Full text of "Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society"

See other formats

e
Pw
‘ed
ay
ang » ,
eG : :
ies é ,
i ba R,,
recy ; ;
i sti
pe ‘ “
% 8
‘ a
aes
fs
z

we os i
Pe

ai a oe ae!
pat & ca

TENE

‘) i :

ecipiae R
OE Cap
act Pee Wea rN
ge eA LN
tna ee

ee ame Sy i rn biter a
‘halle bar of Bre. bd ne Na pierre es | og He Fai sg Te aS, ane A
a NEES ‘ sp eg Napa ao?
soeNeToN Sealer ee ein

3
ater

paral
BoE AME Ip
AE te ah EUs
High aye E ae gation
ite gee FO Sed
aN

me et
“Shiai

yes

we a 2)
jes

ar.

ected
rears aa

Wy _ is ,
¢ ‘& arte “ue

err iane
oe SS,
Fig sie,
iy EB,

<a
hk Fe

oon
Cod
ak

a
|
|

He HE

ia it

of
ae

ah ora i) RY pean Ge g My GB fe eh ete
: es, mas. agi Gita
| caer ae Al sab ahare Pola a ef
a Re if , Ni Pee a : Shore gu 0h i

; A EA gael Note” ‘ Bin aera Ch et
Sa a a Sent emer “Stine ae

Mey

ui
Saal

he
aad abay
yl

ey Le Hee

| wait Sait

Mie! oa Fhe i

ea LTV Tr
Sia 28

“

tad F fis ;
re

fb
F ahha

&et

AL 2 8
rien

fee.
Be
Fa, Be
reaps A
tye

ce BIg
Oe LaLa: 2
‘\ rai SOME yaar
Se i z,

EE a ae. ‘% ; agit
a 6 a fess 3, %| Pecattel re
Bee =, LB . H re
Ae EP iy 2 , es
Ke a

x aoe Ts A

yo Paes

1 5 He 53 Yk, Mo gk
y Ect ts : tas bes : ; e, tes os Dut
S>, thee ct Otte Reese Bs =f if 2 gate) ae : Sr Rey tae
ke aca ee SERS
.

ie
fires

ahr r
ep yh eee A

Pedant §

A,
oy
&

ee
ets

ote.

A ota
we
re
o
fe,
at at

ies
ri oie
rote
Esa oe
af
atte

ie
“Be

pa Prpart

apttiae)
keel

|e ee
pt

il
|

ree i
py seul
oN oe
A, ie .
Lae
ie

ae « zs ° = Fs
cite ‘,
fot eg ‘ a

7
a

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

aie Vol. 61, No. 1

Editors
H. SANTAPAU, s.J., & ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

APRIL 1964

Rs. 15

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-
tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published
elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names
always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a
place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis
or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where
identification has been authentically established by comparison of
specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification
is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good
contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.205.60 cm.
(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,
preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the
paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books
not underlined (roman type), thus :

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by
a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles
free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be
given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders
for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be
received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance
of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and
packing. Ho ee

EDITORS,

91, Walkeshwar Road, - . Journal of the Bombay Natural
Bombay 6-WB. History Society.

VOLUME 61, NO. 1—APRIL 1964

Date of publication : 25 August 1964

CONTENTS

ONE NEST OF Sceliphron madraspatanum (FABR.) (SPHECIDAE ; HYMENOPTERA).
By H. Spurway, K. R. Dronamraju, and S. D. aes (With 18 figures in
four plates) ie - ; a ts

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES OF RAJASTHAN. By K. S. Sankhala. (With two plates) ..

NOTES ON THE OUTCOME OF LITERATURE SURVEY FOR WEALTH OF INDIA—RAW
MATERIALS. By K. R. Ramanathan, R.C. Sawhney, and J. M. Dutta

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES : FAMILY ANTHOSOMIDAE—2. By
N. Krishna Pillai. (With seven text-figures)

ON THE FOOD AND OTHER HABITS OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO (Phoenicopterus
roseus PALLAS) IN INDIA. By Humayun Abdulali. (With two plates)

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS. II. Cyanophyta. By S. K. Goyal.
(With three plates)

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FIsHEs. Part I—Ophicephalus
punctatus Bloch. By A. Qayyum and S. Z. Qasim. (With eight figures). .

THE BNHS/WHO Birp MIGRATION StuDyY ProjEcT—4. Activities from
13-9-1963 to 23-3-1964. By Salim Ali

Two New SPECIES OF MARINE BORERS OF GENUS Nausitora (MOLLUSCA :
TEREDINIDAE) FROM WEST BENGAL, INDIA. By A. S. Rajagopal. (With two
text-figures and one plate)

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN. By E. P. Wiltshire. (With three plates and one
text-figure)

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF THE INDIAN DESERT GERBILLE, Meriones
hurrianae (JBRDON). II. Breeding Season, Litter Size, and Post-natal
Development. By Ishwar Prakash. (With a plate and two text-figures)

EPIZOIC ASSOCIATES OF THE BOMBAY SPINY LosBsTER Panulirus polyphagus ey
By Shriniwas Deshmukh. (With one plate)

A REPORT ON THE GECKO Teratolepis fasciata (BLYTH, 1853). By Jer. And.
~~ Anderson. (With two plates, one map, and three text-figures)

REVIEWS:

1. The Science of Animal Behaviour. (R.R.)

2. Prehistoric Life on Earth. (Z.F.) |

3. Fifty years of Science in India. (K. Subramanyam)
4. Nerve Cells and Insect Behaviour. (R. R.)

5. The Nature of Animal Colours. (J.C. D.)

. 108

. 142

. 150

. 161

sei
5 SLB)
. 175
. 176
oS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Occurrence of the Rusty Spotted Cat Felis rubiginosa Geoffroy in south
Gujarat. By M. S. Digveerendrasinhji (p. 179). 2. A further record of Blain-
ville’s Beaked-Whale, Mesoplodon densirostris (Blainville), from the Indian
Ocean: Cetacea. (With a map). By Charles McCann (p. 179). 3. Communal
breeding in the Whiteheaded Babbler [Turdoides affinis (Jerdon)] in Tambaram,
Madras State. By P. J. Sanjeeva Raj (p. 181). 4. Do psittacids other than
lorikeets sleep upside down? By Humayun Abdulali (p. 184). 5. Occurrence
of Sylvia minula margelanica Stolzmann at Kutch, Gujarat State. By P. W. Soman
(p. 184). 6. A bird study trip to the Laccadive Islands. By D. N. Mathew and
V.C. Ambedkar (p. 185). 7. Observations on the egg-laying of the Fanthreated
Lizard, Sitana ponticeriana Cuv. (With two plates). By R.N. Chopra (p. 190).
8. A first record of breeding colour changes ina tortoise. By Walter Auffenberg
(p. 191). 9. Description of a new species of toad (Anura: Bufonidae) from
Satara District, Maharashtra, India. (With two plates). By Alice G. C. Grandison
and J.C. Daniel (p. 192). 10. Death by cold of fish in the River Gandak, India.
By V. G. Jhingran, A. David, and P. Ray (p. 195). 11. Death by cold of
commercial carps in Delhi. By R. N. Chaturvedi (p. 200). 12. Further records
of lobsters from Bombay. (With a plate). By B. F. Chhapgar and S. K.
Deshmukh (p. 203). 13. Abnormal cells built by the wasp Eumenes esuriens
Fabr. (?) : Vespoidea. (With a plate). By S. D. Jayakar, H. Spurway, C. R.
Meeker, and J. E. Meeker (p. 208). 14. Genitalia of the butterfly genera
Surendra Moore and Everes Hiibner. (Witha plate). By Keith Cantlie (p. 210).
15. The Red Cotton Bug [Dysdercus cingulatus (Fabr.)] and its predators. By
Charles McCann (p. 212). - 16. The genus Zornia Gmel. in India. By S. K.
Wagh (p. 213). 17. Fruiting of Plumeria. (Witha photograph). By K.M. Vaid
(p. 215). 18. Boerhavia punarnava Saha et Krishnam.: A new record for
Kerala State. By N.C. Nairand V.J. Nair (p. 216). 19. Boerhavia punarnava
Saha & Krishnam.: A new record for Maharashtra. (With four text-figures).
By S. Ramarethinam (p. 217). 20. Dendrophthée falcata (Linn. F.) Ettingsh.: A
method of control. By Bahadur Singh (p. 218). 21. Toxicity of Yellow
Oleander Thevetia peruviana. By D.B. Bisht (p. 222). 22. Some south Indian
mosses. By G. Foreau, s.J. (p. 223).

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR
1963-64

SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS FOR THE PERIOD JANUARY TO APRIL 1964

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

NOoTEs AND NEws

AN APPEAL

*O90R
251
66239
242
. 244
. 245

CORRECTION SLIP

In Vol. 61, in the list at pp. 284 to 293:

1. In the column of recorded distribution insert ‘ Calcutta ’
against Serial Nos.

15. Hippotion boerhaviae 43. Stauropus alternus
16. H. celerio 48. Altha nivea

18. Macroglossum belis 64. Creatonotus emittens
24. Theretra alecto alecto 73. Nola major

27. T. clotho clotho 105. Fodina stola

30. T. nessus 113. Leucania irregularis
31. T. oldenlandiae 131. Plusia jessica

137. Pseudelydna rufoflava

2. In Serial No. 98. for, ‘ Cosmophila erosa Hubn.’ read ‘ Cosmo-
phila flava F.’, and in the column of recorded distribution insert:
*C. erosa Hubn. occurs only in the New World.’

3. Correct the Serial Nos. given below as follows :

19. for ‘ Marnmba dyras’, read ‘ Marumba dyras’

66. for ‘ Rhodogastrea frederici’, read ‘ Rhodogastria frederici ’
113. for ‘ Leucanea irregularis’, read ‘ Leucania irregularis ’
114. for ‘ Leucanea sp.’, read ‘ Leucania sp.’
141. for ‘ Rhesala imperata’, read ‘ Rhesala imparata ’

ERRATA

In Vol. 61 (2): 402-409, in paper entitled « Floral asymmetry
in Malvaceae’, at p. 404 in lines 5:to 9 from top, for the two
sentences ‘ Of the 34 species ...... a significant difference.’
substitute :

Of the 34 species, 19 have excess left-handed flowers, and

of these, the x? values for only two species show a

to Significant difference from equality. None of the 15

Species having excess right-handeds (excepting Pavonia

odorata which may be ignored on account of smallness

of sample size), as is obvious from the Table, shows a
significant difference.

z :
7
é
Lak
)
5
tp
z y ay"
LPs SR oe ER pee eS
SS
aes
j am,
y hae Ca =
BX, & a has
: - Pie St Ba -* fee \
¢ x “ * ; .
é ~ . t / - - ” . \
. . a ~

JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL

Mrs rOR YY, SOCIETY

1964 APRIL Vol. 61 No. 1

One nest of Sceliphron _
madraspatanum (Fabr.) (Sphecidae;
Hymenoptera)

H. Spurway, K. R. DRONAMRAJU, AND S. D. JAYAKAR

Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa,
Bhubaneswar

(With 18 figures in four plates)

CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION ae ae ie ee yh 1
II. THE SEQUENCE Po oe ae wr rd re
III. ANALYSIS fs Bes ae mre Be, ls)
IV. DISCUSSION ate ae i ae Be 5)
V. SUMMARY S6 a ate oh ot PLO
REFERENCES bie abs e. ae eo

I. INTRODUCTION

This paper describes the building of a nest by one female of the
species Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.), during 14 days, on 12 of
which it is unlikely that a visit was unnoted. Visits to the construct
and absences were described and timed to the nearest second. Such
a crudely biometrical approach, which we do not think has been
attempted before, we hope compensates for the qualitative gaps in
the record due to the observers’ ignorance of the Hymenoptera at
the time the opportunity to collect these data presented itself.

The record was made by H.S. and K.R.D.; 8.D.J. made the statis-
tical analysis and the excavation and interpretation both of this nest

) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

and corpses, and of that found in 1961. Professor J. B. S. Haldane
assisted with both the collection and the analysis of the data. Dr. J. van
der Vecht of Leiden identified our specimens, and with Dr. E. White
of Liverpool and Dr. Kenneth W. Cooper of Dartmouth, New Hamp-
shire, introduced us to the literature. We wish to thank all these
collaborators.

II. THE SEQUENCE

The nest was built between 15-7-1960 and 28-7-1960 in a house
just north of the Calcutta municipal boundary. It is in a rapidly
developing industrial area but still surrounded on all sides by waste
grassland intersected by ditches. In July, which is during the first half
of the monsoon, all soil is almost continuously muddy. A small
varnished wooden table 60 cm. high and 75 x 33 sq. cm. in area
stood against the west wall of a first floor (in the English sense,
not ground floor) room about one metre from a permanently open
window in the north wall. The nest was built about 7 cm. from the
north-east corner of the table immediately under the horizontal
table top on the vertical bar of wood supporting this, on the side
of the table facing east. A chair stood in the NW. corner of the room
between the table and the window. During the period of observation
the time of sunrise advanced from 05.01 to 05.06 and sunset retreated
from 18.24 to 18.19 Indian Standard Time. Noon, therefore, was
about 11.42, The temperatures were not recorded in the room of
observation ; but in a similar shaded room, but permanently open
to the south, the maximum and minimum temperatures recorded
between 12.00 and 13.00 on 15/7 for the last 24 hours were 28.8°
and 26.3°C. They were not recorded on 16/7 and for the rest of
the period of observation were always between 30° and 31° and 27.7°
and 28.9° respectively.

15/7. Sometime after 09.00 a reader in the above-mentioned
chair was disturbed by an insect repeatedly flying across the page of the
book. Note taking was begun at 09.24. After two visits it was
realized that intervals must be recorded to the nearest second. When,
after about 4 minutes, the table was inspected during an absence,
a smooth layer of mud, in the centre of which was a small cup,
was seen. Records were kept of the rest of the construction of the
walls of cell I, which was finished at 10.06.59, i.e. 59 seconds after
10.06 a.m. (Fig. 1.). No further visit was recorded until 11.44, when
watching was discontinued. At 11.46 or 47 the nest was again
inspected, and at 11.48.45 the wasp returned and entered the tube
completely.

Oviposition is thought to take place during this complete entry.
No load was seen on 15,'7, though comparison with subsequent

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM 3

cells makes it virtually certain that the wasp entered carrying a spider.
Watching was recommenced, the observer sitting opposite the nest.
The observer sat in this position for all subsequent observation of
the nest. Six further visits were observed, and no loads were seen.
It seems possible, on interpreting the actual wording of the notes
afterwards, that loads were brought on three of these. That no spiders
were seen is interpreted as due to the observer (H.S.) expecting the
wasp to bring Lepidopteran caterpillars and therefore being insufficiently
attentive to observe less conspicuous objects. Two visits were occupied
with closing the cell with mud making a concave lid. At 14.47, an
hour after the second lid building visit, watching was discontinued for
the day. In the evening no further construction was noted, so only
visits for inspection can have been missed. The afternoon was sunny.

16/7. At 07.47 the wasp was noticed flying round the nest. At
07.52 disciplined observation was begun. The concave lid was already
removed from cell I. At 08.09.24 the animal settled for the first
time. After 3 more visits, during which no load was seen, one spider
was introduced. Then the cell was sealed with a convex, almost knob-
like, smooth lid made with mud brought on 3 journeys, and 2 loads of
mud were daubed on each side of it immediately. The wasp then
smoothed mud on the table immediately below cell I. This smoothing
stopped for a period of over half an hour, It recommenced, and upon
the smoothed mud she built cell II (Fig. 2). During this period we
first noticed that the cell walls were made by bringing balls of mud
which were placed in the centre of the existing arch and rolled out
towards the surface of the table with the mandibles and the Ist
pair of tarsi. One of each pair of appendages worked against the
inner and one against the outer surface of the cell, therefore they made
little ridges in the soft mud of the temporary margin, at right angles
to the line in which the balls were being extended. After the first
rolling out, the newly applied mud was reworked by the same
movements several times up to the vertex of the arch and down to
the floor, The balls were rolled out first to the right and then to
the left. Therefore strips were added to each wall more or less
alternately. The alternation with which the two sides of the wall
were built was almost complete for cells II and III which like cell I
lay flat upon the vertical surface of the table. Later cells were
built behind these first three, propped up against them so that they
were at an angle with the vertical support of the table top. These
later cells were fitted into the uneven foundation, and their walls
were curved to fit awkward niches by rolling out several balls parallel
to one another on the same side of the vault one after another,
The cell wall was always begun on a foundation of mud smoothed on the
table, and from the beginning of the cell itself, the walls were built

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

by rolling out loads in an alternating way. Each cell was thus an
arched vault, the whole floor of which in the early cells, and of the
base of the later cells, was mud smoothed upon the.vertical wood, but
the floor of most of the length of the later cells was a previously
made part of the construct. Whena cell was about 2.2 cm. long the
mud balls were rolled in such a way that the floor space left between
the walls gradually narrowed until the two walls met and a short
cylindrical neck was formed, finished off with a rim. The cells are
thus about 0.5 cm. less in length than those of the species described by
Fabre which Berland (1925) identified as S. spirifex, and the spiders
introduced are correspondingly smaller (Fabre 1924) but our animal
similarly buzzed during building. After rolling each ball on to the cell,
the wasp swept it vigorously with her antennae, both inside and out,
but she never applied any pressure or moulded the mud with the
antennae. She repeatedly cleaned her antennae and mouth-parts with
her front tarsi. Some of these details are from notes taken during later
periods of cell building. It will be noticed from Table III that
the fewest wall building visits are recorded for cell II. This is perhaps
because wall building was not at first distinguished from foundation
building. While fetching mud the wasp did not always fly in the same
direction when leaving the window, nor did she arrive from only one
direction.

After 391 seconds the wasp returned with a spider, entered cell II,
abdomen first, and entered it completely. She emerged head first and
flew. The spider was dragged out hanging from her by its silk, fell to
the ground and was retrieved by the observer. It did not move and
was preserved. The wasp returned after 2316 seconds, again with a
spider, and again she entered backwards and completely. On 22/7
again she pulled out the spider after this backwards entrance to
cell VII, and again repeated the same procedure on her next visit.
She entered both backwards and entirely only once into all the other
cells. All other spiders were thrust in with the head and forelegs, the
abdomen being clearly visible throughout the process. No spider
inserted in this way was ever dragged out, though in filling cell VII one
was too large and escaped, only to fall motionless to the ground
immediately. The complete entrance was the only activity on the nest
in which the abdomen was completely hidden from the observer for
more than an instant. We assume the oviposition to take place during
this complete entrance, both because of its quite discrete difference
from other spider-bringing visits and because previous describers of
this and other species of Sceliphron assume that the eggs, which are
attached to a spider, are laid inside the cell and not at capture, or
during transportation to the cell. If this interpretation is correct
this individual of S. madraspatanum like those described by Horne

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM 5

(1872) and Dutt (1913) was unlike S. caementarium (the Peckhams 1905
and Shafer 1949) but like S. (Pelopaeus) spirifex (Fabre 1924) in laying
her egg invariably on the first spider. Oviposition seemed to miscarry
surprisingly often, but the animal seemed able to compensate for these
miscarryings by repeating the process, On 16/7 watching was discon-
tinued from 11.47 to 14.00. When the observers returned, cell II was
_ sealed with a concave lid, and cell I was covered with a shapeless mass
of roughcast which was dark and therefore damp when first seen (Fig. 3).
‘Watching was continued until 18.07, and though the afternoon was
sunny, only one visit, which was without a load, was observed.
Probably less than 40 visits were missed,

During the whole 14 days of observation 91 visits were observed,
during which we are certain the animal neither brought provisions nor
altered the construct. These 91 are called inspections. During them
she swept the construct with her antennae, which she wiped with her
first pair of tarsi at intervals. This sweeping was also performed
during almost all other visits. The antennae were swept up and down
the edges and the interior of the half-built cells, and, we think,
wiped more often than usual with the feet during this activity. More
than half of these inspections took place while the cell was being
provisioned, when the antennae and sometimes the head and thorax
were thrust into the open cell. The wasp rarely entered an open cell,
This sweeping would seem to have been a scanning activity by which
the wasp received stimuli, or information, from the nest. The wiping
with the tarsi may have merely cleaned the antennae, but may also
have been important sensorily, by bringing particles picked up by
antennae into contact with sense organs on the legs.

17/7, From 17/7 we in turn attempted to watch throughout the
possible working day of a wasp; and if any visits were missed, they
must have been visits of inspection only. The 2nd and 3rd columns of
Table I give the time of the observer’s arrival and the wasp’s first
arrival respectively. Columns 16 and 17 give the corresponding times
of the wasp’s and the observer’s last departure. On 17/7 the animal

swept the construct for less than 2 minutes of the first visit, paying __

special attention to the concave lid of II but also to the undaubed
table top. Then she bit small fragments of mud from around the edge
of the concave lid. She continued this with 4 pauses, one of
3 minutes, until the lid fell off as a little disc. She then swept inside

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

TABLE

Visirs OF Sceliphron madraspatanum

First |
Date vend Ist arrival inser Foundation Wall /Oviposition Prey D see
1 2 3 4 2) 6 7 8 9
15/7 ies — 2 xonI x onI = aes ae
09.24 = — — 25(+2) — os ek
on I
aie 7” 2 ive ae ees a,
11.47} 11.48.45 | — — — 1 inI ~- | 3inI+3
16/7| — — 2 ok ee ae ma ae
= == & = — == | See? amet —
07.30 | 08.09.24 | — — — — | — Sin
fiat a ee = — — | linI —
ma — — 9 on IL+3 22 on II 2 in Te — —
= = faa a = ra | 2in IT + ? | —
14.00} 14.44.50; — — — — | = =
17/7 | 06.14} 09.13.22 | 0 — — 7 = —
= — — — — — | Smt +3 | tin We
18/7 | 06 52] 09.07.03 0 — = aoe cust jee
a oF <a = a= = 3 ingles a
— — — | 13 on III 24 on III — _ —
19/7 | 07.15] 08.48.50 2 = — linll | 4in UI +2, Lin Ill
— — — 5 on IV 27 on IV — — as
20/7 | 07.12 | 07.54.25 2 — lonIvV |. Jin tV.) 2in WV 4:2) )02 in hy
— — — 1 on V — — | — =
21/7 | 06.43 | 07.07.06) 7 — -- — | — —_
— -— — | 19 0n V+Z 29 on V lin V 8inV+2 |2inV
22/7 |06.13| 07.04.03} Z | SonVI 25 onVil|alinve | SinViee on ee
— — — | llon VI[+Z | 26on VII} 2in VII | 1 in VI —
23/7 | 06.11 | 08.07.13 0 — = = pea =
ae =< = zs == == | 3in VI[+2 | 3in VII
24/7 | 06.30] 07.41.35 Z — — — a= on
— — — 1 on VIII 30 on VIII] 1 in VITI11 in VITI+ 3) 1 in VOI
— — me 2onIX+Z | 25 on IX — — —
25/7 | 06.23 | 07.29.25 1 | — — 1inIX | 1 inIX+¢4 —
—— — _ 4onX a = — —
26/7 | 06.23 | 07.08.17 i — a — — =
— = — = = — 7in IX +4 |LinIX+Z
— — — !'100nX+Z |290n X+2 — — —~
27/7 06.10] 07.31.30| Zz | a me fan % | 4in Xe
|
28/7 | 06.39 2 ? — — — — —
= _ — = — — 2inX+ 5 —_
RE iy 70 | 80 7 | 263(+2)2| 12 (51 spiders 44 (19 6
+3 flies
+1 spider
escaped

Note. Numbers in brackets visits counted but not timed. Numbers in italics inspections
are listed separately.

(FABR.) TO NEST UNDER CONSTRUCTION

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM

4 1.81] Last | End
Concave | Removal o | 2s = x
: . Convex lid Daub fe) sO | Depar- of Totals
lid of lid § |¥e Be Watch
2 q
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
err a -
i fi a i ee, | 10:06.59) 11,44 Ss
2 on I a e2 BVA er nee ince 30 an, ea
ast neta eer = = ? — — 31(+2) 34+-x
— x from I — a cae an a = Sa Ales
ee = 5 onI — —-j|- swe cre ea
es, = ae = — -— 11.45.37) 11.47 — —
x on II +? — a x setae a eee ae a ce
oo: a i sl = yl 14.46.05) 18.07 44 4+x
— 1 from II == a on = ae ae 1
2 on II+7 — — — — 0 14.29.20) 18.15 i, 6
— 1 from II == — = = = =. a ae
et = 7 on II+2 29 1 = — as ake =
i ee seks — a5 0 16.51.38 18.21 78 10
— — 6 on III 2 1 = a ‘ Arr ae
aa = ae — — yl 17.20.59| 18.46 45 5
= a | 8erdyon 12 Dele Say La a) ee
1Veb2 (2-2)
ns ae es os — 0 14.47.11) 18.23 | 29(+1) 6(+J)
— — | lonIv 32¢4e | 1300 = ee | = Ls ages
= — 12 on V — — — 16.23.45) 18.46] 117(+1) 4
— — 10 on VI ) 1 — — = — _—
1 on VII — — 80+3 34 0 17.14.30) 18.32 207 7
= | from VE — — as ele oe a en aaa
ae oN Alon VIA Tl , «eo — | 0 | 10.40.46] 18.45 fis eee
meg == 3 on VII 1 ~ — “es = a2 Ti
== — | 60n VIII 1 a = - —
— — — — — 0 15.53.26) 18.32 82 5
BonIXe/| |) — = cs era a Ee =e
— — —_ 574-4 4 2 17.29.31) 18.43 69 lé
=< | 1 from IX -— — = — — = = a
= | —- 9 on IX 6 a a = = pest Mae
— — — — — if 17.01.08) 18.32 63 10
2 on X+J — — 53+ 13 — | 15.46.32) 18.30 73 10
— | (+1)+1 ee a a ee en =le
from X ;
— — — — —_ — | 11.39.31} 18.34) 3(+1) 5)
4(+1)+ x|71(+1) 5(+2)| 276(+1)8| 69 | 5 ae gl ee Bone)

immediately before and during relevant activity, except for first and last inspections of day which

Note. Numbers in brackets visits counted but not timed. Numbers in italics inspections

are listed separately.

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1) ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM 7
TABLE I
Vistrs oF Sceliphron madraspatanum (FABR.) TO NEST UNDER CONSTRUCTION
Se ee
First Doubtf R 1 3 8 Last End
Watch ‘val li || citi oubtful Concave emova) - o 6195 ‘
Date begun Ist arrival tOsper Foundation Wall |Oviposition Prey prey lid of lid Convex lid Daub E 58 Depa Watch Totals
z|
I 2 3 4 5 6 tf 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
— SEE Ee EEE eS SS ee
| |
15/7) — _ ? xonI x onl _ _— — = |
09.24 = — a 25(+2) — — — 10.06.59 11.44 — 4s
ont |
= = ? = = — _ — | = Se le
11.47] 11.48.45} — —_ - 1 inI _ 3in 1+3 2onI = || — — — | — | 13.46.30} 14.47 = =
oe = = = = = = = | = ? Sallie 31(+2) 3+x
16/7|} — nos ? = =e = eal — x from I |
— = 2 — — — ?inI =— - | = =
07.30} 08.09.24 | — — — -- — Sin = | |
—_— linlI — = | = Sont — — — — — — =
- — — | Yon W+3 | 22onIl | 2in Il — — = = | 11.45.37] 11.47 SS
| 7in Il + ? _ xonll+?/ — — x |e ==
14.00] 14.44.50 | SN -- - — I | 14.46.05) 18.07 44. 44x
17/7 | 06.14} 09.13.22 | 0 _ —- | = — = 5 tr. >| 2 from I ee bss | Lag
— 3inIl +3 | LinIl+2 2 on +7) = — — — 0 | 14.29.20) 18.15 7 6
18/7 | 0652} 09.07.03} 0 = — — | = = = | 1 from II eS
— — ;3inIk+ 8 — S|) Ged | 29 1 — | — — =e
=— = — | 13 on Il 24 on IIL — = — ae ok | Sb — O | 16.51.38] 18.21 78 810
19/7 | 07.15] 08.48.50} 2 — — |} lint | 4intl+2> 1 in UT = = 6onll | — 1} — = |= ey) ios
— = — | Sonlv 27 on IV — — _ | | | Z | 17.20.59) 18.46 45 5
) | i
20/7 | 07.12) 07.54.25 | 2 — lonIV | linIV | 2inlV +2 | 2in IV = | = | Reside _ | 12 P| —-|- - =—
| | | 1V+2(+) |
— = — 1 on V — | = = — a | = | — | — — O | 14.47.11) 18.23) 29(+1) 6(+2)
21/7 | 06.43 | 07.07.06) 7 = —- | — | SW = = |iteniay |) eye) I] sey |) — = |! ce =
= = — |190nV+zZ |29onV | linV | 8inV+2 | 2inV = Bony — — | — | 16.23.45] 18.46] 117/41) ¢
22/7 | 06.13] 07.04.03} Z | Son VI 25onVI| linVI |SinVi+2) — ian l0onVEI | 5 it |e nt | iva a
= = — |Monvit+7 | 26onvil) 2inv iinVd | — Oni ema — | 8043 | 34 | oO | 17.14.30)18.32) 207 7
23/7| 06.11] 08.07.13 | 0 = al tata = Pe = |L from VIT| =e |) = ah lies pm E oes
Es aah, — = = es | 3in VI+2. 3in VIL as _ | 4on VIT+Z _ _— 0 | 10.40.46) 18.45 il a
24/7 | 06.30| 07.41.35] 2 = = ss ile 2S) See Ben [enw ent = |r| Se aS
— I — | lonV&T | 300n VII) 1 in VINI11 in VINT+3) 1 in VII = i) = | Gea || 1 = |= ee =
— = — | 2onIX+7 | 25 on IX = = — = a —- | = _ 0 | 15.53.28] 18.32 82 5
| j
25/7|06.23| 07.29.25] 2 = = || sino |e | = 2 One || yeaa ee || By he
gis a in atone = a: a eS eee — 57+4 4 2 ! 17.29.31) 18.43 69 «12
26/7 | 06.23) 07.08.17) 2 = = » ht MS = | 1 from Tx) = = oN as peg ee =
= — — = — — | 7inIX +4 \LinIX+/ = = 9 on IX 6 —-/=— —/|— - =
= = — !10o0nX+7 29onX+2 — = = = Al =sglioa= —- 1 | 17.01.08} 18.32 6300
27/7 \06.10| 07.31.30 | 7 | = = linX | 4inX+7 — Zonk s2| aaa = 53+2 | 13 | — | 15.46.32) 18,30 73 10
|
2 1 ? = = = = = = (+1)+1 = ae See any | ee ee 1S
8/7 | 06,39 from X | F
— - cal OS ae | le 2inX +5 — >— = Fag Sa —|— 11.39.31) 18.34 A+1) 5
= = 7 | 80 7 | 263(+2)2) 12 ‘(51 spiders 4419 6 ci (+1)+ x 71(+1) 5(+ 2) 276(4+1)8| 69 | 5 = |= — (+2)
| +3 flies
| +1 spider
| escaped |
———— EE EE EE eee eee

mmediately before and during relevant activity, except for first and last inspections of day which

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

the cell with most of her body inserted. She left at 09.24.39. This
long period on the nest, involving both intensive inspection and
pauses, is characteristic of those visits which involve the removal of a
concave lid. On only one occasion (26/7) were they not the first of
‘the day. During the next 5 hours the wasp made 9 visits, on 3 of
which she brought a spider, on 5 of which she brought nothing, but
inspected both the inside and the outside of the cell, and on1 of
which it is uncertain if she brought anything (Table I).

The visits on which prey was brought to the cell were interspersed
with inspection visits, and both kinds of visits were preceded by
absences of irregular length sometimes of more than an hour. On 9
occasions during the 14 days of observation the wasp had inserted her
head into the cell before the observer could be sure whether she was,
or was not, carrying an animal. After our experiences on the
first two days we are sure that loads must sometimes have been missed.
We did not notice a stereotyped landing pattern, as Shafer (1949)
did in specimens of S. caementarium ; our wasp landed either on the
table, or on any part of the construct. However she did have a
stereotyped departure, always running to approximately the same
place-on the wood before taking off. At 14.23 she closed the cell
with another concave lid. Rain did not start until 16.12, and was
intermittent.

18/7. The second concave lid of cell If was again removed at the
first visit. During the next 5 hours she made 1 inspection, brought 1
spider, made 7 inspections, brought 2 spiders, and with 3 loads of mud
made the knob or convex lid shown in Fig. 4. After 2 more
inspections she daubed the lid. She then put a similar daub elsewhere
and one more on the lid. She then entered a period of dauhing.
This activity was more rapid than wall building. The ball of mud was
put with some violence (‘slapped down’), at first on the cells, and
later on the previously deposited roughcast. She sometimes carried
her ball for some seconds, sweeping actively over a large area before
depositing it. She sometimes swept after deposition ; but among daub-
ing visits alone were a few where no sweeping at al] was perform-
ed: She worked fairly systematically from above downwards,
covering the structure built on the 16th. Once she left this structure
and redaubed lid 1]. The roughcast completely covered the cells,
hiding their individuality and uniting them into a single block. The
wasp’s mechanics were sympathetic, in the sense that the observer
could usually appreciate a reason fora daub being put where it was ;
the observer had been able to see an irregularity of edge or of surface
which the daub obliterated. :

During such a-daubing period some balls of mud were spread as a
thin film on the table, During the period discussed on 18/7 all but

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. Soc. PLATE I

STE FYE ATWO FPP IS CTV TITS ae
a Q
4 m, 1
: f — go FF
y ee y A
' way fo
fae fe, y
. i eeiE! Jf
WB ae
Py : ry Bait

Nest of Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.)
1. 15-7-60, 10.06.59. Cell I newly built and open. 2. 16-7-60. 10.57.46.

Cell I sealed by permanent convex lid. Cell II newly built and open. 3. 16-7-60.
14.00. seen from below. Cell If sealed by Ist temporary concave lid. Cell I daubed
with roughcast. 4. 18-7-60. 13.58.35. seen from below. Cell II sealed by per-
manent convex lid. 5. 18-7-60. 14.48.51. seen from below. Roughcast extended
to partly cover cell II and convex lid. 6. 18-7-60. 16.51.38. Cells I and II com-
pletely covered by roughcast. Area of smeared mud extended. Cell III newly built
and open.

(The small horizontal line below each figure represents 1 cm,)

“LP IU'8 ‘O9-L-ZZ “IE ‘PI XOAUOD IOAO Popuojxo yseoysnoI Jo vole pue poyeos ATJUOULUIEd A [9D “SpEZT'OL “O9-L-IZ “OL ‘poucisoys
-o10} A[USIOUJNSUT SI YIM A |[90 JO sjIeIS astey a0N ‘uado pue YIN A[MOU A [[9D ‘“Pepuarxe pnw poseouls Jo vary ‘Iseoysnor <q
persaos Ajojo[duios ysouye AI [19D “€7'LO'OL ‘O9-L-IZ “6 ‘“jSeOYSNOI Jo spueg [VUIPN}ISUOT Mou OM], “PIT xoAUOOD yUOURUIEd Aq poees
AL TIPO “IVLPPL °09-L-0Z “8 ‘dodo pue ying A[mou AT [9D “Pl] XoAUOo JUOURUIEd Aq PoSO[d TI] [19D ‘“SE'EO'9L ‘O9-L-6I “L
(1qeq) wnunjodsvspou -uosydyarg JO ISON seer é

Sea)

II aLvId ‘90S “ISIH “LYN AVaWOog ‘NYnor

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM 9

one were spread where the next cell, cell III, was immediately built
upon them. They are therefore classified as foundations. One load
however was placed elsewhere. Such an action is called a smoothing.
A foundation and a smoothing are physically the same complex
spreading movement, and were first distinguished by their final function
in the nest. The distinction was confirmed by two observations ;
firstly the duration of a period of foundation building was about a
quarter as long again as a period of smoothing though both periods
showed a very similar amount of variation (Table IV). Secondly, the
wasp was away significantly longer when fetching mud for a foundation
than for a smoothing (Table V). At the close of a period of daubing
and smoothing activity the observer could usually recognise where the
next cell would be constructed by a concentration of spreading
movements in one region. Usually after an absence (on 18/7 it was
of 1863 seconds) the foundation loads became predominating and the
walls were begun. The wasp completed cell III without pause and
left for the night (Fig. 6). Our wasp therefore did not behave like
those described by Fabre (1924) and Dutt (1913). The latter state,
that all Sceliphron species including madraspatanum complete all the
cells in a nest, then roughcast them all together, and desert the
construct immediately!. Our wasp, all told, had 7 periods of intensive
daubing, and a few occasional loads were daubed on _ between
these.

Dutt (1913) also considers that the smeared mud surrounding the
block is the result of the wasp dragging her mud balls over the surface.
We agree with Horne (1872) that these smears are deliberately made.
The smoothing-foundation activity was very characteristic, and
took more time than daubing (Table IV). Weare sceptical of Horne’s

1In 1961 another nest was found in the same room. Unfortunately this was
found after emergence of the imagines, so that we cannot be dogmatic that it
belonged to S. madraspatanum. However in cell structure it resembled the nest that
we have described, but unlike ours it confirmed Dutt’s statement about the timing of
what we call block daubing. This nest contained 21 cells, one vertical row of 8 be-
ing laid flat on the wood and two others of 7 and 6 respectively being built on
top of them, so that the long axes of all cells were parallel. The cell which
must have been the last built, whatever the hypothesis of the order of construction,
was completely empty, and had never received a permanent lid. As it thus resembl-
ed our cell X (p. 13) this nest also seems to have been deserted unfinished. All
the other cells had been permanently sealed, and the lid daubing was conspicuous
covering the rims of the ridged cell walls for, as Dutt would have expected, no
other part of the construct had been covered or embedded. This nest therefore also
confirmed our association of the lid daubing with cell construction (p. 23) not
with the block daubing which in our nest often followed it immediately. Dissection
of the nest confirmed that the cells had been built directly on each other, the outer
wall of one forming the floor of those above it, without, as in our nest, any
daubing between. Fifteen cells had emergence holes in their lids and contained
broken cocoons and two kinds of faeces exactly like those described on (p. 16). —
The remainder whose permanent lids were unperforated were filled with dried
space and strongly suggested that no egg had been hatched, or perhaps laid, in
them. or TEAL es eet

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

suggestion that the smeared mud has a cryptic function by resembling
splash, and our animal, unlike his, made no isolated ‘drop’ marks.
The mud was carried daintily in the mandibles high above the surface
of the substrate, and the wasp often swept for some time before she
deposited it. Indeed the mud was of such a consistency that most of
any load would stick where it first touched.

19/7. The wasp first made 2 inspections separated by 7018 seconds,
departed for 4450 seconds, returned with a spider, made a single ovipo-
sitional entrance, then made an imperfectly seen visit, and 2 inspections.
She then brought a fly of a small grey waxy sarcophagine-like species.
The fly was carried parallel to the wasp’s long axis under her body. Its
russet eyes were visible under her head, and so were the segmented
abdomen and the wings crushed together under the much more slender
abdomen of the wasp. That flies are prey for members of this genus
confirms the observation of Rukov which Kohl (1918) quotes with
derision. She then brought 3 undoubted spiders and immediately
sealed the nest with a convex lid built of 4 loads of mud, and obliterat-
ed it with 2 daubs. After 1 load smoothed on the wood, she spread 4
loads consecutively : these proved to be foundation of cell IV, or more
correctly the foundation of the end of cell IV, because cell IV was the
first to be built mainly overlapping the previous construct. She made
4 visits building the walls of cell IV, but on her next visit she pushed
her load of mud behind outside the upper rim. She finished the cell
with 23 more loads, left for 4627 seconds, made a short inspection (14
seconds) and left for the night (Fig. 7).

20/7. She began the day with 2 inspections separated by 6247
seconds. She then brought one load of mud and added it to the upper
wall of cell IV. After 2848 seconds she brought a spider, oviposited,
and then spent 10 minutes inspecting the outside. She then made a visit
in which the load was uncertain, then 2 inspections, and then 2 more
visits on which she again brought flies. Then, after a doubtful visit, she
made 3 inspections and closed the nest with 3 loads of mud, making a
convex lid. She then joined this lid to the block, partly obliterated it
with 3 more loads, and began roughcasting in two bands, one above
and one below the newly sealed cell IV. While doing this, she added 3
daubs specifically to the convex lid of IV, and smeared 3 loads on the
table, one of which became part of the foundation of cell V. Her last
departure was after the light had begun to fail and heavy rain was,
correctly, anticipated (Fig. 8).

21/7. She opened the day with one inspection, put a load of mud
on lid IV, and then made 31 visits daubing mud, covering cell LII com-
pletely, and almost covering cell 1V. Among these she made 5 visits
spreading mud on what proved to be the foundation of cell V, and 11

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM 11

smoothing mud elsewhere on wood, including that to the north or
window side of the construct in front of the sealed mouths of II and
Ill. After being absent for 1566 seconds she inspected and then made
14 foundation building visits among which were 2 daubing and 2
smoothing visits. She then constructed the walls of cell V, between cell
IV and the table top. For details here, and in the rest of the descrip-
tion of construction, see Table I. The first few arches of the upper
wall remained outside the final cell (Fig. 9). She oviposited, provision-
ed with spiders, and sealed with a convex lid which was immediately
joined by daubing to the part of the block already constructed (Fig. 10).

22/7. This day was the peak of her productivity. She made 214
visits and worked for 10 hours 10 minutes. She began with an
inspection, and built cell VI immediately (Fig. 11). During this she
made two daubs, probably necessary architecturally for the cell cons-
truction. At the beginning of this building we moved the left, or south,
corner of the table away from the wall so that the wall and the back
edge of the table made an angle of about 14°, i.e. the nest had been
turned slightly towards the window. This removed the south side of
the nest, where building was being done, from the shadow cast by the
completed part. On the next visit, the wasp approached about 10-12
cm. to the left of the nest, but immediately doubled back to land on it,
The wasp oviposited in cell VI only just over an hour after her first
arrival in the morning, put in 5 spiders, sealed it permanently with a
convex lid made from 4 loads, and began the foundations of cell VII
before she finished daubing the lid. She built cell VII, again including
a few daubs on the block (Fig. 12), left for almost an hour, and
brought a spider. She made an ovipositional entry, then removed
the spider and tried again. She then threw the spider out, swept, and
left to return with another after 1065 seconds, and repeat the complete
entry abdomen first. She added one more spider and sealed the cell
with a concave lid made froma single load. It was then 14.45. She
then brought 114 loads of mud, 80 of which she daubed, and 34 of
which she smoothed, some of them on the vertical edge of the table top
itself. The appearance of the block and the area of smoothed mud
surrounding it was entirely altered (Fig. 13). On this occasion alone she
roughcasted a cell which was incompletely provisioned. She left a
distinct groove from the edge of the table top to the rim of lid
VII which she used next morning to insert her mouth-parts to bite the
lid off. During this period of intense construction she made three visits
purely to inspect. |

23/7. The day started with heavy rain. The animal arrived 5
minutes after sunshine was first noted, and after sweeping, removed the
concave lid of cell VII, The cell was provisioned, The abdomen of

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

the last spider brought was too large to enter the hole and a 2-minute
long struggle was seen. First the spider was pushed in head first as
usual. Then it was deliberately turned round and an attempt made to
push in the abdomen. The spider dodged the hole actively, and walked
away carrying the clinging wasp. The wasp finally dropped the spider
and spent nearly 3 minutes wiping her body and sweeping the block.
The spider was motionless when retrieved from the floor by the observer.
One inspection visit was then made, and then surprisingly, the cell was
sealed permanently. This convex lid was left undaubed, probably
because it rained for the rest of the day.

24/7. After the usual initial inspection visit, the animal brought
mud and completed the lid on VII by daubing on it. After one more
daub on VII the wasp built cell VIII (Fig. 14), oviposited, provisioned,
permanently sealed it ; and promptly built cell IX leaving it empty and
open for the evening (Fig. 15). Only 1 load was spread on wood as a
foundation for VIII and only 2 for IX. These two cells were built
almost entirely over the previous ones. Cell VIII also showed some
imperfections in its walls.

25/7. After the first inspection, she laid in cell IX and another
spider was introduced. There were many inspections. The cell was
then sealed temporarily with a concave lid. Within 2 minutes of
completing this, heavy rain and thunder began. The wasp returned
over an hour later, within 10 minutes of the rain ceasing, and daubed
mud covering cell VIII and part of cell IX (Fig. 16), After
more rain, she made her last visit, a curious inspection lasting 917
seconds. It contained two pauses during which she was motionless for
3 minutes. She repeatedly returned and swept the lid of cell IX, as
though she had a guilty conscience about leaving it.

26/7. Today the wasp did not remove the concave lid at her first
visit but at her second, which was 1766 seconds later and involved
much inspection. After gnawing round the lid she seemed to kick it
off because it did not fall vertically. Cell IX was further provisioned,
and sealed permanently with a convex lid, roughcasted over as usual:
Foundations of cell X were begun, alternating with this lid daubing,
but 6 generalised daubs were also made before the cell walls were begun.
These could not be interpreted as preparing the block surface for cell X.
Cell X was built immediately (Fig. 17). The day ended with an ins-
pection, 2 hours and 40 minutes after the last load of mud had been
brought. The weather was sunny during this intervening period.

27/7. After the morning inspection visit, oviposition took place in
cell X. She then re-entered the cell head first, then again abdomen
first carrying a- small flake of mud with her. Four more spiders were

JOURN. BomBAY NAT. Hist. SOc. PLATE III

Nest of Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.)

13. 22-7-60. 17.13.32. Cell VII sealed by temporary concave lid to which ridge runs
through roughcast to facilitate it being bitten out next morning. Cells VI and VII covered by
roughcast and smeared area much enlarged especially to observer’s right. 14. 24-7-60. 9.15.10.
Cell VIL sealed by permanent convex lid which has been daubed over with roughcast. Cell VIII
newly built, open, insufficiently foreshortened. Note imperfection of walls. 15. 24-7-60.
15.53.28. Cell VIII sealed by permanent convex lid which has been daubed with roughcast,
Cell IX newly built and open.

(The small horizontal line below each figure represents 1 cm.)

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT, Hist. Soc. ; Se eae PLATE IV

Nest of Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.)

16. - 25-7-60. 17.29.21, Cell IX szaled. by temporary concave lid. Cell VIII completely
covered by roughcast. 17. 26-7-60. 15.18.47. Cell IX partly covered by roughcast. Cell X
newly built and open. 18. 27-7-60. 15.46.32. Cell X sealed by temporary concave lid. Cell IX

completely covered by roughcast. d
(The small horizontal line below each figure represents 1 cm.)

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM 13

introduced, the cell was closed by a temporary concave lid and the
wasp immediately daubed cell IX completely, interspersed with the
smoothing of mud to the south of the block.

28/7. At 06.39 the observer found the wasp already on the con-
struct. This morning she spent most of the time waving her antennae
in the air rather than sweeping. She spent several isolated periods
absolutely still, one of about 5 minutes. After being watched for 10
minutes she bit the lid. She was then deliberately disturbed by being
blown upon, and, after hovering over the construct, left. She had thus
been on the construct over 625 seconds before beginning lid removal,
most of which time she was motionless. On the 4 previous occasions
on which lid removal was seen, she had not only been extremely active
but on 2 had begun biting in under | minute from arrival, in 1 in under
2, and in the fourth, from cell VII, had begun biting in about 4
minutes. Therefore, before she was disturbed she was behaving abnor-
mally, by being lethargic. This doubly incompletely recorded visit is
not considered in Table IV.

She returned after 2399 seconds, examined the cell for 916 seconds
during which she was again motionless for periods of 2, 6, and 2
minutes. She took just under 290 seconds to remove the lid, during
which time she walked away from it once and left after 50 seconds of
inspection. This complete visit, which almost certainly would not have
occurred if the animal had not been disturbed on her previous visit, is
considered in Table IV.

After 1 inspection she brought a spider, and was then interrupted
by rain, followed by 1 inspection and 1 spider after more rain. She
made 3 more inspections, the last after an interval of 4300 seconds
during which there was no rain. Rain was recorded during the after-
noon, but there were also long sunny periods. Watching was discon-
tinued at 18.35, |

29/7. The nest was watched from 06.13 to 13.38. There was again
rain, but neither in duration nor in intensity sufficient to stop her, judged
by previous days, No further addition was seen to the construct.

There are two interpretations. Either the wasp deserted the nest,
perhaps because the gust of air produced by a human blowing gently
had an unexpectedly great valence for her, and a valence quite different
from that of the occasional unintended disturbances caused by sudden
movements of the observers. If this is so, two aspects of her be-
haviour are unexpected; she neither deserted immediately, nor,
alternatively, brought the provisioning for her last offspring to a satis-
factory conclusion, Alternatively, we may interpret her languor, seen
before the disturbance, as a sign of senility, or malaise, so that she did
not desert, but died, perhaps being too slow to escape a predator. If

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

she was becoming senile, it is curious that she arrived at least 30
minutes earlier than on any previous day. Perhaps we have missed
visits in the early mornings, even after 16/7, but these could only have
been visits of inspection.

The data collected on the 14 days are summarised in Table I. The
building activities are set out in the functional order of the building,
provisioning, and sealing a cell, though only on 15/7, when it was not
observed, and on 22/7, was the first activity foundation building. In-
spection visits except for the first and last of the day have been
associated with the chore which they preceded.

Most activities are performed in bursts, and the order of these
bursts is shown in Table [. However, the irregular alternation of
‘certain’ prey and ‘doubtful’ prey has not been shown, nor the
irregularity of lid daubing, block daubing, smoothing, and foundation
spreading. This can be generalised by saying that the wasp gradually
transfers her attention from the lid she has just sealed to the construct
as a whole, and then her attention gradually narrows to the place
where her next cell will be built. Dutt (1913) records that he scraped
off the two cells which he found in a particular nest. As the wasp
daubed over the surface he had broken and, as Dutt considered that
daubing is only done before the nest is finally left, he suspected that
the daubing follows ‘a set routine’. We disagree; and once a cell is
sealed we consider that the consummatory stimuli (as the ethological
school following Sherrington would call them) sought during daubing
are provided by the suitability of the construct as a whole to receive
another cell, not by the disappearance of the cell being covered.

31/7. 19.00 approximately. The contents of cell X were noticed
very near the cell mouth, and at about 20.00 the larva of X was found
on the floor. It was quite motionless, and it was preserved.

1/8. 10.30. The entire table was removed to an insect cage out
of doors which was covered by a tarpaulin. At 14.15 the temperature
under the tarpaulin was 47°C. Therefore the table was sawn up and
the nest, still attached to the wood, was stored resting on blotting
paper, in a large glass jar covered with muslin. |

Seven wasps emerged, all perfect. They were killed a few hours
after emergence. Details are given in Table II. The diameter of the
emergence holes was about 4 mm., i.e. much less than the diameter of
a newly finished cell mouth. The lids removed were in the same
place as the lids constructed by the mother, and were surprisingly thin
flakes, considering the thickness of the mud layer with which the cells
had been sealed and individually roughcasted. The lids were cut
almost, but not quite, all round their circumferences and were left on
cells VI, VIII, and IX, those from VII and IX being left parallel to the

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM 15

surface of the block and in a position that still partially closed the exit
to the cell. When the nest was dissected on 3/5/61 it was discovered

TABLE II

PARTICULARS OF EGG-LAYING AND EMERGENCE

| | | wee
5D is3}
: ag
Cell | Laid Emerged Ey Ec Sex
ue
Cine
I 15-7, a.m. | 3 see text
II 16-70) <3 5-8, a.m. 20 i
iit alle re) 8-8, 29 20 Jd
IV 20-15. 3; 9-8, ,, 20 3
V Bieaea & | fe) see text
VI DD ah a. 1228... 21 2
VII 22-7, p.m. 11-8, ,, 19°75) 36-0
Vill 24-7, a.m. 13-8, noon 20 bee
IX D9=H ern, | 14-8, p.m. 20°25 2
xX Pledge ss ? see text

that the cocoon in cell I was in a reversed position, the faecal cup
being proximal to the lid ; that a tunnel 4-5 mm. long had been bored
from distal end of cell I, into the wall of cell V which contained
a crushed female pupa, presumbly V, facing its component lid, and a
male wasp, with expanded wings, presumably I, facing away from
lid V. Both were dead.

The length of pre-imaginal life was remarkably constant and the
same for both sexes though perhaps more variable in females. It was
about 3 days less than the minimum Dutt (1913) observed in specimens
of this species at Pusa in Bihar. That all the males emerged before all
the females is an example of the proterandry that Kohl (1918) expected
would be found among Sceliphron species. However, at least for this
sibship, the explanation is not that the males develop more rapidly
than the females but that all the male eggs (4) were laid before all the
female eggs (5) (protarrhenotoky, Jayakar 1963) an observation expected
to be made by chance once in 126 times. If males are haploid, as
they are in all Hymenoptera studied (White 1954 p. 326), the
fertilization of the wasp observed may have occurred after the

16. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

construct was half built, and this fertilization may have stimulated the
great burst of activity on the 21/7 and 22/7. Alternatively some
maturation of the female’s spermatheca, or of the sperm within it, may
be necessary in this species before fertilization can take place. There
are other possible explanations. The dissection of the nest revealed
the cocoons, In this species, these resemble those described by Fabre
(1924), being of a thin russet lac-like substance suspended by white
silk threads from the mud wall, which was itself thinly lined with silk.
We disagree with Dutt (1913) that the cocoon is spun. Spun threads
were rare in samples we have examined. The cocoons were rounded and
broader at the end which covered the head and thorax of the pupae,
and which except in cell I lay proximal to the lid. At the distal end
the cocoon narrowed to a hard black cylindrically walled cup about
2 mm. in diameter, and about 3 mm. deep. These cups contained an
earthy substance which was debris of arthropod cuticles. This
confirms Dutt (1913) who claimed it to be larval faeces. However,
among this debris in the two cups examined, a small fibrous moulded
lump was found of a different shape in each case. This seems to be
the unused lac which Morley (quoted by Kohl 1918) states is excreted
into these cups. On the surface of this debris we always found a larval
moult. Only in one cell did we find any structure which might have
been a pupal moult. This, therefore, seems usually to be eaten, or must
be very inconspicuous, Finally, in all cells but I, I, and V, we found a
layer of fusiform white pellets. Further pellets were found loose in the
cell, and they were also found on the floor of the glass jar. Shafer (1949)
observed that in S. caementarium such pellets were present in the larval
tissues, gradually increasing in number during development, so they
can only in part be a meconium due to the metabolism of
metamorphosis, though they are not passed until after the emergence
of the imagines. The cocoon was messily broken, and sometimes
in fragments at the head end. In cell V the head end was
complete, and the rupture was distal and seemed not to have been
made by the occupant, but by wasp I who was an intruder in
cell V.

III. ANALYSIS

Table III presents a summary of those loads assumed useful to the
developing larvae ; i.e. inspections, removals, and unsuccessful introduc-
tions of prey have been omitted.

The separation of foundation from smoothing first made on function
is justified by the observation that the animal spends more time on the
former (Table IV). That the two means have very similar variances
suggests that they have been accurately separated during
recording.

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM

(poq!t0
SPeO] PPO Z)
syJoous pue

sqnep jo ung

SsyJOOUIS

LSHAN FHL NO Gasn ATIVOLOV SAVO'T

TT 21aVvL.

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Identifying and classifying journeys associated with walls, oviposi-
tion and prey, and the two lids presents no difficulty. Daubing is a
characteristic activity, but it is not associated with one cell at a time.
A few daubs seem to have been put on separately to improve the
surface for a cell under construction, or at least, in contemplation. In
Table III daubing and smoothing visits are classified with the ceil which
had last been permanently sealed with a convex lid. On 4 occasions
the next cell (II, VII, IX, X) also had been temporarily sealed after
partial provisioning. Only cell VII on 22/7 was covered with daubs
to any great extent before being permanently sealed. Some figures in
Table III are as might have been expected from the function of the
chore to which they refer. It seems reasonable that the number of
loads used to construct a foundation should be variable while those
used to construct the cell walls should be constant, because the
function of a foundation is to respond to exigencies, whereas the
function of a cell is the raison d’étre of the whole structure, and this
does not differ from cel] to cell. Similar considerations would lead us
to expect the observed standardisation of the number of loads used to
make the two kinds of lid, and the variability of the number used
in both lid and cell daubing and smoothing.

Fabre (1924) counted 15-20 ridges on the cells of the European
species diagnosed now as Spirifex. He considered that each ridge re-
presented one load. In madraspatanum at least, a ridge represents two
loads. If this is so also for spirifex the cells of the two species
require a similar amount of work to build, though those of spirifex are
about 0.5 cm. longer. The numbers of prey are smaller than those
given by previous authors, 11-24 by Shafer (1949) for S. caementarium,
and ‘ about 18’ by Dutt (1913) for the present species. What is sur-
prising is the great variation in the numbers introduced. Table III
shows that this variation can be very little an artifact of our doubts as
to how many there actually were. This variation surprised us while
observing ; we were never able to predict when the wasp would be
satisfied and seal the cell. Many species of spiders are used, and one
large must be equivalent to many small, but this was not obvious
during watching, and cannot always be appreciated by the wasp. For
example the spider that escaped from cell VII on 23/7.was the last
brought and, after one inspection, the cell was sealed. There was
no compensation for this, the largest spider seen, which she had at one
time intended to introduce.

_ The duration of the periods spent on the cell is an indication of the
difficulty of, or care taken with, the work. ‘These periods consist
of two components, not consistently separated in the record. Firstly
the time taken ‘handling’ material, and secondly the time taken
deciding where to put the load, and/or examining it in position. This

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM

Te EL EE BS IE BES TP SS BS DS SS SSP SS

— = S79 | 9.75 — |6S-€9T * 09.669 | LOET SEE ¢ 9 ee [PAOWIOI PIT
= = tr 9-761 OSI 1008s FACIeLSe | LIC 8 06 PETG = uordadsuy
== me $-901 | S$-p0I ES OCG FE OS. CL OE S|) ey ra 4 es UOHIsOdIAQ
a = | -ccop | +-r01 yd Pll, asec Sele i hee ss ise Bs Avid ureyop
= A | 0.1€ 6-LS vl 8E-b F SO-SE 78 Ol 6 6I "* Aad [nQqnog
07-6 OT-€ ‘SLe.ch 8.8L LEl 9L-8 * €7-0L | bz | 97 Or ie Se "* Peuquiod sprT
97-0h | 80-bZ | 9ZI 0-L¢ vor 80-70 F9S.9CT | phe | oF 6 6 en Pl] oAvoUOD
EL-P $9.9 8E L-89 6 $9.9 * P6-€¢ on |= oe I€ (43 yg PI] XOAUOD
O€-Z GL-Co | LESY 7-LE 6 t6-1 FO9L9F | 86 SI 08 08 ‘“ uoryepuno,y
$8-0 10-T | 09-IP 0-1P pe | Ell F9S-ph | 9bZ 07 €97 S97 v2 SITEAA
€6-1 9-1 | S7-€€ 8-8€ CS HOOT PCCICE 16 ZI 69 69 ae Sumjooulg
$6-7 p81 | 0S-€Z €'18 C8 | be-b F EL-€E STI 6 Or Or is PI] Suiqneq
99.0 9r-0 | OL-€¢ 1. ty | 06-0 * stzz | 6zt 6 9L7Z | LET "* - yooq Surqneg
Nvtnase axcumse UPIPSP, |% *A‘0'D |F EID. 3 SOT] CUI poull} Uses uol}e.10d
I I IPO 1% *A°0'9 |% OI uvoyy ysosIVv'T] JSO[[VUIG Rak aa Or} O

UvIPI| JO °a's

THO NO SGNOOS NI ANIL JO NOILVYNG

INGEECKAD

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (i)

examination often seems to include deciding where to place the next
load. The latter component seems more variable than the former, and
the extremely long visits that sometimes make the median a more
useful statistic than the mean, owe their length almost entirely to
the sensory or inspecting component, The times spent away from
the cell before a given activity can be similarly analysed. If the activity
on the cell involved bringing a load, some of the time away must have
involved finding it and, when an animal had been only 8 seconds
away when she returned with a ball of mud, we may assume that she
spent most of the time collecting the mud. However, the existence
of extremely long absences suggests that the wasp sometimes performed
other activities besides collecting while she was away.

Our wasp’s quantitative behaviour while on the nest was probably
typical of the species in this climate, as we assume her qualitative
behaviour to have been, but the times during which she was away must
have been very closely determined by the nearness of suitable mud, and
perhaps, but less certainly, the ecology of the local spiders, i.e. these
periods will differ from locality to locality, and season to season, and
must not be assumed to be characteristic of the species.

Tables IV and V summarise the data on periods, on and away from
the cell respectively. In Table IV the mud carrying activities have
been ranked in order of mean length of durations, beginning with the
shortest, i.e. block daubing. The order judged by the median is similar,
and for the lid building, where there were a few extremely long visits,
more informative. For the other visits, bringing prey, and inspecting,
the mean and median are surprisingly near together considering the
small totals, and the variation.

The durations of absences were so skew that the mean is meaning-
less. Therefore ranking in Table V has been performed on the
medians.

Considering the work with mud, these rankings suggest generaliza-
tions. However, comparisons require some measure of the reliability of
the statistics. There is no satisfactory formula to estimate the
standard error of a median, and the differences between the values
obtained by the use of various ad hoc formulae reveal that the assump-
tions on which they are based are not true of the populations

concerned.
1 1

Estimate (1) was calculated from the formula Dyas cee where fo
is the median ordinate and is estimated from the central 5 or 6
values in the sample, depending on whether n the total sample size was
odd or even. We are thus assuming regularity of the sample just
around the median. The abnormally high standard error of foundation
making is due to an irregularity in this region, which, knowing our

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM

66€7 99LT Z [eAowes PIT

roa 8991 6L L7IZ | 608 6-881 SI0L Or | & uorsedsuy

Ity gIZZ_ Cova Ce eels eee I 0-€1b7 9019 Z97 le Gl UOT}ISOdIAQ

S£1T | O.SIOl 38 OOrt | IIS 6-7ZI1 OLSE Sol cs Aoid urey19—

S-66 Gre | rl O8sT veV I-Pr0l E98E 071 | 81 Avid [nJ}qnog:

69-8 LE-6 ye ns 601 IS €-b1 ¥F L-Z01 6LP 8Z 6€ poulquios spr]

LL-bZ 8% | 0-001 08 Lvl L9 6-bb ¥ £741 6LP ep 6 Pl] 2Avou0;D.

O€-01 20-6 £.69 88 LOI OF V-07 ¥ 1-46 vse 8Z O€ PI] X9AUOZ.

69-€ 0S-2 09h | S.79 09 ce 9.71 ¥ 1-€6 ZE8 67 Or 3ulqnep pry

€0-1 16-0 | €7-0b Sp (6s 23 67 ¥ L.0S ros IZ | €97 STEM.

16-2 CEC ¢.6€ IL 19 €€ €.67 F ¢-901 E98T LI 08 uonepuno,y

8L-0 S6-0 0-€€ cy ep 67 €~ FILIP 6SS vl LZ sulqnep Yoord

A aTavLh§

a
ALAILOV NV AxOdHH ATALVIGAWWI LONULSNOD WOW AVMV SGNOOS NI aWIL,

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

difficulties in measuring time to the nearest second, may not even
reflect facts about the wasp, but may be ‘noise’ due to imperfect
recording. In these data we noticed that foundation building of cell X
contained 5 periods shorter than the median for all cells, and 9 not
only longer but of 50 or more seconds. When the data from cell X
are omitted, the median falls by 1 second to 44.3 and the standard
error to 1.74, apparently solely because the median has been shifted
away from the region of slight irregularity. However, neither in
building the walls of cell X, nor during the subsequent daubing of
cell IX, was there any similar slowing of work. Indeed, no long
term or short term trend could be detected in the speed of any activity.

Estimate (2) was calculated from the formula 0.929 E aS which

was obtained as follows. Assuming that there is a normal distribution
between the quartiles, we have I.Q.R. = 1.349 x standard deviation.
And since the median ordinate f. for a normal distribution is
(n,/27. standard deviation)-! the standard error of the median is
- estimated by
Aes Nee LORS _ 9-929
2/n-f DA ~ 1+ 349 oe Jn
The standard error of 44.3, the median value of foundation building
for cells I to IX, is, on formula (2), 2.97.
Tables VI and VII classify the activities according to whether the

TABLE VI

ET EE NE

NotTeE.—For explanation see p. 22

differences between the times they took exceeded 3 times their relevant
standard errors according to the various estimates [s=significant
on the mean, s on estimate (1) of the s.e. of the median and S on
estimate (2) ]. The results are in fair agreement. These figures verify

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM 23

and quantify that the various parts of cell construction ; i.e. foundation,
walls, and lids, take longer to perform than /id daubing and the general,
or roughcasting, daubing that blocks the cells up, even though, during
wall and lid making, the movements seem more stereotyped and
decisions dependent on immediate stimuli seem to play a lesser part.
That smoothing, suggested to be for camouflage, takes less time than the
structurally essential foundations has already been commented upon.
However the time taken to fetch the mud for these two apparently
more instinctively elaborate movements requires a longer journey
(Table VII). This may be because it is special mud brought from a

Norte.—For explanation see p. 22

greater distance, or selected with greater care, or it may be more
worked at the place of collection. Though /id daubing is a rapid
process the mud used seems to be the ‘ long-distance ’ mud used for the
lid itself. This may have some mechanical efficiency, or may reveal
that the wasp was undecided as to its use while collecting it, or in some
other way reveal a transitional stage. However no trend could be
detected suggesting that the wasp gradually changed its methods of
mud collecting as it entered a period of exclusive daubing and
smoothing. Similarly though the times taken to fetch mud for
foundations were more variable than for other chores, this was not
because the animal was using one sort of mud for these foundations
when laid down alternately with daubing and smoothing, and another
immediately preceding wall-building. During the demolition of
the nest some differences could be seen between cell mud and
daub mud, but these differences were not of the kind that demonstrated
that they must have had different sources. The two muds remained
stuck together and did not fall apart when chipped, though daub
mud seemed to contain more brick dust,

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Concerning the wasp’s other chores, the figures are less easy to
generalise. The shortness of the duration of the visits classified as
‘doubtful prey’ is precisely the reason for the doubt about them ; the
animal moved too quickly for an adequate view to be obtained by
the observer. On 13 occasions the wasp was away over 5 minutes before
she brought back mud, but only once was she away over 30 minutes.
This last absence was not due to rain, During these long periods
She cannot have been exclusively occupied with mud collection.
However before returning with prey she was 21 times away longer than
30 minutes. Some of these delays were certainly due to rain, and some
may be due to the elusiveness of prey; but she ignored spiders in
the room, and even on the table itself. The median of the durations of
absence during the provisioning periods before a cell was sealed with a
temporary concave lid was smaller than the median of the absences
during such periods before permanent closure, but not significantly
so, 1.e. there is no suggestion that a temporary lid was put on because
spiders were being difficult to find or catch.

There were 70 absences of over half an hour, including the nights,
and after 48 of these she brought no load. It seemed that periods of
absence of somewhere between 30 to 60 minutes made it more and more
likely that some inspection was necessary to refresh her memory before
she could resume work. There are three absences of more than 1 hour
where she is recorded as bringing a load, but one of these being
‘doubtful prey ’, cannot be stated definitely to have involved a load.
The other 2 were ovipositions, i.e. the activity where the wasp’s own
physiological condition would be expected to play the greatest part in
jogging her memory, or of making any but special memory unnecessary.
Six other ovipositions were performed after half an hour, and only twice
was it attempted after less than 15 minutes’ absence. A long absence
before an oviposition seems characteristic, but no single explanation
will fit all the cases. Sometimes this delay looked as though a newly
built cell was being allowed to dry, but this would not explain com-
parable absences when the cell had been built overnight and only
inspected in the morning ; also the egg was placed in cell VIII only 262
seconds after the last load of mud had been added to the walls. On
the two occasions when oviposition was repeated the absences between
the failure and the success were 2316 and 1065 seconds. The spiders
used were too heterogeneous to suggest that a particular species must
be used to receive the egg, and time must be taken in finding it.

Some at least of the species of the genus Ammophila maintain
several separate cells in different stages of development at the same
time (Baerends 1941). It is possible that our wasp may have been
attending to other nests during the longer periods of absence. This can
only be decided by marking animals, but the observation that the activity

ONE NEST OF SCELIPHRON MADRASPATANUM 25

of our wasp on this nest rose to a definite peak would be compatible
with her having started this nest before she finally finished and sealed a
former, which she was servicing during her absence on the sunny after-
noons of 15/7 and 16/7, and also of starting another which she was
attending during the fine afternoon of 26/7. If our suggestion about
the time of insemination or of the beginning of fertilization (p. 15) is
correct, the nest finished on 16/7 would contain an all male brood,
and that begun on 26/7 an all female. Wedo not know if such uni-
sexual nests occur. Such nests have been recorded (Jayakar 1963) for
Eumenes esuriens.

1V. DISCUSSION

The difference between this and previous accounts of wasps belong-
ing to the genus Sceliphron have been indicated already. We do not
think they need further discussion. This, we think, should await similar
studies both on other individuals of S. madraspatanum and on other
species of wasp. In morphological studies the proper appreciation of
both intra-specific and inter-specific variation is emphasised. Such an
approach is not yet a routine in the study of biological function, even
in those fields, such as genetics, which have stimulated statistical
methods. Statistics are usually used, as in this present work, to confirm,
or not confirm, the existence of differences which were suspected for
other reasons, e.g. as being due to ancestry, sex, or external conditions ;
and, at least in studies of behaviour, emphasis is now being put on
carefully defining a hypothesis as a preliminary to collecting the data
intended to disprove, or fail to disprove, it. We would like to suggest
an extension of the discipline that if a phenomenon is worth watching
it is worth noting, into the discipline that if a phenomenon is worth
noting it is worth counting as many features of it as the observer can
think of. Such an undesigned and exploratory use of statistics would
certainly provide surprises of discovery and interpretation. However,
it is essential to put in the strongest plea that to contribute to the
approach we have in mind, a paper without numerical tables is perhaps
more enfeebled in its aim than is an anatomical paper without pictures.

By the criterion of species specificity, and almost certainly of lack of
opportunity for imitation, this nest building must be considered an
instinctive activity. However, we have been unable to hypothesise any
relevant sign stimuli, nor recognise any comparable, or reciprocal,
stereotypy in the form of movements. This failure is probably due to
the difference between the senses of the observers and the observed. Is
it because we could not imagine her antennal sense (or senses) that our
wasp seemed so intelligent and purposeful ?

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)
V. SUMMARY

One nest of Sceliphron madraspatanum consisted of 10 cells the first
4 of which contained males, the next 5 females. The 10th cell was left
unsealed, so the larva fell out. Only one period of building was not
watched. This probably consisted of about 30 visits. Of the 955 visits —
seen, 948 were timed to the nearest second. Mud was brought on 772
visits. Of these 426 were spent in building individual cells. 277 more
were occupied in daubing the construct as a whole, and 69 with smooth-
ing mud on the surrounding wood. About 10 seconds or 25% longer
was required to fetch mud used in cell construction than for the two
more general activities which were performed together during six
periods roughly alternating with the building of one or two cells.

On 64 visits a spider was brought, including 1 too big to be intro-
duced. The times taken to find prey ranged from less than 3 minutes
to nearly 1? hours. The egg was laid on the first spider introduced into
the cell. On 19 visits we were uncertain if anything was brought, but
on 3 visits flies were introduced, confirming that these form part of the
food of some species of this genus.

On 97 visits no load was brought. These included the first of the
day, most of those after an absence of longer than an hour, and on 5
days the last. On 6 days the wasp removed a temporary lid on the first
or second visit. On most visits the animal swept the construct with her
antennae, wiping these on the first pair of tarsi.

REFERENCES

BAERENDS, G. P. (1941) : Fortpflan-
zungverhalten und Orientierung der
Grabwespe Ammophila campestris Jr.
Tijdschr. Ent. 84: 68-275.

BERLAND, L. (1925) : Faune de France.
10. Hyménoptéres Vespiformes 1. Leche-
valier, Paris.

Dutt, G. R. (1913) : Life Histories of
Indian Insects (Hymenoptera). Mem.
Dept. Agri. India. Entomological series
4: 183-267.

Fasre, J. H. (1924) : Souvenirs Ento-
mologiques 4eme serie. Edition définitive
illustrée. Delagrave, Paris.

Horne, C. (1872) : Notes on the
Habits of some Hymenopterous Insects
from the North West Provinces of
India. With an Appendix, containing
Descriptions of some new Species of
Apidae and Vespidae, collected by Mr.

Horne, by Frederick Smith of the British
Museum. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond.
7: 161-196.

JAYAKAR, S. D. (1963) : Proterandry in

solitary wasps. Nature 198 ; 208-9.
' Kout, F. F. (1918) : Die Hautflugler-
gruppe ‘ Sphecinae’. IV. Teil. Die nattr-
liche Gattung Sceliphron Klug (Pelopaeus
Latr.). Ann. WNaturhistorischen Hof-
museums 32: 1-171.

PECKHAM, G. W. & E.G. (1905) :
Wasps Social and Solitary. Constable,
Westminster.

SHAFER, G. D. (1949) : The Ways of a

Mus Dauber. University Press, Stan-
ord.

Waite, M. J. D. (1954) : Animal
Cytology and Evolution. Cambridge

University Press.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of Rajasthan

K. S. SANKHALA
Department of Forests, Rajasthan, Jaipur

(With two plates)

Rajasthan has established eight Wildlife Sanctuaries for the casual
observer, the naturalist, and the wildlife photographer and is
managing them on scientific lines. The paper gives a short description
of each.

INTRODUCTION

Rajasthan ranks high in wildlife potential. Its pleasant climate
for the greater part of the year, dry deciduous forests, open patches
of growing grass, and the agricultural pattern provide an excellent
habitat for wildlife. The long leafless period, the dried-up under-
growth, and the few waterholes form an ideal combination for wildiife
observation and photography.

The State is situated between 23.3° and 31.12° N. and 69.30°
and 78.17° E., and extends over 344,000 hectares. The south and
south-eastern parts are hilly; the north and north-western regions form
the true Indian desert. The climate is characterised by hot weather
during May and June when the temperature rises to 108° F. The
winters are pleasant. The desert areas exhibit extremes of tem-
perature; sometimes it rises to 123° F. (Pachpadra) in May and falls
to 24° F. (Jaisalmer) in January. Rain is uncertain and scanty. The
average rainfall is 25 in. and rainy days are hardly 20 to 30 in the
year. Sometimes the whole year passes without a single drop of
rain.

The vegetation changes from the tropical semi-evergreen forests of
Mt. Abu, the tropical dry deciduous teak (Tectona grandis) forests
of Banswara, and the tropical dry deciduous Anogeissus pendula
forests of the Aravalis to the tropical dry deciduous thorn forests of
the desert zone. In the extreme north, there are only shifting sand

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

dunes and scrub of Calligonum polygonoides, Leptadénia spartium, and
Calotropis procera. ‘The agricultural pattern changes from the intensive
rice cultivation of Doongarpur and Baran to the ‘mere gamble’ with
a handful of bajra seed in the sand dunes of the desert region.
Animal husbandry is extensively practised in the west; large herds
of sheep, goat, and camel are maintained and the people lead a
nomadic life.

The State presents an interesting collection of animals and birds,
including Tiger (Panthera tigris), Panther (Panthera pardus), Caracal
(Felis caracal), and Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus). Chinkara (Gazelle
gazella), Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), and Nilgai (Boselaphus
tragocamelus) are fairly common and prefer the drier and open areas.
Chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis}, the only species of its genus,
is another antelope met with. They live near waterholes. Sambar
(Cervus unicolor) and Chital (Axix axis) are found in the forest areas
of the inner Aravalis and the Vindhyan ranges. Their distribution is
more marked in the Chambal ravines from Kota to Dholpur. Hyena
(Hyaena hyaena), Jackal (Canis aureus), Indian fox (Vulpes ben-
galensis), Mongoose (Herpestes edwardsii), Jungle Cat (Felis chaus),
Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) are common.
Wolves (Canis lupus) and desert fox (Vulpes vulpes pusilla) are
confined to the desert areas. Indian Hare (Lepus nigricollis) and
Desert Hare (L. nigricollis dayanus), Porcupine (Hystrix indica), and
a large variety of gerbilles, rats, mice, etc. are the common rodents
found in the State. Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) has also
been reported from a variety of habitats.

The avifauna of the State is even richer. It is the true home of the
peacock (Pavo cristatus), the Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis
nigriceps), and the blue rock pigeon (Columba livia). Resident game
birds, like grey partridge (Francolinus pondicerianus), Indian Sand-
grouse (Pterocles exustus), Painted Sandgrouse (P. indicus), quail
(Coturnix spp.), green pigeons (Treron phoenicoptera) are quite
conspicuous. Large numbers of migratory birds arrive during winter.
The commonest of them are duck, teal, geese, cranes, Imperial Sand-
grouse (Pterocles orientalis), Houbara (Chlamydotis undulata
macqueenii), Florican (Sypheotides indiea), and many wagtails,
bushchats, larks, starlings, ete.

Formerly wildlife was strictly preserved in the various States of
Rajasthan, but it was mainly for the sport of the princes. At times,
wild boar, chinkara, sambar, and even tiger and panther were
preserved at the cost of the poor farmers. for which they never got
any compensation. Since the old order has changed, a new concept

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES OF RAJASTHAN 29

must prevail. If wildlife is to be preserved, it has to be at State cost,
within State limits, for the benefit of all and without interfering with
the rights and privileges of the individual.

The State Government is conscious of the new concept and
harmful species have been posted as pest or vermin, and others
facing extinction have been notified as protected. Large tracts of
State forest (c. 270 sq. miles) have been nottfied as reserved areas,
where shooting, hunting, netting, trapping, etc. are strictly prohibited.
The eight reserved areas are: Sariska in Alwar; Van Vihar-Ram
Sagar, and Ghana in Bharatpur; Sawai-Madhopur in Sawai-Madhopur;
Darrah in Kota; Jai Samand in Udaipur; and Mount Abu in Sirohi
district. They are popularly known as Wildlife Sanctuaries where
special arrangements have been made to develop and protect the
animal life of the area. To this list, two more are to be added
shortly, one at Talchaper in Bikaner for the preservation of Blackbuck
and the other in Jaisalmer for the Great Indian Bustard.

SARISKA

Sariska is Rajasthan’s outstanding Wildlife Sanctuary. It is
situated on the National Highway No. 8 (Delhi-Jaipur) 125 miles from
Delhi. It extends over approximately 80 sq. miles of forest. Dhok -
(Anogeissus pendula) is the main species of these forests but pure
stands of Salar (Boswellia serrata) grow on the steeper and drier
slopes. Bottom lands support Dhak (Butea monosperma), Zizyphus
spp.. and Khair (Acacia catechu). The forest covers three main
valleys: Kalighati, Siliberi, and Sariska. These valleys have wooded
hill slopes and the landscape of rolling hills presents a picturesque
setting (Plate 1).

The sanctuary is rich in wildlife. Sambar, nilgai, chousingha,
chinkara, wild boar, tiger, and panther are common and can
be. conveniently seen from the sanctuary roads or from observa-
tion towers. Special arrangements have been made to show tigers
on the kill under searchlight from safe and comfortable machans.
For bird watchers the sanctuary is still more interesting. Partridge,
quail, and sandgrouse, which are normally very wary, move quite
freely on the roads and paths. Other birds, like peacock and green
pigeon, are quite common.

The sanctuary is well netted with fair-weather roads. One enjoys
the rare sight of sambar, herds of nilgai, and wild boar retreating to
the hills from pastures in the morning, whereas night drives open the
entire jungle book page by page.

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Sariska is historically important also. The recent excavations of
Garh are attracting a number of amateur archaeologists. The new
finds are old temples of the tenth century A.D. The abandoned fort
of Kankwari is another historical place where Dara got asylum when
Aurangzeb was hunting for him.

Sariska is very popular, being easily reached by road. The well-
furnished forest rest houses are electrified and cater for the visitors’
comfort.

VAN VIHAR-RAM SAGAR

Van Vihar and Ram Sagar, the finest shooting blocks of the late
Maharaja of Dholpur, were very rich in wild life. His interest in wild
animals and birds was so great that his evening drive to feed the
creatures was a must. He would take various types of food to feed
sambar, chital, chinkara, and even tiger. panther, and jackal from
the roadside. Coveys of partridzges used to await the Maharaja’s
arrival.

This preservation received a fatal blow during the transitional period
of the transfer of political power and the integration of the princely
States. Very many of these semi-tame creatures were massacred by
poachers. In 1955, however, these were made reserved areas under
the Rajasthan Wild Animals and Birds Protection Act, 1951.

These reserved areas are now popularly known as Van Vihar and
Ram Sagar Wildlife Sanctuaries. Since the sanctuaries have similar
fauna, flora, and topography I have treated them as one unit and
described them as Van Vihar-Ram Sagar Sanctuary. The Sanctuary
is situated 170 miles from New Delhi and about 50 miles from Agra.
It is connected with Delhi-Madras National Highway No. 3 at
Dholpur by a 12-mile link road. It extends over 20 sq. miles of
low and well-clothed ‘hills of the Vindhyan series. The forest consists
of pure crop of Dhok with Khair as its principai associate.

The well-furnished and electrified forest-lodge of Van Vihar
overlooks a small lake where herds of chital, sambar, and wild boar
come to drink even during the day. They come close to, and provide
chances for easy photography from, the lodge terrace. A visit to
Shahjahan’s hunting lodge and boating in the Ram Sagar lake are
really interesting.

DARRAH

The Sanctuary is situated 30 miles south of Kota City on Kota-
Indore road in the well-wooded Girdharpura Valley. Dhok, Khair,

DIDYYUVS “SM + 000UT
eNSIIeS—jsolo} snonploep Aq

] aLVId ‘OOS “LSI “LVN AVAWOg ‘Nuno[{

IJ dLVId

RS
y

Sosa

DIDYYUOS *S “MT

$0704

BYSHLS—TIP] Fe Jost

DBL a 8 IERIE oS r See. seer
os See aa 5 :
lees Mo pee eS a :

oe Oe —

‘00S ‘LSI “LVN AvaWog ‘Nuaof

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES OF RAJASTHAN oi!

Dhak, Karaya (Sterculia urens), Bahera (Terminalia belerica), Tendu
(Diospyros melanoxylon), Gurjan (Lannea grandis), Khirni (Wrightia
tinctoria) are some of the common trees of the sanctuary. It is
famous for chital, nilgai, wild boar, sambar, bear, and tiger. Panther
and chinkara also occur. Spurfowl, black and grey partridge, and
quail are seen everywhere. Old forts, a museum, the Gandhi Sagar
Dam, the Kota Barrage, and big game shooting in Kota forests are
some of the other attractions.

SAWAI-MADHOPUR

The Sanctuary is situated about 6 miles to the east of Sawai-
Madhopur Railway Station. It extends over 60 sq. miles of well-
covered rolling hills, flat tops, and narrow valleys of the Aravali
ranges. The forests consist of pure crop of Dhok with Khair and
Tendu as its associates. The sanctuary abounds in sambar, chital
and nilgai, tiger and panther. Wild boar, sloth bear, and chinkara
are also found.

The sanctuary is approachable by road from Jaipur only during
non-monsoon period. Several fair-weather roads connect all the
areas of the sanctuary but they opens only after December. ‘The
historic and invincible Ranthambhor Fort of Rana Hamir, situated
in the heart of the sanctuary, is a big attraction for tourists.

JAI SAMAND

The Sanctuary is situated 32 miles south of Udaipur City on
Udaipur-Salumbar road. It extends over 20 sq. miles covering well-
clothed valleys and hill ranges of the innermost Aravalis. The
forests support mainly Dhok and Salar with scattered trees of Semal
(Salmalia malabarica), Gurjan, Karaya, etc. on the hill slopes, and a
miscellaneous crop of Dhak (Butea monosperma), Terminalia spp..,
Mahuwa (Madhuca latifolia), Bridelia retusa, and bamboos in the
valleys.

It is famous for chinkara, chital, sambar, bear, panther, and wild
boar which can be seen while driving on the Sanctuary roads. Stray
tigers are also met with. Grey partridge, spurfowl, and quail can be
seen on the Sanctuary roads.

Jai Samand Lake is situated on the eastern boundary of the
sanctuary and provides good boating facilities.

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)
Mount Asu

The Sanctuary is situated on the plateau of Mount Abu,
extending over 40 sq. miles of sub-tropical evergreen forests. The
main species occurring are Anogeissus sericea, Mangifera indica,
Khajur (Phoenix sylvestris), Bar (Ficus bengalensis), and shrubs like
Carissa spinarum, Caesalpinia spp., and Zizyphus spp. The topo-
graphy is characterised by deep, well-wooded valleys, steep
mountainous slopes, and huge granitic boulders scattered all over.
Wildlife consists of sloth bear, panther, sambar, chinkara, and chital.
and occasionally a tiger. Grey junglefowl, crested tits, bee-eaters,
bulbuls, shrikes are some of the conspicuous birds. Since the
sanctuary has been created very recentiy, it is still in the making.

The nearest rail-head is Abu Road on the Delhi-Ahmedabad
metre-gauge line. It is 18 miles from the sanctuary and is well
connected by bus and taxi services.

Mount Abu is famous for its pleasant and healthy climate
throughout the year. Delwara and Achalnath Jain temples are other
big attractions for the visitors. Guru Shikhar, 5653 ft. above m.s.l.,
makes an enjoyable excursion.

GHANA BIRD SANCTUARY

The heronry has attained international fame and is a show place
for visitors and tourists in general, and of particular interest to
ornithologists and bird photographers. It is a low-lying freshwater
marsh which is flooded during rains. It is well wooded with
medium-sized Babul (Acacia arabica) and Ber (Zizyphus spp.). There
are a few tall Kadam (Mytragyna parvifolia) trees, where eagles,
hawks, and whitenecked storks nest. Numerous cormorants, egrets,
spoonbills, darters, storks, herons arrive and nest on the trees during
the rains. Thousands of migratory duck, teal, cranes geese, even
Siberian cranes, arrive during winter. The whole atmosphere is filled
with duck calls and occasional crane trumpets during winter.

It is situated 30 miles from the Taj and 110 miles from New
Delhi on the Delhi-Bombay rail route of the Western Railway. At
the nearest railway station Bharatpur. only 4 miles away, local trans-
port is always available. There is a good network of roads and all
places in the sanctuary are within walking distances. Small canoes
make it possible to reach almost every nest. In evening drives herds
of nilgai, chital and blackbuck can be seen from the sanctuary roads.

The table opposite shows the best time to visit the sanctuaries.

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES OF RAJASTHAN

"Q2q WIS T~"90q ISI
"ydog WIOE-ApNE 3S]
‘99q WIS T-ouNL WOT
"AON WIOE-<UNE YI9F
"AON UIST-Ang 38]
"190 IST E-AINE IS]
"90 WISI-Aine TST

31qe1INg ION

Ang YigT-"AON 3S]
[dy wicI--qed WI91
“AON Y10€-"390 IST
dy m0¢E-"90q WOT
"G2 YIST-"99C, IST
"Q24 YWISI--AON qI9T
‘QOd WL-AON 15]
‘Qe WISI-O HOI

"290 3ST E-ATOL YIOT

ounr Wig [-idy y91
oune YIOE-APIY 3ST
oun YICt-"go{ WOT
sun YOE--qeH WOT
count WIOE-"q97 48
ounr YIO¢-"q9H 4I9T

eueyy

nqVv IW
pueures rer
Indoypeyy-reMes
yelleg

ao Ieseg WeY-1eyIA UeA

BYSIICS

aqeying Aj[a}eV19poyy

VSIA 0} OUWWIL

a1qeing Iso

AlenjoOUeSg JO suIeN,

Glan comet on

SHIYVOLONVYS AHI LISIA OL NAH

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

MANAGEMENT

The Sanctuaries are State institutions within the Forest Depart-
ment. There are Game Wardens for Sariska, Van Vihar-Ram Sagar,
Darrah, Jai Samand, and Mount Abu, and Game Rangers for Ghana
and Sawai-Madhopur. Above them are the Divisional Forest Officer,
the Conservator of Forests of the Circle, and the Chief Conservator
of Forests. ;

The Sanctuaries are effectively protected by a team of Game
Watchers posted at the entrances. A few batches guard the inside
and Game Wardens on motor cycles and jeeps patrol the entire area.
Roads entering the sanctuaries are opened only by the order of the
officer-in-charge of the sanctuary. Visitors have to register their
names and addresses and the purpose of the visit at the sanctuary
gates. No firearm may be taken without the permission of the
officer-in-charge. 3

The old shooting boxes situated in the sanctuaries have been
renovated and made into observation towers. Since they are quite
commodious and safe, they function as ideal dormitories. Some new
types of observation posts have been recently constructed.

During adverse conditions of food and water, the animals are
well looked after. Water troughs have been constructed which act
as waterholes in summer. At places artificial feeding is done. The
staff keeps a close watch on the wildlife of the area and works out
the population trends. It is hoped that the records of the observa-
tions made will help in the scientific management of the sanctuaries.

Special facilities have been provided for photographing wildlife.
At Sariska, live bait is put out every Friday evening, and visitors
can see and photograph tiger at a kill. Similar arrangements are
made on request in other sanctuaries. Amateur photography is free
but professionals are required to pay fees. +

There are well-furnished and electrified forest rest-houses at
Sariska, Van Vihar, Ghana, and Mount Abu. At Jai Samand there
is a good forest rest house and P.W.D. dak-bungalows at Sawai-
Madhopur, and Darrah. Forest rest houses are booked by the
respective sanctuary officers. The P.W.D. Dak bungalows are reserved
by the Collectors of the districts. Tiie Divisional Forest Officer of
the area can be fully depended on for necessary assistance and
information.

Notes on the outcome of literature
survey for Wealth of India—
Raw Materials

K. R. RAMANATHAN, R. C. SAWHNEY, AND J. M. DUTTA

Publications and Information Directorate, Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, New Delhi

A comprehensive survey and scrutiny of the literature published
during the past 60 years on economic plants, which form the major
part of the ‘wealth of India’, have revealed certain interesting and
valuable points, a few of which are presented here. Those selected
for presentation pertain to the accuracy, adequacy, and availability
of information.

ACCURACY OF PUBLISHED INFORMATION

The literature available in some cases was extensive, in some not
enough. Quite often the information was confusing, owing to lack
of precision in identifying the source materials or in reporting their
distribution or economic properties. In some cases, clear evidence
was available that strict botanical identification of the plants or plant
materials was not done at the time of investigation or even when the
results were sent for publication. In some cases, samples emanating
from different sources were erroneously considered to be the same,
since they apparently looked alike in external features or had the
same regional or local names; in other cases the same material was
. considered different, owing to differences in local names or difference
in appearance brought about by soil, and climatic and _ cultural
factors. In the absence of a concomitant field survey of the actual
materials investigated, the task of evaluating and summarizing such
published results posed certain problems.

Botanical Nomenclature |

One of the chief problems in the compilation of ae on plant
products has been the correct botanical identity of the genera and

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (A)

Species. Recent researches in systematics and taxonomy have revealed
several errors in the identity of the plants recorded in India. In
earlier literature, some of the plants occurring in India have often
been considered as identical with those known from Europe, America,
Africa, or eastern Asia. Consequently, the economic uses known
for them in those areas have been attributed to the plants recorded
in India. Recent investigations show that some of these plants are
quite different from one another and consequently the economic uses
attributed to one cannot hold good for the other. Further, analyses
of Indian specimens have shown differences in structure and com-
position from the European or American plants, evidently due to
variations not only because of specific differences, but also of soil
and climatic conditions. An interesting example of this type is
furnished by Fumaria officinalis Linn. and F. parviflora Lam., small
herbs found in Europe and SW. Asia; they are the sources of the
drug Fumitory used in stomach derangements, liver complaints, and
skin affections. The drug which is sold in Indian bazaars under the
name Shahterah or Pitpapra had been for a long time referred by
most of the Indian authors to one or the other of these two species.
It has now been shown that the common Indian species is F. vaillantii
Loisel, and the Indian drug obtained from it is, at best, only a sub-
stitute for true Fumitory.

Another example of this type is furnished by Cimnamomum
zeylanicum, the leaves of which yield the cinnamon oil of commerce.
In earlier literature, the plants found wild in S. India were classified
under this species and were considered to be only a variety or race.
The oil extracted from the Indian plants was also classified as of
C. zeylanicum, although differences were noticed in certain charac-
teristics. particularly the eugenol content. Later investigations suggest
that the common Indian plant found wild is probably Cinnamomum
iners and that C. zeylanicum occurs perhaps only in cultivation or, in
some places, as an escape. The botanical differences between the
species are minor and not yet quite clear, and whether the differences
in composition of the oil are really due to differences in the specific .
nature of the plants is yet to be solved.

Very few plants can equal Mung and Urd in the amount of con-
fusion due to the misidentification and misinterpretation of their
specific names and one author trying to correct the mistake of
another. The genus Phaseolus was established by Linnaeus on the
basis of the common French Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) which is
American. He referred to this genus our pulses like Urd and Mung,
although they differed in some essential botanical characteristics from

CUTCOME OF LITERATURE SURVEY FOR WEALTH OF INDIA § 37

the French Bean. He applied the name Phaseolus mungo to
specimens which he presumed were of mung, but which were actually
of Urd, and applied the name P. radiatus to mung. Roxburgh tried
to correct this by reversing the names; Roxburgh’s P. mungo is Mung
and P. radiatus is Urd. Baker in Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA
followed Roxburgh in designating green Mung as P. mungo, and Urd
as a variety, var. radiatus of P. mungo. Watt (1892) in A DICTIONARY OF
THE ECONOMIC PRODUCTS OF INDIA followed Baker. Prain, and later
Piper, showed the mistake made by Roxburgh and suggested restora-
tion of the Linnean name to Urd. Watt (1908) in THE COMMERCIAL
PRODUCTS OF INDIA followed this suggestion, thus reversing what he
had done in his previous work. As a consequence of this confusion
in these standard works of reference, in all subsequent papers on
these pulses the names have been used indiscriminately, so that one
is often unable to know which pulse is reaily meant. To add to this
confusion Piper, following a suggestion from Prain, adopted the
name P. aureus Roxb. as the name for Mung, though it applied only
to the golden yellow type known as Sona Mung and not the common
green mung. Examination of seed samples of both these species has
revealed, further, that green-seeded urd are also present, while there
are also black-seeded mung. As a result of these variations in
external characters and the misapplication of specific names, a large
part of work done on these pulses becomes difficult to assess correctly
and to say how far variations in quality and consumer preferences,
shown in different places, are related to these variations.

Indian Names

Another aspect of plant nomenclature which attracts one’s
attention is the constant confusion brought about by the use of
Indian language names, even in scientific communications of recent
dates, without reference to the correct botanical names. Indian
names are mostly group names, often indiscriminately applied to
products of similar appearance or use. rather than of the same origin.
Because of the indefinite nature and indiscriminate use of Indian
names, confusion has been brought about in the literature on
the nature and utilization of many plant products. As an outstand-
ing illustration may be pointed out the fruits of a plant, known
commonly as Sugandh Kokila, used as a source of an essential oil in
perfumery. It was found that this name has been applied to two or
three different plants, one of them Luvunga scandens (Rutaceae) and
another Zaurus nobilis (Lauraceae). Examination of the literature
revealed that the fruits obtained under this name from certain

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

markets in U.P. yielded an oil having different chemical composition
from the one recorded earlier under the same name from eastern
India. On verification of samples and correspondence with the
authors of the papers, it was found that the fruits from U.P. markets
were not properly identified and they did not belong to the species
to which they were attributed. Further, the fruits evidently belonged
to an entirely different plant, other than the one reported from eastern
India. Samples sent to the Forest Botanist, Dehra Dun, were
identified as belonging to Zanthoxylum and not to Luvunga or Laurus.
According to the literature available, 7. scandens does not occur at
all in the hills of U.P. or the western Himalayas from where the
material was reported to be collected, while L. nobilis is known in
India only from a few introduced plants occasionally cultivated in
gardens. The scientific resulis of the two investigations, though
recent, had to be discarded owing to the indefinite nature of the
plant sources.

Crop Plants |

A scrutiny of the literature pertaining to crop plants shows a
larger amount of confusion, lack of understanding of present day
knowledge, and sometimes even carelessness. In many of the
publications no attempt has been made to get an unqualified identi-
fication of the species dealt with or their varietal positions,
particularly when there are numerous cultivated types. In many
cases, confusion has arisen from the identification as different species
of plants which are purely specimens of a hybrid population. There
are many reasons for this confusion, not the least being.the lack of
interest of taxonomists in economic crops. Most of the economic
botanists appear to have been interested mainly in the utilization
rather than in the botanical aspects of the plant. The taxonomists on
the other hand have often avoided crop plants because of their high
variability and the presence of intergrading forms, hybrids, mutants,
abnormalities, etc. In recent years, considerable work has been done
towards clarifying these variants based on taxonomic, cytogenetic,
and .phytogeographical surveys, elucidating their place of origin,
domestication, classification; and distribution. However, very: little of
this -work: has found-reférence in- standard works ‘for-:agriculture or
horticulture: -- As a’ consequence, some economic botanists even now
continue- to: use -the old names, perhaps owing to a conservative. out-
look.‘ In. -matiy. of the papers published- in: agricultural. and® iorti-
cultural journals, it -is not: wicommon ‘to: find -the~ botanical. name: -of
the: -plant-- missing -or, if “given, not only incorrect and old but ‘often

CUTCOME OF LITERATURE SURVEY FOR WEALTH OF INDIA 29

misspelt and misapplied. Examples of these have been noticed
during the compilation of articles on Canavalia, Citrus, Elettaria,
Fragaria, Gossypium, Mentha, Musa, and Phaseolus, to mention only
a few.

In the case of the genus Mentha, it was found that most Indian
authors refer the common Mint (Podina) cultivated in India to M.
viridis Linn., a name already shown in floristic works as synonymous
with M. spicata and probably comprising a large number of variants.
While surveying the literature, doubts arose regarding the possibility
of one or more variants of this species being present in India owing
to certain differences recorded in analyses of the essential oils
obtained from plants from Poona and Kanpur stated to be of
M. viridis. Kanpur samples had 55.8% of carvone, while Poona
samples had nil and contained only a terpenic glyoxal (C,,.H,,0,),
a constituent somewhat like piperitenone oxide present in an allied
species, M. rotundifolia. According to present day knowledge, the
latter species is one of the parents of M. spicata, which is considered
a hybrid species. An analysis of floristic records in India and also
some specimens grown in New Delhi, pointed to the fact that the
specimens examined at Kanpur and Poona are probably variants of a
hybrid progeny not fully identified. This is an instance where a
careful scrutiny of the source material is needed, even down to a
varietal or racial level, in order to explain the differences.

ADEQUACY OF INFORMATION

Coming to literature scrutiny with reference to adequacy of
information, it was found that in some cases published information
appeared large, but closer scrutiny revealed that some of the later
contributions were repetitive of what had been published earlier,
often emanating from Watt's work. In these cases the information
already known was simply reclassified under various end uses’ or
regionwise, without any material advance. On the other hand, in
some cases, unnecessary confusion has been caused by inadvertent
misinterpretation and misquoting of the earlier information; in some
cases individual opinions, often oats ees HONS eeu
stated as fully established facts: . ae a og

A large number of papers purport -to record: useful. plants: in: the
different areas studied. While they give some: useful information
regarding places of occurrence; most: ofthe uses attributed -to ‘them
appear. to .be- based on’ observations ‘recorded: earlier. : To :cite a few
examples; publications - like Rama -Rao’s--FEOWERING - PLANTS © OF

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

TRAVANCORE, Dastur’s USEFUL PLANTS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN and
MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, Bal’s ‘Useful Plants of
Mayurbhanj in Orissa’ [Rec. bot. Sur. India, 1941, 6 (10): 1-119],
Jain & Puri’s ‘Survey of some oil-yielding plants of Western India’.
[Bull. bot. Sur. India, 1960, 2 (1 & 2): 95-98], etc. give hardly any
new information. It would have been more useful if some of these
records were based on actual observations freshly made, so that
confirmatory evidence would be available. Some of these publica-
tions do not indicate even their sources of information.

On the other hand, intensive studies and surveys of small areas
have shown more interesting particulars not known earlier and have
helped to correct some older information. To cite an instance, it
has been recorded in Watt’s A DICTIONARY OF THE ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
OF INDIA that fruits of Olea dioica and Careya arborea are edible and
almost all the later authors have repeated this information. Recently
Fr. H. Santapau while surveying the Flora of Khandala refuted these
statements and recorded that fruits of Olea dicica are intensely bitter
to taste and are at the most eaten by some animals, while fruits of
Careya arborea have a foul smell and even birds and animals hardly
touch them. He also recorded that fruits and seeds of Dolichos
bracteatus, a plant growing wild in the Western Ghats, are collected
and used for edible purposes, a fact not known earlier. Such
intensive studies should be made of other areas in India and factual
information collected to substantiate or refute old beliefs and practices.

A glaring instance of an error committed inadvertently in a
publication and perpetuated by later authors was found with re-
ference to the perennial herb, Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn., the source
of Liquorice (Mulhatti or Atimaduram). The plant is distributed in
the Mediterranean region, and SW. and central Asian countries; most
of the bazaar samples sold in India are from imported materials. On
the doubtful information of its occurrence or cultivation in Peshawar
valley (now in W. Pakistan) one of the earlier Indian authors tried
to convey that it is met with in the sub-Himalayan tracts from Chenab
westwards, but erroneously stated eastwards. This error has been
perpetuated by all subsequent authors, leading naturally to the belief
that the plant is found throughout the sub-Himalayan tracts. Actually
the plant does not occur wild anywhere in India and is only being
experimentally grown in some places.

Another example, though of a slightly different nature, is Polveala
chinensis Linn., a small herb occurring plentifully in many parts of
India. On the basis of unauthenticated studies on roots supposed
to have been derived from this plant. it was for many years considered

OUTCOME OF LITERATURE SURVEY FOR WEALTH OF INDIA 41

a suitable substitute for the American P. senega Linn., the roots of
which constitute the drug senega used as an expectorant in bronchitis
and asthma. Consequently, the roots of P. chinensis were made
official in THE INDIAN PHARMACOPOEIAL LIST, 1946, and PHARMACOPOEIA
OF INDIA, 1955. Recent studies have revealed that all commercial
samples of Indian senega are spurious and are derived from plants
not even belonging to the genus Polygala. Indian senega and its
preparation have now ‘been deleted from the Indian Pharmacopoeia.

A survey of the literature pertaining to the medicinal uses of
plants has often raised doubts about the usefulness and authenticity
of much of the information published. For a fairly large number
of them no examination has been made of their pharmacological
properties nor have clinical trials been conducted to substantiate their
virtues. Some of the uses and properties attributed to these plants
are vague as to the exact part used, whether used alone or in com-
bination with other drugs, and the number of cases where they have
proved efficacious. The opinion of an individual based on a single
case has been taken as sufficient evidence to attribute to a plant
certain medicinal virtues, although analysis of the plant showed
nothing of merit in its composition. Examples of this are the various
plants mentioned as useful for snake bite and scorpion stings and
proved valueless by Caius and Mhaskar. A critical evaluation of the
phytochemical properties, combined with pharmacological and
clinical tests, based on properly identified materials is badly needed to
substantiate many of the claims made of the medicinal properties of
plants.

In this connection, reference may be made to some publications
frequently consulted by all workers on medicinal plants, such as
Kirtikar & Basu’s INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS, Nadkarni’s INDIAN
MATERIA MEDICA, Chopra’s INDIGENOUS DRUGS OF INDIA, Chopra ef al.’s
GLOSSARY OF INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS and INDIAN PHARMACEUTICAL
CODEX. They are handy publications giving ready reference to the
medicinal virtues of Indian plants, but they are mostly compilations
based on previously published works. Some of them lack precision,
particularly Kirtikar & Basu’s work and Nadkarni’s volumes, since
they comprise data extracted from earlier publications where the
identity of the source material is not clear. The medicinal properties
based on Ayurveda and Unani systems are sometimes contradictory
and raise doubts about the authenticity of the source materials.
Further, in Kirtikar & Basu’s volumes no attempt has been made to
differentiate important and well-authenticated uses from uses based on
individual opinions or stray cases. References to source of informa-

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61-(1) -

tion is also not indicated. Chopra ef al.’s GLOSSARY suffers from the
same drawback, because it is an abbreviated dictionary of what is
stated mainly in Kirtikar & Basu. Nadkarni’s works are more
uncritical, since even the plant names and their distribution are often
erroneous. As pointed out earlier, there is an urgent need for a
critical evaluation of the medicinal properties attributed to many
plants in these works.

AVAILABILITY OF INFORMATION

A scrutiny of the literature published so far reveals certain lacunae
in the information available on certain Indian raw materials. For
example, India is well known for its minor forest plants useful for
food, fodder, or industrial purposes. However, there is as yet no
source giving consistent data regarding their availability, demand, and
extent of use. A rather surprising feature is that, while Watt was able
to give some data regarding their availability and uses, based perhaps
on special surveys, there is no machinery at present to authenticate
and gather them consistently. Many of the forest trees yield useful
dyes, gums and resins, fibres and floss, fats and oils, and medicinal
products, for many of which demand always exists although: in a
small measure; a large number of queries received in the Directorate
pertain to them. Many of these products if collected and processed
can meet special requirements and can replace those obtained from
cultivated plants or from outside India. A few examples are: minor
oilseeds like Kamala (Mallotus philipensis), Nagkesar (Mesua ferrea),
and Phulwara (Madhuca_ butyracea); minor fibres like Kittul
(Corypha), Ramie (Boehniéria), and Urena; and medicinal plants like
Dioscorea deltoidea, Rauvolfia serpentina, Costus speciosus, etc., etc.

Similarly, a large number of plants yield lesser-known edible
fruits, which go to waste for want of a machinery to collect them in
the proper season and preserve and market them. Some of them are
known to have served people in times of scarcity and have consider-
able food and nutritive values; by proper utilization they can greatly
supplement the food resources. A comprehensive survey of the food
and nutritive values of minor edible plants is badly needed, “so Awe
at jes those of value could be selected and processed. ~~

. Anothef important: aspect of forest plants on’ which information
has been found lacking: pertains to the production and availability
of ‘timbers. While gross estimates are available,. data regarding
specific timbers of value ‘is difficult to get ‘and even’ correspondence
with forest’ officers on this aspect does: not ‘yield tangible. data:>. 22

GUTCOME OF LITERATURE SURVEY FOR WEALTH OF INDIA 43

A survey of literature on useful plants introduced into India at
different periods indicates that sustained effort has been lacking in.
most cases, often leading to failure in getting them established. To
mention a few cases, plants like Elaeis guineensis (Palm Oil Tree),
Olea europea (Olive), Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (Pyrethrum),
Glycyrrhiza glabra (Liquorice), etc., for some of which demand exists
even today, have not been successfully established, either owing to
lack of steady governmental support for experimentation on a long
term basis or because of the climatic and edaphic unsuitability of the
localities selected for their initial experimental cultivation. There
is practically no literature or institution from where information
regarding introduced plants is available, as to when they were intro-
duced, what were the difficulties experienced in growing them in
India, and why the attempts were not pursued.

In the literature on crop plants, a lacuna has been frequently
noticed regarding the exact benefits bestowed by the introduction and
evolution of improved types. While a large amount of literature
was available of experiments carried out in Government farms, very
little data could be gathered as to how far these types have come into
general cultivation and in what way they have improved our total
production and yield. The information is scattered in notes and
news, annual reports of experimental stations, etc., with the result
that a consolidated picture of their value is not available. The same
holds good with regard to some of the trials with manures and
fertilizers to augment yield.

Regarding the chemical composition and nutritive. valde of plants.
much of the data available appears to be based on analyses done
many. years ago, either in India or abroad. In earlier years, the
practice was to send the samples to the Imperial Institute, London,
for examination and report, and much of the data is based on such
analyses.. Comparatively little work has been done in India on this
aspect. In the case of cultivated food plants, comparative analyses
of their composition and nutritive value are few, particularly of
different market samples, with the result that their useful attributes
are difficult to assess..--Some-of the grains are. prepared or processed
for human’ consumption, ‘the “processes. varying. in. different. parts. of
the country and Vaal different end uses. Ue Oley aE such (Diocessing
oe ee ‘for “< certain types remain © Re ihesetineds : i the
case::-of “medicinal. plants “and: plants. of * industrial -..value, - detailed

analysés.’are ‘wanting. of Indian. material: =A~ co-ordinated: - botanical

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

and phytochemical survey of Indian materials is badly needed to fill
up these gaps.

Another aspect which has come to light as a result of the survey
of the production and trade data of some of the important commodities
is the growing need to develop the utilization of by-products in order
to offset the fall in the demand for our commodities in outside
countries, owing either to higher prices or to the development of alternate.
sources of supply or substitutes. Thus groundnut, jute, linseed, and
tobacco which used to figure prominently in our export trade have
now been displaced in some of the markets owing to the high cost
of our produce as compared with that of some other countries,
particularly Africa, SE. Asia, North and South America. In order
to maintain our competitive position, the utilization of by-products
seems to need immediate attention. Incidentally, they may furnish
articles for which there is need even inside the country. To cite a
few examples, the price of jute can be cut down if jute waste is used
for paper manufacture; sugar prices can be lowered if bagasse is
utilized for paper-making.

An important aspect needing attention is the necessity for
standardizing Indian trade names for important plants and plant
products. With numerous languages and dialects in India a large _
number of names have been applied to the same product in different
areas. With the internal trade now more widely based, it becomes
necessary that Indian trade names should be standardized and strictly
adhered to in Governmental and trade circles to facilitate their
identification in cases of doubt and for collecting consistent data
regarding their production, availability, and consumption.

In trying to collect illustrations to go with the articles, it was
found that very little attempt has been made in recent years to pro-
vide accurately drawn sketches of economic plants. ‘There has been
a general tendency to reproduce illustrations published already in
older publications, some of them of the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. Quite often the same illustration has been repeated in a
number of publications, even though the plant is common and a better
illustration can be drawn afresh. The same may be said of even
photographic reproductions. Repeated republication and copying of
old illustrations sometimes results in perpetuating mistakes once
made.

Though a large number of Indian plants are reported to possess
medicinal virtues, there is yet no illustrated catalogue giving the
important external and internal characteristics of the drugs, facilitating
their identification. While drawings have been published of the entire

OUTCOME OF LITERATURE SURVEY FOR WEALTH OF INDIA 45

plant or flowering or fruiting branches, the essential parts used as
drugs have not been illustrated. Similarly, no catalogue exists of
seeds, fruits, or other parts of plant used as food, fodder, or spice;
consequently their identification and verification have been difficult
in cases of doubt.

CONCLUSIONS

To summarise briefly the important findings of the literature
survey on plant products for WEALTH OF INDIA—RAW MATERIALS, the
following may be stated:

1. There is a great need for accuracy and precision in the
identification of the plant materials, in order to convey correctly their
availability, properties, and proper utilization.

2. The need is also felt to assess afresh some of the properties
attributed to many of our plant raw materials, not only to confirm
what has been recorded earlier, but also to discover new ones. A
correct assessment of their distribution and availability is necessary
in order to facilitate their profitable exploitation. Projects based on
a co-ordinated botanical and phytochemical study of the economic
plants would be useful in throwing light on their intrinsic merits and
clarifying some of their vague attributes.

3. A suitable central organization is needed to collect data
regularly, regarding the availability and utilization of Indian plant
raw materials and keep them up-to-date and make them available to
scientists and industrialists.

-Copepods parasitic. on ‘South Indian
Fishes: Family Anthosomidae—2. |

N. KRISHNA PILLAI
‘Marine -Biological Laboratory, Trivandrum, Kerala State .

(With seven text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 60(3) : 670]

- In two previous contributions (Pillai 1962, 1963) I have described
eleven species from the present locality. The present paper describes
‘Seven species, all new, bringing the total to eighteen.

Genus Lernanthropus Blainville

Lernanthropus alatus sp. nov.

Text-fig. 8

Material. 6 females were collected by the author from the gills
of two specimens of Selaroides leptolepis (Cuvier) at Trivandrum. Holo-
type, female, is deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No.
C. 4440/1).

Female. Body short and stout. Carapace oblong, antennal area
low but distinct, lateral lobes fairly broad and projecting in front as two
rounded processes reaching well beyond the antennal lobe. Anterior
division of trunk as long as, or slightly longer than, carapace, greatly
swollen and expanded at the posterior two-thirds into large wing-like
lobes with a small conical outer distal process. Dorsal plate as long as
broad. Genital segment longer and broader than abdomen, abdomen
proximally constricted and distally narrowed and bilobed. Anal lami-
nae slender, longer than abdomen.

First antenna seven-segmented, basal segment expanded into a large
irregular lobe projecting beyond the antero-lateral lobes of the carapace
and holding the rest of the appendage fully exposed. Basal segment of
second antenna stout, its inner and outer surfaces spiny, distal segment
strong, with a bulged base carrying a strong accessory claw. Maxilla as
usual in the genus. Basal segment of first maxilliped stout, distal
segment slender, with two large distal inner spines and several spinules,

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—2 _ 44

unguis with several well-spaced teeth along the border. Distal segment

of second maxilliped strongly falcate, with distinct unguis.

A-C 1.0mm
D.F.G.H 0.3mm
K 0.5mm

___E0.lmm

I.J 0.1mm

Fig. 8. Lernanthropus alatus sp. nov.: Female. A. dorsal view; B. lateral view ;
C. ventral view; D. first antenna ; E. same, enlarged ; F. second antenna ; G. first
maxilliped ; H. second maxilliped ; I. first leg ; J. second leg ; K. posterior division of
trunk

First two pairs of legs subsimilar, basipod spiny, with slender outer
seta and stout inner spine, exopod stout, with five dissimilar spines, en-
dopod with a small apical spine, both rami spiny. Third leg biramous,
exopods large and projecting outwards, endopods partially fused, with
their outer border curled ventralwards. Fourth leg biramous, with long

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (A)

subequal rami steadily narrowing towards the apex. Fifth leg vestigial,
mere lobes just above the genital segment.
Total length 3.9 mm.

Remarks. In the general shape of the body L. alatus resembles
L. giganteus but in the former the antero-lateral lobes of the carapace
are less prominent, the lateral parts of the anterior division of the trunk
are much expanded, the prominent triangular processes seen in L. gigan-
teus are absent, the posterior border of the dorsal plate is bilobed and
the third leg is biramous. In L. alatus the fourth pair of legs is longer
than in L. giganteus. The peculiar modification of the basal segment
of the first antenna is unique and easily distinguishes L. alatus from all
the other species, There is also much difference in size between
L. giganteus and L. alatus.

Lernanthropus carangis sp. nov.

Text-fig. 9

Material. 40females were collected by the author from the gills
of Caranx sansun (Forskal) at Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is de-
posited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No. C. 4441/1).

Female. Body very much like that of L. alatus. Carapace slightly
longer than broad, with the antennal lobe narrow, one-third the total
width, antero-lateral parts very prominent and projecting far beyond the
antennal lobe, posterior half of lateral borders swollen, posterior border
nearly straight. Anterior division of trunk enlarged, much broader than
long, steadily broadening and terminating in a pair of prominent round-
ed lobes. Dorsal plate as long as anterior division of trunk but narrower,
narrowing backwards, its posterior border with a median incision making
it bilobed. Fifth trunk segment subequal to genital segment, abdomen
roughly squarish, Anal laminae slightly longer than abdomen, with two
jong proximal setae and one outer and two apical spinules.

First antenna seven- to eight-segmented, with simple strong setae.
Second antenna robust, basal segment with a spine-tipped papilla and
distal segment with a claw. Maxilla with small inner lobe carrying
one spine and large outer lobe with three spines, one of the spines very
large. Basal segment of first maxilliped stout, distal segment with two
spines, unguis with well spaced marginal teeth. Basal segment of
second maxilliped with a spine-tipped papilla, distal segment with a
strongly curved unguis.

Basipod of first leg with a pectinate inner spine, exopod stout and
sparsely spiny, with five teeth, endopod internally spiny, with a terminal
pectinate spine, longer than the ramus. Second leg with subequal rami,

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—2 49

basipod with outer spine. Third leg biramous, each ramus completely
free and leaf-like. Fourth leg biramous, rami subequal, narrowing
towards the apex and only slightly overreaching the posterior border of
the dorsal plate. Fifth leg uniramous, less than half the length of
fourth leg.

Total length 3.6 mm.

A-C 1.0mm_. D.F.G.1.J.L 0.1mm E.K 0.5mm H 0.3mm

Fig. 9. Lernanthropus carangis sp. nov.: Female. A. dorsal view; B. lateral
view ; C. ventral view; D. first antenna ; E. second antenna ; F. maxilla; G. first
maxilliped ; H. second maxilliped ; I. first leg ; J. second leg ; K. posterior division of
body ; L. anal lamina

Remarks. In general shape this species resembles L. giganteus
Kroyer and L. alatus Pillai. From the former it differs in the shape of
the anterior division of the trunk and the postero-lateral processes of
the trunk which are triangular in L. giganteus but rounded in L. carangis.

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

In L. giganteus the posterior border of the dorsal plate is straight.
L. carangis resembles L. alatus to a greater extent but in the latter the
shape of the postero-lateral processes of the anterior division of the
trunk is different and the basal segment of the first antenna is very
characteristic. L. carangis also resembles L. eddiwarneri Delamare-Dou-
boutteville & Nunes-Ruivo (1954), but in the latter the third leg is
different in shape and the dorsal plate overlaps the postero-lateral pro-
longations of the anterior part of the trunk. A remote resemblance to
L. priacanthi Kirtisinghe (1956) is evident.

Lernanthropus robustus sp. nov.

Text-fig. 10
Material. 3 mature females, 1 immature female and 1 male
were collected by the author from the gills of Caranx sp. at Trivandrum.
Holotype, female, and allotype, male, are deposited in the Indian
Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No. C. 4442/1). Allotype (Reg. No. C. 4443/1).

Female. Body stout and robust. Carapace roughly triangular
in dorsal view, with the postero-lateral parts slightly produced, making
the posterior border concave. Antennal lobe broad and convex, antero-
lateral lobes prominent and blunt. Anterior part of trunk long and cylin-
drical, oblong in dorsal view. Dorsal plate demarcated from the anterior
part of trunk by very deep lateral constrictions, steadily broadening
backwards and as long as the latter, its posterior border concave,
postero-lateral parts angular. Fifth trunk segment indistinct. Genital
segment large. Abdomen longitudinally rectangular, about one and a
half times as long as broad. Anal laminae as long as abdomen.

First antenna seven- to eight-segmented. Second antenna slender
and long, basal segment with a proximal tubercle, distal segment with a
greatly swollen base carrying a spine. Inner lobe of maxilla produced
into a spine, outer lobe with three spines, one of them very large. Basal
segment of first maxilliped very stout, distal segment slender, with a
small bifid tooth and a long stout tooth, unguis with crenate border.
Second maxilliped of moderate size, distal segment falcate, unguis not
distinct.

Basipod of first leg with outer seta and inner spine, rami stout and
spiny, exopod larger than endopod, with five teeth, endopod with long
pectinate spine. Basipod of second leg with outer pectinate seta, exopod
with four small teeth, endopod longer than exopod, with two long
pectinate setae, both rami spiny. Third leg large and flattened, cut into
four unequal lobes. Fourth leg biramous, rami narrowing towards the
apex and not reaching beyond the dorsal plate. Fifth leg fusiform, half
as long as fourth leg.

Total length 8.7 mm.

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—2 51

Male. Body distinctly demarcated into cephalothorax and trunk,
former pyriform, with the antennal area indicated by lateral constric-
tions. Fifth and genital segments demarcated by lateral constrictions.

D.H0.5mm

~K 0.5mm

[ ol

Fig. 10. Lernanthropus robustus sp. nov. : Female. A. lateral view ; B. dorsal
view; C. first antenna ; D. second antenna; E. maxilla; F. first maxilliped ; G.
same, tip enlarged ; H. second maxilliped ; I. first leg; J. second leg ; K. posterior

division of body ; L. male
Abdomen very small, anal laminae longer than abdomen. Third leg
biramous, exopod very long, endopod very short. Fourth leg biramous,

both rami long, endopod slightly shorter than exopod, as long as exopod
of third leg.

Total length 2.7 mm.

Remarks. This species can be easily distinguished from all the
others by its large size and the robust build; it is one of the largest

species, slightly larger than L. giganteus. The shape of the third leg and

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

the presence of two long spines on the endopod of the second leg also
appear very diagnostic. L. monodi Delamare-Douboutteville &
Nunes-Ruivo (1954) remotely resembles ZL. robustus in the cylindrical
trunk and in the posteriorly bilobed dorsal plate. But these are the
only characters they have in common.

Lernanthropus oblongus sp. nov.

Text-fig. 11

Material. 9 females and 2 males were collected by the author
from the gills of Sardinella fimbriaia (Val.) at Trivandrum. Holotype,
female, and allotype, male, are deposited in the Indian Museum,
Calcutta (Reg. No. C. 4444/1). Allotype (Reg. No. C. 4445/1).

Female. Carapace comparatively very small, oval, antennal area
conical, reaching the level of the antero-lateral lobes, latter large and
clearly folded ventralwards. Anterior part of trunk and the dorsal plate
not separate, the two together forming a large oblong division, its
antero-lateral parts produced into two forwardly directed triangular
processes carrying a stiff setule on its outer border, posterior border
perfectly rounded. Genital segment and abdomen small. Anal
laminae as long as abdomen, with two proximal and two distal setae.

First antenna very small, seven-segmented, lateral parts of the
ventral side of carapace, outer to the base of the first antenna, with
a comb of spines. Second antenna comparatively small, inner part
of first segment concave and tuberculated, second segment with two
basal claws, one of them apically bifid. Maxilla with fairly broad
lobes, outer lobe with three subsimilar spines. First segment of first
maxilliped very stout, second segment small, with a spine and a few
spinules at the distal inner border, unguis with serrate border. Second
maxilliped very stout.

Basipod of first leg with outer and inner spines, exopod rather
broad, with five barbed teeth, endopod with a short spine. Exopod
of second leg with four teeth, endopod without spines. Third leg
biramous, rami subequal and folded, their concavity facing each
other. Fourth leg biramous, reaching far beyond the dorsal plate,
endopod narrow, half as long as exopod, latter only slightly narrow-
ing towards the apex. Fifth leg absent.

Total length 2.3 mm.

Male. Body demarcated into four divisions. Carapace large,
broader than trunk, antennal area indicated by a slight constriction,
second and third trunk segments fused, fourth larger than fifth, fifth
fused with genital segment, carrying a pair of distally blunt back-

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—2

53
wardly directed processes, probably the fifth legs. Genital segment
with a pair of flat processes.

spine-like.
Total length 1.2 mm.

Abdomen very small, anal laminae

GB ) ii at Q ae j
CB | ame
== See
oy H eg
F »
-C 1.0mm : |
D.H.I.L 0.
O-HIL 0.1mm, F.G.J.K 0.1mm __
tee E0.3mm pM 05mm, NE

Fig. 11. Lernanthropus oblongus sp. nov. : Female. A. dorsal view; B. ventral
view; C. lateral view; D. first antenna with spine row on carapace;. E. second
antenna; F. maxilla; G. tip of first maxilliped; H. first maxilliped; I. second
maxilliped ;' J. first leg; K. second leg; L. abdomen and anal laminae ; M. male

x: :

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Remarks. The most distinguishing characters of this species are
the row of spines on the carapace, the complete fusion of the trunk
with the dorsal plate and the prominently dissimilar rami of the fourth
leg. In general shape L. oblongus resembles L. rubiginosus Redkar,
Rangnekar, & Murti (1949), but in the latter the antero-lateral pro-
cesses of the trunk are different in shape. The posterior division of the
body is described as twice the cephalon in length in L. rubiginosus but
it is at least four times the length of the cephalon in L. oblongus.
In L. rubiginosus the endopod of the fourth leg hardly overreaches
the dorsal plate whereas it projects far beyond in L. oblongus.
The male as illustrated by Redkar ef aj. is very different from that
of the present species.

Lernanthropus opisthopteri sp. nov.

Text-fig. 12

Material. 2 females were collected by the author from the gills
of Opisthopterus tardoore (Cuvier) at Trivandrum. Holotype, female,
is deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No. C, 4446/1),

A.BO0.5mm '

C.E.F 0.1mm

_ Fig. 12. Lernanthropus opisthopteri sp. nov.: Female. A. dorsal view ;
B. ventral view; C. first antenna; D. second antenna; E. first maxilliped;
F. second maxilliped ; G. first leg: H. posterior division of trunk a

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—2 55

Female. Body demarcated into carapace, trunk, and dorsal plate.
Carapace semicircular, anterior border trilobed, antennal lobe low,
antero-lateral parts highly expanded and broadly rounded, reaching
beyond the antennal lobe, posterior part of carapace abruptly narrowed,
posterior border convex, overlapping the trunk. Anterior division of
trunk broader than long, slightly longer than carapace. Dorsal plate
very broad, as long as anterior division of trunk, narrowing back-
wards, posterior border short and slightly sinuous. Genital segment
longer than abdomen, abdomen as long as broad, anal laminae slender,
longer than abdomen, with one proximal and four apical setules.

First antenna five-segmented. Second antenna stout, first segment
with one and second with two claws. Maxilla as usual in the genus.
First segment of first maxilliped stout, second slender, with two small
teeth, unguis with spiny border. First segment of second maxilliped
stout, with a proximal spine, second segment as long as basal, with two
spines, unguis long and strongly curved.

First and second legs subsimilar, basipod with a long outer seta and
short inner spine, exopod stout, with five rather long sharp teeth,
endopod with a short pectinate spine, both rami sparsely spiny.
Third leg with the rami fused and folded, directed forwards, with the
concavity facing downwards, the two endopodal lobes distally free
and directed backwards. Fourth leg biramous, rami very long and
slender, exopod about one and a half times as long as endopod. Fifth
leg absent.

Total length 2.1 mm.

Remarks. In the general shape of the body this species is
nearest to L. atrox Heller (1865) as described by Shiino (1955), but
the extremely long and slender fourth leg easily distinguishes it.

Lernanthropus gibbosus sp. nov.

Text-fig. 13

Material. 12 females and 1 male were collected by the author
from the gills of Saurida tumbi] (Bloch) at Trivandrum. Holotype,
female, and allotype, male, are deposited in the Indian Museum,
Calcutta (Reg. No. C. 4447/1). Allotype (Reg. No. C. 4448/1).

Female. Body stout and rather deep. Carapace longer than
broad, with a very broad, subtruncate antennal area, lateral parts
forming large lobes bent downwards and projecting beyond the anten-
nal lobe as conical projections in dorsal view and appearing as oblong
lobes in lateral view. Postero-lateral parts of carapace bulged and
postero-median part forming a high boss. Anterior division of trunk

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

longer than broad, with a pair of antero-lateral and a single antero-
median boss, demarcated from the dorsal plate by very shallow
lateral grooves. Dorsal plate longer than anterior division of trunk,

‘A

A-C A-C 1.0mm D.F.H 0.1mm
| a
K 0.5mm E 0.3mm
G 0.Imm

Fig. 13. Lernanthropus gibbosus sp. nov.: Female. A. ventral view; B. dorsal
view; C. lateral view; D. first antenna; E. second antenna; F. maxilla ;
G. tip of first maxilliped : H. second maxilliped ; I. first leg: J. second leg;
K. posterior division of trunk : L. male

forked right up to its base, leaving the genital segment and abdomen
fully exposed, each half of the dorsal plate displaced towards the
lateral side, with its ventral part folded downwards. Genital segment
and abdomen subequal in length, the former broader. Anal laminae
as long as abdomen, with two proximal and two distal setae.

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—2 57

First antenna six-segmented, first segment very large. Second
antenna stout and strong, basal segment with a spine-tipped papilla,
distal segment with two claws, proximal claw bifid. Maxilla two-lobed,
inner lobe with one and outer with two spines. Distal inner part of
second segment of first maxilliped spiny, unguis with blunt teeth along
the borders. Second maxilliped with very stout basal segment, distal
segment strongly falcate.

Basipod of first leg with outer seta and inner spine, exopod with
five barbed teeth, endopod with a long spine, both rami strongly spiny.
Second leg vestigial, exopod with three or four small teeth, basipod
carrying a small lobe with a long spine, endopod absent. Third leg
uniramous, slender and long. Fourth leg biramous, overreaching
the dorsal plate, exopod longer. Fifth leg present but much
degenerated.

Total length 6.1 mm.

Male. Carapace pyriform, anteriorly narrowed to form the
antennal lobe. Trunk oblong, with a distinct segment demarcated
anteriorly. Abdomen distinct, anal laminae longer than abdomen.
Third leg long, biramous, exopod long, narrowing towards the apex,
endopod represented by a small lobe. Fourth leg similar to third but
the exopod twice as long as that of third. - Fifth leg represented by two
spine-tipped papillae.

Total length 1.6 mm.

Remarks. In the deeply forked dorsal plate L. gibbosus-
resembles L. trachuri Brian (1906) and L. forficatus Redkar et al. (1949).
In L. trachuri the third pair of legs are fused but completely free in
L. gibbosus. The strongly gibbose carapace and anterior division of
trunk distinguish the present species.

Lernanthropus decapteri sp. nov.

Text-fig. 14

Material. 69 females were collected from the gills of Decapterus
russelli (Ruppell) by the author at Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is
deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No. C. 4449/1).

Female. General shape like that of L. trachuri Brian (1906).
Carapace nearly equal in length and breadth, antennal lobe indistinct,
antero-lateral lobes of carapace prominent and projecting far beyond
the antennal lobe, posterior part constricted. Anterior division of
trunk equal in length and breadth, antero-lateral parts shoulder-like, very
slightly expanded. Dorsal plate slightly longer than anterior division
of trunk, almost a continuation of the latter, deeply forked, each limb

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

of the fork oblong. Fifth segment short, genital segment squarish,
abdomen as long as broad, distally bulged just above the insertion of
the anal laminae. Anal laminae very small, conical,

__D 0.1 mm - F.G.H.I 0.1mm. E 0.3mm

Fig. 14. Lernanthropus decapteri sp. nov.: Female. A. dorsal view;
B. ventral view; C. lateral view; D. first antenna; E. second antenna;
F. first maxilliped; G. second maxilliped; WH. maxilla; I. first leg;
J. second leg; K. posterior division of trunk

First antenna eight-seginented. Second antenna stout, basal
segment with a spine-tipped papilla, distal segment stout, with a strong
claw. Inner lobe of maxilla with a pectinate spine, outer lobe large,
with two small spines. Basal segment of first maxilliped stout, distal
part of distal segment with one spine and several spinules, unguis with
serrate border. Second maxilliped very strong, basal segment nearly
equal in length and breadth, distal segment as long as basal, with very
long unguis.

First leg as usual in the genus, endopod of second leg lacking the
spine. Third leg uniramous, the two members fused, except at the tip,
forming a backwardly directed conical lobe stopping a little short of
the tip of the dorsal plate, Fourth leg biramous, exopod longer

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—2 59

than endopod and overreaching the tip of the dorsal plate.

vestigial.
Total length 3.4 mm.

Remarks. This species

has

Fifth leg

the closest resemblance to

L. forficatus Redkar et al. (1949), but differs in the more robust body

and the shorter fourth pair of legs.

The description of L. forficatus is

such that a more detailed comparison is not possible.

REFERENCES

BrIAN, A. (1906) : Copepodi parassiti
dei pesci d’Italia. 189 pp. Stab. Tipo—
Litografico R. Instituto Sordomuti,
Genova.

DELAMARE-DOUBOUTTEVILLE, CL., &
Nungs-Ruivo, L.P. (1954) : Parasites de
poissons de mer ouest-africains récoltés
par M. J. Cadenat. II. Copepodes genres
Lernanthropus, Sagum, Paeon, Penella.
Bull. Inst. Afric. Noire 16: 139-166.

HELLER, C. (1865): Crustaceen.
Reise der Ostereichischen Fregatte
Novara 2: 1-280.

Kroyer, H. (1863): Bidrag til

Kundskab om Snyltekrebsene. WNaturh.
Tidsskr. 2 : 75-426.
Prrtal, N. K. (1962): Three new

anthosomid copepods parasitic on South

bee fishes. J. Parasitology 48 (4):

PILLAI, N.K. (1963): Copepods parasitic
on South Indian fishes : Family Antho-
somidae—1. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60
(3) : 655-70.

REDKAR, M. V., RANGNEKAR, P. G.,
& Murti, N.N. (1949) : Four new species
of parasitic copepods from the marine
Paes of Bombay. J. Univ. Bombay 18:

SHIINO, S. M. (1955): Copepods
parasitic on Japanese fishes. 8. The
Anthosomidae. Rep Fac. Fish Pref.
Univ. Mie 2 : 50-69.

WILSON, C.B. (1922) : North American
parasitic copepods belonging to the
family Dichelesthiidae. Proc. U.§. Nat.
Mus. 60; 1-98.

On the food and other habits of the
Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus
roseus Pallas) in India

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

(With two plates)

Notes on the food and other habits of the Greater Flamingo (Phoeni-
copterus roseus Pallas), an otherwise well-known bird in India, are so
scattered and incomplete that Iam prompted to offer a summary of the
records available to me, together with a few personal notes and observa-
tions.

FooD

Blanford (1898) stated that the food consists ‘ according to most
authors partly of small crustaceans, worms and insects, with larvae and
ova, partly of vegetable matter ; but Gadow says, essentially of organic
slime, confervae (algae) and etc.’ Stuart Baker (1908) says: ‘they are
also in all probability far more given to animal food than is generally
believed to be the case’. Later (1929) he made the general statement :
‘much of the food is of a vegetable nature, but they also eat tiny water
insects, crustacea, and mollusca, while in the south of France they feed
entirely on a tiny brine shrimp Artemia salina’.

Ticehurst (1923) noted Greater Flamingos feeding on small mullet
fry in pools left by spring tides at Karachi and also referred to seeds of
the Common Lucerne (Medicago lupulina) and a sedge (Cyperus sp.)
found in the gullet of another—these, he thought, were washed down
by flood water from cultivation a mile or two off.

In September/ October 1935, McCann (1940) visited the only breed-
ing colony in India, in the Great Rann of Kutch, to collect specimens
for the natural habitat proup in the Prince of Wales Museum of West-
ern India, Bombay. 7 adults and 8 chicks were collected and he recorded
that the stomachs of the chicks held a quantity of sand which contain-
ed ‘nothing except a collection of small black seeds’ which he later
identified as of Ruppia rostellata. The adult stomachs contained some
of the same seeds, some brown seeds, and some portions of aquatic
plants resembling Naias and Chara. The brown seeds were identified as

Journ. Bompay Nat. HIst. Soc. Piece |

Greater Flamingos ( Phoentcopterus roseus) in East Africa

1. A breeding colony

2. Territorial display

Photos : Leslie Brown

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Lesser Flamingos (Phoentconatas minor) in East Africa

1. Flamingos watering at Lake Hannington

2. <A breeding colony

Photos : Leshe Brown

FOOD AND OTHER HABITS OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO | 61

those of the sedge Scirpus maritimus, which occurs in the marshes not
far from Khavda in Kutch.

McCann further noted that he could find no trace of any living
matter on the ground or in the water near the nesting colony and
suggested that, Ruppia being unable to stand salt water, the presence of
a sufficient number of seeds was only possible if it grew rapidly when
the Rann was first inundated with fresh water from the eastern streams
and seeded before the sea-water flowed in and the salinity increased with
dessication.

Ruppia maritima is known as widgeon grass in America and is re-
commended as a duck food plant in areas with a salinity of 10,000
p.p.m., or more. Duck eat the seeds, leaves, stems, and roots of this plant
(Saline Soils & Brackish Waters in Management of Wild Life, Fish &
Shrimp. Trans. 27th N. American Wild Life Conference, pp. 321-335.
Not seen in original).

Salim Ali (1945) in ‘ More about the Flamingo in Kutch’ referred to
McCann’s records and commented that plant seeds could not form the
staple diet of the flamingo in these parts as they were unlikely to be
washed down into the Rann in sufficient quantity. He did not say any-
thing about McCann’s suggestion that the Ruppia seeds come from
plants grown in situ during the initial period of flooding by river water.
He shot two adults in the salt pans of Kandla in September and found
in them coarse sand, a small quantity of slimy greenish brown vegetable
matter, and over 50 red thread-like Chironomus larvae (c. 10 mm. long).

S. A. Akhtar of Kabul (1947) reported a visit to a salt lake at Ab-
Istadeh in the Afghan mountains where they collected a lot of flamingo
eggs and examined the stomach of one bird which was found to contain
clay and sand, 3 water beetles, 10 back-swimmers, 23 midge larvae,
and most abundantly the remains of black ants! More recently
Mr. M. W. Ridley (1954) referred to the food preferences and the feed-
ing habits of the Greater (Phoenicopterus roseus) and the Lesser (Phoeni-
conaias minor) Flamingos in East Africa. He drew attention to the fact
that the Lesser Flamingo does not submerge its bill but merely skims
the surface of water while the larger bird generally but not invariably
submerges its head in water while feeding.

Ridley examined about 40 stomachs and found blue-green algae
(Myxophyceae) and Diatoms (Navicula and Bacillariophyceae) to be the
major food of the Lesser Flamingo, while the larger one contained a
great variety of foods, animal as well as vegetable. The former
consisted largely of Chironomid larvae, Corixids (water boatmen), Cope-
pods, various insect larvae, while the latter included sedge seeds, algae
and diatoms, remains of leaves of higher plants. In addition to the
records from India already quoted, he refers to Gallet’s suggestion that
they feed on the organic content of the mud and quotes Chapman to

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

the effect that the American subspecies feeds largely on the marine snail
Cerithium and the old world race, according to Lord W. Percy, on a
similar mollusc in the Red Sea.

On the 4th August 1963, I shot a Lesser Flamingo feeding busily in
shallow puddles left by the receding tide at Salaya in the Gulf of Kutch.
The crop was closely packed with algae and Prof. (Mrs.) E. Gonsalves of
St. Xavier’s College, who very kindly examined the material, reports: ‘ It
consists almost wholly of blue-green algae. Diatoms are extremely rare.
Grit and sand particles occur in small amount, along with what appears
to be a mucilaginous substance.

‘ The filaments of the blue-green algae are broken into short and long
lengths. The most conspicuous form present is a species of Oscillatoria
—Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher. The filaments are very slightly narrower
than those of the type (14.54 to 17.1 in diameter) but in other respects
resemble it. The fragments varied in length from 20.3 to 617.5
(=0.02 to 6.175 mm.). Oscillatoria tambi (Woronichin) is present
in fair quantities, as also Oscillatoria nigro-viridis (Thwaites) to a lesser
extent. A small species of Lyngbya is also included. Diatoms ranging
in dimensions from 21-51 » length and 6-10.5 « breadth are occasionally
seen.’

Allen (1956) has translations from THE BIRDS OF THE SOVIET UNION
by Dementiev, in which doubt is cast on an earlier statement by Henke
(1882) that flamingos feed their fledglings with small frogs procured
in freshwater lakes. Mesbar (quoted by Allen, loc. cit.) stated that
flamingos feed on small molluscs, while he is also said to have held that
a unicellular water-plant, Aphanothece, plays a considerable part in the
nourishment of flamingos. These red-coloured plants, floating in the
water and exhaling a strong stench, are deposited in small still sea-bays
where they are eaten by the birds. This is said to have been later con-
firmed by Issakot in 1948 on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea. Seven
stomachs of the flamingos contained this water plant in considerable
quantity and in every one of 6 stomachs the seeds of Ruppia maritima
were also found, forming more than one half of the entire stomach
content in volume. Importance is also given to their feeding on
molluscs, mainly small cockles, and Issakot is quoted as saying that the
winter food consists mainly of crustaceans and small molluscs. It is
further added that Artemia salina and its roe were an important part
of flamingo food in northern Iran in the past, but because of the
increasing salinity in the water of the Karabogaz Bay this crustacean
has now disappeared completely.

D. B. Carlisle, Anti-Locust Research Centre, London (1962), affirms
that ‘the pink plumage of the flamingo is the result of diet and the
pigment is taken almost unchanged from the small shrimp-like creature
which forms a large part of the food. This red pigment is then

FOOD AND OTHER HABITS OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO 63

deposited in the feathers where it slowly fades in the sunlight. To main-
tain the pink plumage, therefore, the flamingo needs constant access
to food rich in pigment (which it cannot make for itself), and a diet
poor in carotenoids, as these pigments are called, may produce a
flamingo with white plumage’.

Among the vertebrates, according to Allen (loc. cit.), Wilughby
(1678) said that flamingos eat fish but there is only rare confirmation
of this statement. Bryant (per Allen, loc. cit.) stated in 1866 that he
had found small fish in flamingos he had collected in Inagua (Bahamas)
and these were identified as Cyprinodon sp., probably variegatus.

Salim Ali and I visited the Rann in April 1957 and found evidence
of a plentiful supply of Cyprinodon dispar between 2 and 3 inches in
length. In April 1960, P. W. Soman on a visit to the flamingo-
_ pelican colony saw lumps of freshly caught fish of this species fed to
and disgorged by young pelicans. Earlier in the season it is quite
possible that the area contains sufficient numbers of small fry to feed
the flamingos.

In July 1962, Br. Navarro sent to the Bombay Natural History
Society the stomach of a flamingo shot at Bhyandar, Salsette, Bombay.
D. N. Mathew, Research Assistant of the Society, has sorted out the
contents and reports :

(a) c. 1100 small black seeds identified as of Ruppia maritima, and

(b) c. 15,000 small brown seeds identified as graminaceous, both
identified by Prof. Bole of St. Xavier’s College, and

(d) c. 1000 Chironomid larvae.

Gallet (1950), Jenkins (1956-57), and Brown (1959) revive the theory
that flamingos feed on the mud which is rich ‘in organic bacterial
material’ (Zahl 1953). ‘Mud’ is no doubt found in flamingo stomachs
and Gallet (loc. cit.) states that the mud in which the birds were
feeding had an organic content of 6% to 8%. In my opinion the state-
ment that flamingos eat and live on mud is only true in the sense that
mud containing organic material which can be assimilated in the
flamingo’s stomach is taken in. The mud does not undergo any chemi-
cal change, and is no doubt passed out again as mud.

The highly specialised bills permit separation of tiny forms of
animal life which may not always be visible to the human eye. I found
a large number of shell pieces consisting mainly of the central screw of
a snail-shell in such mud. While these may have been swallowed in
this form with the mud, they appeared to be sufficiently abundant to
suggest that live shells were swallowed and ground up in the stomach.
Allen (1957 : 24) writing of the Bahamas said that the salinity in the
lakes limited the number of species that existed in such environments
but did not necessarily limit their numbers. ‘Certain microscopic

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

organisms—diatoms, dinoflagellates, rhizopods, bacteria of several
kinds, nematode worms, immature molluscs and other forms may be
astonishingly abundant’. He added that Cyprinodon variegatus was
omnipresent.

HABITS

When Salim Ali and I attempted to visit a reported breeding
colony in the Rann near Banjda Bhet, various circumstances prevented
our reaching the colony. However, off the eastern shore of Pachham
we saw groups of 12 to 30 young being shepherded in columns by an
approximately equal number of adults over the dry mud ina south-
westerly direction towards a large congregation of flamingos in the water
in the distance, some 15 miles away from the nesting site. When a
marching party was approached, a number of adults first flew off with
a loud goose-like gaggle. The remaining adults were strung out in line
covering the young with their outstretched wings. As excitement
increased, the wings were rapidly vibrated, mostly above their backs
and without being brought much below the horizontal. Their wings
formed an umbrella over the young which were of markedly different
sizes (12-14 to 24 in.) and the gaggling and the wing-waving appeared
to be to get them to move along more quickly. When approached to
within 50 yards, the adults flew low over the young for some distance
before leaving them to continue in the original direction, but now as a
scattered and broken flock. We observed some 6 parties in the
two hours that we were in the neighbourhood. Parties of adults were
seen flying northwards from the congregation towards the nesting site
but settling too far away to determine if this was in the neighbourhood
of more young.

A chick was accidentally killed. This was quickly and gladly appro-
priated by our attendants who said that some of the neighbouring
villagers killed a large number of flightless young for food.

At Sadhara, a little to the south and nearer the congregation of
flamingos, the water was far away but the shore was formed of almost
dry grey mud over whichit was possible to drive a jeep without diffi-
culty. At the edges there were washed-up quantities of vegetation
(Ruppia sp. ?) in large sheets, several square feet of which could be
lifted up at a time. Underneath, it was still damp and there was a
considerable insect fauna. |

On the southern edge of the Rann (northern edge of Pachham Island)
large areas were heavily encrusted with salt and the masses of vegetation
seen washed up along the Sadhara shores were not noticed. Several of
the small rivulets and parts of the shore were most prominently
encrusted with salt which appeared to be thickest in the narrower bays,

FOOD AND OTHER HABITS OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO _ 65

often forming pinnacles an inch high. Northwards into the Rann,
many fish were seen embedded on the surface of thick layers of salt.
Their number appeared to be more and more numerous further east-
wards, this being particularly prominent along the edges of rock pools
and other inlet bays. Some of these pools still held water, but masses
of fish were already encrusted in the salt eight or ten inches above
the surface, evidencing the fact that the salinity had become too
great for their existence when the water was much higher. In places,
dry fish could be scooped up in handfuls. The fish were mostly
about 3” in length and were present in lumps and heaps. As our
horses marched through the larger stretches of water, fish in distress
Were seen Over a great area. Ina few days the fish which now exist-
ed in such enormous numbers would all be dead and embedded in
the salt. Specimens have all been identified by the Director of
Fisheries, Bombay, as Cyprinodon dispar, a fish known to occur in East
Africa, but not recorded from Indian waters since Day referred to
two specimens from Kutch in his FAUNA (1878). Water in the pools
drying up near the shore showed a purplish tinge. Of course no
live fish were seen in any of these pools.

Portions of the Rann on the north and east of Pachham were
drying up and some areas bore the footprints of an inconceivable num-
ber of pelicans and many other birds, indicating a concentration of
food (probably fish) which had brought them together some time
earlier.

These areas were indiscriminately mixed with the feeding mounds
of the flamingos which do not appear to have been referred to in Indian
literature. They consisted of circular trenches 6 inches wide, 2 or 3
inches deep, and 3 or 4 feet in diameter. The centre was slightly raised
and these dry rings were quite close to each other over large areas and
superficially suggestive of their nesting colonies. The central mounds
showed no sign of the flamingos having stood thereon. We did not
see any birds feeding in these rings but this has been described by
Gallet (loc. cit.) in the Camargue. The circular trench is formed by
the flamingo moving backwards, trampling and stamping with its feet
and producing the liquid-mud conditions in which its bill sorts out the
sand from the mud, the former making the mound in the centre, and
the latter, presumably now holding more than 6-8 organic material,
being swallowed (see above).

McCann (loc. cit.) reported that, when the colony was reached a
week after the first report, the nests which had been standing in
water were quite dry and the large assemblage of chicks were in water
3 miles away. At the nest site, water was 4 feet below the surface.

He also noted that the four adults collected with the HOUNE. were
all males.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (i)

Brown (1959) who has considerable experience of both species in
Africa has stated that the young are fed by their parents by regurgita-
tion. The first day or two of life is spent with the parents on the
nest and they are fed on some fluid disgorged by the parents. After
two or three days the chicks became active and moved about the
island. They swam freely when about 12 days old and formed bands
of several hundreds together. Huge flotillas of young were in charge
of the few adults who acted as ‘aunties’. When they first took to
water, these aunties were in the ratio of one to ten—later one to several
hundred chicks. They were fed by parents from about 5.30 p.m.
onwards and Brown thought that each parent recognised its young
and fed it. He has also interesting notes and suggestions regarding the
wing salute in courtship, as also the moult of their wing-feathers. In
India we know very little about these matters and, in the absence of
any evidence in the other direction, it is generally accepted that the
young find their food in their surroundings. Gallet (loc. cit.) refers to
some liquid drops being fed to the young, but goes on to say that this
cannot form the bulk of their food, which according to him is obtained
from the mud. The single chick which I had the opportunity of
examining contained a few seeds ! :

If the food is not present in the water near the nests, the young are
marched to the food-grounds which may be 15 miles or more away. In
keeping with the rapidly changing level of the water and its salinity, it
is not unlikely that some forms of food, including perhaps the shrimp,
Artemia salina, are periodically and locally abundant. There is evidence
of such periodic abundance in the fish Cyprinodon dispar.

In India we have no information regarding the flamingo moulting all
its wing quills at one time, though there is a little evidence of this taking
place in both resident and migrant duck. Brown (1959), quotes Swyn-
nerton as stating that the adults became flightless when they had young
and are captured by natives as food, while Allen (1959: 149) states
that, in the Bahamas, they become flightless in September when the
young are just learning to fly by their own efforts. He also says that
the great flocks quit the nesting lakes when the young are able to fend
for themselves, leaving the remaining food supply to their growing
offspring. 7

GENERAL

There is room for much interesting field work to be done to clear up
the many queries. Many incidental and other problems will arise in
the restricted ecological unit of the Rann, and further trips must be
undertaken by a team of workers prepared to live near the birds for
some time.

FOOD AND OTHER HABITS OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO 67

The Rann is a large area over which vehicular traffic is not possible.
The completion of arrangements for the final trip into the Rann was in
itself a tiring matter. In our own instance, we picked up a jeep at
Bhuj and were scheduled to meet Jamal and his camels at Sharda on
the eastern shores of Pachham Island. We arrived there to discover
that the approach was to be made from the northern edge which could
only be reached by driving right round the island. This took several
hours, after which we had to wait for the camels to arrive. The first
half-hour on camel-back inclined one to give up the trip and to stagger
back to camp. As the animals slithered through the mud, there was
little opportunity or urge to stop and examine the muddy bottom
for tiny forms of plant or animal life. The guide and other attendants
were only interested in reaching a specified place whence the birds
were visible. Once the birds were seen, they showed no further interest
in our attempts at closer observation and were then only concerned
with stressing the fact that it was necessary to turn back soon. For
further and detailed studies, it would be necessary to camp for longer
periods nearer the colony and for several people to work together, so
that studies can be continued uninterrupted over rapidly changing con-
ditions. Here is a Natural History problem of great interest almost
before us. Will some young enthusiasts take it up and fill in the many
gaps in our knowledge ?

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Mr. Leslie Brown for his remarks on my prelimin-
ary draft and for the excellent photographs which accompany this
note. Iam also grateful to Mr. D. E. Reuben for the patience with
which he has read the several drafts and discussed changes therein.

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

REFERENCES

AKHTAR, S. A. (1946):
Great on Flamingos.
Hist. Soc. 46 : 545-547.
(1947): Ab-Istadeh, a
breeding place of the Flamingo [(Phoeni-
copterus roseus (Pallas)] in Afghanistan.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47: 308-314.

ALI, SALIM (1945): More about the
Flamingo [Phoenicopterus roseus (Pallas) |
in Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
45 : 586-593.

ALLEN, R. P. (1956) : The Flamingos-
their life history and survival. With
special reference to the American or
West Indian Flamingo (Phoenicopterus
ruber). Res. Rep. nat. Audubon Soc.
5: 1-285.

——-——— (1957) :
of Vanishing Birds.
York.

BAKER, E. C. STuarrt, (1908) : Indian
Ducks and their Allies.
———-——— (1929):
of British India, Birds 6.

BLANFORD, W. T. (1898) : Fauna of
British India, Birds 4.

BROWN, LESLIE (1955): The Breeding
of Lesser and Greater Flamingos in East
Africa. Jour. E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc.

2: 159-162. .
(1959) : The Mystery
Country Life Ltd.,

Babar the
J. Bombay nat.

— ——— ——

On the Trail
McGraw Hill, New

Fauna

of the Flamingos.
London.

———— ——— (1962): A note on

the Flamingo situation at Megodi,
ee I.U.C.N. Bulletin (NEW SERIES)
5

CARLISLE, D. B. (1962): The Times
Science Review, Winter 1962, p. 10.

GALLET, ETIENNE (1950): The Flam-
ingos of the Camargue. Basil Blackwell,
Oxford.

Hux.ey, J. S. (1933): Africa View.
Chatto & Windus, London.

JASDAN, SHIVRAJKUMAROf, NAIK, R.M..,
& LavKumarR, K.S. (1960): A visit to the
Flamingos in thé Great Rann of Kutch.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 465-478.

JENKINS, PENELOPE M. (1956-1957): The
Filter-Feeding and Food of Flamingos
(Phoenicopterus). Phil. Trans. of the Royal
Soc. of London 240 : 401-492.

McCann, C. (1940) : The Flamingo

(Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum
Temm.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
41: 12-38.

RIDLEY, M. W. (1954) : Observations
on the diet of flamingos. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 5-7.
——— Moss, B. L., & Percy,
LorD R. C. (1955) : The Food of Fla-
mingos in Kenya Colony. J. E. Africa
nat. Hist. Soc. 22 (5) : 147-158.
TICEHURST, C. B. (1923): The Birds
of Sind (Pt. V). Jbis (11),5 : 438-474.
ZAHL, PauL A. (1953): Flamingo
Hunt, pp. 222. Hammond, Hammond
& Co., London.

—

Algal Flora of Jodhpur and
— its Environs
IT. Cyanophyta

| S. K. GOYAL
Department of Botany, Jaswant College, Jodhpur, Rajasthan*

[Continued from Vol. 59 (2): 452]

(With three plates)

The present series deals with the systematic account of the Blue-
Green algal flora of Jodhpur and its environs.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION

1. Microcystis aeruginosa Kiitz. Geitler in Rabenhorsts, Krypto-
gamenflora 14: 137, f. 59d, 1932; Desikachary, Cyanophyta, p. 93, t.
ive inh. 2.6, et... 18, f 10, 1959.

Colonies floating, solid when young, becoming clathrate in old stage ;
cells spherical, 3.8-5.7 » in diameter.

Habitat: From Lalsagar near Jodhpur (9-8-59).

2. Chroococcus turgidus var. maximus Naygaard. Geitler 228, f.
109b, 110, 1932.

Cells spherical or ellipsoid, in groups of 2-4, 6.7-26.6 (-38.0) » broad,
(7.6) 13.3-15.2 » long; sheath colourless, distinctly lamellate (Plate I,
fig. 5).

Habitat : Along with Aphanothece pallida (Kiitz.) Rabenh.

3. Aphanothece pallida (Kutz.) Rabenh. Geitler 171, f. 78, 1932.
Thallus gelatinous forming big cylindrical floating masses, pale yellow,
3-4 inches in diameter; cells sub-spherical to oblong, with sheath
7.6-9.5 p broad, 9.5-11.4 » long; without sheath 5.7-7.6 w broad,
7.6-9.5 « long; sheath distinct and lamellate (Plate I, fig. 2).
Habitat: Free floating in Takhatsagar near Jodhpur (10-11-1959).

1 Present address : Algal Section, Division of Microbiology, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi ‘ke

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

4. Synechococcus elongatus Nag. Geitler 273, f. 133a-c, 1932.
Cells cylindrical, 1.9-2.8 » broad, 3.5-4.0 » long (Plate I, fig. 1).
Habitat: Along with Chlorococcum sp.

3 Synechocystis aquatilis Sauv. Geitler 270, 1932.
Cells spherical, 2-4 together, 5.7-7.6 ~ in diameter (Plate I, fig. 3).
Habitat : From Lalsagar near Jodhpur (10-8-59).

6. Arthrospira platensis var. tenuis (Rao) Desikachary 190, t. 35,
ff. 4, 11, 1959.

Plant mass blue-green, trichomes with uniform width, 5.7-7.6 » broad,
in regular spirals, spirals away from each other, 36.1-38.0 » broad,
45.6-49. 4 » distant ; not constricted at cross walls ; end cell rounded
(Plate I, figs. 6, 7).

Habitat : From Lalsagar near Jodhpur (9-8-1959).

7. Oscillatoria obscura Briihl et Biswas in J. Dept. Sc. Calcutta
Wniv.426, t. 25-4. 921922) |

Trichomes pale brown, not constricted at the joints ; cells 5.7-7.6 yu
broad, 2.8-3.8 long, cross walls granulate ; gas vacuoles absent ; apex
obtuse and slightly bent (Plate III, fig. 22).

Habitat : Along with Arthrospira platensis var. tenuis (Rao) Desika-
chary.

8. Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher ex Gomont. Geitler 947, f. 598b,
601c-g, 1932. 7

Trichomes dark blue-green forming aegagropilous balls in fresh
water ; trichomes not constricted at the cross-wall regions, 38.0-45.6 yu
broad, 3.0-4.0 » long; apical cell flatly rounded without thickened
membrane (Plate I, figs. 9, 10).

Habitat: From a pond near Kaylana (10-9-59) and from a baori
(= well) at Mandore (15-9-59).

9, Lyngbya aerugineo-coerulea (Kitz.) Gomont. Geitler 1062, f.
‘O71 0;4932. |

Filaments solitary, sheath thin, 9.5-11.4 » broad, not constricted at
the cross-wall regions ; cells 7.6-9.5 « broad and 3.8-5.7 w long (Plate I,
fig. 8).

Habitat : Attached to submerged rocks at Kaylana (10-9-59).

10. Lyngbya subtilis West. Geitler 104b, 1932.

Filaments solitary, free floating, up to 1.9 « in diameter; sheath close,

hyaline ; cells 0.9-1.8 » long.
Habitat : From Kaylana near Jodhpur (10-9-59).

11. Lyngbya constricta Fritsch et Rich. in Trans. Roy. Soc, South
‘Afr. 18 : 83, f. 29A-C, 1929,

JouRN. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. Soc. PLATE I

FE
a €

Fig. 1. Synechococcus elongatus Nag.; fig. 2. Aphanothece pallida (Kutz.)
Rabenh.; fig. 3. Synechocystis aquatilis Sauv. ; fig. 4. Lyngbya constricta Fritsch et
Rich. ; fig. 5. Chroococcus turgidus var. maximus Naygaard ; figs. 6 & 7. Arth-
rospira platensis var. tenuis (Rao) Desikachary ; fig. 8. Lyngbya aerugineo-coeru-
lea (Kiitz.) Gomont ; figs. 9 & 10. Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher ex Gomont

figs. 15-17.
Rao

\o
>

indrospermum
igua

13) Cyl
is Rao

tenu

fig

e
b)

issima Var

ex Born et Flah.
figs. 18 & 19. Anabaena amb

Aulosira fertil

is Kiitz
14
ora Fritsch

.
2

iabil
fig

var. ellipsosp

Born et Flah

ilis

Anabaena var

12:
stagnale (Kitz.)
Anabaena variab

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.
igs. 1I-

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS 71

Thallus brownish green, epiphytic on submerged plant parts ; fila-
ments smooth ; cross-wall regions not constricted; cells shorter than
broad ; sheath colourless, constricted (Plate I, fig. 4).

Habitat: Along with Lyngbya_ subtilis West from Kaylana near
Jodhpur (10-9-59).

12. Cylindrospermum stagnale (Kiitz.) Born et Flah. Geitler 819, f.
520 ; 1932.

Thallus delicate, floating, greyish ; trichomes 3.8-5.7 » broad, con-
stricted at the cross-walls ; cell as long as broad or slightly longer, 3.8 »
broad, 3.8-5.7 » long ; heterocysts subspherical or oblong, 13.3-15.2 u
long and 9.5-11.4 » broad ; spores cylindrical with rounded ends, (11.4)
22.8-30.4 » long, (7.6) 9.5-12.0 « broad, with smooth yellowish outer
layer (Plate II, fig. 13).

Habitat: In stagnant water near Motikund, Jodhpur (19-5-59).

13. Wollea bharadwajae Singh in Ann. Bot. Lond. n. s. 6: 593-606,
1942.

Tha'lus tubular itl finger-like projections, attached 2-3 cm. long
and 2-3 mm. broad; trichomes parallel ; tapering towards the apex,
constricted at the cross-walls ; cells barrel-shaped, 3.5-5.7 « broad, 2.5-
3.8 long, apical cell conical ; heterocysts intercalary, 3.8.-5.7 « broad,
3.8.-5.7 » long’; spores spherical or subspherical forming singly or in
pairs on either side of the heterocysts, 7.6-9.5 « broad, 7.6-11 ia e long
(Plate ITI, figs. 21, 26).

Habitat: From a tank near Akhey Raj Ji’s Bungalow, Jodhpur
(10-9-59).

14. Anabaena ambigua Rao in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. B, 5: 101,
fet, 2, 093%:

Trichomes enclosed in a sheath or without sheath, free floating,
straight, slightly tapering at the apex; apical cell flatly rounded ; cells
barrel-shaped, deeply constricted at the cross-wall regions, 3.8-4.7. wu
broad and 3.8 » long ; heterocysts intercalary, almost spherical, 3.8-7.6 ju
broad, 3.8-5.7 4 long; spores formed singly on either side of the hete-
rocysts, usually ellipsoidal, sometimes spherical also, 11.4-17.1 je
broad, 11.4-19.04 « long (Plate IT, figs. 18, 19).

Habitat: From Kaylana, Jodhpur. (22-9-59).

15. Anabaena iyengarii var. attenuata Rao, ibid. B, 8: 163, f. 2A-C,
1938b.

Mucilaginous, pale blue-green; trichomes irregularly curved, tapering
at the ends, 3.8-5.7 » broad ; cells barrel-shaped,.3.8-5.7 « broad, 7.0-7.6 ju
jong, apical cell conical; heterocysts barrel-shaped 5.7-7.6 broad,

ie JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

7.6 «. long ; spores ellipsoidal, single or in pairs on either side of the
heterocysts, 13.2-15.24 w broad, 17.1-19.0 » long (Plate III, figs. 24, 25).
Habitat : From a pond near Lalsagar (23-9-59).

16. Anabaena yariabilis Kiitz. ex Born et Flah. Geitler 876, f. 558,
1932.

Thallus gelatinous ; trichomes without sheath, 3.8-4.04 » broad, con-
stricted at the cross-wall regions, irregularly curved ; apical cell conical ;
cells barrel-shaped, as long as broad, 3.8-4.04 » broad, 3.8 p» long ;
heterocysts spherical or oval, 5.7-6.0 » broad, 5.7-7.6 » long; spores
formed centrifugally in catenate series, not contiguous with heterocysts,
5.7-7.6 « broad, 7.6-11.4 » long (Plate II, figs. 11, 12).

Habitat: From Balsamand near Jodhpur (9-9-59).

17. Anabaena variabilis var. ellipsospora Fritsch in J. Indian Bot.
Soc. 28 : 142, ff. 40-50, 1949.

Thallus gelatinous ; trichomes flexuous, constricted at the cross-wall
regions ; apical cell elongate, occasionally the apical cell is heterocyst
(Plate If, fig. 15) ; cells 3.8-4 » broad, 7.6-9.5 » long, generally elongate,
cylindrical ; heterocysts intercalary, solitary, spherical or barrel-shaped,
5.7 p broad, 5.7-7.6 » long, seldom terminal ; akinetes ellipsoidal, more
or less oblong, formed in catenate series away from heterocysts, 3.8-5.7
# broad, 9.7-15.2 » long (Plate II, figs. 15, 16, 17).

Habitat: From a pond near Lalsagar (27-9-59). :

18. Aulosira fertilissima var. tenuis Rao in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.
B, 6: 353, f. 3f-i, 1937b. |

Plant mass expanded, membranous; trichomes straight, parallel ;
cells cylindrical or barrel-shaped, 3.8-5.7 » broad and 3.8-5.7 (19.0) 2
long, contents smooth, sheath thin ; heterocysts intercalary, oblong or
elliptical, 7.6-8.5 » broad and 8.5-15.2 (19.0) y long, slightly broader
than the trichome (Plate IT, fig. 14).

Habitat: Along with Cylindrospermum stagnale (Kiitz.) Born et
Flah,

19. Gloeotrichia raciborskii var. kaylanaensis var. nov.

Thallus efformat globulos sphaericos, natantes ; trichomata desinunt
in capillum longum, 1.9-3.8 » latum ad apicem, cellulis ad basin tricho-
matis brevioribus sed gradatim evadentibus longioribus ad apicem,
cellulis basalibus 7.6-8.5 jw latis, 3.8-5.7 p longis. Heterocystes
sphaerici, 8.5-9.5 pw lati, 7.6-11.4 » longi, eorum parte operta vagina ;
sporae cylindricae, 11.4-15.2 uw latae, 38.0-49.4 » longae; rarissime
heterocystes apparent ad utrumque vel ad utrumvis filamenti latus.

Typus lectus ad Kaylana, proper Jodhpur die 8 octobris anni 1959,
et positus in Laboratorio Algologico in Indian Agricultural Research
Institute ad New Delhi sub numero Myx-J19,

PLATE III

JouRN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

S/N e

2 Shag as ros Dp Sea eae et rks a
26 ieee D i Rect dh
: : a 1 5 Py st

ot cee

Nowa
aN
ae
Ns
ge
Fb
Facet
Se
Og
sites
ees
3
>

a
a OV
as
Se
yee)
= 3
S35
a ES)
FES
3S

S
aS
Yes
AS
oS
iS)

°
ES
oi
mANS
= 4
o,:8
‘> OS
eS

EN ae
Sas
th
Veg
ns
ae
ASE
nee

(ae)
QS 5
-5
So

<~
Ns &
ASL
OSS
wss

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS es

Thallus forms spherical balls, floating ; trichome ending into a long
hair, 1.9-3.8 » broad at the apex, cells shorter at the base of the trichome
but gradually become longer towards the apex, at the base cells 7.6-8.5
uw broad, 3.8-5.7 « long ; heterocysts spherical, 8.5-9.5 « broad, 7.6-11.4 p
long, a part of it covered over by the sheath; spores cylindrical,
11.4-15.2 » broad and 38.0-49.4 » long; very rarely heterocysts are
found on either side of the filament (Plate III, figs. 20, 23, 27).

Habitat : From Kaylana, Jodhpur. (8-10-59).

Type: Myx-J19, Algal Laboratory, Indian Agricultural Reveareh
Institute, New Delhi-12.

This variety resembles G. raciborskii Woloszynska but differs from
the same in the absence of lamellated sheath at the base and in having
subspherical to oval heterocysts and narrower spores ; differs from var.
bombayensis Dixit in having broader trichomes and narrower heterocysts ;
differs from var. conica Dixit in the shape and size of the heterocysts
and akinetes and in the nature of the basal sheath; differs from var.
kashiense Rao in narrower trichomes, smaller heterocysts, and cylindrical
spores, and from var. longispora Rao which has characteristically long
akinetes. It agrees with var. salsettense Dixit in the dimensions of the
trichomes, heterocysts, and akinetes, but differs in having much broader
unlamellated sheath. Hence this form is treated as a new variety
_ kaylanaensis vat. nov.

The author is very grateful to Dr. G. S. Venkataraman of the
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, for his kind guidance;
to Prof. R. M. Bhandari, of Department of Botany, Jaswant College,
Jodhpur, Rajasthan, for his encouragement; and to Fr. H. Santapau for
kindly providing the latin diagnosis of the new form.

REFERENCES

BruuHL, P., & Biswas, K. (1922): Rabenhorsts Kryptogamenflora, 14: Leip-
Algae of the Filter beds. J. Dept. Sci. zig
Calcutta Univ. (Bot.) 4: 1-17. RAG, C. B. (1937a) : A new species of

Anabaena (Anabaena ambigua sp. nov.

DESIKACHARY, T. V. (1959): Cyano- ).
Proc. Indian oe Sci. 5B (3): 101-108.

phyta: A monograph. I. C. A. R.,

——

New Delhi.

Fritscu, F. E. (1949): The genus
Anabaena with special reference to the
species recorded from India and the
adjacent Astatic mainland. J. Indian
bot. Soc. 28 : 135-61.

+ - & RicuH, E. (1929):
Freshwater algae (exclusive of diatoms)
from Griqualand. West. Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Africa 18 : 1-92.

GEITLER, L. (1932) : Cyanophyta : In

937b): The Myxophyceae
of the United Provinces, India—IIlI. ibid.

6 (6) : 339-37

—-——_-— (i938b): The Myxophyceae
of the Madras Presidency, India—I. J,
Indian bot. Soc. 17 : 81-96.

SINGH, R. N. (1939): The Myxophy-
ceae of the United Provinces, India—IV.
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 9B: 63-68.
(1942): Wollea bharad-
wajae sp.nov. and its autecology. Ann.
Bot. Lond. n.s. 6 : 593-606.

— = = —_.

Studies on the Biology of some
Freshwater Fishes

Part I—Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch

A. QAYYUM
Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

AND

S. Z. QASIM?
Asst. Director, Indian Ocean Physical Oceanography Centre,
Ernakulam, Kerala

(With eight figures)

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

It is surprising to note that, although the knowledge of aquatic
biology has advanced considerably during the last two decades, very little
has been written about the freshwater fishes of India. As compared to
marine and estuarine fishes, the work so far done on the biology of fresh-
water fishes is of a fragmentary nature. Leaving aside the generalisations
on the biology of practically every species made by Day (1878), and some
studies on the breeding of food fishes in the Punjab and Bengal (Khan
1924, 1942 ; Hora 1945 ; Mookerjee et al. 1948), the larval stages and life
history of some food fishes (Alikunhi & Rao 1951 ; Alikunhi 1953, 1956 ;
Saigal & Motwani 1961), and the age and growth of mrigal, Cirrhina mrigala
(Jhingran 1957, 1959), other information available is so diffused and
scattered that no integrated picture of the biology of any species can be
obtained. |

Keeping in view the paucity of literature on the subject and the im-
portance of the problem of successful inland fishery management and
conservation of fish resources, attempts were made at Aligarh to study
the biology of the most common freshwater fishes of this country. The
present investigation covers a period of about two years during which
time the following three species were investigated :

1. The common murrel, Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch
2. The common small barbel (carp), Barbus stigma (C. & V.)
3. The common catfish, Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch).

1 Formerly Reader in Fisheries at the University, Aligarh

STUDIES ON. BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES Ws

To maintain the continuity of the present account and to facilitate
future publications on other fishes under the same heading, the authors
find it best to present the biology of each species as a separate part.

1. OPHICEPHALUS PUNCTATUS BLOCH

INTRODUCTION

Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch, the common freshwater murrel of
India, has an extensive geographical distribution. It is found in Ceylon,
Burma, and all over the plains of India (Day 1878). Besides fresh water
it has also been recorded from brackish water where it acquires a slightly
purple colour (Raj 1916).

~ QO. punctatus forms the mainstay of pond fishery in areas which are
far removed from the sea. Being an air-breathing fish fairly large
numbers can survive in practically all types of ponds, seasonal or
perennial. During the summer months when seasonal ponds get dried,
the fish buries itself in the soil and aestivates. Frequently the local
fishermen obtain a regular supply of these aestivating fishes by digging
one or two feet into the crusted soil. This fish being extremely hardy
can be readily obtained in fresh condition, or even alive, at all times of
the year. It thus forms a popular item of diet in practically all the states
of northern India.

Earlier accounts on this species include comments on eggs and larvae
and brief descriptions on nesting and breeding behaviour (Willey 1908 ;
Raj 1916 ; Khan 1924 ; Mookerjee 1945 b ; Jones 1946 ; Hosaini & Rahi-
mullah 1946). Recent accounts have dealt with the spawning frequency
(Qasim & Qayyum 1961), parental care (Qayyum & Qasim 1962), and fe-
cundity (Qasim & Qayyum 1963). No detailed study has been made on
any other aspects of the biology of this fish.

METHODS

- Samples which formed the basis of the present investigation were
collected from ponds in Aligarh by using cast nets at monthly intervals
over a period of 19 months, from October 1958 to April 1960. Fishes
were measured to the nearest millimetre and grouped at size intervals
of 0.5 cm. After wiping off the moisture etc. from the surface of the
body, fishes were weighed on a balance sensitive up to 0.1 gm. Gonads
from each fish were dissected out, weighed, and assigned a proper stage
of maturity. For studying the food, the guts of all fishes were taken out
and the contents examined,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

TABLE I SI EERT
NUMBER OF FISH (O. punctatus) OF EACH LENGTH GROUP CAUGHT IN

VARIOUS MONTHS

June

May

ee ws ate ve wer ie

es: Ne ce. ee oe

ec. pt lea er. 6 eee hey se:

a ay Welbhesie @iduare Set Maes Me SEa aa pave ic AARNE NNEAWMINANATATMIANG AAS PAN ime

eget aubrey ce bes jee oe Mees Set pee FAMNTANAOWDOBOOPTMNMAMM -NG ess ss ss Na ee sN AN

s See eke Lely en ie Eel ee A wig co = . a er iera > eee eh ite

1G Me gee a GP. wae Legs FNNMEOOANTNADATT RAST mms ONS TST emt Me eM

Gs ee ie ee Peau 5 : : ee

= Sire Siete Be HS MIN OED HIG Sh Yeh INO cic tC Oita, Cs) eg ee eae
oF je eben eles es, . — . ° . . . ° . . ° ° ° . . . e .

eas lero fae z —.

SY, Eg i Neca oer re ATTFAMEONMODAOG -AMNAMAMANOTEHN AN: SAN: os

A oe Me | ee rela ce SS oe . 6 al 5

FMEA | eee ere he oleh aia TFONOTAHMBMODABWOOWDNANN -ANSORONAN © ese Nee eee

a a; Vier’ een nis) Mike =sNnNNnaA ae . ° ee ye ee te bis, ce ME e -tecl

= “OWMCODNOMNNH + -WHODPNWOPHOOMMNEM »— eM - OA eAMaee:- -esane
° . . = . . . . . .

e) ww

oO ° Ss _— . . . e . ° .

ap SANG Owen ats oh ee — rSMNONWDODHOOTHT —HANMOTHRAANS -

i=} we ett e— t—“(‘i eww‘“‘irkttitit rwtl tll ll ° . ° .

go. et sor eel ee : oe

ia i SMM OMe Maner ak Vmiyel s ToPeCys fees ei Mei, uve) > ter, “olan 8° Hoge oes NTOOMDAORTNA Sawa Ne RN CN

Se eect mente ome ae cohol at ee a Woe o : Ema gues

a _

al Ee SMSWMSMSMSMSMHSMSHSHSHSHSMNSMNSHNSNSNSNHONONMONONSNHNONONONONSN
NOATHAMNMOOKKrODARDORHAAMNM WMNOOCM™rODRNOOK HNAANnSTYeHHCOoOnNNoaAaN

a ,

—]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 77

LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

The data pertaining to the length frequency distribution of each month
are given in Table I, after grouping for various duplicate months. Since
it was not possible to follow the progression of various modes from
month to month, the data for the entire period of observation were pooled
in four quarters, each of three months. These are shown as histograms
in Fig. 1. The various modes that could be judged by these histograms
have been drawn arbitrarily in the figure.

Numbers

as
4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Length (cm.)

Fic. 1. Length frequency distribution of O. punctatus

- Open circles indicate average size of each year class as revealed by the modes
in the histograms. Possible modes marked arbitrarily by dotted lines.

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

From Fig. | the first three or four year-classes can be clearly demar-
cated. Size groups below 3.0 cm. in length have not been included in
the histograms as these include larval fishes. The breeding season of the
fish being June-October, the larvae begin to appear from July and
continue to do so till October (Qayyum & Qasim 1942).

The histogram relating to the months of July-September shows modes
at four different points : (1) at 5.4 cm., (2) at 15.3 cm., (3) at 20.2 cm.,
(4) at 23.8 cm. The group represented at 5.4 cm., apparently relates to
the brood hatched during June and July (0 group) while the others seem
to correspond to older year classes, probably one, two, and three. A
small mode following the 0 group fishes at 9.2 cm. seems difficult to inter-
pret. Probably these fishes are one year old and have come from an
environment where their growth was slower than usual. This mode
though marked in the histogram of July-September could not be followed
in other seasons and for this reason it has been excluded from further
interpretations.

The histogram for the months October-December also shows ‘four
distinct modes. The 0 group which was previously at 5.4 cm. now ap-
pears at 9.7 cm. The other groups with their average sizes of 15.3 cm.,
20.2 cm., and 23.8 cm. in the previous quarter have shifted to 16.7 cm.,
21.2 cm., and 24.5 cm. respectively.

The histogram for the months of January-March can also be demar-
cated into four modes. The 11.5 cm. group refers to 0 group which has
shifted during this period from 9.7 cm. Other groups represented by
modes at 17.5 cm., 22.0 cm., and 25.5 cm. in these months belong to first,
second, and third year elec

The histogram for the months of April to June again shows foiir
distinct modes at 14.5 cm., 19.8 cm., 23.2 cm., and 26.0 cm. These
indicate that further growth in all the four year classes has occurred in
these months also.

The average size of the first four year classes as indicated by the size
frequency histograms is given in Table II together with their range in
length during each quarterly season. As can be seen from this table
the growth is rapid in the first year when the fish reaches approximately
14.5 cm. in length. During subsequent years, it slows down pro-
gressively. There appears to be little difference in growth during various
seasons.

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 79

TABLE II

AVERAGE LENGTH OF VARIOUS YEAR CLASSES OF O, punctatus OBTAINED FROM
THE LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS QUARTERS TOGETHER WITH
THE SIZE RANGE OF EACH YEAR CLASS

Year Classes Months Range in size | Average length
cm. | cm
|
July - Sept. 3.0- 7.8 5.4
0 Oct. - Dec. 4.5 - 15.0 Oni
Jan. - March 6.8 - 16.1 11.5
Apr. - June 11.2 - 18.3 | 14.5
|
July - Sept. 11.5 - 19.0 Sas)
1 Oct. - Dec. 14.2 - 19.2 16.7
Jan. - March 14.9 - 20.1 17.5
Apr. - June 17.8 - 21.8 19.8
July - Sept. 18.5 - 22.0 20.2
2 Oct. - Dec. | 18.8 - 23.4 21:2
_ Jan. - March - 19.6 - 24.6 22.0
Apr. - June 2133 =2571 23:2
July - Sept. 21.8 - 25.8 23.8
3 Oct. - Dec. 23.0 - 26.1 24.5
Jan. - March 24.1 - 27.0 25:5
‘Apr. - June 24.8 - 27.1 26.0
BREEDING

(a) Stages of Maturity

More or less similar to the scheme given for Blennius pholis L. and
Centronotus gunnellus (L.) (Qasim 1957 a & b), five stages of maturity
were drawn on the basis of the general appearance of gonads as follows :

FEMALES MALES

Stage I

Immature virgins Immature virgins

Testes pinkish and translucent, very
small, 0.3 to 0.5 cm. in length. Gonad
weight 0.001 to 0.005 gm.

Ovaries very small, translucent, mea-
suring 0.7 to 1.8 cm. inlength. Elongated
and cylindrical, rather oblong in shape.
Light red in colour. Eggs microscopic.’
Gonad weight 0.008 to 0.058 gm.

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

FEMALES—( Continued)
Stage II
Maturing virgins
or recovered spents

Ovaries slightly enlarged occupying
more than one-third of the body cavity.
Flesh-coloured. Gonad weight 0.002 to
0.402 gm.

Stage Il
Ripening

Ovaries enlarged and occupying more
than half of the body cavity, pinkish yel-

lowincolour. Two groups of eggs visible
to the naked eye. Gonad weight 0.092
_ to 1.850 gm.
Stage IV

Ripe

Ovaries very much enlarged, occupying
the whole of the body cavity. Yellow in
colour, eggs rounded, large, yellow and

opaque. Gonad weight 1.23 to 16.8 gm.
Stage V
Spent
Ovaries flesh-coloured, flaccid, and

shrunken, with some residual eggs. Gonad
weight 0.047 to 1.10 gm.

(b) Size at First Maturity

MALES—(Continued)
Maturing virgins
or recovered spents

Testes pinkish and opaque, still
small, slightly distended. Gonad
weight 0.003 to 0.082. gm.

Ripening

Testes flesh-coloured, opaque, dis-
tended in girth. Gonad weight 0.008
to 0.098 gm.

Ripe

Testes dull pinkish. Distended in
girth. Gonad weight 0.009 to 0.112
gm.

Spent

Testes shrunken and dull reddish.
Gonad weight 0.003 to 0.065 gm.

To determine the minimum size at first maturity total numbers of
each sex at various maturity stages were tabulated. These are given in
Table III. It can be seen from the table that in both sexes, individuals
measuring from 5 to 10 cm. in length belong to the immature virgin class
(Stage I). Fishes larger than 10 cm. show the next higher stage of
maturity (Stage 1). In 11 and 12 cm. size groups all the five maturity
stages are found. The smallest ripe fishes (Stage IV) in both sexes were
recorded in 11 cm. group and these were mostly found in July and August
as they mature for the first time and spawn late during the breeding
season. ‘Their maximum ripeness in these months is in contrast to older
age groups which show peak maturity in May and June. It can thus
be concluded that both sexes mature when they are about 11 cm. in length
and spawn for the first time when they are about one year old.

SHOVLS ALIMNLVAI

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES

:
Sit ie see 1 ake ee mie lo lt it aliens Men
I Pam ions Fe tr Iz | sz Oba wel acdleon | = ae Alea
Gales | i? bess TL eb cde 1 Paige ae
ale Ver SoS GRE Gat Clash. syle LG 2\ sO |29€ beet =
e L | 6s | bz | €z | 92 | 62 | 62 | 7
eel accatc On lie ieee uO toulkel |p ¢ | "A
Ca Olscecer SiGe) 2 | Cal oelvon er | cil Srl, ez “AI
Bel lhe Ve is z ie iy |erl st IT |Z [et : i ita 3
GMO Sy eo eCIateracOl ue 4 or | 91 | zz | se; eb | o€ Fess aT
Hy a oz | sz | bz | se | ce | 8 | €€ | I
rz | ec zc | Iz | 02 st 1 Lt | 91 ale et |r | ut | or 6 fs c 9 |¢ | “wo uF yysueT

SdNOUD HLONAT SNOIVA NI s7Jpj9uNnd*CQ AO SAOVIS ALIMNLVIN

Ij Fav Lb

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Out of 1410 fishes which were sexed during the entire period of obser-
vation, 772 were males and 638 were females (Table IV). This shows that
in the population, males are in the majority. The largest male obtained
was of 29.7 cm., whereas the size of the largest female was 24.3 cm.
Fishes larger than 24.3 cm. were all males in the sample. Probably the
males have either a faster growth rate or they havea greater longevity.

TABLE IV

NUMBER OF FISH (QO. punctatus) AT EACH OF THE FIVE MATURITY

Month

Sex

STAGES IN EACH MONTH

MATURITY STAGES

. Total
I II | Ill IV | V

October Male 12 10 11 33
Female qi 6 10 23
November Male 65 32 oa a ie 97
Female 44 18 ae 62
December Male Di 16 Taine | 43
Female 26 1b) aera) Al
January Male 22a ae ai 43
Female 18 11 pa al 29
February Male 9 12 ae 21
Female qi (Appr aii a 19
March Male 9 18 ah | 32
Female y 14 3 24
April Male 2. 8 15 1 26
Female — | 9 1 17
May Male 2 4 10 | 19 35
Female ye 5) 11. 19. 35
June Male aS Digna 23 32
Female Ls 2. 6 24 32
July Male a 7 6 20 8 36
Female cota eds 3 20 6 29
August Male 21 on 3 De 22 73
Female 18 u 3 20 18 59
September: Male 31 A ie 9 . 16 58
: Female 39 6 He ak 13 58
October Male 28 y/ : Ks 9 44
Female 7A 9 ae a 6 36
November Male 23 16 ee ays te 39
Female 16 16 ce te 32
December Male D5 22 ie se 47
Female 19 23 aS ane 0 42
January Male 11 18 a. see 29
Female 9 15 ae : 24
February Male 8 18 Re os 26
Female 8 20 A ae 28
March Male 5 14 7. vn 26
Female 6 16 6 et 28
April Male 4 10 17 to 32
‘Female 2 Dd q 9 20
Male 304 | 232 70 | 100 | 66 772
Total Female 247 197 48 93 53 638

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 83

(d) Spawning Cycle

In both sexes the various stages of maturity obtained in each month
are given in Table IV and shown in Fig. 2. As can be seen from the
figure, from September onwards the population mainly includes maturing
fishes or recovered spents. No further advance over this maturity stage
is seen until February. In March ripening stage begins to appear and
in April this stage becomes predominant. In May and June both sexes
reach peak ripeness (Stage IV) and from July onwards as the fish begin
to spawn both ripening and ripe stages continue to occur until September.
Though spent fishes: start appearing in late July their main proportion
in the population is not seen until August and September. The presence
of large number of ripe fishes from May to September indicates that the
. breeding season lasts from June to October. As has been shown else-
where (Qasim & Qayyum 1961), the ripe ovaries of every female contain
more than one group of ova and thus there is every likelihood that each
individual may spawn more than once during the breeding season. The
continued occurrence of ripening stage as a predominant feature in breed-
ing months strongly suggests that such an overlap in the cycle may be
due to repeated spawnings of each individual.

MALE FEMALE

Percentage of Total

HoNfofs TF IMPAM| ITs TATSTOINTOL TF IMPAT JoN[o[ sfeMpAiMpsp stats [olntol [e [Mla
1958 1955 1960 1958 e959 es mn icOOnm.
Fic. 2. Percentage of O. punctatus at each of the five stages of
maturity in different months

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

(e) Seasonal Changes in Gonad Weight

Fig. 3 shows the seasonal changes in the gonad weight of both sexes.
The data referring to the weight of gonads in each month have been ex-
pressed as a percentage of body weight. It can be seen from the figure.
that the curves for males and females follow almost the same pattern but
for the fact that seasonal changes in the weight of testes are very slight.

6 FEMALE
St
9 5
wa)
5 4
(D)
o 8
ic
U
o 2
(eb

Gonad wt. as
oO
Oo
oO

1958). = 1959 1960
Fic. 3. Seasonal variation in gonad weight as percentage of boey
weight of O. punctatus

The testes remain in a resting condition till January and show
no noticeable change in their weight. From March onwards they begin
to increase in weight which reaches its maximum in June. After June
there is a slow decline and the minimum gonad weight is recorded in
October. This gradual decline suggests that the males also remain ripe
over a long period and, like the females, do not become spent after the
early spawnings.

The ovaries gain considerable weight in pre-spawning months and
reach their peak condition in June. From July they register a fall in their
weight which continues till October.

The cycle of gonad weight clearly indicates the spawning season of
this fish. Maximum values obtained in both sexes during July signify
peak maturity in that month. Its fall during subsequent months which
is associated in all probability with spawning provides further’ evidence
that the spawning season of the fish lasts from June to October.

(f) Occurrence of Larvae

The larvae of this fish guarded by both parents are of common occur-
rence in shallow areas of ponds (Qayyum & Qasim 1962). The first

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 85

batch of larvae was seen on 2 July and the last batch on 23 October.
In the former batch the larvae on an average measured 1.5 cm. whereas
in the latter they were 2.5-2.8 cm. in length. From the size of the larvae
of the first batch it can be inferred that they must be about 8-10 days old.
The fish, therefore, begins to spawn in the last fortnight of June. That
the spawning season lasts tillOctober becomes evident from the fact that
the last batch of larvae which measured 2.5-2.8 cm. in length must be about
three weeks old.

In O. punctatus several earlier authors have observed the occurrence
of larvae at different times of the year. In Bengal its breeding season
seems to last from June to August (Mookerjee 1945 b). In Ceylon, Willey
(1908) reported newly hatched larvae in April and May. According to
Raj (1916) at Madras, O. punctatus breeds twice in a year—first in January
and February and again in July and August. Jones (1946) has seen a
number of broods in August and September at Madras, while Hosaini &
Rahimullah (1946) concluded that O. punctatus breeds throughout the
year in Hyderabad. From these accounts it appears that this fish may
have two breeding seasons in south India corresponding to two monsoons.
In northern India it has only one breeding season which lasts from June
to October.

(g) Spawning Periodicity

Studies on the size frequency distribution of oocytes have indicated
that the ovaries of O. punctatus contain two well defined groups of matur-
ing ova (Qasim & Qayyum 1961). This raised the possibility that like
B. pholis (Qasim 1956a, 1956b) this fish may also have a succession of
spawnings during the breeding season. To confirm this, an aquarium study
was arranged but every effort to persuade the fish to breed in captivity
remained fruitless. Further evidence of such breeding behaviour was
obtained by studying the spawning periodicity of the fish as based on ova-
diameter measurements.

During the breeding season, ovaries from several specimens were
fixed in 10°% formalin at fortnightly intervals. A small portion of the
ovary from the middle region was then taken and all the eggs contained
in it were separated and measured under a micrometer eye-piece.
Usually 500-1000 maturing eggs were measured from each fish. In
making measurements, the oocytes smaller than 0.2 mm. were not con-
sidered as they occurred throughout the year.

On plotting the percentage frequency of all the measured eggs from
each fish it appeared that there was a great deal of individual variation
in the same month, particularly after the spawning season began.
Typical conditions were, however, laid down on the basis of their relative
predominance in various months, These are shown in Fig. 4,

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Percentage frequency

025 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Diameter of oocyte (mm.)

Fic. 4. Size frequency distribution of intra-ovarian eggs of —
O. punctatus from March to October

Stippled areas show small, immature eggs which were not measured.

In March when most fishes reach maturing stage (Stage II), the gonads
show only one batch of eggs with a peak at 0.45 mm.—the maximum
size of eggs being 0.65 mm. In April the size of eggs increases markedly

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 87

and there are two distinct batches, one of ripening eggs. with a peak at
0.55.mm. andthe other which includes immature eggs has an average
size of 0.30 mm. In May these two batches become well defined. Most
fishes in this month attain the ripening stage (Stage III). In June when
the fishes are mostly ripe (Stage IV) these two groups become widely
separated. The larger eggs attain an average diameter of 0.95 mm.,
whereas the immature eggs have an average size of 0.45mm. The condi-
tion shown in Fig. 4 for July was obtained from parent females which
were captured while exhibiting brood care. In most of the parent
females the condition revealed by the ovaries was similar to that shown
for July. In August there was again a considerable overlap in the ova- _
diameter frequencies as the ovaries of the late spawners which mainly
include juvenile fishes show more or less condition depicted for May or
June. These fishes which are maturing for the first time have two groups
of eggs. However, in August many large-sized females had only one
group of eggs as shown in Fig. 4. These eggs attain a maximum size of
0.95 mm. with its peak at 0.8 mm. In September, as the only group of
eggs present in the ovaries becomes fully mature, the peak shifts to 0.9
mm. and the maximum size of eggs reaches 1.2 mm. In October when the
fishes are completely spent (Stage V) the ovaries contain very small
oocytes measuring less than 0.25 mm. In this month also the juveniles
have an exception of having another group of small eggs present.
Presumably in these fishes the second group of eggs is retained in the
ovaries and is finally resorbed during subsequent months.

Thus by following the growth of both batches of eggs during the breed-
ing season it becomes clear that at least in large-sized females of the po-
pulation, both groups of ova are matured and shed in succession SuHne
the same breeding season.

@ Condition: Factor

The coefficient of condition or ponderal. index. forms an: drapertanit
part of fishery research and it has often been used to provide additional
information about spawning, feeding, and other aspects related to the
well-being of fish (Le Cren 1951). In the present investigation the
condition factor of each fish was calculated by the formula ae BY
- Hile Cae ee

where W=weight in gm., L=length incm., and. K=condition factor.

-~ The figures obtained from each fish throughout the period of obser-
vation were pooled in two ways to find the arithmetical ‘means of each size .
prone and of each month. These have been plotted in Figs. 5 and 6.

“As can be seen from Fig. 5, in both sexes the K values increase steadily

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1).

up to 19 cm. in length. Thereafter, the values begin to fall and reach their
minimum at a length of 24 cm. in females and at 29.5 cm. in males. _

Mean value of ake

6 8 FOr. For 4 AG O18 320") 22 aoe
eta Length (cm.) :

Fic, 5. Mean condition factor (K) of O. punctatus at different .
lengths

Of females, continuous line ; of males, broken line i;

Hart (1946) pointed out that, since the adolescent fishes have higher K
values than the older fishes, the increase and decrease in the K values
related to the increasing length can be employed to determine the size
at first maturity. This feature has often been applied successfully in
many forms (Menon 1950 ; Pillay 1954 ; Sarojini 1957).

In the present case as can be seen from Fig. 5, the actual point of in-
flection in the curve which is at 19 cm. does not correspond to the size
at first maturity as has been established by a more direct evidence. How-
ever, at 11 cm. there is a tendency in the curve to change slope. This
feature is more marked in males than in females. One may regard this
point as that corresponding to the point of inflection, which agrees well
with the size determined by an observation of the seasonal changes in the

‘gonad condition. The secondary fall in the condition factor noticed in
larger fishes of both sexes, starting from 19 cm. (Fig. 5), is probably be-
cause of increasing metabolic strain due to spawning in older age groups.
Perhaps with increase in age senility sets in and complete recovery which
contributes towards reserve building and increase in weight’ gradually

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 89

declines. Presumably this is the reason of their being poorer in condition
factor than the younger breeders.

Several factors have been pointed out by earlier investigators to affect
the condition of fishes. Fluctuation in the gonad weight is the main
factor which seems to regulate the condition factor (Le Cren 1951 ;
Morrow 1951). The other factor which seems to govern the rise and
fall of K values is the feeding rate of fish (Qasim 1957a ; Bal & Jones 1960).

Monthly Mean value of ‘K”

A pr

1958 a Le | 1960
Fic. 6. Seasonal changes in the condition factor (K) of O. punctatus
; Of females, continuous line; of males, broken line

The seasonal variation in the condition factor has been illustrated in
Fig. 6. In calculating the mean for each month, the K values of immature
fishes were neglected and the data related to each month refer to the
adolescent and older age groups only. As Fig. 6 will indicate, in females
the condition factor is lowest in October and November. In December
it increases rapidly and reaches its maximum in May. From June on-
wards it records a steady fall which continues till October. In males
except for the lowest value which is obtained in January, the condition
factor follows fluctuations similar to those shown by the females. Maxi-
~mum values in both sexes coincide with the time when gonads reach peak
“maturity. Their consistent decline from June to October may be attri-
buted to spawning. The time of the poorest condition factor (October
and November) is probably due to complete loss ‘of reserve, for both
sexes remain busy in brood care until October. From December on-
wards the rise and fall‘in the condition factor seem entirely related to the
cycle of feeding. A secondary rise in December is probably due to

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

general building up of body reserves as the intensity of feeding in Saas
months is eye: high (see page ee

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS

Little is known about the food and feeding habits of this fish. Brief
references have been made earlier which indicate that O. punctatus is
carnivorous, its food consisting of insects, crustaceans, and fishes
(Alikunhi & Rao 1947 ; Mookerjee et al. 1946a). Its larvae have been
noted to feed on unicellular algae and protozoans (Mookerjee ef al.
1946b).

A detailed study which includes qualitative and quantitative analysis
of food was made on the basis of gut contents as follows :

Guts of all the fishes collected in each month were dissected out and
the contents of each were carefully removed in petri-dishes containing
water and examined under a dissecting microscope. Each item of food
contained in the gut was listed and expressed as a percentage of the

total number of guts examined which contained food in that month. In >

other words the method of the analysis of food was the frequency occur-
rence method (see Hartley 1947 ; Qasim 1957a, 1957b).

Practically all samples used for the present investigation were collected
during the forenoon, from 7.00 a.m. to 12 noon. It can therefore be
presumed that the food of all samples was subjected to the same amount
of digestion and that any diurnal rhythm in feeding was also avoided.

As there were differences in the food preferences of various size groups,
it was considered necessary to maintain a separate record of each fish.
- Later on the fishes were grouped into the following three heads and the
food of each group was analysed separately :

1. Adolescent and older fishes,
2. Immature fishes,
3. Larvae.

(a) Food of adolescent and older fishes

This group includes fishes from 10 cm. to 29.7 cm. in length. In
all, 1047 fishes of this size range were examined. Of this, 895 were found
to contain food. Table V shows the percentage occurrence of different
items of food during the entire period of observation. It can be seen
from the Table that O. punctatus is predatory in habit and_ that
other forage fishes form its main food. Besides these, the fish also con-
Sumes insects, gastropods, prawns, and algae. Fig. 7(A) shows the
frequency of occurrence of various categories of food. In this figure
_-the various food items given in Table V have been grouped into four

main heads: (a) fish, (b) insects, (c) crustaceans, and (d) miscellaneous
organisms, — : bi

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES

ee ; ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee oe 9’ ee
See tae oT a fase oa teh Seneca eae [0 it ese
aN eee ec ce ee ala
OC +: O'S CST 99 8°8 08 I's I'vt | col : 91 .
COL OCl 20 OL GC ¢'9 6-C : SiClial GeV. GOL EL |-8'6 ¢'6l
evi | £8 Ccr | $9 g°9 eS ; is o cA 6€ ie VC
ee : Sue ¢'9 ELE 68 . i 8°C c'8 6S 6'V 6v
cs ‘9 OSE | PLT | SII oe Or ; wi Ae 0'Z PZ
Vy BiCeaits Cl. aialeol GO St 28 Wise OF CL. | 1S v8 COLES LO seele
Les Ob iS ev yO | 6s O'V VEINS eS See oh oT CL
ee ee ° ee ee . VI ee oe oe | 2
| |
Be lhe sae iaas Fs eee elon mee ea
ee ee . ee ee ee } . Q°T oe ee | ° iC
cvl | VLE |-OOl |S 9 c8 C96 ie C0c | cv Cpl | SIL | “LT | L'6
CI9 | L8s | OS’ | SLY | Evy | 9L9 Ors | SES | OLY | LOE | Tsp | V'9S 4 E89
6V oP OV oY 19 VE Sc 6£ We 67 IS co Iv
(65 OS 9” OS cL 6£ 6C ov £6 69 v9 OL 4
ganas :
“dy “IeTrW | "qoq | “Uee | “99q | “AON | “190 |-wdeg | “‘3ny | A[ng | sung | Kep i ad

{

Loy

< oe : + | Oz

en ea - lore Pe
SP Se Pen | O2C a

Bee + | gz - | oz
VeGe see, 2) SiO}c=| 26 8°¢
Gree EOVS | Or oa Ie9 :
LES ev rel OES :
GLTe| Vill | S01” | 19
S76 | F9C | F8l } 16 07
SiC Ll | SSE PCL ee St
¢6 | L8 es OS Sa ceive
VC cay ea 2 aleOat

oe ag -- lore ae

; i 9°7 ; :

LSC.) L9G 8'Sl ES ey Ee
OLY | SVE Tey | OLS |-VLL

64 €C SE ce COT

Sv 97 Sv 6£ COL
"Ie | "qo. | ‘ueg | “90q | “AON

(snjpjound ‘C) SAHSI4 YAGIO GNV INAOSaIOGV dO SLND AHL NI GOOd AO SAIYOOALVO SNOTYVA JO AONTMANDIO JOVINIOAI
: A aTavt

|
|

S014
Jopids 1338
sjurld
oryenbe 10ysiyy
oesTV
UMPIg
podonseg
1998
-UI pajsosiq
e1oydiq
evia}dosjoD
eyeuopO
elo} dimey
Ysy polsesiq
opqod
SNOAYIIJOD
vjoul uope
-sucsvyddjquy
snjojound
snjoydasiydo
‘ds snjsdpy
punya
AdJSOBOY IIA F,
SNI1A
-upp sniuosy
pusijs sngiog
POOos YIM
ysy Jo “ON
poururexs
ysy JO “ON

qyuoW

Percentage occurence

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

As can be seen from the figure, fish form the dominant food through-
out the year. During the pre-monsoon (March-June) and post-monsoon
-months (Oct.-Nov.), the occurrence of fish in the guts is relatively higher.
This is probably due to the fact that during the pre-monsoon months,
when the quantity of water in ponds has considerably receded, the fish

1958 1959 1960 1958 1959 1960

TONDO TRIMAIM ATS [ONO TRIMIAT 1 TONOT FMAM] TATSJONO[ ATF MIA |
sou Miscellaneous organisms F
- Miscellaneous organisms ip
25
Crustaceans
50
0
25

Crustaceans

0
0)
100
Insects |
25
0

VN
WN
nN
mn ©

,
75 |

OINJOLTRIMAIMI J TAlsfopN[ol.[e MA, —LalN[ol s.RIMyAIM[ [7 [Als [O[NJO[a]F [MAl
A. Food of adolescent & older fishes B. Food of immature fishes |

Fic. 7. Histograms showing the percentage occurrence of principal
items of food of O. punctatus in different months

gets a better chance of catching other small fishes. In the post-monsoon
months, soon after the breeding season of other fishes is over, small
metamorphosed fishes belonging to the current year’s brood become
abundantly available in ponds. In these months the guts of O. punctatus
largely contained small fishes.

In all, seven species of fish were found in the guts (Table V). Of
these, Barbus stigma was predominant and occurred in all the months of

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 93

the year. It constituted 68.5% of the total fish food. Frequently the
guts contained no other food except B. stigma. ,

Esomus danricus was the other fish ingested. It occurred in almost
all the months of the year. The maximum number (28.7%) of the guts
containing this fish was obtained in March 1959.

Other fishes Trichogaster chuna, Amblypharyngodon mola, Mystus
tengara, and Callichrous pabda occurred rarely in the guts. There were
four instances when smaller O. punctatus were recorded in the guts of
larger fishes. Such fishes contained nothing else but O. punctatus, suggest-
ing that cannibalism in this species is rare and possibly occurs when no
other food is available. Parents, however, have never been found to
contain any young ones of their own kind in their guts (Qayyum & Qasim
1962).

Digested fish remains in the gut were of common occurrence through-
out the period of observation. These were difficult to identify and some-
times included scales, bones, and other fish remains.

Insects formed the next important item of food. Practically all the
insects found in the guts were aquatic species. Hemiptera, Odonata,
Diptera, and Coleoptera constituted the main groups of insects. In
pre-monsoon months (March-June), the frequency of occurrence of
insects was the highest.

From the hemipterous group, water bugs (Corixa, Notonecta, Garris,
- and Nepa spp.) were the commonest organisms. Of these, the former two
occurred all the year round and showed little fluctuations whereas the
latter two were rather rare. The maximum number of guts containing
these insects was in April 1959.

Nymphs of dragon fly (Odonata) were also of frequent occurrence in
the guts. During winter months (December-February), the percentage
occurrence of nymphs was relatively higher.

Other insects present in the gut were beetles (Dytiscidae) and fly
larvae and pupae (chironomid). Beetles were not very frequent and
their numbers in the gut were also few. Chironomid larvae, on the other
hand, were abundantly found in the pre-monsoon months. They mostly
occurred in smaller fishes and were seldom present in fishes larger than
15 cm. Mosquito-larvae were recorded only from two guts..

Gastropod shells were of consistent occurrence in the gut. During
the entire period of investigation, three months were the only exceptions
when they were not recorded (Table V). Seven fishes contained prawns
and three contained water spiders.

Algae and leaves of higher aquatic plants were rarely eaten. Fila-
mentous algae (Spirogyra and Oscillatoria) were negligible in proportion
and seem to be ingested along with other food organisms. They,
however, occurred from January to April.

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Frog bones were found in the gut of one fish measuring 19 cm. in
length.

In the light of all the food organisms ingested, it seems that adolescent
and older fishes are mid and surface feeders. Fishes such as B. stigma and
E. danricus, which are readily eaten by O. punctatus, are pelagic species
and are likely to occur throughout the column zone, from surface to the
bottom. The presence of insects such as Corixa, Notonecta, and dragon
fly nymphs in the gut which are mainly surface dwellers seem to confirm

the surface feeding habit. The other murrel Ophicephalus striatus has

been previously reported as a bottom feeder (Das & Moitra 1956), which
seems unlikely because its main food as suggested by these authors
includes insects and fishes.

The greater occurrence of fish in the gut suggests that the larger fishes
are mainly piscivorous. Insects and other food organisms are of
secondary importance for the large-sized fishes as the fish measuring 22
cm. and above hardly contained anything else except fish. The occur-
rence of insects and other organisms was mostly in smaller fishes. The
greater proportion of B. stigma in the food and its consistent occurrence
throughout the year suggest that O. punctatus has a marked preference
towards this fish. :

(b) Food of Immature Fishes

Fishes ranging from 3.5 cm. to 9.9 cm. were kept in this category.
The total number of guts examined of this size range was 438, of which
390 contained food. As the fish of this size range were only available
from August to March, it became possible to make analysis of their guts
only in these months. The percentage occurrence of various categories
of food of the immature fish is shown in Table VI.

Itis clear from the table that the food preferences of the immature fishes
differ considerably from those of the older fishes. Some such organisms
as Ephemeroptera nymphs, copepods, daphnids, and other crustaceans,
which are never eaten by the older fishes, are included in the diet. Fig.
7(B) shows the percentage occurrence of the main categories of food in
various months.

_ As can be seen from the figure, for this size group, fish does not form
the major item of food. Of the total number of guts examined only 8.0%
contained fish. This is in contrast to the previous size group where fish
was found in 68.5% guts. Even in this size group, whenever fish was re-
corded in the gut it was in those specimens which were of relatively larger
size. Evidently the smaller fishes are incapable of catching other fishes,
but as they grow bigger they begin to hunt for them.

Insects (Diptera, Hemiptera, Odonata, Ephemeroptera, and Coleop-
tera) constitute the main bulk of food of this group. They occurred
abundantly throughout the period of investigation. Dipterous insects

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES

ae
ee enable
| 69 | OL | GEL | Ver
a Cel Ol Ole a0 Ol oacel
€'rI EPL | SPE | OOF , TH | 0°79
ev Er | Srh | O89 | GOL | LI8
€"bl 07. ESE | 82
nk i a ae
Ev | Ae CPC OSs Sen ORL
* u luce, ine eee. 0
: OSCARS Hla 6.66519 86-1 ZI0C. 10°C . Ee
o'sz | 9°8Z | EEE | ET | ECOL | O'OT | OZ | IZ
0'001| vIZL | OOOT| T'S | Sry | OO | Or | H'8
: rs = Seer sae,
Er ee 9L-0c- | O}CP5 8:9 a
10°T | 88'T | O8'T | OST | 86T | O6'T | SOT | 107
ey ieee climes 2 o-2| 67" ese 2 O84 AL
v 8 € 9] Ze LS 1Ol.| LL
‘idy | re; | ‘qoq | ‘ueg | *90q | “AON | °20 | “309g

‘sny | Ajng | oung | Avy | “dy

oO ASF NHERA St Oo

Oem

~N onnmadt IN +

=
N

‘rep | ‘qoz | ‘uec | 90 | “AON | “90

(snjojound °O) SHS AYOLVWWI JO SLND AHL NI dOOd dO SaIMODALVO SNORIVA JO AONAYUNDOO FADVLINIOWd

IA a1avL

sjueyd
onenbe 104s
owes[V
epodosey
SIQFOY
OPAIL]
uvaoRysnig
spruydeq
spodedoy
$}00S
-UI pososIq
elo}dousmi AH
elo}dorsmeydy
e19}d09[0D
e}yeuUOpO
vio} diwopy
eloidiq
SNI14
-uvp' snulosy
DULSIIS SNQlDg
Orel °7M
Apog 9 poot
Poo} YyIM
ysgy Jo “ON
pourulexs
ysy jo “ON

yuo]

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

included chironomid larvae and pupae. They were rarely seen in the
guts of large-sized fishes. Here they were present in nearly 50% guts.
In January, February, and March practically all the guts had chironomid
larvae and in some fishes as many as 100 larvae were recorded. Chirono-
mid pupae were seldom seen in the guts and mosquito larvae were
scarcely present. In this size group, water bugs (Corixa, Notonecta, and
their nymphs) were relatively more abundant and so was the occurrence
of dragonfly nymphs. These nymphs as they are eaten by the larger
fishes measuring 7 cm. and above were more frequently seen during winter
months. May-fly nymphs (Ephemeroptera) which were not found in
older fishes were of common occurrence in this group. Similarly cope-
pods (mostly cyclops) and daphnids were never recorded from the guts
of older fishes. They were abundantly seen in the guts of smaller fishes
particularly from August to October. Many guts of smaller fishes were
full of cyclops and their number in one gut was more than 500.

Rotifers were recorded only from fishes measuring 4.5 cm. and below
and were found from August to November. Crustacean larvae (nauplii)
were found in the months of September, October, and November and
constituted 2.4% of the total food.

Organisms of lesser importance were coleopterous insects and algae.
One fish measuring 9.6 cm. contained a yellow wasp (Hymenoptera).

From the various categories of food eaten by this size range it appears
that smaller fishes are also surface feeders. Excepting chironomid larvae
which are bottom dwellers, most of the other organisms ingested live at
or near the surface. Probably feeding on chironomid larvae occurs in
shallow waters.

An analysis of the gut contents of 40 larvae has been given in an earlier
communication (Qayyum & Qasim 1962). This indicated that the food
of the young fishes consists of planktonic organisms such as_ cyclops,
daphnids, rotifers, etc. This has been further confirmed by an analysis
of the guts of 22 more larvae in the month of July. This has been given
in Table VII.

TABLE VII

PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF FOOD IN. THE GUTS OF LARVAL FISHES (O. punctatus)
No. of fish examined Ba S aed
Size range ae oA ze .. 7mm. to 10mm.
Copepods si < A .. 100.0 per cent.
Daphnids oF a apd .. 13.6 per cent.
Crustacean larvae me .. 31.8 per cent.
Invertebrate eggs me Ae .. 13.6 per cent.
Rotifers o aid is -. L22e7 penicents

(d) Seasonal Variation in the rate of feeding
Seasonal variation in the rate of feeding was determined by the weight
method previously used by Qasim (1957a, 1957b) and others. After

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES

sins Aydwa yim ysl} Jo a8eqUsdI9q4

oUIT USYO.1G
‘s3n3 Aju Jo a8ejUSsIeg “UT, SnonuUTUOS ‘}YSIOM Apo Jo a8vj}Us0IAd Sv SOYSY Joplo puv USOSI[OPe JO POO} JO }YSIOM [PIO],

snipjound *GQ JO ZUIpsoj JO 9781 OY} UL UOT}ELIVA [BUOSeEg °g “OIA

0961 6S6| 8561

co)
N

Ve)
N

Apog jo a3equadied

SE POO} JO "3M [eI0]

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

the qualitative analysis of food was over, the gut contents of all the fishes
of a particular size range were mixed together, the excess of water was
_ removed, and the total quantity of food was weighed accurately. This
was expressed as the percentage of the total body weight of fish examined.
A record of the empty guts was also maintained in each month.

The values obtained in various months have been illustrated in Fig. 8
together with the percentage of empty guts in each month. There were
notable variations in the rate of feeding in different seasons. Two periods
of intensive feeding were obtained in a year. The first was during the
pre-monsoon months (March-June). Presumably a high rate of feeding
during this period is required for the building up of gonads and the next
phase, as it occurs after the spawning season (October and November),
is utilised for the recovery of the fish from the spawning and for building
up winter reserves. Feeding is minimal during the breeding season (July
and August) when most of the fishes have ripe gonads. Again a cessation
of feeding activity occurs during winter months (December-February)
when there is a possible decline in the availability of food or perhaps the
fish becomes less active in hunting its prey due to prevailing low tem-
perature conditions.

The rate of feeding of smaller fishes (immature) shows a different
picture. From the data given in Table VII it appears that in December

and January there is a slight decrease in the rate of feeding while in other

months there is hardly any variation in the quantity of food consumed.
(e) Concluding Remarks on Food

From the analysis of food of various size groups it can be concluded
that the food of O. punctatus throughout its life is as follows : Newly
hatched larvae feed on small planktonic organisms such as copepods
(cyclops), rotifers, and crustacean larvae. As the larvae grow a little
bigger they begin to eat other organisms also, such as daphnids and insect
larvae. Small metamorphosed fishes continue to feed on planktonic
crustaceans until they reach 5 cm. in length. However, with the increase
in size there is a proportionate reduction of planktonic crustaceans until
in small fishes measuring 6.5 cm. and above, these organisms become
almost negligible in quantity. Such fishes change to larger organisms
such as insects and their larvae. Medium-sized fishes measuring 6 cm.
to 9 cm. have the main bulk of food made up of insects and other in-
vertebrate organisms. Fishes measuring 9 cm. and more begin to feed
on fishes, and finally in the largest-size groups fish becomes a major
food item.

To sum up, it seems that O. punctatus remains a carnivorous
fish throughout life, feeding mainly on invertebrate fauna. Its predation
on other forage fishes is a feature acquired later in life. |

(To be continued)

The BNHS/WHO
Bird Migration Study Project—4

Activities from 13-9-1963 to 23-3-1964

SALIM ALI
Chief Investigator, BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Study Project

[Continued from Vol. 60 (2): ela

Three field camps were conducted during the year 1963-64 migra-

tion season: (1) at Hingolgadh, Saurashtra, 13-22 September, (2) at
Bharatpur, Rajasthan, 21 September to 13 October, (3) at Edanad,
Kerala, 26 November 1963 to 5 February 1964; and Mr. P. V. George
made an exploratory visit to Bihar extending from 31 January to 23
March 1964.

1. HINGOLGADH, SAURASHTRA.: 13-22 SEPTEMBER 1963

The physiography of the netting area is described in the report for
spring 1960 [/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (1): 111]. Yuvraj Shivraj-

kumar of Jasdan was again in charge of the activities here. In the 10

days’ netting 153 migratory and 67 non-migratory birds were ringed,
belonging to 23 and 20 species respectively. ‘The main purpose was to
further substantiate the previous finding that individual migrants tend
to return to the same wintering areas year after year. Confirmation was
amply provided by the interesting recapture on 14-9-1963 of an Orphean
Warbler (Sylvia hortensis) ringed in almost the identical netting site
exactly three years before—on 13-9-1960. Two other individuals of the
same species ringed during the previous autumn (24 and 25 September
1962) were also recaptured in the same place on 20 and 21 September
1963. These instances, together with the two similar recaptures detailed
on pages 927 and 963 of Vol. 59 (3) of the Journal are fairly conclusive
evidence.that this species returns year after year to the same winter
quarters, or at least follows a very restricted route to wherever its ulti-
mate winter destination in India may lie.

2. BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN: 21 SEPTEMBER TO 13 OCTOBER 1963

Evidence of similar parochiality in the case of resident birds was

provided by a Goldenbacked Woodpecker, Dinopium benghalense,
caught and ringed near Shanti Kutir Forest Rest House on 16-9-196]

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

and recaptured on 22-9-1963, i.e. 2 years later, in the selfsame acre or
two.

The netting in Bharatpur was done by a field party of the BNHS,
chiefly in the wagtail roosting area of sugarcane cultivation described in
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (3): 927. Even though a vast expanse of
flooded sugarcane fields was available for roosting, only certain portions
of it were patronized by the birds. Some of these were shared with Red-
headed Buntings (Emberiza bruniceps), Sparrows (Passer domesticus indi-
cus and P. d. parkini), Weaver Birds (Ploceus philippinus and P. bengha-
lensis), and Swallows (Hirundo rustica). At such mixed roosts the order
of arrival was noted as follows: first Buntings, Sparrows, and Weaver
Birds a few minutes before sunset ; then Wagtails, dropping in till 15
minutes or so after sunset; followed, lastly, by swallows when almost dark.
Thus, for catching all the species at such mixed roosts it was necessary to
work the nets differentially, i.e. open them for swallows only after the
buntings and wagtails had more or less settled for the night. Otherwise,
the nets got so full and sagging with the earlier arriving species that the
swallows just bounced back from them without getting ‘ bagged’.
During the 20 days of actual netting in Bharatpur a total of 2782 migra-
tory birds were ringed (list below). Three days were lost in exploring
the possibilities of netting wading birds, of which enormous quantities—-
especially Ruff and Reeve (Philomachus pugnax)—had made their
appearance by the third week of September. They were feeding in vast
tantalizing congregations on the freshly-drained squelchy marshland
above Ajan Bund. Apparently, however, our technique was all wrong ;
the effort proved disappointing and after three days of unsuccess work
was reverted to the wastails.

TABLE I
LIST OF MIGRANTS (10 AND ABOVE) RINGED BETWEEN
13 SEPTEMBER AND 13 OCTOBER 1963

Species Hingolgadh Bharatpur

Tringa glareola fie | 11
Riparia riparia diluta LS | 10
Hirundo rustica is: 220
Muscicapa striata 19 oS
Sylvia communis 60 ee
Sylvia curruca 10 ome
Erithacus svecicus = : 36
Motacilla flava beema ee | 609
—— thunbergi Ze 138

= ssp. cae 1057
——_—— citreola esas 201
———— citreola (?) at | 7)
———-— alba personata mia : a6
Passer domesticus parkini aa | 30
Carpodacus erythrinus a = | 14.
Emberiza bruniceps ~ sibs : 227

eae eee eee reer errr re

101

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—4

‘op
(ydutAu) 120081 "Wu *

(sydurAu) sisuayojny “7
3» (sydurcka) ¢ ‘ds vuumopdy ‘(yduidsu 2 earel) JovvS1 “Us *

_ (sqdurku 2p ovArey) sisuayoiny *H
3 (syduthu) ¢ ‘ds vunuojpdy ‘(YduIAU 2 ATE) JovvSI “Us *T

(sydwAu pue seal) Ssisuayojny *H

(QBAIC]) 100881 “tu *

(sydurAu) sisuayajny *H 29 (SYdUWIAU) 1ovDs1 “UU “7

(SCAIL]) SIsuayojny *AL

(yaode1 ou)

(sydwiAU) sisuayojny “A

(sydwiAu) sisuayoiny syposdydouevyy 29 (Sydurdu) 190vs1 *u*
(avAie]) “ds sosopoyjuiC

(sydumAu) tops) snjoujsinu DuWUojDA

YoLL, Jo saiseds

Cc
€
€

OATISOd “ON

nm we

ILS

09
6l

pourmexs [ROL

s SISuQUuny np —— —————
aye | {OSS300))
ee ({) vj0a4j19 ————
oe D909 ee
ee ‘dss pavjf ojj1ovj0y
. DyoINnf{ saplojooixvy'

Se SNI1IAAS SNIDYJIAT

a s1unuuod) v1aja4s
ue Djv1AJs DdvIIISn
7 dafod snjouourd
as snasod snuin}s
ie pjooiany { opundlyy

|
|
|
ae SOANAYIO SNANIIUaOY
ot plajdosyihsa DAfOA JN

so1seds

SLTOSAu FHL GNV ‘SMOIL WOd HGVOIOONIH GNV aWNdilvavHg LV GININVXA saulg

ll av

ee ea aT

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)
TICKS

At Hingolgadh ticks were obtained from 16 of the 219 migratory as
well as resident birds examined (c. 7.3%); in Bharatpur only 20 from
1813 (c. 1.1%) migrants. Of the 215 resident birds (22 species) examined
in Bharatpur 3 Hirundo fluvicola were found positive for ticks. A list of
birds examined, and the results, are given in Table II.

_ The larvae taken from a cliff swaliow, Hirundo fluvicola, in Bharatpur
[Mar./Apr. 1963—J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 (2): 413] have been
identified as those of the tick Ornithodoros sp.

BLOOD SAMPLES.

In addition to tick collection, blood samples from about 250 birds
of the following species were taken on filter paper discs for antibody
studies in the U.S.S.R. This was in response to the suggestions received
from Prof. G. I. Netzky, following his visit to the Bharatpur field camp
in September 1962 at WHO’s invitation in order to devise methods for
profitable coordination of our project activities with virological studies
in Russian laboratories. Prof. Levkovitch’s comments on the collection
are awaited with interest. .

Species bled : Motacilla flava beema, M. f. thunbergi, M. f. melano-
grisea,-M. citreola, M. alba dukhunensis, M. a. personata, Hirundo rus-
tica, Emberiza bruniceps, Erithacus svecicus, Passer domesticus parkini,
Riparia diluta.

Unfortunately it has not been possible as yet to make a
proper beginning with Rosy Pastors or wading birds, but it is hoped to
start ringing wagtails, swallows, and other reedbed-roosting species in
the Calcutta Salt Lake area during the current season with the assistance
of local volunteers.

3. THE EDANAD WAGTAIL ROOST, KERALA: 26 NOVEMBER 1963
TO 5 FEBRUARY 1964

In November and the early half of December wagtail concentra-
tion at Edanad was as big as those in previous years. The rotation of
crops had brought about a change of layout, with crops of sweet
potatoes where sugarcane had been and vice versa, but the volume of
sugarcane grown on the island remained more or less the same. Till
January 6th the sugarcane fields in Edanad were the netting sites. To-
wards the last quarter of December the number of wagtails roosting at
Edanad dropped considerably and from January 7th the team switched

ibe:

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—4 103

over to a new roost at Mangalam, a village near Chengannur. Situated
about a mile west of Edanad, and across the northern channel of
Pumba, Mangalam has fewer sugarcane plantations than Edanad, but
the wagtails here suffer less disturbance from man and animals. The
number of wagtails roosting at Mangalam remained fairly constant
throughout. Netting was very effective in the first five days, with an
average catch of about 30 birds per net. From January 11th, the catch
per net at Mangalam decreased appreciably, while the wagtail popula-
tion at Edanad again began to increase. From that day to the end of
camp (5 February), the team worked in two units (at both Edanad and
Mangalam) netting on an average about 275 birds in the morning and
about 150 in the evening sessions.

Ringing and releasing

In the morning sessions birds were ringed and released from the com-
pound of the Mar Thoma Church, Edanad. Birds of the evening sessions
were ringed at the camp and released immediately into sugarcane fields
near the church, choosing fields of larger area so as to avoid over-
crowding,

The collection

The two races of the Yellow Wagtail, viz. the Blueheaded (beema)
and the Greyheaded (thunbergi), were most abundant and made up 60.78
per cent of the number ringed this season. Compared with the collec-
tion of the last two seasons, the increase in the catch of Forest Wagtails
(5.59% of this season’s catch) and Yellowheaded Wagtails, M. citreola,
(7.86% of this season’s catch) is noteworthy. As in the previous
year, about a hundred white wagtails had an exclusive roost of
their own, in sugarcane near the Mar Thoma Church, Edanad.
This season 69 birds of this species were ringed, and 7 of the 29 white
wagtails ringed in the same spot last year were recaptured. Swallows
sharing the roost with wagtails was a novel feature for Edanad, not seen
before.

In 64 days of netting (from 26th November 1963 to 5th February
1964) 21,881 wagtails and 39 swallows were ringed making up an
ageregate of 21,920 birds for the season.

104. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

The total of the wagtails is broken up as follows :
TABLE III
WAGTAILS RINGED AT EDANAD, EXAMINED FOR TICKS, AND THE RESULTS

3 U MN =
Species = oUs S Species of tick
fe) o.8 8
FG Zan wide aap,
Motacilla indica cout ah 24 1216 nil _—
Motacilla flava thunbergi..| 7377 | 7300 8 Hyalomma marginatus
| isaaci (3 nymphs, 3, 29)
—_-—-—-—— —_--—. heema 5927 5891 . 74, do. (13, 12)
—— —— —-— melano- |
grisea “te 23 23 nil —
———— —-—. simillima ? 240 240 nil —~
———— —— ssp. ~. | 5296: 5242 1 Hyalomma marginatus isaaci
(gynandromorph)
———— citreola el ale 1707 nil —
———— caspica = 3 3 nil —.
———— alba dukhun-
ensis oe 69 69 nil —_
Total .. | 21,881 |21,691 11

a The 37 swallows (Hirundo rustica) examined were completely free
from ticks, F
Recaptures of ringed birds

- In all, 441 wagtails which had been previously ringed by us were
recaptured at Edanad and Mangalam. All but two of them were birds
ringed in Kerala and in the following proportion :

TABLE IV

YEARWISE DETAILS OF RECAPTURED WAGTAILS

Total no. of recaptures

Year of ringing Total no. ringed between 26-11-63 and
5-2-64
1961 Nov.-1962 Jan. nie 1900 8
1962 March ic 4066 25
1962 Dec.-1963 Feb. oy. 20,369 158

1963 Nov.-1964 Feb. ae 21,881 250

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—4 105

Besides the above, two wagtails ringed by us elsewhere in India were
recovered with the Kerala birds. Their particulars are as follows:
(1) A-38994 Motacilla flava? thunbergi ringed 27-5-1963 in 24
Parganas Dist., W. Bengal, recovered at Edanad on 29-11-1963.
(2) A-15897 Motacilla citreola? ringed 4-10-1962 at Bharatpur,
Rajasthan, recovered at Mangalam on 13-1-1964.
These recoveries along with the previously reported ones from
Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, and NW. Pakistan constitute important sign-
posts in the general pattern of wagtail migration in India.

Examination for external parasites

Ninety-nine per cent. of the birds ringed this season were examined
for external parasites, and 11 ticks were collected up to 7th January, but
none after this date in spite of a more thorough search.

Collection of blood samples

446 ringed birds which could be identified subspecifically with certainty
were bled for samples for virological investigation by Kievskae Shosee
Institute of Poliomyelitis and Virus Encephalitis, Moscow. Blood was
drawn from incisions made near the base of the claws without any
crippling injury to the birds.

Acknowledgements

Our thanks are due to Messrs. Oomen, Thomas, Vasu Pillai, Rama-
chandran Pillai, Ramachandran Panikkar, and Kochukuttan, who
assisted the field party, and to the Trustees of the M.T. Church, Edanad,
for permission to use the churchyard for our ringing activities.

4, NortTH BIHAR: 31 JANUARY TO 23 Marcu 1964

Mr. P. V. George visited Bihar to explore the possibilities of
extending the Project activities to that area, particularly to waders
(Charadriiformes) and ducks. He surveyed the area from the Ganges
up to the India-Nepal border of central northern Bihar. His interesting
report will be published separately.

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

With the help of local trappers Mr. George was able to ring nine
hundred and four birds of the following twentyfive species:

TABLE V

BIRDS RINGED IN MANJHAUL (MONGHyrR DIsT.)

Anas crecca ie he 239
Anas querquedula xe oe 19
Anas clypeata Le a 9
Nettapus coromandelianus At sgt 1 =
Pluvialis dominica Ae oe 11
Charadrius dubius i ms 1
Charadrius mongolus <8 te 3
Tringa glareola me oa 90
Tringa totanus = a 1
Tringa ochropus a at 2,
Capella stenura ak ae 11
Capella gallinago 2 ts 82
Capella minima hs ae 3
Calidris minutus fs ar 25
Calidris temminckii be on 27
Philomachus pugnax aa : 1
Rostratula benghalensis be ie 2
Himantopus himantopus Af: es 3
Jynx torquilla wif i 1
Calandrella cinerea a a6 303
Erithacus svecicus is ane 9
Saxicola torquata gale
Motacilla flava a ae 15
Motacilla citreola e ae 35
Motacilla alba a sng 9

Recovery of a ringed Teal

An interesting recovery at Srinagar, Kashmir, on 15 March 1964 of
a Teal (Anas crecca) ringed by him in Manjhaul (6-2-1964) suggests
a rather unusual direction of flight.

Collection of blood samples

Blood samples were collected from Anas crecca, A. querquedula,
A. clypeata, Aythya ferina, Tringa glareola, Capella gallinago, Fulica
atra, and Calandrella cinerea for virological examination by Kievskae
Shosee Institute of Poliomyelitis and Virus Encephalitis, Moscow,

Possibilities of ringing in north Bihar

North Bihar seems to offer excellent possibilities for bird migration
studies. Ringing at the beginning of winter and subsequent recoveries
in other parts of the country may provide information on the dispersal
of birds within India.

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—4 107

For waders and ducks the best time would appear to be from mid-
November to the middle of January. ‘ Daylight roosting’ places. of
these birds should also afford chances of large scale netting. For large
scale ringing of Short-toed Larks the best time is reportedly March and
April. It is hoped’ to exploit these opportunities in the winter of
1964-65.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Mr. T. P. Singh, Development Commissioner,
Bihar, Mr. S.S. Sharan, District Magistrate of Monghyr, and Mr.
_ U.K. Prasad, S.p.0., Waterways, Manjhaul, for facilities and assistance
rendered to Mr. George during his survey.

Two New Species of Marine Borers
of Genus Nausitora (Mollusca :
Teredinidae) from West Bengal, India’

A. S. RAJAGOPAL
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta-12

(With two text-figures and one plate)

INTRODUCTION

This paper forms the second part of the study of the collections
made of marine molluscan borers from Port Canning and Sajnakhali,
Sundarbans, West Bengal, in 1958 and 1961 and in the Hooghly river,
Calcutta, in 1961. In anearlier paper (A. S. Rajagopalaiengar 1961),
a new species of borer, namely Bankia (Neobankia) roonwali, was
described.

About 140 specimens of various sizes were collected around
Sajnakhali, Sundarbans, from different kinds of living mangrove trees,
the names of which are given below (the last named was not in living
condition) :

Bengali name Botanical name Family
1. ‘Gengwa’ Excoecaria agallocha Linnaeus Euphorbiaceae
2. ‘Goran’ Ceriops decandra (Roxb.)
(=C. roxburghiana Arn.
Ceriops tagal (Perry) C. B. a aera gute
(=C. candolleana Arn.)
3. * Khalsi? Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco Myrsinaceae
4. * Sundari’ Heritiera fomes Buchanan-
Hamilton Sterculiaceae
5) 7 Pussur,. Xylocarpus molluccensis Roemer
(= Carapa molluccensis Lamarck) Meliaceae

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

Genus Vausitora

This genus has as many as 20 species described from different parts
of the world. |

Two new species are described here. In describing the shell parts,
the terminology used by Clench & Turner (1946) is largely followed.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOc.

Nausitora lanceolata sp. nov.: 1-2. Right and left lateral views of entire animal
(Holotype) ; 3. Enlarged left lateral view of posterior region of Holotype, showing

siphons and pallets. ; ;
Nausitora sajnakhaliensis sp. nov: 4-5. Right and left lateral views of entire
animal (Holotype); 6. Enlarged left lateral view of posterior region of Holotype,

showing siphons and pallets.
Note. Figs. 1 and 2 on same scale; Figs. 3, 4, and 5 on same scale.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF MARINE BORERS 109

Nausitora lanceolata sp. nov.
(Text-fig. 1; Pl., figs. 1-3; Table)
MATERIAL

LOT A. (i) Coll. A. S. Rajagopalaiengar, 4 examples, Edge of Matlah R. at
- low tide, Port Canning, 24-Parganas, 12.1. 1958, ex a trunk of a dead tree.

LOT B. Coll. H. C. Ray, Sajnakhali, lat. 28° 7’ N., long. 88° 50’ E.,
24-Parganas, as follows :
(ii) 11 examples, Tetulbaria Camp, c. 17 km. SW. of Forest Office,
26.1 iil. 1958, ex pieces of living mangrove tree.
(iii) 1 example, S. bank of Sajnakhali Khal, E. of Forest Office,
28.iii.1958, ex a piece of living mangrove tree.

LOT C. Coll. A. S. Rajagopalaiengar, Sajnakhali, lat. 28° 7’ N., long. 88° 50’ E.,
24-Parganas, April-May 1961, as follows :
(iv) 11 examples, Baentolla-Bharani, a creek c. 1 km. W. of Forest
Office, 26.iv.1961, ex a piece of ‘ Sundari’ tree.
(v) 1 example, Baentolla-Bharani, a creek c. 1 km. W. of Forest
Office, 27.iv.1961, ex a piece of ‘ Gengwa’ tree.
(vi) 15 examples, Baentolla-Bharani, a creek c. 1 km. W. of Forest
Office, 27.iv.1961, ex a piece of ‘ Sundari’ tree.
(vii) 9 examples, on bank of Gomdi R. c. 5 km. W. of Forest Office,
30.iv.1961, ex a piece of ‘ Goran’ tree.
(viii) 5 examples, bank of Gomdi R. c. 5 km. W. of Forest Office,
30.iv.1961, ex a piece of ‘ Khalsi ’ tree.
(ix) 1 example, Pichkhali c. 6 km. E. of Forest Office, 1.v.1961, ex a
piece of ‘ Gengwa ’ tree.
(x) 7 examples, Pichkhali c. 6 km. E. of Forest Office, 1.v.1961,
ex a piece of ‘ Goran’ tree.
(xi) 4 examples, bank of Gomdi R. c. 5 km. W. of Forest Office,
1.v.1961, ex a piece of ‘ Khalsi ’ tree.
(xii) 5 examples, Sajnakhali Forest Office jetty, 1.v.1961, ex a piece of
‘ Pussur ’ wood.
(xiii) 5 examples, Sudhanyakhali c. 13 km. S. of Forest Office, 2.v.1961,
ex a piece of ‘ Goran’ tree.
(xiv) 11 examples, Sajnakhali Forest Office jetty, 2.v.1961, ex a piece of
‘Pussur ’ wood.
(xv) 35 examples, Sudhanyakhali c. 13 km. S. of Forest Office, 2.v.1961,
ex a piece of ‘ Sundari’ tree.
(xvi) 11 examples, Sudhanyakhali c. 13 km. S. of Forest Office,
3.v.1961, ex a piece of ‘Goran’ tree.
(xvii) 1 example, Sajnakhali Forest Office jetty, 3.v.1961, ex a piece of
* Pussur’ wood.

LOT D. (xviii) 1 example, King George’s Dock, Calcutta, 21.iii.1950, donated
by the Commissioners for the Port of Calcutta, ex a submerged timber.

LOT E. (xix) Coll. A. Danie!, G. Ramakrishna, and A. S. Rajagopalaiengar, 100
examples, Bull’s nose jetty, Kidderpore Docks, Calcutta, 28.xii.1961, ex an
experimental panel.

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)
DESCRIPTION

1. Shell (Text-fig. 1, c-d; Pl., figs. 1-2; Table). Globular, white
or pinkish mainly according to colour of wood infested, fairly
thick. Dorsal nondenticulated area of anterior lobe marked by usual
sinus. From here radiate equidistant ridges on the surface of lobe

pote = SAMIMNataan,

Text-fig. 1. Nausitora lanceolata sp. nov.

a-b. Outer and inner views of the entire pallet ; c-d. Outer and inner views
of the shell

TWO NEW SPECIES OF MARINE BORERS 11!

denticulated at their free margins. Number of ridges 20 to 34, ridges
wide apart in younger stages, more closely set in adults. Height
of lobe almost equal to its length. An impressed wavy line demarcating
anterior lobe from disc. Anterior portion of disc with denticulated
ridges 15 to 45 in number present on its surface. Ventral margin of
lobe meeting anterior margin of disc at right angles. Rows of teeth
on lobe also meeting those on anterior portion of disc at right angles
but not continuous. Anterior portion of disc quite broad, width about
two-thirds of anterior lobe. Median portion of disc long, narrow,
tinged deepest pink, extending from umbone to ventral condyle slightly
wider near ventral region without denticles but possessing irregular
lines of growth. Posterior portion of disc smooth, white, narrow, and
extending to auricle. Auricle, conspicuous in younger stages, getting
reduced to a small remnant in adults, embedded in mantle of living
specimens. |

Internally, shell smooth and white. A line indicating junction
of anterior lobe with anterior portion of disc visible. Median portion
of disc appearing as a groove. Umbonal region with a prominent
condyle and apophysis springing below it and projecting downwards.
Apophysis short, narrow, extending obliquely to about a third of
distance to ventral edge. A strong condyle present at ventral edge
of shell. Upper margin of posterior portion of disc appearing somewhat
eroded. Auricle having translucent incremental lines within it. Shelf
arising from below dorsal condyle at a place slightly posterior to it
and extending downwards, narrow, clearly visible about half way in
shell but gradually merging beyond it with the shell surface.

ye Pallets (lext-ig. 1, a-b; Pl., fig..3; Table); Long, solid
calcareous structure with a stalk and a blade. Stalk short, straight,
cylindrical with a pointed tip; continuous up to some extent but not
fully inside blade. Blade long, slightly inequilateral, resembling the
head of a spear, and consisting of fused cone-like structures with convex
outer and slightly concave inner surfaces, expanded proximally and
narrowing distally. Proximal region of blade invariably covered by a
light or dark brown periostracum appearing like compressed transverse
imbrications. In younger stages these imbrications ending in slender
processes at lateral borders. Rest of blade gradually tapering, its outer
surface with a series of shelly imbrications of fused V-shaped struc-
tures (distinct in younger stages), with one arm of V longer than the
other; the condition being reversed in the other pallet. V-shaped
structures present till end of blade but becoming progressively acute
distally. Both lateral margins serrated or crenulated, serrations sharper
along margin with shorter limbs of V. Outer surface of blade usually
eroded linearly along middle line from tip towards base to a variable
extent (as in holotype) due probably to frequent rubbing with inside of

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (A)

calcareous tube enclosing it, during animal’s to-and-fro movements of
its posterior end. Distal part of blade glassy and somewhat transparent.

Inner surface of blade consisting proximally of a series of transverse
wavy laminae, disappearing gradually distally. Both lateral borders
serrated, serrations wearing out in older forms. Blade definitely ending
in more or less pointed tip in well-preserved pallets.

3. Siphons (PI, fig. 3). Short, conjoined, equal in length, bifid
subterminally, and mottled with a few brown spots. Inhalant siphon
with wider opening than exhalant. Tiny papillate projections present at
the tip of inhalant siphon. 7

4. Collar. A_ well-developed collar present at the base of
siphons.

5. Burrow. A thick calcareous tube secreted by the mantle
enclosing the animal but non-adhering to it except at collar region.
Burrow thicker and harder posteriorly at region of siphons and pallets.

TY PE-SPECIMENS

All type specimens deposited in the National Zoological Collection,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Holotype: One example from
Material LOT C (xv) above, Z.S.I. Reg. No. M. ee Sajnakhali, coll.
A. S. Rajagopalaiengar, 2. v. 1961, ex a piece of ‘ Sundari’ tree.

Paratypes: Four, as follows: One each from Material LOT C (iv), (xii),

(xv), and (xvi) above, Z.S.I. Reg. No. M. — to M. oe :

TYPE LOCALITY

INDIA: West Bengal: Sajnakhali (24-Parganas District), about
13 km. south of the Sajnakhali Forest Office, lat. 22° 7’N., long. 88°
50’ E.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

INDIA: West Bengal: (Calcutta District), King George’s Dock,
Kidderpore Dock, Port Canning, Sajnakhali and its vicinity.

COMPARISON

In possessing a broad anterior portion of disc in the shell, Nausitora
lanceolata resembles N. braziliensis Bartsch. In the condition of small-
ness of the auricle in the shell it approaches the condition in excolpa
Bartsch, dryas (Dall), braziliensis Bartsch, smithi Bartsch, hedleyi

TWO NEW SPECIES OF MARINE BORERS 113

Schepman, and madrasensis Nair. In this very condition it is dissimilar
to dunlopei Wright and gabrieli Nair in which cases an auricle is
altogether lacking in the shell. In the eroded condition of posterior
margin of the shell it is similar to gabrieli Nair.

In the general shape, the pallet of Janceolata reminds one of the
head of a spear. Hence, the name Janceolata proposed. Although
superficially, the pallet of Janceolata may appear to bear some resem-
blance to that of dunlopei Wright, hedleyi Schepman, messeli Iredale,
and queenslandica Iredale, it seems to be more akin to hedleyi than to
the others. It, however, differs markedly from hedleyi in the following
respects :

(1) In size the pallet of Janceolata is much larger than that of
hedleyi,

(2) In the blade the distal portion of which is usually not covered
by periostracum a series of V-shaped imbrications are present in
lanceolata, whereas oblique ridges divided into two parts by a narrow
median ridge are found in the corresponding place in hedleyi, and

(3) A median groove caused by erosion or friction occurs on the
outer surface of the blade in many cases in Janceolata, while a charac-
teristic ridge occupies the corresponding place in hedleyi.

In the presence of a central core-like body inside the blade, Janceo-
lata is similar to dunlopei, but it is unlike the latter in the following :

(1) In lanceolata an auricle, even though in some cases quite
reduced in size, is present in the shell, while it is absent in that of
dunlopei,

(2) The pallet of /anceolata is much smaller in size than that of
dunlopei, o

(3) While the outer surface of the blade in Janceolata bears a series
of V-shaped imbrications, that of dunlopei is stated to be merely
‘roughly imbricated ’, and

(4) The tip of the blade in Janceolata ends somewhat pointedly,
whereas in dunlopei it is shown in figures to end abruptly.

In having a serrated lateral margin along the blade Janceolata is
similar to hedleyi and dryas (Dall).

Nausitora sajnakhaliensis sp. nov.

(Text-fig. 2; Pl., figs. 4-6; Table)

MATERIAL

LOT A. Coll. A. S. Rajagopalaiengar, Sajnakhali, lat. 28° 7’ N., long. 88° 50’E.,
24-Parganas, 30. iv. 1961 and 3.v. 1961 as follows :
(i) 2 examples, bank of Gomdi R. c. 5 km. W. of Forest Office, 30. iv. 1961,
ex a piece of living ‘ Goran ’ tree.

114

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

(ii) 1 example, Sudhanyakhali c. 13 km. §. of Forest. Office, 3. v. 1961, ex a
piece of living ‘ Goran’ tree.

Text-fig. 2. Nausitora sajnakhaliensis sp. Nov.

a-b. Outer and inner views of the entire pallet ; c. Outer view of the shell

(auricle partly embedded in the mantle)

TWO NEW SPECIES OF MARINE BORERS 115.

DESCRIPTION

1. Shell (Text-fig. 2, c; Pl., figs. 4-5; Table). Globular, pink-
ish, thin and translucent. Dorsal nondenticulated part of lobe
bordering the usual sinus, broad and smooth. From here radiate on
surface of lobe closely-set equidistant ridges denticulated at free
margins. Space between ridges as wide as ridges, wider in younger
stages. Number of ridges 40 to 54. Height of lobe slightly greater than
its length. Line marking out anterior lobe from disc impressed, wavy,
and usually curved like an arc. Anterior portion of disc also possessing
on its surface closely-set denticulated ridges twice as wide as space
between them. Number of ridges 30 to 45. Ridges meeting those on
lobe at slightly greater than a right angle but not continuous with them.
Anterior portion of disc quite broad, width equal to length of anterior
lobe. Median portion of disc narrow, extending from umbonal region
to ventral condyle, its surface having wavy, irregular lines of growth.
Posterior portion of disc narrow in adults but wider in younger stages,
smooth, and passing on to auricle. Auricle fairly large and conspicuous
in younger stages but getting reduced in adults, usually embedded in
mantle in living condition, slightly upturned at outer margin when
exposed.

Inner view of shell could not be studied owing to extremely limited
stock of material.

2. Pallets (Text-fig. 2, a-b; Pl., fig.6; Table). Elongate,
whitish, solid, calcareous structure, with a short cylindrical stalk, long
blade, slightly curved like a sword, bulged outwardly and flat along
inner surface. Blade with a series of transverse obtuse V-shaped
imbrications covered completely with transparent or chocolate-coloured
membrane. In well-preserved condition transverse free margins of
membrane possessing double rows of pectinate processes. Lateral
border of imbrications appearing coalesced and ending in slender ETO:
cesses. Distal end of blade with concave depression.

Inner surface of blade with imbrications covered by membrane
without pectinate processes along transverse free margins. Imbrications
concave but shallower than those on outer surface.

3.. Siphons (PIl., fig. 6). Conjoined, and bifid only subterminally,
inhalant siphon with wider opening than exhalant and possessing short
hairy outgrowths or chocolate-coloured tiny spine-like outgrowths on its
surface. Exhalant siphon slighly shorter than inhalant.

4. Collar. Not prominent, thin, partially concealing siphons
and pallets. |

- 5. Burrow. Fairly thin and non-adherent to animal except at
region of collar. |

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)
TY PE-SPECIMENS

All type specimens deposited in the National Zoological Collection,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Holotype. One example from Material LOT A (ii), above Z.S.I.
Reg. No. M. a Sajnakhali, coll. A.S. Rajagopalaiengar, 3.v.1961,
ex a piece of living ‘ Goran’ tree,

Paratypes. Two examples from Material LOT A (i) above Z.S.I.

Reg. No. M. ae A

TYPE-LOCALITY

INDIA: West Bengal: Sajnakhali (24-Parganas Dist.), about
13 km. south of the Sajnakhali Forest Office, lat. 22°7’N., long. 88°
50’ E.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

INDIA: West Bengal: Sajnakhali and its vicinity (24-Parganas
Dist.).

COMPARISONS

In the possession of a broad anterior portion of disc in the shell,
Nausitora sajnakhaliensis bears some similarity to WN. braziliensis
Bartsch. In the upturned feature of the outer margin of the auricle it
resembles the condition in fusticula (Jeffreys), but it differs from the
latter in having more closely-set dental ridges on the anterior lobe of
its shell.

Its pallet has a superficial resemblance to dunlopei Wright but in size
of pallet it is far smaller than the latter (pallet of dunlopei measures
about 25 mm. while that of the present species is only 7 mm.). In
having a concave depression at the tip of the pallet, it differs from
dunlopei, but resembles orientalis Roch & Moll and kamiyai Roch &
Moll. In the presence of V-shaped imbrications on the outer surface
of blade, it is somewhat similar to saulii Wright.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Director, Zoological Survey
of India, for his kind and useful criticisms while going through the

paper.

117

TWO NEW SPECIES OF MARINE BORERS

OST -00'T . 00°T
00'P -OS"E Os’€
00°€ -00°2 00°7
00°L -0S"S os’s
OS'P -OS'E OS’¢
00°S -OS°€ | 00° 7
00°€9-00°TE 00°TE
"mur
nee odA}0[0H

SISUdIDYYOULDS DAOJISNDAT

OS*€-0S'°T
00°CI-00°7
00°8-00°€
0S°6T-0S°L
00°TT-00°S
0S TT-00'¢S
00°661-00°cc
"WU

(‘Sx® ¢Z)
osUueyY

RT SS,
ae eee

00°€

00°CT
00°9

00°81
00'TT
OS’ TT
00°06

“TU

edA}0[0H]

DIDJOIIUD] DAOJISNONE

opr]q Jo Jo}oWILIG
ope[q Jo WsusT
yes Jo ysUIT
JoI]ed Jo ySueT
Ileys Jo 14SIoH
194s Jo YysueT
qs3u9g] [210

y1ed-Apog

"AOU “ds sisuayoyyoulos vAojIsnDAy GNV “AOU “dS v{DJOaIUL] VAOJISNDN’ AO SLNAWAANSVA|

aTavL

118

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

SUMMARY

The discovery of two new species under the genus Nausitora, namely
Nausitora lanceolata and N. sajnakhaliensis, infesting dead and living
mangrove trees of Sundarbans, West Bengal, India, is reported with
detailed descriptions of the shell and pallet characters of each species,

REFERENCES

BartTscH, P. (1921): A new classifi-
cation of shipworms and description of
some wood boring molluscs. Proc. biol.
Soc. Wash. 34: 25-32. Washington.

- (1922) : A monograph of
American shipworms. Bull. U.S. nation.
Mus. 122 : 1-51. Washington.

————— (1927): New species of
shipworms from Siam. J. nat. Hist.
Soc. Siam 7 (1): 59-63. Bangkok.

CLENCH, W. J., & TURNER, R. D.
(1946) : The genus Bankia in the Western
Atlantic. Johnsonia 2 (19) : 1-28. Massa-
chusetts. ;

Epmonpson, C. H. (1942): Teredi-
nidae of Hawaii. Occ. Papers Bishop
Mus. 17 (10) : 97-150. Honolulu.

IREDALE, T., Johnson, R.A., & McNeill,
F. A. (1932) : Destruction of timber by
marine organisms in the Port of Sydney.
Sydney Harbour Trust: 9-148. Sydney.

Narr, N.B. (1956): Shipworms from
India I. Report on ten species of ship-
worms from the Madras coast. Rec.
Indian Mus. 52 : 387-414. Delhi.
(1958): Shipworms of
India Il. Seven more Shipworms from
South India. Rec. Indian Mus. 53:
261-278. Delhi.

RAJAGOPALAIENGAR, A. S. (1961): A
new species of the marine borer, Bankia
(Neobankia) roonwali (Mollusca: Tere-
dinidae) from India. Sci. & Cult. 27
(11) : 550. Calcutta.

—— ——-———— (in press): Fuller
description of a recently described

—od

—_—_——

species of the marine borer Bankia
(Neobankia) roonwali Rajagopalaiengar
from West Bengal, India. Rec. Indian
Mus. Delhi.

Rocu, F., & Mo Li, F. (1931) : Die
Terediniden der Zoologischen Museen
zu Berlin und Hamburg. Métteil. Zool.
Mus. Hamburg 44: 1-22, 2 pls. Ham-

burg.

——————— (1935): Uber einige
neue Teredinidenarten. Sitz.—Ber.
Akad. Wiss. Wien. Math.—Naturw.

kl. Abt. I, 44 : 263-279, 2 pls. Vienna,

SCHEPMAN, M.M. (1922): On a
collection of land and _ freshwater
Mollusca and a few marine Mollusca
from New Guinea, the Aru Islands,
Timor and Borneo. Nova Guinea Res.
Exped. scient. Neerl. Nouvelle Guinea
24 : 155-196, 5 pls. Leiden.

SIvIcKIs, P. B. (1928) : New Philip-
pine shipworms. Philip. J. Sci. 37:
285-298, 3 pls. Manila.

WartSON, C.J.J., MCNEILL, F.A., JOHN-
son, R. A., & IREDALE, T. (1936). Des-
truction of timber by marine organisms.
Queensland Forest Service Bull. 12: 1-
107. Brisbane.

WriGHT, E. P. (1864): On a new
genus of Teredinidae. Trans. Linn. Soc.
Lond. 24 (3): 451-454, 1 pl. London.
1866) : Contribution to
a natural history of the Teredidae. Trans.
Linn. Soc. Lond. 25 (3) : 561-568, 2 pls.
London.

The Lepidoptera of Bahrain

E. P. WILTSHIRE, F.R.E.S.

(With three plates and one text-figure)

CONTENTS
{INTRODUCTION an ae at a eel LD
PHYSICAL FEATURES : ARTESIAN WATER-SUPPLY ay Bx et ALO
SUPPOSED EMERGENCE FROM SEA : FAUNISTIC EVIDENCE oe Felt
BIOTOPES : VEGETATION ts ee e ae spb 22
REPRESENTATION OF FAMILIES OF LEPIDOPTERA ‘ig xe mh Oe
ECOLOGICAL GROUPS OF SPECIES OF LEPIDOPTERA .. < Ses P55)
GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS... a ae Te ial 5)
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION ay an Pete 47)
NOTE ON THE COLLECTIONS AND ON PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS .. .« 12S
ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES Ae ee e leo
REFERENCES ie: ats es as . .. 141

INTRODUCTION

Nothing has been published about the Lepidoptera of Bahrain
before the present decade. Indeed, it would appear that no insect
has been collected on the island before 1959, although its geology. as
is natural in an oil-producing state, and its flora (see Good 1954) are
better known.

PHYSICAL FEATURES : ARTESIAN WATER-SUPPLY

The name Bahrain applies both to the principal island and to
the archipelago. The lepidopterous fauna of the former is the subject
of the present study. It is unlikely that the smaller islands contain
any species not to be found-also on the principal island, which far.

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1).

exceeds all the others in area, elevation, variety of vegetation, and
water supply. Its fauna, however, like that of most islands, though
interesting, is restricted and poor.

Bahrain is situated at about Lat. 26°N., Long. 51° E., on the
Arabian (south) side of the Persian Gulf, in a bay between the
Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and the peninsula of Qatar. The
principal island measures about thirty miles from north to south and
about ten miles from west to east at its widest point. The highest
point, the Jebel Dokhan in the centre of the island, is only 400 feet
above sea-level. The rainfall averages less than three inches annually;
all of this falls in the cool season, between November and April.
Most of the territory is arid desert but, thanks to artesian water, the
northern part contains strips of oasis.

The artesian water-supply of Bahrain deserves further mention,
as the island is quite unique in this respect, and the survival of a
striking component of the fauna and flora depends on it. Among
the Eocene strata of Arabia, sloping gently down to the sump of
the Persian Gulf, is a brown crystalline Nummulitic limestone.
Rain penetrates this limestone stratum where it outcrops in the high
Arabian plateau, mainly in the Dahana. This underground water,
owing to impervious strata above and below it, and to a peculiar
local undulation, becomes concentrated under pressure over a narrow
band, not wider than ten miles from north to south, flowing south-
eastwards under the Arabian coast and the north end of Bahrain.
The aquiferous stratum then surfaces in the sea-bed between Bahrain
and Qatar, and much of the water is lost in the form of freshwater
springs at sea, on either side of the north end of the island. In the
centre of the island is a dome of Eocene strata; here the same
brown limestone, itself capped by resistant chert, is uppermost in
Bahrain’s principal hill, Jebel Dokhan. Naturally the water-head is
incapable of rising to this height but, from the dawn of the Holocene,
fresh springs have gushed up in the flatter, northern parts of the
island. In one place a stream, several miles long, reaches the sea in
a wide estuary, and is probably the only stream in the whole of Arabia
to do so on a perennial basis. The estuary shores are overgrown with
mangrove bushes (Avicennia). Recently many wells have been bored
into the aquifer both in northern Bahrain and on the mainland of
the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Due to these wells’ excessive
take-off reducing the underground pressure, the water-head is sinking
annually, and saltwater is entering the aquifer at the eastern end.
Though much lower than in early days, the water-head is nevertheless
still above sea-level in Bahrain. The ancient Arabian oases of Qatif

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN 121

and Hofuf correspond, on the mainland, to such Bahrain sources as
Adari and Kasari.

Thanks to these amenities Bahrain was.inhabited in Sumerian
times by civilised man and was a prosperous trading entrepdt between
the two civilisations of the Sind Valley and Mesopotamia. Over a
hundred thousand funeral mounds line the dry slopes on either side
of formerly, or still, cultivated land; well-carved stone temples and
houses have recently been found in the excavation of the principal
city and the numerous settlements of what the Sumerians called
Dilmun. The date-palm seems to have been then, as now, the
principal cultivated crop.

SUPPOSED EMERGENCE FROM SEA : FAUNISTIC EVIDENCE

As regards rather earlier times, geologists seem to agree that
both Bahrain and the adjacent coasts of Arabia have been, and still
are, rising gradually from the sea; there is archaeological evidence
that in Sumerian times ithe sea-level was a few feet higher than now,
but some geologists go so far as to say that the whole island was
formerly submerged and at the best represented by a sea-washed
reef. There is certainly a good dea! of salt in its soil.

The present vertebrate fauna of the isiand however could scarcely
have inhabited it when it was a mere reef. ‘Phe presence of gazelle,
and even hare, may be due to importation or reimportation by man,
but could the same be said of the lizard (Uromastix) (Arab. dhubb)
or the jerboas (Meriones)? Their presence suggests that Bahrain
was formerly united to the mainland and has never been entirely
submerged, to the detriment of its desert fauna, since that union.

Lepidoptera, being capable of fight, shed little light on this
problem. No apterous species has been found on the island; but this
may not be significant as it is not known whether any apterous species
inhabits the adjacent mainland. At Kuwait and Bushire, indeed, two
or three species with apterous females (Chondrostega and Ocnogyna)
fly commonly, and their larvae swarm in spring, but they have not
yet been noted in the Dhahran-Qatif district, close to Bahrain. It
may be that these moths do not reach so far south on account of
general ecological conditions unfavourable to them, whether on
Bahrain or the mainland.

Good (op. cit.) noted the absence of endemic elements in the
desert flora, and it seems unlikely that there are genuinely endemic
lepidoptera in Bahrain. Exploration will probably eventually reveal

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

that the one or two species, which are now known only from the
island (e.g. Cryphia polyphaenoides Wilts.) inhabit similar habitats in
SE. Arabia. It must be remembered that until recently no entomo-
logical exploration at all took place in Bahrain, and-that conditions
in the rest of Arabia are still unfavourable to collection. If however
the island’s fauna proves to contain one or two true endemics, the
theory that Bahrain was once a mere reef in the sea will evidently
have to be abandoned and, instead, only a slight reduction in area,
due to a slightly higher sea-level, could be accepted in the history of
Bahrain. Even if there are no true endemics, the argument of the
vertebrate fauna requires to be weighed, when considering the history.

BIOTOPES : VEGETATION

Before analysing the elements of the fauna, the biotopes and
vegetation should be described. As elsewhere in the arid Middle East,
there is a sharp contrast between the oasis and the desert. Each of
these main two biotopes has a characteristic flora and fauna. In
the list which follows, the less characteristic and also the entomologi-
cally uninteresting kinds of plant will be omitted,

(a) Oasis

One might well omit the mangrove swamp as being a maritime
community. It appears devoid of Lepidoptera except that its fringe
is possibly the home of Cardepia sociabilis. Except for this swamp.
the oasis vegetation is structurally entirely a flora of cultivation.
The oasis vegetation is decidedly more tropical than that of the
Mesopotamian oasis, even at its southernmost point (studied in
Wiltshire 1950). The species absent from S. Iraq in the list below
are marked (T). The absence of Salix and Populus is remarkable,
and even Tamarix is rare.

Characteristic trees, probably indigenous, are:

Date-palm (Phoenix dactylifera) (Arab. Nakhl)
Christ-thorn (Zizyphus spina-christi) (Arab. Tebek, Sadr)

Deciduous mesquite (Prosopis stephaniana) (Arab. Shog). -

The third of these, though often no more than a shrub, attains a
height of 5 metres in some gardens, but is rather more localised
than the others.

Other commonly planted trees, probably more recently imported,
are:

(T) Evergreen mesquite (Prosopis spicigera)
..-.(T) Indian almond (Terminalia catappa)

PLATE I

JourRN. BompBay Nat. HIstT. Soc.

The Lepidoptera of Bahrain

ate : ro : a om %
= : Me oe
b. Sas oe My

Scene in southern desert

Limestone hills with sand, and pipe-line from oil-well. Vegetation seen is

mainly Leptadenia pyrotechnica and grasses. Flying place of Anumeta
stvaminea etc.

Taverniera spartea in flower

On northern flanks of desert near Ali. Foodplant of Drasteria yerburyi etc.

Photos: E. P. Wiltshire

Journ. Bomsay Nat. HIst. Soc. PLATE II

The Lepidoptera of Bahrain

The Kasari washermen’s pool

One of the natural sources of Bahrain. On left dense oasis vegetation ;
right bank converted to dhobi-ghat in Indian style. Flying place of Mocis
frugalis etc.

Rocky desert hills in southern desert

Showing Lycium persicum and Ochrodenus baccatus in flower. Locality for
Jovdanisca tenuisaria and Neromia pulvereisparsa

Photos : E. P. Wiltshire

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN 123

(T) Mango (Mangifera indica)

(T) Flamboyant (Delonix regia)

_(T) Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)

Casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia)
Tamarisk (Tamarix articulata) (Arab. Ith).

Lawn-grass (identity. uncertain) is entomologically most important.

Garden ornamental shrubs include:

Oleander (Nerium oleander) (first imported within _ living

memory)

Jasmine (Jasminum sp.).

Citrus trees, recently introduced, do not thrive on Bahrain soil;
their presence is welcome to the lepidopterist for the sake of the
handsome butterfly Papilio demoleus L. The more serious pests of
the tree have also, to some extent, arrived in the island.

Commonly planted as a hedge, and perhaps indigenous, is:

(T) Clerodendren inerme.

Common oasis plants, doubtless indigenous, are:

Camel-thorn (Alhagi maurorum)

Reed (Phragmites communis)

Caper (Capparis spinosa). |
The third of these is more local, but seems to be spreading.

Probably indigenous is the very local shrub:

Pluchea dioscorides.

A dwarf shrub common in oasis and desert alike and almost
ubiquitous is:

Zygophyllum album.

The most thriving ground crop in oases is Lucerne or Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa). Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and _ Lettuce
(Lactuca sativa), with a briefer season, are also grown.

(b) Desert

As Good (op. cit.) pointed out, the desert-flora is a widespread
Saharan-Sindian type, with many absentees. Here again the less
noteworthy and entomologically uninteresting are omitted. Two
species of tree are noteworthy but both are very local:

Leptadenia pyrotechnica (only in the southern desert)

Acacia arabica (only at Sakhir, in an alluvial desert-valley).

Localised desert plants of entomological importance are:

Pink desert-broom (Zaverniera_ spartea) (Only on _ alluvial
ground on the north and east ‘flanks’, between Sitra and Ali, where
it forms conspicuous bluish green perennial stands; the ground appears
here to have been formerly cultivated and even now to have a high

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

water content, as many of the herbs remain green throughout the
summer)

Pennisetum dichotomum and other dune grasses (Only in the
southern desert, where blown sand is found close to limestone cliffs.
This habitat recalls closely a similar one near the Great Pyramid at
Giza, near Cairo, and several characteristic moths inhabit both:
e.g. Scotia sardzeana Brandt, Anumeta straminea B.-H. In summer
the vegetation of this habitat appears quite dried up.)

Helianthemum lippii and H. kahiricum (common and more
widespread than the grasses in the rocky and sandy desert south of
Awali)

Ochrodenus baccatus (only on rocky hills, in the southern desert)

Calligonum comosum (only in the southern desert).

Rather more widespread on desert soil, though less so than
Zygophyllum album, are:

Lycium persicum (a thorny shrub)

Heliotropium tuberculosum (a dwarf shrub),

REPRESENTATION OF FAMILIES OF LEPIDOPTERA

The number of species in each family is as follows. The numbers
in brackets indicate the place in the list of species:

Papilionidae | 1 (No. 1)
Pieridae 3 (Nos. 2-4)
Lycaenidae , 5 (Nos, 5-9)
Nymphalidae 2 (Nos. 10-11)
Danaidae 1 (No. 12)
Hesperiidae 1 (No. 13)
Lasiocampidae 1 (No. 14)
Sphingidae 4 (Nos. 15-18)
Arctiidae 2 (Nos. 19, 20)
Lymantriidae 1 (No. 21)
Noctuidae 51 (Nos. 22-72)
Geometridae 18 (Nos. 73-90)
Cossidae 3 (Nos. 91-93)
Total (excluding Pyralidae and

Micros) 93

The Pyralidae and Microlepidoptera of Bahrain are being studied
by Dr. H. G. Amsel and an account of them will appear later.

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN 12)

ECOLOGICAL GROUPS OF SPECIES OF LEPIDOPTERA

The Lepidoptera can be classed ecologically as foliows:

1. Migrants. These are liable to occur equally in desert or
oasis, but they are commoner in the latter, and in Bahrain they can
for the most part only breed there. They are liable to appear on
the wing and disappear together, e.g. V. cardui.

2. Oasis-dwellers. These are never found in the desert and
thus are stenoecous; they might be subdivided according to food-
plant, e.g. Z. knysna karsandra.

3. Desert-dwellers. These are never found in oases; some are
very localised, doubtless due to the localisation of their foodplant,
e.g. C. trochylus.

4. Non-migrants common to doth desert and oasis. A few
such moths have been observed (eg. Porphyrinia bulla); it seems
likely that the foodplant is Zygophyllum album or some other plant
found on both habitats; alternatively. they may be polyphagous and
unusually adaptive.

GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

An .analysis of the ranges of Bahrain’s Lepidoptera, correlated
with their habitats, is now given. As in Wiltshire (1957), the species
are attributed each to a geographical category according to their
present distribution. In a very smal! number of cases attribution was
doubtful, but as these would tend to cancel out if incorrect, the
general picture will hardly be affected. First, a brief definition of the
category is given, then the total number of species, and lastly the
ecological distribution in Bahrain, each actual species being referred
to in brackets by its number in the list.

I. Asiatic-Tropical. Old-World Tropical species absent from

Tropical Africa, with headquarters in southern Asia: Total 12, of
which 3 are Migrants (1, 2, & 10), 6 are Oasis-dwellers (9, 14, 21,
35, 56, 74), 2 are Desert-dwellers (69 & 82), while 2 are found on
both biotopes (2 & 10).
, II. Palaeo-Tropical. Species widespread in Tropical Asia and
Africa. Total 23, of which 14 or 15 are Migrants (4, 5, 7, 12. (?) 13,
15, 16, 20, 22, 37, 38, 39, 45, 67, 85); 16 are Oasis-dwellers (4, 5, 6,
PZamos Ld, 16, 22, 37, 44,51; 52, 55, 57;,.64, 72); only one (7) is a
Desert-dweller, but 6 occur on both biotopes (20, 38, 39, 45, 67, 85).

III. Holo-Tropical oc Almost World-wide. Species occurring in
both hemispheres (Old and New World), especially in the Tropics:
Total, 5, of which 3 at least (11, 18, & 23) are Migrants. Three are,

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

in Bahrain, Oasis-dwellers (23, 36, & 53) while two (11 & 18) are
found on both oasis and desert ground.

IV. Euroriental. Species of a warm-temperate or even sub-
tropical range, widespread between western Europe and the Indus
Valley with headquarters north of the Tropic, particularly strong -in
the Middle East. Total 10, of which 3 or 4 are Migrants (3, 17, 54, &
86). Seven are oasis-dwellers in Bahrain (3, 17, 28, 34, 41, 42, 81)
while the other three occur in both desert and oasis (54, 76, & 86).

V. Euro-Siberian. Wide-ranging cool-temperate species, dis-
tributed between western Europe and eastern Asia. Total 1, an
Oasis-dweller (70).

VI. Pan-Eremic. Species ranging through the arid zone from
Morocco to Jordan and thence to central Asia; the range thus crosses
that of (IV) above, in the Middle East. Total 4, all Desert-dwellers
(27,:65,- 92, 93). ?

VII. Eastern Eremic. Species inhabiting the arid zone from the
Nile to south Persia. Total 20, none being Migrants. Six are Oasis-
dwellers (8, 29, 77, 80, 84, 89) while 12 are Desert-dwellers (26,
46, 47, 48, 50, 58, 63, 75, 78, 83, 90, 91); there are also two species
occurring in both biotopes (19 & 79). In this category, moreover, it
seems possible to distinguish two limited smaller sub-categories or
ranges: (a) species found only in Bahrain and Eastern Arabia (47,
48, & 91), and (b) species found only in Bahrain and south Persia
(29 & 78). It seems likely that further exploration of S. Arabia and
S. Persia will show that these two categories are in fact oné, and
perhaps constitute a peculiar ‘Arabian or Persian Gulf’ sub-category
in the Eastern Eremics, and that the one apparent Bahrain Endemic
(see below) also belongs here.

VIII. Saharan-Sindian. Species inhabiting the arid zone from
Morocco to south Persia or the Sind Desert. Total 17, none being
Migrants. Five are Oasis-dwellers (31, 40, 59, 71, 73), while 11 are
Desert-dwellers (24, 25, 30, 32, 43, 60, 61, 62, 66, 68, 87). There
is also one species inhabiting both biotopes (49).

IX. Endemic species. (Only known from Bahrain): Total 1,
an Oasis-dweller (33). , :

The total. of Eremic species, 42, contains not one Migrant, in the
accepted sense, though of course many desert-dwellers and oasis-
dwellers in this super-category are blown many miles from habitat
to habitat; but this does not occur with the rhythm of the Migrants.~
I shall not attempt again here to suggest centres of origin for
these range-categories, as I have done this in Wiltshire (1957), and
have also given my views on such theories in Wiltshire (1962).

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN 127

The Migrants totalling 24 species are all either Tropicai Euroriental
or Almost World-wide species. Although not all have been recorded
from both biotopes in Bahrain one can safely predict that all will
eventually be found in both oasis and desert, though the former, as
has been said, is their main breeding ground in Bahrain. In other
parts of the desert and steppe zone, however, the desert may for a
short season provide copious food for some of these. The extremely
low rainfall figure of Bahrain is doubtless the reason why this is not
the case here. |

The Oasis-dwellers’ total is 45, the Desert-dwellers’ total 29.
- The total found on both biotopes is 19. Grand Total: 93.

ZOOGEOGRAPHiCAL SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

Summarising these figures, one notes that one quarter of the whole
Lepidopterous fauna is Migratory; that the Tropical component
outnumbers the Temperate and Eremic in oases, while in the desert
the Eremic predominates. The total absence of an African Tropical
element contrasts notably with the strength of this component along
the coast of southern Arabia. This confirms the dividing line between
the two Tropical Regions suggested in Wiltshire (1952), ic. a line
running roughly from near Masira Island north-westwards to the heart
of the Syrian Desert, leaving the Persian Gulf as completely Asiatic,
in so far as the Tropical fauna is concerned. The true frontier, or
natural barrier between the Ethiopian and Indian Regions, is thus
desertic; the two epicontinental seas, the Red Sea and the Persian
Gulf, are insignificant barriers.

Of the Eremic categories, the Pan-Eremic (the most northerly) is
weakly represented, while the other two, the Eastern Eremic and
Saharan-Sindian, are about equally strong.

The Bahrain fauna is thus a very mixed one. Its poverty is clear
from the brevity of the list, with less than a hundred ‘Macro-
Lepidoptera’, and no more than twelve or thirteen butterflies. Islands
are, of course, nearly always poor in comparison with the adjacent
mainland, but the poveriy of Bahrain’s fauna is less due to its
isolation than the climate, which it shares with the nearest continental
Shores. For according to Marsh (1960) the number of butterfly species
inhabiting Hong Kong, an island in much the same latitude but off
the eastern coast of Asia with adequate rainfall for forest or un-
irrigated cultivation, is 184 species, ie. Hong Kong is 14 times richer.

128. JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Of Bahrain’s 13 species, 6 actually also occur in Hong Kong (1, 5,
9,105.41, 2&4 12):

The desert is the main stronghold of the really characteristic
species of Bahrain, while the oasis, though richer in species, contains
fewer such.

Ignoring, however, the characteristic Eremic species in the desert,
we may alternatively conceive of the whole region with its small
patches of oasis and its vast steppes, dunes, and stony desert, as a
battlefield between the neighbouring faunas, the invaders’ enemy
being not the natives but the climate. If in time this should improve,
more species of the surrounding regions will be able to effect a
settlement; while if aridity increases further, the number of the invad-
ing species at first, and later even that of the natives, will be reduced.
Taking an even longer view, we can add that the natives, or Eremic
species, whether derived from Tropical or Temperate stocks, are those
that have won the battle by age-long specialisation and evolution.
An analysis of Bahrain’s interesting fauna points to these conclusions.

NOTE ON THE COLLECTIONS AND ON PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS

The list of Lepidoptera species which now follows is based on
two collections made in 1959-1962:

(i) that of L/Aircraftsman D. Rush (1959-60), since presented
to the British Museum,
(ii) that of E. P. Wiltshire (1959-62).

Descriptions of new species and forms from Bahrain found in these
collections, together with other taxonomic notes, and illustrated by
two half-tone plates and twenty black and white figures appeared
in an article by the present author: ‘A new genus, eight new species,
seven new forms, and notes on the Lepidoptera of Saudi Arabia,
Bahrain, and Iran’ (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 (3) : 608-631,
December 1961).

Biological notes with illustrations of larvae etc. from Bahrain (and
also taxonomic notes on one species, namely Thiacidas postica
Walker) appeared in an article by the present author entitled ‘Early
stages of Old World Lepidoptera, XIU’ [ibid. 59 (3) : 778-799,
4 Plates, December 1962].

The above two papers were the first two publications to deai
with the Lepidoptera of Bahrain and the present paper should be
studied in conjunction with them.

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN 129
ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES

Explanation of abbreviations;

AT Asiatic-Tropical M Migrant

D Desert-dweller O Oasis-dweller
EE Eastern Eremic PE Pan-Eremic

EN Endemic PT Palaeo-Tropical
EO Euroriental R Resident

ES Euro-Siberian SS Saharan-Sindian

WW (Almost) World-Wide

See above for the definition of these terms.

The roman numbers i-xii refer to the calendar months.

Family PAPILIONIDAE

1. Papilio demoleus L.

QO. Larvae of various sizes have been noted on Citrus in xii & Vii.
The imago has been seen flying in iv, v, vi, & vili. Any garden with
oranges or limes may be a breeding ground, but the main centre is
the oasis strip in the north-west. R. & M. AT.

Family PIGRIDAE

2. Colotis fausta Oliv.

O. Seen flying in the north, in the oasis zone, in xi-61 and v-62.
M. AT.
3. Colias croceus Fourc.

©. Several examples were taken at Budeia Farm about 31-11-62,
but it has not been seen at all otherwise. M. EO.
4. Catopsilia florella F.

O. One or two were taken about 31-iii-62 at Budeia Farm, but
Otherwise it has not been noticed. M. PT.

Family LYCAENIDAE

5. Cosmolyce baeticus L.

O. Noted on the wing in iil, v, vi, xi, and xii. Probably might be
taken in any month, as it was not watched for. M. & R. PT.
6. Tarucus rosaceus Aust, (identity confirmed from genitalia)

O. A nearly full-grown larva attended by an ant was found on
Zizyphus spina-christi on 2-xii-60. Imagines were seen flying in iii,
Mere. Kiys oo. XiL.R. PT.

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

7. Freyeria trochylus Courv.

D. Very local, only taken once and in one place, viz. Jebel
Dokhan, rocky desert at c. 350 feet, certain water-courses, 9-xi1-60.
ROP Lr:

8. Chilades galba Led.

O. Not uncommon in oases, particularly gardens overgrown with
its foodplant, Prosopis stephaniana, but sometimes also flying in
singletons to flowers in gardens where this is not the case. Has been
noted in v, but doubtless might be taken in some other months.
R. EE.

9. Zizeeria knysna Trim. subsp. karsandra Moore
O. Common in oases, swarms in lucerne (or Alfalfa, Arab. jett.)

fields in v, but also seen in most other months. R. AT (PT. if
African subspecies is counted).

Family NYMPHALIDAE

10. Junonia orithya L. subsp. cheesmani Riley

A migrant, commonest in, and breeding in, oases, but also
occasionally seen in the desert, e.g. Jebel Dokhan 26-xii-61. Has
been noted in all months except vii, viii, & ix. Foodplant: Lippia
nodiflora (see Wiltshire 1962a). AT.

11. Vanessa cardui L.

A migrant, not yet observed as breeding in Bahrain despite search
for larvae, a winter visitor seen both in desert and oasis, seldom in
numbers, but fairly regularly between x and iii. WW.

Family DANAIDAE

12. Danaus chrysippus L.

This migrant appears commonly and then disappears again. The
only foodplant on the island is Asclepias curassavica, a rather
infrequent garden flower. Observed in oases in ix-xii and again in
iv & v. PT:

Family HESPERIDAE

13. Pelopidas thrax Hibn. ssp. midea Walker

The only record is at Budeia Farm, 3-iv-62, an oasis locality.
Until this locality has been more carefully studied all the year round,
it would be premature to conclude that the specimens seen were no
more than visiting migrants. O. PT.

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN 131
Family LASIOCAMPIDAE

14. Nadiasa siva Lef.

R. Principally in oasis, on Casuarina (first record of any
lepidoptera on this tree in Middle Hast!), Zizyphus spina-christi
(Arab. Nebk, Sadr), Apricot (Prunus armeniaca, Arab. Mish-mish),
Prosopis stephaniana (Arab. Shok), also, one larva only thriving on
Oleander (Nerium oleander) (on which hitherto no larva other than
that of Daphnis nerii has been noticed, owing, supposedly, to its
poisonous properties). It is also seen occasionally breeding in the
desert on Acacia stands (but these are very local; and it seems to
disappear from these places in some years). The moth flies mainly in
i-iii, the larva is most often seen in the autumn. AT.

Family SPHINGIDAE

15. Herse convolvuli L.

The larva of this migrant has been noted in oases in v-vi. The
foodplant grows in grassy places quite commonly and is a small
Convolvulus sp. The adult occasionally comes to light in oases.
_ Young larvae noted, 28-v-59. Imagines, 31-x-61. PT.

16. Daphnis nerii L. 3

The early stages and adult of this migrant are only seen in oases,
and in the cooler months. Foodplant, Nerium, said to have been
only recently introduced into Bahrain. JWarvae noted mainly in xi,
emergence of adult in i. PT. | |

17. Macroglossa stellatarum L.

The foodplant of this migrant does: not grow on the island and
it is a mere winter visitor. It has been seen in gardens on 2-xi-62
& 15-11-62. EO. | 7

18. Celerio lineata F. subsp. livornica Esp.

This migrant has occasionally been attracted to light in -oases.
Its larva has never been observed on the island. WW.

Family ARCTIHDAE

19. Nola harouni Wilts. subsp. dilmuna Wiltshire, 1961

R. Mainly in oases. For details of early stages see Wiltshire 1962.
The adult has been taken to light, or bred from iarvae feeding on
Papilionaceae, between xii and v. EE.

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (i)

20. Utetheisa pulchella L.

This migrant is seen commonly on the wing in oases in most
months except vii, vill, & xii; the larva has not been found, though
looked for, on both species of Heliotrope, i.e. the desert-growing
species tuberculatus, and a more lush species found on oasis ground.
It has once been seen on the wing in the desert, namely on 19-x1i-59
at Jebel Dokhan. PT.

Family LYMANTRIDAE

21. Euproctis cervina Mre. (Plate III, figs. 7-8)

R. O. Flies in repeated broods between April and October;
localised in gardens near the Adari Pool. Foodplants: Terminalia
catappa (Indian almond) and Alhagi maurorum (Camel-thorn). For
taxonomic details see Wiltshire 1961, and biological details Wiltshire
1962a. AT(?).

Family NOCTUIDAE

22. Scotia spinifera Hitibn.
Probably a migrant. Taken by D. Rush in x, 1959. PT.

23. Scotia ipsilon Hufn.
O.M. Seen occasionally, e.g. 18-xi-59, Manama Gardens. WW.

24. Scotia herzogi Rebel subsp. saracenica Tams

Found in similar places with the following species, but less
common there. A univoltine moth appearing any time between xi &
iii generally, but only taken in Bahrain on 4-i1i-62. SS. R.

25. Scotia sardzeana Brandt

Resident in grassy, sandy patches of deserts; local in Bahrain,
only in the southern desert, but common at the right season to light.
Univoltine, taken on 5-xi-61, 17-xi-60, and 21.xi-62. SS.

26. Scotia margelanoides Boursin (Plate III, fig. 2)

‘One specimen only has been taken, to light at Muharrag, by Rush
in xi, 59 (Prep. Wiltshire 1031), and may have been a vagrant
from the mainland. EE. Other known habitats: Palestine and
Arabia. :

27. Scotia lasserrei Ob.

Common locally in the southern desert; univoltine, flying in xi.
R. PE.

Journ. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE III

| Fig. 1. Lamellocossus chezesmini Tams (1); 2. Scotia marg2laizid2s Boursin (20) ;
3. Hvp2aa abyssinialis Gu2n22 (72); 4,5, 6. S2mioathisa syriacaria Staudinger (89); 7.
Euproctis cervina Moore, g21. 3. male (21); 8. Euproctis cervina Mo)ore, gen. 1 (21); 9.
Porphyrinia bulla Swinho2z (49); 10,11. Autoba gayneri Rothschild (51); 12, 13. Dyspessa
vaulogeri subsp. jarda1a Staudinger (93) ; 14. Mythimi1 braniti Boursin (29) ; 15. Caradrina
_inzgrata Staudingar (49); 16, 17, 18. Drasteria yerburyi Butler (63) ; 19, 20. Cerocala sana
“Scaudin zer, females (53); 21. Ceracala sa12 Staudinger, male (58).

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN 133

28. Cardepia sociabilis Grasl. subsp. albipicta Christ.

A halophile species, twice taken by Rush near the Adari Pool
mexi, R. O. EO.

29. Mythimna brandti Boursin (Plate III, fig. 14)

Described in 1963 in Arkiv. fdr Zoologi 16 (8), Stockholm,
this species was recorded by Brandt erroneously under the name
‘Sideridis prominens Walker’ from south Persia. In Bahrain it
is very local, one specimen having been taken flying over reeds and
grass on the banks of the Adari streams, 8-iii-61. R.O. EE.

30. Cleophana chabordis Ob.
R.D. Flies in the southern desert in iit & iv. SS.

31. Catamecia minima Swinhoe
R.O. Taken near the Adari Pool in ii & v. SS.

32. Scythocentropus inquinatus Mab.

R.D. A_ univoltine moth, flying in x. Only one specimen has
been taken in Bahrain, namely at Sakhir, 29-x-59. SS.

33. Cryphia polyphaenoides Wiltshire, 1961

The unique type, a @, taken on 23-11-60 at the Adari Pool, remains
the only known example of this species. R.O. EN.

34. Hadjina viscosa Freyer subsp. persicola Strand

Owing to localisation of its foodplant Pluchea dioscoridis in the
Adari garden area, this moth is equaily local. Both the adult and
larvae were found near foodplant bushes on 27-iii-60 and the larva
produced an adult on 17-iv. It is in fact a miultivoltine species.
R.O. EO.

35. Perigea illecta Walker

For the biology, see Wiltshire 1952. The foodplant and habits
are similar to those of the preceding species. A male, taken on
22-i-60, Prep. Wiltshire 1047, and a further example bred from a
larva, 19-iii-60. R.O. AT.

36. Prodenia litura F.

Probably a migrant, certainly a pest to agriculture, this moth was
particularly numerous on the wing throughout iii-61 in the Adari
gardens, but has also been seen in iv, v, and ix, always in oases. The
larvae have been seen on lettuce in xii, and doubtless feed on
various garden flowers and plants. WwW.

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

37. Spodoptera cilium Gn. subsp. latebrosa Led.

Probably a migrant, common in gardens, but less so than the
following species. Both feed on lawn grass. It is multivoltine and
has been noted in iii, v, vii, ix, x, xi, & xii to light. O. PT.

38. Spodoptera marina Boise:

Though commoner than the preceding in Bahrain, this species
reaches less far north, and indeed in the Persian Gulf area is here
at its northern limit. See Wiltshire 1962a for observations of its larva
on lawn grass, and comparison of larva with that of cilium. It has
been noted on the wing in ii, iil, iv, V, Vii, 1X, X, xi, & xit in Bahrain.
The capture of one example (17-ii-60) in the desert is probably
evidence that it is a migrant. All other records were in gardens.
Multivoltine. PT. F

39. Layhygma exigua Huibn.

This well-known pest and migrant, to judge from the dates of
capture in Bahrain, is here more of a visitor and less of a breeding
resident than the two preceding species, and indeed its larva has not
yet been noted on the island. For its general biology and status in
the Middle East adjacent to Bahrain see Wiltshire 1957. The moth
has been taken to light occasionally in the desert but mostly in oases
in iii-v, vii, & ix. PT. |
40. Caradrina ingrata Stgr. (Text-fig.; Plate III, fig. 15)

An oasis moth, only taken in Bahrain at the Adari Pool, in iii.
Its foodplant here is unknown, Salix (on which it was found in Basra,
S. Iraq) being absent. Elsewhere in its range it appears to be at
least bivoltine. Its range is Saharan-Sindian, and its male genitalia
become increasingly asymmetrical towards the east. At present
Bahrain is its easternmost known habitat, and ventral process of the
right valve of Bahrain males is spatulate, while that of the left one
tapers. In N. Africa both are alike, tapering; in Palestine some
individuals tend slightly to a broadening -of the right-hand process,
and in S. Iraq the broadening approaches that remarked in Bahrain
(see Text-fig., Prep. 1068). The female genitalia show no such cline.

41. Heliothis nubigera H. -S.
M. Occasionally to light in desert or oasis in the cooler ‘months,
e.g. 1, X, xi EO. 2

42. ‘Heliothis neleaces Schiff
M. Once seen at light, Manama Gardens, 2-i1i- 60, EO.

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN | 135

43. Timora albida Hamps.
Rare, in the southern desert, 24-11-62. SS.

44. Porphyrinia cochylioides Gn.
Once taken in Manama Gardens, 28-v-59. R(?). O. PT.

_ _. Text-fig. Caradrina ingrata Stgr. Male genitalia (Bahrain form), An arrow
indicates the asymmetrically-formed right valve process.

45. Porphyrinia parva Hibn.
Has only been taken in the desert, in ii, x, & xi. R(?). PT.

46. Porphyrinia pallidula H.-S. subsp. khalifa Wiltshire, 1961
~ Fairly common in the desert in i, ii, ix, & xii. R. EE,

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

47. Porphyrinia rushi Wiltshire, 1961
Mainly in the southern desert, ii-iv. R.D. EE.

48. Porphyrinia bistellata Wiltshire, 1961

In the southern desert, mainly in ili-iv but occasionally also in x.
R.D. EE,

49. Porphyrinia bulla Swinhoe (= tomentalis Rebel) (Plate ITI, fig. 9)

R. Very common in the desert in i-iv & x. Occasionally on oasis
ground. SS.

50. Porphyrinia straminea Sigr. (?)

R.D. A single Q taken in the desert on 19-xi-59, was thought to
be this species but, as no d was taken and no further certain examples
taken, its identification remains doubtful, likewise the claim of the
species to be on the Bahrain list. The genitalia resemble the
female genitalia of the preceding species, particularly the bursa-spicula-
tion, but are comparatively larger, the posterior apophyses seeming
also proportionately longer. EE.

51. Autoba gayneri Roths. (Plate III, figs. 10-11)
R.O. 18-xi-59, 9-i-60, 2-i-62. PT.

52. Earias insulana Boisd.
Occasionally taken to light in gardens in ii & iii. R.O. PT.

53. Characoma nilotica Rog.
Occasionally to light in ii in gardens. R.O. WW.

54. Trichoplusia ni Hibn.

This migrant occurs both in desert and oasis, doubtless breeding
more in the latter. Taken to light in i, iii, & ix, adults have also
been raised in iv from ova laid by a 9 taken in iii. EO.

55. Plusia daubei Boisd.

As its foodplant elsewhere is reported to be Pluchea and this is
found in Bahrain gardens, it may well be resident. However it is rare,
only one example having been taken, 16-iii-61, Adari Pool. PT.

56. Thiacidas postica Walker [= Raphia (Tiessa) cheituna Brandt]

See Wiltshire 1962a for biological and taxonomic notes on this
species. The foodplant is Zizyphus spina-christi (Arab. Nebk,
Sadr; Christ-thorn). Bivoltine, flying in spring and autumn. The

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN 137

autumnal larvae often defoliate whole branches of the tree. Many of
them spend ten months in a pre-pupal coma in the cocoon instead
of appearing in the spring on the wing. R.O. AT.

57. Dysgonia torrida Gn. (= albivitta Gn.)

This moth appeared in large numbers in the Adari gardens to
Prosopis spicigera catkins in iii-60 but was otherwise not seen. R.O.
Pr.

58, Cerocala sana Stgr. (Plate III, figs, 19-21)

See Wiltshire 1962a for biological notes. It flies in the southern
desert between late x and early iii. Foodplant, two species of
Helianthemum. R.D. EE.

59. Hypoglaucitis benenotata Warren

Only one female has been taken, 26-ii-60, in Manama Gardens.
It is surprising that it is not commoner, as the foodplant (Tamarix
articulata, Arab. Ithl) is planted in several gardens. R(?). O. SS.

60. Cortyta vetusta Walker

Comes to light occasionally in the desert during the cooler months,
Xii-iv. R(?). D. SS.

61. Cortyta acrosticta Pung. (= rosacea Rebel)

Known to feed elsewhere on Acacia, this desert moth has once
been taken, on 28-iv-62, in the desert. R(?). D. SS.

62. Gnamptonyx vilis Walker

Also known to feed on Acacia elsewhere, this moth has similarly
been taken in two examples only in the southern desert on 28-iv-62.
ie( 2). D. SS.

63. Drasteria yerburyi Butler (= pica Brandt) (Plate III, figs. 16-18)

- See Wiltshire 1962a for biological and other notes on this species.
Foodplant: Taverniera spartea. In those parts of the desert where
this grows it flies during the cooler months ix-iv, and the larva may
be found at night on the plant during the same season. R.D. EE.

64. Mocis frugalis F. subsp. nigripunctata Warren

Flies in the grassier gardens between xi and iv, both by day and to
light. See Wiltshire 1962a for biological notes; the foodplant is grass.

R.O. PT.

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

65. Anumeta spilota Ersch.
The relationship between spilota and harterti Roths. not having
been cleared up, and both forms seeming to inhabit Bahrain and
Eastern Arabia, it is not clear if one has one or two species to deal
with. Assuming provisionally that they are one, one can only say
that this Pan-Eremic desert-dweller appears rather rarely in the deserts

of Bahrain in x and iv.

66. Anumeta straminea B.-Haas.

1 2 on 5-xi, and 10 99 on 13-xii-61, and 1 o& on 5-ii-62, all
coming to light at the same grassy locality in the southern desert.
In the Sahara there is also a June emergence, but this has not been
observed in Bahrain. R.D. SS.

67. Pandesma anysa Gn.

This migrant has been taken in the desert in iii and on oasis
ground in vii. The gardens doubtless contain trees on which it could
feed, but the early stages have not been seen here. M. PT. (or SS.).

68. Acrobyla kneuckeri Rebel / |

- See Wiltshire 1962a for biological notes. In Bahrain this moth has
only been taken in x, xi to light in the desert at Sakhir (an Acacietum)
but there is presumably also a spring flight. R.D. SS.

69. Acantholipes circumdata Walker subsp. affinis Walker

See Wiltshire 1962a for biological notes. Rather rare in Bahrain.
The foodplant is Taverniera spartea and the phenology seems much
the same as that of no. 63 above, with which the species occurs, but
is less common. R.D. AT.

70. Rivula sericealis Scop.
R.O. 25 & 29-iii-60, Adari Pool. ES.

71. Rhynchodontodes revolutalis Z. (= syriacalis Stgr., eremialis Walk.)

R(?). O. In wild parts of gardens where Alhagi (camel-thorn)
grows profusely this moth is liable to appear in almost any month
of the year. The fact that it has also been taken on jetty-rocks sur-
rounded by the sea in x suggests that it may migrate. SS.

72. Hypena abyssinialis Gn. (Plate III, fig. 3)
Flies in moist oases, such as the Adari gardens in ii-iv. R. PT. —

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN ; 139
Family GEOMETRIDAE

73, Pingasa lahayei Ob. subsp. multispurcata Prout
R.O. 6-iv-60, Awali; 12-iii-61, Adari. SS.

74. Chlorissa discessa Walker
See Wiltshire 1962a for biological notes. Flies in oases in two or
three generations between xi and v. R.O. AT.

75. Neromia pulvereisparsa Hamps.

Very local in deserts, never far from rather high rocks, in which
situation alone its foodplant, Ochrodenus baccatus, grows (the
larva however was not found on this plant here, but in Egypt). Flies
in two generations, xi & ii. R.D. EE.

76. Microloxia herbaria Hiibn.

Here at its eastermost limit, this little moth flies in the Adari
gardens and also in the desert near Jurdeh, about two miles north
of them, in two generations, ix-xi and UB “ill. R. EO.

77. Sterrha granulosa Warren i one tT ds

R.O. 28-ix-59, 21-v-60, 8-v-61, Adari Pool. Though distinctly
an oasis-dweller here, this same species is a desert-dweller - in
Egypt-Sudan. - EE.

78. Sterrha mimetes Brandt
R.D. Not uncommon in iii, iv, & ix-vi. See Wiltshire 1962a for
biological notes. EE.

79. Sterrha illustris Brandt
Has been taken in iii, twice in the desert and once on oasis ground.
R. EE.

80. Scopula adelpharia Pung.
See Wiltshire 1962a for biological notes. R.O. EE. Miultivoltine,
flying in almost every month.

81. - Scopula ochroleucaria Hash: :
See Wiltshire 1962a for biological. notes. R.O. EO. Multivoltine,
flying: in almost every month. ; Mott |

82. Zygophyxia relictata ‘Walker
Occasionally taken to light in ii in the desert near Jurdeh. R.D.
AT.

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

83. Cosymbia rufistrigata Hampson

Occasionally to light in ii & iv in the southern desert, very fresh
specimens. R.D. EE.

84. Cosymbia mundissima Walker
Not uncommon in the Adari gardens, in xi & i. R.O. EE.

85. Rhodometra sacraria L.

This migrant has been taken in both oasis and desert, in x & il.
PY.

86. Rhodometra antophilaria Hubn.

Two 22 were taken by Rush; their markings seem to
indicate their identity as above, and Mr. D. S. Fletcher of the British
Museum who has studied the group, now confirms it. It is probable,
but not yet proved, that this species is a migrant like No. 85. M (?).
EO.

87. Eupithecia tenellata Dietze.
Local in the southern desert. R.D. 7-iii-60. SS.

88. Tephrina perviaria Led.

Local, only where Acacia grows, in the desert at Sakhir and
possibly in certain oases. The moth flies x & iv. R.D. AT.

89. Semiothisa syriacaria Stgr. (Plate III, figs. 4-6)

R.O. Localised with its foodplant, Prosopis stephaniana. See
Wiltshire 1962a for biological notes. Multivoltine, flying throughout
the summer months, but not during the cooler months when its food-
plant is leafless. Bahrain is probably its southernmost limit. The
form is very dark-marked, all f. tenuiata or even darker-banded
forms. EE.

90. Jordanisca tenuisaria Steger.

A desert moth, not uncommon over the rather wide area where
Lycium persicum, its foodplant, grows. Univoltine, with a flight
season spread over the cooler months, xi-ii. Probably Hemerophila
brandti Wehrli is a synonym, in which case its range includes S.
Persia. EE, from Palestine to Bahrain at least.

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN

141

Family COSSIDAE

oT.

Lamellocossus cheesmani Tams (Nov. Comb.) (Plate III, fig. 1)

The form is slightly darker than the type from Jabrin on the

mainland.

It flies in the southern desert of Bahrain during the

cooler months, xi-i, but is uncommon. A possible foodplant is the tree
Leptadenia; alternative, Lycium, would appear too small for so large

a borer. R.D. EE.

92. Holcocerus gloriosus Ersch. subsp. mesopotamicus Watkins

Very local but fairly common to light in the Tavernieretum of the

desert near Jurdeh in v.
feed. Univoltine. R.D. PE.

On the roots of this plant it is presumed to

93. Dyspessa vaulogeri Stgr. subsp. jordana Stgr. (Plate III, figs. 12-13)
R.D. In the same desert locality and probably dependent on the

same foodplant as the preceding, no. 92.
The Bahrain form appears to me

It flies, however, eartier,

closer to that of Palestine than that of S. Persia, while smaller than

that found in S. Iraq and Kuwait.

PE.

REFERENCES

Goop, Pror. R.D.O. (1954): ‘ The
Bahrain islands and their desert flora ’.
Biology of Deserts. Proc. Sympos. Biol.
Hot. & Cold Deserts : 45-55. London.
(Also reprinted in Dickson, V. (1955) :
The Wild Flowers of Kuwait and
Bahrain. London.)

Marsu, J.C.S. (1960): Hong Kong
Butterflies. (Shell Co. of Hong Kong).

WILTSHIRE, E.P. (1950): Some notes
on the Shatt el Arab oasis and its insects.
Ent. Rec. 62, April 15 and May 16.

—— (1952) : Lepidoptera recently
taken in Arabia. Bull. Soc. Fouad Ent.
Egypt : 135-174.

WILTSHIRE, E. P. (1957) : The Lepidop-
tera of Iraq. Nicholas Kaye.

———-— (1961): A new genus, eight
new species, seven new forms and notes
on the Lepidoptera of Saudi Arabia,

Bahrain, and Iran. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 58 (3) : 608-631.
(1962): Studies in the
Geography of Lepidoptera VII: Theo-
ries of origin of West Palaearctic and
World Faunae. Ent. Rec. 74: 29-39,
——-—— (1962a) : Early stages of Old
World Lepidoptera-XII. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 59 (3) :778-799.

ae er ee

Eco-toxicology and Control of the
Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones
hurrianae (Jerdon) —

II. Breeding Season, Litter Size, and
Post-natal Development

ISHWAR PRAKASH
Animal Ecologist, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

(With a plate and two text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 59 (3) : 806]

INTRODUCTION

This paper, second in the series, deals with some aspects of the
life-history of the Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon)
(Rodentia, Gerbillinae). This rodent is abundant in the Rajasthan
desert but being wary is very difficult to trap. They were, however,
collected by flooding their warrens. They did not breed in the initial
stages. Most of the observations are, therefore, on litters borne by
pregnant females collected in the field. Usually deliveries occurred
at night. A pad of cotton was invariably provided to the female
which she utilised for placing the young on. In all, ninety-nine
new-born young were handled in the laboratory. The rate of mortality
due to the cannibalism of the mother was rather high. Some young
died in an attempt to- administer ether for taking measurements.
After that measurements and- weights were recorded on live specimens,’
and are analysed according to the procedures described by Brody
(1945) and Butterworth (1961). Values are plotted in figure 1.
Straight segments of the graph indicate periods when growth incre-
ments are constant percentages of previous sizes. From these
straight sections, instantaneous growth rates were calculated accord-

ing to the following formula:
Inm, — Inm,

Me Sb
where k is the instantaneous percentage rate of growth for the unit

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. SOG.

Mertones
hurrianae

Litter of three

Faces of two nibbled
by the mother.

Litter of seven

Litter of nine

Photos : Ishwar
Prakash

*yo[d oY} JO S}UOWIZAS ATYOOM DAOGE UMOYS OIL SO}LI YJMOIS SAILIOI SNOoULUL}SUT

‘dOV dO SMTIM CZ TUL HLYld WOUT avudidiny * W AO HLMOUSD JO HdVAHH “T OIL,
SAWG Ni 39V
© @ SZI Loi 6il 16 OL €9 9S Gb et SE 82 ale vi 2
N :
= P
Sa Nr. _¥ See ee eee 2 EOMMO®
an g ra PEGO=H E900" 5000 =8 oon boosh LP
= aS ava Be -%0
~ 5 oi so
a s name © 2. <3
Re = é D y *go? ae 40" pa
a ee. Oe et Gana oe .o 4. @-------------- Ome ae QoS" Ix
S a 1004 GNIH eee J
as tS tt x Re ie e
= 5! Ea fe 5h
fe) Se) 2S 4 es [x ee
on Le } Ce Affe) o <o
= “p &
— 3 = “9” Js ee
hy ae hn Pi
aA ——ai dik, tt ae 4¢ fo
ee ee eee Ke 100-34 Ne 1&8 AS
2 m2 X=-—— — —Gy10-2% O45
om
im rs o “ LHOIIM Ic 2 42
z z Le fs
jo) o 5 roe
1S) HoH vo Z*
cs Key, £e
Q 4 @ yy at
Z ou = oy
x oO {ueeO'G:
070 2
eee noos 0 GO
o ee So ae Te Cee Ot eon ee 2 Fy. DON Riso
= eESN 2 VW Wi ues 3 eo" _ 9200° .
© Se] N Sarr - |
1S) < & ° ae 4 yor?
=< = 2: ——_ °°
a = = AGOS 8 avin
NY 3
1 q lo! 0)
1) pong)
a gs
|
as!
a9}
Oo &

144. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)
OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

Seasonal incidence of breeding

Females littered throughout the year (Table I). It will be noticed
that there are two peaks in the incidence of births: February and
July. The gerbilles pass the cold spell in December and January in
a state of torpidity. As soon as this torpidity is over, sexual activity
increases and hence the peak in births in February. The increased
activity in July is attributed to the optimum conditions existing during
the rainy season in the desert (Prakash 1960). It was earlier observed
that the gerbille litters only during August-October (Prakash 1960,
1962). This observation was based on the field collection of pregnant
females during 1953-56. The collection of the gerbilles in various
months has, however, shown ‘that they breed all the year round
(Table I).

Gestation period

The period of gestation in Meriones hurrianae is not correctly
known. A female littered on the night of February 11. The next
morning the male gerbille was removed from the cage. Mother and
the young remained in the cage. The female again littered on the
night of March 13. It appears that the male served the parturient
mother in the morning of February 12. The period of gestation was
30 days. In another case a female gerbille was introduced to a male
and they mated the same afternoon. The delivery occurred after
28 days. In two more instances the period of gestation was found
to be 28 and 29 days.

Parturition

Parturition was observed only in one female. In the laboratory,
she delivered two young in the early morning which was not observed.
At 10 a.m. the mother was noticed to be extremely uneasy and at
11 am. she delivered one whitish, dead young. The head was
presented first and the entire body was, thereafter, almost dropped.
Just before delivery a whitish fluid oozed out but there was no dis-
charge of blood. During delivery the mother lay flat on her belly
with her hindquarters raised slightly above the floor of the cage.
Her eyes were closed and hind region was quivering. Only with
great difficulty could she walk. At 12.30 pm. the mother delivered
another young, head first. This time the body of the mother shook
violently and she kicked her hind limbs while lying flat on the floor
of the cage. The mother did not appear to pay attention to the

145

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE

OO'OT | E10 F S7'L €0°0 + 69 OL LEO F L'8 270 F OL Og | “wu 100} PUTH,

poinsvoul 3uNOA
jo Joquinu [v0],

6 vl cl SI 8¢ 0c T |
| |

6 | E | Y)
TEESE TEA A SPO ER
SdZIS YALLITT SNOLYVA NI NYOd-MAN ZHL dO SLHDIZM GNV SLNAWAYNSVAN UVANIT FHL ONIMOHS

v | € I | FOV] JO ZIg

I T1av

(Z6 vl (6)! 8 cl vl Ol 8 EL 6 9¢ ST oa Po}sa[[OO
sgjeuley jo sJoquinu [10],

9 v ¢ v 9 8 4 | I I (4 IT 14 "+ WI0Q $19}}I] JO IOQUINN,

"00q | “AON "190 | ‘dag jj ysn3ny | <Ajne ounr Ae
|
SSS SSeS

ONICGaaud JO AONAGIONI ‘TVNOSVdS FHL ONIMOHS

Tudy | yore

|
{

I dav]

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

young which lay half curled, on its back, moving its limbs in the
air. Twenty-five minutes later she got up and licked the young one,
collected it, and carried it to the cotton pad.

New-born young and litter size

At birth the young is hairless except for the 3-4 mm. long vibrissae.
The body is pink in colour. Eyes are closed, and appear as dark
spots. The external auditory meatus is closed and the pinna is
folded. The claws are whitish, soft. and 2 mm. long. The nipples
were not visible in either sex. The sexes could not be differentiated.
Young were unable to walk when a few hours old but could sway
their limbs. They started squeaking within 4-6 hours of birth. They
also opened their mouth and tried to grasp anything which touched
their lips. Suckling started 3 to 6 hours after delivery.

The litter size varies from 1 to 9 (Tabie II), but is commonly three
or four. Of the 23 litters born in the laboratory, the litter size was:
7 each of 3 and 4 young, 3 cases of 5 young, 2 cases each of 6 and 7,
and one each of 1 and 9 young. It is natural to expect that the
size of the young will be smaller in a large litter, but the data in
Table II reveal that the average size of the young in the litter of 9 was
the biggest. The data also show the average linear measurements
and weights of the new-born ones and their standard error according
to various sizes of the litters. The averages of the ninety-nine young
are : head and body, 40.2 + 0.60 mm.; Tail, 12.8 + 1.21 mm.; hind
foot 7.9 + 0.42 mm.; and weight, 4.1 + 0.21 gm.

Rate of post-natal development and behaviour of the young

First week. From the third day the dorsum of the young
started darkening, beginning as a mid-dorsal line which gradually
broadened and extended on the lateral sides. The unfolding of the
pinna started from the 4th and Sth day after birth. The incisors
could be felt below the gums. The vibrissae grew to 12-15 mm.
The claws elongated but without pigmentation. The young one could
crawl but was unable to support its body on its limbs.

Second week. Short, fine pelage appeared on the dorsum of
the young, and by the end of the week extended to the flanks. A
thin pencil of hairs appeared at the tip of the tail. The young gave
a general impression of sepia colour. The vibrissae measured
30 mm. and their tips became black. Plantar pads appeared on the
hind foot but were feeble on the fore paw. The claws darkened.
The eyes were still closed but at the end of the week a groove
appeared at the centre, separating the lids. Incisors appeared in the
jaws. Suckling continued.

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE 147

Third week. Hair cover became complete and the pencil of
hairs at the tip of the tail became darker. The vibrissae attained
a length of 36-40 mm. The external auditory meatus opened. The
upper incisors measured 1.5 and the lower 5.5 mm. The plantar
pads of the hind limbs developed fully but those on the fore paws
were still growing. The eyes opened after 15 to 16 days. Suckling
ceased from 18 to 20 days. These two periods were observed in
8 and 6 cases only. The young could walk and chased the mother.

Fourth week. Fur on the young developed fully. The white
incisors, now 4 mm. (upper jaw) and 8.5 mm. (lower jaw), became
paler. The pads of the fore feet also developed fully. The claws
darkened completely. The external genitalia of either sex became
distinguishable. The young were able to run and started thumping
the ground with the hind foot as the sign of danger.

TABLE III

SHOWING THE PER CENT. GROWTH OF THE NEW-BORN

Per cent. growth in

first next next next next next
4 weeks 4 weeks |5 weeks | 4 weeks |4 weeks | 4 weeks
Head and body .. 48.6 29°4 9.3 12.7
Tail ae 58.4 38.6 1.8 1.2
Ear ‘ge 81.5 18.5
(6th week)

Hind foot ese ee" | 7 1.9
Weight ass 21.9 36.9 | 33,5 eo 21 5.6

Subsequeni growth

It will be observed further from the data in Table III that the rate
of growth is very high in the first four weeks. 81.5 per cent. growth
of the ear and 80.9 per cent. of the hind feet is attained in this period.
78 per cent. head and body and 97 per cent. tail growth is attained
by the eighth week, whereas the ear and hind feet attain maximum
dimensions by the sixth and eighth week respectively. Increase in
body weight is gradual and 92.3 of the total is gained by the thirteenth
week. Figure 2 shows the relationship between the weight and
-head-and-body length of the young studied in the laboratory.

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Care of the young and cannibalism

Parturient mothers took about 25 tc 30 minutes after delivery
for taking care of the new-born young. Lactation started after 3 to

WEIGHT IN gm.

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 IIO 120 130 140
HEAD & BODY LENGTH INMm.

Fic. 2. OVER-ALL LENGTH PLOTTED AGAINST WEIGHT IN YOUNG DESERT
GERBILLE FROM BIRTH TILL 25 WEEKS OF AGE.

The range of variation increases as development proceeds.

6 hours. Mothers were usually docile when their young were
removed for measurements; they were not aggressive to their young
when they were put back. Contrary to this, Fitch (1957) observed

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE _ 149

that the mother Prairie Vole, Microtus ochrogaster, attacked her
young viciously and killed them within a few seconds, as soon as they
were put back. When disturbed, the gerbille mother usually picks
up its young ones and huddles them in a corner or under the cotton
pad and starts suckling them.

During the height of the breeding period, cannibalistic tendencies
in the mother towards the new-born and of males towards the young
were noticed and may be an important factor in the population
dynamics of this species.

SUMMARY

The Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon), breeds
throughout the year. The gestation period varies from 28 to 30 days
and the litter size from 1 to 9.

The young are born naked. Their eyes open 15/16 days after
birth. Suckling lasts for 18 to 20 days.

The rate of post-natal development is very high during the first
four weeks. 81.5% development of the ear and 80.9% of hind feet
is attained during this period. 78% and 97% development of head
and body-and-tail are attained by the eighth week. The instantaneous
per cent growth has been mathematically expressed.

Strong cannibalistic tendency prevails during the breeding activity
which is an important factor influencing the dynamics of growth of
the population.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I feel indebted to Dr. P. C. Raheja, Director, Central Arid Zone
Research Institute, Jodhpur, for encouragement throughout the period
of study, and to Dr. Pulak K. Ghosh, Animal Physiologist, for help
in this study.

REFERENCES

Bropy, S. (1945) : The time relations PRAKASH, ISHWAR (1960): Breeding
of growth of individuals and popula- of mammals i in Rajasthan desert, India.
tions, Chapter 16—in Bioenergetics and J. Mamm. 41 : 386-389.

Growth : 487-574. Reinhold, N.Y. ae ——— (1962) : Ecology of

BUTTERWORTH, B.B. (1961): A com- the gerbils of the Rajasthan desert, India.
parative study of growth and develop- Mammalia 26: 311-331.

ment of the kangaroo rats, Dipodomys —_——————— & KUMBKARNI, C.G.
deserti Stephens and Dipodomys merria- (1962): Eco-toxicology and _ control
mi. Growth 25 : 127-138. of the Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones

Fitcu, H.S. (1957): Aspects of re- hurrianae (Jerdon). I. Feeding beha-
production and development in the viour, energy requirements, and selection
Prairie Vole (Microtus ochrogaster). of bait. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59(3):
aad Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist. 10: 8006.

Epizoic associates of ‘the Bombay
Spiny Lobster Panulirus polyphagus
(Herbst)

SHRINIWAS DESHMUKH
Taraporewala Marine Biological Research Station, Bombay

(With one plate)

The lodgements of sedentary epizoa on such an unusual substratum
as a lobster not only make interesting records but are often suggestive
of the environment and the normal intermoult period of the host.
Good and accurate descriptions of epizoic associates of the American
lobster Homarus americanus (M. Edw.) are given by Herrick (1895,
p. 121) and Dexter (1955, p. 160), and of the Norway lobster Nephrops
norvegicus (L.) are given by Barnes & Bagenal (1951) and Andersen
(1962, p. 307). Recently Dinamani & Kurian (1961) have published
a note on pedunculate cirripeds infesting the spiny lobster Puerulus
sewelli Ramadan collected off Kerala. However, no noteworthy
account of the epizoa of commercially important Indo-Pacific spiny
lobsters is available. |

During the course of investigations on the biology of Panulirus
polyphagus (Herbst) the author was able to examine more than 4000
specimens for the presence of any macroscopic epifauna. These spiny
lobsters were caught in inshore waters (2-6 metres) and offshore
waters (30-70 metres), in hoop nets and trawls respectively. The
average weight of the spiny lobster having epizoa was 362 gm. and,
except for the specimens specifically noted in Table I, the condition
of the shell was hard. The carapace length was measured to the
nearest 2:5 mm. from the antennular tergum to its posterior margin.

In contrast to P._polyphagus, which constitutes as much as 99%
of the total spiny lobster population around Bombay (Chhapgar &
Deshmukh 1961), the other species P. dasyps (H. Milne Edwards),
P. versicolor (L.), and P. ornatus (Fabr.) whenever examined for any
macroscopic epizoa were found to be negative, possibly due to the
extremely small number available for examination. In the case of the
squat-lobster Thenus orientalis (Lund), however, which also is found

151

EPIZOIC ASSOCIATES OF PANULIRUS POLYPHAGUS (HERBST)

pa}fnoul A[MON
poynowl AJMON

SYIVUIOY

‘WD c*,

“WS CTT
‘UD 0G
"wd O'OI
‘WD 6°6
“WD ¢°8
“wd ¢'OT
‘US 0'OT
“Wd COT

“Wd ¢°@I
“WS CL"6
“US O'TT

y)3u9]
sovdeied

|
|

(3unoA om) wnui9sg | DIVIJNINI vaAISE

(oM}) soederey
(eu0) soedeiea auayyduy snuvjog
(eu0) soedeieZ }
(ZunoK /) seuusquy |
(BUNOA 61) dovderED | |
(SUNOA OM}) SdedRIe_D
(au0) soedeiesy f aniydup snuvojog
(oUO) euuojUR JOT | |
(s014}) covdereg |
(Inoj) sovderey J

(U0) }
soulds [e}IGIO 94} UsEMIOg | ajtupiydiun snuopng |
(soqn} OM}) WUINUIDIG | “op t
hat (pijouue

‘bs OS ]) WnuIDNIg pue

f
(‘wun “bs g¢zq) soederep SUIWIIOJ-9qQNn}) pljndias J |

souepunge

pur ops JUOMITOeNY soiseds s1ozidq

VOZIda HLIAL GAISQUONE GNNOd sasvyddjod snaynuvg AO SADVINAOWd

] a1avy,

prc

69°L

00ST

él

Yyoyed [2107
JO 980} U9919g

T ‘you
dooy ‘soijoul 9

Z ‘you
[MCI ‘sorjOU ZC

9 ‘}0U
[MPI “SoI}0UN 09

€ ‘jou
[MUI], ‘SaI}OUI OS

0961-6-P

096I-8-TE

096I-L-SZ

0961-9-P

P9399]]09
suowiseds Jo °ou
pure ‘ees ‘ydoq

93eq

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61. (1)

152

T “Sq ‘938d

Z ‘SI “o1eid

SYICWIOY

“md OTT

"wd CCITT

“Wd COT
"WS COT
"md OTT
"Wd SCT

"m9 CLOT
"md O0'OT

"wd ¢'Ol
“US 1°38

"Wd 0'OT

“Wd OTT

“wd 0°01
"wd $16
“Wd COT
“Wd COI
“Wd 0'OT

Y}SUs]
soedeiey

(9014}) WNUIIS

{| (qove ouO) sdedeIe_
(QUO) sdRdRIED )
(eu0) N19} PU0dES .
(OM}) doVdeIeD |
(9014}) sovdeieg J

(9014}) soedeiey

(SUNOA 9U0) WINUINS |

(aay) sovdeiey ) |
(9014) soedeieg

(Inoj) soedeied

(‘wu “bs ¢/¢) sovdeied

(xIS) soedeied
(QUO) WINBI9} 1S11-{

(anoj) soedeiey
(OM}) soedeIeED
(9014}) soedeleg

souepunqe
pue ozs JUSWIYIeI}V

SR a ER a

I ‘you

ap1ajiydup snuvjog 0S°Z dooy ‘so1jau 9 L96I-S-LI
ajlajiydup snuvjog 29 }
‘([e1O_D) *ds vyjAydouvjog
\. LO'8 le “you
anapiydiu snunpog | [MeIL “SOTO PC 1961-b-€7
|
J
aj1ajlydwup snuvojog . Z “you ie
“ds snuvjog bEL [MBIT ‘SOIOW pp 196l-r Il
aj1ajlydup snuvjo Cen
ae Pes 00's [Mery ‘soneurgs | 196I-t-b
I ‘jou
anidjiydup snuvjog vO'C [Me], “Sor}oW Op 1961 -c-9T
(ueoZOAIq T ‘you
SUI}SNIOU_) VisapoyjuvIp 00°Z dooy ‘So1}oUWl p 096I-LI-81
ajldjiydup snuvjog \
(ACID) nyIIM40KM | ¢ “10U
SNUSDIOIIO | 00°02 [Mel] ‘SOI}OUI 99 0961-6-£7
ajlajiydup snuvjog |
J
poqseT[05
soeds s10zidq Hobe eot suouioads JO “OU 91eq

(panuijuod) | ATaV |,

jo a8e}UN9IOg

pure ‘1e03 ‘yydoq

Sa I LL TIE LE TE LE ES RL DLE LiL ELLE LLG

PIZOIC ASSOCIATES OF PANULIRUS POLYPHAGUS (HERBST) 153

—

O48) 2k oe ee 8 ee Se

poynow A[MON

"Wd $7'OT
“WD SC IT
"WS 0'OT

"WIS ¢L°6

"Wd O'TT
“WS $76

"Wd ¢°OI

"Wd SLOT

"m9 SLTT

"wd CLOT
‘WD 6°6

"WS 0'OT

(om}) sovedeieZy

(au0) soeadeiey

(inoj) soedeieD

(auo) soedeiey

({7ewIs A19A DAY) OedeIeD

(a014}) soedeIesd )

(sayy) soederey | |

(ZuNOA day) sovdeseD

(OM}) sdedvie,y

(sunoA

“OM}) doedeled \

(auo) soedeie7y
(auO0) soedeIeZD |
(InoJ) soedeieg

I
{ (omM}) podoig r

(9014}) sovedeiey J

ajléjlydup snuvjog

ayiajlyduib snuvjog

(sniq[IAlIny)
suapldy SIUSVIOIIO

ajidjiyduo snuvjog

pyojjnano
(DadJSOSSDAD) 0241SEQ

aiajiydup snuvjog

“ds snuvjog
pinjod viqiuojay)

aylajiydup snuvjog

Eo cca ed

}
|
\,
|
|

IVIT

cO'€e

So el

66 El

€ ‘10u

[MPI], ‘SOIISU 09 C961-C> I

€ ‘10u

[MBI], “SOIJOW Bp 1961-OT-OT

I ‘jou dooH

‘so1jOUl 9-p. 1961-6-SZ

Z ‘jou
[MBL ‘SaI}OUL f9

p ‘jou

[MBI ‘SO1}OU Op 1961-9-97

TABLE I (continued)

23-9-1960

18-11-1960

16-2-1961

4-4-1961

11-4-1961

234-1961

17-5-1961

—————

26-6-1961

25-9-1961

10-10-1961

1-2-1962

— EEE
——_—___—

Depth, gear, and P “ |
A ercentage of “ai 5 Attachment site and | Carapace
no. jefispecimens | total’catch Epizoic species abundance length Remarks
(f | Carapace (three) 10.0 cm.
| Balanus amphitrite | Carapace (two) 10.5 cm.
ae ater AED 5) Ghia Carapace (four) 10.5 cm.
tres, Tra H t i ine és
Fate iS uh | eae (Gray) | First tergum (one) 9.75 cm. Plate, Fig. 2
( Balanus amphitrite Carapace (six) | 10.0 cm.
| |
4 metres, Hoop 2.00 Acanthodesia (Encrusting | Carapace (375 sq. mm.) 11.0 cm.
net, 1 bryozoan) |
40 metres, Trawl 2.04 Balanus amphitrite Carapace (four) 10.0cm.
net, 1
|
|
50 metres, Trawl 5.00 Paes | § Carapace (three) | 8.75 cm.
net, 2 | Balanus amphitrite { Carapace (five) | 10.5 cm.
44 metres, Trawl 7.14 Balanus sp. | Sternum (one young) | 10.0 cm.
net, 2 f Balanus amphitrite Carapace (three) 10.75 cm.
( (Garapace Gare) | 12.25 cm.
| tril arapace (two) 11.0 cm.
54 metres, Trawl | | Balanus amphitrite } Second tergum (one) 10.5 cm.
net, 5 8.07 | ( Carapace (one) | 10.5 cm.
| Balanophyllia sp. (Coral), enue (oneeach) } | 11.25 cm
L & Balanus amphitrite Carapace (one each) j = i
6 eS Hoop 2.50 Balanus amphitrite Sternum (three) | 11.0 cm. Plate, Fig. 1
net,

40 metres, Trawl
net, 4

64 metres, Trawl
net, 2

4-6 metres,
Hoop net, 1

48 metres, Trawl
net, 3

60 metres, Trawl
net, 3

13.95

3.03

11.11

[ Batanus amphitrite

4
| Chelonibia patula
l. Balanus sp.

| Balanus amphitrite

| Ostrea (Crassostrea)
cucullata
| Balanus amphitrite
iJ Octolasmis tridens
(Aurivillius)

|
| Balanus amphitrite

Balanus amphitrite

|
|
|
|

{ Carapace (three)
} Uropod (two)
| Carapace (four)
| Carapace (one)
{ Carapace (one)
Carapace (two,
young)

Carapace (two)

Carapace (five young)

{ Carapace (three)
( Carapace (three)

Carapace (five very small)

Carapace (one)

{ Carapace (four)
Carapace (two)

10.0 cm.

9.5 cm.
10.75 cm.

11.75 cm.

10.75 cm.

10.5 cm.

9.25 cm.
11.0 cm.

9.75 cm.

10.0 cm.
11.25 cm.
10.25 cm.

Newly moulted

TSI

() 19 10A ‘ALAIOOS “ISIH TRMYALVYN AVAIWOT ‘TFNNNOL

10Z1d.

€St (JSHY¥FH) SNOWHdATOd SNAIINNVd JO SALVIOOSSV

154. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

only occasionally, two instances could be recorded, one having
three young Tubularia colonies and the other having nine young
specimens of goose-barnacle, Octolasmis tridens (Aurivillius). Both
the squat-lobsters were adult females and had the epizoa on the
carapace.

The recorded epizoic incrustations of P. polyphagus are sum-
marised in Table I.

THE EPIZOIC ASSOCIATES
The percentage occurrences of various epizoa of P. polyphagus

were found to be as follows:

TABLE II

PERCENTAGE OF OCCURRENCE OF EPIZOA

Species Percentage
(1) Balanus amphitrite (Darwin) S, .. 80.00%
(2) Chelonibia patula (Ranzani) os a 2.22%
(3) Octolasmis warwickii (Gray) es) ie 2.22%
(4) Octolasmis tridens (Aurivillius) es, a 2.22%
(5) Serpulid (Tube-building annelid) a Ve 4.44%
(6) Ostrea (Crassostrea) cucullata Born. BS ot 4.44%
(7) Balnophyllia sp. (coral) a Ae 2.22%
(8) Acanthodesia sp. (bryozoan) » igh Bae aes 2.22%

Sessile Barnacles. The dominant balanid Balanus amphitrite
(Darwin), constituting as much as 80% of the total epizoa records,
appears to be the commonest incrusting associate of the Bombay spiny
lobster (Plate, fig. 1). Herrick (1895, p. 122) in his classic monograph
on the American lobster aptly remarks: ‘Whenever the lobster is
confined in inclosures or compelled for any reason to lead a sluggish
life, the common barnacle fixes itself to the arched carapace and
begins to secrete its tent-like covering as securely as it might upon a
stone.’ It will be clear from columns 4-5 of Table I that balanids alone
are capable of settling on any part of the P. polyphagus shell. In
most of the instances only a single barnacle population had settled
on the shell while a very few had two different barnacle populations
growing on the body.

EPiZOIC ASSOCIATES OF PANULIRUS POLYPHAGUS (HERBST) 155

The subspecies of SKalanus amphitrite commonly epizoic on
P. polyphagus were found to be B. amphitrite variegatus (Darwin) and
B. amphitrite hawaiiensis (Broch). A single specimen of the latter
subspecies has been recorded by Nilsson-Cantell (1938) on the crab
Schizophrys aspera from the Persian Gulf. Balanus amaryllis (Darwin)
recorded by him as epizoic on Palinurus(?) sp. from the Balasore
Bay of Orissa, however, is not yet known from Bombay.

The other balanomorphid found epizoic on the Bombay lobster
was the turtle barnacle Chelonibia patula (Ranzani). In this particular
instance the lobster also had two much younger Balanus specimens on
the carapace. C. patula in epizoic state on a decapod has also been
recorded earlier by Nilsson-Cantell (1938) and Daniel (1956) on the
crab Scyila serrata (Forsk.) collected from Lake Pulicat, Madras.

Pedunculate Barnacles. Two species of Octolasmis, viz. O. tridens
(Aurivillius) and O. warwickii (Gray) were found to be epizoic on
P. polyphagus. This is incidentally a new record for both these
pedunculate species from Bombay.

As mentioned earlier O. tridens was found epizoic on Thenus
orientalis also. Similar instances of Octolasmis tridens epizoic on
T. orientalis have been reported by Annandale (1909) from Orissa
coast and by Nilsson-Cantell (1938) from Singapore. Annandale has
mentioned O. warwickii, besides, as occurring on T. orientalis from
Orissa and Hughli river mouth.

A noteworthy record of heteralepadid cirriped settling on a
panulirid lobster is reported earlier by Barnard (1924, p. 62) for
Paralepas palinuri (Barnard) from shallow waters of S. Africa. The
subspecies urae (Newman) of Paralepas palinuri has been more recently
reported by Newman (1960, p. 112) from the maxilliped of Panulirus
penicillatus (Oliv.).

The other earlier records of lepadomorphids settled on carapace,
limbs, mouthparts, and gill-chamber entrance of spiny lobsters are
given by Annandale (1909) for Octolasmis warwickii from the Orissa
coast, O. cor (Aurivillius) from the Indian Ocean, O. angulata
(Aurivillius) from Bombay and Orissa coast, O. sinuata (Aurivillius)
from Red Sea/Persian Gulf, and Poecilasma minutum (Gruvel) from
7° 15’ 0” N., 77° 46’ 0” E. (143 fathoms); by Nilsson-Cantell (1938) for
Trilasmis amygdalum (Aurivillius); and by Daniel (1956) for Trilasmis
minuta (Gruvel), Octolasmis lowei (Darwin), O. angulata (Aurivillius),
O. tridens (Aurivillius), and O. warwickii (Gray). Poecilasma
excavatum (=Trilasmis excavatum) (Hoek) and an Octolasmis sp.

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

have also been more recently reported epizoic on the spiny lobster
Puerulus sewelli Ramadan by Dinamani & Kurian (1961).

The spiny lobster ‘host’ mentioned by Annandale in all his records
is ‘Panulirus sp.. In case of Poecilasma minutum, however, he
mentions it specifically as Panulirus angulatus (Alcock, 1901) which
is identical with Puerulus sewelli Ramadan (Holthuis, 1946, p. 110).
The host mentioned by both Nilsson-Cantell and Daniel on the
other hand is ‘Palinurus’ sp. The identification of the host genus
as ‘Palinurus’ in the Indian records of both Nilsson-Cantell and
Daniel is apparently an error for Panulirus. The family Palinuridae
is predominantly represented in the Indian waters by the genus
Panulirus, while Palinurus is as yet known only from two uncertain
records.

Bivalves. Ostrea (Crassostrea) cucullata Born. was found to be
the only pelecypod associate of P. polyphagus. Both the instances of
oyster spat settlement (Table I) are from Uran creek. Lobsters from
deeper waters were always free from any bivalve settlements.

Tube-building Annelids. Only in two instances P. polyphagus
from trawl catches had dead tubes of serpulids on its carapace and
thoracic sternum. Much heavier incrustations of serpulids were
present on many of the lobster moults washed ashore.

Coelenterates. Skeleton of the solitary coral Balnophyllia was
found anchored on the carapace of a berried female P. polyphagus
from deeper waters. The age of this coral, estimated to be around
a year, indicated that this female had not moulted for that period.
This lobster also had a Balanus amphitrite on the carapace.

Bryozoa. The incrusting bryozoan Acanthodesia was found
on P. polyphagus once only. On the contrary, however, Dexter (1955)
in the case of Homarus americanus registers bryozoa as the chief
fouling organisms.

RELATION BETWEEN THE SPINY LOBSTER AND THE EPIZOA
In case of the American lobster Homarus americanus (M. Edw.)

Herrick (1895; p. 122) gematks = 30s the lobster is encumbered
with a great variety of messmates which attach themselves to the

*“sn80yddjod

‘ snspyddjod *g JO WnuIa}s S1IOvIOY) UO spluRleg °(LfT7)

q uo

(40YjINpP : SOJoYyd)

IYUIMICM ‘CQ PodiIg s}e~nouNnpsg = *(ad0gp)

SORES
§

(sqioH) snsvyddjod snaynuvg jo

soyeloosse o10zidq
‘00S “LSIH

“LYN AVEWNog ‘Nano

EPIZOIC ASSOCIATES OF PANULIRUS POLYPHAGUS (HERBST) 157

external shell’. The epizoa specifically referred to by him and
Dexter (1955, p. 160) are common barnacles, bryozoans, bivaives,
tunicates, tube-building annelids, nullipores, hydroids, anthozoans,
and sponges. It is interesting to note that compared to H. ameri-
canus much fewer varieties of epizoa settle on the spiny lobster P.
polyphagus. This is possibly true of the Norway lobster Nephrops
norvegicus also, although Barnes & Bagenal (1951) have in their paper
focussed their attention only on the epizoan Balanus crenatus Brug.

It also appears that, in contrast to the higher epizoic incrustation
percentage (unless the samples are highly selective) in the case of the
American lobster (26% to 79%, Dexter 1955) and the Norway lobster
(approx. 21% to 50%, Barnes & Bagenal 1951), in the common
Bombay spiny lobster it is on an average as low as 1%. In a
particular collection, whenever it possessed any epizoa the percentage
of such ‘hosts’ in that collection varied between 2 and 20 (column 3,
Table I). Spiny lobsters in all the remaining collections, on the other
hand, were free from any macroscopic epizoa, suggesting that epizoic
incrustations take place only under particular ecological conditions.
From Table I it will be seen that the majority of these instances are
confined to the larger specimens trawled off muddy flats under 30 to
70 metres. Environmental conditions here, such as larger surface
area and retarded ecdysis frequency of the host, very slow currents
in the neighbourhood, and possibly enough food, may be favourable
for epizoic settlement and growth. The younger individuals, which
are fished only in the inshore waters, are always free from any epizoa,
obviously due to strong current action and higher ecdysis frequency.

Column five of Table I reveals an interesting sequence of
favoured anchorage areas, the preferred sites being, carapace (79.59%),
sternum (10.20%), abdominal terga (4.08%), antennae (4.08%), and
the tailfan (2.04%). Females generally appear to be more ‘susceptible’
than the males, constituting nearly 62% of the total epizoa incidences,
while in having only one epizoic species there does not seem to be
any sex preference.

The epizoa certainly derive some advantage from their decapod
host. Live acorn and goose barnacles anchored on the shell were
always observed to be sufficiently quick to smell the fine food particles
formed by the host during the mastication of the food offered.
A very interesting instance of a balanid deriving noteworthy
advantage from the decapod host is reported by Barnes & Bagenal
(1951). They found that during late spring and early summer of

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

1950, high settlement of living Balanus crenatus Brug. covered a very
vast surface area of inanimate objects in the Clyde Sea Area. In late
summer the majority of this population had died out, while in contrast
the barnacles epizoic on Nephrops norvegicus were living. They
attribute this survival of the balanid to the protective action of either
the host or its muddy bottom habitat. Any such advantage on the
part of the epizoan would of course be lost after the host has moulted.
The epizoic settlement in turn may provide a slight advantage of
camouflage to the decapod host. It can be ‘troublesome’ to the host
only rarely, for example in the case of a matured female P. polyphagus
about to receive the spermatophores from the male and having a
number of barnacles on its thoracic sternum (Plate, fig. 1).

Day (1935, p. 565) in the case of crabs remarks, *. . . crabs bearing
barnacles and serpulid tubes have not much vitality ...’. This,
however, is never true of the spiny lobster P. polyphagus, and even
in the case of crabs Day’s statement cannot aways be justifiable as
Foxon (1940, p. 260) has already pointed cut.

While it is easy to imagine the larvae of sessile barnacles settling
on the spiny lobster, the larvae of ‘pedunculate barnacles such as
Trilasmis and Octolasmis present some difficulty in that respect.
Their mode of settlement on the spiny lobster is possibly linked with
the predatory feeding habit of the host. While examining the stomach
contents of trawl-caught P. polyphagus, 1 have at times come across
fragments which presumably belonged to some pedunculate cirripeds.
It is likely that such cirripeds, though commonly available on float-
ing or moving objects, may under particular conditions form small
colonies on the substratum in deeper waters and thus be an item on
the menu of some decapods. When offered experimentally, peduncu-
late barnacles are readily accepted as food by spiny lobsters. It is
then quite possible that, while these organisms are being devoured by
the spiny lobsters, their larvae get forcibly released and a settlement
ensues on the host, which is in close proximity.

Dinamani & Kurian (1961, p. 149), considering the higher incidence
of Trilasmis excavatum settlement on the ventral aspects of Puerulus
sewelli, remark: “The concentration of juvenile and young cirripeds at
these sites probably indicates the mode of infestation of the lobster.
It is possible that the larvae of these cirripeds, released at cypris
stage and with limited powers of swimming, remain close to the
bottom. As the lobsters crawl about, the ventral side of the body,
which is closest to the substratum, presents a suitable place for

EPIZOIC ASSOCIATES OF PANULIRUS POLYPHAGUS (HERBST) 159

affixation to the cirriped, especially at sheltered regions like the base
of the pereiopods within the margin of the carapace’. The larvae of
Trilasmis and Octolasmis (these, incidentally, are released at the first
naupliar stage and not at the cypris stage) are more successful in
effecting settlement on the ventral sides of the host because of the
comparatively higher protective action of these sites and not due to
the proximity of the ventral side of the host to the substratum as
imagined. Whether it is ventral or dorsal side of the host would
otherwise make no difference, since the height of the host is not
considerable.

In addition to the protective action of the host, some other factor,
presumably inherent in the pedunculate barnacle, seems to be
necessary for successful settlement. It is interesting to note in this
respect that, while numerous instances of the species of the genera
Octolasmis and Trilasmis are reported epizoic on deep water
palinurids, the species of the deep water genus Scalpellum are not
yet known to occur in a similar association.

SUMMARY
s of
Epizoic associates of the spiny lobster Panulirus polyphagus
(Herbst) are described; sessile and pedunculate cirripeds were found
to be the commonest.
Inter-relationship between the epizoa and the host is discussed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Dr.
C. V. Kulkarni, Director of the Maharashtra Department of Fisheries,
and Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific Officer, T.M.B. Research
Station, Bombay, for critically going through the manuscript.

160

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

REFERENCES

ANDERSEN, F. S. (1962): The Norway
lobster in Faeroe waters. Meddelelser
fra Danmarks Fiskeri-og Havunders¢ gel-
ser, N. SER. 3 (7-12): 265-324.

ANNANDALE, N. (1909): The Indian
Cirripedia Pedunculata. Mem. Indian
Mus.2: 61-137.

BARNARD, K. H. (1924): Contribu-
tions to the Crustacean Fauna of South
Africa, No. 7. Cirripedia. Ann. S.
African Mus. 20 (1): 1-103.

BARNES, H. & BAGENAL, T. B. (1951):
Observations on Nephrops norvegicus (L.)
and on the epizoic population of Balanus
crenatus Brug., Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc.,
U. K. 30: 369-380.

CHHAPGAR, B. F. & DESHMUKH, S. K.
(1961): On the occurrence of the spiny
lobster Panulirus dasypus (H. Milne
Edwards) in Bombay waters, with a note
on the systematics of Bombay lobsters.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 (3) : 632-8.

Crisp, D. J. L. & Molesworth, A. H.N.
(1951): Habitat of Balanus amphitrite
var. denticulata in Britain. Nature,
London 167: 490.

DINAMANI, P. & KuRIAN, C. V.
(1961): A note on the mode of infesta-
tion by cirripeds of lobster, Bull. Central
Res. Inst. Univ. Kerala, Trivandrum 8:
147-150.

DaniEL, A. (1956): The cirripedia of
the Madras Coast. Bull. Madras Govt.
Mus. (NaT. HIST. SER.) 6 (2) : 1-40.

DarRwINn, C. (1851): A monograph

on the sub-class Cirripedia I. Lepadidae.
London.

Day, J. H. (1935): The life history
of Sacculina. Quart. Journ. Microsc.
Sci. London 77: 549-583.

DEXTER, R. W. (1955): Fouling
organisms attached to the American
lobster in Connecticut waters. Ecology
36 (1): 159-160.

Foxon, G. E. H. (1940): Notes on
the life history of Sacculina carcini
Thompson. Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc.
U. K. 24: 253-264.

Herrick, F. H. (1895): The Ameri-
can lobster: a study of its habits and
development. Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm.
1895, pp. 1-252.

*Hosss, Jr.. H. H. (1953): The
epizootic associates of the crayfishes of
the New River System with particular
reference to the ostracods. J. Tenn. Acad.
Sci. 28 (3): 180-181.

Ho.tuHuls, L. B. (1946): The Deca-
poda Macrura of the ‘ Snellius’ Expedi-
tion. I. Temminckia 7: 1-178.

NEWMAN, W. A. (1960): Five pedun-
culate cirripeds from the Western
Pacific, including two new forms.
Crustaceana 1 (2): 100-116.

NILSSON-CANTELL, C. A. (1938):
Cirripeds from the Indian Ocean in the
collection of the Indian Museum,
Calcutta. Mem. Indian Mus. 13: 1-81.

*TOPSENT, E. (1911): Croissance et
mort de Balanes a Luc-sur-Mer, Ann.
Inst. Ocean., Paris 2 (6): 1-4.

* References not seen in original.

A Report on the Gecko T eratolepis
fasciata (Blyth, 1853)

JER. AND. ANDERSON
Collector and Field Associate, Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh’

(With two plates, one map, and three text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Very few records exist of the occurrence of Teratolepis fasciata
(Biyth, 1853) since Smith’s comprehensive report on the species in
Vol. IL of FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, REPTILES. Between 1952 and
1962, 12 specimens were collected in lower Sind by M. G. Konieczny
for Prof. Robert Mertens of the Senkenburg Museum. The Karachi
Zoo obtained three specimens from a local collector in 1953-54 and
Dr. Sherman Minton Jr., of the American Museum of Natural
History, obtained a female from Thatta in June 1961 which laid 2
eggs in the terrarium (the eggs subsequently hatched). He obtained a
a second adult from Mirpur Sakro the following year.

Between 1 December 1961 and 1 May 1962 intensive collection of
this species was organized by the author in the Indus Deita flood
plain particularly at Thatta, Pir Patho, Gora Bari, Sujawal, Jathi, Badin,
Shah Bunder, and Mirpur Sakro. Collecting was mainly at night
and about 200 specimens were caught of which approximately 70%
were adult males. The percentage of specimens with regenerated
tails was: Thatta (c. 80%), Pir Patho (50%), Jathi, Badin, and
Mirpur Sakro (20%). The results provide adequate evidence that the
species is not uncommon, though patchily distributed in the Indus
Delta plain. These areas of abundance are referred to as Colony
Sites in this report.

RANGE

The Indus Delta plain (Sind: West Pakistan) from the eastern
limits of the lower Persian plateau region to the western perimeters

1 Present address: c/o The French Military Attache’s Office, 20/E Drigh
Road, Pechs, Karachi 29, W. Pakistan

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

of the Thar desert, at sea-level more or less; bounded in the south
by the coastline; limits north of latitude 25° not recorded. Records

CQ HYDERABAD

J sgey iene, Gh
DESERT.

4NjOW

.
Ar)

Karachi

THAR

oO
Mirpur
Sakro

ARABIAN
SEA

e)
Jathi

-Bunder

Kethi Bunder

Sketch Map of the Indus Delta Plain

of occurrences beyond these limits require substantiation. It is
likely, however, that the species occurs on or around delta plains of
the Ganges and other Indian rivers.

COLLECTION SITE: RAJ MALK, DISTRICT THATTA,
AREA MIRPUR SAKRO, DECEMBER 1961

~ The site of collection is an 18th century burial ground covering
about 5 acres, situated at the western edge of the Indus Delta area
between the villages of Gharo and Mirpur Sakro and about 6 miles
from the coastal marsh along Gharo creek. The terrain is flat with
an average elevation of less than 10 ft. above sea-level. The soil
is loose grey sand and silt. The area is affected by salinity. The
dominant vegetation is desert scrub, particularly Salsola foetida and

A REPORT ON THE GECKO TERATOLEPIS FASCIATA 163

grasses. Two shallow lakes lie alongside the site. ‘The graves are
overgrown and dilapidated. Loose bricks measuring about 200 mm.
square and 30 mm. thick lie scattered all over the ground intermixed
with larger stone slabs dislodged from the graves. A 5-ft. brick
wall, also dilapidated and wind-worn, surrounds two large mosques
in the centre of the site: the square thus formed is about 800 sq.
yards. A village of about 25 huts with an over-all population of
100 lies on the side of the site and a regularly used cart road winds
through it. A programme of mechanized cultivation is under way all
around the site.

Holes of small gerbilles are numerous and the terrain around the
walled-in square is uneven and colonized by the brush-tailed Meriones
hurrianae. Other mammals identified are hare, jackal, mongoose, fox,
porcupine, hedgehog, and shrew. Birds are numerous and _ include
hawks, shrikes, owlets, crows, rollers, mynas, and babblers, among
the possible predators. Other reptiles seen or collected at or near
Raj Malk include, Hemidactylus brooki, persicus, and_flaviviridis,
Gymuodactylus kachensis, Eublepharis macularius, Mabuya macularia,
Acanthodactylus cantoris, Calotes versicolor, Agama agilis, Varanus
monitor, Psammophis leithi and schokari, Coluber fasciolatus and
ventromaculatus, Oligodon taeniolatus, Spalerosophis diadema, Natrix
piscator, Naja naja, Bungarus caeruleus, Vipera russelli, and Echis
carinata—all relatively common and widely distributed species.
Another uncommon species collected at the site is the small Blind-
snake Leptotyphlops blanfordi, represented by two specimens. The
only amphibians immediately associated with the Teratolepis are
Bufo andersoni and Rana tigrina.

All the Teratolepis collected at this site were found by day
beneath cover lying on loose, dry soil. More were found under
small bricks than elsewhere. Two of those collected were large
adults (body 60 mm., tail 35 and 40 mm.), 6 average-sized adults
(average body length 50 mm., tail 25 mm.), and one juvenile (body
28 mm., tail 14 mm.). Excluding the juvenile, the collection con-
sisted of 2 males and 6 females: both the large specimens were
females. Two out of the 9 had regenerated tails.

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES

Rostral with median cleft above: 7 to 10 upper and 6 to 8 lower
labials. Scales on head roundish, convex, granular and subimbricate
on parts. Dorsal scales strongly imbricate, smooth on neck and feebly

164. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (i)

keeled on back, graded backwards, smallest on neck and largest on
rump. Caudal scales strongly imbricate, leaf-like and large, as wide
as diameter of eye, with faint striations. These large scales begin
from the constriction at the base, the largest in the middle and the
smallest at the tip. Greatest circumference around tail more than
greatest circumference around head or body. Tail so constructed as
to permit only entire dismembering from constriction at base, never
partial. Hence regenerated tails are always entire, never in portions.
The regenerated tail is more swollen and quite circular in cross-
section, heart-shaped. The imbricate scales are smaller and the original
colout and pattern replaced by irregular mottling. Regeneration
takes about ninety days under favourable conditions.

Subdigital lamellae: forefoot——7, 8, 9, 9, and 8 lamellae; hindfoot
-—7, 8, 9, 9, and 7 lamellae. Lamellae pads separate from one another
but on common basal plates, most of which are notched, the first
and last two or three entire. ;

Post-anal sacs large and prominent in males, absent in females,
dnd post-anal bones present. Males with six to eight pre-anal pores.
Maximum length recorded: head and body 65, tail 40 mm.; average
length: head and body 50, tail 31 mm. Males are generally smaller
than females.

Colour and pattern are regular and constant in all specimens,
from newly hatched young to adults. The only recorded variations
are in colour shades, which are generally temporary, and in precise
shape and extent of white markings. Each scale is of only one colour
as a rule and the white spots and bands comprise groups of white
scales. Mental with a median dark brown line, corresponding with
rostral cleft. Coloration in aged specimens tends to fade and the
pattern becomes slightly blemished.

The skin is thick and tough. of velvety quality, and the pattern
stands out boldly. Sloughing takes place roughly every 40 days and
the shedded slough bears the original colour and markings distinctly,
though translucent.

HABITS IN THE FIELD AND IN THE TERRARIUM

When discovered, the geckos immediately curl up with the tail
coiled and pressed inwards against the side (Fig. 1). On further
disturbing, they depress their bodies, flattening out, head bent tightly
against one side, and raise the tail erect and on edge presenting it
like a shield towards the assailant (Fig. 2). Still further provocation

JouRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Teratolepis fasciata (Blyth

In defensive posture

Photos: Dr. Sherman A. Minton, Jr.

AaSUM1LY YW UDI “AGE : 0104

[ej [PUISTIO UL Se SUOTIOVII IE[NOSNUI pue SNOATOU OUIeS
oY} UsYOIqd Woy [Te poyeroussol MOTTS YOryM “yuotdolaAsp IepNOsnu [eUIsIIO pue ULUNTOS o8vIVIe9 pouorses ‘podojsaop ATYysIy sey [rez
pozeroussoy “SMOITe AG PozeOIPUT ‘SUOTZES [EPNed YL pue YI9 Udemyoq ‘yuIod e8eyeo1g ‘s]te} poyeroUdSo1 G 0} F PUP [CUISTIO ¢ 0} [ “SON

vyvisswf sidajojwaa yo sydesso0jyoyd Aey-y

=
CN

BEX

SEO aie whee as

I] d1VIg "00S ‘“ISIH “LVN AvaWog ‘Nanof

A REPORT ON THE GECKO TERATOLEPIS FASCIATA 165

causes the geckos to arch their backs, rise on their legs, twitch their
tails in sideward jerks, the top half swaying from side to side, and
suddenly strike out at the assailant, with the mouth closed or open,
uttering a raspy hiss barely audible to human ears. The tail is held
high and directed towards the assailant until the instant of striking
when the head shoots forward. The strike and demonstration may
be repeated twice or thrice before the gecko scurries away swiftly in
spurts for a metre or so at a time. When handled, the geckos coil
up tightly, tail bent over on one side and head in towards tail tip
(Fig. 3), and this position is relentlessly maintained until such time
as the gecko becomes used to handling.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. | Fig, 3.
Teratolepis fasciata (Blyth)

Fig. 1. When first discovered; Fig. 2. When further disturbed ;
Fig. 3. When handled.

They show no inclination to climb the heavy, rough bark of a
large tree or to hide in its available crevices, but will readily climb
narrow limbs of bushes and on to the branches and will scale a
worn brick wall and make for chinks, holes, and crevices hastily.

They will swim 2 metres of water in about 10 seconds showing a
regular style of swimming, turning and twisting the body with the
apparent assistance of the tail in a serpentine manner. When walking
on a smooth, hard surface, the geckos move very slowly and
deliberately, curling each toe up until the nail touches the ankle as
they lift their feet. They lick the surface at intervals as they
advance.

Teratolepis in terrariums show a tendency towards communal
latrine habits, usually depositing all excreta in a specific part of the
terrarium, | x

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Excluding the rough tail portion, which is discarded, the shedded
slough is eaten by the gecko.

In the terrarium, specimens shovel away sand to gain better
entrance beneath a stone or some such object and thus create com-
fortable forms. Individuals of both sexes have been observed
shovelling earth backwards with both fore- and hindfeet, apparently
aimlessly while gazing fixedly and blankly or when approaching
another specimen, occasionally during breeding, in the manner of
dogs. However, at no time have they shown the tendency to actually
excavate their own burrows when suitable soil has been provided.
When kept among other small burrowing geckos, like. Stenodactylus
and the American Coleonyx, which efficiently and promptly made
their own burrows, the specimens never entered these burrows not
even when the occupant was abroad. Instead they would lie beneath
a leaf, behind loose bricks, or high upon the limbs of dry branches
or the walls of the terrarium.

_Injurious breaks to the skin take a long time to heal and scars are
left for life. A wound on the foot of a young specimen took about
90 days to heal during which time sloughing took place on two
occasions shedding from around the wound. During this period the
Specimen increased in length by 5 mm.

In their attempt to escape capture, males will actually turn
ferociously upon their assailant. hiss, arch the back, strike out with both
mouth and raised, coiled tail, and flee in leaps and bounds actually
jumping between 20 and 40 mm. high, covering some 30 to 50 mm.
in distance at each leap. The flight is in rapid, short, spurts, the tail
being withdrawn into the usual tight coil at each halt. When
aggravated and prevented from escaping, they will flip their entire
body length sidewards, to and fro, in quick jerks, twitching head
and tail sidewards alternately in co-ordination with each flip, hissing
simultaneously. One male specimen bit a probing finger very sharply
and held on until it broke the grip, seemingly by twisting the tail over
its mouth. Sometimes the caudal scales are slightly raised. indivi-
dually, in lateral series, or all together to produce perhaps yet another
effect. Females are very lethargic and require considerable provoca-
tion before any reactions are obtained. Some refuse to react at all.

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS

A young Coluber ventromaculatus, a snake known to feed off
lizards largely, was introduced into a terrarium containing eight
freshly collected Teratolepis. Four of the geckos reacted by flatten-

A REPORT ON THE GECKO TERATOLEPIS FASCIATA 167

ing head and body to the sand, twitching their tails in the air, in
the already described manner, and thrusting it in the direction of the
serpent’s head. They then struck at the head and scrambled away,
still flattened to the sand, twisting and turning in a zigzag manner as
they fled. One large gecko struck the serpent’s head with open jaws
but did no apparent harm. All four lizards turned very pale in
general colouring which then tended to blend more with the sand.
The remaining four Teratolepis in the terrarium, which were com-
paratively out of the way, merely curled up in their corners. For an
hour or so after the experiment these geckos would react in an
identical manner when provoked with a finger tip or stick. Intro-
duction of a medium-sized Eublepharis macularius fat-tailed gecko
(roughly 6 times the size of a Teratolepis) into the terrarium a couple
of hours later induced similar reactions in the Teratolepis. Both the
Coluber serpent and Eublepharis gecko showed signs of fright during
the experiment. During the night, some 5 or 6 hours later, five of the
specimens were clinging to the wire netting sides of the cage or
perched on pieces of wood instead of in their usual position on the
floor of the terrarium.

Specimens assumed coiled positions with their upper tail surface
facing the entrance like a shield after being left undisturbed for 30
minutes or so in provided form or burrow.

When. submerged 200 mm. in water, specimens surfaced apparently
calm at approximately 45° angle.

Specimens buried under 100 mm. of loose, soft sand did not
attempt to get out until provoked with a stick but remained thus
for about 15 minutes and then surfaced easily shovelling the sand
backwards.

When introduced to a flat vertical wall surface of uneven and
weather-worn bricks, specimens climbed with apparent ease and
followed joins to crevices which they entered.

They were able to cling to the lower side of a polished glass
surface held at an angle of 60° to the horizontal, and move each foot
individually in this position. They held fast to the completely
inverted surface of some medium grain cardboard, even when gently
shaken.

REPRODUCTION

Courtship takes place between February and June, but tends to
continue further and seems to carry on to a lesser degree right
through the summer,

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

The mating call is four, clear, loud and short clucks (as of
Hemidactylus) followed by a prolonged rolling trill, which lasts for
a duration of about five seconds. This is. repeated at regular
intervals of about 10 seconds for approximately half an hour. The
calling may be continued. The responsive female call is similar but
of a much lower tone.

The male approaches the female slowly end deliberately, either
with body flattened or raised high on its legs, with tail raised erect,
gracefully swaying from side to side and twitching at the base. The
female responds to the approach similarly but with somewhat reserve.
Before attempting copulation, the male licks the head and body of the
female several times, whilst cautiously stalking around her, apparently
for responsive reactions. Sometimes a female resists and is then run
down and overpowered, her neck or head grasped in the jaws of the
male who forces her to the ground and compels her to submit.

Often two males will fight savagely over a female and a tail of
one or other is sometimes snapped off.

Out of a specially segregated collection of 40 males and 30 females,
27 females laid 135 eggs from March to June and 68 eggs over August
until 2nd September. Three adult females remained apparently
barren. Eight more eggs were laid by the end of September, after
which laying ceased. This made a total of 211 eggs laid from March
to the end of September by 27 females. The maximum number laid
by a single specimen was 24 and the minimum 2. The eggs were
laid in clutches of two. The larger number of. eggs were laid by
the comparatively larger specimens and the lesser numbers by the
smaller, apparently depending on the stage of maturity of the
individual. Clutches are laid at intervals of approximately 14 days.
The eggs of a clutch are laid one after the other, the interim period
extending from 2 to 48 hours roughly. By Ist December 180 young
had hatched out in perfectly healthy condition, while 31 eggs were
spoiled, apparently not due to infertility. Incubation on the average
took between 6 and 8 weeks.

An apparently aged female specimen with regenerated tail (head
& body 61 mm., tail 22 mm.) out of the Raj Malk collection

(collected 24th December 1961) was kept in a terrarium with 2 males,
1 juvenile, and 5 other females. Gravidity was first noticed on
22 February 1962. The first egg was laid on Sth March and the
second on 7th March, behind a wall of loose miniature bricks on
the sandy floor of the terrarium (measurements of eggs 9.5 and
10.5 mm.x8 mm.). The specimen showed considerable concern for
her eggs and when they were exposed by the removal of the brick

A REPORT ON THE GECKO TERATOLEPIS FASCIATA 169

wall she tried to safeguard them by making every effort to cover them
with sand by shovelling backwards with her forefeet. When the eggs
were removed to the opposite side of the terrarium, she followed
them, licked them several times, and continued her efforts. After the
eggs had been placed in a ventilated plastic container (transparent)
which was kept on the floor of the terrarium, the specimen made
efforts to enter the container for the following two days. It finally
resolved itself to coiling up on top of the container and lying there
for the next ten days, only leaving it occasionally to relieve herself
and feed and drink, before giving up. (The second clutch was laid
on 22nd March.) 7

The first young hatched in the early hours of 4th May and the
~second on 6th May. They were kept in a container with some
Microgecko and some newly hatched Gwnnodactylus and Hemidactylus.
On introducing the mother specimen she immediately went up to each
of her young and licked them several times. She repeated this
performance several times, walking about in circles and coming back
to them from time to time. When she perceived a young
Gymnodactylus she prompily grabbed it and devoured it. She did
the same with a second and then returned to her young to lick them
again. ;

In the field pairs of eggs have been found in deserted burrows,
beneath piles of old bricks, and beneath large embedded stones etc.
In the terrarium, with an exception of a few which were laid between
and upon bricks, all the eggs were laid upon the floor and covered
over loosely with sand. Single or more clutches were laid in the
same spot. Specimens showed a tendency to choose and maintain
a laying spot.

The eggs are a pure soft-white colour, hard-shelled and fragile,
and generally of an oval shape though sometimes perfectly round.
Sizes and shapes vary considerably, pairs of a clutch being almost
identical usually. The irregularity in egg dimensions of the species
is most marked. An example of size irregularity in the eggs of one
specimen laid consecutively in one season is as follows: 9.58 and
~10.5x8 mm., 109 and 10x9 mm., 118.4 and 11x8.6 mm., 10x9
and 11x9 mm., 11x10 and 11.5x9 mm. A pair of round eggs laid in
a clutch measured 8.8x8.8 mm., each. The largest eggs recorded
measured 11.5 x10 and 11.5 10.5 mm.

Average measurements of newly hatched young: head and body
22 mm., tail 12 mm.

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

FEEDING

Teratolepis in captivity feed readily off all arthropods. Crickets,
roaches, hoppers, and worms are relished. Newly hatched young thrive
off termites and grubs. All arachnidae, including scorpions dangerous
to man, are taken and I have observed a small black scorpion pierce
the forehead of a gecko with its sting (about 24 mm. long) whilst
being eaten, causing no apparent harm whatever. As a general rule,
young geckos of other species are not taken and when this does
happen the undigested body of the young gecko is usually regurgitated
an hour or so later. Specimens in the terrarium show a marked
thirst and frequently lap water out of an open dish.

CONCLUSION

To laymen and herpetologists alike, the most striking feature of
the Teratolepis is the large, thick, flat tail with its unusual, leaf-like
scales. While doubtlessly functioning as a store of surplus fat for
times of need, the tail also seems to play an important part in the
defence of the gecko against its enemies. It is a threat, a shield, and
finally a sacrifice to the potential predator. While it is always
hazardous to try to speculate on just what it is that a small predator
sees when confronted with such an animal, it appears to human eyes
that the tail of the Teratolepis, particularly as the gecko lies in its
dwelling or form, may resemble a bent segment of a coiled serpent,
more specifically the ubiquitous and dangerous viper, Echis carinata,
which infests the flood plain. The illusion created by its defensive
movements and hissing lends itself to this semblance and the
mimicry seems quite perfected. In this respect specimens with
regenerated tails tend to act the mimic with somewhat more vehemency
and perfection. The experience of having lost its tail once may
account for this. However, in these cases it was observed that the
geckos abandon the initial act very promptly and resort to the tail
offering almost instantly. A regenerated tail is very roundish and does
not present the same illusion as the original.

The collection locality, Raj Malk, chosen in this report to describe
habits, results of field experiments and observations, and environment,
etc., is typical of all known Teratolepis Colony Sites on the Indus
Delta flood-plain.

The absence of man-made structures on such Colony Sites seems
to haye but one outstanding example, that of Makli Ridge which

A REPORT ON THE GECKO TERATOLEPIS FASCIATA 171

influences two known sites Kalan Kot and Pir Patho. However, even
at these sites there are remnants of ancient human structures, though
they actually do not influence the sites as much as the ridge itself.
This rocky edifice rises rather abruptly out of the plain to a mean
elevation of ;100 ft. or so and is a finger of the Persian Plateau.
stretching out across the plain for some 35 miles from Jungshai
almost to the very banks of the Indus river. Some 25 miles north of
the Makli Ridge other similar, though broken and disjointed, ridges
extend right on to the banks of the river. These, I feel, form the
northern boundary of the population of the plain on the east bank.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 thank Dr. Sherman A. Minton, Jr., Research Associate to the
American Museum, my Professor and colleague, without whose
continuous guidance this paper would not have been possible;
Dr. A. Rahman Ranjha, Director, Zoological Survey Department of
Pakistan, for allowing me access to the Department’s voluminous
library; Mr. Arthur S. Clarke, of the Department of Vertebrate
Zoology, Royal Scottish Museum, for his critical advice and taxo-
nomical data; Miss Alice G. C. Grandison, Curator of Herpetology,
British Museum, for photostat copies of some important literature;
and Mr. M. G. Konieczny, for his opinions and critical comments
from time to time.

Reviews

1. THE SCIFNCE OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR. By P. L.
Broadhurst. pp. 135 (18x11 cm.). 8 plates. Harmondsworth, 1963.
Penguin Books. A Pelican Original, A629. Price 3s. 6d.

This brief introduction to the study of animal behaviour covers
a great deal of ground in its 135 pages. It deals clearly and
concisely with scope, methods, and aims. Its style, however, tends
to be rather too condensed for easy reading, each paragraph dealing
with a new concept which needs to be digested before one moves on
to the next. Some of the material is familiar. We meet Paviov’s
dogs, and rats which run through mazes or press levers; but we meet
them in perspective. And some of it borders on science fiction—
how many people are aware that pigeons can be trained to do Be
sorting, or to guide missiles to their target?

Some of the most interesting studies have been made on monkeys.
The charming baby rhesus monkey who is seen on the cover clinging
to a terry-towelling ‘mother’ prefers a towelling dummy to a wire
one, though it was fed from the wire one. Monkeys like this one,
deprived of mothering in infancy, grow up into adults which take
no interest in sex—mothers are obviously necessary for normal
development. Again, monkeys can be made to develop ulcers by
undergoing stress. A group of monkeys was taught to press a lever
in order to delay an electric shock. These monkeys developed ulcers,
whereas another group which was shocked frequently but was given
no chance to avoid shocks did not develop ulcers. Anxiety, therefore,
was more due to the necessity for keeping the current SVNOUES off
than to the unpleasant experience itself.

Too facile comparisons between animal and human _ behaviour
have to be avoided. By subjecting animals to unpleasant experiences
as they are about to feed, ‘experimental neuroses’ can be produced
in which the animals will not feed and show signs of emotional upset.
This looks at first like human neurosis, but unlike it the behaviour
does not persist in fresh situations and places. Moreover. human
neurosis is harmful to the individual whereas a refusal to feed is
the most sensible thing for an animal to do in a situation where an
attempt to feed provokes an unpleasant shock.

R.R.

REVIEWS hee 173

2. PREHISTORIC LIFE ON EARTH. By Kai Petersen.
Edited, adapted, and supplemented by Georg Zappler. Illustrated by
Verner Hancke. pp. 163 (22.5X16 cm.). London, 1963. Methuen
& Co. Ltd. Price 21s. net in U.K. only.

The title indicates what a tremendous span of life the author had
to cover in this book. In consequence the sections of the book
covering the period from life’s beginning to the reptilian epoch are
a bit too crowded with facts. But the sketches and diagrams which
adorn almost every other page help a great deal in explaining and
enlivening the text. This book is one of the excellent series to which
belongs BIRDS OF THE WORLD by Hans Hvass reviewed in Vol. 60,
No. 3, p. 713 of the Journal, and of which another REPTILES
AND AMPHIBIANS OF THE WORLD is under preparation.

As is quite understandable, the religious view about the creation
of the world and its inhabitants was not easy to displace, even in
the face of facts which kept accumulating in support of the more
rational theory of evolution. As late as 1776 the fossi! of a giant
salamander was considered to be ‘the remains of a poor sinner that
drowned in Noah’s flood’. By the time that Georges Cuvier wrote
on the comparative anatomy of fossils in the beginning of the
nineteenth century and showed the connection between one extinct
form and another, the scientific view had made a considerable dent
in the religious theory. But Cuvier too was convinced about the
immutability of the species and relied on the theory of ‘catastrophe’
to explain away gaps in the evolutionary chain. Doubts about the
accommodation problem in Noah’s Ark kept cropping up, and
Lamarck in his PHILOSOPHIE ZOOLOGIQUE was the first professional
zoologist to accept evolution wholeheartedly. This was in 1809.
He had, however, put forward some curious theories. For instance
he believed, that giraffes had long necks because the ancestors of
these species had continually to stretch their necks in search of high
foliage. This statement was disproved conclusively only by later
researches. Another important landmark was the publication of
Charles Lyell’s book PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY in 1830. He established
for the first time the tremendous time scale involved between one
geological stratum and another. The variation in fossil forms could
be understood in terms of changes that took place over millions of
years, but had seemed improbable when a smaller time scale was
visualized. In 1859 Darwin published his epoch-making book ON THE
ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELECTION, but such was
the hold of the religious view even on his scientific mind that he

174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

deliberately made no reference to the origins of man. He wrote about
this delicate subject only in 1871 in his DESCENT OF MAN. :

The author points out in the earlier part of the book that it was
fortunate for Darwin that Mendel’s paper published in 1865 did not
draw too much publicity. Mendel, by his experiments in cross
fertilization of coloured peas, proved the immutability of inherited -
characters lodged in the genes. If this meant that there could be no
variation of the species by natural selection, Darwin’s entire approach
would have fallen to the ground. In good time, however, the work —
of the Dutch botanist, Hugo de Vries, demonstrated that mutations
did take place from time to time entirely at random. This was
enough to sustain the theory of natural selection, and of the survival
of the best-adapted form at any particular time.

It is difficult to say when exactly a non-living molecule become:
a living entity. Apparently, at the level of the atom there is no
difference between it and the non-living environment. The difference
comes at the large molecule stage. The book traces in a detailed
manner the various stages of life from the state of inorganic molecules
to that of the mammals.

From the point of view of the general reader like this reviewer,
the most interesting portions of the book are those which describe
evolution at the cross-roads. For instance during the Permian,
Era, when the amphibians were on the scene, many species were
struggling to overcome the handicaps of terrestrial living. Evidence
of life in those times is necessarily scanty, and to this day it is not
possible to say for certain whether Sewneuria was an amphibian or
a reptile, but the discussion gives one a good insight into the type
of problems which creatures had to face at that time. As is well
known, the reptiles made very fast progress during the Mesozoic Era
about 200 million years ago. The three periods of this era, the
Triassic, Jurassic, and the Cretaceous bring the story to 70 million
years from today. ‘This was the period when the reptiles dominated
the world. The coloured illustrations by Verner Hancke show the
monstrous and terrible forms (at least to our eyes) that populated
the world at the time. By the process of mutation and selection the
first bird Archaeopteryx evolved from these ungainly animals. At
this stage evolution took a reverse trend. Forms which had struggled
for centuries to adapt themselves for living on dry land and _ finally
succeeded by developing the ‘patent’ of the amniote (reptilian) egg
were now striving to get back into a wet medium. When they first
came from the ocean on to dry land they had to contend with
problems of dessication and gravity. Now, when they wanted to get

REVIEWS | 175

back from dry land to the ocean, they had to face the challenge of
buoyancy and propulsion. It also became necessary for them to
produce live young. |

At the end of the Mesozoic Era the Mammals took over. What
led to the complete extinction of the giant reptiles is an unsolved
mystery. Large bodies and small brains seem to have been the
obvious cause—a lesson which we humans should remember. The story
naturally ends with ourselves. ‘We are neither the beginning nor
the end. The thread that has wound and twisted its way from the
first glimmerings of life is still unravelling.’

ZF.

3. FIFTY YEARS OF SCIENCE IN INDIA : Progress of

Botany. By P. Maheshwari and R. N. Kapil. pp. viit178
(24.5X16 cm.). Calcutta, 1963. Indian Science Congress Associa-
tion. Price Rs. 4.50. 7

Coming at a time when advancement in different branches of
botany is so rapid, it is becoming increasingly difficult to keep track
of all the new findings. The volume under review, prepared on the
occasion of the Golden Jubilee celebration of the Indian Science
Congress and covering progress in different branches of botany in the
last fifty years with special emphasis on the past twenty-five years, is
a welcome addition to botanical literature. The mass of information
accumulated during the period, however, is so great that to quote
from the preface: ‘To review all this would be impossible for two
persons. The present treatment is, therefore, rather broad-based and .
deals with only the most important and significant aspects of Indian
botany.’ qi

A glance at the contents is sufficient to give an idea of the wide
scope of the work. After a brief introduction the authors deal with such
topics as Algae, Fungi and Allied Organisms, Bryophytes, Pterido-
phytes, Gymnosperms, Taxonomy, Morphology and Anatomy,
Embryology, Cytogenetics, Plant Breeding, Ecology, Physiology, and
Paleobotany. Salient features from all the important papers in these
branches are presented cogently. They are based on 817 research
papers, references to which are given under ‘Literature Cited’.
Further, the inclusion of many elegant illustrations in the form of
line drawings and photographs enhances the value of the work.

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 614 (A)

Of special merit is the chapter on General Considerations, where
the authors have rightly stressed the importance of starting a
National Biological Laboratory in India. Biological sciences have
acquired a greater importance than ever before and the need for
starting such a laboratory cannot be overemphasised. |

The book will be an invaluable acquisition to libraries of educa-
tional and scientific institutions engaged in botanical and agricultural
researches.

K. SUBRAMANYAM

4. NERVE CELLS AND INSECT BEHAVIOUR. By Kenneth
D. Roeder. pp. 188 (22X14 cm.). With several monochrome
photographs and line drawings. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1963.
Harvard University Press. Price $ 4.75.

Insect neurophysiology is important, according to Dr. Roeder,
because it is part of general neurophysiology. We know a great deal
about the way the nervous system works, mainly from work done
on mammals. Much less is known about the insect nervous system;
but, in general, impulses are generated and conducted along axons
(or nerve fibres) in the sarne way. The system consists of relatively
few cells, so individual parts can be more easily isolated and studied.
This also means that insect behaviour depends on fewer units than
in vertebrates, so that the neural mechanism underlying behaviour
can be more satisfactorily related to behaviour pattern.

An example of this is seen in Dr. Roeder’s studies with the
tympanic membranes of Noctuid moths. These are large oval
membranes on either side of the thorax, serving as ears. Each
tympanic membrane has two sense cells, and the auditory nerve
therefore contains only two axons. High pitched sounds, for the
most part beyond the range of the human ear, cause electrical
impulses to be generated in the sense cells and to be conducted along
the auditory nerve. Activity in the nerve can be detected by insert-
ing a tiny electrode into it. Current pulses at the electrode are
amplified and either recorded on a chart as a pattern of spikes or
made audible by a loudspeaker as a series of clicks. A preparation
of this kind was exposed to bats flying overhead, their cries being
inaudible to human observers. Activity in the auditory nerve was
followed continuously with oscilloscope and loudspeaker.

REVIEWS 177

This is Dr. Roeder’s account of ‘the high excitement of listening
for the first time to these night sounds through a moth’s ear’: *...
the first indication of an approaching bat was a change . . . from
an irregular sequence to a regular burst (of clicks) at ten per second

The bursts appeared to rise in pitch and change in quality, then
to go through the reverse sequence and die away. This was
interpreted as the approach and departure of one bat .. . Other
patterns soon became recognizable. (In one of these) each burst is
very long, and some appear to be double. These were undoubtedly
evoked by a bat flying very close to the preparation, and ‘the only
explanation of the second . . . burst is that the moth’s ear detected
not only the bat’s chirp but also its echo from a nearby wall... It
is interesting to listen through stereo headphones to the taped
responses of right and left tympanic nerves to a moving bat. The
human ear interprets these spike differentials as giving direction to
the source, and one can almost imagine oneself inside the nervous
system of the moth as the source of clicks appears to move from
one side to the other.’

What does a moth do when it hears a bat? The reactions of
intact moths to ultrasonic impulses were watched. Moths some
distance away from the transmitter would turn and fly away from
the source of stimulation, but those within ten feet would dive into
the grass, or execute a complicated and unpredictable series of
manoeuvres before diving. The survival value of such behaviour is
evident.

I have described these observations at length because I think that
only an example can give an idea of the unique approach to insect
behaviour which is being made here. The rest of the book is equally
fascinating. One of the most interesting chapters is on activity
occurring in nerves in the absence of stimulation, a widespread
phenomenon. There appear to be several behaviour patterns built
into the nervous system, and which of these will appear at any given
time is determined by the brain.

The book is very well arranged, and the argument is logically
developed through chapters on diverse subjects. It should be read
by everyone interested in insects or in neurophysiology. It is not
every day that a physiologist as distinguished as Dr. Roeder writes
a book which is so clear that it can be read by people with very
little background in the subject, and yet which will make many
professional scientists think.

R.R.
12

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

5S. THE NATURE OF ANIMAL COLOURS. By H. Munro
Fox & Gwynne Vevers. pp. 246 (22.5X14.5 cm.). 9 Coloured
plates. London, 1960. Sidgwick and Jackson Limited. Price 42s.
net.

There are weightly tomes on the value of its colour to an animal,
whether as protection or warning, or as a stimulation factor. This
book describes the nature of the colour, its origin, and its physical
and chemical composition and character.

The book gives an illustrated and easily understood account of
the-two basic types of animal colour, structural colour and pigment
colour. Structural colour results from interference, diffraction and
scattering of light by the physical characters of the surface of the
animal—the iridescence of the wing of an insect and the metallic
brilliance of many beetles and of bird feathers, for instance, are
interference colours, where the nature of the surface cancels out part
of the spectrum and makes the balance visible. The non-iridescent
blues of feathers are similar to the blue of the sky, and are due to
Tyndall scattering of the shorter waves in white light by minute
particles, which in feathers are air-filled cavities in the barbs. ‘The
green colour of feathers, frogs, and lizards is a combination of
structural and pigment colours, the light before and after scattering
passing through a filter of yellow pigment. Pigment colours like
melanin and carotenoids are described in detail. Melanin, the
black pigment of animals, is a stable compound, as instanced by the
ink of fossil squids which has been used to sketch with 150 millions
of years after the life of the animal! The carotenoids which give
the: pinkish tint to the wings of the flamingo are also responsible for
many of the yellow, orange, and reddish colours. Incidentally, the
flamingo derives its pigment from the blue-green algae it consumes
and, to retain the colour, captive specimens are fed on cockles and
mussels which are known to store carotenoids. ‘These and a wealth
of other details on various other pigment colours are covered in
the first eleven chapters, which are rounded off with a chapter on
laboratory work, a brief synopsis of animal colours, and an exhaustive
bibliography.

The book is of excellent value to the student of zoology as well
as others interested in knowing the reasons behind the colours,
magnificent and otherwise, that exist in the Animal Kingdom.

J.C.D.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. OCCURRENCE OF THE RUSTY SPOTTED CAT FELIS
RUBIGINOSA GEOFFROY IN SOUTH GUJARAT

It might interest readers to note the occurrence of the Rusty
Spotted Cat Felis rubiginosa Geoffroy in south Gujarat. The
northernmost record of the range of this cat hitherto recorded was
south of Nasik.

I have collected two specimens, one in Dangs District and the
other in the adjoining forest of Bansda Taluka (Surat District). One
of the skins was identified by the Bombay Natural History Society
and is kept in the Society’s collection. The other is mounted in the
museum of St. Xavier's High School, Bombay.

In an article by Mr. Gee in the April 1963 issue of Cheetal
(Journal of Wild Life Preservation Society of India) he lists the Rusty
Spotted Cat as one of the nearly exterminated species of animals.
Mr. Gee and myself would both feel grateful for any further news
which the Society or the readers of the Journal may be able to give
us regarding this very rare species of cat.

Dicvir NIVAS,

BANSDA, SURAT DISTRICT, M. S. DIGVEERENDRASINHSJI
GUJARAT, Maharaja of Bansda
November 22, 1963.

[In Volume 45 of the Journal Mr. Humayun Abdulali reported
this cat to be fairly common round Suriamal in north Thana District.
There is no reason to think that the position has changed.—Eps.]

2. .A FURTHER RECORD OF BLAINVILLE’S BEAKED-
WHALE, MESOPLODON DENSIROSTRIS (BLAINVILLE),
FROM THE INDIAN OCEAN : CETACEA

(With a map)

in: Volume 60 (3) : 727-30 of the Journal I recorded the occurrence
of Blainville’s Beaked-Whale [M. densirostris (Blainville)] from the
Indian Ocean. Since its publication, Dr. Yaichiro Okada informed

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

me of a second capture of a male by Japanese fishermen in the
Indian Ocean.

In his letter of December 20, 1963, Dr. Okada enclosed some
photographs of parts of the specimen which unmistakably indicate
the true identity of the species.

The specimen was caught by the fishing boat Hiyoshima of
Omaizaki at a point 105° 35’ E.x24° 40’ S. on the 28th October
1963. Unfortunately, only a tooth and a portion of the rostrum was
saved from the carcass—the balance of the animal was cast into
the sea.

The accompanying map shows the known distribution of the
species. The only known females, apparently young animals, are
recorded from the North American Atlantic coast. Most of the other
specimens recorded (or deduced from the character of the teeth) are
males. The breeding area of this species is not established. That
males of the various species, especially young males and very
occasionally females, wander far from the breeding grounds is
illustrated by several species. However, we have yet a lot to learn
of the habits and distribution of these comparatively rare whales.
Nevertheless, from the records of other species with foetuses, neonatals
or young calves, few though they may be, it appears that Mesoplodon
breeds in the vicinity of the larger archipelagos of the world, during
the spring and summer of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
respectively. Although it is perhaps presumptive, it is not un-
reasonable to suggest that M. densirostris breeds (or calves) in the
vicinity of the great archipelagos of the Caribbean Sea, i.e. nearest
the area where the greatest number of both sexes appear, and that
non-breeding males wander in small schools or as lone animals far
from their ‘home waters’.

The great distances travelled away from ‘home waters’ may at
first sight appear prodigious and naturally arouse some doubts—the
distances varying from several hundreds to a few thousands of miles
during the interval between one breeding season and the next.
However, such distances appear to be of little consequence to such
animals as whales. Several of the commercial whales are now
definitely known to travel several thousands of miles annually, from
feeding to breeding grounds and back again to the feeding grounds,
along with the calves within a short space of a few months. The
annual migration of the Humpback Whale (Megaptera nodosa) is a
well-known case, feeding in the Antarctic and breeding in tropical
waters near the equator and thence back again to the Antarctic to
feed. Little or no feeding takes place during the period the animals

(-AUIeIg) stasousuap uopojdosopy 2 M-PIYLog 8,24[AUIeIG JO VoNNQIISIG

O10 FHL 40 LYVHD

‘00S “LSI “EVN AVaWOg ‘NUNos

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 181

are absent from the main feeding grounds, for sufficient reserve in
the shape of blubber is stored during the main feeding season to tide
them over the period when the animals are away on their northern
sojourn.

17, CLARKE STREET,

KHANDALLAH,

WELLINGTON, N. 5, CHARLES McCANN
NEW ZEALAND,

January 28, 1964.

3. COMMUNAL BREEDING IN THE WHITEHEADED
BABBLER [TURDOIDES AFFINIS (JERDON)] IN
TAMBARAM, MADRAS STATE

Some common Indian babblers of the genus Turdoides Cretzschmar
are well known for their communal life.

The interesting fact of their taking a communal interest in breed-
ing activity was observed by Malcolm MacDonald (J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 56 : 132-133 and BIRDS IN MY INDIAN GARDEN, pp. 170-171),
who recorded noting more than a pair of Jungle Babblers [Turdoides
striatus (Dumont)] in Delhi showing interest in constructing a single
nest, defending the eggs and nestlings when approached, and feeding
the young ones in the nest as well as after they left the nest. He
noted a similar communal nest-construction in the Large Grey
Babbler [Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes)] also. Earlier Bates (J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 125 and 56: 130-131) noted communal nest-
feeding in the Jungle Babbler [Turdoides striatus (Dumont)] at Agra
and Madras. Dharmakumarsinhji (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 :
512) recorded communal defence of the fledglings of the Large Grey
Babbler [Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes)], and Lowther (A BIRD PHOTO-
GRAPHER IN INDIA, p. 26) observed six different Jungle Babblers
[Turdoides striatus (Dumont)] feeding three young ones in a nest.

The Whiteheaded Babbler [Turdoides affinis (Jerdon)] is dis-
tributed throughout peninsular India and Ceylon. Details of its
breeding biology are poorly known. It is very common in the scrub
jungles around Madras, and is a common resident bird of the Madras
Christian College Estate. Recently, a flock of seven in our garden
started nesting right under our upstairs window, a splendid oppor-
tunity for my wife and me to observe the details of their breeding
for about a month.

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Construction of the Nest. A five-forked point of a branch at a
height of 2.10 m. in a very bushy 3 m. high croton was chosen.
Nesting commenced on 20th August, Three or four birds actively
participated and all the nest material was collected from within about
9 m. of the nesting site. The three active participants divided the
labour among themselves and each faithfully performed its part.
One collected dried neem twigs from the ground, another collected
the exposed live rootlets of the garden plant Ervatamia coronaria
Stapf (Tamil : Nandiyavatiam), and the third collected green shoots
of the weed Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. (Tamil: Nannari). The
two latter struggled hard, pulling out of the ground and breaking off
long pieces from live plants. They worked all day at times unmindful
of close passers-by, and completed the nest in three days. Mean-
while, the rest of the flock were engaged in their routine activities
near by.

The completed nest was a wide-mouthed, or rather an open, bowl
with a diameter of 8 cm. at the rim and about 5 cm. deep at the
centre. It was rather coarse, with thicker twigs and rootlets loosely
interwoven on the exterior and thin neem twigs closely lining it
internally. Just a few green weeds were used; the nest had no fine
lining other than the neem twigs. Some adjacent. croton leaves were
found stuck into the sides of the nest, thereby providing: a good
camouflage.

Incubation. About a day or two after the completion of the nest,
on the 3rd or 4th September, four eggs of the usual unmarked
turquoise blue colour were seen in it. Incubation commenced
straightaway, and a sitting bird was noted always on the eggs. Only
once we noted the sitting bird changing turns with another. The
sitting bird was usually reluctant to get off the nest until we got very
close to it, and eventually got up with loud protests inviting in a
moment the rest of the flock, all of which would hover over us or
perch at different spots and chatter loudly with tails spread out and
wings half open and quivering. This communal nest-defence was
noted not only during incubation but also when the young were in
the nest. Several times, we noted the~ flock chasing - and pecking
violently at a Jungle Crow or a Koel that chanced: to pass close’ ‘to
the nest, and once even a mongoose on the ground was chased away.

- Hatching. The first chick hatched out on the 18th, “the second
on the 19th, and the third on the 21st. Of the three, the earliest was
decidedly the largest and it grew faster, developing feather-follicles on
the third day and long quills on the back and sides of-the body and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 183

on the wings by the fifth day. The fourth egg did not hatch. It
was noted on the 23rd September that one of the smaller chicks and
the unhatched egg were thrown out of the nest. The culprit is obvious
from the fact that the large chick ultimately turned out to be a Pied
Crested Cuckoo (see Bates, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40 ; 125).

While the chicks were in the nest, the parent bird did not
sit on them but stood with its legs wide apart perched on the nest-
rim. At roosting only one of the birds stayed at the nest.

Feeding at the Nest. Feeding commenced after the third chick
hatched out. Most members of the flock, including even the sitting bird,
joined in the search for food. Sometimes, when three or four found
food, all would fly to the nest with characteristic calls, alight near
it, and one by one go on to the nest and feed the chicks. Meanwhile,
the others would also fly to the nest—they seemed to act as a guard
and would warn the feeders against intruders. Feeding was usually
done in the cool hours of the morning and the evening, and not
during the sunny part of the day. The food consisted of insects,
spiders, whip-scorpions, and the like. Once I saw a_ week-old
Garden Lizard (Calotes versicolor) being brought by an adult but,
as I watched eagerly to see what followed, the adult probably being
impatient of my continued presence swallowed the food itself. I
noted this habit often, that when the food could not reach the chicks
soon the finders themselves swallowed the food that they had brought.

Care of the fledglings. On 30th September the Pied Crested
Cuckoo started getting out of the nest and wandering near by in the
croton bush. The young babbler was not so venturesome but kept
to the nest. On Ist October, the whole babbler flock followed their
young fledgling into the garden, leaving the Pied Crested Cuckoo
-alone in the croton bush. They no longer fed the Pied Crested
Cuckoo, but attended their own babbler fledgling, and did not return
to the nest. After one day of loneliness, the young Cuckoo dis-
appeared.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, P. J. SANJEEVA RAJ
TAMBARAM, SOUTH INDIA,

January 12, 1964.

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

4. DO PSITTACIDS OTHER THAN LORIKEETS SLEEP
UPSIDE DOWN?

While the Lorikeet [Loriculus vernalis (Sparrman)] is known to
sleep upside down, hanging by its feet, I was not aware of this trait
in other forms. Some years ago, I walked round the Delhi Zoo
rather late in the evening, and was surprised to see Biossomheaded
Parakeets [Psittacula cyanocephala (Linn.)] roosting against the wire
netting of their cage, with their heads down, and apparently asleep.

Subsequently Mr. Reuben David, Superintendent of the Municipal
Hill Garden Zoo, Ahmedabad, informed me that he had observed
this habit in most parrots, cockatoos, lories, budgerigars.

This fact does not appear to be generally known, and it would
be interesting to learn to what extent this habit is natural or brought
about by captive conditions.

MEssrs Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BomBayY 3,

January 16, 1964.

5. OCCURRENCE OF SYLVIA MINULA MARGELANICA
STOLZMANN AT KUTCH, GUJARAT STATE

During the BNHS/WHO bird migration study project at Kuar
Bet, Kutch, in March 1960, a Whitethroat (Sylvia) caught in the nets
appeared to be the Small Whitethroat (S. minula) and its skin was
preserved for comparison. Dr. Vaurie who later examined the
specimen and three other skins from the Society’s collection identified
as S. curruca reports that three of them including the specimen
collected at Kuar Bet are S. minula minula, and that B.N.H.S. No. 5864
(Measurements: Wing 68; Bill 9; Tail; Tarsus 21 mm.) is perhaps
S. m. margelanica Stolzmann. I would draw the attention of ornitho-
logists in the Kutch area to the possibility of the occurrence of this
race in Kutch.

BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCcIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR RoaD, | | P. W. SOMAN
BOMBAY 6-WB., Research Assistant
February 12, 1964.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 185

6. A BIRD STUDY TRIP TO THE LACCADIVE ISLANDS

The sandbank of Pitti and the atoll Baliapanni or Cherbaniani,
in the Laccadive group of islands, have been known from the early
nineteenth century to harbour many varieties of terns. The
Administrator, Shri Murkot Ramunny, who is keenly interested in the
bird life of the Islands, agreed to the Scciety’s suggestion to explore
the potentialities of the Laccadives as a centre for studying the
breeding habits and migratory movements of terns in the Arabian Sea,
and offered to take two members of the Society’s research staff to the
Islands.

We left Bombay on 12 October 1963, and on the 16th boarded
at Calicut the cargo ship Dhanalakshmi chartered by the Admini-
strator. Between the 17th and 22nd we visited six islands, viz.
Kavrathi, Pitti, Agathy, Chetlat, Bitra, and Baliapanni in that order.
None of them showed a distinctive fauna. White-eyes and koels were
the only resident birds we saw, and crows are reported to occur on
Amini Island. A species of skink was the only reptile seen by
us though Shri Ramunny saw some snakes on an islet of the
Baliapanni atoll.

Presented below in chronological order are brief accounts about
the islands we visited:

17th October, Kavrathi, 10° 35’ N., 72° 35’-E. This is a little
island some 865 acres in area with a fair-sized lagoon. It has scanty
bird life. The islanders pointed to Pitti as the place where birds are
seen in abundance.

18th October, Pitti, 10° 30’ N., 72° 30° E. “The extreme southern-
most point of an enormous sunken sandbank about 200x300 yards
in area, and standing some 6 or 7 feet above high watermark’ is
how Hume (1876) describes Pitti. We reached this island, which
lies some 15 miles north-west of Kavrathi, by motor launch. As the
island is surrounded by shallow water, we reached the beach in a
countrycraft, piloted safely through the heavy surf and coral reefs
by the experienced islanders hired by Shri Ramunny. The islanders
held contradictory opinions on the bird population of this un-
inhabited sandbank, some holding that birds are seen here throughout
the year and others that they leave by the end of October. It is
certain that thousands of Philippine Noddies and Large Crested
Terns nest here between April and September every year. By July
the bird population reaches a peak and egg collectors have their field-
day! The present. Administrator has banned all such collection
trips. At the time we visited the island breeding activity at Pitti was

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

nearly over. We caught and ringed 16 and 18 young respectively of
the Large Crested Tern (Sterna bergii) and the Philippine Noddy
(Anoiis stolidus). As the young had not attained flight we could
catch them after a good chase. A solitary nestling of the Noddy
(about 2 weeks old) was also taken. A mist net we erected was
totally ineffective in the high wind. We saw several flocks of
Turnstones at Pitti. The islanders remarked that their nooses would
have been effective in trapping such shore birds.

18-19th October, Agathy, 10° 50’ N., 72° 10’ E. Another fertile
island, some 688 acres in area. Agathy is in the middle of an
elliptical reef. It is thickly planted with coconut interspersed with
breadfruit trees and is poor in bird life. White-eyes (Zosteraps
palpebrosa) and the Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea) were the only
resident birds we saw. As we saw no crows we presume that kKoels
are visitors from Amini or perhaps the mainland. An _ islander
showed us a turtle dove (Streptopelia orientalis) which he had
trapped for the pot. The species was reported to be a regular visitor
after the monsoon.

19-20th October, Chetlat, 11° 44’ N., 72° 40’ E. A little island
of some 255 acres, Chetlat has a beautiful sandy beach frequented
by turnstones, Little Stints, and Kentish Plovers. As night sets in
the lagoon is lit by millions of phosphorescent sea animals which
almost form a luminous girdle around the island.

20th October, Bitra, 11° 35’ N., 72° 10° E. The smallest (6
acres) inhabited island we visited, Bitra showed the largest number
of shore birds. We noted nine varieties including a Pipit (Anthus sp.)
and 6 to 8 Greyheaded Yellow Wastails (Motacilla flava thunbergi).
Bitra is part of a regular atoll, and has a shallow lagoon at its
northern end. 3

20-21st October, Baliapanni or Cherbaniani, 12° 20’ N., 71° 50’ E.
Hume describes Baliapanni as ‘a long oval atoll some 6X21 miles
in its extreme dimensions’. We could visit only one islet in the
atoll. The ship anchoring some 400 yards away from the atoll
lowered a canoe and paddling along the north-west aspect of the
atoll we landed on the islet without difficulty and began ringing.
From a distance we had seen a gathering of Sooty and Brownwinged
Terns, but the islet we visited appeared to be used almost exclusively
by Brownwinged Terns. During our 2-hour stay, we ringed 5 young
Brownwinged Terns and i8 nestlings. Our identification is based
partly on the identity of the parent birds which would swoop down
within a few feet as we handled the chicks, However, the eggs we

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 187

collected apparently belonged to another species'. We saw about a
dozen rotten eggs and as many mummies of nestlings.

We could not explore any other islet in the group for lack of time,
but suspect Sooty Terns to be breeding on another islet. As the party
had to return to Calicut on the 23rd, Baliapanni was the last island
we visited.

Pitti and Baliapanni as bird-ringing stations. From the informa-
tion received from the islanders one fact emerges, viz. that between
April and October Pitti and Baliapanni are used for breeding by
large numbers of terns. Such enormous concentrations offer an
excellent opportunity for studying the breeding biology of these
terns. From the point of view of ringing April appears to be the
best month. With assistance from the Administration, a batch of
ringers can reach Kavrathi or Chetlat by cargo ship and using these
islands as a base they can reach Pitti or Baliapanni by chartered motor
launches (at about Rs. 30 per day) towing the country crafts needed
for landing. About 6 islanders can take a party ashore safely. The
main difficulty is that these sandbanks have no fresh water or
shelter from weather, and unless adequate arrangements can be made
the party will have to return to the base camp after finishing each
day’s work. Of the two islands Pitti is more easily, even though
less safely, accessible, but Baliapanni has a greater variety of birds.
The terns can be caught by hand, and islanders can be employed
‘to trap turnstones with nooses.

These uninhabited islands can be turned into useful bird” ringing
stations but the cost per bird will be. higher than on the mainland.

List of birds seen. The following species of birds were observed
by us between October 16 and 22, either on or about the islands:

Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl). Wilson’s Stonm Betrel

On passage between Calicut and Kavrathi this species was seen
several times. Two or three of these birds followed the wake of the
ship for a long time attracted by a baited line.

Oceanodroma leuccrhoa monorhis (Swinh.). Ashy Storm Petrel.
Mr. Madhavan caught this bird as it came on the ship between
Chetlat and Bitra on October 20.. The bird was uniform sooty black

1 The eggs have been identified as eggs of the Large Crested Tern, Sterna bergii, by
Mr. C. J. O. Harrison, British Museum (Natural History), London. The chicks have
been identified in the Society’s office as the Brownwinged Tern, Sterna anaethetus
anaethetus.—EDs.

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

throughout and had a slightly forked tail. Its measurements were:
Wing 150 mm., Bill 13 mm., Tail 64 mm., Tarsus 22 mm., and
weight 38 grammes. As the bird was in perfect health we released
it with a band.

Ardeola grayii (Sykes). Pond Heron.
Solitary bird seen about 15 miles off Bitra.

Egretta sp. [ ? gularis (Bosc.)]. Reef Heron.
Solitary bird seen at Kavrathi on coral reef.

Pluvialis squatarola (Linnaeus). Grey Plover.
Single bird seen on beach at Chetlat.

Pluvialis dominica (P.L.S. Miller). Golden Plover.
Seen at Chetlat and Bitra on the beach.

Charadrius alexandrinus Linnaeus. Kentish Plover.

Seen singly and in flocks of 8 to 10 at Chetlat and Bitra on beach
and coral reefs.

Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus). Whimbrel.

Solitary bird seen on our way from Calicut about 10 miles off
Kavrathi.

Numenius arquata (Linnaeus). Curlew. x4
A flock of three birds seen on the beach at Bitra.

Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus. Common Sandpiper.
Seen on all the four inhabited islands we visited.

Arenaria interpres (Linnaeus). Turnstone.

The commonest wader we saw. This species was seen in flocks
of 8 to 20 at Pitti, Chetlat, Bitra, and Baliapanni.

Calidris minutus (Leisler). Little Stint.
Seen on coral reef at Agathy, Chetlat, and Bitra.

Dromas ardeola Paykull. Crab Plover.
A pair was seen at Bitra by V.C.A.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 189

Catharacta sp.

A large Brown Skua (Antarctic Skua ?) was seen at Baliapanni
atoll, hovering over a gathering of terns and on our way between
Calicut and Kavrathi.

Sterna anaethetus Scopoli. Brownwinged Tern.

A few hundred seen at Baliapanni where we ringed chicks of this
species.

Sterna fuscata Linnaeus. Sooty Tern.

Gatherings of this species and Brownwinged Terns seen at
Baliapanni.

Sterna bergii velox. Cretzschmar Large Crested Tern.

A few hundred birds seen at Pitti sandbank along with Noddy
Terns.

Anous stolidus pileatus (Scopoli). Noddy Tern.

This species was breeding at Pitti. A nestling about two weeks
old taken from a crevice in the coral reef at Pitti is being reared by
Shri Madhavan. We ringed 18 birds of this species at Pitti.

Streptopelia orientalis (Latham). Rufous Turtle Dove.

At Chetlat an islander showed us a bird he had trapped for food.
According to local information this species is a frequent visitor to
this island after the monsoon.

Eudynamys scolopacea (Linnaeus). Koel.

A pair was seen on a Banyan tree near the Dak Bungalow at
Agathy.

Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus). Common Kingfisher.
Single bird seen at Kavrathi. __

Hirundo rustica Linnaeus. Swallow.
A few birds were seen a mile off shore at Kavrathi.

Delichon urbica (Linnaeus). House Martin.

A solitary bird came on our ship between Calicut and Kavrathi.
A flock of some 10 birds was seen at Chetlat.

Anthus sp.
A solitary pipit seen on coral reef at Bitra.

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Motacilla flava thunbergi Billberg. Greyheaded Yellow Wagtail.

A flock of some six birds seen on the beach at Bitra. One could
get quite close to these birds. |

Zosterops palpebrosa (Temminck). White-eye.

Seen at Kavrathi, Agathy, and Chetlat. Very common on the
first two islands roosting on shrubs (introduced) 4 to 5 feet from the
ground.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Administrator of the Laccadives, Shri
Murkot Ramunny, and to Shri E. K. Madhavan, Special Officer for
Fisheries, for help extended to us and for the Perea e to refer to
notes kept by the latter.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, —- > © = TD). Nv MATHEW
BOMBAY 6-WB.,. _ V. C. AMBEDKAR
April 3, 1964. | Research Assistants

REFERENCE

Hume, ALLAN OcTAVIAN (1876): The Laccadive and the West Coast. Stray
Feathers 4 : 413-482.

7. OBSERVATIONS ON THE EGG-LAYING OF THE
FANTHROATED LIZARD, SITANA PONTICERIANA CUV. |

(With two plates)

On 20 August 1963 three Fanthroated Lizards, Sitana ponticeriana
Cuv., were collected from Vetal Hill, about 3 km. west of Poona.
They were kept under observation in a cage made of a wooden box
covered with netting and lined with a layer of soil and two or three
stones. They were fed. with spiderlings, cockroaches, and other small
insects. Two of the lizards were adult males and the third a gravid
female. One of the males was continually fanning its gular appendage,
an act of courtship peculiar to this species.

On the 29th morning at about 10 hours 30 min. the female started
digging a hole with its forelimbs, shovelling the earth backward with
its hindlimbs. By 11 hours 10 min. the hole was about 3 in. deep
(Plate I, 2). Then straddling the hole she laid her first egg at 11 hours

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. ee wl

Sitana ponticeriana Cuv.

1. Female basking on a twig

2. Female digging pit with forelimbs

Photos: R, N. Chopra

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Sitana ponticertana Cuv.

ity.

. Eggs of second clutch (in petri dish)

Photos: R. N. Chopra

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 191

15 min. (Plate IJ, 1). The clutch of 11 eggs was completed by
11 hours 28 min. 30 sec. The eggs were laid in one heap, one on
top of another. Then she arranged them side by side in the pit so
that they did not overlap each other, replaced the soil with her
forelimbs, and patted it down with her hindlimbs and snout.

On the 31st the female was covered by a male. The details of
the courtship and the method of pairing will be dealt with in a
separate communication. On the 10th September the female was
noticed to be gravid. On the 17th morning she prepared another pit
as before and between 10 hours 54 min. and 11 hours 5 min. laid a
clutch of 13 eggs.

During the 3rd and 4th weeks of September the male was seen
chasing the female but copulation was not observed. As she showed
signs of being gravid in the Ist week of October copulation must
have taken place. In the morning of the 10th October between
11 hours 16 min. 30 sec. and 11 hours 26 min. 38 sec. she laid a
clutch of 14 eggs.

Thus, within a period of 41 days the female laid 38 eggs.

The eggs are small, ellipsoid in shape, with a soft chalky white
shell (Plate II, 2). They are free, not stuck together as is often the
case with reptile eggs. The average dimensions as measured from
the last clutch was 10 mm.X6 mm. According to Smith (FAUNA OF
BRITISH INDIA, REPTILES 2 : 146) the clutch size is 6 to 8 eggs.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION, R. N. CHOPRA
Poona 5,

November 30, 1963.

8. A FIRST RECORD OF BREEDING COLOUR CHANGES
IN A TORTOISE

Colour changes associated with the breeding season have never -
been reported in turtles. Thus a note on the presence of such changes
in Geochelone travancorica (Boulenger) is worthy of publication.

The colour changes accompanying the breeding season in this
species (November through January) are found in both males and
females, though decidedly more noticeable in the former. These
changes involve the eyelids and particularly the skin covering the
temainder of the orbital depression, as well as the nasal area—
particularly that below the narial openings.

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

In adult specimens of Geochelone travancorica these ateas
frequently possess a pinkish colour which is intensified during the
breeding season. In breeding males these colours change to a fairly
bright red, contrasting strongly with the remaining light yellow-brown
of the remainder of the head.

Head movements during courtship in this species are believed to
be unimportant in species identification. The change in colour is
thus presumed to be caused by increased vascularization in the area
of organs known to be important in sex and/or species recogni-
tion, i.e. the olfactory and visual organs. This vascularization may
occur in other species of tortoises as well, but is so evident in G.
travancorica because of the generally lightly-pigmented head.

FLORIDA STATE MUSEUM,

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA, WALTER AUFFENBERG
GAINESVILLE, FLORIDA,

February 29, 1964.

9. DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF TOAD
(ANURA : BUFONIDAE) FROM SATARA DISTRICT,
MAHARASHTRA, INDIA*

(With two plates)

In early 1962 arrangements were made, with the co-operation of
the Chief Engineer, Koyna Dam Project, Koyna, Satara District,
_ Maharashtra, for the Society’s personnel to visit the project area and
collect reptiles and amphibians that might be flooded out when the
water level rose during the monsoon. On information being received.
in July that the water level of the dam was rising, two assistants of
the Society, P. W. Soman and P. B. Shekar, were sent to the dam
area and while collecting on the crest of a hill, covered with vegeta-
tion and occasional pools, near Humbelevi village saw several small
toads, some in amplexus. They had not in their experience seen
breeding toads of such small size and a series was collected. On a
subsequent visit on Ist September the toads were found in similar
numbers among the grass and under stones in the same area; a large
number of juveniles were also noted.

Examination of a series of these toads shows that they are
distinct from the species of Bufo hitherto described.

———

1 Manuscript posted from London 28th November 1963; received in the
Society’s Office 2nd December 1963.—Ebs. re

JourN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Bufo sulphureus sp. nov.

2. Section of dorsolateral skin immediately behind parotoids

Prac i

x14

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Bufo sulphureus sp. nov.

Ventral view of holotype x 4

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 193

Bufo sulphureus sp. nov.

Material examined. Holotype an adult 92, Reg. No. 377 in the
collections of the Bombay Natural History Society, collected at
approximately 4000 ft. near Humbelevi village, Koyna, Satara District,
Maharashtra. Paratypes: 5 oo, 11 2 ¢, 10 juveniles from the same
locality. These specimens will be deposited in the collections of the
British Museum (Natural History), the Indian Museum, and_ the
Bombay Natural History Society.

Diagnosis. A small-sized species of Bufo (mature individuals
less than 34 mm. in body length) without cephalic ridges; tympanum
inconspicuous, in diameter less than one-quarter that of the eye;
parotoids subtriangular, indistinct; fingers without web; toes long and
slender with a rudiment of web; subarticular tubercles single, not
prominent; no tarsal ridge. Body covered with small, round, melanin-
tipped warts which are irregularly scattered on an otherwise smooth
dorsum. In life dark brown with yellow patches on the flanks, thighs,
and shoulders.

Description of Holotype. Size small (29.4 mm., snout to vent),
cranial crests absent; snout short, only slightly rounded in profile,
deeply concave above; canthus rostralis marked off by a prominent,
almost straight ridge formed of a single row of rounded tubercles
which continues round the anterior border of the eye; loreal region
strongly sloping, lips flaring out below; nostrils lateral and swollen,
twice as near to the tip of the snout as to the eyes; interorbital
width subequal to the upper eyelid, which has a thickened rim bear-
ing tubercles. Tympanic annulus not very distinct, in diameter about
one-fifth that of the eye; the tympanic area strongly tuberculate, the
tubercles masking the tympanum. Parotoid glands inconspicuous,
subtriangular, the posterior ends decidedly narrower than the anterior
ones. Fingers free, not dilated, first finger slightly longer than
second; subarticular tubercles single but feebly developed. ‘Toes not
fringed and with only a rudiment of web at basal phalanges; subarti-
cular tubercles single, barely visible; two metatarsal tubercles, the
inner one larger and more prominent; no tarsal ridge. Tarso-
metatarsal articulation reaches to the tympanum. Dorsal skin set with
low, rounded, melanin-tipped, irregularly scattered tubercles of un-
equal size which are well separated by areas of smooth skin. Lips
smooth. Tubercles on limbs closer set, more conical and showing
a tendency towards spinosity. Ventral surfaces granuiar.

Colour. Dorsal surfaces uniform dark brown, exceptionally with
slight suffusion of dull chrome-yellow. Bright chrome-yellow patches
13

194. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

on the flanks, sides of thighs, and above the arm insertions. Lips and
ventral surfaces cream; occasionally small, irregularly shaped, dark
brown spots and blotches on the throat and abdomen. Tubercles on
the under surface of limbs, around the vent, and on the infra-tympanic
area whitish in some specimens.

Secondary Sex Characters. The males vary in the degree to which
their sex characters have developed. Ail bear nuptial asperities
consisting of clusters of dark brown spinules but only in the most
sexually advanced example do they cover the latero-dorsal surface of
the first and second fingers as well as the inner lateral aspect of the
third finger. Similar spinules are present on the inner palmar
tubercle. A median subgular vocal sac which communicates with
the mouth by means of a wide slit (on the right side in four examples,
on the left side in one) is also present. In three of the specimens the
posterior half of the sac has a broad, heavily pigmented, transverse
band.

Variation. The webbing in the holotype is more reduced than
in some other, better preserved specimens in the type series, which
have 24 phalanges free ftom web on the external side of the 3rd toe
and 34-33 free on both sides of the 4th toe.

Remarks. This species most closely resembles Bufo brevirostris
Rao (type locality Hassan District, Mysore State) but can be dis-
tinguished by its smaller tympanum, concave head, and differing
integument. The upper surface ‘of the skin of brevirostris is said
to be covered with small, uniformly distributed tubercles, with a
small row of larger warts on the median line of the back, and the
throat and abdomen are described as having spiny tubercles. In
sulphureus the dorsal tubercles are irregularly scattered and there is
no spinosity of the venter.

BRITISH MUSEUM {NATURAL HIsTorRy),

CROMWELL ROAD, ALICE G. C. GRANDISON
LONDON S.W. 7,

BoMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY, 2 Ae
91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, J.-C. DANIEL,..4

BOMBAY 6-WB., Curator

December 2, 1963.

REFERENCE

Rao, C.R.N. (1937): On some new forms of batrachia from S. India. Proc.
Indian Acad. Sci. 6B (6): 387-427.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 195

10. DEATH BY COLD OF FISH IN THE RIVER
| GANDAK, INDIA

Though several natural and artificial causes of fish mortality in
rivers are known (Klein 1957), instances of fish getting suddenly
numbed in a section of a fluviatile habitat, apparently caused by
sudden lowering of water temperature, appear to be unknown in
India. The phenomenon of ‘cold shock’ is, however, well known
throughout Europe and N. America. Rounsefell & Everhart (1953)
speak of some ‘warm water fish’ in ponds becoming powerless to
move and of coastal fish dying during sudden cold spells. While
engaged in fisheries survey in the vicinity of the proposed Gandak
barrage near Bhaisalotan, north Bihar, the authors observed a case
of large-scale numbing and surfacing of fish at the barrage site on
5-3-1962, occasioned by sudden intense hailstorms. The phenomenon
observed, with its probable cause, is presented’ in this note.

The River Gandak, originating in the high Himalayan ranges otf
central Nepal, passes through precipitous gorges before emerging into
the plains, a short distance above the proposed barrage site at
Bhaisalotan, which lies on the left bank of the river in the Indian
territory. The incidence of distress among fish was observed in about
1.5-2.0 m. deep, two mile long stretch of the smaller left fork of
River Gandak which joins its main right diversion a little further
downstream. Sonapancha, a small tribuiary, joins the Gandak on
the left bank just above the bifurcation mentioned above, bringing
in considerable torrential flow after every precipitation, which mostly
drains off along the left channel at the foot of Bhaisalotan.
~ Prior to the precipitation accompanied by two hailstorms on
5-3-1962, the rubble-studded, sandy river-bed, close to Bhaisalotan,
chad very clear, gently flowing water and an abundant growth of
filamentous algae (Spirogyra sp.) with many boulder-lined shelter
pools, and considerable congregation of fish was noticed at that site
in the river in general and in the shelter pools in particular.

_. Hailstorms accompanied by heavy rain visited the site twice on
5-3-1962, first at 10 a.m. and next at 11 a.m., the former lasting half-
an-hour and the latter, the more intense one, for about 45 minutes,
carpeting the ground at places with about 10 cm. deep hailstones.
The temperature of the lefi fork of the Gandak was 18.20°.C. prior
to the first downpour, which lowered the temperature to 17°C. The
second spell of rain and hail, however, suddenly lowered the tempera-
ture of the Sonapancha to 5° C., the cold waters of the tributary in
turn reducing the temperature of the left branch of Gandak to 6.5-7° C.

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

within a short time. Soon after the water got suddenly chilled,
hundreds of fish surfaced appearing stunned and dazed and showing
signs of deep distress, though none appeared to be dead. Well over
a hundred villagers and labourers, shortly thereafter, gathered on
both the banks of the channel to take a rather effortless catch of fish
with impromptu fish-catching devices like hand and scoop nets and
sheets of cloth of various dimensions. Many held sticks and bamboo
poles in their hands to beat and capture some semi-stunned fish.
Later, some small fishing nets were brought and the hauls were made
somewhat more systematically. This fishing activity continued for
about an hour and about 1000 kilograms of fish were collected. The
species composition of the affected fish, stated in the order of
decreasing frequency of occurrence is given in Table I:

TABLE I
SPECIES OF FISH AFFECTED BY THE CHILLING OF WATER

Major species Minor. species

. Wallago attu (Bl. & Schn.)

. Mystus (Osteobagrus) seenghala
(Sykes)

. Mystus (Osteobagrus) aor (Ham.)
. Labeo gonius (Ham.)

Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)

. Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.)

. Puntius sarana (Ham.)

. Labeo rohita (Ham.)

. Labeo bata (Ham.)

. Channa striatus (Bloch)

11. Channa marulius (Ham.)

. Oxygaster gora (Ham.)

. Aspidoparia morar (Ham.)

. Osteobrama cotio cotio (Ham.)

. Mystus (Mystus) cavasius (Ham.)
. Mystus (Mystus) vittatus (Ham.)
. Puntius sophore (Ham.)

. Puntius ticto ticto (Ham.)

. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.)

. Crossocheilus latius latius (Ham.)
. Barilius barila (Ham.)

. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.)

RK OOODNIAUARWN

hd
a

Water samples from four different spots in the affected zone were
promptly collected to draw a picture of the physico-chemical con-
ditions of the river at the time when the fish were displaying distress,
for comparison with those obtaining in the stream normally. Table II
presents the salient physico-chemical characters of the river as on
March 2-3 and on March 5, 1962, the latter during the actual period
of fish distress.

From the foregoing account it is seen that a sudden sharp fail of
11.7° C. in the water temperature occurred in the affected zone
of River Gandak prior to fish displaying distress. The pH value
registered a fall from 8.3 to 7.5 with carbon dioxide concentration
rising from nil to 30 p.p.m. Turbidity rose from nil to 2500 p.p.m.
and the specific conductivity decreased from 290 to 93 mho. Ammonia —
appeared in traces (0.05 p.p.m.) where there was none before.

197

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

BSIMIOYIO Paje}s a19YM 3deoxo UOT ]IU Jod sj1ed UI passoidxo s}[Nsoy x

50°0 0 0 0 | 0 D.-= ie0 0 0 4: RIUOWUIL 991J “TT
|
S76 == aaa — == — | — 0'8 — ** wonduinsuos uaskxQ “Ol
OP ~ - — ~ —- | = SL — aPHOND *6
8b - _ _ _ —- OIl es ee Anuyeyry °g
“OYUL UI: (“DoSZ 3¥ o-Ol *)
€6 = = — — a a ke 067 ss AyANONpuos syloodg *L
08 ae aa = = = = rl = ssoupIeH °9.
O€ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 700 cult “¢
L’8 VL OL ae €°8 OL ts 2956 78 pL (°O') UEesAXO paajossIg’ “7
CL €°8 78 $°8 "8 O28 Ee a. eGR v'8 €°8 Hd ‘¢
00S ‘7 J 3 3 e M I e 3 I 8) Z AYPIqiny, *Z

01-69 v'SI | 0°61 | 10 0'1Z | 6°77 | €°7 ¢'6l lst "* (‘Do Ut) ‘due} Joye]

SS91}SIP

jJO potiod

jenjoe suliIng

ZO6I YOIK, PIE-Z UO WIO}JS]IeY 9Y} dIOJoq SUOT}EIIVA [PUINIG

Il 219VL

xIANNVHO AVGNVS) LAXT AHL JO SNOILIGNOD TYOINAHO-OOISAHG

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

Apart from metallic contaminants, poisonous gases, and other toxic
substances which are lethal to fish when released generally with trade
and domestic effluents, the natural factors which cause fish distress,
and at times mortality, are low dissolved oxygen, high carbon dioxide
concentration, presence of ammonia, and_ extraordinarily high
turbidity. The dissolved oxygen value of 8.7 p.p.m. noted at the
time of distress was sufficiently high (higher than normal) and,
therefore, the question of considering this factor as a cause of distress
does not arise, specially when, at the prevalent low temperature, the
metabolic processes of fish must necessarily have been physiologically
retarded. Carbon dioxide at concentrations up to 30 p.p.m., in the
absence of ammonia, does not prove lethal to fish even if there is a
12 hour exposure, as observed by Alabaster & Herbert (1954).
Further, any higher carbon dioxide concentration (up to 60 p.p.m.)
serves only to reduce the toxicity of ammonia. Alabaster & Herbert
(op. cit.) have further observed that lowering of pH value is a vital,
_if not the only, cause of reduction of toxicity of ammoniacal solutions.
In the observation reported here, the pH recorded was 7.5, ammonia
0.05 p.p.m., and carbon dioxide 30 p.p.m. Since fish distress was
observed an hour or so after the cessation of rain, the probability of
either carbon dioxide or ammonia being responsible for the phenomenon
is perhaps negligible. The sudden change in turbidity from clear
water to as high as 2500 p.p.m. might have caused a certaim degree
of impediment to the functioning of the fish gills. Even this may not
be tenable as a cause for fish distress since, in such a case, the fish
could have easily escaped into comparatively clear water areas further
downstream. Besides, it has been observed by one of the authors
(A.D.) that in some of the larger rivers of the Ganga river system,
turbidity values during monsoon floods normally rise up to 2000
p.p.m. and values even as high as 5000 p.p.m. are recorded in the
Ganga, but fish distress at such times is not known to occur. A
turbidity of 6000 p.p.m. in Potomac river, recorded by Kemp (1949),
did not prove harmful to fish. Higher values, however, may be
dangerous after a prolonged exposure (Herbert & Merkens 1961). As
pointed out by Kemp (op. cit.) a turbidity of 3000 p.p.m. is con-
sidered dangerous to fish when maintained over a 10-day period. In
laboratory experiments with trout, Herbert & Merkens (op. cit.)
observed that solid concentration, when raised intermittently by hand
stirring to 10,000 p.p.m., did not cause any mortality, and the fish
finally died only. when concentrations were raised to 175.000 p.p.m.
and beyond. These lethal turbidities caused death within 2 hours of
exposure, Griffin et al. (1945) observed that fish withstand turbidities

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - 199

from 300 to 6500 p.p.m. However, a much higher vaiue of 20,000
p-p.m. caused by wood fibres was recorded by Cole (1955),, when
healthy fish did not die. In the present case the absolute value of
turbidity was well within the tolerance limit but may have contributed
to fish distress because of its sudden appearance.
_ The water temperature, which normally varied between 18.1 and
22.9° C. during a 24 hour period on 2-3rd March 1962, and the early
morning temperature of 18.20° C. recorded on the same day came
down to as low as 6.5-7° C. within a couple of hours, probably directly
affecting the nervous system of the fish and numbing or paralysing
their musculature. As a result, the fish became stunned, lost their
normal capacity to swim, and floated helplessly in the chilly waters.

All the victims listed in Table I, are warm-water forms which
inhabit the middle and lower reaches of north Indian rivers where
the water temperature in summer months reaches up to 32° C.
Though. cold-water forms like Tor sp. (Mahseers), Lissocheilus
hexogonolepis (Katli Mahseer, Bagarius bagarius (the ‘Goonch’),
several species of Glyptothorax, several species of Barilius, Danio sp.,
Garra sp., Labeo dyocheilus, L. dero, and others are known to be
present in the river, as revealed by a fish survey (David 1963), not a
single specimen showed distress and surfaced at the time when the
fish listed were exhibiting distress. This observation lends support
to the contention that the main cause of the numbing and distress
among fish, reported here, was the sudden lowering of water
temperature from 18.2° C. to 6.5° C. |

In India little work has been done, so far, to demarcate accurately
the geographic distribution of economic species of fish according to
the temperature gradients which prevail in streams and rivers of the
country. The degree of temperature tolerance and preference of
some fish relative to their surrounding media are still to be experi-
mentally elucidated for a proper understanding of the hydrographic
factors involved. The subject has at the present juncture assumed
great importance especially in the context of the urgent need to
develop the high altitude fisheries of the Himalayan region.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES RESEARCH

INSTITUTE, V. G. JHINGRAN!
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, A. DAVID?
BARRACKPORE, Biel YY?

November 23, 1963.

1 Present address: Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-station, 30-Pannalal
Road, Allahabad.

2 Present address : Lacustrine Unit, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute,
Tungabhadra Dam P.O., Mysore State.

200

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

REFERENCES

ALABASTER, J.S., & HERBERT, D. W. M.
(1954) : Influence of Carbon dioxide
on the Toxicity of Ammonia. Nature
174: 404.

CoLE, A. E. (1935): Water Pollu-
tion Studies in Wisconsin. Effects of
Industrial (Pulp and Paper Mill) Wastes
on Fish. Sewage Wks. J.7 : 280-302.

Davin, A. (1963): Report on fisheries
survey of the river Gandak (North Bihar)
(Mimeo). Survey Report No. 1 issued
by the Director, C. 1. F. R. I.

GRIFFIN, L. D., & VAN OOSTEN, J.
(1945): Turbidity as a Factor in the
Decline of Great Lake Fishes with Special

HERBERT, D. W. M., & MERKENS, J.C.
(1961): The Effect of Suspended
Mineral Solids on the Survival of Trout.
Int. J. Air. Wat. Poll. 5 (1) : 46-55,
Pergamon Press. -

Kemp, H. A. (1949): Soil Pollution

in the Potomac River Basin, Jour.
A.W.W. A. 41m: 792.
KLEIN, Louis (1957): Aspects of

River Pollution. Butterworth Scientific
Publications, London.

ROUNSEFELL, G. A., & EVERHART,
W. H. (1953): Fishery Science. Its
Methods and Applications. John Wiley
and Sons, New York,

Reference to Lake Erie. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 7:

11. DEATH BY COLD OF COMMERCIAL CARPS IN DELHI

Large-scale mortality of commercial carps in the Government-
owned nursery tank in Shahadra during the latter part of December
1961 when Delhi experienced a severe cold forms the subject matter
of the present communication.

The Shahadra nursery tank is a rectangular pond with an area of
about half acre and an average depth of 5 feet during the monsoon.
In summer its water level falls rapidly and the tank dries up in June.
It has a luxuriant growth of Potamageton pectinatus Linnaeus and
Vallisneria spiralis Linnaeus.

The mortality occurred during the period 18-12-1961 to 26-12-1961
in the early hours between 3-7 am. About 5000 fingerlings of the
major carps ranging from 40-60 mm. were estimated to have been
killed. In addition, a large number of other fishes were noticed in

distress. The estimated percentage of dead fishes is given in Table I
TABLE I

Species Local name Percentage mortality
1. Catla catla (Hamilton) © Catla 28%
2. Labeo rohita (Hamilton) Rohu 27%
3. Labeo bata (Hamilton) Bata 5%
4. Labeo calbasu (Hamilton) Kalbons 3%
5. Cirrhina mrigala (Hamilton) Mrigal or Narain 35%
6. Cirrhina reba (Hamilton) Reba | 2%

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 201

The water chemistry of the tank during the period of mortality
showed normal values. The earlier records kept by the Fisheries
Department from the same tank revealed that the water was free from
any pollutant. Careful examination of the fishes was carried out and
revealed no major fungal, parasitic, or bacterial infection. Observa-
tions made on the qualitative and quantitative nature of the plankton
showed its normal and usual composition.

The meteorological data along with the percentage mortality are
presented in Table II. The atmospheric temperature showed wide
fluctuations during the period of observation. The maximum tem-
perature recorded on December 17 was 21.5° C., while on December
24 it was 10.5° C. The corresponding water temperatures on these
days were 8.0° C. and 1.5° C. respectively. The water temperature
closely followed the atmospheric temperature as shown in Table II.
The severe winter spell started on December 18 and continued to
December 26. The heavy fog, gusty winds, and the winter rains
brought the temperature of water down to near freezing point. It
may be recalled that this was the period when Delhi experienced the
severest cold spell during the last 80 years.

The available evidence suggests that the fish mortality in Shahadra
tank was due to severe winter. Death of fishes in natural environ-
ments due to cold seems surprising in tropical waters. Delhi Territory
is situated in a region which has been variously classified as monsoon
and upland Savannah or dry sub-humid. The climate is very periodic
with a dry hot summer, a warm monsoon period, and a dry and cold
winter from October to February. The water temperature in summer
goes as high as 36° C. and down to near freezing point in winter.
As these fishes are used to high temperature any drastic fall in tem-
perature seems sufficient to cause gross mortality.

A general survey. of other fish tanks in Delhi also showed fishes
dying during the cold spell. A perusal of Table I suggests that large-
scale mortality was confined to a few species and the record of
fingerlings introduced shows that the percentage mortality of major
carps closely followed the percentages stocked. The stocking ratio
followed in Delhi Territory is 30% Rohu, 30% Catla, and 40% Mrigal.

The fish mortality reported by Verrill (1901) off the coast of
Bermuda at 7° C. supports the author’s conclusions. The present
findings are also in agreement with the view that tropical fishes
succumb more easily to cold than fishes in temperate regions (Storey
& Gudger 1936; Storey 1937).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

202

i ra OL 3°9 a 92
[yu ru | ZL €°9 oe Sz
% Ob ra a eA Oke rz
%9I ru | 97 Vz TT = see
471 yu Lig Gc vl zZ
%8 [tu | wb 6E aa | SEG
% L [yu 6P i sy L'ZI E08
%9 8° 8°¢ | ees $21 61
%S $0 : i) Le ZI rs
its yu 0'8 v0 Giz eel
: 7
ma) cet HB, | mime | lg
A}][CIIOUL 99K1U9D1I9g eee ee ee 7 | | |
Saneu pe (sed On [feyule | | re IOV AA | sinyereduis | uoydsouny | | ies 24

II a1av I],

stijpjuatso snuay, (9) snpiplos snavydas (q) | Snjoudo snaynuvg (k)

‘20§ “LSIH “LVN AvaWog ‘Nuno

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 203
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. (Miss) M. Chandy, Reader in Zoology,
University of Delhi, for critically reading my manuscript. Thanks are
due to Mr. K. L. Dixit for providing the meteorological data.

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

RAMJAS COLLEGE, R. N. CHATURVEDI
UNIVERSITY ENCLAVE,

DELHI 6,

December 20, 1963.

REFERENCES

STOREY, M. (1937) : The relation Sanibel Island, Florida. Ecology 17:
between normal range and mortality of 640-648.
fish due to cold at Sanibel Island, *VERRILL, A. E. (1901): A remarkable

Florida. Ecology 19 : 10-26. instance of the death of fishes at
_ —— —— & GuDGER, E. W. (1936) : Bermuda in 1901. Amer. Jour. Sci..12 :
Mortality of fishes due to cold at 88. :

12. FURTHER RECORDS OF LOBSTERS FROM BOMBAY
(With a_ plate)

Three species of spiny lobsters have so far been recorded from
Bombay, viz. Panulirus polyphagus (Herbst), Panulirus dasypus (H.
Milne-Edwards), and Panulirus versicolor (Latreille). Subsequent
collections made by the authors have revealed the occurrence of one
more species of spiny lobster and two of squat lobsters (family
Scyllaridae). |

The fishing season of 1961-62 was noted for the paucity of
mackerel off the Ratnagiri coast. This has variously been attributed
to temperature fluctuations and veering of the currents. The almost
complete disappearance of mackerel from Ratnagiri was accompanied
by the presence of marine forms at Bombay which do not normally
occur there. Thus two fishes, the Moorish idol Zanclus cornutus
(Linnaeus) and squirrel fish Holocentrum rubrum (Forskal), were
recorded for the first time from Bombay, and other fishes, such as
Pomacanthus annularis (Bloch) and Chaetodon collaris (Bloch) which
are found only occasionally, were collected in large numbers.

— ~ ee

~- * Not consulted in original,

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

At the same time, two specimens of the spiny lobster Panulirus
ornatus (Fabricius) were also obtained from Bombay city, one from
Chowpatty on 24-2-1962, and a larger one from Colaba on 21-5-1962.
These were the only occasions during the last ten years when we
have collected this species from Bombay. Enquiries made from
fishermen along the coast of Maharashtra State have also indicated
that it has never so far been collected by them.

PALINURIDAE

Panulirus ornatus (Fabricius)

Palinurus ornatus Fabricius, Suppl. Ent. Syst.: 400 (1798); De Haan, Fauna
Japonica, Crust. : 157 (1841).

Palinurus (Panulirus) ornatus Miers, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., ser. 5, 5: 378 (1880).

Palinurus homarus Pfeffer, Mitt. naturh. Mus. Hamburg 14: 263 (1897).

Panulirus polyphagus Borradaile, Fauna Geogr. Maldive Laccad. Archipel. 2 (3) :
754 (1904).

Panulirus ornatus Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, Zool., ser. 2,5: 433
(1893) ; de Man, Siboga Exped. Rep. 39a2 : 51 (1916) ; Holthuis, Temminckia
7: 138 (1947) ; Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38 ; 552 (1950).

The antennular plate bears four spines, the posterior two being
only half as long as the anterior ones. A pair of denticles is present
between them. The three spines on the fused coxicerites of the
antennae present the same disposition as in P. versicolor, but the
middle one is larger than the lateral ones. There is no flagellum on
the exopodites of the second maxillipeds, these being tipped with a
tuft of setae.

The three pairs of submedian spines in front of the cervical groove
are slightly divergent, the three pairs behind this groove convergent,
posteriorly. The groove on the posterior margin of the carapace is
of the same width throughout. ‘There are no transverse grooves on
the abdominal segments.

The dimensions of the larger specimen are:

total length ie ae ee .- 280 mm.
length of carapace a ay 2 1 15-mm-
length of supra-orbital spine o) a 20 A:

The cephalothorax has a bluish sents colour, while the spines
are orange with golden tips. The antennular flagella are banded
crimson-brown and cream. ‘The supra-orbital spines have cream-
coloured stripes.

The abdominal somites are olive-green, with a wide but faint black
band on each segment. Laterally, a white streak and a cream oval-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 205

shaped spot are present on each segment; the latter increases in width
from the anterior to the posterior somites.

The telson, uropods, and abdominal appendages have a reddish
tinge. The legs are banded brownish red and cream.

Distribution. Indo-Pacific. This species has been recorded from
Bengal by Pfeffer (1897) and is known to extend from Karwar to Cape
Comorin on the west coast of India. Chopra (1939) has recorded it
as ‘the common species of the Bombay coast’. In view of the fact
that Panulirus polyphagus constitutes more than 99.7% of the lobster
fishery around Bombay, this appears to be a case of mistaken
identification.

Panulirus homarus-dasypus-burgeri complex

In their previous paper (1961) on the systematics of spiny lobsters of
Bombay, the authors had recorded Panulirus dasypus (H. Milne-
Edwards). This was differentiated from a related species popularly
known as Panulirus burgeri (De Haan) by the shallow nature of the
crenulations on the abdominal grooves, the latter being interrupted
in the middle line, and by the absence of a flagellum on the exopodites
of the second maxillipeds. |

Gordon (1953) has pointed out the extent of variation in these
characters in the two supposedly different species, as well as the
difference in the size of the flagellum of the exopodites of the
maxillipeds on the left and right sides in the same individual. ‘These
variations in the two species form a regular and overlapping series,
and she concludes that they form a single variable species. De Bruin
(1962) has also remarked on the variability of this feature.

Unless, therefore, other characters are found which are distinctly
different in the two species, Panulirus dasypus must be merged with
Panulirus burgeri.

Now, according to the law of priority, Panulirus burgeri is
superseded by the name Panulirus homarus, as this species was
named Cancer homarus as early as 1758 by Linnaeus, whereas the
name burgeri was first used by De Haan only in 1841. (The name
dasypus was applied first by H. Milne-Edwards in 1837.) Thus the
lobster recorded by us from Bombay as Panulirus dasypus (H. Milne-
Edwards) should properly be called Panulirus homarus (Linnaeus).

SCYLLARIDAE

This family is represented in Bombay waters by two species,
Seyllarus sordidus (Stimpson) and Thenus orientalis (Lund). Both
these squat lobsters migrate inshore in recognizable numbers during

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

winter, which appears to be their peak breeding season. During the
rest of the year, they are quite rare, although their phyllosomae are
available in plankton.

Scyllarus sordidus (Stimpson)

Arctus sordidus Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadel. : 23 (1860); de Man,
Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst. T. 9: 497 (1896) ; Nobili, Boll. Mus. Torino 18
(455) : 12 (1903).

Scyllarus sordidus de Man, Siboga Exped. Rep. 39a2: 78 (1916); Prasad &
Tampi, Journ. Mar. biol. Assoc. India 2 (2) : 250 (1960).

The body is moderately depressed, subcylindrical. There is no
flagellum on the exopodites of the third maxillipeds. The rostrum
is short and truncate. The proximal antennal squame is crossed on
its dorsal surface by only one ridge. The anterior extremity of the
sternum has a deep triangular notch. ;

The third pair of thoracic legs are not subcheliform. The
abdominal terga are not deeply sulcate. and have a squamiform
sculpture. The dactyli of the second pair of legs are longer and
slenderer than those of the first. The calcified portion of the telson
terminates in four teeth. :

The dimensions of a berried female are:

total length (excluding antennal squame) os OF mm.
length of carapace as st «. 20 mm.

Colour muddy grey; there is a prominent dark red oval spot
(fading to black on preservation) in the middle of the first abdominal
segment.

Distribution.. Hong Kong, Java Sea, Singapore. It has been pre-
viously recorded by de Man (1916) from the Gulf of Mannar and by
Prasad. & Tampi (1960) from the same area at Mandapam. This. is
the —_ record from the west coast of India. :

Thenus orientalis (Lund)

Scyllarus orientalis Lund, Skr. naturh. Selsk. Kbh. 2 (2): .22 (1793) ; De
Haan, Fauna Japonica, Crust.: 150 (1841). 3 ev.

Thenus orientalis White, List Crust. Brit. Mus. : 67 (1847) ; Heller, Reise Novara,

_ Zool., 2 (3): 93 (1865); Neumann, Syst. Uebers. Oxyrh.: 34 (1878) ; Ortmann,
Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 6: 46 (1891) ; Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, Zool.;
ser. 2, 5: 433 (1893) ; Thurston, Bull. Madras. Govt. Mus. 3: 120 (1895) ,
Thompson, Catal. Crust. Mus. Dundee: 18 (1901); Alcock, Naturalist in
Indian Seas: 68 (1902); de Man, Siboga Exped. Rep. 39a2: 66 (1916) ;
Holthuis, Temminckia 7: 106 (1947); Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38: 565
(1950); Prasad & Tampi, Proc. nat. Inst. Sci., India B 23: 48 (1957). |

In this sole representative of the genus, the body is strongly
depressed and lamellate, the carapace being broader than long. The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 207
_ eyes are situated at the outer angles of the carapace. The margins of
the carapace are indented, but not incised, at the cervical groove. The
dorsal surface of the carapace and abdomen are studded with flattened
granules or tubercles, which are in more or less transverse rows on
the first five abdominal segments. The abdominal segments 2-5 have
a slight median ridge, which ends in a sharp projecting point on the
fifth segment. The fifth pair of legs in the female is not chelate.
The dimensions of a large-sized specimen are:

total length (excluding antennal ene)
length of carapace ..

~ Colour muddy grey.

240 mm.
95 mm.

Distribution. Mauritius, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, India, East
Indies, Australia, China. It has been recorded from India by White
(1847), Neumann (1878), Ortmann (1891), Thompson (1901), from

Madras by Heller (1865), Henderson (1893), from the Orissa coast by
Alcock (1902), and from Mandapam by Prasad and Tampi (1957).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their grateful thanks to Dr. L. B.
Holthuis, of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden,
Netherlands, and Dr. K. K. Tiwari, Superintending Zoologist,
Zoological Survey of India, for their valuable suggestions. Thanks are
also due to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra
State, for facilities for work and to Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior
Scientific Officer, for critically going through the paper.

TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL

STATION, B. F. CHHAPGAR
BOMBAY 2, S. K. DESHMUKH

November 16, 1964.

REFERENCES
CHHAPGAR, B. F. & DESHMUKH, S. K.

(1961): On the occurrence of the spiny
lobster, Panulirus dasypus (H. Milne-
Edwards) in Bombay waters, with a note
on the systematics of Bombay lobsters.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 632-638,
1 text-fig.

CHopRA, B. (1939): Some food-prawns
and ‘crabs of India and their fisheries.
ibid. 41: 221-234, pls. ce

De BRUIN, Gon. P.. (1962) : - Spiny
lobsters of Ceylon. Bull. no. 14, Fish.
Res. Sta., Ceylon: 1-28, 10 text-figs. |

DE Man, J. G. (191 6): The Decapoda
of the Siboga Expedition. Part III.

Families Eryonidae, Palinuridae, Scyl-

laridae and Nephropsidae. See Exped.
Rep. 39a2: 1-122, pls. i-iv.

GORDON, ISABELLA (1953) : On the
puerulus stage of some spiny lobsters
(Palinuridae). Appendix. Note on the
variation of the adults of Panulirus
homarus (L.). Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat.
Hist.), Zool., 2 (2): 17-42, 9 text-figs.

PRASAD, R. R. & Tampl, P. R. S:
(1957): On the phyllosoma of Manda-
pam. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India B 23:
48-67. ;

——— (1960) : On the newly hatched
phyllosoma of Scyllarus sordidus (Stimp-
son). J. Mar. biol. Ass. India 2 (2):
250-252, 1 text-fig. '

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (A)

13. ABNORMAL CELLS BUILT BY THE WASP EUMENES
ESURIENS FABR. (?) : VESPOIDEA

(With a_ plate)

The commonest species of domestic mason wasp in New Capital,
Bhubaneswar, is the little yellow, orange, black, and coral Eumenes
esuriens Fabr. These wasps begin building their circular mud cells
by laying down two brackets of mud. These brackets may both be
laid on the same surface, but they are usually laid extending from a
horizontal surface on to another surface at an angle to the first. The cells
are thus commonly found in corners and chinks of masonry, and on door
and window frames, rather than on walls. We have yet to find a nest
not on a human artifact. Further loads are added to these two
brackets extending them lengthways and raising their height. Usually
a third bracket is added early in the process. These brackets are
finally joined, the circular rim thus made is added to and thus reduced
in circumference. The final one, or two, loads are bent outwards to
make the well-known lip which acts as a funnel for introducing the
prey, and the material of which is re-worked forming part of the lid
when the cell is sealed. The number of loads used in such a con-
struction ranges between 12 and 21, depending partly on the site
and partly on the idiosyncrasy of a given wasp. Usually several cells
are built overlapping one another, and then the whole construction
is covered over with mud, partly as rough-cast, partly as vaulting.
Of course a nest may be deserted at any stage. (A statistical analysis
of nest building in this species is in preparation.)

If the almost inescapable comparison is made between these sin
and a spherical water pot, it can be said that the wasps construct the
upper part of a pot—say a third to a half——consisting of the shoulders,
a barely distinct neck, and a lip. The lower edge of the shoulders
is irregular in shape, fitting, and joined to, the substrate. One
diameter is about 17 mm. and the other about 15 mm. There is
some variation in size. However some species of Eumenes, for
example the Indian E. affinissima (see Dutt 1913) and the European E.
dubius and E. pedunculatus build cells which are complete spherical
pots. The process is shown in the magnificent photographs of Olberg
(1959, pp. 122-130). The wasps of these species lay down small
flat plates of mud, rather narrowly attached to plants, extend them
in diameter, curl up the edges into a saucer, then into a bowl, and
finally into a narrow-mouthed pot with a typical lip.

JourRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Exceptional pots of wasp Eumenes esuriens

1. View from above

2. View from below

Entire pot on right above and left below

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 209

On 24-9-63 a complete, slightly elliptical, sealed pot (No. EF. e.
10 I) was noticed attached to a net curtain. The net was of pale
green fibre glass basket weave and the cell was attached by a wide
area of its curved flattish base to the hem at the top of the frill,
Where there were several layers of the fabric, and rows of machine
stitching. About 23 cm. away on the same seam was an unfinished
pot (presumably made by the same individual), an elliptical bowl
(No. E. e. 10 ID), of which the thick rounded base was visible from
the inside. In shape, size, and texture these pots resembled the half
cells built by E. esuriens. The Plate shows two views of each cell.
cell I being on the right above and the left below. As the mud of the
incomplete cell was dry, we assumed that the constructor of both
cells had deserted, and collected the specimens.

A male E. esuriens (?) emerged from the complete pot on 8-10-63,
i.e. in 14 days. The minimum developmental time we have observed
has been 17 days in hotter weather (Jayakar & Spurway, in prepara-
tion).

There are at least two possibilities which would explain the
building of these pots: :

One. Different stimuli provided by the substrate evoke different
building reactions in individuals of FE. esuriens and perhaps other
species. This is undoubtedly true in some respects, for without a
capacity for variation, the usual half pots could not be constructed,
both to fit their substrates, and to be species-specific in form.. Indeed
the capacity of surveying, of measuring the diameter of an area which
is to be enclosed (which they can be seen doing with their antennae),
and the laying of three foundations for it, implies nervous capacities
much rarer than are implied by one sequence of instinctive movement
being stimulated by one environment, and another sequence by
another.

Two. Another domestic species very similar to E. esuriens exists,
which invariably builds complete pots on non-rigid supports, and
which may, or may not be distinguishable from EF. esuriens morpho-
logically, and by other traits of behaviour. It.would presumably not
form fertile hybrids with E. esuriens, which invariably builds half
pots on rigid surfaces. The existence of such sibling species has
been recognised by behavioural differences in the Sphecoid genus
Ammophila (Adriaanse 1947).

The Bhubaneswar animals have so far only been identified by the
authors, using the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA; a decision between the two
possibilities, and certainty regarding the identification of the species,
must await examination of the specimens by a taxonomist.

AG:

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (A)

Iwata (1953) describes several Japanese species of Eumenes which
have the capacity to form both half and complete pots. Others can
make only one of the other. Fabre describes the same versatility in a
European species but we have only seen his descriptions in popular
extracts in English.

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY, S. D. JAYAKAR
GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, H. SPURWAY
BHUBANESWAR-3,

BHUBANESWAR, C. R. MEEKER
October 12, 1963. JB

REFERENCES

ADRIAANSE, A. (1947) : Ammophila IwaTA, Kunio (1953): Biology of
campestris Latr. und Ammophila adriaan- Eumenes in Japan (Hymenoptera :
sei Wilcke. Behaviour 1: 1-35. Vespidae). Mushi 25, Pars6: 25-46.

Dutt, G. L. (1913) : Life histories of OLBERG, G. (1959) : Das Verhalten
Indian Insects (Hymenoptera). Mem. der Solitaren Wespen Mitteleuropas.
Dept. Agricult. India, Entom. Ser.,4: pp. xiv + 402. Berlin.

183-267.

14. GENITALIA OF THE BUTTERFLY GENERA
SURENDRA MOORE AND EVERES HUBNER

(With a plate)

Surendra Moore. Only the upper part of the aedeagus is shown
except in the cases of figures 3, 6, and 7a. The outer side of the
conjoined clasps is always shown, the clasps being pressed down on
glass to straighten the edges which curl inwards. Fig. 1 is the
armature of vivarna quercetorum; fig. la is the correct view of its
aedeagus; fig. 1b is its aedeagus when tilted to or twisted from the
observer or when viewed from slightly above. This view 1 b is
frequent because the aedeagus is often twisted on its stem and gives
a wrong idea of the true shape; again the orifice may be open and
the true form of its edges cannot be seen. Fig. Jc is its conjoined
clasps. Fig. 2 is the correct view of the aedeagus of vivarna vivarna;
fig. 2a is the aedeagus when twisted away from or tilted towards the
observer or when viewed from slightly above. The shape of aedeagus
of both the above forms is like an inverted foot. v. quercetorum has
a well-defined heel of the foot and a narrow toe tip while v. ‘vivarna
has an ill-defined heel, noticeable only on careful examination. The

os 38

M ' ; ti
si P acreyeayt
fi ast | Haat Fe AC CORE ial
ar ies oe in Peete VN a aaay\"
i oe Pari pp | . : i z v tac 4 Pe
\ ‘ ee Hie ‘ete Sot Ph, ri
0 7 y ° ae A

7 be ¥
1g dale Paes ¥ ‘ a ' " i
ao Os ij M3
; th :

a ay

. ;
im ‘
es
¥. 1 ul iad
* ' - |

ae 7
;
t
1
>
i
¥
. ,
Ba
,
‘
—_
4
:
:
. a
e
‘
- 4
=e
.
w
F i
i]
‘
#
'
-
' >
,
m1
® -

JouRN. BomMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

la ie 2: De

Mica
POLY
ED A

wD @ aA

ve? i/

tp ts a [:

Genitalia of the butterfly gene

s Htibner

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 211

toe tip of v. vivarna seems slightly broader than that of v. quercetorum
but it is hard to judge. The aedeagi of v. discalis, v. biplagiata,
v. latimargo, v. neritos are similar to that of v. quercetorum. Fig.
2 b is the clasps of v. vivarna which seem to be always more pointed
on the ventral edge than those of the other forms. Fig. 3 is the
peculiar aedeagus of v. manilana, fig. 3a is its clasps, which from a
single dissection appear to have a very shallow cleft. Fig. 4 is the
aedeagus of v. amisena which is wider at the tip than that of v.
quercetorum. The figure serves also as the aedeagus of v. agdistis
(which was to be expected) and of v. samina (which was not expected).
Fig. 4a is one form of its clasps and 46 another form. In the genus
Narathura (Arhopala Group) the clasps have been found so variable
that genitalia are not a sure guide. Surendra is an allied genus and
this variation may occur in other forms, not discovered in my few
dissections. Fig. 5 is the aedeagus of v. palowna, unlike any other.
Fig. 5a shows its clasps as more slender than others. Fig. 6 is the
slender aedeagus of florimei as seen in the armature and 6a as seen
on a card. The ecavation below the tip is seen on both. Probably
fig. 6 is its true picture at exactly right angles to viewer and 6a as
it is turned slightly away. Such things explain why many correction
slips are pasted in the key of the genus in my 1962 Revision of
Evans’ Lycaenidae 1932. Fig. 65 is its clasps, low in height with a
shallow cleft. Fig. 7 is the armature of todara, fig. 7a the aedeagus,
7 b the clasps, and 7c the inside of the uncus, which rises to a blunt
point, while in all other forms in the genus it is flat.

The reasons why all, except florime! and todara, have been left
as subspecies of vivarna are given in the note to my key referred to
above. The aedeagus of palowna and manilana should qualify them
for being species, but the shape of the aedeagus does not separate
samina from amisena, though far removed in locality and different in
facies.

Everes Hibner. Fig. 8 is the uncus of buddhista shandura.
Fig. 9, uncus of argiades diporides--all ssp. of argiades have the
uncus in shape like the ace of Hearts on a playing card. Fig. 10,
uncus of hugelii dipora and of course of hugelii hugelii. Fig. 11 is
the uncus of lacturnus assamica, Fig. 12, uncus of kala, narrow and
with an elongated lower portion. Figures of all clasps are of the
outsides of them. Fig. 13 is of those of kala, showing a peculiar
needle-like process. Fig. 14 is of buddhista shandura. Fig. 15 is of
argiades diporides. Fig. 16 is of hugelii dipora, showing the excava-
tion at the tip of the straight style on the interior edge and the sudden

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

narrowing at right angles of the curling process. Fig. 17 is of
lacturnus assamica and of all ssp. of Jacturnus, showing how the
straight style goes far beyond the sharp tip of the curled process. To
know the genitalia of argiades diporidés and of hugelii dipora is
important as an argiades diporides with small spots below may be
indistinguishable from a hugelii dipora. The nomenclature follows the
key in my 1962 Revision of Evans’ Lycaenidae 1932. It differs
ereatly from that of Evans 1932, one reason is because he described
as diporides what was really dipora and vice-versa.

5, UPPER WIMPOLE STREET,

Lonbon, W. 1, KEITH CANTLIE
September 11, 1963.

15. THE RED COTTON BUG [DYSDERCUS CINGULATUS
(FABR.)] AND ITS PREDATORS

Mr. Sevastopulo’s comments (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 466)

on my note on the role of Calotes versicclor and C. rouxi as natural -

controls of the Red Cotton Bug [Dysdercus cingulatus (Fabr.)] are
tinged with a certain amount of cryptic scepticism. I am surprised
that such scepticism should emanate from so eminent an entomologist,
for there is so much apparently ‘incredible’ in the field of entomology,
nevertheless we must accept the statements of the observer. My
statements on the food of the two species of Calotes were based on
literally hundreds of observations in the field (sight records) and on
scores of dissections of both species concerned.

It surprises me that Mr. Sevastopulo compares the enemy cycie of
two very different insects from different continents, although the two
belong to the same genus, and, further, the food cycles of two entirely
different groups of animals, Repune and Amphibia, and those, too,
from different continents.

Although D. cingulatus may be a ‘perfect text-book illustration of
an aposematic insect’, like most other aposematic insects it is not
immune against its natural enemies and controls. It is well known
that most of the cuckoos feed on some species of Rhynchota and
hairy caterpillars, which most other birds avoid; each species of
cuckoo sticks to its particular species of food bugs regardless of their
colouring, scent, or taste as the case may be. The periodic appearance
of cuckoos invariably coincides with the appearance of the particular
‘food supply (bugs and/or caterpillars) in the area visited—the life-
cycles of the birds and the insect are closely linked. This interlocking

eee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213

of life-cycles is even more common in the insect world, in which the
appearance of certain insects is linked with the particular food plant.

It is incorrect that toads are ‘the least discriminating of reptilian
and amphibian insectivores. Most reptiles and amphibians are fairly
selective in their diet, although the menu may be very varied. Under
normal conditions they avoid certain categories of insects. As moving
objects are usually ‘lapped up’ by Amphibia (they seldom take a
stationary object, even if it is normally eaten), they sometimes make
‘mistakes’ but the object is immediately spat out-—-such ‘mistakes’
may be repeated. Mr. Sevastopulo himself states that Dysdercus he
observed (in Africa) attracted to light were ‘almost always avoided
by the attendant toads, but occasionally perhaps due to colour
changes caused by the light one is caught and is then invariably
spat out and the inside of the mouth scraped by the forelegs with
every appearance of disgust’. This is one of those ‘mistakes’ under
artificial lighting conditions—the initia! action of the toad being
prompted by the movement of the bug.

If my memory serves me right, Dysdercus is almost entirely a
diurnal insect—it is certainly less active during the hours of darkness.
On the other hand, the toad is a crepuscular or nocturnal feeder.
Under ordinary circumstances the active cycles of the two animals
would not coincide and, accordingly, the chances of Bufo meeting
Dysdercus are comparatively rare.

In conclusion, I believe, that no form of protectively coloured,
protectively shaped, or protectively scented insects are free from their
natural enemies or controls, and that protective devices operate against
would-be enemies only. The normal controls whose food such insects
form are ‘aware’ or ‘know’ the devices, for their very existence is

dependent on the food supply.

17, CLARKE STREET,

KHANDALLAH, CHARLES McCANN
WELLINGTON, No. 5,

NEw ZEALAND,

January 2, 1964.

16. THE GENUS ZORNIA GMEL. IN INDIA

Mohlenbrock in his monograph on the genus Zornia in Webbia
16 (1): 1-141, 1961, pointed out that Zornia gibbosa Span. is the
only species of Zornia found in India and that most specimens
referable to this species have been called previously either Zornia

214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

diphylla Pers. or Zornia angustifolia Sm. He contended that Zornia
diphylla (L.) Pers. has a very limited range and that it is found only
from Ceylon eastwards. This was obviously a geographical error
and he agreed later on, in a personal.communication to the author, -
that the geographical range of Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers. shouid be
Ceylon and India (peninsular and south).

Mohlenbrock puts the two species, Zornia diphyila (L.) Pers. and
‘Zornia gibbosa Span., in the subgenus Zornia, the former ‘in the
section Isophylla, the latter in Anisophylla. The two species can be
distinguished as follows:

Perennial ; lower and upper leaflets of the same shape,

upper sometimes smaller in size ; petiole longer than
the leaflets ; leaflets ovate to lanceolate-ovate ; auricle
of the bract epunctate ; loment with 4 articles ; articles

4.3-4.5 mm. long, 3.5 mm. broad, with nearly glabrous
bristles 1.5-3 mm. long an ai Bs diphylla

Annual; lower and upper leaflets different in shape;
petiole 2rds to as long as the leaflets ; leaflets lanceolate
to linear ; auricle of the bract punctate ; loment with 4-6
articles; articles 2-2.5 mm. long, 2-2.5 mm. broad,
with retrorsely hairy bristles 0.4-1.2 mm. long ad ony: gibbosa

Zornia diphylla (Linn.) Pers. Syn. 2 : 318, 1807; Mohlenbrock in
Webbia 16 (1) : 67, ff. 44 & 49, 1961. Hedysarum diphyllum Linn.
Sp. Pl. 747, 1753. H. conjugatum Willd: Sp. Pl. 3.2 1ig8) ison:
Zornia zeylonensis Pers. Syn. 2 : 318, 1807; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras
(reprint ed.) 1 : 229, 1957. Z. conjugata (Willd.) Sm. in Rees, Cycl.
39 : 3, 1819; Santapau in Rec. Bot. Surv. India 16 (1) (ed. 2) : 53,
1960. Z. diphylla var. zeylonensis Benth. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 15 (1):
82, 1859; Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 148, 1876; Cooke, FI.
Pres. Bombay (reprint ed.) 1 : 356, 1958.

Distribution in World, Ceylon, India.

Zornia gibbosa Span. in Linnaea 15 : 192, 1841; Mohlenbrock in
Webbia 16 (1) : 112, ff. 44 & 76, 1961. Z. graminea Span. in innaea
15 : 192, 1841. Z. angustifolia Sm. in Rees, Cycl. 34: 1, 1819 pro
maiore parte (nom. illeg.). Z. diphylla auct. plur (non Pers. 1807);
Baker in FI. Brit. Ind. 2 : 147, 1876; Prain, Beng. Pl. 1 > 416,71903:
Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay (reprint ed.) 1 : 355, 1958; Gamble, FI.
Pres. Madras (reprint ed.) 1 : 229, 1957; Haines, Bot. Bih. & Or.
(reprint ed.) 2 : 263, 1961; Duthie, Fl. Upp. Gang. Plain (reprint ed.)
1 : 247, 1960; Santapau, FI. Purandhar 40, 1958; Santapau in Rec.
Bot. Surv. India 16 (1) (ed. 2): 53, 1960; Santapau, Fl. Saurashira 1:
142, 1962.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 215

Distribution in World. Pakistan, India, Burma, Celebes, China,
Cochinchina, Malaya, Philippine Islands, Siam, New Guinea and
Australia.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

14, MADAN STREET, S. K. WAGH, ph.p,
CALCUTTA 13,

October 19, 1963.

17. FRUITING OF PLUMERIA
(With a photograph)

Plumeria, commonly known as the Frangipani, Pagoda Tree,
Gul-e-chin, etc., is a small tree, a native of Tropical America
introduced into India a long time ago. It is one of those exotics
which do not normally set seed or bear fruits in India, hence its
propagation has all along been by stem cuttings. Fruiting here is

in fact so scarce that one may not come across a fruiting Plumeria
all his life.

| Plumeria acutifolia Poir.

Showing 24 cm. long follicular fruit, dehiscing fruit, and winged seeds

216. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

It will, therefore, be interesting to note that trees of a variety
of Plumeria acutifolia Poir., whose flowers have half the underside
of each petal a bright rose colour and the other half white, growing
in the garden of the Forest Research Institute have been bearing
fruits profusely for about 15 years. The fruits are stout, twin follicles
containing winged seeds, ripening on the tree itself, and dehiscing in
early summer.

Eminent botanists in India have invariably hinted at the extreme
rarity of fruiting in Plumeria, and the length of fruit is given as. up
to 12.5 cm. only. However, the trees of Plumeria under reference, not
only bear fruit regularly and profusely but also the length of the
fruits is nearly double than that recorded before. The ones
photographed here measure 24 cm. and there is a possibility of some
being a little longer.

This note is therefore a record of the fruiting of Plumeria in
northern India and the length of the fruits.

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

P.O. NEw Forest, K. M. VAID
DEHRA DUN,

October 15, 1963.

[The taxonomy of the genus Plumeria is somewhat complicated,
and it would be of interest to know the exact variety of the plant
mentioned in this note. Some of the varieties or forms that go under
P. acutifolia Poir. have been known in Bombay to flower and fruit
more or less regularly.—EDs.]

18. BOERHAVIA PUNARNAVA SAHA ET KRISHNAM. :
A NEW RECORD FOR KERALA STATE

Recently Saha & Krishnamurthy described a new species of
Boerhavia from Pondicherry and its neighbourhood, namely B.
punarnava in 1962, J. Sci. Indust. Res. 21 C : 249. As the species
has not been reported from any other part of the country a record
of it from Kerala State was considered to be of interest. The taxon
can be easily distinguished from the common B. diffusa Linn. by its
stalked pinkish white flowers in umbelliform clusters, obconical non-
glandular fruit with a truncate crown, and anthocarp with transverse
wrinkles. The plant is common in the Port of Cochin, particularly
along railway tracks. The specimens mentioned in this note are kept

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 217

in the Herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle,

Dehra Dun.
_ Specimens examined: WN. C. Nair 1155, 1160 (April 1961); V. J.

Nair 28497, 28498 (Sept. 1963).
N. C. NAIR

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
V. J. NAIR

DEHRA DuwuN,
October 14, 1963.

19. BOERHAVIA PUNARNAVA SAHA & KRISHNAM. :
A NEW RECORD FOR MAHARASHTRA

(With four text-figures)

Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

Boerhavia punarnava

The present author collected a few plants of white-flowered
Boerhavia, with flowers and fruits, growing as a weed in a local
garden during this rainy season. The general characters of this plant

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

agree with the description given for B. punarnava Saha & Krishnam.
to a.great extent but show some minor differences.

The stem which is distinctly pinkish in the lower portions gives
rise to 3-6 prominent branches from some distance above the ground.
The younger portions of the branches gradually become green. The
main root before entering deeper into the soil gives rise to 3-4 strong
branches. Leaves are simple and are arranged in unequal paits.
The nodes are distinct. ‘There is a great amount of variation in size
and shape of the leaf (Fig. 1). Generally the length of the leaves
varies from | to 4 cm. and breadth 0.5 to 3 cm. But still the under-
surface of the lamina is whitish. Some of the lower leaves of the .
younger plants show a pinkish coloration on the undersurface. Some-
times the main veins are also pinkish. Inflorescence is extensively
branched. Flowers are arranged in groups of 1-3 (Fig. 2). The
flowers when open are distinctly white but very young flower buds are
pinkish. The corolla-tube has pinkish lines on the dorsal side as
described by Saha & Krishnamurthy. Stamens are 1 or 2. The
present author was not able to see flowers with 3 stamens as reported
by Saha & Krishnamurthy (1962)'. Flowers with two stamens are
very common. The description given by Saha & Krishnamurthy
(1962) for the fruits of B. punarnava exactly tallies with the characters
shown by the fruits of this plant. |

As far as the author is aware, Boerhavia -punarnava Saha &
Krishnam. is reported for the first time from Maharashtra.

RAMNIRANJAN JHUNJHUNWALA
ARTS & SCIENCE COLLEGE, |
GHATKOPAR, S. RAMARETHINAM, M.Sc., Ph.D.
BomMBAY 77,
October 19, 1963.

20. DENDROPHTHOE FALCATA (LINN. F.) ETTINGSH. :
A METHOD OF CONTROL

Your remarks on the note published by Srivastava (1963) on
‘Hosts of Dendrophthde falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsh.’ in your journal
(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 474-475) have prompted me to write
the following.

Saha, J.C., & Krishnamurthy, K.H. (1962): Identity of the Sweta Punarnava Boer-
haavia punarnava sp. nov. of the Ayurveda. J. Sci, Industrial Res. 21C : 249-255,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

219

a aS

No. of parasites killed
Name of host Family of host
855-62 | 1112-63, Total
i
1. Achras sapota Linn. 26 10 36 Sapotaceae
2. Aegle marmelos Correa 2 0 Z Rutaceae
3. ** Artocarpus heterophyllus
| Lamk. ae i 0 7 Moraceae
4, Bauhinia variegata Linn. .. 8 10 18 Leguminosae
5. Callistemon lanceolatus
Sweet FP. 16 42 58 Myrtaceae
6. * Casuarina glauca Sieber . 10 10 Casuarinaceae
7. ** Citrus limon (L.) Burm f. 3 16 19 Rutaceae
8. ** Ficus carica Linn. 6 0 6 Moraceae
9. ** Gardenia lucida Roxb. : 5 5 Rubiaceae
10. * Gmelina arborea Roxb. 4 4 | Verbenaceae
11. Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. 2 4 6 Proteaceae
12. ** Lagerstroemia lanceolata
Wall. 15 0 15 Lythraceae
13. Lagerstroemia thorelii
Gagnep. FS ; 13 13 Lythraceae
14. ** Malpighia glabra Linn. .. 1 0 1 Malpighiaceae
15. Mangifera indica L. 865 843 1708 Anacardiaceae
16. ** Morus alba L. 3 18 21 Moraceae
17. Olea cuspidata Wall. 18 0 18 Oleaceae
18. ** Prunus padus Linn. Z 0 2 Rosaceae
19. ** Psidium guajava Linn. 59 0 59 Myrtaceae
20. * Shorea robusta Gaertn. 18 18 | Dipterocarpaceae
21. ** Syzygium jambolanum DC. 1 0 1 Myrtaceae
22. Terminalia muelleri Benth. .. 10 8 18 Combretaceae
Grand total eae ay a) ahh ae
Investigations on the~ control and _ eradication of Bandha,

Dendrophthoée falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsh., were started ten years ago

fips JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

and positive results have been achieved (Singh 1957, 1958). Experi-
ments at the National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, succeeded in
eradicating 1043 parasites from different hosts as reported by Singh
(1962). Work since this report is continued and some new hosts have
been included in the list. Up to date, three new hosts have been
treated successfully at the National Botanic Gardens, in addition to the
earlier mentioned ones on which fresh parasitic attack has been
checked. The total number of parasites killed so far is 2034. The
table on p. 219 gives the list of hosts which have been treated
successfully.

A. This list would incidentally show that Srivastava has not
mentioned some other hosts marked ** from which the parasite, once
abundant, has been killed in the majority of cases.

B. Of the list of new hosts reported by him, those marked *
have been subjected to successful treatment.

The remedial measures adopted (Singh 1955, 1957, 1958, 1962)
are simple as well as cheap. consisting of Diesel or Powerine oil
emulsions of varying strength (30-50%) sprayed on the parasites,
which are killed in 2 to 4 months’ time and may even fall down from
the tree in due course leaving rose-wood scars on the host. ‘This is
mostly possible by a single spray. This variation in the strength of
spray arises out of several factors: (a) in hot, sunny weather a lower
percentage of the parasiticidal emulsion kills the parasite; (b) in cold
weather on the other hand the emulsion has to be of a stronger
consistency; (c) because of the physiologic forms which exist in the
parasite a change in the strength of emulsion may sometimes be
necessary (Singh 1958, 1962); and (d) also on account of the com-
paratively susceptible nature of some hosts to higher concentrations of
these parasiticidal emulsions (Singh 1957) sprays of weaker consistency
have to be used and may in such cases have to be applied more
than once.

The parasitic onslaught which appears to be on the increase
(Santapau 1954; Chavan & Oza 1963; Srivastava 1963) is due to
dissemination .of the seeds by birds and squirrels who eat the fruits
and discard the seeds uninjured (Fischer 1926; Ridley 1930; Ali 1931;
Danser 1931, 1933; Singh 1952, 1954, 1962). On account of this fact,
although the onslaught of the attack of Dendrophthde can be kept
under check, its total elimination is only possible either by destroying
the birds and squirrels who carry the seeds or at the Government
level by an organization like the Plant Protection Organization of the
country, that is in a position to undertake the spraying on wide

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 22)

areas throughout the country. The former remedy would, however,
prove to be disastrous as it may even change the biology of the
forest. The only other alternative, therefore, would be for the
scheme to be handled by the Plant Protection Organization or some
other organization sponsored by the Government.

Village orchardists should also be apprised of the remedy for
Keeping the destructive parasite in check. If a regular enquiry is
made from the Horticulture and the Forest Departments of the extent
of damage caused by this parasite, as well as other loranthaceous ones,
a revealing and true picture would be available to the Government
of the colossal losses to which are subjected our Teak, Sal, and
myriads of other forest trees as well as the fruit trees in this country.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS,
LUCKNOW,
December 18, 1963.

BAHADUR SINGH
Assistant Director

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM A. (1931): The role of the
sunbirds and the flower-peckers in the
propagation and distribution of the tree
parasite, Loranthus longiflorus Desr. in
the Konkan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
35: -144-149.

CHAVAN, A. R., & OZA, G. H. (1963):
New host plants of Dendrophthée falcata
(Linn. F.) Ettingsh. at Pavagadh. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 472-473.

Danser, B. H. (1931): The Lorantha-

ceae of the Netherlands Indies. Bull.
Jard. bot. Buitenz. 11: 233-519.
—— (1933): A new system for
the genera of Loranthaceae, Loranthoi-
deae, with a nomenclature for the Old
World species of this sub-family. Verh.
K. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam Afad.
Natuurk, 29; 1-128.

FISCHER, C. E. C. (1926): Lorantha-
ceae of South India and their host plants.
Rec. bot. Surv. India. 11: 159-195.

RIDLEY, H. N. (1930): The dispersal

——

of pants throughout the world. Ash-
ord.
SANTAPAU, H. (1954): Contributions

to the botany of the Dangs Forest, Bom-
bay State. J. Gujerat Res. Soc. 16: 285-
0.
SINGH, B. (1952): A contribution to
the floral morphology and embryology of

Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. J.
Linn. Soc. Bot. 53: 449-473.

SINGH, B. (1954) : Studies in the family
Loranthaceae - List of new hosts of
Dendrophthoe falcata (L. f.) Ettingsh., its
relations with hosts, the anatomy of
its seedling and mature haustorium.
Agra Uni. J. Res. 3: 301-315.

(1955): On control and
eradication of bandha. Indian For.

81: 212.

————— (1957): Control of bandha
| Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. ]
from some horticultural and other eco-
nomic plants. Hort. Adv. 1: 68-78.
—— (1958): Effect of temper-
ature on different concentrations of
diesel oil sprays suited to kill the
bandha parasite [ Dendrophthoe falcata
(L.f.) Ettingsh.] Hort. Adv. 2: 68-71.
(1962): Studies in Angios-
permic Parasites—I. Dendrophthée falcata
(L. f.) Ettingsh., its life history, list of
hosts and control measures. Bull, Nat.
Bot. Gard. No. 69: 1-75.

SRIVASTAVA, J.G. (1963): Hosts of
Dendrophthée falcata (Linn. F.) Ettingsh.
in the National Botanic Gardens, Luck-
now. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60:
474-475.

en ee ee ee

eee a

[We are glad to learn from Dr. Singh’s note that there is a con-
tinuing campaign against this parasite and apologise for our suggestion
to the contrary at page 475 of the Journal for August 1963.—EDs.]

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

21. TOXICITY OF YELLOW OLEANDER THEVETIA
| PERUVIANA

Two notes appeared in Journal Bombay Natural History Society,
(i) Reuben, D. E. 58 (3) : 808 and (ii) Chatterjee, S. K. 59 (3) : 947,
wherein they speak of ‘predators of Yellow Oleander (Thevetia
neriifolia) fruit and note that the animals which ate it were devoid of
any toxicosis as they continued eating the fruit.

Although it has been mentioned that all the parts of the cae are
poisonous, it does not mean that all the parts of the planis are
equally poisonous. There has been a mention of the use of this plant,
especially the juice of the leaves, for so-called abnormalities of “Kafa’

in Ayurveda. As a potion it has been recommended for the treat-_

ment of skin conditions and as a collyrium for impairment of vision.
That this has been mentioned in Ayurveda suggests that our ancestors
were aware of its toxic and pharmacological properties. I myself
have not seen any animal or bird constantly eating the seeds of
Thevetia peruviana [=T. neriifolia (Pers.) Merr.] but while collecting
these seeds for experimental purposes, we found some seeds which
appeared to have been nibbled either by birds or squirrels.

The fruit consists of an outer fleshy portion containing a milky
juice, which is a gastric irritant and causes nausea and vomiting in
human beings, yet is not capable of producing any severe degree of
systemic toxic reactions. Inside this fieshy portion. which becomes
black and shrunken on full ripening or on drying, is a fairly hard
shell. When this shell is broken one gets 2 to 3 kernels. It is these
kernels which are highly poisonous and are utilised by many in this
part of the country as a poison. We have seen some cases wherein
the patients have taken either the leaves or only the fleshy portion
of the fruit, throwing the kernels away. ‘These patients only vomit
as a result of gastritis, and other systemic toxic reactions are absent.
Patients do not die of poisoning by eating merely the outer fleshy
portion of the seed.

We have observed more than 150 patients in the last four years
of whom a great many took these kernels for suicidal purposes.
Roughly these kernels have two types of substances, (1) the fat soluble
oily portion which is very toxic to the gastric mucosa and causes
intense vomiting, and (2) the active glycosides which produce varying
degree of heart block. Death is due to the sudden stoppage of the
heart as a result of block in the conduction system of the heart.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 223

However, due to the persistent vomiting, the patients’ condition is
further aggravated by extensive water and electrolyte loss.

HEAD, DEPT. OF MEDICINE,

MEDICAL COLLEGE, D. B. BISHT, M.p.
PONDICHERRY, S. INDIA,

November 28, 1963.

22. SOME SOUTH INDIAN MOSSES

An enumeration of 368 species of mosses from the Palni Hills was
published in Vol. 58 : 13-47, 1961, of this Journal. The present list
is a supplement to it, consisting of the names of species collected by
the author elsewhere from S. India. Species and varieties originally
described as new taxa for these parts of India are preceded by
an asterisk (*).

369. Anomobryum auratum (Mitt.) Jaeg.
Courtallam, Tirunelveli, 1929.

370. Archidium birmanicum Mitt.
Kankanady, Mangalore, 1925 ; Madras, 1926.

371. Barbula consanguineus (Thw. & Mitt.) Sb.
Kumili, Kerala, 1924.

372. Brachymenium extenuatum (Mitt.) Jaeg.
Madras, 1926.

373. Bryum coronatum Schwegr.
Kankanady, Mangalore, 1925 ; Kumili, Kerala, 1924.

*374. Bryum euryphyllum Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 170, 1927.
Kumili, Kerala, 1924.

375. Bryum plumosum Doz. & Molk.
Kodaikanal, 1912.

4376. Calymperes mangalorensis Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 164, 1927.
Kankanady, Mangalore, 1925.

*377. Calymperes microdictyon Dix. & Vardein Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4): 172, 1939.
Kodaikanal, 1927.

378. Calymperes tenerum C. M.
Courtallam, Tirunelveli, 1929.

379. Calyptothecium patulum (Broth.) FI.
Sirumalai Hills, 1927.

380. Campylodontium khasianum C. M.
Perumalmalai, Kodaikanal, 1926,

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

“381. Campylodontiam perplicatum (Ther. & Varde) Broth. in Rev. Bryol. 50: 75,
1923.
Kodaikanal, 1921.

*382. Campylopus introflexus (Hedw.) Mitt. var. vellei Card.
Kodaikanal, 1921.

*383. Ceratodon purpureus Brid. var. madurensis Varde
Kodaikanal, 1912.

384. Didymodon gemmiferus Card.
Shembaganur, 1911.

385. Erpodium mangiferae C. M.
Mundanthurai, Tirunelveli, 1928.

*386. Fissidens amplifolius Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4): 170, 1930.
Mundanthurai, Tirunelveli, 1928.

387. Fissidens crocatus C. M.
Courtallam, Tirunelveli, 1929.

388. Fissidens atrovirens Card.
Kodaikanal, 1909.

389. Fissidens immutatus Dix.
Kankanady, Mangalore, 1925.

390. Fissidens lutescens Broth.
Kankanady, Mangalore, 1925 ; Courtallam, Tirunelveli, 1929,

391. Fissidens microcladus Thw. & Mitt.
Mundanthurai, Tirunelveli, 1927.

392. Fissidens xiphioides Fleisch.
Kankanady, Mangalore, 1925.

393. Fissidens zippelianus Doz. & Molk.
Tovaiparai Shola, 1926; Manalur, 1927 ; Sirumalai Hills, 1927.

*394. Garckea abbreviata Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 163, 1927.
Kankanady, Mangalore, 1925.

395. Garckea phascoides (Hook.) C. M.
Mangalore, 1927.

396. Glossadelphus subretusus (Mitt.) FI.
Shembaganur, 1929.

397. Grimmia nilghiriensis C. M.
Kodaikanal, 1912.

*398. Herpetineuron toccoae (Shull. & Lesq.) Card. var. excurrentinerve Card. &
Dix.
Shembaganur, 1911.

399. Hookeriopsis percomplanata Card.
Kodaikanal, 1912.

#400. Hyophila grandiretis Dix. & Vardein Arch. Bot. 1: 166, 1927.
Poonamalai Road, Madras, 1926.

*401.

402.

*403.

*404.,

*405.

*406.

*407.

*408.

*409.

*410.

“411.

412.

*413.

+414,

415.

416.

*417.

*418.

419.

*420.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES fes8)

Hyophila nitidifolia Dix.
Kodaikanal, 1912.

Hyophila spathulata (Harv.) Jaeg.
Somerford, Madras, 1925.

Leucoloma brevifolium Dix. & Varde in Ann, Crypt. Exot. 3 (4): 170, 1930.
Courtallam, Tirunelveli, 1929.

Macromitrium binsteadii Dix.
Courtallam, Tirunelveli, 1929.

Macromitrium polygonostomum Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 170, 1927.
Sirumalai Hills, 1927.

Merceyopsis spathulifolia Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 164, 1927.
Kankanady, Mangalore, 1925.

Meteorium atratum (Mitt.) C. M. var. crassicladum Card.
Kodaikanal, 1912.

Papillaria tumida Card. in Rev. Bryol. 50: 73, 1923.
Kodaikanal, 1912.

Philonotis subrigida Card. var. adpressa Card. & Varde
Kumili, Kerala, 1924.

Physcomitrium coorgensis Broth.
Sirumalai Hills, 1927.

Physcomitrium insigne Dix. & Vardein Arch. Bot. 1: 168, 1927.
Kumili, Kerala, 1924.

Pottia vernicosa (Hook.) Hampe
Madras, 1926

Rhaphidostegium camptocladum Card.
Kodaikanal, 1924.

Rhynchostegium brachythecioides Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 173, 1927.
Sirumalai Hills, 1924 ; Periyur, 1927.

Stereophyllum ligulatum (C. M.) Jaeg.
Kankanady, Mangalore, 1925,

Taxithelium nepalense (Schw.) Broth.
Courtallam, Tirunelveli, 1929.

Thysanomitrium involutum (C. M.) Card.
Kodaikanal, 1912.

Trachyphyllum inflexum (Harv.) Gepp. var. patentifolium Dix. & Varde
in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4) : 181, 1930.
Mundanthurai, Tirunelveli, 1928.

Trachypodopsis crispatula (Hook.) FI.
Kodaikanal, 1912. :

Trachypus hispidus (C. M.) Par. var. adpressa Card.
Perumalmalai, 1927.

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

*421. Trachypus massartii Ren. & Card.
Kodaikanal, 1912.

*422. Trachypus subpiliferus Card.
Kodaikanal, 1912.

423. Trachypus tenerrimus Broth.
Tovaiparai Shola, 1927.

424. Vesicularia reticulata (C. M.): Broth.
Sirumalai Hills, 1924.

SACRED HEART COLLEGE,

SHEMBAGANUR P.O., G. FOREAU, s.5.
MADURAI DISTRICT, SOUTH INDIA,

November 22, 1963.

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1963-64

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
President

Mrs. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Governor of
Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.)
Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.1.
Rey. Fr. H. Santapau, S.J.

Hon. Secretary
Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer
Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Dr. D. V. Bal, M.sc., Ph.D.

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.C.s.

R. 8S. Dharmakumarsinhji

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.D.

Mr. D, J. Panday |

Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, D.Sc., F.N.1.
Mr. G. S. Ranganathan

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

ANN UAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

ex-officio

Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S Ae .. Ahmedabad
Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. .. New Delhi
Sir C. D. Deshmukh, Kt., C.LE., I.C.s. (Retd.) .. New Delhi
Rev. Fr, Dr. J. B. Freeman, oe L.T., Ph.D., D.D. Mysore
_ Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. i .. Shillong
Dr. Baini Prasad, D.Sc., F.N.I. Dehra Dun

Dr. M. L. Roonwal, MSC, Ph.p. & Sc.D. Gee.

F.N.L., F.Z.S.1. a »» Calcutta
XS. Ship eye of ineden F -- Jasdan

Mr. P. D. Stracey, LF.s. : . Shillong

Lt. Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E., M.ILC.E.,

M.LE, -. qo: ie -- Roorkee

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)
HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1963

At the last Annual General Meeting of the Society held on 31st
May 1963 we presented a report about the activities of the Society up
to April 1963. The present report covers the eight months thereafter
up to 3lst December 1963.

THE SOCIETY’S JOURNAL

Two numbers of the Journal Vol. 60, Nos. 1 and 2, were published
during the period under report. The 506 pages include 7 papers on
birds, 6 on botany, 2 each on reptiles and amphibia, Annelids and
Molluscs, and one each on mammals and insects. 43 Miscellaneous
Notes covered many subjects and, together with the papers, included
descriptions of several new species and races of various animals.
Complaints are often made that the Journal] is becoming too technical
and that from the point of view of the general naturalist it is not as
lively as it used to be. This fact is unfortunately true but the editors
are not in a position to remedy the situation until members send in
more articles of general interest from time to time.

GENERAL

New Building. The main structural work on the new building was
completed and Rs. 2,00,000 received from the Government of India
out of a total estimated cost of Rs. 3,30,343. Every effort is Roe
made to complete the building before June 1964.

BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Study Project. Three camps were held
at Hingolgadh, Bharatpur, and Kerala during the period under report.
At the Hingolgadh camp held for ten days in September 153 migrants
were ringed. At Bharatpur (September 21st/October 13th 1963) 2782
migrants and at Kerala (November 1963/February 1964) 21,920 migrants
were ringed, mainly wagtails with lesser numbers of swallows, buntings,
and other species. Blood samples of migrant species were collected at
Bharatpur and Kerala for virological investigation, by Dr. Levkovitch of
Kievskae Shosee Institute of Poliomyelitis and Virus Encephalitis,
Moscow, USSR. Two interesting recoveries in Kerala were of wagtails
ringed at Bharatpur and Calcutta during previous sessions. The possi-
bility of ringing migratory waterfowl and waders in Bihar was explored
by one of the research students who has SS] ne over 900
migrants.

Talks and Film Shows. Five meetings were held at the Society’s
rooms during the period under report at which Dr. Salim Ali spoke on
‘ Significant Books of Natural History’, Rev. E. M. Shull on ‘ Indian

A.G.M. 1963-64—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 229

Butterflies and Moths’, Mr. Mahinder Lall on Bhutan, Mr. Zafar
Futehally on ‘Nature Conservation’, and Dr. (Miss) G. Diicker on
‘Colour Vision in Animals’.

New Additions to our Collection. During the year 177 additions were
made to our registered collection of vertebrates—88 birds, 1 mammal,
42 reptiles, and 46 amphibians, Interesting additions are:

Mammal

Tadarida teniotis (European Freetailed Bat)
Bird |
_Bradypterus major

Reptiles

Eretmochelys imbricata
Teratoscincus microlepis
Stenodactylus orientalis
Gymnodactylus rubidus
Cnemaspis wynadensis
Gehyra mutilata
Phelsuma andamanense
Teratolepis fasciata
Goniocephalus subcristatus
Lygosoma dussumieri

Library. During the year 52 books were added to the library of
which 8 were purchased, 17 received for review. 27 books and 41
journals were received as donations. Our thanks are due to the donors.

PUBLICATIONS

The printing of the revised edition of THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS
was taken in hand and it is hoped that it will be ready during 1964.
We have to thank Sir Keith Cantlie for bearing the cost of publishing
his REVISION of the Lycaenidae portion of Evans’s IDENTIFICATION OF
INDIAN BUTTFRFLIES. The seventh edition of THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS
is in the press and is expected to be ready in 1964. We are considering
publication of a revised version of Col. Wall’s COMMON INDIAN SNAKES.

As usual the Society published a Nature Calendar which was greatly
appreciated by members and proved popular with many business firms
as well.

A Hindi edition of THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Salim Ali similar
in format to the English edition is being prepared by the Central Hindi
Directorate, Government of India. Ht ws op 3

4
230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

We are happy to report that the Government of India have provided
a grant-in-aid for the HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS which is now under
preparation by Dr. Salim Ali and Dr. Sidney Dillon Ripley. Our Society
is sponsoring this publication. It will be in about 10 volumes and will
illustrate every species in colour. It is designed for the field naturalist
as well as for the museum worker and will be an extremely valuable
addition to ornithological literature.

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

The Nature Education Scheme financed by the Government of
Maharashtra is now in its 16th year. Tours of the Natural History
Section of the Prince of Wales Museum and special talks on natural
history subjects with the aid of exhibits and other specimens, films, and
living animals were continued. The activities under the Scheme have
now been extended to Poona and the revised General Science Syllabus
prepared by the Society’s Nature Education Committee giving import-
ance to the study of the natural environment has been adopted by many
schools in Bombay and Poona.

MEMBERSHIP

The total membership on our books at the end of 1963 was 1284,
including 242 life and 4 honorary members. Subscriptions were
received from 741 members, and we hope to receive subscriptions from
most of the remaining 297 members, except for a few who cannot be
traced. During 1963, 98 ordinary members and 3 life members were
enrolled as against 32 members who resigned, or died. We would like
to enlist your help in enrolling more members. As you know, the
annual subscription has remained unchanged since 1949 and unless
there is a substantial increase in membership we will be unable to cover
our deficit in the future.

FIELD TRIPS

In October two Research Assistants were sent to the Laccadives for
investigating the possibilities of ringing breeding sea birds. The report
of their activities will be found in a later issue! of the Journal.

REVENUE ACCOUNT

During the year under review the income of the Society, excluding
the special grant received from the Government of Maharashtra for the
maintenance of the Reference Collections, was Rs. 69,058.70 as
against Rs. 54,223.96 in the previous year. The working of the Society
during 1963 showed a deficit of Rs. 8,324.25 as against Rs. 5,632.94
in 1962.

1 See p. 185 above.

A.G.M, 1963-64—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 231

STAFF

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing
co-operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. J. L. Bernard who
continues to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom.

SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS FOR THE PERIOD
JANUARY TO APRIL 1964

JOURNAL

The December 1963 issue of the Journal, completing Volume 60,
contained 260 pages and included three articles each on birds and
botany, two on Crustacea, and 1 each on mammals, amphibians,
insects, and general natural history. It contained 22 Miscellaneous
Notes on various subjects.

GENERAL

New Building. The Government of India have made a further grant
of Rs. 1,00,000 towards the cost of the building.

_ Talks and Film Shows. We arranged a film show on the 27th
March at the Society’s premises. Two films RUTHLESS ONE and LIVING
SOIL were kindly lent by Messrs Burmah Shell, and the films were
greatly appreciated.

Field Trips. Mr. Humayun Abdulali spent a month in the
Andaman Islands with the Society’s Field Assistant Mr. P. B. Shekar
and Mr. L. B. Nogueira of the Prince of Wales Museum, who were
loaned tohim. He obtained some 256 birds of about 100 species and
subspecies together with other natural history specimens which he has
presented to the Society. These will form a useful supplement to our
collections which have very few specimens from that area. We hope to
publish a report on the trip and the collections in due course.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (A)

232

€9°SEL‘TS , _

00°000°S7 °° 9F6T UOT

00°07Z1°6

“ | pepstis | 7°
| puz

vE'vsl's

LE €9L‘s
00° L01 ‘9+

€9° PE‘Or

00°6E ‘ZI
oo'o6r'sT | °°

PICMIOJ POTLIVD ©
| 79° TIB‘SE °° 89/9961
| OO'OSL‘OI °* spuog ysnIy,

Sfeuruy uvipul jo yoog ,
JO 4SOD dY} SPILMO} JO-UdITIA > SsaT |
yeoys souvleg jse] Jod se couvleg |

"* IeV9h oY) SULINP UONeIDsId9q -ssa7T
JoYG SOUL] eg ise] Jod se oouvleg
‘juaudinby 2p ‘sainjxty ‘aanjiusng

| °° JBOK OY} SuLINP uoeieldeg -ssa7z
JOYS oourleg Ise] 13d se souvleg

6L°L67'87'I
UWOISISAUOD YE O0O'ST “SU
uvoy SuIpuny YE 0O09E ‘SU
ane spuog
jsNI[ JUSTISAOId
“wy Avequog %P 000‘7I ‘SU

od Aequog %F 000‘FI ‘Su
(SOD TY) “Siuaujsaauy

uonipy

unoIIp jY4s14hdoD
TS°Z06°TS

87 S6EOL

£0) 40j0-W

SSajdadOsd I1/GODAOUWU]

SLASSV ‘da “sa

€961 YWHIWAOAC Ie LV SV LVFZHS ADNVIVE

|
|
|
|

er 10r

vl'66S‘€

00°0S6‘T
87 "Sth PL

“qu ‘sy

(1) LI dina gaara] A aINagaHOS
0OS6I LOV ISOUL OlldNa AVAWOd FHL

ALIOOS AYOLSIH IVUNLVN AVAWOP AHL

a
: : LS‘OOL‘E

"* PpIPMIOJ POLIIED

——

96°SII ee se IPod

oy} sulinp yuedg -ssa7
6E°LIT i a 7994S
sourleg jsv] Jod se souvrleg

puny afiT Pim

¢9°068 =" me Ieok
oy} SULINp jyusdg -ssaT
6L’ 68°F
00°000‘¢ Iesh 34} BSuLINp
PoAloooI jUNOWLYW ‘:ppPY
6L'68rI °° : ya0uS
souLleg jsey Jod se souvleg
Ps puny 4404 pla

‘Spuny payiwuiwy 4ay10

LE198°8 poysnf[pe Uonvioeideag -ssa7
88°€9L°09 °° 1994S
oourleg 3Sv] Jod se oourjeg ©
Spun Stasspy paxty
ee ee ee Iva. A
94} SUIINP PoATOD0I JUNOWY -ppP
** J20YS s0ueleg ISU] Jod se souvleg
puny diyssaquayp aftT
/snd1oD 40 puny Isn4E
SAILITIGAVIT GNV SGNN4

CNO® PPT A ON porojsidoy

D728)

A.G.M. 1963-64—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

ve'SL8‘Or'l °* PIVMIOS Pole) 6L°L6Z°87T | 19°SPL‘99 | "* premio; Polley
| | "* TpS8L'9 PABMIOJ parlIeD a a ee 2
-Wsety ou sesis's._—Gnnecoy amipusieg
5G : Eek 10K NEY ‘ : Jeo 94} Sulinp yuadg -ssaT
“* QO'OOT = (Siz, 12007 eSeeae
‘WIS'O) sackojduq ‘‘ are Bi
1 ooroor'z (din, ereroy St 7 ite ea
OHM) seasoidugq “* Rg Ue eee ae aE
IIN IIN soo]SNI], OL 0€°S07'6 J/g 9ULTeg JUSdsUL) €9-796T
: : :saouvapy | CL’8bE A/a sourjeg jyuedsu¢) 79-1961
00°S6 aera fie marae
IN 00°S6 (BRIS 01) suvOT 19919 LV Cb8 a ivaX 94} Sulinp
TIN TIN drysivpoyog uvo'yT JUSWIUIZAOD 0} PUNJOY :ssaT
Infiqnoq poop (poinsesuQ) -suvo7 Ly?tr8 A/a sourreg yUsdsuy¢) 19-0961
IL'brO'88 SS <i DA]ysvADYD fo
00°0SL°€ uone JUuauUdaAOH judg) suadsuyp
-1I901daq] JOJ UOISIAOIg -ssaT 00°SZL‘OE a a 12904§
IL'V6L‘16 souvleg 4Se[ Jed se sourjeg
——— 0D 1Y ——- puny uouvsyqngd
PEEEL‘O Spuog sUajod %F€ OOF 00°000‘0¢ zs i 3994S
LE 199°S8 000°76 souRleg 3se] Jed sv sourjeg
SR are Pee puny suipjing
00°000°€ SOVBOBNIOD 60° TLT
sousjoq [euOTeN Z3°L16 IVoK 9Y} SULINP yusdS ‘ssaT
SIOX ZI > PPV OOO'E “SU IV 680'T °° ee 7994§
"* (OS EOP'SL “SU ONIVA I941e) aoueleg Ise] 10d sev souejeg
L¢*199°78 000°68 ‘Su puny daaing jouwoypy
oe as Soa a 00°008 T si ie 7994S
CL’8P6'L “SL/OL6I WeO'T Juow souRleg j4sv] Jod se couvleg
-dojaaed 3s] 4€ 000°C “SU | puny uolpipadxy
i (*pyUOD)—(QSOD FV) sMuawssaauT LS‘O0L‘E “o A/a—spung paysouoy 4ay10
€9°SEL‘TS "+ preMIOJ 1YSNOIg 6L°L67°87'T "+ preMioj 1YSNoIg s
‘ —
‘du "sy ‘du ‘sa SLHSSV ‘du “sa ‘du ‘sa SHILITIAVIT GNV SGNN4

(panuiju02)—¢961 YAIWAOAC 1¢ LY SV LYFHS AQNVIVA

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

234

CR I NRT IT

SP STZ 16'T €1°097‘99
00° €8h‘ZPr
00°000‘F
€S 61'S
09° LS€‘T

[607%
08°6S0‘8I
LS°9€0‘b7Z

LL°9SZ'8

PE “SL8‘Or'I

‘qu ‘sy ‘qu ‘sy

"+ premsoy porseg

Sv Ilr °° - y9-C961

SOTLber €9-C961
qUeIn soUBUDJUTeYy

eryysereyeW JO JUSUIUIOAOD)
pe v9- C961
qURIQD AYWAIOY uoreonpY”
eIJYSeIeYRI, JO JUSWUIBZAODH
en SddIAJOS pue soijddns
LIWUOIUT ABYIO
vs o3 (pansooy) 3S019}U]
ote 58 judy
/BUIPUBISING aUuloIUT

re (uOnIPA

| puz yoog jewiuy) uorlesolqng
| Jepun yoog Jo sod pajejnumsoy

suoneolqng pue syoog
(19puN IO 3809 IY) -SsyI0IS
"* QOO'PE sosuedxg piedsaig **
re AOE LEP I "ydoq xe soles
WOIJ B[QBAIOIOI C/88E*T SU
BSUIPNSUI sIOyIO O],
Ip'S8L'9 plemsJos 1YSNOIg

“mpanod pooy (*pyuo7d) —saouvapp

“* preaJos yysno1g

SLHSSV

6L L6Z‘8C a

6L L6Z‘87'I

** preMIOs poled

67 P09'ST ** at Teak
ou surinp | pos ¢ ssaTz

TE SOEOE © : 7990S
souvleg jse] Jod se souvjeg

UONVZIUDSIC

YIJDAHT PlAOM JuvAyH juadsu sp

CC'ILP oinjIpusdxe €9-Z96] JOJ
AyIN0G 34} Aq poouvape
qunowy jo punjoy -ssaT7

85°€09‘rI

Tr’ 6L8°6C QunosoVy 91n}
-Ipusdxy 2 sulo0suy Jad sv)
Jeah 9} SulInp 3uedg -ssaT
00° €sb*rPr
OO'Esp*L °° Iva 3Y} 1OJ
yaeIHH [BUONIPPY +F9-£961
0O0'O00'LE 194 94} JOS IULIQ $9-€961
(‘pluoD)—vaysoavyopy fo
JUIWIUAIAODH) JuDA_ Juadsun
A/ad—spuny paysouuoy 42410

°° pleMIOs YSNOIg

SHILITIG@VIT GNV SQNNHA

(panuyjuor)—E961 YAIWADAC I€ LV SV LHAHS AINV IVE

259

A.G.M. 1963-64—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

$9°690 “SZ ‘€

COT8S‘ZE

E1097‘ 10'T

8b'877'16'T

00°000°SZ

Ly Ize.
8L°S60'

8LEIS*s

00°0008Z

00°000‘¢
00°000‘Z

€T'097°99

“qu ‘sy

}

"+ pJeMIOJ pated

ee ee

Talyseg 94} YA (2)
ssajsnay, oY} YM (9)

(A}9ID0G A101STH
JeinjeNy Aequiog oy} jo sueU
94} Ul BIB sJUNODDY 9AO0Qe 3} ITV)
ue Avquiog ‘yueg polajieya
> VIM usodaq poxly ul
pe Kequiog ‘ yueg paorajeyy
3 "* 8-€-78 7 UOpuoT
“PrT yueg SAP[PULID Ww jeuonenN
Aequiog

| “pyy yueg skelpulyg 2 Jeuonen

YUM JUNODSY UL (M)
“Saoubjvg yuog puv ysvy

oe sprig
uvIpuy jo Yooqpuey jo uoneoyqng
out JOJ JURID VIPUy Jo JUSsWIUIDAOD
9-€96] Sosuodxg [euInos
jUvIQH PIPUy jo WOWUIDAOH
P9-€96] JURIDH oinjzU
-Iny eryyseleyepy jo juswuUsJoA0D
(‘PIUOD) aumoouy sayIE
A/d—suipuvjsingQ awosuy
PICMIOJ JYSNOIg

IOJ

SLHSSV

9P'9E66L‘'T | ST'80P°7
| C1 80r‘Z
io stoic
| 00°000°SZ
|

00°000‘8Z
|

L9°8£9°86
6L L67‘8Z'T

‘SY “qu “SU

°° PIVMIOJ Posey

—_

73 LIE? (jUNOSDY SINyIpused
-Xq pue swoouy Jed se)
es oY} SuIINp yuadS -ssaT

L6°61L°9

99'I8E"S "* ako 9}
JOJ WLI y9-C961 “PPV

LE See'l

69'CEET °° GQunosoy oinjrpusd
-Xq pue swoouy Jod se)
1e94 94) SulINp yusdG -ssaT7

| OO'TL9T BOA BY} JOJ JULIDH €9-796T

SJUDAD) YDADASAY JDIAIS
-npuy puo oYyuais fo piounoD
uonIpy pug *“yoog [euluy jo
uoleol[qnd 9} JOF VIPUT UIDN}SAAA JO
uunesny] So[e@AA JO 99ULIg WOl} UOT
“(Pemnoesun) suvoT
(spalg
uvipuy jo yooqpurey jo uornvo
-I]QNg 9} 10} 9DUSIDS Jo JUsWIedIaG
‘uoryeonpy jo AISI, 94} wWoOlJ)
P9-£961 IPOA 94} SULINP PdAIoDNy
Quedsuq) vipuy fo Juawmudsaaoy judin
A/d—spuny paysousvy 42y1Q
°° premio] 1ysNOIg

SHILITIGVIT GNV SGNNA

————— a ee SSS SSS SS SSS SS

(panuyju0a)—€961 MAIWAOT Ie LV SV LAAHS JONVIVI

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

236

92jSNA],
‘vidvdvyJ °C ‘f (PS)

88°C9E"LE“E

S7'YTE'S
66°896°€

p€67'CI

19°690°SZ'E
“qu SU “qu ‘SY

pue swiosuy

sjunjunoz9p pasajsvy)

“OD 3 Nosnouay “J “V (PS)
9)8p USAD Jo JJ0de1 Ino Jod sy

* TROL

‘ ** yunoosoy oInjIpusedxy

Jod se woyoq : ppy

* yaoyg sour[eg ise] Jod sve oouvjeg
junodop adnjipuadxy puv auioduy

° pireMiojs 1ySNoIg

SLASSV

p96l ‘Mdp yILZ “AVANOG

‘sn, SY} JO Sjossy/pue sonsodo1g 9y} Jo pue soniiqery pue
spun,y oY} JO JUNODOR ONI} & SUIEJUOD Joljaq INO Jo ySoq 94} 0} JB9YS oour[eg ovoge oy],

88° Z9E LEE

‘qu ‘SY

tr'9THLS

|
OV 9E66LT |

S1°80r 7

“du sa

L7SI0'SS

“TROL

60° O£E soouvjeg ipsa Aipung “‘

OZ'LOO'I *‘Uondisosqng soueapy “

86°089°ES °° sasusdxg 10,7
SaujIpiqorT

4/d—spuny payapusvy 42y1OQ
°° pIeMIOJ IYSNOIG
SHILITIGVIT GNV SGNNA

(panuljuo2)—¢96| YAIWAOAC I¢ LY SV LAAHS JONVIVI

237

A.G.M. 1963-64—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Ol srry

ee
ytu

piu
Ol S¢P'y

yu
ya

“qu ‘Sy

L79SS°ES
00°000‘OT

00°000°r
Ch'6L8°6C

$8°9L9°6

jiu

$8OFC I

SZ POC'E

[ru
[tu

“qu ‘sy

PIBMIO}J potsIeg

Ras SS SSS BE SE II SDE EES GOT IEEE IE ELIE EE TIDE DEO LEA! AE GEL

ee IOJ sesusdxy jeuinor 10,4

/ pipuy fo JuawuuUsaAo0y
" 79-E961 Ananoy jeuoneonpy 104

(e1]U09

“aed se pepusdxq) P9-£961 OZ

(e1}U05

jod se popuedxq) €9-7961 Jo4
DAYSDADYDIN {0 JUaUULIAOD

2 sjupay **

pury oy
yseo UT
/ suoyouog “*

spuaptaiq “*

qunosdy yueg UO

$o1y1INd2g UO

(Pasteoy pue poniosy) ssasajuy ‘

AWOONT

Posl]Voy
ponisy
i jyuay dg

8L°007'Sr

ZS LIE vy

69°ZEE'T

7h 6L8 67

$8°9L9°6

[a
[ru

“du "sa

i re ee ee

Z8'TE9
00°089'¢
69°LSZ,
00°SL0‘I

08°6£0‘9I
79° 6E8°EI

09°9PE's
STOEE'F

[ru
[iu

‘du °Sa

[DELI gine gata] xi wInaaHOs
QS6I LOV ISNUL Orland AVAWOS SHL

ALHIOOS AYOLSIH TVYNLVN AVEANOE AHL

“* pIeMJOy palied

. SnoouUe][sosIJ
+ * solrepes : p9-£961 104

= SNOOULTISOSIT
ct "* sollejeg : €9-7961 ioq
2 yodvasay [DIAISNpUuy pun dif1jualrgs
fo plounoy fo SJUDAL) UOAL adnjipuadxy nhs
JUOY
x "* solreyeg : p9-€96T JOq

ee ee V9
Se Sores = 69-7961 104

/ pajysosvyoyy fo Juau
-UlaAoH wodf squpin wosf aaniipuadxgy *°

nl : (syusujsnipe
10 uorstaoid Jo Kem Aq) toneissideg
ouvINsUy
ae SOLILTES

oe oe QouLUsI UI

: sattdadoad fo Joadsaa ut Sasuadx7y] OL

aUNLIGNadXy

ee ee

€961 YFAWAIAC 1€ CHANT YVAA AHL XOd INQODOV AMALIGNAdUXY UNV AWOONI

(INO) PRZ A ON Para sidoy

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (1)

238

LS’ Pres

69°869°7Z

8L°007°6S

Ol'srrr
‘da °su

Nd oo

S8°SE8‘TZ

77'196'T
CS ECE
ss 10r‘9
00°TT

OS LST

€8°CCC

£1019
06°C6r'T
cv Lv9
99°0L8

PrI°S06‘L
C6 EES
00°S0S.
69° £617
ZS IIE‘b
69°ZEE'T

LT9SS*ES

“qu ‘sy

me "SY PICMIO} PorseD

slepusg[eg o1njeNn
suoneslqng Jou1O

soyeus snouoslod jo uOoneoyUSpy
is sueAq Aq

SoIpsojINg UeIpuy Jo UOIeOyNUSp]
Pe Se sOsSn|[OJ ULIPUy
ee iI ‘TOA eIpuy JO Spllg Suey)
ge ue}sIyed
pue vipuy Jo splilg jo sisdouAg
"* UOISY ULIPUT 94} Jo soIgssyNg
eu SoorL Uerpuy [QjJNNeog SWOS
ee | Sqnays:
pue SIOQUIT[D UPIPU] [NJNeeg SUIOS
< Spilg UeIpUl Jo Yoo
: sytfoad *dja syoog **

"3 sojeg [euinor
: suo1jvoyqnd **

sooJ souRIqUug
suondiiosqng
/ $addnogy Aay1Q woAf auoruy fg

( sO Se ) 79-€96T 104
eee lod se popusdxo) £9-7961 IO
2 yoswasay
jO1AISNpUT » oyfiqualag fo pjlaunoy
. W/gq—svipn 4g
PJeMIOJ WSNoIg

AWOONT

IE L¥7'88

L9°CC

00°0SL

98° €L7CP

8L°007'SP

‘qu ‘sy

€1°80S‘T

OL 26
cr siy'l

CO'r8c
16°0€6
19°C8E
SO'8TS

9€ "P07
87"H729
0S'€6
pI'ZOE‘T
30°P9E‘T
89°700°7

0z°S9S‘be

‘du °sa

“SY PICMIOJ porssed
56 oe SOURINSUT B11
-. SosIVY_ [eIsUEH

: sasuadxy snoaupjjaosiypy “*

sud}] 19YIO
SJUDY 9[QeISAOIOLI]
sdrysiejoyos uevo'y]
S199 PP
i ffo ualyisyy sjunoup “
oe ** soo4 pure UOTNGInUOD
soo wpny
so sosuodxq [eso]
“RW JO 9S¥d 9} UY) UOIJBIOUNUIOY
soojsni], 0} UOT}eIOUNUIDY

Bd "sosuiedxe SUI[[OALI], Pue doUvADATIOZ)
. JUNODIE SOBIVYS Ivy JOJO
ee a sosuodxo SUTOOI\I
sosleyo o1nd9[q
ae agree 5 sosieyo yorg
Me sosivyo suoydelay,
JUSUIOSTJIOAPW
3 °* AIQUOIVLIG pue SUNnUIIG
n° oe ; soseisog
pun, yuep
-IAOIg BRS 0} UOTINGIIJUOS S,A}9I90G
she (20ue
SOI, ssoulveq SUIPN]oUy) sorlepes
/ Sasuadxq Juauysyqvisy7 OF
°°) preMIO} iysno1g

AUNLIGNAX|

(panuiju02)—€961 YAIWAOAA 1€ GAUNA UYVAA AHL VOT INNODOV AMNLIGNAdUXA ANY AWOONI

239

A.G.M. 1963-64—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

aajSn], sjupjunordp pasajiny dD - p96I Idpy yILZ ‘AVANOg
‘VIGVdVX ‘da ‘f£ CPS) “OO #% NOSNOUAA *A’V CPS)
9}ep UdAd JO 310de01 Ino 10d sy

EL°E8S‘7'T "7 TROL, LESS ‘CCT "7 [RIOL,
COME CE. are ae
p8°SLsl a suony
-d9[0D 90D IOJOY
jo souvuajulepy—
cO'ILY es sosieyD Sul
7 “purg pue [esIpoleag—
ST HCE'S os JOYS souLleg 0} Poles Woyogq ** SP Pre syoog Jo sseyoing—
11°969 ** (Sa91ID0g JOT}0
SL’S8ET es zis °* QunosDYy 0} suondriosqns)
QNUsSASY OF Yyorq 343N01q) 796] qunosop duvaquI—
Ieok 94} JOJ xey, syxeg jo punjoy “ Ip’ Ly6'eZ | °° €96T 1e9A 94} IOJ
sosusodxg [euInor—
OS*CIL ei PoiNj}VU JUSUTJSOAUT UO YOIg *‘ OL’ ET's ** ZQO6[ 1B9A OU} IO}

sesuodxy [euInor—yeuonvonpy (9)

00°0s9‘¢ a s}dIo09y SNooURJoOsIPy “‘ (ii Sie SNOIsI[aY (v)
99° €91°7Z are ysnaz ays fo s12afqo uo aanjipuadxg **
6l ‘TLO ee ee ee so3sieyo ‘ete
SUIPIPMIOT pue sUIydeg : ssaT7 jiu 2k os sINTINy UO
[iu ee oe $]USU}SOAUT UOC
O8'rlsS. | -—— : uoivisasdag <*
19°99 Sue a -- ‘Gopuoy
68°SE8°7T 1 °° A/aq—sivfoad °aja syoog Ag AyoIs0g =—s«eaIBOjJOOZ 90} = UOleUuOg
[ra “ue JUNOSOYV IWeIPI9AC UO 3S919}U]
LS" PrE'98 °° premio; WYSNOIg €l'sos‘I es 4A/q—Ssasuadxq snoaunpyass1py OL,
Te L788 "+ preMioy 1YsNoIg

‘qu ‘sy ‘qu ‘sy AWOON] ‘qu ‘sy ‘qu ‘sy AUN LIGNadXy

(panuijuo)—¢961 WAIWAOAC I€ GAGNA YVAA AHL YOA LNQOODOV AMALIGNAdXA UNV AWODNI

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (A)

240

aaISn4 % Z ‘\ 7 Syupjunozap pasajanyD PIL JlMdp YILZ ‘AVaNOg
“VIGVdVX ‘dd ‘£ CPS) See “OO 8 NOSNDUAS “A *V CPS)
ae 9p UOAD JO J9}}9] INO Jed sy

| BUTEe OC | 3 yt ae sosuadxg [eummog : a
“ : 82979 a SUOI}DO][OD DdUSIOJOY Jo souvuajuIeY JO ¢/{
| > | L8°€0S | i S[eoIPoLieg
| $ ; Pue syoog jo eseysing ‘sosuedxy AIevIqry Jo ¢/T
€6°VCS "O39 “QoURINSUT OIL ‘SosIEYD [eIBUaH Jo ¢/T
ree _ 2 Sasuadxy snoauvyaosipy <*
00°0S¢ 5 a coe. soo Upny jo ¢/T
ST I60°PI | °° sesuedxg Suljoaery, 2 souRheauOD “uUNOSOW
SOSIVYD IeD JOOP ‘sosusdxy SBunospy ‘sosreyD
ae eee | ee es -° “? 79-£961 I}oeJq«‘SasIeYD = yUeg ‘sasieyD suoydopay
00°000 Of [euinog Jo uoneorqnd soy eipuy Jo yuOWUIOAODH *‘JUOWSSHIOAPY AIOUONeIg pur SuNULIg ‘soseisog
une. : :syupig “ ‘puny JUSPIAOI_ YRIG 0} WONNGIIWUOD $,4391I90¢
06°L6E°L Pe oS suoldiissqng diysioquispy Jo ¢/T ‘SOUBMO][YW SSoUlveg SUIPN[OUI sarees Jo ¢/T
; ¢ ons os ee = soles [euInor Z dx uysi,qo1s
6° 1ET TS : suoyvonong Aq . SOSUBdXY JUaUYSI]qvISY OL
‘qu ‘sy aWNOONT ‘qu ‘sy SLdldOayY

€96] YIANSOI IS[g GAGNY AVAA AHL YOA TWNunor
40 NOMVOITdNd IHL OL LOddSHY HLIM AYNLIGNadXY GNV AWOONT dO LNAWALVIS

AIAIOOS AUOLSIH IVYNLWN AVAWOS AHL

241

A.G.M. 1963-64—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

29JSNA],

‘viavdvy ‘CG ‘f£ (PS)

SIUDJUNODIIP padajévyy

“OD 3 Nosnoway “4 “Vv (PS)

p96l ‘WMdp YILT ‘AVaNOG

SNe eee a a a aaa amaaaaaaaamaaaaaaaaaaaaaamaaaacaaamaaacaaaamamaaaacaaaaaas

SO'68P‘Z1

€0°86¢

€6°66S
00°00L°Z
(4314
0Z'08T
00°079‘¢
Lv L73°T

‘qu ‘sy

7. THIOL 60°68r‘°Z1

It’ S87

00°0LT
6'°SV
68°961'T

€0°8hZ a JUNODSY JUSIIND Uo yur_ YA

00°0S Ug ** — -JOIYSeD 9} YM YseD

= £961 TeqUIoIOC! ISLE VE SP souvleg ** 00°079°9
oe 2a SaZILYO [PIOUDH “
te “ Quouiked y1ed Ul) A °ON 30; YOO Jo sO “* I8°OST
sae Re AIQUONLIS pue sunurg “
ee ee ee so8e}sog 66
a JosIueZIO UOTVONpY s1nJeN Jo sarieypes **

3 pitt Ayato0g AIO STH [eInjeN, Aequiog
WOJJ UvAPe BuINq PIeMIOJ Y4ZN0Iq soURITeG AG

SLINAWAVg ‘qu ‘Sa

rn ee

18°O0T
00°0S

“qu ‘sy

+ TRIO],

a ae AJQIDOG A101
-SIH] JeinjeNy ABquiog WOI} 90UeA
-pe ZulNq PIVMIOJ polities sourjeg “
°° $O10N, snqeyiAs QdUdIDG JQ safes “
a SSUIMVIG] SUIT
pue sjqydwieg Apnig oinyeN Jo sayes “*

a _ A‘ON POO Jo seg “
wh AI ‘ON 391 JOO" Jo sayeg **
“y III ‘ON 39[Joog Jo sayeg **
"* TL ‘ON 391400 Jo sefeg “
e "* TON JepPjoog Jo safes “
a Exe "* €9-C96T
BIVYSeIeYLI JO JUOWIUISAOH YULID **

ae ** yunoo
“OY WAIN UO yURg YUM soULIeg
Se ie Jarysed Yum yser
> plemIOJ JYSNOIC
€96[ Alenuee js| 1B Se sOURTeg OL

SLdIdOaY

C96] Aaquiazag 1S|[¢ papua avak ay, sof Junoddp squaudog pup sidiavay

FNAHOS NOLLVONGA JXALVN
ALAIOOS AYUOLSIH TVANLVN AVEANOd AHL

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD IN THE
CONFERENCE HALL OF THE B.E.S. & T. UNDERTAKING,
ELECTRIC HOUSE, COLABA, BOMBAY 5, ON TUESDAY,
28TH APRIL 1964, AT 6.30 P.M., WITH DR. SALIM ALI,
D.Sc., F.N.I., IN THE CHAIR

1. The Honorary Secretary’s reports for the year ending 31st
December 1963 and for the period January to April 1964 having been
previously circulated to members were taken as read and adopted.

2. The Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts presented by the
Honorary Secretary in the absence of the Honorary Treasurer were
approved.

3. The following were elected as members of the Executive and
Advisory Committee for the year 1964-65 : |

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Mrs. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Governor
of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents
Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.)
Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.I. ‘ex-officio
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, S.J.

Hon. Secretary
Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer
Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s, (Retd.)

Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)
Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., , Ph.D.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, D.Sc., F.N.1.
Mr. G.S. Ranganathan

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Y.S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan

A.G.M. 1963-64—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 243

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S.. .. aC. rig .. Ahmedabad
Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. 2. | | . New Delhi
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.C.S. s. (Retd. ne New Delhi
Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., L.T., Ph.D.,. D.D. .. Mysore
Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. ie .. Shillong
M. K. Himmatsinhyi of Kutch es .. Bhuj
Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc., F.N.I. Dehra Dun
Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.Sc., Ph.D., & Sc.D. (Ges ee

F.N.L, F.Z.S.1. oe af .. Calcutta
Mr. P. D. Stracey, I.F.S. ae Kohima

Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E., M.I.C.E., M.LE. New Delhi

4. . The following amendment to the Rules & Regulations of the
Society, previously circulated with explanatory notes, was put to the
vote and carried unanimously :

For clause 31 of the Rules and Regulations substitute :

‘ The government and management of the Society shall be vested
in a Committee consisting of (1) not more than six ex officio members,
namely one President, not more than three Vice-Presidents, one
Honorary Treasurer, and one Honorary Secretary, (2) ten ordinary
members, resident in Bombay or within 200 miles of Bombay, and (3)
the Secretary to the Government of India in the Ministry dealing with
Scientific Research or his nominee.

‘ This Committee shall be assisted in an advisory capacity by ten
members chosen by the Committee from among members resident in
the mofussil more than 200 miles from Bombay. All papers in connec-
tion with meetings of the Committee shall as far as possible be sent in
advance to the advisory members of the Committee.’

5. A talk was delivered by Mr. Humayun Abdulali on his recent
trip to the Andaman and Nicobar islands. The talk was followed by a
colour transparency show of photographs taken in the Andamans and
Nicobars, which were highly appreciated.

6. The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to Mr. Humayun
Abdulali and to the Chairman of the meeting.

Notes and News

ROWLAND WARD’S ‘RECORDS OF BIG GAME’, XII EDITION

The twelfth edition of this work is under preparation. It will
include the game animals of Europe, Asia, North America, South
America, and New Zealand. The text will describe the principal
Species and subspecies with notes on current problems and considera-
tions relating to the game of each country. Measurements of outstanding
trophies of each species will be listed country by country. Photographs
of the best trophies and of game in its wild state will illustrate the
text.

Those who are interested in having their trophies recorded should
apply to the Editor, Mr. Gerald A. Best, 64/65 Grosvenor Street,
Mayfair, London W. 1, for measuring instructions, details of minimum
measurements, and other information.

SYMPOSIUM ON CRUSTACEA:-—JANUARY 1965

The Marine Biological Association of India proposes to hold a
Symposium on Crustacea with the primary aim of reviewing the present
position, and discussing the problems and plan for future research.

It is suggested that the Symposium cover the systematics, biology,
and fishery of all the extant forms of Crustacea. The venue and the
exact dates will be intimated to participants in due course. Those
desirous of contributing papers should send the abstracts in duplicate
so. as to reach the Convener, Symposium, Marine Biological Associa-
tion of India, Marine Fisheries P.O., Mandapam Camp, S. India, by
15 August 1964, and the full papers on or before 15 November 1964.

** * * *

DEATH OF MR. LOKE WAN THO

As we are going to the press, we have received the sad news of
the death in an air crash over Taiwan on 20 June 1964 of Mr. Loke
Wan Tho, a Vice-Patron and a generous friend of the Society and an
active worker in the ornithological field. A life sketch will be published
in our issue for August. We extend our sympathy to his bereaved

family.

An Appeal

RESEARCH REQUEST FOR IMMATURE STAGES OF PAPILIONIDAE

A revision of the classification of the family Papilionidae is now
in progress. As a major portion of the research is to be based on the
immature stages, every effort is being made to obtain these stages of
as many species within the family as possible. They should be pre-
served in Dietrich’s Solution: ethyl alcohol (95%) (1S parts);
formaldehyde (35-40%) (5 parts); acetic acid (100%) (1 part);
glycerine (160%) (2 parts); and water, distilled (100%) (30 parts). I
am interested in obtaining series (up to 10 specimens of each stage,
i.e. ova; Ist, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th larval stages; pupae) of each species.
It is very important to my research to have the immature stages
of Bhutanitis lidderdalei and Teinopalpus imperialis. The food plant
of T. imperialis is thought to be Daphne nepalensis or perhaps D.
papyracea (Chota Aryili, Nepalese). The larva is described as ‘green
with a large thick head, Papilio-shaped, the tail was certainly
aggressive when .. . touched. The pupa is ‘oval greenish with a
strange horn . . .’ (Lindgren, O., 1920, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
27 : 177-178). This species is found in Sikkim to Southern Burma,
while B. lidderdalei is found in Bhutan, Naga and Chin Hills. The
larva and pupa of B. lidderdalei should be almost black with tubercles
and several rows of small yellow or orange spots. The silken ‘girdle’
may be attached to the point of the head on the pupa. The best and
easiest way to find the immatures of any species is to find the female
laying eggs; you are certain of your determinations of both the
immatures and the food plant. The early stages of B. lidderdalei are
unknown.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE,

SANTA FE PREPARATORY SCHOOL, KENT H. WILSON,
P.O. Box 335, Chairman
SANTA FE, NEW MeExIco,

USS.A.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS—25-8-1964. C1322
EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU & ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals
The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 2nd (revised) edition. 28 plates Be
colour by Paul Barruel and many other illustrations. (Available shortly) Rs. 30

(Price to members Rs. 25).

Birds |
The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 7th (revised) edition. 64 coloured and
many monochrome plates. (Available shortly) Rs. 25

5 ‘ (Price to members Rs. 20

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-date
checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Sikkim,
Bhutan, and Ceylon. ; Rs. 25

} (Price to members Rs. 20)

| py Snakes
Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.
. s. 10
(Price to members. Rs. a
Miscellaneous

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many episcren and
monochrome plates. 2nd edition. Revised by W. T. Stearn
(Price to members Rs. 16)
Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many coloured
and monochrome plates. Rs. 22
(Price to members Rs. 17.50)
Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured and 45
monochrome plates. Rs.
(Price to members Rs. 22.50)
Indian Molluses, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome plates,
and text-figures.

(Price to members Rs. 4.50)
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :
1. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi.

Ss,

Kannada Rs. 0.62
2. Our Birps II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0.62
3. Our BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and
Marathi. N
4. Our MONSOON PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi,
and Marathi.
5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi
s. 1
Back numbers of the Society’s Journa]. Rates on application.
Correspond with :
The Honorary Secretary

Bombay Natural History Society,
91, Walkeshwar Road, Bombay 6-WB.
Agents in England :
Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,
Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin,
Herts., England.
The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly
numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve ‘them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of Rs. “500.
Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription of Rs. 30°*
The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December Covers
the period from the date of their.election to the end of the following year. 25

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should
pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the
subscription, plus postal registration (Rs. 2.50) if required—in all Rs. 32.50—to
_ the Society in Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done,
then the sum of £2-10-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—
a: National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 26 Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 2.

. CONTENTS — -

ONE NEST OF Sceliphron madraspatanium (FaBR.) SPHECIDAR ; HYMENOPTERA).
By H. Spurway, K. R. Dronamraju, and S. D. Jayakar na

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES OF RAJASTHAN. By K. S. Sankhala ae -

NOTES ON THE OUTCOME OF LITERATURE SURVEY FOR WEALTH OF INDIA—RAW
MATERIALS, By K. R. Ramanathan, R. C. Sawhney, and J. M. Dutta..

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FisHes : FAMILY ANTHOSOMIDAE—2.

By N. Krishna Pillai s% 4 hs se a
ON THE FOOD AND OTHER HABITS OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO (Phoenicopterus
_roseus PALLAS) IN INDIA. By Humayun Abdulali igs hi

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS. II. Cyanophyta. By S. K.
Goyal 3 Ae és ae ze ae

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FisHes. Part I—Ophicepha-
lus punctatus Bloch. By A. Qayyum and S. Z. Qasim %

THE BNHS/WHO Birp MiGcrRaTION Stupy Proyect—4. Activities from
13-9-1963 to 23-3-1964. By Salim Ali ee es

Two New Species oF Marine Borers of Genus Nausitora (MOLLUSCA :
TEREDINIDAE) FROM WEST BENGAL, INDIA. By A. S. Rajagopal

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF BAHRAIN. By E. P. Wiltshire

Eco-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF THE INDIAN Desert GERBILLE, Meriones
hurrianae (JERDON). II. Breeding Season, Litter Size, and Post-natal
Development. By Ishwar Prakash Ais os

EPIZOIC ASSOCIATES OF THE BoMBAY Spiny LossTER Panulirus polyphagus
(Hersst). By Shriniwas Deshmukh ate i

A REPORT ON THE GECKO i ee eae Gainer 1853). By Fer: Ace
Anderson be é “i

REVIEWS eo ee ee ee ee -@e
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR
1963-64 si ee ee oe oe

SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS FOR THE PERIOD JANUARY TO APRIL 1964

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY ..
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEBTING ue ‘s e
NoTss AND News ie és cs T' es

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

Vol. 61, No. 2

Editors
H. SANTAPAU, s.3.. & ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

AUGUST 1964

Rs. 15

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the :
editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica- =
tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published |
elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. __

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be wade
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names
always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a
place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni Nees or Stee chinensis suratensis
or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials refeninn to anueeces cneule only be used where
identification has been authentically established by comparison of
specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification
is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good
contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20 5.60 cm.
(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,
preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the
paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books
not underlined (roman type), thus :

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268. ~

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be eae by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by
a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles
free of charge. In the ease of joint authorship, 50 copies will be
given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders
for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be
received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance
of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and
packing. POUCA ine tle ,

Epirors,

91, Walkeshwar Road, Journal of the Bombay Natural 1 ;

: Bombay 6-WB,. ole meas ” History Society.

VOLUME 61, NO. 2—AUGUST 1964

Date of- publication : 23-12-1964

CONTENTS

NOTES ON THE COURTSHIP OF THE LAND TORTOISE Geochelone travancorica
(BOULENGER). By Walter Auffenberg. (With two plates and a text-figure).. 247

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS FROM BROACH, GUJARAT. Vegetation of River Bed.
By G. L. Shah = ibe ae aA aA .. 254

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE KAMENG FRONTIER DIVISION, N.E.F.A. By
K.C. Jayaram and N. Majumdar. (With two text-figures) Ay .. 264

COLLECTING MOTHS BY A MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP IN THE SURAT DANGS, GUJARAT
StaTe. By E. M. Shull and N. T. Nadkerny. (With a plate) e256

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING HABITS OF THE BRONZEWINGED JAGANA [ Metopi-
dius indicus (LATHAM)]. By D. N. Mathew oe a 6.295

OBSERVATIONS ON THE VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS
OF THE EASTERN GHATS—II. By Rolla Seshagiri Rao i .. 303

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES. Part II—Barbus stigma
(Cuv. & Val.). By A. Qayyum and S. Z. Qasim. (With eight figures) .. 330

A NEW SPECIES OF Angulitermes FROM NorTH INDIA (ISOPTERA : TERMITIDAE :
TERMITINAE). By P. N. Chatterjee and M. L. Thakur. (With three plates).. 348

A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE FLORA OF THE MAHENDRAGIRI

HILLs OF Orissa. By S. L. Kapoor. (With a map) a8 .. 354
NOTES ON MIGRANT BIRDS OF NorTH BIHAR. By P. V. George. (With two text-

figures) oe . 370
ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS. III. Oedogoniales. By S. K.

Goyal. (With three plates) <3 me bag we) OD

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAUNA OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS. Part VII—Butter-
flies. By W. W. A. Phillips a, we as + 3nd 90

FLORAL ASYMMETRY IN MALVACEAE. By T.A. Davis and J. C. Selvaraj. (With
three text-figures) on ee ae a -- 402

FOUR NEW RACES OF BIRDS FROM THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. By
Humayun Abdulali. (With one plate) see Bs .. 410

IN MEMORIAM :

Loke Wan Tho. (With a plate) se - a > 418

SMITHSONIAN MAR 1 1 1965

INSTITUTION

REVIEWS :

A Study in Behaviour. (J. H.C.)

The Wild Life of India. (S. A.)

Elephant Gold. (H. A.)

The Waterfowl of the World. (S. A.)
The amazing world of Insects. (D.E. R.)

SVs ge eae

Aquatic Angiosperms. (P. V. Bole)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. A visit to the High Range, Kerala. By T. H. Bassett (p. 431). 2. Taxo-
nomic status of Tadarida tragata (Dobson) [Chiroptera : Molossidae]. (With a
plate). By Y. Chaturvedi (p. 432). 3. A protective device among wild elephants ?
By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 438). 4. Notes on Indian Birds 1—Ceyx erithacus rufi-
dorsus Strickland in the Sikkim Terai, Eastern Himalayas ;. An addition to the
Indian avifauna. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 439). 5. Notes on Indian Birds 2—
Races of the Little Tern, Sterna albifrons Pallas, in India and Pakistan. (With a
text-figure). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 440). 6. New bird records for Sau-
rashtra. By Y. S. Shivrajkumar (p. 446). 7. Some notes on the Painted Part-
ridge [Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby)] around Bombay. By Humayun
Abdulali (p. 446). 8. Additions to the birds of Kutch: Monarcha azurea
(Boddaert) and Muscicapa thalassina Swainson. By M.K. Himmatsinhyji (p. 449),
9. Recovery of ringed birds. By Editors (p. 451). 10. A supplementary note on
‘A list of the Reptiles and Amphibians of the Surat Dangs, South Gujarat’.
By E. M. Shull (p. 452). 11. Occurrence of a scale interposed between the parie-
tals and occipitals in the King Cobra, Naja hannah (Cantor). By K. K. Tiwari
(p.452). 12. Occurrence of the Oblong Sunfish [Ranzania truncata (Retzius)] in
Bombay waters. (Witha photograph). By B. F.Chhapgar (p. 453). 13. A pre-
liminary account of the Flatfishes (Heterosomata) found along the Bombay coast.
By M. J. Pradhan (p. 456). 14. On the ability of Glyptothorax telchitta (Hamil-
ton) to survive outside water. By C. L. Mahajan (p. 459). 15. A new species
of Stenocranus : S. ajmerensis sp. nov. (Araeopidae : Fulgoroidae : Homoptera :
Heteroptera). (With a plate). By A.N. T. Joseph (p. 460). 16. Proporceilio
quadriseriatus Verhoeff : An addition to the Indian fauna list. By A. Vandel
and S. D. Jayakar (p. 463). 17. Supplementary note on ‘ The Butterflies of South
Gujarat’. By E.M. Shull (p. 464). 18. Studies on plant-parasitic nematodes
of Kerala. III. An additional list of plants attacked by root-knot nematode,
Meloidogyne sp. (Tylenchoidea: Heteroderidae). By A. M. Nadakal (p. 467).
19. Mimosa invisa Mart.: A new record for India. (With a plate). By N. C. Nair
(p. 469). 20. Aeginetia indica L. var. alba Santapau : A new record for northern
India. (Witha photograph). By K.M. Vaid (p. 471). 21. An interesting root-
parasite from Saurashtra: Cistanche tubulosa Wt. (With a photograph). By
P. V. Bole (p. 472). 22. A sedge new to Bombay. (With a plate). By R. R.
Fernandez (p. 474). 23. Chlorococcales from Kodaikanal, South India. (With
a plate). By S. G. Bharati (p. 475).

NOTES AND NEWS

. 422
. 423
. 426
. 427
. 429
~ 429

- 480

JOURNAL

OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY

1964 AUGUST Vol. 61 No. 2

Notes on the courtship of the land
tortoise Geochelone travancorica
(Boulenger)’

WALTER AUFFENBERG
Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.

(With two plates and a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Geochelone travancorica, a species of land tortoise endemic to
south-western India, is very rarely encountered in European and
American zoological gardens and museums. Therefore, I was parti-
cularly fortunate in obtaining a number of live specimens for studying
certain features of both its behaviour and its anatomy. My sincere
appreciation is extended to those individuals and institutions who
have aided me in obtaining the specimens. In particular I wish to
thank the Bombay Natural History Society and Mr. Sane of Sachetan,
Bombay. :

Though the herpetological literature is sprinkled with observations
on the courtship of tortoises (see Loveridge & Williams 1957 for most
recent discussion of many Old World species) only a few reports have
dealt with the comparative aspects of this behaviour and most
publications are based on casual observations of a few tortoises in

captivity.

1Partially sponsored by National Science Foundation, grant number
B 14851.

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

As part of a broader study of the fossil and Recent land tortoises
of the family Testudinidae I have had an opportunity to observe the
combat and courtship behaviour of a number of species, and to record
these activities on movie film for later comparative analyses. The
present report is the first contribution resulting from these studies
(Auffenberg MS.), and is based on the behaviour of nine adult males
and nine adult females of G. travancorica (probably more living
specimens of this species than have ever been accumulated in one piace
before), maintained for a period of up to one year at the time of this
writing. All the specimens were taken in Kerala State, India. Some
were collected by myself in January 1963, while ones were sent to
me after my return to the United States. _ *

To date it has been possible to observe only courtship . behaviour
in this species. Though several sexually active adult males were
confined in the same large enclesuty for long periods of time no
combat was observed.

THE COURTSHIP PATTERN

The courtship behaviour of all tortoises can usually be divided
into three phases or steps. These are: (i) the behavioural pattern
involved in sex and species recognition, (2) the technique whereby the
female is ‘immobilized’ by the male, to allow (3) mounting and
intromission. Each of these major steps in the courtship of Geochelone
travancorica is briefly described below.

1. Sex and species recognition. The use of a sequential com-
bination of specific visual and olfactory signals that together provide a
means of sex and species recognition in two sympatric South American
species of tortoises has been observed (Auffenberg MS.). Only the
olfactory signal is found in Geochelone travancorica. Apparently there
are no visual signals important in courtship. Thus, being based only on
an olfactory signal the behavioural pattern involved in sex recognition
is very simple. When a sexually active male approaches the posterior
portion of the shell of a potential breeding partner the neck is
extended and the head moved in a fashion identical to that used in
olfactory investigation of food items.

Eglis (1962) has described the olfactory motor patterns of several
genera and species of land tortoise, concluding that these patterns are
characteristic of particular taxa. His observations suggested that the
characteristic olfactory motor pattern in the genus Géochelone is one
in which the head is moved in a vertical plane, though the precise

COURTSHIP OF THE LAND TORTOISE G. TRAVANCORICA — 249

nature of the movement is interspecifically variable. However, the
present writer has shown (in MS.) that not all species of Geochelone
possess a vertical pattern, since in at least G. carbonaria and G.
denticulata (not seen by Eglis) it is horizontal.

In Geochelone travancorica the olfactory motor pattern is essentially
vertical. First the neck is extended in a single, continuous motion,
bringing the head near the object to be investigated. The head is then
moved through a short vertical arc, frequently followed by a small and!
rapid curlicue (Plate I, Fig. A). This olfactory behavioural pattern
is very similar to that reported for other species of Geochelone, as
well as the closely related genus Testudo.

2. Immobilization Technique. Courting males of all species of
tortoise observed, either in captivity or in the wild, seem to encounter
difficulty in mounting a moving female. This is particularly charac-
teristic of those species which possess a high, vaulted shell, such as
Geochelone elegans. A correlative morphologic modification in species
with a highly-vaulted shell seems to be that the plastron of the male
is more concave on its lower surface. Among other things this
arrangement increases the stability of an otherwise one-point contact
between a sphere and a plane. More specialized modifications in
addition to this one seem to allow easier mounting in other kinds of
highly-vaulted land turtles. As an example, in the terrestrial North
American emydid genus Terrapene the hind feet of the males are
apparently specially modified so that they can be inserted into the space
between the movable rear portion of the plastron and immovable
carapace of the female, where they are secured by the female hooking
her own legs around them, or closing her shell on them (Evans 1953,
Legler 1960, Cohn 1937, et al.). This behaviour apparently serves
several functions. It assures. that intromission remains possible in a
species that has the ability to completely close its shell, and is a device
whereby the male is kept from falling off the high-vaulted shell of
the female. In marine turtles, a single enlarged claw on each flipper
of the male grasps the shell of the female, and in kinosternids patches
of enlarged scales on the hind legs of the males are apparently used
to grasp the females (Carr 1952, et al.).

However, in Geochelone travancorica there are no apparent
anatomical features that assure proper and continuous positioning of
‘the male even though the female walks away, as in Terrapene. Thus,
immobilization of the female is of considerable importance in this
species. In all other turtles in which immobilization plays a role it
is usually accomplished by the male either biting the head and legs of

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

the female so that these parts are kept withdrawn; or by a vigorous
ramming of the shell of the female by the male with the anterior
projection of his plastron. Somewhat similar tactics by male specimens
of the emydid turtle Terrapene ornata have been interpreted by
Brumwell (1940) as a method of sex recognition. Though sex-
recognition is certainly a result of this behavioural pattern, immobiliza-
tion is probably the primary function. Shell-tapping or ramming
(presumably with the same function) is also known in one genus of
aquatic turtles (Taylor 1933, for Kinosternon flavescens flavescens).

Some species of land tortoises are known to practise only one of
these devices—others both. In Geochelone travancorica immobiliza-
tion of the female is accomplished by shell-ramming alone. Leg- or
head-biting has never been observed.

As in other species of tortoises in which shell-ramming is known,
the courting male first withdraws the head completely and raises its
shell off the ground by extending all four limbs. The anterior limbs
are less extended than the posterior members, so that the front of the
shell is closer to the ground. Then, after rocking posteriorly, the
male quickly lunges forward, sending the gular projection of his plastron
crashing against the side or back of the shell of the female (Plate I,
Fig. B). The entire cycle normally takes about two seconds, and is
repeated a variable number of times, apparently depending upon the
effect on the female. When first struck the female invariably withdraws
the head’and limbs into the shell. However, if she does not remain in
that position long, the male continues to pound on her shell until she
seems unwilling to walk away. If the female starts to move away,
then the mounted male will slide down and again start to ram her
shell. This is continued until the female no longer attempts to
scramble out from under the male. One captive female was so forcibly
and continuously rammed by a large and persistent male that the
scutes covering the posterior part of her shell were later sloughed,
exposing the carapacial bony elements below.

It is quite possible that shell-ramming is more than a means of
immobilizing the female. As pointed out above, it may play a
secondary role in sex recognition. It may also be important in
hormonal balance and reproductive periodicity. The ramming normally
occupies the attention of the adult males for a long period of time
before a successful mounting and intromission is actually accomplished.
Thus, a male tortoise may attempt to immobilize a female for days,
or even weeks, before prolonged mounting 1s possible. The repeated
vigorous ramming of the shell could easily provide an important tactile
stimulus whereby the reproductive cycle of the female is ultimately

JOURN, BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE |

The three phases of courtship behaviour of Geochelone travancorica

Fig. A. Sex recognition by olfaction, in which the ‘males utilize an olfactory
motor pattern characteristic of the species; B. Immobilization of the female by
Shell-ramming ; C. Mounting and intromission

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat, HIST. Soc. at PLATE If ©

Z of Fd travancorica
mounted on 9 elegans

Lot &
travancorica

mounted on 9

travancorica

@ Cloacal position of female travancorica |

& Cloacal position of female elegans

< Cloacal position of male travancorica

Diagrammatic illustration of shell, tail, and cloacal positions of males of
Geochelone travancorica mounted on females of G. travancorica and G. elegans .

COURTSHIP OF THE LAND TORTOISE G. TRAVANCORICA — 251

brought into synchrony with that of the male. It has been observed
that after prolonged ramming the female seems less inclined to walk
away than initially. Thus, successful mating may, at least in the
earlier part of the breeding season, depend upon such activity.
Similar situations have been described for several other organisms.
That the male courtship behavioural pattern of Geochelone
travancorica is largely initiated by the scent of the female alone is
clearly shown by the fact that when the cloacal exudation of a sexually
active female is smeared on a block of wood, box, or any similar
object, sexually active males will often ram and mount the object.

3. Mounting and intromission. As pointed out above, successful
mounting in most tortoises demands that the female remains passive
for a relatively long period of time. This is apparently initially
effected by the physical shock of the shell-ramming, and later by the
probable effect of constant mating attempts on the reproductive
hormonal balance of the female. Proper mounting is also dependent
on such mechanical features as shell shape of both pairing members
(Plate I, Fig. C).

The shell of Geochelone travancorica is not as high-vaulted as that
of many other tortoises, such as the sympatric G. elegans. Thus, the
plastron of G. travancorica males is less concave than that of G.
elegans males. The angle formed by the longitudinal axis of the shell
of a male travancorica mounted on an immobilized female of the
same species is approximately 50 degrees. Due to differences in shell
shape this same angle is approximately 80 degrees when a male of
G. travancorica is mounted on a female of G. elegans (Plate I).

The tip of the tail of adult males of G. travancorica is provided
with a scute-covered hook (Text-fig.). When the tail is held in a normal!
position the tip of the hook is directed toward the ground. However,
when the male is mounted and attempting to breed the tail is directed
anteriorly under the shell of the female, and the tip is directed upward
against the ventral surface of the plastron. When fully extended and
in position for copulation the tip of the hook contacts the femoro-anal
suture of the plastron of the female, in which there is frequently a
slight depression. This depression receives the tip of the hook, and
presumably aids the male in maintaining a mounting posture (Plate II).
A similar hook-like structure is apparently employed in the same
manner by mounted male kinosternid turtles (Carr 1952, Taylor 1933).

When mounting an adult female of the sympatric species Geochelone
elegans, the tail of the male of G. travancorica is too far forward, and
cloacal contact is apparently very rare (Plate II). Furthermore the

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Male falls off easily, since the tip of the hook extends to a position
anterior to the femoro-anal suture, where there is no complementary
depression to receive it in the female G. elegans.

The tail of an adult male of G. travancorica, showing the enlarged terminal
hook used in copulation |

When mounted, male Geochelone travancorica stretch the neck
anteriorly, tilting the head slightly downward, and with the mouth
widely opened. In this position the male sometimes produces faint
grunting noises, considerably less frequent and audible than those
produced by mounted males of G. carbonaria and G. denticulata
(Snedigar & Rokosky 1950; Auffenberg MS.)

DISCUSSION

Probably the most important conclusion suggested by the data
presently available is that a very simple mechanical mechanism serves
to effectively reduce, and probably prohibits, interspecific breeding
between the two sympatric species of peninsular Indian tortoises.
The factors involved are (1) carapacial contours of the female and
plastral contours of the male, and (2) length of the tail of the male,
and position of the cloaca in both sexes. Unlike the situation that
apparently exists in two closely related South American sympatric
species, Geochelone carbonaria and G. denticulata, there is little or no
species discrimination between the two sympatric Indian species, G.
elegans and G. travancorica. Thus, males of G. travancorica will
attempt to immobilize and mount females of almost any genus of
tortoise. This lack of discrimination is believed to be correlated with
the presence of an effective mechanical isolating mechanism. <A
rather simple olfactory cue is apparently used to separate sex, but

COURTSHIP OF THE LAND TORTOISE G. TRAVANCORICA — 253

not species. The latter is accomplished by non-complementarity of
shell shape and cloacal position.

There is, in addition, some ecologic isolation in the two Indian
species as well. Geochelone elegans tends to inhabit xeric situations,
and seems to reach its greatest density in sandy or semi-arid brush
lands (personal observation 1963, Deraniyagala 1930, ert al.).
Geochelone travancorica tends to inhabit more mesic forest lands.

In south-eastern Asia there are four sympatric species of tortoises
(G. elongata, G. platynota, G. emys, and G. impressa). Of these
Geochelone elongata is very closely related to G. travancorica. The
present hiatus in the range between these two species is probably a
Late Pleistocene phenomenon. Another south-east Asian species,
Geochelone platynota, is closely related to G. elegans. It would be
- interesting to know if the ecologic and mechanical isolation mechanisms
existing between G. elongata and G. platynota are similar to those
between G. travancorica and G. elegans. Perhaps more important is
that two additional species (G. emys and G. impressa) found in this same
geographic area also possess relatively low shells. Thus shell shape
may not be effective in isolating G. elongata from these species. Some
mechanism other than mechanical isolation must be operative in this
situation. Furthermore, the similarity and close relationship of G.
emys and G. impressa suggest the presence of a more sophisticated
mechanism that allows effective species discrimination between these
two species. This hypothesis must await the future analysis of court-
ship behaviour in all four of the tortoises of south-eastern Asia.

REFERENCES

: AUFFENBERG, W. (in MS.): Sex and pattern of the box turtle, Terrapene

species recognition in two sympatric
South American tortoises.

BRUMWELL, M. J. (1940): Notes on
courtship of the turtle, Terrapene ornata.
Trans. Kansas. Acad. Sci. 43 : 391-392.
~ Carr, A. F., Jr. (1952) : Handbook of
turtles. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca,
N. Y., pp. 1-542, figs. 1-37, pls. 1-82.

Coun; A. R. (1937): The turtles of
hae Illinois Biol. Monogr. 16 (1-2) :
1-218. .

DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. (1930): The
Testudinata of Ceylon. Ceylon Journ,
Sci,, Sec.. B, 16: 43-88, pls. 7-13.

Eauis, A. (1962): Tortoise behaviour :
a taxonomic adjunct. Herpetologica 18
(1) : 1-8.

Evans, L. T. (1953) : The courtship

c. carolina. Herpetologica 9 (4) : 189-192.

Lecter, J. M,. (1960): Natural
History of the ornate box turtle, Terra-
pene ornata ornata Agassiz. Univ. Kans.
Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist. 11 (10) : 527-669,

LOVERIDGE, A. & WILLIAMS, E. E,
(1957) : Revision of the African tortoises
and turtles of the suborder Cryptodira.
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 115 (6): 163-
557, figs. 1-62.

SNEDIGAR, R. & ROKOSKY, E. J. (1950) :
Courtship and egg laying of captive
Testudo denticulata. Copeia 1950 (1):
46-48.

TAYLOR, E. H. (1933): Observations
on the courtship of turtles. Univ. Kansas
Sci. Bull. 21: 269-271.

Enumeration of Plants from Broach,
Gujarat

VEGETATION OF RIVER BED
BY .

G. L. SHAH?!, M.Sc., PH.D.
St. Xavier’s College, Bombay

Broach is a town on the Western Railway, about 332 km. north of
Bombay, on the banks of the River Narbada. The area was visited
several times during 1954-57, and again in December 1960, when exten-
sive collections were made and ample field notes taken. In this paper,
the vegetation of the river bed is described.

The river bed consists mainly of alluvial soil. Most of the area is
utilized for cultivation. Cajanus cajan Mill., Dolichos lablab L..,
Gossypium herbaceum. L., Nicotiana tabacum L., Solanum melongena L..,
Sorghum vulgare Pers., and Vigna sinensis Savi ex Hassk. are commonly
cultivated. Occasionally Capsicum annuum L., Coriandrum sativum L.,
Lagenaria leucantha Rusby, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., Momordica
charantia 1.., Ricinus communis L., Trigonella foenum-graecum L.., etc.
are cultivated.

Trees are rare, the only ones found are Azadirachta indica Juss. and
Pithecellobium dulce Bth.

In open ground, Alhagi camelorum Fisch., Argemone mexicana I..,
Tamarix ericoides Rottl., Xanthium strumarium L. are very common,
often being dominant. Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl. and
Volutarella ramosa (Roxb.) Sant. are also fairly common. Datura metel
L., Datura innoxia Mill., Lantana indica Roxb., etc. are occasional. In
moist, shaded places, the following are common, scattered or gregarious :
Ammannia baccifera L., Bergia ammannioides Roxb., Chenopodium album
L., Cyathocline purpurea O.K., Gnaphalium indicum L., Gnaphalium
luteo-album 1., Melilotus alba Lamk., Rumex dentatus L., Sutera
glandulosa Roth., Veronica anagallis L., and Wahlenbergia gracilis
Schrad.; Gnaphalium pulvinatum Del., Grangea maderaspatana Poir.,
Polygonum plebeium R. Br., Potentilla supina L., etc. form dense
mats in moist ground.

* Present address : Dept. of Botany, Sardar Vallabh Vidyapeet, Vallabh Vidya-
nagar, Gujarat, a ;

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS FROM BROACH, GUJARAT 255

A number of weeds were collected from cultivated fields in the river
bed. To mention a few, they are Achyranthes aspera L., Boerhavia
diffusa L., Chrozophora plicata Juss., Chrozophora_ prostrata Dalz.,
Digera muricata Mart., Euphorbia dracunculoides L., Phyllanthus
maderaspatensis L., Tribulus terrestris L., Trichodesma zeylanicum R.
Br., Vernonia cinerea Less., etc.

From the river banks Azadirachta indica Juss., Blumea_ bifoliata DC.,
Ficus bengalensis L., Lindenbergia indica O.K., Salvadora persica L. were
collected.

The only parasite noted in the area, Orobanche cernua Loefl., is com-
mon on Nicotiana tabacum L.

In the following list, the names of the plants are commonly those
accepted by Cooke in his FLORA; wherever necessary, names have been
changed in accordance with the rules of the INTERNATIONAL CODE OF
BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE ed. 1956.

The author wishes to express his deep sense of gratitude to Rev. Fr.
H. Santapau for his unfailing help and encouragement in the work ; also
to Dr. N. L. Bor, Kew Gardens, England, for the identification of
grasses.

PAPAVERACEAE
1. Argemone mexicana L.
Very common and abundant, gregarious, from November to May.

CRUCIFERAE
2. Brassica nigra (L.) Koch.
Rare ; an escape.

3. Lepidium sativum L.
Only one plant, dried up, in fruit, collected on 18-3-56 ; probably an escape.

POLYGALACEAE
4. Polygala erioptera DC.
Occasional. Noted on 25-12-60.

PORTULACACEAE
5. Portulaca oleracea L.
Occasional in cultivated fields and in waste ground.

ELATINACEAE
6. Bergia ammannioides Roxb.
Very common and abundant, scattered or subgregarious, in moist places,

7. Bergia odorata Edgw.
Occasional in open ground. Noted on 25-12-60.

TAMARICACEAE
8. Tamarix ericoides Rottl.
Very common and abundant, gregarious,

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

MALVACEAE
9. Gossypium herbaceum L.
Common ; cultivated.
10. Sida acuta Burm. f.
Occasional in open ground.
11. Sida spinosa L.
Common.
12. Urena lobata L.
Rare ; in Open ground.
TILIACEAE

13. Corchorus fascicularis Lamk.
Occasional in moist places.

14. Corchorus trilocularis L.
Rare ; noted in fruit on 25-12-60.

LINACEAE
15. Linum usitatissimum L.
Rare.
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE
16. Tribulus terrestris L.
Common in cultivated fields.
RHAMNACEAE
17. Zizyphus sp.
PAPILIONACEAE

18. Alhagi camelorum Fisch.
Very common and abundant, scattered or gregarious.

19. Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. var. nummularifolius (DC.) Baker.
Occasional in cultivated fields.

20. Alysicarpus sp.
Rare ; in cultivated fields.

21. Cicer arietinum L.
Occasional in cultivated fields.

22. Crotalaria retusa L.
Rare.

23. Dolichos lablab L.
Extensively cultivated.

24. Lathyrus sativus L.
Occasional ; an escape from cultivation.

25. Méedicago sativa Linn.
Rare ;in moist places. Locally, the plants are used as fodder for horses and
are sold in market. ag

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS FROM BROACH, GUJARAT 27a |

26. Melilotus alba Lamk.
Flowers small, white or creamy-yellow. Common in moist, shaded places.

27. Melilotus indica All.
Flowers minute, bright yellow or reddish yellow. Only one plant seen in moist
ground along with Melilotus alba Lamk.

28. Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) F. & R.
Occasional in moist places.

29. Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Cultivated and as an escape.

30. Vigna sinensis (L.) Savi ex Hassk.
Extensively cultivated.

MIMOSACEAE

31. Acacia arabica (Lamk.) Willd.
Only one tree.

32. Mimosa hamata Willd.
Rare ; in cultivated fields.

33. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Bth.
Only one tree.

ROSACEAE
34. Potentilla supina L.
Fairly common in moist places.

LYTHRACEAE
35. Ammannia bacciferaL. | | a
Very common in moist places, scattered or subgregarious.

36. Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz.
Only one plant seen on walls along river bank on 25-12-60.

| | ONAGRACEAE
37. Jussiaea suffruticosa Linn.
Occasional in moist places, at times gregarious.

S87 _ (CUCURBITACEAE
38. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.
Common, at times in small patches, in cultivated fields.

39. Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.
Rare ; possibly an escape.

40. Lagenaria leucantha (Duch.) Rusby.
Cultivated. :

41. Momordica ciarantia Linn.
Cultivated.

FICOIDACEAE
42. Trianthema portulacastrum L, 5 een
Occasional in moist places or in-cultivated fields,

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

MOLLUGINACEAE

43. Glinus lotoides Linn.
Very common and abundant in drying moist ground.

44. Glinus oppositifolius (L.) A. DC.
Very common and abundant in moist ground ; also noted on walls along river
bank during rainy season.

UMBELLIFERAE

45. Coriandrum sativum L.
Cultivated ; occasionally an escape.

COMPOSITAE

46. Ageratum conyzoides L.
Very common, often gregarious, in moist places.

47. Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philip.
Only one plant noted in the area, in fruit.

48. Blumea bifoliata DC.
Collected from walls along river bank. Rare.

49. Blumea eriantha DC.
Occasional in cultivated fields.

50. Blumea mollis (Don) Merrill.
Rare ; in cultivated fields.

51. Caesulia axillaris Roxb.
Occasional in moist places, sometimes gregarious.

52. Chrysanthemum sp.
Rare ; possibly escaped from cultivation.

53. Cyathocline purpurea (Don) O. K.
Conmon, scattered or gregarious, in moist, shaded places ; occasionally in dry,
open ground.

54. Eclipta prostrata (L.) Linn.
Very common, abundant and often gregarious in the area.

55. Gnaphalium indicum L.
Common in drying moist ground.

56. Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn.
Common in moist ground, along with the previous species.

57. Gnaphalium pulvinatum Del.
Common, forming dense, woolly patches in moist shaded spots.

58. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir.
Very common and abundant, forming dense bluish green mats in drying moist
ground.

59. Launaea nudicaulis (Less.) Hook. f.
Occasional in cultivated fields ; also noted on walls along river bank,

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS FROM BROACH, GUJARA1

60. Pluchea arguta Boiss.
Occasional in moist places.

61. Sphaeranthus indicus L.
Common.

62. Vernonia cinerea Less.
Common in cultivated fields.

63. Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC.
Rare ; in cultivated fields.

64. Volutarella ramosa (Roxb.) Sant.
Occasional ; on one occasion a large patch was seen in cultivated fields.

65. Xanthium strumarium L.
Very common, scattered or gregarious, all over the area.

CAMPANULACEAE

66. Wahlenbergia gracilis Schrad.
Common in moist places.

SALVADORACEAE
67. Salvadora persica L.
Noted on walls along river bank.

ASCLEPIADACEAE
68. Cryptostegia grandiflora (Roxb.) R. Br.

69. Oxystelma secamone (L.) Karst.
Rare ; seen only the vegetative shoot.

GENTIANACEAE

70. Canscora diffusa R. Br.
Occasional in moist places.

71. Centaurium roxburghii (Don) Druce
Rare ; a few plants seen in moist ground.

BORAGINACEAE

72. Heliotropium supinum L.
Rare.

73. Trichodesma zeylanicum R. Br.
Common, scattered, in cultivated fields.

CONVOLVULACEAE

74. Cressa cretica L.
A few plants seen in open ground.

75. Merremia emarginata (Burm. f.) Hall.
Rare ; a large patch seen in open dry ground

SOLANACEAE

76. Capsicum annuum L.
Cultivated. siete 0h! Pye.

259

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)
77. Datura metel L.
Occasional ; in waste land.

78. Datura innoxia Mill.
Occasional in cultivated fields.

79. Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.
Occasionally cultivated and as an escape.

80. Nicotiana tabacum L.
Extensively cultivated.

81. Solanum melongena L.
Occasionally cultivated.

82. Solanum nigrum L.
Rare.

83. Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendle.
Very common and abundant in waste land.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

84. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn.
Rare ; in moist ground.

85, Lindenbergia indica (L.) O. K.
Very common on walls along river bank.

86. Lindernia parviflora (Roxb.) Haines.
Rare ; in moist ground.

87. Scoparia dulcis L.
Rare.

88. Stemodia viscosa Roxb. at 4 eeyitth ewe |
Common. es |

89. Sutera glandulosa Roth. 3 inet)
Common ; scattered or gregarious, in moist aie

90. Veronica anagallis Linn.
Fairly common, scattered or gregarious.

OROBANCHACEAE

91. Orobanche cerna Loefl.
Parasite on the roots of Nicotiana tabacum Linn. Common.

ACANTHACEAE

92. Asteracantha longifolia (L.) Nees.
Only one plant seen in open dry soil.

VERBENACEAE

93. Avicennia alba BI.
A detached twig was found lying near the water edges ; probably carried away

by water currents from marshy places along the shore.

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS FROM BROACH, GUJARAT

94. Lantana indica Roxb.
Common.

95. Phylanodiflora (L.) Green.
Occasional in small, loose patches in moist ground.

LABIATAE
96. Leucas aspera (Willd.) Spr. |
Common, noted on 25-12-60. Ure

97. Moschosma polystachyum Bth.
Only one plant, dried up, in fruit.

98. Ocimum americanum L.
Occasional in cultivated fields.

99. Salvia plebeia R.Br.
Common, scattered or subgregarious, in moist ground.

NYCTAGINACEAE
100. Boerhavia diffusa L.
Occasional in cultivated fields.

AMARANTHACEAE
101. Achyranthes aspera L.
Occasional.

102. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br.
Common and gregarious in moist places.

103. Amaranthus gracilis Desf.
A common weed in the area.

104. Amaranthus spinosus L.
Occasional ; in cultivated fields.

105. Celosia argentea L.
Occasional.

106. Digera muricata (L.) Mart.
Occasional weed in cultivated fields.

107. Gomphrena celosioides Mart.
Rare.

108. Gomphrena globosa Linn.
Rare ; an escape from cultivation, noted on 25-12-60.

109. Nothosaerva brachiata (L.) Wt.
Very common, abundant and gregarious, in moist places.

CHENOPODIACEAE

110. Chenopodium album L.
Common and abundant in moist places.

POLYGONACEAE

111. Polygonum glabrum Willd.
Common and abundant near water courses.

261

262. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

112. Polygonum plebéium R. Br.
Very common, forming loose or dense patches, in drying moist ground.

113. Rumex dentatus L.
Common.

EUPHORBIACEAE
il4. Chrozophora plicata Juss.
Common, scattered or subgregarious, in cultivated fields.

115. Chrozophora prostrata Dalz.
Common in drying moist ground.

116. Euphorbia bombaiensis Sant.
Common ; closely appressed to the ground.

117. Euphorbia dracunculoides L.
A common weed in cultivated fields, noted on 25-12-60.

118. Euphorbia parviflora L.
Occasional in cultivated fields.

119. Euphorbia hirta L.
Common in cultivated fields.

120. Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill.
Common.

121. Phyllanthus fraternus Webst.
Occasional in moist places. For the nomenclature of this plant see Webster in
Journ. Arn, Arbor. 38 : 309, 1957.

122. Phyllanthus lawii Grah.
A large patch seen in moist ground, under shade.

123. Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. |
Common in cultivated fields. |
CYPERACEAE

124. Cyperus exaltatus Retz.
Occasional in moist ground.

125. Cyperus iria L.
Rare.

126. Cyperus michelianus (L.) Link ssp. pygmaeus (Rottb.) Asch. & Graebn.
Common. ;

127. Cyperus rotundus L.
Occasional in moist ground.

128. Fimbristylis dichotoma Vahl.
Common in moist places and in cultivated fields.

129. Fimbristylis diphylla Vahl.
Common.

130. Scirpus maritimus L.
Common.

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS FROM BROACH, GUJARAT

GRAMINEAE

131. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Very common and abundant.

132. Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf.
Common.

133. Eragrostis diarrhena (Schult.) Steud.

134. Eragrostis tenella (L.) Beauv.
Noted on 25-12-60.

135. Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.
Rare.

136. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.
Common.

137. Panicum psilopodium Trin. var. coloratum Hook. f.

138. Paspalidium geminatum (Forsk.) Stapf.
Occasional.

139. Sorghum vulgare Pers.
Extensively cultivated.

140. Triticum aestivum L.
An escape from cultivation ; only two to three plants seen in shade.

263

On a collection of Fish from the
Kameng Frontier Division,
NOE. FP. A

K. C. JAYARAM? AND N. MAJUMDAR
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

(With two text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The fish collection reported in this paper was made by one of
us (K. C. J.) during Feb.-June 1961 in the Kameng Frontier Division,
North East Frontier Agency, Assam. A few specimens collected by
Shri §S. Biswas, Assistant Zoologist of this Department, are also
included. The description of a new species of Sisoridae is already
published (Jayaram 1964).

This report is the first of fish collection made from this area.
Chaudhuri (1913) reported on the fish collections from the Abor
country, the present Siang Frontier Division, and described a number
of new species besides many interesting new locality records. Besides
this there appears to be no other paper regarding the fish fauna of
the areas of N.E.F.A.

DESCRIPTION OF KAMENG FRONTIER DIVISION

The Kameng Frontier Division is one of the five divisions of the
North East Frontier Agency of Assam. The Kameng Division was
known up to 1954 as the Balipara Frontier Tract. Now named
after the principal river, the Kameng or the Bhareli, the division
is bordered by Bhutan to the west, the Subansiri Frontier Division to
the east, Darrang District of Assam to the south, and Tibet to the

1 Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta.

2 Present address: Senior Research Officer, Central Inland Fisheries Research
Institute, 47/1 Strand Road, Calcutta 7

ON FISH FROM KAMENG FRONTIER DIVISION 265

north. In general the country is mountainous, and divided by count-
less streams. The height of the various ranges is from c. 915 to 5488
metres. The forests are thick and crowded at and near the foothills,
but become thinner towards the interior. In general they are of mixed
monsoon type tending in places to become subtropical to temperate.
Evergreen forests are prominent in the Kalaktang-Domko-Membachur-
Bomdila route, whereas towards Dirong-Dzong and Kujjaiong they are
deciduous, with dry aspects rather conspicuous.

The main drainages are: Norgum Chu', Dupla Ko', Domko Chu,
Tenga, Digien or Tammaphu Chu, Kameng or Bhareli River with the
minor tributaries Pangabari Chu. Pobrang Chu, Sangti, Chug, and
Milankang. Besides these, countless small nullahs and _ streams,
seasonal and perennial, occur: all with swift, cold, clear water flow-
ing over rocks, boulders, and pebbles. Excepting at a few places as
in the valleys of Moshing, Shergaon, Siggon, Dirong-Dzong, Naphra, the
streams are turbulent and fishing is practised only by means of traps.

METHODS OF TRIBAL FISHING

The tribal people of this division are of various clans: the
Monpas, Sherdukpens, Buguns, Akas, Mijis, Bangnis, Daflas, and
Sulungs. Though some of them are influenced by Buddhism, all of
them are good fishermen, and have devised indigenous traps, nets,
lures, and poisons to catch fish. Every tribe and every village has
streams over which it claims fishing rights. Fishing besides being a
search for food is sometimes a religious activity involving strict taboos.
Bones of big fishes (Labeo sp., Oreinus sp.) are occasionally hung up
in some tribal houses. The catch is meticulously divided and distributed
according to certain traditional rules. Fishing by outsiders is re-
sented, but once our intention of scientific pursuit was made known
they willingly co-operated. In many instances this was achieved by
the courteous and appropriate gesture of handing over about half of
the catch for their use and consumption.

The tribals do not have any reservations regarding the fish species
for their table. Fish dried and fresh are eaten, and some houses have
special iron racks above the hearths for drying fish. Drying is adopted
because of the large quantity of fish collected rather than by reason of
any special liking. Since fishing is often a ceremonial enterprise
undertaken by the whole community, a large quantity is netted.
Preparation of fish pastes and other fish by-products are not known.

1 “Chu’ and ‘ Ko’ are tribal words to denote river.

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Fishes are generally collected by cast netting the shallow rock
pools and rivers where the current is slow, and by means of trapping.
The methods adopted are as below:

(a) Organised Community Fishing. On certain fixed days when
fishing is planned, either due to religious ceremony or culinary need
of the community, the village headman sends out advance information
regarding the time and place of fishing by drum-beat. Almost the
entire village folk including women and children turn out at the
fishing site. A suitable site is selected on the river, narrow and
permitting a diversion to be cut. The diversion, or a nullah, should
be about 2 to 3 metres wide and sloping so as to allow the water from
the main stream to flow through it. It is connected back to the main
river 180 to 270 metres down stream, thus not allowing the water to
go waste. Dead tree trunks, bushes, and branches are thrown across
the main river to serve as anchorage for the dam. Big boulders are
also used to serve as supports. At an interval of about 3 metres three
vertical poles tied in the form of a tripod stand are erected and
anchored to the bed of the river by heavy stone weights.
is stretched across this skeletal support.
tarpaulin are secured to the tripod stands.

The main stream below the dam having thus become partly dry, is
now vigorously searched for fish. Leaves and roots of Maesa indica
Wall., known as a fish poison, are used. ‘The roots are crushed like
a brush and inserted beneath big stones and boulders to benumb the
fish. Species of Glyptothorax, Euchiloglanis, Amblyceps, Olyra were
removed by hand from beneath such boulders and rocks. Species of
Oreinus, Noemacheilus, Barilius, etc. were collected from small rock
pools and shallow water pits. The tribals dash the head of the fish
on rocks to kill it. The entire stretch from below the dam to the
place where the diversion joins the main stream is searched. The
whole community joins in collecting the fish. Only fishes are taken
and the large number of tadpoles, frogs, trichopteran insects, and
insect larvae are discarded. Before leaving the area, the dam and
obstructions are removed and the stream returned to its original
course. The tribals believe that after such fishing there will be no
fish available in that stretch of the river for another fortnight.

Tarpaulin
The upper ends of the

(b) Trapping. This is practised only in small streams and where
the flow is fast and torrential. The trap is spindle-shaped in
appearance and is made of strong bamboo splinters. The splinters
are tied in such a way that the two ends are open and a constriction —

ON FISH FROM KAMENG FRONTIER DIVISION 267

is made at the centre. One open end is placed in between the
boulders facing the water current. Fishes are caught at the constriction
and remain alive because of the stream of water flowing out through
the other end. Pseudecheneis sulcatus was caught by one such trap.

In some places, instead of the spindle cage remaining open at both
ends, the splinters are cut in such a way that they are separate only
for about 3ths of the length of the bamboo. The basal portion
remains intact and hollow, serving as a receptacle for fish.

(c) Shooting with bow and arrow. Some tribals use sharpened
bamboo splinters as arrows and shoot fish. This is practised only at
shallow portions of the river, and where the water is clear. They
are fairly accurate shots though the quantity of fish obtained is small.
The arrow heads are not poisoned.

SYSTEMATIC LIST OF THE COLLECTION

Order CYPRINIFORMES

Division CyPRINI
Family CYPRINIDAE
Subfamily (i) RASBORINAE
1. Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton)
2. Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland)
Subfamily (ii) CYPRININAE

3. Accrossocheilus hexagonolepis (McClelland)
4. Labeo dero (Hamilton)

5. Labeo dyocheilus (Hamilton)

6. Labeo sp.

Subfamily (11) GARRINAE
7. Garra lamta (Hamilton)
8. Garra nasutus (McClelland)
Subfamily (iv) SCHIZOTHORACINAE
9. Oreinus plagiostomus plagiostomus (Heckel)

Subfamily (v) COBITINAE

10. Noemacheilus beavani Giinther

11. Noemacheilus corica (Hamilton)

12. Noemacheilus rupecula rupecula (McClel-
land)

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Division SILURI
Family AMBLYCEPIDAE
13. Amblyceps mangois (Hamilton)

Family OLYRIDAE
14. Olyra longicaudata (McClelland)

Family SISORIDAE

15. Glyptothorax gracilis (Gunther)

16. Euchiloglanis hodgarti (Hora)

17. Euchiloglanis kamengensis Jayaram
18. Pseudecheneis sulcatus (McClelland)

Order PERCIFORMES

Family ANABANTIDAE
19. Anabas testudineus (Bloch)

NOTES ON SOME SPECIES

Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland)

1839. Perilampus aequipinnatus McClelland in Asiat. Res. 19 (2) : 393, t. 60,
f. 1 (type-locality, Assam).

1941. Danio aequipinnatus, Hora & Nair in Rec. Indian Mus. 43: 371 (notes
on synonymy).

MATERIAL

LOT A. 4 examples, 18 mm. to 68 mm. in standard length, Belsiri River,
Foothills, 213 m. alt., 27 Feb. 1961.

LOT B. 1example, 30 mm. in standard length, Norgum River, 3 km. south
of Amatulla village, 762 m. alt., 8 Mar. 1961.

LOT C. 50 examples, 12 mm. to 66 mm. in standard length, from a rock
pool of Norgum River below Bitselling village, 915 m. alt., 16 May 1961.

LOT D. 4examples, 44 mm. to 62 mm. in standard length, Norgum River
below Ankaling village, 610 m. alt., 17 May 1961.

LOT E. 1example, 38.5 mm, in standard length, Jaomri Chu at Bairabkunda,
274 m. alt., 20 May 1961.

This species is widely distributed in India, Ceylon, Burma, and
Siam. There seems to be no account of the developmental stages of
this species giving its juvenile features. We have in our collection a
series of 50 examples under Lot C ranging from 16 mm. to 75 mm. in
total length which show the growth stages and the variations. These
are given below:

Stage 1. 16 mm. total length. Eyes large and dark. Lower jaw
projecting slightly beyond upper jaw. Dorsal and anal fins fully

ON FISH FROM KAMENG FRONTIER DIVISION 269

differentiated. Pectoral fins partly differentiated. No trace of pelvic
fins. Yolk sac not fully absorbed. Chromatophores scattered all over
body. A thin black band along centre of body starting only from
below dorsal fin insertion; a thick black band over dorsal profile from
occiput to dorsal fin base. Lateral line not seen.

Stage 2. 19 mm. total length. Eyes small and dark. Lower jaw
fitting into upper jaw. All fins well differentiated. Yolk sac com-
pletely absorbed. Coloration same as in previous stage. Lateral line
not seen.

Stage 3. 25 mm. total length. Central black band broader and
thicker towards caudal fin, extending from near operculum. A _ black
spot on opercular angle. Black band on dorsal profile from occiput
to- dorsal fin base faded. Sensory pores on lower jaw seen. Lateral
line not seen.

Stage 4. 34 mm. total leneth. Central black band uniformly
broad all over. A second lateral black band below the central band
extending to anal fin. Occiput black, and band on dorsal profile faded.
Opercular spot present. Sensory pores better developed. Lateral line
very thinly seen. Branching of dorsal fin rays commences and five
branched rays seen.

Stage 5. 39 mm. total length. Central black band anteriorly
broad and tapering posteriorly; second black lower band extending to
anal fin. Pale yellowish ground colour of body in between central and
lower black band extending as a broad conspicuous streak. Another
pale-yellow streak also seen above central black band. Opercular spot
faded. Occiput black. Black band over dorsal profile interrupted.
Sensory pores well developed. Lateral line faintly seen.

Stage 6. 45 mm. total length. Central dark band darker
posteriorly than anteriorly; lower dark band extending to caudal fin
base. Intervening lower pale yellowish streak broken above pectoral
fin to form a pale yellowish spot. Upper pale yellowish streak slightly
faded. Opercular spot conspicuous. Occiput dark. Black streak
over dorsal profile continuous to dorsal fin base. Sensory pores well
developed. Lateral line clearly seen.

Stage 7. 54 mm. total length. Coloration nearly as in previous
stage. Bands well formed; three black and white alternating bands.
A thin black tinge extends below dorsal fin. Gill membranes forming
an inverted U-shaped notch ventrally. Sensory pores well developed.
Lateral line clearly seen.

Stage 8. 75 mm. total length. Bands completely formed. Central
dark band extending to median seven rays of caudal fin. Pale yellow
spot above pectoral fin present. Opercular spot diffused. Black

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

streak over dorsal profile and black colour over occiput both diffused
to dull grey of body colour. A black tinge below dorsal fin present.
Lateral line clearly seen.

Certain body measurements and counts are given in Table I.

TABLE I

CERTAIN BODY MEASUREMENTS AND COUNTS OF DANIO AEQUIPINNATUS

Fin Ray Counts
Least eles Seale Neate
Total Body depth of
Stage | lengthin | depth in caudal A C D
mm. mm. peduncle
in mm. os
Br. Simple

1 16 6 3 11 11 és 5
Dy 19 4 i) 13 15 Se di
3 25 6 3 13 19 a 7
4 34 8 4 13 19 5 >
5 39 Ofelia 14 19 5 5
6 45 11 5 14 20 | 6 5
i] 54 12 6 13 19 7 5
8 75 16.5 8 13 21 10 2p

Some authors (Weber & Beaufort 1916; Myers 1952; Hora &
Mukerjr 1934) have divided the genus Danio into two subgenera,
Danio and Brachydanio, based on the number of branched dorsal fin
tays. Brachydanio is used for species with 7-branched dorsal rays
and an incompletely or absent lateral line, whereas Danio is used for
species with 12- to 16-branched dorsal rays and a complete lateral line.
Smith (1945, p. 95) stated that a sharp line of differentiation cannot
be drawn between these two subgenera on the basis of these variable
characters. The developmental stages described above aiso indicate
that such a division is not justified.

Accrossocheilus hexagonolepis (McClelland)

1839. Barbus hexagonolepis McClelland in Asiat. Res. 19 : 270, 336, t. 41, f.
3 (type locality, Upper Assam) .

1940. Barbus (Puntius) hexagonolepis, Hora in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42: 81
(systematic position).

ON FISH FROM KAMENG FRONTIER DIVISION 271

MATERIAL

LOT A. 3 examples, 116 to 145 mm. in standard length, Belsiri River, Foot-
hills, 213 m. alt., 27 Feb. 1961.

LOT B. 1 example, 137 mm. in standard length, Norgum River, 1.6 km. below
Bokhar village, 254 m. alt., 14 March 1961.

LOT C. 6 examples, 41 to 48 mm. in standard length, from a rock pool of
Norgum River below Bitselling village, 915 m. alt., 16 May 1961.

LOT D. 17 examples, 44 to 186 mm. in standard length, Norgum_River below
Ankaling village, 610 m. alt., 17 May 1961.

The ‘Katli’ of the Nepalese and “Bokar’ of the Assamese, A.
hexagonolepis is a widely distributed species and perhaps the com-
monest large-scaled barbel of Assam and the eastern Himalayas.
Formerly placed under the subgenus Lissochilus of the genus Barbus
(Puntius), these fishes are characterised by the separation of the lower
lip into two lateral paris, exposing the median portion of the lower
jaw; the preorbital and suborbital regions have horizontal rows of
pores which may be tuberculated. The name Lissochilus being
preoccupied, Oshima (1919) proposed the name Accrossocheilus for
these fishes regarding which Smith (1945, p. 197) pointed that the
availability of the name “depends on the acceptance of the view that
the various types of lower lip in this group (whether entire, slightly
notched, or completely divided with the two halves moderately
or widely separated) represent simply intergrading stages of the same
structural feature’. Hora (1940, p. 81), while reasoning for keeping
these fishes under the separate subgenus Lissochilus, stated that these
fishes are similar to those of the subgenus Tor, in which the con-
dition of the lips is subject to great variation. Usually forms living
in shallow torrential streams have hypertrophied lips and those living
in clear fast-flowing torrents have thick lips (see Hora 1939 for further
details). Hora has shown that the varied pattern of the lips is due
to the different habitats in which these fishes may live and that they
are only intergrading stages of one basic norm. In the material under
study, most of the specimens have an entire lower lip and a few
specimens have slightly notched to nearly entire condition. In view
of these reasons, we feel that these fishes should be kept under a
separate genus Accrossocheilus pending a revision of the Barbus-group
of fishes.

In the material under report the dorsal fin is inserted in advance
of the pelvic fin insertion; the pectoral fin in most cases does not
extend to the pelvic fin, but in some young examples it reaches the
pelvic base. There are two rows of well-formed tubercles on the
snout. They extend from below the nostrils to below middle of
orbit. In the young specimens the tubercles appear like skin swellings

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

and later with growth become wart-like and spinous. They occur in
a more or less linear arrangement and are found in both sexes.

Labeo sp.

MATERIAL

LOT A. 50 examples, 15 to 23 mm. in standard length, Norgum River, 3 km.
south of Amatulla village, 762 m. alt., 8 March 1961.

LOT B. 2 examples, 19 and 25 mm. in standard length, from a rock pool of
Norgum River below Bitselling village, 915 m. alt., 16 May 1961.

LOT C. 10 examples, 13.5 to 19 mm. in standard length, from a small stream
in Chug River valley, 2134 m. alt., 25 July 1961, S. Biswas coll. |

LOT D. 40 examples, 12.5 to 23 mm. in standard length, from the Dupla Ko,
6 km. SW. of Siggon, 1829 m. alt., 29 August 1961, S. Biswas coll.

The specific determination of these specimens is difficult. All of
them represent a single species. The main characters are as below:
Do 11 or 12: BP. 14 on 1S) Ve 7 or 8) Ao © 19 ton

Body compressed; dorsal profile arched. Lips thin and plain.
Labial fold interrupted. A thin groove over snout. A pair of minute
maxillary barbels. Body covered with numerous irregularly distributed
black dots. A black streak along centre of body and a conspicuous
dark blotch at caudal base. Scales large, about 23 present. Caudal
fin forked and with pointed lobes. |

Describing the coloration of Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch) Day (1878,
p. 536) stated: “Sometimes a diffused dark blotch at the base of the
caudal, and which is almost invariably present in the young’. The
distribution of fimbriatus extends from Sind, Punjab, NE. Bengal, and
Deccan to Orissa. We are unable to identify our material with
fimbriatus in spite of their similarity in colour pattern, for want of
adult specimens. The report of Alikunhi et al. (1949) does not deal
with the post-larval growth stages of this species nor does Alikunhi
(1957, p. 30) mention the presence of any black spots on the caudal
fin base.

Garra nasutus (McClelland)

1838. Platycara nasuta McClelland in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 7 (2): 947, t. 4,
f.-2, 2a, 2b (type locality, Kashi Hills).
1921. Garra nasutus, Hora in Rec. Indian Mus. 22: 655.

MATERIAL

LOT A. 27 examples, 24 to 40 mm. in standard length, from a rock pool of
Norgum River below Bitselling village, 915 m. alt., 16 May 1961.

LOT B. 12 examples, 49 to 79 mm. in standard length, Jhumri Chu near
Bhutan border with Bairabkunda, 275 m. alt., 20 May, 1961. (Slightly damaged
specimens.)

ON FISH FROM KAMENG FRONTIER DIVISION wv, - 293

Hora (1921) gave a description of some young specimens from
Manipur and Sikkim. The juvenile specimens under Lot A agree well
with Hora’s description. The larger specimens under Lot B were
picked up from a stream which was drying.

Oreinus plagiostomus plagiostomus (Heckel)

1838. Schizothorax plagiostomus Heckel, Fische aus Cashmir 16, t. (type
locality, Kashmir).

1936. Oreinus plagiostomus, Mukerji in Mem. Conn. Acad. 10 : 347.

1949. Oreinus plagiostomus, Misra in J. zool. Soc. India 1 :39,t. 1, f.1 & 2.

MATERIAL

LOT A. 45 examples, 33 to 63 mm. in standard length, Belsiri River, Foothills,
213 m.alt., 17 February 1961.

LOT B. 2examples, 115 and 129 mm. in standard length, Norgum River,
1.6 km. below Bokhar village, 854 m. alt., 14 March 1961.

LOT C. 8 examples, 56 to 101 mm. in standard length, Norgum River, Kalak-
tang, 1372 m. alt., 22 March 1961.

LOT D. 7examples (damaged), 51 to 104 mm. in standard length, Dupla Ko,
Shergaon, 2012 m. alt., 28 March 1961.

LOT E. 2 examples, 46 and 64 mm. in standard length, Dupla Ko., 1.6 km.
south-west of Shergaon, 1829 m. alt., 29 March 1961.

LOT F. 19 examples, 52 to 107 mm. in standard length, from a stream at
6 km. north to Rupa, of the Dikong Ko, 2134 m. alt., 3 April 1961.

LOT G. 33 examples, 31 to 110 mm. in standard length, Dupla Ko, 5 km.
north-west of Shergaon, 1829 m. alt., 5 May 1961.

LOT H. 2 examples, 81 and 92 mm. in standard length, Dupla Ko, 5 km.
south-west of Shergaon, 2134 m. alt., 6 May 1961.

LOT I. 4 examples, 35 to 47 mm. in standard length, from a rock pool of
Norgum River below Bitselling village, 915 m. alt., 16 May 1961.

LOT J. 3 examples, 100 to 126 mm. in standard length, from Dupla Ko at
lower Siggon village, 2000 m. alt., 4 May 1961.

LOT K. 2 examples, 85 and 165 mm. in standard length, from a small
tributary of Norgum River, 1.6 km. north of Ankaling village, 758 m. alt., 26 May
1961.

LOT L. 4 examples, 51 to 63 mm. in standard length, Dikong Ko, 6 km.
north of Rupa, 2134 m. alt., 3 April 1961.

LOT M. 1example, 78 mm. in standard length, from a small tributary of
Chug River, 2134 m. alt., 25 July 1961, S. Biswas coll.

Considerable variation exists in this species. Misra (1949) clarified
its specific limits. Mukerji (1936) had differentiated O. sinuatus and
O. plagiostomus by the nature of the dorsal spine, shape of the lower
lip, development of the anal scales, and the length of the caudal fin
lobes. Misra (1949) stated that there are no valid differences between
these two species ‘except in the presence in O. plagiostomus and absence
in O. sinuatus of the “pearl organs” and indicated that O. sinuatus,
so far considered as a separate species, is only the female form of

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

QO. plagiostomus’. Siias (i960) agreeing with Misra synonymized
sinuatus with plagiostomus. The material under report is interesting
in respect of these characters. The variations are discussed below:

1. Dorsal spine. In general the serrations on the dorsal spine
are found only along the lower half of the inner margin and in most
Specimens they are feeble. Juveniles, however, have a smooth spine.
About 31% of the material has the serrations comparatively stronger
and these could be referred to as sinuatus as per Mukerji’s diagnosis.

2. Lower lip. There is no uniformity in the shape of the lower
lip. Only about 19% of the material has the margin of the lower lip
somewhat straight. Even amongst those with curved margin of the
lower lip, variations from a slightly concave to nearly straight types
are seen.

3. Caudal fin lobes. Only 101 specimens have undamaged caudal
fin. Amongst these the majority have the lobes equal. About 18%
only have unequal lobes. :

4. Pearl Organs. Both sexes have these tubercles. However, only
about 76°% of individuals which had these tubercles could be referred
to Misra’s diagnosis of plagiostomus.

From the above analysis, it is evident that excepting the nature of
the serrations on the dorsal spine, the other characters are not significant
to separate sinuatus from plagiostomus.

The material under Lots J, K, and L perhaps represents the
extremes of the range of variability of this species. In all these, the
dorsal spine is weak or rudimentary; the outer rays of the pectoral and
pelvic fins are covered with thick skin; the dorsal surface of the free

Text-fig. 1. Oreinus plagiostomus plagiostomus (Heckel)

Lateral view of a specimen from Lot L, showing the extreme range of variation
portion of the lower lip is beset with many small tubercles as in Labeo
dero; the scales on the body are sparsely distributed being faintly visible
only above the pectoral and near the base of the caudal fin and are
apparently absent at other places (Text-fig. 1). The material was
thought to represent a hybrid population of O. plagiostomus and

ON FISH FROM KAMENG FRONTIER DIVISION 275
Labeo dero, but the extreme variability and the great intergradation
of the body features with plagiostomus led us to consider it otherwise.
Comparison of certain proportions and counts of these specimens with
the other material of plagiostomus is given in Table Il below and the
frequency distribution of the fin ray counts in Table Il.
TABLE IT
COMPARISON OF THE BODY PROPORTIONS AND COUNTS OF
TWO LOTS OF O. PLAGIOSTOMUS PLAGIOSTOMUS

EN TES a r Sa

Lots A to I | Lots J, K, & L
N= 13 N=
Characters a eee een |
Range Mean | Range Mean

Standard length/Head length. . 4.11 to 5.00 4.52 4.47 to 5.39 4.83
Standard length/Post-dorsal

length ae 1.75 to 1.90 1.79 1.67 to 2.03 1.91
Standard length/Body depth .. 4.58 to 5.40 4.88 4.19 to 5.37 4.58
Standard length/Longest cau- |

dal ray me 3.79 to 4.26 3.99 3.69 to 4.78 4.25
Head length/Eye 3.60 to 4.37 4.07 4.00 to 5.07 4.44
Head length/Pect.-Pelvic fi

distance ee 0.37 to 0.43 0.41 0.57 to 0.76 0.68
Interorbital width/Eye 1.20 to 1.75 151 1.54 to 2.15 1.78
Snout/Eye 1.50 to 2.00 1.72 | 1.66 to 2.61 2.13
Dorsal fin rays 11 — 9 to 11 —
Pectoral fin rays 17 — 16 to 17 —
Pelvic fin rays 9 — 9 to 10 —
Lateral line scales 98 to 100 ~~ | 98 or 99 —

TABLE Ill a

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF CERTAIN FIN RAY COUNTS
IN TWO LOTS OF O. PLAGIOSTOMUS PLAGIOSTOMUS

Fin Rays (Total branched and simple)

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

From the comparative tables and analysis some significant
differences between the two lots are seen in respect of the position of
the eye, and counts of dorsal and pelvic fin rays. However, when
statistically analysed the differences are not significant to warrant any
taxonomic recognition.

Noemacheilus beavani Giinther

1868. Nemacheilus beavani Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 7: 350 (type

locality, Kosi River).
1935. Nemacheilus beavani, Hora in Rec. Indian Mus. 37: 63, t.3, f. 11.
1962. Nemacheilus beavani, Motwani, Jayaram, & Sehgal, in Trop. Ecol. 3: 23.

MATERIAL
3 examples, 42 to 46 mm. in standard length, from a rock pool of Norgum
River, below Bitselling village, 915 m. alt., 16 May 1961.

Text-fig. 2. Noemacheilus beavani Ginther

a. Lateral view of a specimen showing the diffused bands; 5. Ventral view

The three specimens under report, though agreeing with Hora’s
(1924) description differ in respect of the colour bands. The

ON FISH FROM KAMENG FRONTIER DIVISION 277

characteristic feature of this species is that the vertical bands are broad
and fewer in number. Usually about nine dark-grey bands are
present with a dark band at the caudal fin base. In our specimens
about 12 dark grey bands are seen of which nine towards the posterior
are well formed, the anterior three tending to become diffused and
slanted. Some of the bands are not fully dark grey, but have vertically
oval loop-like areas at the centre through which the basic body colour
of olive-yellow is seen. The caudal fin has about three > shaped
bands which are not clear in some specimens. There is a dark spot
at the top corner of the caudal band, and a dark blotch along the
base of the dorsal spine. The specimen illustrated here (Text-fig. 2)
represents the extreme form of variation wherein the bands are much
diffused.

Noemacheilus corica (Hamilton)

1822. Cobitis corica Hamilton, Fish. Ganges: 359, 395 (type locality, Kosi
River).
1962. Noemacheilus corica, Motwani, Jayaram & Seghal, in Trop. Ecol. 3: 24.

MATERIAL

4 examples, 15.0 to 16.5 mm. in standard length, from a small stream in Chug
River valley, 2134 m. alt., 25 July 1961, S. Biswas coll.

N. corica is known from Punjab, NE. Bengal, and Assam. This
is the first record of this species from the eastern Himalayas. Though
the specimens are juvenile, the diagnostic colour spots, and the
elongation of the third and fourth pectoral fin rays are distinctly seen.
There are 11 or 12 black blotches along middle of the side and above
the pale olive body and also a black spot at the base of the caudal fin.

Noemacheilus rupecula rupecula (McClelland)

- 1838. Schistura rupecula McClelland in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 7: 948, t. 55,
f. 3 (type locality, Simla).

MATERIAL

One example, 52 mm. in standard length, from the Dupla Ko, 6 km. south-west
to Siggon, 1829 m. alt.,29 August 1961, S. Biswas coll.

McClelland described Schistura rupecula from ‘mountain streams
at Simla’. The species was characterised as having about 14 broad

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

bars on either side, and three across the caudal and dorsal fins; the
dorsal fin with eight rays, and the anal fin with seven rays. The
illustration accompanying the description indicates clearly 14 vertical
colour bands and also the absence of any nasal barbels. The species
is widely distributed in the Himalayas.

Gunther (1869) referred five specimens from Sikkim to this species
and described the coloration as: ‘Body with fourteen or fifteen cross
bands, broader than the interspaces between them.’ He described
the nasal appendage as very distinct.

Hora (1935, p. 58) having examined the five specimens of Giinther
stated that they are identical with hundreds of specimens collected
at different places below Darjeeling. Owing to the presence of a
distinct nasal barbel in the eastern Himalayan examples, Hora (op. cit.)
separated them as a new variety of N. rupecula and named it as inglisi.
However, while discussing the fish fauna of the Naga Hills, Hora &
Mukerji (1935, p. 400) referred 21 specimens to N. rupecula sensu
stricto thereby extending the range of distribution of the species to
the eastern Himalayas also. Thus, both forms of rupecula, viz.
rupecula-s. s. and rupecula inglisi are found in the eastern Himalayas;
the latter taxon restricted only to accommodate specimens with a
distinct nasal barbel.

The specimen collected from the Dupla Ko agrees with Giinther’s
description except that it has no nasal barbel and is therefore referable
to rupecula rupecula. The coloration is slightly different. The body
is uniformly deep olive with 14 dark grey bands, each broader than
the spaces between it and the neighbouring bands. A distinct, but faint,
black spot is also present at the base of the dorsal fin. The last band
near the caudal fin base is in the form of a large irregular-shaped blotch.
The bands on the caudal and dorsal fins are faint. In specimens
from the Kumaon Himalayas, the ground colour is pale yellow and
the bands are brown in colour, and slightly narrower than in the

example under report.

Amblyceps mangois (Hamilton)

1822. Pimelodus mangois Hamilton, Fish. Ganges : 199, 379 (type locality,
Nathpur, Kosi River).
1933. Amblyceps mangois, Hora in Rec. Indian Mus. 35 : 617.

MATERIAL

One example, 53 mm. in standard length, from Belsiri River, Foothills, 213 m.
alt., 27 Feb. 1961.

The species exhibits a very wide range of variability in regard to
the shape of the caudal fin, the length and shape of the adipose dorsal

ON FISH FROM KAMENG FRONTIER DIVISION 279

fin, and the position of the anal papillae. In the specimen under
report, the upper lobe of the caudal fin is slightly prolonged; the caudal
fin furcate; the adipose dorsal fin free from the caudal fin, long and
narrow, and the anal papillae situated nearer the bases of the pelvic

fins.

Olyra longicaudata McClelland

1842. Olyra longicaudata McClelland in Calcutta J. nat. Hist. 2 : 588 (type
locality, Khasi Hills, Assam).
1936. Olyra longicaudata, Hora in Rec. Indian Mus. 38 : 204.

MATERIAL

Two examples, 73 and 91mm. in standard length, Belsiri River, Foothills,
213m. alt., 27 Feb. 1961.

The systematic position of this fish was elucidated by Hora (1936).
Though six species have been described under Olyra, only longicaudata
is well known from a large number of specimens collected at the base
of the Darjeeling Himalayas, Assam, and Tenasserim. All the species
are distinguished by the number of anal fin rays. The count given
by Hora for /ongicaudata is 23 (loc. cit. p. 204) whereas in the two
specimens examined by us, the count is only 16. However. in respect
of other features they agree with the description.

Glyptothorax gracile (Ginther)

1864. Glyptosternum gracile Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 5: 186 (type
S locality, Nepal).

1923. Glyptothorax gracile, Hora in Rec. Indian Mus. 25 : 25.

1954. Glyptothorax gracile, Menon in Rec. Indian Mus. 52 : 48.

MATERIAL

LOT A. One example, 65 mm. in standard length, Belsiri River, Foothills, 213 m.

—alt., 27 Feb. 1961.
, LOT B. One example, 107 mm. in standard length, Norgum River, 3 km. south
to Amatulla village, 762 m. alt., 8 March 1961.

_ The material under report agrees well with the published description
of the species. However, the granulations on the head and the body
are not clearly seen in fresh specimens because of the mucous covex-
ing. The serrations on the inner margin of the dorsal spine are very
feeble. The coloration of the smaller specimen is noteworthy. ‘The
dorsal fin and the adipose dorsal fin are tipped black. A. diffused
large black spot is also present on the caudal fin base. On either side
of the body below the dorsal spine a dull white spot is present. The
larger specimen on the other hand is uniformly dark-grey.

280

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Shri K. C. Johorey, Political Officer, and to
Shri A. J. Kundan, Additional Political Officer, at Bomdila who

helped one of us (K. C. J.) in various ways.

Our thanks are due to

Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Director, Zoological Survey of India, for his
encouragement and suggestions and to Dr. K. K. Tiwari, Superintending

Zoologist, for criticisms.

SUMMARY .
This paper lists 19 species of fishes collected from the Kameng

Frontier Division, N.E.F.A.,

and contains taxonomic accounts of

eleven of them. The fishing methods practised by the tribals of this
area are also discussed. Notes on the systematic position, variations,
and geographic distribution of some species are also given.

REFERENCES

ALIKUNHI, K. H. (1957): Fish culture
in India. Farm Bull. No.20, pp. 144.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi.

— — —, GANAPATI, 8S. V., & RAO, S.N.
(1949) : Notes on the life history of Labeo
calbasuand L. fimbriatus. Proc. Indian
Sci. Congr. 36 : 159.

CHAUDHURI, B. L. (1913): Zoological
results of the Abor expedition. Fish. Rec.
Indian Mus. 8 : 243-257.

Day, F. (1878) : The Fishes of India ;
being a natural history of the fishes
known to inhabit the seas and fresh-
waters of India, Burma and Ceylon:
778, 198 pis., London, William Dawson
& Sons, Ltd.

GUNTHER, A. (1869): Catalogue of
fishes in the British Museum 7: xx + 512.
London.

Hora, S. L. (1921): Indian Cyprinoid
fishes belonging to the genus Garra with
notes on related species from other
countries. Rec. Indian Mus. 22: 633-687.

— — —- (1924): Fish of the Siju
Cave, Garo Hills, Assam. Rec. Indian
Mus. 26 : 27-31.

— — — (1935): Notes on fishes in
the Indian Museum. XXIV. Loaches of
the genus Nemachilus from. Eastern
Himalayas with the description of a new
species from Burma and Siam. Rec.
Indian Mus. 37: 49-67.

— — — (1936): Siluroid fishes of
the genus Olyra McClelland. Rec.
Indian Mus. 38 : 202-207.

— — — (1939): The game fishes of
India. VIII. The Mahseers or the large-
scaled Barbels of India. I. The Putitor
Mahseer, Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamil-
om J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41 : 272-

— — — (1940): The game fishes of
India. XI. The Mahseers or the large-
scaled Barbels of India. IV. The

Bokar of the Assamese and Katli of the
Nepalese, Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagono-
lepis McClelland. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 42: 78-88.

— — —, & MvuKeErRuI, D. D. (1934):
Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum.
XXII. On a collection of fish from the S.
Shan States and the Pegu Yomas, Burma.
Rec. Indian Mus. 36 : 123-138.

(1935) : Fish
of the Naga Hills, Assam. Rec. Indian
Mus. 37: 381-404.

JAYARAM, K. C. (1964) : A new sisorid
fish from the Kameng Frontier Division,
N.E.F.A.—J. zool. Soc. India 15 (1).

MisrA, K.S. (1949): A note on the
systematic position of two Cyprinoid
fishes of the genus Oreinus McClelland
from Kashmir. J. zool. Soc. India 1
(1): 39-40.

MukersI, D. D. (1936): Yale North
India Expedition. 18. Report on fishes.
Part 2. Sisoridae and Cyprinidae. Mem.
co Acad. Sci., New Haven 10: 325-

59.

Myers, G. S. (1952): Danio or
Brachydanio, Barbus or Puntius? Aqua-
rium J., Philadelphia 23 : 121-122.

OsHiIMA, M. (1919) : Contributions to
the study of the freshwater fishes of the
island of Formosa. Ann. Carnegie Mus.
Pittsburg 12 : 169-328, 6 pls.

SILas, E. G. (1960) : Fishes from the
Kashmir Valley. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 57 (1) : 66-77.

SMITH, H. M. (1945) : The freshwater
fishes of Siam or Thailand. U. S. nat.
Mus. Bull. Washington 188 : xi + 622.

WeBER, M., & BEAUFORT, L. F. (1913) :
Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipe-
lago 2: xiii + 404. E. J. Brill Ltd.,
Leiden.

— — — — (1916) : Fishes of the Indo-
Australian Archipelago 3: xv + 455.
E. J. Brill Ltd., Leiden.

SS eee

inodea. AINOIOUL }}EM-OOF

eMYYV 3e yodeq sng }odsue1y 9}e}S ay} Jo [[eM (eprsut) opis som pure dure

[Gb

MAGA

MAAGAGG

SSN

ssueq yeins oy} ut dure] modea Ainosow ev Aq syioyy 8utq9aT]09

‘00S “LSIH “LYN AVaWog ‘Nuno

Collecting moths by a mercury
vapour lamp in the Surat Dangs,
Gujarat State

E. M. SHULL
Dangs Rural Boarding School, Ahwa, Surat Dangs*

AND

N. T. NADKERNY
Bombay Natural History Society

(With a plate)

During the SW. monsoon, June-October 1961, hundreds of moths
(Heterocera) were collected by one of us (EMS) by the light of a 400
watt mercury vapour lamp in the bus depot compound at Ahwa, head-
quarters of the Dangs District.

The town Ahwa is located in a plateau (alt. 1700 ft.) and is surround-
ed, at varying distances, mainly by teak trees and bamboo clumps.
On dark nights the streets are lit by kerosene lamps which attract a few
moths, whereas the powerful mercury vapour lamp located in the State
Transport Depot compound attracts many moths and other insects.

‘The eastern boundary of the bus depot compound consists of a thick
stone wall four and a half feet high. Broken glass embedded in concrete
on the top of the wall provides numerous hiding places for moths. Near
by, four feet from the wall and inside the compound, stands the 25 foot
lamp post. The mercury vapour lamp hangs from an angle rod at the
top of this post (Plate).

The monsoon season is the best time to collect moths. When the
rainfall is heavy at night, the moths shelter on the near-by plants.
When the rainfall is light or there is a period between showers, hundreds
and even thousands of moths fly around the light. Even when the
rainfall is heavy during the day and followed by no rain or by light
showers at night, collecting is usually very good. Dry spells invariably
meant a reduction in the number of moths appearing at the light. Most

del, ara ae

1 Present address : 402 Wayne Street, North Manchester, Indiana, U.S.A.

282. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 61 (2)

of the collecting was done from 8-00 p.m. to 10-30 p.m., after which
time the light was usually turned off.

The length of vision of the insects is yet an unknown factor and,
therefore, it is not possible to say from what maximum distances the
moths were attracted to the light. The number of insects collected each
night, hundreds at times, indicated that they were coming from very
long distances. The number collected, more than a thousand during the
season, represented only a fraction of the mass assembled at the
light.

Previously S. Usman (10, 11, 12) had reported from Bangalore some
insect attracted to light. 84 species of moths were included in his list.
Very few of those listed by him appear in the present report. Sevasto-
pulo (6, 7, 8, 9) reported about 444 species of moths collected in
Calcutta over a period of nearly 17 years in 1930-46. His collection,
however, included not only specimens collected at light but also those
bred by him in the laboratory, collected from shrubs and trees etc. He
was of the opinion that if the mercury light was available in India in
those days a very much greater number of moths would have been
recorded. Our collection was limited to a four month period, from the
middle of June to the middle of October 1961.

The total number of species of moths collected was 180. A few of
these which we could not identify were identified for us by the Forest
Research Institute, Dehra Dun, to whom we are grateful. A few more
were destroyed inadvertently.

Insects belonging to other Orders including some butterflies were
attracted to the light and were collected but they are too numerous to be
included in this paper. Collection was made with dacron nets and
wide-mouthed glass jars. Moths at rest on the perpendicular wall and
on low plants were easier to catch with jars. Cotton wool soaked with
ether was used as our killing agent. |

Collecting at night is sometimes made unpleasant by mosquitoes,
blister beetles, and other insects. Also predatory geckos and bats
competed for the moths and other insects.

WEATHER

Weather conditions during the period of collection will be of
interest. In the following table the weekly rainfall and the average
maximum and minimum temperatures recorded at Ahwa by the
District Collector’s office are shown. That year’s rainfall (total 1554
mm.) was much below the average for the place, which averages to 2032
mm. There were very few cloud bursts. This may be one of the
causes of such a heavy catch, as heavy downpours cause considerable
damage to the exposed larvae and pupae in the soil.

COLLECTING MOTHS BY A MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP 283
RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE AT AHWA IN 1961
i Total rainfall Average daily temperature
Weeks é oe ,
in mm,
max. °C. mine:
Ist 4.0 31.6 25.8
2nd Die 28.3 24.3
June many
3rd 65.7 29.3 Dez
4th 126.2 26.5 23.0
) Ist | 85.4 25.2 / 22.9
2nd 203.2 23.3 212
July

35d : 168.6 23.3 20.7
4th ; 88.4 24.8 20.9
Ist!® 107.0 22.4 20.0
. 2nd 42.0 23.1 20.6

August
3rd 86.0 24.3 2 2
4th : 64.0 24.5 O28 |
Ist 120.4 23.0 20.4
2nd 120.0 23.6 20.9

September
i 3rd 58.0 23:5 20.7
Ath 24-02 2 77? 23.8 21.3
Ist | 8.0 26.3 214
2nd 153.0 255 21.4

October
3rd 212 | 21.9
4th 2128 22a

* 1st week : 1-7 ; 2nd week : 8-15 ; 3rd week : 16-22 ; 4th week : 23-end.

: SPECIES COLLECTED

In listing the families we have followed the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA
by Hampson, but within the families the arrangement is alphabetical for
convenience of reference. The number of moths collected and the month
in which they were caught are also shown in each case. The biggest

collection was made in the first half of August and first half of September.
Of the total number 40% were Noctuid moths and about 13% belonged

284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

to the family Sphingidae. Notodontidae, Arctiidae, Geometridae, and
Pyralidae contributed a fairly large number each to the collection, but
the remaining families were represented by very small numbers. However,
the number of specimens collected of any species does not give a correct
idea of the number attracted to light as the size of the moths affected
the size of the catch. Some of the Pyralids, e.g. Schoenobius spp., came
in very large numbers but only a very few of them were collected whereas
proportionately a very large number of Sphingids were easily collected
because of their big size.

It is interesting to note that a very large number of species show an
extension in the range of their geographical distribution as compared
with the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA by Hampson (5) — Bell & Scott in the
case of Sphingidae (3). Evidently, when these eminent authors wrote
their publications the whole of India was not surveyed for insect life.
Most of their species, therefore, were noted from the more frequented
forest areas, such as south India, Kanara, the Himalayas, Sikkim, Assam,
Burma, Ceylon, etc. The rest of India remained practically un-
explored except for places like Bombay and surrounding areas where
stray cases were noted. More than 40% of the species of the present
catch, therefore, can be considered newly recorded in this area, even
taking into consideration those species mentioned as occurring in this
tract in some agricultural and forestry publications, such as Reports of
the Entomological Meetings at Pusa, ECOLOGY AND CONTROL OF THE
FOREST INSECTS, etc. From this point of view also the present list will
prove important. To make clear the present extension, habitats pre-
viously noted by other authors are shown against each species.

Lastly, we have to acknowledge with thanks the co-operation extended
to us by the Collector of the Dangs in supplying the meteorological data
and to Shri S. D. Kale, teacher of the Abwa School, in collecting the
specimens.

MOTHS COLLECTED AT AHWA IN THE DANGS DISTRICT

+ The tails of the beautiful Moon or Fairy Moth (Actias selene Hubn.) provide
an effective means of defence against insectivorous bats in addition to its speed and
dodging ability, and we frequently saw the moth Seare to safety while the bat
carried away a portion of the tails, Ais

COLLECTING MOTHS BY A MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP 285

Serial . No. Month of | Distribution
No. Family and Species collected) collection | previously recorded ~
.Fam. Eupterotidae |
3 | Eupterote lineosa W\k. i 1 September Nepal, Sikkim,
|Nilgiris, Ceylon
4 | Eupterote minor Moore : be do. _ Does not seem to
shave been recorded
| in India
| |
5 | Eupterote mollifera Wlk. ne 1 | August — All over India
(=pulchra Swinh.) |
6 Eupterote primularis Moore .. 1 do. Nilgiris, (southern
‘Slopes)
7 | Eupterote undata Blanch 1 do. | Throughout India
‘as faras the Nilgiris
8 Eupterote sp. & 1 do.
Fam. Sphingidae |
9 | Acherontia lachesis Fabr. Ee 3 | do. All over India
10 | Acherontia styx Westw. ae i | do. do.
11. | Ambulyx deucalion Wik. a 1 July E. and W. Hima-
layas
12 Cephonodes hylas Linn. ee 1 do. All over India
13 Deilephila nerii Linn. cos 1 do. do.
14 | Herse convolyuli Linn. 3 August do.
15 | Hippotion boerhaviae Fabr. .. 9 rade: E. and W.Himalayas
16 | Hippotion celerio Linn. Pf 1 do. Most parts of India
4 : ; 8 do. East Himalayas
17 | Hippotion rafflesi But. --| 41 | September land South India
18 Macroglossum belis Linn. as 1 July West Himalayas,
South India
37 August NE. Himalayas,
19 | Marnmba dyras WIk. “ 1 September |South India, Anda-
mans
20 Meganoton nyctiphanes Fabr... 1 August East Himalayas,
and South India
21 Nephele didyma Fabr 14 do. All over India
ne : a u September
: 23 August
22 | Nephele didymaf.hespera .. 4 September do.
Fabr.
23 | Psilogramma menephron Cr. ., 10 August do.

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Serial
No.

Family and Species
Theretra alecto alecto Linn.
Theretra boisduvali Bugn.

Theretra castanea Moore

Theretra clotho clotho Drury ..
Theretra gnoma Fabr.

Theretra lycetus Cr.

Theretra nessus Drury

Theretra oldenlandiae Fabr.

Fam. Notodontidae
Antheua servula Drury

Anticyra combusta Wk.
Cerura liturata W1k.

Dudusa nobilis Wik.

| Phalera raya Moore

Pheosia strigata Moore

Pydna galbana Swinh.
Pydna longivitta W\k.
Pygaera sp.

Ramesa tosta W1\k.?

Spatalia argentifera Wk.

certainly not attracted to light.

2 So far recorded from Burma and Ceylon only. However, B.N.H.S. Collection ©

No.
collected

{2
32

contains specimens from Savantwadi, West Coast.

Month of |

collection |
\

August

September

August
do.

do.
September

August

Distribution

previously recorded -

W. and E. Hima-
layas, South India,
U.P.

East Himalayas

South India

E. and W. Hima-
layas, South India

S. India, Poona,

iPusa, Jeolicote

do.
September

August
September

August
July

August

September

August
September

June
September

June

August
do.

E. and W. Hima-
layas, South India

-E. and W. Hima-
layas, South India

E. and W. Hima-
layas, South India,
Darjeeling, Pusa,
and Abbotabad

All over India

NW. Himalayas,
Karachi, Poona

Sikkim, Assam,
Bombay, Madras

Khasis, Bombay,
Western Ghats, N.
Kanara

Sikkim, Nagas,
Calcutta, Simla,
Bombay

NE. Bengal, Kan-
ara

Sikkim
Simla, Sikkim
Nagas

Sikkim, Kanara,
Bangalore

1 Bell (1935, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38 : 134) states that this species is rare and

COLLECTING MOTHS BY A MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP

287

Serial . : No. | Month of
NG. Family and Species collected collection
43 | Stauropus alternus Wik. 1 August

| September

Distribution
previously recorded

Sylhet, Bombay,
Ganjam, Kanara

Simla, Sikkim
Simla, Sikkim,
Calcutta

Nilgiris
Sikkim, Assam,
Nagas

Simla, Kulu, all
over India

Assam, Nilgiris

Kanara
All over India

do.

Sikkim, Kanara

NW. Himalayas,
Sikkim, Sylhet

Kangra,
Nilgiris

Nagas,

All over India

to}

-4No record of the locality is available in published literature. B.N.H.S.
Collection is from Bombay, Belgaum, Khandesh, and Kanara by R. D. Bell,

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Serial : we No. | Month of Distribution
No. Family and Species collected! collection | previously recorded
his ,
59 | Euproctis sp. st, 1 September
60 | Laelia sp. m4 1 August
61 | Lymantria rosea Hamps. a | July Marapharita near
. Le August Sadiya, Assam
1 Septem ber
62 | Lymantria viola Swinh. aS 1 do. Bombay
Fam. Hypsidae
63 | Digama hearsayana Moore .. 1 do. All over India
Fam. Arctiidae
64 | Amsacta lineola Fabr. oe 18 August NW. Himalayas,
(= Creatonotus emittens WIk.) 2 September | Nepal, Manipur,
South India
65 | Callimorpha sp. BY 2 August
66 | Creatonotus lactinea Cr. af 3 September | All over India
(= Rhodogastrea frederici
Kirby)
67 | Cyana peregrina Wlk. es 1 do. do.
68 | Diacrisia obliqua W\k. D August do.
(= Spilosoma todarum 1 September
Moore)
69 | Estigmene perrotteti Guen. .. 2 July Sikkim, Paresh-
(= Alphaea biguttata W1k.) 8 August nath, Kanara, Nil-
11 September | giris (western slopes)
70 | Estigmene nigricans Moore 2 July Deccan, Bombay,
(= Alphaea nigricans Moore) 2 August Matheran
1 September
71. | Macrobrochis gigas W\k. uk 1 July Sikkim, Bhutan,
Assam
72 | Nepita conferta Wl\k. Ae 1 September] All over India
73 | Nola major Hamps. a 3 do. Nilgiris (western |
slopes, 3000 ft.) |
74 | Pericallia (Arctia) ricini Fabr... 1 August All over India
75 | Philagria_entella Cr. a 4 do. South India
3 September
76 | Spilosoma (Thyrgorina) eximea 1 July Kanara
Swinh. 3 September

Serial
No.

78
go

81
82
83
84

85
86
87
88
89

90
91
92°
93.
94

COLLECTING MOTHS BY A MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP:

Family and Species.

——

289

Distribution

Fam. Agaristidae

Aegocera bimaculata W\k.

Aegocera tripartita Kirby?

Aegocera venulia Cr.

Eusemia adulatrix Koll.

Fam. Noctuidae
Acantholipes sp.
Acontia intersepta Guen.
Acontia transversa Guen.

Agrotis flammatra Fabr.

Anomis fulvida Guen.
Anomis mesogona WIk.
Calesia dasyptera Koll.
Calesia phaeosoma Hamps.

Calesia satellitia Moore

Calpe emarginata Fabr.
Calpe minuticornis Guen.
Catephia lineola Guen.

Cetola dentata Wl\k.

| Chrysopera combinans W\k.

Churia arcuata Wik.
(= Churia iconica W1k.)

1 Not recorded in India so far.

No. Month of
collected! collection | previously recorded
1 June Plains of India,
2 July Sikkim
1 June
1 August Sub-Himalayan
tracts of Kashmir
and Sikkim, and
plains of India
1 September | All over India
1 do.
1 do. All over India
I July do.
1 do. NW. Himalayas,
2 September | Punjab, Sikkim,
and vide Fletcher (4)
Pusa in its south-
ernmost limit
1. do. All over India
1 do. do.
1 do. do.
1 do. Nilgiris
3 July W. and S. India
5 August
1 September
1 August Ail over India
1 September do.
1 August do.
1 October Nepal, Mhow
1 June NW. Himalayas,
and peninsular
India
12 September | Sikkim, Khasis,

Khandesh, Nilgiris

specimens from Tanna (= Thana).

However, B. N.H.S. Collection contains

1 These two specimens belong to two different species of Cirphis but could not

be specifically identified.

* Thousands resting on teak trees in July and August. , :
* Not recorded in India so far. However, B.N.H.S. Collection contains specimens

from Ceylon,

Serial
No.

119
120
121

117474
£23
124
125
126

127

128
129

130

131

132

133
134

135

136
137

COLLECTING MOTHS BY A MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP 291

Family and Species

Ophideris fullonica Linn.
Ophideris materna Linn.

Ophiusa algira Linn.

Ophiusa coronata Fabr.
Ophiusa crameri Moore
Ophiusa dotata Fabr.

Ophiusa joviana Cram.

Ophiusa melicerta Drury
Pandesma anysa Guen.

Pericyma umbrina Guen.

Plecoptera reflexa Guen.
Plusia eriosoma Doub.
Plusia jessica But.

Plusio ni Hubn.

Plusia signata Fabr.

Polydesma inangulata Guen.

Polytela gloriosa Fabr.

Prodenia litura Boisd.

Pseudelydna rufoflava W\k.
Psimada quadripennis W\k.

Remigia archesia Cram.
Remigia frugalis Fabr.
Rhesala imperata W\k.

Sesamia inferens W1k.

Spirama retorta Cram.

No.
collected

wo No aA

Month of
collection

September
do.

July
August

do.

do.
September

August
September

do.

August
September

do.
do.
do.
August
dot

do.
September

do.

do.
August
September

August
September

Distribution
previously recorded

All over India
do.
do.

do.
All over India
do.
do.
do.

do.

India and Burma

All over India
do

NW. Himalayas

All over India

Bihar, S. India
All over India
do.
do.
Almora

Kanara, Anda-
mans

All over India
do.
Andamans
Sind, Bombay
Mhow, Surat, Nav-
sari

All over India

292

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Family and Species

| Distribution

collected| collection previously recorded

150

152

153
154

155

156

157

158

Spirama unistrigata Guen.

Spirama vespertilio Fabr.

Spodoptera mauritia Boisd.

Thermesia rubricans Boisd.

Trigonodes hyppasia Cram.

Westermannia superba Hubn...

Zalissa transiens Wik.
Zalissa venosa Moore

Fam. Uranidae
Pseudomicronia coelata Moore

Fam. Epiplemidae
Dirades theclata Guen.

Epiplema quadricaudata W\k.

Fam. Geometridae

Aplochlora vivilaca Wik.
Biston raptaria Wk.

Biston suppress:"ia Guen.

Biston varianaria Swinh.

Ctenognophos sp.
Hyposidra talaca W\k.

Macaria fasciata Fabr.

Phibalapteryx hypospilata Guen.

NSN N

—

WO —

August

do.
September

August
September

do.
do.

August
September

do.

June
August

do.

September

August
do.

September

August

do,
Septemter
do.
July
August
September
July

August
September

Sikkim, Assam
All over India

do.

do.
do.
W. and S. India

Sikkim, Khasis,
Nagas

Sikkim

Sikkim, Khasis,
Nilgiris

All over India

Assam, Kanara,
Andamans

Sikkim, Bombay,
Khandala

Nilgiris
Kangra, Sikkim,
Assam, Calcutta,

and South India

Mhow,
N. Kanara

Poona,

All over India

do,

Khasis, Mahable-
shwar, Nilgiris,
Anamalais

en ga

COLLECTING MOTHS BY A MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP 293
Serial | cere ee No. Month of Distribution
No. | Family and Species collected collection | previously recorded
163 | Platycerota punctilineata 1 August
Hamps.*
164 | Semiothisa eleonora Cr. 4A 1 July All over India
(= Macaria fasciata Fabr.) | 1 October
165 | Thalassodes quadraria Guen. .. 1 September do.
Fam. Pyralidae
166 | Agathodes ostentalisHubn. .. 1 August do.
1 September
167 | Botyodes asialis Guen. if 1 do. do.
168 | Charitona sp. He 1 August
169 | Glyphodes vertumnalis Guen. .. 1 July All over India
17 August
170 | Maruca amboinalis Feld. Ake 1 do. Sikkim, Khasis,
Nilgiris
171. | Nymphula depunctalis Guen. .. 1 do. All over India
172 Pachyzancla phaeopteralis Guen. 1 September do.
173 | Pachyzancla sp. a 18 August
2 September
174 | Pygospila tyres Cr. Lt 1 July All over India
10 August
2 September
175 | Schoenobius bipunctifer W\k.? 1 do. do.
176 | Schoenobius incertellus Wik.” .. D do. Nagas, Calcutta,
S. India
177 | Sylepta adductalis Wik. is 1 do. Nilgiris
178 | Sylepta aurantiacalis Fisch. .. 1 do. All over India
| 179 | Sylepta concatenalis Wik. me 1 do. Sikkim
180 | Sylepta derogata Fabr. oe 1 do. All over India

caught.

1 Not recorded in India so far. However, B.N.H.S. Collection contains specimens
from Karwar, N. Kanara.

? These moths were attracted to light in very large numbers, but only a few were

294. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

REFERENCES

1. BEESON, C.F.C. (1941) : Ecology
and Control of the Forest Insects. The
Vasant Press, Dehra Dun.

2. BELL, T.R. (1935): A description
of the Notodontid Moth, Dudusa nobilis
WIk. and its early stages. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 134-136.

3, ————, & ScorrT, F.B. (1937).
The Fauna of British India, Moths. 5.
Taylor and Francis Ltd., London.

4. FLETCHER, T.B. (1919) : Anno-
tated list of Indian crop-pests—Lepi-
doptera. Report of the Proc. III Ent.
Meet. Pusa : 52-133.

5. Hampson, G.F. (1892-6) : The
Fauna of British India, Moths. 1-4.
Taylor and Francis Ltd., London.

6. SEVASTOPULO, D.G. (1956) : Notes
on the Heterocera of Calcutta. Part I.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 415-422.

7. ———— (1956): Part If. ibid. :

651-658.

SE eee (ee lean NL, iol.
54 : 153-155.

9. ———— (1957): Part IV. ibid. : 3
302-308.

10. Usman, S. (1954) : Some insects
attracted to light. ibid. 52 : 647-650.
11. ————: Part II. ibid.: 950-

951.
12, ———— aay) Part Ill. ibid.
53 : 482-484.

Observations on the breeding habits
of the Bronzewinged Jacana
[Metopidius indicus (Latham)]

D. N. MATHEW
Research Assistant, Bombay Natural History Society

INTRODUCTION

It is recorded that among Jacanas the role of the sexes is reversed
to a great extent. Miller (1925) found this in the Mexican Jacana
[Jacana spinosa (Linné)] and Hoffmann (1949) in. the Pheasant-tailed
Jacana [Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli)]. In the latter the female
is larger in size than the male and is polyandrous, and the male carries
out most (or all) of the incubation and care of young. In the
Bronzewinged Jagana [Metopidius indicus (Latham)] also the female
is slightly larger than the male and the pattern of breeding is similar to
that of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

FIELD NOTES

From 23 July to 9 October 1963 I had the opportunity to observe
the breeding habits of the Bronzewinged Jacana at a freshwater tank
situated at the Powai Unit of Aarey Milk Colony in Salsette Island,
Bombay. Observations were made with a pair of 8X30 binoculars.
Duration of observations was over two hours on alternate days, and
extended to seven hours on holidays.

The tank is a natural body of water more or less oblong in shape
and approximately 4500 sq. metres in area. It is overhung by
gulmohur and mango trees and its vegetation has been altered by man.
Introduced para grass is the dominant plant on the nesting sites.
Waterlily (Nymphaea pubescens) and a floating species of /pomoea
also occur.

1 Present address: Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, M.S. Univer-
sity, Baroda

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

The observations were on three adult birds (two males and one
female) which bred at the tank. The female was distinguished by its
slightly larger size and the second male (B) by a gap in its right wing
caused by the loss of a number of primaries. These three birds did
not tolerate any other Bronzewinged Jagana on the tank, and I could
distinguish them at every stage even though the birds were not
individually marked.

When I started watching on July 23 the female had already paired
with the male with undamaged wing (male A) and a clutch of 4 eggs
had been completed. No courtship was observed between the pair.
The nest was built on an isolated patch of floating grass about a foot
Square in area. The grass provided good camouflage to the brooding
bird, male A.

Luly 23-27 6) observations) :

During this period, only this couple was on the tank. Male A
incubated consistently, leaving the nest only for feeding. The female
vigorously defended the territory, chasing away waterhens and pond
herons. The pair would exchange contact notes. Once when turtles
moved near the nest (there were about six turtles resident in the
tank) the female stood guard near the nest. Che

The male was always on the nest when observations were com-
pleted for the day at 18 to 19.30 hours, and apparently spent the night
on the nest while the female roosted some six feet away in floating
erass.

July 29 to August 13 (10 observations):

The second male Bronzewinged Jacana (B) started visiting the ane
Male A left his eggs and chased the intruder and pecked him furiously,
time and time again. The female appeared to be indifferent to the
new arrival. Male B established a territory in the southern half of
the tank in spite of A’s ‘threat-postures’ against him. By August 3,
the two males appeared to have demarcated their territories by an
imaginary line running east and west and roughly bisecting the tank.
I marked this boundary visually by a Gulmohur tree on the eastern
margin of the tank. If one male went about two yards beyond this
border the other would fight him. Male A continued to incubate
consistently, never leaving the nest for a period longer than 30 minutes.
I never saw the female incubating or taking any interest in the chicks
which appeared on August 13, 20 days after commencement of
observation. Male A looked after the chicks.

On August 3, the males fought each other 4-5 times during the 6

BREEDING HABITS OF THE BRONZEWINGED JAGANA 297

hours of observation and were pecked by the female till they stopped
fighting. |

The female also chased the males after the fight. On this day B
was seen collecting nest-material and for the first time the female was
seen soliciting him. Covering did not take place, but it was certain
that the female had accepted B as a breeding partner. By the middle
of September this pair produced three clutches of eggs.

Clutch 1. August 3 to 19. (7 observations):

Male B and the female collected bits of grass and Ipomoea from
almost everywhere in the southern half of the tank (B’s territory), but
very little of the material was used for the nest. Their first nest was
a poorly-concealed waterlily leaf with a few grass blades thrown here
and there. The female solicited on seven occasions and was covered
by B. Between August 13 and 19, three eggs were laid and B started
incubating. Unlike A he did not brood very consistently and the eggs
disappeared on August 21.

Clutch 2. August 21 to September 1. (6 observations):

The female and B working jointly built another nest about 6 feet
away from their first. Between these dates I observed four instances
of coition, each after the female had solicited. On August 28 two
eges were observed with B brooding inconsistently. He was also seen
covering the female whenever she presented. Male B and the female
would sometimes leave the tank for about an hour, 2 to 3 times a
day, possibly for the purpose of feeding. It was noted that the female
would be the first to leave the tank on such trips and would be away
from the tank for a longer period than the male. The nest was as
crudely constructed and as poorly concealed as the one before, and
suffered a similar fate. By September the second clutch of eggs
disappeared.

Clutch 3. September 2 to 26. (10 observations):

On September 2 the pair (B and the female) was building again,
this time in a thick patch of para grass in the southern margin. Material
was gathered very inconsistently and from all over the territory.
Between September 2 and 7 the female solicited eight times while
I was observing and was covered. B incubated from September 16
to 24 but lost his clutch of eggs after this date. After September 14
the female was not seen at the tank. B continued to defend his
territory till the end of September. After September 30 he left the
tank.

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

With the disappearance of his neighbour, Male A (who had been
iooking after his three chicks) occupied the entire tank and, when last
observed, he was feeding with three chicks in the former territory of
Male B.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
Territory:

Each male Bronzewinged Jacana had a territory of over 2000 sq.
metres (approx.) which he defended vigorously from every bird other
than his femate partner. One male would not let his neighbour into
his territory but would try to use his neighbour’s territory whenever

the owner was temporarily away. The female defended the territories
of the two males and could feed anywhere.

Defensive displays:

Whenever one male entered the territory of his Neiehboue: or when
a male found that his neighbour was likely to trespass, the owner
moved to the threatened border and struck threat postures, standing
with stretched neck and, often, open wings. Each male moved in
a zigzag manner and repeated the display. If the intruder did not
withdraw, there ensued furious pecking. Whenever the female was
near by she pecked them apart. The fighting birds sometimes went
under water and, till the birds emerged, a soggy mess of intertwined
Wings popped up from time to time. Such a fight occupied 2 to 5
minutes. When the fighting males emerged the female chased and
pecked them. In 98 hours of observations the males made 102
defensive displays against one another, and 12 of these ended in
fights. |
The female defended the territories of the two males from birds
of other species like pond herons, whitebreasted waterhens, and lesser
whistling teals. When predatory birds approached, the female
produced a wheezy piping call and agitatedly flew about, but no
instance of attacking was seen. The female stood guard near the nest
for periods up to half an hour whenever turtles passed near it.
Throughout the period of observation the female defended the whole
area of the tank, irrespective of the territories of the males.

Injury simulation:

Male B, whenever he was pecked by the female following a fight
with A, let his wings sag and produced the whistling call eu the
impression (on the observer) that he was injured.

BREEDING HABITS OF THE BRONZEWINGED JAGANA 299

Courtship activities:

The female periodically attained peaks of sexual excitement. She
postured before the male. Her body became rigid and she stood
absolutely still with her vent raised towards the male. The male
responded to this display by covering her. I have observed only two
instances (out of 19) when the male did not respond to soliciting. The
female postured for a minute and resumed feeding. Such a display
by the female and the consequent covering occupied a space of two
minutes, out of which 30 to 45 seconds were used for coition. I have
observed coition between 1.30 p.m. and 7 p.m. only, except on a
solitary occasion. All were prompted by the hen.

Nest building:

Both sexes shared building and also did a lot of purposeless
collecting of material. Out of the four nests seen this season one
was on a patch of grass (above some 8 ft. depth of water) just about
3 to 4 inches above water-level. Two were built on waterlily leaves
above 12 to 15 ft. depth of water. The fourth was in a thick patch
of grass but barely out of water.

Displacement activities ? :

The Bronzewinged Jacanas indulged in some incongruous activities.
Are these displacement acts? (1) When a brooding male was dis-
turbed by an intruder, he leaped 3 to 4 feet into the air calling
agitatedly. This act was repeated several times and apparently called
attention to the nest rather than away from it. (2) Immediately
after coition the female pulled out nesting material for a few minutes;
such material was rarely used for the nests.

Call notes:

Sélim Ali (1961) has distinguished two types of calls, ‘a short
harsh grunt; also a wheezy piping seek-seek-seek eic. Both sexes
used these calls in the same contexts, but the female’s voice had more
depth. The grunt was used as a contact note by the breeding pairs,
and also when a bird left the tank or returned to it. The second,
asthmatic call was often produced when the birds were disturbed by
intruders or were fighting one another.

Incubation:

The pattern of incubation of the two males was different. Male A
used 54.3% of the time (in 30 hours of observation) for incubation,
16.9% for feeding, and the rest for preening, defending, etc. Male B

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

incubated only 15.7% (of 344 hours of observation), and used 24.8%
for feeding, and the rest for other activities. On an average, incubating
males left their nests 3.5 times per hour.

Parental care:

The chicks were looked after entirely by the male. He conducted
them for feeding in his territory, and in the neighbour’s territory
Whenever the latter was temporarily away. The male frequently
harboured the chicks under his wings. The female did not show any
concern for the chicks.

CONCLUSIONS

A single season’s observations on three adult birds are hardly
sufficient to warrant definite conclusions. However, the following
points are noteworthy:

(1) The male and female showed a difference in sexual ex-
citability. The female periodically appeared to attain peaks of
sexual excitement when she solicited copulation by posturing before
the male. The male responded to 89% of these postures by covering.
No such display by the male, or for that matter no other courtship
action by either sex was observed. Huxley (1923) has pointed out
that such disparity in sexual excitability in species with sexual
dimorphism has the function of regulating coition. More sustained
observations and of larger marked populations would determine
whether both sexes of Bronzewinged Jacanas indulge in courtship
actions.

(2) When eggs are lost after the commencement of incubation,
the pair revert to coition and nest-building once again. Huxley (1923)
has recorded this reversal of behaviour in his discussion of evolution of
breeding behaviour in birds.

(3) The males are very aggressive in the defence of their breeding
territories.

(4) The female’s territery covered the whole breeding area and
her defensive action was directed against intruders of other species
only. (In this case, however, there were no rival females.)

(5) The female policed the aggressive behaviour of the males
against each other. |

Comparing these observations on the Bronzewinged Jacana with
those of Hoffmann (1949) on the Pheasant-tailed Jacana, one finds the
following points in common;

BREEDING HABITS OF THE BRONZEWINGED JAGANA 301

(1) The female is larger in size and is polyandrous. A single
female pairs with different males one after the other:.

(2) Incubation and care of the young is done almost entirely: by
the male; deat? : , |

(3) The female defends the territory vigorously; ©

(4) The two sexes use the same type of calls in similar contexts;
and the following points of difference:

(1) Hoffmann observed a single male Pheasant-tailed Jacana
rearing two to three families in a season and the parent-chick relation
slackening in the second week. In the only brood of Bronzewinged
Jacanas that survived, the chicks were looked after by the male parent
even after they were two months old. I did not observe a male
Bronzewinged Jacana rearing more than one family.

(2) Hoffmann has recorded that a single female produced 3-4
clutches within a month, or from 7 to 10 clutches within one season.
The female studied this season produced, in all 4 clutches of 3-4 eggs
within 24 months.

(3) Hoffmann refers to very exceptional cases where the female
shared incubation and care of young. No such instance was observed
in the cases studied. More sustained observations are necessary to
test this possibility.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to Dr. Salim Ali, Shri Humayun Abdulali, and to
Shri J. C. Daniel for their guidance without which I could not have
undertaken this work. Shri Abdulali kindly made his canoe available
to me at the site of observation. I am grateful to my colleague Shri
P. B. Shekar for his assistance. Shri Honkan, the Assistant Agri-
cultural Officer in charge of the Powai Unit, and his staff were very
helpful. I record my gratitude to them.

SUMMARY

The female Bronzewinged Jacana is larger than the male and is
polyandrous. The female paired with two males one after the other.
She did not share parental duties, but defended the breeding area
vigorously. No courtship behaviour by the male was observed. The
female solicited copulation by posturing near the male. Both sexes
shared building, but the male alone incubated. When a clutch of
eggs was lost after the commencement of incubation the pair reverted
to coition and nest-building.

302

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM (1961) : The Book of Indian
Birds: 85. Bombay Natural History
Society.

HOFFMANN, ALFRED E. (1949): Zoolo-
gischer Jahrbticher, Band 78, Heft 4, Jena,
5 Sept. 1949.

HUux.ey, JULIAN S, (1923): Courtship

Activities in the Redthroated Diver
(Colymbus_ stellatus Pontopp.). J. Linn.
Soc. 35 : 253-292.

MILLER, ALDEN H. (1925): Observa-
tions on the Incubation and the Care of
the Young in Jacana. Condor 33 : 32-33.

Observations on the Vegetation of the
Rampa and Gudem Agency Tracts
of the Eastern Ghats—Il

ROLLA SESHAGIRI RAO
Botanical Survey of India, Poona

[Continued from Vol. 55 (3) : 449]

The systematic enumeration of the species that was to follow Part I
of the paper, published in this Journal in 1958, could not be completed
in time due to the frequent movement of the author on botanical explora-
tion work.

177 new records for Angiosperms and 38 for Pteridophytes, which
have not been reported so far from the Eastern Ghat ranges along the
Andhra Coastal Region, are noted in this paper. Of these, Alocasia
decipiens forms a new record for India, and the two species Alectra
sessiliflora var. monticola and Carex stramentita are new for peninsular
India. As the published data on the Pteridophyte flora of the Eastern
Ghat ranges along the Andhra coast is very meagre, all the collections
reported under Pteridophytes have turned out to be new records. Every
effort has been made to present up-to-date nomenclature in the paper.

The author wishes to express his grateful thanks to the late V. Narayan-
swamy, formerly of the Botanical Survey of India, for valuable infor-
mation given during the study of his collections by the author at the
Calcutta Herbarium and to Rev. Father H. Santapau, s.J., Director,
Botanical Survey of India, for going through the manuscript and for his
kind encouragement. The author’s thanks are also due to Shri K. C.
Kanodia, Botanical Survey of India, Poona, for all his assistance in the
preparation of the list.

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES

Note. This list includes all the species collected by the parties of the
Botanical Survey of India from the Rampa and Gudem Agency Tracts
and also those recorded by Gamble for this area.

[22]

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)
ANGIOSPERMS

RANUNCULACEAE

Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC.—Near Nulakamaddi.
C. smilacifolia Wall.—Yarlagadda ; Gudem.
Naravelia zeylanica DC.—Komaravaram.

DILLENIACEAE

Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.—Rampa Hill.

ANNONACEAE

Miliusa velutina Hook. f. & Thom.—Forests of Godavari Dist.
Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Hook.f.& Thom.—Ethakonda; Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.
P. suberosa (Roxb.) Thwaites—Devarapalli-Maredumalli.

MENISPERMACEAE

Anamirta cocculus Wt. & Arn.—Gudem valley.
Cissampelos pareira Linn.—Nilavaram padu ; Rampa Hill; Maredumalli.
Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels—Ramavaram.
Hypserpa cuspidata (Wall.) Miers—SE. Gudem.
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers—Near Rayapalli.
BRASSICACEAE (= CRUCIFERAE)

Nasturtium madagascariense DC.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis grandis Linn.f.—Godavari Dist.

C. zeylanica Linn.—Chinaudasakarru, near Rayapalli.

Cleome monophylla Linn.—Chodavaram-Rampa.

Crataeva nurvala Buch.-Ham.—Rampa.

Maerua arenaria Hook. f. & Thom.—Godavari Dist.
VIOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus (Linn.) F. Muell.—Near Nulakamaddi ; Rampa. ©

BIXACEAE

Cochlospermum religiosum (Linn.) Alston—Near Mattambhimavaram.

FLACOURTIACEAE

Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch.—Hills of Vizag. Dist.

F. indica Merr.—Chinaudasakarru, near Rayapalli ; Pasaruginni.
PITTOSPORACEAE

Pittosporum floribundum Wt, & Arn.—Devarakonda.

[23 ]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—II 305

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala chinensis Linn.—Rampa Hill.

P. chinensis L.var. linearifolia Chodat—Bhupathipalem.
P. erioptera DC.—Godavari Dist.

P. rosmarinifolia Wt. & Arn.—Dummakonda top.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Drymaria diandra BI. ; Mizushima in Jour. Jap. Bot. 32 : 79, 1957—Ethakonda.
Polycarpaea corymbosa Lam.—Devarakonda ; Gurtedu-Dharakonda.

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca oleracea Linn.—Near Chodavaram.
P. wightiana Wall.—Godavari Dist.

MALVACEAE

Abelmoschus cancellatus Wall.—Yarlagadda-Mattambhimavaram.

A. manihot (L.) Medik. var. pungens (Roxb.) Hochr.—Nulakamaddi ; Sesharayi ;
Yarlagadda ; Gudem valley.

Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sw.—Maredumalli ; near Gurtedu.

A. polyandrum (Roxb.) Wt. & Arn.—Mattambhimavaram-Gurtedu ; Gudem-Ebul
Reserve.

Gossypium mexicanum Tod.—Ramavaram.

Hibiscus furcatus Roxb.—Top of Palakonda, near Maredumalli.

H. hirtus Linn.—Godavari Dist.

H. micranthus Linn.f.—Rampa Hill.

H. radiatus Willd—Borragudem. Cultivated.

H. lobatus (Murr.) O. Kuntze—Rampa Hill ; Gudem valley.

H. vitifolius Linn.—Peddakonda, near Marrivada ; Sesharayi; Nulakamaddi.

Kydia calycina Roxb.—Sesharayi Hill.

Pavonia odorata Willd.—Bhupathipalem ; Rampa-Chodavaram.

P. zeylanica Cav.—Rampa Hill.

Sida acuta Burm.—Nulakamaddi-Ramavaram.

S. cordifolia Linn.—Chodavaram ; Rampa.

S. rhombifolia Linn.—Nulakamaddi-Ramavaram.

S. rhombifolia Linn. var. rhomboidea Mast.—Maredumalli.

S. veronicaefolia Lam.—Bhupathipalem.

Thespesia lampas (Cay.) Dalz. & Gibbs.—Base of Devarakonda ; near Sesharayi ;
Nulakamaddi ; near Mattambhimavaram.

Urena lobata Linn.—Gudem valley ; Sesharayi ; Dummakonda.

BOMBACACEAE

Bombax ceiba Linn. ; A. Robyns in Taxon 10 : 160, 1961—Yarlagadda.

STERCULIACEAE

Byttneria herbacea Roxb.—Rampa ; Chodavaram.
Eriolaena hookeriana Wt. & Arn.—Mattambhimavaram ; Gudem.

[24]

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Firmiana colorata R.Br.—Godavari District.

Helicteres isora Linn.—Ethakonda ; Gokavaram.

Melochia corchorifolia Linn.—Maredumalli; Yarlagadda.

Pterospermum heyneanum Wall.—Buggimetta, near Rampa ; Ramavaram.
Sterculia villosa Roxb.—Sesharayi.

S. urens Roxb.—Foot of Rampa Hill.

TILIACEAE

Corchorus aestuans Linn.—Devarapalli.

C. fascicularis Lamk.—Godavari Dist.

Grewia abutilifolia Vent. ex Juss—Top of Palakonda ; Maredumalli ; Dharakonda ;
Ebul Reserve, Gudem.

G. glabra B!.—Peddakonda; Maredumalli; Sesharayi; Mattambhimavaram ;
Dharakonda ; Gudem.

G. hirsuta Vahl—Chodavaram ; Rayapalli; Yarlagadda ; Mattambhimavaram ;
Gurtedu.

G. orbiculata Roth—Sesharayi.

G. polygama Roxb.—Godavari Dist.

G. rothii DC.—Ethakonda ; Sesharayi ; Dummakonda\

G. subinaequalis DC.—Peddakonda top ; Rampa.

G. tiliaefolia Vahl—Rayapalli ; Yarlagadda ; Dummakonda ; Gudem.

Triumfetta annua Linn.—Forests of Godavari Dist.

T. pilosa Roth—Dummakonda.

T. rhomboidea Jacq.—Devarapalli.

T. rotundifolia Lamk.—Rampa.

LINACEAE

Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb.—Rampa-Chodavaram.
Hugonia mystax Linn.—Scrub forests of Godavari Dist.

MALPIGHIACEAE

Aspidopterys indica (Roxb.) Hochr.—Rampa-Chodavaram ; Rayapalli.
Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz—Yarlagadda-Mattambhimavaram.

OXALIDACEAE

Biophytum sensitivum DC.—Chodavaram.
Oxalis corniculata Linn.—Nulakamaddi ; Sesharayi-Yarlagadda.
O. corniculata Linn. var. stricta Hook. f—Dummakonda top.

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens balsamina Linn. var. coccinea (Wall.) Hook. f—Maredumalli ; Dum-
makonda.

RUTACEAE

Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC.—Rampa Hill! ; Devarakonda.
Evodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr.—Gudem valley.

Fagara budrunga Roxb.—Rampa Hill.
[25 ]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS--Il 307

Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) Corr.—Ramavaram.

Limonia crenulata Roxb.—Chodavaram.

Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng.—Rampa Hill.

M. paniculata (Linn.) Jack.—Rampa.

Paramignya scandens (Griff.) Craib—Gudem Hill.

P. monophylla Wt.—Rampa Hill.

Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lamk.—Mattambhimavaram.

T. asiatica Lamk. var. gracilis Gamble—Foot of Rampa Hill.

SIMARUBACEAE
Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.—Gokavaram-Chodavaram ; Addatigala.
Balanites aegyptiaca (Linn.) Delile—Gokavaram-Chodavaram.
OCHNACEAE

Ochna gamblei King—Hills of Godavari Dist.

BURSERACEAE

Boswellia glabra Roxb.—Forests of Godavari Dist.
Garuga pinnata Roxb.—Chodavaram ; Peddakonda ; Rayapalll.
_Protium serratum (Watt ex Colebr.) Engl.—Maredumalli metta; Ebul Reserve
Gudem.

MELIACEAE

Agiaia roxburghiana Miq.var. beddomei Gamble—Devarakonda ; Ethakonda.
Chloroxylon swietenia DC.—Foot of Rampa Hill ; Ramavaram.

Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq.—Rayapalli ; Sesharayi.

Heynea trijuga Roxb.—Rampa Hill.

Soymida febrifuga A. Juss—Addatigala-Rayapalli.

Toona ciliata Roem.—Rampa Hill.

Walsura piscidia Roxb.—Rampa.

OLACACEAE
Olax scandens Roxb.—Maredumalli ; Kota.
Ximenia americana Linn.—Jungles of Godavari Dist.
CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculata Willd.—Rampa Hill.

Elaeodendron glaucum Pers.—Palakonda ; Errangondi; Dummakonda ; Gudem-

Marripakalu.
Gymnosporia bailadillana Narayan. et Mooney—Gudem ; Gudem-Matripakalu.
Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell. (=G. spinosa Fiori)—Rayapalli.
Pleurostylia wightii Wt. & Arn.—Forests of Godavari Dist.

RHAMNACEAE

Gouania leptostachya DC.—Sesharayi.
Helinus lanceolatus Brand.—Hil!s of Godavari Dist.
Sageretia parviflora G.Don—Rekapalli in Godavari Dist.

[26]

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Ventilago calyculata Tul.—Rampa Hill; Sreepuram ; Chidipalem.

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.—Ramavaram.

Z. mauritiana Lamk. var. fruticosa Haines—Forests of Godavari Dist.

Z. oenoplia (Linn.) Mill—Rampa Hill; Kota-Ramavaram ; Chidipalem.

Z. rugosa Lamk.—Maredumalli; down Gangadevi ghat ; Gudem-Marripakalu.
Z.. xylopyra (Retz.) Willd.—Rampa ; Ebul Reserve, Gudem.

VITACEAE

Ampelocissus tomentosa Planch—Palakonda top.

Cayratia auriculata (DC.) Gamble—Rampa Hill.

C.carnosa Gagnep.—Gunjugudem.

C. pedata (Wall.) Gagnep.—Gokavaram, near Chodavaram.
Cissus pallida (Wt. & Arn.) Planch.—Above Boggimetta, Rampa.
C. woodrowii (Stapf) Santapau—-Gokavaram, near Chodavaram.
Leea edgeworthii Santapau—Hills of Godavari Dist.

L. indica (Burm.) Merr.—Rampa Hill ; Sesharayi.

L. robusta Roxb.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

Vitis lanata Roxb.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

SAPINDACEAE

Allophyllus serratus (Roxb.) Radlk.—Borrugudem, Rampa area.
Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn.—Rampa Hill.

Dodonaea viscosa (Linn.) Jacq.—Addatigala-Rayapalli.
Sapindus emarginatus Vahl—Near Rampa.

ANACARDIACEAE

Buchanania lanzan Spr.—Near Rayapalli ; Dummakonda.

Mangifera indica Linn.—Rampa ; Sesharayi ; Gudem etc.

Rhus paniculata Wall.—Rampa Hill.

R. parviflora Roxb.—Higher hills of Rampa area. _

Semecarpus anacardium Linn.f—Gokavaram-Chodavaram ; Mattambhimavaram.

MOoRINGACEAE

Moringa oleifera Lamk.—Forests of Godavari Dist.

FABACEAE (=PAPILIONACEAE)

Abrus precatorius Linn.—Peddakonda.

Aeschynomene indica Linn.—Chiruvupalem.

Alysicarpus pubescens Law—Hills of Godavari Dist.

A. vaginalis DC.—Nilavarampadu, near Gudem.

Atylosia albicans Benth.—Nulakamaddi ; Ethakonda.

A. scarabaeoides Benth.—Bhupathipalem ; Ethakonda ; Chinaudasakarru.

Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Miilsp.—Gudem valley, perhaps grown from seeds dropped
by pedestrians. ,

Canavalia virosa (Roxb.) Wt. & Arn.—Rampa.

Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth.—Rampa Hill ; Dummakonda ; Dharakonda top,
on way to Gudem.

[27]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—lIi 309

Crotalaria calycina Schrank—Kappakonda.

C. evolvuloides Wt.—Nulakamaddi.

C. hirsuta Willd.—Rampa Hill.

C. hirta Willd.—Forests of Godavari Dist.

C. juncea Linn.—Pulusupalem—wild and cultivated.

C. linifolia Linn. f—Rampa Hill.

C. medicaginea Lamk. var. typica Gamble—Rampa Hill.

C. prostrata Rott!._—Borragudem.

C. ramosissima Roxb.—Dry stony lands of Godavari Dist.
C. trifoliastrum Willd.—Rampa Hill ; Dummakonda.

C. umbellata Wt.—Dummakonda.

Cylista scariosa Roxb.—Chinaudasakarru ; near Yarlagadda.
Dalbergia Ianceolaria Linn.f.—Panasalapalem-Rayapalli.

D. latifolia Roxb.—Chodavaram ; Ethakonda.

D. volubilis Roxb.—Gurtedu-Dharakonda.

Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth.—Chiruvupalem ; Addatigala.
Desmodium brachystachyum Grah.—Kappakonda.
D.triangulare (Retz.) Merrill—Maredumalli; Peddakonda near Rampa Hill;

Ebul! Reserve Forest.

D. gangeticum (Linn.) DC.—Chodavaram-Rampa ; foot of Rampa Hill; Ebul

Reserve Forest.

. gyrans DC.—On way to Dummakonda ; Nulakamaddi-Yarlagadda.

. heterophyllum DC.—Ebul Reserve Forest, near Gudem.

. latifolium DC.—Rampa Hill ; Ethakonda.

. laxiflorum DC.—Maredumalli ; Ethakonda.

. parviflorum (Dalz.) Baker—Sesharayi—New Record for Eastern Ghats.

. polycarpum (Poir.) DC.—Kappakonda.

. pulchellum Benth.—Peddakonda ; Rayapalli.

. triflorum (Linn.) DC.—Bhupathipalem.

. triquetrum (Linn.) DC.—Near Sesharayi ; Ebul Reserve.

Dolichos falcatus Klein.—On way to Gunjugudem.

D. lablab Linn.—Dharakonda. Cultivated.

Dunbaria ferruginea Wt. & Arn.—Nulakamaddi-Yarlagadda.

Galactia longifolia Benth Rampa-Chodavaram—New record for Eastern Ghats.

G. tenuiflora Wt. & Arn.—Dummakonda.

Heylandia latebrosa (Linn.) DC.—Chinaudasakarru.

Indigofera glandulosa Roxb. ex Willd.—Godavari Dist.

I. hirsuta Linn.—Foot of Rampa Hill ; Sesharayi-Dummakonda.

I. linifolia Retz—Pedda Geddada.

I. pulchella Roxb.—Kota-Ramavaram ; Chinaudasakarru; on way to Dumma-
konda.

I. trifoliata Linn.—Peddakonda, near Rampa Hill; Borrugudem.

i. trita Linn.f.—Godavari Dist.

I. viscosa Lamk.—Godavari Dist.

Millettia auriculata Baker—Dharakonda.

Moghania lineata (Linn.) O.Kuntze—Forests of upper Godavari area.

M. praecox (Cl. ex Prain) H.L.Li var. robusta Mukerjee in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal

6: 19, 1952—Peddakonda ; Gudem valley.

- M. stricta (Roxb.) O.Kuntze—Ethakonda ; Sesharayi ; Gudem Camp.
M. strobilifera (Linn.) St. Hill. ex Jacks —Ethakonda ; Gudem valley.
Mucuna monosperma DC.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.

Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth.—Gurtedu-Dharakonda.

[28]

COueocoerrs

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq.—Bhupathipalem.

P. calcaratus Roxb.—Rampa Hill top.

Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre—Marrivada-Gunjugudem.

Pseudarthria viscida (Linn.) Wt. & Arn.—Maredumalli ; Ethakonda.

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.—Maredumalli ; Dummakonda.

Rhynchosia cana DC.—Chinaudasakarru.

R. rufescens DC.—Nilavarampadu, near Gudem.

Rothia trifoliata Pers.—Devarapalli.

Shuteria vestita Wt. & Arn.—Dharakonda-Gudem.

Tephrosia lanceolata Grah.ex Wt. & Arn.—Godavari Dist.

T. purpurea Pers.—Rampa Hill; Maredumalli ; Sesharayi.

T. roxburghiana Drumm.—Dummakonda, near the top.

T. tinctoria Pers.—Ethakonda.

Teramnus labialis (Linn.f.) Spr—Mattambhimavaram-Gurtedu.

T. labialis (Linn.f.) Spr.var. mollis Baker—Sesharayi.

Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schindl.; van Steenis in Reinwardtia 5, 453, 1961—
Ethakonda.

Zornia diphylla Pers.—Chodavaram-Rampa.

CAESALPINIACEAE

Bauhinia malabarica Roxb.—Sreepuram ; near Kota ; near Sesharayi ; near Gudem .

B. purpurea Linn.—Peddakonda ; Ramavaram ; near Chinaudasakarru.
B. racemosa Lamk.—Rampa Hill ; Addatigala.

B. vahlii Wt. & Arn.—Maredumalli ; Sesharayi.
Caesalpinia digyna Rottl.—Bhupathipalem.

Cassia absus Linn.—Rampa Hill.

C. auriculata Linn.—Near Chodavaram.

C. fistula Linn.—Devarapalle.

C. mimosoides Linn.—Devarakonda.

C. occidentalis Linn.—Rampa.

C. pumila Lamk.—Rampa Hill slopes.

Hardwickia binata Roxb.—Upper Godavari forests.
Pterolobium indicum A.Rich.—Godavari forests.
Tamarindus indica Linn.—Ramavaram ; Yarlagadda.

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia concinna DC.—Pasaruginni ; Gurtedu-Dharakonda.

A. pennata (Linn.) Willd.—Rampa Hill.

A. chundra (Roxb.) Willd.—Chodavaram ; Rampa.

A. suma Buch.-Ham.—Judeng Forest, Godavari.

A. tomentosa Willd.—Godavari Dist.

A. torta (Roxb.) Craib—Hills of Godavari Dist.

Albizzia amara Boivin—Rampa Hill.

A. marginata Merr.—Nilavarampadu, near Gudem.

A. odoratissima (Linn.f.) Benth—Chodavaram-Devipatnam ; Nilavarampadu, near
Gudem.

Dichrostachys cinerea (Linn.) Wt. & Arn.—Pasaruginni; Yarlagadda ; Mattam-
bhimavaram.

Entada pursaetha DC.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.

Mimosa angustisiliqua Gamble—Forests of Godavari Dist.

[29]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—Il ti

Mimosa rubicaulis Lamk.—Chodavaram-Rampa ; Seshatayi-Yarlagadda.
Prosopis spicigera Linn.—Forests of Godavari Dist.
Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub.—Dummakonda.

ROSACEAE

Pygeum acuminatum Coleb.—Gudem valley.

CRASSULACEAE

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lamk.) Oken—Near Maredumalli village, probably
introduced.

DROSERACEAE

Drosera burmanni VahI—Devarakonda.
D. indica Linn.— Devarakonda.

‘COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus acuminata Wall.— Forests of Godavari Dist.

A. latifolia Wall—Bhupathipalem ; Sreepuram ; Chinaudasakarru ; Sesharayi Hill.
Combretum decandrum Roxb.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi ; Sesharayi Hill.

Terminalia arjuna Wt. & Arn.—Gunjugudem.

T. bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb.—Rayapalli; Yarlagadda-Dummakonda.

T. chebula Retz.—Chodavaram-Rampa ; Yarlagadda.

T. chebula Retz. var. tomentella Cl.—Forests of Godavari Dist.

T. tomentosa Wt. & Arn.—Near Chodavaram ; Dharakonda-Gudem.

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels—Chodavaram ; Rampa.

LECYTHIDACEAE

Careya arborea Roxb.—Chinaudasakarru ; Chimalabanda along Gudem to Marri-
pakalu. | ,

MELASTOMACEAE

Melastoma malabathricum Linn.—Peddakonda ; Yarlagadda ; Sesharayi Hill.
Memecylon gracile Bedd.—Gudem Hill slope.
Osbeckia chinensis Linn.—Palakonda.
~ O.octandra DC.—Gudem valley.
Sonerila tenera Royle—Dummakonda top.

LYTHRACEAE

Ammania baccifera Linn.—Chinaudasakarru.
Lagerstroemia parviflora. Roxb.—Near Chodavaram; Rayapalli; Yarlagadda
Mattambhimavaram.
[ 30]
5

312. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. var. majuscula Cl_—Rampa Hill.
Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kurz—Rayapalli ; Pasaruginni.

ONAGRACEAE

Jussiaea suffruticosa Linn.—Chodavaram-Rampa ; Nulakamaddi-Yarlagadda.
Ludwigia prostata Roxb.—Ramavaram—New Record for Eastern Ghats.

SAMYDACEAE

Casearia graveolens Dalz.—Gurtedu-Dharakonda ; Ebul Reserve Forest.

C. tomentosa Roxb.—Yarlagadda ; Ethakonda; Dummakonda Hill; Komara-
varam-Yarlagadda ; Yarlagadda-Mattambhimavaram.

Homalium nepalense Benth. Rampa Hill.

H. zeylanicum Benth.—Rampa Hill.

CUCURBITACEAE

Bryonopsis laciniosa (Linn.) Naud.—Ramavaram.

Coccinia cordifolia (Linn.) Cogn. Chakravarthy in Rec. Bot. Sur. Ind. 17: 117,
1959—Kota.

Cucumis melo Linn.—Bhupathipalem.

C. melo Linn. var. agrestis Naud.—Devarapalli.

C. sativus Linn.—Chintagandi Hill, near Maredumalli.

Melothria heterophylla (Lour.) Cogn.—Borragudem.

M. leiosperma Cogn.—Near Nulakamaddi.

M. maderaspatana (Linn.) Cogn.—Near Devarapalli ; top of Dummakonda ; near
Chidipalem.

M. perpusilla Cogn.—Ethakonda ; Sesharayi-Nulakamaddi.

Momordica charantia Linn.—Rampa.

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt—Rampa-Chodavaram. ~

BEGONIACEAE

Begonia malabarica Lamk.—Ethakonda ; Yarlagadda ; Sesharayi ; SE. Gudem..
B. picta Sm.—Maredumalli.

MOLLUGINACEAE

Mollugo pentaphylla Linn.—Devarakonda ; Rampa Hill ; near Gunjugudem.
Gisekia pharnacioides Linn.—Waste lands of Godavari Dist.

APIACEAE (= UMBELLIFERAE)

Bupleurum mucronatum Wt. & Arn.—Gudem valley.
Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi. —
__ Pimpinella heyneana Wall.—Ethakonda ; NW. slopes of Dharakonda.
P. monoica Dalz.—Dummakonda ; Gangadevi ghat of Gudem-Marripakalu.

[31]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—lIl 313
ARALIACEAE

Schefflera stellata Harms.—Rampa Hill; Yarlagadda-Sesharayi; Ebul Reserve,
Gudem.

RUBIACEAE

Adina cordifolia Hook.f.—NE. slope of Sesharayi; Yarlagadda; Mattambhi-
mavaram.

Anthocephalus indicus A.Rich.—Along Godavari River.

Borreria hispida (Linn.) Schum.—Rampa Hill ; Devarapalli.

B. stricta (Linn.f.) Schum.—Rampa Hill; Buggimatta; Rampa-Chodavaram ;
Dummakonda.

Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr.—Yarlagadda; Sesharayi; Gudem-Marri-
pakalu ; Borrigudem. |

Chasalia curviflora Thw.—Gudem valley.

Coffea arabica Linn.—Malapalle, near Gudem. Cultivated.

Gardenia latifolia Ait.—Eastern slope of Dummakonda.

G. turgida Roxb.—Yarlagadda-Mattambhimavaram ; Maredumalli metta.

Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb.—Sesharayi-Dummakonda.

Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Sm.—Chinaudasakarru.

Knoxia corymbosa Willd.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi ; Palakonda.

Neonauclea purpurea Merr.—Rampa Hill; Yarlagadda metta.

Oldenlandia auricularia (Linn.) K. Schum.—Kota.

O. biflora Linn.—Dummakonda.

O. corymbosa Linn.—Devarakonda.

O. dichotoma Koenig—Bhupathipalem ; Borrigudem.

O. diffusa Roxb.—Kota.

O. nitida Gamble —Gudem valley.

O. nudicaulis Roth—Rampa-Chodavaram ; Maredumalli metta.

Pavetta indica Linn. var. tomentosa Hook.f.—Maredumalli ; Gokavaram ; Ebul
Reserve, near Gudem.

Psychotria fulva Ham.—SE. slope of Gudem Hill.

Randia dumetorum Lamk.—Chinaudasakarru ; Nilavarampadu.

R. malabarica Lamk.—Hills of Godavari District.

R. uliginosa DC.—Gurtedu-Dharakonda.
Rubia cordifolia} Linn.—Ethakonda; Yarlagadda-Sesharayi; Dummakonda ;

Gudem valley.
Tarenna asiatica (Linn.) O.Kuntze—Rayapalli.
Wendlandia exserta DC.—Gurtedu-Dharakonda.
W. gamblei Cowan—Gudem valley.
W. glabrata DC.—Gudem Hills.
W. tinctoria DC.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

ASTERACEAE (= COMPOSITAE)

Adenostemma lIavenia (Linn.) O.Kuntze—Gudem valley ; Sesharayi.

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.—Maredumalli.

Bidens bipinnata Linn.—Nulakamaddi.

Blainvillea acmella (L..f.) Philip—Rampa Hill.
Blumea fistulosa (Roxb.) Kurz ; Randeria in Blumea 10 : 256, 1960.—Rampa Hill.

[32]

314. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Blumea membranacea DC. var. jacquemontii (Hook. f.) Randeria, l.c., 269.—
Rampa Hill.

B. virens DC.—Chinaudasakarru ; Ethakonda... _-- ..

Caesulia axillaris Roxb.—Yarlagadda.

Centratherum anthelminticum O. Kuntze—Sesharayi.

Cosmos sp.—Peddakonda. (Cultivated)

Conyza stricta Willd.—Devarakonda.

-Cyathocline purpurea (Don) O. Kuntze—Gurtedu-Dharakonda.

Eclipta prostrata Linn.—Sesharayi ; Gudem ; Rampa-Chodavaram.

Elephantopus scaber Linn.—Rampa Hill.

Emilia sonchifolia (Linn.) DC.—Devarapalli.

Gnaphalium indicum Linn.—Gurtedu.

Gynura angulosa DC.—Gudem valley,

G. lycopersicifolia DC.—Palakonda.

Laggera alata (Don) Sch.-Bip. ex Oliv.—Nilavaram.

L. pterodonta Benth.—Dharakonda.

Senecio nudicaulis Buch.-Ham.—Hills of Godavari. Dist.

Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn.—Yarlagadda.

Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.—Yarlagadda.

Spilanthes acmella Merr.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi. _

Synedrella nodiflora Gaertn.—Dharakonda.

Tridax procumbens Linn.—Devarapalli.

Vernonia albicans DC.—Dummakonda.

V. cinerea Less.—Chinaudasakarru ; Rampa Hill.

V. divergens Edgew.—Sesharayi ; Gurtedu-Dharakonda ; Gudem valley.

Vicoa indica DC.—Chinaudasakarru ; Devarakonda.

CAMPANULACEAE

Lobelia heyneana Roem. & Sch.—Dummakonda.

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.—Sesharayi-Yarlagadda : near Nulakamaddi.

PRIMULACEAE

Anagallis pumila Swartz—Hills of Godavari Dist.

MYRSINACEAE

Ardisia solanacea (Poir.) Roxb.—Chinaudasakarru ; Peddakonda Hill ; Ethakonda.
Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (R. & S.) A. DC.—SE. Gudem Camp.
E. ribes Burm.—Gudem valley, near streams.

SAPOTACEAE

Donella roxburghii (G. Don) Pierre ex Lecomte.—Rampa Hill.

Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) MacBride var. latifolia (Roxb.) Chevalier ; van Royen
in Blumea 10: 53, 1960—Forests of Godavari Dist. :

Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Rafin—Dummakonda ; Gangadevi ghat ; Ramavaram-
Sesharayi.

[33]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—II 315

EBENACEAE

Diospyros candolleana Wt.—Rampa Hill.

D. chloroxylon Roxb.—Rampa Hill ; Kota.

D. melanoxylon Roxb.—Ramavaram.

D. peregrina (Gaertn.) Gurke—Gurtedu-Dharakonda.

D. sylvatica Roxb.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi ; Komaravaram, near Yarlagadda.
D. tomentosa Roxb.—Dummakonda ; Gokavaram-Chodavaram.

OLEACEAE

Jasminum auriculatum Vahl—Rampa Hill.

J. scandens Vahl—Gudem valley.

Linociera malabarica Wall.—Ethakonda ; Yarlagadda-Sesharayi ; Gudem valley ;
Ebul Reserve, north of Gudem. :

L. ramiflora (Roxb.) Wall. ex G. Don—Kota; Rampa Hill.

Ligustrum walkeri Dcne.—Gudem valley.

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.—Near Mattambhimavaram ; Rampa-Chodavaram.

Schrebera swietenioides Roxb.—Maredumalli; Palakonda; Chinaudasakarru ;
Yarlagadda, Mattambhimavaram.

SALVADORACEAE

Azima tetracantha Lamk.—Gokavaram.

APOCYNACEAE

Aganosma dichotoma K. Schum.—SE. Gudem camp.
Alstonia venenata R. Br.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

Ervatamia coronaria Stapf—Maredumalli.

Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.—Gokavaram-Chodavaram.
Ichnocarpus frutescens R. Br.—Ramavaram ; Rampa Hill.
Lochnera pusilla K. Sch.—Marrivada.

Rauvolfia densiflora Benth. ex Hook.f—Rampa Hill.

R. serpentina Benth.—Maredumalli.

Wrightia tomentosa Roem. &3Sch.—Sesharayi-Nulakamaddi ; Sesharayi.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Caralluma adscendens R. Br.—Rampa area.

Ceropegia hirsuta Wt. & Arn.—Borragudem.

C. tuberosa Roxb.—Rampa Hill ; Borragudem.

Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Sch.—Ebul Reserve, north of Gudem.
C. elegans Wall.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br—Rampa-Chodavaram. (Probably an escape)
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. ex Schult.—Kunjumveedi.

Hemidesmus indicus R. Br.—Near Yarlagadda.

H. indicus Schult. var. pubescens Wt.—Rampa Hill ; Gunjugudem.
Heterostemma tanjorense , Wt. & Arn.—RampafvHill.

Hoya iconum Sant.—Ethakonda,

[34]

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Choiv.—Gokavaram-Chodavaram.
Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt—Rampa Hill.

Toxocarpus kleinii Wt. & Arn.—On the Godavari bank.
Tylophora sp.—Nulakamaddi-Yarlagadda.

T. fasciculata Ham.—Rampa area.

T. rotundifolia Ham.—Rampa area.

LOGANIACEAE

Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.—Rampa Hill.
S, potatorum Linn.f.—Chinaudasakarru ; Maredumalli metta.

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora decurrens Dalz.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

C. diffusa R. Br.—Chinaudasakarru.

Exacum bicolor Roxb.—Dummakonda.

E. tetragonum Roxb.—Near Maredumalli ; Gurtedu-Dharakonda ; Burugupalem-
Ramavaram.

Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. var. pulchella Burkill—Dummakonda. ©

HYDROPHYLLACEAE

Hydrolea zeylanica Vahl—Gudem valley.

BORAGINACEAE

Cynoglossum glochidiatum Wall.—Chintagondi Hill.
Ehretia laevis Roxb.—Ebul Reserve, north of Gudem.
Rotala aquatica Lour.—River banks in Rampa.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia daltonii C. B. Clarke—Godavari Dist.

A. involucrata C. B. Clarke—Peddakonda. :

A. nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj.—Pasaruginni, near Yarlagadda ; Rampa Hill.

A. strigosa (Roth) Sant. & Patel—Gudem valley.

Bonamia semidigyna (Roxb.) Hall.f.—Forests of Godavari.

Erycibe wightiana Grah.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

Evolvulus alsinoides (Linn.) Linn.f.—Rice fields near Sesharayi; Guramanda
Rampa Hill; Dummakonda.

Hewittia sublobata (Linn.f.) O. Kuntze—Near Nulakamaddi.

Ipomoea alba Linn.—Maredumalli.

I. muricata (Linn.) Jacq.—Borrugudem.

I. nil (Linn.) Roth—Dummakonda Hill.

I. obscura Ker-Gawl.—Kota.

I. pes-tigridis Linn.—Rampa Hill.

I. wightii Choisy—Hills of Vizagapatam Dist.

Merremia tridentata Hall.f.—Gunjugudem.

M. tridentata (Linn.) Hall. f. subsp. hastata (Desr.) Ooststr.—Rampa-Chodavaram.

[35 ]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—Il 317

Merremia umbellata (Linn.) Hall. f.—Near Nulakamaddi.

M. vitifolia (Burm. f.) Hall. f.—On way to Dummakonda ; near Nulakamaddi ;
Gudem valley.

Operculina petaloidea (Choisy) Oostst.—Godavari Dist.

O. turpethum (Linn.) Silva-Manso—Gudem ; Dharakonda.

Rivea hypocrateriformis Choisy—Chinavuppalem.

SOLANACEAE

Capsicum minimum Roxb.—Sesharayi.

Datura metel Linn.—Kota.

Physalis minima Linn.—Marrivada.

Solanum giganteum Jacq.—Nilavarampadu ; near Gudem Camp.

S. melongena Linn.—Rampa Hill; Sreepuram.

S. melongena Linn. var. insanum Prain—Rampa Hill ; Peddakonda.
S. nigrum Linn.—Devarapalli.

S. verbascifolium Linn.—Maredumalli.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Alectra sessiliflora (Vahl) O. Kuntze var. monticola (Engl.) Melch. ; Hepper in Kew
Bull. 1960 : 416.—Dummakonda—A new record for peninsular India.

A. thomsoni Hook. f.—Ethakonda. (Nomenclatural change of Alectra to
Melasma has not been accepted at Kew as the latter does not include any parasites.)

Limophila rugosa (Roth) Merr.—Rampa Hill.

Lindernia anagallis Penn.—Ethakonda.

L. ciliata (Colsm.) Penn.—Rampa Hill; Puttapalli.

L. cordifolia (Colsm.) Merr.—Banks of the Kanneru near Kota.

L. crustacea (Linn.) F. v. Muell.—Devarapalli ; Maredumalli.

L. pyxidaria Allioni—In the upper Godavari area.

-Scoparia dulcis Linn.—Nilavarampadu ; Rampa-Chodavaram.

Sopubia trifida Ham.—Dummakonda Hill.

Striga asiatica (Linn.) O. Kuntze—Bhupathipalem ; Kappakonda.

S. euphrasioides (Vahl) Benth.—Rampa.

Torenia thouarsii (Cham. & Schlecht.) O. Kuntze—Godavari Dist.

OROBANCHACEAE

Aeginetia indica Linn.—Maredumalli.

GESNERIACEAE

Didymocarpus pygmaea C. B. Clarke—Rampa Hill.
Epithema carnosum Benth.—Dummakonda ; Devarakonda.

BIGNONIACEAE

Dolichandrone falcata Seem.—Upper Godavari area.

Heterophragma quadriloculare (Roxb.) K. Schum.—Godavari bank forests.
Oroxylum indicum (Linn.) Vent.—Rampa Hill; Cheruvupalem.
Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) K. Schum.—Hills of Godavari Dist,

[ 36]

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

PEDALIACEAE

Martynia annua Linn.—Gokavaram.
Sesamum indicum Linn.—Peddakonda. Escape from cultivation.

ACANTHACEAE

Adhatoda vasica Nees—Rampa Hill.

Andrographis echioides Nees—Rampa Hill.

A. ovata Benth.—Ethakonda ; Chintalapudi near Yarlagadda; Sesharayi-Gura-
manda.

A. paniculata Nees—Rampa Hill ; Bhupathipalem.

Asteracantha longifolia Nees—Gunjugudem.

Barleria cristata Linn.—Kota ; Rampa-Chodavaram.

B. courtallica Nees—Rampa Hill.

B. montana Nees—Godavari River bank.

B. prionitis Linn.—Rampa-Chodavaram.

B. strigosa Willd.—Devarakonda ; Ethakonda ; Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.
Blepharis maderaspatensis (Linn.) Heyne ex Roth—Bhupathipalem ; Chinaudasa-
karru.

B. molluginifolia Pers—Rampa Hill.

Cardanthera uliginosa Buch.-Ham.—Godavari Dist.

Dicliptera parvibracteata Nees—Rampa Hill.

Dyschoriste vagans (Wight) O. Kuntze—Gudem valley.

Ecbolium viride (Forsk.) Alston var. dentata (CI.) Raizada—Nulakamaddi.

Elytraria acaulis (Linn.f.) Lindau—Gunjumveedi.

Eranthemum capense Linn.—Forests of Godavari Dist.

E. purpurascens Nees—Mattambhimavaram ; Chinaudasakarru.

Hemigraphis latebrosa Nees—Yarlagadda-Ethakonda.

Hygrophila salicifolia (Vahl) Nees—Godavari Dist.

Justicia betonica Linn. var. villosa C. B. Clarke—Devarakonda ; Pasaruginni near
Yarlagadda.

J. diffusa Willd.—Devarakonda.

J. diffusa Willd. var. vahlii C. B. Clarke—Rampa Hill; Kota ; Dummakonda.

J. glabra Koen.—Bulasipalem; Ethakonda ; Nulakamaddi ; Ramavaram.

J. glauca Rottl—Rampa Hill; Sesharayi-Guramanda.

J. simplex D. Don—Dharakonda-Gudem.

Lepidagathis cuspidata Nees—NE. slopes of Sesharayi.

L. fasciculata Nees—Devarakonda ; Yarlagadda-Ethakonda.

L. hamiltoniana Wall.—Gudem valley.

L. incurva D. Don—Dharakonda.

Nelsonia campestris R. Br.—Chinaudasakarru.

Petalidium barlerioides Nees—Rampa Hill.

Phaulopsis dorsiflora (Retz.) Santapau—Yarlagadda-Ethakonda.

Rhinacanthus nasuta (Linn.) Kurz—Dharakonda top ; on way to Gudem.

Rungia parviflora Nees— Eastern slope of Dummakonda.

R. repens Nees—Godavari Dist.

Strobilanthes cuspidatus T. And.—Lower slope of Sesharayi Hill.

S. jeyporensis Bedd.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. var. heterophylla Wall.—Bhupathipalem.

T. fragrans Roxb. var. vestita Nees—Dummakonda.

T. laevis Nees—Devarakonda ; Ebul Reserve, north of Gudem.

[37]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—II_ 319

VERBENACEAE

Callicarpa arborea Roxb.—Dharakonda Hill slope.

Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon—Peddakonda ; Palakonda.

Gmelina arborea Roxb.—Yarlagadda-Mattambhimavaram ; eastern slope of
Dummakonda.

G. asiatica Linn.—Peddakonda.

Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata (Linn.) Mold.—Gudem.

Premna flayescens Ham.—Devarapalli.

Vitex peduncularis Wall. var. roxburghiana C. B. Clarke—Ethakonda ; NE. slope
of Sesharayi.

V. pubescens Vahl—Gokavaram-Chodavaram.

LAMIACEAE (= LABIATAE)

Acrocephalus indicus (Burm.) O. Kuntze—Godavari Dist.

Ajuga macrosperma Wall. var. breviflora Hook. f—Mattambhimavaram-Gurtedu.

Anisochilus carnosus Wall.—Palakonda ; Devarakonda.

Anisomeles indica (Linn,) O. Kuntze—Nulakamaddi ; south-east of Gudem ; Erra-
gondi.

Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith—Ethakonda.

Dysophylla myosuroides Benth.—Top of Dummakonda ; near Dharakonda falls.

D. quadrifolia Benth.— NE. slope of Sesharayi Hill ; Palakonda.

Leucas aspera Spreng.—Ramavaram.

L. cephalotes Spreng.—Rampa-Chodavaram.

L. marrubioides Desf.—Devarakonda.

L. mollissima Wall.—Ebul] Reserve, north of Gudem ; Rampa Hill. ~

L. stricta Benth —Godavari Dist.

Ocimum adscendens Willd.—Rampa Hill.

O. americanum Linn.—Foot of Ethakonda.

O. gratissimum Linn.—Near Nulakamaddi.

Orthosiphon thymiflorus (Roth) van der Sleesen in Reinwardtia 5: 42, 1959—
Devarapalli ; Devarakonda.

O. pallidus Royle—Godavari Dist.

O. rubicundus Benth.—Kunjumveedi ; Ethakonda.

Plectranthus coetsa Buch.-Ham.—SE. of Gudem Camp.

Pogostemon plectranthoides Desf.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi ; Dummakonda; NE.
Slope of Sesharayi Hill ; SE. of Gudem camp.

Scutellaria violacea Heyne—Gudem valley ; Dummakonda Hill.

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia diffusa Linn.—Bhupathipalem.
Mirabilis jalapa Linn.—Sesharayi. Cultivated.
Pisonia aculeata Linn.—Godavari Dist.

AMARANTHACEAE

Aerva lanata (Linn.) Juss.—Rampa Hill.
A. monsoniae (Linn.f.) Mart.—Peddapuram.
A. sanguinolenta (Linn.) Blume—Ethakonda ; Sesharayi ; Pasaruginni.

Alternanthera sessilis R. Br.—Cheruvupalem ; Rampa-Chodavaram ; Gurtedu-
Dharakonda ; Nilavarampadu ; Sesharayi slope.

Amaranthus spinosus Linn.—Devarapalli ; Bulasipalem.

[38]

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Amaranthus viridis Linn.—Devarapalli.

Celosia argentea Linn.— Bhupathipalem. j
Pupalia atropurpurea Moq.—Chintapalli ; Yarlagadda-Ethakonda ; Nulakamaddi.
P. lappacea Moq.—Rampa-Chodavaram ; Chintapalli ; Nulakamaddi.

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum barbatum Linn.—Chinaudasakarru; Komaravaram; Yarlagadda-
Mattambhimavaram ; Geddada.

P. chinense Linn.—Gudem valley ; SE. of Gudem Camp ; Devarakonda.

P. flaccidum Meissn.—Near Sesharayi ; Maredumalli.

P. glabrum Willd.—Rampa-Chodavaram.

P. hydropiper Linn.—Gudem Camp-Nilavaram.

Rumex nigricans Hook.f.—Godavari Dist.

PODOSTEMACEAE

Hydrobryum sp.— Madimadla River bed, Gurtedu-Dharakonda.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

Aristolochia tagala Cham.— Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.
A. indica Linn.— Palakonda ; Gunjugudem.

PIPERACEAE

Peperomia dindigulensis Miq.— Nulakamaddi-Ramavaram.
P. reflexa A. Dietr.—Saparlu, Gudem valley.
Piper attenuatum Buch.-Ham.— Ethakonda.

MyRISTICACEAE

Knema attenuata Warb.—- NE. slope of Dummakonda ; Dharakonda falls.

LAURACEAE

Beilschmiedia fagifolia Nees—Rampa Hill.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Bl.— Ethakonda.

Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Robinson—Gudem Hill.

L. deccanensis Gamble—Ebul Reserve, north of Gudem Camp.

L. laeta Wall. Rampa Hill.

L. ligustrina Trim. ex Hook. f.—Gurtedu-Dharakonda.

L. monopetala (Roxb.) Pers.—Gudem valley.

L. salicifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f.—Rampa Hill.

Machilus macrantha Nees—Mattambhimavaram-Gurtedu.

Neolitsea foliosa (Nees) Gamb. var. caesia Meissn.—Sesharayi; Ethakonda ;
Devarakonda.

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Etting —Rampa Hill ; Sesharayi; Chinaudasakarru ;

Bulasipalem.
Scurrula philippensis (Cham. & Schlecht.) G. Don —Dorapalem, near Kota ; Kota.

[39]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—II 321

Scurrula pulverulenta (Wall.) G. Don—Gurtedu-Dharakonda.
Viscum articulatum Burm. f.—Borragudem ; Ramavaram ; Addatigala.
V. capitellatum Sm.—Bulasipalem.

V. monoicum DC.— Malapeta, near Gudem.

V. orientale Willd.—Gokavaram-Chodavaram ; Ethakonda.

SANTALACEAE

Osyris wightiana Wall. ex Wight—Dummakonda.

BALANOPHORACEAE

Balanophora dioica R. Br.—Sesharayi.
B. indica Wall.—Gudem valley,

BUXACEAE

Sarcococca trinervia Wight—Gudem valley ; Nilavarampadu.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Acalypha alnifolia Klein ex Willd.—Near Rayapalli ; Ramavaram.

Alchornea mollis Muell.-Arg.—Ethakonda.

Antidesma diandrum Roth—Peddakonda ; Kota.

A. ghaesembilla Gaertn.—Ramavaram.

Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell.-Arg.—Dharakonda ; Gangadevi ghat.

Bischofia javanica Bl.—Sesharayi ; Dummakonda.

Bridelia hamiltoniana Wall.—Rampa Hill; Kota.

B. squamosa Gehrm.—Cheruvupalem.

B. stipularis Bl—Dharakonda Hill slope.

B. tomentosa Bl.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

Chrozophora parvifolia Klotzch.—Godavari banks.

Cleistanthus collinus Benth.—Gokavaram-Chodavaram.

Euphorbia antiquorum Linn.—Rayapalli.

E. hirta Linn.—Rampa-Chodavaram ; Kota ; Addatigala.

E. parviflora Linn.—Kunjumveedi.

K. zornioides Boiss—Dummakonda.

Emblica officinalis Gaertn.—Rampa Hill ; Marrivada ; Nilavarampadu.

Glochidion velutinum Wight—Dummakonda.

G. zeylanicum A. Juss.—Rampa Hill ; Peddakonda ; Komaravaram.

Homonoia riparia Lour.—Rampa-Chodavaram.

Jatropha curcas Linn.—Burugupalem.

J. gossypifolia Linn.—Kota.

Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg.—Yarlagadda.-Sesharayi ; south-east of
Gudem Camp.

Mallotus philippensis Muell.-Arg.—Rayapalli; Rampa Hill ; Chodavaram ; Gunju-
gudem Hill ; Ramavaram.

Mallotus sp.—Rampa Hill.

Melanthesa rhamnoides (Retz.) Bl—Rampa Hill; Gunjugudem.

Neopeltandra suberosa Gamb.—Hills in Godavari Dist.

Phyllanthus debilis Ham.—Palakonda ; Devarakonda ; Nulakamaddi.

P. maderaspatensis Linn.—Rampa Hill.

[ 40 ]

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Phyllanthus narayanaswamii Gamb.—Dummakonda top.

P. simplex Retz.—Bhupathipalem ; Dummakonda.

P. urinaria Linn.—Rampa Hill; Yarlagadda-Sesharayi ; Gurtedu-Dharakonda.
Sauropus quadrangularis Muell.-Arg.—Nilavarampadu near Gudem.
Sebastiana chamaelea Muell.-Arg.—Nulakamaddi; Rampa Hill.

Tragia involucrata Linn.—Rampa Hill.

T. involucrata Linn. var. angustifolia Hook. f.—Palakonda near Maredumalli.
Trewia polycarpa Benth.—Hills of Godavari Dist.

URTICACEAE

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.; Jarrett in Jour. Arnold Arb. 40: 334, 1959—
Sesharayl.

Boehmeria malabarica Wedd.—Malapalle near Gudem.

B. platyphylla Don—Palakonda.

B. sidaefolia Wedd.—SE. hill slope of Gudem Camp.

Celtis cinnamomea Lind!.—Rampa.

Elatostemma cuneatum Wight—Peddakonda.

Ficus arnottiana Mig.—Nulakamaddi-Komaravaram.

F. asperrima Roxb.—Gurtedu-Dharakonda.

F. hispida Linn. f.—Gunjugudem.

F. microcarpa Linn. f.; Corner in Gard. Bull. 17 : 397, 1960—Sesharayi ; Yarla-
gadda-Sesharayi.

F. nervosa Heyne ex Roth—Rampa Hill. '

F. oligodon Miq. ; Corner in Gard. Bull. 18 : 43, 1960—Rampa Hill.

F. rumphii Blume—Rampa Hill.

F. semicordata Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. ; Corner in Gard. Bull. 17: 449, 1960—Yarla-
gadda-Sesharayi.

F. tinctoria Forst. f. subsp. parasitica (Willd.) Corner var. parasitica Corner l.c.
475-477, 1960—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi; Komaravaram-Yarlagadda.

F. tomentosa Roxb. ex Willd.—Rayapalli.

Fleurya interrupta Gaud.—Sesharayi.

Laportea crenulata Gaud.—Rampa Hill.

Phyllochlamys spinosa Bureau—Sesharayi Hill.

Pouzolzia auriculata Wight—Devarakonda.

P. zeylanica Benn.—Sesharayi Hill top ; Rampa Hill.

P. pentandra Benn.—Dummakonda.

P. wightii Benn.—Palakonda.

Trema orientalis Blume—Chinaudasakarru ; Peddakonda.

SALICACEAE
Salix tetrasperma Roxb.—Chinaudasakarru.

ORCHIDACEAE

Acampe wightiana Lindl.—Kota.

Aerides multiflorum Roxb.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi ; Sesharayi-Nulakamaddi.

A. odoratum Lour.—Sesharayi Hill.

Cleisostoma mannii Reichb. f.—Palakonda.

Cymbidium aloifolium Sw.—Komaravaram ; Gurtedu-Dharakonda ; Maredumalli.

[41 j

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—II

Dendrobium aphyllum Fischer—Gudem valley.

D. aqueum Lindl.—Yarlagadda mutta.

Eria bambusifolia Lindl.—Gudem valley.

Habenaria hollandiana Santapau in Fl. Purandhar, 126, 1958—Rampa Hill.
H. digitata Lindl.—Dharakonda Hill slope.

H. ovalifolia Wight—Dummakonda.

H. plantaginea Lind!.—-Rampa Hill ; Chintagondi.

Luisia teretifolia Gaud.—Gudem valley.

Nervilia aragoana Gaud.—Rampa Hill.

N. plicata Schltr.—Maredumalli.

N. crispata Schltr.—Devarakonda.

Oberonia brunoniana Wight—Near Sesharay1.

O. ensiformis (Sm. ex Rees) Lindl.—Gudem valley.

O. falconeri Hook. f.—Sesharayi.

O. iridifolia Lind]. var. denticulata Hook. f—Rampa Hill.
O. wightiana Lind!.—Ethakonda ; Ebul Reserve, Gudem.
Peristylus plantagineus Lindl.—Maredumalli.

Pholidota pallida Lindl.—Gudem valley.

Saccolabium calceolare Lindl.—Ebul Reserve, Gudem.

S. curvifolium Lindl.—Ebul Reserve, Gudem.

S. ochraceum Lindl.—Ebu] Reserve, Gudem.

Satyrium nepalense D. Don—Nilavarampadu.

Vanda parviflora Lind!.—Bhupathipalem.

V. tessellata Hook.—Koonavaram.

Vanda sp.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayl.

ZINGIBERACEAt

Costus speciosus Smith—Sesharayi ; Rampa Hill.
Curcuma aromatica Salisb.—Rampa Hill.
Curcuma sp.—Near Nulakamaddi.

Globba ophioglossa Wt.—Rampa Hill.
Hedychium coronarium Koenig—Nulakamaddi.
Zingiber roseum Rosc.—Dummakonda.

Z. casumunar Roxb.—Maredumalli.

Z. chrysanthum Rosc.—Dummakonda.

MARANTACEAE

Phrynium sp.—Gudem Hill slope.

MUSACEAE

Musa rosacea Jacq.—Sesharayi Hill; Dummakonda ; Gudem valley.

AMARYLLIDACEAE _

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.—Rampa Hill.
C. recurvata Dryand.—Gudem valley.

'TACCACEAE

Tacca pinnatifida Forst.—Borragudem.

[42 ]

323

324. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

- DilOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea wallichii Hook. f.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.
D. alata Linn.—Lanjivada near Geddada; near Chintapalli; Yarlagadda-Ethakonda.
D. anguina Roxb.—Sesharayi ; Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.
D. belophylla Voigt—Dummakonda.
D. bulbifera Linn.—Near Ramavaram.
D. glabra Roxb.—South-east of Gudem Camp.
D. oppositifolia Linn.—Gokavaram-Chodavaram ; Buggimetta ; Bhupathipalem ;
on way to Gurtedu.
D. pentaphylla Linn.—Peddakonda ; near Nulakamaddi.
D. tomentosa Heyne—Gokavaram-Chodavaram.
- Dioscorea sp.—Bhupathipalem.

ROXBURGHIACEAE

Stemona tuberosa Lour.—Dummakonda slope.

LILIACEAE

Asparagus racemosus Willd.—Peddakonda ; Ethakonda ; Sesharayi.
Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker—Rampa Hill; Puttapalli.

C. orchidastrum Lindl.—Rampa Hill.

Cordyline roxburghiana (Schult. f.) Royen ex Adanson—Rampa Hill.
Disporum pullum Salisb.—Ethakonda ; Nulakamaddi ; Ramavaram.
Dracaena terniflora Roxb.—Ethakonda ; Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.
Gloriosa superba Linn.—Gokavaram ; Peddakonda.

Iphigenia indica (Linn.) A. Gray—Dummakonda.

Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don—Gudem valley.

Smilax zeylanica Linn.—Peddakonda ; Maredumalli metta.

S. prolifera Roxb.—Gudem valley.

PONTEDERIACEAE

Monochoria vaginalis Pres].—Gaddada.
M. vaginalis Presl. var. plantaginea Solms.-Laub.—Nilavaram-Gudem.

COMMELINACEAE

Aneilema scaberrimum Kunth—Sesharayi.

Commelina benghalensis Linn.—Marrivada.

C. diffusa Burm.f.—Bhupathipalem. a

C. kurzii C. B. Clarke—Rampa Hill; Ethakonda; Kondapudi; Dharakonda ;
Devarapalli.

C. longifolia Lamk.—Nulakamaddi ; near Nilavaram.

C. suffruticosa Bl.—Rampa Hill ; Devarapalli.

Cyanotis arachnoidea C. B. Clarke—Dummakonda ; Devarakonda.

C. axillaris (Linn.) R. & S.—Rampa Hill.

C. cristata (Linn.) Don—Rampa Hill ; Devarapalli ; Devarakonda.

C. cucullata Kunth—Rampa Hill.

C. fasciculata Schult. f.—Devarakonda.

Floscopa scandens Lour.—Sesharayi ; near Mattambhimavaram.

Murdannia nudiflora (Linn.) Brenan—Bhupathipalem.

M. spirata (Linn.) Briickn.—Near Nilavaram.

Pollia secundiflora (Bl.) Baker—Gudem valley ; Ethakonda.

[43]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—Il 325

FLAGELLARIACEAE

Flagellaria indica Linn.—Near Sesharayi stream.

ARECACEAE (= PALMACEAE)

Calamus latifolius Roxb.—Gudem valley.

C. viminalis Willd.—Near Sesharayi ;. Nilavarampadu ; Gudem-Marripakalu
C. viminalis Willd. var. fasciculatus Becc.—Rampa Hill.

Caryota urens Linn.—Ethakonda ; Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.

ARACEAE

Alocasia decipiens Schott.—Peddakonda ; Rampa Hill. New record for India.
Amorphophallus bulbifer Bl].—Devarakonda.

A. chlorospathus Kurz—Rampa Hill.

Arisaema tortuosum Schott—Dummakonda.

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott.—Sesharayi-Nulakamaddi.

Lasia spinosa (Linn.) Thw.—Near Saparlu, Gudem valley ; Peddakonda.
Plesmonium margaritiferum Schott—Rampa Hill.

Remusatia vivipara Schott.—Maredumalli.

Rhaphidophora pertusa Schott.—Saparlu, Gudem valley.

Scindapsus officinalis Schott—Rampa Hill.

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon quinquangulare Linn.—Yarlagadda.
E. truncatum Ham.—Ramavaram-Sesharayl.

CYPERACEAE

Carex baccans Nees—Ethakonda ; Gudem valley.

C. myosurus Nees—Devarakonda ; Ebul Reserve, Gudem. ~

C. speciosa Kunth—Rampa Hill.

C. stramentita Boott—Dummakonda top ; Gudem valley ; Ebul Reserve, Gudem.
New record for peninsular India.

Cyperus aristatus Rottb.—Rampa Hill.

C. brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk.—Rampa-Chodavaram ; Addakonda, Peddur-Kota.

C. compressus Linn.—Rampa Hill.

C. diffusus Vahl—Devarakonda ; south-east of Gudem Camp.

C. eleusinoides Kunth—Bhupathipalem.

C. exaltatus Retz—Gudem valley.

C. niveus Retz.—Chodavaram.

C. pilosus Vahl—Rampa-Chodavaram.

C. pilosus Vahl var. obliqua C. B. Clarke—Rampa-Chodavaram.

Eleocharis capitata R.Br.—Nilavarampadu, near Gudem.

Fimbristylis dichotoma Vahl var. pluristriata (Cl.) Rolla Rao comb. nov.t—Kota.

F. monostachyos (L.) Hassk.—Buggimetta.

F. quinquangularis Kunth—Bhupathipalem.

Mariscus compactus Druce—Peddakonda.

Scleria corymbosa Roxb.—Sesharayi Hill slope.

S. hebecarpa Nees—Palakonda ; Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.

+ Basionym : F. diphylla Vahl v. pluristriata C. B. Clarke in FL. BR. IND. 6: 631,

[44]

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

POACEAE (=GRAMINEAE)

Alloteropsis cimicina (L.) Stapf—Rampa Hill.

Apluda mutica Linn.—Gudem valley ; Rampa-Chodavaram.

Apocopis courtallumensis (Steud.) Henr.—Devarakonda top.

Aristida setacea Retz. Rampa Hill ; Rayapalli.

Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst.—Dummakonda.

Arundinella pumila (Hochst.) Steud.—Gudem valley.

A. setosa Trin.—Gudem valley.

Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.—Rampa Hill.

Bothriochloa glabra (Roxb.) A.Camus—Rampa Hill.

B. intermedia (R.Br.) A.Camus var. punctata (Roxb.) Keng.—Devarakonda.

B. pertusa (L.) A. Camus—Chinaudasakarru. |

Brachiaria kurzii (Hook. f.) A. Camus—Rampa Hill ; Ethakonda.

Capillipedium assimile (Steud.) A. Camus; Bor in GRASSES OF BURMA etc. 110 (1960)
—Ebul Reserve, Gudem.

Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desv.—Gudem valley.
Chionachne koenigii (Spr.) Thw.—Gudem valley.

Chloris bournei Rang. et Tadu.—Godavari Dist.
C. dolichostachya Lagasca. (l.c) 466.—Devarakonda ; Gudem ree ae
Coelachne pulchella R.Br.var. simpliciuscula (Wt. & Arn. ex Steud.) Hook.f.—Nila-
varampadu.
Coix lachryma-jobi Linn.—Nulakamaddi ; Sesharayi-Nulakamaddi.
Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.—Erragondi.
C. fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov. ; Bor (I.c.) 116.—Godavari Dist.
C. polyphyllus (Hack.) Blatt. & McCann—Godavari Dist.
C. verticillatus (Roxb.) Trin.ex Steud.—Palakonda ; Kappakonda.
Cymbopogon coloratus (Nees) Stapf—Palakonda ; Devarakonda.
C. nardus (L.) Rendle—Maredumalli.
C. nardus (L.) Rendle var. confertiflorus (Steud.) Stapf ex Bor—Rampa Hill.
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.—Devarapalli.
Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Steud.) Stapf—Ethakonda ; on way to Dummakonda ;
Nilavarampadu. —
_C. trigonum (Retz.) A.Camus—Gudem valley.
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Beauv.—Devarapalli.
Dendrocalamus strictus Nees—Rampa Hill; Maredumalli metta ; near Komara-
varam. .
Dicanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf—Chinaudasakarru. |
Digitaria adscendens (HBK) Henr.—Godavari Dist.
D. granularis (Trin.) Henr.—Buggimetta.
D. sanguinalis (Linn.) Scop.—Borragudem.
D. tomentosa (Koen.) Henr.—Rampa Hill.
Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz.—Godavari Dist.
Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link.—Rampa Hill.
E. frumentacea Link.—Foot of Rampa Hill ; Rampa-Chodavaram.
Eleusine coracana (Linn.) Gaertn.—Foot of Rampa Hill ; Sesharayi-Guramanda.
Eragrostiella bifaria (Vahl) Bor—Rampa Hill.
Eragrostis ciliata (Roxb.) Nees—Bhupathipalem ; Talapalem ; near Chidipalem.
E. deccanensis Bor—Godavari Dist.
K. gangetica (Roxb.) Steud.—Gudem valley.
KE. japonica (Thunb.) Trin.—Godavari Dist.
K. tremula Hochst.—Godavari Dist.

[45 ]

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—Il 327

Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.—Bhupathipalem ; Rayapalli; Yarla-
gadda ; Sesharayi ; near Nulakamaddi.

EK. viscosa (Retz.) Trin.—Chinaudasakarru ; near Chidipalem.

Eulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) O.Kuntze—Dummakonda.

E. wightii (Hook.f.) Bor —Dummakonda.

Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) Hubb.—Godavari Dist.

Hackelochloa granularis (L.) O. Kuntze—Bhupathipalem.

Haemarthria compressa (Linn.) R.Br.—Godavari Dist.

Heteropogon contortus (Linn.) Beauv.—Rampa-Chodavaram ; Ethakonda ; north-
west slope of Dharakonda.

Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.—Puttapalli ; near Nulakamaddi.

Isachne dispar Trin.—Nilavarampadu, near Gudem Camp.

I. miliacea Roth—Kota.

Iseilema prostratum (Linn.) Anders.—Gudem valley.

Leptochloa neesii (Thw.) Benth.—Godavari Dist.

L. panicea (Retz.) Ohwi—Godavari Dist.

Microchloa indica (Linn.f.) P.Beauv.—Godavari Dist.

Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A.Camus—SE. of Gudem Camp.

Oplismenus compositus (Linn.) P.Beauv.—Chintagondi Hill; Ethakonda; near
Nulakamaddi ; south-east of Gudem Camp.

O. granulatus Nees et Arn.—Devarakonda ; Ethakonda ; Dharakonda Hill slope.

Panicum brevifolium Linn.—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi ; near Sesharayi ; near Nulaka-
maddi.

P. montanum Roxb.—Devarakonda.

P, psilopodium Trin. —Bhupathipalem.

Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A.Camus—Rampa Hill.

Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn.—Geddada.

Pennisetum hohenackeri Hochst. ex Steud.—Gudem valley.

P. pedicellatum{Trin.—Godavari Dist. _

P. typhoides (Burm.) Stapf et Hubb.—Foot of Rampa Hill.

Pogonatherum paniceum (Lamk.) Hack.—Godavari Dist.

Pseudanthistiria umbellata (Hack.) Hook. f.—Godavari Dist.

Pseudosorghum fasciculare (Roxb.) A.Camus—Godavari Dist.

Rottboelliaexaltata Linn. f.—Borragudem.

Saccharum spontaneum Linn.—Kota ; Peddakonda ; near Yarlagadda,

Setaria glauca (Linn.) P.Beauv.—Rarmpa Hill.

S. italica (Linn.) P.Beauv.—Borragudem.

S. palmifolia (Koen.) Stapf—Gangadevi ghat ; Gudem-Marripakalu.

S. tomentosa (Roxb.) Kunth—Rampa Hill.

S. verticillata (Linn.) P.Beauv.—Gunjugudem.

Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers.—Erragondi ; Peddakonda.

Sporobolus maderaspatanus Bor—Godavari Dist.

Themeda laxa (Ander.) A.Camus—Palakonda.

T. tremula (Nees) Hack.—Chinaudasakarru ; Ebul Reserve, Gudem.

T. triandra Forsk.—Rayapalli ; Chinaudasakarru ; Ebul Reserve, Gudem.

Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) O. Kuntze—Rampa Hill ; Ethakonda ; Yarlagadda-

Sesharayi.
Tragus biflorus Schult.—Chodavaram.

[ 46 ]

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)
GYMNOSPERMS

GNETACEAE

Gnetum ula Brogn.—Yarlagadda ; Dummakonda ; Dharakonda ; Gudem valley.

PTERIDOPHYTES

Classification and nomenclature after R. E. Holttum, FLORA OF MALAYA (II FERNS) ,
1958.

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE

Botrychium daucifolium Wall.—Gudem valley.

MARATTIACEAE

Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm.—Ethakonda ; south-east of Gudem Camp.

SCHIZAEACEAE

Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.—Rampa Hill; Ethakonda ; NE. of Sesharayi Hill ;
near Nulakamaddi. :

GLEICHENIACEAE

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.) Underw.—Gudem valley.

HYMENOPHYLLACEAE

Crepidomanes bipunctatum (Poir.) Copel.—Ethakonda.

CYATHEACEAE

Cyathea gigantea (Wall.) Holtt—Gudem valley ; Gangadevi ghat.
C. latebrosa (Wall.) Copel.—Gangadevi ghat ; Gudem-Marripakalu.
C. spinulosa Wall.—Ethakonda ; Gudem valley.

POLYPODIACEAE

Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm.—Devarakonda.
Leptochilus. decurrens Bl.—SE. of Gudem Camp ; Ethakonda.
Pyrrosia adnascens (Forst.) Ching—-Yarlagadda-Sesharayi.

THELYPTERIDACEAE

Abacopteris multilineata (Wall.) Ching—Rampa Hill.
A. urophylla (Wall.) Ching—Yarlagadda-Sesharayi; Sesharayi Hill ; Ethakonda.

[er

VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY TRACTS—Il 329

DENNSTAETIACEAE

Odontosoria chinensis (L.) J.Sm.—Gudem valley.

Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) Pr.—Sesharayi Hill.

N. exaltata Presl.—Sesharayi.

N. hirsutula Pres].—Ethakonda.

Pteris biaurita Linn.—Gudem valley.

P. pellucida Presl.—Rampa Hill ; Ethakonda.

P. quadriaurita Retz. var. argentea Bedd:—Ethakonda.
Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.) Bedd.—Rampa Hill.

Asplenium formosum Willd.—Ethakonda ; SE. of Gudem Camp.
A. laciniatum Don—SE. of Gudem Camp.

A. lunulatum Sw.—SE. of Gudem Camp.

Blechnum orientale Linn.—Gudem valley. Ste
Dryopteris cochleata (Don) C.Chr.—Gudem valley ; Maredumalli.
D. parasitica (L.) O. Kuntze—Foot of Rampa Hill ; Ethakonda.
D. otaria O. Kuntze—Maredumalli Forest.

Tectaria macrodonta (Fee) C.Chr.—Top of Dummakonda.
Athyrium asperum (Bl.) Milde.—Ethakonda ; SE. of Gudem Camp.
A. esculentum (Retz.) Copel.—Kota.

ADIANTACEAE

Adiantum incisum Forskal—Rampa Hill.
A. philippense L.—Rampa Hill slope ; Maredumalli ; near Nulakamaddi.

Cheilanthes farinosa (Forsk.) Klf.—Gudem valley.

C. tenuifolia Sw.—Rampa Hill.
Hemionites arifolia (Burm.) Moore—-Maredumalli; Sesharayi; Yarlagadda-

Sesharayi ; near Nulakamaddi.

LYCOPODIACEAE

Lycopodium cernuum Linn.—Gudem valley.

SELAGINELLACEAE

Selaginella barbata Spreng.—Rampa Hill ; Dummakonda.

[48]

Studies on the Biology of some
Freshwater Fishes
Part Il—Barbus stigma (Cuv. & Val.)

A. QAYYUM
Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
AND

S. Z. QASIM
International Biological Programme, Indian Ocean Expedition
(C.S.LR.), Ernakulam, Kerala

(With eight figures)

[Continued from Vol. 61 (1) : 98]

INTRODUCTION

. Barbus stigma (Cuv. & Val.) is another very common fish of India.
It is found all over the ‘country and has also been reported from
Burma (Day 1878). It occurs in all types of fresh water and becomes
very abundant during the morisoon months when most of the low-lying
areas get flooded. In summer, when the water in ponds gets con-
siderably receded, it is caught in large numbers by employing various
indigenous methods which vary from place to place. Generally the
fish is scooped up with a lift net or an ordinary cloth or by using
locally-made baskets. The maximum size which this fish attains is
about 13 cm.

So far no proper investigation has been carried out on the biology
of this species. A survey of the past literature shows only brief
comments on its breeding and food (Raj 1916; Sen 1937, 1954;
Mookerjee et al. 1941; Chacko & Kuriyan 1948; Das & Moitra 1955.
1956a; Sathyanesan 1960, 1961).

METHODS

Fishes were caught from ponds at monthly intervals between
February 1959 and March 1960 by using cast nets. In winter and

[ 26 ]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—II — 331

summer months after the water in ponds has decreased considerably,
it is possible to obtain about 50 fish from one pond alone with one
or two operations of the cast net. During monsoon months, when the
ponds get flooded, the operation of the cast net becomes a little
difficult and therefore for obtaining a sample ponds had to be selected

TABLE VIII

NuMBER OF FISH (B. stigma) OF EACH LENGTH GROUP CAUGHT IN VARIOUS MONTHS

“ eal a
Length c la | | 2 2 sg 2 2 ay a eo
BElea|/tiein ls |t la |ol4zla |S le | Ss
cm. ) |
3.5 Berea eeclis| kal oe ee Se late), oles Be
4.0 De Oe eel elles AN a chal eal TOL le Dulas
4.5 Sell Sabb yl cia) aA otiatasnye thew | Sel Geld ant <:
5.0 Ga PBS Joh way oO thal gaphge hws ah 42
5.5 | : 4 igs Pe heb Ea
6.0 sn c2, i ol A lees ll
65 GGA 6 ly 2 tely £ SOM by Sv bet. Anh
7.0 pelt SAlesaolnyd 2 aig Sol %s
7.5 Ape te agier| °i4 2 ci ies Ne: ea
Omer S| 18h 2-41 34 4\) 7 | 6 vl 10 ite te
8.5 ees Bil Ted elie, ee tO clat ope hed aa kas
9.0 de ta! all Walid LAT AG (6184 Os) sie) A liga og
9.5 a 22h G92 Vie Poa) aeato steam pin. | pkey pales
10.0 DE POA Aye sail) Sata Daa | See ig
Oe ee eh iG) le de | A l et eat
11.0 ear 5 i
ee Op Blo leekl 2. rane td, alt eotladt asthenia. ts hala
12.0 eles ieert). Stl) | Mk otra ge |
12.5 eee al ;
13.0 Se |e ha ae
Totals... | 44 p67 | 51 | 36 | 38 ~64| 48 | 29. |37| 56144 | 45 | 4 9] 24°

[27]

332. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

which contained relatively less water. Even in these ponds, several
attempts were required to obtain each month’s sample. Since the
samples could not be obtained regularly from a definite area it was
not possible to maintain proper records of the locality. Monthly
samples, therefore, used for the present investigation include fishes
from different localities. ,

Fishes were measured to the nearest 0.5 cm. below and weighed
accurately on a_ sensitive balance. Other techniques of routine
examination were the same as those used for Ophicephalus punctatus
(Part I).

LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Table VIII shows the various size groups caught in each month. As
the monthly histograms did not reveal any evidence of various year
classes, the data, have been grouped into four quarters, each of three
months, as was done with O. punctatus. These have been shown in
Fig. 9. It can be seen from the figure that, although there is a con-
siderable overlap in size, the first three year classes can be distinguished
arbitrarily. The breeding season of the fish being June to September
(Qasim & Qayyum 1961), the clearly marked mode at 4.5 cm. in the
October to December histogram probably represents 0-group fishes.
The next age group (year class I) can also be interpreted by another
mode at about 6.7 cm. The larger-sized fishes in these months stand
out in the form of a flattened curve. As there is no further dis-
crimination of any other year class, all the fishes under this mode have
been kept as year class IJ. As can be judged by the histogram, the
average size of this year class is 9.2 cm. |

A progression of these three modes in the following season,
January to March, can also be traced. The O-group fishes in these
months have their average size at 4.8 cm. and the other two year
classes at 7.1 cm. and 9.7 cm. respectively. During April to June, due
to lack of smaller fishes in the sample. a clear peak of the O-group
fishes could not be obtained. However, in the histogram at 5.7 cm.
there appears to be a small mode probably representing this group.
Other year classes (I & II) can be seen at 8.0 and 10.2 cm. respectively
in this season. The size-frequency distribution of the last quarter,
July to September, clearly indicates three modes representing the
three year classes (0, I, & II) at 6.2, 9.0, and 11.7 cm. respectively.

[28 ]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY. OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—Il 333

Within the limits of avaiiable data, by taking the average size of

each mode from season to season (Table IX), it can be concluded that

Number

et GG oro Oo tO 2.3
Length (cm.)

Fic. 9. Length frequency distribution of B. stigma

denote average lengths of various size groups as represented by

Open circles
modes. Possible modes marked by broken lines in each histogram.

all the three year classes continue to grow throughout the year. There
appears to be no significant difference in growth during various

seasons.

[29]

334. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

TABLE IX
AVERAGE LENGTH OF VARIOUS YEAR CLASSES OF B. stigma OBTAINED
FROM THE LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS QUARTERS
TOGETHER WITH THE SIZE RANGE OF EACH YEAR CLASS

Year Classes Months Range in size,cm. | Average length,cm

October-December 3.3-5.7 4.5

0 January-March 3.3-6.3 4.8
April-June 4.8-6.7 Shei!
July-September 5.4-7.1 6.2
October-December 5.6-7.9 6.7

I . January-March 6.0-8.3 7.1
April-June 6.6-9.4 8.0
July-September 6.9-11.1 9.0
October-December 7.6-10.9 9.2

IL January-March 8.0-11.5 oT
April-June 8.7-11.8 10.2
July-September 11.0-12.5 11.7

BREEDING

(a) Stages of maturity

The gonads of B. stigma were classified according to their size,
colour, and shape into five maturity stages as follows: (J) immature
(ovaries light pink, translucent, and elongated; testes white and
thread-like); (II) maturing virgins or recovered spents (ovaries
elongated, eggs minute and visible to naked eye; testes white and
enlarged); (IID ripening (ovaries light yellow, ‘slightly lobed, eggs quite
distinct; testes white, opaque, and thickened in girth); (IV) ripe (ovaries
light yellow, greatly enlarged, lobed, and having a thin fragile wall
which is easily ruptured during their removal; testes white, enlarged,
and thickened); (V) spent (ovaries shrunken with a few residual eggs;
testes shrunken, whitish grey in colour).

(b) Size at first maturity

Table X gives the total number of each sex at various maturity
stages. It is evident from the table that all fishes up to 5 cm. belonged
to the immature class (stage I). In 6 cm. group, both sexes though
mostly immature begin to show higher stages of maturity also (stages II
and III). In females in this size group no further advance in maturity
is seen beyond stage III. The smallest ripe male was of 6.6 cm. in
length and the smallest females where both ripe and spent stages
were seen were of 7.2 and 7.1 cm. respectively. It, therefore, appears
that males mature at a relatively smaller size. Both sexes seem to

[30]

335

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—IlI

IT cI

w+ wr 9
ON
N

81 vv

c 91

O'el | Ora | | OTT | 00! | 0°6

0'8 | OL | 0°9 | 0

I €c 61

el 4!

;
“AI a >
< C
“TIT me Me
1 re,
87 61 |
“A
ie ; :
Ill > =
; es 2
il N
I¢ ZI I
OF | 3 | <—'wo uf W)3ue]

vUus1jS *g¢ AO SdANOUOD HLONAT SNOTEVA NI SAOVLS ALIMOLVIAL

X aTavL

[31]

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

mature after they have completed one year of life (see length-
frequency histograms).

The total number of fishes sexed was 632. Of these, 250 were
males and 382 were females. It shows that the ratio between male
and female in the population as a whole is 1: 1.5. The sex ratio of
different size groups captured is shown in Table X. It can be seen
from the table that up to 7 cm. length group both sexes are evenly
distributed in the population. At 8 cm. the males outnumber the
females, the ratio being |: 0.7. In size groups higher than 8 cm.
the females are in the majority. At 9 cm. the ratio of female to male
is 1: 0.29. The largest male captured was of 10.6 cm. whereas the
largest female was of 13.4 cm. This indicates that the males are
shorter lived or probably they have a slower growth rate.

(d) Spawning cycle
As has been noted earlier, the samples obtained in each month
MALE FEMALE

NY UMN NN Ms oe a
OG Se A On So Ga © US Ga

Percentage of Total

ve oN NO Ww MN
> On on ©, ee on

1959 1960 oy 19Soe 1960
Fic. 10. Monthly percentages of B. stigma at each of the five
maturity stages —
included fishes from different localities. It was therefore not possible
[32]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—II — 337

to make specific records of spawning cycles in various ponds. How-
ever, during observations it was noticed that spawning in different
ponds is non-synchronous. It may occur earlier in some and later in
others. Therefore, the picture of the spawning cycle presented here

TABLE XI

NUMBER OF FISH (B. stigma) AT EACH OF THE FIVE MATURITY
STAGES IN EACH MONTH

MATURITY STAGES

Month Sex er eet ee Total
I II im Iv

Male 11 12 1 ne PS 24

February | Female 12 8 oe ee a? 20
| Male il 9 5 1 26

March | Female 17 21 3 41
‘ Male 5 2 5 1 13
April Female 7 15 14 2 38
Male e 1 2 13 16

May Female i 2 6 11 20
Male 1 9 2 19)

June Female 3 19 4 26
Male ae 1 1 7 9 18

July Female * o 2 3 31 46
Male ae ie Se 2 5 7

August Female a i i 10 | 30 41
Male 3 3 6 2

September Female 3 3 1 17
October Male 5 a a , ef 19
Female 5 6 se 7 18

Male 15 11 - a be 26

November | Female 19 i = ie A 30
Male 9 6 os ie ae 15

December | Female 16 13 ‘ > 29
January Male 5) 14 | 19
Female 8 18 | 26

Er Male 6 28 | 34
ebruary Female 4 11 | 15
M Male 1 5 3 9
archi Female 1 9 5 | 15

Total Male 68 | 99 18 36 29 250
Female 90 | 118 33 58 83 382

[33]

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

depicts the cycle of seasonal changes in gonads of the species from
ponds in general. A reference to this feature has been made earlier
(Qasim & Qayyum 1961).

The numbers of various maturity stages in different months are
given in Table XI and their percentages have been plotted diagram-
matically in Fig. 10. It is evident from the figure that both sexes
reach maturing stage in December and January. In February the
gonads of both sexes become considerably enlarged and reach the
ripening stage. In March the testes become opaque and the ovaries
become slightly lobed. In April ripe fishes begin to appear and in
May and June, when both sexes become ripe, a marked change in the
general appearance of gonads occurs. Ovaries become fully distended
and fill almost the entire body cavity. A slight pressure over the
abdominal region exudes the eggs. Ripe males have considerably
enlarged testes which are thickened in girth. From June spent fishes
of both sexes begin to appear and their maximum number is recorded
in July. From August onward there is a progressive decline in the
number of spent fishes and in November the gonads attain full recovery
(stage II). From the cycle of maturation and depletion of gonads
presented here it appears that the breeding season in B. stigma lasts
for about four months, June to September. This is true when fishes
from all types of localities are taken into account collectively. If
breeding in an individual pond is considered separately, the spawning
once started does not seem to extend for more than two months.

(e) Seasonal changes in gonad weight

The mean gonad weight and body weight ratio obtained in each
month is plotted in Fig. 11. It is clear from the figure that there is
a regular seasonal cycle in gonad weight. From March onwards both
testes and ovaries begin to increase in weight. The testes reach their
maximum in May which is earlier than the corresponding weight
obtained for the ovaries. This probably signifies an early maturity
in males. From July onwards the ratio in both sexes begins to fall
and records its minimum in October. From November onwards there
is a slow recovery in weight and it is not until February that a sub-
stantial increase in weight is noticed. The seasonal cycle in gonad
weight clearly suggests that the fish reaches peak maturity in June
and the spawning begins from late June or early July and continues
till about September.

The breeding season of this species as given by earlier authors
seems to differ from that observed at Aligarh. Thus, according to
Sathyanesan (1960, 1961) the fish breeds from late April to July at

[34]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—II — 339

Benaras, while in Bengal Mookerjee et al. (1941) have given the breeding
season from April to June. Mookerjee (1945a) has also made a

FEMALE

Gonad wt. as percentage of body

MALE

eripcege te ear ee Boe este a Oe Oe
° [res. [MAR [APR [MAY JUNE[JULY]AUG [SEPT OCT. |NOV[DEC. [JAN. | FEB. [MAR,
1959 1960

Fic. 11. Seasonal variation in the gonad weight as percentage of
body weight of B. stigma

reference on its breeding in captivity. He states that, if this fish is
given access to continuously changing rain-water, it spawns in small
earthen pots.

(f) Spawning periodicity

The ova-diameter frequency of this species has been given else-
where (Qasim & Qayyum 1961). The ovaries contain a single group
of eggs suggesting that each individual spawns only once during the
breeding season. This was confirmed by studying the spawning
periodicity of the fish. The ova-diameter measurements from March
to July have been shown in Fig. 12. This figure indicates the
progression of a single batch of ova in the ovaries. In March when
the fishes reach ripening stage, the average size of ova is about
0.35 mm. In April and May the ova which are likely to be spawned
become clearly differentiated from the immature ones. In June the
entire egg mass becomes separated from the yolkless cells. Spent
fishes which begin to appear from July onwards show only the
immature ova. This suggests that the entire egg mass is withdrawn
from the ovary and that there is no spawning periodicity such as has
been described in O. punctatus (Part I). Probably some residual eggs
which remain in the ovaries are soon absorbed in the body.

[35 ]

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Percentage frequency

0-25 0:50 0-75
Diameter of oocytes (mm.)

Fic, 12. Size frequency distribution of maturing oocytes of
B. stigma from March to July

[ 36 ]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—II 341

(g) Condition-factor

The ‘condition-factor’ of each specimen was calculated from the

formula K = pers Fig. 13 shows the tnean K values at different

lengths for both sexes. As can be seen from the figure the K values

Mean value of ‘K’

ee)

. 3 4 Dee hO eee enna apm diaccl2 13
Length (cm.)
Fic. 13. Mean condition-factor (K) at different lengths of B. stigma
3 Of females, continuous line ; of males, broken line

increase steadily up to 6.5 cm. Thereafter the increase is relatively
less. Such a change in the slope of the curve may be due to the onset
of maturity. There is, however, no secondary fall in the condition-
factor of large-sized fishes as has been found in O. punctatus
(Part I). . 7

[3743

342. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Monthly variations in the condition-factor of the fish have been
given in Fig. 14. A comparison of the cycle of condition-factor with
that of the seasonal changes in the gonad-weight (Fig. 11) would
reveal that the condition-factor of the fish is directly connected with
the increase and decrease of gonad-weight. Since the changes in
gonad-weight are never large in males, the cycle in the condition-
factor in males is not as clearly defined as in females, where fishes
with ripe gonads may weigh considerably more than the males in a

Monthly mean value of ‘K’

[Fee [MAR] Apa [MAY Dune[uty [auc pert [Oct [Nov [DEC [AN [FES [HAR

1959 1960

Fic. 14. Seasonal changes in the condition-factor (K) of B. stigma
Of females, continuous line; of males, broken line

similar state of maturity. The females with high condition-factor are
obtained in May, June, and July, whereas fishes with poorest con-
dition-factor are found from October to February. Similar pattern
is reflected from the condition-factor of males too. However, in
females low condition-factor was also obtained in April 1959. This
may have arisen because of greater preponderance of such individuals
which came from poor environmental conditions.

[38]!

343

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—II

C8L | Ove | C86] TE | 4 98; 198) 798 | 678 | 006} 0°68 0001 0°96 8°78 06S | °° pnw pure pues ‘sliqaq
9°8 | be al ee Sb | 9s OG 8°9 Vo | oP 8°L bath 0°0¢ 9°¢e1 Se col SIOJSHOY
68 | 991) Vcr) St DEC SA ave dee lige cs CCC ra | CLS PSV) — eeAIeT UeIOIdIq

oeerad vee ia Ps fe oP 3°9 Ss 7 = it oe ae i Re sudé5
9°8 | Lees 10205252256 cee 6 ve CV £6 os IT O'V cl 16 z spruydeq
S69 20VE eC Vie) S612. V90-| V6). | “Sole | SOL |. 8'E | 687 O'SL 0°8 9 or ee) spodedoD
ev | OLI | $6 VC Sat 19€ | ve. | 9'2z|9°S1 se 9°91 O'CE L’St O'SZ | °° syuefd onenbe s10ysiy
CLD SOs P30 Cla L€ €°€8 | OOO!) OOO! OOOT cs Sel 00! Ove 0°6 is ovg]e W901
EVE Ne 9iLO 199 OT) 91 81 v6 v'C V6l | vec OT? Cice 00S €°O€ 6ST | °° evs]e sNO}JUSWLIIY
S69 ; TES | SEL | 9°76 | TEL | E'E8 | O'OOT) 8°08 | E'F8 8°98 019 0'r8 L’8L S6L | °° Sprltusop pue SULO}eIG
€C LY cP Iv eS. oe 6 LV v9 8e 9€ US $9 ev "7 poos UAL YSG JO “ON,
ve | 6? 4 vv 9S Le 6¢ 8V v9 8€ OF TS L9 bY es) pouruexe Ysy JO “ON,

| | |

“IRIN | “Gay | cuRr | *99q | ‘AON | “3190 | ‘3deg | “snYy | A[nge | oune ACW "IdVv "IRI ‘QoT | <—sy] U0

|
DUSIIS ‘"¢ 10 SLND AHL NI GOOd AO SAIMODALVO SNOIYVA JO AONTXANDIO FOVINAOW
IX dTav yy,

eee |

ON
fae)

——

344. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)
Foop

Many references are available on the food of B. stigma. Earlier
authors thought that the food of this fish consists of mosquito larvae,
and for this reason they believed that, this fish could be used in
mosquito control (Sewell & Choudhri 1912; Wilson 1917; Raj 1930;
Chaterjee 1934; Prasad & Hora 1936; Hora & Mukerjee 1938; Job
1943, 1944). Recent observations of several workers indicate that
B. stigma is largely herbivorous and, therefore, cannot be of much
use as a larvicide (Sen 1937, 1954; Mookerjee et al. 1946b). The chief
food as noted by Chacko & Kuriyan (1948) includes algae, higher
aquatic plants, copepods, insect larvae, and rotifers. Das & Moitra
(1955, 1956a, 1956b) after observing a variety of organisms in the
gut concluded that the fish is omnivorous. This was further confirmed
by Moitra (1956).

(a) Food of all size groups

The present study on the food gives a comprehensive account of
the qualitative and quantitative analysis of food for a period of 14
months. The method of analysis of gut contents was the same as
used for O. punctatus (Part I). In all 632 guts were examined during
the period of investigation, only 18 of which were found to be
empty. Table XII shows the percentage composition of various
categories of food in each month. It is evident from the table that
the major part of food consists of organic debris, algae, higher aquatic
plants, cyclops, daphnids, and dipteran larvae. The occurrence of
organic debris, sand, and mud in large quantities throughout the year
indicates that the fish is a botiom feeder and, therefore, cannot be
used as a larvicide.

The percentages of nine principal items of food in each month
have been illustrated in Fig. 15. The total occurrence of these items
in the total number of guts examined throughout the period of
investigation is as follows:

1. diatoms and desmids Ter ROSS
2. filamentous algae oe Doe oes
3. green algae me 3416.95
4. higher aquatic plants ee tO
5. cyclops San) eye
6. daphnids See eh
7. dipteran larvae ... 23.6%
8. rotifers | sod elie
9. organic debris, sand, and mud... 81.5%

[ 40]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—II — 345

Diatoms and Desmids: Diatoms comprising Navicula, Nitzschia,
Synedra, Cyclotella, Fragillaria, Melosira, and Amphora were generally
found in the guts. They occurred abundantly throughout the year.

50 ; Daphnids

75 1 g Green algae Dipteran larvee

fap)

Percentage occurrence
N
wn

Filamentous algae Higher aquatic plants

NO
Mm

Diatoms & Desmids & ae Organic debris

Fic. 15. Monthly variations in the composition of nine principal
items of food of B. stigma

Navicula, Synedra, and Fragillaria were more common than Nitzschia,
Amphora, and Melosira. Desmids were represented by two genera,
Closterium and Cosmarium. These organisms, though quite frequent,
were only seen in small quantities.

pane

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Filamentous algae: Spiregyra, Oscillatoria, Spirulina, Ulothrix,
and Anabaena were found in nearly 22.2% guts. Spirogyra was the
main constituent of this group and occurred abundantly in the guts
from January to May. Oscillatoria was also recorded quite often.
Other filamentous algae (Spirulina, Ulothrix, and Anabaena) were
rare.

Green algae: These constituted Volvox, Westella, Scenedesmus,
Crucigenia, Ankistrodesmus, and Pediastrum. Volvox formed an
important item during the monsoon and post-monsoon months (July-
October). Practically all the guts contained large quantities of
Volvox in these months. From November onwards it became rare.
Scenedesmus, though fewer in number, was of consistent occurrence
throughout the year. Westella was also quite frequent. Crucigenia,
Pediastrum, and Ankistrodesmus though present throughout the year
were negligible in quantity excepting in July and August when
Ankistrodesmus became abundant.

Higher aquatic plants: The occurrence of leaves and stem of
Vallisneria and Hydrilla was in 19.6% of the total guts examined.
With little fluctuations in their occurrence these plants were found in
all months of the year.

Cyclops: These organisms were recorded in 27.4% guts. In May
1959 and March 1960 their occurrence was relatively higher than
usual.

Daphnids: These occurred in 9.2% of the total guts examined
and were found in all the months. In January 1959 nearly 50% of
the guts contained these organisms.

Dipteran larvae: Mostly chironomid larvae were found in the gut.
In February and March a large percentage of guts contained these
organisms.

Rotifers: These organisms occurred nearly in 7.2% of the total
number of guis examined.

Organic debris, sand, and mud: Decaying organic debris, sand,
and mud were found in large quantities in the guts. These substances
were predominant and occurred throughout the year (Fig. 15).

(b) Seasonal variation in the rate of feeding

Monthly values of the total weight of food obtained have been
plotted in Fig. 16 as percentages of body weight. The same figure
also gives the percentage of empty guts in each month. It is evident
from the figure that the fish feeds actively throughout the year.
Maximum quantity of food is consumed in May, June, and July when
most of the fishes have ripe gonads. There occurs a slight decrease

[42]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—Il 347

in the feeding rhythm during October, November, and December when
gonads are in a State of recovery. Moreover, in January and
February, when the water temperature in ponds reaches its lowest,
feeding begins to increase. Such a feeding rhythm in B. stigma is

Y
oO

Percentage of fish with empty guts
= = -0- =~ = -0

Total wt. of food as percentage of body we,
i) Qe

>N ? Ne 7 |
20 Tree, [HAR [APR [MAY JUNE[JULY]AuG [SEPT [OCT [NOV,[DEC.[JAN.| FEB, [MAR]

1959 1960
FIG. 16. Seasonal variation in the rate of feeding of B. stigma

Total weight of food as percentage of body weight, continuous line ;
percentage of empty guts, broken line

rather unusual as many teleosts are known to have reduced feeding
during peak maturity, followed by intensive feeding after spawning.
Low temperature conditions during winter months also lead to reduced
food intake as has been shown in many other species including major
carps (Vashist 1960). That in B. stigma ripe gonads and low tem-
perature conditions do not affect the feeding rhythm is probably due to
its omnivorous habit. In ponds where any amount of organic debris,
mud, etc. is available, the fish consumes a lot of these substances in
addition to its other food. These substances contribute quite
substantially to the total weight of food and thus make the rate of
feeding steady throughout the year.

(To be continued)

[43]

A new species of Angulitermes from
North India (Isoptera: Termitidae:
Termitinae)

P. N. CHATTERJEE AND M, L. THAKUR

Branch of Forest Entomology, Forest Research Institute,
Dehra Dun, U.P.

(With three plates)

Angulitermes akhorisainensis sp. nov.
MATERIAL

One spirit vial (No. 17) containing 16 imagines, 5 soldiers, and 4
workers collected from Akhorisain block (7000 feet above sea-level),
Tehri Range, Tehri Garhwal Forest Division, U.P., by Avinash Chan-
dra, on 5 June 1962 under stone.

DESCRIPTION

1. IMAGO (Plate I)

General, Head-capsule chocolate colour with greenish tinge; post-
clypeus light castaneous brown ; labrum pale brown; antennae infus-
cated, paler distally ; pronotum slightly paler than head-capsule, with a
pale yellow transverse mark a little below the anterior margin. Abdo-
men with tergal segments uniformly coloured, with light yellow inter-
tergal portions ; sterna light castaneous brown; legs tinged with yellow
brown colour. Head and body densely pilose. Total body-length with
wings c. 11.00-11.50 mm. ; without wings c, 6.00-6.90 mm.

Head. Head-capsule sub-oval, wider than long (up to lateral base of
mandibles) ; maximum length 0.75-0.85 mm.; maximum width 0.90-0.95
mm.; widest across the eyes; posterior margin round. E£picranial-
suture: Absent. Fontanelle: Small, longitudinal, slit-like, situated at
the base of apical third of head-capsule. Antennae : 15-segmented ; 1st
segment largest ; 2nd cylindrical, longer than 3rd ; 3rd longer than 4th ;
5th onward progressively increasing in length, last cone-shaped. Eyes:
Large, black, sub-circular ; separated from the lower margin of head by
half their short diameter (without ocular sclerites). Ocelli: Oval,

JOURN. ‘BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. SOC.

Angulitermes akhorisainensis sp. nov., caste : Imago

(a) head, dorsal view ; (b) head, side view ; (c) right antenna ; (d) left mandible ;
(e) right mandible; (f) pronotum, dorsal view ; (g) left forewing ; (A) left hindwing

acl., anteclypeus ; ant., antenna; ap., apical teeth ; C.+-sc., fused costa and sub-
costa ; Cu.1-Cu.11., Ist to 11th cubital branches ; e., eye; f.w. forewing ; h.w. hind-
wing ; lIr., labrum ; It., left ; m1.-m2., Ist and 2nd marginal teeth ; md., mandible ;
M., median ; M.1-M.4., Ist-4th median branches ; m. pl., molar plate ; oc., ocellus ; pcl.,
postclypeus ; R., radius ; rt., right

0.5mm » Ramesh del.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. | PLATE IT

|
|
|
|
4
f

y \ 025mm,

ant.
R. Kumar del. | besa all IO a Ge

Angulitermes akhorisainensis sp, nov., caste: Soldier

(a) head, dorsal view ; (5) head, side view ; (c) labrum; (d) right antenna
acl., anteclypeus ; ant., antenna; Ir., labrum ; md., mandible

A NEW SPECIES OF ANGULITERMES FROM NORTH INDIA _ 349

translucent, separated from the eyes by their short diameter. Labrum:
Large, wider than long; widest near the middle; anterior margin
narrowed and rounded; pilose. Clypeus: Postclypeus large, swollen,
somewhat kidney-shaped, posterior margin convex, anterior margin
concave ; length about half its width ; divided by a wide longitudinal
median line; densely pilose. Anteclypeus trapezoid, prominent.
Mandibles: Straw-coloured, with dark brown inner toothed margins.
Left mandible with one apical, two marginals, and a blunt projection ;
apical large, finger-like, slightly incurved near the tip; Ist marginal
large with posterior margin strongly sinuate, ending in a pseudo-tooth ;
2nd marginal small. Right mandible with one apical, two marginals
and a molar plate; apical tooth similar to that of left mandible; 1st
and 2nd marginals sub-equal; molar plate prominent, upper margin
concave. :

Thorax. Pronotum: Flat, inner margin slightly elevated, concave,
weakly notched medially; posterior margin distinctly emarginate ;
densely hairy. Legs: Long, slender and thickly pilose; tibial spurs
3:2: 2; tarsi 4-segmented.

Wings. Dark grey; densely covered with fine granules; margins
beset with numerous short hairs, surface with scattered short hairs.
Forewing: Costa and subcosta fused, running parallel and close to
prominent radius ; median arising independently midway between the
radius and cubitus outside the wing scale, bifurcating near the
posterior third of wing, both inner and outer branches either simple or
with 1-4 and 1-5 branches respectively; cubitus variable, with 7-11
branches. Hindwing: Costa, subcosta, and radius as in forewing;
- median arising from the radius well behind the wing scale, otherwise
similar to that of forewing ; cubitus also as in forewing. The wings of
both sides of the same individual frequently differ.

Abdomen. Elongate, hairy ; cerci short, 2-segmented and hairy.

2. SOLDIER (Plate IT)

General. Head-capsule pale yellow to straw yellow; antennae and
labrum slightly paler than head-capsule; mandibles dark reddish
brown ; body whitish yellow. Head sparsely, body moderately pilose,
Approximate total body-length 4.10-4.60 mm.

Head. Head-capsule rectangular dorsally, longer than wide ; widest
near the anterior angles; sides sinuate; posterior margin broadly
rounded. Frontal projection prominent, bluntly rounded, somewhat
cone shape from above ; in profile, dorsal surface somewhat sinuate,
anterior border straight ; densely pilose. Fontanelle: Lying below the
frontal projection, prominent, and hairy. Eyes and Ocelli: Absent.
Antennae: Arising from the dorsum of head-capsule; 14-segmented,

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

long and filiform ; pilose, pilosity increasing towards the distal segments;
Ist largest ; 2nd and 3rd sub-equal ; 4th shortest ; 5th to 8th progressi-
vely increasing, 9th to 14th gradually decreasing in length. Clypeus:

TABLE [
BoDY-MEASUREMENTS (IN. MM.) OF Angulitermes akhorisainensis sp. nov.,

CASTE : IMAGO (six specimens measured)

Bodyiparts Range | Mean
I. GENERAL
1. Total body-length with wings ..| 11.00-11.50 | Uhs22
2. Total body-length without wings ..| 6.00- 6.50 | 6.30
II. HEAD |
3. Length of head to lateral base of mandibles .. 0.70- 0.85 0.78
4, Maximum width of head with eyes ss 0.90- 0.95 0.92
5. Maximum height of head ba 0.45- 0.55 0.48
6. Length of labrum bye 0.25- 0.30 0.28
7. Width of labrum ../ .0.35- 0.40 0.39
8. Long diameter of eye without sclerites a. 0.18- 0.20 0.19
9. Short diameter of eye without sclerites et 0.15- 0.18 0.16
10. Length of ocellus He 0.10- 0.12 0.10
11. Width of ocellus ae 0.08- 0.09 0.08
12. Eye-ocellus distance (without ocular |
sclerites) 2: 0.08- 0.09 0.08
Ill. THORAX
13. Length of pronotum oe 0.48- 0.55 0.51
14. Width of pronotum a 0.75- 0.80 0.78

Postclypeus yellow, short and slightly swollen. Anteclypeus white,
longer than postclypeus. Labrum: Subquadrate, sides converging
posteriorly ; widest anteriorly; anterior margin deeply concave with
antero-lateral horns. Mandibles : Long, slender, of snapping type; bow-
shaped in side view, slightly longer than head-capsule, outer margin
sinuate, conspicuously hooked apically. Postmentum: Club-shaped,
pilose ; widest near the base of apical third ; sides parallel up to basal
two-third, then converging anteriorly; anterior margin truncate ;
posterior margin subconcave,

A NEW SPECIES OF ANGULITERMES FROM NORTH INDIA 351

Thorax. Pronotum: Strongly saddle-shaped ; anterior lobe consider-
ably raised ; anterior margin weakly convex, posterior margin somewhat

TABLE II

BODY-MEASUREMENTS (IN MM.) OF Angulitermes akhorisainensis sp. nov.,
CASTE : SOLDIER (five specimens measured)

Body-parts Range Mean

I. GENERAL

1. Total body-length ce 4.10-4.60 4.38
II. HEAD |

2. Head-length to base of mandibles me | 1.35-1.40 137

3. Head-length to tip of fontanelle ae | 1.30-1.35 13Z

4. Maximum width of head sae 1.00-1.05 1.01

5. Maximum height of head (excluding post-

mentum but including frontal projection) .. 0.75-0.85 | 0.80

6. Head-index I (Width/length) ef 0.72 0.75 0.74

7. Head-index II (Height/width) | 0.75-0.85 0.79

8. Head-index III (Height/length) ou 0.56-0.63 0.59
9. Fontanelle index (Head-length to fontanelle/ |

Head-length to base of mandibles) a 0.94-0.96 | 0.95

10. Length of labrum (excluding lateral horns) .. 0.18-0.23 | 0.20

11. Maximum width of labrum eel), 0:25-0:30 0.28

12. Length of mandibles

(a) Right mandible os 1.35-1.45 1.40
(b) Left mandible ne | 135-145 1.40

13. Head-mandibular index (Left mandible |
length/Head-length to mandibular base) .. | 1.00- 1.04 4202
14. Min. median length of postmentum s | _0.45-0.48 0.46
15. Maximum width of postmentum a 0.28-0.33 0.30
16. Minimum width of postmentum oh 0.18-0.20 0.19

Ill. THORAX

17. Length of pronotum : at 0.20-0.25 0.22

18. Maximum width of pronotum ee 0.45-0.55 0.50
straight ; weakly notched medially both anteriorly and posteriorly:
pilose. Legs: Relatively long, slender, and pilose ; tibial spurs 3:2:2;
tarsi 4-segmented.

352. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)
Abdomen. Short, hairy.

3. WORKER (Plate ITI)

General. Head-capsule pale yellow to straw yellow, with central
whitish glandular portion ; mandibles straw-coloured with dark brown
toothed margin ; postclypeus of same colour as head-capsule ; labrum,
antennae, and legs paler than head-capsule. Head moderately and body
densely hairy. Approximate total body-length 4.00-4.50 mm.

Head. Head-capsule suboval, wider than long (up to lateral base of
mandibles); posterior margin round. E£picranial-suture, Eyes and
Ocellj: Absent. Fontanelle : Not visible. Antennae : 14-segmented ; 1st
largest ; 2nd longer than 3rd ; 3rd somewhat subequal to 4th; 5th on-
ward progressively increasing in length ; last cone-shaped. Clypeus and
Labrum: As in imago. Mandibles: of Angulitermes type.

Thorax. Pronotum: Strongly saddle-shaped ; anterior lobe consider-
ably raised ; anterior and posterior margins convex and without any
emargination. Legs: Short (relatively to body) slender and pilose ;
tibial spurs 3: 2:25 tarsi 4-segmented, hairy.

Abdomen. Oblong, transparent, hairy ; cerci 2-segmented and hairy.

TABLE III

BoDY-MEASUREMENTS (IN MM.) OF Angulitermes akhorisainensis sp. nov.,
CASTE: WORKER (four specimens measured)

Body-parts Range | Mean
I. GENERAL
1. Total body-length ire 4.00-4.50 4.30
IJ. HEAD
2. Head-length ib base of mandibles ae 0.70-0.80 0.74
3. Maximum width of head ae 0.80-0.90 0.86
4, Length of postclypeus ie 0.25-0.30 0.28
5. Maximum width of postclypeus a 0.45-0.50 0.48
II. THORAX
6. Length of pronotum Re 0.20-0.25 0.22
7. Width of pronotum Hs 0.50-0.55 0.52

TYPE SPECIMENS

All the specimens from a single source as under heading ‘ Material’
are deposited as follows :

(i) Holotype and Morphotype. One holotype soldier and a

morphotype imago and worker ( M. (Ce Nom in a vial, from

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. SOc. PLATE III

c 0.5mm. d K Lat del

Angulitermes akhorisainensis sp. nov., caste: Worker

(a) head, dorsal view ; (b) head, side view ; (c) left mandible; (d) right
mandible ; (e) right antenna
acl., anteclypeus ; ant., antenna ; ap., apical tooth; Ir., labrum ; It.,
left ; ml-m2., Ist and 2nd marginal teeth; m.pl., molar plate; p.cl.,
postclypeus ; rt., right

Satay

Srey

A NEW SPECIES OF ANGULITERMES FROM NORTH INDIA 353

Akhorisain block (7000 feet above sea-level), Tehri Range, Tehri
Garhwal Forest Division, U.P., coll. Avinash Chandra, on 5 June 1962,
deposited in Entomological Collection, Forest Research Institute,
Dehra Dun (U.P., India).

(ii) Paratypes and Paramorphotypes. The paratype soldiers,
paramorphotype imagos and workers from the holotype lot are depo-
sited as follows: (1) One soldier, two imagines, and one worker,
(M. C. No. eee ) in separate vials in (a) National Zoological Collec-
tion, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, (b) Prof. Emerson Collection,
Chicago University, Chicago (U.S.A.). (2) Rest of the paratype
soldiers, paramorphotype imagos and workers deposited in Entomo-
logical Collection, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (U.P. India).

TYPE LOCALITY

India: Uttar Pradesh: Akhorisain block (7000 feet above sea-
level), Tehri Range, Tehri Garhwal Forest Division.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Known only from the type locality.

COMPARISON

This new species is close to Angulitermes dehraensis (Gardner) and
A. acutus Mathur & Sen-Sarma, but can be separated as follows :

From 4. dehraensis (Cotype examined and compared) :

Imago: (i) Larger in size, (ii) Chocolate colour with greenish
tinge (v. dark brown in dehraensis), (111) Ocelli farther from eyes, eye-
ocellus distance equal to its short diameter (v. less than its short
diameter in dehraensis), (iv) Eyes separated from the lower margin of
the head by half their short diameter (v. less than half diameter in
dehraensis), (v) Median dividing line of postclypeus more prominent
and wide (v. fine and less prominent in dehraensis), (vi) Median vein
always bifurcated (v. not always bifurcated in dehraensis), (vii) Cubitus
with lesser number of veins (7-11) v. 10-14 in dehraensis.

Soldier : (4) Frontal projection upright, somewhat conical from
above, and with straight anterior border in side view (v. protruded
forward and with a small notch in the lower half in dehraensis), (ii)
Labrum with more convergent sides posteriorly (less convergent in
dehraensis), (iii) Postmentum comparatively wider than in dehraensis.

From A, acutus (Paratype examined and compared) :

Soldiers : (i) Large species, (ii) Frontal projection less prominent
and without any pointed tip (v. prominent and with a pointed tip in
acutus), (iii) The front margin of labrum more deeply concave (vy.
broadly concave in acutus), (iv) Tibial spurs 3:2:2 (v.2:2:2 in
acutus),

A Contribution to our Knowledge
of the Flora of the Mahendragiri
Hills of Orissa

S. L. Kapoor
National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow

(With a map)

INTRODUCTION

The botanical study of the various hills of Bihar, Orissa, and
Madhya Pradesh has been considered interesting from the point of

PCE BAIN aces

J
3
eGo ee?

tapani
Taptapar

xX Berhampur__{

fe aes 64.4 km.
MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF MAHENDRAGIRI HILLS

view of floristics, plant-geography, as well as other information having
bearing on geographical theories. Among others the Mahendragiri Hills,

FLORA OF THE MAHENDRAGIRI HILLS OF ORISSA 305

falling in the past in Madras Presidency but now in Orissa, have
attracted the attention of botanical workers from time to time though,
unlike Parasnath and Pachmarhi, they have perhaps never been
intensively explored. Gamble, as early as 1892, published, a list of
34 species of ferns collected on the hills by Mrs. Sewell, the wife of
the sub-collector posted in the region. He considered the botany
of the hills ‘extremely interesting, for on Mahendragiri seem to meet
the North and the South, the Himalayas and the Nilgiris’.

The species of ferns reported by Gamble in his paper are:
Adiantum capillus-veneris L., A. caudatum L., A. lunulatum Burm.,
Alsophila glabra (Bl.) Hook., Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm.,
Asplenium crinigerum Bedd., A. drepanophyllum Baker [Athyrituni
falcatum Bedd.], A. esculentum Presl. [Diplazium esculentum (Retz.)
Sw.], A. laciniatum Don, A. oxyphyllum Hook. [Athyrium drepano-
pterum (Ktze.) A. Br.], Blechnum orientale L., Cheilanthes farinosa
(Forsk.) Kaulf., C. tenuifolia (Burm.) Sw., Cyathea spinulosa Wall.,
Davallia pulchra Don, D. tenuifolia Sw. var. chinensis [Odontosoria
chinensis (L.) J. Sm.], Gleichenia dichotoma Willd. [G. linearis (Burm.)
Cl.], Hemionitis arifolia (Burm.) Moore, Lygodium pinnatifidum Sw.
[L. flexuosum (L.) Sw. et L. polystachyum Wall.], Nephrodium
cicutarium Baker [Aspidium cicutarium (J..) Sw.j, N. cochleatum Don
[Dryopteris cochleata (Don) C. Chr.], N. molle Desv. [D. parasitica
(L.) O. Ktze.], N. sparsum Don [D. sparsa (Ham.) O. Ktze.], N.
unitum L. [D. unita (L.) O. Ktze.], Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) Pr..
N. exaltata (L.) Schott, Peliaea concolor Langsd. et Fisch. [Dryopteris
concolor (Langsd. et Fisch.) Kuhn], Polypodium fissum Bl. [Cyclo-
phorus porosus (Wall.) Pr.], P. lineare Thunb., P. membranaceum
Don, P. multilineatum Wall. [Dryopteris moulmeinensis (Bedd.) C.
Chr.], Pteris aquilina L. [Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn], P. pellucida
Presl. and P. quadriaurita Retz. [P. biaurita L.]. The names in
brackets are the valid synonyms according to Christensen (1960).

In that publication Gamble regretted that he did not keep any
list of the plants in general during his first visit to the hills. Later
on, as a result of exploration done by Beddome, Gage, Gamble &
Fischer, etc., the Madras Presidency FLORA (1915-35) recorded as many
as eighty-seven species of angiosperms occurring on the Mahendragiri
Hills. Mukherjee (1935), while reporting on an excursion to the hills
conducted by Prof. Parija during the Christmas holidays of 1954,
gave a list of sixty species of angiosperms, of which forty-nine are
new to the list of Madras Presidency FLORA. He also tried to indicate
on the basis of Parija’s collection only, the extent of sub-tropical

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

plants in the flora of a high hill lying within the Tropics. He did not
take into account the species already reported from Mahendragiri in
THE FLORA OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY, Of which he cites Parts 1-8 as
literature consulted. Mooney (1950) reported two more species which
he came across while consulting the herbarium of the Ravenshaw
College, Cuttack, with a view to bring out a supplement to Haines’s
THE BOTANY OF BIHAR AND ORISSA. Mooney himself did not explore
the Mahendragiri Hills intensively, as the area lay outside the territorial
scope of MHaines’s flora. However, he has called 21 species of
Mukherjee’s list interesting, and has specially included them in his
supplement.

The author has had the privilege of botanizing at the Mahendragiri
Hills and of examining the collections brought by the parties of the
National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, under the leadership of Sri
G. S. Srivastava of this institution, in the years 1956 and 1959. Of
the 366 species recorded in the list as many as 228 are new to the
area.

The present paper gives a comprehensive list of all the species of
angiosperms occurring on the Mahendragiri Hills, together with notes
on location, approach, and geology, and a brief analysis of the flora.
A detailed ecological account of the vegetation will be published
elsewhere.

' LOCATION AND GEOLOGY (based on IMPERIAL GAZETTEER, 1886) .

The Mahendragiri Hills, are a part of the chain of the Eastern Ghats
passing through the Ganjam District of Orissa. The Hills are situated
at a distance of about 25-27 km. from the Bay of Bengal. The
highest peak named as Bhim-raj Daur (18° 58’ N., 84° 26’ E.) rises to
an elevation of 1500 m. (4923 feet).

Mahendragiri Hills are approachable via Mandasa Road, a railway
station in Srikakulam District, Andhra. Mandasa town is 6.4 km.
(4 miles) west of Mandasa Road, wherefrom a jeepable road goes near
to the foot of the hills. The hills start after a walk of about 0.8 km.
(half a mile).

The hilly plateau is formed of porphyritic gneiss embedding large
crystals of felspar, but the higher peaks are of granitic gneiss in huge
prismatic blocks.

CLIMATIC DATA

in the absence of any meteorological observatory on the Mahendra-
girit Hills, it is not possible to give complete climatic data for the

FLORA OF THE MAHENDRAGIRI HILLS OF ORISSA 357,

area. However, the area lies in the region which receives 100-150 cm.
(40-50 inches) of annual rainfall.

STATISTICS

A survey of the flora of the Mahendragiri Hilis reveals that the
families represented by more than 10 species are in order of dominance
as follows: Leguminosae, Compositae, Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
Rubiaceae, and Cyperaceae. Labiatae and Gramineae, both of which
are represented by equal number of species, follow soon after, and
Urticaceae and Malvaceae, again with equal number of species, come
last.

It is interesting to compare the dominant families of Mahendragiri
flora with similar lists drawn up for Bihar and Orissa (Haines’s
BOTANY), Madras Presidency (Gamble’s FLORA), and the whole of India
(Hooker’s FLORA) which are as follows:

MAHENDRAGIRI BIHAR AND MADRAS BRITISH
HILLs ORISSA PRESIDENCY INDIA
1. Leguminosae Leguminosae Leguminosae Orchidaceae
2. Compositae Gramineae Gramineae Leguminosae
3. Acanthaceae Cyperaceae Rubiaceae Gramineae
4. Euphorbiaceae Compositae Acanthaceae Rubiaceae
5. Rubiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae and Euphorbiaceae
6. Cyperaceae Acanthaceae Orchidaceae Acanthaceae
7. Labiatae and Rubiaceae and Compositae Compositae
8. Gramineae Orchidaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae
9. Urticaceaeand Labiatae Labiatae Labiatae
10. Malvaceae Scrophulariaceae Asclepiadaceae Urticaceae

The comparison made above shows that the dominant families of the
Mahendragiri flora are almost the same as those of British India
of Hooker’s FLORA. The order of dominance, however, differs and the
family Orchidaceae does not tind any place among the first ten. This
may be due to the various factors not conducive here for the presence
of orchids. The upper slopes of the hills are too exposed and orchids
as a rule cannot endure the scorching effect of the full direct beams of a
tropical sun. Further as the area receives only 100-150 cm. (40-
60 inches) of rain annually it does not compensate the scorching effect
of the sun. Mooney thought that the exposed nature of the upper
slopes of the hills was responsible for the absence of Pferidium
aquilinum (Linn.) Kuhn also from this area.*

1 However, P. aquilinum had been reported to occur on Mahendragiri by
Gamble (1892).

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

The family Scrophulariaceae, with its seven species, occupies 11th
position in the flora of Mahendragiri whereas it is 10th in the list
for Bihar and Orissa, and this compares well. However, the family
Asclepiadaceae, which is 10th in Madras Presidency flora, is represented
on Mahendragiri Hills by only 4 species.

The ratio between the families of monocotyledons and dicotyledons
is nearly 1:5.8; for the genera and the species the ratio comes to
about 1:7.2 and 1:8.4 respectively. Further explorations, however,
may yield more species of monocotyledons.

INFLUENCE OF NORTH AND SOUTH INDIAN FLORA

Fischer has divided the Madras Presidency roughly into five main
floristic regions. He has included the district of Ganjam along with
the hill tracts of the surrounding area including Mahendragiri Hills in
‘The Sal Region’. It is the flora of Mahendragiri and that of other
high hills of the area having species of northern tracts and abundant
presence of Shorea robusta throughout the sal region which separates
it from the next, ‘The Dekkan Region’. The latter region otherwise
would be difficult to demarcate from the former.

The characteristic tropical as well as temperate species of the
northern tracts found on the Mahendragiri Hills are Clematis roylei,
Capparis olacifolia, Viola patrinii, Homalium nepalense, Fagara
budrunga, Natsiatum herpeticum, Rhamnus nepalensis, Crotalaria alata.
Millettia auriculata, Bauhinia vahlii, Acacia catechu, Anotis calycina,
Senecio nudicaulis, Lindenbergia gradiflora, Melasma arvense, Echina-
canthus attenuatus, Callicarpa arborea, Ajuga macrosperma, Cinna-
momum caudatum, Litsea laeta, L. monopetala, Balanophora polyandra,
Bridelia pubescens, Euphorbia edgeworthii, Dendrobium bicameratum,
Eria bambusifolia, Dioscorea glabra and Carex baccans. The
temperate species Thalictrum foliolosum has not been included in
Madras Presidency flora but Haines in his BOTANY OF BIHAR AND ORISSA
remarks: ‘Specimens named T. javanicum in the Cal. Herb. collected
by Gamble from Palamau and Mahendragiri (Ganjam) not in flower
nor fruit appear to be J. foliolosum. Dicliptera bupleuroides though
found throughout India in the hills at 305-1830 m. (1000-6000 ft.) is
more abundant in the north than in the south.

The important south Indian species represented in the Mahendragiri
Hills flora are Clematis wightiana (?), Pterospermum heyneanum,
Cipadessa baccifera, Gymnosporia emarginata, Alysicarpus racemosus,
Pseudarthria viscida, Sopnora glauca, Tephrosia roxburghiana, Osbeckia

FLORA OF THE MAHENDRAGIRI HILLS OF ORISSA 359

hispidissima, Memecylon edule, Bupleurum mucronatum, Pimpinella
heyneana, Viburnum acuminatum, Knoxia linearis, Pavetta breviflora,
Wendlandia gamblei, Anaphalis lawii, Blumea jacquemontii, Gynura
lycopersicifolia, Senecio candicans, §. corymbosus, Vernonia divergens,
Xantolis tomentosa, Diospyros candolleana, Linociera ramiflora,
Alstonia venenata, Gymnema_ sylvestre, Exacum perrottetii, Ehretia
buxifolia, Ipomoea diversifolia, Andrographis ovata, Barleria gibsoni,
Daedalacanthus montanus, Ecbolium viride, Rungia parviflora var.
monticola, Strobilanthes jeyporensis, Thunbergia fragrans var. hispida,
T. fragrans var. vestita, Leucas montana, Santalum album, Euphorbia
rothiana, Gelonium lanceolatum, Macaranga_ peltata, Pouzolzia
benettiana var. gardneri, Molineria finlaysoniana, Eriocaulon conicum,
Cyrtococcum trigonum and Dimeria avenacea. Rhinacanthus nasuta,
a species which is distributed in Ceylon, Java, and Madagascar, and
also cultivated throughout India, has been reported to be ‘perhaps
wild in Deccan Peninsula’. Similarly Gmelina asiatica, which is
largely cultivated in gardens, has been reported to be wild in scrub
forests of the Deccan peninsula.

The species of the northern region and those of the southern region,
when considered quantitatively, are represented in the Mahendragiri
flora in the ratio of nearly 1:1.5. This preponderance of the south
Indian flora is obviously due to the geographical position of the
Eastern Ghats.

The presence of a large number of Himalayan species on the hills
of Bihar and Orissa is interesting. They have been explained by
Haines (1921-25) to be the relic of the time when the hills of Chota
Nagpur and Orissa were much higher and served as stepping-stones
for the migration of species from the high lands of the Deccan
peninsula to the newer Himalayas and vice versa. Biswas &
Sampatkumaran (1949) have explained that they are a relic from the
time when there was land connection between the Deccan peninsula
and the Indo-Malayan region. Srivastava (1955), while discussing
the flora of Parasnath, has observed that they are not a relic but an
exchange of floras is taking place by the agencies of winds, migratory
birds, and human beings. Although the influence of these agencies,
which definitely take an important part in modifying the composition
of the vegetation of an area from time to time, cannot be
underrated, the other factors also cannot be ignored. Rao &
Narayanaswamy (1960) consider the Himalayan species occurring on
the various hills of Orissa etc. including Mahendragiri, “as instances of
either discontinuous distribution, or remnants of vegetation of bygone
days, got isolated on account of ancient geological disturbances’.

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION OF PLANTS

RANUNCULACEAE
Clematis gouriana Roxb. Clematis wightiana Wall. ?
C. roylei Rehder Thalictrum foliolosum DC.

Thalictrum javanicum BI.

ANNONACEAE

Polyalthia suberosa Benth. & Hook. f.

MENISPERMACEAE

Cissampelos pareira Linn. Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels.

PAPAVERACEAE

Argemone mexicana Linn.

CAPPARIDACEAE
Capparis grandis Linn. Cleome monophylla Linn.
C. olacifolia Hook. f. & Thoms. C. icosandra Linn.
VIOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus (Linn.) Muell. Viola patrinii DC.

BIXACEAE

Bixa orellana Linn. Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston

FLACOURTIACEAE

Homalium nepalense Benth.

PITTOSPORACEAE

Pittosporum floribundum W. & A.

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca oleracea Linn.

GUTTIFERAE

Garcinia tinctoria Dunn

MALVACEAE
Abutilon indicum Sweet Sida acuta Burm. f.
A. polyandrum Schlecht. S. rhombifolia Linn.
Hibiscus lobatus (Murr.) O. Ktze. S. veronicaefolia Lamk,
Kydia calycina Roxb. Urena lobata Linn.

Pavonia zeylanica Cav. U. sinuata Linn.

FLORA OF THE MAHENDRAGIRI HILLS OF ORISSA 361

STERCULIACEAE
Helicteres isora Linn. | Pterospermum acerifolium Willd.
Melochia corchorifolia Linn. P. heyneanum Wall.

Waltheria indica Linn.

TILIACEAE
Corchorus aestuans Linn. non Forsk. Grewia hirsuta Vahl.
Grewia aspera Roxb. Triumfetta bartramia Linn.

Triumfetta pilosa Roth

LINACEAE

Reinwardtia indica Dumort.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus terrestris Linn.

GERANIACEAE

Oxalis corniculata Linn.

RUTACEAE
Fagara budrunga Roxb. Murraya koenigii Spreng.
Glycosmis pentaphylla Corr. Toddalia aculeata Pers.
MELIACEAE
Azadirachta indica Juss. Cipadessa baccifera Miq.

Melia azedarach Linn.

OLACACEAE

Natsiatum herpeticum Buch.-Ham.

CELASTRACEAE
Gymnosporia emarginata Roth Gymnosporia rufa Lawson
RHAMNACEAE
Rhamnus nepalensis Lawson Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) W. & A.
Sageretia parviflora G. Don Z. rugosa Lam.
Ventilago calyculata Tul. Z. xylopyrus Willd.
AMPELIDACEAE

Leea edgeworthii Santapau

SAPINDACEAE

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. Dodonaea viscosa Linn

362

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

ANACARDIACEAE

Buchanania lanzan Spreng.

Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f.

LEGUMINOSAE (PAPILIONACEAE)

Alysicarpus racemosus Benth.

Dolichos lablab Roxb.

A. vaginalis DC. var. nummularifolius Baker Indigofera pulchella Roxb.

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.

Cantharospermum scarabeoideum Benth.

Clitoria ternatea Linn.
Crotalaria alata Hamilt. ex Roxb.
C. albida Heyne

C. prostrata Roxb.

C. sericea Retz.

Derris scandens Benth.
Desmodium diffusum DC.
D. gangeticum DC.

D. latifolium DC.

D. pulchellum Benth.

D. triflorum DC.

I. tinctoria Linn.

I. trita Linn. f.

Millettia auriculata Baker

M. ovalifolia Kurz

Moghania semialata Mukerjee
M. wightiana (Grah.ex Wall.) Mukerjee
Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre
Pseudarthria viscida W. & A.
Rhynchosia sericea Span.
Shuteria vestita W. & A.
Smithia conferta Sm.

Sophora glauca Lesch.

Tephrosia roxburghiana Drumm.
T. villosa Pers.

Teramnus labialis Spreng.

CAESALPINIACEAE

Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.
B. purpurea Linn.
B. vahlii W. & A.

Acacia catechu Willd.

A. leucophloea Willd.

A. pennata Willd.

Albizia odoratissima Benth.

Pygeum

Considered endemic to a fairly limited tract.
Mahendragiri both in Gamble’s FLORA as well as in that of Haines.

however, missed to include it in his 1

Caesalpinia digyna Roth
Cassia occidentalis Linn.
Tamarindus indicus Linn.

MIMOSACEAE

Dichrostachys cinerea W. & A.
Leucaena glauca Benth.
Mimosa pudica Linn.

M. rubicaulis Lamk.

ROSACEAE

andersonii Hook. f.

It has been reported from
Mukherjee,

ist.

COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia catappa Linn.

Psidium guajava Linn.

Terminalia chebula Retz.

MYRTACEAE

Psidium pumilum Vahl

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

FLORA OF THE MAHENDRAGIRI HILLS OF ORISSA

MELASTOMACEAE
Memecylon edule Roxb. Osbeckia hispidissima Wt.
LYTHRACEAE
Ammannia baccifera Linn. Lawsonia inermis Linn.

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia parviflora Roxb.

SAMYDACEAE
Casearia tomentosa Roxb.

CUCURBITACEAE
Bryonopsis laciniosa (L.) Naud. Cucumis sativus Linn.
B. scabrella Linn. Momordica charantia Linn.

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt.

FICOIDAE
Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Trianthema portulacastrum Linn.
UMBELLIFERAE
Bupleurum mucronatum W. & A. Pimpinella bracteata Haines
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban P. heyneana Wall.
ARALIACEAE

Schefflera venulosa (W. & A.) Harms.

ALANGIACEAE
Alangium salvifolium (L. f.) Wang.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Viburnum acuminatum Wall.

RUBIACEAE
Adina cordifolia Hook. f. Knoxia corymbosa Willd.
Anotis calycina Wall. K. linearis Gamble
Borreria hispida (L.) Schum. Lasianthus truncatus Bedd.
Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr. Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn.
Dentella repens Forst. O. nudicaulis Roth
Galium asperifolium Wall. Pavetta breviflora DC.
Gardenia latifolia Ait. Rubia cordifolia Linn.

Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb. Wendlandia gamblei Cowan
Wendlandia tinctoria DC.

363

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

COMPOSITAE

Ageratum conyzoides Linn...

Anaphalis lawii Gamble

Blumea jacquemontii Hook. f.

Blumea jsp.? mollis (D. Don) Merr.]

Centratherum anthelminticum (Willd.)
Ktze.

Conyza aegyptiaca Ait.

C. japonica Less.

Crepis acaulis Hook. f.

Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn.

Elephantopus scaber Linn.

Eupatorium odoratum Linn.

Gnaphalium luteoalbum Linn. var. multi-
ceps Hook, f.

Gnaphalium luteoalbum Linn. var. palli-
dum Hook. f.

Guizottia abyssinica Cass.

Gynura lycopersicifolia DC.

Laggera alata Sch.-Bip.

L. pterodonta Benth.

Senecio candicans DC.

S. corymbosus Wall.

S. nudicaulis Ham.

Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn.

Tagetes erecta Linn.

Tridax procumbens Linn.

Vernonia cinerea Less. :

V. divergens Edgew.

Vicoa indica Linn.
Xanthium strumarium Linn.

CAMPANULACEAE

Campanula canescens Wall.

MyRSINACEAE

Ardisia solanacea (Poir.) Roxb.

SAPOTACEAE

Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Rafin.

EBENACEAE

Diospyros candolleana Wt.

Diospyros peregrina (Gaertn.) Gurke

‘ OLEACEAE
Jasminum arborescens Roxb. Linociera _ramiflora (Roxb.) Wall.
J. grandiflorum Linn. ex G.Don
Olea glandulifera Wall.
APOCYNACEAE

Alstonia venenata R. Br.
Carissa gangetica Stapf
C. spinarum A. DC. ©

Holarrhena.antidysenterica Br.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Calotropis gigantea Br.
Cryptolepis buchanani R. & S.

‘Ichnocarpus frutescens Br.

Nerium indicum Mill. —

Tabernaemontana divaricata Br... -

Vallaris ‘solanacea (Roth) .O. Ktze._

Wrightia tinctoria’ Br...

Gymnema sylvestre Br.) 2 2.022: yi
Hemidesmus indicus Br.

FLORA OF THE MAHENDRAGIRI HILLS OF ORISSA 365

LOGANIACEAE

Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.

GENTIANACEAE
Canscora decussata R. & S. Exacum perrottetii Griseb.
C., diffusa Br. Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. var.
pulchella Burkill
BORAGINACEAE
Coldenia procumbens Linn. Ehretia buxifolia Roxb.
Cynoglossum sp. E. laevis Roxb.

Heliotropium indicum Linn.

CONVOLVULACEAE
Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj. Ipomoea barlerioides Benth. & Hook. f.
Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. I. diversifolia R. Br. -
Ipomoea angulata Lamk. I. nil (L.) Roth
SOLANACEAE
Cestrum diurnum Linn. Solanum indicum Linn.
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Limnophila indica (L.) Druce Melasma arvense (Benth.) Pennell
Lindenbergia grandiflora Benth. — Scoparia dulcis Linn.
L. indica (L.)O. Ktze. ~~ Sopubia trifida Buch.-Ham.

Torenia cordifolia Roxb. -

LENTIBULARIACEAE
Utricularia striatula Sm.

GESNERACEAE
Rhyncoglossum obliquum BI.

ACANTHACEAE

Adhatoda vasica Nees Justicia betonica L. var. villosa Cl.
Andrographis ovata Benth. J. diffusa Willd.

A. paniculata Nees J. gendarussa Linn. f.

Barleria gibsoni Dalz. J. simplex D. Don

B. prionitis Linn. Rhinacanthus nasuta (L.) Kurz

B. strigosa Willd. Rungia parviflora Nees var. monticola
Daedalacanthus montanus T. Anders. Gamble

Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees R. parviflora Nees var. pectinata Cl.
Ecbolium viride (Forsk.) Alston Strobilanthes jeyporensis Bedd.
Echinacanthus attenuatus Nees Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. var. hispida
Hemigraphis latebrosa Nees Gamble

Justicia betonica Linn. T. fragrans Roxb. var. vestita Nees

1 May this be Barleria prattensis Sant.?—Eps.

366

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)
VERBENACEAE
Callicarpa arborea Roxb. Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.
Clerodendrum fragrans Willd. Gmelina arborea Roxb.
Gmelina asiatica Linn.
LABIATAE
Ajuga macrosperma Wall. Leucas montana Spreng.
Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Ktze. Nepeta hindostana (Roth) Haines
Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. Ocimum sanctum Linn.
Hyptis suaveolens Poit. Plectranthus coetsa Buch.-Ham. ex Don
Leonotis nepetaefolia Br. Pogostemon plectranthoides Desf.
Scutellaria discolor Colebr.
NYCTAGINACEAE
Boerhavia diffusa Linn. Boerhavia repanda Willd.
AMARANTHACEAE
Achyranthes aspera Linn. Amaranthus spinosus Linn.
Alternanthera sessilis R. Br. Digera muricata (L.) Mart.
POLYGONACEAE
Polygonum barbatum Linn. Polygonum chinense Linn. var. ovali-

P. chinense Linn. var. corymbosum Meissn. _folium Meissn.
Polygonum punctatum Buch.-Ham.

PIPERACEAE

Peperomia reflexa A. Dietr.

LAURACEAE
Beilschmiedia roxburghiana Nees Litsea laeta Wall.
Cassytha filiformis Linn. L. monopetala (Roxb.) Pers.
Cinnamomum caudatum Nees Neolitsea zeylanica Merr.
PROTEACEAE

Grevillea robusta A. Cunn.

LORANTHACEAE

Scurrula cordifolia (Wall.) G. Don Scurrula parasitica Linn.
Viscum nepalense Spreng.

SANTALACEAE

Osyris wightiana Wall. ex Wight Santalum album Linn.

FLORA OF THE MAHENDRAGIRI HILLS OF ORISSA 367
BALANOPHORACEAE

Balanophora polyandra Griff.

BUXACEAE

Sarcococca trinervia Wt.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Acalypha indica Linn. Euphorbia perbracteata Gage
Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell.- E. rothiana Spr.

Arg. E. thymifolia Burm.
Bridelia montana Hook. Gelonium lanceolatum Willd.
B. pubescens Kurz Glochidion velutinum Wt.
Cleistanthus collinus Benth. Jatropha curcas Linn.
Croton bonplandianum Baill. Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg
Drypetes assamica (Hk. f.) Pax & Hoffm. Mallotus philippinensis Muell.
Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Phyllanthus debilis Ham.
Euphorbia edgeworthii Boiss. P. niruri Linn.
E. hirta Linn. Ricinus communis Linn.

URTICACEAE

Boehmeria platyphylla Don Lecanthus wightii Wall.
Ficus hispida Linn. f. Morus indica Linn.
F. religiosa Linn. Pouzolzia bennettiana Wt. var. gard-
F. tomentosa Roxb. neri Hook. f.
Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. Streblus asper Lour.

Trema orientalis Blume

BURMANNIACEAE

Burmannia coelestis Don

ORCHIDACEAE

Dendrobium bicameratum Lind!. Eria bambusifolia Lindl.

SCITAMINACEAE

Costus speciosus Sm.

HAEMODORACEAE

Ophiopogon intermedius Don

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Molineria finlaysoniana Baker

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea glabra Roxb.

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

LILIACEAE
Asparagus racemosus Willd. Gloriosa superba Linn.
COMMELINACEAE
Commelina obliqua Ham. Murdannia nudiflorum (L.) Brenan

Cyanotis axillaris R. & S.

ARACEAE

Alocasia sp. (? decipiens Schott) Pistia stratiotes Linn.

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon conicum Fischer

- CYPERACEAE
Carex baccans Nees Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb.
C. speciosa Kunth Mariscus sp.
Cyperus distans Linn. f. Pycreus pumilus Nees
C. iria Linn. P. sanguinolentus Nees
C. tenuispica Steud. Scirpus squarrosus Linn.
Fimbristylis bisumbellata Bub. Scleria cochinchinensis Druce
GRAMINEAE
Arundinella pumila (Hochst.) Steud. Cyrtococcum trigonum (Retz.) A. Camus
Capillipedium assimile (Hook. f.) Stapf Digitaria setigera Roth apud R. & S.
Chloris dolichostachya Lag. Dimeria avenacea (Retz.) C. E. C.
Cynodon dactylon Pers. Fischer
Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Hochst. ex Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link
Steud.) Stapf Oplismenus compositus Beauv.

Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) O. Ktze.

SUMMARY

The present paper gives a comprehensive list of the plants of
the Mahendragiri Hills. As many as 228 species have been reported
as new to the locality. In addition, short notes on location, geology,
and climatic data have been inserted.

The families represented by more than 10 species, in order oi
dominance, are: Leguminosae, Compositae. Acanthaceae, Euphor-
biaceae, Rubiaceae, Cyperaceae, Labiatae and Gramineae (having
equal number of species), Urticaceae and Malvaceae (having equal
number of species).

It has been observed that the flora has a larger number of south
Indian representatives due to the geographical position of the Eastern

Ghats.

FLORA OF THE MAHENDRAGIRI HILLS OF ORISSA

369

The occurrence of Himalayan species on the hills of Orissa has

been briefly discussed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Prof. K. N. Kaul, Director, National Botanic
Gardens, Lucknow, for facilities for work and to my colleague Sri
Hira Lal Yadav for help during identification of specimens.

REFERENCES

Biswas, K. & SAMPATKUMARAN, M. A.
(1949): Botanical Notes on the Sat-
pura Theory. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India
15: 365-67. (Original not seen by the
- author.)

CHRISTENSEN, C. (1906):
Filicum.

GAMBLE, J. S. (1892): The Ferns of
Pachmarhi and those of Mahendragiri.
Ind. For. 18: 55-57.

_& Fiscuer, C. E. C. (1915-35) :
Flora of the Presidency of Madras.
Parts 1-10.

Haines, H. H. (1921-25): The Botany
of Bihar and Orissa. Parts 1-6.

Hooker, J. D. et al. (1872-97): The
Flora of British India 1-7.
~ HUNTER, W. W. (1886): The Imperial
Gazetteer of India 9, 2nd edition: 172.

Mooney, H. (1950): Supplement to
the Botany of Bihar and Orissa,

Index

MUKHERJEE, D. B. (1935): Notes on
a Collection of Plants from Mahendra-
giri. J. Indian bot. Soc. 14: 305-11.

RAIZADA, M. B. (1958): Name
Changes in Common Indian Plants. Ind.
For. 84 : 467-538.

(1959): Name Changes in
Common Indian Grasses. ibid. 85:
473-509.

SESHAGIRI RAO, R. & NARAYANA-
SWAMY, V. (1960): A Contribution to
our knowledge of the Vegetation and
Flora of the Pachmarhi Plateau and the
Adjacent Regions. J. Indian bot. Soc.
39 : 227-42.

SRIVASTAVA, J. G.- (1955):--A
Botanical Tour to Parasnath Hill, Bihar.
J. Indian bot. Soc. 34 : 196-206.

Notes on Migrant Birds of North Bihar

P. V. GEORGE
Research Scholar, Bombay Natural History Society

(With two text-figures)

In January 1964 I was deputed to north Bihar to study the
local conditions and to assess the possibilities of ringing migratory
birds particularly waders (Charadriiformes) and duck. The area
surveyed extends from the north bank of the Ganges to the India-
Nepal border in the central portion of north Bihar.

North Bihar is an absolutely flat alluvial plain, through which
the many rivers that debouch from the Himalayas follow their rather
slow and winding courses to the south. They have in general
comparatively narrow channels which they frequently overflow,
inundating considerable areas. Among these Kosi River requires
particular attention, as it is responsible for the creation of favourable
ecological conditions in central Bihar for the migrant species entering
India from the north. The Kosi, Bihar’s river of sorrow, is notorious
for the desolation caused by its floods. The channels are constantly
changing as old ones are choked by sandbanks (within the last
seventy years the river has changed its course westwards for more
than fifty miles) resulting in the production of innumerable chaurs' and
jheels? which provide good feeding ground for waterfowl and wader
migrants. To tame the Kosi and direct its course through a specified
area embankments are being built on either bank at various places.
The distance between the embankments varies from 4 to 10 miles
or more and when the flood starts (from July onwards) the interven-
ing area provides an excellent resort for the migrants. Deep water
paddy (coarse paddy grown in low-lying inundated areas) is an added
attraction to the migrants.

Vegetation

Trees occur around villages which are separated by extensive
fields. Mango, pipal, and banyan are common, also neem and

1 chaur=low, water-logged meadow one
? jheel =a marsh

NOTES ON MIGRANT BIRDS OF NORTH BIHAR 371

tamarind. Palms, both palmyra and date, are found near fields.
Bamboo brakes and silk cotton trees are infrequently met with.

Crops

Rice, wheat, and maize are the principal crops. Several varieties
of gram, chilli, groundnut, tobacco, and sugarcane are also grown.
Enlargement of cultivated areas is going to be one of the principal
causes affecting the population of migrant birds in future.

In the intricate network of channels that traverse the plains grow
Vailisneria sp.; Pistia sp., Eickhornia sp., and Nymphaea sp. were
mainly seen in chaurs, jheels, and water-logged areas.

Climate

During the hot weather, from March to the middle of June,
westerly winds blow over the arid sun-baked plains causing high
temperatures and low humidity. The monsoon usually breaks in the
third week of June and continues till September or early October.
The cold season begins in November and nights are very cold in
December and January. There are occasional showers during this
period. The spring season is very brief, beginning in February and
lasting till March. The average rainfall is c. 100 cm.

Itinerary
Monghyr District :
Manjhaul and Kabar Tal‘ (c. 10 and 31 Jan. to 24 Feb. and 15 to 23

14 miles respectively north of Mar. 1964
Begusarai railway station)

Darbhanga District :

Laheriaserai (3 miles south of Dar- 24 to 26 Feb. 1964
bhanga)

Jamalpur village (c. 25 miles south 27-28 Feb., and 2 Mar. 1964
of Ghogardiha railway station)

Supaul jheel (near Supaul village and 3 Mar. 1964
4 miles west of Jamalpur village)

Saharsa District :
Koniya jheel (c. 4 miles east of 29 Feb. and 1 Mar. 1964
Kusheshwara-Astan)
Nirmali railway station 4 to 7 Mar. 1964
Birpur (Headquarters of Kosi River 8, 11, 12, and 13 Mar. 1964
Project)

1 tal=a shallow lake

372, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Bhimnagar (4 miles west of Birpur) 9 Mar. 1964
Pratapganj (c. 18 miles south of 10 Mar. 1964
Birpur)

Among the places visited none equalled Kabar Tal for the number
and variety of waterfowl. Situated in the Begusarai subdivision of
Monghyr District, Kabar Tal is accessible by road via Manjhaul.
The lake is shallow for the most part and has an area of about
eight square miles. During the rains the surrounding low-lying areas
are inundated increasing the size of the lake. To the east of the
lake are large areas studded with marshy hollows. |

The lake is eutrophic sustaining a rich plant and animal life. The
water is crystal clear and the soil, locally known as kachhua keual,
is dark in colour. Emergent vegetation is rather patchy and sparsely
distributed, except in the deeper areas of about 3 to 4 square miles
where subaquatic vegetation is prolific. Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia
sp.) near the water’s edge was drying up at the time of my visit.
There are no trees in the lake area.

Cormorants and darters were absent at the time of my visit
(31 January to 24 February and 15 to 19 March), perhaps their
absence is related to that of trees.

The lake was teeming with waterfowl of every description from
31 January to 22 February but when I visited the area on 19 March
it was completely deserted except for 50 or 60 Anas querquedula. The
lake is well stocked with fishes, which are replenished yearly by river
floods; the principal species are members of the carp family. A
good number of fishes is caught for sale. The water from the lake is
drained through the Chandan, a tributary of the River Balan.

The Kabar Tal is very famous for duck shoots and it is puzzling
why there is no mention of it in ornithological literature. With little
effort the lake can be converted into one of the best waterfowl
sanctuaries in India. At present, I understand, plans are afoot to
drain off the water completely. If this scheme materializes the lake
area will be turned into an expanse of dry fields by the end of
November, an irrevocable loss of one of the most delightful natural
lakes of India.

Next to Kabar the Koniya jheel has the largest number of water-
fowl. This is also an extensive perennial lake of eutrophic nature.
Between eight and ten thousand ducks of various kinds were seen
on 1 March. I was informed that the number of waterfowl coming
to the jheel has decreased considerably in recent years owing to the
unrestricted growth of jungle (emergent vegetation) which the birds

NOTES ON MIGRANT BIRDS OF NORTH BIHAR 373

find unsuitable. Waterfowl in thickly packed flocks were "seen on

the open water with luxuriant growth of subaquatic plants.
The following birds were recorded:

ANATIDAE

Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas): Brahminy Duck. Very common till
March 10 on Kosi River. Seen invariably in pairs on the Ganges and
on the Kosi. They preferred clear stretches of sandbank. Groups of
20 to 30 birds were common. The largest flock, seen near Dhalva on
the Kosi, contained five to six hundred birds. Not seen on lakes or
other standing water.

Anas acuta Linnaeus: Pintail. Common. Not in any numbers.
Generally distributed in suitable places in the company of other ducks.

Anas crecca Linnaeus: Common Teal, and Anas querquedula
Linnaeus: Garganey. Plentiful. The commonest ducks. From
January 31 to the end of February A. crécca was seen in large numbers
while A. querquedula was rather uncommon. By the end of February
when the days become hotter most of the A. crecca left the area and
its place was taken over by A. querquedula. On 19 March Kavar
Tal was found completely deserted by waterfowl except for 50 or 60
A. querquedula.

During the heat of the day both species were observed resting in
compact flocks in shallow waters of the low-lying reedy areas as well
as on the sandy islands of the Kosi. Such flocks contained 500 to
1500 birds.

A couple of hundred A. crecca handled between 2 February and
18 March showed no signs of moulting of the primaries and
secondaries or of the tail-feathers. Invariably all oo were in their
brilliant breeding plumage. On the contrary A. querquedula do
without exception were in eclipse plumage in February and started
getting the breeding attire by March.

The recovery from Kashmir (15-3-1964) of one of the A. crecca
ringed at Manjhaul (Monghyr District, 6-2-1964) suggests that this
species may not go directly across the Himalayas on its way back to its
breeding ground.

Anas strepera Linnaeus: Gadwall. Seen in small numbers all over.

?Anas penelope Linnaeus: Wigeon. Scarce, seen only at Kabar.

Anas clypeata Linnaeus: Shoveller. Common, in moderate
numbers. Noted in every suitable locality, and all in breeding
plumage. No moulting of the primaries and secondaries or of tail-
feathers in individuals examined between 18 February and 16 March.

374. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Netta rufina (Pallas): Redcrested Pochard. This beautiful duck
was seen in thousands at Kabar, in good numbers at Koniya jheel,
and a few were present in most of the low-lying water-logged areas
visited. All were in breeding plumage. At Kabar and Koniya jheel
they were noted frequenting open stretches of water with plenty of
submerged aquatic weeds. Next to coots this was the predominant
species at Kabar between 19 and 21 February and kept to the company
of its own species.

Aythya ferina (Linnaeus): Common Pochard. Common. Seen in
good numbers in company with other pochards. Showed a liking for
open waters.

Aythya nyroca (Giildenstadt): White-eyed Pochard. Very common.
Seen in good numbers all over. In ihe swamps and marshy pockets
east of Kabar, this species outnumbered other waterfowl. Here the
majority rested during the hotter part of the day but a few fed singly
or in pairs near the water’s edge.

?Aythya baeri (Radde): Baer’s Pochard. A pochard with greenish
black neck and head seen at the Manjhaul bird market was probably
of this species.

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus): Tufted Duck. Common but not in
any numbers.

Non-migrant species of ducks |

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield): Lesser Whistling Teal. A flock
of about 100 whistling teal in the company of cotton teal and coots
was seen feeding in open water at Koniya jheel. Fairly tame and
allowed a close approach to about 70 ft., when they arose with shrill
notes and continued calling till they settled at a distance after making
one or two rounds at a height of about 60 ft. Not seen elsewhere.

Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin): Cotton Teal. I saw this
bird (12-15) only at Koniya jheel, in company with whistling teal.

Rhodonessa caryophyllacea (Latham): Pinkheaded Duck. Every
effort was made to obtain information on this duck. A careful search
of all suitable localities produced no results. Old shikaris and
professional bird-catchers to whom a colour illustration of the bird
was shown said that they had neither shot nor seen one.

In Kabar Tal and Koniya jheel during the day ducks were seen
in thickly packed flocks floating on clear open stretches of water with
plenty of submerged aquatic weeds. When a mixed party of ducks,
teals, coots, and little grebes was approached in a countrycraft, the first
to take notice and leave the spot were the teals. The ducks slowly
swam away and the last to leave were the grebes and coots. Even

NOTES ON MIGRANT BIRDS OF NORTH BIHAR 375

though ducks were frequently disturbed at Kabar by the shikaris and
the moving countrycrafts, only on rare occasions did I see them leave
the lake. Usually they flew to another portion of the lake.

During the heat of the day thousands of ducks, mainly Anas
querquedula, A. crecca, Aythya fuligula, and A. nyroca, and perhaps
other species also, were seen (on 28 February and 2 March) resting
in thickly packed flocks on the sandy islands in the Kosi which were
quite far away from the banks.

RALLIDAE

Fulica atra Linnaeus: Coot. Very common in suitable localities.
This was the predominant species at Kabar Tal where I saw them in
thousands, from 31 January to 23 February. When the area was
revisited on 19 March none was observed.

CHARADRIIDAE

Vanellus leucurus (Lichtenstein): | Whitetailed Lapwing. Seen
singly at Nirmali on 5 March in a reedy low-lying area busily engaged
in feeding near the water’s edge.

Vanellus cinereus (Blyth): Greyheaded Lapwing. One seen in
Manjhaul bird market.

Pluvialis dominica (P.L.S.Miuller): Eastern Golden Plover.
Common. Seen in good numbers, five to six hundred, flying towards
Kosi River near Jamalpur on 28 February at 9 am. Also observed
resting in thickly packed flocks on the exposed sandy portions of the
Kosi and in moist grassy edges of water-logged low-lying areas near
Jamalpur. Before settling down the flocks were noted making much
aerial evolution in perfect unison around the place. All the birds
handled and observed till 2 March were in winter plumage; none of
them showed any trace of nuptial plumage.

Charadrius dubius Scopoli: Little Ringed Plover. Common, seen
near water’s edge.

Charadrius alexandrinus Linnaeus: Kentish Plover. As above.

Charadrius mongolus Pallas: Lesser Sand Plover. ‘Two were
brought to me on 16 March and one the next day. They were in
non-breeding plumage and did not show signs of moulting.

Numenius arquata (Linnaeus): Curlew. Frequently heard at night.
Seen near the Kosi, Kabar, and Jamalpur in moderate numbers. I

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

did not see them resting during the hotter part of the day even though
they were seen with other waders which were inactive.

?Numenius tenuirostris Vieillot: Slenderbilled Curlew. Near
Jamalpur I saw a party of seven curlews standing close together. Three
or four were noticeably smaller. half N. arquata. At about 70 ft.
distance I scrutinised them very carefully through the binoculars but
failed to see the stripes on the crown characteristic of N. phaeopus.
Hence I suspect them to be N. tenuirostris.

Limosa limosa (Linnaeus): Blacktailed Godwit. Common near
Jamalpur frequenting swamps. On 28 February in water-logged area
with thinly distributed emergent vegetation a tightly packed group of
60 to 80 birds was seen between 10 a.m. and 3.30 p.m. The flock
strength was reduced to half when I visited the place after two days.
I believe that a few among them were Bartailed Godwit Limosa
lapponica (Linnaeus).

Tringa totanus (Linnaeus): Common Redshank. One was brought
to me on 16 March at Manjhaul by Mirshikars. They informed me
that this bird is common during the monsoon.

Tringa ochropus Linnaeus: Green Sandpiper, and Tringa glareola
Linnaeus: Spotted Sandpiper. TJ. ochropus was very common and
outnumbered T. glareola at Birpur and Bhimnagar; vice versa at
Manjhaul, Nirmali, and Koniya jheel. February (2 to 19) individuals
of T. glareola were moulting the outer Sth, 4th, or 3rd primaries.
Most of the March (16 and 17) individuals had moulted the primary
feathers and a few were moulting the two outermost feathers. In both
February and March individuals body feathers were in moult.

Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus: Common Sandpiper. Met with at
all places, but was not common as one would expect it to be.

Capella stenura (Bonaparte): Pintail Snipe. Individuals examined
(8 February to 16 March) showed no moulting of the primaries. Body
feathers were in moult. My note on an individual collected on 16
March reads: ‘outermost broad tail-feathers on either side moulting’.

Capella gallinago (Linnaeus): Common Snipe. Body feathers were
moulting but no moult of primaries observed in the individuals
checked (4 February to 16 March).

A small flock of Capella sp. (15 to 20) was seen near Jamalpur
in the shallow regions of a water-logged area. The majority were
inactive (11 a.m.) and a few were feeding. In the act of collecting
food materials from water the whole head up to the neck is dipped
into the water.

NOTES ON MIGRANT BIRDS OF NORTH BIHAR 377

Capella minima (Briinnich): Jack Snipe. Three birds were
brought to me by Mirshikars on 17 February at Manjhaul. I failed to
see this bird in the field.

Calidris minutus (Leisler): Little Stint. Common. Number
increased considerably by March. Out of the nineteen individuals
examined (15 to 17 March) 13 were moulting the outer primaries, the
rest had completed moult. Body feathers of all the individuals were
in moult. Moulting of primaries is of the descending type, i.e. from
inner towards outer. Only those birds which had completed the
primary moult showed any breeding plumage.

Calidris temminckii (Leisler): Temminck’s Stint. Common in
February and became very common during March. 15 were moulting
outer primaries, with 3 completed in 18 individuals examined on 16
and 17 March. All showed moulting of body feathers. The primary
moulting is of the descending type. Only those birds which had
completed primary moult showed any signs of breeding plumage.
I was told by Mirshikars that C. minutus and C. temminckii change
their plumage colour (? attain breeding plumage) before they leave
the area.

Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus): Ruff and Reeve. Very common
in all places visited. All were in non-breeding plumage (7 March).
Enormous numbers were seen resting on the sandy islands in the Kosi
(4 to 6 thousand) and in water-logged areas (2 to 3 thousand) near
Jamalpur, between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m.

ROSTRATULIDAE

Rostratula benghalensis (Linnaeus): Painted Snipe. I did not see
any in the field. Mirshikars supplied me with two males.

RECURVIROSTRIDAE

Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus): Blackwinged Stilt. Common
on mud-flats, shallow regions of jheels and chaurs. Three individuals
handled on 17 March showed no signs of moulting. The wing length
and weight of the birds are: co wing 248 mim., wt. 192 gm.; Q wing
228 mm., wt. 158 gm.; 2 wing 218 mm., wt. 160 gm.

— Recurvirostra avosetta Linnaeus: Avocet. Two small flocks con-
sisting of 32 and 38 individuals were seen resting on a sandy island

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

in the Kosi and in a low-lying water-logged area near Jamalpur on
29 February and 2 March respectively. Their species segregation
in flight, alighting, and settling was striking.

Non-migrant members of the Charadriiformes noted were:

Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli) (in twos and threes), Metopidius
indicus (Latham) (flocks consisting of 20 to 30 birds; none of them
had the long sickle-shaped tail-feathers), and Vanellus indicus
(Boddaert) (in twos and threes) were common all over.
_ During the heat of the day waders were noted taking refuge on
the sandy islands in the Kosi as well as in water-logged areas with
thinly distributed emergent vegetation. Here they showed practically
no feeding movements. In such instances they were in thickly packed
flocks, the majority resting on one leg and a few on both, with the
head on the back and the neck bent over the right shoulder. The
flow from the feeding grounds to the resting area started from 8 a.m.
and continued to 11.30 a.m. The return flight was from 3 p.m. onwards.
When a resting flock was disturbed a kind of species segregation was
observed in flight and on subsequent alighting. This was particularly
so in Recurvirostra avosetta, Philomachus pugnax, Pluvialis dominica,
and Limosa limosa.

In February when the days were rather cooler migratory waders
were thinly represented. With the onset of the hot weather, by the
end of February and the first week of March, there was ‘a definite
increase in the number of waders all over the area. It might be due
either to fresh additions of incoming birds or just a collecting together
of the birds already there as a preliminary step for their migration.
It is significant that the increase in number coincided with the rise in
the day temperature.

From information gathered mainly from shikaris and professional
bird-catchers at different places, the following points were noted.
The main wave of ducks and waders starts coming in by September,
by November, when the low-lying areas are under water and the
paddy crops are ripening, the peak inflow is attained. During this
peak period which continues till the second week of January waders
and ducks are found in enormous congregations all over the area.
Then there is a sharp decline in numbers, particularly so in the case
of waders. The second wave of waders (? the outward migration)
starts with the onset of the hot weather, i.e. by the beginning of March.
For the next 14 months waders are found in good numbers but not
so abundantly as they were during November to January. The
majority of ducks leave the place by the beginning of March and
waders by the middle of April.

— Lh

NOTES ON MIGRANT BIRDS OF NORTH BIHAR 379

ALAUDIDAE

Calandrella cinerea (Gmelin): Short-toed Lark. The first flocks
were seen on 11 February. From the beginning of March the number
of birds increased daily and by the second week this bird was common
all over and abundant in recently ploughed fields. In certain ploughed
fields they collected together during dusk for roosting in enormous
numbers (? permanent roosting areas during their sojourn).

‘The bird is locally known as phallak. 1 was told that these birds
completely disappear by the end of April and are not seen the rest of
the year. I was also informed that at the time of their arrival they
are thin and lean (?) and at departure are ‘balls of fat’. The flesh
is considered to be excellent.

A couple of hundred March individuals (18th to 22nd) showed no
moulting of primaries, though in many the body feathers were in moult.

MOTACILIIDAE

The extensive alluvial plains of north Bihar provide ideal feeding
ground for myriads of wagtails that visit the area during winter. Out
of the five species of migrant forms that come to India, three were
seen in considerable numbers:

Motacilla flava Linnaeus: Yellow Wagtail. Majority in their con-
fusing winter (? juvenile) plumage till 18 March. A few of the
subspecies beema and thunbergi were seen in breeding plumage.

Motacilla citreola Pallas: Yellowheaded Wagtail. The typical
aquatic biotope wagtail. Generally met with in marshy areas.

Motacilla alba Linnaeus: White Wagtail. The majority had white
ear-coverts (dukhunensis). 1 saw only five or six birds with black
ear-coverts (personata).

None of the wagtails showed primary feather moulting, but in all
the three species tail-feathers were in moult.

In winter wagtails appear to be commoner than any other bird.
In the evening enormous numbers of wagtails swarmed around sugar-
cane fields for roosting. Five such populous roosts were located.
These very beneficial and sprightly little birds were also caught in
large numbers by Mirshikars for sale.

OTHER COMMON PASSERINE MIGRANTS
Hirundo rustica Linnaeus: Swallow. Ventral plumage was rather
pure white in all individuals observed. ee
Lanius cristatus Linnaeus: Brown Shrike.
Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth: Blyth’s Reed Warbler.

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Erithacus svecicus (Linnaeus): Bluethroat. All were the red-
spotted form.

Saxicola torquata (Linnaeus): Stone Chat.

Phoenicurus ochruros (S.G. Gmelin): Black Redstart.

STATUS OF WILD LIFE

Every good area for birds had its quota of professional bird
trappers. The general impression that I received is that birds and
other wild life are mercilessly massacred during both the ‘close’ and
‘open’ seasons. Most people are ignorant of the game rules and no
One appears interested in enforcing them. There are two types of
professional bird-catchers, the Mirshikar operating in the whole area
and the Mallaha operating only on large lakes like Kabar Tal and
Koniya jheel.
Mirshikars

Mirshikars are Muslims. They are expert bird-catchers who
can bag any bird; they hunt by day and by night, depending on
conditions. Night trapping is done with the help of the pole net, a
cotton net 9X6 ft. (14 in. mesh size) loosely fastened on two cross

i nN vi

]

nN
i Mi
:

|
|

SSS >

i
A
OM

vi)
CaN

Fig. 1. Pole net
planks fixed on a main pole of 12 ft. as shown in the figure. The
hunting party consists of two men. The trapper walks in front with

NOTES ON MIGRANT BIRDS OF NORTH BIHAR 381

the pole net in one hand and a lighted bundle of dry grass in the
other; the second man follows close behind beating a metal plate and
carrying a basket for collection. The beating I was told is done to
muffle the sound of walking. When the trapper sees a bird within
20 to 22 ft. he dashes the pole net over it—the men are such adepts
that misses are rare. I saw Anas clypeata, A. querquedula, A. crecca,
Tringa glareola, Capella sp., and Pluvialis dominica caught with
this net. For catching waders and ducks they never go beyond knee-
deep water. They do not hunt on windy nights or on moonlit nights,
as the former affect the aim and the latter make the catcher visible to
the bird.

‘Dhubbi’ type net, described by Salim Ali (1928) is also used.

drag-line

\ drag-line

Fig. 2. ‘*‘ Dhubbi”’ net

A. ‘Dhubbi’ net as concealed in situ; B. Closed ‘Dhubbi’ net
a, a: Stakes

The net 25X12 ft. is biconical when stretched on the ground. One
side of the net is fixed on to the ground with stakes while the other

1SAum A. ALI (1928): A Sind Lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32 (3) : 460-471.

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

is rolled and concealed on the ground. A drag-line of 2 to 3 hundred
yards is attached to the free end of the net. When this is pulled
with sufficient force the rolled up portions of the net unroll and the
free sides of the net on either side will come together at the centre,
thereby forming a trap as shown in the figure. This net is used for
large-scale catching of birds at their favourite feeding and resting
grounds and is mainly used for ducks, waders, and also for short-
toed larks.

Bird lime splints attached to poles and nooses are used, but the
number caught by this method is considerably less.

Mallahas

Mallahas eke out a bare livelihood by catching birds and fishes.
They are Hindus. Their methods of catching and handling the birds
are rather crude. They catch only water birds like coots, ducks, etc.,
and that too only on calm pitch-dark nights. Nets and nooses are
the devices used by them.

A single-tier cotton net (mesh size 2 in.) 14 to 16 ft. long and
3 to 34 ft. wide is tied 6 to 8 ft. above water-level on bamboos fixed
in water. There might be 20 to 80 nets in a single line. One group
of nets requires a minimum of three men and three punts. One punt
takes its position at the centre of the line of nets, 15 to 20 ft. from
the net on the side opposite to where the birds are settled. At the
prow of this punt an earthen pot is fixed, its rim facing away from
the boat. In this pot firewood is kept burning to attract birds at the
time of hunting.

Just before the hunt starts the firewood is lit. Two punts on either
side of the net move forward driving the birds towards the net. When
the birds reach sufficiently close a terrific uproar is set up by the
boatmen on-either side. Frightened birds spring from the water and
some are attracted into the net by the burning firewood. Ninety-nine
per cent. of the Mallahas catch is got in this way.

A pole net slightly longer than the one mentioned earlier is also
used. The Mallahas’ methods with this is different from that of the
Mirshikars. For the operation four men and three punts are required.
The catcher takes his seat in the central punt and holds the pole net
upright, close behind the ‘pot’. Firewood in the earthen pot is lit.
Punts on either side keep a distance of about 30 ft. between them and
take a position 8 to 12 ft. ahead of the central punt. All the three
punts move slowly keeping their respective positions, towards the
place where birds are settled. When the side punts reach sufficiently

NOTES ON MIGRANT BIRDS OF NORTH BIHAR 383

close to the birds the men raise an uproar and the disturbed birds
leave the water and some attracted by the light are caught in the net.

DESTRUCTION OF BIRDS

I spent more time at Kabar Tal than at any other place and can
speak with some confidence of the distressing conditions there.

A reliable person, who is aware of the catches from Kabar over
a number of years, informed me that the average daily catch of
waterfowl from this lake alone comes to 4 to 5 hundred, shooting
up to a thousand or more during the peak period from mid-November
to the beginning of January. This would not be an exaggeration
considering the strength of Mallahas at Kabar, a little over 900, plus
about 30 Mirshikars. Commission agents purchase the whole catch
on the spot and supply them in the adjoining towns, hence only a
small fraction of the birds caught finds its way to Manjhaul bird-
market. I quote below the number of birds I saw at the market as
jotted down in my diary:

3 February 87 9 February 116
4 Ag 132 10 - 103
5) 3 82 12 . 137
7 2 94 18 s 83
8 a 51

On 13 and 15 February I had the opportunity of visiting Mirshikars
houses to have a look at their collection; the numbers noted down
were 123 and 117 birds respectively. At Birpur in one day I caine
across six baskets of wagtails kept for sale, each containing 150 to
200 birds. I was told that the whole lot was the previous night’s
collection from a single roost! At Kabar I witnessed the ruthless
persecution of waterfowl that goes on round the clock, during the day
by shikaris with modern weapons and at night by Mallahas and
Mirshikars. Snaring of birds is a full time profession in many parts
of north Bihar. This in the absence of adequate sanctuaries where
birds can take refuge poses a serious and challenging problem.
Something needs to be done urgently and immediately, at least to
restrict such wanton snaring and shooting of birds. I understand
that the cruel practice of wholesale destruction of birds at lights is
prohibited by law but it continues to flourish.

DESTRUCTION OF WATER-BIRD HABITATS

Jamal Ara in her note ‘In search of the Pinkheaded Duck
[Rhodonessa caryophyllacea (Latham)] (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

384. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

57 : 415-16) gives a brief account of the water-bird habitat destruc-
tion in Purnea District caused by large scale reclamation for cultiva-
tion. In recent years many chaurs, jheels, and other low-lying areas
which were the habitat of water-birds in north Bihar have been
drained. This destruction is going on at an accelerated pace depriving
water-birds of their natural habitat. The prime need of the hour is
to preserve some selected areas as a resort for water-birds where
they can shelter from the slaughter that is rampant everywhere.
Kabar Tal is a desirable spot in this respect.

BIRD MIGRATION STUDIES

The central portion of north Bihar offers excellent possibilities
for bird migration studies both by its location in the subcontinent
as well from the abundance and variety of migrants. It is possible
that migrants ringed in early winter may later be recovered in other
parts of the country providing information on the dispersal of the birds
within the country.

The ‘daylight roosts’ of waders and ducks afford possibilities of
large scale netting from mid-November to mid-January. Wagtails
and swallows roost in enormous numbers in the area throughout the
winter. As far as the Short-toed Larks are concerned large-scale
ringing is possible only in the months of March and April.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am deeply indebted to Mr. T. P. Singh, 1.c.s., Development
Commissioner of Bihar, whose wholehearted co-operation throughout
the trip made my visit so successful; also to Mr. S. S. Sharan, 1.A.s.,
District Magistrate of Monghyr, for constant encouragement and
help. My sincere gratitude to Mr. Uma Kant Prasad, Sub-Divisiona!
Officer of Waterways, Manjhaul, for his help in various ways, and
to Mr. J. C. Kundra, 1.4.S., District Magistrate of Darbhanga, and
Mr. H. K. N. Iyengar, Executive Engineer, Kosi River Project,
Nirmali Section. I am also thankful to the Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research for the award of a Research Fellowship.

Algal Flora of Jodhpur and
its environs

III. Oedogoniales’

S. K. GOYAL
Department of Botany, Jaswant College, Jodhpur, Rajasthan?

[Continued from Vol. 61 (1): 73]

(With three plates)

The present series deals with the systematic enumeration of Oedo-
goniales collected from Jodhpur and its environs. Two species of
Bulbochaete and twenty of Oedogonium are described, out of which five
are new varieties and three are new forms.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION

1. Bulbochaete bharadwajai Singh in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 8 (5) B:
395, fig. 10, D.

Dioecious ; nannandrous; idioandrosporous ; oogonia obovoid to
subcylindric-ovoid, patent or erect, below terminal setae, poriferous,
pore superior ; division of the suffultory cell supreme ; oospore spherical
to subspherical, spore wall thick, three-layered, finely scrobiculate,
androsporangia not seen; nannandria near or on oogonia or scattered
on vegetative cells ; antheridia exterior, 3-4.

Veg. cells 16.0-18.0 x 16.0-22.0 » ; oogonia 29.0-32.0 x 29.0-35.0 p ;
oospore 22.0-26.0 x 26.0-29.0 » ; dwarf male stipe 13.0-14.0 x 16.0-
19.0 w ; antheridia 7.0 x 11.0%; basal cell 16.25 x 22.75 » (Plate I,
fig. 13).

Habitat : Epiphytic on aquatic grasses in Akhey Raj Ji’s Tank; on
submerged twigs and Chara braunii Gmelin in Umed bund (leg.
M. M. Bhandari).

2. Bulbochaete reticulata Nordstedt forma tenuis f. nov. (Plate II,
figs. 36,37).

2 Part of the work submitted in part fulfilment for the M.Sc. Degree Examina-
tion in Botany, University of Rajasthan.

2 Present address : Algal Section, Division of Microbiology, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi

[12]

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Dioecious ; nannandrous; gynandrosporous ; cell slender, longer
than broad ; basal cells short and stout; oogonia ellipsoidal, situated
below terminal setae, vegetative cells or androsporangia ; oospore of the
same shape as the oogonium and filling it completely; oospore wall
thick, outer layer reticulate dentate, longitudinal anastomosing ridges,
the teeth united to each other by transverse ridges ; division of suffultory
ceil supreme; dwarf males situated on or near the oogonia ; antheridia
exterior.

Veg. cells 15.0-19.0 x 61.0-86.0 4 ; oogonia 45.0-52.0 x 76.0-82.0 , ;
oospore 35.0-39.0 x 59.0-68.0 u ; dwarf male stipe 16.25 x 22.0-29.0 x ;
antheridium 9.0-10.0 < 11.0-13.0 gz.

Habitat : Epiphytic on aquatic plants in Kaylana (10-10-59).

The vegetative cells of this form are slightly narrower and the stipes
of the dwarf males are also slightly less broad and long than those of
the type. Hence it is regarded as a new form, forma tenuis form. nov.

Plantae dioicae, nannandrae, gynandrosporae. Cellulae vegetativae
tenues, longiores quam latae; cellulae basales breves et robustae.
Oogonia ellipsoidea, posita sub setis terminalibus et cellulis vegetativis
vel androsporangiis ; oosporae eiusdem formae ac oogonium idque
penitus implentes. Oosporarum parietes crassi, lamina _ exteriore
reticulato-dentata, nonnumquam costis longitudinalibus anastomosanti-
bus, dentibus inter se unitis per juga transversa. Cellularum suffulcien-
tium divisio suprema; mares nani oogoniis insidentes vel prope ea
positi; antheridia externa.

Typus: JB 2, Algal Laboratory, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi-12.

3. Oedogonium croasdaleae Jao var. kaylanaense var. nov. (Plate IT,
figs. 29-31).

Dioecious; nannandrous; gynandrosporous; vegetative cells
cylindric ; oogonia 1-6 sometimes 10 seriate ; oogonia terminal or inter-
calary, subobovoid to quadrangular-ellipsoid, operculate, division
superior ; oospores of the same form as the oogonia, filling the oogonium,
spore wall of three layers, outer smooth, middle layer thick with 16-32
not anastomosing longitudinal ribs, inner spore wall granulate; sufful-
tory cells tumid; androsporangia 1-8 seriate, epigynous, rarely
hypogynous or subhypogynous; dwarf males goblet-shaped, on the
suffultory cell, occasionally on the oogonia; antheridia inferior ;
filaments tapering towards the base; apical cell obtuse, often an
oogonium or androsporangium ; basal cell elongate.

Veg. cell 26.6-34.2 x 156.04; oogonia 57.0-72.2 x 53.2-76.0 u ;
oospores 53.2-68.4 x 49.4-72.2 w; androsporangia 22.8-26.6-34.2 4p ;
dwarf males 19.0-22.8 x 38.0-57.0 yp.

Plantae dioicae, nannandrae, gynandrosporae, cellulae vegetativae

[13]

PLATE I

JourRN. BomMBAY NAT, HIstT. SOc.

Si) aa

Fics. 1-3. Oedogonium perfectum (Hirn) Tiffany: figs. 4 & 5. Oe. hirnii Gutwinskii; fig. 6.
| Oe, tapienosporum f. fowlingense Jao ; figs. 7 & 8. Oe. autumnale Wittrock ; figs. 9 & 10. Oe.
__ foveolarum var. indicum var. nov. ; figs. 11 & 12. Oc. fragile Wittrock var. abyssinicum Hirn ;

fig. 13. Bulbochaete bharadwajai Singh ; figs. 14 & 15. Oe. crassum (Hassal) Wittrock f. indica
| form. nov. ; figs. 16 &17. Oc. exocostatum var. jodhpurense var. nov.; figs. 18 & 19. Oe.
| howardii West ; figs. 20 & 21. Oc. paucicostatum var. unispermum var. nov. ; figs. 22 & 23. Oe.
, nodulosum var. tenue var. nov.; figs. 24 & 25. Oc. plagiostomum Wittrock f. indicum form.

nov. ; figs. 26-28. Oc. punctatum Wittrock

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

(}

Loc
GyA4

iN
:

~ai

29 | | | 34

Figs. 29-31. Oe. croasdaleae var. kaylanaense var. nov.; figs. 32-34. Oe. anomalum Hirn;
fig. 35. Oe. intermedium; figs. 36 & 37. Bulbochaete reticulata Nord. f. tenuis form. nov.;
figs. 38 & 39. Oe. varians Wittr. & Lund.

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS 387

cylindricae ; oogonium vulgo unicum, raro duplex, usque decem tamen
notata sed rarissime. Oogonia vulgo apicalia vel intercalaria, quadran-
gularia vel subovata vel ellipsoidea vel subellipsoidea, operculata,
divisione superiore. Oosporae eiusdem formae ac oogonium idque non
penitus implentes. Sporarum parietes lamina triplici constantes, quarum
exterior levis, media vero crassa ornata 16-32 costis longitudinalibus
anastomosantibus irregulariter undulatis, pulchre granulata in depres-
sione ; cellulae suffulcientes tumidae ; androsporangia usque 8-seriata,
epigyna, raro hypogyna vel subhypogyna; mares nani scyphiformes,
curvati super cellulam suffulcientem, nonnumquam super oogonia ;
antheridia interiora; filamenta fastigata ad basim; cellula apicalis
obtusa, saepe in antheridium vel oogonium mutata, cellula basalis
elongata.

Habitat: From Kaylana, epiphytic on aquatic plants along with
Bulbochaete reticulata forma tenuis f. nov. (10-10-59),

Typus: J0e 3, Algal Laboratory, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi-12.

This form should be compared with Oe. croasdaleae Jao, with which
it agrees in having granulate inner spore wall and nannandrous and
gynandrosporous habit. However it differs from the same in having
non-anastomosing longitudinal ribs, shorter oogonia and oospores and
broader nannandria. It also resembles the members of the ‘ cyathigerum’
and ‘ wolleanum’ group, but can be clearly distinguished by its opercu-
late character and granulate innerspore wall. Hence it is regarded as a
new variety, var. kaylanaense var. nov.

4, Oecedogonium perfectum (Hirn) Tiffany in Ohio J. Sci. 34: 326,
1934. Oc. cyathigerum Wittrock f. perfectum Hirn in Acta Soc. Sci.
Fenn.:27 : 254, t. 63.

Dioecious, nannandrous, idioandrosporous; oogonia intercalary,
occurring singly or in pairs, rarely in threes, globose or subovoid to
ellipsoid, poriferous, division superior ; oospores of the same shape as
oogonia, more or less completely filling the oogonia, outer wall smooth,
middle wall with 20 to 32 anastomosing ribs, inner wall smooth; an-
drosporangia rare; dwarf males goblet shaped, elongate or curved, usually
on the suffultory cell, rarely on the oogonia; suffultory cell
swollen ; apical cell obtuse; vegetative cells cylindric ; antheridium
interior.

Veg. cells (19.0) 22.8-41.8 x 130.0-277.5 » ; oogonium 76.0-95.0 x
72.0-76.0 » ; Oospore 68.25-72.2 * 72.2-94.25 w ; androsporangia 26.6 x
28.5 mw; nannandria 15.0-18.0 x 72.2-98.8 jw; suffultory cell 53.2-
57.0 x 91.2-95.0 p ; basal cell 22.8 « 159.6 w (Plate I, figs. 1-3).

Habitat: From asmall pond near Motikund ; epiphytic on aquatic
plants (6-12-52) (leg. M. M. Bhandari).

[eee

388. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

5. Oedogonium anomalum Hirn. Tiffany in Trans. Amer. Micros.
Soc. 45 (2): 91, figs. 6 and 7, 1926.

Dioecious ; macrandrous ; vegetative cells cylindrical; oogonia
solitary, rarely in pairs, cylindric ovoid, poriferous, division superior ;
oospore globose or subglobose, spore wall smooth ; antheridia in series
of 5-10, sperm 2, division vertical ; apical cell obtuse.

Female Veg. cell 30.4-38.0 x 144.4-228.0 «; male veg. cell 26.6-
30.4 x 144.4-155.8 «; oogonia 64.6-72.2 x 91.2-106.4 »; oospore
53.2-60.8 x 68.4-76.0 »; antheridia 30.4-34.2 x 13.3-19.0 » (Plate II,
figs. 32-34).

Habitat: From Takhatsagar (15-10-59).

6. Oedogonium crassum (Hassall) Wittrock forma indica f. nov.
(Plate I, figs. 14, 15).

Dioecious ; macrandrous ; vegetative cells cylindric ; oogonia solitary
or in pairs, when in pairs one of them is shorter, rarely three, ovoid to
suboblong ellipsoid, poriferous, division superior ; oospores ellipsoid
to ellipsoid globose, may or may not completely fill the oogonia,
spore wall thin and smooth ; antheridia 2-25, sperms 2, division vertical;
suffultory cell not swollen ; basal cell elongate.

Female veg. cell 35.75-40.75 « 126.75-179.0 »; male veg. cell
45.50-52.0 x 104.0-130.0 »; oogonia (81.25) 71.50-82.0 x 104.0-130.0
uw; oospores 68.25-71.50 68.25-97.50 » ; antheridium 6.50-9.75 x
32150535 Ou.

Plantae dioicae, macrandrae, robustae ; cellulae vegetativae cylind-
ricae ; oogonia vulgo singula vel bina, tunc vero alterum altero longius,
vel rarius terna, ovoidea vel suboblongo-ellipsoidea, porifera, poro
superiore ; oosporae ellipsoideae vel ellipsoideo-globosae, oogonium
fere implentes, rarissime globosae nec implentes oogonium ; sporarum
parietes tenues et leves; antheridia 2-25 numero, spermatibus binis,
divisione verticali; cellulae suffulcientes haud tumescentes, basalis
vero elongata. :

Habitat : From Kaylana as epiphytic (28-8-59) and from Akhey Raj
Ji’s Tank, epiphytic on Vallisneria spiralis Linn, (14-1-60).

Typus: JOe 6, Algal Laboratory, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi-12.

The alga can be compared with Oe. ellipsosporum Singh, but differs
greatly in the dimensions. The alga comes very near Oe. crassum
(Hass.) Wittrock in all of its characters, but differs in broader and
shorter vegetative cells, shorter antheridia and slightly bigger oogonia
and much shorter female vegetative cells. It can be compared with Oe.
crassum f, amplum (Magnus & Wille) Hirn in its smaller dimensions
of female vegetative cells and nearly the same dimensions of oogonia
and oospores, but differs from it in shorter dimensions of male

[15]

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS 389

_ vegetative cells and antheridia. It resembles var. subtumidum Hirn in

the dimensions of oogonia, oospores and nearly the same size of the
antheridia, but differs in the dimensions of the vegetative cells. It is,
therefore, treated as a new form, forma indicum f. nov.

7. Oedogonium exocostatum var. jodhpurense var. nov. (Plate I,
figs. 16, 17).

Dioecious; macrandrous; vegetative cells cylindric, basal cell
elongate ; oogonium ellipsoid to ellipsoid-globose, solitary rarely in
pairs, poriferous divisions superior, always intercalary sometimes apical
also; oospores oval or ellipsoid, nearly filling the oogonia, oospore
wall of two layers, outer wall with 13-15 longitudinal ribs with entire
margin, inner layer smooth ; suffultory cell not swollen ; antheridia 3-7,
sperms two, division horizontal.

Female veg. cells 19.50-26.0 x 42.25-71.0 »; male veg. cells 11.0-
13.0 x 43.25-48.0 »; oogonia 42.25-48.75 x 55.25-71.30 p ; oospore
42.25 x 48.75-52.0 uw; antheridium 13.0-14.0 x 5.0-7.0 yp.

Dioicae, macrandrae, cellulae vegetativae cylindricae; cellulae
basales elongatae ; oogonium ellipsoideum vel ellipsoideo-globosum,
unum, raro duo, poriferum, poro superiore, intercalare, nonnumquam
terminale ; oosporae ovales vel ellipsoideae, fere implentes oogonium vel
ut plurimum nequaquam; parietes bis laminati, lamina exteriore
distincta 13-15 costis longitudinalibus marginibus levibus, lamina
interiore levi ; cellulae suffulcientes non tumescentes ; antheridia (3-7),
spermata bina, divisione horizontali.

Habitat: Epiphytic on submerged plants of Cynodon dactylon Pers.
along with Oe. fragile var. abyssinicum Hirn at Kaylana (10-10-52) (leg.
M. M. Bhandari); from Akhey Raj Ji’s Tank, heavily infested with
Uronema indica Ghose, (10-10-59).

Typus: JOe 7, Algal Laboratory, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi-12.

This form agrees with the type in the structure of spore wall, but
differs in having unswollen suffultory cell, shorter vegetative cells and
smaller oospores. Hence it is regarded as a new variety, var. jodh-
purense var. nov.

8. Oedogonium dioicum Carter (?) Tiffany 1930, p. 107, Pl. 37, figs.
356 and 357. )

Dioecious; macrandrous; oogonia solitary, operculate, division
superior, globose to subovoid ; oospore globose to oval or ellipsoid,
thin and smooth oospore wall, not filling the oogonium ; male filaments
slightly smaller than the females; antheridia in series of 5-10, sperms
two, division vertical. ,

Female veg. cell 30.4-32.3 x 83.6-114.0 » ; male veg. cell 24.7-26.6
x 114.0-121.6 »; oogonia (57.0) 60.8-64.6 x (64.6) 76.0-83.6 yu;

[ 16]

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

oospore 45.6-60.8 < (45.6) 64.6-72.2 » ; antheridium 22.8-26.6 x 7.6-
11.4 « (Plate III, figs. 40 & 41).

Habitat : From Akhey Raj Ji’s Tank (10-10-59).

9. Oedogonium howardii West. Tiffany 1930, p. 101, pl. 33, fig.
293; Singh in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 8 (5) B: 389; Venkataraman et
Natrajan in Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 26 B : 15, 1960.

Dioecious ; macrandrous ; vegetative cells broadly capitellate ; oogo-
nia 1-4, globose or pyriform globose, operculate, operculum medium ;
oospore globose or subdepressed globose, nearly filling the oogonia, wall
smooth ; antheridia 1-16; basal cell sub-hemispherical, never elongate ; ;
male filaments slightly broader than the females.

Female veg. cells 7.5-11.0 x 22.75-39.0 «; male veg. cells 8.5-12.0
< 23.0-40.6 » ; oogonium 26.0-32.5 <x 26.0-32.5 u ; oospore 22.75-25.0
x 26.0-32.0 » ; antheridia 7.6-9.5 x 9.5-13.3 » (Plate I, figs. 18 & 19).

Habitat: From Akhey Raj Ji’s Tank as epiphytic (9-8-59).

10. Oedogonium pringsheimii (Crammer) Wittrock. Tiffany, 1930,
p. 107, pi, 35, figs. 325'and 326.

Dioecious ; macrandrous; oogonia solitary or in pairs, globose
depressed globose, operculate, operculum superior ; oospore globose,
nearly filling the oogonium, spore wall smooth ; antheridia 1-5, intercal-
ary, sometimes apical, alternating with vegetative cells, sperms 2,
division horizontal; terminal cell obtuse; male filaments are little
smaller than the females.

Female veg. cell 19.0-22.8 « 38.0-45.6 »; male veg. cell 15.2-17.1
< 34.2-41.8 » ; oogonium 38.0-45.6 x 34.2-38.0 ~; oospore 34.2-41.8
< 30.4-34.2 w; antheridia 15.2-17.1 x 5.7-7.6% (Plate III, figs. 44 &
45).

Habitat : From Bheem Bharak near Jodhpur (10-9-59).

11. Oedogonium punctatum Wittrock. Tiffany 1930, p. 96. pl. 29,
figs. 255-256.

Dioecious ; macrandrous ; vegetative cells cylindric ; oogonia usually
solitary, sometimes in pairs, obovoid to globose obovoid, poriferous,
pore superior; oospore obovoid, more or less completely filling the
oogonia, outer spore wall finely scrobiculate; antheridia 1-5, often
alternating with the vegetative cells, sperms 2, division horizontal ; basal
cell elongate ; terminal cell often an oogonium or obtuse ; suffultory cell
not swollen.

Female veg. cell 13.0-22.75 « 39.0-87.75 jw; male veg. cells
9.75-14.50 < 52.5-65.0 « ; oogonia 39.0-43.75 x 42.25-45.50 « ; oospore
39.0-42.25 x 39.0-45.50 mw; antheridia 11.50-13.0 x 6.0-10.0 4
(Plate I, figs. 26-28).

[i]

JoURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE III

sagem
ss

ew
©
2
>.
ss
[a
N
ie)
z
——
ah
aN
.
5 |
WN

Figs. 40 & 41. Oc. dioicum Carter (?); figs. 42 & 43. Oc. welwitschii West ; figs. 44 & 45.
_ Oe. pringshiemii (Crammer) Wittr.

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS 391

Habitat: From Motikund epiphytic on aquatic plants (26-8-52)
(leg. M. M. Bhandari). :

12. Oecedogonium paucicostatum Transeau var. unispermum var. nov.
(Plate I, figs. 20 & 21).

Dioecious ; macrandrous ; vegetative cells cylindric; oogonia solitary,
ellipsoidal, operculate, division superior; oospore globose to ellipsoid
nearly filling the oogonia, outer wall smooth, medium wall longitudinal-
ly ribbed, ribs 15-17, inner wall smooth; antheridia 1-6, sperm one ;
terminal cell obtuse ; basal cell elongate.

Female veg. cells (19.0) 22.8-30.4 x 40.0-65.0 w; male veg. cells
19.50-32.50 x 68.25-143.0 « ; oogonia 61.75-65.0 < 78.0-81.0 4 ; oospore
49.4-60.8 x 14,22-50.0 w ; antheridia 22.75-29.25 « 14.22 pw.

Plantae dioicae, macrandrae ; cellulae vegetativae cylindricae ; oogo-
nium unicum, ellipsoideum, operculatum, divisione superiore ; oosporae
globosae vel ellipsoideae, oogonium fere implentes ; parietes exteriores
leves, medii vero longitudinaliter costati costis 15-17 longitudinalibus ;
interiores parietes leves; antheridia 1-6, rarius 7, spermata singula,
cellula terminalis obtusa, cellula basalis elongata.

Habitat : From Kaylana ; free floating (21-10-59).

-Typus :—JOe 12, Algal Laboratory, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi-12.

The alga by its superior pore and longitudinally ribbed middle wall
of the oospore comes very near to Oedogonium paucicostatum Trans. It
further agrees with the same in the shape and the number of antheridia,
but it differs from the type, in the nature of antheridia. There is only
a single sperm in the present material, whereas in the type the antheri-
dium has two sperms and the division is horizontal. It further differs
from the type in its shorter vegetative cells and smaller oogonia; the
shape of the oogonia is also variable. The antheridia are much larger
than those of the type. It is, therefore, treated as a new variety, var.
unis permum var. Nov.

13. Ocedogonium plagiostomum Wittrock forma minuta f. nov. (Plate
I, figs. 24 & 25).

Dioecious ; macrandrous; vegetative cells cylindric; oogonia
solitary, sometimes in pairs, globose or ovate, poriferous, division
superior ; oospore globose or subglobose, not filling the oogonia, wall
smooth ; antheridia not found; basal cell elongate; terminal cell
either oogonium or broadly truncate ; suffultory cells sometimes swollen.

Veg. cells 9.75-19.0 x 39.0-68.25 «4; oogonia 35.75-39.0 x 39.0-
48.75 «; oospore 39.0 x 39.0 pu.

Plantae dioicae ; macrandrae; cellulae vegetativae cylindricae;
oogonia solitaria vel nonnumquam bina, ovato-globosa, porifera,

[ 18]
10

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

poro superiore ; oosporae globosae vel subglobosae, oogonium haud
penitus implentes ; parietes leves; antheridia haud visibilia; cellula
basalis elongata, cellula terminalis vel oogonium vel late truncata ;
cellulae suffulcientes nonnumquam tumescentes.

Habitat : Collected along with Oedogonium nodulosum vat. tenue
var. Nov.

Typus : JOe 13, Algal Laboratory, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi-12.

It agrees with Oedogonium plagiostomum in all respects except in
having narrower filaments and narrow and shorter oogonia. The dimen-
sions of the materia] differ from Oe. plagiostomum Wittrock described
by Carter (1926) and Venkataraman (1959). Hence it is regarded as a
smaller form of Oe. plagiostomum forma minuta f. nov.

14. Oedogonium tapeinosporum f. fowlingense Jao in Sinnesia 8:
299-313, 1937. Venkataraman in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 : 63-63,
fig. -9:

Dioecious ; macrandrous ; vegetative cells cylindric; oogonia 1-6,
pyriform to pyriform-globose or depressed-globose, operculate, division
median, oospore depressed-globose, not filling the oogonia, spore wall
smooth ; terminal cell often an oogonium antheridia not seen; vege-
tative cells capitellate.

Veg. cells 7.50-8.25 x 22.75-29.0 4; oogonia 19.50-21.0 x 19.50-
22.75 «3 oospore 17.0-18.0 x 11.0-15.0 « (Plate I, fig. 6).

Habitat : Collected along with Bulbochaete reticulata forma tenuis
f. nov. from Kaylana (10-10-59). |

15. Oedogonium varians Wittrock et Lundell. Tiffany 1930, p. 69,
pl. 12, fig. 120.

Dioecious ; macrandrous; oogonia solitary, globose, depressed-
globose or pyriform-globose, poriferous, division superior ; oospore
globose, wall smooth; antheridia 1-4, alternating with vegetative cells,
sperms 2, division horizontal ; vegetative cells cylindrical.

Female veg. cells 11.4-15.2 x 34.2-41.8 «1 ; male veg. cells 11.4-15.2
x 30.4-41.8 «; oogonia 32.3-38.0 x 26.6-45.6 w; oospore 30.4-34.2 x
30.4-34.2 w ; antheridia 9.5-15.2 x 3.8-7.6 4 (Plate II, figs. 38 and 39).

Habitat : Floating at Balsamand gardens (27-10-59) and Maghraj
Ji’s ka Tanka on Mandore Road (27-10-59).

16. Oedogonium welwitschii West & West. Tiffany 1930, pl. 37,
figs. 351-352.

Dioecious; macrandrous; vegetative cells cylindrical; oogonia
solitary, globose to depressed globose, operculate, operculum superior ;
oospore. globose, wall smooth; antheridia 1-3, sperms 2, division
horizontal.

[19]

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS 393

Female veg. cell 19.0-22.8 x 76.0-87.4 «; male veg. cells 17.1-19.1
x 45.6-68.4 w; oogonia 45.6-49.4 x 45.6-51.3 uw; oospore 41.8-43.5 x
39.9-41.8 « ; antheridia 11.4-15.2 x 7.6-11.4 ~ (Plate III, figs. 42 & 43).
Habitat : From a pool near Lalsagar (29-9-59).

17. Oedogonium autumnale Wittrock. Tiffany 1930, p. 112, pl. 36,
fig. 341.

Monoecious; macrandrous; vegetative cells cylindric; oogonia
solitary, globose or obovoid globose, operculate, division superior 5
oospores bright yellow, globose, not completely filling the oogonia,
spore wall thick and smooth ; antheridia 1-2, subepigynous, hypogynous
or scattered, sperms 2, division horizontal ; terminal cell acute.

Veg. cell 17.75-22.75 X48.75-74.75 w ; oogonia 48.75-55.25 x 45.50-
55.25 »; oospore 39,0-42.25-39.0-42.25 w ; antheridia 17.0 x 5.50-9.0 p
(Plate I, figs. 7 & 8).

Habitat : From Lalsagar (10-10-52) (leg. M. M. Bhandari), and from
Balsamand gardens along with Oedogonium fragile var. abyssinicum
Hirn (14-10-59). |

18. Oedogonium foveolarum Wittrock var. indicum var. nov. (Plate I,
figs. 9 & 10).

Monoecious ; macrandrous; vegetative cells cylindric; oogonia
solitary or in pairs, globose to subglobose, poriferous, pore superior ;
oospore globose to subellipsoid-globose, filling or not filling the oogo-
nium, spore wall two layered, inner smooth, outer scrobiculate ;
antheridia 1-2 epigynous, hypogynous or scattered, sperms 2, division
horizontal ; basal cell elongate ; terminal cell obtuse or an antheridium.

Veg. cell 16.25-26.0 x 61.75-97.50 » ; oogonia 48.75-65.0 x 53.0-
61.75 uw; oospore 42.25-47.50 « 42.25-45.50 pL ; antheridia 19.50-22:75.«:
4.75-9.75 bu.

Plantae monoicae, macrandrae ; cellulae vegetativae cylindricae ;
oogonia singula vel bina, globosa vel subglobosa porifera, poro
superiore ; oosporae globosae vel subellipsoideo-globosae implentes
oogonium vel secus ; parietes bis laminati, lamina exteriore levi, interiore
vero scrobiculata ; antheridia singula vel bina, epigyna, hypogyna vel
dispersa, spermatibus binis, divisione horizontali, cellula basali elon-
gata, terminali vero apicaliter obtusa vel vulgo in antheridium mutata.

Habitat : Along with Oedogonium nodulosum var. tenue var. nov.,
Schizemeris irregularis, and Ulothrix zonata (Weber and Mohr) Kutz.
from Mandore (14-10-59),

Typus : JOe 18, Algal Laboratory, Indian Aenioubsital Research Ins-
titute, New Delhi-12. -

This alga differs from the type in having scrobiculate inner spore
wall while in the type the outer wall is scrobiculate. Hence it is regard:
ed as a new variety, var. indicum var. nov.

[20 ]

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

19. Ocdogonium fragile var. abyssinicum Hirn. Tiffany 1930, p. 75,
_pl. 15, fig. 145.

Monoecious ; macrandrous ; vegetative cells cylindric, lateral walls
slightly convex; oogonia solitary or in pairs, globose to pyriform-
globose, poriferous, division superior ; oospore globose to pyriform
globose, usually not completely filling the oogonium, spore wall smooth;
antheridia 1-2, epigynous, hypogynous, sometimes subepigynous ;
sperms 2, division horizontal ; basal cell elongate.

Veg. cell 16.0-19.0 x 26.0-51.0 » ; oogonia 39.0-45.0 x 40.0-55.0 pz ;
oospore 39.0-42.0 x 42.0-48.0 » ; antheridium 14.50-16.25 «x 9,50-11.0 2
(Plate I, figs. 11 & 12).

Habitat: From Akhey Raj Ji’s Tank (14-10-59) and from Kaylana
(10-10-52) (leg. M. M. Bhandari),

20. Oedogonium hirnii Gutwinskii. Tiffany 1930, p. 73, pl. 14, figs.
136-137.

Monoecious ; macrandrous; vegetative cells capitellate ; oogonia
solitary, globose, poriferous, pore superior ; oospore globose or ovoid
globose, filling the oogonium or not, spore wall smooth; antheridia
epigynous or subepigynous, sperms 2, division horizontal; basal cells
elongate.

Veg. cell 9.0-10.0 x 29.25-39.0 4; oogonia 22.75-29.25 x 26.0-
32.50 # ; oospore 19.0-26.0 x 22.0-28.0 »; antheridia 4.50 x 7.50 z
(Plate I, figs. 4 & 5).

Habitat : Epiphytic on Vallisneria spiralis Linn. at Akhey Raj Ji’s
Tank.

21. Oedogonium intermedium Wittrock. Tiffany 1930, p. 72, pl. 14,
fig. 134.

Monoecious; macrandrous; vegetative cells cylindrical; oogonia
solitary, globose to depressed globose, poriferous, division superior,
oospore globose or obovoid globose nearly filling the oogonium, spore
wall thick and smooth, light brown in colour ; antheridia 1-4, sperms 2,
division horizontal, epigynous or subepigynous.

Veg. cells 15.2-19.0 x 38.0-41.8 wp; oogonia 38.0-41.8 x 34.2-45.6 pw;
oospore 34.2-37.4 x 34.2-37.4 w; antheridia 11.4-13.3 x_3.8-5.7 wy.

Habitat : From Panch Kund near Mandore as free floating (29-10-59).

22. Oedogonium nodulosum var. tenue var. nov. (Plate I, figs. 22 & 23).

Monoecious ; macrandrous; vegetative cells undulate with three
undulations, sometimes cylindrical capitellate; basal cell elongate ;
oogonia solitary, sub-globose to sub-depressed-globose, operculate,
operculum superior ; oospore sub-depressed to depressed-globose nearly
filling the oogonium, wall smooth and thick antheridia 1-2 seriate,
sperms 2, division horizontal, apical cell usually obtuse, sometimes

apiculate or an antheridium.
[21]

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS $95

Veg. cell 16.30-22.82 x 26.08-52.16 » ; oogonia 32.6-38.88 x 26.08:
35.86 w; oospore 19.6-32.6 X 22.82-32.6 »; antheridia 15.0 x 4.76.
6.52 » ; basal cell 15.0-16.30 x 52.16-55.42 yu.

Plantae monoicae, macrandrae; cellulae vegetativae capitellatae,
nonnumquam nodulosae; cellula basalis elongata; oogonia singula,
subpyriformia vel subdepresso-globosa, operculata ; divisione supramedia.
Oosporae subdepressae vel depresso-globosae, fere implentes oogonium ;
- parietes sporarum leves ; antheridia 1-3 seriata, subepigyna vel dispersa ;
spermata bina, divisio horizontalis, vulgo cellula apicalis est obtusa, sed
aliquando est apiculata.

Habitat : From Akhey Raj Ji’s Tank (15-10-59).

Typus : JOe 25, Algal Laboratory, Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi-12.

This form differs from the type in smaller dimensions. It also
differs in having sometimes cylindrical capitellate cells scattered between
undulate veg. cells. This form should, however, be compared with Qe,
sphaerandrium from which it differs in having elongate basal cell,
solitary oogonia, formation of two sperms in each antheridium, absence
of pyriform apical cell and having bigger dimensions. Hence it is
regarded as a new variety, var. fenue var. nov.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Messrs. R. M. Bhandari and M. M. Bhan-
dari of Jaswant College, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, for their guidance; to
Dr. G. S. Venkataraman of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi-12, for advice and to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau for kindly translating
the new taxa into Latin.

REFERENCES

Freshwater Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. 45 (2):
69-132.

CarTER, N. (1926) :
Bot. Surv.

algae from India. Rec.
India 9 : 263-302, pl. I-II.

GEMEINHARDT, K. (1939) : Oedogonia-
les in Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamenfiora
12 Leipzig.

Hirn, K. E. (1900): Monographie
und Iconographie d. Oedogoniaceen.
Acta Soc. Sc. Fern. 34: 1-394.

Jao, C. C. (1934): Oedogonium in
the vicinity of Woods: Hole, Massachu-
setts. Rhodora 36 : 197-214.

1937): New Oedogonia
collected from China. Sinensia8: 299-

SINGH, R. N. (1938) : The Oedogonia-
les of the United Provinces. Proc.
Indian Acad. Sci. 8 B: 373-395.

TIFFANY, L-H. (1926): The Filamentous
algae of North Western Iowa,
special reference to the Oedogoniaceae.

[22]

with .

TIFFANY, L. H. (1930) : The Oedogo-
niaceae. A monograph. Columbus,

Ohio.
—-—— (1934): Oedogonia-
ceae, Supplementary paper No. 1, Ohio.
326.

Journ. Sci. 34:
— (1936) : New species
of sap ae Trans. Amer. Micros.

Soc. 55 (1):

—— oan) pon American
Flora—Oedogoniales 11 (1): 1-103.
VENKATARAMAN, G. j. (1959) :

Some new and interesting forms of
Oedogonium from Uttar Pradesh. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 (1) : 60-65.

, & NATARAJAN, K. V. (1960):
Notes on some Oedogoniales from
Kerala State, India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sc.
India 26 (1) B : 7-18,

ee eee

Some Observations on the Fauna
of the Maldive Islands

Part VII—BUTTERFLIES

BY
W. W. A. PHILLIPS

[Continued from Vol. 55 (3): 492]

This short paper is the outcome of two visits paid by the author and
his wife to the Maldive Islands, the first to North Malé Atoll from the
end of November 1956 to early February 1957 and the second to Addu
Atoll in the extreme south of the archipelago from the end of May
1958 to the beginning of April 1959. On both these visits we were ac-
companied by a retired Colombo Museum collector and taxidermist,
William Perera, who always carried a butterfly-net whenever we went
out and who, when not otherwise engaged, devoted much of his time to
collecting specimens of the local lepidoptera and other insects. The
main objective of our activities was a study of the vertebrate fauna of the
archipelago (see Parts I-V of this series, Vol. 55) so the collection
of lepidoptera and insects was, unavoidably, of secondary importance.
Even so, numerous specimens were collected and some notes were
made. Po agt

The first collection, from North Malé Atoll, was sent to the British
Museum (Natural History) on our return to England in 1957, but the
specimens collected in Addu Atoll were forwarded by post, through the
Field Post Office on Gan, direct to the Museum, from time to time as
the specimens were collected, for the hot and humid climatic conditions _
that prevail in Addu Atoll made it inadvisable to keep them longer
than was necessary in such a climate.

The specimens were identified through the kindness of Mr. N. D.
Riley, former Keeper of Entomology at the Museum, and Mr. T. G.
Howarth and I am now able to give an annotated list of the butterflies
collected. I have added a few brief remarks under each species where
necessary. My grateful thanks are due to Mr. Riley and to Mr.
Howarth for their assistance. :

It is interesting to note that, while 25 species were collected in
North Male Atoll (approx. 73° 30’ E. 4° 30’ N., near the centre of the
archipelago) and several others were seen but evaded capture, a more
prolonged and thorough search in Addu Atoll (the southernmost atoll of

[ 44 ]

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAUNA OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS 397

the group, lying some 30 miles south of the Equator) revealed only 7
species in that atoll. This fact tends to confirm the belief that the
butterfly fauna of the Maldives decreases rapidly as one proceeds
southwards, many more species and many more individuals being found
in the northern atolls than in the southern.

So closely are the Maldivian butterflies related to those of south
India and Ceylon! that it has proved impossible to differentiate between
them, thus indicating (as isolation has so far failed to evolve any new
forms) that the influx of butterflies into the Maldives is of comparati-
vely recent origin and that all the species now found in the Maldives
have originated either in south India or in Ceylon. It seems very pro-
bable, if not certain, that the majority of them owe their fortuitous
presence in the Maldives to the winds and gales of the NE. Monsoon
which have assisted their passage across the intervening seas. Some of
them, may, however, have moved southwards, from atoll to atoll,
through the Laccadives into the Maldives and on southwards to Addu
Atoll.

That some species do, in fact, fly the seas that divide the Maldives
from Ceylon, even when the winds are light, is confirmed by the sighting
of a large, strong-flying Papilionid (probably Afrophaneura sp.) flying
westwards close over the seas at 15.55 hrs. in the afterncon of 28 No-
vember 1956 when our vessel, the Max Arlt, was still some 200 miles
east of Malé, the nearest land. Other swallow-tails were sighted, later
in the visit, flying strongly over the lagoons, from island to island.

For a description of the Maldivian Archipelago reference should be
made to the first paper of this series.

ANNOTATED CHECKLIST OF MALDIVIAN BUTTERELIES, LEPIDOPTERA,
RHOPALOCERA

Family : SATYRIDAE

3 species taken in North Malé Atoll but the family is not represented
in Addu Atoll. One species, Culapa mineus polydecta, taken by Gardner,
was not seen by me.

Melanitis leda ismene C. : The Common Evening Brown

Moderately plentiful in North Malé Atoll (especially in Maié) but
absent from Addu. Frequent in gardens and compounds in the even-
ings. Females appear to be more plentiful than males ; of 14 of the dry
season form, 4 were males and 10 were females, but of the wet season
form 2 were males and only one a female.

1 All the Species and ub das included in the list occur in south India and
Ceylon.—EDs..

[ 45 ]

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Orsotriaena medus mandata M.: The Nigger

Very plentiful in North Malé Atoll but absent from Addu. A com-
mon species amongst the scrub and lush vegetation around the swamps
on Hulule and Willingilli Islands but rare on Malé Island. Males
greatly outnumber females.

Culapa (Mycalesis) visala subdita M.: The Tamil Bush-Brown
Rare. 2 males, only, were taken on Malé. Not seen in Addu.

Family : DANAIDAE

2 species were taken in North Malé Atoll, one of which was also
found in Addu. One species, Euploea sylvester montana, recorded by
Gardner, was not met with by me.

Danaus chrysippus chrysippus L.: The Plain Tiger

Widespread but rather scarce. A male and 4 females were taken in
North Malé and a further 12 in Addu Atoll.

Danaus limniace leopardus B. (=mutina F.): The Blue Tiger

Rare. A single female was taken in North Malé Atoll, possibly a
wind-driven wanderer from south India.

Family : NYMPHALIDAE

5 species were taken in North Malé Atoll, 3 of which were common
to that atoll and to Addu. At least one other species was seen but
evaded capture in Male. |

Acraea (Telchinia) violae F.: The Tawny Coster

Rare. 2 females were taken in open grassland on Hulule Island,
close to Malé, in North Malé Atoll. Not found in Addu.

Vanessa cardui L.: The Painted Lady

3 females, all rather worn, were taken in North Malé Atoll but,
during September and October (1958) many fresh specimens were observ-
ed in the grassy areas of Gan, in Addu Atoll. The species appeared to
be widespread in the Maldives nae to be moderately plentiful at certain
times of the year.

Hypolimnas misippus L.: The Danaid Eggfly

Rather uncommon in North Malé Atoll but more plentiful in Addu
Atoll, Males are considerably more plentiful than females.

Precis orithya ocyale H. (=swinhoei B.): The Blue Pansy
One of the commonest butterflies in the Maldive Islands. 15 males
and 14 females of the dry season form were taken in North Malé Atoll,
[ 46 ]

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAUNA OF'THE MALDIVE ISLANDS 399

but only 2 males of the wet season form. In Addu, where it is, by far,
the most attractive and plentiful of all the butterflies-in that atoll, over
50 perfect insects were taken and many others were seen throughout the
greater part of the year. They favoured the sandy, short-grass areas.

Precis hierta hierta F.: The Yéllow Pansy

9 freshly emerged males and 8 females were taken in North Malé
Atoll during January (1957) but the species was not met with in Addu,
In North Malé Atoll it is evidently a resident and is moderately plenti-
ful at times. It favours the same areas as the last species.

Family : PAPILIONIDAE

Only 2 species were taken in North Malé Atoll, a single specimen
of one of them being also taken in Addu. A third species (probably
Papilio polytes) was seen on the wing but evaded capture in North Maleé.
It seems very probable that all the individuals of this strong-flying
family that appear in the Maldives have been blown over from the
coasts of south India and Ceylon by the NE. Monsoon winds, vide
the one seen during our voyage to Malé flying strongly some 200 miles
to the east of the archipelago. )

Atrophaneura (Polydorus) hector L.: The Crimson Rose

6 males were taken in North Malé Atoll and a single one in Addu ;
no female was seen. This species appears to be an immigrant to the
Maldives ; several were seen flying low and strongly over the waters of
the lagoons and arriving from over the seas.

Atrophaneura (Polydorus) aristolochiae aristolochiae F.: The Common
Rose
Rare. Probably an immigrant from south India. A single female
was taken in North Malé Atoll ; the species was not. observed in Addu.

Family : PIERIDAE

Represented by 5 species in North Malé Atoll but by only a single
species in Addu. In addition to the 5 species taken in North Malé
Atoll, a further species (probably Hebomoia glaucippe L.) was seen
but it evaded capture.

Appias albina darada Fd.: The Common Albatross |
Rare. A single male was taken in North Malé Atoll; not observed
_ in Addu Atoll. ; |

Eurema brigitta rubella W. : The Small Grass Yellow
~ Scarce. 3 males and a female were taken in North Malé Atoll; not
met with in Addu.
[47]

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Eurema hecabe simulata M. : The Common Grass Yellow

Widespread and plentiful throughout most of the year. While only
7 females were taken in North Malé Atoll, this species was common
amongst the long grass on Gan Island, Addu Atoll. Many newly
emerged specimens were taken.

Catopsilia pomona pomona F. : The Lemon Emigrant

Frequently met with amongst the bush-scrub on Hulule Island, close
to Malé, in North Malé Atoll. 3 Males and 3 females were taken. Not
met with in Addu Atoll.

Catopsilia pyranthe minna H.: The Mottled Emigrant

Plentiful in North Malé Atoll where 10 males and 53 females of the
dry season form, and a single male and 4 females of the wet season form
were taken. Females were far more numerous than males, Not met
with in Addu Atoll. :

Family : LYCAENIDAE

Well represented by 7 species in North Malé Atoll but by only 2 in
Addu Atoll. Most species are very local in their distribution and tend
to remain close to the plants on which their caterpillars feed.

Zizeeria knysna karsandra M.: The Dark Grass Blue

Moderately plentiful around the low, creeping Lippia nodiflora Rich.
that covers the lawns and playing-fields, in the place of grass, in Male,
in North Malé Atoll. 8 males and 7 females were collected, Absent
from Addu Atoll.
Zizina (Zizeeria) otis indica Mur. (=devata But.): The Lesser Grass

Blue

Abundant around the low, creeping Lippia nodiflora Rich. patches
on Malé Island, in North Malé Atoll, but absent from Addu. Generally
in association with the last species.
Zizula hylax F. (=gaika Tri.): The Tiny Grass Blue

Moderately plentiful, in association with the last two species, around
the low, creeping Lippia nodiflora Rich. areas in Malé, North Malé
Atoll, but absent from Addu Atoll. 4 males and 8 females were taken.
Freyeria putli Koll. (-=Zizeeria trochilus putli Koll.): The Grass Jewel

A single male and 3 females were taken in North Malé Atoll.
Appears to be an uncommon species. Not met with in Addu Atoll.
Lampides boeticus L.: The Pea Blue

A widespread and moderately plentiful species in North Malé Atoll.
2 specimens were taken, also, in Addu Atoll where it is much less

common.
[ 48 ]

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAUNA OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS 401

Euchrysops cnejus F.: The Gram Blue

Widespread and moderately common in North Malé Atoll and also
in Addu Atoll where it is generally found in association with low,
creeping plants of the pea family growing in matted patches on the sandy
foreshore on Gan Island.

Spalgis epius Wd.: The Apefly
2 males and 7 females were taken around bushes in gardens and

compounds in Malé, North Malé Atoll, where it appears to be resident
in small numbers. Not met with in Addu Atoll.

Family: HESPERIIDAE

Only one species was taken in the Maldives but another species was
seen on the wing (but evaded capture) in North Malé Atoll. The single
species is widespread and plentiful.

Borbo cinnara Wall. (=colaca M.): Wallace’s Swift or Skipper
Widespread and moderately plentiful. Although only 3 males were

taken in North Malé Atoll, it was a common species amongst the grass

and rank vegetation in Addu Atoll during the greater part of the year,

REFERENCES

PHILLips, W. W. A. (1958): Some WoopHousg, L. G. O. (1949): The
Observations on the Fauna of the Mal- Butterfly Fauna of Ceylon. 2nd. Ed.
dive Islands. Pt. I—TIntroduction. Colombo.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (1):1-3. — .

[49]

Floral asymmetry in Malvaceae

T. A. DAVIS AND J. C. SELVARAJ?.
Indian Statistical Institute; Calcutta

(With three text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The petals of a Malvaceous flower are twisted, either clockwise
or anticlockwise. In the same plant of any species of this family, the
two types of flowers occur almost in the same proportion (Davis 1964).
Investigations show that this proportion is not affected significantly by
seasonal variations. This peculiarity is conspicuously displayed also
in Bombacaceae, a family formerly included under Malvaceae (Hooker
1872). Sterculiaceae, Cochlospermaceae, Linaceae, Caricaceae, Palmae.
and less prominently Tiliaceae and a few others also show this floral
asymmetry. The phyllotaxy of Malvaceae is alternate and the flowers
are mostly solitary and axillary. (Malachra capitata is a good excep-
tion.) A critical study of the flowers on several shoots of a few
species did not show that alternate leaves bear in their axils flowers of
the same petal-twist. However, a ‘variety’ of Althaea rosea did not
conform to this generalisation. The stamens of both the types of
flowers were estimated in a few species, and ho significant difference
noticed between them.

OBSERVATION

When viewed apically, a flower is considered left-handed (clock-
wise aestivation) if the inner margin of a petal curves clockwisely
towards the periphery, and right-handed if it curves counter-clockwisely.
In figure 1 are seen the two types of flowers of a Gossypium species
together with partial floral diagrams of the same. In most species

1 At the Madras Agricultural College & Research Institute, Coimbatore, 3

FLORAL ASYMMETRY IN MALVACEAE : 403

of this family, examination of even a single petal will help to determine
the aestivation of the flower since the individual petals are asymmetri-
cal. According to Rendle (1959), there is a positive correlation

Fic. 1. Left- and right-handed flowers of Gossypium barbadense

between the asymmetric nature of a petal and twisted aestivation. In
some species, such as Hibiscus rosasinensis, the monadelphous staminal
tube twists clockwisely or conversely in accordance with the direction
of twisting of the corolla (Fig. 2). In the case of Thespesia popuinea
it is possible to determine the nature of the petals by merely looking
at the stigmata on account of their asymmetrical nature. -

In Table I data on flowers of 34 species of Malvaceae are given.
Most of these were personally collected by the senior author in and

404. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

around Calcutta, Bombay, and Colombo during 1961-1963, and for
five species including portions of those for Abutilon indicum and

Scale: 0 i 2 3 cm.

Fic. 2. The left two figures show stigmata (and stamens) of Thespesia populnea
and the rest show staminal tubes in Hibiscus rosasinensis.

Hibiscus rosasinensis which show a significant excess for the left-
handeds were collected irem Coimbatore (south India) by the
second author. Of the 34 species, 19 have excess left-
handed flowers, and-of these, the x® values for only. three species
show a significant difference from equality. None of the 15 species
having excess right-handeds, as is obvious from the table, shows a
significant difference. The x? value for the over-all population shows
a significant difference from the expected even though the left-handeds
form only 50.62 per cent. of the total flowers. This significance is
brought about mainly by the figures for Hibiscus rosasinensis and
Abutilon indicum. The figures received from Coimbatore for the
latter showed a high percentage of left-handeds (67.1 per cent.). The
data for H. rosasinensis relate to 46 bushes observed in Calcutta for
a three-month period in 1961, 5 bushes for the year 1962, and 4 bushes
from Coimbatore observed for two months in 1962. It may be
mentioned that in all these populations the left-handed flowers were
slightly in excess of the right-handeds, the mean on the total flowers
being 51.25 -+ 0.28 per cent. lefts. H. rosasinensis alone accounts for
43.27 per cent. of the total flowers studied, and the 7? value (20.6263)
for this species largely affects the entire population, leading to a

FLORAL ASYMMETRY IN MALVACEAE 405

significant excess for the lefts. Ignoring this species, equality may be
expected for the rest of the species. Since the excess of lefts over

TABLE I

®
AESTIVATION IN FLOWERS OF SOME MALVACEOUS SPECIES

No. of} _Petal-twi |
Species Noict pace re aR RR Wa
plants Left | Right |
1. Abutilon hirtum 12} 1301 1371 2672 —70 1.8338
2. Abutilon indicum 9 315 222 537 93 16.1061
3. Abutilon megapotamicum z, 29 31 60 —2 0.0667
4. Abutilon ochsenii > 1 2 4 6. —2 0.6667
5. Achania conzeitii 2 168 156 324 - 12 0.4444
6. Althaea rosea 39 | 1445 1414 2859 31 = (0.3361
7. Gossypium anomalum 1 7 3 10 4 | 1.6000
8. Gossypium arboreum 5 683 649 1332 34. 0.8679
9. Gossypium barbadense | 26 663 627 1290 36 | 1.0047
10. Gossypium davidsonii 1 13 16 29 —3 0.3103
11. Gossypium herbaceum 3 8 6 14 2 | 0.2857
12. Gossypium hirsutum | 14 397 391 788 6 . 0.0457
13. Gossypium taitense | 3 8 6 14 2. oy», 0.2857
14. Gossypium thurberi | 1 | 3 0 3. 3 ~~ 3.0000
15. Gossypium sp. (wild) | Be 62 67 129 =—5 0.1938
16. Hibiscus cannabinus 69 876 891 1767 | —15 ~~ 0.1273
17. Hibiscus esculentus 60 259 254 509 | 1 0.0020
18. Hibiscus hirtus 6 | 30 34 644 —4 ,_ 0.2500
19. Hibiscus indicus 1 | 18 19 37 |. —I1 | 0.0270
20. Hibiscus mutabilis A ee 1B 84 156.) —12 | 0.9231
21. Hibiscus rosasinensis 55 16871 16047 | 32918 ..- 824 20.6263
22. Hibiscus schizopetalus 2 17 10 art} 7 | 1.8148
23. Hibiscus sabdariffa | 93 | 567 574 1141 —7 0.0429
24. Hibiscus tiliaceus Bull ieee Ol 300 591 “|; —9 | 0.1371
25. Hibiscus tortuosus 1 81 80 161 1 0.0062
26. Hibiscus tricuspis 1 14 13 De | 1 = 0.0370
27. Hoheria lyalli” 1 3 6 69 | —=3 ©% 1.0000
28. Malachra capitata 6 | 8892 8883 LITTS: || 9 0.0046
29. Malvastrum sp. 2 P| 32-4 59 —5 0.4237
30. Pavonia coxi 5 104 92 196 12 O7847
31. Pavonia odorata 2 3 13 “16 , —10 — 6.2500
32. Sida cordifolia 23. |,” 3187 3049 6236 138 3.0539
33. Thespesia populnea 6 2282 2394 |. 4676: ,/—112 2.6826
34. Urena lobata 2 118 M7 Ay 235) "| 1 0.0043
r Total _,. | 464 | 38812 37855 | 76667 957". 05.1951
ea | |

D Eroni figure 149, J. Roy. Hort. Soc. 87, 1962.

2 From figure 1691, Text Book of Theoretical ory 2. R. C. Mclean &
W. R. Ivimey Cook.

tights is persisting inthe case of H. rosasinensis even with large
samples, and during different seasons, this peculiarity requires to be
investigated in detail.

“In the graph, data on the left- and right-handed flowers of the 46
bushes of H. rosasinensis are expressed. Of these plants, 37 had
excess lefts, one equality, and only 8 had excess of rights. The

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

406

The x test shows

x”, (for totals) 13.349, x?,,=46.6031, so x?,;=33.264. There is

probability of so great an excess is very small.

not the faintest evidence of heterogeneity. That is, any plant would

2000

LEFT- HANDEDS
RIGHT-HANDEDS
é
‘

age
$48

Hie
NX
NNN
NNN

ASN NGRGN NEY LTD DD,

oe RACED BER EDM DL DLIL PAPAL
mo ass WA SARA sR, US LD LI DD LA LAD LIL APL

= DAWES CWE SOONG OLD DIED ILE, LD. .

- MDASBBS S BSS SwEEOSOOOS BO EA LILLGLDLILI LL LD Lag LD ALL ALD LPL LVL
PON EN EN ENG NEN NNN ON NN NEN NNN NN MD IO aM)
a. aD OERAeR EGGS BE ESS AS SE OOO OLD LD LD LI LD LEED LD LD PAL AD MOLD ED ILI

S S . S S Ss Ss Ss =)
SS 9S S Ss 9 9S S S S oO
© © + NA Ss ee) co wt N
~ r ~ ~

SYIMOTS AO YFEWNN

ZO 35 40 45

BUSHES OBSERVED

Right- and left-handed flowers from 46 bushes of Hibiscus rosasinensis

10.0 49, 20-825

)

Fic. 3.

recorded for a three-month period in 1962

have differed from another if a bigger sample had been available.
However, the situation is quite different from that of the groups of

coconut palms (Davis 1962, 1963).

FLORAL ASYMMETRY IN MALVACEAE 407

The leaves of Malvaceous plants are alternate and the flowers are
mostly axillary. An examination of the flowers of consecutive leaf
axils in some shoots of Hibiscus cannabinus, H. sabdariffa, H.
rosasinensis, and H. esculentus did not show that alternate leaves bear
in their axils flowers of the same petal-twist. The two types of
flowers are randomly distributed on every shoot. Table II gives
information on the flowers of thirteen branches (ranging from 4 to
13 per shoot) of H. cannabinus. Only one shoot out of thirteen shows
a significant deviation from equality. During early 1962, a ‘variety’

TABLE II

FLOWERS IN CONSECUTIVE LEAF AXILS OF 13 SHOOTS OF
Hibiscus cannabinus (OBSERVED FROM 3RD TO 15TH NOVEMBER 1964)

Flowers in leaf axils numbers |
Shoot |- ss Pte Seer (L—R)’
Total (L+R
La 2 be 4 5 647. .8 9. 10-0 12. 3 |
RR, R R--L, ROR. R R LR 2 Is 9 R | 4.4545
2 ae A Re ORR LR oe OR lane © 5 R 0
Bat wee Flat sie se 30 2 R | 0.2000
4 |R LR RUG pan 3 R | 0.2000
> R Ee Rv coR “RR Eye bL bb EL Lb ob 9 L 4 R | 1.9231
6. |B Reiko ER ae 2 R | 0.2000
7 Rb ab. GR. R 2 net © 3 R 0
Ore lee er Sse , 3G 3 R 0
9 |R RRRR One 5 R | 5.0000
10°} OR RO ORO OL Dron li, 3 R_ 0.1666
11 RL. b..-R 2 2. AR 0
2 VR GE. Ie Re LE OR 3 Is 3 R 0
3 |b RRR R *L 20h 4 R | 0.6667
(
Total 39 =| «48 = 12.8443

X= imbricate aestivation

of Althaea rosea grown at the Indian Statistical Institute’s premises
showed a peculiar pattern of arrangement of left- and right-handed
flowers. Each leaf bore two flowers in most axils. The first flower
was the normal axillary one and this was invariably a right-hander.
Each axil produced an accessory flower always towards the right side
of the axillary flower and this was invariably left-handed. Unfor-
tunately this ‘variety’ could not be propagated again. Our observations
during the subsequent seasons on other Althaea rosea plants gave the
same story as the rest of the Malvaceae. Eichler (1878) seems to
have observed in Malva sylvestris a regular pattern in the asymmetry,
as adjacent flowers showed different direction of twisting.

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

At the request of the senior author, observations were made on
the following Malvaceous species at the Stonehurst Estates, Ardingly,
Sussex, by G. R. Wakefield: Adutilon vitifolium, A. Sauvitzli, A.
thompsonii, A. megapotamicum, Hibiscus syriacus, Hoheria. lyalli, H.
galabrata, Malva sylvestris, and M. rotundifolia. The following is the
summary of his observations reported in the Nature communication
(Davis 1964) and reproduced here: ‘Flowers on trusses of identical
stages of growth do not appear to have the same opening pattern
(twist); they do not seem to open alternately one way or the other.
Flowers opening at different times of the year, consequently under
different climatic conditions and light densities. do not show any
regularity either one way or the other (right or left); likewise there
seems to be no difference between flowers opening on the sunny side
of the bush or the shaded side. Altogether I seem to be able to prove
no pattern of regularity and the numbers seem to be roughly equal
for either direction.’

' The number of stamens of both right- and left-handed flowers of
a few Malvaceous and several Bombacaceous species is being estimated
on a large scale and the full account will be published elsewhere. In

TABLE III

Hibiscus rosasinensis : NUMBER OF STAMENS PER FLOWER

Lefts | Rights
|
1 95 1 99
D 96 2 96
3 94 3 96
4 97 4 97
5 92 5 102
6 95 6 104
| 102 fi 104
8 97 8 97
9 100 9 100
10 92 10 97
11 105 11 93
a2 103 12 88
13 97 13 93
14 99 14 96
15 93 15 100
1457 1462
Mean 97.13 97.47

Table III, data on the stamens of 15 flowers each of left- and right-
handed flowers of Hibiscus rosasinensis are given. It is clear that both
the types do not differ significantly.

FLORAL ASYMMETRY IN MALVACEAE _ 409
SUMMARY

The flowers of Malvaceae and Bombacaceae and most or a few
species of Linaceae, Sterculiaceae, Cochlospermaceae, Caricaceae,
Tiliaceae, and Palmae have contorted aestivation. In about half the
number of flowers of any plant of any species of the above-mentioned
families, the petals twist clockwise and the rest counter-clockwise.
This proportion of lefts and rights is maintained throughout the
flowering season. The number of stamens of a right-handed flower
does not differ significantly from that of a left-handed one of the same

species.

REFERENCES

Hooker, J. D. (1872): Flora of

Davis, T. A. (1962): The non-inheri-
British India 1. L. Reeve and Co.

tance of asymmetry in Cocos nucifera.
J. Genet. 58 (1): 42-50.

— ——~— (1963) : The dependence
of yield on asymmetry in coconut palms.
J. Genet. 58 (2) : 186-215.

a (1964) : Aestivation in
Malvaceae. Nature 201 (4918) : 515-
516.

London. .

EICHLER, A. W. (1878) :
amme. 2. Figure 115A.
seen.)

RENDLE, A. B. (1959) : The classifica-
tion of flowering plants, II Dicoty-
ledons. University Press, Cambridge.

Bluitendiagr-
(Original not

Four new races of birds from the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

(With one plate)

INTRODUCTION

In February 1964, I spent about three weeks collecting birds in
South and Middle Andamans, followed by a short trip to Car Nicobar;
during this period I obtained 312 specimens of some 110 species and
subspecies. As no work has been done on the Andaman and Nicobar
birds within recent years, I propose to try to get together all that has
been recorded about them. In the absence of some of the relevant
literature in Bombay, together with the necessity of consulting indivi-
duals and institutions abroad for the identification of such forms as
are not available in the collections of the Bombay Natural History
Society, this will take some time. In this preliminary note I am
describing four new races, and hope it will be possible to complete
my inquiries and dispose of several additional possibilities in the note
under preparation.

Tytler, Davison, Hume, Butler, and others made large collections
in the Andamans and Nicobars almost a hundred years ago. These
were studied in the latter half of the last century when the relatively
small differences on which subspecies are recognized were not accepted;
though these differences were sometimes mentioned, the nomenclature
was left unchanged. When subspecies were accepted in Indian
ornithology, many of the island species were demoted to trinomial
level. No ornithological field work has been done in that area for the
last fifty years and there is no evidence to show how carefully the old
collections were re-examined when revising the avifauna. These
collections are not available to us and the British Museum (Natural
History) tell me that, owing to pressure of work in other directions,
it is not possible for them to re-examine their collections to check upon
the correctness of some of my conclusions. The Zoological Survey of
India have within recent years sent three expeditions to the Andamans,

FOUR NEW BIRD-RACES FROM THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 4\11

and some birds were obtained. I am, however, informed that as their
collections ‘are being actively worked out’ they are unable to send me
a list of the material collected, to enable me to seek consultation where
necessary. Under the circumstances, I have to rely on the evidence
of the smal! series which I obtained but, considering that two of my
findings are supported by the statements made by earlier workers
with large series before them, I do not think that my conclusions are
unjustified and that I shall be accused of littering the ornithological
highway.

1. AMAURORNIS PHOENICURUS

Hume (1874, Stray Feathers 2 : 300) referred to several specimens
of Amaurornis phoenicurus from the Andamans and Nicobars differ-
ing from those from India (Plate, fig. 1) in:

(a) the width of the white frontal band, exceeding .45 inch
(11.4 mm.) and even an inch (25 mm.),

(6) much less white on the undersurface, the stripe ceasing on
the upper abdomen in Nicobar birds, and

(c) the lower belly, vent, and tibial plumes being chestnut, and
only slightly paler than the lower tail coverts, as against white or
faintly tinged rufescent in Indian birds.
He stressed the fact that these differences are only apparent in adult
birds. |

Sharpe (1894, CAT. BDS. BRIT. MUS. 23 : 162) described insularis from
the Andamans and Nicobars as similar to phoenicurus, but everywhere
much darker dingy olive above, the sides of the breast blackish with
only a slight wash of dull olive and scarcely any appearance of slaty
grey, and the white of the forehead and eyebrow much more extended
than in true phoenicurus. This was on an examination of 13
specimens from both the groups of islands.

Blanford (1898, FAUNA 4: 174) referred to the extensive white on
the head and the narrow stripe down the breast. He agreed that
insularis was a well-marked race, but stated that some of the
peculiarities were sometimes found in the mainland specimens.
Stuart Baker (1928, FAUNA 6: 25) accepted the race insularis but
restricted it to the Andamans, not saying what form was found in the
Nicobars. He described it as the darkest of all the Indian forms, with
more extensive white on the forehead, and the breast blackish grey
with very little olive tint. Ripley in the syNopsis placed insularis in
both the Andamans and Nicobars.

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

I have only one specimen each from South Andaman and Car
Nicobar.

From the literature and material available to me, I cannot help
feeling that this apparent confusion is due to the failure of Hume,
Sharpe, and Stuart Baker to examine the birds from the Andamans
and Nicobars separately.

The Andaman bird (Plate, fig. 2) has the white of the breast
restricted to a small area on the upper breast, which is joined to the
white of the underbelly by a narrow strip in the centre. The olive-
green wash above and below is less pronounced, and the undertail
coverts and tibial plumes are more brown and less chestnut than in
Indian birds, which it resembles in other respects.

The Car Nicobar bird (Plate, fig. 3) has the whole head and nape
almost all-white except for irregular spots of grey on the crown and
nape. There is no olive-green on either the upper or lower parts, and
though there is more white on the breast than in the Andaman bird,
the middle stripe is narrower and does not appear, from the skin as
prepared, to connect unbroken with the white of the underbelly. . The
undertail coverts and tibial plumes are as in the Andaman bird.

Young birds in India, phoenicurus, show almost no white on the
forehead, and it is probable that the Nicobar birds pass through a
stage when the white on the head is not so extensive.

Butler (1900, Birds of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 144) handled over 150 specimens in the Andamans
(in traps set for Rallus canningi) and stated that he had never found
one with the extensive white on the head seen in Nicobar birds.
P. B. Shekar, Field Assistant of the Bombay Natural History Society,
who was with me on this trip and who collected this specimen in
Car Nicobar, remembers seeing others in which the white head was
noticeable.

In view of the above, I think I am justified in restricting insularis
to the Andamans, and I separate the birds from Car Nicobar as:

Amaurornis phoenicurus leucocephalus subsp. nov.

Holotype: 2 collected by P. B. Shekar on Car Nicobar on 14 March

1964, and in the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection bearing
Register No. 21547. The wing measures 163 mm.

2. DUCULA AENEA

Hume (1874, Stray Feathers 2 : 261) drew attention to the birds
from the Andamans being in series larger, greener, with deeper-
coloured undertail coverts, and having whiter foreheads and throats

(SIEQOSIN| 1k)

‘jap uaqnay °7

“AOU ‘dSs

snjoydaJoonay *d “py *¢
(o1eWwWeI3eIG)

> (SUBLIEDUY) Slibjnsul ‘d“p °Z
snanziuaoyd siusodnDUup

: (eIpUy) Smanoiuaoyd *d°p °{

ee oe oe _ 7 oo OS —_ Bn OS

FOUR NEW BIRD-RACES FROM THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 413

than a series from any place in India, Burma, or Ceylon. He also
noted that none of his 25 specimens from the Andamans had such a
brilliantly red copper gloss as some continental examples exhibited.
Stuart Baker (FAUNA 5: 208) also noticed the greater prominence of
white on the forehead but in a footnote on the previous page referred
to Hartert (Nov. Zool. 25 : 346; 1918) showing that the Andaman
bird is not separable from the Indian sylvatica. ‘Hartert (loc. cit.)
only says of sylvatica: ‘This form seems to extend to the Andaman
Islands.’ Peters (1937, CHECK-LIST OF BIRDS OF THE WORLD 3) in a
footnote to sylvatica at p. 46 states: ‘The Andaman birds possibly
represent a distinct race.’

An examination of the present series (5 o'o', 4 9 Q) together with
the other material and literature in Bombay leads to the following
findings:

The white of the forehead and the chin (except in one female) is
strikingly more pronounced than in any from south, central, or north-
eastern India. The green feathers of the upper surface show almost
no copper gloss and many on the back and on the wing coverts are
broadly tipped with dark blue (almost black). The tail shows less
green and is not concolorous with the back as in the others. While
some of these differences may to some extent be seasonal, sexual,
and/or due to the age of the individuals, they are sufficiently constant
to permit the birds being picked out from among the others.

Their measurements (in mm.) are compared below with those of
others in the Bombay collection:

ad Wings ee Wings
Andamans hee eee Phyo av. 236 8 .. 212-240 av. 227
Salem, Madras or 2A2 212
Orissa $ 219-235 226.6
Bastar, M.P. 1 224 224 2 .. 218-219 218.5
Chanda, Maharashtra 2 220-230 225
Assam ee 235 235
Burma Dae 231-245 238
Kanara, Mysore 2 222-226 224

ad Tails oe Tails
Andamans 5 155-161 av. 157.66 4 .. 137-146 av. 142.25
Salem, Madras 1 129 129
Orissa 3 137-150 143
Bastar, M.P. 1 143 143 2 .. 135-140 1373
Chanda, Maharashtra 2 126-147 136.5
Assam 1 142 142
Burma 2 129-144 136.5
Kanara, Mysore p 133-154 143.5

* Includes birds shot for the pot, whose tails were not measured.

414. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Apart from the larger size of the wing, the tails of the Andaman
males are distinctly longer than in any others from India. They differ
from typical aenea from Malaya in the absence of the pinkish tinge
on the cheeks, ear coverts, and throat (which are grey as in sylvatica
from India). The Nicobar race, nicobarica Pelzeln, is a distinctly
larger bird, with the undertail coverts dingy brown and not bright
chestnut as in the other races. I therefore separate the Andaman
birds as:

Ducula aenea andamanica subsp. nov.*

Holotype: & collected by me at Betapur, Middle Andamans, on
23 February 1964 and in the Bombay Natural History Society’s
collection bearing Register No. 21546.

Paratypes: 3 ho Nos. 21548, 21549, 21553, 2 9 @ Nos. 21550,
21552 in Society’s collection, 1 co in University Zoological Museum,
Berlin, 1 9 in Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, and 1 @ in National
Museum, Singapore.

Stuart Baker (FAUNA § : 207) refers to the bill of the typical form
being white at the tip. In the Andaman birds this was not so in
life, but became noticeably white within a couple of months,

3. PELARGOPSIS CAPENSIS

The Andaman birds are included with burmanica Sharpe
(Taunghoo, Burma) in both Stuart Baker’s FAUNA and Ripley’s
SYNOPSIS. Stuart Baker notes that birds from the Andamans are
very pale and worn and rather small in size but with larger bills.
Earlier, in Hand-list of Birds of the Indian Empire (J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 28 : 316), he referred to ‘Ramphalcyon capensis osmastoni
Stuart Baker, described from the Andamans in Bull. B. O. C... 7
but gave no details. JI have not been able to find this either in Bull.
B. O. C. or in Stuart Baker’s volume of synonyms appended to the
FAUNA. So it would appear that the description was never published
and the name remains a nomen nudum (as already noted by Laubmann,
vide). fois, 1931.) p. 314):

Two females collected at Chiria Tapoo, South Andaman, and
Long Island, Middle Andamans, have their wings 147-156 mm. (146-
165 for burmanica in FAUNA) and bills 80, 80 mm. (72-84). These
measurements overlap, but the heads of the Andaman birds are much
paler than those of specimens of burmanica from Prome (9, 17th
January) and Lower Chindwin (co, 28th January). The dark brown

1 After this went to the press, Dr. B. Biswas, Zoological Survey of India, inform-
ed me that he agreed with my finding.

FOUR NEW BIRD-RACES FROM THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 415

head of capensis (India) and the lighter head of burmanica are all
uniformly coloured, while in the Andaman birds, the greyish feathers
of the head have broad pale tips and margins giving a broken effect
which Hume referred to as whitey-brown. Ball [Jour. Asiatic Soc.
Bengal, 1872, 4 (2) : 277] also refers to Andaman birds as differing
from burmanica in the more albescent head. The collar in my
specimens is very distinct. The upper wing coverts have very little of
the blue so prominent in capensis, and are almost all grey as in
burmanica. The intensity of the chestnut on the underpart appears
to be a variable character in this species. The Nicobar race
intermedia Hume is separable by the crown being ochraceous and
concolorous with the collar.

On these differences I separate the Andaman birds and, in
recognition of the hard work in the field and in the preparation of
skins done by P. B. Shekar, I name them as:

Pelargopsis capensis shekarii subsp. nov.

Holotype: 2 collected by me at Chiria Tapoo, South Andaman, on
15 February 1964, and in the Bombay Natural History Society’s
collection bearing Register No. 21544.

Paratype: Q in the Society’s collection bearing No. 21545.

4, JRENA PUELLA

For many years only one form of this widely distributed Indo-
Malayan species was recognized from Indian limits, of which the type
locality ‘ India’ was restricted to Travancore by Stuart Baker. The
Malayan birds were separated as malayensis by Horsfield & Moore by
their tail coverts being longer, almost reaching the tip of the tail.

Whistler & Kinnear (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 582) drew atten-
tion to north Indian birds being larger than those from south India :

Wings of 12 adult males from the south: 123-131 mm.,

Wings of 10 adult males from Sikkim and the Duars: 133.5-141 mm.,
and separated the former as sikkimensis, type locality Sukna, Darjeeling
District. Ripley in the SyNopsis has listed the Andaman and Nicobar
birds as of this race. Though Blanford (old FAUNA) also referred to the
occurrence of this species in the Nicobars, I can find no original record,
except for Butler’s (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 390) statement that it
is found in both groups. If it occurs in the Nicobars, the race remains
to be determined.

The six specimens collected (3 adult males, 2 immature males, and
1 female) do not differ from Indian birds in colour or length of tail

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

416

a EP PPE ETT

ZI ‘AR “ZT
OT ‘Ae ‘TI-6
COT ‘AP “TT-OT

COLE AG CR ID

S76 “AL “O1-6

SOL “AP “TT-OT

6'6 “AR “71-6

ZTE “AB ‘ZTE
67 “A® “OE-8Z
OE “AB *ZE-67Z

TE “Ae “TE “TE

GLE AC 6C-LC

ZE “Ae “EE-TE

GL°LT °A® “OE-ST

b°8Z “AB “OE-8Z

801
9° EOI “AP “8OI-S6
OOT “Av “ZI 1-Z6

ZOT “Ae “ZOI ‘ZOT

ZOT “Av “LOT-O0T

9°801 “Ae “OLT-901
POT “AP *LOT-66

9°ZOI “AP “711-66

IE
T HTL “AP ‘8ZI-6II
LTL ‘A® “OET-PTI

C°SZI “Ae “871 “ETI

6TI “Ae “EET-O7I

9°OET “AP “EET-671

8ZI “AR “TET-97I

PET “AV “SET-ZET

O°ZET “AP “8ET-ETT

I suelwuepuy
6 oyjand
9 SISUaUA1y YS

so[eus,y

Z suemepuy
jiu vyjand
v SISUOUAL2 1S

PP sin} eu]

€ sueuIepUuYy

8 voyjand

L ({euondeoxe sreadde
YOIYM 1S9} JOYS SAIPNOX9) “Op

g sisuaunty is

eP ynpy

“wu
odes wo
Tig Jo WsusTy

“wu
Te L,

Dijand puadT AO SLNAWAYNSVAY[

suouiseds JO “ON

FOUR NEW BIRD-RACES FROM THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 417

coverts, but some of the other measurements (see table at p. 416) are
significant.

In wing-size the adult males from the Andamans appear to be nearer
puella while their tails (106-110, av. 108.6) average longer than in both
puella and sikkimensis.

In addition, the Andaman birds have distinctly longer and heavier
bills, though the latter characteristic is not indicated by the measure-
ments to the extent that it is visible to the eye.

The smaller wing removes them from sikkimensis while the longer
tail and bill separate them from typical puelja in the south-west. These
differences were referred to Dr. B. Biswas of the Zoological Survey of
India, and he writes that they are confirmed by comparison with the
specimens available to him. I therefore name the Andaman birds :

Irena puella andamanica subsp. nov.

Holotype: 3 collected by me at Long Island, Middle Andamans, on
27 February 1964, and in the Bombay Natural History Society’s collec-
tion bearing Register No. 21747.

Paratypes : 2 ad. dio Nos. 21748 and 21752 ; 2 imm. oo" Nos. 21749
and 21751 ; 1 ad. 2 No. 21750.

I might mention that Hume (1874, Stray Feathers 2: 226) thought the
Andaman birds identical with those from south India and Sikkim, but
referred to a young male from the Andamans, which had many green
feathers intermingled with the black of the chin, throat and breast,
‘while the feathers of the head, back, and rump, are green, only narrowly
tipped with shining blue.’

in Memoriam

LOKE WAN THO

(With a plate)

The death on 20 June 1964 of Loke Wan Tho is a grievous loss
to the Society, to his innumerable friends throughout the world, and
to the cause of ornithology of the Oriental Region. He was killed
in an air crash in Taiwan while returning to Taipei from a visit to
the museum at Taichung—a paltry half-hour’s flight. It was typical
of Loke’s passion for the rare and the beautiful that he could never
resist even a fleeting opportunity to look at a good art gallery, or a
collection of old porcelain, or books, or birds, or a spell of bird
watching and photography. On this fateful day he had a few hours
to spare from official engagements, so while the other members of his
delegation to the International Film Festival slept off the exhaustion
of a hectic week in preparation for the grand finale that evening,
Loke thought to employ his leisure to better purpose—with this
tragic result.

Wan Tho was born at Kuala Lumpur on 14 June 1915. He was
sent to an English school (Chillon College) in Switzerland at an early
age because of his delicate health, passing thence to Cambridge
(King’s College) where he took his M.A. in English Literature and
History in 1936. Thereafter he attended the London School of
Economics for two years before returning to Malaya. English
literature and poetry were among his great loves, and among his
severely pruned personal kit on expeditions were always to be found
a couple of favourite anthologies which were the first things to be
unpacked as soon as camp was established.

Loke’s connection with the Bombay Natural History Society dates
from 1942, not long after he landed here as an evacuee from Singapore
in the wake of the Japanese occupation. During the adventurous
voyage out his ship was bombed by Japanese aircraft, he himself being
rescued from the sea, temporarily blinded and half killed. Being in
the fortunate position of not having to seek an immediate livelihood,
a happy coincidence launched him into the serious study of birds to
which he already possessed a strong natural leaning. It was during
this period that some of the regional bird surveys by myself under
the sponsorship of the Society were under way. No great persuasion

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Loke Wan Tho

IN MEMORIAM 419

was needed for Loke to attach himself to one of these. He soon
proved an exceptionally enthusiastic observer and collector of birds,
and later also a capable assistant in the taxonomical studies on the
collections, acquiring in the process a sounder all-round knowledge of
Indian ornithology than is possessed by many a more _ seasoned
amateur. His unfailing courtesy and quiet good manners, friendly
disposition, and capacity to mix at all levels and to remain cheerful
and unruffled under a leader not reputed for sweetness of temper
were other qualities that made him a welcome adjunct to the field
camps. Never grumbling or complaining, ever ready to share all
physical hardships and deprivations, even with a show of enjoyment,
he was an ideal companion. Any one with experience of this type
of rough-and-ready camping in India—often living for days in bug-
infested dharamsalas or dilapidated drafty cattlesheds under the light
of smoky hurricane lanterns at night—with one eye constantly glued
on the budget, as was doubly necessary in the war years—will admit
that this is the supreme test of a congenial camp companion. And
through it all he never lost his capacity to look on the humorous side
of uninspiring situations.

One of the wealthiest men in Malaysia, Loke was a rich man with
a difference, especially as millionaires in cur part of the world go.
All his tastes were essentially simple, cultured, and humanistic, and
his love of Nature an enduring passion. Since his return to Malaya
at the end of the war, in 1945, he became increasingly caught up in
business affairs. Responsible honorary public offices were thrust on
him one after another by an appreciative public and Government.
The tact, conscientiousness, and complete integrity and efficiency with
which he discharged his functions won him the respect and admira-
tion of all. All this in addition to the cares of the vast business
empire he had built up around himself left people amazed at how he
ever managed to find the time to keep so closely in touch with his
intellectual pursuits. It was also a wonder to his more intimate
associates how he kept himself so well informed about details of the
various enterprises with which he was connected—for instance the
comparative merits of different types of aircraft, the latest automobile
engines and their relative performances, the superiority of Swedish
telephone systems and equipment over those of other countries, and
things of that sort.

In later years he sometimes said with a touch of sadness that
though he was fortunate enough to possess the means for carefree
indulgence in the things nearest to his heart---outdoor life, expeditions,
camping, mountaineering, studying and photographing birds—he found

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

himself left with less and less leisure to take advantage of the facilities.
Therefore, he had to take his pleasure in these things vicariously by
helping scientific expeditions and other deserving causes with funds
and in other ways. His generosity and munificence were as liberal
as they were unostentatious and genuine, and his patronage extended
in multifarious directions—helping promising youngsters to higher
education and technical training abroad, sponsoring the visit of a
badminton team to a foreign country, or promoting the building up
of a school or library.

Loke was a great lover of English literature with a fine sense of
appreciation and criticism. This made him a charming and stimulating
companion in camp when, after dinner, all the mundane chores were
over and we sat reading with the help of a couple of miserable
hurricane lanterns. He would break out into reading aloud to his
companions passages which especially caught his fancy, sometimes
with a chuckle and often an obvious smacking of the lips. He himself
wrote pleasingly with an easy style and a keen sense of humour, and
his contributions to journals and magazines were eagerly sought after.
His articles from time to time in the journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society, illustrated with his own excellent photographs were
always enjoyed and greatly looked forward to. He became an
EHA-fan while in India and wrote a beautiful little biographical
sketch of EHA to preface a new edition of the classic COMMON BIRDS
OF BOMBAY published by Thackers in 1943 under the altered title
COMMON BIRDS OF INDIA. Loke kept a detailed diary of day-to-day
activities and happenings in camp which he wrote up meticulously
every night before going to bed, and thus amassed a good deal of
material for future literary efforts. The only book he published was
entitled—-after a favourite passage from EHA—A COMPANY OF BIRDS.
It quickly ran to two impressions and drew an appreciative press.
It is chiefly an album of some of his outstanding bird photographs
with a useful introduction to the techniques he so_ successfully
employed and some very readable reminiscences as a bird photo-
grapher. In photography as in everything else he chose to take up,
whether for business or pleasure, Loke was a perfectionist. While
seeming to airily click his camera he would have carefully calculated
in advance the result he was likely to attain by underexposing by so
much and later by overdeveloping the negative by so much, minutiae
that accounted for the disparaging difference his companions usually
found between exposures made by themselves—of the same subject,
at the same time, and from the same spot—and the results he
produced! It was therefore by no accident that he came to be

IN MEMORIAM 421

regarded as one of the finest photographers in the East, not only of
birds but also of archaeological subjects. His photographs illustrat-
ing Malcolm Macdonald’s book on Angkor testify to this verdict.
The ease and willing readiness with which he made his photographs
available to all and sundry magazines and scientific publications that
sought his co-operation brought his work to the notice of a wide
international circle of discriminating ornithologists and photographers
and served to enhance his fame. He received many coveted awards
at numerous international photographic exhibitions.

At the time of his death Loke was, among other things, Pro-
Chancellor of the University of Malaya, a member of the Court of
the University of Singapore, Chairman of the National Library Board,
Singapore, and Member of Council of Singapore Institute of Manage-
ment and Economic Development, and held similar honorary offices
in numerous other public and quasi-governmental bodies. He was
Chairman of Malayan Air Lines, and served as Chairman of the
Singapore Telephone Board during its formative phase between 1953
and 1959. Besides these he was President, Vice-President, or Council
Member of innumerable societies connected with social service, sport,
natural history, photography, music, and other cultural pursuits, a
Vice-Patron of the Bombay Natural History Society, representative of
Malaya on the International Council for Bird Preservation, and
Chairman of the Malaysian National Section of the same. He was
the recipient of high honours and decorations from the State of
Kelantan and the Federation of Malaya for his public services and
benefactions, and also personally from Prince Sihanouk of Cambodia
and the Emperor of Japan. In addition there was, of course, his own
gigantic Cathay Organization with its chain of 60 cinemas throughout
Malaysia, and film production studios and hotels in Hong Kong, Fiji,
and Singapore. He was director or chairman of numerous companies
concerned with rubber, tin, and real estate in Singapore and Malaya,
and with banking, shipping, insurance, automobiles, and _ other
business.

Apart from a genuine well-wisher and active life member, the
Society has lost in him a continuing benefactor who has helped
financially and by personal participation in many of its scientific field
projects and publications, and in other ways.

Loke was married last September in London. His wife was also
killed with him in the crash. He leaves behind his mother, two sisters,
and a step-daughter (by his wife’s former husband). To them the
Society extends its sincerest condolence.

SALIM ALI

Reviews

1. A STUDY IN BEHAVIOUR. By S. A. Barnett. pp. xvi+
288 (22X14.5 cm.). With 14 black-and-white plates and 74 text-
figures. London, 1963. Methuen & Co. Ltd. Price 45s. net in
U.K. only.

Dr. Barnett, Senior Lecturer in Zoology at the University of
Glasgow, has written a readable study of the behaviour of the rat, in
which some of the major experimental and analytical problems of
Animal Behaviour are adequately reviewed. The work is perhaps
best considered a textbook eminently suited to first or second year
classes in honours courses in those Universities providing some formal
teaching in behaviour. ‘The balanced approach of the author makes
his book equally suited to either the Zoology or the Psychology
Department.

The main title of the book is reminiscent of a not too distant era
in which competing students of learning presented experimental data
on the White Rat to promote theories purporting to explain all
behavioural phenomena. In fact Dr. Barnett has no such axe to
grind. As a zoologist it is natural that his approach should incline
to the physiological ‘molecular’ analysis of factors causing behaviour
rather than the more ‘molar’ approach. In this he reflects the present
climate of opinion in which ‘mechanisms’ of behaviour are of greater
interest than general statements about behavioural ‘laws’. Consider-
able weight is given to the descriptive study of the animals in a
natural or semi-natural setting, a field in which the author himself has
made notable contributions. He treats his subject from the view-
points of ethology, physiology, and experimental psychology; an
attempt at a synthesis which, given the relatively small compass of
the book, has considerable success.

To begin with, the author stresses the importance of adequate
definition and precision of statement in the behavioural sciences—a
stress particularly needed as some ethologists have in the past been
distinctly unsophisticated in their handling of concepts. In two
appendices the semantics of definition and a glossary of terms are
provided. This emphasis on clarity pervades the whole book, although
this reviewer felt it occasionally almost pedantic to an extent that

REVIEWS 423

actually obscured. Thus on p. 178 in discussing stimuli in the context
of Mowrer’s learning theory it is pointed out that these include
internal processes ‘even some which go on in the brain’—a point that
hardly needed labouring. Again, on p. 194 the term ‘substitutive
behaviour’ is used for a phenomenon traditionally called ‘displace-
ment activity. While it is now realized that ‘displacement’
in the sense of the transfer of action-specific energy emerging from
one ‘channel’ to another in the central nervous system is an inadequate
explanatory concept, the idea of substitution seems equally unhelpful.
In fact a term often used is simply ‘out of context behaviour’, a
descriptive name which moreover fits very weli into the context of
contemporary causal explanation in terms of ‘disinhibition’. Nor is
it likely that the notes in the glossary will gain acceptance from every-
body, although the author carefully says that the definitions given are
designed simply to state how the terms are used in this particular
book. For example, some comparative psychologists might cavil at
ethology being described as ‘the scientific study of animal behaviour’.
While modern experimental ethologists may use the term in this way
with some justification, ethology was for a long time concerned
specifically with the narrower study of expression movements and
gesture. It is perhaps still useful to apply the term to a particular
approach to behavioural problems—distinct for example from that of
many strict ‘behaviourists’, rather than to promote it pontifically to an
all-inclusive status.

The main body of the work treats in considerable detail studies
of: (i) appetitive and exploratory behaviour, range and territory and
their relation to ecology; (ii) the natural history of feeding behaviour
and the internal mechanisms responsible for it; (iii) the social
behaviour of the rat; (iv) innate behaviour patterns, in particular those
of reproductive behaviour, and genetics; (v) the types of learning
encountered in the rat and their experimental and theoretical analysis;
(vi) problems of motivation and its physiological causation; (vil) the
brain and behaviour.

The book thus belongs to no ‘school’. Dr. Barnett has written an
unbiased review of a highly complex field that will form an excellent,
introduction to behaviour study for anyone not afraid of difficult
contemporary problems.

TEC:

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

2. THE WILD LIFE OF INDIA. By E. P. Gee, with a Foreword
by Jawaharlal Nehru. pp. 192 (15X22 cm.). 12 coloured and 20
monochrome plates from photographs. London, 1964. Collins.
Price 30s. net.

Since the coming of our Independence few persons in the country
have shown so much missionary zeal and dedication in the cause of
wild life preservation as E. P. Gee. After his retirement from tea
planting in Assam Mr. Gee, a Britisher, has chosen to make his home
in Shillong and has devoted himself particularly to the study and
photography of wild animals. Starting literally from scratch—from
no interest at all in the local fauna and flora during his early years
in the country, except perhaps for some little shooting in the normal
planter tradition—he has developed into a keen and knowledgeable
naturalist, and a champion of India’s wild life second only to the
late redoubtable Col. R. W. Burton. The rhinos of Kaziranga have
reason to be grateful to Mr. Gee for his ceaseless campaigning in
their behalf. It was fortunate for them that there happened to be
at the head of the Assam Forest Department at the right time an
equally enthusiastic conservationist in the person of P. D. Stracey.
These two men between them did more to save the rhino in Assam
than any one else, and by this they have earned the gratitude of
posterity both human and rhinoceran.

THE WILD LIFE OF INDIA is written chiefly with the object of
creating an interest in the public and arousing its conscience for the
preservation of a precious national heritage which is fast going by
default because of insufficient public appreciation and official apathy.
It is an attempt to acquaint the public, and particularly the rising
generation, with the appearance and habits of the unique fauna we
possess, and thereby to mobilize enlightened public opinion to back
the struggles of the handful of private individuals and_ scientific
societies in the cause of its preservation. Without the backing of a
well-informed, and therefore sympathetic, public opinion no measure
however well-intentioned can prove effective. And at no time was
the necessity for this support more crucial or urgent than it is today.
The explosive natural (or unnatural!) outburst of our population, plus
the influx of countless refugees from across our borders, the cutting
down of forests to grow more food for these hungry hordes, and the
vast projects of industrialization in order partly to provide them with
jobs and raise the general standard of living, are gathering momentum
with each passing day. ‘These precisely are some of the factors that
militate directly against the survival of wild life unless adequate,

REVIEWS 425

well-considered, long-term safeguards are provided for it now and
without delay.

Mr. Gee’s effort to reach the responsive chord in his readers is
made easier by the excellent photographs he offers them of the more
spectacular forms of wild life found in the country. Most of these
photographs have been taken by himself in the various National
Parks and Wild Life Sanctuaries. Over the years Gee has blossomed
into a wild life photographer of exceptional merit, and some of the
pictures reproduced in the book are truly superb. It is a pity that the
few of them obviously of animals in captivity, e.g. tiger (Plate 22b and
coloured 5a), are not clearly marked as such. Those who know a
wild tiger may be somewhat intrigued by the loose fold of skin hang-
ing under the belly of the one in colour!

The text is largely an account of the author’s experiences while
in pursuit of the animals with his camera, and should be of much
profit to those aspiring to follow in his footsteps. He furnishes
helpful hints about the best seasons and conditions for wild life
photography in India, suggestions which should also prove invaluable,
particularly for those foreign tourists who may be planning in advance
to visit our sanctuaries.

In the case of several of the larger animals Mr. Gee offers his
estimates of the present-day population as compared with that of fifty
years ago. For example he estimates the total number of elephants
in the whole of India today to be about 7000; of tiger about 4000
contrasted with ‘a possible 40,000 of fifty years ago’; of leopards
6000-7000 ‘as compared with 10 times that number fifty years ago’;
of wild asses 860; Great Indian Rhinoceros 625. Of the Kashmir
Stag he estimates 175-200 in 1962, against 400 in 1957, about 2000
in 1947, and ‘probably about 5000 fifty years ago’. Whatever the
accuracy of these figures, the decline within recent years has certainly
been cataclysmic and alarming. As no proper censuses have been
taken and the author’s present-day estimates must largely rest upon
his own limited observations plus not too reliable local testimony,
they must of course be taken with reserve and as purely subjective, as
they are clearly meant to be. He may be right in feeling that some
estimate based on reasonable premises is better than no estimate at
all; but the reviewer carinot help admiring his courage in estimating
the ‘probable’ populations of 50 years ago for which even fewer and
less reliable data are available. It is nevertheless the firm belief of
the reviewer—and doubtless of others with experience of conservation
too—that unless we have fairly dependable censuses, any measures for
the preservation of a species are bound to prove shots in the dark.

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Unless tolerably accurate periodical censuses can demonstrate that the
Species has benefited or suffered numerically after the adoption of a
measure, e.g. total closure of hunting, it is impossible to make an
objective assessment of a situation. Population figures based on
haphazard visual estimation over short periods---by rote, as it were—
can at best be an entertaining exercise but not one on which any
control measures of a more or less drastic nature can be safely under-
taken. It is precisely for this reason that there has been a constant
demand from a knowledgeable section of the Indian Board for Wild
Life (including the author) for an experienced and competent expert
of the International Union for Conservation of Nature to be invited
to India to do some pioneering in wild life census work here, and also
to train local workers in the adaptation of approved scientific
techniques to local conditions. As a test case it would be interesting,
for instance, to see how closely or otherwise the expert’s estimate
for lions in the Gir forest tallies with the results obtained by our own
methods.

The book is attractively got up and a joy to handle. The plates,
both coloured and monochrome, are beautifully reproduced, and every

one connected with the publication deserves high praise.
S.A.

3. ELEPHANT GOLD. By P. D. Stracey. pp. 227 Q2X15 cm.).
With 27 black-and-white plates. London, 1963. Weidenfeld &
Nicolson. Price 30s. net.

The author, who recently retired from the Indian Forest Service
(but is again Chief Conservator of Forests in Nagaland) was in
elephant country during most of his service and, having both caught
and shot elephants, is particularly well qualified to write about them.
In the course of the chapters on A Stockade Officer’s Life, Pioneer
Elephant Catchers, Elephant Drives (Kheddas), Handling and Train-
ing, Myth and History, Rogues and Killers and other aspects, he has
gone over much of what is known about these large and interesting
animals. Looked at from the natural history point of view, however,
one is distressed to see how little is known about them.

Like most other animals, elephants have dwindled rapidly in
numbers and we do not know how long they will survive. The
author refers to one man in Wynaad killing 300 and a reward being
paid for the destruction of 5194 elephants in a part of Ceylon between

’

1845 and 1869! One wonders if numbers on this scale still exist.

REVIEWS 427

The 27 black-and-white illustrations are excellent but are all of
elephants—they include an extraordinary photograph of an elephant
poised on its trunk and forelegs and displaying the ‘monstrous beauty
of its hind quarters’ high up in the air. We are told by the author
that the gestation period is twenty months for a female calf and

twenty-two months for a male.
H.A.

4. THE WATERFOWL OF THE WORLD. By Jean Delacour.
Volume IV. pp. 364 (24.5018.50 cm.). With contributions by
several specialists, 6 plates in colour by Peter Scott, and numerous
monochrome illustrations and distribution maps. London, 1964.
Country Life Ltd. Price £6-6-0.

This is the final part of a remarkable book by two remarkable
ornithologists. The first three volumes, two of them reviewed in
previous issues of the Journal', described and illustrated every species
and subspecies of the Swans, Geese, and Ducks found throughout the
world. This fourth volume rounds off the series with an over-all
survey of the order Anseriformes, and covers such general topics as
are usually found in the introductory portions of a book. The
authors were wise in their decision to reverse this convention because
during the ten years since the publication of the first volume—and
partly due to the fillip to intensive waterfowl research given by it
and its successors—a great deal of fresh data has become available.
The deferment has thus enabled the results to be embodied here. .
making the information fuller and more up-to-date than it would
otherwise have been.

A number of well-known specialists have contributed to the
various aspects of anserine biology: Milton W. Weller is responsible
for the sections on General Habits, the Reproductive Cycle, Ecology,
Fowling, Distribution and Species Relationships, and Conservation
and Management; Jean Delacour himself has written on Aviculture,
and Domestic Waterfowl; Philip S. Humphrey and George A. Clark,
Jr., on the Anatomy of Waterfowl; and Hildegarde Howard on Fossil
Anseriformes. There is a very useful final chapter of Corrections
and Additions, volume by volume, by Delacour which includes new
distributional, taxonomical, and avicultural and other data accrued
in the intervening years. In addition to the general index, the special
indices to this chapter and to the one on Fossil Anseriformes make
for convenience of reference.

2 Vol. Lin J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc. 52 (4): 906, and Vol. III in 57 (1):
208-209,

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

The thoroughness of the coverage is evident from the bibliographies
appended to the various chapters. Under ‘The Reproductive Cycle’
alone no less than 190 titles of books and papers are listed, under
Ecology 170, under Conservation and Management 129, and so on.
The excellent section on Conservation and Management (pp. 128-144)
contains suggestions which deserve the earnest attention of conserva-
tion agencies in our own country—the Indian Board for Wild Life,
the State Wild Life Boards and Wild Life Preservation Departments,
and the Planning Commission. Many of them could be put into
practice, or at least given a fair trial, without considerable extra
expenditure in connection with the various multi-purpose dams being
constructed throughout the country, and would help to provide refuges
for migratory waterfowl during their winter sojourn here. The chapter
on ‘Anatomy of Waterfow! (pp. 167-234) is thorough and completely
up-to-date. Its bibliography covers 12 pages, broken up _ usefully
under the following subheads: Epidermal System, Osteology,
Myology, Respiratory System, Digestive System, Nervous System and
Senses, Circulatory System, Urogenital System, and Glands.

The text, as in the previous volumes, is purposely shorn of
technical minutiae and professional jargon, as far as possible, so as to
be intelligible and interesting to the layman whose main interest in
this group of birds is from the sporting and avicultural points of view.
The coloured illustrations of all the various forms included in the
volumes depict male, female, juvenile, and also eclipse plumages in
many instances, and chicks in down which were often unknown till
bred at the Wildfowl Trust at Slimbridge. They are equally im-
portant with the text—indeed often more so, since many of the species
had never been illustrated before. Four of the plates in the present
volume have a special appeal. Two illustrate the domestic forms
derived from the Greylag Goose, the Swan Goose, and the Muscovy
Duck; the other two the variations of the Mallard, and its domestic
derivatives. The special coloured plate at p. 332 corrects several of
the figures published in previous volumes. This is a useful innovation
and, though unfortunate the need, perhaps the only possible way of
rectifying such errors and omissions at this stage.

Vol. 4 presents a complete and comprehensive biology of the duck
tribe. The series as a whole, simply and authentically written,
superbly and meaningfully illustrated, is an encyclopedia of the
world’s waterfowl, and as such will remain an indispensable vade-
mecum alike for the researcher, the conservationist, the aviculturist,
and the intelligent sportsman for a very long time to come.

S.A.

REVIEWS 429

5. THE AMAZING WORLD OF INSECTS : A PHOTOGRAPHIC
INTRODUCTION. By Arend T. Bandsma and Robin T. Brandt. pp.
x+46 (26.5X18 cm.). With 17 coloured and 117 blacksand-white
plates. London, 1963. George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Price 42s.

‘Amazing’ is the appropriate adjective to qualify the photographs
illustrating this fascinating introduction to the world of insects. One
cannot help but admire the patience which caught the insects in their
natural surroundings and the skill which made of each picture a
work of art. A short introduction tells the reader something about
insects in general, and equally short descriptive paragraphs give him
a few interesting facts about the insect or group of insects portrayed.
Technical terms are avoided. Most of the insects shown have their
counterparts in India, and the book would be an ideal gift to our
young people to interest them in the insects around them.

D.E.R.

6. AQUATIC ANGIOSPERMS. By K. Subramanyam. pp.
viii t190 (24X16 cm.). 5 photographs in black-and-white and 63
figures. New Delhi, 1962. Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research. Price Rs. 20 or 40s. or $6.

This is the third Botanical Monograph published by the Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research. The subject of this monograph
is very different from that of the previous two and perhaps much
more complex. The C.S.I.R. Botanical Monographs Committee being
impressed by the wealth of aquatic vegetation and feeling the need for
2 suitable handbook on the subject, the task was entrusted to the author,
who accepted it gladly, as his duties in the Botanical Survey of India
gave him ample opportunities to study these plants in nature and in
the various herbaria of the country. The author procured the bless-
ings of two Chief Botanists and co-operation from at least two eminent
University Professors, three assistants, and three artists. The result
of his careful and detailed study for several years is given in this book.

There being no precedent in the present series of monographs the
author was left to himself to organise this vast subject. In spite of
possible criticism, it must be said that, on the whole, he has acquitted
himself well.

In the absence of any circumscription of the word ‘Aquatic’, the
families, genera, and species are well chosen to give the word
sensu lato. The monograph contains information on 33 families, 68

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

genera, and 110 species and two varieties of Aquatic Angiosperms of
India. At times the choice of the species appears unconsciously
biased. For example, when Alternanthera sessilis finds a place in the
monograph, one wonders why either Eclipta prostrata or Caesulia
axillaris of the same habitat is not included to represent a widely
distributed family, the Compositae.

The descriptions of families and genera are given presumably in
the sense in which they are currently understood, though no reference
other than the author’s abbreviated name is indicated. In some
cases, however, there are valuable remarks and references after
the treatment of the species.

Each species is assigned its valid name, sometimes revised accord-
ing to the current International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.
Important synonyms only are given. it is unfortunate that references
to the regional floras are omitted. The economic aspects of various
species are drawn from records which may not stand scrutiny in the
present conditions. In any case, they do not reveal any great economic
importance of this group of plants, nor is there any prospect held out
of their utilization. There is hardly any information of value on
the ecological aspects of this fascinatingly plastic group of plants.
The figures, mostly original but not drawn to scale in every case,
form a very valuable feature of this monograph. It might be felt that
the printing space taken up by the family and generic descriptions (a
significant portion of the monograph) could have been utilised for
more figures and elaborate specific descriptions. This reviewer, for
example, was struck by the apparent difference in the delineation of
the stigmas of Limnophilu aquatica and L. indica, and would have
liked to see the detailed description of the two species in the mono-
graph with a possible note on the subject.

A great many very valuable observations on the systematic position
are based on morphological evidence leaning rather heavily on
embryology. Perhaps it is the current trend of Indian botanists or
the influence of the author’s ‘guru’. However, it must be admitted
that the biological data given about various taxa are very useful to
students of systematic botany and embryology.

There is no doubt that botanical institutions (including horti-
cultural) and students of Aquatic Angiosperms in India and abroad
will welcome this monograph for the wealth of very useful information
it contains. The author is to be congratulated on his courage in
undertaking this difficult assignment and on his highly creditable
execution: of di

P. V: BOLE

Miscellaneous Notes
1. A VISIT TO THE HIGH RANGE, KERALA

I have recently visited the Eruvikulam-Poovar plateau and a part
of the Rajamallay Sanctuary in Kerala State for the purpose of seeing
and photographing the Nilgiri Tahr. Both places Jie within the
concession area belonging to the Kanan Devan Hills Produce Company
Limited, Munnar, High Range, Kerala. The whole area is so
stupendous that it deserves to be more widely known. Not only tahr
but also muntjac, elephant, gaur, and sambar can be seen there if
you are lucky.

The whole area is preserved by the High Range Game Preservation
Association, and during the past four years of rigidly enforced pro-
tection the animals, especially the tahr, have made a remarkable
comeback. It is now possible to see tahr from the ghat road to
Rajamallay Estate. This is a complete sanctuary with a full-time
watchman to control the movement of traffic into the sanctuary area.
The Eruvikulam plateau, which is opened to licensed shooting, involves
walking. However, I was able to get within 40 yards of a herd of
tahr and to film them at my leisure. There were about 35 animals in
the herd. Even if I had not done this, there were other rewards in
the splendid scenery of this high untouched grassland. Of course we
were lucky with the weather as we had two beautiful days. November
through to March is the best time. For the rest of the year the
place is shrouded in mist and rain and nobody goes there.

There is a very comfortable Inspection Hut owned by the K.D.H.P.
Co. Ltd. at Eruvikulam. The Company are really the custodians of
the area and to them is due the credit for the suppression of poaching
as they pay the watchman and patrolmen and underwrite the
H.R.G.P.A.

A visit to this area could be combined with a visit to Periyar Lake
Sanctuary as the two places are fairly close together. A minimum
period of two days is required for visiting Eruvikulam, but Rajamallay
can be reached quite easily by car from Munnar. However, the tahr
are only seen on the ghat road at present either early in the morning
or during the late afternoon. The provision of salt licks when the
_ south-west monsoon is over may keep them on the ghat face for longer
periods and bring them close enough to the road for photography.

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Fortunately for the future, the Eruvikulam atea is unsuitable for
cattle- or sheep-ranching as the grass is very coarse and suitable fodder
grasses cannot stand the 350-inch rainfall. Neither could any cattle.
The area has also been surveyed for forestry and the soil found un-
suitable for planting with wattle or other forest crop trees. Therefore
it is probable that it will survive inviolate for those who wish to see it.
As long as the H.R.G.P.A. maintains its present good control over
poaching the Nilgiri Tahr will be there to delight the eye of naturalist,
photographer, or genuine trophy hunter.

The Nilgiri Tahr differs from the Himalayan Tahr in not having a
long shaggy coat and it does not occupy such inaccessible rocky ledges.
When grazing the herds come out on to the open grass-covered
slopes above the rocky faces. For this reason it is fairly easy to see
them through binoculars and to photograph them with a telephoto
lens.

LETHBRIDGE,

ALBERTA, T. H. BASSETT
CANADA,

December 7, 1962.

2. TAXONOMIC STATUS OF TADARIDA TRAGATA
(DOBSON) [CHIROPTERA : MOLOSSIDAE]'

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTION

Based on a single specimen, previously identified by Blyth as
Nyctinomus plicatus, Dobson (1874) described a new species of bat,
Nyctinomus tragatus, which is now known as Tadarida_ tragata
(Dobson). The chief distinguishing characters of Tadarida tragata as
given by Dobson (1874, 1876) are the absence of the ear-joining band,
which separates it from Tadarida plicata, and the presence of six lower
incisors against four in Tadarida aegyptiaca Geoffroy.

Wroughton (1919) pointed out that the specimens of Tadarida
tragata of the Mammal Survey Collection were found on re-examina-
tion to be very closely allied to Tadarida aegyptiaca. On these

1 Communicated by Dr. Biswamoy Biswas, Indian Museum, Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta 13,

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc.

| 2. — 4
Tadarida tragata (Dobson) (holotype) and Tadarida aegyptiaca Geoff.

1. Ventral view of skull of Tadarida tragata (Dobson), showing anterior premolar (Pm?) ;
2. Front view of lower jaw of Tadarida tragata (Dobson), showing four incisors ;
3. Ventral view of skull of Tadarida acgyptiaca Geoff., showing the anterior premolar (Pm?) ;
4. Front view of lower jaw of Tadarida aegyptiaca Geoff., showing incisors

MISCELLANLOUS NOTES 433

specimens he established three new species, which are now considered
as three subspecies of Tadarida aegyptiaca by Ellerman & Morrison-
Scott (1951). Again, Phillips’s (1932) specimens of Tadarida tragata
have recently been found by Hill (1961) to be, in fact, Tadarida
aegyptiaca. In the light of this information the status of Tadarida
tragata appears rather confusing, and an attempt has been made here
to study the species in detail.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Very few specimens of Tadarida tragata are available in the
collections of different museums of the world. I could get only four
specimens (2 oc" and 2 92 9), three (Reg. Nos. 15461, 15462, 15463)
in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India and the fourth
(Reg. No. 529) received through the courtesy of Prof. K. Zimmermann,
Zoologisches Museum ‘der Humboldt Universitat, Berlin. The only
specimen present in the British Museum was not available owing to its
poor condition. All the four specimens have been critically examined
and compared with allied species, specially Tadarida aegyptiaca, which
they resemble very much. Special stress has been given to the
characters which have taxonomic importance.

OBSERVATIONS

Ear-joining band

Dobson (1874) separated the species from Tadarida plicata on the
basis of the absence of ear-joining band in Tadarida_tragata.
Later (1878), he noted a similar condition in Tadarida aegyptiaca:
‘ears quite separate but close together by the bases of their inner
margins’. Hill (1961) mertions that the ears in Tadarida tragata unite
by the inner margins of their bases. The two similar conditions given
above are for two allegedly different species. On examination, how-
ever, I found that actually there is no ear-joining band in either
species; the ears unite by the inner margins of their bases.

- Lower incisors :

Dobson (1876) and other authors, apparently following him, have
described six lower incisors in Tadarida tragata against four in
Tadarida aegyptiaca. Dobson has stressed this character and separated

434. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

the species from Tadarida aegyptiaca mainly on this basis. It is
interesting to note that Wroughton (1919) and Hill (1961) did not say
anything about the number of lower incisors in the Mammal Survey
and Phillips’s specimens.' It is not clear how the Mammal Survey
and Phillips’s specimens were originally mistakenly thought to possess
six lower incisors; they must have had only four as later on they
were re-identified as Tadarida aegyptiaca. Similarly, the Berlin
Museum specimen, which has only four lower incisors, was identified
as Tadarida tragata. A careful examination of all the specimens,
including the holotype (present in the Z.S.I. collection), revealed that
they possess only four lower incisors and not six as claimed by Dobson
(see Pl., Figs. 2 & 4).

Anterior upper premolar (Pm?)

Dobson (1874) did not describe the anterior upper premolar.
Wroughton (1919) pointed out that in Tadarida aegyptiaca, representing
the group with four lower incisors, the anterior premolar is reduced
to a mere rudiment, and in the other group with six lower incisors
(to which Tadarida tragata belongs) the anterior premolar though
markedly reduced in size is yet a functional tooth. Hill (1961) also
notes that in Tadarida tragata it is less reduced. In Wroughton’s
statement it is not certain if he was describing the condition in
Tadarida tragata. An examination of the available specimens shows
that the anterior premolar is reduced to more or less the same extent
in both the species (see Pl., Figs. 1 & 3).

As far as the position of the premolar (Pm?) is concerned, it is
similar in both the species, touching the canine cingulum. Moreover,
difference of position cannot be considered as a character of specific
value for it differs even in different subspecies of Tadarida aegyptiaca
(Hill 1961).

Size

Dobson (1876) showed some size difference between the two
species. According to Wroughton (1919) the measurements given by
Dobson do not help much towards identification. Tables 1 and 2
show that there is no appreciable difference in cranial or external
measurements where ranges of the two species overlap.

1 At our request Mr. J. E. Hill of the British Museum examined the specimen
from Malabar in their collection and reports that : ‘It has six lower incisors,
the inner pair displaced forwards and downwards’. (See also Hill 1961). However
he adds: ‘It is possible that specimens hitherto referred to T. tragata on the ground
of the presence of six lower incisors are in fact aberrants of 7. aegyptiaca, which
has normally four : specimens of T. feniotis are occasionally encountered with four
Jower incisors instead of the normal six ’,—Eps. v

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 435
TABLE 1

EXTERNAL MEASUREMENTS (in mm.)
Tadarida tragata (Dobson)

Reg. No. Locality Sex HB HF T TFM E FA Remarks

15461

15462

15463
529

15464

15465

Calcutta, re 71 9 46 23 20 32) WypenZ:S.1:
Bengal In spirit
Jaishpur, 3 74 8 42 22 20 47 Z.S.1.
near In spirit
Chota
Nagpur
Rajanpur, © 74 10 42 20 20 49 do.
Punjab
ay 71 9 40 22 18 49 Berlin
Museum.
In spirit

Tadarida aegyptiaca Geoff.

Rajkot, Jo 70 8 45 20 19.5 47 Z.S.1. Dry
Kathiawar Skin.

Mt. Abu, & 69 8 43 23 20 47 do.
Rajasthan

Abbreviations : E, Ear; FA, Forearm; HB, Head and Body; HF, Hindfoot ;

T, Tail; TFM, Tail free from membrane; Z.S.I., Zoological Survey
of India

TABLE 2

CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS (in mm.)
Tadarida tragata (Dobson)

Reg. No. Locality Sex C-C CB ONL PL ZW _- Bulla’ Mandb.

15461

15462

15463

15464

15465

Calcutta, Jb Doe AGO 198) 84 we 4.4
Bengal

Jaishpur, 3 Deo et oes Sade wiley 4.5 13.5
near
Chota
Nagpur

Rajanpur, Q Pip pyaar 2) 92 20 S502 12.9 4.4 14
Punjab

Tadarida aegyptiaca Geoff.

Rajkot, J Ded) 1 Sila pe OLD 8 ile? a2 13.6
Kathiawar
Mt. Abu, 2 25a belseon SLO 8 11.9 4.4 13.6
Rajasthan

Abbreviations : Bulla, Tympanic bulla length ; C-C, Least distance between roots

of upper canines ; CB, Condylobasal length; Mandb., Mandibular
length ; ONL, Occipitonasal length ; PL, Palatal length ; ZW,
Zygomatic width.

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

In other external characters like distribution of hairs, attachment
of membranes, etc., they are very similar. Other authors too agree on
the similarities of the external characters of the two species.

Gular Sac

It must be pointed out here that the holotype (co) of Tadarida
tragata has a prominent gular sac opening. Dobson (1874) did not
mention this character. Probably, being hidden under hairs, it
escaped his notice, or he did not give so much importance to its
presence. Its presence or absence in Tadarida tragata has not been
mentioned in the extant literature. However, its absence in Tadarida
aegyptiaca is frequently mentioned in various publications. It is very
interesting to note that the other male specimen (Reg. No. 15462,
adult) of Tadarida tragata does not possess any gular sac opening.
The gular sac may be present either in male or female but its presence
is restricted to only one sex within a species, which indicates that it is
related to sex. Its secretion helps in attracting the opposite sex. Its
presence or absence should, therefore, depend upon the sexual maturity
and other physiological phenomena related with breeding.

Literature available on the gular sac is very scanty, and whatever
is available does not give any definite support to its taxonomic
importance.

Locality

Dobson (1874) mentions Calcutta as the type locality of Tadarida
tragata. He separated the type specimen from a bottle of specimens
of Tadarida plicata labelled Calcutta. Later two specimens from
Chhutia Nagpur (=Chota Nagpur) and Punjab were collected.
But except the type no specimen of Tadarida tragata has been reported
from Calcutta. Its allied species, Tadarida aegyptiaca, is found
mainly in western India, i.e. Rajasthan, Kutch, etc., and Sind in
W. Pakistan, and has never been reported from Bengal. Hill (1961)
has indicated that it is related to Tadarida teniotis, not so far repre-
sented in the Indian subcontinent’. These points make one doubtful
about the type locality of Tadarida tragata. It might have been due
to the mixing of the specimens, and nothing can be said with any
degree of certainty about its locality.

ae . le i

1 On the status of Tadarida teniotis (Rafinesque) in India see J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 60 (3) : 723-5.—Ebs.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 437
CONCLUSION

In the light of the abovementioned facts it becomes clear that
there is no character which can serve as a basis to distinguish
Tadarida tragata from Tadarida aegyptiaca. Particularly, the presence
of only four lower incisors disproves the main distinguishing character
of Dobson’s Tadarida tragata. At the same time it forms a ground
to merge Tadarida tragata into Tadarida aegyptiaca. This suggests
that Nyctinomus tragatus Dobson should be relegated to the synonymy
of Tadarida aegyptiaca Geoffroy.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am greatly indebted to Dr. B. Biswas, Superintending Zoologist,
Zoological Survey of India, for his valuable suggestions and con-
tinuous encouragement throughout this work. My _ thanks are
extended to Prof. K. Zimmermann, Zoologisches Museum der
Humboldt Universitat, Berlin, for lending me the specimen in his
charge.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA 13, Y. CHATURVEDI
May 7, 1964.

REFERENCES

Dosson, G.E. (1874) : On the Asiatic T.C.S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic
species of Molossi. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. and Indian Mammals. British Museum,
43 : 142-143. London.

— — — — (1876): Monograph of Hitt, J.E. (1961) : Review of the Indo-
the Asiatic Chiroptera. Indian Museum, Australian bats of the genus Tadarida.

Calcutta. Mammalia 25 : 29-56.

— — — — (1876) : Monograph of the PuHitities, W.W.A. (1932) : Some new
group Molossi. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.: bats from hills of Central Province.
701-735. Spolia Zeylan. 16: 323-327.

———— (1878): Catalogue of WROUGHTON, R.C. (1919): On the
Chiroptera in British Museum, London. genus Tadarida (Wrinkle-lip Bats). J.
ELLERMAN, J.R. & Morrison-Sco1T, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 731-733.

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

3. A PROTECTIVE DEVICE AMONG WILD ELEPHANTS ?

With reference to the note, ‘A Curious Protective Device Among
Wild Elephants’ by Sri K. V. Lakshminarayana in the Journal, 60 (1):
250-251, I narrate below an experience I had on 1 April 1964 in the
Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary.

At 8 a.m. our boat approached a small herd of elephants which
was on a wooded slope close to the water. It consisted of five adults
and four young ones. The calves were nicely graded in size, the
smallest being a hairy creature not much larger than a buffalo calf.
A slightly larger calf also had plenty of hair on its body.

When first seen the animals were feeding in the grass and
occasionally flinging earth over their backs. As they formed a nice
group and were very close to us, I tried to take a photograph. Within
the short time spent in borrowing a camera and examining its ‘settings’
the elephants deliberately arranged themselves in such a_ fash‘on
that I could see nothing but the hindquarters of two adults. All the
adult elephants had turned away from us and grouped themselves in
such a way that the four calves were hedged in among them so
thoroughly that we could see nothing at all of the calves!

When the boat started again and moved on, the elephants quietly
broke up their ‘formation’ and began moving away from the water.

Though it was quite clear that the larger animals had bunched
up in order to encircle the calves, no animal trumpeted or showed
any signs of excitement or fear.

It should also be stated that we came across larger herds with
a good sprinkling of very young calves, but these herds did not react
perceptibly to the sound or the proximity of the boats.

The party consisted of guests invited to a seminar on American
Literature conducted by the U.S.1.S., Trivandrum, and a few members
of the U.S.LS. staff. Sri Parameswaran Nair, of the US.LS., will
support the observations given above.

MAHARAJA’S COLLEGE,
ERNAKULAM, KERALA, K. K. NEELAKANTAN

April 20, 1964.

[From a single instance of this kind it is not possible to say for
certain that the ‘formation’ reported by Prof. K. K. Neelakantan was
deliberate, particularly so in view of the fact that other herds of
elephants took no notice of the boats. Nevertheless, having regard to
the experience previously reported by Sri. K. V. Lakshminarayana, the
present occurrence is of sufficient interest to be placed on record.—
EDs. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 439

4. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS |—CEYX ERITHACUS
RUFIDORSUS STRICKLAND IN THE SIKKIM TERAIT,
EASTERN HIMALAYAS : AN ADDITION TO THE
INDIAN AVIFAUNA

While examining the small series of Threetoed Kingfishers Ceyx
erithacus (Linnaeus) in the Society’s collection, I noticed one which
was uniformly rufous and washed with lilac on the upper surface and
had a large 35.5 mm. bill (from feathers) against 30-33, av. 31.5, in
the others. The label was marked ‘Male, Ceyx tridactyla, Sikkim
Terai, 22.7.09, C. M. Inglis’ in Mr. Inglis’s handwriting. This
specimen appeared so different from the others that I sent it for
identification to Mr. J. D. MacDonald of the British Museum, who
reported that it was rufidorsus arid referred me to a paper, “The Ceyx
erithacus and rufidorsus species problem’ by R. W. Sims, in the Journal
of the Linnean Society of London, Zoology, 44 : 212-221 (1959). He
also said that, though the bill was longer than in the majority, one or
two had them just as long.

Sims examined 351 specimens from various sources and came to ‘the
conclusion that the forms Ceyx erithacus (Linnaeus) (type loc. :
Benghala) and rufidorsus Strickland (type loc. : Malacca) are different
races of the same species, with varying intermediate stages some of
which are constant enough to permit their being separated as races.
Typical erithacus, according to him, is characterised by:

(i) a blue-black spot on the forehead,

(ii) an ultramarine patch on each side of the neck,

(iii) a black mantle and scapulars washed with ultramarine, and

(iv) black wing-coverts tipped with ultramarine,
while rufidorsus lacks all these four characteristics and has the colour
of the upper parts uniformly rufous washed with lilac. The eight
other specimens available in the Society’s collection, from Bombay (3),
North Kanara (3), Goalpara (Assam), and Cachar, have all the
necessary characteristics of erithacus, while the specimen collected by
Inglis has none and is uniformly rufous above, washed with lilac.

Sims gives the range of rufidorsus : ‘throughout the Malaysian
subregion in Mindoro and Tawi Tawai in the Philippines and Lombok,
Sumbawa and Flores in the Indo-Australian archipelago’.

The race rufidorsus does not appear to have been recorded before
within Indian limits, the specimen having remained unrecognized for

many years.

The examination referred to earlier was prompted by a Threetoed
Kingfisher, Ceyx erithacus erithacus (Linnaeus) flying into my house
13

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

at Bandra, Bombay, at about 8 a.m. on 13 September 1963. It was
discovered just as our cat had pinned it against a glass window in the
verandah facing west. This species visits the neighbourhood of
Bombay as far north as Suriamal, Wada, Thana District, during the
monsoon and breeds among the forested hills. It is well known as
a wanderer and has often flown into houses—the other two specimens
from Bombay were apparently similarly obtained, being marked ‘Govt.
Dockyard, 18th June 1902’ and ‘Caught in Bombay. Purchased,
3rd October 1910’.

MEssrsS Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET; HUMAYUN ABDULALI
Bombay 3,

July 25, 1964.

5. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS 2—RACES OF STERNA
ALBIFRONS PALLAS, IN INDIA AND PAKISTAN

(With a text-figure)

ABSTRACT

Ripley’s account of the races of Sterna albifrons Pallas in A SYNOPSIS OF THE
BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (1961) differs from that of Stuart Baker in the FAUNA
(1929, 6). The material and literature available in Bombay indicate that typical
albifrons breeds along the Persian Gulf to Bhavnagar in Gujarat, and apparently also
on the Brahmaputra and the rivers in the Indus basin ; saundersi has been obtained
in Ceylon and the Maldives, but there is no evidence of its nesting anywhere except
around Karachi, Pakistan ; sinensis breeds along the coast from China, through
Malaya and Ceylon, as far north as Bombay ; pusilla is indeterminate.

Stuart Baker in the FAUNA (1929, 6; 134) accepted 5 races of the
Little Tern Sterna albifrons Pallas from Indian limits: albifrons Pallas
(Hollarid), sinénsis Gmelin (China), pusilla Temminck (Java),
praetermissa Stuart Baker (Mesopotamia), and saundersi Hume
(Karachi). Ticehurst (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.. 34 : 484) merged
praetermissa with albifrons and removed pusilla as _ insufficiently
described. Earlier (Jbis 1924 : 142) he had merged Hume’s gouldi
(which name incidentally is preoccupied by gvouldi Reichenbach) with
albifrons, the form nesting on the rivers of north-west India. Hume
(Stray Feathers 9 : 131) found gouldi nesting at Goalundo on the
Brahmaputra.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 441

In 1961, R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji sent to the Bombay Natural
History Society the skin of a Little Tern (Sterna albifrons Pallas) shot
off eggs at Bhavnagar, Saurashtra. An attempt to determine its race
by an examination of the skins and literature available in Bombay
showed considerable disparity with the position in Ripley's recent
A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN and I sent 6 skins
to the Berlin Museum for identification. In his reply, Dr. G.
Mauersberger stressed the importance of the colour of the shafts of
the first three primaries, and the simplicity of the character and the
fact that it 1s constant in non-breeding birds and flying young in
juvenile plumage prompted me to attempt a reassessment of the races
occurring in India. Additional! diagnostic characters are mentioned in
the key below and are illustrated by a sketch kindly drawn for me by
Miss Elizabeth Reuben. The key is followed by notes on the known
distribution of the three races:

(a) Shafts of first three primaries dark brown to brownish
white. Legs and feet orange-yellow or yellow.
Black of head tapers to a point in front, white of
forehead touches the eyes. Upper plumage darker
than in other two races. ... albifrons

(b) Shafts of first three primaries shining white. (Legs
and fleet and head as in albifrons) ce sinensis

(c) Shafts of first three primaries black (not brown).
Grey of upper plumage much lighter than in other
two, being most noticeable in two adults obtained on
28-7-1962. Paleness of secondaries sets off and
accentuates black in primaries. White of forehead
does not reach the eyes. Black on top of head does
not taper to a point but has straight edge across
forehead. Legs and feet dusky yellowish olive (paler
behind and below). According to Stuart Baker
(NIDIFICATION 4 : 381) eggs quite distinct from those
of the other races. .. saundersi

Sterna a. albifrons Pallas The Little Tern.

Ripley (loc. cit.) records the Little Tern as breeding along the
Mekran Coast, on a rocky islet off Salsette, Bombay, and at Masulipatam,
Andhra. The two latter records are incorrect. The former is based
on a nesting colony near Bombay recorded by me in 1939 as of
albifrons on the strength of an identification by the late Mr. Hugh

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vols 61 (2)

Whistler. This seems to have been an unfortunate slip, for the 10
specimens available for examination in Bombay are definitely not
albifrons and agree with sinensis. In the record from Masulipatam
there appears to be another slip—Whistler (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Lith ip
nO ping tOE

‘
\
ASS \

wn YY y CPBEIEEELLEER.: _
LBP SY ai

Markings on head of: 1. Sterna albifrons saundersi; 2. S. a.
albifrons and S. a. sinensis

39 : 249) specifically stated that he had not had the opportunity of
examining specimens and was uncertain of the race, as also of
Ferguson’s specimen from North Travancore which is recorded as
saundersi by Salim Ali (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39 : 580), but
marked with a query in his subsequent (1953) THE BIRDS OF
TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN, p. 374.

Ticehurst accepted albifrons as the breeding bird in the Persian
Gulf and in north-west India, and the Bombay collections include
specimens from Mesopotamia (breeding); Kandla, Kutch, (2), 11th
September 1943; Salaya, Gulf of Kutch, 6th August 1963; Bhavnagar
(breeding), Ist June 1961; Mira Road, Salsette, 6th July 1962; Bombay
Harbour, 10th April 1963; and Rewas on mainland opposite Bombay
(7, all in non-breeding plumage with dark bills and brown feathers on
the shoulders), 27th December 1962. K. S. Shivbhadrasinhji of
Bhavnagar found c/3, c/3, and c/2 on Gourishankar Lake, Bhavnagar,
in June 1959 (R. §. Dharmakumarsinhji in epist.). It is interesting that,
with the record from Bhavnagar, the breeding territory of this race

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 443

encircles Karachi, the only place where saundersi is definitely known
to breed.

In the Indian Museum at Calcutta, I saw (March 1964) two old
water-damaged specimens from Khan-i-al, Turkestan, and Khwaja
Ahmed, Seistan, with the brownish quill shafts of this form.

Sterna a. sinensis Gmelin The Whiteshafted Little Tern.

This race is omitted from Ripley’s synopsis. I have already
referred to the nesting colony near Bombay, wrongly recorded as
albifrons. A visit on 23rd May 1948 showed an active colony of about
a hundred nests. On 22nd May 1952, only 3 pairs were seen, together
with several drums of ‘wash’ and a large number of eggshells near
the distilling fire-place to teli the tale! Pairs and small parties have
been seen at Versova (Ist April 1962), Chowpatty (April-May 1962),
and Mahim Creek (8th July 1963), but there is no means of being
certain of the subspecies. On 25th April 1963, I flew over the island
at a height of about 500 ft. and could see no terns at all. The whole
island appeared to have been flooded at high tide.

The 10 specimens available, all from the neighbourhood of
Bombay, taken between 25th April and 6th September, and all in
breeding plumage, have yellow bills with small black tips. The nest-
ing birds of Ceylon and Malaya are now accepted as of this race.
Dr. Mauersberger, who examined two specimens from Bombay,
thought they were lighter above than the average albifrons, though a
little darker and less bluish than the true sinensis. The latter he
opined may be due to staining by blood and fat. In series, they are
paler than albifrons. In the breeding plumage the biil is yellow with
a black tip which is smaller than in saundersi. In non-breeding
plumage (September), the bills are horny-tipped and not yellow at the
base. Dr. Dillon Ripley informs me that he has a non-breeding male
taken on the Sankos River in the Eastern Duars in April (Wing 159;
Tail 66.5).

Six males from Bombay have wings 168-180 (av. 175) and tails
65-93 (av. 81.6). Dr. Charles Vaurie informs me (in epist.) that 10
males of sinensis at the American Museum of Natural History, New
York, have a wing length of 182-192 (185.5) and outer tail feathers
of 95-140 (109). The Indian birds appear to be smaller, but Dr.
Mauersberger informs me that 12 skins from China available to him
measure 170-187 while individuals from Japan and Luzon are smaller,
164 and 166 mm. Larger series appear necessary to determine if
there is any geographic variation in the wide range of this race
extending from Japan to Bombay.

444. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Sterna a. saundersi Hume. The Blackshafted Little Tern.

The black (not brown) shafts of the primaries are distinctive. The
grey of the upper parts is much lighter than in albifrons and _ sinensis,
being most noticeable in two adults obtained on 28th July 1962.

Ripley (loc. cit.) notes it as breeding along the coast of West
Pakistan as far east as Karachi, and on Karativu Island, north-west
of Ceylon. Hume described this from Karachi and referred specimens
from the Laccadives, Ceylon, Madras, as well as a nestling from —
Phillor on the Sutlej, to this race! Ticehurst & Cheesman (/bis 1925:
29) referred to a pair and a single bird secured at Bahrain Island, and
another caught exhausted off the Hadhramaut Coast on 8th May 1923.
They suggest that this race breeds at the southern end of the Persian
Gulf, the breeding bird at the northern end being albijfrons.

Ticehurst (/bis 1924 : 143) states that it appears in Karachi about
the first week in April and disappears by the beginning of September.
The specimens available are from Karachi (breeding), 16th April and
9th July; Salt Works, Kandla, Kutch, 6th and 9th May (2), 16th
July; Pirotan Island, Gulf of Kutch, 28th July 1962 (3). One bird
marked saundersi by Ticehurst (Karachi 15th April 1918) has the black
forehead and the first primary shaft as in albifrons and is no doubt of
the latter race.

Phillips in A REVISED (1952) CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF CEYLON,
also quoted by Ripley, refers to 3 specimens obtained on Karativu
Island, but does not say that they are from a nesting colony. Again
he refers to three specimens (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 : 221) shot
in the Maldives in January and adds ‘resident’ as it was ‘reported to
breed’. This race, as also the others, travel long distances in the
non-breeding season, but there appears to be no definite evidence
of its nesting anywhere except around Karachi. Bulkley’s record
from Kharaghoda (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 8 : 325) is quoted as of
this race, but it may be well to check upon its correctness. It
is curious that there is no record of this race south of the Gulf of
Kutch, i.e. on passage to Ceylon.

Hartert & Steinbacher (1932) have drawn attention to several
instances of misidentification of albifrons as saundersi in African
limits, and it is necessary to examine the records more carefully. If
the breeding records from Ceylon are confirmed, it will be necessary
to separate this as a species as already suggested by Stuart Baker
(NIDIFICATION 4 : 381) and Hartert & Steinbacher (loc. cit.).

Ticehurst stresses the fact that saundersi is a salt-water bird and
its colonies are scattered over a fairly large area, so that each nest
is some distance—twenty to a hundred yards—from the next. The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 445

nests of sinensis near Bombay were only a few feet apart. Ticehurst
also said that as soon as one reached the Indus the Little Tern
(albifrons) was the nesting form, which never breeds on maritime
shores. ‘This is not correct, for in Europe and North Africa albifrons
is known to nest on the seashore.

In India, sinensis has only been recorded as nesting near the sea
but La Touche (HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA 2 : 330)
refers to clutches of 2 and 3 along the coast and on river banks. In
the non-breeding season of course, all three may be found over salt
water.

Sterna a. pusilla Temminck.

Ripley (loc. cit.) has accepted this as the river-breeding tern in
India, but I have already referred to Ticehurst’s earlier opinion based
on (1) absence of specimens, (2) insufficient description, and (3) type
locality being in Java where sinensis is now accepted as the breeding
form, and agree with Ticehurst that it would be best to drop this name.

Stuart Baker’s key for the identification (loc. cit. p. 134) of the
five races mentioned by him divides them into two groups, one
(albifrons and sinensis) with ‘bill larger, culmen 28-34 mm., much
stouter’ and the other (praetermissa, pusilla, and saundersi) with ‘bill
smaller, culmen 26-32 mm., much more slender’. Birds of the year
appear to have smaller dark-coloured bills as compared with the yellow
bills of birds in breeding plumage and I have been unable to associate
these differences with any of the races.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS)

This note is based on an examination of some 40 skins which
include 15 in the collections of St. Xavier’s High School, Bombay.
I am grateful to the school authorities for having permitted their
examination and also for presenting 4 skins to the Society. Dr.
Salim Ali very kindly let me have a translation of relevant portions
from Hartert & Steinbacher, which has been useful in completing some
parts of this note. Drs. G. Mauersberger and Dillon Ripley kindly
read over the draft note and I am grateful for their suggestions.

Messrs Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY 3, :

July 25, 1964.

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)
6. NEW BIRD RECORDS FOR SAURASHTRA

1. Red Kite [Milvus milvus (Linnaeus)]

On 23-3-64 at a lake near Jasdan I saw a Red Kite, Milvus milvus
(Linnaeus), sitting on the mudfiat. The lighter-coloured head, dark-
streaked brown breast, and rufous underparts and tail were dis-
tinctive and put it apart from the Common Pariah Kites which were
also there. I was able to watch the bird for 15 minutes through
binoculars before it flew off on my going closer. The only other
record for India is that of Dr. Salim Ali at Pung Bet in the Rann of
Kutch where over 50 were observed in March 1945.

2. Large Crowned Leaf Warbler [Phylloscopus occipitalis (Blyth)]

During the BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Study camp at Hingolgadh
in September 1963, a single Large Crowned leaf Warbler
[Phylloscopus occipitalis (Blyth)] was caught in a mist net on 19-9-63.
This bird has been recorded from Gujarat but there are no records
of its occurrence in Saurashtra-.

3. Masked Wasgtail (Motacilla alba personata Gould)

On 9-1-1964 I saw a Masked Wagtail (Motacilla alba personata
Gould) at Jasdan. This bird has not been previously recorded from
Saurashtra.

THE PALACE, ;
JASDAN, Y. S. SHIVRAJKUMAR
February 23, 1964.

7. SOME NOTES ON THE PAINTED PARTRIDGE
[FRANCOLINUS PICTUS (JARDINE & SELBY)] AROUND
BOMBAY

The Painted Partridge [Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby)] is
resident in the Bombay Konkan and is the only game bird which
affords regular sport in that area. As little or nothing has been noted
about its food and other habits, the few notes which I have retained
over many years may be worthwhile recording.

This bird ordinarily lives in heavier cover than the Grey Partridge
(F. pondicerianus) which does not occur in the Konkan and is only
found beyond the Ghats in the Deccan. Unlike the Grey Partridge, it
does not collect in coveys. When approached, unlike the Grey and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 447

the Black (F. francolinus), it does not run along the ground from bush
to bush through open country, but squats in cover, often unbelievably
scanty. It calls only during the courting and breeding season, the
earliest calls noted being on 8 and 15 April and the last on 4, 7, and
15 October’. The call, which is uttered only by the male, has been
syllabilised as chee-kee-kerrag and can be heard at long distances. At
short range a preliminary click is audible. The bird may call at any
time of the day, though more often in the morning and in the evening.
The call is uttered, in our area at least, only from trees or other
prominent positions—I have heard it calling from an electric pylon.
When calling it can usually be approached, and I fear that some are
shot in this manner.

The Small Game Season in Maharashtra is from 1 October to 31
March which, in my opinion, is correct for this species. Though all
the broods may not be fully grown in October, it is impossible to do
any shooting until the rice has been harvested and the grass also cut,
i.e. by early December, when young birds with yellow legs are rarely
seen. In February and March, two birds may occasionally be put up
out of the same patch, but I do not think that they pair off so soon.
In the Deccan the Grey Partridge and the Common Sandgrouse
(Pterocles exustus) commence breeding by February and the Small
Game Season, which is now common for all birds, will have to be
adjusted.

Though larger bags have been reported, the Painted Partridge is
not easily put up and 10-12 brace to 2 or 3 guns is the most I have
seen shot. They offer excellent sport but can only be put up with a
line of beaters, who must really ‘beat about the bush’. Famous dogs,
brought out by friends, have quickly and invariably produced a strong
desire in all, except the owner, to shoot them!

Before the restrictions imposed under the Bombay Wild Animals
and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951, large numbers were netted for
the market in the surrounding countryside, resulting in a heavy toll
of their numbers. With such control as it has been possible to
exercise over the activities of the Phansi Pardas (a tribe of professional
trappers) the number of birds has no doubt increased, but this has
been largely off-set by deforestation and the disappearance of scrub
cover. In many places where it was once possible to have a long beat
of 300 or 400 yards, only a few stray bushes are left forcing the birds
to move further away.

1 Heard on 5 November 1964.—H. A.

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Some years ago I was struck by the occasional disparity in the
number of males and females in the day’s bag, e.g. of 17 birds shot
over 6 days in different places between October and February, 14 were
males. I therefore decided to check further bags but, as 10 shot in
December included 6 males and another 10 in January were 5 males
and 5 females, my inquiry was suspended until another day when of
1S birds sexed 11 were males.

A few notes of one day’s shooting are as under:

FS oe
11 shot in December at M: 10 i!
10 do. M: 2 8
5 shot in March at A: es 5
3 do. B: ] 2
5) do. Cs 2 3)
5) do. 1D 1 4

The overall figures for 220 sexed at 31 shoots showed 113 males
and 107 females. Though this did not indicate any disproportionate
number of males and females, I sent the above-quoted figures to
Mr. S. D. Jayakar, Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Bhubaneswar,
From his reply it appears that the numbers are not consistent with
random sampling and that one would get such a scatter of ratios by
chance less than once in a hundred trials. A possible explanation is
that males prefer one area at one time and females another, though
it is difficult to imagine why this should be. Here is a problem to
which shikaris may give some attention. The female can ordinarily
be told by the chin being white and less heavily streaked than the
male, but this is not infallible and the only certain method is to sex
the bird by dissection. : | |

There is another interesting observation about the Painted
Partridge. The country where it is found also holds the Jungle Bush
Quail (Perdicula asiatica) and the Bluelegged or Common Bustard
Quail (Turnix suscitator) and, during the season, the Grey Quail
(Coturnix coturnix) and the Rain Quail (Coturnix coromandelica).
The beat may produce any of these birds, but a few years ago I
noticed that, if a patch held Bush Quail, no Painted Partridge would
be present. I have had this in mind over several seasons and can now
confidently state that these two will not be found in the same cover.
Considering that the other quails may often be found with the Painted
Partridge, one can only assume that there is some form of antipathy
between the Painted Partridge and the Jungle Bush Quail. It may
happen that a patch beaten in the morning may produce either the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 449

Bush Quail or the Painted Partridge and, worked over again later,
would reveal the exact reverse—but never the two together. I have
seen the Bustard Quail beaten out of the same patch as the Bush
Quail. It would be interesting to have the experience of persons
from other parts of the country.

The main crop in the Konkan is rice and there is no doubt that
this forms an important part of the food of this bird. The best sport
is also available in rice stubble adjoining scrub jungle. It will not
be found far from fresh water and has often been put up out of tall
rushes during the course of snipe shoots—Job’s Tears (Coix lachryma-
jobi) seeds have been found in its stomach. There is some local
migration due presumably to conditions of food and cover. Paddy
gleanings form its staple diet in November, December, and January,
though a greater proportion of large black ants (Camponotus sp.),
Chrysomelid Beetles (Aulacophora foveicollis, 30-40 at a time), and
large Pentatomid Bugs (Aspongopus janus) is taken later in the
season. A large Tenebrionid beetle (Pseudoblaps mellyi Mal.) was
found in December.

I have also been shown small ‘canopies’ 8 to 10 inches high formed
by constant use in patches of standing dry grass which are said to be
roosts of individual partridges. The last one examined held 6 to 8
droppings, and a partridge was flushed a short distance away.

Messrs Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY 3,

July 2, 1964.

8. ADDITIONS TO THE BIRDS OF KUTCH : MONARCHA
AZUREA (BODDAERT) AND MUSCICAPA THALASSINA
SWAINSON

The countryside surrounding the Vijaya Vilas Palace at Mandvi,
which includes the plantation around the palace, other cultivated
gardens, the sea-shore, the salt-water creeks, and the mudflats, is a
veritable paradise for bird watchers, particularly during the cold
weather. In January this year I was again lucky to discover two new
birds in the garden there.

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

I saw a Blacknaped Blue Flycatcher (Monarcha azurea), either a
female or an immature male, since it had a faint crescentic bar on its
throat, on the morning of January 13. In the evening of the same
day I came across the second new bird, a Verditer Flycatcher
(Muscicapa thalassina), which was a male. I saw the former again
on February 13.

About the former, Whistler (POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS)
says: “The Indian race, H. a. styani, which also extends eastwards
to Hainan, occurs throughout the whole country except north-west of
a line from Lucknow, Sehore and western Khandesh. Dharmakumar-
sinhji (BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA) says that it is a rare straggler into
Saurashtra, having been recorded in Chanch. Dr. Salim Ali
recorded it at Dwarka which is not so far from Mandvi as the crow
flies. Sdlim Ali and Whistler say that Muscicapa thalassina is found
all over the Indian Union in winter excepting the drier portions of
Rajasthan.

JUBILEE GROUND, |

BHUJ, M. K. HIMMATSINHSI
KUTCH, Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha)
April 12, 1964.

Ring No. |
and species |

C-326 Anas
crecca g

C-380 Anas
querquedula &

a et a

F-3529 Anas
crecca &

F-3563 Anas
clypeata &

cilla flava
thunbergi

C-149 Anas
crecca 3

i i es ww

C-387 Anas
querquedula 2

C-2071 Anas
crecca &

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

9. RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS

Date and place of
ringing

Date and place of
recovery

6.2.1964. Manjhaul
(c. 25.23 N., 86.30
E.), Monghyr Dist.,
Bihar

a a a a

4.4.1962. Bharatpur
(C227 No Nee 732
E.), Rajasthan

ee i a st ee

15.2.1964. Manjhaul
(c. 25.23 N., 86.30
E.), Monghyr Dist.,
Bihar

SS 8

18.2.1964. do.

9.20 N., 76.38 E.)
Chenganoor, —
Kerala

eee

18.2.1964. Manjhaul
(c. 25.23 N., 86.30
E.), Monghyr
Dist., Bihar

4.4.1962. Bharatpur
(6, 2713 Ne 77.32
E.), Rajasthan

3.2.1964. Manjhaul

(ce. 25.23 N., 86.30

E.), Monghyr
Dist., Bihar

i iy ot

1.5.1964. Killed by
man near Kormilo-
vka (55.00 N., 74.05
E.), Omsk Region

10.10.63. Killed by |
man, Temir-Tau
(50.05 N., 72.55 E.),)
Kazakh, SSR, Kara-.
ganda Region |

3.5.1964. Killed by
man, 30 km. W. of
Petrovsk-Zabaykal-
Skiy, “(1215 N-,
108.50 E.), Chita
Region

6.5.64. Killed by
man, Abagay-tuy
(49.35 N., 117.45 E.)
Borzya, Chita Re-
gion

14.5.1964. Found dead,
Karabas (49.30 N.,
T2355 Bey 40 km:
SW. of Karaganda,
Kazakh, SSR

29.5.1964. Killed by
man, near Boguch-
any (58.20 N., 97.30
E.), Krasnoyarsk
Region

3.9.1963. Killed by
man, near Ishimbay
(53.30 N., 56.05 E.),
Bashkirien (Bashkir,
ASSR)

14.5.1964. Killed by
man, near Sosnovo-
Ozerskoe (52.30 N.,
111.20 E.) Buryat,
ASSR

Remarks

Reported by the

Bird-Ringing
Bureau, USSR
Academy of
Sciences, Commis-
sion for Nature
Protection, Mos-
cow, USSR.

do.

A eS SS SS

All these birds were ringed in the course of BNHS/WHO Bird
Migration Field Project.

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
91, WALKESHWAR ROAD,
BOMBAY 6-WB.,
August 25, 1964.

EDITORS

452. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

10. A SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON ‘A LIST OF THE
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF THE SURAT
DANGS, SOUTH GUJARAT’

In the December 1963 number of the Journal (60 : 737-43),
Mr. J. C. Daniel and I reported forty species of reptiles and
amphibians from the Surat Dangs. In the meantime, I have collected
two more species of reptiles in this area, as follows:

Family AGAMIDAE

Calotes rouxi Dum. & Bibr. 1837
Fairly common. The recorded distribution is Bombay Presidency
(Matheran, Khandala, Kanara, Jog); Travancore.’ Its presence in the
Dangs represents a northern range extension.

[The Society’s collection has specimens from Suriamal, north Thana
and Ghoti, Nasik District——EDs.]

Family ScINCIDAE

Mabuya macularia (Blyth) 1853
Fairly common. Found among vine-covered rocks at riverbanks
and in fence rows. | | cet a eee

AHWA, VIA BILLIMORA,

Dancs DISTRICT, E. M. SHULL
GUJARAT STATE, | 7 Oe Mepeae
May 15, 1964.

11. OCCURRENCE OF A SCALE INTERPOSED BETWEEN
THE PARIETALS AND OCCIPITALS IN THE KING
COBRA, NAJA HANNAH (CANTOR)

Smith (FAUNA BRiT. INDIA, Reptilia, and Amphibia 3 : 437, 1943)
has made the following remarks in connection with the lepidosis of
the head in the King Cobra, Naja hannah (Cantor).

‘Boulenger (F.B.1.) and de Rooij both figure the head with a small
scale interposed between the parietals and occipitals. It is evidently
a tare character. I have seen it in a specimen from S. Canara, and
Prashad records it in another.’

1 Smith, M. A. (1935) : FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, Reptilia and Amphibia 2 : 207.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 453

During my study of Indian poisonous snakes I examined six
specimens (three adults and three juveniles) of Naja hannah preserved
in the Zoological Survey of India. Three out of these, viz. one adult
trom Botanical Gardens, Calcutta (Regd. No. 8292) and two juveniles
(locality unknown) have this scale.

It thus appears that this character is not so rare as suggested by
Smith.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, K. K. TIWARI
CALCUTTA 12,

March 9, 1964.

[Among the 14 specimens in the Society’s collection two-—No. 2275,
Kachugaon, Dubri Div., Assam, and No. 2280, Quilon, Kerala—have
the additional scale on the head. Both are adults.—EDs.]

12. OCCURRENCE OF THE OBLONG SUNFISH [RANZANIA
TRUNCATA (RETZIUS)] IN BOMBAY WATERS’

(With a photograph)

A specimen of the sunfish was caught on the hook by a fisherman
at Sassoon Dock (Bombay City) in March 1964. Not having come
across such a fish before, he kept it in ice overnight. The next day it
was brought to the Taraporevala Aquarium where it was identified as
the Oblong Sunfish, Rawzania truncata (Retzius).

The family Molidae is represented in the world by three genera—
Mola, Masturus, and Ranzania. The first is represented by the Giant
Ocean Sunfish Mola mola (Linnaeus) which grows to more than eight
feet. The genus Masturus is represented by the Pointedtailed Sunfish
Masturus lanceolatus (Lienard). This can be easily distinguished from
Mola mola by the asymmetrical pointed tail and by the presence of
a coloured band running between the dorsal and anal fins. Ranzania
differs from these two genera in its longer body, its depth being
contained twice in its length (as against | to I4 for the other genera),
and also by its gill-rakers being free (not buried in the skin). The
skin is smooth.

1 Communicated by the Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra State.

454. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Kulkarni (1953)' has reviewed the records of sunfishes in Indian
waters. Although they are members of the off-shore tropical and
temperate marine fauna of the world, they are never very common.

The Oblong Sunfish Ranzania truncata (Retzius)

Apart from three specimens recorded from Ceylon by Deraniyagala
(1944) and one from the Malabar coast by Chacko & Mathew (1956),
the Oblong Sunfish has not been caught in our waters. The capture
of the present specimen has therefore provided an opportunity for
examination in a comparatively fresh state. A short description of
the fish is given below.

Ranzania truncata (Retzius)

Tetrodon truncatus Retzius, Vet. Ak. Nya Handl. 6 (2) :116 (1785).

Balistes truncatus Pennant, Outlines of the Globe 1: 213 (1798).

Orthagoriscus truncatus Pearson, Spolia Zevlanica 7: 208 (1911).

Ranzania truncata Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 21 (2): 989 (1927) ; Barnard,
ibid. 30 (5) : 657 (1935) ; Norman & Fraser, Giant fishes, whales & dolphins :
184 (1937) ; Chacko & Mathew, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 (4) : 724 (1956);
Nikol’skii, Special Ichth. (2nd Ed.) : 474 (1961).

* Kulkarni, C. V. (1953): Rare Ocean Sun-Fish—Masturus lanceolatus Lienard
in Bombay waters. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 : 948-50.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 455

Ranzania laevis Whitley, Rec. Austr. Mus. 19 (1): 108 (1933) ; Deraniyagala,
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44 (3) : 429 (1944) ; Munro, Mar. & Freshwater
Fishes of Ceylon : 284 (1955).

Ranzania makua Jenkins, Proc. Cal. Ac. Sci. 2 (V): 780 (1895); Jordan &
Evermann, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 23 (1) : 440 (1905); Snyder, Proc. U.S.
Nat. Mus. 44: 455 (1913) ; Scott, Marine & Freshw. Fishes of South Austr.:
301 (1962).

Ranzania typus Fraser-Brunner, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (2) 10 : 7 (1943) ; Smith, Sea
Fishes of South. Afr. : 422 (1953).

The body is greatly compressed but elongate, the depth being
contained twice within the length. The skin is smooth. The mouth
is covered by flaps of skin on each side to form a funnel. The teeth
are fused to form a plate in each jaw, the latter not extending beyond
the rounded profile of the body. The gill-rakers are free. An air
bladder is absent, and so are the pelvic fins. The skin below the
elongate pectoral fins is depressed so that these fins lie flush against
the body. Their axis lies above the level of the centre of the eye.
The tail is gephyrocercal; its border is slightly undulating, giving it a
scalloped appearance.

MEASUREMENTS
Characters Measurement in mm.
Standard length Re 528
Total length ee Sut
Depth of body sts 290
Length of snout (from front of orbit to mouth) .. 72,
Transverse diameter of orbit re 34
Longitudinal diameter of orbit oe 30
Interorbital width Be 64
Height of dorsal fin an 180
Height of anal fin a 170
Length of pectoral fin - 119
Length of caudal fin i 43
Height of caudal fin ce 220
Distance between tips of dorsal and anal fins oe 547

Weight 6.5 kilograms

Colour in the fresh fish dark steel-grey above, merging to silver
on the sides and belly. This silvery sheen is easily rubbed off by
handling, then exposing a fleshy pink with a honeycomb design of
slightly darker red. On preservation, the body turns a uniformly dark
grey. The sides of the head below the eyes have parallel silvery
stripes with black borders, extending backward as gradually diminish-
ing stripes on the belly. .

The tail, which is pinkish brown, has approximately eighteen

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

finger-shaped dark spots at right angles to its border; these indicate
the positions of the fin-rays below the skin. on

The network of bright silver bands, with small black spots,
enclosing oval patches of dull greyish silver, and irregular dark marks
on the back and hind end of the body, described by Barnard (1927),
are not indicated in the present specimen.

The specimen will be deposited in the collections of the Zoological
Survey of India.

The author is grateful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries,
Maharashtra State, and Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific
Officer, for facilities at the Taraporevala Marine Biological Station.

TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION,
BOMBAY 2, B. F. CHHAPGAR
July 27, 1964.

13. A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE FLATFISHES
(HETEROSOMATA) FOUND ALONG THE BOMBAY COAST?

The flatfishes (Heterosomata) are well represented in the catches
along the Bombay coast and as many as fourteen species have so far
been recorded in the samples of catches obtained during the years
1957-58 from Okha to Malvan. Out of these, the occurrence on this
stretch of coast of three species, Pseudorhombus elevatus Ogilby,
Brachirus commersoni (Lacépéde), and Paraplagusia blochii (Bleeker),
is being recorded here for the first time. A list of flatfishes of Bombay,
with a brief account of the variations from previous descriptions with
reference to the morphometric and meristic characters, is given below.

SYSTEMATIC LIST OF FLATFISHES OF THE BOMBAY COAST

Family PSETTODIDAE

Psettodes erumei (Schneider) Marathi, Bhakas ; English, Indian Turbot
D. 47-54, A. 35-41.
Common in trawl catches throughout the year. In small numbers

in the inshore waters from September to October.
Hab. East Africa to the Pacific.

1 The area studied and reported on includes the coasts of Maharashtra and
Gujarat States.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 457
Family BOTHIDAE

Subfamily PARALICHTHINAE

Pseudorhombus arsius (Ham.-Buch.) Marathi, Lepti, Lep.

Specimens from Bombay, Veraval, and Okha.
Hab. East Africa to Pacific.

Pseudorhombus elevatus Ogilby

D. 76-78, A. 57-60, Lt.l. 67-68.

Numerous specimens were collected from wall-nets, locally known
as wana, during the period December to March on different shore-
strips. They were not so common in other months and hence are
not of much commercial significance. :

Hab. From the Persian Gulf, through the Indian Ocean and
Archipelago to Australia.

Pseudorhombus javanicus (Bleeker)
Hab. East Coast of India to Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.

Family SOLEIDAE

Brachirus commersoni (Lacépéde)

D. 74-79, A. 60-67.

Depth 34 to 4, head 54 to 6, in length; diameter of eye 7 to 10 in
length of head. Right pectoral 5 to 7 in length of head. Scales about
155 to 160 in longitudinal series.

Specimens from Bombay and Ratnagiri.

Hab. Seas of India to Malay Archipelago.

Brachirus orientalis (Bloch & Schneider)
Specimens from Jaitapur, Malvan, Bombay, Satpati, and Okha.
Hab. From the Persian Gulf, through the Malay Peninsula and
Archipelago, to China and Australia.

Zebrias quagga (Kaup) Marathi, Sudi; English, Sole

Specimens from Bombay and Satpati.

Hab. Seas of India, throughout the Malay Peninsula and
Archipelago to China.

Aseraggodes cyaneus (Alcock)
Hab. From the Persian Gulf, through the Indian Ocean and
Archipelago to the Timor Sea.

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)
Family CYNOGLOSSIDAE

_ Paraplagusia bilineata (Bloch) Marathi, Shivra; English, Sole
Specimens from Kodinar.
Hab. From East Africa, through the Indian Ocean and Archipelago
to China and Japan.

Paraplagusia blochii (Bleeker)

Specimens from Okha and Kodinar.

Hab. East Africa, throughout the Indian Ocean and Archipelago
to Formosa.

Cynoglossus bilineatus (Lacépéde)
Specimens from Kodinar, Umarsadi, Kolak, Bombay, a Mithbao.
Hab. From the Red Sea, through the Indian Ocean and
Archipelago, to Australia and Japan.

Cynoglossus dispar Day

D. 110-112, A. 88-90.

Depth 31 to 32, head 44 to 44, in length. Snout 32 to 34 in head.
Diameter of eye 9 to 10 in head, almost equal to interorbital width;
scales 106 to 112 in longitudinal series; two lateral lines on ocular
side, separated by 19 to 20 series of scales, two on blind side separated
by 23 to 26 series of scales.

Specimens from Bombay.

Hab. Bombay; Madras.

Cynoglossus dubius Day

D. 103-115, A. 84-91.

Depth 33, head about 4, in length. Snout 22 in head, diameter
of eye 12 in head; two lateral lines on ocular side separated by 20
series of scales. :

Specimens from Bombay and Satpati.

Hab. Sind and Baluchistan, Travancore.

Cynoglossus lingua Ham.-Buch.
Few specimens from the trawl catches off Bombay coast.
Hab. Coasts of India to Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.
Cynoglossus macrolepidotus (Bleeker)

Common in the catches along this coast but not of much commercial
importance.

Hab. Persian Gulf, seas of India, Malay Peninsula and Archi-
pelago; China.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 459

Cynoglossus puncticeps (Richardson)

Specimens from Bombay and Gholvad.

Hab. From Sind, through the Indian Ocean and Archipelago to
China.
TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL

RESEARCH STATION, M. J. PRADHAN'
BOMBAY 2,
December 17, 1963.

14. ON THE ABILITY OF GLYPTOTHORAX TELCHITTA
(HAMILTON) TO SURVIVE OUTSIDE WATER

During a study of the fish fauna of the upper Gangetic plain, I
came across an extraordinary case of the ability on the part of
Glyptothorax telchitta (Hamilton), a fish belonging to the family
Sisoridae and locally known as tilier, to survive outside water.

On 20 December 1960 I went with some fishermen to Kalinadi (a
small stream flowing along the western border of Muzaffarnagar town)
to observe the catch and to collect fish for my work. At about
11 am. a solitary Glyptothorax telchitta (Hamilton) was netted and
I asked the fisherman to keep it separately for me in his basket. At
about 3 p.m., when the fishing was over, I selected some more fish,
put them all in a paper bag, and reached the laboratory at 3.45. At
about 4.30 I took the whole lot of fishes and placed them in a sink
for washing. As4I opened the tap, I saw, to my surprise, that G.
telchitta was still alive. I separated it from other fish and put it in
flowing water (a sink full of water with an overflow arrangement). I
found that the fish regained its normal activity and to all appearances
was none the worse for its ordeal of more than 54 hours outside water.
It was perfectly normal and healthy even after five days when I fixed
the whole fish in Bouin’s fluid for histological examination.

No accessory respiratory organs are known to exist in this species,
nor were any discovered on a careful examination. It was noted,
however, that all the barbels, the characteristic adhesive pad on the
ventral side, and the lips were blood-red in colour after 54 hours’
stay outside water. This indicates that all these parts were suffused
with an unusual supply of blood to enable them to allow gaseous
exchange with the atmosphere necessary for maintaining at least the
minimum respiratory activity required for survival. This process may
probably be supplemented by the gills by gasping air through the

1 Present address : Central Marine Fisheries Research Centre, Veraval, Gujarat

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

mouth. These factors, along with the fact that the general metabolism
of the fish is at a low ebb during winter, may have contributed a good
deal to this extraordinary ability. In about 12-15 hours the colour
of the parts which had become blood-red at the time of putting the
fish in flowing water became normal.

Whether this is an instance of exceptional capacity on the part
of the individual or is a characteristic of the species is not clear, but
a possible significance of this phenomenon in nature may be found
in the ecology of the torrential streams which constitute the natural
habitat. It is possible that the rapid current of the streams might
some time throw these fishes out of water, or a rock to which they
might be attached may suddenly become exposed for some time due
to the lowering of the water level or shifting of the current. In such
an emergency the ability to survive outside water would be a great
advantage in the struggle for existence.

Grateful thanks are due to Dr. V. P. Agrawal, Head of the Zoology
Department, D.A.V. College, Muzaffarnagar (U-P.), for providing
facilities.

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

RAJASTHAN UNIVERSITY, C. L. MAHAJAN
JODHPUR,

August 24, 1962.

15. A NEW SPECIES OF STENOCRANUS : S, AJMERENSIS
SP. NOV. (ARAEOPIDAE : FULGOROIDAE : “HOMOPTERA :
HETEROPTERA)'

(With a_ plate)

MALE

Length 4.3 mm. (approximate).

Vertex, pronotum and mesonotum stramineous; mesonotum
stramineous suffused with ochraceous: the area between the lateral
and median carinae of frons dark black; the carinae on the ventral
side of head stramineous; the area outer to the lateral carinae and
inner to the outer carinae and the clypeus pale brown; the remaining
part of the ventral side of head ochraceous. Antennae ochraceous.
Ventral side of thorax ochraceous, legs stramineous with castaneous
streaks. Tegmen (Plate, fig. 4) subhyaline, distally the veins pale
brown. Abdomen ochraceous marked with castaneous.

a Communicated by the Principal, Lohia College, Churu, Rajasthan.

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

Stenocranus ajmerensis sp. nov.
(For explanations see foot of p. 462)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 461

Spur foliaceous with a few teeth.

Scape longer than half the length of pedicel.

Vertex longer than broad.

Median carina of frons double throughout its course, basaily
closer; vertex, pronotum and mesonotum tricarinate; the lateral carinae
of pronotum diverging posteriorly and not touching the hind margin
while the median carina disappears a little in front of the hind border.

Pygofer with a basal constriction, the opening as broad as long,
anal angles short, rather rounded and reach up to the base of the
tenth segment; diaphragm without armature; aedeagus periandrum
tubular, narrowing gradually from the base to the tip; from the
aedeagus basal strut arises a sickle-shaped structure with a swollen,
cylindrical base which has a hole through which the aedeagus
periandrum projects out; parameres hollow, basally swollen and sickle-
shaped with the distal end directed dorso-laterally; tenth and eleventh
segments large, anal processes short, wide, blunt and _ directed
posteroventrally.

FEMALE

Length 5 mm. (approximate).

Agrees more or less very well with the male, but lightly coloured.

Ovipositor extends well beyond the ninth abdominal segment;
subgenital plate large; basally the ovipositor roofed over by the
posteriorly projecting sixth abdominal sternum; first valvifer basally
hook-shaped; serrations of the second valvulae restricted to the distal
region, the ventral margins also serrated distally with minute pro-
jections; third valvulae highly developed and cover to a greater extent
the seventh sternum, most of the eighth sternum, and completely the
ventral region of ninth tergum.

The specimens of both the sexes are more or less uniformly coloured
as the types, but the ochraceous coloration of the thorax may in
some cases be suffused with castaneous markings.

The number of teeth on the spur of this species vary from 12 to 15S.

This species was collected for the first time by the author from
Ajmer in August 1959. It has been noted subsequently in large
numbers in the collections made by Dr. M. G. Ramdas Menon of the
Division of Entomology at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute
and the types have been selected from this material.

Stenocranus ajmerensis sp. nov. differs from all the other species
of the genus so far recorded in having the median carinae double
along the entire length of frons. As it tallies in all other respects

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

with the other species of Stenocranus', the author does not venture to
place this in any different genus.

Holotype. Male, gummed on card tag bearing the data: ‘inside
lamp dome, Delhi, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, R. Menon
Collection, June-July, 1958’. Deposited in the National Pusa Collec-
tion, Reg. No. Dn/3/62, in the Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi. |

Allotype. Female, gummed on card tag bearing the same data as
the holotype, but collected in September, 1958. Deposited in National
Pusa Collection.

Paratypes. 1 male and 1 female collected at Ajmer by the author
and 4 females bearing the same data as the types and all gummed on
card tags. Deposited in National Pusa Collection. Five males and
seven females in the personal collection.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his deep gratitude to Dr. P. N. Mathur,
Professor of Zoology, Government College, Ajmer, for going through
the manuscript, to Mr. R. G. Fennah, Assistant Director,
Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London,. for confirming the
identification, and to Dr. M. G. Ramdas Menon, Systematist, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, for supplying specimens.
Thanks are also due to Dr. B. V. Ratnam, Principal, Lohia College,
Churu, for the research facilities enjoyed by me in the department.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

LOHIA COLLEGE, A. N. T. JOSEPH
CHURU, RAJASTHAN,

November 29, 1963.

1 Fieber (1866): Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien. 16: 519.

Explanation to Plate facing p. 461

Stenocranus ajmerensis sp. Nov.

1. Dorsal view of head, pronotum and mesonotum; 2. Cephalic view of head ;
3. Distal region of hindleg; 4. Tegmen; 5. Ventral view of pygofer; 6. Aede-
agus periandrum ; 7. Ventral view of paramere ; 8. Ventral view of tenth and eleventh
male abdominal segments ; 9. Ventral view of female abdomen; 10. Lateral view
of third valvula; 11. Ventral view of second valvulae.

IA. first anal; IA. second anal; Ap. aedeagus periandrum; Aps. Anal process ; As.
anal style ; C. costa; Ce. compound eye ; Cl. clypeus ; Cul. cubitus one ; Cula. first
branch of cubitus one; Culb: second branch of cubitus one ; Cu2 cubitus two ;
Fl. flagellum ; Fr. frons; Ht. tibia; Im. inner margin of paramere; M. media; M1.
first branch of media; M2. second branch of media; M3. third branch of media ;
Mo. mesonotum; Nt. ninth tergum ; Oc. ocellus ; Om. outer margin of paramere ;
Pa. paramere ; Pe. pedicel; Po. pronotum; Py. pygofer; RI. radial one; Rs. radial
sector ; Sca. scape ; Scl. first branch of subcosta ; Sc2. second branch of subcosta ;
Sc+R. subcosta plus radius; Sgp. subgenital plate; Sp. spur, Ss. sickle-shaped
structure arising from the aedeagus basal strut; 1Vf. first valvifer; 2Vf. second valvifer;
1V1. first valvula ; 2V1. second valvula: 3V1. third valvula; Vx. vertex; X. tenth
abdominal segment

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. PROPORCELLIO QUADRISERIATUS VERHOEFF :
AN ADDITION TO THE INDIAN FAUNA LIST

463

Proporcellio quadriseriatus Verhoeff is an
described by Verhoeff (1917). This species is a native of the east
Mediterranean region: European Turkey (Bebek, near Istanbul),
Lebanon, Israel, Libya (Cyrenaica). But it seems to be capable of
transportation by man, and of surviving, at least for some time, in
other parts of the world. Specimens of this species collected from
Pontaillac, near Royan in the west of France, are present in the Adrien
Dollfus Collection (Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris). This species
has also been found in abundance in the greenhouses of the Southern
Methodist University, Dallas, Texas (Geiser 1933, Arcangeli 1934,
Van Name 1936).

It was first found in Bhubaneswar in great numbers under some
straw on an exposed terrace in the Orissa Veterinary College. This
straw had obviously been dumped some time previously as it had
generated enough humus to support a few small angiosperms. The
isopod species has subsequentiy been found in three other localities in
urban Bhubaneswar both several kilometres distant from the first and
from each other, and also exposed to the weather. All colonies were
found during the rainy season. Adults were not found in the Orissa
Veterinary College locality in December but reappeared in July 1964.
This is the first record of this species in India. No doubt, it has been
transported into India by man and, judging from the fact that it has
been found in four different places in Bhubaneswar, it cannot be a very
recent importation.

isopod crustacean

LABORATOIRE DE ZOOLOGIE,
FACULTE DES SCIENCES,
118, ROUTE DE NARBONNE,
‘TOULOUSE, FRANCE,

A. VANDEL

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY,
GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA,
BHUBANESWAR 3,

OrISSA, INDIA,

August 10, 1964.

S. D. JAYAKAR

REFERENCES

ARCANGELI, A. (1934): Nuovi contri-
buti alla conoscenza della fauna delle
Isole dell’Egeo.-III. Isopodi Terrestri.
Boll. Labor. Zool. Portici 28 : 37-39.

GEISER, S. W. (1933) : Notes on Texas
Crustacea. Field and Labor 2: 29-31.

Name, W.G. VAN (1936) : The Ameri-

can Land and Freshwater Crustacea.
Bull. Americ. Mus. Nat. Hist. 71 : 1-535.

VERHOEFF, K. W. (1917) : Ueber med-
terrane Oniscoideen, namentlich Porcel-
lioniden.-23. Isopoden-Aufsatz.-Jahres-
hefted. Ver.f.vaterl. Naturk.Wurttemberg,
Stuttgart 73: 144-173.

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

17. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON ‘THE BUTTERFLIES OF
SOUTH GUJARAT’

In J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. [Vol. 60 (3) : 585-99] the writer
reported 145 species of butterflies (plus seven additional female forms}
for an area called South Gujarat, comprising the Dangs, Broach, and
Surat districts. During the past year, five more ‘species have been
collected in this area, as follows.

SATYRIDAE

1. Mycalesis yisala visala Moore: The Longbrand Bushbrown

Fairly common throughout the year.
(South India, Pachmarhi, Bengal, Simla Hills to Assam and
Burma.)*

LYCAENIDAE

2. Nacaduba dubiosa indica Evans: The Tialless Lineblue
Uncomnion throughout the year.

3. Rapala schistacea Moore: The Slate Flash ~

Sole specimen was netted on Poinsettia blossoms on 15 December
1963 at Ahwa in the Dangs.

HESPERIIDAE

4. Coladenia indrani Moore: The Tricolour Pied Flat
Uncommon during the south-west monsoon in the Surat Dangs.
(Ceylon, S. India to Bengal, and Mussoorie to Sikkim, and
Burma.)

5. Sarangesa purendra (Moore) : The Spotted Small Flat
Uncommon throughout the year in the Surat Dangs.

Not only have the above five species been added to the list of
butterflies of South Gujarat, but some additional data have been
recorded for twenty-one more species which were formerly reported,
as follows.

SATYRIDAE

1. Mycalesis mineus polydecta Cramer
Formerly reported from July to October. Now found through-
out the year.

2 As in the original paper, I have ¢ quoted Wynter-Blyth in parenthesis where my
records appear to add to the range of the species.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 465

. Ypthima baldus Fabricius

Formerly reported from July to January. Now _ found
throughout the year.

. Lethe rohria nilgiriensis Guerin

Formerly reported from October to January. Add February
and March.

NYMPHALIDAE

. Neptis columella Cramer

Formerly reported from February to April. Now found from
November to May.

. Neptis jumbah Moore

Formerly reported for March. Add January and February.

LYCAENIDAE

. Spalgis epius (Westwood)

Formerly reported for July and August. Add September to
March.

. Syntarucus plinius (Fabricius)

Formerly reported from November to July. Add October.

. Azanus jesous gamra (Lederer)

Formerly reported for November. Add March.

9. Neopithecops zalmora (Butler)

Formerly reported for November and December. Add October.
10. Lycaenopsis albidisca Moore

Formerly xeported for November, December, and January.

Add October.

11. Zizeeria otis Fabricius

Formerly reported from October to April. Add September.
12. Lycaenesthes lycaenina Felder

Formerly reported from March to May. Add October.
13. Zesius chrysomallus Hubner

Formerly reported for March. Add October.

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

14. Amblypodia amantes amantes Hewitson
Formerly reported from September to March. Add April.

15. Surendra quercetorum Moore
Formerly reported for August and September. Add February.

16. Tajuria cippus cippus (Fabricius)
Formerly reported from March to November. Add July.

17. Rathinda amor (Fabricius)
Formerly reported from September to November. Add March.

18. Rapala melampus Cramer
Formerly reported from November to April. Add October.

HESPERIIDAE

19. Celaenorrhinus ambareesa (Moore)
Formerly reported from February to May. Add saan and
October.

20. Saustus gremius (Fabricius)
Formerly reported for September and October at Waghai. Add
November and include the whole Dangs District.

21. Telicota ancilla = Astychus augias (Linnaeus) and A. pythias
(Mabille)
Formerly reported from November to May. Add October.

With the addition of five more species to the area referred to as
South Gujarat, there are now 150 species and seven additional female
forms in this area.

The writer expresses sincere thanks to Mr. N. T. Nadkerny.
Entomologist of the Bombay Natural History Society, for confirma-
tion of the five species herewith added to the list of the Butterflies of
South Gujarat.

CHURCH OF THE BRETHREN MISSION,

AHWA, VIA BILLIMORA, FE. M. SHULL
DaNGS DISTRICT,

May 15, 1964.

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 467

18. STUDIES ON PLANT-PARASITIC NEMATODES OF
KERALA. HI. AN ADDITIONAL. LIST OF PLANTS
ATTACKED BY ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE, MELOIDOGYNE
SP. (TYLENCHOIDEA : HETERODERIDAE)

Root-knot nematodes belonging to the genus Meloidogyne Goeldi,
1892, are of considerable agricultural importance. Following Thorne
(1961), Nadakal (1963, 1964) and Nadakal & Ninan Thomas (1964)
have called attention to the fact that there is an increasing need for
the study of the distribution of Meloidogyne spp. in India with respect
to their host plants. Although Rangaswami ef al. (1960, 1961) and
Nirula & Kumar (1963), among others, have contributed to our
knowledge of the host plants of root-knot nematodes, a great deal of
information still remains to be made available. This is the third
report in the series of a survey of plants parasitized by these
nematodes. Plants were collected from cultivated lands in the
vicinity of Mar Ivanios College, Trivandrum, during the period
extending from September to December 1963. Only one species
M. incognita (Kofoid & White 1919) was encountered and the infection
was found restricted to the root-systems. The results of the present
study ate summarized in the following table.

TABLE

Host PLANTS OF Meloidogyne incognita IN KERALA

Host plant Egg out-put Male Nature of attack
Achyranthes aspera L. Egg-mass not rs Very mild infection and
. 2 observed galling
Allmania nodiflora Wight Low oP Heavy infection and galling
Alternanthera sessilis Forsk. Medium Present Heavy infection and _ gal-

ling ; females invade stele
Amaranthus viridis L. Medium nF Mild infection and galling
Andrographis echioides Nees High Bis Heavy infection and galling
Aneilema nudiflorum R. Br. Medium sa do..
Borreria ocymoides DC. Low ei Mild infection and galling
on rootlets
Canna indica L. Medium os do.
Carica papaya L. Low At Mild infection and galling
Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Medium 4 Heavy infection and galling
Celosia cristata L. do. aes do..
Clitoria ternatea L. do. Mild infection and galling
Coleus malabaricus Benth. do. Biesent Heavy infection and galling
Commelina benghalensis L. One adult 2

recovered

468

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Cucumis sativus L. Medium Mild infection and galling
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. |Egg-mass not do.
observed
Desmodium gyrans Wight A few larvae
recovered
Emilia sonchifolia DC. Egg-mass not Mild infection and galling
observed
Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. Low me do.
Heliconia metallica L. Medium Heavy infection and galling
on rootlets
Hedyotis corymbosa Willd. High Present Very heavy infection and

galling

Jussiaea suffruticosa L. Egg-mass not Mild infection and galling

observed
Leucas aspera Spreng. High Present Heavy infection and diffus-
ed galling
Merremia tridentata Roth Medium Mild infection and no
galling
Mollugo disticha Seringe.: Egg-mass not Mild infection and galling
observed
Phaseolus mungo L. var. Medium em do.
radiatus
Physalis minima L. do. do.
Piper nigrum L. High Heavy infection and diffus-
ed galling
Portulaca oleracea L. Egg-mass not Mild infection and galling
observed on rootlets
Solanum indicum L. Low Mild infection and galling
Spermacoce stricta L. High Heavy infection and galling
Stachytarpheta indica Vahl Medium Mild infection and galling
Struchium sparganophorum do. do.

The table serves to indicate the differential susceptibility of host
plants, the rarity of males among these nematodes, and the variations
in their egg out-put. Hedyotis corymbosa, Leucas aspera, Piper
nigrum, and Spermacoce stricta are some of the most susceptible
plants observed. By contrast Desmodium gyrans and Achyranthes
aspera appear to be somewhat resistant. The weeds such as Leucas,
Spermacoce, and Allmania may serve as potential ‘reservoir hosts’, as
they grow wild on almost all cultivable lands. As Thorne (1961) has
pointed out, the value of crop-rotation, which is a time-honoured
method of controlling root-knot, cyst-forming, and other destructive
nematodes, may be largely nullified unless the weed hosts are
eliminated. Therefore, a knowledge of the weeds potentially
susceptible to these nematodes would be very useful in agricultural
practice. The damage that may be caused by root-knot nematodes to
the economically important plant, Piper nigrum, remains to be assessed.
To the present author’s knowledge most of the plants listed have not
been recorded before as hosts of Meloidogyne spp.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 469

Thanks are due to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
New Delhi. for financial help, to ithe authorities of Mar Ivanios
College for providing space and facilities, to Prof. A. P. Mathew for
his interest in this work, and Messrs V. V. Joseph and K. P.

Ravindran Nair for identifying the host plants.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
Mar IvANIoS COLLEGE,
TRIVANDRUM, KERALA,
February 16, 1964..

A. M. NADAKAL

REFERENCES

NADAKAL, A. M. (1963): Meloido-
gyne spp. infecting certain plants in
Kerala. Curr. Sci. 32 : 360-61.

a (1964) : Studies on the plant-
parasitic nematodes of India: I. Occur-
rence of root-knot nematodes, Meloido-
gyne spp. (Tylenchoidea : Heteroderidae)
on certain plants of economic importance.
Jour. Zool. Soc. (in press).

———— & TH. NINAN (1964) : Studies
on the plant-parasitic nematodes of
Kerala: II. A list of plants attacked by
root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp.
Curr. Sci. (in press).

NiRULA, K. K. & R. KUMAR (1963):
Collateral host plants of root-knot
nematodes. Curr. Sci.32 : 221-22.

RANGASWAMY, G., M. BALASUBRA-
MANIAN, & V. N. VASANTHARAJAN (1961):
The host range of sugarcane root-knot
nematode, Meloidogyne javanica (Treub)
Chitwood. Curr. Sci. 30: 149-150.

—, V. N. VASANTHARAJAN &
R. VENKATESAN (1960) : The occurrence
of root-knot nematodes on sugarcane
and on some weeds. Curr. Sci. 29: 236-37.

THORNE, G. (1961): Principles of

Nematology. McGraw Hill Book Co.,

New York.

19. MIMOSA INVISA MART. : A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

(With a_ plate)

During a visit to Perunna, Changanacherry, Kerala State, in
December 1963, the author collected a plant of the genus Mimosa
which could not be compared with any of the species described in
Indian floras. On investigation it turned out to be Mimosa invisa
Mart., which has been confirmed by Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper,
Central National Herbarium, Calcutta.

The taxon is a native of Tropical America. It appears that no
collection of the species has so far been made from India. In
Perunna it grows luxuriantly over large areas, being common on field
borders and waste places, trailing or rambling over bushes. Some-
times it was observed to climb over large shrubs and small trees.

While it is possible that the plant may have been introduced
there in the past, there is no evidence to confirm this from local

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

sources'. The local people say that the plant appeared suddenly in
1958 during the rainy season and established itself rapidly in several
localities. | |

It is a very striking plant and to facilitate its identification a
detailed description of the taxon with a key to the Indian species of
Mimosa is given below. The specimens N. C. Nair 29745 a-c are
deposited in the Herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Northern
Circle, Dehra Dun, and specimen N. C. Nair 29745 d is preserved in
the Herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,
Coimbatore.

Mimosa invisa Mart. in Flora 20; Biebi. 2 : 121, 1837; Benth.
in Fl. Braz. 15 (2) : 379, t. 97, 1876 and Trans. Linn. Soc. 30 : 436
1875; Fawcett et Rendle Fl. Jam. 4: 135, 1920; Standley in Contrib.
U. S. Nat. Herb. 23 (2) : 363, 1922; Macbride, Fl. Peru 89, 1943.
Schrankia brachycarpa Benth. in Hook. J. Bot. 2 : 130, 1840.
Mimosa diplotricha Wright in Sauv. Pl. Cub. 34, 1868.

A shrub or undershrub with many long trailing or climbing
branches. Stem pubescent-hirsute, angled, armed with downwardly
pointed prickles with broad bases. Leaves alternate, 5-14 cm. long,
paripinnate; rachis pilose-hirsute. prickly. Stipules setaceous, caduc-
ous. Petiole 5-9 cm. long. Pinnae 5-6 (4-8) pairs with a_ bristle
between the pinnae, 2.5-5 cm. long; petiolule 2-3 mm. long; stipels
adnate to the petiolule, pubescent, setaceous, seta unequal, longest
up to 3 mm., shortest down to 1.5 mm. Pinnules 18-20 pairs, 4-5 mm.
long, 1 mm. broad, oblong, base unequal, apex rounded very shortly
acute, pilose beneath. Inflorescence solitary or in axillary pairs,
globose, pink, much shorter than the petiole 1.5 cm. long, 11-12 mm.
in diameter in the opened state of the flowers; peduncle up to | cm.
clothed with very short prickles. Calyx minute up to 0.3 mm. long.
Corolla up to 2 mm. long; petals 4 united at the base. Stamens 8,
4-5 mm. long. Pod sub-falcate, 4- 5-jointed and seeded, up to 2.3 cm.
long and 4-6 mm. broad, margins spiny, valves pubescent, bristly in
the centre of the segments.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Mimosa IN INDIA

Pods without stout prickles or bristles
Pods sessile or sub-sessile ; leaves with 5-6

pairs of pinnae .. M. rubicaulis
Pods long-stalked ; leaves with 6-8 pairs
of pinnae .. M. angustisiliqua

1 After this note went to the press, Dr. S. K. Mukerjee drew my attention to a
reference (Annual Report, Research Department, Coffee Board, India, Bangalore,
1954-55, p. 47) that Mimosa invisa Mart. has been introduced into some of the coffee
estates in south India.—N.C.N.

BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

JOURN.

GLAM

AQ’ Aho

OM mc takal

sult S

Mimosa invisa Mart.

5. Stamen ;

4. Corolla spread out;

3. Flower ;

2. Pinnule ;
7. Pod

Fig. 1. Branch ;
6. Gynoecium ;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 471

Pods armed with prickles or bristles
Pinnae digitate, 1-2 pairs ; stamens as many
as the petals -» M. pudica
Pinnae pinnate, more than 2 pairs ; stamens twice
as many as the petals
Leaves shorter than peduncle, not more than

3 cm. long .. M. hamata
Leaves longer than peduncle, more than
3 cm. long

Pinnae 3-5 pairs ; pinnules 4-5 pairs .» M. polyancistra

Pinnae more than 5 pairs ; pinnules more

‘than 5 pairs
Pods 6-8-seeded ; pinnules 7-8 pairs .. M. prainiana
Pods 4-5-seeded ; pinnules 18-20 pairs .. M. invisa

The author expresses his thanks to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, for
compating the specimen with those in the Central National Herbarium.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

63, RAjpuR Roab, N. C. NAIR
DrHRA Dun, |

May 21, 1964.

20. AEGINETIA INDICA L. VAR. ALBA SANTAPAU : A
NEW RECORD FOR NORTHERN INDIA

(With a photograph)

The white-flowered variety of Aeginetia indica L. is very rare in
India and hitherto has been reported only from Khandala near
Bombay, at ‘a spot from which the typical species is altogether absent’
[Santapau, H., 1948, Kew Bull. (3) : 491].

The typical species A. indica with normal purple-violet flowers is
very common in the undergrowth in the forests around Dehra Dun,
but in one small area in the chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) plantation at
New Forest a solitary plant of Aeginetia indica L. var. alba Santapau
was seen growing amidst the typical species A. indica L. where the
latter is very common. This variety differs from the typical species
in that the corolla is pure white and slightly longer than in the purple-
flowered plants, as also the calyx and the scape which are of lemon-
yellow colour.

The plant was not collected but its occurrence was recorded by

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 61 (2)

a photograph. As soon as the plant shows signs of multiplication,

Aeginetia indica L. var. alba Santapau growing together with the
typical species

herbarium specimens will be collected for record.

NEW Forest,

DEHRA Dun, | K. M. VAID
December 3, 1963.

21. AN INTERESTING ROOT-PARASITE FROM
SAURASHTRA : CISTANCHE TUBULOSA WT.

(With a photograph)

In July 1962, Mr. Humayun Abdulali visited Pirotan Island in the
Gulf of Cutch mainly for ornithological investigation (see Journal
59 : 655-658). While there, he found some curious plants with bright
yellow flowers below the stems of Salvadora persica L., beyond the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 473

tide mark on the edge of mangroves. The local people knew it well
as ‘Bamblai’.

Cistanche tubulosa Wt.

Growing in Salvadora persica L. above water-line
(Photo: P. B. Shekar)

A specimen was sent to me for identification and it was found
to be the Orobanchoid root-parasite Cistanche tubulosa Wt. Both
Cooke (FLORA BOM. PRES., 1961, Vol. II, p. 386) and J. Indraji
Thakar (PLANTS OF CUTCH, 1926, pp. 200-202) describe its stem as
being | to 2 inches in diameter, while the specimen referred to me
measured over 3 inches. Thakar reporting it from Cutch mentioned
Salvadora persica and also Calotrepis gigantea and the spineless Cactus
(Nopalia?) as its hosts. The plant is described very well by him in
Gujarati (loc. cit.), and among its local uses he mentions: (1) increas-
ing lactation in buffaloes, (2) cure against scorpion and snake bite,
and (3) the application of freshly cut rhizomes, producing a sticky
tuice and with an odour resembling that of iodine, as a cure for wounds
which refuse to heal,

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, P. V. BOLE
Bompsay 1,

May 21, 1964.

474. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 61 (2)

22. A SEDGE NEW TO BOMBAY!

(With a_ plate)

An intensive study on the flura of Bombay has been revealing
many piants that, though not new to science, have never previously
been recorded for the Maharashtra and Gujarat States (former Bombay
Presidency). Below is presented one such plant, with the hope that
the description and illustration will be of help to other botanists of
Maharashtra and of Bombay in particular.

Echinolytrum dipsaceum (Rottb.) Desv. in J. Bot. 1: 21, t. 1, 1808;
Hook. f. in’ ‘Trim. Handb.- Fl. Ceylon «5.» 65, 1900; oc.
Camus in Lecomte, Fl. Gén. Indo-Chine 7 : 130, 1912.

Scirpus dipsaceus Rottb. Descr. et. Ic. 56, t 12;shie “1, 1773

Fimbristylis dipsacea Benth. & Hook. f. ex C. B. Clarke in Hook.
jf; Fl. Brit. India 6 : 635, 1893, et Illustr: Cyp. t. 41, fie.) 4-7,
VEAG3S):

This plant belongs to the Cyperaceae and is remarkable for the
large marginal knobs on its fruits. The species is distributed in
tropical Africa and Asia. In the FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA it is recorded
thus: ‘Central India, Bengal, Assam, to Burma and Ceylon’. Sub-
sequently it has been recorded from S. Kanara, Mysore, Carnatic,
Quilon, Bihar, and now from Bombay. Though it has been included
under the genus Fimbristyvlis Vahl in the FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA
following Bentham & Hooker in GENERA PLANTARUM (3 : 1049), ‘it is
not closely allied to any other species’. The species is herein
included under a separate monotypic genus. The appearance of its
green spikelets with their loose aristate, squarrose, persistent glumes,
and the characters of the fruit are wholly different from any of the
Bombay sedges, as is evident from the illustration and the description
given below.

A caespitose annual, forming rosettes of about 8 cm. across.
Leaves 2 on each scape, capillary, glabrous, recurved; sheath up to
1 cm. long, glabrous except for the sparsely ciliate mouth.
Inflorescence of corymbs of usually 3-5, often up to 8 spikelets, rarely
the corymb reduced to a single spikelet. Spikelets oblong-ovoid,
obtuse, aristate, green, bracteolate, 200- or more-flowered, 4-7 x 3-4
mm.; bracts 2 or more in number, leaf-like, up to 1-5 cm. long;

1 Communicated by Dr. Baini Prashad, 10 Dhobalwala Road, Dehra Dun.

wnig 'q pue fown[p ‘oO ‘{ sous0solopUul "gq * uqeH ‘V
"ASO (‘qNOY) wnaovsdip wnajdjouryaT

um | ae iy, 8 /

(iisincind apace ‘00S “LSIH “LVN Avawog ‘Nunor —

Se SS

———— ~

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 475

‘pedicel! 1 cm. Jong, spreading or recurved, bracteole glume-like but
larger; rachilla cylindrical, devoid of pits or nearly so. Glumes
jinear-lanceolate, aristate, {-nerved, 20.4 mm., membrancus towards
the margins; arista slightly curved, green, acute, 0.8 mm. long.
Stamen 1, lateral. Ovary glabrous, style swollen at the base, bifid
above. Nut linear-oblong, curved or not, 0.8X0.2 mm., trabeculate,
brown, ornamented with white capitate glands arranged in lateral,
vertical, two opposite rows.

Flowers and Fruits. May to June.

Occurrence in Bombay. National Park, Borivli. It is very rare
but has been found growing abundantly on moist sandy river bank
temporarily exposed in summer. It occurs in association with
Cyperus pygmaeus Rottb. and Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl, forming
green matting over the white sand.

Herbarium specimens examined. Dahisar River between the Dam
and Bridge near the garden, National Park, Borivli (R. R. Fernandez
1207 and 1207 A-C, 1 May, 1953; 1767-68, 13 April, 1954, and 1790,
10 June, 1954). These specimens are deposited in Blatter Herbarium,
Bombay.

MiIncR FOREST PRODUCTS BRANCH,

FOREST RESEARCH JNSTITUTE, R. R. FERNANDEZ, ph.p.
P.O. NEW FOorEST,

DEHRA Dwun, U.P.,

February 1, 1964.

23. CHLOROCOCCALES FROM KODAIKANAL,
SOUTH INDIA

(With a plate)

ABSTRACT

In an attempt to list the algae from Kodaikanal, many interesting forms of
“Chlorococcales were discovered. The number of species recorded are 17 from
-among 8 genera.

INTRODUCTION

The number of papers dealing with the systematic account of the
Chlorococcales have been very few. During an investigation on the
algae from Kodaikanal, collected in 1954, quite a number of interest-
ing forms were found.

15-A

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

_ Kodaikanal is a hill station in south India with an elevation of
7000-8000 ft. m.s.l. Most of the forms described in this paper are
planktonic and collected from the Kodaikanal lake and a few at other
places. The material was preserved in 4% formalin.

On the whole 17 species are recorded in this paper representing,
8 genera.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

Scenedesmus Meyen 1829

1. S. armatus (Chod.) G. M. Smith. Prescott 276, t. 62, ff. 13,14. (Fig. 1)
Plant of four cells arranged in a single series, fusiform-elliptic, terminal cells-
with a single long curved spine at each pole, central cells with a median incomplis
ridge ; cells 5-7 in diameter, 15-17 long.
Habitat : Planktonic, Kodaikanal lake.
Differs from the type in having complete longitudinal ridges in the seat cells.

2. S. denticulatus Lagerheim. Prescott 277, t. 63. ff. 10, 11. (Fig. 2)
Colony of four ellipsoid to fusiform cells arranged. in a single series ; apices.
of cells with 1-3 short teeth, free walls of cells smooth ; cell 3-44 broad, 15-174
long.
Habitat : Planktonic, Piller rocks, Kodaikanal.
This form agrees in dimensions with S. brasiliensis Bohlin (Prescott 277, t. 63,.
ff. 5,6) but differs from it in having a smooth cell wall, in which respect it agrees.
with the type, but differs from it in the shape of cells and also in dimensions.

3. S. armatus (Chod.) G. M. Smith. (Fig. 3)

Plant composed of four cells arranged in partially alternating series fusiform-
elliptic with poles sharply pointed, inner cells with a single lateral ipcomplete
longitudinal ridge, terminal cells with a single small spine at each pole, cells 3-5 in
diameter, 10-12.54 long.

Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake. .

This form differs from the type in having the complete ridge in the central
cells and also in having only spines at one pole. It is likely that this form may be.
a new variety.

4. SS. denticulatus var. lunatus W. & G.S. West. Pascher, Susswasserfil. 163,
f. 214, 1915. (Fig. 4)

Colony of four ovate-ellipsoid cells arranged in a single series, apices of cells.
with 2-4 short teeth ; free walls of cells smooth, outer cells lunate ; cells 2-3 4 in
diameter, 8-10 ju iene
| Habitat : Planktonic in'a Kodaikanal lake.

5. SS. perforatus Lemm. Pascher 166, f. 230; Prescott 279, t. 46, ff. 24, 25..
(Fig. 5)

Colony of four to eight cells, cells sub-rectangular with convex end walls and.
concave lateral walls thus forming biconvex intercellular spaces; end cells of colony
bearing a single long curved spine at each pole arising from the corner of the cells,.
the outer lateral walls of end cells siehtly, protruded or straight ; cells 5- i in:
diameter, 20-23 /“ long.

Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

JourRN. BomBay Nat. HIST. Soc.

gee Poy
ic S.G.B. 10-2 44

Fig. 1. Scenedesmus armatus (Chod.) G. M. Smith; 2. S. denticulatus Lager ;
3. S. armatus (Chod.) G. M. Smith; 4. S. denticulatus var. lunatus W. & G.S. West ;
5. S. perforatus Lemm., 6. Pediastrum duplex var. clathratum (A. Braun) Lager ; 7. P.
angulosum var. gyrosum Racib.; 8. P. angulosum (Ehren.) Menegh; 9. P. duplex var.
clathratum forma cohaerens Pascher; 10. P. duplex var. clathratum A. Braun; 11.
Tetraédron victorae var. major G. M. Smith; 12. Kircheneriella lunaris var. dianae
| Bohlin ; 13. K. lunaris (Kirch.) Moebius; 14. Dictyosphaerium ehrenbergianum Naeg.:
| 15. Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Braun; 16. Coelastrum microporum Naeg.; 17.
Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs /

ty
rr
NOUN
We

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2 477,

Pediastrum Meyen 1829

6. P. duplex var. clathratum (A. Braun) Lager. Pascher 95, f.57d; Prescott
223, t. 48, f. 6.

Colony of 16 cells, the Sails smooth with lens-shaped spaces between the
inner cells which are quadrate, wall with deep emarginations, apices of lobes of
peripheral cells truncate. Cells 7-9 / in diameter.

Habitat ; Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

Differs from the type in having smaller dimensions.

iy hes angulosum var. gyrosum Racib. Pascher 100, f. 60d. (Fig: 7)

Colony with interstices ; cells 4-5 sided, as broad as long, peripheral cells with
emarginate outer wall tapering into blunt processes. Wall netted with minute dots.
Cells 17-20 in diameter.

Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

Differs from the variety in having smaller dimensions and the dotted wall.

8, P. angulosum (Ehren.) Menegh. Pascher 99. (Fig. 8)

Colony oblong - entire with véry few minute interstices; cells 5-6 sided; peripheral
cells two-lobed ; margin concave to emarginate between the lobes ; shape of inner
cells same as outer cells, the outer margin concave. Cells up. to 11.2-13 / in diameter,
number of cells in a colony 64..

Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

This form resembles to a little. extent P. araneosum (Racib.) G. M.. Smith
(Prescott 22, t. 47, f. 4.) but differs from it in the shape and number of cells in the
colony and the outer cells which are concave and emarginate. The wall is also
smooth, the size of the cell-is smaller. ae

. 9, P. .duplex. -var.- clathratum: forma cohaerens He ae Pascher gee f wi o1e.
ig. 9) - 7 |
Colony 32-celled with ite ions-ehaped spaces between the inner Sails which
are quadrate ; peripheral cells quadrate; the outer. margin extended into two cre-
nulate truncate processes (about 7 / long), wall of ceils wrinkled, granulate. Cells
18-20 ~ in diameter ; outer cells 19.8 / long ; colony aoe to 128 &.

Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

This form resembles P. duplex var. brachylobum A. Braun (Prescott, p, 223) but
differs from it in having bigger spinés and also in smaller dimensions of the cells.
This form also has reticulate iceen ines of wall.

ee 10. P. duplex var. clathratum. A. Brats: (Fig: 10)

. This form-differs from the above in having smooth central cells and also smaller
Hehe and also the arms of cells are wavy. colony of 32 cells up to vie, cells.
9-11 in diameter and 9-13 long. ;

Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

Tetraédron Kuetzing 1847 .

il. T. victorae var. major G. M. Smith. Prescott 271, t. 61, ff. 28, 29.

“Cells ‘4eangled, divided into fusiform shaped semicells by deep emarginations the
two semicells bilobed and cruciately aneanged) each be ome in a stout wane cells
20-26 in diameter, 39-60 long with spines.

Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (2)

Kircheneriella Schmidle 1893

12. K. lunaris var. dianae Bohlin, Prescott 259,t.57,f.12. (Fig. 12)

Colony of many irregularly arranged cells in a gelatinous envelope; cells
strongly lunate having the inner and the outer margins parallel, slightly tapering at
the apices which is bluntly rounded, cells 4-5 in diameter, 11-14 long.

Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

13. K. lunaris (Kirch.) Moebius. Prescott 258, t. 58, f. 2. (Fig. 13)
Colony of many cells arranged in groups of 4-16 in a close gelatinous envelope.
‘Cells flat strongly curved with the ends gradually tapering to a point. Cells 10-13 in
diameter, 13-16 long.
Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.
This form differs from the type in having bigger dimensions.

Dictyosphaerium Naegeli 1849

14. D. ehrenbergianum Naegeli. Pascher 183; Prescott 238, t. 51, ff. 3, 4. (Fig.
414)

Colony ovoid of 16 oval or elliptical cells 5-9/% long, 4-64 broad with 1 or 2

parietal chloroplasts. Cells attached in groups of 4 atthe ends of fine branched

strands.
Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

Dimorphococcus A. Braun 1955

15. D. lunatus A Braun ; Pascher 185, f. 280 ; Prescott 252, t. 55, f.8. (Fig. 15)

Cellsin groups of 4 on the ends of branched delicate threads, inner cells ovate,
aauiter cordate. Cells 5.8 broad ; 7-9 long.
Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

Coelastrum Naegeli in Kuetzing 1847

16. C. microporum Naegeli ; Pascher 195, f. 309; Prescott 230, t. 53, f. 3.
(Fig. 17)

Coenobium spherical, composed of 16 globose or ovoid cells with the narrow
end outwardly directed ; cells interconnected by very short scarcely discernible gela-
tinous processes leaving small intercellular spaces. Coenobium 19.8-23.1 # in
diameter.

Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal lake.

Ankistrodesmus Corda 1838

17. A. faleatus (Corda) Ralfs ; Pascher 188, f. 283 ; Prescott 253, t. 56, ff. 5, 6.
(Fig. 17)
Cells acicular to somewhat spindle-shaped in clusters, not enclosed in a colonial
sheath ; cells 3-4 “ in diameter, 60.66 “ long.
Habitat : Planktonic in Kodaikanal Jake.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 479
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. M. S. Chennaveeraiah, M.Sc., Ph.D., D.Sc. (Montl.)
for the facilities and also for kindly going through the manuscript.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

KARNATAK UNIVERSITY, S. G. BHARATI
DHARWAR,

May 27, 1963.

REFERENCES

FritscuH, F. E. (1935) : Structure and Western Great Lakes area. Cranbrook

reproduction of the Algae Vol. I. Inst. Sci. Bul. 31.
Prescott, G. W. (1951) : Algae of the PASCHER, A. (1915) : Die Susswasser-
flora deut. Oster. und der Schw. Heft 5,

Notes and News

Eighth General Assembly of IUCN

The 8th General Assembly of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources held at Nairobi,
Kenya, in Sepiember 1963 was attended by two participants from
India, K. S$. Dharmakumarsinhji as Delegate of the Bombay Natural
History Society and Shri R. PF. Malaviya, Education Secretary, Indian
High Cmmission, Kenya, as: Observer of the Government of India.
The second Delegate of the Society, Shri Humayun Abdulali, was un-
able to attend as the necessary foreign exchange was not sanctioned by
the Indian Government. Three of the resolutions are of special
interest to us in India. |

Firstly. In view of the threat of the early extinction of very rare
and vanishing species of wild life through illegal export, the Assembly
recommended that the practical and political problems involved be
studied and an International Convention on regulations of export,
transit, and import be drafted and submitted for the approval of
Governments. [Close collaboration between countries is necessary to
prevent evasion of restrictive regulations. For instance, the Indian
prohibition of the export of the neck feathers of the Grey Junglefowl is
avoided by sending them throvgh the post to the United States, where
their import is not forbidden. And again, according to our informa-
tion, crocodile skins are falsely described as lizard skins to evade the
restriction on their export from India, and are reshipped from the
receiver country to their final destination correctly described as
crocodile skins.]

Secondly. Recognizing the importance of national parks and
equivalent reserves for the continuation of natural evolution and the
fluctuation and succession of species on a natural basis, and in the
interests of ecological research, the Assembly recommended that the
use of chemical controls of insects or plant life be forbidden except
where the National) Park Authority is satisfied, after careful
ecological examination, that the pest if uncontrolled will threaten areas
outside such park or reserve.

Thirdly. In view of the present fashion of using apparel made
from the skins of leopards, jaguars, serval cats, cheetahs, and other
spotted cats, the Assembly called on all Governments to introduce
immediate control to restrict the export and import of the skins of

NOTES AND NEWS 481

these animals in either processed or unprocessed forms. [Urgent
action is called for in this country. The prices of panther skins
having risen from Rs. {00 to Rs. 500 per skin, large numbers of
skins were exported in 1963. To save our panthers export should be
confined to persons who have themselves shot the animals by way of
lawful sport and who ship these skins out as personal baggage.
Instant action was taken by the Government of Ceylon, where by the
end of December 1963 the export of leopard skins was prohibited.]

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS— 23-12-1964. C1900
EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU & ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
Mammals

‘The Beok of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 2nd (revised) edition. 28 plates in

colour by Paul Barruel.and many other illustrations. (Available shortly) Ra. 30
: (Price to members Rs. a)
. Birds 2

The Book of Indian Birds, By Sélim Ali. 7th (revised) edition: 64. coloured i

mary monochrome plates. Rs. 25
(Price to members Rs. 20)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-date

checklist of all the birds resident and mgEany, including those of ‘Nepal, soe

Bhutan, and Ceylon.
(Price. to. members, Rs. 20)

Snakes
Identification. of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.
Rs. 10
“(Price to members Rs. 8)
“Miscellaneous

Some Beautifal Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard: With many coloured and
monochrome plates. 2nd edition. Revised by W. T. Stearn 20
(Price to members Rs. 16)
Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and eomube by Bor and Raizada. With many coloured
and monochrome plates. Rs. 22
(Price to members Rs. 17. 50)
Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured aud =

monochrome plates.
(Price to members Rs. 22. 50)

‘Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome plates,

and text-figures.

Glimpses of Nature Sertes Booklets :
1. Our Birps I ues 8 coloured plates), in Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi.

Rs. 6
(Price to members Rs. 4.50)

a _ Rs,.0.80
. Kannada Rs. 0.62
2. Our Birps IT (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. oe. Rg. 0.62
_ 3. Our BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Guuatatl Hindi, and
Marathi. Rs. 0.62
4. Our. Monsoon PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi,
and Marathi. ~
~ 5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) -in English, Sh ea Merah
Rs.
Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on Slag
_-Cerrespond with: ee an
The Honorary Secretary hic hye Se
Bombay Natural History Society,
91, Walkeshwar Road, Bombay 6-WB.
_ Agents in England :

Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd., ..
Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin,
os Herts., England.
The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particulary

- numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to presérve: ‘them. «

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of Rs. 500.
Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription of Rs. 30.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers
the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should
pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the
subscription, plus postal registration (Rs. 2.50) if required—in all Rs. 32.50—to
the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done,
then the sum of £2-10-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—
oe National & Says Bank Ltd., 26 Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 2.

CONTENTS

NOoTes ON THE COURTSHIP OF THE LAND TORTOISE Geochelone travancorica

(BOULENGER). By Walter Auffenberg aT Re

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS FROM BROACH, GUJARAT. Vegetation of River Bed:
By G. i Shah oe Cm) oe h :

*@e , ee

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE KAMENG FRONTIER Division, N.E.F.A.
By K.C. Jayaram and N. Majumdar.. ee

COLLECTING MOTHS BY A MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP IN THE SURAT Danas,
GuJARAT State. By E. M. Shull and N. T. Nadkerny

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING HABITS OF THE BRONZEWINGED JAGANA
[Metopidius indicus (LATHAM)]. By D.N. MATHEW aS

OBSERVATIONS ON THE VEGETATION OF THE RAMPA AND GUDEM AGENCY
TRACTS OF THE EASTERN GHATS—II. By Rolla Seshagiri Rao

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FisHes. Part Il—Barbus
stigma (Cuv. & Val.). By A. Qayyum and S. Z. Qasim... he

A NEW SPECIES OF Angulitermes FROM NorTH INDIA (ISOPTERA : TERMITIDAE :

TERMITINAE). By P. N. Chatterjee and M. L. Thakur Se ba
A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE FLORA OF THE MAHENDRAGIRI
HiLts oF Orissa. By S. L. Kapoor ee “ee ae
NoTES ON MIGRANT BIRDS OF NORTH BIHAR. By P. V. George <<

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND [TS ENVIRONS. III. Ocdogoniales. By S.K.
Goyal sta ae us we ue a

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAUNA OF THE MALDIVE IsLANDs. Part VII—
Butterflies. By W. W. A. Phillips as ae eae

FLORAL ASYMMETRY IN MALVACEAE. By T. A. Davis and J. C. Selvaraj

Four NEW RACES OF BIRDS FROM THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS.

By Humayun Abdulali_.. aly a‘ ae os
IN MEMORIAM Se a “b pen ae | ae
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES “ee aie Je Me an

NOTES AND Ngws Se ne a Se ae

247

234

264

303

330

~ Journal ¢ of the

Bombay ‘Natural, History Society

J) A
> [2 Vol. 61, No. 3

Editors
H. SANTAPAU, s.s., & ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

DECEMBER 1964

Rs. 15

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-
tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published
elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good
contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20x5.60 cm.
(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,
preferably on Bristol board.

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by
a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

EDITORS,
Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural
Opp. Lion Gate, History Society

Apollo Street, Fort
Bombay 1-BR.

Boeaea |

VOLUME 61, NO. 3—DECEMBER 1964

Date of publication: 10-6-1965

CONTENTS

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. By Humayun Abdulali.
(With a map and two plates) .. oe it es .. 483

COLOUR-VISION IN MAMMALS. By Dr. Gerti Diicker. (With six text-figures) .. 572

THE FLORA OF HARE AND CHURCH ISLANDS OFF TUTICORIN. By D. Daniel
Sundararaj and M. Nagarajan. (With a map) caf Saag <s O87

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE WATER BUGS OF THE FAMILY CORIXIDAE IN
CeyYLon. By C.H. Fernando. (With 43 figures on four plates) .. 603

NOTES ON THE LiFE History o¥ WNacaduba pactolus continentalis FrRtu.
(LEPIDOPTERA : LYCAENIDAE) FROM POONA DIsTRICT, WESTERN GHATS. By
‘A. E. Bean. (With two plates and four text-figures) a .. 614

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FisHes. Part III[—Callichrous

bimaculatus (Bloch). By A. Qayyum and S. Z. Qasim. (With eight figures) 627

MEDICINAL PLANTS OF COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE FOUND WILD IN UTTAR PRADESH
AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. By S. L. Nayar Se Se .. 651

WINTER DIAPAUSE IN THE SQUATTER Wasps Antodynerus flavescens (FABR.)
AND Chalybion bengalense (DAHLB.) (VESPOIDBA AND SPHECOIDEA). By
S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway. (With a plate) = ee ==, O02

IN MEMORIAM :

Edward Oswald Shebbeare .. ore 7 ke .. 668
REVIEWS :

1. Animal Species and Evolution. (H. Spurway) ae .. 671

2. Birds from BRITANNIA. (J.G.) .. she oh os 675

3. The Fauna of India including Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon:
Mammalia (Second Edition). Vol. III. Rodentia. (J.E. Hill) .. 676

4. Marsilea. (P. V.Bole) .. fs i AE .. 680

5. Birds of Israel. (D. E. R.) fa as é .. 681

SMITHSONIAA

mstitution AUG 6

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Distribution of the Tomb Bat, TYaphozous perforatus perfaratus E.
Geoffroy. By H. Khajuria (p. 682). 2. A large herd of chital. (With a plate).
By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 682). 3. Baleen Whale in Gulf of Mannar causes
death of two fishermen. By E. G. Silas (p. 683). 4. Selective sex regulation.
By A. N. D. Nanavati (p. 685). 5. Winter food of the Painted Partridge
[Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby)] in Rajasthan. By S.C. Sharma (p. 686).
6. The Jungle Bush Quail [Perdicula asiatica (Latham)] : A new race from
South India. By Humayun Abdulali and Rachel Reuben (p. 688). 7. Roosting
of the Grey Wagtail [Motacilla caspica (Gmelin)] in the Thekkady Wild: Life
Sanctuary. By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 691). 8. Recovery of ringed birds.
By Editors (p. 693). 9. Early recognition of sex in the juvenile forms of
Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier. (With two photographs and a text-figure). By R. N.
Chopra (p. 694). 10. Accidental death of the Chequered Keelback [Natrix
piscator (Schneider)]. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 696). 11. Observations on
the caecilian Ichthyophis beddomii Peters from Kotegehar, District Chikmagalur,
Mysore. (With two plates). By B. K. Tikader (p. 697). 12. Existing fishery of
Aligarh. (With a text-figure). By S. Z. Qasim and A. Qayyum (p. 697). 13.
Some interesting methods of fishing Sparus spp., ‘ Khuranti’, in Chilka Lake.
By V. G. Jhingran and S. Patnaik (p. 701). 14. A note on the identity of
Onychiurus granulosus Stach and QO. pseudogranulosus Gisin (Collembola :
Onychiuridae). By D. K. Choudhuri (p. 703). 15. Dormitories of Chalybion
bengalense Dahlb. (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae). By S. D. Jayakar and R.
Shastry Mangipudi (p. 708). 16. Relative abundance of houseflies in India and
their susceptibility to DDT, BHC, and Dieldrin. By N. H. Khan, J. A. Ansari,
J. Rehman, and D. Ahmad (p. 712). 17. New plant records from erstwhile
Bombay State. (With two plates). By A. R. Chavan and S. J. Bedi (p. 716).
18. New record for Hydrolithrum wallichii Hook. f. in South India. (With a
plate). By R. Vasudevan Nair (p. 718). 19. On the occurrence of Tristania~
burmannica Griff. in India. (With a plate). By (Mrs.) Suman Chopra and
S. L. Kapoor (p. 720). 20. The ophioglossums of Salona-Chikhalda on the
Melghat Ranges of the Satpuras. By R. M.. Pai, G. Y. Kulkarni, and M.A.
Dhore (p. 722).

NOTES AND NEws as ee a ek os

~ 723

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE |

Mangrove on Shoal Bay Creek, South Andaman

White-collared Kingfishers watched patiently while White-bellied Sea Eagles soared high
overhead.

(Photo: H. Abdulalt)

eee

JOURNAL
| OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1964 DECEMBER Vol. 61 No. 3

The Birds of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

(With a map and two plates)

INTRODUCTION

During the many years in which as Secretary of the Bombay Natural
History Society 1 was closely associated with its collections, I had felt
the absolute lack of ornithological material from the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, where no work has been done in the last fifty years.
Having now time to spare, I thought it worth while to visit the islands

- and make an attempt towards filling the gap.

I had the good fortune to know Mr. A. K. Ghosh, 1.c.s., Secretary,
Ministry of Education (Science), who was for some time Commissioner
in the Andamans. He gave me an indication of the nature of the
country and of conditions there, and we decided that it would be best
for me to make a preliminary visit to establish contacts and investigate
possibilities and costs.

PRELIMINARY VISIT

Fr. Santapau, the Director of the Botanical Survey, agreed to send
a man with me as they were interested in a more extensive survey of the
area, and we decided to go out as soon as the weekly air service between
Calcutta and Port Blair recommenced after the monsoon, about 15th
October 1963. The recommencement was very erratic and it was only

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

after several false alarms, bookings, and re-bookings that at 5-30 a.m. on
Friday the 8th November I found myself in Calcutta and, with
Mr. Balakrishnan of the Botanical Survey, caught the 6-30 plane, reach-
ing Port Blair at 2-30 p.m. En route we stopped at Rangoon. I saw at
the aerodrome there a Pied Harrier (Circus melanoleucos) and dark-
necked House Crows (Corvus splendens_ insolens). Kites (Milvus
migrans govinda) and Swallows (Hirundo rustica) were common. House
Sparrows (Passer domesticus) were nesting under the eaves of the airport
building ; at least two pairs appeared to have their nests side by side—I
wonder if this communal habit, which has been noted in the birds from
Karachi and further westwards, exists here.

We left after a halt of about half an hour, flew over the Golden
Pagoda and the Irrawaddy, and soon crossed hilly country — some
heavily wooded and some denuded and eroded. White cumulus clouds
appeared on all sides, above and below, with bits of blue sea and sky
showing in many places.

The clouds took innumerable shapes and there seemed no end to the
pictures one could see in them. Some time before landing the Anda-’
mans became visible — green islands set in a sea of blue. A jeep kindly
sent by the Chief Commissioner, Mr. B. N. Maheshwari, met me at the
aerodrome and took me to the Guest House at Haddo, about a mile
from Port Blair. The Guest House, situated on a hillock overlooking
the harbour, is well furnished and is fitted with electric lights and a
telephone. Before the day was over I met Mr. K. N. Chaudhri, the
Chief Conservator of Forests, and Mr. J. C. Varma, the Divisional Forest
Officer. I got in touch with Mr. Norman Young, who lives -almost
opposite the Guest House and had been mentioned to me as a keen
shikari, and met a naval officer who had been out and had shot about
10 Imperial Green Pigeon (Ducula aenea), of which I obtained one skin.

The weather was ideal with an occasional shower — I think it rained
scarcely half a dozen times during the week I was there. In the evening,
frog calls in the gardens were followed up and specimens of Rana
limnocharis and Méicrohyla ornata obtained. Both these frogs are
common around Bombay, but, I did not recognize their calls. In the
bungalow the gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus) was common ; its call, a
loud chuk-chuk uttered five times, was very similar to that of H. lesche-
naulti at Bombay, except that the ch part was perhaps slightly more
prolonged. On Saturday morning I walked round the neighbourhood
and found that deforestation had eliminated the indigenous avifauna
and given a footing to introduced forms like the Common Myna
(Acridotheres tristis), the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus), and the
Grey Partridge (Francolinus pondicerianus), which were the most promi-
nent birds at the Guest House, the calls of the last being heard from not.
far away.

Journ. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc. PLATE I]

Mangrove on narrow branch of Shoal Bay Creek, South Andaman

Frequented by the Pale Serpent Eagle. Here I got glimpses of the Ruddy Kingfisher
which quivered lke a dry mangrove leaf and got away before I realised my mistake.

(Photo: H. Abdulalt)

JourN. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc.

Port Cornwallis

NORTH ANDAMAN
- ©addle Peak

Mayabunder

Betapur

MIDDLE ANDAMAN’ Bakultala

SOUTH ANDAMAN
Bay

Wrightmyo ;
Wimberleygan]
PORT BLAIR

NORTH SENTINEL 1.03 Chiria Tapoo

RUTLAND If.

LITTLE ANDAMAN

°
10
CHANNEL

3
=

TEN DEGREE 8
2)

CAR NICOBAR
eBattye Malve |.

Qchowra I.

Teressa e q Bampoka I.

=? Zz

90°

soe

\ Tillanchong I.

Camorta I.
Trinkut I.

Katchal I. SN G Nancowry I.

%
LITTLE NICOBAR

GREAT NICOBAR

q5°

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 485

Port Blair is an excellent land-locked harbour surrounded by low
hills, described by Hume (1874: 151) as magnificently wooded but now
almost treeless and green only with grass and occasional shrubs and
trees. The town (Aberdeen) is crowded and about 3 miles from Chatham
Island, where the larger vessels berth.

This island is linked with the mainland (South Andaman Island) by
a floating bridge of logs. It carries a Government saw-mill and is the
headquarters of the Forest Department. Haddo, half way between
Aberdeen and Chatham Island, is a suburb with two Guest Houses and
the Naval Headquarters.

On Saturday afternoon I called on Mr. Maheshwari who was very

_ cordial and offered me all necessary facilities, on payment, if my trip

was sponsored by Government. He invited me to join him on the
following day in a visit to Mt. Harriet, across the harbour, to inspect
an experimental coffee plantation. We left by a small motor-boat,
landed at Bambooflats (where Mr. Young manages a plywood factory),
and motored some ten miles to Mannarghat. The climb was long and
strenuous, though a path had been cleared. We returned by road, a
long thirty-mile drive. The low country along the road was under paddy,
the forest being restricted to the hills. |

Owing to the occasional drizzle, the long straggling party, and the
distraction created by leeches, very few birds were seen during the walk
through the forest, but most of the parakeets, kingfishers, rollers, and
bee-eaters seen in the open country were new to me, which together with
the promise of all that was hidden in the forests, convinced me that a
collecting trip would be worth while.

Resulting perhaps from the slight wetting and the many leech bites
on Mt. Harriet, I had an attack of ague one night and woke up sweating
profusely, and I felt very ill for a day ; fortunately there was no repeti-
tion and on the following day I took a taxi to Chiria Tapoo, at the
southern end of South Island, intending to visit by boat some caves
where Edible-nest Swifts nest. When we arrived, the fishermen had
left and we could not get a boat!

I spent a week at Port Blair waiting for the return plane. Mr. Young
took me to Bambooflats one day, and Mr. Sulaiman Parekh of Jadwet
Trading Co. lent me a motor-boat on which J visited one or two islands
and spent some time at Dundas Point on the opposite shore.

Another morning,. with Mr. Maheshwari, I visited Ross Island, the |
administrative headquarters in the British days. Government House
was a gigantic building largely of wood, now in disuse and falling to
pieces. The island is largely overgrown with scrub (Eupatorium sp.) and
we could travel only on the narrow footpath which encircled it, and on
the remnants of the old roads. I picked up a dying tern (Sterna
anaethetus) on one of the paths, and never saw another either on this or

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

on the main trip later. Peafowl were introduced on this island many
years ago and apparently bred freely, but they disappeared during the.
Japanese occupation. A few more have been released recently and will
no doubt establish themselves in due course. A small pond, about 60
yards across, held an empty wire cage in one corner, and I was told
that an attempt had been made to introduce Spotbill Duck. No details
- were available, but it appeared that they had not survived for long.

I collected a few birds, and some lizards and frogs, and though I got
nothing of particular interest it was evident that the area was interesting
and, with the goodwill and co-operation which were available, a longer
trip would be worth while.

THE MAIN TRIP

Upon my return to Bombay, I set about making arrangements for
the main trip. The Bombay Natural History Society had promised me
the loan of two junior assistants to look after the skinning. The
Ministry of Education (Science) formally sponsored the trip and helped
me to obtain the necessary shotgun ammunition from the Ordnance
Factory at Kirkee, Poona.

In the meantime, the Botanical Survey had decided on an indepen-
dent expedition. I arranged to sail on my own from Calcutta by
M.V. Andamans on the 3rd February 1964. Two days before I left
Bombay, one of the assistants reported ill; I was fortunately able to
obtain the services of Lawrie Nogueira from the Prince of Wales
Museum, his health certificate and equipment all being arranged in a
great hurry. He and P. B. Shekar of the Society joined me in Calcutta
where we found the boat was not leaving on the 3rd and that the actual
date would be settled in a day or two!

We sailed finally on the night of 5th February, but the morning
found us still in the Hooghly anchored off some jute mills! While we
waited, parties of gulls numbering 20 to 30 hung around the ship,
looking for food to be thrown overboard.

They were mostly Blackheaded Gulls (Larus ridibundus) with an
occasional (2 out of 30) brunnicephalus. In addition to their larger size
and the mirrors on the wing tips, the latter have a more prominently
red bill. For the rest of the trip I saw no other birds, though I spent
quite some time on the deck looking for them. A large turtle, a few
dolphins, and many flying fish were all that I saw. The dark (blue)
colour of the water suggested that this was the possible origin of the
name Kala Pani (black water) now commonly applied to the Andamans
in a derogatory sense. On the morning of the 9th we were along the
western coast of the Andamans. Between North Sentinel and South
Andaman I saw, several hundred yards from the boat, a large oval patch

sigs

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 487

on the water, 50 to 60 feet long and 8 to 10 feet wide. It was pale green in
colour, strikingly different from the dark blue (almost black) water
around it. The first impression was of a drift of algae, but through

~ glasses I saw small yellowish oval patches, 5 to 6 inches long and 3 to 4

inches wide, ‘ floating’ in it. It was impossible to judge what the main
green effect was and how the yellow patches were fixed in it. The mass
appeared to be stationary and, only after we had passed it, did I realise
that I had probably seen a whale-shark basking on the surface! The
boat berthed at 5 p.m. on the 9th and I was once more in the Islands.

THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS: A GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, running in a more or less north-
south line between 13° 30’ N. and 6° 45’ N. in the Bay of Bengal, are
separated from each other by the Ten Degree Channel. They are the
summits of a submarine range of hills, 700 miles long, which connects
the Arakan Yomas of Burma with Achin Head in Sumatra.

The Andamans, consisting of 204 islands, lie roughly 350 miles from
Rangoon in Burma and 750 from Madras. They extend over 219 miles,
the extreme breadth is 32 miles, and the whole area of land about
2500 square miles. The largest island is about 50 miles long and 16
wide; the highest point is Saddle Peak (2400 ft.) in North Andaman.
All the islands, except Little Andaman, consist of hills enclosing narrow
valleys, the whole covered by dense forests descending in many places
to the seashore. 4

Though referred to in literature from the earliest times, the Andamans
were in fact quite unknown till the end of the 18th century, when the
East India Company in an attempt to control piracy and to prevent the
ill-treatment and killing of shipwrecked and distressed mariners tried to
establish a permanent settlement, an effort that was not very successful.
After the Mutiny of 1857 it was decided to deport some of the many
rebels and deserters on hand to the Andamans.

The original inhabitants consisted of several wild and savage tribes,
anthropologically identical, short in stature and shiny black in hue,
Their sooty black hair grows in small rings and, though evenly
distributed over the head, appears to be in the form of tufts. They do
not have the thick lips of the African negro and are said to be more
closely allied to the Negritos of Malaysia. To begin with they were
all hostile, especially the Jerwas and the Onges. All, except the Jerwas,
have now been “ tamed ”’; at the same time they are sadly reduced in
numbers. I saw a woman at Port Blair who was one of the last seven
of her tribe, and a man at Long Island (now employed by a Burmese
carpenter working in the Forest Department) was one of the last dozen
of his tribe, The Onges, confined to Little Andaman, have still escaped

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

civilization and survive in some numbers. The Jerwas, with whom there
is no peaceful contact, are estimated to be between 500 and one thousand
in number. They live on the western side of Middle and North Anda-
man and hamper the work of the Forest Department, necessitating the
leaving of large areas completely untouched by Government.?

The Nicobars, comprising 19 islands, lie further south and show a
greater variety of scenery, some of the islands being flat and coral-
covered. The vegetation is less luxuriant than in the Andamans and the
area is of less interest to the Forest Department. These islands have
been inhabited for a longer period. Unlike the Andamanese, the inhabi-
tants are Mongoloid.

During the current century, the Andamans have mainly been known
as a penal settlement and, except for the work of the Forest Depart-
ment in various parts of these two groups, there has been little
development.

During the last war, the islands were seized by thé Japanese and the
ptisoners were released to work for them. Many garbled and widely
differing accounts of the occupation were heard, but I have not seen any
authoritative report of this period. Contact with the Jerwas was com-
pletely broken off and, when administration was resumed after the war,
Government again faced the problem of governing people who could
not be spoken to or even seen.

The penal settlement has been discontinued, and the prisoners and
their dependents have settled as shopkeepers and petty tradesmen.
Forest labour is imported from India, mostly Orissa, and the aboriginal
is scarcely visible. There is talk of settling refugees, but I cannot
imagine what they will do; such attempts will only lead to the destruc-
tion of more forest, and repentance later.

VEGETATION

Most of the time I was fortunate enough to be in touch with people
(particularly Dr. P. M. Ganapathy) who knew the vegetation and were
able to name items which were of immediate interest. These islands
have been worked by the Forest Department (though I understood that
no working plans existed at the moment !) and many accounts of their
vegetation are available. H. G. Champion in FOREST TYPES OF INDIA
AND BURMA (1936) includes 11 types from the Andamans and has some
excellent photographs. Therefore, I will not lengthen this note by

attempting to list the trees or describe the vegetation in greater
detail.

1 Some interesting information about the first contacts with and impressions of
the aboriginals is contained in papers by Capt. J. C. Haughton, Cols. Albert
Fytche, Tytler, and S. R. Tickell in J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal (1861) 31: 251, (1864)
33 : 31-35 and 162-169, :

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 489

SOUTH ANDAMANS: 10-19 FEBRUARY 1964

On Sunday morning, the day after my arrival, I started looking
around for the transport which I had been promised. Mr. Maheshwari
was away in India, and I was told that the jeep which was intended for
me was in the workshop.. With the help of Mr. T. N. Gill, the Develop-
ment Officer, it was possible to obtain the jeep late in the afternoon with
the repairs uncompleted. I took it with some misgivings, but it gave
me excellent service.

I had intended to camp at Mannarghat or Wimberleyganj, but
Mr. Young recommended Wrightmyo, at the end of the road, as being
in wilder country and I am glad I took his advice. It was impossible
for all of us, including a Forest Officer and a newly-acquired cook, to
get into the jeep, so we divided the luggage, leaving some of it at the
Guest House.

We reached Wrightmyo unannounced at about 9 p.m., and were soon
installed in the two-room forest bungalow, about 500 feet up on a
forested hill-side. The following morning I walked down to the road
which passed by the bottom of the hill, and then another half-a-mile to
where it ended at a small pier. A few small houses and huts along the
road were occupied by farmers and fishermen of Burmese origin. The
pier jutted into a small creek used by forest launches which visit
Pachong and other forest depots. We were at the end of what was
perhaps the longest road in the Andamans, most transport being by
water.

Wrightmyo offered many different types of ecological facies. A
light-railway line went past the pier about a mile into the forest, where
it ended at the bottom of a gigantic chute down which timber was
dropped to the railway line and then loaded on to trolleys with the help
of elephants; the labour was mostly Christians from Orissa, there
being no trace of any indigenous people. The hills behind the bungalow
rose in series to Mt. Harriet which I had visited in November, but I did
not make another attempt finding sufficient material much lower and
nearer to keep me and the assistants busy.

One day I went up in the forest launch to Pachong, a forest working
camp. The tidal creek (Shoal Bay) ran for many miles and the man-
groves, mostly Rhizophora mucronata and Bruguiera gymnorhiza, formed
dense forests of timber quite close to the water. Their roots washed by
every tide were slimy with mud and it was extremely difficult to move
even a few paces through this maze on foot. It took me quite some
time to recover a bird which I dropped a few yards off the shore, and
it was impossible to imagine how the aboriginals, as stated by Mouat,
ran over the mangrove roots, presumably of this kind.

Immediately upon my arrival at Wrightmyo, a bush-policeman
Balacius, armed with an ancient ‘410 rifle, was attached to me for defence

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

against the Jerwas. At Pachong there were more such policemen and
there was great consternation when I walked unattended a few hundred
yards into the woods and back. My personal guard had been there for
5 years but had not seen a Jerwa, nor had any others whom I questioned
at Pachong. The usual reply which we got was that you only see a
Jerwa once, just before you die, when he comes to retrieve his arrow!
I was told by Forest Officers that, when the places for drinking water
become more restricted with the approach of the dry weather, the Jerwas
(like all jungle creatures) necessarily approach the various camps
which are situated near their water-holes. All this sounded unbeliev-
able but a couple of days later, while I was driving along the road near
Wrightmyo, a Forest Officer stopped me and showed me two arrows
which he said had been shot at somebody at Pachong the same morning.

Many of the high trees have deep buttresses and, if a Jerwa chose to
- hide behind one along a forest path or near a water-hole, there would
be little or no chance of his being detected—to ensure that there was no
ambush, one would have to make a 20-yard circle round every tree!
The trees were so high that Imperial Green Pigeon in the higher branches
only peered down enquiringly when No. 6 shot was fired at them.

As I said before, many types of country were accessible. Imme-
diately across the road at the bottom of the hillran a line of paddy
fields about 200 yards wide and half a mile Jong. Snipe and Golden
Plover frequented the wet patches, while Bee-Eaters, Swallow-Shrikes,
Rollers, and other insect-eating birds were found on the edge of the
forest immediately beyond. The mangrove creeks held several kinds of
kingfishers with an occasional Serpent or Whitebellied Fishing Eagle.
Mr. Young arranged a pigeon shoot at Maymyo, nearer to. Port Blair.
The pigeons were not very co-operative, but travelling to and froI saw
many interesting types of country. Along some of the tidal creeks the
high 4-foot fern Asplenium acerifolium formed dense patches, while the
small palm Phoenix palludosa grew on swampy margins. The denuded
uncultivated hill-sides were covered with Eupatorium sp. (Compositae)
which takes the place of Lantana in India.

On this trip we arranged for a man and a boat to take me on the
following morning to the Swift caves at Chiria Tapoo. After lunch at
Wrightmyo I drove out to a rubber plantation near Mannarghat to
collect Hawk Owls which I had heard in that area. Two were obtained
without much difficulty as they called from exposed perches a little
after dark. I led the way back to the car, torch in one hand and gun
in the other. The bush-policeman Balacius, who followed carrying the
birds, suddenly shouted ‘Samp kata’ (snake has bitten). I swung
round and got my torch on to a middle-sized snake disappearing into
the grass, but my gun was over my left arm and I could not shoot it.
Balacius was bitten just over the ankle and I was very worried, Getting

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 49]

him into the jeep I drove to Wimberleyganj and burst on a group of
Forest Officers at a game of cards. Not particularly perturbed, they
suggested that I drive him to the hospital at Bambooflats.

I asked them to telephone the hospital that I was coming and got
there in a short time. However there was no trace of the doctor, who
was finally produced after much shouting. He had no anti-snake serum
and merely lanced the fang-holes, giving me a long talking-to for not
washing the leg immediately. I did not recognize the snake but was
fairly certain that it was not one of the big five—King Cobra, Cobra,
Russell’s Viper, Phoorsa, and Krait. Not wishing to assume unneces-
- sary responsibility, I left Balacius at the hospital for the night.

In the morning I picked up Balacius on my way to Chiria Tapoo,
none the worse for the incident. At the appointed place we found
neither man nor boat! People were few and far between and we wasted
an hour or more looking for our man and investigating other means of
transport. Again frustrated, we went back a few miles and stopped at
a tea-stall at the edge of a forest clearing. The proprietor, a Moplah,
was very curious to know what we were doing and when I mentioned
the Swift caves he was very excited and said he knew a man who knew
the caves and that we could walk to them. This seemed unlikely but,
in the absence of an alternative, we drove back. The Moplah then
disappeared for a time and returned with a man who that very morning
had told us that a boat was necessary. It was now 2 o’clock and, as it
is dark by 5, it looked as if the trip must wait till the morrow. However
the Moplah, an elderly man, had become very interested and wished to
join—he had not seen the caves himself. Rather reluctantly, we started
off along a cart-track which soon disappeared into the forest, and we
moved along with our guide marching rapidly ahead. In the Andaman
forests one can travel more freely than in India, because there is in most
places relatively little undergrowth—but it makes it very much easier to
get lost. After a while we met the shore again and walked along it.
The shore held many forms of sea-life but I was unable to identify
many items. After about 2 hours of hard walking, which included
scrambling over rocks on the shore, we reached the two caves at Manda-
pahar and obtained many nests of the Whitebreasted Swift and a few
of the edible variety. More details of the caves, the birds, and the
nests will be found under Swifts.

The way back was also a scramble as we wished to reach the car
before it was too dark. We did the last mile or so in the dark but
managed it without much difficulty. A rustle, which alarmed me
greatly, proved to be a land crab (Cardisoma carnifex) only three
inches across the back, but with stout pincers four inches long. The
drive back to camp passed through Ferrarganj, named after Lt.-Col.
M. L. Ferrar, a Life Member of the Society, who was the Chief Com-

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

missioner in the Andamans in the thirties. We used torches all around
the car but no mammals were seen.

MIDDLE ANDAMANS: 20 FEBRUARY TO 5 MARCH 1964

Having obtained 130 birds of 62 species by the 18th, we returned to
Port Blair on the 19th and caught the ferry-boat Cholunga on the
following morning, reaching Long Island in the Middle Andamans at
about 4 p.m. As our luggage was being carried to the Rest House, I met
the Divisional Forest Officer, Mr. S. S. Bhattee, at his office above the
jetty. He had not received my telegram and was about to leave for
Bakultala towards the north. He invited us to accompany him and,
transferring most of our luggage to his launch, we moved off. Mr.
Bhattee, who is also a member of the Society, was very keen and helped
us in many ways.

Unfortunately Bakultala was a forest depot, and the immediate
surroundings did not produce many new specimens. A long trolley line
ran into the forested areas and we made an interesting trip along it.
At lunch one day, a message came that Jerwas had killed a man at a
forest camp some miles away. As the chief administrative officer in the
area, Mr. Bhattee rushed off to attend to all the formalities and returned
the following morning. In the afternoon of the 23rd we moved by
motor launch to Betapur. Portions of. the coast were scenically enchan-
ting. Betapur, also a forest depot, is situated beside a tidal river,
which runs into the sea a few miles away. In a small dug-out we were
able to cover some interesting country, on both sides of Betapur and on
the opposite bank. Here I saw for the first time the Andaman Teal,
whose flight was similar to that of the Whistling Teal. Green Pigeons
(Ducula aenea) were numerous and, if so inclined, one could take a
position under a fig tree in fruit and shoot an indefinite number.

A message that the Chief Conservator of Forests was arriving at Long
Island on the 26th brought Mr. Bhattee, and perforce us, back to Long
Island on the 25th evening. Here I was put in touch with U Thin, a
Burmese carpenter in the employ of the Forest Department and a keen
shikari. He and 1 did several trips together, on foot and by boat,
reaching the far end of Long Island as well as Guitar Island to the
south. But we got only a few new birds, and it was not possible to
keep the skinners fully employed.

On the 29th Mr. Bhattee took us in his launch to North, Middle,
and South Button Islands in Ritchie’s Archipelago. The three islands
are quite different from each other, and each is interesting and
delightful in its own way—sandy beaches, rocky cliffs, high and low
forests, and caves where Hume got nests of the Swiftlet (Collocalia)
almost a hundred years ago. We entered the caves, but saw only one

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 493

nest. On the beach, we got our first specimens of the Crab Plover (Dromas
ardeola), the Great Stone Plover (Esacus magnirostris), and Rosy (Sterna
dougalii), Blacknaped. (Sterna sumatrana), and Lesser Crested Terns
(Sterna bengalensis). The beaches held shells and cowries of many hues
and sizes, and everybody’s pockets were soon bulging. In a small boat
we paddled over a coral reef, a spearman poised at the bow to spear the
large turtles—we dug up a nest with many eggs which we had for lunch.
A large monitor (Varanus salvator) was killed and similar eggs were
found in its stomach. With so much to see and do we left each
island with reluctance and finally turned homewards, already belated,
leaving South Button Island, apparently the most interesting, almost
unexplored.

Nogueira, who had been ‘borrowed’ for a month, left for Port
Blair to catch the first boat for Bombay or Madras. A little later, we
learnt that the Deputy Commissioner’s trip to the Nicobars had been
cancelled because of the expected visit of Dr. Zakir Hussain, Vice-
President of India and a member of our Society, to the Andamans and
Nicobars. Realising that the hands of the local officials would be
full for some time, I decided to return to Bombay, leaving Shekar to
collect on Car Nicobar for two to three weeks.

We returned to Port Blair on the 5th March and found that the boat
for Calcutta had left the previous day but I could leave for Madras
the next evening—no air-bookings were available. I jumped at the
opportunity of a visit to Car Nicobar.

CAR NICOBAR: 6 MARCH 1964

Early morning found us on Car Nicobar with a jeep kindly provided
for our use. A motor road extends along the length of the island and I
drove along until we found it blocked by a fallen tree! In some of
the few birds collected the racial differences from the Andaman forms
were visible in the field, e.g. Imperial Green Pigeon, Whitecollared
Kingfisher, and the Blacknaped Oriole.

Car Nicobar is mostly a coral island, with sandy beaches and largely
planted with coconuts—there was little or no undergrowth. I
discovered here how easily one can get lost. Leaving the jeep on
the road I had walked a short distance to collect Imperial Green Pigeon
which were obviously very different from those in the Andamans.
I shot one, moved a little further to get another, and then turned back,
as I thought. Suddenly I realised that I had walked in the wrong
direction and there was nothing by which I could take my bearings !
I tried walking 500 paces in one direction, coming back to the same
place, and walking again the other way, but this did not help. Shouting

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

produced no response. Would letting off my two remaining rounds of
ammunition be worth while? I could not have been lost for much more
- than half an hour, but the chance of missing the boat that evening was
distressing. Fortunately, Shekar realising that I could not still be
chasing pigeons had sallied forth shouting loudly and helped me
home. We worked our way back to the jetty after arranging for Shekar
to camp with Messrs Akoojee & Co., who have a colony on the island.

I reached Madras in the afternoon of 10th March, and travelling
by the night plane arrived in Bombay the next morning.

Shekar stayed on Car Nicobar till the 13th, visiting Nancowry
Island by ferry on the 14th and returning to Port Blair on the 15th.
Till the 26th he worked around Port Blair, obtaining in all 49 skins.
While there were not many additions to the variety of forms, the
additional specimens have helped with the taxonomic work. |

The object of the trip and the collection were mainly ornithological
but, in view of the very scanty information which is available regarding
the other vertebrates of this area, I am recording a few of my
observations before dealing with the birds. |

MAMMALS

The largest indigenous wild mammal, the Andaman pig (Susscrofa
andamanensis), is much smaller than the Indian pig. A sow weighing
56 lb. was obtained at Bakultala, Middle Andamans. This is being
mounted for the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India in Bombay.
Returning by ferry from Long Island, 4 live pigs were brought on board
at Havelock Island, all trussed up and ready for sale at Port Blair.
A 30 kg. spring balance weighed the two sows as 24 and 26 kg. (53 and
57 Ib.). We estimated the male as 30 to 40% heavier, say 80 lb.—a
big boar in India weighs over 300 lb. The Jerwas hunt them on foot
and the Indian labourers do the same with the assistance of dogs. The
young are said to be striped as in India. In 1962 (J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 59: 281) I referred to the possibility of more than one species
of pig occurring in the Andamans, but am unable to offer any more
information in this respect.

Chital and other deer were introduced into the Andamans ‘ 25-30
years ago’ [J. Banerji (1955): J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 256],
and are said to be abundant on some islands. At Port Blair, venison
was quoted at Rs. 3 per kg. (though not available!) and mutton at
Rs. 6. Chital skins were on sale, and I was told that 20-30 were
available every month.

In a retail shop at Port Blair, I obtained a middle-sized deer skin
(shot in South Andamans) of one colour and too small and dark to

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 495

be a sambar’s. It has not been possible to match it with any of the
skins of Indian deer available in Bombay?.

There were reliable reports of sambar (Cervus unicolor) and also
a small red deer, probably Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak). I was
taken to Guitar Island (opposite Long Island) in pursuit of a small deer
or antelope with pig-like tusks—I only got a glimpse of something that
looked too dark for either Barking Deer or Fourhorned Antelope and
wonder if it could have been musk-deer.

These would all be relatively recent introductions like the Chital.
I was told that the Jerwas do not kill the newly introduced deer, though
it is believed that they have learnt to use dogs.

The civet cat (Paguma larvata tytleri) has been recorded from
the Afidamans.; I obtained one skin each from Mr. Bhattee and
Mr. Young. It has been suggested that the absence of partridge, quail,
and other forms of ground-living birds is due to the presence of these
civets. Hume obtained reports of megapodes in the Coco Islands? and
thought he saw their mounds. Kloss (1903 : 328, footnote) suggested
that the absence of megapodes in the Andamans may be due to the
introduction (?) of the civet cat (Paradoxurus tytleri).

One hears of panthers having been introduced to keep down the
chital, but I was unable to obtain any definite information. Banerji
(loc. cit.) refers to two females being released in 1952-53. A responsible
officer told me that two had recently been brought from India for
release in the Andamans but public opinion was so strongly against
it that they were either destroyed or sent back. Perhaps this was a
different pair. :

Near Port Blair, I saw some palm squirrels (Funambulus sp.)
apparently recently introduced, but did not note the species.

I had no arrangements for trapping any of the smaller mammals and,
_ except for one or two glimpses of deer (?), the deer skins in the market,
and some pig wallows in the forests, I saw no large mammals other than
a couple of largish rodents on the road at night.

I collected 11 bats of 6 species of which, at the time of writing,
only one Cynopterus brachyotis brachysoma Dobson (type locality,

1 Mr. J.E. Hill, who kindly examined the skin at the British Museum (Natural
History), reports that it agrees fairly closely with the Museum’s limited material of
Sambar from the Malaysian Archipelago but without the skull it is difficult to

be quite certain of the identification.—EDs.

no Indian ornithological literature the islands, ern Coco and Little Coco,
lying notth of the Andamans along the 14th parallel of north latitude are fre-
quently referred to as Cocos. The name in this form must not be confused with
the Cocos atoll in the Cocos-Keeling Group, about 14° south of the Equator
and 600 miles south-west of Java Head. The few birds of the Cocos atoll are
mostly oceanic, and the resident birds have Malaysian affinities. Besides these
islands there is an islet in the east Pacific north of the Galapagos known as
Isle del Coco. The references in this paper are restricted to Great and Little
Coco, irrespective of how they are spelt.—H.A..

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Andamans) had been identified with certainty. Itis hoped that it will
be possible to report on the others in a short time.

Mr. Young’s son Maxie mentioned seeing a dugong which had
‘bristles as in a pig’ on its head or nape. The body is known to be
covered by hair-like bristles, and it is curious that J. H. Williams in
THE SPOTTED DEER (1957, p. 209, Rupert Harte-Davies) says of a manatee
in North Andamans: ‘She had a short mane on her head, which
swept back with her motion’! Blyth (1859, J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 28:
271-298) refers to bones of the dugong (Halicore indicus = Dugong dugon)
being found in a native hut. Though it is now fairly rare, around
1905 it was said to enter Port Blair in parties of two and three
(Annandale, J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1905, N.S., 1: Footnote at p. 241).
The mammals obtained by Abbott & Kloss and reported on by G. S.
Miller in Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. (1902, 24: 751-798) appear to form the
only systematic collection made in this area, and it is possible that new
forms remain to be discovered.

Miller (loc. cit.) notes that all the forms, except the dugong and the
bats, could have been introduced by man, either intentionally or other-
wise, and the depth of the surrounding sea (though shallow towards
Burma) suggests that these islands were separated from the mainland
before any mammals reached them.

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

We collected and pickled 9 snakes (6 species), 26 lizards (8 species).
frogs and toads (7 species). Curiously, all the snakes are already
represented in the collections of the Bombay Natural History Society;
having been presented by that remarkably active collector Col. Wall.
The lizards and amphibians are being examined and a report will be
published later, if any material of interest is found.

The few insects and ticks preserved appear to be species common to
India.

BIRDS

In 1846 Blyth listed some birds obtained in the Nicobars by
Mr. Barbe and Capt. Lewis, and later (1863) appended a list of the
Andaman birds to Mouat’s ADVENTURES AND RESEARCHES AMONG THE
ANDAMAN ISLANDERS. About the same time Tytler, Beavan, and Ball
made some collections, reports on which are included in the bibliography
to this paper. In 1872, that extraordinary person, Allan Octavian Hume
(who was among other things ‘father and founder’ of the Indian
National Congress !) sent his collector Davison to the islands, who
collected some 2000 birds in about six months. In February 1873,

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 497

Hume accompanied by several friends (only Stolickza’s name is traceable)
made a one-month visit to the islands by a chartered boat from Calcutta.
The procedure was to make a landing during the day, collect all that
was available, and return to the boat in the evening. An interesting
account of this trip (Hume 1874) is followed by a report on the collec-
tions together with references to all earlier literature on the birds of the
Andamans and Nicobars. About the same time collections were made
by Captains Ramsay Wardlaw and Wimberley, which were reported
upon by Viscount Walden. There was considerable activity for some
time, which lapsed until revived by Butler (1899, 1900), Abbott & Kloss
(Richmond 1903), and Osmaston (1905-1908). Subsequent to this how-
ever, except for half a dozen notes on snipe and other sporting birds,
the islands have remained ornithologically untouched. The introduction
and recognition of racial, or subspecific, differences necessitated a re-
examination of the original collection, but I have seen no evidence of
this having been done. When in the field, I collected mainly with a
view to add to the Society’s collections and paid special attention to the
forms which were accepted as different from those in India. While
working out the collection, and comparing it with the material available
in Bombay, it was soon evident that many of the specimens were differ-
ent from Indian forms. This has led to the discovery of an unexpected
number of new subspecies, some of which were noticed by others earlier,
but were ignored by subsequent workers for unspecified reasons.

The list of birds includes several introductions which have establish-
ed themselves. While these may to some extent be occupying vacant
ecological niches, there can be no doubt that they intrude and trespass
upon some local forms to the latter’s disadvantage. The absence of a
natural check is perhaps the main reason for the violence with which
introduced forms sometime ‘explode’. The African Land Snail (Acha-
tina fulica) is an example. I was told it was brought into Port Blair
some ten years ago, and has now multiplied to such an extent that
gardening and vegetable growing have been rendered difficult. Its
depredations in the Guest House gardens were very prominent in
November. J was informed that Openbill Storks (Anastomus oscitans)
were ordered from India to combat this menace, but it was not possible
to ascertain how, assuming they eat these snails, the Storks were to be
led round the gardens looking for these nocturnal creatures, It is
curious how man has always been more anxious to introduce new forms
to insular areas, rather than to study those which already exist there.

We obtained in all 312 specimens including 35 from Car Nicobar
and Nancowry. In the following list they fall into 112 species and
subspecies including four subspecies newly described (Abdulali 1964).

The Zoological Survey of India has, I understand, made three ex-
peditions to the Andaman Islands over the last few years; I am

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

sorry that it was not possible to ascertain what ornithological material
was obtained by them, as they are being worked out independently. My
conclusions are therefore to a large extent based on the relatively little
material available to me and the literature cited in the bibliography. As
many of the references are old and not easily available, I have in
many instances quoted the original records and given my reasons for
supporting or discrediting them.

The list covers 225 forms, which number is small when ee
with say approximately 400 from an equivalent area near Bombay.
With further study, this number will no doubt increase but not, I
think, to the same extent. Several of the birds listed, e.g. pelican and
Brahminy Duck, are based on records of single individuals blown in
with storms or cyclones. Bayley-deCastro (1933) refers to two vultures
of unnamed species seen after a cyclone. Others are introductions by
well-meaning people who failed to see and appreciate the indigenous
avifauna. Except for the megapode and the Nicobar Pigeon, the
avifaunal affinities appear to be closer to India than to Burma or
Malaya. The resident forms in the Andamans and Nicobars, as would
be expected in insular species, are often different from each other. It
has not been possible to name trinomially a few of both the migrant
and the resident birds, and it would perhaps be better to comment on
the trends of variations after a closer study has been possible.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Before I proceed with the list, I must acknowledge with gratitude
the interest shown by Mr. A. K. Ghosh, Secretary, Ministry of
Education (Science), which actually encouraged me to make the
trip ; the financial assistance given by the Bombay ‘Natural History
Society, the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, and the
Sir Dorabji Tata Trust; the assistance and co-operation given by
Mr. B. N. Maheshwari, Chief Commissioner, and the other officers
in the Andamans, without which it would not have been possible to
achieve a fraction of the work; the willing co-operation extended by
Messrs Norman Young, S. S. Bhattee, Sulaiman Parekh of Jadwet
Trading Co., and other residents in the Andamans; the ready and
cheerful manner in which Lawrie Nogueira and P. B. Shekar skinned
all the birds brought in, large and small, throughout the hours of
daylight and even late into the night. Acknowledgments for specific
items are made in the text. I must not omit to acknowledge the help
received from Mr. M. J. Pereira, Bombay Natural History Society, in
handling, measuring, and comparing the new specimens with those
available in Bombay.

N
THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 499
SYSTEMATIC LIST

Note. The scientific names are from Ripley’s SyNopsis (1961)
where available and his serial numbers are prefixed for convenience
of reference. An asterisk on the left indicates that the bird has been
seen or collected by me.

BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

[14. Oceanites oceanicus oceanicus (Kuhl) (South Georgia). Wilson’s
Storm Petrel. ;

Not listed from the area in the SYNOPSIS but recorded by Biswas from
Andamans (1964). If this is with reference to Hume’s observations
between Preparis and the Cocos, repeated by Butler (1900: 151), it is
too indefinite to be accepted.]

[15. Fregetta tropica melanogaster (Gould) (Southern Indian a)
Duskyvented Storm Petrel.

_ Ferrar (1932) identified a storm-tossed bird as of this species, but
added ‘it had no white markings whatsoever barring the extreme bases
of certain feathers being white’. As the bird was not preserved and
this species has completely white underparts, except for a central dark
line from chin to vent, there appears to have been a mistake in identifi-
_ cation and the record is best dropped. ]

17. Phaethon aethereus indicus Hume (Mekran Coast) Short-tailed
Tropic-bird.

Hume (1874 : 323) said he was informed that this species was often
seen on the passage to and from the Andamans, especially in the mon-
soons, and in the neighbourhood of the Cocos. He added that Davison
and others saw a Phaethon with a white tail over two feet in length at
Treis (Nicobars), which was probably of this species.

Biswas (1964) has drawn attention to the omission of the Andamans
from the known range of the species in Ripley’s SyNopsis (1961).

Incidentally, Article 27 of the International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature prohibits the use of a diaeresis which is used by Ripley in
the synopsis for Phaethon and other names.

18. Phaethon rubricauda rubricauda Boddaert (Mauritius) Redtailed
Tropic-bird.

Blyth (1846b : 374) refers to P. aetherus from the Nicobars as the only
tropic-bird from the Bay of Bengal, and Hume (1874: 322) says the
specimen was rubricauda, Listed from the Nicobars with a query in
the SYNOPSIS but confirmed by Biswas (1964), though the evidence is not
mentioned.

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

19. Phaethon lepturus lepturus Daudin (Mauritius) Longtailed Tropic-
bird.

Tytler claimed to have shot a Phaethon candidus (Brisson) in the
Andamans (Blyth 1863b). This was presumably the specimen exa-
mined by Hume (Stray Feathers 5: 498) and referred to as P. flavi-
rostris, the Yellowbilled Tropic-bird. Both these names are now
synonyms of this form.

21. Pelecanus philippensis philippensis Gmelin (Manila) Grey or Spot-
tedbilled Pelican. |

This species is listed from the Nicobars by Blyth (1846b & 1863b).
Hume (1874: 324) states that Blyth’s record was based on a specimen
brought in by Capt. Lewis and says that it may well have come from
Burma. Butler (1900: 150) was informed of a pelican seen at Port Blair
after a cyclone. These records are omitted from the syNopsis and I
wonder if it would be worth while reviving them, as Biswas (1964)
has done. In any case, the absence of suitable habitats for the bird
would clearly indicate that they can only occur as accidental vagrants.

[24. Sula sula rubripes Gould (New South Wales) Redfooted Booby.

Hume (1874: 324) states : ‘ When out at sea about opposite Preparis
on 4 March, and again when near the Cocos, we saw each time a pair
of dusky boobies chasing flying fish; one pair passed within a short
distance of the vessel, and I am pretty confident that they belonged to
this species’, i.e. Sula fiber Linn. The only Indian specimen known
(in the British Museum) was collected in the Bay of Bengal (1929,
FAUNA 6 : 289, repeated in SYNOPSIS, p. 9).]

37. Ardea purpurea manilensis Meyen (Philippines) Purple Heron.

Davison and Hume obtained only one specimen but reported seeing
it in the Andamans and the Nicobars (Trinkut and Tillangchong).
Butler says it occurs in both groups but is rather scarce every-
where. Osmaston (1906a: 491) said it was not uncommon in open
swampy places. It is not mentioned in the SyNopsis for this area
(Biswas 1964). !

[Ardea sumatrana sumatrana Raffles (Sumatra) Dusky Grey Heron.

Abbott and Kloss (in Richmond 1903) said they had not obtained
specimens but seen it on Trinkut, Katchal, and Great Nicobar. This is
omitted in the SYNOPSIS, not having been recorded from anywhere else
within our limits.]

*39. Butorides striatus spodiogaster Sharpe (Andamans & Nicobars)
Little Green Heron. |
1 3,299 Betapur, M.A.
Several were seen in mangroves at Bakultala and Betapur, Middle

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 501

Andamans. In the Nicobars, Butler (1900: 153) said, they were so
numerous that at low tide 20 or 30 could be counted at one time. The
wings are smaller 157() to 164(Q) against 167 to 171 mentioned in the
FAUNA. Osmaston, Wickham, and Anderson are said to have taken
many nests during May and June on various islands in mangroves
2-4, occasionally 8, feet above high tide. The eggs are smaller than
in the Indian birds. A ¢ shot on 22 February had a slightly enlarged
ovary.

Biswas (Current Science 28: 288, 1959) pointed out that Indian
birds were different from javanicus of Horsfield (type loc.: Western
Java) being paler, with longer moustachial streaks and longer wings
(18 fot 174-184 mm., 6 9 177-182 mm., against 3 Q 165-174 and
2 22 166-174 in Java specimens) and used Bonaparte’s name chloriceps
with Hitaura, Chisapani, Garhi Province, Nepal, as type locality.

The Bombay collection contains 17 specimens, of which 7 3 and 99
from Kutch (1), Bombay (5), and Ratnagiri (1) have wings 163-168 mm.,
average 165:'2 mm. Five of these, and another from Ambala, Punjab,
(wing 171), which are in comparable plumage, are as dark as those from
the Andamans, though the latter in adult plumage differ in having
more grey on the wing quills. Two larger (wings 175 and 184 mm.)
and paler birds from Sandoway, Burma, and Darbhanga, Bihar, are
presumably chloriceps.

It is apparent, as has been suggested by Biswas (loc. cit.), fb the
races occurring in India have still to be worked out.

*42. Ardeola grayii (Sykes) (Dukhun) Pond Heron or Paddybird.
1 2 Wimberleyganj, S.A.

Said to occur in both the Andamans and Nicobars in the syNOPsIS,
but I have been unable to trace the latter record(s). Ball (1870a)
admitted his record from Trinkut to be uncertain but, later (1880,
p. 195), quoted this observation without reservation. Frequently seen
in the Andamans but not so common as in most places in India.

A female obtained on 17th February has the wing 197 (FAUNA,
199-230)! ; bill from gape 83 mm., from feathers 60 mm. (60-67), tarsus
56 (60-64), and tail. 66 (73-84). These measurements show it slightly
smaller than the Indian form and the markings on the head and neck
are paler rufous than in others in the Bombay collection.

[43. Ardeola bacchus (Bonaparte) (Malay Peninsula) Chinese Pond
Heron.
FAUNA 6: 355 and SYNOPSIS p. 14 state that it is found in eastern

1 Except where otherwise appearing from the context, measurements in
parentheses will be from Stuart Baker’s FAUNA.

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Assam, Manipur, East Pakistan, and the Andamans. The FAUNA key
only refers to breeding plumage and the text says it is like A. grayii
‘rather more brown and buff on the head and neck and rather deeper
brown on the back and scapulars’. The measurements of wing, tail,
tarsus, and culmen in the two species overlap to a large extent. In THE
BIRDS OF BURMA, p. 532, it is stated that in non-breeding plumage this
is not distinguishable from grayii. The only record I can trace is Sharpe,
CAT. B.M. 26, p. 212, where a juvenile skin is listed from South

Andamans. In the absence of any other record this may perhaps best
be omitted. ]

*44, Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert) (Coromandel) Cattle Egret.

1 Q Choldhara, S. A.: wing 257 (240-260) ; bill from gape 83 mm., from —
feathers 60 (60-67) ; tarsus 56 (60-64) ; tail 66 (73-84).

Frequent in suitable open country. When disturbed, they formed
flocks of 10 to 25 and flew together. None seen in breeding plumage
either in November or on this trip.

Abbott and Kloss obtained an adult at Tillangchong, Nicobars

(Richmond 1903 : 313). It is not mentioned for either place in the
SYNOPSIS (Biswas 1964).

46. Egretta alba modesta (J. E. Gray) (India) Large Egret.

One was shot by General Stewart near Port Blair (Hume, Stray
Feathers 5: 347) but this is omitted in the syNopsis.

I twice saw larger birds with E. intermedia in freshwater marshes,

which were more likely to have been Large Egrets than the white form
of sacra.

*47/48. Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler) (Java) Middle Egret.

? North Button Island, Ritchie’s Archipelago, Middle Andamans: wing 352 mm.
(304-333, once 354) ; tarsus 132 [about 114 (once), 122-148] ; bill from gape 118;
from feathers 97 [68 (thrice), 73-97 ; 118 (once)] ; tail 89.

Occasional. Twice seen with larger birds which were either alba or
the white form of sacra. :

Butler (1900 : 151) states that they occur in both groups, but he does
not appear to have any evidence in addition to Hume’s (1874: 303)
that, though he ‘ thought he saw it in the. Nicobars, it is impossible to
be certain ’. |

Dr. Salim Ali informs me that he believes palleuca Deignan (North
Siam) to be untenable, being based on a mistaken premise of bill
colour.

Egretta garzetta subsp. Little Egret.

Tytler (Blyth 1863b) saw many, and Hume obtained 3 specimens from
_the Andamans. None were preserved from the Nicobars, where their

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 503

occurrence is doubted by Davison. Butler said they were more
numerous than intermedia in the Andamans, and Osmaston (1906a: 491)
saw flocks in South Andamans. It is omitted from both groups in the
SYNOPSIS. I did not notice it though a careful watch was kept.

Hume said the Andaman birds were identical with birds from India,
but Walden (/bis, 1874c : 148) identified one obtained by Wardlaw
Ramsay on South Andamans on 17 December as true nigripes Temm.;
but this specimen is listed with garzetta by Sharpe (CAT. B. M. 26: 122)
along with others from the Andamans, and one from Trinkut,
Nicobars.

As it is quite possible that the black-footed form from Sunda Islands
extends to the Andamans and Nicobars, it may be well to leave the race
as undetermined until fresh (or even the old) specimens are specifically
examined for this character.

*51 Egretta sacra (Gmelin) (Tahiti) Reef Heron.
1 ¢ Long Island, M.A. ; 1 ¢ Car Nicobar.

Frequent on rocky shores, occasionally several seen together when
flighting to roost. No white forms certainly identified and a few large
white egrets were seen in grass-covered snipe-land, where there would
be greater probability of Egretta alba occurring. The legs are much shorter
than in asha (E. gularis schistacea), and the tail almost touches the
ground when sitting. The short tail and legs give it a curious Preropus-
like appearance when flying over. The Andaman bird which had enlar-
ged testes is slightly darker and has a dark bill against a parti-coloured
greenish-horny one in the Nicobar bird (both noted after drying). The
white chin stripe in the Andaman bird is shorter (1? in.) than in the
other (34 in.). Both are paler than a <\ Demigretta asha (Egretta gularis
schistacea) from the Gulf of Kutch.

- The stomach of one contained blennids, mud-skippers, and parrot
fishes.

Butler (1900 : 151) refers to Port Blair birds nesting on the rocks and
trees on Snake Island in Corbyn’s Cove 3 miles away. On 14th May,
he saw about 25 pairs of which only one pair was white.

Osmaston (1906a : 491) said they breed from April to June, chiefly on
rocky islands, the nest consisting of a few sticks roughly put together
and placed in some low bush or between rocks on the ground. The
clutch is of two or three eggs.

Wing Tail Tarsus Bill from Bill from

gape feathers
Long Island ¢ 278 90 66 95 75
Car Nicobar ¢ 266 87 68 99 Ty

(280-293) (93-98) (72-77)
- Hume (1874: 304) quoted Von Pelzeln that three birds from the
Nicobars are of small size with shorter bills and shorter tarsi, but com-

504. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

paring them with 39 specimens obtained from several places in the
Andamans and Nicobars said that the distinctions would not hold
good. He added that in white birds the dorsal plumes are rather more
disintegrated than in ashy birds, some of them extending fully an
inch beyond the end of the tail, which condition was not noted in any
ash-coloured bird seen by him. Davison (loc. cit. : 309) said that the
white form is more wary than the grey.

52. Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus) (Southern Europe)
Night Heron.

Blyth (1846b) mentions it without comment, presumably having
received a specimen from Mr. Barbe or Capt. Lewis. Davison (1874:
315) saw several on the freshwater ponds of Trinkut Island (Nicobars)
but did not obtain any. These records are omitted in the syNopsiIS
(Biswas 1964).

54. Gorsachius melanolophus minor Hachisuka (Katchal Is., Nicobars)
Malay or Tiger Bittern.

This race has been described from the Nicobar Islands, but I have
seen no refutation of Boden Kloss’s statement (Ibis 1927 : 526-527) that
it is not separable from the typical race from Western Sumatra. Hume
obtained specimens at Tillangchong and Camorta.

56. Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin) (China) Chestnut Bittern.
Butler (1900 : 153) said it was common in the Andamans, though
Hume had only noted it at Tillangchong and Preparis in the Nicobars,
and suggested that it had increased in numbers with the increase of
paddy cultivation. He also took eggs in July. Osmaston (1906a:
491) found it common and took many nests between 25th June and 15th
August. It is said to be less common in the Nicobars where Abbott and

Kloss collected it at Camorta.

57. Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin) (China) Yellow Bittern.

Hume and Davison considered it uncommon but obtained specimens
at Port Blair, Andamans, and Tillangchong, Nicobars. Another was
obtained by Abbott and Kloss at Trinkut. Butler suggested that they
had since increased in numbers.

Hume also referred to the birds being brighter coloured than any
from India, but the matter does not appear to have received more
attention later. These records are omitted in the SYNOPSIS.

*88. Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield) (Java) Lesser Whistling Teal.

Not seen on this trip, but 3 adults near 8 ducklings were noted at
Dilthamma Tank at Port Blair on 11th November. Butler said it was
the common teal of the islands, numerous and resident near Port Blair .

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 505

and abundant on some of the Nicobars. One he shot on 26th June was
about to lay. Osmaston (1906a: 491) found it fairly common near
Port Blair and took three nests on the ground in August and September.
Curiously, Davison said he did not meet it anywhere but in the
Nicobars. :

90. Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas) (Tartary) Ruddy Sheld-duck or
Brahminy Duck.
Bayley-deCastro (1933) refers to a Brahminy Duck captured by a
jailor at Port Blair, after a cyclone, in April 1922. There is no other
record.

[94. Amas creccea crecca Linnaeus (Sweden) Common Teal.

Stuart Baker (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12 : 251) said that Hume had
excluded this from a number of places, but ‘ from these places must now
be struck off the Andamans, Nicobars, and Malabar, in the latter place
having been found frequently since GAME BIRDS was written’. This
statement is repeated in INDIAN DUCKS AND THEIR ALLIES but I cannot
find Stuart Baker’s statement, which is mentioned by Butler, that this is
based on reliable sight records. Bayley-deCastro (1933) also refers to
its occurrence in the Andamans, but lists the Andaman Teal (Nettion
albogularis) and the Oceanic Teal (N. gibberifrons) as two separate
species! In the absence of any more definite information, I would
drop it.]

*96. Anas gibberifrons albogularis(Hume) (Andamans) Grey Teal.
2 bd, 3 SY Betapur, M.A.

Only one party of 5 birds was seen on a tidal creek in the Middle
Andamans. They appear very dark and inconspicuous when seated,
either on a log in water or on the shore, but the white patches on throat,
nape, axillaries, and wing coverts are conspicuous in flight, which is not
unlike ‘that of the Whistling Teal. Winged birds made very feeble
attempts at diving. A crest which does not appear to have been men-
tioned was noticed in the bird in hand. Davison said that he had
only heard them utter a low whistle, which was also apparently only
uttered at night when feeding. Butler (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 11:
332) and Osmaston (1906a : 491) have some notes on this species and
the latter states that they nest in lofty and often dead trees, a clutch of
10 eggs being obtained at the top of a huge Padouk tree on August 4th.
J. H. Williams in the THE SPOTTED DEER (1957, p. 220) refers to ‘ tens
of thousands’ on a freshwater lake on North Reef Island: ‘The lake
grew mottled brown with them. Thousands of others alighted on the
tree-tops like starlings, scrambling over each other and flapping
awkwardly to find a foothold.” He shot 20 couple and refers to
iguanas (monitors) swimming out and making off with pricked birds.

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

There are other statements in the book which are rather startling from
the natural history point of view. Osmaston (loc. cit.) states: ‘ it arrives
at Port Blair in large numbers at the end of May and remains till
October or November. In the winter months they frequent outlying
freshwater jheels such as are found near Craggy Island, North Reef
Island, Niell, the Brothers, Templeganj and other places ’.

The northern population was separated by Fleming as Jeucoparea
because of the large extension of white on the head and neck. But, as
stated by Delacour (THE WATERFOWL OF THE WORLD, 1961, 2: 77), this
is irregular and varies individually. He adds: ‘Such partial albinism
is frequent in Ducks confined to a small island range and inbred.....
.... captivity-bred Andaman Teal showed various degrees of albinism
which increased with inbreeding in successive generations ’.

Anas poecilorhyncha subsp. Spotbill Duck.

Bayley-deCastro (1933) shot one in December 1927, after a cyclone,
and this appears to be the only record.

114. Nettapus coromandelianus coromandelianus (Gmelin) (Coroman-
del) Cotton Teal.
Though not mentioned in the SYNOPSIS (Biswas 1964), this is a
straggler into the Andamans, the records including Wardlaw Ramsay
obtaining a single bird at Port Blair, and Capt. Wimberley a pair.

[133. Milvus migrans govinda Sykes (Dukhun) Pariah Kite.

Biswas (1964) has drawn attention to its occurrence in the Andamans,
relying presumably upon 2 specimens shot by Tytler on Viper Island,
near Port Blair. Hume (1874: 150) expresses the opinion that these
birds were carried down by a boat from Calcutta (as another was
carried from Madras to Calcutta). I do not think that this. conspicu-
ous bird could have remained unnoticed and, as no one else ever noted

it in the area, it should be removed from the list of Andaman and
Nicobar birds. |

141. Accipiter badius butleri (Gurney) (Car Nicobar) Shikra.
(Colour plates of adult and juvenile male J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12 : 684).
Butler who found them in Car Nicobar while in search of Accipiter

soloensis said that they keep almost exclusively to the tops of high trees,

and have a shrill little double cry exactly like that of Astur badius.

142. Accipiter badius obsoletus (Richmond) (Katchal Is., Nicobars)
Shikra.
The specimens obtained by Abbott had crimson irides against orange

or yellow in butleri and its allies. Two stomachs contained insects and
one lizard (Richmond 1903 : 307).

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 507

143. Accipiter soloensis (Horsfield) (Java) Horsfield’s Goshawk.

A winter visitor to the Andamans and Nicobars (SYNoPsIs). Hume
(1874, 2: 141) quotes Von Pelzeln that a young 2 was killed on Car
Nicobar, chasing an Oriole. Abbott and Kloss found it common in
Katchal and on the Great and Little Nicobars (Kloss 1903: 128 and
FAUNA 5: 153) obtaining 12 specimens. They suggest that Von
Pelzeln’s specimen may have been A. butleri. I cannot trace other
records.

147. Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (Tickell) (Marcha, Borabhum) Sparrow
Hawk.
Hume (Stray Feathers 4: 280) received a female killed in October
by Capt. Wimberley in the Andamans. Biswas (1964) has drawn atten-
tion to its omission in the SYNOPSIS.

*152. Accipiter virgatus gularis (Temminck & pcneee)) (Japan) East-
ern Sparrow-Hawk.

3 (wing 159) Wimberleyganj, S.A. ; ¢ (150) 9 (187) Betapur, M.A.

The FAUNA (5: 164) refers to eggs of nisoides Blyth (Malacca) being
taken from February to April from old nests of crows in the avenues of
Port Blair (probably from Wickham, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19: 992).
Osmaston (1906a : 488) took nests with: (a) 1 young and 2 eggs on
the point of hatching and (b) 3 incubated eggs, on 24th and 27th April
respectively. The second nest was conspicuous in a leafless tree and
looked like a crow’s nest but lined with green leaves. In the SYNOPSIS
this race is synonymized with gularis but not mentioned for the Anda-
mans and Nicobars, being said to be an occasional winter migrant as far
west as Burma, East Pakistan, and India.

The first male is in immature plumage and differs from juveniles of
besra Jerdon from the Palni Hills in: (1) having the feathers of the back
unicolor and not edged with buff or rufous, (2) the mesial throat streak
narrow, and (3) the breast being barred across and not marked with
broad brown streaks.

Hume measured a &% wing 147 mm. (5.8 in.) and 2 9? 185 and 180
(7.3 and 7.1 in.). Stuart Baker has referred to the curious smallness of
the males.

The first bird was taken in open country and looked very like a
pigeon when going over. Davison (1874: 141) thought they were very rare
and only noted them twice sailing in circles over gardens.

162. Spizaetus cirrhatus andamanensis Tytler (Port Blair, South Anda-
man Island) Crested Hawk-Eagle.

Several were seen circling over forest. In Proceedings, Asiatic

Society of Bengal, 1865, p. 112, Tytler says it is found in mangrove

forests and that he had found fish and crabs in them. Butler saw one

508 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

capture a myna and another a koel. Hume (1874: 144) noted them at
Great Coco.

*173. Haliaeetusleucogaster (Gmelin) (Prince’s Is., Indonesia) White-
bellied Sea Eagle. -

Occasionally seen on seashore and in tidal creeks. One fully fledged
brownish young, attended by parent seen on 12th February. The very
distinctive kak-kak-kak call was not noticed. Hume (1874:143) found a
nest 80 ft. up ina tree on Nancowry Island. Tytler (1867) saw it on
Narcondam. Osmaston (1906a : 488) reported nests on high trees on
Craggy, Sir Hugh Rose, and the South Cinque Islands. Osmaston
(1908:358) saw it on Barren Island. I saw a pair on Little Button
Island, which were probably resident there. In November 1963, I saw
a large brown bird with a pure white wedge-shaped tail and again on 1st
March 1964 another large eagle with white underparts, a dark chin, and
similar tail. The only other fishing eagle with a graduated tail is
albicilla, but both were probably Jeucogaster.

It is also common along the sea-coast in the Nipabats (Abbott &
Kloss in Richmond 1903 : 306).

[175. Icthyophaga ichthyaetus ichthyaetus (Horsfield) (Java) Grey-
headed Fishing Eagle.

Tytler is quoted by Blyth (1863b) as guessing at the identity of the
sea eagle which flew over his house and which ‘ looked like ichthyaetus
but was too far and high up to judge accurately’. Blyth suggests this
may be correct as humilis (S. Miiller). This was negatived by Hume and
was omitted until revived by Biswas (1964) ~ "and may perhaps be best

ignored. ]

[190. Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin) (Voronezh, southern Russia)
Pale Harrier.

Ferrar (1932: 449) refers to an immense number of Pale Harriers
arriving at Port Blair in 1929-30: ‘ Every patch of rice had one of these
birds over it.’ They also arrived in Stewart Sound 90 miles north of
Port Blair some time in November, and sat on fences and trees in great
numbers, apparently exhausted. He states that, though conditions were
excellent, he saw only 3 snipe where a record bag was made the previous
season, and enquires if they could have been frightened away by the
harriers. The following season was a fair one for snipe and no Pale
Harriers were seen,

As no other observer has recorded this from the Andamans and
Nicobars, it is probable that these notes refer to Montagu’s Harrier
(C. pygargus) and it may not be worth while adding this to the avifauna,
though the observations are interesting. ]

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 509

191. Circus pygargus (Linnaeus) (England) Montagu’s Harrier,

Butler (1899: 685) saw an immature bird in May which he thought was
of this species. He later found a skeleton which was too small for
aeruginosus and which may have been of this too.

Osmaston (1906a : 488) says they are common in the open country
around Port Blair, from November to March.

Biswas (1964) refers to the omission of the Andamans from its range

in the SYNOPSIS.

*193. Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Marsh
Harrier.

Davison (1874: 150) refers to a pair of young birds at Aberdeen,
Port Blair, in May; Butler saw it several times, and Osmaston (1906a :
488) said it was less common than Montagu’s, but apparently frequently
seen. I saw an adult in November 1963.

It is omitted for the Andamans in the syNopsis (Biswas 1964).

#200. Spilornis elgini (Blyth) (South Andaman Island) Dark Anda-

man Serpent Eagle.
1 2 Mannarghat, S. A.

*Spilornis cheela davisoni Hume (South Andamans) Pale
Andaman Serpent Eagle.
2 22 Pochang, S. A.; Bakultala, M. A.

A pale and a dark form of serpent eagle occur in the Andamans.
The dark form was first named elgini by Blyth in 1863 and the pale form
separated as davisoni by Hume in 1873. Stuart Baker accepted the pale
davisoni as a race of Spilornis cheela restricted to the Andamans and kept
the dark elgini as a separate species described from South Andaman
Island, and said to occur in both the Andamans and Nicobars (FAUNA
7: 686), though Hume (1874 : 147) specifically stated that it had not been
seen in the Nicobars. The 3 specimens obtained in the Andamans are
all females, two pale and one dark (Mannarghat). Both the pale birds
have the wing 393 mm. (374-407) against 380 (344-368) in the other,
more yellowish legs and feet, which appear coarser and stouter than in the
dark e/gini, but the other differences regarding the scales on the tarsus and
the papillae on the soles (Hume, loc. cit.: 148) are difficult to confirm.
Ripley (SYNOPSIS: 62) combines the pale and dark forms in the Anda-
mans and synonymizes davisoni with elgini. If Ripley’s interpretation
is correct, the Nicobar record [presumably the one specimen in the
British Museum referred to by Blanford (2: 362)] would be either a
straggler from the Andamans, or evidence that the trend to dimorphism
is shared by the subspecies inhabiting the Nicobars too.

Light and dark birds were seen at the same camp but, in the several
pairs glassed, both were always of the same kind. The last bird shot on

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

22nd February was one of a pair and had three enlarged follicles in the
ovary. All were obtained before noon and had empty stomachs. Often
seen in mangrove forests.

Osmaston (1906a : 488) saw one capture an eel about a foot long in
shallow water.

Butler (1899 : 684) thought that birds shot along the mangrove creeks
feeding on crabs were nearly always pale, while those shot on clearings
etc. more inland were usually e/gini. My three specimens were obtained
exactly under these circumstances !

With the little evidence that I have seen, I am inclined to the view
that elgini and davisoni are two separate species.

201. Spilornis cheela minimus Hume (Camorta, Nicobar Islands)
Serpent Eagle.

Butler (1899 : 685) saw it on Teressa and Katchal Islands. |

Richmond (1903) refers to specimens from Camorta and Katchal and
records that Abbott & Kloss also saw it on Trinkut and Little Nicobar.
In the syNopsis the island of Nancowry is added to this range.
The male wings measured 256'5-284'5 mm. and the female 288-292 mm.
The stomachs of the three specimens contained remains of lizards, por-
tions of a small fowl and a small crab (Richmond, loc. cit.). Gurney
(Ibis 1878 : 102) refers to the considerable prolongation of the hooked
point of the upper mandible. ~

202. Spilornis cheela klossi? Richmond (Pulo Kunyi, Great Nicobar
Is.) Serpent Eagle.

In the SyNopsIs, the distribution is given as the Great Nicobar and
southern Nicobar Islands, while Richmond stated that it was found on
Great Nicobar only. The stomachs of the birds obtained by Kloss con-
tained remains of lizards, rats, a small bird, and an Emerald Dove.

[Microhierax latifrons Sharpe

Blanford did not admit this to the Nicobar list as both the records
(Stray Feathers 8: 496) and Ibis (1881 : 274) were based on specimens
obtained from a dealer.]

*203, Pandion haliaetus haliaetus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Osprey.

At Betapur, Middle Andamans, I twice saw this bird in a tidal
creek, and later another on the sea-side diving and splashing into the
water in typical osprey style. J do not think there is much room for
doubt in this identification, which adds this species to the avifauna of

1Dean Amadon (1964, Taxonomic notes on Birds of Prey. Amer. Mus. Novit.
No. 2166) treats davisoni asa race of cheela and elgini as a separate species,
2 Dean Amadon (loc. cit.) treats this as a separate species,

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 511

the area. In view of the few records of this species nesting in Indian
limits, it may be worth noting that Jim Corbett in THE TEMPLE TIGER
(1957) page 96 states that it nested for many years on the same tree in
the Sarda River on Kumaon-Nepal border.

209. Falcoperegrinus japonensisGmelin (off Japan) Peregrine Falcon.

Winter straggler. Hume (1874 : 140) saw a pair on Preparis Island
and Col. Tytler on Ross Island. General Stewart shot one at Port
Blair which was recorded as peregrinus (Hume 1876: 279). In _ the
SYNOPSIS japonensis is said to occur but I do not know if a specimen was
examined.

211. Falco peregrinus peregrinator Sundevall Shahin.

The type specimen was taken at sea in latitude 6°20’N. between
Ceylon and Sumatra, 70 Swedish miles off the Nicobars. The mileage
is converted into ‘about 700 English miles’ in the syNopsis, but this
is doubtless in error, for Ball (1873 : 52) also refers to 70 miles. One
collected by Abbott at Kamorta in February (Kloss 1903 : 97) is listed
by Richmond (1903) as Falco peregrinus Tunstall. Dr. Dillon Ripley
tells me (in epist.) that it appears to be a small male of this race:
wing 310 [265-295 (one 339)], though its general tone of coloration is
rather paler than normal for this form.

Falco tinnunculus subsp. Kestrel.

Biswas (1964) refers to the occurrence of ‘ tinnunculus/interstinctus ’
in the Andamans being overlooked in the SyNopsis. From a
subsequent letter I understood that he was not able to verify either
race but meant an alternative identification, presumably Butler’s (1899 :
687) mention of a Capt. Orchard seeing ‘an unmistakable kestrel
HOVCUDE ois. sss at Port Blair in October’. I wonder if such a
record, unsubstantiated by anyone else before or after, is worth
retaining.

225. Megapodius freycinet nicobariensis Blyth (Nicobar Is.) Mega-
pode.

Islands of the Nicobar group (except Choura and Car Nicobar)
lying north of Sombrero Channel (SyNopsis). Hume (1874 : 72) refers
to the stomach of one shot at Tillongchong containing ‘a good deal
of sand, fragments of quartz and specimens of Scarabus plicatus
and Helicina zelebori’. |

Hume (loc. cit. : 114) refers to Mr. Hawkins, the lighthouse keeper
at Table Island (at the northernmost end of the Andamans), describing
a ‘brown hen-like bird which he occasionally shot and which although
it may have been merely one of the wild [?feral] hens from the
neighbouring Cocos, still, from what he said of the large feet and red

512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

skin about the face, seemed to savour strangely of the Megapod, and this
suspicion gains strength from the fact that on the western shore of the
island? ie. I came upon a mound, which in every respect resembled,
so far as external appearance went, the mounds that I so closely exa-
mined in Galatea Bay’. Pollok (1879, 2: 16) refers to ‘one of the
Megapodidae ’ being shot on Great Coco.

C. Boden Kloss (1903, footnote p. 328) says that the megapode
also occurs in the Cocos presumably referring to these statements, and
suggests that it has either been introduced by Malays or been eliminat-
ed from the Andamans by the introduction of the civet (P- tytleri).

Abbott notes (Richmond 1903: 311) that their eggs are excellent
when fresh and excrement very foul. Butler (1899 : 692) and St. John
(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12 : 212) have notes on the nests and eggs.
Hume describes the call as a cackling kuk-a-kuk-kuk quickly repeated.

226. Megapodius freycinet abbotti Oberholser (Little Nicobar Island)
Megapode.
Restricted to Great and Little Nicobar Islands.

*246. Francolinus pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin) (Pondicherry,
India) Grey Partridge.

This was introduced at Port Blair in about 1890 (Butler 1899 : 691)
and has established itself within the immediate vicinity, where the forest
has been removed and treeless, grass-covered hill-tops remain. At
Haddo, Port Blair, birds may be heard calling within city limits and
also seen from the Government Guest House. Shooting is prohibited,
but they have not spread very far. I am recording the race as men-
tioned in the SYNOPSIS.

254. Coturnix chinensis trinkutensis (Richmond) (Trinkut Is., Nicobar
Group) Bluebreasted Quail.

Only one specimen was collected by Abbott & Kloss and examined
by Richmond (1903), though they reported it as ‘common in open
grasslands of Trinkut and Camorta’. Butler also found it common on
Car Nicobar.

#311. Pavo cristatus Linnaeus (India) Common Peafowl.

This was introduced on Ross Island (opposite Port Blair) around
1868, where Hume in 1873 reported them as having thriven, though
introduction on the mainland (South Andaman) had not been success-
ful. Pollok (1879, 1: 33) stated that hybrids between Indian and Bur-
mese (muticus) peafowl were common at Port Blair. Peafowl disappeared
during the Japanese occupation (1940s) but some more have been
introduced by the present administration. I saw 5 or 6 birds in Novem-
ber 1963 which were not wild and would perhaps be best described as
‘ domesticated ’.

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 513

Turnix tanki subsp. Button Quail.

Hume (1873 : 310) referred to a single indifferent specimen similar
to maculosus, with a perfectly white abdomen, for which he suggested
the name albiventris. Later (1874 : 281-283) he preferred to leave it
with joudera Hodgs. (= tanki) and said it was rare in the Andamans
but not uncommon on Camorta, Nicobars. Again (Stray Feathers
4: 293), he said that other specimens which had come to hand left
little doubt as to its distinctness ‘though it must be admitted that the
name was not happily chosen’. This was accepted in Blanford’s FAUNA
(4: 150) where the description reads : ‘ Back in adults with bold black
and rufous markings, while in tanki the back in adults is brown, with
slight black vermiculations ; rufous confined to collar’. Stuart Baker
merged it with tanki and thus it has remained since. Butler (1899 : 693)
found it common in areas with undulating plains of grassland on
Teressa, Camorta, and Car Nicobar. Seymour Sewell (1922, p. 980)
found their crops invariably full of grass seeds.

*330. Rallus striatus obscurior (Hume) (Andamans) Bluebreasted
Banded Rail.

Osmaston (1906a : 489) said it was very common in the Andamans
and that it did not readily rise and had a very heavy flight. He found
a number of nests on swampy ground, well concealed and with up to
six eggs, between 15th June and 15th August.

I got only one glimpse of a rail in South Andaman, which was
probably this species.

Butler (1899 : 694) said it was common on both groups and that it
bred more or less throughout the year, but added: ‘I have known of
nests in June, July and November in the Andamans and took a nest in
Car Nicobar on 30th August. I also caught several very small chicks of
this species in September and October’. He caught several in thick
jungle in traps set for E. canningi, and said the note was a deep croak,
very like that of the Chestnut Rail. When caught, the chicks kept up
an incessant plaintive call note, half whisper and half whistle.

Hume (1875 : 389) described the young of this form as Hypotaenidia
abnormis.

*333. Rallina canningi (Blyth) (Port Canning, Andamans) Andaman
Banded Rail.

At Wrightmyo, a pair of rails, which appeared almost red, rapidly
scuttled from a stream in evergreen and disappeared into the under-
growth. The bush-policeman said they were responsible for the deep
low booming heard several times in heavy forest, a call which was more
suggestive of a pigeon. The single specimen of the pigeon Caloenas
was obtained in the same patch and I am unable to express any opinion.

514. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Butler (1899 : 695) snared 80 within a square mile in 2 months. The
call, he says, is ‘a curious deep croak, sounding something as if a man
were trying to say kroop! kroop! with his mouth under water. The
alarm call uttered by a snared bird when approached is a sharp chick! .
chick ! and when caught it sometimes utters a cry rather like that of a
wounded rabbit’. He added : ‘it fed principally on beetles, grasshoppers,
worms, small snails, caterpillars etc. In the case of large grasshoppers
the prey is held in the bill and shaken as a terrier would do a rat, flung
down, pounced on, and worried again until nearly dead and then
swallowed.’ ‘The plumage of young birds and the colours of their soft
parts are also noted. ;

337. Porzana pusilla pusilla (Pallas) | (Dauria) _ Baillon’s Crake.
Davison obtained a single specimen at Port Mouat and Butler
another. These are overlooked in the SYNOPSIS (Biswas 1964).

*345. Amaurornis phoenicurus insularis Sharpe (Andamans) White-
breasted Waterhen.
1¢ Wrightmyo, S.A.
*Amaurornis phoenicurus leucocephalus Abdulali (Car Nicobar)
Whiteheaded Waterhen.
19 Car Nicobar. hae

After I had described the latter race (1964), Mr. W.W.A. Phillips
kindly examined the material at the British Museum. He states that
birds from both the Andamans and the Nicobars show more white on
the head than those from India, but in his opinion there is no justifica-
tion for separating the Nicobar birds from the Andaman race. It would
appear that a closer examination of additional material is necessary.

This species was quite often seen or heard either in mangrove or
near a Stream. On 13th February at dusk, a pair 10 feet up in trees
20 yards apart appeared to be tuk-tukking to each other. The shot
on 11th February had the gonads undeveloped. Osmaston (1906a : 490)
took many nests, usually with 4 eggs in June and July.

It appears to be widely distributed, having been reported from many
places both in the Andamans and Nicobars, and also from the hot springs
on Barren Island (Richmond 1903).

*346. Gallicrex cinerea cinerea (Gmelin) (China) Water Cock or
Kora.
Davison saw it in sugarcane fields and Butler noted two or three.

We put one up out of grass near water in paddy fields at Wimber-
leyganj, S. A., and Bakultala, M. A. |

*Gallinula chloropus orientalis Horsfield (Java) Malay Moorhen.
1 0? Port Blair, S. A.
One specimen was shot and skinned by Maxie Young near Port

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 515

Blair on 6th March 1964. It differs from others in the Bombay
collection by its bright red frontal shield extending backward as far as
a vertical plane_passing through the eyes. The wing measures 170 mm.
and the bill from gape 30 mm. Dr. Ripley has identified this bird as
G. c. orientalis, which is an addition to the Andaman and Indian
avifauna.

365. Vanellus cinereus (Blyth) (Calcutta) Greyheaded Lapwing.

Mentioned in Blanford’s FAUNA as occurring in the Andamans, pro-
bably on the strength of the single specimen from Port Blair shot by
Gen. Stewart (Hume, Stray Feathers 5 : 347).

371. Pluvialis squatarola (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Grey Plover.

Hume (1874: 287) observed several in MacPherson’s Strait and
Davison secured one at Port Mouat, South Andamans. These records
are omitted in the SYNopPsIs as noted by Biswas (1964).

*373. Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin) (Tahiti) Golden Plover.
{o? Wrightmyo, S. A.; 1 ¢, 1 Q Car Nicobar, 13th March.

Hume (1874: 288) said they had been shot in every month from
December to May, and again in June, July, and September, but none
were in breeding plumage. Butler also shot what he believed were im-
mature birds in June. I saw a party at the Port Blair aerodrome in
November 1963, and during February-March they were often seen, usually
in small parties in drying paddy fields, snipe grounds, mangrove creeks,
hockey grounds, and rocky sea-shore. Also, on 7th March on Car Nico-
bar where Shekar obtained specimens on 13th March.

3 birds: wings 165 (2), 171 (2) mm. against measurements of
160-165 in the FAUNA. THE HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS indicates
165-174. |

*374. Charadrius leschenaultii leschenaultii Lesson (Pondicherry)
Large Sand Plover.

Hume, Ramsay, Butler, and Osmaston noted it and obtained specimens
in the Andamans and/or Nicobars. As pointed out by Biswas (1964),
these records are overlooked in the SYNOPSIS, |

I think I saw a pair at Chiria Tapoo, South Andamans, on 15th
February.

377. Charadrius asiaticus veredus Gould (Northern Australia) Sand
Plover.

Ball’s record from the Andamans, a male in winter plumage shot by
Dr. Dobson in May (1872 : 288), still remains the only one of this race
from Indian limits, two of the typical form having been taken at Ven-
gurla (west coast south of Bombay) and in Ceylon.

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

379. Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmelin (Kurland) Little Ringed
Plover.

Davison (1874: 290) obtained a specimen with a 44 in. (114 mm.)
wing at Aberdeen, South Andamans, and Hume saw it on the Coco
and Preparis Islands. Ramsay also obtained specimens in South
Andamans (Walden, 1873 : 316) and Butler saw it at Port Blair. I saw
Ringed Plovers near Port Blair in November and again on the creek at
Betapur, Middle Andamans, on 24th/25th February. The Andamans
have been omitted from the range of this species in the SYNOPSIS (Biswas
1964).

*384, Charadrius mongolus atrifrons Wagler (Bengal) - Lesser Sand
Plover.
1 2 Choldhari, S. A.; 2 29, 1 0? Car Nicobar.

This species was common, being seen quite often in tidal creeks and
near the sea. Also seen with a party of turnstones in a field a hundred
yards from the sea at full tide. Hume (1876: 293) received skins of
what he thought were young birds obtained in May, July, and September,
but as stated in the FAUNA (6: 174) it is unlikely that it breeds here.
Ramsay (Walden 1873) got it in South Andamans. The four specimens
are more worn and greyer than others in Bombay, and the forehead also
purer white, but Dr. Ripley to whom specimens were sent identifies
them as of this race.

*385. Numenius phaeopus phaeopus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Whimbrel.
1 ¢, 2 92 Long Island, M. A.; 1 2 Car Nicobar.

Hume and Walden noted them in the Andamans and Nicobars and
Hume thought that they did not differ from those found in England.
Abbott & Boden Koss obtained specimens in the Nicobars, but they
were not racially identified by Richmond. Biswas (1964) had drawn
attention to the omission of these records in the SYNOPSIS.

I found it quite common in suitable localities in South and Middle
Andamans, and Shekar obtained it at Car Nicobar. All our specimens
(4) are duskier above than any of the specimens available in Bombay,
which all show a more spotted appearance. One of my specimens was
sent to Dr. Ripley for subspecific identification, who has identified it as
of the typical race. The bills measure: 3 2? 84-96, avg. 90; 1 #80.

Curiously the 8 specimens in Bombay are all males.

One contained remains of the crab Thalamita crenata (Latrielle), and
another of Sesarma longipes Krauss.

* 388. Numenius arquata orientalis C.L. Brehm (East Indies) Curlew.

Birds from the Nicobars were identified as Jineatus (now synonymized
with orientalis C. L. Brehm) by Herr Von Pelzeln (Ball 1873 : 85).

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS sii

Hume (1874 : 296) refers to two specimens from Port Blair obtained
on 16th. August and 24th September (both rather early dates for winter
migrants so far south), one a female excessively pale and the other a
male excessively dark. He adds: ‘ Both are slenderer and smaller than
any specimens of Jineatus I have ever seen. The male, long as is his bill,
is scarcely bigger than a Whimbrel.’

Though I have an impression that I saw several, I have *sAceliic
record only for one seen on Long Island on 27th February. This species
is omitted from the Andamans and Nicobars in the SYNOPSIS (Biswas
1964).

*394. Tringa totanus eurhinus (Oberholser) (Tso Moriri Lake, Ladakh)
Redshank,
12 Choldhari, S.A.; 1¢ Long Island, M.A.

Davison (1874 : 299) noted this bird as common from the first week
in September to 5th May, along the salt-water creeks and mangrove
swamps, also perching among the mangroves at high water. One was
also shot in June. Walden (1874c : 147) also refers to specimens from
Port Blair on 31st May and 12th July. Pelzeln (Ball 1873 : 85) noted
it in the Nicobars.

I saw it in November and several in South and Middle Andamans
during February. I cannot racially identify the specimens I obtained,
but Richmond names one collected by Boden Kloss at Kamorta in

February 1901 as eurhinus and I am leaving all under this name.
Biswas (1964) has drawn attention to the omission of this species
from the Andamans and Nicobars in the SYNOPSIS. :

*396,. Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus) (Norway) Greenshank:
Hume (1874 : 299) did not obtain it and only referred to a doubtful
record by Von Pelzeln in the Nicobars.
I saw it at Port Blair in November and at Bakultala, Middle Anda-
mans, on 22nd February.

*397. Tringa ochropus Linnaeus (Sweden) Green Sandpiper.

I saw one in November and Butler said it appeared scarce though he
shot one or two during the season.

*398. Tringa glareola Linnaeus (Sweden) Wood Sandpiper.

Hume said they were not common but Davison met it occasional-
ly around Port Blair and, though he did not see it in the Nicobars,
he got it at Acheen, North Sumatra. His three specimens from Port
Blair were killed in the first week of November.

I saw a single bird on I 1th and several on 14th February.

$18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

*400. Tringa terek (Latham) (Terek River on Caspian Sea) Terek
Sandpiper.
19 Betapur, M.A.: wing 132; bill 49 mm.

Hume recorded it as common in the neighbourhood of Port Blair,
and added that specimens killed as late as mid-April showed no signs of
their breeding plumage. Davison saw large flocks in the creeks and
noted them as settling on the mangroves at high tide. I shot one out of
a party of 10 to 12 on an island at Betapur, where they had settled with
some Charadrius mongolus.

As in other shore birds the fresh skin appears more grey and less
brown than the older ones.

*401. Tringa hypoleucos hypoleucos Linnaeus (Sweden) Common
Sandpiper.

Common everywhere near water. At Betapur, while punting up the
creek at dusk, we saw many single birds, and also twos and threes, flying
towards the mouth of the creek, presumably to roost together. Davison
found them present on 12th May and Hume noted the first returned bird
as obtained on 24th August. Osmaston (1906a: 490) has almost identical
dates. Butler records a slightly wounded bird swimming hither and
thither, two feet under water. I saw it on Car Nicobar.

*402. Arenaria interpres interpres (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Turnstone.
1¢ Choldhari, S.A.

Hume noted it on many islands in the Andamans and Nicobars, the-
last on 29th April in almost full breeding plumage. His seven speci-
mens were all females. Butler found them still abundant in May at
Port Blair and again in the Nicobars in September.

I shot one out of a flock mixed with Lesser Sand Plovers on South
Andaman and also noted it on North Button Island in Ritchie’s
Archipelago.

The tail measurements 76-79 mm. in the FAUNA (5: 155) are in error
and should be nearer 55.5 to 61.5 mm. (THE HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS,
1945, 4: 224).

*406. Capella stenura (Bonaparte) (Sunda Islands) Pintail Snipe.
¢ Bakultala, M.A.

This is the common snipe of the Andamans, and Ferrar (1932) cites
a bag of 504 couple to two guns. Hume and Butler state that it is
common from September to early May, and Hume refers to two each in
June and July. In February I found them common in suitable localities
which were few and appeared to be drying up. J. Miles Stapylton
(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 507 and 37: 491-2) recorded them
on 28th August, and Bayley-deCastro (1933) said that they were

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 519

invariably present by the middle of August and that he had also
seen them on 25th July. One wonders, as did Ferrar, whether
they leave the island, or find their food in mangroves and fern
(Asplenium acerifolium) swamps as the fresh water dries up. Hume
also saw it in the Nicobars, though this is overlooked in the SYNOPSIS
(Biswas 1964). In flight, the bird appeared darker and slower than the
fantail and I thought that in flight it held its bill nearer the vertical
creating a more compact profile.

[407. Capella megala (Swinhoe) (Between Takoo and Peking, China)
Swinhoe’s Snipe.

Bayley-deCastro (1933) refers to one shot in the Andamans, but
his omission of the Fantail Snipe (C. gallinago) and some other errors
in his note indicate caution in accepting this record, though it occurs
in small numbers in eastern India, south into Ceylon. |]

408. Capella media (Latham) (England) Great Snipe.

Bayley-deCastro (1933) stated he twice shot Great Snipe, weigh-
ing 74 and 7#o0z., ‘behind the butts of the rifle range.’ This record is
omitted from the SYNOPSIS.

*409. Capella gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Fantail Snipe.
Hume, Butler, Osmaston, and Ferrar all refer to the rarity of this
species in the Andamans, Butler stating that there was not one of
this species among the 300 odd birds he shot during the season.
In mid-February I shot and handled a dozen snipe at three sepa-
rate places, and they included four fantail.

410. Capella minima (Briinnich) (Denmark) Jack Snipe.

This has been recorded once from the Andamans, being the first
snipe shot by Lt. H. Turner on 25th November 1896 (Finn, J. Asiat.
Soc. Bengal 46, Part II, No. 2 : 525).

413. Calidris tenuirostris (Horsfield) (Java) Eastern Knot.
Wardlaw Ramsay obtained a specimen near Port Blair (Stray
Feathers 4: 294).

415. Calidris ruficollis (Pallas) (Southern Transbaikalia) | Eastern

Witte. Stint.

This is noted from the Andamans and Nicobars (SYNopsIs). Hume
(1874 : 298) identified 12 specimens from this area as minuta and
objected to Lord Walden naming a bird collected on 24th January
as ruficollis as it was not possible to tell them apart in winter
plumage. Stuart. Baker (6: 236) said that it was possible to separate
ruficollis by its larger size. Butler later refers to ruficollis as fairly

S20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

common along the Andaman and Nicobar coasts in winter, seeing
them up to the end of May. Osmaston (1906a : 490) also shot one at
Nadakachang Swamp, Andamans, in January.

416. Calidris minutus(Leisler) (Germany) Little Stint.

Taken from December to June in the Andamans and Nicobars
(Hume 1874: 298). This is not mentioned as occurring in this area
in the SYNOPSIS. :

418. Calidris subminutus (Middendorff) (Stanovoi Mountains and
mouth of the Uda) —Longtoed Stint.

Butler says: ‘I believe I shot the Longtoed Stint at Port Blair,
but cannot find it among my notes’. Osmaston (1906a : 490) shot
one in the Andamans in March. Biswas (1964) draws attention to its
omission from this area in the SYNOPSIS. and also to a doubtful record
from the Nicobars (?).

422. Calidris testaceus (Pallas) (Holland) Curlew-Sandpiper.

Davison and Butler record it both from the Andamans and Nicobars
from September to April and refer to specimens taken in June and July.
These areas are omitted from the syNopsis (Biswas 1964).

Limicola falcinellus subsp. Broadbilled Sandpiper.

Davison and Butler record it from both the Andamans and the
Nicobars from September to April, and refer to specimens in June
and July. These areas are omitted from the syNopsis (Biswas 1964).

*434,. Dromas ardeola Paykull (India) Crab Plover.
12 North Button Island.

Hume (1874 : 293) collected 4 specimens in the Andamans and
considered it rare. Osmaston (1906a : 490) said they were not common
but saw 60 or 70 on Baratang Island. Butler saw a flock of 60 or
70 birds on a long low reef exposed by low tide at Car Nicobar. Abbott
saw them at Katchal and Great Nicobar. I saw pairs on North and
Middle Button Islands.

The specimen from North Button Island has the wing 213 mm.
(FAUNA, 201-210); bill 59 (54-56);.tail 75 (65-75). My measurements
of the wing and bill agree with those noted by Hume. Hume (loc. cit.:
62) records that one had fed entirely on the crab, Gonodactyla chiragra.

*438. Esacus magnirostris magnirostris (Vieillot) (Australia) Great
Stone Plover. :
12 North Button Island.
Hume (1874: 293) obtained it at Great and Little Coco and at
Corbyn’s Cove, a few miles south of Port Blair, taking eggs at Little

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS BAL

Coco and Corbyn’s Cove. M. Boning took eggs in April (FAUNA 6:
82). Osmaston (1906a: 490) said that one or more pairs frequented the
shore of almost every island. .

We saw three birds on North Button Island together with the
Crab Plovers, and again on Middle Button. The stomach .of the
specimen contained pieces of shells. The ovaries were granular, wing
273 mm., bill 79, and tarsus 80 mm.

This species has not been recorded from the Nicobars, dioushi
the same race is said to occur again on the coasts and islands of Malaya,
and further to Australia. The skin obtained by me was sent to
Dr. D. L. Serventy of the Western Australian Regional Laboratory,
Perth, for examination. He confirms that it is identical with those from
Australia and concurs with recent studies on this species that no new
race should be recognized.

443. Glareola pratincola maldivarum J. R. Forster (Open sea in the
latitude of Maldive Islands) Collared Pratincole.

Said to occur occasionally as a migrant in the Andamans and
Nicobars (Hume 1874: 286). Osmaston (1906a: 490) shot one of a pair
at Nadakachung Swamp early in March. It is omitted in the SYNOPSIS
for the Andamans and Nicobars, though there are specific records of
G. orientalis Leach, from the Coco Islands and South Andamans
(Walden 1874c: 146).

459. Chlidonias leucoptera (Temminck) (Mediterranean) White-
winged Black Tern.
_ Obtained by Mr. de Roepstorff i in South Andamans (Blanford, FAUNA
4: 308).

461. Gelochelidon nilotica affinis (Horsfield) (Java) Gullbilled Tern.

The only record from the Andamans and Nicobars appears to be

a ‘rather small young female, the primaries very dark’, wing 292 mm.,

obtained by Capt. Wimberley in South Andamans in November
(Stray Feathers 4: 294).

*466. Sterna dougallii korustes (Hume) (Andaman Islands) Roseate
or Rosy Tern.
1 2 North Button Island : wing 218 mm.

On 29th February, I shot one of this species out of a large flock
of S. sumatrana (q. v.) on North Button Island. Both species have a
Strikingly beautiful rosy tinge on the breast but, while there are other
_ differences, my attention was drawn to this bird by its red legs and feet

compared to black in the other.
Butler also did not find it as common as the Blacknaped Tern,
and said that it disappeared from Port Blair after breeding.

522. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

“468. Sterna sumatrana sumatrana Raffles (Sumatra) Blacknaped

‘ern:
3 33, 6 22 North Button Island.

On 9th February, while between North Sentinel and the west
coast of South Andamans, I saw a large flock of some 200 terns wheeling
about over the sea in close formation. They often broke up into two
or three flocks, but re-joined and flew around in large irregular circles,
high and low over the sea, but too far away for me to identify. Later,
on 29th February I saw many similar terns, longwinged, white, and
flying close to each other in parties of 5 to 15 and collecting (c. 500) on
a sandpit on North Button Island. Specimens obtained (10 to 2
barrels !) were of this species, all with black legs and feet and bills. On
closer examination the bills were noticed to have small yellow tips about
16mm. in length. Nine sexed (3 1, wings 215, 216, 227; 6 29, wings
208-224, avg. 213) showed no sign of breeding. As was noted by Hume,
the males have larger bills, 36 mm. against 33-34 in females.

Blyth (1846b) said it bred abundantly in the Nicobars. Butler
said it arrived at Port Blair in numbers at the end of April, bred
in the neighbourhood, and was hardly seen anywhere after September.
Osmaston (1906a: 491) said they frequented the more sheltered east
coast during the south-west monsoon (May to October) and the west
coast for the remaining six months. They bred on the small rocky
islets off the east coast from May to July, laying one or two eggs.

* Sterna anaethetus subsp. Brownwinged Tern.
lo? Ross Island, S.A., 13 November 1963.

On 13th November, I picked up one dying on Ross Island, South
Andamans. Except for the smaller size, wing 246, bill 40, tail 127, I
can find no other character by which I can separate this from specimens
marked fuscata.

Blyth (1863b) refers to a specimen from the Andamans, and Butler
calls it a straggler to the Andamans during the winter months. He
also noted some which hung around Port Blair for a few days after rough
weather in November. It is significant that he does not refer to Sterna
fuscata (q.v.) at all. |
474. Sterna fuscata nubilosa Sparrman (India Orientalis) Sooty Tern,

Breeds in the Andamans (SyNopsIs). Though Stuart Baker (FAUNA
6 : 144) refers to its occurrence in the Andamans, I cannot trace the
original record nor that of its breeding there.

*479, Sterna bengalensis bengalensis Lesson (Coasts of India) Lesser
Crested Tern. oe |
2 22 North Button Island, M.A.: wing 290, 280; bill 52, 54; tail 112, 110;
tarsus 23 (2).
I shot two out of a large party of terns, mostly swmatrana, on
North Button Island on 29th February, both females. Davison got 3

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 523

specimens (all females) on the north coast of Camorta, Nicobars (1874 :
318). The soles of the feet of one of my specimens were bright yellow
all over (including webs) and only under the toes in the other. Their
bills, first noted as bright yellow, were orange on the following day.

This species has also been recorded in Nicobars (Blyth 1846b, and
1863b) but is not mentioned for either the Andamans or Nicobars in the
SYNOPSIS.

481. Anous stolidus pileatus (Scopoli) (Philippines) Noddy Tern.

Blyth listed it from the Andamans on the basis of a specimen in
the Indian Museum (1863b). Hume (1874 : 321) did not obtain it but
he refers to several specimens from the Andamans in Col. Tytler’s
collection. Though known to breed in the Laccadives (FAUNA 6 : 146),
it is omitted entirely in NIDIFICATION. Ripley (SyNopsIs) adds that it
nests on small islets in the Nicobars.

Stuart Baker (loc. cit.) refers to their laying a single egg on the bare
rock with no nest; but Peter Child (1960, Atoll Research Bulletin No.
74:9) states that in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (mid-Pacific) the
favourite nesting place is on the butt of a coconut frond, in the axil
between the butt and the main trunk. A rough nest is made of
twigs, dead leaves, roots, and coconut fibres.

482. Anous tenuirostris worcesteri (McGregor) (Cavilli Island, Sulu
Sea) Whitecapped Noddy Tern.

Hume did not obtain specimens but said he had examined them
from the Bay of Bengal, and knew of one having been shot at Port
Blair. This record is omitted in the syNopsis which quotes the
FAUNA (6: 147) as giving 3 records from the Bay of Bengal —Calcutta ;
near the mouth of the Ganges in the Bay of Bengal ; and Minicoy. The
last is in the Maldive Islands, not in the Bay of Bengal as indicated
in the SyNopsIs. This species breeds in the Chagos Islands further

south (Ibis, 1962 : 71).

*500. Treron pompadora chloroptera Blyth (Nicobars) Pompadour

or Greyfronted Green Pigeon.
1 ¢ Car Nicobar: wing 175 mm.

*Treron pompadora andamanica (Richmond) (MacPherson Strait,
South Andamans) Pompadour or Greyfronted Green Pigeon.
12 Port Blair, S.A., 9 November 1963 ; 24, 2 $2 Wrightmyo, S.A. :
- 3d wings 177, 163 mm. ; 2° 177, 178, 169 mm.
_ This bird is as large as the Indian Green Pigeon and looks very much
like it in the field. It was quite common in most places in South and
Middle Andamans, often in parties of 6 to 10, They feed on the

524. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

buds and fruits of forest trees, one pair having their crops so tight-
ly packed with the green and ripe fruit of Ficus infectoria that they
burst when the birds fell to the ground spoiling the skins!

Davison (1874: 360) saw them building in May and ‘surmised
that they bred thereafter. A male taken on 23rd February had enlarged
gonads, while a female on the same date appeared to have laid.
Another on 28th February had a greatly developed egg in the ovary,
and one shot on 3rd March also had developing ovaries. As in most
pigeons and doves, the breeding season is probably spread over a long
period. ; :

Richmond (1903 : 308) described Osmotreron chloroptera andamanica
from MacPherson Strait, South Andamans, as similar to chloroptera
Blyth from Nicobars, but rather smaller, colour somewhat darker above
and below; breast and sides deeper yellowish green, and undertail
coverts more yellowish, the throat yellower than in O. chloroptera, and

Wing 165-168 as against 170°5-175 in chloroptera.
Fail09l-, 9sicx, 3 98- 99 ,, ad

Stuart Baker (5 : 189) stated that he could not separate andamanica
of Richmond ‘as in a large series his distinguishing characters prove to
be individual’. He does not repeat these characters but Hume (1874 :
258) had drawn attention to the fact that the Nicobar birds ‘ invariably
had less yellow on the outer margin of the secondaries (and generally
though not invariably on those of their greater coverts)’. My specimens
from the Andamans have two distinct yellow bars across the wing
coverts in both the sexes, while the single specimen from the Nicobars
has only one. I can see none of the other differences in size or colour,
but this character appears distinctive enough to recognize an Andaman
race.

*Ducula aenea andamanica Abdulali (Betapur, M.A.) Andaman
Green Imperial Pigeon.

1 3 Port Blair, S.A., 14 Nov. 1963 ; 2 é¢, 2 9? Wrightmyo, S.A.; 2 gg, 222
Betapur, M.A.

After this race had been described by me (1964), Mr. W. W. A.
Phillips examined the large series available in the British Museum and
confirms that the differences mentioned by me justify the recognition
of a new race.

This fine pigeon appears common throughout the Andamans. Its
loud goo and sometimes a more guttural qroo is uttered once, twice, or
thrice. I am also fairly certain that this species is responsible fora
deep whoom, often in answer to one calling gr—groo the first gr resem-
bling the beginning of a hiccup. I also noted a gr—ghoom. It is
possible that one or other of these calls is uttered by the Andaman
Wood Pigeon, whose call I was unable to record separately.

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 525

Compared to smaller pigeons, the flight appears slow and flapping,
but they keep high and many shots were fired at birds out of range.
Many collect on trees in fruit and the lower mandibles are curiously
expansible and so permit the swallowing of extraordinarily large
fruit. This expansibility was also noted while handling wounded birds
in Chanda District, Maharashtra, but does not appear to have been
referred to earlier.

The food included large yellow flowers of an unidentified tree
and its fruit, the fruit of Sideroxylon longepetiolatum, Myristica anda-
manica, Calamus pseudorivalis, and Ficus infectoria.

On 24th February at Betapur, where the forest in places was a little
lower and the pigeons more accessible, I twice saw a most extra-
ordinary sight—birds rising from trees suddenly stopped in mid-air
and dropped 15-20 feet on half-closed wings and with the neck drawn
back. They then pulled up again, the whole performance being very
like the display flight of the Blackbellied Finch-Lark (Eremopterix
grisea) but creating a most grotesque appearance. Salim Ali (J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 39 : 338) has referred to aerobatics of a similar nature by
the Imperial Pigeon (Ducula badia) in Travancore, which aerobatics he
likens to those of the Roller (Coracias). |

Some 20 birds of this species were handled during February and
except for two or three all had enlarged gonads, one containing an un-
shelled egg. Osmaston (1906a : 488) found a nest with a single hard-set
egg on 10 April.

#508, Ducula aenea nicobarica (Pelzeln) (Nicobars) Nicobar
Green Imperial Pigeon.
3 $¢ Car Nicobar, 7-10 March 1964

This is larger than the Andaman bird, the upper plumage being
darker and bluer and showing very little green. The undertail coverts
are dingy brown and not bright chestnut. The tail appeared longer in
life. The grey of the head and breast is uniform and not tinged vinace-
ous and there is no sharply defined white forehead and chin as in the
Andaman bird.

The calls noted were: (1) a deeper and longer ghoom than in anda-
manica and (2) a koo-o followed by.a kukku kukku-kukku, more like
an owl than a pigeon. This call was not heard in the Andamans.

Car Nicobar males had wings 252-255, avg. 254; tails 160-166, avg.
162.

A female shot on 7th March had 2 ova slightly enlarged 3 mm. «
3 mm. :

Richmond (1903 : 308) quotes Abbott & Kloss regarding their extra-
Ordinary tameness on Tillangchong and Trinkut: ‘They with the

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

megapodes formed our staple diet in the Nicobars, until we loathed the
sight of them’.

509. Ducula bicolor (Scopoli) (New Guinea) Pied Imperial Pigeon.

Hume and Davison (1874 : 264) found this pigeon common in many
of the Nicobar Islands and also a seasonal visitor to Great Coco, Barren,
and Narcondam Islands. Davison noted that they preferred the
mangrove swamps to the thick forests and Butler (1899 : 688) saw them
in large flocks of fifty or sixty. While the black and white plumage
showed up in flight, he said that they were extremely difficult to see in
the ‘ shifting lights of a thickly-leaven tree’. He said the note was a
chuckling ku ku ku.

Osmaston (1906a: 489) found it common and breeding on North
Sentinel Island, 17 miles off South Andamans, and also common in Nar-
condam. It is said to be patchily distributed, being found on small
islands, occurring in some places in almost incredible numbers. Kloss
(1903 : 156) found it common in the Great Nicobar, while Richmond
(1903 : 309) referred to one specimen each from Camorta, Trinkut, Little
and Car Nicobar, and quoted Abbott & Kloss that ‘it is less common than
C. insularis (nicobarica) in the northern islands but plentiful in the
southern. At Little Nicobar large numbers used to roost on the islets of
Trak and Treis, 6 or 7 miles distance, and fly over every morning to
Little Nicobar’. It is also reported as seen at Barren Island, but I did
not see it anywhere.

[Columba livia subsp. The Blue Rock Pigeon.

Boden Kloss (1903) refers to their being introduced into Car Nicobar
in 1898 and seeing ‘ numbers in the vicinity of the bungalow in 1900’.
I did not notice it during my short visit and it may not have established

itself]

*525. Columba palumboides (Hume) (Port Mouat, Andamans)
Andaman Wood Pigeon.
12 Bambooflats, S.A., 9 Nov. 1963; 10? Bakultala, M.A.;12
Betapur, M.A. ;1¢ Long Island, M.A.

This is larger than the Imperial Green Pigeon, but the great height of
the forest trees, together with the similarly coloured underparts, usually
prevents discrimination. I got the impression that occasionally this
species descends nearer to the ground than the other, a fact confirmed
by Davison and Butler. The call is a deep whoom without the preliminary
gr of Ducula. One crop held the fruit of Leae sp. and another the ripe
fruit of Syzygium cumini. At Betapur, Middle Andamans (23rd
February), they were often seen in pairs.

Hume (1874 : 266) referred to the possibility of another fruit pigeon,
‘large waitish, something like bicolor, but greyer and with a large red

a ee

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 524

naked space round the eye ’, reported to him. This was later (Stray
Feathers 3: 337) identified as the adult: male of this species. The
specimens collected by me are very different in colour from the plate in
Stuart Baker’s INDIAN PIGEONS AND DOVES, showing none or very little of
the purple gloss on the upper parts, nor as pale a head. Stuart Baker
thought that adult females were identical. Another plate accompanying
Walden’s note (1873) on Ramsay’s collections from the Andamans
appears more «epresentative. This incidentally is marked Janthaena
columboides, while the text on the opposite page refers to J. palumboides!
Later Walden (1874a: 157) separated the Nicobar birds (from Trinkut
and Nancowry) as J. nicobarica distinguishing it from the Andaman bird
chiefly by its wanting the pearly-white or greyish-white head, throat, and
nape. Later authors have ignored this separation.

*527, Macropygia rufipennis Blyth (Southern Nicobars) Anda-
man Cuckoo-Dove.
2 3¢ Bakultala and Betapur, M.A:

Several were seen in heavy forest. One shot 25 feet up on creepers
on a tree contained fruit of Vitis sp., and another had eaten the fruit of
Leae sp. The second was a male with enlarged testes (24th February).

Hume (1874 : 266) held that they varied inter se to an incredible ex.
tent and described two main types. He also said that they fed largely
on the small Nepal or bird’s-eye chilli. Boden Kloss (1903: 111) noted
that the crops of all those shot on Kochal, Nicobars, were filled with
large red chillies, and adds that their flesh tasted normal. Butler
(1899 : 690) said he examined four stomachs but found no chillies.

~ Osmaston (1906a : 489) said its call was peculiar, somewhat resembling
that of Cuculus canorus, the Common Cuckoo. It is found in both the

Andamans and the Nicobars.

* 536. Streptopelia tranquebarica humilis (Temminck) (Bengal
and Luzon) Red Turtle Dove.

1 ¢ Wrightmyo, S. A.; 2 9Q Ferrarganj, S. A.; 1 2 Bakultala, M. A.; 1 9 Long
Island, M.A.

At Port Blair they were common and courting (10th February), the
male bobbing up and down to the female at the top of a high tree. A male
with well-developed testes shot at Betapur had been feeding on rice, and
the bird was frequently noted in and near cultivated land, i.e. paddy.
In November, I saw them in parties of 10 to 12 and again noted 20 to 25
birds collected on the tops of trees, just before sunset. They then all
flew off in the same direction, no doubt to roost.

Davison found it exceedingly rare, but Butler said it was
quite common and he saw scores collected together in a field. Osmas-
ton (1906a : 489) found it extremely common around Port Blair and

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 61 (3)

noted that it had apparently multiplied since Hume’s time (1873) with
the increase of the area under cultivation. He found them breeding in
April and May. : |

The five specimens obtained (1 and 4 99) have their wings
142 mm. in the male and 136-142, avg. 138-2, in the females. All the
birds are in varying stages of plumage, and include a female in full
male plumage. The Society’s collection includes two others, from
Bolandshar, U.P., Reg. No. 13050, and Prome, Burma; No. 13056, in
male plumage but marked females. The Andaman birds appear nearest
to humilis but though specimens were borrowed from the Zoolo-
gical Surveys of both India and Pakistan, it has not been possible to
satisfactorily sort out the races or plumages of this species.

[539. Streptopelia chinensis tigrina (Temminck) (Java) Spotted
Dove.

Blyth received a specimen brought by Capt. Lewis from the Nicobars.
Again in 1863 (Appendix) he says: ‘On the Nicobar, Turtur tigrinus
(Temminck) exists, similar to the race inhabiting Burma and
Malaysia:. « 2heor him tee °, Though Hume referred to this single
record, Butler later suggested that it be dropped and I agree with him.]

541. Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin) (Gulf of
Cambay) Little Brown Dove. |
Butler found it not uncommon at Port Blair but, as _ earlier
observers had not recorded it, suggested that it may have been introduced
later. Osmaston (1906a: 489) failed to see it, and I did not see it
either. Ripley (SYNOPSIS) includes the Andamans in its distribution.

542. Chalcophaps indica indica (Linnaeus) (Amboina) Emerald
Dove. 1 5 £ “i z = af 33 EE el POR es ohh.
Dr. Dillon Ripley, to whom I sent the Andaman specimens, com-
pared them with skins from the Nicobars available to him and inform-
ed me that the latter were identical with indica. The Nicobar birds
have earlier been separated as C. augusta Bp. (Comptes Rendus 1855).

*544, Chalcophaps indica maxima Hartert (Golapabung, South Anda-
mans) Emerald Dove.
1 g, 1 2 Mannarghat, S.A.; % Bakultala, M.A.

Hume found it extremely numerous. I saw a few specimens both in
the Andamans and on Car Nicobar but, as in India, the bird lives
in heavy cover and is difficult to secure at the right range—more than
one was too badly damaged to preserve. I shot a # with enlarged
testes and a female with a granular ovary on 16th February. The
organs of a male taken on 18th February were undeveloped. Osmaston
(1906a : 489) took a single fresh egg on 29th May. This species, as in

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 529

many pigeons and doves, probably has an extensive breeding
season.

** Calaenas nicobarica (Linnaeus) (Nicobars) Nicobar Pigeon.

1 g¢ Mannarghat, S.A.

This is omitted in Ripley’s SYNOPSIS. The FAUNA (5: 214) gives the
distribution thus : ‘The Cocos, Andamans and Nicobars, throughout the
islands of the Malay Archipelago to the Solomon Islands. It has not yet
been found on any of the islands of the Timor group.’ Blyth (1846b : 371)
and Pollok (1879, 2 : 16) refer to its occurrence in the Cocos.

This species breeds in thousands on Battye Malve in the Nicobars
and in lesser numbers on some of the other islands. Osmaston found
nests on South Sentinel Island off Little Andaman. It is a straggler into
the main Andamans, but Osmaston (1906a : 489) said it was not as rare
as was generally believed as it frequents thick forest and is not easy to
see. The only bird I met came off the ground in heavy undergrowth
in evergreen forest on a hillside. It rose with a lot of fluster, like a
junglefowl, and when winge dwalked rapidly throvgh the undergrowth
(Butler noted that when walking it carried its wings much lower than
an Emerald Dove did, and sometimes so low as to suggest some injury
at the shoulder). Water dripped out from its bill, suggesting that it
had drunk (10 a.m.), probably at a stream 30 yards away.

The gullet had 4 or 5 seeds of Sideroxylon longepetiolatum, which had
obviously been picked off the forest floor and were without any fleshy
fruit. The stomach had peculiar hardened patches on opposite sides,
which presumably permitted this species to crush and digest seeds
which would not be edible by the other pigeons (For description of
stomach, see Flower, Proc. zool. Soc. 1860: 330). Butler (loc. cit.)
took quantities of small seed from the crops of birds shot on Car
Nicobar. It was of two kinds, one rather like a prune stone, so hard
as to be almost unbreakable, and the other much resembling a sunflower
seed.

The bird was a <7 with slightly enlarged testes. The wing measured
240 mm. against the FAUNA measurements of 247-268 mm. It is a
common cage bird and breeds well in captivity.

#548, Psittacula eupatria magnirostris (Ball) (Andaman Islands)
Large Indian, or Alexandrine, Parakeet.
1 4 Wrightmyo, S.A.; 1 ¢,1Q Ferrarganj, S.A.

- This is quite common in South and Middle Andamans. A male
and a female were shot out of a large party of 30 to 40 birds in a tree;
the former was in breeding condition, but the latter not. At Long Island
on 27th February, 2 pairs were seen attending holes in a tall ‘gurjan.
Osmaston (1908 : 358) noted it on Barren Island.

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3) —

Hume said their note was quite different from that of other species in
the Andamans and that they roosted in mangroves at the entrance to a
creek. Osmaston (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17 : 240) has an interesting
note on patches of mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata) an acre or so in
extent, in which all the mangroves are apparently dead at the top or
‘stag-headed’. Various explanations, including the slow subsidence of
the Andamans were put forward, but Osmaston discovered that it was
caused by large numbers of this and the Redbreasted Parakeets collec-
ting to roost there! The bills of the males are heavier and the red.
patch on the wings is a brighter red than in Indian birds. The bills of
the females do not show the same difference.

[Psittacula krameri was introduced by Col. Tytler (c. 1863) but had
disappeared by the time of Hume’s visit in 1873.]

*552. Psittacula alexandri abbotti (Oberholser) (South Andaman
Island) | Redbreasted Parakeet.

1g, 10? Wrightmyo, S.A. ; ig Bakultala, M.A. ; 1¢ Long Island, M.A.; 1¢
Bambooflats, S. A., 17 March 1964.

Common in South and Middle Andamans. Often seen in Port
Blair and in fields and open country.

The flight is slow and the rounded wings noticeable. The call was
a plaintive but distinctive kewn, while a female was heard to utter a
nasal kaink. |

Kloss (in Richmond 1903 : 303) said it was common in large flocks
and did extensive damage to paddy. Osmaston (1906a : 487) stated it
came to Port Blair in tens of thousands in December and January,
devouring the paddy.

553. Psittacula caniceps (Blyth) (Nicobars) Blyth’s Nicobar Para-

Keet. | |

This large parakeet has been recorded only from the islands of

Montschall, Kondul, and the Great Nicobars. Davison said that it
keeps to the top of the higher trees. The call is a wild screeching note
which it utters both when seated and in flight. It feeds much on the
ripe fruit of the pandanus, so abundant on the inhabited islands. It is
very popular as a pet bird and numbers are caught for sale. I only
saw one in a cage at Port Blair, large but dingy to look at.

*555. Psittacula longicauda tytleri (Hume) (Andamans) Red-
cheeked Parakeet.
1g, 12 Wrightmyo, S. A. ; 1¢, 12 Bakultala, M. A.; 12 Long Island, M.A.
This parakeet was common in most places in South and Middle
Andamans, and has been recorded from Barren Island, Narcondam, the
Cocos, and Preparis. Butler saw them in vast flocks of thousands

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 531

about the fields of ripe paddy. He also refers to an officer telling him
of an entirely light-blue bird seen with a large flock of this species.
Osmaston (1906a : 487) took 2 fresh eggs on 20th February.

*556. Psittacula longicauda nicobarica (Gould) (Nicobar Islands)
Redcheeked Parakeet.
12 Car Nicobar.

This is the Nicobar form of the last species. Hume said it fed
largely on papaya, ripe pandanus, and the covering of betel nuts (Areca
catechu).

My specimen has.a 191 mm. wing as against 167, 169, and 170 in the
3 females from the Andamans. In addition, the bill is heavier, the pri-
maries bluer, and the underparts more yellow.

*566. Loriculus vernalis vernalis(Sparrman) (Cachar) Indian Lori-
keet.

2 53 Maymyo, S.A.; 1¢ Wrightmyo, S.A.; 1 ¢ Bambooflats, S. A.; 1¢, 192
Bakultala, M.A.; 1 ¢ Long Island, M.A.

The lorikeet was common everywhere in South and Middle Anda-
man. Hume and Davison did not see it in the Nicobars, but referred
to a Mr. Wood-Mason seeing one on Great Nicobar. Abbott & Kloss
(Richmond 1903) report it ‘everywhere in the Nicobars’ but secured
no specimen. It is omitted from the Nicobars in the SYNOPSIS,

Davison took 3 eggs on 19th April and said there was no lining to
the nest. On 15th February I saw 2 newly-hatched young at the bottom
of a hole in a vertical stump 3 inches thick and about 10 ft. from the
ground. The hole was at the top and the nest 2 ft. lower, was lined
with green leaves. The tree stood on the edge of the forest, within a
yard of the tidal mark.

Butler (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 11 : 736) confirmed that the nests
were lined with leaves and added that the birds sat close and when
disturbed on their eggs uttered a long-drawn querulous note like
chee-ee.

Osmaston (1906a : 487) found nests at the bottom of holes in
stumps, ‘the eggs being usually below the level of the ground’.

Several were noted on the flowers of Erythrina sp.

In J. Bombay nat, Hist. Soc. 37 : 754, Whistler doubted if rubropy-
gialis could be separated from typical vernalis and later (loc. cit. 44 : 12)
confirmed that it could not. The race rubropygialis is retained by Ripley
(SYNopsis : 173) but I cannot agree after an examination of twenty-seven
specimens.

The blue on the throat appears in males only, showing in 2 (and
slightly in a third) out of 5 from the Andamans, in 7 out of 8 from
western and southern India, and in 4 out of 8 from the North-east
and Orissa. Of the 25 sexed skins only 5 were of females.

532. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Three specimens from Burma are slightly smaller (wing 85-90,
avg. 87) than the others (FAUNA 87-97, avg. 93), while their upper plu-
mage is slightly yellower.

* Cuculus micropterus subsp. Indian Cuckoo.

Ball (1872 : 280) records one and Walden (1873 : 304) identifies
4 specimens by Ramsay as of this species. In Stray Feathers 3 : 264,
Hume refers to a true Cuculus micropterus killed in the Andamans by
Mr. A. de Roepstorff. Osmaston (1906a : 487) found them common
and noisy from April to June. These records are omitted in the

SYNOPSIS.
I heard the cross-word-puzzle call at all camps between 11th February

and 6th March, but did not obtain any specimens.

Cuculus canorus subsp. Cuckoo.

Hume (1876 : 288) states that he received one killed in the Anda-
mans on 16th November. This has been ignored in both the FAUNAS,
and in the SYNOPSIS. 3

580. Cuculus saturatus saturatus Blyth (Nepal) Himalayan

Cuckoo.
Hume (1874 : 83 and 190) saw and heard it in the Andamans and

Nicobars and obtained two specimens on Kondal. Butler says it is
not uncommon in both groups during the summer months.

581. Cuculus poliocephalus poliocephalus Latham (India) Small
Cuckoo.
In the syNopsis the Andamans are included in the range of this
species. |

586. Chalcites maculatus (Gmelin) - (Ceylon) Emerald Cuckoo.

Blanford (FAUNA 3 : 223) says it is found in the Andamans and
Nicobars, but the whole area is omitted by Stuart Baker, and in the
SYNOPSIS.

587. Chalcites xanthorhynchus xanthorhynchus (Horsfield) (Java)
Violet Cuckoo.

Hume (1874: 191) refers to a specimen near Port Blair in wet
tropical evergreen forest in mid-August, and Walden (1874c : 136) to
birds obtained on Sth May and 14th and 23rd July, including an
immature One.

I did not see any and the dates suggest a monsoon visitor.

The sSYNopsis records it from the Andamans and Nicobars, in
addition to Assam.

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 533
[Surniculus lugubris subsp. Drongo-Cuckoo:

Kloss (in Richmond 1903: 302) says he shot and lost a bird
apparently of this species on Katchal Island. It is rightly omitted
in later works, but it is noticeable that no small drongo is known from
the Nicobars. | |

*592. Eudynamys scolopacea dolosa Ripley (Barren Is., Andamans)
Koel.
1 2 (by plumage), Port Blair, 19 February : wing 211; tail 200.

I saw and heard this bird at Port Blair and Betapur, Middle
Andamans. The calls were identical with those of Indian birds.

Kloss (in Richmond 1903 : 302) found it very common in the Nico-
bars and often saw a female koel pursued by a grackle, both in a very
excited state, shrieking and screaming with rage. This prompted him
to suggest that the koel parasitises the grackle and also the Imperial
Pigeon (Carpophaga), as the koels could be called up by imitating
the deep hoarse coo of the pigeon. Osmaston (1906a : 487) said it
was a migrant to the Andamans, arriving in September-October, leaving
in April and not breeding there. He also noted it on Barren Island
(1908 : 358) during a one-day trip and described it as a cold weather
visitor.

The single specimen which was obtained by Mr. Young is in
female plumage. The 211 mm. wing is longer than in any of either sex
from India. The upper parts are blacker and with distinct rufous
dots; the rufous wash, visible in the field, extends over all the white parts
including chin, lower belly, and subcaudals. Ripley has described this
race from the Andamans and Nicobars allowing the very abnormal
range in wing size (198-227:5 mm.) as offset by the wing-tail index of 91.
In this specimen it is 94-7!

- *603. Centropus (sinensis) andamanensis Beavan (Andaman Islands)
Crow-Pheasant.

2 92 Wimberleyganj, S. A.; 1 ¢, 1 2 Wrightmyo, S.A. ; 1 9 Long Island, M.A.

This Crow-Pheasant was often seen or heard in most camps in South
and Middle Andamans and also at Port Blair, usually among trees and
also in mangrove swamps.

They often called for quite some time after dark and very early in
the morning. Long spells were heard at night. There were 20 to
22 hoots at a time; the call sometimes ended in a complaining tone.

Butler said. they were partial to frogs, which were killed and
swallowed. Hume also noted this bird on Great and Little Coco and
the Table Islands. On Kondal (Nicobars) and also on Jolly Boys
Island, South Andamans, he saw a larger bird of the rufipennis (sinensis)
type. There is some variation in the intensity of the colours of the wing,

See

534. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

head, and back, and I must confess that I saw several birds which
looked different in size and colour. All the specimens, however, are
of this form.

A male (16th February) and a Fewisle (12th February) had enlarged
gonads.

Hume speaks of eggs taken by Capt. Wimberley in June. He also
refers to traces of barring on some specimens, apparently young
(see Abdulali 1956, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 183). Osmaston
(1906a : 487) took eggs in July.

607. Tyto alba deroepstorffi (Anonymous te (Aberdeen, South
Andamans) Barn Owl.

Hume (1875 : 390) described this from a single bird obtained by
de Roepstorff at Aberdeen, South Andamans, and Osmaston caught one
in a field. Butler (1900: 568) saw 2 skins in the Indian Museum and
also obtained one himself. The note, he said, was the usual barn-ow]

screech and the pellets he found indicated that the food consisted entirely
of rats and mice.

*613. Otus balli (Hume) (South Andaman Island) Andaman-

Scops Owl.
1 2 Wrightmyo, S.A.

The only bird which I met a little after sunset was perched on
a roadside stump, a couple of feet off the ground on the edge of open
cultivated land. The shot blew off the ends of both wings and also
half the tail, preventing any examination of the relative lengths of
the several primaries, and I assume that it is not Otus scops as the tarsus
is not fully feathered and the plumage does not agree with that of
any of this species available for examination.

Butler (1899 : 570) found it very common in the Andamans, but
said that because of its small size and nocturnal habits it was very
difficult to procure. He said its note resembles the syllables hoot!
hoot-cooroo | jerked out very rapidly, the rolling ‘r’ in the last note
being very distinct. He added that it was identical with the call
of the Ceylonese Scops Owl and that it also had a low chuckling note.
It fed, to a considerable extent on caterpillars, in searching for which
‘it slides up and down the boughs of small trees in a very parrot-like
manner’. Two of his specimens were captured in bungalows, and he
thought that a female shot in May had ‘just incubated ’.

Osmaston also noted it as common (1906a: 487) and eggs were
taken by him and Wickham between 20th February and 14th April
(NIDIFICATION 3: 521).

It does not appear to have been recorded from the Nicobars.

% 3 eS

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS SB

Otus scops modestus (Walden) (Andamans) Burmese (?) Scops Owl.

Various owlets were recorded from the Andamans and Nicobars
—Ephialtes spilocephalus by Blyth, a ‘ Scops of pennatus type’ by Ball,
E. lempigi by Tytler. Walden described modestus as a new form
from the Andamans (‘distinguishable from all the other described
Asiatic species by its sober colours and plain markings and, with the
exception of Scops mantis, by its diminutive size’). Hume (1876: 283)
described nicobarica from Camorta as ‘‘ resembling sunia with whole fore-
head, crown, occiput, and upper parts generally, together with the head,
throat, and breast ferruginous chestnut, much more than sunia ever is
... . the vermiculations and the markings on the upper surface are —
coarser and more sparse than in rufous pennatus.’’ Blanford (FAUNA
3: 296) said that modestus was a young balli but it was accepted as
a race of Otus sunia by Stuart Baker (FAUNA 4: 437) as found in
Assam south of the Brahmaputra, Burma south to Tenasserim, etc.,
Andamans and Nicobars. Ripley in the SYNOPSIS has omitted the race
modestus (and nicobarica), excluded the species from both the Andamans
and the Nicobars, and accepted O. s. sunia for Burma.

It appears evident that some form of Scops Owl, other than balli,
exists in the Nicobars, and probably in the Andamans too.

#645. Ninox scutulata obscura Hume (Camorta, Nicobars) Brown
Hawk-Owl.

2 ¢3, 1 2 Mannarghat, S.A.: wings 215, 212, 200; tails 123, 115, 120.

At Mannarghat it appeared to be quite common in a rubber
plantation, on the edge of heavier forest, commencing to call in
loud disyllablic coo-ooks at sunset from relatively exposed perches
either on dry branches or at the top of atree. I found the 2 males I
shot by their calls, and the female which was shot by the bush-policeman
was said to have been similarly traced. It was also heard at Bakultala,
M.A.

One of the males and the female had enlarged gonads though not
yet in breeding condition.

Butler (1899 : 684) said it was extremely common in the Andamans
and that he had heard as many as a dozen hooting at the same time on
fine still nights. He described the calls as a low whoo-wuk or coo-whoop,
a soft clear flute-like sound, and stressed the fact that it was more like
that of scutulata than of affinis.

Richmond (1903 : 304) measured a male from Car Nicobar as
having a 206 mm. wing and a female from Katchal 203 mm. The male is’
smaller than the two from South Andamans (215, 212 mm.). The
Andaman male with undeveloped testes is paler brown on the under-
Surface than the other two.

—_—

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

The stomachs of the birds mentioned by Richmond contained
beetles, which Butler also said was their principal food. The birds
I collected contained grasshoppers.

646. Ninox affinis affinis Beavan (Aberdeen Point, Port Blair, South |
Andaman Island) Brown Hawk-Owl.

In the Appendix to Blanford’s FAUNA (4: 485), the call is described
as a loud craw, something like a Glaucidium note. Earlier (3: 311)
Capt. Legge said it was a not unmelodious hoot whoo-uk. This agrees
with my version of obscura and was in all probability a mistake.

Davison saw it hawking small moths (1874 : 153).

Butler (1899 : 571) said it fed on moths and beetles.

At Long Island, an owl called from the jungle kra-aunk....... :

shrazQuniene: Sa eee aa kuk, kra-aunk every 3 or 4 seconds
sometimes with, but usually without, a preliminary kuk. It appeared
to be very common but I could not get one and must leave its identity
doubtful.

647. Ninox affinis isolata Baker (Car Nicobar) Brown Hawk-Owl.

Butler (1899 : 571) did not hear it during a short visit and thought
it was less common than in the Andamans.

[Strix selaputo Horsfield = S. orientalis Shaw Malayan Wood Owl.

Blyth (1846: 369) referred to a specimen obtained by Capt. Lewis
in the Nicobars but not preserved, which he (Capt. Lewis) later identi-
fied with a skin from Malaya. A large owl was noted by Tytler
(1867 : 316).

Butler (1899 : 568) also said that ‘a Syrnium of sorts does occur
in the Andamans’, and he heard its typical to-whoo.

He also refers to a large horned owl (Ketupa ? javanensis) which was
seen and shot by others in desolate mangrove swamps bordering the
salt-water creeks. Neither of the owls is mentioned in the FAUNA or
SYNOPSIS, but their occurrence must be looked for. ]

*679. Caprimulgus macrurus andamanicus Hume (Jolly Boys Island,
South Andamans) Longtailed Nightjar.
2¢¢ Port Blair, S.A., and Long Island, M.A.: wing 179 & 184;

tail 118 & 128.
2 £2 Wrightmyo, S. A., and Betapur, M.A.: wing 182 & 174; tail 117 & 129.

This nightjar was seen or heard at all camps in South and Middle
Andamans. It was seen in mangrove at the mouth of a creek at sun-
set, and also seen flighting out daily from a heavily forested hillside to
a mangrove swamp.

The call is a typical nightjar chuk-chuk-chuk often preceded by a
kwak. Butler describes it as a liquid monosyllabic clook |! clook! They

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 537

spend the day, usually in pairs, among the leaves on the forest
floor.

A male shot on 25 February had slightly developed testes. Davison
obtained 2 eggs on 12 April. Osmaston (1906a : 487) found a slightly
incubated egg on 9 April and two half-fledged young on 4 May.

Wickham (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19 : 993) took 2 fresh eggs on
4th February and found another two about a yard away on 25th
February. He goes on to cite another instance of 2 eggs taken on 6th
and 30th March at another place, under the same circumstances.

Hume (1873: 162) states that several persons, who landed on
Southern Jolly Boys Island, saw a huge nightjar which was ‘ certainly
Lyncornis’. At two camps I saw birds hawking at dusk, which I would
have noted as large nightjars had I not been able to approach nearer
and determine that they were Broadbilled Rollers (Eurystomus) !

683. Collocalia brevirostris brevirostris (McClelland) (Assam) Plain-
rumped Himalayan Swiftlet.

Iam unable to trace the authority for the statement in Ripley’s
SYNOPSIS that this is an ‘uncommon winter visitor to the Andamans’.
There also appears to be no evidence that this species makes an edible
nest and, as it cannot be called the Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet, I
adopt the names used by Stuart Baker in NIDIFICATION for the two

races.

684. Collocalia brevirostris innominata Hume (Andaman Islands)
Striperumped Swiftlet.
The type specimen obtained at Port Mouat in South Andamans
appears to be the only record from this area, where it can only be a
winter straggler. It occurs in the Hupeh Province in Central China.

*686. Collocalia fuciphaga inexpectata Hume (Andaman Islands)
Greyrumped Swiftlet.

2 6& Wrightmyo and Long Island: wing 116, 116.
2 29 Wrightmyo and Long Island: wing 115, 113.

At all camps in South and Middle Andamans, and also on Car
Nicobar, small parties were frequently seen hawking over rice, rubber,
mangrove, and other wooded portions not too high. At Wrightmyo
parties were seen flying seawards in the evenings, no doubt to roost.

This species make the pure translucent white nests which go to make
the famous soup. Osmaston (1906a : 486) saw colonies in caves by
the shore in several places. On the sea-shore at Mandapahar, Chiria
Tapoo, South Andamans, was a small cave 15 yards x 15 yards x4 ft.
high in which I obtained 3 empty nests, while the walls bore traces of
other nests having been removed. Large numbers of swiftlets flying

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

outside were white-breasted birds that had their nests in another cave
about 200 yards away. We left this place at 4-30 p.m. and must
assume that the birds came in to roost later. They were certainly
seen hawking over creeks and other places far from caves, much
later.

Hume took eggs ina cave on Little Button Island on 21st March.
I found an empty nest in a rock crevice on the same island on 29th
February, and saw the birds hawking outside, but the nest was dark in
colour except for a paler and thicker rim.

On 22nd February as I watched a party hawking over mangrove,
I saw one bird go round in small circles, with tail expanded, and
quivering wings raised 45° above the level of the body. A swallow
(Hirundo rustica) appeared to be the only other bird interested in the
performance.

*687. Collocalia esculenta affinis Beavan (Port Blair, South Andaman)
White-breasted Swiftlet.
1¢, 2 2 Chiria Tapoo, S.A.; 1 ¢ Wrightmyo, S. A.: wing 97-102, av. 98.7 mm.;
tail 37-40, av. 38 mm.

This swiftlet is common in both the Andamans and the Nicobars.
Tytler left notes made c. 1863 saying that they did not nest in houses,
but a little later in 1873 Hume recorded that they nested freely in
houses on both Ross and Chatham Islands (near Port Blair).
I saw it around the Secretariat and at other places in Port Blair, and
though I did not see any nests in houses there was every appearance of
their still nesting there.

On 15th February at Mandapahar, Chiria Tapoo, South Andamans, I
saw hundreds entering and leaving a cave on the seashore. The cave, in
a 200 ft. rock-face, was 10 ft. high, 20 yards deep, and 15 yards wide.
The tide entered the cave, but the innermost parts were bespattered
with dung and avery peculiat smell prevailed. The walls were plast-
ered with their very distinctive nests of moss glued together with
saliva. Some nests touched each other and were stuck together.
Many contained 2 eggs in an advanced state of incubation. Three
specimens shot outside the other cave referred to under C. f. inex pectata
had undeveloped gonads.

Butler saw them nesting in the Nicobars in August and September
and at Port Blair in December and January. Osmaston (1906a: 486)
said it bred in vast numbers at the Chatham Saw Mills, and their nests
were not made of moss but of Casuarina leaves and coconut fibre, both
of which were not indigenous to the Andamans. In the FAUNA (4: 352),
Osmaston is quoted as saying that the nests were made of ‘ Casuarina
leaves, seaweed and human hair, consolidated and matted together with
saliva’. Hair was found used in the majority of nests. Stuart Baker

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 539

refers to some ‘nests which are almost purely saliva; I have two
such with just one or two fragments looking like moss incorporated ’.

Ibis, 1892: 578, reproduces an account of nest-collecting in the
Andamans from a recent issue of the Englishman of Calcutta.
Reference is made to 3 species of Collocalia [innominata, inexpectata,
and linchi (esculenta)] arriving in that area towards the end of Novem-
ber, before which parties are sent out to clear the caves of all the old
nests. About the last week in January, the collectors go round the
islands, a journey which takes about three weeks in an open boat.
The best quality resembling pure isinglass and worth their weight in
silver are found in limestone and volcanic rock, the nests built in sand-
stone and serpentine being inferior. All the nests are taken and the
birds build faster, a second collection being made at the end of
February, which is usually the best. A third is made in April, when
the nests, though of good quality, are thin and dry............ The
best quality realised Rs. 130 to Rs. 145 per viss and the third quality
with feathers and other foreign material Rs. 90. It is admitted that it
is not known which species makes which nest.

It is commonly accepted that after the first crop is taken, sub-
sequent nests are less pure. It may therefore be worth while quoting
from a recent letter from Lord Medway, to whom I had sent the skins
and nests of the swifts for confirmation of my identification:

‘T have never been able to see differences between first nests and
replacement nests, in terms of structure or of composition of the
material, apart from the fact that the first nests taken any season tend
more often to include remnants of the previous season’s structure.

‘Among the nest collectors, there is a vast amount of very dubious
lore related to the qualities and properties of the nests, which is in many
cases without foundation. Iam inclined to think that the business of
first and second nests falls into this category.’

I saw the birds at Wrightmyo and, though I have an impression that I
met it in the Middle Andamans, I cannot find this in my notes. It was
frequent at Car Nicobar, and Abbott and Kloss (in Richmond, 1903:
301) took six specimens, all females, along the shore in Little Nicobar.
Davison has some notes on their building and nesting (Hume 1874 : 159)
and refers to the remarkably small amount of space that a very large
number of these birds will occupy : ‘ They all cluster together like a
huge swarm of bees clinging to the bare boards of the roof in a wonder- -
ful manner’. Butler (1899: 564) refers to a curious habit: ‘ Often
when one bird is clinging to the commencement of a nest, its mate
flutters round unable to find a foothold. In this case, the sitting bird
catches the other by the tips of the primaries and holds him suspended
there for some little time. In a cluster of these birds at work building,
I have sometimes seen three or four at the same time hanging down-

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

wards in this way, their mates holding them by the tips of their
outspread wings.’

I have seen them drink at a pond at midday.

The upper parts of all the specimens show a distinctly greenish gloss
as against deep bluish in a single skin from Fraser’s Hill, Singapore,
which is also larger (Wing 110, Tail 40).

*691. Chaetura gigantea indica Hume (Andamans and southern India)
Large Brownthroated Spinetail Swift. |
1 2 Long Island, M. A.: wing 189, tarsus bare below knee.

These birds appear to be less common than they were earlier. Hume
said they were common about Port Blair, and Butler saw them through-
out the year, noting scores assembling every evening round a bungalow
on Mt. Harriet, where Osmaston (1906a : 486) also found them common,
I saw small parties of what were probably these birds at Wrightmyo
and Betapur, usually flying over a beat of several miles and returning
the same way. They were usually high out of range and can apparently
only be obtained when they come down to drink. At Betapur, a party
of 10 to 15 was circling over the village, their tails sometimes expanded
with the spines visible. One evening on Long Island, I secured one out
of a pair circling over a freshwater pool, presumably to drink.

The feathers at the gape of the wounded bird appeared long and
erectile—I wonder if this is an adaptation to increase the catching
area (?).

Butler refers to some being infested by a large flat tick, nearly 4 of

-an inch in length. From one bird he took over 30 which were clinging
in rows to the bases of the stiff tail feathers under the lower tail coverts.
He added that winged birds uttered a shrill squeaking cry. Only one
of the 15 birds he handled had the spot in front of the eye white, being
mouse colour in the others. Davison (1873 : 473) said their presence
high up in the air could be detected by their sharp, clear note frequently
uttered on the wing.

696. Apus apus pekinensis (Swinhoe) (Pekin, China) Swift.

Ripley (SYNOPSIS) mentions this as a winter visitor to the Andamans,
presumably referring to the single specimen shot by Capt. Wimberley on
- 30th July 1873 and referred to by Hume (1874 : 156) as A. acuticauda
(Blyth).

Kloss (Richmond 1903 : 301) ‘ saw a large flock of swifts on Barren
Island’ but gives no description.

Butler also saw a small white-rumped swift, which he calls Cypselus
sub furcatus Blyth, hawking round the bungalow on Ross Island with a
number of Collocalia,

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 541

723. Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin (Bengal) Common Kingfisher.

I collected what I thought was this species at Long Island, but when
working out the collection I found that it was Alcedo meninting. Birds
seen on rocks on the seashore were almost certainly of this species.
Davison said it occurred in both the Andamans and Nicobars, but was
not common, and Butler confirmed that for every one of this species
he saw at least three of beavani (meninting). Osmaston (1906a : 162)
saw a few around Port Blair.

Hume thought that the birds from the Andamans and Nicobars had
shorter bills and duller plumage than continental birds, but Richmond
(1903 : 300) said these differences were not visible in 4 specimens
from the Nicobars.

*Alcedo meninting rufigastra(Walden) (South Andamans) Blue-eared
Kingfisher.

2 db Wrightmyo, S. A., and Long Island, M. A.: wing 68 (2); tail 29,27; bill
from feathers 38, 36.

In size, colour, and habits, this bird is very similar to the Common
Kingfisher (A. atthis). One, flushed off a mangrove root in a tidal
nulla bordered by Rhizophora mucronata, flew low over the water but
travelled two such spurts of about 400 yards each before permitting a
shot. The other was shot from a tree along the sea-shore. Butler said
it was generally found on freshwater streams, while Davison noted it
as exclusive to salt-water creeks. Osmaston (1906a : 162) found them
common on both salt- and freshwater creeks, and nests, usually with 5
eggs, between 25th June and 15th July.

The two specimens are very similar to those from Assam and other
parts of India, except that they have less purple on the nape and the
sides of the head. This characteristic is first mentioned by Stuart
Baker in the FAUNA (4: 257). In the SYNopPsIs this race is omitted,
and the Andamans are omitted from the range of this species.

728. Ceyx erithacus macrocarus Oberholser (Great Nicobar) Three-
toed Kingfisher.

The distribution of this race in both Stuart Baker’s FAUNA and
Ripley’s SYNopsis reads : ‘Andamans and Nicobars’, but their status
in the two groups is very different. From the Andamans there appear
to be only three records—two of birds which flew into houses near Port
Blair (Hume 1874 : 173 and Butler 1899 : 561), and the third (Osmaston
1906a : 162) of a bird excavating a nest hole in the bank of a small
. rocky stream in dense forest below Mt. Harriet on 27th May. In Great
and Little Nicobar they were common, Abbott and Kloss obtaining 10
specimens,

542. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Pelargopsis capensis shekarii Abdulali © (Chiria Tapoo, South
Andamans) Storkbilled Kingfisher.
2 22 Chiria Tapoo, S.A., and Long Island, M.A.
When I described this race (1964) I had only two specimens from the
Andamans and two from Burma. Mr. W. W. A. Phillips has kindly

looked at the material at the British Museum and informs me that the -

7 specimens from the Andamans available there have, in series, paler
heads and less blue on the upper wing coverts than in Burmese birds.

This bird was seen quite a few times in mangroves, along creeks,
and on the sea-side, both in South and Middle Andamans. It uttered
a loud kha-u kha-u kha-u 8 to 10 times and then flew off with a louder
khi-ok khi-ok. Davison (Hume 1874 : 166) refers to a loud shrieking
note uttered on the wing. Osmaston (1906a: 162) found it fairly
common in brackish creeks, but did not obtain a nest.

732. Pelargopsis capensis intermedia Hume (Galatea Bay, Nicobars)
Storkbilled Kingfisher.

Hume noted it on the seashore at Galatea Bay, Kondul, Pilu Milu,
Montshall, and Little Nicobar. Abbott (in Richmond 1903) said it was
common in Great and Little Nicobar, but did not see it on any of the
other islands. His 5 specimens were all females.

*734, Halcyon coromanda mizorhina (Oberholser) (North Andaman
Island) Ruddy Kingfisher. :

Hume rightly stated that it was far from common and affected the
gloom of the mangrove swamps. I got glimpses of it on four occasions
on South and Middle Andamans, but could not get a shot. The colour
of the bird resembles that of the dry leaf of the mangrove Rhizophora
mucronata.

*738. Halcyon smyrnensis saturatior Hume (Andaman Islands) White-
breasted Kingfisher.
1 ¢ Ferrarganj, S.A.; 2 92 Wimberleyganj, S.A., and Long Island, M.A.

This kingfisher was one of the commonest birds in South and
Middle Andamans, being both near and far from water. On a
30-mile drive I counted 65 birds, no doubt missing many on the other
side of the road. The white patches on the wing are more conspi-
cuous than in Indian birds, and were particularly prominent when a
bird perched near another opened its wings in some form of court-
ship. During the course of the day I saw this being done on several
occasions. A bird was seen to settle on a rock with a large crab.
With much effort the legs were battered off, then the carapace was fold-
ed over but was still too large to be swallowed !

Butler (1899 : 562) states that he has sometimes seen it hover over

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 543

water for some seconds, like Ceryle rudis, and then dart obliquely into
the water and catch a fish. Osmaston (1906a : 162) found it breeding
in holes 2 to 3 feet deep, in April and May.

The 3 specimens are very distinctly darker brown on the head and
underparts than any from India. They show among themselves as
much variation in the blue of the upper parts as the 3 races said to ©
exist in India, smyrnensis (Linnaeus), fusca (Boddaert), and perpulchra
Madarasz. 56 specimens are available in Bombay, but I cannot
separate them by colour. I have not measured them.

#739, Halcyon pileata (Boddaert) (China) Blackcapped Kingfisher.

Tytler said it was common in the Andamans, but Hume and
Davison found it rare in both the Andamans and Nicobars, and failed
to secure specimens. Capt. Wimberley obtained a pair near Port Blair.
Osmaston (1906a : 163) saw it thrice (Port Blair, Cinque Is., and Nar-

_ condam) in fifteen months.

I saw it twice at Betapur, flying low over the creek, but did not
get a specimen.

Abbott (Richmond 1903 : 301) saw it on Barren Island, and met it
on all the Nicobars, finding it particularly numerous along Galatea
River in Great Nicobar.

*742. Halcyon chloris davisoni Sharpe (Aberdeen, Port Blair) White-
collared Kingfisher.

3 (wing 110 mm.) Bakultala, M.A.; 2 92 (109, 114) Shoal Bay Creek, S.A., and
Bakultala, M.A. }

This kingfisher, like the Whitebreasted, was frequently seen in the
South and Middle Andamans in mangroves, among trees on the
sea-shore and often quite far from water. A low trill was heard.

Hume found it feeding on centipedes and small lizards and saw
it hammer shells on a lump of coral. One was similarly trying to
knock to pieces a Fusus containing a red hermit crab.

I found the thick red claw of a crab in one stomach. Richmond
(1903 : 301) found small fish and crabs in two stomachs.

Hume quoted Wardlaw Ramsay as informing him that he saw a
pair going in and out of a hole in a tree near Mt. Harriet, probably
with young. The male I collected on 22nd February had slightly en-
larged testes. Osmaston (1906a: 163) found several nests in April and
May, usually in holes and banks, only about a foot deep; occa-
sionally also in holes in white-ants’ mounds or in the upturned roots
of a tree. He noted another in a hole in a mango tree, about 15 feet
from the ground.

In flight, this bird often does not look like a kingfisher. One seen

544. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

on North Button Island on 29th February, appeared larger and of a
different colour.

*743. Halcyon chloris occipitalis (Blyth) | (Nicobars) | Whitecollared
Kingfisher.
¢ Car Nicobar ; 3 2? Car Nicobar; wing 113 (¢)-117 (9), av. 115 (105-113) ; tail
69-80, av. 71°7 (65-72).

The bird was common in groves of coconut on Car Nicobar, look-
ing very unkingfisher-like.

Davison said they commenced breeding at the end of February,
and took an oviduct egg on 24th February. He found three nests on
Camorta excavated in ants’ nests, which are ‘ generally placed against
the trunks of very large trees, but occasionally against those of the
coconut palms at heights of from 4 to 20 feet from the ground, and vary
from 10 to 30 inches in diameter, being composed of some sort of clay’.
Butler (1899 : 562) refers to hornets occupying such a nest in which the
kingfisher nested at Mergui.

Only one male and female have the buffy tinge on the underparts,
but the larger size and the long buffy white supercilium are distinctive.

*745. Merops leschenaulti andamanensis Marien (Port Blair) Chest-
nutheaded Bee-eater. |
2 é¢ Bambooflats, S.A., 9 Nov. 1963, and 17 March ;
2 bb, 12 Wrightmyo,S.A.; 1 2 Long Island, M.A.

Hume obtained a large series but did not think it different from
specimens from Anjango in the South to Dehra Dun and Tipperah
(1874 : 163). Marien (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 155) separated
the Andaman birds by their larger size which is confirmed by
the following measurements :

Andamans India and Burma

Wing Tail Wing Tail
4 $$ 110-115 84-90 71 3¢ 102-111 74-84
av. 113 av. 86°25 av. 107 av. 80°7
2 92 109-112 86-88 9 92 104-109 78-83
av. 110°5 av. 87 av. 105°8 av. 81

The heads of some birds, as in Indian birds, are darker than in
others, but this difference does not appear to be linked with sex or
season.

This bird was often seen in South and Middle Andamans, the
blue back and reddish head being excellent points for identification.
It has not been recorded in the Nicobars.

On 16th February I shot 2 males and a female; the gonads of
the males were enlarged, those of the female were dormant. A bird
dug out of a nest hole in the sandy bund of a paddy field (11th
February), apparently still digging, was a male. Does this suggest

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 545

that the male has a more active share in the preliminary stages of
nest-building etc. than the female ?

On 22nd February, a party of 10 to 15 birds appeared interested
in holes in the bank of a nulla. The holes were not crowded together,
being at least 10 yards apart. On 25th February, one of a pair was
flushed out of an 18 in. hole, 3 ft. above the water-line in a mangrove
creek. These records indicate an earlier or more prolonged breeding
season than suggested by Hume (loc. cit.), who referred to their
commencing to dig their nest in the middle of May. Osmaston (1906a :
162) found 3 to 5 eggs in tunnels often 4 ft. deep.

Butler (1899 : 561) refers to one clinging to a sandy bank and pick-
ing off small beetles running about on the sand.

The call is tre (tray)—tre-tre in a musical trill.

#748. Merops philippinus philippinus Linnaeus (Philippine Islands)
Bluetailed Bee-Eater.
2 ¢¢% Bambooflats, S.A., 12 Nov. 1963 ; and Maymyo, S.A., 14 Feb. 1964.

. Davison saw it in the Nicobars only (whence it is omitted in the
SYNOPSIS), While Hume noted it in the Cocos. Butler said it was com-
mon in the Nicobars, and to be seen everywhere. Abbott and Kloss
obtained 3 specimens, all males, on Camorta. Osmaston (1906a : 162)
noted it as ‘not common ’, seeing a few in March around Port Blair and
on Narcondam in October. He thought they were on migration and
did not stop in the Andamans. I saw it several times in open country in
South Andamans, both in November and in February. There is no
evidence of its breeding in the area, and it is probably a seasonal mig-
rant from India. A bird shot in November contained dragonflies
complete with wings. |

*762. Eurystomus orientalis gigas Stresemann (Rutland Is., South
Andamans) — Broadbilled Roller.

3S Port Blair, S.A., 4th Nov. 1963; 2 ¢¢ Betapur, Middle Andamans ;

1 $15 Feb., 1 ¢, 1 2 24th March 1963, Chiria Tapoo, S.A.

Hume and Davison (1874) only saw it in South Andamans, I found
it quite common both in South and Middle Andamans. It is not so
much a bird of the open country as the Indian Roller (Coracias benghal-
ensis) and, when perched on high trees on the edge of forests, it is not
easily seen. The white spots on the wings are prominent in flight.
Davison (loc. cit.) saw it ‘rise into the air and go through a series of
fantastic evolutions, sometimes keeping up for nearly three minutes’.
He added that its note was not musical and the bird was fortunately
tather silent. I have already referred to mistaking it for a large nightjar
at dusk. One stomach preserved was found to contain Chrysomelid

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

and Bupestrid beetles and grubs, crickets (Gryllidae), and bits of
Mantids.

773. Rhyticeros (undulatus) narcondami (Hume) (Narcondam JIs.,
Andamans) Narcondam Hornbill.

This bird is restricted to Narcondam Island, a steep jungle-covered
hill rising abruptly from the sea 80 miles east of North Andamans. Very
little is known of its habits. Hume (Stray Feathers 1: 411) described
its flight as heavy and slow. Osmaston (1905 : 620) estimated their total
number at about 200 and found them noisy and fearless. Cory
(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14 : 372) visited the island on 22-3-1901 and
found them paired, the cocks attentively feeding the hens as they sat
together. The plumage of the specimens shot ‘ was ina draggled condition,
the white tail-feathers being dirty and ragged and the whole appearance
of the birds was as if they had been confined in an ill-kept aviary’.

*831. Dryocopus javensis hodgei (Blyth) (Andaman Islands) Great
Black Woodpecker.

3 $¢ Ferrarganj, S.A., Bakultala, M.A., Long Island, M.A; 2 22 Wrightmyo,
S.A.

This fine woodpecker was fairly common in forest and even seen in
mangroves. The male’s call is a loud chattering kuk, kuk, kuk, ending
with a whistling kui. A loud sharp kik, kik, kik was also heard. It was
also heard drumming. The flight is flapping and roller-like. It was
seen to jerk irregularly in flight, also like a roller, most unusual for a
woodpecker,

A very pronounced musty smell was twice noticed ina male and a
female, both with enlarged gonads. Ball (1870b) refers to a peculiarly
rank and offensive smell in a specimen he procured in August. My
specimens measured : .

Wings Tails
3 ¢% 182, 188, 185 138, 140, 147
222 190, 188 144, 144

The male (Ferrarganj) which had enlarged testes has a black forehead
as in the female. Osmaston (1906a: 162) took a clutch of 2 eggs but
does not mention the date.

Among the skins in the Society’s collection, one of Dryocopus
javensis from Kadra, North Kanara, has a few of the feathers of the
back faintly tipped with red.

*846. Dendrocopus macei andamanensis (Blyth) (Port Blair, South
Andaman) Fulvousbreasted Pied Woodpecker.

2 4% Wrightmyo, S. A., and Bakultala, M. A.; 2 Pochang, Shoal Bay
Creek, S. A.

This small woodpecker was common in wooded areas in both South
and Middle Andamans, either singly or in pairs. Like many other

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 343

woodpeckers, it can reverse down the trunk and is sometimes within a
few feet of the ground. It was also noted perched across a branch.

Osmaston (1906a : 161) found many nest holes on the underside of
branches of avenue trees mostly Pithecolobium saman, but offers no
additional information.

870. Pitta sordida abbotti Richmond (Great Nicobar) Hooded,
or Greenbreasted, Pitta.

Hume saw a pitta with a great deal of blue about it at Galatea Bay,
Great Nicobar, and thought that it might be Pitta molluccensis. The
subsequent discovery of this bird by Abbott and Kloss no doubt esta-
blishes its identity. This form is found on Great and Little Nicobars.

*917. Hirundo rustica gutturalis Scopoli (Philippines) Swallow.

This swallow is common in the Andamans and Nicobars from
September to May, young birds being far more numerous than adults
(Butler). I saw parties, hawking over rice-fields etc. or settled on wires,
several times in a 60-mile drive from Wrightmyo to Port Blair and back ;
also at Bakultala, Middle Andamans, and on Car Nicobar. One shot

on 11th February had a 107 mm. wing. °

*920. Hirundo tahitica javanica Sparrman (Java) House Swallow.

Hume (1874 : 155) suggested that it was a monsoon visitor to the
Andamans, being found only from June to end-September. Butler
(1899 : 557) found it a common resident breeding in verandahs and
outhouses. It was not recorded from the Nicobars, where he thought
he saw one.

Earlier (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 11 : 736) he reported a pied
specimen of this species obtained near Port Blair. Osmaston (1906a:
161) found 3 nests with hard-set eggs in caves on the shore of North
Button Island on Sth May.

I think I saw this more than once in South Andamans, but always
when busy with something else more important and so failed to secure
specimens or to make quite sure of their identity.

949. Lanius cristatus cristatus Linnaeus | (Bengal) |= Brown Shrike.

I took 3 specimens, one with a brown head and two with grey heads,
assuming that the first was of this form and the others of the next
——both were noted in the field, roughly in the ratio of 1 toS5or6. I
was apparently mistaken, for the specimen taken does not have the rich
brown on the upper parts exhibited by specimens of C. cristatus. It
would therefore appear to be an immature stage of /ucionensis, though

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

the barring on the underparts is no more pronounced than in the adults.
This identification has been confirmed by Dr. Ripley to whom the
specimen was sent.

Hume said it was rare in the Andamans, only two of 32 shrikes
collected being cristatus. Later it became more common and he
received 8 killed in June, July, August, and September, indicating a
migration.

*950. Lanius cristatus lucionensis Linnaeus (Luzon) Brown Shrike.

1 o? Mannarghat,S.A.; 1 ¢ Wrightmyo, S.A.; 1Q Chiria Tapoo, S. A.

This bird was common in suitable localities in South and Middle
Andamans, together with the brown form referred to under cristatus.

I saw no evidence of its breeding in the Andamans and also heard
no call. Osmaston (1906a : 157) calls it a seasonal visitor, arriving in
September and leaving in April. Richmond (1903 : 291) notes a
specimen from Car Nicobar.

*956. Oriolus chinensis andamanensis Tytler (South Andamans)
Blacknaped Oriole. :

3 $3 Wrightmyo, S.A.; 1 ¢ Bakultala, M. A., and 1 ¢ Guitar Island, M.A. ;

1 2 Long Island, M. A.
*[This bird was common in most places in South and Middle
Andamans.

During the earlier part of the trip, I syllabilized the call as jug-
jeevan and thought it was very true. Later at Long Island, where the
bird was quite common, its call was different and I never heard jug-
Jeevan ! | :

5 males from South and Middle Andamans, including one in imma-
ture plumage, have their wings 130-140 mm. (av. 136°2), tails 90-104
(av. 97°8), and bills 29-31 (av. 30), while one female measures 133, 90,
and 31 respectively. The nape patch in male No. 133 is 12 mm. broad,
i.e. as in the Nicobar bird, but the other measurements are in keeping
with those of this race.

Butler found nests on 19th May and Ist June, the former containing
a large young and the latter 3 hard-set eggs. The second nest was much
larger and more solid than the first, almost double in size. Osmaston
(1906a : 158) noted them breeding from April to June. The nest, he
said, was usually decorated outside with sprays of a small climbing
Asclepiad with orbicular leaves.

957. Oriolus chinensis macrourus Blyth (Nicobar Islands) Black-
naped Oriole. |
¢ 2 Car Nicobar: wings 154 and 151; tails 110 and 112; bills 30 and 33.
It was common on Car Nicobar, being noticeably larger and having
a longer tail, than the Andaman bird. It looked rather out of place in

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 549

coconut groves. Butler (1900, p. 396) said it was extremely abundant
throughout the islands. I thought the call (which Butler terms a long
drawn, modulated whistle, sounding like ‘pee-u’) was also quite
different from that of the Andaman bird, and have it written as
chee-e op.

Oriolus xanthornus subsp. | Blackheaded Oriole.

¢ Wrightmyo, S.A.: wing 131, tail 86, culmen 28.

They appeared common at Wrightmyo, and I noted several on
North Button Island on 29 February.

Davison, who failed to see this species in December/January, but
noted it in April and May, thought it was a migrant. Hume writing
at the same time (1874 : 230) and Butler (1899 : 396) thought other-
wise, their opinion being supported by specimens obtained, or birds
seen, from March to September. Osmaston (1906a : 158) stated it was
not uncommon in the hot weather, but he saw none in the winter.

Ripley (SYNOPSIS) says it is of the typical race (type locality : Chan-
dernagore) and goes to the Andaman Islands in summer. My single
specimen is too small for xanthornus and agrees in colour and size with
ceylonensis Bonaparte. Whistler (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 585)
said that Andaman birds appeared to be smaller than the Ceylon form,
but did not express any further opinion as it was believed to be a
migrant [see also Walden (1874c:138)]. Iam for the moment leaving
this bird trinomially unnamed.

Dicrurus leucophaeus subsp. Grey Drongo.

Capt. Wimberley sent Hume a specimen obtained on 5 November
(1874 : 210). Later (1876 : 289) he said it was leucogenys Walden.

_{970. Dicrurus annectans (Hodgson) (Nepal) Crowbilled Drongo.

Under D. balicassius (Linnaeus) Blyth (Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal
1846 : 30) wrote that a specimen of this common Malayan species was
obtained by Capt. Lewis when nearing one of the Nicobar Islands.
This is later repeated by Hume. This species is migratory and passes
through portions of Burma in large numbers, presumably into Malaya.
In view of the doubts expressed regarding the origin of birds obtained by
Capt. Lewis, it may be best to omit it from the Nicobar list until re-
confirmed. | :

Ripley (SYNopsis) restricted this form to Great Coco, Table, and

North Andaman Islands, while andamanensis described from Port Blair

was said to occur on South Andamans only. The intermediate area

$50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

(Middle Andamans) is occupied by an intermediate form as indicated
under D. a. andamanensis, below.

*975, Dicrurus andamanensis andamanensis Tytler (Port Blair) Anda-
man Drongo.

5 3¢ Port Blair, 14 Nov. 1963; Ferrarganj, S. A., Chiria Tapoo, S. A., Bamboo-

flats, S. A., Long Island, M. A.; 2 92 Mannatghat, S. A., Long Island, M. A.

I saw this species commen . forested areas in South and Middle
Andamans. A party of 7 to 8 was seen together in a forest clearing.
One clung to the smooth trunk of a high tree like a woodpecker, released
its hold, and clung again higher up. The call wasa long tseep. lt also
had some ringing notes typical of the drongos.

Wardlaw Ramsay (Stray Feathers 2: 211) noted it going up a tree
like a woodpecker. Oates, in the old FAUNA, said it was highly gre-
garious, flocks of half a dozen to twenty travelling through the forest in
search of food, either by themselves or in company with Jrena puella,
Sturnia.andamanensis, Graucalus dobsoni, Pericrocotus andamanensis, etc.
Osmaston (1906a: 156) found it breeding from the middle of April to
the middle of May.

The 5 males collected have their wings 134, 135 (2), 136, and 142
mm., the last being from Long Island, the northernmost point of my
trip. Stuart Baker held that Peay ait wings under 140 mm. were
of this race, while those over 140 were dicruriformis Hume.

Two females from South and Middle Andamans have wings 128 and
131 mm., indicating that they are smaller than the males, though Hume
(Stray Feathers 1: 408-9) when describing the larger race dicruriformis
appears to have measured both sexes together.

*980. Dicrurus paradiseus otiosus (Richmond) — (Andamans) Greater
Racket-tailed Drongo.
2 $¢ Long Island, M.A., Port Blair, S. A. (18 March 1964) ; 3 92 Wrightmyo,
S. A., Mannarghat, S. A., Long Island, M. A.

Tolerably plentiful in suitably forested areas. It has the same range
and variety of calls as the Indian race. Osmaston (1906a: 157) said it
bred in May, building its nest generally high up on the more or less
inaccessible branches of big trees.

The subspecies grandis (Gould) was separated because of its long
crest. Salim Ali in ‘Birds of Gujarat’ (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 52:800)
specially drew attention to the short crest of the birds collected in the
Surat Dangs and other places in Gujarat and identified them as mala-
baricus (Latham). Ripley in the synopsis has included Gujarat in the

range of grandis and synonymized malabaricus with paradiseus of which |

the type locality is in Thailand.

Bisiag ee

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 551

981. Dicrurus paradiseus nicobariensis (Baker) (Kondel, Nicobars)
Greater Racket-tailed Drongo.

This species is apparently scarcer in the Nicobars than in the Anda-
mans (Davison & Hume 1874: 213), though Butler (J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 12: 392) refers to both races together and notes them as_ fairly
common in both the Andamans and Nicobars.

+983. Artamus leucorhynchus humei Stresemann (Andamans) Swallow-
Shrike.

10? Wrightmyo,S.A., 1 ¢ Wrightmyo, S. A., 2 22 Wrightmyo, S. A.,
and Bakultala, M. A.

The Swallow Shrike was commonly seen in open country over paddy-
fields and inrubber. Their habits are very similar to those of the Indian
species, fuscus, though they appeared to settle more often on the ground
and to be generally tamer in disposition. They huddled closely together
on horizontal branches, both to roost at night, and during the day.

Butler saw it following the plough, alighting among the newly-turned
clods of earth in search of insects exposed, and moving on the ground
in short hops. He also saw them settle on the roofs of houses. He
said he had frequently killed a flying bird with a catapult !

Davison found a nest, still empty, on 2nd May and Butler saw
newly-fiedged young sitting about in trees in May.

Osmaston (1906a : 157) found them breeding in April and May, the
nests being almost invariably placed on the broken-off stump of some
stout branch 10 to 20 ft. from the ground. The nest was an untidy
shallow saucer of twigs little better than that of a dove, and exposed to
view from above, and more or less also from below.

On 27 February on Long Island I saw two pairs collecting grass
from a drying lawn outside the Divisional Forest Officer’s bungalow,
settling on the ground to do so, The nest was being built in a hole (?)
in the top of a dry vertical branch, 3-4 in. in diameter, in a gigantic gur-
jan some 200 ft. up and 300 yards distant. The other was in the fork of
a tree, about 20 ft. from the ground, and only about 50 yards away.
I saw two birds on a branch 20 ft. from the nest, displaying to each
other, both rotating their expanded wings. One then sidled up to the
other which flew to the nest post. 3

The call is of the same type as that of the Indian bird but softer.

This bird is found in the Andamans, and on Great Coco and Table
Islands.

*986. Aplonis panayensis tytleri(Hume) (Andamans) Glossy Tree
Stare.

3 $¢ Wimberleyganj and Mannarghat, S.A., Long Island, M. A. ; 1 2 Maymyo,
S.A.;2 9° Car Nicobar ; 1 4, 1 2 Nancowry Island, Nicobars.

This. was common in the South and Middle Andamans and also at

552. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Car Nicobar, both in pairs and in parties, large and small. .Large flocks
of several hundreds, flying to the tops of trees created a spotted appear-
ance thereon. Very few streaked young were noted in the Andamans,
while they appeared common on the single day’s trip to Car Nicobar.

In early February, they appeared to be preparing to breed, a male
shot on the 11th showing enlarged gonads, and two birds were seen
contending for a nest hole high up in a tree about the same time.

Osmaston (1906a: 158) found them exceedingly numerous from
about February till June, but could not ascertain where they went for the
rest of the year. Tytler (1867 : 330) obtained young in August.

The specimens are not enough to permit any definite conclusions, but
the 3 adults from the Andamans show noticeably more of the gree-
nish gloss on their upper parts than those from Car. Nicobar. A

female from Nancowry in immature plumage (with spotted under- |

parts) is also less green above than a similar male from the Andamans
which is almost as green as the adult. The last specimen is also
more heavily spotted on the underparts than the other.

Hume (Stray Feathers 1: 481) referred to great variation in the
colour of the irides in adults, varying from white, opalescent white,
fleshy white, and pale pink to brown, deep brown, deep red-brown,
and deep orange. This was on the basis of sixty specimens ‘ from
almost every island in both groups’. It is interesting to note that
Abbott and Kloss (in Richmond, 1903) found that the birds from Car
Nicobar had brown irides, while all from the central group, Trinkut etc.,
and Great and Little Nicobar, had them white.

*990. Sturnus erythropygius andamanensis (Tytler) (Andamans) White-
headed Myna.

2 $3 Chiria Tapoo, S. A., and Long Island, M. A. ; 2 99 Wrightmyo, S. A.,

and Bakultala, M. A.

This myna was as Butler noted one of the commonest birds in the
Andamans. I also sawa pair on North Button Island. Butler notes
that they work through the forest in company with Racket-tailed
Drongos, Minivets, and Cuckoo Shrikes. He also said that it was
partial to ‘a small caterpillar which rolls itself up in the narrow leaves
of the bamboo, and flocks may be seen hanging in all sorts of tit-like
attitudes diligently opening every rolled-up leaf with varying results,
the little shelter not being always tenanted ’.

In the forested areas it keeps to the trees, though it is possible,
as Butler recorded, that it feeds a good deal on the ground in paddy
fields. When seen at eye-level the pale back is noticeable, and my first
impression of a large flock was of rosy pastors. Osmaston (1906a:
158) took nests at the end of April and in May. The nests with 4 eggs
were in holes in trees from 6 to 30 feet high, and ‘ composed of “small

ES ee ee, ee ae ee eC oe

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS Do

pliant twigs with an occasional stiff feather, and lined with small green
leaves’. ,

*991, Sturnus erythropygius erythropygius (Blyth) (Car Nicobar)
Whiteheaded Myna.
1 gv, 2 29 Car Nicobar.

It was common on Car Nicobar and did not appear to vary in habits
from S. e. andamanensis. At the time of Hume’s trip it was believed to
be a very rare species, only one specimen being obtained though Butler
found it common.

992. Sturnus erythropygius katchalensis (Richmond) (Katchal _Is.,
Nicobars) Whiteheaded Myna.

Richmond (1903 : 293) while describing this race from Katchal Island
refers to Hume some thirty years earlier mentioning andamanensis being
introduced at Kamorta, and suggests that the population on the adja-
cent island of Katchal is a hybrid between andamanensis and erythro-
pygius. Ripley (1961 : 297) agrees with this possibility. It differs from
erythropygius in the smaller measurements and the pale rump and
upper-tail coverts of andamanensis, but has the under-tail coverts as in
er ythropygius,

995. Sturnus sturninus (Pallas) | (Dauria) Daurian Myna.

Hume (1874 : 251) refers to 2 shot out ofa flock of 70-80 at Camorta,
and a third flew on to the boat between Little Andamans and Nicobars.
They were all in immature plumage. Hume did not appear quite sure
about their identification.

996. Sturnus roseus (Linnaeus) (Lapland, Switzerland) Rosy Pastor.

. Tytler made a general statement that ‘it arrives in flocks in January’
(in the Andamans). Several later observers failed to see this species
and Tytler’s observations were treated with doubt. Osmaston (1906a :
158) however saw two flocks in March and April and obtained three
specimens. He suggested it was possible that uiey visited the Andamans
only in very severe winters.

1006. Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linnaeus) (Poridicteny) Indian

Myna.
1 2 Wrightmyo, S. A.: wing 130.

This bird was introduced by Col. Tytler at Ross Island. When Hume
visited the place (1873), he said that they had thriven and multiplied
greatly but not crossed over to Port Blair which is not more thana
_ quarter ofa mile away. By Butler’s time (1900) it was one of the com-
monest birds at Port Blair, being very abundant wherever there was
cultivation and roosting in hundreds in clumps of bamboos. Now, they
are common in suitable areas throughout the South Andamans, but |

554. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

did not notice any large flocks. Butler said they had been introduced
at Camorta, where he saw some, as did Abbott and Kloss, who also
noted them at Nancowry Harbour.

Though the FAUNA states that the wings of the typical race measure
140-149, there are several smaller specimens in the Bombay collection.

{ Acridotheres fuscus from Burma was also introduced by Tytler, but
there is no evidence of their subsequent survival. ]

*1018. Gracula religiosa andamanensis Beavan (Andamans) _ Hill
Myna.
2 ¢¢% Betapur, M. A. ; 2 $2 Wimberleyganj and Bambooflats, S. A. ; 1 ¢ Port Blair
17 March 1964.

I found it common in most places in South and Middle Andamans,
and it is said to be found all over the Nicobars too. An albino was
obtained in the Nicobars (Blyth, 1863b). Hume refers to their being
perfect mimics and being sold at Calcutta at Rs.3 to Rs.5 against
4 to 8 annas at Port Blair. Osmaston (1906a : 158) said the trade was
forbidden. |
_ Three males from the Andamans have their wings measure 174, 166
and 165 mm. against 183 (Little Nicobar) and 170-5 and 177-5 (Katchal)
mentioned by Richmond (1903 : 292). :

*1040. Dendrocitta bayleyi Tytler (Andamans) Andaman Tree Pie.
3 ve Wrightmyo, S. A., Bakultala, M. A., and Chiria Tapoo, S.A.; 3 9° Wright-
myo (2) and Chitid Tapoo.

I saw. this small tree pie in South and Middle Andamans and got
the general impression that it was not common. However, I saw several
parties, and the fact that as many as 22 flew out of a tree suggests that
they are not really very scarce. They were seen together with Racket-
tailed and Andaman Drongos. In flight it looks more like a drongo
than a tree pie, its thin body showing only as a streak in silhouette.
Parties broken up into twos and threes kept together, flying and turning —
in the air in formation.

Of the two females collected on the same day, one had olive-green
irides and the other bright yellow. Butler (1899 : 390) said that the
young start with an olive-green iris, changing in a short time to bright
green. An inner circle of golden yellow then appears and gradually
encroaches on the green until the beautiful clear yellow eye of the adult
is attained.

» Eggs were taken near Port Blair in March and April (FAUNA I : 56).
“Corvus macrorhynchos andamanensis Tytler (Port Blair, Andamans)
Jungle Crow. |
1 ¢ Middle Button Island ; 1 Q and 10? Wrightmyo, S.A. sy
This crow was seen at all camps. in South and Middle Andamans,

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 555

Two specimens shot on 11th February showed no signs of breeding but
one bird was seen carrying a stick to a coconut palm on the 15th.

Osmaston (1906a : 156) found them breeding in March, frequently
on coconut palms. Beavan (1867) said: ‘It is abundant in large flocks
and formerly fed entirely on the seashore .... but now frequents houses
and barracks for offal’. The tendency to congregate in flocks is said to
be very different from that of Indian birds. I did not notice any large
flocks. |

The Jungle Crows from the Andamans were named andamanensis by
_ Tytler and were said to be (Ball, Stray Feathers 1:74) quite distinct from
C. culminatus, being ‘ nearer intermedius of the Northwest Himalayas,
but slightly larger than that species’. Blyth said the specimens seen
by him were cu/minatus, while Beavan, who was inclined to agree -with
Col. Tytler, noticed that the call was quite different. Hume (Stray Feathers
5 : 461-469) examined 70 skins from the Indian region and, considering
sizes of wing, culmen, tail, and tarsus, shape of tail, green or purple
gloss, and white and non-white base of feathers, came to the conclusion
that culminatus, intermedius, levaillanti, and macrorhynchos were not
separable as species. Blanford (FAUNA 1:17) included andamanensis;
intermedius, and culminatus under macrorhynchos, but mentioned that
the smallest birds occurred in the north-west Himalayas and the largest
in the Andamans and Burma. Stuart Baker (FAUNA 1:29) accepted
andamanensis from the Andamans, Burma, and north and west Siam on
their larger size (f wing 304-345, av. 325; 2 290-321) and larger bills
(never under 58, generally over 60, and running up to 70). He said that
in all the island adults the bases to the feathers are very pure white,
whereas in the Assam and Burmese birds they range from almost pure
black to more than equally pure white. Northern birds had more white
than southern, ‘ but even this is only a question of degree in average’.
Stanford & Mayr (/bis 1940 : 695), reporting on the Vernay Cutting
Expedition to northern Burma, referred to birds from the Andamans
(andamanensis) having male : wings up to 340 mm. and female : up to 325
mm., bill slenderer, nape feather bases white, and being probably identical
with birds from Lower Siam and the Malay Peninsula, and intermediate
- between Jevaillanti and macrorhynchos. Ripley (1961) accepts intermedius,
levaillanti, tibetosinensis, and culminatus from the region but omits
andamanensis, making no statement as to what form is found in the
Andamans. |

- Upon arrival at Port Blair, it was immediately noticeable that the

call of the Andaman bird was different from that of the Jungle Crow
with which I am familiar, cu/minatus, being plaintive and less harsh.

The 3 specimens obtained, one < (wing 320, tail 195), one female
(287, 168), and one unsexed (probably female, wing 287, tail 167), are
‘ very black above and below and with little gloss, and the male is

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

too large for culminatus. Hume (1874: 243) said that, sex for sex, the
Andaman birds had a longer bill than any continental race. This
difference is not visible, and the bills of the three specimens vary in
shape among themselves. The nape feather bases of the male are dark
grey [as in all the specimens of culminatus, intermedius, levaillanti, and
tibetosinensis available in Bombay (except a male from Chitral)], while the
two smaller birds have them white. This difference shows an affinity
with macrorhynchos. It is apparent that the over-all position regarding
the geographical variations of this common bird are still far from
completely understood and, though I cannot express any definite
opinion with the series available here (Blanford examined 300 at the
British Museum!), I think it advisable to retain my sagt as
andamanensis.

Davison (Hume 1874 : 244) refers to a few taken from Port Blair and
turned loose on Camorta, and on the adjacent island of Trinkut in the
Nicobars. Later (Stray Feathers 3: 325) Hume, while. dealing with
birds from Tenasserim, says their bills are about the same as those of
Nicobar birds, while the wings are perhaps somewhat larger. I have
not seen any other reference to their occurrence in the Nicobars, and
can only assume that this is a slip for the Andamans.

[Corvus splendens Vieillot, introduced by Col. Tytler for sanitary
purposes, does not appear to have thriven or multiplied (Beavan,
1867 : 329). |

*1075. Coracina novaehollandiae andamana (Neumann) (Andaman
Islands) | Large Cuckoo-Shrike. _
2 db Wrightmyo, S.A., and Long Island, M. A.; 1 2 Betapur, M. A.
Butler said it was common in the neighbourhood of Port Blair,
where clearing and cultivation had made the country open enough for
its liking. Osmaston (1906a: 157) found nests on 14th May and 4th

June, both with 2 fresh eggs. I did not find it common, though I

saw it on both South and Middle Andamans. It does not occur in the
Nicobars.

*1076. Coracina striata dobsoni (Ball) (Andamans) Barred Cuckoo-
Shrike. ,
1 3? (wing 169), 1 2 (158) Wrightmyo, S. A.

I obtained two specimens at Wrightmyo, South Andaman. One
of them had flown in from the mangrove late in the exeneg and settled
high in a tree on the edge of forest.

Butler stated that this species was common in forests, where it
was quiet, associating with mynas, minivets, drongos, etc., which roam

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 557

through the jungle in company. He also referred to a rather pleasing
short song and the absence of the noisy whistling cry of the Large Cuc-
koo Shrike.

The FAUNA (2: 346) gives the male wings as 153-166 and female
151-160, while Richmond (1903: 292) measures a Nicobar male
170 mm. and a female 172.5.

Lalage nigra davisoni Kloss (Nicobar Islands).

Davison (Hume 1874: 202) found it not uncommon about the
settlement at Camorta, in small parties of five or six or in pairs, in low
scrubby undergrowth, feeding close to the ground. They were not
shy and he shot two or three from the same tree.

This species is omitted from the SYNOPSIS.

*1080a. Pericrocotus flammeus andamanensis Beavan (Andamans)
Scarlet Minivet.
3 6d Wrightmyo, 8. A.: wing 93, 93°5, 96; tail 91, 87, 88:
1 2 Pochang, Shoal Bay Creek, S, A. : wing 92, tail 93.

The largest male (wing 96, tail 88) had grey on the upper back and
nape, flecks of scarlet on the forehead, and the chin mottled irregularly
with black and orange. The black extending over the whole length of
the central tail feathers is a distinctive character.

Osmaston (1906a: 157) noted it as fairly common, frequenting the
crowns of trees in small parties.

Butler noted a single male of P. cinereus Lafr. witha party of
andamanensis. He shot the bird but did not preserve it as it was badly
damaged. This has been omitted by subsequent workers.

*Pericrocotus cinnamomeus subsp. Little Minivet.

2 ¢¢ Wimberleyganj, S. A., and Long Island, M. A.; 3 22 Wimberleyganj, S. A.
(2) and Long Island, M. A.

I saw this quite often in South and Middle Andamans. Butler
(1899 : 394) said : ‘ Parties of this bird are extremely regular in their
habits, working their way to new roosting places, along the same line of
trees, night after night... ............. Ihave several times seen
a whole party flutter down after a shot bird (dead or living) and remain
several seconds by it on the ground, moving with very short hops.’ He
added that they bred from May to July; a pair was watched nest build-
ing on 15 July, the female doing all the work with the male keeping
within a yard of her all the time. Osmaston tes : 157) found several
nests in May and June.

The SYNOPSIS includes birds pom the Andamans in the range of
vividus Stuart Baker (type locality Attaran River, Amherst District,

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Burma ; restricted by Deignan to Pabyouk, 22 miles south-east of 7

Moulmein).

There is only one specimen from Burma (Maymyo) i in the Bombay
collection and this has a grey chin against dark, almost black, in the 2
males from the Andamans. The whole of the lower plumage in the latter
is also washed with orange-red and compares well with specimens from
Badrana, Barkot, Keonjharghad, Simlipal Hills, in Orissa, which appear
to be listed under typical cinnamomeus in the SYNOPSIS. In addition to
these differences and similarities, the bill of one Andaman male is
heavier than in any of the other specimens in the Bombay collection.

‘Irena puella andamanica Abdulali (Long Island, Middle Andamans)
Fairy Bluebird. | |

5 33% Wrightmyo, S.A. (2), Bakultala, M.A. (2), Long Island, M.A.; 1 2
Wrightmyo, S.A.

I found it in all forested places in South and Middle Andamans
and, as noted by Hume (1874 : 226), the number of females appeared to
preponderate over the males in adult plumage to a remarkable degree—
while he saw one male to 4 or 5 females, my impression was one in 20
(as also Butler’s).

They were often seen in parties of 15 to 20 birds, on trees and bushes
bearing berries on which they fed, e.g. Phyllanthus columnaris. The birds
would all arrive at the bush together and then fly away after a few
minutes, apparently doing a chukker in company. -A loud pit-pit-pit
was Often uttered. Males in adult plumage were often seen alone in
heavy forest.

Hume (loc. cit. ) referred to young being out in April and Butler
states that two males shot on 9th June were breeding. They have been
recorded from both groups of islands and there is evidence of some form
of local migration. Osmaston (1906a: 156) found it numerous around
Port Blair from September to March, but did not find a nest and rarely
saw it between April and August.

*1113. Pycnonotus atriceps fuscoflavescens (Hume) (Port Mouat and
Mt. Harriet, South Andamans) Blackheaded Bulbul.
5 $3 Wrightmyo, S. A. (3), Bakultala, M. A., Port Blair, S. A.
(17th March) ; 2 22 Wrightmyo, S. A., Bakultala, M. A.

This bulbul was not common but, as Butler noted, is a quiet unobtru-
sive bird keeping to heavy jungle. I saw it at all camps and the position
must be different from what it was when Davison and Butler collected
— the former obtaining 8 specimens in six months and the latter. not
seeing it more than a dozen times in eight months. Osmaston (1906a :
156) also said it was decidedly rare, seeing it ae a dozen times in 15
months,

— +S

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 559)

*1122. Pycnonotus jocosus whistleri Deignan (Cinque Island, south of

South Andaman) Redwhiskered Bulbul.
1 ¢,3 £9 Wrightmyo, S. A.; 1 ¢, 2 22 Nancowry, Nicobar.

This bird was common in South and Middle Andamans, in the more
open country. It was introduced into the Nicobars, where Hume saw it
on Camorta. Osmaston (1906a : 156) said at Port Blair they frequently
entered houses, taking the place of the Common Sparrow. He said they
bred from March to May laying 2 or 3 eggs only. Richmond (1903:289)
said that they differed from Indian and Malayan examples in being
rather darker and browner above, with more extensive white tips on the
rectrices, but did not specify which of the see races he compared
them with.

As Walden noted in 1873, this form is barely distinguishable from
emeria from Vizagapatam, Orissa, and Bastar, though the red ear-tuft
and the crest are on an average shorter and the bills heavier.

*1142. Hypsipetes nicobariensis Moore (Nicobars) Nicobar Bulbul.
1 4, 19 Nancowry Island, Nicobars, 14 March 1964.

This bird is restricted to the Nicobars, where it is not found on Car
Nicobar (Butler). Shekar obtained two during a short trip to Nancowry
Island. Both had their gonads under. Davison reported it as common
in the Nicobars, keeping to forests but sometimes in gardens. He saw
them singly, in pairs, or in small parties of 5 to6. Abbott & Kloss
(in Richmond 1903:289) said they ‘ occasionally congregate in assemblies
of 50 or more in some large tree, where they make a great chattering

and uproar ’.

1402. Rhinomyias brumneata nicobarica Richmond (Great Nicobar)
Olive Flycatcher.

Abbott & Kloss found it common on Great and Little Nicobar.
They kept close to the ground in low bushes in heavy forest and had a
‘rather sweet song’. Ripley (1961 : 419) states that the breeding range
of this form is unknown and it may be resident in the Nicobars.

*1407. Muscicapa latirostris Raffles (Sumatra) Brown Flycatcher.

2 00 ? Betapur, M. A., Bambooflats, S. A., 20 March, 1964 ;
1 2 Long Island, M.A.

This is a winter visitor to the Andamans only, apparently in some
numbers, for we saw it at all camps.

1464. Terpsiphone paradisi nicobarica Oates (Nicobars) Paradise Fly-
catcher.

Though it occurs in both the. Aidainatis and the Nicobars, we did not

see it. Davison saw white and red birds but said it was rare in both the-

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

groups. Abbott & Kloss did not see it on Car Nicobar or Tillangchong,
but found it fairly common on all the other islands of the Nicobars.
They noted adult white males on Great and Little Nicobar.

*1467. Monarcha azurea tytleri (Beavan) (Port Blair, Andamans)
Blacknaped Flycatcher.
3 $3 Bakultala (1), Long Island, M. A. (2) : wings 72-75, av. 73°3;
2 22 Wrightmyo, S. A. (1), Long Island, M. A. (1) : 2 99, 71-73, av. 72.

This flycatcher, seen at all camps in South and Middle Andamans,
is said to extend to Great and Little Coco (SYNOPSIS). Osmaston
(1906a : 159) found many nests between 8th April and Ist June, which
were invariably decorated with white spider egg-cases.

The underparts of the male are bluer than in Indian birds. This
colour extends to the vent, replacing the white in Indian and Nicobar
birds.

*1468. Monarcha azurea idiochroa (Oberholser) (Car Nicobar) Black-
naped Flycatcher.
2 2° Car Nicobar : wings 73°5 and 74 mm. }
The white belly separates this from the Andaman birds. This form
is presumably restricted to Car Nicobar.

1469. Monarcha azurea nicobarica (Bianchi) (Nancowry) Blacknaped
Flycatcher.
This form, said to be slightly larger than the last, replaces it in the
other islands of the Nicobar Group. I have not seen any specimens.

*1470. Pachycephala cinerea cinerea (Blyth) (Ramree Island, Arrakan)
Mangrove Whistler.
[Muscitrea grisola grisola (Blyth) in FAUNA]
1 ¢ Long Island, M. A.

Osmaston (1906a : 159) found it throughout the Andamans, but not
common though fairly numerous in open jungles and clearings near Port
Blair. He said: ‘[It has] a fine loud and clear whistle, repeated three or
four times or prolonged and drawn out, followed suddenly by a higher:
(or lower) note in a different key, reminding one somewhat of the call of
Aegithina tiphia and unlike that of any flycatcher. It is a quiet and un-
obtrusive bird usually seen alone or in pairs. It frequents mangroves
and other small trees and catches insects sometimes on the wing and at
other times on the branches or trunks of trees.’

He found it breeding in May and June, and took 5 nests with 2 eggs
each between 17 May and 10 June. The nest was a thin, flimsy cup-
shaped structure attached by means of cobwebs to the twigs supporting
it 5 to 12 feet from the ground.

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 561

Abbott & Kloss (Richmond 1903 : 295) obtained six specimens from
Henry Lawrence Island, Barren Island, South Andaman, and Cinque
Island. Curiously, others found it scarce, Butler seeing it only once.
The only specimen we obtained was shot by Shekar on Long Island,
Middle Andamans.

1475. Cettia pallidipes osmastoni (Hartert) (Andaman Is.) Bush
Warbler.

Butler shot one in dense undergrowth on top of Mt. Harriet, South
Andaman. Osmaston (1906a : 157 and 1933 : 892) said they were adept
skulkers and common in dense undergrowth of high or secondary
forest, but never met in the open. He describes the deep cup-shaped
nest 4s built of dry bamboo leaves, loosely put together and lined with
fine flowering grass-heads supported among the stems and leafstalks of
a ginger-like plant in dense jungle. The nest contained 4 eggs. He
also noted the call as ‘ most characteristic and peculiar, of 3 or 4 notes
only, loud for the size of the bird, and insistent ’.

I did not meet this species and it would appear to be very localized.

*Cisticola juncidis malaya Lynes (Klang, Selangor, Malay State) Fan-

tail Warbler.
1 ¢ Car Nicobar.

Davison obtained specimens in the Nicobars where, Butler said,
they were common. Abbott & Kloss secured 4 specimens on Trinkut
and noted them on Kamorta and Nancowry. They also saw another
small bird on Great Nicobar, which they took to be some species of
Cisticola. The specimens were not subspecifically named, but Dr.
Dillon Ripley (in epist.) informs me that they are of this race as also
the above-mentioned specimen which was sent to him.

[ found them quite common at the aerodrome and in similar areas
of short grass on Car Nicobar. The specimen obtained has not the
streaked back of Indian-birds.

Hume (1874 : 235) referred to great variations in individuals and
confirmed that birds from the Nicobars are identical with those from
India. This is an addition to the list in Indian literature, though the
Nicobars are included in the range of this race by Chasen (1939, 4:
327).

1542. Locustella certhiola centralasiae Sushkin (Khara Usu River,
Khanghai, Northwestern Mongolia) _—_Pallas’s Grasshopper
Warbler.

1543. Locustella certhiola rubescens (Blyth) (near Calcutta) Pallas’s
Grasshopper Warbler.

Butler has a single sight record of Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler

from the Andamans and Abbott got one at Kamorta, 10 February

562, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

(Richmond, 1903: 291), the race being undetermined in both cases.
Ripley (1961 : 462) includes both races in the Andamans, mentioning
that, when Sushkin (1925) described centralasiae [Proc. Boston Soc.
Nat. Hist. 38(1): 46], he referred to it as a winter visitor to the
Andamans.

1544. Locustella lanceolata (Temminck) (Mainz?) Streaked Grass-
hopper Warbler.

This was first obtained by Davison near Port Blair and described
by Hume as L. subsignata (1873b: 409). Davison referred to its
running along the ground. Butler said it was fairly common in the
Andamans in winter.

*1549. Phragamaticola aedon aedon (Pallas) (Dauria) Thickbilled
Warbler.
1 ¢ Long Island, M. A.: wing 81 mm.

Davison and others found it not uncommon in hedges, thickets,
etc. in the Andamans and rare in the Nicobars during the cold weather.
The call and alarm note a click-click was likened by Davison to the
cocking of a very coarse-springed musket-lock. He'also heard them
make ‘a very good attempt at a song somewhat weak and monotonous
perhaps, but very pleasing withal’.

I only obtained one specimen on Long Island on 28th February.

*1552. Acrocephalus stentoreus amyae Baker. (Hessamara, Assam)
Great Reed Warbler. :
1 ¢ Choldhari, S.A.

On 14th February large warblers appeared to be common in grass in
and on the edge of snipy country. Two were obtained, of which one is
of this species and the other of the next.

Both were identified by Dr. Dillon Ripley ope this is an addition to
the Andaman avifauna.

There is yet no evidence of its breeding in the Andamans, and
this appears to be the first indication of the migration of this form.

*1554. Acrocephalus orientalis (Temminck & Schlegel) (Japan) Eastern
Reed Warbler.
1 § Choldhari, S. A.
The specimen was obtained in the circumstances referred to under
the last species. This is said to occur in the Andamans in the syNopsiIs
but I cannot trace the original record.

*1585. Phylloscopus fuscatus mariae Ripley (Moirang, Manipur)
Dusky Leaf Warbler.
10? Bakultala, M.A.: wing 64. ,
As the specimen could not be identified in Bombay, it was sent to

| ee

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 563

Dr. Dillon Ripley, who has identified it as of this form; this is a new
record for the Andamans. Vaurie (1954, Amer. Mus. Novit. 1685: 16),
who does not accept this race, refers to specimens from the Andamans, -
showing characters of this form, and I do not know if nominate forms

should be retained for this area.

1586. Phylloscopus fuscatus fuscatus (Blyth) (Neighbourhood of Cal-
cutta) Dusky Leaf Warbler.

This race is included in the Andaman avifauna in the SyNopsis,
presumably on the basis of specimens obtained by Davison in South
Andamans, and also by Osmaston (1906a: 157) who found it common in
and around Port Blair in winter and said it had a sharp ‘ clicking’ note.

1600. -Phylloscopus borealis borealis (Blasius) (Sea of Okhotsk)
Arctic Leaf Warbler.
Walden recorded one specimen from South Andamans, and two
from the same area are mentioned by Oates. Kloss obtained one on
Little Andaman (Richmond 1903: 291).

1601. Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth (Calcutta) Largebilled Leaf
Warbler.
The single specimen obtained by Hume (1874 : 236) at Mt. Harriet,
South Andamans, appears to be the only record.

*1604. Phylloscopus trochiloides trochiloides (Sundevall) (Calcutta)
Dull Green Leaf Warbler.
2 63 Wrightmyo, S.A., and Bambooflats, S. A. : wings 64 & 66; tails 49 & 50.
Hume (1874 : 236) refers to 2 specimens from Mt. Harriet and
Great Coco, and Butler also said it was not uncommon in the
Andamans in winter but not numerous. Abbott obtained specimens in
South Andamans, which, as also the earlier records, are under the
name lugubris. My specimens were identified by Dr. Dillon Ripley.

Phylloscopus tenellipes (Swinhoe) (Amoy) Palelegged Leaf Warbler.
Richmond (1903 : 291) mentions this species as captured on a boat
10 miles E, of Great Nicobar, but it is not mentioned in the syNopsIs.

Erithacus syecicus subsp. Bluethroat.
‘Hume (1874: 234) refers to this bird as a winter visitor to the
Andamans, but this is omitted in the SYNOPSIS.

*1664. Copsychus saularis andamanensis Hume (Andamans). Magpie-
Robin.
3 dd Mannarghat, S.A., Bakultala, M.A., Port Blair, 20 March; 2 99
Mannarghat, S. A., Bakultala, M. A. es
The Magpie Robin was occasionally seen near villages and in-scrub
6

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

jungle in both South and Middle Andamans, but I would. not call
it abundant (Blyth 1863b).

It also appeared to keep nearer the ground than the Indian form,
and was, on several occasions, seen among the rocks on the sea-shore,
the forest in such places almost reaching the tidemark. Osmaston
(1906a : 159) found a nest with 4 eggs about 6 ft. from the ground,
from March to June.

The specimens differ from Indian birds in the males ae the grey
on the sides of the lower abdomen extending towards the white centre,
the wing quills darker (more sheen), and the bills of both sexes heavier.
The females also have more sheen on the upper plumage.

1668. Copsychus malabaricus albiventris (Blyth) (Andamans) Shama.
(Colour plate in bis 1873, p. 313).

I did not find this bird. Hume (1874 : 232) said it had ‘no voice,
no ear and not the faintest conception of singing’, to which Davison
added: ‘it gives utterance to a series of hoarse sounds which would
appear to proceed from a bird the size of a crow and perhaps of the
same family’.

Osmaston (1933: 891) said they were common in all the densely
forested portions of the larger and smaller islands, frequenting ravines
near water. They were also said to have some fine loud clear notes,
as well as some harsh ones ; tame birds copied tunes whistled to them
with great accuracy, one even reproducing ‘ Way down upon the
Swanee River’. He found 7 nests between 21st May and 27th June,
all at a height of 5-8 ft. from the ground (1906a : 160). |

1697. Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth) (Calcutta) Stone Chat. -

Davison and Hume (1874 : 233-234) both saw and obtained specimens.
in South Andamans, though it was noted as rare. Hume. (1873: 307)
refers to a very long, broad, and conspicuous whitish superciliary
streak.

Osmaston (1906a : 159) saw it once in March near Stewartganj.
This would of course only be a winter migrant. Ripley in the SYNOPSIS
mentions it from the Andamans, but adds ‘record needs confirmation’ (?).

1726. Monticola solitarius pandoo ES (Ghauts, Dukhun) Blue
~ Rock Thrush.

Blyth listed a specimen from the Andamans (1863) and Hume and
Davison did not meet it, though one was killed on Ross Island and-
apparently preserved by the latter. Von Pelzeln is also reported
to have obtained a young male at Car Nicobar on 24th February. There
do not appear to be any more records, and Ripley (SYNopsiIs) states that
the race needs confirmation.

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 568

1732. Zoothera sibirica sibirica (Pallas) (SE. Transbaicalia) Siberian
Ground Thrush.

A single specimen sent by Capt. Hodge to the Asiatic Society of
Bengal from Port Blair in March 1860 and described by Blyth as
a new species, inframarginata, remains the only record (Hume
1874 : 223).

1735. Zoothera citrina andamanensis (Walden) (Andamans) Orange-
headed Ground Thrush. .

1 0? Bakultala, M. A.

This is a great skulker, living in heavy forest. I saw it only
on the ground and when disturbed it flew away low and not up into
trees as one would expect the Indian birds to do. Butler (1899 : 556)
found eight nests, newly built (2), with eggs (4), and young (2) on
16th May, all within a hundred yards of each other. Osmaston (1906a:
160) noted it as common at Port Blair, and found many nests in small
trees just outside the forest in May and June. He also noted a ‘ pretty

characteristic song ’.
Walden (1874a) when naming the species only says it is different
from the Nicobar species, with no description.

1736. Zoothera citrina albogularis (Blyth) (Nicobars) Orangeheaded

Ground Thrush. :

Abbott obtained specimens from Trinkut, Nancowry, Kamorta, and

Katchal, where he said they frequented the darkest parts of the jungle,
keeping close to the ground.

1762. Turdus obscurus Gmelin (Lake Baikal) Dark Thrush.

- Blyth (1863) listed a specimen from the Andamans, Butler (1899:555)
shot a female on 14th May, and Osmaston (1906a: 160) saw. a’
solitary individual on 4th April. It is a rare straggler to the Andamans
only.

1857. Anthus novaeseelandiae richardi Vieillot (France) Paddyfield

Pipit. :

Hume (1874 : 239) found it common in the Andamans in April, secur-

ing 7 specimens, and saw it as late as 12th May. He did not see it in

the Nicobars. Ripley lists it as a winter visitor to the Andamans. I
did not see any pipits.

1863. Anthus godlewskii (Taczanowski) (Argun River, South Dauria)
Blyth’s Pipit. te
Walden (1874c : 136) refers to a male obtained in South Andamans
on 14th April, which appears to be the only record. eS

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3) -

1864. Anthus cervinus (Pallas) (Siberia) Redthroated Pipit.
This is a winter visitor to the Andamans and Nicobars where Hume
obtained specimens (1874 : 242) ; Osmaston on Barren Island (1908 : 358).

*1874 Mbotacilla indica Gmelin (Malabar) Forest Wagtail.
1 2 Wrightmyo, S. A.

A winter visitor to the Andamans. Davison saw it on several occa-
sions singly and in small parties. Osmaston (1906a: 161) noted it as
arriving early in October and leaving in April. He refers to its wagging
its tail sideways, not up and down as do the other wagtails.

The specimen was shot in heavy forest and I only saw one other, in

mangrove.

*1875. Mbotacilla flava thunbergi Billberg (Lapland) Greyheaded
Yellow Wagtail.
1 2 Choldhari, S. A.

*1876. Motacilla flava beema (Sykes) (Dukhun) Blueheaded Yellow
Wagtail. |

Hume (1874: 237) secured only 2 specimens of cinereocapilla Savi
(borealis Sundev. =thunbergi) but referred to large flocks and 26 speci-
mens of B. flava (with pale slaty blue head and conspicuous white
supercilium, i.e. beema) which he said occurred both in the Andamans
and Nicobars. Richmond (1903: 297) refers to 3 specimens from

Trinkut as flava.
On 12th February, I saw 3 parties of small birds, which appeared to

be yellow wagtails, flying over creek and mangrove at dusk, presumably
to roost. The first two were high and consisted of about 200 each.
while the latter flew low over the water.

Driving from Bakultala to Betapur on 23rd February, we saw Yellow
Wagtails in some numbers in several places.

The single specimen secured on South Andamans on 14th February
appears to be thunbergi, which is the only form listed for the Andamans
in the syNopsiIs, the Nicobars being completely omitted.

*1884. Motacilla caspica caspica (Gmelin) (Caspian Sea) Grey
Wagtail.
1 2 Car Nicobar: wing 79 mm., tail 73.
I saw several in South Andaman, and Hume (1874: 237) refers to
specimens killed in the first week in September, and on Preparis Island

as late as 26 March.
This appears to be a regular but not very common winter visitor.

Motacilla alba subsp. White Wagtail.
Captains Tytler and Beavan saw this species, which is recorded as
M. luzoniensis Scopoli by Blyth (1863b) and said to be common in cold

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 567

weather. Capt. Wimberley (Hume 1876: 291) obtained a specimen at
Port Blair in February, but it is not possible to determine its race.

*1903. Dicaeum concolor virescens Hume (Neighbourhood of Port
Blair) Plaincoloured Flowerpecker.

1 ¢ Wrightmyo, S. A. (wing 47 mm.); 2 92 Wrightmyo, S. A. (48 mm.),
Bakultala, M. A. (46 mm.).

This flowerpecker was frequently seen on Loranthus sp. in high trees
and also on the flowers of Sterculia colorata.

The male shot on 16th February had enlarged testes. Osmaston
(1906a : 161) said its note was a sharp click.

*1913. Nectarinia jugularis andamanica (Hume) (Andaman Group)
Yellowbreasted or Olivebacked Sunbird. .
2 00? Wrightmyo, 8S. A.; 1 4,19 Bakultala, M.A. bill 22, 21, 22, 18 from
feathers.

Ripley (1961 : 586) has treated the three forms from the Andamans,
Car Nicobar, and the Nicobars as subspecies of jugularis. While Iam
unable to comment upon this, it is noteworthy that in this form (anda-
manica), in addition to the larger bills, the males have an off plumage
with a dark stripe down the chin as in N. asiatica and a plain-coloured
forehead (glossy in the others). Ball (1880: 406) noted it at
Narcondam. ,

This sunbird was common in most places attending the flowers
of Loranthus sp., Sterculia colorata, and the drumstick.. The male
obtained on 22nd February had enlarged gonads.

- Butler (1899 : 559) took 2 fresh eggs on 30th May and said the nest
was very similar to that of asiatica. He also shot breeding birds on
20th January and 7th July.

Osmaston (1906a: 161) said they breed twice in the year, first in
February and again in May. ‘The nests were hung from some twig or
grass stem, often close to the ground, less frequently at some consider-
able height up in a shrub or tree.

*1914. Nectarinia jugularis klossi (Richmond) (Great Nicobar) Yel-
lowbreasted, or Olivebacked, Sunbird.
1 3,1 Q Nancowry : wings 52, 50°5 ; bill 17, 17, from feathers.

During a short visit to Nancowry, Shekar obtained a male and female
which are larger than the birds from Car Nicobar and may best be left
in this group. The male has the forehead glossy as in procelia.

Boden Kloss (1903: 133) refers to several nests of the sunbird
(Arachnothera klossi) from mangroves overhanging water. These in
shape were something like an old-fashioned net purse covered with lichen,
and were suspended from the ends of branches. There were two pale
brown eggs mottled with a darker pigment in each.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 61 (3)

Richmond (loc. cit.) recorded this from Car Nicobar, Trinkut, Tillang-
chong, Great and Little Nicobar. Birds from Car Nicobar now stand
as procelia. 7

*1915. Nectarinia jugularis procelia (Oberholser) (Car Nicobar) Yel-
lowbreasted, or Olivebacked, Sunbird.
1 &,19, Car Nicobar: wings 52, 46 ; bill 15°5, 15°5, from feathers.

This was described as similar to blanfordi (now klossi) but smaller
and with small bill (wing 49, culmen 16:5).

I saw many on Car Nicobar on 7th March, several visiting a patch
of small blue flowers hardly a foot off the ground, at the aerodrome,
together with Lonchura striata. ?

Davison (1874: 197) refers to a feeble, twittering, but pleasing little
song uttered by males from exposed perches. In this position it is said
to slightly open its wings and raise the axillary tufts.

Aethopyga siparaja nicobarica Hume (Kondal) Nicobar Yellow-
backed Sunbird.

This form described from specimens taken at Kondal, Nicobar, by
Hume (Stray Feathers 1 : 412) was again obtained by Abbott and Kloss
(Richmond 1903 : 143) in Great and Little Nicobar.

The SYNOPSIS omits this race as also the occurrence of the species in
the Nicobars. |

[ Arachnothera longirostris (Latham) (Bengal) Little Spiderhunter.
Tytler believed he saw it, but in the absence of any further records it
may be best to omit it from the Andaman list.]

*1936. Zosterops palpebrosa nicobarica Blyth (Nicobar) White-eye.

; 1 2 Bakultala, M.A. ; 2 ¢é¢ Car Nicobar.

Davison found young in February and Butler (1899 : 390) noted them
from both groups of islands, being more common in the Nicobars.
Osmaston, (1906a: 156) said they were fairly numerous around Port
Blair, where he found them breeding in June and July. I did not see
them often. A bird dissected by Blyth (1845 : 536) contained numerous
hard black seeds about the size of No. 8 shot. Abbott & Kloss (Rich-
mond 1903 : 288) said it was the commonest bird on Barren Island.

The bills of the specimens obtained are appreciably heavier than of
Indian birds, and this, together with the olive-green wash on the upper
plumage, shows a greater resemblance to Zosterops ceylonensis Holds-
worth from Ceylon than to Indian races of palpebrosa. Hume (1874:
242) noticed these characters but thought they were different from those
on which Blyth (loc. cit.) had separated the Nicobar birds, describ-
ing the upper parts as ‘greyish olive-green’. This was interpreted as a
‘general lighter colour above’ and prompted Richmond (1903 : 288)

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 569

to separate the single bird he obtained from Car Nicobar as Zosterops
ventralis.

*Passer domesticus subsp. House Sparrow.
. 2 SS Port Blair, S. A., 18th March 1964.

This is not mentioned by earlier observers. About half-a-dozen were
introduced on Ross Island, Andamans, in 1882 by Mr. O. H. Brookes,
who released another 20 in 1895 (Butler, 1899 : 557).

It is now quite co nmon at Port Blair, and I sawit at Choldhari,
South Andaman, too. The two specimens obtained are darker chestnut
above and have a broader chestnut stripe behind the eye than in Indian
birds, and appear very similar to those from Burma, which were at one
time accepted as confucius Bonaparte. The mail steamer in those days
apparently came from Rangoon, and it is not unlikely that birds were
brought in from Burma. |

[Passer montanus from Moulmein was introduced by Tytler (Beavan,
1866: 419) but, though it appears to have fared better than P.
domesticus introduced at the same time, there are no subsequent records
and it has probably died out.]

*1969. Lonchura striata fumigata (Walden) | (South Andamans)
Whitebacked Munia.

2 bo Pochang, S. A., Long Island, M.A.; 1 2 Long Island, M. A.; 1 0?
Bakultala, M. A.

This is restricted to the Andamans, being replaced by another race
in the Nicobars. It was noted on both South and Middle Andamans,
where I saw them singly, in pairs, and in flocks of about 50. The last
was on Long Island, where they visited the same patch of lawn every
afternoon, not being seen in the neighbourhood in the mornings,
indicating a regular circle of activity.

On 13th February, I saw one making a nest 20 ft. up in a tree,
on the edge of a forest. The nest, which was not closely examined,
appeared to be more compact than the usual munia’s nest seen around
Bombay. |

Osmaston (1906a : 160) took many nests in June and July.

*1970. Lonchura striata semistriata (Hume) (Nicobar Islands) White-
backed Munia.

“Butler (1899 : za said po were common and saw very young birds
in August.
- Abbott (Richmond 1903 : 297) noted them as common in the islands
with open grassland, and did not meet them in the southern islands
which are covered with dense forests. Isawthem near the aerodrome
at Car Nicobar, where they appeared to be common,

$70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (G) -
[Estrilda amandava was also introduced by Tytler at Port Blair, but
had disappeared by the time of Hume’s visit in 1873.]

{Lonchura malacca subsp. Blackheaded Munia.

\ The only record of this species from this area is Osmaston’s, who
(1906a : 160) saw three birds at Port Blair, and also noted them building.
He did not see them again, nor did anybody else. This was perhaps
another instance of an unsuccessful attempt at introduction. The inclu-
sion of this species among the hirds listed by B.S. Chengappa in the
Working Plan for Middle Andamans Forest Division, 1942-1951,
Part II, and based on Bonnington’s Census Report 1932, refers in all
probability to Osmaston’s note.]

2046. Emberiza aureola aureola Pallas (Irtysh River, Siberia) Yellow-

breasted Bunting.

A single female was shot by Davison in the Nicobars out of a

party of about 20, but was blown to pieces (Hume, 1874 : 258).

record is omitted in the SYNOPSIS.

2056. Emberiza pusilla Pallas

This

(Transbaikalian Alps) Little Bunting.

Wardlaw Ramsay shot a female on Mt. Harriet, South Andaman,
on 28th March (Hume, Stray Feathers 2 : 497).

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, HUMAYUN (1964): Four
new races of birds from the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 61 (2) : 410-417.

BAKER, E. C. STuarRT (1922-1930) :
Fauna of British India, Birds 1-8.

BALL, V. (1870a) : Brief notes on geo-
logy of Nancowry harbour. (Mammals
and PAA J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 39 (2):
29-34.

———— (1870b): Notes on birds
observed in the neighbourhood of Port
Blair, Andaman Islands, during the month
of August 1864. ibid. 39 (2) : 240-243.

———-— (1872): Notes on a Collec-
tion of birds made in the Andaman
Islands by Asst. Surgeon G. E. Dobson,
M.B., during the months April and May.
ibid. 41 (2) : 273-290.

———— (1873): List of birds known
to occur in the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. Stray Feathers 1: 51-90.
———— (1880) : Jungle Life in India.
Thos. De La Rue & Co., London.

BAYLEY-DECASTRO, A. (1933) : Early
arrival of snipe in ‘the Andamans. J.
’ Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36 : 1005-1007.
BEAVAN, CapPT. R. (1866): Letter to

Editor. Jbis 2: 419-420.

BEAVAN, CAPT. R. (1867): The Avi-
fauna of the Andaman Islands. Ibis 3:
314-334.

BIswAs, BISWAMOY (1964) : Comments
on Ripley’s A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF
INDIA AND PAKISTAN. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 60 (3) : 679-689.

BLYTH, E. (1845) : Notices and descrip-
tions of various new and little known
species of birds. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal
14 : 173-212 ; 546-602.

ibid. 15:

———— (1846a):
1-54.

—-——— (1846b) : Notes on the Fauna
of the Nicobar Islands. On collections
by Mr. Barbe and Capt. Lewis. ibid.

15 : 367-379.

———— (1863a): Catalogue of the
Birds of India. Jbis 1863 : 1-31; Corri-
genda. ibid. 369-370.

———— (1863b): Zoology of the
Andaman Islands. Appendix (pp. 345-
367 with Tytler’s notes) to Mouat-(1863)
(see below).

————— (1863c) : Report of the Cura-
tor, Zool. Dept. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal
32 : 85-89, bee Oe

ditto.

THE BIRDS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

BLYTH, E. (1866): Abstracts from letters
from Capt. Blair. Jbis 1866. 220-221.
1868): Letter to Editor.
Ibis 1868 : 131-133.

Butter, A. L. (1899): Birds of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 386-403 ;
555-571 ; 684-696.

———-———-—-— (1900) : ditto. ibid. 13:

CHASEN, F. N. (1939): The Birds of
the Malay Peninsula. The Birds of the
low country jungle and scrub. H. F.& G.
Witherby, London.

Davison, W. R. (1874), see Hume,
A. O. (1874).

FerRAR, M. L. (1932) : Bird Migration
notes from Port Blair. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 35 : 448-450.

-————- (1934): Daily flighting
of Flying Foxes (Pteropus giganteus).
ibid. 37: 214-215.

Hume, A. O. (1873): Additional re-
marks on the Avifauna of the Andamans.
Stray Feathers 1 : 304-310.

————-—-— (18736) : Novelties. ibid.
1 : 404-415.

———-——-—. (1874) : Contributions to
the ornithology of India : The Islands of
the Bay of Bengal. ibid. 2 : 29-324.

— (1874a): Additional
notes on the Avifauna of the Andaman
Islands. ibid. 2 : 490-501.

—— (1875) : Hypotaenidia ab-
normis sp. nov.? ; Strix de-Roepstorffi sp.
nov. ibid. 3: 389-391.

—————— (1876) : Additional notes
on the Avifauna of the Andaman Islands.
ibid. 5 : 279-294.

Koss, C. BopEN (1903): In the
Andamans and Nicobars. pp. 373. John
Murray, London.

Mouat, F. J. (1863) : Adventures and
Researches among the Andaman Island-
ers. Hurst & Blackett, London.

OSMASTON, B. B. (1905): A visit to
Narcondam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

16 : 620-622.

————-————. (1906a) : Notes on
Andaman birds with accounts of the
nidification of several species whose nests
and eggs have not been hitherto describ-
ed. ibid. 17 : 156-163 ; 486-491.

(1906b) : Mangroves
and Paroquets. ibid. 17 : 240.

————_—_-—-—-— (1907): A visit to
Sentinel Island. ibid. 18 : 201-202.
(1908): A visit to
ee Island, Andaman. ibid. 18: 357-

et ee rw

—

ns ee es

i er es ee a ee

STi

OsMASTON, B. B. (1933) : Some Anda-
man birds. ibid. 35 : 891-93.

Pollok, Lt.-Col. F.W. : (1879): Sport
in British Burmah, Assam, Cassyah and
Jyntiah Hills. 2 vols. Chapman & Hall,
London.

PoRTMAN, M. V. (1899): A history of
gue relations withthe Andamanese. 2
vols.

RICHMOND, CHARLES W. (1903) :
Birds collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott and
Mr. C. B. Kloss in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.
25 : 287-314.

Rrpey, If.,S. D. (1961) : A Synopsis of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay
Natural History Society.

ROBINSON, HERBERT C. (1927): The
Birds of the Malay Peninsula. The
Commoner Birds. H. F. & G. Witherby,

London.

(1928): ditto.
Birds of the Hill Stations.
Witherby, London.

So EY CHASEN, FN
(1936) : ditto. Sporting Birds. Birds of
the Shore and Estuaries. H. F. & G.
Witherby, London.

SEWELL, Mayor R. B. SEYMourR (1922):
A survey season in the Nicobar Islands
on the R. I. M.S. ‘ Investigator’, October
1921 to March 1922. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 28 : 970-989,

SSMYTHIES, BERTRAM E. (1953): The
Birds of Burma, pp. 668. Oliver & Boyd,
Edinburgh.

ST. JOHN, J. H. (1898) : Some notes on
Narcondam Hornbilletc, J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 12: 212-214.

TYTLER, R. C. (1867), see BEAVAN
CapT. R. (1867).

WALDEN, ARTHUR VISCOUNT (1866) :
Notes on Birds collected in Tenasserim
and in the Andaman Islands. Proc. zool,
Soc. : 537-556.

a (1873); On a-collection of
birds from the Andaman Islands. Jbis3:
296-321.

Gupta (18 74a):: . Description». of
some new species of birds (Geocichla
andamanensis, Ianthaneas nicobarica, Alce-
ao Beaaey Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 14:

The
H. F. & G.

—— (1874b): On Megapodius
trinkutensis Sharpe. ibid. 14: 163-164.
(1874c): On a further
collection of birds made by Lt. R. V.
Ramsay, F.Z.S., in the Andaman Islands
(also by Capt. Wimberley), Ibis
4: 127-149,

Colour-vision in Mammals |

Dr. GERTI DUCKER
Zoological Institute of the University of Munster, Germany

(With six text-figures)

The capacity of animals to perceive colours in their environment
may be considered as a very important biological achievement in the
course of the phylogenesis of organisms for, with the appearance of chro-
matic sensation, animals no longer perceive their environment only grey-
in-grey, i.e. they no longer draw visual distinctions merely by differences
in light intensity, but also by chromatic qualities—for instance, they dis-
tinguish between a red and a green, subjectively equal in light intensity,
by their chromatic degree. It is true, we do not know what kind of sen-
sation an animal really has when reacting positively on a wave-length of
let us say 690 my (i.e. red). But, as with us any stimulation of the retina
by a wave-length of 690 mw always runs parallel to the sensation of red,
we conclude by analogy that a similar process takes place in animals.
Nevertheless, in animals it would be more correct to speak only of ‘ re-
action to certain spectral colours * instead of ‘ colour-vision ’.

Among all the species of vertebrates colour-perception seems to %
least common in mammals. This is very probably due to the fact that
most of them are twilight animals, with whom colour-perception would
have no practical importance. By adaption to these animals’ manner of
living the colour-sensitive visual cells of the retina, the cones, were pre-
sumably reduced in favour of the cells enabling the vision of light and
dark, the rods. This explanation is supported by the fact that the colour-
sensitive cones are predominant in the retina of the reptiles, which are
poikilothermic and therefore mainly adapted to day-life.

There are mainly three different methods of studying animal colour-
perception: the histological, the physiological, and the psychological.

The already mentioned differentiation of the visual cells into cones
and rods makes it possible to draw conclusions as to a mammal’s ability
to see colours from mere histological data. According to the ‘ duplicity
theory ’ developed by von Kries, but modified today, the sensorial cells
of the retina called rods serve for the vision of light and dark, and the
cones for colour-vision. So we may assume that an animal having a
certain number of cones in its retina is capable of colour-vision, whereas
an animal which has only rods is colour-blind. Histological inquiries,

-COLOUR-VISION IN MAMMALS 573

however, cannot tell us which colours are perceived by animals and what
minimum of cones is sufficient for the perception of colours. Further-
more, the light- and colour-sensitive parts of the visual cells, the outer
segments of the rods and cones, usually decompose very quickly. As it is
just they that show the characteristic differences (whereas the more resis-
tant inner segments are frequently very similar), in many cases only un-
certain conclusions can be drawn. According to modern research, some
rods are even said to have the nature of cones. So one can easily under-
stand that the conclusions made in scientific writing are often
contradictory.

The physiologists, having developed aly recently electro-physiolo-
gical methods of investigation, try to get particulars of colour-vision by
stimulating the visual elements by means of coloured light, and recording
the electrical currents arising in the layer of the rods and cones or in the
visual nerve. The potential oscillations proceeding from the stimulation
of the visual cells are shunted by means of very thin electrodes, micro-
electrodes, which are mostly stuck in the upper layers of the retina.
When the diverse groups of visual cells are stimulated by means of light
of different wave-lengths, different curves of excitation will result in the
area of the primary photochemical processes, i.e. in the layer of the
rods and cones, and also in the corresponding nerve-fibres. It was
R. Granit (1947) who tried to separate certain tracts, i.e. certain recep-
tors and their corresponding fibres. According to his results, the so-
called ‘ dominators’ react upon a wide wave range with a maximum of
about 560 my. The so-called modulators, however, are excitable by
narrower ranges only. Granit distinguishes between three main kinds of
modulators : ‘

1. red-modulators, excitable by wave-lengths between 580 and 600 my,

2. green-modulators, excitable by 520 to 540 mp, and

3. blue-modulators, excitable by 450 to 470 mu.

The dominators are said to be much more numerous than the modulators.
As their curve of stimulation nearly coincides with that of spectral light
sensitivity, Granit holds them responsible for sensing light intensity,
whereas the modulators are said to govern the colour-sensitiveness
of the eye.

At this stage, one could ask whether these electro-physiological
methods do not render all the psychological examinations of living
animals superfluous. When taking the action potentials of single retinal
elements, Granit found a red- and a green-modulator in rats, a blue-
modulator in guinea pigs, and, finally, a red-, green-, and blue-modulator
in cats. So the existence of a colour-sense seems to be established in
these animals. Just rats and cats, however, are commonly denied colour-
vision by histologists and psychologists, and a number of authors, who
have made electro-physiological experiments themselves, have pointed

$74. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

out that selective reaction of retinal elements upon certain wave-lengths
does not necessarily imply that the central nervous system which receives
the impulses, i.e. the brain, is capable of a real distinction of colours.
This fact was stressed especially by K. Tansley (1949/50). So histological
and electro-physiological methods can only make colour-vision seem
probable and, though this probability may be increased where the indi-
cations by the two methods tally, no definite answer can be given by
them, because all the conditions of colour-vision are not combined in the
retina. In fact, the cones and their visual substances provide only the
preconditions, on which the data from the nerves and the central nervous
system are superimposed.

As we have seen, electro-physiological as well as histological methods
still involve factors of uncertainty ; the conclusive position, therefore,
must be attributed to psychological inquiry, namely to the training
method. In comparison with the two other disciplines the psychologists
have the advantage of being able to make varied inquiries with the living
animal without inconvenient operations. But it is not easy to get results
on the colour-perception of an animal, as the methods usually practised
with human beings cannot be applied to animals. Light of different
wave-lengths affects physio-electric processes on the retina, of which we
are subjectively informed through our sensations. In experiments,
therefore, we make statements about equality or inequality of colour
sensations as to colour, quality, and intensity. An animal, however,
cannot express its sensations in words. So we have to replace direct in-
formation by reaction upon particular acquired complexes. By special
methods of training, usually taking advantage of the animal’s food-
impulse, the psychologist tries to attain to as clear a reaction as possible
to light of different wave-lengths. Therein, it is most important to prove
that an animal does not distinguish the colours mately by differences
of light-intensity.

Methods of training in order to investigate the colour-sense of animals
have been used since the beginning of this century, but only during the
last twenty years have they become an exact experimental science. In
older treatises sources of error were not eliminated sufficiently : the
abovementioned distinction between chromatic differences and varia-
tions in the light intensity was paid no, or at least not enough, regard to,
and it was frequently not considered that olfactory impulses, varying
structures of the surface of the coloured papers made use of, or other
aids given unknowingly (‘ Lagedressur ’) could serve the animal as keys to
the solution of its task. In studies of recent date these sources of error
are usually attended to. Exact training experiments are carried out in
the following manner. An animal is first trained to distinguish a colour
and a shade of grey. To eliminate discrimination based only on different
light intensity, one has to prove that the animal is able to distinguish the

eee

COLOUR-VISION IN MAMMALS 575

colour from a large number of greys, e.g. from at least 30 to 60 shades of
grey. As at least one of these numerous shades of grey, i.e. intensities
of light, would have the same brightness—for the animal’s eye—as the
colour in question, a confusion at least at this level would be inevitable.
~ Only when an animal is able to distinguish the positive colour from all
the shades of grey, can one assume colour-vision.

In most such training experiments coloured papers were used ; in
others use was made of monochromatic light. In the former case one
can only ascertain whether an animal perceives yellow, green, blue, or red
as being something different from grey. The second method is more
favourable in so far as the discriminated colours are exactly defined by
their wave-lengths, and as the wave-ranges perceived can be marked off
more sharply from one another. Indeed, the general statement of
colour-perception forms the only basis for an exact analysis. For even
if it is established that red, yellow, etc. are being distinguished from all
the shades of grey, yet it is not at all certain that the animal is able to
differentiate them from one another. For example, an animal tested
on one of these colours may be unable to differentiate this colour from
the neighbouring colours, thus reducing the number of different colour-
ranges perceptible by the animal, as has actually happened with a number
of ungulates. On the other hand it must be considered that an incapacity
to differentiate between related colours, e.g. red and violet or yellow and
green, might also be caused by a bad memory as the animal would have
to compare memory-images to sensations. Generally studies concerning
animal colour-perception contented themselves with the statement of
the ranges perceived, without further delimitation of the ranges differen-
tiated from one another ; so the picture we have concerning the colour-
vision of most of the species investigated is still incomplete.

The training methods which have been used are manifold. But, as
the invention of exact methods adjusted to the question under investiga-
tion and to the animal being experimented on is essential for the acquisi-
tion of new biological knowledge, it may be of interest to describe at least
a few of the experimental arrangements invented to test colour-vision in
animals.

A divergent method, though well adapted to the natural behaviour,
for example a cat’s play with its prey, was used by C. Buchholtz (1952).
She set up an experimental arrangement with mouse-models. One of
these models, distinctly coloured, was moved to and fro in front of the
cat. In the experiment that followed the animal had to find out this
colour from five or six models coloured grey or otherwise. The reward
consisted in the fact that the right model was moved by the experimenter
immediately after discovery, thus becoming a play-object. If the cat
chose wrong, the model would remain motionless, that is to say it was
unfit for playing with.

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

The colour-perception of the ever lively squirrels was recently
examined by D. Meyer-Oehme (1957) using Lashley’s jumping method.
He used discrimination between three simultaneous stimuli involving
reward and punishment. The experimental arrangement consisted of a
chest, from which the animals had to jump off, and a vertical signal-
board with three little doors, which showed the coloured and grey papers.
In front of the doors were little landing-boards lying on compressing
springs, which were to open the doors automatically as soon as the
landing-boards were weighted. If the squirrel jumped right, i.e. to the
positive signal, the door would open the way to a feed-box hanging be-
hind the signal-board. If it jumped wrong, the little door would not open.

; Fig. re Choice apparatus used by Meyer-Oehme

To right : Chest surrounded by wire lattice, from where animal had to jump.
Left : vertical signal board with 3 little doors showing coloured papers. In front
of doors, landing boards.

Very different, too, are Some of the methods which have been applied
tO examine the colour-perception of monkeys. While in most of the
experiments the stimulus remains stationary, so that the animal has to
move towards it, in the experimental arrangement of W. Koehler (1915)
the animals remained in their place and had to draw up the coloured
objects by means of a stick, the choice being between two little boxes of
different colours. In a later study (1918) Koehler got the animals to
point at the boxes and then himself pushed the boxes towards them.
Indistinct pointing was not taken notice of, so that the animal was forced
to aclear determination. __ | ee 7

~ COLOUR-VISION IN MAMMALS. : e507

The Russian (Soviet) woman-scientist N. Kohts (1928) tested the
colour-perception of a chimpanzee by discrimination according to certain
patterns. The animal was set the task of choosing from a number of
coloured objects those that were identical with a pattern shown by the
experimenter.

An optomotorical reaction was used by Trincker & Berndt (1959) to
verify the colour-perception of guinea pigs. The experimental animals
were in a glass cylinder, suspended inside a wider one that rested on a
rotating turn-table. The inner surface of the outer cylinder was furnished
with vertical alternate strips of grey-coloured paper, making it possible
to combine any colour with a number of interchangeable shades of grey.
This cylinder was turned round the motionless inner cylinder containing
the animals. This method is based upon the fact that a moving object
generally causes involuntary motions of the eyes, or also of the head, the
eye following the moving object so that the picture on the retina remains
the same for some time ; once the turn of the eye has reached a certain
degree, however, the eye springs back into its normal position, and a new
object is fixed. This changing of the eye with a slow motion in the way
of the rotation of the eylinder (1st phase) and a quick one the opposite
way (2nd phase) is called ‘nystagmus’. When colour-perception is
tested in such a rotating cylinder, these movements of the eye naturally
appear only if the moving strips are really perceived by the animals. If
an animal is not able to discriminate a colour, the subjective intensities
of the colour and of at least one of the greys will be equal, and the animal
will perceive the inner side of the cylinder as being uniform. Con-
sequently, no nystagmus will ensue, as the moving strips are not
differentiated. Unfortunately, this method is not applicable to all the
species of mammals. In dogs and monkeys, for instance, the optokinetic
nystagmus can be evoked—if at all—only in an imperfect way.

As an example of a more general method I now want to describe.an
experimental arrangement in detail, which I myself applied on some
civets and cats. The testing method was choice between two or three
stimuli presented simultaneously with food-reward when the solution was
correct. The training took place in the roomy living-cage of the animals.
In order to exclude any optical influence from the experimenter, I screened
the choosing side of the cage with a black wooden sheet with a square
hole in it, through which the choosing field could be watched by means
of a mirror. The experimental equipment, which was installed in the
cage before the beginning of an experiment, consisted of a cubic choosing-
box furnished with a thin wire-lattice at its upper side, and a trap-door
separating the box from the cage. Towards this door the experimental
animal was led by two wooden plates that were arranged in the manner of
an eel-basket. Through the wire-lattice of the trap-door the_ animal
could already perceive the coloured papers on the choosing apparatus,

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

which was centrally lighted from above, before the door was opened
(Fig. 2). The actual choosing arrangement itself consisted of two square

Fig. 2. Arrangement used in author’s experiments

A = choice apparatus, F = trap-door between box and cage. The animal was
led towards trap-door by two wooden plates ( = R) arranged in the manner of an
eel-basket. K = a door which can be opened to put choice apparatus into box.

- feeding-dishes fixed on a stalked board, which could be covered up with
two wooden tablets of equal size. The tablets, that had to be removed
by the animals, were lined with standardized coloured or grey pigmented
papers. As a grey-series I used a series of 60 shades from white to black.
To exclude secondary keys to the solution, for instance varying structure
of surface of the papers or scents of colour, I covered the coloured papers
with wax. During the training the negative food container also contained
food, kept out of reach under a lattice of gauze, and so no training on o!-
factory stimuli could take place. In the tests both sides were supplied
with attainable food. To prevent a training according to position the
colour was placed on the right or on the left in random succession. If
the animals were able to discriminate the positive colour from numerous
shades of grey, that is to say if they always opened the food container
covered with the coloured lid, I was allowed to assume that they had
really distinguished the colour from the greys.

The training proceeded as follows: First, the animals were
trained upon a certain colour contrasting with black. A mongoose for
instance learned to discriminate green from black after 500 trials. In
the following test the positive colour remained constant while the black

ate ae

COLOUR-VISION IN MAMMALS 579

was being replaced by grey becoming gradually lighter and lighter up to
white. Every shade of grey was presented 50 times, always contrasting
with the colour. A task was considered as being mastered if the percen-
tage of correct choice was 80% at least. In this way I was able to show
good colour-perception in mongooses but not in civets, genets, and
domestic cats. The following diagram (Fig. 3) may serve as an example
of the interpretation of tests like these.

25°24 22.2229 20°19 18 17 16 15 16.13 12 17 10-9 8.7 °G § G9 3--2-7

Fig. 3. Results of tests : discrimination of blue from grey

———— = domestic cats 3. = Viverricula malaccensis ;.+-:-:-:- =
Herpestes edwardsi. Abscissa : types of grey from dark (25) to "white (1).
Ordinate : percentage of right choice.

°F he diagram shows that only the mongoose was able to discriminate
the colour (here blue) from all degrees of grey. The curve of the mon-
goose nearly remains constant ; this means that the animal always dis-
criminated the colour from all the greys at a percentage of 85 to 95.
The curves of the civet and the cats, however, fall as soon as the colour is
contrasted with lighter shades of grey. The conclusion is that, with grey
having the same subjective light intensity as the colour, these animals
totally confounded the colour with the grey. Only about 50% of the
choices were correct ; so we must say they were only casual. It is in-
teresting to see that after a zone of confusion the curves go on falling.
This means that the animals had not at all perceived and learned the
colour, but only the light intensity, and they had only responded to the
relation of light and dark. Once the grey was distinctly brighter than the
offered colour, cats and civets now chose the grey. When trained upon
yellow the animals behaved similarly. With the civets, however, I got

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

different results when I trained them on green (Fig. 4) and red (Fig. 5).
As before there are shades of grey which are confounded with the colours,
but the curve rises again after the zone of confusion. Moreover, in

30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 2t 20/19 18 17 16 75 19 $312 11 10 (9 One? eG aS

Fig. 4. Test-results : discrimination of green from grey

———— = domestic cats; sv = Viverricula malaccensis ; ++-:+:+ .

Herpestes CWA. Abscissa : types of grey from dark (30) to light grey (5).
Ordinate : percentage of right choices.

30 29 28°27 26 25 24 23 22 2020/19 18-17 A615 16142 IT 409 oe en,

Fig. 5. Test-results : discrimination of red from different types —
of grey

COLOUR-VISION IN MAMMALS 581

this range the values are still about 60%. To test whether the previous
confusion was caused by an incapacity to differentiate the colours from
certain shades of grey, and whether there had taken place a choice accord-
ing to absolute light intensity before, | now trained some civets on red
and green contrasting with the greys which had caused confusion. In
the course of the training I noticed slow improvement of the animals’
power of discrimination (Fig. 6). So we may assume that civets do per-
ceive red and green as colours and that they made a qualitative distinction

50 100-150 200, 250° 300 300% 400

Fig. 6. Learning curve and Test-result of Viverricula:
discrimination of red from grey

I. Learning curve. The animal was trained on red contrasting with grey of
a light intensity which had formerly caused confusion. II. Test-result : discrimina-
tion of red and a second level of grey vit had also been confounded. Abscissa :
number of trials.

in the tests. But the colour-sense seems to be only little developed.
The primary orientation seems to take place according to light intensi-
ties ; later, when the experimental series are continued, more notice is
taken of the colour element. So the results vary very much with
individual animals.

Which mammals have now been tested with respect to their colour-
perception up to now, and what were the results of these inquiries? I
am going to answer these questions by giving a survey beginning with the
more primitive groups and ascending to the higher ones (Table at pp.
582 & 583). The marsupials and insectivora have been only very little
taken in consideration hitherto. Among the former only the opossum
(Didelphis virginiana) has been inquired into. It is safe to say that this
animal is incapable of chromatic sensation. With the hedgehog
(Erinaceus europaeus) a positive result was yielded with regard to yellow,
but not with blue ; other colours were not examined.

582. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)
TABLE

COLOUR-VISION IN MAMMALS WHICH HAVE BEEN TESTED UP TO NOW :
RESULTS ARRIVED AT BY TRAINING METHOD

Note: -+ = the animal can perceive the colour; — = the animal is
incapable of this chromatic sensation; (+) = results are contradictory but
probably the animal has a colour sense ; (—) = results are contradictory but most
authors deny colour-vision ; ? = this colour has not been examined.

Tested Animals Notes

Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet

{
MARSUPIALIA |
Opossum
(Didelphis virginiana) — } ? |—|—|—|?

INSECTIVORA
Hedgehog
(Erinaceus europaeus) Pe Ns Webigas | eapematce ool le

|
RODENTIA |
Rat
(Rattus norvegicus) HOH)? OMI) ?
House-mouse
(Mus musculus) —)|\ ? MMC) ?
Wood-mouse
(Apodemus sylvaticus) seal Pate he fee
Vole
(Clethrionomys glareolus) | + | ?.| +|—|—| ?.
Golden hamster peas PR os
(Mesocricetus auratus) — | 2? .|—-| —|— 1 ?-
Guinea pig
(Cavia cobaye) | pasate Baliye apis tae
Squirrel
‘CSciurus vulgaris) Sry ernie
+

e+ my mee

Ground squirrel Aiea sl
(Citellus citellus) ae

LAGOMORPHA
Rabbit aS:
(Ory ctolagus eS) 1? MHWHo i) ?

Casnawons
Polecat Orr
(Putorius putorius) +1]? |+]+ | + |) ? | But only less sénsitive
a to green and yellow.

Mink

(Putorius: lutreola) a hue 9 —|-+ | —| ? | Reaction on yellow and
blue less unequi-

| vocal.
Pine-Marten |

(Martes martes) ate asee eee ty ae
—Berret

(Putorius furo) + | ?,}/—}]—|— | ? | Only little sensitive to

red.

Stoat |
(Mustela erminea) SEEN Ay ale SA anal ah a heme?
Raccoon
_ (Procyon lotor) i all) cl Ne ee ec te

COLOUR-VISION IN MAMMALS

Tested Animals |

| Orange

Dog
(Canis familiaris)

Cat
(Felis domesticus)

Civet-cat

(Viverricula malaccensis)
Mongoose

(Herpestes edwardsi)
Genet

(Genetta tigrina)

UNGULATA
Horse y

(Equus caballus) a8
Zebu

Sheep
Dwarf-goat
(Capra hircus)

Red deer
(Cervus elaphus)

Antelope
(Boselaphus tragocamelus)

Giraffe
(Giraffa camelopardalis)

PRIMATES
Tupaya
(Tupaia glis)
Rhesus
(Macaca mulatta)
Pigtailed macaque
(Macaca nemestrina)
Baboon
(Papio papio)
Longtailed macaque e
(Pithecus faseicularis)
Longtailed monkey
(Cercopithecus callitrichus)
Capuchin monkey
(Cebus apella)
Spider monkey
(Ateles)
Gibbon
(Hylobates lar)
Chimpanzee
(Pan troglodytes)
Orang-Utan
(Pongo pygmaeus)

+ ++ |

(—) |

+ + + + + +

(+) (+)

Limited colour sense.
Primary _ orientation
_ to differences in in-
| tensity, but training
' On colours is at least
| possible.
| Results are contradic-

tory but most of the
| authors deny colour
vision.

Cannot distinguish

orange, yellow, and
green from one
another.
Distinguishes only 3
colour regions: 1.
violet througn red up
to yellow, 2. yel-

lowish green to green,
3. blue.

Cannot distinguish red
from violet.

| Cannot distinguish red,
orange, and yellow

from one another.

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. See Vol. 61 (3)

The greatest number of such sbudiés is coacenicd ai cadena es-
pecially rats and mice. In spite of some contradictory results colour-
vision seems to be lacking in rats, white and grey house-mice, and wood-
mice (Apodemus sylvaticus).. Voles (Clethrionomys glareolus), however,
could be trained on red and yellow though not on green and blue.
Generally speaking, those rodents which have only a feeble sense of colour
seem to be able to discriminate long wave-lengths at the most. With
regard to golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) no colour-perception
could be traced by means of the training method, whereas tthe diurnal
guinea pigs (Cavia cobaya) and squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) have a well-
developed sense of colour. They are able to discriminate yellow, green,
red, and blue from numerous shades of grey. Only when a colour was
contrasting with another colour squirrels had in the beginning difficulties
in differentiating yellow froma yellowish green. In recent studies the
ground-squirrel (Citellus citellus), too, proved itself capable of colour-
Vision. | |

As for the lagomorphs there are studies on the colour-vision of rabbits
(Oryctolagus cuniculus), the result being negative.

We know very little, too, about the colour-vision of many carnivores,
Taking into account the nocturnal life of most of them, for a long time
all the species of this order of mammals were considered as achromates.
But it appeared that some of them have a marked power of ‘colour-
perception. Among the mustelids, polecats and martens are colour-blind
according to older studies, but later a perception of at least some colours
was traced in other mustelids, and also in a polecat (Putorius putorius)
that could be trained on the four primary colours, though it proved less
sensitive to green and yellow. A mink (Putorius lutreola), on the con-
trary, was sensitive to red and green, whereas yellow and blue. were
reacted upon less unequivocally. The pine-marten (Martes martes)
perceives only blue as a chromatic quality, and is blind to red, yellow, and
green. The ferret (Putorius furo), on the other hand, is only little sensitive
to red, and blind to yellow, green, and blue. The stoat (Mustela erminea)
perceives all the primary colours, whereas raccoons (Procyon lotor) are
totally colour-blind. Dogs (Canis familiaris) have been tested most fre-
quently. Although here, too, the results of the experiments are often
contradictory, one may assume that dogs do have a limited colour-
sense. Nevertheless, it is not impossible that different races dogs
behave differently.

House-cats (Felis domesticus) have been fested by numerous: authors,
with greatly varying results. Yet most of the authors, and myself, deny
a colour-perception in cats, or they think it possible that their colour-
sense is developed so poorly that it is hardly ever traceable with certainty.

With regard to viverrids, in my experiments a small civet (Viverricula
malaccensis) proved to be blind to yellow and blue ; a positive result was

COLOUR-VISION IN MAMMALS 585

obtained only with red and green. In addition to the four primary
colours, an Indian mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) was able to discri-
minate orange and violet from all the shades of grey, even those of equal
light-intensity. When I offered colours only, difficulties arose in dis-
criminating between red and violet, red and orange, green and blue, and
violet and blue. Genets (Genetta tigrina) are totally colour-blind.

Among the ungulates horses (Equus caballus) recognized yellow, green,
and blue by their chromatic qualities, whereas the training on red was
difficult. It was similar with a zebu, but it confounded some colours,
namely green, yellow, and orange with one another. Sheep were tested
only with respect to the colours red, yellow, and blue. The result was
positive. A Nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus) performed its
training tasks correctly only with respect to yellowish green, yellow,
orange, and red ; green and blue were both mistaken for a number of
greys. A female red deer (Cervus elaphus) learnt to discriminate the four
primary colours from grey ; when offered colours only she succeeded in
differentiating the ranges from violet to red, orange to yellow, and yellow-
ish green to green and blue. A dwarf-goat (Capra hircus) was not able
to differentiate violet and red, red and yellow, yellowish green and green
from one another, though it discriminated any of these colours from all
the greys. Finally, giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) cannot distinguish,
one from another, red, orange, and yellow, which are obviously perceived
as one homogeneous chromatic range. But they, too, proved able to
recognize all the colours when contrasting with numerous greys. In
general one may say that in ungulates the capacity to discriminate colours
from one another is rather limited.

With respect to our own colour-sense that of the monkéys is of special
interest. A number of prosimiae, as for instance the lemurs, are totally
colour-blind, but Tupaias, which are not nocturnal have a well-developed
colour-sense. Among the catarrhine group the rhesuses (Macaca mulatta),
pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina), baboons (Papio papio), long-
tailed macaques (Pithecus fascicularis), and long-tailed monkeys (Cerco-
pithecus callitrichus) have a fully developed trichromatic colour sense
like human beings, though a certain under-sensitiveness to red was
traceable in baboons and rhesuses. The platyrrhine group, on the con-
trary, namely the species Cebus (capuchin monkey) and Ateles (spider
monkey) are dichromates. Especially with capuchin monkeys the
experiments proved red-blindness.

A slightly reduced sensitiveness to red was found in chimpanzees,
too ; yet there is no valid reason to speak of a decrease in the trichromatic
system. In fact, according to other studies, chimpanzees are said to
perceive the long-wave end of the spectrum even a little further than
normal-sighted human beings. Orang-utans and gibbons (Hylobates
ar) are also capable of colour-vision,

§86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

According to the results of experiments with monkeys made hitherto
the catarrhine group obviously holds an intermediate position between

the dichromatic platyrrhines and the trichromatic human beings.

They

generally show a slight tendency towards protanopy.
Considering once more most of the results we find colour-vision in
representatives of various orders, in phylogenetically low groups as well

as in higher ones.
species of monkeys.

Its state of development is highest with the highest
Yet colour-vision could be proved with certainty
in such animals only as are predominantly diurnal.

The majority of the

nocturnal animals proved to be colour-blind.

REFERENCES

AuTRuM, H. (1958): Farbensehen der
Wirebeltiere. TZabulae Biologicae 22:
33:

— — —~ (1960) : Vergleichende physio-
logie des Farbensehens. Fortschr. d.
Zool. 12.2 176:

BackHaAus, D. (1959a): Experimen- —

telle Untersuchungen tiber die Sehschiirfe
und das Farbensehen einiger Huftiere.
Z. Tierpsychol, 16 : 445.

(1959b) : Exp2rimeéntelle
Prifung des Farbsehvermégens einer
Massai-Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis
tippelskirchi Matschie 1898). Z. Tier-
psychol, 16 : 468.

BUCHHOLTZ, C. (1952) : Untersucnun-
gen tiber das Farbensehen der Hauskatze.
Z. Tierpsychol, 9 : 462.

Ducxer, G. (1957): Farb- und
Helligkeitssehen und Instinkte bei Vi-
verriden und Feliden. Zool. Beitradge
NF 3: 25.

— — — (1959): Fortschritte in der
Ermittlung des Farbsehens bei Sauge-
tieren. Naturw. Rundschau 11 : 405.

— —w— (1961): Farbensinn _ bei
Sdugetieren. Umschau 8: 231.

GEWALT, W. (1959): Beitrage zur
Kenntnis des optischen Differenzier-
ungsvermOgens einiger Musteliden iit
besonderer Berticksichtigung des Far-
bensehens. Zool. Beitrage NF 5: 117.

GRANIT, R. (1947): Sensory Mecha-

nism of the retina. Oxford Univ. Press,
London.
GRZIMEK, B. (1952): Versuche tiber
das Farbensehen von Pflanzenessern I.
Das farbige Sehen von Pferden. Z.
Tierpsychol. 9 : 23.

KOHLER, W. (1915, 1918): Bermer=

kungen zu dem Nachweis_ einfacher
Strukturfunktionen beim Schimpansen
und beim Haushuhn. Abh. Preuss. Akad.
Wiss., Phys.-math. Kl. Nr. 2.
Kouts, N. (i928): Recherches sur
intelligence du chimpanzé par laméthode
de choix d’ aprés modeéle. J. de Psychol.
5: * .
MEYER-OEHME, TD. (1957): Dressur-
versuche an Eichhornchen zur Frage ihres
Helligkeits- und Farbensehens. Z.
Tierpsychol. 14 : 473.
TANSLEY, K. (1949/50): Vision.
Symposia Soc. Exper. Biol. 4: 19.
TicGces, J. (1963a): Untersuchungen
iiber den Farbensinn von Tupaia glis
(Diard 1820). Z. Morph. Anthrop. 53:
109.

— — — (1963b) : On Color Vision in

Gibbon and Orang-Utan. Folia primat
1: 188.
TRENDELENBURG,, H. (1943): Der
Gesichtssinn. Berlin. |
TRINCKER, D. & BERNDT, P. (1957):
Optomotorische Reaktionen und Far-
bensinn beim. Meerschweinchen. Z.,
vergl. Physiol. 39 ; 607. é

ait

The Flora of Hare and- Jats Islands
off Tuticorin

D. DANIEL SUNDARARAJ, AND M. NAGARAJAN
Agricultural College & Research Institute, Coimbatore

(With a map)

(Communicated by the Dean, He elliagtal Silliges & Research
Institute, Coimbatore)

There are at least nine well-known islands situated in the Gulf of
Mannar, off Tuticorin coast, which lie at lat. 8°48’ N. and long. 78°11’ E
These are locally known as Upputhanni Theevu (Salt-water Island),
Nallathanni Theevu (Fresh-water Island), Shuli Theevu, Karia Shuli
Theevu, Vilangu Shuli Theevu, Koswari Theevu, Cronjee Theevu, Van
Theevu (Church Island), and Pandiyan Theevu (Hare Island or Light-
house Island). All these islands are situated within a radius of about
22 kilometres from Tuticorin port; of them Hare Island and Church
Island are situated at 45 and 6°5 kilometres respectively. Hare
Island has about 58°85 hectares (143°5 a. or 0°22 sq. mile) of land while
Church Island has about 22 hectares (52°4 a. or 0°08 sq.mile) of land.
All these islands appear to be the eroded relics of a once existent
continent or vast stretch of land which subsided into the sea in the hoary
past. Even now at least some of them are said to be subsiding at an
imperceptibly slow rate, as is evidenced by the submersion of the once
existent church, of which the tower alone is now visible.

Pandiyan Theevu or Hare ‘Island’, the bigger of the two, is also
known as Lighthouse Island due to the presence of a lighthouse at its
northern extremity. It is connected with the mainland by a narrow neck
of: land which is submerged on occasions when there are very high tides.
Church Island which lies to the north of. Hare Island is really an island
and is surrounded by sea.several fathoms deep.

Church Island is not inhabited. Fishermen and kunkur-stone
gatherers occasionally visit the island. Due to the exposed nature of
this small island there is no tree growth and so it does not afford any
opportunity for fuel gatherers. As such the. vegetation of this island can
be deemed to be a natural. one not interfered with. by either man or
cattle, :

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Hare Island has a lighthouse, and an official in charge of the
lighthouse lives near the northern extremity of the island. Further,
since the island is more or less continually joined with the mainland by

CHURCH ISLAND
(VAN THEEVU)

e/ TUTICORIN

HARE ISLAND
(PANDIVAN THEEVU)

CRONJEE
THEEVU
)

| MULLUKKADU PONNIYADI THEEVU

‘Hare and Church Islands and the near-by coast

a narrow isthmus, grazing animals are often found on it. Also, fuel
gatherers and kunkur-stone cutters make frequent visits. These biotic
factors influence the composition of the vegetation.

The soil of Church Island is mainly sandy. The main soil- ti pe in
Hare=Island-is sandy loam. The whole of the coastal belt on the east
and on the northern narrow strip carries sand which rises in small
dunes, affected by wind, resulting in shifting of the sand wherever
there is sparse vegetation. The south-western depressed portion of the
island has calcareous rocks exposed by the waves of the sea with th,

THE. FLORA OF. HARE AND CHURCH ISLANDS 589

calcareous stones and soil extending some distance into the island. The
southern region which is connected with the mainland by a very narrow
isthmus has low-lying saltflats interposed here and there with small
pockets of depressions wherein it is marshy.

The average rainfall is nearly 94 cm. and the major portion of the
rain is received during the NE. monsoon. The rains are heavy usually
in the months of October-November. The hottest part of the year is
from April to September though, with the strengthening of the monsoon
on the west coast of India, a few drizzles are received in July. The maxi-
mum temperature ranges from 28° to 39°C. and the minimum tempera-
ture from 20° to 25°C. The islands are exposed to strong winds during
June-July with the wind moving from the south-westerly direction.

These islands were visited in May 1944, February 1945, January 1957,
and the last survey was conducted during May 1961. The aspects and
composition of the natural vegetation in the two islands are presented in
this paper.

We are thankful to the various officers of the Fisheries Department
and the Port Officials at Tuticorin who gave us all facilities and help
during the various visits to the above islands. The authors are also
thankful to Dr. Sebastine, Systematic Botanist, Botanical Survey of India,
Southern Circle, Coimbatore, who has very kindly gone through the
manuscript and has given valuable suggestions for improvement.

GENERAL ASPECT AND COMPOSITION OF VEGETATION

i. Church Island. The vegetation of Church Island has been recorded
by Srinivasan (1960, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 348-353), who has
listed 28 species representing 13 families. In the surveys conducted by
the present authors, 54 species representing 46 genera and 24 families
have been collected. An account of the aspects not covered by Srini-
vasan is given here.

The shallow submerged littoral region carries aquatic species of Halo-
phila ovata Gaud., Ruppia maritima Linn., and Cymodocea serrulata
Aschers. & Magn. in mixed population. The foreshore is clothed with
extensive formations of Sesuvium portulacastrum Linn. along with Suaeda
fruticosa Forsk. and S. monoica Forsk.. These form a continuous belt
of nearly three to four metres width. Occasionally a pure community of
Sesuvium portulacastrum \.inn. is met with towards the water-line along
with Arthrocnemum indicum Mog. and Salicornia brachiata Roxb. It
was interesting to note a single circular patch of Opuntia dillenii Haw.
in this belt extending over three metres in diameter. Along the peri-
phery of this patch towards the interior side a few clumps of Aloé bar-
badensis Mill. were also noticed. Abutting the Suaeda-Sesuvium belt
in the interior were the associated plant communities of tall Cyperus

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

pachyrrhizus Nees and Halopyrum mucronatum Stapf. The continuity
of this plant belt is interrupted here and there by Dichrostachys cinerea
W. & A., Acacia planifrons W. & A., A. latronum Willd., Zizyphus mauri-
tiana Lamk., and Scaevola plumieri Vahl with Oldenlandia umbellata
Linn. and Enicostemma hyssopifolium (Willd.) Verdoorn forming the
lower tier of vegetation. The Cyperus-Halopyrum association is followed
towards the interior of the island by the formation of Cymbopogon
caesius (Nees) Stapf, Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf, and Aris-
tida depressa Retz. Cyperus arenarius Retz. and Bulbostylis barbata
Kunth were found to occur along the periphery of the Cymbopogon-
Dichanthium-Aristida belt. This belt is broken here and there by the
inroading of species like Cenchrus ciliaris Linn.. C. ciliaris var. echi-
oides Hook. f., Striga asiatica (Linn.) O. Kuntze, S. euphrasioides Benth.,
Crotalaria verrucosa Linn., Phaseolus trilobus Ait., Indigofera oblongi-
folia Forsk., and T ephrosia purpurea Pers. which, excepting Striga asiatica
(Linn.) O. Kuntze and S. euphrasioides Benth., occupy the rest of the
area of the island. The sand mounds which lie scattered in the vicinity
of this region are all covered by the associated species of Spinifex litto-
reus (Burm. f.) Merr., Ipomoea pes-caprae (Linn.) Sweet, and Launaea
sarmentosa (Willd.) Alston. In the damp low-lying areas of the interior
of the island were seen extensive but open formations of Atriplex stocksii
Boiss. alternating with Coelachyrum lagopoides (Burm.f.) Senaratna,
Sporobolus elongatus R.Br., and S. marginatus Hochst. ex A. Rich.
Sparse but widely occurring species were Chloris inflata Link., Aerva
lanata Juss., Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn., and Gisekia pharnaceoides
Linn. In the central portion widely scattered thickets of Indigofera
oblongifolia Forsk., I. viscosa Lamk., and Clerodendrum inerme Gaertn.
have been noticed. The herbaceous species found to occur densely in
this area was Enicostemma hyssopifolium (Willd.) Verdoorn. A note-
worthy feature in the vegetation of this area is the occurrence of small
patches of Crotalaria verrucosa Linn. which produces unusually long
(about 2 to 24 feet) dense inflorescences.

ii. Hare Island. Ware Island or Lighthouse Island (Pan-
diyan Theevu) exhibits a peculiar type of vegetation usually met with in
scrub jungles found on the east coast of south India. Species like Com-
miphora berryi (Arn.) Engl., Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk., Dodonaea
viscosa Linn., Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr., Cassia auriculata
Lamk., Dichrostachys cinerea W. & A., Acacia planifrons W. & A.,
A. latronum Willd., Achyranthes aspera Linn., Aerva lanata Juss., A.
javanica (Burm. f.) Spr., Cissus quadrangularis Linn., Polygala chinensis
Linn., Borreria hispida (Linn.) K. Schum., Abutilon indicum G.Don,
Jatropha glandulifera Roxb., Coccinia cordifolia (Linn.) Cogn., Dichan-
thium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf, and Chloris inflata Link. which consti-
tute this type of vegetation have been found to occur scattered all over

ioe eae

fe it ka ct

THE FLORA OF HARE AND CHURCH ISLANDS 591

the island. The other arboreal species recorded in the island are Thes-
pesia populnea Cav., and the recent arrival Prosopis juliflora DC.

Among the herbaceous species which constitute the bulk of the vege-
tation of this island Crotalaria verrucosa Linn., Phaseolus trilobus Ait.,
Blumea obliqua (Linn.) Druce, Vernonia cinerea Less., Oldenlandia
umbellata Linn., Cassia auriculata Lamk., Portulaca tuberosa Roxb.,
Polygala chinensis Linn., Aerva lanata Juss., A. javanica (Burm.f.) Spr.,
Glinus oppositifolius (Linn.) A.DC., Justicia tranquebariensis Linn.f., and
Boerhavia diffusa Linn. preponderate over the rest of the species seen in
Church Island. The submerged aquatics of the foreshore were
constituted by Halophila ovata Gaud., Ruppia maritima Linn., and Cymo-
docea serrulata Aschers. & Magn. |

On the sandy beaches Alcé barbadensis Mill. was found to occur in
isolated patches. A little interior to this region good specimens of
Salvadora persica Linn. were found to occur. The bulk of the tussocks
were formed by Cenchrus ciliaris Linn., its variety echioides Hook f.,
C. setigerus Vahl, and Cymbopogon caesius Stapf. Among the other
species constituting the grass flora of the island Coelachyrum lagopoides
(Burm.f.) Senaratna, Halopyrum mucronatum Stapf, Sporobolus elongatus
R.Br., and S. marginatus Hochst. ex A.Rich. are worth mentioning. On
the sand mounds were seen dense thickets of Clerodendrum inerme

occurrence of Gloriosa superba Linn., Cyanotis axillaris Roem. & Schult.,
Tribulus terrestris Linn., Pupalia lappacea Mogq., and Rhynchosia minima
DC. is a noteworthy feature. Among the species of Jndigofera found
on this island Jndigofera articulata Gouan formed a pure formation on -
an elevated land in the isthmus which connects this island with the
mainland. The most striking aspect of the vegetation of the island is
the concentration” ‘of ‘the halophyteés-only in ‘the aforesaid isthmus
which is: not infrequently submerged by the tidal waters. The composi-
tion of this type of vegetation though not altogether different from the
species met with on Church Island is yet characterised by the unique
occurrence of Avicennia officinalis Linn.

VEGETATION OF HARE ISLAND AND CHURCH ISLAND COMPARED

The composition of the vegetation of both the islands on comparison
brings out certain distinctive features which are common to both the
islands or specific only to Hare Island. These distinctive features
are influenced to a greater extent by their situation, the edaphic and
environmental factors. Thus it may be seen in Church Island which
is isolated farther from the mainland and surrounded by sea, owing to
the constant windswept nature, the flora consists chiefly of low shrubs,

592. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

herbaceous perennials and annuals, grasses and sedges. Nowhere in
the island does one come across any arboreal species approaching even
two metre height. The bulk of the vegetation in Church Island is com-
posed of the tussock-forming grass species and sedges and their distinct
associations into well-defined communities is a striking feature. Among
the twenty-four families representing the flora of Church Island, Grami-
neae and Leguminosae are by far the most represented families followed
by the halophytic members of Chenopodiaceae.

Among the thirty-seven families constituting the floristic regions of
Hare Island the members of Gramineae, Leguminosae, Amaran-
thaceae, Cyperaceae, Compositae, and Chenopodiaceae predominate.
The families like Capparidaceae, Burseraceae, Sapindaceae, Anacar-
diaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Boraginaceae, Solanaceae, Acanthaceae,. and
Commelinaceae present in Hare Island are characteristically absent
from Church Island.

Hare Island, because of its close proximity to the mainland, has
perhaps the same conditions of soil favouring the growth of the arboreal
species and herbaceous perennials and annuals commonly met with in
the regions of the mainland adjoining the sea-coast. Thus one comes
across species like Thespesia populnea Cav., Prosopis juliflora DC.,. Jat-
vopha glandulifera Roxb.,. and Solanum surattense Burm. in Hare
Island but they are not found in Church Island. Even. Salvadora
persica Linn., which is common in both the islands, grows to a very small
tree in Hare Island, whereas in Church Island it was less than even
ten metres in height. The pure and extensive formation of Scaevola
plumieri Vahl, Clerodendrum -inerme Gaertn., and Indigofera articulata
Gouan in Hare Island is a noteworthy feature.

SPECIES OF POSSIBLE ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION

The flora of the islands brings out certain species which are of poten-
tial economic importance and which could be exploited for use. Crota-
laria verrucosa Linn., the papilionaceous plant with yery good growth
under saline sandy conditions in Church Island, is likely to be a good
green manure plant for such areas on the coastal belt. The occurrence
of Indigofera articulata Gouan with luscious growth in Hare Island
is a pointer towards its utilization as another green manure plant
for saline or sandy areas. Tephrosia purpurea Pers. and Indigofera
oblongifolia Forsk. are two other leguminous plants which are commonly
found in these islands.

Cenchrus ciliaris Linn., C. ciliaris var. echioides Hook.f., Cenchrus
setigerus Vahl, Sporobolus elongatus R.Br., S. marginatus Hochst. ex A.
Rich., S. tremulus Kunth, and Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf
are the species of grasses which are found in these islands. These are

THE FLORA OF HARE AND CHURCH ISLANDS 593

good and highly palatable to animals. Cenchrus ciliaris var. echioi-
des Hook.f. is particularly suited for the sandy loams, and Sporoboius
virginicus Kunth, S. elongatus R.Br., and S. marginatus Hochst. ex A.
Rich. for the saline sandy areas. It is of interest that the species Phaseo-
lus trilobus Ait. occurs very commonly throughout these two islands and
has good vegetative spread. This appears to be an eco-type with smaller
leaves, water marks on the leaflets, and also deeper Jobing of the leaflets.
It is possible that this eco-type could be made use of as a pasture legume.
The islands abound with a few medicinal plants, especially Enicostemma
hyssopifolium (Willd.) Verdoorn, Aloé barbadensis Mill., Oldenlandia
umbellata Linn., Cassia angustifolia Vahl, and Citrullus colocynthis Schrad.

ENUMERATION
CAPPARIDACEAE

Gynandropsis gynandra (Linn.) Briq.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala chinensis Linn.
Common, only in Hare Island. (20-1- 57; 18-5- 61).

~ PORTULACACEAE
Portulaca tuberosa Roxb.
Common, in both the islands. (17, 18- 5. 61).

Wien Mneicere
Abutilon indicum G.Don.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit, (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).
Pavonia odorata Willd.

Few, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

Thespesia populnea Cav.
Common, only, in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

STERCULIACEAE

.. Melochia corchorifolia Linn.
Few, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

PERRET ee 2

594. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

TILIACEAE

Corchorus aestuans Linn. non Forsk.
Few, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57; 17, 18-5-61).

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus terrestris Linn.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61)-

BURSERACEAE

Commiphora berryi (Arn.) Engl.

Common, only in Hare Island, on sand mounds, in flower and fruit.
(20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

RHAMNACEAE |

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.

Common, in both the islands, in flower and ee (20-1-57 ; 17,
18-5-61).

VITACEAE (= AMPELIDEAE B.H.) -

Cissus auadraneal ete Linn.
Common, in both the islands. (17, 18-5-61).

SAPINDACEAE. Gi. 73. Sai Se? Boe

Dodonaea viscosa Linn.”
Few, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

ANACARDIACEAE - ~~

--Lannea coromandelica-(Houtt.)-Merr-- -- --
Few, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

LEGUMINOSAE (LOTOIDEAE)

Crotalaria verrucosa Linn. | |

Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57; 17,
18-5-61).

Indigofera oblongifolia Forsk.

Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (8-2-45 ; 20-1-57 :
17, 18-5-61).

Bests: 3

THE FLORA OF HARE AND CHURCH ISLANDS 595
Indigofera viscosa Lamk.
Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (8-2-45 ; 20-1-57 ;
17, 18-5-61).
I. articulata Gouan
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

Tephrosia hirta Ham.
Few, only in Hare Jsland, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

Tephrosia purpurea Pers. _

Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (8-2-45 ; 20-1-57 ;
17, 18-5-61).

Phaseolus trilobus Ait.

Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57; 17,
18-5-61),.

Rhynchosia minima DC.

Common, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57;
18-5-61). |

LEGUMINOSAE (CAESALPINIOIDEAE)

Cassia auriculata Linn.

Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57; 17, —
18-5-61).

C. angustifolia Vahl

Common, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57;
18-5-61).

_ LEGUMINOSAE (MIMOSOIDEAE)

Dichrostachys cinerea W. & A.
Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (17, 18-5-61).

Acacia planifrons W. & A. |
Common, in both the islands, in flower and-fruit. (17, 18-5-61).

A. latronum Willd. 3
Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (17, 18-5-61).

Prosopis juliflora DC.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit. (18-5-61).
8

-$96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 61 (3)
CUCURBITACEAE.

Cucumis melo Linn. var. agrestis Naud,
Common, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

Citrullus colocynthis Schrad.
Common, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

Coccinia cordifolia (Linn.) Cogn.
Few, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

Corallocarpus epigaeus Hook. f.
Common, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57).

: CACTACEAE
Opuntia dillenii Haw.
Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (17, 18-5-61).
AIZOACEAE (=FICOIDEAE B.H.)

Sesuvium portulacastrum Linn.
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

Glinus oppositifolius (Linn.) A.DC. eet
Xi Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (17, 18-5-61).
Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn. |
Common, in both the islands. (17, 18-5-61).
RUBIACEAE

Oldenlandia umbellata Linn. __

Common, in both the islands, in’flower and fruit. (8-2-45 ; 20-1-57;
17, 18-5-61).

Borreria hispida (Linn.) K. Schum. — et Bit -

Common, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

| COMPOSITAE
Vernonia cinerea Less. ot
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61)

Blumea obliqua (Linn.) Druce kent se ee ;
Common, in both the islands. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61). —

THE FLORA OF HARE AND CHURCH ISLANDS 597

Emilia sonchifolia DC.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (8-2-45).

Launaea sarmentosa (Willd.) Alston
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57, 17, 18-5-61).

Eclipta prostrata Linn.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57; 18-5-61).

GOODENIACEAE

Scaevola plumieri Vahl

Common, in both the islands, in eee and fruit. (8-2-45 ; 20-1-57 ;
17, 18-5-61).

SALVADORACEAE

Salvadora persica Linn.
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (17, 18-5-61).

GENTIANACEAE

Enicostemma hyssopifolium (Willd.) Verdoorn

Common, in both the islands, in flower and lie _20-1-57 5 ee
18-5-61). - ee

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea pes-caprae (Linn.) Sweet
Common, in both the islands. (20-1-57, 17, 18-5-61).

SOLANACEAE

Solanum surattense Burm. | :
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).
Physalis minima Linn. , |
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (12-2-47 ; 18-5-61).

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Striga asiatica (Linn.) O. Kuntze

Common, in both the islands, in _ flower and fruit. -(20-1-57 ; 17,
18-5-61).

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)
Striga euphrasioides Benth.

Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57; 17,
—-18-5-61).

ACANTHACEAE

Justicia tranquebariensis Linn.f.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit. (18-5-61).

VERBENACEAE

Clerodendrum inerme Gaertn.

Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57; 17,
18-5-61).

Avicennia officinalis Linn.

Common, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

LABIATAE
Geniosporum prostratum Benth.
Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (17, 18-5-61).

Leucas aspera Spr.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (18-5-61).

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia diffusa Linn. :
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

AMARANTHACEAE

Celosia polygonoides Retz.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

Amaranthus polygamus Linn.

Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

Pupalia lappacea Mog.

Common, only in Hare Island, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57;
18-5-61).

Achyranthes aspera Linn.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (18-5-61).

THE FLORA OF HARE AND CHURCH ISLANDS 599
Aerva lanata Juss.
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (17, 18-5-61).

A. javanica (Burm.f.) Spr.
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

CHENOPODIACEAE

Artiplex stocksii Boiss.
Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57 ; 17,
18-5-61).

Arthrocnemum indicum Mog.
Common, in both the islands. (17, 18-5-61).

Salicornia brachiata Roxb.
Common, in both the islands. (17, 18-5-61).

Suaeda monoica Forsk. .
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (17, 18-5-61).

S. fruticosa Forsk.
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (17, 18-5-61).

S. nudiflora Mogq.
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57).

EUPHORBIACEAE

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn.
_Common, in both the islands, in flower and fruit. (20-1-57; 17,
18-5-61). |

Euphorbia hirta Linn.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (18-5-61).

E. thymifolia Linn.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

Jatropha glandulifera Roxb.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).
HYDROCHARITACEAE

Halophila ovata Gaud.
Common, in both the islands, (17, 18-5-61),

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

LILIACEAE

Aloé barbadensis Mill. : |
Common, in both the islands. (17, 18-5-61).

Gloriosa superba Linn.
Few, only in Hare Island, (18-5-61).

COMMELINACEAE

Cyanotis axillaris Roem. & Schult.
Common, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57; 18-5-61).

POTOMOGETONACEAE

Ruppia maritima Linn. | .
Common, in both the islands. (17, 18-5-61).

Cymodocea serrulata Aschers. & Magn.
Common, in both the islands. (17, 18-5-61). -

CYPERACEAE
Pycreus unioloides Dom. var. angulata Dom.
Common, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).
P. odoratus Urb.
Common, only in Hare Island. (18-5-61).
Cyperus triceps (Rottb.) Endl. | .
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61). -
C. castaneus Willd. *
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower, (20-1-57).
C. arenarius Retz. |
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).
C. pachyrrhizus Nees
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

Fimbristylis diphylla Vahl
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (8-2-45 ; 20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

F. dichotoma Vahl 7
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57).

_.THE FLORA OF HARE AND CHURCH JSLANDS._. 60)

Fimbristylis annua Roem. & Schult. ty) |
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57)..

F. spathacea Roth
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower, (20-1-57).

F. monostachya Hassk.
Common, only in Hare Island. (20-1-57).

Bulbostylis barbata Kunth
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57).

B. capillaris Kunth var. trifida Clarke |
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57).

GRAMINEAE

Spinifex littoreus (Burm.f.) Merr.
Common, in both the islands. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (17,-18-5-61). — -

| Eremopogon foveolatus (Del.) Stapf
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57),

_ Cymbopogon caesius (Nees) Stapf ee" :
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (8-2-45; 20-1-57: 17,

18-5-61).

Brachiaria ramosa (Linn.) Stapf
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (18-5-61).
B. reptans (Linn.) Gardn. et C.E. Hubb. ~ |
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (18-5-61).

Cenchrus ciliaris Linn.
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (8-2-45; 20-1-57; 17

18-5-61).

C. ciliaris var. echioides Hook. f. : |
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (8-2-45; 20-1-57; 17,

18-5-61).

C. setigerus Vahl
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower, (8-2-45 ; 20-1-57; 17

mM)

18-5-61).

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)
Aristida depressa Retz.
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).
Sporobolus elongatus R.Br. 7
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

S. tremulus Kunth
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57).

S. virginicus Kunth
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57).

S. marginatus Hochst. ex A. Rich.
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. et Schult.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

Halopyrum mucronatum Stapf
Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

Cynodon dactylon Pers. :
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

Chloris inflata Link. |

Few in Church Island and common in Hare Island, in flower. (8-2-45 ;
20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

Coelachyrum lagopoides (Burm.f.) Senaratna

Common, in both the islands, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 17, 18-5-61).

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Desf.) Beauv.
Common, only in Hare Island, in flower. (20-1-57 ; 18-5-61).

A Preliminary Account of the
Water Bugs of the Family Corixidae
in Ceylon

C. H. FERNANDO
Fisheries Research Station, Colombo, Ceylon

(With 43 figures on four plates)

INTRODUCTION

The Corixidae are the most abundant of the aquatic Hemiptera in
Ceylon, yet relatively few records are available of their, occurrence and
hardly any data on their biology. A number of species have been des-
cribed or recorded from Ceylon but later revisions have shown them to
be synonyms or they have not been sufficiently authenticated. It is
therefore difficult to give a complete list of the species known to occur in
Ceylon.

The present paper is intended as a critical review of the literature on
the Ceylonese Corixidae and a reliable guide to specific diagnosis based
on recent work. Short notes of diagnostic value are given for each
species with illustrations. All the species authenticated so far are in-
cluded except those described by Wroblewski (1964). Short notes
on the biology and distribution of each species are given. The material
on which the present study is based was collected by the author over a
number of years from all parts of Ceylon. It is likely that the species
list is therefore fairly complete. The general biology of Corixidae is
mentioned briefly.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Motschoulsky (1863) described Corixa albifrons from Ceylon. Hor-
vath (1904) added another species Micronecta haliploides. Kirkaldy
(1905) described Micronecta thelxinoe and M. memonides. Distant (1906)
mentions two species Micronecta striata (Fieb.) and M. haliploides. He
included Micronecta albifrons as a synonym of M. striata. Distant (1910)
added records of two new species Micronecta lucina and M. minthe and
listed three others, Corixa substriata Uhler, Micronecta thelxinoe, and
M. memonides. Lundblad (1933) listed eight species from previous re-

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

cords. His list included, besides those mentioned by earlier workers,
Micronecta quadristrigata Bredd. for the record of M. minthe. He also
included Micronecta ovivora West. in the Ceylonese list. Hutchinson (1940)
placed the specific diagnosis of Indian and Ceylonese species on a sound
footing. He accepted only two of Lundblad’s (1933) records, namely
Micronecta haliploides and M. quadristrigata. Two other species found
in Ceylon, Micronecta albifrons and M. scutellaris, were described. Fer-
nando (1959) recorded Micronecta quadristrigata, M. albifrons, and
M. haliploides from temporary habitats. Chen (1960) described two new
species from Ceylon, namely Micronecta tarsalis and M. fascioclavus,
and mentioned the occurrence of M. thyesta. Wroblewski (1960) added
a new species, namely Micronecta flavens. Fernando (1961b) recorded
Micronecta quadristrigata and M. albifrons at light. Mendis & Fer-
nando (1962) made a list of species, adding Agraptocorixa hyalinipen-
nis (F.). Fernando (1963a) added five new records, namely Micronecta
ludibunda Bredd., M. prashadana Hutch., M. siva Kirk., M. punctinotum
Chen, and Tropocorixa pruthiana Hutch. All these species were recorded
by him (Fernando 19635) at light, but Micronecta ludibunda was referred
to as M. albifrons. Wroblewski (1963) described the male of Micronecta
punctinotum from material sent by the present author, in which he
found also Micronecta sp. closely similar to M. issa Dist. Wroblewski
(1964) has a description of a new species from Ceylon, Micronecta fer-
nandoi and a redescription of M. memonides. :
The synonymy of the various species of Corixidae will not be dis-
cussed as this has been done by Hutchinson (1940) and Chen (1960).
There are however a number of species which are doubtful. They will
be discussed Jater. Detailed descriptions of Ceylonese species are given
by Hutchinson (1940), Chen (1960), and Wroblewski (1960) and also by
Lundblad (1929, 1933).
A summary of the present position as regards the Corixidae recorded
from Ceylon is given at the end of the taxonomic section.

TAXONOMY

The genera of Ceylonese Corixidae can be easily separated using the
following key :

1. Scutellum visible (Pig. 1). of... 5.60 2902 eee LY rE 2G SOEs MICRONECTINAE
Micronecta
Scutellum. not, visible (Fig. 2). :yisi-\sbi- Gqautere cere Saeleiae CORIXINAE

doe ch ach ape apt be ose goa baad taatre ho RN EOS sales eal Atte alg AEA eee 2
2. (a) Hemelytra unicolorous : No transverse stripes on pronotum............
Agraptocorixa

(b) Hemelytra with vermiculate markings (Fig. 10): Pronotum with trans-
verse stripes (Fig. 2). “tye toik- (eo lettre es - . +++ Lropocorixa

WATER BUGS OF THE FAMILY CORIXIDAE IN CEYLON 605

The accurate specific diagnosis of the Corixidae leans heavily on the
structure of the male genitalia. It is often necessary to dissect out the
genital claspers (parameres) and study them in some detail. In the
Micronectinae other important characters are the shape of the free lobes
of the eighth abdominal tergite and the submedian lobe of the seventh
abdominal sternite, the chaetotaxy of the foreleg, and the shape of the
palar claw of the male. Females are sometimes difficult to diagnose to
species. In the Corixinae, the arrangement of the palar pegs in the fore-
tarsus of the male is usually characteristic. Colour patterns of the pro-
notum and hemelytra are useful and even distinctive in some species
(Figs. 10-19). In the group Micronecta ludibunda, M. siva, and M. fas-
cioclavus the hemelytra have solid lines. In Micronecta punctata and
M. punctinotum there are dark spots. The hemelytra of Agraptocorixa
hyalinipennis are unicolorous, whilst that of Tropocorixa pruthiana have
vermiculate markings. The markings on the pronotum are distinctive
in some species. In Micronecta siva and M. fascioclavus there are solid
dark markings (Figs. 5, 6). In Tropocorixa pruthiana (Fig. 2) the dark
markings are closely crowded. In Micronecta punctinotum there are
punctations (Fig. 3). With practice many of the species can be recog-
nized in the field. The Corixinae are much larger than the Micronec-
tinae, the former measuring 5-10 mm. in length whilst the latter rarely
exceed 3 mm. Amongst the Micronectinae the largest species is Micronecta
scutellaris, whilst the smallest are the group M. tarsalis and the two others
which have been described by Wroblewski (1964).

Agraptocorixa hyalinipennis (F.)
(Fig. 20)

This is the largest species found in Ceylon. It measures 6-7 mm.
in length and is over 3 mm. in maximum breadth. The pronotum and
hemelytra are unicolorous except for a small oval dark spot on the latter;
this feature separates it from the only other large corixid, Tropocorixa
pruthiana, which has dark transverse markings on the pronotum and
vermiculate markings on the hemelytra. The parameres are shown in
Fig. 20. |

It has been collected in stagnant forest ponds in Ratmale (near Maho) ;
Wilpattu National Park ; Palatupana, Yala ; Kirinda ; and Ambalan-
tota. In Ceylon it appears to be restricted to the drier parts and occurs
in forest ponds with an abundance of vegetation. The author collected
the species from Malaya and Burma from highly polluted ponds without
much vegetation. Jaczewski (1962) gives the distribution as India,
Burma, Viet Nam, Indonesia, and Japan,

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Tropocorixa pruthiana Hutch.
(Figs. 10, 21)

This species measures 5-5.5 mm. in length and about 2.5 mm. in
maximum breadth. The pronotum has seven transverse yellow lines the
second, third, and fourth of which are broken. The hemelytra show ver-
miculate markings (Fig. 10). It is characterised by these features and
the structure of the parameres (Fig. 21).

It has been collected from Ambalantota, Kirinda and Amupitiya
(near Belihul-oya), and Kande-ela—in the first two localities in forest
ponds together with Agraptocorixa hyalinipennis and in Amupitiya from
a stream in a terraced paddy field. Hutchinson (1940) placed it in a
group of species occurring at elevations of 700-1000 ft. in India. It has
so far been recorded only from India and Ceylon, where it occurs over a
wide range of elevations.

Corixa substriata recorded from Ceylon by Distant (1910) probably
refers to this species. |

Micronecta thyesta Dist.
(Figs. 11, 22, 33)

This is a medium-sized elongate species with light-coloured hemelytra

which gives it a distinctive appearance amongst the Micronecta species
found in Ceylon. The hemelytra are markedly pubescent with long
close-set hairs. It is the only species without a strigil. The parameres
(Fig. 22) and the free lobe of the eighth abdominal tergite (Fig. 33) are
characteristic. .

It has been recorded from Ceylon by Chen (1960) and by Fernando
(1963a). In the material examined it was a common species in ponds in
the southern part of Ceylon.

It has been recorded from India, Malaya, Taiwan, Ceylon, and
Thailand.

Micronecta scutellaris Stal.
(Figs. 15, 27, 39)

Of the species of Micronecta this is the largest, measuring over 3 mm.
in length. The hemelytra show a considerable variation in markings but
there is usually a series of broken lines in both clavus and corium (Fig.
15). The hemelytra are pubescent. The left paramere is rugose in its
terminal portion, the rugosities extending about halfway along its length
and running across the shaft (Fig. 27). The free lobe of the eighth
abdominal tergite is shown in Fig. 39,

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE I.

Caged Se
rma cs

Corixidae of Ceylon

Fig. 1. Micronecta: P. pronotal shield, S. scutellum, CL. clavus, C. corium; 2. Tropo-
corixa showing pronotal markings; 3. Micronecta punctinotum ; 4.6, M. ludibunda, M. fascio-
clavus, and M. siva, showing pronotal markings ; 7. Egg of Agraptocorix hyalinipennis ; 8. Egg
of Tropocorixa pruthiana? (obtained from gravid female); 9. Eggs of Micronecta

JouRN: BOMBAY NAT. Hist. SOc. . PLATE II

PTA a parted

Pew]
(Hs

(8 eas es ret
1 pe

$3
~
} eS
8
F x
4

Corixidae of Ceylon

Figs. 10-19. Hemelytra: 10. Tropocorixa; 11. Micronecta thyesta ; 12. M. ludibunda ;
13. M. siva; 14. M. fascioclavus; 15. M. scutellaris; 16. M. punctata; 17. M. quadristri-
gata; 18. M. prashadana; 19. M. flavens; 20-21, Parameres (left longer than right) ;
20. Agraptocorixa hyalinipennis ; 21. Tropocarixa pruthiana

WATER BUGS OF THE FAMILY CORIXIDAE IN CEYLON 607

Micronecta scutellaris is perhaps the most widely distributed species
of Micronecta in south-east Asia. It has been recorded from both the
Oriental and the Ethiopian regions. It occurs in Africa, India, Burma,
China, Ceylon, and Malaya.

In Ceylon it occurs in a wide variety of habitats. It has been collected
in ponds, irrigation reservoirs, and brackish water. It has been recorded
at light in Malaya (Fernando 1961a). ;

Micronecta ludibunda Bredd.
(Figs. 4, 12, 23, 35)

Superficially this species resembles Micronecta siva and M. fascioclavus.
It is however distinctly smaller than Micronecta siva and lacks solid trans-
verse lines in the pronotum (Fig. 4) which are found in both M. siva and
M. fascioclavus. The parameres resemble those of Micronecta
fascioclayus but are distinctive (Fig. 23). The free lobe of the eighth
abdominal tergite is shown in Fig. 35.

The species described as Micronecta albifrons from Ceylon might well
refer to this species, although it is more likely to be M. fascioclavus.
Unfortunately, the type of Micronecta albifrons is no longer available
(Wroblewski 1962a). Ceylonese material has been referred to this species
in the past by Hutchinson (1940) and Fernando (1959, 1963). The
present material agrees closely with Micronecta ludibunda and is hence
placed in this species, but in it were some specimens which had an added
prominence near the base of the shaft. of the right paramere not found
in Micronecta ludibunda from Malaya and Indonesia.

The position of Micronecta albifrons and M. ludibunda is further com-
plicated by Kirkaldy’s (1905) species, Micronecta thelxinoe from Ceylon,
and the forms described as M. striatella and M. inconspicua by Lundblad
(1933) from Indonesia, which are probably all M. ludibunda. We have
here, perhaps, a species complex and the status of the various forms
needs a critical reassessment very badly.

Micronecta ludibunda has been recorded from Malaya, India, and
Ceylon. According to Hutchinson’s (1940) definition both Ceylonese
and Malayan material belongs to Micronecta albifrons. It is therefore
difficult to give exact limits for this species.

Micronecta siva Kirk.
(Figs. 6, 13, 24, 36)
This species is second in size to Micronecta scutellaris. Its coloration

is distinctive. The corium has four prominent longitudinal stripes (Fig.
13) and the pronotum three thick transverse dark lines (Fig. 6). The

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

parameres (Fig. 24) differ markedly from those of Micronecta ludibunda
and M. fascioclavus. The free lobe of the eighth abdominal tergite
(Fig. 36) is somewhat similar to that of Micronecta ludibunda, but the
posterior margin has an elevation.

Hutchinson (1940) states that all the’ specimens he examined had been
collected at light. This species has been collected at light in Ceylon
(Fernando 1963a). Distant (1906) states that his material came from a
tank (irrigation reservoir). Hutchinson (loc. cit.) states that they pro-
bably live in the shallow water of large rivers. In Ceylon it has been
collected from ponds bordering a river. It is likely that its normal habi-
tats are ponds, which is true for the majority of Ceylonese species.

Micronecta siva has been recorded from India and Ceylon. Lundblad
(1933) also records it from China under the name Micronecta striata.
Earlier records of this species should be accepted with caution because
_of the lack of suitable criteria of separation between it and a number of
closely related species at that time.

Micronecta fascioclavus Chen
(Figs. 5, 14, 25, 37)

It can be easily recognised by the three longitudinal stripes on the
clavus (Fig. 14). This separates it from Micronecta siva and M. ludi-
bunda. In size it is similar to the latter species. The parameres (Fig.
25) although resembling those of Micronecta ludibunda are distinctive
and so is the free lobe of the eighth abdominal tergite (Fig. 37).

Micronecta fascioclavus was described from material collected in
Colombo by Chen (1960). A large number were taken at light by the
present author and also collected from ponds. There is a possibility
that this species is in fact Micronecta albifrons, the types of which came
from Colombo. It appears endemic to Ceylon.

Micronecta tarsalis Chen
(Figs. 28, 43)

As its name indicates Micronecta tarsalis has a characteristic tarsal
claw, with a tooth placed subapically in the foretarsus of the male. It is
a small species with indistinct hemelytral markings and only brachyp-
terous individuals are known. The parameres (Fig. 28) and the free
lobe of the eighth abdominal tergite (Fig. 43) have been figured after
Chen (1960).

I have not collected this species but found a number of specimens
having a tarsal claw at the bottom of a waterfall at Diyaluma. They

‘JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. Soc. | a PLATE III

Corixidae of Ceylon

Parameres (right longer than left): Fig. 22. Micronecta thyesta; 23. M. ludibunda ;
24. M.siva; 25. M. fascioclavus; 26. M. punctata; 27. M. scutellaris ; 28. M. tarsalis
and tarsal claw of same species; 29. M. punctinotum Woes

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

PLATE IY

Corixidae of Ceylon

Figs. 30-32. Parameres (right longer than left) : Fig. 30. Micronecta quadristrigata ; 31.
M. flavens; 32. M. prashadana ; Figs. 33-43. Free lobe of eighth abdominal tergite :
33. Micronecta thyesta; 34. M. punctinotum ; 35. M. ludibunda; 36. M. siva; 37. M. fascio-
clavus; 38. M.punctata; 39. M. scutellaris; 40. M. flavens; 41. M. prashadana; 42.
M. quadristrigata ;; 43. M. tarsalis

WATER BUGS. OF THE FAMILY CORIXIDAE IN CEYLON 609

proved to belong to the new species of Micronecta which has been des-
cribed by Wroblewski (1964) as M. fernandoi.
The tarsal claw is probably an adaptation for mating. ~

Micronecta punctata (Ficb.)
(Figs. 16, 26, 38)

Until Chen (1960) established the synonomy of this species with
Micronecta haliploides, the Ceylonese material was placed under the latter
species. Micronecta punctata is the darkest species amongst the
Ceylonese Micronecta in life. It is also broader than the other species
relative to its length. The markings on the hemelytra are characteristic,
consisting of large spots (Fig. 16). The parameres are shown in Fig. 26
and the free lobe of the eighth abdominal tergite in Fig. 38.

In Ceylon it is not a common species. It occurs in ponds and tem-
porary habitats. It has also been recorded at light. It occurs in India,
Ceylon, and Malaya. .

Micronecta punctinotum Chen
(Figs. 3, 29, 34)

Superficially similar to Micronecta punctata, but much lighter in colour
and smaller in size. The hemelytra and pronotum have punctations
irregularly distributed (Fig. 3). The male was described from material
identified for the present author by Wroblewski (1963) from whose paper
_ the parameres (Fig. 29) and the free lobe of the eighth abdominal tergite
(Fig. 34) have been figured.

This species has so far been recorded from India and Ceylon. It was
taken at light by Fernando (1963a).

Micronecta quadristrigata Bredd.
(Figs. 17, 30, 42)

The commonest species in many countries of south-east Asia. It is
of medium size with indistinct markings on the hemelytra (Fig. 17), The
parameres (Fig. 30) are characteristic. The free lobe of the eighth abdo-
minal tergite (Fig. 42) is angulate.

Micronecta quadristrigata has been recorded from Ceylon, India,
Malaya, Viet Nam, Thailand, Philippines, Hong Kong, and Iran. It is
common in paddy fields (Ardiwinata 1957, Fernando 1959), It is also
the commonest species at light. It has been taken at light in India,
Ceylon, Indonesia, Malaya, and more recently in Viet Nam (Wroblewski
19625). :

In Ceylon it occurs in paddy fields, ponds, irrigation reservoirs, and
small pools both temporary and ephemeral, showing its great mobility.

{

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Micronecta prashadana Hutch.
(Figs. 18, 32, 41)

This species has been recorded only from India and Ceylon. It is
a rather pale, small species with indistinct longitudinal markings on the
hemelytra (Fig. 18). The parameres are very characteristic (Fig. 32)
and the free lobe is shown in Fig. 41.

It was collected in India together with Micronecta scutellaris and M.
quadristrigata in a shallow pool in a marsh. In Ceylon it was taken at
light with Micronecta quadristrigata, M. ludibunda, M. siva, and M.
scutellaris at Polonarrawa. It is probably an inhabitant of ponds.

Micronecta flavens Wroblewski
(Figs. 19, 31, 40)

It is a small species with a few dark markings on the hemelytra (Fig.
19). Material belonging to this species was identified as Micronecta
haliploides and this was used by Wroblewski (1960) to describe it. The
parameres are very characteristic (Fig. 31) and the free lobe is shown in
Fig. 40.

Numerous specimens were collected by Fernando (1959) from rock
pools in a river bed. He identified them as Micronecta haliploides.
Subsequent examination of the material has shown it to be Micronecta
flavens.

The only recorded habitat for this species is a rock pool. It has also
been collected at light.

List OF CORIXIDAE RECORDED FROM CEYLON

(a) Authenticated species :
Agraptocorixa hyalinipennis.
Tropocorixa pruthiana.
Micronecta ludibunda.
Micronecta siva.
Micronecta fascioclavus,
Micronecta quadristrigata.
Micronecta scutellaris.
Micronecta punctata.
Micronecta punctinotum.
Micronecta flavens.
Micronecta prashadana.
Micronecta tarsalis.
Micronecta thyesta.
Micronecta memonides.
Micronecta fernandoi.

WATER BUGS OF THE FAMILY CORIXIDAE IN CEYLON 6i1

(b) Species needtng redescription or authentication :
Micronecta albifrons.
Micronecta thelxinoe.
Micronecta lucina.
(c) Synonyms :
Micronecta striata=M. siva.
Micronecta minthe= M. quadristrigata.
M icronecta haliploides=M. punctata.

(d) Species to be deleted from previous lists :
Sigara substriata.
Micronecta ovivora.

BIOLOGY

The corixids usually inhabit shallow water. They seem to prefer
undisturbed water and seldom occur in streams and, if they do, are con-
fined to the calm backwaters. In Ceylon they are found in a wide range
of habitats, occurring in ponds of all sizes, the edges of tanks (irrigation
reservoirs), rock pools in river beds, waterfalls, marshes, and paddy fields.

Hutchinson (1940) states that Micronecta is common in ponds with-
out much vegetation. In Ceylon they are often found in ponds with
abundant vegetation. They have also been observed amongst masses of
Spirogyra or sometimes in ponds without much vegetation. Since they
feed on the bottom ooze, they are often abundant where there is a rich
supply of plant detritus. Because of their great mobility they are some-
times numerous in small pools just after heavy rains, but these pools
can hardly be considered the normal habitat since they are in most cases
ephemeral.

The habitats of three species are perhaps worth mentioning. Micro-
necta flavens has so far been recorded only in rock pools on a river bottom,
and the two species described by Wroblewski (1954) from the bottom |
of a waterfall. Whether these habitats are specific is not known.

Of the two species of Corixinae, Agraptocorixa hyalinipennis lives in
forest ponds with abundant vegetation and Tropocorixa has been collected
in the same habitat and also from terraced paddy fields.

Our present knowledge of the habitats of the various species of |
Corixidae in Ceylon is too meagre for any conclusions as to whether
there is any selection of habitats or succession of species with changes in
the habitat. The instability of most of their habitats due to seasonal
droughts has perhaps made mobility a distinct advantage.

The food of corixids consists mainly of bottom ooze (Griffiths 1945,
Slack- 1947, Sutton 1951). Westwood (quoted in Hutchinson 1940) states
that Micronecta ovivora feeds on fish eggs and Hutchinson (loc. cit.)
considers this probably true. Wroblewski. (1963) who re-examined

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Micronecta ovivora considers this unlikely in the absence of any special
morphological features. Because of their herbivorous habits and the
ability to use bottom detritus they often reach enormous numbers in
suitable habitats. 3

The breeding habits of corixids have not been studied in any of the
south-east Asian countries except for the work of Fernando & Leong (in
press). The eggs are laid on a variety of objects, generally water plants,
dried vegetation, and stones. The eggs of Micronecta e. are common
enough on vegetation. They are unstalked (Fig. 9). Eggs of Agrapto-
corixa hyalinipennis have been collected in Ceylon from a forest pond in
Palatupana, Yala, on 26-4-1962. They are stalked (Fig. 7). No eggs
of Tropocorixa have been collected in the field but I obtained some from’
a gravid female. The eggs have a short basal disc for attachment (Fig.
8). The eggs of Micronecta have been described by a number of workers
from many parts of the world. Fernando & Leong (1963c) have des-
cribed the eggs of Micronecta quadristrigata. The eggs of Tropocorixa
have been studied by Hungerford (1948), and those of Agraptocorixa
by Walton (1963) and Fernando & Leong (loc. cit.). In Micronecta
egg-laying is usually after the rains. The eggs of Agraptocorixa hyalini-
pennis were collected at the end of a dry period.

Most Corixidae are good fliers and are often recorded at light or in
isolated habitats. The literature on their occurrence at light is given by
Fernando (19615). In Ceylon the following species have been recorded
at light: Micronecta quadristrigata, M. scutellaris, M. ludibunda, M.
thyesta, M. flavens, M. punctinotum, M. fascioclavus, and M. punctata.
Most of these species have also been found in temporary and artificial
habitats. 7

The most important predators of Corixidae are probably the large
aquatic insects. Fish no doubt feed on them. They are sometimes
parasitized by Hydracarina, and Protozoa and Nematoda have been
recorded from them.

SUMMARY

A preliminary account of the Corixidae of Ceylon is given. This
includes a critical survey of the literature and short descriptions of each
“species, except two recently described by Wroblewsky (1964).
The status of some of the species is briefly discussed and an attempt |
made to sort out the synonomy.
The biology of the Ceylonese species is briefly mentioned and some
remarks made on the general biology of the Corixidae.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Some of the material used in the present study was collected during a
freshwater fisheries survey sponsored by the Fisheries Department,

WATER BUGS OF THE FAMILY CORIXIDAE IN CEYLON

613

Ceylon, and supported by the F.A.O. I wish to thank Dr. A. Wroblewski
of the Institut Zoologiczny, Poznan, Poland, for his suggestions ae for
checking up some of the identifications.

REFERENCES

ARDIWINATA, R. O. (1957)-: Fish
culture in paddy fields in Indonesia.
Proc. Indo-Pacif. Fish. Coun. 7 : 119-154.

CHEN, L. C. (1960): A study of the
genus Micronecta of India, Japan, Taiwan

and adjacent regions (Heteroptera-
Corixidae). J. Kansas ent. Soc. 23: 99-
118.

Distant, W. L. (1906) : The Fauna of
British India, Rhynchota 3: 50. Taylor
and Francis, London.

— — — (1910): ibid. 5: 32. Taylor
and Francis, London.

FERNANDO, C. H. (1959): Some ob-

servations on aquatic insects found in
“temporary and artificial habitats in
Ceylon. Ceylon J: Sci. (Biol. Set.) 2::
T-4.
— — —.(196l1a): Notes on aquatic
insects caught at light in Malaya, with a
discussion of their distribution and dis-
persal. Bull. Nat. Mus. Singapore 30:
19-31.

_ ———(1961b) : Aquatic insects taken
at light in Ceylon with a discussion and
bibliography of references to aquatic
insects at light. Ceylon J. Sci. (Biol. Sci.)
4: 45-54.

» —. — — (1963a) : Aquatic Coleoptera
and Hemiptera taken at light in some
Asian countries with a note on Sphae-
rodema ° (Hemiptera-Belostomatidae).
Bull. Fish. Res. Stn. Ceylon. 16 : 25-28.

» + — — (19635): Guide to the fresh-
water fauna of Ceylon, Suppl. I. Bull.
Fish, Res. Stn. Ceylon 16: 29-38.

a —- & LEONG, C. Y. (1963c):
Miscellaneous notes on the biology of
Malayan Corixidae (Hemiptera ; Hetero-
ptera) and a study of the life histories of
two species Micronecta quadristrigata
Bredd. and Agraptocorixa hyalinipennis
(F.). Ann. pee nat. Hist. (13) 6 : 545-58.

GrirFiTH, M. E. (1945) : The environ-
ment, life-history and structure of the
water boatman Rhamphocorixa acuminata
(Uhler) (Hemiptera, Corixidae). Kansas
Univ. Sci. Bull. 30 : 241-365.

- HorvatH, G. (1904): Hydrocorisae
tres novae. Ann. Mus. Hungar. 2:
594-595.

HUNGERFORD, H. B. (1948) : The eggs
of.Corixidae. J. Kansas ent. Soc. 18:
13-16.

- HutcHINson, G. E. (1940): A revision

of the Corixidae of India and. adjacent
regions. Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts Sci.
33 : 339-476,

JACZEWSKI, T. (1962) : Notes on some
Corixidae (Heteroptera) from Viet Nam.
Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci. 10 : 23-28.

KIRKALDy, G. W. (1905): Five new
species of Micronecta Kirkaldy. Ent.
News 16 : 250-263.

‘ LUNDBLAD, O. (1929): Uber einige
Corixiden des Berliner zoologischen
Museums. Arch. Fur Hydrobiol. 20:
296-321.

= —-) oa (i933): Zur Kenntnis (der
aquatilen und serri-aquatilen Hemipteren
von Sumatra, Java und Bali. Arch. Fur
Hydrobiol., suppl., 12: 1-195; 263-488.

MenpiIs, A. S. & FERNANDO, GH.
(1962) : i guide to the freshwater fauna
of Ceylon. Bull. Fish. Res. Sin. Ceylon
12 : 160.

MOTSCHOULSKY, V. (1863) : ea @un
catalogue des insectes de Vile Ceylon.
Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou 36; 1-153.

SLACK, H. D. (1947): Feeding mecha-
nisms of water bugs. Nature, Bone
159: 605.

SuTTonN, M. (1951): On the fond:
feeding mechanism and alimentary canal
of Corixidae (Hemiptera-Heteroptera).
Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 121: 465-499.

WALTON, G. A. (1963): The egg of
Agraptocorixa gestroi Kirkaldy (Hemi-
ptera-Heteroptera: | Corixidae). Proc.
R. ent. Soc. Lond. (A) 37: 104-106.

WROBLEWSKI, A. (1960): Notes on
some Asiatic species of the genus Micro-
necta Kirk. (Heteroptera, Corixidae).
Ann. Zool. Polon, 18 : 301-331.

— — — (1962a): Notes on Micro-
nectinae from Melanesia (Heteroptera,
Corixidae). Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci. 10:
319-324.

— —, — (1962b): Notes on Micro-
nectinae from Viet Nam (Heteroptera,
Corixidae). Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci. 10:
175-180.

— — — (1963) : Notes on some Asiatic
species of the genus Micronecta Kirk.
(Heteroptera, Corixidae). IV. Bull.
Acad. Polon. Sci. 11 : 283-287. |

— — — (1964) : Notes on Micronec-
tinae from Ceylon. (Heteroptera, Cori-
xidae). Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci. 12:
165-170. - oe ihe

Notes on the Life History of Nacaduba
Pactolus continentalis Frth.
(Lepidoptera : Lycaenidae) from
Poona District, Western Ghats

A. E. BEAN, S.S.J.E.
St. John’s Mission House, Panch Howd, Poona

(With two piates and four text-figures)

I am now able to contribute some observations on the early stages
of this interesting jungle insect. As previously reported in this Journal
(Vol. 56 : 647-52) it occurs in a small area of what I believe would be
called climax jungle in the region of Khandala (Poona District, alt.
c. 650 metres). This is its most northerly locality so far reported
on the Western Ghats, and the only one I have managed to find. The
food-plant occurs in isolated patches in the Khandala jungles.

The first undoubted egg was taken just after it had been laid on
a young shoot of Entada pursaetha DC." in the jungle on 23 October
1960. I managed to catch the butterfly immediately after I had seen
it lay. On the same day I found four similar eggs on another Entada
on which there were also about eight green Lycaenid larvae. On
examining the spray on which the identified egg had been laid I found
two egg-larvae.

Already in July 1960 I had tried to rear some similar larvae which
died in their first or second moult.

The eggs found on 23 October 1960 did not hatch, but two of
the green larvae found on the same day pupated on November 3 and 5.
A small but otherwise perfect male Nacaduba pactolus emerged on
12 November 1960, and a defortaed female on 13 November.

More eggs, and larvae at al! stages, were found towards the end
of the monsoon in September 1961.. In spite “or. alle care. and

1 Santapau (1960) has established that this is the correct name of the Entada
found at Khandala and along the Western Ghats generally. It had been known
before this as Entada scandens.

LIFE HISTORY OF NACADUBA P. CONTINENTALIS FRUH, 615

invariably fresh, young foodstuff, only four larvae from twelve eggs
attained even two-thirds of their growth.

However, on 1 October 1961 seven larvae mostly nearing full
growth were found, two in association with Camponotus ants. Of
these larvae one died in moult, and a presumably healthy specimen
was put in preservative. The remaining larvae pupated, and produced
five male Nacaduba pactolus continentalis on 10, It, 12, and 16
October 1961, all perfect specimens.

I was away from India in 1962. In July 1963, after keeping a
look-out from May, the butterfly was seen again and eggs were
found. These did not hatch, but from early September until early
November I had a number of successful rearings, four right through
from the egg, and eight from first or second instar larvae. Details
of the improved methods used will be given below. An_ equal
number of males and females was obtained.

DESCRIPTION AND HABITS

Butterfly. The description in Wynter-Blyth (1957), based on
Eyans (1932), is reproduced for convenience: ‘The 4-Lineblues
UNF no pale basal lines; only a pair end cell, a discal pair and
marginal markings. Tailed. UNF inner marginal line broad, diffused
and continuous; all markings broad and yellowish. Wings broad and
rounded, especially in the female. Male: above dark purple-brown, |
paler in a side light, with fine dark border line. Female: bases
purple-blue, paling outwardly. Broad dark borders F; veins clearly
marked.’ Expanse: 34-38 mm. (Evans 1932).

Dr. T. Norman kindly sent me the following notes on the distribu-
tion and habits of the butterfly in Assam. He says: ‘Over here it
is a common and widely distributed insect in all types of forest, at
least up to about 2000 ft. ... Most of Cantlie’s specimens came
from medium altitudes, 3000 ft. to 4000 ft. on the southern side of
the Khasi Hills. In Assam one finds it in ones and twos at damp
sand beside streams or on forest paths (males only); or single speci-
mens of both sexes flying in the undergrowth. It does not fly
outside the forest, nor does it ever join the big “congregations” of
Nacaduba spp. at damp patches. ... When I say it is suite common,
I mean that on a day’s outing at the right season, and providing one
was concentrating on this species only, one would be able to take
perhaps 50 specimens.’

Judging by the number of examples seen or caught, and the many
eggs and larvae noticed, the species appeared to be common in the

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Khandala jungle during the monsoon of 1963. It does not seem to
mind rain, and flies during drizzle. When a heavy shower comes it
takes shelter. I caught one in such circumstances clinging to a bare
stalk, body up, wings down. As soon as there is some lightening of
the sky and slight warmth from the sun behind the driven clouds. it
is again on the wing. I saw the males perching high on the Entada,
about thirty feet up, and coming down to lower leaves in a clearing
when light rain had passed. Unfortunately I failed to capture one.

I found that the butterfly is quite eager for the nectar of flowers.
This is not surprising when one considers it must need to have its
energies renewed after long periods of cold and damp. I caught two
females and one male at flowers of a Justicia, probably. diffusa;
(Acanthaceae), which at the latter end of the rains grows all over. the
open patches outside the thick jungle.

Ege. I found the egg on the young leaves, shoots, and feniarile
of Entada pursaetha. Both young plants and the new growths of
ancient lianas seem equally suitable’ The eggs were found on the
undersurfaces of young red leaflets or perhaps more often in their
axils. Leaves which have turned green will do, but they must be
very tender. A favourite place is the terminal bud: of a new shoot
which will open out into ideal food three days later at the same time
as the larva hatches. nah

The general colour of a pactolus egg is honey-yellow to the naked
eye, but for some reason it seems whiter under the microscope. The
white cell walls no doubt contribute to this effect. ore

The height is about one-third of the breadth. In shape it. is a
very flat egg, reminiscent of a Government servant’s pagyi.

Looked at from above there seem to be about four rows of reels
decreasing in size between the edge of the top surface and the
central space around the micropyle. The cells have irregular white
walls enclosing rough hexegons in some cases, but more often squarish
shapes, the floor of these cells is minutely pitted irregularly all over.
The top. surface of the egg is depressed, and the central space con-
taining the micropyle is dark grey, minutely tubercular, and rather
bigger than the large white-walled cells on the outside edge of the egg.
A lighter grey extends outside the dark grey central space, and gives
the effect of a roughly drawn four-pointed star.

- Viewed from the side the flatness of the egg and the irregularity
of the cells is apparent. Both on the top surface and on the sides
the cells consist of lumps joined together by wide walls. The larger
lumps, at least, have a low depression in their crown. __

It should be mentioned that, in contrast with pactolus, the egg of

LIFE HISTORY OF NACADUBA P. CONTINENTALIS FRUHA. 617

Nacaduba beroe gythion Frith. is rounder in contour. The cells
consist of a larger number of small rounded knobs, more than the
lumps in pactolus; the knobs are connected by narrow walls, giving a
prickly contour and in general reminding one of a golf ball. Bell
(1918)! aptly describes the rows of knobs on a beroe egg as radiating
‘outwards in slowly diverging curves like a catherine wheel firework’.
This is quite unlike the slabby appearance of pactolus.

In the jungle in question N. beroe as well as N. pactolus lay on

Entada, so it is useful to be able to distinguish the two eggs with fair
certainty in the field. In pactolus there is always a grey centre and it
may look yellow; beroe has no darkened centre and always looks
enamel-white, although the ground colour is actually yellow.
The eggs of N. pactolus donot seem to change noticeably in colour
before the little larva comes out. This may indicate either that the
eggshell is thick, or that the lumpy cell-walls hide any change of
colour from casual observation. On the two occasions when I did
notice a change to dark blue or violet the larvae did not emerge.

Larva. The young larvae vary in colour from pale yellow to
honey-yellow. In the first instar they have the usual row of long
dorsal bristles, and shorter lateral hairs. The dorsal bristles, parti-
cularly, must act as a spring when the little larva falls, and protect
it generally. They were brown in a day-old larva. The lateral hairs
were lighter in colour, and so far as I could see alternately long and -
short. None were as long as the dorsal bristles. See Text-fig. 1.

\
(\ D
Mi 4
VN
TANG
RESIGN ;
Ses

Text-fig. 1. Egg-larva (diagrammatic)

where for lack of sufficient information the lateral hairs are not
shown. Z

1 For an unrivalled description of Nacaduba beroe at all stages, see Bell (1918,
pp, 661-4) under the name Nacaduba plumbeomicans W,-M. & De N,

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

At the first moult the hairs are shed with the skin, and the colour
becomes apple-green, sometimes with a red-brown line above the legs
fading out at about somite 3. The fore-end is now massive and the
general shape rather carrot-like, especially in the resting position
when the head is drawn into the thorax. The small head is pale
yellow, with eyes and mouth-parts dark brown. It is usually more
or less hidden by the first thoracic segment, but darts forward quite
often when the creature is eating. There may be a light-brown
suffusion on the first few segments, and usually a dark-green rather
vague dorsal line, most noticeable from the third thoracic to the third
abdominal segment. Palpitation of the aorta can be seen along this
line. There is also some darker green dorsally on segments 7 and 8
of the abdomen. It is on these segments that the median-dorsal
secretory organ and the dorso-lateral eversible organs are situated.

When once the larva had shed its long-haired vestiture and become
green I observed no colour changes throughout the remaining stages.
There may well be a pink form as in N. beroe but I have not come
across it. |

The whole skin surface of the larva is minutely pitted, mosi
noticeably in the full-grown larva (Text-fig. 2). The ample folds and
creases of the forepart of the thorax then make it quite impressively
clephantine under the lens. At maximum growth it is about 12 mm.
long. ? °

- Text-fig. 2. Full-grown larva (diagrammatic)

Larval habits. Eclosion took place in the usual three days after
the egg was laid. The little larva did not consume the eggshell, at
least in captivity. It gets out more or less from the side of the egg.
A larva, shortly after emerging, was seen to go to the underside of a
smali green leaflet, where it began to eat irregular holes, leaving the
upper epidermis as a transparent film. The young. larvae are fairly
active and may move from one leaflet to another, eating here and
there, and this in spite of the food- being quite fresh. They keep to
the undersides of the leaflets. They do not get between the young

LIFE HISTORY OF NACADUBA P. CONTINENTALIS FRUH. 619

red leaflets while they are still pressed together before expansion. In
contrast, young N. beroe larvae make a practice of getting into such
places and feeding there.

As with many Lycaenid larvae, it is difficult to tell whether
pactolus are about to moult or are simply resting between meals.
The moult is, of course, a crucial time with all ca‘erpillars, and in
this case I had continual disappointments when I tried to bring
them through in closed glass jars. J used this method in order to
keep the delicate food fresh; I changed the jars daily, disinfecting and
drying them, and provided new food daily from plants grown at
home. In spite of all this I lost most of my larvae in their first moult
after they were collected. In this air-tight method, which is so often
successful in other cases, Entada may not keep as fresh as it seems,
and this may have an effect on skin-changing. Even more likely, the
constricted places into which the larvae get for their moult may be
too damp for them at these times. .

Whatever the reason, it was plain that an airy atmosphere, at
the same time much damper than that of Poona, would have to be
provided. So in 1963 I put larvae on the growing plant on the
veranda in Poona confining them with cellophane sleeves. Air was
brought in through a small panel of fine gauze, fixed with cellotape.
The sleeves were open at both ends. First they were slipped over a
suitable spray of young leaves and shoots. Then they were tied as
tightly as possible at the bottom with strong thread. The larvae
were dropped in through the top opening, which was folded over and
shut with bulldog clips or paper clips. The contraption was then held
upright by a string fixed to a support.

Apparently the cellophane sleeves gave approximately the
atmosphere of the forest in the monsoon; ‘sweat’ and mould were
avoided, and there were few deaths from any cause. When a larva
was to be examined it could usually be located by opening the top
of the sleeve. When it was ready to pupate it nearly always went
down to the bottom end of the sleeve, but could usually be slid out
of the top end into a dish, a safer way than opening the bottom end.
As they are bad cannibals from the start, in captivity at least, they
were sleeved separately.

Throughout their life these larvae are capable of dropping by a
thread, but even when young they do not do so readily. On one
occasion a leaflet I was cutting off with a larva on it fell to the jungle
floor, and when I was lucky enough to spot the cutting the larva
was still in position.

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

The larvae are well protected by resemblance to various parts of
their food-plant. They are not conspicuous, even when green, on the
yellowish tendrils—in the green ‘stages they look astonishingly like
leafbuds and stipules. When there are red lines above the legs
these blend perfectly with the red borders of the young green leaflets.
The larvae will eat only tender leaves, whether red or green:
ereen leaves which have grown a hard skin will not do. They like
the terminal buds and the newly expanded leaves, also the yellowish
shoots and tendrils. They live under the leaves a great deal. After
the first moult or two they eat irregular holes right through from the
mid-vein outwards. As Entada does not shoot again in the same
place for a considerable time, it is a good thing to avoid cutting off
the whole of a leading shoot in the excitement of collecting the larvae.
Even in September and October there may not be many young growths,
and seveiral larvae were often found crowded together on one or
two shoots.

Growth is rapid, as it must be with a larva which eats only the
young leaves of a plant which dces not produce them frequently.
Notes from my 1963 records show this:

Eggs laid probably on 26 or 27 September were collected on 29th
and produced larvae on 30th. These moulted about 2 October and
had grown to 1.5 mm. in length. On 10 and 11 October larvae were
found full grown in the sleeve. They pupated on 13th and three
butterflies emerged on 21st, making 24 or 25 days from egg to imago.

As it is not possible to observe larvae in a sleeve closely, the
following notes on the stages of growth are incomplete, but are
nevertheless of interest as records of my first pactolus brought through
from collected eggs:

8-9-1963 Eggs collected | ; In air-tight

9-9-1963 Larvae emerged container

-9-1963 First It. Length 1.5 ;
ihe eee ce ie Transferred to cello-

18-9-1963 Length 10 mm.
phane sleeve

19-9-1963 Length 11 mm.
20-9-1963 Spun pad for pupation on the side of a zinc
container, just above the earth
23-9-1963 Pupation
30-9-1963 Female emerged at 13.30 hours.
The above seems to show that a moult occurs about every two days.
As observed, the mefamorphosis is usually accomplished in the short

period of about 25 days. |
Attendance by ants. I did not come across many ants on the

Entada plants, and none attending anything, until on 1 October 1961
] found a Camponotus looking after a membracid. Shortly afterwards

LIFE HISTORY OF NACADUBA P. CONTINENTALIS FRUH. 621

I found two more Camponotus each actually attending a pactolus
larva. One was stationed just behind its larva in the typical ‘attending’
posture, with waving antennae and a generally possessive air. It was
a small black Camponotus, and when first seen with the larva had
its abdomen tucked under the thorax. The other ant was sitting in
a clump of leaflets which looked as if they had been drawn together
by a spider, and from this hide it was keeping a close watch on a
larva. It was a light brown ant, and moved deliberately except when
alarmed, when it tried to elude me by a series of jerky spurts.

Later I saw the light-brown ant paying some attention to one of
the larvae in captivity, without apparently getting any response. Apart
from this the ants and the larvae seemed indifferent to one another.
Presumably, therefore, pactolus is not dependent on ants. If it was,
I should have expected the Camponotus to behave as I have secn
them do, under similar conditions of captivity, with larvae of the
genus Tarucus—Camponotus attended these continuously, without a
thought for anything else, thriving on nourishment from the larvae
right. up to pupation. In such cases ants lose their normal desire to
hurry back to the nest, and may be said to be demoralized. But with
pactolus the two Camponotus were restless, and died in three days.

The ant relationship therefore appears to be intermittent, and
probably is not essential for the health of the larva. However, the
presence even of ants distracted by captivity may be good for the larvae.
Certainly, five out of the six larvae found on 1-10-1961 did produce
butterflies after having been kept with ants found with two of them.
On the other hand, success may have been due entirely to the fact
that these larvae had got safely through their moults.

It is likely that other ants look after pactolus larvae; at various
times. I tried Prenolepis and a small yellow ant, probably a
Cremastogaster, from about the house, and once saw response to the
latter. The larva put out the organs of segment 8 and the ant rode
on its back for a short time. I have caused the organs to evert by
tickling with a small paint-brush.

- No ant relationship is to be expected before the larvae reach the
‘sreen stage. Until then they are protected against dangers by the
long bristles, and presumably have not developed their ant-glands.

Parasites. No larvae or pupae under observation seemed to have
been parasitized by Hymenoptera or Diptera. If they were, the facts
may become known when the larvae which died are dissected.

One nearly full-grown larva died after two very long worms had
leit its body. They are probably Gordius, as they got into a great
tangle: They have been preserved with their host,

622. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Pupa. This is of the normal Lycaenid shape, ‘like a _ trussed
chicken’, and very like the other Nacaduba pupae I have seen (Text-
fig. 3). My specimens were reddish brown in colour with dark spots
and blotches. The drawing was done from a pupa skin, not un-
fortunately from the living pupa. The five 1961 pupae were all about
the same size: length 10.5 mm., breadth at thorax 3 mm., and across
the third somite of the abdomen and the wing cases about 4 mm.

aX? “e YESS
aK) NO’, th
BS Sees

x) ‘3, % (\,
Wes soba 8 Noes

etd POS

Text-fig. 3. Pupa skin (diagrammatic)

A newly formed pupa had a pink abdomen, green wing-cases, and
brown upper thorax. The dark blotches were visible but not pro-
minent. The next day the wing-cases were yellow-ochre, and the
abdomen still pinkish but inclining*to brown.

Judging by the nineteen pactolus pupae I have seen, there is no
marked difference between them and those of N. beroe, of which I
have seen numbers and have specimens and skins for comparison.
The former are slightly larger, and more robust in appearance; the
ground colour is redder and the spots larger and darker.

Before their change the five 1961 larvae took up the following
positions: (1) on lower surface of a leaflet; (2) and (3) almost touch-
ing one another and in between two leaflets, near the petioles, and
concealed from. view—the leaflets were drawn together with bits of

silk in an inefficient-looking manner; (4) on the upper surface of the

same leaflet as No. 1: (5) on the bottom of a glass jar.
After spinning its pad and girdle a larva was 11 mm. long, purplish
brown above and towards the front end, pinkish in the rear.

In 1963 the larvae were taken out of the sleeve when ready to

pupate and placed in plastic cages with damp earth and dead leaves,

—sw

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLaTE I

Nacaduba pactolus continentalts Frith.

Female : Upper side
(Caught specimen : 23-10-1960)

Male: Upper side
(From larva: 11-10-1960)

(Photos: A. E. Bean)

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. | Pate {I

Nacaduba pactolus continentalis Frih.

17mm

Female : Under side
(Caught specimen : 23-10-1960)

Male: Under side
(From larva: 11-10-1961)

(Photos: A. E, Bean)

2
to sp
i a

LIFE HISTORY OF NACADUBA P. CONTINENTALIS FRUH. — 623

Some spun up in the leaves, either merely in between them, or in a
cocoon formed by drawing them together with silk. One formed its
pupa, as noted above, on the side of the zinc bottom of the cage,
just above the surface of the earth, and another right up under the
lids?
Both in 1961 and in 1963 the pupa cages were kept in a conditioned
atmosphere. This was simply a wooden box covered with a sheet of
glass, containing a large zinc lid kept full of water. As a precaution
against mould the water was treated with a tiny quantity of
formaldehyde 40%, usually added when the water was renewed. The
plastic cages themselves were sufficiently aerated, and the glass cover
of the wooden box was not tight fitting. When the butterflies were
due I was usually there to give them plenty of air for expanding

their wings, but they did perfectly well without this atiention. (See

Oldroyd p. 70.)
Emergence of the Butterfly (Text-fig. 4 and Plates I-ll). In 1961
the butterflies, all males, emerged in seven or eight days, all but one

: MT ZI

nea

MKC

PINS “Ml

Text-fig. 4. Male, with newly expanded wings
at about 4 p.m., and not at 9 or 10 in the morning as I had expected.

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3) ”

The two emergences in 1960 occurred at about 10 am. in sunny
weather, but in 1961 the weather was damp and dull.

Before the butterfly comes out the pupa becomes much darker,
which Is of course the general rule. But in the case of pactolus the
darkening occurs, apparently, the day before, and on the day of
emergence the dark retreats to certain areas and the general colour
gets much lighter again. {it may be that this happens in other
butterflies, but I had not been keen enough to notice such things
until I had pactolus. In 1960, with only two pupae, I looked at them
frequently, and on about the eighth day saw that one had turned very
dark. Every time I had another look at it I expected to see the
butterfly. By the end of the day I had given up hope. But in
the morning the dark colour was redistributed, and to my surprise
and delight a male butterfly came out.

In 1961 there were the same changes in colour, and as the patter
flies came out later in the day it was more convenient for me. I made
the following notes:

11-10-1961 :
09.15 hrs. Pupa No. 4 is shining brownish black, the spiracles whitish
brown.

12.15 hrs. A whitish patch has appeared on either side of the head. The
wing-cases are more strongly demarcated because of an indenta-
tion which has appeared along their dorsal margin. The black
ground colour shows up some short white hairs on the abdo-
minal segments not noticed before.

13.15 hrs. The black has now retreated to a diffused dorsal line, leaving
the rest of the surface brown, faintly marbled with darker, es-
pecially on the wing-cases. A lighter patch has appeared on:
segment 5 of the abdomen. The palpi now show as near-
white streaks just below the eyes. The girdle seems tighter
and more obvious. .

14.00 hrs. A mite twice explored the pupa, especially around the head .~

and wing-cases, but to my relief went off each time into some’.
dead leaves.

I was fortunate in witnessing the butterfly actually come out of
pupa No. 4. It happened very quickly at about 4 p.m. The wings
expanded within five minutes, but for the first quarter of an hour
some of the forewing remained hidden by the hindwing. After this

“the wings were held in the normal resting position of the genus, with

most of the forewing showing.

These males soon became too restless for me to sketch them, but
I got the pose of the example illustrated while the forewings were
sll drawn below the kindwings. ‘The fresh specimens were a
pretty sight; i one case I noticed some of the powdery stuff from

LIFE HISTORY OF NACADUBA P. CONTINENTALIS FRUH. — 625

inside the pupa skin still clinging between the wings just above the
thorax.

In 1963 six males and six females were reared, four from the egg.
The same colour changes in the pupa were observed, but only in the
case of males. Female pupae simply darkened and, shortly after, the
butterflies came out.

A newly emerged male continued to wave its antennae simul-
taneously back and forth, as if sensing possible dangers, until the wings
were expanded and in the ‘pre-normal’ position. After remaining
still for some time it moved its antennae slightly, took a short step,
and fluttered a little in the cage. Outside, this would have been its
first flight, probably for only a short distance. The flight resulted in
the grey powdery stuff from inside the pupa case, which had lodged
on the thorax and between the wings, coming off in a cloud.

CONCLUSIONS

1. From rearing experiments and field study it seems that.
Nacaduba pactolus continentalis in the Khandala jungles is a monsoon
and post-monsoon insect. I have not yet seen it there earlier than
the third week in July or later than the first week in December.

It seems probable that it passes the intervening months as a pupa.
The habit of the monsoon generations of pupating low down among
dead leaves, where there is always a certain amount of humidity in the
jungle, is a pointer in this direction but it has not been verified. No
possibility can be ruled out. Thus, though the egg-laying habits
described are against lying over in the egg, yet this could be the fact
if the generation before the diapause had specialized habits. For
instance a European Argynnis (Nymphalidae) has been found to lay
its eggs in cracks in bark during the summer, the larvae emerging
only in the following spring and finding their way down to their
herbaceous food-plant at ground-level. {£ owe this point to Dr. D. Use.

Again, it is by no means impossible that the larvae lie over,
remaining in the same kind of dampish situations as the pupae. They
could even come out to feed at intervals, for the lianas have been
noticed to sprout around January and after the first showers in April.

These possibilities can only wait for verification by lucky observa-
tions in the field, or by work with flight cages providing roughly
natural conditions. |

2. Another piece of field work which appeals to me would be
to release a number of caught females in other suitable but not too

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

remote habitats which exist near the area in question. The popula-
tion in here presumably dates back to remote antiquity. This is a
solemn thought. Some accident, or human foolishness, or perversity
could wipe out the one known reinaining colony. So if the species is
not detected elsewhere in the district, it would not be improper to try
and plant it at a second accessible colony. It would be a fine thing
to give this interesting and mysterious creature a greater chance of
continuing its existence for we do not know if it has any strongholds ©
deeper in the dwindling forests of the Bombay Ghats.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. I. H. H. Yarrow of the British Museum (Natural
History), London, for confirming the genus of the ants found with
Nacaduba pactolus. I am grateful to Mr. D. Whiteley of the Hope
Department of Entomology, Oxford, for advice and help of the most
practical kind with the line drawings. He was good enough to prepare
figures from my sketches, in order to provide me with examples of
how various effects are obtained in reproduction. Dr. T. Norman not
only wrote the letter quoted from in the text, but sent a parcel of
valuable material, including Assam examples of Nacaduba_ pactolus.
I am very grateful to Father F. L. Wain, S.s.i.£., for taking the
photographs of the adult insect, and for his unfailing encouragement.

REFERENCES

BELL, T. R. D. (1918) : The Butterflies
of the plains of India. J. Bombay nat.
istz< SOGS25 2-655.

Evans, W. H. (1932) : The Identifica-

_ tion of Indian Butterflies. Bombay Natu-

ral History Society.
OLDROYD, HAROLD (1958) : Collecting,
Preserving and Studying Insects.

Hutchinson, London.

SANTAPAU, H. (1960): The identity
of the Entada plants from Bombay.
J. Bombay. nat.” Hist. Soc. o7 (iy;
238-240.

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1957): Butter-
flies of the Indian Region, Bombay
Natural History Society.

Studies on the Biology of some
Freshwater Fishes

Part I]I—Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch)
BY

A. QAYYUM
Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

AND

S. Z. QASIM
International Biological Programme, Indian Ocean Expedition
(C.S.1.R.), Ernakulam, Kerala

(With eight figures)

[Continued from Vol. 61 (2): 347]

INTRODUCTION

Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch) is generally a fish of running
water. According to Day (1878) it is found in India, Ceylon, Burma,
and Malay Archipelago. It grows to about one foot in length and
is highly esteemed as food. It has often been referred as ‘butter fish’.
During monsoon months when fields and low-lying areas get flooded,
it makes an access from rivers and irrigation channels to ponds and
fields. Sometimes vast numbers come up from rivers and are caught
in ponds by drag-net and cast-net after the monsoon season is over.
Besides September, October, and November there is no other time
when this fish is caught in ponds in and around Aligarh.

No account is available on the biology of this fish excepting short
descriptions on its life-history (Rao 1919), occurrence of ovigerous
females and larvae in Ceylon (Deraniyagala 1930), and record of its
breeding in the River Mahanadi (Job e7 al. 1955).

10 7 ; [44]

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

METHODS

The fishes examined in the course of this investigation came from the
local fish market. Inquiries from the fishermen suggested that they
are regularly caught along with major carp, murrel, and other fish in
the rivers (Ganga, Jamuna, and Kali), irrigation channels, rainwater
drains, and distributaries. The gear generally employed for their
capture is drag-net, small meshed gill-net, and cast-net. The present |
study covers a period of two years, from October 1958 to September
1960. During the first year monthly samples obtained were rather
small, so the investigation was extended for another year, and for all
duplicate months the data have been grouped and are presented only
for a period of 12 months. Owing to scarcity of specimens, several
Visits to the fish market were needed to obtain a substantial. number
of fishes in each month. The routine examination of each fish was
the samre as has been used for O. punctatus (Part I).

LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Table XIII indicates the number of fishes according to their size
groups in various months. The length frequency distribution of the
fish has been illustrated’ as histograms in Fig. 17, after pooling the
sample on a quarterly basis. In the figure the various year classes
that could easily be judged have also been marked arbitrarily.

The histogram for the -months October-December shows five
groups. Due to lack of smaller fishes in these months a clear peak
representing the 0 group fishes could not be obtained. However, the
fact that the smallest fishes were obtained in these months clearly
shows that these belong to the current year’s brood. The breeding
season of the fish being July and August (see page 648), the appearance
of small fishes from October to December coincides well with the
inference that these could only be the O group fishes. The 0 group
fishes being thus established, the other modes demarcated in the
histograms probably represent the I, II, III, and IV year classes. The
average sizes of the various year classes as determined by their
respective modes are as follows: 0 group=9:3 cm., I group= 14-0 cm.,
II group=20°8 cm., HII group=24:5 cm., and IV group=27°8 cm.

- In the histogram for the other three months (January-March), -the
progression of these year classes can easily be followed. The length
frequencies of January to March show only four groups of fishes.. In

[45]

629

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—IIl

these months there was a total absence of large-sized fishes and

therefore the 5th mode probably belonging to four-year old fishes is

TABLE XIII
NUMBER OF FISH (C. bimaculatus) OF EACH LENGTH GROUP CAUGHT IN

VARIOUS MONTHS

oe 8 ‘ ° o. Celt ooh ce) seu on ne (ec Verne se, HOP MHeaAQnntA —HKQerrta = Cy -
Jaquisseq Henle Rasy So Opiate ane gis Cn Sag y eiear by ek Gea Otay 5: : eres IE
a eae a a a a ES, eee ee Eis
, 3 ; cr eam eetat rather oc 8 a ae gay ae ty oe meee AG.
JOQUISAON TAATOONNAAMOMAADSOAAM™ INO = ue SE NO et og Rate neat cement eee So ees ae ae ie
a: soe tS 5 SS en eh ee Ae a es ones
yA ae le
1280190 nite | fie SENN EN OT ONIN OO uy Ho Pe) Te eae ee ee ee poo
eo = aierucipan pie Eta Soe
Jaquia}dag Bae e Se CUR Trt St Co CO, FCAT NON et SO C09 Ne a ee ee ‘|g
! leo
ysnsny SS eee ce aces rare fe Es OO SS (0H el ims FCN CACO UNE UE wa ere
‘ en rere pe ot ae Se are hae en
Ajng O20. 3082050 AQN tonne & © © = @ st © -NNMNM—m -M|M © = CAA ws te CONN ON : : : aie
@- “e je:° (9: - «@ e e ° e e ° ° e e ° ° ° e e ° . ® ‘
Roe Sh ly oe amine SG omen Ale Tor ee Sees oe pacar Sake eo SP meek, NTE RE NE eas
lea
ounsr 2 «© e e AN -Mmr~Nn or NG eR eNO “ANH = SENS est 2N . 2N e eae Taglar . Se lcd
len
SUING © paar cee Am cisciencteaclgs vem: cami tage eo are Sea eee
| He Nes
Jlidy ce ett ENONNO SB SAN AMS CNGNANT St om: Pst SCR OR. some) ee ele ele
pr AS Ee Coes Wee ae ie ae ee Re oh SBERS See eee AE Se ae MEG ee NOG Inna 2 eRe Se LE ee
: ee
Yorepy oe eee ompeNO Monet ett tt et Oe AQ NNnoOgstTeteAN © - eA ee ee eee Jn
tes fare =a Og ao ee ee ee Ore Sy Ome, LOO a eee g), 8h one, oye ° e e e e e e . e ° - °
| oe re eee | | Tr
AlensigoJ Gr wel Jaigcet 56" Ses je) eae = ° ° . ° e e e ~~ oe | ° os ° “A e e “ASsQasexarnnea Pheali! . 3 : 3 ae
— pi = ee eee eee eee ee ee ae = beat Sgt eptivabinses /% evi Se Bek Roe ‘< : = me
Arenues SU hey ON CN COS SS COIS OF rn StS Cs ee ee ee

SONONONONSNOSNSNSHONMSMBNSNSNHSVSNSNSN SHON OM SHOGHON.
ERR OC AASCS ARAM TON OOEN DOAHQ RRR QAANAAANA

Length
group

[46]

630

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

lacking. The average size of the preceding year classes 0 to III is

approximately 11-2, 15-8, 21-0, and 25-2 cm. respectively.

Number

JULY—SEPT.

E4 Ge 8B 20.8 aD SON oo eae
Length (cm.)
Fig. 17. Length frequency distribution of C. bimaculatus

Bes A

Open circles denote average length of various year classes as indicated by modes.
Modes marked by broken lines.

In the histogram for April to June there are five modes represent-
ing 0, I, Il, IL, and IV year classes. Their average size is 11-7,
17:5, 22:0, 26:0, and 28-5 cm. respectively.

The histogram representing July to September also shows- five
distinct modes. The first with a modal size at 12:2 cm. has just

[47] | |

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—IIl 631

completed one year as they were born during the corresponding period
of the preceding year. Similarly in other year classes which have
reached the end of each year’s life, the sizes attained are as follows:
2nd year=18-0 cm., 3rd year=23:2 .cm., 4th year=268 cm., and
Sth year=28°9 cm.

TABLE XIV

AVERAGE LENGTH OF VARIOUS YEAR CLASSES OF C. bimaculatus
OBTAINED FROM THE LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS
QUARTERS TOGETHER WITH THE SIZE RANGE OF EACH YEAR CLASS

Year classes Months Range in size, cm. averdge length, cm.
Pa tla nie es Ae
“7 rg er ae ie aR a em
| October-December 7°2-11°4 9°3
| January-March 9°5-12°8 11°2
0 April-June 9°0-14°5 11°7
July-September 9°2-15°3 12°2
October-December 10°0-18°0 | 14:0
January-March 12°0-18°9 15°8
1 April-June 14:0-20°8 1755
July-September 14°8-21°0 18°0
October-December 17°8-23°4 20°8
January-March 18°4-23°7 21°0
2 April-June 19°9-24°2 22°0
July-September 20°8-25°7 23:2
October-December 22'9-26.0 24°5
January-March 23°2-27'2 Zd:2
3 April-June | 24°0-27°6 26°0
July-September 25°3-28'°2 26°8
October-December 25°8-29°7 27'8
January-March —_-—— ~
4 April-June 27°1-29°6 28°5
July-September 27°8-29°7 28°9

Table XIV gives the average sizes of each year class as revealed
by the quarterly histograms in various seasons. It is evident from
the table that the increase in !ength during the first year is about
12 cm. During 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and Sth years the increases in length
are 6:0, 4:5, 4:0, and 2:5 cm. respectively. In the first year the
growth rate is considerably fast. It slows down. progressively in
subsequent years. In all size groups, growth continues to occur
throughout the year.

BREEDING
(a) Stages of maturity ee
All fishes were sexed and grouped according to the conventional

five maturity stages (see Part I). During maturation the gonads of
[48]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,.Vol. 61 (3)...

632.

snjojnavuilg * JO SdNOAD HLONAT SNOIIVA NI SADVLIS ALMINLVIY

AX FIEVL

SHOVLG ALIENLVA

Basle

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—Ill 633

this fish undergo marked changes in form, colour, etc. which can be

summarised as follows: In immature fishes (Stage I) the ovaries are
small, sausage-shaped, translucent, and buff-coloured, while the testes
are ribbon-like, white, and transparent. The maturing virgins or
recovered spent fishes (Stage II) have enlarged, sac-like, translucent,
and dull-pink-coloured ovaries. In these fishes the eggs are invisible
to the naked eye. The testes are slightly coiled, white, and
translucent. In ripening fishes (Stage III) the ovaries are considerably

_ enlarged, opaque, and light vellow in colour. Eggs in females become

visible to the naked eye while in males the testes are opaque, distinctly
coiled, and white. In ripe fishes (Stage ITV) ovaries are very. much
distended and occupy the entire body cavity. They are yellow in
colour and contain large opaque eggs. In males the testes are greatly
coiled, opaque, and pale white. In spent fishes (Stage V) ovaries are
collapsed, flesh-coloured, while the testes are shrunken and dull-white.

(b) Size at first maturity

The various size groups falling in each maturity stage throughout
the period of observation are given in Table XV. It can be seen
from the table that, in both sexes, all fishes up to 9 cm. were classed
as immature. In 10 cm. group higher stages of maturity begin to
appear. In males all the five stages were seen in this size group but
in females there was no further advance beyond stage I]. At 11 cm.
length in females all maturity stages from II to V were recorded. It
therefore appears that males mature at a size smaller than the
females. The smallest ripe male and female were of 10:3 cm. and
11-1 cm. respectively. If these sizes are compared with the length
frequency distribution it would appear that both sexes attain maturity
when they have completed the first year of life.

The ratio between females and males was 1:0-65, as out of the
total of 881 fishes sexed 532 were females and 349 were males. If
the sex ratios are examined from month to month practically the same
figure is obtained, indicating that this ratio remains more or less
persistent throughout the year. The largest male was 26:0 cm. and
female 29-5 cm. This suggests that either the longevity in males is
less or they grow at a relatively slower rate.

(d) Spawning cycle

_. The number of fishes at each of the five maturity stages are shown

month by month in Table XVI and the monthly percentages are illust-

rated diagrammatically in Fig. 18. It can be seen from the figure that
[50]

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

gonads show a regular seasonal change and that there is hardly any
overlap between various maturity stages. The gonads of all fishes

TABLE XVI

NUMBER OF FISH (C. bimaculatus) AT EACH OF THE FIVE MATURITY
STAGES IN EACH MONTH

|
MATURITY STAGES

| | | |

{ | |

{ | x! |
September | Male Mee Ee. 5 | PMN cn
Female 2 aye | ae oA 56 58
October Male Ree Mer eas ote Pee Oy ets)
| Female | 2 42 5 br Saag As
November Male | 18 42 | | | 60
Female | 14 61 75
December Male | 4 22 26
Female ii 65 | 76
January Male cs 42 42
Female 3 48 : 51

| \

February Male. me er: Pee are mn a 9
Female & LO oe we es 18
March Male Ral on dealt fe 20
Female = 35 3 ah me 38
April Male 1 4 13 ag AF, 18
Female 3 6 16 oe a 25
May Male ea foal 5 an 22
Female aa 26 2 capt nie pana
June Male Me | | 25 : 25
Female Say | 34 a | 37
aie nce Male | 95 1175s. 3a tose ss 349
Female | 45-1 275 + 45) 4.96 am 532

eno —

which are likely to spawn during the forthcoming breeding season

recover fully in February and March. This is soon followed by the

ripening stage in April and May. In June most of the fishes are ripe,

and from July spent fishes begin to appear. In August the proportion

of spent fishes increases, and by September the entire population
[51]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—Ill 635

contains nothing but spent fishes. The occurrence of spent fishes in
late July shows the commencement of spawning in this month. Their
progressive increase in August and September and the total absence
of ripe fishes in September indicate that the spawning is restricted
to July and August only.

FEMALE MALE

Percentage of Total

Fig. 18. Monthly percentages of C. bimaculatus at each of the five
maturity stages during different months

(e) Seasonal changes in gonad weight

Seasonal changes in the gonad weight of both sexes were also
recorded. These have been given in Fig. 19 as percentages of body
weight. In the testes there was no significant change in weight until
May. The maximum weight of testes was recorded in June when they
were mostly ripe and from July there was a decline in testes weight,
which reached its minimum in September. After September there
was hardly any rise in testes weight until the following April.

In females the slow recovery of the ovaries was accompanied by
no change in weight until December. In January the ovaries begin
to gain weight, and from April to June there occurs a tremendous
change in their size and weight. The maximum figure is rapidly attained
in June, from July the decrease in weight becomes obvious, and by

[52]

636° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3) —

September it reaches its minimum. Such a rapid rise in the weight.
of the ovaries and its sudden fall during the two months (July and

20
ER LS)
oe
3
a»
mo]
9°
wa)
‘6
e
06
g
s 10
=
v
co
“n
1]
3
a]
be
oY.
0 - .

a eS eee

Fig. 19. Seasonal variation in the gonad caaee as percentage
of body weight of C. bimaculatus

Of females, continuous line ; of males, broken line

August) give a clear indication that the spawning season is very short
and in all probability lasts for two months only, July and August.

(f) Spawning periodicity

Ova diameter frequencies have indicated that the ovaries of this
fish contain a single group of eggs. In ripe fishes this group of large
oocytes is widely separated from the much smaller yolkless cells
(Qasim & Qayyum 1961). To determine whether all the large ova
are shed in one spawning act or whether there is a spawning
periodicity, the progression of the intra-ovarian eggs was studied
during the pre-spawning and spawning months. Ova diameter fre-
quencies from April to June are given in Fig. 20. It can be seen from
the figure that in April, when fishes have reached the ripening stage, the
stock of ova which are likely to be spawned during the forthcoming
breeding season begins to get differentiated. The size of all these ova

[53]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME. FRESHWATER FISHES—Ill 637

tanges from 0-5 to 0:85 mm. Jn May the single batch thus demarcated
gets more distinct, and in June when fishes attain peak maturity this
batch becomes widely separated from the immature eggs which pro-
bably form stocks of later years. The size of the ripe ova ranges
from 0°75 mm. to 1:25 mm. Spent fishes obtained in late July contain
no eggs in their ovaries besides the immature eggs which measure
about 0:25 mm. This clearly indicates that the entire batch of ripe
ova is spawned and that there is no possibility of each individual
spawning more than once during the breeding season. As has been
noted elsewhere (Qasim & Qayyum 1961) in all such fishes where

Percentage frequency

° 0:25 0-50 0-75 1-00 1:25
| Diameter of oocyte (mm.) |

Fig. 20. Size frequency distribution of maturing oocytes of
C. bimaculatus from April to July |

a single group of ova is matured and shed, the duration of spawning -
in each individual is very short. Since the spawning of all the
individuals of the population is well synchronised, the spawning
season of the species lasts only for about two months.

[54]

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

(2) Condition factor :
The formula for calculating the ‘condition factor’ of the fish was

the same as used in O. punctatus and B. stigma, i.e. K = a.

The K value of each fish in each month was calculated and the data
for all the individuals in various months were pooled to find the
arithmetical mean values of each size group and for each month. The
former have been plotted in Fig. 21 and the latter in Fig. 22. It is
clear from Fig. 21 that with the increase in length the K_ values
continue to increase up to 20 cm. in males and up to 22 cm. in
females. From these size groups onwards there is a progressive
decline in the K values of both sexes. The points of inflection in
the curves of. both sexes, at 20 cm. in males and 22 cm. in females,
do not correspond to the size at first maturity as determined by the
changes in the-gonad maturity. That the secondary decline in large
fishes is due to increasing metabolic strain of spawning as has been

0:65

0:60

Mean value of ‘K’

055

8. 112 4 ik oe eee
Length (cm.)

Fig. 21. Mean condition factor (K) of C. bimaculatus at different
length groups :

Of females, continuous line ; of males, broken line

indicated in many other species (Hart 1946; Menon 1950) seems very
likely. Because, if the rate of increase of K with the size of fish is

taken as a criterion of ‘metabolic strain’, then it would appear from
{Sac]}

eet

. 15 ee Ea

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—Ill 639

the figure that after the maturity is attained, which is at 10-11 cm.,
the increase in K becomes less rapid. A similar feature in the con-
dition factor has been noticed in O. punctatus (Part I).

Fig. 22 gives the monthly K values of both sexes. In calculating |
the mean, immature fishes which were smaller than 10 cm. have been
omitted from the sample. As can be seen from the figure, in females
the seasonal cycle of condition factor is better defined than in males
(Fig. 22). Maximum K value for females is obtained in June which
corresponds to the maximum figures recorded for the gonad weight.
Its decline in July, August, and September seems entirely due to
spawning. In males, on the other hand, maximum K_ value is
obtained in May. This does not correspond entirely to changes in
the gonad weight because the gonad weight is highest in June.
Probably it is because of general building up of reserves before
spawning that the K value records its highest in May. A decrease
in K value in June when peak maturity is attained is presumably
because of utilisation of body reserves towards gonad building in
males. The cycle of the condition factor seems entirely connected with
the maturation of the gonads and spawning in both sexes however.

065

0-60

0°55

Monthly Mean value of ‘K’

Fig, 22. Seasonal variation in condition factor (K) of C. bimaculatus
Of females, confinuous line ; of males, broken line

Foop -

aN [6 [wan [APR [MAY DUNEDULy|

(a) Food of all size groups
Nothing is known about the food of C. bimaculatus. The present
investigation which is based on the gut content analysis of 881 fishes
[56]

Vol. 64 (3)-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

640

€-1 | 0.1 cs c-€ ie S-¢ 4 Liv
S-P SL c (1. LS 9-¢ oo ea es TR V6
hie 6-£ | 0-1 9-¢ en er 4 6-71 | -L-b a L-I
ee ao SF ae 2 ve C.Z 6.9 |ict oe poh
0-€ a 0-1 9.2 aie oe St ae o.

a 4 ie e. 8-L v9 19-0 Ley, G9 |} S-L (aS L-l
0-€ cS T-€. ee re at S:¢ c9 | LY 8-02 0-r1
0-€ 9-C rs c-Ol | v9 9.4 S-C O-€E-; ~" c-S 0.2
0-€ C-9C | C-CC 9-€Z | €-61 ia oe Bafa cae i: £-6
0-9 9-€7 © £-91 L-vy | ¢-2€ iis " iy ; ra a
0.9 6-¢ 0-9 9 ¥ €-C 0-¢ a L-v ee c-€

=e aoe 0.Z 9.7 $9 =A 56 : he a as
£f ed 0.1 Se Ze a ae ele & -s a
OO oe 0.1 ee “ es : ee ee ee ° ee ee
. ar = a3 EE 6.2 a Se 6.7 Boao an
we 5m ote ae -- | OT ore 671 ar Z.¢

ye WE pr ae -- | 66 S02 67 on a aa
I-02 v-1E 0-7S 0-%h |.6-82 | 69 8-7 8°S7.| -1-8¢ 9-ST 0-SC

6-97 b-¢9 I-LE €97 | 8-S2 |. 8-Iv | L-8P Oss | 8-€S € Ly ¢-8€
99 OL L6 8¢ Te tv 6£ Te 6€ 61 LS
col $8 vor 99 t¢ c9 es tv 8S Le £6

Leone eee EE
snjojnovulg * AO SLND AHL NI doOd AO SATMODALVD SNOMIVA JO AONTAANDIO AOVILNAO Wd

TAX 474V 1,

UMPIg

Ee oa ~ ‘snoonyy
"ss SOOSUI PoysedIcT
fate ae ¥19}d099|d
irae plo}do1smeydy
ee eso}diwoH
oa eyeuOp
ere ee e19}d09[00
‘7% pyaidousw Ay
is e19j;d04II9
peer ysy Poysosiq
ae 014109 aajyoy
‘ds uoposudavydajquy
ihe ds sasdpy
ss) ds dajsvsoysiy
By a ‘ds jay)
mh snotaupp “Fy
ee DUI 3148 "¢
ge ee SNIUOYIUOD “gf
a ge™ 0191) snqiog

"*Pooy YIM YSy JO “ON
° *poulwmlexe Ys JO “ON

| <—syUOpy

[57]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—III 641

clearly iilustrates the nature of the food and its variation from month
to month. Out of the total number of fishes examined, 267 had no
food in their guts. The percentage composition of various items of
food in the gut from month to month is given in Table XVII. As

Crustaceans

ercencage occurrence

Fig. 23. Relative occurrence of three important food items of
C. bimaculatus in different months

can be seen from the table, fish and insects form the main food. The
occurrence of these two groups in various months is shown in Fig. pe
together with . crustaceans (prawns) which form food of lesser
-importance.

[58]

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Fish occurred in nearly'66% guts. Maximum numbers containing

fish were recorded in October and November. In these months,
sometimes as many as six fishes were found in a single gut. From
April to July the occurrence of fish in the gut progressively falls.
This may be connected with the maturation of gonads, because in C.
bimaculatus April to July are the main months when peak maturity
is attained. Probably during this period the fish becomes less active
and fails to catch other fishes.
_ In all, nine species of fish were recorded from the guts. Of these,
Barbus ticto and B. cenchonius were most abundant. The former
occurred in the largest number of guts whereas the latter came next.
Other species ingested were B. stigma, Esomus danricus, Chela sp.,
Trichogaster sp., Amblypharyngodon mola, Mystus sp., and Rohtee
cotio. These were relatively in small proportions and occurred only
in some months of the year (Table XVII).

Insects formed the other important item of food. These included
both terrestrial and aquatic species. Terrestrial insects were grass-
hoppers, ants, and beetles, whereas aquatic insects belonged to
the Orders Coleoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Ephemeroptera.
Orthopterous insects were not regularly found in the gut. They were
recorded only in the monsoon and post-monsoon months (July-December).
In July and August they were found in nearly 40% guts. Ants
(Hymenoptera) also occurred from July to December. In August,
September, and October ants were quite abundant in the guts. Some
fishes contained as many as 30 ants. Terrestrial beetles were com-
paratively rare although they did occur in the monsoon months.
Aquatic beetles (Dytiscidae), on the other hand, occurred practically
throughout the year. The occurrence of terrestrial insects (grasshop-
pers, ants, and beetles) in a large number of guts was at first rather
surprising but, since they started appearing from the monsoon months,
it became obvious that they must have been carried to the rivers
from land along with the rain-water.

The other aquatic insects such as dragonfly nymphs occurred in
small proportions, but during winter months (January and February)
they became fairly common in the gut. Corixa sp., Notonecta sp.,

and Gerris sp. formed the aquatic hemipterous group of insects. |

Corixa and Notonecta were common throughout the year. Occasionally
Gerris and MHydrophylid insects were also seen. Ephemeroptera
nymphs and Plecopterous insects were also recorded in a few guts
on two or three occasions.

Crustaceans were rarely seen in the gut. The only organism
which made frequent appearance in the diet was prawn. Since it

[59]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—III 643
appeared as fragments or as digested remains it was impossible to
identify the species.

The nature of the food of C. bimaculatus clearly shows that this fish
is highly predaceous and subsists mainly on fish and insects. In C.
pabda, which is closely related to C. bimaculatus systematically, some
investigations have been made on the food. According to Mookerjee
et al. (1946b), its food in Bengal consists of algae, protozoans, and crust-
aceans. ‘The same fish at Lucknow has been found to feed on insects,
fish, higher aquatic weeds, molluscs, unicellular algae, and crustaceans
(Das & Moitra 1955). The food for C. bimaculatus, therefore, differs
considerably from that of C. pabda as no aquatic weeds, algae, or
molluscs were recorded during the present investigation.

From the various items of food ingested it appears that C.
bimaculatus is more or less a surface feeder. Since its food includes
a variety of fishes, it seems that this species is capable of feeding in
the entire pelagic zone. The rarity in the gut of crustaceans and other
organisms which are otherwise common in rivers provides soine
evidence that C. bimaculatus is a selective feeder.

(bj) Seasonal variation in the rate of feeding

The feeding rhythm of the fish in different months has been shown
in Fig. 24. It can be seen from the figure that two periods of intensive
feeding are clearly marked. One lasts from September to November
and the other from March to June. The only time when feeding

3-0

YY
ro)

aS
So

wn
(o>)
Percentage of fish with empty guts
O-n--- —O-=---0---- -0

|
co)

5 36

Total wt, of food as percentage of body wt,

TAN. [ Feb, [MAR] APR [MAY [JUNEDULY|AUG [SEPT [oct [Nov [DEC |

Fig. 24. Seasonal variation in the rate of feeding of
C. bimaculatus

showed a considerable reduction was during July and August. These
being the spawning months, the marked reduction in feeding is pro-
bably due to peak maturity and spawning. The other time when

11 [60]

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

feeding shows a slight decrease is from December to February. This
may have been due to the low temperature conditions prevailing in the
winter of northern India.

FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT AND THE BIOLOGY OF FISHES

In India freshwater environment provides great diversity in physical,
chemical, and biological conditions from season to season and from
one part of the country to the other. Whether it is a lotic (running)
or a lentic (static) environment, the biotic potential of any body of
water depends upon its standing crop of organisms. These organisms
are mainly composed of five large groups: (1) phytoplankton. (2)
bottom flora, (3) bottom fauna, (4) zooplankton, (5) fishes. The first
two constitute a producing cycle and the other three form a consuming
cycle (Welch 1952). These features establish a complex interrela-
tionship in the form of a nutritional chain in water (Darnell 1958,
1961).

In India the inland waters are teeming with life (George 1961) but,
since no estimations have been made of the total productivity, it is
difficult to say how it would vary in a given time or from one en-
vironment to the other. The work that can be carried out on plants
and animals of a freshwater environment is of great significance and
will go a long way towards reaching an understanding of the complex
interrelationship between animal and plant communities, There are
indications that these relationships may eventually change into
mathematical aggregates (Lindeman 1942; Hazelwood & Parker 1963).
At present owing to the newness of the subject it is difficult to attempt

any generalisation and whatever is said must be regarded as only |

suggestive.

The foregoing accounts of the biology of three species (Part I-III)
indicate that fishes, whether living in ponds or rivers, undergo pro-
gressive and predictable changes. Some of these changes are inevitable
and inherent and could be appraised ‘by carefully planned studies.
Out of the three species investigated, two (O. punctatus and B. stigma)
came from ponds and the third (C. bimaculatus) came from rivets.
The pond fishes were particularly favourable material for research
because they were not only common but easy to collect in fairly large
numbers at all times of the year and practically all stages in their
lives.

In all the three species, the length frequency distribution gave
evidence of modes probably representing various year classes, on the

[61]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—IIl 645

basis of which an estimate of the growth rate could be made. Breeding
in each species was adapted to an annual rhythm. The cycles of
maturation and depletion of the gonads were fairly regular and were
repeated almost at the same time every year. Each species attained
maturity by the end of the first year of life. The duration of their breed-
ing was dependent upon the frequency of spawning. In O. punctatus
which spawned repeatedly the breeding season was long, whereas in
the other two species, B. stigma and C. bimaculatus, each individual
spawned once only and their breeding seasons were relatively short.
Breeding in ponds was non-synchronous. In some _ ponds _ the
Spawning occurred earlier during the season, whereas in others it was
delayed or even inhibited. Probably the amount of repressive factor
present in ponds (Swingle 1956) governed the spawning of iishes.—
Breeding seasons, however, coincided with monsoon and post-monsoon
months. Feeding rhythm in all the species varied from season to
season. The quality and quantity of the food consumed was influenced
by physical factors (temperature and rainfall) and biological factors
(gonad maturity and spawning). The food of B. stigma consisted of
plankton organisms, algae, and organic debris. O. punctatus, though
it fed on other aquatic organisms and fishes, showed a strong
preference for B. stigma. C. bimaculatus fed chiefly on forage fishes
including B. stigma. |

It is therefore evident that in an environment for the maintenance
of life processes a fish becomes a part of the complex interrelationship
between animal and plant communities. Such a relationship has
already been described in many tropical lakes (Fryer 1959). In a
static environment (pond) a fish population gets very limited by
interspecific competition which may be for food, for space, or for
breeding (Rounsefell & Everhart 1953). In tropical latitudes the
fauna and flora of a freshwater environment are extremely diverse
(Hickling 1961, 1962). Their qualitative and quantitative variations
are dependent upon seasonal exigencies such as winter, summer, - and
monsoon.

AGE DETERMINATION

While this work was‘in progress, no method of age determination
was known in any of the species under investigation. The authors
therefore conducted their studies on the growth of each species entirely
on the basis of length-frequency distribution. Since the work was
completed, the occurrence of growth zones on the opercular bones of

a [ 62]

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

O. punctatus has been discovered (Qasim & Bhatt 1963) and it may
be of interest to note that the mean lengths of the various year classes
determined by the zones of the opercular bones agree closely with the
average sizes determined from the various modes of the length-
frequency distribution (Table II, at 61 (1): 79). So the deduction
made in this paper that the various modes correspond to year classes,
at least in O. punctatus, seems correct.

SUMMARY

Studies on the biology of three common freshwater fishes, namely
Ophicephalus punctatus, Barbus stigma, and Callichrous bimaculatus,
have been described in three different parts as follows:

I. Ophicephalus punctatus

A close examination of the length frequency curves, based on
quarterly data, revealed distinct modes which evidently correspond to
three or four year classes. By taking the average size of each year
class, the growth rate of the fish can be estimated. Growth seems
rapid during the first year. It slows down progressively in subsequent
years as the fish grows older.

Both sexes mature when 11 cm. in length and begin to spawn when
about one year old. The breeding season lasts from June to October.
Testes are subjected to far less changes in weight than the ovaries.
The maximum weight of the gonads in both sexes is obtained in June
which corresponds to peak maturity. The ovaries of maturing fishes
show two groups of ova which are expelled from the ovaries
successively during the spawning months. Larvae are of common .
occurrence from July to October.

The values of the ‘condition factor’ (K) increase with the length
of the fish up to 19 cm. From then onwards there is a secondary fall
in the K values of both sexes. A seasonal cycle in the condition
factor is well defined in both sexes. High and low values obtained
in the various months correspond to seasonal changes in the gonad
condition and feeding rhythm of the fish.

The food of O. punctatus varies according to the size of the fish.
The adolescent and older fishes feed on fish, insects, and other
aquatic organisms. Immature fishes consume mainly insects and
crustaceans. The larvae of this species are mainly plankton feeders.

[63]

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—IlI1 647

The total intake of food in larger fishes varies in different months.
There are two periods of active feeding each year. Immature fishes
continue to feed practically at the same rate throughout the year.

Il. Barbus stigma

Length frequency distribution of B. stigma discerns at the most
two to three year classes. A progression of these year classes in
various quarterly seasons has been studied to determine the growth
of the fish.

The fish attains sexual maturity when about 7:0 cm. in length. At
first maturity the males are generally smaller than the females. The
spawning season Jasts from June to September. There is a single
group of ova present in the maturing ovary which suggests that the
cycle of spawning in each individual occurs only once a year. The
condition factor of the fish increases with the increase in length and
there is no secondary decline in large-sized fishes, which may be
attributed to the onset of maturity. In both sexes there is a regular
seasonal cycle in the condition factor which seems to be governed by
the seasonal changes in gonad weight.

The food of the fish consists of a variety of animal and vegetable
organisms. Organic debris, sand, and mud are also ingested in large
quantities. There is no marked difference in feeding intensity from
season to season. The fish feeds actively in all months of the year
excepting November and December when there occurs a. slight
decrease.

Il. Callichrous bimaculatus

Modes representing four to five year classes can be recognized
from the quarterly size frequency histograms. The growth in length
in the first year is about 12 cm. whereas during the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and
Sth years it is approximately 6-0, 4:5, 4-0, and 2-5 cm. respectively.

Both sexes spawn for the first time after they have completed their
first year of life. Males at this age attain a length of 10 cm. and the
females about 11 cm. The spawning-season is short and lasts for
about two months, July-August. Both sexes show regular seasonal
changes in their gonads and the spawning is well synchronized through-
out the population. Ova-diameter frequency distribution reveals only
One group of oocytes in ripening and ripe ovaries which seems to be

[ 64]

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

shed in a single spawning act. The seasonal cycle in the ‘condition
factor’ is better defined in females than in males. The maximum value
for males is obtained in May and for females in June. The mean K
values obtained for each length group gave some indication of the
size at first maturity.

The food of this species consists of fish and insects. There are
two periods of intensive feeding. The minimum quaniity of food is
consumed in July and August when most of the fishes have ripe
gonads. 7

The interrelationship of fishes and freshwater environment is dis-
cussed in the light of studies on the biology of O. punctatus, B.
stigma, and C. bimaculatus.

REFERENCES

ALIKUNHI, K. H. (1953): Notes on
the bionomics, breeding and growth of
the murrel, Ophicephalus striatus Bloch.
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 38 : 10-20.

(1956) : Observations on
the fecundity, larval development and
early growth of Labeo bata (Ham.).
Indian J. Fish. 3; 216-229.

—-—, & Rao, S. N. (1947): An
investigation into the food and feeding
habits of some of the common freshwater
fishes of Madras. Proc. 34th Indian Sci.
Cong. : 179.

—-— -—-— (1951) : On the bionomics,
development and growth of a Cauvery
carp, Labeo kontius Jerdon. Rec. Ind.
Mus. 49 : 157-74.

a ed ee

BaL, J. N., & Jones, J. W. (1960) :

On the growth of the brown trout of
Llyn Tegid. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 134:
1-41.

CuaAcko, P. I., & KurIyAN, G. K.
(1948) : On the food of nine species of
Barbus of Madras. Sci. & Cult.13: 347.

CHATERJEE, G. C. (1934) : Biological
control of malaria in rural areas of
lower Bengal. Cent. Co-op. Anti-mal. Soc.
Calcutta : 13-14.

DARNELL, R. M. (1958) : Food habits

of fishes and larger invertebrates of Lake
Pontchartrain, Louisiana, an estuarine
community. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ.
Texas 5: 353-416.
(1961) : Trophic spectrum
of an estuarine community, based on
studies of Lake Pontchartrain, Louisiana.
Ecology 42 : 553-568.

Das, S. M., & Morrra, S. K. (1955) :
Studies on the food of some common
fishes of Uttar Pradesh, India. Part I.
The surface feeders, the mid feeders and
bottom feeders. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
India 25 : 1-6.

[65]

ee er es ee

Das, S. M., & Mortra, S. K. (1956a):
Studies on the food of some fishes of
Uttar Pradesh. Part II. On the types of
fish-food and the variations in the relative
length of the alimentary canal, with a

description of the latter. Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. India 26 : 213-223.
————— (1956b): Studies on the

food of some fishes of Uttar Pradesh
Part III. Comparative anatomy of the
alimentary tract and its modifications
in relation to feeding habits. Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. India 26: 224-33.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India.
William Dawson, London.

DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. (1930): The
Eventognathi of Ceylon. Spol. Zeyl.
Colombo 16: 1-41.

Fryer, G. (1959): The tropic relation-
ship and ecology of some littoral com-
munities of Lake Nyasa with especial
reference to the fishes, and a discussion of
the evolution of a group of rock-frequent-
ing Cichlidae. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 132:
153-281.

GeorGE, M. G. (1961) : Ph. D. Thesis.
Delhi University.

Hart, T. J. (1946): Report on traw-
ling surveys of the Pantogonian con-
tinental shelf. ‘ Discovery ’ Rep. 23 : 223-
403.

HARTLEY, P. H. T. (1947): The natura]
history of some British freshwater fishes.
Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 117: 129-206.

HazeLwoop, D.H., & PARKER, R. H.
(1963): Population dynamics of some
freshwater zooplankton. Ecology. 44:
207-211.

HICKLING, C. F. (1961): Tropical

_ Inland Fisheries. Longmans, London.

Fish Culture.

ee ee

(1962) :
Faber & Faber, London,

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES—III

Hize, R. (1936): Age and growth of
the cisco Leucichthys artedi (Le Sueur)
in the lakes of the north-eastern high-
lands, Wisconsin. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish.
48 : 211-317.

Hora, S. L. (1945): Analysis of
factors influencing the spawning of carps.
In the Symposium on the factors influ-
encing the spawning of Indian carps. Proc.
nat. Inst. Sci. India 11 : 303-312.

——-—-—— & MOookersiE, D. D.
(1938): Health Bulletin 12. Malaria
Bureau, 4.

HosaIni, V. H., & RAHIMULLAH, M.
(1946): Early developmental stages of
Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch. Proc. 33rd
Indian Sci. Cong.: 126.

JHINGRAN, V. G. (1957) : Age deter-
mination of the Indian major carp
Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.) by means of
scales. Nature, Lond. 179 : 468-469.

————— (1959) : Studies on the age
‘and growth of Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.)
from the river Ganga. Proc. nat. Inst.
Sci. India 25: 107-137.

Jos, T. J. (1943): Mosquito larvae
eating fish. Assam Rev. & Tea News:
111-115.

———— (1944): Public health fish
farming. Indian Farming 5: 10-13.

Davip, A., & Das, K. N.
(1955) : Fish and fishery of the Mahanadi
in relation to the Hirakud dam. Indian
J. Fish. 2 : 1-30.
(1946) :

a aes

JONES, S. Breeding and
development of Indian freshwater and
brackish water fishes. Part II. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 46 : 453-71.

KHAN, H. (1924): Observations on
the breeding habits of some freshwater
aes in the Punjab. ibid. 29: 958-

————— (1942) : Spawning of
carps and their spawning grounds in the
Punjab. ibid. 43 : 416-427.

Le Cren, E. D. (1951): The length-
weight relationship and seasonal cycles
in gonad weight and condition in the
perch (Perca fluviatilis). J. Anim. Ecol.
20 : 201-219.

LINDEMAN, R. L. (1942) : The trophic-
dynamic aspect of ecology. Ecology
23 : 399-418.

MENON, M. D. (1950) : Bionomics of
the poor-cod (Gadus minutus L.) in the
Plymouth area. J. mar. biol. Ass. U.K.
29 : 185-239.

Mortra, S. K. (1956): On the food
habits of certain fishes in Lucknow.
Proc. zool. Soc. Bengal 9 : 89-91.

MOooKERJEE, H. K. (1945a) : Factors
influencing the spawning of principal
carps of India. In the Symposium on
the factors influencing the spawning of
Indian carps. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India
Ila: 312-315,

649

MOookKerJEE, H. K. (1945b): Life his-
tories of some carnivorous fishes of
Bengal. Sci. & Cult.11: 102-103.

————, GANGULY,D.N., & ISLAM, M.
(1946a) : On the composition of food and
their correlation with weight and length
of the body in the development of
Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch. Proc.
33rd Indian Sci. Cong., 15.

————, ————, & BHATTACHARYA,
R.N. (1948) : On the bionomics, breed-
ing habits and development of Ophiceph-

alus_ striatus Bloch. Proc. zool. Soc.
Bengal 1: 58-66.

ee , MAzumpDaAR, S. R., &
Das Gupta, B.-N. (1941) : Breeding

coloration of Barbus (Puntius) stigma.
(Cuv. & Val.). Indian Jour. Vet. Sci.
Calcutta 10 : 250-251.

———-——., Sen-GupTA, S. N., &
Roy-CHOUDHRY, P. K. (1946b) : Food
and its percentage composition of the
common adult food fishes of Bengal.
Sci. & Cult. 12 : 247-249,

Morrow, Jr., J. E. (1951) : Studies of
the marine resources of South New
England. VIII. The biology of the long-
horn Sculpin Myxocephalus ostodecims-
pinosis Mitchell with a discussion of
the Southern New England ‘trash’
fishery. Bull. Bingh. Ocean. Coll. 13:
1-89.

PILLAY, T. V. R. (1954): The biology
of the grey mullet, Mugil tade Forskal,
with notes on its fishery in Bengal.
Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 17 : 187-217.

PRASAD, B., & Hora, S. L. (1936) :
A general review of the probable larvi-
vorous fishes of India. Rec. Mal. Surv.
Ind. 6 : 631-46.

Qasim, S. Z. (1956a) : Time and dura-
tion of the spawning season in some
marine teleosts in relation to their dis-
tribution. J. Cons. Inst. Explor. Mer.
21: 144-155.

a (1956b) : The spawning
habits and embryonic development of
the shanny (Blennius pholis L.). Proc.
zool. Soc. Lond. 127: 79-93.

————-—-—. (1957a) : The biology of
Blennius pholis L. (Teleostei). Proc. zool.
Soc. Lond. 128: 161-208.

————-—— (1957b) : The biology of

Centronotus gunnellus (L.), (Teleostei).
J. Anim. Ecol. 26 : 389-401.
, & BHAT, V. S. (1964) :
Occurrence of growth zones on the oper-
cular bones of the freshwater murrel,
Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch. Curr. Sci.
33: 19-20.

————-——,, & Qayyum, A. (1961):
Spawning frequencies and_ breeding
seasons of some freshwater fishes with
special reference to those occurring in the
plains of northern India. Indian J. Fish.
8; 24-43,

re ee

[ 66 |

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Qasim, S.Z., & QAYYUM, A. (1963) :2. tive cyclical changes in the pituitary- and

Fecundities of some freshwater fishes. <

Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 29 : 373-382.

QayyuM, A., & Qasim, S. Z. (1962) :
Behaviour of the Indian murrel Ophice-
Phalus punctatus, during brood care.
Copeia : 465-467.

Ras, B.S (1916) : Notes on the fresh-
water fish of Madras. Rec. Ind. Mus. 12:
249-294. :

— (1930) : The value of fish as
natural enemies of mosquitoes. Mad.
Fish. Dept. Pamphlet.

Rao, C.N. R. (1919): Notes on the
life history of two fishes, Callichrous
bimaculatus (Bloch) and Notopterus notop-
terus (Pallas). Proc. 6th Indian Sci.
Cong. : 269.

ROUNSEFELL, G.A., & EVERHART, W.H.
(1963): Fishery Science. Its methods
and application. John Wiley, N. Y.

SAIGAL, B. N., & Motwani, M. P.
(1961): Studies on the fishery and biology
of the commercial cat-fishes of the
Ganga river system. I. Early life history,
bionomics and breeding of Mystus (Ost-
eobagrus) seenghala (Sykes). Indian J.
Fish. 8 : 60-74.

SAROJINI, K. K. (1957): Biology of
the grey-mullets of Bengal. I. Biology
of Mugil parsia Hamilton. Indian J.
Fish. 4 : 160-207. i

SATHYANESAN, A. G. (1960) : Correla-

[67] :

! Barbus stigma (Cuv. & Val.).

gonads of Mystus seenghala (Sykes) and
J. Zool.
Soc. India 12: 175-190.

SATHYANESAN, A. G. (1961): The sea-
sonal cycle in the gonads of Barbus
stigma (Cuv. & Val.), Proc. 48th. Indian
Sci. Cong. : 410.

SEN, P. (1937) : On the food factors of
the so called mosquito destroying fishes
of Bengal. Curr. Sci. 7 : 357-61.

——— (1954): Ecology of Anophe-
line mosquitoes. Proc. 42nd Indian Sci.
Cong. : 126.

SEWELL, R. B. S., & CHoupumrI, B. L.
(1912): Indian fish of proved utility as
mosquito destroyer. Fish. Report,
Calcutta.

SWINGLE, H. S. (1956): A repressive
factor controlling reproduction in fishes.
Proc. 8th Pacific Sci. Cong. 3.

VasIsHT, H. S. (1960): Food and
feeding habits of the commercial fishes
of oe Punjab. Res. Bull. Punjab Univ. 10:

-72.

WELCH, S. PAUL (1952): Limnology.

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
WILLey, A. (1908): Fishery observa-
tions. Spol. zeyl. Colombo 5 : 144-152.
WILSON, H. C. (1917) : Notes on treat-
ment of swamps, stream-beds, ponds,
wells, pools and other mosquito infested
areas, Madras, Fish.Bull. 11 : 161-172.

)
= SR; See

Medicinal Plants of commercial
importance found wild in Uttar
Pradesh and their distribution

S. L. NAYAR
Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow

The State of Uttar Pradesh stretches from latitude 24°N. to 31.25°N.
and from longitude 77°E. to 84.50°E. approximately. The climate and
physical features of the State present a variety and exercise an impor-
tant influence in determining its vegetation.

The north-western part of Uttar Pradesh extends into the Himalayan
and sub-Himalayan regions, and a small strip along the south forms
part of the Central Indian Plateau. But the largest part of the State
lies in the great Ganges Plain. |

The Himalayan Region includes roughly all the land over 5000 ft.
and has a rich and varied natural vegetation. The forests are dense and
contain many different plants. This region catches the full force of the
south-west monsoon and the rainfall is very heavy—more than 100
inches in the east. As we go westwards it gets less and less, but every-
where it is good.

The sub-Himalayan Region comprises the foothills between the
plains and the mountains as well as the lower slopes of the Himalayas
up to 5000 ft. The part nearer the mountains consists of a belt of hills,
which is damp and covered with forests. The part nearer the plains, is
often covered with coarse tall grass.

The Ganges valley is a vast plain without a hill. Running roughly
- through the centre from north-west to south-east is the Ganges. The
plains are cold in the cold season, but get very hot in the hot weather
and the rainfall is nearly everywhere less than 40 inches. There are no
forests at all and most of the land is given to cultivation.

SURVEY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

Under the auspices of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research
and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, an all-India
survey of medicinal plants was started more than 25 years ago. In this

652. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

connection the author undertook intensive botanical explorations all
over the country, both in the hills as well as the plains, and tried to
study, as thoroughly as possible, the areas and places where exactly such
materials are to be found growing wild by collecting authentic specimens
of medicinal plants. In addition the specimens of medicinal plants
preserved in some of the important herbaria in the country such as the
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, and the Botanical Garden, Sibpur,
Calcutta, were scrutinized for the purpose of finding out the exact
localities of their collection. The relevant literature was also consulted.

The results of this survey show that a good number of medicinal
plants of commercial importance, yielding products used as crude drugs,
occur wild within the boundaries of the State of Uttar Pradesh. These
vegetable resources can be exploited for the development of medicinal
plants and crude drug industry in the State and can be utilized by the >
various medical and allied industries. The demand for a number of
crude drugs for consumption in the State can be met to a great extent
by collection from wild sources.

In order to facilitate the collection of these medicinal plants from
wild sources, by drug collectors, drug dealers, research workers,
commercial concerns, and others interested in their collection and utiliza-
tion, the author has thought it necessary to record his findings, so that
these may be readily available for reference. The data relating to the
botanical names of these medicinal plants, their trade/Indian names,
the part or parts used as crude drugs, along with their distribution, i.e.
the areas and places where these plants are found growing wild in Uttar
Pradesh, are presented below:

653

MEDICINAL PLANTS FOUND WILD IN UTTAR PRADESH

eee

F ‘JsSIq BPUODH ‘osueil Indis[ny,
Saroossny] *3sIq UNG PIYDSq ‘(IF ON6I) dweMs eleMUOIYO|\
:yeMYyIeD yay, “(1J 000r) YPesinjuey *yemyiey yay “CY 000s
000) AIBA TUN ‘yemyIeH yet, ‘(IF 0008-000L) Te4OD

‘seARl Cull,
ou} UE “YE O00 0} SuIpusose syUeq JOAII UO IO SoYysieW UT

‘uoeuny ‘Aal[VA oD ‘puny feing *‘ uorewny
‘CY OOS‘*ZT) Joes Bue *Temqiey wyeL ‘CY 000°ST-000'r1)
eIULYLIS Jopun ypesnpng * [eMYyIeD yoy, ‘Aoj[eA sosuvyH saoqe
yesiod *"3sIq und eiYysq ‘“Iesuney ‘(15 0006-0008) UBqosq
"YF 000°ST-0009 Woy [emyIeo WyoL
pue uoevwuny jo seAelemip, oy} JO souoz suIdje pue suidyje-qng

‘OsULI SIIOOSSN|]
:[eMyIeH yor, “(5 OOOTI-000‘OI) BIURyIeply « [eMYIeH Yel
‘ssulids JOY OU} Jesu IjOUWUNEL * [eMYIVH yay “sseg TewyNny
"SPAR[PUNTY [PMUICD OU} JO souoz oUId[e puev suidyje-qng

"TeMyIeD ‘(15 000'EI-000°71) Ss¥d Wen y
‘Y 000°9T-000‘°ZI 18 [eMYIeH Jo sekeyeuty oy} Jo 3foq ould[y

"ysSIq Induvieyes
‘eILL, $ S¥eMIg Induereyesg {-ysIq Induvieyes ‘Indiuey **}sIq
Induevieyeg ‘indeyemer {"ysSIq Woyy ‘e[OoH ung eiyod
‘SpURTAISEM JO ‘s}UDTUYURQWIS [eURd ‘Splol] JO SIap10g
‘SoHIS OSeT[IA UO Udds AOIYD pue sulejd oY} UI poziITeinjeN,

SWIOZIYY

100Y

100%

wins “yieg

ysopeig Je UI PIM puNoj oJOyM soovjd pue svoy

snip
opnio se posn
sjied Io 110g

yorg ‘sey J90MS

sned ‘SIV

BITIO}
-eY29\\ “YSTE

e1yoW
“ysiq-elypng

reyry ‘Inqeg

ouleu
uvIpPU] /opelL

|
|

(qi0y [eIuUdIOg)
“ULI SNUDIDI snAoop

(qioy [eluusIOg)
"TOA Ung dydosajay °y

(q19y [eruuerg)

jdeyg louozvf{ "py

(qroy [eruuelg)

(901} pazis-WNnIpsy)
PILEM 221GD4D ‘DIIDIp

jdeyg wnziyssoulap wnjimosop

"¢

quejd Jo oweu [vorluvjog

; __ feauzey “Cy 000°TT
“000'OI) epueyyrueg Syemyrey “CIF OOOTT) AeA MID

SOALI] puL ‘spng
13 OOO'TI-O0OL 1 seAelewWI_] uoewWNy

(qniys JeruUusieg)
‘peoy-JOMO]y

‘OUIT DUD DISIualAp| “OT

Tssg
‘ulInyy ‘eoruo}UeS

| (1OUTM}
[nweisy § snosdeqiey 10 Aqqnays)
*JJOMYIIG UeIpuy ‘UUTT voIpul v1IysojO[sup! °6
| |

OuLOZIYI

‘UOISIAIG. Ppueg ‘INndIUeY *"\sIq IsULUEL “undyTeT
pue 100%

“s[TIY MOT pure suretg

‘uoeuny “(IF 000‘0I-0006) S1SeI05 |
vsog : uovuny “(IJ 000‘OI-0006) AeA Weey *jemyiey “(J |
000°ZI-000'I 1) 3SorOJ Ur ATTRA NIN *[eMyIeH yay “(1 00001 | |
-0006) Youndiepung J9pun sjsolojJ npooipueypy = yemyiey |
WYyaL ‘CIS OOOTT-0006) UPeseniquodg *‘ uoruny “CY 000‘OI : |
-0006) ATVA ney *eMyiey yar’ “(-3J 0008-0002) B10°q |
"13 00001-0009 Woy sekejeuF] UoRWINY pue [eMYIey Yo], 100% BIOYD ‘yeIoYyO)

(q10H)
‘MSPY Vonnjs vIIasup| “gs

*SYITEMIS Induvseyes \
ysIq unq PIYOG ‘YSoyIysTY 8'IsIq Und eIYyOq ‘Indiey
"ysIq Yorelyeg ‘indnep 2 -ysiq unq eiysq ‘efeMiyoey * pueyy
-[opung ‘Ieypng ‘"1siq [e@L wIeN ‘uempley ‘t1es0q ‘ s}sor0j
ung eiyegq ‘:‘1siq [eL wien ‘osuey evieyyeyYyD ‘ epueg

€
e
¢
e

pue ‘s1omoy
‘SoAva] “YIeg-WI9}s

suINJj |

(001) ]]eWs)

: S}SOIOJ INduUBIeYLeS pue und eiyod 94} Ul wowWWwOD ‘y1eq-JO0OY [seg 19g. "IIOD SOj2UDU ajsap\ °L
‘Induvieyes ‘(ey WIEN ‘ysequey ‘unqd |
eiyoq sAoqe indfey f-3siq [emyIey ‘oumopsuey ‘(CY OOST | |
nedeloy, { oroduryony {ysiq Woyy ‘ipeu-euyjey f4siq ung |
e1yogd ‘oseyjiA ypuey ‘sig [el tren ‘uemprey ‘Tes0q | | |
"13. 000 SIOMOG |

0} dn SAoj[vA Ul JesuUNe¢ UI puNoOjy osje *4sIq iANduereyes| pue ‘soavoy ‘yIeq

(qniys) |
jo syed pue ‘ysIq und ®eIYEq 9Y} UI UOWWIOD A[SUIpsoOxg ‘WIa}s “JOOY

SOON VIISDA DpojoYypy, "9
|

eSnH1y “eyeseA,

654

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Ysopeig 18114 Ul PyIM puNoj aJoyA soovjd pue seary

snip
opnio se pasn
syied Jo yIeg

owmbu
uvIpuy /opesy,

juvjd jo oweu [eourjog

|
|
|

‘ON

655

MEDICINAL PLANTS FOUND WILD IN. UTTAR PRADESH

OO ————

‘Induvseyes ¢ [ey WUreN {3sIq: Yoreryeg ‘edqanyy >*ysIq oy y s}uvyd
“euLIyoyW 5 "IsSIG Woyy ‘jnyepy ‘ “ISIC Bpuoy “indyeurr ¢ uovw | ayemoy Woy UIsoT
“ny ‘yseqremeyy S ung eiyaq {ysIq indyyeioy ‘eyoumneyy os[e ‘sjuL]d o]euay

“STFU oY} JNOYsno1y) spunois Zuidwied {je | Jo sdo} ZuroMmoy

Ul pue “jsIq UNG evIYsq Ul Sopispeor pue spunold suiduey pue soavoTy
‘uovuiny “("1f OOSE) PUOCTey £ Indunee < sT100ssnPy MO]9q * *}SIC]
WUQId + "isiq andyyeioyH ‘*\siq wWeyy +: ung eIyed
“seARjeUIE 9} JO sAaTyeA
UreMm 34} Ul “IJ 0009 0} SUIpUsdse surejd oY} jnoysnoly queld sJOUM

“resuner “yoeyequie’y]
-Jesuner “ureuoOy ‘ sesune¢ ‘ueqoag ‘ivsunee ‘aeApog
“W 0006-0002 32 Tesunee Jo sty 19431 Wo}s Pu JOOY
‘Induvieyes * yWyqiid ‘ung eIyaq ‘epunelyen ‘*isiq epuoy
“BMINSULY] ‘ UOISIAIG [EMYILH ‘asuey eye : oy yf pemysey
‘resyng ‘‘isiq wWoyy ‘enyg : OPISISAII 942 Aq epueg
“seAeleulyy 9y}
UF "IJ OOOF 0} suIpucsse seore Aysieu pue ‘jam ‘duep Ul queld omnyuq
“ISIC [BMYIVDH “oumopsury ‘osues
Indep ‘ung eiysq ‘eueyy, : ‘SIG epuoH ‘eIyRSg ‘ syITeAMIS
Induereyes ‘ung eiyag ‘indiey : ‘ysIq Indyye1oy ‘eAloypuryy
:"3sIq Isueyg ‘indyiyeq { wMpiey o} lIwnsey ° stq [BL Uren |
“C1. 0002) Ssuey andsee ¢ remprexy < YeMejy ‘ sjsoloy ung eiyoq
: ISIC [VL tren ‘osuey eyeyyeyYyD - sjso1oj Joufig ° epueg
‘S}saloj ung eIyaq pure

spsos pue
SHICMIS Induvieyeg oy} JO JOO} 9} suo[e UOWIWIOD AjIIe.7

yleq ‘soavoy

‘ysIq epuohH
‘eMOUIeN SyeMyieg ‘ssuel eieyq ‘rensveumer { indyyeioy
- “ISIC HOU “eyioy ¢ pueyyfopung ‘Teypng :"siq [ej] rureN
‘TuUeMpleH ‘osuey 1esoq { isIg unq eiyoq “resuner ‘(*1J QOOS)
ypeseieyqd :"3siIq ung eiyoq ‘Iesunec ‘CY 000s) YyPesjeurg
- SIG Woyy ‘osuey elYug > SOUIAPI BUNGE IeOU BISY
"SBARICUII TY] OY} UO “3 OOOS 0} SuIpusose suleyd oy} jnoysnoiyy,

$10qn J,

suvyg
‘duroy uvrpuy

evaevuseung

qUNeseY
‘AtIoqieq ueIpuy

luredynpueyy
‘Tmyelg

ICING

IIAb}EYS

(qsoy fenuue |[e7)
“UUIT DAIZDS siqvuuL)

(qi9y [eruusieg) |
“UUIT vsnffip viivysa0g

(qniysg)
‘OC V0Iis110 Sidagsag

- (qiey [eluueleg)
[[euueg
(‘UUIT) iMamuou vdoovg

(904)

‘SSne “YW voIpmi vIYIDIIpoZp

(qnhiysiopun jUapueds)
‘PITTA SisolWao04 sn3vivdspy

|
|

AH 8

“Cl

“ET

Part or parts

ps9

No. Botanical name of plant | Mrece/udian usedhas crude | Areas and places where found wild in Uttar Pradesh a
| ug | 3

| S)

| ge ss

6. |Adhatoda vasica Nees Vasaka, Arusa | Root, stem, Exceedingly common in the Dehra Dun Dist. and parts of =

|Dun; Rambagh, Naini Tal; Saharanpur. nS
| i x
7. |Aegle marmelos Cort. Bel, Bael Root-bark, Common in the Dehra Dun and Saharanpur forests :

(Small tree) stem-bark, leaves, | Banda; Chhakhata Range, Naini Tal Dist.; Dehra Dun =
| flowers, and forests ; Dogari, Haldwani, Naini Tal Dist.; Dudhai, Bundel- “
| fruits khand ; Lachiwala, Dehra Dun Dist. ; Matipur, Bahraich Dist.; ©
| |Raipur, Dehra Dun Dist.; Rishikesh, Dehra Dun Dist. ; Fe

| Saharanpur Siwaliks. iwi
| 5
8. Kauselieg (ee Edgw. Chorak, Chora | Root Tehri Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas from 6000-10,000 ft. =
(Herb) ‘ Deota (7000-8000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal ; Dhauli Valley (9000- &
| 10,000 ft.), Kumaon; Dombitiagadh (9000-11,000 ft.), Tehri
Garhwal; Mandroolu forests under Bundarpunch (9000- &
| 10,000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal; Nili Valley in forest (11,000-12,000 s
| ft.), Garhwal; Ralam Valley (9000-10,000 ft.), Kumaon; Sosa —
|forests (9000-10,000 ft.), Kumaon. 3
| |
9. \Aristolochia indica Linn. Indian birthwort, Root and Plains and low hills. =

Cray or herbaceous Isramul rhizome Lalitpur, Jhansi Dist.; Ranipur, Banda Division. Ss

| |
10. |Artemisia maritima Linn. Santonica, Murin, Flower-head, | Kumaon Himalayas at 7000-11,000 ft. a
(Perennial shrub) Seski | buds, and leayes Girthi Valley (11,000 ft.), Garhwal ; Panikhanda (10,000- S

| 11,000 ft.), Garhwal.

Eee

Tubers Throughout the plains ascending to 5000 ft. on the Bimalayas-

Agra near Jumna ravines; Bhira Range, Kheri Dist. ;
Binalgadh (5000 ft.), Jaunsar, Dehra Dun Dist.; Dharagadh
(5000 ft.), Jaunsar, Dehra Dun Dist. ; Dogari Range, Haldwani,
Naini Tal Dist. ; Dudhai, Bundelkhand ; Gorha, Kheri Dist. ;
Gorakhpur; Jamnaguar, Dhara range, Garhwal; Narhewa,
| | Gonda Dist.

11: | Asparagus racemosus Willd. | Shatavri

(Scandent undershrub)

12. | Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
(Tree)

Leaves, bark
and seeds

Fairly common along the foot of the Saharanpur Siwaliks
and Dehra Dun forests.

Banda; Bijnor forests ; Chhakhata Range, Naini Tal Dist. ;
Dehra Dun forests ; Etawah ; Hardwar ; Jaspur Range (2000 ft.),
| Naini Tal Dist. ; Kasumri to Hardwar ; Lalitpur, Jhansi Dist. ;
| | Mandholiya, Gorakhpur Dist. ; Raipur, Dehra Dun ; Saharanpur
| Siwaliks; Sakra, Gonda Dist.; Thana, Dehra Dun; Udepur
| range, Lansdowne, Garhwal Dist.

Neem

13. | Bacopa monnieri (Linn.)
Pennell
| (Perennial herb)

In damp, wet, and marshy areas ascending to 4000 ft. in
the Himalayas.
| Banda by the riverside; Bhira, Kheri Dist.; Buksar,
Garhwal ; Kheri; Malari Range, Garhwal Division; Mansurwa,
| | 'Gonda Dist.; Nakraunda, Dehra Dun; Pilibhit ; Saharanpur.

14. | Berberis aristata DC.

Brahmi,
Mandukparni

Entire plant

Indian barberry, Root and stem Higher hills of Jaunsar at 7000-9000 ft.

(Shrub) Rasaunt Bodyar, Jaunsar; Deoban, Jaunsar; Konain, Jaunsar;
| Lambatach, Jaunsar.
15. | Boerhavia diffusa Linn. Punarnava Whole plant Throughout the plains ascending to 6000 ft. in the warm
(Perennial herb) valleys of the Himalayas. _ £ ren
| Dehra Dun; Kheri Dist.; Gorakhpur Dist.; Pilibhit
| Dist. ; below Mussoorie ; Jaunpur ; Kalona (3500 ft.), Kumaon.
16. | Cannabis sativa Linn. [Indian hemp, Leaves and Camping grounds and roadsides in Dehra Dun Dist., and in

(Tall annual herb)

Bhang

female plants; also
resin from female
plants

flowering tops of

all camping grounds throughout the hills.

Chaumoka, Gorakhpur Dist.; Dehra Dun; Hawalbagh, Ku-
maon ; Janakpur, Gonda Dist. ; Mahuf, Kheri Dist.; Mohrina,
Kheri Dist. : Murthya, Bahraich Dist. ; Naini Tal ; Saharanpur.

HSAGPUd YVLLN NI AIIM ANNO SINVTd TYNIDIGAW

gs9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

656

"WIC PIOW]Y “JoyyUeY ° [el WWIeN ‘ eIOW] VY Spoos (qi0y jenuue Aysng)

*$]081] UBALTBWUIFZ-qns pue soAavoy einjyeyq “UUI'T WniuowDp4s viNjvg| “{Z
‘Induvieyeg euun}-iney (qaoy [etuuos0g)
‘sure[d oY} UI s}oe1} Apuesg ys “‘yUADO[OD “PBIYOS S1yjudaojoo snjjnapiy| ‘OZ

TeMyIeyH yer “CY O00p) ACTIeA
SUO], * [BMYIVH yay, ‘Ag|[eA JeIpeyy ¢ uoewmn’y ‘Ad][e@A OOfing
-[emyIeH iWyey, ‘Aa[eA SuUOT ("33 OOOr) UPeBIeIO| {ISIC 1eL
TUIeN “CY OOSE) POW ‘1esuney ‘ypesivIney] {IsIq UNG eI4OG

‘JOP “[PMYIeH ‘TYSIL, Jooujny ‘{ aesuneg ‘(J OOOr) Ypes /
ney * Iesuner ‘ypeseryeyD ‘yeayiey yay, ‘ejeu-inseg
‘Ypesieney OY} Ul WOWWOD AISA {°1J 0009 0} dn ‘TemyIen (901}' pozIs-o}eIOpOp~)
Wyo, pue isesuner Ul sourAel dwep ul Ajjeorpetods sinos0 ; "WIOq 7
“Y O00L ©} dn sasuel ueke[eMIy J0jno oY} UI JUepUNqYy SOARS] PUR YyIeg yndfay WY SOON V/vuin} wnuowovuuly| *6{

“und 2

Biyoqd “eleypeisuesg * MO[aq B11OOssnyy £ [eMUICD ‘("1J 0009-0005) :

yegoy :1siq indyyeion ‘yeysnuey ‘ung eiyog :{ visy
“SeAR[CUIPY ; (qioy [eTauUsI0g)

94} UI “IJ 0009 0} SUIPUsoSe PUNOIS; 10M puUe sooeid AYsIeUl U] yurld omjugq =| Lynpueyy ‘twYye1g| Ueqi¢, (‘UUTT) voYwISY DYajUaD| ‘81

"sjsoroj Induvieyes ¢ isIq epuoy ‘fuesiueg fisIq Und eIYyDG
‘eyemopueyg [el IIeN :"3sIq [BL WIEN ‘(4 OOSE) eIOW
: “ISI [eMYILDH ‘ouMOpsUeT {"3SIG [el WIEN ‘UeMplex ‘eruny
-"isIq UNG eIYE ‘Is[ey !3siq [BL Wien ‘wunypryey {-ysIq
I®L Wren ‘(13 0007) ssuey Andser ‘sAoT[eA IesuNee S3SIG [eI]
TUIeN “‘TueMpleH ‘Wesog ‘s\so1ojJ ung wviyog {"3sIq [ev], 1UIeEN
‘osuey eyeyyeyYO ‘ysiq andyyesoy ‘yneyD { sesunee ‘vieg 0}
dn Aa[eA emery : -ysIG [eMYIeyD “(IJ QOOZ) esueyY veupy :

*‘TEMYIeH
yoy pue sesunee Ul “yf COOP 0} dn sAa][eA MOT UI PUNO} osye (djnd (901) pozis-wunIpsy)
- SsolOj Induvieyes pue ung v1yeq oY} noYysno1y} JUepunqy ynI) WIY ae ‘UUIT OjNISYf VISSDD| * LI
—
snip
ysopeld Je Ul PIM punoj oJoymM soovjd pue svoly epnid se pesn aor ae ae yuefd Jo oumreu [eorurjog "ON
syed Jo weg PPUL/OPELL |

"\SIG [PEMUILD ‘osuel epeupy ‘YAo]q
vue {-ysiq IndyyesioyH “yiesuey * ‘ysiq und eyed “(15 OOOE)
sAoge Sify Ul indiey funq eiyoq “peor indivy ‘jemyieo
"N) ‘oAdaSOL INdiepulg ‘"IsIq [eMyIeLy “yeqoT + “Isiq [eMYyIeH
“(-1J 0061 03 dn) sisaloj 19]NO SUMOPsU] * “3SIq [BL IUCN ‘Tue
prey ‘esniny ¢ Woy * sig ung eiyag “Isjey : ISIC [BL TIEN
‘1Zunypeey ‘{siq epuoH “indyeuer *ysIq TeMyIeH ‘osuvl
Beupy ‘4xoo]q IppnseyeyH : sig [BL wien ‘uempyreH{ “(1 0007)
resog {ung eiyeq ‘"IsIq [eL lureN ‘uempley ‘epreg e[syD
'4siq andyyesoy ‘yneyD *ysiq Woy “By -3sIq HUM!
‘pesieg {"1sIq Yoreryeg “emjeyurg */emyIeH ‘yyeuLIpeg:

‘TemYIeyH yal pue 1esuner ul
"1. QOOP 07 dn sAol[eA Ul pue pueYyyopung UI osye * Indyyes1oH oO}
SPIVMISLD 39eI} UBALLUITFY-qns 94} jNOYsNOIY} pue ssuey YI]eMIg
oy} uo ‘s}soloj Induevreyeg pue und eiysq Ur juepuNnqYy

"ySIC_ BPPUODH ‘SeMoyss * “sIq INdyyVIOyH ‘ind

-3ere {s}so1oj Indyye1oH * epuoy - pueyyspung : goreryeg
“UIe[g oNesUey Joddy

‘gLioossnyy { resunes ‘("1J OOSL) PeOr UleUOy-sJeseuRy
SyemyIeH wWyoL “e[sueg *yemyIey Wyo ‘WosueyH © Isiq ung
eiyaq ‘(13 OOSL) BIeIYeYD + st10ossnyy “(-4f OOSS) YPelaAuy
"13 000‘TT-000s 38 seseyeuH

‘uovuny ‘(13 0S6‘OT-0S0'0T) AOA TWNeY “sunzyN], * femyeg
‘sosuey imwiseyg ‘hyng : “isIq ePIOW|Y “(13 000°9T-0006) H1eputd
‘uopmny ‘(°3J 000°E 1-000‘ TT) PuIe Ul Aal[eA SUBYSdIN ‘;emyIeH
“(17 000°ST-000'rT) AFITRA TIN *"3SIq] eIOWY “AIPA HOD “CY
000°9T-0006) MRINA -Teaqiey “CY 00071) AMTTBA Heep ‘uoeun yy
“Cay OOO'TI-OOO'TT) AMPA IWINy “3siIq UNnq eIYsq “yeod
equirleyy MOjoq : IvsuNnes “(-1J-0006-0008) PEUYIPPID * [emyIeyH
WYyeL “(J 000*€ 1-000°7D) Iosuey * uovwny ‘(I 066‘01-0S0°01)
syoor uo AoyeA yneyd Siesuner ‘ospry ueqooq * Iesuner
“(13 0006) Peo TTepun;y-Ueqosqd :"ysIq PiowlyY ‘(CY OS6‘OI
-0SO'OIL) AIeUDo {ISI TeMyIeyH ‘(-1J OOO'TI-0ST6) WeulApeg

"15 000‘rT
-O00L 18 seceleup, suldje pue 9}eJadute} oy) Jo SUOISOI Jog

657

MEDICINAL PLANTS FOUND WILD IN UTTAR PRADESH

"C4 000L) 2!1oossnypy
‘s[ITy alloossnyy Ul UOWUWOS 5'1f 0006-0009 +e seckejemI

yieg

100%

OUOZIYI
pue 1004

W191

soseq-puol
pue owoziqy

Jqoin >
[nweyueUy

6 12) |
-|I1edesievs uerpuy

jUeYTIN

*Tnyd
-[ewey ‘niey

(9033 [[BUWS)
“TIRANA DILajuasdpijuv vUaY AAD] OH]

(qniys 93e1}s01d 10 3UIUIM [,)
“IG “Y Snaipul snusapuuay

(qi0y [eluusIEg)
9 AOY OoLiny vuv1jUuaH

inysing
‘eqjues-jOo |, (qniys Poin} PIsII MOT)
‘erpoydq ‘TIRAA DUuvIpsvsias vApaydy
(UIO} [eIMUSIIg)
"IYD °O CisqooH)
UIDs IVI yuvidaduiyas si4ajdodiq

“9C

“EC

959

F Part or parts
No. | Botanical name of plant | Trade/Aodian used as crude Areas and places where found wild in Uttar Pradesh
drug
17. |Cassia fistula Linn. Amaltas Fruit (Fruit Abundant throughout the Dehra Dun and Saharanpur forests ;
(Medium-sized tree) pulp) also found in low valleys up to 4000 ft. in Jaunsar and Tehri

Garhwal.
Adnala Range (2000 ft.), Garhwal Dist. ; Amlawa Valley up
to Saia, Jaunsar; Chauk, Gorakhpur Dist.; Chhakhata Range,
| Naini Tal Dist.; Dehra Dun forests; Dogari, Haldwani, Naini
| {Tal Dist.; Jaunsar valleys; Jaspur Range (2000 ft.), Naini Tal
| Dist.; Kaladhungi, Naini Tal Dist.; Kalsi, Dehra Dun Dist. ;
Kumia, Haldwani, Naini Tal Dist.; Lansdowne, Garhwal Dist. ;
Mora (3500 ft.), Naini Tal Dist.; Naini Tal; Phandowala,
Dehra Dun Dist.; Paniganj, Gonda Dist. ; Saharanpur forests.
|
18. |Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban |Brahmi, Manduki| Entire plant |__In marshy places and wet ‘ground ascending to 6000 ft. in the
(Perennial herb) | Himalayas.
| Agra; Dehra Dun; Ganughat, Gorakhpur Dist.; Lobah
(Son0-6008 ft.), Garhwal ; Mussoorie below; Sansradhara, Dehra
un.
19. |Cinnamomum tamala Nees & |Tejput Bark and leaves
Eberm.
(Moderate-sized tree)

Abundant in the outer Himalayan ranges up to 7000 ft.;
occurs sporadically in damp ravines in Jaunsar and Tehri
Garhwal, up to 6000 ft.; very common in the Mautargadh.

Bagur-nala, Tehri Garhwal; Chatragadh, Jaunsar ; Dhauli-
|gadh (4000 ft.), Jaunsar; Kutnoor Tishi, Garhwal; Malkot,
Dehra Dun Dist.; Mautargadh, Jaunsar; Mola (3500 ft.), Naini
Tal Dist. ; Morargadh (4000 ft.), Tons Valley, Tehri Garhwal ;
| Surjoo Valley, Kumaon ; Thadiar Valley, Tehri Garhwal ; Tons
Valley (4000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal.

(€) 19 119A ‘ALFIOOS “LSIH TVYNLVYN AVAWOd “IVNYAOL

20. |Citrullus colocynthis Schrad. Colocynth, Fruit Sandy tracts in the plains.
(Perennial herb) Kaur-tumma Saharanpur.
21. |Datura stramonium Linn. ‘Dhatura Leaves and Sub-Himalayan tracts.

(Bushy annual herb) seeds Almora ; Naini Tal ; Ranikhet, Almora Dist.

| | i 3 in Mussoorie hills.

| 7 | i nd | Himalayas at 6000-9000 ft.; common in

= aac NetChn Revers ONUroased : Mussoorie (7000 ft.).
)C. b

| eee re IE hedr: Stem Drier regions of the temperate and alpine Himalayas at 7000-
23. |Ephedra gerardiana Wall. phedra, i vanes A
CE atte eee ; Badrinath (9150-12,000 ft.), Garhwal Dist. ; Chalek (10,050-
gears | 10,950 ft.), Almora Dist. ; Deoban-Mundali toad (9000 ft),
| | Jaunsar ; ‘Deoban Ridge, Jaunsar ; Dhauli Valley on roc
| (10,050-10,950 ft.), Kumaon ; Gangotri (12,000-13,000 ft.), Ee
| Garhwal ; Giddikhad (8000-9000 ft.), Jaunsar ; below res)
Peak, Dehra Dun Dist.; Kuthi Valley canon 2 oe Ht
\ Kumaon; Malari Valley (12,000 ft.), Garhwal; Milam (90! a a ,
| | | ft.), Gori Valley, Almora Dist. ; Nili Valley eee ey
| | \ Garhwal; Nipchang Valley in Darma (11,000-13,000 td x my
| Pindari (9000-16,000 ft.), Almora Dist. ; Suki, Bhagirt a SapE A
Garhwal ; Tuktung, Dhauli Valley (10,050-10,950 ft.), Ku 5

i Himalayas at 5000-11,000 ft. ish
24. \Gentiana kurroo Roy e \Karu, Kamal- Root and a SO oer aanee chakra (7500 ft), De ra
Coe a Pom SA SO eeate ee Garhwal; Jangla, Tehri Garhwal ;
cay | | Kanasar-Konain road (7500 ft.), Jaunsar ; Mussoorie.

indi {Indi it etic Plain. :
25.) eoaaain seis re ne shi olan sorsaparit Bee ase Bundelkhand ; Gonda ; Gorakhpur forests; Jag-
a aa |Anantamul pur, Gorakhpur Dist. ; Sehelwa, Gonda Dist.
i i Dun and Saharanpur forests, on the
am ea it sc giana | _ ae Se InpugtERt the sub-Himalayan tract eastwards
aes to Gorakhpur ; also in Bundelkhand and in valleys up to 4000 ft.
i rand Tehri Garhwal. : aah
= saa eaunath, Garhwal; Bankatwa, Bahraich Dist. ; BarAd,
Pilibhit Dist.; Bhira, Kheri Dist. ; Chauk, cbrakhene ist. ;
Chela Sarda, Haldwani, Naini Tal Dist.; Dehra Dun; Tae
(2000 ft.), Haldwani, Naini Tal Dist. ; Halaguddi Wee ae nae
| range, Garhwal Dist. ; Janakpur, Gonda Dist. ; Kala eee
Naini Tal Dist. ; Kalsi, Dehra Dun Dist. ; Kheri ; soln a)
| wani, Naini Tal Dist. ; Lansdowne outer forests (up to We
| Garhwal Dist.; Lobah, Garhwal Dist. ; Pindarpur Kasey B
| Garhwal; Raipur road, Dehra Dun; Raipur in ao ae oye
| | (3000 ft.), Dehra Dun Dist. ; Ramgarh, Gorakhpur Dist. ; Tar
\
|

HSaavud YVLIN NI GTIM ANNO SIN¥VTd TRNIOIGAW

Ls9

block, Adnala range, Garhwal Dist.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

658

‘Temyiey yay (°35 0009)
‘AO[VA SUOTL FS TeMyIeyH myst, ‘syueq oy) uo Uuldny ¢ [emMyIeEH
“C1J_ OOSS) TuWEY :TeMYyIeH Tye ‘(1J 0009) eNO * UNG eIYoq
“epunelyeN * ooossnyy :ysIq ung eyed ‘(33 OOOS) ‘epunyy
-yemyiey WyeL ‘ujny :yemyiey “(-3y O09) YyeuTYysor * [eM
“yey Wye “(33 0008-000L) v100q * Jestinee ‘URqoag ‘ [eMYyIeH
WYyeL “(4 000L-0009) ereyeq TeMyIeH WYyI]I, ‘(1F 000L-0009)
ypesyisuey siq und eiued “(35 OOOL) eBIeIxeYD * yeMYyIeH
TIYaL, ‘(1 0009-000S) SAr0so1 nsueg { iesunere ‘YpesiveuUIeEg
“VW 0008-000s 38 [eMyIeyH yay, pue
Jesunef UI soulAvI Apeys ur pue indfey saoqe svdviewirpy 10jnO

vIsseng (qniys o31e7)
POOM “‘1sueleyg ‘uueg Saploissonb viusvsdig| “OF

‘uoemny (“15 000°S1-000‘rT)
AgyeA Weey S[eMmyley “Ni ‘oArosoi indiepulg { [emMysIey ‘("1y
000°€T) HINYoesueg ‘ysIq vIOW]Y ‘(1 000'ZI-000'IT) suedg ‘ypes
~surled *feMyleH Mya “(-1J 00OPI-000‘ET) APPA HIN ‘uoemny
‘AQTIPA HULA WIM ‘yemyIey 1W1yay, ‘(15 000r1-000‘E1) MosueH
-eMyIeH, WYyst -‘eyueyg sepun ‘(1f OOO*ST-O00'PI) S401
Ur Yypesnpng <[eMyIeyH yay, “("15 OOO*ST-000P1) SYSOr Ur Ad|TeA,
Jepoweg ‘uoemny “gq ‘ediyy ‘fyemyiey ‘yyeUuLIpeg
*‘TeMYILH
WYyoy, pue uovwiny Ur if OOO'ST-OOO'IT 38 sekvjewE] ouldiy

enehnyg
300) ‘yeyoled (qJ0q [eIUUsIEg)
pue swoziqy “‘Isuvweler ‘Od isunuvjol skyavjsopsvn]| * 67

eee i

syed Jo y1eg

“Induvseyes ¢ Sosinod 19}eM ZuoTe 1S910{ MON UNG eIysq sed | (qioy [eruUusIEg)
‘soovyd Joyjo swWOs pue *jsIq UNG vIYdG 94} UI ppm uNnYy [elee-qng — quIuLieddag “UUIT Ojidadid vyjuayy| “87
‘Induevieyes | [ey mreN
- ung eyed ‘Yiesejney ‘ ung eiyoq ‘ejemeyqng ‘{ ung eviyeq
-4ysIq UNG eIYsq ‘eyeIyYeYD { 1OOssnyy Ivau Aa]eA Ieysy"
“seAP[ePWIEL (19quII[O Jenuuy)
9} UI “IJ 0009 0} SUIPUSSse * “\sIG UNG PIYOG SY} UI UOWWOD SPoog | eueperey, “boer (-uury]) vaovsapay vaowuod]| °L7Z
: a “ies & i ie ac Ga oe ee nt Rete ca her a 5 7 | =
d Snaps, | ouleu |
Yysopeig Ie.) Ul PyIM punoj ae soov[d pure sevoly opnio se posn | uvIpuy /epexy. quryd Jo oweu [enuejog = |§ ‘ON
!

| |

: \

659

MEDICINAL PLANTS FOUND WILD IN UTTAR PRADESH.

‘ung eiyed ! pueyylspung ! ‘3siq
Mouyony] Wueqeieg :-3siq epuoy ‘indweiyjeg ‘ yoreyeg
‘ung eIysq Ul pue puLYyyjspung pue ypNO woysnoiy],

} ‘JEMYILD 11YaT,

‘AayTeA euuune “(33 OOOS) UoRSpueN : peqeprsopy { uOeWNy
“CY 000S-000r) BUIAS $ IsUeUE { UNETeE $ INdsWEET ‘ PePMYILH
HYyoL, ‘Aa[BA sosuey ‘(-2} OOOP-000E) BPUNG Oo} NsvIeYyG | UNG
vryod * epurg * ("14 000S-000p) ViowY + peqeyrily * Bisy
“S[HY 94) Ui “IJ OOOS 0} BuIPUdose suTEg

; "Temyiey yey “Cy
000‘r1-000°E1) YpeH euesnpny ‘*ysIq eIOWY ‘Jole[s LepUlg
: ‘sig UN Piyeq “Ivsunee ‘(J OOSL) Hepuny *"isiq eiowyy
CY 000‘€1-000°7D AIPA HYULA TINY *IsIq ung eayaq ‘Jes
Si | ‘ureuoy © [eMYIeD “WYaL “C1 000 TT-000‘O]) vueyIepry
- “yIq ung eIysq ‘ivsuner¢ ‘('1J OOS8) BIIefuUey * PeMyIeH
WYyaL “Wouwee * yemysey yay “(J 000‘S1-000'F1) YPesnpng
-"sIq ung eiysq ‘“Iesunee ‘(°1f 0006) URqoog {‘1sSIGq [eM
“Yiey ‘Toseq ‘ "3siIq ung eviyag ‘resunes “(13 008Z) eAPOg

‘JeMYIVH yay, pue Jesuner Ul yf QOOL 9A0qe soor|d
Apeys Ul uowUIODS *°14 OOO’PI-000L U99M10q sesULI ULALTeUNY

a : “UOISIAIG, YoIelyeg ‘osuvl eIeysuVsIn,
: ISIq UNG vIYIGq ‘PpuoyyRyT : isiIq ung eiyoq “eyeMIyor y
“S[[TY JOMO] Puke “jsIq] UNG BIYaq 9Y} UI saiyiyeso] Apeys
‘uovuUny|
‘AMTVA WeyeY FyeMyIeH “Cy OOS T]) TuMEY SyemyIeEN “(1
000°€1-000°71) “AAT@A HIN ‘niepyeinyg ‘-3siIq eiowyy ‘suekg
“ypessuryeg * a11oossnyy : yeMyIeH ‘(49J OOO'ZI-QOO'IT) sstd
Heny + [eMYyIeH Yay, ‘(13 OOO T1-000‘OL) eyueysepry ‘ peMyIeH
HYyeL ‘Ag]eA Iepowegq ‘(15 000'P1-000'F 1) souTAes UI punols suId
“ue vieuler **3sIq TeMyIey “(14 00071-00001) Weuspeg
"YJ 000°ST-0006 38 TeMYILD Jo seseeuUP ouldye oy} ur uoWUIOD

spoes

joo"d

amoziq.
put j00y

yay pur j00Yy

owoziqy

ryonyeA, (qisy enue 199.11g)
“‘Tyoqegd "UUYT DYOfd409 Yayv4OSd| “SE
npeioy| (qioy Jenuuy)
‘esouos UPIPU] -UUry sisuaulyd pjDsAjog| “pe
eideg (qaoy [eruudseg)

‘Tryeyueg | yAoY unspunxay unydydopod| *¢¢

(qniysiopun 19pus|s)
jnwedig “UUL] wNsUuo] 4adid\ *7¢

(qioy [eIUUdIOg)

"yuog
niey | xo yAOY DOAARY DZIYAOADIT\ "TE

Part or parts

‘2 31. |Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex
Benth.
(Perennial herb)

32. |Piper longum Linn.
(Slender undershrub)

33. |Podophyllum hexandrum Royle
(Perennial herb)

34. |Polygala chinensis Linn!
(Annual herb)

35. |Psoralea corylifolia Linn.
(Erect annual herb)

Karu

Piplamul

Bankakri,
Papra

Indian senega,

Meradu

Babchi,
Vakuchi

Rhizome

Root and fruit

Root and
rhizome

Root

Seeds

Areas and places where found wild in Uttar Pradesh

Common in the Dehra Dun Dist. ; ascending to 6000 ft. in the
Himalayas.
Aglar Valley near Mussoorie; Chakrata, Dehra Dun Dist.;
Dehra Dun ; Dubhawala, Dehra Dun ; Kaulagarh, Dehra Dun:
Naini Tal ; Saharanpur.

Run wild in the Dehra Dun Dist. and some other places.
Dehra Dun New Forest along water courses ; Saharanpur.

Alpine Himalayas at 11,000-15,000 ft. in Kumaon and Tehri
Garhwal.

Badrinath, Garhwal; Chipla, E. Kumaon; Damodar
Valley in rocks (14,000-15,000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal; Dudugadh in
rocks (14,000-15,000 ft.), under Srikanta,. Tehri Garhwal ;
Gangotri (13,000-14,000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal; Kuthi Yankti Valley,
Kumaon; Nili Valley (13,000-14,000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal; Palang-
gadh, Byans (11,000-12,000 ft.), Almora Dist.; Pangachuli (13,000
ft.), Garhwal; Pindarpur reserve, N. Garhwal; Ralam Valley
(14,000-15,000 ft.) Kumaon.

Outer Himalayas above Rajpur and in shady ravines in Jaunsar
and Tehri Garhwal at 5000-8000 ft.

Bamnaigadh, Jaunsar ; Bamsu reserve (5000-6000 ft.), Tehri
Garhwal ; Chakrata (7000 ft.), Denra Dun Dist. ; Chansilgadh
(6000-7000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal; Dakara (6000-7000 ft.), Tehri
Garhwal ; Deoban, Jaunsar ; Deota (7000-8000 ft.), Tehri Garh-
wal; Joshimath (6400 ft.), Garhwal; Kulni, Tehri Garhwal ;
Mundali, (5000 ft.), Dehra Dun Dist. ; Mussoorie ; Nakraunda,
Dehra Dun ; Oura (6000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal ; Ramni (5500 ft.),
Garhwal ; Rupin on the banks, Tehri Garhwal; Tons Valley,
(6000 ft.) Tehri Garhwal.

Common in the alpine Himalayas of Garhwal at 9000-15,000 ft.

Badrinath (10,000-12,000 ft.), Garhwal Dist.; Jamara cam-
ping ground in ravines (13,000-14,000 ft.), Damodar Valley, Tehri
Garhwal ; Kidarkanta aoa tS ft.), Tehri Garhwal; Kuari
Pass (11,000-12,000 ft,), Garhwal; Mussoorie ; Palanggadh,
Byans, Almora Dist.; Phulaldaru, Nili Valley, (12,000-13,000
ft.), Garhwal; Ramni (11,500 ft.), Garhwal; Ralam Valley,
Kumaon.

Shady localities in the Dehra Dun Dist. and lower hills.
Lachiwala, Dehra Dun Dist. ; Lakhond, Dehra Dun Dist. ;
Nisanghara range, Bahraich Division.

Himalayan ranges between 7000-14,000 ft.; common in shady
places above 7000 ft. in Jaunsar and Tehri Garhwal.

Bodyar (7800 ft.), Jaunsar, Dehra Dun Dist. ; Dasoli, Garh-
wal Dist.; Deoban (9000 ft.), Jaunsar, Dehra Dun Dist. :
Dudugadh (14,000-15,000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal ; Jamnotri, Tehri
Garhwal; Kanjatra (8500 ft.), Jaunsar, Dehra Dun Dist. ;
Kidarkanta (10,000-11,000 ft.), Tehri, Garhwal ; Konain, Jaun-
sar, Dehra Dun Dist.; Kuthi Yankti Valley (12,000-13,000 ft.),
Almora Dist.; Mundali (7500 ft.), Jaunsar, Dehra Dun Dist. ;
Pindari glacier, Almora Dist.; Rudugaria Gadh (13,000-14,000
ft.), Tehri Garhwal.

Plains ascending to 5000 ft. in the hills.

Agra; Allahabad ; Almora (4000-5000 ft.) ; Banda ; Dehra
Dun ; Dharasu to Dunda (3000-4000 ft.), Ganges Valley, Tehri
Garhwal ; Hamirpur ; Jalaun ; Jhansi; Kyrna (4000-5000 ft.),
Kumaon; Moradabad; Nandgaon (5000 ft.), Jumna Valley,
Tehri Garhwal.

Throughout Oudh and Bundelkhand and in Dehra Dun.
Bahraich ; Balrampur, Gonda Dist.; Barabanki, Lucknow
Dist. ; Bundelkhand ; Dehra Dun.

$59

ASIAGKUd YVLILA NI ATIM ANNO SIN¥ Id TRYNIOIGAWN

659

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

660

‘sopispeol Yyseg soury ‘unqg eIYyoq ‘s}soIOJ YpIsseN { ‘3sIq
WUQIId “Hose + “SIG [BL Wien ‘yosury] ‘ syipemig anduvieyes
‘sopis oy} UO NeY-Iquiey7y :Isiq ung evIyIG ‘eTeMIYORT] {ISIC
BL laren “1ueMpley ‘Wesoq ‘eind|y : woyy S"ysiq [el Wien
‘osuvy Indse¢ ° epuohH ‘3siq Moyy ‘eMUupNg {yemyIey Wyss:
‘AQ[VA. sosuey ‘(J OOOS-OO0P) Nsvavyq ‘ sisolOjJ UNG BIYEG
2 4siq [el len ‘osuey vieyyeuYyD ‘ s}so10j Yoreayeg { Jesuner

sjied Io 31tg uerpuy /opery,

}
“ASTI[VA BMLTWY [ISIC [PMYIVH *(°1J 006) OsULY eleUpy | T1IeH |
- ‘pueyyjepung pur ‘Tele (901, O8IeYP) |
UPNO ‘N “pueyyIyoy ‘induvieyes pue ung eiyeag jo s}soj07 WI urleqol1A] “ZIOY VINGoY? DYoUIUAT| "Ly.
: ‘CJ 0008) 12 Tren
: STW WWSy 0} Pvol a1JOOssnyy * a1COssnyy : Jesunese ‘(*3f OOO)
ureuoy * 1esuner ‘("1J 0009) PMe}LYY f o1s0Ossny] JeoU 1UedeIIOLF jo]
: a1OOSsnyy “yoyyueqqer £ eMyIeH WuyI1 ‘(1J GOONS) OUSV - (qioy fenuuy) {
"14F VOO‘OT-000S 18 seAeyewIY Oy} Jo ouoz o}e1OdWI9T, | yurld anu AIO) "WeH-"YONg vypaya vI4ang| “Op
“IsIq PIOtUY, “Cy 000°€T-000°71) suvhg “AOTIVA TGGEN * “ISIC
Brouly “CIS O0O'E1-000°7I) suekg ‘AoTTeA HyURA IINy ieee! TUTYSPUvADY (qioy Jeruualog)
"YF 000°F1-000'01 18 sexefewny ourdyy owoziyy | ‘qreqnyy | gphoy wnuniqgam -y! -6¢
‘ ‘Temysey WyeaL “(1 000°01-0006) AeIe@A sosuey | | 5 |
Eins -TeMYIED WYyaL “(CY 00071-0001 I) AOVA HIN ‘ uoruny |
CJ OOS*Z1) JoloR]s ura :sIq und Yq “CY O00TI) | |
ung PpyreH : [eMysey yal “(1 000‘ZI-000'I1) JNosuey TULYSPUBASY (qJoy [erUUaIEg) |
“TeMYIeD yay + “VW 000°Z1-000°11 ye seAv[ewlyy owWOZzIyY | “qreqnyy TRM ipouta uinoyy | “SE
ISI LOU “enypng | “siq: yoreryeg “aepreyey : |
: UOISIAI, HY “HNeVYD pesieg *-isiq wild ‘pequyeisnpy Texte (qniys ]]eUg)
-Yorelyeg -"ysiq und eiysg ‘eyemMlyoey : indyyeioy ‘yneyy ‘eylipuevyo jooy ZINy xo
‘sjoe1] UPALTeWIE-qns 1O00Y ‘eypuesedivs | ‘qwog vuijuadias vifjomnvy| *L¢
*SJSOIOJ |
WyqnIg = [BL WIN + ieloy, voRwWNy *ysiq [el wien ‘uem
“PIeH ‘epresljeryey ‘ s}saroy andyyeioH $ epuoy ! sig [ey
TUIVN, “UeMpleH “osuvi liesoq ‘ pueyyjepung ‘ yoreiyeg
‘Teloy, uowewny (991} P9ZIs-UINIpPsu 10 [je{)
pue pueyyjepung ‘indyyeioy ‘ypno °*N ‘WYQIIg JO $}so104 wns pue poom | reset | *qxO"y wnidnsévus sndivz01ajq\ “9¢
: Hie ef i :
snip |
ysopeig Je}3—.) Ul PIM puNoj o1oyM soovid pue seoy opnio se pesn oe quejd jo sweu |vourjog | ‘ON

a ee

661

MEDICINAL PLANTS FOUND WILD IN UTTAR PRADESH

‘4stq ung eyo “(YF OOSZ) Indiey ‘ uyqiid ‘sig WYyqII_ ‘Ipeu
Be - MOUYONT * Woy sung eiyaq ‘ epurg ¢: peqeyryy
"9}28}$ 94} jNOYSNOIY) suonenjis AIp ul uowWO,D

"TeMYIeH LWYaL “(15 0006-0008)
Agy[eA sosuen “eyeyg 0} FyNg ‘yep wien : oaoge spoom ul
ooossnyy ‘ iesuneg “("1J QOEL) UleuOy ! JesuNnee ‘(-1J 0006-0008)
Sseq OFef O} lUvg 1UeUTyY : IesuNeE ‘TUeg TURUTY f }eMYyIeED Lyoy
‘CY 00011-00001) BULyIepry | sesuneg ‘emsJay ! [eMYIeH yay
*“C1J 0006-0008) AdTT@A sosuey ‘syueq JoAry e[sue¢ |: aesunes
“(4S 0008-000) URQoog : TBE IwIeN “(IJ COOL) 1eUL eulYD

“SJOITYSI

AT[IY, 9} UI “}J QOOL SAOQL SPOOM 9} UI UOWMOS qIoY [Tews Y

"isiq erowyy ‘(13 0009-000) OUyURY {Tem
“WIeD “(15 0008-000L) HUEY : TeMYIeD Yel “C1 000‘71-000°T 1)
S}SolOJ Niepleinygd :uoewiny “swsoe[s wWepulg ‘yeMyIeH wWysy
“CF 000S-000r) TE°Ud : ISI eiowTYy ‘suvdg ‘ypessuryeg ‘jel
IUIEN *S[[eJ NWO 02 POI OIJOOSSNTA £ BuOOssnpY { aesuNnes
‘CY OOS8) Hepuny :-ysiq und eayeqd ‘(-1} 0006-0008) s3ser0} |
uljepunyy + olioossnyy “Inopuey { ‘isiq elowyly ‘AayeA WyueZ
ny + pemysley “(14 000'E 1-000‘Z1) ssed Weny ! pemyIey Lyosy.
“CY 000°TT-000°O1) BUR xJepry SisiIq UNG eAYysq “YepuUN Py aaoqe
equivieyy SeMyIeH “yeq sesueyy :yemusieH wyay ‘AaTypRA
Jepomed (1J OOO'IT) Punois Suiduivs viewer f yeMYyIeH Tye] |
“(23 0006-0008) S3So10J BJOOq ‘1esUNe;E “(-1} 0006-0008) URQoog
‘iesuner pure uoeUNy |
‘Temyiey WyoL Ul “3¥ OOO'ZI-000P 1% seke[euny, ojeIcdwA],

"Temysey yay “(Ci OOF |
-000€) AOTIVA SUOL, ‘TeMYIeD IIYOT, “(IJ OOOF-O0OE) AOA IEIPeY
-JemyIey wWysy ‘Aa[eA suo], “eIpusg ‘syeMIg Indurieyes
-°¥SIG epuoy ‘eidig ‘[eMyIeyH “(1 OOSp) AdI]eA Iepulg { IORN
uedeeuny-qng “Nyqiid :[eMyIeH Ys, ‘AayjeA suOT, “(If COOP
“O00E) YPeseiop] : eMYIey ‘osuvy vieyq ‘Ienseuwes ! PemyIeH
“AeA Jeipeyy, ‘osuey eivyq ‘uovwny ‘s]jry Jano eiowyly
‘uoevuny pue Adj[eA SUO],
‘UPNO °N pue j1YqQITd JO Joes} URALTeUMIE.-qQnég ‘aB8ueyY yITeMIS
‘resuneg ‘Ao|JeA SUOT, f SyTeMIg Induri
eyes ‘sseg UL * “IsIq UN eiYysq ‘s}so10j OULU **3SIG EPuoH
oysesung *[eMyrey ‘(°3f OOSE) IVS ‘s}so10J Induvieyes : uoewny

100¥ ;

yued onus
OS[e pu SIOMO]

3MWOZ |

-1YI pue j00y

sqing

|
|

puessy

eysyeurg

epeqygsnW
“UBLIQICA,

fevid-1[suer
‘Tinbs uerpuy

(qniys-iapun 450179)
jeung viafiuuos DIUDYILYA| “SP

(qiay [yews)
"ITRAA SUaddas DJOLA| "bP

(qiog [eIuUusIEg)
"OC NYIJOM DUDIMa]VA\ "EV

|
\
{

(qioy [eluusiog)
QWny vaipui vau1s4yQ\ "Tp

No.

Botanical name of plant

36.

38.

40.

41.

42,

43.

45.

\Terminalia chebula Retz.

\Valeriana wallichii DC.

Rauwolfia
ex Kurz
(Small shrub)

serpentina
|

{Rheum emodi Wall.
(Perennial herb)

R. webbianum Royle
(Perennial herb)

(Annual herb)

(Large tree)

Urginea indica Kunth

(Perennial herb)

Viola serpens Wall.
(Small herb)

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.
(Tall or medium-sized tree)

Benth.

|Swertia chirata Buch.-Ham.

Withania somnifera Dunal
(Erect under-shrub)

Areas and places where found wild in Uttar Pradesh

Indian squill,
Jangli-piaaj

Valerian,
Mushkbala

Banafsha

Asgand

Bulbs

Root and rhi-

zome

Flowers and also
entire plant

Root

Forests of Pilibhit, N. Oudh, Gorakhpur, Bundelkhand and

Bahraich; Bundelkhand ; Dogari range, Haldwani, Naini
Tal Dist. ; Gonda ; Gorakhpur forests; Kakralisarda, Hald-
Kumaon Terai; Naini Tal; Pilibhit

Chauk, Gorakhpur ; Lachiwala, Dehra Dun Dist.; Bahraich;
Mustafabad, Pilibhit Dist. ; Bargad Chauki, Pilibhit Division ;
Kakardari, Bahraich Dist. ; Dudhua, Kheri Dist.

Himalayas at 11,000-12,000 ft. ; Tehri Garhwal.

Gangotri (11,000-12,000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal ; Harki Dun
(11,000 ft.), Dehra Dun Dist.: Melan glacier (12,500 ft.),
Kumaon ; Nili Valley (11,000-12,000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal; Suki,
Ganges Valley (9000-10,000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal.

Alpine Himalayas at 10,000-14,000 ft.

Kuthi Yankti Valley, Byans (12,000-13,000 ft.), Almora

| Dist. ; Nabbi Valley, Byans (12,000-13,000 ft.), Almora Dist.
Temperate zone of the Himalayas at 5000-10,000 ft.
Tehri Garhwal ; Jabbankhet, Mussoorie ;
Jerrapani near Mussoorie ; Khatawa (6000 ft.), Jaunsar ; Konain
; (8000 ft.), Jaunsar ; Mussoorie ; Mussoorie road to Kemti Falls;
Naini Tal (8000 ft.). ,

Forests of Dehra Dun and Saharanpur, Rohilkhand, N. Oudh

* Part or parts
Msade/indian used as crude
drug
Bijasal Wood and gum
i Kumaon Terai.
i
wani, Naini Tal Dist. ;
forests.
Sarpagandha, Root Sub-Himalayan tracts.
Root chandrika,
Harkai
Rhubarb, | Rhizome
Revandchini
'
| Rhubarb, Rhizome
| Revandchini
| Chirata Entire plant
| Asno (8000 ft.),
Myrobalar Fruit
Harar, and Bundelkhand.
Harir

Adnala Range (2900 ft.). Garhwal Dist.; Amlawa Valley,
Jaunsar ; Bahraich forests ; Chhakhata Range, Naini Tal Dist.;
Dehra Dun forests; Dharasu (4000-5000 ft.), Ganges Valley,
‘Tehri Garhwal; Dudhwa, Kheri Dist.; Gonda ; Jaspur Range,

Naini Tal Dist.; Kheri; Kilpura, Dogari, Haldwani, Naini Tal
Dist. ; Lachiwala, Dehra Dun Dist. ; Lambi-Rau on the sides,
Saharanpur Siwaliks ; Mangoli, Naini Tal Dist. ; Marori, Pilibhit
Dist. ; Nagsidh forests, Dehra Dun; Ranee Bagh roadsides,

Kumaon ;: Saharanpur forests; Sar (3500 ft.), Garhwal; Sungarhe
Gonda Dist. ; Thano forests, Dehra Dun Dist. ; Timli Pass, Saha-
tanpur Siwaliks ; Tons Valley, Jaunsar.

Siwalik Range, Sub-Himalayan tract of Pilibhit and N. Oudh,
Tons Valley and Kumaon.

Almora outer hills, Kumaon; Dhara Range, Thadiar Valley,
Garhwal ; Jamnaguar, Dhara Range, Garhwal ; Moragadh (3000-
400) ft.), Tons Valley, Tehri Garhwal ; Pilibhit, Sub-Himalayan
tract ; Pindar Valley (4500 ft.), Garhwal; Pipra, Gonda Dist. ;
|Saharanpur Siwaliks; Sendra, Tons Valley, Tehri Garhwal ;
Thadiar Valley (3000-4000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal; Tons Valley (3000-
| 4000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal.

Temperate Himalayas at 4000-12,000 ft. in Tehri Garhwal,
Kumaon and Jaunsar.

Deoban (8000-9000 ft.), Jaunsar; Deota forests (8000-9000 ft.),
Tehri Garhwal ; Jamara camping ground (11,000 ft.), Damodar
Valley, Tehri Garhwal; Khansar Patt, Garhwal; Kharamba
above Mumdali, Dehra Dun Dist.; Kidarkanta (10,000-1 1,000 ft.),
Tehri Garhwal ; Kuari Pass (12,000-13,000 ft.), Garhwal; Kuthi
Yankti Valley, Almora Dist. ; Landour, Mussoorie; Mundalin
forests (8000-9000 ft.), Dehra Dun Dist.; Mundali (8500 ft.),
Jaunsar; Mussoorie; Mussoorie road to Kemti Falls; Naini
Tal ; Palanggadh, Byans, Almora Dist.; Pheli (4000-5000 ft.),
Tehri Garhwal; Pindari glacier, Kumaon; Phulaldaru forests
(11,000-12,000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal ; Ramni (7000-8000 ft.), Garh-
wal; Ranikhet (5000-6000 ft.), Almora Dist.

hae small herb common in the woods above 7000 ft. in the hilly
istricts.

China Thall (7000 ft.), Naini Tal ; Deoban (7000-8000 ft.),
Jaunsar; Jangla River banks, Ganges Valley (8000-9000 ft.),
Tehri Garhwal ; Kerwa, Jaunsar ; Kidarkanta (10,000-11,000 ft.),
Tehri Garhwal ; Kinani Pani, Jaunsar ; Kinani Pani to Jako Pass
(8000-9000 ft.), Jaunsar ; Konain (7300 ft.), Jaunsar ; Mussoorie
in woods above: Naini Tal; Suki to Jhala, Ganges Valley
(8000-9000 ft.), Tehri Garhwal.

Common in dry situations throughout the State.
Allahabad ; Banda; Dehra Dun; Kheri; Lucknow; Mala
nadi, Pilibhit Dist. ; Pilibhit ; Raipur (2500 ft.), Dehra Dun Dist.

099

(€) 19 190A ‘ALFIOOS “ISIH T¥YNALYN AVAWOP ‘IVNUNOL

HSAGKUd YVLLA NI ATIM ANAOA SIN¥ Td TFYNIOIGAW

199

Winter Diapause in the Squatter
Wasps Antodynerus flavescens (Fabr.)
and Chalybion bengalense (Dahlb.)
(Vespoidea and Sphecoidea)

S. D, JAYAKAR

H. SPURWAY

Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa,
Bhubaneswar

(With a plate)

Antodynerus fiavescens and Chalybion bengalense are both species of

~domestic~ solitary wasps who use pre-existing holes and cavities. for ..

their nesting activities. Very often they employ disused nests of two
domestic mason wasps, Eumenes esuriens Fabr. and Sceliphron madras-
patanum (Fabr.). We have also seen a nest of Eumenes conoideus
(Gmelin) being used by an individual of Chalybion bengalense for this
purpose, and have had this species emerge from a sticky nest, plausibly
built by a female Rhynchium nitidulum Smith. :
In September 1962 we began observations on the nest-building
behaviour of Eumenes esuriens and Sceliphron madraspatanum in Bhuba-
neswar. Later, we caged in all nests presumed to have been built by
these two species that we could find on the front verandah of our house
in Bhubaneswar. From none of these did individuals of the presumed
builder species emerge. From some, parasites emerged in the same
season, and some on dissection contained unidentifiable debris. Most
however had been squatted in by members of the two species we are
now discussing. These are numbered, D, E, F, H, J, K, L, M, and
R in Table I. -E.e.1 (Table I) is a nest of £. esuriens that we watched
being built, parasitized by Stilbum cyanurum and, after these had
emerged, utilised by 4. flavescens for its own nesting. Taub 1 (Table I)

“WINTER DIAPAUSE IN THE SQUATTER WASPS

663

and Taub 2 (Table II) were nests of S. madraspatanum collected from
the verandah of another house in Bhubaneswar, for which we thank

oO | Nest

t
Ci -

Probable builder

E.. esuriens

|S. madraspatanum

| FE. esuriens:

per RK

E.6.:1*:) °

Taub 1

-*nest seen being built by E. esuriens and being re-used by A. flavescens var.

do.
do.
do.
. do.
| §. madraspatanum

|
|

|S. madraspatanum

Antodvnerus flavescens -

26-x-62

do.

1-x1-62

7-11-63

2-x-62
do.

| 31-xii-62

do.

26-xi-62. |

TABLE I

Larva removed }

do.
2-x-62
5-v-63

31-xii-62 |

RBNVENRK KF OUNDAUNBWN RS RK BR KEN KEK WN RK PWN KH WMH rH BWwWNe

No. of Larvae

{

ie .

Pupated

Emerged |

- 19-v-63
— 17-vi-63
29-vi-63

2-vil-63
18-v-63

| 29-vi-63

18-v-63
18-v-63
14-vi-63
13-vi-63
14-vi-63
1-vii-63
2-vii-63

30-vi-63
2-vii-63

14-vi-63
30-vi-63
13-vi-63
13-vi-63
14-vi-63
18-v-63

22-v-63

23-v-63

12-vi-63
12-vi-63
14-vi-63
15-vi-63
16-vi-63

19-vi-63 |

15-vi-63
16-vi-63

1-vii-63
17-vi-63
29-vi-63

| 13-vi-63

Qy Oy 4.040% 0402S FO4CHO Ou On Oy Cy WALLY 4OFOHO -vFOFO AIG Oy WW A OS FOTO

Sex

Length of pupal

OO CO

—

NIK 90 CO CO CO COLO OO O10 CH OO Cel or NI CO oO

life (days)

Mr. and Mrs. Richard Taub. SR 1-3 were larvae collected from holes
from which bolts had been removed in a door at our house. WV was
a nest of S. madraspatanum found lying on the ground in the garden of

664. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

this house. SDJBN and SDJBS are two brackets of the wall fittings of
some apparatus which had been removed, and the 4 screw holes in each
of these brackets are regularly used by C. bengalense and A. flavescens
for their nesting. The caging was done either by means of putting a
piece of georgette over the nest or by putting the whole nest into a glass
jar with a glass lid. The cocoons from SDJBN and SDJBS were put
into small corked glass tubes. Those larvae that were removed from
their nests and cocoons were also put in similar corked glass tubes.
All these glass jars and tubes were put in a glass-fronted wooden cup-
board. 7 .

TABLE IT

Chalybion bengalense

i pd
2 uo! Es]
Re ee a
= SI a | S
Cent
a o ml ~ | ss Org
- no) | va — ep ‘Sioa
3 | ios) 2) a ~
2 é ae ie : sn
3 © 3 3S So =} =| Ss s =
Zz A. 'S) | nm] Z Pui aa “A |
SDJBN S-ili-63 | 5-ili-63 | 1 | 21-vi-63 | 2-vii-63 | 9 | 11
ve 2 25-vi-63| go | ..
5-iii-63 | 3 | 6-vi-63 | 16-vi-63! 4 | 10
SDJBS do. do. 2 | 6-vi-63 | 16-vi-63| ¢ | 10
do. 3 | 9-vi-63 a Gaul is
Taub 2| S. madraspatanum | 31-xii-62) .. Fee 53 18-vi-63 | g|.
te if 2 i8-vi-63 | 3 |.
i Bialaiee 29-vi-63 | 2 |.
i ee 1-vii-63| Q |.
ee Sin leas se 6-vii-63| 2] .
ae 6 19-vii-63| Q].
ne if 22-vil-63| Q|.
| e 8 25-vii-63| 9
Bo 9 25-vii-63| @
eo 10 2 , f

26-vil-63

All these larvae were opaque and butter-coloured, had completed

feeding, and had spun their cocoons. As can be seen from Tables I
and II, the dates of the first pupations observed were 10.v.63 for A
flavescens and 6.vi.63 for C. bengalense and the last emergences in our
sample were on 2.vii.63 for the former and 26.vii.63.for the latter.

That both species pupated in several bursts suggests that some climatic
stimulus other than day-length provoked this. If day-length were the
relevant stimulus only a single peak would be expected.

The Plate gives the daily maximum and minimum temperatures
recorded in the cupboard. The humidity figures plotted in this figure
were not recorded in this cupboard but were taken indoors and were

Seis a OSs

WINTER DIAPAUSE IN THE SQUATTER WASPS 665

supplied by the Commonwealth Institute for Biological Control, Bhuba-
neswar Station, to whom we are indebted for this facility. It seems from
the graphs that temperature is not the factor which causes pupation of
the diapausing larvae. Rise in humidity may be the reason, but the
last few pupations observed occurred when humidity was decreasing.
However, the results appear to point to a common external factor being
responsible for pupation in both species.

Table III shows the length of pupal life in A. flavescens for the two
sexes. There is no overlap between the two distributions, the males
having a mean of 7:94 days and the females a mean of 9°125 days. The
period considered is that from pupation to emergence from the pupal
skin. The wasps fold their wings very soon after this, but we do not
know how soon they would nibble their way out of their cells. Chaly-
bion bengalense, when they come out of their pupal skin, have the
abdomen distended so that the pellets of meconial excreta (Shafer 1949)
show through the distended intersegmental membranes between the
sternites and tergites as lateral rows of white patches. These pellets
are expelled in the course of a day or two. Since wasps emerging in
natural conditions do not show these white patches, pupal life was not
considered complete until they had disappeared. We saw only three
diapausing individuals of this species through pupal life. Two of these,
which were males, took 10 days to complete it and the only female took

ile

TABLE IIL

LENGTH OF PUPAL LIFE IN Antodynerus flavescens VAR.

Pupal life (in days) Be ca 74 8 83 9 9 10 Total

No. of males i 1 12 2 Re Ms i 16

No. of females

From Table IV, we can see that in A. flavescens there is a tendency
for the over-wintering males to emerge earlier than the females, and in
C. bengalense there was no overlap, though admittedly the sample is
small. The likelihood of getting these results by chance is 1 in 3001
for A. flavescens and 1 in 2002 for C. bengalense.

We are making much larger collections in the early winter of 1963,
and have more cells for which we have laying and sealing records. By
dissecting the cells a few weeks after they were sealed, we have already
confirmed that diapause is entered during October, after a previous
development of a duration similar to that of the non-diapausing mon-

soon generations.

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 61 (3)

- Thus. the species A. flavescens has an annual cycle, the. individuals -
being in-diapause as late larvae between October and May. This has -
been confirmed by our notes on when imagines have been seen flying.

TABLE IV

DATES OF EMERGENCE OF THE TWO SEXES OF
A. flavescens AND C. bengalense -

| A. flavescens C. bengalense

Date --—-
; | e t

| d 2 d | 2

18-v-63
19-v-63
22-v-63
23-v-63
12-vi-63
13-vi-63
14-vi-63
15-vi-63.
16-vi-63
1 7-vi-63 |

18-vi-63 | . 2

19-vi-63 i

25-vi-63 1

29-vi-63 3 sieht |
30-vi-63 1 ]
1-vii-63 2
2-Vvil-63 | 3
6-vii-63 | ye
19-vii-63

22-vii-63 .

25-vii-63

26-vii-63 a A

QW Bm me ee
pment

mem OO
NN
bho

ee Oe

Total a 22 13 5 9

SRO

In this, as in their proterandrous (Kohl 1918) pattern of emergence, they
resemble the solitary wasps of temperate regions (Evans 1963, p. 5).
However during their active period, which is the season of most rain in
this part of India, there are several generations, i.e. they are multivol--
tine. The much smaller data presented here would suggest that C,
bengalense is also proterandrous, and has an even shorter-annual period
of activity. However this must be a simplification as we have notes of.
two individuals seen working during the first. week of March and a
doubtful record for February. :

The sample of S:madraspatanum nests coltecioa was. ea and we
have in 1963 observed larvae of this species, arising from eggs laid at.
the end of October, entering diapause. But neither in the much larger
sample of E. esuriens nests here considered, nor in 5 nests which we

‘soroods OM)
OY} $19}}9] PUL SBAILT JO JOQUINU S}vOIPUE sJoquINU ‘suOTedNd jo So}Vp IY} DIVOIPUL SMOITY ‘“EQ6] SUNG’
-Alenigo,J syyuou oy} Joy (ITT) % Ayprumy pue (‘d,) somnjeioduis} ({]) wnuwTUIM pue ({) Wnunxepy

‘00S “LSIH ‘LVN AvaWog ‘Nano

)
omy 4

-
t
{
: careae we
Preis mie

=
one
ees
, .

(ipa rar anise Nina ip Soke

TST,

WINTER DIAPAUSE IN THE SQUATTER WASPS 667

have observed being built in October 1962 and 1963, and in which the
inmates of 28 cells completed metamorphosis, have we found any indi-
vidual of E. esuriens which was in diapause. Even though these animals
emerged in November, we have not seen any member of E. esuriens
building after 3rd November, or during December, January, or February.
Roubaud (1916) considers that some species, including perhaps E.
esuriens, migrate to different regions during the different seasons in parts
of Tropical Africa where these are well marked. Do similar mueraens
occur in India ?

We are grateful to Dr. J. van der Vecht of Leiden, The Neikedands:
who has identified individuals of both the main species discussed. He
tells us that our population of A. flavescens is atypically pigmented.

REFERENCES

Evans, H. E. (1963): Wasp Farm.

logiques sur les Guépes Solitaires et
Natural History Press, New York. pp.

Sociales d’Afrique. La Genése de la

x+178.

Kou, F. F. (1918): Die Haut fltigler
gruppe ‘* Sphecinae’ IV Teil. Die nattir-
liche Gattung Sceliphron Klug (Pelopaeus
Latr.). Ann Naturhistorischen ‘Hof-
museums 32: 1-171.

ROUBAUD, E. (1916) : Recherches Bio-

Vie Sociale et l’7Evolution de 1’Instinct
Maternel chez les Vespides : Annales des
Sciences Naturelles (Zoologie), Ser. 19,
1: 1-160.

SHAFER, G. D. (1949): The Ways of
a Mud dauber. University Press, Stan-
ford..pp. xiv+78.

In Memoriam

EDWARD OSWALD SHEBBEARE

It is not always that the heavens ‘blaze forth the death’ of a great
person. More often than not, nature has a curious way of withdraw-
ing her top gentlemen quietly---with but a muffled sound as of a
great tree falling on the soft leaf-littered floor in the depths of the
forest. Such was the passing away of Edward Oswald Shebbeare,
formerly of the Indian Forest Service, on the 11th of August 1964 at
the age of 80, at his home in South Newington in Oxfordshire, U.K.,
where he settled after retirement. :

He belunged to that rugged type of forest pioneers of an earlier
day who possessed exceptional courage, determination, and devotion
to their purposes, and were undaunted by physical hardship and the
utter loneliness of months in a strange Jand among strange people.
He joined service in the Sunderbans in 1906, became Conservator of
Forests (then Head of the Forest Department) Bengal, in 1923, and |
before he retired in 1938 was Chief Conservator of Forests, United
Provinces, for some years. ‘Those were years of hard work and sub-
stantial contribution to the causes of forestry and wild life.

To his credit goes the perfecting of the method of raising planta-
tions of trees (in replacement of clear-felled forest) by taungya, that
is in conjunction with field crops. In his forest inspections he was
never without his kukri dangling in its sheath from his belt; every
now and then he would fish it out to cut a blaze in the stem of a
tree, study its colour, its smell, its ‘feel’, as well as any exudation from
it. He thus collected a number of useful tips for the identification of
trees in the absence of flowers, and sometimes even of leaves. All
easily visible (macroscopic) features of stem, twig, leaf, flower, and fruit
were carefully noted down and illustrated by patient drawings (some-
times with his left hand, for he was ambidexterous) during long
evenings in camp from specimens collected each day. His first fair
typescript and sketches were lost when he was caught prisoner of wat
in Malaya in the last World War, but with characteristic patience and
determination he made a fresh compilation from rough sheets after his
release in 1946. These were eventually published in 1956 by the
West Bengal Government in a book, THE TREES OF THE, DUARS AND

IN MEMORIAM 669

TERAI. The curious part of it was that he was not a trained botanist.
One is reminded of Burns’s lines:

‘Give me a spark of Nature’s fire
That’s all the Learning I desire.’

He was intensely interested in all aspects of the sylvan scene:
mountains, rivers, trees, animals, and birds—-and fishes. He was
joint author of a monograph, FISHES OF BENGAL.

By 1930, the Great Onehorned Rhinoceros was facing near-
extinction in Bengal, its population having been decimated by
persistent, dare-devil poaching. Getting the Bengal Rhinoceros Pre-
servation Act passed in 1932 and setting in motion a vigorous
campaign against poachers, Shebbeare was responsible for giving a
further lease of life to this rare and interesting pachyderm in that
Province, where Jaldapara has virtually been a sanctuary since then;
the rhinoceros population therein has steadily built up. His undying
interest in tropical flora and fauna led him to accept, after retirement
from the Indian Forest Service, the position of Chief Game Warden
in Malaya, the tenure of which was unfortunately cut short by the
war and his internment by the Japanese in 1942.

His magnum opus was SOONDAR MOONI, which purports to be the
story of an Indian elephant—before and after capture, but Shebbeare
tried to condense in this book the jungle lore which he gathered
through more than three decades of forest life. Every page of it,
therefore, is full of absorbing interest.

Some of his contributions to the Journal of the Bombay Natural
History, Society are:

Altitude to which elephants ascend. 1915, Vol. 23: 770.

A tentative Jist of the vertebrates of the Jalpaiguri District, Bengal. (With Chas.
M. Inglis, W. L. Travers, and H. V. O’Donél). 1919-20, Vol. 26: 819-825,
988-999 ; 1920, Vol. 27: 151-162.

Occurrence of Psammophis condanarus ? in Berar. 1937, Vol. 39 : 871-872.

Malayan National Park. 1946, Vol. 46 ; 558-562.

The Hispid Hare, Caprolagus hispidus. 1961, Vol. 58 : 266-267.

Although of stocky build, Shebbeare was a good mountaineer.
This, together with his knowledge of the local terrain and his winning
way with the hill people (for he was human to the bone), was
responsible for his being chosen as Transport Officer for the Everest
Expeditions of 1924 and 1933 and the Kanchenjunga Expeditions of
1929 and 1931. It was on the second trip to Everest that he managed
to achieve his secret ambition, to reach the 23,000 ft. high North Col—
much against the express order of the leader Hugh Ruttledge, for
Shebbeare was by then 50.

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Like all truly great men he was warm-hearted and ._modest—no
city airs for him. Even at Darjeeling he was to be found knocking
about in jungle boots and khaki breeches. At Siliguri, after a day
spent in the forest, he would (after a bath) change into khaki shorts for
dining at the Railway Restaurant! Richard Casey (Governor of
Bengal in 1944-46) wrote of him: ‘Shebbeare is-a very individual
personality—tough and hard. I am told he seldom~ wore socks.
When we arrived at Nilpara he was very simply: attired -in shorts and —
an old khaki shirt and his rawhide boots and socks. Someone said
that the socks were overdoing it a bit, and he said; “Oh, you’ve got to -
cut a bit of dash on-these occasions”.’: -And again: ‘He’d be lost
and unhappy in a big city. but be is completely nappy and at home
in the jungle’.

‘More secrets of knowledge’, wrote Roger Bacon seven -centuries
ago, ‘have been discovered by plain and neglected men than by men
of popular fame’. The keenness of such knowledge-seekers never gets
blunted.. Even in the -days of his retirement at South Newington,
Shebbeare eagerly sought out people returning from India and got
himself posted up-to-date with what was doing there in forestry and
wild life conservation. He sometimes spoke on such themes to ‘the
students of the Forestry Institute at Oxford. It was characteristic of
him that even the day before his death he had been to London to
attend a meeting of mountaineers—-quite fit—but did not feel too well
on his return. Next morning the angel of death found him in his
garden chair and softly whispered into his ear of more interesting
things in another world. As Browning expressed it with his charac-
teristic flash of insight:

Hee me with knowledge—-for Life's Old—Death’s New!”

: oS WS: Rao

Reviews

Il. ANIMAL SPECIFS AND EVOLUTION. By ‘Ernst Maye.
pp. xiv+797 (24:5X 16:5 cm.). Warvard, 1963. Beiknap Press. Price
Penlte Se ;

Most naturalists encounter the discussion of a species under some-
what intimidating circumstances. As soon as we wish to publish- an
observation, we find we have somehow to protest and produce evidence
that we have identified the organism we are discussing correctly, and
it is frequently suggested that we had better not take the responsibility
ourselves but produce a specimen for an expert. If we find such
reliance 6n someone else for an essential step in our reasoning somie-
what disquieting and attempt to study systematics for ourselves, there
is a faintly Brahminical horror that we have looked into some
forbidden knowledge which it would be disastrous for us to apply.

Since the study of living creatures became a separate ‘subject’ in
Europe in the 16th century, it has been part of the discipline of this
study to increase the precision associated with the word species: It

cannot be too repeatedly emphasized that the precision associated with

this word in its biological context is truly formidable. There must be
very few words the use of which more ‘nna ately reveals ine com-
petence of the speaker or writer. : as
This development of precision in ‘definition is not so bases
emancipation from the particular myth of creation which had been
assimilated by the Christian religion, as a development of the meaning
of the word (and related words) in philosophy, which in its turn
developed from educated usage in the classical world. During this

_ period it has been usual to make short definitions of a species (in this

biological sense). I am sure students still have to produce them in
examinations. Dr. Mayr has produced a very famous definition, but
it is implicit in this book, and J think he means it to be, that these
aphorisms have lost their value. Mayr’s definition is so simple, in
such unpompous English, that it is continually misquoted in complete
good faith. It does not by its form emphasize its precision; the-not
very dramatic words hide how much thought lies behind their choice.
A species is a precise thing, but it is a complicated thing, and a snap
definition is no help to anyone who needs: to identify- an individual
organism, déscribe a few species, design an experiment-to illuminate

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

some anomaly he has discovered, or provide numerical examples for
a theoretical argument.

A species is a complicated thing because it is a group comprising
a very large number of individuals. These individuals are not all alike,
and, as soon as we consider more than a very few of them, either by.
_ collecting a series, or by observing how they behave among themselves,
we discover that they are more or less divided into local populations.
The existence, both of individual variation, and of countless sub-
divisions of the total community, is taken for granted among us human
beings, and in these respects we are typical of other species. An
appreciation of the immense amount that has been discovered about
the population structure of animals will not only facilitate, but add a
new depth to our observations.

Here however we approach a difficulty. Dr. Mayr has written a
work of scholarship and his discussion integrally includes a genetical
vocabulary which, despite the writing of E. B. Ford, hag not yet
permeated the thinking of everyone educated and intelligent enough
to be a naturalist. Worse—Dr. Mayr’s vocabulary is very modern,
and consists of many abstract terms, which may be provisional and
ephemeral, but do express the provisional concepts of the workers who
are at present most actively considering the subject. :

Dr. Mayr himself will to some extent reinforce the naturalist’ S
intellectual withdrawal when a genetical concept rears its ugly head;
and it is emphatically not his business to explain or simplify these
concepts in a book of this kind. However, the disparaging remarks
which he is making about what he cails ‘beanbag genetics’, in this and
other recent writings, are to some extent spurning the base degrees
by which he ascended, if not fouling his own nest. It is clear that he
has never been fascinated by the experimental material of formal genetics.
Formal genetics somewhat resembles the elementary inorganic chemistry
such as is studied for Inter. Both require reagents which are
nowadays specially prepared for demonstration and analytical pur-
poses, and which are seldom encountered in everyday life. In both
studies these are unusually simple, or pure, but in a few respects only.
That the facts of heredity were discovered in the first instance is due
to the taste of a few biologists who chose to work with stocks of
animals and plants that already possessed this simplicity for other
reasons. These were of animals, such as poultry, rabbits, mice, and
cats, and of plants, such as peas and stocks (Matthiola), which existed
in many variants, but had not been exposed to centuries of intensive
isolation and selection to form breeds and the various plant equivalents
of these. Darwin almost discovered the first law of Mendel working

REVIEWS 673

with a polymorphism, and Doncaster discovered sex linkage using
another example of such a system, the differences between individuals
that make a species polymorphic being again unusually simple in their
genetic determination.

Without the completest facility in thinking in terms of the facts
today subsumed under formal genetics, the application of them either
to crop improvement, which may be compared to organic chemistry,
or to the structure of- wild populations, which may be the equivalent
of biochemistry, could not have developed. Dr. Mayr does assume
his readers to be familiar with the verbal vocabulary of population
genetics, though, as has been pointed out by others, not the more fertile
algebraic vocabulary.

On p. 422 Mayr writes: ‘it is rather difficult to establish a selective
model to account for the lengthening of generation time, the lengthening
of the immature stage... ’. A recent book by Wynne-Edwards’ does
offer an answer to this puzzle. This must be in some way a step
towards the correct answer, as it brings order to such a large
number of facts the previous explanations of which were unsatis-
factory or non-existent. However Wynne-Edwards’s hypothesis is not
unqualifiedly accepted, largely because though the benefits of the
adaptations he explains are undoubted it is difficult to hypothesize a
‘selective model’ that would function on our present picture of the
genetic structure of populations. One possible answer is that popula-
tions may sometimes be much more closely genetically integrated than
has previously been suspected, and that some genetic systems at. least
may have a binding structure of a degree which, today, we think. can
only be achieved by a learnt culture. -

However, the consideration of the genetical structure of natural
populations and how these differ among themselves has given us
virtual certainty about how such differences have arisen and what
further conditions will make them increase or cause them to regress.
And considering these genetical differences in this way, we see that
their increase beyond critical limits results in the splitting of the species
into two. These limits, though critical, are not historically abrupt,
and populations which are in an intermediate stage are available for
experiment. Dr. Mayr describes the sequence of events which can
be presumed to have occurred (and the presumption is often excellent)
in every example of metazoan speciation that has been analysed,
which are now a considerable number, and include members of many

_* V.C. Wynne-Edwards : ANIMAL DISPERSION IN RELATION TO SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR.
Edinburgh and London, 1962.

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 61 (3)

‘major groups. Nevertheless, I regret Dr. Mayr’s insistence, for
theoretical reasons, that this process is the only speciation process
that can occur in the higher animals with sexual reproduction. Though
I think he has answered existing criticisms, it is also probable that
he will be assumed to have already answered arguments that in fact
have not yet been formulated. Dr. Mayr gives examples, from the
history of this study, of fundameyitally new arguments which were not
recognized as such, either by their authors, or their readers. I fear
that Mayr may have inhibited certain musings over data that would
otherwise be made because, by having already countered an argument
something like the one consciously being formulated, he has a priori
discredited a whole range of argumerits which have not yet been pro-
duced. The most serious consequence of such a possible curtailment
of freedom of thought (N.B. not freedom of expression), is that certain
facts will not be noticed, because there are no theories or eas
to give them valence to the observer. |
My other criticism of Mayr is for a repeated complacency concern-
ing .our ignorance of the functions of the morphological characters
which form so large a part of what we attend to in the organic. world,
especially those which are constant in form. When considering, for
example, taxonomic variation in genitalia, the nature of the patterns
of the morphs that form a polymorphic population, or the characters
actually used by taxonomists in their descriptions, he repeatedly
makes the following point: ‘Colour, pattern, or some structural
detail may be merely an incidental by-product of a open maintained
in a. gene pool for other physiological properties’. I do not believe
this. If Dr. Mayr were more familiar with aie used in experi-
ments in formal genetics he would have noticed that pleiotropisms that
are ‘incidental by-products’ are wildly variable, and a consideration of
Waddington’s canalization argument would explain to him why_ this
must be so. The maintenance of a constant phenotype in a varying
environment must depend on compensatory processes, which are
necessarily variable in order to be able to compensate. The variation
of urine is the best analysed, but an entirely typical example. In a
living organism, if a morphological character is constant in our
evaluation, it is by definition canalized. ‘Therefore there is a selection
pressure to maintain that canalization, and that selection pressure must
act on features of the character very closely correlated with those we
evaluate by our senses and our techniques. In occasional situations
we can appreciate the selection pressure that has produced every single
morphological detail in an animal, for example in the details of a
mimic butterfly. If we are content to dismiss the. admittedly closely

REVIEWS 675

similar details in the pattern of the model as incidental by-products, we
are evincing lack of curiosity concerning the nature of the selection
pressures under which animals actually evolve. This blindness of
Mayr’s is curious because elsewhere he uses the argument that
constancy, both of a frequency and of a phenotype, is evidence for a
selection pressure to maintain it. :

The origin of species does not comprise the whole of evolution
theory, but following Darwin it is the most emphasized side. I think
this is good, because these questions are available for experiment in a
large number of ways, as the study of the evolution of larger groups is
not. Also it is probable that the most fruitful approach at the moment
to other aspects of evolution is to rephrase our questions, as
Mayr shows we can, so that they can be considered as problems of
speciation.

Very early in his book, Mayr lists disciplines which are necessary
to contribute to evolution theory. This is a very proper attack on
specialization, and I hope it will be heeded in Indian academic life,
but I think Dr. Mayr is being too modest. I think it could be sub-
stantiated that, as a historical fact, the evolution theories that have
stuck have been formulated by systematists. I am quoting from
memory over twenty-five years, but I attribute the point I am making
to Darwin. If I remember correctly, Darwin replied to someone
nagging him to write up his evolutionary theories by saying he must
write his cirripede monograph first. His point was not that he must
finish a drab chore before he took up an exciting one (the cirripedes
had not been begun) but that until he himself had done a piece of work
in systematics he was not qualified to attempt the essay which became
the orIGIN. Mayr -has this qualification, which I think can only be
obtained in systematic work. It is an appreciation of the immensity
of the problem.

H. SPURWAY -

2. BIRDS FROM BRITANNIA. By H.R.H. The Duke of
Edinburgh. pp. 62 (25X18 cm.). Numerous photographs in black
and white. London, 1962. Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd. Price
21s. net. |

In BIRDS FROM #8ei7TANNIA H.R.H. The Duke of Edinburgh has
put together a pithy and versonal record of his bird photography in
the course of the voyages of the Royal Yacht Britannia, which took
him to the tropical seas, the southern oceans, and the Antarctic. There

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

are also forty-eight pages of excellent photographs, and finally an
illustrated appendix descriptive of the birds photographed by the
author. This appendix is the work of Captain G. S. Tuck, Chairman
of the Royal Naval Bird-Watching Society. The whole book is an
excellent introduction to the labours and rewards of bird-watching
and bird photography for those who are not already practitioners, and
to those who are it serves to introduce a strange and remote bird world
which most of us will never see. Mollyhawks, Wanderers, Nellies,
Noddies, and Stinkers are unlikely to pass before the ordinary man’s
eye or camera lens, but they can be found in this book. Finally, any
amateur who thinks of writing up natural history notes or observations
will find here a model style, as compact as it is lively.

J.G.

3. THE FAUNA OF INDIA INCLUDING PAKISTAN, BURMA
AND CEYLON : MAMMALIA (Second Edition). Vol. III.
Rodentia. By J. R. Ellerman. With an appendix by M. L. Roonwal
and B. Biswas. Part 1, pp. xxx+482, with 34 figures; Part 2,
pp. liit+483-884, with 20 figures and a map; 23°5X16:°5 cm. Calcutta,
1961. Zoological Survey of India. Price for Parts 1 and 2 together:
Inland Rs. 46; Foreign 107s. 4d. or $ 16°56.

The two parts comprising this third volume of the second edition
on the Mammalia in the series FAUNA OF INDIA are devoted entirely to
the Rodentia and have been written by Sir John Ellerman, an
acknowledged authority on this complex Order. They maintain the
high standard of the earlier volumes on the Primates and Carnivora
by the late R. I. Pocock, and, like these volumes, are based on the
extensive collections of the British Museum (Natural History).
Although the work is avowedly concerned only with the rodents of
the Indian sub-continent it cannot be considered parochial: the author
notes that his conclusions are derived from the examination of some
13,000 specimens from Asia. Europe, North Africa, and Australia, and
throughout the work reference is made to the study of specimens trom
the adjacent parts of the Palaearctic and Malaysian regions. The
editor of the series is to be congratulated on the breadth of this
concept, which permits a soundiy based study: if for no other reason,
a work of a scope such as this merits careful examination.

The general objective of the series FAUNA OF INDIA ‘is to produce
authoritative taxonomic monographs of a high scientific standard on the

REVIEWS | 677

different groups of Indian animals . . .”. There can be no doubt
that this aim is admirably fulfilled by the present volume. It is a
comprehensive and detailed taxonomic review of the Indian Rodentia,
based on a broad spectrum of their diagnostic features and prepared
in a critical and objective fashion. It follows the general pattern set
by the earlier volumes on the Primates and Carnivora. The Order
Rodentia is defined and the reasons for excluding the lagomorphs as
a separate Order discussed. in the introduction, which includes remarks
on the classification of the Order with a key to the families and
subfamilies of Indian rodents and a brief review of their distribution.
The systematic account provides a definition and discussion. of each
family, with a key to its included genera. Diagnoses of genera and
species follow in considerable detail, with especial emphasis on cranial
and dental characters. Keys to species and subspecies are provided
where necessary: the diagnostic features of subspecies are reviewed
in some detail, with external and cranial measurements. Distribu-
tional data are provided at all levels and precise localities are given
for the Indian specimens examined during the preparation of the work.
Extant problems in the taxonomic study of Indian rodents are dis-
cussed in considerable detail at whatever level of classification they
occur and the author sets out his conclusions clearly and concisely.
The habits and ecology of Indian rodents receive less attention than
was devoted to these topics in the earlier volumes on Primates and
Carnivora, a reflection of the fact that rodents are less easily observed.

This volume is the first detailed study of the rodents of the Indian
sub-continent to appear since the publication of part 2 of the first
edition of the volume on the Mammalia by W. T. Blanford in 1891,
and it reflects very clearly the considerable advances that have been
made in indian mammalogy since that date. Blanford had under
consideration a total of 21 groupings of simplicidentate rodents which
he thought of generic validity. These occupy some 90 pages of text.
Seventy years later, the present work contemplates a total of 46 such
sroupings, involving a text nearly ten times as long as that of Blanford.
The increase in knowledge is largely due to the Bombay Natural
History Society, whose initiation of the Mammal Survey of India,
Burma, and Ceylon began a great upsurge of interest in the detailed
study of Indian mammals. It may be said in truth that without the
work of the Survey, the present study of the rodents of India could
never have appeared in its present form, for the Survey provided for
the first time the extensive series of specimens without which no
comprehensive study of a fauna can be made. Hitherto, the principal
work on the large collections of rodents obtained by the Survey has

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

been a long series of papers by Wroughton and Thomas published in the
early part of this century and summarized by Wroughton. Now, in
the- present volume, this has been critically reviewed and the results
of the Survey and other collections expanded into a comprehensive
treatment. The author has had the advantage of having much original
material for his studies, supplemented in many cases by extensive
series derived from further collecting, and has been able to take a
wide view of the rodent fauna of the region. :

~ Sir John Ellerman is best known for his monumental okies on
THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF LIVING RODENTS and it is abundantly
evident that his undoubted abilities as a diagnostician have been. fully
employed in his study of the Indian Rodentia. His definitions at the
level of the family, genus, and the species are a model of their kind
within the purpose of the work and especially in the context of cran:al
and dental characters. Meticulous attention to detail has been applied
at the level of the subspecies, wherever sufficient specimens were
available to justify such treatment. As might be expected, at this
level of classification, less importance is attached to cranial] and dental
characters which to a large extent are replaced by those of absolute
size, proportion, and colour, and it is here that the value of the ex-
tensive series examined by the author becomes apparent. For the
first time for many widespread Indian species, a detailed comparison
of many of their subspecies one with the other has been made, so that
the pattern of regional variation becomes clearer. This work by
Ellerman assumes an importance denied to the studies by Wroughton
and Thomas, which were primarily those of analysis, in contrast to the
synthesis practised in the present study.

The text of this volume was completed for publication in 1946 but
for various reasons did not appear in print until 1961. However, the
author has included his later thinking on the minor classification of
Indian rodents. For example, in the genus Rattus, he has included
the subgenera Leopoidamys and Berylymys which he proposed in 1947
and his views on the vexed question of Rattus rajah and Ratius surifer
as expressed in the present work are in accord with his opinions on
the point foreshadowed in his ‘Key to the Rodentia inhabiting - India,
Ceylon and Burma’ (1947, J. Mammal. 28 : 249-278, 357-389) and. set
out in the CHECKLIST OF PALAEARCTIC AND INDIAN MAMMALS (1951) and
the INDEX TO CHASEN (1940) A HANDLIST OF MALAYSIAN MAMMALS
(1955). In this way he has embodied his more recent views into the
text, which do not always agree in minor detail with the conclusions
of the third volume of THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF LIVING RODENTS,

itself completed in 1946 but not published until 1949. This situation .

a ee aad

REVIEWS ; 679

is further rectified by the provision of an appendix by M. L. Roonwal
and B. Biswas, listing rodents described as new from the region during
the period 1946-1960, with a summary of their diagnostic characters.
It is clearly less easy to draw attention to further work which modifies
or expands the conclusions expressed in the text but. this has been done
in a few cases by the provision of a footnote. The work consequently
suffers little from the delay in publication: such published work as
has been unavoidably excluded does not affect it to any serious extent.

Attention may be drawn to a few small points that are misleading
or inconsistent. The measurement known in mammalogy as con-
dylobasal length is defined on p. 11 as ‘from the occiput to the front
of the incisor’ as opposed to the more usual method of obtaining this
value which takes as its posterior points of reference the hindmost
surfaces of the occipital condyies and as its anterior point the foremost
part of the premaxillae, at or close to the mid-line. Inconsistencies
can be found in the speiling of place names: for example, the locality
‘Charwa, in Cutch, appears variously as Chalwar, Charwa, and
Charwar. Similarly, skin and skull studies do not always correspond
precisely with each other or with the text: for example, in the table
of external measurements for Rattus niviventer, it is said under R. n.
mentesus that ‘the following skins may also belong here’, yet in the
table of cranial measurements for this species the skulls associated
with certain of these skins are listed definitively as R. n. mentosus
while in the text the localities whence these skins came are included
definitively within the distribution of that subspecies. The detailed
and -valuable tables of measurements could perhaps have been im-
proved by the consistent specification of the specimens to which the
measurements refer: this has been done to some extent by quoting
the Museum registration numbers (or collector’s numbers for un-
registered collections) for all of the skulls measured but such numbers
are quoted only rarely for the skins of which external measurements
are given, thus rendering impossible the association of the two sets of
measurements in all but a few cases. These minor criticisms do not
minimise the value of the book and some may derive from its pre-
paration during time of war when the collections and libraries of the
British Museum (Natural History) were widely dispersed.

There can be no doubt that Sir John Ellerman has made a major
contribution to Indian mammalogy. For the first time the student has
available a comprehensive treatise on the Rodentia of the Ind'an
sub-continent which brings together the plethora of names applied to
this widely varied group and which provides a thorough comparative
study of the majority of named forms from the region. The author

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

has brought to his subject a remarkable power of detailed diagnosis
and definition which has resulted in a clear and unified treatment of
certainly the largest, and probably the most diverse, group of Indian
mammals. This volume will remain for many years the standard text
on the Rodentia of the Indian sub-continent and, as such, will be
indispensable to any student of the mammalian fauna of that oe
or of the Order Rodentia as a whole.

J. E. Hi ~

4. MARSILEA. By K. M. Gupta. pp. vit113 (24x16 cm).
With two photographs in monochrome, 13 tables, and 40 figures
including 1 map. New Delhi, 1962. Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research. Price Rs. !6, or 33s., or $ 5.

This is the second in the series of Botanical Monographs taken up
by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, India. The
subject of this monograph, after the first on Gnetum, is well chosen,
and has been admirably executed by Dr. K. M. Gupta. The author
has carried out critical studies on Indian species of Marsilea for several
years and has taken considerable pains to collect the materials for
this monograph.

The treatment of the subject, as in the previous monograph, is
very good. The reproduction of original descriptions of the various
species is a very happy thought, but one is puzzled why the English
translation of the description is not given in each case. The
inclusion of the pictures of two botanists, Alexander Braun and John
Gilbert Baker, who made valuable contributions to our knowledge
of Marsilea is a happy thought.

This work comprises previously published and unpublished
morphological, ecological, taxonomical, embryological, and cytological
studies of the several species of Marsilea, especially the Indian species
of the genus. The comparative morphological studies of two different
species, M. minuta (hydrophytic) and M. aegyptiaca (xerophytic), from
Rajasthan in India have provided the material for the data on Morpho-
logy and Anatomy for the monograph. A summary of developmental
studies by Campbell, Demalsy-Feller, Johnson, Feller, Andrews &
Sharp, and Kolhatwar is included. The meagre work on cytology and
ecology is summarized here with the help of figures and tables. The
portion on Systematics is dealt with in considerable detail including
three long tables and includes the synonymy of each species. The
monograph ends with a short theoretical discussion. It has been

REVIEWS 681

pointed out by the author with the help of observations in various
fields that further intensive studies on the aspects of experimental
morphology, ecology, cytology, etc. of this group of plants are needed.
A recent report on the effect of darkness and infra-red light on the
conversion of the water form of Marsilea to a land form is interesting.
(See J. J. Gaudet in Science 140 : 975, May 1963.) The figures are
all excellent and the tables very explanatory. The author and others
associated with him in this work are to be congratulated on giving us
a very valuable monograph.

P. V. BOLE

5. BIRDS OF ISRAEL. By Paula Arnold. With a Hebrew
translation by Rachel Kellner. pp. 107 (27°5xX21 cm.). With 15
coloured and 15 monochrome plates by Walter Ferguson. Haifa,
1962. Shalit Publishers Ltd.

This very welcome addition to general ornithological literature is
addressed to the layman and gives short descriptive notes on forty-
eight species of birds accompanied by beautiful illustrations. Many of
the birds described are common to Israel and India. A list appended
to the text enumerates about 350 or. more species occurring in Israel.
One cannot help regretting that the work was not extended to
include more birds, and that the book was not given a handier size and
a sturdier binding suitable to a handbook to be carried in the field.
‘The reviewer hopes that there will be sufficient response to the first
editidn to encourage the author to undertake a revised and enlarged
edition. ,

The author tells us that the Great Spotted Cuckoo (Clamator
glandarius) baby does not destroy its foster siblings, the reason
according to her being that the foster parents, the Hooded Crow
(Corvus corong), owing to their varied diet have no difficulty in feeding
the intruder in addition to their own young ones. It would be interest-
ing to investigate whether any of our cuckoos behave in this fashion.

D.E.R.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOMB BAT, TAPHOZOUS
PERFORATUS PERFORATUS E. GEOFFROY

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (CHECKLIST PAL. INDIAN MAM., 195],
p. 104) give the Indian distribution of the Tomb Bat, Taphozous
perforatus perforatus E. Geoffroy, as Cutch and Kathiawar. Brosset
(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59, 1962, p. 33) recorded it from
Ahmedabad city and northern Gujarat, and Prakash (Rec. Indian Mus.
59, 1963, p. 156) from Jodhpur and Barmer, Rajasthan. Outside
Indian limits, the form includes Egypt in its range. It has, therefore,
been considered more or less a typical desert form. Three specimens
(2 oo, 12) were collected by the writer in September 1963 near
Jabalpur city, with average annual rainfall of 1433-4 mm., maximum
monthly rainfall of 659-9 mm., and maximum relative humidity of
92, as recorded during the last ten years. This shows that the form
is not confined to desert areas. |

All the specimens were collected while flying near sparsely forested
country in the same locality. The nature of the diurnal habitat in
the area is so far unknown. Although several other species of
Taphozous are common around Jabalpur, this form has not been met
with again and, thus, appears to ‘be rare.

Although the external and the cranial measurements are the same
as recorded by Brosset (loc. cit.), the specimens appear darker in
coloration. One of them has a reddish brown patch on the back.
Pending availability of more specimens, no geographical significance
can be attached to this character since there is considerable colour
variation in Indian bats.

CENTRAL REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, H. KHAJURIA
JABALPUR, .

May 14, 1964.

2. A LARGE HERD OF CHITAL
(With. a plate)
I enclose a photograph of a very large herd of chital numbering

over 500 animals I saw at the Avarahulla Reserve of the Mudumalai
Wild Life Sanctuary in the Nilgiris on 25-10-1964. The forest was

zat

Arenjoue

(Anping (9 'Y 7 ¢ 0104)

[eunpt]

{

‘

IIL

prey osie] V

‘0S ‘LSIP] ‘LVN AvaWwog ‘Nuno[

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 683

until very recently a shooting area under the management of the
Nilgiri Wild Life Association.
I wonder if such a large herd has been recorded before.

THE NILGIRI WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION,
OOTACAMUND, §S. INDIA, E. R. C. DAVIDAR
December 4, 1964.

3. BALEEN WHALE IN GULF OF MANNAR CAUSES DEATH
OF TWO FISHERMEN?

On 26 May 1961, a locai Tamil newspaper Thina Thanthi carried
a news item of a fishing boat in the Gulf of Mannar off Punnakayal,
south of Tuticorin, being attacked by a large fish, resulting in the
death of two of the five fishermen in the boat. In June 1961, while
on tour to Tuticorin, I visited Tiruchendur Government Hospital where
the injured were said to have been admitted and also Punnakayal
village, to obtain first-hand information about the incident. It
transpired that one of the survivors, Jayaraj Fernando aged 37, was
admitted to the hospital with injuries on the forehead and back on
24 May 1961, the day on which the incident occurred, and was dis-
charged on 5 June 1961.

At Punnakayal village I met four survivors and gathered the
following information: Fishing about seven miles off Punnakayal on
24 May 1961, at about 04:00 hours after hauling in the gill nets
(catch almost exclusively Sardinella spp. and Chirocentrus spp.), the
six fishermen (not five as reported in the paper) were resting, waiting
for favourable winds to sail shorewards. Suddenly, without any
warning, a huge monster reared up and fell across the boat, smashing
the sides and capsizing the boat. Two of the fishermen, Antony
aged 28 and Tai Tones aged 35, were killed instantaneously being
crushed against the boat. .The others were thrown into the water,
dazed and injured, Jayaraj Fernando more so, but they managed to
cling on to the capsized boat and were picked up shortly after by
one of the passing fishing boats.

In the twilight the animal appeared to be blackish on its upper
side and pale whitish ventrally, and was estimated to be about thirty

1Published with the permission of the Director, Central Marine Fisheries Research
Institute, Mandapam Camp,

684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

feet in length. As the animal fell on the boat and slid over it, bits
of its skin were found sticking to the jagged edges of the broken
timber. I was able to examine a few of these bits, collected and kept
by the fishermen. They indicated that the animal was not a fish as
reported, but a cetacean.

It appears that on the day prior to this incident (on 23 May 1961)
the same animal or one similar to it got entangled in some nylon
fishing nets (gill nets) set in that vicinity but escaped, after badly
damaging the nets. On several previous occasions fishermen have
seen such monsters which they know do not belong to the true fishes,
but are related to the Ongil (dolphins and porpoises) and which, on
account of their enormous length, they call U/ravi, Panai_ uravi,
or Timingalam. They differentiate them from the Whale Shark,
which is also occasionally found in the Gulf of Mannar and is known
locally as Panaimeen, by their horizontal tail flukes and the two blow
holes, from which ‘fountains of water are spouted from time to time’.
I was told that occasionally these whales are known to approach and
lie alongside fishing boats in the fishing grounds, when even their
eyes ‘which are almost like those of a calf’ can be seen! Also, on
rare occasions, pairs have been seen in the fishing grounds off
Tuticorin in waters six fathoms deep to rear the anterior part of their
bodies above the water and fall back with a resounding noise, which
antics fishermen consider as mating play.

On the information gathered there can be no doubt that the animal
responsible was a baleen whale, but specific identification is not
possible except, on the basis of the size, to presume that it was one
of the smaller species, most probably the Lesser Rorqual, Balaenoptera
acutorostrata Lacépéde. The occurrence of this species in the Gulf
of Mannar during the month of May is not unusual, as there is a
record of the stranding of a 21-foot B. acutorostrata on 19 May 1937
at Mannar on the west coast of Ceylon (Deraniyagala 1948, Spol.
Zeyl. 25). ;

The purpose of this note is to draw attention to this unusual
incident, which to my knowledge is the first of its kind to be reported

from the Indian Seas.

CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES RESEARCH
INSTITUTE,

MANDAPAM CAMP,

August 18, 1964.

E,.G: SILAS,
Pool Officer, C.S.L.R.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 685

4. SELECTIVE SEX REGULATION

Interesting possibilities are raised by the recent studies pf Dr.
B. C. Bhattacharya on Artificial Insemination (A.I.). While still
under experimental study, evidence has been found to suggest that
Sperm carrying the X-chromosome (which give rise to a female
fertilised ovum) can be separated from Y-chromosome-carrying sperm,
the selective use of these yielding offspring of the desired sex.

Dr. Bhattacharya, a veterinarian, first started this work at the
artificial insemination centre in Calcutta. A request was made by a
farmer that his cow. be inseminated late in the evening, since insemi-
nation later in the day gave rise to more female calves, while
insemination in the morning gave rise to more males. On going over
the records, Dr. Bhattacharya found that there was, indeed, a slight
but definite preponderance of male calves from cows inseminated in
the morning, and of females when A.I. had been done late in the day.

This finding started the present studies. In spite of Jack of interest,
scepticism, and active discouragement (arising partly from the fact that
numerous claims have been made in the past which have not been
substantiated by further investigation) Dr. Bhattacharya has persisted
in his work. He makes no claims at present, beyond. the obvious
one that this question needs more intensive study. His preliminary
work showed that, on standing, there is a certain degree of sedimenta-
tion in the tube of semen, and that the sedimented layers, richer in
sperm content, show a higher proportion of X-carrying sperm. Since
semen for A.I. was usually collected early in the morning, stored, in
suitable dilution, in the cold, and successive fractions, usually ten
per tube, were pipetted off during the day for insemination of cows,
the later fractions, frequently used after the tube had been standing
for several hours, would naturally contain a preponderance of the
sedimented X-chromosome-rich sperm.

After many discouragements he was permitted to work on rabbits
at the Max Planck Institute for Animal Husbandry at Mariensee,
West Germany. Using suitable dilutions of rabbit semen for AL.
he was able to show that &3 per cent male offspring resulted from
use of the top layers of the tube, 55 per cent males from the middle
layers and only 26 per cent males from the lower layers. There is
need for further study to establish optimum conditions for other
animal species, especially for cattle, among which the economic
repercussions of such sex regulation would be very great. At last,
after ten years, Dr. Bhattacharya has received the necessary encour-
agement, and is now engaged in a two-year project with cattle, at

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Cambridge. At the end of this period, it is hoped that some con-
clusions can be drawn. regarding the practical applications of this
work.*

While, recently, this work has aroused interest in other countries,
and also in the F.A.O., it may be superfluous to add that as usual, the
authorities in India—the country which is in great need of these
studies—evinced no interest in this work and made no effort to give
any encouragement or facilities for the continuance of this study.

40A, RipGEeE Roap,
BOMBAY 6, A. N. D. NANAVATI

November 11, 1964.

5. WINTER FOOD OF THE PAINTED PARTRIDGE
[FRANCOLINUS PICTUS (JARDINE & SELBY)] IN
RAJASTHAN?

Since my report about the occurrence of the Painted Partridge,
Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby), in Rajasthan [Newsletter for
Birdwatchers, 1963, 3(2) : 4] I was looking for existing literature on
its food, and found that practically nothing is known about the plant
‘species, the seeds of which are usually taken by them. In the month
of December, I was able to collect and analyse food from the crops of
9 Painted Partridge collected from Bisalpur, near Erinpura, Jodhpur
District, Rajasthan. The contents were analysed by two methods:
counting every seed (number method).and by measuring their weight.

The table reveals that seeds of Brachiaria ramosa are most pre-
ferred and they constitute 20-38% food of Painted Partridge in winter.
The second preference of food is seeds of Cucumis callosus and
Cyperus rotundus. It is surprising how the partridge is able to dig
the Cyperus bulbs which are buried about 4 cm. under the hard soil.
Next in preference are the seeds of Tephrosia purpurea, Panicum
antidotale, Zizyphus nummularia, Citrullus calc vnttees, Tephrosia
uniflora, and Cucumis prophetarum.

It is interesting to compare the frequency of occurrence of the
plants in nature, and that of seeds in partridge food. In nature the

1 BHATTACHARYA, B. C. (1964): Prearranging the sex of offspring. New Scientist

24: 151-152.
ANON. (1964): Sex determination. Family Planning 13: 66-68.

2 Communicated by Dr. Ishwar Prakash, Animal Ecologist, Central Arid Zone
Research Institute, Government of India, Jodhpur, yRaL 12

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 687

dominant species of plants in winter are Aristida spp. 50°89%,
Dicanthium annulatum 128:56%, Cymbopogon 14-96%, Eremopogon

TABLE SHOWING THE FREQUENCY OF SEEDS IN CROPS OF PAINTED
PARTRIDGE AS COMPARED TO PLANT SPECIES FOUND IN NATURE

Sa Ns Fe

? | ; % | wt, |Total%| % of
S. No. Species Number | Frequency of food | plant in
| — | in food em. (by wt.) nature
= ae ae ! ates
Seeds : | |
1 Zizyphus nummularia 48 | 0°8 2°0 | 5°58 0°5
2. | Cucumis callosus | 1448 | 245 | 4°6 | 12°85 | 2:0
3% Cucumis prophetarum 208 | 3°4 1:8 | 5°02 | (during
| | | monsoon)
4, Cyperus rotundus 0 eo BS. 46a 2 om 01
5. | Cyperus sp. el 18S | 1:07 1:4 | 3:91
el Tehiivosin paspurca! <0 44a No 7635 | 4:2 | 11:66 2:3
a Tephrosia uniflora L 138 ..| 230% | 1 20 | 5°58 45
subsp. petrosa | | |
8, Solanum albicaule | 104. < | {7.06 ! 160 =<0'l
9. | Pentatropis spiralis 70 | a 0°7 | 195 | <0'1
10. | Mukia maderaspatana 25 0-4 07. |; 1:95.45) <0:
11. Panicum antidotale 635 10°5 21 | 5°80 :
12. | Citrullus colocynthis 48 0°8 DO se 20 Gin
; | i | winter)
(is Phaseolus mungo | 34 0°6 5 4-10 !
14. | Brachiaria ramosa | 2481 | 41:0 | a3 20°38 | =0'5
Insects : | |
1. | Large ants, Mono- 23. | 938 | 03 | -0:80
morium indicum |
2: Lady-bird beetles | | 2 | 0°03

_ 14 Plant species } |
+ §6648 | 99°43 358. 12 99°61
2 Insect species ) | |

65%, (all grasses). When we turn to the menu of Painted Partridge,
it is found that none of the plant species consumed exceeds 4:5% of
natural vegetation, rather most of the plant species preferred by the

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Painted Partridge are below 0:-5% of the natural vegetation. It also
shows how selective the Painted Partridge is in its feeding habits.
Therefore, its food is not governed by the availability of certain plant
species which occur in large number, but it searches and selects its
favoured food, which may be only 0:1% of the natural vegetation.
This is also the case with insect food. The orthoptera represent by far
the greater majority of insects at Bisalpur but the Painted Partridge
eats large ants, Monomorium indicum, and small lady-bird beetles.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR, S. C. SHARMA
JODHPUR, RAJASTHAN,

June 19, 1963.

6. THE JUNGLE BUSH QUAIL [PERDICULA ASIATICA
(LATHAM)] : A NEW RACE FROM SOUTH INDIA

In 1963, the Virus Research Centre’s field station at Vellore, North
Arcot District, Madras, sent some birds to the Bombay Natural
History Society for identjfication. A Jungle Bush Quail [Perdicula
asiatica (Latham)] appeared to differ from those in the Society’s
collection by the throat being a dark chocolate-brown as against
various shades of chestnut in birds from other areas. H.A. suggested
that, with a few more specimens, it might be possible to determine
whether this was only an individual variation or represented a different
race in that area. In February 1964, R.R. obtained eight more
specimens. An examination of the 78 skins now available in Bombay
does not support the position outlined in the SYNOPSIS, where Ripley
accepts three races from India:

Perdicula asiatica asiatica (Latham) (Type loc.: Mahratta region).
In Rajasthan, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa.
and south through Andhra to Madras and Mysore.

Perdicula asiatica punjaubi Whistler (Ambala, Punjab). In
Kashmir, East Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, and Uttar Pradesh.

Perdicula asiatica yidali Whistler & Kinnear (Kelsi, South Renken:
In Malabar Coast through Kerala. i

Our examination prompts the following remarks:
Perdicula asiatica asiatica

In J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38 : 385, Whistler restricted the type
locality to Poona, whence we have 3 oc and 1 9. Unfortunately they
have clipped wings indicating that they were purchased from trappers:
but it is unlikely that they were brought over any great distance.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 689

Both the males and the female are dark reddish brown above with
none of the cream-coloured shaft stripes on the upper surface. ‘The
few marks both dark and pale are blotches rather than longitudinal
streaks. Specimens from Khandala, the Bombay Konkan, and a
female from Dedipada, Rajpipla, Gujarat, may be included in this
form. ;

The single female from Poona and two from Panchgani are more
chestnut below, the colour of the abdomen and breast almost merging
into the chestnut of the chin. The other females of asiatica and the
other races have the underparts of various shades of vinous brown,
but with the chin always of a distinctly different coiour. Juveniles
from north Konkan have the upper parts more prominently streaked. —

Perdicula asiatica punjaubi

A pair from Kaira and a @ from Danta, Mahi Kanta, both in
north Gujarat, are paler, with no trace of reddish brown in the upper
plumage, and have the upper parts more strongly marked with
distinct pale shaft stripes as in the grey quails (Coturnix) and fewer
markings on the nape. Birds from Baghat State, Simla Hills,
NW. Himalayas, are very similar above with rather darker chins
though not as dark as those of the new form described below.

Perdicula asiatica vidali

There is only one old and badly damaged specimen from
Ratnagiri, South Konkan, available for examination. The original
description states that both adults and immature birds differ
from the typical race in the deep reddish tint of the whole upper
plumage, a character which is inore particularly marked on the crown.
The black barring of the lower plumage was also said to be broader
than in the typical form. Apart from the series from South Konkan,
Whistler & Kinnear only saw one more skin from Malappuram, in
Malabar District, now in Kerala State, and specifically stated that the
three Nilgiri specimens from the northern face of Seagore (?) “do not
of course belong to it’. Salim Ali obtained no specimen in Travancore
and Cochin, and we do not know if the range as in the SYNOPSIS is
warranted.

A pair from Chandgod, Belgaum District, and two birds from
Salsette Island have their foreheads strongly washed with red and
are probably close to this form.

Perdicula asiatica subsp. nov.

The eight new specimens (6 o'c and 2 99) were obtained by
R.R. from gypsies who had trapped them in the Government Reserved
Forest about 25 miles south-west of Vellore, North Arcot District,

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Madras. As they had their wing-feathers clipped and were not in
very good condition, they were retained alive for some time and, in
June 1964, were sent to Bombay.

All the nine birds, both males and females, have consistently dark
chocolate-brown chins and can be picked out from among the others.
They are paler than typical asiatica, with no trace of reddish wash
on the upper parts. The pale streak markifgs are also stronger,
though not as heavy as in punjaubi. It has not been possible to
compare them with specimens of P. a. ceylonensis, which is illustrated
in Henry’s BIRDS OF CEYLON with a dark chocolate chin. However,
the type description of ceylonensis states that ‘the upper plumage of both
sexes iS much darker throughout, with the black blotching and pale
shaft-streaks of the scapulars reduced in extent so that these parts do
not contrast so strongly with the rest of the plumage as in the typical
race. Thus it does not seem likely that we are gous with
ceylonensis at Vellore.

‘We, therefore, select a male obtained on 13 November 1963 near
Vellore, bearing Virus Research Centre No. R.R. 1080 and Bombay
Natural History Society Register No. 21554, as the type and name it:

Perdicula asiatica vellorei subsp. nov.

The absence of sufficient material from the surrounding areas
prevents us from defining the limits of distribution of this race.

Whistler (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41 : 480) referred to the pro-
bability of more races in southern India, and there is no doubt that
the description of vellorei does not complete the work.

We have specimens from Shimoga, Palkonda Hills, Seshachalam
Hills, Vijayanagar (Hampi, Bellary), Bina (C.P.), and Gwalior State,
which are difficult to name definitely. §

The birds from Bina (C.P.) are intermediate in coining and have ~
dark chins. One female from Palkonda Hills has a dark chin, and
so have three males from Shimoga, one of which almost approaches
the chocolate of the Vellore birds. These three birds are very dis-
tinctive, being the darkest in the collection, a blackish brown, with
no trace of red, and very heavily streaked above. The bars on the
chest are narrower and closer together than in any other specimen.

There appears to be no difference in wing length between specimens
from north and south India.

The sequence of plumages is also not clear, and several specimens
in adult female plumage have been reliably sexed as males, while
birds with barring on the underparts have been found to be females.
Perhaps these irregularities may in some way be linked with their
social habits, of which we know nothing; a range of specimens

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 691

from over a large area is essential and we hope members will help to
secure them. :

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BoMBAY 3,

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE

FIELD STATION, RACHEL REUBEN
VELLORE, SOUTH INDIA,
August 28, 1964.

7. ROOSTING OF THE GREY WAGTAIL [MOTACILLA -
CASPICA (GMELIN)] IN THE THEKKADY WILD LIFE
SANCTUARY

A report by Cawkell (1947)' is referred to by Dr. Stuart Smith
(1950)? as describing ‘a small tree at Beirut in the Lebanon, that was
the winter roosting place of a flock of twenty to thirty Grey Wagtails’.
The following note describes a roost at Thekkady where there were
46 Grey Wagtails at least.

_ Thanks to the United States Information Service, Trivandrum, I
was able to spend 3 nights (March 31, April Ist and 2nd, 1964) in the
Edapalayam Tourist Bungalow within the Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary,
at an altitude of about 3900 ft. |

On April 1, at 6.00 hrs. I saw a few slim, long-tailed birds flying
from a small Silver Oak (Grevillea robusta), alighting on the branches
of a larger tree close by, and then flying off. That evening, at 18.5
hrs.. Grey Wagtails started arriving in ones and twos. They alighted
on the roof, and ran about and preened themselves (giving me excellent
opportunities to make sure of the rump colour). Apart from a few
subdued chip-chip notes, they made little noise and showed very little
excitement. A few of them flew into a larger tree (a Rusty Shield
Bearer, I think), only to return at once to the roof. Unfortunately, I
was called away before I could see them settling down. At 20.00 hrs.
I examined the Silver Oak, and the torch-beam revealed eight birds
fast asleep. Most of them were quite conspicuous from below, though
all of them were well protected from above by leaves. Some sat with
body and tail at a 45-degree angle to the ground; others seemed to
be more or less resting flat on the leaves of the twigs where they
perched. All those that could be seen well had their heads tucked

2 CAWKELL, E.M. (1947): A winter roost of Grey Wagtail. Brit. Birds 40 : 213

(original not seen).
2 SmitH, S. (1950) : THE YELLOW WAGTAIL : 88.

692. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

into the back, and they did not make the slightest movement even
when the torch-beam was kept steadily on them. The breasts of
these birds were less fluffed out than, for instance, are those of sieeping
orioles and ioras. The heights at which the birds were sleeping
ranged from 12 feet to 25 feet above ground. Of the 8 birds seen
only two were close together: the others were sitting widely separated
from one another.

On the 2nd Apri! I could not watch the wagtails. But on the 3rd
I was under the Silver Oak some 5 minutes before 6.00 a.m. Exactly
at 6.00 a wagtail shot off its perch in the Silver Oak and, twisting and
turning in characteristic fashion, alighted on the roof. It stayed only
for a moment. Then it flew off to the east. From 6.00 a.m. till 6.09
birds kept erupting from the roost-tree in ones and twos, making it
easy for us to count them as they flew out. In all I counted 46

wagtails flying out of that tree. (I was absent for a minute or so

during this period, examining another Silver Oak SrOWHe a few
yards away.)
It was seen that there had been birds even on the lowest bomen

just 8 feet above the ground. Every twig and branch above that. level

seemed to have carried its quota of birds. |
The birds from the lowest perches were the. first to waves end
some of the last came out of the top: branches. -Most of the. birds

had been so well hidden that IT could have sworn, at 6 a.m., that. there

were only some 10 birds in the tree. In fact the butler, who had
examined the tree by torchlight the - previous aks was ae to
wager that there were only 2 birds in the tree!.

The Silver Oak preferred by the wagtails was a site tree. about
30 feet tall, standing very near the eaves at the angle between the

main block and the kitchen, on the northern side. There was a larger
Silver Oak on the southern side of the kitchen block, but there was
not a single wagtail in it.

Most of the roosting birds left the tree between 6-00 and 6-05.

On the way to Aranya Nivas on the 31st of March I saw a few

Grey Wagtails beside the road. At one place, where there was a

trickle of water, two wagtails were quarrelling. Their lower plumage
had already become bright yellow. Some of the birds. seen on the
roof on April 1 had grey chins too. Curiously. enough F- did ‘not
notice a single wagtail anywhere in the lake during the 3 hours spent
cruising in search of wild animals on the Ist of gt

MAHARAJA’S ‘COLLEGE, ~ ae Wiel ee
ERNAKULAM, KERALA, Joi Seely JK KA NBERARANT AN
April 20, 1964. ; . et eee

Ring No.
and species

F-3505 Anas
crecca 3

C-419 Anas
crecca 2

C-2091 Anas
crecca 2

C-171 Anas —
crecca

F-3567 Anas
clypeata 2

E-605555 Anas
acuta 3

E-555204
Hydroprogne
caspia

A-11565 Passer
domesticus
parkini 3

A-30934 Mota-
cilla flava
thunbergi

A-39724 Mota-
cilla flava

| 19.2.1964.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ringing

| 6.2.1964. | Manghaul,
(c, 25.23 N., 86.30
E.), Monghyr Dist.,
Bihar, India

do.

3.2.1964. do.
18.2.1964. do.
16.3.1964. do.

4.10.1962. Kurgal’

‘ dzhin near Tangiz,
Tselinograd, Reg.
Kazakhstan (ce.
50.30 N., 69.35 E.)

1.7.1961. Kazoty-
Iace, (c. 43.30 N.,
70.40 E.), Dzham-
bul Region, Kazakh-
stan

31.3.1962. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan, India.

27-1-1963. Edanad,
(c. 9.20 N., 76.38
E.), Kerala, India

27.9.1963. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27.13

EY E.), India |

Date and place of | Date and place of |

recovery

15.3.1964.
India

15.9.1964. Near Asino.

(cx STN. 86.E:);
Reg. Tomsk.

25.8.1964. Near Tark-|

Bernpora
Srinagar, Kashmir,

693

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS

Remarks

» Reported by Suram
Singh, Srinagar,
Kashmir

Reported by Bird-
Ringing Centre,
USSR

do.

hanskoe (50.06 N.,
82.57 E.), Kazakh-

stan

7.9.1964. Verkhne-
Vilyuysk, District
Yakutian (c. 63.30
N., 120.15 E.)

13.8.1964. Dalyr,
Verkhne-Vilyuysk,

Dt. Yakutian, USSR
120.15

os 63.30 N.,

January 1963. Bhuj,

Kutch, India

3.11.1964. From the
Ganges between
Sakrigali Ghat, and
Manihari Ghat,

West Bengal, India |

10-11.1964. c, 20 km.
NE. of Tchimkent
69.50

(c. 42.30 N.,
E.), Kazakhstan

4.5.1964. c. 60 km.
N. of Chimkent,
Kazakhstan

10.5.1964. Goluboka

do.

Reported by Major
S. A. Mohite,

| Poona

Reported by E.H.
Robertson, Bihar

|
|

Reported by Bird
Ringing Centre,
USSR

do. .

do.

(53.33 N.,: 74:22'E:),

Omsk Region

Bompay NATuRAL History” SOREN €
9], WALKESHWAR..ROAD,
BOMBAY 6-WB..__

November 30,

1964.

--EDITORS

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

9. EARLY RECOGNITION OF SEX IN THE JUVENILE :
FORMS OF SITANA PONTICERIANA CUVIER a

(With twa photoeraphs and a text-figure)

While conducting field observations of the Fan-throated Lizard,
Sitana ponticeriana Cuy., I collected many juvenile forms of this
species. Detailed study in the laboratory revealed that, though the
forms are immature, sexing is possible. The distinguishing characters
are enumerated below. |

Photo 1. Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier

Male with its gular appendage distended

Sitana show distinct sexual dimorphism. The adult male can be

easily recognised in the field by its multi-coloured gular appendage
(Photograph No. 1). ‘

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 695

Photo 2. Sitana ponticerigqna Cuvier

Figs. 1-4. Juvenile forms arranged according to the development
of the gular appendage. Fig. 5. Adult

Text-figure. Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier

Ventral view, showing black strip

} £

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

The specimens studied were collected from hills around Poona,
namely Chaturshingi and Vetal Hills, during April, May, and June
1964. After killing with chloroform, they were arranged in the
dissecting dish according to the degree of development of the gular
appendage as shown in Photograph No. 2. This showed that the earlier
Stage is one where there is a beginning of the development of a black
strip along the mid-ventral line of the lower jaw. This black
strip in further stages goes on increasing posteriorly and simultaneously
broadens as well. The text-figure shows the black strip. This
conclusion was confirmed by dissecting the juvenile forms and ascer-
taining the presence. of testes and hemipenes in well-developed
condition.

It is not possible at this stage to give accurate information regarding
the development of the gular appendagé. This is only possible after
rearing the young right from the egg stage in the laboratory, when
the development of the gular appendage corresponding to the age,
and the length of the individual can be correlated. This work has
been taken in hand.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION, R. N. CHOPRA
Poona 5,

July 6, 1964.

10. ACCIDENTAL DEATH OF THE CHEQUERED
KEELBACK [NATRIX PISCATOR (SCHNEIDER)]

While out at Lake Beale, Nasik District, Maharashtra, on 30
December 1963, I saw a largish snake, dead and floating limply near
the surface of the water. The prominent black and white markings
indicated a Chequered Keelback (Natrix piscator), but one end was
uniforinly flesh-coloured and prompted a closer examination.

The pale end was found to be the rear half of a 20 in. eel

(Mustacembalus armatus) locally known as Vambat, projecting from -

the fully distended mouth and foreparts of the 45 in. snake who had
obviously over-estimated his swallowing capacity. The snout of the
cel was noticeably red.

Messrs. Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, _ HUMAYUN ABDULALI -

BoMBAY 3,
January 6, 1964.

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

anno Ly ice ea

1. Ichthyophis beddomii Peters—male

2. Favoured habitat of Ichthyophis beddomii Peters

Photos : B. K. Tikader & P. J. Kulkarni

I] dLvid

1UADYINY “f ‘qd P AOpOYlT “M -q +: 010Yq

S339 YIM ‘o[eUlaj—slojog muoppaq siydodyjyry

‘00§ “LSI “LVN

AVaWOg

‘NANOS

- ~~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES pee!

- 11. OBSERVATIONS ON THE CAECILIAN /CHTHYOPHIS
BEDDOMIT PETERS FROM KOTEGEHAR, DISTRICT
CHIKMAGALUR, MYSORE

(With two plates)

. During a faunistic survey tour in Mysore State, in January 1964,

I collected several specimens of the limbless amphibian /chthyophis
beddomii Peters at Kotegehar, Chikmagalur District. The animal
(locally known as hitalmundi) lives in mud, near perennial
springs (Plate I, fig. 2), but in the rainy season is found abundantly
inside the cardamom plantations in and around Kotegehar village. I
collected a female coiled round a cluster of eggs which she carried
with her in this manner while moving slowly from place to place
(Phate II). The eggs were twelve in number and yellowish white
in colour. The female specimen was of a fairly big size be'ng 22 cm.
in length. The males were generally smaller in size than the females
and averaged 12 cm. (Plate I, fig. 1).

I have .collected several spec:mens of this caecilian and have
observed that a particular species of eel, namely Fluta alba (Zview),
is always associated with it. Superficially, this eel looks like a
-caecilian. 3

I am thankful to Shri P. N. Krishnamurthy, school teacher and
postmaster of Kotegehar village, for help. I am also thankful to
Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for kindly
identifying the eel. |

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION, B. K. TIKADER
Poona 5,

July 13, 1964.

12. EXISTING FISHERY OF ALIGARH
(With a téxt-figure)

The fish resources of Aligarh and neighbouring areas, potentiaily
rich as they are, yield a mere fraction of what they could were they
exploited in scientific fashion. Lack -of scientific information, old
fashioned techniques -of fishing, and the depressed condition of the
fishermen lead to:a very modest fish output.

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

The fishery of this region is entirely based on the capture of natural
fish populations. With the exception of the University Fish Farm

where the Fisheries Section of the Department of Zoology started the —_

culture of major carps on an experimental basis a few years ago,
there is no other water area in this district where fish culture is being
practised. So far no effort has been made by the State Government
to develop and exploit any other water area. In 1958 the Department
of Zoology of the Aligarh University for the first time stocked nearly
75,000 fingerlings of major carps in a moat which encircles the ruins
of an old fort. The total area of this moat is about 30 acres. Further
stockings were made in the moat during subsequent years and, up to
1961, a total of over two lakhs (two hundred thousand) fingerlings has
been stocked. The so-called moat has now become the University
Fish Farm, and during 1966 and 1961 nearly 300 maunds of fishes were
hauled from the farm. This has given a net income of Rs. 4000 to
the University. As fish farming in the University moat is being
practised on an experimental basis mainly to raise material for research
and there is no economic purpose attached to it, the yield obtained
shows the potentialities of fish culture in this part of the country.

The bulk of fish landing in Aligarh comes from the rivers Ganga,
Jamuna, Kali, and a lake called Naujheel. The major portion of the
fish landing is constituted of major carps, cat-fishes, and murrels. The
following species of each group form a regular fishery:

. Labeo rohita (Ham.)

. Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.)

. Catla catla (Ham.)

. Mystus seenghala (Sykes)

. Mystus bleekeri (Day)

. Wallagonia attu (Bloch) - ‘

Major carps: 1
2
3
1
2
3
4. Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch)
5
6
7
l
2
3:
1.

Cat-fishes:

. Callichrous pabda Ham.

. Bagarius bagarius (Ham.)

. Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham.)

. Ophicephalus punctus Bloch

. Ophicephalus striatus Bloch
Ophicephalus marulius Ham.
Mugil corsula Ham.

Murrels:

Mullet:

In addition to these species there is a seasonal fishery of the
mahseer [Barbus (Tor) putitora] during winter months (December-
April). Most of the mahseer catches come from the River Ganga.
In some months the catches are heavy and roughly amount to 20-50

ren ae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 699

maunds a day. From Aligarh this fish is mostly exported to Calcutta.
Notopterus notopterus and N. chitala also form a seasonal fishery after
the monsoons. But the catches of these two species are never heavy.
The ways in which fish exploitation occurs in Aligarh are as
follows: | 7 |
Ponds and lakes of a given area are either given to a fish contractor

900}
800

700

Weight in maunds

400
~ 300
200

100

Nov] bec. [JAN.[ FEB, [MAR] APR. [MAY PUNE[JULY[AUG]SEPT OCT,

1959 1960
Fish landing at Aligarh during 1959-60

Export to Calcutta, continuous line ; local consumption, broken line
(based on figures obtained from wholesale)

on a. royalty basis or are auctioned each year generally to the
fishermen. More or less the same conditions apply to rivers, except

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

that the fishing rights of a given area -are sold to the contractors by
the Government Irrigation ‘Department. Normally these contractors
do the fishing, and the total fish caught each day is transported to
the city fish-market where it is auctioned. Usually the wholesale
dealers or the fish merchants buy the fish. Then, these fish merchants
either sell the fish to the local fishmongers who later on sell it in the
city, or pack it in ice and export it to Calcutta where it is supposed
to fetch excellent, sometimes fancy, prices.

_ The figure shows the statistics of fish landing in Aligarh City during
a period of twelve months. The figures obtained in various months
are based entirely on the data of wholesale dealers. Figures of small
catches made by the local fishermen themselves could not be pro-
cured for the whole year and whatever data could be obtained for
some months have not been included in the statistical analysis.
However, from the amount of fish which they receive from the wholesale
dealers and the total quantity which they actually sell in the fish-
market, it can be assumed that they make a substantial contribution
of their own in the local consumption. It can be ‘seen from the
figure that the major portion of the fish landing goes to Calcutta. It
is partly because Aligarh is on a direct railway line to Calcutta and
partly due to the low consumption in the city which leaves a con-
siderable marketable surplus. Maximum catches are recorded during
summer months (April-June) when the quantity of water in rivers,
lakes, ponds, etc. is at its minimum. High figures during June and
July are quite suggestive and give an indication of late monsoons which
is a characteristic feature of Aligarh. Local consumption in the city
remains more or less stable throughout the year. It is not subjected
to a marked rise even when the catches are heavy. The buying
capacity ‘of. the: ‘general public being limited, the fluctuations in the
local consumptions are chiefly due to the rise and fall of the price.
During summer months when the fish is very abundant, local con-
sumption — shows a slight. increase. This is because of a drastic fall
in’ the price. Moreover, since fish perishes quickly during summer
months and there are no storage ffacilities, low price becomes an
obvious necessity for its immediate disposal.
INTERNATIONAL: BIOLOGICAL. PROGRAMME, __. tae Sainte ree fi:
INDIAN OCEAN EXPEDITION. (C.S.LR.), S. Z. QASIM
ERNAKULAM, KERALA, Poe ie ane ane aoe
DEPAREMENEJOR) ZOOLOGYy 5c
ALIGARH MusLiM ‘UNIVERSITY, - CEOS de gle BS — A. QAYYUM
“ALIGARH; ** wake 328 ae CLAMP RG ene fe ne Wey eden Seto ae a pa
September 9, 1963. ae :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 701

13. SOME INTERESTING METHODS OF FISHING
SPARUS SPP. ‘KHURANTIY, IN CHILKA LAKE!

Fishing methods of Chilka Lake have been dealt with by
Devasundaram (1951, 1954), Jones & Sujansingani (1951, 1952a & b,
1954), Mohapatra (1955a-c), and Mitra & Mohapatra (1957). While
engaged in certain fishery investigations is Chilka Lake during
the years 1956-1961, the authors observed certain hitherto unrecorded
methods of fishing Dhala Khuranti, Sparus sarba, and Kala Khuranti,
S. datnia. These methods, observed in the rather remote and not
easily accessible lake mouth region of Chilka Lake, are described in
the present note.

1. Use of blood-dripping chunks of shark flesh. In this method
of capturing Sparus, empirically known to local fishermen for genera-
tions, advantage is taken of the apparent attraction of this fish to
‘shark flesh and blood. Sharks, generally Carcharinus sp., are com-
monly caught by spearing at the lake mouth region. A_ freshly
captured shark is cut open for the removal of its liver in a boat so
that the blood collects in a pool in the bottom of the boat. The
carcass is cut into large chunks of flesh and dipped in the pool of
blood. These blood-dripping pieces of shark flesh are held by hand
or rope submerged in the water at a depth of about 2 ft. at selected
spots near the shore and are gently carried or towed to and fro for
short distances without creating much disturbance in the water. A
few small pieces of shark flesh are also dropped in the water near
the man towing the chunk. The oozing blood, for some reason which
is not yet fully understood, soon attracts groups of S. datnia and S.
sarba. The Sparus is not seen to eat the flesh but, in general, trails
behind the ‘receding bait’. It is possible that some fish at least nibble at
the shark flesh. The man holding the bait, on observing sufficient
accumulation of Sparus trailing ‘behind it, signals to others waiting
near by, who encircle the fish with Khari Jals (a type of hand seine
extensively used in Chilka) and haul them up. A number of pieces of
shark flesh are used by different sets, each of 6-8 fishermen, or the
Operation is repeated by ‘the same set in this’ fashion at Glan Spe

a oe = ne nr tt py air

: z - Published an he permission of ths Director, Central Inland Fisheries Research.
Institute, Barrackpore, W. Bengal.

702. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 61 (3)

and 50-60 kg. of Sparus are often caught in 2-3 hours by a party.
A single operation generally takes about an hour and as many as
three operations are made using the same piece of flesh. This method
is used during the period November to January, when the Chilka

-Sparus migrates from the lake to the sea for breeding and are generally —

available in fairly large numbers in the lake mouth region. The flesh
of sea turtles is occasionally used as a substitute for shark flesh for this
purpose.

2. Use of black silicaceous earth. Mounds of black earth (about
3-4-5 m. in diameter and 60-120 cm. high), scattered in the inter-tidal
zone of the lake mouth region, are a characteristic feature in certain
seasons. At times a tall bamboo pole marks the location of the
mound. These mounds are put up by the local fishermen in the
inter-tidal zone to attract Sparus spp. which, apparently have a liking
for the substance the mounds are made of. Groups of Sparus gather
round the black heaps at high tide and, sensing the congregation from
underwater ruffle or perhaps intuitionally (the operations being only
nocturnal), the fishermen encircle the mound with Khari Jals and make
an easy haul of the catch. Like the method described above, this
method is practised during November-January when there is a con-
centration of Sparus spp. in the lake mouth region. About 25-35 kg.
of the fish is often caught in one night by this method. The black
earth on close inspection shows a conglomeration of dehydrated
vegetable matter embedded in black silicaceous earth and it is believed
that Sparus is attracted by the vegetable matter.

Of special interest is the practice of nocturnal angling by many
people for Sparus spp..in the lake mouth region during November-
January. The shore profile of the region is marked by deposits of
black earth, of the type described above, standing in sharp contrast to
the adjacent sandy areas. The anglers congregate in the black earth
portions of the shore, since a continuation of the black deposit in
the contiguous underwater region attracts Sparus, especially at nights,
enhancing the chances of the fish taking bait, comprising pieces of
prawns or algal weeds. The anglers invariably do the fishing very
successfully in such situations.

The gut contents of Sparus sarba are found to be 31% algae, 20%
molluscs, 17% crustacea, 12% decayed organic matter, 11% weeds
like Aalophyla, Potamogeton, etc., and 9% miscellaneous matter
(Jhingran et al. 1963). The fish may, therefore, be regarded as
omnivorous. As neither blood nor shark flesh nor earth have been

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

703

identified in the stomach contents it is possible that the attraction
to these baits is due to a chemotactic stimulus.

CHILKA INVESTIGATION UNIT,
CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES

RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
BALUGAON (PURI), ORISSA,
January 6, 1964.

V. G. JHINGRAN’
S. PATNAIK

REFERENCES

DEVASUNDARAM, M.P. (1954) : Fishing
methods for Chilka Mullets. Ind. Fmg.
12 (1 & 2) Jan.-Feb. : 22-25.

————-——— (1954) : A report on
the fisheries of the Chilka Lake from
1948-1952 : 1-34. Orissa Govt. Press,
Cuttack. :

JHINGRAN, V.G., et al. (1963); Report
on the fisheries of the Chilka Lake
1957-60. C.LLF.RJI. Bull.1. July, 1963.

JONES, S.. & SUJANSINGANI, K. H.
(1951): The HiJsa Fishery of the Chilka
Lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50 (2):
264-280. —

—— —— (1952a); Notes on
the crab fishery of the Chilka Lake. ibid.
§51(1) : 128-134.

——-—_—_—_——-——- (1952b) : The Mani-
jal of the Chilka Lake—a_ special net for

beloniform fishes. ibid. : 288-289.

JONES, 8.,& SUJANSINGANI, KH. (1954):
Fish and fisheries of the Chilxa Lake with
Statistics of fish catches for the years
1948-1950. Ind. J. Fish. 1 ; 256-344.

MITRA, G.N., & MOHAPATRA, P. (1957):
Bulletin on the development of Chilka
Lake. Survey report on the fishing
industry : 1-51. Orissa Govt. Press.

MowapatTra, P, (1955a) : The Thatta-
khondaa—a Screen trap of the Chilka
Lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 (2) :
277-279.

————— (1955b): Group fishing
wa cast nets in the Chilka Lake. ibid. :

80. : x Aig d
———-—-—. (1955b) : Additional infor-
mation on the Mani-jal of the Chilka
Lake. ibid. : 280-281.

14. A NOTE ON THE IDENTITY OF ONYCHIURUS
GRANULOSUS STACH AND O.. PSEUDOGRANULOSUS
GISIN (COLLEMBOLA : ONYCHIURIDAE)

(With three text-figures)

The controversy relating to O. granulosus Stach and O. pseudo-
granulosus Gisin has been left unsettled since Stach (1954) considered
the latter species to be identical with the former on the assumption
that Gisin’s failure to observe the ventral organ in the male specimens
of O. pseudogranulosus was due to the forms examined being im-
mature—other phenotypic differences between them were considered
by Stach to be insignificant. In the light of this disagreement between
two pioneer Collembolan taxonomists the present author felt it
imperative to undertake this investigation to resolve the controversy.

The descriptions below are an addition to the original findings and
are based on some new chaetotactic criteria of the syntypic materials

* Present address: Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-Station, 30-P 1
Road, Allahabad. annala

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

(specimens of O. granulosus and O. pséudogranulosus were obtained
from Prof. Jan Stach of Krakow and Dr. H. Gisin of Geneva
respectively).

DESCRIPTION

O. pseudogranulosus
Bopy: |
Abdomen broadened especially in adult females; Abd.
VI distinctly visible in the upper view. |
Antennae: Ant. Org. III with 2 straight granulated sense clubs,
four finely granulated papillae, 4 setae, and 2 sense rods.
P.A.O. With 7-10 vesicles separated from each other.
33 /133/33333
1/000 /1212
pseudocelli on posterodorsal part -of head disposed as in the
text-figure 1.

Pseudocelli. ; each subcoxa with 2 pseudocelli ;

Legs. Unguis untoothed ; Unguiculus without basal lamella ;
telative lengths of Unguis IIL: Unguiculus II] as 21:21. 9

Fig. 1. Onychiurus pseudogranulosus Gisin

Posterodorsal part of head

CHAETOTAXY:
T antennal segment. Ventrally with 5 setae as in IV instar of
O. fimatus.
Anterodorsal part of head. With one median seta A, and

“twelve setae-Bs. B,; "Bas Bo. Bey tCyt eee a as ee De and:

D; on either side of it (Text-fig. 2). |
Posterodorsal part of head. With 4 setae P,, P,, P, and P,
_of which P, largest and inserted in between inner two pseudocelli,
+ 2P, placed Foenard of others and much longer than either Pe or t Ps
ong (Pext-fg cl),
ee ee i Busts & With: 5 setae Ng, Na, Ne N, and No canes
~ as in the text-fig. 3. -

cite sarees

. MISCELLANEOUS -NOTES — ~~ ci . 765

Fig. a Onychtiuries pseudogranulosus C Sian os
: (OLS part of head: - ee gt

a i. eo Nee z =

of ~ N S57 Leh - me ~ we -

Fig. 3. Onychiurus peuarare anulosus Gisin | 3
ae te ee -Tergite of Th.1, ro SoStec Tie 2b. tious

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

Subcoxa I. Four setae arranged as in O. moniezi Bagnall (vide
Choudhuri 1963, fig. 8).

Ventral tube. One basal seta; no anterior seta; distally 7
setae (usually) arranged as in O. imperfectus (Denis).

Ventral organ in male. Absent.

LOCALITY. 1 Damp rotten wood, Grotte de peyrons, Ariege,
France; 2. Switzerland; 3. Italy.

O. granulosus
BoDy:
Antennae. Ant. Org. III with two straight granulated sense clubs,
5 finely granulated papillae, 5 setae, and 2 sense rods.

P.A.O. With 8-10 vesicles separated from each other.
33/133/33323
“1/000 /1212
pseudocelli on posterior head as in the text-fig. 1.

Pseudocelli. ; each subcoxa with 2 pseudocelli;

CHAETOTAXY:

I antennal segment, Ventrally with 5 setae as in O. pseudogranu-
losus.

Anterodorsal part of head. With reference to the text-fig.
2 seta labelled as C, absent; setae C, and A, of equal size;
and seta C3 smallest.

Posterodorsal part of head. As in O. pseudogranulosus,

Tergite of Th. I. Usually one row of six setae of which 4
equally large (Text-fig. 3); seta N, an addition to those of O.
pseudogranulosus.

Subcoxa I. With five setae arranged as in O. fimatus Gisin.

Dorsomedian part of Abd. II. Asin O. richardsi Choudhuri,
1958a.

Ventral tube. As in O. pseudogranulosus.

Ventral organ in male, Present and as illustrated by Stach
(1954).

-Upper anal valve. Setal arrangement on upper. surface as
in O. parthenogeneticus (Choudhuri 1958b); outer semicircular
margin as in O. fimatus.

All other chaetotactic characters as in O. imperfectus.

LOCALITY. Needle litter, Tatra mountain (1350 m. alt.)
Skorusniak, Poland.

DISCUSSION

From the above description it will be noted that in many characters
such as blunt setae over the body, granulation of the cuticle, general

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES 707

shape of the body, and the pseudocelli all over the body except that
on the tergite of Abd. V, these two species are in complete agreement.
Nevertheless, they can be distinguished from each other by at least 5
reliable characters as follows: ,

O. granulosus O. pseudogranulosus

1. Seta C, over anterodorsal part Seta C, over anterodorsal part of head
of head absent present ;

2. Subcoxa I with 5 setae Subcoxa I with 4 setae

3. Ant. Org. III with 5 papillae Ant. Org. III with 4 papillae and 4 setae
and 5 setae

4. Tergite of Abd. V with 2+2 Tergite of Abd. V with 3+3 pseudo-
pseudocelli celli Wh)

5. Presence of characteristic ven- . No ventral organ in male

tral organ in male

On examining several full-grown male individuals collected from
different localities, the author has failed to find the ventral organ in
any of them. As such the objection, raised by Stach (1954), as to
the failure of Gisin to notice the ventral organ owing to his materials
being immature cannot be upheld. Moreover, leaving aside he
differences in the structure of the Ant. Org. HII and the pseudocelli on
the tergite of Abd. V, which in the opinion of Stach are of no signi-
ficance due to their variable nature, the other three points of dis-
agreement are convincing enough to separate these two _ species.
Evidently O. pseudogranulosus is a valid species, and any attempt to
_ synonymise it with O. granulosus is erroneous. . 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his deep gratitude to Dr. H. Gisin of Geneva
and Prof. Jan Stach of Poland for providing him with the materials
used in this study.

ENTOMOLOGICAL LABORATORY, |
UNIVERSITY OF KALYANI, D. K. CHOUDHURI

WEST BENGAL,
December 13, 1963.

[Se

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)
REFERENCES

CuHoupHuRI, D. K. (1958a) : Some new CHOuUDHURI, D. K. (1963) : Revision of
species of Onychiurus Gervais (Collem- Bagnall’s work on the genus Onychiurus
bola: Onychiuridae) from Nepal and (Collembola). Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
Uganda. Proc. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. (B) (India). 33: 329-341.

27: 147-154. StacH, J. (1954): The Apterygotan

————— (1958b): On two new fauna of Poland in relation to the
species of Onychiurus Gervais (Collem- World-fauna of this group of insects.
bola: Onychiuridae) from the British Fam. Onychiuridae. Polska Akademia
Isles, ibid. 27: 155-159. | Nauk. Inst. Zool. Krakow.

15. DORMITORIES OF CHALYBION BENGALENSE
DAHLB. (HYMENOPTERA : SPHECIDAE)

Several wasps of both sexes of the common domestic species
Chalybion bengalense Dahlb. were observed to gather in a small lavatory
at Unit 5, Type VIII, No. 2, Bhubaneswar, in the afternoon. This
lavatory is in a courtyard and separated from other rooms in the
house. In the evening, these wasps settled on the hanging chain of a
cistern, where they spent the night. They also settled on this chain
during the day if it was cloudy or raining. The chain hangs freely,
and is composed of 16 links each about 3-7 cm. long, in the form of
a figure of 8, with one loop of the 8 in a plane perpendicular to that
of the other, each loop being about 8 mm. broad. At the bottom of
the chain is a handle connected to the chain by an S-shaped piece.
The top of the chain is connected to the shaft, also by an S-shaped
link. The bottom of the handle is 136 cm. above the floor of the
lavatory and the top of the chain about 2 m. above the floor and
44 cm. below the ceiling. Observations were begun on 18.x.1963.
The date and time of each observation with the number of wasps
present and their positions (when noted) is given below. The links
are counted from below:

Sunrise and sunset timings for this period were about 05°50 and
17:15 respectively. :
- From the above observations, it is seen that up to 15 wasps spent
the night on this chain, this number gradually decreasing till no wasp
was seen on the chain after 5.xi.1963. This species, like some others
in this part of India, disappears during the winter. Eggs laid after
about September spend the winter as diapausing final instar larvae,
some of them completing their metamorphosis in about February, but

most of them doing so in about May (Jayakar & Spurway 1964).

The wasps also collected on this chain when the weather was not

suitable for their activities outside.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 709

When they came to spend the night in clear weather, however, the
earliest a wasp was recorded was 15:34 (on 20.x.1963) and the latest

DATE | TIME No. oF WASPS POSITION

| |
18/x 17°06 about 10 flying around chain
21°36 15 on chain
19/x 08°51 0
09°39 0
13°33 0 p
16°34 12 10 on chain, 2 on cistern (1 just
arrived)—some activity
18°17 15 4th, 5th, 6th links
20/x 15°07 0
15°34 2 1 on cistern, 1 on 8th link
17°45 7 4th and Sth links
21/x 07°22 1 on cistern
+1255 0
*12°56 1 on chain
12 5/7, Z on chain
*12;58 4 on chain
**12:59 5 on chain
**13°02 5 4th and Sth links
lB) 5 3rd to 6th links
15°16 6 3rd to 8th links
17°49 8 3rd to 6th links
22/x *07°40 3 1 on 7th link, 1 on 11th link, and
1 on pipe below cistern
**Q9°19 0
**13°20 0
17°45 9 3rd to 10th links
24/x Toile) 0
va 17°47 0
25/x 09-04 0
27/x 17°16 1 9th link
; . 17°43 D 6th and 9th links
21°53 2, 6th and 9th links
29/x 22°05 3 1 on 3rd link, 2 on Sth
30/x 20°37 1 5th link
31/x 06°50 1 5th link
18.59 1 8th link
1/xi 06°50 0
eel 2, P) 6th and 7th links
2/xi 06°40 2 4th and 6th links
~ 20°07 2 5th and 8th links
3/xi © 16°37 | Sth link
4/xi 19°53 1 5th link
5/xi 08°10 0
18°53 | 2 1 on Sth and 6th links; 1 on 8th
6/ xi 18°08 0 link
7/xi 17°51 0
8/xXi 17°46 0

* indicates cloudy weather.
..** indicates rain.

time which the data provide for the arrival of a wasp is 17:16 (on
27.x). The latest a wasp was seen on the chain in the morning on a
clear day was 06:50 (on 31.x).

71G JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

The data for 21.x show the arrival of wasps just as rain was about
to start, but more wasps had arrived by the evening so that not all
members of the aggregate were able to get back to the roost for the
period of rain.

The wasps collected together on a small part of the chain (centred
round the 5th and 6th links) rather than distribute themselves over
the whole chain. For instance, on 19.x, 15 wasps occupied a part of
the chain about 11 cm. long, and on 10.x, 7 wasps were all found on
length of chain about 7-5 cm. long. The male of this species is
statistically smaller than the female, but there is considerable overlap.
so that the numbers of the two sexes present could not be counted
separately.

The wasps always clung to the chain in a vertical position, always
facing upwards except once, on 2.xi, when one wasp was seen resting
facing vertically downwards.

A larger roost of this species was seen on 18 and 19.11.1964. This
roost contained about 40 individuals of both sexes on disused strips
of iron hanging from a ceiling in a badly lit but much used room in
a house a few kilometres from the last one. However, as this colony
was seen at about 15.00 hours on a clear day, it may have been a
hibernating colony, even though individuals flew a few centimetres and
settled again.

We have also seen solitary sleeping individuals of this species.

Sleeping aggregates of one or several species of solitary aculeate
hymenoptera have been described before mainly on trees or shrubs.
Where females spend their nights in or near their nests, sleeping
ageregates sometimes consist of only males. However, it is known
that Chalybion bengalense females do not spend the night in the im-
mediate vicinity of their nests.

There are known to be wide variations in the sleeping posture
between related species. Rau & Rau (quoted by Wynne-Edwards -
1962, p. 309) described two colonies of the related Chalybion caeruleum
(Johansson and Linnaeus) [now californicum (Saussure)] but their
colonies-were both on the under sides of horizontal surfaces, one of
them consisting of about 30 individuals of both sexes. We do not
know of other reports of Chalybion bengalense dormitories.

Evans & Linsley (1960) have discussed, very briefly, the advantages
that may be gained from sleeping in such aggregates, and the stimult |
responsible. They suggested that such aggregates may provide pro-
tection from predators. But, on the contrary, it seems to us that such
ageregation would make them more vulnerable to predators. Low-
ther (1949, p. 27) and Moore (quoted by Wynne-Edwards 1962, p. 301)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 711

have described bird roosts where predators collected every evening to
prey on individuals at the roost and leaving it respectively. However,
we do not know of similar observations on (wasp roosts. Linsley
(quoted by Evans & Linsley 1960) had previously described a sleeping
aggregate composed of both host and parasitic species.

Wynne-Edwards’s (1962) explanation seems to us more plausible.
He suggests that such roosts serve an epideictic purpose, i.e. they pro-
vide for the members of a species occupying a certain area an
‘estimate’ of the population density and thus help in their dispersion.
However, mixed roosts of more than one species would not serve this
purpose. It may be significant to quote here from Evans & Linsley
(1960): ‘Such aggregations [of hymenoptera] may be dense and ball-
like, or they may be loose, with the individuals sharing the same sleep-
ing site but not maintaining physical contact. The dense aggregations
usually consist of a single species. ..... By contrast, loose aggrega-
tions may be of diverse composition, involving bees and wasps of a
number of different families... The members of the roosts described
by us tended to minimise the space that they occupied. Wynne-Edwards
(1962) refers to many other similar observations including the Raus’s
observations on another solitary wasp, Elis quinquecincta, where the
dormitories consisted entirely of males. This, Wynne-Edwards
believes, strongly supports his theory. However, in the hymenoptera,
where the males are haploid, the sex-ratio can be very far from equality
and the male population may not provide a relevant ‘estimate’ of
population density. It is, therefore, still far from clear why mixed
roosts of birds and hymenoptera are so common.

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY

LABORATORY,
GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, S. D. JAYAKAR
BHUBANESWAR 3, ORISSA, R. SHASTRY MANGIPUDI

June 10, 1964.

REFERENCES

Evans, H. E., & Linstey, E. G. (1960): and Chalybion bengalense (Dahlb.) J.
Notes on a sleeping aggregation of soli- Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 (3) : 662-667.
tury bees and wasps. Bull. So. Calif. LowTHer, E. H. N: (1949): A Bird
Acad. Sci. 59: 30-37. Photographer in India. London.

JAYAKAR, S. D., & Spurway, H. WYNNE-EDwarps, V. C. (1962): Ani-
(1964) : Winter diapause in the Squatter mal dispersion in relation to social]
Wasps. Antodynerus flavescens (Fabr.) behaviour... Edinburgh and London. -

712. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

16. RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF HOUSEFLIES IN INDIA
AND THEIR SUSCEPTIBILITY TO DDT, BHC, AND
DIELDRIN’

A study of the relative abundance of various species of houseflies
in different parts of India is extremely desirable from the standpoint
of control and to find out if any species concerned with the transmission
of disease has developed increased tolerance to insecticides. Hence,
the present survey of the relative occurrence of the more important
forms Musca domestica nebulo, Musca domestica vicina, and Musca
sorbens in different states of India and the susceptibility of the pre-
dominant housefly, M. d. nebulo, to DDT, BHC, and dieldrin.

The flies were collected from bazaars at different places and brought
to Aligarh for making population counts. At each place, the flies
were collected three times a day, the duration of each period of
collection being 30 minutes. Eggs obtained from such flies were
placed in glass jars containing moist cotton and the larvae were reared
on cotton pads soaked in diluted milk and sugar to produce adult
progeny. Four-day-old flies belonging to the form nebulo were tested
with topical applications of 0:1% solutions of DDT, BHC, and
dieldrin. Mortality counts were made after 24 hours of treatment and
the results obtained are presented in the accompanying Table.

The following results were obtained :

1. Musca domestica nebulo is the most common form of
housefly, comprising more than 50% of the fly population at most
of the places surveyed. It is abundant particularly in Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and parts of Uttar
Pradesh.

2. The population of M. d. vicina tends to increase with increase
in altitude, so much so that at Dalhousie in Panjab, Simla in
Himachal Pradesh, Chakrata and Mussoorie in Uttar Pradesh, it
is far more abundant than nebulo. vicina is the predominant form.
of housefly in Bengal. ,

3. Musca sorbeéns is essentially a fly of the plains, being entirely
absent at higher elevations. It is very common in Panjab and forms
as much as 78% of the fly population in Chandigarh.

4. Musca domestica nebulo can be effectively controlled by
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. It was found to be susceptible

1The authors wish to express their sincerest gratitude to the authorities of the
National Institute of Health, U.S.A., and to Dr. A. W. A. Brown and Dr. M, A,
Basir for their assistance and guidance during the progress of this work.

713

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Yum ojngeu “p ‘Ww Jo Ayypejsou %
NNN eee ed
VIGN] NI DONSauU0p DISNPF SAYTIATSNOH AO STAART ALITIGILAIOSNS CNV FJONVGNNGV FALLV TAY

aTav

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

714

3 aie ne ey wre

souepunge 33} Ud0INg

8 sory ul o0eld 9181S
aplonoesur jo uonnjos % 1.90 | Jo ‘ON | <Opn ny Vy

YM ojngau ‘p "W Jo Ayyeyiow % |

(‘pijuo2)—aTdV I,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

‘TUJ9G MAN ‘erpuy ul SO110}BAIOSGO Jo sojqey, sy} pue “eynojea ‘sdey] eipuy jo AoAIng oy} WoOly Udye] ,

0-76 9-86 L-€Vv
v-P6 0-001 c-LS
€-$6 0-001 1.87
6-86 0-001 ¢-S9
0-00T 0.001 c-C9
0-001 0-001 §-98
1.18 0-001 €-vL
0-08 0-78 €-8P
9.98 9.16 0-6
$-08 L-S6 L-69
6-L8 8-£6 LO-€2
ULIP[aIq, OH Ldd

aploljsesul jo uonnjos %1°0
YIM oyngau “pw jo Aryypeysou %

es SS ee cere TS)

(° piuod) Farha

15A

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

to DDT, BHC, and dieldrin, except at Poona where it showed con-
siderable tolerance to these chemicals. But as no strong tests -were
made, it is not clear if the increased tolerance of these flies is a
case of true resistance and was simply due to the vigour tolerance
of the popuiation collected. |

5. Of the three chemicals tested, BHC was the most toxic: a
concentration of 0-1% of it killed 80:0 to 100-0% of the flies at
all places except Poona, where the percentage mortality was only
59-3106

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, —N. H. KHAN

MUSLIM UNIVERSITY; J. A. ANSARI
ALIGARH, , J. REHMAN

January 1, 1964. ) ve te D. AHMAD.

AT. NEW PLANT RECORDS FROM ERSTWHILE,
BOMBAY STATE

(With two plates)

_ During the course of intensive floristic studies in the Ratan Mahal
and surrounding hills, Panch Mahal District,. Gujarat State, these
plants were collected. After identification, these specimens were
checked at F. R. I. Herbarium, Dehra Dun, but in order to remove
some minor doubts the specimens were sent to the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, for confirming the determination. As far as could be
ascertained from the available literature we think that the plants are
new records for Bombay State. It is hoped that the illustrations
and extensive field notes may help workers on floristic studies
in this part of the country to trace the distribution of these plants.

I. Sonerila tenera Royle, Illustr. Bot. Himal. 215, t. 45, f. 2 (1839);
Hooker, F.B.I. 2:530 (1879).

A small delicate herb. Stem erect, glandular-pilose, slightly winged.
Leaves thin, membranous, ovate, entire, less than 1:5 cm. long, with
a few scattered lax hairs. Inflorescence scorpioid. Flower small;
calyx tube slightly trigonous, with few scattered lax hair. Petals 3,
2x4 mim. ovate acute, rose purple; stamens equal. Capsule about
5 mm. long, trigonous. Seed ovoid, smooth, dark-brown (Plate I).

The plants were found growing in moist dense shady places in
the rocks on the way to Patan Mata Hill, Ratan Mahal Hills, Panch

PLATE I

Sonerila tenera Royle

a os
ma a

‘ x &
v S ger
Xe es Ae 1
al “
ges
: — case ks > €
Be Sao ae : oe

Journ. Bombay Nat, Hist. Soe.

‘Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. ' Prate II

Operculina petaloidea (Choisy) van Ooststr.

* MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — hy SA “WT

Mahal District, Gujarat State. The plant seems to be restricted in
distribution: Sub-tropical’ Western Himalaya (Royle, : Edgeworth);
Chota Nagpore alt. 1000-2000 ft., abundant (C. B. Clarke); N. Circars,
in Ganjam (Gamble); W. Ghats in Mm stae at 4000. ft. on rocks;
occasional south to Tinnevelly. ‘ .
Flowering and fruiting time: August- roveabent a
Herbarium specimens: Nos. Bedi 2767, 2768, 2769, 2770.
Critical Notes. Hooker includes this plant among the species not
of Ceylon or south Deccan peninsula, but later Gamble records it
from Madras Presidency. The specimens collected from Ratan Mahal
Hills though much shorter in height (2- 8 cm.) tally in all essential
details with description mentioned in various Indian floras and
specimens housed in the FR. 1. herbarium.

II. caer péetaloidea a) van Ooststr.’ ‘in ‘Blomea. 3°22 309.
~ (1939). ei
peared petaloidea (Choisy) in Mem. Soc. ie Genév. 4: 451,
(1833); Convolv. Or. 69 et in DC. Prodr. IX. 360. ,
_ Ipomoea petaloidea Choisy var. pauciflora Clarke in Hooker,
FBI. 4: 212 (1883). oe an
I. xanthantha Kurz, For. Fl. Brit. Burma 2 : 219 (1877).

A large, scandent, glabrous shrub, often found climbing on shrubs
or small trees. Stem twisted, grooved and winged at a few places.
Leaves 15X10:cm;; base rounded or sub-cordate; apex: ovate of the
basal leaves, upper ‘eaves acute lanceolate: .petiole of the lower
leaves about 6 cm. long. Flowers in sub-racemose inflorescence:
sepals sub-acute, glabrous: corolla about 3-5 cm. long, yellow with
slightly hairy bands outside. Stamens inserted lower down in the
tube; anthers sometimes twisted. Capsule I: 5 cm. ovoid: seed pes
velvety.

The plants were found as an undergrowth ‘of a dty, deciduous
mixed teak forest, near the bank of a stream on the border of Kanjeta
and Mehandri village in Panch Mahal District. Gujarat State. The
plant is rare and localised in distribution: N. Oudh, Thomas: all
over Prome and Pegu, Kurz. Distribution Timor. é

Flowering time: March-May.
Fruiting time: April-June. : °
Herbarium specimens: Nos. Bedi 1965, 1966, 3767, 3768.

Critical Notes. From the examination of Donal’s specimens kept
at F.R.I. herbarium and the specimens collected from Ratan Mahal
it seems that there exists a lot of variability in the leaf and inflorescence
character. Basal ovate and upper oblong-lanceolate leaves along

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

with the peduncles with more than two flowers at the nodes are a
common feature of the older branches (Plate II), while all the leaves
oblong-lanceolate and peduncles with one or two flowers at the nodes
are found on young branches arising from old rootstocks. From these
field observations the authors are inclined to believe that /pomoea
petaloidea Choisy var. pauciflora established by Clarke in F.B.1. is
no more valid and should be merged with the species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr. G. Taylor, Director, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, for confirming the determination of
the above-mentioned specimens. Our thanks are also due to Rev.
Fr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanica] Survey of India, Calcutta, for
critically going through the manuscript of this note and making useful
suggestions.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, | as

M.S. UNIVERSITY OF BARODA, ) A. R. CHAVAN
BaRODA, S. J. BEDI
January 11, 1964.

18. NEW RECORD FOR HYDROLITHRUM WALLICAI! |
HOOK. F. IN SOUTH INDIA

(With a plate)

The plant forming the subject of this note was. collected from
Alwaye, Kerala State, south India, in September 1963. It was found
growing in the shallow portion of a freshwater pond along with Blyxa
éechinosperma Hk. f., Nymphaea nouchali Burm., Hydrilla verticillata
Presl., Rotala rotundifolia Ham., and Myriophyllum spathulatum
Blatt. & Hallb. As far as is known to the author this plant has. not
been recorded from south India. A complete description of the
plant based on fresh specimens, is given below.

Habit. Slender, erect, glabrous aquatic herbs with only flowering
branch apices emerging out of the water. Stem about 1 mm. in
diameter and up to 50 cm. long, sparsely branched, of pale pink colour
below, and with 8-9 shallow longitudinal furrows. Leaves submerged
and aerial ones alike in shape and in whorls of 9-12, sessile, exstipulate,
narrowing to base, apex acute, midrib narrowly grooved, glabrous,

~ JourN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

6638
<3)

Hydrolithrum wallichii Hook. f.

1. Entire plant ; 2. Flowering part of plant ; 3. Flower bud; 4. Open flower ; 5. Petal ; 6. Sta-
minode ; 7. Stamen; 8. Leaf; 9. Spread open hypanthium ; 10. Gynoecium ; 11. T. S. of ovary;
12. Fruit ; 13. Seed showing : a. ventral, b. dorsal, and c. side view ; 14. Embryo ; 15 V. S. of flower :
16. T.S. of stem ; 17. Floral diagram

-- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 719

about 1 mm. broad and | cm. long. Flowers about 1:5. mm. long,
pink, sessile, solitary in the axil of bractiform leaves towards branch
tips, all leaves or only some at a node subtend flowers, bractiform
leaves about half the size of vegetative leaves. Flower actinomorphic,
hermaphrodite, perigynous, bracteolate; bractegles 2, lateral, trans-
parent, subulate, more than haif the length of hypanthium. Calyx
4-lobed, lobes tziangular, acute, with rounded corners and without
accessory teeth, apiculate in bud, pink, and valvate. Petals 4, free,
alternating with calyx lobes, attached to inner surface of hypanthium
and much exserted, small, obovate, pink, and with one median and
2 lateral veins. Stamens 4, free, inserted below the middle of
hypanthium, included, alternating with petals, filaments slender, white;
anther pink, short and broad, 2-celled and 4-lobed, dorsifixed and
introrse; connective prominent, apiculate; staminodes 4, free, small,
fleshy, imperfectly bilobed. adnate to the base of hypanthium and
alternating with stamens. Gynoecium less than 1 mm. long, bicar-
peilary syncarpous, superior, bilocular with axile placentation; style
simple, short, persistent; stigma capitate, minutely papillose: ovules
3-4 in each chamber and anatropous. Fruit more than 1 mm. long,
much exserted beyond remnants of hypanthium, dehiscing into two
valves; seeds 3-4 in a cell, elliptical with concave ventral side; testa
smooth, pale brownish yellow when young, deep amber when mature;
embryo slightly incurved; cotyledons 2, flat, fleshy, axis short, radicle
with rounded apex.

According to Hooker (1878)' this species has been recorded from
Tavoy and Moulmein but he has not mentioned anything about its
distribution in India. ‘Ihe specimens collected from Alwaye, Kerala
State, south India, conform to Hooker’s description of Hydrolithrum
wallichii in all essential characters. The presence of the longer stem
in the south Indian plants is probably due to the effect of favourable
environmental conditions on growth.

The term ‘hypanthium’ has been used to describe the part referred
- to as ‘calyx tube’ by Hooker (1878). Considering the position and
.adnation to base of the hypanthium, the ‘hypogynous scales’ have been
treated as staminodes in this description.

The author is grateful to Prof. N. A. Erady for his kind encourage-
ment and for making available the necessary facilities.

GOVERNMENT VICTORIA COLLEGE,
PALGHAT, KERALA, R. VASUDEVAN NAIR
December 14, 1963.

1 Hooker, J. D. (1878) : ‘ Lythraceae’ in FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA 2 : 571-572.

|
720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

19. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF TRISTANIA BURMANNICA
GRIFF. IN INDIA

(With a_ plate)

The genus Tristania (Myrtaceae) with its 63 species (according to
INDEX KEWENSIS, 1895-1959) is distributed mostly in Burma, Malay
peninsula and Archipelago, Australia, and New Caledonia. Duthie
(1878) in Hooker’s FLORA BRIT. IND. has recorded 5 species occurring
in Burma or Malaya or both. Of these T. merguensis is the only species
which Duthie has reported to occur in the Andaman Islands also (but
doubtfully, as he mentions “Tenasserim or Andaman Islands, Helfer’)
though neither Parkinson (1923) nor Thothathri (1960) reports its
occurrence there. JT. burmannica has not so far been reported from
anywhere in India proper.

The authors report for the first time the occurrence of T.
burmannica in India proper from the region of Manipur. The speci-
mens were collected from the hills near Moreh (94-3° N., 24-:25° E.),
a village situated about 115 km. south-southeast of Imphal, near the
India-Burma border and have been compared with the authentic sheets
of the Calcutta Herbarium. It is interesting to note that’Deb (1961)
‘in his recent work on the flora of Manipur has made no mention of
this species whereas our field-book records show that it is common in
the neighbourhood of Moreh.

Kurz (1877) reports the occurrence of T. burmannica from Burma
in the following words: ‘Not unfrequent in the Eng-forests along the
eastern slopes of the Pegu-Yomah and more frequently from Martaban
down to Tenasserim, ascending also the hill Eng and drier hill forests
of Martaban up to 3500 ft. elevation.” Duthie mentions it from
Tenasserim (Helfer), Moulmein and Malacca (Falconer, Griffith, and
Wallich), and Pegu (Kurz), observing that it is distributed in Java and
Borneo also. However, Koorders (1912) has not included this species

in his EXKURSIONSFLORA VON JAVA. While Kurz and Duthie have |

reported JT. burmannica from the region of Lower Burma only,
Brandis (1906) has completed the broken chain of its distribution by
reporting it from the region of Upper Burma also. He, however, has
not given the particular localities in Upper Burma whence this species
has been collected but its common occurrence at Moreh dispels the
doubt if any regarding its distribution in the region of Upper Burma.

Although Kurz and Duthie have both given a detailed description
of T. burmannica and Brandis has provided a sketch of the flowering

lahat eo SEALS

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Hai
hy
Day
\’ Oy (
RY Ug
ay

Tristania burmannica Griff.

1. Flowering and fruiting branch ; 2,3, and 4. T. S. of branches—at a, b, and c res-
pectively ; 5. Upper surface of leaf showing hairs in depression of midrib; 6 and 7. T.S. of
petiole at lower and upper region respectively ; 8. Flower cut open; 9. Petal—outer face ;
10. Petal—inner face; 11. Staminal bundle; 12. Fruit in calyx-cup; 13. T. S. of fruit;
14. Seed.

[Figs. 1-11 drawn from LWG sheet No. 49062 (Coll. No. 83105) ; 12-14 from LWG sheet
No. 48550 (Coll. No. 83119) ]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 721

twig, the authors feel both could be supplemented. Hence a detailed
description of the species is given below accompanied by a detailed

illustration.

T. burmannica Griff. Cantor Pl. 17. Vernacular names: taungyo-
pyizin, Lower Burma; taung-thabye, Upper Burma.

An evergreen tall shrub or middle-sized tree (20-40 ft. according
10 Kurz). Branches glabrous, only very young shoots pubescent, bark
brownish, peeling off in thin long flakes. Leaves simple. alternate or
crowded at the end of the branches, obovate to oblanceolate or oblong-
oblanceolate, obtuse or acute or retuse, base cuneate and attenuately
narrowed into a pubescent short petiole, 4-15 x 1-8-5:5 cm., entire with
a slightly revolute margin; midrib impressed above and raised beneath;
lateral nerves slender, more or less prominent on both the surfaces,
uniting in a continuous looping one near the margin, glossy and
glabrous above except in the depression of the midrib where minutely
appressedly hairy or glabrescent, pale and glabrous beneath.

Cymes axillary, few-flowered, much shorter than the leaves;
bracts linear, minute, hairy, mostly deciduous; pedicels 3-5 mm. long,
these and peduncles both angular, hairy. Flowers white, -+- 5 mm.
in diameter. Calyx campanulate, shortly five-toothed, -- 5 mm. long
(measured with the teeth), outside pubescent, inside silvery-tomento-
villous, teeth +- 1 mm. long. Petals five, almost rotundate, hairy
outside, inside hairy only along the midrib. Staminal bundles five,
opposite to petals, 4-7-androus, almost as long as the calyx teeth;
stamens free almost to the base, unequal in length; filaments somewhat
hairy towards the base or from base up to almost the middle; anthers
dorsifixed. Ovary half-superior, hemispherical, silvery-silky-hairy,
style nearly glabrous. Capsule almost globose or somewhat ellipsoid,
trigonous, + 5X4 mm., nearly pilose or glabrescent, protruding more
than half outside the persistent calyx. Seeds more than one in each
chamber, compressed, winged in the upper half.

Flowers: March-April; Fruit: April-May.

Sheets represented in the herbarium of National Botanic Gardens,
Lucknow: On the hills near village Moreh (near India-Burma
border), Manipur State, 610-915 m., 11-4-1962, fl, imm. fr. & fr.
J. G. Srivastava & party 83105, ‘Common tree’; do. do. 83114,
‘Common shrub’; do. do. 83119, ‘Common shrub with flowers in
Compact cymes’.

The authors are thankful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India
for allowing them to consult the sheets of the Calcutta Herbarium and

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.-SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

the Director, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, for facilities of

work.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS,
LUCKNOW,
October 10, 1963.

(MRS.) SUMAN CHOPRA
S. L. KAPOOR

REFERENCES

Branpis, D. (1906): Indian Trees:
328-329.

Des, D. B. (1961-62) : Dicotyledonous
Plants of Manipur Territory. Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 3 : 253-350.

DuTuiE, J. F. (1878) : In J. D.Hooker’s
FI. Brit. India 2 : 465-467.

flora von Java 2: 686.
Kurz, S. (1877):
British Burma LL: 474
PARKINSON, C. E. (1923) :
Flora of the Andaman Islands.
THOTHATHRI, K. (1960): Studies on
the Flora of Andaman Islands. Bull. Bot.

Forest Flora of

A Forest

Koorpers, 8S. H. (1912): Exkursions- Surv. India 2 : 357-373.

20. THE OPHIOGLOSSUMS OF SALONA-CHIKHALDA ON
THE MELGHAT RANGES OF THE SATPURAS

There is no earlier report of Ophioglossums from the Melghat
Ranges of the Satpuras, District Amravati, either published or un-
published, although botanists of the district are very familiar with other
ferns of the region, e.g. Aspidopterys, Adiantum, Cheilanthes, and
Asplenium. ‘The present note records the occurrence here of as
many as four of the ten species available in India. The material,
collected during the months of August-September 1963, is preserved
and lodged in the personal collections of one of us (R.M.P.). Spec.fic
determination is based on the key receritly proposed by Mahabale
(1962, Bull. Bot. Surv. India 4 : 71-84).

All the four species, Ophioglossum fibrosum Schum., O. nudicaule
L., O. gramineum Willd., and O. reticulatum L., occur at Salona while
the first two only are met with at Chikhalda. The last one is also
seen at Ghatang about 10 km. from Salona. Of the four species,
O. nudicaule is the most abundant. O. reticulatum and O. fibrosum
fairly common, and O. graminéum rare.

MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY,

AURANGABAD, R. M. PAIL
VIDARBHA MAHAVIDYALAYA, G. Y. KULKARNI
AMRAVATI, M. A. DHORE

October 5, 1964.

;

ay
¥,
£

Notes and News

National Zoological Collections of India

By a recent notification’, the President of India has been pieased
to declare that the Standard Zoological Collections at the Zoological
Survey of India will be called the ‘National Zoological Collections of
India’ with immediate effect.

These collections have been built up over a century and include
the collections of the former Natural History Section of the Indian
Museum, Calcutta, as well as those of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
They contain standard collections, i.e. collections identified by world
specialists, and cover all groups of animals such as the Protozoa,
sponges, corals and several other marine groups, the molluscs, insects,
Crustacea, fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, and also include the
pre-historic animal remains from various ancient sites in India. These
are preserved in a variety of ways, both dry and wet, and number
over six lakh specimens, including many unique and other type-
specimens.

Indian Current Science Abstracts

INSDOC (Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre) informs
us that, in answer to the long-felt need for a bibliographical periodical
covering the entire scientific output of the country quickly and com-
prehensively, the Centre will start from January 1965 a monthly
abstracting service under the title Indian Current Science Abstracts
which will report work published by scientists in India and, as far as
possible, scientific communications published abroad by Indian
nationals. The annua! subscription will be: in India Rs. 50, abroad £10
or $ 30. This new publication will take the place of the Bibliography
of Scientific Publications of South and South East Asia. It will cover

1 Gazette of India Notification No. F.16-60/60-S.IIT, published in Part I, Sec. I
of Vol. 28, dated 11th July, 1964, p. 238.

724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

original articles, short communications, critical reviews, and informa-
tive papers published in scientific and technical periodicals, proceed-
ings of scientific conferences, symposia, monographs, and other such
literature, and will include patents and standards.

To make comprehensive coverage possible, co-operation is’ sought
from all institutions, departments, societies, and individuals publishing
scientific periodicals, reports, monographs, etc. INSDOC requests that
copies of such publications, including. reprints of papers published
abroad, be sent regularly to Indian Current Science Abstracts, Indian —
National Scientific Documentation Centre, Hillside Road, Delhi-12.

Hornbill House

We hope soon to be installed in the Society’s new premises at
‘Hornbill House’, Opp. Lion Gate, Apollo Street, in the compound of
the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, to. which institution
the site belongs and under whom the Society will hold as lessee. ‘The
bird figures in the name not with any ornithological significance but
as a symbol of Nature generally. William appears on the title page
of all the Society’s publications and is already a familiar figure. For
twenty-six years, from the time when he was taken as a nestling, he
lived in the Society’s rooms. In death, he is still to be seen as the
father in the Great Hornbill family group in the Prince of Wales
Museum.

XIV International Ornithological Congress, Great Britain, 1966

The dates for the Congress have been fixed as follows: Scottish
Study . Cruise—16-23 July 1966 -(inclusive); Scientific Meeting in
Oxford—24-30 July 1966 (inclusive).- The Congress iS Pe to all
ornithologists over the age of 18 years.

The Study Cruise, on the 12,800 ton liner DE VONIA will gage
from Glasgow, sail round the north of Scotland and its seabird islands,
and end in Edinburgh. Parties will be landed on some of the islands.
A special night train will convey members from Edinburgh to Oxtord.
where they will arrive on Sunday morning, 24 July. ©

Accommodation in Oxford wili be arranged in University Celleses
or, if. desired, a list. of hostels will be supplied. After a formal
opening on Sunday evening, 24 July, the rest of the week will be
devoted to scientific meetings. In addition there will be exhibits, a
whole day excursion, film. shows, | andy a Social Conte for informal
contacts. afte eee he ae :

NOTES AND NEWS 725

Members may apply either for both the Oxford meeting and
the Study Cruise, or for the Oxford meeting only. Application forms,
with full details, can be obtained from: The Secretary-General.
International Ornithological Congress, c/o Department of Zoology,
Parks Road, Oxford, England. Applications for the Study Cruise
will be dealt with in the order in which they arrive.

The costs of the Congress are as follows:

Congress Fee: Full Members—£10. (This entitles members to
attend all functions and to receive the Proceedings); Associate
Members—£7. (Wives or husbands of full members can
register as Associate Members at this reduced fee, which
entitles them to attend all functions, but not to receive the
Proceedings.)

Cruise: From: c. £30 for dormitory passengers,

to: c. £75 for 1-berth cabin accommodation.

The train fare from Edinburgh to Oxford will be an additional cost.

Accommodation in Oxferd: The cost, to be paid by individual
members, will be approximately 50s. per day for full board
in the Colleges. Hotels are, in general, more expensive.

The Elsa Wild Animal Appeal

In a letter written to one of our members Joy Adamson the
celebrated author of BORN FREE and other books says: ‘I am sending
herewith The Elsa Appeal Brachure in the hope that you may be
able to publish part of it in your Journal which may be of interest
to the people in your country and stimulate their help.’

‘The filming of BORN FREE is going splendidly, and I believe this
film will make history and revolutionize the relationship between
man and animals. We just returned from the Coast to film the lions
in the area as I describe Elsa doing in BORN FREE. We took three
lions there, hoping that ONE might oblige and enter the salt water,
but all three were crazy about swimming, dived again and again
through high breakers and the actors had a tough time in keeping
up with the games of the lions. Then there were scenes when all
rolled happily in the sand, and chased footballs along the beach—all
so peaceful and natural. ALL THE TRAINING OF THE NINETEEN LIONS
WE HAVE NOW ON THE UNIT SITE IS DONE UTTERLY BY KINDNESS AND
PATIENCE AND THE RESULTS ARE STAGGERING. It proves that not only
Elsa but all predators and animals if well fed and unprovoked, respond
to a treatment of affection with mutual feelings.’

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61 (3)

The Elsa Wild Animal Appeal aims to bring home to the people
the need to save from extinction: many species of wild life in Kenya
and East Africa. A sum of £110,000 is needed immediately. The
money will be used for financing rescue teams and combating poach-
ing and to develop reserves which have been donated by Africans
until they become self-supporting. Donations can be sent to The Elsa
Wild Animal Appeal, c/o Charities Aid Fund, 26 Bedford Square,
London W.C. I.

EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU & ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

ff»
i ,

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals
The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 2nd (revised) edition. 28 plates in
colour by Paul Barruel and many other illustrations. Rs. 30
(Price to members Rs. 25)
Birds

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 7th (revised) edition. 64 coloured and
many monochrome plates.

(Price to members Rs. 20)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-date
checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Sikkim,
Bhutan, and Ceylon. Rs

(Price to members Rs. 20)

Snakes

Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.
Rs. 10
(Price to members Rs. 8)

Miscellaneous

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and
monochrome plates. 2ndedition. Revised by W. T. Stearn Rs. 20
(Price to members Rs. 16)
Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many coloured
and monochrome plates. Rs. 22
(Price to members Rs. 17.50)
Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured and 45
monochrome plates. Rs. 28
(Price to members. Rs. 22.50)
Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome plates,
and text-figures.
(Price to members Rs. 4.50)
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :
. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi.

Rs. 0.80

Kannada Rs. 0.62

2. Our Birps II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0.62
3. Our BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Gujarati, Hindi, and
Marathi. . Rs. 0.62

4, Our MONSOON PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi,

and Marathi. 50;
5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, Mere
Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application. ip

Correspond with:
The Honorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, Opp. Lion Gate, Apollo Street, Fort Bombay 1-BR.
Agents in England :
Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,
Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin,
Herts., England.
The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly
numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them,

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of Rs. 500.
Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription of Rs. 30.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers
the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should
pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the
subscription, plus postal registration (Rs. 2.50) if required—in all Rs. 32.50—to
the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done,
then the sum of £2-10-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—
The National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 26 Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 2.

CONTENTS

THe Birps OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. By Humayun Abdulali
COLOUR-VISION IN MAMMALS. By Gerti Diicker re te

THe Fiora OF HARE AND CHURCH ISLANDS OFF TUTICORIN. By D. Daniel
Sundararaj and M. Nagarajan a an este <.

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE WATER BUGS OF THE FAMILY CORIXIDAE IN
CeyLon. By C. H. FerNanpo ae Ns As Aa

Nores ON THE Lire History oF Nacaduba pactolus continentalis Fron.
(LEPIDOPTERA ; LYCAENIDAE) FROM POONA DISTRICT, WESTERN GHatTS.
By A. E. Bean e¢ ee M4 ee ee@ ee

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FisHes. Part I—Callichrous
bimaculatus (Bloch). By A. Qayyum and S. Z. Qasim es a

MEDICINAL PLANTS OF COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE FOUND WILD IN UTTAR
PRADESH AND THEIR DiSTRIBUTION. By S. L. Nayar a o

WINTER DIAPAUSE IN THE SQUATTER Wasps Antodynerus flavescens (FABR.)
AND Chalybion bengalense (DAHLB.) (VESPOIDEA AND SPHECOIDEA). By
S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway ae ae

IN MEMORIAM os ae ve ot Me
REVIEWS ue AP 50 sh ae
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES nen Sc = ig
NOTES AND News Se ee o« as ay

433
372

387

603

614

627

631

662

668
67}
682
723

o :
aeetieee)
ent Cope

autammgciee
i tte

hy
i

Mc
ss

poate
Aes
Paloeay es

fiat iet
(eins
bra Ly a Pe 4
(SEE BOR or
i=)

Ve if ~~
i cel

in
i

Mab

ee
fe)

fin a

e
ee &

ee
hag UE
a
. is ef ead fy
Hey EPS a) Z ‘
ere

ra,
: -)
td
f, =

lz
ad

ee
EAE ENC a

a Feri Paes a MP gh Lops

re, 6 PFs ;

“an “4p
hi |

kine!
H oy

||! ay
|

9
|
i_
i ew?

iitaa i AOE
o Le TS i oe errs

Ft Yana Fo 5

eZ
“
ee
| i

| |

Ney
amg: eae
i I \) ne
aN
l OS &
He 4s 4
gine
SS {GEES

I
i

i
| I

,|
\j

O
es il
ef
Yo, , i

fy aft
ety
~ 4
Ss wn ,

Se
ey
v

aaa ge

rot fh
tae
Hy 4

: i

{

e- i i es
. 8 Bern
EOE
fede SAAN
If = er Ag 2 $

Dero
git
Fok,

sy
ee
Sue

ae mad
Ste Basta ey
Seer”

‘ny

orc

a
ae a
as foe If

og Eee ge a
Ent aia
Ee ye eRe Ata ey
(SOP eras

8 Beh

oc 4
5)

ee Sake ee i eae
ear <r a

Kae
Peete

a i
“Pn
ad
0
&e
gh

P53,
ane
Hi Sp <
Mail, ee
rs 4 ae ry
fp oS

fetes
a
tg

othe a
Le

eS
Fp

Ards,

Sibir
.
a
i,
Tir
ag
J,
fare

cee ft

*
‘o
<= #
ran
Pat
4 = S
Hie oe

eS
ric A
ee
has

oF >

ts
ZN

Lagoa!

ay
ei

Cin
i i

an
‘hi

Wl! Se %,

E Fate
A alba Line Fy hs
“ Pe a oer a

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

CTINUININM

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society"

See other formats