Palnis (lairbank).
The juvenile specimen from the Lower Palnis differs from the adult in
having the whole upper plumage a _ brighter, more rufous brown with no
chestnut on the forehead or crown. The lower plumage is a duller more ful-
vous brown with merely traces of white on the chin and throat and central
abdomen, thereby affording a further proof—if more were needed than the
respective distributions (as given in J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 748-745) and the exis-
tence of intermediates where they meet—that this bird is only a race of
D. hyperythra.
Travancore specimens are not separable from those of the rest of Southern
India. I have seen none from Ceylon.—H. W.]
This little babbler is gé@nerally distributed in the hilly portions of our area
though it is by no means uniformly abundant everywhere. Ferguson is correct
on the whole when he says that it is met with between 1,000 and 3,000 ft. ele-
vation. I did not come across it in the low country at all, but a small flock
was once noted on a dense scrub-covered side of a hummock in Cochin at about
400 ft. This, however, is the only record I have of its being found below
1,000 ft.
The birds frequent tall grass (Andropogon) and scrub country on_ hillsides,
preferably in light deciduous forest, in flocks of seven or eight individuals.
They are generally seen on the edge of paths or clearings in such facies, rest-
lessly hopping about and diving among the grass stems and undergrowth in
search of food, and uttering a low swee-swee of the volume of a Sunbird’s
calls varied by harsh tittering notes when agitated.
In Ceylon it is said to be tolerably common and generally distributed in
all parts up to 5,500 ft.
Breeding: The only evidence is provided by No. 652 (24 April) whose
testes measured 4X3 mm. and which looked as if it was preparing to breed.
Most of the specimens procured in January and February were undergoing
complete pre-nuptial moult.
Hume (S.F., v, 404) records a nestling (presumably the one in the British
Museum collected by Fairbank) from the Lower Palnis in June. The season
according to the HKastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 745) is not well
defined and varies from the middle of April to the middle of November, irres-
pective of locality. According to the Fauna the principal breeding months in
South India are June and July.
Pellorneum ruficeps granti Harington. The Travancore Spotted Babbler.
Specimens collected: 18 $ (imm.) 6-1-38, 26 09, 27 ¢ 7-1-88, 99 3 (imm.)
15-1-88 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 336 ¢ 28-2-338 Peermade 3,200 ft.; 5083 G 28-3-33
Tenmalai 500 ft.; 878 ¢ 17-11-33 Kiuariarkutti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft.), Thattakad (200 ft.), Kumili,
Vandamettu or Wandamet, Periyar Lake Environs (ca. 38,000 ft.), Camp Dera-
malai (8,000 ft.), Rajampara (1,350 ft.), Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.), Chala-
kadi, Wadakkancheri (400 ft.), Nemmara (800 ft.), Padagiri (8,000 ft).
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel-brown (immature) to reddish-brown; bill
upper mandible horny-brown, lower mandible usually somewhat paler; mouth
in breeding ¢o (Nos. 836, 503, 878) brownish-pink, in immature yellowish
flesh colour; legs and feet brownish flesh colour; claws duskier.
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
4 adult oo 19-20 73.5-76 66-738 mim.
2imm. dd 19 67-72 65-69 mm.
Further specimens examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: The type ¢ 10-83-77 Mynall; 0? 8-1-01 Vandenmettu,
Cardamom Hills (Ferguson).
A very good race, most markedly distinct from the typical form. The
crown and nape are dark chestnut, the upper parts are dark olive brown,
whilst the spotting on the lower surface is not only heavier but, with the dark
wash on-the flanks, is much darker brown than in the typical race.—H. W.]
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN (és)
The Spotted Babbler is generally distributed in all well-wooded areas
throughout the two States. I came across it from 200 ft. above sea-level at
Thattakad up to at least 6,000 ft. elevation in evergreen sholas on the hills
surrounding Maraiyur.
Pairs or family parties were usually met with in dense thickets and ever-
green undergrowth by ravines and hill nullahs, the birds rummaging on the
damp ground amongst the mulch and humus flicking the leaves here and
there in their search for lurking insects. They were also partial to dense
growths of EKeta bamboo (Ochlandra travancorica) especially on steep hillsides
and along hill nullahs. In facies where a mixture of the evergreen and
deciduous types of forest preponderated, their favourite haunts were the dry
ravines and watercourses littered with rotting bamboos and brushwood and
overgrown with thickets of Acacia intsia, Zizyphus rugosa and ‘channa’ or wild
Zingiber etc.
On the whole it is an extremely shy bird, retiring into dense cover on
the slightest suspicion, and is much oftener heard than seen. At Maraiyar,
however, I found it not only common but also surprisingly bold. It frequented
the scrub and hedges about the petty Government offices and camp _ shed,
and did not object to observation at close quarters.
Its percussive song of several rich and loud whistling notes was invariably
heard in the early mornings and late afternoons wherever the birds were pre-
sent. The notes more commonly uttered, however, are the ones I have else-
where rendered as a somewhat plaintive He’ll beat you or simply He’ll beat
which at times have a curiously ventriloquistic quality. Sometimes these are
repeated from the branch of a tree in dense forest for well over five minutes
at a stretch and without any variation. When the tree is approached, the
bird ceases to call, noiselessly and imperceptibly drops down into the under-
growth below and disappears, and while you are still straining to catch a
glimpse of it in the branches it calmly begins calling again 50 yards away !
When alarmed, it gives vent to a series of sharp chuckling chirps or chirrups
as it hurriedly moves away through the undergrowth.
In my opinion the statement based on Bourdillon’s and Ferguson’s accounts
that the Spotted Babbler is rare in Travancore is untenable. In Cochin also
I found it far from scarce in suitable localities and can confirm SJinloch’s
statement that it 1s common in the Nelliampathies.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 404) frequently heard it in the Palnis (sub-species ?)
but was never able to see one and procure a specimen.
In Ceylon the species does not occur.
Breeding: No. 878 (17 November) had the testes enlarged to 4x2 mm.
(slightly pigmented) and from the freshness of its plumage it appeared to be
getting ready to breed. No. 18 (6 January) was a juvenile with soft skull,
completing its post-juvenal moult. No. 99 (15 January), also a _ juvenile
with soft skull was in heavy post-juvenal body moult. Both these birds were
members of family parties consisting of parents and two or three young.
No. 836 (23 February) had testes measuring 7x4 mm. It was in_ freshly
moulted plumage, one of a pair and evidently breeding. No. 503 (28 March)—
testes 5X4 mm.—though moulting remiges was otherwise in fresh plumage
and either breeding or about to.
The breeding season appears to commence about November and to continue
till April or thereabouts. As is the case with most birds in the Travancore-
Cochin area, it evidently begins considerably earlier than in other parts where,
in the case of the typical race, March, April and May are given as the breed-
ing months. Two clutches given by Stewart to Mr. Baker, c/4 and c/3
respectively, were taken on 7 June and 10 May (Nidification, i, 204).
Alcippe poioicephala poioicephala (Jerdon). The Nilgiri Quaker Babbler.
Specimens collected: 1382 Q 23-1-33, 156 ¢ 25-1-33, 176 9, 177 ¢ 28-1-33,
192 9 (imm.) 30-1-83 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 218 J 4-2-3383 Thattakad 200 ft.;
821 SG 21-2-88 Peermade 3,200 ft.: 364 9 27-2-33 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 876 ¢
17-11-38, 890 G 21-11-33 Kuriarkutti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyir (Common between 6,000-7,000 ft.), Camp
Deramalai (8,000-4,500 ft.), Rajampara (1,850 ft.), Tenmalai (500 ft.), Bala-
more Estate (2,000-4,000 ft.), Kuvallé Incline (Cochin Forest Tramway), Kuriar-
kutti (up to 4,000 ft.), Padagiri (8,000 ft.).
89 JOURNAL,-BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, .Vol. XXXVIII
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris greyish-brown; bill dark horny-brown,
commissure and lower mandible greyish; mouth pale flesh colour; legs, feet
and claws greyish-brown. Immature (No. 192): Iris slaty-grey; gape and
mouth bright yellow; chin duller yellow; paler portions of bill yellowish;
legs, feet and claws as in adult.
[lurther material examined: i
Brit. Mus. Coll.: of 4-4-79 EHridge; @Q 12-12-78 Mynall; @Q -9-74,
0? -3-75 Hridge (Bourdillon); 0? 9-1-01 Bandanutta [Vandamettu ?] (A. N. Nair).
Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Coll.; ¢G 1-7-9383. Pulmeys) (J.P. - Cook):
Measurements (including above) :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
8 dd 15-16 68-738 60-67 mm.
6 QQ 15.5-16 65-70.5 61.5-64.5 mm.
A. p. brucei differs from this, the typical race, in being altogether paler.
The crown and nape are a clearer colder grey; the rest of the upper parts
are greyer and colder with less brown in them; the wings and tail are not
so dark. The lower parts are also much paler, washed with greyer brown,
as compared with rich fulvous. It is slightly larger; an equal number of birds
measure :
Bill. ‘Wing. Tail.
ae) 3 15-17 69.5-77 64.5-70.5 mm.
6 QQ 15-16:5 67.5-73 6) .5-69.5 mm.—H. W.]
It would perhaps be accurate to designate this Quaker Babbler as the com-
monest and most abundant bird species inhabiting the evergreen forest tracts
of the States. I met with it from almost the level of the low country (Thatta-
kad 200 ft. !) up to an elevation of 7,000 ft. in ravine sholas on Kumarikkai-
malii near Maraiytr.
The birds move about in parties of 7 to 10 individuals hunting insects
among the foliage of the moss-covered trees, hopping about from sprig to
sprig and often clinging upside down to peer into the angles of the leaf-stalks.
They also descend lower down into the evergreen undergrowth of seedlings
and cane-brakes, and almost invariably form the nucleus of the mixed hunting
parties of small birds in the forest. At Kuariarkutti they were common in the
mixed bamboo forest as well as in the frequently intervening patches of ever-
green.
The ‘song’ of four quavering whistling notes of the consistency of a Magpie
Robin’s, is repeated incessantly as the birds move about.
Like many other birds, I found them very partial to the nectar of Hrythrina
lithosperma flowers, and wherever these trees occurred shading coffee or tea
on the edges of evergreen patches, parties were invariably observed probing
into the blossoms. They must be added to the long list of bird species on
which this tree is dependent for the cross-pollination of its flowers. A specimen
shot in the act of eating nectar had pollen adhering to its chin and throat.
Kxinloch appears to have overlooked this species in his list for the Nelliaim-
pathies where I found it common.
In the Palni Hills also it is common. Fairbank (S.F’., v, 404) observed
it in wooded ravines on the hillsides.
The species is not found in Ceylon.
Breeding: No. 876 (17 November) appeared to be getting ready to breed.
Its testes showed a slight developmen, while it was undergoing a complete
(pre-nuptial ?) moult.
No. 182 (23 January) had a soft ovarian egg and some of the other follicles
upto 4 mm. in diameter. It was in freshly moulted plumage.
No. 156 (25 January) testes 10x6 mm. Fresh plumage.
No. 176 (28 January) soft ovarian egg and follicles greatly enlarged. An
incubation patch was present, and the bird was carrying a fine rootlet in its
bill. No moult.
No. 177 (28 January) testes 9x6 mm. Fresh plumage.
No. 192 (80 January) juvenile with very soft skull. Out of nest, but being
tended by parent.
No. 2138 (4 February) testes 8x6 mm. Fresh plumage.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 81
No. 821 (21 February) testes 9x7 mm. Moulting body and remiges. (Post-
nuptial ?).
On 25 April (Balamore, Ashambu Hills) a nest was discovered in a dense
evergreen shola at ca. 8,000 ft. It was a flimsy cup of hair-like rootlets and
some moss, slung hammock-wise between two horizontal twigs of a seedling at
a height of about 4 ft. Diameter of cup ca. 70 mm.; depth 80 mm. It
contained two naked chicks, one of which was observed at 7 a.m. pushing itself
out of the shell. By 3-15 p.m. a fine fluffy down of pale yellow colour had
made its appearance at various points on the back. The ground below the
nest swarmed with leeches.
As is clear from the above, in Travancore-Cochin the breeding season lasts
from January to May at least. That it may begin a month or so earlier
is suggested by one of the Survey specimens, while it 13 said to continue till
June. According to Nidification, i, 245, it breeds in Travancore principally in
May and June, often April, while Stewart says he has taken eggs in every
month of the year. Full clutch 2, rarely 3 eggs, but A. P. Kinloch took several
c/3 at Kollengode and considered this the normal there.
At Culputty, South Wynaad, Mr. Darling, Junior, found a nest as late as
October.
Rhopocichla atriceps bourdilloni (Hume). Bourdillon’s Babbler.
Specimens collected: o? 10-1-338 Maraiytr (at 6,000 ft.); 159 ¢, 160 ¢
25-1-83; 169 ¢ (imm.) 28-1-83, 197 9 (imm.) 31-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.;
223 0? (imm.) 6-2-3833 Thattakad 200 ft.; 323 ¢ 21-2-33 Peermade 3,200 ft.;
3863 ¢ 27-2-83 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 426 Q 9-38-83 Camp Deramalai 3,000 ft.;
477 9 20-38-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 494 ¢, 495 9 26-3-33 Tenmalai 5,000 ft. ;
645 od 238-4-83 Balamore Estate 2,000 ft.; 822 0? 10-8-83 Kutyani 300 ft.
Trivandrum Taluk; 873 Q 16-11-83 Kuriarkuatti 1,600 ft.; 994 @ 19-12-33 Pada-
girl 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Mundakayam (in Urambikera Reserve Forest), Wanda-
met, Kuvallé Incline (along Cochin Forest Tramway).
Colours of bare parts: Iris lemon yellow or pale golden yellow; upper
mandible dark horny-brown; commissure and lower mandible pale greyish
flesh colour; mouth adult pale pinkish-flesh, immature mouth and gape yellow;
legs and feet pinkish-grey; claws dusky.
[The sexed Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
8B Sd 15-16 55-60.5 46.5-51 mm.
5 O90 14-15 54-58 43-48 mm.
In the Eastern Ghats Survey I expressed certain doubts as to whether
two races atriceps and bourdillont should be recognised, for the following
reasons: (1) that bourdilloni exhibited characters which might suggest that it
was the juvenile plumage of atriceps; (2) that both forms were stated to occur
throughout the Travancore hills; and (8) that Trichoor, the usually accepted
type-locality of atriceps was in the area which geographically should be occu-
pied by bourdillont.
The question has now been cleared up by the fine series collected by Mr.
Salim Ali. This shows that the juvenile and adult birds of this race are
alike in colouration, both being brown-headed. It also shows that there 1s a
certain amount of variation in the colour of the crowns, some being browner
and others blacker. This is to be expected, as bourdillont is an intermediate
form between atriceps and nigrifrons, and it no doubt explains Ferguson’s
statement that both forms occur throughout the Travancore Hills, though
atriceps is far less common (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 260). No true atriceps was met
by the Surveys.
As regards the type-locality of Trichoor for atriceps, the two Survey spect-
mens from Cochin State are beyond all doubt bourdillont and it therefore appears
very highly probable that birds from Trichoor must belong to the same form
and not to atriceps. None are, however, available for examination. It must
be remembered moreover, that Jerdon only recognised one form. His original
description most clearly refers to typical atriceps with the black head, but
his localities no doubt refer to both forms for he says: ‘I have seen it in the
Trichoor and Wurguncherry [Wadakkancheri ?] jungles and also on the
Coonoor Ghat and in the Wynaad’ and in the Birds of India (vol. u, p. 19)
6
82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
whilst still only recognising one form he expands his localities to include ‘all
the forests of Malabar’, that is the Malabar Coast.
Trichoor was only selected later as type-locality as it was the first locality
mentioned, but since it appears certain that this locality is within the range
of the southern form, the type-locality must be shifted to one of the other
places mentioned by Jerdon. I accordingly designate the Wynaad as _ the
type-locality.
I may mention that this is one of the species in which ‘museum browning’
is very marked—fresh birds being much more olive in tint than birds kept for
some years.—H. W.]
Bourdillon’s Black-headed Babbler is essentially a bird of evergreen forest
and is met with wherever patches of this occur, from the level of the low
country up to an elevation of at least 6,000 ft. in the hills. It goes about in
flocks of from 5 to 10 birds, keeping to dense undergrowth of rattan (Calamus)
and seedlings or Strobilanthes especially by the edge of paths or clearings,
and seldom ascends higher up into the trees. So narrowly is it confined to
evergreen jungle that I frequently came across it in sholas bordering the ravines
amongst the grassy hilltops at Wandamet (Cardamom Hills) often barely half
an acre in extent and separated from the next, no bigger than itself, by a
mile or more of open rolling grass-covered ‘downs’. At Kutyani in the en-
virons of Trivandrum town where tiny patches of evergreen occur between
hummocks covered with tapioca and plantain cultivation (with paddy-fields
in the intervening narrow flats or valleys) and sundered by miles from the
nearest evergreen patch of any size, this species has persisted in virtual isola-
tion since at least 1903 when Ferguson recorded meeting it in these ‘serpent
groves’, most of which have by now disappeared.
At Kuriarkutti, the birds were commonly observed in mixed bamboo forest
on the verge of evergreen jungle, amongst dense scrub and_ thickets.
A harsh, rather subdued chur-r, chur-r, etc., something like similar notes
of the Iora, is uttered as the flocks move about the undergrowth very much
in Dumetia fashion, and the birds have a habit—having ventured too far up
in a cane-brake or the like—of dropping perpendicularly like a falling leaf into
the thickets below on the slightest alarm or suspicion.
Fairbank does not seem to have come across it in the Palnis though it is
more than likely that it occurs in those hills.
The Ceylonese race R. a. nigrifrons is found throughout that island.
Breeding: Nos. 169 (28 January), 197 (31 January) and 223 (6 February)
were all immature birds with very imperfectly ossified skulls, juvenile gape
and mouth and Nos. 169 and 223 were undergoing heavy post-juvenal body
moult. They were evidently between 13 and 23 months old. No. 477 (20 March)
had conspicuously granular ovaries; it was in fresh plumage and appeared
ready to breed. The gonads of the other specimens gave no indication as
regards the breeding season, but it seems from the evidence that this is by no
means so well defined as has been described (‘March to May, July and August’,
Fauna, vol. 1, p. 282) and the statement in the Eastern Ghats Report
(J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 749) that breeding continues throughout the year is probably
more correct.
T. F. Bourdillon (S.F., ix, 299-800) took a nest at Mynall (4,300 ft.) in
South Travancore on 24 March in a low bush at about 18 in. from the ground.
He describes it as a domed structure, very similar to the nest of Ochromela
nigrorufa but slightly larger, composed externally of ‘Irul’ [meaning doubtless
Heta (Ochlandra)] leaves and lined with fine hair-like roots. ‘The eggs [num-
ber ?] were white, very sparingly spotted with purple except towards the
larger end where the spots coalesced to form an imperfect zone.
According to Nidification (i, 254) most eggs in Travancore are laid in April,
May and June, though Stewart has taken them in every month. c/2 is said
to be normal, ¢c/38 unusual.
Agithina tiphia multicolor (Gmelin). The Ceylon Tora.
Specimens collected: 78 ¢ 18-1-338 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 168 $ 26-1-33
Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 219 9 4-2-3833 Thattakad 200 ft.; 467 9 18-38-33 Rajam-
para 1,850 ft.; 490 ¢ 25-38-83 Tenmalai 500 ft.; 686 9, 6387 ¢ 21-4-33 Aramboli
250 ft.; 692 § 20-7-38, 721 9 25-7-83 (Thirumalai 100 ft.); 748 ¢, 749 9
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 83
30-7-33 (Veli 180 ft.); 791 ¢ 5-8-8383 (Poojappira 140 ft.); 811 @ 8-8-83
(Mukutnnimalai 800 ft.) Trivandrum Environs; 964 9 10-12-83 Nemmara 300 ft. ;
10384 J 28-12-33 Karupadanna ca. §.L.
Elsewhere noted at: Kottayam (50 ft.), Peermade (3,200 ft.), Kamili
(3,000 ft.), Camp Deramalai (3,000 ft.—Panthalam Hills), Trivandrum Town,
Cape Comorin (8.L.), Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.—Ashambu Hills), Kavriarkotui
(1,600 ft.), Wadakkancheri (400 ft.), Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills),
Trichur, Ernakulam.
Colours of bare parts: Iris greyish- or silvery-brown; bill bluish-plumbeous,
black on culmen; palate greyish-blue, gullet slaty-brown, brownish-black or
slaty-pink in adult; legs and feet slaty-grey; claws brown.
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
Sah tes 7-19 63-68.5 45-51 mim.
te 2.9. 16.5-19 61-66 47.5-52.5 min.
Owing to the courtesy of the Director of the Colombo Museum, I have
been able to examine a further series of 8 specimens of the Jora from Ceylon
and these, taken in conjunction with the series in the British Museum, lead
me to the conclusion that the darker and duller green of the upper parts of
the female and the male in ‘winter plumage’ is the only satisfactory feature
on which this race can be maintained. The only specimens from Travancore
in the British Museum are the unsatisfactory ‘Anjango’ series of which only
one shows the green back. I have carefully compared the good series obtained
by the Surveys with these Ceylon specimens and also with an ample series
of #. tiphia humei and find that the Travancore series are as a whole inter-
mediate between the others. This being so—and it is interesting to note that
No. 964 from Nemmara in the Palghat Gap is quite indistinguishable from
Ay. t. humei—I think it is of value to mark the connection between the Travan-
core area and Ceylon by including these intermediates under the name of the
Ceylon race. There is of course no difference between the birds of Northern
and Southern Travancore and these Travancore intermediates merely repre-
sent a phase of the general intergradation from north to south which I
emphasised in my account of this species in the Hastern Ghats Survey
(Nellie: SX RV, TOO)
The series suggests that the breeding season of the Iora in Travancore
is quite undefined; at any rate, accepting the usual definition that the black
head and back of the male represent the breeding season and the green upper
parts the non-breeding season. I find that No. 78 (13 January) is in winter
plumage and Nos. 168 (26 January) and 1034 (28 December) are in breeding
plumage, whilst No. 981 (1 December) is moulting into breeding plumage.
Legge evidently found the same state of affairs in Ceylon and was thereby
led to suggest that the black upper parts might be merely connected with age.
I do not think the latter explanation necessary, however, in view of the con-
nection between the breeding seasons and the plumage in other areas where
the breeding season is more clearly defined.—H. W.]
The Tora is a common bird throughout the area from about sea-level to
at least 3,500 ft. in the hills, and possibly even higher up to some extent,
though at Mtnnar (5,000 ft.—Kannan Dévan Hills) it was noted as absent.
At Kotagiri in the Nilgiris, I observed it at 5,500 ft. Ferguson does not seem
to have met with it except in the low country where it is certainly more abun-
dant. This is probably the basis for the statement in the Eastern Ghats
Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 749) that ‘In the south-west it seems to be more
definitely a bird of the plains as it avoids the Palni Hills and the Travancore
ranges south of the Palghat Gap’.
It is a bird of light secondary or deciduous-and-bamboo jungle and avoids
evergreen forest. Its favourite haunts, however, are the mango, jack and
cashew gardens about villages and homesteads in the low country, and it is
also quite at home in the gardens and compounds of the larger towns such as
Trivandrum, Trichar and others. .
Fairbank (S.F., v, 406) only obtained a specimen at the base of the Palni
Hills and does not record it higher up. The species and race are abundant in
Ceylon.
84. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Breeding: No. 931 (1 December) was completing body moult into breeding
plumage though its gonads as yet showed no development. No. 1034 (28 Decem-
ber) had acquired fresh breeding plumage, its testes measured 6X4 mm. (grey
pigmented) and it was evidently ready to breed.
In No. 78 (13 January) the testes—ca. 2x1.5 mm.—were apparently revert-
ing to normal non-breeding condition as the specimen was in freshly moulted
non-breeding plumage. No. 168 (26 January) on the other hand was evidently
ready to breed. It was completing pre-nuptial moult and had testes measuring
8x5 mm. At this time other males in breeding dress were also calling
from bare branches etc. in loud melodious whistles, and displaying. No. 219
(4 February) had a firm granulated ovary and on 9 February a male in
non-breeding plumage wag observed fluffing out the white rump feathers, slightly
cocking up tail, drooping wings at sides and displaying before a female in
rivalry with another cock in breeding dress. If the above evidence be admis-
sible, and I have frequently observed this on other occasions also—then
Hume's statement (S.F., v, 430) that cocks sometimes breed in female plumage
may, after all, be correct. On 4 March the birds were noted as busy courting
and displaying and No. 490 (25 March) had testes enlarged to 6X4 mm.
Ferguson took nests in the Public Gardens at Trivandrum in April, and
one of the specimens obtained by Pillai in that neighbourhood on 8 August
(No. 811) was immature with an imperfectly ossified skull and undergoing
post-juvenal body moult, therefore about 2-23 months old.
From the evidence cited above it is clear that the breeding season of the
Tora in the Travancore-Cochin area is irregular and much prolonged, extend-
ing from about January to June for certain, and sporadically over the greater
part of the year.
Chloropsis aurifrons insularis Kinnear and Whistler. The Gold-fronted Chlorop-
SIs.
Specimens collected: 65 @, 66 ¢ 11-1-838 Maraiyar 3,500 ft.; 189 dg,
190 ¢ (juv.) 30-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 444 9 16-38-33 Rajampara 1,850 ft. ;
499 2° (imm.) 27-38-33 Tenmalai 500 ft.; 899 ¢ 25-11-38 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.), Ktmili (3,000 ft.), Nemmara
(800 ft.), Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris hazel brown; bill in ¢ black, 9?
horny-brown; mouth pinkish-flesh to slaty-pink; legs and feet grey or plum-
beous; claws brown. Juvenile: Bill pale horny-brown; mouth vivid pink; rest
as in adult.
[Measurements of 12, including Survey series:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
Td 3 22.5-25 86.5-93.5 65-69 mm.
5 990 22-23 84.5-90.5 64.5-67 mm.
lor plumages see Eastern Ghats Report, J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 752.
In the Eastern Ghats Survey the name Chloropsis aurifrons davidsoni
Stuart Baker was used for the race of this species found in Southern India
exclusive of the range of C. a. insularis. This was a name proposed by Mr.
Stuart Baker, Bull. B.O.C., xli (1920), p. 8, in place of Chloropsis malabaricus
(Gmel.) pre-occupied. Dr. Sassi has, however, since shown [Bull. B.O.C.,
li (1982), p. 44] that this race should be known as Chloropsis aurifrons frontalis
(Pelzeln) as it was so described by Pelzeln in Sitzungsberichte der Mathem.-
naturwiss. Klasse der Kaiserl. Academie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Tome,
xx (1856), p. 157, pl. i, fig. i. The type is an adult male in the Vienna
Museum collected at Khelgate near Goa by Baron Huegel. C. a. davidsoni
Stuart Baker will therefore stand as a synonym.—H. W.]
This Chloropsis is fairly common throughout the States inspite of Ferguson’s
statement that it is not found in the low country. I came across it from
about 200 ft. (Thattakad) up to an elevation of 3,500 ft. in the hills of both
Travancore and Cochin. My impression is that this species prefers more
thickly wooded country than Jerdon’s Chloropsis. Thus, at Thattakad where
patches of dense evergreen forest and open deciduous and secondary jungle
occur in juxtaposition, aurifrons was more or less confined to the former and
jerdoni to the latter. The birds were usually met with in pairs, but family
parties of 3 or 4 were not uncommon.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 85
In addition to insects, spiders and berries, its food consists to a large
extent of the nectar of flowers. I frequently, and regularly, observed it
probing with its bill into blossoms of the following species which it doubtless
plays a considerable part in cross-pollinating :
Musa (sapientum?),
Mucuna pruriens (pollen on forehead !),
Erythrina lithosperma and E. suberosa,
Loranthus longiflorus,
Mezoneuron cucullatum (var. grandis).
Fairbank does not record the Gold-fronted Chloropsis in his Palnis list
(S.F., v). The race insularis is generally distributed in Ceylon up to 4,000 ft.
Breeding: Specimen No. 899 (25 November) was completing pre-nuptial
moult and its testes were enlarged to 4x3 mm. On 380 November a male (?)
was observed feeding a full-fledged young in which latter the black gular
patch and blue moustachial streaks were as yet absent. Nos. 65 and 66 (11
January) were a pair. The ovary of the female was distinctly granular (fol-
licles about 1 mm. in diameter) while the testes of the male measured 5x3.
The birds were in fresh plumage except for a light moult on the female’s
breast, and were evidently ready to breed.
No. 189 (380 January—testes ca. 4x3 mm.) was the parent of No. 190
and was busy feeding the latter on a tree in dense scrub jungle. The young
was probably less than a week out of nest. Its skull was papery and rectrices,
remiges and tectrices only partly grown.
Specimens shot on 16 and 27 March showed no genital development and
were undergoing complete post-nuptial (?) moult, in the latter only tail and
body.
The breeding season in this area is apparently from about November to
February.
Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth). Jerdon’s Chloropsis.
Specimens collected: 246 9, 247 Go 8-2-3383 Thattakad 200 ft.; 688 9
18-7-33 (Ptlayanar Kotta 300 ft.); 740 G 29-7-33 (Kuttani 300 ft.); 783 @
4-8-33 (Cattle Farm); 808 @ 8-8-83 (Mukunni Malai 800 ft.); 815 ¢ (Nettayam
200 ft.) Trivandrum Environs; 1017 ¢, 1018 9 26-12-33 Kartpadanna ca. §.L.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiytr (8,500 ft.), Kottayam (S8.L.), Urambikera
Reserve Forest (ca. 1,000 ft.—near Mundakayam), Kumili (8,000 ft.), Aram-
bol (250 ft.), Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.), Kuriarkatti (1,600 ft.).
I noted it as absent at Rajampara where only aurifrons seemed to occur.
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; bill ¢ black, 2 horny-brown,
grey at sides of base of lower mandible; mouth pinkish-grey or pinkish-slate;
legs and feet slaty-grey; claws dusky.
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
3 od 93-24 87-90.5 69.5-72.5 mm.
6 O99 22,.5-23.5 83.5-86.5 66.5-69.5 mm.
Plumages given in Eastern Ghats Report, J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 753.—H. W.]
Jerdon’s Chloropsis is fairly common in the drier parts of the area. It
inhabits open deciduous country, secondary scrub, groves of jack, cashew,
mango etc. and pepper cultivation about homesteads, and avoids densely wooded
tracts. Ferguson states that it does not ascend the hills; I however, met it
up to an elevation of 3,500 ft. In food and habits it does not differ to any
appreciable extent from the foregoing species. In several localities in Cochin
I found it a wholetime attendant on the blossoms of Helicteres isora, probing
into them for the nectar.
In the Palnis, Fairbank (S.F'., v, 406) obtained a specimen at 4,000 ft. in
‘the lower hills. In Ceylon Jerdon’s Chloropsis is fairly generally distributed
up to 3,500 ft.
Breeding: Nos. 1017 and 1018 (26 December), a pair, were certainly breed-
ing. The testes of the one measured 5X3 mm., while the ovarian follicles
of the other were considerably enlarged, the largest measuring 5 mm. in dia-
meter. In Nos. 246 and 247 (8 February), also a pair, the ovarian follicles
were about 1 mm. and the testes ca. 4x3 mm. They were undergoing pre-
nuptial body moult—more advanced in the male than in the female—and eyi-
dently preparing to breed,
86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIILI
Two of the specimens collected by Pillai (Nos. 783 and 815) on 4 and 9
August in the environs of Trivandrum town had imperfectly ossified skulls
from which it would appear that the breeding season, commencing probably
about November as in the foregoing species, continues till at least June, and
perhaps later.
FaMIty: PYCNONOTIDAE.
Microscelis psaroides ganeesa (Sykes). The Southern Indian Black Bulbul.
Specimens collected: 112 Q 19-1-38 Munnar 5,000 ft.; 659 ¢ (imm.)
25-4-383 Muthuktzhi 8,500 ft.; 974 ¢ 18-12-34 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyur (38,500 ft.), Santhanpara (8,500 ft.), Peer-
made (8,200 ft.); Camp Deramalai (38,000 ft.), Balamore Estate (only above
2,500 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris orange-brown; bill bright deep orange;
mouth orange and pink; legs and feet yellowish-orange; claws horny-brown.
Immature: Iris. olive-brown; bill horny-brown, paler at tip; gape yellow;
mouth yellowish-pink; legs and feet yellowish-brown; claws horny-brown.
[Measurements of 11 including Survey specimens :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
icc 26-28.5 117.5-124.5 98-105 mm.
4 09 26-28.5 112-1238 96.5-104.5 mm.
Further specimens examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: GS 21-6-77 Kodaikanal 7,000 ft., 9 1-6-77 Palnis
(Fairbank); ¢ 21-12-79, 3 24-12-79 Nangand (?), Q 29-11-78 Mynall (Bour-
dillon).
Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Coll.: 3 18-8-98 Thekadi (J. P. Cook).
H. Whistler Coll.: Q 26-10-28 Nelliampathies 3,500 ft. (A. P. Kin-
loch).—H. W.] :
The lowest elevation at which the Surveys came across the Black Bulbul
was about 2,500 ft. and it is a common species in all the hills from 38,500 ft.
up. Ferguson records once having met a large flock as low down as 1,500 ft.,
while according to Bourdillon it is ‘found also in small numbers at the foot
of the hills’. This latter must surely be an extremely rare occurrence.
The birds go about in noisy flocks of 6 to 12, often considerably larger,
and usually keep to the tall tree-tops or the higher branches of forest trees,
whence they may frequently be seen launching short twisting sallies after
winged insects. Hucalyptus trees are much favoured, and I observed both
in these hills—wherever the tree has been introduced—and in the Nilgiris, that
the birds regularly visited the white ‘brush-lke’ flowers principally for the
attending insects but also occasionally sipping the nectar. Some of the com-
monest members of the localised bird associations or hunting parties in the
sholas at about 5,000 ft. were: Mucroscelis, Zosterops, Sitta frontalis, Culici-
capa, Pomatorhinus, Trochalopteron (frequently), Muscicapula pallipes, Ochromela
nigrorufa- The first usually kept to the tree-tops or higher branches, the last
two to the evergreen undergrowth of seedlings etc. while the remaining hunted
indiscriminately between these two ‘zones’.
The nectar of Hrythrina lithosperma is much sought after by Black Bulbuls,
and the shade trees on coffee estates in the higher hills were in constant atten-
dance by noisy flocks. I found them also feeding largely on the ripe drupes
of Zizyphus cenoplia (at Maraiytr) and on Jamun (Hugenia sp.) and Vaccinium
Leschenaultt (‘Bilberries’).
In the Palnis, Fairbank (S.F., v, 405) found them in groves both at the
tops of the hills and lower down. In June they were in noisy flocks of
20 to 30 birds. Terry (S.I’., x, 476) also came across them on 2 or 3 occasions
at Pulungi. In the Nelliampathies where they are extremely common, Kin-
loch found that the flocks broke up into pairs about February. This Bulbul
is represented in Ceylon by the race humi which has a larger bill.
Breeding: In No. 974 (18 December) the testes were undeveloped. No. 112
had a distinctly granulated ovary, the follicles measuring about 1 mm. in
diameter, and the bird was in somewhat worn plumage. At this time pairs were
observed in courtship. No. 659 (25 April) was immature (with very imperfectly
ossified skull) undergoing post-juvenal body moult. On 17 July at Kotagiri
(Nilgiris) I found them feeding full-fledged young similar to No. 659, generally.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 87
In Travancore Stewart found them breeding at between 4,000 and 6,000 ft.
elevation in dense forest, principally in April and May. Kinloch also records
the same to be the chief breeding months in the Nelliampathies (Nidification,
i, 348).
Molpastes cafer cafer (Linn.). The Ceylon Red-vented Bulbul.
Specimens collected : 261 ¢ 10-2-83 Thattakad 200 ft.; 564 J 11-4-33 Cape
Comorin ca. 8.L.; 691 ¢ 20-7-33 (Marathankizhi 50 ft.); 752 Q 30-7-33 (Thirt-
malai 120 ft.) Trivandrum Environs; 951 ¢ 7-12-33 Nemmara 300 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyur (8,500 ft.), Kottayam (ca. S.L.), Rajam-
para (1,850 ft.—-Panthalam Hills), Trivandrum Town, Aramboli (250 ft.),
Chalakadi, Wadakkancheri (400 ft.), Kartpadanna (ca. §.L.).
Noted as absent at: Munnar (5,000 ft.), Santhanpara (8,500 ft.), Koariar-
kutti (1,600 ft.), Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill brownish-black; mouth pinkish
yellow; legs, feet and claws blackish-brown.
[Measurements of 9 including Survey specimens :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
Gee 19-21 92.5-98 76-84 mm.
2 92 18.5-21 91.5-98.5 83 mm.
Further material examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: SG 18-11-78, ¢ 19-11-78 Trivandrum (Bourdillon); ¢
27-5-77 Vengayam Parry, E. base of Palnis (Iairbank); Q 28-2-75 Kolachal,
Travancore.—H. W.]
The distribution of the Red-vented Bulbul in the area covered by the states
of Travancore and Cochin is peculiar and worthy of closer scrutiny. The
precise ecological factors that control it are obscure. I met it from about
sea-level to an altitude of 4,000 ft., but on the whole it would perhaps be
correct to say that it avoids elevations over 1,500-2,000 ft. and also country
that is densely wooded. In the Nilgiris, however, I found it common up to
5,000 ft. At Thattakad a sharp division between the biotopes of this Bulbul
and the Red-whiskered species was clearly noticeable. In the mixed ever-
ereen-and-deciduous forest patches none of the former were in evidence though
the latter were abundant, while as soon as one reached dry deciduous-and-
scrub country the tables were turned and Otocompsa almost completely dis-
appeared. It was more or less the general rule for the two to replace each
other in the localities and biotopes suited to them.
The following table expresses as nearly as possible their respective positions
in Travancore and Cochin.
Locality. Molpastes. Otocompsa.
Maraiyur, 3,500 ft. Common Common.
Munnar, 5,000 ft. Absent Common.
Santhanpara, 3,500 ft. Absent Common to very com-
: mon.
Thattakad, 200 ft. Not common Common.
Kottayam, ca. 50 ft. Common Much less common,
Peermade, 3,200 ft. Absent Very common.
Kimili, 3,000 ft. Very scarce (Only 3 !) Common.
Camp Deramalai, 3,000 ft.
Rajampara, 1,350 ft.
Tenmalai, 500 ft.
Trivandrum ‘Town
Cape Comorin
Aramboli, 250 ft.
Balamore Estate, 2,000 ft.
Chalakudi
Kariarkitti, 1,600 ft.
Wadakkancheri, 400 ft.
Nemmara, 300 ft.
Padagiri (from 1,500 ft. up)
Karupadanna
Absent
Fairly common
2
Common
Fairly common
Common
Absent
Fairly common
Absent
Common
Common
Absent
Fairly common
Fairly common.
Tfairly common.
Fairly common.
Common.
Absent.
Absent.
Common.
?
Not common.
Not common.
Absent.
Very common,
Not common,
88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
- The food of this species in common with that of the rest of the Pycnonotidae
consists chiefly of fruits and berries. The following are some of the species
observed to be patronised as and wherever available: Zizyphus oenoplia, Maesa
perrottetiana, Hugenia jambolana, Vaccinium “Leschenaultii, Salvadora persica,
Polygonum chinense L., Trema orientalis Blume, Berberis tinctoria Lesch.,
Lantana camara, also figs of Ficus bengalensis, F. religiosa and F, glome-
rata. A great many others are also. eaten and there is no doubt that this
group is of the greatest importance in the dispersal of the plants. I also
observed these Bulbuls regularly eating nectar from flowers of Hrythrina litho-
sperma, Bombax malabaricum, Loranthus longiflorus, Grevillea robusta and
other species.
In the Palnis both Fairbank (S.F., v, 405) and Terry (S.F., x, 476) found
the Red-vented Bulbul somewhat rare as compared with Otocompsa at the top
of the hills, but more abundant down the slopes and in the adjacent plains.
The same race, cafer, occurs in Ceylon throughout the low country and at
medium elevations in the hills, becoming rarer higher up.
Breeding: On November 25 (Wadakkancheri) a bird was observed carrying
nesting material in its bill. In No. 261 (10 February) the testes—ca. 3x2 mm.
—appeared to be developing and the bird was completing pre-nuptial moult (?).
On 19 April (Aramboli) a nest in a Thespesia populnea tree at 10 ft. contained
two chicks about 5 days old, with quills sprouting, and one addled egg.
Both parents were busy feeding the young (on berries !). .
The gonads of the two specimens obtained in July were also slightly deve-
loped, but from their plumage they appeared to have finished breeding.
Ferguson took a nest with 2 eggs on 29 March and mentions another in
the Public Gardens at Trivandrum which contained 8 young birds at the end
of April. According to him, the breeding season in Travancore is February
to May. T. F. Bourdillon took nests with eggs in May and June (Nidifica-
tion, i, 354).
Probably as elsewhere in its range, there is really no well-defined season
and the breeding period fluctuates considerably on either side of the above
extremes.
Otocompsa jocosa fuscicaudata Gould. The Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul.
Specimens collected: 341 @G (juv.) 23-2-838 Peermade 3,200 ft.; 650 9,
651 ¢ 28-4-33 Balamore Estate 2,000 ft.; 686 Q 18-7-33, 831 3 11-8-33 (Pulaya-
narkotta 200 ft.); 855 © 30-7-83 (Thirtmalai 100 ft.) Trivandrum Environs;
887 go 21-11-38 Kuriarkitti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: See table under M. c. cafer.
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel-brown to brown; bill horny black; mouth
orange-yellow and pink; legs, feet and claws horny brown.
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
£238 18.5-20.5 83.5-89 79-84 mm.
299 18-18.5 81-83 77-80 mm.
No. 341 is in juvenile plumage. This is very similar to the adult but
the crest is shorter and browner, a less pure black; the red ‘whisker’ patch
is absent; the upper parts are duller, more rusty in colour and the gorget is
duller; the undertail coverts are dull pinkish. The first primary is softer and
more rounded, while the outer tail feather is narrower and more pointed at
the tip.—H. W.]
The distributional peculiarities of this Bulbul in the Travancore-Cochin
area have already been dealt with above. .
In the Palni Hills both Fairbank (8.F., v, 405) and Terry (S.F., x, 476)
found it extremely common on the tops of the hills and extending right down
to the bottom. This species is absent in Ceylon.
Breeding: In No. 887 (21 November) the testes measured 8X2 mm. and
appeared to be developing. On 25 January (Santhanpara) 2 nests were dis-
covered in small bushes in an open patch of brushwood on the verge of a
cardamom shola, each containing c/2. One egg from either clutch measured
23x16 mm. A third nest was situated in the thatch of a tenanted hut, con-
taining c/2 on 80 January. During the night one of the eggs hatched. At
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PipAw en i.
Red-whiskered Bulbul (Otocompsa emeria) on nest in Cycad palm.
Nest of White-browed Bulbul (Pycnonotus luteolus) with chicks 9 days old.
Photos by Author.
eae ser
Ps
bi
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 89
this time full-fledged young, recently out of nest, were observed on all sides
being fed (on insects and various Fici) and fussed over by the parents.
On 11 February a fourth nest was located on the bank of the Periyar
River at Thattakad, in a branch of Eeta bamboo overhanging the waters
edge. It was at a height of 5 ft. from the ground and contained Cy 2:
Specimen No. 341 (23 February) was juvenile with very soft skull and evi-
dently not more than 3 weeks to a month old. On the same date an adult
bird was observed carrying nesting material.
On 9 March (Camp Deramalai) a pair were building in a small tree at
ca. 7 ft. a couple of yards from a residential bungalow. In the pair shot
at Balamore Estate on 23 April (Nos. 650 and 651) the largest ovarian
follicle measured 7 mm. in diameter while the testes of the male were en-
larged to 5x4 mm. and the birds were obviously breeding. From the condt-
tion of their gonads both Nos. 686 (18 July) and 855 (30 July) also appear
to have been either breeding or about to; the largest ovarian follicles of the
former measured about 3 mm. in diameter, the testes of the latter 4x3 mm.
The above evidence suggests that while the breeding season is undoubtedly
at its height in the months from December to May, it may extend consider-
ably on either side of these extremes. In fact, it seems more than likely that,
as is the case in other areas, breeding continues more or less sporadically
throughout the rest of the year also.
Bourdillon gives December to June as the breeding season in Travancore,
and according to him the birds lay 3 or 4 eggs. My experience during the
Surveys has been invariably with 2 eggs or young.
lole icterica (Strickland). The Yellow-browed Bulbul.
Specimens collected: 382 0? 7-1-3383 Maraiyur (at 4,500 ft.); 208 9 3-2-33
Thattakad 200 ft.; 482 ¢ (juv.) 10-38-33 Camp Deramalai 3,000 ft.; 875 9 ?
17-11-38 Kiuriarkatti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft.), Peermade (3,200 ft.), Kimili
(38,000 ft.), Rajampara (1,850 ft.), Tenmalai (500 ft.), Balamore Estate (2,000
ft.), Wadakkancheri (400 ft.), Padagiri (from 1,500 ft. up).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris brownish-red; bill horny-black; mouth
brownish-pink, slaty-pinkish and yellow, or pinkish-grey varying apparently
with age (or season ?); legs and feet slaty-grey; claws horny-black. Juvenile
(No. 482): Iris greyish-olive; bill pale horny-brown; naked chin and cir-
cumorbital skin dull magenta; gape yellowish-cream; mouth livid pink; legs
pinkish-grey; feet pinkish-flesh; claws pale horny-brown.
[Series not satisfactory for measurements owing to moult. I have also
examined 6 specimens from Travancore and 4 from the Palnis in the British
Museum Collection.—H. W.]
The Yellow-browed Bulbul is one of the commonest forest-frequenting species
in all suitable tracts throughout the two States. Ferguson says it is confined
to the hills; I met it from an altitude of about 200 ft. (Thattakad) up to
5,000 ft., but as in the Nilgiris it probably occurs still higher up.
The birds move about in noisy parties of 5 to 7 or more, feeding on the
kerries of many forest trees, and are frequently met with in the localised bird
associations.
In the Palnis, according to Fairbank (S.F., v, 405), it occurs in small
flocks from about 4,000 ft. up. It is generally distributed as a forest bird
in Ceylon with no difference of race.
Breeding: Specimens Nos. 82 (7 January) and 208 (3 February) had un-
developed gonads, but on 7 February (Thattakad) a nest was found with one
of the owners brooding. It was a flimsy cup of leaf-stalks etc. slung hammock-
wise in the horizontal fork of a small twig of IJrul (Xylia xylocarpa) over-
hanging the old High Range Road, at a height of about 7 ft. The nest con-
tained c/2 (fresh), pinkish-white in ground colour with faint and fine phantom
specks of reddish-brown, especially about the broad end. Both the eggs
measured 23X16 mm. The parent sat very close for a time when I was
under the nest, peering at me over the brim, but finally its courage failed
and it departed in haste! Another bird on the same date was observed carry-
ing a caterpillar in its bill to nest young. Inspite of breeding being in pro-
gress, most birds continued to remain in feeding parties.
90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
No. 482 (9 March) is a juvenile just out of nest and about a fortnight
old. While examining this specimen Mr. Whistler remarks that he cannot
help feeling there must have been an error somewhere as it agrees with Pycno-
notus luteolus in every respect and has no resemblance to lole, whereas by all
the rules of the family the young of Jole should resemble the adult fairly
closely! I can only reply to this by saying that I have ‘no possible probable
shadow of doubt’ that the young is Jole and none other. It was being fed
and fussed over by the parents when shot. Besides the biotope at Camp
Deramalai was totally unsuitable for Pycnonotus luteolus which was not seen
in this locality at all.
In the Nelliampathies where Kinloch describes it as extremely common,
he found the usual noisy flocks broken up into pairs in February. He took
eggs in that month (Nidification, 1, 387) though in Travancore Stewart found
March and April to be the usual breeding months.
According to the Fauna (vol. i, p. 405) the Yellow-browed Bulbul breeds
principally in February and March from Kanara to Travancore, and this is
confirmed by the data now obtained’ by the Surveys.
Pycnonotus xantholemus (Jerdon). The Yellow-throated Bulbul.
Not met with by the Surveys, neither do Hume, Ferguson or any others
record it from Travancore nor Kinloch from the Nelliampathy Hills.
Travancore has been included in its ‘Distribution’ (fauna, 1, 415) on the
strength of a single specimen obtained by William Davison at 4,020 ft. in the
Annemalai Hills at about 10°N. lat. and ‘considerably to the West’. This
would mean somewhere in the neighbourhood of Devikolam and about the
junction of the High Range and Cardamom Hills sections. According to the
collector this was the only example seen by him in two weeks (lbis 1886,
p. 146). The bird can therefore have been no more than an aberrant straggler
beyond the extreme edge of its range, and in the absence of any further
authentic evidence of its occurrence in Travancore, the inclusion of this area
in the accepted distribution seems scarcely justified.
Pycnonotus gularis (Gould). The Ruby-throated Bulbul.
Specimens collected: 215 ¢, 216 @Q 4-2-83 Thattakad 200 ft.; 446
16-38-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 807 92 8-8-3838 (Mukutnnimalai 800 ft.) Trivandrum
Environs; 919 ¢ 29-11-83 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Urambikera Res. Forest near Mundakayam (ca.
1,000 ft.), Periyar Lake Environs near Kimili, Tenmalai (500 ft.), Balamore
Kstate (2,000 ft.); Kutvalle Incline (Cochin Forest Tramway); Kuriarkitti
(1,600 ft.); Padagiri (8,000 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris creamy-white; bill brownish-black; mouth
yellowish-pink; legs, feet and claws horny-brown.
[The specimens measure:
Bulle Wing. Tail.
38d 15.5-16 74.5-77 68-70 mm.
299 14.5-15 72.5-75 67-68 mm.—H. W.]
The Ruby-throated Bulbul is not as uncommon as Ferguson’s remarks
(J.B.N.H.S., xv, 264) would lead one to expect. I met it from about 200 ft.
elevation up to 3,000 ft. but not higher, and it, seems to have a decided prefer-
ence for the hummocky foothills. Though a bird of evergreen forest in the
sense that it is never found away from it, it is really the intermediate zone
with a mixture of evergreen and deciduous vegetation—more correctly the edge
of evergreen forest where land once cleared for rubber or other cultivation has
become covered with secondary growth and tangles of Mimosa, Mezoneuron and
the like—that is most suited to its taste. On the ghat road from
Nemmara to Padagiri, Ruby-throated Bulbuls appeared as soon as about 1,500 ft.
was reached and the requisite type of country commenced.
A specimen obtained by W. Daly on Mount Stewart in the Annemalai
Hills is in the Indian Museum. Fairbank (S.F., v, 405) obtained a single
specimen at Vengayam Parry (Palni Hills) in 1867 but was never able to
meet the bird there again, from which one may gather that it is very rare
in those hills. It is not found in Ceylon,
¥
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN SIE
In general habits it closely resembles both Molpastes and Otocompsa but
is shyer and more retiring. It has a very pleasant song something of a cross
between the song of Otocompsa and that of Leucocirca aureola. Many of
the notes and bars are identically those of the latter but uttered with the
richness and volume of the former.
Many species of berries are eaten and the various Vicus figs also form an
important part of the dietary.
Breeding: In specimen No. 919 (29 November) the testes measured 3x2 mm.
In 215 (4 February) they were also 3x2 mm., while in 446 (16 March)
they had enlarged to 5x3 mm. and the bird was completing pre-nuptial
body moult.
The example (No. 807) procured by Pillai on 8 August had mature ovary,
the largest follicle measuring about 4 mm. in diameter, and the bird was_ pro-
bably breeding.
In the absence of more precise data it would appear that the breeding
season of this Bulbul is ill-defined. The Pauna (vol. i, 416) is silent on the
point though a detailed description of the nests and eggs is given. Nidification
(i, 897) mentions a c/2 taken by Stewart in Travancore Hills on 6 March.
Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus (Lesson). The White-browed Bulbul.
Specimens collected: 594 9 15-4-88, 614 ¢, 615 ¢ (juv.) 18-4-33 Aram-
boli 250 ft.; 848 ¢ 18-8-33 (Nettayam 200 ft.); Trivandrum Environs; 947 ¢
6-12-33 Nemmara 300 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiytr (38,500 ft.), Kottayam (ca. 8.L.), Wadak-
kancheri (400 ft.), Trichir, Kartipadanna (ca. §.L.), Cranganoor Fort. In
the Trivandrum Museum I have seen specimens from Ponmidi and Aramboli,
and several others without data.
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris reddish-brown; bill brownish-black;
mouth yellowish-pink; legs, feet and claws dark plumbeous or blackish-brown.
Juvenile (No. 615): Iris hazel brown; bill horny-brown.
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail,
Briel ce 18.5-20.5 82-90.5 76-80 mm.
Other specimens examined :
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 0? 6-6-77 East base of Palnis (Fairbank); ¢ 16-11-78
Trivandrum (Bourdillon).
Travancore birds must be put definitely with the Indian race and not the
smaller Ceylon race.
Juvenile No. 615 is very similar to the adult but the upper parts and gorget
are duller and browner in tint. The first primary is soft and rounded and
the tail feathers are softer and more pointed.—H. W.]
Unlike the Yellow-browed Bulbul this species is exclusively an inhabitant
of more or less dry open bush-and-scrub country and avoids forest. It is not
uncommon, but is confined to the low country in Travancore and Cochin with
the only exception of Maraiytr where it was present in the valley amony
scrub patches bordering the terraced paddy-fields and in the vicinity of the
camp-shed. That it does not ascend the hills in this area of heavy rainfall
as it does in the Eastern Ghats (‘from sea-level to 4,000 ft.’—J.B.N.H.S..,
xxxv, 759) is doubtless due to the fact that here the hills are either open and
grass-covered or clothed in evergreen jungle and lacking in the dry bush-and-
scrub country that forms its habitat.
In the Palnis also Fairbank (S.F., v, 405) found it common only at the east
base of the hills.
In Ceylon this Bulbul is represented by the smaller race P. 1. insulae.
Breeding: Specimen No. 947 (6 December) showed no genital development.
No. 594 (15 April) with testes 6x5 mm. was evidently breeding. In No. 614
(18 April) the testes measured ca. 8X2 mm. and were apparently reverting to
the normal non-breeding condition. It was accompanied by No. 615 (with
very soft skull) in juvenile plumage and with the rectrices and remiges only
partially grown. The birds at Aramboli between 15 and 22 April were mostly
accompanied by young in various stages from which it may be inferred that
$2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the breeding season is March and April, possibly beginning earlier—in February
—and continuing later as suggested by No. 848 which had an imperfectly
ossified skull as late as 18 August.
Microtarsus poiocephalus (Jerdon). The Grey-headed Bulbul.
Specimens collected: 201 ¢ 3-2-33, 280 Q 7-2-3838, 249 ¢ 9-2-33, 278
12-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 429 ¢ 9-3-83 Camp Deramalai 3,000 ft.; 476 ¢
20-3-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 653 ¢ 24-4-33 Balamore Estate 2,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Uriumbikera Res. Forest near Mundakayam
(1,000 ft.), Tenmalai (500 ft.), Kariarkutti (1,600 ft.), Wadakkancheri (400 ft.).
IT have seen specimens in the Trivandrum Museum from Kuttyani (Sex ?
25-5-95) and Ponmidi (December 1890, and others).
Colours of bare parts: Iris grey; bill greenish-yellow; mouth pink with
brownish patches or yellow and pink, perhaps varying according to age (or
season ?); legs and feet pale dusky orange-yellow; claws paler.
5)
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
6 oC 14.5-17.5 75.5-78.5 70.5-77 mm.
1 Q 16 Sao. o 73 mm.
The juvenile of this species appears to be quite unknown and no hint of
the plumage stages is afforded by this fine series all of which are in full
plumage with no moult other than odd body feathers.—H. W.]
The Grey-headed Bulbul is one of the species confined to the heavy rainfall
area of South-West India, the other members of the genus being dwellers of
parallel biotope in the Indian Empire and beyond its eastern borders.
Ferguson mentions that in Travancore he found this bird only on _ the
hills at about 2,000 ft. altitude, but that he shot one at Kuttyani, an excep-
tional locality in the low country where the old forest was still standing. This
is undoubtedly the specimen now in the Trivandrum Museum. Mr. Pillai who
visited Kuttyani in August 1933 reports that most of the forest has now been
cleared and he apparently did not come across this species there. Ferguson’s
experience shows how very closely knit this form is with evergreen forest, a
fact which my experience in Travancore-Cochin fully confirms. The biotope it
frequents is very similar to that of P. gularis but it usually prefers even more
humid facies with denser gowth and often a good deal of rattan (Calamus)
intermixed.
The only notes I heard this Bulbul utter were a single harsh chaik, chaik,
frequently followed by a squeaky cheek or pink (the latter somewhat reminis-
cent of a finch or Dendronanthus—) repeated every second or so. The birds
were seen both in pairs and gregariously feeding largely on several kinds of
Ficus figs in company with Jole, Thereiceryx and other frugivorous species.
When dead and in the hand, the bird bears a curious resemblance to a miniature
green pigeon! This species is absent in Ceylon.
Breeding: In No. 201 (8 February) the testes measured 3x2 mm. and the
bird appeared to be preparing to breed; 230 (7 February) likewise had a dis-
tinctly granulated ovary; in both 249 (9 February) and 278 (12 February) the
organs were as in 201. Nos. 429 (9 March—testes 4x38 mm.), 476 (20 March
—testis (only one !) 6x4 mm.) and 653 (24 April—testis (again only one!)
5x4 mm.), were also ready to breed if not doing so at the time. Indeed in
the last there was an incubation patch to justify this presumption. All the
specimens were in fresh plumage.
The Fauna (i, 426) as well as Nidification (vol. i, p. 407) give a description
of nests and eggs, invariably c/1, obtained in Travancore by Stewart and
Bourdillon. According to the former the breeding season is April and May.
(To be continued),
i My I AN
Pt oy
bMS
Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.
ROXBURGH S KYDIA.
Kydia calycina Roxb.
(about *%/3 nat. size).
PLatE 26.
John Bale Sons & Damelsson.Lt4 Lonaon
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES.
BY
Tie pare Bi. BUATTHR, S.J.,. PhD.) F.L:8.,
and W. §S. MILLARD, F.Z.S.
Parr XVII.
(With one coloured plate and two text-figures).
(Continued from page 750 of volume xxxvii).
Puate XXVI.—RoxsurGH’s Kypia,
Popular Names: Pula, Puli, Patha (Hind.); Bargah, Baranga
(C.P.); Kopasia (Uriya); Warung, Iliya (Mar.); Bellaka, Bendi
(Kan.); Potri, Kandiki (Tel.); Tabo, Dwalok, Myethlwa (Burm.).
Kydia calycina Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814), p. 51. Belongs
to the family Malvaceae. The genus is named after Colonel
Robert Kyd, founder and first Director of the Royal Botanic Gar-
dens, Caleutta, who died in 1794. The specific name is with
reference to the prominent calyx.
Description: A large shrub or small tree. Leaves 38-6 in.
long, fanwisely 7-nerved,
heart-shaped at the base,
usually 8-7 lobed; lobes
often angular, the median
one the largest, smooth
above, densely close haired
beneath; leaf-stalk 1-2 in.
YF
}
y Dy = 3 C1 — &
long. Panicles many | =
flowered, covered — with
tawny short hairs, flower- WK Ns
stalk 2 in. long. Below
the calyx there is a series
of 4-6 strongly nerved in-
volucral bracts which en-
large and persist in fruit,
4-3 in. long. Corolla white : /|
or pink, petals reversedly |
heart-shaped, longer than
the calyx, prolonged into a claw at the base with a tuft of hairs
on either side. The filaments are united to form a staminal tube
for a little more than half their length then dividing into 5 spread-
ing branches, each carrying 8 almost stalkless anthers. Style
branches 8, each surmounted by a large dise-like stigma. Fruit
3-valved, about the size of a pea, covered with mealy dust, rounded
with a slightly umbrella-shaped top. Seeds kidney-shaped,
striated, brown-black.
24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVUi
Distribution: Common throughout India and Burma chiefly in
mixed and deciduous forests not in
arid regions.
Gardening: Propagated from
seed. The seeds possess a compar-
atively low germinating power but
this is compensated by the large
number produced. The seeds
should be sown in seed beds, and
the seedlings transplanted when
they are 2-3 in. high. The rate of
growth is rapid and it has been
estimated that the tree reaches its
maximum growth at a compar-
atively early age, though the exact
age has not been ascertained (Troup).
The leaves commence to fall at the end of November and the
plant is leafless from January or early February to late April.
The flowers appear in September- October, and the masses of
ereenish white or pale lilac blossoms make the tree a conspicuous
sight at this season (Troup).
Uses: The inner bark yields a bast fibre used for coarse ropes
ete. The fibre has a high resisting power to decomposition by
moisture.
(To be continued).
A LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES.
BY
EK. A. D’ABREU, F.Z.S.
(Curator, Central Museum, Nagpur).
The following is a brief list of the birds of the Central Pro-
vinees which I have collected, observed, or | am otherwise aware
of during a residence of over twenty years. Species which are
probably to be found but which I have not yet observed or identi-
fied with certainty are enclosed in brackets. Every part of the
Provinces has not been visited by me and most of the observations
have been made at Nagpur, or in the districts during the winter
months. In 1923 I published a list of the Central Provinces Birds
in Record No. THT of the Nagpur Museu. This list is now out
of date as many alterations and additions have become necessary.
ORDER: PASSERES,
1. [Corves corax laurencei (Hume). The Punjab Raven.
A rare straggler in Berar. |
2. Cervus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes. The Indian Jungle-Crow.
Resident, breeds February to April.
3. Corvus splendens splendens (Vieill.). The Indian House-Crow.
Resident. Breeds in June and July. An albino was secured at Kodamendht,
Nagpur District, by Mr. P. G. H. Stent, 1.c.s.
4. Dendrocitta v. vagabunda (Lath.). The Bengal Tree-Pie.
Resident. It is probably a local migrant; at Nagpur, they are not seen
till September and they disappear again when the weather gets warm.
5. {Dendrocitta leucogastra (Gould). The Southern Tree-Pie.
McMaster records a specimen from Chikalda. |
6. Parus major mahrattarum Hartert. The Southern Grey-Tit.
Resident in elevated and well-wooded parts of the Provinces. Not as com-
mon as the hext species.
7. Machlolophus xanthogenys aplonotus (Blyth). The Central India Yellow-
cheeked ‘Tit.
Resident and common in well-wooded tracts.
8. Sitta castanea castanea Less. The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch.
Breeds April to May (Pachmarhi).
9. Sitta castanea prateri Whist. Prater’s Nuthatch.
A specimen obtained at Damarincha, Ahiri State.
10. Sitta frontalis frontalis (Horsf.). The Velvet-fronted Blue Nuthatch.
Has been observed at Saugor and Betul.
11. Turdoides terricoler terricolor (Hodg.). The Bengal Jungle Babbler.
A very common resident. Breeds chiefly from June to July.
12. Turdoides striatus polioplocamus Ob. The White-headed Babbler.
Resident in South Chanda.
13. Argya caudata caudata (Dum.). The Common Babbler.
A common resident.
14. Argya malcolmi (Sykes). The Large Grey Babbler.
A common resident.
96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
15. Pomatorhinus horsfieldi obscurus (Hume). Hume’s Scimitar-Babbler.
Most probably a resident in the Satpura Plateau; specimens recorded from
Seoni, Dhupgarh near Pachmarhi (Osmaston) and Balaghat (Baihar Tahsil).
Whether the birds seen by me in the Balaghat District were this or the sub-
species P. n. horsfieldi, the Deccan Scimitar-Babbler, I am unable to tell, as
the birds were not secured.
16. Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin). The Rufous-bellied Babbler.
A common resident throughout the well-wooded parts. Breeds late, June
to September.
17. Chrysomma sinensis sinensis (Gm.). The Indian Yellow-eyed Babbler.
Resident throughout the Provinces. Breeds June to September. Clutches,
even from the same locality, appear to belong to two distinct types. In one
the eggs are smaller and speckled with red resembling eggs of D. hyperythra;
in the other the eggs are larger and heavily blotched and streaked with red.
18. Pellorneum ruficeps ruficeps (Swain). The Indian Spotted Babbler.
Fairly common at Pachmarhi where it breeds May to June (Osmaston).
19. Mixornis gularis rubricapilla (Tick.). The Yellow-breasted Babbler.
Three specimens of this bird were obtained by me at Parasgaon in the
Bastar State.
20. Alcippe poioicephala brucei (Hume). The Bombay Quaker-Babbler.
I obtained a specimen in the Bastar State and found it common in the
Baihar Tahsil of the Balaghat District. It is not uncommon at Pachmarhi
where it breeds early in July.
21. Aegithina tiphia humei 8S. B. The Central Indian Iora.
A common resident. Breeds June to July.
22. [Aegithina nigrolutea (Marsh.). Marshall’s Iora.
Occasionally found in the Northern parts of the Provinces. ]
23. Chloropsis aurifrons davidsoni (Bak.). The Malabar Chloropsis.
Mr. Master records this species from Chikalda in Berar and I found it on
the banks of the Indravati in the Ahiri State.
24. Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth). Jerdon’s Chloropsis.
Resident throughout the Provinces. Breeds June to July.
25. [Hypsipetes psaroides ganeesa (Sykes). The Southern Indian Black
Bulbul.
McMaster procured this bird at Chikalda on the Gawilgarh hills in Berar. ]
26. Molpastes cafer cafer Linn. The Madras Red-vented Bulbul.
Common resident. Breeds May to August.
The Bulbuls of the Jubbulpore District are intermediate between the Central
Indian Bulbul (M. c. pallidus) and the Bengal Bulbul (M. c. benghalensis).
They are larger birds with a wing measurement of about 100 mm. The Bulbuls
from the south-eastern parts of the Provinces will probably turn out to be
M. c. saturatus, K. & W. but specimens have not yet been examined.
27. [Molpastes leucogenys leucotis (Gould). The White-eared Bulbul.
Found north of the Nerbudda extending east to Hoshangabad and Saugor.
I have not observed this bird personally. ]
28. Otocompsa jocosa emeria (uinn.). The Bengal Red-whiskered Bulbul.
I secured one of a pair at Nagpur on the 7th April 1982.
is ae Otocompsa jocosa fuscicaudata (Gould). The Southern Red-whiskered
ulbul.
This Bulbul is found in the Melghat and I have observed it in the Balaghat
and Chhindwara Districts and also at Pachmarhi, where it breeds from April
to July but the birds from the three latter localities have not been examined.
: ee Otocompsa fiaviventris flayiventris (Tick.). The Black-crested Yellow
ulbpul.
Resident at Pachmarhi, where it breeds in June.
A-LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE. CENTRAL. PROVINCES 97
31. Pycnonotus Iuteolus (Less.). The White-browed Bulbul.
Resident at Nagpur and Kamptee, but not plentiful. Breeds in June. This
bird shuns observation though its call is familiar.
82. Salpornis spilonotus (Frankl.). The Spotted Grey Tree-Creeper.
A rare resident. I got a specimen at Nagpur, another in the Chanda
forests, and a third in the Betul District.
33. Saxicola caprata bicolor (Sykes). The Northern India Pied Bush-Chat.
A winter visitor to the Provinces.
34. Saxicola caprata burmanica 5S. B. Indo-Burmese Pied Bush-Chat.
Resident. Breeds in April and May.
35. Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth). The Indian Bush-Chat.
A common winter visitor.
36. [CEnanthe opistholeuca (Strick.). Strickland’s Chat.
A winter visitor as far south as Nagpur according to Oates. |
37. Cercomela fusca (Blyth). The Brown Rock-Chat.
Resident in the Jubbulpore, Saugor, Damoh and Hoshangabad Districts, but
probably has a wider range. Breeds March to July in holes of walls, quarries,
cliffs, ete.
38. Phoenicurus ochrurus phoenicuroides (Vieill.). ‘The Black Redstart.
A common winter visitor. It appears at Nagpur on or about the 23rd Sep-
tember.
39. .Cyanosylvia suecica (L.). The Blue-throat.
A common winter visitor.
40. Calliope calliope (Pall.). The Common Ruby-throat.
A rare winter visitor. A specimen was secured at Lamta in the Balaghat
District.
41. Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Lath.). The Brown-backed Indian Robin.
A common resident north of the Taptee River.
42. Saxicoloides fulicata intermedia §=Whistler and Kinnear.
Resident south of the Taptee River.
43. Copsychus saularis saularis (Linn.). The Indian Magpie-Robin.
A very common resident. Breeds May to July.
44. Kittacincia malabarica malabarica Scop. The Shama.
Has been recorded from Raipur.
45. Turdus simillimas mahrattensis Whist. The Black-capped Black-bird.
Rare, but may possibly breed in the Provinces. It has been recorded at
Chikalda and I got specimens at Khawasa in the Seon District and one at
Nagpur.
46, [Turdus unicolor Tick. Tickell’s Thrush.
A winter visitor, has been taken at Raipur. | .
47. Geokichla citrina citrina (Lath.). The Orange-headed Ground-Thrush.
Probably found sparingly in the Provinces during the winter only. There
is a specimen from Raipur in the British Museum.
48. Geokichla citrina cyanotis (Jard. & Sel.). The White-throated Ground
Thrush.
Resident in the well-wooded tracts. Breeds June to July.
49. Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vig.). The Blue-headed Rock Thrush.
A winter visitor, a few specimens have been obtained at Nagpur.
50. Monticola solitaria pandoo Sykes. The Blue Rock-Thrust.
A winter visitor to the whole of the Provinces.
51. Myiophenus horsfieldi (Vigors). The Malabar Whistling-Thrush.
Resident in parts of the Provinces; very common at Pachmarhi and the
Melghat and also recorded in the Sirguja State. Breeds June ;to July, placing
its nest in crevices in more or less vertical rocks in ravines.
7
98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIIt
62. Siphia parva parva (Bechst.). The European Red-breasted Flycatcher.
A common winter visitor.
53. Muscicapula superciliaris superciliaris (Jerd.). The White-browed Blue
Flycatcher.
A winter visitor has been taken in the Nagpur, Chanda, Balaghat and
Chhindwara Districts.
54, Muscicapula tickelliae tickelliae (Blyth). Tickell’s Blue Vlycatcher.
A common resident. Breeds in May and June.
55. Eumyias thalassina thalassina (Swain). The Verditer Flycatcher.
A winter visitor.
56. Alseonax latirostris (Rafi.). The Brown Flycatcher.
Resident.
d6A. Alseonax ruficaudatus. Rufous-tailed Flycatcher.
A specimen secured by me at Nagpur on 30th October 1984.
57. Calicicapa c. ceylonensis (Swain). The Grey-headed Flycatcher.
Common in winter. Recorded breeding at Pachmarhi in June and July.
58. Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (L.). The Indian Paradise Flycatcher.
Resident. Breeds June to July.
59. Hypothymis azurea styani Hartl. The Indian Black-naped Flycatcher.
Resident, but keeps to well-wooded tracts. Breeds June to August.
60. Leucocera aureola aureola (Less.). The White-browed Flycatcher.
This race has been taken in the winter only at Nagpur and may be the
resident bird in the north of the Province. It sometimes attends cattle, snap-
ping up the insects disturbed by the animals.
(a) Leucocerca aureola compressirostris Blyth. The Southern White-browed
Fantail Flycatcher.
This is the breeding bird at Nagpur.
61. Leucocerca pectoralis (Jerd.). The White-spotted Fantail Flycatcher.
Resident probably throughout the Provinces. Very common in the Districts
of Nagpur, Balaghat and Chanda. Breeds March to July.
62. Lanius excubitor lahtora (Sykes). The Indian Grey Shrike.
Resident. Breeds March to May.
63. Lanius vittatus (Val.). The Bay-backed Shrike.
One of the commonest shrikes in the Provinces. Breeds June to July.
64. Lanius nasutus nigriceps (Frank.). The Southern Black-headed Shrike.
No records of its breeding in the Province, but birds have been secured in
the winter months from Bastar, Bilaspur and Nagpur.
65. Lanius schach erythronotus (Vig.). The Rufous-backed Shrike.
A winter visitor recorded as far south as Parasgaon in the Bastar State.
Has been taken at Nagpur on 18th April 1920. They breed in the northern
districts.
66. Lanius schach caniceps Blyth. Southern Grey-backed Shrike.
Resident. Breeds chiefly in June.
67. Lanius schach tephronotus Vig. The Central Himalayan Grey-backed
Shrike.
A straggler into the Provinces in winter. I took a specimen at Ahiri in
the Chanda District.
68. Lanius cristatus cristatus (.). The Brown Shrike.
A winter visitor throughout the Provinces. Arriving at Nagpur on Sep-
tember 4th and staying till April 30th.
69. Hemipus picatus picatus (Sykes). The Black-backed Pied-Shrike.
Resident in the Satpura Plateau Districts according to Moss-King.
70. Tephrodornis p. pondicerianus (Gmel.). The Common Wood-Shrike.
Resident and common throughout the Provinces.
A LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES 99
71. Pericrocotus speciosus semiruber Whist. The Southern Scarlet Muinivet.
Not common. I have observed it in the districts of Balaghat, Chhindwara,
Betul and the Bastar State. It has also been observed at Pachmarhi. Ixeeps
to well-wooded localities, A party when disturbed were noticed making for
trees with red leaves.
72. [Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris Vig. ‘The Indian Short-billed Minivet.
A rare winter visitor. ]
73. Pericrocotus roseus roseus (Vieill.). The Rosy Minivet.
Three specimens were obtained at Nagpur.
74. Pericrocctus peregrinus perigrinus (L.). ‘he Small Minivet.
A common resident. Breeds February to July.
75. Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerd.). The White-bellied Minivet.
Resident, but not common. Breeds in July and August.
76. Lalage melanoschista melanoschista (Hodg.). The Dark-grey Cuckoo-Shrike.
I have taken this bird in the Bastar State only.
77. Lalage sykesi (Strick.). The Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike.
Resident. Breeds May to July.
78. Graucalus javensis maceii (Less.). The Large Cuckoo-Shrike.
A common resident. Breeds April to June.
79. Dicrurus macrocercus peninsularis Ticehurst. The Southern Black Drongo.
Common resident. Breeding May to July. Both the spotted and unspotted
varieties of eggs have been observed.
80. Dicrurus leucophaeus longicaudatus (Hay). The Indian Ashy Drongo.
Taken at Nagpur from February to April. :
81. Dicrurus c. caerulescens (Linn.). The White-bellied Drongo.
Resident, but probably a local migrant. Keeps to well-wooded localities and
only seen at Nagpur during the cold months (date of arrival is 22nd September).
Recorded breeding at Pachmarhi from March to April.
82. [Chaptia aenea malayensis (Hay). ‘The Southern Bronzed Drongo.
Jerdon has recorded this bird from the Bastar State, but it has not again
been observed by others. ]
83. Chibia hottentotta hottentotta (L.). The Indian Hair-crested Drongo.
Probably resident, has been observed at Raipur and Balaghat and taken at
Nagpur.
84. Dissemurus paradiseus grandis (Gould). The Assam Racket-tailed Drongo.
Resident, but keeping to well-wooded parts. Breeds chiefly in May and
June.
85. Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus Lath. ‘The Malabar Large Racket-tailed
Drongo.
This is the form found at Nagpur and the Bhandara Districts.
86. [Locustella naevla straminea (Severty). The Turkestan Grass-hopper
Warbler.
Possibly a winter visitor, not observed by me. |
87. Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens (Jerd.). The Indian Great Reed-
Warbler.
A common winter visitor, some birds having been observed on 23rd April
at Nagpur. It may possibly breed in the Provinces.
88. Acrocephalus dumetorum (Blyth). Blyth’s Reed-Warbler.
A common winter visitor, taken in Nagpur as early as 4th October.
89. [Acrocephalus agricola agricola (Jerd.). The Paddy-field Reed-Warbler.
A winter visitor. ]
90. Orthotomus sutorius guzurata Lath. The Indian Tailor-bird.
A common resident. Clutches taken in June and July, but probably breeds
both earlier and later.
100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Jl. Cisticola exilis erythrocephaia Blyth. The Red-headed Fantail-Warbler.
Recorded from Saugor and a specimen was secured by me at Khapa in
the Balaghat District.
92. Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Frankl.). The Streaked Fantail-Warbler.
Resident throughout the Provinces. Breeds August to October.
93. Franklinia gracilis (Frankl.). Franklin’s Wren-Warbler.
Resident. Breeds during the rains.
94. Franklinia buchanani (Blyth). The Rufous-fronted Wren-Warbler. .
A specimen was obtained in June at Nagpur and recorded breeding at Saugor.
95. Megalurus palustris (Horsf.). The Striated Marsh-Warbler.
Resident in parts of the Provinces, e.g., Hoshangabad and Seoni. Breeds
in April.
96. Chaetornis striatus Jerd. The Bristled Grass-Warbler.
Resident. Has been recorded from Seoni, Saugor, Raipur and observed
breeding at Kamptee in September.
97. Hypolais rama rama (Sykes). Sykes’ Tree-Warbler.
A common winter visitor, arriving early in September.
98. Hypolais rama scita (Eversmann). The Booted Tree-Warbler.
A winter visitor.
99. Sylvia hortensis jerdoni Blyth. The Hastern Orphean-Warbler.
A winter visitor. Specimens have been observed or taken’ in Chanda, Nagpur
and in the Meighat.
100. Sylvia curruca affinis (Blyth). The _ Indian Lesser White-throated
Warbler.
Very common at Nagpur in the winter.
101. Phylloscopus collybita tristis (Blyth). The Brown Willow-Warbler.
A winter visitor. Has been taken at Chhindwara.
102. Phylloscopus griseolus Biyth. The Olivaceous Willow-Warbler.
A common winter visitor. It has been observed in the districts of Nagpur,
Balaghat, Chanda, Bastar and also at Pachmarhi. It frequently creeps about
branches and tree trunks after the fashion of a nuthatch.
103. Phylloscopus inornatus humei Brooks. Hume's Willow-Warbler.
A winter visitor. Has been obtained at Nagpur, Bhandara and Mandla.
104. [ Phylloscopus nitidus nitidus (Blyth). The Green Willow-Warbler.
A winter visitor. Not yet secured. | a
105. Phylloscopus nitidus viridanus (Blyth). The Greenish Willow-Warbler.
Very common throughout the winter.
106. Phylloscopus magnirostris (Blyth): The Large-billed Willow-Warbler.
A winter visitor. Has been taken at Nagpur.
107. [Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth). The Large-crowned Willow-
Warbler.
A winter visitor. ]
108. [Seicercus burkii (Burton). The Black-browed Flycatcher-Warbler.
McMaster records this species from Kamptee and Chikalda. | .
109. Prinia socialis (Sykes). The Ashy Wren-Warbler.
A common resident.
110. Prinia sylvatica sylvatica (Jerd.). The Jungle.-Wren-Warbler.
Resident. Breeds June to September.
~ 111.. Prinia inornata inornata (Sykes). The Indian Wren-Warbler.
A common resident. Breeds from August to October, if not throughout the
rains. | te
112. [Cephalopyrus flammiceps (Burton). The Fire-capped Tit-Warbler.
A winter visitor, specimens have been taken at Raipur, Saugor and Nagpur. |
AP LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE CHNTRAL PROVINCES 101
118. Oriolus oriolus kundoo (Sykes). The Indian Oriole.
A common resident. Breeds May to July.
114. Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatanus Franklin. The. Indian Black-headed
Oriole. |
Resident, but more in evidence in well-wooded localities. Breeds May to
July. :
115. Gracula religiosa intermedia (Hay). The Indian Grackle.
Resident in the Bastar State. Breeds from March to May.
116. Pastor roseus (L.). The Rose-coloured Starling.
Visits the Provinces in large numbers in the cold weather.
117. Sturnus vulgaris poltaratskii (insch.). The Indian or Finsch’s Star-
ling.
A winter visitor to the Northern districts.
118. Sturnia malabarica malabarica (Gm.). The Grey-headed Myna.
Taken in the Bastar State and also observed at Nagpur.
119. Temenuchus pagodarum (Gm.).° The Black-headed Myna.
A common resident. Breeds from May to August in holes in trees.
120. Acridotheres t. tristis (l.). The Common Myna.
Resident, and very common everywhere. Breeds April to July.
121. Acridotheres ginginianus (Lath.). The Bank Myna.
Resident in- the Nerbudda Valley and in the eastern portions of the Pro-
vinces. I found it common in the Kanker State and it extends west to Ramtek
and Kamptee. Breeds in June excavating a nest chamber in, the vertical banks
of rivers or in the sides of wells.
122. Sturnopastor contra (L.). The Pied Myna.
Resident throughout the Provinces, but more common to the east and
probably absent in the west. Breeds May to July, constructing a massive
nest on the branch of a tree.
123. Ploceus philippinus (L.). The Baya.
Resident in the open country.
124. [Ploceus benghalensis (L.). The Black-throated Weaver-Bird.
Probably resident in the Northern districts. Breeds in the rains. |
125. Munia malacca (L.). The Black-headed Munia.
Observed at Pachmarhi by Bates and observed breeding in the east of
Bhandara District by F. R. Blewitt on the 19th July.
126. (Munia atricapilla (Vieill.). The Chestnut-bellied Munia.
May be resident in the Eastern districts. Breeding June to September in
swampy localities. ].
127. Uroloncha striata striata (.). The White-backed Mumia.
Resident. Very common in the Chanda District, extending north to Bhan-
dara and Betul. Breeds probably throughout the year.
128. Uroloncha malabarica (L.). The White-throated Munia.
Common. Breeds February to October.
129. Uroloncha punctulata lineoventer Hodg. The Spotted Munia.
Resident. Breeds almost throughout the year.
130. Stictospiza formosa (Lath.). The Green Munia.
Resident, observed at Nagpur and at Bhanpuri, Bastar State.
131. Amandava amandava (L.). The Indian Red Munia.
Resident. Breeds probably twice in the year. Nests have been taken in
September, October and December.
132. Carpedacus erythrinus (Pall.). The Common Rose-Finch.
A winter visitor.
133. Gymnorhis xanthocollis xanthecollis (Burton). The Yellow-throated
Sparrow.
A common resident. Breeds from April to May in holes in trees,
102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
134. Passer domesticus indicus J. & S. The Indian House-Sparrow.
This is the form which is resident at Nagpur.
135. Emberiza stewarti (Blyth). The White-capped Bunting.
A specimen was obtained at Nagpur in December.
136. Emberiza buchanani (Blyth). The Grey-necked Bunting.
A winter visitor.
137 Emberiza melanocephala (Scop). The Black-headed Bunting.
A winter visitor.
138. Emberiza icterica Evers. The Red-headed Bunting.
A common winter visitor.
139. Melophus lathami subcristata (Sykes). The Crested Bunting.
Resident. Breeds April to August, making a saucer-lhke nest of grass on
the ground or in holes of banks and walls.
140. Delichon urbica cashmeriensis (Gould). The Kashmir Martin.
A solitary specimen was obtained by Blanford at Bilaspur in April.
141. Riparia paludicoia brevicaudata Horsf. The Indian Sand-Martin.
Resident. Keeping to the banks of the larger streams. Breeds November
to February in the sandy banks of rivers, constructing a scanty nest at the
end of a narrow tunnel about three feet in length.
142. Krimnochelidon concolor (Sykes). The Dusky Crag-Martin.
Resident.
148. Hirundo rustica rustica (l.). The Common Swallow.
A winter visitor.
144. Hirundo smithii filifera Stephens. The Wire-tailed Swallow.
Breeds probably throughout the year.
145. Hirundo fluvicola (Jerd.). The Indian Cliff-Swallow.
Resident.
146. Hirundo daurica nepalensis (Hodg.). Hodgson’s Striated Swallow.
A winter visitor.
147. Hirundo daurica erythropygia (Sykes). Sykes’ Striated Swallow.
Resident.
148. Motacilla alba dukhunensis (Sykes). The Indian White Wagtail.
A common winter visitor.
149. Motacilla alba personata (Gould). The Masked Wagtail.
A winter visitor.
150. Motacilla maderaspatensis (Gmel.). The Large Pied Wagtail.
Resident.
151. Motacilla cinerea caspica Gm. The Eastern Grey Wagtail.
A winter visitor. Arrives at Nagpur on about 20th September.
152. Motacilla flava thunbergi (Billberg). The Grey-headed Wagtail.
A winter visitor.
153. Motacilla flava beema (Sykes). The Indian Blue-headed Wagtail.
A winter visitor. ;
154. Motacilla feldegg feldegg Mich. The Black-headed Wagtail.
A winter visitor taken at Nagpur.
155. Motacilla citreola werae Buturlin. The Yellow-headed Wagtail.
A winter visitor.
156. [Dendronothus indicus (Gmel.). The Forest Wagtail.
A rare winter visitor, not yet observed. |
157. Anthus trivialis haringtoni With. Witherby’s Tree Pipit.
A winter visitor. I have definite records from Melghat and Pachmarhi.
A LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES 103
458. Anthus t. trivialis L. The Indian Tree-Pipit
A common winter visitor.
159. [Anthus leucophrys jerdoni (Finsch.). The Brown Rock-Pipit.
A winter visitor. ]
160. [Anthus richardi richardi (Vieill.). Richard’s Pipit.
A specimen, was obtained at Nagpur. |
161. [Anthus richardi thermophilus, Jerd. Blyth’s Pipit.
A winter visitor. ]
162. Anthus rufulus (Vieill.). The Indian Pipit.
A common resident.
163. Anthus campertris griseus (Blasius). The Eastern Tawny Pipit.
A winter visitor. Taken at Nagpur, Jubbulpore and the Kankar State.
164. Alauda gulgula gulgula (Frank.). The Small Indian Sky Lark.
Resident.
165. Calandrella brachydactyla dukhunensis (Sykes). The Rufous Short-
toed Lark.
A winter visitor. Found in large flocks. These larks are the so-called
Ortolans.
166. Alaudula raytal raytal (Blyth). The Ganges Sand-Lark.
Resident. Has been observed breeding in the Saugor and Damoh Districts
and in the Nerbudda and Kanhan beds in May.
167. Mirafra javanica cantillans (Jerd.). The Singing Bush Lark.
Resident. Breeds in April and again from August to September.
168. [Mirafra assamica assamica (McC.). The Bengal Bush-Lark.
Recorded by Murray as resident in the Eastern parts of the Central Pro-
vinces. |
169. Mirafra erythroptera (Jerd.). The Red-winged Bush-Lark.
Breeds in April and again from July to September.
170. Galerita cristata chendoola (Frank.). The Crested Lark.
Resident in the Northern districts where it breeds from April to May.
171. Galerita deva (Sykes). Sykes’ Crested Lark.
Resident. Breeds May to June.
172. Ammomanes phoenicura phoenicura (Frank.). The Rufous-tailed Finch-
Lark.
Resident.
173. Eremopterix grisea (Scop). The Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark.
Resident. Breeds December to May and again in August and September.
174. Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis Ticeh. The North-western White-eye.
Resident.
175. Aethopyga siparaja seheriae (Tick.). The Himalayan Yellow-backed
Sun-bird.
I shot a male of this species at Lougher in the Balaghat District on the
Ist April at an altitude of about 2,000 ft.
176. Cinnyris asiatica asiatica (Lath.). The Purple Sun-bird.
A common resident.
177. Cinnyris zeylonicus (L.). The Purple-rumped Sun-bird.
A common resident in the eastern parts of the Provinces, Raipur, Bastar,
etc., extending west to the Bhandara District, and even to Nagpur where it
is scarce. °
178. [Dicaeum concolor subflavum 5S. B. The Belgaum Flower-picker.
May be found in the western parts of the Central Provinces. |
104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
179. Dicaeum e. erythrhynchos (Lath.). Tickell’s Flower-pecker.
Resident. 3
180. Piprisoma agile agile Tick. The Thick-billed Flower-pecker.
Resident. Breeds February to May.
181. Pitta brachyura (Linn.). The Indian Pitta.
Resident. Breeds in June and July, constructing a huge slobalr nest of
twigs and leaves on the ground or on low branches.
ORDER: CORACIFORMES.
182. Picus-xan thopygius. Gray. The Little Scaly-bellied Green Wood-pecker.
Found sparingly in the Bastar State and in the Balaghat District. It is
probably resident.
183. Dryobates m. mahrattensis (Lath.). The Yellow-fronted Pied Wood-
pecker.
A common resident. Breeds February to April.
184... Dryobates h. hardwickii (Jerdon). The Southern Pigmy Wood-pecker.
Resident. Common in well-wooded parts. Breeds March to April.
185. Micropternus brachyurus phaioceps Blyth. ‘The Orissa Rufous Wood-
pecker.
I saw and took specimens of this bird at Khapa in the Balaghat District.
Breeds in April and May, constructing its nest within the nest “of the black
tree ant (Plagiolepis).
186. Brachypternus benghalensis benghalensis (L.). The Northern Golden-
backed Wood-pecker.
_ A common resident. Breeds January to March. This is the race found at
Nagpur and Betul.
187. Brachypternus benghalensis puncticollis. Malherbe’s Southern Golden-
backed Wood-pecker.
This form has been taken in the Chanda and Bhandara Districts, inter-
mediates between the two forms also occur in the latter district. -
188. Chrysocolaptes festivus (Bodd.). The Black-backed Wood-pecker.
T have taken this bird at Charama in the Kanker State, at Tamia in the
Chhindwara District and in the Betul District. It is probably a resident
breeding during the cold months and laying a single white egg in a hole in
a tree as usual.
189. [Hemicercus canente cordatus Jerd. The Heart-spotted Wood- sae
Jerdon reported the occurrence of this bird in the Chanda forests, but it
has not been observed by anybody since. ]
190. lyax terquilla L. The Wryneck.
A winter visitor. |
191. Thereiceryx zeylanicus caniceps (Frank.). The Northern Green Barbet.
Common in well-wooded localities. Breeds April to May.
192. Xantholaema haemacephala indica ath. The Indian Crimson-
breasted Barbet.
Common. Breeds from January, to April, earlier in the south.
193. Cuculus canorus telephonus (Heine). The Asiatic Cuckoo.
I have regularly observed and heard cuckoos in the Nagpur, Bhandara,
pa sei and Chanda Districts from April to June the earliest date being the
27th April.
194. Cuculus peliccephalus policcephatus (Lath.). The Small Cuckoo.
A single female specimen was taken at Nagpur on 15th September ‘1918.
195. Cuculus micropterus micropterus (Gould). The Indian Cuckoo.
T have taken this bird at Nagpur in May, observed at’ Chanda (6th April)
and at Beemalgondee, Chhindwara District (12th May).
A LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES 105
196. [Hierococcyx sparverioides (Vig.). The Large Hawk-Cuckoo,
HIas been recorded as a straggler at Raipur. |
197. Hierococcyx varius (Vahl.). The Common Hawk-Cuckoo or Brain-fever
Bird. .
A common resident, depositing its eggs in the nests of Babbiers.
198. Cacomantis meralinus passerinus (Vahl.). The Indian Plaintive Cuckoo.
Resident. The eggs have been taken from the nests of Iranklin’s Wren
Warbler. Two males of C. m. querulus were obtained by Hume at Raipur in
1ST.
199. [Pentheceryx sonneratii sonneratii (iath.). The Banded Bay Cuckoo.
A rare species, recorded from Raipur. ]
200. Clamator jacobinus pica Hempr. & Ehr. The Pied Crested Cuckoo.
Arrives with the breaking of the monsoons and after depositing eggs in
the nests of Babblers disappears before the cold weather sets in.
201. Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus (L.). The Indian Koel.
Lays from April to June from 1 to 3 eggs in the nests of crows and once
in that of Oriolus kundoo.
202. Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerd.). The Small Green-billed Malkoha.
Recorded from Sironcha.
203. Taccocua leschenaulti sirkee Gray. The Southern Sirkeer Cuckoo.
Resident. ;
204. Centropus sinensis parroti (Stres.). The Southern Crow-Pheasant.
Breeds June to August, making a huge globular nest of sticks, green: leaves
and grass in a thorny bush or tree.
205. Psittacula eupatria nipalensis (Hodg.). The Large Indian Paroquet.
Common in well-wooded localities. Breeds March to April in holes in trees.
206. Psittacula krameri manillensis Bechst. The Rose-ringed Paroquet.
Common. Breeds February to May. Some birds have the lower mandibles
red.
207. Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala (l.). The Western Blossom-
headed Paroquet.
Breeds February to May.
208. Coracias benghalensis benghalensis (L.). The Indian Roller.
Common. Breeds April to May, making use of a hole in a tree, or some-
times in an old wall or the roof of a house.
209. Merops orientalis orientalis (Lath.). The Common Indian Bee-Kater.
Common. Breeds April to May.
210. Merops supercliliosus javanicus (Horsf.). The Blue-tailed Bee-EKater.
Resident, but not so common as the last species. Breeds in large colonies
on river banks from April to May.
211. Nyctiornis athertoni (J. & 8.). The Blue-bearded Bee-EKater,
Recorded at Pachmarhi by Osmaston.
212. Ceryle rudis leucomelanura (Reich.). The Indian Pied Kinefisher.
Breeds from February to May.
213. (1035) Alcedo atthis taprobana Klein. The Common Indian King-
fisher.
Breeds from February to June.
214. Ramphalcyon capensis gurial (Pearson). The Brown-headed Stork-
billed Kingfisher.
Resident, but not common. Observed breeding in the Balaghat District in
June and July.
215. Halcyon smyrnensis fusca (Bodd.). The Indian White-breasted Kine-
fisher.
Common resident. Breeds April to July.
106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
216. Hydrocissa coronatus Bodd. The Malabar Pied Hornbill.
Found in the eastern parts of the Provinces; I have observed it in the
districts of Raipur, Nagpur, Bilaspur, Seoni and the Bastar State.
217. Tockus birostris (Scop.). The Common Grey Hornbill.
A common resident.
218. Tockus griseus (Lath.). The Malabar Grey Hornbill.
The species is reported as occurring in the Nimar District and I have
noticed Hornbills at Khandwa which were destitute of a casque.
219. Upupa epops epops (L.). The European Hoopoe.
A winter visitor. One secured at Lamta in the Balaghat.
220. Upupa epops saturata Loénn. The Tibetan Hoopoe.
Ticehurst has identified birds from Seoni and the Deccan as of this race.
221. [Upupa epops orientalis (S. B.). The Indian Hoopoe.
Probably resident in the northern districts. Breeds from February to May
in a hole in a tree, wall or bank. |
222. Upupa epops ceylonensis Reich. The Ceylon Hoopoe.
Birds from Seoni and Nagpur appear to be of this race.
223. [Micropus melba melba (L.). The Alpine Swift.
Recorded from Gwalgarh (McMaster). |
224. Micropus affinis affinis (Gray). The Common Indian Swift.
Common resident.
225. Tachorois batassiensis palmarum (Gray). The Palm-Swift.
Breeds from February to April and again in July.
226. [Indicapus sylvaticus (Tick). The White-rumped Spine-tail.
A forest species extending west to the Wyneganga and to Seoni_
227. Hemiprocne coronata (Tick.). The Indian Crested Swift.
Resident, keeping to wooded tracts.
228. Caprimulgus monticolus (Frank.). Franklin’s Nightjar.
The commonest Nightjar in the Provinces. Breeds in May and June.
229. Caprimulgus asiaticus (Lath.).. The Common Indian Nightjar.
Common in open country, groves and low jungle. Breeds in April and May.
230. Caprimulgus macrurus albononotus (Tick.). The Indian Long-tailed
Nightjar.
A forest species, breeding from March to May in densely-shaded ravines.
231. Caprimulgus indicus indicus (Lath.). The Jungle Nightjar.
Resident in well-wooded tracts.
232. Tyto alba stertens Hartert. The Indian Barn-Owl.
Resident. Breeds from September to January, laying from 8 to 6 white
eggs in a hole in buildings or trees.
233. Tyto longimembris Jerdon. The Grass Owl.
Resident in the eastern districts (Balaghat, Raipur).
234. Asio flammeus flammeus (Ponto). The Short-eared Owl.
A winter visitor.
235. Strix ocellata (Less.). The Mottled Wood-Owl.
Breeds from December to February.
236. Ketupa zeylonensis hardwickii Gray. The Brown Fish-Owl.
Resident.
237. Bubo bubo bengalensis (Frank.). The Indian Great-horned Owl.
Breeds from December to April, laying 2 to 4 white eggs on a rocky ledge
or in a cave, or on the ground under a brush or tuft of grass.
238. Bubo coramandus (Lath.). The Dusky-Horned Owl.
Occurs in the well-watered parts of Raipur where it probably breeds.
A LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES 107
239. Otus sunia sunia (Hodg.). The North Indian Scops Owl.
A specimen taken at Nagpur on 2nd November.
240. Scops bakkamoena marathi Tice. The Collared Scops Owl.
Resident. Breeds from January to April.
241. Athene brama indica Frank. The Northern Indian Spotted Owlet.
Very common. Breeds February to April.
242. Athene blewitti (Hume). The Forest Spotted Owlet.
Found south of the Raipur District.
243. Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tick.). The Jungle Owlet.
A common resident in well-wooded localities. Breeds from March to May
in holes in trees.
244. Ninox scutulata lugubris (Tick.). The Indian Brown Hawk-Owl.
Probably resident but not plentiful, has been taken both in open country
and in forest at Nagpur and Chanda.
ORDER: ACCIPITRES.
245. Pandion haliaétus haliaétus (Linn.). The Osprey.
A winter visitor.
246. Aegypius monachus (Linn.). The Cinereous Vulture.
A winter visitor to the Northern districts, has been observed in Jubbulpore,
Saugor and Nimar.
247. Sarcogyps calvus (Scop.) The Black Vulture.
Resident. Breeds on trees from January to April.
248. Gyps fulvus fulvescens (Hume). The Indian Griffon Vulture.
Breeds on rocky cliffs in company with the next species and lays a single
white egg. The latter have been taken in October and December.
249. Gyps indicus indicus (Scop.). The Indian Long-billed Vulture.
Common. Habits similar to above.
250. Pseudogyps bengalaensis (Gmel.). The Indian White-backed Vulture.
Resident. Breeds in October and November. The nest is an irregular plat-
form placed on a tree.
251. Neophron percnopterus§ ginginianus (Lath.). The Smaller White
Scavenger Vulture.
Very common resident. Breeds February to May, making a nest of sticks
on a cliff, tree or building.
252. [Aquila heliaca (Sav.). The Imperial Eagle.
Probably a rare winter visitor. |
253. Aquila nipalensis nipalensis (Hodg.). The Eastern Steppe Kagle.
A winter visitor ranging south to Raipur and Nagpur where I have taken it.
254. Aquila rapax vindhiana (Frank.). The Indian Tawny Eagle.
A common resident. Breeds from November to June, building a nest of
sticks on trees.
255. [Aquila clanga (Pall.). The Greater Spotted Eagle.
Probably resident, in the Northern districts. Breeds on trees from April to
June and as far south as the Taptt. |
256. Aquila hastata (Less.). The Small Indian Spotted Eagle.
Resident in the Eastern districts. Has been observed breeding in Raipur
and Bilaspur.
257. Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus Vieill. Bonellis Magle.
Resident but not common. Breeds December to February.
258. Hieraétus pennatus Gmel. The Indian Booted Eagle.
Specimens obtained at Hoshangabad and Nagpur.
259. Butastur teesa (Frank.). The White-eyed Buzzard,
A common resident. Breeds in April,
108 JQUBNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY; Vol: XXXViITi
260. Haliaetus leucorypha (Pall.). Pallas’ Fishing Eagle.
Resident. Breeds in November.
261. [Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus (Horsf.). The Large Grey-headed Fishing
HKagle.
Resident. MacArthur took an egg at Ramtek on 20th November. ]
262. Ichthyophaga humilis plumbeus (Jerd.). The Himalayan Fishing-Eagle.
Specimens of this Fishing Eagle have been taken by Mr. A. Donald in the
Melghat. A dad
263. Haliastur indus indus (Bodd.). The Brahminy Kite.
Resident. Breeds in February.
{
-<¥
264. [Ictinaetus malayensis perniger (Hodg.). The Indian Black Hagle.
Jerdon is said to have seen this species in Central India (? Bastar) and
MacArthur declares he took an egg probably of this species in April in the
Bilaspur District. ]
265. Limnacteps cirrhatus cirrhatus (Gmel.). The Indian Hawk Eagle.
Resident. The nest is placed on a high tree, in which a single egg is laid
at some time from January to April.
266. [Limnaetops nepalensis nepalensis (Hodg.). Hodgson’s: Hawk-EKagle.
Reported to have been found in winter as far south as Seoni and Pachmarhi,
but these may just as well have been L. n. kelaarti, Legge’s Hawk Eagle. |
267. Circaétus gallicus (Gmel.). The Short-toed Hagle.
Resident. Breeds on trees (rarely on cliffs), and lays a single egg between
January and May in a loosely constructed nest of sticks.
268. Haematornis cheela minor (Hume). The Indian Lesser Crested Ser-
pent EHagle.
Breeds on trees from March to May.
269. Miivus migrans govinda (Sykes). The Common Pariah Kite.
Breeds from October to February.
270. Milvus migrans lineatus (Gray). The Black-eared Kite.
A winter visitor.
271. Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Lath.). The Black-winged Mite.
Breeds in December and January.
972. Circus macrourus (Gmel.). The Pale Harrier.
A common winter visitor. |
273. Circus pygargus (Linn.). Montagu’s Harrier.
A winter visitor.
274. [Circus cyaneus (Linn.). The Hen Harrier.
A straggler to the Provinces in winter. |
275. Circus melanoleucus (Forst.). The Pied Harrier.
A winter visitor to the Eastern districts. I have observed it at Paraswara
in the Balaghat District, and at Nawegaon, Bhandara District.
276. Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (l.). The Marsh Harrier.
A common winter visitor. I once observed one feeding on carrion and
keeping at bay a crowd of vultures.
277. |Buteo rufinus (Cret.). The Long-legged Buzzard.
A rare winter visitor. Has been taken at Raipur. |
278. Astur badius dussumieri (T’emm.). The Shikra.
Common resident. Breeds April to May.
279. Astur trivirgatus indicus Pearson. The Crested Goshawk.
A rare forest bird, probably resident. I have taken, it at Nagpur and in the
Balaghat District.
280. Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (Tick.). The Asiatic Sparrow-Hawk.
A winter visitor. Has been taken at Khatkali in the Melghat and at
Nagpur. | yee
(3 A.LIST. OF THH. BIRDS OF .THE. CENTRAL PROVINCES 109
281. Pernis ptilorhynachus ruficollis (Less.). The Indian Crested Honey-
Buzzard.
Resident. Breeds April to July.
282. Falco peregrinus calidus (Lath.). The Hastern. Peregrine Falcon.
Taken on the banks of the Nerbudda in winter.
283. Falco peregrinus peregrinator (Sund.). The Indian Peregrine or Shahin
Falcon. Resident but not common. The nest is a mass of sticks, placed on a
cliff.
284. [Falco peregrinus babylonicus(Gur.). he Red-capped or Barbary Falcon.
A rare winter visitor. A specimen has been taken at Raipur. |
285. Falco jugger (Gray). The Lagger Falcon.
Resident.
286. Falco subbuteo subbuteo (L.). The Hobby. .
A witter visitor. I took a specimen at Nagpur, and it has been taken at
Raipur.
287. Falco chiquera chiquera (Daud.). The Red-headed Merlin.
Resident. Breeds January to May, generally about February.
288. Falco tinnunculus objurgatus 5.B. The Indian [estrel.
The Kestrels have not yet been worked out for want of material, two races
are probably winter visitors, and a third is resident. A clutch of three has
been taken in the Saugor District on 30th September.
ORDER: COLUMBAER.
289. [Crocopus phoenicopterus phoenicopterus (Lath.). The Bengal Green
Pigeon.
Fiecorded as occurring with the next species at Pachmarhi. ]
_ 290. Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorogaster (Blyth). The Southern. Green
Pigeon.
Resident.
291. Sphenocercus sphenura (Vig.). The Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon or
Kxokla.
Osmaston records this species as a very rare visitor to Pachmarhi in April,
292." Muscadivora aenea sylvatica (Tick.). The Northern Green Imperial
Pigeon.
Occurs in the Bastar State, and Chanda with a wing measurement of 220
to 225 mm.
293. Chalcophaps indica (L.).. The Emerald Dove.
Resident in forest country in the Balaghat District.
294. Columba livia intermedia (Strick.). The Indian Blue Rock-Pigeon.
Resident, but more plentiful in the wheat-growing areas; scarce in the
cotton-growing tracts except near the vicinity of cliffs or old forts where large
colomies usually establish themselves.
_., 295. Streptopelia orientalis ferrago Evers. The Indian Turtle Dove.
A winter visitor.
296. Streptepelia orientalis meena (Sykes). The Indian Rufous Turtle Dove.
Resident. I have taken it in June at Nagpur and in January at Paraswara
(Balaghat. District).
297. Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gm.). The Spotted Dove.
Resident, partial to forest areas. Breeds almost throughout the year.
298. Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gm.). The Little Brown Dove.
Resident. Breeds almost throughout the year.
299. Streptopelia decaocts decaocto (Friv.). The Indian Ring-Dove.
Resident. Breeds throughout the year.
110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIt
300. Oenopopelia tranquebarica (Herm.). The Indian Red Turtle-Dove.
Resident. Breeds almost throughout the year.
ORDER: PTEROCLETES.
301. Pterocles indicus (Gmel.). The Painted Sandgrouse.
Resident. Breeds chiefly in March, April and May.
302. Pterocles exustus erlangeri (Neum.). The Common Indian Sandgrouse.
Resident.
ORDER: GALLINAE.
303. Pavo cristatus (l.). The Common Peafowl.
Breeds June to September. Albino peafowl have been reported from the
Bastar State.
304. Gallusbankiva R. & K. The Indian Jungle-Fowl.
Resident in the eastern half of the Provinces, Balaghat, Bhandara, Bastar,
ete., extending west into the Chanda District, and across the Pench River.
305. Gallus sonneratii (Temm.). The Grey Jungle-Fowl.
Resident throughout the Nerbudda Valley west of Jubbulpore, the Melghat.
and the Chanda District.
306. Galloperdix spadicea spadicea (Gmel.). The Red Spur-Fowl.
Resident. Birds from the Nimar District appear to be G. s. caurina, Bf.
307. Galloperdix luaulata (Val.). The Painted Spur-Fowl.
Resident.
308. Excalfactoria chinensis (L.). The Blue-throated Quail.
Probably resident in the eastern parts of the Provinces.
309. Coturnix coturnix coturnix (L.). The Common Quail.
A winter visitor rarely breeding in the Provinces.
310. Coturnix coromandelica (Gmel.). The Black-breasted or Rain-Quail.
Resident.
S11. Perdicula asiatica asiatica (Lath.). The Jungle Bush-Quail.
Resident. Breeds September to February.
312. Perdicula asiatica argoondah (Sykes). The Rock Bush-Quail.
Resident in the Western Central Provinces.
318. Coryptoplectron erythrorhynchum blewitti (Hume). Blewitt’s Bush-Quail.
Resident in the forest regions of the Eastern Central Provinces (Mandla,
Balaghat, Seoni, Chanda, Raipur and Bastar).
314. [Francolinus francolinus asiae (Bonap.). The Indian Black Partridge.
May be resident in the extreme north of the Provinces. ?]
315. Francolinus pictus pictus (J. & S.). The Southern Painted Partridge.
Resident in the southern parts of the Provinces (Raipur, Chanda and Bala-
ghat). Breeds during the rains.
316. Francolinus pictus pallidus (Grey). The Northern Painted Partridge.
Resident in the Northern and Western portions of the Provinces. The races
of the Painted Partridges in the Central Provinces have not yet been properly
investigated.
317. Francolinus pondicerianus interpositus (Hart.). The Northern Grey
Partridge.
Breeds February to June and sometimes again from September to November.
OrpDER: HEMIPODI.
318. Turnix suscitator taijoor (Sykes). The Common Bustard Quail.
Breeds chiefly during the rains (June).
319. Turnix dussumieri (Temm.). The Little Button-Quail.
Resident. Breeds chiefly from June to September.
A LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES ala
320. Turnix maculatus tanki (Blyth). The Indian Button-Quail.
Resident. Breeds May to September.
ORDER: GRALLAE.
321. [Rallus aquaticus korejewi Sar. The Turkestan Water Rail.
A straggler in winter. Has been taken at Sehore. |
322. [Hypotaenida striata gularis Horsf. ‘he Indian Blue-Breasted Banded
Rail. |
823. [Porzana porzana L. The Spotted Crake.
May be a straggler in winter. ]
324. Porzana pusilla pusilla (Pallas). The Kasten Baillons Crake.
Taken at Nagpur in April and May and observed elsewhere in winter.
325. Amaurornis phoenicurus chinensis (Bodd.). The Chinese White-Breasted
Water Hen.
Breeds probably from May to September; clutches of 4 and 5 taken in
Bhandara in July. A bird from Nagpur had a wing measurement of 156 mm.
326. Amaurornis akool akoel (Sykes). The Brown Crake.
Resident.
327. Gallinula chloropus indicus (Blyth). The Indian Moorhen.
Breeds from July to September.
328. Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus (Lath.). The Indian Purple Coot.
Breeds in September.
329. Fulica atra atra(l.). The Coot.
Breeds in September in a nest very similar to that of the Purple Coot.
330. Metopidius indicus (Lath.). The Bronze-winged Jacana.
Breeds from June to September.
331. Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scop.). The Pheasant-tailed Jacana.
Nidification similar to that of the Bronze-winged Jacana.
382. Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis (L.). The Painted Snipe.
vesident. Breeds at all seasons.
333. Grus grus lilfordi (Sharpe). The Eastern Crane.
A winter visitor to the Nerbudda Valley.
334. Grus leacogeranus (Pallas). The Great White or Siberian Crane.
A straggler was shot by McMaster at Kuhi near Nagpur.
335. Antigone antigone antigone (L.). The Sarus.
Resident. Breeds in July and August and also in March.
3386. _Anthropoides virgo (L.).. The Demoiselle Crane.
A winter visitor keeping to the larger river basins.
337. Choriotes nigriceps, Vig. The Great Indian Bustard.
Resident. Breeds October to December, laying a single egg, in a hollow on
the ground with or without a lining of grass. Females sometimes have the
black pectorak band complete and distinct.
338. Sypheotides indica (Gmel.). The Lesser Florican or Likh.
Breeds in August and September.
ORDER: CHARADRIFORMES.,
339. Burhinus oedicnemus indicus (Salv.). The Indian Stone-Curlew.
Breeds from February to August, but chiefly in April.
340. Esacusrecurvirostris (Cuv.). The Great Stone-Plover.
Resident. Lays two eggs between February and June in river-beds on the
sand or amongst stones.
112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol._ XXXVIII
341. Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmel.). The Indian Courser.
sreeds from March to July.
342. Rhinoptilus bitorquatus (Jerd.). Jerdon’s Courser.
A rare bird found at Sironcha.
343. Glareola maldivarum (Forst.). The Large Indian Swallow-Plover.
Resident. Breeds in May.
- 844. Glareola lactea (Temm.). The Small Indian Pratincole.
Breeds in company with Terns, on sandbanks in the larger rivers from
March to May. :
345. Larus brunnicephalus (Jerd.). The Brown-headed Gull.
A specimen was shot on the Telinker1 Tank, Nagpur, on 17th June.
346. Larus argentatus cachinnans Pallas. Yellow-legged Herring-Gull.
Taken on the Mahanaddy River at Chandrapur in November.
347. [Chlidonias leucopareia indica. ‘The Indian Whiskered Tern.
A winter visitor. ]
348. Chlidonias 1. leucoptera. White-winged Black ‘Tern.
Has been taken at Raipur.
349. Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica. ‘The Gull-billed Tern.
Observed on the Mahanaddy River. :
350. Sterna seena (Sykes). The Indian River Tern.
Breeds gregariously in March, April or May in a depression on a sandbank.
851. Sterna melanogaster (Temm.). The Black-bellied Tern.
Nidification similar to that of S. seena and frequently breeding in company
with it.
352. Rhynchops albicollis (Swains.). The Indian Skimmer.
Resident on the Nerbudda and Mahanaddy Rivers. Breeds from March to
April after the fashion of other terns and in company with them.
358. [Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmel. The Huropean Little Ringed Plover.
A winter visitor. ]
354. Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge). Jerdon’s Little Ringed-Plover.
Breeds from February to March, but probably later and earlier as well.
355. Pluvialis dominicus fulvus Gmel. The Hastern Golden Plover.
Taken on the Mahanaddy River, near Chandrapur.
356. Hoplopterus duvaucelli Lesson. The Spur-winged-Plover. ;
Observed in the Nerbudda and Indravati Rivers. Breeds from March to May.
857. Lobivanellus indicus iadicus (Bodd.). The Indian Red-wattled Lap-
wing.
Breeds chiefly from April to June, laying 4 eggs in a small hollow.
358. Lobipluvia malabarica (Bodd.). The Yellow-wattled Lapwing.
Breeds from May to July.
859. Himantopus himantopus himantopus L. The Back-winged Stilt.
560. Numenius arquata arquata Lin. The Western. Curlew.
All curlews which I have shot on the Mahanaddy River have proved to be
of this race. They were generally in small flocks.
361. Numenius arquata orientalis Brehm. The Eastern Curlew.
_ A winter visitor. All birds shot on inland tanks in the Bhandara and Nagpur
districts were of this race. They were either solitary or in small flocks of 4
or 5 birds.
362. Limosa limosa limosa. The Black-tailed Godwit.
A rare winter visitor, one shot on the Sonagaon tank 4 miles south of
Nagpur. It was a solitary bird associating with one other wader.
A LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES 113
363. [Macroramphus semipalmatus (Jerd.). The Snipe-billed Godwit.
A specimen is said to have been killed at Raipur by Capt. S. L. Wood
(Asian 22 Februay 1894, page 377).]
364. Tringa ochropus (L.). The Green Sandpiper.
A very common winter visitor. It has been observed at Nagpur on the
14th September and some birds remain till June.
365. Tringa stagnatilis (Becks.). The Marsh Sandpiper.
A winter visitor to the Northern districts (Jubbulpore, Seon1, etc.).
366. Tringa hypoleuca (L.). The Common Sandpiper.
A winter visitor.
367. Tringa glareola (L.). The Wood Sandpiper.
Very common winter visitor.
368. Tringa totanus (L.). The Redshank.
Observed on the Mahanaddy River.
369. Glottis nebularia (Gunner). The Greenshank.
A winter visitor.
370. Philomachus pugnax (l.). The Ruff and Reeve.
A winter visitor, solitary individuals as well as large flocks have been seen.
371. Erolia minuta (Leister). The Little Stint.
A winter visitor, common on the Nerbudda.
372. Erolia temminckii (Leister). ‘CTemminck’s Stint.
A winter visitor.
373. [Erolia alpina alpina, Lin. The Hastern Dunlin.
A straggler to the Province in winter. |
374. Capella nemoricola (Hodg.). The Wood Snipe.
Occurs on migration, has been taken at Mandla, Pachmarhi, Amarkantak,
Balaghat and Serguja.
375. Capelia gallinago gallinago (L.). The Common Fantail Snipe.
A winter visitor.
376. Capella stenura (Bonap.). The Pintail Snipe.
A winter visitor, more plentiful than the last species.
377. Lymmnocryptes minima (Brunn.). The Jack Snipe.
A winter visitor.
ORDER: STEGANOPODES.
378. Pelicans have been observed in the Northern districts in the rains
and also in the Hastern districts, but whether they are P. onocrotalus or P.
philippensis or both, has not been ascertained.
379. Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis (S. & N.). The Indian Large Cormorant.
Resident, but not plentiful, nests on trees growing in water. An incom-
plete clutch of 2 eggs was taken on the 18th July in the Balaghat District.
380. [Phalacrocorax fuscicollis (Steph.). The Indian Shag.
A rare bird if it occurs at all.]
381. Phalacrocorax niger Vieill. The Little Cormorant.
Resident. Breeds in colonies in July.
382. Anhinga melanogaster (Penn.). The Indian Darter or Snake-bird.
Breeds in colonies, and generally in company with Cormorants and Herons,
on trees in or near water.
OrpDER: MHERODIONES.
383. Plataiea leucorodia major (T'emm.). The Indian Spoonbill.
Observed in the northern and eastern districts.
8
114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
384. Threskiornis melanocephalus (Lath.). The White Ibis.
Resident. Breeds gregariously from June to August constructing a stick
nest on a large tree.
385. Pseudibis papillosus (Temm.). The Indian Black Ibis.
Resident. Breeds at various seasons, March and April and again from
August to December.
386. Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus The Glossy Ibis.
Taken on the Mahanaddy, the birds were in a very large flock.
387. Dissoura episcopa episcopa (Bodd.). Vhe Indian White-necked Stork.
A common resident. Breeds from June to August.
388. Xenorhynchus asSiaticus asiaticus (Lath.). The Black-necked Stork.
Resident, breeds from October to December.
389. Leptoptilus javanicus (Horsf.). The Smaller Adjutant.
Most probably resident.
390. Pseudotantalus leucocephalus leucocephalus (Penn.). The Painted Stork.
Breeds gregariously often on trees growing near villages and makes a small
nest of sticks.
391. Anastomus oscitans (Bodd.). ‘The Open-bill.
Breeds gregariously from April to July.
392. Ardea purpurea manillensis (Meyen.). The Hastern Purple Heron.
Breeds from April to August, making a huge stick nest in thickets or in
dense cluinps of bulrushes.
393. Ardea cinerea rectirostris Gould. The Hastern Grey Heron.
Resident.
394. [Ardea goliath Gret. The Giant Heron.
Casual, Blanford once saw them near Nagpur (Kuhi).]
395. Egretta alba modesta (Gray). The Hastern Large Egret.
All the Egrets are resident and breed gregariously in July on trees, making
nests of sticks.
396. Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler). The Smaller Egret.
397. Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linn.). The Little Hgret.
398. Bubdulcus ibis csromandus (Bodd.). The Cattle Egret.
Breeds from June to August.
399. Demiegretta asha (Sykes). The Indian Reef-Heron.
A specimen was observed on the Telinkher1 Tank, Nagpur, and another on
the Mahanaddy.
400. Ardeola gravii (Sykes). The Indian Pond Heron.
Breeds in July and August, making a stick nest on a tree, several pairs
often nesting in company.
401. Butorides striatus iavanicus (Horsf.). The Indian Little Green Heron.
Breeds May to August.
402. Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linn.). The Night Heron.
Breeds July to September in company with Egrets and other Herons.
403. Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmel.). The Chestnut Bittern.
Resident. Three eggs were taken from a nest placed amongst reeds in the
Bhandara District in September. A specimen was also secured at Nagpur in
April.
404. [Dupetro flavicollis flavicollis (Lath.). The Black Bittern.
Reported to be resident. |
405. Botaurus stellaris steliaris (Linn.). The Bittern.
A winter visitor.
A LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES 115
ORDER: PHOENICOPTERI.
406. Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum (Temm.). The Common Flamingo.
Flocks of flamingoes are now and then seen flying over or settling. in the
Nagpur tanks. On the 9th June 1912 a large flock was observed on the
Ambajheri Tank and on the 27th June 1912 I obtained a specimen out of a
flock on the Gorewara Tank.
407. Phoeniconaias minor (Geoffr.). The Lesser Flamingo.
A specimen was shot on the 9th June 1912, associating with a flock of the
larger species. In the winter of the same year I also saw a quantity of these
birds being hawked about for sale.
OrpDER: ANSERES.
408. Sarkidiornis melanotus (Penn.). The Nukhta or Comb-Duck.
Resident. Breeds on trees, placing the nest in a hole in the stem or in
a depression between the larger branches.
A specimen is said to have been shot in the Bilaspur District by Mr.
ieee Vous «si BN GH S., vol. xil, p..o12):
410. Nettopus coromandelianus (Gmel.). The Cotton Teal.
Breeds in July and August in holes in trees.
411. [{Anser anser (Linn.). The Grey Lag Goose.
Winter visitor to the Nerbudda. ]
412. Anser indicus (Lath.). The Bar-headed Goose.
A winter visitor, very common on the Nerbudda. A solitary individual
was shot in a tank at Naghbir in the Chanda District.
413. Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf.). The Whistling Teal.
Resident; makes a nest of sticks in a tree, occupies an old nest of a crow
or heron, or builds in grass or thorny shrub near water.
414. [Dendrocygnafulva. ‘he Large Whistling Teal.
Oates in Humes’ Nests and Eggs records a nest found at Saugor, taken
from a large hollow in a tree. ]
409. Asarcorais scutulatus (Muller). The White-winged Wood Duck.
415. Casarca ferruginea (Pall.). The Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy Duck.
A winter visitor, keeping to the wider streams and rivers.
416. Anas platyrhyncha platyrhyncha (Linn.). The Mallard.
An occasional winter visitor to the northern district.
417. Anas poecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha (Fors.). The Indian Spotbill.
Resident, breeds July to September.
418. Chaulelasmus streperus (Linn.). The Gadwall.
A winter visitor.
419. [Mareca penelope (inn.). The Widgeon.
Probably an irregular winter visitor. |
420. Nettion creca creca (liinn.). The Common Teal.
A winter visitor.
421. Dafila acuta (Linn.). The Pintail.
A winter visitor.
422. Querquedula querquedula (Linn.). The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal.
A winter visitor, staying with us till about the middle of April. It is one
of the common ducks of the Provinces.
423. Spatula clypeata (Linn.). The Shoveller.
A winter visitor.
424. [Marmaronetta angustirostris, Mene. The Marbled Teal.
Occasionally wanders into the Provinces. ]
116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
425. Nettarufina (Pallas). The Red-crested Pochard.
A winter visitor.
426. Nyroca ferina ferina (Linn.). The Pochard or Dun-bird.
A winter visitor.
427. Nyroca rufa rufa (Linn.). The White-eyed Duck.
A winter visitor and perhaps the commonest Duck.
428. Nyroca fuligula (Linn.). The Tufted Duck.
A winter visitor.
429. Merganser merganser orientalis (Gould). The Hastern Goosander.
A winter visitor, has been shot at Arang on the Mahanaddy in the Raipur
District. The Smew (Mergus albellus) is probably also found on the Nerbudda.
ORDER: PYGOPODES.
430. Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salo. ‘The Indian Little Grebe or Dabchick.
A common resident. The breeding season is from July to September.
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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PAT.
2 Boe E Ss Z K 2 ei 3 So
Strobilanthes Kunthianus T. And. in flower on a hillside in the Pulneys, 1934.
THE FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES IN 1984.
BY
M. EK. Rosinson.
(With eight plates).
This paper makes no pretensions to be a scientific study of the
interesting genus Strobilanthes, but is merely a short account of
a few of the species that flowered on the hills of South India,
during the year 1934.
The genus was exhaustively studied by Robert Wight and Col.
Beddome, who did so much for Indian Botany during the latter
half of the nineteenth century, and each described over twenty
species, making illustrations of forty species in their Icones
Plantarum. Gamble describes fortysix species in the Flora of
the Madras Presidency, and Fyson has also given descriptions and
illustrations of several of the more common species in his ‘Flora
of the Nilgiri and Pulney Hill tops’. As these works of reference
may not be readily available to the general reader, a photograph
and drawings are given here to illustrate the species mentioned.
The best known of the Strobilanthes is Strobilanthes Kunthia-
nus which flowers in greater profusion than any other species; so
much so indeed, as to earn for itself the name of the ‘great
blue flower of the Nilgiris’, and to colour whole tracts of
country with sheets of its delicate blue. But not every year. In
fact only once in twelve years is this remarkable sight to be seen;
and though in the intervening years occasional plants can be found
here and there in flower, and in some years quite a number may
be found, the full gregarious flowering, when whole hillsides are
covered with the plants, every one bearing great bunches of mauve-
blue flowers, takes place only at intervals of twelve years. The
year 1984 has seen such a flowering. Its last appearance was in
1922, and before that in 1910. Records of its appearance in 1898
and 1886 have been made by various observers and Mr. Cockburn
of Kotagiri, in the Nilgiris, has given me a remarkable record of
its flowerings during a hundred years. His grandfather was one
of the first European settlers on the Nilgiris in 1826, and his aunt
first saw Strobilanthes in flower in 1838 when she was a child
of nine; and saw and recorded Strobilanthes in full flower in 1850,
1862, 1874, 1886, 1898, 1910 and 1922. ;
This seems to establish the twelve year period fairly well,
though other dates have been given for its appearance such as
1848, 1908, 1925, 1982, which suggest a more irregular period.
Gamble indeed says ‘probably about six years’ and Fyson says
‘irregular intervals from seven to twelve years’. Some speci-
mens were sent me from the Nilgiris purporting to be of an ‘eight
118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
year variety’ but these were S. Kunthianus exactly the same as
the twelve year plant. From the information I have gathered and
the above mentioned record, I should think it probable that a full
flowering takes place only once in twelve years, with lesser out-
bursts of flowering in scattered areas at other times. The year
1934 has undoubtedly been a year of full flowering on all the hills.
There were acres of blue flowers on the Pulney Hills from the
beginning of July until December, when there were still isolated
patches in the more sheltered valleys round Poombarai, though the
open hillsides were covered with the dead and blackening bushes.
On the Nilgiris it did not appear in full flower until August, and
in October a hillside above Wellington was blue, and much could
still be found round Pykara and Kotagiri. On the Anamalais it
appeared only in October and covered the grass hills there with
sheets of bloom.
The plant varies very much in size according to its habitat.
On the open hills and grass lands it is short and close, being often
only one to two feet high; whereas at the sides of the roads, and
in the sholas it grows into strong bushes eight to ten feet in height.
The flowers vary in colour also from a very pale lilac blue, almost
white, to a deep purplish blue.
It is noted by all who have seen two or three flowerings, that
at each successive period, the area over which it appears becomes
less and less. Every year more land in these hills is taken up and
cleared for tea estates, or for fruit and vegetable culture, or for
building. Many a hillside that was once blue with Strobilanthes,
is now green with the little flat topped tea bushes, and Strobi-
lanthes is ruthlessly exterminated as a pest. It must have been
a wonderful sight when first seen by a European, when there were
no estates, and no habitations other than the scattered hill vil-
lages, and one can only regret the loss of so much beauty. It is
easy to understand the awe and veneration with which the simple
hill people would look upon this marvellous flower, appearing at
such long intervals, and there are to this day old people among
the Todas, Badagas and Kotas, who refer to the number of times
they have seen ‘the great blue flower’ in chronicling the chief
events of their lives.
One interesting result of the gregarious flowering of Strobilanthes
is the large increase in the number of bees found in its vicinity
during its flowering period. Each flower secretes honey in a small
disc below the ovary, so that immense quantities of honey must
be available, and two different kinds of honey bees visit the flowers.
The large dark tipped rock bee (Apis dorsata) and the dark hill
variety of the common Indian honey bee (Apis indica) are both
visitors to Strobilanthes, and their curious hanging hives are very
conspicuous. In 1922 as many as 28 were found hanging from one
Eucalyptus tree near Kodaikanal, and 32 were counted on an over-
hanging rock; while 7 swarms took place on the verandah of a
college building at Shembaganur.
_ This large production of honey tempts the hill bears to come
in search of their favourite food, and round Kotagiri, in the Nil-
giris, a considerably larger number of them were seen in 1984,
THE FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES IN 1934 119°
The honey is said to have a peculiar flavour when Strobilanthes
is in flower, being rather more bitter than usual.
The genus Strobilanthes belongs to the natural order Acantha-
ceae. The chief characteristics of the genus are as follows:—
(1) A gamopetalous bell-shaped corolla which narrows gradu-
ally towards the base in some species, as S. Kunthianus while in
some others the bell passes suddenly into a narrow tube as in
S. foltosus.
(2) The inflorescence is a spike, the flowers being enclosed in
overlapping bracts; the spike is elongated in some species as
S. Kunthianus and S. consanguineus; in others short and close or
capitate as in S. foliosus and S. Wightianus. The overlapping
bracts are supposed to give the inflorescence somewhat the appear-
ance of a pine cone from which the genus takes its name, strobile
being the Greek word for pine cone.
(3) There are either two or four stamens, sometimes two
fertile and two infertile.
(4) The long style ends in a bilobed stigma with unequal
lobes.
(5) The superior ovary is seated on a honey secreting cushion
or disc.
(6) The leaves are opposite, simple and usually dentate with
conspicuous veins.
(7) Many of the species are very hairy, as S. Wightianus;
S. Perrottetianus with red hairs; S. urceolaris, sticky with an aro-
matic scent; S. Lawsoni long silky hairs, densely covering the
plant.
(8) With few exceptions, nearly all the species flower only
at intervals of a number of years. In most species the period is
not definitely established.
The following eight species were found flowering on the Nilgiris
and Pulneys during 1934.
(A) Flowers having two stamens :—
(1) Strobilanthes Kunthianus T. And: (Pls. I and IJ). Found
on the Nilgiris, Pulneys, Anamalais, High Range, Shevaroys, Billi-
girirangans; period 12 years; a woody shrub found in the open and
in sholas, varying with locality from 14 to 10 ft. in height.
Smooth reddish stem, bearing opposite leaves almost white be-
low with soft short hairs between the veins. There are two types
of leaves, the more common longer than broad, with pointed tip;
less common shorter, as broad as long, and a broad rounded tip.
The edge is toothed and the veins conspicuous 8-10 pairs; inflores-
cence rather long spike; bracts slightly hairy.
Corolla pale to deep mauve blue, bell narrowing gradually to
the base.
(2) Strobilanthes foliosus T. And: (Pl. III). Found on Nilgiris
and Pulneys and reported from other hill ranges; at edges of sholas
only; quite common and said to flower every year; shrub 10 or 12
ft. high.
Smooth grey-brown stem; leaves opposite quite smooth; broad
with pointed tip; toothed edge.
120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Inflorescence short and compact, supported by four outer leaves
with large bases surrounding the spike. Outer bracts also some-
what leafy, quite smooth.
Corolla pale blue, with a long narrow tube as long as the bell:
stamens two long and two very small infertile ones at the base of
the long ones.
(3) Strobilanthes consanguineus C. B. Clarke: (Pl. IV). Found
on the Pulneys at about 5,000 ft. and below to 8,500 ft.; abundant
at the edges of sholas and the road; Gamble says its period is about
12 years, it having been previously recorded in flower in 1909,
1897 and 1884.
Shrub 10 or 12 ft. high glabrous, except the inflorescence which
is sticky; leaves rather large, long-stalked and with a long point;
toothed edge.
Inflorescence very long and slender spike, often three or more
together; bracts with sticky hairs; flowers rather small, very pale
lilac, short tube below the bell.
(4) Strobilanthes Lawsoni Gamble: (Pl. V). Found on _ the
Nilgiris and previously collected in 1917 and 1888; so its period
may be about 17 years; cultivated in a few gardens on the Nilgiris
for the sake of its foliage; the whole plant densely covered with
long white silky hairs.
Inflorescence a long spike; corolla pale blue with a rather short
tube; stamens with white silky hairs.
(B) Flowers having four stamens :—
(5) Strobilanthes Zenkerianus T. And: (Pl. IIT). Found on the
Nilgiris and Pulneys; a shrub so like S. foliosus that it is difficult
to distinguish them at first sight; leaves perhaps smaller, darker
green and of tougher consistency.
Inflorescence a short compact head; similar to that of S. folio-
sus but the outer leaves surrounding the head are wanting, and
these are true bracts, very leafy.
Flower similar in blue colour and long tube below the bell;
stamens four fertile, two long and two short; the distinguishing
characteristic between this species and SS. foliosus. In dried
specimens it is often difficult to tell whether the two small stamens
are fertile or infertile.
(6) Strobilanthes Wightianus Nees: (Pl. VI). Found on the
Nilgiris, very abundant in 1934 but said to flower every year; easily
recognised; very roughly hairy shrub 6 to 8 ft. high at the edges
of sholas; short and compact, often only one foot high on the open
roadsides; leaves rather short and broad; short stalks and very
hairy.
Ta eoncecones short compact head, bracts leafy and very hairy.
Corolla large pale blue with dark blue lines and the tube and
throat brown, showing up the four yellow stamens all of the same
length; very short tube below the bell.
(7) Strobilanthes Perrottetianus Nees: (Pl. VII). This was
found on the Nilgiris and has been reported from the Anamalais,
and was found in 1852 and in 1888 and more lately in 1908 and
1918. Its period may be about ten years but seems irregular.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II..
Strobilanthes Kunthianus T. And.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE EXE.
Strobilanthes foliosus T. And. or S. Zenkerianus T. And.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV.
Strobilanthes consanguineus C. B. Clarke.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V.
fw
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UN MZ
WOW
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Strobilanthes Lawsoni Gamble.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
PLATE VI.
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With.
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Strobilanthes Wightianus Nees.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VII.
ae
Ai
Strobilanthes Perrottetianus Nees.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VIII.
Strobilanthes urceolaris Gamble.
THE FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES IN 1934 121
This grows on the edges of sholas and is also an easily recognised
species, being covered on all the younger parts, bracts, leaves and
stem with soft dark red hairs. The stems are swollen at the
joints. Leaves rather large.
Inflorescence about an inch to two inches long, rather stout, and
very conspicuous in the shola by reason of the bracts being rose
red; they fade to reddish green as they get older; flower pale lilac,
with very short tube; stamens joined in a sheath for lower half,
two inner ones slightly shorter.
(8) Strobilanthes urceolaris Gamble: (Pl. VIII). This flowered
in November and December on the Pulneys very abundantly by the
roadside at about 6,000 ft. and is reported also from the Nilgiris
but no dates for its appearance are given by Gamble. A strong
aromatic scent was noticed where the shrubs were abundant, the
plant being covered with short viscid hairs. Stem slightly swollen
at the joints, and reddish.
The inflorescence is short and compact, surrounded by two leafy
bracts, and often grows in threes. The corolla pale blue, tube
shorter than the bell.
Stamens joined in a sheath at base, two inner shorter than two
outer.
News of the flowering of several other species in different locali-
ties, chiefly at somewhat lower levels, and in the sholas, has reach- _
ed me, but as no specimens have been procurable, I am unable to
say what species they are. It seems that 1934 has been a good
year for the flowering of Strobilanthes.
T should like to express here my grateful thanks to the various
friends and correspondents who have helped me by sending me
specimens or in identifying them for me. Particularly I should
mention Mr. Charles Brown of Coonoor; Mr. Cockburn of Kota-
girl; the Rev. Father Minch, s.3., of Shembaganur; Mr. J.
Williams of the Anamalais; Mr. R. Morris of the Billigirirangans;
Mr. bk. V. Mayuranathan, B.a., Government Botanist at the Madras
Museum and Dr. T. V. Ramakrishna Iyer, B.a., the Government
Entomologist at Coimbatore, to all of whom I am indebted for
kind help.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
(2) Strobilanthes Kunthianus T. And.
A.—Enlarged drawing of flower: (a) Stamens; (b) Stigma; (c) Ovary;
(d) honey disc.
(3) Strobilanthes foliosus T. And. or Zenkerianus T. And.
A.—Four outer leaves or leafy bracts.
B.—Inner bracts.
C.—Flower with calyx divided to the middle in S. foliosus to the base in
S. Zenkerianus.
D.—Section of flower of S. foliosus.
E.--Stamens of S. Zenkerianus.
(4) Strobilanthes consanguineus C. B. Clarke.
A.—Section of flower showing stamens,
122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
(5) Strobilanthes Lawsoni Gamble.
A.—Section of flower showing stamens.
B.—Ovary on honey disc, and calyx.
(6) Strobilanthes Wightianus Nees.
A.—A flower with calyx C and bracts B.
B.—Section showing stamens.
(7) Strobilanthes Perrottetianus Nees.
A.—Section showing stamens.
(8) Strobilanthes urceolaris Gamble.
A.—Flower with calyx.
B.—Ovary on honey disc.
C.—Section showing stamens.
Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.
Photos. A.B. Martinov,& DE.K
‘
\
EUBASILISSA MCLACHLANI, White, Q: 2. EUBASILISSA REGINA, McL.,
3. EUBASILISSA TIBETANA, Mart., Oe
(By kind permission of the Zoological Society of London.)
John Bale Sons & Danielsson, It4 London.
S.
cual
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTELA).
BY
Martin E. MOSELY, F.B.E.S.
Part III.
(With thirteen plates).
(Continued from page 629 of volume xxxvii).
INAEQUIPALPIA
PHRYGANEIDAE
Burmeister, Handb. Ent., p. 922, 1839.
CHARACTERS OF THE FAMILY.
Antennae stout, generally as long as the anterior wing but
sometimes much shorter and, in Limnocentropus serrated on the
under side in the basal and middle portions; first joint stouter
than the others. Ocelli present. Maxillary palpi four jointed in
the male, five jointed in the female, similar in structure in both
sexes, only slightly pubescent; joints somewhat cylindrical, the
basal joint short; labial palpi small, terminal joint generally ovate
and spoon shaped. Wings varying in shape in the different genera;
usually short and broad and, except in Limnocentropus, with
rounded apices. In Agrypnia the wings are perhaps more elongate
and bear a closer resemblance to those of the Limnophilidae. In
the other genera they are covered with a short dense pubescence;
nervures strong; discoidal cell closed in both wings, long and nar-
row in the anterior and short in the posterior; the first two apical
sectors generally arise from its upper margin; median cell want-
ing; cellula thyridu very elongate; anterior wing with apical forks
1, 2, 3 and 5 in the male (except in Limnocentropus) and 1, 2, 3
and 5, sometimes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, in the female; posterior wing
generally 1, 2, 5 in the male and 1, 2 and 5, sometimes 1, 2, 8
and 5 in the female; anterior wing usually with an additional cross
vein uniting the costa and sub-costa; there is however only the
one cross vein present in the genera Limnocentropus and Agrypnia.
Legs generally stout and rather short; spurs 2, 4, 4; spines strong
and short but sometimes practically absent. The genital appen-
dages of the male vary somewhat according to the genera and
species; the inferior appendages are generally strongly developed,
two jointed, with the two joints more or less welded together;
there is a dorsal plate covering a rather simply constructed penis
which is often armed at its apex with a pair of strongly chitinised
plates or hooks.
In so far as the records show, the Phryganeidae are, represented
in India by four (perhaps five) genera containing ten (perhaps
124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
eleven) species, a total which compares not unfavourably with that
of the European fauna. Of these genera, Oopterygia has been
elected on very slender grounds but a careful search has shown
that there is a cross veinlet in Hubasilissa between the radius and
sub-costa of the anterior wing which does not seem to occur in the
former genus. FEubasilissa is amply distinguished from Neuwronia
(in which genus the species were formerly placed) by the presence
of an additional fork in the anterior wing in the female sex. Neuro-
cyta Navas is perhaps an aberrant Hubasilissa.
TABLE OF INDIAN GENERA.
1. Fork 1 absent in both wings. Limnocentropus Ulmer.
—Fork 1 present in both wings. 2
2. Insects of moderate size, anterior wing about 12 mm. long;
only one cross vein between costa and sub-costa. AGRyYPNIA Curtis.
—Insects very large, excepting Oopterygia minor, anterior
wing 20 mm. or more long; an additional cross vein between costa
and sub-costa. 3
3. A cross vein connecting the sub-costa and the radius.
EvupasinissaA Martynov.
? Neurocyta Navas.
—No cross vein between the sub-costa and radius. OOPTERYGIA
Martynov.
Eubasilissa Martynov.
Eubasilissa Martynov = Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond, No:~o,
Pte, py Si 1930:
Regina Martynov — Ann. Mae.* Nat. Hist. (9),
vol. xiv, p. 215, 1924.
Neuronia Leach partim — Hdinbureh “Tncyc.. vol. ix,
p. 136, 1815.
Insects very large; ocelli present; anterior wings broad; dis-
coidal cell moderately long; an additional cross vein between the
costa and sub-costa and also a cross vein uniting the sub-costa
and radius; forks 1, 2, 8 and 5 present in the anterior wings in
the male, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the female; in the posterior, 1, 2 and
5 in the male, 1, 2, 3 and 5 in the female; anterior wing, mem-
brane yellow, sometimes with irregular fusecous bands in the
anterior portion and mostly with a fuscous net, partly confluent
im the median and apical portions; posterior wing brown or fuscous,
sometimes purple with a broad transverse yellow band in the apical
half. Inferior appendages ¢ two-jointed, with the two joints
welded together, the line of juncture being not easy to define ex-
cepting in a balsam preparation.
Genotype: Eubasilissa regina Mch.
The three known species are easily separated by their wing
pattern as may be seen on consulting the figures on the plate.
Consequently a table of species 1s unnecessary here.
I am indebted to Mr. A. B. Martynov for his fine photographs
of E. mclachlani and E. tibetana and to the Zoological Society of
London for kind permission to reproduce them from the Proceed-
ings. :
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 125
Eubasilissa regina McLach. (PI. I, fig. 2; Pl. II, figs. 4-6).
Holostomis mclachlant White var. Journ., Linn. Soc. Lond.
regina MecLach. Zool., vol. xi, pp. 108-104,
lesa
Holostomis regina Matsumura — Thous. Ins. Japan, Pl. 12,
fig. 1, 1904.
a 5 Matsumura — Syst. Ent., 1, p. 168, f. 219,
| 221, 1907.
Neuronia (Holostomis) regina Mc- Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser.
Lach —~ viv vol, xm, p. 421, 1804)
Neuronia regina Hagen — Ver. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien,
Vol! xxui,/p., 396, 13873.
™ . Ulmer — Gen. Insect., fasc. 60a, p. 24,
PE 29; aie. 3 LOOT,
_ i" Ulmer — Coll. Selys, fase. 6a, figs. 1-3,
Pl 1, fie, 1, 1907.
- is Ulmer — Deutsch. Ent. Zeit., pp. 239-
240, 1908.
$4 i Ulmer — 0p. cit., p. 400, 1911.
“ 3 Nakahara ——"Can, nt., vol. xly, p.- 823,
1918.
Regina regina Martynov — Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), vol.
xiv, p. 215, 1924.
” 53 Ulmer — Arch. Naturg., vol. xci, Abt.
A, Heft 5, p. 62, 1925.
Kubasilissa regina Martynov —— Proc. Zool, Sec. -Lond,,. No:
5, Pt. I, pp. 87-88, 110-
111, 1980.
Af + Ulmer — Pekin Nat. Hist. Bull., vol.
vii, p. 147, 19382.
_ a MeLach. — Iconographia Insectorum
Japonicum, p. 1500, 1932.
Anterior wings with a yellow ground heavily mottled with
brown markings; these coalesce towards the apex of the wing
making a darkish patch in this region; there are eight or nine
confluent groups of brown spots along the costal margin of each
wing and dark spots along the apical margin at the extremities
of the apical sectors. There is an indistinct hghtening in colour
forming a band across the anterior wing corresponding with and
continuing the yellow band of the posterior wing. Posterior wings
coloured dark purple brown with a broad transverse yellow band
towards the apex extending from the lower to the upper margin
and leaving a considerable dark patch at the extreme apex; three
or four dark spots on the extreme lower margin of the yellow band.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 384 mm.
Length of anterior wing Q 388 mm.
Habitat.—Kulu, Japan, China, Formosa.
Location of the type not indicated but probably in the Me-
Lachlan collection.
Eubasilissa regina was considered by McLachlan to be merely
a variety of mclachlani White. There are, however, ample
1296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
distinctions in the male genitalia as may be seen on a comparison
of the figures of these parts and also distinct differences in the
pattern of the wings.
Eubasilissa mclachlani White (Pl. I, fig. 1; Pl. III, figs. 7-10;
Pl. IV, figs: 11-12).
Holostomis m’Lachlani White — ZGoologist, vol. xx, p. 7860,
1862.
ss s White — Proc: mnt. Soe. Lond: Ser. 3,
vol. i, p. 26, 1862.
sg * Hagen — Ver. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien,
vol. xiv, p. 820, 1864.
Holostomis maclachlani McLach. Journ. inn. Soc. Lond.
Lools vole xi, p. 103, 13a
Phryganea maclachlani McLach. — Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., Ser.
8, vol. v, pp. 249-250, Pl.
Xvi, He. I °C. A366:
Neuronia maclachlani Hagen — Ver. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien,
vol. KXIll, p, 099,. 1373.
e Pe Betten — Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. iii, p.
242, 1909.
Neuronia mclachlani Ulmer — Notes Leyd. Mus., vol. xxviu,
p. 103; 1906,
3 7 Ulmer — Gen. Insect., fase. 60a, p. 24,
1907.
Ulmer — Coll. Selys, fase. 6a, p. 6,
1907.
Regina mclachlani Martynov. — Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), vol.
xiv, p. 215, 1924.
Eubasilissa mclachlani Martynov Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., No.
5, Pt, 4), p24 37 alee
fig. 1, 1980.
Anterior wings reddish orange, thickly and uniformly reticulated
with blackish fuscous markings which do not coalesce to make
definite blotches as in regina; there are two conspicuous whitish
spots, one in the cellula thyridii and the other in the sixth apical
cell. In regina these spots are far more indistinctly indicated.
Posterior wings purple brown, a very broad orange coloured band
occupying almost the entire apical third as in regina; the dark fus-
cous patch at the apex of the wing small as compared with that
of regina and the dark spots on the lower margin of the orange
band less conspicuous; there are seven or eight faintly indicated
spots on the upper margin of the band as well.
There are marked differences in the male genitalia between the
two species, special attention being directed to the strongly-formed
tongue which arises at the centre of the terminal ventral segment
(seen from behind) and meets a corresponding tongue descending
from the lower penis cover to meet it. This feature is absent in
regina.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 31 mm.
Length of anterior wing @ 40 mm.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II, FIGS. 4-6.
Fig. 4.
Eubasilissa regina, Mch., ¢.
Fig.—4, genitalia dorsal; 5, lateral; 6, ventral.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III, FIGS. 7-10.
Eubasilissa mclachlani White, 3.
Fig.—7, genitalia dorsal; 8, lateral; 9, ventral; 10, penis and inferior
appendages obliquely from beneath.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe. PLATE IV, FIGS. 11-12.
Hig. 12;
Eubasilissa maclachlani White.
TVig.—l1, wings 9; 12, apex of posterior wing 9.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V, FIG. 18.
Eubasilissa tibetana Mart., 9.
Fig. 138.—Wings.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 127
Habitat.—Darjiling, Assam, Kulu.
Type 9 in the collection of the British Museum.
Eubasilissa tibetana Martynov (PI. I, fig. 3; Pl. V, fig. 13).
Eubasilissa tibetana Martynov, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., No. 5,
eel pp eo a. Pl ne 2. 1980;
Pattern of the wings very similar to that of regina. Dark
blotches along the costal margin of the anterior wing scarcely evi-
dent; apical and lower margins of the wing darkly-clouded; a
clear patch extending down from the costal margin to rather more
than half-way. In the posterior wing, the yellowish transverse
band is smaller than in either of the other two species and does
not extend as far as the lower margin of the wing; ¢ unknown.
Length of anterior wing 9 382 mm.
Habitat.—Sikkim, Tibet.
Type and paratypes Q in the collection of the British Museum:
paratype Q in the Zoological Museum, Leningrad.
The absence of the strongly indicated blotches along the costal
margin of the anterior wing and the more confined area of the
_ yellow band of the posterior wing suffice to separate this species
from regina which is moreover considerably larger. The wing
pattern is abundantly distinct from that of mclachlani. It is to
be hoped that the male will be discovered in order that some idea
of the genitalia may be obtained.
Oopterygia Martynov.
Oopterygia Martynov, Proce. Zool. Soc. Lond., No. 5, Pt. I,
pp. 88-89, 1930.
Anterior wings very broad, almost oval, darkish-yellow with
uniform pale yellow reticulation or orange with brown spots; an
additional cross-vein between the costa and sub-costa; no cross-
vein between the sub-costa and radius; posterior wings broad, either
uniformly reticulated as in the anterior or else dark fuscous with
a broad yellow band occupying the distal area as in Hubasilissa.
Superior appendages absent, inferior appendages rather long, dis-
tinetly two jointed, second joint short, sub-oval or capitate, welded
to the first. Ocelli present, spurs probably 2, 4, 4, but both pos-
terior legs are missing in the unique genotype, and the spurs are
not mentioned in the description of O. asiatica Betten.
Genotype: Oopterygia brunnea Martynov.
Three species in this genus are known, brunnea Martynov,
asiatica Betten, minor sp. n. described herein, asiatica being dis-
tinguished by the yellow band across the dark ground-colour of
the posterior wing. They may be separated from Hubasilissa
species by the rather more ovate shape of the wings and the
absence of the cross vein between sub-costa and radius.
The additional cross vein between the costa and sub-costa in
the anterior wing is omitted in Martynov’s description of brunnea,
but a re-examination of the type has shown that it is present.
It is indicated by Betten in his figure of asiatica,
123 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Oopterygia brunnea Martynov (PI. VI, figs. 14-17).
Oopterygia brunnea Martynov, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., No. 5,
Pt. I, pp. 89-91, 111, figs. 33-36, 1930. |
Head and thorax brown, antennae dark reddish-yellow with in-
distinct annulations, palpi brownish. Anterior wing broad, egg-
shaped, rounded at the apex; ground-colour uniformly pale greyish-
testaceous or somewhat brownish, densely and uniformly irrorated
with indistinct round pale confluent spots; fringes very short, pale
yellowish; membrane finely granulose clothed with short brownish
hairs; nervures testaceous. Legs reddish-brown with-short yellow
hairs, femora somewhat hghter in colour, spines black, spurs 2, 4
(4?) reddish-yellow.
The single species has lost both posterior legs but there can
be little doubt that the spurs would number 4 in accordance with
the Family characters.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 22 mm.
Habitat.—Tibet, Yatung, 4,500 ft.
Type ¢ in the collection of the British Museum.
Oopterygia asiatica betten (Pl. VII, figs. 18-19).
Neuronia asiatica Betten = Rees Ind... inset volecim met
TAL = py 242.0 Pls sant es:
15-16, 1909.
? Neuronia asiatica Martynov — Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), vol.
KV; p.- 206, 1924:
Oopterygia asiatica Martynov — Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., No.
dD, Pte a. pp: =So-0l. a
1980.
Head and thorax dark brown; eyes black, ocelli yellow. An-
terior wings orange with brown spots, the largest spots along the
costa and apical margins covering the tips of the veins, a particu-
larly large spot on the tip of the Sc.; there is an irregular brown
band following the line of the anastomosis from the first branching
of the media to the tip of the anal veins. The posterior wing has
the basal two-thirds dark-brown, the distal third is yellow. There
is an interrupted apical band of brown, the brown spots being on
and along the tips of the veins. The abnormality of venation
shown in the anal veins of the posterior wing occurs in both wings
of the specimen.
Length of body g 15 mm.; expanse 41 mm.
Habitat.—Sibsagar, Assam.
Type ¢ in the collection of the Indian Museum, Calcutta.
I am unacquainted with this fine insect and so give Betten’s
description as published in the records of the Indian Museum.
His figures of neuration and genitalia indicate a close affinity to
Martynov’s O. brunnea.
Oopterygia minor sp. n. (Pl. VIII, figs. 20-28).
Head very dark fuscous, oculi black; antennae almost entirely
wanting in the unique type, basal joint fuscous, palpi fuscous;
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VI, FIGS. 14-17.
Fig. 16. Fig. 17.
Oopterygia brunnea Mart., ¢.
Tig.—14, wings; 15, genitalia lateral; 16, ventral; 17, dorsal (genitalia
after Martynov).
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VII, FIGS. 18-19.
Oopterygia asiatica Betten, ¢.
Fig.—18, wings; 19, genitalia lateral (after Betten).
PLATEH VIII, FIGS. 20-28.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Fig. 22.
Oopterygia minor sp. n., ¢.
Fig.—20, wings; 21, genitalia dorsal; 22, lateral; 23, ventral, oblique,
slightly from behind.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IX, FIGS. 24-26.
Fig. 25. Fig. 26.
Agrypnia picta Kol. var. tibetana Mart., .
Tig.—24, wings; 25, genitalia lateral; 26, dorsal plate.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 129
legs mostly wanting, spurs pale and thin; wings short and rounded,
anterior fuscous irrorated with pale spots.
Genitalia g. Margin of the ninth dorsal segment from above
evenly rounded with two conspicuous light coloured warts bearing
long hairs; beyond the dorsal margin projects a trifid plate, central
projection excised with a deep slit; there are two large penis-sheaths
strongly chitinised and curving downwards; penis membranous;
lower penis cover in the form of a black, strongly chitinised hook
arising from a broad base with the apex very slightly excised, and
directed downwards towards a raised strongly chitinised blunt
nodule situated at the centre of the margin of the ninth ventral
segment and with its surface covered with short dark setae; in-
ferior appendages parallel-sided with a short terminal joint fused
to the basal joint, apex from the side, obliquely truncate.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 12 mm.
N.-E. Burma, Kambaiti, 7,000 ft., 13-22-6-1934, R. Malaise.
Type ¢ in the Stockholm Museum.
This is the smallest of the known Indian Phryganeidae.
Neurocyta Navas.
Neurocyta Navas, Mem. Ac. Cienc. Art. Bare., vol. xu, No. 18,
p. 240, 1916.
Navas sates that the genus is similar to Neuronia, differing
mainly in the presence of an additional cross vein dividing the dis-
coidal cell of the posterior wing into two portions.
The genus Neuronia not being as yet recorded in India, the
comparison should be made with Martynov’s genus Hubasilissa.
Genotype: Neurocyta arenata Navas.
Neurocyta arenata Navas.
Neurocyta arenata Navas, Mem. Ac. Cienc. Art. Barc., vol. Xi,
No. 18, pp. 240-241, fig. 1, 1916.
Figures of the ¢ wing are given showing an aberrant discoidal
cell in the posterior wing. No figures of the genitalia are given.
I have not seen the single male example which is in Senor Navas’s
collection in the Barcelona Museum, but the curator Senor
Espanol, has kindly sent me a photograph of the type.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 24.5 mm.
Habitat. Darjiling, 1910.
Agrypnia Curtis.
Agrypnia Curtis — Brit. Ent., p. 540, 1885.
ie Hagen — Ver. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien,
vol, xxii, p. 480, 1878.
rs McLachlan — Rev. and Syn. Trich., p. 28,
1874.
Phrophryganea (partim) Martynov Ann. Mus. Acad. Imp. Sci.
Peters., vol. xiv, p. 259,
TICS:
Martynov Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), vol.
xiv, pp. 210-211, 1924.
180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Anterior wing with very slight pubescence, rather narrow, apex
obliquely truncate, only one nervure, at the base, between the
costa and sub-costa; forks 1, 2, 3 and 5 present in the anterior
wing ‘of the “¢, 1,-2,. 3; 4 and 5 im the 9°: forks] i) 2hand orm
the posterior wing in both sexes. Ocelli present. Spurs 2, 4, 4.
The form of the insect is much more elongate than in the other
genera of the Phryganeidae and the species might be easily but
mistakenly placed amongst the Limnophilidae. The neuration
shows a tendency to aberration, particularly in the posterior wing.
Genotype: Agrypnia pagetana Curt.
Only one species has been recorded as belonging to the Indian
fauna namely A. picta in Tibet and Martynov considers that the
Tibetan form should rank as a variety.
Agrypnia picta Kol. var. tibetana Martynov (PI. IX, figs. 24-26).
Prophryganea picta Martynov — Ann. Mus. Acad. Imp. Sci.
Evers... VOla o vengps aco.
1909.
Prophryganea picta var. tibetana Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., No.
Martynov =) 7 9). 8Rte ts pps aloo:
Agrypina picta var. tibetana Ulmer Pekin Nat. Hist. Bull., vol.
vil, p. 160; 1982-33.
Anterior wings more or less brownish as the brown spots are
very indistinct and diffuse. In the male genitalia the dorsal plate
is rather longer than in European typical examples of picta and
the second joint of the inferior appendage is somewhat longer and
not so dilated.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 14 mm.
Leneth of anterior wing Q 15 mm.
Habitat.—Tibet.
Type ¢ and paratype @ in the collection of the British
Museum.
Limnocentropus Ulmer.
Limnocentropus Ulmer — Coll. Selys, fase. 6a, pp. 13-
f4 fies. 21-23) 1907:
re Ulmer = Gen. Insect., fase. 60a, p.. 28,
1907.
ie Martynov — Ann; Mag. Nat.-.Flist. (9), vol:
xiv, p. 218, 1924.
Head broad and short, ocelli present and conspicuous; anten-
nae somewhat shorter than the anterior wing, rather slender, the
basal half serrated on its under side. Maxillary palpi stout; in
the 9, first joint very short, second long, third still longer, fourth
about as long as the second, fifth slightly shorter than the third;
in the ¢, they correspond to the second, third, fourth and fifth
of the 9. In the labial palpi, the third joint is not oval as in
many of the Phryganeidae. Wings ovate, broad, clothed with
thick brown pubescence; apices in the male blunter than in the
ij
i
|
PLATE X, FIGS. 27-29.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
29.
Fig.
Fig. 28.
tus Ulm., ¢.
sol
Limnocentropus in
ventral.
’
#2 28) dorsalis 29
lateral
talia
enl
Fig.—27, g
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XI, FIGS. 30-81.
Limnocentropus insolitas Ulm., 9.
Fig.—80, wings; 81, genitalia dorsal (after Ulmer).
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 131
female; neuration alike in both sexes; forks 2, 3 and 5 present in
both wings, fork 8 with a foot-stalk; discoidal cell closed, smaller
in the posterior than in the anterior. Legs with spurs 2, 4, 4;
spurs of equal length and densely clothed, like the legs, with
adpressed hairs, median leg of Q not dilated. Genitalia male with
a well developed down curved dorsal plate and simple curved in-
ferior appendages, elbowed towards the centre; penis simple.
Seventh sternite produced at its centre in a shallow lobe.
Genotype.—Limnocentropus insolitus Ulmer.
Limnocentropus insolitus Ulmer (Pl. X, figs. 27-29; Pl. X1,
figs. 380-31).
Limnocentropus insolitus Ulmer — Coll. Selys, fasc. 6a, pp. 18-
14, figs. 21-23, 1907.
ay . Ulmer — Gen. Insect., fase. 60a, p. 28,
1907.
9 % Ulmer — Notes Leyd. Mus., vol. xxix,
Dee, es. 12) 190%,
4 & Nakahara Can. Entom., vol. xlv, No. 10,
p> o2/, 19ls.
if a Martynov Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), vol.
xiv, p. 218, 1924.
ss 7 Ulmer—="Arch. Nature., vol. xci, Abt:
A, Dieit.. 5<p: 65,1925:
i 7 Martynov Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., No.
Dee tre alke eo a Us, elle
1930.
" 7 Ulmer — Pekin Nat. Hist. Bull., vol:
vii, p. 148, 1932-33.
The whole insect is of a deep smoky chocolate-brown; head,
thorax and abdomen black and in general appearance not differing
in any marked respect from fletcheri and Martynov’s subspecies
himalayanus.
Genitalia ¢.—KHighth tergite straight; ninth tergite is produced
at its centre in a very long dorsal process, the apical half cleft
in two slender diverging forks with acute spine like apices; from
the side, the process is very broad towards the base tapering to
an acute point and, at about the centre there arises on each side,
from the lower lateral margin directed backward, a short curved
spine, which may be seen from above, projecting on each side
of the central forks; below this process is the penis which is long,
curving downwards with an obliquely truncated apex; from beneath
the apex is seen to be divided to make a small membranous fork;
the inferior appendages from the side narrowing to acute apices
witu slight blunt projections towards the base on the upper mar-
gins furnished with tufts of long hairs; from above the appen-
dages are broader at the base and are strongly elbowed, apices
truncate and serrate.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 12 mm.
The above description has been drawn up from the Japanese
example in the Berlin Museum kindly lent for the purpose by
t
132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Dr. H. Bischoff. The type of the species is a Q example, also
from Japan in the De Selys collection in Brussels.
Ulmer states that he has seen an example from Darjiling in
the Paris Museum but the specimen cannot now be found. In
his list of Chinese Trichoptera, he gives the distribution as China,
Japan, Darjiling and Sikkim but insolitus may well have been con-
fused with the new species fletcheri described below and I have
some doubt as to whether it should rightfully be included in the
Indian fauna.
Limnocentropus insolitus Ulmer, subsp. himalayanus Martynov
(Pl. XTT, fies 32-33),
Limnocentropus insolitus Ulmer, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., No. 5,
subsp. himalayanus Martynov — Pt. I, p. 91, 1980.
Ulmer — Pekin Nat. Hist. Bull., vol.
vil, p. 148, 1932-33.
Head much destroyed in the single example known, reddish-
brown, basal joint of the antennae reddish, remainder wanting.
Wings dark brown clothed with golden brown hairs.
Genitalia Q.—Terminal dorsal segment strongly produced from
above, and lying close on each side of the produced portion are
two long chitinised plates joined at their apices by a membrane.
3 unknown.
Length of anterior wing 9 13 mm.
This species may possibly be the @ of L. fletcheri sp. n.
Sikkim, Tsung-tang, 6,000 ft., 24, iv. 1924 (Mt. Everest Ex-
pedition), (Major R. W. G. Hingston).
Type 9 in the British Museum collection.
Limnocentropus fletcheri sp. n. (Pl. XIII, figs. 34-87).
Head black, clothed with tawny hairs; antennae light ochra-
ceous, strongly annulated with dark fuscous and distinctly serrate
beneath nearly to the apex; maxillary palpi very dark fuscous,
nearly black with groups of very short light coloured hairs at the
apex of each joint. Wings uniformly dark brown clothed with
short golden pubescence, rather less pointed at the apices than
those of insolitus. Legs yellowish.
Genitaha ¢.—The margin of the eighth dorsal segment is
widely excised with the centre of the excision somewhat convex;
the ninth segment, the genital capsule, is produced at the centre
of its dorsal margin in a long narrow yellow bifureate dorsal plate
with a narrow central upper lobe whose rounded apex projects
slightly over the excision between the two forks whose apices are
also rounded; side pieces of the ninth segment blunt, apices shehtly
excised as seen from the side, upper margin blackened and carry-
ing a few stout hairs; penis short, stout and membranous, apex
furnished with two short down turned hooks; inferior appendages
from beneath, each very broad at its base with a wide rectangular
excision at the centre of its inner margin so that it is abruptly
narrowed in its apical half; apices from beneath directed slightly
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XII, FIGS. 32-33.
Fig. 33.
Limnocentropus insolitus Ulm. subsp. himalayanus Mart., Q.
Fig.—82, wings; 33, genitalia dorsal.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XIII, FIGS. 34-37.
Fig. 35. Fig. 36.
Limaocentropus fletcheri sp. n. ¢.
Fig.—34, genitalia lateral; 35, dorsal; 36, ventral; 37, wings.
THE INDIAN. CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 133
inward; from the side there is a projecting angle on the lower
margin towards the base; the upper margin is convex and the
appendage terminates in a slender finger. The margin of the
seventh ventral segment is produced at its centre to make a short
wide process which is strongly pigmented so as to give an exag-
gerated idea of its size.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 10 mm.
Habitat.—Sikkim. 5,000 ft., 18-80 April, 1922.
Type <o in the collection of the British Museum.
I have pleasure in dedicating this species to Fleet-Paymaster
T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, whose extensive collection of Indian
Trichoptera forms the basis of this series of articles.
(To be continued).
A DESCRIPTION OF THE NOTODONTID MOTH DUDUSA NOBILIS
WALKER, AND ITS HARLY STAGES.
(With a Plate showing figs. 1, 2, photographs of male and female
imagines respectively; fig. 8, the larva; and fig. 4, the pupa).
BY
T. RK. -BEtb, 15.8. (Retd:).
(With two plates).
Imago.—Female antennae and frons of head dark-brown; thorax ochreous
buff; mesothorax with a pair of dark-brown tufts; abdomen with long and
large tuft of bob-ended hairs from end segment, brown with medial and
lateral rows of pale spots. Upper side: Forewing ochreous, outer marginal
area ashy-brown; termen crenulate with dark, pale-edged lunules in the crenu-
lations; a dark, submarginal and pale postmedial, crenulated line; a dark-
brown fascia from the middle of costa to outer angle; a triangular, brown
patch on inner margin and at base of wing; two white patches on costa.
fHindwing smoky brown with darker. brown marginal lunules. Under side:
Both wings pale brown with the marginal areas pale buff on which there are
dark lunules; traces of crenulate median and submarginal lines; a dark spot at
outer angle of cell of hindwing. Thorax underneath dark brown; of abdomen
ochreous with brown markings. Legs brown; hind leg with a white spot at
end of femur and tibia. Male similar to female; two white patches at costa
with an additional white patch at base of forewing. Hindwing darker than
in female. Hap. 99 mm. for female, 77 mm. for male.
The above was described from 20-year old specimens. In fresh examples
the dorsum of abdomen is deep black as well as its terminal large tuft; the
upper side of hindwings is also darker in the new specimens.
The moth sits at rest with the wings tightly folded against the body and
the abdomen sometimes considerably upturned. It is impatient of light and
flies after dusk. It is certainly not attracted by artificial light.
Larva.—Cylindrical in shape, slightly thickest in the middle, the segments
well distinguished; anal segment rather convex, short, nearly semi-circular;
18 large and with its dorsal line slightly more inclined than that of 14, at
an angle of about 45° to the longitudinal axis of the body; all prolegs and anal
claspers developed in the normal way, their shanks rather cylindrical, brownish-
red, ankles the same, the feet short; true. legs stout, red. Head large, 8 mm.
in diameter for the maximum breadth of body of 10 mm.; the surface minutely
granulate, closely so, except on face where it is more sparsely so, shining,
the hairs very minute; the colour, of a sealing-wax red colour, tinged brown;
it is hardly bilobed but there is a shghtly depressed, dorsal line; true clypeus
one-third height of face, triangular, apex rounded, a slight constriction towards
middle of sides, false clypeus half height of face, apex acute, broadening out
from base upwards; labrum and ligula shining-black, thick and chitinized, the
latter somewhat longer than former which is one-third length of true clypeus,
the labrum with a deep-impressed, dorsal line and depressed, lateral areas near
hinder margin; the ligula semi-circular with a deep, triangular sinus, its surface
uneven; mandibles orange-brown, the ends broadly black, the cutting-edges
entire; basal joint of antenna black, third dark-rusty, both shining; eyes
arranged: the uppermost 2 diagonally placed behind the three 8, 4, 6 which
are in a straight line, numbers 1, 2 close together, 38, 4 twice as far apart
with 3 this distance from 2, number 6 twice as far below 4 as 4 is from 8,
number 5 behind, forming an equilateral triangle with 4 and 6; all these
eyes small, the line joining centres of 1 and 2 being really at right angles to
that joining centres of 3, 4, 6. Surface: smooth and dull with the following
stout, long, simple, yellow spines with black ends, that are perpendicular to
the surface, some of them being slightly curved: one subdorsal, one supra-
and one sub-spiracular to each segment 3 to 13; two small red-brown ones
under the subspiracular ones of 5 and 6, one above the other and a single one
in the same position on the other segments (on base of proleg or true leg or
otherwise); a curved, dorso-lateral, extra spine on segments 3, 4, 138; segment 12
has an extra minute, subdorsal one near the hinder margin; 14 has six short,
stout, red-brown, round hinder margin as well as a subdorsal-central one; seg-
ment 2 has a comparatively short, black, supra-spiracular spine and a_ very
short, sub-spiracular one. Spiracles large, broadly oval, dull-black, flush, about
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I.
The ‘Yellow Peril’ Moth (Dudusa nobilis W1k.),
(Male above, female below.)
"CALAN ‘sujiqou psnpnq) [Weg Molex, eyj jo edud pue ear] oy,
: : : K og ‘‘uano
Wl MLV id 90§ “SIH “JON ACQuOg c
A DESCRIPTION OK THE NOTODONTID MOTH DUDUSA NOBILIS 185
one-seventh of a segment-length long and the width is more than half the
length. Colour of body is clear canary-yellow; a brown-red, long collar dorsally
to segment 2 with the anal flap, prolegs and claspers and a patch in front
of and above each spiracle the same; spiracular region streaked shortly and
longitudinally fairly closely with thin, black lines; a white, irregular, some-
what interrupted, sub-spiracular band that is about as broad as a spiracle is,
this band wanting on 38, 4, 18 to 14; the whole of the anterior halves of
dorsal somites 3 and 4 are velvety-black whence there is a thin and black,
dorsal line to the hinder margin of 12; another short, also thin, black line
from a dorsolateral point on front of each segment 4 to 12 to just below the
base of the subdorsal spine and another on the same segments from just above
that spine to hinder margin, as well as a third, twice gently waved, laterally
bordering the lined spiracular area; all the subdorsal and lateral spines, except
those of 8 and 4, are canary-yellow with the end half or third black; the
supra- and sub-spiracular spines are wholly black; the rest are brown-red.
Subdorsal spines of 10, 11 are shghtly smaller than the rest. Length 85 mm.;
breadth 10 mm.; the head 8 mm. in diameter; length of dorso-lateral spines
of 3 and 4: 14 mm.; of subdorsals of all segments: 7 mm.; of supra- and
sub-spiracular spines: 6 mm.; of others: only a few millimetres.
Pupa.—Somewhat club-shaped but very broadly, stoutly so, the greatest
breadth from shoulders back to 7 whence the diameter decreases gradually to
anal end which is hemispherical, the base of hemisphere quite 7 mm. in
diameter compared to a maximum body-breadth of 15 mm.; segment 14 is a
very flat plate or cap ending the abdominal cone with a row of six small
cones, simple and without hooks, transversely across its middle; 13 has a row
along hinder margin of some twenty small, laterally-flattened teeth, the two
end ones being the smallest; these teeth are like short-oblong cogs standing
perpendicular to the surface and are on the front margin of 14 also, tight up
against the corresponding ones of hinder margin of 13 and are somewhat
round-topped, with the tops grey-velvety; the row of 6 cones of 14 are really
well in front of the apex of the cap; the clasper scars show as a lump ven-
trally of abdomen end, with a longitudinal, central, depressed line; segment 14
ventrally in the female pupa is prolonged triangularly forwards through 13 and
the hinder margin of 12 with a small, longitudinally-elongate pit touching the
apex of the prolongation; 12 is just under 3 mm. long while 13 is 1 mm.;
segment 1] is 4 mm. with the front margin longly and evenly bevilled to the
common margin of 10-11, its surface in no way distinguishable from the
remainder of the segment-surface; 10 is 5 mm., its hinder margin (the same
as those of 8 and 9) more steeply bevilled than front margin of 11, the surface
of the bevil rather closely granulate-rough and abruptly lmited frontal from
rest of segment; 7=8=9 in length and the front bevils of 9, 10 are identical
with that of 11; segment 6=12, about 3 mm.; segment 5 is just about half 6
and equal to 4; the thorax is 7 mm.=5+6+7 together, its hinder margin
coarsely, smoothly beaded, the beads 18 in number, each side decreasing in
size from a subdorsal, large bead and this hinder margin of thorax is an ex-
tremely slightly curved line meeting the wings in a very broadly-rounded angle
of 120°, its front margin straight, curved forwards on each side shghtly to
spiracles of 2, its dorsal line very distinctly and coarsely low-carinated, in-
clined to the longitudinal axis of the body at 75° in front third, this inclination
gradually decreasing backwards over 4, 5, 6 to become parallel to axis in 7;
segment 2 is 3.5 mm. long, convex both ways, the dorsal line carinated like
the thorax, the front margin straight, the whole segment twice as wide as
long, the margins meeting in points at spiracles; and if is in a plane at
right angles to the axis, quite perpendicular that is. Head with vertex in the
same plane as 2, narrow between the bases of antennae, the frons nearly
ventral, a prominent, narrow strip between eyes, transversely rounded and very
deeply divided throughout its length by seven cross-lines; the mandibular
pieces are prominent-uneven, rather large between the eyes which are corru-
gated on front half, rather smooth behind, the two halves divided by a linear,
nearly straight, depressed crescent-line; the clypeus is a_trapeze-shaped piece
with the frons-prominence running on to its proximal half; proboscis reaches
middle of wings, the fore legs ending a little beyond one-third length of wings,
the mid legs reach two-thirds length of wings; antennae end between fore
legs and end of proboscis; the ends of hind legs are visible as a triangular,
medially-divided piece between the triangularly-separated apices of wings.
1386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Surface of wings is shining, the legs, proboscis and its halves and antennae are
limited by depressed lines, the veins are just indicated and it is superficially
and rather coarsely lned lke cracked lacquer; the head as described for eyes
and frons; 2 smooth except for dorsal carination; thorax transversely, some-
what-irregularly corrugated; abdomen rather like the thorax but superficially
pitted besides, front and hinder margins superficially longitudinally parallel-
lined for a short distance, segment 8 with front margin much more promi-
nently similarly lned; segments very distinct, abdominal segments 8 to 11
even constricted at margins; no sign of larval hairs but the spines have left
representing scars. Spiracles of segment 2 indicated by the hinder margin of
2 being wide-curvedly but shallowly emarginate in front of the slit, the thorax
having a corresponding segment of a circle, twice as long as broad on front
margin to fit into the emargination of 2, both these very slightly thickened,
both thickenings rugose, the transverse length of the arrangement about equal
to one of the remaining spiracles which are all very large, velvety fawn-
coloured, parallel-sided, round-ended ovals, fully four times as long as broad,
the length equalling about half a segment-length (leaving the bevilled margins
of 8 to 11 out) long, the margins of the fawn-colour bounded by a thin-raised
border that is the colour of pupa and there is an obscure surrounding, flush
oval space broader than the spiracle but the same length upon which the whole
is placed and a central slit to the fawn-coloured part. Colour of pupa nearly
black, the surface not very shining. Length 42 mm.; breadth 15 mm. at
middle; 9 mm. at 12.
The spiracles, of 2 sometimes show velvet-brown, longly oval in between
the roughened surfaces; segments 4, 5 are sometimes obscurely carinated in
dorsal line; the pupa is always somewhat swollen in 6. 7 and 8; the ventral
line is practically straight.
Habits.—The larvae are generally found high up on trees of Sadagi
(Schleichera trijuga, Willd.) in the big jungles of the line of the Western
Ghats in N. Kamara District; and more particularly in evergreen areas.
They lie on the undersides of leaves, eating the mature ones, hiding in the
thicker bunches. I have discovered the majority of them after the first intro-
duction, by the presence of droppings on road-surfaces but, finally, did a day
or two of systematic hunting and got a, satisfactory number. The first speci-
men was brought in many years ago by one of my servants who fetched it
down with a stone from the very top of a high tree, a really good shot. Need-
less to say he was more or less a boy. The caterpillar was badly damaged
and of course died; but the introduction had been effective and all the more
exciting because the larva is of a very unusual type and a fine thing to look
at. We christened it the Yellow Peril. The larva descends to the ground to
pupate well below the surface of the soil in an earthen cell, smoothed on the
inside but unlined with silk. The pupa is not fixed in any way inside. Five
larvae went down in October and the first imago emerged in the month of
June of the following year. Larvae are to be found every year from July
to January of the next. I was first introduced to it in 1900; got the first
larvae in 1906 and bred moths from that date to 1910. I wrote the first
description of the larva on 8-11-1906 and the pupa on 19-12-1907. J have never
seen a wild moth and the species usually must be very rare. It occurs in
N. China, Khasis, Malacca, Celebes, and, now, in the Western Ghats, Bombay
in the N. Kanara District.
The food tree is a common deciduous species in the Kanara jungles, occur-
ring at all heights from sea level up and is perhaps commoner in the area
covered by deciduous forest than in eyergreen ones. Its Kanarese name is
Sadagi but it is more widely known by the Mahratti name of Kusumb or
Kosamb. It is also known as the Ceylon Oak according to Talbot and has
been called the Travellers’ Friend because it is one of the very first to break
out into new leaf in March at the beginning of the hot weather. It then is
a conspicuous object amongst its leafless companions owing to the young
leaves being bright red, varying from delicate pink to nearly blood-colour and
from occurring in small groups on nearly all hillsides (also on the flat and
along the roads). The foliage finally all becomes green. An essential oil is
obtained from the seeds and is the basis of the well known ‘Macassar” hair-oil.
The timber is hard, so hard that woodcutters object to felling the tree; which
does not, however, prevent villagers from exploiting it to make sugar-cane mills
with.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
The author’s best Asiatic two-horned Rhinoceros (R. swmatrensis Cuv.).
RHINOCEROS SHOOTING IN BURMA.
BY
W. S. THom.
(With one plate).
Two species of rhinoceros, the Sumatran or double-horned
rhinoceros (/?hinoceros sumatrensis) and the Javan or single-horned
rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) are said to exist in Burma. Lf.
sumatrensis is the smallest known living rhinoceros and the most
hairy, whilst its height seldom, if ever, exceeds 4 ft. 8 or 10 in. at
the shoulder.
THe JAvAN Rurnoceros (f. sondaicus).
I have shot several R. sumatrensis during my wanderings in
Burma, but have never come across R. sondaicus, nor have I ever
met anyone in Burma who had ever shot one. In fact, until a
few weeks ago, 1 was under the impression that this animal had
been long since exterminated and that it was not to be found
anywhere in Burma at the present time. It seems, however, that
I am wrong. We know, however, that it has recently been
obtained in Sumatra where it apparently exists in fair numbers.
It was formerly thought that only a few specimens existed in
Java and the Malay Peninsula, and possibly in parts of Siam and
Burma. This species was, however, originally described from
Sumatra, but it has been a matter of doubt whether it still existed
in the island.
Mr. G. C. Shortridge in an article entitled “The Asiatic two-
horned Rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis)’ in the Society’s Journal, vol.
xxiii, No 4, p. 772, dated 25th May 1915, says, ‘Besides the rhino-
ceros I shot (which was an example of R. sumatrensis), I have
only heard of two other instances of a Rhinoceros being shot near
Victoria Point by a European, one of these specimens, of which
IT have seen the skull, was sondaicus obtained some years ago by
Captain McCormick, a former planter in the district, etc.’ Mr.
Shortridge says nothing more about R. sondaicus. As Mr. Short-
ridge was collecting for the Bombay Natural History Society, I
take it he is an authority and knew what he was talking about
when he identified the skull of the animal shot by Capt. Me-
Cormick as belonging to R. sondaicus.
Mr. E. H. Peacock, District Conservator of Forests and Game
Warden, Burma (retired), in his book, A Game Book for Burma
and Adjoining Territories, published in 1933, states that the
height of a mature specimen of the Javan rhinoceros (R. son-
daicus) is probably about 5 ft. 6 in. or roughly a foot higher than
the Sumatran rhinoceros: Mr. Peacock says, “The best-known
erounds used to be the forests of the Victoria Point Subdivision
in Mergui District.* * * In this Subdivision the Javan rhinoceros
was reported by all local hunters and guides to frequent heavy
138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVI1II
evergreen forests on flat or comparatively flat ground. It was
supposed never to ascend high into the hills: i.e., into the typical
habitat of the Sumatran rhinoceros.
“The forests of Victoria Subdivision undoubtedly held, at one
time, a very fair number of Javan rhinoceros, but these have long
since been poached out of existence for the sake of the valuable
horn and blood which to realize an even greater price than that of
the Sumatran rhinoceros.
“There are said to be four specimens of the Javan rhinoceros
existing in the Kahilu Game Sanctuary in the Thaton and Salween
Forest Divisions. Indeed, this Sanctuary was established mainly
for their protection. These specimens are reputed to ascend hills
in the manner of the Sumatran rhinoceros and, since they appear
never to have been seen by any reliable authority, it is somewhat
doubtful whether they are actually Javan rhinoceros or not.’’ The
fact that R. sondaicus does exist in the Sanctuary has however
been since confirmed. Through the courtesy of Mr. 8S. F. Hop-
wood, Chief Conservator of Forests, Rangoon, Burma, and Mr.
F. Allsop, Assistant Conservator of Forests, I have received an
interesting letter dated 15th February 1935. Mr. Allsop writes
that there is no doubt whatever that the rhinoceros inhabiting
that area are R. sondaicus, Mr. Allsop spent about three weeks in
the Kahilu Sanctuary and had the luck of actually seeing one
rhinoceros at a distance of about 50 yards. It was in thick vege-
tation, but he was able to see the animal sufficiently clearly to
say that it carried one horn about 9 in. long, set back slightly
from the tip of the snout and that it was about 4 ft. 9 in. to 5 ft.
at the shoulder. Mr. Allsop adds, that on two occasions within
recent years, the dead bodies of female rhinoceros have been
found in the Kahilu Sanctuary and that one was definitely identi-
fied by the Bombay Natural History Society as R. sondaicus.
The skeleton of the second one was under examination at the time
Mr. Allsop wrote and he has not been informed yet of the result
to date i.e. 15th February 1935. Mr. Allsop has come to the con-
clusion from the tracks he has seen in the reserve that there were
not less than six rhinoceros in the area in question, five being
adults and one a calf.
Mr. Allsop has concluded from his own observations that the
favourite foods of these animals are :—
(1) Leaves and stems of ‘Suyit’, Acacia sp. probably
A. pennata, a climber.
(2) Leaves, stems and fruit of Zizyphus glabra, a thorny
climber.
(3) Leaves and stems of Cenocephalus suaveolens.
(4) Leaves and twigs of Trema orientalis a very soft wooded
tree common in secondary growth after shifting cultivation.
(5) Fruit of Dillenia indica (Bur.: thabyu).
Bamboos and grasses are eaten only to a very small extent, if
at all. In addition to the food plants recorded above the same
keeper of the Sanctuary states that the animals eat Cudrenia
pubescens, C. javanicus (Bur: Sinswe Su), Ficus pomifera (Bur. :
Kaaung), F. hispida (Bur.: Kadut), Ff, hirta, Mallotus albus (Bur:
RHINOCEROS SHOOTING IN BURMA 139
Petwaing), Hrythrina lithosperma (Bur.: Kathit) and Homonoia
riparia (Bur.: Momaka).
Mr. Allsop in his letter goes on to say that there are a number
of wallows many of them of long standing and that they are situ-
ated near the sources of permanent and semipermanent streams
in the evergreen forest. The animals seem to visit them somewhat
irregularly and capriciously. They appear to prefer to wallow
fairly early in the morning, i.e., between 6 and 8 a.m. not in
the heat of the day. The fragmentary evidence Mr. Allsop was
able to collect indicates that they do not wallow daily but only
once in three or four days and that individual wallows fall into
disfavour and go out of ‘use for a year or two at a time and are
reopened later. No large deposits of dung were noticed, the rhino-
ceros evacuating almost anywhere with a shght preference for the
pools of small streams. They do not return to the same place
time after time as some species of rhinoceros are said to do. In
view of the statements made by Mr. Shortridge and Mr. Allsop,
and the definite identification of a skull by the Bombay Natural
History Society there is no alternative but to accept the evidence
that R. sondaicus does exist in Burma.
SUMATRAN OR Two-Hornep RuinocEros (ft. sumatrensis).
My experience of the Sumatran rhinoceros over a great number
of years, during which I have, I suppose, seen quite fifteen or
twenty of these animals at close quarters, has been that they are
as active as goats and are really expert hill climbers. They will
even negotiate country that neither bison nor elephant could pos-
sibly surmount. I have also found them on hills up to 4,500 ft.
The Sumatran rhinoceros, although the hills are his proper habi-
tat, occasionally descends to flat country especially towards the
end of the rains, and remains there sometimes for long periods,
till January and February, when there is still plenty of cover and
mud and water to be met with everywhere. By March, as a rule,
they are all back in high evergreen forests again. It is very rarely
seen in the plains, so far as Arakan is concerned, during the hot
weather months i.e. from March to June. Like pigs they some-
times wander about aimlessly for miles. I knew of one animal
that descended from the hills and ravaged for several nights in
succession a sugar cane plantation situated on the banks of the
Kaladan River in Arakan between the Kyauktaw and Kaladan
police posts. This happened during October, November and
December, when the jungles are denser and damper than at any
other time. It was often seen bathing in the Kaladan River by
moonlight, by the people going up and down the river in dugouts.
Mr. Shortridge, in the same article referred to above, is mis-
taken in saying that R. sumatrensis ‘apparently do not care for
clear running streams and are said only to visit the low ground
during the hot season when their drinking pools in the hills have
dried up’. As a matter of fact, I have found R. sumatrensis at
the top of the steepest of hills frequently drinking and wallowing
in clear hill streams year in and year out at elevations varying
140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
from 1,500-3,000 ft. with not a vestige of mud or muddy water to
be found for miles around except on low ground at the foot of the
hills near permanent streams. The majority of the clear water
hill streams in the Arakan Hill Tracts never seem to dry up.
I would state here once more that for such a clumsy looking
animal, the Sumatran rhinoceros is an extremely active animal and
a wonderful hill climber. On numerous occasions, when following
their tracks I have had to hand over my rifle to a follower and
climb up hand over hand steep banks that a Sumatran rhinoceros
had ascended. Their tracks in the hills are generally most difficult
to follow, especially when the ground is hard, or when it is covered
with a thick layer of dead bamboo leaves. Should tracking be
interrupted by a heavy shower of rain the bamboo leaves swell
out, then the front or centre toenail impressions of the forefeet,
which are usually the only marks that are visible on the ground
are invariably almost obliterated. All rhinoceros have three toes
on the fore and hind feet, unlike the Tapir (Tapirus indicus) which
has four toes on the front and three on the hind feet.
Of all the wild animals in Burma I should say that the rhino-
ceros, the tapir and the takin, avoid the presence of man most
and are therefore usually found further from villages than any
other animal. I understand, however, that in the Kahilu Reserve
rhinoceros have been feeding on chillies cultivated by the villagers.
There is also the instance of R. swmatrensis which was found in
Arakan in a sugar cane plantation situated on the banks of the
Kaladan River not far from a village. There are always excep-
tions in every case for there can be no doubt that a rhinoceros is
a very shy animal and usually avoids man. The rhinoceros’s
senses of sight and hearing are very poor, but its sense of smell is
very acute. A rhinoceros once it has been disturbed is very diffi-
cult to come up with again unless it enters one of the mud wallows
or swampy depressions. These wallows are frequented at odd
times but especially during the hot weather months from March to
June, when the gad or horseflies worry fourfooted animals most.
I have watched herds of Tsaing (Bibos banteng birmanicus Lyd.)
trotting along through the jungle during the heat of the day, as if
the devil was at their heels, surrounded by clouds of gad _ flies
and shaking their heads from side to side and snorting in their
efforts to shake off their relentless tormentors. Most wild animals
especially bison and tiger endeavour to le up in the thickest cover
they can find during the heat of the day in order to escape being
bitten by these flies whose bites draw blood and cause intense
irritation. Rhinoceros do not usually le up during the day in
very dense jungle. [. sumatrensis may be found lying asleep
during the day either in a mud wallow, or at the foot of some shady
tree or bamboo clump in fairly open jungle on top of some ridge,
or hill, where he may catch any breeze that may be blowing. Most
animals, especially bison, sambar and even elephant, like lying up
for the day during the hot weather on some ridge to take advan-
tage of the breeze during the heat of the day. I have, however,
found old solitary bull bison, tsaing, elephant and even rhinoceros,
seek the densest cover they could find, when their enemy—man—
RHINOCEROS SHOOTING IN BURMA 141
had been hunting them persistently. The Sumatran Nhinoceros
very seldom deposits its dung in the same spot daily. As a matter
of fact, they seem to me to “only do so when they accidentally cut
across their own tracks at a spot where they have previously eva-
cuated. The odour of the droppings, even though not their own,
seems to attract the animal’s attention and causes it to halt and
evacuate on the same spot. It is not a regular habit. KR. suma-
trensis evacuate, sometimes when crossing a stream as do horses
and elephants. FR. sumatrensis change their feeding grounds
generally once every ten or fifteen days. Sometimes, if the locality
is a quiet one, far from the haunts of man and there are plenty
of shrubs for them to browse upon, they remain in one place for
nearly a month. I found that they generally fed along steep,
well wooded valleys and also along the steep banks of well wooded
mountain streams. The majority of these streams, so far as the
Arakan Hill Tracts District is concerned, are full of rocks, high
waterfalls and dense bamboo and cane jungle. In these rocky hill
tracts there are no wallows. I noticed, however, that the animals
in such places invariably had their baths in natural pools at the
foot of waterfalls. Fine gravel and stones form the beds of these
pools but there is no mud whilst there is usually about two or
three feet of water in them. When feeding near these mountain
torrents Rhinoceros just bathe, where it suits them, i.e., where
there is sufficient water to cover their bodies when they roll about
in it. The approaches to these mountain pools are very steep
and inaccessible. The climbing one has to do when hunting these
animals in these places, is really prodigious. One had often to
make long detours to get round a succession of precipitous water-
falls, as it was quite impossible to ascend or descend most of the
beds of the streams. We invariably carried about 50 yards of stout
rope to enable us to surmount these waterfalls and steep ascents.
One had also to be in the pink of condition to be able to keep
going all day over the most trying country to be found anywhere
in the world. These remarks apply more particularly to all the
ranges of hills which skirt the Ru, the Lemro and the Peng
Rivers in Arakan, where Sumatran rhinoceros are still fairly
plentiful and which tracts of country ought, in my opinion, to be
entirely reserved as sanctuaries by the Forest Department. The
Ru stream is already a reserve, if I mistake not. The only other
part of Burma where I found the Sumatran rhinoceros fairly
plentiful was in the Yoma range of hills along either side of the
watershed running between Arakan and the Thayetmyo District,
inland from Kama and Mindon. They were also common along
the Shwe-U-Taung range of hills in the Momeik State of the Ruby
Mines District, but neither in the hills between Arakan and Tha-
yetmyo or in the Shwe-U-Taung range did I find these animals in
such inaccessible places as I found them in Arakan, especially in
the steep hills which skirt the Peng and Lemro Rivers near
Pengwa. I suppose they had been hunted so persistently and ruth-
lessly in Arakan by the hill tribes that they were finally driven
to occupy these inaccessible places. When I was shooting along
the watershed between Arakan and Burma, I noticed that R. suma-
142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
trensis invariably made their wallows at the source of streams and
in springs as near the top of the watershed as possible. Discarded
wallows at lower elevations dry during the hot weather and are
used again during the rains. An R. sumatrensis may have half
a dozen or more wallows which it knows of and which it visits
at odd times according to their dry or wet condition but it does
not necessarily have a daily mud bath. These wallows are often
enlarged by pigs as well as by elephants. A, rhinoceros like a pig
and a buttalo. must have his bath, be ait of mud, or of watem
I have seen elephants also rolling about in the mud of a wallow
to give their bodies a coating of it so as to protect their sensitive
skins from the bites of flies and mosquitoes. Rhinoceros in the
parts of the country about the Peng and Lemro Rivers often fed
on anything green they could get. They must have been hard put
to it at times to get anything really succulent to feed upon at all
in these steep inhospitable bamboo clad hills. Except for an occa-
sional small patch here and there, all evergreen forest seems to
have been destroyed for cultivation purposes by the hill people by
their wasteful system of felling timber and burning it. If it were
not that the bamboo is a strong healthy shrub there would soon
be none left either. Nothing for miles around can be seen but the
Kayinwa bamboo (Melocanna bambusoides). R. sumatrensis, like
most herbivorous animals, is very fond of the flower and fruit of
this bamboo. This bamboo, as is well known, flowers and fruits
once in thirty or forty years and then dies. I have seen, thousands
and thousands of acres of this bamboo laid waste at flowering.
Nearly every junglecock for miles around seems to congregate in
these areas when the seedhke flowers are on the stems or falling
on the ground. There is also a kind of caterpillar at that time
on the stems which seems to attract bird life to these areas.
The extraordinary thing is that there were no hens visible, only
cocks. Either the caterpillars or the cornlike flowers of the
bamboo, or both give them food. Many animals also gathered in
these flowering patches of bamboo to gorge on the pearshaped
fruit. I have known of village cattle gorging themselves on the
fruit to such an extent as to die subsequently from the effects of
overeating. After the bamboos wither and die, animal life dis-
perses bamboo and there is an emigration of hordes of field rats.
Where the bamboo has flowered and died wild plantain Musa
textilis spring up everywhere in its place for acres and acres. Where
does the seed of this plant come from? Has it been lying dor-
mant all these years? Once the bamboo fruit takes root and
springs up again the Musa textilis disappears. The strange thing
is that this phenomenon is generally followed by epidemics of
smallpox, or cholera, especially amongst the hill people. They are
deprived at the same time of their food supplies in the tender
bamboo shoots and are also unable, owing to the scarcity of
bamboos, to make dah handles and mats or rebuild their houses
which are usually constructed of bamboo. I could write more on
this interesting subject but we are talking about rhinoceros, not
bamboos.
Rh. sumatrensis also feeds on. a kind of long, feathery looking
RHINOCEROS SHOOTING IN BURMA 143
grass called pyaung-sa or kyan-sa, bamboo leaves and_ shoots,
prickly shrubs and creepers and the leaves of several species of
plants with reddish coloured soft hairy leaves and stems found in
certain localities in the hills or in the valleys and along the banks
of streams. I am afraid I am not a botanist like Mr. Allsop so
cannot give any botanical names.
Rhinoceros are generally found feeding very early in the morn-
ing and after sunset, and like the Tapir (“apirus indicus), are more
or less nocturnal in their habits. A rhinoceros is just like a big
pig. He wanders about everywhere, north, south, east and west,
as the spirit moves him. Once he has been disturbed or decides
to change his feeding grounds, it is almost impossible to overhaul
him. He travels at a quick walk for miles over the most abom-
inable country imaginable until he reaches the desired spot.
These animals could be easily run down and brought to a stand-
still with dogs as, in the hot weather, they do not stay very well
once you have got them on the run; they invariably pull up every
mile or so. I have never used dogs for this purpose of course,
but I have almost been able to run down a rhinoceros on foot
by keeping steadily on after him at the double mile after mile.
It was hard work, but in those days I was as hard as nails
and could stay for ever. When rhinoceros are hard pressed and
thoroughly alarmed I have heard them utter loud whistling bray-
ing sounds in different keys, not unlike the braying of a donkey.
At other times when I have followed and come up with an animal,
it usually uttered a terrific snort not unlike that uttered by a large
boar or gaur (Bibos gaurus) before galloping off after being dis-
turbed. Rhinoceros also make a peculiar humming or buzzing
sound when submerged in their wallows, especially when they have
been chased or are tired and have just finished a long journey.
It is partly a sien of exhaustion and partly a sign of satisfaction
at being immersed in cool mud and water.
The carcase of a Sumatran rhinoceros is worth, to a Chinaman
or Burman, nothing under a thousand rupees. The blood espe-
cially, if drawn straight from the heart, is valuable. It is dried
slowly in bamboos over a fire and sold for almost its weight in gold.
The horn again is more valuable than the blood as it is ground
down, mixed with other drugs and used as an aphrodisiac and as
a sovereign remedy for all sorts of ills. The Javan and Sumatran
rhinoceros are considered of particular value for medical purposes
by the Chinese and Burmese. The Chinese seem to know more
than any other race about the uses to which the blood and horn
of a rhinoceros can be put to. Fortunately the Burma Govern-
ment have prohibited the shooting of rhinoceros in Burma. alto-
gether. There is no doubt that these animals are being slowly
and secretly exterminated in the hills of Arakan by the wild tribes
who come up and spear them in their wallows during the heat of
the day. No one can tell what goes on in the Thayetmyo Yoma
hills between Arakan and Burma as the Forest Department are
under staffed, but the sooner some one is sent to keep an eye on
the rhinoceros in the Arakan Hill Tracts the better.
Burmans can distinguish, as can any sportsman of experience,
144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
between a male and a female rhinoceros when following their
tracks by noticing the way the young saplings, creepers or the
branches of bushes have been twisted by the animal’s horns as it
moves along when feeding. A female or male with a short horn,
according to the Burmese hunters, cannot do any twisting of
branches, twigs and creepers. The more twisted the creepers,
bamboos and branches appear, the better the chances of coming
across an animal with a good horn. Another way of distinguish-
ing the tracks of a female and male, there being very little differ-
ence in their size and appearance, is by carefully noting the posi-
tions of their droppings or dung. In the case of a male the
ordure and urine will be found on the ground exuded one behind
the other, a foot or two apart, whereas in the case of a female
they will be found more or less together, or scattered over the
bushes in the immediate vicinity at heights of from three to four
feet. The urime of a female as seen by me on several occasions
was of a pale pinkish colour. The male rhinoceros, when twist-
ing bamboos, young saplings, and creepers, with his horns does
so with the object of either cleaning or sharpening them or simply
because of the pleasing sensation gained by the scratching.
Perhaps it may be done as a challenge or from pure cussedness
or sheer joie de vivre. Bison and tsaing and ordinary domestic
cattle often tear up the ground with their hoofs and horns or rub
them on the branches of trees or saplings for no apparent reason
as do deer occasionally even when they have no velvet to get rid
of, simply I take it, because the rubbing sensation pleases them.
It may be of course a sex desire. Burman hunters have often told
me that all big game are more restless, on the qui vive, and more
truculent when the moon is on the increase and nearly full. Many
races in ‘India believe that a man is at his best when the moon is
fullest.
One rarely comes across a young rhinoceros. During the 49
years I have been in Burma I have never seen either a young
rhinoceros or the tracks of one. Burmese hunters say that rhino-
ceros bends its head to clear its path of obstructing jungle and
heaves dead logs etc., over its back as it proceeds. These fall on
the youngster following on the heels of its mother, and so kill or
maim it. Hence the scarcity of young. This of course is a myth
and can hardly be accepted as a true reason. I referred to this
subject in the Indian Field sporting paper of September 30, 1909,
in a long article entitled ‘Notes on the Tapir (Tapirus indicus) and
Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sumatrensis).’ The Indian Field became
defunct a number of years ago. The real reason perhaps why
rhinoceros are so scarce is because they have been so system-
atically and relentlessly hunted now for years past in all parts of
the country where they eixst. The people are also well aware of
the great value of the animal’s blood and horns. The result is
that the males are shot more frequently for the sake of their
horns than the females which have small inferior horns, and
as rhinoceros were never prolific breeders at any time, their
chances of producing young ones are considerably lessened in
consequence.
RHINOCEROS SHOOTING IN BURMA 145
Rhinoceros get to their feet when disturbed and dash away
at a much greater speed than would appear to be possible for such
a heavy, clumsy looking animal. With a few exceptions, they,
like all the other jungle ‘animals of India and Burma, periodically
visit salt licks where the earth and the water are slightly impreg-
nated with salt or potash. The reason for these visits does not
appear to have been much commented on by sportsmen generally
in any country, for these salt deposits, or animal health resorts
are to be found in every country in the world as well as in India
and Burma. From an inspection of the tracks leading to and from
some of these salt licks there can be no doubt that they are more
often visited by the deer tribe than by any other quadruped.
In fact these animals seem to visit the leks almost daily. The
elephant, gaur or bison (Bibos gaurus), and ‘tsaing’ or banteng
(Bibos banteng birmanicus) come next, in the order named “with
a@ visit, of perhaps once or twice a week. Then comes the rhino-
ceros and the tapir with only one or at the most two visits a
month. The moon seems to have a lot to do with these visits
in the case of the tapir and the rhinoceros for they seem to come
at full moon, and at the appearance of the new moon. There are
regular beaten tracks leading to nearly all the most frequented
salt licks and I have seen these pathways literally churned up
into a sea of mud by the hooves of animals coming and going. It
should be noted, however, that these salt licks are only popular at
certain times of the year. There is a regular season when animals
partake more freely of the brackish earth and saline water, while
at other times there is a regular falling off in the number of
visits paid by all the larger animals such as elephant, rhinoceros,
tapir, gaur and tsaing. More visits are apparently paid to such
licks between the months of December and June than at any other
period. Some salt licks, which are more highly impregnated with
salt deposits than others and which are situated in the heart of
the jungle far from the haunts of man, are naturally frequented
more often than those situated near villages and cultivation.
During the monsoon, from July to October, most of the salt licks
become inundated with water and then the earth no doubt loses,
to a considerable extent, its saline properties and is consequently
less palatable.
I am of opinion that animals partake of saline mud and water
as an aperient when they wish to free their systems of parasitic
worms which are found in the stomachs of both bird and_ beast
the world over, and which, if not expelled before they multiply to
any great extent cause great trouble and are also the means of dis-
ease breaking out amongst them. On more than one occasion I
have observed these parasites among the droppings of elephants
which have eaten the saline earth at these deposits. The large
quantities of earth which an elephant will put away at one visit
is simply astonishing. I once watched, at a distance of only about
ten paces, an old tusker elephant pick up and shove, down his
throat with his trunk, a quantity of this saline earth weighing quite
thirty to thirty-five pounds before departing to drink at a neigh-
bouring stream. At some salt leks only the water is drunk out
10
146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi, XXXViilt
of pools which are sufficiently impregnated with saline matter.
None of the cat tribe, i.e., tigers, leopards or cats, ever partake of
the waters or eat the earth at a salt lick. Bears and pigs also
do not visit salt licks. 1 have however, seen jungle fowl, pheasant
and imperial, as well as green pigeon, and also the gibbon monkey
sipping water at a saline pool. There is some mysterious fasci-
nation about a salt lick that seems to attract animals and birds
to it whether they do or do not partake of the waters or salt
earth there. ‘Tiger and leopard of course prowl round salt licks on
the chance of killing an animal for food.
Sitting up at a salt lick in India or Burma with or without
electric contrivances is now strictly forbidden.
A rifle of any of the following calibres is good enough for use
upon the Burmese rhinoceros viz. 500, 470, 450, 428 and 12 bore
Magnum Explora ball and shot guns. I am of opinion that Lf.
sumatrensis are not given to charging even when wounded.
My first experience with the Sumatran rhinoceros, was on the
Shwe-U-Taung range of hills between the state of Momeik and the
Ruby Mines District of Upper Burma. My hunters and I had
struck the tracks of a Sumatran rhinoceros one morning at about
8 a.m. IJ was armed with a 12 bore hammerless ejector ‘Paradox’
gun firing a cordite charge and heavy conical bullets. With this
weapon in one hand I could, if necessary, sprint several hundred
yards after an animal without getting blown. My second weapon,
which was meant to act as a stopper in case I should be charged
by, say, an elephant or a bison, was an 8 bore rifle burning a
charge of 10 drs. of black powder with heavy conical bullets of
hardened lead. At 38 p.m., after we had taken many twists and
turns through bamboo jungle and tree forests, up and down very
steep hills full of giant stinging nettles, my best tracker, Maung
Pe, suddenly turned round to me and pointing to some mud smears
on the leaves and stems of the surrounding bushes whispered ‘Sir,
we are not far from a rhinoceros wallow—please keep a careful
lookout ahead’. ;
After striking a match and blowing it out to see which way
the smoke travelled, whether the wind was in our favour or not,
I took the lead, and after travelling a matter of about 50 yds.
or so and going round the base of a large ant hill surrounded by
some low bushes, I suddenly heard a splash ahead and found my-
self within ten yards of a rhinoceros that had risen out of his
wallow and was sitting on his hind quarters looking in our direc-
tion. Firing both barrels into his head in quick succession I
sprang to one side in case he should charge along the path by
which I had come. On receiving my shots, he dashed out of the
wallow at a great pace, uttering a loud snort, the noises emitted
by his feet as he withdrew them from the thick mudi sounded like
the withdrawing of corks from large champagne bottles. Thinking
I had missed him altogether for he never flinched or showed any
signs of having been hit, we followed on. After travelling 20 or
30 yds., blood was discovered on either side of his tracks which
was a clear indication that one of my bullets had found its mark
but, evidently without touching the brain. After going about a
RHINOCEROS SHOOTING IN BURMA 147
quarter of a mile we came upon him lying down breathing ster-
vorously. 1 then let him have a right ana lett with the Paradox
as he taced us. | then saw that only one of my bullets had
passed through lus head. ‘Lhe anterior horn was smalli—being
only about lz in. in length, whilst the posterior was a mere horny
protuberance (see Pl. upper photo). Tne animal was then cut up
and the meat smoked over a large fire being subsequently divided
among my men. I! found the meat, if properly cooked, quite
palatable. It was as good as beef at any rate it not better. It
should be mentioned that not a scrap of any animal shot by me
has ever been wasted. If my servants, camp followers and coolies
did not consume it, villagers from the nearest village usually
flocked in and scrambled for the remnants. ‘The entrails, and
even the bones and skin were taken away.
On another occasion, in the Ruby Mines District of Upper
Burma, my hunter and | were tracking up a solitary tusker elephant
which, judging by the measurement of its fore-feet impressions
which taped 20 in. from toe to heel, indicated that the weight of
ivory carried by the animal must have been in the neighbourhood
of 70 or 80 pounds the pair. Unfortunately when we were about
a mile to the rear of the animal it walked into a camp of
Burmans who were engaged in cutting bamboos, and, after demo-
lishing their huts and nearly catching one or two of the occupants
had gone clean away. However, these bamboo cutters gave us
the information that they had that morning seen—it was then
only about 8 a.m.—the tracks of two rhinoceros which seemed to
be travelling together. This was good news and it did not take
us long to pick up their trail, and, finally, after following them
for some time I suddenly caught sight of them entering a huge
mud wallow in the side of a hill. One of the animals must have
got a slant of our wind for he suddenly slewed round and cleared
out of the wallow at a fast trot. The other, however, after star-
ing about him stupidly for a minute or so, trotted in our direc-
tion. I waited till he came abreast of me, and at a distance of
about 30 yds., I let him have a shot from the 8 bore. This did
not stop him. He seemed to travel faster, if anything. We took
up the tracks but could get no sign of blood. ‘A clean miss, Sir,
I am afraid’, said Maung Pe. ‘How could you have missed such
an easy shot?’ There was no doubt about it. I had clearly
missed and there was no more to be said about it. I had no ex-
cuse to offer except to remark to him that even the most expert
marksman occasionally misses. However, we took up the tracks
again. It was a long stern chase. The time was about 10-30 a.m.
We travelled all day on those tracks until rhinoceros tracks, stones,
earth, bamboo clumps, bushes and #rees seem to have been in-
delibly, photographed on the brain and in the retina of my eye.
At about 5-30 p.m. I heard a peculiar, deep humming or buzzing
sound, akin to the noise of wind passing through the feathers of
the Great Hornbill (Dichoceros bicornis) as it beats through the
air. ‘The sound we have just heard’, said Maung Pe, ‘was made
by a tired rhinoceros blowing or breathing in his wallow. There is.
no doubt about it. I have heard it too often to be mistaken now,’
1448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Accordingly we pushed on cautiously and in less than 5 minutes
we were at another wallow. So close was I standing to the
mud hole that I could have easily inserted a ten foot bamboo into
the mud beneath me. I could see a heaving mass of mud but
could not make out which end was the animal’s head and which
the tail. Only a little bit of the yellow looking clay covered skin
ot its body was visible. This seems ineredible, but is perfectly
true nevertheless. As I was certain there was no possibility of
my missing this time, I fired the right barrel of the 12 bore Paradox
into what I took to be the centre of the body, it being impossible
for me to tell where the animal’s head lay, so deeply was it
embedded in the mud. On the.report it rose out of the mud,, and,
after spimning rapidly round in circles for a few seconds, dashed
out of the wallow, making loud popping sounds with its feet as
it pulled them from the mud. IJ knew there could be no mistake
this time and that it was hit. It only travelled a distance of
about 500 yards and when I came up with it, it uttered a long
drawn out scream and expired. This animal I am sorry to say
turned.out to be a female. She had a mere stump of a horn.
On examination, I found that my bullet had passed through
her lungs. According to Maung Pe, she was the same animal I
had fired at that morning, as we found the graze of a bullet on
her withers, which had cut the skin but had not drawn any appre-
ciable amount of blood. I must say that her dying scream caused
me remorse.
IT shot my best Rhinoceros sumatrensis (see Pl. lower photo)
on a range of hills bordering the Lemro River in Arakan at an ele-
vation of about 38,000 ft. J was travelling up the Lemro River in
dugout canoes to visit and inspect an out of the way police outpost
situated at a place called Pengwa. <A weird looking wild man. of
the woods from a neighbouring Chin village visited my camp on the
river and informed me that he knew of a small pond or pool of
water on the top of the range of hills above us which used to be
visited frequently by rhinoceros in bygone years.
Next morning we started off at daylight for the top of the
range of hills hoping that we might have the luck to come across a
rhinoceros with a really good horn. I had been told that the part
of the country we were about to visit had not been shot over by
any Europeans or even local hunters for many years. I found
the going steep enough in all conscience and I was soon bathed
in perspiration. The men all carried small muslin bags or pads
some five inches square, full of wet powdered tobacco, ‘and oe
ever a leech got on to their legs they just squeezed a few drops
of the juice on to it which immediately caused it to curl up .and
drop off Salt or gunpowder is equally efficacious.
We reached the top of the hill at about 1-30 p.m. when down
came a heavy shower of rain which drenched us all to the skin.
This made things rather unpleasant, for the leeches gathered
round us in battalions and attacked en masse. At about 8-30 p.m.
after much wandering about in our efforts to find the rhinoceros’s
wallow I caught a ghmpse of a small sheet of water through the
bamboos. I at once took the lead armed with a single Westley
RHINOCEROS. SHOOTING IN BURMA .....-. _ 149
Richards 500 bore cordite rifle which burnt a charge of 80 grains
of cordite.
My guide, the wild man of the woods, then whispered to me
that the rain was bound to bring a rhinoceros to the wallow as
the sun was shining brightly whilst it was hot, and the gadflies
were in evidence everywhere. To cut a long story short I crept to
the pool along an elephant path, and sure enough saw, not only a
doublehorned “Sumatran rhinoceros with a fine “posterior horn but
also a very fine bull elephant with a very good pair of tusks. The
latter was throwing mud and water backwards over his body and
between his fore legs to cool himself and to drive away the gadflies.
The rhinoceros was standing alongside the pool within ten yards of
the elephant which seemed to take absolutely no notice of its
presence. A cock silver pheasant (Gennaeus lineatus) was also
standing beside the pool between the two animals. I could not
shoot both the animals, and as the rhinoceros was the bigger prize
of the two, I decided to bag it if I could. As the rhinoceros was
standing almost broadside on to’ me with its head turned slightly
away, I moved forward to my right to obtain a better position and
also to get shghtly nearer. We were now only about 25 yards
apart and I wanted to be able to deliver a raking shot from a
little behind. What would I not have given to have had a camera
at that moment? I should have been able to obtain an excellent
shot of both animals on the same plate. However, I waited no
longer and let the rhinoceros have a raking shot through the small
of the ribs in the hope that it would find the lungs if not the
heart, hoping at the same time that the elephant would clear out
in the opposite direction and not worry us as I did not want to
shoot the animal. The rhinoceros lurched forward on: receiving
the shot and swung quickly round in my direction with his head
in the air. Having got my wind, the breeze having veered round,
he charged through the pool very quickly, but whether it was an
intentional charge or not, I am unable to say. The elephant on
hearing the report banged his trunk once on the ground, and after
uttering a shrill tr umpet, went off in full flight through the sens
and jungle making a devil of a noise. I ‘had by now taken up
position some fifteen paces from the pool and as the hice.
reached the edge of the water on my side, I dropped him with a
broken shoulder, and finished him off with a third shot. He had
a very fair anterior horn of a length of about 164 in. The posterior
horn was only from about 24 to 8 in. long. After disembowelling
the animal in order to save the meat for my men, the next day,
and taking some photographs of it and the pool, as well as several
of it being skinned, we hurried back to camp which was reached
in inky darkness at about 9 p.m., after a desperate scramble
through the jungle and undergrow th, the leeches crawling all over
us en route. One of mv men had a leech in either nostril. whilst
another had one fixed on the white of one eye ball. The man
with the leeches in his nostrils was able finally to pass them out
into his mouth when they had become sufficiently gorged with
blood. I had a similar experience some years before, so was able
to explain to him how to eject the leeches. There is in fact no
150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIIT
pain but only a slight itchy feeling in the nose, and the only
thing to do is to wait until the leech has gorged itself with blood
and then to pass it out through the nasal passage into the mouth
in the usual way from whence of course it should be ejected at
once. It sounds horrible, but necessity knows no law, and this
method is sheer necessity. In the case of a dog getting a leech
up its nose the only thing to do is to hold a bowl of water under
the nose of the animal till the leech longing to reach the water
hangs low enough down to enable it to be seized with a pair of
pincers or a piece of cloth and pulled out. A solution of salt
water can also be injected into the nose. Some people recommend
tobacco juice but this may affect the brain or the eyesight and is
unsafe.
With regard to my shooting kit, I wore as footgear the brown
canvas and rubber hood ‘Workshu’ with two pairs of socks, and
shorts and coat made of green coloured shikar cloth. The inner
pair of socks worn were either of strong, thick, closely woven silk
or cotton. Over these T wore thick woollen socks. In order not
only to prevent the socks from slipping down into the heel of the
boot and causing blisters, but also to keep out sand and gravel I
wore half a putty wound round the top of the boot which also
to some extent prevented leeches from getting at the foot at all
through the eyelets or lace holes of the boot. When leeches did
happen to worm their way through the lace holes of my boots and
get through the thick woollen socks they were quite unable to get
through the cotton or silk socks, with the result that as they could
not draw blood from anywhere on the foot they were obliged to
wriggle out again on to the bare calf or thigh where the tobacco
sachet could easily deal with them. Leech bites on the calf or
thigh are not nearly so irritable as bites on the instep, ankle, or
foot. Ifa leech bite is scratched by anyone whose blood happens
to be out of order, it is apt to turn into a nasty sore which is
difficult to heal. 7
Shorts are the only togs worth shooting in. One cannot climb
really steep hills wearing riding breeches and putties or in fact
any other kit, if there is to be any hill climbing, owing to the
stoppage of the circulation of the blood in the legs. It simply
cannot be done.
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005 ‘ISIH ‘JUN Avquog “uanor
AN ACCOUNT OF THE OCCURRENCE OF CHRYSOMPHALUS
AURANTII, MASK AND LACCIFER LACCA, KERR ON GRAPE
FRUIT IN RANCHI DISTRICT, CHOTA NAGPUR, WITH A NOTE
ON THE CHALCIDOID PARASITES OF ASPIDIOTUS ORIENTALIS,
NEWST.
BY
P. M. Guover, B.sc.
(Entomologist, Indian Lac Research Institute).
(With a plate).
Chrysomphalus aurantii, the Californian Red Scale, although a serious pest of
Citrus in many parts of the world, particularly in California and Egypt, does
not occur as a pest of any great importance in India. It has been recorded
in this country on the following, but in no case as a serious pest. Agave
americana, Citrus decumana (pomelo), and C. aurantium (orange), Cycas cin-
cinalis and C. recurvata, Jasminum, Morinda tinctoria, Morus sp. (mulberry),
Psidium guayava (guava) and on Rose.
In this district C. decumana fruits are commonly found lightly attacked
by the scale, and garden rose is occasionally severely attacked. A number of
C. decumana trees introduced at Namkum in 1927-28 were found to be slightly
affected by this Coccid in February 1933.
Mr. H. T. Bates, then Manager of the Sabaya Division of the Assam
Frontier Tea Company, introduced in June 1930 a small number of one year
old grafts of the Grape Fruit Citrus decumana var. grandis at Sabaya. These
plants established themselves satisfactorily, but in March 19381 were found to
be attacked by C. aurantii, the attack was not very heavy but was of sufficient
intensity to warrant control measures, a reinfection was observed in Janu-
ary 1933 and control measures were repeated.
At this time, one of the plants was observed to be lightly infected with
lac (Laccifer lacca, Kerr), the infection having originated apparently from a
Zizyphus Jujuba (Ber) tree close by, which had been purposely infected for
the Baisakhi crop. - This is an example of lac as a pest, and the infected plant
was treated in the same way as those affected by C. aurantit.
Of the sprays utilised Lime Sulphur was found to be effective against both
Coccids but is not to be recommended as it scorches the foliage severely. A
resin spray made up as follows was found to be fairly satisfactory. It is
similar to that used by Barritt (1929) against Chrysomphalus aonidum in
Egypt.
Resin iy ake pees le Woy
Crude Castor Oil a or oe ould
Ammonia as is ..» 14 Ibs.
(sp. gr. 0.888)
Water oe tee ae ... 180 Ibs.
(18 gals.)
The resin and castor oil were heated together till the former dissolved, the
solution was allowed to cool and was stirred into the water to which the
ammonia had previously been added. The resultant solution is a white
coloured sticky emulsion, which is ready for use. It may be kept in sealed
drums.
The most effective spray tested was a Kerosene soap emulsion made up as
follows :—
Stock.
Kerosene Oil ee tes ee eons:
Karunj Soap eB: es oe 4 Ib.
Water (soft) — ae eee Lene:
The soap was dissolved in water heated to boiling, the kerosene was added
to the mixture while still boiling hot and stirred until a thick creamy fluid
152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
resulted. The success of the spray depends to a considerable extent on the
efficiency of the stirring. The solution may be kept in sealed drums. This
stock if properly made should adhere to glass without separating into oily
particles, and when spread with the ball of the finger should form a fine con-
tinuous film. It will keep for a considerable time. If insufficiently stirred the
oil will separate and collect at the top. is
For use the stock was diluted with water, 1 part stock to 3 parts water,
and at this concentration did not scorch the foliage. Tests should however be
made with various dilutions as the susceptibility of foliage to scorch varies
very considerably. Spraying preferably should be done in the evening or on
cloudy days, not in the full heat of the sun as this tends to cause scorch.
The female scale can be identified by the following characters :—
Scale approximately circular, average diameter about 1.5 mm., median
area slightly convex, marginal area broad and flat. The scale is semi-trans-
parent, and shows the outline of the insect below, the colour is grey, but
actually appears orange yellow except marginally due to the colour of the insect
lying below. The exuviae are central or nearly so, bright orange red or orange
yellow in colour and are somewhat obscured by secretion. The first exuvia
bears a small central boss which may bear a small nipple of white wax, the
cicatrix. The exuviae are highly polished beneath. The whole dorsal surface
except marginally in the living insect appears therefore orange red or orange
yellow in colour.
The ventral scale is well developed, thin at the centre, stout towards the
margins firmly attached to the dorsal scale, and to the body of the female as
is also the dorsal scale, making the extraction of the insect difficult except by
dissolving away the scales in Potassium hydroxide.
The morphology of the female has already been fully described by a num-
ber of writers including Green (1896), Newstead (1900), Herrick (1911) and
Quayle (1911). The most conspicuous features are that in the living insect the
rostrum is usually pushed a little to one side, and that at the period of gesta-
tion the pygidium is partly contracted within the body and is overlapped and
sometimes almost enclosed by the sides of the thorax.
The pygidium of the specimens examined showed certain small differences
from the normal, which are probably local variations. (see Plate)
The second lobe is frequently rounded internally and notched externally,
but may be notched on both surfaces, the third lobe is almost invariably
notched externally and rounded internally.
The pectinae are arranged 2-2-2-3, those in the median and second incisurae
distapectinae, those in the third incisura and on the lJateris unapectinae. The
first pectina in the third incisura and the three pectinae on the lateris have
two equal branches, between which in the case of those on the lateris a
finger-like projection occurs. The unapectinae are fringed on their external
margin only and in the case of the bilobed pectinae the fringing on the internal
lobe is greatly reduced.
There is a pair of paraphyses to each lobe, the external paraphyse of the
second lobe is much reduced and may be absent. In all specimens from this
locality a distinct club-shaped thickening of the cuticle of the dorsal surface
arises from the base of the third incisura (see Plate, par A), whose structure
exactly that of a paraphyse. but whose disposition is abnormal. It forms the
internal border of the paraphysial furrow occurring in the third incisura which
would normally be formed by the external paranhyse of the second lobe.
A seta occurs external to the latadent on the ventral surface in all local
specimens corresponding with the setae occurring external to each of the
second and third lobes on the ventral surface.
The four calles of typical specimens occur as transverse bands of thickenings
in the cephalic region of the dorsal aspect of the pygidium; in local specimens,
the lateral calle is the longer and more prominent, the median is shorter and
is iN many specimens broken into two separate unequal parts which are adja-
cent, and which are occasionally connected by a narrow neck.
In view of the absence of genacerores and densariae and the presence of
paraphyses, it seems probable that this species is referable to Leonardi’s Genus
Aonidiella, a course which has been followed by certain Authors.
A single adult of the Aphelinid, Aphytis chrysomphali, Mercet was taken
resting on a twig infected with C. aurantii. This species has been reared in
small numbers at Namkum from Aspidiotus orientalis on Zizyphus Jujuba (Ber).
OCCURRENCE OF CHRYSOMPHALUS AURANTII ON GRAPE FRUIT 153
I should like ta thank Sir Guy A. K. Marshall, F.pR.s. and Dr. Ferriere for the
identification of this and the following species.
A. chrysomphali1 is reported by Quayle (1932) as one of the commonest
parasites of the Red Scale in California, he also records it from the Yellow
Scale Aonidiella (Chrysomphalus) citrina Coq.
Comperiella bifasciata, How. (EHneyrtidae) is a common parasite of A. orien-
talis in this district. Quayle (1982) records this species from the Yellow but
not from the Red Scale in California.
Other Chalcidoidea bred from A. orientalis at Namkum were, Physcus sp.
(near flaviventris How.) which was rather rare; Tetrastichus purpureus Cain
(Hulophidae) as a primary and probably also as a secondary parasite (Glover,
1933), and Marietta javensis How. (Aphelinidae) as a hyperparasite of primary
Chalcidoid parasites of this Coccid (Glover, 1933, reported as Perrisopterus sp),
In conclusion I wish to express my thanks to Mrs. Dorothy Norris, Director
of this Institute, and to Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, Forest Entomologist, Forest
Research Institute, Dehra Dun, for advice and criticism, to Mr. ish T. Bates
for permission to experiment on his trees and to Mr. E. Heber for preparing
the plate.
Since this paper was submitted for publication on July 7th ae a BABE
on the Genus Comperiella, Howard by Dr. T. V. Ramakrish: Avyar hi
appeared in Records of the Indian Museum, vol. xxxvi, pt. |). /
this paper Ayyar records the Genus Comperiella from Indi:
and describes a new species C. idica sp. nov., which he
is Comperiella sp. parasitic on the tamarind scale Aspi
at Coimbatore where it occurs on tamarind often associa‘
orientalis, N. (Imp. Inst. Agric. Res., Pusa Bull. 197,
Comperiella bifasciata is therefore recorded from India tor: tne nrst time,
and is the second species of this Genus known to occur in this country. C. bi-
fasciata and C. indica are very similar, particularly as regards colouration,
but may be separated by the fact that in the former the fore wing of the
female has two divergent brownish fasciae, and that in the latter the fore wing
of the female has one brownish fascia only.
Aphytis chrysomphali is believed to be recorded from India for the first
time.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Dorsal view of the pygidial margin and fringe of Chrysomphalus aurantit.
an., anus; dp., distapectinae; ld., latadent; Im., median lobe; |. 2nd, 2nd
lobe; 1. 8rd, 8rd lobe; or., oracer ratubae:; par., paraphyses : par. A., extra ab-
normally disposed paraphyse ; s., setae; up., unapectinae.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1896. Green (BE. E.), The Coccidag of Ceylon, Pt. 1, Dulan & Co., London,
1896. At
1900. Newstead (R.), Monograph of the Coccidae of the British Isles,
vol. 1, Ray. Soc. London, 1900. a Ce :
1911. Herrick (G. H.), Some Scale Insects of Mississippl with Notes on
Certain Species from Texas. Tech. Bull., 2 Mississippi Agric. Expt. Station
Agric. College, Mississippi, 1911. ia .
1911. Quayle ( (H. J.), The Red Orange Seale, Bull. 222, University Cali:
fornia Coll. Agric., Agric. Exp. Station, Berkeley, California, July 1911.
1917. Lawson (P. "Bo, Scale Insects injurious to Fruit and Shade Trees,
Bull. University Kansas Biol. Series, vol. xvii, No. 1, L917.
1929. Barritt (N. W.), A New Spray for Scale Insects on Citrus in Egypt.
Bull. Ent. Res., xx, 1929.
1932. Quayle (H. J.), Biology and Control of Citrus Insects and mites,
Bull. 542, University California, Coll. Agric., Agric. Exp. Station, Berkeley,
California, November 1932. . .
1933. Glover (P. M.), Aspidiotus (Furcaspis) orientalis Newstead (Coccidae),
its Economic Importance in Lac Cultivation and its Control, Bull. 16, Ind. Lac.
Res. Inst., Calcutta, 1933.
NOTES ON THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF SANSEVIERIA
GROWING IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE -TO
S. LAURENTIT WILDEMAN.
BY
KALIPADA Biswas.
About sixty-eight species of Sansevieria are known up to the
present time. Of these only four are supposed to be indigenous
to the Indian Empire. These are S. lanuginosa Willd., 8S. zeylanica
Willd., S. Roxburghiana Schult., and S. burmanica N. BE. Brown.
S. lanuginosa grows wild in sandy places in Malabar coast. S. zey-
lanica i8 common in the drier rocky and sandy region. S. Roz-
burghiana is the most common species, and is fairly widely distri-
buted along the coast of Coromandel, Lower Bengal, Orissa and
Chota Nagpur. S. burmanica is wild in Upper Burma. But the
systematic position of S. lanuginosa as a distinct species has been
rightly doubted by N. E. Brown in his valuable monograph on
Sansevieria published in Kew Bull. No. 5, p. 226, 1915, where he
remarks ‘It appears to be similar to S. zeylanica Willd’. Thus
S. Roxburghiana is the only known species indigenous to India
proper.
Most of the species of Sansevieria are confined to Africa or to
the islands near its coasts and a few to Arabia. Nearly all the
species found cultivated in different parts of the world are intro-
duced. In the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, there are about
seven or eight species under cultivation. Of these again S. trifas-
ciata of Prain is supposed to have been grown in this garden as
early as 1899. It is also reported from Jalpaiguri and from Lower
Sikkim area but recorded as cultivated. Prain mentions in his
Bengal Plants, vol. ii, p. 1054, 1908, this species as ‘often culti-
vated; sometimes as an escape’ closely related to West African
Bow String Hemp (8S. guineensis) but with narrower, more defin-
itely maculated leaves. Brown is of opinion that S. guineensis is
not correctly named. Prain noted this species (S. trifasciata)
as a horticultural species both in his Bengal Plants and _ subse-
quently in the Rec. Bot. Sur. of India, vol. iii, No. 2, p. 287, 1905.
But Prain’s S. trifasciata resembles very closely Dr. J. Murce’s
specimen of S. nilotica, a native of Tropical Africa, which was
described by Baker in the Journ. of Linn. Soc., vol. xiv, p. 548,
1875.
During comparatively late years an interesting specimen of San-
sevieria with vellow striped leaves is under cultivation in and
about the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, and Victoria Gardens,
Bombay, and elsewhere in this country (See Plate I). This species
so far as its specific characters are concerned may be taken as a
variety either of S. nilotica or of S. trifasciata. Considering its
distinct vellow stripes of the leaves Brown takes it as S. trifasciata
Prain, var. Larentii N. FE. Brown. The problem which the writer
attempts to solve is whether the yellow striped specimen be
taken as a variety of S, nilotica or S. trifasciata and whether the
NOTES ON THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF SANSEVIERA 1
or
or
latter should be considered a separate species. Comparison be-
tween the descriptions of 8. nilotica of Baker and S. ‘trifasciata
(Hort.) Prain, shows that there is not much difference between the
two species. Thus there is not sufficient ground for considering
S. nilotica and 8, trifasciata as two distinct species. Therefore,
the question is whether S. nilotica or S. trifasciata is to be retain-
ed. According to the rules of nomenclature S. nilotica has been
described earlier. Hence it is advisable to reduce S. trifasciata
to S. nilotica. 8S. trifasciata is not an Indian species, but it is a
West African species cultivated in Lower Bengal. Prain himself
observes under S. trifasciata as follows: ‘Cultivated but also some-
times in village shrubberies probably native of West Africa, but
appears to have reached India from America where it is some-
times grown as S. guineensis, the West African Bowstring Hemp
which is not naturalized and is hardly known even in cultivation
in India.’ Meunissier remarks that this plant has all the charac-
ters of S. guineensis except the yellow stripes of the leaves. Eivi-
dence recorded in the literature and examination of type sheets
of Prain’s S. trifasciata lead to the conclusion that S. nilotica of
Baker is very likely the same species as S. trifasciata. Prain him-
self, as his above notes indicate, considers S. trifasciata, as grown
in the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, and other places, a horti-
cultural form or variety—as may be called—of a tropical species,
very likely S. nilotica. Prain’s remark on the herbarium sheet. of
S. trifasciata confirms the above conclusion. The chief distin-
euishing characters, according to Brown, of 8. nilotica Baker and
S. trifasciata Prain, are as follows:
S. nilotica. S. ¢rtfusciata.
Leaves 2-3 to a growth ; | Leaves often 1-2, in vigorous
strap shaped with sides for | plants 2-6 to a growth ; linear
a foot or more of the central | lanceolate or narrowly elongated
part, deeply concave-canelled, lanceolate.
petiole 1-2 feet long.
Bracts #;-7z in. long. ...| Bracts }-4 in. long.
Flowers 4-10 in. cluster. ... | Flowers 3-8 in, cluster.
Flowering lobes 53-6 in. dais | Flowering Jobes 7-9 in.
These distinguishing characters of the two species are over-
lapping and not quite definitely demarcated. The authentic her-
barium specimen taken as 8S. trifasciata differs from yellow striped
garden specimen as much as the herbarium specimens of S. nilo-
tica differs. The yellow band is a very distinct character in the
garden plant. The general characters noted in Brown’s key to
the genus in the Kew Bulletin, No. 5, p. 194, 1915, are applicable
156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
both to S. nilotica and 8S. trifasciata. The character: Leaves.
‘sometimes striped with yellow’ is evidently mentioned to include
the var. Laurenti of S. trifasciata, formerly confused with S.
guineensis, as remarked by Prain in the Bengal Plants, vol. i
p. 1054, 1908, and Records Bot. Surv. of India, vol. iii, No. 2,
Pe 287, 1905, Brain 625; trifasciata is quite a distinct plant from
Dracaena ovata and S. guineensis as figured in Bot. Mag., pp.
1180-81, 1809, and referred to in Conspectus Florae Alfricae,
Durand and Schinz, vol. v, p. 140, 1895. The original descrip-
tions of S. nilotica of Baker as published in the Journ. of the Linn.
Soc., vol. xiv, p. 548, 1875, is applicable to S. trifasciata of Prain
aus well. As far as my investigation leads me, I consider that
there is not sufficient difference between §S. nilotica and S. tri-
fasciata as regards their specific characters are concerned. S.
trifasciata of Prain may perhaps be conveniently reduced to
S. nilotica Baker. I would, therefore, prefer to consider S. tri-
fasciata a synonym of S. nilotica. Sheht difference in the nature
of the leaves and dimensions of the floral structures might be due
to clhmatie conditions and horticultural manipulations. The illus-
tration of the horticultural species—S. Laurentii given in Garden-
ers’ Chronicle, vol. xlv, p. 847, 1909, is considered as a variety of
S. trifasciata by N. E. Brown. This 8S. Laurentii is the one which
tallies best with the vellow striped specimen. The living specimen
was also received as 8S. Laurentii by Dr. D. 8S. Laud, Superinten-
dent, Victoria Gardens, Bombay, as his following note indicates:
Sansevieria Laurentu Hort. (S. Laurentii Wildeman).
‘“Hab.—Tropical Africa, was introduced in these Gardens from
Messrs. L. R. Russell, Richmond Nurseries, England, on 29th
March 1923. It is cultivated in these gardens as an ornamental
plant both in the open and in the conservatories for the beauty
of its leaves. It has a band of creamy yellow 4-4 in. or more
wide along the leaf margins in addition to the recular variegation.
This plant flowers and. seeds in this garden. “The flowers are
whitish green. No attempt is made to pr ‘opagate from leaf-cutting.
The plant is easily propagated by divisions.’
‘Mention has also been made of this variety of Sansevieria by
Mr. Maemillan in his book—Tvropical Gardening and Planting,
p. 154.’
Propagation from fragments of yellow striped leaves at the
Roval Botanic Garden, ‘Calcutta, resulted in the development of
a plant without yellow stripes in the leaves, although plants raised
from rhizome produced plants with yellow striped leaves without
fail. Reversion to plants without ‘yellow stripes in the leaves
when raised from leaf cuttings was recorded by Gerome, the head
eardener at Paris, in 1914. Gerome received the yellow striped
specimen directly from Prof. E. Laurent who brought this inter-
esting plant from Belgian Congo. Experiment at Kew, as Brown
mentions, had Pian results. -A Meunissier in Gardeners’
Chronicle, vol. lvi, p. 144, 1914, surmises that such bad mutation
—JI mean reversion to parent plant when raised from leaf cuttings
NOTES ON THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF SANSEVIERA — 157
—is due to variation in cell structure in the rhizome and yellow
striped leaves.
Considering the facts mentioned above, this yellow. striped
specimen may better be taken as S. nilotica Baker, var. Laurentii
Wildeman. A detailed description of this variety as observed in
the fresh specimen in comparison with the herbarium sheets of
S. nilotica and S. trifasciata of Prain is given below:
Sansevieria nilotica Baker, var. Laurentii Wildem.
Synonym—S. trifasciata (Hort.) Prain, var. Laurentii N. E.
Brown; S. Laurentii Wildem.
Plant with underground creeping stem, 1.3 to 2.5 cm. thick;
leaves 2-3-6 to a growth, 1-3 rarely 4 ft. long ond torr cin,
broad, erect, adult ones broadly lanceolate or strap shaped, some-
times the leaf blade showing a tendency to becoming somewhat
spirally twisted from right to left towards the apices, but normally
with the sides for a foot or more parallel, tapering towards the
apices ending into a pale green, leathery, acute, more or less stout,
thorny point, and gradually narrowing down to the base into a
somewhat concave channelled petiole, “conspicuously marked with
very: closely packed irregular zigzag dark green or paler green
transverse bars with creamy yellow, .6 to 1.8 em. wide stripes
and somewhat cartilaginous edges, more or less overspread with
glaucous bloom. Scape 14 to 3h ft. high, of which 1 to 14 ft.
covered with irregularly scattered flower-clusters bearing generally
3 to 6 flowers, .6 to 3.8 cm. apart. The lower part of the scape
passing into 3-5 ovate, lanceolate, acute, pale brown, membrane-
ous sheath, about 7.5 em. long and 2.5 em. broad. Bracts .3 to
1.3 cm. long spreading, narrowly ovate lanceolate, acute or slightly
acuminate. Flowers 3-8 in a cluster, very pale greenish white or
creamy white; 5 to 10 mm. long, joint at or just above the middle
with persistent pedicel, 2 to 5 mm. long. Perianth lobes 14 to
38 cm. long, linear, subacute or sub-obtuse; style 24 to 34 cm.
long. Fruit a berry, green when immature, yellow when ripe.
about 5-8 mm. in diameter. Flowering freely and_ profusely
during cold weather, fruiting a little later.
Habitat.—Tropical Africa.
SOME BIRDS OF CHITTAGONG.
BY
Magor R. SS. P. Bares, M.B.0.v.
— I was in Chittagong from March Sth for exactly three months.
Owing to ‘terrorist’ activities one’s movements were somewhat
restricted, so the following list is by no means complete. I never
got down to the sea-shore which is difficult to reach owing to lack
of roads, and in fact with but one or two exceptions all the birds
in the list were seen within three miles of my bungalow.
The residential station of Chittagong is built on a series of small
pimples up to a couple of hundred feet in height, the end of a
low narrow range running northwards parallel to the coast with a
wide cultivated plain between it and the Chittagong Hill Tracts
which do not concern us here at all. As one gets away from the
station, these hills become more and more thickly wooded and
the height gradually increases. The maze of narrow long winding
nullahs between the wooded hills contains very varied types of
country from grass and scanty cultivation to thick bush, and reeds,
and canes, into which it is almost impossible to penetrate.
Clearings and old tea gardens are also to be met with. This part
of the district naturally contains a very varied and interesting
avifauna. The flat cultivated areas away from these hills contain
little out of the ordinary.
(8) Corvus levaillanti andamanensis. Andaman Jungle-Crow. The stout bill
is a very noticeable feature of this crow.
(11) Corvus splendens splendens. ‘The House Crow of Chittagong is a very
dark bird but is apparently ‘splendens’.
Dendrocitta rufa. Tree-Pie. Common. A pair in our garden had
a young one (I never saw more than one) out of the nest on May
22nd.
(120) Dryonastes ruficollis, Rufous-necked Laughing-Thrush. Saw two pairs
in the thickets and long grass at the edge of one of the long winding nullahs.
One shot on May 26th proved to be a female whose organs were undeveloped.
Besides other notes they have a very pleasant three-noted whistle.
Timalea pileata. Red-capped Babbler. A common bird in the _ hilly
tracts. The testes of a male shot on April 12th were slightly enlarged. This
bird has some harsh notes which I could not distinguish from the ‘korkuch’
of the Indian Great Reed-Warbler which is such a feature of every reed patch
in Kashmir. Until I had actually run one of the birds to earth producing
these notes in a reedy patch near some cultivation, I was convinced that a
Reed-Warbler must reside in Chittagong. They have also quite a flute-like
little descending trill of about half a dozen notes, a most pleasing
effort.
Pelloraeum ruficeps. A Spotted Babbler was by no means uncommon
on the bush-covered hillsides, chiefly where the higher trees were few and
the scrub fairly thick. A pair were often heard in an old tea garden just
close to our bungalow. The only one I managed to shoot was unfortunately
blown almost to pieces. This was on April 14th. It was a breeding male.
The outer webs of the feathers of the sides of the neck and hind neck were
ynore a very dark brown than blackish and the spots on the breast also dark
SOME BIRDS OF CHITTAGONG 155
brown, but on the whole it appeared to me to agree with the description of
mandellit.
(283) Mixornis gularis rubricapilla. Assam Yellow-breasted Babbler. Shot a
male out of a party in very thick scrub jungle in the hills on May 18th. The
testes were greatly enlarged.
(862) Aegithina tiphia tiphia. Common lora.
(403) Molpastes cafer. Red-vented Bulbul. Common. A very dark bird gener-
ally, so presumably bengalensis but 1 collected no specimens. Nor did 1 look
for nests but came on one with three eggs in the crown of a small palm on
a roadside on April 12th. Two days later it had been destroyed.
Otocompsa jocosa. Red-Whiskered Bulbul. Common from the outskirts
of the station, being slightly more of a jungle bird than the Red-vented
Bulbul. Took a nest of three eggs at the Ifoy Scheme (waterworks) on April
14th and noted numbers of young about shortly after that date. The nest im
question was built into a mass of fallen leaves caught up in a bush about
three feet from the ground.
(442) Brachypodius cinereoventris. Grey-bellied Bulbul. Two bulbuls of this
genus were disturbed in a very damp heavily wooded nullah some three miles
outside the station on May 20th. One of them obligingly perched quite close
to me for a few moments. It was a grey-bellied bird.
(495) Saxicola torquata. Bush-Chat. Not very common when we_ first
arrived. ‘hey soon disappeared.
(532) Phoenicurus ochruros rufiventris, Hastern Indian Redstart. One or two
seen in March on passage, the last being recorded on the 17th.
(558) Copsychus saularis saularis. Magpie Robin. Common and _ breeding
freely in March, April and May. Young birds seen in the nest on May 2nd
in a Woodpecker’s old nesting hole and again on May 18th.
Monticola solitaria. Blue Rock-'Thrush. One frequented our compound
until April 8th. A number were seen on passage about this time.
(639) Siphia parva albicilla, astern MNRed-breasted Flycatcher. Common,
leaving about the third week of April.
(693) Hypothymis azurea styani. Northern Indian Black-naped Ilycatcher.
Shot a male in thick low mixed Jungle on May 18th; organs considerably en-
larged. They were not common.
(719) Lanius cristatus cristatus. Brown Shrike. Common and still much in
evidence when we left in early June.
(729) Tephrodornis pondiceriana pondiceriana. Indian Common Wood-Shrike.
(763) Artamus fuscus. Ashy Swallow-Shrike. One*only seen cruising round
our bungalow on May 20th.
(767) Dicrurus macrocercus albirictus. Himalayan Black Drongo. Common.
Noticed building operations in progress in a fork of a tall nim tree at the
Turtle Tank on April LOth. On April 29th saw two young out of the nest
being fed by their parents.
(814) Orthotomus sutorius patia, Burmese ailor-Bird.
(940) Prinia inornata. Wren-Warbler. Not particularly common but to be
met with on most of the sun-grass covered hillsides. A male and female shot
op April 12th had the organs only slightly developed.
(958) Oriolus xanthornus xanthornous. Indian Black-headed Oriole. Common.
(964) Gracula religiosa intermedia. Indian Grackle. I often saw a pair of
these birds in a neglected tea garden in the low hills about three miles north
of Chittagong.
(969) Lamprocorax panayensls affinis. Tipperah Glossy Stare. Shot an in-
mature bird on May 27th out of a flock of four containing one adult. They
were feeding in some tall trees in my compound. The iris was a yellowish
red.
160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
(982) Sturnia malabarica malabarica. Grey-headed Myna. Common.
(996) Acridotheres tristis tristis, Common Myna. Common.
(999) Aethiopsar fuscus fuscus. Indian Jungle Myna.
(1004) Sturnopastor contra contra. Indian Pied Myna. First noticed building
operations on April Lith from which date they were nesting freely.
(1010) Ploceus atrigula atrigula. Hastern Baya. This Weaver does not wait
for the commencement of the rains in the Chittagong District before com-
mencing to breed. I noted one colony on April 21st which must have been
building for some days, and during the next couple of weeks noted numbers
commencing operations. fairly tall palms were most in demand,.but I saw
two colonies on low leafy trees.
(1020) Munia atricapilla rubronigra. Northern Chestnut-bellied Munia. Com-
mon both in the cultivated areas and in the jungle. Often seen in quite large
flocks, sometimes high up im tall trees, sometimes in the long grass and swampy
places. The only nest I noticed was being built in a thorny bush close to a
path running through quite thick jungle; date May 18th, but a few days previ-
ously I saw one picking up grass in my own compound.
(1097) Passer domesticus nigricollis. Burmese House-Sparrow.
(1148) Riparia paludicola brevicaudata. Indian Sand Martin.
(1186) Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni. Indian Tree Pipit. There was a sudden
influx of these birds on March 12th on passage which lasted to the end of
the month.
(1195) Anthus richardi rufulus, Jnodian Pipit.
~ (1215) Alauda gulgula gulgula. Small Indian Skylark.
(1245) Eremopteryx grisea grisea. Ashy-crowned Finch Lark. By no means
common.
(1250) Zosterops palpebrosa cacharensis. Cachar White-Hye.
(1279) Leptocoma asiatica intermedia. Burmese Purple Sunbird. Sunbirds
were really quite uncommon. The only nest found was on May 26th. The
female was sitting on two fresh eggs. The nest was overhanging a small
much jungle-covered stream running out of one of the numerous small nullahs
through some rice cultivation. It resembled most remarkably the flotsam
caught up in flood time on all the canes and brambles around.
(1297) Dicaeum cruentatum cruentatum. Indian Scarlet-backed Flower-Pecker.
A very common and familiar bird, both m the gardens and out in the jungle.
(13853) Chrysophlegma flavinucha flavinucha. Large Yellow-naped Woodpecker.
Saw a pair in fairly thick jungle in the low hills two miles out on May 13th.
In the setting sun their crests appeared lemon yellow and stood out fanwise
from the head.
(1368) Dryobates macei. LF ulvous-breasted Pied Woodpecker. Seen two or
three times in the jungles bordering the Foy Scheme dam.
(1394) Brachypternus benghalensis. Golden-backed | Woodpecker. Common
A pair of these birds were boring a hole in a tree close to a Railway
official’s bungalow in Chittagong on April 23rd. On its completion however
a pai of Common Mynas took possession.
(1432) Thereiceryx lineatus hodgsoni. Assam lLineated Barbet. Not very
common in the station.
(1486) Cyanops asiatica asiatica. Blue-throated Barbet. Only seen in the
jungle-covered low hills such as at the Foy Scheme.
(1446) Xantholema haemacephala indica. Burmese Crimson-breasted ‘Barbet.
Somewhat scarce.
Cuculus canorus. A Cuckoo of this species was heard calling in a
railway bungalow compound on April 28rd.
SOME BIRDS OF CHITTAGONG © 161
(1456) Cuculus. micropterus micropterus. Indian Cuckoo. Excessively com-
mon. They started calling in the second week of March.
Eudynaniis scolopaceus. Koel.
(1479) Rhopodytes tristis tristis. Large Himalayan Green-billed Malkoha. I
remarked this bird in the better wooded. patches concealing the villages in the
cultivated areas as well as in thicker jungle along the hills.
(1489) Taccocua leschenaulti affinis. Bengal Sirkeer Cuckoo.
(1491) Centropus sinensis intermedius. Hume's Crow-Pheasant. The chuck-
ling laugh is much more frequently indulged in than the hooting note.
(1508) Psittacula alexandri fasciata. Indian Red-breasted Paroquet. ‘This
very noisy bird is the common Paroquet of Chittagong. Two pairs were noted
nesting in holes in casuarinas in the station in “April.
(1518) Coryllis vernalis vernatis, Indian Loriquet. Common..
(1519) Coracias benghalensis affinis, Burmese Roller. Quite common. on our
arrival in March, but all had disappeared before the month was out.
Merops orientalis. Green Bee-Kater.. :
(1526) Merops superciliosus javanicus. Biue-tailed Bee-Hater. Very common
and breeding freely in April and May. An enormous colony, which must have
numbered a hundred pairs, was nesting in the face of a sandy cliff close to
Sholashahr Railway Station, a suburb of Chittagong.
(1533) Alcedo atthis bengalensis. Common Indian Kingfisher. Not very coim-
mon. -This was the only Kingfisher LL ever’ saw along the streams, which
were not suitable for the Pied Kingfisher. The main river and its tributaries
are tidal for many miles inland, and on the only two occasions I went up
by launch I saw no Kingfishers of any kind.
(1551) Halcyon smyrnensis fusca. Indian White-breasted Kingfisher. Com-
mon in the station and breeding freely in April and May.
Upupa epops. There is no resident Hoopoe in Chittagong. I saw
three or four (probably saturata) soon after our arrival i.e. between March 5th
and 17th but none after the latter date. a.
(1599) Micropus affinis subfuscatus. Malay House-Swiftt.
(1600) Cypsiurus batasiensis batasiensis. Bengal Palm-Swift.
(1661) Bubo coromandus coromandus. Dusky Horned Owl. Common. Their
rumbling calls were to be heard in the evenings from every suitable clump of
trees. We had a pair in our own compound. in Rajputana these birds called
mainly in the rains and. breeding season but. they were calling all the time
we were in Chittagong.
(1684) Athene brama indica. Northern Spotted Owlet. Rather uncommon.
In fact I only heard them at a small village a mile or so north of Chittagong.
(1689) Glaucidium cuculoides rufescens. Burmese Barred Owlet. The com-
mon Owl of Chittagong. We had two pairs in our compound on the outskirts.
(1706) Sarcogyps calvus. Black Vulture. Quite common.
(1711) Gyps indicus nudiceps. Northern Long-billed Vulture. Common,
(1713) Pseudogyps bengalensis. Indian White-backed Vulture.
(1730) Falco chiquera chiquera. Ned-headed Merlin. This bird was quite
common in Mymensingh but I only saw it occasionally at Chittagong.
(1780) Ichthyophaga ichihyaetus ichthyaetus. Large Grey-headed Fishing-
Hagle.
(1784) Haliastur indus indus. Brahminy Mite.
(1788) Milvus migrans govinda. Common Pariah Kite.
(1792) Circus cyaneus cyaneus. Hen-Harrier. The Harriers had mostly left
when we arrived in Chittagong, but I saw one Hen-Harrier, a late straggler,
jag
16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVilI
on May Ist. The Pied Harrier, still common when we left Mymensingh, was
never seen, and the next bird too only a couple of times.
(1794) Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus. Marsh Harrier. Last seen on May 2nd.
(1819) Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis. Indian Crested Honey-Buzzard. Com-
paratively common. A pair were always hanging about our compound, making
their presence known by a high-pitched trisyllabic squeal uttered frequently
when on the wing. On one occasion as I drove up to the bungalow, I nearly
ran into one as I came over the crest of the hill. It was on the ground busy
devouring termites. When the winged swarms appeared they were always much
in evidence along with the Common and Brahminy Kites, Mynas and Crows,
wheeling to and fro screaming continuously.
(1826) Crocopus phoenicopterus viridifrons. Burmese Green Pigeon. Building
in March.
(1856) Columbia livia intermedia. Indian Blue Rock-Pigeon.
(1874) Streptopclia chinensis tigrina. Burmese Spotted Dove. Exceedingly
common.
(1900) Polyplectron bicalcaratum bicalcaratum. Burmese Peacock-Pheasant.
(1903) Gallus bankiva murghi. Common Red Jungle-Fowl. Fairly common
all along the hills from the commencement of the forests at the Foy Scheme.
(1921) Gennaeus horsfieldii horsfieldii. Black-breasted Kalij Pheasant.
(1997) Turnix suscitator plumbipes. Burmese Bustard-Quail.
(2022) Amaurornois phoenicurus chinensis. Chinese White-breasted Water-hen.
Common.
(2031) Metopodius indicus. Bronze-winged Jacana. Very common. Every
tank sufficiently weedy had at least one pair.
(2127) Lobivanellus indicus atronuchalis. Burmese Red-wattled Lapwing.
Only seen once on May- 2nd.
(2143) Tringa ochrophus, Green Sandpiper.
(2145) Tringa hypoleucos. Common Sandpiper.
(2150) Glottis nebularia. Greenshank.
(2170) Capella gallinago gallinago. antail Snipe.
(2173) Capella stenura, Pintail Snipe.
(2188) Anhinga melanogaster. Indian Darter.
(2218) Ardea cinerea rectirostris. Eastern Grey Heron.
(2225) Egretta garzetta garzetta. Little Egret.
(2226) Bubulcus ibis coromandus. Cattle Egret. Noted to be in _ breeding
plumage on May 2nd.
(2229) Ardeola grayii. Indian Pond Heron.
(2237) Ixobrychus sinensis sinensis. Yellow Bittern.
(2238) Ixobrychus cinnamomeus. Chestnut Bittern. A male shot on May 24th
had the testes the size of pea-nuts. It had a slightly digested whole frog
in its stomach.
(2292) Podiceps ruficollis capensis. Indian Juittle Grebe.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SEDGEHS OF INDIA
BY
Jee CAIUS “S.de,. Fe Ss
The CypERACEAE are grass-like herbs broadly distributed all over
the world, and especially im the cold regions ot the northern hemis-
phere; they are gregarious in marshy plains, damp meadows, and
the dry slopes of high mountains; they are less frequent in maritime
estuaries. The family includes 85 genera, with about 2,600 species.
The medicinal and poisonous sedges of the world belong to 11
genera:—CaAREX (cold and temperate regions); CypERus (Tropics
and Subtropics); EriopHorum (Arctic or Northern temperate
regions); F'imBristyLis (Tropics); GAHNiA (Australasia; from Singa-
pore to the Sandwich Islands); JunceLLUS (warm regions); Ky.-
LINGA (Tropics and Subtropics); PycrEus (warm and temperate
regions); Kemirea (Tropics); Scirpus (cosmopolitan; as far as the
Polar regions); SCLERIA (moist warm countries).
The medicinal and poisonous sedges of India belong to 7
genera :—-CAREX, CYPERUS, FIMBRISTYLIS, JUNCELLUS, IJYLLINGA,
KREMIREA, SCIRPUS.
A. Spikelets of few or many glumes; lower 1-2 glumes
always empty, uppermost male empty or iunperfect,
intermediate ones bisexual :
I. Flowering glumes usually many, all distichous;
no hypogynous bristles :
1. Style bifid; flowers 1 or 2 in spikelet; rhachilla of
spikelet deciduous 2a i IXYLLINGA.
2. Style bifid; rhachilla of spikelet persistent ; nut
dorsally compressed 5 JUNCELLUS.
3. Style trifid; rhachilla of spikelet persistent after
fall of glumes CYPERUS.
II. Flowering glumes usually ‘many im a “spiral ; hypo-
gynous scales or bristles often present :
1. Style-base persistent or completely deciduous; no
hypogynous bristles; leafy plants T°IMBRISTYLIS.
2. Style-base not articulate passing into nut eradu-
ally; hypogynous bristles 0-6, undivided, linear,
rarely oblong : ScCIRPUS.
B. Spikelets sessile in dense digitate cylindric spikes ;
glumes 4, 3 empty, uppermost with a perfect flower REMIREA.
Spikelets of male or female flowers, or both; nuts
enclosed in an utricle entire or 2-fid at the tip only CAREX.
CAREX. :
This genus includes over 900 species broadly dispersed in cold
and temperate regions, a few being found in mountainous tropical
regions.
CO. arenaria Linn., C. disticha Huds., and C. hirta Linn. are
used medicinally in Europe; C. macrocephala Willd. and C. sidero-
sticta Hance are similarly used in China.
164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Carex cernua Boott is found in Assam and extends to Tong-
king and Japan.
Lhe plant is said to be toxic to cattle producing lack of appe-
tite, loss of milk, and definite nervous symptoms.
CYPERUS.
This genus includes 800 species, natives of tropical and subtro-
pical regions, a few being found in temperate regions. It abounds
on the shores of tropical rivers, and in the clearings of virgin
forests.
The following species are used medicinally in Europe: C. escu-
lentus Linn., C. longus Linn., C. rotundus Linn.—; in China,
Indo-China, Malaya, and the Philippine Islands: C. rotundus
Linn.—; in West Africa: C. articulatus Linn., C. esculentus
Linn.—; in South Africa: C. esculentus Linn., C. fastigiatus
Rottb.,. C. longus Linn., C. sexangularis Nees—; in Madagascar:
C. aequalis Vahl, C. alboviridis. C. B. Clarke,--C. -esculentus
Linn.—; in Guiana: C. elegans Linn. ane
A. Rhachilla of spikelets not much winged; spikelets
spicate or subracemose, linear, 6-20 flowered.
Leaves and bracts long... he Co iia;
B. Rhachilla of spikelets (usually conspicuously) winged :
1. Tall plants. Stolons long, hardening into creeping
rhizomes. Leaves short. Glumes approximate,
closely imbricate :
a. Spikelets shortly spicate, 12-50 flowered
b. Spikelets linear, pale straw-coloured re
2. Tall or medium plants, stoloniferous or rhizome
woody. Leaves and bracts long. Rhachilla of
spikelets winged. Glumes closely imbricate:
a. Stem at base nodosely thickened:
i. Leaves flaccid, flat; umbels expanded, usually
Y
}. articulatus.
. SCATLOSUS ,
eS)
compound oe ay. seu Ont (Ca VOLUMES:
. Leaves rigid, filiform, or very narrow; umbel
simple, compact ‘as sia ue Tac. stoloniperus.
b. Stem at base not nodose:
i. Stem 6-12 in. high; leaves as long or nearly so 6. C. esculentus.
ii. Stem 12-36 in. high; leaves 3-3 stem ... woe wa, Ce longus.
3. Tall stout plants. Stolons absent. Leaves and
bracts long. Umbel large, compound. Spikes
and spikelets many. Rbhachilla of spikelets
conspicuously winged. Anthers apiculate, not
rarely crested. Style with its three branches
small. Nut small ashy black.
Spikelets linear subterete suberect dirty straw-
colour 43 es a. Oni. platyphytlus:
1. Cyperus iria Linn. is found throughout India and Ceylon
in rice fields. It extends to Malaya, Indo-China, China, Japan,
Australia, Afghanistan, Persia, the Mediterranean, and tropical
Africa. |
The plant is tonic, stimulant; stomachic, and astringent.
Among the Mundas of Chota Nagpur the tuber is ground to-
gether with that of C. rotundus, and drunk in fever.
Bengal: Burachucha—; Hasada: Jimtu—; Hindi: Burachucha, Nagar-
motha—-; Lao: Yak dan din—; Malay: Rumput tuloh belalang—; Mundari:
Huringloeongjimtu, Loeongjimtu, Loeongjintu—; Naguri: Jindu—; Rayputana:
Moth—; Sinhalese: Welhiri—.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SEDGES OF INDIA 165
2. Cyperus articulatus Linn. occurs from Bengal to Ceylon
on the banks of rivers and lakes. It inhabits the tropical and warm
regions of both hemispheres. |
The tuber is a good tonic and stimulant. It is used medicinally
in Hausaland.
Arabic: Chasegj—; Betsimisaraka: Mita—; Egypt: Goreyb—; Guinea:
Gorhe, Madia—; Kanuri: Kajiji—; La Reunion: Jambelon—; West Indies:
Adrue—. J
3. Cyperus scariosus Br. is found in Bengal and Peeu, and
extends thence to Australia.
The root is recognized by both Ayurveda and Yunani. Hindu
writers describe it as pungent, acrid and cooling; promoting the
flow of milk; regulating the bodily temperature by its antipyretic
and sedative action ; useful in the treatment of biliousness, fever,
dysentery; relieving thirst, fatigue, burning sensations, and bad
taste in the mouth. |
Mohammedan authors qualify the taste of the root as bitter,
hot, and unpleasant. As a drug it relieves flatulence, stimulates
the menstrual discharge, enriches the blood, and improves the
appetite; it also chee ks abnormally profuse menstruation and uri-
nation; it is useful in the treatment of stuttering, offensive dis-
charge from the nose, eye sore, brain and chest troubles, piles,
swellings, lumbago, and scorpion sting.
In practice the root is considered cordial, stomachic, and desic-
cant; also diaphoretic and diuretic. A decoction is used in gonor-
rhoea and in syphilitic affections; and it has been found useful as
an astringent in diarrhoea.
In cases of epilepsy the root is given in combination with vale-
rian.
Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally that the drug is
not an antidote to scorpion venom.
Arabic: Soad, Soadekufi—; Bengal: Nagarmutha—; Burma: Vomonniu—;
Canarese: Konnarigadda, Nagarmusthe—; Deccan: Nagarmotah—; Gujerati:
Nagaramothya—; ae Nagarmotha— ; Malayalam : Korakizhanna
Marathi: TLawala—; Persian: Mushkezamin—; Sanskrit: Chakranksha, Charu-
kesara, Chudalapindamusta, Kachharuha, Kalapini, Nadeyi, Nagarmusta, Naga-
rotha, Shishire, Vrishadhmankshi, Uchchta—; Tamil: Koraikilangu—; Teluqu:
Kolatungamuste, Tungagaddalaveru—; Urdu: Nagarmotha—.
4. Cyperus longus Linn. occurs at Quetta and Mount Abu.
Tt extends westwards to the Atlantic.
The bitter aromatic tuber is used in Spain as a_ stimulant,
stomachic, and emmenagogue.
The Zulus prepare an enema from the tuber for children with
stomach troubles. They also blow the powdered tuber into the
nose and ears for colds and other troubles in these regions. and
the tuber may be chewed for the same purposes.
At Filabusi in Southern Rhodesia the juice of the plant is re-
garded as being very poisonous and is said to burn the skin when
applied to it.
Catalan: Castanyola—; Chinese: Hiang Fou Tzeu—; Egypt: Sa’ad—;
Filabusi: Mlabie—; French: Souchet long, Souchet odorant—; Italian; Giunco
odorato—; Spanish: Juncia olorosa—,
166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
5. Cyperus rotundus Linn. is common in waste grounds,
gardens, and roadsides in open spots. It is found throughout
India and Ceylon, and in all warm parts of the world.
Ayurvedists describe the root as pungent, acrid, cooling, astrin-
gent, bitter, stomachic, and anthelmintic. It restores lost appetite,
and is useful in leprosy, thirst, fever, diseases of the blood, bili-
ousness, dysentery, intense itching, pain, vomiting, epilepsy, oph-
thalmia, and erysipelas.
According to Arabian and Persian writers the root is attenuant,
diuretic, emmenagogue, diaphoretic, anthelmintic, and vulnerary.
They recommend it for the treatment of ulcers and sores, fevers,
dyspepsia, and urinary calculus. They prescribe it in large doses
as an anthelmintic.
The roots are commonly used as a diaphoretic and astringent.
They are also credited with stimulant and _ diuretic properties.
They are held in great esteem as a cure for disorders of the stomach
and irritation of the bowels. They are scraped and pounded with
green ginger and, in this form, mixed with honey, they are given
in cases of dysentery in doses of about a scruple, and are said to
have been given with benefit in cholera. They are used too as
a worm remedy. In the Philippines the bruised root is applied to
the face for toothache.
In the Konkan the fresh tubers are applied to the breast to
stimulate the flow of milk. In Chota Nagpur a decoction is used
in fever.
In Malaya the tubers are smoked in cases of pain in the nose.
In Cambodia they are a common remedy for fever and retention
of urine.
According to the Chinese the small tubers act on the lungs
and liver. Their general action is tonic, stimulating and stomachic.
in Ceylon a decoction is given in fever, diarrhoea, dyspepsia
and stomach complaints.
The tuber is an Ayurvedic medicine for snake bites and scorpion
stings; but Mhaskar and Caius have demonstrated that it is use-
less in the treatment of either snake bite or scorpion sting.
Sanjiva Rao, Panicker and Sudborough have studied the
chemical composition of the essential oil from the tubers, but
have not been able to isolate any pure substances from it (1925).
Further work (1928) by Kimura and Ohtani does not throw any
light on the therapeutic properties of the drug.
Annam: Cu co, Huong phu—; Arabic: Suad—; Australia: Yelka—; Ben-
aal: Ghun, Motha, Mutha, Nagurmotha—; Bicol: Botobotones—; Bombay:
Barikmoth. Musta—: Cambodia: Kravalchruk, Kravanhchruk—; Canarese:
Tungegadde—; Chinese: Houi T’eou Ts’in, Hsiang Fu, So T's’ao—; Deccan:
Korekijhar—; Egypt: Burbeyt, Dis, Negil, Sa’ad, Sa’ad-el-homar, Sibl-el-
ma’iz—: English: Nut Grass—: Guam: Chaguan, Humatag—; Gujerati:
Motha—: Hamadan: So-ad—; Hasada: Sunumsangga—; Hausa: Ayaaya—:
Hindi: Ghun, Motha, Mutha, Nagurmotha—: Ho: Rotesila—; Iraq: Ghusai-
niyah, Sa’ad, Su’aid, Sijil—; Janan: Hamasage, Kobushi—; Kut: Ghusai-
niyah—; Lao: Ya m’niun mu—; La Reunion: Oumine—; Malaya: Heong foo,
Rumput haliva hitam—; Marathi: Bimbal, Motha—; Mundari: Bathabijir—;
Naguri: Mothatasad, Pirjimtu—; Nasirabad: Kabb—; New Caledonia: Jilio—;
Pampangan: Cusung, Galonalpas, Malaapolid, Mota, Omading, Omadiung,
Onoran, Sursur—; Persian: Suad, Su’d, Muschk-i-zemin--; Sadani: Motha-
ghas— ; Sanskrit: Abda, Arnoda, Bhadrakshi. Bhadramusta, Gangeya, Granthi,
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SEDGES OF INDIA 167
Gundra, Hima, Kachhola, Kakshottha, Kasheru, Krodeshtha, Kuru, Kurubilva,
Kutannata, Musta, Mustaka, Sugandhigranthila, Valya, Varahi, Varida, Vin-
dakhya—; Santali: Tandisura—; Sinhalese: Kalanduru—; Sokoto: Guirigiri—;
Spanish: Juncia redunda—; Sudan: Seid—; Tagalog: Mutha—; Tamil: Ilsora,
Korai—; Telugu: Bhadramuste, Gandala, Kaivartakamuste, Mustakamu,
Shakhatungaveru, Tungamuste—; United States of America: Nut Grass—;
Uraon: Utrubanda—.
6. Cyperus esculentus Linn. inhabits the Upper Gangetic
Plain and is found scattered from the Punjab to the Nilgiris and
Anamalais. It is distributed over Southern Europe, Africa and
America. :
According to Ayurveda the tuber is cooling, sweet, acrid;
gvalactagogue, astringent to the bowels, aphrodisiac; sharpens the
appetite and improves the taste; useful in eye troubles, burning
sensations, and leprosy; disturbs both heat production and heat
regulation in the body.
The juice expressed from the tubers is used as an aphrodisiac
in Sierra Leone and on the Gold Coast. In Guinea the tubers are
given as a cooling drink; the leaves are applied topically for head-
ache.
The root is an Egyptian remedy for colic and hypochondriasis.
The Zulus chew portions of the root for the relief of indigestion,
especially when this condition is accompanied by foul breath.
Zulu girls, with a view to hastening the inception of menstruation,
eat porridge in which a handful of the boiled roots has been
mashed.
In Madagascar the tuber is used as a stimulant and aphrodi-
siac.
The tubers are used as a vegetable in Southern Europe, and
Northern and Southern Africa, and, after roasting and grinding, as
a substitute for coffee and cocoa. They contain fatty acids,
sucrose and starch; but no alkaloid, caffeine or asparagin.
Ada: Fie—; Afrikaans: Enuntjie, Hoendernintjie, Uintjie—; Catalan:
Chufa—; Egypt: El-aswad, Es-sogheyyer. Habb-el-’aziz, Habb-el-’azizza,
Sa’ad—; English: Chufa, Earth Almond, Ground-almond, Nut Sedge. Rush
Nut, Tiger-nuts, Zulu Nut—; Hwe: Fie, Fio—; Fanti: Atadwe—; French:
Souchet comestible. Souchet sultan, Souchet tubéreux, Trasi—: French West
Africa: N’ton—; Fufulde: Watuje—: Ga: Atangwe—; Greek: Kiperos—;
Ffausa: Aya—; Hindi: Chichada—; Hova: Karepoka—; Kren: Fio—; Krobo:
Fai—; Madaqascar: Karekika—; Malinke: Toki—; Malta: Babbagiggi, Chufa,
Doleichini, Edible Rushnut. Habbghaziz—; Puniab: Dila, Kaseru—; Sanskrit:
Kaseruka, Kshudramusta, Sugandhi. Sukanda, Sukareshta—; Spanish: Chufa,
Juncia avellanada—:; Transvaal: Einches—: Twi: Atadwe—:; United States:
Chufu—; West Africa: Rush Nut, Tiger Nut—; Zulu: inDawo—.
7. Cyperus stoloniferus Retz is found on the shores of India,
especially in sea sand, from Sind to Ceylon, Coromandel and the
Malay Peninsula. It has also been found in the Nilgiri Moun-
tains. It is common in Malaya where it is found in the sandy
sea shores, and in tidal mud: in the former short and wiry, in the
latter taller and longer-leaved. It is distributed to China, Austra-
ha and Mauritius.
The scented tuber is reputed stomachic, and considered a good
stimulant for the heart.
Persian; Mutransialian—; South India; Jatamansi—,
168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX VIII
8. Cyperus platyphyllus Roem. and Schult. occurs in the
Deccan Peninsula and in Ceylon. |
The tuber is said to be tonic and stimulant.
FIMBRISTYLIS.
This genus consists of 225 species, chiefly tropical.
Fimbristylis junciformis Kunth occurs throughout India from
Kashmir to Madras and Pegu, up to altitudes of 1,500-5,000 ft.
It is also found: in the is lands of Ceylon and Madagascar and the
Philippines.
The Santals use the root in dysentery.
Santali: Bindinuthi—. 7
JUNCELLUS.
The genus numbers about 20 species inhabiting all warm
regions.
Juncellus inundatus ©. B. ae is frequent in swamps, from
Sylhet to the sea. It extends to China.
The tubers are used as a tonic and stimulating medicine.
Bengal: Pati--; Hindi: Pati—.
KYLLINGA.
This genus includes 50 species inhabiting tropical and sub-
tropical regions.
K. odorata Vahl is used medicinally in Brazil.
A. Nut-bearing. glume winged in upper half of keel .... 1. K. monocephala.
B. Nut-bearing glume not winged in the upper half of
its keel:
1. Rhizome practically absent one ey tle MUMICE MISE
2. Rhizome elongate if 3. K. brevifolia.
1. Kyllinga monocephala Roth. is found throughout India
and Ceylon, generally growing in the shade. It is very common
in the waste grounds and along the roadsides of Singapore and
other parts of the Malay Peninsula. It oceurs in the hot and warm
regions of the Old World, except the Mediterranean.
The root is a popular cooling medicine much used in fevers.
Tt is often used in the same way and for the same purposes. as
that of -K. triceps. 7 .
The herb is used as an antidote in many parts of India; but
Mhaskar and Caius have shown that it is not an antidote to either
snake venom or scorpion venom.:
Bengal: Nirbishi, Svetagothubi—; English: Button Sedge—:; Guam: Boton-
cillo, Chaguan lemae—; Hawaii: Kaluja—; Hindi: Nirbisht, -Swetgothubi—;
Malay: Rumput- butong—; Malayalam: Mottenga,. Pimottenga—; Marathi:
Mustu—; Pampangan: Malaapolid—; Sanskrit: Musta, Nirvisha—; Tagalog:
Anuang—; Visayan: Barubatones, Barubotones, Bolobotones, Borobotones, Bosi-
cad, Botonsilo, Malabotones, Mutha, Sudsud, Tobotobolangit—.,
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SEDGES OF INDIA 169
2. Kyllinga triceps Rottb. is to be found in Sind, Gujerat,
Deccan, Konkan, the Southern Mahratta Country, the North-
West Provinces, Rajputana, Burma, Ceylon. It extends to China,
North Australia and Africa.
The herb is an Ayurvedic drug described as bitter and cooling,
good against infection or poison, useful in healing wounds and
regulating the heat of the body, valuable in the treatment of ner-
vous troubles and of diseases of the blood. :
In Malabar a decoction of the roots is used to relieve thirst in
fevers and diabetes. Oil boiled with the roots is used to relieve
intensive itching of the skin.
The roots yield an essential oil which is used to promote the
action of the liver and to relieve thirst in fevers and diabetes.
Bengal: Nirbishi, Svetagothubi—; Hindi: Nirbisi, Shwetgothubi—: Malay-
alam: Mottenga, Pimottenga—; Marathi: Mustu—; Sanskrit: Apavisha,
Avisha, Nirvisha, Vishabhava, Vishaha, Vishahantri, Vishavairini, Vivisha—.
5. Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. is common throughout India,
Ceylon and Malacca. It is common on roadsides and waste
eround in the Malay Peninsula. It thrives in all warm regions,
except the Mediterranean. | |
The Malays use the rhizome for poulticing sore legs.
Malay: Rumput tuki—.
REMIREA.
The only species of this genus, R, maritima Aubl., is found
on all tropical sea-shores. It is common in sea-sand in Canara,
Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, the Nicobars, Ceylon. It is very
common in tropical America.
The stock is astringent and diuretic. An infusion of the root
is given as a sudorific and diuretic in Brazil and Guiana.
Guiana :
Betsimisaraka: Bararatandriaka—; Brazil: Paratura—; Freneh
Remire—.
SCIRPUS.
The genus includes about 200 species, dispersed all over the
world, as far as the Polar regions.
S. lacustris Linn. is used medicinally in Europe, S. maritimus
Linn. in China, S. cernuus Vahl and S. paludicola Kunth in South
Africa.
A. Nut marked with transverse wavy lines; hypogynous
bristles absent:
1. Spikelets in a single lateral dense head 1. S. articulatus.
2. Spikelets clustered in rays of a lateral umbel 2. S. corymbosus
B. Nut not marked with transverse wavy lines; hypo-
eynous bristles present :
1. Glumes 2-fid at the apex:
a. Stems cylindrical. Rhizome thick... as ov Ov Locusts:
b. Stems trigonous. Rhizome with tuber-lke round
swellings seg 4. §. maritimus
2. Glumes not 2-fid at the apex 5. S. grossus.
170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
1. Scirpus articulatus Linn. is found throughout India from
the Himalaya to Ceylon and Moulmein, ascending up to 8,000 ft.
It extends to the Philippine Islands, Australia and Africa.
The plant is used as a purgative.
Bengal: Putputichechka—; Hindi: Chichora, Patpatichechka—; Telugu:
Luttipittaalli—.
2. Scirpus corymbosus Heyne occurs in Western India, Mount
Abu, Goonah, Jubbulpore, Hyderabad and Bangalore. It is also
found in Africa and Madagasear.
In South Africa it is suspected to be poisonous to cattle.
3. Scirpus lacustris Linn. is to be found in Kashmir and
Ladak reaching altitudes of 4,500-5,000 ft., also in Muneypore.
It is distributed over Europe, Africa, Australia and North America.
The stock is astringent and diuretic.
French: Jone des chaisiers, Jone d’eau, Jone d’étang, Scirpe des marais—;
Madagascar: Sabotraka, Savotraka—; Malta: Bass, Common Bulrush, Giunco
di palude—. |
4. Scirpus maritimus Linn. is found from Kashmir, Kashgar
—10,000 ft., and Moradabad to Mysore and Malabar. It is dis-
tributed all over the Old World and is represented by varieties
in Australia and America.
The root is used in China as an astringent and diuretic.
Chinese: Ching San Ling—; Eqypt: Debshe—; Malta: Sea-side Clubrush,
Spurt Grass, Mosca, Erba nocca—; Nasirabad: Kab—; Punjab: Dila, Murak—;
Sibi: Kab—.
5. Scirpus grossus Linn. fil. occurs throughout India with the
exception of the North-Western area. It is found from Sind and
Assam to Ceylon and Malacca, extending to the Malay Islands,
Cochinchina and Indo-China.
According to Ayurveda its properties are the same as those of
Cyperus esculentus.
Yunanists deseribe the root as slightly sweet, cooling, laxative,
tonic to the liver, good against infection and poison, diuretic; use-
ful in burning sensations, vomiting, diarrhoea, fever, and gonor-
rhoea.
The root has astringent properties and is given to check
diarrhoea and vomiting.
Bengal: Kasura, Kesari, Kesor, Kesur—; Bombay: Kachera—; Hindi:
Kasuru, Kesur—; Malay: Rumput mendarong, Rumput murong, Rumput musi-
ane—; Marathi: Kasara—; Mundari: Jomekesari, Kesari, Khesari, Marang-
kesari Sanskrit: Gundakanda, Kaseru, Kaseruka—; Telugu: Gundatunga-
gaddi—; Uraon: Kesari—; Urdu; Kaseru—.
REVIEWS.
I. POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS. By HucH WHiIstrER,
F.Z.8., M.B.0.U. Second Edition. Tlustrated. Gurney & Jackson, London (1935).
Price 15 shillings net.
Lovers of Indian bird-life will welcome the appearance of the second—revised
and enlarged—edition of this useful volume, first issued in 1928 and reviewed
on page 180, vol. xxxiii of the Journal. As most of the outstanding features
of the work have already been commented on by the previous reviewer, it 18
only necessary now to indicate wherein the present volume differs from its
predecessor and to what extent the criticisms then made have been met.
As against the 17 full page plates (81 figures) including 4 in colour, and
the 85 text-figures of the first edition the present work contains 20 full page
plates (95 figures) of which 5 are coloured, and 96 figures in the text. The
number of pages in the present edition is 513 as against the previous 438, while
for the 250 species described at length before there are now 275 besides which
230 species are mentioned in short paragraphs giving the salient points in
their description and distribution. Most of the commoner birds of the vast
Indian Empire thus find a place in the present volume. The text has been
carefully revised and brought in line with the advances made by Indian orni-
thology during the last few years.
The criticism on the first edition—partly justified—that it dealt very largely
or more or less exclusively with the birds of North-West or Western India no
longer holds, and though the author fully realises the impossibility of any
two opinions agreeing as to which are and which are not amongst the really
‘common’ birds of India, he has succeeded remarkably well in making the
selection as representative as possible.
Sizes of birds given in inches, as is the case in the present volume, convey
extraordinarily little to the man in the street. We would have liked the sizes
expressed in some more intelligible form e.g. by comparison with some of
our commonest species such as Crow, Myna, Bulbul, Sparrow and others. A
table of measurements of these ‘standards’ at the beginning of the book might
have helped the reader to get a better idea of the figures where they appeared
in the text. Personally we also think—and perhaps many may not agree
that the time is long past when even in popular ornithological works the use
of the inch as a unit of measurement should be encouraged. In view of
present-day methods and tendencies and of the universal recognition of geo-
graphical races, it seems to us necessary and desirable that ornithologists
should grow up with their ideas of size in millimetres rather than in inches
and their cumbersome fractions. Therefore, if measurements are given at all
they should, to be of any value, be expressed in the metric system. It is only
fair to mention, however, that in the present instance these points have not
been overlooked by the author. He weighed them carefully but finally came
to the conclusion that as the measurement of length is practically valueless
except to the ‘popular’ observer, it might be as well to give it in inches since
they are familiar to him, and even the most lay can hold his two forefingers
up and say ‘That is about six inches’.
Inspite of the increase in bulk and contents it is gratifying to note that
the old price has been maintained. The book in its present form is all that
the average bird-lover can desire and, as it fills a very distinct niche in Indian
natural history literature, we can confidently predict the same popularity for
it as was enjoyed by its predecessor.
Be Aweay
II. TIGER UND MENSCH. By Benet Bere. 94”x7”. 187 pages, 68
plates. Dietrich Reimer/Ernst WVohsen, Berlin (1935). Price, 4.80 R.M.
On the continent of Europe the name of Bengt Berg is synonymous with
superbly illustrated books on natural history. He enjoys the reputation of
being one of the foremost nature photographers and has a style of writing
172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
=
that goes direct to the heart of the nature lover. Both these qualities reflect
directly upon the popularity of his wide and ever-increasing range of books,
many of which have run into several editions and to between twenty-five and
thirty-seven thousand copies each.
The earlier publications on which rests the fame of Bengt Berg concerned
themselves mostly with birds, but spurred no doubt by his achievements and
by the possibilities he discovered when in India some years ago to make photo-
graphic records for his book Der Laémmergeier im Himalaya, he has of recent
years taken to photographing the wild animals of the Indian jungles. His
magnificent studies of the Rhinoceros (FR. wnicornis) in Bengal may be seen in
his book Meine. Jagd nach dem Einhorn, published in 1932 or thereabouts.
The present? book, dealing principally with the tiger, is evidently written
for stay-at-home foreigners who have only seen the animal behind bars in a
Zoo, and have at best somewhat hazy and fantastic notions regarding its
life and habits. While it contains nothing that can be called startlingly original
or which cannot be found in any good book on Indian natural history, some
of the points dealt with are of more than usual interest and reflect keenly on
the author’s powers of observation. As the book is in German and may not
be intelligible to many of our readers, it may perhaps be desirable to touch
on some of its contents briefly, though this must necessarily be in rather
disjointed fashion.
Doubt is cast by the author on the customary explanation for striped and
spotted colouration that it is protective or obliterative in a jungle environment,
since most of its possessors move about chiefly in the dark when there is no
sunshine through the foliage or the grass and reeds to render the colouration
advantageous. It is stressed, however, that spotted or striped clouration is
most obliterative in moonlight.
It is suggested that the fact of there being so many more tigresses than
tigers may be accounted for by the probability that adult males kill off their male
descendants as soon as the latter start coming into direct competition with
them. The Maharajah of Alwar, who is said to possess an incomparable know-
ledge of the tiger of his part of the country, assesses the proportion of tigers to
tigresses as 1:5. In Alwar it appears that only tigers are shot and tigresses
spared, which may account for this great disparity, but even elsewhere the pro-
portion of the sexes is unequal. The author believes that the tiger is poly-
gamous and claims to have studied the relations of the sexes first hand when
after them for photographing purposes. The tiger is said to visit successive
females in different areas or valleys, may be 10 or 15 kilometers distant from
one another. Their wooing and courtship ceremonials as read from the spoor
of a pair are described, and at page 59 a photograph is given of the impression
in the sand on a stream bank where copulation had taken place.
A story retailing the steps that lead up to the making of a man-eater
is rather well told, and the photograph accompanying it of a tigress slinking
downhill through bamboo jungle is a particularly lifelike one.
The author agrees with most sportsmen in considering that Kipling is
wrong in giving a better character to the panther in the Jungle Book than
to the tiger.
The economic usefulness of the tiger is indicated by the statement that
in many places where tigers have been shot out, jungle villages have had to
be abandoned owing to the enormous increase in pigs and deer which rendered
agriculture impossible. Many aboriginals are said to exist solely on food
obtained from tiger kills through following the movements of vultures.
The correctness of the huge annual mortality statistics, officially attributed
to tiger, panther and other wild animals is questioned. The author thinks
they may be due to incorrect information supplied by petty officials, as when-
ever any unaccountable disappearance or death takes place in a village, it is
either attributed to tiger or panther, or in their absence to cobras.
The comparative risks involved in following up wounded animals is dis-
cussed. Tiger and lion are given first place on account of their powers of
concealment and of making themselves invisible coupled with their extreme
vitality—even when mortally wounded—and the septic nature of their bites and
mauling. Owing to the wooded character of the tiger’s terrain as compared
with the lion’s, the former is considered far more dangerous and the relatively
greater easualties among tiger hunters is cited as evidence of this.
REVIEWS 178
‘The various. methods of hunting tiger im India—machans, beats, et¢., are
described. .
The author estimates bad
State may contain from five fs six hundred ones Far behind come three or
four States with half that number, and after these 50 to 150 tigers can be reck-
oned in each of the better-known tiger hunting States. He guesses that Nepal
has probably not more tigers than Hyderabad. It is observed that their tiger
population 1s an asset to “the princes, not so much for their own sport as for
entertaining distinguished guests with. ‘Whoever in India can present a highly
placed guest with a tiger has a trump card in his hand which puts every other
in the shade.’ One Maharaja said to the author about his neighbour: ‘A fine
State and an excellent administrator, but’ (this with a satisfied chuckle) ‘he
has no tigers!’
Some shrewd remarks concerning the shoots of distinguished guests im Indian
States, the arrangements made for them and the measuring of tigers shot
by the great ones show keen insight on the author's part. He has, however,
great praise for the sportsmanship of the Indian princes. The Maharaja of
Rewa is said to have shot over 600 tigers and hopes to complete his 1,000 some
day .
There follows an extraordinary story of a vendetta between Bani Singh
(a ‘Bengali’!) and Yat Aung, a Burman, where the former is forcibly, and
through an artifice, tied up as bait for a man-eating tiger. It is a bizarre and
hair-raising episode graphically told, and remarkable, if true.
The facsimile reproduction of a letter from the Divisional Forest Officer,
Nimar Division, testifying to the fact that the author’s wife sat up alone in
a machan one night and shot two tigers seems to us somewhat superfluous,
but it perhaps carries its appeal to foreign readers !
The last chapter deals chiefly with the Rhinoceros (R. wnicornis) and its
present position in. Bengal where it had recently reached the point of extinction
at the hands of roving bands of poachers backed by Chinese gold. The author,
by his book Meine Jagd nach dem Einhorn, claims to have roused the interest
which culminated in the protective measures that have since been enforced.
We are constrained to challenge this claim as extravagant, and not only unfair
to Shebbeare, the Chief Conservator of Forests, Bengal, who has been the
prime mover in this matter for years, but, also an insult to the Forest Depart-
ment and to the various bodies that have been striving in the interests of
Wild Life Conservation in India.
Bengt Berg photographed a rhino calf three years previously and the same
animal “(distinguished by an old wound~mark) again in the same spot on his
last visit. He observes that unlike elephants, the rhino remains constant to
its haunts, a factor which facilitates its destruction by poachers, but at the
same time simplifies the question of its supervision by game watchers.
Particular interest attaches to this book in view of the somewhat warm
discussions that have recently taken place in the Miscellaneous Notes section
of the Journal regarding the ethics of flashlight photography. 'The objection
raised was that the methods employed by Bengt Berg (for his identity can no
longer remain concealed) in photographing wild animals at night were repre-
hensible and unsportsmanlike. What this gentleman apparently did in India
was to plaster the jungle, especially the vicinity of water-holes, etc., with a
number of automatic cameras worked by trip-wires running across the beaten
tracks of animals. When the wire was tripped, the flash went off with
the report of a hand-grenade and, being synchronised with the shutter, resulted
in the animal photographing itself. It was contended that a number of such
explosions going off in the course of a might had the effect of scaring away
wild animals and speedily clearing the neighbourhood of game. If such methods
of photographing were indulged in solely “with the object and under the name
of ‘sport’, we would jom forces with the critics to condemn them whole heartedly.
Fortunately, by virtue of the cost of such outfits and the expense of working
them, it is unlikely that Bengt Berg's methods will ever become a serious
menace to wild life in India. In the author's case, we think it is patent
that he was not indulging in this pastime for the sake of sport alone. He was
plainly doing it to obtain material for his books, one of which we have before
us now, aniae naturally he wanted the maximum of results in the minimum of
time. Illustrated books of this kind are all too few in India not to be
174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIit
welcomed whenever they appear, and considering that they help, as little else
can, iM arousing interest in wild life and creating public opinion in its favour—
vital to the success of any efforts at conservation—we are of opinion that some
shght indulgence is called for of means that justify the end so admirably,
especially as they result in no permanent harm to wild life. It will be realised
by all, of course, that a thing of this sort can very easily be overdone and
therefore, as a general practice, it is one to be discouraged.
The reproduction of the photographs does full justice to their charm and
exquisiteness, and the printing of blocks on both sides of a sheet, has in our
opinion, not detracted in any way from the artistic quality of the work as
has been claimed by the publishers of two well-known books of the kind in
England. An agreeable feature of the volume is its very modest price, equi-
valent at the present rate of exchange to about five rupees; this is a factor
that must tell a great deal on its circulation under present economic conditions.
It is rather a pity that the letterpress should have been in the ornate
Gothic type and not the clearer, easily-read Roman as has lately been the
tendency 1n Germany to adopt. But this reversion may perhaps be part of the
Hitlerian campaign for purification of Nordic institutions !
The excellent photographs alone entitle the book to a place in every nature
lover’s library.
Deas os
Ml. ZUR KENNTNIS NORDOSTASIATISCHER VOGEL: Hin Beitrag zur
Systematik, Biologie und Verbreitung der Vogel Iamtschatkas und der Kurilen.
By Sten Brraman. Paper cover 10” x8”; 268 pp.; 2 maps; 16 plates. Albert
Bonniers Jérlag, Stockholm (1935). Price, 20 Kronor.
This volume embodies the results of the author’s two ornithological exped.-
tions, the first to the Kamtschatka Peninsula (1920-22) and the second to the
Kuril Islands (1929-30) north of Japan.
The expeditions were financed by the Swedish Academy of Sciences, the
Swedish Anthropological and Geographical Society and by other institutions and
private persons. One of the latter, being a ship-owner, provided free transport
to the members of the first expedition and their baggage to and from Japan,
a@ form of public spiritedness that may well be emulated by our own shipping
magnates and railway authorities in India!
The collections made by the expeditions were worked out by the author at
the Natural History Museum, Stockholm, with the collaboration of such emi-
nent authorities as Prof. Dr. Hinar Lénnberg, Prof. Dr. Hialmar Rendahl and
Dr. Nils Gyldenstolpe. The Leningrad Museum was also visited in this con-
nection and we find the help of the late Prof. P. Suschkin and of the present
director of the Bird Department, Dr. B. Stegmann, acknowledged. The material
from Kamtschatka was partly sold and partly presented to the Stockholm
Museum, while that from the Kuril Islands, which was richer both in species
and in specimens, was presented by the author to the same institution.
A comprehensive history of ornithology in Kamtschatka and the Kurils is
followed by geographical and topographical notes on the Peninsula and Islands,
also some data as regards vegetation and climate. Then comes a short account
of the author’s itinerary on the two expeditions which is succeeded immediately
by the systematic lists, arranged in separate sections, and containing some
good field potes. Unfortunately we find no separate section dealing with Migra-
tion which would have added very considerably to the usefulness of the work
as far as we in India are concerned. Since the author was in Kamtschatka
continuously for three summers and two winters, he must have had the opportunity
for accumulating ample data bearing on this subject. The times of arrival
and departure of migrants are, however, briefly mentioned under individual
species.
: To us in India the greatest interest in the book lies in the fact that many
of our winter visitors, especially to Assam and Burma, but also to Ceylon
and the eastern side of the peninsula, come from round about the parts dealt
with therein. Of the 133 forms listed from Kamtschatka we notice that 42 are
cold weather visitors to the Indian Empire, while of the 144 forms from the
Kurils we receive no less than 47. Many of these birds breed in the Kamts-
REVIEWS 175
chatka Peninsula and/or the Kuril Islands, but others merely pass through
on their way to and from their breeding grounds still farther north.
It is good to find that wherever a race is listed which has at some time
or other been described as a novelty by the author himself, the reference and
original description is quoted in extenso making it convenient for workers who
cannot have access to all the journals—mostly Swedish—in which they were
first published.
The fact that specimens of Muscicapa latirostris from the southern Kuril
{slands in the proximity of northern Japan, have been determined as belonging
to the typical race, latirostris Raffles, and not to poonensis Sykes which accord-
ing to the Fauna (vol. ii, p. 249) they should be, would appear to support
the contention of Messrs. Whistler and Kinnear (J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxvi, p. 86)
that this Flycatcher has no races—at any rate that poonensis of the Fauna
cannot be recognised. The measurements given by Mr. Bergman for his Kuril
specimens (8 ¢¢ wing 70-72 mm., 4 2@ wing 68.5 mm.) certainly agree
well enough with birds from Sumatra etc. (latirostris according to the Fauna)
as well as with those from the plains of India and also again with the measure-
ments given by Mr. Stuart Baker for birds from ‘Japan to the Himalayas’
(i.e. his poonensis).
The photographs—82 in all—of topographical, vegetational and avian subjects
are excellent, and the extensive and useful bibliography at the end of the
book adds considerably to its value as a work of reference.
Iv. LAC AND INDIAN LAC RESEARCH INSTITUTE. By Dororny
Norris, P. M. Guover and R. W. Apis. (Calcutta, 1984. Price Rs. 2-8.)
The Indian lac industry was greatly affected by the war, as it not only
altered the value but also the direction of the lac trade. The lac, as is well
known, is virtually an Indian monopoly, and its high price during and after
the war greatly stimulated the manufacture of synthetical rival products. The
Government of India fearing the fate of the Indigo industry appointed a Com-
mission to investigate the conditions of the industry and make recommenda-
tions for safeguarding it. The report of the Commission was issued in 1921,
and as a result in 1925 the Indian Lac Research Institute was founded with
its headquarters at Namkum, Ranchi (Bihar and Orissa).
The work under review after briefly surveying the Indian lac industry,
in which is included its early history and its entomological aspect, gives an
account of the areas of major importance in lac cultivation and the uses of
shellac. The synthetic substitutes of lac are discussed in detail, and a short
chapter is devoted to the necessity for research. The foundation and work of
the Lac Research Institute at Namkum are discussed in detail in a later
chapter. In connection with the latter a full account is given of the bio-
chemical, chemical, physio-chemical and entomological research at the Institute.
A detailed bibliography is added and a glossary explaining the terms used in
the work is appended. Detailed statistics of lac production in Assam, Burma
and countries outside India are also given and the question of the future of
the lac industry in the country is discussed in detail.
The work, which is well written and fully illustrated, is very opportune
and should serve as a work of reference hereafter.
By 8;
V. THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, INCLUDING CEYLON AND
BURMA. Reptilia and Amphibia. By Malcolm A. Smith. (Vol. TI. Sauria,
pp. i-ix, 1-440, 1 pl., 2 maps, text-figs. February 19385, London.) Published
under the authority of the Secretary of State for India in Council and edited
by Lt.-Col. R. B. 8. Sewell, r.z.s. Taylor and Francis, 30 shillings.
In my review of the first volume of the series (Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist.
Soc., xxxv, p. 881, 1932) attention was directed to the great improvement
effected by Dr. Malcolm A. Smith in his revision of a part of Boulenger’s
176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIil
work published in 1890. The same high standard has been maintained in the
treatment of lizards, which form the subject matter of the second volume.
In the introduction the author gives a short but succinct account of the
structure of the animals, with particular reference to the skin, the teeth, the
salivary glands, tha tongue, the cloaca, the femoral glands and the eggs. The
changes in colour and colour-patterns are briefly described and a note on the
fragility of tail is also added. The phenomena of evolution and devolution
are illustrated by reference to the diversities in the structure of the adhesive
digital. pads, the eyes, the limbs, the digital characters and the degree of
degeneration of the ear. Attention is also directed to the partial or total
degeneration of limbs and to the probable significance of the, digital characters.
Reference is made to the close affinity which certain Indo-Chinese and Malayan
lizards have with forms that inhabit Southern India and it is pointed out that
no satisfactory explanation has so far been given for this discontinuous distri-
bution of the species. Skins of lizards are now extensively used for making
leather and Dr. Smith gives very useful information on the subject under the
section entitled ‘Kconomics’. For non-techincal readers the hints under ‘Pre-
servation and Hxamination of Specimens’ and ‘Measurements’ should prove
very useful.
The systematic account of lizards contains a description of 297 species,
248 of which are from the Indian Empire. Much valuable information is
included under each species and the workers on the group will always be
indebted to the author for indicating, so far as possible, the type-localities
and the present location of the types of the species treated. The work is
full of notes based on personal observations and much biological information
has been collected from other sources as well. The volume is fully illustrated.
In short, for the present-day needs of taxonomic workers, museum curators
and amateurs the work is most helpful and the author is to be congratulated
oh this production. The next volume on ‘Snakes’ will be awaited with con-
siderable interest by Herpetologists in particular and naturalists in general.
8) hd,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
I.—A NOTE ON THE DISCOVERY OF PIVISTRELLUS-
MORDAX (PETERS) THE GRIZZLED BAT IN CEYLON.
Amongst a small collection of Pipistrelles sent down to ine
during 193838 by Mr. A. C. Tutein-Nolthenius from West Hapu-
tale, Ohiya, were two specimens of a bat that I had not previously
seen in Ceylon. At first, I was inclined to believe that they
were representatives of a new species, but as neither of them were
good specimens I laid them aside until further specimens should
be forthcoming. Later, as no others were then obtainable, I for-
warded them to the South Kensington Museum, together with
a few specimens of other species, for the opinion of Mr. M. A. C.
Hinton. |
In the meanwhile, however, on my return from leave in
England, Mr. Tutein-Nolthenius forwarded to me a further com-
plete specimen of the same species that he had caught in his
bungalow. This, after careful study, confirmed by comparison
with a specimen very kindly sent down to me by the authorities
of the Bombay Natural History Society, I find to be an undoubted
specimen of the Grizzled Bat, Pipistrellus mordax (Peters).
The type-locality of this species is given as Java, but the only
existing Indian specimens have been obtained from Kumaon, Cal-
cutta, Darjeeling and Kurseong (6,000 ft.) in the Eastern Hima-
layas, so it is of great interest to find that the species is also
resident in Ceylon.
West Haputale, Ohiya, where it was found by Mr. Tutein-
Nolthenius is in the highest part of the Central mountain cluster
of Ceylon, the bungalow being at an altitude of 6,000 ft. |
As only three specimens have been secured in spite of careful
search, and as it has not been found previously, it would appear
that the species is confined in Ceylon to the highest hills and
that it is not at all plentiful.
The occurrence of Himalayan species in Ceylon is not unusual,
a number of the mountain forms in Ceylon being very closely
allied to, if not identical with, Himalayan forms; but it is curious
that, in a number of instances, no similar or allied forms
_have yet been found in the Nilgiris. It is quite likely, however,
that when the fauna of the higher South Indian mountains is
better known, some of the species that at present have been record-
ed only from Ceylon and the Himalayas will be found in the inter-
vening mountain tracts.
CoLompo, CEYLON. We A: Aw PHILLIPS.
_ January 28, 19385.
2
i78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVilIi
II.—TIGERS IN THE SUNDERBANS.
I enclose the measurements of a Sunderbans tiger which I
shot on the 28th December. I have heard that at one time you
were anxious to collect data regarding the tigers of the Bengal
Sunderbans, which seem to show very definite traits as a distinct
race. It is a very different animal from the tiger of the Bengal
duars (Terai).
As you know the Sunderbans tiger is a born man-eater and
a source of endless trouble and inconvenience to us Forest Officers.
Last year alone, there were 45 deaths of forest coolies attributed
to tigers. We pay out high rewards to professional shikaries for
the destruction of tigers, and since last March have received be-
tween 80 and 40 skins and skulls of tigers destroyed.
The skulls are usually destroyed, and are often sent in bad
condition by the shikaries, but if you are interested, I can pro-
bably get some good skulls for you.
The tiger whose measurements I enclose was shot by me from
my steam-launch at 4-80 p.m. on the 28th December 1984.
At the time it was swimming across the Betmore Khal, a channel
about + of a mile wide. I shot the tiger through the head and
killed it dead, and the body floated quite buoyantly. The tiger was
a typical Sunderbans animal, an old male in good condition, short
and stubby, with a heavy barrel-shaped body, and a coat of rather
a pale tawny colour.
If the Sunderbans tiger are of any special interest to you, and
if you think I ean collect any specimens or data of value, I shall
be glad to hear from you.
SUNDERBANS Forest DIvIsiIon, TPN DNA
Kuuuna, BENGAL. LFS.
January 4, 1935.
[The measurements given by Mr. Dent of the tiger shot by him
are as follows:—
Body Length (over curves) 9’
” ,, (between pegs) 8’ 87’
Tail 2’ 107"
Height at shoulder 345°!
Girth behind shoulder 434°’
Mr. Pocock in his recent article on Tigers (Journ., Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxiii, p. 505) has shown how little is really
known as regards variation among tigers in India due to age,
season or locality. To arrive at any definite conclusions regarding
such variation it is necessary to examine properly sexed skins and
skulls obtained at different seasons from different parts of the
country. The peculiar conditions under which tigers live in the
Sunderbans may produce variation sufficient to differentiate them
from tigers found in other parts of India. But without adequate
data it is impossible to say whether such variation occurs, or if it
does, to indicate its extent. We therefore gladly avail ourselves of
Mr. Dent’s offer to collect material from the Sunderbans and would
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. : agi)
welcome any notes that he can send us. We should also like to
take this opportunity of once again drawing the attention of mem-
bers to the need of obtaining skins and skulls of tigers from other
parts of the country. We are aware that sportsmen do not usually
part with such trophies but there may be many occasions when
such contributions to our collections may be possible.—Ebs. ]
Ill.—TIGEHR KILLING SOLITARY BULL BISON
(BIBOS GAURUS).
In the past six months three fine solitary bull bison have been
killed by tiger on the Billigirirangans: all carried good and old
heads. ~~
Previous to this I have only known of four actual kills of solitary
bulls (in twenty years) and of several unsuccessful attacks.
HonnamMetti Estate,
_Arrixan P.O., via Mysore. R. C. MORRIS,
i)
January 8, 1935. LE 7e Steet (RGus
IV.—TIGERS BURYING THEIR KILL.
As it has been questioned as to whether tigers sometimes bury
their kill in Burma or not, I venture to record an interesting case
that came to my notice in the Bhamo District.
A natural kill of a sambhur was reported to me, and I hurried
off to see it. The sambhur had been killed, and dragged into a
depression among long grass, but the villagers had taken the meat;
and when I saw it nothing much remained. The man who showed
me the kill then told me that the tiger had last night removed
the few bones that had been left, and had buried them nearby.
We went to see. About 20 yards out in the forest and under
some teak trees I came across a considerable mound—perhaps
three feet high, and of diameter about six feet across. It had been
undoubtedly made by the tiger for his claws and pugs showed how
he had scraped up the heap most clearly—just as if it had been
raked up into a heap with a garden rake! It consisted of various
debris to be found around, earth leaves, sticks, stones ete.—but
what was most remarkable was that a thick bough of a tree had
been placed on top and right across it all, as if to keep the whole
down securely. There were no man tracks, or signs of man about,
and I had little doubt that it was the tiger who had done this.
The Burman with me assured me it was the work of the tiger.
The bough was about eight feet long and about six inches in dia-
meter—quite a weighty affair.
From under the age came sufficient smell to leave no doubt
‘about what was there. I did not disturb the mound.
That night I sat up in a teak tree over the mound. Rain
began to fall slowly and it was very difficult to hear anything as
the raindrops fell on the wide teak leaves. When it was quite
dark I thought I detected a slight sound in the vicinity of the
heap—then there was a sudden rush and the sound of the 108 of
wood cast aside.
180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS‘. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVtit
Nothing else happened. In the morning I examined the place
carefully. The log had indeed been cast aside and was now lying
about three feet away from the heap!
It must have been the tiger, but he had been seared by my
presence and had plunged away. The fact that he had removed
the log was sufficient proof to me that he had himself placed it
there in the first instance. Tigers in Burma are excessively shy
of anything in the shape of a trap, and had a man placed the log
eee heap the tiger would most certainly not have dared to
ouch it.
Tauneeyi, SourH SHAan StatvEs. :
BuRMA, | Tt. BR LIVESEX:
March 29, 1935.
V.—HOW TIGERS KILL THEIR PREY.
In Burma all the buffalo I have seen killed by tigers had been
hamstrung—the hocks, or one hock, crushed by a bite. I think
this is invariably the way they kill buffalo, bison and tsaine in
this country. In this way they do not risk an injury from the
horns of the beast attacked. Burmans who have actually wit-
nessed such attacks on their village buffaloes describe it as taking
place in this manner, but they add that once the tiger has been
able to roll the buffalo over by this crushing of the hock, he
attacks, not the neck, but the belly. This is ripped up and causes
death. I can quite believe this, as the neck of these large animals
- is too thick and massive for a tiger to bite into and reach a vital
part, and besides there is the danger of injury from the horns and
forefeet of the fallen prey. Neck bites are probably taken after
death.
Do tigers and lions ever kill their game with a blow from their
fore paw? I believe that they never do, and that they are quite
incapable of delivering a powerful blow in this manner. It would
seem to be against all reason, for they seek to grasp their game,
not knock it away from them!
Kills never show such broken bones and bruises as would result
from killing by blows. :
It is constantly stated in popular articles that they do kill by
a blow. Recently Major Forhan in the Illustrated Weekly of India
Stated in an article on the man-eaters of Tsavo that a man had
been ‘obviously killed by a blow’ but gave no further details to
‘substantiate this astonishing statement.
_ In the old days the Rajput princes used to sew up the mouths
of tigers and cut off their claws, and then wrestle them with men.
Sir Pertap Singh used to tell us so. If tigers could deliver a
death blow the men would have been killed. The whole point of
such contests was that man and tiger fought on equal terms.
Tauneeyi, Sours Swan Srares, ws ta
ASATRINON eee ia? sae (UP, oR LIVESEY.
March 29, 1985. eet . Pee
- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - Isl
VI.—NOTE ON THE RECORD INDIAN LION (PANTERA,
LEO PERSICA MEYER).
What is beleved to be the record Indian lion was shot in the
Gir Forest of Junagadh by Lord Belper on 8th March 1935. It
was carefully measured between pegs and showed a length of 9 ft.
94 in. The previous record, at least for the Gir Lion, is “believed to
have been 9 ft. 7 in.
J UNAGADH. Py Re CADHIL,
April 9, 1985.
lal
[The largest Indian lioness measured 9 ft. 5 in. (Rowland
Ward 1928 Edition.)—Eps. ]
VIT.—ANTI-RABIC TREATMENT OF AN INDIAN LION
(PANTHERA LEO PERSICA MEYER).
On 15th March 1935, a dog entered the Sakar Bagh in Juna-
gadh, where a number of Gir lions are kept in captivity, and,
after biting two local dogs, ran up to the bars of the open air
compound “ot the cages in which the hons are kept. Sultan, a
six year old lon, rushed to the bars to have a look at the dog
which promptly bit upon the muzzle. Those who saw the inci-
dent agree that Sultan did not bite or strike at the dog, which
however collapsed. A gun was procured and the dog was shot.
It was almost certainly mad. When the matter was reported
orders were issued for anti-rabic serum for animals to be obtained,
but, as there seemed likely to be some delay in getting it, it was
arranged for the lion to be inoculated with the serum kept in the
local hospital for the treatment of human beings. An ingenious
arrangement was prepared by Mr. E. A. Alton, Motor and Aero-
plane Officer, whereby Sultan, having been induced to enter a
small cage, was cooped at one end of it by a movable board. The
serum was then injected by Mr. G. B. Fernandes, Veterinary
Surgeon, in the loose skin below the belly. Sultan was allowed,
after the injection, to return to bis own cage. He did not appear
to feel the prick of the injection, and entered the small cage daily
without objection till the treatment was completed. The daily
dose given was 10 ce. i.e., double the normal dose for a human
being. No signs of rabies have appeared.
JUNAGADH. P. R. CADELL
April 9, 1985.
VITI.—ABNORMAL DENTAL GROWTH IN A RAT.
(With a photo).
At Paungde (Burma), in the course of energetic trapping during
the plague season of 19382, a rat attracted special attention by
the size of its teeth which prevented its entry into the trap. <A
photograph of this rat was exhibited at a meeting of the Zoological
Society of London on May 17th, 19382. The comparative rarity of
182. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the condition and the special features associated with it, together
with the fact that neither the photo nor description has yet been
published, render desirable a record of this case of abnormal incisor
oe The rat was identified as Rattus norwegicus (Erxleben
(77).
Abnormal teeth in a rat.
The length of the body was 4.5 in., that of the tail 3.75, and
that of the hind-foot 1.25. The inferior lateral incisors have grown
in a more or less, semi-oval shape successively turn upward, back-
ward, and slightly outward. In their first quarter, they enclose
and come in apposition with the lateral aspects of the front part
of the upper jaw including the nose, and lie free in the rest of
their course. When viewed from the front the upper jaw appears
to be wedged in between the lower parts of the pair of ‘tusks’.
Each individual tusk is approximately 3.5 em. in length and 2 mm.
in diameter at its base: in cross-section the base is circular but,
as the tusk tapers to a point, it becomes flattened. The pair of
central incisors is also abnormal, each being approximately 1 cm.
long. In addition a stump of an old broken tusk can be seen.
As a result of these abnormal dental growths the facial appear-
ance of the animal is considerably altered. The upper jaw is
separated from the lower by a gap of 8 mm., the mouth being
closed by the dental bars lke a prison gate.
The abnormal growth of rodent incisors is reputed to be of
common occurrence, but rarely do we find such abnormal features
as the present example. What causes this abnormal growth?
Cases of abnormal growth of human incisors are known. The
factors which produce these may also be responsible for the forma-
tion of abnormal rodent ones, though to a greater extent. Close
apposition of two sets of teeth keeps their size within normal limits:
loss of that apposition, for any reason, reduces or prevents wear.
Further, the mechanical features associated with mandibular
movements cause the dental outgrowths to take the direction of
greatest mechanical advantage. Whether the abnormal dental
direction, resulting in abnormal dental growths, is the outcome of
a congenital malformation, or of an acquired traumatic or other
pathological condition, cannot be definitely stated. The lack of any
evidence of trauma or disease favours the probability of the condi-
tion being congenital... Whatever the original causative factors,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 183
that the resulting condition must have profoundly affected the diet-
etic habits of the animal is obvious, the animal not only being
deprived of the important cutting function of the teeth, but also
having to encounter great mechanical inconvenience in biting and
mastication: this is the explanation of its emaciated appearance.
PaunaDE, BurRMA. Re. SONE
February 23, 1985. M.B., B.S.
[The specimen has since been submitted to Sir Frank Collyer,
Royal College of Surgeons, London, whose report is awaited.—
Eps. |
IX.—BIRTH OF AN ELEPHANT CALF (HLEPHAS
. MAXIMUS ‘LINN.).
During a shooting trip at the end of last year, at Christmas,
my friend Mr. N. H. Dendy of Tillicoultry Estate, Lindula, came
across something so unusual and interesting that I think it should
be recorded in the Journal.
Mr. Dendy was camped near the Menik Ganga, the river, one
of the natural boundaries of the Yala Wild Life Sanctuary, soon
to be declared the first Strict Natural Reserve in Southern Pro-
vince, Ceylon. One morning quite early Mr. Dendy and his men
walking along the high river bank, disturbed and watched a cow
elephant and her calf.
After about half an hour the mother and calf moved away
slowly into the dense forest along the river. ‘The men remarked
that the calf could not possibly be much older than a day or two.
They had never seen so small a calf.
Going further, something red on the sands drew their atten-
tion and going down to look, they found the perfectly fresh placenta
of the elephant. Knowing the elephant’s habits, this must be a
most rare experience and it would be of interest to know if this has
ever been recorded before. It was early in the morning so the sun
was not high enough up yet to shine and dry it. A certain proof
the elephant had calved that night or even, and I think more
likely, only a few hours before the party reached the place. It
is known that an elephant calf is able to get up and follow the
mother about two hours after birth, while various authorities state
that the elephant eats the placenta.
At any rate it must be extremely rare to find it, as the sun
would soon dry it up, if jackals, crocodile, etc. had not made
away with it. The very exceptional drought this poor country has
suffered from so severely, no doubt made the elephant choose: this
unusual place for the calving, knowing that the pools left in: the
river, were the only water she could get within miles. As a rule
the elephant mother chooses the most dense cover she can find,
which is all the more reason few, if any, have ever come across
so remarkable a find in the jungles and wilds. s
In the sand, Mr. Dendy and his men could see clearly, the
place she had laid down to give birth. .
184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVJII
‘Mr. Dendy estimates the total weight of the placenta at about
5 to 6 lbs. The far side, darkly coloured, consisted more or less
of solid flesh, the lighter coloured and a small patch on the right,
was like frothy blood. Much to the surprise of Mr. Dendy, after
some hesitation, the excited men asked if they might take it, they
explained that when washed and dried, the solid part would make
a very valuable and excellent medicine. It is said that a small
bit of the dried substance, dissolved in a little lime juice and
water, will at once relieve a woman’s labour pains, or will
help to advance an overdue confinement.
All folklore is of great interest, but considering the so great
rareness of ever finding the placenta of a wild elephant, this bit
of jungle lore is all the more unique.
Both men, as well as others who have spent their lifetime as
watchers in the sanctuary and the neighbouring reserve, had never
seen the placenta and knew of no one who ever had. The two
men with Mr. Dendy had never come across the calving place of
an elephant, a very rare thing to find. And yet, handed down
for generations, they one and all knew the story of this most
valuable medicine.
It was not quite clear from the impressions in the sand, to be
quite certain about the position the cow elephant had occupied,
but in all probability she must have been lying on her right side,
her back turned towards the place where the men are standing.
In this connection it is of interest to remember the photograph
of a cow elephant which died in calving, published in ‘Kill, or be
killed’, by Major W. Robert Foran. This photo clearly shows the
animal lying in the kneeling position. I have not been able to find
any authority who describes the true position the elephant calves.
It would be of interest to know if any one has ever come
across so rare and unusual a find as described above.
West HaputTate, 7
Ounrya, CEYLON. A. ©. TUTEIN-NOLTHENITUS.
April 9, 1935.
[G. H. Evans in his work on Elephants and Their Diseases
describes the birth of an elephant calf on information obtained
from an experienced Burman—‘When about to give birth the
female seeks soft ground. The calf may be presented head and
fore feet or the hinder parts may appear first. If the membranes
are not ruptured by an attendant, the female does so with her
foot. The young one lies from one to two hours after birth, occa-
sionally moving ears, trunk, limbs, after which it gets on its legs
and can walk. Elephants even in the wild state may die in
labour—the author records an instance. A newly born calf can
walk well enough after a few days to follow the mother on a short
march, and in the wild state, when a calf has been dropped, the
herd remains in the vicinity until it is able to follow the mother;
which is generally in about 48 hours. The author is of opinion
that the ‘after birth’ is usually eaten. It comes away 15 or 20
minutes after the birth of the calf.—Eps. ] are
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ~ 185
X.—GROWTH AND SHEDDING OF ANTLERS OF SAMBUR
AND SWAMP DEER IN ASSAM.
In No. 8 of vol. xxxvii, I saw a note about ‘Growth and Shed-
ding of Antlers in the Swamp Deer (Rucervus duvaucelli) in
Manipur State’.
I saw Swamp Deer in Assam, along the border of Bhootan and
along the foot of the hills, in spring, 1892 and also some of the
poorly horned Sambur of that area. :
On the 8th of March, I shot a sambur with horns fairly worn
out by rubbing against the grass. The same day, I saw another
one with horns hardly half grown and, of course, in velvet.
On March 14th, at a place ralled Raimana, a large Swamp Deer
had horns half grown, in velvet, with the brow tine fully deve-
loped and the fork above showing the beginning of the other
tines.
On March 18th, another Swamp Deer appeared to me to have
tines almost fully grown except the top ones.
On March 21st, I shot a fine Swamp Deer, at a place called
Kochugaon. His horns were still in velvet but fully grown, just
the tips of the top tines were still a bit soft and rounded. Bvy a
strange piece of luck, from the back of my elephant, I saw a
shed horn in perfect condition on the ground which the elephant
picked up for me. It was only a few hundred yards from the
place where I had’shot the stag and, to all appearances, must have
been one of the very same stag. I kept it, and was sorry that it
was not on the stag at our meeting.
I consider that the beginning of the rains is probably the time
when the Swamp Deer in Assam are in their prime. This would
show a difference of season to that of Manipur, but this may vary
from one place to another according to the locality.
MonvTEVRAN, CHAUMONT-SUR-THARONNE,
Lotr-ET-CHer, FRANCE. VISCOUNT ED. DE PONCINS.
January 10, 1985.
XI.—SOME LITTLE-KNOWN BIRDS OF NORTHERN
BURMA.
I have already recorded in the Ibis of January 1985 the occur-
rence of the birds mentioned below in the Myitkyina District ot
Upper Burma. As the records are so few and far between, the
following additional notes made in the District in 1934-35 are
possibly worth recording.
Psittiparus ¢, gularis, Grey-headed Parrot-bill.
The only published Burma record is of one obtained by Capt.
W.M. F. Gamble at Tutuga (Myitkyina District) in January 1933.
A male was brought to me by an Atzi at Sadon on December 21st
1934, obtained at about 38,500 ft. with a pellet bow, in bamboo
(iris red brown, bill orange-yellow, legs slaty-green).
186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Ciconia nigra. Black Stork.
This is probably an annual visitor to the upper reaches of the
Irrawaddy, as I saw two large gatherings on sandbanks in Novem-
ber 1934, one being in exactly the same place as I observed them
in November 19388.
Ardea imperialis. Great White-bellied Heron.
I again found this bird-by no means uncommon between Sinbo
and Myitkyina in November 1934. Individuals were seen at vari-
ous places along the river and were not at all shy, feeding close
to villages, and allowing a launch to approach quite near to them,
before they took to flight.
Podiceps c. cristatus. Great Crested Grebe.
There are two previous recorded occurrences of this Grebe from
the District but very few Burma records otherwise. On Novem-
ber 20th. 1934, I saw one on the river a few miles south of
Myitkyina, and shot one of a pair on the Hokat jheel still further
south. On November 21st I saw one swimming with a party ot
cormorants near Sinbo.
MYITKYINA, J. K, STANFORD,
Upper BuRMA. Indian Civil Service.
December 21, 1984.
XIL.—MATING HABITS OF MYNAHS AND CROWS.
Between January and March, I had occasion to observe the
pairing habits of certain birds. My attention was attracted by
the extraordinary noise made by some Common Mynahs (Acrido-
theres tristis). To me, it seemed, that a pair of them were in a
deadly combat. I watched them from a distance. A third one
suddenly appeared on the scene but it remained an indifferent spec-
tator. The interesting aspect of the combat was, that though the
. participants could have separated and taken to wing they continued
the struggle. Each fiercely pecked at the other’s beak, legs, wings
or body. Finally the combat ended, The birds lay by each other
with their vents apposed. This continued for about 15 seconds,
then they parted and flew off.
It was then, I concluded that the strenuous combat may have
been only a method of courtship or ‘love play’ and the apparent
rest they took was actual copulation.
I was able to watch the behaviour of some mynahs two days:
later when two pairs were through a similar performance. They
began their ‘fight’ on the branches and the house-tops and finally
fell to the ground in the course of the combat. What I presume
was that copulation took place during the 10-15 seconds of quies-
cence which followed. The whole performance was repeated at
short intervals. |
It is interesting to compare this habit of mynahs with the
normal pairing habits of birds. The same method is apparently
adopted by crows. Coitus is presumably effected side by side with
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Nest and eggs of Ramsay’s Bar-wing (Actinodura ramsayt).
the nest.
mM
). The Bird
yt
(Actinodura ramsai
oC
fo)
Y-wiln
Ramsay’s Ba
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 187
the. vents apposed, which, if my conclusion is correct is in contrast
to the normal position of other birds such as sparrows, kites, etc.
It is interesting to note that the observations suggest two differ-
ent ways of pairing in birds.
MEDICAL COLLEGE, K. I. VARGHESE, .a.
VIZAGAPATAM,
February 18, 1935.
[There is a general belief that crows copulate in the manner
suggested by the writer of the note; colour is lent to this belief
by the frequent combats which take place between crows during
the period which immediately precedes their breeding season and
also by the fact that copulation is rarely observed. However, on
the rare occasions when it has been observed, the act was per-
formed in the manner normal with birds. Mr. Salim Ah has made
such observations and has seen crows pairing usually early in the
morning. We do not therefore consider that we have any real
evidence in support of the popular belief that there is a deviation
from the normal in the mating habits of crows, nor do we con-
sider that the writer of the above note is justified in his con-
clusion that the combats between mynahs are a preliminary to
mating or that coitus takes place during the brief period of quies-
eence which follows a combat. Unless some pairs are actually
shot in the act of scuffling and sexed and the passage of the male
sperm ascertained by microscopic examination one could not accept
the evidence offered by Mr. Varghese as conclusive. It is more
than likely that the scuffles which take place among these birds
are between rival pairs, both males and females sometimes join
in the mélée. Mr. Salim A. Ali in a recent letter to the Society
mentions that he has seen several pairs of mynahs mating in the
ordinary manner and that he hopes to collect further evidence on
this point. We hope that Mr. Varghese will continue his obser-
vations regarding the mating habits of these common birds.—
Eps. |
XIITI.—NIDIFICATION OF THE SHAN STATES BAR-WING -
[ACTINODURA RAMSAYI RAMSAYI (WALDEN). ].
(With a plate).
As the nidification of this bird remains still undescribed, I send
you a note and photographs of a nest found by me two years ago.
It was on April 11, 1933, that I found the first nest of this
Bar-wing, in the Southern Shan States, up in the hills at Sin-
taung, some twelve miles south of Taunggyi. The elevation above
sea-level would be about 5,500 ft. That locality is particularly
beautiful, wild rocky peaks rising to nearly 7,000 ft.. with open
down lands and ravines, patches of thick forest and ereen glades
between. The local hill tribe are the Taung-vos, and they know
a great deal about their birds. To them this Bar-wing is known as
‘Nget pi pi’—presumably from its loud eall note. |
188- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
I was resting by a cave and waterfall, by the side of a rocky,
scrub-covered hill, when I noticed a SBar-wing with building
material in its Ball fly up into a lot of creepers overhanging some
rocks. But on searching the creeper carefully I could not see any
signs of the building nest. The creeper was not a dense one, but
somewhat dried-up, and yellow, with a good deal of feathery, ‘silk’
on it. J returned in five days’ time, and to my delight, the birds
were there. The nest I could now make out built very slenderly
out on the edge of the creeper amongst the ‘silk’. As the bird
was still sitting on her nest when I got to within three yards of
her, L was able to take a photograph of her sitting on the nest.
Her tail is seen sticking out over the edge of the nest—long and
straight.
There were two eggs—typical Bar-wings—but handsomer ones
than those I had previously seen in the Chin Hills.
The nest, suspended in the half-dried-up creeper, hung out
some ten feet from the ground over the rocks—a part of the same
creeper ascending a thickly foliaged tree near by. It was made
of yellowish round roots and was lined with finer ones of the
same character. The outer part of the nest had some of the
creeper’s feathery yellowish-white ‘silk’ worked into it, so that
the nest was by no means easy to distinguish. Had I not known
the exact spot I would surely have overlooked it.
The eggs measured approximately 23 mm. by 17.4 mm. They
were of a delicate blue-green—the colour we associate with eggs
of the English song thrush—but rather paler, and still more beauti-
ful as the shells were of a delicate texture and being so thin gave
the eggs a lovely transparency. The markings were few but bold
in character—a few blotches and scrolls of purplish chocolate—
some of the scrolls being drawn out into hair-lines. There were
a few underlying blotches of hlac colour. The markings were
mostly situated at the larger end of the eggs almost forming a
zone.
Subsequently I saw many more of these Bar-wings’ eggs, and
they were all of the same type—but there are occasionally some
that are weakly coloured, and such eggs approximate somewhat in
appearance to a certain type of egg rarely laid by Leioptila melano-
leuca radcliffei.
It has been said that the Bar-wings are very similar to the
Sibias. Morphologically that may be so, but their appearance and
habits are different, the Bar-wings being secretive birds, somewhat
heavy in flight, and keeping to the lower growth, while the Sibias
are elegant and conspicuous birds. But both have sweet and loud
musical call notes—tender, pleading and somewhat mournful.
The call note—or is it the song-note ?—of this Bar-wing is loud
and plaintive and can be heard at a great distance. It consists of
six notes falling in cadence—‘Pi-pi pi-pi pi-yuuu’ the last note be-
ing mournful, plaintive and prolonged. There is about two seconds’
interval between each double note, and about one second’s sau
between each ‘pi-pi’.
Recently I heard a bird calling in the thick, green. Stvetes
60 miles north of Myitkyina which I took to be a Bar- -wing. The
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 189
call was of the same character but consisted of ‘Pi-yuu—pi-yuu—
pi-yuu'—the intervals being somewhat longer—say four seconds,
between each double note.
In future bird books let us hope some attempt will be made to
describe with something approaching accuracy the colouration of
birds’ plumage and their eggs; and also their notes. The former
should be described in terms of recognised artists’ colours—which
are the colours nearest to nature’s—and a colour chart, as a guide,
published on the front page. Birds do not wear chemically-
coloured ladies’ dresses! And as to the songs and notes of birds,
a proper system is much to be desired. It should not neglect to
give the approximate intervals between notes as such are very
characteristic of the different species of birds.
Tauneeyvi, Sourn SHAN STATES,
BurMA. T. BR. LIVESEY.
March 17, 1985.
XIV.—NIDIFICATION OF THE BLACK-HEADED BABBLER
[RHOPOCICHLA A. ATRICEPS (OATES)].
With reference to Capt. Bates’ letter on the nidification of the
Black-headed Babbler (Rhopocichla a. atriceps), I am_ pretty
sure that Davidson was right in stating that this bird builds ‘cock’
nests which are never intended for breeding purposes. Wherever
the species occurs one finds dozens of these nests in the jungles
at all times of the year. They are very loosely and untidily con-
structed, usually in full view and I have never seen one with
any lining. Dead bamboo leaves are the favourite material and
I found one beautiful specimen made entirely of skeleton leaves.
Though I have disturbed birds roosting in this type of nest, all
those which I have found containing eggs or young have been much
smaller and more neatly and firmly woven. Unlike the ‘cock’
nests they are usually very well hidden and have a lining of black
rootlets or grass. While, as Bates says, one may find half a
dozen of the former type in as many yards of thicket, the breeding
nests are usually quite isolated. The Ceylonese sub-species nigri-
frons has precisely the same habits.
CooVERCOLLY, .
SOMWARPET, CoorRG. F. N. BETTS.
December 81, 1984.
XV.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE TIBETAN -SISKIN
{SPINUS THIBETANUS (HUME)] IN NORTHERN BURMA.
In the Jbist for April 1935 I recorded the occurrence of this
rare finch in March 1933 near Sadon in the Myitkyina District at
about 38,000 ft. Prior to this, it had only been known in India
from the Tibet-Sikkim border, and in Burma from three obtained
by Lord Cranbrook at 6,600 ft. in the Adung Valley (in the far
! [bis, 18th Ser. Vol. V, p.265.
490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVUI
north of the Myitkyina District) in March 1981. On December
20, 1934, I obtained four out of a flock of about 20 birds in the
valley of the N’Gri Hka about 6 miles west of Sadon, at a height
of about 2,000 ft., one of which I was unable to preserve. They
were all singing together with a typical Siskin note, in a tree after
bathing in the stream. Two of those obtained, sexed as females,
were heavily striped on the upper parts. (Iris, brown; bill, bone-
grey; legs and feet, vivid brown.)
MyIrkyINa, J. K. STANFORD,
Upper Burma. Indian Civil Service.
December 21, 1984.
XVI.—VULTURES FEEDING AT NIGHT.
On December 15, 1984, while Mr. and Mrs. P. Learoyd of
Ootacamund were sitting up over a tiger kill at the foot of the
Billigirirangans, vultures descended from the surroundig trees at
about 8 p.m. and by 11 p.m. had completely demolished - the
remains of the kill. Although it was moonlight, | cannot recall a
similar case having occurred before.
Honnametri Estate, Be Co MORRIS,
ATTIKAN P.O., via Mysore. F708 c5°EuRsGaoe
January 3, 1985,
XVIT.—PEREGRINE AND SPUR-WINGED PLOVER.
The delightful note by Mr. Stanford describing the drill-dance
and manifestation of the Spur-winged Plover prompts me to tell
of a most curious incident | witnessed in Burma a few years ago
in which the Spur-winged Plover—the Japanese Print Bird played
an astonishing role.
I was slowly ascending the lovely Salween River in Karenni
in a small boat, when my attention was attracted by a Spur-winged
Plover in a very frenzy of agitation. He had come to the very
end of a sand-spit just in front of my boat, and as I came to
within about twenty yards of him, he actually took to the water
like a duck and swam out into the river. He rode the water easily
and lightly—with grace. I was dumbfounded at this exhibition!
He then suddenly ducked and dived clean under! At the same
moment there was a tearing sound and a fine Peregrine came at
his stoop and sheluvared over the DDI where the Plover had dis-
appeared !
After about three or ae Cone up Srepned the Plover again
on the surface tittering with fear, while the Peregrine looking over
his shoulder swung up and round to repeat his stoop. Then he
came again at the Plover and as before just when he was within
afew yards the wily Plover again dived! By this time my boat
was nearly on top of the Plover who bobbed up, and then began
to swim ashore. The Peregrine had flown off baffled completely
by these tactics. The Plover landed safely and ran along the
shore, still very rattled by his narrow escape from death.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES i191
And so I left him there bobbing up and down and shaking
the wet off his plumage on a sandy-spit by the Salween.
TAUNGGYI, SouTH SHAN SratEs,
BurRMA. T, BR. LIVESEY.
March 29, 1985.
XVIII.—DISTRIBUTION OF THE INDIAN HOOPOE
(UPUPA EPOPS ORIENTALIS STUART BAKER).
On page 308 of vol. iv of the Fauna of British India (2nd edi-
tion), as an instance of the wandering habits of Hoopoes, Upupa
epops orientalis is quoted as breeding as high as Sukna in Dar-
jeeling, some 7,000 ft. elevation.
As a resident of the Darjeeling District for many years, | write
to say that Sukna is at the foot of the hills at 1,000 ft. elevation
and is on the actual natural dividing line between lulls and plains
with sal forest on the north side and tea and rice fields on the
south.
In fifteen years I have never seen any other Hoopoe but U. e.
saturata in these Hills, which passes through in late August or
early September returning in March and April, some birds dallying
quite a while by the wayside. The earliest recorded downward
date is August 17th and the latest upward date is May 17th when
two birds hung about the tea garden for 8 weeks and then suddenly
disappeared.
Round Siliguri, some 7 or 8 miles from the foot of the hills
I have seen both U. e. saturata and U. e. orientalis together, in
December, the latter being resident.
The reference to Sukna and Darjeeling on page 311 is ambiguous
but the reference on page 808 shows that Sukna is assumed to
be the same elevation as Darjeeling, thereby greatly enhancing
the difficulty of dividing up the sub-species.
Namrine T.E.,
Runeui Runewiot P.O., W. H. MATTHEWS.
N. BENGAL.
March 8, 1985.
XIX.—THE LESSER FLORICAN [SYPHEOTIDES INDICA
(MILLER)] IN THE KONKAN.
A female Lesser Florican was shot by Mr. J. Stokoe near
Karjat at the foot of the Bhor Ghat on Sunday the 20th January
19385. As the Florican rarely enters the area lying between the
Western Ghats and the sea, the record is of interest.
Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc., |
-. 6, Apotio STREET. - S. H. PRATER,
February 2,1985. ea 1 OME.
192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIil
XX.—SOME NOTES ON WOODCOCK (SCUOLOPAX R. RUSTI-
COLA LINN.) IN BURMA.
The Fauna (2nd edition) states that in India the Woodcock is
‘merely a casual migrant to the plains, the great majority of the
Himalayan birds being resident or merely moving to lower levels
in the winter’. Its breeding haunts are stated to be the Hima-
layas from 8,000-12,000 ft. and the ‘mountains of Northern China’.
Mr. EK. B. Bloech (Journal, vol. xxxili, p. 715) has shown that
the Woodcock is a regular winter visitor to the western edge of
the Pegu Yoma in Lower Burma. It certainly occurs regularly in
winter at about 3,000 ft. near Maymyo in the Shan States, which
is only 26 miles away from one of the driest parts of the dry zone.
Mr. E. W. Allan, of the Indian Forest Service, found it common
at about 38,000 ft. in the Kyangin township of Henzada District
in the Henzada-Arakan Yoma. Capt. E. H. Cooke shot a migrant
in the Fort at Mandalay, and I have recorded its occurrence in
1929 in the plains of Prome District. I also once saw a Wood-
cock, almost certainly a passing migrant, which had been dis-
turbed out of a neighbouring garden, fly over the tennis-court of
the Monywa Club on the Chindwin in October or November 1924.
Col. R. M. Jacob tells me it is to be found regularly in various
parts of the Chin Hills in winter, from 5,000 ft. upwards. These
occurrences suggest that it is not a casual, but a regular, winter
migrant over a very large part of Burma, to be found from late
October to March whenever conditions are suitable. In the Myit-
kyina District of Northern Burma it certainly occurs, as a winter
visitor, in some numbers over an area of 15,000-20,000 miles both
in the plains and in the hills. On October 23, 1934, one flew
over the Myitkyina Club at dusk, and I saw another flighting at
dusk out of my garden in the same week. These were probably
birds on migration. Capt. D. M. Fife tells me they occur at
Laukhaung (3,000 ft.) in the N’Mai and Ngawchang Valleys and
round the Panwa Pass on the Yunnan border (6,000 ft.) from
December to mid-February. In January 1935, Messrs. A. 5S.
Vernay, R. C. Morris and myself found a number flighting im
every evening to wet ditches and paddy stubble on the edge of
evergreen forest near Lonhkin in the Jade Mines. I saw at least
three of these birds come high over the trees in the dusk, set
their wings and stoop like a snipe or a falcon down to their
feeding-grounds, though once they had started to feed they more
or less fluttered up and gave very easy shots. In some of these
ditches, the marks of their beaks and feet could be seen by day,
and indicated where to wait for them. On January 1, 1935, I
shot two feeding by day, on the Talawgyi plain, one in dew-
covered short grass like wild barley; which at the time was full
of feeding snipe, and the other on the edge of a jheel where 1
was feeding with Fantail and Painted Snipe about 9 a.m. In late
February 19385, while we were beating for jungle fowl in scrub
jungle opposite Myitkyina, as many as eight were flushed and six
shot within a radius of about 300 yds. These birds were lying in
dry scrub and bamboo jungle, and their feeding ground .was. pre-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 193
bably the mud of a backwater of the Irrawaddy 200 yds. away.
In early March, Capt. J. G. Hurrell saw as many as six in one
jungle-fowl beat near Myitkyina. I have seen these birds flushed
out of quite dry grass jungle by day, but one of their favourite
haunts seems scrub or cane-brake jungle where shallow streams
run out into the fields. Capt. Lyle tells me he has shot them at
Sima (4,000 ft.) flighting to places where springs come out of the
hillside. They rarely fly far in a beat and when first flushed, if
not shot at, usually pitch again within 100 yds. It is to be hoped
that before long the Woodcock will be found breeding in the hills
of the North-East Frontier of Burma, on the Tibet or Yunnan
border. There must be some breeding area in between the Hima-
layas and the North China hills which is yet to be discovered.
MYITKYINA. J. K. STANFORD,
April 14, 1985. Indian Civil Service.
XXI.—ALBINO FAN-TAIL SNIPE (CAPELLA G.
GALLINAGO LINN.).
IT am sending you under separate cover a white snipe I shot
about 20 miles from Bangalore on the 20th instant. I don’t know
how common such a specimen is but thought it might interest you.
I was shooting the border of a shallow tank where the snipe
were fairly plentiful but wild. A couple got up together at ex-
treme range and I fired the left barrel at the leading snipe but
missed. I then noticed that the second one appeared completely
white. I marked it down about 400 yds. further on and eventu-
ally shot it sitting as I didn’t want it to escape again! It was
very conspicuous, being visible from well over 100 yds. away where
an ordinary snipe would have been unnoticed at 20. I apologise
for the very bad skinning but I had to do it late at night.
Lt.-Col. J. V. J. Ellis, r.a., who has since gone home, told
me about last November that he had seen a white snipe while
shooting from Bangalore, but had failed to get a shot at it.
R. A. Mass, EL Cx Wie UN IN,
BANGALORE. Dts sR
January 28, 1935,
AXIT—A SECOND RECORD OF THE OCCURRENCE OF
THE LONG-TAILED DUCK (CLANGULA HYEMALIS
LINN.) IN INDIA.
IN INDIA.
(With a photo).
I enclose herewith two photographs of a specimen of a drake
Long-tailed Duck, Clangula hyemalis, which I shot on a wide
sweep of the River Brahmaputra at Messaki, at the western end
of the Pasighat Sub-Division of the Sadiya Frontier Tract, on
Wednesday the 23rd of January, 1935. I tried to skin the bird,
ae
194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
but knowing very little of the business and how to preserve the
skin, it went bad in the end. I kept one of the long tail ‘pins’
however which I also enclose herewith. The other ‘pin’ was some-
what shorter. I do not think there is any possibility of a mistake
in identification for the black and white plumage with the black
chest and white abdomen, the long ‘pins’ in the tail and the pink
and black bill (a typical duck’s bill) were to my mind unmistak-
The Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis)
able. The bird when first seen was swimming in the water quite
close to the boat in which my wife and I were; but it seemed un-
able to fly. It gave a fine exhibition of diving before it was shot.
I killed it thinking it was an injured smew. Later I discovered
the apparent reason for its inability to fly, for it was gorged right
up to the mouth with small freshwater shrimps. There were two
other flocks of duck on the same water of which the males looked
black and white and were apparently; the females looked dark
brown, through a pair of field glasses. J was unable to get a shot
at them for they were very wild. I cannot say therefore for certain
if they were the same species as the one I shot, although the black
and white birds in the flocks looked the same from the distance.
These two flocks were on the same water on 16th February 1935
when I returned to Messaki on the homeward journey of my tour,
but although I tried hard to secure another bird, I failed, for they
were as wild as ever.
IT cannot account for the bird I shot for its presence where I
shot it seems very extraordinary indeed. It was very fat and
seemed very heavy for its size. It was in splendid condition.
Doubt will probably be cast on the record since I see that the
duck has only been recorded once before in India and that from
Baluchistan, but I think the accompanying photographs’ will set
it at rest, : a
Pasicuat, N.-E. FrRonvigr, R. E. PARSONS;
AssaM, Invi. Assistant Political Officer.
April 1, 1935.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - 195
XXITIT.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE SCAUP (NYROCA
M. MARILA LINN.) IN THE BHAVNAGAR SWATH.
Many thanks for your kind information about the duck 1 seni
to you, and which was indentitied as the Scaup (Nyroca m. maria):
{ shot this duck in the last shoot of the season on the 2Znd
February last, at a place called Hathab, about 17 miles from Bhav-
nagar along the sea coast. ‘The tank is about a mile trom the
village and consists purely of rain water. It is very badly situ-
ated for a shoot as the sea is about 150 yds. away, only a range
of sand dunes dividing the tank from the sea. It has a small
patch of reeds, but not thick enough to give any cover. All the
ducks after being shot at for a very short time, make straight
for the sea and very poor shooting is to be had. Jor this reason
I arranged to have two Peregrine Falcons to ‘wait on’, so as to
keep the ducks in the tank. As a result we shot 385 ducks out
of about 100, with 8 guns. I think this is a very good bag con-
sidering the bad situation of the tank. E
There were many other varieties of ducks, mostly Tufted
Pochard (Nyroca fuligula) and Gadwall (Chaule lasmus streperus).
Another rare duck was shot by one of my friends. This small
duck was flying very much slower than the others; its greyish-
white colouring made it quite distinctive. It was eventually
wounded and secured. I identified it as a female Marbled Teal
(Marmaronetta angustirostris). It is still alive at our duck house.
This species is a rare visitor here only. One male specimen was
shot in 1931 at a village called Tarsamya just two miles from
Bhavnagar.
NILAMBAG PALACE,
BHAVNAGAR. K. S. DHARMA KUMARSINHJI.
March 10, 1985.
XXIV.—THE BRONZE-CAPPED TEAL [|HUNETTA FULUATA
(GEORGI)| IN THE SAMASTIPUR DISTRICT, BENGAL.
I have sent under registered post today the head of a duck
for identification as no one on the shoot could identify the same,
some of the Mallahs having been out shooting in this jheel with
Planters for more than 50 years. Most unfortunately the young
Mallah who picked it up ‘hilal-karoed’ it, before it was seen by us.
One of my old orderlies called it a Bengal Duck. Mr. E.
Abbott of Hathwa who was shooting, has shot on this desl for
over 50 years and has never seen any bird like it.
On this same jheel, a Baikal Teal was shot’ about 4— years ago.
HUuRSINGPORE, SAMASTIPUR P.O.,
eas VV eY: ~ C.. I. PARR.
February 4, 1935,
[The head sent by Mr. Parr was that of a Bronze-capped teal.
—Eps, | : a :
196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS‘. SOCIETY; Vol! XXXVilt
XXV.—OCCURRENCE OF THE MARBLED DUCK
[MARMARONETTA ANGUSTIROSTRIS (MENETRIES) |
NHAR POONA.
On the 15th December 1934, 1 was duck shooting at Ravengaon
Lake 54 miles south-east of Poona, the duck were very plentiful,
more so than in the last four years that I have spent in this dis-
trict. Amongst the duck I shot was a solitary bird which you
have since identified as a Marbled Teal (Marmaronetta angusti-
rostris). This is the only occasion that I have seen this duck in
these parts though I have seen several shot at Khush Dil Khan
hear Quetta. J was interested to hear that this bird has not been
recorded further south than Baroda.
7, Loruian Roap, F.C. AiCKLE,
POONA. Lt.-Col.
January 381, 1935.
|The Marbled Duck is a common cold weather visitant to Sind
and is less abundant in the provinces which adjoin it. From this
area it occurs as a straggler in other parts of India. Jn the Bom-
bay Presidency it has been recorded from Gujerat and Kathiawar,
but not, as far as we are aware, so far south as Poona.—Ebs. |
XXVL—THE SHELDRAKE [SARKIDIORNIS MELANOTUS
(PENN.)| AND THE COMB DUCK [TADORNA TADORNA
(LINN.)] IN SIND.
The Sheldrake or Dunn Duck. One was shot at Bhujo (Jung-
shai District, Sind) by Major Osborne, Royal Sussex Regiment on
the lith December 1984 (very far south for this duck). One was
shot at Badin, Hyderabad District, Sind, between the 24th and
30th December last year by a party consisting of officers of the
Royal Sussex.
The Nukta or Comb Duck. One was shot at Mirpur Bothoro,
Sind, between the 17th and 20th November 19383 by Major
Osborne, Royal Sussex Regiment.
KARACHI. CG. B: RUBLE;
January 21, 1935. Lt.-Col.
|The Sheldrake is a rare visitor to Sind. It has been secured
on the Manchar Lake and at Jhunpur on the Khinjar Jheel.—
Eps. ,
[The Nukta has been previously recorded from the Kati Dhand,
Sujawal. Distriet (Webb, J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxi, p. 685) and has
been obtained at Badin.—Eps. ] Pry
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 197
XXVII.—ARRIVAL DATES OF MIGRANT BIRDS IN
COORG.
I subpend a list of arrival dates of migrants this cold weather
case they may be of interest.
September 38. Marsh Harrier.
September 5. Grey Wagtail.
September 9. Pintail Snipe.
September 21. Common Indian Bee-eater (Local migrant).
September 17. Eastern Swallow.
September 29. Brown Shrike.
October 5. Great Reed Warbler.
to
=
bt
October 5. Red Breasted Flycatcher.
October 8. Black Drongo (Local migrant).
October 10. Indian Oriole (Local migrant).
October 16. Indian Pitta (Local migrant).
October 17. Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike (Local migrant).
October 17. Blue-headed Rock Thrush.
October 18. Indian Blue Chat.
October 19. Forest Wagtail.
October 26. White Wagtail.
November 38. Indian Tree Pipit.
October 26. Verditer Flycatcher.
November 23. Hoopoe (Local migrant).
December 2. Yellow-Throated Sparrow (Local migrant).
Most species were a week or so later in arriving this season
than usual.
COOVERCOLLY,
SOMWARPET, Coora. F. N. BETTS.
December 31, 1984.
XXVIIT.—AN ADDITION TO THE LIST OF SNAKES OF
BOMBAY AND SALSETTE: CORONELLA BRACHYURA.
I am sending you under separate cover a specimen of Coronella
brachyura w hich T recently obtained at Marole, in Salsette Island.
This species is not listed in Mr. Prater’s Snakes of Bombay
Island and Salsette.
Another snake that does not apnear to have been recorded from
our Island is Typhlops acutus. There are two specimens of this
snake in the collection at St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, one ob-
tained by Mr. C. McCann at Tulsi, and the other by myself at
Andheri.
Trimeresurus anamalensis is recorded as ‘straying into Mahim
wood’ by Vidal (J.B.N.H.S., v, p. 65). Does the specimen exist?
or is it to be considered as a result of confusion with gramineus ?
GopREJ House,
ANDHERI. HUMAYUN ABDULALT,
April 23, 19385,
198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
[Coronella brachyura, a rare snake has hitherto been recorded
only from the Deccan. Tts discovery in Salsette indicates an
extension of its range into the Konkan. It is probable that Vidal’s
record of the occurrence of the Anamalay Viper 7. anamalensis in
Mahim is the result of a confusion with the Common Green Pit
Viper (7. gramineus). The latter is found in the hills of Salsette.
One was killed at Malabar Hill, Bombay, where it. was found in a
grass cart. Snakes are sometimes imported in this way. There
is in the Society’s collection a hatchling of a Malay Python (P.
reticulatus) which was killed while unloading teak from a ship in
the Bombay Docks.—Eps. ]. |
XXIX.—A FURTHER LIST OF SNAKES FROM
AHMEDNAGAR.
In continuation of my note on ‘Snakes at Ahmednagar’
published in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society
on 15th November 1932, this note is sent, which covers a period
of about 14 months, from 8th June 1932, on my return from
leave, to 8rd August 19383, when I was transferred to Belgaum
as Civil Surgeon. During this time an additional number of snakes
was seen by me—230 from thé Town and District of Nagar. This
brings the total number of snakes seen from this district,
including those mentioned in my previous note, to 479 and
hence is useful as a general index of the variety of snakes
found in this part, the number being sufficiently large for this
purpose. Out of the 230 snakes, 89 were from Visapur, 86 from
Newasa, 6 from Jamkhed, 8 from Shevgaon, 2 from Parner and
1 from Toka, in Ahmednagar District.
The snakes were :—
1. The Common Blind Snake (Typhlops braminus)—9. 8 of
these were found in my (Civil Surgeon’s) bungalow.
2. The Red Earth-Boa (Eryx conicus)—11. 6 of these were
from Nagar and 5 from the District. The longest was 2 ft.
8. Python (Python molurus)—l. This was 7 ft. long and
was brought from Kharda in the District and was seen with a
snakeman.
4. Checkered Water-Snake (Tropidonotus piscator)—T7. 6
from the District and 1 from Nagar.
5. Buff-Striped Keel-back (Tropidonotus stolatus)—1l. A
complete cast skin of this snake was seen.
6. Green Keel-back (Macropisthodon plumbicolor)—49. 27
from Nagar and 22 in the District. In my last note I had men-
tioned 82, so it is quite a common snake (81 out of 479). The
hatching period of this snake seems to be the month of June as
young specimens 7 in. and 8 in. long were commonly seen in June
and July.
7. Common Wolf Snake (Lycodon aulicus)—28. 22 from
Nagar and 6 from the District. Another common snake (76 out
of 479). A brood of 6 young ones, about 8 in. lone. was found
in one of the rooms of the Ahmednagar Club on 22nd May 1933,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 199
8. Dhaman (Zamenis mucosus)—12. 9 from Nagar and 8
from the District. The longest was 8 ft., another being 7 ft. 8 in.
9. Fasciolated Dhaman (Zamenis fasciolatus)—5. One from
Nagar and 4 from the District, all from Visapur, where this seems
to be a common snake.
10. The Spotted or the Graceful Dhaman (Zamenis gracilis)
—4, 2 from Nagar and 2 from the District.
11. The Trinket Snake (Coluber helena)—22. --A common
enough snake (total number 56). 16 were from the Town and 6
from the District. In the Town of Nagar this is a common snake.
The longest was 50 in., some other big ones being 474 in., 46 in.,
44 in. and 42 in. One 88 in. long was seen on the ledge of the
deep well in my compound, about 4 ft. from the surface of the
water and was brought up alive, entangled on lowering some small
branches of the ordinary Ber tree on a rope, on 8th December 1933.
12. The Common Brown Tree Snake (Dipsadomorphus tri-
gonatus)—21. 11 from Nagar and 10 from the District. A fairly
common snake (total number 55). One good fresh lve specimen
was secured from the well in my compound on 17th November 1932
where it was seen swimming. It was brought up entangled on Ber
twigs (Zizyphus jujuba, Natural order, Rhamnaceae). The well has
a wall about 38 ft. high and the snake must have fallen in the well
from an overhanging Pilu tree (Salvadora persica, Natural order;
Salvadoraceae), where probably it went in search of bird’s eggs.
Two were also seen swimming in the well in the Dispensary
at Shevgaon, whence they were also brought up alive.
13. The Common Kukri Snake (Oligodon subgriseus)—2. 1
from Nagar and 1 from the district.
14. The Banded Kukri Snake (Simotes arnensis)—2. 1 from
Visapur in the District and 1 from the well in my compound,
where it was seen swimming on 17th November 19382 and was
brought up similarly to the common Brown Tree Snake mentioned
in 11 above and on the same date.
15. The Three-striped Coral Snake (Callophis trimaculatus)—
2. From the district—1l from Newasa and 1 from Visapur.
16. The Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)—9. 2 from
Vispaur in the District and 2 were from my bungalow compound ;
1 from the compound of the Indian Military Hospital. One was
found at 8 a.m. in the engine room of the City Electrie Supply Co.
One 9 in. long was found on 17th July 1932. The hatching period
of this snake here seems to be the months of June and July.
In my last note T had mentioned that no kraits were found on
the south side of Bhingar Nullah. but in this lot, 4 were found on
the south side and 8 on the north of the nullah, showing that its
distribution is not limited to either side. |
17. The Cobra (Naia_ trinudians)\—27. 15 from near Nagar
and 12 from the District. 1 wheaten-coloured from Kharda. The
others were dark coloured. All were binocellate. The longest was
62 in., the other big ones being 56 in., 48 in. and 48 in.
_ 18. The Russell’s Viper (Vipera russellii—4. All from the
District. 8 from Newasa and 1 from Toka, six miles from Newasa.
where the River Pravara joins the Godavari River.
200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
19. The Phoorsa (Echis carinata)—8. All these were found
in one place only in the District, at Newasa, which is on the River
Pravara. They were all found in the Dispensary compound which
is very near the bank of the river. If anyone wishes to get
Phoorsas in this district, this is a place to remember.
These were all the 19 species found and mentioned in my last
note. Four other species were also found in this new collection.
These are:—
20. Typhlops porrectus. A variety of blind snake, not record-
ed from this District before. It was seen at Jamkhed Dispensary
in the District on 19th January 1933.
21. Spot-bellied Polyodont (Polyodontophis subpunctatus)—
8. 2 from Nagar and 1 from Newasa in the District.
22. Yellow-spotted Wolf Snake (Lycodon flavomaculatus).
Only 1 specimen was found near Cursetjee’s shop in the Ahmeda-
bad Cantonment on 29th November 1932. This is the first one
recorded from Nagar though it has been recorded from Poona,
Nasik, Dharwar, Sangli, in the Western Ghats.
23. Coronella brachyura. One specimen of this from Visapur
in the District was seen on Ist December 1982. This is considered |
a rare species as only three specimens were recorded until recently
(from Poona and Berar). Dr. Lindberg from Kurduwadi, Sholapur
District, in his note in the Bombay Natural History Society Journal
of November 1982 on ‘Snakes on the Barsi Light Railway’ men-
tioned that he collected 10 of these. So this species is not so
rare as it was made out to be but is fairly common in the Deccan
and probably in the adjoining parts of Berar. But being a small
thin snake few persons kill it or preserve it. The specimen I
got in Visapur is in the British Museum now.
POONA. K, G. GHARPURBEY,
June 28, 1934. t:-ColnaaM. 8%,
Offg. Surgeon-General with the Govt. of Bombay.
XXX.—MATING OF THE HAMADRYAD OR KING COBRA
(NAIA BUNGARUS SCHLUEG.).
On the 28th instant at 5-30 p.m., after returning from a walk
IT was ascending the hill leading to my bungalow, which is 80 ft.
above the alluvium flats, a coolie drew my attention to what I
would describe as a bundle of snakes, all entangled, coming down
the hill towards me. On making closer investigation, IT found it
was two Hamadryads mating. TI immediately sent for my gun
and the first shot hit the smaller one of the two, which at once
fastened its fangs on to the larger one. The second shot hit the
big one in the centre of the back and it in turn seized the smaller
one by the head. The third shot into the hood finished him off.
Both snakes were jet black in colour, with bluish markings
underneath. The inner side of the hoods were yellow with a tinge
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 201
of red around the edges. The measurements of the bigger one
were as follows :—
Length. 12 feet 10 inches.
Circumference. 10 inches.
Width of head. 33 do.
Width of hood. 1 foot 2. inches.
I might mention that when the hood was measured, it was not
unduly stretched.
T only measured the length of the small one which was 8 ft.
[ have had the heads of the snakes cut off and placed in a covered
basket in a stream and when the flesh has fallen away, I shall
forward the skulls for your inspection.
As old Karen and Burman jungle folks have informed me that
they have never come across a Hamadryad the length and size
of the larger one IT shot, it would be interesting to know if this is
anything lke a record.
PALAW, W. J) i. SMITE,
Via Mercvt. Manager,
January 31, 1935. Malayan and General Trust (1988), Ltd.
[The largest known Hamadryad, the skin of which is in the
collection of the Society, measured 15 ft. 5 in. Col. Wall records
two specimens of over 14 ft. There is a reference to an 18 ft.
specimen in Ditmar’s Snakes of the World.—Eps. |
XXXTI.—OCCURRENCE OF DIPSADOMORPHUS MULTI-
MACULATA SCHLEG. IN ASSAM.
An example of this snake was sent to the Society for identi-
fication by Major C. S. P. Hamilton, Chief Medical Officer, Juri
Valley Medical Association, Juri, South Sylhet, Assam. Boulen-
ger, Fauna of British India, ‘Reptiles’, p. 861, limits the distri-
bution of this species to Burma, Southern China, Siam, Malay
Peninsula and Archipelago.
Bompay Nat. Hist. Soctery. | S. H. PRATER,
February 15, 1934. C.M.Z.S.
XXXIT.—THE COMMON CHAMAELEON (CHAMAELEON
ZEYLANICUS LAURENTI IN GUJARAT.
T noticed a note in Vol. xxxvi, No. 2 by Mr. Acharya on the
unfrequent occurrence of Chamaeleon calcaratus! in Gujarat. It
might interest readers to know that in July 1933 our servants
caught a very fine and large specimen in a Nim tree beside the
bungalow in our compound in Borsad. He was very friendly and
" [Chamaeleon calcaratus Boulenger is now considered a synonym of
C, zeylanicus Laurenti.—Hds. | .
202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. AXX VIII
we even managed to get a photograph of him which however would
not bear reprinting owing to the dullness of the monsoon day.
Again in September 1934 a young one was caught at the
College. He was full of fun and walked all over me without show-
ing any anger or fear except when he noticed the tiny coloured
flowers on my frock, when he puffed himself out and spat and
tried to snap at what he must have thought were wonderful
insects which would make a delicious meal!
These are the only two I have seen in nine years in Gujarat.
Mary Brown Memoria TRAINING COLLEGE.
BorSsapD. AGNES T. BARRY,
February 7, 1985. Principal.
XXXIII.—RATE OF GROWTH OF THE MUGGER
[CROCODILUS PALUSTRIS (LESSON)].
On the 1st June 1915, I secured a baby mugger 11 in. long,
which had recently left the egg. I kept it in the vivarium of the
Museum where it lived for over 19 years, growing yearly at the
rate of 2 to 9 in. or a rough average of 4 in. yearly. As it had
attained to over a length of 7 ft. and as no suitable accommodation
could be secured for it locally I have presented it to the Victoria
Gardens, Bombay.
Central Musrum, NAGPur. Be A, DABREU,
November 15, 1984. F.Z.S.
XXXIV.—BUTTERFLIES OF LAHORE.
IT have read Brigadier W. H. Evans’s comment on my reply
to his original note on my paper on the ‘Butterflies of Lahore’
(Bulletin of the Department of Zoology, Panjab University, vol. i,
pp. 1-61, pl. i-iv, April 19381) published in the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society, vol. xxxv, No. 4, dated 15th July 1982.
T would once more emphasize the fact that only one specimen
each of the four species under discussion was collected by me from
Lahore. It is not certain whether those species occur in a wild
state in Lahore or the specimens T collected had been imported
from elsewhere.
According to Brigadier Evans ‘Mr. Antram’s record of Melitaea
didyma from the Punjab is certainly incorrect’. TI may point out
that the above species has been recorded from the Punjab _ bv
Bingham also (Fauna of British India, ‘Butterflies’, vol. i, 1905,
p. 454).
Brigadier Evans’s remark that the species which Mr. Rhe-
Philipe missed from Lahore and which were subsequently collected
by me ‘have doubtless existed there for centuries’ seems to imply
that the butterfly fauna of a locality does not undergo any change.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2038
Such an assumption would not be in accordance with observed
facts.
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE,
LAHORE. D, KR, PUBL
December 5, 1982.
[ Mr. Puri states that only one specimen each of the four species
under discussion was ‘collected’ by him in Lahore. In the next
sentence he states that he is not certain whether these species
occur in the wild state in Lahore or whether they had been im-
ported from elsewhere. His ‘collecting’ may therefore suggest that
the specimens in question might have been given him by someone
who may have ‘said’ that he had got them in Lahore. It seems
difficult otherwise to explain Mr. Puri’s statement that ‘it is not
certain whether those species occur in wild state’ in Lahore.
As regards Melitaea didyma, the Punjab species is actually trivia
and the distribution of didyma does not extend to the plains.
Mr. Puri suggests that the Punjab may slowly change its fauna,
but changes of the nature implied by the author of the note do
not occur such as the sudden influx of butterflies from thousands
of miles away or the descent of high elevation insects to the Indian
plains.—Eps. |
XXXV.—MIMICRY: BEING NOTES ON CERTAIN
INDIAN BUTTERFLIES.
On page 529 of his classic Butterfly Hunting in Many
Lands, Dr. Longstaff writes: ‘It may not be without interest
to record a number of cases in which a collector with defective
eyesight has actually been deceived (at any rate momentarily) by
mimics in the field’. Jt is hoped that the following brief notes by
a collector, who prides himself on the keenness of his sight, may
prove of equal interest.
Papilio polytes, . ssp. romulus, Cr. female and Byasa hector,
L. female. <A good cabinet mimic. T have never seen the two
species flying together, in fact the only living hector I have seen
were males, but their flight seemed more direct and businesslike
than that of the mimic. It is of course possible that the females
fly in a more hesitating manner.
Papilio polytes, L. ssp. romulus, Cr. 2 f. stichius, Hbn. and
Byasa aristolochiae, F. aristolochiae. This form is usually de-
scribed in books as the ‘aristolochiae form of female’. It is, in
my opinion. a poor cabinet mimic and an even less convincing
field one. Both its flight and general appearance are unlike the
so-called model and T have never been deceived, even momentarily.
by it.
Chilasa clytia, LL. clytia and Euploea core, Cr. core. Chilasa
elytia, L. f. dissimilis, Tl. and f. dissimillima, Evans and Danais
limniace, Cr. ssp. mutina, Fruhs. These are not over convincing
mimics when seen in the cabinet. In flight, however, they are
almost perfect, so much so that T have given up recording cases
where I have been deceived by single specimens. TI-once eyen
404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI
caught two EH. core and one C. clytia with one stroke under the
impression that I was catching three of the Euploea (vide Ento-
mologist, Ixvi, p. 119). The slow sailing flight of the mimic, when
undisturbed, is an exact imitation of that of the model: if fright-
ened, however, it dashes off with the typical Papilionid flight.
When at rest on flowers they are easily distinguished as the
mimic keeps up an incessant fluttering whilst the model rests either
with the wings motionless or slowly opens and shuts them.
Pareronia valeria, Cr. ssp. hippia, F. female and Danais aglea,
Cr. I have coupled these two species together as there is no
other Danaid small enough to act as model, but T have never seen
them flying together. They are a fairly good cabinet pair and
the Pierid has the typical Danaid flight. Dr. Longstaff records
having mistaken the female of Pareronia ceylonica, Feld. for this
Danaid in Ceylon.
Elymnias hypermnestra, L. ssp. undularis, Drury, female and
Danais plexippus, L. A fair cabinet mimic. It is not, however,
very convincing in the field as the flight is very much weaker
than that of the model. It also settles frequently and shews the
non-Danaine underside. |
Elymnias malelas, Hew. malelas male and Euploea sp. The
onlv specimen T have seen alive was caught whilst touring near
Darjeeling under the impression that it was one of the blue
Euploeas.
Hestina nama, Dbl. and Danais tytia, Gray, tytia. A good
cabinet pair. I have never seen the Danaid alive but I was
completely deceived by the mimic when first IT met it and was
surprised to find that IT had caught a Nymphalid and not a Danaid.
Hypolimnas misippus, lL. female and Danais chrysippus, UL.
An almost perfect cabinet mimic and equally good in the field. IT
have a specimen which was caught after being watched some time,
both flying and at rest, and which was only recognised as a Nvm-
phalid when it was being papered.
Argynnis hyperbius, li. hyperbius female and Danais chrysinp-
pus, lu. A poor cabinet mimic of either D. chrysippus, L. or D.
plerippus. Ti. On the wing it resembles a brown Danais but the
resemblance is not definite enough for it to be mistaken for any
given species.
Lonpon. D. G. SEVASTOPULO,
August 21, 1938. FIRES.
XXXVI—A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE PYRALIDAE
OF CALCUTTA.
Most local lists are concerned with the Rhopalocera, so a list
of one of the more neglected families of the Heterocera may be of
interest. The Pyralidae listed below have all been caught at light
in the heart of Calcutta during the last three vears. Hampson,
whom I have followed as regards nomenclature, names 1,136 species
of Pyralidae in the fourth volume of Moths in the Fauna of British
MISCELLANEOUS
India, published in 1896,
still have a fair number
Galleria mellonella, LL.
Ancylolomia chrysographella,
Koll.
Ramila marginella, Moore.
Scirpophaga auriflua, Zell.
Schoenobius tmmeritalis, Wk.
5 bipunctifer, W1k.
- adjurellus, WI1k.
incertellus, Wk.
Cirrhochrista brizoalis, Wk.
EKuzophera perticella, Rag.
Nephopteryx paurosema, “Meyr.
- leucophaella, Zell.
Phycita hemixanthella, Hmpsn.
Hypsopygia mauritialis, Boisd.
Pyralis pictalis, Curt.
,, manthotalis, Guen.
Tamraca torridalis, Led.
Herculia nigrivitta, Wk.
. igniflualis, Wk.
cs suffusalis, Wk.
Nymphula crisonalis, W1k.
a fluctuosalis, Zell.
a depunctalis, Guen.
Qligostigma bilineale, Snell.
Talanga sexpunctalis, Moore.
Hymenoptychis sordida, Zell.
Tatobotys varancsalis, Wk.
Bradina admizxtalis, WI1k.
Hydrorybina bicolor, Moore.
Pycnarmon virgatalis, Moore.
s caberalis, Guen.
a meritalis, WI1k.
Zinckenia fascialis, Cram.
Eurrhyparodes tricoloralis,
is bracteolalis,
Agrotera basinotata, Hmpsn.
Pagyda traducalis, Zell.
Ercta elutalis, WIk.
7. Ornatalis, Dup.
Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, Guen.
Wik.
Wik.
Marasmia venilialis,
2 trebiusalis,
5 trapezalis, Guen.
Syngamia floridalis, Zell.
Bocchoris acamasalis, Wk.
Dichocrocis evarxalis, Wk.
CALCUTTA.
January 8, 1985.
Zell.
Zell.
NOTES 268
My list consists of 91 species and I
wwalting
identification.
Ceratarcha unbrosa, Swinh.
Botyodes asialis, Guen.
= flavibasalis, Moore.
Sylepta aurantiacalis, Fisch,
> lunalis, Guen.
- derogata, Fab.
Lygropia quaternalis, Gell.
Agathodes ostentalis, Hubn.
Glyphodes laticostalis, Guen.
of negatalis, WI1k.
= psittacalis, Hubn.
~ hilaralis, Wk.
7 marginata, Hmpsn.
oe vertumnalis, Guen.
- unionalis, Ja Ubloiay.
a stolalis, Quen,
- bivitralis. Guen.
s caesalis, Wk.
3 canthusalis, W1k.
a pyloalis, Wk.
bicolor, Swains.
indica, Saund.
Pygospila tyres, Cram.
Kuclasta defamatalis, Wk.
Lepyrodes neptis, Cram.
geometralis, Guen.
Analyta sigulalis, Guen.
Re melanopalis, Guen.
Leucinodes orbonalis, Guen.
- apicalis, Hmpsn.
Crocidolomia binotalis, Zell.
Sameodes cancellalis, Zell.
Archernis tropicalis, Wk.
Terastia meticulosalis, Guen.
Tsocentris filalis, Guen.
Maruca testulalis, Geyer.
Tetridia caletoralis, Wk.
Pachynoa sabelialis, Guen.
Pachyzancla licarsisalis, Wk.
Antigastra catalaunalis, Dup.
Noorda blitealis, Wk.
,, fessalis, Swinh.
Pionea albicostalis, Swinh.
,, leucanalis, Swinh.
Pyrausta incoloralis, Guen.
D. G. SEVASTOPULO,
F.R.E.S
206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXVIil
AXAVIL—A NOTE ON ELYMNIAS HYPERMNESTRA
UNDULARBIS, DRURY.
_ the hatching of the larva of KE. hypermnestra undularis is sufti-
clently unusual to merit recording.
Lepidopterous larvae, as a general rule, escape trom the ovum
by eating an untidy hole in the shell, through which they emerge.
‘bine subject of this note, however, does not act in this way vut
instead cuts neatly round the ovum, about three-quarters up trom
the base, making a hinged cap. ‘l'his 1s presumably torced open
by the larva and then talls back into place. ‘he larva. rests
beside the apparently intact eggshell for a few hours and then eats
it as its first meal.
‘This is the only species of Satyrid that I have bred from ova,
so 1 cannot say if this habit is usual in the family. Jt it 1s, 4
have never seen it recorded. No other Lepidopteron that 1 have
bred has treated the egg in this way.
Since writing my note on the hatching of the larva of thus
species, | have received a specimen page, describing the lite-history
ot Satyrus (Melanargia) galtathea, L., trom The Complete Book of
British Butterflies by FP. W. Frohawk.
In this Mr. Frohawk writes: ‘Upon hatching, the young larva
eats round the crown of the egg, cutting out a large circular lid,
and pushes it off upon emerging’. This habit may, therefore, be
more or less general among the Satyridae.
CALCUTTA. D: G. SEVASTOPULO,
January 8, 1985. F.R.E.S.
XXXVIII.—WAX-PRODUCTION IN MHALY BUGS:
ALEURODIDAE.'
The secretion of wax is a very commonplace phenomenon in
many of the Homoptera and is particularly noticeable in all the
families of Sternorhyncha. Wax is secreted by special structures
known as waa-glands, wax-cells and waax-pores. The arrangement,
position and structure of these may differ in different families. The
secretion of wax is found in the larval as well as in the adult
stages. In the family Aleurodidae, wax-secretion is profuse in the
adults of all the species, but not found to the same extent in the
larvae. Generally three types of wax-pores are found in the larvae
of Aleurodidae: (1) simple, (2) agglomerate and (8) compound.
The structure of the simple and compound wax-pores is as
follows :— ries :
Simple wax-pores are circular holes of small or large size in
diameter from .017 mim. to .027 mm. These exist in greater num-
bers in those species’ which secrete a large quantity of wax. In
' These observations were made on Trialeurodes vaporariorum—the green-
house white fly—at Edinburgh, under Dr. C. B. Williams, now the Chief
Entomologist, Rothamsted, England.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2Ui
compound pores the holes have a chitinous ring surrounding them
and a dehnite elevated cup-like structure. With the cup tne
pores are arranged in a rmg and are proauced into more or less
cievated rods or tubes.
Jn the adults there are chitinous plates which are placed ven.
trally on the abdominal segments and are known as wax-plates.
these may be comparable to the wax-plates in honey bees. ‘l’here
are two pairs of these plates in the female placed on the third
and fourth segments respectively, and four pairs in the male on
the third, fourth, fifth and sixth segments. These wax-plates
appear like thick pads and are oily yellow in appearance. Lhey
ure Separated by a median hne in the centre of the abdomen but
extend considerably outwards on both sides so that they can be
very clearly seen laterally as they are bounded by a black line.
tn the temale both the plates appear to be equal in dimensions,
but in the male the first one is bigger and the succeeding ones
gradually reduced in size. When viewed under microscope these
present an appearance of plates possessing minute holes arranged
in regular rows.
When highly magnified (1,200 times under the oil-imimersion
lens) these holes appear like cells in a honeycomb. These are
the minute circular pores through which wax comes out or is forced
out in small minute particles or threads. In thin microtome
sections taken through these wax-glands there is seen a single
layer of secreting cells with large nuclei which contain vacuoles.
There are numerous granules in these vacuoles which are found
in a large number towards the outer side.
A, careful examination of these plates in a male of 7’. vaporari-
orum, under a very high magnification, shows that each of the
last three plates contains 40 rows of 90 cells each at an average;
the first one has 50 rows as it is larger. Thus the total number
of pores of one side comes to 3,600 x 3 = 10,800 plus 50 x 90 =
4,500 = 15,300 or approximately 15,500 and both the sides to-
gether will bring the number to 31,000. Hach side on the abdo-
men the space occupied (longitudinally) is .8 mm. In the female
there are only two pairs of plates which are rather broader and
occupy space to the extent of .28 mm. each side. Each of the
plates contains pores in rows of 638 x 95 and 60 x 95 cells res-
pectively. The total number of pores on one side thus comes to
11,685 or nearly 12,000. It is not understood why the number of
pores is less in females.
Freshly hatched specimens are perfectly free from any wax par-
ticles soon after emergence. The wax-plates, not being at work,
cannot be marked out very clearly.
I give below my observation on a specimen for about 5 hours
from its emergence. It was a male. It extricated itself with
great difficulty from the pupal case which operation took it about
an hour. This was at 10 a.m. In the first two hours no wax
was seen being secreted but only the wax-plates assumed an oily
olive appearance.
Then one of the plates (on the left side) was seen covered with
white flocculent material which soon: after drying became white.
208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXVII}
Lhe insect (which was under a binocular) was actively moving its
legs first of one side and then of the other. In this way the legs
actually brushed off the wax accumulated on the plate and by
dashing the legs here and there it distributed the wax or the meal
all over its body.
As the plates on the left side were active, the left side of
the body was covered with wax, first the abdomen and its end,
then the underside of the wings and then the front part of the body.
Gradually all the plates began to secrete wax which was being
spread all over the body. All the plates were in full action by 8
p-m. i.e. 5 hours after emergence.
The structure of the meal or the wax secreted is very peculiar.
It is im the form of spiral threads as if forced out through small
holes, but under abnormal conditions, or if the meal is not constant-
ly removed by the brushes on the legs, it assumes the form of long
threads appearing lke silken combs or tufts. While observing the
eclosion of flies from the pupae, I have seen several specimens
with three-fourths of their body out and struggling hard to ex-
tricate the last part of the body. The insect stands erect and
dashes its legs in the air; with wings in the unexpanded con-
dition. The wax-plates are active and the wax begins to appear on
the body. As no brushing off is possible in that condition, the wax
goes on accumulating and a very thick brush-like layer is formed.
Under the microscope these appear like bunches of long threads
with one end curved. I have also observed cases of partial emer-
gence wherein the flies have died after the upper part.of the body
—-head and thorax—having come out, the abdomen remaining
inside the pupal case. In such cases I have found after pulling
out the abdomen that it was full of waxy brushes, proving thereby
that the wax-plates were actively secreting wax even though the
abdomen was enclosed in the pupal covering.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, V. G. DESHPANDE,
Bomsay. M.Ag. (Bom.), ph.p. (Hdin.).
January 8, 1985.
XXXIX.—AN ANNOTATED LIST OF. INDO-CEYLONESE
TERMITES.
Since the publication of the Catalogue of Indo-Ceylonese Ter-
mites (vol. xxvii, No. 8) the writer has come across a paper on
‘New Termites from India’ by Thomas E. Snyder (Proceedings of
the United States National Museum, vol. 82, Art. 16, pp. 1-15,
pl. 1, 19838). The paper deals with the following species :—
Fam. Kalotermitidae : Kalotermes (Neotermes) andamanensis,
Snyder. A new species, from North
Andaman Island. ‘Close to Kalo-
termes (N) greeni, Desneaux of
Ceylon.’
Kalotermes (Neotermes) bosei, Snyder.
From Mathranwala, Dehra Dun;
United. Provinces, India. . ‘ex. . Ficus
? i
sp.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 909
Kalotermes (Neotermes) gardneri,
Snyder. From Dehra Dun. “ex. rot-
ten Mangifera indica.’
Fam. Rhinotermitidae: Heterotermes malabaricus, Snyder.
From ‘South Mangalore, 400 ft. Mala-
bar Coast.’
Fam, Termitidae :. Termes (Termes) dehraduni, Snyder.
Also from Dehra Dun.
Termes (Termes) malabaricus, Holm-
gren. Also from Dehra Dun.
Termes (Cyclotermes) almorensis,
Snyder. ‘West Almora Forest Divi-
sion, United Provinces, India. ~ Alti-
tude 5,000 ft.’
Microtermes pubescens, Snyder, From
‘Dehra Dun, United Provinces, attack-
ing aerial roots of Ficus bengalensis.’
Nasutitermes (Nasutitermes) fletcheri,
Holmgren. Recorded from ‘Anamalai
Hills, 2,400 ft., Madras.’
Nasutitermes (Rotunditermes) — ana-
malaiensis, Snyder. ‘Anamalai Hills,
2,400 ft., Madras.’
Nasutitermes (Subulitermes) gardneri,
Snyder. ‘Rangirum, Darjeeling,
Bengal, India, in rotted wood at an
elevation of 6,000 ft.’
Microtermes beesoni, Snyder, ‘Chakata
Range, Haldwani, United Provinces.
India.’
Microtermes championt, Snyder. ‘Hal-
dwani District, Kumaon, United Pro-
vinces, India.’
All the above ones, except Nasutitermes (Nasutitermes) flet-
cheri, Holmgren and Termes (Termes) malabaricus, Holmgren, are
new species described by Snyder.
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
Law try Roap, ComMBatore. V. MARGABANDHU.
November 27, 1984.
XL.—A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION, OVIPOSITION AND
PARENTAL CARE OF SCUTIGERELLA UNGUICULATA
HANSEN VAR. INDICA GRAVELY.
(With two text-figures),
Soon after the first few monsoon rains in 1982 I collected
from Kovalam! a number of specimens of Scutigerella unguiculata
Hansen var. indica, which Gravely recorded from Calcutta (4)?.
' Seven miles to the south of Trivandrum near the coast.
* The number in brackets denotes the literature referred to.
Ieee
210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Later on when collecting cryptozoic forms from various places near
Trivandrum and also from Ponmudi hills (3,500 ft. above sea-level
in the Western Ghats), I found that it occurred fairly abundantly
in all wet situations under stones, and under rotting leaves and
timber. |
As this variety recorded from Calcutta occurs in the southern
extremity of India it is probable that it may be distributed in the
intermediate regions also. Gravely in a footnote (4) says that he
had found this form in Kandy and Pattipola in Ceylon and adds
that Green had told him about a similar looking centipede that
he had seen at the top of Namunukuli hill and says that it
is probable that it is widely distributed throughout the Island.
Last March I myself collected this variety from Kandy and from
various parts of the Uva Province including Passara (3,000 ft.) at
the foot of the Namunukuli hill, and am in a position to confirm
the opinion of Gravely regarding its wide distribution in the Island
of Ceylon.
The species subunguiculata Imms is recorded from Danaulti
in Tehri Garhwal. It is the only species of Scutigerella recorded
from India (8). Scutigerella unguiculata Hansen is from La Moka,
Venezuela (2).
Habits.—These active little creatures avoid light. The speci-
mens are not found during summer but suddenly make their ap-
pearance in large numbers as the rainy season commences. A
specimen that I kept in a small tube three months ago with a
small quantity of moist earth is still living.t’ The only food it had
since then is the blue green alga formed inside the tube. I have
reared a number of specimens and have never found them to be
predaceous.
Oviposition.—The animal lays five to nine eggs at a time. I
have seen the captive animal laying the eggs in groups of two
or three in a careless manner whereas in natural conditions they
are laid in a single cluster. The eggs are held together though
not very firmly.
Fach egg is imperfectly oval with a number of projections re-
: sembling a morous fruit (fig.
1). These projections are form-
ed by the silken network that
the animal spins on the surface
with the aid of its cerci.
Wherever the silken threads re-
ticulate a projection is found.
Figure 2 shows the photomicro-
eraph of an egg-mass mounted
in balsam. The silken network
has dissolved and the eggs have
moved apart. It is probable that
the secretion from the cerci is
of a fatty nature.
Parental care.—It is particularly interesting to note that this
Fic. 1. A cluster of three eggs.
* The animal died a month after this note had been sent.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 211
minute creature exhibits a sort of parental care that I have ob-
served only among the Chilopods in
Myriapoda. The Diplopods always + : - oS
leave the eges after safely depositing i. ee
them. The way in which Scutigerella | :
incubates the eggs is slightly differ-
ent from that of the common centi-
pedes Scolopendra and Geophilus.
The Scutigerella simply remains over
the eggs that are arranged in the
manner of a disc probably till hatch- |
ing time (which I have not seen). In |
the case of Scolopendra the mother |
bends once round the eggs and em-
bryos and holds them together by
the aid of its legs; and in the case | | | :
of Geophilus the mother coils its — | 2
long body round the eggs a number =cihecs. eee
of times with the anterior end alone Fie. 2. Hgg-mass.
iree.
Recently when a stone was turned over I saw a specimen of
Scutigerella incubating its eges. The creature instead of running
away calmly remained near the eggs and began to eat them. This
work took about five minutes, after which it began to move about
actively. On examination I found that the contents of four eggs
had been completely sucked, the shells alone of which re emained,
while the fifth one remained untouched. Scolopendra also behaves
in a similar way but only in captivity.
REFERENCES
1. 1876. Wood-Mason, J. ‘Exhibition of Forms of Arthropoda new to
India’, Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1876, pp. 174-5.
9: 1904. Hansen, H. J..‘The Genera and Species of Symphyla’,
Q.J.M.S. (N.S.); xlvii, 1904, pp. 1-101, pl. i-vil.
3: 19085 Jmmmes, A. D> *On a@ New Species of Symphyla from the Hima-
layas’, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxx, 1909, pp. 252-255, pl. xxxi.
4.1910. Gravely, F. H. ‘On a Sub-species of Scutigerella unguiculata
Hansen, found in Calcutta’, Records of the Indian Museum, Vol. v, Part III,
No. 15, 1910, pp. 157-159.
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, S. JONES, Bia.
TRIVANDRUM.
-September 20, 1984.
XLI.—OBSERVATIONS ON THE OVIPOSITION AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF A SPECIES OF
POLYXENUS.
(With 2 plates).
Since July 1933 I have been engaged in working out the
anatomy and development of this Diplopod which occurs fairly
abundantly in Kovalam, 7 miles to the south of Trivandrum. <A
912 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
detailed account of the anatomy and development is in course of
preparation and will be published later.
This Pselaphognathous Diplopod (provisionally determined as a
species of Polyxenus) is seen under stones and under the barks of
trees. The adult measures from 8.5 to 4 mm. There are trans-
verse rows of setae on the head and tergites (fig. 1). The pleurae
bear setae in bundles. The sternite of the last segment
which is apodal bears a thick median bundle of long setae specially
constructed to serve as an organ of defence for the animal
(fig. 2). ,
The antennae are eight-jointed, and the two laterally placed
eye-groups are each composed of 8 ocelli. There are 11 trunk
segments with 13 pairs of legs. Genital openings are situated
behind the coxae of the second pair of legs and the anus is situated
on the 10th segment.
The females are usually shghtly larger than the males and es-
pecially so when distended with ripe ova. Copulation takes
place many days before oviposition. In the vas deferens the
spermatozoa are short and kidney-shaped and appear to be
provided with a membranous covering. After the transference of
the spermatozoa into the receptacula seminales of the female
the membranous covering disappears and the spermatozoa grow
in length.
Eggs are laid at night. The mother envelopes the egg-
mass with a large number of setae from its postanal median
bundle which it voluntarily dislodges for the purpose (fig. 3). This
setal envelope efficiently helps to scare away the egg-eating ene-
mies which in this case is a microscopic mite belonging to the
family Tyroglyphidae and a Neuropteran insect belonging to the
family Psoscidae commonly known as a book-louse.
Usually 20 to 40 eggs are laid in the form of a plate one layer
thick. The eggs are oval or kidney-shaped and measure 0.82 mm.
long and 0.18 mm. broad and are arranged vertically with their
broader side up.
About nine days after the eggs are laid the eggshell ruptures
in the middle transversely and there wriggles out from it the pupa
which remains quiescent for seven days.
The pupa is encased in a thin membrane formed by a secretion
of the embryonic ectodermal cells. The surface of the pupa is tuber-
culated. Rudiments of antennae, limbs and pleural projections are
seen as small buds.
(It may be stated here that the presence of a pupal stage in
the life-history of Pselaphognatha has not been recorded by any
of the previous workers on this group.)
On the fourth day 5 simple ocelli develop on each side of the
pupa. The pupa which is at first pure white in colour acquires a
brownish tinge.
On the seventh day the pupal membrane ruptures in the region
of the head and a tiny white larva bearing 3 pairs of legs comes
out and actively moves about and feeds.
The stages of the larval development are shown in the tabulated
form. The interval from moult to moult is very variable. It
‘(OLTX ‘“Svur) Mota quory ‘edng °“g
‘avyas aATsueJog “Z “oevjos AIVUIPIO ‘T
‘I GALVId 005 “3SIH ‘38N Avquog ‘*uanor
“‘pUNOL [[@ 9BJIS OY} TIM ssvur Soy “g ‘apeulay Jo yfnoPY “¢ ‘opVUe Jo A[NO “F
Il ALVId 20S “ISIH ‘3eN Avquog ‘‘uainor
~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213
depends on the quality of food supplhed and other conditions of
rearing. In the later stages there is a progressive increase in the
intervals between the succeeding moults.
Presence of ext -
No. of No. of é : : Time taken for
mtage. Tergites. {paired legs. caaeceaais next moult.
I 5) 5 14 days
ll 5 4 1Ge
Ill 6 5 3 weeks
1V 7 6 3 to 4 weeks.
V 8 8 4to7 ,,
VI g 10 | fai - 2to10..;,.,
VII 10 12 oA Q 7tol10 ,,
VIII 11 13 Jo 2 Sto 10: ty.
The animal continues to moult even after acquiring the full
complement of segments and appendages. The details of the
developmental stages of Polyrenus represented in the tabular
statement above agree fairly closely with those of female Polyrenus
lagurus as investigated by Reinecke.
The female becomes sexually mature only long after acquiring
the full number of legs and appendages whereas the male becomes
sexually mature even when it possesses only 10 segments and 12
pairs of legs. During moulting the old setae are all shed along
with the exoskeleton and the new setae that replace them are pure
shining white in colour turning grey on the second day.
The figures 5 and 6 show the moults of a male, female at the
VIII stage. Photomicrographed.
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE; S, JONES, B.A,
TRIVANDRUM.
August 20, 1934.
XLIT.—PRECOCIOUS GERMINATION.
In the ‘Science Notes’ of the September issue of Current
Science’ there is a reference to a case of abnormal development
of the radicle in a perfectly ripe fruit of Mango, reported by
Mr. Tara Chand Nandi. In this connection it is stated also that
the probable explanation is sought by the writer to be unfavourable
condition of the soil.
In the absence of the complete text, it is not clear whether
germination had started on the plant, or the germinating fruit was
1 Current Science, 1934, in, 3, 128.
914 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
obtained from the market. If the former, this will be perhaps ,the
first case of its kind seen. If the latter, it should be noted that
this is not at all a rare phenomenon. Such mango seeds, germi-
nating inside the mother fruit, have been frequently observed by
me, particularly from specimens obtained late in the season, or
even long after the fruiting normally ends. In this connection,
however, one fails to see the significance of the remark that the
development of the radicle was due to unfavourable conditions of
the soil. Where does the soil come in at atl—much less its -un-
favourable effect—in these cases, is not at all clear. These are
points on which one would like to have more light thrown. On
the other hand, as will be shown later, such cases of precocious
germination are indeed due to the particularly favourable environ-
ment of the seed. Another point that may be mentiond in con-
nection with germination of this type is that the otherwise soft
pulp becomes hard and ‘knotted’ in the vicinity of the germinating
radicle.
If the fruit showing the peculiarity was purchased from the
market, it is to be noted that the fibreless varieties of mango, to
which the Fazli belongs, are always artificially ripened in a pack-
ing of hay or some similar stuff. The nature of the packing mate-
rial varies according to the time when the fruits are required for
consumption.
Furthermore, such cases of precocious germination are not rare
even otherwise. They have been seen and reported in other fleshy
fruits, which specially seem to favour such germination. Papaya
is one such. In this fruit germinating seeds have been observed
not only by me, but also reported by others.43 Other fleshy
fruits characterised by the same feature are: Cacti, Melocanna
bambusoides,’ Cucurbita, apples, tomatoes, etc.,* Dracaena, Manda-
rin orange, Mermecodia.'
With reference to the author’s statement that such a form of
germination is known in the case of viviparous mode of life, it is
merely begging the question. ‘Viviparous mode of life’ is a some-
what vague and loose statement, not always connoting the same
idea. It has been used in a wider sense to mean, for example,
the uninterrupted development of the embryo, without a resting
period (or a seed stage), whether or not within the fruit itself;
as also in a more restricted sense, of germination in the fruit on
the plant. (Mattfeld, as cited by Engler,? excludes under this
designation, the germination of the seeds altogether, including these
under ‘Bioteknose’, and restricts it to cases of sprouting of detach-
ed shoots, buds and bulbils, in the position of flowers, endowed
with the capacity of living and developing independently.) The
latter, however, is the more generally accepted view.
If used in the latter sense, it should mean that the fruit
with the germinating seed was obtained directly from the plant,
which is not clear. If the former, then there are already a num-
ber of plants in which uninterrupted development. of the. germ
1 Guppy, 1906. Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific, ii. London,
2 Goebel, 1923. Organographie der Pflanzen, iii. Jena.
° Engler, 1926. Pflanzenfam. xiy a. Leipzig.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 215
from the fertilised egg to the complete seedling, has been reported.
Some examples of fleshy fruits have already been mentioned
above. But there are also dry fruits in which similar relation is
found. Such are, for example, Crinum and Cryptocoryne,! among
others, where there is an uninterrupted development of the germ
even under ordinary conditions. Others whose seeds do not ordi-
narily germinate but do so when the temperature and humidity
of the surroundings are high are: Dryobalanops camphora, wheat
grains on the stalk,’ Ipomea glaberrima, I. peltata, Hibiscus diver-
sifolius, Croton sp., Luffa cylindrica,? Juncus, Epilobium, Agro-
stemma, Papaver somniferum, Tetranema mezxicana,? Avena
sativa.” Mr. Joshi® also mentions Atriplex and Suaeda, but these
were collected in wet weather in December. |
Really speaking, vivipary is found to be, on analysis, the final
expression of a continuous chain of events, beginning with the
detachment of immature seed with a rudimentary embryo, and,
therefore, requiring an obligatory period of rest for ripening in
the soil, and ending with those seedlings which remain growing
for months on the tree e.g. Rhizophora, Brugiera, etc. The inter-
mediate links are represented by (1) those seeds which are quite
mature when detached from the parent and hence ready to germi-
nate as soon as fallen on the ground; (2) seeds which merely
begin to germinate while still on the plant, but soon get detached
and fall off e.g. Laguncularia and (8) mangrove plants where ger-
mination is completed on the tree, but the seedling is forthwith
liberated, e.g., Avicennia. It is, in fact, a matter of small begin-
nings, or as Guppy? conceives and puts it ‘a matter of small
endings’, According to him it represents an adaptation to primi-
tive condition, when in remote geological times, there was a uni-
form climate over the whole of the earth (an inference not wholly
accepted®), and the resting period of the seeds is due to the differ-
entiation of the climate and the ushering in of distinct seasons.
Joshi,” however, demurs to his explanation and has suggested that
the viviparous habit probably arose as a deviation from the normal,
and that it is a device to dodge the injurious action of the saline
habitat in preventing the germination of the seed in the soil.
According to him the viviparous plants have become grouped to-
gether near the sea-shore, because the habit really proved useful
there, characterised as it is by a constantly high salinity through-
out the year.
The obligatory resting period may be due to a variety of causes.
As already indicated, the seed may be detached when the embryo
* Goebel, 1889. Pflanzenbiol. Schild, i, 117-184. Marburg.
* Guppy, 1906. Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific, ii. London.
* Engler, 1926. Pflanzenfam. xiv a. Leipzig.
- * Weaver and Clements, 1929. Plant Ecology. New York and London.
5 Joshi, 19382. Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc., xi.
* Seward, 1931. Plant Life through the Ages. Cambridge,
Josbiei93a. Journ. Hcol., xxi, 1, ;
216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
is still immature. In other cases the resting period may be neces-
sary in order to complete chemical changes, known as after-ripen-
ing, which are necessary before germination can start. In still other
cases (examples already cited) it may be merely facultative and
determined by the physical conditions of the environment. A par-
ticularly striking example of this was reported by me’ in the case
of gram, where the sappy green seeds, under certain circumstances,
may continue their uninterrupted development, although ordinarily
the seeds of this plant undergo a period of rest.
On an examination of the cases of precocious germination of
seeds, otherwise requiring a resting period, one fact which clearly
emerges, is that great humidity combined with a high temperature
are predominantly associated with the phenomenon in question.”
From this the germination of the mango seed inside the pulpy fruit
is quite intelligible. The conditions under which ripening mangoes
are stored, buried in a mass of hay or some similar stuff, in the
steamy atmosphere of the rainy season and further enhanced by
the ripening juicy pulp of the fruit itself, are most ideal for favour-
ing and maintaining uninterrupted development of the embryo.
Therefore, in these conditions it is not surprising that what appears
by compariscn to be. precocious germination, should result. In
fact, as Goebel® has pointed out, the absence of a resting period in
inhabitants of moist localities is bound up with the fact that from
their ripening seeds not so much water is withdrawn as under
conditions obtaining elsewhere.” Analogous conditions exist with
regard to the mango seed, and the same explanation would appear
to apply to the case in question.
BEeNARES Hinpu UNIVERSITY. N. K,: TIWARY.
February 1935.
XLITI.—ROOT FORMATION FROM LEAF-CUTTINGS.
On pages 105-106, vol. iii, No. 3, of Current Science Mr. P. H.
Mullik* records interesting observations on the development of
roots from the petiole of Ficus religiosa leaf, noted incidentally
during an investigation of an altogether different kind. In his note
the author gives a brief account of the process of root-formation
from the petiole of the leaves kept in tap-water as well as in
Pfeffer’s dilute nutrient solution. He, however, adds that when
1 Tiwary, 1932. Behefte zum Bot. Centralbl., xlix, 1. Dresden—N.
2 This precocious germination is also seen in the spores of the Bryophyta,
e.g., Pellia, Androcryphia, Fegatella, Dendroceros, all inhabitants of moist
localities, the spores germinating while still inside the sporogonium (Goebel,
1915-1918. Organographie, ii, 757).
$ Goebel, 1928. Organographie der Pflanzen, ii. Jena,
* Current Science, 1934, iii, 105-106,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 217
‘one of the leaves with roots was placed in moist sand to see if
any shoot would come out’... ‘it began to show signs of decay’
after three days.
Mr. Mullik does not alee any’ mention of the previous liter-
ature on the subject, though the developmént of adventitious roots
on leaves, and even the regeneration of an entire plant by the
detached leaves are of fairly general occurrence and well known
to gardeners who employ them for propagating several species. In
this note I propose to deal with observations of a like nature
hitherto recorded by various workers.
Identical behaviour on the part of the leaves of Iittonia vers-
chaffeltii placed in moist soil was recorded by Krishnamurti. Sub-
sequently Patwardhan* and Mullan* named other plants in which
the phenomenon had been noticed. In later papers Isbell,* and
Roberts and Lawrence’ have recorded their own observations on
the subject.
Moreover there exists an extensive literature in connection with
the phenomenon of regeneration. This has been specially dealt
with by Goebel® who besides recording his own interesting obser-
vations and giving interpretation of the facts, cites also previous
literature. More recently, an extensive monograph on the subject
of regeneration and transplantation in animals and plants has been
published by Korschelt.’
Kerner’ has also discussed the subject in his classical work.
This author cites numerous examples of plants regenerating adven-
titious roots, and even developing buds on severed leaves. The
latter have in consequence been extensively employed in horticul-
tural practice. Kenner also records the development of buds on
scales and floral leaves. According to him, and other authors, epi-
phyllous buds, stimulated to develop artificially on severed leaves,
are also found naturally on some plants. Bryophyllum is the
best known example. But many other plants exhibiting the same
peculiarity and belonging to several families, in which “Or uciferae,
Gesneraceae and Liliaceae predominate, are also listed.
More recently Molisch® has treated of the topic in some detail.
He states that the capacity of leaves to develop roots is very
widespread, but that leaves developing both roots and buds are
not found in many plants. The leaves of the former category,
therefore, cannot be utilised for propagation purposes. <A few
additional names are mentioned by the author.
The observations of Mr. Mullik are interesting in so much as
the phenomenon had not hitherto been recorded for Ficus religiosa.
One hopes that Mr. Mullik’s observations will be successfully con-
cluded and extended further by him and others, as one is really
1 Journ., Ind. Bot. Soc., 1980, ix, 65.
=~ Tbid., 1981, x, 165. “bid, NOS xeon.
Sou, Gaz. 193). xei,, 411. 5 Bot. Gaz., 1933, xciv, 421.
6
Organography of Plants Engl. Trans., 1900, 1,. 45ff.
7 Regeneration und Transplantation, 1927.1. Berlin:
8 Natural History of Plants Engl. Trans., ii, 40ff.
9 Pflanzenphystologie als Theorie der Gartnerei, 1930. Jena,
218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
anxious to know the result of the work which was reported to be
proceeding. It may turn out, that these leaves are really incapable
of producing shoots. Nevertheless, it would be interesting to know
how long they could be kept artificially growing and what other
peculiarities, if any, of behaviour they showed.
BenarREs Hinpu UNIVERSITY. N. K: TIWARY.
February 1, 1935.
PROCEEDINGS OIF THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the Prince of
Wales’ Museum on Wednesday the 3rd April, 1935, at 6-15 p.m. Rev. Father
J. F. Caius, s.J., was in the Chair.
AGENDA.
1. Reading of the Annual Report of the Committee.
2. Presentation of Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the past
year.
3. Election of the Committee.
4. Such other business as may be properly brought before the meeting.
Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, Honorary Secretary, announced the election of
47 new members since the last meeting. The total number of members for
1984 was 970 as compared with 954 in 1983, exclusive of Life Members of
which we have 200. This membership includes “His Excellency the Viceroy
and Governors of every Province in India and Burma and Ceylon.
The Honorary Secretary then presented the Society’s Annual Report for
the year 1934. The Report gives a Survey of the Scientific activities of the
Society.
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
OFFICE BEARERS—1935.
Patrons.—His Excellency The Viceroy of India; H. R. H. the Prince of
Wales, K.G.
Vice-Patrons.—H. H. The Maharao of Kutch, G.c.s.1., G.c.1.E.; H. H. The
Maharaja of Jodhpur, k.c.s.1., k.c.v.o.; H. H. The Maharajah of Rewa,
K.c.s.1.; H. H. The Maharaja of Bhavnagar; H. H. The Maharaja of Travan-
core; Mr. F. V. Evans, Liverpool; Sir David Ezra, kt., F.z.s., Calcutta; Mr.
A. S. Vernay, New York and London.
President.—H. E. The Right Hon’ble Lord Brabourne, G.C.1.B., M.c.
Vice-Presidents._H. H. The Maharao of Kutch, G.c.s.1., G.c.1.E.; The
Hon'ble: Mr. B.D. Bell, 0-8-1, 0-1.8., 1.¢.8:
Executive Committee.—Right Revd. R. D. Acland, Bishop of Bombay, Mr.
Farrokh E. Bharucha, Major S. L. Bhatia, I.m.s., Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.u.,
Mr. C. B. B. Clee, t.c.s., Mr. Alwyn Ezra, F.R.G.s., F.Z.8.. Mr. J. B. Greaves,
M.uL.c., Mr. J. G. Ridland, Lt.-Col. 8. §. Sokhey, 1.m.s., Mr. A. Forrington
(Honorary Treasurer), Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, F.z.s. (Honorary Secretary),
Mr. H. M. McGusty, Bombay.
Advisory Committee.—Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, D.sc., M.A., L.F.S., Dehra Dun.
Mr. T. R. Bell, c.1.2., 1.7.8. (Retd.), Karwar. Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.a.
(Retd.), Coonoor. Mr. C. H. Donald, F.z.s., Dharmsala. Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser,
F.R.E.S., 1.M.8. (Retd.), England. Dr. F. H. Gravely, p.sc., Madras. Mr.
S. F. Hopwood, 1.F.s., Rangoon. Mr. C. M. Inglis, M.B.o.U., F.z.s., Darjeeling.
Mr. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.s., F.z.8., Coimbatore. Major E. G. Phythian Adams,
F.Z.S., 1.4. (Retd.), Nilgiris. Dr. Baini Prashad, pD.sc., Calcutta. Mr. H. C.
Smith, 1.¥.s., Maymyo. Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley, 0.B.E., D.s.o., M.c., Africa.
Mr. J. H. Williams, Coimbatore.
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
FOR THE YEAR ENDING 3lst DECEMBER 1984.
ADMINISTRATION.
President.—H. E. The Right Hon'ble Lord Brabourne, G.c.1.5., M.c.
Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Kutch, G.c.s.1., G.c.1.z.; Rev. E.
Blatter, s.J., ph.p., F.u.8.; The Hon’ble Mr. R. D. Bell, c.9:1., ©.1.8., 1.c.8.
Executive Committee.—Right Revd. R. D. Acland, Bishop of Bombay, Mr.
Farrokh HE. Bharucha, Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.s., Mr. Alwyn Ezra, F.R.G.Ss.,
F.zZ.8-, Mr, J, B. Greaves, M.u.c., Prof. V. N: Hate, B.sc., Mr, J, G. Ridland,
920 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Lt.-Col. S. S. Sokhey, 1.M.s., Mr. A. Forrington (Honorary Treasurer), Mr.
P. M. D. Sanderson, F.z.s., Sir Reginald Spence, Kt., M.L.C., F.z.8. (Joint
Honorary Secretaries), Bombay.
Advisory Committee.—Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, D.sc., M.A., 1.F.8., Dehra Dun.
Mr: T,. R. Bell,. ca-e., 1.F.s: (Retd.); Karwar. dit:-Col. he W. Burton, ie
(Retd.), Coonoor. Mr. C. H:. Donald, F.z.s., Dharmsala. lt.-Col. “H.C:
Fraser, 1.M.8., Coimbatore. Dr. F. H. Gravely, p.sc., Madras. Mr. 8. F.
Hopwood, 1.F.s., Rangoon. Mr. C. M. Inglis, M.B.0.U., F.z.s., Darjeeling.
Mr. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.8., F.Z.8., Coimbatore. Major E, G. Phythian Adams,
F.Z.8., 1.4. (Retd.), Nilgiris. Dr. Baini Prashad, p.sc., Calcutta. Mr. H. C.
Smith, 1.F.s., Burma. Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley, 0.B.z., D.s.0., M.c., Meerut.
Staff.—S. H. Prater; M.u.c., J.P., ©.M.z.8. (Curater). ©. McCann, F.L.s.,
V. 8S. LaPersonne (Assistant Curators),
THE HONORARY SECRETARY'S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1984,
THE Society's JOURNAL.
Three numbers of Volume XXXVII were published during the year under
review.
Mammals.—Mr. Pocock concludes his paper on the Palm-Civets or Toddy
Cats of the genus Paradorurus and Paguma, inhabiting British India, begun in
Volume XXXVI. For the Common Toddy Cat, described by Blanford under
the name Paradoxurus niger, the author adopts Gray’s specific name. herma-
phroditus, which recent Zoologists following Blanford’s lead restricted to the
Malayan Palm Civets. The ‘Typical Palm Civet—Paradorurus h. hermaphro-
ditus 18 given as ranging southwards of the Narbada River through Southern
India and Ceylon. 8 additional races distributed over Kashmir, Northern and
Central India, Assam and Burma are described by the author. Among these
are 3 new forms one of which P. h. scindiae is named after the late Maharaja
Sir Madhowrao Scindia of Gwalior. His Highness was one of the first sub-
scribers to the Mammal Fund which enabled the Society to carry out its
extensive Mammal Survey from which so great a harvest of knowledge has
accrued. In dealing with the Himalayan Palm Civets (Paguwma) Mr. Pocock
now recognises two species. Paguma lanigera from Tibet is based on a single
known specimen believed originally to have come from the northern region of
Nepal, but now known to have been obtained at Tingree in Tibet. The second
species, the Himalayan Palm Civet Paguma larvata (Paradoxrurus grayi of
Blanford), ranges through the Western Himalayas, Nepal, Assam, Burma, the
Shan States and the Andaman Island. Over this wide range the author
recognises 7 different races.
Mr. McCann publishes an interesting note on the habits of the Flying
Fox. The ground under the fruit trees where these bats have fed over night
is generally covered with wholly or partially chewed fruit. These have
wrongly been taken to be their droppings. From careful observation and exa-
mination of the stomach contents of specimens, the author was led to the
conclusion that these bats live exclusively on the nectar, fruit juices and such
fruits as liquefy easily in the mouth. No solids pass into the stomach of the
bat. Here then is the basis of the legendary belief prevalent in many parts
that the flying fox has no anus but passes its excreta from the mouth.
The various papers on Indian Mammals which have appeared in the Society's
Journal and other kindred publications are a necessary preliminary to the
long awaited and long overdue revision of Blanford’s Volume on Mammalia in
the Fauna of British India Series, which was sanctioned by the Secretary of
State many years ago. It is confidently hoped that the authorities at the
British Museum will make a special effort to expedite its publication. The
greater part of the very large collections obtained by the Society during the
Mammal Survey has been temporarily placed at the disposal of the British
Museum for purposes of reference during the preparation of the new Fauna.
There are however various institutions in India and abroad who contributed
to the funds of the Survey on the understanding that they would receive a
share of these collections in due course. The prolonged delay in the publica-
tion of the new edition has prevented the Society so far from discharging its
obligation in this respect. .
Birds.—Parts VII, VIII and IX of the Report of the Vernay Scientific
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 1 anes 291
Survey of the Eastern Ghats (Ornithological) were published during the year.
The Report provides a comprehensive list of the Birds of the Madras Presidency
based on material obtained by the Survey and on past records.
In the report the authors deal de novo with the distribution and_ status
of many species. The parts published during the year deal with the Pipits,
Larks, Flower Peckers, Wood Peckers, Barbets and Cuckoos. Among the new
subspecies described is a new race of the Golden-backed Woodpecker Brachyp-
ternus b. tehminae, which the authors have named as tribute to Mrs. Salim
A. Ali, who accompanied and helped her husband Mr. Salim Ali on various
Ornithological Surveys frequently under trying conditions.
The thanks of the Society are due both to Mr. Kinnear and Mr. Whistler,
joint authors of the Report, which forms one of the most important contri-
butions to Indian Ornithology made in recent years. It provides considerable
amendments to and revisions of the distribution and status of species ascertained
through the Survey subsequent to the publication of the New Fauna.
The Hyderabad Ornithological Survey.—Mr. Salim A. Ali concludes his
Report on the Ornithological Survey of Hyderabad, Parts IV and V of which
were published. Mr. Ali’s Survey is confined mainly to the Eastern portions
of the State. His plan to include the Northern and Western districts was
unfortunately given up for want of funds. We hope that H. E. H. the Nizam’s
Government will make it possible for him in the near future to complete the
Survey, which he has carried out so far with his usual efficiency and thorough-
ness,
Mr. Kingdon Ward’s and Lord Cranbrook’s Expedition to the Sources of
the Irrawaddy River.—In 1930. Capt. Kingdon Ward and Lord Cranbrook
made an expedition to the sources of the Irrawaddy River. While the object
of the expedition was mainly Botanical, they collected some 152 birds, 340
mammals and a number of reptiles. In his paper on the ‘Birds of the Adung
Valley’ Mr. N. B. Kinnear published a systematic list of the birds obtained
on the expedition; while Lord Cranbrook gives an interesting narrative of
the expedition. The collection of Birds includes two new races, but its main
interest lies in the considerable addition made to our knowledge of the distri-
butions of a number of species, which were believed to be confined mainly
to the Himalayas and which were hitherto unknown to occur in Burma.
Mr. H, St. J. Philby’s Journey through the ‘Empty Quarter’ in Arabia.—
Mr. Philby, the noted traveller and Arabian explorer, describes his journey
through the Rub al Khali in his fascinating book the Empty Quarter. In
spite of innumerable difficulties he collected a number of birds, which
were subsequently presented to the British Museum by H. M. King Abdul
Aziz. Mr. Philby’s collection and the notes made by him formed the basis
of a paper by Mr. N. B. Kinnear published in Volume XXXVII, No. 3. The
paper helps to reveal the species which inhabit this desolate and hitherto
unknown region. The thanks of the Society are due to Mr. Kinnear for this
interesting paper. His continued association with the work of the Society for
which he did so much is greatly appreciated. :
Mr. Stuart Baker contributed a description of the Long-tailed Duck
Clangula hyemalis, an interesting addition to the Indian avifauna. A male of
this duck changing from eclipse into winter plumage was shot by Capt. A. E.
Dredge at Chaman, British Baluchistan, on the 18th October, 1933.
A feature of the Ornithological contributions to the: Journal is the numer-
ous faunistic lists recording the bird life of various towns and districts or
provinces in the Indian Empire or the countries which adjoin it. During
the year the following lists were published:—Birds of Ghazipur by Rey. F. §.
Briggs; Birds of Fort Munro, Sulaiman Hills, by Mr. H. W. Waite. Mr.
Higgins completed his interesting account of the Game Birds and animals of
Manipur. ;
Fishes.—Mr. Mukerji completes his Report on the collection of fishes made
by Col. R. W. Burton in the Myitkyina District, Upper Burma.
Dr. Hora of Zoological Survey of India contributes an interesting paper
on the ‘Wanderings of the Bombay Duck (Harpodon nehereus)’. From the
economic standpoint, this is one of the most important food fishes of the
Bombay Coast. At the present time, we know little of the factors which
govern the mass movement of these fishes, which appear in abundance on the
Bombay Coast during the monsoon and are comparatively scarce at the other
299: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIiI
seasons. From the meagre data available the author discusses the various
factors which may be responsible for the mass movements of ‘Bombay Duck’.
He indicates that the problem requires more detailed investigation. At pre-
sent we know nothing about the factors which contro] the periodic migration
of any of our important food fishes. It is clear that investigation on these
lines would be of considerable advantage to the industry and would afford
data for placing the exploitation of our waters on a sounder and more scientific
basis.
We also published Mr. Hamid Khan’s paper on the ‘Habits and Habitats
of the Food Fishes of the Punjab’.
Insects—In Volume XXXVI Mr. Martin E. Mosely began his series of
articles on the ‘Indian Caddis-Flies’—which when completed will form a
standard work on Indian Trichoptera. Part II of the serial, dealing with the
classification of these insects, was published during the year.
There is a paper on ‘Indo-Ceylonese Chalcid Fhes‘ by Mr. T. V. Rama-
krishna Ayyar and V. Margabandhu. It is a continuation of the previous
lists published by the senior author. The paper serves to bring up to date
our records of the Indo-Ceylonese forms. In view of the economic importance
of these minute wasp-like creatures as natural enemies of important crop pests,
the data provided will be of some value to those agricultural entomologists
interested in the biological control of insect pests by insect parasites.
Another paper dealing with Economic Entomology is by Mr. C. Cherian
on ‘South India Syrphids’. Commonly known as ‘Hover flies’, the Syrphids
play an important part in checking one of the worst insect pests of cultivated
crops viz. the aphids. Mr. Cherian also publishes a further note on Argyria
fuscivenalis, a Pyralid caterpillar pest of the Crataeva religiosa, an ornamental
tree common in gardens together with measures for its control. The paper
gives information on the distribution of species, hosts, etc., of the South Indian
forms. Mr. V. Margabandhu contributes an Annotated List of Indo-Ceylonese
Termites. The available literature dealing with the various species is recorded,
together with notes on habits, distribution, ete.
Botany.—Parts XXIII, XXIV and XXV of the Revision of the Flora of
tha Bombay Presidency by the late Revd. EK. Blatter were published during the
year.
The death of Father Blatter in May 1934 has removed a great figure
from the Indian Botanical World, and a valued counsellor and friend of the
Society with which he was associated since 1904. An obituary notice and a
list of his numerous scientific contributions to Asiatic Botany were published
in Volume XXXVII, No. 2.
The Flora of Waziristan by Ii. Blatter and J. Fernandez was completed.
Certain orders have been omitted from these papers, which were published in
Was They are being worked out. by a specialist and will be published
ater.
Popular Articles —Mr. Stuart Baker continues his serial on ‘Waders and
Semi-Sporting Birds’ which is intended to supplement his previous Volumes
on Indian Game Birds. Three Volumes of this series have been so far published
by the Society—the fourth volume will deal with the Partridges and Quails,
and the fifth with the Wading Birds.
Parts XIV, XV and XVI of ‘Some Beautiful Indian Trees’ by Father
Blatter and Mr. W. 8. Millard are issued. 24 of our more conspicuous and
ornamental trees have now been illustrated in colour and described. It is
intended to complete the series with descriptions of 6 others, making 30 in
all. Additional plates have been printed to enable the Society to issue the
serial in book form.
By courtesy of the Field we were able to reproduce Mr. EH. H. Peacock’s
articles on ‘T'saing and Bison in Burma’. They are illustrated with photo-
graphs taken from life by the author. Equally interesting are the reminiscences
of that veteran sportsman Mr. Thom, whose articles on ‘Bison and Tiger
Shooting’ were published during the year.
The Editors of the Journal once more make an appeal to members to
send in accounts of sport and travel in India, and take this opportunity of
thanking all those who have contributed notes and articles during the year.
As usual the section of the Journal containing the Miscellaneous Notes has
been full of interest. It is a feature which we would like to develop further.
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 223
Wild Animals of the Indian Empire and the Problem of their Protection.—
Part II of the series of articles on ‘the Wild Animals of the Indian Empire’
dealt with Deer and Antelope. Part III on the Carnivores is now ready for
publication. Further issues will deal with the Primates and the Rodents.
The cost of the numerous coloured and black and white plates issued with
these articles has been met by Mr. F. V. Evans. The Committee of the
Society once again would like to place on record their thanks and appreciation
of the assistance received from Mr. F. V. Evans during the year. The pur-
pose of these articles 1s to provide a well illustrated popular handbook of the
animals of the Indian Empire with a view to educating public opinion and
creating a wider interest in the preservation of wild life. To give wider
publicity to the question, the articles are being issued separately in pamphlet
form. A large number of copies have been distributed to various agencies and
individuals and the publication has received wide attention both in the English
and vernacular papers. Accompanying Part II of this serial are contributions
by Mr. Milroy, Conservator of Forests, Assam, and Mr. F. W. Champion,
Deputy Conservator of Forests, United Provinces, on the problem of protecting
wild life in their respective provinces. Our thanks are due to both the gentle-
men for their valuable contributions. An interesting development of the whole
question of Preservation of Wild Life in India was the recent Inter-Provincial
Conference convened by the Government of India at Delhi in January 1985
at which the Society was represented by the Curator, Mr. S. H. Prater.
The Conference was instrumental in making a number of detailed recom-
mendations for the better protection of wild animals both inside and outside
forest areas. If these recommendations are accepted and put into force by
the various provincial governments, much will have been accomplished to
improve the deplorable conditions which exist in many parts of the country.
But while the Conference made numerous recommendations of detail—the
broad issues underlying the whole problem remain unsettled. Among these is
the need of fully exploring the possibility of creating permanent sanctuaries
wherever necessary for giving permanent shelter to wild life. Equally im-
portant is the question of creating a definite agency within the forest depart-
ment for administering the laws relative to the protection of wild animals.
To fix the responsibility on an already overworked and under-staffed depart-
ment without providing it with adequate means to enforce these laws will not
improve the position. The same holds good regarding the protection of animal
life outside forest areas, where their destruction is now greatest. Mere legis-
lation without the means to enforce it, must remain, as at present, quite
useless in preventing the destruction of wild life outside forest areas both
in and out of season.
Publications.—The Jubilee Number of the Society was issued free during
the year to members. 'The thanks of all members are due to Mr. A. §S. Vernay,
Vice-Patron of the Society, who contributed Rs. 1,500 towards its cost. The
book gives an account of the history and the work of the Society during the
past 50 years. Started by 8 residents of Bombay, the Society has exerted
an influence and carried out a work which has reached far beyond this city
and which has left its impression on the annals of scientific progress in India.
All honour to those who laboured in the building up of it. The fine Natural
History Museum in Bombay, the many volumes of the Society’s Journal—and
its numerous publications are a lasting testimony to the interest and devotion
of its members in all parts of the Indian Empire and in countries abroad.
The Musewm.—The new wing of the Prince of Wales’ Museum to which
the Natural History Section is to be transferred is nearing completion. The
interior architecture has been specially designed to meet the requirements of
a modern Natural History Museum. Special attention has been paid to the
lighting of the galleries. The new building gives the Society a unique oppor-
tunity of developing the Natural History Section, and placing the whole stand-
ard of exhibition on a modern basis. Designs for the internal arrangement
of the galleries are being prepared by Mr. Prater and his staff. An attempt
is being made to provide the maximum amount of floor space for the free
movement of visitors. The show cases are built into or along the walls of
the gallery. Provision is made for a series of large diorama groups exhibiting
various species of animals, birds, reptiles and fishes in their natural environ-
ment, on the lines of the groups exhibited in the Natural History Museums
224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
at New York and at Berlin. An attempt is also being made to introduce a
harmonious colour scheme for show cases, walls and flooring in each gallery
which will be attractive and pleasing, and new effective methods of labelling
are being introduced.
ACCOUNTS.
Revenue Account.—This shows a loss of Rs. 4,847-8-9, which is the loss
shown on the Balance Sheet. It is a considerable loss, and if there were no
other factors to be taken into account, the position of the Society would be
serious,
Publication account.—The method adopted by the Society with regard to its
publication is to debit the whole cost of a publication to Publication Account
and to credit against that the whole of the sale proceeds of that- publication,
until such time as that publication stands at no value in the Publication
Account. During the year under’ review, the- Society has _ received
Rs. 3,428-6-11 by sale of publications and this sum has been utilised in this
manner to write down the value of the Society’s stock of publication. The
Publication Account is by this means kept in a very healthy position and in
future years, the Society can look forward to a reasonable income from this
Account from sale of publications which have been written, down to nil in this
manner.
For example, in the revenue account, it will be noticed that an item of
Rs. 711 appears for sales of Game Books, Vols. I and II. The Society has a
considerable stock of Game Books, Vols. I and II, the whole cost of which
has been written off in previous years. The sale proceeds from these books
now appear as net profit.
Balance Sheet.—Investments are Aen as per last balance sheet or market
value, whichever is lower, and considerable capital appreciation is hidden in
this manner. The Society has, since the Balance Sheet was made up, dis-
posed of its holdings of 33 per cent Government Paper to the face value of
Rs. 38,000, and has realised from this sale Rs. 36,695-15-8 or Rs. 7,549-11-8
more than the value shown in the present Balance Sheet. This appreciation
alone more than counterbalances the loss for the year 1984.
Life Membership Fees.—In 1988 the Society received Rs. 1,950 on account
of Life Membership Fees, and this. item was in that year taken into Revenue
account, as it was felt that the reserve shown in the Balance Sheet on account
of Life Membership fees had reached an adequate figure. This year only one
Life Membership fee has been received—Rs. 350, and this sum has not been
taken into general revenue account, but has been used to increase the Society’s
reserve for Life Membership Fees.
This now stands at Rs. 47,500. Under rule 7 of the Memorandum of
Association of the Society, Life Members’ subscription may be taken into
revenue provided the total investments of the Society are in excess of the
toal of Life Membership subscriptions. The market value of our investments
exceeds this figure considerably.
COMPARISON OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE WITH THE
PREVIOUS YEAR.
Revenue Expenditure
1933 1934 1933 1934
Subscriptions. .... 23,4607 ..... 225810 Salaries ... 19,060 ... 19,652
Entrance Fees ... 1,070 ... 820 Provaibund a: 45539) 6. -15556
Sale of Journals. 2,093 .:; -1,605 Rent a Pe 28G cee = 25456
Interest gene) DOR OUZ. aes, GU Journals sr2 0 10;595. 34: = 48,679
Sundries Sc. pooh se, Mele Sunadniesi.. 912,800 (s..) wppow
Loss ... es Oe ae! 84847
Total Rs. ... 36,486 34,860 Rs. 233 36,486 34,860
ey
General.—The loss on the year’s working was Rs. 4,847-8-9 as compared
with Rs. 2,452-8-9 the previous year. Expenses have been cut down as much
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS _. 225
as possible, the Journal reduced in cost and the staff is still working on a
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work at a loss. Our revenue depends almost entirely on the membership, and
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native but to cut expenditure to meet our revenue. But this cannot be done
without the risk of impairing the efficiency of the staff and the value of the
Journal, which is the main attraction to members and the cost of which has
already been considerably reduced.
P. M. D. SANDERSON,
Honorary Secretary.
15
, Vol. XXXVIII
BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVIII, Now's
SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. By the late Rev. E. Blatter, s.z.,
Ph.D., F.L.S., and W..S. Millard, F.z.s.° Part XIX.. (With two
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BART Y DAVSIN- MALAVA. By He. Burgess: ~si.s..00esteecabseoerceteeredts:
SomE BUTTERFLIES oF NEPAL. By Major W. G. H. Gough, 2nd
Ae OMG ASIMIMIES, (10s co shen Soest ran conde Sten ae eR A ct A acet eUN:
Cuckoo-Lore. By Lieut.-Col. R. W. Burton, Indian Army (Retired).
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND CocHIN. By Salim Ali. With
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FEEDING OF CoBRAS IN Captivity. By Dr. 8. Gl! Tscherbakoff.
(From the Hattkine Institute, Bombay). .ccccceccevccccccecececcesvevssveese
THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NiLciRi District, By J. A. Votes Ft ee
THE MEDICINAL AND PoIsoNouS FERNS oF INDIA. By J.. F. Caius,
S.J.; F.L.S. POSER HHOHSHSHOHR SSH HHS SHHOHSHHSETHHTHHHSHORHHHFTHHTTHHOHHEHSHHHOHHETHHH EHH HHHBHOHRHOH HBO HET HHO EBHHBO
EARTH-EATING AND SaLt-LicKING IN INDIA. By J. F. Caius, 8.J.,
Fr.s:, -and soe. J. Chhapgar, B. cee ; ois Xavier’ s SOEs.
Bombay ie ahtvovees NR on Varh wecethe sca Fulels Mia siels eabibacs deus -'cdaes see ae hy news tasers
REVIEWS :— | .
Te oie Birds of Nipnce Vol. TPA GEO uate tassios casas steer, eae
11.—Natural History of Central Asia, Vol. X. ‘The Reptiles of
CTE USAR Sata Mt Ce aR Tne ae
MME, —-Atnf Stillen Phadety(Guja)s Sf cster.-gecin-ecee veers: agers
IV.—A Flower Book for Pee POck etnies ee ee ne
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
I.—The Lion in Baluchistan. By R.I. Pocock, F.R.S. .......0
_JI.—A Pair of Indian Lions presented to the British Museum by
H. H. The Nawab of Junagadh. By R; 1. Pocock; F:k.S. |
TL. —A Short- tailed Tiger, By The Maharaja of Surguja. tics
IV.—A Case of Tiger Eating Salt-Lick Earth. By R. C. Morris.
“V.—'Tiger Feeding on a Live Cow. By R. Cy Morris, ss.
PAGE
229
362
382
384
» 385
386
ii CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXVIII, No. 2
VI.—Distribution of the Hunting Leopard (Acinonyx jubatus
Erxl.) in South India. By R. C. Morris.
VIIL—A Fight betweena Cat and a Viper. By T. V. Subrah-
manyam.
CHOCO HOHE S PHOTO SOSH ECELEHOFHS CHOKEEEHRO CO HEHE CEH © EF EB eee eeREE®e
VIII.—Bandicoots attacking a Cobra. By S.C. Petit. ...............
IX.—Behaviour of the Wild Dog (Cuon dukhunensis Sykes).
By T.R. Livesey.
Cee ee ee ee eee ee ee ee er ee ee)
X.—Ratels and Corpses. By L. E. Clifford Hurst.
eeoeececesses see
XI.—Sloth Bear (J/elursus ursinus Shaw) Attacking a Live
Bait, By Tte MaharajaofiSurcujas® 7. .c.tcee oes ee
XII.—Age of Puberty in the Indian Elephant ( ey ee Maximus).
By Av. Hoot. ai. sikorick, stioncas senetone. seas ceerseeaienermiee
XIII.—Social Behaviour of Bison (Sib0s gaurus H. Sm.). By
Re Ce MOrris 5: Bi. cc. cas tees acteconiecr tens aan ae em ences
XIV.—The White Bison (4760s gawrus H.Sm.) of South Coimba-
tore. By R. C. Morris,
Cer eestor eeseneceeeeoesesoe soseseoseeeeneoene®
XV.—Length of Horns in Tsine (Bibos banteng birmanicus
Lyd.) By D; A DeWastc. 2s i. tecccc ss aca eseune se nection te:
XVI.—Habits of the Hog Deer (Hyelaphus porcinus Zimm.). By
J. Bs ROWE, WS. ce ieka dacs wndtetat cassette das estveaiee
XVII.—Distribution of Chital (Axis axis Erxl.) in Assam. By
R. N. De; LF.S.
CHOC H COOH EEL CCE ESOT TEL EEEEOE OEE HO EEHOEES ECE EE OOEED
PAGE
386
387
388
388
390
391
392
393
393 |
304
396
396
XVIII.—The Status of the Brown Shrike (Lanzus c. cristatus Linn.)
in theS. S. States, Burma. By T. R. Livesey
ee ee eee
XIX.—Habits of the Burmese Stone Chat (Saxicola caprata burma-
nica Stuart Baker). By T. R. Livesey.
XX.—Cuckoos in the S. Shan States. By T.R. Livesey. ...........
XXI.—Speed of the Golden Oriole (Ovzolus o. kundoo Sykes).
H N. Achatya.
COHOCOCOTCOEEH COCHH FEHB oH EOT HOLE SOHO SCENES CEE HETOLESEEO DOO LCO®e
XXII.—On the Occurrence of the Ibis-bill (Loidorhyncha struthersit
Gould) in Upper Burma. By. J.K. Stanford, 1.€.S, ...+.
XXII1.—Occurrence of the Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber antiquo-
yum Temm.) in North Gujarat. By H. N. Acharya,
8:7 8.5 BRIS Be a iia eee EEE RCL eae
XXIV.—Some Rare Birds in Northern Burma. By J. K. Stanford,
LCBe hence siadvee danas suaaldalseae Cee oe ee
XXV.—Notes on Some Birds observed between Yatung and Gyantse,
Tibet. By Capt. R. K. M. Battye.
Coocen #eegeoedeod eoevaecoosd O09 900
397
398
401
403
403
404
404
406
CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXVIII, No. 2
XXVI.—A large Mugger (Crocodilus palustris Lesson) from Bikane
—A Correction. By The Secretary to Heir-Apparent
Ob Bik amen peiccets oo cetinescessce cscs sstsveee tees see's cssisesseslsciocdeansess
XXVII.—The Mugger (Crocodilus palustris Lesson) Feeding on Large
Water-Beetles ( Cydister sp.). By C. McCann.
@Or oeerreres
XXVIII.—Male Rat-Snakes (Zamenis mucosus Boulenger) Fighting.
By Ce MicCanmir 2. a3s.se: i Ovecaetawe sts Mated ecas onnemt tinea bbe mseines «ss
XXIX.—Precocity in Young Pull-Frogs (ana tigrina Daud). By
Cr McCanity, aiinicisagnnstss tances Soman ae eomasws ats Cowue es weceee ves see
XXX.—Ants Attacking Rubber Goods. By R. N. Champion-Jones.
XXXI.—Occurrence of the Beetle Sternocera chrysis in Waziristan,
Bye Capt. GalZOwnGes. © iy. ci.- ca cressaeres ceeerewucseststnssaes
XXXII.—Parental Care in Scorpions. By E. Ernest Green.
XXXIII.—Abnormal Flowers of the Radish (Raphanus sativus Linn).
By Agha Mohammad.
Poo POaee®FFTTSOTCEF Cede O8 Ee SPSS eee TFF+» 09992 %°00 880
IPROCCCHINOS) sus tareeressencsncoeauss tse vencincceee recites bbetsior stauseetbeces
Supplement.—The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire and the Problem
of their Preservation. Part IV.
iil
PAGE
408
409
409
409
410
411
411
412
414
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JOURN.
BompBay Nar. Hist. Soc.
THE NoBLE AMHERSTIA
Amherstia nobilis, Wali.
Prare | 27)
John Bale Sons & Danielsson. Lt4 London
JOURNAL
OF THE
Bombay Natural History Society.
DECEMBER, 1935. Vout. XXXVI. No. 2.
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES.
BY
THs LATE EH. BLATTER, §.J., Ph.D., F.L.S.,
and W. 8. MILLARD, F.z.s.
Part XIX.
(With two coloured plates, one black-and-white plate
and two text-figures).
(Continued from page 94 of volume xxxviil).
THe NospLE AMHERSTIA.
Popular names: Thawka, Burm.
Amherstia nobilis Wall. Belongs to the family Leguminosae.
The name Amherstia is in honour of Countess Amherst and her
daughter, Lady Amherst, promoters of Indian botany: nobilis, on
account of the exquisite beauty of the flowers.
Description: A moderate-sized tree 30-40 ft. high, much lke
the Asoka (Saraca indica) in general appearance, when not in
bloom. The stout trunk is covered with thick, uneven, dark, ashy-
erey bark. The spreading branches are overlaid with dense dark-
green foliage. The young shoots and leaves are pendulous and
downy. The leaves, 1-14 ft. long, are composed of 6-8 pairs of
opposite leaflets. The leaflets 6-12 in. long by 1-14 in. wide are
distantly arranged; in shape oblong with almost parallel sides,
narrowing slightly to the base and suddenly tapering off to a fine
point at the apex. They are smooth and dark green above, paler
4380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVLII
and softly hairy below. At the base of the leaf-stalk there are
two leaf-like lance-shaped and sharply pointed stipules, 1-14 in.
long, which fall off soon after the leaf develops.
The flowers are arranged in very large candelabra-like racemes
which arise from the axils of the leaves, and frequently attain 3 ft.
in length. ‘The reddish branches of the racemes support from
20 to 26 beautiful flowers. The individual flower stalks together
with the large leaf-like bracts below the calyx are intensely red.
The calyx is composed of 4 sepals united into a tube and a little
shorter than the bracts. The flower is composed of 5 conspicuous
petals. The large standard is 8 in. long by 2 in. at its widest part,
reversedly heart-shaped with rounded lobes and toothed margins.
In colour it is red with a splash of white between the lobes and
a roundish yellow spot in the centre. The wing petals are like
the standard but much narrower, spreading and reflexed. The two
keel petals are small. The stamens are disposed in two sets, one
composed of 9, the other solitary. The anthers are large and
dark-green in colour. Ovary flat and densely hairy. The fruit
is a broad pod.
Flowers: It flowers during the greater part of the year, but
chiefly from January to March (Troup).
Distribution: Indigenous in Tenasserim, Burma (Troup).
Uses: Cultivated as an ornamental tree in the moister parts
of Burma and Southern India.
Gardening: The tree is somewhat difficult to cultivate, being
delicate when young and requiring a rich soil and a warm moist
equable climate. It may be raised from seed in pots or baskets,
but can best be propagated by layering in the hot season and
planting out during the rains. It is successfully cultivated in
Ceylon, but seldom ripens its seeds there (Troup).
This is perhaps the most beautiful of all flowering trees. The
large graceful sprays of vermilion and yellow flowers drooping from
every branch, set in the deep green foliage present an aspect of
astonishing loveliness, scarcely equalled by any tree in the world.
Very remarkable and striking are the long hanging rich red or
purplish clusters in which the young leaves appear.
BELO R ASI E IS
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sy
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JouRN. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc.
A flowering spray of Amherstia nobilis.
‘(SUztgow VIZS.LAYW*P)
sel, VIISIOYWY S8[GON ouL
“NIXX GL¥1qg "009 “LSIH ‘LVN AVaWog ‘Nuno¢
‘(aofog ‘vsomaavs vayjiajod ) AIOTD §$,2[[TATOD Jo siamo ‘( rafog ‘vsomaava vaj}102j09 ) ALOT S,9][LATOD
UUDIIW *O
XXX ALV Id ‘20S “LSI ‘LVN Avawog ‘Nanof[
Lae? Se
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Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. Pate (28)
John Bale Sons & Danielsson, Lt? London
Cotvitte’s GLory
Colvillea racemosa, Bojer.
(about /% nat. size)
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES 231
COLVILLE’S GLORY.
Colvillea racemosa LBojer. Belongs to the family Legumt-
nosae. The name Colvillea is in honour of Sir Charles Colville,
Governor of Mauritius; racemosa on account of the flowers being
arranged in racemes.
Description: A moderate-sized tree 40-50 ft. high with spread-
ing branches. In general form and from the character of its
foliage it might be easily mistaken for the Gul Mohur. The leaves
of the two trees are very similar. In the present species, the
leaf is composed of from 20-30 pinnee or minor leaves—a Gul
Mohur leaf has only 11-18. The pinne bear 20-28 pairs of small
elliptical leaflets arranged opposite each other. In the Gul Mohur
these leaflets are more oblong.
The flowers are very curious and striking. In the bud they
are almost nut-like in form and appear in large drooping clusters,
the buds diminishing in size as they approach the end of the
raceme. The sepals are more or less obliquely shaped in outline
and sharply pointed. Externally they are silky to the touch.
Their colour ranges from bright orange to red. Internally they
are smooth and creamy. ‘lhe standard petal of the flower is the
smallest and not the largest as is usual. It is orange red, and
is flanked; by two very long narrow erect wing petals, deep red
in colour. Opposite the standard petal is the rudimentary boat-
Shaped keel petal. The 10 stamens are free, 3 of them are inserted
below the standard, 2 under the wing petals, 1 under the keel,
and 4 under the ovary. The anthers are yellow. The clumps of
bright coloured flowers among the feathery grey green foliage give
the tree a very striking appearance. The pod is 2-valved and
round.
Flowers: In India the tree flowers in July and August but in
Madagascar it flowers in April or May.
Distribution: It is supposed to be a native of East Africa,
but it was discovered by Bojer, in 1824, on the West Coast of
Madagascar, where a single tree was cultivated by the natives.
It is the only species of the genus.
Gardening: It is suited to moist or moderately dry low coun-
try, and is only propagated from seed. Though it is well worthy
of cultivation for its beautiful flowers and foliage, it is seldom
seen outside botanical gardens and flower fanciers’ collections.
(T'o be continued).
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE
EASTERN GHATS.
(ORNITHOLOGICAL SECTION).
BY
Hucu WHISTLER, M.B.O.U., assisted by N. B. KINNEAR, M.B.0.U.
Part XII.
| (Continued from page 764 of volume xxxvi).
Tyto alba stertens Hartert.
Tyto alba stertens Hartert, Nov. Zool., vol. xxxv (1929), 98—Cachar.
Not met by the Survey. The Barn Owl is probably more common and
generally distributed than the few records imply. Dewar says it occurs at
Madras, and two males from Madras dated March 1877 are in the Hume Col-
lection.
The Hume Collection also contains two undated birds from Calicut. William
Davison says that it is rare on the Nilgiris where it lives in holes in rocks.
In Travancore, on the other hand, Ferguson says that it is found occasionally
in the low country about human habitations. He gives the breeding season
as December and January.
I have only seen one specimen from Java and this certainly seemed to be
a little more brightly coloured than Indian birds. No Ceylon birds examined.
Tyto longimembris longimembris (J erdon).
Strix longimembris Jerdon, Madras Jour. Tait. Sci.; vol. x (839), p...86——
Neilgherries.
Very little is known about the distribution of the Grass-Owl in the Presi-
dency, and it was not met by the Survey. On the western side it was procured
by William Davison in_ the Brahmagherries, a male and female dated respect-
ively 19 April 1881 and 14 February 1882 being in the British Museum. In
the Nilgiris it was first procured by Jerdon on the grassy side of a hill at
6,000 ft. near Coonoor and the specimen marked ‘Madras, Jerdon’ in the
British Museum is probably this bird, the type. William Davison tells’ us
that he shot it himself on the Nilgiris on several occasions and handled two
or three others, so it is probably an uncommon resident in these hills.
Terry was under the impression that an owl flushed from long grass on
the hillside at Pulungi in the Palnis was probably of this species.
On the eastern side of the Presidency we have only Jerdon’s statement that
he had procured the Grass-Owl in the Nellore District, twice, once in long grass
when he was hunting florican and once in long reeds in the dry bed of a
tank at Yeroor.
_ Nothing is known about the breeding season in the Presidency. All Indian
birds clearly belong to the one race.
Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan).
Stric flammea Pontoppidan, Danske Atlas, vol. 1 (1763), p. 617, pl. xxv—
Denmark.
The Short-eared Owl was not procured by the Survey, but it is known to
be an irregular winter visitor to the Presidency. On the eastern side it is
only recorded from the neighbourhood of Madras. Here it was recorded by
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 233
Dewar as being fairly common and Mr. A. S. Thyagaraju (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi,
752) has some very interesting notes on its occurrence there in large numbers
from about the end of November 1923 to the end of January 1924. He did
not however notice it in other years.
On the western side we have very little information. Hume states (S.F..
x, 343) that it certainly occurs on the lower slopes of the Nilgiris and this
is confirmed by the fact that Col. H. R. Baker shot the female of a pair
m a grassy swamp at Ootacamund on 81st December 1921 (Birds of South
India, p. 208). This specimen is now in my collection. Kinloch says that
it is ‘very rare indeed’ in the Nelliampathies, and Hume (loc. cit.) says that
it occurs in the Palnis.
In Travancore there is one definite record (S.F., iv, 372) when Bourdillon
shot a female hawking at midday in bright sunshine at 4,000 ft. in the end
of December. This presumably refers to the specimen in the British Museum
collected by Bourdillon on 28 December 1875 in the Colathoorpolay Valley
3,000 ft., according to its label. Elwes, however, lists it for the Cardamum
Hills (Ibis 1870, p. 527).
In some years the Short-eared Owl visits Ceylon in the months from
November to February.
Strix indranee indranee Sykes.
Strix indranee Sykes, P.Z.S. 19382 (July 31), p. 82—Lonauli, W. Ghats.
Not obtained by the Survey. The Brown Wood-Owl is found in Coorg and
the Wynaad according to Jerdon and, in the latter area, William Davison says
that it is less common than in the Nilgiris where it is fairly well known.
Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxx, 484) mentions a specimen procured in the Nelliam-
pathies in February.
The Brown Wood-Owl does not occur in Ferguson’s list of Travancore birds,
but Stuart Baker (Nidification, iii, 502) says that it is found in that State
from the lowest to the highest hills.
How far this owl extends to the eastern side of the Presidency must
for the present remain doubtful. There is a specimen in the Madras Museum
said to have come from the Shevaroys and far further north, Jerdon says
that it has been sent from Goomsoor. If this is correct these north-eastern
birds may well be closer to the Himalayan race.
Nothing is known accurately about the breeding season in the Presidency
beyond the fact that a juvenile specimen from Ootacamund (William Davison)
in the British Museum is dated 3rd May. The identification of the supposed
Travancore eggs mentioned by Stuart Baker (loc. cit) is evidently quite un-
reliable.
A series of birds from Ceylon compared with Nilgiri birds are definitely
darker in colouration both above and below. The white throat patch is vir-
tually absent and the facial disk is richer in colouration with more chestnut
tint. They may be separated as Strix indranee ochrogenys (Hume).*
This species is often credited—in my opinion wrongly—with being the so-
called ‘Devil-bird’ of South India and Ceylon. It is not clear whether the cries
heard at night in Ceylon and South India proceed from the same species, but
the eyidence as to their authors is very contradictory. See Legge, p. 158:
Stray Feathers, ii, 342; ili, 332; vii, 258; J.B.N.H.S., xxx, 484.
Strix ocellata (Lesson).
Syrnium ocellatum Lesson, Rev. Zool., October-November 1839, p. 289—
Pondicherry.
Not procured by the Survey in spite of Jerdon’s statement that he had
found it most numerous in the Carnatic. The only definite records for the
Mottled Wood-Owl in the eastern side of the Presidency are its inclusion in
Dewar’s list and the specimens in the Madras Museum labelled respectively
Madras and Singaperumal Coil, Chingleput, to say nothing of the type locality
Pondicherry.
1 Syrnium ochrogenys Hume, Stray Feathers, vol. i (1873), p. 481—Ceylon.
234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
On the western side William Davison was unable to include the species in
his Nilgiri paper but Hume entered a note (S.F., x, 848) that he knew of
it on the southern base of the Nilgiris, north of the Collegal taluk.
In Travancore according to Ferguson the Mottled Wood-Owl is fairly com-
mon from Arukkutty to Vycome and he also mentions two specimens shot by
his collectors at Perumbalam, an island in the Vembanad lake, in January 1903.
There is no reliable information about the breeding season in the Presidency.
This owl has no races in its limited range.
Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti (‘Temminck).
Stric leschenaultt Temm. & Lang., Planch. Col., pl. 20, livr, 4a (18 Decem-
ber 1824)—Chandranagore.
Specimen collected: —889 @Q 12-6-29 Chitteri range 3,000 ft.
Measurements :—Bill 53.5, wing 3892, tail 190, tarsus 71 mm.
There is a specimen of the Brown Fish-Owl in the Madras Museum from
Covelong’, a locality which I have been unable to locate precisely. With this
exception the Survey specimen provides the only record for the eastern side.
In Travancore Ferguson says that it is common in forest land in the
low country near the coast. Elwes also confirms (Ibis 1870, p. 527) that it
is common in the lower valleys of the Cardamum Hills. In the Palnis Fair-
bank tells us that one was shot in the grove at Kodaikanal in April 1867
and that on his subsequent visit a pair were to be heard in the same locality
every evening. Terry in his turn heard them in the same place.
Jerdon says that this Fish-Owl is not rare at Ootacamund and Primrose
(J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 163) confirms that it is common in the Nilgiris and adds
that it is still commoner in the Wynaad.
Ferguson gives the breeding season in Travancore as March and April.
Ticehurst (Ibis 1928, p. 286 and J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, p. 478) has pointed
out that in his opinion only one race of this species can be recognised in
India, an opinion to which I have also independently arrived. Mr. Stuart
Baker, however, recognises three races in India apart from the typical race
in Ceylon. This last on our present material certainly seems recognisable on
its darker colour and smaller size (wing 365-383 mm.).
Bubo bubo bengalensis (Franklin).
Otus bengalensis Franklin, P.Z.S. 1830-31 (October 25, 1881), p. 115—
the Ganges between Calcutta and Benares and in the Vindhyan Hills between
the latter place and Gurra Mundela.
Specimen collected :—462 © 22-6-1929, Tirthamalai 1,000 ft.
Measurements :—Bill 44.5, wing 382, tail 194, tarsus 68 mm.
Jerdon says that there is not a rocky hill in the Carnatic where the Rock
Horned-Owl is not to be seen, and it is interesting to record that the state-
ment is still true today. Captain Bates has written to me ‘I have never
gone near any of the low bush-covered rocky hills so typical of the landscape
immediately south of Madras without finding a pair of these fine owls inhabiting
each hill’. There is nothing to show the further distribution on the eastern
side of the Presidency beyond the above Survey specimen.
On the west it is only recorded from the Nilgiris, though here it appears
to be rare. Jerdon says that he had killed it on the Nilgiris in dense woods.
William Davison says that he had flushed it twice for certain, besides probably
seeing it on other occasions. This statement is verified by a male in the
British Museum killed by Davison at Ootacamund on 8 January. 1887.
Tt will be noticed that the distribution of the Rock Horned-Owl is wrongly
given in the New Fauna (iv, 415) and Nidification (iii, 511) as extending
south only to Khandesh and the Deccan. This species is very variable in
colour, exhibiting paler, more buffy and richer, more rufous phases. There
also appears to be a slight increase of size from south to north throughout the
Peninsula and Himalayas as pointed out by Mr. Stuart Baker, but I am of
opinion that it is impossible to recognise more than one race in our area.
There is nothing on record about the breeding season in the Presidency.
* Kovalam (Travancore) ?—Ebs.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 235
[Bubo coromandus (Latham).
Strix coromanda Latham, Index Orn., vol. i (1790), p. 53—Coromandel Coast.
According to Jerdon the Dusky Horned-Owl is found in the Carnatic in
the more wooded parts and near hills, while Cardew is stated (Birds of
South India, p. 213) to have obtained it at Ootacamund. This species appears
to have been satisfactorily identified in Mysore (see Taylor, S.F., x, 455). So
the above records may be correct, but until further substantiation is forth-
coming I feel that this bird cannot satisfactorily be admitted to the Presidency
list. ].
Huhua nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson).
Bubo nipalensis Hodgson, Asiat. Res., vol. xix (after September 1836),
p. 172—Nepal.
Specimen collected :—284 Q 25-5-29 Shevaroy Hills 4,000 ft.
Measurements :—Bill 51, wing 488, tail 225, tarsus 56 mm.
This specimen extends the known range of the Forest Eagle Owl which
has hitherto only been known to occur in the Presidency on the western side.
In Coorg according to Betts it is widely distributed though nowhere numer-
ous. In the Wynaad Primrose tells us that he twice was lucky enough to
meet with it (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 1638).
In the Nilgiris it occurs sparingly in the larger sholas, according to
William Davison, being seldom seen except when the sholas are beaten for
game, though Mr. Betts informs me that he has on occasion seen it perched
on boulders or trees by the road at night. Major Phythian-Adams records
(Birds of 8. India, p. 214) that he shot four when beating sholas near Ootaca-
mund in September 1927. Captain Bates informs me that he met with a
young bird just able to fly on April 4 near Kotagiri.
In Travancore Ferguson considered it uncommon. He mentions receiving
two live specimens which lived in captivity for some years, and that one was
shot in the High Range (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 203; xv, 667). Stewart evidently
met. with a good many nests in Travancore and found it breeding in December
and January (New Fauna, iv, 418).
Sexed specimens ard rare in collections, but seven birds from. the Himalayas
measure:—bill 54.5-59.5, wing 425-468, tail 213-242 mm. Ceylon birds are
evidently smaller; three specimens in the British Museum measure:—bill 50.5-
55.5, wing 370 (damaged) to 412, tail 184-215 mm. Their upper parts appear
darker and the bars on the lower plumage are narrower and less numerous.
The single Survey specimen evidently belongs to the typical race, but I
have seen no other specimen from Southern India, and until it is possible to
settle whether Travancore birds agree with the Himalayan or the Cinghalese
form it is impossible to settle the name for the latter. If they agree with
Travancore birds the name Huhua pectoralis Jerdon, Madr. Jour. Lit: Sci.,
vol. x (1840), p. 89, pl. i (Malabar) is available. If, however, Travancore birds
agree with the typical race the Ceylon bird will stand as Huhua_nipalensis
blight Legge, Birds of Ceylon, pt. i (1878), p. 183 (Kandyan district, Ceylon).
The genus Huhua is sepiated from Bubo on the ground that the young
has a perfectly distinct plumage from the adult. This is correct as regards
Huhua, but it must be remembered that the juvenile plumage of Bubo coro-
mandus is also different to that of the adult’ in colour and pattern. The differ-
ence may not be striking but it exists and it is problematical, therefore, whether
the genus Huhua is worth maintaining merely on a question of degree.
Otus bakkamoena bakkamoena Pennant.
Otus bakkamoena Pennant, Indian Zoology, vol. i (1769), p. 3, pl. 3—
Ceylon.
Not obtained by the Survey. There is very little accurate information about
the Collared Scops-Owl in the Presidency but it must occur in the forests of
the Eastern Ghats where Jerdon apparently obtained several specimens (Madras
Jour, Lit. Sci. 1844, p. 120). Its occurrence at Ferahabad (over the boundary
on the Ghats in Hyderabad territory) has been recorded (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii,
p. 141) and it appears probable that these Eastern Ghats birds may not
belong to the typical race.
236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
In Travancore it is said to be very common throughout the low country
and foothills, occurring also up to 2,000 ft. (Ferguson, J.B.N.H.S., xv, 667
and Bourdillon apud Nidification, iii, 516). There are two specimens in the
British Museum from Trivandrum (Fry and Nair) and three from Mynal
(Bourdillon). These last are mentioned in Stray Feathers, vii, p. 84 as having
been reared from the nest.
In the Nilgiris it occurs up to about 4,000 ft. and where it occurs it is
apparently common, according to William Davison, for every night its rather
melancholy double metallic hoot is sure to be heard. Specimens from Coonoor
(Q 16-5-69 Carter) and Kotagherry (Q 9-1-75 Cockburn) are in the British
Museum. Primrose (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 163) suggests that it is still more com-
mon in the Wynaad while Jerdon seems to have obtained it near the Peria
Pass (Madras Jour. Lit. Sci. 1889, p. 89).
Nine other specimens from ‘Madras’ and ‘Malabar’ in the British Museum
merely confirm the above information.
The Collared Scops Owl is evidently resident and the breeding season is
said to be in Jammary and February (Nidzfication, iii, 516).
Otus sunia rufipennis (Sharpe).
Scops rufipennis Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., vol. it (1875), p. 60—
Madras, Eastern Ghats.
Not procured by the Survey. Although from the number of specimens in
the British Museum—unfortunately without precise data—it is evident that
the Indian Scops Owl is not uncommon in the Presidency there is very little
precise information about it. Jerdon says (Madras Jour. Lit. Sci. 1844, p. 119)
that the first specimen he saw was found dead at Madras and that he had
since obtained it from the forests of the Eastern Ghats. Dewar gives it
without comment in his Madras list, no doubt on the strength of the local
specimen in the Madras Museum. Of the eight specimens (including the
type) in the British Museum marked ‘Madras’ some appear to come from
Madras itself. Mr. Daly is said to have taken eggs in the Shevaroys. (Old
Fauna, ii, p. 294).
On the western side Hume received a pair from the Wynaad (S.F., x, 343)
and William Davison obtained a specimen on the 12th December at Segore
which is in the British Museum together with a male collected by Miss
Cockburn at Kotagherry on 3 November 1874. A female collected by R. H.
Morgan in the Palghat Hills in April 1876 is also in the British Museum.
Three Anjengo specimens in the British Museum are all we know abont
the occurrence of the Indian Scops Owl in Travancore.
It is presumably a resident in the Presidency but there is no information
about the breeding season. The rufous and grey phases appear to be equally
common. T can find no information about the call note of this race but as
both Otus sunia sunia (Ibis 1926, p. 752) and Otus sunia legget Phillips,
(Ceylon Jour. Science, xvii, 1933, p. 98) have the same call note, it seems safe
to attribute it also to the present race. This is not as described in the New
Fauna (iv, pp. 485-6) but may be expressed by the words wukh-tuk-tah or
wuck-chug-chug uttered loudly enough to be heard several hundred yards away
and repeated endlessly in a very regular and rhythmic manner, like the swing-
ing of a giant pendulum or the working of a pump-engine.
Athene brama brama (Temminck).
Strix brama Temminck, Planch. Color. d’Ois. livr. xii (1828), pl. 68—
Pondicherry.
Specimens collected: 51 9 14-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 274 3 juv. 23-5-29 Sheva-
roy Hills 4,000 ft.; 687 3g 18-8-29 Palkonda Hills 500 ft.; 9381 9 19-10-29
Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 956 ¢ 1-11-29 Nallamalai range 2,000 ft.; 1802
Q 24-1-30 Godavery delta.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
2 19.5-20.5 147-152 67.5-69 25-26.5 mm.
3 9 20-20.5 151-160.5 69-78 29.5-31.5 mm.
There appears as yet to be no record of the Spotted Owlet in the north-
eastern area of the Presidency above the Godavery delta, but southwards of the
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 237
delta it appears to be generally common and there is no need to cite the
records. A pair obtained on Rameswaram Island on 17 March 1873 at the close
of Hume’s trip to the Laccadives are in the British Museum.
On the western side there is less known about this owlet. In Travancore
according to Ferguson it is very common in the low country especially about
Cape Comorin where numbers may be found in the ruined fortifications of the
old Travancore lines. Ferguson says that it does not ascend the hills but in
Nidification (ii, 525) Stuart Baker says that it is found in the Travancore
hills up to 1,000 ft. or 1,500 ft. Specimens from Chittoor (2-1-7383 Dr. Day),
Segore (jf 19-2-81 William Davison) and Coorg (Tweedale Collection) are in
the British Museum but William Davison’s account (S.F., x, 3844) of the
commonness of this owl in the plains (whether of Mysore or the Presidency is
not made clear) suggests that these three isolated records do not give a true
picture of the status of the bird in the west. This owl is of course a resident
species.
Ferguson says that the breeding season in Travancore is in March and April.
The Spotted Owlet does not occur in Ceylon. There are only two races in
India. The typical race is small and dark whereas A. b. indica of Northern
India is larger and of a paler colouration. There is, of course, complete inter-
gradation between the two forms, both in colour and size, and there is the
further complication that individual birds may vary considerably in colour. A
Punjab bird in Mr. Waie’s collection, for instance, is as dark as any specimen
from Travancore.
Accepting specimens from the following areas as truly representing the
typical race, viz. from Rameswaram Island, Travancore, Biligirirangan Hills,
S. Mysore, Salem District, the Palkonda Hills and the Seschachalam Hills—I
find that it measures as follows :—
Bill. Wing. Tail.
ee. 19-21 141-158 66-71.5 mm.
6 9 20-22 151-156.5 68-73.5 mm.
whereas a series A. b. indica from the Punjab measures :—
Bill. Wing. Tail.
12 Jd 19-20 153-167 74.5-83 mm.
ye) 18.5-20.5 159-167 73.5-83.5 mm.
With these comparative measurements before me I find that practically all
specimens up to the Tapti river agree in colour and a high proportion agree
in measurement with the typical race. No precise boundary can be fixed be-
tween the two races because of their intergradation, but in view of the above
I propose as a matter of convenience to recognise the 20° N. lat. as the
dividing line. Mr. Stuart Baker’s division at the 14° (New Fauna, iv, 489)
is in my opinion certainly too far south.
Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell.).
Strix radiata Tickell, J.A.8.B., vol. ii (December 1833), p. 572—Borabhum.
No specimens of the Jungle Owlet were collected by the Survey and little
is known about the typical race in the Presidency. Ball records it from
Jeypore (S.F., vii, 201).
In the Nilgiris according to William Davison the Jungle Owlet ascends
the hills as high as Coonoor, being however more common on the lower slopes
and at the foot of the hills. Primrose (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 164) records seeing
it as high as 5,000 ft. in a shola near the Terramia T. E. Stragglers however
go higher as a specimen in my own collection was shot by Col. H. R. Baker
at Ootacamund. This bird, like specimens in the Hume Collection from Segore
(S$ 22-8-21), Kullar (¢ 17-10-67, 0? 16-9-69) and Kotagherry (¢ 26-11-74
Cockburn) all definitely belong to the typical race and not to the richly coloured
malabaricum. The explanation doubtless is that in the Nilgiris, as Mr. Betts
informs me, this owlet is not a bird of the western slopes but belongs to the
drier facies. This species forms the subject of an interesting discussion by Vidal
and Hume (S.F., ix, 38-39) on the connection between depth of colouration
and rainfall and it is a particularly interesting example in view of its status
in Ceylon. In that island it is a bird of the dry region and in consequence
2388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Ceylonese examples agree with the typical race and not the Malabar form.
This point was first made clear by Legge and is confirmed by a specimen in
the British Museum. Unfortunately this interesting point is missed by the
New Fauna (iv, 449) where Ceylon birds are attributed to malabaricum. The
same paragraph contains a further mistake. Intermediate examples came from
North Kanara and South Konkan not from Khandesh. There is a good series
of Khandesh specimens in the British Museum and they are most typical
radiatum,
Some examples of the typical race are much greyer than others, more parti-
cularly on the lower back and tail. This appears to have no connection with
distribution but to be individual variation, no doubt representing the grey
phase found in most owls. j
The only record of the breeding season in the Presidency is furnished by
N. & E., iii, 112 when Mr. J. Darling Jnr. found a nest with two eggs
at Coonoor on 12 March.
Glaucidium radiatum malabaricum (Blyth).
Athene malabaricus Blyth, J.A.S.B., vol. xv (1846), p. 280—Malabar Coast.
This race of the Jungle Owlet is confined to the western side of the Presi-
dency and was therefore not met by the Survey. There are two specimens
from Coorg in the Tweeddale collection in the British Museum and Colonel
Sparrow has kindly lent me a male collected on 23 April 1912 at Malappuram.
As Jerdon says, it also occurs in Cochin and Travancore and there is a good
series from the latter state in the British Museum. Bourdillon and Ferguson
tell us that it is common both in the low country and on the lower slopes
of the hills in Travancore, sometimes ascending to 2,500 ft.
The breeding season in Travancore is said to be from March to May.
Ninox scutulata hirsuta Temm. & Lang.
Striz hirsuta Temm. & Lang., Planch. Color. d’Ois., livr, 49 (28 August
1824), pl. 289—Ceylon.
The Brown Hawk-Owl was not procured by the Survey and its distri-
bution in the Presidency is not satisfactorily known.
In Travancore it is not uncommon in the hills in a zone between 2,000-
3,000 ft. and is also said to occur in forest in the low country (Bourdillon and
Ferguson). Three males from Mynall (Bourdillon) dated 3-12-1874, 24-2-1878
and 26-11-1879 are in the ‘British Museum as well as two Anjengo specimens.
This owl has not been recorded from the Nilgiris, but William Davison says
that he heard it almost nightly in the Wynaad and the Brahmagherries,
though he was unable to procure a specimen. There are however two birds
from Coorg in the Tweeddale Collection.
The breeding season in Travancore is said to be from January to May
(Bourdillon apud Niditfication, ii, 536) and the bird is presumably resident. |
IT cannot separate birds from Ceylon and South India, and they appear to
differ in size from the only Sumatran specimen which I have seen.
The Brown Hawk-Owl also occurs on the eastern side of the Presidency for
Jerdon says that he met it in the Carnatic, and a specimen in the Madras
Museum was apparently procured locally. There are moreover two birds in the
British Museum labelled Madras, March 1877 and April 1876 (William Davison).
These specimens appear to belong to the paler race N. s. lugubris which
suggests that Madras. here refers to the capital, and that eastern birds generally
belong to that race which occurs as near as Raipur (Central Provinces).
The point merits investigation.
Pandion haliaétus haliaétus (Linn).
Falco haliaétus Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758),:p. 91—Sweden.
The Osprey is a cold weather visitor to the lakes near the Coast in Travan-
core according to Ferguson and at Madras Dewar says that some are to be
seen fishing in most of the backwaters. The Osprey was not met by the
Survey, and the only other record for the Presidency that I can trace is a
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 239
female in the Hume Collection dated 1867. This appears to have been. killed
at a locality Thervoneedian which I am unable to find in any map.
Sarcogyps calvus (Scopolli).
Vultur calvus Scopoli, Del. Flor. et Faun. Insubr., vol. u (1786), p. 85—
No locality. Based on Sonnerat, Voyage aux Indes 1782, pl. 104, Vautour
Royal de Pondicherry, and therefore now restricted to Pondicherry.
The King Vulture is, no doubt, generally distributed in smal! numbers
throughout the Presidency as in the rest of India. LaPersonne reports it
as seen by the Survey in the hills at Sankrametta and over the Shevaroys.
Dewar includes it in his Madras list and Captain Bates gives me details
of a nest found in a tope near St. Thomas’ Mount on May 31st. On_ that
date it contained a young bird which was still in the nest at the very end
of June.
In the Wynaad and the Nilgiris it is not common, according to William
Davison; and there appears to be some doubt regarding Primrose’s note
(J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 164) on it in these areas, as he writes of it as breeding on
the precipices, a habit that has never been confirmed.
For the Palnis Fairbank says that he observed it rarely’ at the base of
the hills, while Terry says that he used to see one and very often a pair
almost every day near his camp at Pulungi. A well-marked egg was taken
by Howard Campbell at Kodaikanal (Stuart Baker, Nidtfication, iv, 7).
Ferguson received a live specimen from Colasagram, a locality close to the
hills in South Travancore.
Gyps indicus indicus (Scopoll).
Vultur indicus Scopoli, Del. Flor. et Faun. Insubr., vol. ii (1786), p. 85—
No locality. Based on Sonnerat, Voyage aux Indes, vol. ii (1785), pl. 105,
Le grand Vautour des Indes. Now restricted to Pondicherry.
The Indian Long-billed Vulture is best known from the western side of
the Presidency where it is found in small numbers through the Wynaad and
the Nilgiris. It also occurs in the Palnis where Fairbank met it rarely at
the base of the hills and Terry saw several at a carcase at Kukal. It seems
to be scarce in Travancore as Ferguson merely mentions a live specimen
brought in from Nagercoil.
This vulture breeds in the Nilgiris and also in the Shevaroys and from
the latter hills there is a good description of two small breeding colonies
examined by Packard (apud Stuart Baker, Nidification, iv, 11). A specimen
from St. Thomas’ Mount is in the Madras Museum.
The breeding season is said to be in December and January, but Stuart
Baker mentions eggs taken as late as 3 March in the Nilgiris.
Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin).
Vultur bengalensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i (1788), p. 245—Bengal.
In the west of the Presidency the White-backed Vulture is the most
common species, in Coorg, the Wynaad and the Nilgiris, appearing in hundreds
at a carcase. In the Nelliampathies it only comes up from the plains as a
temporary visitor, roosting there if gorged, according to Kinloch. There is
no record for the Palnis, but in Travancore it is found throughout both the
low country and the hills. Ferguson says that there used to be a breeding
colony in a patch of forest near Oliver’s Estate in the Ashambo Hills but
this was destroyed in a clearance for coffee cultivation.
The only record for the eastern side of the Presidency is Dewar’s inclusion
of the name without comment in his Madras list. ,
Ferguson says that the breeding season in Travancore is from February .
fo April.
Neophron percnopterus ginginianus (Latham).
Vultur ginginianus Latham, Index Orn., vol. i (1790), p. 7—Gingee, Coro-
mandel Coast.
240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIITI-
The Neophron appears to be somewhat irregularly distributed in the Presi-
dency, and this fact will probably be found to have some connection with
the distribution of rainfall. In Coorg, Betts only saw a single specimen, on
26 February 1929. In the Wynaad it is more common and over the slopes
and plateau of the Nilgiris it is abundant, especially about Ootacamund,
Kotagiri and the various Badaga villages, though it is seldom seen on the
uninhabited western side of the plateau—as one would expect. Fischer has
an interesting note (J.B.N.H.S., xvii, 525) of six feeding on a hatch of
termites at Geddisal, Coimbatore.
In the Nelliampathies it is scarce, Kinloch merely recording a single bird
in some cooly lines on March 20. It is more common on the slopes of the
Palnis up to 5,000 ft , occurring also occasionally up to the summits.
In Travancore it is common in the dry area of the extreme south about
Nagercoil, but absent from the rest of the State.
On the eastern side there is very little information. The Survey reported
a single bird on the Chitteri plateau. Captain Bates informs me that he
took a hardset egg from a nest on the spire of the Garrison Church at St.
Thomas’ Mount on 14 March 1924, the birds building another nest and laying
again when that was taken. In 1929 there was a nest in the same place
with a large chick in July. Similarly Dewar says that there had been a
nesi for twenty years or more on the steeple of the Scotch Kirk at Madras.
A specimen from Kodambakam is in the Madras Museum.
(To be contniued).
BARLY DAYS IN MALAYA.
BY
H.. EK. Burcess.
Malaya was a comparatively new country when I first went
out there in the year 1900. It was only twenty-six years earlier—
1874— that the British Government in Singapore became interest-
ed in its development, and at that time very little of the country
had been explored. The three ports, Singapore, Penang and
Malacca had come into our possession several decades earlier, but
the Malay States which comprise all that part of the peninsula
south of Siam, was for the most part virgin jungle. The construction
of roads and railways had commenced at various centres, and a
few miles of railway had already been opened for traffic, but the
chief means of transport was by small boats on the rivers, where
at scattered intervals along the banks, small villages were met
with. Only small areas near by the villages were under culti-
vation which for the most part consisted of coconuts and areca-
nut palms. The centres where construction works had begun
were the places of residence of the rulers of the four important
states, and these had been made the headquarters of the four
Governments, each under the control of a British Resident.
Hospitals, Courts and Police stations had been established, and
the designs of these and other public buildings were of imposing
structure, and significant as pointing to the future prosperity of
the country.
It was noticeable that the small townships were being extend-
ed on a proper basis. No haphazard methods of building were
permitted, while streets and water services were laid out on
modern lines, and the result to-day is that, in a country which
is notoriously unhealthy the towns themselves are as free from
malaria and other tropical diseases as any of the larger towns in
England.
At the time I speak of it was only these small towns which
could boast any form of civilization and, except for the clearings
near villages, all else consisted of jungle, unpopulated and in-
fested with wild beasts. Certain areas had been opened up for
tin mining, and some planters over from Ceylon had commenced
to grow coffee, but in neither case were these areas extensive.
For the first ten years of my career out there I lived in the
heart of the jungle, engaged at first in surveys and construction
works, and later on in opening up large areas of land for rubber
cultivation. Under such conditions it was only to be expected
that I had ample opportunities of seeing wild life and being able
to indulge in some big game shooting. My regret is that I did
not take up the study of Natural History as I ought to have done,
and for this reason I am afraid my notes will not be of much value
from a scientific point of view. They are written at the instance
242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIi
of a friend who has suggested that a comparison with conditions
in India would interest readers of this journal. Unfortunately,
my knowledge of India is confined to the Nilgiri hills of the Madras
province, where on the plateau the pine and rhododendron woods
are non-tropical, and the scrub jungle at the foot hills does not
compare with the immense trees and heavy undergrowth typical
of Malayan forests. I have no doubt however, that such growth
is found in the moist climates of Malabar and Travancore, and
that the larger beasts of the jungle, and especially the greater
carnivora, have the same characteristics.
I did a fair amount of shooting but was not bitten with the
lust to kill, and I did not shoot with the idea of obtaining records.
I was never keen to get an elephant, and after I had bagged my
first two or three tigers and a few panthers. I did not go out
after them unless I was appealed to by the villagers who were
losing cattle and goats.
Before relating my experiences I must mention that certain
birds and beasts of India are not found in Malaya. There are no
vultures and no kites, and there are neither hyenas nor jackals. I
was on the point of saying there were no crows, but recollect
seeing some occasionally. I have seen only the jungle crow and
these birds are never seen in towns and villages. The common
song birds of the Nilgiris such as the thrush, the bulbul, and the
blackbird, are either not found there or are very rare; and owing
no doubt to the absence of tanks there is no duck shooting to be
had. I never saw a wild duck and only once came across a few
teal.
TicgkR (Malay: Harimau).
My first district in Malaya, thirty-six years ago, was good
tiger country. It was also recognized as the most unhealthy dis-
trict on the map. I shot more tigers than any other European
out there, and my bag was only thirteen. The only person who
had got more than this number was the Sultan of Johore. J am
speaking of fifteen years ago when we were able to compare notes.
The Sultan had shot about twenty. Very few men have got as
many as three or four, and several sportsmen who have bison
and elephant to their credit have never shot a tiger.
When compared with the enormous bags obtained by many
shikaris in India the numbers sound absurdly small, but I do
not think it means that tigers there are comparatively less com-
mon. Iam positive that as the country gets more opened up, more
tigers will be seen. At present only about one-tenth of the land
has been cleared of jungle, and the jungle itself is too big to
permit of driving being done with success, and too dense for
stalking. It is only in jungle of secondary growth that one has
a chance.
Rewards are paid by Government for every dead tiger brought
in to a Police station, and the majority of rewards are paid to
Malays who, more often than not, get their tigers by the setting
of spring guns. I had observed up to about ten years ago that
the greatest number brought in for one year was ninety-six, and
EARLY DAYS IN. MALAYA oF Bea 243
a comparison with India might be made by reckoning the respective
areas of the two countries.
The general opinion among sportsmen in India is that the
Malayan tiger is a smaller animal than his Indian cousin, but I
am convinced this is not the case. I can vouch to shooting one
which measured 9 ft. 8 in. between pegs, and although this was
exceptional, one other measured 9 ft. 3 in. and another 9 ft. O in.
All that I got were well conditioned and massive beasts, and of
the forty or fifty trophies I have seen in India, and the half
dozen or so I have seen killed on the Nilgiris, not one has com-
pared with my big one, and all were much of an average with
the full grown tiger of Malaya. There is one tiger at the Mysore
Zoo which looks as heavy as my biggest, and it may possibly
measure as much or more in length. I saw it from a distance
in the parked enclosure and had not the best means to judge,
but it certainly looked a very big one. The Commissioner of
Police Perak—(Mr. Willes Douglas) who saw my big tiger inter-
ested himself afterwards in obtaining measurements, and some
years later he wrote and told me that the next best taped only
9 ft. 4in. (N.B. This was the Bukit Gantang man-eater referred
to later on.) I may mention that all my big tigers, and the
man-eater above mentioned, were shot in the one district in Perak.
Of those I shot in Johore and Negri Sembilan none measured more
than 8 ft. 8 in.
I have never done any shooting at night, and the majority of
my tigers and panthers have been bagged between 11 a.m. and
6 p.m. I had a few thrilling experiences which I shall record
in detail, and meanwhile will describe the methods I generally
employed and which proved so successful. When a kill was
located no one was permitted to approach nearer than twenty feet
or so. A tree near by was selected, and on this tree a few
planks were lashed together to form a seat. No elaborate machan
was erected, and noise and other disturbances were practically nil.
My five or six men were then told to go off about a quarter of a
mile away. They were to keep together, moving more or less in
a circle and at the same distance from the spot. They were to
talk to one another all the time but were not to make a din, no
shouting and beating of tins being permitted, and it was seldom
IT had to wait long before the tiger turned up to see that his
kill had not been disturbed. The District Officer at Tampin, whose
name I have unfortunately forgotten, mentioned to me that he
had sat up a dozen times for a certain tiger which he had never
even set eyes on, so I told him what I used to do and a few
days after this I had a telegram from him to say he had bagged
his tiger. I must not omit to say that I invariably built the
platform at not fess than twenty feet from the ground. My
reasons for this were not for the sake of safety but because I felt
it would minimise the chance of being detected by the tiger. It
is probable that many a tiger has been lost for lack of this pre-
caution.
My rifle, an H.V. 450-500 by E. M. Reilly, was a wonderfully
accurate and hard hitting weapon, and usually I did not require
244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXViti
to spend more than the one cartridge on a tiger or panther. I
had put in a good deal of target practice and could invariably tell
where my bullet had struck, and my proud boast was that I had
never lost an animal which I had fired at. On one occasion I
had an easy shot at twenty yards at a tiger immediately below
me and I was surprised to see it bound off. I thought I had hit
him right in the middle of the head. I was perfectly certain
he was badly hit so I followed up immediately and came up to
him walking ahead in a very dazed state when a second easy
shot brought him to book. My rifle was not blamed for the slight
error in the first shot as I realized I had taken a dose of quinine
to ward off fever and that this had rather shaken my nerves.
My first tiger was got quite by chance. A friend and I strolled
out one afternoon with our rifles hoping for a shot at a deer or
wild pig, and we had not gone far when we came on to the tracks
of a tiger which had crossed a bit of new road, where in the soft
mud his pug marks showed him to be on the big side. I went
a little way into the scrub to see where he had gone and suddenly
to my horror I saw two full grown monsters facing me not twenty
yards away. One was standing up, but the nearer one was crouch-
ing and looked the more dangerous of the two. There was not
much time for thought, and firing quickly I dropped this one
dead with a bullet through the brain. The other bounded away
to the side with a tremendous roar, and when I turned round I
found my friend in a terrible state of nerves. He had stopped
behind to light his pipe and did not see me lift my rifle to shoot,
and the sudden report and the roar of the tigress upset him very
considerably. I discovered next day that the tigers had killed a
big boar which at the time was behind us. We had evidently
disturbed one and met them as they were both returning.
With the exception of two other exciting incidents which |
shall relate, all my tigers were got by methods already mentioned.
One afternoon a Railway overseer came to tell me that he
had seen a tiger prowling about near his house. He kept some
goats in a shed, and the tiger had approached very near to this,
but it moved away when it saw the man as he ran off to call me. -
IT had one of his goats tied up on the edge of the jungle while
I hid myself in an adjacent clump of sago palms. It was then
about 5 p.m. and, as the tiger had not shewed up at dusk, I decid-
ed not to wait and called up my men. We started homewards
through a rice field, a man with a lantern leading. I followed next
and the man leading the goat came last. All went well for the
first few yards when suddenly the tiger ran out with a roar and
seized the goat. In the confusion that followed both my men
fell and the lantern went out, and the best I could do in the
circumstances was to fire a shot in the air. None of us saw the
tiger and no one was hurt except for one man whose wrist was
bruised by the rope attached to the goat and which was partly
twisted round his wrist. When I went to investigate next morn-
ing I found the goat dead with its back broken, but otherwise
Te a I also came across the tracks of a tigress and two
cubs.
BARLY DAYS IN. MALAYA ae 245
I was living once in a small house close to the jungle and one
morning there was great commotion which I euessed to be a fight
between a tiger and a wild boar. There was no mistaking the
sounds and my servants, very foolishly I thought, ran towards the
spot and surprisingly managed to frighten the tiger away from
the boar which he had just killed. I sent them back at once
and took up a safe position in the leafy branches of a tree—in
this case not more than about six feet from the ground. In five
minutes the tiger was back, but instead of approaching the kill
directly he went off at an angle. Not knowing what his inten-
tions might be I risked a Jong shot and got in a smack behind
the ear. He disappeared down a ravine and for the moment I
thought I had lost him, but when I called out to the servants
I heard him groan only a few yards away, and when we found
him he was dead. He was a small beast, not quite full grown,
and the boar also was on the small side.
A full grown tiger can kill the biggest of Malay buffaloes and
I was curious to know what chance he would have against a bull
bison. The following story provides proof to a certain point only.
The bison killed the tiger, but the latter was rather an emaciated
beast and had a festering wound in its shoulder. I was going
down river once when I met a Japanese photographer coming up
stream with a dead tiger on his boat. He said he had shot it
and he produced a :32 revolver as proof. ‘The wound in the tiger's
side looked as though a small cannon might have been used, and
as the circumstances called for investigation, I prevailed on the
gentleman to return with me to the spot. An inspection of the
sround shewed that there had been a big fight between. the tiger
and a bison; and the bison although he had lost a lot of blood,
apparently lived to fight another day, as‘we did not come up
with him. 7 : :
It must be very seldom that any one has witnessed a fight
between a tiger and a wild boar, but it was my good fortune once
to see such a fight from start to finish. I was being poled up
the river Muar, and just as we were rounding a bend we spied
a big boar crossing a sand spit on his way to drink. My boatmen
quickly allowed the boat to drift into a clump of tall rushes where
we were fairly well concealed, and as 1 was putting my rifle
together I saw the boar suddenly turn round and face the jungle,
and in the next instant a tiger walked out. It is difficult to de-
scribe what happened next—so quick were the movements on the
part of both animals. They both charged and it looked as though
they must meet with great force; but such speed was displayed
in leaps and side steps that the result, in what seemed a second
of time, was that they were facing one another again twenty feet
apart, and the boar still with his back to the river. The same
movements were repeated three or four times but I think the tiger
must have done damage each time as the boar appeared: to be
weakening. The end came when the boar made a rush. With
one movement the tiger side stepped and leapt on its back and
was dragged like this into the jungle, where shortly ‘the dying
gasps of the pig told me that all was over. ‘The sun ‘had gone
246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
down and it was beginning to get dark, but thinking I might get
in a chance shot I ran the boat in and stepped ashore. The tiger
however was on his kill only a few yards inside the jungle, and
the angry snarls he was making told us it would not be safe to
approach any closer. My boatmen were shouting to me to get
back into the boat and it was a great relief to all of us when
we pushed off into mid-stream.
I shall conclude my notes on tigers with the story of the
Bukit Gantang man-eater, but before proceeding to this I must
tell of my one and only mishap in the Malayan jungles. I had
arranged a drive through an area of scrub where it was known
that a tiger used to lie up occasionally. No recent tracks had
been seen, and it was purely speculative whether I would come
across anything bigger than a pig. There were no big trees in
the scrub and I had to take up a position all alone behind a small
ant heap—the beaters knowing exactly where the position would
be. After about half an hour, as they were coming towards me,
I detected what I thought was the stealthy tread of a tiger at
my back, and turning round I saw what I thought was unmistak-
ably a tiger coming at me. I fired, and it was fortunate that
for the first time my rifle did not kill. I had shot a man who
had lost his way in the beat and was making his way back on
all fours through heavy thorny scrub. I was congratulating my-
self on having got another tiger when almost immediately I heard
a cry ‘You have shot me, Sir’. As I have said, the man was
down on all fours and facing me, and the bullet went under his
chin, between his arms, and slightly grazing the stomach, entered
the groin. He was rushed off to hospital and underwent a suc-
cessful operation, but it was nearly a year before he was able to
walk. Mr. Babo, the man in question, was a Malay of good
family, and a thorough sportsman. At one time in hospital he
was thought to be dying, and in the deposition he made he exo-
nerated me from all blame, admitting that it was his own fault
for coming behind me; and when after a year he was well enough
to attend court on a summons to give evidence in the case the
Police brought against me, he made the same statement. He
was one of the last to call to bid me good-bye when I was leaving
the country.
THe MAn-KATER OF BUKIT GANTANG.
I was always told that a tiger takes to killing men only after
it has grown old and is too feeble to catch fleeter and stronger
vame. This particular tiger was a fine beast and by no means
past his prime. Surely a man-eating tigress must bring up her
cubs on human flesh, and would not these cubs grow up to be
man-eaters themselves? Certainly they would. The Bukit
Gantang tiger acquired his delicate taste by accident. A China-
man had two pigs which he kept in his bed-room. One night
the tiger broke in and went off with the bigger one. The man
not wanting to lose the other fenced it in under his bed, but the
fence was a strong one and some nights afterwards the tiger being
EARLY DAYS IN MALAYA 247
unable to break it down, went off with the man. I know this for
a fact, and I also know that about a dozen men were taken in
the next two months. It was due to a careless Chinaman that
this tiger took to man-eating and I recollect how another careless
Chinaman had a narrow escape from the same tiger. Every one
knew about the man-eater and all the railway coolies had gone
home except this one man. I was walking along the railway em-
bankment when I came upon the tiger’s tracks. There had just
been a heavy shower of rain and he had gone by after the rain,
which meant that he was only just ahead of me. Following up
quickly I came on to this solitary old man breaking stone where a
minute or two before the tiger had passed within ten feet or so.
‘To my surprise the old man said he had not seen the tiger, but
after I had gone on some distance he called me back and asked
if I had meant a large yellow animal with black stripes, and if
so he was sure now that he had seen it! I remember one other
escape. A man was carrying a sack of pepper when the tiger
sprang and went off with the sack instead of the man. Mr.
Donaldson, District Officer, Matang, followed up and found the
sack torn to shreds. I understand the man received so great a
shock to his nerves that he would not venture outside his house
for many months afterwards.
One exciting experience I recall very vividly. Early one
morning while I was dressing upstairs I heard what sounded like
a scuffle in a carpenter’s shed near the bungalow, and on going ©
down to see what it was all about, I saw that something very
serious had happened. A bench and a table had been overturned
and there was blood all over the place. My first thought was
that murder had been done, but a tell-tale pug mark in the saw
dust gave the tiger away, and within a few minutes two police men
and I were hot on his tracks. The man had been dragged about
half a mile up a water course, and as we approached we heard
the tiger move away. When we found the body, only a small
part of the thigh had been eaten, and as the tiger made no
attempt to attack us I knew that nothing more could be done.
Having shed man’s blood he was afraid and would not return.
It requires little imagination to realize what a feeling of dread
pervaded the village, where it might be said death lurked behind
every bush. Cattle and goats were penned by four o’clock in
the afternoon, and the Malays and Chinese had to shut them-
selves up in their houses long before it was dark. I never ven-
tured out without my rifle, and took good care not to get too near
the jungle. It was a strange thing that this tiger frequently gave
vocal notice of his intended visit to the village. He would call
from about a mile away and repeat this at intervals till he got
quite near, when there was a silence which was really ominous and
oppressive. Excitement was intense as it was not known _ near
which house the dread monster was looking for his next meal; and
I imagine there must have been many sleepless nights in houses so
flimsy of structure that one blow of the paw could have smashed
inthe thin plank walls. Some people were no doubt late in
shutting up for the night, while gangs of coolies used to turn out
248. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
to. xe) ‘to their work in the early hours of the morning almost
ene it was leht, and the wonder to me is that the: number,
taken was so few.
I was due for home leave and my passage had been booked
for a date not far ahead, and it can be imagined how keen I was
to get him before I left, and what trouble I went to in the
matter, and vet success did not come to me. I had learnt fairly
accur ately the line he would take on his w ay down from the hills
to the village, and I actually saw him twice without being able
to. get in a shot, and I had to leave with the feeling that rhe
could have possibly delayed my departure for a few days I should
have brought him to book. He was killed very shortly after-
wards by my own shikari who admitted to having set a spring
gun on the tracks he had learnt when on his expeditions with me.
The setting of a spring gun is an offence liable to severe punish-
ment but in this case, not only was the man let off, but he was
given the reward which had been raised to two hundred dollars.
The tiger was a male in splendid condition, and, as I have stated,
measured 9 ft. 4 in.
PANTHER (Malay: liimau kumbang).
It is recognized that the spotted panther and the black panther
are one and the same beast, the colouring of the latter being due to
melanism. This being so it is strange that all panthers in Malaya
are black. Certainly all that I have seen, whether in Perak in the
north or Johore in the south, have been black ones. They are not
easy to get, and I do not think any one else shot as many as the
five that I did. They do not frequent the neighbourhood of towns
and villages as in the case in India, and it is more commonly the
tiger that does this in search of goats and dogs, which are quite
a favourite food of his. I know that in India it is usually the
panther which accounts for dogs, and that tigers are very rarely
to blame, but in Malaya many a good dog has been taken by
tiger. I have many proofs of this; and in one planting district
where in a radius of ten miles quite a number of dogs had been
lost, none were taken after a tiger had been shot over a dog as
bait. A> husband and wife (Mr. and Mrs. Fenner) had their fox
terrier snatched from almost under their feet by a big tiger. The
Malay panther is a small animal, seldom measuring more than
6 ft. 6 in. Having shot so few I can recall all five incidents and
in only one of these did I have exciting sport. I was using a
theodolite on a hill top overlooking an extensive rice field when
I happened to spot two animals crossing from big jungle to a
small patch of scrub in the field, and bringing the telescope to
bear on them I saw they were panthers. <A large gang of men
quickly surrounded the patch and we then commenced a drive.
One broke very soon at full speed into the open, and I was able
to bowl him over with one shot. We did not see the other and
1 am still at a loss to know how it escaped. The patch of scrub
was quite small, and although we combed it pretty thoroughly
the beast did not come out.
EARLY DAYS IN MALAYA 24)
Winp Doe (Malay: Angin hutan).
do not think that any of the Malays in the four districts I
lived in were aware that wild dogs existed in their country. On
the other hand it may be common in districts I do not know. I
came across one only in the Larut district in Perak, and this one
I shot and presented to the museum. There was already one
specimen in the museum which I know to be the wild dog of
India, but the one I shot was smaller, not so red, and without
the black points. The difference in colour, size, and marking was
perhaps due to the fact that it was not fully grown. A Malay
found one of his goats one morning killed and partly eaten by
what he described as some mysterious animal. There were several
bites on the side and the entrails of the goat had been torn out,
and further, no attempt had been made to drag it into the jungle.
It was left Just where it had been killed, in a patch of grass land.
The Malay suggested either a tiger or a panther cub, but to me it
looked more like the action of a wolf or a wild dog, and thinking
that neither of these animals existed in the country I was com.
pletely nonplussed and all the more determined to know what. it
was. The kill had been made some time between nine and ten
o'clock in the morning, and as I had no pressing work on hand
I prepared to wait till nightfall if necessary. At two o'clock in
the afternoon the dog came out, and when I saw there were no
more to follow I shot him just as he commenced to feed.
EverHant (Malay: Gajah).
Elephants roam all over the peninsula and are common as far
south as Johore. Unhke the elephant of Ceylon the male has
tusks of fair size, and the tusks of one monster which charged
and derailed a ballast train in Perak and was himself killed in
the encounter, are certainly very big. They are in the museum in
Taiping and [ think are not far short of the measurements of
the tusks secured by Major Gillespie five or six years ago in the
Bilhgirirangan hills of Mysore.
With this exception, IT have not seen any measuring more than
40 in., but since only a small fraction of the jungle has vet been
cleared, the probabilities are that large herds have not been seen
and that these herds contain specimens worth looking for.
T have mentioned that I had no desire to shoot an elephant,
but I was much tempted to do so once when, at ten o'clock one
morning, one of my assistants and I saw a big tusker walking
through a field of rubber. The mere fact that he had tramped
over half a mile of an area of young plants seemed sufficient justi-
fication for his being shot, as we felt that considerable damage
must have been done, and snatching up our rifles we were soon
in hot pursuit. Following up _ his tracks we were surprised to
find that not even one plant had been crushed, but notwithstand-
ing this our excitement carried us on, and presently we cornered
him at a bend of a river which was in full flood. He saw us,
but did not seem a bit concerned and, as the desire to kill had
passed, I decided to turn round ad make for home. We had
950. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYIII
actually gone back some distance when my friend J. B. thought
it as well to have a pot at him to frighten him off, and he went
back for this purpose. Presently I heard a shot and this was
followed immediately by the sight of the young man with the
elephant in close pursuit. They were in a patch of tall grass
when J. B. suddenly disappeared and the elephant trotted over
the spot where I had last sighted him. Luckily J. B. had fallen
into a trench which the elephant stepped over, and he is still
alive to tell the story, which is seldom believed! Small blame to
the listeners, but J. B. is a truthful man and so am I. It appears
that the elephant had charged before the shot was fired, and the
probability is that the bullet went wide.
My Malay shikari told me that herds moved from one feeding
ground to another at more or less regular monthly intervals, but
not only was he not able to prove this but he shewed himself
to be entirely wrong. For regularity in his habits however, I have
not known any animal to beat a certain solitary bull whose return
to the same spot every month was expected within a day or two.
The villagers were always ready to receive him with crackers,
and although he was frightened away each time, back again he
came next month to meet with the same reception. He carried
out this programme for many months, and perhaps for many
years. It would have been an easy matter to kill him but I did
not try, nor did I let on about his habits to others who might
have been keen. J examined the spot on two occasions on the
morning after the appointed day, and true enough I saw his tracks.
I saw him two or three times at various other spots and had begun
to look on him as an old friend. He did no damage on my pro-
perty and never molested the coolies, but on one occasion he
annoyed me very much when he walked along a new road trace
and pulled up all the centre line pegs which I had put in at a
sood deal of personal trouble.
A Railway surveyor who had set out five miles of line woke
up one morning to find all the important pegs gone. Pegs were put
in at every chain, and at every tenth chain was a larger peg on
which the true centre had been marked, and it was these pegs
only which had been torn out and flung aside. The ordinary chain
pegs were painted black, while the tenth peg was a white one.
My Chinese coolies who had evidently not previously seen an
elephant did reverence to this one. When visiting their lines one
morning T found the whole gang with their heads bowed to the
eround and they told me that God had just gone by. The elephant
had passed quite close to them and the tracks shewed that he
had moved by quite slowly.
RHINOCEROS.
In all my thirty years in Malaya I knew of only two rhino-
ceros being killed. The one-horned rhinoceros (R. sondaicus) is
very rare in that country and I believe that only three specimens
have been obtained. One of these was shot by the late Mr. H. C.
Barnard, in whose house in Taiping I saw the foot which he had
EARLY DAYS IN MALAYA 251
mounted as an umbrella stand, and I recollect his telling me at
the time (1901 or 1902) what a rare animal it was, and what
difficulty he had in getting it. The two-horned animal (f. swma-
trensis) is more common but I did not see any. In recent years
one of these was shot by the Sultan of Johore, and, I was told,
about that time, that another had been killed by an assistant on
a rubber estate who got into trouble about it. H. H. The Sultan
is very jealous as regards the protection of animals in his own
jungles, and great credit is due to him for instituting game laws
in his State, even before development of the country had begun.
No enactments were passed and no leenses are issued, shooting
being permitted only on permit signed by the Sultan himself, His
example was slow to be followed in the four Federated States, but
the appointment of a Game Warden was made about twelve years
ago, and during the current year (1935) two thousand square miles
of jungle have “been defined ‘as a eame sanctuary.
Tor Gaur (Malay: Seladang).
In Malaya, the Gaur or Indian bison goes by the name
Seladang. It is the same beast and quite as big.
IT shot two, both solitary bulls and both good specimens, but
neither approaching the record.
Among Europeans, T. R. Hubback has shot more bison and
elephant than any one else, and satiety being reached, he is
probably the best man for the job of Game Warden which he now
fills with much ability.
IT had been some years in those parts before I was stationed
in bison country, and it was a year or two after this that I was
able to select my first. The game was new to me and I was
much surprised to learn from men who had shot a number, that
bison was the easiest to obtain of all the big beasts of the jungle,
and I discovered that this was quite true if one wanted to shoot
by the methods recommended. They come out to feed at night
in grass country and it is quite an easy matter to intercept them
in the morning on their way back to the jungle. This method
did not appeal “to me, and I am afraid T annoved my tracker verv
much when, on the two occasions he had taken me out, I allowed
some fine bulls to pass within sixty vards or so. I preferred to
try stalking. With the promise of a reward as compensation for
his two disappointments, my man did his best and shortly put
me on to the tracks of a big solitary bull which had finished feed-
ing and had moved off into the jungle. This was really exciting,
and I pride myself that I managed to get the beast. The bison
had been given time to enter the jungle before we arrived at the
feeding ground and, as it had rained overnight, we were able to
tell that he was not more than a quarter of an hour ahead. He
had moved into jungle which almost baffles description, so inter-
twined was it with thorny creepers, that our only means of pro-
gress was along the tunnelled passage the bison had made.
I knew that it was a belt of only a few yards width and that
we should presently come into more open scrub; but I also knew
252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
that although the going would be easier tracking might be more
difficult for the reason that the bison might still be feeding and
was likely to meander and so face us at any time. It took us
about ten minutes to negotiate the narrow twenty yard belt, and,
before we emerged, we carefully prospected the land ahead. It
must not be imagined that the view was an extensive one, since
although at the start we could see only three yards, we could
now spot our beast up to perhaps twenty yards but certainly no
further.
My Malay was down on his hands and knees. I was a yard
behind moving one step at a time. While shaking like a leaf,
T could not help thinking that I was a fool to take the risk. I
prayed for a broadside shot, or a shot as he was moving off; but
I dreaded facing him. While pondering these thoughts, I saw
my man lie flat and point to something on. the left. I
could distinguish nothing, but presently knew that it was sound
and not sight that raised the accusing finger, and that the noise
was of the great beast chewing the cud. My man, I noticed,
turned his head to the right, and instinct told me he was looking
for a safe tree or log behind which to hide, and the probability is
that the movement was noticed by the bison, as in the next
instant he jumped up with a snort and stood directly facing me.
Another second and he might have turned round and bolted,
or he might have charged and reached me, but within the second
I fired and my bullet, which entered the throat just above the
dewlap, caused him to crumple up only a yard nearer to me.
My second shot was fired while he was struggling on the ground,
and before he had made his last kick my Malay was cutting his
throat. I must admit that all the time we were following up
my nerves were on edge, but I seemed to be perfectly steady
the moment I saw the bison. While tracking, I thought of my own
personal danger only. but seeing the Malay had ‘not flinched I
felt he had shewn a hundred times more pluck than I had. His
only weapon was a long jungle knife. In this hunt we had
covered less than half a mile and it had taken us a full hour to
do it. The distance paced between the dead bull and the spot
where I was standing measured less than forty feet.
There is only one case on record in Malaya of a European
having been killed by a bison. This was Capt. Syers, the Com-
missioner of Police. He had wounded a bison with his big bore,
black powder rifle, and his second barrel was not sufficient to
stop the beast when it charged. The bison’s head is on view in
the Selangor club, Kuala Lumpur.
Serow (Malay: Kambin grun).
On certain limestone hills in Perak and Selangor there exists
a type of wild goat, which although it mav be fairly common, is
very rarely seen. It happened that my first station was not far
from one of these hills. and I was told that these goats were to
be found there. The Malays call it the Kambin grun and it has
been identified as the “Serow’. I was also told that only one
had been shot, and that Sir Frank Swettenham was the sports-
EARLY DAYS IN MALAYA ~— 253
man who got it. The hill that I speak of (Gunong Pondok) was
of peculiar formation, rising as it did almost sheer from flat padi
land to a height of over a thousand feet. There was next to no
foothold on its steep sides, and I admit to defeat at my one and
only attempt to gain the top.
I was anxious to see one of these animals, and, as my attempt
to climb had failed, I looked to see what a telescope could do,
and one day I actually did see one and one only. I saw it moving
about for quite a long while, but it was more than half a mile
away.
SAMBHAR (Malay: Pusa).
The biggest of stags carries no trophy worth keeping. I had
to shoot a fair number because of the damage they did to young
rubber, and not one of these carried antlers measuring more than
twenty-seven inches.
Witp Pie (Malay: Babi hutan).
I have had very few opportunities of reading the Society’s
Journal and have not read anything about the wild pig, but I
quite realize that much must have been already written about it,
and that any new notes are likely to be put aside as being on &
subject too common to be of interest. I have reasons, however,
to write at some length about this because I have not been able
to identify the particular ‘Sus’ which has interested me. The
common wild boar of India (Sus cristatus) is found all through
Malaya, but there is another species which I have seen only twice.
Its colour, shape, and habits are all distinct. Comparisons which
I may possibly make very crudely will none the less be descriptive,
and I enumerate these as follows:
1, The common Indian Wild Boar is of massive build, is
black in colour, and is high at the shoulder. The other pig is
smaller, and lhghtish brown in colour. It has a longer snout and
the rise at the shoulder is not so pronounced.
2. The common pig moves about in small herds. On the
two occasions I saw the second species they passed through the —
rubber estate in a herd over one hundred strong. |
8. The common pig usually feeds at night. The others came
out once at eleven o’clock in the morning, and on the second
occasion at two in the afternoon.
4. The common pig seldom did damage on an estate, con-
tenting itself with feeding on rubber seed which had fallen to the
ground. The two herds mentioned did considerable damage to
the roots of the trees in the short time they took to pass through
the estate. |
5. The common pig is very seldom killed owing to its cun-
ning and nocturnal habits, and it must be very seldom indeed that
it is killed by coolies who don’t possess firearms.
On the occasions I speak of, Tamil coolies belonging to the
estate were able to despatch with knives and sticks, about four
or five in the first instance, and no less than eight the second
954 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
time. Both herds were seen on the same rubber estate at a
small place called Genuang, in Johore, and if I remember rightly,
the first time was in 1911 and the second time in 19138.
Unfortunately, because of my lack of interest in Natural His-
tory at that time, I did not record details of a specimen which I
felt then was out of the common. The species has since been
identified as Sus barbatus. It was first recorded from Pahang in
1918 and reported on again, also in Pahang, in 1921. A note on
the species was published in the Bulletin of the Raffles Musewm
(No. 5, August 1931), subsequent to which several specimens were
obtained in Johore. I have mentioned that it is only in recent
vears that Sus barbatus has been seen in Malaya, and that its
habits are very different to those of the common pig ‘cristatus’.
I have just received a letter from a friend in Johore to whom
T had sent copy of my notes, and what he writes is so interesting,
that I feel IT must pass on the information to your Journal.
My friend, Mr. Miller Mackay, who lives in Johore, has to
make occasional visits to a rubber estate on the island of Kapala
Djering in the Rhio Archipelago, and he tells me that about once
in a year large herds of pig attack and do considerable damage
to his rubber trees.
The common pig lives on the island but does no damage and
it is only occasionally that the other pig is responsible: The
island is a small one, and, while the common pig is frequently
met with, the other one is never seen except for its periodical ex-
cursions on to the estate, and the conclusion is that it does not
live there but must swim across from neighbouring islands. Myr.
Mackay tells me that his Javanese coolies state they have actually
seen herds swim over at nights. The nearest island is fully a
mile away.
YROCODILE (Malay: Buaya).
Crocodiles are found in all the rivers and creeks on the west
coast of the peninsula, and it is surprising what httle alarm it
causes the people. I have seen men bathing on one side of the
river in full view of a monster croc basking on the opposite
bank, while one sees boys under seven and eight years of age
manoeuvring tiny shallow boats across a river infested with crocs.
It is unusual for a crocodile to take to man-eating in the
sense that a tiger does. I know of two, only one of which
was a real man-eater. It was at a place called Buloh Kasap in
the State of Johore. When I was living there I frequently had
reports from Chinese shopkeepers and vegetable- erowers that they
had lost dogs and poultry which had strayed too near the water's
edee. I did my best for them, but this beast was more cunning
than several others I had shot further down stream.
He was never seen on the near side, and the far side which
bordered the jungle was out of range. T got him eventually, and
when he was cut up we found two ‘dog- pollens and a silver bangle,
very bent and broken. A crowd had gathered round to watch
the operation, and when the bangle came to light an old man
burst into tears and said it was his little girl’s bangle, and that
HARLY DAYS IN MALAYA 255
she had been missing from the house since the previous morning.
I had no proof that this particular crocodile had killed other people,
and possibly the little girl was his first and only victim. Some years
afterwards the District Officer (Mr. Wilson) told me that another
crocodile, also at Buloh Kasap, had taken six or seven men, and
was still at large at the time he spoke to me.
I shot my beast in 1905 and I think it was in 1918 that I met
Mr. Wilson. I managed to shoot quite a number but none of
them were very big. The largest measured about twelve feet,
the biggest stuffed crocodile in the Raffles Museum, Singapore,
measures 144 ft. Its skull is 22 in. long. The Director of the
Museum who very kindly gava me this information says that ‘the
largest crocodile skull (C. porosus) in the museum measures 26 in.’
He adds that ‘there is a well authenticated record of a crocodile
(C. porosus) collected in 1820 in Luzon which had a skull measur-
ing 843 in. The animal was 29 ft. long and 11 ft. in girth round
the forelimbs.’ In the same museum can be seen a crocodile
with not a tooth in its head. It was shot by Mr. G. P. Owen on
Singapore Island.
SNAKES.
There is a great variety of snakes in Malaya but only a few
of these are poisonous. The cobra, a black variety, is quite com-
mon. I have killed at least twenty myself and have seen many
more killed by others. The banded krait is not common, but I
have shot three or four while out snipe shooting. The hamadryad
is not often seen but the Malays in North Johore told me it was
quite common in the Segamat district. TI shot three and saw four
or five others. These notes point to it that the country is not
lacking in poisonous snakes, and vet it is a fact that deaths from
snake-bite are rare. Thousands of people in India die of snake-
bite every year, and in the thirty years I spent in Malaya I did
not hear of even one case of a person being killed. It is recog-
nized that the density of the population is nothing like what it is
in India, but if it can be ascertained that persons have been bitten
and that none have died, the theory must be advanced that the
poison of the snakes there is less virulent. JI once saw an Airedale
dog recover after being struck on the ear by a big cobra. Nothing
was done to the dog beyond washing the wound with a solution
of carbolic acid. The cobra is of the black variety only, and has
no marking on the hood—either monocellate or binocellate.
The brown cobra, the common colour form in India, I have
never seen there. The Malay cobra seldom measures more than
four feet. One often comes across them on rubber estates, and
a few have been killed in houses, chiefly in the bath-room if this
happens to be on the ground floor. Jt is very seldom indeed that
snakes of any description are seen in the towns. IT have mentioned
that I have seen as many as seven or eight hamadryads. It was
not always that I had a tapd handy to make measurements, but
to the best of my knowwledge, with one exception, none measured
as much as thirteen feet. The exception is a very big one which
was killed by a member of my staff, Mr. Stuart Mackay, who
256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
presented the skin to the Batu Anam Club. This specimen was
of a darker colour than the others I had seen, but it was not
black. It was about seventeen feet long, a few inches more or
less, and as this is perhaps a record and a matter of interest, 1
have written for particulars to a doctor friend of mine still in
that district.
Ninenty-nine per cent of the Europeans you meet in Malaya
will tell you that the hamadryad will always attack a man
whether it is provoked or not. My experience has taught me
that this is not so. Like all other snakes, the hamadryad_ in-
variably tries to get out of Man’s way; but like the cobra and
certain other snakes, it will fight if cornered or to protect its
young. It is a fast moving snake and if it was really out to
kill, few men would escape. On two occasions I saw a hama-
dryad in an anery mood. Once while motoring along a straight
bit of road I ran -over the tail of one, and pulling up to see
what might happen I saw the brute in the middle of the road
with head raised and facing me. I had no gun and feeling sure
he was about to make for me I moved off quickly. }
On another occasion as one of my assistants was walking
towards me in a new clearing I saw him turn round suddenly
and run off as fast as he could and presently I spotted a big
snake going after him.
Johnstone was a fair runner and he did not stop till he had
done a good quarter mile. He was going in the direction of his
house where I knew he kept a gun, and as I could not assist at
the moment I remained where I was and soon had the satis-
faction of seeing the snake return and climb into the hollow of
a big tree stump. Johnstone returned shortly, fortified as he
told me with a ‘B and S’ and with his gun. A lump of mud
thrown at the tree brought out the snake which was shot. It
was about ten feet long, and when we investigated the nest we
found eight youngsters some just hatched and some about to
hatch, and these we quickly despatched. The youngsters were
all black, but the mother was the colour of the cobra of India.
All the big hamadryads I have seen were of this light brown
colour, but there is a plaster cast in the Singapore museum show-
ine the snake as jet black, and ] have wondered whether there
are both black and brown adults among these snakes. I am afraid
I was not of an enquiring turn of mind at that time.
Another poisonous snake is a little beast measuring not more
than twelve to fifteen inches. I say it is poisonous because the
Malays told me so, and because they seemed to dread it more
than they did the cobra. It has a habit of lying across a path
and of not being disturbed by. approaching foot-steps and for this
reason is more frequently stepped: on by bare feet than other
snakes. In colour it is a shiny’ black, and has a red blob looking
like sealing wax on its flat head. I did not see more than three
or four of these snakes, and I do not think it’ is common: :
The writing of these notes has helped me to recall many
incidents almost forgotten, and they bring back memories of a
happy past in a new country and among people which one grew
EARLY DAYS IN MALAYA QF
to like, but while the work entailed has given me a great deal of
interest and pleasure, I fear that this article will not be looked
on in the same way by readers of the Journal, and I pass on all
blame for faults to be found, or for inabilities to make the matter
instructive from the Natural History reader’s point of view, to
the gentleman who induced and prevailed on my doing this.
IT have written as a novice, and as such would beg indulgence.
P.S.—Since completing the article, my friend Dr. Hickey of
Batu Anam has written as regards’ the skin of the hamadryad
mentioned in these notes. He tells me that it measures 16 ft.
4 in. I know that the skin of a tiger measures more than the
tiger itself does between pegs, but whether this occurs where a
snake is concerned, I am not informed. The skin has Oey
shrunk, or perhaps a piece of the tail has come away.
SOME BUTTERFLIES OF NEPAL.
BY
Mason W. G. H. Govan.
(2nd K.E.O. Gurkha Rifles).
It has often been stated, both in this Journal and elsewhere,
that a list of the butterflies of Nepal would be welcomed. As
far as I have been able to ascertain no such list has ever been
made before.
The present list does not pretend to be an exhaustive one;
in fact it is impossible for it to be so for several reasons. It is,
however, strictly accurate and I am much indebted to the late
Mr. O. GC, Ollenbach, r.u.s., for his kind assistance in checking
through the lists for me. Any species about which doubt exists
have been excluded, except where specifically mentioned.
The length of the list is also limited by the fact that I only
had three months in Nepal: had I been there longer no doubt
more species would have been obtained. During this time I had
practically to rely on what I saw or .caught myself, but I also
had the opportunity of examining the collection of Mr. R. G.
Kalburne, the Civil Engineer to the Nepal Government, which
provided several examples of butterflies which appeared at other
seasons of the year. me
It is, however, possible that this list, although short, may
serve as a foundation on which a complete list of the butterflies
of Nepal may eventually be built up. The country forms the
true meeting-point of the Palaearctic and Oriental types of butter-
flies, and as such is of considerable interest. The area in
which collecting is possible is, however, very limited. Broadly
speaking it consists of the road into the Valley of Nepal and
the environs of the valley itself. The altitudes at which butter-
flies are obtainable therefore vary at present from 500 ft. to
7,000 ft. Anything beyond this range or outside this area is
closed to the European and is likely to remain so.
One point requires to be mentioned. In the lists given below
IT have endeavoured to stick strictly to what I know to be facts.
If, therefore, I state that a butterfly appears at a certain season
or elevation it is not to be assumed that it does not appear at
other seasons or elevations: I am only stating what I know to
be actually the case.
PAPILIONIDAB.
1. Troides aeacus Id.
Flies in September at about 3,500 ft. It is said to be found commonly
in the Nepal Valley in the spring, particularly on the Ticona flower.
2. Byasa aristolochiae aristolochiae F.
Flies in September and October at about 4,500 ft., but does not appear
to be common. The female var. diphilus also occurs.
. SOME BUTTERFLIES OF NEPAL 259
an Byasa philoxenus philoxenus Gray. ah
Flies from July to September at about 5,000 ft. to 7,000 ft. During this
period if is very common.
4. Byasa philoxenus polyeuctes Db.
Found with B. philovenus. philocenus. Nepal appears to be their true
meeting-place.
5. Papilio memnon agenor L.
Flies in August and September in the Nepal Valley, but is not common.
The female var. alcanor also occurs.
6. Papilio protenor euprotenor Frub.
Very common in September and October at about 4,500 ft.
7. Papilio polyctor ganesa M.
Flies from July to October from 38,000 ft. to 5,000 ft. Common along
the bottom of hills and in nalas.
8. Papilio helenus helenus L.
Common in September and October at about 4,500 ft.
9. Papilio polytes romulus Cr. |
Exceedingly common from August to October at about 4,500 ft. Of the
three forms of female, that resembling the male and that resembling es
aristolochiae are both very common. Only one specimen of the female -re-
sembling B. hector was seen in the Nepal Valley, in October.
10. Papilio demoleus demoleus L.
Flies from July to October from 500 ft. to 4,500 ft. Very common, parti-
cularly in -September and October.
11. Zetides cloanthus Wd.
Flies from July to September from 4,000 ft. to 6,000 ft. Not common.
12. Zetides Sarpedon sarpedon L.
Fhes from July to October from 4,000 ft. to 6,000 ft. Common, parti-
sularly in September and October.
13. Zetides agamemnon agamemnon L.
Fairly common from August to October at about 4,500 ft.
PIERIDAE.
14. Pieris canidia indica Evans. oe
Flies from August to October at about 4,500. ft. Very common during
September and October, during which time those on the wing appear to
consist almost entirely of females.
15. Aporia agathon agathon Gray.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection.
16. Delias singhapura agostina Hew. ee a
Flies in the Nepal Valley during September and October. Not common,
and. very difficult to take owing to. its habit of flying round ube Laps. of tall
trees.
17. Delias eucharis Drury.
Only one specimen seen, in the Nepal Valley, at the end of October.
18. Delias belladonna ithiela But. .:
Not rare in September and October at 4,000 ft. to 6,000 ft.
19. Delias descombesi leucacantha Fruh. —- : rx
Two specimens in Mr. Kilburne’s collection. It was noticeable that in
these specimens the black markings underneath were considerably | paler -than
in specimens from Assam. Probably flles in the spring.
20. Delias aglaia LL.
Not rare at 4,500 ft; in September and October.
260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXViti
21. Delia; taysy2 pyramus Wall.
_ Fhes from August to October from 4,000 ft. to 6,000 ft. Very conimou
in October. |
22. Catopsilia crocale Cr.
One specimen taken at 3,500 ft. in October.
23. Catopsilia pomona IF.
Uncommon in September and October at about 4,000 ft.
24. Catopsilia pyranthe minna Herbst.
Fhes from July to October from 500 ft. to 4,000 ft. Not many seen but
probably common at the lower elevations.
25. Catopsilia florella gnoma TI’,
Uncommon in October at about 4,000 ft.
26. Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis Db.
Common from July to October from 4,000 ft. to 6,000 ft.
27. Gonepteryx aspasia zaneka M.
Fhes in August at about 7,000 ft. Apparently rare.
28. Terias venata venata M.
Only one specimen seen at 3,500 ft. at the end of August.
29. Terias laeta Bdv.
One specimen taken at 4,500 ft. in October.
30. Terias blanda silhetana Wall.
Common from August to October at about 4,500 ft.
31. Terias hecabe fimbriata Wall.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection.
32. Terias hecabe hecabe L.
Fairly common from August to October at about 4,500 ft. The . wet
season form prevails until about the first week in September.
33. Terias lacteola sarinoides i'r.
A specimen taken in the Nepal Valley in October. Mr. Ollenbach remarks
that he does not know the name. He thinks it is nearest sari rotundalis,
but the brown patch at apex reaches both margins.
34. Colias hyale hyale L.
Flies in September and October from about 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft. The
female var. pallida also occurs. Not common, but is probably plentiful in
the spring.
35. Colias croceus edusina But.
Not common from August to October at 7,000 ft.
36. Ixias marianne.
Very common at 1,000 ft. in November.
37. I\xias pyrene satadra.
Very common at 1,000 ft. in November.
38. Hebomoia glaucippe glauclppe LL.
Fairly common in the Nepal Valley during the latter half of September
and in October.
DANAIDAE.
39. Danais aglea melanoides M.
Exceedingly common at about 4,500 ff. in September and October.
40. Danais melissa septentrionis But.
Fairly common from August to October at about 4,000 ft.
41. Danais plexippus lL.
Common from July to October from 500 ft. to 4,500 ft.
42. Danais chrysippus IL.
Very common from July to October from 500 ft. to 4,500 ft.
SOME BUTTERFLIES OF NEPAL 261
He Euploea mulciber mulciber Cr.
Common from August to October at about 4,500 ft.
44. Euploea core core Cr.
Very common from July to October from 500 ft. to 4,500 ft.
45. Euploea core vermiculata But.
One specimen taken in September at 3,500 ft. Probably common enough
in the winter.
SATYRIDAE.
46. Mycalesis mineus mineus L.
Not common at 4,500 ft. in September and October.
47. Mycalesis lepcha lepcha M.
Fhes in the Nepal Valley in October. Rare.
48. Lethe sidonis vaivarta Doh.
Fhes in the Nepal Valley in October. Rare.
49. Lethe rohria dyrta Hd.
Flies in the Nepal Valley in October. Rare.
50. Lethe confusa confusa Aur.
Common at 4,500 ft. in October.
51. Lethe verma sintica Fruh.
Flies in August at about 7,000 ft. Rare.
52. Lethe insana dinarbas Hew.
Fles in August at about 7,000 ft. Rare.
58. Orinoma damaris Gray.
Rare at about 5,000 ft. in October.
54. Aulocera saraswati Koll.
Common in August and September at about 5,500 ft.
55. Erebia scanda Koll.
Very common in August and September at about 6,500 ft.
56. Erebia annada coeca Watkins.
A specimen in Mr. Kuilburne’s collection.
57. Erebia hyagriva M.
Very rare in September at about 6,000 ft.
58. Ypthima lycus lycus de N.
Flies in August and September at about 6,500 ft. Common in August.
59. Ypthima nareda newara M.
Flies in September at 4,500 ft.
60. Ypthima hubneri hubneri Kirby.
Fhes in the Terai in August.
61. Ypthima avanta avanta M.
Rare at 4,500 ft. in August.
62. Ypthima sakra nikoea M.
Flies in August and September at about 6,500 ft.
63. Ypthima sakra sakra M.
Fles from August to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft. Common in
August.
64. Ypthima sakra austeni M.
Rare in August at 7,000 ft. Probably the westernmost limit of its range.
65. Orsotrioena medus medus FI.
Fairly common in thick jungle at about 4,500 ft. in September and October.
66. Melanitis leda ismene Cr.
Very common from August to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft. The
wet-season form prevails until about the middle of September.
3
962. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXViti
67. Elymnias malelas malelas Hew.
Flies at 4,500 ft. in September and October. Common in October.
NYMPHALIDAE.
68. Sephisa chandra M.
Not rare at about 5,000 ft. in October.
69. Euripus consimilis consimilis Wd.
One specimen taken at 1,000 ft. in August. It is heavily marked with
black and is the same as consimilis meridionalis from South India.
70. Diagora persimilis persimilis Wd.
Very rare at 4,500 ft. in September.
71. Hestina nama Db.
Very common from August to October at about 6,500 ft.
72. Stibochiona nicea nicea Gray.
Flies in September at about 5,000 ft.
73. Euthalia lepidea lepidea But. iy
Flies from August to November. Fairly common in the Terai in the latter
month.
74. Euthalia sahadeva sahadeva M.
Not rare from August to October from 4,500 ft. 7,000 ft.
75. Limenitis dudu Wd.
Flies in October at about 5,000 ft.
76. Limenitis procris procris Cr.
Flies in July and August at about 3,000 ft.
77. Pantoporia cama M.
Flies in October at about 4,500 ft.
78. Pantoporia opalina opalina Koll.
Flies in October at about 4,500 ft.
79. Pantoporia opalina orientalis El. ’
Flies from August to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
80. Pantoporia perius L. : .
Fairly common from August to October from 3,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
81. Neptis hylas varmona M.
Not common at 4,500 ft. in October.
82. Neptis hylas astola M.
Very common from August to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
83. Neptis hylas adara M.
Fairly common in September and October at 4,500 ft.
84. Neptis soma soma M.
Not rare in October at 4,500 ft.
85. Cyrestis thyodamas ganescha Koll.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection.
86. Hypolimnas misippus LL.
Fhes in September at 4,500 ft. Only males were seen.
87. Hypolimnas bolina L.
Very common from July to October from 1,000 ft. to 7,000 ft.
88. Kallima inachus huegeli Koll.
Flies in October at 4,500 ft.
89. Kallima inachus inachus Bdv.
Fhles in August.
90. Precis hierta hierta F.
Flies in July at about 6,000 ft.
SOME BUTTERFLIES OF NEPAL 963
91. Precis hierta magna Evans.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection which I take to be this, but
there is so little difference between this and hierta hierta that it 1s diffi-
cult to tell with certainty.
92. Precis orithya swinhoei But.
Common from July to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
93. Precis orithya ocyale Hub.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection. Again, the difference between
this and swinhoei is so slight that it is difficult to be certain.
94. Precis lemonias persicaria I’ruh.
Flies at 3,500 ft. from August to October.
95. Precis almana almana L.
Flies from August to October at 4,500 ft. The wet-season form prevails
until September.
96. Precis atlites L.
Very common at 4,500 ft. in October.
97. Precis iphita siccata Stich.
Flies from August to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
98. Precis iphita iphita Cr.
Fhes from August to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft. I have included
both the above, but once again there is so little difference between the two
that it is .difficult to be certain. The species is very common.
99. Vanessa cardui L.
Fles from August to October at 7,000 ft. For some reason it does not
appear to be common.
100. Vanessa indica indica Herbst.
Very common from July to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
101. Vanessa canace canace L.
Common from August to October at 7,000 ft.
102. Vanessa cashmirensis. aesis Fruh.
Flies from July to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft. Very common in
August and September.
103. Symbrenthia hippoclus khasiana M.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection.
104. Symbrenthia hypselis cotanda M.
Flies in August and September from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
105. Argynnis hyperbius hyperbius L.
Common from August to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
106. Argynnis childreni childreni Gray.
Flies in October at about 6,000 ft.
107. Argynnis lathonia isSoea Db.
Flies in October at 7,000 ft.
108. Cupha erymanthis lotis Sulz.
Flies in September at 4,500 ft.
109. Atella phalanta Drury.
Flies from August to October from 4,000 ft. to 6,000 ft. Common in the
Nepal Valley in September.
110. Issoria sinha sinha Koll.
Flies from July to October from 500 ft. to 4,000 ft.
111. Cethosia biblis tisamena [ruh.
Very common at 4,500 ft. in September and October.
412. Ergolis ariadne pallidior Fruh.
Flies in October at 3,500 ft.
264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXYVilI
113. Pareba vesta vesta Ff.
hes in August and September at 7,000 ft.
ERYCINIDAE.
114. Libythea Jepita lepita M.
Flies in October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
115. Libythea myrriia sanguinalis § Fruh.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection.
116. Zemeros flegyas indicus Fruh.
Common from August to October from 5,000 ft. to 7,000 ft.
117. Dodona durga Koll.
Fhes in October at 7,000 ft.
118. Dodena dipoea nostia Fruh.
Fhes in October at 7,000 ft.
119. Dodona eugenes eugenes Bates.
hes from August to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
120. Dodona eugenes venox Fruh.
Fhes from August to October at 7,000 ft.
121. Dodona egeon Db.
Plies in October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
122. Dodona ouida ouida M.
Flies in August at 7,000 ft.
123. Dodona adonira adonira Hew.
Fhes from August to November from 5,000 ft. to 7,000 ft.
124. Abisara fylla Db.
Flies in October at about 6,000 ft.
LYCAENIDAE.
125. Euchrysops cnejus FT.
Fhes in August in the Terai.
126. Everes argiades diporides Chap.
Flies in October at 4,500 ft.
127. Lycaenopsis marginata de N.
Common in August at 7,000 ft.
128. Lycaenopsis puspa gisca [ruh.
Flies from July to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
129. Lycaenopsis limbata placida de N.
Flies in August at 7,000 ft.
130. Lycaenopsis argiolus jynteana de N.
Fhes in August at 7,000 ft.
131. Zizera maha maha Koll.
Flies from August to October from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
132. Zizera lysimon Hub.
Flies in August and September from 4,500 ft. to 6,000 ft.
133. Catachrysops strabo Ff.
Flies in August at 4,500 ft.
184. Catachrysops lithargyria M.
Flies in the Terai in August.
135. Lampides boeticus L.
Flies in September at 4,500 ft.
136. Jamides bochus bochus Cr.
Flies in October at 7,000 ft.
137. Jamides celeno celeno Cr.
Flies from August to October from 1,000 ft. to 4,500 ft.
SOME BUTTERFLIES OF NEPAL 265
138. Jamides elpis eurysaces I’ruh.
Flies in August at 4,500 ft.
139. Heliophorus epicles indicus Fruh.
Flies in October at 5,000 ft.
140. Curetis thetis Dry.
Fhes in September at about 1,500 ft.
141. Amblypodia eumolphus eumolphus Cx.
Rare at 4,500 ft. in October. Very dark on the underside, but on the
upperside much the same as specimens from Sikkini.
142. Amblypodia areste areste Hew.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection.
148. Spindasis lohita himalayanus M.
Fhes in August at 4,500 ft.
144. Deudoryx epijarbas ancus Fruh.
Flies from August to October at 4,500 ft.
145. Deudoryx epiiarbas amatius Fruh.
Fhes in August and September at 4,500 ft.
146. Virachola perse perse Hew.
Fhes in October at 4,500 ft.
147. Rapala nissa nissa Kollar.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection.
HIfESPERIIDAE.
148. Rhopalocampta benjaminii benjaminii Guer.
A specimen in Mr. Jsilburne’s collection.
149. Badamia exclamationis lab.
Flies in August at 4,500 ft.
150. Celaenorrhinus pulomaya M.
Flies in September at 3,500 ft.
151. Tagiades menaka M.
Fairly common in October at 4,500 ft.
152. Hesperia galba I’.
A specimen in Mr. Iilburne’s collection.
153. Udaspes folus Cr.
Common in September at 4,500 ft.
154. Notocrypta feisthamelii alysos M.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection.
155. Notocrypta curvifascia I'd.
Flies in September at 4,500 ft.
156. Erioneta thrax thrax 1.
Flies in September and October at 4,500 ft.
157. Baoris sinensis sinensis Mab.
Fles in August from 4,500 ft. to 7,000 ft.
158. Baoris conjuncta coniuncta HS.
A specimen in Mr. Kilburne’s collection believed to be this species.
159. Baoris eltoia Hew.
Flies in October at 4,500 ft.
160. Baoris guttatus guttatus Brem.
Flies from August to October at 4,500 ft.
161. Baoris guttatus bada, M.
Flies in October at 4,500 ft.
162. Baoris bevani bevani M.
Flies from August to October at 4,500 ft.
CUCKOO-LORE.
BY
Lizut.-CoLt. R. W. Burton,
Indian Army (Retired).
Our hardworking Editors have asked that articles of general
interest may be contributed to further popularize the Journal and
attract more members.
In the back numbers of the Journal, all of which are not with-
in reach of many of our members, is much information concerning
cuckoos contributed by well-known ornithologists, chief among
whom is Mr. Stuart Baker. He, and other notable observers
whose recorded observations are now freely made use of, will no
doubt forgive one who has no claim whatever to be considered an
ornithologist, or oologist, in consideration of the laudable motive
by which this article is inspired.
Of ‘The Cuckoo in the Nest’ and ‘The Cuckoo in Harley Street’
most of us have heard; and there are sundry expressions which
have obtained permanent place in the English language. The
Common Lily of Great Britain (Arum maculatum) known to our
childhood as ‘lords and ladies’, is the ‘cuckoo-pint’; the “Ragged
Robin’ is the ‘Cuckoo-Gilliflower’; and the Wryneck, commonly
arriving in England a few days before the male cuckoo, is known
as ‘cuckoo’s leader’ or ‘cuckoo’s mate’; and there are ‘cuckoo
clocks’ to be found in many a cottage home.
Then there is ‘cuckoo-spit’, the frothy secretion found upon
plants and produced by the immature nymphal stage of various
plant-lice, some of which, in the adult condition, are known as
‘frog-hoppers’; and there are ‘cuckoo-flies’ which have some re-
semblance to the common house fly, and are parasitical on the
larvae of other insects.
In Old English literature several rhymes anent the cuckoo are
to be found, the most notable being ‘The Cuckoo and the Night-
ingale’ by Sir Thomas Clanvowe, published in 1532. There is a
Cuckoo Song (circa 1250) of three stanzas, the first of which is: —
Sumer is icumen in,
Lhude sing cuccu!
Groweth sed, and bloweth med,
And springth the wude nu—Sing cuccu!
Then, about 1580, John Haywood wrote:—
In April the Cuckoo can sing her song by rote.
In May oft-time she cannot sing a note. —
At first, koo, koo; koo, koo; sings till she can do
At last; kooke, kooke, kooke; six kooke’s to one koo,
CUCKOO-LORE 267
From the North of England comes:—
In April cuckoo says her lay;
In May she sings both night and day,
In June she loses her sweet strain,
In July she is off again.
which contains the misstatement, according to our modern know-
ledge, that it is the hen bird which sings.
Lastly there is a more recent lilt :—
The schoolboy wandering through the wood,
To pluck the primrose gay,
Starts, thy curious voice to hear,
And imitates thy lay.
which we can all remember to have done in our early days!
As a harbinger of spring the cuckoo is always welcome to the
ears of those who have just passed through the severities of winter ;
and probably no single wild bird in creation has attracted so much
popular attention, or has been so much written about, as the
~Common Cuckoo: yet, even to this day, there are matters still
requiring investigation in regard to its habits and oology.
The Cuckoo of the United Kingdom is Cuculus canorus. It is
found practically over the whole of Europe and Western Asia.
Towards the end of March ‘the harbinger of spring’ proclaims his
arrival by his loud far-sounding song—for song it is in the technical
sense of the word, being confined to the male sex and the season
of love. In a few days the hens arrive, and then can be noticed
the amorous contests between keen and loud-voiced suitors. Even
by night they are not silent, being particularly vocal by moonlight.
The birds avoid observation as much as possible, for they are
frequently pursued by all the small birds of the neighbourhood,
which take them to be hawks on account of their resemblance in
appearance and flight to a bird of prey.
As the season advances the call alters, the voice ‘breaks’, and
the bird is no more heard. By the middle of July an old bird
is seldom seen. A male cuckoo has, however, been known _ to
remain all the winter, and to call too! a very unusual and strange
occurrence: perhaps the bird had suffered some injury to prevent
migration.
In winter the European Cuckoo migrates across the Mediter-
ranean to North Africa and visits Arabia, Persia and North-West
India. ‘A cuckoo ringed in a Pied Wagtail’s nest near Eton,
Buckinghamshire, met its end in a jungle clearing of the French
Cameroons via the arrow of a native.’ (The Observer, 5-11-1933.)
Much of the curiosity and interest attached to the cuckoo is
caused by its singular habit of entrusting its offspring to foster-
parents. In the United Kingdom, among the foster-parents more
commonly selected are the Pied Wagtail, the Titlark, and the
Hedge Sparrow, the last-named being particularly complacent in
brooding eggs of wholly different colour to her own. There are
some sixty British birds known to have been duped by the cuckoo:
and in Europe the foster-parents selected cover a large assortment
268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
ranging from the tiny Fire Crested Wren to the larger shrike, so
the cuckoo is no fool! ‘Dr. Rey gives a list 146 such’ (Stuart
Baker, Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal, vol. xvii, p.
80) (in future, for short, xvii, 80, and so on).
In India the number of observed foster-species of the Common
Cuckoo? is 82 (Stuart Baker, xvii, 78 and 881 and xxii, 625) and
doubtless there are many others which will be added to this list.
In the selection of the nest the female cuckoo is exceedingly
cautious and secretive. Sometimes, when the nest is large
enough and favourably situated, she will lay her egg in it; but in
probably the large majority of cases she lays her egg on the eround
and introduces. it by her bill into the nest. For this action the
bird is peculiarly fitted, the mouth being wide and the gape
curiously flexible. Perhaps it is to aid this ek that the egg of
canorus, considering the size of the bird, is remarkably small
being about the same size as that of the skylark, a bird about a
quarter of its size.
On occasion she will, when depositing her own egg, remove
one of the rightful eggs from the nest; and sometimes two differ-
ent hens will lay in the same nest. In such cases the weaker .
cuckoo of the two hatched out will suffer the usual fate. This
dual laying is due to some vagrant cuckoo, unable to find a terri-
tory of her own, having through necessity to trespass on the area
of another; and she will have to be exceedingly quick in her opera-
tions, for a dominant cuckoo, mistress of her own pitch, will
brook no rival, especially if the latter be parasitic upon the same
species as herself.
It is a remarkable circumstance that the cuckoo (C. canorus)
places her eggs only in the nests of those birds which have soft
bills and feed on insects and, like herself, have membranaceous
stomachs suited to the soft food; while she avoids the nests of
those birds that feed on grain and have strong muscular gizzards.
The food consists largely of hairy caterpillars, and on rare
occasions the mother has been observed to feed its own young;
while there is one reported instance (xvii, 79) of the Common
Cuckoo hatching its own eggs and rearing the young.
In some cases the eggs have more or less resemblance to those
of the foster-parents, and it may be a provision of Nature, in-
creased by a process of natural selection, that the eggs laid by
canorus as a whole vary much in appearance. And it is possibly
by an inherited habit that a cuckoo will become parasitic on one
particular species; it having been found by its ancestors that this
particular species is more readily deceived, or is more tolerant to
the imposition. There are many recorded observations in support
of this.
It is unquestionable that whatever variations there may be
among the eggs laid by different individuals of the same species,
there is a strong family resemblance between eggs laid by the
ooo eeeeeeeeeeeSSSSSSSSMmmmmmshHshFseFeseFsFSSSSSMSMsssesFFSSSsSSSSSSSSsMFeF
"The European Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus canorus) does not breed within
Indian’ limits. The two allied forms breeding in our area are the Asiatic
Cuckoa (C. c. telephonus) and the Khasia Hills Cuckoo (C. c. baker1).—Eps.
—————
CUCKOO-LORE 269
same individual, even after a lapse of years; and it can hardly
be questioned that the eggs of the daughter would tend to resem-
ble those of her mother.
In his Additional Cuckoo Notes (xvii, 876 et seq., and xvii,
275) Mr. Stuart Baker adds much to our knowledge of this subject;
his observations being opened up by suggestions (1906) by Pro-
fessor Burnett of Hyderabad.
‘To commence with (p. 889) we have the broad fact that our
Cuckoos which lay blue eggs—that is Hierococcyx varius
(the Common Hawk Cuckoo) and the genus Clamator (the
Crested Cuckoos)—practically invariably deposit their eggs
in the nests of such birds which like themselves lay blue
egos. All over India fosterers of this description are avail-
able in considerable numbers and there is no further need
for adaptation, and accordingly we find there is none, and
no one has ever taken an egg of the above cuckoos of any
other colour but blue. Of course there are rare exceptions
to the usual fosterers selected, such as the egg of Clamator
jacobinus (the Pied Crested Cuckoo) found in the nest of
Garrulax leucolophus (the Himalayan White-crested Laugh-
ing Thrush) but these exceptions are too few to have any
influence on either eggs or parent.’
‘It is possible that the want of discrimination displayed by the
Common Cuckoo as to where it should put its egg, has
resulted in the marvellous variety of types and_ colours
found in it. At the same time it is possible that the egg
is more or less adapting itself to local requirements in those
localities in which any one fosterer greatly predominates.
To accord with this it is however necessary to presume that
euckoos are regular in their migratory habits and visit the
same breeding range one generation after another.’
Then as to the Small Cuckoo (C. poliocephalus) of India:—
‘On the whole, therefore, it may be taken as probable that
the Small Cuckoo lays eggs which adapt themselves to
their surroundings. The Indian Cuckoo (C. micropterus)
lays very pale blue eggs and selects most often fosterers
such as T. lineatum and L. brunnea, which also lay blue
eggs. Here the colour of the Cuckoo’s eggs would certainly
seem to have adapted itself to that of the type of fosterer’s
ege with which it is generally found.’
Of the Large Hawk Cuckoo (H. sparveroides), Mr. Stuart Baker
finds that it adapts its egg in various parts of the country
to the eggs of the selected foster-parent: and it is a fact that
the Common Hawk Cuckoo ‘has arrived at complete adapta-
tion and invariably places its deep blue eggs in nests of
fosterers which lay eges of a similar colour’; (again: the
cuckoo is no fool!) and he goes on to deseribe remarkable
instances of what appears to be adaptation on the part of
the Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis passerinus) and closes
with the remark that ‘knowledge as to the eggs of other
species of Indian cuckoos is not vet sufficient to allow of
generalization,’ .
270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX ViIr
And he finally sums up as follows:—(p. 892) ‘On the whole,
therefore, Indian Cuckoos would appear to adapt them-
selves more or less to producing eges which to some extent
resemble those of the birds they select as foster-parents to
their young. In this way such Cuckoo’s eges as approach
most nearly in colouration to those of the foster-parents
would survive, whilst those which greatly differ would
gradually be eliminated.’
It may be that Nature is at work on these lines, but there are
other views. Mr. Douglas Dewar is of opinion (xvii, 775)
that the theory that Cuckoo’s eggs are ‘mimic’ those of the
host is not tenable; and Dr. Bernard Rensch of the Uni-
versity Zoological Museum, Berlin, is quoted as believing
(xxxiv, 1068) ‘that all the discrimination and selection is
exercised exclusively by the hosts. Only such cuckoo’s
eggs as approximate in appearance to those of the hosts
succeed in being accepted, while those that are obviously
strange are either cast out or not incubated at all (i.e. nests
are deserted). This manner of selection has evolved dis-
tinct groups among the cuckoos (each group laying a dis-
tinct type of egg), who from generation to generation resort
for egg-laying only to the nests of such species as they
themselves were fostered by. The selection exercised by
the hosts, which destroys all eggs of strange appearance
tends to ‘“‘the survival of the fittest’’; in other words it
conduces to perfecting the resemblance between the eggs
of the parasite and those of its host.’
The above quotation is from an article by Mr. Salim A. Ali in
which he describes how he ‘played cuckoo’ on certain small birds
to elucidate the matter; and so far as his few experiments go
they appear to support Dr. Rensch.
The reader now has a fairly complete summary of this matter;
and those specially interested can realize that there is plenty of
scope for future observation in this field; more especially in India
and the East.
To continue the habits of the European cuckoo (C. canorus).
When the eggs are hatched there ensues the murderous eviction of
the rightful tenants by the young cuckoo, who is especially equipped
for the deed by his broad hollow back and disproportionately strong
thighs, though his hollow back soon fills in (by the twelfth day)
and the adult bird has rather weak than strong legs.
The eviction is effected by getting the tail under each egg, or
young bird, in succession, wriggling them on to its back, and then
cleverly pitching them over the side of the nest. In its earlier
days only the eggs are evicted, the murderous deed being commit-
ted at a more advanced age. A young cuckoo has been observed
to evict its brother in the nest, and probably always does so,
victory being to the strongest.
An accurate observer of early in the last century (Jenner,
quoted by Blackwall in the Memoirs of the Literary and Philoso-
phical Society of Manchester) describes the process of eviction,
|
CUCKOO-LORE 271
‘The young cuckoo, soon after it is excluded from the egg,
commences the extraordinary practice of turning out its
companions, which are usually left to destruction. The
mode of accomplishing this is very curious. With the as-
sistance of its rump and wings it contrives to get a young
bird upon its back; and making a lodgment for its burden
by elevating its pinions, clambers backward with it up the
side of the nest till it reaches the top, where, resting for
a moment, it throws off the load with a jerk and quite dis-
engages it from the nest. It remains in this situation for
a short time, feeling about with the extremities of its wings
as if to be convinced whether the business is properly exe-
cuted, and then drops into the nest again.
It frequently examines, as it were, an ege or nestling with the
-ends of its wings before it begins its operations; and the
nice sensibility which these parts appear to possess seems
sufficiently to compensate for the want of sight, of which
sense it is at first destitute. ’
Now we can say farewell to the young cuckoo which, having
been well fed and cared for by his solicitous foster-parents, begins
to shift for himself by the end of September and soon follows the
remainder of his kin to more southern climes.
Let us now turn to the Indian Empire and see what there is
known, or to be known, as to the many cuckoos in the various
countries of diverse climates included within it.
For the reason that this article is primarily intended for the
general reader (also to collect in one place all the ‘cuckoo-lore’
to be found in the Journals of the Society) it seems well, with
the presumed permission of Mr. Stuart Baker, to give the follow-
ing extract from his series of articles on “The Oology of Indian
Parasitic Cuckoos’ published in 1906-07 in volume xvii of the
Journal.
‘Our Indian cuckoos of the family Cuculidae (the Order is
Coccyges) are divided by scientists into two sub-families—
the Ouculinae and the Phoenicophainae: the genera com-
posing the former have the shanks or tarsi more or less
feathered, whereas those of the latter have them quite
naked. The only parasitic cuckoo belonging to this second
eroup is the Common Indian Koel (Hudynamis scolopaceus),
all our other parasitic cuckoos belonging to the former.
The general outward appearance of the family is passerine, but
the feet are zygodactyle, i.e., the first and fourth toes both
point backwards, as in woodpeckers and others. The feet
and legs are also, as a rule, exceptionally feeble, but the
wings are strong, and generally long and pointed, so that
cuckoos have swift flight; the bill is slightly curved through-
out, the gape rather wide and frequently conspicuously
coloured.
The species of the genus Cuculus, containing the Common
English Cuckoo, and of the genus Hierococcyx, which con-
272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
tains the Brain Fever Bird, are very hawk-like in their
barred and banded plumage.’
Our Indian parasitic Cuckoos are divided into eight genera,
and, including one bird peculiar to Ceylon and another a rare
straggler into Burma, number 283 species, with 17 of which we
will proceed to deal with the expert guidance of Mr. Stuart Baker
and his allied ornithologists.
With Mr. Stuart Baker’s series of articles (xvii, 72, 351, 678,
876) will be found excellent coloured plates illustrating the eggs
of all these species, also of the koel.
Since the series of articles referred to was published in 1907 the
Indian forms of the Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) has been
separated into two races, the Asiatic Cuckoo (C. canorus telepho-
nus) and the Khasia Hills Cuckoo (C. canorus bakeri); but as this
separation was not effected at the time it is best to bracket them
in this paper.
(1) Neither of the two races can be distinguished by the casual
person in voice or appearance from the European bird. So widely
distributed is this familiar bird that it is to be heard in the same
month of May (here I write also from personal observation) amid
the melting snows of the Himalaya (Kashmir, Kishtwar, Kunawar)
up to an elevation of 11,000 ft., in the sweltering jungles of the
Central Provinces and Hyderabad, in several parts of Burma, also
in South India; and its distribution includes Ceylon.
Within our limits ‘it breeds throughout the Himalayas and
sub-Himalayas, the Hilly forest country of Chota-Nagpur and the
Nilgiris, the plains of Assam at the foot of the Hills, and the
Burmese Hills. Having been heard to call in the breeding season
in the Hills of the Central Provinces no doubt it breeds there
also.’ For Shan Hills, Burma, also see Livesey, xxxvi, 997, where
‘the resemblance of the eggs to those of the principal foster-
parent is most marked’; also 14 blue eggs were found: and B. B.
Osmaston, xxiv, 859, and Mackenzie, xxv, 742.
A blue egg is not common, and for long it was doubtful if a
blue egg is ever laid. As Mr. Stuart Baker emphasises, no cuckoo
egg is beyond doubt unless taken from the oviduct of the bird. A
blue egg was obtained in this way in 1907 by Major H. A. F.
Maerath in the Thandiani Hill (40 miles from Murree in the
Punjab) and he was of opinion that canorus mostly lays blue
eggs on that hill.
The tropical laid egg of canorus appears to be larger than
that of the European bird and averages .91 in. ~x .67 in., the
largest obtained being 1.04 in. x .75 in.
(2) Toe Himatayan Cuckoo (C. saturatus) is the next bird.
One observer has witnessed the feeding of young birds of this
cuckoo by its own parent or some other bird of the same species.
‘The cry is a pleasant musical call; a four-syllable one of four
deep whistles or hoots, very much like that of the hoopoe but
rather higher in tone: and there is a preliminary high note, not
easy to hear unless quite close.’ ,
‘The egg is typically elliptical, very smooth and fine grain,
pure white, minutely speckled and dotted with black or dark
CUCKOO-LORE 273
brown.’ Illustrated in Pl. I, opp. p. 72 and averages .85 in. x
.oo In.
(3) Tum Smart Cuckoo (C. poliocephalus) extends during the
breeding season from the Himalayas to Assam, and thence east-
erly through North Central China to Japan; also Malay Peninsula,
Java, and Borneo. B. B. Osmaston records it in Burma (Sxry,
360). ‘In the cold weather it may be found practically anywhere
in India and Ceylon, and more than probable, as time goes on,
it will be found breeding in the Southern Hill ranges as well as
the sub-Himalayas.’
‘Its call is a disyllabic note twice repeated, but it has a variety
of notes and is rather a noisy bird, and, though some of its notes
are more or less musical, others are quite the reverse.’
Two types of egg are illustrated in Pl. I. One is ‘nearly uni-
form pale pinkish-chocolate’ the other ‘pure white and glossless’.
The eggs are like those of saturatus, average size .83 in. ‘x
rile) alate
(4) THe InprAn Cuckoo (C. micropterus) is familiar to all as
the Broken Pekoe Bird whose cry has been variously rendered,
‘Make-more Pekoe’, ‘Bo-kata-ko’ (Bengali), ‘Naflang-kaiko’
(Cachari, ‘who-stole-the-fish’), ‘Kaphul-pakka’, and by the British
soldier ‘Lost-my-rifle’.
This cuckoo ‘has been found practically everywhere in India,
except the driest portions of the North-West, and it doubtless
breeds more or less over the whole of its habitat, ascending higher
up during the breeding season and migrating locally at this time
from places where there are no suitable forests or hills. It extends
right away through Burma into Malaya, and again through
Northern Burma into Central Asia, Siberia, China, and Japan.’
As instancing how difficult is the oology of cuckoos, Mr. Stuart
Baker has to record (xvii, 884) ‘No oviduct egg has as yet (1907)
been got of this bird, but all the evidence obtainable confirms
Colonel Rattray’s identification of this bird’s eggs.’
The egg is ‘in all probability pale blue, rarely faintly marked.
Fine silky texture. Shape broad oval.’ Four specimens are illus-
trated in Pl. IJ, opp. p. 364, average size .92 in. x .70 in.
The next genus of the sub-family Cuculinae is Hierococcyx, of
which there are five species, the difference consisting in the com-
parative lengths of the inner wing quills. Of the five, two are
common in India and known to all as the Brain Fever Birds.
(5) Tan Larce Hawk Cucxoo (H. sparveroides) is not the true
Brain Fever Bird, rendering pride of place in that respect to the
next following songster.
Its voice is not unlike that of the koel, but is less harsh and
penetrating, and can be construed pi-pee-ah, pi-pee-ah, with
emphasis on the second syllable, in ascending scale. It is noisy
during moonlight nights, and’a torment to would-be sleepers.
Distribution is ‘throughout the Himalaya as far West as
Chumba, ascending in summer to elevations of 9,000 ft. or more:
probably scattered here and there over the better wooded parts
of the Indian Peninsula in the cold season, but only recorded
from Raipur in the Central Provinces. Common on the Nilgiris
274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXViIi
in South India, but not observed in the Palnis, the Travancore
Ranges, nor the Ceylon Hills. To the eastward this cuckoo is
found throughout the hills south of Assam and Burma, ranging to
China, Japan, the Philippines, the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.’
. It is parasitic on Laughing Thrushes, Babblers, and other
birds. Tor a long time Colonel Rattray was the only man who
had taken an absolutely authentic egg of this cuckoo; but in 1906
Mr. Stuart Baker was fortunate in obtaining four blue eges. Mr.
A. EK. Osmaston (xxi, 1830) contributes an article on the oology
of this bird. The eggs taken by him are large: average size
1.13 in, x -82.1n,
The egg is ‘pale blue, long oval, stout, hard texture, glossy
and not very fine. Possibly also chocolate-brown.’ Illustration
im Pl, Ui, -average, size..97 amex 273. in.
(6) Tue Common Hawk OCvckoo (H. varius). Now we meet the
true ‘Brain Fever Bird’ beloved of all sick Europeans in India,
though the Koel and the Large Hawk Cuckoo are often go called
locally, especially where the Common Hawk Cuckoo is absent.
Its note is the same pi-pee-ah, pi-pee-ah, as that of sparve-
roides; but it is even more shrill and penetrating, and the bird
itself even more persistent. Night or day seems much the same
to it, and when the nights are very dark it awakes with the dawn
and has double the energy to expend on destroying the rest of
everyone within hearing.’
‘It is found all over India and Ceylon, being a resident, though
perhaps locally migrating, throughout its range.’
. The egg is illustrated in Pl. IJ. ‘Blue, texture like satin.
Shape elliptical or spheroidal.’ Average size 1 in. x .75 in. Mr.
B. B. Osmaston records (xxviii, 453) that it breeds around
Pachmarhi in the Central Provinces. )
(7) Hopason’s Hawk Cuckoo (H. nisicolor) ‘is a bird of the
north-eastern portion of India only, being found east from Nepal
through the Himalaya and the adjoining plains of Assam, Cachar
and Sylhet, through Manipur and Burma to the extreme south
where it meets the similar form called fugax (the fourth species
of this genus) which may be known by its larger bill.’
‘Its ordinary note is a rather shrill copy of that of sparveroides
and varius, but it is not incessantly repeated, and does not ascend
and descend in scale as does the cry of both those birds.’
‘It is very wild and shy.’
‘The only absolutely authentic egg of this species taken as yet
(1907) is the one which Mandelli took from the oviduct of a female
on the 5th June. The colour is a uniform olive-brown or olive
green, sometimes marked with reddish. Texture fine and silky.
Shape elliptical. It measures .89 in. x .64 in. and is illustrated
in Pl, IT.
(8) THe SmatL Hawk Cucxoo (H. nanus) is the fifth of this
genus. ‘Nothing is known so far of the oology of this cuckoo. It
is a bird very little known: indeed it is possible that even now
we do not know its adult plumage. It has only entered the limits
of the Indian Empire in the extreme south of Burma and Tenas-
serim, and it is also known from Selangor and North Borneo,’
GUCKOO-LORE 975
The genus Cacomantis contains, as far as India is concerned,
two species of cuckoo, much like, in general appearance, the genus
Cuculus, but very small, the wing measuring under 5 in., whereas
none of the birds hitherto dealt with have wings as small as 54 in.
(9) Tue [ypian Puiaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus pas-
serimus) ranges through the greater part of India, from the Hima-
laya to Ceylon inclusive, rare in the North-West, and although
found on Mount Abu, wanting elsewhere throughout Rajputana
and the Indus plains. It occurs in the Himalaya from Simla to
Sikhim, ascending the hills to the westwards, up to about 9,000 ft.
according to Jerdon, and its range extends to Eastern Bengal
where it meets the next species. In the Peninsula of India it is
chiefly found in forest regions, and is most abundant in Bengal,
Orissa, the wooded tracts of the latter, and on the hills in the
neighbourhood of the Malabar coast (Blanford).’ It is recorded
from Abbottabad (xxiv, 595).
Its call is a plaintive we-whew, we-whew, and it is noisy in
the breeding season, being much heard on moonlight nights. It is
a shy bird.
It was Miss Cockburn who established the identity of the egg,
which is illustrated in Pl. IJ in two colours, blue and speckled
white. Size (average) being .72 in. x .52 in. In his Additional
Cuckoo Notes (xvii, 885 et seq.) Mr. Stuart Baker adds much to
the oology of this bird. There appear to be several types of egg.
The bird is parasitic chiefly on the Tailor Bird, also on the Ashy
Wren Warbler, the Small Minivet and others. In these same
Notes Professor Burnett of Hyderabad contributes much. interest-
ing matter. Also B. B. Osmaston in xxiv, 361-2. | .
At xvii, 871, it is recorded that the eggs of this cuckoo were
found. in the nests of a babbler and a shrike. ‘This is curious as
the eggs of both these birds are much larger than those of the
cuckoo, and it is an almost invariable rule for cuckoos to choose
birds which lay eggs smaller than they do or, at least, as small.’
. (10) Taz Rurous Bertirep Cuckoo (C. m. querulus) is the
Eastern representative of the Plaintive Cuckoo and is found all
over Eastern Bengal, Assam and Burma. It is resident in all
these provinces, and is very common. In habits etc. it is lke
the Plaintive Cuckoo and its voice resembles that of that bird,
but. is less seldom used, and perhaps Jess high pitched and
shrill.
Information as to its breeding is scanty and very conflicting.
The egg is possibly like large eggs of the Indian Wren Warbler
and of the Indian Tailor Bird. The greenish egg with large
blotches, believed to be that of this bird, is illustrated in Pl. III
opp. p. 680 of xvil.
Of the genus Penthoceryx we have three species, of which one
is of Ceylon only and another peculiar to Malay and the East.
(11) Tue Banpep Bay Cucxoo (Penthoceryx sonneratii sonne-
ratit) is common in Ceylon and the south of India, but becomes
much more rare further north, especially to the west. It extends
through Bengal to Assam and so through Burma, Malay Penin-
sula, Sumatra, Borneo and Java.
276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIi
The egg has been seldom obtained. In 1907 Mr. J. Davidson
had the only oviduct egg of this species in existence. The egg
illustrated in Pl. III was supplied by Mr. Davidson and said by
him to closely resemble the oviduct egg. Colour brownish-pink
ground, speckled and freckled with reddish brown, texture and
shape as in canorus. Average size .76 in. x .63 in.
The bird has two distinct cries—one exactly like that of the
Indian Cuckoo (No. 4 ante) except in a much higher key; the
other like that of the Indian Plaintive Cuckoo except that it
always stops in the middle of the second or third repetition.
Of the genus Chalcococcyx there are three within our limits
but one of these, the Malay Violet Cuckoo, need not be considered
in this paper.
(12) THe Vioter Cuckoo (Chalcococcyx xanthorynchus xantho-
rynchus) is confined to the east of the Empire and found through-
out Assam, especially Cachar and Dibrugarh, the whole of Burma
and Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Andamans, Nico-
bars.
There is practically nothing on record about its habits, voice,
etc. The bird is not very shy, but keeps much to the tops of
lofty trees on high ground. They are very fond of haunting the
tops of lofty silk cotton trees (Bombax) when in flower; and in
this are in company with a number of other species of birds, also
squirrels, monkeys, and countless insects.
The male of the species has the upper parts glossed with
metallic violet. The female is parasitic on the Nepal Babbler, and
doubtless other small birds of that type.
The eggs are probably much like those of the Banded Bay
Cuckoo but with general tone far more pink and less brown. ‘The
eges are very large for cuckoo’s eggs, in proportion to the size of
the bird, the bulk being as much as it is in the eggs of polioce-
phalus (8) and saturatus (2) birds of, perhaps, between three and
four times the cubic contents of the tiny Emerald Cuckoo. The
eges of both species are illustrated in Pl. III. Size .75 in. x
OOM. 10. (GO. lle x aOoe Im,
(13) THz Emeratp Cucxoo (C. maculatus) has the upper parts
elossed with metallic green and has much the same range as the
former bird, but it extends further west, having been recorded as
far as Kumaon. It also straggles into Eastern Bengal. ‘This
cuckoo has a comparatively large foot, hence its activity when in
trees.’
Both the species are parasitic on Babblers, and of course on
other species also. Reference should also be made to Stuart
Baker, xviii, 275 and 915; and Inglis, xviii, 681.
Now we meet a very remarkable bird, to be found if diligently
sought for but very seldom recognized. This is the Drongo
Cuckoo (Surniculus) of which we have three species of the genus;
the Malay, the Indian, and the Ceylon. .
The two latter divide India between them, the habitat of the
first being Upper India, Assam, Burma, Siam, Hainan, China;
and of the second Ceylon, Travancore and the West Coast up to
Karwar.
CUCKOO-LORE 277
(14) Tue Inpian Drongo Cuckoo (Surniculus lugubris dicru-
roides) may be considered with the Ceylon Drongo Cuckoo GS..°8
stewarti) as they are no doubt very similar in size, habits, and
appearance, having been only of recent years distinguished the one
from the other.
Of this bird Mr. Stuart Baker writes (xvii, 687) in 1907: ‘There
is nothing absolutely authentic on record about this Cuckoo’s eggs’
and “so close is its resemblance to the Common Black Drongo
that it escapes observation’, ‘its flight is varied, sometimes dip-
ping much as it is with the King Crows, at others quick and direct.
Its call is a most human whistle of six notes running up in scale,
and this it gives frequent utterance to both by day and on moon-
light nights. I have also heard one utter a double plaintive note
like whee-whip, much like a call indulged in by the King Crow
in the breeding season. Indeed, had I not been standing close
under the cuckoo as it was in the act of calling, I should have
thought it was the Drongo.’
The King Crow, a masterful champion, valiant and ever vigi-
lant, is one of the best known birds in India; for who does not
know the black, fork-tailed bullies which sit .on the telegraph
wires and make graceful sallies into the air after the flies and
insects on which they feed?
Let us consult Mr. Douglas Dewar in ‘Bombay Ducks’. ‘Why
the King Crow? Needless to state, this royal bird has no con-
nexion with the vulgar, plebeian crow.’ ... ‘Far more appropriate
is one of the native names for the bird, the Kotwal; which, being
interpreted, is the head officer of the chief police station. Every-
one who is acquainted on the one hand with the methods of the
Indian police, and on the other, with the habits of the King Crow,
will appreciate the title——he takes upon himself the burden of
keeping in order the whole bird pupulation of India. His office is
no sinecure, for although the fowls of the air are in general law-
abiding folk, there are not wanting among them vagabonds, ege-
stealers, nest-breakers, and other criminals’ and much more that
is most entertaining and instructive, so you really should possess
the book referred to by this author, who is also a notable contri-
butor to our Journal.
As to our Drongo Cuckoo he writes in the same book, ‘Surni-
culus lugubris is, perhaps the most wonderful example of mimicry
in nature. It has adopted the dress of the Drongo (also his voice
and flight). It is black all over and has a forked tail. It is said
to be a very uncommon cuckoo. I do not know if I have ever
seen a live species or not, for I cannot distinguish it from a King
Crow. I am not ashamed of this admission: for the King Crow
is in this respect no better off than I am. I submit that if A
cannot distinguish B from his (A’s) own brother, it is surely not
to be expected that I, a stranger can do so!’
In xxiv, 862, Mr. B. B. Osmaston describes the call of this
bird around Maymyo, Burma; also xxiv, 595, may be referred to,
where the call is described as mistaken for the whistling of a boy.
The reader can therefore well realize that, in almost whatever
part of this country he may be, he has here something worth
4
478: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
while investigating during his leisure. hours. This cuckoo differs
from his dupe in that he has ‘a.few white spots and -patches
which are hardly noticeable unless the bird is extremely close’,
. There are -two. Crested . Cuckoos,-:the -Pied Crested: Cuckoo
(Clamator jacobinus) and the Red-winged Crested Cuckoo (C.
coromandus). | , ele ae:
(15) Tue Prep CrestED Cuckoo (C. jacobinus) is found ‘practi-
cally throughout India and Burma, its eastern boundary being
the Irrawaddy river. It does not:extend further south in Burma
than Upper. Pegu, but is common in Ceylon. Outside. India: it
is obtained throughout Southern and Central Africa.’ a
‘Its flight is slow but fairly direct... It haunts indifferently the
loftiest. of trees, secondary growth and small saplings, or mere
scrub jungle. (Often it can be seen jumping in the. grass while
catching insects.) Its call is a very loud metallic double note, too
harsh to be called a whistle. In the early part of the season,
before its voice has fully formed, its cries are particularly harsh
and disagreeable, and the second note, which should be the same
in tone_as the first, often goes off at a tangent. Later in the year,
though it becomes more noisy than ever, its notes are rather
musical. ’ . : : :
In xxxiii, 186-44, will be found an article, with explanatory
imap, by- Mr. Hugh». Whistler setting. out all that was then
(1928-29) known as to the migration of this bird: and_ ask-
ing observers to take notes and report results: the | point
at issue being whether the Pied Crested Cuckoos which are rains
visitors to a huge area in India, winter in Africa. The sole res-
ponse appears to have been the contribution of Mr. Salim A. Ah,
xXxxiv> LOTL.
- This cuckoo is largely parasitic on Bulbuls, also on Laughing
Thrushes. An observer saw a Pied Crested Cuckoo deposit its own
ege in the nest of a Jungle Babbler and remove one of the
Babbler’s eggs (xxvii, 894). Two eggs were taken from the nest
of the Nepal Babbler, ‘the huge Blue Cuckoo’s eggs in the tiny
nests of Alcippe looked very ridiculous, and it seems incredible
that the birds could have been so imposed upon as to be induced
to hatch them.’ iat at
~ The eggs are well known. ‘Dark blue-green. Texture extreme-
ly fine and silky, surface smooth. Shape broad, elliptical’ and
are illustrated in Pl. IIT. Size, average, .94 in. x .80 in.
! (16) THe Rep-WINGED Crestep Cuckoo (C. coromandus) ap-
pears to be a rare bird in India, but with that proviso and other
limitations, its habitat seems to be that of the other species. It
is common around Maymyo, Burma, and. there is a whole page
concerning its eggs, food habits, and voice by Mr. B. B.: Osma-
ston in xxiv, 361. ans es ake
On the morning of the 7th November 1900 a cuckoo -of this
species ‘was caught in the Society’s Museum where it had no
doubt sought shelter from the unwelcome attention of the crows,
which are even quicker than the Members of the Natural History
Society to notice .a stranger in ‘the neighbourhood.’ Only once
previously had this species been recorded from any part. of the
CUCKOO-LORE 279
Bombay Presidency. That bird was obtained at Savantwadi, and
is also in the Society’s collection.
The eggs are known. Pale blue-green. Texture as for jaco-
binus. Shape spheroidal. IRlustration in Pl. LI. Average size
HOG im. sce 7290" ine
All the sub-family Cuculinae have now been dealt with. The
next sub-family is Phoenicophainae of which there are 8 genera
comprising 21 species. Only the first genus, Hudynamis, is para-
sitic. The others include the Malkohas (9 species), the Sirkeer
Cuckoos (3 species) and the Crow Pheasants (7 species).
The Malkohas are green-plumaged birds some of which have
red bills and some green bills. Being mostly forest birds they
do not attract notice. The Small Green Malkoha is common in
South India, while the Large Green-billed Malkoha takes its place
in the north-east of India, Bengal and Assam.
Of the Sirkeer Cuckoo, an uncommon and peculiar bird, very
little is recorded in the Journal. Mr. E. H. Gill (xxix, 299) de-
scribes the curious courtship lasting about twenty minutes, when
the male bird makes the most of the patchwork effect of his sober
plumage. |
The Crow Pheasant whose ‘deep, sonorous whoot, whoot, whoot
is one of the most familar of the sounds which greet the rising
sun in India’ is well known to almost everyone. Its food is
mostly insectivorous but it is said to eat the eggs of other birds;
and in localities where there is preservation of game a price 1s
placed on its head. This is probably without proper justification,
and the bird may do more good than harm.
(17) THe Inpran Korn (Hudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus)
‘ranges throughout India, Ceylon and Burma, and is unpleasantly
common anywhere but in Sind, where it is very rare, and in the
West Punjab where it is uncommon. It ascends the Hills up
to about 2,500 ft., above which it ceases to persecute. Outside
India it extends to Western China, throughout the Malay Archi-
pelago, the Andamans, Laccadives and Flores.’
‘Its most common cries are /o-il, generally turned into youre-
ill by Europeans, and continuous shouts of who-are-you. By some
people this bird has been called the Indian Nightingale (these have
probably lived in Sind), and by others its music has been called
‘An Introductory Poem to Hades’. It is alwuys noisy, but more
particularly so by night when it is moonlight. It is everywhere
pushing and forward, but, perhaps, more especially so in the com-
pounds of houses containing sick persons.’
The Emperor Baber styled the Koel ‘The Nightingale of Hindu-
stan’. | . oe
‘Its breeding season lasts from the end of April to the end of
August. In March it practises its voice and gets its throat into
working order, and in September its voice breaks, gradually ceases,
and the world has rest for a few cold weather months.’
In India the Koel is mainly parasitic on the Common Crow,
and on the Burmese Crow in that country. Occasionally | the
Jungle Crow is made use of, and its egg has been found in the
nest of the Magpie in Burma, and in that of the Common Myna
280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXViit
in Dibrugarh (Inglis, xviii, 682) and in one peculiar case in that-
of the Oriole—a very small nest—but that was no doubt a case
of emergency (D’Abreu, xxxi, 1032).
A very full and amusing account of the Koel will be found in
Mr. Douglas Dewar’s ‘Birds of the Plains’, also in his “Bombay
Ducks’ where male and female are illustrated: and in xvi, 765-82,
is his very full ‘Enquiry into the Parasitic Habits of the Indian
Koel’ in which he concludes that the young Koel does not eject
the crow’s eggs or his fellow nestlings—other than by accident;
that the incubation period of the Koel’s egg is slightly shorter
than that of the crow; that the koel undoubtedly destroys, or tries
to destroy, some of the crow’s eggs it finds in the nest, and given
opportunity will destroy all the crow’s eggs; that the destruction
does not necessarily take place at the same time the koel’s ege
is laid; that there is no hollow in the back of the koel nestling;
that the koel will frequently lay her egg in the crow’s nest; and
other 1aatters of kindred interest.
His accounts of how he ‘played cuckoo’ are highly interesting
and amusing, and illustrate that ‘a nesting bird seems to cast
intelligence to the winds. The crows sat upon, and hatched, a
fowl’s egg, upon a sea-green paddy-bird’s egg, and on a golf ball,
apparently without noticing that these differed in any way from
their own eggs. Again, the addition or subtraction of an egg or
two was not noticed. Further, when I introduced a young koel
into a nest containing eggs only, the parent birds at once set
to work to feed the young koel as though they were quite accus-
tomed to young birds being thus introduced into the nest!’ Ex-
periments of others in the same direction are also cited.
In vol. xxiv, 595, Mr. Hugh Whistler also contributes as to
incubation and removal of crow’s eges at time of laying.
Mr. Salim A. Ah, an accurate observer who contributes valuable
articles to our Journal, also (xxxiv, 1067) ‘played cuckoo’ with
regard to egg mimicry of canorus and one of his experiments was
cut short by a female koel which swallowed all the four eggs in
the nest in as many seconds!
Ordinarily not more than two koel’s eggs are found in a crow’s
nest, but on occasion four or more are found; and in one instance
(xxxv, 458) eleven eggs are recorded. These are cases of two or
more birds depositing their eggs in the same nest; and this can
be known by the different types of egg found in such cases: but
Mr. Dewar says (xvii, 782) that a great deal of variation is dis-
played in the same clutch. ‘In one clutch of four eggs each
differed so greatly from the others that, unless I had myself taken
all four eggs out of the same nest, I should not have believed
that one bird could have laid them.’ Can it have been that more
than one bird laid those eggs?
With the exception of examination (for purposes of ‘distribu-
tion’) of the many lists of birds from various localities in the
Indian Empire which have been contributed from time to time
by Members of the Society, 1 have carefully searched the past
fifty years of the Journal for material, and think that nothing of
importance has been omitted in this effort to bring ‘Cuckoo-
CUCKOO-LORE 281
Lore’ up to date for the information and entertainment of
readers.
Epiror’s Notrt.—The cost of back numbers of the Journal has
been greatly reduced; so those referred to in this article, vol. xvi,
Nos. 1-4 (which contain the egg Plates), and most of the others,
can be obtained at one rupee each.
In connection with the study of Ornithology the Editors invite
attention to the several series which have appeared in recent years
in the Journal of the Society such as: The Study of Indian Birds
by Mr. Hugh Whistler; and The Birds of Prey of the Punjab by
Mr. C. H. Donald.
THH ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN.
BY
SALIM ALI.
With Notes by HucH WuistiEr.
Parr IO,
(With two plates).
(Continued from page 92 of this volume).
Famity: TuRDIDE.
Brachypteryx major albiventris (Blanford). The White-bellied Shortwing.
Specimens collected: 115 [¢] imm. 20-1-38 Munnar 5,000 ft.
Elsewhere not noted. Possibly overlooked or confused with Muscicapula
pallipes.
In the Trivandrum Museum I have seen the following Travancore skins:
o? 5-8-0383 Chemunji; 0? 5-97 Devikolam. William Davison obtained four
specimens ‘in late December or early January on the Chimpani Hills dividing
Travancore territory from Tinnevelly District.’ (bis, 1888, pp. 146-47.)
Colours of bare parts: Iris bright khaki brown; bill brownish-black; mouth
pale pinkish-grey; legs, feet and claws horny-brown.
[I have examined the following specimens in the British Museum Collec-
tion: o? 18-4-77, 0? 16-4-80 Colathoorpolay, Patnas 3,800 ft. and 4,000 ft.
(Bourdillon); Q ?-5-97 Devikolam (A. H. Nair); Q@ 16-4-79 Mynall 4,000 ft.
(Bourdillon); Q 11-6-77, Q 21-6-77, 3 28-6-77 Kodaikanal 7,000 ft., Palnis
(Fairbank); ¢ Type Palnis (Fairbank); 3 24-5-77 Pillar Rocks Grove 7,000 ft.,
Palnis (Fairbank). No material is available for plumage study.—H. W.]
The specimen—a young bird with very imperfectly ossified skull—was shot
on a densely scrubbed hillside on the town outskirts in the same biotope as
Tarsiger brunnea, Ochromela nigrorufa and Pitta brachyura. It was solitary.
According to Ferguson the White-bellied Shortwing is found throughout the
Travancore hills in dense forest undergrowth at elevations over 3,000 ft.
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 402) writes: ‘I obtained one pair
in 1867 with their nest and two eggs all in the Kodai Grove. Described by
Blanford in P.Z.S. and figured in Gould’s Birds of Asia. I found them in the
same locality again in May and June this year. They live in the thickets of
the Kodaikanal and I obtained one in another grove at the Pillar Rocks. As
May is their nesting season and they indulge in a sweet song in the evening
twilight it is not difficult to trace them, though it is difficult to see them far
enough away to shoot without spoiling them. Sometimes they come out of the
thickets at dusk and sit by a bank or on the roadside and sing. Their song is
not so loud or so varied as that of Merula simillima, but similar in style and
in the quality of its tone.’
This bird is not found in Cevlon.
Breeding: Terry (S.F., x. 473) also met with it in the big shola [Vembadi?]
at Kodaikanal. He took c/2 fresh eggs on 7 June and c/2 fresh ‘later’,
and oives a descrintion of the nests.
From the acconnts it anvears that Avril, May and June are the breeding
months in the Palnis. Unless they also breed considerably later in Travancore,
it is difficult to account for the Survey specimen having a ‘very soft skull’ as
late as the 8rd week of January. In plumage, however, this specimen is in-
distinguishable from the adult. The only clutch from this area in Mr. Stuart
a collection was taken by T. F. Bourdillon on 7 March (Nidification,
vi, 4).
‘THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 283
Tarsiger brunnea brunnea (Hodgson). The Indian Blue Chat.
Specimens collected: 109 ¢ 18-1-33, 116 9 imm. 20-1-33 Munnar 5,000 ft.;
379 fg 28-2-33 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 972 g@ imm. 13-12-33 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft.); Peermade (8,200 ft.); Camp
Deramalai. (8,000 ft.); Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.—25 and 26 April !).
Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; bill blackish-brown, gape and chin
pale brownish flesh colour; mouth greyish-pink; legs, feet and claws brownish
flesh colour.
[The Survey specimens measure:
Biles Wing. Tail.
a piohieh 15 74-78 46-51 mm.
SS «15.5 * 73 46.5 mm.
Other specimens examined:
B. M. Collection: 19-11-74, 9 19-1-75- Mynall, . Travancore- (Bour-
dillon).
The plumages of this species are as follows:
Juvenile male: .The whole upper plumage including sides of the neds and
the lesser and median coverts dark olive-brown, the feathers faintly mottled with
dark brown and fulvous; remainder of wings and tail as in the adult male but
duller, the greater coverts edged with fulvous; whole lower plumsge fulvous,
becoming albescent on the centre of the abdomen and vent, the feathers edged
with dark brown, lightly on the chin, throat and undertail coverts, very heavily
on the breast and flanks.
Juvenile female resembles the juvenile: male except that the upper tail
coverts are washed with rufous and the wings and tail are similar to those of
the adult female.
The post-juvenal moult is complete with the exception of the primary and
outer ‘greater coverts, -the. primaries, secondaries and tertiaries and probably
the tail which are retained till the following autumn. It presumably takes
place about August-September.
The first winter plumage of .the male has two phases which may be con-
sidered in the light of ‘retarded’ and ‘progressive’ plumages as recently dis-
cussed by Mayr (Amer. Mus. Novitates, No. 666, 7 October 1933). The more
complete or ‘progressive’ phase is exactly hke the adult male:plumage, save for
the unmoulted portions of the juvenile plumage. The other phase is very
different in that the forehead and lores are fulvous, the top of the head, hind-
neck and upper mantle are brown with a fulvous and blue-grey wash; the
white supercilium and black facial band are absent, being replaced by mixed
brown and fulvous. The chestnut of the lower parts is paler, becoming whitish
on the chin and throat. This phase would I suppose be considered as ‘retarded’
by Mr. Mayr. At the same time it must be remembered that it may equally
be regarded as a step towards the formation of a definite first-year plumage
quite distinct from the juvenile and adult plumages. Whether males in this
second phase would breed it is not fully clear. They would presumably do so
as the birds of the ‘progressive’ phase certainly breed in it without the inter-
position of -a spring moult. If, however, the species is slowly developing a
third or pre-adult plumage as suggested, it may well also be developing a
spring moult to ensure that the fully adult plumage is assumed for the breeding
season.
The adults have a complete post-nuptial moult about August and See cmmer:
‘There is no spring moult and the summer and winter plumages are alike.—
fi Ws
The Indian Blue Chat is a fairly common winter visitor to all the ieee
core and Cochin hills. I met it between 2,900 and 5,000 ft. elevation, the
last date being 26 April. It may, however, be found cae later than this,
and a specimen in the Trivandrum Museum obtained by Ferguson (and referred
to in his. notes J.B.N.H.S., xv, 261) is labelled: @ May. 1891 High Range.
By the end of April most birds had left.
These chats frequent evergreen undergrowth, preferably of seedlings, but T
also found them partial to Rubus and Pandanus thickets especially where lining
forest nullahs or hill ravines. They ~ were: commonly met with under coffee
' All bill measurements are from skull unless specified,:
284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXJVIII
bushes and cardamom plants. They are usually found singly, flitting about
the undergrowth, alighting on the ground and hopping along easily and swiftly
in search of insects. A feeble monosyllabic squeak is repeated about once a
second, usually punctuated at intervals by ‘chr-r-r’ or ‘chick-chick’ like Alseonaw.
The bird similarly jerks its tail up when uttering these sounds.
Kinloch considered the Blue Chat somewhat rare in the Nelliampathies.
Fairbank (S.F., v) does not record it in his Palnis lst and the species has
apparently not yet been met in those hills.
It is a winter visitor also to the Ceylon hills being found there from the
middle of October to April.
Specimens No. 972 (18 December) and 116 (20 January) were immature
with imperfectly ossified skulls. The Fauna (i, 14) gives the breeding season
from Kashmir to Sikkim as May, June and early July. Unless, therefore some
birds also breed considerably later, it would seem that the process of ossi-
fication is unusually retarded in this species.
Saxicola caprata atrata Blyth. The South Indian Stone-Chat.
Specimens collected: 74 Q 12-1-33 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 110 ¢ 18-1-33 Munnar
5,000 ft.; 150 ¢$ 25-1-88 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 331 ¢, 332 Q 28-2-33 Peer-
made 3,200 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Camp Deramalai (3,000 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.)
doubtful !
Noted as absent at Thattakad (200 ft.) and Kumili (? 3,000 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws brownish-black ;
mouth yellowish-pink, greyish-pink or brownish-pink presumably varying with
age.
[ Additional specimens examined :
B.M. Coll.: & -2-80 Peermade (Bourdillon); 2 ¢¢ (Fry); 2 od
June, Kodaikanal, Palnis (Fairbank).
Sparrow Coll.: G 21-3-14 Cardamom Hills (Sparrow).
B.N.H.S. Coll.: 25-5-98, CG 4-38-94 Kodaikanal (Cook); ¢ 3-12-00
Pambanam; ¢ 28-12-00 Stagbrook; © 1-1-01 no locality; 9 25-1-01 Devicolum.
Measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
ees 14.5-18 72-78.5 53-59.5 mm,
#1016 15-16.5 70-75.5 51-54 mm.
In the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 69) I admitted the race
S. c. burmanica with a good deal of hesitation, the difference between it and
the typical race ((Luzon) being merely one of measurements and that very
limited. Since then I have been enabled to examine extra specimens including
series from Khandala and the Biligirirangan Hills through the kindness of Mr.
Humayun Abdulali and Mr. Ralph Morris respectively. These series show that
there is complete intergrading between the large atrata of the S.-W. hill ranges
and the small burmanica type obtained in the Eastern Ghats, which destroys
the very small margin which I showed to exist between the Eastern Ghats
series and the typical series. Dr. Ticehurst also informs me that a series
received by him from Burma also shows that Burmese birds cannot be separated
from the typical race. To sum up the effect of the specimens now measured
by iS (excluding the Biligirirangan series which on the whole are closer to
atrata) : |
Bill. Wing.
17 63 (EH. Ghats, Hyderabad,
Nagpur, Malabar Coast) 138.5-15 67-76.5 mm,
19 $o (Burma) 13.5-15 66-73 mm,
11 ¢¢ (uzon, Timor, Lombock
etc.) 14-15 64-75 mm.
On these measurements there is obviously no room to recognise two races,
even though it be admitted that if individual specimens are examined the
Luzon series tend to average larger in the same proportion as Ceylon birds
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Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE
ee
Ss
1. Shifting Camp across Periyar Lake, ca. 3,000 ft.
(Undulating grassy hilltops in background, favourite haunt of Schoenicola.
Partially submerged dead tree-trunks provide nesting sites to Mynahs of
several species and foraging bases to Artamus fuscus, Phalacrocoraz,
Haliastur and other birds.)
coe —
Photos by author.
2. A friendly visitor to the collecting camp at Aramboli.
The Indian Robin (Saricoloides f. fulicata) 9.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 285
compared with those of the Nilgiris. These average differences are not worth
subspecific recognition. The new specimens now available further confirm that
the females of both atrata and caprata are considerably darker than females
of the northern bicolor and more heavily streaked on the underparts.
The juvenile plumage of atrata is much darker than that of bicolor. Com-
pared with the latter the upper parts are a darker sooty-brown, with the pale
spotting much reduced; the chin and throat are dark sooty-brown with pale
central spots. The white spot on the inner coverts is much enlarged.
The adult plumage is assumed at the post-juvenal moult with the exception
of the primaries and their coverts, the secondaries and outer greater coverts
and tail, which are retained from the juvenile plumage apparently to the
following autumn. In this first winter plumage the black body feathers may
be largely fringed with brown. There is no pre-nuptial moult and the com-
plete post-nuptial moult starts as early as May and June.—H. W.]
The Stone-chat or Pied Bush-chat is not an abundant species in the Travan-
core-Cochin area. It is mostly confined to the hills where I came across it
up to 6,500 ft. elevation (Kimarikkai Malai, above Mardaiytr). Of all the
localties it was perhaps commonest at Mitnnar (5,000 ft.) with Peermade a
good second, though even here its numbers could stand no comparison with
its abundance in the Nilgiris. Camp Deramalai was the southernmost point
at which the species was noted.
The birds frequent open grassy hillsides sparsely interspersed with dwarf
date palms or straggly Nelli (Phyllanthus emblica) trees, and usually keep in
pairs.
On the Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 476) considered it one of the commonest
birds and he took several nests there.
In Ceyon this chat is a resident species, but local and restricted to eleva-
tions above 3,500 ft.
Breeding: In specimen No. 110 (18 January) the testes had commenced
developing and measured ca. 3X2 mm. Males at this time were singing from
exposed perches, a behaviour indicative of the approach of the breeding season.
The gonads of a pair, Nos. 331 and 332, on 22 February showed that they
were ready to breed: the testes measured 6X4 mm. while the ovarian follicles
were about 1 mm. in diameter. .
The above confirms the statement in the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S.,
xxxvi, 70) that the breeding season in this area commences as early as February.
It is said to continue till the end of May, but that most nests contain fresh
eges about the end of March and the beginning of April.
Cyanosylvia svecia (Linnaeus) subspecies? The Bluethroat.
Specimens not obtained.
At Thattakad (200 ft.) I saw the Bluethroat on several occasions in among
water-logged paddy fields amidst forest. A specimen shot could not be recovered.
It was not abundant here, neither was it noted elsewhere in Travancore.
The species has apparently not been recorded from this area before, though
Hume (S.F., x, 390) states that in the Wynaad it is common.
Saxicoloides fulicata fulicata (Linn.). The Indian Black-backed Robin.
Specimens collected: 248 ¢ 8-2-23 Thattakad 200 ft.; 601 ¢ 16-4-38, 607 3
17-4-38, 625 ¢ juv. 19-4-33 Aramboli 250 ft.; 921 Q 29-11-83 Wadakkancheri
400 ft.; 985 9 38-12-33 Nemmara 3800 ft.; 1056 ¢, 1057 ¢, 1058 9, 1059 ¢
1-11-34, 1060 @, 1061 9, 1062 9, 10638 ¢ 2-11-84 Pertmbavuir 600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Trichur, Kariipadanna (ca. S8.B.).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Tris brown, bill, legs, feet and claws brownish-
black; mouth blackish-brown, slaty-pink or greyish-pink varying with age (9).
Juvenile: Tris olive-brown; legs and feet greyish-black; claws black; mouth
bright yellow.
[The only other specimen from this area seen is in the British Museum
dG -10-69, Palnis (Hume Collection).
Measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
1 oS 15-17 73-79 60-67 25-27 mm.
999 15-15.5 69.5-75 59.5-62.5 25.5-26 mm,
286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI1I1
Juvenile plumage (¢ No. 625): Upper plumage chocolate-brown, the bases
of the feathers darker, the earcoverts streaked with rufous brown; wings and
their coverts dark chocolate-brown, the feathers edged with rufous brown;
tail black; lower plumage dark chocolate-brown, each feather of the chin,
throat and breast with a fulvous brown subterminal spot giving a mottled
appearance which dies away on the abdomen; lower tail-coverts chestnut.
I am not able to make out clearly whether the post-juvenal moult is com-
plete. In nearly all specimens the primaries and their coverts appear to be
faded and contrast with the rest of the wing, but I am not satisfied whether
these feathers start paler and bleach more rapidly or whether they are remains
of the juvenile plumage.
There is no pre-nuptial moult and the complete post-nuptial moult normally
takes place from August to October in Southern India generally.
In the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 72) I remarked on the
fact that the only female of this species seen from Ceylon, in the British
Museum Collection, was quite different to Peninsula specimens, being very dark,
almost black in colour and pointed out that if this difference was found to
be constant it would necessitate a revision of names. Since then the Director
of the Colombo Museum has very kindly sent me on loan a series of 7 speci-
mens collected in Ceylon. The two females in this series agree with the British
Museum specimen in colour, the single juvenile is just as dark, and the males
have rather less chestnut on the vent region as compared with Peninsular
birds, both sexes also having rather heavier, though not longer bills. It is
evident, therefore, that Ceylon birds must be kept separate from those of the
Peninsula and to them the name fulicata applies. For the southern peninsular
race |] think we may use Cnanthe ptymatura of Vieillot. The Fauna
(vol. vii, p. 112) gives the type locality for this as Ceylon, making the name
a true synonym of Sazicoloides f. fulicata, but this is not quite correct.
Gnanthe ptymatura Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxi (1818), p.485 was
based on Le Vaillant Hist. Nat. Oiseaux Afrique (1805), pl. 188, ‘fig. 1, repre-
senting Le Traqnet & queue stri¢e. In the text it was stated ‘L’espece de ce
traquet habite les buissons et les bois de mimosa du pays caffre’ but there is
no South African bird which can be identified with the plate. As, however,
the author goes on to say that this Traquet ‘se trouve aussi dans Le Bengale’
and as the plate certainly agrees. with the male of the Indian Robin, it is
evident that this species is meant. The locality ‘Bengale’ cannot, however,
be literally correct as Bengal birds belong to the brown-backed race and the
plate most manifestly represents the black-backed form. I think therefore we
are justified in regarding the word Bengal as used in the old sense as a
synonym for Tndia and restricting the type-locality to Pondicherry, then already
a Trench possession in the south, in order to avoid the creation of a new
name.
As regards our Travancore series, No. 985 is as dark as the Ceylon females
and No. 1058 is nearly as dark. The other females, however, agree with
South Indian birds; the males have the chestnut patch rather larger than in
Ceylon birds, whilst the beak in both sexes agrees with Peninsular birds. The
series is in fact exactly intermediate and its inclusion with either race is a
matter of oninion. On the whole T think it is best included with the typical
race.—H. W.]
The distribution of the Indian Robin in the Travancore-Cochin area 1s
governed entirely by the presence or otherwise of dry stony country with short
erass and sparse thorn and cactus bushes, such as generally obtains on the
Deccan Plateau and in the Madras districts across the eastern boundary of
the States. Add to this a sprinkling of Borassus palms standing on bunds or
about dry paddy fields hedged with patches of Lantana here and there, and
you have the ideal environment for this species. On a casual acquaintance
Thattakid appeared a most unlikely spot to find the Robin in. A few miles
down the Periyar River, however, a patch was struck which conformed with
most of its requirements and here the species immediately appeared. As
Ferguson observes, it is not a common bird in Travancore but I found it
decidedly more so in Cochin. Wherever its ecological requirements are satis-
fied—chiefly in the low country—small numbers are usually to be met. Fergu-
son has seen it at 2,000 ft. elevation in the hills during the dry season,
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 287
Fairbank (S.F., v, p. 406) records it from the eastern base of the Palni
Hills.
This Robin is a common resident in Ceylon.
Breeding: On 25 December (Kartpadanna, Cochin) a pair were observed
building in a pocket in a laterite roadside cutting near the Travellers’ Bungalow.
Both birds were bringing building material—hair, rootlets, cocoanut fibre, etc.
—more or less alternately at intervals of 80 seconds to 15 minutes. They were
most active till about 10-80 in the forenoon. The full clutch of 38 eggs was
completed on 380 December. During the heat of the day the nest was mostly
left unattended, but the female brooded at night. The male evidently does
not share in the incubation though later he helps to feed the young.
In specimens No. 2438 (8 February) and 601 (16 April) the testes measured
4x3 and 5x4 mm. respectively, while No. 607 (17 April) with testes 6x3
appeared to have a nest in the neighbourhood. No. 625 (19 April) was in
juvenile plumage with imperfectly ossified skull.
The breeding season obviously commences considerably earler in this area
than has been recorded from elsewhere, and continues at least till about the
middle of April, if not later.
Copsychus saularis ceylonensis Sclater. The Magpie-Robin.
Specimens collected: 381 9 7-1-83 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 705 4 22-7-33 Tri-
vandrum ca. 100 ft.; 759 ¢ 31-7-83- (Akkulam. 150 ft.); 768 @ 2-8-3383 (Maru-
thanktzhi ca. 50 ft.); 793 ¢ 5-8-3838 (Poojapptra 150 ft.); 812 Q 8-8-8383 (Makin-
nimalai 800 ft.) Trivandrum. Environs; 923 ¢ 30-11-83 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.’
1028 Q 27-12-33 Kartipadanna ca. S.I.
Elsewhere noted at: -Thattakad (200 ft.), Kottayam (ca. S.L.);- Kuamili
(3,000 ft.), Rajampara (1,350 ft.), Tenmalai (500 ft.);. Aramboli (250 ft.); at
base of Ashambi Hills below Balamore Estate (ca. 500 ft.), Chalakidi, Kiuriar-
kutti (1,600 ft.), Nemmara (300 ft.), Trichtr, Ernakilam.
Apparently it was absent at Padagiri (3,000 ft.—Nelliampathies), Peermade
(3,200 ft.) and curiously enough also at Cape Comorin.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill horny-black; mouth yellowish-flesh
to slaty-pink; legs, feet and claws horny-brown.
[Five males from Travancore in the British Museum are without data. The
Survey specimens measure as follows:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
5 oS 21-24 97.5-104 81.5-90 mm.
3 92 21-21.5 92-97 80-81: mm.
In writing on the Magpie Robin in the Eastern Ghats Survey Report,
I was hampered by the fact that the British Museum possessed no females
from Travancore. This has been remedied by the present Surveys and it is
now satisfactorily established that the Ceylon race certainly extends through-
out Travancore and Cochin, and {I am inclined to attribute to it also birds from
the Nilgiris, Wynaad and Bangalore.
The differences in the amount of black on the third and fourth outer tail
feathers and in the size of bill usually attributed to this race do not appear
to me to be constant, but the female is certainly darker both above and below
than in the typical race: No. 1028 is so dark that had it not been satisfactorily
sexed by dissection one would have hesitated to which sex to attribute it.
The juvenile ¢ No. 705 (in squamated plumage) is quite indistinguishable,
however, from similar specimens from the Punjab and the Duars.
The post-juvenal moult in this species is complete. There is no _pre-
nuptial moult and the post-nuptial moult is complete. The moult appears to
be remarkable at all ages for the sudden completeness with which the tail
is shed, so that birds with a short stub tail are often seen in autumn. The
post-nuptial moult in Travancore takes place about August.—H. W.]
The Magpie Robin is a fairly common species in Travancore and Cochin. it
was met with by the Surveys more or less throughout the low country and
also patchily and ‘sparsely in the hills up to 3,500 ft. In the Eastern Ghats
Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxyi, 74) through a slip it is stated that in Travancore
288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Ferguson regarded it as more particularly a bird of the hills. Actually Fergu-
son described it (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 466) as *. . . essentially a bird of the plains’.
It inhabits secondary jungle and scrub country in the neighbourhood of
cultivation and human habitations, being especially partial to the cashew and
fruit gardens about homesteads along the backwaters.
Between 10 November and upto 8 December the males were observed as
practically silent, the only notes then uttered being a prolonged and somewhat
plaintive swee-ee and subdued harsh chr-r, chr-r, etc. The birds were also in-
ordinately shy and kept mostly to undergrowth. On the latter date for the
first time crude attempts at song were heard. From now on ‘rudimentary’
song or ‘singing practice’ was more and more commonly heard. By the middle
of January individual males were singing full-throatedly from tree-tops both
early morning and evening, but this had as yet not become general. The rapid
growth and development of song thereafter, however, was marked, and _ by
15 February—about which date males were puffing and strutting about and
chasing off rivals—it was heard on all sides.
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 406) found the Magpie Robin from
the base up to 5,000 ft., but Terry (S.F., x, 476) only saw it far down the
slopes and did not think it ascended to any height.
It is common throughout Ceylon up to 5,500 ft.
Breeding: Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 466) says it breeds in February and
March. The Surveys were unable to obtain any direct evidence on this point,
but the behaviour of the cocks from about the middle of February onward
certainly tends to confirm his statement. That it continues to breed longer
is suggested by four of the specimens collected in July and August which were
undergoing complete post-nuptial moult.
Kittacincla malabarica malabarica (Scopoli). The Shama.
Specimen collected: 880 Q 18-11-83 Kuriarkuatti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere not noted, but I have seen a specimen in the Trivandrum
Museum labelled: © 1-8-(70?) Kuttyani.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill dark horny-brown; mouth pink;
legs and feet pinkish flesh colour; claws dusky.
[Two specimens from Travancore (Biddulph) in the British Museum have
no more precise data.
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
230d 19.5-20 89-94 175-176. mm:
eo) 20 90.5 12725) mime
This female is of the richly coloured type which approaches the adult male
in colouration as opposed to the much duller paler type in which the upper
parts, chin and throat are dull ashy grey and the breast and abdomen fulvous
rather than chestnut. I do not yet understand the plumages of this species
and females are too rare in collections for me to decide whether these differ-
ences are due to age or individual variation or even possibly subspecific.—H. W. ]
The specimen was one of a pair in dense bamboo and deciduous scrub jungle
bordering a drag-path for logs. Several single examples were seen in this
facies, once in a mixed bird association. They were silent and extremely
shy.
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 466) writes as follows: ‘The Shama is not com-
mon in Travancore; it frequents jungle and is decidedly shy. It does not
ascend the hills.’
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 406) records hearing one singing at
dusk in a thicket at the eastern base of the hills.
In Ceylon the Shama is generally distributed upto about 3,500 ft.
Breeding: The ovary of the specimen was undeveloped. According to Nidi-
fication (ii, 106), Stewart found it breeding in Travancore during April.
Turdus simillimus mahrattensis Whistler. The Black-capped Blackbird.
Specimens collected: 89 J 14-1-33 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 104 @ 18-1-33
Munnar 5,000 ft.; 155 ¢ 25-1-83 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 271 9 11-2-38
Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I.
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Photo by author
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on banks.
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THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 289
Thattakad 200 ft.; 319 9, 320 ¢ 21-2-33, 337 Q 23-2-38, 38538 Q 24-2-83 Peer-
made eee ft.; 883 ¢ 18-11-33 Kuriarkitti 1,600 ft.; 969 Q 12-12-83 Padagiri
3,000 ft.
Hlsewhere noted at: Muthikazhi (4,000 ft.—Ashambu Hills). This or
bourdilloni?
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; eyelids orange; postorbital skin
orange-brown, orange-yellow or rich orange corresponding with gape and_ bill;
gape and bill horny-brown with orange patches at gape nostrils and_ sides,
brownish-orange with dusky tips or bright orange with dusky tips; mouth
orange-yellow; legs, feet and claws dusky orange-yellow.
[Additional specimen examined : ¢ 14-83-14 Cardamom Hills (Sparrow).
Measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail. ‘Tarsus.
Bad. dd 25-27 126.5-135 92-100 30-33-5 mm.
1 First winter — 121 89 — mm.
5 99 26.5-28 122-128.5 86.5-97.5 30-82.5 mm.
In the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 75-6) I pointed out the
difficulties in connection with these South Indian Blackbirds, and these diffi-
culties chiefly pertain to the area of the Travancore-Cochin Surveys. Hither
the records are wrong or these Blackbirds cannot all be treated as races of
one form. It may be as well first of all to summarise the records under the
three of our areas to which they apply (I use here the name mnigripileus as
it occurs in the records.) :—
Nelliampathy Hills.
(1) nigripileus very common. Generally terrestrial in habits and occurring
in pairs, but I have seen large flocks in Lantana (Kinloch, J.B.N.H.S8., xxvii,
941).
(2) bourdilloni: common on the Lily Downs (4,700 ft.) and there replaces
nigripileus the common bird of the plateau (Kinloch, J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 565).
Palni Hills.
(1) simillima: (a) may be heard any evening in spring in the Kodaikanal
and other groves above 4,000 ft. Two specimens (Fairbank, S.F., v, 403).
(b) Very common everywhere in the sholas on the top. They commence
breeding in the middle of March and were still breeding when I left in the
middle of June (Terry, S.F., x, 474).
(2) nigripileus: JT found this bird at Pulungi, Pittur and Kukal. At the
latter place it was quite common. I am sure it was breeding at the time
I was there, May, but I was unable to find a nest (Terry, loc. cit.).
(3) bourdilloni: Q shot from 1 egg on 18 May. C shot from c/2 eggs on
3 June. Details of nests (Terry, loc. cit. called kinnisi?).
Travancore.
(1) bourdilloni: Fairly common on High Range and above 3,500 ft. in the
south (Ferguson, J.B.N.H.S., xv, 466). Previously recorded by Bourdillon
(S.F., vu, 85) as kinnisi.
Mr. Stuart Baker in the new Fauna (ii, 125-129) and Nidification gives the
breeding range of simillimus as the higher ranges of the Nilgiris, Brahmagiris
and Palnis and of bourdilloni as the Palnis, Nelliampathies and Travancore,
in both cases from 3,000 ft. upwards. This, if correct, would negative the
idea that they are races of each other.
I think part of the difficulty may be removed by considering nigripileus
(auct.) as a winter visitor. In the Hastern Ghats Report I pointed out that
the above records were not substantiated by skins—and one has only to examine
a large series of these Blackbirds to realise how variable they are and how
difficult it is to be sure of the identifications—though I had found an un-
doubted male from the Cardamom Hills in Colonel ‘3parrow’s collection, shot
on 14 March 1914. The fine series collected by Mr. Salim Ali now proves that
this form dces occur down to Travancore. Terry’s May record is not in-
compatible with the bird being a winter migrant. Tarsiger brunnea which
summers in the Himalayas, lingers down in the Nilgiris until May and it is
an earlier breeder than nigripileus (auct.) which in Khandala breeds from July
290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
to September (Nidification, 11, 115). In the Nasik Ghats it certainly does not
arrive until May (J.B.N.H.S., iv, 289).
If nigripileus (auct.) can be proved to breed in our area, then it will be
necessary to recognise two species Merula simillimus and M. mahrattensis
of which latter spence: will be a race. The difference in wing formula would:
then be of importance as a means of separating the two species.
The remainder of the difficulty centres in the Palnis. I have only seen six
skins from those hills, all in the British Museum. The two birds collected by
Terry from his two nests and called kinnisi are in the British \Museum. ‘These
are certainly bourdilloni as is a third bird collected by Terry on 1-6-83 with
e/3 eggs which is in Dr. C. B. Ticehurst’s collection. With it is another
skin, unlabelled but evidently of the same batch. These two birds in Dr.
Ticehurst’s collection probably represent Terry’s supposed simillimus. The other
two specimens collected by Fairbank (Kodaikanal and Shemiganur) and. now
in the British Museum are not conclusive. They appear intermediate between
simillimus and bourdilloni and suggest that the whole difficulty in the Palnis
arises from its being an intermediate area. The final solution of the whole
matter must be left to the field naturalist on the spot.—H. W.]
Since all the Blackbirds collected by the Surveys in Travancore and Cochin
belong to this form, I assume that my field notes also relate to the same bird.
It must be noted, however, that both Bourdillon and Ferguson met only the
race bourdillon’ in Travancore and that Kinloch also records the latter from
the Nelliampathies, so that there is always a possibility of some confusion in
my observations. ;
I found the Black-capped Blackbird common in the High Range and above
8,000 ft: in the south: I also met it at Thattakad (200 ft.). at the foot of
the former, where however it was rare. It was most abundant at Peermade
(3,200 ft.) and Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelhampathies) while at Munnar (5,000 ft.)
in the Kanan Dévan Hills it was also common. It kept to evergreen sholas
principally about their periphery and was frequently to be seen feeding on the
edge of paths and forest traces early in the mornings and at dusk singly, or
in pairs or small parties.
_ Its food consisted to a very large extent of the berries of Maesa perottetiana
DC., Trema orientalis Blume and Lantana camara while the birds also in-
variably resorted to feed on the nectar of the blossoms of Erythrina lithosperma
shade trees in tea and coffee plantations wherever suitably situated.
Between November and February the Blackbird was silent except for a
subdued but sharp high-pitched kree-ee uttered from time to time, varied occa-
sionally by a throaty, quick-repeated chuck-chuck-chuck. Their silence at this
season probably made them appear less common in many localities than they
actually were.
On 1 February IT have the first record of one trying to sing. It was a
half-hearted effort of short duration and punctuated every now and again with
the throaty chucks. By the last date of which I have a record (25 April—
Mitthikazhi 4,000 ft.; Ashambti Hills), males were in. full song about that
elevation. ;
Breeding: It is doubtful if the Black-capped Blackbird breeds in Travan-
core or Cochin. The gonads of the specimens furnished no indication in this
regard. It was noted, however, that the February specimens had either com-
pleted moult into fresh nuptial plumage or were in varying stages of dome so.
Tur dus simillimus bourdilloni (Seebohm). Bourdillon’s Blackbird.
Not met with by the Surveys, but Ferguson records it as common in the
High Range and above 38,500 ft. in’ the southern Travancore hills.
Mr. Whistler has examined tht following specimens: Brit. Museum: 4 4-97,
¢ 4-98 Chimunji (Ferguson); ¢@ 29-3-77 Mynall (Bourdillon); [4] albinistic no
date, High Range 7,000 ft.; ¢ 5-91 High Range (Turner); < 2-1-94 ‘Glenbrit-
ten’: ¢ 27-12-93 Chimunji: \¢ 17-4-80 Colathoorpolay, Patnas (F. Bourdillon) ;
297,92 4-97 High Range (Ingleby); 9 5-91 High Range (Turner); [ 9] 29-12-93,
lO] 4-98 nay (Ferguson); 9 28-7-72 Pannuyar (?);° 6 8-6-8383 Kodaikanal
(Terry); 9 18-5-83, juv. 17-5-83 Kukal, Palni Hills (Terry). Trivandrum
Musewm: @& 18-1-01 Moonar,.¢ 5-83-03 Chimanji; Q 3-97 High Range (Ingleby);
0? 22-1-01 Devicolum. - iG SS ocehee
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 291
He measures Travancore specimens only, as follows:
Bill: Wing. Tail. ‘Tarsus.
436 26-27 122.5-123.5 97-100.5 31.5-34 mm.
‘3 OQ 26-28 119.5-122 93.5-97.5 31-32.5 mm.
Breeding: Bourdillon and Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 466) took a nest at
Chimunji in April (1908). Nidification (ii, 118) records another nest containing
c/2 fresh eggs by the former on 14 May in dense evergreen forest at 3,500 ft.
Mr. Stuart Baker (loc. cit.) also mentions that Kinloch took several nests in
April in the Nelliampathy Hills ‘undoubtedly’ of this race and the ‘builders are
now in the Bombay Museum’. Inquiries at the Bombay Natural History
Society reveal that there are now no skins collected by Kinloch in the Nelliam-
pathies in thei collection, and it is evident that the record requires fresh sub-
stantiation.
In the Palni Hills, Terry took a nest with 1 egg on 18 May (18838) and
another with c/3 on 3 June. He shot the owners which are now in the
British Museum. A third bird shot by him from a nest with 38 eggs is in Dr.
C. B. Ticehurst’s collection.
Turdus simlliimus simillimus (Jerdon). The Nilgiri Blackbird.
Not met with by the Surveys neither recorded by Ferguson. or Bourdillon
in Travancore nor by Kinloch in the Nelliampathies. In the Palni Hills,
however, both Fairbank and Terry record it as common at Jodaikanal and
everyWhere in the sholas above 4,000 ft. According to Terry (S.F., x, 474)
they breed there from the middle of March to the middle of June at least.
Fairbank obtained two specimens (9.F'., v, 403) which are now in the British
Museum. As noted above these two specimens are somewhat intermediate in
character.
Geokichla wardii (Blyth). The Pied Ground Thrush.
Not met. with by the Surveys. . .
The Pied Ground Thrush occurs in the Travancore-Cochin area apparently
only as a rare passage migrant between its breeding haunts -(viz. moderate
elevations in the Himalayas from Kulu to Simla eastwards and in North
Assam) and its winter quarters in Ceylon. The meagre records from the
intervening peninsular area suggest that the bird travels by the Eastern Ghats
route and does not linger much on the way.
Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 944) observed a single male in the Nelliampathy
Hills in March which he considered to be on passage.
In Travancore, Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 466) obtained one in February
on the High Range. ;
In the Palni Hills, Terry (S8.F., x, 474) procured a female on 1 March
and a male on 3 March in thick sholas about a mile apart at Pulungi.
Its numbers in Ceylon are said to vary considerably in different years.
Geokichla citrina cyanotus (Jardine & Selby). The White-throated Ground-
Thrush.
Specimens. collected: 161 Q imm.., 26-1-33. Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 251. 9
9-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 344 G 23-2-83 Peermade 3,200 ft.: 496 3S 26-38-33
Tenmalai 500 ft.; 905 2 26-11-33 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Rajampara (1,350 ft.—Panthalam Hills). |
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill blackish-brown, paler at chin ;
mouth yellowish-pink, pale pink, or greyish-pink with brown blotches on palate ;
legs and feet brownish flesh colour; claws duskier.
[Other material examined:
Brit. Mus. Goll.: 3 6-9-78, Q 80-11-84 Mynall (Bourdillon).
Sparrow Coll.: Q -28-3-14 Cardamom Hills.
Measurements :
eet Bill. . Wing. Tail.
ROU OS 23.5-24 eee. 5 73.5-80 min.
5 99 22.5-24.5 105-110.5 | 73-75 mm.—H. W.]
The White-throated Ground Thrush: was met with ‘at elevations up to
3,500 ft. in Travancore and Cochin, being fairly common in shady cardamom
992 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIlIi
sholas and well-wooded country, both deciduous and evergreen. It is usually
met singly or in pairs and is particularily fond of overgrown ravines and
nullahs. It feeds on the ground among the mulch and brushwood, but promptly
flies up into the overhanging branches of trees on taking alarm. The only
note heard between 24 November and 26 March (being dates on which it was
first and last seen) was a subdued but high-pitched kree-ee.
I cannot throw any light on its status in this area. Both Bourdillon (S.F.,
iv, 898) and Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 467) considered it a winter visitor,
but Nidification (i, 182) records the former taking nests in Travancore with
eggs or young in May and June! Kinloch lists it as ‘very common’ in the
Nelliampathies, but is silent as regards its status. Pillai evidently failed to
meet it at Kattyani and other wooded groves in the environs of Trivandrum town
between 15 July and 15 August.
The gonads of all the Survey specimens were in a quiescent state. No. 161
(26 January) was not fully adult as evidenced by the imperfect ossification
of its skull.
This race has not been recorded from Ceylon though the northern (typical)
race has occurred there 2 or 3 times.
Oreocincla dauma neilgherriensis Blyth. The Nigiri Thrush.
Not met with by the Surveys. I have seen a specimen in the Trivandrum
Museum said to come from Travancore, but lacking precise data.
According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 467) the Nilgiri Thrush is rare
in Travancore, being found in the High Range above 4,000 ft. and also
sparingly in the south. W. F. Bourdillon found it sparingly in thick jungle
from the summit of the hills (in Central Travancore) down to about 2,000 ft.
elevation.
Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S8., xxix, 564-5) records it as numerous on the Lily Downs
(4,700 ft.) in the Cochin Nelliampathies.
In the Palni Hills, according to Terry (S.F., x, 474) it breeds, but appar-
ently there are no records of its doing so in Travancore or Cochin.
Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors). The Blue-headed Rock-Thrush.
Specimens collected: 45 Q 9-1-3838, 55 ¢ 10-1-33 Maraiyur 3,500 ft.; 366 ¢
27-2-83 Kimili 3,000 ft.; 454 ¢, 455 Q 17-83-33, 481 ¢, 482 Q 21-38-33 Rajam-
para 1,350 ft.; 881 ¢ 18-11-33 Kiuriarkitti 1,600 ft.; 998 9 20-12-33 Padagiri
3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Nemmara (800 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; bill dark horny-brown, yellow at
gape and on commissure and chin; gape and mouth yellow; legs, feet and
claws greyish- or horny-brown; soles pale yellow.
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
43s 23.5-24 101.5-105 69.5-71.5 mm.
3.9.0 23.5 98.5-101 66-67.5 mm.
There are 8 specimens in the British Museum from Mynall (Bourdillon)
dated November (earliest date 18th), December, January and 9 March.
Nos. 45 and 55 are first winter birds. I do not understand the statement
in the Fauna (ii, 182) that the young male is like the female. In neither
juvenile plumage nor in first winter plumage does it resemble the adult female.
Tn the juvenile male the upper plumage, including the lesser and median wing-
coverts, 1s fulvous-yellow, each feather edged with brownish-black, giving a
squamated appearance. The lower rump ‘and upper tail coverts are pale
chestnut, the feathers of the former lightly fringed with black. Lower parts
sunilar to upper parts but paler, the squamation less marked on the throat,
vent and undertail coverts. The wings and tail resemble those of the adult
male but the primary and greater coverts have fulvous edges, the fulvous edges
to the tertiaries are wider than in the adult, and the blue of the wing generally
is much duller. The tail is lightly tipped with bright fulvous. The juvenile
female has the same squamated plumage but lacks the chestnut rump-patch
and the wings and tail are similar to those of the adult female, the greater
coverts and tertiaries being edged with pale fulvous.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 293
This plumage is changed at the post-juvenal moult which takes place
between July and September. The primaries and primary coverts, the secon-
daries and greater coverts, the tertiaries and tail are not then moulted and
the first winter and first summer plumage differs only from the respective
adult plumage in both sexes by the retention of those feathers until the second
autumn moult which is complete. Adults have a complete moult about August
and September. There is no spring moult, but the wearing off of the fringes
to the feathers makes the summer plumage a little darker—H. W.]
This Thrush is also a fairly common winter visitor in the Travancore-
Cochin area, from the level of the low country to at least 3,500 ft., and doubt-
less higher. I do not seem to have come across it at Munnar or elsewhere
about that elevation, but Ferguson found it at 5,000 ft. in the High Range.
It is partial to broken country or stony hillsides covered with light deciduous
and bamboo jungle, rather than to the more heavily wooded parts beloved
of the White-throated Ground-Thrush. Its favourite facies may in fact be
described in general terms as intermediate between the heavily wooded patches
frequented by Geokichla citrina and the open sparsely covered rocky hillsides
etc. preferred by Monticola solitaria.
Cardamom sholas and coffee plantations also provide admirable hunting
grounds for this species. It was frequently met with singly in thin jungle
about villages and cultivation, and it has the same habit of flying silently
up into the overhanging branches of trees when disturbed. Sometimes the
bird will descend to the ground ta pick up an insect and fly up with it to its
perch, very much in the manner of a Bush-chat.
Kinloch describes it as common in the Nelliampathy Hills, presumably in
winter.
It has not been recorded from Ceylon.
The gonads of the specimens were in an undeveloped condition. Speci-
mens Nos. 454, 455 (17 March) and 481 (21 March) were extremely fat and
were obviously ready to emigrate. The fat scraped off the last named weighed
86 grains! No. 482 (21 March) was an immature bird with skull as yet im-
perfectly ossified. It was noted that about this time there was an overwhelming
preponderance of males (as judged from plumage), a fact suggesting that the
females had preceded the males on the outward migration.
A remarkable instance of a female (dissection and sexing confirmed!) as-
suming adult male plumage was noted in the case of specimen No. 455. The
bird appeared in perfectly healthy condition and, as mentioned, was very fat.
Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes). The Indian Blue Rock-Thrush.
Specimens collected: 93 ©Q 14-1-33 Maraiyir 3,500 ft.; 118 ¢ 20-1-33
Munnar 5,000 ft.; 346 ¢ 24-2-338 Peermade 3,500 ft.; 949 @ 6-12-33 Nemmara
300 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft.), Aramboli (250 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws blackish-
brown; mouth lemon yellow or yellowish-pink.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
333 245-27 118-125 77.5-88 mm.
1 Q 28.5 113.5 78.5 mm,
No. 93 is a first winter bird. This species has the same plumage sequence
as in Monticola cinclorhyncha. The juvenile male is sooty-brown washed with
bluish-grey, the feathers of the crown, sides of the face, chin, throat and
upper breast with subterminal pale fulvous spots, the rest of the feathers
faintly fringed with fulvous; wings and tail as in the adult male, but greater
coverts and tail with broader pale edges. The juvenile female is similar but
paler and browner, the wings and tail as in the adult female. The post-
juvenal moult takes place about August-September and does not include the
primaries and primary coverts, the secondaries and all but the inner greater
coverts or the tail. These are not moulted till the second autumn. The adults
undergo a complete moult about August to October. There is no spring moult.
5
994 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Both male and female show a certain amount of variation in the amount
of spotting and barring of the body plumage.—H. W.]
The Blue Rock-Thrush is also a fairly common winter visitor to Travancore-
Cochin. First seen 6 December; last 21 April. It is almost invariably seen
as a solitary bird frequenting both low hummocky country and up to at least
5,000 ft. in the hills. It is essential, however, that the locality be open
with plenty of sheet rock or scarps amidst sparse scrub with scraggy tufts
of grass growing out of the crevices, such as is typical of the drier hillsides
in this area. Stone quarries never fail to attract it. Kinloch also found it
common in such facies in the Nelhampathy Hills. The only record of its
occurrence in the Palnis is apparently that of Capt. Bates from Kodaikanal
onvoApril, (1929" Job NeHes. ex xxviee oO):
It is a straggler to Ceylon (November-March).
Its food consists principally of insects, but I have frequently observed it
feeding largely on the berries of Lantana camara.
The organs of the specimens showed no departure from the normal non-
breeding condition.
Myophonus horsfieldii Vigors. The Malabar Whistling Thrush.
Specimens collected: 35 ¢ 7-1-83 Maraiyur 38,500 ft.; 654 9 24-4-33 Bala-
more Estate 2,000 ft.; 924 ¢ 30-11-83 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Munnar (5,000 ft.), Santhanpara (8,500 ft.), Thattakad
(200 ft.), Mundakayam (ca. 1,000 ft.), Peermade (8,200 ft.), Kamiuli (8,000 ft.),
Rajampara (1,350 ft.), Tenmalai (500 ft.), Ktvallé (along Cochin Forest Tram-
way), Kuriarkitti (1,600 ft.), Padagiri (8,000 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; bill, legs, feet and claws black;
mouth pale yellow or creamy pink.
[Further specimens examined: Brit. Mus. Coll.: G 93-7-78, Q 2-12-74
Mynall (Bourdillon).
Travancore-Cochin specimens measure:
Bull. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
iareire) 32.5-34.5 155.5-158.5 112-113.5 ~ 44-49 mm.
29°98 29.5 143.5-148 103-108 42-45 mim.
It is difficult to settle whether to consider this bird as a race of M. ceruleus
- or as a separate species. It is evidently from the same stock and reflects
many features of the parent form. At the same time it has evidently been
isolated for so long a period and has advanced so far on different lines that
it has now really attained the rank of a separate species.—H. W. |
The Whistling Thrush is a common and familiar species throughout the
forested portions of the Travancore-Cochin area in the foothills as well as
higher up to at least 5,000 ft. elevation. It frequents the vicinity of streams
and torrents, often about villages and human habitations. Its call is one of
the earliest bird voices to be heard in the morning, being followed soon after
by the Pitta. In December and January the rich rambling whistling song was
seldom heard, but by the end of March and in April it had increased in
frequency.
The bird moves about on the ground and on rocks in or by the streams
in short hops, constantly jerking its tail and spreading it fanwise.
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank and Terry both found it in sholas and where-
ever there was running water, from the base up to 5,000 ft.
It does not occur in Ceylon where it is apparently represented by the
endemic Arrenga blight.
Breeding: The gonads of the specimens were in an undeveloped condition.
According to T. F. Bourdillon, the season in Travancore is April and May,
the normal clutch comprising of 8 eggs. Nidification (ii, 154-5) gives June to
August as the usual breeding season in Travancore, but mentions Stewart
taking a nest as early as 13 February. It suggests that probably the birds
breed twice.
At Panchgani (4,400 ft.—Western Ghats) I found breeding to be in full
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 995
swing in July and August (1931). Two successive broods were common and
the period of incubation was determined to be 16-17 days.
Famity: MUSCICAPIDAE.
Siphia parva albicilla (Pallas). The Eastern Red-breasted Flycatcher.
Specimen collected: 3888 [¢] 1-8-3838 Kumili 3,000 ft.
Klsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; bill blackish-brown except chin
and gape which whitish; mouth yellow; legs, feet and claws blackish-brown.
[The specimen is an adult male in full red-breasted plumage. This is a
considerable extension of range for this species. The typical race has not been
recorded below 5S. Mysore at the foot of the Nilgiris on the Bangalore road
(Hume, S.F., x, 372) and S. p. albicilla has not been recorded south of Belgaum
(@ 22-10-1879 Butler) and the Nallamalais (¢ imm. 7-11-29 Eastern Ghats
Survey, J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 81).
This specimen is undergoing the spring moult which appears to be chiefly
confined to the red patch and its grey edging. Tirst year males and females
are alike and can only be distinguished from the adult female by the fact
that the post-juvenal moult does not include the tertiaries, greater and primary
coverts and wing quills which remain from the juvenile dress. The first year
male evidently attains the red throat and grey edging in the first spring’ moult.
—H. W.]
The specimen—-the only one of the species met with in Travancore or Cochin
—was shot off a large mango tree adjacent to the camp shed. Here it was
fitting about in pretty twisting sallies after insects in among the branches or
thence on to fence-posts or the ground to pick up an insect and back again
uttering its characteristic click, click from time to time as it jerked its cocked-
up tail.
: The gonads were not distinct enough for the specimen to be sexed with
certainty.
The Survey was unable to confirm the statement in tthe Mauna (in, Qi)
that -the typical race of this Flycatcher occurs in winter as far south as
Travancore. Ferguson’s list does not record it thence while neither Fairbank
nor Terry appear to have met it in the Palni Hills.
Muscicapula pallipes pallipes Jerdon. The White-bellied Blue Flycatcher.
Specimens collected: 129 $ 23-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 350 [|] 24-2-33
Peermade 3,200 ft.; 373 @ 28-2-38, 398 Q 3-38-33, 404 9, 405 ¢@ 5-3-33 Kiumili
3,000 ft.; 498 ¢ 26-38-33 Tenmalai 500 ft.; 867 ¢ 15-11-33, 870 92 16-11-83
Kuriarkttti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Mundakayam (ca. 1,000 ft.), Padagiri (8,000 ft.—
Nelliampathy Hills.)
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill brownish-black; mouth slaty-pink
or greyish-pink; legs and feet horny-brown.
[The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. ane Tarsus.
5 SOS 17.5 73-79 57.5-63 18.5-19 mm.
4909 15.5-17 72.5-75.5 55-61.5 18.5 mm.
Other specimens examined :
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 24-2-78 Travancore; 0? n.d. Mynall (Bourdillon) ;
0? juv. 9-90 Chimunji (Ferguson)—labelled muttui.—H. W.|
The White-bellied Blue Flycatcher though not numerically abundant, 1s
common as a species in evergreen forest tracts throughout the two States. The
lowest elevation at which I came across it was about 500 ft., the highest
3,500 ft., but as in the Nilgiris, it is probably also found higher up in the
hills. It is a quiet unobtrusive little bird, keeping mostly to the dense under-
growth of tall lanky seedlings or Strobilanthes, and is frequently a member
of the localised bird associations common to this facies. It is also partial to
cardamom sholas where it frequents the vicinity of the overgrown nullahs or
ravines that run through them. Usually seen singly, most birds appeared tc
296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVill
have paired off from about the beginning of March. It has a-habit of screwing
its tail from side to side lke the Thick-billed Flowerpecker.
The species does not seem to have been recorded from the Palnis.
It does not occur in Ceylon.
Breeding: In No. 873 (28 February) the ovary was. distinctly granular
and the follicles were further enlarged in 893 (8 March) and in 404 (5 March).
The testes of 405 (pair to the last, and same date) measured 5X3 mm., those
of 493 (26 March) 7X5 mm. All the birds were in immaculate plumage and
appeared to be breeding or about to. The rest of the specimens showed no
genital development.
Stuart Baker records (Nidification, 1, 195) that J, Stewart took nests im
Travancore between 1 and 2,000 ft. elevation chiefly during the rains, but
that he also found some as early as February and others as late as September.
The normal clutch is said to be almost invariably of 4 eggs.
The evidence obtained by the Surveys tends to confirm the usual breeding
season given in the Fauna (ii, 228) as March and April.
Muscicapula rubeculoides rubeculoides (Vigors). The Blue-throated Fly-
catcher.
Specimens collected: 238 [Q] 7-2-88 Thattakad 200 ft.; 463 @ 18-38-33
Rajampara 1,350 ft.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill brownish-black; mouth greyish-pink
or slaty-pink; legs, feet and claws greyish-brown (with a pinkish tinge in
No. 288).
[| Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
‘ei broken (5) 56.5 — mm.
Q 16 72.5 missing 15.5 mm.
This is a new record for Travancore, though the bird has several times
been recorded from the Madras Presidency.—H. W.].
This Flycatcher—apparently a winter visitor only—was usually seen singly
in scrub and secondary jungle with tangles of creepers, on the fringe of
evergreen forest.
No. 468 (18 March) was excessively fat and evidently preparing to emigrate.
A very marked preponderance of males over females was noted at Rajampara
about the time the specimen was secured. The trill of the male which was being
frequently uttered, is similar to yet clearly distinguishable from that of Tickell’s
Blue Flycatcher also present in the same locality, and in common with the
latter it has the characteristic flycatcher habit of flicking its cocked-up tail
and uttering chr-r, chr-r or click, click.
In Ceylon it is apparently not an uncommon winter visitor from October
to April.
Muscicapula tickelliae tickelliae (Blyth). Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher.
Specimens collected: 44 ¢ 9-1-3383 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 452 g¢ 17-38-38, 470 ¢
19-3-38, 484 Q 21-38-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 884 ¢ 18-11-33 Kuriarkutti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Munnar (5,000 ft.), Thattakad (200 ft.), Wadakkan-
cheri (400 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; bill brownish-black; mouth slaty-
pink; legs and feet greyish-brown; claws brown.
[Other specimens examined:
B. M. Coll.: 0? 28-5-77 Palni Hills (Fairbank).
Sparrow Coll.: @ 1-4-14 Kumili, Travancore.
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
De Go 14.5-16 70-76.5 55-68 h6:5=17 mm,
1 9 15 69 55 16 mm.—H. W.]
Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher, though curiously enough not appearing in Fergu-
son’s Travancore list, is a fairly common species in our area. It avoids ever-
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 297
green forest and prefers opener scrub and secondary jungle of more or less
deciduous aspect, especially where intermixed with bamboo or Heta (Ochlandra).
I came across it between 200 and 5,000 ft. elevation. Its freely repeated
musical little trill invariably gave away its presence long before the bird was
seen. This song is apparently uttered all the year round, though more fre-
quently during the breeding season.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 402) obtained a specimen in the Palni Hills (evidently
the one now in the British Museum) and observed it ‘unfrequently from top
to bottom’, while Terry (S.F., x, 473) found it breeding in the Pittur Valley.
Kinloch also obtained nests in the Palnis (Nidification, 11, 202).
In Ceylon it is represented by the race mesea which is endemic to the
island.
Breeding: The November and January specimens showed no genital develop-
ment. Nos. 452 (17 March) and 470 (19 March) on the other hand both had
testes enlarged to 6x4 and 5x4 mm. respectively, while the female (No. 484—
21 March) had a distinctly granular ovary and a prominent incubation patch.
All the 3 latter were in freshly moulted plumage.
On 21 March also, a male was observed conveying building material—a
bunch of fibres—in its bill, and nesting was obviously in progress.
Eumiyas thalassina thalassina (Swainson). The Verditer Flycatcher.
Specimen collected: 191 ¢ 30-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.), Peermade (8,200 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill horny-black; mouth pale yellowish-
flesh colour; legs, feet and claws blackish-brown.
[The Survey male measures:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
14 86 70 17 mm.
Other specimens examined:
B. M. Coll.: @Q 20-11-74, ¢$ 2-12-78, ¢ 27-11-74 Mynall (Bourdillon).—
Eee Wea
This Flycatcher (a winter visitor) is certainly much less common than
the following species which it closely resembles in habits. Ferguson did not
come across it in Travancore, but Bourdillon who procured the above specimens
notes it as a common though not abundant winter visitor ‘up to 2,000 ft.’
from December to March. J, did not meet with it in Cochin although Kinloch
(J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 939-44) describes it as ‘very common’ in the Nelliampathies
in the cold wevther till the end of March at comparatively low elevations. He
obtained a specimen at 3,300 ft.
Neither Fairbank nor Terry have recorded it from the Palni Hills though
it must doubtless occur there in the cold weather.
It is not recorded from Ceylon.
The distribution of this Flycatcher in Nidification (ii, 206) is rather mis-
leadingly worded. So far we have no evidence that the bird breeds anywhere
in India proper south of the Himalayas.
Eumiyas albicaudata (Jerdon). The Nilgiri Verditer Flycatcher.
Specimens collected: 2 9 4-1-38, 20 @ 6-1-3838, 49 9 imm. 9-1-33 Maraiyitr
3,500-4,500 ft.; 102 .¢ 17-1-33 Munnar 5,000 ft.; 153 ¢@ 25-1-33 Santhanpara
3,500 ft.; 428 ¢ 9-3-3383 Camp Deramalai 3,000 ft.; 995 J 19-12-33 Padagiri
3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Muthakazhi (4,000 ft.—Ashambi Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; bill horny-black (somewhat browner
in imm. No. 49); mouth geyish-pink or brownish-pink; legs, feet and claws
blaeckish-brown.
[There is a series from the Palnis and a @ February 1892 Devikulam
(O. W. Turner) in the British Museum.
298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Travancore and Palni specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
(reires 14-15.5 75.5-81 59-66 18.5-19.5 mm.
229 13-15 76-77 56.5-60.5 18.5 mm.—H. W.]
The Nilgiri Verditer Flycatcher is a common and abundant species through-
out the forested hills of Travancore and Cochin. I came across it between
3,000 and 5,000 ft. and this is clearly the range of elevation it favours most.
It is usually met singly frequenting overgrown hill streams and nullahs,
undergrowth flanking paths and traces through sholas, cardamom plantations
and the edge of forest clearings, often in association with Culicicapa, Alseonax
muttui, and other flycatchers.
The males have a pleasant trilly-song somewhat feebler than but similar
in quality to that of Sazxicola caprata. It lasts from 5 to 10 seconds and is
constantly uttered from some exposed twig on the top of a tree. I have notes
of birds singing in every month while the Surveys were in the field, from
December to April. Ordinarily it perches somewhat upright on a twig and
utters the typical flycatcher click, click as it twitches its tail up and down.
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 402) found this Flycatcher an abun-
dant inhabitant of Kodaikanal and other groves from 5,500 ft. to the summit
of the hills.
In Ceylon it is represented by an allied species EH. ceylonensis (=sordida).
Breeding: The specimens furnished no evidence of breeding and apparently
there are no actual records of nests and eggs taken in Travancore or Cochin.
It is a permanent resident, however, and known to breed in the adjacent
portions of its range between March and May, occasional nests being found
in February or June. Mr. Stuart Baker has records of its occurrence and
breeding in the Palni Hills, the Wynaad, Palghat and Southern Malabar (Nidi-
fication, 11, 210).
Alseonax latirostris (Raffles). The Brown Flycatcher.
Specimens collected: 51 © 10-1-833 Maraiyar 3,500 ft.; 204 Q 3-2-33,
262 2 10-2-338 Thattakad 200 ft.; 362 ¢ 27-2-33, 386 ¢ 1-3-3383, 397 J 3-3-33,
402 0? 5-3-3383 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 4383 0? 10-3-33 Camp Deramalai 3,000 ft.;
444 ¢ 16-38-33, 478 Q 21-83-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 990 Q 18-12-33 Padagiri
3,000 ft.; 1020 9 Karupadanna ca. 8.L.
Elsewhere noted at: Wuandamet (ca. 38,500 ft.), Trivandrum (ca. §8.L.),
Kavallé (ca. 1,000 ft.) along Cochin Forest Tramway, Nemmara (800 ft.),
Wadakkancheri (800 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: TIris dark brown; upper mandible and tip of lower
mandible horny-brown; rest of lower mandible cream colour (in No. 402 lower
mandible—except tip—chrome yellow!); mouth pale yellow or pale yellowish-
pink; legs, feet and claws horny-brown.
[Other specimens examined :
B. M. Coll.: & 30-12-80 Kallaur road 1,000 ft. (Bourdillon); 000 no
dates Mynall; 9 7-38-77, 3 18-10-78 Mynall; 0? -3-75 Eridge.
Travancore specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
(Arce 12.5-15 69.5-76 48-54 12.5-14.5 mm.
Gute 12.5-15.5 69-73 46-51.5 ~~
This bird is now on the British list and therefore finds inclusion in
Witherby’s Practical Handbook of British Birds, vol. 1, p. 287. The juvenile
is there described from specimens of which the correct identification appears
uncertain, and as the description does not agree with a specimen collected by
me personally from a family party of which the adult male was also collected
(23 June 1921 near Larji 3,000 ft., Valley of the Beas, Kulu) a full descrip-
tion may be given: Crown, nape, hindneck, mantle, scapulars, lesser wing-
coverts, back and rump pale fulvous buff, each feather with a dark brown
fringe and a grey base, the general appearance being squamated; median
wing-coverts dark brown, with a large triangular buff spot at tip of each
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 299
feather; greater wing-coverts dark brown, edged exteriorly and broadly tipped
with warm fulvous; primary coverts dark brown, the tips lightly edged with
buff; primaries, secondaries and tertiaries as in the adult, except that the
tertiaries have the pale buff border rather broader at the tips; upper tail
coverts dark brown broadly tipped with fulvous; tail as in the adult, the
feathers with a small buff spot at their tips; sides of the head and neck mottled
brown and buff; lower plumage white, faintly washed with buff on the chin,
throat and breast, all feathers except on centre of abdomen lightly fringed
or tipped with dark brown, giving a faintly squamated appearance.
This plumage is moulted at the post-juvenal moult with the exception of
the greater and primary coverts, primaries, secondaries and _ tertiaries and
probably tail, but wear and fading soon render it impossible to separate first
winter birds and adults with certainty. The post-nuptial moult is complete
and takes place about August to October. There is, I think, no spring moult
in the adult. It will be noted that my view of the moults of this species
differs considerably from that given in the Practical Handbook.—H. W.]
The Brown Flycatcher was met by the Surveys between 11 November and
30 March, after which date it was not seen at all. The fact that specimens
collected on 10 and 16 March were excessively fat, suggests that at about this
time most birds were preparing to emigrate although the last specimen, obtained
on 21 March, was in normal condition. There is great uncertainty as regards
the status of this Flycatcher in the Travancore-Cochin area as indeed there
is in the other parts of its Indian and south-eastern range. Ferguson con-
sidered it a common winter visitor to Travancore but thought that some
individuals breed there as he had specimens collected in June and August
(J.B.N.H.S., xv, 464). Personally I am not in a position to say anything
definite on the subject as I was not in the area during May and June which
is said (Fauna, 11, 250) to be the breeding season everywhere. Pillai who
collected during July and August in the environs of Trivandrum—whence I
have sight records for March—does not appear to have come across the species
then. It is possible that odd pairs occasionally remain to breed as in North
Kanara which is the nearest known breeding place (Davidson, J.B.N.H.S.,
xi, 668). Indeed that they may well do so is more than suggested by the testes
of No. 362 (27 February) which had enlarged to 6x3 mm.
The Surveys found the Brown Flycatcher fairly common in Travancore-
Cochin from about sea-level up to at least 3,500 ft. in the hills. It affects
sparse deciduous jungle (commonest at Kuamili!) and avoids evergreen forest,
though it may frequently be seen on the verge of this where it opens out into
grassland. The bird is partial to the neighbourhood of rocky hillstreams and
was also commonly met with in and about rubber plantations, among the
shade trees of comparatively open cardamom sholas and in the mango, jack
and cashew gardens by homesteads along the backwaters. It is usually seen
singly, sometimes in pairs.
The only notes I heard it utter were a feeble chi-chir-ri-ri-ri something like
Dumetia, but feebler.
This Flycatcher is apparently rare in the Palni Hills as both Fairbanks
and Terry met it only once. No dates are given and no comment on its
status is made.
Tt is a winter visitor to Ceylon from October to April (Legge), but according
to Wait it has also been obtained in the Island in June.
The gonads of the specimens were in a quiescent state except in the case
of the % mentioned.
Messrs. Whistler and Kinnear (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 86) after examining a
considerable number of specimens of this species from the different parts of
its wide range are not satisfied that it has any races. In a recent work on the
birds of North-Eastern Asia,’ Sten Bergman gives the wing measurements
of 83 ¢¢ obtained in the Kuril Islands listed by him under the typical race.
The figures—70-72 mm.—correspond closely enough with those given by Whistler
and Kinnear for 4 ¢¢ from Amur Bay, Eastern Siberia (68.5-71 mm.) to
support their contention of the non-existence of races.
——
' Zur Kenntnis nordéstasiatischer Vogel, Sten Bergman, Stockholm (1935).
300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Alseonax ruficauda (Swainson). The Rufous-tailed Flycatcher.
Specimen collected: 877 Q 28-2-33 Kumili 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Kiuvallé Incline (ca. 1,000 ft.—Cochin Forest Tram-
way); Padagiri (3,000 ft.—Nelliiampathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; upper mandible brown, lower
mandible pale flesh-colour; mouth yellow and pink; legs and feet brownish-
plumbeous; claws horny-brown.
[Other specimens examined :
B. M. Coll.: 0? 27-11-74, 0? 4-12-78, 0? no date Mynall (Bourdillon) ;
Q -12-90 Ponmidi (Ferguson).
The Survey 92 measures:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
14.5 75.5 56 mm.—H. W.]
Apparently this Flycatcher is an uncommon winter visitor to the area. All
the specimens I came across were on the outskirts of evergreen forest, by
traces and clearings, between 2,000 and 3,500 ft. elevation.
It has not been recorded from the Palni Hills or Ceylon, though it doubt-
less occurs in the former.
Alseonax muttui muttui (Layard). Layard’s Flycatcher.
Specimens collected: 128 0? 28-1-33, 151 9, 152 Q 25-1-33 Santhanpara
83,500 ft.; 212 Q 4-2-3383, 2381 G 7-2-83 Thattakad 200 ft.; 292 ¢ 16-2-33
Urimbikera Res. Forest ca. 1,000 ft.; 877 @ 17-11-33. Kuriarkitti 1,600 ft.;
999 20-12-33 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyuir (8,500 ft.); Peermade (3,200 ft.); Rajam-
para (1,350 ft.—Pandalam Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; upper mandible dark horny-brown,
lower mandible pale flesh colour; mouth yellow (in two examples with a
pinkish tinge); gape in the same two yellow; claws dusky.
[Other specimens examined:
B. M. Coll.: G@ 18-11-74, 9? 14-1-76, 0? no date Mynall (Bourdillon) ;
Q 29-12-85 Chimpani, Travancore-Tinnevelly boundary (William Davison).
Measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
4 oe 16-1725 Tota. 49-53.5 18.5-14 mm.
3 OO 16-17 70.5-72:5 51-54.5 13.5-14 mm.—H. W.]
Layard’s Flycatcher is a common winter visitor to Travancore and Cochin.
The last date I noted it on was 17 March. By the time the next suitable
locality was visited—22 April—the species had completely disappeared. Not
a single specimen was observed in the subsequent five days inspite of the
special look-out which was kept.
Although examples were obtained as low down as 200 ft. elevation, the bird
was commonest on the hills between 1,000 and 3,500 ft. It was inseparable
from evergreen forest tracts, frequenting the dense scrub and liana tangles,
preferably on the fringe of jungle, and cardamom clearings where the bare
branches of the felled trees, their stumps and other brushwood littering the
hillsides provided admirable bases for its sallies after winged insects. The
vicinity of rocky wooded streams also constituted a favourite haunt. The bird
was invariably met singly, but frequently in loose association with Humuiyas,
Culicicapa, Tchitrea and other flycatchers.
It has evidently not been recorded from the Palni Hills and its status in
Ceylon is the same as in Travancore, i.e. winter visitor.
William Davison (Ibis, 1888, pp. 146-7) obtained, 4 males ‘late in December
or early in January’ on Chimpani Hills dividing Travancore territory from the
Tinnevelly District.
The gonads of all the specimens were undeveloped and so far we have no
evidence in support of the suggestion in the Fauna (ii, 252) that it will most
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 301
probably be found to be a resident and to breed over much of its ‘supposed’
winter habitat on mountains of sufficient height.
Ochromela nigrorufa (Jerdon). The Black-and-Orange Flycatcher.
Specimens collected: 103 ¢ 17-1-83 Munnar 5,000 ft.; 380 9 22-2-33 Peer-
made 3,200 ft.
Elsewhere. noted at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft.); Camp Deramalai (at ca.
4,500 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill blackish-brown; mouth brownish-
pink (No. 103 3), pale pink (No. 330 @); legs, feet and claws greyish-brown
(No. 103), greyish-flesh (No. 330).
[Other specimens examined :
B. M. Coll.: 7-4-80 Travancore-Tinnevelly boundary 3,600 ft. (Bour-
dillon); ¢ no date Palnis (Fairbank).
B. N. H. 8S. Coll.: & 29-38-94 Kodaikanal (J. P. Cook).
Measurements :
Bill, Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
2G Gs 13-13.5 61-63 49-51 18.5-20 mm.
Lee, 13 58.5 44.5 18.5 mm.—H. W.}]
The Black-and-Orange Flycatcher is essentially a bird of dense evergreen
forest. According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 464) it is ‘common on the
High Range and at elevations of 38,500-4,000 ft. in the south’. I did not
come across it either in the Ashambu Hills or in the Nelliampathies, neither
has Kinloch recorded it from the latter. Where occurring, it was not uncom-
mon between 3,000 and 5,000 ft., being perceptibly more abundant in the
neighbourhood of the latter elevation. Below 3,000 ft. it was not observed.
The bird frequents the Eeta facies or flits about amongst the dense under-
growth of seedlings, Strobilanthes, Pandanus or Calamus singly or in pairs, the
male uttering a somewhat metallic high-pitched chiki-riki-chiki or chee-r-ri-ri
every few seconds. It is not shy and does not resent observation at close
quarters provided one remains motionless. At Munnar I frequently saw it
by the roadside near the workshop, the noise within and the motor traffic
without not seeming to disturb it at all.
In the Palni Hills it is said to be the commonest of the flycatchers at
higher elevations. Fairbank (S.F., v, 401) observed it in groves at the top
of the hills and also at Shemiganitr (5,500 ft.) in dense thickets.
The species does not extend into Ceylon.
Breeding: The gonads of the survey specimens showed no departure from
the normal non-breeding condition. The breeding season in Travancore is stated
(Nidification, 11, 221) as March and April. Both Bourdillon and Stewart took
nests at between 3,000 and 4,000 ft. elevation. They are said to be nearly
always built of Keta (Ochlandra) leaves and from a few inches to about 4 ft.
from the ground, but usually between 2 and 3 ft. Two eggs is said invariably
to be the full clutch.
Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis (Swainson). The Grey-headed Flycatcher.
Specimens collected: 50 9 10-1-33 Maraiyair 3,500 ft.; 415 ¢ 7-3-383 Kumili
3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Ktmarikkai Malai (7,000 ft.); Santhanpara (3,500 ft.);
Camp Deramalai (3,000 ft.); Ashambu Hills (only at ca. 3,500 ft. and above !);
Kuriarkuatti (1,600 ft.); Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Absent at Thattakad (200 ft.) !
Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; upper mandible horny-brown, lower
mandible pale yellowish-horn; mouth yellow; legs and feet brownish-orange;
claws horny-brown; soles bright orange.
[Other specimens examined:
B. M. Coll.: @ ?-2-92 High Range (A. N. Nair).
Sparrow Coll.: Q 10-83-14 Cardamom Hills.
B. N. H. 8. Coll.: J 30-12-98 Chimunji (Ferguson).
302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Measurements:
Jey Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
3 OG 13 64-66 53.5-57 — mm.
299 12.5-13 59-63 50-54 13 mm.—H. W.]
This little Flycatcher was commonly met with by the Surveys in hilly,
forested country between 1,500 and 7,000 ft. It appeared to be inseparable from
evergreen forest, but presumably inhabits the higher hills only as at Thattakad
(200 ft.) it was absent and significantly enough I have no record either from
Tenmalai (500 ft.) or Rajampara (1,350 ft.). Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 465)
described it as ‘common on the High Range and on the tops of the hills in the
south’.
It frequents sholas on the hillsides and along ravines, and also opener
secondary growth on their outskirts and bamboo forest, especially the vicinity
of streams and torrents. Along the trace from Kutmili to Wtndamet (Carda-
mom Hills) over open grassy undulating hills (ca. 3,500-4,000 ft.), little sholas
appear from time to time in dank ravines, often barely a couple of acres in
extent, and separated from the next by a mile or more. Each of these wooded
dells invariably harboured a couple or so of Grey-headed Flycatchers, and
here as elsewhere they were mostly observed in association with Phylloscopus
oceipitalis and other small bird species, acting as outriders to the foraging
assemblies and snapping up any winged insects escaping from their concerted
hunt among the foliage.
In my experience the commensalism between this Flycatcher and Phyllos-
copus occipitalis is a fairly constant feature. I have observed them in com-
pany almost invariably, not only in Travancore and Cochin but also in the
Nilgiri and Biligirirangan Hills of South India. It is noteworthy that the
only occasion on which I came across this Flycatcher in the Hyderabad State
it was also in association with a flock of Phylloscopus occipitalis.
A pretty little ‘song’ of 5 whistling notes—chick! whichee whichee? (accent
on last 2, which end interrogatively)—is constantly uttered in between the short,
graceful twisting sallies after flies, gnats etc. and is surprisingly loud for the
size of the bird.
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 401) found it common in Kodaikanal
as well as in groves ‘lower down’—to what elevation is not mentioned.
In Ceylon it is a resident form above 1,000 ft.
Breeding: The testes of No. 415 (7 March) were in non-breeding condi-
tion, although the ovary of No. 50 was distinctly granular on 10 January.
The breeding of this species has apparently never been recorded in the
Travancore-Cochin area. The season over the whole of its range is said to
be April, May and June (Fauna, 11, 255).
Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swainson).
Specimen collected: 34 ¢ 7-1-3383 Maraiyur 3,500 ft.
Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (L.). The Paradise Flycatcher.
Specimens collected: 202 ¢ 3-2-3383 Thattakad 200 ft.; 395 ¢ 3-3-33 Kamil
3,000 ft.; 600 0? 16-4-33 Aramboli 250 ft.; 865 ¢ 14-11-33 Kuriarkitti 1,600 ft. ;
900 Q 25-11-33 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.; 958 Q 8-12-83 Nemmara 300 ft.
Elsewhere noted at (races uncertain): Kottayam (ca. §.L.); Urambikera
Res. Forest near Mindakayam (ca. 1,000 ft.); Rajampara (1,350 ft.); Tenmalai
(500 ft.); Trivandrum (8.L.); Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nellampathies) ; Trichur,
Kariipadanna (S.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Tris dark brown; bill greyish-blue, blackish at
extreme tips; mouth greenish-yellow or bright yellow (202); gape and eyelids
slaty-blue; legs and feet greyish-blue; claws brown.
[No. 34, although it is slightly darker than many specimens of leucogaster
—but not all—and has the longer tertiaries black and white which is un-
usual, must I think be referred to this race as it has the primaries, secondaries,
primary coverts and bastard wing black and white. This is a slight southerly
extension of the known winter range of this form. The streamers vary inter
se. One is chestnut; the other is chestnut but has the outer web almost
entirely white and there is some white mottling on the inner web. It measures:
Bill, 23; Wing, 98,5; True Tail, 108; Streamers, 256 mm.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 303
As I have already pointed out in the Eastern Ghats Report (U.B.N.H.S.,
xxxvi, 89) there must be some satisfactory explanation of the curious status
and migrations of the Paradise Flycatcher in Ceylon as described by Legge
on theories that are hardly convincing; and the most obvious explanation
would seem to be that there is a resident short-tailed race in the island in
which the white phase is eliminated. This point can however be settled only
by careful field work in the island and I have seen no evidence for the sup-
posedly richer colouration of the females and young—as compared with the
typical form—on which Mr. Stuart Baker (Nidification, ii, 286) now accepts
a race T. p. ceylonensis for ‘Ceylon and the extreme south of Travancore’.
The Survey series shows no difference between birds from the extreme south
and the rest of Travancore, nor can I separate them from the typical form.
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. True Tail. Streamers. Tarsus.
No. 865 red G with red
streamers 25 96 107.5 254 1 Tans
Nos. 202, 395 ¢ like Q 24-25.5 86-87.5 95-96.5 —_ 16 mm.
Nos. 909, 958 99 23.5 89.5-92.5 101-112 — — mm.
—H. W.!
During the period the Surveys were in the field—November to April (both
inclusive)—the Paradise Flycatcher was noted as a fairly common though per-
haps not numerically abundant species throughout the area from the coast
upto—with the exception of Maraiyiir (8,500 ft.) and Padagiri (8,000 ft.)—
about 1,500 ft. in the hills. It was, however, commonest in the low country
under 1,000 ft. Mr. Pillai, who collected in the environs of Trivandrum town
in July and August informs me that inspite of special effort he failed to meet
any Paradise Flycatchers there during that period. Ferguson mentions
(J.B.N.H.S., xv, 465) that in the ‘dry weather’ [February-March?] it ascends
the hills to considerable elevations. He procured specimens at 6,000 ft. on the
High Range and also on the summit of the hills in the south (i.e. 3,500-
4,000 ft.).
The bird was met with singly as a rule in mixed bamboo forest, on the
fringe of evergreen jungle, in rubber plantations and groves of large trees as
also in the jack-fruit and cashew gardens surrounding homesteads along the
backwaters.
In evergreen patches it was commonly observed in association with Dendro-
citta leucogastra, Dissemurus paradiseus, Hypothymis azurea, Phylloscopus occi-
pitalis, Culicicapa and the other usual members of localised hunting parties.
On one occasion while walking through evergreen undergrowth in forest at
Thattakad, I noticed a male in red plumage fluttering about helplessly among
the leaves on the ground, unable to fly. Examination showed that the flight
feathers of one wing had become pinioned by a bunch of hooked seeds of the
grass Streptogyne crinita. Beauv. When the tangle was removed, the bird
flew off. This suggests that accidents of this kind must not infrequently befall
birds descending to the ground to pick up insects etc. since in places the
erass is not uncommon.
I do not think much significance need be attached to Kinloch’s statement
that in the Nelliampathies males in white plumage preponderate over females
or red males. White males are certainly more conspicuous wherever they are,
and it may even be that at the period Kinloch made his observation there
may have been a migrational wave of white males. In many bird species
the sexes migrate separately, and for all we know the Paradise Flycatcher may
well be one of them. I myself have noted that at Nemmara (8 December)
red plumaged males and females were common, but white males exceedingly
rare.
In the Palnis, it appears to be uncommon. Fairbank (S.F., v, 401) observed
a single ‘young one’ [red?] at the base of the hills and Terry met another
single bird at Pulungi.
The typical race_occurs in Ceylon, but see Mr. Whistler’s remarks supra.
Breeding: The gonads of all the survey specimens were undeveloped and
gave no indication as regards breeding. Nidification (ii, 236) mentions Mr.
a Stewart taking a nest with 3 eggs in the extreme south of Travancore on
304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
14 March, and this probably constitutes the only record we have of the breed-
ing of the Paradise Flycatcher in our area.
Hypothymis azurea styani (Hartlaub). The Indian Black-naped Flycatcher.
Specimens collected: 48 0? imm. 9-1-3833 Maraiyar 3,500 ft.; 186 ¢ ad.
23-1-83 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 394 ¢ ad. 3-3-3833 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 891 ¢ ad.
21-11-33 Kuriarkutti 1,600 ft.
Jilsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Urtimbikera Forest near Munda-
kayam (ca. 1,000 ft.); Rajampara (1,350 ft.); Tenmalai (500 ft.); Wadakkan-
cheri (400 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Adult male: Iris dark brown; bill bright blue with
blackish tips; mouth greenish- or sulphur-yellow; legs and feet slaty-blue; claws
brown. Immature (No. 48): Iris dark brown; upper mandible horny-brown,
lower mandible brownish-grey; mouth yellow; legs and feet blackish-slate;
claws brown.
[Further specimen examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: & 11-2-75, 3 no date Mynall (Bourdillon).
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
Serotec) 14-15 66.5-74 65-74 16 mm.
These specimens, together with additional. ones that I have examined from
N.-E. India, confirm my action (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 91) in not accepting two
races in India.—H. W.]
The Black-naped Flycatcher was met with in well-wooded country at all
elevations between 200 and 3,500 ft., and was not uncommon in the localities
recorded.
Dense bamboo forest, the lofty shade trees of cardamom plantations, ever-
green sholas and opener teak plantations all appeared to attract it equally,
and single birds or pairs were frequently to be found in the localised bird
associations in all these facies. As a rule they kept to taller trees than other
flycatchers did, flitting about amongst the sprigs and foliage or spreading and
partly erecting the tail and pivoting on their perch from side to side to the
constant accompaniment of a lively high-pitched chee-chwee.
So far it has evidently not been recorded from the Palni Hills.
In Ceylon, the race H. a. ceylonensis is endemic to the Island.
Breeding: The specimens showed no gonadal development. No. 48 (9 Janu-
ary) was immature (in first winter plumage) with a soft skull, suggesting that
it had been bred late in the year. No records of its breeding in the Travancore-
Cochin area are available, but in the Nilgiris the usual breeding season is said
to be June and William Davison found a nest with newly hatched young as
late as 28 August.
Leucocirca aureola compressirostris Blyth. The Southern White-browed
Fantail Flycatcher.
Specimens collected: 312-313 $9 19-2-33 Kottayam ca. 8.L.; 682 Q 17-7-33
(Pattom), 719 9 24-7-33 (Thirtimalai 100 ft.), 730 0? 26-7-33 (Kuttani 300 ft.),
755 81-7-838 (Akkilam 150 ft.), 796 0? 6-8-3383 (Pulayanar Kotta 200 ft.),
857 Q 14-8-83 (Golf Links 100 ft.) Trivandrum Environs; 986 Q 4-12-33
Nemmara 300 ft.; 1015 ¢ Karupadanna ca. 8.1L.
Elsewhere noted at: Chalakidi, Trichir.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill brownish-black; mouth pink; legs,
feet and claws blackish-brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
2d 15 85-87 86.5-91.5 18 mm.
5-99 13.5-15 80-81 83-86 17-18.5 mm.
The alleged difference between the birds of North and South Travancore
given in the Fauna (ii, 279) has already been shown (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi,
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 305
92) to be incorrect, and that decision is again confirmed by the survey series.
All the birds belong to the one race compressirostris and exhibit the character-
istics defined in the Hastern Ghats Survey paper.—H .W. ]
This Fantail Flycatcher is, as stated by Ferguson, common in the low
country in both the States, and the Surveys did not meet it in the hills at all.
This is rather curious since Dewar (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 154) considered it very
numerous at Coonoor (5,500 ft.—Nilgiris) and Fairbank (S.F., v, 401) found
it up to 4,000 ft. in the Palni Hills. However, as both these authors omit
pectoralis from their lists doubt has been cast upon the correctness of their
identifications. JI personally found pectoralis sparingly at Kotagiri (6,300 ft.— -
Nilgiris) while up there between July and December (1932), but have only one
unconfirmed record of hearing aureola (at about 6,000 ft.) on 9 August.
Its favourite haunts in Travancore and Cochin are the mango, cashew and
jack-fruit gardens surrounding the homesteads along the backwaters, and wooded
compounds in towns. It also frequents groves of large trees such as mango
and tamarind preferably in the neighbourhood of human habitations, and to a
lesser extent light secondary and scrub jungle.
It is a resident species in Ceylon.
Breeding: Nos. 312 and 313, a pair (19 February) were breeding. The
testes of the ¢ measured 8X5 mm., while many of the ovarian follicles of
the Q were over 1 mm. in diameter. The pair were hopping about on the
ground collecting cobwebs spun across furrows and also fibres from a decayed
cocoanut palm trunk. No. 936 (4 December) with granular ovary, was one of
a pair observed in copula.
According to Ferguson, this Flycatcher breeds in Travancore in April, but
from my experience it is evident that it commences doing so considerably
earlier. Three of the specimens obtained by Pillai in July and August (Nos.
719, 730 and 755) were immature with imperfectly ossified skulls and all of
that period were undergoing heavy post-juvenal or post-nuptial moult.
Leucocirca pectoralis was not met with by the Surveys in the Travancore-
Cochin area at all, and one would like to know om what evidence the distri-
bution as given in the Fauna (ii, 282) is based.
FamILy: LANIIDAE.
Lanius vittatus Valenciennes. The Bay-backed Shrike.
Specimens collected: 618 ¢ 18-4-33, 626 ¢ 19-4-33 Aramboli 250 ft.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill black; -legs and feet dark slaty-
brown; claws horny-black.
[No other specimens from Travancore seen. The 2 ¢¢ measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
18 83.5-84.5 84-88. 22-22.5 mm.
I have now seen enough specimens to be able to say something about the
plumages. The sexes of this shrike are alike in colour and size and there is
no difference in summer and winter plumage. In the adult there is no spring
moult and the autumn moult takes place from July to December beginning
with the wings and tail, by which time the body plumage is often in very
worn condition. The immature male and female are also of the same size, but
the wing and tail are slightly shorter than in adults. The post-juvenal moult
takes place about August to November and I have seen ‘it only just beginning
as late as 21 December (Mhow). In this are moulted the body plumage, the
tertiaries, a variable number of wing-coverts (usually, however, all but the
primary coverts with their corresponding smaller coverts) and a_ variable
number of tail feathers (sometimes only the central pair, sometimes all but
the two outer pairs).
The first winter plumage is variable. It is normally a slightly duller
edition of the adult plumage save for the unmoulted parts of the wings and
tail. The black frontal band may, however, be absent, variegated black and
806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXVIil
grey or suggested merely by one or two black feathers. The broad band
through the eye from lores to ear-coverts may be rich brown instead of black.
The nape, hindneck and mantle may be washed with ashy-grey or more rarely
with chestnut. The sides of the breast are sometimes marked with bars and
crescents.
When the fully adult plumage is assumed is not clear. Some birds certainly
breed in the first winter plumage, but others perhaps moult it before breeding
as I have seen a young female with wing and body moult on 5 March.—H. W. ]
The Bay-backed Shrike was met by the Surveys at Aramboli only, and
here it was rare. The Aramboli Gap-is a break in the line of the Ghats and
forms the thoroughfare between Travancore State and the adjoining Madras
district of Tinnevelly. Through this pass several of the typically plains forms
wander in. I have already suggested this as the explanation for the highly
probable occurrence of Argya caudata at Aramboli, and J, consider it more than
likely that the presence of the Bay-backed Shrike within Travancore territory
is attributable to the same cause. Ferguson also found this species only about
Cape Comorin where it had doubtless wandered in from the arid adjoining
Madras district unobstructed by the barrier of hills.
The birds were met singly or in pairs frequenting the open scrub country
about the bases of the bare rocky hills flanking the ‘gap’.
The statement in the Fauna (ii, 290) that it occurs in North ‘Travancore
needs confirmation. On what authority its alleged occurrence in the Palni
Hills rests is also not known.
Tt is not found in Ceylon.
Breeding: Tho testes of both Nos. 613 (18 April) and 626 (19 April) were
enlarged to 5x4 and 7X5 mm. respectively and from this, coupled with their
fresh plumage, it was evident that they were preparing to breed. The state-
ment in Nidification (ii, 257) that ‘in Travancore they breed frequently in
February and March’ conveys the impression that the birds are common in
this area, which is the opposite of the case.
Lanius schach caniceps Blyth. The Southern Grey-backed Shrike.
Specimens collected: 67 @Q 12-1-33 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 910 ¢ 27-11-33
Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill horny-black, plumbeous at base of
lower mandible and at chin; mouth pale pink; legs, feet and claws blackish-
brown.
[The two specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
3d 22.5 92.5 118.5 27.5 mim.
Q 19 93.5 116 28 mm.
Other speclinens examined :
B. M. Coll.: ¢ juv. 1-6-77 Shemiganar 5,000 ft.—Palnis (Fairbank),
Q juv. 8-6-77, 9 9-6-77 Kodaikanal, Palnis (Fairbank); ¢ 17-6-77 Lower Palnis
4,000 ft. (Fairbank).
B. N. H. S. Coll.: & juv. 8-5-98 Kodaikanal (J. P. Cook).—H. W. |
The Grey-backed Shrike is patchily distributed in the Travancore-Cochin
area. I came across it only in the above two localities, fairly common at
Maraiyir and somewhat less so at Wadakkancheri. Ferguson, however, de-
scribes it as not uncommon in the plains and says that it also ascends the
hills. He had specimens shot in the High Range in February and March.
The birds were met with singly perched on stumps, hedges, bushes and
the like in the neighbourhood of cultivation, fallow land or forest clearings.
I cannot say if it is a local migrant or a resident species in the area having
come across it here only in the cold weather, neither do Ferguson’s remarks
(J.B.N.H.S., xv, 459) throw any light on the point. Kinloch mentions it as
common in the Nelliampathy Hills of Cochin but is silent as to its status
there. As Kuinloch’s list, however, does not include Lanius cristatus which,
in the cold weather, is certainly the commonest shrike in this region I am
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 307
inclined to suspect that there may perhaps have been some error in his identi-
fication. This presumption is further strengthened by the fact that both at
Nemmara (foot of Nelliampathies) and at Padagiri (8,000 ft. up) the Survey
failed to meet this species but on the other hand found cristatus quite common.
It is apparently a resident in the Palni Hills and said to breed there from
February to July, though May and June seem to be the best time for eggs
(Hume, N. & EH., 2nd edition, 1, 323-5).
In Ceylon, this shrike is restricted to the Jafna Peninsula and the north-
west of the Island.
Breeding: Neither of the Survey specimens showed any gonadal develop-
ment. According to the Fauna (11, 297) the breeding season in Travancore
is March and April; Stewart is said (Nidification, 11, 269) to have taken a
fine series of eggs in April and May.
Lanius cristatus cristatus Linnaeus. The Brown Shrike. |
Specimens collected: 6 ¢ 4-1-3833 Maratyur 3,500 ft.; 275 ¢ 12-2-33 Thatta-
kad 200 ft.; 827 3 21-2-338 Peermade at 4,000 ft.; 582 9 12-4-33 Cape Comorin;
598 o? 15-4-83 Aramboli 250 ft.; 888 ¢ 21-11-38 Kauariarkutti 1,600 ft.; 962 0?
9-12-83 Nemmara 300 ft.
Hlsewhere noted at: Munnar (5,000 ft.); Santhanpara (8,500 ft.); Kumuili
(3,000 ft.); Camp Deramalai (8,000 ft.); Rajampara (1,350 ft.); Tenmalai
(500 ft.); Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.—Ashambu Hills); Chalakudi and _ all
along Cochin Forest Tramway; Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Padagiri (3,000 ft.);
Kartipadanna (ca. 8.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, upper mandible and tip of lower
horny-brown, rest of lower mandible creamy flesh colour; mouth pale flesh-
pink; legs and feet slaty-brown; claws brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. ‘Tarsus.
4 ad 18.5-19 86-89 78-86 24-25.5 mm.
1° 18.5 moult. (eS — mm.
In the Survey series the length between the tips of the outer tail feather
and the longest tail feather varies from (15) 18-22 mm. Nos. 6, 275, 582,
598 and 962 are adult, the others are not.
In this race the sexes are alike. The amount of rufous wash on the lower
parts is variable, a matter merely of individual variation. First winter birds
may be recognised from adults by:
(1) the band through the eye from the lores to the ear-coverts 1s brown
not black. (Occasional adults may have the band brown.)
(2) there is less white about the forehead and supercilium,
(3) the much greater amount of crescentic barring on the lower parts,
(4) the retention on the wing-coverts and tertiaries of a certain number
of juvenile feathers.
The first winter plumage is probably changed for the fully adult plumage
in the first spring.
Adults have a complete moult in both spring and autumn, which takes
place in the winter quarters. Summer and winter plumage is alike—H. W.]
The Brown Shrike is a winter visitor to South India as it is to Ceylon,
arriving in early September and leaving towards the end of April. In _ the
Travancore-Cochin area it is common and very generally distributed both in the
hills up to at least 7,000 ft. (Ktamarikkai Malai!) and throughout the low
country. Ferguson seems to have found it mostly from about 2,000 ft.
elevation upwards and he considered it rare in the low country. By 27 April,
which is the last record I have, its numbers had noticeably decreased.
It was observed singly in every type of country ranging from cultivation
and dry scrub or mixed bamboo jungle to the fringe of evergreen forest and
often considerable distances within, along cart traces and the like. A favourite
haunt is the open grass-covered hillsides dotted here and there with clumps
of stunted date palms (Phenix farinifera) which provide useful lookout posts
as well as shelters from the heat of the day. The birds were everywhere
shy and difficult to approach.
308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVili
At Maraiytr and Wadakkancheri this shrike and the foregoing were fre-
quently found side by side, and their numbers here were about equal.
The harsh call chr-r-r-ri etc. is easily distinguishable from the similar
notes of the Grey-backed Shrike.
Hemipus picatus picatus (Sykes). The Black-backed Pied Shrike.
Specimens collected: 464 ¢, 465 0? juv. 18-83-33, 478 2 20-38-33 Rajampara
1,850 ft.; 968 Q 12-12-88, 983 ¢ 15-12-33 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyir (3,500 ft.); Santhanpara (8,500 ft.); Peer-
made (3,200 ft.); Kumili (8,000 ft.); Camp Deramalai (8,000 ft.); Tenmalai
(500 ft.); Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.—Ashambu Hills); Kuavalle Incline (Cochin
Forest Tramway).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris yellowish-brown; bill horny-black;
mouth slaty-pink; legs, feet and claws blackish-brown. Juvenile (No. 465):
Iris brown; bill horny-brown; mouth yellowish-pink; legs and feet pinkish-
brown; claws horny-brown.
| Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
8 ad. dS 15-16 62-64 57-58 mm.
bee) 16.5 62.5 61 mm.
No. 473 is marked as a female with the organs undeveloped. By its glossy
black back I should have unhesitatingly considered it an adult male, females
and first winter males in other parts of India having a brown back as in
No. 968. It is however remarkable that Legge states and in this he is
followed by Wait, that in Ceylon the female—and so, therefore, I presume the
first winter male—is black-backed like the male. If this is correct, it would
certainly be grounds for the recognition of a separate race. Seven skins from
Travancore in the British Museum are all black-backed and one of these is
labelled 9.
The adult bird undergoes a complete post-nuptial moult, but there is appar-
ently no pre-nuptial moult.
The juvenile (No. 465) is similar to the brown-backed female but the upper
plumage is more a chocolate brown in colour, with some of the feathers lightly
edged with white; median and greater coverts dingy white, with subterminal
brown bars and other irregular markings; tertiaries edged with dingy white;
lower plumage white washed with brown on the breast. and flanks. Tail
feathers narrower and more pointed than in adult.—H. W.]
The Pied Shrike is, as Ferguson suggests, common in Travancore and this
description applies equally to its status in Cochin. The Surveys came across
it only between 500 ft. and 38,500 ft. elevation, but it doubtless also occurs
higher up. Its favourite haunts are thinned cardamom sholas, the fringe of
evergreen jungle or more precisely the transition zone between evergreen and
deciduous forest. I did not meet with it in open scrub and bush country either
in Travancore or Cochin. The birds move about in pairs or family parties
of 3 to 5. In habits they resemble both the Wood-Shrikes (Tephrodornis) and
the flycatchers, the members following each other from tree to tree, searching
among the foliage and sprigs for insects or capturing winged prey by launch- |
ing graceful salles after it, turning and twisting in mid-air with great
agility. The notes frequently uttered—whi-ri-ri, whi-ri-ri, whi-ri-ri-ri ete.—
are very reminiscent of a cheap, squeaky cracker whistle !
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank records meeting a few; in Ceylon the species
is widely distributed.
Breeding: No. 465 (18 March) was a juvenile with very poorly ossified
skull and undergoing post-juvenal body moult: the rectrices and remiges were
unaffected. No. 464, an adult ¢ from the same family party and evidently
parent of the foregoing, had a prominent incubation patch on the abdomen
suggesting that both sexes partake in the brooding.
The gonads of the specimens gave no indication as regards the breeding
season, all being in normal undeveloped condition.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 809
Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola Jerdon. The Malabar Wood-Shrike.
Specimens collected: 386-37 ¢ Q 9-1-33 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 127 ¢G 22-1-33
Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 892 dG 21-11-33 Kuriarkitti 1,600 ft.; 982 ¢ 15-12-33,
996 Q 19-12-33 Padagiri 3,000-4,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Urambikera Reserve Forest near
Mundakayam (ca. 1,000 ft.); Ktmili and Periyar Lake Environs (8,000 ft.);
Camp Deramalai (3,000 ft.); Rajampara (1,350 ft.); Tenmalai (500 ft.); Bala-
more Hstate (2,000 ft.—Ashambua Hills); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris lemon- or greenish-yellow; bill horny-black;
mouth greyish-pink (86 and 126), pale creamy yellow and pink (892, 982
and 996); legs and feet plumbeous; claws brown. In No. 87 iris khaki; bill
pale horny-brown, paler at gape and chin; mouth greyish-pink; legs, feet
and claws as in the others.
[Other specimens examined :
B. M. Coll.: Q 18-5-77 Painkadu, 4,000 ft., Lower Palnis (Fairbank).
BN. He 8. Coll.: 9° 17-6-93 Palnis (J.. P. Cook).
The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
4dad 25-26 112-117 79.5-83 mm.
299 26-27.5 114-114.5 81-86 mm.
None of the specimens show any moult. No. 892 is a first year @ in
the plumage of the 9 and judging by the size of the organs (5x3 mm.)
was about to breed in this plumage.—H. W.]
The Malabar Wood-Shrike is common in all evergreen forest tracts through-
out the two States and was met with between 200 ft. and 4,000 ft. elevation.
It goes about in parties of 5 to 8 birds among tall trees, taking short sailing
flights or ‘hops’ from branch to branch after insects or launching aerial
sallies and loops after them like Culicicapa, either returning to the same perch
or moving from tree to tree. These antics, lithe and graceful, closely resemble
those of the White-bellied Drongo and are pretty ‘to watch. Sometimes a
bird will momentarily cling to the bark of a tree and pry into the crevices
for a lurking insect, at others deftly swoop down and carry it off in its stride.
The birds are commonly seen among the mixed assemblies in forest and as
the parties move along through the trees the individuals (males only?) utter
from time to time a musical witoo-witoo-witoo etc. repeated four to six times
in quick succession. One bird was observed to capture a thick hairy cater-
pillar about 2 in. long, which it battered repeatedly against a branch before
swallowing.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 400) apparently found this Wood-Shrike common in the
Palni Hills at about 4,500 ft. on the western (humid) side. It does not oecur
in Ceylon.
Breeding: The testes of No. 892 (21 November) measured 5x3 mm.
but none of the other specimens showed any gonadal development, neither
was any other evidence as regards breeding obtained.
According to the Fauna (i, oul) di Stewart in Travancore and A. P.
Kinloch in the Pe eer ty Hills of Cochin took nests with eggs from
March to June.
Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin). The Indian Common
Wood-Shrike. ;
Specimens collected: 16 $6 imm. 5-1-3833 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 256 2 9-2-33
Thattakad 200 ft.; 445 ¢@ 16-38-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 568 9 11-4-83 Cape
Comorin (8.L.); 697 3S 20-7-33 (Thirtimalai 120 ft.), 704 ¢ 22-7-83 (Museum
and Public Gardens ca. 100 ft.), 7382 ¢ 26-7-83. (Kuttani 300 ft.), 754 ©
81-7-338 (Akkilam 150 ft.), 784 9 4-8-83 (Cattle Farm 150 ft.), 803 © 7-8-83
(Golf Links), 849 ¢ 18-8-33 (Nettayam 300 ft.) Trivandrum Town and Talika;
939 0? 4-12-33, 946 0? 6-12-33 Nemmara 300 ft.; 1018 ¢ 26-12-33 Karipa-
danna ca. 8.L.
Hlsewhere noted at: Kottayam (ca. $.L.); Aramboli (250 ft.); Wadakkan-
cheri (400 ft.); Trichtr town.
6
310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Colours. of bare parts: Iris greenish-brown; bill horny-brown, darker at
tips; mouth pink or ‘pale yellow, grey and pink’ (Pillai); legs and feet slaty-
brown; claws brown. ;
[Owing to moult I can only give measurements of part of the series:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
36d 21-22 85.5-89.5 61-61.5 mim.
38 2 20-20.5 80-88 56-62.5 mm.
Inspite of its small range of colours this species is very variable in tint
and has yet hardly segregated into races. Birds from Burma, Calcutta, Dacca,
Duars, etc., are very dark in colour and so are Travancore birds, whilst those
from Sind, Jodhpur, Punjab, etc. are very pale. The latter have been separated
as pallidus and if compared with these darker birds of the north-east or south-
west pallidus appears a very good race. Unfortunately by the usual historical
accident, the intermediates between the dark and light forms provide the
typical race, and compared with it both pale and dark forms appear hardly
separable. As pallidus is therefore separable with difficulty, there seems no
object in providing the dark form also with a name. Travancore birds show
some passage with T. p. affinis of Ceylon. They are, however, definitely
closer to the typical form and should be kept with it.
This species has a complete post-nuptial moult but no pre-nuptial moult.
As the post-nuptial moult in Travancore appears to be very- regular, about
July-August, the breeding season is no doubt well defined.—H. W.]
Except in the case of Maraiytr (8,500 ft.), the Common Wood-Shrike was
met with by the Surveys only in the lower country from the coast inward up
to about 1,500 ft. elevation (usually under 500 ft.), where it is common and
apparently a resident. It frequents light deciduous jungle or open scrub-and-
bush country, being in this respect the opposite of the foregoing species which
is largely coincident with evergreen forest. In localities where there is a mix-
ture of the two forest types, both species were present but the predilection of
each for its favourite facies was unmistakable. The mango, jack-fruit, cashew
and cocoanut gardens which are such a feature of the homesteads along the
backwaters, are also amongst its favourite haunts, and it freely frequents
gardens and compounds within town limits. . ia
“The birds usually move about in parties of 4 or 5 keeping to trees of moder-
ate height, except in the breeding season when pairs is the rule. The males have
a call of several pleasant whistling notes wheet-wheet followed by .a quick
repeated interrogative whi-whi-whi-whi? besides which some low trills-are utter-
ed in the breeding season.
The common Wood-Shrike apparently does not occur on the Palni Hills,
but as in Travancore and Cochin it may do so at low elevations about their
base especially on the eastern (drier) side. In Ceylon it is represented by the
endemic race T. p. affinis ‘from the level of the Plains up to 5,000 ft. and
occasionally up to 6,000 ft.’ (Fauna, i, 318).
Breeding: The ovary of No. 256 (9 February) was distinctly granular; the
testes of 445 (16 March) measured 8X5 mm. and the birds were doubtless breed-
ing at this time. On 18 April (Cape Comorin) a pair were observed building
in the fork of a Babool tree in open Babool jungle at about 12 ft. from the
ground. The birds were tame and did not mind being watched at close quart-
ers. On 16 April (Aramboli) a nest with 1 ee egg was located in the fork
of an Albizzia tree about 30 feet up. The egg disappeared on the 18th. The
owners were observed chasing off from the proximity of their abode a ‘Tree-
Pie which had its nest in the same compound about 15 yards away and which
undoubtedly knew something about the matter! A couple of days later, a Wood-
Shrike (presumably one of the outraged pair) was observed gathering cobwebs
for_a nest in the same neighbourhood.
From the above and from the fact that the specimens collected in July/
August. were all in post-nuptial moult, it is evident that the breeding season .
in the Travancore-Cochin area commences about March. and may well go on
till June as stated in the Fauna (ii, 318).
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN Bil
Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster). The Orange Minivet.
Specimens collected: 21-22 @9Q 6-1-33 Maraiyir 3,500 ft.; 166-167 ¢@
26-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 329 G 22-2-383 Peermade 3,200 ft.; 410 9 6-38-33
Kamili 3,000 ft.; 497 g 26-83-33 Tenmalai 500 ft.; 925 3 30-11-33 Wadakkan-
cheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.—
aioe Hills); Kuriarkitti (1,600 ft.); Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy
uls). ‘
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws black (‘brown-
ish-slate’ in one!); mouth pink, yellowish-pink or ‘brown and greyish-pink';
soles of feet yellowish.
[Additional specimens examined:
B. M.-Coll.: ¢ ad, J-6-77,. ¢ imm. Shemiganur, Palnis 5,000-5,500 ft.
(Fairbank).
Sparrow Coll.: ad. 19-83-14, ¢ ad., ¢ imm. 25-3-14 Cardamum Hills.
B..N. H. §. Coll.: Q 22-6-98 Palnis (J. P. Cook).
Also several other Travancore birds in the British Museum.
‘Travancore specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
6 ad. dod 18-19 90-95 87-93 15.5-16.5 mm.
3 imm. dd 18.5-20 86-95 88.5-90 ey ailcmmranaal.
3 99 18 91-93 90-96.5 16 mm.
The male in first winter plumage resembles the adult female, but some
or occasionally all the yellow of the plumage is a bright orange-saffron tint,
quite distinguishable, however, from the flame colour of the adult male plu-
mage.—H. W.]
As recorded for Travancore by F. W. Bourdillon and Ferguson (J.B.N.A.S.,
xv, 460) the Orange Minivet is common throughout the evergreen forest, tracts
of the two States from about the low country (Thattakad 200 ft.!) up to
at least 4,000 ft. in the hills.
The birds move about in small flocks of from 8 to 7 or 8 individuals, keep-
ing mostly to the leafy tops of tall trees where they search for insects among
the sprigs or launch graceful flycatcher-like sallies after them into the. air.
They are usually present amongst the localised bird associations or mixed
itinerant hunting parties in secondary jungle. Their call notes (only males?)
are similar to those of Hemipus but somewhat irregular and, with a little
practice, readily distinguishable from the latter.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 400) describes this Minivet as common in the Palni
Hills at all elevations from the bottom to the summits. It occurs in Ceylon
in both hills and plains, but birds from the island are possibly smaller.
Breeding: Already as,early as 6 January the gonads appeared to have com-
menced enlarging; in No. 21 the testes measured 4x3 mm. No. 22 on the same
date—one of another pair—had some of the ovarian follicles about 1 mm.
in diameter. The testes of 166 (26 January) measured 6x4 mm. and it was
in immaculate plumage. No. 829 (22 February) also had equally well-deve-
loped testes. In the rest of the specimens there was no gonadal development.
On 12 February (Thattakad) a nest was located on the upper side of a
thin horizontal branch at the fork near its extremity, of a Poon tree (Calo-
phyllum wightianum) at a height of about 40 ft. from the ground. The tree
stood by the roadside in fairly open deciduous forest on the fringe of ever-
green. The 9Q was brooding.
The nest was a shallow cup plastered on the outside with cobwebs and
spiders’ egg-cases looking exactly lke a knot and harmonising perfectly with
the lichen-covered bark of the supporting branch. From the behaviour of the
birds at this time—males singing excitedly and chasing females through - the
tree-tops—breeding appeared to be in progress generally, but the season in this
area is possibly a protracted one.
Jn the Palni Hills it is said to breed in July (Fauna, 11, 322).
312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Pericrocotus roseus roseus (Vieillot). The Rosy Minivet.
Not met with by the Surveys, but Ferguson (J.B.N.H.8., xv, 460) though
he never came across it himself, records that his collector obtained 2 specimens
at an elevation of 2,500 ft. in South Travancore.
Jerdon (Birds of India, i, 428) was informed by Lord Arthur Hay that he
had seen this species abundantly in the hills dividing Tinnevelly from Travan-
core and that collections from Travancore always included it. Inspite of this
there seems no doubt that this Minivet must be rare in the Travancore-Cochin
area.
Pericrocotus peregrinus malabaricus (Gmelin). The Malabar Small Minivet.
Specimens collected: 84-85 @ ¢ 18-1-33 Maraiyar 3,500 ft.; 253 ¢, 254 0?
juv. 9-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 298 @ 16-2-83 Urimbikera Forest 1,000 ft.;
443 ¢ 16-3-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 716 G 24-7-8338 (Marithankizhi 50 ft.),
787 3 4-8-8838 (Cattle Farm 150 ft.), 809 @ 8-8-8838 (Muktnnimalai 800 ft.),
818 9 9-8-3833 (Nettayam 200 ft.) Trivandrum Taluk; 926 9 30-11-33, 927
1-12-83 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.; 959 2 imm. 9-12-88 Nemmara 300 ft.; 1027 9
27-12-8538 Karupadanna ca. 8.L.
Hlsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft.); Kottayam (ca. 8.L.); Kamil
and Periyar Lake Environs (3,000 ft.); Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.); Tenmalai
(500° ft.).
Absent at Cape Comorin !
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill blackish-brown to brownish-black;
mouth pale flesh to slaty-pink (in immature gape and mouth pale orange-
brick colour); legs, feet and claws blackish-brown to brownish-black corres-
ponding with bill.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
10 oo 12.5-14.5 69.5-74.5 66-74 mm.
499 13.5-14 71-76 67-70 mm.
The only other Travancore specimens are 38 Anjengo birds in the British
Museum.—H. W. |
The Small Minivet of the wet Malabar zone, distinguished from other
races by its deeper and richer colouration, is common and generally distri-
buted in the low country throughout the two States and may also be found
sparingly in the hills up to at least 3,500 ft. It frequents deciduous or the
drier mixed forest, rubber plantations, fruit gardens about the backwater home-
steads and the like, usually in small flocks of 4 or 5 birds which move along
from tree to tree searching the foliage for insects and uttering a feeble swee-
swee etc.
Tn Ceylon it is replaced by P. p. ceylonensis, a less richly coloured bird..
Breeding: The testes of No. 253 (9 February) had enlarged to 5x3 mm.;
it was undergoing complete (pre-nuptial ?) moult in readiness to breed. On
19 February a pair was observed in courtship which consisted largely of the
male chasing the female around, uttering a feeble but excited swee-swee in a
manner similar to that of P. flammeus. No. 959 (9 December) was immature
with imperfectly ossified skull and in post-juvenal body moult. No. 1027
(27 December) was in freshly moulted immaculate plumage with ovarian follicles
distinctly granular and apparently developing.
The specimens obtained in July and August were certainly either breeding
or about to. Their gonads were as follows:
716 (24 July) testes 7x4 mm.; 787 (4 August) testes 6X4.mm.; 809
(8 August) testes 8x4 mm.; 818 (9 August) largest ovarian follicle 4 mm.
in diameter. All were undergoing pre-nuptial’ moult except 809 which had
lately completed it. The birds, moreover, were in pairs at this time.
_' In this Mr. Whistler hesitates to agree as he considers that most of the
Ininivets apparently have no pre-nuptial moult. He points out that it is
parallel to the case of P. p. pallidus of which form he has examined 4 speci-
mens in full moult at the time when they actually had eggs in the nest. He
is inclined to suggest that a second brood was brought about when the birds
were moulting after the first brood, but the point requires further study. |
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 313
The evidence is somewhat confusing, but clearly indicates that breeding
commences in February or earlier and that the season is either much pro-
tracted or that there is also a second period later on in the year—July to
September or thereabouts.
[Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerdon). The White-bellied Minivet.
Not met with by the Surveys, neither recorded by Ferguson. in Travancore,
Kinloch in the Nelliampathies nor by Fairbank or Terry in the Palni Hills.
In the Fauna (ii, 383) and \Nidification (ii, 300); however, Mr. J. Stewart
is credited with the taking of its eggs in Travancore. I do not know if
the record is supported by skins, but if not I feel tempted to doubt its correct-
ness especially since—like many of his other eggs—these were possibly collected
for Mr. Stewart by the Mala Pandaram hillmen. |
Lalage sykesi Strickland. The Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike.
Specimens collected: 23 ¢ 6-1-33 Maraiyir 3,500 ft.; 457 ¢ 17-3-33 Rajam-
para 1,350 ft.; 544 9 9-4-3833, 561 ¢ 11-4-33 Cape Comorin (ca. §.L.); 7381 @
26-7-33 (Kuttani 300 ft.), 810 9 imm. 8-8-33 (Mikunni Malai 800 ft.), 820 9
9-8-33 (Nettayam 3800 ft.) Trivandrum Taltik; 909 9 27-11-38, 922 ¢ 29-11-33
Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Kottayam (S.l.); Aramboli
(250 ft.); Nemmara (800 ft.); Kartipadanna (S.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill horny-brown, paler (yellowish) at
base of lower mandible; mouth pink; legs and feet slaty-brown or slaty-black;
claws horny-brown. [Tris of immature (No. 810) ‘blue-grey’ (Pillai). ]
j Additional specimen examined:
B. M. Coll.: 3 25-2-80 Quilon (Bourdillon).
The Survey specimens measure :
Bill. Wing. Tail,
eo ad. o-oo 18.5-20.5 102-109 80-83.5 mm.
2imm. do 18-19.5 100-101.5 — mm.
Qad. 99 18.5-19 100-104 76 mm.
2imm. 9 9 18-19.5 98.5-108 77.5-83 mm.
This species has no races but there is a certain amount of individual vari-
ation in the adult males in which the abdomen may be dark grey, largely
white, or dark grey faintly barred. The young male in first winter plumage
resembles the adult female.—H. W.]
The Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike is primarily an inhabitant of the low
country in Travancore and Cochin. Maraiyir (8,500 ft.) is the highest ele-
vation at which I came across it, but it was uncommon there. Col. Sparrow
met it in the Cardamom Hills in March, at what elevation it is not stated.
Below about 1,000 ft. it is common and frequents light deciduous or mixed
forest, fruit gardens about the backwater homesteads and such localities, often
in association with the mixed hunting parties of Tree Pies, Babblers, Wood-
Shrikes, Grey Tits, Woodpeckers and other birds. It is mainly insectivorous,
of course, but at Wadakkancheri (Cochin) I observed it feeding largely on
ripe Lantana berries.
We have no information concerning its seasonal movements in this area,
if any, but to all appearances it is a resident species.
In view of what is said in the Fauna (11, 341) about its call, it seems
worthwhile to point out that it has a pretty ‘song’ consisting of several clear
whistling notes, ending in a quick-repeated pit-pit-pit. This, in my _ version,
is certainly not ‘the mere repetition of one plaintive note’.
Fairbank procured a $ at Periur in the Palnis but we do not know any-
thing about its numbers or status in those hills. It is apparently a resident
’ in Ceylon and fairly generally distributed, occurring up to 4,000 ft.
Breeding: No indication is afforded by the specimens except that No. 810
(8 August) was immature with imperfectly ossified skull and in post-juvenal
body moult. According to Nidification (ii, 306) the breeding season in Travan-
core is April and May.
314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Graucalus javensis macei (Lesson). The Large Indian Cuckoo-Shrike.
Specimens collected: 15 ¢ 5-1-383 Maraiyar 3,500 ft.; 449 9 16-3-33 Rajam-
para 1,350 ft.; 718 g 24-7-33 (Pangode 80 ft.), 774 Q 2-8-33, 804 ¢, 805 @
juv., 806 Q juv. 7-8-3838 (Golf Links) Trivandrum Environs; 1080 ¢ 28-12-33
Karupadanna (ca. 8.L.).
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Kiamili and Periyar Lake Environs
(3,000 ft.); Chalakidi; Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliam-
pathies).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris reddish- or orange-brown; bill, legs,
feet and claws brownish- or slaty-black; mouth pink. Juvenile: ‘Iris deep
brown; bill slaty, lower mandible paler towards the base; legs ant feet bluish-
slate; claws slate; mouth bright reddish-yellow’ (Pillai).
[Travancore specimens measure:
Bil. Wing. Taal: Tarsus.
Uevek ei 28-29 153-165 111-119 24-25 mm.
4909 27-29.5 156-161 108.5-119 23.5-24 mm.
The sequence of plumages has already been detailed in the J.B.N.H.S.,
xxxvi, 846, so I need only add that adults were undergoing the complete post-
huptial moult in July-August.—H. W.]
The Large Cuckoo-Shrike is a resident in the Travancore-Cochin area, fairly
common in the low country up to about 1,000 ft. and somewhat less so
upwards to 38,500 ft. which is the highest elevation it was met at. It
frequents light deciduous jungle as well as mixed forest on the fringe of ever-
green, but seems fondest of rubber plantations and the type of country that
obtains around the backwater homesteads. It is usually seen in pairs but also
occasionally in small parties of 3 or 4, flying in irregular follow-my-leader
fashion above the tree-tops and uttering its distinctive shrill Tee-eee calls
from time to time.
One of the specimens had captured a large green Mantis.
It appears to be rare in the Palni Hills. Fairbank (S.F., v, 400) met one
at Periur and Terry (S.F., x, 472) came across it in the Pittur Valley. In
Ceylon it is represented by the much smaller race G. 7. layardi.
_ Breeding: On 7 August (Golf Links, Trivandrum) Pillai found a nest con-
taining 2 fledged young (805 9, 806 9) ready to leave in 3 or 4 days. The
nest was situated in a fork of twigs in a Nim (Azadirachta indica) tree at
about 25 ft. It is described as ‘a neat saucer 4 in. in diameter made of the
leaf-stalks of some leguminous tree, fastened together with cobwebs to which
were adhering lichens and particles of dry leaves. The bottom of the saucer was
strewn with a sort of whitish powdery substance like scales of feather shafts.’
The gonads of all the specimens were in a quiescent state including those
of the parent of the chicks (804).
Faminy: ARTAMIDAR.
Artamus fuscus Vieillot. The Ashy Swallow-Shrike.
Specimens collected: 46-47 $d 9-1-3383 Maraiyir 3,500 ft.; 517. ¢ 5-4-33
(Velayani Lake), 681 9 16-7-83, 712-713 94 23-7-33 (Beach), 750. -& 80-7-33
(Veli), 788-789 99 5-8-33 (Nettayam), 840-841 ¢¢ (Beach) Trivandrum Town
and Environs; 941 unsexed (in alcohol) 5-12-88, 954 unsexed (in alcohol), 955 Q
8-12-33 Nemmara 300 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Kottayam (ca. §.L.); Kimili and Periyar Lake En-
virons (8,000 ft.); Cape Comorin; Aramboli (250 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.);
Kariipadanna (ca. 8.B.).
Colours of bare parts: Tris dark brown; bill bluish-grey, black at Lape of
both mandibles; mouth slate; legs and feet slate; claws black.
[ Measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
38d 225-23 132-133 52.5 mm.
Cee 21-21.5 130.5-186.5 55-57 mm.
THE. ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 315
Moult prevents all the specimens being measured.
Adults undergo a complete moult in July and August.—H. W.]
The Ashy Swallow-Shrike is not uncommon in the low country of Travan-
core and Cochin, and was also met with sporadically up to 3,000 or 4,000 ft.
in the hills. Its favourite biotope, however, is the country along the back-
waters, particularly the facies in which Borassus and Cocoanut palms pre-
dominate. They are usually met gregariously perched on palm trees, telegraph
wires and the like whence they fly out from time to time after winged insects,
and circle back to their perch. The flight is very swallow-like and consists
of several rapid wing beats followed by a graceful effortless sailing.
On a hill at Maraiyir a congregation of over 30 of these birds was observed
all about one particular patch—a glade in mixed bamboo forest. This spot,
barely 15 yards square, was discovered to be swarming and alive with thousands
upon thousands of the butterfly Danais melisa dravidarum. They rested on
portions of the foliage of trees in immense clusters that looked exactly like
bunches of scorched and withering leaves. Curiously enough, the swarm was
confined to this isolated spot and beyond it the species was almost absent.
Hundreds of them were preyed upon by spiders—including prominently a Nephila
—which had spread their webs all over the glade. Whenever the branches were
shaken and the shoals of butterflies took wing, the birds descended upon them
and wrought destruction. They never took the insects sitting but only hawked
them on the wing. Swallow Shrikes were the only bird species interested in
these butterflies. Usually when a butterfly is captured in the bill the bird
flies back with it to its perch where the wings are pulled off and dropped to
the ground before the insect is swallowed, but occasionally this formality is
dispensed with and the prey swallowed entire. Frequently the insect is forth-
with transferred to the feet, pulled to pieces with the bill and swallowed in
mid-air. TI also observed that when a swarm of butterflies is on the wing and
‘business is brisk’, one is caught and promptly transferred to the feet in order
that the bill may be free to tackle the second. The bird then flies back to
its perch with, both its victims and deals with them at its ease.
On the Periyar Lake Swallow Shrikes posted themselves on the dead,
partially submerged tree-trunks whence they hawked insects over the surface of
the water and also fed largely on butterflies that ventured across from one
bank of the lake to .the other. Their food seems to consist of butterflies to
a very large extent. -
In the Palni Hills Fairbank (8.F., v, 401) obtained this species in thin
jungle at 4,500 ft. elevation. It also oecurs in Ceylon.
Breeding: The gonads of all the specimens were in normal non-breeding
condition, but breeding was obviously in progress in March. On the 4th of
that month (Periyar Lake) a pair were observed in copula on a partially sub-
merged tree-stump. The female spread out her wings slightly, gave her body
a horizontal stance and ‘shivered’ in invitation for a second or two. The male
flew directly on to her back from a neighbouring perch and balancing himself
with his wings completed the act. On 5 April (Trivandrum) a full-fledged
young was observed being tended by its parents who beat off a crow encroaching
on the neighbourhood.
Pillai’s specimen No. 840 (12 August) was evidently not yet fully mature.
Its skull was imperfectly ossified. but it was in fresh post-juvenal plumage.
According to the Fauna (ii, 349) the Swallow Shrike breeds throughout its
wide range during April, May and June, and Nidification does not add anything
specific for Travancore or Cochin. =
FaMIny: DICRURIDAR.
Dicrurus macrocercus peninsularis Ticehurst. The Black Drongo.
Specimens collected: 298 ¢ 17-2-83 Kottayam (ca. 8.T.); 579 2, 580 a
juv., 581 Q juv. 12-4-33 Cape Comorin (ca. $.1.); 676 9 16-7-33 (Beach)
709 S$ 22-7-33 (Public Gardens), 715 ¢ 28-7-83, 734 $ 27-7-33) (Beach), 817 °
9-8-3838, 847 J 13-8-33 (Nettayam 200 ft.) Trivandrum Town and Environs.
Elsewhere noted at: WVadaserikara (near Rajampara); Aramboli (250 ft.);
Nagercoil; all along railway line from Shoranir to Ernakilam:; Wadakkancheri
316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
(400 ft.); Nemmara (800 ft.); Trichtr Town and Environs; Karipadanna; Erna-
kilam. .
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris reddish-brown; bill, legs, feet and claws
black; mouth slaty-brown and pink. Juvenile: Iris brown; bill slaty-black;
gape cream colour; mouth bright yellow and pink; legs and feet slate; claws
horny.
[Additional specimens examined:
Trivandrum Museum Coll.: ¢ first year 15-9-98, Q ad. 27-1-81 Trivan-
drum. E
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Central Tail. Outer Tail.
Aad. SG 23.5-26.5 137-147 90-93 134-168 mm.
2 first year 3S — 134-1438 98-109.5 181-150 mm. »
4ad. 9Q 23-26.5 135.5-144 93-98 ~ 147-156.5 mm.
Both Indian races of Dicrurus macrocercus, namely albirictus (Northern
India) and peninsularis (Southern India) go through the same plumage stages
as follows: The juvenile differs from the adult in having
(1) body plumage softer and browner with very little metallic gloss and
that confined to the upper plumage,
(2) wings and tail shorter and duller with less gloss,
(3) underwing coverts edged with white; the outer edge of the secon-
daries may also be narrowly edged with white.
The -post-juvenal moult does not include
(1) primaries, secondaries and tertiaries; primary, greater and sometimes
a few. median coverts; underwing coverts, :
(2) tail. a
The: first winter and summer plumage is distinguished from adult plumage
by
(1) the long upper. tail coverts are usually edged with white,
(2) the lower plumage is less glossy, the feathers from the lower breast
to the under tail coverts being fringed with white to a variable extent; these
gradually wear down and in summer are less noticeable,
(3) the duller more faded appearance of the unmoulted parts of the
juvenile plumage, and. of course the white on the under wing coverts. |
This plumage is kept until the autumn when the first complete moult gives
fully adult plumage in the second winter. |
Adults have a complete post-nuptial moult. They have the under tail coverts
occasionally edged with white, but never so the upper tail coverts or the under
wing coverts.
Travancore adults are undergoing their post-nuptial moult in July and
August.
For a full revision of Indian members of this species see ‘'Ticehurst,
J.B.N.H.8., xxxvi, 927-9.—H. W.]
The Black Drongo is one of the most familiar birds in the low: country
of Travancore-Cochin being invariably present—perched on fence posts, telegraph
wires and the like—in the neighbourhood of cultivation. It also frequents
gardens and compounds in towns and villages and is verv partial to the fruit
gardens surrounding homesteads along the backwaters, and to the dyked paddy
cultivation in this locality. It was not met with anywhere except in open
country—often in association with the localised hunting parties of mixed bird
‘ species—and nowhere above about 500 ft. elevation.
One was observed capturing on the wing a cream-coloured butterfly (species ?).
Tt does not ascend the Palni Hills. In Ceylon it is replaced by the smaller
race D. m. minor which is endemic to the island.
Breeding: By the middle of February (once also on 10 November—Chala-
ktidi!) the harsh scolding ‘duets’ or ‘trios’ so significant of the breeding season,
were in general evidence. No. 298 (17 February) had testes enlarged to 10x5
mm. and was breeding. Nos. 580 and 581 (12 April) were juvenile ready to
leave the nest in a day or so. The nest itself was situated at the base of a
Palmyra leaf-stalk about 20 ft. up, and these two comprised the full brood,
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 317
In 579, the mother of the chicks, the ovary was as yet in a conspicuously
granular condition and the incubation patch was prominent.
According to T. F. Bourdillon ‘eggs may be obtained in any quantities in
the low country in June and July’ [in Travancore]. He also took eggs in
March (Nidification, ii, 321).
Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus (Jerdon). The Indian Grey Drongo.
Specimens collected: 14 Q 5-1-88, 64 Q 11-1-83 Maraiyar 3,500 ft.; 267 ¢,
268 Jf 11-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 882 9 18-11-33 Kuriarkatti 1,600: ft.; 977 9°
Padagiri 3,000 ft. .
Elsewhere noted at: Peermade (8,200 ft.); Kumili and Periyar Lake En-
virons (3,000 ft.); Camp Deramalai (3,000 ft.); Nemmara (800 ft.); Wadak-
kancheri (400 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris scarlet or brownish-crimson; mouth greyish flesh
eolour; bill, legs, feet and claws horny-black.
[Other specimens examined :
Brit. Mus. Coll.: Q imm. 11-11-74, -Q ad. 2-12-78, 9 ad. 7-12-74, @
ad. 7-11-78, G ad. 27-11-78 Mynall, Travancore (Bourdillon).
Trivandrum Mus. Coll.: CG 26-12-93 Chimungi; 0? -2-99 Ralode- [?].
The Survey specimens measure:
Bill: Wing. Central Tail. Outer Tail.
Qad. dd 95-25.5 1385.5-138.5 89-94.5 149-151.5 mm.
2ad. 9 92 95-27 131-138 89.5-92.5 148-148.5 mm.
29° (first winter) 95-26.5 127-127 .5 88-89 135-187.5 -mm.
In this species the juvenile plumage differs from that of the adult in two
important particulars. The body plumage is softer and a browner black, lack-
ing practically all gloss. The wings and tail are as in the adult except for
being considerably shorter. The post-juvenal moult does not include the pri-
maries and primary coverts, the secondaries and greater coverts, the tertiaries
or tail. These are retained to the following autumn so that first summer and
first winter birds differ from adults in their more worn and faded and also
shorter wings and tail. They also appear to be slightly paler and less glossy
on the abdomen, slight white fringes being more noticeable, especially on the
under tail coverts. It is important therefore to remember that in this species
the measurements of first year and adult birds must be kept separate if com-
parison is to be made between the races. This fact has been emphasised by
Tiechurst in connection with Burmese birds.
Adults have a complete post-nuptial moult about July-August-September.
There is no definite spring moult though odd body feathers are changed.
In Novitates Zoologicae, xxv (1918), p. 296, Mr. Stuart Baker named birds
from Ceylon as Dicrurus leucophaeus minimus on their smaller size. He remark-
ed that ‘it appears to be also rather a darker bird than those from Southern
India, but the difference is so slight as to be negligible’. The Ceylon bird is,
however, a non-breeding’ migrant, a winter visitor, and jin the Fauna, vol. ii,
p. 364, Mr. Stuart Baker got over this difficulty by fixing the breeding
area of minimus in the extreme south of Travancore, though in Nidification,
vol. u, p. 329, his assurance on this point has weakened. JI have seen no
evidence that this Drongo is anything but a winter visitor to Travancore, and
~D. leucophaeus minimus appears to me to be based on first year birds of
D. longicaudatus.—H. W.
In the hills and wooded areas of the two States, the Black Drongo of the
low open country is replaced by this species though T have records only between
13 November and 9 March. It keeps to forest—deciduous, mixed or evergreen—
and is especially fond of cardamom sholas and coffee plantations with their
shade trees. At Nemmara and Wadakkancheri in Cochin, where both the Black
and Grey Drongos were found, the former was observed to be restricted to flat
open cultivated country while the latter kept to the wooded hills. I cannot
confirm Ferguson’s statement (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 455) that it is common in the
low country of Travancore.
The Grey Drongo is a habitual attendant on the flowers of Erythrina lithos-
perma shade trees and feeds largely on their nectar. Over 10 drops of the
318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
fluid dripped from the bill of a specimen when held up by its legs. All speci-
mens shot off these flowers, moreover, had pollen adhering to their forehead
and chin, and there is no doubt that this Species is instrumental in their cross-
pollination.
No. 64 had the outermost pair of tail feathers snow-white !
Breeding: There seems to be great uncertainty as regards the status of
this Drongo in our area where it is apparently a winter visitor only. No
records of its breeding here exist, and the gonads of the Survey specimens, all in
a quiescent state, furnish no clue in this regard.
Dicrurus coerulescens coerulescens (Linn.). The White-bellied Drongo.
Specimens collected: 4 ¢§ 4-1-38, 73 ¢ 192-1-33 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.
Elsewhere noted as absent, but a juvenile dated 27-8-93 from ‘Kuranmulti,
Travancore’ [?] by J. P. Cook is in the B.N.H.S. Collection.
Colours of bare parts: Tris reddish-brown; bill horny-black; mouth greyish-
pink; legs, feet and claws blackish-brown.
[There are no Travancore specimens in the British Museum. TI think it is
by no means certain that leucopygialis of Ceylon is a race of this species.—
H. W.]
At Maraiyur—the only locality in the Travancore-Cochin area where this
Drongo was met—it was noted as a very common and noisy species, inhabiting
mixed bamboo forest especially in the neighbourhood of shady paths and clear-
ings. It was often seen in association with the Bronzed Drongo and is an
excellent mimic.
Breeding: The testes of the specimens were in normal non-breeding condi-
tion. Nidification (ii, 331) records that Stewart took its nests in Travancore at
about 1,000 ft. and 8,000 ft. elevation. The dates are not mentioned.
Chaptia aenea malayensis Blyth. The Southern Bronzed Drongo.
Specimens collected: 38 9 4-1-83 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 282 ¢ 7-2-38, 263 3
10-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 739 Q 29-7-33 (Kittani 300 ft.), 797 9 6-8-33, 8384 ¢
4-8-33 (Pulayanar Kotta 200 ft.) Trivandrum Talik.
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft.); Urambikera Forest, near
Mindakayam (1,000 ft.); Kottayam (ca. S.L.); Kamili and Periyar Lake En-
virons (3,000 ft.); Camp Deramalai (3,000 ft.); Rajampara (1,350 ft.); Chala-
kudi; Kiriarkitti (1,600 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Padagiri (8,000 ft.—
Nelliampathies).
Colours of bare parts: Iris reddish-brown to crimson; bill, legs, feet and
claws black; mouth greyish-pink or slaty-pink.
[Other specimens examined:
B. M. Coll.: & 17-6-77 Tandigudi 4,000 ft., Lower Palnis (Fairbank) ;
@ -10-78, 9 23-9-74 Mynall, Travancore (Bourdillon).
The presence or absence of white spots on the outer wing coverts appear
to me to be a question of individual variation rather than of age.—H. W.]
The Bronzed Drongo is an ubiquitous species in well-wooded tracts through-
out the area, both in the low country and in the hills up to least 3,500 ft.
and perhaps higher.
Mixed bamboo forest rather than dense evergreen jungle, rubber planta-
tions, cardamom sholas and the groves of mango, cashew and jack fruit, etc.,
by the backwater homesteads are some of its favourite haunts. They are
noisy birds having a large repertoire of loud musical calls and are accom-
plished mimics besides. They are usually seen singly or in widely separated
pairs alongside forest roads, firelines, etc. and often as members of the
localised. bird associations in forest.
In the Palnis, Fairbank (S.F., v, 401) considered it one of the commonest
birds at the base of the hills and up to 5,000 ft. elevation. It does not
extend to Ceylon. .
Breeding: Nesting was in progress during February. No. 232 (7 Febru-
ary) had the testes enlarged to 8x4 mm.; 263 (10 February) to 7x4 mm,
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 319
On 11 February (Thattakad) a nest was observed in the process of con-
struction in a young teak plantation. It was a neat round cup of bast fibres,
cemented on the outside with cobwebs, wedged in the horizontal fork of a
thin bare branch of a teak sapling at about 14 ft. from the ground. One of
the owners—apparently male, as calling—was observed turning round and
round within to give it shape. No eggs had as yet been laid. The nest was
very inconspicuous amongst its surroundings of bare branches and withering
leaves, but there seemed to be no deliberate attempt at concealment. The
July specimens were undergoing complete post-nuptial moult.
Chibia hottentotta (L.). The Indian Hair-Crested Drongo.
No specimens obtained, neither does Ferguson appear to have come across
this species in Travancore. I observed a pair—the only examples in Travan-
core or Cochin—at Thattakad and have not the slightest doubt as regards their
identity since they were watched for a considerable time through field glasses
on three consecutive days. The birds were excessively shy, however, and I
could never get within gun-shot of them. They kept to a patch of Hrythrina
lithosperma trees with heavy thorny and tangled undergrowth, and fed largely
on the nectar of these blossoms, frequently attacking and diving off other
birds feeding on adjoining branches.
As no specimens from Travancore apparently exist, it would be interesting
to learn on what grounds Mr. Baker has fixed the type locality of his race
hottentotta as Travancore (Fauna, vii, 164). See also J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 352.
Breeding: According to Bourdillon (Nidification, 11, 321) this drongo breeds
in Travancore from the end of February to June. He himself is said to
have taken nests fom 15 March to 26 April.
[Dissemurulus lophorinus (Vieillot). The Ceylon Black Drongo.
The Fauna (11, 3873-4) implies that this Drongo is a common bird in Travan-
core, but since neither Bourdillon, Ferguson nor myself ever came across it
there or in Cochin it is difficult to accept the implication until skins can be
produced in support. Since the whole claim for its occurrence and breeding
in Travancore rests on the possibly vicarious authority of Mr. J. Stewart
who, as we know, often had his eggs collected for him and brought in by
local hillmen, the doubtfulness of the records becomes all the more heightened.
Nidification (ii, 339) says that in Travancore ‘it has been found breeding
freely in great numbers by J. Stewart’. All his eggs are said to have been
taken between 13 March and 30 April. ]
Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus (Latham). The Malabar Large Racket-
tailed Drongo.
Specimens collected: 122 J 22-1-33, 1385 ¢ 23-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.;
488 ¢ 24-3-33 Tenmalai 500 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyair (8,500 ft.); Thattakad (200 ft.); Urambi-
kera Forest near Mundakayam (1,000 ft.); Kamili and Periyar Lake En-
virons (3,000 ft.); Camp Deramalai (38,000-4,000 ft.); Rajampara (1,350 ft.);
Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.—Ashambii Hills); Kiariarkitti and Parambikolam
ee ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); PAadagiri (3,000 ft.—Nelliampathy
ills).
Colours of bare parts: Tris brown to reddish-brown; bill, legs, feet and
claws black; mouth slaty-pink (in 135 yellowish-flesh colour)
[Additional material seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: -10-70, § 11-1-76 Mynall, Travancore (Bourdillon).
I do not give measurements as there is some variation in them and T am
not yet able to interpret the ages of this species satisfactorily, and shall not
be able to do so until I can examine more autumn birds of which the sexine
and age determination by skull are satisfactory, so that one is certain one is
handling young birds.
_ There appears to be some instability in the variation of the tail in the
Juvenile, some apparently having a juvenile tail, others having it similar
to the adult. Also I think the races may differ inter se in these details.
When all these points are worked out one must settle the races.—H. W.]
3820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIL
The Racket-tailed Drongo is associated with the well-wooded tracts of the
States, chiefly mixed bamboo forest or where there is a mingling of the deci-
duous and evergreen types. It was met with in suitable low country as at
Wadakkancheri and Thattakad and through the foothills up to an elevation
of at least 4,000 ft., almost invariably as a member of the localised hunting
parties which usually include the Southern Tree Pie and various Flycatchers
and Phylloscopi. It is a noisy bird and has a large variety of loud metallic
musical notes of its own besides being a very good mimic of other species.
It is common in the Palni Hills. In Ceylon, according to G. M. Henry
(Ceylon Jour. of Sci., Sec. B, Zool. and Geol., xviii, pt. 22 December 1933,
p. 146) it is represented in the dry zone by the smaller race D. p. ceylonensis
while in the wet zone Dissemurulus lophorinus completely replaces it.
Breeding: According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 455) it breeds in
Travancore during April and May. From their behaviour I have no doubt
that the birds were breeding in March and a specimen shot on the 24th of
that month (No. 488) had its testes enlarged to 18x8.5 mm.
The earliest eggs recorded are on 18 February (Stewart), the latest 10 May
(Bourdillon). Three eggs usually comprise a full clutch; rarely four (Nidi-
fication, ii, 349).
(To be continued).
FEEDING OF COBRAS IN CAPTIVITY.
BY
Dr. 8. G. TScHERBAKOFF. | -
(From the Haffkine Institute, Bombay).
As regards the feeding habits of cobras in captivity, there
appears to be some difference of opimion among observers. Tor
example, Wall, in his ‘Popular Treatise on the common Indian
Snakes’, mentions that the cobra feeds principally on rats, frogs,
toads, and less frequently on birds, and. that it seems to show no
special preference for any of these creatures under natural condi-
tions. In captivity, however, many specimens feed eagerly and
thrive well. Nicholson, on the other hand, in his book on Indian
Snakes maintains that he has never seen cobras in captivity feed,
and unless fed forcibly they would starve themselves to death. An
opportunity offered itself during this year, at the Haffkine Institute,
to study the feeding habits of cobras in captivity.
An attempt has been made in this paper to record the facts
observed during the course of some experiments, carried out to find
the best method of feeding cobras.
CoBRAS IN CAPTIVITY AT THE HAFFKINE INSTITUTE.
Cobras are received at the Institute from far off places and are
despatched in specially designed wooden boxes. As soon as the
snakes arrive, they are removed from these boxes and are kept
separately, each in a japanned tin box. The tin boxes in use are
Two types of cages for keeping live Snakes.
of two types. Type A measures 52 x 26x30 cm.; one of its sides
measures 24 x 28 cm. and is of wire gauze (10 meshes to 2.5 em.)
and nearly half of the top of the box forms a lid which opens and
shuts by hinges. Type B measures 45 x 86x23 cm.; in this type
the two opposite sides of the box are of wire gauze, one measuring
822 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVItt
43x21 cm. and the other 43x15 cm. (See photograph of types
A and B.)
At the time when these experiments were commenced, nearly
one half of the snakes were kept in a well ventilated room on the
top floor of the Institute, where plenty of air and light could be
had. The rest were kept in the animal house in a small room
which had no special arrangements for proper ventilation except
that the two doorways of the room faced each other. The experi-
ments were carried out during the monsoon months namely from
10th June to 15th October 1934, when the average lowest minimum
temperature was about 74° F. and the total rainfall about 70”. On
the Ist of June 1934 there were in all 319 cobras (Naia tripudians),
and these were obtained from the following places :—
Madras seu 200 Narasingpore soe
Mysore ‘oe 1D Raibanore Haney
Wardha sire 5 Gwalior eee aie
From June to September 1934, 131 cobras died in captivity,
the mortality among these being distributed as follows:—
June 1934 nee see 58
July 5 a ty 29
August: ,, ‘ns Sie 22
Sept. 9 a Ze
The records of the Colaba observatory for the corresponding
dates are as follows:—
Highest maximum | Lowest minimum Total rainfall
Month temperature during’| temperature during during the
the month the month month
June 1934... 93°59 TRTOR WOES) 229:06% a
July Rees 88°8 fifi Sie 22°74
eANUSUSE. yy nee. 86°6 73°9 12°14
Sept. pons 89°0 73°5 a 5°83
69577
The mortality among the cobras kept in the well ventilated
room and in the animal house was as follows :—
ERE Total | Percentage
died Mortality
No. of Cobras
Where housed on Ist July 1934
|‘July | Aug. Sept.
Upstairs iS 113 9° |. =42 8 29 25°7
Animal House. 148 20 10 14 44 30°0
EXPERIMENTS ON THE FEEDING OF COBRAS.
‘The methods employed for the feeding of cobras in these experi-
ments were so devised as to obtain comparative results.
Kxperiment I. One hundred cobras were fed with live. rats.
The rats selected for this purpose were the Bombay Rattus rattus,
which are sent to the Institute daily by the Municipality of Bom-
aA FEEDING OF COBRAS IN CAPTIVITY 323
bay for the detection of plague. These rats were kept under
observation for several days to ensure that they were free from any
natural infection. The rats selected weighed from 380 to 70 grams;
and according to the size of the cobra the weight of the rat used
varied. A live rat was dropped into the cage of each cobra. After
24 hours it was noticed that only 27 cobras had swallowed the rats.
Fifty-five rats were killed but not eaten, and these were removed
from the cages as they began to decompose. Highteeen rats were
found alive although they had been with the cobras for 24 hours;
and some of these were removed from the cages. It was also
noticed that the rats which were left alive in the cages for longer
periods continued to live for a period of five days: during this
period, driven by hunger, they started to nibble at the cobras, and
therefore they had to be removed.
During the course of this experiment it was noticed that when
a cobra struck at a live rat, the rat died within one and a half to
three minutes. In no case did the survival period exceed four
minutes. When the cobra saw its prey dead, it commenced to
swallow it by working its teeth and lower jaw until the prey
was gradually forced in, and in about three minutes the entire rat
disappeared from view. During the process of swallowing the epi-
glottis was often projected forwards to take in air and thus prevent
suffocation. . Also during the process of swallowing the whole body
of the cobra remained stationary; but immediately: the prey dis-
appeared down its throat, the cobra began to make a somewhat
circular movement and within a very short time (about three
minutes) the prey reached its destination, namely the region of
the stomach. This circular movement was repeated over and over
again at intervals of a few minutes. After about half an hour the
cobra retired to a corner of the cage and remained coiled up. It
was observed that before retiring to the corner the cobra made
peculiar movements suggesting that it was searching for something.
It was thought that this might be a drink of water. So a plate
full of water was introduced into the cage. The cobra drank very
freely and since then the practice of giving water to the cobras
after each feed has been continued. In these experiments it was
noticed that it took on the average five days for a cobra to digest
a live rat.
Experiment II. One hundred cobras were fed on dead rats.
These rats were killed by drowning in a pail of water and were im-
mediately placed in the cages. Only 28 cobras swallowed the rats.
Hxperiment III. One hendted cobras were given about 80 grams
each of minced beef bought fresh. In only 18 cases did. this
method of feeding prove successful,
Experiment IV, Next a whole hen’s egg was placed in each
of 25 cages. The snakes did not seem to take notice of the eggs
and all the eggs remained entire even after five days.
Experiment V. One hundred cobras were fed as follows :—Rats
were killed by drowning and were cut in two longitudinally and all
the internal orgaus removed. From 380 to 50 grams of this cut- up
meat were placed in each of the hundred cages. Thirty-seven
cobras fed successfully by this method. 3
324. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXViii
It was also noticed that when a cobra failed to swallow the
cut-up meat within three hours of its being offered, it very rarely
ate; and only in a very few cases was this meat eaten up to within
six hours. In all these experiments the food left uneaten was re-
moved after 24 hours of its introduction into the cages. It was
observed that a cobra took three days to digest a cut-up rat.
During the experiments it was observed that all the cobras did
not behave alike with regard to their feeding. According to their
feeding behaviour they can be divided into three groups.
Group 1. Those that refused to feed at all. The behaviour of
cobras Nos. 313 and 3829 in the following table are cited as
examples to illustrate this.
CoBRA 313 COBRA 329
30-§-34 L — 27-6-34 L —
3-7-34 L— 30-6-34 L —
19-7-34 D— 2-7-34 C
31 7-34 M — 20-7-34 Cc —
1-8--34 Cc — 31-7-34 M —
10- 8-34 Cc — 1-8-34 Cc
20- 8-34 Cc — 10-8-34 C7 —
30-8- 34 Cc — 20-8-34 Cc —
10- 9-34 Cc — 30-8-34 Cc, —
10-9-34 Co
14~-9-34 JLyy eee
Note: (—) Means refused to eat.
L means Live rat;
D yy | Dead rat};
M 1», Meat;
c iw ©6ut-up: rat.
Group 2. Those that fed upon rats in any form—whether alive,
dead or dissected, and on meat (beef). The behaviour of cobras
Nos. 821 and 3872 in the following table are cited as examples to
illustrate this. —
COBRA 321
2-7-34 Wie ts 27-6-34 ions eae
19-7-34 Dyas 6-7-34 Digs
31-7-34 M4 20-7-34 ei:
10-8- 34 eyo 1-8-34 Claes
20-8-34 Cube a 7-8-34 -M- *
30-834 cout 22-8-34 Ca
10-9- 34 Gis 3-9-34 Cuae
14-9-34 neCruees
15-9-34 es
18-9-34 sear
19-9-34 a
20-9-34 LOE
21-9-34 Paes aes
Note: * means positive feeding or fed successfully.
FEEDING OF COBRAS IN CAPTIVITY 395
Group 8. Those that preferred only one type of food either a
live rat or a dissected one. (a) The behaviour of cobras Nos. 29
and 115 in the following table illustrates the results obtained with
dissected rats.
COBRA 29 COBRA 15
23-6-34 L — 19-6-34 C .
26-6 34 L = 2-7-34 L —
9-7-34 D — 9-7-34 D —
25-7-34 C 14-.7-34 L —
3-8-34 Cc * 25-7-34 C .
13-8-34 ie 3 7-8-34 ( —
25-8-34 C ss 17-8 -34 L =
4-9-34 C 27-8-34 c is
19-9-34 Cc . 10-9-34 Cc is
21-9 -34 C :
(b) The behaviour of cobras Nos. 18 and 220 in the following
table illustrates the results obtained with live rats.
COBRA 18 COBRA 220
26-6-34 L * 23-6- 34° L sy
9-7-34 D — 16-7- 34 D —
25-7-34 C — 27-7-34 C —
3- 8-34 C 7-8-34 M —
13-8-34 L : 13-8-34 L s
25-8-34 C — 17-8-34 C —
4-~9-34 L : 30-8-34 LG: —
11-9-34 L a) 4-9- 34 L 2
The following table shows the combined results obtained by
the various methods employed for the feeding of cobras from
16-6-1934 to 25-7-1934.
Methods of feeding No. of observations Percentage of
cobras with made successful feedings
Live rats na ae 200 29
Dead rats (drowned) _... 200 24
Dissected rats isk 195 37
Beef meat con nee 200 15
Since then over one thousand observations have been made with
dissected rats, and the results have shown the average percentage
of successful feedings by this method to be 38.
7
326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXViti
The snakes that refused to feed had to be forcibly fed. The
method employed at the Institute prior to these experiments, con-
sisted in pouring down the gullet of the cobra a mixture of egg
and milk. On an average each cobra received about 30 ce. of
egg content and 40 cc. of milk. When this was given it was
observed that about 33 per cent of cobras thus fed vomited almost
the entire quantity within 5 to 15 minutes of their feeding. There-
fore a change was made in the mixture by increasing the amount
of egg content to 45 cc. and decreasing the quantity of milk to
20 cc. By employing this method it was observed that only about
10 per cent of the cobras vomited after feeding.
MortTALITyY AMONG CoBRAS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO FEEDING.
As most of the deaths among the cobras were due to starvation,
the results of these feeding experiments with special reference to
mortality among cobras have been arranged under four groups.
Group 1. In this group are included all those cobras that fed
successfully each time they were supplied with food. During the
course of this experiment nine attempts were made at feeding each
cobra with dissected rats. Among the 88 cobras thus fed, there
was not a single death until the 15th October 1934 (the period of
starvation).
Group 2. In this group of 68 cases, most of the feedings were
successful. During the period of observation 10 died giving a per-
centage mortality of 14°7.
If groups 1 and 2 are combined they give a percentage mortality
of only 10.
Group 8. In this group are included those cases where the
cobras fed only once and then refused to feed when six or seven
attempts at feeding them were made. Out of 17 cobras 9 died
with a percentage mortality of 53.
Group 4. All the 160 cobras in this group did not feed at all
of their own accord and therefore had to be forcibly fed with egg
and milk. The number of deaths in this group was 80 giving a
percentage mortality of 50.
If groups 8 and 4 are combined they give a percentage mor-
tality of 50:3.
The above results seemed to indicate that the method of feeding
cobras in captivity with dissected rats was not only attended with
a larger percentage of successful feedings, but was quite safe
since there was not a single death (during the period of five
months’ observation) among the cobras thus fed, thus showing that
there was not appreciable injury caused by the swallowing of ex-
posed bones in the dissected rats.
THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH CoBRAS COULD FEED.
During the course of these experiments an attempt was made
to study how much and how often a cobra would feed. Wall
relates instances regarding the voracious nature of some snakes in
FEEDING OF COBRAS IN CAPTIVITY | 327
captivity. This was found to be the case with some cobras as the
following table well illustrates.
bl bs A DSA bs Al bs bs bs 8
ste fst ate ste ct face fastest | ck [ck [ct ct fet | tt 1&8 [00 | [09 105 [OH [HD [OH
SO [OM [CFD [ret [OD [E Jer [OD [OM [em JEM [C7 [ED [C9 [OD 1O9 109 1d 1A | | |
D2 {Od D2 | |DI | DI |S |S |O3 Od | }O | Od | > | | fs rs [a fra [ra [a
Case No Nee et et med mt st ft est et es | | | | \ fol
° Pe ee er ee ees. ea teleile eS iS le
SPI ee el ee angelica cease ealan eer ce ce eallaeeulae ee nelee a
ey ae | | ed
Tr |O [D1 [IN [ord [tt ILD CO [EX 100 1Od 1S |r | [6% |< [LD
S2es asks esas mae
390 * | ok | oF * | ok | oR | Ok * | x * *
Note.—* means positive feeding ;
», negative feeding or not fed ;
,, feeding not carried out.
From 25-9-1984 to 8-10-1984, cobras 890 and 391 fed almost
on all successive days, the break in daily feeding being unavoid-
able on account of holidays.
RELATION BETWEEN FEEDING AND THE YIELD OF VENOM.
Dowsett mentions that snakes in captivity lose the greater part
of their venom. Experiments carried out here did not support
this view.
The method employed at the Institute was that as soon as the
cobras were received, their venom was extracted and then they
were forcibly fed with a ration of milk and eggs. Afterwards they
were fed periodically and venom was extracted at intervals of two
weeks.
EKaperiment VI. Between July 12th and July 25th, 1934, on
first extraction an yield of 34°680 grams of dry venom was obtained
trom 233 cobras, giving an average of 0°149 grams per cobra. The
venom was dried over calcium chloride in vacuo.
At the second extraction between July 26th and August 11,
1934, of the above group, out of which 6 had died during the inter-
val, 86°270 grams of dry venom was obtained from 227 cobras,
giving an average of 0°160 grams per cobra.
At the third extraction between August 14 and September 20,
1934, the above group, out of which 22 had died, gave 40°445 grams
dry venom, showing an average yield of 0-198 grams per cobra.
From 8th to 27th September, 1934, experiments were carried
out with two groups A and B, each of which consisted of 50 cobras.
Group A, consisting of cobras which regularly and successively
fed on rats, yielded 12°020 grams dry venom, whereas
Group B, comprising cobras which refused to feed and had to
be forcibly fed, yielded 8°275 grams dry venom.
This showed that cobras when properly fed, especially with
rats, yield an increased quantity of venom.
328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXVIII
In another group of 36 snakes which were received at the
Institute as follows :—
November 1933
December
January 1934
March
April Sx oe nee
May SoG eee woo
June
=
Ne
—
KH roOrHOR
the total venom yield on first extraction was 6°247 grams. These
snakes were feeding regularly and the extraction of the venom
took place at regular intervals of 2 to 3 weeks. The total venom
on final extraction in September 1984 was 8:105 grams. All cobras
in this group were fed successfully with rats.
Yet in another group, 31 cobras were forcibly fed on milk and
egg. They were received at the Institute as under:
November 1933 eae ces a eared
December “ee tee ora a oO
March 1934 See PRE g ae eto nO
April eas aa oa cence
On first extraction they gave 7°305 grams dry venom and finally
in September 19384 they yielded only 6°485 grams.
All the above experiments seemed to indicate that proper feed-
ing increased the quantity of venom or at least kept up to the
initial yield.
In the course of these arene the maximum yield of fresh
venom which was obtained from one cobra was 1°750 grams and
from another the minimum yield was 0°040 grams.
The maximum yield of dry venom was 0°530 grams and the
minimum 0°010 grams.
Some interesting observations were made during these experi-
ments. These are (1) cobras thrive when housed — in_a dry and
well ventilated room; (2) they drink water neal after a teed; and
(3) black cobras are the easiest to feed.
SUMMARY.
1. Feeding cobras in captivity with dissected rats gave the
largest percentage of positive or successful feeding. This method
was found.to be quite safe.
2. In some cases it seemed necessary to feed cobras with dis-
sected rats as well as with live rats.
8. At times cobras exhibited individual idiosyncrasies and it
was necessary therefore to feed them on that type of food which
they preferred.
| 4. With cobras which fed well in captivity the yield of venom
during one year compared favourably with that obtained when the
cobra arrived first at the laboratory.
5. Even from starving cobras a certain amount of venom could
be collected till their death.
6. <A cobra took about three days to digest a dissected rat and
about five days to digest a live rat.
FEEDING OF COBRAS IN CAPTIVITY 329
7. As regards the time when cobras should be fed it appeared
that, when extraction of venom was attempted, they were best
fed with dissected rats once in ten days and venom extracted after
seven days from the time of the feeding, as immediately after a
feed the yield of venom became considerably less. At least an
interval of three days seemed necessary between the extraction of
venom and the next feed.
I take this opportunity to express my deep indebtedness to
Lieut.-Col. 8. 8S. Sokhey, 1.m.s., the Director of the Haffkine Insti-
tute for the facilities placed at my disposal for carrying out this
piece of study. My thanks are also due to Dr. B. P. B. Naidu,
Dr. P. M. Wagle and Rao Bahadur Dr. G. D. Chitre for assistance
rendered in several ways during the course of these experiments,
and to Dr. 8. C. Roy, Meteorologist, Bombay, for the information
about temperature and rainfall.
THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI DISTRICT.
BY
J. A. YATES.
In his enumeration of local lists of butterflies, Evans (Identi-
fication of Indian Butterflies, 2nd edition) mentions Sir George
Hampson’s list published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society, 1888. I venture in the subjoined list to revise his list,
both by giving the names as in Evans and by adding butterflies
taken subsequently. Brigadier Evans has been good enough to
let me see his copy of Hampson’s list, with additions made by
Stokes Roberts in manuscript. I have also been able to consult
Col. Winckworth’s list, verified by specimens in his collection.
Hampson’s excellent description of the area requires no modifica-
tion. Lastly both Brigadier Evans and Mr. Gabriel of the Ento-
mological Department, British Museum, kindly helped me_ to
verify the fact that certain species have been found in the Nilgiris.
These I have specially noted in the following lst.
The Nilgiris are popular with collectors, both schoolboy and
adult. I thought therefore it might be of service to both classes
of collectors to give them a revised list.
I should add that Brigadier Evans thinks that one or two
changes will have to be made in nomenclature. He has kindly
permitted me to include some of his latest conclusions: notably
under Padraona, where Padraona pseudomaesa pseudomaesa M.
replaces Padraona cato cato Evans, and Padraona pallida pallida
Evans replaces Padraona pseudomaesa pseudomaesa M. The
Baoris group will eventually be split up, I understand; but mean-
while one may note that the form described as B. mathias var.
agna M. (D. 8. F.) is now definitely considered as a species.
I have rearranged Hampson’s list to make it tally with Evans’.
The numbers in brackets are Hampson’s original numbers. Where
no number occurs the inclusion of a species is due to Stokes
Roberts or to Winckworth, or to its being in the British Museum
collection.
A. PAPILIONIDAE.
Al.
(193) 1b. Troides helena minos Or.
A2.
(197) 8b. Tros jophon pandiyana M.
(198) 9. Tros hector L.
(199) 10b. Tros aristolochiae aristolochiae F.
A3.
(195) 5b. Chilasa clytia clytia L.
(194) 5b. Chilasa clytia vay. dissimilis L.
AA
"(206) 1b. Papilio polymnestor polymnestor Cr,
(205) 10a. Papilio paris tamilana M.
THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGI£AI DISTRICT 331
(203) 13. Papilio crino F.
(294) 14. Papilio buddha Wd.
(196) 16. Papilio dravidarum Win.
(202) 19b. Papilio helenus daksha M.
(201) 25a. Papilio polytes romulus G.
‘The three forms of the female occur.’ (Hampson)
(212) 26a. Papilio demolion liomedon M.
(200) 27a. Papilio demoleus demoleus L.
Abd.
(207) 4a. Pathysa nomius nomius Ksp.
A6.
(208) 2a. Zetides sarpedon teredon Fd.
(210) 3b. Zetides doson eleius Fr.
(211) 8a. Zetides agamemnon menides Fruh.
(Note.—I can find no record of Pathysa antiphates naira M. as from the
Nilgiris.)
B. PIERIDAE.
Bae
(Lon) a Leptosia nina nina F.
B4.
(184) 10a. Pieris canidia canis Evans.
B6.
(192) 3. Delias eucharis Drury.
B7.
A) Prioneris sita Fd. (B. M., Crowley).
B8.
(188) b. Belenois mesentina mesentina Cr.
B9
(185, 186) 2a. Huphina nerissa evagete Cr.
(187) 8b. Huphina nadina remba M.
B10.
(176) 3b. Appias indra shlya Swin.
(1838) 4a. Appias libythea libythea F.
(182) 5b. Appias lyncida latifasciata M.
6b. Appias albina darada Fd. (Winckworth) @ var. semiflaya (Winck-
worth).
(177-181) 7b. Appias paulina wardi M.
Bll.
(162) 1. Catopsilia crocale Cr.
(161) 2. Catopsilia pomona F.
© var. catilla Cr.
(164) 4. Catopsilia pyranthe minna Herbst.
(163) 5. Catopsilia florella gnoma F.
Bib;
(159) 1. Terias drona. Hors. (7. libythea F., in Evans’ list).
(160) 2a. Terias laeta laeta Bdv.
(158) 4a. Terias blanda silhetana Wall.
(158) 5a. Terias hecabe simulata M.
5a. Terias andersoni ormistoni Watkins (B. M., Moore, Watson,
Broughton).
B16.
(175) 5a. Colias hyale nilagiriensis Fd.
BIT:
(167, 168) 1. Ixias marianne Cr.
(165, 166) 2b. Ixias pyrene frequens But.
382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
15a bey
(173) la. Colotis amata modesta But.
(174) 4a. Colotis fausta fulvia Wall.
(171) 5b. Colotis etrida etrida Bdv.
(170) 6. Colotis aurora Cr. (=C. eucharis, F., in Evans’ list).
(172) 7a. Colotis danae danae F.
B19.
(169) b. Hebomoia glaucippe australis But.
B20.
(189, 190) 2a. Pareronia ceylanica ceylanica Fd.
(191) 8. Pareronia valeria hippia F
C. DANAIDAE.
Cl.
(1) 1b. Hestia lynceus malabarica M.
C2.
(6) la. Danais aglea aglea Cr.
yds Danais nilgiriensis M.
(2) 9. Danais limniace mutina Fruh.
(8) 10b. Danais melissa dravidarum Fruh.
(5) 12. Danais plexippus L.
(4) 15. Danais chrysippus L. var. alcippoides M.
C3:
(9) 7b Euploea core core Cr.
(10) 12b. Euploea coreta coreta God.
(8) 18b. Euploea crassa kollarl Fd.
D. SATYRIDAE.
D2.
(11) 8a. Mycalesis anaxias anaxias Hew.
(18) 9a. Mycalesis perseus typhius Fruh.
(14) 10a. Mycalesis mineus polydecta Cr.
11. Mycalesis igilia Fruh. (Winckworth).
(14) 12a. Mycalesis visala visala M.
1b. Mycalesis khasia orcha Evans.
(15) 20. Mycalesis adolphei Guer.
14. Mycalesis subdita M. (Winckworth).
(16) 32b. Mycalesis patnia junonia But.
DRY
(17) 21a. Lethe europa ragalva Fruh.
(19) 22a. Lethe rohria nilgiriensis Guer.
(18) 23b. Lethe drypetis todara M.
D14.
(22) 6. Ypthima asterope mahratta M.
(25) 9. Ypthima chenui Guer.
(23) lla. Ypthima hubneri hubneri Kirby.
(24) 10. Ypthima ceylonica Hew.
(21) 18b. Ypthima avanta striata Hamp..
14a. Ypthima baldus madrasa Evans.
(26) 14a. Ypthima philomela tabella Mar. and DeN.
Db.
(27) 1. Zipoetis satis Hew.
DIG.
(12) a. Orsotrioena medus mandata M.
D22.
(80) 1. Melanitis leda ismene Cr.
- (28, 29) 2b. Melanitis phedima varaha M.
(31) 3a. Melanitis zitenius gokala M.
THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI DISTRICT
D25.
(32) 1b. Elymnias hypermnestra caudata But.
EK. AMATHUSIIDAE.
E10.
(833) 3b. Discophora lepida lepida M.
P. NYMPHALIDAE.
Et
(83) 2b. Charaxes polyxena imna But.
(82) 7b. Charaxes fabius fabius F.
F2.
(18) 2a. Eriboea athamas agrarius Swin.
F7.
(44) 8b. Apatura parisatis atacinus Iruh.
F10.
(39) la. Euripus consimilis meridionalis WM.
F18.
(73) 8a. Euthalia lepidea miyana Fruh.
(74) 14b. Euthalia garuda meridionalis Fruh.
(75) 17b. Euthalia lubentina arasada Fruh.
(72) 27b. Euthalia evelina laudabilis Swin.
71) 28. Euthalia nais Forst.
F20.
(65) b. Parthenos sylvia virens M.
FQ4.
(66) 7b. Limenitis procris undifragus Fruh.
P25.
(70) 2a. Pantoporia nefte inara Db.
(69) 4a. Pantoporia selenophora kanara Evans.
(68) 10a. Pantoporia ranga karwara Fuh.
(67) 14. Pantoporia perius L.
F 26.
(57) la. Neptis columella nilgirica M.
(58) 2b. Neptis jumbah jumbah M.
(58, 54) 6a. Neptis hylas varmona M.
(55) Ta. Neptis soma kallaura M.
(56) 8a. Neptis nandina hampsoni M.
(52) 26a. Neptis viraja kanara Evans.
(51) 32b. Neptis hordonia hordonia Stoll.
(79) 4a. Cyrestis thyodamas indica Evans.
F380.
(63) 1. Hypolimnas misippus L.
QO var. alcippoides But.
© var. inaria Cr.
(62) 2. Hypolimnas bolina L.
b. Doleschallia bisaltide malabarica Fruh. (Stokes Roberts).
F34.
(80) 1b. Kallima philarchus horsfieldii Koll.
F35.
(49) la. Precis hierta hierta F.
(50) 2a. Precis orithyia swinhei But.
(48) 3a. Precis lemonias vaisya Fruh.
(46) 4a. Precis almana almana L,
383
38384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.
(47) 5.
(45) 6a.
F36.
(76) 1.
(77) 8a.
(78) 4b.
(41) 1.
(43) d.
(59, 60,
(42) 2b.
(37) Lb.
(35, 36)
Precis atlites L.
Precis iphita pluviatalis Fruh.
Vanessa cardui L.
Vanessa indica pholae Fruh.
Vanessa canace viridis Evans.
Argynnis hyperbius hybrida Evans.
Cupha erymanthis maja Fruh.
Atella phalanta Drury,
Cynthia erota saloma Swin.
61) 4b. Cirrochroa thais thais F’.
Cethosia nietneri mahratta M.
Byblia ilithyia Drury.
Ergolis ariadne indica M.
2b. Ergolis merione merione Cr.
(34) Telchinia violae Fab.
G1.
(85) 2a.
(84) 8b.
G4,
(86) 5b.
H8.
(87) a.
H10.
(123) a.
H11.
(106) la.
(105) 2b.
(107) 38a.
F112.
(108) 1.
(104) 9.
H13.
(103)
H14.
(101) 1.
(102) 4.
FI17.
(88)
H18.
(109) 5a.
H. ERYCINIDAE.
Libythea lepita lepitoides M.
Libythea myrrha carma Fruh.
Abisara echerius suffusa M.
H. JycaENIDAE.
Spalgis epius Wd.
Talicada nyseus nyseus Guer.
Castalius rosimon rosimon F.
Castalius caleta decidia Hew.
Castalius ethion ethion Db. and Hew.
Tarucus ananda DeN.
Tarucus nara Koll.
Syatarucus plinius F’.
Azanus ubaldus Cr.
Azanus jesous gamra Led.
Neopithecops zalmora But.
Everes parrhasius parrhasius F’,
XAXVI111
THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI DISTRICT
H20.
(89) a.
Hl.
(91) 2b.
(91) 2.
(92) 10.
(94) 14.
(98) 19D.
H23.
Megisba malaya thwaitesi M.
Lycaenopsis puspa gisca Fruh.
Lycaenopsis lilacea Hamp.
Lycaenopsis albidisca M.
Lycaenopsis akasa mavisa I’ruh.
Lycaenopsis lavendularis limbata M.
(95, 96) a. Chilades laius laius Cr.
H24.
(97) la.
(100) 3a.
A,
(98) 5.
(99) 6a.
H25.
(119) 1.
2b.
3a.
H26.
(111) 2a.
HQ7.
(118) 1.
H28.
(120)
H29.
(110) la.
(121) 5b.
(122) 9b.
H82.
(118) 38a.
Gaia ta.
(112) 8b.
9b.
(115) 15a.
(115) 16a.
Cla), ige
(117) 19.
H44.
(90) 1.
6.
H45.
(129) 1b.
H46.
(155) 1b.
H47.
H49.
(156) 38.
39a.
H50.
(154) 1b.
(138) 4a.
H53.
Zizeeria trochilus putli Koll.
Zizeeria maha ossa Swin.
Zizeeria lysimon Hub. (Stokes Roberts).
Zizeeria gaika Trimen.
Zizeeria otis discreta But.
Euchrysops cnejus F.
Euchrysops contracta contracta But.
Euchrysops pandava pandava Hors. (Stokes Roberts).
Lycaenesthes lycaenina lycaenina Wd.
Catachrysops strabo F.
Lampides boeticus L.
Jamides bochus bochus Cr.
Jamides celeno celeno Cr.
Jamides alecto eurysaces Fruh.
Nacaduba hermus nabo Fruh.
Nacaduba helicon viola M.
Nacaduba kurava euplea Fruh.
Nacaduba beroe gythion Fruh. (B. M., Watson and Moore).
Nacaduba nora nora Fd.
Nacaduba dubiosa indica Evans.
Nacaduba noreia hampsoni DeN.
Nacaduba dana DeN.
Curetis thetis Drury.
(B.M.).
Curetis acuta dentata M. (Stokes Roberts).
Iraota timoleon arsaces Fruh.
Horsfieldia anita dina Fruh.
Thaduka multicaudata kanara Evans (Stokes Roberts).
Amblypodia canaraica M.
Amblypodia amantes amantes Hew. (Stokes Roberts).
Surendra quercetorum biplagiata But.
(151, 152) b. Loxura atymnus atymnus Cr,
(= 19)
todara of Hampson).
Surendra todara todara M. (=Rapala distorta of Hampson),
335
3836. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Se
(189) 1b.
2
(144) 4.
6b.
(141) 7b.
(142) 18a.
H58.
(132)
H59.
(126) 4.
H78.
(124) 1a.
H80.
(149) 1.
H81.
(150)
H83.
(130) 1a.
H84.
(184) 1.
(135) 2a.
H87.
(1538) a.
ide
7b.
(217) 15a.
(218) 16.
12.
(216) 8a.
(215) 17a.
I3.
(219) a.
Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus F.
Spindasis schistacea M. (Winckworth).
Spindasis abnormis M.
Spindasis ictis ictis Hew. (B. M., Moore, etc.).
Spindasis elima elima M.
Spindasis lohita lazularia M.
Zesius chrysomallus Hub.
. Pratapa blanka sudica Evans. (Stokes Roberts).
Pratapa cleobis God.
Tajuria melastigma De.N
Tajuria jehana M. (Winckworth).
Tajuria cippus cippus I’.
Tajuria maculata Hew. (Stokes Roberts, in DeNiceville collec-
Charana jalindra macarita Fr.
Cheritra freja jaffra But.
Rathinda amor fF’.
Horaga onyx cingalensis M.
Horaga viola M.
Catapoecilma elegans myosotina Fruh.
Hypolycaena nilgirica M.
Zeltus etolus F.
Deudoryx epijarbas epijarbas M.
Virachola isocrates I’.
Virachola perse ghela Fruh.
Rapala lankana M.
. Rapala varuna lazulina M.
Rapala schistacea M.
Rapala melampus Cr.
Bindahara phocides moorei Fruh.
I. HESPERIIDAE.
Hasora badra badra M. (B. M., Moore).
Hasora taminatus taminatus Hub.
Hasora alexis alexis F.
Ismene ajina fergusoni DeN.
Ismene gomata kanara Evans.
Bibasis sena sena M.
THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI DISTRICT
TAY
(214) 4a. Choaspes benjaminii benjaminii Guer.
I5.
(213) Badamia exclamationis Fab.
J11.
(263) 3. Celaenorrhinus ambareesa M.
(260) 16b. Celaenorrhinus Ieucocera leucocera Koll.
(261) 20a. Celaenorrhinus ruficornis area Pl.
114.
(259) 38a. Tagiades obscurus athos P1.
(258) 10b. . Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa Mosch.
T19,
6a. Daimio bhagava bhagava M. (Winckworth).
120.
(268) la. Coladenia dan dan F.
(269) 2b. Coladenia indrani indra Evans.
121.
(274, 275) 3b. Sarangesa dasahara davidsoni Swin.
123.
(272) b. Tapena thwaitesi hampsoni El. and Ed.
125.
(278) 1. Odontoptilum angulata sura Fd.
126.
(270) la. Caprona ransonnettii ransonnetti Id.
1b. Caprona ransonnettii lanka Evans.
lg. Caprona ransonnettii taylorii DeN.
127.
(255) a. Gomalia elma albofasciata M.
128.
(256) 2. Syrichtus galba F.
T41
(220) 1b. Baracus vittatus subditus M.
(221) 2. Baracus hampsoni El. and Ed.
142.
(243) 1. Ampittia dioscorides F.
148.
(246) 9. Aeromachus pygmaeus F.
145.
(252, 258, 254) 1. Arnetta vindhiana M.
146.
(222) 2a. lambrix salsala luteipalpus Plotz.
147
(231) 1b. Suastus gremius gremius F.
(232) 3a. § Suastus rama bipunctus Swin.
Tot,
(228) a. Sancus pulligo subfasciatus M.
one
(267) 1. Udaspes folus Cr.
158.
(264) 4a. Notocrypta paralysos alysia Evans.
(265) 6. Notocrypta curvifascia Id.
I59.
(225) 1b. Gangara thyrsis thyrsis F.
337
3388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.
164.
(224) 1.
166.
(257) la.
(266) 2.
183.
2
(251) 15.
(249) 18a.
(250) 20.
(247) 31a.
(248) 33a.
187.
(242) a.
188.
(245) 2b
(244) 3a.
189.
I91.
la.
Matapa aria M.
Hyarotis adrastus adrastus Cr.
Hyarotis basiflava DeN.
Halpe hyrtacus DeN.
Halpe astigmata Swin.
Halpe sitala sitala DeN.
Halpe honorei DeN.
Halpe moorei moorei Watson.
Halpe egena ceylonica M.
Cupitha purreea purreea M.
(B. M.).
Taractrocera maevius sagara M.
Taractrocera ceramas ceramas Hew.
Oriens concinna El.
goloides M
Oriens
Padraona pseudomaesa pseudomaesa M.
and Ed.
(B. M., Hampson).
Padraona pallida pallida lvans.
Padraona tropica diana Evans.
Padraona palnia palnia Evans.
(All these, from the Nilgiris, are in the British Museum.)
Telicota augias augias L.
found to be preoccupiel).
Telicota lanka Evans.
(237) 2a.
197.
Lb,
(226) 140.
15d.
(227) 20.
(228) 24a.
(236) 30a.
(234) 31b.
(235) 31b.
(230) 32b.
33b.
(229) 34b.
Baoris
Baoris
Baoris
Baoris
Baoris
Baoris
Baoris
Baoris
Baoris
Baoris
Baoris
oceia farri
agna M.
M. (Winckworth).
kumara kumara M.
philippina belli Nov.
contigua Mab.
conjuncta narooa M.
sinensls subochracea M.
mathias mathias F.
guttatus bada M.
zelleri cinnara Wallace (Stokes Roberts).
bevani bevani M.
(Winckworth).
The totals for the Nilgiri District are :—
Papilionidae
Pieridae
Danaidae
Satyridae
Amathustidae
Nymphalidae
Erycinidae
Lycaenidae
Hesperudae
(syn.
cato.).
(Stokes Roberts) (=Astycus,
AXX VIII
Hubner,
THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI DISTRICT 339
I have had the curiosity to compare the lists for the Nilgiri
District and Coorg and to tabulate the butterflies found in the one
area, but not in the other. They are as follows:—
Nilgiri District. : Coorg.
*Colias hyale nilagiriensis. Pathysa antiphates naira.
*Pieris canidia canis. Parantirrhoea marshalli.
Mycalesis visala visala. Eriboea schreibert ward,
Ypthima avanta striata. Euthalia telchinia.
Ypthima philomela tabella. Atella alcippe mercea.
*Argynnis hyperbius hybrida. Gerydus biggsii.
Azanus jesous gamra. Lycaenesthes emolus emolus.
Lycaenopsis albidisca. Nacaduba_ pactolus continen-
Lycaenopsis lavendularis lim- talis.
bata. Amblypodia centaurus pirama.
Traota timoleon arsaces. Amblypodia bazaloides.
Spindasis elima elima. Amblypodia abseus indicus.
Tajuria melastigma. Apharitis llacinus.
Tajuria maculata. Pratapa deva deva (one Q).
Hypolycaena nilgirica. Chliaria othona.
Gomalia elma albofasciata. Astictopterus jama mercara.
Baracus vittatus subditus. Kineta microstictum.
Plastingia submaculata kanara.
Baoris canaraica.
Total 16 Total 18
In the two lists there are only three species from the Nilgiris,
viz.: those asterisked, all palaearctics, that are never likely to
occur in Coorg, for the very good reason that Coorg is not suffi-
ciently high. There are others in the Nilgiri list that are not very
likely to occur in Coorg, again chiefly for the reason of insufficient
altitude, though it is not impossible that they should be found on
the higher hills of the western rim of Coorg: these are Y. philomela
tabella, L. albidisca, N. lavendularis limbata, and Baracus vittatus
subditus. Y. chenui and Mycalesis adolphei, both common in the
Nilgiri District, are rare on the higher points of the Coorg Ghats.
The rest in the Nilgiri list should be discoverable in Coorg: some,
e.g. Azanus jesous, Iraota timoleon, Spindasis elima, and Gomalia
elma are all found on the Mysore plateau, which extends its forest
into eastern and southern Coorg. The two Tajuria and Hypoly-
caena nilgirica will, if found, I think be found in the wet forest of
the Ghats.
Of the list of species found in Coorg, but not so far in the
Nilgiri District, there is none that may not turn up in the Nilgiris,
if the artificial boundaries of the District are overleapt and the
natural region, including the densely forested western and south-
western slopes of the hills, be searched. Hampson confined him-
self, it would seem, to the Nilgiri District, the boundary of which,
above the forests of Nilambur, runs along the hill tops, and does
not include that long spur, called the Camel’s Hump on the maps,
which runs south between Vayittri and Nilambur. Again, while
the District includes the eastern part of the Wynaad, the natural
340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXVIII
region would take in tha western part including the Vayittri Ghat
to Calicut. This arbitrary exclusion of large parts of the natural
area probably accounts for the absence of many, if not most, of
the species in this exclusive Coorg list. It may be observed that
the Coorg boundary on the west and south-west runs along the
foot of the hills and so takes in the forest where most of the rare
species are to be found. I may particularise Amblypodia bazaloides,
Amblypodia abseus indicus, Gerydus biggsu, Kineta microstictum,
as examples of wet forest specimens. Astictopterus jama mercara
was taken by Col. Winckworth on the Vayittri Ghat: and Col.
Fraser and Col. Winckworth took also Parantirrhoea marshalli
there. Pathysa antiphates naira, not recorded from the Nilgiri
District, will probably be found within the natural area of the
Nilgiris.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA.
BY |
J (CANS, SSiden dealic
The FiuicEs are a very large and important family of plants
consisting of about 170 genera and upwards of 8,500 species. They
are distributed all over the globe, although they find their head-
quarters in tropical America and tropical Asia. Even the Arctic
zone is not excluded. They are found at all elevations, from
10,000 to 12,000 feet in the Tropics, down to the sea level.
The medicinal and poisonous ferns of the world belong to
44 genera:—AcrosticHum (Tropical America); ACTINIOPTERIS
(North Africa, Masearene Islands, Persia, Afghanistan, India,
Ceylon); Apianrum (Cosmopolitan, especially tropical America);
AnsopHILA (South Australia); Aspiptum (Tropical regions); ASPLE-
nium (Cosmopolitan); ATHyrium (Cosmopolitan); BAaLantrum (Cape
Verde, Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores); BiEecunum (Tropical
America); Borrycutum (Cosmopolitan); CrRatopreRIs (Tropical
countries); CHEILANTHES (Tropical and temperate regions, xero-
phytic); Crsorrum (Tropical America, Polynesia, Asia); CycLopHo-
rus (Tropical countries); Cysropreris (Temperate regions);
Davauuia (South Spain, Portugal, Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands,
Cape Verde); Dicxsonia. (Australia); DrymMocLossum (Tropical
regions); Drynaria (Palaeo-tropics); Dryopreris (Northern tem-
perate regions); GLEICHENIA (Tropical and subtropical regions);
GYMNOGRAMME (Central America; xerophytic); HELMINTHOSTACHYS
(Ceylon, Himalaya to Queensland); Hemripictyum (India, Western
Asia, Europe, North-West Africa); Lomarta (India, Ceylon, Philip-
pine Islands, Fiji, New Zealand, South Australia, Tasmania);
Lycopium (Tropical Asia, Eastern Asia); Marsi1a (Europe and
subtropical regions); MrrrrensiA (Tropical and subtropical coun-
tries); Monrta (Hast Africa, Madagascar); NEpHRopium (Northern
temperate regions); NEPHROLEPIS (Tropical and sitibtropical regions);
NotHOcLAENA (Subtropical regions, Mediterranean); ONocLEA (East
Asia, North America); OpnHioGLossum (Tropical and temperate
regions); Osmunpa (Temperate and tropical countries); PELLAKA
(Subtropical regions); PLEOPELTIS (Tropical and subtropical regions) ;
Potypopium (Tropical and temperate regions); PoLysTicHUM
(Moist temperate regions); Preripium (Cosmopolitan); PrTERIs
(Cosmopolitan); ScoLopENDRIUM (Europe, Asia); Stenotoma (India,
Ceylon, Malaya, China, Japan, Polynesia, East African Islands);
WoopwarpiA (Tropical and subtropical regions).
The medicinal and poisonous ferns of India belong to the fol-
lowing 24 genera:—AcrTINIOPTERIS, ADIANTUM, ASPIDIUM, ASPLE-
nium, ATHYRIUM, BLECHNUM, BotTrycHIUuM, CERATOPTERIS, CHEILAN-
THES, CrBpoTiuM, CystTopreRIs, DrymoGLossuM, DryNnariA, Dryop-
TERIS, GLEICHENIA, HrLMINTHOSTACHYS, HerEmipictyum, LyGopium,
8
3842 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
OPpHIOGLOSSUM, OSMUNDA, PELLAEA, PLEOPELTIS, PTERIS, STENO-
LOMA.
I. Gleicheniaceae—Sori dorsal, without indusium, com-
posed of a few sporangia having a transverse or
obliquely transverse complete ring and opening
vertically.
Caudex creeping; stipes forked; segments small,
almost round or pectinate ... ee ... GLEICHENIA.
ll. Dicksonieae—Sori globose; indusium inferior subglo-
bose, free, closed, at length bursting irregularly,
more frequently cup-shaped, entire or with 2 lips.
Indusium apical on a vein 2-valved ... ... CIBOTIUM.
lil. Davallieae—Indusium squamiform, suborbicular — or
tubular, open at the apex.
a. Indusium apical, compound, sub-orbicular, only
open at the top os as ... . STENOLOMA.
b. Indusium medial on a vein membranaceous,
- hood-like ne xo a (CYSTOPTERIS.
IV. Pterideae—Indusium oblong or linear, formed of the
more or less changed and reflexed margin of the
frond, opening inwardly.
a. Indusium globose to linear, usually many and
distinct, sometimes confluent and continuous
bearing the capsules on its under side; veins
free ae ... ADIANTUM.
b. Indusium rounded and distinct, or more or less
confluent but not continuous; cape: on the
frond CHEILANTHES.
ce. Indusium quite continuous, sorl at first dot- like,
but soon running into a line ae PELLAEA.
d. Indusium quite continuous; sori linear continuous,
occupying a slender filiform receptacle in the
axis of the indusium; veins free ... PTERIS.
e. As in Pteris, but veins all anastomosing without
free included veinlets os .... DRYOPTERIS.
f. Anomalous - ee ... CERATOPTERIS.
V. Blechneae—Indusium linear or oblong parallel with
the midrib and opening towards it, not near the
margin.
Indusium membranaceous, distinct from the margin of
the frond, parallel with and usually contiguous to
the midrib, veins free BLECHNUM.
Vie Asplenieae—Indusium linear or oblong . or horseshoe- |
+ ghaped, opening towards the midrib, sometimes
double; sori attached to the veins.
a. Indusium linear or oblong, single; vein free ... ASPLENIUM.
b. Indusium linear or oblong, more or less curved. ATHYRIUM.
c. Indusium linear or oblong; veins anastomosing
obliquely only towards margin of frond .... H&MIDICTYUM.
d. Indusium linear elongated, submarginal, fronds
fan-like me ae .... ACTINIOPTERIS.
VIL. ..Aspidieae—Indusium superior, elliptical, subglobose or
reniform, fixed either by the centre or a sinus.
Indusium peltate, orbicular or reniform; veins copi-
ously anastomosing with free included veinlets .... AsPrpruM.
VIII. Polypodieae—Sori on the back of the lobes, round or
rarely somewhat oblong.
a. Fronds with the base oak-leaf-like or with separate
ade sterile oak-leaf-like small fronds ... .... DRYNARIA.
_. THE MEDICINAL. AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA 343
b. Fronds various; veins copiously anastomosing
with free included veinlets ee ... PLEOPELTIS.
1X. Grammitideae—Sori on the back of the lobes more than
twice as long as broad, usually linear.
Sori in a continuous linear, or interrupted central or
submarginal line, veins reticulated, fronds simple
and dimorphous os wat .... DRYMoGLOssUM.
X. Osmundaceae—Capsules 2-valved, opening across. the
apex, furnished with a short horizontal ring ... OSMUNDA.
XI. Schizaeaceae—Capsules 2-valved, opening down the side
crowned by a complete operculiform ring.
Capsule solitary in the axils of large imbricating clasp-
ing involucres. Scandent ... seh ... LuyGopium.
XU. Ophioglossaceae—Capsuies deeply 2-valved, opening
down the side nearly to the base without a ring.
a. Capsules sessile in 2 rows on a narrow close spike OPHIOGLOSSUM.
b. Capsules in small crested clusters forming a loose
spike bat athe HELMINTHOSTA-
CHYS.
c. Capsules in 2 rows on the face of spikes which
form a compound panicle ise .... BOTRYCHIUM.
The parts used medicinally are the fronds and the rhizomes.
The former are often aromatic, and they are commonly given in
infusion for their mucilaginous, pectoral, and astringent properties.
On the other hand, the rhizomes usually contain a bitter astrin-
gent principle together with a fixed oil which is poisonous to worms.
The common Male Fern, or Shield Fern, which has-been known
from the times of Theophrastus and Dioscorides as a specific
remedy for intestinal worms, particularly the tape worm, is official
in all pharmacopoeias. The true Maidenhair Fern is official in
Belgium, Portugal, Switzerland, and Turkey. The Canadian
Maidenhair and the common Hart’s Tongue are recognized by the
French Codex, and several species of Polypody Ferns are still
retained in the Austrian pharmacopoeia.
ACTINIOPTERIS.
This genus consists of a single species, A. dichotoma Bedd.,
which resembles a miniature palm. It is found throughout India,
epecially the Peninsula, in dry rocky places, below 4,000 ft. From
Ceylon to the Mascarene Islands, Maarlisberg, Zambesiland,
Angola, Upper Egypt, Abyssinia, Socotra, Mount Sinai, Arabia,
Persia, Afghanistan.
It is used medicinally as a worm remedy, and as an astringent
to arrest hemorrhage.
Bombay: Bhuitad, Mapursika, Mayursikha—; Hnglish: WPeacock’s Tail—;
North-Western Provinces: Morpach, Morpankhi—; Sanskrit: Mayurshikha—.
ADIANTUM.
This cosmopolitan genus numbers about. 190. species, masts
tropical American.
Tradition has attributed to various species. of this genus of
ferns valuable properties in chronic pulmonic catarrhs. 7
344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
The following species are used medicinally in Europe, Indo-
China, Mexico—A. capillus-veneris Linn.—; in China—a. capillus-
veneris Linn., A. flabellulatum Linn., A. monochlamys Eat.—;
in North America—A. capillus-veneris Linn., A. pedatum Linn.—;
in Brazil—A. cuneatum Langsd. and Fisch., A. radiatum Linn.,
A. subcordatum Sw., A. tenerum Sw.—; in South Africa and La
Reunion—A. capillus-veneris Linn., A. aethiopicum Linn.—.
The fronds of A. pedatum Linn. are officinal in France; those of
A. capillus-veneris Linn. in Belgium, Portugal, Switzerland,
Turkey.
Nine therapeutically active species may be found growing in
India.
I. Frond simply pinnate, rachis rooting at the apex.
a. Pinnae half-moon shaped, distinctly stalked,
$-1 inch by 13-1 inch. Texture herbaceous 1. A. lunulatum.
b. Pinnae wedge-shaped at the base, nearly sessile,
4-2 inch by 3 inch. Texture leathery .. & A. caudatum.
II. Frond at least bipinnate; segments fan-shaped with
the stalk near the centre; sori oblong or obversely
kidney-shaped.
a. Pinnules firm, membranaceous-chartaceous,
glabrous, scarcely ever or but shghtly 2-3
lobed, fertile lobes with 2, rarely 3 notches,
each notch bearing a rather large sorus at
the bottom ie Sais 3 Or A. Ventistum.
b. Sori roundish or transversely oblong.
i. Pinnules distinctly wedge-shaped at the base.
Sori in shallow depressions of the lobes.
+ Pinnules deciduous SSH fet 4. A. tenerum.
++ Pinnules not deciduous om . 68. A. capillus-
veneris.
ii. Pinnules roundish, being straight, almost
wedge-shaped or rounded at the base. Sori
in deep hollows of the lobes a. 0. A. aethiopreum:
c. Sori obversely kidney-shaped in deep round
hollows of the lobes 7. A. cuneatum.
{IT. Frond dichotomous 8. A. pedatum.
IV. frond flabellate 9. A. flabellulatum.
1. Adiantum lunulatum Burm. This very graceful fern occurs
throughout Northern India in moist places; in South India it is
very general on the western side in the plains and lower slopes
of the hills. It is found in Burma, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula,
Perak, Cochin-China, China, Hongkong, Polynesia, Tropical Aus-
traha. It extends to Cape Verde Isles, Angola, Guinea, Zambesi-
land, Madagascar. In Tropical America it grows from Mexico
southward to the Organ Mountains in Brazil.
Ayurvedists describe the plant as pungent, cooling, alterative,
alexiteric, and indigestible. They consider it useful in dysentery,
diseases of the blood, ulcers, erysipelas, burning sensations, and
epileptic fits. They recommend the rhizome for strangury and for
fever due to elephantiasis.
In general the fronds are considered to be deobstruent,
diuretic, emmenagogue, resolvent and pectoral. As a_ pectoral
they are used in pulmonary catarrvh. They are also demulcent
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA 345
and mildly stimulant. As a discutient their plaster is a useful
application on chronic gouty and other swellings. Burnt with oil
they are used as an application for itch.
In Gujerat the plant is extensively used in the treatment of
children for febrile affections. The leaves are rubbed with water
and given with sugar. The herbaceous parts pounded with ochre
are applied topically for erysipelatous inflammations.
Arabic: Shirulajibala—; Bengal: Goyalelata, Kalijhant—; Bombay: Hans-
raj, Hansaraj, Kombada, Mubarak, Ratakombada, Rajahans—; Canarese:
Navalad—; Gujerati: Hanspadi, Hansraj, Mubarkha, Mubarkhinipalo—; Hindi:
Hansapadi, Hansapagi, Kalijhamp, CKalijhant, Paresiyavasan—; Ilocano:
Dalipaco—; Marathi: Ghodkhuri, Hansari, Kamsaraj, Rajhans—; Persian:
Parasiyavashana—; Philippines: Culantrillo—; Porebunder: Hansraj, Kalo-
hansraj—; Sanskrit: Brahmadani, Chitrapada, Dharttarashtrapadi, Ghrita-
mandalika, Godhangri, Godhapadika, Hansaghri, Hansapadi, Hansavati, Kar-
nati, Kiramata, Kirapadika, Kitamari, Madhusrava, Padangi, Raktapadi,
Sancharini, Shitangi, Sutapadika, Suvuka, Tamrapadi, Tridala, Tripadi, Tri-
phala, Vikranta, Vishvagranthi—; Tagalog: Caicai, Gayomanmanoc, Lamotla-
motan, Lomotlomotan—.
2. Adiantum caudatum Linn. occurs throughout India,
Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula in the plains and lower slopes
of the hills. It extends to Java, Borneo, the Philippine Islands,
China, and Arabia Felix. It is also found in the Cape Verde
Tslands, the banks of the Niger, Angola, Zambesiland, the Cape
Colony, and Mauritius.
The fronds are used as a cure for cough and fever. They are
also employed externally as a remedy for skin diseases.
Cutch: Mayurshika—; Punjab: Adhsaritakajhari, Gunkiri—; Sanskrit:
Mayurashikha—.
3. Adiantum venustum Don. is a common Himalayan fern
distributed from Afghanistan, through Kashmir and the Punjab, to
Nepal. Blanford says this is ‘one of the commonest and most
abundant ferns of Simla, covering banks and sloping ground in
shady places, and ranging from 4,500 ft. up to the top of Hattu
at 10,500 ft.’ It grows in the soil in forest, often forming for
miles the most characteristic under-vegetation.
This maidenhair is a famous Yunani drug, and at one time it
‘used to be exported in cartloads from Jaunsar, along the cart-
road to Saharanpur, for some medicinal purpose. Mahommedan
writers describe the fronds of the plant as slightly bitter, resolvent,
deobstruent, expectorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, purgative,
aphrodisiac, and alexipharmic. They consider them useful in
biliousness, phlegmatic humours, inflammations, diseases of the
chest, colds, headache, tumours, ophthalmia, and hydrophobia.
They prepare an oil which they apply to piles, tuberculous glands,
and wounds, and also ‘to bring out a thorn which has penetrated
into the body’. The leaves made into a plaster are applied topi-
cally to chronic tumours of various kinds.
There is no doubt as to this fern possessing astringent and
aromatic properties, and being emetic in large doses. It is a tonic,
febrifuge, and expectorant. The plant is very useful as a mild
tonic, especially during convalescence from fevers, A vapour bath
846 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
medicated by a decoction from the leaves of this fern is regarded
as useful*in fever. 3
In Chamba the plant is pounded and applied to bruises.
It is this -fern which supplies in the Punjab most of the hansraj
which is-commonly administered as an anodyne in bronchitis, and
is considered diuretic and emmenagogue.
As an ointment it is used for the prevention of hair from falling.
The ashes of the plant mixed with olive oil and vinegar are used
to make the hair grow upon the bald patches produced by ring-
worm of the scalp.
The plant is one of the ingredients in Sushruta’s Vidaryadi-gana
recommended for the treatment of scorpion sting. On the other
hand .Yogaratnakara, Nighantaratnakara, and Brihannighantaratna-
kara advise macerating the rhizome and putting the juice and pulp
into the ear of the patient. But from their experimental work with
mice Caius and Mhaskar have concluded that no part of the plant
is an antidote to scorpion venom.
s
a:
- Arabic: Kuzburatelbir, Masifelaswad, Sakelasward, Shaerelfual, Shaerelji-
bal, Shiruljibal, Shiruljinn—; Bombay: Mubarak—; Hindi: Hansraj, Kali-
jhanp, Kalijhant—; Persian: Hansraj, Paresiyawashan, Parsiawashan— :
Sanskrit: Hansapadi—; Tamil: Mayirsikki—; Urdu: Mobarkha, Parsia
ishan—.
4. Adiantum tenerum Sw. is found in Mexico and the West
Tndian Islands, southwards to Juan Fernandez and Peru. One
solitary specimen was collected in Sion Wood, Bombay Island, by
Blatter.and d’Almeida, and regarded as an escape from cultivation.
The plant is demulcent, expectorant, and sudorific: It is
much used in Brazil in bronchial and catarrhal affections.
5. Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn. appears to be found all
over India, whére circumstances are favourable; shade and perma-
nent moisture being essentials. It occurs chiefly im the Western
Tlimalaya, ascending to an altitude of 8,000 ft:; but found also
far to the east in the valley of Manipur, extending to the moun-
tains of the Burma-Manipur frontier and to Chittagong. It is
common in the Punjab, descending even to the plains, where it is
found in .wells and damp places. It is also quite common in
South India, in the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, particularly
on the west side up to 5,000 ft. It is rare in Ceylon, but extends
to Polynesia, Japan, and South-Eastern China. Through Afghan-
istan.and Baluchistan it finds its way to Arabia, Syria, Siberia, the
Caucasus, Central and Southern Europe, South-West England, Isle
of Man, and Ireland. It is also met with in the Canary Islands
and in many parts of the African Continent, both North and
South. Jt extends from Florida, southward to Venezuela and the
Amazon Valley.
In the Punjab, the leaves along with pepper, are administered
as a febrifuge; and in South India, when prepared with honey,
they are used in catarrhal affections.
_ The herb is mucilaginous, pectoral, and expectorant; and is
used as a popular cough medicine throughout most parts of
--PHE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA 347
Europe. It has also been used to stimulate menstrual discharges.
It is given in the form of infusion, sweetened with sugar -or honey.
_ In France large quantities are employed in. the preparation of
Sirop de Capillaire, which is given as a favourite medicine in: all
coughs, throat affections, and bronchial disorders. It is. flavoured
with orange flowers, and acts as a demulcent with slightly stimu-
lating effects. One part of the plant is gently boiled with ten
parts of water, and with nineteen parts of white sugar. Dr.
Johnson, says Boswell, used to put Capillaire into his port wine.
Sir John Hill used to say that the fine syrup made in France
from that Fern is not by any means to be thought a trifle, because
barley water, sweetened with this, is one of the very best remedies
for a violent cold. a
‘The True Maidenhair,’ says Gerard, ‘maketh the hair of tke
head and beard to grow that is fallen and pulled off.’
The Basutos smoke the leaf for head and chest colds.
In Southern California the plant is much used as an astringent,
expectorant, and emmenagogue.
At Colomas, in Mexico, the leaf is used as a tea to relieve colic:
but at Colothan it is taken as a tea for the absence or abnormal
stoppage of the menses. a
The rhizome is the part used in Persian medicine; it is credited
with expectorant properties and is given for relieving difficult
respiration. : =)
Arabic: Shairuljin, Shiruljin—; Catalan: Capillera, .Falsia—; Colombia:
Cilantrillo, Culantrillo—; Dutch: Venushaar, WVrouhenhaar—; Egypt: Kuz:
baret-el-bir—; English: Maidenhair Fern, Maria’s Fern, Our Lady’s Hair—;
French: Adiante, Adianthe, Capillaire, Capillaire commun, Capillaire d’Italie,
Capillaire de Montpellier, Capillaire vrai, €heveux de Vénus—; German:
Frauenhaar, Venushaar—; Greek: Adianton—; Gujcratt: Hanspadi—; Hindi:
Hansraj, Mubaraka, Pursha—; Indo-China: Duoi chon, Thiet tuyen thao—;
Italian: Adianto, Capelvenere, Capillare, Capilvenere—; Kashmir: Dumtuli—;
Kumaon: Mubaraka—; La Reunion: Capillaire—; Lepcha: Tuk-sip, Ruk-
sip—; Malta: Majidenhair, Capelvenere, Tursin il Bir—; Pacific Coast: Black
Maiden’s-hair, Lady’s hair, Maidenhair, True Majden’s-hair, Venus’s-hair
Fern—; Persian: Barr-i-sija waschan, Kashburat-el-bir, Parsia washan, Pusia
wechame, Sirsiapeshane—; Portuguese: Avenca, Cabellos de Venus, Capillaria,
Herva capillar—; Rouwmanian: Chica-voinicului, Perul fetei, Perul sfantei Marii,
Vergura invelita—; Russian: Adiant, Krasnyi jenskiy volos—; Salt Range;
Parasigavashan, Parshavarsha—; Spanish: Capilera, Capilera de Mompeller,
Culantrillo de pozo—; Suto: Pata-lewana, Pata-mawa—; Teheran:. Kash-
burat—; Trans-Indus: Bisfaif, Kirwatzei—: Turkish: Baldirikara—.
6. Adiantum aethiopicum Linn. (=A. emarginatum Bedd.)
is found in North Kanara, and at the higher elevations on the
Nilgiris, and the Pulney Hills. It extends to Ceylon, Australia,
New Zealand, La Reunion, Madagascar, Cape Colony, Natal,
Zambesiland, the Cameroon Mounts. up to 7,000 ft., Abyssinia,
Spain, and Afghanistan. It also occurs from Texas and California
southward to Valparaiso and Montevideo. |
An infusion of the leaves is commonly used as an emollient in
coughs and diseases of the chest.
At La Reunion the plant is a popular ‘cough medicine, and
much used as a sudorific. oe te |
In Basutoland a decoction of the caudex is used to promote
348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
parturition. The natives smoke the leaf for colds in the head and
the chest.
Afrikaans: Vrouehaar—; South Africa: Large Maidenhair—; Suto: Maoru-
metsoo, Pata-lewana, Pata-mawa—.
7. Adiantum cuneatum Langs. and Fisch. is a native of
Brazil, very common in cultivation. It runs into many varieties
and is difficult to identify.
_ In Brazil the leaves are a popular cough medicine. The plant
is considered a good sudorific.
8. Adiantum pedatum Linn. grows all along the Himalayas
from Kashmir to Sikkim; scattered, and not plentiful. It extends
to China, Manchuria, Japan. It is found abundantly from Una-
lashka and Canada, southwards to Virginia and California, in wet
lands and woods.
The plant is employed in France and North America as a
pectoral in chronic pulmonic catarrhs. It is also said to be en-
dowed with astringent and emmenagogue properties.
English: Canadian Maidenhair—; French: Capillaire du Canada—; Pacific
Coast: American Maidenhair, Hair Fern, Rock Fern—; Spanish: Capilera del
Canada, Culantrillo del Canada—.
9. Adiantum flabellulatum Linn. is very common in some
parts of India: Nepal, Assam, Khasia, Sylhet. It is found in the
Ouvah District of Ceylon, in the Malay Peninsula and the Malay
Archipelago, Southern China, Japan.
The rhizome is used as an anthelmintic in the Manipur State
and in Annam.
The herb is used in China as a cough medicine.
Annam: Thiet tien thao—; Chinese: T’ieh Hsien Ts’ao—.
ASPIDIUM.
The genus consists of 50 species distributed throughout the
Tropics.
a following species are used medicinally in Kurope—A. fragile
Sw., A. roeticum Linn.—; in China— A. falcatum Sw.—; in North
America—A. marginale Sw., A. spinulosum (Mill.) Sw., A. trifolio-
latum Sw.—; in South Africa—A. aculeatum Sw. var. pungens
Klf., A. athamanticum (Hook.) Kuntze—.
Of the numerous species found growing in India, two are
therapeutically active :—
I. Indusium orbicular, veins generally anastomosing acutely
with free veinlets from their Junction ; fronds 1-2. ft.
long by 6-9 in. broad; sori small copious, scattered ... 1. A. falcatum.
IJ. Indusium often quite absent, peltate orbicular, or reni-
form, veins copiously anastomosing with free included
veinlets; fronds 1-4 ft. long by 1 ft. or more broad;
sori on the netted veins, small and scattered in the
uncontracted fronds, large and more or less in two
rows between the main veins in the contracted ones. 2. A. polymor-
phum.
1. Aspidium falcatum Sw. grows in North-Western India
and extends from Kashmir and the Punjab to Sikkim and Bhutan,
Assam and the Khasia Mountains without being common any-
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA 349
where; also in the Nilgiris at the higher elevations. It is found
in China, Japan, the Sandwich Islands, Caffraria, Natal, and
Madagascar.
The Chinese use the rhizome as an anthelmintic, chiefly for
the expulsion of the tapeworm.
Chinese: Kuan Chung—.
2. Aspidium polymorphum = (Wall.) Bedd. grows in the
western forests of the Madras Presidency up to 4,000 ft.; in
Northern India from Garhwal to Mishmee and Chittagong; in
Burma, Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago, the Philippine Islands,
and Fernando Po. |
The rhizome is used as an anthelmintic.
ASPLENIUM.
This cosmopolitan genus numbers 540 species.
The following species are used medicinally in Europe—4A. adi-
antum-nigrum Linn., A. ruta-muraria Linn., A. trichomanes
Linn.—; in La Reunion—A. adiantum-nigrum Linn.—; in South
Africa—A. adiantum-nigrum Linn., A. cuneatum Linn., A. furca-
tum Thunb., A. monanthemum Linn., A. trichomanes Linn.—-;
in Brazil—A. regulare Sw., A. sulcatwn Lam.—.
Five therapeutically active species are met with in India: —
I. Fronds pinnate.
a. Fronds 6-12 in. long, about 3} in. broad; sori
linear oblong, 3-6 on each side of the midrib 1. A. trichomanes.
b. Fronds 6 in. long to 2 ft. long or more, 4-8 in.
broad; sori in long irregular lines reaching
nearly to the margin a we 2. 4. falcavum.
Il. Fronds bi-quadripinnate.
a. Fronds 1-2 in. long, about 1 in. broad; sori
copious ne ae .. 8. A ruta-muraria.
b. Fronds 6-12 in. long, 4-6 in. broad at the base;
veins obscure, oblique; sori copious .. 4. A. adiantum-
nigrum.
c. Fronds coriaceous 6-18 in. long, 4-6 in. broad;
veins flabellate, deeply channelled; sori linear 5. A. furcatum.
1. Asplenium trichomanes Linn. is a common Himalayan
fern occurring from Afghanistan to Kumaon at altitudes of 5,000-
11,000 ft. It is very common from 5,000 to 9,000 ft. in
the Simla Region. It has been found in South India at Kulhatty
on the Nilgiris. It occurs in Japan, Java, Australia, Tasmania,
and New Zealand, sub-arctic Greenland, Canada and westward to
the Rocky Mountains, British Columbia, the United States,
Bermuda and southward to Panama, the West Indies Islands, and
from Guiana and Venezuela to Bolivia.
This is the common Maidenhair of the British Isles, distri-
buted over the continent of Europe ‘throughout its length and
breadth, from Iceland and Lapland to the Rock of Gibraltar:
throughout the Mediterranean Region; and from the extreme west
of Ireland to the extreme east of Europe’, Siberia and Persia. It
thrives equally well in the Azores and the Macaronesian Isles,
350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Algeria, Morocco, Abyssinia, Somaliland, the Ruwenzori Mountain
of Central Africa, and the Cape of Good Hope. :
Its leaves are sweet, mucilaginous, and expectorant, being
therefore. highly useful in many pulmonary disorders. A tea
brewed from them is one of the common English remedies for a
violent cold and for tedious coughs. ‘We have the common
Maidenhair, which grows on old walls, and which will act as a
laxative medicine; whilst idiots are said to have taken it reme-
dially, so as to recover their senses.’ |
In Basutoland the leaf is smoked for colds in the head and
chest.
Catalan: Falsia roja—; English: Common Spleenwort, Maidenhair— ;
French: Polytric des officimes—; German: Rotes Frauenhaar—; Languedoc:
Fau capillero—; Spanish: Politrico—; Suto: Lehorometso—; Tamil: Mailak-
kondei—.
2. Asplenium falcatum Lam. is found in the western moun-
tains of the Madras Presidency, in Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula,
Australia, Polynesia, South Africa and its islands.
In Goa and Malabar the plant is used as an alterative in cases
of prolonged malarial fever. 3
Bombay: Pana—; Goa: Pandan—; Malayalam: Nelapannamaravara—.
3. Asplenium ruta-muraria Linn. is common in Afghanistan
and extends through Kashmir and Baltistan as far as West Nepal,
with a gap between West Kashmir and Kumaon. It is found in
Turkish Armenia, the Ural Mountains. to Caucasus, Turkestan,
Tibet, and Siberia, Algiers, the Cape Colony, and. many parts of
the United States. It is distributed all over Europe: from Arctic
Regions, to Spain and Portugal, Italy, the Mediterranean Isles,
Greece, and Turkey.
This small herb is still used to some extent in England as a
deobstruent and expectorant.
‘The Wall Rue is likewise good for them that have a cough, or
are shortwinded, or be troubled with stitches in the sides. It
stayeth the falling or shedding of the hair, and causeth them to
crow thick, fair, and well coloured. Also it helpeth ruptures in
children.’
The Fern has been called Tentwort, from its use as a specific
or sovereign remedy for the cure of rickets, a disease once known
as ‘the taint’.
In China it is considered a valuable medicine for the treac-
ment of pulmonary diseases.
Catalan: Falsia blanca, Ruda de rata—; Chinese: Koui Ts’ang—}; English:
Tentwort, Wall Rue—; French: Capillaire blanc, Doradille des murailles, Rue
des murailles, Sauve-vie—; German: Weinkraeutel—; Spanish: Calantrillo
blanco mayor—.
4. Asplenium adiantum-nigrum Linn. is found in Afghan-
istan and Kashmir, at 5,000-8,000 ft., extending to Dalhousie and
Chamba. It occurs in Java, the Sandwich Islands, Azores,
Canaries, Madeira, Cape Verde Isles, St. Helena, Mascarene Isles,
Cameroon Mounts, Algeria, Abyssinia, Natal, the Cape Colony. It
is distributed all over Europe—the United Kingdom, Norway and
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA 351
Denmark, through Holland, Belgium, Germany, France, Switzer-
land, Austria, Spain, Portugal, Mediterranean Region, Greece,
Turkey— and Northern Asia “Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and
Siberia—.
Yunanists describe the plant as bitter, diuretic, laxative, lessen-
ing inflammations and abating hiccough, producing: sterility in
women. They consider it useful in ‘the usecase of ophthalmia
and diseases of the spleen.
A decoction or syrup of the fronds is used as an expectorant,
pectoral, and emmenagogue in Europe.
The rhizome is used as an anthelmintic in Basutoland.
Catalan: Falsia negra—; English: Black Spleenwort—; French: Capillaire
noi—; La Reunion: Capillaire noir—; Spanish’: Capilera negra—; Suto:
Lehorometso—.
5. Asplenium furcatum Thunb. is common on the higher
western mountains of South India, and in Ceylon at 5,000-7,000 ft.
Tt is found in Tropical America, the Polynesian Islands, Australia,
Cape Colony, Abyssinia, the Mascarene Islands, and Canaries.
The rhizome is used as an anthelmintic in Basutoland.
Suto: Lehorometso—.
ATHYRIUM.
This cosmopolitan genus numbers 120 species.
Athyrium filix-foemina Roth. is found all along the Himalayas
from Afghanistan to Sikkim, at 6,000-13,000 ft., and extends to
Sind and the Bombay Presidency. It occurs throughout Europe
from Lapland, Russia and Scandinavia to Spain, Portugal, Italy,
Greece, Crete, and the Caucasus: From Japan and Kamschatka
it crosses to Sitka and Labrador, Canada, British Columbia, the
United States, Cuba, Caraccas and Venezuela. It is also met with
in the Azores and Macaronesian Isles, Algeria, the mountains of
Cameroon, Abyssinia, and Natal.
The rhizome is supposed to possess vermifugal properties
similar to those of the male fern for which it is used as ap
occasional substitute.
In Germany the rhizomes ‘i this fern are frequently found
mixed with those of the true male fern.
Catalan: Falguera femella—; Spanish: Helecho hembra—.
BLECHNUM.
This genus consists of about 60. species, HCA tropical
American. ,
Blechnum orientale Linn. is lame throughout India, Ceylon
and the:Malay Peninsula, up to 6,000 ft. in the south, and
4,000 ft. on the Himalayas. It extends to the Malay Islands,
China, Polynesia, and Australia.
The rhizome is used in China as an ‘anthelmintic.
Cantonese: Kun chung—; Chinese; Kuan Chung—; Malaya: Koon
choong—, eat ifaw! Te ee ee
352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIJI
BotrycHium.
A cosmopolitan genus consisting of about 40 species, three of
which are credited with medicinal properties.
I. Stipes erect, smooth, cylindrical, hollow, succu-
lent; vernation plicate or folded straight; the
fertile branch clasped by the sterile before un-
folding, pinnate or bipinnate oe sae 1. B. lunaria.
II. Stipe 1-2 in. long; petiole of the sterile segment
2-8 in. long, the latter 3-6 in. each way;
fertile peduncle up to 18 in. long, generally
considerably over-topping the sterile segment 2. B. ternatum.
III. Stipes 3-8 in. long; sterile portion not prolonged
beyond the fertile spike 4-12 in. each way;
fertile branch of the rachis springing from
the base of the sterile portion or from the
middle of it as be a 3. B. virginianum.
1. Botrychium lunaria Sw. is profuse in Afghanistan at
9,000-10,000 ft., common from Kashmir to Sikkim ascending up
to 18,000 ft., and extending to the Karakoram Range in Western
Thibet. It is found in South Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand,
Japan, Kamschatka, Greenland, Newfoundland, Canada, British
Columbia, New York, Lake Superior, Colorado, Patagonia, Ice-
land, Arctic Russia, Livonia, Lithuania and Caucasia, the British
Isles, Spain, Italy, Switzerland and the Mediterranean Isles.
The plant is considered a good vulnerary. It is also much
used in dysentery.
‘This herb is cold and drying, and is available for wounds both
outward and inward. The leaves boiled in red wine, and drank,
stay immoderate courses and the whites. It stays bleeding, vomit-
ing, and other fluxes. It helps all blows and bruises, and consoli-
dates all fractures and dislocations. It is good for ruptures, and
is put into oils and balsams to heal fresh and green wounds.’
English: Moonwort—; French: Herbe aux serpents, Petite lunaire—;
German: Walpurgiskraut—; Italian: Vindicta—.
2. Botrychium ternatum (Thunb.) Sw. is found in the
Himalayas from the Punjab to Nepal and Sikkim, and has been
reported from Mount Abu. It extends to Tasmania and New Zea-
land, Japan, Siberia and Kamschatka, Nootka and Hudson’s Bay
Territory, Canada, New England, westwards to California, Wash-
ington, and southwards to Florida, hence to New Grenada. In
Kurope it occurs in Lapland, Hungary, and the Pyrenees.
The plant is used as a vulnerary in China; and the root is
prescribed in dysentery.
Chinese: Yin Ti Chueh—; Indo-China: Am dia guyet—.
3. Botrychium virginianum Sw. occurs in the Himalayas
from the Punjab to Sikkim. It is found from Norway to Austria,
in Ecuador and Brazil, from New Brunswick to Florida, and west-
wards to Arizona and the Pacific Coast—British Columbia south-
wards to Oregon. )
The fleshy root is used by American Indians in application to
euts and bruises.
Pacific Coast: Grape Fern, Moonwort, Rattlesnake Fern—.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA 353
CERATOPTERIS.
The only species known, C, thalictroides Brong., is found
throughout India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula up to 8,000 ft.
elevation; common in tanks, ditches, and swampy places, or even
dry ground during the rains. It extends to the Great Coco Island,
the Nicobar Islands, Java, the Philippine Islands, Japan, China,
Hongkong, South Florida, Mexico, and the West Indies southwards
to Brazil. It also occurs in Arabia Felix and South-Eastern
Arabia; and is found in Tropical West Africa, Angola, and Mada-
cascar. |
The plant is used in China as a tonic and styptic.
Chinese: Shui Chueh—.
CHEILANTHES.
The genus consists of 120 species, inhabiting tropical and tem-
perate regions.
C. hirta Swartz. is used medicinally in South Africa.
Cheilanthes tenuifolia Sw. is common in the Madras Presi-
dency, in the plains and on low hills up 4,000 ft. It occurs in
Bengal, in the plains of Assam, Chittagong, Dacca, Chota Nagpore,
in Khasia up to 5,000 ft., Sikkim, the Malay Peninsula, and the
Malay Islands. It extends to China, Australia, New Zealand,
Polynesia, and Uruguay.
The Santals prescribe a preparation from the roots for sickness
attributed to witchcraft or the evil eye.
Santali: Dodhari, Nanha—; Tasmania: Parsley Fern—.
CIBOTIUM.
This genus contains 10 species, inhabiting tropical America,
Polynesia, and Asia.
Cibotium barometz Link. (=C. glaucum Bedd.) is found in
Mishmi, Assam, and Tavoy, extending to the Malay Islands and
South China.
The drug consists of the lower part of the caudex, reddish
brown in colour, in longitudinal slices, covered on the outside with
eolden brown moniliform hairs suggesting the fur of an animal.
The hairy rhizome thus sometimes resembles a lamb, hence the
specific name barometz, Russian for lamb. It is the Agnus Seythi-
cus, or Tartarian or Vegetable Lamb, a drug of great repute alluded
to in medical works of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The root is employed in China as a tonic, and is said to exer-
cise a special action on the genito-urinary organs. It is also given
for lumbago.
In Annam the stems are considered tonic and styptic. The
rhizome, like other fern roots, is used as a vermifuge.
The golden brown hair from the base of the fronds is used in
Malaya, Java and Sumatra for stanching wounds. It has the
power of causing rapid coagulation of blood, and, when properly
used, of mechanically arresting hemorrhages from capillaries. It
354° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol... XXXVIII
has been much used in the physiological laboratories of Europe
und America, and was employed in human medicine during the
Middle Ages. oe , |
_ Annam: Bach chi, Cau quyet, Cau thank, Cau tich, Cay cu lan, Cay cu hi,
Cay cu lon, Cay ku len, Cay tien phuong vi, Cuong lu, Cu seoga, Kim Mao,
Phu can—; Cantonese: Kau Tsek—; Chinese: Kou Chi, Toei Choun— ;
French: Agneau de Scythie, Agneau de Tartarie, Chien roux, Poil de singe—,
Malaya: Kow chiak—.
CYSTOPTERIS.
This genus consists of 5 species distributed through the tem-
perate regions of the world. |
Cystopteris fragilis Bern. is found in Afghanistan and on the
Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim ascending to 10,000-15,000 ft.
It extends to Australasia, New Zealand, the Sandwich Isles, the
Arctic and temperate regions of North America, California, Mexico,
and through the whole length of the Andean Chain. It is found
in the West Indies, and everywhere in Europe from Iceland and
Novaya Zemlya and Spitzbergen in the Arctic Regions to Spain,
Sicily, Cyprus and the Caucasus. It also occurs in the Lebanon,
Persia, Kurdistan, Siberia, Manchuria, Kamschatka, Tibet, and
North China. . It is distributed to Madeira, Fernando Po, Abys-
sinia, and South Africa.
The Sutos of Basutoland use a decoction of the rhizome as an
anthelmintic enema.
Suto: Lehorometso—.
DRYMOGLOSSUM.
This tropical genus numbers about 10 species.
Drymoglossum carnosum Hook. is common in Nepal, Sikkim,
and Bhutan at 2,000-5,000 ft. elevation. It extends to China and
Japan.
The fronds are pectoral, diuretic, and astringent, They are
used in China in urinary calculus and rheumatism. :
Chinese: Lo Yen 'T's’ao—.
DRyYNARIA.
This genus:-consists of 20 species, inhabitants of the Palaeo-
tropics. | | a
Drynaria quercifolia J. Sm. (=Polypodium quercifolium
Linn.) is found throughout India, in the plains or very low down
on the mountains, on trees or rocks. .
The Ayurvedists describe the rhizome as bitter, tonic, astrin-
gent to the bowels, and useful in the treatment of typhoid fever.
The plant is commonly used in the treatment of phthisis, hectic
fever, dyspepsia, and cough. - | :
Ilocano: Capceapa—; Malayalam: | Pannakilhannumaravala— ; Marathi :.
Ashvakatri, Basingh, Wandurbashing—; Pampangan: ~Gona,' Tibatib—;
Sanskrit: Ashvakatri—; Tagalog: Pacpaclauin, Paipaiamo—}; Visayan: Cab-
cab, Cabcaban, Cabcabun—. mae, Poot
...THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA 355
DRyYOPTERIS.
This genus numbers 250 species found distributed throughout
the northern temperate regions. ,
It is probable that all of the species of this genus possess more
or less anthelmintic properties. The following are commonly used
in China—D. sophoroides O. WKuntze—; in Japan—D. crassi-
rhizoma Nakai—; in North America—D. marginalis (Linn.) Asa
Gray, D. rigida Underw.—; in South Africa—D. athamantica
(Ktze) O. Kuntze, D. inaequalis O. Kuntze. But by far the
most famous species is D. filix mas (Linn.) Schott, one of the
oldest drugs known, and-one which is still retained by all pharma-
copoeias. |
Dryopteris filixemas (Linn.) Schott.—Ma.Le FErn—.
The synonyms for the male fern are extraordinarily numerous,
and the following are among the better known or more commonly
occurring :—Aspidium filix-mas of many authors, A. wildeanwm
Goeppert, Dryopteris filix-mas (Linn.) Schott, Lastrea filiz-mas
Presl., Lophodium filix-mas Newm., Nephrodium filix-mas Rich.,
Polypodium filix-mas Linn., P. nemorale Salisb., Polystichum
ubbreviatum DC., P. durum et induratum Schur., P. filix-mas
Roth., Tectarea filix-mas Cavan. Since the term Dryopteris was
first used by Amman in 1739, and applied in 1763 by Adamson,
as the. name of the genus to which the term Aspidium was applied
in 1800 by Swartz, the use of the generic term Dryopteris would
seem to be necessitated by the laws of botanic nomenclature.
The Male Fern is of very wide distribution, occurring in
America from Greenland, westwards and southwards, along the
Rocky Mountains and Andes to Peru. It is found throughout
Burope, in North Asia, eastwards to China and Japan. It is also
distributed to Abyssinia, the Azores and Macaronesia. In the
Indian region it is generally confined to considerable elevations—
6,500-11,000 ft.—on the mountains, from the Lowari Pass to
Kashmir, Chamba, Kullu, the Simla Region, and Garhwal.
The male fern has been recommended as a local application in
eczema and acne. It is, however, as a vermifuge that the drug is
better, if not exclusively, known. It is as such that it is men-
tioned in the works of Dioscorides, Theophrastus, Galen and Pliny,
and by some of the earlier modern writers. It is now used in
medicine almost solely for the purpose of getting rid of various
intestinal parasites, especially the tapeworm. As to its value in
other forms of helminthiasis there is difference of opinion. Some
authors report as many as 75 per cent of cures in cases of hook-
worm infection, but other workers state that the drug ‘has been
found absolutely without value in this infection. There has been
a great deal of uncertainty as to the efficacy of-male fern, espe-
cially in tropical climates, and many observers have found it to
be not only inefficient and unreliable, but a toxic and a dangerous
remedy.
A large amount of chemical work has been done and a number
of substances have been isolated from the drug, but the chemical
nature of the different constituents is still not clear. This is not
356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
surprising as these compounds are unstable bodies and undergo
chemical changes in the dry rhizome as well as in the preparations
of the oleoresin and the ethereal extract. That is one of the
reasons why such widely controversial results have been obtained
regarding their physiological activity.
No doubt that the rhizomes of other species of fern are fre-
quently substituted for the ‘official’, and that in the dried state it
is difficult to distinguish them; but which is the official form? <A
look at herbariums will convince any one that a heterogeneous
mass of plants is named filiz-mas. A talk with the leading
pteridologists of the day will further bring home the astounding
information that experts are not agreed that even the European
forms of filix-mas all belong to the same species!
Catalan: Falguera mascle—; Danish: Bregne—; Dutch: Varen Kruid—;
English: Male Fern, Shield Fern—; French: Fougére male—; German: Farn-
kraut, Farnwurzel, Wurmfarn—; Hungarian: Erdei pajzsikapapany—; Italian:
Felce maschio—; Naples: Fielici, Filici—; Norwegian: Bregne—; Pacific
Coast: Aspidium, Basket Fern, Bear’s Paw, Knotty Brake, Male Fern, Male
Shield Fern, Sweet Brake—; Piedmont: Fales, Feles, Fleis—; Portuguese:
Dentebrura, Feto macho—; Potenza: Fivece—; Puglia: Fidvitti—; Reggio:
Felsa mas’c—; Sardinia: Filighee mas’cia, Filixi maschin—; Spanish: Helecho
macho—; Swedish: Ormbunk, Traejon—; Treviso: Felese mas’cio—; Turkish:
Serhasi mizekker—.
GLEICHENIA.
This genus consists of 25 species inhabiting tropical and sub-
tropical regions.
Gleichenia dichotoma Willd. is found in the mountains of
Southern India and Ceylon, up to 6,000 ft., Kumaon, Nepal,
Sikkim, and Bhutan, Khasia Hills up to 5,000 ft., Sylhet, Pach-
marhi, Tenasserim, South Andamans, the Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, East Timor, Tropical Australia, Japan, America—.
In Annam the rhizome is used as an anthelmintic. In Mada-
gvascar the fronds are given as a cure for asthma.
Annam: Hac cot mang, Hac cot phuong, Tieu ly bach—; Madagascar:
Ampangantsinika—.
HELMINTHOSTACHYS.
‘The only species, H. zeylanica Linn., is found in South India,
in the western forests in swampy places up to 8,000 ft. elevation.
It also occurs in Ceylon, about Colombo and other parts of the
western and southern provinces, in the plains of Bengal to Assam
and Cachar. It extends to the Malay Peninsula, the Malay
Islands, the Philippine Islands, Tropical Australia, and New
Caledonia.
It is regarded in the Moluccas as a mild aperient.
Annam: Quan trong—; French: Osmonde de Ceylan—.
HEMIDICTYUM.
This genus consists of 2 species found mostly in temperate
regions.
Hemidictyum ceterach Linn. (=Asplenium ceterach Linn.
= Ceterach officinarum Willd.) occurs on the rocks overhanging the
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA B57
Karriah River in the Kurram Valley, but is rare there. It is
very common in Kashmir, Punjab, and Garhwal ascending up to
9,000 ft. It is found in many parts of Germany, in Switzerland,
the Tyrol, Hungary, Dalmatia, the Caucasus, Belgium, France,
Spain, Italy, Greece. In Britain it is to be seen in all or nearly
all the southern, northern, and western counties; ‘in Somerset-
shire and Devonshire it is especially abundant, in Scotland it is
much less frequent’ chiefly in the west and south-west; it is fre-
quent in Ireland, though local. It extends to Palestine and Persia,
the Canaries, Madeira and Cape Verde Islands, Morocco, Algiers,
Abyssinia, and the Cape of Good Hope.
‘No herbe maie be compared therewith for his singular virtue
to help the sicknesse or grief of the spleen’, says one of the oldest
Herbals. ‘It is generally used against infirmities of the spleen,
helps the strangury, and wastes the stone in the bladder, and is
useful against the jaundice and the hiccough’, states Culpeper.
The plant is considered diuretic and astringent. It is still
occasionally used in France for diseases of the urinary tract. The
rhizome is used medicinally in several parts of Europe for en-
largement of the spleen, incontinence of urine, calculus, jaundice,
and malaria.
Dioscorides mentions the use of a decoction of the plant in
vinegar for enlargement of the spleen, and also the local appli-
cation of a plaster made of the leaves steeped in wine. Women
were not allowed to use it as it was supposed to cause sterility.
Pliny ordered ‘it should not be given to women, because it bringeth
barrenness’.
The rusty-coloured scales under the blades were at one time
used as a cure for gonorrhoea.
Catalan: Dauradella, Herba daurada—; Hnglish: Finger Fern, Miltwaste,
Rusty Back, Scaly Fern, Spleenwort, Stone Fern—; French: Cétérach officinal,
Dauradille, Doradille, Doradille cétérach, Doradille d’EKspagne, Herbe dorée,
Scolopendre vraie—; German: Milzfarn—; Portuguese: Douradinha, Escolo-
pendra—; Spanish: Capilera dorada, Ceterach, Doradilla—.
LyGODIUM.
This genus numbers 22 species to be found in tropical and
subtropical regions.
Two of the species are credited with medicinal properties :—
Pinnules 8-12 in. long, 6-12 in. broad ee . Ll LDL. flexuosum.
Pinnules smaller, 4-8 in. long, about as broad .. 2. DL. japonicum.
1. Lygodium flexuosum Sw. (=L. pinnatifidum Sw.) is very
common in the Dehra Dun, Kumaun, Sajahanpur, Gorakhpur; it
is abundant throughout the plain in Bengal up to 5,000 ft., and
also on both sides of the Madras Presideney up to about 4,000 ft.
It extends to Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, the Philippine Islands,
North Australia, Angola, and the Guinea Coast.
The plant is commonly used as an expectorant.
In Tirhut the fresh root is boiled with mustard oil and used
externally in rheumatism, sprains, scabies, ulcers, eczema, and
cut wounds. It is particularly useful as a- local application to
earbuncles. |
9
358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
In Indo-China an infusion of the plant is used in blennorrhagia;
it is said to be a good lactagogue.
Indo-China: Bong bong, Duong vong, Thach vi day—; Malayalam: Valli-
panna—; Tirhut: Ixalazha—.
2. Lygodium japonicum Sw. occurs abundantly in North
India from Kashmir to Sikkim and Bhutan from 2,000-7,000 ft.
elevation. It is rare in the western mountains of South India. It
is distributed to Ceylon, Java, the Philippine Islands, China,
Japan, and North Australia.
The plant is used as an expectorant in China. It is also used
in haematuria and blennorrhagia.
Chinese: Hai Chin Sha—; Indo-China: Hai kim sa—.
OPHIOGLOSSUM.
This genus consists of 80 species inhabiting tropical and tem-
perate regions.
Ophioglossum vulgatum = Linn. occurs in North India from
Chamba State to Sikkim ascending up to 9,000 ft. on Mount
Hattu and 2,000 ft. below Darjeeling; it is also found in Chota
Nagpore on the Parasnath Mount at an altitude of 2,500 ft. It
extends to Japan, the Sandwich Islands, Australia, and New
Zealand. It is met with in North America, from Quebec and
Ontario southwards to Florida and California, Kentucky, Tenessee,
Texas and Arizona to Alaska. In Europe it inhabits Lapland, the
British Isles and almost all other countries to Caucasia. In
Africa it occurs in the Azores, Abyssinia, the Guinea Coast, An-
eola, St. Helena, Zambesiland, Cape Colony, and the Mascarene
Isles. |
A preparation from this plant, known as the ‘oreen oil of
charity’, is in request in England as a vulnerary and remedy for
wounds.
The plant is held in France and Spain as a vulnerary of great
repute.
The plant yields a mucilaginous and astrmgent decoction which
is used in angina in La Reunion. The fronds are considered tonic
and styptic, and used in contusions, wounds, and haemorrhages.
A warm decoction of the rhizome is used by the Sutos as a
lotion for boils.
Catalan: Tilansa de Cristo, Llengua de serp—; English: Adder’s Tongue,
Christ’s Spear—; French: Herbe & daucune, Herbe sans couture, Lance de
Christ, Langue de serpent, Luciole, Ophioglosse, Ophioglosse commune, Petite
serpentaire, Serpentine—; Hausa: Mashinzomo—; La Reunion: Herbe un
coeur, Herbe paille-en-queue, Langue de serpent—; Spanish: Lengua de _ ser-
piente—; Suto: Mmadiyo, T’sebe-ngwe, T'seyananyane—.
OSMUNDA.
This genus consists of 10 species distributed throughout the
temperate and tropical countries of the world.
Fronds 2-4 ft. long, 1 ft. or more broad, bipinnate ... 1. O. regalis.
Ironds 1-2 ft. long, 8-12 in. broad, simply pinnate .. 2. O. claytoniana,
1. Osmunda regalis Linn. is common on the western moun-
tains of South India at the higher elevations; it is found in the
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA 5g
Himalayas from the Chamba State to Sikkim and Bhutan, but
has become very rare in the Simla region; 1t is common, or at
least frequent, in the Khasia District up to 4,000-6,000 ft., in the
Central Provinces, and in the Bombay Presidency. It extends to
South and West China, Hongkong, Japan, Canada and the Sas-
katchewan to Brazil. In Europe it is distributed over the British
Isles, Sweden and Russia to Spain, Italy, Turkey, and to Siberia.
It is met with in the Azores, Algeria, Tunis, Abyssinia, Angola,
Central Africa, Nyassaland, Zambesiland, Natal, Cape Colony,
and the Mascarene Isles.
The plant is a well known tonic and styptic, and is still very
much employed all over HKurope. It is used for rickets in England
and in France. ;
The white centre of the root, boiled in some kind of liquor,
was supposed good for persons wounded, dry-beaten, and bruised,
or that have fallen from some high place.
The root or rhizome stamped in water or gin till ‘the liquor
becometh a stiff mucilage, has cured many deplorable pains of the
back, that have confined the distracted sufferers close to bed for
several weeks.’ This mucilage was to be rubbed over the vertebrae
of the back each night and morning for five or six days together.
Also for rickets, ‘take of the powdered roots with the whitest
sugar, and sprinkle some thereof on the child’s pap, and on all
his liquid foods. It maketh a noble remedy without any other
medicine.’
The tender sprigs of the plant at their first coming are ‘good
to be put into balmes, oyles, and healing plasters’.
This is much more effectual than the other ferns, both for
inward and outward uses, says Culpeper. It is accounted singu-
larly good in wounds, bruises, or the like; the decoction to be
drunk, or boiled into an ointment of oil, as a balsam or balm, and
so it is singularly good against bruises, and bones broken, or out
of joint, and gives much ease to the colic and splenetic diseases;
as also ruptures and burstings.
In Guinea an extract is prepared and is used externally for
rheumatism and internally for intestinal griping.
English: Flowering Fern, Osmond Royal, Osmund-the-Waterman, Royal
Fern, Royal Flowermg Fern, Water Fern—; French: Fougeére aquatique,
Fougére fleurie, Fougére royale, Osmonde, Osmonde fleurie, Osmonde royale—;
Fulah: Kolo kouli—; German: Koenigsfarn, Traubenfarn—; Hova: Ampanga-
fenakoho—; Indo-China: Vi—; Languedoc: Fougeiroux-——; Spanish: Helecho
acuatico, Helecho florido, Helecho real—.
2. Osmunda claytoniana Linn. is found growing in the
Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan at 6,000-10,000 ft. elevation,
in the Khasia Mountains up to 4,500-6,000 ft. It also occurs in
Canada, Newfoundland, and throughout the United States.
The rhizomes are used as an adulterant for Male Fern in the
American market.
PELLAEA.
This genus consists of 40 species found in subtropical regions.
P. calomelanos Link., P. consobrina-Hook., P. hastata (Thunb.)
Prantl., P. involuta Bkr. are used medicinally in South Africa.
360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. AXXVIII
Pellaea calomelanos Link. is found in the Sirmur State, Dehra
Dun, Garhwal, Kumaon, ascending up to 5,000 ft. It extends to
Angola, Abyssinia, Somaliland, the Ruenzori Mounts, Zambesi-
Jand, Mashonaland, Natal, Cape Colony, and La Reunion.
The Sutos use the rhizome as an anthelmintic, and smoke
the leaf for colds in the head and chest.
Suto: Lehorometso, Pata-lewana, Pata-mawa—.
PLEOPELTIS.
This genus numbers 35 species distributed throughout tropical
and subtropical regions.
Pleopeltis lanceolata Linn. is found on the Nilgiris and
higher mountains on the west side of the Madras Presidency, and
extends to Assam and Ceylon. It occurs in Tropical America and
the West Indies, South Africa and its islands, St. Helena, and
the Sandwich Islands.
In Mexico a tea made from the fronds is taken to cure the itch.
PrERIS.
A cosmopolitan genus numbering 160 species.
P. aquilina Linn. is used medicinally in Europe, China, La
Reunion—; P. multifida Poir. im China—; P. leptophylla Sw..,
P, palmata W., P. pedata Sw. in Brazil—; P. buchanani Bkr. in
Basutoland—. |
Pteris aquilina Linn. is very common in the Himalayas,
common in the Khasia Hills at 2,000-8,000 ft. It extends to the
Deccan, the Madras Presidency, Ceylon, Tenasserim, the Malay
Peninsula, and eastwards to Australia and New Zealand. It is
universal in Europe, except in the extreme north, and never an
Alpine plant; its range in the British Isles is said to agree closely
with that of corn cultivation, and in the Scottish Highlands it
never rises above 2,000 ft. It is found in the Cameroon Mountains
and in Abyssinia. In general it may be said to thrive all round
the world, both within the Tropics, and in the North and South
Temperate Zones.
The rhizome is reputed astringent and anthelmintic.
A decoction of the rhizomes and fronds has been given in
chronic disorders arising from obstructions of the viscera and
spleen.
‘For thigh aches smoke the legs thoroughly with Fern braken.’
‘The roots being bruised and boiled in mead, or honeyed water,
and drunk, kills both the broad and long worms in the body, and
abates the swelling and hardness of the spleen. The green leaves
eaten, purge the belly, and expel choleric and waterish humours
that trouble the stomach. They are dangerous for women with
child to meddle with by reason they cause abortions. The roots
bruised and boiled in oil, or hog’s grease, make a very profitable
ointment to heal wounds, or pricks gotten in the flesh. The
powder of them used in foul ulcers, dries up their malignant mois-
ture, and causes their speedier healing.’
Cantonese: K’uet—; Catalan: Falguera femella—; Chinese: Chueh— ;
Dutch: Groote varen, Varen—; English: Bracken, Brakes, Female Fern—;
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FERNS OF INDIA 361
French: Filipode, Fougére 4 l’aigle, Fougére commune, Fougére femelle, Tou-
gére impériale, Fruchiére, Ptéride—; German: Adlerfarn, Farmkrautweiblein,
Fluegelfarn, Jesuschristuswurzel—; Indo-China: Guyet—; Ireland: Fern of
God—; Languedoc: Feuvé—; Malaya: Keat—; Malayalam: Tavi—; Malta:
Bracken, Eagle Fern, Felce aquilina, Felce capannaja, Felicilla, Felicita—;
New Caledonia: M’Baoue—; Portuguese: Feto—; Punjab: Dio, Kakei,
Kakhash, Lungar—; Roumanian: Navalnic pajuriu, Spinarea lupului—;
Russian: Paporotnik—; Saora: Manmarda—; Spanish: Helecho hembra—;
Tamil: Parnai—.
STENOLOMA.
S. chinensis Bedd. (=Davallia tenuifolia Hook.) is found in
the western mountains of the Madras Presidency at 3,000-6,000 ft. ;
in the Himalayas from the Simla region to Bhutan at 1,000-
7,000 ft., plentiful eastwards; it is common in the Khasia Hills
at 1,000-3,000 ft. Central Provinces. Pachmarhi, Ceylon, the
Malay Peninsula, Japan. It extends to Polynesia and the Mas-
carene Islands, being common everywhere.
It is administered internally for chronic enteritis in Mauritius.
Chinese: Wu Chiu—; English: Parsley Fern—; Mauritius: Petite fougére—.
EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA.
BY
J. F. Carus, s.J., F.L.8., and S. K. CHHAPGAR, B.Sc.
(St. Xavier’s College, Bombay).
ANALYSES XXXVI-XXXIX
XXXVI. Sow! from Salt- Lick
Serial No. 49.
Locality—Sironcha Range, Chanda District, Central Provinces.
Collected and sent by—The Deputy Conservator of Forests, South Chanda
Light buff lumps crumbling soc to powder. Powder gritty.
Minerals sae “. . 4°63 percent.
Clay as an w. 20°14 ss
Sand ae ae Pe (ee) a
Organic debris xe, ae Jot LOL ie
Moisture aA ae SOE =
Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ice esOOZDY or
Insoluble in nitric acid saa wae OO DOE sash
Soda (Na,O) 2 seen oe! De
Potash (K,O) on est a LOTT ee
Magnesia (MgO) LF SMa, sto loo bee
Lime (CaO) a ee ssa O'470" »,,
Alumina (Al,0,) due ast AE, he
Silica (SiO,) soluble ee Se lZOODee Ise
Phosphorus (P,0O,) oe os 4340
Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) bse cer BLOOL. 5,
Moisture and organic matter Sree ee OOS" ol,
Remarks.—the same as foi Salt-lick No. 48.
XXXVIL Soil from Salt-Lick
Serial No. 234
Locality—Near Latimu River, at an altitude of 4,000 feet, in the Mpika
District, Northern Rhodesia
Collected and sent by—Capt. C.R.S. Pitman, Broken Hill, Northern
Rhodesia.
Greyish powder and pellets, some of these flinty, with quartz and marble.
Powder gritty ; the finer portions soft.
Minerals’. aes we ... 12°86 per cent
Clay ae ae oO! 126,
Sand ate wat ape OU 2 mame.
Organic debris ae re we 1. O01G7%, 5
Moisture a Seer, OV ons
Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ae £2 GS5:075~. 3,
Insoluble in nitric acid sa Se UAT OSE 5
Potash (K,O) a hoe pees MOLE ae
Magnesia (MgO) .. Be ose, (O°044? 5) 2
Lime (CaO) oe ie Gin a) pero dee,
Alumina (Al,O a at aie, Boo: eae
Carbon dioxide (CO,) te Se OTOOU me,
Silica (SiO,) soluble me We 1257888
EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 363
Phosphorus (P,0,) aus se O°S61: .,5
Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) oes se 0429) =,
Moisture and organic matter o. 4°480 ,,
Remarks.—1. The soil contains traces of humus,jand 2 per cent water-
soluble organic and inorganic matter.
2. The lick is frequented by elephants, black rhinoceroses, buftaloes
wart hogs, and various antelopes.
XXXVIII. Sozl from Salt- Lick
Serial No. 23.
Locality—Sonrai Beat, Marora Range, Jhansi Forest Division.
Collected and sent by—The Divisional Forest Officer, Jhansi.
Friable cement-grey lumps with rootlets. Powder gritty; the finer
parts soapy.
7
Minerals Bea is ... 2°03 per cent
Clay ase ses ae ene
Sand - ae .. 88:14 _,,
Organic debris ae oe Se oO.
Humus nee ae a. O'34 3;
Moisture me eo eae
Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) a GE OO) ahs
Insoluble in nitric acid ae cme (022420). 1,55
Soda (Na,O) ae ie L824 —,,
Potash (K,O) - ch ee OPAL aa,
Magnesia (MgO) a oe SOON,
Lime (CaO) ‘ive ae Vee 0621;
Alumina (AJ,O, ) oa ae et 900) =.
Silica (SiO,) soluble ve ee lLO, L/S
Phosphorus (P,0,) oes ee Olas
Manganese (Mn) aah ss, 1,0°063) —,,
Ferric oxide (Fe,03) a ret poe mens,
Moisture and organic matter he ros ay
XXXIX. Common Earth
Serial No 24.
Locality—Sonrai Beat, Marora Range, Jhansi Forest Division.
‘ollected and sent by—The Divisional Forest Officer, Jhansi.
Buffy friable lumps. Powder gritty ; finer parts soft.
Minerals oe Fi ... 9°46 per cent
Clay ca ‘= ne ee ao 3,
Sand ae sine 751 00 63 4,
Organic debris he oe eee vs) een
Humus abe ae + 0°40 ,,
Moisture nae ety dO 45
fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ve we CO )0o)s,,
Insolube in nitric acid i ... 63°484 _,,
Soda, (Na,O) asi a sont L003 © 5.
Potash (K,0O) as aa eee OUs. 45
Magnesia (MgO) ... ae cot OMS y
Lime (CaO) sae oe ce O'457 ,;
Alumina Al,O,) ... a .. 1004 = ,,
Silica (SiO,) soluble o as, J0:2672.,
Phosphorus (P,O,) cat sor LOO
Manganese (Mn) ... ey eer O ELT
Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) = pig TOC Oh oe,
Moisture and organic matter... oe £300",
Remarks: 1. The soil contains 0°003 per cent of sodium chloride, 0°273
percent of water soluble inorganic matter consisting chiefly of colloidal silica
and traces of soluble sulphates, and 0°105 per cent of water soluble organic
matter.
2. ‘The earth was collected from a plot adjoining Salt-Lick No. 23,
364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
PROCEDURE ADOPTED IN THE ANALYSIS.
By way of answer and request.—The study of salt-licks was
started in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society six
years ago in the number of the 3lst May 1929. From various
quarters at one time or another the question has been asked:
‘Why is this investigation into the composition of salt-licks not
carried on more energetically?’ The answer runs as follows:
‘This investigation is from beginning to end a work of chemical
analysis, which of its very nature is long and slow, especially
when it has all to be done by a couple of workers who can only
devote their spare time to the task.’
It is true that certain students interested in this enquiry sent
us their analytical results of various salt-licks for comparison with
our own, thus showing an interest which was both gratifying and
encouraging. It must, however, be remarked that the analytical
results which have been forwarded did not prove very help-
~ ful. It is well known, indeed, that analyses of the same material
made by different analysts sometimes differ materially, even when
the analyses are made by skilled analysts of high repute. These
differences are commonly due to the use of different analytical
methods or to differences of detail in operating the same method.
Thus far the answer to the question why the investigation of
salt-licks takes so long.
At the same time, ‘it is a thousand pities that the work is pro-
ceeding so slowly; and we do earnestly invite the co-operation of
all those who are interested in the subject. In other words we
ask for the analytical results of other research workers. This is
the request we venture to make.
But, lest those who wish to comply with this request should
work in vain and thus waste time and energy, it has been decided
on to give a full description of our way of proceeding in the ana-
lysis of salt-licks and common earths. It need not be added
that any research work carried on according to this method will
prove very helpful, and will be gratefully received and duly acknow-
ledged in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society—for
we believe in the good old principle: cuique suum.
By way of illustration, results and calculations are given in
extenso for a sample of common earth from the Sonrai Forest,
Marora Range, Jhansi.—Serial No. 24.—Analysis XXXIX.
A. Preparation of Fine Earth for analysis; and estimation of
moisture, minerals, and fine earth.
About 100 grams of the air-dried earth are weighed out in a
beaker, and water is added so as just to cover the earth. The
beaker is covered and allowed to stand for 12 hours. At the end
of 12 hours, the clavish concretions are entirely broken up into
grains, and it is possible by levigation and sieving to separate all
the fine earth from minerals,
The suspension and earth contained in the beaker are poured
on a brass wire sieve, having 20 meshes per inch, and kept on a
dish of about 2 litres capacity. With a wooden spatula, the earth
EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 365
paste, spread on the sieve, is stirred and washed with distilled
water from a wash bottle. All the fine earth passes into the dish,
while the minerals remain on the sieve. The separation of fine
earth and minerals is carried out with 500 cc. of distilled water.
The fine earth suspension is evaporated on a sand bath, and
then dried on a water bath. When dry the earth adhering. to
the sides of the dish is easily removed by light scratching with
a nickel spatula. The scraped fine earth is lightly triturated in
the dish with a pestle and then completely transferred to a weighed
beaker. The fine earth in the weighed beaker, is dried at 100°C,
to constant weight.
The minerals remaining on the sieve are also dried at 100°C.,
transferred to a watch glass and weighed.
The moisture in air dried earth is estimated in another portion
of the earth. About 2 grams of the earth are weighed out in a
nickel dish, dried at 100°C. to constant weight and the moisture
content calculated. From 6 to 8 hours are required for drying the
earth at 100°C.
Results :—
Weight of beaker + earth = 163°5900 grams.
Weight of beaker = 60°4356 grams.
~. Weight of earth used 103°1£44 grams.
i]
Minerals :—
Weight of watch glass + minerals = 24°0055 grams.
Weight of watch glass = 14°2428 grams.
9°7627 grams,
§°7627 = 100
., Weight of minerals
I
Hence the percentage of minerals = 10315 46. :
Fine earth :—
Weight of beaker + fine earth = 151°7888 grams,
Weight of beaker = 60°4356 grams.
. Weight of fine earth = 91°3532 grams.
Hence the percentage of fine earth = hare 100 — 88°563
103°15
Moisture :—
Weight of nickel dish + earth = §2°0673 grams.
Weight of nickel dish = 49°5644 grams.
~, Weight of earth = 2°5029 grams.
After drying at 100°C.
Weight of nickel dish + earth = 52°0282 grams.
Weight of nickel dish = 49°5652 grams.
Weight of dry earth = 24630 grams.
Hence weight of moisture = 2°5029 — 2°4630 = 0°0399 grams.
Henc entage of moisture = AUN eS 1°59
Seeger er eee 7 25029) 5
B. Mechanical analysis (Schloesing’s method). Hstimation of
sand, organic debris, clay, and humus. |
About 10 grams of fine earth are weighed out in a porcelain
dish of about 100 ce. capacity and moistened with 5 to 10 ce, of
366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
distilled water. The paste is broken up with a rubber tipped glass
rod and 20 to 80 cc. of water are then added. The mixture is
kneaded, allowed to stand for about 10 seconds and the super-
natant turbid liquid is decanted in a 250 ec. beaker. To the sedi-
ment in the dish 80 cc. of water are added and after kneading
and waiting for 10 seconds, the turbid liquid is decanted as before.
The operation is repeated till the distilled water mixed with the
heavy sediment in the dish does no longer become turbid. By
these operations the clay with fine sand is transferred to the
beaker.
The heavy sediment in the dish, is treated with nitric acid (1
part HNO, sp. er. 1:424+1 part water), till the limestone, if
present, is completely decomposed. The mixture after treatment
with acid is transferred to the 250 cc. beaker containing the sus-
pension of clay and fine sand. The acid coagulates the clay in
suspension and the sand, clay, organic debris and humus settle
down in the beaker.
The contents of the beaker are filtered and the residue is freed
from nitric acid and lime salts by washing it with distilled water
till the residue again shows sign of going into suspension.
The residue is transferred to a beaker of about 2 litres capacity
using distilled water. 1 ec. of ammonia (sp. gr. 0-88) and 1000 ce.
of distilled water are added. The mixture is stirred and allowed
to stand for 24 hours. By this operation sand and ,organic debris
settle down, humus goes in solution, while clay remains in sus-
pension. After standing for 24 hours, the supernatant lquid is
carefully syphoned off and collected in a 6 litre flask. After sy-
phoning 1 cc. of ammonia and 1,000 cc. of water are again added
to the sediment in the beaker, the mixture stirred and after 24
hours’ standing, the supernatant liquid is decanted and added to
that previously collected. In all, three such operations are suffi-
cient to remove all clay. If necessary these are repeated, the end
point being judged by the more or less turbid aspect of the liquid.
The residue of sand and organic debris remaining behind in the
2 litre beaker is dried on a water bath, transferred to a large por-
celain crucible and dried to constant weight at 100°C. The residue
is then ignited, till the organic matter is completely oxidised and
the crucible is weighed. From the weights the percentages of
sand and organic debris are calculated.
To the turbid liquid in the 6 litre flask, saturated solution of
potassium chloride is added (10 cc. of saturated KCl per 1000 ce.
of the turbid liquid). The clay coagulates and settles, while humus
remains in solution. The mixture is filtered and the clay is col-
lected on a weighed filter paper. The filter paper with clay is
dried to constant weight at 100°C. From the weights the per-
centage of colloidal clay is calculated.
To the filtrate containing humus in solution hydrochloric acid
is mdded (5 ec. of HCl sp. gr. 1:16 per 1,000 ce. of the filtrate).
Humus is precipitated as a brownish black mass. The mixture is
filtered and the humus is collected on a weighed filter paper.
The filter paper with humus is dried to constant weight at 100°C,
From the weights the percentage of humus is calculated,
EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 367
In the above procedure the weighed filter paper is prepared by
washing a 15 em. filter paper with 4,000 ec. of distilled water and
drying it to constant weight at 100°C. For the filtration of clay
and humus the following arrangement is used.
—6-litre flask containing clay suspension after
coagulation.
—covered funnel with tared filter paper.
~—filtrate.
The above is self explanatory and facilitates filtration of clay
which usually requires from two to three days.
Results :—
Notr.—Although fine earth is used in the above mechanical analysis, the
results of analysis are always expressed with reference to the normal earth and
not with reference to fine earth.
Weight of watch glass + fine earth= 25°4642 grams.
Weight of watch glass = 14°2428 grams.
11:2214 grams,
i
Weight of fine earth used
Sand and organic debris
Weight of crucible + sand + orga-
nic debris = 67°4596 grams.
Weight of crucible 56°7922 grams.
Weight of sand and organic debris= 10°6674 grams.
Weight of crucible + sand (after
heating) = 67:0092 grams.
Weight of sand = 10°2170 grams.
Weight of organic debris = 10°6674 — 10°2170
= 0°4504 grams.
10°217 x 88°563
Hence percentage of sand iT 2214 = 50503,
: 0°4504 x 88°563
and percentage of organic debris = 1P2214 = oa00
I
368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Clay
Weight of filter paper + clay
Weight of filter paper
4°3986 grams.
4:0880 grams.
03106 grams.
0°3106 x 88°563
It
i}
Weight of clay
Hence percentage of clay = 112214 = 2°45.
Hlumus
Weight of filter paper + humus = 4'2592 grams.
Weight of filter paper = 4°2092 grams.
Weight of humus = 0°0500 grams,
Hence percentage of humus pcre = 0°40.
eee
C. Chemical analysis.
1. Preparation of nitric acid solution.
o0 grams of the fine earth are weighed out in a 750 ce. conical
flask. The earth is moistened with water, and nitric acid (sp. gr.
1-42) is added, drop by drop, till the carbonates, if at all present,
are decomposed. When the decomposition is effected, 75 ec. of
nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42) are added and the flask, covered with a
funnel, is heated on a water bath, with occasional shaking, for
24 hours.
At the end of 24 hours, the liquid in the conical flask is diluted
with 80 cc. of water and decanted through a filter. The insoluble
residue is washed by decantation with hot water containing 5 ce.
of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42) per litre, till the filtrate gives no yellow
colour due to iron. When the washing is complete, the residue
is transferred to the filter and kept aside.
The filtrate is evaporated in a dish on a sand bath and the
residue is dehydrated on a water bath for two hours. After de-
hydration, add 5 cc. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:42) and 100 ce. of
hot water. Boil and filter. Wash the insoluble residue with
hot water containing nitric acid as before, and collect and keep
aside the insoluble residue of silica, on a separate filter paper.
The filtrate, in the above operation, is subjected to a second
evaporation in a similar manner in order to remove the last traces
of silica from solution.
The filtrate, from which silica has been removed is cooled and
made upto 500 ce. This nitric acid solution is used in the chemical
analysis, when required.
The main portion of the earth, together with the two silica
residues from the two evaporations are transferred to a nickel dish.
The dish is heated at first on a small flame to burn off papers and
then the residue is ignited at full blast to constant weight.
Results :—
(Cf. Note under Results of mechanical analysis, p. 367.) Chemical
analysis.
Weight of beaker + fine earth
Weight of beaker
151°7888 grams.
103°5260 grams.
ome ee
i il
Weight of fine earth used in
chemical analysis
l
48°2627 grams.
HARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 369
Main portion insoluble in HNO,
Weight of nickel dish + residue +
+ filter ash (3 papers) = 91:2870 grams.
Weight of nickel dish = 49°5628 grams.
Weight of filter ash from 3 papers = 0°0282 grams.
49°5910 grams.
41°6960 grams.
i
. Weight of residue
Hence percentage of main portion_ _41°696 x 88°563 _ 76-514
insoluble in HNO, 48° 263
N.B.—The result ‘ of main portion insoluble in nitric acid’ is not reported
under ‘ insoluble in nitric acid’. For calculating ‘ insoluble in nitric acid, see
calculations and remarks p. 375.
2. Lstimation of Aluminium and Iron.
50 cc. of the nitric acid solution are treated in a porcelain dish
with 5 N sodium hydroxide solution until strongly alkaline, boiled,
diluted with 100 ec. of hot water, and filtered. The precipitate
contains the iron as hydroxide, while the filtrate contains the alu-
minium as aluminate. The precipitate is dissolved in hot 5 N
hydrochloric acid and the iron is reprecipitated as hydroxide with
sodium hydroxide. The precipitate of iron hydroxide is freed from
chlorides by washing with hot 2 per cent ammonium nitrate solu-
tion and the two filtrates containing the aluminium as aluminate
are combined together.
The filtrate containing the aluminium is acidified with 5 N
nitric acid. 20 cc. of 20 per cent ammonium nitrate, one macerated
filter paper and a few drops of methyl] red (0-2 per cent alcoholic
solution) ara added. The mixture is heated to 66°C and 5 N ammo-
nium hydroxide is added till alkaline. The precipitate is filtered,
washed with hot 2 per cent ammonium nitrate solution, ignited wet
and weighed as alumina (Al,O,). By adopting this procedure fil-
tration of the precipitate and final ignition to a fine powder are
rendered easy.
The precipitate of iron hydroxide is dissolved in hot 5 N sul-
prhuric acid in a 500 cc. Erlenmeyer flask. The solution is boiled
and hydrogen sulphide is passed till all the iron is reduced. When
the reduction is complete, the mixture is boiled to expel the sul-
phuretted hydrogen, cooled while passing a current of carbon
dioxide and titrated against standard potassium permanganate so-
lution.
Results :-—
50 cc. of the nitric acid solution are used.
Aluminium
Weight of crucible + Al,O,
+ ash
Weight of crucible
Weight of filter ash
Weight of ash of macerated filter
26-8912 grams.
26°8248 grams.
0°0094 grams.
0°0023 grams.
Ho ww
26°8365 grams.
“Weight of Al,O, 0°0547 grams.
Hence percentage of Al,O, = 0°0547 x 10 x
= 4°004.
H
88°563
48°263
370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
Lron
The solution after reduction
required 27°8 cc. of 0°09752 N KMnO,
= (27°8x0°09752) cc, KMn0,.
lec. a KMnO, = 0:°07984 gram Fe,O,.
Hence percentage of Fe,O, = (27°8 x 0:09752) x 10x 0:07984 x
88°563
* 48:263
= 3°972.
3. Hstimation of ‘Combined Oxides’ and Phosphorus.
50 ec. of the nitric acid solution are transferred to a 500 cc.
beaker. 20 cc. of 20 per cent ammonium, nitrate and a few drops
of methyl red (0-2 per cent alcoholic solution) are added. The
mixture is heated to 66°C and 5 N ammonium hydroxide is added
till alkaline. The precipitate contains the hydroxides of the triva-
lent metals, while calcium and magnesium remain in solution.
The precipitate is redissolved in hot 5 N hydrochloric acid, one
macerated filter paper is added and the trivalent metals are repre-
cipitated with ammonia as before. The precipitate is thoroughly
washed with hot 2 per cent ammonium nitrate solution and the
two filtrates containing calcium and magnesium are combined toge-
ther and kept aside for their estimations.
The precipitate is ignited wet and weighed as ‘combined oxides’.
The precipitate of ‘combined oxides’ is fused with six times
its weight of a mixture consisting of four parts of anhydrous sodium
carbonate and one part of pure siliea. The mixture is fused, the
melt is extracted with 1 per cent ammonium carbonate solution and
filtered. The filtrate contains all of the phosphoric acid and a very
little silicic acid. The filtrate is acidified with 5 N hydrochloric
acid, evaporated to dryness on a water bath, and the residue is
moistened with a few drops of 5 N hydrochloric acid. The mass
is dehydrated on the water bath for two hours and then extracted
with 100 cc. of hot water. The mixture is filtered and the slight
residue of silica is washed with hot water. The filtrate now con-
tains all of the phosphoric acid.
The filtrate is concentrated to about 50 cc., 5 cc. of 5 N hydro-
chloric acid, 20 cc. of ‘magnesia mixture’ (55 grams MgCl,. 6 H,O
are dissolved in 650 cc. water, adding 105 grams of ammonium
chloride, and made up to 1,000 ec.) and 10 ec. of 2 N ammonium
chloride are added. The mixture is boiled and 56 N ammonium hy-
droxide solution is added drop by drop, slowly so as to obtain a
crystalline precipitate, the dropwise addition of ammonia being
eontinued till the mixture is alkaline: one-third the solution’s
volume of 5 N ammonium hydroxide is then added and the mix-
ture is allowed to stand for four hours. The precipitate of magne-
sium ammonium phosphate is filtered, washed with 2-5 per cent
ammonia to remove chlorides, dried, ignited separately from the
filter paper and weighed as magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg,P,O,.
EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 371
Resulis :—
‘Combined oxtaes” “j.e. (AILO, + Fe,O, + P.O; + Mn,O,, etc.)
50 ec. of nitric acid solution are used.
Weight of crucible + oxides +
ash = 26'0688 grams.
Weight of crucible = 25°6800 grams.
Weight of filter ash = 0:0094 grams.
Weight of ash from macerated
filter paper = 0°0094 grams.
25°6988 grams.
Weight of combined oxides “= 0°3700 grams,
Hence percentage of combined
; 88°563
= ; ()
oxides 0°3700 x 10 x 43°963
= 6°7S0.
NotE.—(The percentage of combined oxides is not reported in the final
results. Its value is used as a check on Al,O,, Fe,0O,, P2O;, and Mn values
determined separately. The ‘ combined oxides’ value is s/zghtly greater than
the sum of oxides due to Al, Fe, P, and Mn, indicating presence of traces of
titanium and other trivalent metals. As these are considered of no value for
the investigation of mineral metabolism in animals, they are not determined.)
POs.
Weight of crucible + Mg,P,O, +
ash
Weight of crucible
Weight of ash
25°8271 grams.
25°6802 grams.
0:0094 grams.
25°6896 grams.
Hof Wl
.. Weight of Mg,P,0, = 0°1375 grams.
But 1 cram Me2,b 50, = 0°6379 gram P,O,.
Hence percentage of P,O, Se UNS s) x 710 x,0°6379) _ =
= E610;
4. Hstimation of Calcium and Magnesium.
The filtrate obtained in the estimation of ‘combined oxides’
and containing calcium and magnesium is evaporated to about
100 ce. 5 ec. of 5 N hydrochloric acid and 20 cc. of a saturated
ammonium oxalate solution are added. The mixture is_ boiled.
) N ammonium hydroxide solution is added drop by drop till alka-
hne and the mixture is heated on a water bath for one hour. The
solution is filtered. To the filtrate are added 5 ec. of saturated
ammonium oxalate and 5 N ammonium hydroxide till alkaline.
The filtrate is reheated on the water bath for 15 minutes to as-
certain quantitative precipitation of calcium as oxalate. At. this
stage, the clear filtrate contains magnesium.
The precipitate of calcium oxalate is dissolved in ee oN hy-
drochloric acid. Dilute the solution to 100 ce.. add 2 cc. of satu-
rated ammonium oxalate and make the solution aa by adding
5 N ammonium hydroxide. Digest on the water bath as in fe
first precipitation and filter. W ash the precipitate of calcium oxa-
late with hot water, adding one drop of ammonium oxalate solu-
tion each time the funnel is filled. The filtrate in the second
precipitation is combined with the previous filtrate containing
magnesium.
372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
The calcium oxalate precipitate is dissolved in cold 2 N.sul-
phuric acid. 50 cc. of 2 N sulphuric acid are then added. The
mixture 1s warmed and titrated against standard potassium per-
manganate.
Estimation of Magnesium.
To the filtrate, after separation of calcium, add 25 ec. of nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1-42) and evaporate to 50 cc. Nitric acid removes
excess of ammonium salts and thus renders concentration of the
solution possible without crystallisation when cooled. To the con-
centrated solution add 50 ec. of 5 N hydrochloric acid and then
5 N ammonium hydroxide till alkaline. If a precipitate of magne-
sium hydroxide forms, repeat the addition of hydrochloric acid
and ammonia until the solution can’ be made alkaline without the
formation of a precipitate. Next make the solution acidic to
methyl orange with 5 N hydrochloric acid. To the acidic solution
add 10 cc. of 2 N ammonium chloride and 20 cc. of 10 per cent
ammonium phosphate. At this stage the solution should be suffi-
ciently acidic to prevent the formation of a permanent precipitate
on adding the phosphate solution. The mixture is boiled. 5 N
ammonium hydroxide is added drop by drop till alkaline and one-
third the solution's volume of 5 N ammonium hydroxide is added
and the mixture is allowed to stand for four hours. The precipi-
tate is filtered and the filtrate is subjected to a second precipitation
as before, to ensure that all the magnesium is quantitatively pre-
cipitated. The precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate is
washed with 2-5 per cent ammonium hydroxide to remove chlorides,
dried, ignited separately from the filter paper and weighed as mag-
nesium pyrophosphate.
Results ;—
50 cc. of nitric acid solution are used.
The solution of calcium oxalate in
sulphuric acid required 9:1 ce. of 0°09752 N KMnO,.
= (9:1x0°09752) cc. * KMn0,.
Tce, of KMinO, = 0°02804 gram CaO.
Hence percentage of CaO = (9:1 x 0°09752) x 10 x 0°02804
. 88°563
48° 263
0°457.
Magnesium :—
Weight of crucible + Mg,P,0, +
ash
Weight of crucible
Weight of ash
26°6474 grams.
26°5308 yrams.
0:0044 zrams.
26°5852 grams.
0:0622 grams.
0°3621 gram M'gO.
_— 88°563
0°0622 x 10 x 0°3621 x 43°263
0°413.
Hot ll
., Weight of Mg,P,0,
But 1 gram Mig,P,0,
l
I}
I
Hence percentage of MgO
I
EHARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 373
5. LHstimation of total Potash and total Soda present in the
salt-lick or earth.
0-5 gram of the fine earth is decomposed by the fusion method
of J. Lawrence Smith. Potassium is estimated by precipitation
as potassium perchlorate, while sodium is determined by difference.
Results :—
Weight of weighing bottle + fine
earth = 36°5906 grams.
Weight of weighing bottle = 36°0844 grams.
~, Weight of fine earth used == 0:°5062 grams.
Weight of dish + (KCl+ NaCl) +
+ insoluble residue =| 3/3942 ofame,
The alkali salts are dissolved in water and filtered. The dish is dried and
weighed. The filter containing the insoluble residue is incinerated.
Weight of empty dish = $37'3292 grams,
Weight of crucible + ash of filter +
+ insoluble residue
Weight of crucible
Weight of ash
26°8274 grams.
26°8228 grams.
0°0044 grams
26°8272 grams.
26°8274— 26°8272
0°0002 grams.
37°3542 — 37.3292 — 0:0C02
0°0248 grams.
le
., Weight of insoluble residue
Hence weight of (KCl + NaCl)
tol ue i
88°563
a a @ J — . rong Se eat
Hence percentage of (KC1+ NaCl) = 0°0250 x 05062
=» 4°374,
Weight of Gooch crucible+ KCIO,— 13'5056 grams,
Weight of Gooch crucible = 13°4592 grams.
“Weight of KCIO, = 0:0464 grams.
But tgram of KC1O, = 0°5381 cram KCI,
: ; 88°563
. e pad avin '
.. percentage of KCl 0°0464 x 0°5381 x 05062
4°368,
and percentage of NaCl 4°374 — 4°368
0°006 grams.
0°6317 gram K,O
0°5303 gram Na,O,
4°368 x 0°6317 = 2-760
0°006 x 0°5303 = 0-003.
But 1 gram KCl
and 1 gram NaCl
., percentage of K,O
and percentage of Na,O
tof i doug
|
6. LHstimation of Manganese.
Transfer 5 cc. of nitric acid solution to a beaker, add 25 ce.
of nitric acid (1 part HNO, sp. gr. 1-42+38 parts water) and about
0-5 gram sodium bismuthate. Heat until the permanganate colour
disappears. Add a few drops of 10 per cent sodium bisulphite
solution to clear the solution and again boil to expel oxides of nitro-
gen. Cool to room temperature, again add about 0°5 gram sodium
bismuthate and stir. When the maximum permanganate colour
is developed, filter through a Gooch crucible containing an asbestos
mat that has been ignited, treated with 4 per cent potassium per-
manganate, and washed with water. Wash the precipitate with.
10
374. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
dilute sulphuric acid (25 cc. of H,SO, sp. gr. 1°84 diluted to 1
litre, a few drops of N/10 KMnO, being added to colour the dilute
acid faintly) until the washings are colourless. The filtrate is
transferred to a 100 ec. Nessler tube and diluted to 100 ee. with
the above mentioned dilute sulphuric acid. The colour of this
solution is matched with a standard solution of potassium perman-
ganate prepared by diluting 0-2, 0°38, 04 ec. etc. of standard per-
manganate in another Nessler tube, to 100 ce. with dilute sul-
phuric acid. The standard potassium permanganate is prepared
by dissolving 0-2877 gram KMnO, in distilled water and diluting
to 1 htre.
Results »-—
lec. of standard KMnO, = 0:0001 gram Mao.
The colour of 5 cc. of nitric acid solution after bismuthate treatment and
dilution to 100 cc. was matched with 16 cc. of standard KMnO, diluted to
100 cc.
Hence percentage of Mn |
500 88°563
= 16 x “= x 00001 x Fo5ay = O17.
7. Estimation of Sulphur.
50 ce. of nitric acid solution are transferred to a 250 cc. beaker,
5 ce. of 5 N hydrochloric acid are added, and the mixture is boiled.
To the boiling solution 10 ec. of 20 per cent barium nitrate solution
are added, and the mixture allowed to stand at room temperature
for 12 hours. The precipitate of barium sulphate is filtered,
washed with hot water to remove chloride, dried, ignited and
weighed as barium sulphate.
8. Estimation of total “Acid and Water soluble’ Chlorine.
10 grams of fine earth are weighed out in a 250 cc. conical
flask. - Dilute nitric acid (1 part HNO, sp. gr. 1-49+40 parts water)
is added till the limestone, if present, is completely decomposed,
when 100 cc. of dilute nitric acid are added. The mixture is heated
on a water bath for one hour. The mixture is filtered and the
residue is washed with hot water. The filtrate is rendered alkaline
with ™ sgodium earbonate and allowed to stand for half an hour.
The mixture is filtered and the residue washed with hot water.
The filtrate is evaporated to 50 ecce., faintly acidified with acetic
acid, and titrated against standard silver nitrate using 5 drops of
1 per cent potassium chromate as the indicator.
9. Hstimation of Soluble Silica.
About 2 grams of fine earth are weighed out in a porcelain
dish and a mixture of 100 cc. of water and 50 ce. of sulphuric acid
(sp. gr. 1°84) is added. The dish is covered with an inverted
funnel and heated over an asbestos wire gauze until dense fumes
of sulphuric acid vapours are evolved. The contents of the dish
are allowed tq cool, 150 ec. of water and 8 ec. of hydrochloric acid
(sp. gr. 1:16) are added. The mixture is boiled, with constant
: EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 875
stirring for 15 minutes, filtered and the residue washed with hot
water until free from sulphate. After washing the residue is
digested with 100 ce. of 5 per cent sodium carbonate on a water
bath for 15 minutes and filtered. (The filtrate is tested for un-
changed carbonate, otherwise the residue is digested a second time
with 5 per cent sodium carbonate.) The residue, after digestion,
is washed twice with 5 per cent sodium carbonate solution and
then with hot water until free from carbonate. If the filtrate is
turbid, a little alcohol is added, after which the filtrate will run
through clear.
The alkaline filtrate contains soluble silica. It is acidified with
hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1°16) and evaporated to dryness. The
residue is dehydrated at first on a water bath for one hour and
then at 110°C for two hours. The residue is digested with 100 cc.
of hot water and the mixture filtered. The residue is washed with
hot water until free from chloride, dried, ignited and weighed.
Results :—
Weight of weighing bottle + fine earth= 38 9698 grams.
Weight of weighing bottle = 36°5906
a”
2°3792
25°0314 grams.
24°7462 grams.
00094
.. Weight of fine earth used
Weight of crucible + silica + ash
Weight of crucible
Weight of ash
Hot ell
Ut]
24°7556
0°2758 gram.
Hence percentage of soluble silica = wa er mY =O 207%,
“. Weight of silica
I
10. Estimation of Moisture and Organic Matter in Fine Earth.
About 2-5 to 3°5 grams of the fine earth are ignited to constant
weight in a crucible.
Results :
Weight of fine earth used
3°3396 grams.
Weight of crucible + fine earth before heating
60°1317 grams.
Hoi ul
Weight of crucible + fine earth after heating 59°9662 __,,
.. Weight of moisture and organic matter = RNG SS. A
Hence percentage of moisture and organic
0'1655 x 88°563 :
matter = = 4°389,
3°3396
11. Hstimation of Carbon Dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is estimated by the Schrotter apparatus using
about 2 grams of fine earth.
12. Estimation of ‘Insoluble in Nitric Acid’.
The ‘insoluble in nitric acid’ is calculated from analytical data
determined separately : —
The analytical data for the earth as analysed by the above
method are as follows:—
‘Main portion insoluble in HNO,’ -= 76°514 per cent.
Soluble SiO, = L0:267
)
376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIT
Total K,O = 2°760 per cent.
Total Na,O =a O00 Geer
Cl (water and acid soluble) enti
To calculate ‘insoluble in HNO,’ add total Na,O and K, O, and
from the sum subtract Na,O equivalent to chlorine.
2°760 + 0°003 =2°763-0 = 2.763.
Add this value to soluble silica and subtract the value obtained from main
portion insoluble in nitric acid
2°763° + 10°267 — 137030
and 76°514 — 13°030 = 63°484.
The value 68-84 percent is reported as ‘insoluble in nitric acid’
and evidently represents all the constituents, except sodium and
potassium, insoluble in nitric acid that have not been determined.
The value represents chiefly sand mixed with slight traces of mine-
rals undecomposed by nitric acid.
D. Analysis of Water soluble Substances present in the Salt-
lick or Earth.
1. LHstimation of Water soluble Organic and total Inorganic
Matter.
100 grams of the soil (not fine earth) are weighed out in a
500 ee. conical flask, and 250 ec. of water are added. ‘The flask
is stoppered, shaken thoroughly and allowed to stand for 24 hours.
After 24 hours the mixture is filtered. 50 cc. of the filtrate are
evaporated, the residue is dried to constant weight at 100°C in
a steam oven. The residue is ignited at a low red heat to drive off
organic matter, cooled and weighed for total inorganic solids.
Results : <
Weight of soil used = 104°4350 grams.
After extraction with 250 cc. of water, 50 cc. of the filtrate gave the
following results:
Weight of dish + residue 60°2208 grams.
| Il
Weight of dish 604i =...
Weight of dish + inorganic
matter in the residue = 60°1988 grams.
. Weight of organic matter = §0°2208 — 60°1988 =0°9220 grams,
oe weight of inorganic matter = 60:1988—60°1411—0°0577 _,,
Hence percentage of total water- soluble organic matter
100
= 0°0220 x $ X ioa-ad —0°105,
and percentage of total water-soluble inorganic matter
100
= 0°0577 x5 X Toga FAS 2763
=0°276.
2. Estimation of Colloidal Silica and Inorganic Matter (other
than alkali chloride, alkali carbonate and gypsum).
The residue, remaining in the dish after removing organic
matter, is extracted with small quantities (10 cc.) of hot water.
The filtrate allowed to cool and made up to-100 ec. The insoluble
residue, on the filter paper, is dried, ignited in a crucible and
weighed for silica and inorganic matter.
EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 377
Results :-—
Weight of crucible + residue + ash = 26°8892 grams,
Weight of crucible 26°8228 .,,
Weight of ash : == 0°0094 _ ,,
20/0022 15,
. Weight of residue = 9°0570 ,,
Hence percentage of colloidal silica and other inorganic matter
100
3. Hstimation of Water soluble Alkali Carbonate.
25 ec. of the filtrate obtained in (2) are titrated against 0-1 N
hydrochloric acid using methyl orange as an indicator. From the
titre reading the result is calculated and reported as percentage of
sodium carbonate.
4. Hstimation of Water soluble Alkali Chloride.
25 cc. of the filtrate obtained in (2) are titrated against 0-1 N
silver nitrate using 5 drops of 1 per cent potassium chromate as
an indicator or 25 ce. of the filtrate are acidified with dilute nitric
acid (1 part HNO, sp. gr. 1-42+4 parts water) and chlorine is
precipitated and weighed as silver chloride. The result is report-
ed as percentage of NaCl.
Results :
Weight of Gooch crucible + AgCl
Weight of Gooch crucible
.. Weight of AgCl
l gram AgCl
13°4638 grams.
13°4634°,,
0°0004 gram.
0°4078 gram NaCl.
10
Hence percentage of NaCl = (0°0004 x 4) « 5 x 0°4078 x Tae =0°0031,
to Wl
5. Hstimation of Gypsum.
The gypsum content is calculated by difference as follows:—
Total water-soluble inorganic matter = 0°2763 per cent.
The sum of percentages of colloidal silica etc., alkali carbonate, and alkali
chloride is :
0° 2728+ 0+ 0°0031 = 0°2759.
Hence percentage of gypsum = 0:2763 — 0°2759
= 0°0004.
i.e. Zypsum is present in traces.
The results are reported as above under Analysis XXXIX.
(To be continued).
REVIEWS.
I. THE BIRDS OF NIPPON, Vol. I, Part 5. By Princr Taxa-Tsuxasa.
H. F. & G. Witherby, London.
There are at present available to English readers only two books on the
Birds of Japan, the earlier by Temminck and Schlegel (1845-1850) and the
latter by Seebohm (1890) and both these are out of print and difficult to
procure. A more recent work by Dr. Uchida was unfortunately for the cause
of international science written in Japanese and has not been available , to
western ornithologists.
There is every reason, therefore, to welcome the appearance of a beautifully
produced book in English on the birds of Japan by Prince Taka-Tsukasa, the
president of the Ornithological Society of Japan. This work will be completed
in five volumes. It will deal with bird-life in all the Japanese possessions
from Sakhalin and the Kurile Islands in the north down to Formosa and the
Loo-Choo Islands in the isouth, from Korea in the west to the Bonin Islands
in the east, and in addition the various groups of Japanese mandatory islands.
Its scope is therefore defined in tha political rather than in the strictly zoo-
geographical sense. Every species in this Japanese Empire is to be figured
in colour together with the eggs and chicks of all breeding species. Distri-
butional maps and phtogravure plates of nests and types of country will further
embellish a text which is to be on the most complete scale.
We have hitherto received the first four parts which deal with the intro-
duction, physiography and the history of Japanese ornithology in addition to
instalments of the main text. This starts with the order Galli and so far treats
of the Megapode, various pheasants and the Japanese Quail, the last of these
being the only species included in the Indian list. The account of each species
is very complete. It starts with the transcription in full of the original descrip-
tion with which the scientific name was published, a useful feature too long
for inclusion in ordinary books. It continues with a synonymy and list of
principal references, the principal vernacular names in different languages, and
the usual descriptions of plumage and measurements. The distribution, the
nidification and a long account of habits follow and the account ends with
various notes including the history of the species in captivity.
In these accounts we must be grateful to Prince Taka-Tsukasa for his
industry in collecting a wealth of information both from published and un-
published sources. But unfortunately this material has not always been handled
with sufficient discretion. Its very wealth defeats its own object for the sections
often become long and straggling and hard to comprehend. A little compres-
sion, some omissions of redundant material and more clearness of summary
would all have been to the good.
The preliminary discussion of the limits of the genus Syrmaticus, for
instance, occupies eighteen pages before the author approaches the account of
the pheasants inclnded in it. Tt is difficult to follow. The train of thought is
far from consecutive and at the end the reader is left with the impression
that these eighteen pages should have been treated as the preliminary notes
from which the author wrote his final account and decision.
There are other points to which criticism might be directed but these may
be well disregarded in appreciation of the fact that Prince Taka-Tsukasa is
giving ornithologists a most beautiful book. The cost of production will be
very heavy and the author cannot expect to see any return from his expenditure
as the edition is limited to 250 copies.
Ee We
II. NATURAL HISTORY OF CENTRAL ASIA, vol. x. ‘THE REPTILES
OF CHINA’. By Crirrorp H. Popr. Pp. xlvii+604, 77 text-figures, 27 plates
and 1 map. The American Museum of Natural History, New York, May 11,
1935. Price $ 10.
From over one hundred papers that have appeared on different groups of
animals, zoologists are already familiar with the wealth of material obtained
REVIEWS 379
and the valuable biological and ecological data collected by the members of ‘The
Central Asiatic Expeditions’ of the American Museum of Natural History. The
Expedition explored the natural history of Mongolia and China in the years
1921-1930. Field work was conducted in Mongolia during the summers and in
China during the winter months.
The final reports of the Expedition embrace a series of 12 quarto volumes.
Of these the volumes dealing with ‘The New Conquest of Central Asia’ (vol. i),
‘The Geology of Mongolia’ (vol. ii) and ‘The Permean of Mongolia’ (vol. iv)
appeared some years ago, while the tenth volume of the series reviewed here
has appeared only recently.
The Reptiles of China (Turtles, Crocodilians, Snakes, Lizards) are treated in
five parts in the work under review. Part I comprising the general introduc-
tion deals with the collecting of the material in different Provinces and the
methods followed in describing the species. The second part, which deals with
the systematic account of the species and subspecies of Chelonians, Crocodilians
and Snakes, is very comprehensive. It includes the synonymy, description, dis-
tribution, habits, habitats and the material examined of each species. Remarks
are also made, wherever possible, on details not included in the above descrip-
tive headings. In the third part a resumé of the natural history of Chinese
snakes is given and attention is directed to their ecology, sexual characters and
maxillary teeth. Lists of species and subspecies of snakes by Provinces is also
included in this part. Part IV deals with lizards and includes an annotated
check list of the species in which information is recorded as to the _ type-
locality, distribution and material examined of each species. The final part
comprises appendices, such as maps, list of localties, bibliography, index, etc.
The special feature of this work lies in the fact that the author himself
worked in the field so that he imparts to his readers a first-hand knowledge
of the natural history of the animals with which he deals. The work is of
a monographic nature, as it presents a systematic study not only of the reptiles
collected by the author himself but also of the Chinese reptiles in the larger
museums throughout the world. Pope’s excellent monograph is absolutely in-
dispensable to the students of Chinese and Oriental herpetology. The treatment
of the subject is admirable, the figures are neat and clear, and the get-up
is all that could be desired. Mr. Pope deserves to be congratulated on the
production of such a magnificent piece of work. He has indeed laid all herpeto-
logists under a deep debt of gratitude.
SS) allel
TIl. AUF STILLEN PFADEN (GUJA). By WALTER VoN SANDEN. — 9f in.
x 64 in. 123 pp., 104 photos in the text. Grafe und Unzer Verlag, Koenigs-
burg (Prussia), 1935. Price RM. 4.80.
This book describes a cycle of the seasons as expressed in the natural history
—principally bird-life—of a lake (Guja) in East Prussia. This is perhaps its
chief interest to us in India. For though somewhat parochial in its scope it
affords an example of what may be achieved in the way of pleasantly written
and well-illustrated popular natural history books dealing with sections of our
own country. It is the author’s second book on the self-same locality and he
rightly observes that it is not necessary to travel to distant lands in search of
Nature; that a small portion of one‘s own homeland may easily provide oppor-
tunities and subjects for lifelong study and that although countries and en-
vironments may vary and Nature also appear in different garbs, yet the
underlying truths of Nature are everywhere and always the same.
The author deals in a pleasant, but unfortunately sometimes rather too
superficial, way with the lives and nesting habits of the Marsh Harrier (a winter
visitor to India), the Bittern, the Coot and various other birds and mammals in-
habiting the lake and its vicinity. Marsh Harriers are said to be very de-
structive to the eggs and young of other birds. Eggs of bitterns and young of
black-throated divers and coots are amongst the worst sufferers at their hands.
A brood of six young magpies was lifted by them, whilst two young harriers
which died in the nest are also suspected to have been devoured by the family.
A full clutch consists of 4 or 5 eggs—rarely 6. Incubation is done solely by
the female. The nest in time becomes a filthy accumulation of excrements
380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
of the young and the remains of food brought in by the parents. The young
leave the nest about two months after hatching.
Coots, says the author, are unloved and persecuted by hunters due to in-
sufficient knowledge of their life-history. They are falsely stigmatised as being
quarrelsome and thereby as driving away ducks from waters inhabited by them-
selves. As a matter of fact what really conduces to the diminution in the
numbers of duck is the coot-hunts organised in their protection which result in
frightening away all breeding birds from the lake. The best and most effective
way of controlling coots would be to remove their eggs unostentatiously thus
leaving the duck and other birds undisturbed.
The Bittern is said to ‘boom’ five times in succession, seldom more, when
at the height of his courtship display. From his experience the author concludes
that the Bittern is polygamous and that the male does not assist in the con-
struction of the nest or in the incubation of the eggs. He thinks that many of
the nests robbed by terrestrial animals such as foxes and weasels are located
by them through following the footprints of human beings who have visited the
nests before.
Crabs are said to be very sedentary and long lived. The author. recognised
one particular individual which he captured on the same spot thrice in two
years.
One or two addled eggs are frequently found left behind in swans’ nests
which are so charged with foul gases as to explode like a hand-grenade on
the slightest attempt to blow them!
A strong plea is made for the camera over the gun in the pursuit of nature
study, but the author admits that he could never have secured the best of his
photographs without the experience and cunning previously acquired as a hunter.
Some of his photos, especially those of the nesting harriers and bitterns, are
very good and the general format of the book is pleasing. We think it a pity
that scientific names should have been so rigidly avoided throughout and only
the German ones given; those unfamiliar with the latter are apt to be left in
some doubt as to the exact species under reference. j
Dia Aee ne
IV. A FLOWER BOOK FOR THE POCKET. By Macarecor SKENE;
380 pp.; 501 illustrations in colour, 28 in black and white; 12. text-figs.
Oxford University Press, London: Humphrey Milford (1935). Price 7s. 6d. net.
Instances are not wanting of protests made by, authors against uncalled for
criticism on the plea of an erroneous view of the end and aim they had set
before them. In the present case such a misrepresentation is not likely to
occur for in a prefatory note entitled How to use this book Professor Macgregor
Skene clearly states for whom the book is meant, and what service it will
likely render them.
It is a book for beginners, and it opens with an explanation of the time-
honoured classification of plants according to species, genera, and families,
and with a useful survey of botanical terms and characters. This is followed
by keys to all the British families (pp. 18-26), and all the important British
genera (pp. 27-95). Then come descriptions of 844 species of British Wild
Flowers according to families (pp. 98-866), and the book closes with a long
list of names arranged alphabetically by way of index.
The book is excellent in every respect.
On account of its very excellence it is to be regretted that the author
should have come to grief over a matter of minor importance; one, in fact,
which might have been omitted without appreciably detracting from the value
of the book. The transliteration of Greek names is uncertain—e.g., ipsilon
appears as 1, u, y—, and their derivation faulty—v.g., the t in ANTIRRHINUM
is not thita but taf. S
Ja Ce
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
I.—THE LION IN BALUCHISTAN.
For many years it has been feared that the last of the Asiatic
lions are those preserved in the Gir Forest. But in the Meld,
June 8, 1935, p. 1421, there is a record of one being recently
observed near the Bolan Pass, south of Quetta in Baluchistan.
The animal was seen at close quarters from a train by Admiral
Philip Dumas, his wife and another lady. Since no other animal
occurs in the country that could be mistaken for a lion, there is no
reason to doubt the authenticity of the record. Admiral Dumas’s
letter was submitted to me for my opinion and published on my
recommendation. The footnote to it, signed by the editor, em-
bodies my reasons for believing there can be no doubt about the
truth of the fact recorded, which will interest all Indian sportsmen
and naturalists and is worth recording in a journal of higher stand-
ing than the paper in which it first appeared.
ZOOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE
British Museum (Nat. Hist.), Rwl, POCOCK,. ¥:R:s.
Lonpon.
June 12, 1985.
[We print below Admiral Dumas’s letter to the Field dated
8th June 1985 and a summary of the correspondence which
appeared in the London Times.
‘“‘Sir,—It may interest many of your readers to hear that on
February 19 last, while travelling by train from Hyderabad to
Quetta, and shortly after passing Sibi, in the Bolan Pass, I, my
wife, and a Miss Mayo, who was travelling with us, all clearly
saw a maneless hon.
When first seen it was lying on the ground eating a goat, and
was at about 25 yards’ distance. It then arose, and, with the
goat in its mouth, darted back about 10 yards, when it stood
sideways on with head erect and the goat still in its mouth.
It was a large lion, very stocky, light tawny in colour, and,
I may say, that no one of us three had the slightest doubt of
what we had seen until, on our arrival at Quetta, many officers
expressed doubts as to its identity, or to the possibility of there
being a lion in the district.
Personally, I am convinced that we saw a lon.
Yours faithfully,
Betchworth, Surrey. Puitiep Dumas,
Admiral.
(Lions were not uncommon both in Persia and Baluchistan in
comparatively recent times. It is not impossible that a few sur-
vivors may still exist and though they are stated to be extinct,
there is no definite proof of this. There being no tigers in Balu-
ehistan a tiger cannot have béen mistaken for a lon, and ifthe
382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
animal proves to be an Asiatic lion it will be a matter of very
great interest.—Eps., Field).’’
A similar letter, written to the London Times by Admiral
Dumas, was the subject of considerable comment. A number of
correspondents, some with first-hand knowledge of conditions in
the area cast doubts on the likelihood of lions being found in
the vicinity of the Bolan Pass, firstly because the terrain is wholly
unsuitable and would provide nothing on which lions could habit-
ually live because of the great scarcity of animal life in this
inhospitable region. Again it is suggested by 2 or 8 correspondents
that the animal seen by the Admiral was probably a panther. It
is within the experience of those accustomed to seeing larger
carnivores in the wild state that colour and pattern may be decep-
tive and that even the spotted coat of a panther may under certain
conditions of light take on a uniformly drab appearance. Curiously
enough a lon reported some years ago to have been killed on
the Baluchistan border in the Bombay Times on investigation by
the Society turned out to be a panther. Lions have not been
seen or heard of in Baluchistan and there is no authenticated
record of their occurrence in the province. It seems extraordinary
that Admiral Dumas’s record should be the isolated instance of
their occurrence during the many years of British occupation and
in spite of the fact that the Bolan area is continuously travelled
over, resided in or visited by Railwaynien and others. The top
of the Pass is only 25 miles from Quetta and there is a good road
connection.
As regards the lion in Persia—Ronald Sinclair in a letter to
the Field (veprinted in vol. xxxv, p. 671 of the Society’s Journal)
states that he was told by an Englishman that a party of Ameri-
can engineers concerned with Railway construction in the wild
and mountainous region around Dizful in South-West Persia, came
upon a full grown pair of lions; being unarmed they were com-
pelled to beat a hasty retreat. This was in 1929. Edward Thomas
in commenting upon Admiral Dumas’s letter states that a lion
cub was brought to an Arab village near Sanniyat, Mesopotamia,
in 1916. In the same year he was told that a lion was shot in
the Wadi Marshes towards the Pusht-i-kuh Mountains. He also
refers to a letter published in the Times giving an account of a
hon seen near Ahwaz in 1917. All these records relate to the
Provinces of Luristan and Khuzistan on the Mesopotamia border
in South-West Persia.—Eps. ].
II.—A PAIR OF INDIAN LIONS PRESENTED TO THE
BRITISH MUSEUM BY H. H. THE NAWAB OF JUNAGADH.
In a foot note to my paper ‘The Lions of Asia’ (Journ., Bomb.
Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxiv, pp. 638-65, 1980) the editors of this Journal
announced that H. H. the Nawab of Junagadh was kindly arrang-
ing to shoot two Gir Forest lions for the National Collection, which,
as I had announced, possessed at that time no specimen, complete
with skin and skull, of this interesting beast. In 1934 a splendid
adult pair was received from His Highness, to whom the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 383
trustees of the British Museum are greatly indebted for the gener-
ous gift, supplying a long-felt want. Since no report upon these
specimens has yet been published and since every item connected
with this vanishing race should be recorded, I take this oppor-
tunity of describing the skins and skulls as a supplementary note
to my paper quoted above.
The hon carries a small mane of about the same size as in
Capt. Smee’s original example of this race, the hairs on the crest
being about 2 in.; on the side of the neck 8 in., and lower down
towards the fore leg up to 6 in. The fringe on the cheek and
about the ears is rich ochreous; there is a good deal of black and
grey in the crest on the fore-nape and a mixture of black, grey
and tan extends across the front of the shoulder to the breast.
The general colour of the body is dull tawny, not reddish or black-
ish tawny as in some Indian lions, the hairs being buff or greyish
buff with darkened tips; the back is darker than the flanks, the
lower flanks being clear buff, passing into creamy buff on the belly
and inside the limbs; the forelimb is paler and greyer than the
body, with a quantity of black hair between the digits and around
the pads; the elbow-tuft, as in most Indian lions, is better deve-
loped in proportion to the size of the mane than in African lions,
consisting of a whorl of black and grey hairs about 24 in. long,
but there is no belly-fringe; the hind leg below the back and the
paw are better tinted, more buffy than the fore leg; the tail above
is grey, blackish-grey towards the end, and the tuft is small, its
hairs less than 2% in. long.
The lioness is decidedly better coloured than the lon, the indi-
vidual hairs being richer buff and their black tips noticeably more
pronounced; the Howie leg is much more richly tinted and resembles
the hind leg and the hairs of the belly are longer, with long white
tips. These two skins supply further evidence of individual vari-
ation in the Indian lion. I am unfortunately unable to compare
them with the skins kindly lent to me in 1980 by the Field Museum,
Chicago, and by the Bombay Natural History Society; but from
my description of those skins they seem to be decidedly tawnier
and less grey than the skin of the Chicago specimen shot by the
late Col. Faunthorpe and to resemble most closely the skin of
the young lion presented to the Bombay Society by the Maharajah
Kumar Sahib of Kotah. From Capt. Smee’s skin they differ in
having the coat much shorter and sleeker, although shot in Febru-
ary, and the colour noticeably greyer tawny instead of rufous
tawny.
The measurements of the two dressed skins are as follows :—
¢ Head and body, 6 ft. 4 in.; tail, 2 ft. 8 in.; total 9 ft.
Q Head and body, 5 ft. 10 in.; tail, 2 ft. 7 in.; total 8 ft. 5 in.
These dimensions agree tolerably closely with those of the skins
entered in the table on page 656 of my paper.
The skulls, both fully adult, are perfectly typical of the Indian
race, except that in the ¢ the auditory bullae are slightly more
inflated, although, as in those previously described, flatter than
in average skulls of African hons. They have the high sagittal crest
running into two exceptionally thick ridges on the frontal bones;
384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
and since the publication of my previous paper I have been able
to establish an additional characteristic of the skull of this lion,
namely the shortness of the waist, the distance between the post-
orbital processes and the suture between the frontal and parietal
bones is less than in skulls of African lions which, in this parti-
cular, are more hke the skulls of tigers. In the ¢ skull the intra-
orbital foramen is duplicated on the right side only as in the two
3 skulls sent by H. H. the late Maharajah Jam Sahib of Nawa-
nagar to Rowland Ward; but in the 9 skull the duplication occurs
on both sides as in some other skulls.
The following table gives the measurements of the two skulls
received from H. H. the Nawab of Junagadh together with those
of the specimens sent by H. H. the late Maharajah Jam Sahib
of Nawanagar, of which some of the dimensions were erroneously
entered on page 664 of my previous paper. The skulls are
measured in English inches, the teeth in millimetres.
)
aes ci
eo ome
Ao zx
om Zoo
= 4
Nawanagar ...... Po are ilhaea eo Su aliges 2) 20 ulemroint’ Walia 428 alent ybeteitofalp ale acl. rav/ea gel Ih 5745)
Sey ad. f| 13:1 | 11:8 | 9:1 | 2:2 | 2:8] 37 | 9:1] 35x17] 24
Junagadh ...... ads of) IS |) WSs) 8S | 271-1258.) 36s!) 9204) S6re Sais a25
5 awelce ad. 25) 11°9 fh 407a 8203). 2°03) 4275s) 2325 eS also deaL 22,
The incidence of the duplication of the intraorbital orifice in
the skulls of the Indian lions in which it has been recorded is
sufficiently interesting to recapitulate—
Orifice divided on both sides in 1 6, 2 9, 2 unsexed skulls.
Orifice divided on right side only in 4 ¢ skulls.
Orifice divided on left side only in 2 Q skulls.
Orifice undivided on both sides in 1 ¢, 1 @ skulls.
Thus in 18 skulls, 11 have the orifice divided on one or both
sides; 2 only resemble African lions in having it undivided; but
the data are not enough to justify the conclusion that, when the
orifice is divided on one side only, the tendency is for the modi-
fication to affect the right side in ¢ skulls and the left side in
Q skulls.
ZOOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE
British Museum (Nat. Htst.), Ril POCOCK Ar rs,
Lonvon.
June 12; -1935.
III.—A SHORT-TAILED TIGER.
(With a photo).
The Minor Chief of Udaipur State, E.S.A., shot with me yester-
day a tigress measuring about 9 ft. in length. It had a very short
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 385
tail. On examination it was found that the tail might have been
damaged during its infancy. The tigress was an old beast. It
valle
A ‘close up’ of the tiger showing the short tail.
resembled greatly the tailless tiger shot by Mr. R. C. Morris, F.z.s.,
on Ist May 1984, a photo of which appeared in the Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society, vol. xxxvii, No. 3, of 15th De-
cember 1984,
AMBIKAPUR,
SuRGUJA STATE. MAHARAJA OF SURGUJA.
April 27, 1935.
[In a subsequent letter the Maharaja states that he is of the
opinion that the shortness of the tail resulted from an old injury.—
Eps. ].
IV.—A CASE OF TIGER EATING SALT-LICK EARTH.
While Mr. C. McCann and I were collecting for the Vernay-
Hopwood Chindwin Expedition in the evergreen forests at the
eastern foot of the Naga hills in Upper Burma we came on a case
of a large tiger frequenting a salt-liek and eating the earth, its
droppings being full of it.
I think instances have been recorded of salt-lick earth being
eaten by pregnant tigresses, but this was obviously a large male.
386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS7T. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIii
There were very few tracks of game, which was possibly due to
the fact that the tiger had been practically living at the salt-lick
for some time, in fact the Kachins putting up a machan came on
his fresh form.
HONNAMETTI ESTATE,
ATTIKAN P.O., via Mysore,
S. Inp1a. R. C. MORRIS.
April 20, 1935.
V.—TIGER FEEDING ON A LIVE Cow.
In regard to Col..R. W. Burton’s note in vol. xxxvii, No. 4,
about a tiger feeding on a cow while yet alive, a case of this nature
occurred at Bailur in the Kollegal Division of the Coimbatore
District some years ago, a bait having been felled and _ partially
eaten, by a full grown tiger, while yet alive.
HonnaMETTI Estate,
ATTIKAN P.O., via Mysore,
S. Inp1ia. R. C. MORRIS.
July 12, 1985.
VI.—DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUNTING LEOPARD
(ACINONYX JUBATUS ERXL.) IN SOUTH INDIA.
In Part III of ‘The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire’
(Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxvii, No. 4), dated 15th April
1935, it is mentioned that the Cheetah or Hunting Leopard is
not known to have occurred in South India. This however is in-
correct. The Cheetah or Hunting Leopard has been found in
Mysore, and the late Mr. C. EK. M. Russell shot a male measuring
54 ft. in length in August 1882 in the Berrambadi Forest of the
Mysore District. Mr. Russell was then Deputy Conservator of
Forests in the Mysore Service. The. animal he saw was one of a
eroup of five he came upon. This incident is recorded in Mr.
Russell’s book Bullet and Shot in Indian Forest Plain and Hill.
Col. Pollock in his book Sporting Days in Southern India also
records the occurrence of the Hunting Leopard in South India,
and, I think, I am correct in saying that my father, the late Mr.
R. H. Morris, saw one near Attikalpur in the Chamarajnagar State
Forest, Mysore District; this must have been sometime between
1890 and 1895,
Further, although Sanderson never saw a Cheetah himself, he
records having seen two skins of the species which were shot by
native shikaris.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 387
Though this species was certainly unknown in Southern India
Jerdon is quite correct in defining its distribution as ‘throughout
Central and part of Southern India,
HonnaMEtTt1I Estate,
ATTIKAN P.O., via Mysore,
S. Inp1a. R. C. -MORRIS.
July 8, 1935.
VII.—A FIGHT BETWEEN A CAT AND A; VIPER.
A fortnight ago when I was putting up in a thatched building
in a village. near ” Palghat I witnessed the following incident which
I hope will be of some interest to readers.
The night was pitch dark. It was about 11 o’clock and I and
my friend had just gone to bed when something heavy fell from
the roof near my cot. IT was startled and at once got up and lit
a candle. I saw a cat and to my surprise a large Russell’s Viper
(Vipera russelli) which was hissing at it. Both my friend and
myself drew back and watched. A regular fight was going on
between the cat and the snake on. the very spot where they fell
down, neither yielding an inch from its position. Whenever the
snake struck at its opponent, the cat spread its claws and struck
at the Viper’s head right and left. For half an hour the contest
continued and all the time the cat fought so fiercely and struck
blow after blow so quickly that the reptile had no chance of
biting the cat. By this time, blood was jetting out from the
snake’s snout, its eye-balls were torn out and at last it fell uncon-
scious. In a short time it lay motionless and dead.
The cat never used its teeth in killing the snake nor did it
eat it.
The next morning when we spoke of the strange incident to
some of our local friends they told us that such quarrels between
cats and snakes are common in these parts and that the cats
never eat the snakes but only kill them. They account for such
quarrels thus: the cat goes in search of rats. The snake also
visits the houses in search of rats. Occasionally the cat meets
with a snake. The cat either mistaking the other for a rat or
thinking that it is a new kind of food jumps at the stranger and
the fight begins.
Man. T. V. SUBRAHMANYAM.
April 25, 1935. ;
[In vol. xxxiv, p. 256, we published a note on a fight between
a cat and a cobra. The cat avoided the thrusts of the snake
and struck in return before the snake could recover. The next
morning the cobra was found dead with the head and neck torn
to ribbons. Like mungooses, cats escape being bitten in encoun-
ters with snakes because of their extreme agility. Animals as a
388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
rule betray no instinctive dread of snakes—exceptions to the
general rule are perhaps the monkeys and the higher apes. The
suggestion that the cat mistook the snake for a rat is highly
improbable.—LEbs. ].
VIII.—BANDICOOTS ATTACKING A COBRA:
From the ‘Evening News’, Bombay.
One day at about 11-30 p.m. I was talking with the members
of my family when a servant came to me and informed me that
a big cobra was near the kitchen window and that it was sur-
rounded by five bandicoots.
I ran up to see the interesting encounter when to my great
disappointment I found that some fifteen servants had assembled
to watch the fight. One of them had a torch in his hand and
they were making much noise discussing which would win. The
light of the torch and the noise of the servants frightened the
bandicoots who retired first followed by the cobra and I was un-
able to see the fight.
The servants related to me the following version, which is
reliable, as all the servants who witnessed the fight corroborated
what I am about to describe.
My cook, who was sleeping near the kitchen window, was
aroused by a hissing noise outside. It was about 11-80 p.m.,
and full moon and the night was very clear.
The level of the ground is about five feet from the window.
He peeped through the window and saw a big cobra coiled with
its hood erect, surrounded by five bandicoots who were attacking
it one after the other.
The most interesting part of it was that the bandicoots were
attacking the snake alternately; when the cobra was being tackled
by one in front, immediately two of the bandicoots ran at it
from behind. They ran continually forwards and backwards, keep-
ing at a safe distance and were very vigilant in retiring from the
darts of the cobra.
I do not know who would have won the fight. So, any of
your readers, who may have seen such a fight to the finish will
ablige me by informing me through your paper.
BomBay. open Crgtles du Mill Dl:
September 17, 1985.
IX._BEHAVIOUR OF THE WILD DOG (CUON
DUKHUNENSIS SYKES).
There have been many interesting letters to the journal describ-
ing the behaviour of the Red Dog. To what has been said I would
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 3389
like to add something from Burma, where the wild red dog is
fairly common in certain localities. ;
The Shans, and I think the Burmese, believe that the red dog
blinds its victim by squirting its urine into its eyes. This singular
and acrobatic feat sounds ridiculous, but it is always worth. while
investigating native superstitions and beliefs about wild animals,
and so I record it in case anyone would like to test it for -him-
self. It would not be difficult to obtain some urine from a dead
red dog, and put some of it into the eye of a goat, or other animal,
and see whether it had any blinding effect or not. Is the belief
held in India, I wonder ?
I have heard that the red dog blinds its victim by biting out
the eyes. I am satisfied that this is so myself, as the following
-account will show.
I was hunting Tsaine east of the Salween in Karenni, when
about four o’clock in the afternoon, as I was making my way
cautiously up a dry nala bed, I came suddenly on a small party
of red dogs among the boulders of the chaung (stream). There were
“about five or six of them, and they just withdrew a short distance
from out of my way, and waited. I shot one with a .3818 rifle
(solid bullet) through the shoulders, and it came tumbling down
into the river bed. It was not dead, and the Shan hunter with
me put the poor beast out of its agony by hitting it on the head
with a big stone. Though in pain and anguish, the wild dog made
no sound, nor did it attempt to bite the man.
To my surprise the other dogs did not clear off but waited in
the vicinity without showing any fear. From time to time, I
saw them moving slowly about among the bamboos. Then I
noticed the reason for their presence there. They had just killed
a large wild sow. The carcase was lying on its side in the chaung
bed. It was still warm, and the only damage to it appeared to
be that the belly had been ripped open and a few mouthfuls of
meat eaten. i ae ar
There wére no jungle crows, kites, ete., about. One notices
carefully the presence of such birds when big-gatye hunting.
I was surprised to notice on examining the pig that the eye
on the top side was missing. Knowing the belief held by the
natives that wild dogs bite out the eyes of their quarry, I turned
the body of the pig over to see if the eye on the other side, in
contact with the ground, was missing. It was. Both eyes had
been cleanly whipped out. The eyelids had not even been torn.
There were no other wounds on the head. We took most of the
meat, but according to custom left some for the killers and con-
tinued on our way. | |
The Shans have a firm belief that the Porcupine is herma-
phrodite. I shot one to see if there was any reason for this
astounding belief. There was—most certainly. I could not tell
the sex of the one I had shot from an examination of the external
genital organs. It appeared to be hermaphrodite! !
On careful dissection at home I found that the ‘penis’ had
no duct, but that the female organ into which it fitted admirably
was normal, and led to the ovaries. I recommend anyone who
11
390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
is curjous about this to dissect the genial of a poreupme for him-
self!
Tauneevl, - ees ica)
S. SHAN STATEs,
May 15, 1985.
[As regards the supposed. ‘hermaphroditism’ in the Porcupine
the belief probably arises from the fact that in porcupines, as in
many rodents, the external genitals are not always in marked
evidence. The penis of the porcupine (Hystrix) is habitually
retracted out of view. It is bent backwards so that the prepuce
forms a swelling a little beneath the anus. The testes undergo
a periodical increase of size and change of position passing from
the abdomen into a sessile: scrotum and being retracted after the
rut. The vasa deferentia or ducts which convey the seminal
fluid take the form of fine tubes which might easily be overlooked
by those unaccustomed to dissection.
That Wild Dogs sprinkle the bushes through which they drive
animals with urine or jerk the urine into the victim's eyes with
their tails and so blind them is a belief which is prevalent in
many parts of India. In Burma they are supposed to destroy
tigers and even elephants by this strategem. Hodgson and: other
naturalists have mentioned it in their writings, but as Blanford
indicates, with the exception of Hodgson no one gives any credence
to the story.
Blanford speaks of a similar belief in Europe in oeneetan
with wolves, though the strategy varies in this that the wolves dip
their tails or their bodies in water and either shake themselves
before a yietim or work the water in its eyes and, before it can
clear its vision, they take it in a combined rush. There is some-
times an underlying substratum of truth in legendary beliefs about
animals, but it is” quite Teh oiielis to indicate the basis of the
IN Bs —Eps. qe
we oe 3 S . * iets : i e = ns 4 wt aah oie Bc a D 4
X.—RATELS AND CORPSES.
In Miscellaneous Note viii, at pages 952-3 of the Journal, vol.
xxxvli, Mr. F. W. Champion invites readers to send in observations
xoncerning ratels. In regard to the exhuming of corpses by this
animal I am able to contribute the following:
In the year 1917, while in charge of a sub-division of the
Central Provinces Government Railw ay Police, the body of an un-
identified man was found on the railway track near Gondia. The
local Sub-Inspector of Police and members of the inquest were of
opinion that the deceased had been killed by a passing train. In
accordance with custom the poe was made over to sweepers for
burial.
_ Some days later anonymous letters were pace a stating the
identity of the dead man, and that he had been murdered. After
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES “+ B91
certain verifications it was decided to have the body exhumed for
medical examination. The writer; accompanied by an Indian
magistrate, had the unsavoury duty of supervising proceedings.
Enquiry showed that the burial had taken place in an area used
for the interment of low-caste Hindus. This place was some
distance from the town, and situated near a thick | grove of trees
on the bank of a deep ‘nala’
After the usual formalities to ensure the exhumation of the
identical body, we arrived at the correct grave to find that it had
already been disturbed. Rags and pieces of the skeleton were
strewn about; there were two or three holes about a foot in dia-
meter tunnelling into the grave; and it was perfectly clear that
these had been made by some animal. The. body had _ been
thoroughly destroyed.
The sweepers, and a local Muhammadan constable who had
accompanied me, said’-Oode Masans had done the exhuming. Not
having heard the name Oode Masan before this, I became inqui-
sitive and questioned several other persons standing around. The
replies I received mystified me all the more, and it was decided,
at the suggestion of the Muhammadan constable, to search the
grove for the mysterious disturber of the dead. .
The search resulted in two full grown ratels, with three half-
grown youngsters, being dislodged from the hollow trunk of a dead
tree. These nescab ee into the undergrowth and were not seen
again.
I have no ances evidence that the ratels were responsible for
this, and other exhumings indicated by the condition of several
graves in the vicinity; but it is well known how negligent the
poorer members of the low-caste Hindu community are in regard
to the burial of their dead, such being frequently unearthed by
hyenas, jackals, and other prowling scavengers. All the natives
present were unanimous that ratels were “the culprits.
The circumstantial evidence in this particular instance supports
what Dunbar Brander has said about. the ratel. I have on several
occasions seen ratels at night in the beam-from the head lights
of a motor car; and on one occasion stopped a car within four ‘feet
of one of these curious little animals whilé he was having a. dust
bath in the middle of the road. This was some miles from
Balaghat.
Tue Loven, | L. E. CLIFFORD HURST,
‘COONOOR. Indian Police.
June -o, 1935.
XI.—SLOTH BEAR (MELURSUS. URSINUS SHAW)
ATTACKING A LIVE BAIT.
IT.am writing to inform you of a somewhat curious happening I
met with a month ago. I generally tie up goats on a platform
about 4 to 5 feet high in order to make no mistake against a: bait
392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
being killed by a hyzna. I was sitting over a bait tied up in this
way when a bear came out and killed the bait on the platform.
The light bemg somewhat poor I could not at first clearly make
out what it was. This happened about 8-380 p.m. and the sky was
cloudy. When the moon came out of the clouds and shone on
the surroundings I was surprised to see a bear on the platform.
I shot the bear then. On examining the kill closely I saw that
the bear had bitten the goat near the nape of the neck. It had
eaten very little, but the whole skin on one side of the goat was
completely torn off with tattered bits left here and there. In Kash-
mir, bears do kill bullocks and calves but a sloth bear acting in
this way seems somewhat curious. The bear killed was a male
measuring 4 ft. 104 in. between uprights.
AMBIKAPUR,
SURGUJA STATE. MAHARAJA OF SURGUJA.
April 25, 1935.
[In the Journal (vol. x, p. 690) there is a note by Reginald
Gilbert who writes of a sloth bear attacking a buffalo tied up as
bait for tiger.—EHps. ].
XII. AGE OF PUBERTY IN THE INDIAN ELEPHANT
(ELEPHAS MAXIMUS L.).
With reference to the note on page 960 of volume xxxvii con-
cerning the time of sexual maturity of the elephant, it may be of
interest to- record the details of the elephant ‘Wa4stl’ born in
captivity at the Miinchener Tier Park on the 8th. May, 1932. The
father, ‘Boy’, was nine years old and the mother ‘Cora’ eight
years old. The elephant was conceived at the end of August 1930
and the period of pregnancy was only 20 months and 7 days; the
accepted time of pregnancy of elephants is between 22 and 24
months. There is reason to suppose that the birth in this case
was premature as the baby could not reach its mother’s teats when
it was first born, and even when he was fed from the mother in
a lying position the milk was unsatisfactory and for the first
twelve days he was fed by bottle. The milk from the mother
was a thin and watery fluid containing only 4 per cent of fat
instead of the normal 22 per cent. The baby at birth weighed
only one hundredweight instead of the usual two hundredweight.
These particulars are taken from the June 1932 number of the
magazine Das Tier und Wir, published monthly by the Munich
Zoo which contains a series of extremely attractive photographs of
the baby and its parents. ee
THE Doon ScHOOL, CHAND Baau,
" Deura Duy. | | Whe Be FOOL
iu? dune--O,. 1935. es
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 393
XITI.—SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF BISON (BIBOS GAURUS
| H. SM.). | 7
Mr. J. William’s note on the Social Behaviour of Bison in vol.
xxxvil, No. 8, is interesting in that it supports my previously
recorded views regarding the mastership over herds during the
breeding season frequently enjoyed by solitary bull bison; in other
words, in my opinion both in the case of bison and elephant many
bulls lead a solitary existence voluntarily and have not necessarily
been turned out by younger bulls. I have observed ‘solitaries’ join
and assume mastership of a herd during the breeding season late
in the afternoon leaving the herd again soon after daylight.
In regard to dewlaps, bison without dewlaps and with varying
degrees of dewlaps are to be found in any district in South India
where bison occur in numbers,
HonnaMETTI Estate,
AtTTIKAN P.O., via Mysore, he ©. MORRIS;
S. Invi.
July 12, 1935.
XIV Tah WHITH BISON (BIB0S GAURUS HF. 5M:) OF
SOUTH COIMBATORE.
(With a photo).
I have read Mr. Dunbar Brander’s note on the above in your
Journal of the 15th July 1985. I do not agree with Mr. Dunbar
Brander that my description ‘sandy or light fawn’ is identical with
‘dormouse coloured’, but this is a matter of opinion. Mr. C. C.
Wilson’s description of the ‘White’ bison of South Coimbatore as
‘very light cream’, is really a more correct definition of their
colour.
Mr. Dunbar Brander claims to have had equal experience of
bison as Mr. Wilson, but this statement is at variance with his
book ‘Wild Animals of Central India’ in which he admits not hav-
ing had much experience of bison. However, it is obviously
futile to continue this argument. Mr. Dunbar Brander has not
seen the South Coimbatore ‘white’ bison, and, therefore cannot
possibly tell how they compare with the bison he claims to have
seen in the Central Provinces.
It would be interesting to learn the area in the C. P. the light
coloured bison are to be found in, if they still occur, or whether
they have been seen lately. It is certainly remarkable that their
existence has never been recorded by previous authors or the
Bombay Natural History Society.
I have not yet been able to take photographs of the South
Coimbatore ‘white’ bison, but I had an opportunity while in Upper
Burma recently of taking photos of similar abnormal colouration
in the case of semi-domestic buffalo on the banks of the Chindwin,
394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
The colour of these ‘white’ buffalo is identical with that of the
‘white’ bison in South Coimbatore, and the enclosed photo will
A herd of semi-domesticated buffalo on the Chindwin River.
show .how they compare with normal coloured buffalo: and. the
comparison is very similar in the case of the bison.
HonnaMETTI Estatr,
ATTIKAN P.O., via Mysore, RR. Cy MORRIS.
S. [yopia.
May 14, 1985.
XV.—LENGTH OF HORNS IN TSINE (BIBOS BANTENG
BIRMANICUS LYD.).
It would please me much, if you could give me some informa-
tion on a few things I wish to know regarding Tine (Bibos
banteng birmanicus).
A few days ago, a friend and I went out after these cee
in the Katha District. The jungle was in perfect condition for
tracking, rain having fallen heavily in those parts. I returned to
our camp empty handed, but heard two reports of my pal’s rifle.
He returned with the news that he came upon a pair of old bulls,
and wounded one rather badly, the other one escaping intact. He
was rather timid to follow the blood trail, as tsine are somewhat
vicious when wounded. I followed up the next morning from
where my friend left off, and tracked it till about 4 p.m. without
catching sight of it. I went after it again next morning, but could
not find fresh tracks, as rain had fallen and obliterated them. I
was rather annoyed, and kept moving about in circles, hoping to
find tracks made after the rain had stopped. I eventually came
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ce 395
on a spot where an animal had rested, and found tracks at the
most about one hour old. I
hung on to them, and was
rewarded by seeing a mas-
sive brute about. twenty
paces away. My .404 rifle
did the rest, and I was quite |
surprised to find that the
animal was not the one
wounded by my pal. There
were only two wounds, and
these were caused by my
rifle. I am _ inelined to
think that after. one animal
had been shot at and left,
the other made off and met
him later. The Burman
who accompanied me agreed
that such was the case, and
that the one I had killed had
abandoned his wounded
companion. A word now
about my animal.
Colour: Almost totally §
dull black with dark brown~ "Sy..4 of a Teine (B
ibos banteng
towards the stomach. But- birmanicus).
tocks dull white, also the
stockings.
Length along curves: — Tip of nose to root of tail 8 ft. 6 in.
Length of tail without hair: 8 ft. 1 in.
Height: 6 ft. 2 in.
Weight: I should say about 850 to 400 viss.' The pelt alone
weighed 385 viss.
Horns: Very poor for such a huge beast. Corrugations very
pronounced.
The measurements taken are as follows:
Left. Right.
Length Cen ee ... 204% in. 20 in.
Girth ee lone 173 ,,
Corrugations ee see. 20) ty. . de OE,
Other measurements are :— ‘
Widest outside See ... 284 in.
Widest inside es ... 23% in.
Sweep (across forehead) ... or 53 in.
Tip to tip xs, wer 21 in.
Colour: Black at corrugations. A sort of biscuit shade in the
middle, black tips.
oes a ee eee | Z
1 1 Viss-about 33 lbs.—Ebs.
396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
-* Can you assign any reasons for such small horns in an old
animal? The country is hilly, grass, fruits, and water plentiful,
and on the whole I do not think more ideal conditions prevail. in
other districts. I have seen better heads on young bulls, and
shall be thankful to have your views on the subject. ES
SAGAING, BuRMA. IDeA] DE LASTIC,
June 18, 19385.
XVI.—HABITS OF- THE HOG DEER (HYELAPHUS
PORCINUS ZIMM.).
I notice that in your recent publication The Wild Animals of
the Indian Empire reprinted from the Society’s Journal, vol.
xxxvil, No. 1, the following remarks are made concerning Hyela-
phus porcinus, the Hog Deer. “Hog Deer are generally solitary
creatures . . . sometimes small parties of 2-5 may be seen grazing
together.” And this in my experience is usually-the case in Assam.
I thought therefore in view of the above that you might be in-
terested to hear of a recent experience of mine in the Kuziranga
Game Sanctuary of this province (Assam). While out on elephants
one morning looking for Rhino, of which we saw thirteen, including
a young one, during the few days spent in the Sanctuary, we came
across a herd of over eighteen Hog Deer feeding together in a
small ‘doloni’ (swamp). They consisted of one fine stag- with a
very good head, several young stags, and the rest hinds, some
with young. They were all feeding together and we were able
to watch them for some time from the elephants. Finally they
moved off into the Ekra jungle surrounding the doloni and. we
slowly made our way through the herd. The whole thing cer-
tainly looked like being a family gathering and not merely a number
of animals that had collected in the same place by chance on
account of the good grazing to be found there. | |
It would be interesting to know whether there are any other
records of such a large number of this species being seen together.
Nowaone,
ASSAM. J. B. ROWNTREE, tr.s.
June 18, 1935,
XVIT.—DISTRIBUTION OF CHITAL (AXIS AXIS ERXL.)
| | IN ASSAM.
In the article The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire, under
the Chital or Spotted deer at page 75, Part II, it is mentioned
that Chital are unknown in Assam.
This is not correct. I have got several herds of them in my
Division, District Goalpara of Assam and I believe it occurs even
further east. I hope you will make enquiry about this from our
Wee . . MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES |. ; | 397:
Conservator of Forests, suailleyalsy who’ has a vast knowledge about
wild lite in Assam. |
‘DEunri AS Gian si sues ‘ Pay DE, 1F.s.
May 10, 1935.
[In reply to our letter, Mr. A. J. W. Milroy, Conservator of
Forests, Assam, wrote as follows :—
‘With reference to your letter dated the 18th May 1935, I
can inform you that the spotted deer is found north of the Brahma- |
putra in small herds apparently isolated from each other in north
Kamrup and Darrang as far east as the Dhansiri river, beyond
which it has not been recorded. Its occurrence south of the
Brahmaputra is unknown.’—Ebs.].
XVITI.—THE STATUS OF THE BROWN SHRIKE [LANIUS
C, CRISTATUS (LINN.)] IN THE 8. 8. STATES, BURMA. |
In the 8. Shan States the Brown Shrike is a fairly common
bird in the winter, and I have noticed odd single birds about as
late as June, which would suggest that a few non-breeding birds
remain in the Shan States throughout the summer.
All the birds I have noticed hitherto were in the sombre pale,
barred plumage, but this year in May, I noticed here some in
full breeding plumage, with the godsubonlely: and heavy black line
through the eye.
This full plumage was unknown to me as TI have never been
in the breeding area of this shrike. It is as unlike the usual cold
weather barred plumage as to suggest another species.
I should be interested to know whether the Society has skins
of this Shrike in the full, clear and unbarred plumage that have
been taken in the cold weather in India and Burma, as I am
inclined to believe that this Shrike has two distinct phases of
plumage—the pale brown, barred plumage, with the brown line
through the eye, in the winter; and the full clear breeding plumage,
not barred, with the black line through the eye, in the summer.
It is most unlikely that all the birds I have seen in the cold
season have been in immature plumage—and not a single one in
full plumage.
As I have never observed any but single birds in the summer
here, I conclude that the brown shrike does not breed in this
part of Burma.
TAUNGGYI. T. RK. LIVESHY.
May 15, 1935.
[It would be useful if Mr. Livesey collected specimens of the
two colour phases to which he refers. As known at present, the
Brown Shrike is not dimorphic, either seasonally or sexually. First
winter birds differ from the adult in having the band through the
eye brown instead of black, but occasionally the brown band is
retained in the adult, The crescentic barring on the lower plumage
398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
is much greater in amount in first winter birds, but also persists
in most adults in a more or less obsolete form.
As far as we are aware, there are no records of this Shrike
tee within Indian limits south of the North Cachar Hills.—
DSA
XIX.—HABITS OF THE BURMESE STONE CHAT
(SAXICOLA CAPRATA BURMANICA STUART BAKER).
~The Burmese Stone Chat is the common little black and white
chat of the uplands of the Shan States, and especially numerous
between 38,000 ft. and 6,000 ft. He is a typically perky little
fellow, with the characteristic short tail of the stone chats. The
cock bird is black with glistening white wing patches, and white
upper and lower tail-coverts. The hen is a quiet little reddish
brown bird with a paler patch on the upper tail-coverts. The
cock when perched may, or may not, show the white wing
patches. That depends on how he chooses to hold his wings.
These white wing patches of his are his conceit, to be shown off
to advantage during his little love-flights round the hen, or during
his display from the top of a twig.
They are cheerful birds that take kindly to the presence of
human beings, for they love the open cultivated lands where they
feed and breed. They are possibly on the increase with the ex-
tending of field lands.
The cock has a pleasant and trilling little song, full of tender-
ness and passion, which he indulges in at intervals all through the
day. He starts before dawn, and I have heard him give a few,
low but enthusiastic notes during the night when there was a
moon. He likes to give his song during a love-flight over the area
he has chosen as his very own for the nesting season. Then he
shoots up into the sky, and then round and round in great wide
dips for such a tiny bird. Short but sweet—
‘And when his song is done at last...
My heart beats just as fast!’
And hers too no doubt.
There are two hill tribes in the Shan Betas among others, to
whom the engaging little ways of this bird are well known. They
regard these little chats that share their cultivation with them
with interest and affection. They know too that they~ are the
commonest fosterers of the cuckoo (Cuculus c. bakeri). These
two tribes are the Taungyo and the Taung-thu. To the former
this chat is known as ‘Paul-ling-nget’, with the accent on the ‘ling’
—and to the latter as ‘Laung-tha’.
In Burma they extend as far south as Karenni, parts of which
are bare and dry country.
It is as a fosterer of the cuckoo that I have been especially
interested in this chat. It is surprising, if one specializes in find-
ing the nests of a given species, how expert one becomes after a
few years. I can now always find the nest of any pair of chats,
when they haye one, J admit that it sometimes needs persistence,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ae , 399
and some. patience with the field glasses, especially if the nest
contains but one or two eggs, or has not yet. been laid in. :
In the Shan States this chat is by far the commonest fosterer
of the cuckoo—I should say at least six times as favoured as any
other species. Although the cuckoo’s eggs adapted to this chat
agree pretty well in general colour and markings, they never show
the delicate greenish blue ground colour of the chat’s eggs. The
cuckoo’s egg is nearly twice the size of the chat’s, but I have
noticed no desertions. They seem to take very kindly to being
imposed upon by the cuckoo, and after much observation, I am
melined to think that, far from resenting the cuckoo’s attentions,
they even seek to attract the cuckoo!
These chats pair off and take up their areas for nesting early
in March. Perhaps they are paired throughout the year, but I
think not. Eggs are laid in March, but April is the main laying
month, and thence on to the break of the monsoon about. the
middle of May. The heavy rains flood out and destroy most of
the nests of those that try to bring up a brood later on.
Having settled on their respective areas after a good deal of
fighting and song contests, the cock birds mount guard over their
estate and can be seen a long way off sitting on some prominent
twig top, or on a bamboo fence or some such point of vantage
from which to ‘see off’ all rivals of the same kind. An ordinary
sized field will hold a single pair of chats but a large field may
have two or more pairs nesting in it. Much depends on the lie
of the land. Out of sight in such cases is often out of mind. The
chat is quite friendly disposed to visiting bulbuls and other birds;
what he cannot tolerate is a raid from another chat. The only
other bird that seems to excite him, and his wife,-is the cuckoo.
They are greatly excited at the visit of a cuckoo. They fly up at
once to meet the cuckoo and sit by it, and flutter round from
time to time. Then very often the hen chat will fly off straight
to her nest, and so give it away, so it seems to me, to the
cuckoo! ... .. And yet it is all very puzzling for on-occasions the
cuckoo will descend on the chat’s nest and eat one of the eggs!
But perhaps they are willing to run the risk of the loss of their
eges for the favour of a wonderfully large baby!
They are exceedingly cunning in secreting their nests; and in
preserving the secret when once the nest has -been made. The
cock -bird mounts his faithful guard and at once gives warning
to -his mate. if anyone is about. As you step into the field the
hen bird sneaks off her eggs, even when they are hard set, and
her dull brown plumage pe low flight over the brown earth
defeats the eye. If she, or he,. have been surprised, then she
may sit tight on her eggs a only fly up at your. feet. - But that
is quite exceptional—a bad blunder! As a rule to find the nest
it is best to retreat to a considerable distance, to the next field,
and watch with field glasses for the hen bird to return to her
nest. .Then the exact spot must be carefully marked.
The favourite nesting site is out in a ploughed field under a
' Ts this to test the state of incubation?
400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
clod of earth, but any broken ground may serve the purpose.
After a bit one gets to know exactly the kind of place where the
nest is likely to be. -Another favourite place is in a stubble field
where there are clods of earth lying about. Other sites are on
open waste lands, and on hill sides and in gardens, but never
within forest. If in light scrub, then always near an open space
in it. Often the nest is placed under a rock, but again nearly
always in the open, or at the foot of a bush or tuft of grass, but
not within the cover, on the outskirts of it. Sometimes they nest
in the hollow of a section of bamboo lying out on open ground,
and I have taken a cuckoo’s egg from such a nest which no
cuckoo could of course possibly get its body into. Under an old
tin too is often a favourite place, and I have found a nest inside
an old kettle. Then banks are freely made use of, and broken
nalas, the nests being placed in some hole in the side of the bank,
Such nests are the most obvious of all. But here again on open
ground, and not in banks along forest paths as chosen by the
Dark Grey Bush Chat. Sometimes the nest may be cleverly
hidden in a deep hole in the ground and only yield to discovery
after a prolonged exploration.
In such narrow little places, under clods of earth and in
crevices, the eggs are often quite out of sight as one peers in, but
the edge of the nest is nearly always to be seen. Those under
clods can only be examined by getting the eye down to ground
level. Rarely is it possible to get an egg out, even with two
fingers, without damaging the nest and causing a fall of earth
into it. In such narrow places the egg of the cuckoo is found,
and how exactly the cuckoo gets it in there still remains a mystery.
IT have often found, I did yesterday, a cuckoo’s egg lying on the
edge of the nest some four inches away from the chat’s eggs.
Whether the chat in such cases has ‘footballed’ the cuckoo’s egg
out, or whether the cuckoo has laid or deposited it there outside,
is a mystery also.
The full clutch of eggs is five; but six are sometimes laid.
Often four only are incubated. They are handsome and well
marked, pale greenish-blue with rusty red spots and markings
which are heaviest at the larger end where they generally form a
cap, or zone. A pale egg is often found in a clutch. The eggs
vary much in size in ‘different clutches. Cuckoo’s eggs never
seem to be so definitely marked as the chat’s; they are distinctly
paler, and, as I have said, never seem to show the greenish
ground colour. Their red markings are lighter in tone than those
of the chat’s eggs.
Pale blue, immaculate eggs laid by cuckoos adapted to the Dark
Grey Bush Chat are frequently found in nests of the Stone Chat.
In such cases the contrast is quite startling, but I have noticed
no desertions on that account. These are probably placed in
Stone Chat’s nests faute de mieur as the Dark Grey Bush Chat
is getting scarcer every year round villages and towns owing to
the ruthless destruction of trees and vegetation that goes on.
When a chat has eggs the cock bird will follow all your move-
ments, while the hen will hide discreetly away until the danger!
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 401
has passed. If they have young ones both cock and hen will be
very agitated and keep up a continual calling of their anxiety as
they wait upon the intruder.
When a brood has been successfully reared, the whole party
keeps together for some time, ten days or more, after which I
suspect the old birds to have a second brood, or an attempt at it
if the monsoon does not intervene.
No one can paint such an accurate and charming picture of
a bird in a short sentence as Mr. Stuart Baker can, and his
description of this chat’s feeding *. . . catching insects on the
ground by making little sallies from some point of vantage’, is
perfect. They never stay more than a few moments on the ground
though, but soon fly up again on to a twig, or grass stem, so as
to be able to look round. This helps one to find the nest, as if
a bird goes to ground for any considerable time it has probably
gone to its nest. |
The cock chat is an admirable little husband and helps to build
the nest, and is given to scratching out nesting cavities on his
own sometimes. He does not, however, ever incubate the eggs
but keeps to his job of mounting guard over the nest sg as to
warn his wife of any danger.
Both sexes carefully tend the young, and bring them food every
few minutes.
I suspect there is a slight up and down migration of this chat,
and that they come up to the high lands to breed and go a bit
lower and explore afield during the cold season. They are to be
seen out in the reeds on the Inle Lake in the cold weather though
not far from the banks.
In conclusion, mention may be made of the other kinds of
birds that nest about the same time as the Stone Chat, and in
somewhat similar places, under clods out in the open fields. These
are the Skylark (? Chinese race, but at lower elevations, 2,000 ft.
to about 3,200 ft.), the Crested Bunting, and the Indian Meadow
Pipit. Cuckoos are parasitic on them all to some extent,
TAuNGGYI, a = : ie |
S. SHAN STATES; = . Cis sense?
BuRMA.
May 1, 1985.
XX.—CUCKOO8 IN THE §. SHAN STATES.
The cuckoos are back, but in the vicinity of Taunggyi
(4,700 ft.) I did not see them till 28th March, which is late.
Usually they are here, and begin to call, about the 15th. I have
heard them as early as the 9th. .
I have never heard of a satisfactory explanation for the appa-
rently hawk-like appearance of the cuckoo. Perhaps it is only
hawk-like to our eyes. It does not seem to frighten birds at all,
though it excites them. Then, if it is really true that the cuckoo
(Cuculus canorus bakeri) mimics the hawk, what hawk does the
little Plaintive Cuckoo mimic? There is no minute sparrow-hawk.
402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
- I think there must be some other explanation. Frequently a
cuckoo will perch on-some lofty bough, the’ top of a bamboo for
instance, and he will be joined by a Stone Chat. The Chat seems
to gaze in rapture at the cuckoo only-a couple of yards off. The
expression on the-Chat’s face-appears to be one of rapture, not
fear: He is very interested. The cuckoo: too stares in- a stupid
fowl-like way. So they sit like this for a eonsiderable: time.
What passes in their minds? 3!
It-is possible that the Chat has been the foster parent of one,
or more, cuckoos in past years. , Bas sight
If the Chat resented the cuckoo, he would not seek to sit by
him. And surely they would refuse to bring up a young cuckoo
when they recognised it as a parasite.
Perhaps the chat regards the suckoo with admiration, and seeks
to attract him.
The male cuckoo, I believe, sits on some prominent bough at
the top of a tree for the same reason that the hen does, to watch
the terrain round about for signs of a chat’s nest. I have seen
a male cuckoo fly down to a chat’s nest that contained eggs, and
then pass on. -He did not do so to eat the eggs, for he did not
disturb them. It would appear that he did so to see if the nest
and eggs were in a suitable condition for the deposit of--the
female cuckoo’s egg. And that he would show her the nest, if
suitable, later on, thereby gaining her favour.
“From signs I have seen here, the cuckoo lays her egg’ very
late in the day, at almost sunset time, which makes observation
very difficult in the failing light. ae
There are many cuckoos here that lay a pale blue, immaculate
ego, which appears to be adapted to the Dark Grey Bush Chat
(that -lays- unmarked---eggs -in- Burma). These eggs are’ most
usually found, as one might expect,-in the ‘nests of that bird; but
as the -Bush Chat has--become scarce now~in the vicinity of
Taunggyi, owing to the general-destruction of trees and bush lands,
these cuckoos-laying the blue,-unmarked: eggs, have to find some
other species to receive them. So it is that these blue eggs are
frequently found now in the nests of the Stone.Chat. Then the
contrast is most marked, though I have not noticed any desertions
on that account. See aoa
I have seen only one cuckoo’s egg that was pale blue. with a
few, sparse red markings on it. This one egg struck me at the
time as being the effort of a hen cuckoo hitherto laying a pale
blue, unmarked egg, adapted to the Bush Chat, now trying to
adapt herself to lay an egg suitable for deposit in the nest of the
much commoner Stone Chat. It is an interesting suggestion.
Surely Desire plays a very important part in evolution, though
it is hardly ever referred to by Biologists. It cannot be measured!
In the human race the Desire of the race brings about the parti-
cular type of beauty of the women (and men) of that race. If
not, how can we explain the persistence of the ‘almond’, Mon-
golian eye in the people that have lived countless ages in hot
tranquil lands, far removed from the windswept heights of central
Asia? It was admired, and so retained, if not further emphasised.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 403
It is interesting to record that a Koél was here, and calling,
for many days this year. It came up as far as my house which
is about three hundred feet higher than Taunggyi. That would
make it about 5,000 ft. above sea level, a height | have not heard
of a Koél attaining to before. It soon left as there was no. house
crows to victimise.
Since writing the above a female cuckoo came and sat on a
small tree 150 yds. in front of my house. She was at once joined
by a cock chat who sat within 4 ft. of her, and above her, for
about ten minutes. The chat was quite happy near the cuckoo,
and ruffling out his plumage from time to time: The cuckoo stared
stupidly. Then the hen chat joined them for a few moments and
then she flew straight to her nest about 20 yards trom the tree.
It is my opinion that the chats deliberately show their nest
to the cuckoo and court the cuckoo’s attention, and wish it to
deposit its egg in their nest.
TAUNGGYI, .
S. SHAN STATES, T. R. LIVESEY.
BurMa. 3 7
May 1, 1935.
XXI.—SPEED OF THE GOLDEN ORIOLE (ORIOLUS
OPE NDOO SVK EIS). 3
Some time back, while motoring, I had an opportunity to
observe the speed of this beautiful bird on wing. The road passed
through a dense jungle of mango trees. <A pair of Golden Orioles
was flying from tree to tree and kept parallel to the road for about
a couple of hundred yards. The speed of the birds was about
25 miles per. hour. ee |
Navo Vas, Dana Piru, le | | me
-XXIIL—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE IBIS-BILE
(IBIDORHYNCHA STRUTHERSII GOULD) IN UPPER
| BURMA.
In a recent issue of the Ibis (April 1935) I recorded having
seen a party of Ibis-bills on the Hpunchanhka, a stream in the
Myitkyina district, about 150 miles north of Myitkyina, in Decem-
ber 1932. I unfortunately failed to obtain one, and so did Capt.
W. M. F. Gamble who saw them in the same place a fortnight
later. The occurrence of this species in Burma appears now to be
beyond doubt by the accompanying skin of an adult bird shot by
Mr. A. K. Thompson, Burma Frontier Service, at La-awn-ga in the
Sumprabum Sub-division in December 1934, out of a flock of
about twenty-five on the big shingle banks in the bed of the N“T'si
or Machi river, which here forms the southern boundary of the
404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Putao subdivision. I have little doubt that this-bird will be prov-
ed to occur annually in winter on the streams in the northern
part of the Myitkyina district, as it does in Assam, at a low alti-
tude, though I searched for them recently without success in late
March at both the above places.
MYyITKYINA. J. Ke STANFORD:
March 21, 1935. Indian Civil Service.
[The bird skin sent is that of the Ibis-bill (Ibidorhyncha stru-
thersi Gould).—Ebps. ].
XXITI.—OCCURRENCE OF THE FLAMINGO (PHOENI-
COPTERUS RUBER ANTIQUORUM TEMM.). IN
NORTH GUJARAT.
On 17th. April, I saw about forty flamingoes flying over the
Chandola Lake, two miles south of this city. The birds were on
the wing for the whole day and went away west as soon as it was
night. This is the first time during recent years that they have
been observed in this area, though I am told they were occasion-
ally found in pre-war days. There are numerous lakes in this
part of Gujerat, which are full of water all the year round; but so
far as I know, flamingoes are not known to visit them. The
nearest haunt of these birds is the Nul Lake, some 40 miles south-
west of Ahmedabad, and I think the birds I saw may be a batch
from that place on the return journey accidentally passing this
place, which may be out of their regular route. They appeared
to be conscious of the strangeness of their surroundings, as in
spite of their attempt to settle somewhere on the banks, they
seemed to be unable to make up their mind. It was a wonderful
sight to see these beautiful birds flying round and round over the
vast expanse of the water, sometimes in a group, sometimes in
single. file. They occasionally came so low that their feet were
actually skimming the surface of the lake.
Navo VAs, Dana PITH,
AHMEDABAD. HN; ACHARYA;
April 21, 1935. PaiZie Sie WE aRe Gy ae
XXIV.—SOME RARE BIRDS IN NORTHERN BURMA.
These notes are from the Myitkyina district of Burma and
confirm scattered observations already made in the Ibis in January
and April 1935.
Crypsirhina cucullata. Hooded Racket-tailed Magpie. —
I recorded having seen a single bird on January 25, 1934, at
Mogaung, where the rainfall is at least 90 in. It is usually con-
sidered to be a dry zone species, and I imagined this bird must
have been a vagrant, On April 24 1985, however, Mr. J, M.
Shapland and myself had a close view of a pair about six miles
from Mogaung at Myothit in the Namti valley. “y
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 405
Further observation is clearly needed as to this bird’s status
outside the dry zone.
Suthora brunnea brunnea. Anderson’s Suthora.
Already recorded in the Ibis from the Myitkyina- Yunnan border
at Kambaiti. In May 1985 it was common from 5,000-7,000 ft.,
usually in pairs, though I saw one family party on May 24th;
they were feeding in reedy grass or bramble bushes on open hill-
sides, and were not at all shy. The chestnut head and vinous-
pink breast of the adults were most conspicuous.
Sitta himalayensis. White-tailed Nuthatch.
IT obtained a single bird and saw a family party at Kambaiti
(6,800 ft.) in late May 1985.
Dryonastes nuchalis. Ogle’s Laughing-Thrush.
This bird seems to be not uncommon from the plains up to
3,000 ft. in the dense growth following cultivation. It occurs
near Myitkyina and on both sides of the Malhka up to Putao.
I have seen it with Garrulax gularis, Garrulax pectoralis and Dryo-
nastes ruficollis. It is a great skulker and hard to get a view
of, but has rich and distinctive notes, and if seen, the black throat,
white cheeks and dark slate-gray head are most distinctive.
Garrulax gularis McClelland’s Laughing-Thrush.
I had one sent me by Mr. C. CC. Fisher from the Putao
subdivision in January 1985 and saw three others at close range on
April 2nd 1985 with Dryonastes nuchalis at La-awn-ga on the
Putao-Sumprabum border, in wild plantains. <A very shy bird.
Fulvetta manipurensis. Manipur Fulvetta.
This bird is only known from Godwin-Austen’s Manipur speci-
mens, and five obtained near Kambaiti in August 1933 and April
1934 (Ibis, January 1935). I shot two more on December 29th
1984 between 7,000 ft. and 8,000 ft. near Lungrebum on the
Myitkyina-Bhamo border, one of which was in sparse cane jungle
on an open hillside, and the other with Alcippe, Zosterops and
Stachyris ruficeps in evergreen tree forest. They look very like
Tits and are smaller than Alcippe, which they closely resemble,
except for the more rufous colour of the back.
The Yawyin name is ‘Shu-di’.
[Iris in one pale pinkish-yellow, in one straw yellow; bill black;
yellow at gape; legs and feet livid brown. |
Lioparus chrysotis forresti. Yunnan Golden-breasted Fulvetta.
I shot a male, which, I think, was breeding, at 7,000 ft. in
cane and damp tree jungle on the Kambaiti Pass road in May 1935.
[t was not at all shy and kept returning to one place, but I could
not find a nest. The only other authentic Burmese records are
from this area.
Delichen urbica subsp.? House Martin.
I obtained three identified as whiteleyi in 19384. On January
19, 19385, I saw seven or eight uwrbica hawking low over bamboo
12
406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
jungle near Hwehka in the Jade Mines but had no gun with me
at the time.
Collocalia fuciphaga subsp.? Himalayan Swittlet.
In three successive years these birds have appeared round
Myitkyina in February and have not been observable at any other
time. All these visitations coincided with local heavy rain and
unsettled weather and probably they were driven down from the
hills. The dates were:
1933. February 10-13.
1934. February 17-26.
19385. February 18-22.
In the 1934 visitation I obtained both brevirostris and pellos,
flighting low over my garden. In late March 1985 I also saw a
number in very cold, rainy weather feeding low over Fort Hertz.
MYITKYINA. J ESS AN HORDE
June 9, 1985. Indian Civil Service.
XXV.—NOTES ON SOME BIRDS OBSERVED BETWEEN
YATUNG AND GYANTSE, TIBET.
Casarca ferruginea. The Ruddy Sheldrake.
These birds were observed in large numbers between Dochen
Lake 14,600 ft. and Gvyantse 18,100 ft. down the rivers. Several
flights of up to 12 birds were seen but most of them were in
pairs, some with broods of from 5 to 8 ducklings. On a Marsh
about 5 miles from Kala 14,200 ft. after a bursting chase of 200 ft.
I was able to catch one youngster out of a family of 5. It was
still covered with down. Except for the pairs with broods these
duck were exceedingly tame, and, mounted, I was able to approach
to within 15 ft. of them without their taking fright. At Kala
in the evening they were all in the fields of young crops.
Mergus merganser orientalis. The Eastern Goosander.
On 15th June after climbing up a hill to about 15,000 ft. from
Tuna I surprised a pair of these birds which had been sitting
amongst some bare rocks. They circled round quite close to me
two or three times giving vent to their peculiar cry and then flew
off rapidly towards a marsh some 400 ft. below. I saw another
single bird 2 days later winging its way rapidly up the Tumbayuneg
River.
Anser indicus. The Bar-headed Goose.
On 16th June near some warm springs about 8 miles north
of Tuna 18 of these birds were congregated on the bank of a large
pool. -I was able to approach to within about 120 ft. of them
before they took fright. They then flew up and cireled round for
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 407
about do minutes before finally retiring in the direction of Dochen
Lake. Being short of meat I fired with my .855 Mannlicher into
the head of the phalanx and by some miracle hit one through
the neck. I saw no sign of any nesting here as they do on
Kthamtso Lake.
Grus nigricollis. The Black-necked Crane.
Two pairs of these beautiful birds were seen. They have a
similar cry to that of the Sarus Crane. I did not have an oppor-
tunity to study them for any length of time. Neither pair
appeared to have any brood, though I was told that one pair had
a nest in Dochen Lake somewhere.
Gypaétus barbatus grandis. The Liammergeyer.
Several of these magnificent vultures were seen cruising around,
one over the Phari Plain about 15,000 ft., another in the gorges
near Samoda, while a third I noticed sitting on the ground in the
Kala Plain. I approached this latter one, mounted, as it seemed
to be engaged in a meal, when I got within 150 ft. it flew off. Its
meal had consisted of the very dried skinny remains of a Tibetan
monk or pilgrim who had evidently died of starvation or exposure
some 6 weeks previously. Except for some parched skin and hair
in one or two places there remained only the skull and skeleton,
not much of a meal even for a kite or hawk far less for a Lam-
mergeyer !
Columba leuconota gradaria. The Tibetan Snow-Pigeon.
Several of these birds flew down on to the track in front of us
from the cliffs between Gautsa and Phari at a height of about
13,600 ft. They were exceedingly tame and seemed to realise that
the presence of some ponies on the track meant fresh food for
themselves. These birds are very pretty to watch in flight.
Columba rupestris turkestanica. The Blue Hill-Pigeon.
Round most of the villages through which we passed between
13,000 ft. and 15,000 ft. these birds were as common as the blue-
rock pigeon round the Indian village. Young corn and = dung
seemed to be their staple diet.
Corvus coronoides intermedius. The Himalayan Jungle Crow.
Two pairs were seen between Gautsa and Phari quite close to
the place where the Tibetan snow-pigeon referred to above were
seen,
Corvus corax tibetanus. The Himalayan Raven.
A pair was observed near the rest house at Phari 14,600 ft.
and another pair near Tuna about the same height. Several
singletons have also been seen along the route beyond. They are
enormous birds and comparatively tame and intelligent looking.
Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax. The Himalayan Red-billed Chough.
These birds have been seen on practically every march since
leaving Yatung. They were breeding at the time and conse-
quently no large flocks were about.
408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIItI
I discovered two nests, one in a loose earth and stone conglo-
merate cliff about 40 ft. above a bend in the Tumbayung River
and another in a rock cliff close to some painted idols at Saugong.
Both, which, judging by the noise when the parent birds returned
with food, contained well-grown youngsters. No yellow beaked or
Alpine chough were seen at all.
Pica pica subsp.? Magpie.
Large black and white Magpies are common between 13,000 ft.
and 13,500 ft. They fly about the cultivated fields and gardens
and sit on rocks as there are few trees about. I noticed what I
took to be a magpie’s nest, very similar to that of the English
Magpie, in a small thorn tree about 7 miles from Gyantse.
Upupa epops saturatus. The Tibetan Hoopoe.
Seen at Yatung 10,000 ft. in the Agency Garden. One solitary
bird seen feeding on insects at 14,000 ft. in the Kala Plain near
a dry ravine in some low hills. Several others seen at Gyantse
138,000 ft. To the ordinary observer they are indistinguishable
trom the Hoopoes seen in India.
British TRADE AGENCY,
GYANTSE, TIBET. RB. ks VE BA TENE.
June 29, 1985. CAPTAIN.
XXVI.—A LARGE MUGGER (CROCODILUS PALUSTRIS
LESSON) FROM BIKANER—A CORRECTION.
With reference to my letter of the 10th February 1934, which
you so kindly published on pages 493-4 of your issue, vol. xxxvil,
No. 2, dated the 15th August 1934, I am to state that the heading
given to it i.e. ‘A large Mugger (Crocodilus palustris Lesson) from
Bikaner’ gives the impression that the animal under reference was
shot in Bikaner territory; whilst, that is not the case. It was
shot in Kheri, United Provinces. I am sorry, this was not made
clear in my letter. But although, this information, I am afraid
is rather late, yet I thought you should be informed of the correct
place where the Mugger came from.
Furthermore, it was obtained right inland, not far from the
foot of the Himalayas and, therefore, the Estuary Crocodile
(C. porosus) should, of course, not be confused with the specimen
in question, though from the scientific point of view and as a
matter of general interest measurements of C. porosus would also
be welcome.
BIKANER. THE SECRETARY TO THE HEIR.
May 14, 1935. APPARENT OF BIKANER.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 409
XXVIL—THE MUGGER (CROCODILUS PALUSTRIS
LESSON) FEEDING ON LARGE WATER-BEETLES
(CYBISTER SP.).
A friend of mine who has shot several Mugger in the Pawai
Lake, Salsette Island, has told me that an examination of the
stomach contents of one of them, revealed a collection of close on
sixty large Water-Beetles (Cybister sp. (?)), a couple of Chilwa
(Chela sp. ) and an eel, probably an Eel-pike (Mastacemblus sp.).
It is curious to find such a large reptile, well able to feed on large
fish, ete., subsisting on a diet of beetles!
BomsBay Naturat History Society,
Bompay. C. McCANN,
July 22, 19385. Assistant Curator.
XXVII.—MALE RAT-SNAKES (ZAMENIS MUCOSUS
BOULENGER) FIGHTING.
During the months of June and July this year, my neighbours,
at Andheri, sent me two couples of Dhamans or Rat-Snakes
(Zamenis mucosus) which they had shot. The snakes when shot
were entwined round one another like a twisted rope, which natu-
rally suggested that they were in copula. Examination, by dis-
section, showed that in both cases the snakes were males. This goes
to suggest that the respective couples must have been fighting at
the time they were shot. There are many records of snakes seen
in the manner described and in most cases, if not all, that attitude
has been ascribed to copulation. However, as is well known,
snakes usually exhibit no obvious external sexual differences and
only a careful examination aided by dissection will reveal the sex
definitely.
The combatants in these two instances were of almost equal
size. What the fights were over it is difficult to say; but, as the
breeding season was over these snakes may have been fighting for
territorial supremacy.
One of the snakes contained a _ semi-digested bloodsucker
(Calotes versicolor), the stomachs of the others were more or less
empty.
Bompay NatruraL History Sociery,
BomBay. C. McCANN,
July 16, 1935. Assistant Curator.
XXIX.—PRECOCITY IN YOUNG BULL-FROGS (RANA
TIGRINA DAUD.).
Soon after the break of the monsoon Bull-Frogs appeared in
full force as usual. Breeding was at its height and numerous
individuals both large and small were to be seen in amplexu
gathered round the pools and puddles. Curiously enough the frogs
sorted themselves out ‘according to size’; the large males and fe-
410: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.-SOCTETY, Vol. XXXVIII
males measuring 4-5 inches and over, occupying different ee to
those. of smaller size (between 2-34 inches). The males, both large
and small were all in breeding dress—pale lemon yellow, but the
intensity of colour was decidedly more pronounced in the larger
males. The females were the usual sombre brown. Before pro-
ceeding I must correct my previous statement in my article ‘Notes
on: Indian Batrachians’ @/.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, p. 159) in which I
stated, ‘The females and young males are the usual sombre brown.
’ As stated above young males are also lemon yellow when
they emerge from aestivation,.
In order to examine the condition of the genitals I caught and
dissected several pairs that were in ampleru. The large males
and females had the genitals well developed: the ovaries were full
of eggs, and the testes decidedly enlarged. But in the smaller
frogs the ovaries and testes were immature. This indicates that
the sexual urge is apparently equally as strong in immature frogs
at it is with so many other immature animals.
Further, it must be noted that the young males also croaked
like their elders. The vocal saes were also coloured blue and the
callosities on the inner fingers were also well developed.
Bompay Natura. History Society,
Bompray. . C. McCANN,
ey ett oor Assistant Curator.
XXX.—ANTS ATTACKING ‘RUBBER GOODS
I have on several occasions been forcibly impressed by the
strong attraction that rubber has for the small and very common
Red House Ant. Their persistence is a source of worry and nui-
sance to the house-keeper in India, but when they lose their appetite
for crumbs and the like, and one finds them, when one opens one’s
Onoto Ink Pencil, devouring the small rubber pad inside the cap,
or inside the filler bulb, or again on top of one’s soda-water bottles
eating the red rubber washer round the marble and yet again
taking great delight in honeyecombing the soles of one’s crepe- soled
shoes, they become rather more than a long suffered curse of this
country.
I have not come across any reference to this liking for rubber
with regard to this ant in the world of Natural History. Whether
they actually eat the rubber I have been unable to ascertain, but
they are certainly very successful in reducing it to powder. They
seem to prefer crepe and red rubber to vulcanised rubber and
that used for erasers.
It would be interesting to know if any other readers of the
Journal have observed this rubber ‘eating’ propensity.
NapuaR ESTATE,
VALPARAI P.O., RN. CHAMPION-JONES.
SoutH Inp1ia.
June 11, 1935,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 411
XXXI.—OCCURRENCE OF THE BEETLE STHERNOCERA
CHRYSIS IN WAZIRISTAN.
In November 19382, I sent you some Buprestid beetles from
South Waziristan, and in your letter of 18-11-82, you stated that
you were sending them to England for identification. Were they
ever identified ?
RoyaLt GARHWAL RIFLES,
LAaNsDOWNE, U.P. D. G. LOWNDES,
April 7, 1985. Captain.
[The beetles were identified by the British Museum as Sterno-
cera chrysis. This is a common species which has been recorded
so far only from South India and Ceylon. Its discovery in
Waziristan is interesting.—Eps. }.
XXXIIT.—PARENTAL CARE IN SCORPIONS.
A correspondent, in the last number of the Journal (15 April,
1935) asks ‘Do young scorpions eat their parent?’
A female scorpion (Buthus sp.) mothering her young.
Photo by G. K. Powlc.
I should think that it is quite impossible to perform this act
of cannibalism. For a considerable time, after birth, young scor-
412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
pions remain soft bodied and of a milk-white tint. The harden-
ing of the dermal tissues is very gradual and slow, and their small
chelae could make no impression upon the parent’s coat-of-mail.
On the other hand, I have kept a mother scorpion and her
brood in captivity and—although provided with other insect food—
have seen her pick off and devour her babies, one by one, until
none were left. I do not suppose that this is a natural habit;
but it possibly objected to the publicity of repeated inspection.
My captive scorpions were thirsty creatures. I used to give
them water to drink through a pen-filler. It was amusing to see
how soon they came to recognise this instrument. They would
reach up, seize the nozzle in their chelae, and apply it to their
mouths. They would, in the same way, enjoy an occasional drink
of milk.
Way’s Env, BEEcH AVENUE,
CAMBERLEY, SURREY. E. ERNEST GREEN.
May 27, 1935.
XXXIUI.—ABNORMAL FLOWERS OF THE RADISH
(RAPHANUS SATIVUS LINN.).
The abnormalities described below were noted in a plant, pro-
duced by one of the seeds sown by me, in a plot in the Training
College, Agra. This plant had a peculiar bushy appearance on
account of several vegetative and reproductive branches coming
out from the base. These branches curve down and rise upward
bearing a large number of abnormal flowers described under two
main types :—
Abnormal flowers of R. sativus.
Type A. (Fig. 1): The four sepals are thicker and broader
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 413
than those of the normal flowers and have acute apices. More-
over, one pair of sepals is larger than the other. Similar is the
case with the four petals which are sometimes sepaloid (green)
and twice as big as sepals. They can be recognised by their
obovate clawed shape and crumpled condition. All the stamens of
the tetradynamous androecium are sterile. In place of the gynae-
cium there arises a peculiar looking inflorescence enclosed in a
membranous sheath (marked x in Fig. 3) or an ordinary inflores-
cence with fertile normal flowers. The former consists of normal
fertile flowers, or sterile flowers, or abnormal flowers. Sometimes,
there is only one abnormal flower inside the sheath.
Around the central inflorescence (x) arise additional (1 to 4)
inflorescences and one or more abnormal flowers (Fig. 4.). In
some cases, one or two bracteate abnormal flowers arise second-
arily on the pedicel of an abnormal flower.
Type B (Fig. 2): Some abnormal flowers have rosy petals and
out of the six stamens the two lateral ones are replaced by two
inflorescences of fertile flowers. Such a flower is bisexual and
produces a fruit which is on an average only 2.5 in. long and
contains 6-10 big but thin seeds. Such flowers occur in inflores-
cences which are not typically racemose, as, sometimes, two
flowers are situated opposite to each other at a node.
Fruits produced from normal flowers of this plant are unusually
small (1.5 in. long and .4 in. in diameter) and produce only one
or two seeds. .
I am thankful to Mr. B. L. Gupta of the Agra College for
assistance in the interpretation of the abnormalities and to Mr.
L. P. Gupta of the Training College, Agra, for permission to keep
the plants under observation and send this note to the press.
TEACHERS’ TRAINING COLLEGE,
AGRA. AGHA MOHAMMAD.
April 18, 19809.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE MEETING HELD ON Ist. OCTOBER 1935.
A meeting of Members of the Bombay Natural History Society and their
friends was held at the Prince of Wales’ Museum on ‘Tuesday the Ist of
October at 6-15 p.m. The Hon’ble Mr. Justice Barlee presided.
Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, the Honorary Secretary, gave a short account
of the present activities of the Society and announced the election of 12 new
members since the last meeting held in August, making 48 since January
last, and bringing the total to approximately 1,200.
Mr. J. B: Rowntree, 1.¥.s., Nowgong, Assam; Mr. J. W. Houlton, I.c.s.,
London; Mr. KE. K. Krishnan, Mangalore; The Officers’ Mess, Royal Indian
Navy, Bombay; Capt. W. P. H. Gorringe, Ambala, Punjab; Mr. C. E. C.
Chandler, Barahapjan, Upper Assam; Mr. J. D. Jenkins, Poona; The Libra-
rian, Chulalongkorn University Library, Bangkok; Major C. G. Toogood, D.s.o.,
Military Secretary to. H. E. The Governor, Bombay; Mahara; Kumar Shree
Chandrabhanusinhji of Wankaner State, Wankaner, Kathiawar; Lt.-Col. M. D.
Vigors, D.s.o., M.c., Saugor, C.P. and Mr. Shanker Wamanrao Muzumdar,
Bombay. i
He also referred to an expedition of Mr. McCann, the Assistant Curator,
and two other members of the staff. Due to the kindness of H. H. the
Maharao of Kutch and the assistance of Mr. Steer-Webster, Technical Adviser,
they were now trying to procure photographs and paintings of the nesting
sites of flamingoes which were breeding about a hundred miles out in the
great Rann of Kutch. It was hoped that the results of this expedition
would be on view before very long in the Prince of Wales’ Museum.
LrotuRE BY RicHTtT Rev. R. D. AcnLAND.
Specimens on Table.
The Bishop then gave his lecture on the wild flowers of Bombay. Although
he spoke for only an hour, he covered an immense amount of ground and
in spite of the unavoidable technicalities of the subject, he contrived to make
it so interesting that even the veriest beginner could understand. In_ front
of him, on a long table, was spread a large number of wild flowers which
he himself had collected that day.
As each specimen was handed to members, he described in vivid and
attractive manner how it could be identified. There were a number of books
on the table, including Nairne’s Flowering Plants of Western India,—still
a wonderful help to the botanist, although it is now 40 years since it was
published. There were also a small magnifying glass with a hinged stand,
a knife etc. on the table, but the Bishop said ‘all that is reqmred to follow
this fascinating study successfully is the intelligence of a girl of 12 and the
patience and persistency of a boy of 15’.
It was a pity that the meeting on this subject could not have been held
earlier, say in June, when so many more plants were in flower. However,
in spite of this, the obvious keenness of the lecturer, which was soon shared
by his hearers, and his wide knowledge of botany made the meeting one of
the most interesting the Society has had.
The thanks of the Society were wittily expressed by Mr. Justice Barlee.
PRINTED EY W. H. WARREN AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS, AND PUBLISHED BY
MR. P. M. D. SANDERSON FOR THER BOMBAY NATURAT, HISTORY SOCIETY, BOMBAY
Continued from page 188 of Vol. XXXVII, No. 4
of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society.
THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE
INDIAN EMPIRE
AND THE
Problem of their Preservation
Part IV.
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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PHATE DIE
Skull of the Large Civet (Viverra zibetha Linn.).
THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.
Part IV.
CARNIVORA OR BEASTS OF PREY—(continued).
Famiry: Il. VIVERRIDAE: CIVETS, GENETS, eEvc.
The family includes the True Civets and their numerous rela-
tives—Genets, Palm Civets, Lisangs, Bear Cats. They form a
diverse assemblage of animals, which in certain characters connect-
ed with the structure of the skull and the anatomy of the body
display some affinity to the Cats (felide) and, they are generally
regarded as their next of kin. Nevertheless the Civets do not
reveal that uniformity in build which is so distinctive of the Cat
Tribe. Marked structural differences among them make it difficult
to provide a general definition which would distinguish them as a
tribe from other beasts of prey. They differ from cats in many
ways. None of the civets attain the size of the great cats, they
are all comparatively small creatures, long in body, short in limb
with elongated heads and pointed muzzles. We have seen how the
teeth of cats show a marked adaptation to a purely carnivorous
diet; how specialization to this end is revealed in a_ shortening
and strengthening of the jaws, in a marked development of the
canine teeth and in a reduction in the number of molar teeth,
whose blade like crowns make them perfect cutting instruments.
The jaws of civets on the other hand show no reduction in the
length and carry almost the full number of teeth of a typical
carnivore. They have a larger number of cheek teeth than any
of the existing cats.
All the Indian members of the tribe have four premolar teeth
on each side of the upper and lower jaws and one or more true
molars. The canine teeth are more feeble than those of cats,
the flesh-tooth is less trenchant and more tubercular in character.
The long pointed cusps of the cheek teeth of some of the Viverri-
due recall the dentition of an insectivorous animal; while the
molars of others, like the Palm Civets and the Bear Cat, which
feed largely on fruit, have almost lost their carnivorous character.
The teeth of civets help to show how, within the limits of a single
family, while the family characters of the dentition may be re-
tained, the form and size of the teeth may vary in accordance
with the habits of life and the food of the individual species.
In the structure of the feet again the civets display a lesser
degree of specialization than the cats. The number of toes both
in the fore and hind feet is generally five. This is seen in all
the Indian members of the tribe, whereas eats have five toes
in the fore foot and four in the hind. The claws vary in retract-
ability. In some forms, as in the True Civets (Viverra), some of
the claws of the fore feet are as retractile and as well protected
by sheaths as in many species of cats. In other forms this
190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
character is less apparent. Yet another point of distinction in
civets is the entire absence of the sharp pointed conical papillae
which convert a cat’s tongue into a rasp.
It will be seen that while the civets display some affinity to
the cats; their general equipment as beasts of prev places them
on a lower level. They display in their build and their armament
of teeth and claws a lower degree of adaptation to carnivorous
habits: of life. :
No representative of the family exists in America or Australia.
All its members are confined to the warmer parts of the Old
World, chiefly to Africa, Madagascar and South-Hastern Asia.
One species is found in Southern Europe.
Pocock in his classification of the family recognises a number
of gropus or sub-families. The following occur in our area:
Sub-family Viverrinae: True Civets.
Paradoxurinae: Palm Civets.
Prionodontinae: Tiger Civets or Lisangs.
Arctogalidinae: Small Toothed Palm Civets.
Hemigalinae : Banded Civets.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE LIV.
Fig. 1.—Feet of Viverra zibetha, a true civet of terrestrial habits, showing
hairy soles and reduction of pads. (A, Left forefoot; B, Left hindfoot.)
A B
Fig. 2.—Feet of Paguma larvata, one of the arboreal Palm Civets showing
comparatively naked soles and greater development of the pads for grasp-
ing the branches of trees. (A, Left forefoot; B, Left hindfoot.)
After Pocock (Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.).
THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE roa
Sub-family: 1. VIVERRINAE.
True Civets.
The Civet tribe (Viverridac) has been differently classified by
various naturalists. Pocock in his recent classification limits the
sub-family Viverrinae, which includes the true or typical Civets,
to five genera. They are as follows: The Large Oriental Civets
of the genus Viverra; a second genus Moschothera, formed to dis-
tinguish two large civets, one found in Malabar, the other in
Lower Burma and the adjoining Malay countries; the small civets
of the genus Viverricula; and finally the two African genera Civet-
tictis and Genetta.
Apart from the Genets which are found also in Southern
Kurope, the True Civets are confined entirely to the Oriental and
Ethiopian region.
The Vivervinae or True Civets form a compact little group, dis-
tinguished from the Palm Civets or Paradoxures by the form of
their feet and the more elaborate structure of their scent pouches.
In these True Civets, the plantar or central pad under the fore
foot 1s reduced in size and, compared with the Palm Civets, there
is an even greater reduction in the size of the carpal pad (a
small pad in the region of the wrist). On the hind foot the
corresponding pad is almost or entirely suppressed. Further in
the True Civets the whole under-surface of the foot with the ex-
ception of the pads is almost completely covered with hair. The
erowth of hair under the feet, the reduction or suppression of
the carpal and plantar pads is variable in different members of
the group. But on the whole these characters, which are more
less marked in True Civets, indicate a greater adaptation in
these animals to a terrestrial life. Palm Civets, on the other
hand, are mainly tree-dwelling animals. Their naked soles and
well developed pads fit them in a ereater degree for an arboreal
existence.
Like cats, true civets walk upon their toes, and their feet
bear a close superficial resemblance to the digitigrade feet of
cats. This resemblance is seen particularly in the reduction of
the carpal pads and in the hairiness of the under foot. The resem-
blance is carried further in certain members of the group such as
the Small Civets (Viverricula) whose feet are perhaps the most
feline in character. In these little civets, as in cats, the hallus
and pollex, or those digits which correspond to the thumb and big
toe, are placed high up on the foot and at some distance from the
ther digits. Again in the large civets of the genus Viverra some
of the claws of the fore feet are protected with sheaths of hairy
skin. These claws are therefore as retractile as those of many
species of cats. As we have already seen, the extent to which
different species of cats can sheath their claws varies considerably.
The true civets have well developed scent glands. They pro-
duce the well known perfume which gives the name to the tribe.
The word ‘civet’ is derived from the “Arabic term zahat, a name
192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
used for the scent derived from the glands of these animals. The
structure of these glands varies .in different members of the
group. It may even differ to some extent in males and females
of the same species. These glands generally take the form of two
elongate eminences covered internally and externally with hair.
They are found in both sexes and le just in front of the testes in
the male and in a corresponding position in the female. In Genets
the two lobes of this gland le closely apposed. Their line of con-
tact is marked with a Y-shaped groove. When pulled apart the
space between the glands will be found to consist of three compart-
ments separated by folds of skin. The secretion of the glands
exudes into these ‘compartments from clusters of tiny pores in
the lateral walls. In the large Oriental Civets (Viverra), the
clandular space between the lobes is not divided into compart-
ments. Nor are the two lobes of the gland closely apposed
through thei entire length. In their posterior half towards the
scrotum the two glands are somewhat widely separated, but ante-
riorly their inner margins fuse together to form the roof of a
deep pouch, which constitutes a large storage chamber for the
secretion of the glands. In a male of the large civet (V. zibetha)
examined by Pocock the naked skin between the testes was found
to be glandular as also a thick fold of integument which almost
completely encircles the anus. The secretion from the gland sur-
rounding the anus has however a very different and extremely
offensive odour. The secretion from the perfume gland is used
both for perfumery and for medicinal purposes. In India it is
held to have valuable medicinal and aphrodisiac properties. The
secretion contains free ammonia, resin, fat, and a volatile oil to
which its ordoriferous properties are due. . It is a strong smelling
perfume and requires a highly trained nose for its appreciation.
The so-called ‘civet’ perfume of commerce which is imported into
India, comes from America. It is not obtained from civets, but is
taken from the Beaver.
In India the secretion is collected from the Large Indian Civet
(V. zibetha) and to a greater extent from the Small Civet (V.
malaccensis). It is much sought after by some of the Brahmins
of Malabar and as much as Rs. 10 per tola is paid for the pure
essence. The ‘civet’ obtainable in the bazaars is much adulter-
ated with butter and oil to increase its weight. The best prices
are paid for the entire pouch cut from a freshly killed animal. The
usual method of collecting ‘civet’ is to scrape it out of the animal’s
scent pouch with a w ooden spoon. It is recorded that there was
an establishment once maintained at the expense of the Travan-
core Government in which civets were reared for the purpose of
collecting the perfume. Numbers of Small Indian Civets are still
kept at Kolar in East Mysore for the same purpose. ‘Civet’ is
very largely produced in Java from the Javanese race of the animal
(V. indica rasse), where it is used very considerably for flavouring
tobacco smoked by the Javanese.
BEATTIE Ve
Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.
W. S. Berridge,
Photo by
Ny,
mn
tverra zibetha Li
The Large Indian Civet (V
THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 198
THE LARGE INDIAN CIVET (VIVERRA ZIBETHA LINN.).
This Large Civet is found from North India and Northern
China through Burma, Siam and the Malay Peninsula.
It is a sturdily built animal with a long head, long flattened
body, stumpy legs and small rounded feet—a build, typical of
the true civets. An adult animal measures nearly 4 feet in
length: its thick tapering tail is more than half as long as the
head and body.
The general colouration is a dark hoary grey, frequently washed
yellowish or brown. An erectile crest of long deep black hairs
runs down the middle of the back. The crest is distinctive and
differentiates the Large Civets from the Small Civets of the genus
Viverricula. The crest forms a heavy black stripe from the
shoulders to the first ring of the tail. The tail is completely
ringed with six broad black bands. Pale bands form an edging
to the blavk dorsal crest. There are several dark bands on the
chest and shoulders. The sides of the body are either plain or
have more or less distinct markings. Such markings may _ be
obscured or obliterated in the longer and more luxuriant winter
coat. A seasonal change of coat takes place between May and
July. It is more marked in animals inhabiting the northern areas
of the civets range.
The luxuriance or otherwise of the winter coat and the promin-
ence of pattern are some of the characters which are used to
differentiate between the various races of this animal. The typical
race (V. zg. zibetha) is found in Nepal, Sikkim and Northern
Bengal. Compared with the Chinese race (V. 2. ashtoni), it has
a moderately long winter coat. The race from Burma and Assam
is V. z. picta. It is said to be distinguishable by the persistence
of pattern even in the winter coat. A third race, V. z. pruinosa
is found in Tenasserim and the Malay Peninsula. It is distin-
guished from the more northern races by the shortness of the
coat and distinctness of its pattern in the winter months, seasonal
variation in coat in this race is very slight. A fourth race V. z.
surdaster is described form Indo-China.
The Large Indian Civet is a solitary creature sheltering in
bushes, thick grass or heavy scrub jungle by day, and coming out
to hunt by night. It preys on small animals and birds and may
be very destructive to poultry. Like most carnivores, it feeds on
anything worth killing and its food may include, snakes, frogs,
fishes, crabs and even insects. It is not exclusively carnivorous,
and feeds equally on fruits and certain roots. It takes readily to
water. It breeds in May and June, and usually has four or five
young. The scent glands, are large, measuring, when dissected
out, about 2.5 inches in length and 1.5 in. in breadth. Dogs are
said to be greatly excited by the scent of this civet and will
leave that of any other animal for it.
In addition to the Large Indian Civet (V. zibetha), two other
large species are found in our area. They are the Large Malabar
Civet (Moschothera civettina) found in Travancore and Cochin,
13
194. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
and the Burmese Civet (MJ. megaspila) which is found in South-
ern Burma, Siam, Annam, Cochin China and the Malay Penin-
sula. These two civets, now regarded as representing a distinct
genus, differ from the Large Civets of the genus Viverra by the
absence of sheaths to the claws of the fore feet, and by the com-
paratively hairless condition of the skin between the pads of the
feet. Both species are very rare. The general colouration and
markings are very similar to the Large Indian Civet, except that
the white bands on the tail do not completely encircle it. The
general habit of these civets are similar to those of the Large
Indian Civet.
WAG ALY fa
*( Ao1yjooy
DIIPUL VINIAAAM A ) JOATD UPIpUl
eus yy
‘Pda
‘90S “LSIPT “LVN AvaWog ‘Nunof
THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 195
THE SMALL INDIAN CIVET (VIVERRICULA INDICA,
GHOFFROY).
The Small Civet is found in the Peninsula of India, from Sind,
the Punjab and the foot hills of the Himalayas, southwards to
Ceylon and eastwards through Burma into Southern China, Indo-
China, Annam, Burma, Malacca and Java.
The absence of a dorsal crest of long black hairs will serve
to distinguish this civet from the large civets of the genus
Viverra. It is a much smaller animal. A well grown adult male
is a slightly over 3 feet in entire length, the tail being a little
over a foot long. It scales from 6-8 lbs.
The general colouration of a typical specimen from Southern
India varies from brownish or olivaceous grey to ight grey. There
are longitudinal dark stripes and rows of spots along the body,
a stripe down each side of the neck and frequently one across
the throat. The tail is ringed with grey and brown. The under-
fur is brownish or greyish and varies in density. Before the
moult the coat becomes hard, brittle and lustreless. The change
to the fuller winter coat takes place after September.
Various Indian races of this civet are now recognised. The
distinctions between these forms are based on colouration, size,
cranial and other characters. The typical race (V. indica indica)
is said to inhabit Southern India from the Western Ghats across
the peninsula to the Eastern Ghats as far as the Chilka lake in
Orissa. A second race, V. 7. bengalensis is apparently found in
the central portion of India, south of the Ganges, from Calcutta to
Gujerat and possibly in Sind. More or less distinct races are
said to occur also in the following areas: V. 7. deserti (Rajputana) ;
V. i. wellsi (Punjab and the United Provinces); V1. baptistae
(from Bhutan, Upper Bengal, Assam); V. i. thai (from Siam and
Indo-China and probably also in Upper Burma); V. i. klossi (in
the Malay Peninsula and apparently in Lower Burma); JV. i.
mayort (in Ceylon). A detailed description of these races will
be found in Pocock’s monograph on the ‘Civet Cats of Asia’ pub-
lished in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (vol.
xxxvi, p. 647).
The Small Indian Civet is a shy seclusive animal, almost
entirely nocturnal in its habits. It lives in holes in the ground
or under rocks or thick bushes. It is frequently found in the
neighbourhood of villages or even within the large towns. It
climbs well and will scale a vertical tree trunk with ease. It is
more arboreal in habit than is usual with the true civets. Though
it kills poultry when opportunity offers, like other civets, it prefers
preying on rats, lizards, small birds and insects. It feeds on
fruit and is fond of the berries of the Ber (Zizyphus jujuba). It is
easily tamed. The species is frequently kept under domestication
for collecting the secretion of its scent glands.
i196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIi1
Sub-family: 2. PANRADOXURINAE.
Palm Civets.
The Civet Tribe (Viverridae) contains a second group of animals
—the Paradoxurinae of which the Palm Civets or Toddy Cats are
the dominant members. This group also includes the Binturong
or Bear Cat (Arctictis) and a rare genus of civet from the Celebes
(Macrogalida).
External characters which distinguish the Palm Civets from
the true civets are seen in the form of the limbs. The Palm
Civets are short-legged animals. Unlike true civets, they walk to
a greater extent upon the soles of their feet. Again in distinction
to the true civets, the soles of the feet, both in the fore and hind
limbs, are almost completely naked. Further the greater deve-
lopment of the pads which he behind the central or plantar pad
of the foot indicates a more perfect adaptation in these animals
to an arboreal existence than is revealed in the true civets.
The perfume glands are also very different from those of the
true civets. The plan of their structure is much less elaborate.
The secretion of the glands is discharged into a slight fold of
skin instead of a deep pouch. There is a large area of naked
skin, corresponding to the glands in front of the scrotum in the
males and around the genito-urinary orifice in the females. The
secretion from the anal. gland in some forms is singularly fetid
and can be discharged under stress of fear or excitement. The
teeth vary very much in development and are very large in some
species while they are small in others. They are suited -to the
mastication of both animal and vegetable food. teat te
The Palm Civets are comprised in two genera, Paradoxurus
and Paguma, which are distinguished by characters of the skull.
These animals are exclusively Asiatic, ranging from India, Burma,
through the Malayan Region to the South of China. They also
occur in the Philippines, Celebes and Formosa.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE LVITI
PERFUME AND ANAL GLANDS OF CIVETS.
(a * Janeane Glandular
-Inter gland- | “AS area
ular space
Uf, Yi ©, & WSases ;
YK ee SeeeONe=-Anus with
‘ INS BASS :
orifice of
anal glands
B
A.—Inferior view of the anal glandular B.—Inferior view of anal glandular
area of the Large Civet Viverra area of the Common Palm Civet
zibetha (male). Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
(male).
After Pocock (Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.).
“(AeID SNILPOAYGVUMULAIY SNANKOPVDAD) YOAID WTP UOWUTWIOD 94,
‘aspyadag “SM 4q 0404 J
IIIAT ALV Id ‘20S ‘LSIET ‘IVN AvaNWog ‘Nuno[
THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 197
THE COMMON PALM CIVET OR TODDY Cat
(PARADOXURUS HERMAPHRODITUS GRAY).
The best known of all the Palm Civets is the Common Palm
Civet or Toddy Cat (Paradorurus hermaphroditus). It is found
in Ceylon and practically over the whole of India from the Hima-
layas to Cape Comorin. EHastwards its range extends through
Assam and Burma to South China and the Malay countries and
Islands as far east as the Philippines, Borneo and the Moluccas.
Blantord in his Mammals of India applied the name niger, to the
Indian Palm Civet and the name hermaphroditus to the Malayan
species. Pocock in his recent review of the species recognises but
one species as inhabiting India and South-Eastern Asia, and con-
siders the name hermaphroditus as more correctly applicable to it.
The tail of the Common Palm Civet is nearly or quite as long
as its head and body which may be shghtly over 2 feet in length.
Its weight averages from 6 to 9 Ibs.
The “general colour of its coarse, somewhat ragged fur is black,
blackish or brownish grey, the shorter erey or brown under fur
of the coat, when present, is partly or wholly concealed by over-
lying longer and darker hairs. These longer hairs are generally
paler towards the tips and as such hardly distinguishable in colour
from the pale under wool. But in certain areas of the body the
long hairs of the coat are dark throughout. These dark areas by
contrast with the paler surrounding hair tend to suggest a pattern
of black stripes on the back. A similar suggestion of spots is
seen in the flanks and sometimes on the thighs and shoulders.
This pattern is not always obvious. It is generally most prominent
in an animal which has freshly moulted its hair. The season of
eoat change varies in different localities. Generally, the civets
are in poor coat between May and October, and in full coat
between December and March. The change of coat naturally
makes a profound change in the general appearance of the animal,
It is more marked in some localities and less appreciable in others.
The luxuriance of the coat, the extent of development of the
under fur, the obviousness or otherwise of the pattern, the compa-
rative size of the teeth, minor distinctions in the skull have been
used as characters to distinguish between the numerous races of
the vivet. The typical form is said to occur in Central and
Southern India and Ceylon.
The Civet is generally known in India as the Toddy Cat,
because of its habit of cimbing Palmyra palms to drink the toddy
which flows into the jars hung up by the toddy-drawers. In Java
the species is known as the ‘Coffee Cat’, owing to its habit of
collecting in numbers round coffee plantations to feed on the ripe
berries. The seeds of the berries are passed out whole by the
animal, generally on a pathway or against the stumps of trees.
They are subsequently collected by the coffee gatherers when the
regular picking is over. Palm Civets appear to be largely frugi-
vorous, though like other civets, they feed on small animal, birds
and insects. They are arboreal and rest by day concealed among
198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the branches of a tree or curled up in a hole in the trunk.
They are common round villages and have even been found in
the centre of towns and cities. They usually select to lve in
the rafters of houses, or in drains and come out at night in quest
for food. When taken young this civet is easily tamed and in
confinement eats cooked food of almost any kind. The animal
probably breeds throughout the year. The majority have their
young after the rains, during the cold weather, 4-6 young are born
at a time.
A second species of Palm Civet, the Brown Palm Civet (P.
jerdont), is found in the hill ranges of Southern India. It is dis-
tinguishable from the Common Palm Civet by its rich deep brown
colouring, the back and flanks are somewhat grizzled. The
vibrissae (whiskers) are dark brown. Unlike the Common Palm
Civet the hair on the neck of this civet is reversed and its growth
is directed forwards towards the head. Its habits are similar to
the Common Palm Civet.
(AVINQD VIVAAY] DUNSDG) YATD Weg ssouryD IY
Mealy id ‘90S “LSIF] “LVN AVAWOg ‘NYNof
THH WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 199
THE CHINESE PALM CIVET (PAGUMA LARVATA GRAY).
The genus Paguma is now considered to include but two
species of Palm Civet, the Tibetan Palm Civet (P. lanigera), about
which little is known, and the Chinese Palm Civet (P. larvata).
The Himalayan Palm Civet (P. grayi) and the Sumatran Palm
Civet (P. leucomystax) are now looked upon merely as racial
forms of the Chinese Palm Civet whose range extends from
Southern China to the Himalayas as far west as Kashmir and
reaches southwards through Burma to the Andaman _ Islands,
Sumatra and Borneo.
The Chinese Palm Civet (P. larvata) is distinguished from the
Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus) by certain characters of the
skull. Its skull is more robust, has a broader waist, and the
bony palate extends well beyond the molar teeth of the upper
jaw. From differences in the muscularity of the skull and the
less trenchant character of its teeth it is inferred that Paguma is
iess predatory and more of a vegetable feeder than Paradorurus.
Externally, the Chinese Palm Civet may be distinguished by
its white whiskers and by the entire absence of any suggestion of
spots or stripes on its body. The general colouring ranges from
crey to tawny. The lower parts are paler or whitish. The under
fur is brownish, grey or dusky. Markings more or less obvious
are present on the face. More or less distinctive is a fringe of
white hairs in front of the ears which projects over the cheeks.
A line running down the middle from the forehead to the nose,
and a blotch or spot below each eye usually stand out as mark-
ines from a more conspicuous intermingling of white hairs. The
whiskers are mostly white. In a male and female of this species
captured in <Almora_ District, United Provinces, the male
appeared to be altogether darker in general colouration. Its facial
markings were less pronounced—more grizzled—the darker hairs
predominating. The facial markings of the female were on the
other hand more distinct and stood out more clearly from a pre-
dominance of white hairs in the markings. How far this differ-
entiation in the colouring of the sexes is prevalent remains to be
ascertained. There is much individual variation in the facial
markings. They may be well emphasised or indistinct, the nape
of the neck may be pale or dark brown or black or conspicuously
speckled with grey. Variation is also seen in the development of
the fringe of hairs in front of the ears and in the length of the
winter coat. These variations may be to some extent correlated
with certain areas of the animals’ distribution and are used to
distinguish various geographical races of this civet. Six races are
recognised as occurring in the Indian Empire. Descriptions indi-
cating the distinctive characters of these races will be found in
the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (vol. xxxvii,
. 326).
: eee size, the Himalayan forms stand midway between
the small Chinese race and the large Malayan races. An adult
200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
male from Kumaon measured a little short of 4 ft. 2 in. in total
length of which 2 ft. was tail. Its weight was 114 lbs.
The habits of this Palm Civet are very similar to those of the
Common Palm Civet. It is perhaps more frugivorous—though, like
all civets it subsists also on animal food, eating anything which it
ean kill. It is a creature of mountain forests, living and breeding
in holes in trees. Four young were found on one oceasion. It is
easily tamed and in captivity is described as being of ‘cleanly
habits, without the unpleasant odour usually emitted by civets’.
But when irritated this civet is known to discharge a thin, most
fetid yellow fluid from its anal glands. It is probable that the
Common Palm Civet shares this habit which is obviously a means
of defence.- The prominent white vibrissae (whiskers) are highly
sensitive and apparently used in some way to ascertain the nature
of the food. They are very mobile, and are projected forwards or
switched back in the direction of the cheeks. It was observed in
the case of a captive pair that fruit, when presented to them, was
always first touched with the tips of the projected whiskers before
it was accepted. The female when given an apple usually took
it in her fore paws and, squatting on her haunches, ate it in the
manner of a squirrel eating a nut. This particular pair of civets
were caught in a trap baited with ripe tomatoes. They had
eaten about fifty of these fruit from a tray left out the night
before.
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THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 201
THE BINTURONG OR BEAR CAT (ARCTICTIS BINTURONG
RAFFLES).
The Binturong is easily distinguished from other civets. The
back of its ears is clothed with tufts of long hairs, while its long
coarse shagey coat 1s suggestive of a bear’s. Its tail is long and
prehensile, very thick at the root, tapering gradually, and covered
with bristly straggling hairs longer than those on the body. The
soles of its hind feet are naked to the heel. In these characters
the Binturong differs from its relatives the Palm Civets. Never-
theless it reveals a resemblance to them in the structure of the
scent glands and in the fusion of the pads of the third and fourth
toes of its hind feet.
This civet is found in Nepal, Sikhim, Bhutan, Assam, Upper
Burma and Indo-China from thence its range extends southward
through Arrakan, Tenasserim, Sumatra, Java and Borneo.
The general colouring of the animal is black. The hair of
the face, the hmbs, the nape, flank and rump may be tipped or
‘ringed’ with grey, tawny or foxy red. When profuse the vari-
ation may reduce the dominant colouring from black to grey or
tawny. This is particularly noticeable in animals from India,
Burma and Indo-China, which are regarded as a distinct race
(A. b. albifrons). These northern animals are also characterised
by the length and luxuriance of their winter coats. In the typical
race, which inhabits Tenasserim and the Malay Peninsula, the
winter coat is shorter and the general colour consistently darker,
the long hairs never being profusely anulated. The skull, as com-
pared with that of the northern form, is larger and more massive.
A. large Binturong from Siam had a total length of 66 in. of which
84 in. was the head and body measurement, 82 in. the tail.
Recorded weights vary from 138 to 254 Ibs.
The Binturong lives in dense forests. Owing to its seclusive
nocturnal habits, it is seldom seen and is therefore comparatively
rare in Museum collections. Like other civets, it is carnivorous,
feeding on small animals, birds, fishes, earthworms. It also eats
fruit. It is arboreal in habit and uses its prehensile tail as an aid
in chmbing. It is the only placental mammal in the Old World
with a truly prehensile tail. Its ability to support itself by its
tail has been doubted, but it has been observed that the young
at any rate can support themselves by the extremity of the tail
alone.
Nothing is known about the breeding habits of this animal.
202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Sub-family: 8. PRIONODONTINAE.
The Tiger Civets or Lisangs.
THE SPOTTED TIGER CIVET (PRIONODON PARDICOLOR
HODGSON).
The beautiful Tiger Civets or Lisangs are now grouped in a
sub-division of the tribe—the Prionodontinae. They are distin-
guished from the rest of the Oriental Civets by the absence of
scent glands in both sexes, by a characteristic configuration of the
genital organs and by the highly specialised character of their
teeth. Instead of forty teeth as found in the true civets, they
have only thirty-eight. The second upper molar is usually absent
or, if present, it is rudimentary. The teeth are sharp and com-
pressed. They indicate that the diet of these animals is carnivo-
rous. They probably feed to some extent on insects also. Their
feet differ from those of the Palm Civets (Paradorurus and Paguma)
in the hairiness of the areas round the pads, and, in this parti-
cular, they resemble the true civets (Viverra). Their claws are
sheathed and therefore completely retractile.
In the absence of scent glands, in the posterior position of
the external genitals, in the hairy soled feet and sharp retractile
claws, the Tiger Civets show a remarkable combination of feline
characters. Even the teeth with their trenchant blades and in
their numerical reduction foreshadow the characteristic dentition
of cats. Nevertheless the long slender muzzled skull, bodily form
and the arrangement of the pads of the feet of the Lisangs essen-
tially class them as civets.
Two species are known. The Spotted Tiger Civet (Prionodon
pardicolor) and the Banded Tiger Civet (P. lisang). Both animals
are graceful and delicate in build, sinuous and slender in body,
long in the muzzle and very long in the tail. The striking colour-
ation has suggested the name Tiger Civet. The band-like mark-
ings of one and the spots of the other differentiate the two species
externally.
The Spotted Tiger Civet (P. pardicolor) inhabits Nepal, Sikhim,
Assam and extends its distribution into Upper Burma and Indo-
China. The general colouring ranges from dusky brown to bright
buff. The markings consist of two long stripes extending from
behind the ears to the shoulders or beyond and of a stripe on each
side of the neck. Along the back there are usually two rows
of small spinal spots which may coalesce posteriorly to form a
stripe. The central row of body markings is flanked on either
side with three or four rows of large spots which cover the
shoulders, flanks and thighs. The fore legs are spotted to the
paws; the hind legs to the thighs, and the tail has about nine
complete rings. Animals from Nepal and Sikhim, are distin-
guished by their darker colouring and generally bolder pattern.
The spots are large and symmetrically arranged. They are
regarded as representing the typical race which intergrades with
Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Xi,
The Spotted Tiger Civet (Prionodon pardicoloy Hodgson).
THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 203
the more easterly form, P. pardicolor persina, which is generally
lighter in hue and has smaller, more oval, less lineally arranged
spots.
The Banded Lisang (P. lisang) is found in Tenasserim, and the
Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo. It possibly extends its
range northwards into Siam. In this species the spots on the
body are fused to form six broad longitudinal bands.
The Spotted Tiger Civet hunts in trees or on the ground. It
lives and breeds in hollows of decayed trees and preys on small
birds and animals. The time of breeding is said to be between
February and August and the litter to consist of two young—there
being two litters in each year. A tare specimen kept by Hodgson
was ‘wonderfully docile and tractable, very sensitive to cold and
very fond of being petted’. It was fed on raw meat and refused
fish or eggs. It was perfectly free from odour,
204. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Sub-family: 4. ARCTOGALIDINAE.
The Small-toothed Palm Civets.
THE WHITE-EARED PALM CIVET (ARCTOGALIDIA
LEUCOTIS BLYTH).
The Small-toothed Palm Civets (Arctogalidia) are now recog-
nised as representing a small distinctive group or sub-family.
Externally they are distinguished from all other civets by the
absence of perfume glands in the male, which has no naked
glandular area in front of the scrotum. In the female the gland
is represented externally by two low ridges of naked skin capable
of being folded over in front of the generative orifice and conti-
nuous behind on each side with the naked area which surrounds
it. The feet of these civets resemble those of the Paradoxures
except that the pads of the third and fourth digits of the hind
foot are not fused and the carpal or wrist pads of the fore feet
are relatively longer. The surface of all the foot pads is smooth
and not granular as in Paradorurus. As implied by the name
the small-toothed civets are distinguished by their relatively small
cheek teeth.
In bodily form and in length of limb and tail, the small-
toothed civets resemble the Common Palm Civet. But the mark-
ings when present are different. They are limited at most to
three dark bands along the back. These may be continuous or
broken up into spots. T'wo species are known, one of which, the
White-eared Palm Civet occurs within our area. It ranges from
Assam to Laos, southwards through Burma and Western Siam
to Tenasserim, the Mergui Archipelago and the Islands of the
North-West Coast of the Malay Peninsula. Within this range
three forms are recognised. The typical form, A. leucotis leucotis
is found in Southern Burma, Arrakan, Western Siam, Tenasserim
and the Mergui Archipelago. The general colour of its fur ranges
from dusky grey to bright tawny. The terminal portion of the
back of the ears is covered more or less with white hair, the head
is usually darker, the muzzle, paws and the distal portion of the
tail brownish, the underside is usually greyish white or creamy
buff. A white or creamy patch is usually distinguishable on the
chest. There is a white streak on the nose and lower forehead and
three blackish or brownish stripes along the back. They are
sometimes traceable on the neck. The median stripe is distinct;
the lateral more or less broken up into spots, less defined and
sometimes absent. Transverse stripes or rings are more or less dis-
cernible on the basal and mid region of the tail. In animals in-
habiting Assam the more northerly areas of the range the dorsal
stripes are wide, black and all equally conspicuous. They are
consigned to a second race (A. 1. millsi). A third smaller form
A. l. macra is said to occur in Dome Island and possibly in the
small islands of the north-west coast of the Malay Peninsula.
The second species A. trivirgata ranges from Peninsular Siam
to Borneo. In this species the ears not parti-coloured the whole
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THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 205
outer surface of the ear is clothed with black hairs and the skin
is similarly pigmented.
The White-eared Palm Civet is thoroughly arboreal in habit,
numbers of them were shot on trees round Tenasserim village.
The stomach of one contained the remains of squirrels. Though
no doubt partly frugivorous, all the Palm Civets in the Tenasserim
area live largely on squirrels and they are a considerable factor in
keeping down the numbers of these animals, which are so destruc-
tive in the coconut plantations.
306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIiI
Sub-family: 5. HEMIGALINAE.
The Hemigales.
THE BANDED PALM CIVET (HEMIGALUS DERBYANUS).
The Hemigales resemble the true civets (Viverrinae) in having
scent glands which are present in both sexes. They are less ela-
borate ‘consisting of an elongated pouch with thickened hairy
labia situated a little in front of the scrotum in the male, but not
extending as far as the base of the penis. In the female the
scent glands are situated near the anus and in the vicinity of the
vagina. The feet of the Hemigales are intermediate in structure
between those of the digitigrade Viverrinae and the plantigrade
Paradoxurinae.
Three genera are included in this group one of which, i.e., the
Banded Palm Civet (Hemigalus derbyanus) occurs in our area only
in Tenasserim from whence its range extends through the Malay
Peninsula to Sumatra and Borneo.
The animal is about the size of a Common Palm Civet. It
has short close fur of a buffy grey colour. The general colouring
of the body is largely determined by the colour of the under-woo!
and the extent to which it is exposed or covered by the longer
hairs. The colour of the under-wool ranges from varying shades
of buff to bright orange buff, the longer hairs except on the bands
are partly whitish, greyish or buffy. The markings are very dis-
tinctive. A longitudinal stripe runs from each ear backwards to
meet a broad transverse band across the shoulder. Behind these
are four or five broad transverse black stripes on the back, the
tail is also banded with black. The dorsal bands are very variable
in shape and width and in the extent to which they break up on
the flanks.
The species is by no means common. It is said to have
absolutely no smell—it is very active and probably largely ar-
boreal. A specimen caught alive was very savage and growled
like a wild cat.
THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 207
Famity: Jl MUNGOTIDAE: MUNGOOSKES.
The Mungooses are usually classified as one of the primary
sub-divisions of the Civet Tribe. Pocock in a recent study of the
group finds a number of positive and negative characters in these
animals which he considers sufficient to differentiate them from
the Civets and give them the status of a distinct tribe or family.
Among the characters which distinguish Mungooses from Civets
is the complete absence of perfume glands in both sexes. The
absence of these: glands in the Mungoose results in a distinctive
configuration of the external genital organs. Differences are also
seen in the structure of the feet and the ears.
With the exception of one African genus, the ears of mungooses
are more or less semicircular in shape and so small that their upper
margins do not project above the head or the nape. The structure
of the external ear reveals a series of complicated folds which can
be shut down one over the other so as to completely close its
cavity. This development is not seen in the Civets, animals
usually living on the ground or in trees. Mungooses on the other
hand frequently live in burrows of their own making, and the
complicated mechanism for closing the cavity of the ear is believed
to be a special development for excluding dust or dirt when
burrowing. .
The feet of mungooses are armed with comparatively long or
very long claws. They are better developed in the fore feet. The
terminal joints of the toes are not provided with ligaments for
raising the claws off the ground, nor are the claws furnished with
protective sheaths of skin and hence they are always bared. The
feet of mungooses however display a wide range of variation. In
the standard pattern of foot possessed by many genera, including
our Common Mungoose (Herpestes), there are 5 toes. The four
main digits are well developed but those which correspond to the
thumb and the big toe are small, and in some African species these
digits disappear altogether, either in the hind foot alone, or both
in the hind and fore feet. The four main toes are united with
webs—the presence, or the depth of the webs vary in different
species. The soles are naked from the central pads to the toes—
but the extent to which the area of the heel is covered with hair
ugain varies even in species of the same genus.
Mungooses have no perfume glands—but all of them without
exception have anal glands. The secretion of these glands is
exuded into a sac or pouch from small openings on each side of
or above the anus. The pouch itself surrounds and encloses the
anal opening and might be mistaken for an enlarged anus. It is
very large and conspicuous in such big species as the Stripe-necked
Mungoose. It is less well developed in others and hardly notice-
able in the small species of mungooses. The secretion of the anal
glands is liquid, foul smelling and often copious. Mungooses have
a habit of rubbing the glandular sac against objects in their path;
hence it is inferred that one of the purposes of the glands is to
leave behind a trail of scent and so familiarize the mungoose with
2908 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXViti
every yard of its surroundings. It so becomes independent of
vision and can find its way w ith precision over any road over which
it has once travelled. Again many species of mungooses hunt in
packs or family parties and such a trail of scent w ale help indi-
viduals to keep together. Finally one species, i.e. the Crab-eating
Mungoose (Herpestes urva) is known to project or squirt the
aqueous, horribly fetid contents of its anal sac to a great distance.
It appears that this species at least makes use of the secretion as
a means of defence. How far this habit is common to all Mun-
eooses 18 not known.
The true Mungooses, those forming the genus Herpestes, are
well known and familiar animals. They have long weasel-like
bodies, and a more or less elongated tail bristhng with long hairs.
The longer hairs of the body are generally marked with alternate
hight and dark rings, which give a characteristic speckled or grizzled
appearance to the ties The head has a pointed muzzle “with a
rather short nose and the middle line of the upper lip is usually
erooved. The object of this groove, which is seen in most Mun-
gvooses and in other carnivores is to help in the separation of the
fwo halves of the upper lip when raised to clear the teeth. When
the groove is obliterated the snout has to be raised to draw the
lips away to bare the teeth.
Mungooses have a wide distribution ranging over the greater
part of Africa, extending across the Straits of Gibraltar into Spain.
Kastwards they are found through Southern Asia as far as the
Islands of the Mal: ay region. Of the many genera known, all,
but one, are confined to Africa or Madagascar. The only genus
found within our limits is Herpestes which includes the typical
Mungooses. With the exception of the Susicata of South Africa
—all the genera are incuded in a single sub-family Herpestinae.
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2 THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 209
Sub-family: HERPESTINAE.
THE COMMON MUNGOOSE (HERPESTES
EDWARDSI GHOFF.).
Lhe Common Indian Mungoose is found throughout the Penin-
sula of India from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin. It is said
to occur in Assam, but it has not been observed in Burma. The
Mungoose found in Ceylon is now considered a distinct species.
This species is so common and so frequently exhibited by iti-
nerant snake-charmers, that it is familar to all. The pattern of
its somewhat long ragged fur is a coarse grizzle produced by the
alternate dark and hght rings on the hairs. The darker rings on
the hairs may be almost black, or grey or some shade of brown,
while the hghter rings are more or less white. The gerizzling on
the face, hands and feet is usually very fine; very coarse on the
back and usually less obvious or absent on the under parts.
Various geographical races of the Common Mungoose are recog-
nised and differentiated externally by the colouring of the face
and feet, of the longer hairs of the body and the shorter under
fur. The Common Mungoose (H. edwardsi ferrugineus) of Sind,
Baluchistan and the more arid parts of the Northern Punjab, is
so named because of the ruddy or ferruginous appearance of its
head, feet and the tip of its tail. In the typical form (H.-e.
edwardsi) which is found in Nepal, Upper Bengal and Central
India—the rusty colouring of these parts is much less pronounced.
The annulations of the longer hairs are alternately brown and dirty
white, and the under fur is sparse. Then there is a pale silvery
coloured form, H. e.. pallens which is found all over Rajputana.
In .this rage the whole colouring «is much hghter—a_ whitish
silvery grey speckled with light brow n, and the under fur is very
dense and pure white. In the Common Mungoose of the Central
Provinces and the Berars, H. e. moerens—the ferruginous wash
on the face and feet is absent, the grizzling of the hairs is very
pronouneed, the black rings on the hairs contrasting strongly with
the white; the under fare is creamy. In the South finan race,
Hone: Cinch which is found in Canara, Mysore, Coorg,..the
general colouring is dark steel grey, finely speckled with deep
brown, giving the impression of a relatively dark coloured animal,
the under fur is buff.
The Common Mungoose reaches a total length of nearly 3 ft.
of which about 18 in. is tail. The average w eight is about 8 Ibs.
Males are considerably larger and heavier fhan. females.
The Mungoose lives in forest areas but is much commoner in
cultivated country. It takes shelter under rocks and bushes, or
digs a hole for itself in the eround, or uses the maze-like interior
of a deserted termite mound, or a hole in the lower part of a tree
trunk, or finds suitable shelter in the rafters of a house. Its food
is varied. It preys upon rats and mice, snakes, lizards, frogs,
insects, scorpions, centipedes, in brief on any creature that it. can
overcome and kill. It feeds on bird eggs and-to a limited extent
on vegetable matter. It will eat carrion and is frequently seen
14
910 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
feeding on the kills of larger carnivores. It hunts by day and,
when accustomed to Man, pays little regard to his presence. But
in sipte of excessive inquisitiveness, the mungoose is usually a
wary creature, seldom straying far from cover. It can be very
destructive, its destructiveness not being limited by its appetite.
In a hen house or pigeon coop, a mungoose may achieve whole-
sale slaughter. Its prowess in killing snakes, rats and_ other
vermin has earned the mungoose a world-wide reputation and
has been the reason for its introduction into many countries—
not always with the happiest of results. Many and remarkable are
the deseriptions of encounters between mungooses and _ snakes.
Much has also been written about the supposed immunity of the
mungoose to the poison of snakes. The prevalent belief through-
out Oriental countries is that a mungoose when bitten seeks as an
antidote a herb or root known in India as Mangus wail and on eat-
ing it, is rid of any harmful effects of snake poisoning. There
is no truth in this belief. It is true that the mungoose is less
sensitive to the venom and is able to withstand relatively large
doses of poison, but its immunity is by no means absolute. A
mungoose well and truly bitten and injected with venom sufficient
to bring about its death will die like any other animal. All that
can be said for it is, that in common with certain warm-blooded
animals, like the pig or the hedgehog, it shows a certain resistance
to the action of the venom. Cats for instance are less affected
by it than dogs and pigs to a lesser extent than cats. Extreme
agility in evading a bite gives the mungoose victory over the snake.
When the snake strikes, the mungoose generally leaps aside to
avoid the thrust and before the snake can recover to strike again,
the animal rushes in, seizes and crushes its head with its sharp
teeth. Other factors which avert an issue fatal to the mungoose
are its tough skin which must be resistant to anything but a
direct thrust and its habit of bristling the hairs of its body and
tail under stress of excitement. It is suggested that with the
hairs standing erect a mungoose looks twice as large as it really
is and this must sometimes cause the snake to strike short.
Mungooses breed all the year round. The period of gestation
is about sixty days. Three litters may be produced in a single
year. A female kept in a semi-domesticated condition in Canna-
nore, South India, produced a ltter of two in May, a second in
September, a third in December and a fourth in June of the
following year. The mother was in the habit of bringing her babies
down from the roof when she came for her food. She climbed as
well as a cat and was seen to jump a vertical height of over 4 ft.
with a ten-days old baby in her mouth. When the young were
able to follow her, she took them out on foraging expeditions.
They kept close to her side, stopping when she stopped. The
Common Mungoose is frequently seen hunting in couples or in
family parties, the mother and the young are. sometimes accom-
panied by a male. —
The Mungoose makes a charming and docile pet. It is quite
cleanly’in its habit and has none of that unpleasant odour one
usually finds in wild animals.
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THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 211
THE SMALL INDIAN MUNGOOSE (HERPESTES
AUROPUNCTATUS HODGS.).
The Small Indian Mungoose is easily distinguished from the
Common Mungoose by its small size and shorter and closer fur.
lt is restricted to the northern portion of India and is found along
the lower slopes of the Himalayas from Sikhim to Kashmir and_
then across the plains from Baluchistan, Sind and the Punjab
to Bengal. Southwards its range extends into Rajputana, Gwalior,
Gujerat and Kathiawar.
The Small Mungoose is from 18 to 22 in. in total length.
Its general colourmg ranges from a speckled greyish to golden
yellow or to brown. The form found in Baluchistan and Sind,
known as H. a. pallipes, is distinguished by its pale grey colouring.
H. a, helvus which is found in Kathiawar, Gujerat and Gwalior
is a more yellow in general colour. The forehead is a deep yellow
buff—the feet light yellow, the underside paler and the general
colour yellow grey minutely speckled with brown. In the typical
form found along the Himalayas and in Behar and Bengal, the
general colouring is brown, minutely speckled with yellow. In
Assam, Manipur and Burma, the Indian species is replaced by
another form known as the Small Burmese Mungoose (H. birmani-
cus) which is still darker in colouring and markedly larger in size.
Reference must also be made to a third species deseribed under
the name of H. nipalensis, distinguished from H. auropunctatus
by the much finer grizzling and generally darker colouration of its
coat. It has; been taken at a level of 7,000 ft. in Nepal and in
Midnapur in Bengal. It is a rare and little known species.
The Small Mungoose lives and breeds in holes apparently bur-
rowed by itself. It is diurnal in habit and is seen about bushes,
hedges and cultivated fields. It is a cautious creature generally
keeping to cover. Its presence can usually be detected by the
worn tracks it leaves along hedges. It feeds on anything that it
can kill, on rats and mice, snakes, scorpions, centipedes, wasps
and insects of all kinds—as such, like its larger relative it is useful
in ridding a house of vermin. Like the Common Mungoose it
makes a useful and charming pet but is apparently less certain
in temper. A tame female kept in a semi-wild state paired with
a wild male on the 4th of July and on the night of the 28rd August
after a period of seven weeks produced a litter of three young—
one male and two females. Her second litter of two, both females
was produced on the 14th April and on the 9th July she produced
two more, both females. The newly-born young are described as
being remarkably ugly, practically hairless and of a dark mouse
colour. The eyes opened on the 16th-17th day after birth. When
suckling they purred like a cat. The mother gave vent to a purring
sound whenever she was given a drink of milk. She was most
restless and for the first two or three weeks would constantly
move her offspring from place to place carrying them as a cat
carries her kitten. While her young were helpless she was very
savage in their defence.
212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
THE RUDDY MUNGOOSE (HHERPESTES SMITHII GRAY).
The Ruddy Mungoose is a species which is mainly restricted
to forest areas. Its range extends from Rajputana, Central and
Western India, southward to Ceylon. The species attains a length
of approximately 8 ft. of which 1 ft. 6 in. is tail.
The general colouring of the animal is a iron grey, produced
by the white, grey and brown rings of its hairs which are tipped
with rusty brown. The head and legs are washed with reddish
brown and the feet are almost black. This species is easily dis-
tinguished from the Common Mungoose by the black tip to its
tail. There is however a wide range of variation in colouring
which has led to the recognition of six more or less distinct geo-
graphical races. The typical form is found in Central and Westeru
India from Hoshangabad southwards to the Nilgiris. The general
colour is dark with less rufous, the legs are not conspicuously
reddish though the ankles often are. The form found in North-.
East Rajputana, H. s. rusanus, is similar to the typical race. in
colouring but it is a small animal representing the extreme in the
gradual reduction in size from south to north. A third race, H. s.
caneus, is described from Mount Abu, South-West Rajputana—the
general colouring is a clear grizzled grey without the brownish or
rufous characteristic of the other races. The form found in the
Eastern Ghats, H. s. jerdoni, is drabbish grey. The Ceylon form,
A. 8. zeylanicus, is the largest and most richly coloured of all—
the whole colouring being richly rufous. |
In Mount Abu this species is fairly common. It lives in
burrows and shelters among rocks. Family parties have been
observed hunting by day. Its food is probably similar to that of
other mungooses. Being a creature of forest area it is less com-
monly observed and nothing is recorded about its breeding habits.
ny PHE WILD, ANIMALES OF. THE::INDIAN EMPIRE | * 218
THE NILGIRI BROWN MUNGOOSE (HERPESTES FUSCUS
WATERHOUSE).
The Nilgiri Brown Mungoose is restricted to the hill forests
of the Nilgiris, Palnis, Travancore and Coorg and possibly other
hill ranges of South-Western India.
Tt is a large heavily-built blackish brown mungoose more or
less speckled with yellow or brownish white. The paws are almost
black. The under fur is brown—the longer hairs of the body have
alternate rings of blackish brown and yellow or yellowish white,
three or four of each, the darker rings are much wider than the
light. The head and body of this mungoose measure about 19 in.,
the tail 12 in.; the weight of a male is about 6 lbs.
This mungoose is fairly common in the coffee plantations.
Nothing has been recorded about its breeding habits. —
214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
THE STRIPHE-NECKED MUNGOOSE (HERPESTES
VITTICOLLIS BENNETT).
This Stripe-necked _Mungoose, the largest of all Asiatic
Mungooses, is found in the hill ranges of South-Western India,
from Kanara southward to Ceylon. It is a very handsome creature
with an iron grey head, the body speckled with brown, yellow
and red. On the lower part of the back and tail there is a pro-
fusion of long chestnut hairs. A very distinctive black stripe
marks each side of the neck. The end of the tail is black. In
life the shape of the head differs from that of the Common Mun-
goose (H. edwardsi), the snout having a slightly upward curve.
This mungoose grows to over 3 ft. in length and weighs about 7 lbs.
This species is common all over the Nilgiri and Palni plateaux
and is equally abundant in the swamps and rice fields of the
Wynaad. Unlike other Indian mungooses it appears to be less
plentiful in the neighbourhood of human habitations. Large and
powerfully built, these mungooses can be very destructive to game
—they hunt a good deal by day and are seen prowling about
frequently in couples—presumably following their quarry by scent
and then burrowing for it in the ground. These large mungooses
have extraordinary tough skins and with their wiry hair are almost
proof against dog bites.
Nothing is known about their breeding habits.
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THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE _ .- 215
HODGSON).
The Crab-eating Mungoose is found at low elevations in the
South-Eastern Himalayas, in Assam. Its range extends into
Burma, Tenasserim and Southern China.
Like the Stripe-necked Mungoose it is a large and powerfully
built creature. The general colouring of its coarse and ragged
fur is a dusky iron grey with a greyish surface caused by the long
whitish tips to the hairs. A well marked, narrow white stripe
runs along each side of the neck from the angle of the mouth to
the shoulder. The head is dark brown speckled with white, the
legs are similar in colour, but there is no white speckling on the
feet. They are usually black. In this species the soles of the
hind feet are naked only for about two-thirds of their length, the
heel area being covered with hair. The woolly under fur is dark
brown at the base then pale brownish yellow. The dimensions
of this mungoose are as follows:—Head and body 18-21 in., tail
without hair at the end 10-12 in. Unlike other species, the Crab-
eating Mungoose is mainly aquatic. It lives on the banks of
rivers and streams and preys mainly on frogs, crabs and fishes.
A specimen was shot on the Chindwin River while burrowing in
a bank. In Kurseong one of these mungooses came repeatedly to
a tank stocked with Gold Fish—it took many of the fish and must
have dived from the tank side to procure them.
Nothing is known of its breeding habits.
216. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol..XXXVIII
Famity: IV. HYAHNIDAE: HYAENAS.
Hyaenas resemble dogs rather than cats in external build, and
may be easily taken for members of the Dog-tribe. Structural
details of the skull and the character of the teeth however definitely
place the Hyaenas within the Aeluroid or Cat Section of the
Carnivores.
The closest relatives of the Hyaenas are believed to be the
Civets and Mungooses. Some authors trace a particular affi-
nity between hyaenas and mungooses—both groups. of animals
having certain points of structure in common. The relationship be-
tween hyaenas and civets and their-kindred is not very apparent in
existing species, but it is more strikingly revealed in the structure
of extinct forms which lived during past geological epochs. - In. the
lower part of the Plocene there occurs an interesting civet-like
animal known as the Ictithere which in its structure serves to
reveal a close alliance between these two famihes of Carnivores.
During past epochs, hyaenas inhabited the greater part of
Europe and ranged in Asia as far east as China. Fossil species
are numerous. No less than 5 different species have been found
in the Siwalik fossil beds of the Punjab. One of these extinct
forms from Northern India, in the length of its jaws and in the
form and number of its teeth makes a_ close approach to
the civets. The teeth of the present day hyaenas are in some
respects feline in character and differ in these points from the teeth
of civets. A hyaena has 34 teeth in its jaws, a-cat 30 and a civet
usually 44. The numerical difference in the teeth of -cats and
hyaenas is accounted for by the retention in the -Hyaena of an
additional premolar tooth, on each side of both-in the upper and
lower jaws. A hyaena has 4 premolars and 1 molar on each side in
its upper jaw, and 8 premolars and 1 molar in the lower. As. in
Cats, the molar, the last tooth in a hyaena’s upper jaw is reduced
to a minute tooth. All the cheek teeth in the lower jaw are
conical teeth with sharp cutting blades. But the distinctiveness
of the Hyaena’s dentition is seen in the great size and strength
of the cheek teeth as compared with the canines; more specially
in the massive conical crowns of the second and third premolars
in both jaws. These teeth carry a strongly pronounced basal
ridge which acts as a shield for protecting the gums. This form
of tooth is especially designed for gnawing and breaking bones.
The teeth and jaws of hyaenas have assumed those characters
which adapt them for their peculiar food and habits. The Hyaena
is a scavenger. It feeds on the bones and the coarser remains
left over lb beasts of prey. The whole skull has its shape modi-
fied by the enormous development of the muscles which work
the jaws and teeth. Few Carnivores have jaws and teeth which
can compare in strength or bone crushing power with those of
hyaenas,
The Hyaena is a massively built animal with broad short head
and a deep body. Its legs are comparatively long—particularly
the fore limbs, so that the hind quarters droop. The massive
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THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN. EMPIRE | 217
build of the fore part of the body as compared with the hind, and
its knoek-kneed hind legs gives the hyaena an awkward, hang-dog
appearance. The hair is coarse and shaggy. The thickness of the
coat, the colour and the boldness of the markings appear to vary
with season.
A hyaena has only 4 toes on its fore and hind feet, the digits
corresponding to the thumb and the big toe are absent. The claws
are short and blunt, they are unprotected with sheaths and are
non-retractile. The feet differ in some respects from the feet of
eats or civets. The pads under the toes show several pecuharities.
The bases of the toe pads are set at right angles to the central or
the plantar pad of the sole. Again the pads are not elliptical but
more or less conical in shape. In the uptilting of the toe pads,
in their rigidity, compactness, and shape as well as in the short
blunt claws the feet of hyaenas resemble those of dogs. The toe
pads of cats and civets are usually elliptical in form, and their
bases le in the same plane as the plantar pads of the sole.
Hyaenas have anal glands which exude their secretion into a
pouch. The presence of an anal pouch in hyaenas and mungooses
is cited as part of the evidence of affinity between these two
animals. But Pocock has indicated the considerable difference
between the anal pouches in the two groups. In mungooses the
anus opens in the centre of the anal pouch and the margins of
the pouch close right over the anus, also the orifices of the glands
are situated tolerably near the anus. In the hyaenas on the other
hand, the opening of the pouch appears as a curved slit over the
anus, the orifice of the glands are far removed from it.
The existing species of hyaenas are three in number. All of
them are included in the genus Hyaena. Only one species the
Striped Hyaena is found within our limits and extends its range into
Africa. The Brown Hyaena (H. bruneus) and the Spotted Hyaena
(H. crocuta) are now limited to Africa. Fossil remains of the
Spotted Hyaena have been excavated from some caves near Kur-
nool in the Madras Presidency, indicating the -past existence of
this species in India.
218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
THE STRIPED HYAENA (HYAENA HYAENA LINN.).
The Striped Hyaena is found throughout the Peninsula of
India. It is not found in Ceylon nor in the countries to the east of
the Bay of Bengal. In the west its range extends through South-
Western Asia into East and North-West Africa. During and
before the age of the Mammoth, the Striped Hyaena inhabited a
considerable part of Europe. Its bones have been discovered in
a cave in the south of France, and teeth of this species have been
found in England.
The colour and markings of the hyaena vary considerably with
season. Much depends on whether the animal is in fresh coat or
has shed its hairs or whether it is in its fuller winter coat.
Various races of this animal have been described without any
account being taken of these factors. Linnaeus originally gave
the name hyaena to a hyaena from South Persia. The Persian
animal is believed to be similar to the Indian, but if the Indian
form is proved to be distinct, it will carry the name H. h. indica
Blainville.
The Indian Hyaena does not develop a very long winter coat;
but it is full, much fuller than the hot weather coat and compar-
atively soft. The colouring is cream or buffy white and the head
tawny buff—the whole colour tone changes to grey or dirty white
in the harsher and scantier summer coat. The transverse stripes
fade from black to brown—they may be less evident in the fuller
winter coat or again tend to become obliterated in cases where
the subsequent shedding of the hairs leave the flanks of the animal
almost bare.
The Striped Hyaena stands about 3 ft. high at the shoulders—
the head and body of a male measures a little over 84 ft. and
the tail with terminal hairs is about 14 ft. in length. A good-
sized female may scale 75 lbs.—the male is about 10 Ibs. heavier.
Hyaenas are more common in the drier parts of India—particularly
among rocky hills or nullahs—or by the outskirts of jungles in
‘the plains. They are found in the open areas of the Nilgiris
around and above Ootacamund at elevations ranging from 3,000
to 8,000 ft. They usually shelter in caves, or among boulders,
and frequently make a den in an enlarged porcupine’s earth.
Hyaenas are nocturnal in habit coming out in quest of food about
sunset and retiring before sunrise. They usually go about in pairs
—parties of five or six have been seen together, but this is un-
usual with this species. They are great wanderers and_ their
tracks are quite common. The foot print is much like that of a
dog—-except that the print of the fore foot is much larger than
the hind. The pug is easily differentiated from that of a panther
by the print of the claws.
The hyaena is mainly a scavenger, and as such performs a
useful task. It feeds on the carcases of animals that have died
of disease or been Killed by other beasts of prey. The carcase is
eaten where it lies but portions of it may be carried off into the
animal’s den, Hyaenas sometimes kill and carry off sheep and
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THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 219
goats. They are particularly partial to dogs. They do not usually
attack larger cattle. There is a record of two cows, tied up as a
bait for tiger being killed by a hyaena. The stomachs of the
animals were ripped open and they were literally eaten into when
yet alive. It is recorded that this species is far more aggressive
in Africa than it is in India and that, in Abyssinia, Striped Hyaenas
have developed a habit of killing sheep and goats and frequently
run amock in a flock killing a dozen or more animals. Fortun-
ately in India our hyaena ean in no sense be considered aggres-
sive, despite its bulk and power, it does not attack larger animals,
though individuals may be quite prepared, if need be, to appro-
priate and dispute the kills of panthers or even tigers. There are
several instances on record of hyaenas depriving panthers of their
kills and of routing them in disputes.
While hunger may give the hyaena inordinate courage, when
brought to bay, it does not show fight. Dunbar Brander states
it will frequently sham death when harried by a pack of dogs,
submitting passively to the direst worrying and ill-treatment.
Though not usually very demonstrative hyaenas give vent to
various weird noises, a common sound is a loud laughing chatter.
Little is known about the breeding habits of hyaenas, it is
recorded that in the Central Provinces they breed during the cold
weather and that the young are generally born in the hot weather
—5-6 being produced in a litter.
When taken young, hyaenas are easily tamed and make very
affectionate and docile pets. 7
THE PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA.
No. 7. THE MADRAS? PRESIDENCY:
BY
R. D. Ricumonp, 1.F.s. (retd.).
Provisions for the Protection of Wild Life.
In a consideration of the preservation of the fauna of the
Madras Presidency it is to be remembered that here, as in the
rest of British India, the State owns large areas which have
been constituted Reserved Forests and which, if properly adminis-
tered in this regard, form permanent abodes for game and other
animals. All possible types of country are represented and _ all
the larger animals, with the exception of the antelopes, are thus
provided with potential sanctuaries. The habitat of the antelope
is for the most part the plains and open fields, but there are
certain areas of reserved forest in which they are able to, and do,
take refuge.
~ The area under the control of the Forest Department is some
16,000 sq. miles. Under the Forest Act simple trespass is an
offence and shooting is not permitted except on license, the grant
of which is governed by close conditions. Game protection is a
definite duty of the forest staff and even if the charges are large
(the average of a divisional charge is over 500 sq. miles of forest
and that of a beat, the smallest division is 10 sq. miles) the
machinery for protection exists.
Thus the fauna is provided with somewhere to live perma-
nently and an organization to protect it, even if the personnel of
that organization is small and sometimes neglectful of this parti-
cular item of its duties. But while there can be no chance
of the 16,000 sq. miles of Reserved Forest being appreciably
reduced there is a danger of comparatively small areas essentially
the habitat, or within dangerous proximity of the habitat of parti-
cular species e.g. the Nileiri Tahr and the gaur, being alienated
and to guard against this a second line of defence has been de-
vised, such areas being declared to be game preserves. The
whole 16,000 sq. miles is of course a game preserve, but the whole
of it is not essential to the preservation of the fauna and, where
certain species would find themselves unduly restricted by the
alienation of the country they exist in, special steps have been
taken to preserve it as public property. Although any area may
at any time be closed permanently, or temporarily, to the shoot-
ing of all animals, or any particular animal, the policy is not
to form preserves of considerable area, in which nothing may be
shot, as it is considered that one of the best methods of control-
ling poaching lies in the presence of licensed sportsmen. Shoot-
ing is Closely regulated in theory at least; though a license to
cover a year’s shooting, except in two areas where the shooting
PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 22:1
is controlled by specially formed associations, may be obtained for
the very small sum of 15 shillings. The number of head of each
kind which may be shot is prescribed, as is the size of - head,
the sitting up over water holes or in machans is forbidden. and
modern tendencies have been guarded against by the prohibition
of shooting from motor cars or with artificial hght, except in the
ease of carnivores. Certain animals other than those preserved
for sport and which were becoming scarce e.g. the Malabar
squirrel and the black monkey are specially protected, while the
shooting of game and other birds is regulated to some extent.
Orders exist prohibiting the grazing of cattle in areas specially
assigned to the gaur, this step being taken to save them from
contact with rinderpest. The grant of rewards for the destruc-
tion of wild dogs has been resumed. |
While the closest attention is paid to certain classes who will
not ordinarily infringe the rules, it is to be feared that the Indian
ligense-holder, few of whom shoot for sports’ sake, who pays little
attention to the conditions of his license, and who will entrust
his gun to other parties, is poorly controlled. And of recent
years the policy has been to grant heenses to possess arms to a
ereater and greater extent, and any one with a gun who lives
within reach of areas containing game, is a potential poacher.
Also a class of license, that for crop protection, is responsible for
considerable damage; damage which might be mitigated would
those responsible consent to the peasant being put to the inéon-
venience of depositing his arm with the police at times when there
are no crops to protect. <A further handicap to game conservation
is. the extremely rapid Indianization of the Forest Service:
officers of the new class take at present little or no interest in
natural history, or in the preservation of wild life and, as a rule,
other activities prevent them from paying sufficient attention to a
part of their duties with which they are in little personal sympathy.
The difficulty is that there is no public opinion on the subject. of
game preservation in the country and until this has been created,
little will be accomplished. The jungleman is principally poacher,
for food or to obtain meat for sale.
The Status of Wild Life.
In the Godavari, where the gaur is probably on the increase,
chital and sambur are not as numerous as they were: much of
the damage, strangely enough, being done with the. bow and
arrow. For very many years there has been little game in the
Ganjam district, so little in fact that the balance of nature is
upset and the district is principally notorious for man-eating
tigers. The populated north of the vast tract of Vizagapatam and
Jeypore, which is a native state, has little game left in it, but
the sparsely populated south is well off for all kinds and is the
only place in the Madras Presidency where the buffalo 1s found.
Very little of these areas are Reserved forests. The Eastern
Ghats are of little interest, except for chinkara at the foothills
and some antelope on the plains. The 2,000 sq. miles of. the
222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
Nallamalai hills contain plenty of game of all kinds and it is
strange that the gaur does not occur. What are known as the
Ceded Districts contain very little at the present day. Once the
haunt of the elephant, forest destruction preceding cultivation,
and accelerated by the goat, has had the inevitable result of driv-
ing the game away as well as of reducing parts of the country
almost to the condition of desert. There are however, still ante-
lope and chinkara, while sambur are to be found on the hills of
Cuddapah and Chittoor; in fact there is still plenty of game in
the latter district, even if the glory of the Chamla Valley has de-
parted—due to fewer Europeans visiting it. The Javadi and
Salem hills contain gaur which are closely protected and which
do some damage to forest works, but the rest of the game animals
are poorly represented. The same may be said of the Madura
District, principally interesting from the fact that a herd of gaur
was cut off when the railway was constructed and, well pro-
tected, have persisted. The Palni hills of Madura provide repre-
sentative animals on the slopes, the Nilgiri goat (Hemuitragus
hylocrius) on the edges of the plateau (7,000 ft.), while the gaur
occasionally visits the plateau. But protection is none too good
in spite of a constituted game association. Tinnevelly is moder-
ately well off and here too the Nilgiri goat is to be found, though
the numbers have decreased considerably. The forest area of
South Coimbatore is famous for the ‘Grassy Hills’, on the borders
of the Cochin State, at an elevation of 6,000-8,000 ft.; the Nilgiri
goat being common, while elephant and gaur are to be found on
the open grass. This forest division contains, in one particular
part, the white bison which appears to be developing into a dis- °
tinct variety.
The North Coimbatore and Kollegal divisions have perhaps
suffered more than most, including, as they do, so many villages,
from the increase of poaching; but other and perhaps temporary
factors are at work, if anything is to be inferred from the varying
incidence of the number of game animals in a certain locality.
Reported in 18938 as denuded of game, once very common, the
old state of affairs was restored from 1901 onwards while there
is now again complaint of scarcity. Elephants have increased to
an inconvenient extent in numbers of recent years.
The forests of Malabar, that is to say the protected areas, for
there are very considerable tracts of private forest land in which
-there is no protection or shooting regulation, are for the most
part exceedingly well stocked with game and other animals of all
kinds, particularly elephant and gaur—the forest areas belonging
to Government are more compact than elsewhere and there is
far less population inside them and on their edges—consequently
there is less poaching.
To judge by the complaints of damage done by wild animals
it would be supposed that South Kanara teemed with wild life;
but such is far from being the case, the complaints being in re-
inforcement of agitation for the abolition of the forests. But in
the upper hills there are sambur and there are a few gaur—also
elephants. The tiger, accused of killing great numbers of domesti-
PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 223
cated. cattle (and it is a fact that the mortality of cattle: from
wild animals is greater here than elsewhere) is in fact rare, the
delinquent being the panther, living in low rocky hills distant
from the real forests, and killing cattle as there is nothing else
to live on.
The Nilgiris, a district at elevations from 1,000-8,000 ft., is
richer in fauna of all kinds than any other. Naturally well
endowed in this respect, protection in the last forty or fifty years
has been good on the whole. The shooting is regulated by a
Game Association, the members of which are those who take out
annual shooting licenses—these are mostly Europeans—and a
special protective staff is entertained. The Nilgiri Tahr, its habi-
tat is the Nilgiris (north of which the family is unrepresented
until the tahr is found in the Himalayas), Madura, parts of Mala-
bar, Cochin, Travancore and Wampieyte ly in the (cae south,
has definitely increased of recent years; sambur abound on the
plateau (a beneficial practice is now nernitted in the shooting of
a limited number of hinds), gaur, vulnerable to epidemics of rinder-
pest from time to time, shital and sambur are common on the
slopes and lower plateau, muntjac are exceedingly common, as
are also elephants. Tigers are commonly found on the upper
plateau. The extension of the planting industry has reduced the
area available, but there is still plenty of room and, whereas
certain animals may appear to be reduced in numbers from. time
to time in different places, there seems to be no ground for appre-
hension that game animals are decreasing. A falling off in the
number of sambur stags shot by license-holders by no means
justifies the belief that this deer is becoming more scarce—the
fact is that there are fewer warrantable stags to shoot for the
reason that the best have been shot year after year.
Recommendations.
There is no need to apprehend that the fauna of Madras is
decreasing to a dangerous extent at present, though it would be
idle to pretend that there are not forces at work which should
be guarded against. Apathy on the part of a new class of officer,
who is not interested in sport or natural history, and the increased
facility with which arms may be legally possessed may both be
corrected. Public opinion may in course of time be developed,
though this will necessarily be a slow process and it will be fatal
if the impression is formed that the interests of the cultivator
will not be protected. There is ample room for the wild animals
in the considerable areas of forest land which is the property of
the state and which need never be alienated, all that is required
is the determination to make protection effective. ‘Preserves’, in
this Presidency at all events, appear to be uncalled for—the whole
of the forest area is a ‘preserve’—and the regulations permit. of
certain parts being closed to shooting either permanently or tem-
porarily. “National Parks’, if by these are meant areas which
are specially protected and in which no shooting by the public
is allowed, but which are maintained so that the public may see
224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
and study the habits of wild animals, are on a different. footing.
These should be of great general interest and educational value
and tend to promote that public opinion which is so desirable.
A difficulty in connection with these ‘National Parks’, however,
is their location; they should be near areas of considerable popu-
lation, and be served by roads; also the forest should be of a
type which allows of the animals being easily seen. It is per-
haps sometimes overlooked that conditions in different countries
vary and that what may be suitable in Africa, for example, is
inappropriate in Madras. 7
It will not be easy to find an area which fulfils all the essen-
tials; a considerable sum of money will ultimately be required
and if cannot be expected that National Parks will be self-support-
ing; but the first steps are being taken and it may be hoped
that’ they will bear fruit.
Suggestions are from time to time heard as to the desirability
of establishing a separate game department under a Warden.
Those who advance this view possibly have the conditions of
Africa in mind; in India there is already an organisation one of
the duties of which is to protect the animals as in the case of
the other contents of the forest—the appointment of a Warden,
and some additional staff, would lead to dual control and friction:
nor is there any need for it. Properly controlled and supported,
with some strengthening in certain places, the ordinary staff of
the Forest Department should be well able to do what is required.
~ But the Department requires greater support. It is essential
that the authority responsible for the issue of licenses under the
Arms Act should consult the forest authorities on applications,
in respect of residents in, or near, the forest; that guns concerned
in shooting offences be confiscated, that the Magistracy should
attach greater importance to offences of this class and it is ex-
tremely desirable that the sale of flesh at certain seasons should
be declared illegal. Finally it is anomalous that the head of the
Forest Department should, in theory, be unconcerned with this
branch of the work of his department, at present in the hands of an
authority which has no occasion to go into the forests and which
is not in any way concerned with other branches of forest admin-
istration,
COMMENTS ON Mr. RICHMOND’S NOTE.
BY
R. C. Morris.
In the note on the ‘Game Preservation in the Madras Presi-
dency’ it is mentioned that there is an area of 16,000 sq. miles
providing a natural Sanctuary for the fauna with the Forest
Department as an organisation to protect it, the protection of
game being a definite duty of, the Forest. staff.
This may be said to apply to nearly every country holding
forests with a Forest Department to control the same. Although
in theory the machinery for protection exists, and shooting is
regulated, in practice it has been found, and I fear always will
be found, that Game Protection is relegated to the background
as Forest Officers find that the whole of their time is taken up
by other work, in other words the preservation of the fauna takes
a back seat to the protection of the flora. That the Forest Depart-
ment have failed to afford the necessary protection for the fauna
cannot be gainsaid, nor can Forest Officers be expected to devote
the required amount of time to Game Preservation, however in-
terested they might be in the matter, and I am sorry to say that
in many cases these days there is little interest.
It is mentioned that areas denuded of game in 1893 were
restored to the old state of affairs from 1901 onwards. I think
it would be more correct to have said ‘denuded of chital’ instead
of game. I am fairly sure that the author had before him a
note written by a Collector in 1893, and if I remember rightly
this only referred to chital in a particular area.
I do not agree with the opinion that there is no cause for
apprehension that the fauna of the Madras Presidency is decreas-
ing to a dangerous extent. This statement covers the whole of
the fauna and I consider that chital, black buck and chinkara
have certainly decreased to a dangerous extent and will be extinct
in South India not many years hence unless steps are taken in
the matter. The Nilgai in South India have already gone the
Same way.
I entirely disagree with the opinion that the appointment of a
Game Warden and special staff for the control of a National
Park, Game Sanctuary for the fauna in the Ordinary Reserves
is unnecessary, nor can I see how the present staff of the Forest
Department will be in any better position to control the fauna,
still less a National Park or Game Sanctuary, than it has been
in the past. I cannot see how any friction could arise if the
Chief Conservator of Forests controlled both the Forest and Game
Departments, the Game Warden if required being a Forest Officer
specially seconded for this purpose as was the case in Burma. ‘To
my mind it is quite certain that a Game Department would
US)
926 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
improve matters considerably whether a National Park was esta-
blished or not, and if any doubt exists on this point a visit to
Ceylon might be made to compare the condition of game in
areas under the control of the Game Association or Game Depart-
ment in Ceylon with that in the areas controlled only by the
Forest Department.
I do agree with the author in his opinion that the present
dual control in connection with shooting lceenses should cease.
Shooting heenses should be issued by the District Forest Officers
(on behalf of the Collectors). Further no arms licenses should
be issued by District Magistrates to people living near Reserved
or Unreserved forests without the District Forest Officers
being consulted in the matter: more important still Magistrates
should be made to take a far more serious view of poaching
offences and offences under the Arms Act (illegal possession of
guns) than they do at present. Punishments meted out to
poachers are ridiculous: an inveterate poacher is not worried at
all at the prospect of serving two or three months’ imprisonment
occasionally.
The status of Wild Life in the Madras Presidency may be put
shortly as follows:—
1. (a) Within Government Forests.
In one or two districts, take Ganjam for example, there is
little or no game left. In other districts a few species exist
thinly scattered, and in parts of the districts of Coimbatore, Mala-
bar, Madura and South Kanara game, with the exception of
chital and antelope, is still fairly plentiful. The reason is not far
to seek. These districts hold areas which have been difficult of
access to the poacher and here game still holds its own. Chital
and antelope live in country that is easily poached and unless early
measures are taken chital, black buck and chinkara will be exter-
minated in South India not very many years hence, just as the
Nilgai have been. I say that certain areas ‘have been’ inaccessible
to poachers as with modern guns and cheap electric torches the
present day poacher is a far more dangerous enemy to game than
he was in the past. Poachers are now penetrating into parts they
have never been into before, and it is a certainty that in course
of time no part of the jungle will be free from the poachers’
activities. Take for example the Billigirirangans. Were it not for
the presence of Planters residing on the hills to put a curb on
poaching sambhur on the hills would be exterminated. At the
northern end of the hills, in the Kollegal Division far from these
Estates, very few sambhur are left, most of them have been
shot out by the Sholagas who hold guns (some time back 14 guns
werg seized in one day ,but the Sholagas hold just as many now).
In the Mysore part of the hills very few sambhur eixst although
the area is known as the Chamarajnagar Game Sanctuary. What
applies here also applies to other districts with the exception of
the Nilgiris where the Nilgiri Game Association run a fairly good
show. In the more accessible tracts of the Coimbatore, Malabar,
Madura and South Kanara districts the status of Wild Life is
parlous in the extreme.
PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 227
The new experimental measure for the compulsory inoculation
of village cattle in the Kollegal and North Coimbatore Divisions
should keep bison comparatively free from rinderpest, and it is
a measure that I should like to see carried out in other districts
where biosn occur.
(b) Outside Government Forests.
Very little game exists, and the remnant is rapidly vanishing.
2. (a) The species of animals for the protection of which
there is a special urgency.
Chital, black buck, chinkara, 4-horned antelope and, in some
parts, sambhur.
(b) Animals which do not require vigorous protection but need
a modified form of protection.
Bison only should be placed in this category.
LEGISLATION.
3. The effectiveness of the laws at present in force in various
Provinces which regulate the killing or trapping of Wild Life in
Government Forests. Proposals for their improvement where
necessary, particularly in regard to the use of motor cars, dazzle
light, nets and pits.
The present laws in force in the Madras Presidency would be
very effective if properly enforced. Suggested improvements are:
(1) Considerable moderation in the issue of gun _ licenses,
especially in areas adjacent to reserved or unreserved forests; (2)
the necessity of Magistrates consulting District Forest Officers on
all applications for arms licenses when the applicants reside within
poachable distance of reserved or unreserved forests; (3) the neces-
sity for far more severe and deterrent punishments on offenders
convicted under the Forest Laws and the Arms Act; (4) the neces-
sity for District Forest Officers to treat the subject of Game
Preservation as one of their most important duties; (5) stricter
rules in regard to the use of motor cars for shooting. It is sug-
gested that the Governments concerned should prohibit the shoot-
ing of large or small game within 100 to 200 yards of any public
road.
There is already a rule against shooting any animals except
the carnivores with a torchlight, and I do not think this can be
improved upon if enforced properly.
The stricter enforcement of the laws against netting and _ pit-
ting, both of which are carried on in out-of-the-way parts (in-
stances have been reported recently), and the prohibition of either
netting or pitting in unreserved forests.
4. The control of slaughter of Wild Life outside Government
Forests.
This is a more difficult matter, and I am not sure whether
Government have any legal right to put forward measures for the
control of slaughter in private lands. This is probably a case of
educating the landowners on the matter.
5. Legislation controlling sale of hides, horns, etc.
In the Madras Presidency I do not think there is any legisla-
tion in force at present prohibiting the marketing of flesh, hides
228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
and horns of game animals either in close season or out and such
legislation should be enacted at a very early date. A law against
the export of plumage exists; and legislation prohibiting the
marketing of all parts of game animals throughout the year is
very necessary.
Under the heading of legislation I should like to see the Indian
chevrotain or Mouse Deer added to the list of animals completely
protected, and the use of a shot gun (buck shot) on all deer and
antelope should be prohibited.
In Coimbatore a slp is now added to all shooting licenses
asking the licensees to look for and report to the District Forest
Officer of the Division in which they are ‘shooting all cases of
poachers’ machans on trees, or hides on the ground, over water
and salt-lcks which they may come across and this should be
made one of the clauses in the Rules attached to shooting licenses.
If Government could be persuaded to agree to the immediate
dismissal of any Forest Guard in whose beat an illicit hide or
machan is found the would-be poacher would receive a tremendous
knock, as no Forest Guard is going to risk losing his job to help
a poacher whatever inducement the latter may offer him.
ADMINISTRATION.
6. (a) The desirability of definitely laying on the Forest
Department the duty of preserving the Fauna and Flora (and not
merely trees) in the areas in their charge; (b) the desirability of
creating a distinct organisation within the Forest Department for
the protection of wild animals within Government Forests.
I consider it is definitely desirable to create a special depart-
ment, to be controlled by the Chief Conservator of Forests, for
the protection of wild animals within Government Reserved and
Unreserved Forests. The control of both the Forest and Game
Departments by the Chief Conservator of the Province should
remove most causes of friction that may otherwise occur between
the two Departments, whether the Game Warden is a seconded
Forest Officer or not. However much District Forest Officers
are encouraged to treat Game Preservation in the proper light
this interest is bound to fade again in course of time and will
only be kept alive by the existence of a Game Department with
which the Forest Officers will have to co-operate in full. The
existence of a Game Department is bound to improve matters
whether National Parks or Game Sanctuaries are established or
not.
7. The formation of National Parks or in the alternative of
strict Nature Reserves where possible, and 8. The question of
making separate financial provision or the “creation. 0f a special
fund for carrying out the work of conservation.
Tf the formation of a National Park in the Madras Presidency
is considered unfeasible, I do not think the necessity for a
separate financial provision will arise as a Game Department
would presumably be financed under an increased Forest Budget;
but for the creation of a National Park or Game Sanctuaries
separate financial provision would be required. ‘lwo areas do
I
PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 229
exist in the Madras Presidency which could be turned into
National Parks provided communications are improved, and here
the value of having the Chief Conservator of Forests as the head
of both Departments will be seen, as in one of the areas the
improvement of communications will assist considerably in the
extraction of forest produce: In this case the term ‘National
Park’ will not be correct as forest work will be carried on in that
area, and it would be a Game Sanctuary, but in either category
the control of the fauna in this area should fall on a Game Depart-
ment, and would have to have a special staff in permanent control
special funds for financing the work being drawn from the most
obvious sources, i.e., the revenue derived from :—
(1) Game lcenses;
(2) Licenses and permits for sporting arms;
(3) Import and export licenses for the above arms;
(4) Duty on sporting arms and cartridges;
(5) Licenses to sell or store sporting arms and cartridges;
(6) Fishing licenses;
(7) Fines and penalties for infringement of shooting rules;
(8) Fines imposed for offences connected with poaching euG:
(9) Sales of confiscated and picked up trophies and_ parts
of game animals and birds (both game and _ protected).
The other area is I consider eminently suitable for the forma-
tion of a National Park and should be self-supporting in course of
time.
GENERAL.
9. The position of the Cultivator in relation to Wild Life and
the provision which might be made for the protection of human
life and property in the neighbourhood of forests from the ravages
of wild beasts.
The damage done by wild beasts, other than elephants, is very
much exaggerated. Elephants do a lot of damage, in fact unless
early measures are taken to deal with the elephant menace it
will be, and has been in the last few years, an intolerable hard-
ship on the cultivator whose lands are adjacent to or surrounded
by forests in which elephants occur. It is suggested that one of
the best methods to meet the elephant problem is the appoint-
ment of three or four salaried men to shoot the leading offending
bulls at the time crops are being raided. I say ‘bulls’ as bulls
are generally the chief offenders, they play havoe with the crops,
either solitaries, in pairs, or as leaders of herds. The experience
in Africa has been, on a few of their leaders being shot, elephants
soon recognise raiding crops to be an unhealthy pastime. It is
only during the ee season, or for a month before, that the
damage from elephant occurs. Ivory from elephants shot would
be handed over to Government and should cover the salaries paid
out. <A strong fence round fields will keep out most of the other
animals that matter. The protection of human hfe hardly comes
into the question as regards the cultivated areas of the Madras
Presidency, except it be from elephants, and here again the
shooting of solitary tuskers has long been advocated being as often
230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
as not potential rogues, and nowadays many of them are wounded
by the muzzle-loading and cheap breech-loading guns of the
Ryots in cultivation. Solitaries which are not necessary for the
propagation of the species, generally hard to tame if captured,
often frequenting public roads and bridle paths, are a terror to
travellers, and sooner or later an accident occurs. I have said
‘tuskers’ as mucknas are not generally vicious, being usually of a
docile temperament.
One of the most important aspects of bird protection should
be kept well to the fore: the necessity of showing the cultivator
where he does wrong in killing out many of the species of birds
found on his land, and for this purpose an ecological bird survey
should be made of every province which will prove of immense
value in demonstrating the birds that are the friends and the
enemies of the cultivator. 3
10. Measures to restrict the possession or use of weapons
which may be used for poaching.
A great curb to poaching would be the recall of all guns
issued for the purpose of crop protection; immediately harvesting
is over, the issue of weapons to apphecants must be cutrailed:
this is very important.
Rewards should be offered, and paid out promptly, for in-
formation leading to the seizure of illicit guns, and action taken
to recover the weapons immediately information is received.
What frequently happens is this: A Sub-Inspector of Police
receives information that an illicit gun is to be found (either in
a hut, a grain pit, a hay-stack or more frequently in a watch-
man’s shelter on a tree). Instead of prompt action being taken
days elapse before constables are sent to recover the weapon and
in the meantime it has been removed. To my knowledge this
has occurred time and again, the informers get no reward or com-
pensation for their trouble, and so give no further information
in regard to any other weapons they may get to know of.
The same delay has been experienced over Range Officers taking
action when illicit machans and hides are reported, even when
instructed to proceed immediately to the spot by their District
Forest Officers. A few days are allowed to elapse before action
is taken, in the meantime the poachers get wind of the matter
and the machans or hides are removed.
A Forest Guard should be immediately dismissed if a poach-
ing case in his beat is not reported by him. It is suggested that
a Monegar, Village Munsiff, or Village Headman should be heavily
fined if a case of illicit possession of arms is discovered in his
village or villages under his jurisdiction. There is not the
slightest doubt that every Village Munsiff or Headman knows
exactly what arms there are in the village or villages under his
jurisdiction, whether licensed or unlicensed.
No. 8. HYDERABAD STATE.
BY
SaAuim ALI.
The Hyderabad State occupies an area of about 82,000 sq.
miles of the Deccan Plateau. Its north-eastern boundary adjoins
the Chanda District of the Central Provinces, renowned among
sportsmen of the last century as an ideal game country. Hyder-
abad State at one time, not so very long ago, provided some
of the finest big game shooting—especially tiger—in India, and
even at the present day inspite of the penetration and colonization
of vast tracts of forest land and the consequent depletion of wild
life, there still exist in the Dominions parts which are in no wise
inferior to the best that can be found elsewhere within the Indian
Empire. Some idea of the abundance of tigers in the last century
can be obtained from the fact that the famous shikari Col.
Nightingale (who died at Bolarum in 1868) alone killed during
his service over 800 tigers, the majority of which were in Hyderabad
territory.*
Status of Wild Life.
The wild life of Hyderabad is as varied as it is interesting.
Tigers are still comparatively. numerous in the forests of the
Eastern and Western Circles, which also contain some gaur.
Leopards and sloth bears are fairly plentiful; sambhur, cheetal,
muntjac, four-horned antelope, nilgai, black buck, chinkara,
hyaenas, wild dogs, jackals and wild pig are found in suitable loca-
lities, while there still remain a few cheetahs or hunting-leopards
and wolves. Besides these, porcupines and many other species
of smaller mammals are found. A few buffalo are said to occur
in the Kturnagaram Range of the Malig Talika (Warangal Dis-
trict) but their numbers are very small. The shooting of buffalo
and gaur has been totally prohibited for some years past, owing
to which they have, for the time being, been saved from extinction.
In his Reminiscences of Sport in India (published 1885) Major-
General EK. F. Burton mentions a herd of twelve wild elephants
near ‘Pereall’ Lake in 1847, which Were said to be descendants
of animals that had broken loose in the wars about 200 years
previously. In 1866 this herd had increased to fourteen or fifteen
individuals. Nothing is known as to what became of them until
the 1909 edition of the Imperial Gazetteer, which stated that there
was one single female still left in those parts. Despite the above,
however, Nawab Hamid Yar Jung Bahadir, the Inspector-General
7 It is of interest to note that since this article was written, the heir-
apparent Prince Azam Jah Bahadur, and partly recently (ca. May 1935) in
the course of 33 days shooting killed 35 tigers, in addition to bears, sambhur
and other game in the preserves of Pakhal, Miltig and elsewhere,
9329 JORUNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY | Volz 2OXxxVill.
of Forests, informs me that no elephants in a wild state have been
heard of in Parkal Taluka within the memory of the oldest man
living.
Provision for Protection of Wild Life.
Up to the year 1897 or thereabouts, there were apparently no
restrictions in Hyderabad against tiger or any other shooting.
The present Game Regulations came into force from 28 September
1914. For the purpose of their application, the Dominions are
divided into four circles which include both reserved and open
forests. They also include Jagir and Samastan forests as well
as the private Game Preserves or Shikargahs of His Exalted High-
ness the Nizam. The Paigah Nobles, who have extensive estates
(the largest being that of Nawab Moin-ud-dowla Bahadtr which
covers an area of 1,287 sq. miles) the owners of Samastans, and
the Jagirdars manage their own forests and are entitled to regulate
shooting on their private domains. The rules relating to close
seasons, shooting of does and immature animals, and the restric-
tion against shooting buffalo, guar and hunting-leopards are, how-
ever, applicable to them. Theoretically speaking, therefore, no
shooting can be done in the State without either a license from
the Government or a permit from the Paigah Nobles, Samastan-
owners or Jagirdars concerned.
According to the Game Regulations only one circle is thrown
open for shooting each year from 1 March to 31 May and again for
ten days at Christmas. For black buck the open season is 1 Decem-
ber to 81 May. Only half the number of districts comprising such
circles are open at a time, and shooting areas in these open districts
are also defined. Certain areas are thrown open and others closed
to tiger shooting from time to time depending upon the increase or
decrease of these animals.
Forest Areas.
The most important game forests at present are:
Eastern Circle.
1. Warangal.
2. Khammam.
3. Karimnagar.
4, Nizamabad.
te
Western Circle.
1. Asifabad (formerly known as Jangaon).
2) Nirmal:
3. Mahbubnagar.
In addition to the above, the forests of Garlah Jagir and
Paloncha Samastan contain big game.
The three principal Shikargahs of H. E. H. the Nizam are:
1. Pakhal, situated in the Pakhal and Mahbtbabad Talikas
of Warangal District and managed by the Forest Department
under whom there is a special Miantazim or Warden and a staff
of watchers. Area 845.75 sq. miles,
, i
PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 233:
2. Saroonagar, and
8. Alampalli both aise in the Atraf-e-Balda District
and managed by a special establishment under the Sadral Moham,
Sarf-e-khas Mubarak.
The Pakhal Preserve contains mostly all the big game animals
of the State, while the other two which are in open scrub country,
have chiefly black buck, hare, partridge and quail.
The Shikargaéhs are governed by special rules sanctioned by the
Nizam. The Pakhal shikargah was abolished some years ago
which led to a rapid felling and bringing under cultivation of some
of the jungles, with a corresponding diminution of wild life. About
four years ago the preserve was re-established. Though for a
practical purposes the area is a sanctuary (H. EB. H. bimselt i
not keen on shooting, and the two elder princes generally rie
there only about once a year or so) it is doubtful whether with
the exception, perhaps, of tiger, the reservation contains as much
game as may be expected. The g eame-watchers that I came across
when on ornithological survey work in this part of the country
as thoroughly inefficient, and informa-
tion supplied by them, wherever it could be tested, proved un-
reliable in nine cases out of ten. From my experience of these
men (unfortunately the Mintazim himself had died just a few
days before my coming to Pakhal) it is not inconceivable that a
good deal of poaching is tolerated by them, either actively or
through indifference or neglect. A proper enquiry alone can show
if at the present time game is really in any better position here
than elsewhere in the State forests, if indeed as much. Col. R. W.
Burton informs me that in connection with the visit of a Viceroy
in 1902 or thereabouts, Mr. Hankin, the then Inspector-General
of Police, and Mr. Biscoe, Conservator of Forests, went through
the Pakhal country on purpose to see what game there was. They
told him afterwards that they had seen no ‘animal’, and only one
peafowl!
Depletion of Game Animals.
Inspite of the measures promulgated for the protection and
preservation of the fauna, which theoretically speaking should give
adequate protection to the existing species, Hyderabad ear ohare
ately is no longer the prolific game country it was during the
last century, and even during the past thirty years there has
been a steady and perceptible diminution. The chief causes of
the decline will be analysed later; in the meantime it is interest-
ing to collate the present conditions with whatever little informa:
tion we can gather concerning the recent past. In the middle of
last century the country bei een Hingoli and Bokar (Nandér Dis-
trict, Western Circle) was famous for tiger and Col. Nightingale
shot many of his animals there. In two seasons (March-April)
1897 and 1899, Brigadier-General R. G. Burton of the then
Hyderabad Contingent, killed twenty-six tigers in Sirptr-Tandar,
mostly round Jangaon—the present Asifabad. On his last visit
to this district in 1899 he still found tigers as numerous as ever,
and heard fifteen years later that they were just as abundant.
234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
He always thought there was a great breeding-ground of tigers in
the stretch of Hyderabad territory south of the Peinganga River in
the Béla and Rajura talukas of the Sirpar-Tandir District and
sees no reason why it should not now be as full of tiger as it was
thirty-five years ago. Whatever the reason, those conversant with
modern conditions in Hyderabad will agree that this is unfortun-
ately not the case. The Ajanta Range all along the Khandésh
border north of Aurangabad to Kannad was also famous for tiger
in the early part of the last century, but now merely harbours
occasional stragglers.
There were a few herds of gaur in Sirpur-Tandtr in the
1890’s. One whole herd was reported to have perished from foot-
and-mouth disease at Manikgarh. These animals are now very
scarce, and though I often heard of their occurrence, I actually
saw only one pair at Utnoor, and from the footmarks I came across
in that part of the country they were obviously rare. Inspite,
however, of the total prohibition of the killing of these bovines, I
came across more persons than one who boastfully claimed to have
shot them in recent years!
As regards cheetal, General Burton says: ‘In days when
cheetal were in vast numbers in the Kinwat (now I think called
the Peinganga Reserve) there were scarcely any in adjoining
Hyderabad territory across the river. The same with regard to
antelope of which there were vast herds in Berar, but few over
the Nizim’s border.’ It appears therefore that the mischief had
already made good progress by the time of which General Burton
writes.
Jerdon, in the first quarter of the last century, referred to
herds of thousands of black buck in the country around Jalna.
According to Col. R. W. Burton there were in 1897-1903. black
buck and chinkara along the railway line between Secunderabad
and Manmad, but fast being wiped out. In 1892 he saw herds
of many hundred black buck when marching through the country.
In 1903 these herds had dwindled to a dozen to twenty, not more.
Though still fairly plentiful in some of the remoter parts of the
Mahrattwada districts, black buck are fast disappearing with the
advance of colonisation and increasing facilities of swift transport,
coupled with a complete disregard on the part of the man with
the gun for age, sex or season. Herds of more than a few indi-
viduals are now uncommon, and heads of any decent size difficult
to find. 3
General Burton says that in 1895-1899 there was plenty of
feathered game in Hyderabad—Grey and Painted Partridge and
Sandgrouse. This is now in a particularly bad way and needs
speedy and drastic measures to restore it to anything like its
former abundance.
My work in connection with the recent Hyderabad Ornitho-
logical Survey (1931-32) took me to many parts of the country
once famous for game, and | made a point of investigating as far
as possible into the present state of affairs. On the whole, it
seemed to me that compared with accounts of even as recently
as thirty years ago, the condition is distinctly poor, and this con-
PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 235
clusion has since been confirmed by the State Inspector-General
of Forests. It is true that tigers are still plentiful in certain
portions of the Godavari Forest Belt, but a rapid diminution in
their numbers is inevitable if the present attitude of apathy is
persisted in and things allowed to drift as now. Moving about
the country as a non-official outsider, I had many opportunities of
entering into conversation with people in every walk of life from
whom much useful information could be gleaned concerning the
subject. Moreover, once their initial suspicion was allayed and
they perceived that my interest was chiefly confined to collecting
birds, they came out with a good deal more about their exploits
with the larger game animals than it would have been possible to
extract by direct cross-examination. All I had usually to do was
to lead them up to a point and leave them to damn themselves!
Even after due allowance for bravado and for shikari’s tales,
the magnitude of the wanton destruction of life that goes on
everywhere, was manifest.
What struck me as curious was that inspite of the formalities
and obstacles in the way of getting shooting licenses and the limits
of bags, as prescribed under the Regulations,’ almost every man
possessing a gun boasted of the number of tiger, sambhur, cheetal,
often gaur and other game he had shot and was still continuing
to shoot! The more discoursive ones could, with sufficient en-
couragement, usually be made to reveal the objectionable methods
they employed, which they often did not unmixed with a certain
measure of pride in their achievements. In the course of my
wanderings in the forest at Nelipaka (in the Paloncha Samastan),
Amrabad, Utnoor and elsewhere, I constantly came upon machans
built on trees or pits dug round the edges of swamps or pools in
nullah-beds, etc., from whose concealment these relentless gunners
slaughtered every animal that came to drink, regardless of the
season or whether it was male, female or young. The pity of it
is that in many cases this destruction is made possible not only
by a passive connivance of the petty officials who have a share in
the spoils, but often with their direct abetment. A petty police,
revenue or forest official who hears guns popping off almost every
night close to his village even in seasons when there are no crops
to justify them, can usually be induced to ‘keep the peace’ if he
receives a leg of venison as hush-money. I say this with’ first-
hand knowledge, and it is a fact known well enough to many of
the higher officials with whom I had occasion to discuss the ques-
tion, but who are powerless to put a stop to the practice under
prevailing conditions. Sambhur and cheetal are perhaps the worst
sufferers, and in areas where they were plentiful as recently as
10 years ago, a marked decline in their numbers is noticeable.
It is sad, but nevertheless true, that some of the greatest
offenders are not the ignorant ryot and the village shikari, but
directly or indirectly they are people like vakils, officials (usually,
but not always, petty!) and well-to-do and_ so-called educated
1 Clause 21 even says ‘ application from non-officials will be entertained
but this I understand is now obsolete,
236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
citizens who should know better. They either do the slaughtering
themselves, regardless of Regulations and time of year, or lend out
their guns to professional shikaris, or encourage the latter in-
directly by commissioning them to procure game for them or by
readily buying up whatever is offered for sale at all times of the
year.
This indirect sort of abetment is not confined to four-footed
game, but applies largely also to game birds such as partridge and
quail. While on survey work on the outskirts of Aurangabad
town in the second half of April (1982), I came upon a party of
professional snarers complete with paraphernaha and decoy birds:
Investigation showed that these men had been commissioned to
catch bush-quails for a dinner being given the next day by a
military ‘Burra Saheb’ of the British Cantonments! These pro-
fessional snarers—Pardis and others—are veritable pests, but it is
only thus that they are able to carry on their nefarious operations
year in, year out, with the result that in many areas feathered
game has been reduced to the verge of extinction. In the words
of a Inghly-placed police officer who was also a keen sportsman
and Nature-lover and strived at all times to ensure an observance
of the Game Regulations, ‘The man with the gun does not do
half so much damage (to feathered game) as the snarer. He is
like a broom, for he sw eeps everything before him into his net.’
Principal Reasons for Depletion of Game.
Some of the causes contributory to the rapid and steady deple-
tion of wild life in the Hyderabad State have been hinted at above.
Many of them are the same as obtaining in other parts of India,
but there are others which are peculiar to the Dominions and
the direct outcome of conditions there prevailing. To tabulate
them all, they are as follows
1. Enormous and continued increase of population in the
last two decades as shown by the Census Reports of 1921 and
1931.
2. Improvement, extension and opening up of new roads
and railway lines (cf. the Kazipet-Belharsha line and others) and
the introduction and penetration of motor cars and buses, which
combined with (1), are having the effect of throwing open large
tracts of country that hitherto provided a refuge to wild life.
3. The facilities provided by (2) in bringing distant game
tracts within speedy and comfortable reach of the man with the
gun.
I remember that:-in October 1925, just after the monsoon, it
took me three days by bullock-cart to reach Utnoor from Nirmal.
There was no road most of the way and the journey had to be
done over cart tracks little better than boulder-strewn ravines,
and through swollen streams with rocky beds and_ steep muddy
banks in which the wheels sank to the axle-trees. It was an ex-
perience not to be repeated in a hurry, however keen a shikari
one might be. With the opening up of the Hatnir-Utnoor road,
off the main Nirmal-Adilabad road, the: same journey was per-
PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 237
formed in 1932 by motor car in about as many hours! As Utnoor.
lies in the midst of some of the finest shooting country, the effect
of this innovation on game can be imagined.
In the exploits of veteran shikaris of the 1890’s, like General
Burton, one constantly comes across names of places in the State
like Jangéon (now Asifabad) which it took him days of riding or
marching to reach, and with an infinite amount of bandobast for
his kit. The place is now accessible by rail and bus within a
fraction of the time, and with no more bandobast than the pur-
chasing of one’s ticket!
4. Shooting from motor cars and buses both by day and by
night is a growing menace. ‘The practice has assumed alarming
proportions since the Game Regulations were promulgated in 1914,
and since it 1s apparently not contrary to law, it is freely indulged
in by all and sundry.
5. The non-existence hitherto of the Arms Act and the easy
availability of cheap guns of foreign and local manufacture, and
of gunpowder and percussion caps for muzzle-loaders.
6. Indiscriminate poaching and slaughter of game for com-
mercial purposes at all times of the year.
7. Wholesale snaring, netting and trapping of game birds
such as partridge and quail, often at all seasons, and the taking
of their eggs.
8. Droughts and epidemics.
9. Wild Dogs.
Remedies Suggested.
1, 2, 38. Increase of population, clearance of forest lands,
extension of cultivation and of transport facilities are the natural
concomitant of progress, and it would be unreasonable to check
these, except perhaps (1), for which suggestions are out of place
here! No, case can be made out for protection of wild life at the
expense of human interests. However, a strict observance of the
Game Regulations in such areas should be enforced and punish-
ments of a deterrent nature meted out to offenders uniformly,
regardless of rank or social position.
4. Shooting from cars and buses, especially by night with
the aid of powerful headlights and electric torches, should be
made unlawful.
5. The recent introduction of the Arms Act into the State
has not been a day too early. The restriction it will impose on
the possession of firearms and on the purchase of ammunition, gun-
powder and percussion caps should, if properly enforced, have a
beneficial effect on wild life in course of time.
6 and 7. It is a fact that most of the poaching—slaughtering
and snaring—is done for monetary gain and is encouraged directly
or indirectly by people who have no excuse for pleading ignorance
of the law. It is an axiom that if there were no receivers of
stolen property there would be no thefts committed which, in
the main, is unassailable. Therefore, if the promiscuous purchase
of the meat, hides and horns of game animals (except perhaps of
game birds in season under a regulated system) was made illegal,
238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
as well as the sale of these articles, the chief incentive to poach-
ing would be eliminated and a oreat deal of professional poach-
ing would disappear. I suggest that as regards partridge and
quail, areas should be set apart in rotation to remain entirely
closed to snaring and trapping at all seasons, until such time as
they become sufficiently replenished. The taking of eggs of all
game birds should be made punishable.
8. Droughts can be remedied to some extent by the provision
of reservoirs and by means of canals and channels leading from
them. This has already been partly achieved in certain areas, cf.
Pakhal and Nizamsagar Lakes, and others. In times of drought,
such places tend to draw round them animals from distant parts
and, wherever possible, adequate forest land should be set apart
near such reservoirs to provide harbourage to wild life at ordinary
times, and specially in seasons of water famine.
Epidemics.
According to the Inspector-General of Forests, no epidemics
among wild animals are reported, and no measures are taken to
protect game in the forest against them. That measures are
called for, however, is patent; an instance has been given above
of a whole herd of bison being exterminated by foot-and-mouth
disease near Manikgarh and the late Mr. HE. Ogilvie, a District
Superintendent of Police, informed me that some years ago
hundreds of animals perished in the Warangal District in a similar
epidemic.
Large tracts of game country have been known to be cleared
by rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease contracted from infected
cattle left to graze in forests inhabited by wild animals. Measures
should be enforced that as soon as the first signs of an outbreak
of these epidemics are detected in village cattle, they should be
prevented from being let loose in Government forests containing
game. One epidemic of this sort, as is well known, will do damage
from which it will be difficult for game to regain its position for
years afterwards. Often the damage is irreparable, and in many
cases the serious diminution, or even complete extinction, of bison
and buffalo in certain areas can be traced directly to disease con-
tracted in this way from domestic cattle.
9. Wild Dogs do considerable damage to game, Ai inspite of
a recent suggestion that their ravages have been over-estimated,
it cannot be denied that measures devised to reduce their numbers
in certain other Indian States and Provinces resulted manifestly
in a corresponding increase of such animals as sambhur and cheetal
which are their favourite prey. It may be a fact that they
actually drive away more game than they kill, but it is none the
less true that they do considerable slaughter. Moreover, the game
thus driven out often suffers heavily in an indirect way by being
forcibly exposed to other dangers perhaps just as great, if not
greater. It may, for instance, be driven from its forest fast-
nesses to the neighbourhood of villages and cultivation, where it
stands a good chance of falling to the gun of the village shikari
or poacher, or in the case of young animals, to his dogs.
PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA _ |. 239
When I was at Asifabad, the surrounding country was overrun
by wild dogs, in consequence of which forests said to contain a
fair amount of game ordinarily, were bare. I shot a wild dog
which was later sent with the shikari to the kutcheri for claiming
the prescribed reward. The Tahsildar was wholly unaware of
any reward having to be paid! Enquiries of the Inspector-General
of Forests elicited that some years ago rewards were paid for
killing wild dogs (as per Clause 42 of the Game Regulations) but
due to disuse this had become a dead letter and no rewards were
now being paid. In my opinion, no case has been made out for
the discontinuance of the rewards and the sooner they are re-
instated the better.
The existing Game Regulations, with perhaps a few alterations
and additions, are sound enough on paper. Their application and
enforcement is quite another matter. Mr. Hankin, a former
Inspector-General of Police, tried his best during many years, but
though a forceful and able officer, it is doubtful if he was able
to effect much. Neither have the authorities at the top relaxed
their efforts since, but for all practical purposes the position has
not improved. In my opinion the immediate way of dealing with
the problem as far as the State is concerned, would be to form a
small committee comprised of a competent non-official sportsman
and naturalist, and Forest, Police and Revenue interests to go
into the matter thoroughly and de novo, and to investigate the
exact present position of wild life from district to district.
Having once determined this, and with due regard to the varying
conditions, they should be able to devise practicable measures for
giving effect to the remedies suggested above and to any others
that may seem to them necessary.
There are extensive tracts of forest in the State which might
be demarcated and set apart as Wild Life Sanctuaries on the
model of the National Parks now in existence in most civilised
countries of the West. Three suitable localities suggested by the
Inspector-General of Forests for such reservtaion are: (1) along
the cart track from Asifabad to Utnoor-Adilabad District; (2) Am-
rabad-Mahbtbnagar District; (8) around the newly constructed
Nizamsagar Lake—Médak District. For the administration of
these reservations and also for a proper administration of the Game
Regulations in other State forests, the need of creating a separate
and efficient Game Department becomes imperative. This should
consist of a Game Warden with a staff of assistants, and watchers
of the right type. It should either be subject to the Inspector-
General of Forests and work in full co-operation with his depart-
ment, or better still be directed by a small committee consisting
of the Inspector-General of Forests, the Inspector-General of
Police, the Revenue Member and the Game Warden (ez-officio).
By a curious anachronism, shooting licenses are at present issued
by the Political Department. Whatever may have been the
origin and desirability of this practice in the past, it is clear that
the function should now be transferred to the Forest Department
where it rightly belongs. Later it could be taken over by the
Game Department. The present procedure has little to recom-
240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
mend it; it results in unnecessary inconvenience and lack of co-
ordination which does not make for efficiency.
After a proper investigation into the problem of wild life con-
servation in the Nizam’s Dominions, as elsewhere, it emerges
more clearly: than ever that at the back of all the senseless
slaughter and law-breaking, which has brought about the present
sorry plight, is the apathy of public opinion towards the need for
the preservation of our fauna. The backing of public opinion is
vital to the success of a campaign of this nature. Lectures and
the exhibition of suitable cinema films should be organised in order
to rouse the public from its apathy and make it realise the value
and importance of wild life, and appreciate the measures and the
arguments put forward for its protection and preservation. <A
beginning must also be made with children in the schools, by
means of properly arranged Nature Study programmes, so that
they will grow up to a love of Nature Study programmes, so that
responsibility for the conservation of wild life which is their
natural heritage. Let us hope it will not be too late before the
necessary steps are taken by the authorities.
T am indebted for much interesting information concerning
game in the Hyderabad State in the recent past to the two vete-
ran sportsmen brothers Brigadier-General R. G. and Col. R. W.
Burton, and to Nawab Hamid Yar Jung Bahadar, the State
Inspector-General of Forests, for his ready and willing co-opera-
tion in supplying me with a great deal of authentic data relating
to modern conditions and to the existing Game Regulations and
their administration in the Dominions.
DEHRA Dun,
80th September, 1933.
No. 9. MYSORE.
BY
Major EK. G. PuytHiAn-ADAMS, F.Z.S.
The State of Mysore is an elevated table-land varying in alti-
tude for the most part from 2,500 to 3,000 ft. above sea-level.
The Western Ghats rising to some 5,000 ft. bound it on the
west and break the force of the South-West Monsoon. On the
south are the Nilgiri Hills and on the south-east the Bulligiri-
rangans, the highest point of which is about 5,000 ft. above sea-
level. In the interior the country is undulating and in many
parts hilly. Generally speaking the northern part of the State con-
sists of open plains with occasional rocky hills, the centre is the
most intensely cultivated, while on the western and _ southern
fringes are the denser forests. The total area of the State is
some 380,000 sq. miles of which forests cover over one-tenth. The
forests are divided into: (1) Game Preserves which are closed to
all shooting and fishing except by special permission; (2) State
forests corresponding to Reserved forests in British India where
the pursuit of game is illegal except on licence; and (8) District
forests which now hold little but small game, panthers and wild
pig.
Mysore is the fortunate possessor of a fauna so diverse and
varied that few other parts of India can equal it. The extensive
open plains of the north are the home of numerous herds of black
buck, which extend more or less over all cultivated areas of the
‘State; the more broken country holds chinkara and wolves, while
nilgai though uncommon are still reported to exist in certain
parts. The forests contain herds of elephant and bison, and a
good herd of sambhur and spotted deer, while lesser fry, barking
deer, wild pig, etc. are common in suitable localities. The State
contains some famous tiger grounds and panthers are ubiquitous,
though hunting leopards are probably now extinct. Bears are
fairly common in certain parts and wild dogs even more so. The
list of indigenous small game includes the Great Indian Bustard,
Florican, Peafowl, Jungle and Spurfowl, Partridge, Sandgrouse
(two or more varieties), several species of Quail, Green, Bluerock
and Imperial Pigeons, and the Indian Hare, to which must be
added in the cold weather countless numbers of Snipe, Duck and
Teal and some Bar-headed Geese, which find rich subsistence in the
paddy fields and on the irrigation tanks with which the State is
so well provided. Apart from game birds Mysore is particularly
rich in bird life both resident and migrant, and it is to be hoped
that before long a regular scientific survey of it will be carried
out as has been already done in other parts of South India.
The principal rivers of the State are the Cauvery and Kabbany,
and on the northern border the Tungabhadra, and there are
numerous subsidiary streams, all of them holding the snub-nosed
16
242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
crocodile and immense numbers of fish: mahseer, carp, murrel,
labeo, etc. providing not only excellent sport but also an impor-
tant item of food supply to the population.
The above short survey will show how varied the Fauna, is,
and it now remains to compare the past with the present, to con-
sider the Game Laws, and to make any suggestions for further
safeguarding an asset of such importance.
For information about wild life in the State in years gone by
we are largely dependent on the well-known works of Sanderson
and other sportsmen. In those days there were apparently no
game preserves and one gathers, no game laws either. Big and
small game of all kinds was plentiful and the bags obtained were
certainly larger than would be possible now. But already by
1900 a distinct decrease was noticeable for Russell writing in that
year remarks that: ‘One has only to read old sporting books and
even so comparatively recent a one as Mr. Sanderson’s and to
know the forests as they are at this day, to fully appreciate the
terrible rate at which game has decreased and is ever decreasing
in Mysore’; and personal enquiries from older residents in the
State confirm a great decrease of big game in the District forests,
and to a lesser degree in the State forests, though the position
in the Game Preserves is less unfavourable.
Due consideration must however be given to the inevitable
restrictions imposed on wild life by the opening up of fresh areas
to cultivation, the increase of population and consequent increased
number of arms licences, and improved communications and
means of transport, and if all these are taken into account, it would
be unreasonable to consider the present position as unsatisfactory,
though certain steps are most desirable to prevent further deteri-
oration.
Elephants which are strictly protected as in British India con-
tinue to provide sufficient numbers for the famous kheddahs as
and when required. There is no dearth of bison and good heads.
are still obtainable. Sambhur and spotted deer are still to be
found in fair numbers. Black buck which in some parts were
certainly in danger of extermination before the War have now
largely recovered, thanks to protection. Tigers are as numerous as
ever in Shimoga and Bandipur though they appear to have deserted
Sanderson’s old shooting grounds on the south-eastern — border,
probably owing to all the deer there having been killed off.
Panthers continue to be as much a pest as ever. Wild dogs are
certainly not on the decrease in spite of the reward placed on
their destruction. Bears seem to have changed their habits to
some extent and to have become more nocturnal than in Sander-
son’s time, but though harder to find they certainly exist in fair
numbers. Wolves certainly have decreased, which will not be
regretted by sheep owners whose herds used to suffer severely
from their depredations. Up to about 1914 a few were shot
almost every year close to the capital but a careful search in
recent years has failed to discover their existence within many
miles of the city. Turning to birds the only resident which has
seriously decreased is the Great Indian Bustard. A few pairs
....PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 243
still exist in favoured localities in the centre of the State, their
numbers slightly increasing as one goes north, but at the best
there are very few left and their survival if left longer without
protection is most unlikely. Great numbers of partridges and
junglefowl are snared and sold in the towns throughout the year
and this unrestricted slaughter is already having its effect though
there is little fear of their extermination at present. Of the
migratory birds duck and teal have certainly greatly decreased in
numbers during the past ten years but this is a matter hardly with-
in the control of the State authorities though some improvement
might be effected in the case of the spotbill duck and whistling
teal numbers of which stay to breed locally, were the trade in
their eggs made illicit. The shooting of Demoiselle cranes might
well be prohibited in certain areas where their pursuit offends the
religious prejudices of the inhabitants. Their numbers are so vast
that there is little fear of their being seriously reduced, but pro-
tection seems desirable for the reason given, as more than one
fracas has already occurred in this connection.
So far as is known the only attempt to introduce exotic fauna
was the importation of a herd of fallow deer a few years back, but
unfortunately the experiment failed as they were quickly killed
off by wild dogs. There should however be less difficulty in intro-
ducing gooral which could be obtained without much _ trouble
from the lower Himalayas and for which an ideal locality could
be found in the isolated Gopalswamibetta hill. Such an addition
to the fauna would be of great interest as at present this species
is unknown in South India.
The Game Laws of the State were revised in 1931 and on
paper serve as a model of their kind. In general they follow
those in force in the Nilgiris and other parts of British India, but
there are two important clauses which strike a new note in Game
Preservation in India, viz.: (1) classification of tigers as ‘game’
with an annual bag limit of two; and (2) imposing on private
owners the necessity for taking out a licence before they can shoot
game on their own land. The damage done by tigers is often
much exaggerated and the help which they give to the ryot by
destroying deer and pig forgotten, and the Mysore Government
deserves great credit for its bold step in giving them some form
of protection, an example which might well be followed in other
parts of India. The clause regarding private lands is of course on
the lines in force in Great Britain and as such is a distinct
advance, though it might have made clear the inalienable right
of the owner to game on private land, a most important point
which seems to have been overlooked in other parts of India also,
as the private owner can do so much to protect the wild life on
his land if educated to do so.
A noticeable omission from the Laws is any clause dealing
with that modern pest the motor car shooter. Shooting from cars
is indefensible; it is not sport but slaughter, and far too many
animals escape to die a lingering death. It has been very rightly
banned in Hast Africa with severe penalties, and recently we
understand in the Bombay Presidency and in the Nilgiris, and
244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Mysore which justly prides itself on being an advanced State would
do well to follow this good example. At present the practice is
on the increase, and one hears almost incredible stories of bursts
of rapid fire at herds of bison, of animals shot and left to rot
by the roadside, and of lorries specially equipped with spotlights
for poaching sambhur etc. at night. No shooting should be per-
mitted within 100 yards of a car, and heavy penalties enforced
for breach of this rule.
As has been said above, the existing Game Laws are a model
of their kind, but as has been found in other parts of India, it
is one thing to pass a law and quite another to enforce it. The
public generally and many even of the subordinate officials appear
to have no knowledge of the existence of these laws, far less of
their provisions, and poaching is widespread and largely unchecked.
Public opinion is not yet sufficiently educated to realise the im-
portance of the preservation of the fauna, and until the scope and
purpose of the Game Laws are more widely known, it cannot be
expected that their provisions will be generally observed. Much
good would be effected if the subordinate Government officials of
all Departments concerned were made to realise their responsibility
in the matter, and this apples with particular force to the Forest
Range Officers who if they hke can put a definite stop to all
poaching.
But still more important is the education of public opinion
which can best be effected by propaganda in the Press, by lectures
and nature classes in schools and colleges, by the formation of
local associations for the study and protection of wild life, and
by collaboration with similar societies already existing in other
parts of India.
Equally important is the creation of a Wild Life Fund to
which would be credited all revenue from arms licences, shooting
and fishing lieence fees, fines for offences, ete. while the Fund
would be used to pay rewards for the destruction of vermin, for
preventing poaching, and for the upkeep of a Game Warden and
National Park. At present there are in the State no sanctuaries
for wild life, though to a certain extent the Game Preserves take
their place, but a stricter supervision is required if these are to
fulfil a really useful purpose. It is suggested that part of the
Bandipur Game Preserve might with advantage be turned into a
National Park. This area holds a good head of game and wild
life generally, and being adjacent to the strictly preserved Mudu-
malai forest under control of the N.G.A. could be easily policed.
Bandipur les on the main road some 50 miles equidistant from
Ootacamund and Mysore City, and a well organised Park there
should prove a great attraction. The existing Travellers’ Bungalow
could be easily enlarged to provide the necessary accommodation.
There is no doubt that the presence of sportsmen in shooting
areas is one of the greatest curbs on the activities of the poacher,
and more encouragement should be given them by reducing lhcence
fees which are at present excessive in comparison with the bag
obtainable and by throwing open to the general public some at
any rate of the Game Preserves,
PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 245
Legislation is also required to prevent the sale of game in the
close season; this would considerably restrict the activities of the
motor poacher who shoots solely for gain.
To sum up, the present position of wild life in Mysore is, con-
sidering all the factors involved, not unsatisfactory; but this posi-
tion will certainly deteriorate seriously in the near future unless
steps are taken to prevent it, in which connection the following
are suggested as most important:
(1) Strict enforcement of the existing Game Laws;
(2) Education of public opinion in every possible way;
(3) Formation of a Wild Life Fund;
(4) Prohibition of all motor car shooting;
5) Prohibition of sale of game out of season and control of
traffic in hides and horns;
) Protection for the Great Indian Bustard;
') Encouragement of genuine sportsmen; and
(8) Establishment of a National Park.
Mysore has been blessed by Nature with an unusually rich
fauna, and every possible step should be taken in time to safe-
guard it and to make its people realise the importance from every
point of view of such a national asset.
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A ene: 8vo. Half bound.
VOL. Ill.
PHEASANTS AND BUSTARD- QUAIL,
About 320 pp. With 12 Coloured Plates and
numerous Black and White Plates.
Price to Members who have not Suikogaeed
Wools. laee re. b Pomke 1 0O=Rs. Za.
Members who have purchased: one
of the above Volumes ... 4 1-10-0=Rs. 20.
Members who have purchased —
both the above Volumes ... £ 1- 5-O=Rs. 17.
Price to Non-members. Two Guineas=Rs. 28.
Packing and postage extra.
COMMON INDIAN BIRDS.
: ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR.
Two hundred and ten Common Birds of the
Indian Plains, arranged in a set of 5 Charts
measuring 40x 36 in., fitted with wooden rollers and designed
for hanging on a wall.
€
Price to Members ... Rs. ae Poste ,
, Non-members ... Rs. 45
Packing extra.
Apply to:—
The Bombay Natural History Suciety, |
6, Apollo Street, BOMBAY. |
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