Skip to main content

Full text of "Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society"

See other formats 


IN  NOIJ.rUliSNI_NVINOSHJ.IVMS  SSIHVHBH  LIBRARIES  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOlifUIXS 
w z \ « . - 5 « = _ <0 


Q X^OSV^X 

l^LIBRAR  I ES^SMITHSONlAN^INSTITUTION^NQIinillSNI ~WlNOSHilVMS  ZS3  I BVB a n"u  B RAR  I 

~ x r*  ^ y-  — . r— 

^vasov^X  O O — *;></  ~ „ ^ 


^ ^ ~ CO  * «£.  ' CO 

N NOIlfUllSNI  NVINOSHlitNS  S3  I HVB8  11  LI  BRAR  I ES  SMITHSONIAN  ~ INSTITUTION  NOUfUUS 
2 < /^5^x  s < xK  i . 5 ,V,  w 


X 
CO 

o 

> 'W  5 'sSivoc^'  | ^ 2 ^ | xgimssx  s ^ > 

1_  LI B RAR  I ES  SMITHSONIAN  _ INSTITUTION^NOliDiliSNI^NVINOSHilVMs'^S  3 I HVB  a IT*  LI  B RAR  I 
z ^ r*  -z  - — ^ 00  x to  — 


co 


O 'si^vo^  _ <W~  O ~ O r o 

N NOIlfUllSNI  NVINOSHJLMS  S3  I HVd  8 IT  LI  B RAR  I ES^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITUTION^  NOIlfllllS 
X . L • 5 ^ z r*  z 

' m _ ✓x\r^)TJrCoX  s^*~)Q  Vr^v  O /^vSaJX  O 


rn  ^ m ^ m ^ 

— to  — c O tn 

1 U B RAR  l ES  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOIlfllllSNI  NVIN0SH1IWS  S3IHV8an  LI  BRAR  I 

2 * co  p-  — — 


o few  -5U  £ ^ jSw  jw*-  £ 3<!  ^ 

*5  ^ ^ 5 ' )x  > ' S X^OSA^X  >'  2 

N NOIlfU!lSNi__NViNOSHlMS  S3  I & V8  a nZLI  B RAR  I ES^SMITHSONIAN ^INSTITUTION  ^ NOIinillS 

00  - z \ ^ ^ co  — CO 


v&jitf  ' k7  or.-  /. 

— 1 

^ O ^^^OSVA^- 

1 "’Ll  B RAR  I ES  SMITHSONIAN  J|NSTITUTI0NZN0lirUIJLSNrNVIN0SHIIVMS^S3  I BVa  SlUIB  RAR  I 

r“  S C ^ ^ z r 7 

o XavaSO  v?x  O ^-rrr?^  — fr  — 


7} 

> 

70 

m | 'W  m N%5£5'  | ^ ' X 1 ^ 

N</)  NO^n-d-CSNI^NVINOSHXIWS^Sa  I BV5J an  LIB  RAR  I ESWSMITHSONiAN~INSTITUTIONW  MOliniliS 
2 .'2  Z^!\  5 ,.<  ^ i X5«s«v  § aX 


x . >;y 

s ^ 

__  2 
_ > S ^ ^ ^.  > 

1~  LI  BRAR  I ^®v)SMITHS0NIAN_ INSTITUTION ^NO'XfUliSN I XviNOSHil VNSW S3  I U VB  a \lZ  1 1 B R A R 1 


IN0SHi.mS^S3  I a'vu  a n\l  B RAR  I EsYmITHSONIAN  ^INSTITUTION  %OliniUSNI  YviNOSHlIWsYa 

I “ ^Ifek  I “ 4^  z 

SVl 


% 

V/  c ^ 

o “■  3 X£vom52 

ITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOIXnilJLSNI^NVINOSHilWS  S3  I ava  3 IlYl  B RAR  I EsYmITHSONIAN^INS 

n — § 


m w v^jisgx  m X S2  X!Vo]^x  m r;  m 

co  ± </>  \ z — co  ± CO 

NOSHXIIA1S  S3IHVH8I1  LIBRARIES  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOIJLnilJLSNI  NVINOSH1IWS  S3 

CO  2 W 2!!  €/>  2 

^VASOA^X  S < , 2 -><TcU7>v.  < ,«&V  . 

®§K\V\  ' *■ 


1 4©*  I flWSh  § fix  s 

§ m.JU  £ Wv  g €«  £ = 

THSONIAN^INSTITUTION^NOimillSNrNVINOSHlIWS^SS  I ava  a LI  B RAR  I ES  ^SMITHSON  IAN  Z INS 

^ ^ . co  5 co  ~ 

4 co  /<&*± 2tyX  w £ ,m\.v  uj  ^uavXt\  £ x?*so£7x  lu 


T- 

H % 

o — w»y  o ^ O xgft  OCX  ~ o 

N0SH1IWS  S3iavaan'JLIBRARIESZSMITHSOmAN'J|NSTITUTIONZNOIiniliSNl'JNVINOSHilWSZS3 
z r-  2 r;  z r~  2 

X XV^IIIO?>X  — XoO^rTX  o O XlsTITlTX  “ w O 


DO  „ 

I £ ® 

m X^qshJX  ^ m 

— co  f:  co  £ co  _ 

THSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOIlfUllSNI  NVIN0SH11WS  S31HVHail  LIBRARIES  SMITHSONIAN  INS 

■*  CO  2 CO  2 

< 


, / 

s xx<v  > ' ^ XOvos££X  > ' S * ' > x'^'^  -g 

N0SH1IWS^S3  I avaa  11  LI  BRAR  I EsYMITHSONIAN^INSTITUTION^NQIJLn.Ll.I.Sm  YviNOSH-UlNsYa 

w — co  n 00  9 > CO 

x LU 


CO 


O XfoosHj^X  "■  Q " XJVASt^X  o 

ITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOlinillSNI^NVINOSHJLIWS^  S3  I H VH  3 I l B RAR  I ES  SMITHSONIAN^INS 
*"  2 r-  r~  _ 2 r- 

O 


^ m X'  ^ rn  m 

£ co  Y z co  £ co 

NOSHilWS  S3iavaan  LIBRARIES  SMITHSONIAN  "INSTITUTION  NOliniliSNI  NVIN0SHJL1INS  S3 

co  2 CO  "wniwnun^  ^ co 

< -xV  . 2 £r  ^ 2 ,<  2 

i /, 


thsonian_institution  Nou.niu.sm  NviNOSHiiws^sa  1 avaa n libraries  Smithsonian 

-y  to  = m r:  in- 


to 


;fe  5ls  = kfc.  .-3?/ 


1 

foLeci5 


JOURNAL 


of  the 


Bombay  Natural  History 


Society 


j 


Vol.  79,  No.  1 


Editors  : J.  C.  Daniel,  P.  V.  Bole  & A.  N.  D.  Nanavati 


APRIL  1982 


Rs.  45 


NOTICE  TO  CONTRIBUTORS 

Contributors  of  scientific  articles  are  requested  to  assist  the  editors  by  observ- 
ing the  following  instructions: 

1.  Papers  which  have  at  the  same  time  been  offered  for  publication  to  other 
journals  or  periodicals,  or  have  already  been  published  elsewhere,  should  not  be 
submitted. 

2.  The  MS.  should  be  typed  (double  spacing)  on  one  side  of  a sheet  only, 
and  the  sheets  properly  numbered. 

3.  All  scientific  names  to  be  printed  in  italics  should  be  underlined. 

4.  Trinomials  referring  to  subspecies  should  only  be  used  where  identifica- 
tion has  been  authentically  established  by  comparison  of  specimens  actually  collect- 
ed. 

5.  Photographs  for  reproduction  must  be  clear  and  show  good  contrast. 
Prints  must  be  of  a size  not  smaller  than  8.20  x 5.60  cm  (No.  2 Brownie)  and  on 
glossy  glazed  paper. 

6.  Text-figures,  line  drawings,  and  maps  should  be  in  Indian  ink,  preferably 
on  Bristol  board. 

7.  References  to  literature  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  paper,  alpha- 
betically arranged  under  author’s  name,  with  the  abridged  titles  of  journals  or 
periodicals  underlined  (italics)  and  titles  of  books  not  underlined  (roman  type), 
thus: 

Banerji,  M.  L.  (1958):  Botanical  Exploration  in  East  Nepal.  /.  Bombay  nat. 
Hist . Soc.  55  { 2):  243-268. 

Prater,  S.  H.  (1948):  The  Book  of  Indian  Animals.  Bombay.  Titles  of  papers 
should  not  be  underlined. 

8.  Reference  to  literature  in  the  text  should  be  made  by  quoting  the  author’s 
name  and  year  of  publication,  thus:  (Banerji  1958). 

9.  Synopsis : Each  scientific  paper  should  be  accompanied  by  a concise, 

clearly  written  synopsis,  normally  not  exceeding  200  words. 

10.  Reprints : Authors  are  supplied  25  reprints  of  their  articles  free  of  charge. 
In  the  case  of  joint  authorship,  50  copies  will  be  given  gratis  to  be  distributed 
among  the  two  or  more  authors.  Orders  for  additional  reprints  should  be  in  multi- 
ples of  25  and  should  be  received  within  two  weeks  after  the  author  is  informed 
of  the  acceptance  of  the  manuscript.  They  will  be  charged  for  at  cost  plus  postage 
and  packing. 

11.  The  editors  reserve  the  right,  other  things  being  equal,  to  publish  a mem- 
ber’s contribution  earlier  than  a non-member’s. 

Hornbill  House, 

Shaheed  Bhagat  Singh  Road, 

Bombay  400  023. 


Editors, 

Journal  of  the  Bombay 
Natural  History  Society. 


VOLUME  79  NO.  1 : APRIL  1982 


Date  of  Publication : 26-7-1982 

CONTENTS 

The  drought  of  1979-1980  at  the  Keoladeo  Ghana  Sanctuary,  Bharatpur, 
Rajasthan.  By  Stanley  & Belinda  Breeden.  (With  six  plates,  a map  and  a 
text- figure ) 

Bombay  Natural  History  Society  — The  Builders  and  the  Guardians.  Part  3. 
By  Salim  Ali.  ( With  two  plates) 

Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  ( Presbytis  phayrei  Blyth,  1847)  of  Tripura,  By  R.  P. 
Mukherjee.  (With  a text-figure) 

A botanical  tour  to  Pangi  & Triloknath  in  the  upper  Chenar.  By  U.  C. 
Bhattacharyya  and  B.  P.  Uniyal.  (With  two  plates  and  a text-figure) 

Bhadra  Wildlife  Sanctuary  and  its  endangered  ecosystem.  By  K.  Ullas  Karanth. 
(With  a map) 

The  behaviour  of  the  nest-guarding  saltwater  crocodile  (Crocodylus  porosus, 
Schneider)  — A preliminary  quantitative  study.  By  H.  R.  Bustard  & S. 
Maharana.  (With  a text-figure) 

Notes  on  the  distribution  of  certain  rare,  endangered  or  endemic  plants  of 
Meghalaya  with  a brief  remark  on  the  flora.  By  R.  R.  Rao  and  K.  Haridasan 

Pollution,  fish  mortality  & environmental  parameters  in  Lake  Nainital. 
By  S.  M.  Das  and  Jyotsna  Pande 

Chelonians  of  Bangladesh  and  their  conservation.  By  Mohammad  Ali  Reza 
Khan.  (With  two  plates) 

New  plants  from  urban  environment  of  Baroda,  Gujarat.  By  S.  N.  Patil  and 
S.  D.  Sabnis.  (With  a plate) 

Observations  on  food  habits  of  six  species  of  Indian  frogs.  By  P.  Mohanty- 
Hejmadi  and  B.  K.  Acharya 

A catalogue  of  Aphidiid  (Hymencptera:  Apiiidiidae)  parasites  of  Aphids 
(Homoptera)  of  India.  By  A.  K.  Ghosh  and  Basant  K.  Agarwala 

A Catalogue  of  the  Birds  in  the  Collection  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History 
Society  — 24.  By  Humayun  Abdulali 

On  A new  subspecies  of  Pellorneum  ruficeps  (Swainson)  in  Peninsular  India. 
By  Humayun  Abdulali 

New  Descriptions: 

Studies  on  some  Aphelinid  (Hym. : Chalcidoidea)  Parasites  of  Hemipterous  insects 
of  India.  By  Tasawwer  Husain  and  Man  Mohan  Agarwal.  (With  twenty-five 
text-figures) 

A new  species  of  Schefflera  J.R.  & G.  Forst.  (Araliaceae)  from  Kerala  State,  India. 
By  K.  Rammamurthy  and  R.  Rajan.  (With  seven-text-figures) 

A new  species  of  Eriocaulon  L.  (Eriocaulaceae)  from  South  India.  By  M.  Chandra- 
bose  and  V.  Chandrasekaran.  (With  eighteen  text- figures) 

A revision  of  the  genus  Callitriche  L.  in  the  north  western  Himalayas.  By  A. 
Majeed  Kak  and  G.  N.  Javeid.  (With  two  text-figures) 

Two  new  aquatic  plant  species  from  Kashmir  Himalayas.  By  A.  Majeed  Kak  and 
G.  N.  Javeid.  (With  two  text-figures) 

Reviews  : 

1.  Saving  the  tiger.  (A.  N.  D.  Nanavati) 

2.  The  Birds  of  Oman.  (Salim  Ali) 

3.  Perma-culture  One  & Two.  (Shankar  Ranganathan) 


Page 

38 

47 

57 

79 

87 

93 

100 

110 

117 

120 

125 

135 

152 

155 

163 

165 

167 

172 

176 

177 

178 


Miscellaneous  Notes: 


Mammals:  1.  On  the  occurrence  of  genus  Crocidura  (Mammalia:  Insectivora)  in  Penin- 
sular India.  By  H.  Khajuria  (p.  181);  2.  Notes  on  the  Indian  Pigmy  Pipistrelle  ( Pipistrellus 
mimus  Wroughton)  in  the  Thar  Desert.  By  Indra  Kumar  Sharma  (p.  181);  3.  Observations 
on  a roost  of  Free-tailed  Bat  Tadarida  plicata  plicata  (Buchanan)  in  East-Nimar.  By  S. 
K.  Kashyap  (p.  182);  4.  Notes  on  Barbe’s  leaf  monkey  Presbytis  barbi  Blyth.  By  S.  K. 
Mukherjee  (p.  184);  5.  Incidental  observations  of  the  Spotted  Linsang  ( Prionodon  par  di- 
color) . By  M.  E.  Sunquist  (p.  185);  6.  Blackbuck  census  in  Point  Calimere:  A rejoinder. 
By  J.  Mangalraj  Johnson  (p.  186);  7.  Seme  observation  on  wild  buffalo,  Bubalus  bubalis 
Linn.,  in  Kaziranga  National  Park,  Assam.  By  H.  K.  Divekar,  K.  K.  Mohapatra,  and 
P.  B.  Shekar  (p.  188);  8.  Causes  of  mortality  in  mammals  of  Bovidae  family  in  captivity 
and  free  living  state  in  India.  By.  B.  S.  Rathore,  and  S.  S.  Khera  (p.  190). 

Birds:  9.  The  flamingos  of  Sambhar  Lake.  By  Mohd.  Alam  (p.  194);  10.  Breeding  of 
Bustards  — An  observation  in  Australia.  By  M.  K.  Appayya  (p.  195);  11.  Feeding  habits 
of  Coppersmith  Megalaima  haemacephala  (Muller).  By  T.  S.  Muthukrishnan  and  Rajeswari 
Sundarababu  (p.  197);  12.  Pericrocotus  flammeus  (Forster)  in  Kutch  and  some  general 
comments.  By  M.  K.  Himmatsinhji  (p.  198);  13.  On  the  validity  of  Turdoides  caudatus 
eclipes  (Hume).  By  Humayun  Abdulali  and  Eric  D’Cunha.  (p.  199);  14.  Destruction  of 
Pearl  Millet  Nursery  by  Sparrows  Passer  domesticus  (Linnaeus)  and  its  avoidance.  By 
H.  A.  K.  Sarwar  and  K.  N.  Murty  (p.  200);  15.  Bird  damage  in  maize.  By  Mir  Hamid 
Ali,  B.  H.  Krishnamurthy  Rao,  M.  Ananda  Rao  and  P.  Syamsunder  Rao  (p.  201);  16.  Bird 
fauna  of  the  rice  crop  ecosystem  in  Pondicherry  region.  By  S.  P.  Francis  Nathan  and 
B.  Rajendran  (p.  204). 

Reptiles:  17.  Size  at  first  breeding  in  the  Gharial  [Gavialis  gangeticus  (Gmelin)]  (Reptilia, 
Crocodilia)  in  captivity.  By  H.  R.  Bustard  and  S.  Maharana  (p.  206);  18.  A record  (?) 
Gharial  clutch.  By  H.  R.  Bustard  and  D.  Basu  (p.  207);  19.  Lizards  from  North-Eastern 
India.  By  R.  Mathew  (p.  208);  20.  Rat  snake  seizing  baby  muntjac.  By  E.  J.  Van  Ingen 
(p.  209);  21.  Successful  artificial  breeding  of  Lissemys  punctata  granosa  (Smith).  By  J. 
Vijaya  (p.  210). 

Fishes:  22.  A few  moments  with  an  egg  laying  Istiblennius  striatomaculatus.  By  N.  A.  V. 
Prasad  Reddy  and  C.  Uma  Devi  (p.  212);  23.  Eel  fishing  with  brush  hideout.  By  Tej 
Kumar  Shrestha  (p.  212);  24.  Common  methods  of  catching  air  breathing  fishes  in  Dar- 
bhanga  (Bihar).  By  R.  R.  Prasad  (p.  214). 

Insects:  25.  More  butterflies  from  Bombay  — 2.  By  Salman  Abdulali  (p.  216);  26.  Some 
butterflies  from  Bhutan.  By  Naresh  Chaturvedi  (p.  217);  27.  Strange  practice  of  a 

caterpillar  — A correction.  By  Salman  Abdulali  (p.  218);  28.  Effect  of  Metepa  on  some 
larval  tissues  of  Musca  domestica  nebulo.  ( With  thirteen  text-figures).  By  Nikhat  Arifa 
and  Majid  Ali  Khan  (p.  219);  29.  A new  Pod  Borer,  Adisura  marginalis  (Walker)  (Lepi- 
doptera:  Noctuidae)  on  Redgram,  Cajanus  cajan  (L.).  By  T.  S.  Thontadarya,  K.  V.  Seshu 
Reddy  and  R.  Govindan  (p.  222). 

Botany:  30.  An  amplified  description  of  a hitherto  uncommon  species  Craibiodendron 
mannii  W.  W.  Smith  (Ericaceae).  ( With  nine  text-figures).  By  T.  Ananda  Rao  and  Swapna 
Chakraborti  (p.  223);  31.  Lycium  chinense  Mill.  (Solanaceae)  from  India.  (With  a text- 
figure).  By  Barin  Ghosh  and  Gour  Gopal  Maity  (p.  225);  32.  Gentiana  prostrata  Haenke 
var.  mangolica  Kusn.  (Gentianaceae)  — A new  record  for  India.  (With  seven  text-figures). 
By  Sunita  Agrawal  (p.  228);  33.  Record  of  Plantago  afra  Linn.  (Plantaginaceae)  from 
Maharashtra.  By  S.  Karthikeyan  and  Anand  Kumar  (p.  228);  34.  Stachytarpheta  cayennensis 
(L.  C.  Rich.)  Schau.  — A new  record  for  India  and  with  a key  to  the  Indian  species. 
(With  six  ten-figures).  By  N.  C.  Nair,  C.  N.  Mohanan  and  P.  V.  Sreekumar  (p.  230); 
35.  Stachytarpheta  dichotoma  Vahl  (Verbenaceae)  — A new  record  for  India.  (With  a 
text-figure).  By  R.  R.  Rao,  B.  Neogi,  and  K.  Haridasan  (p.  233);  36.  Notes  on  three 
rare  and  interesting  orchids  collected  from  Trivandrum  District,  Kerala,  By  M.  Mohanan, 
A.  N.  Henry  and  N.  C.  Nair  (p.  234);  37.  Cultivation  of  endangered  plants  in  South 
India  — 2.  Bentinckia  condapanna  Berry  ex  Roxb.  (With  a plate).  By  A.  V.  N.  Rao  and 
A.  K.  Banerjee  (p.  237). 


JOURNAL 

OF  THE 

BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY 

SOCIETY 


1982  APRIL  Vol.  79  No.  1 


THE  DROUGHT  OF  1979-1980  AT  THE  KEOLADEO  GHANA 
SANCTUARY,  BHARATPUR,  RAJASTHAN1 

Stanley  & Belinda  Breeden2 
{With  six  plates,  a map  and  a text -figure) 


Introduction 

Between  November  1st  1979  and  November 
13th  1980  we  spent  181  days  in  the  Keoladeo 
Ghana  Sanctuary3.  The  Sanctuary  is  near 
Bharatpur  in  eastern  Rajasthan  and  is  also 
referred  to  as  Bharatpur  Sanctuary,  or  simply 
Bharatpur,  in  these  pages. 

During  our  year  there  we  were  in  the  Sanc- 
tuary for  part  of  every  month.  Our  purpose 
was  to  make  a film  depicting  the  wildlife 
through  the  seasons.  This  activity  did  not 
allow  us  to  make  as  detailed  observations  as 
we  would  have  liked.  However,  given  Bharat- 
pur’s  extraordinary  interest  and  the  paucity  of 
published  material  on  it,  we  thought  it  worth- 
while to  put  our  observations  on  record.  The 
only  papers  we  could  find  that  dealt  specifi- 

1 Accepted  December  1981. 

2 57  Tahiti  Avenue,  Palm  Beach,  Queensland, 
Australia  4221.  Indian  address : Mokshpuri  Farm, 
Rajokri  Marg,  New  Delhi  110  038. 

3 In  1981  the  Sanctuary  was  declared  a National 
Park  and  renamed  Keoladeo  National  Park. 


cally  with  the  Sanctuary  are  by  Ali  (1953) 
and  Saxena  (1975).  There  is  also  a bird  list 
by  Abdulali  and  Panday  (1978). 

Our  stay  in  the  Sanctuary  coincided  with  a 
season  of  unusual  drought  as  the  monsoon 
rains  of  1979  were  well  below  average  (see 
table  no.  1).  We  were  also  able  to  witness 
the  regeneration  of  the  plants  and  animals 
after  the  heavy  monsoon  rains  that  fell  be- 
tween June  and  September  1980. 

Every  day  that  we  were  in  Bharatpur  we 
kept  extensive  notes  and  the  following  records 
are  drawn  from  these  notes.  Most  of  the 
observations  of  nesting  birds  were  made  from 
blinds.  For  observations  on  the  birds  nesting 
in  the  two  breeding  colonies  and  a few  others 
we  used  a blind  constructed  on  the  top  of  an 
aluminium  tower  that  could  be  raised  to  a 
height  of  up  to  7 metres.  This  blind,  because 
of  its  light  weight,  could  easily  be  moved 
from  one  place  to  another  and  was  readily 
accepted  by  the  birds. 

There  is  one  word  that  recurs  throughout 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


this  account  that  could  cause  confusion.  This 
is  the  word  bund.  It  can  mean  both  an  im- 
pounded marsh  or  body  of  water  as  well  as  the 
actual  dike  or  dam,  that  retains  the  water. 
We  have  written  the  word  as  Bund  when  it 
refers  to  a marsh  or  lake,  e.g.  Ram  Bund  or 
Cirra  Bund.  When  it  refers  to  a dike  or  dam 
we  have  written  it  as  bund. 

The  Sanctuary 

The  Sanctuary  is  essentially  an  area  of 
semi-arid  scrubland,  in  which,  through  the 
aid  of  a series  of  canals,  sluices  and  bunds, 
water  is  impounded  to  form  extensive  marshes. 
The  marshes  are  sub-divided  by  a series  of 
tree-lined  bunds.  The  Sanctuary  is  29  km2  in 
size. 

In  a normal  season  water  is  fed  into  these 
marshes  twice  a year  from  Ajan  Bund  which 
is  located  just  outside  the  Sanctuary  on  its 
southern  side.  The  first  time  water  is  let  in 
is  shortly  after  the  onset  of  the  monsoon 
when  enough  water  from  the  Gambhir  and 
Banganga  Rivers  has  accumulated  in  the 
Bund.  This  is  usually  in  mid- July,  depending 
on  the  onset  of  the  monsoon.  In  1980  water 
was  let  in  on  July  15th  after  heavy  rain  during 
the  second  week  of  that  month.  Virtually  the 
entire  Sanctuary  was  flooded.  The  second  time 
water  from  Ajan  Bund  enters  the  Sanctuary 
is  in  late  September  or  in  October  when  the 
Bund  is  drained  ready  for  the  winter  cultiva- 
tion. In  1980  the  second  allotment  of  water, 
which  in  effect  tops  up  the  marshes,  was  let  in 
on  September  29th.  Again  nearly  the  whole 
Sanctuary  was  flooded. 

This  system  of  marshes  was  first  construct- 
ed by  the  then  Maharaja  of  Bharatpur  in  the 
1850’s.  The  refinements  of  canals,  sluice-gates 
and  roads  on  tree-lined  bunds  were  added  in 
the  1920’s  or  1930’s  by  the  present  Maha- 
raja of  Bharatpur,  now  known  as  Col.  Sawai 


Brijendra  Singh.  The  purpose  of  creating  these 
marshes  was  to  improve  the  duck  shooting 
for  the  Maharaja  and  his  guests.  During  this 
time  protection  was  rigidly  enforced  and  big 
shoots  limited  to  two  or  three  per  season. 
Royalty  and  other  important  persons  from 
around  the  world  shot  ducks  in  Bharatpur 
in  those  days.  Large  numbers  of  storks,  ibises, 
herons,  egrets,  cormorants  and  darters  were 
also  attracted  to  Bharatpur.  These  birds  came 
during  the  monsoon  months  when  they  nested. 

In  1956  the  Rajasthan  Government  took 
control  of  the  area  and  it  became  the  Keo- 
ladeo  Ghana  Bird  Sanctuary.  The  Maharaja 
retained  shooting  rights  until  1972.  The  last 
big  shoot  was  held  in  1964. 

Apart  from  the  marshes,  whose  area  varies 
according  to  the  time  of  year,  there  are  ex- 
tensive tracts  of  dry  land.  The  vegetation  of 
these  dry  lands  grades  from  true  tall  forest, 
through  open  woodland,  dry  scrub  and  savan- 
nah to  bare  areas  of  saline  soil  sparsely  dot- 
ted with  shrubs. 

The  forest  areas,  which  are  small  pockets 
mostly  in  the  NE  section  of  the  Sanctuary, 
are  dominated  by  kalams  or  kadams  ( Mitra - 
gyna  parvifolia),  jamuns  ( Syzygium  cuminii), 
babul  {Acacia  nilotica)  and  an  occasional  neem 
{Azadirachta  indica ) which  was  probably  in- 
troduced. The  open  woodland  is  mostly  babul 
with  a small  proportion  of  kandi  ( Prosopis 
spicigera)  and  ber  {Zizyphus  mauritiana). 
The  scrublands  are  dominated  by  ber  and 
kair  {Capparis  decidua ).  Piloo  {Salvadora 
oleoides  and  S.  persica)  also  occur  in  the 
scrubland  and  are  virtually  the  only  woody 
plants  that  grow  in  the  areas  of  saline  soil. 
Saxena  (1975)  gives  a list  of  plants  for  Bha- 
ratpur. The  topography  of  the  Sanctuary  is 
almost  uniformly  flat. 

The  Bharatpur  Sanctuary  has,  for  its  size, 
an  amazing  variety  of  species  of  birds.  To  date 
just  over  350  species  have  been  recorded  there 


2 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


and  nearly  every  year  new  ones  are  added  to 
the  list.  Not  only  are  there  many  species,  but 
at  most  times  of  the  year  there  are  vast  num- 
bers of  birds.  The  volume  and  diversity  of 
bird  life  may  be  ascribed  to  several  factors. 
Firstly  it  is  a haven  for  migratory  birds  in 
winter.  Secondly,  large  numbers  of  birds  are 
attracted  to  Bharatpur  to  breed  during  the 
monsoon.  A third  factor  is  the  diversity  of 
habitat,  from  dense  forest  to  savannah  in  the 
dry  land  areas  and  from  open  water  to  mud- 
flats in  the  wetlands,  all  of  which  support  a 
large  population  of  resident  as  well  as  mig- 
ratory birds.  The  fourth  reason  may  well  be 
that  Bharatpur  is  the  last  substantial  area  of 
more  or  less  natural,  though  not  undisturbed, 
habitat  in  a vast  area  of  the  Gangetic  plain — 
an  area  that  once  had  uncountable  numbers 
of  birds  (Hume  1881).  The  birds  have  become 
concentrated  in  this  last  remnant. 

Table  1 


Rainfall  figures  for  Agra  district 
( Figures  in  millimetres) 


1979 

Average  Rainfall 
1980  for  thirty  years 
1931—1960 

January 

12.2 

0.0 

13.2 

February 

46.7 

4.6 

13.5 

March 

4.8 

23.0 

8.4 

April 

2.2 

0.3 

6.6 

May 

34.4 

9.5 

9.1 

June 

17.5 

72.4 

51.8 

July 

133.6 

249.3 

195.6 

August 

31.1 

290.8 

218.2 

September 

7.2 

11.0 

133.9 

October 

4.6 

22.0 

19.6 

November 

7.1 

1.0 

3.3 

December 

3.0 

19.3 

5.8 

Total 

304.4 

703.2 

679.0 

Drought  in  1979 


The  average  annual  rainfall  for  Bharatpur 
is  662  mm  (Saxena  1975).  No  figures  were 
available  for  Bharatpur  for  the  years  1979  and 


1980.  The  nearest  centre  for  which  reliable 
rainfall  data  was  available  was  Agra  which 
is  50  km  away  by  road.  The  annual  average 
for  Agra  is  679  mm.  There  are  no  topogra- 
phical or  other  features  that  would  make  the 
rainfall  between  the  two  places  significantly 
different.  The  figures  show  that  in  1979  Agra 
(and  by  inference  Bharatpur)  received  con- 
siderably less  than  half  its  normal  rainfall 
while  in  1980  the  rainfall  was  above  average. 
The  rainfall  figures  for  Agra  are  summarised 
in  Table  1. 

The  rain  that  fell  during  July  and  August 
1979  was  not  sufficient  to  fill  Ajan  Bund  and 
only  a small  amount  of  water  was  let  into 
Bharatpur’s  marshes  during  August  (Abrar 
Khan,  pers.  comm.).  No  further  water  was 
released  from  Ajan  Bund  in  1979.  The  mar- 
shes were  by  no  means  filled  and  by  Novem- 
ber there  were  only  a few  gutters  of  water 
at  Ram  Bund,  the  NW  corner  of  Rauji  Bund 
1,  some  water  at  Sapan  Mori  and  a small  area 
of  water  on  the  northern  end  of  Hans  Sarovar 
Bund.  The  canal  between  Keoladeo  and 
Sapan  Mori  was  partially  filled  and  Cirra 
Bund’s  western  half  had  shallow  water  in  it. 
Over  the  months  these  dried  further  and  fur- 
ther until  by  March  water  remained  only  in 
the  areas  where  it  was  pumped  from  four 
different  bores.  The  rest  was  completely  dry. 

Water  pumped  from  bores 

The  Rajasthan  Forest  Department  pumped 
water  from  four  bores  (marked  bores  A,  B, 
C and  D on  the  map)  into  various  parts  of 
the  marshes  in  an  effort  to  maintain  water 
in  the  Sanctuary.  Pumping  began  in  Novem- 
ber and  December.  Pumps  B & C were  in 
time  discontinued  but  Pumps  A & D worked 
continuously,  when  electric  power  was  avail- 
able, until  the  beginning  of  the  monsoon. 
Pump  A eventually  almost  filled  Ram  Bund 
and  Pump  D maintained  water  in  a small  por- 


3 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


tion  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  Cirra 
Bund.  Unfortunately  the  water  from  Pump 
D was  not  used  to  maximum  effect  to  safe- 
guard the  Siberian  Crane  during  a difficult 
winter  (see  under  Siberian  Crane  below). 

The  primary  importance  of  these  flooded 
areas  was  to  effectively  maintain  a breeding 
nucleus  of  turtles,  aquatic  snakes,  frogs,  fish 
and  aquatic  invertebrates.  All,  except  the  turt- 
les and  snakes,  are  of  paramount  importance 
as  food  species  for  the  large  numbers  of  birds 
that  congregate  in  the  marshes.  Migratory  and 
resident  birds  also  benefited  greatly  from  this 
water  (see  bird  list  below). 

Effects  of  the  1979  drought 

(1)  Monsoon  Nesting  Birds 

As  in  normal  years  darters,  cormorants, 
egrets,  herons  and  Openbill  Storks  congregated 
in  the  Sanctuary  during  the  latter  half  of  June. 
Egrets  and  Openbill  Storks  began  nest-build- 
ing  and  some  eggs  were  laid.  But  when  no 
substantial  rains  arrived  and  the  marshes  were 
not  filled  with  water  from  Ajan  Bund  during 
July,  the  birds,  abandoned  their  nests.  A few 
spoonbills  and  Painted  Storks  arrived  but 
neither  of  these  species  attempted  to  nest 
(Abrar  Khan,  pers.  comm.).  By  September 
9th  when  we  visited  the  Sanctuary  the  heron- 
ries were  completely  deserted  and  only  a few 
individuals  of  the  species  that  normally  nest 
in  thousands,  were  present. 

(2)  Migratory  & Nomadic  Birds  in  Winter 

The  normal  complement  of  ducks  that  come 

to  Bharatpur  in  winter  were  absent.  Small 
numbers  of  most  species  were  present  in  Nov- 
ember and  December,  but  by  mid- January 
most  had  left.  Only  the  Ruddy  Shelduck  stay- 
ed in  the  areas  of  pumped  water,  some  stay- 
ing right  up  to  the  breaking  of  the  monsoon. 
Greylag  Geese,  present  in  hundreds  and  at 


times  thousands  during  normal  winters,  came 
in  only  very  small  numbers  during  the  drought 
winter.  Largest  numbers  occurred  during  the 
autumn  and  spring  migrations.  During  the 
first  week  of  March  1980  about  80  of  these 
geese  stayed  in  Ram  Bund.  Barheaded  Geese, 
by  contrast,  were  present  throughout  the  win- 
ter, their  numbers  fluctuating  between  500  and 
1200.  This  species  fed,  from  November  till 
the  time  they  left  in  mid-March,  on  the  new 
growth  of  grass  in  Ram  Bund  and  the  eastern 
part  of  Cirra  Bund.  The  new  growth  was 
stimulated  by  water  pumped  into  these  places. 

During  January  and  early  February  when 
the  last  water  was  drying  up  in  the  canal,  in 
the  southern  area  of  Cirra  Bund  and  the 
northern  portion  of  Hans  Sarovar  Bund,  large 
numbers  of  birds  gathered  there  to  eat  fish, 
some  of  them  very  large,  that  were  concen- 
trated in  the  shallow  water.  Only  the  larger 
birds,  cranes,  storks.  Grey  Herons  and  peli- 
cans, could  catch  these  fish.  The  smaller  fish, 
which  could  have  been  caught  by  darters,  cor- 
morants and  egrets  seemed  to  have  disap- 
peared already.  The  most  spectacular  inva- 
sion of  birds  that  came  to  catch  these  large 
fish  were  the  White  Pelicans.  During  the 
second  half  of  January  about  450  of  them  were 
fishing  the  shallows  (for  details  see  the  bird 
list  below). 

In  a normal  season  the  marshes  are  choked 
with  grasses,  sedges  and  other  aquatic  vege- 
tation. In  the  winter  of  1979-1980  this  vege- 
tation had  died  back,  even  before  the  water 
had  completely  dried  up.  The  altered  condi- 
tions allowed  for  the  invasion  of  pelicans, 
which  would  not  be  able  to  fish  in  areas  of 
dense  vegetation.  Another  change  was  that 
there  were  extensive  areas  of  mud,  particular- 
ly in  Cirra  Bund,  which  attracted  large  num- 
bers of  wading  birds  such  as  plovers,  sand- 
pipers, godwits,  etc.  Again  this  is  a group  of 
birds  normally  scarce  in  the  Sanctuary  itself. 


4 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


The  Common  Shelduck,  and  a small  number 
of  avocets  (never  exceeding  12) — rare  birds 
for  Bharatpur — were  present  on  the  Cirra  Bund 
mudflats  till  the  end  of  February.  The  mud- 
flats were  favoured  by  unusually  large  num- 
bers of  roosting  Sarus  Cranes. 

Large  fish,  left  stranded  by  the  receding 
water  and  the  White  Pelicans,  were  eaten 
mostly  by  Spotted  Eagles,  Ringtailed  Fishing 
Eagles,  Marsh  Harriers,  Black  Kites,  House 
Crows,  Jungle  Crows,  Crow-Pheasants,  and 
Whitebreasted  Waterhens.  We  never  saw  any 
kind  of  vulture  feeding  on  the  dead  and  dying 
fish. 

The  areas  of  pumped  water  were  much 
favoured  by  Wagtails,  especially  the  Yellow 
and  Yellowheaded  on  their  northward  migra- 
tion during  March  and  April  and  even  during 
the  first  week  of  May. 

(3)  Vegetation 

On  the  dry  marshes  all  vestiges  of  vegeta- 
tion disappeared  once  the  water  had  dried 
up.  The  marshes  became  expanses  of  bare, 
cracked  soil. 

The  woodlands  were  less  severely  affected. 
Herbs,  grasses  and  herbaceous  climbers  had 
died  back  and  in  many  places  the  soil  was 
bare.  But  in  other  places,  such  as  the  Deer 
Park  and  the  area  south  of  the  nursery,  a 
good  cover  of  grass  remained. 

Several  trees  such  as  the  jamuns  and  capers 
actually  flowered  and  put  on  new  leaves.  The 
two  species  of  piloo  had  heavy  crops  of  fruit 
during  March  and  April  which  attracted  nu- 
merous Rosy  Starlings  on  migration.  The 
babul  and  kadam,  by  contrast,  dropped  their 
leaves  during  the  hot  months  and  did  not  put 
on  new  growth  until  after  the  rains  arrived. 
But  this  is  the  normal  pattern,  though  the 
fruiting  of  the  piloo  seemed  more  profuse  than 
usual. 


(4)  Spring  and  Summer  Nesting  Birds 

General  information  on  breeding  seasons 
is  from  Ali  & Ripley  (1968-1974)  unless  other- 
wise stated. 

For  a number  of  species  spring  and  sum- 
mer breeding  proceeded  normally.  These  in- 
cluded Stone  Curlew,  Small  Green  Bee-eater, 
Hoopoe,  Crimsonbreasted  Barbet,  Mahratta 
Woodpecker,  Black  Drongo,  Jungle  Babbler, 
Tailor  Bird,  Purple  Sunbird  and  Yellow- 
throated  Sparrows.  Nests  of  these  species  were 
found  at  times  and  in  numbers  as  they  would 
in  normal  seasons. 

Some  species  nested  late,  though  not  in 
noticeably  lesser  numbers.  The  Mottled  Wood 
Owl’s  eggs  hatched  on  the  29th  and  30th  of 
March  in  1980.  In  1981  they  hatched  in  early 
February  as  they  did  in  previous  years  (Abrar 
Khan,  pers.  comm.).  Roseringed  Parakeets 
were  still  courting  and  establishing  nesting 
territories  during  the  first  week  of  March 
while  normally  this  activity  does  not  go  much 
beyond  January.  Though  the  nesting  of  Green 
Pigeons  is  variable,  the  normal  season  is 
March-April.  We  found  three  nests  of  this 
species  and  all  were  completed  in  May.  The 
nesting  season  for  the  Grey  Partridge  is  given 
as  March-September  and  sporadically  in  other 
months.  In  1980  we  found  no  nests  and  saw 
no  young  before  October  10th.  On  that  day 
we  found  two  nests  and  subsequently  we  saw 
five  pairs  with  very  small  chicks.  In  other  years 
we  have  seen  pairs  of  this  species  with  small 
chicks  in  March  and  April.  The  Redwattled 
Lapwing’s  nesting  season  is  given  as  March 
to  September.  We  found  nests,  in  both  the  dry 
areas  and  in  places  where  water  was  pumped 
in,  only  in  May  and  June.  In  normal  years 
Indian  Rollers  nest  in  Bharatpur  in  some 
numbers  during  March  and  April  (Abrar 
Khan,  pers.  comm.).  In  1980  we  found  only 
one  nest  during  those  months,  on  April  15th. 


5 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


We  found  three  other  nests  in  June.  All  had 
eggs  which  were  subsequently  inundated  after 
heavy  rains  and  abandoned. 

The  Sarus  Crane  and  Spotbill  Duck  which 
we  have  seen  nesting  in  March  in  seasons  fol- 
lowing good  monsoon  rains,  were  seen  nesting 
only  in  August  and  September  in  1980,  i.e. 
after  the  monsoon  rains.  We  found  seven  nests 
of  Sarus  Cranes  and  two  of  the  Spotbill  Duck. 
Some  species  normally  nesting  commonly  in 
the  Sanctuary  failed  to  nest  at  all  as  far  as 
we  were  able  to  establish.  The  Small  Blue 
Kingfisher  was  not  seen  in  the  Sanctuary  be- 
tween March  and  June,  its  normal  breeding 
season.  The  Goldenbacked  Woodpecker, 
which  is  a common  bird,  normally  nests  in 
March  and  April.  In  1980  we  saw  two  pairs 
drilling  nest-holes  during  the  second  half  of 
June.  Both  nest-holes  were  taken  over  by 
Brahminy  Mynahs.  No  other  nesting  activity 
by  these  woodpeckers  was  noted  in  the  Sanc- 
tuary. Another  normally  common  nesting  bird 
is  the  Whitebreasted  Kingfisher.  Only  one 
pair  was  seen  with  fledgelings  and  this  was 
at  flooded  Ram  Bund  on  the  22nd  of  June. 
The  same  day  two  pairs  of  this  species  were 
busy  excavating  nest-tunnels  at  Cirra  Bund 
next  to  the  Keoladeo  Temple.  These  nest- 
tunnels  were  subsequently  flooded. 

A pair  of  White-eared  Bulbuls  was  seen 
building  a nest  on  9th  of  April  1980  and 
another  pair  was  feeding  young  in  the  nest 
on  May  6th.  The  normal  nesting  season  for 
this  species  is  given  as  March  to  September 
and  “may  be  influenced  by  rainfall  and  con- 
sequent food  supply”.  However  no  nesting 
activity  by  this  species  was  noticed  during  or 
after  the  rains. 

The  Redvented  Bulbul  on  the  other  hand 
nested  only  after  the  rains  came.  The  first 
nest  was  found  on  27th  of  June  and  the  last 
in  early  October. 


(5)  Turtles 

(i)  Lissemys  punctatus 

From  the  first  days  we  were  in  Bharatpur 
in  November  1979  we  noticed  hundreds  of 
these  turtles  wandering  in  apparent  random- 
ness throughout  the  Sanctuary.  Going  by  the 
evidence  of  large  numbers  of  empty  shells, 
this  movement  away  from  the  drying  marshes 
must  have  been  going  on  for  some  time.  Every 
day  we  saw  turtles  wandering  out  in  the  open 
right  till  the  end  of  May.  The  peak  months 
were  November,  February  and  March.  During 
December  and  January  when  it  was  cooler 
there  were  fewer  turtles  walking  about  and 
after  March  most  of  the  pools  had  dried  up 
and  the  wandering  turtles  were  mainly  seen 
around  the  areas  of  pumped  water  at  Cirra 
Bund  and  Ram  Bund.  A large  proportion  of 
these  turtles  were  killed  and  eaten  by  Scaven- 
ger Vultures.  These  birds  turned  the  turtles 
on  their  backs  and  then,  by  inserting  their 
sharp  and  narrow  beaks  under  one  of  the 
flaps  over  the  rear  legs,  would  begin  to  eat 
the  reptiles.  Once  killed.  King  Vultures,  crows 
and  Crow-Pheasants  also  ate  the  turtles — but 
only  the  Scavenger  Vultures  could  get  into  the 
shell  and  so  kill  the  reptiles.  The  dried  mar- 
shes and  open  woodlands  were  littered  with 
a thousand  or  more  empty  shells. 

A great  many  of  these  turtles  found  refuge 
in  the  areas  of  pumped  water,  and  a much 
smaller  number  found  aestivating  sites  in  the 
woodlands. 

After  heavy  rain  during  the  latter  half  of 
June  formed  puddles  in  the  woodlands,  the 
turtles  emerged  from  their  hiding  places  and 
their  depleted  ranks  had  to  run  the  gauntlet 
of  Scavenger  Vultures  once  more.  Of  all  the 
vertebrates,  with  the  exception  of  the  fish, 
this  species  of  turtle  was  most  severely  affect- 
ed by  the  drought. 


6 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


(ii)  Trionyx  gangeticus 

This  species  is  strictly  aquatic  and  was 
never  seen  wandering  in  the  dry  areas.  We 
did  not  see  a single  one  that  had  been  killed. 
During  a normal  season  this  species  is  very 
unobtrusive,  usually  all  that  is  seen  of  it  is  an 
occasional  large  head  emerging  from  the  water. 
On  three  occasions  we  saw  one  of  these  turt- 
les grab  a bird  from  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  water.  The  birds  were  a coot,  a Little 
Cormorant  and  a female  Common  Teal. 

We  saw  this  turtle  stranded  by  the  drought 
for  the  first  time  on  30th  March  1980.  Two 
individuals  were  in  the  last  mud  left  in  the 
canal  near  Sapan  Mori  and  another  across 
the  road  in  Cirra  Bund.  We  carried  the  Cirra 
Bund  individual  to  the  water  near  the  Keola- 
deo  Temple.  It’s  carapace  measured  71  centi- 
metres along  the  dorsal  surface.  This  species 
is  able  to  bury  itself  in  soft  mud  with  remark- 
able speed.  In  April  these  turtles  frequently 
came  out  of  the  water  and  basked  in  the  sun. 
About  30  individuals  of  varying  sizes  were 
seen  around  the  pool  in  front  of  the  Keoladeo 
Temple  during  this  month. 

In  the  same  month  we  often  saw  them 
chasing  each  other  in  the  water;  some  quite 
large  specimens  even  jumped  clear  of  the 
water.  On  April  2nd  a pair  appeared  to  be 
mating  in  the  shallows.  Because  of  the  con- 
stant action  and  dirty  water  it  was  difficult 
to  see  exactly  what  was  happening. 

(iii)  Kachuga  tectum 

We  saw  this  species  only  in  the  pool  in 
front  of  the  Keoladeo  Temple.  Every  day  they 
could  be  seen  basking  on  fallen  logs.  They 
appeared  to  be  unaffected  by  the  drought. 

During  March,  April  and  May  the  Keola- 
deo pool  was  a crush  of  turtles  with  the  above 
three  species  jostling  for  space  on  logs  and  a 
short,  narrow  bund. 


(iv)  HardeH  a thurgi 

On  April  2nd  we  noticed  a different  species 
of  turtle  wandering  in  the  dry  canal  near  the 
Keoladeo  Temple.  It  most  closely  resembled 
K.  tectum,  but  was  larger  and  did  not  have 
the  “saw”  pattern  on  its  carapace.  It’s  cara- 
pace, measured  48  centimetres  lengthwise  and 
43  centimetres  across  (along  its  dorsal  sur- 
face). We  photographed  it  from  all  angles  and 
it  was  later  identified  by  Romulus  Whitaker. 
This  was  the  only  live  specimen  we  saw  of 
this  species,  though  we  did  find  a number  of 
bleached  carapaces  in  the  dry  lake  bed  just 
to  the  southwest  of  the  Keoladeo  Temple. 

End  of  the  drought  and  the  1980  monsoon 

Since  the  middle  of  May  birds  that  nest  in 
Bharatpur’s  marshes  during  the  monsoon  had 
come  in  increasing  numbers.  First  to  arrive, 
and  in  breeding  plumage,  were  Cattle  Egrets 
and  Pond  Herons.  They  were  first  seen  on  6th 
of  May.  As  the  time  of  the  monsoon  drew 
nearer  more  and  more  birds  arrived,  though 
there  was  no  noticeable  change  in  the  weather. 
Even  on  June  15th  there  were  dust  storms 
sweeping  across  the  dry  and  desolated  marshes 
and  woodlands.  But  by  that  time  four  species 
of  egrets,  Pond  Herons,  two  species  of  jacanas, 
two  species  of  cormorants,  darters  and  Open- 
bill  Storks  had  flocked  to  the  Sanctuary.  Most- 
ly they  were  in  the  areas  of  Ram  Bund  and 
Cirra  Bund  that  had  been  filled  with  water 
by  pumping.  Spotbill  Ducks,  Cotton  Teal  and 
Comb  Ducks  had  also  arrived  after  a long 
absence.  Spoonbills  and  Painted  Storks  were 
present  in  very  small  numbers  and  were  not 
part  of  the  early  influx. 

On  June  21st  the  first  rain  fell.  It  was  cool 
and  humid.  Egrets  and  Pond  Herons  were 
scattered  across  the  dark,  wet  soil 
picking  up  insects  and  other  inverte- 
brates forced  to  the  surface  by  the  rain. 


7 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Pheasant-tailed  Ja$anas  were  calling  every- 
where. The  monsoon  broke  on  June  27th  with 
a heavy  downpour.  The  woodlands  flooded 
and  small  pools  formed  on  the  marshes.  New 
green  growth  appeared  within  days.  Turtles 
emerged  from  their  aestivating  places  and  were 
sitting  in  puddles  formed  in  the  woodlands. 
From  the  27th  of  June  onwards  there  was 
some  rain  nearly  every  day  for  several  weeks 
(see  table  no.  1 for  rainfall).  Sunshine  was 
brief  and  infrequent.  The  marshes  began  fill- 
ing slowly  but  remained  shallow  until  the 
second  half  of  July  when  water  was  let  in  from 
Ajan  Bund. 

About  a week  before  that  date  egrets,  dar- 
ters, cormorants  and  Openbill  Storks  had  be- 
gun displaying  and  nest-building  in  the  breed- 
ing colonies  in  Rauji  Bund  1 and  at  Sapan 
Mori.  The  Openbill  Storks  were  the  first  to 
complete  nests,  closely  followed  by  egrets,  cor- 
morants and  darters.  The  egrets  did  not,  at 
first,  include  Cattle  Egrets.  They  did  not  nest 
inside  the  Sanctuary  until  early  August  and 
then  only  in  the  Sapan  Mori  Colony.  This 
species,  however,  was  nesting  at  the  Bharat- 
pur  Railway  Station  as  early  as  13th  July. 
Spoonbills,  Painted  Storks  and  Large  Cormo- 
rants did  not  arrive  in  numbers  and  begin 
nesting  in  the  Sanctuary  until  the  middle  of 
August,  by  which  time  the  marshes  had  com- 
pletely filled. 

By  far  the  greatest  change  took  place  in  the 
woodlands,  particularly  during  June  and  July 
when  nearly  every  day  was  overcast  and  rains 
were  frequent  and  heavy.  Trees  and  shrubs 
put  on  new  leaf  and  many  flowered.  The 
ground  was  covered  with  fresh  new  grasses 
and  a multitude  of  herbs  sprang  up.  Many 
different  kinds  of  vines  grew  quickly  and 
wrapped  themselves  around  the  scrubby  trees. 
Fungi  of  many  different  kinds  appeared  every- 
where. Insects  and  other  invertebrates,  especi- 
ally millipedes,  proliferated.  For  a few  months 


the  Bharatpur  woodlands  looked  more  like 
sub-tropical  forest  than  semi-arid  scrubland. 
But  in  September  once  the  rains  became  less 
frequent  and  there  were  long  periods  of  hot 
sunshine,  the  herbs  and  vines  began  to  die 
back  and  the  fungi  dried  up. 

The  most  dramatic  development,  however, 
was  the  re-appearance  of  fish.  We  first  noticed 
small  fishes,  only  a few  centimetres  long,  on 
July  29th  in  most  of  the  marshes.  By  the  first 
week  of  September  certain  parts  of  the  Sanc- 
tuary, such  as  the  canal,  the  areas  between 
Sapan  Mori  and  Bakalaya  and  the  northern 
parts  of  Rauji  Bund  1,  at  times  seemed  al- 
most solid  with  fingerling  fish  swimming  close 
to  the  surface.  Birds,  mostly  cormorants,  dar- 
ters and  egrets,  fed  on  these  fishes  in  huge, 
milling  flocks.  How  the  fish  could  breed  up 
on  such  a gigantic  scale  after  the  severe 
drought  remains  a mystery.  Some  fish,  though 
comparatively  few,  remained  in  the  areas 
where  water  was  pumped.  We  also  noticed 
that  fingerling  fish  came  in  the  water  from 
Ajan  Bund.  But  the  River  Gambhir  and 
Banganga,  which  feed  into  Ajan  Bund,  were 
also  completely  dry  (Abrar  Khan,  pers. 
comm.)  though  it  is  possible  that  a few,  small 
pools  remained.  But  it  seemed  hardly  enough 
to  account  for  the  phenomenal  resurgence  of 
numbers.  When  Ajan  Bund  was  drained  in 
late  September,  fields  between  the  Bund  and 
the  Sanctuary  that  had  been  flooded,  were 
covered  with  small  fish  when  the  water  re- 
ceded. Fishermen  took  several  tonnes  of  small 
fishes  out  of  the  patches  of  water  that  remain- 
ed after  the  dam  had  been  drained.  Unfortu- 
nately we  were  unable  to  identify  any  of  the 
fish. 

Mammals 

The  following  are  our  more  interesting  ob- 
servations on  Bharatpur  mammals. 


8 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


Felis  viverrina 

FISHING  CAT 

In  March,  when  the  last  water  in  the  canal 
at  Sapan  Mori  was  drying  up,  we  saw  one  and 
sometimes  two  Fishing  Cats  there  nearly  every 
evening.  Once  the  canal  had  dried  we  did  not 
see  any  more  Fishing  Cats,  before  or  after 
the  monsoon. 

Paradoxunis  hermaphroditus 

COMMON  PALM  CIVET 

On  27th  April  1980  we  had  a good  view 
of  this  civet  at  night  by  the  light  of  a strong 
torch,  at  Bakalaya. 

Herpestes  edwardsi 

COMMON  MONGOOSE 

On  30th  June  we  saw  this  mongoose  with 
a newly  caught,  quite  large  water  snake  at 
Bakalaya.  The  snake  had  coiled  itself  around 
the  mongoose’s  body  in  its  struggle  to  escape. 

Hyaena  hyaena 

STRIPED  HYENA 

At  about  8.15  p.m.  on  July  14th  we  dearly 
saw  a hyena  on  the  main  road  just  north  of 
the  Forest  Lodge.  This  species  had  not  been 
seen  in  the  Sanctuary  for  some  years. 

Lutra  perspicillata 

SMOOTH  INDIAN  OTTER 

On  April  1st  1980  we  saw  a pair  of  these 
otters  with  three  small  young  sunbathing  on 
a raised  mound  in  Ram  Bund.  The  animals 
were  lying  on  their  backs  in  the  burning  mid- 
day sun. 

Birds 

The  notes  below  are  not  meant  to  be  an 
exhaustive  list  of  the  birds  we  observed  in 
the  Sanctuary.  Rather  they  record  species  and 
incidents  of  interest  with  special  reference  to 


the  1979-1980  drought.  New  records  for  the 
Sanctuary  are  marked  NR  and  new  breeding 
records  as  NBR.  To  date  only  Saxena  (1975) 
has  recorded  breeding  species.  Most  of  the 
new  breeding  records  we  noted  are  of  birds 
that  nest  during  the  summer  and  monsoon 
and  are  quite  obvious.  It  is  just  that  few  ob- 
servers visit  the  Sanctuary  at  that  time  of  the 
year.  In  the  systematics  and  nomenclature  we 
have  followed  Ali  & Ripley  (1968  to  1974). 

Pelecanus  onocrotalus 

WHITE  PELICAN 

White  Pelicans  are  not  regular  visitors  to 
Bharatpur,  and  some  years  they  do  not  arrive 
at  all.  Abdulali  and  Panday  (1978)  list  this 
species  as  “occasional”  and  Saxena  (1975)  as 
“sporadic”.  The  Spotbilled  Pelican  (P.  philip- 
pensis  philippensis)  is  a more  regular  visitor, 
but  in  small  numbers.  The  jheels  and  marshes, 
while  having  an  abundance  of  fish,  do  not  suit 
the  pelicans  as  the  dense  aquatic  vegetation 
impedes  their  method  of  fishing.  Because  of 
the  drought  the  aquatic  vegetation  had  died 
back  and  the  shrinking  areas  of  water  had 
concentrated  the  fish  into  a small  number  of 
pools. 

2Ath  January  1980.  We  arrived  in  Bharatpur 
after  an  absence  of  7 days.  White  Pelicans 
had  arrived  on  the  22nd  (Abrar  Khan,  pers. 
comm.).  We  counted  114  of  these  pelicans 
roosting  in  a dry  part  of  Cirra  Bund. 

2 5th  January.  The  pelicans  were  fishing  in 
a narrow  ditch  of  water  left  along  the  bund 
itself,  about  300  metres  from  the  Keoladeo 
Temple.  They  fished  in  the  typical  fashion  for 
pelicans,  i.e.  a semi-circle  of  the  birds  would 
drive  the  fish  to  one  end  of  the  pool,  catch  as 
many  as  they  could  and  then  reverse  and  drive 
the  fish  in  the  opposite  direction.  Some  of  the 
fish  the  pelicans  caught  were  very  large — we 
estimated  the  weight  of  the  largest  to  be  be- 
tween 2 and  3 kilogrammes. 


9 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


A pair  of  Blacknecked  Storks  tried  to  drive 
the  pelicans  away  from  the  ditch.  The  storks 
had  a large  young  with  them  which,  although 
already  changing  to  the  iridescent  plumage  of 
the  adult,  still  begged  constantly  for  food;  in- 
cessantly peeping  and  crouching  while  loosely 
flapping  its  wings.  The  storks,  particularly  the 
male  (dk  brown  iris),  would  circle  low  over 
the  flock  of  pelicans  and  stab  down  at  them 
with  his  beak.  The  female  stork  (bright  yellow 
iris)  more  often  threatened  by  walking  straight 
at  the  swimming  pelicans,  her  neck  low  and 
beak  snapping.  The  pelicans  kept  their  dist- 
ance and  after  an  hour  or  so  would  fly  off  to 
roost.  But  they  came  back  again  and  again. 
2 6th  January.  In  the  morning  the  pelicans 
were  fishing  in  the  canal  between  Sapan  Mori 
and  the  Keoladeo  Temple.  The  water  was 
very  shallow  and  the  pelicans  half-swam,  half- 
waded  in  some  places.  Some  of  the  fish  the 
birds  caught  were  too  large  for  them  to  swal- 
low and  they  disgorged  them.  Many  of  these 
fish  died  and  were  seen  floating  in  the  water 
or  cast  up  on  the  mud  banks.  The  largest 
of  these  disgorged  fish  we  found  was  a catfish 
measuring  exactly  80  centimetres  in  length. 
Its  sides  were  deeply  scored  by  the  pelicans’ 
beaks.  The  dead  and  dying  fish  were  eaten 
by  Spotted  Eagles,  Ringtailed  Fishing  Eagles, 
Black  Kites,  House  Crows,  Jungle  Crows, 
Crow- Pheasants  and  Whitebreasted  Water- 
hens. 

28 th  January.  The  number  of  White  Peli- 
cans had  increased  considerably  in  the  last 
few  days.  They  were  very  difficult  to  count 
as  they  constantly  moved  from  one  end  of  the 
canal  to  the  other.  We  counted,  as  best  we 
could,  a minimum  of  450. 

At  20.30  hours  the  pelicans  were  fishing  in 
the  canal  in  bright  moonlight.  Their  fishing 
time  was  limited  during  the  day  as  the  remain- 
ing water  was  near  roads  where  the  birds  were 


disturbed  from  about  8.00  hours  onwards 
every  morning  by  passersby. 

1 6th  February.  Returned  to  Bharatpur  after 
an  absence  of  15  days.  Only  one  White  Pelican 
remained.  Abrar  Khan  told  us  that  the  peli- 
cans had  left  on  9th  February,  when  the  areas 
of  water  in  the  canal  and  in  Cirra  Bund  had 
dried  up.  There  were  very  few  fish  left. 

Pelecanus  philippensis  crispus 

DALMATION  PELICAN 

29 th  January  1980.  Identified  two  Dalmation 
Pelicans  in  a flock  of  soaring  White  Pelicans. 

Anhinga  rufa 

DARTER 

18 th  June  1980.  A flock  of  57  Darters  arriv- 
ed, though  the  only  significant  water  remain- 
ing was  in  Ram  Bund. 

11  th  July.  Noticed  first  nests  being  built  at 
Rauji  Bund  1 breeding  colony. 

14 th  August.  A tree  with  nests  of  Little  Cor- 
morants and  darters  at  the  Sapan  Mori  colony 
had  fallen  over  and  died.  Most  nests  were 
destroyed,  but  one  darter  with  medium- sized 
young  managed  to  restructure  its  nest  and 
keep  it  going.  The  nest  was  only  a few  centi- 
metres above  water  level. 

4 th  September.  Two  still  downy  white  chicks 
in  a darter’s  nest  under  observation  begged 
incessantly.  The  parents  when  on  the  nest 
without  further  food  for  the  young  turned  their 
heads  away,  resting  them  on  their  backs,  to 
discourage  food  begging.  When  begging  for 
food  the  young  do  so  with  beaks  closed,  ready 
to  insert  their  beaks  into  those  of  their  parents. 
Later  in  the  day  when  it  was  hot,  as  early  as 
8.30  hours,  the  chicks  begged  with  beaks  wide 
open.  When  this  occurred  we  saw  the  adult 
take  off,  fly  a half-circle  around  the  nest  tree, 
land  in  some  open  water,  dip  its  beak  into 
the  water  (without  diving)  and  return  to  the 
nest.  It  then  gave  copious  supplies  of  water 


10 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


to  each  chick  by  inserting  its  beak  a short 
way  into  that  of  the  young. 

21  st  September.  Young  in  nests  in  the  Rauji 
Bund  1 breeding  colony  were  now  very  large. 
Wings  and  tails  were  fully  formed  but  backs 
and  chests  were  still  partially  covered  in  down. 
Most  young  left  the  nest  and  clambered  to  the 
tops  of  the  nest  trees,  their  necks  snaking 
above  the  foliage.  When  a parent  landed  near 
its  brood  (the  maximum  number  of  young  per 
nest  was  four)  it  was  immediately  besieged, 
almost  smothered,  by  the  young. 

October.  Observed  many  young  darters  (dis- 
tinguishable by  their  brown  colour  and  pale 
necks)  fishing  in  the  canal.  They  are  experts 
at  catching  fish,  surfacing  time  and  again  with 
prey  stabbed  through  with  their  beaks.  But 
more  often  than  not  they  lost  their  catch  when 
juggling  it  to  the  tips  of  their  beaks  or  tossing 
it  in  the  air  to  swallow.  We  never  saw  an 
adult  lose  its  prey  in  this  manner. 

Ardea  cinerea 

GREY  HERON 

11  th  July  1980.  Birds  in  breeding  colours  of 
bright  orange-red  beaks  and  orange-yellow 
legs  and  feet,  gathered  in  pairs  at  the  Sapan 
Mori  breeding  colony.  There  were  no  nesting 
birds  at  the  Rauji  Bund  1 colony  a place 
where  they  nested  in  1978. 

2 6th  July.  Courtship  of  herons  was  in  full 
progress.  Nest  building  had  already  begun. 
Observed  mating  frequently.  It  was  accom- 
panied by  loud  squawks.  The  males  flew  off 
to  get  nesting  material,  the  females  remained 
on  the  nest  and  placed  the  sticks  in  place, 
occasionally  with  help  from  the  male  especial- 
ly if  the  stick  was  a large  one.  When  the  male 
arrived  at  the  nest  the  pair  greeted  each  other 
with  feathers  raised,  their  crests  standing 
straight  up,  then  bowed  to  each  other  by  bend- 
ing the  joints  at  the  tops  of  the  tarsi. 

29 th  August.  Not  many  pairs  managed  to 


hatch  their  eggs.  House  Crows  took  a heavy 
toll.  The  birds  are  shyer  than  the  other  species 
in  the  colony  and  are  easily  disturbed,  leaving 
their  nests  for  long  periods.  Many  pairs  re- 
nested in  a grove  of  babul  trees  across  the 
bund  in  Rauji  Bund  2 (see  map)  where  they 
raised  their  young  unmolested  in  the  company 
of  nesting  Purple  Herons. 

Ardea  purpurea 

PURPLE  HERON 

Of  all  the  normally  resident  Ciconiiformids 
the  Purple  Herons  were  the  first  to  leave  the 
Sanctuary  because  of  the  drought.  By  the  end 
of  November  1979  when  the  tall  grasses  and 
reeds  of  their  preferred  habitat  had  died  back, 
they  had  left.  In  the  last  week  of  February 
the  Forest  Department  had  begun  pumping 
water  into  Ram  Bund.  By  the  end  of  March 
this  had  resulted  in  the  re-growing  of  tall  reeds 
and  on  2nd  April  1980  two  Purple  Herons  had 
returned.  Between  that  date  and  early  June 
there  were  always  a few  Purple  Herons  there. 
By  June  18th  their  numbers  began  to  increase 
until  by  27th  June,  the  date  of  the  arrival  of 
the  monsoon,  there  were  about  30  birds.  They 
were  in  fresh  new  plumage. 

18 th  July  1980.  Birds  sitting  in  pairs  in  the 
reeds. 

29 th  July.  Birds  displaying  in  the  reeds. 

1st  August.  Went  out  by  boat  for  a closer 
look  at  the  nesting  birds.  We  found  a loose 
colony  of  13  nests  varying  from  those  being 
built  to  ones  with  clutches  of  four  eggs.  The 
nests  were  built  of  sticks  and  lined  with  reeds 
and  placed  in  clumps  of  reeds  about  25  centi- 
metres above  the  water. 

13 th  August.  The  water  intake  into  Ram 
Bund  (since  15th  July  water  had  been  let  into 
the  Sanctuary  from  Ajan  Bund)  was  not  con- 
trolled and  all  Purple  Heron  nests  (as  well  as 
those  of  other  species)  were  submerged  and 
the  reed  beds  abandoned  as  a heronry. 


11 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


14th  August.  Birds  were  building  nests  in  a 
patch  of  babul  trees  in  Rauji  Bund  2 not  far 
from  Sapan  Mori,  and  some  time  later  they 
were  joined  by  nesting  Grey  Herons. 

Ardeola  grayii 

INDIAN  POND  HERON 

A few  birds  were  already  in  breeding  plum- 
age by  26th  April  and  by  11th  May  all  birds 
had  changed.  Did  not  find  one  pair  nesting 
in  the  Sanctuary  and  birds  were  quite  scarce 
during  the  breeding  season.  Only  during  the 
winter  months  were  they  numerous,  presum- 
ably when  suitable  habitat  outside  the  Sanc- 
tuary had  dried  up. 

Bubulcus  ibis 

CATTLE  EGRET 

Since  the  beginning  of  May  Cattle  Egrets 
in  breeding  plumage  had  been  arriving  at  the 
Sanctuary.  Like  all  the  other  marsh  birds  they 
congregated  in  the  two  places  where  water 
was  being  pumped. 

15th  June  1980.  There  was  a sudden  influx 
of  hundreds  of  Cattle  Egrets.  They  stood 
about  in  the  marshy  areas.  Very  hot  day,  43 °C 
at  Agra,4  and  all  day  a dust  storm  blew. 

18 th  July.  Saw  the  traditional  nesting  colony 
in  a large  neem  tree  at  Bharatpur  Railway 
Station.  About  50  nests  in  the  tree.  Most  nests 
were  in  branches  overhanging  a platform  and 
the  tracks.  Passing  trains  actually  brushed  the 
lower  branches  on  which  nests  were  built.  The 
platform  was  busy  and  noisy  but  the  activity 
was  totally  ignored  by  birds  only  two  to  five 
metres  above  the  crowd.  Some  pairs  were 
courting  and  mating.  These  pairs  had  bright 
orange-red  beaks  and  facial  and  orbital  skins. 
Their  irises  were  blood-red.  The  birds  sitting 
on  eggs,  which  were  in  the  majority,  had  pale- 

4 The  nearest  place  for  which  temperature  figures 
were  available. 


yellow  irises  and  yellowish  beaks  and  facial 
skins. 

12//z  August.  Scores  of  pairs  began  nesting 
in  the  Sapan  Mori  colony.  None  nested  at  the 
Rauji  Bund  1 colony,  where  small  numbers 
nested  in  1978. 

Ardea  alba 

LARGE  EGRET 

21th  June  1980.  There  had  been  intermit- 
tent rain  the  previous  week  and  egrets  had 
been  returning  in  increasing  numbers.  Today 
a milling  multitude  of  all  species  of  egrets 
except  the  Cattle  Egret  were  fishing  in  the  area 
of  pumped  water  in  Ram  Bund,  close  to  the 
western  bund.  Although  all  the  species  arrived 
in  breeding  plumage  today  we  noticed  the 
bright  facial  skin  and  leg  colours  of  the  Large 
Egrets  for  the  first  time.  Of  all  the  egrets  the 
Large  Egrets  were  the  least  in  number. 

1 1th  July.  A few  pairs  were  displaying  at  the 
Rauji  Bund  1 breeding  colony. 

2 6th  July.  All  Large  Egrets  have  left  the 
Rauji  Bund  1 colony.  Courtship  of  a small 
number  of  pairs  has  begun  at  the  Sapan  Mori 
colony.  Observed  a tree  of  courting  and  nest- 
ing egrets  from  a tower-blind  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  colony.  One  pair  was  building  a 
nest  about  15  metres  from  the  blind  but  in  a 
place  where  the  actual  nest  was  hidden  from 
view.  It  was  noticeable  that  the  colour  on  the 
facial  skin,  orbital  skin  and  on  the  tibia  was 
beginning  to  fade.  Courting  Large  Egrets  had 
facial  and  orbital  skin  of  bright  turquoise  and 
the  tibia  and  the  upper  parts  of  the  tarsi  were 
carmine  red.  These  colours  were  brightest 
during  the  days  of  courtship  and  faded  rapid- 
ly once  pair  bonds  had  been  established.  Even 
the  day  after  a pair  had  completed  its  court- 
ship and  had  begun  nest-building  the  colours 
started  to  fade.  Before  courtship  the  colours, 
although  present,  were  not  as  bright  as  during 
courtship  itself. 


12 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


29th  July.  Entered  the  tower-blind,  still 
situated  in  the  same  place  as  on  26th  July, 
at  5.00  hours.  At  about  5.30  hours  a Large 
Egret  landed  in  a prominent  spot  five  metres 
up  in  the  babul  tree.  The  bird  began  to  dis- 
play. In  one  continuous  action  it  stretched 
its  neck  fully  forward  to  peck  at  or  grab  hold 
of  a branch,  raised  its  plumes,  spread  its  wings 
and  bowed  by  bending  its  tarsal  joints.  Ano- 
ther ritual  was  a “wing  shuffle”  whereby  the 
bird,  with  feathers  fluffed,  would  in  a fairly 
rapid  motion  flick  its  wings  forward  (but  not 
out)  in  alternate  “strokes”.  The  effect  of  this 
action,  with  plumes  half  raised,  is  to  see  the 
bird  shimmering.  In  a third  display  the  bird 
opened  a wing  slightly  and  ran  its  beak  along 
the  edge  of  the  primaries.  This  action  was 
performed  with  either  wing.  All  three  displays 
were  of  approximately  the  same  frequency 
with  the  “neck  stretch”  performed  perhaps 
slightly  more  often.  Pauses  between  displays 
were  very  short  and  the  impression  was  one 
of  continuous  motion.  At  all  times  the  back 
plumes  were  half  raised,  only  during  the  “neck 
stretch”  were  they  fully  raised.  The  “neck 
stretch”  seemed  incipient  nest-building  as  the 
action  of  the  beak  was  similar  to  that  of  a 
bird  placing  a stick  when  building.  The  other 
actions  are  modified  preening  actions,  though 
they  were  performed  too  regularly  and  too 
perfunctorily  to  be  actual  preening. 

We  noticed  that  seven  Large  Egrets  were 
perched  in  the  tree  close  to  the  displaying 
bird  and  were  watching  it  closely.  During  our 
observations  (stopped  at  9.15  hours  because 
of  fierce  lightning  approaching  the  aluminium 
tower-blind)  four  of  these  watching  birds  one 
after  another  joined  the  displaying  egret  on 
his  display  platform.  The  two  would  briefly 
preen  the  plumes  on  each  other’s  backs  and 
then  the  displaying  bird  (the  male  therefore) 
would  mount  the  bird  that  had  joined  it.  Mat- 
ing was  attempted  with  three  of  the  females 


without  success.  After  the  attempt  the 
male  chased  the  female  off  by  pecking 
at  her.  The  iris  of  the  displaying  male 
was  pale  yellow  with  an  orange  cen- 

tre. At  least  one  of  the  females  had  her  entire 
iris  bright  orange.  In  the  nest-building  pair 
observed  on  26th  July  both  birds  had  pale 
yellow  irises.  The  fourth  female  was  chased 
off  before  mating  was  attempted.  All  the 
females  were  slightly  smaller  than  the  male. 
No  nest  was  built  at  the  place  the  male  dis- 
played. But  from  those  and  other  observations 
it  appears  that  the  male  selects  the  nest  site, 
displays  his  colours  and  plumes  in  various 
rituals,  attracts  a female,  the  two  mate  and 
build  a nest  at  or  very  near  the  display  area. 
In  nest-building  (which  was  observed  on  26th 
July)  all  the  sticks  were  brought  by  the  male 
and  placed  in  position  by  the  female,  some- 
times helped  by  the  male.  This  was  also  ob- 
served for  median  Egrets,  Little  Egrets,  Grey 
Herons,  spoonbills  and  Painted  Storks.  In  the 
end  very  few  pairs  of  Large  Egrets  nested 
compared  to  the  number  of  displaying  birds, 
perhaps  because  of  nest  depredations  by 
House  Crows.  Displays  of  this  species  and 
also  of  Median  and  Little  Egrets  were  filmed 
in  some  detail  and  the  actions  and  colours 
of  soft  parts  are  described  from  notes  taken 
at  the  time  and  also  from  the  film. 

Egretta  intermedia 

MEDIAN  EGRET 

2 6th  July  1980.  This  species  was  further 
advanced  with  its  nesting  and  many  were  sit- 
ting on  eggs.  The  sitting  birds  had  very  pale 
yellow  irises. 

One  pair  right  in  front  of  the  blind  and 
about  l\  metres  lower  than  the  courting  Large 
Egrets  of  July  29th,  was  at  its  selected  nest 
site.  Both  birds  would  grab  branches  of  the 
babul  tree  and  vibrate  them  as  though  put- 


13 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


ting  nesting  material  in  place.  Twice  the  pair 
mated — in  silence.  In  this  mating  pair  the 
male’s  iris  was  dark  orange-red,  the  female’s 
orange.  The  facial  and  orbital  skins  of  both 
birds  were  lemon-yellow  with  a greenish  tinge 
on  the  area  immediately  in  front  of  the  eye. 
There  was  more  green  in  the  female’s  facial 
skin  than  in  that  of  the  male.  Their  beaks  were 
black.  By  late  morning  the  male  left  to  col- 
lect the  first  nesting  material. 

21th  July.  The  pair  observed  mating  on  the 
26th  had  progressed  considerably  with  the 
building  of  their  nest.  Their  irises  were  much 
paler,  almost  the  same  colour  as  those  of  the 
birds  sitting  on  eggs. 

28 th  August.  Of  a pair  feeding  four  small 
chicks  at  their  nest  in  the  Rauji  Bund  1 colony, 
one  had  its  beak  half  black  and  half  yellow 
and  the  other  had  its  beak  two-thirds  yellow. 
5th  September.  Nearly  all  Median  Egrets 
were  feeding  young  and  beaks  were  coloured 
as  for  the  non-breeding  season  (see  Ali  & 
Ripley,  Vol.  1,  1968). 

19 th  September.  A Median  Egret  flew  re- 
peatedly to  its  nest  with  building  material 
taken  from  another,  abandoned  nest.  Its  part- 
ner took  the  sticks  and  placed  them  in  position 
even  though  the  pair  had  small  young. 

Egretta  garzetta 

LITTLE  EGRET 

1 Ith  May  1980.  In  the  company  of  a dozen 
Little  Egrets  was  one  of  a slaty-grey  colour. 
It  was  uniformly  grey  except  for  its  face 
which  was  white.  It  had  a black  beak,  black 
legs  and  bright  yellow  feet. 

On  26th  September  we  saw  a bird  of  the 
same  description  but  with  breeding  plumes 
exactly  like  those  of  the  Little  Egret,  in  the 
Rauji  Bund  I heronry.  We  flushed  it  with 
Little  and  Median  Egrets  from  a nesting 
tree  in  the  centre  of  the  colony.  We  assumed 


it  to  be  nesting,  mated  with  a Little  Egret  of 
normal  coloured  plumage.  The  bird  was  parti- 
cularly shy  and  as  the  presumed  nesting  site 
was  in  the  centre  of  the  colony  it  would  have 
caused  considerable  disruption  if  we  had  tried 
to  find  the  nest.  So  we  did  not  pursue  the  mat- 
ter further.  We  think  the  bird  in  question  to 
be  a melanistic  Little  Egret  rather  than  a slaty- 
grey  phase  of  the  Indian  Reef  Heron  ( Egretta 
gularis)  as  only  the  face  was  white  and  the 
beak  was  all  black.  The  grey  phase  of  E.  gu- 
laris has  a white  throat  and  foreneck  and  a 
largely  yellow  beak  (Ali  and  Ripley,  Vol.  1, 
1968). 

21th  July.  This  morning  two  courting  pairs 
were  in  the  babul  tree  in  front  of  the  blind. 
They  were  not  present  on  the  morning  of  the 
26th.  Courting  was  a bowing  with  raised 
plumes  with  the  facial  and  orbital  skins  turn- 
ing coral  pink  during  the  display.  After  the 
display  the  colour  of  the  skin  would  return 
to  a pale  greyish  colour.  There  was  no 
change  in  the  colour  of  the  iris.  One  of  the 
birds  had  bright  orange  feet.  All  the  others 
had  yellow  feet.  There  was  no  change  of 
colour  in  the  facial  skin  and  feet  as  the  season 
progressed. 

29 th  July.  Both  pairs  that  were  courting  on 
the  27th  were  now  nest-building.  When  the 
male  returned  with  sticks  to  the  nest  his  face 
often  flushed  a coral  pink. 

18th  September.  Most  egrets  already  had 
well-grown  young.  But  we  found  a nest  of  a 
Little  Egret  with  five  eggs  at  the  western  end 
of  the  Rauji  Bund  1 heronry.  In  this  nest  one 
egg  was  nearly  ready  to  hatch  and  a second 
was  pipping.  In  a neighbouring  tree  was  a 
nest  of  a Median  Egret  with  two  eggs.  Another 
nest  of  the  Little  species  had  young  almost 
ready  to  fledge. 

19 th  September.  Entered  the  blind  at  about 
6.50  hours.  Little  Egret  young  still  had  not 


14 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


hatched  though  the  cap  of  the  egg  was  sever- 
ed nearly  all  around.  The  young  struggled  out 
of  the  egg  at  10.40  hours.  The  parents  chang- 
ed over  on  the  nest  at  12.45  hours.  The  new 
arrival  mostly  ignored  the  chick  and  stood 
on  it  for  long  periods.  Eventually  the  adult 
discarded  the  empty  egg  shells  by  dropping 
them  over  the  side  of  the  nest. 

20 th  September.  Entered  the  blind  at  sunrise 
shortly  after  6.00  hours.  The  second  egg  hatch- 
ed shortly  afterwards.  The  chick  that  hatched 
yesterday  had  dried  and  was  sparsely  covered 
with  straggly  white  down.  Many  times  the 
parent  regurgitated  small  fishes  for  the  young 
— but  the  chicks  seemed  too  weak  to  pick  them 
up.  The  parent,  after  a few  moments,  reswal- 
lowed the  fish.  Most  fish  regurgitated  were 
larger  than  the  young. 

Mycteria  leucocephala 

PAINTED  STORK 

2nd  August  1980.  Only  a few,  fewer  than 
20,  Painted  Storks  were  on  the  marshes.  These 
were  the  resident  birds  that  had  remained  in 
the  Sanctuary  throughout  the  dry  months.  We 
left  Bharatpur  for  a few  days. 

12 th  August.  Returned  to  Bharatpur  on  the 
11th.  During  our  absence  an  estimated  600-800 
Painted  Storks  had  arrived  and  were  now  sit- 
ting in  their  chosen  nest  trees.  The  breeding 
colony  was  scattered  and  spread  over  a large 
area  (see  map).  The  birds  shunned  the  Rauji 
Bund  1 and  Sapan  Mori  breeding  colonies 
except  to  visit  them  to  pull  branches  off  the 
babul  trees  for  nesting  material.  Though  Paint- 
ed Storks  have  no  special  breeding  plumage 
(Ali  & Ripley,  Vol.  1,  1968)  the  new  arrivals 
were  especially  colourful,  both  in  their  plum- 
age and  in  their  bare  parts.  The  plumage  was 
immaculate,  suggesting  that  the  birds  had  re- 
cently moulted.  The  colour  of  the  iris  and 
bare  parts  of  the  breeding  birds  may  be  dif- 


ferent from  that  of  other  times  of  the  year. 
Ali  & Ripley  (ibid.)  describe  the  irises  of  the 
adults  as  straw-yellow.  Of  the  birds  we  exa- 
mined and  photographed  closely  (well  over 
50)  all  except  two  had  either  dark  brown  or 
medium  brown  irises.  The  other  two  had  pale 
grey-green  eyes.  Ali  & Ripley  (ibid.)  describe 
the  beak  as  “orange-yellow,  darker  and  plum- 
beous at  base”.  The  bills  of  the  breeding  birds 
were  uniformly  orange-yellow  without  any 
trace  of  plumbeous.  According  to  Ali  & Ripley 
(ibid.)  the  bare  skin  of  the  head  is  orange- 
yellow.  In  the  breeding  birds  the  heads  were 
bright  orange  and  the  throats  pink.  Some  birds 
had  pronounced  dewlaps  which  were  pink.  The 
legs  and  feet  were  invariably  bright  pink,  a 
somewhat  redder  pink  than  that  of  the  throat 
and  very  close  to  the  pink  of  the  secondaries. 
Ali  & Ripley  give  the  leg  colour  as  “brown 
or  fleshy  brown,  sometimes  nearly  red”.  In 
birds  observed  and  photographed  in  late 
January  1980,  the  colours  were  as  those  of  the 
breeding  birds,  though  not  quite  as  bright. 

Once  the  birds  had  chosen  their  nest  sites 
they  stood  there  almost  constantly.  They  fre- 
quently defecated  down  their  legs.  This  was 
a deliberate  action.  It  turned  their  legs  white. 
They  continued  this  practice  till  November 
when  nesting  ended  and  it  was  cooler. 

During  the  rest  of  August  and  in  early  Sep- 
tember more  and  more  birds  arrived  until 
several  thousand  pairs  were  nesting. 

Ylth  August.  The  first  egg  had  been  laid  in 
a nest  which  is  part  of  a group  of  four  nests 
in  a clump  of  four  babul  trees  situated  on  a 
small  mound.  The  trees,  no  more  than  2\ 
metres  tall,  were  just  to  the  east  of  the  Rauji 
Bund  1 heronry,  though  not  part  of  it.  These 
Painted  Storks  nests  were  the  first  we  found 
and  the  egg,  which  must  have  been  laid  early 
in  the  morning  or  during  the  night,  was  one 
of  the  first  of  the  season.  On  the  evening  of 


15 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


16 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


the  16th  August  there  were  no  eggs  in  the 
nests.  We  watched  these  four  nests  daily  till 
all  eggs  had  been  laid  and  then  again  almost 
daily  till  they  hatched  to  determine  their  in- 
cubation periods.  Of  the  four  nests  two  had 
clutches  of  two  eggs  each  and  two  had  clutches 
of  three  eggs  each.  In  one  of  the  three-egg 
nests  all  eggs  failed  to  hatch  and  in  one  of  the 
two-egg  nests  only  one  egg  hatched.  Of  the 
remaining  six  eggs  two  hatched  after  27  days, 
two  after  28  days  and  two  after  29  days.  Time 
of  hatching  (observed  for  four  eggs)  varied 
from  10.22  hours  to  18.15  hours. 

On  August  17th  our  tower-blind  was  set  up 
facing  a group  of  22  nest-building  pairs  in  a 
single  spreading  babul  tree  approximately  six 
metres  tall.  The  tree  was  in  Rauji  Bund  1 
about  300  metres  SW  of  the  heronry.  Many 
pairs  were  busy  in  mutual  preening.  Mostly 
they  preened  each  other’s  necks  by  very  gent- 
ly nibbling  with  their  beaks.  Sometimes  the 
pair  would  preen  each  other  simultaneously 
at  other  times  one  would  stand  with  eyes  clos- 
ed while  being  preened  by  its  partner.  Often 
the  pair  dozed,  one  resting  its  head  on  the 
other’s  back.  After  a preening  session  some 
pairs  mated.  During  mating  both  birds  clap- 
pered  their  beaks  individually  but  also  one 
against  the  other  producing  a unique  sound. 
After  mating  the  males  set  off  to  gather  nest- 
ing materials.  Nearly  always  they  brought 
babul  branches,  some  very  large  up  to  a metre 
long,  which  they  pulled  off  with  powerful  jerks 
of  their  beaks.  Mostly  they  brought  green 
branches  but  some  birds  specialised  in  dry  twigs 
broken  off  dead,  standing  trees.  Birds  arriving 
on  their  nests  would  be  greeted  with  a short 
burst  of  beak-clappering  and  the  two  would 
place  the  twig  or  branch  in  place  with  vibrat- 
ing movements  of  their  beaks.  If  the  arriving 
bird  did  not  bring  nesting  material  the  pair 
would  greet  each  other  with  an  “Up-Down” 


display  as  described  by  Kahl  (1970).  The 
loudest  and  most  sustained  clappering  occurr- 
ed during  disputes,  usually  over  nest  sites  or 
over  sticks  used  in  nest-building. 

20 th  August.  In  the  large  tree  observed  on 
17th  August  four  nests  now  had  one  egg  each. 
Two  pairs  with  eggs  in  their  nests,  mated. 
When  the  day  became  hot  one  of  a pair  would 
sit  on  the  eggs.  Its  partner  would  then  spend 
up  to  half  an  hour  preening  the  sitting  bird’s 
neck  feathers  with  very  gentle  nibbling  move- 
ments of  its  beak  tip. 

Once  the  second  egg  had  been  laid  the  birds 
spend  very  little  time  at  the  nest  together.  One 
would  incubate  while  the  other  was  out  feed- 
ing. During  nest  site  selection,  courting  and 
nest-building  both  birds  were  at  the  nest  site 
or  nest  all  day— sunrise  to  sunset.  This  is  a 
period  from  4 to  7 days.  During  this  time 
the  birds  do  not  seem  to  feed  unless  they 
feed  at  night.  Nor  did  we  see  any  Painted 
Storks  feeding  in  the  Sanctuary  at  that  time, 
though  we  searched  for  them. 

1 6th  September.  The  blind  was  set  up  at  the 
four  nests  in  the  low  babul  trees  near  the 
Rauji  Bund  1 heronry.  An  adult  was  seated 
on  each  nest  and  remained  there  till  8.50 
hours  when  all  four  stood  up  in  quick  suc- 
cession. They  preened  themselves  and  then 
stood  with  wings  spread  shading  the  eggs  and 
young.  Nest  number  one  had  a day-old  young 
and  nest  two  a two-day  old  young.  These  were 
the  first  Painted  Stork  chicks  to  hatch  in  the 
Sanctuary  to  the  best  of  our  knowledge.  At 
10.18  hours  the  adult  on  nest  number  two  fed 
its  chick  on  lumps  of  what  looked  like  a 
yellow-brown  paste.  The  chick  ate  some  and 
the  adult  re-swallowed  the  remainder.  At  10.22 
hours  a chick  hatched  at  nest  number  one, 
the  adult  immediately  threw  the  egg  shells 
over  the  side  of  the  nest.  At  11.00  hours, 
when  we  left  the  blind,  the  birds  were  still 

17 


2 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


standing,  shading  the  eggs  and  not  sitting  and 
incubating.  At  6.33  p.m.  a young  hatched  in 
nest  number  four. 

2 6th  September.  At  the  nests  in  the  low 
babul  trees,  nest  number  one  was  deserted, 
we  found  dead  chicks  underneath  it  in  the 
water.  At  nest  number  two  chicks  were  grow- 
ing very  rapidly.  Both  parents  were  at  the 
nest.  One  after  another  the  parents  went  out 
and  collected  water  in  their  beaks  and  presum- 
ably their  gullets.  When  they  returned  they 
poured  copious  amounts  of  water  over  the 
chicks  (which  were  still  covered  in  white 
fluff)  and  down  their  throats.  Once  the  chicks 
were  fed  on  small  fishes.  The  older  chick 
snapped  up  the  regurgitated  fish  from  the 
parent’s  beak  while  the  smaller  one  (there  was 
three  days  difference  in  their  age)  picked  up 
fish  from  the  floor  of  the  nest.  Nest  number 
four  contained  a single  young  which  hatched 
on  August  16th.  The  parent  attending  the 
young  regurgitated  two  very  large  fish  (both 
without  heads),  too  large  for  the  young  to 
swallow.  Time  and  again  the  young  attempted 
to  swallow  the  smaller  of  the  two  fish,  often 
sprawling  on  the  nest  floor  with  exhaustion 
with  the  fish  in  its  beak.  Four  times  the  adult 
regurgitated  the  two  fish  and  reswallowed 
them  but  the  young  could  not  swallow  either. 

A pair  of  Spotted  Munias  and  a pair  of 
White-throated  Munias  were  busy  building 
nests  into  the  undersides  of  the  Painted  Stork 
nests.  Painted  Storks  were  still  not  seen  fish- 
ing in  the  Sanctuary.  Birds  returning  to  the 
nest  to  feed  young  came  from  outside.  Those 
nesting  in  Rauji  Bund  1 nearly  all  came  from 
due  north.  They  returned  in  flocks  of  six  to 
twelve  birds  and  then  spread  out  to  individual 
nests. 

18//*  October.  All  nests  in  the  low  babul 
trees  had  fallen  when  the  trees  collapsed  in  a 
storm.  Only  one  young  survived,  by  crawling 


onto  the  small  mound  on  which  the  trees 
stood.  By  now  the  young  was  quite  large,  al- 
most fully  feathered.  The  parents  had  built 
a nest  on  the  mound  around  the  chick,  and 
continued  to  feed  it. 

20 th  October.  A lot  of  Painted  Storks  had 
taken  up  what  at  first  appeared  to  be  nesting 
territories  at  both  the  Sapan  Mori  and  Rauji 
Bund  1 heronries.  They  vigorously  defended 
their  “territories”  and  even  carried  nesting 
material  to  them.  But  there  was  no  courtship 
and  no  mating,  and  no  real  nests  were  built. 
Many  of  the  “nest  sites”  were  occupied  by 
single  birds.  Before  this  time  Painted  Storks 
came  to  the  heronries  only  to  collect  nest- 
building material. 

Anastomus  oscitans 

OPEN  BILL  STORK 

15 th  June  1980.  Day  of  a dust  storm.  Bharat- 
pur  very  dry.  Maximum  temperature  at  Agra 
(nearest  centre  for  which  figures  are  avail- 
able) was  43 °C.  Yet  several  hundred  Open- 
bills  had  arrived  and  taken  up  residence  in 
Ram  Bund  which  was  green  as  a result  of 
water  being  pumped  into  it  from  bore  A. 

2 6th  June.  These  storks  had  increased  to 
close  to  1000.  Numbers  of  them  were  stand- 
ing in  the  tops  of  babul  trees  in  Rauji  Bund  1 
behind  Shanti  Kutir,  pulling  at  the  vegetation 
and  going  through  the  motions  of  nest-build- 
ing. They  were  the  first  birds  to  gather  in  the 
trees  preparatory  to  breeding.  The  trees  in 
which  they  had  congregated  eventually  became 
the  Rauji  Bund  1 breeding  colony.  But  in 
June  the  marsh  here  was  still  completely  dry. 
11th  July.  A small  amount  of  water  had 
collected  in  Rauji  Bund  1.  Many  pairs  of 
Openbills  already  had  finished  nests.  Until 
now  the  birds  were  black  and  pure  white  in 
plumage.  We  observed  hundreds  of  Open- 
bills  feeding  deep  in  the  woodlands  well  away 


18 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


from  the  marshes  in  areas  flooded  by  recent 
heavy  rain.  They  were  catching  snails,  frogs 
and  insects. 

14 th  July.  Observed  a corner  of  the  breed- 
ing colony  from  our  tower-blind.  The  nests 
had  one  egg  each,  the  first  eggs  we  had  seen. 
While  birds  were  off  their  nest  due  to  a dis- 
turbance a crow  came,  broke  one  of  the  eggs 
and  ate  the  contents.  When  the  owner  of  the 
nest  returned,  it  picked  up  the  empty  egg 
shells  and  tossed  them  over  the  side  of  the 
nest.  The  nest  was  not  abandoned  for  at  least 
another  two  days. 

13th.  August.  There  had  been  a considerable 
decline  in  the  number  of  Openbill  nests  since 
July  19th.  But  those  of  egrets,  cormorants 
and  darters  had  increased.  All  the  Openbills 
had  changed  colour.  The  parts  that  were  pure 
white  when  the  birds  arrived  were  now  a dull 
grey.  It  would  be  interesting  to  determine  the 
mechanism  by  which  the  birds’  colour  changes. 
We  did  not  notice  them  moulting.  Also  the 
change  is  uniform  and  not  in  patches.  The  grey 
colour  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  young  when 
they  fledge.  Like  the  Painted  Storks,  Open- 
bills  were  seen  showering  their  nestlings  with 
water  during  the  hot  time  of  the  day. 

Ciconia  nigra 

BLACK  STORK  NR 

2nd  March  1980.  In  the  afternoon  we  saw 
three  Black  Storks  on  the  dry  mud  of  Cirra 
Bund.  They  were  seen  for  only  one  day.  This 
seems  a new  record  for  Bharatpur  as  it  is  not 
listed  by  either  Abdulali  and  Pandav  (1978) 
or  Saxena  (1975). 

Ephippiorhynchus  asiaticus 

BLACK  NECKED  STORK 

January  1980.  See  under  White  Pelican  for 
interaction  with  that  species. 


1st  April.  Observed  one  catching  and  killing 
a Pond  Heron.  After  killing  it  the  stork  flew 
off  with  the  bird  and  we  could  not  see  how 
or  if  it  ate  the  Pond  Heron. 

Anser  indicus 

BARHEADED  GOOSE 

11th  December  1979.  In  company  of  about 
50  normal  coloured  birds  we  noticed  a partial 
albino.  The  general  impression  was  of  a white 
bird  but  closer  examination  revealed  faint 
traces  of  the  pattern  on  the  head,  neck  and 
flanks.  Beak,  irises,  feet  and  legs  were  all  of 
normal  colour.  This  bird  may  have  given 
rise  to  the  rumour  that  a Snow  Goose  had 
been  seen  in  the  Sanctuary. 

About  500  to  1200  Barheads  remained  in 
the  Sanctuary  throughout  the  winter,  feeding 
on  the  growth  of  grass  in  areas  at  Ram  Bund 
and  Cirra  Bund  that  were  flooded  as  a result 
of  water  pumped  from  bores  A and  B.  In 
late  March  and  early  April  the  birds  left  the 
Sanctuary.  A major  exodus  occurred  on  the 
night  between  April  1st  and  2nd.  The  last 
we  noticed  were  a few  individuals  on  26th 
April  1980. 

Dendrocygna  javanica 

LESSER  WHISTLING  TEAL  NBR 

4 th  September  1980.  A pair  with  8 ducklings 
only  a few  days  old  swam  close  to  the  blind 
set  up  in  the  western  end  of  the  Rauji  Bund  1 
heronry. 

18 th  September.  The  pair  was  still  in  the 
same  place  and  still  with  8 ducklings. 

2 6th  September.  Pair  with  eight  ducklings 
was  still  in  the  same  area.  Two  other  pairs 
were  close  by,  one  had  seven  ducklings  and 
the  other  five  all  approximately  the  same  age. 
Today  was  the  first  day  we  could  observe  all 
three  pairs  from  the  same  vantage  point. 


19 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Tadorna  ferruginea 

RUDDY  SHELDUCK 

A few  birds  stayed  right  through  spring  and 
early  summer  in  the  flooded  areas.  On  26th 
April  there  were  seven.  We  saw  sixteen  on 
May  17th.  The  last  one,  on  its  own,  was  in 
Ram  Bund  on  15th  June  1980. 

Tadorna  tadorna 

COMMON  SHELDUCK 

We  first  saw  these  birds  (three)  on  17th 
November  1979.  They  stayed  throughout  the 
winter  in  the  small  shallow  pools  left  in  Cirra 
Bund.  This  species  is  a rare  visitor  to  Bharat- 
pur.  It  was  first  recorded  by  Sauey  in  1977 
(Sauey,  pers.  comm.). 

Anas  poecilorhyncha 

SPOTBILL  DUCK 

In  normal  seasons,  when  the  marshes  do 
not  dry  up,  Spotbill  Ducks  begin  nesting  in 
March  in  Bharatpur  (Abrar  Khan,  pers. 
comm.)  and  continue  to  nest  till  September- 
October.  No  nesting  was  observed  or  duck- 
lings seen  during  the  spring  of  1980.  No  Spot- 
bill  Ducks  were  observed,  except  for  the  oc- 
casional visitor,  during  April  and  May. 

22nd  June  1980.  There  had  been  some  rain 
the  previous  day  and  several  hundred  Spot- 
bills  had  arrived.  They  congregated  in  the 
muddy  puddles  on  Cirra  Bund.  From  this  date 
on  there  were  numbers  of  Spotbills  in  the 
Sanctuary. 

4th  September.  We  were  shown  a nest  on 
a mound  in  a small  marsh  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  road  between  Bakalaya  and  Sapan 
Mori.  It  contained  seven  eggs.  On  the  day 
we  first  saw  it  the  sitting  bird  was  being  haras- 
sed by  a Marsh  Harrier  in  immature  plum- 
age. The  harrier  hovered  over  the  nest,  land- 
ing periodically  near  it.  Whenever  the  harrier 


landed  the  duck  would  rush  towards  it  and 
drive  it  off.  This  meant  that  the  duck  rushed 
from  one  end  of  the  mound  to  the  other.  It 
would  leap  up  at  the  raptor  as  it  hovered 
closely  overhead.  Occasionally  the  harrier 
would  fly  away,  only  to  return  a short  while 
later. 

On  6th  September  we  found  the  nest  aband- 
oned and  containing  broken  eggs. 

1 5th  September.  Another  nest  on  a mound 
near  the  watchtower  was  pointed  out  to  us. 
It  contained  10  eggs. 

This  nest  was  also  robbed  of  its  eggs.  Both 
nests  were  discovered  by  Forest  Department 
labourers  clearing  the  mounds  of  grass  and 
weeds  so  that  the  planted  babuls  could  grow 
more  quickly.  Despite  the  presence  of  the 
nests  the  mounds  were  cleared,  leaving  the 
nests  exposed. 

Anas  querquedula 

GARGANEY  TEAL 

14 th  May  1980.  Three  birds  in  Ram  Bund. 
15 th  July.  Observed  13  birds  in  Cirra  Bund 
close  to  the  Keoladeo  Temple. 

13  th  August.  In  late  afternoon  a flock  of 
about  30  birds  flew  overhead  and  then  settled 
in  the  open  water  in  Ram  Bund. 

Nettapus  coromandelianus 

COTTON  TEAL 

22nd  June  1980.  These  birds  had  also  left 
during  the  winter.  But  on  this  date,  after  some 
rains,  many  pairs  and  threesomes  were  flying 
fast  circuits  over  the  marshes,  while  vocalising 
in  a rapid  quacking  call. 

11  th  July.  These  birds  were  still  engaged  in 
courtship  flights.  Threesomes  were  invariably 
made  up  of  one  female  and  two  males.  Occa- 
sionally they  would  alight  in  large  trees  where 
the  females  would  inspect  possible  nestholes. 
Pairs  were  often  seen  perched  in  trees.  In  one 


20 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


threesome  the  two  males  fought  in  mid-air, 
one  male  grabbing  the  other  by  the  neck  with 
his  beak.  The  two  crashed  into  the  branches 
of  a babul  but  soon  recovered  and  flew  on 
after  the  female,  quacking  loudly. 

22nd  September.  Checked  three  nests  in  hol- 
lows in  trees  besides  the  Keoladeo  Temple. 
Two  nests  were  in  hollows  only  \\  metres 
apart  in  a jamun  tree.  One  nest  contained 
four  ducklings  and  eight  eggs,  the  other  con- 
tained five  eggs.  The  third  nest  was  in  a 
babul  tree  and  contained  three  eggs. 

21th  September.  Saw  a female  with  17  small, 
downy  ducklings  at  Sapan  Mori,  only  about 
20  metres  from  the  road. 

Sarkidiomis  melanotos 

COMB  DUCK 

This  species  also  left  the  Sanctuary  during 
the  dry  months. 

12 th  August  1980.  Found  a nest  in  a hollow 
limb  of  a babul  along  the  bund  about  half  a 
kilometre  east  of  the  Keoladeo  Temple.  It 
contained  17  eggs.  Three  of  the  eggs  were 
very  small  and  about  the  size  of  those  of  a 
Cotton  Teal.  Perhaps  the  Comb  Duck  had 
taken  over  the  nest  hollow  of  a Cotton  Teal. 
21th  September.  In  a flooded  field  imme- 
diately below  Ajan  Bund  we  observed  a Comb 
Duck  with  17  ducklings  at  least  one  week  old. 

Pernis  ptilorhynchus 

HONEY  BUZZARD 

We  noticed  this  bird  in  the  Sanctuary  from 
March  1980  onwards. 

22nd  June  1980.  Abrar  Khan  showed  us  a 
nest  he  had  found.  It  contained  two  eggs.  The 
bulky  stick  nest  was  8 \ metres  high  in  a kadam 
tree.  The  tree  was  about  15  metres  east  of  the 
road  and  about  half  a kilometre  south  of  the 
Shanti  Kutir  turnoff. 


5th  July.  The  nest  contained  one  newly 
hatched  chick  and  one  egg. 

1th  July.  The  second  egg  was  pipping. 

12 th  July.  The  nest  was  empty  except  for 
the  fresh  carcass  of  a Pied  Mynah,  presum- 
ably brought  by  the  parents  to  feed  the  young. 
On  the  11th  we  saw  an  Eagle  Owl  low  in  a 
tree  only  about  10  metres  from  the  nest. 
Perhaps  it  took  the  young  as  owl  of  the 
genus  Bubo  are  known  to  take  the  young  of 
other  raptors  (Newton  1979). 

Milvus  (migrans)  lineatus 
BLACKEARED  KITE  NR 

This  distinctive  subspecies  of  the  Black  Kite, 
with  its  “conspicuous  white  buzzard-like  under- 
wing patch”  (Ali  & Ripley,  Vol.  1,  1968),  is 
recorded  from  Delhi  by  Abdulali  and  Panday 
(1978)  but  not  from  Bharatpur.  It  is  not  list- 
ed by  Saxena  (1975).  We  saw  and  filmed  two 
of  these  kites  at  Ajan  Bund  on  17th  October 
1980. 

Aquila  clanga 

GREATER  SPOTTED  EAGLE 

23 rd  December  1979.  We  saw  three  imma- 
ture Spotted  Eagles  on  some  kind  of  prey  out 
in  the  NE  corner  of  Hans  Sarovar  Bund.  The 
marsh  was  virtually  dry,  only  a few  patches 
of  soft  mud  remained.  We  walked  over  to 
investigate.  One  of  the  eagles  was  larger  than 
the  other  two  and  was  feeding.  The  others 
stood  a little  to  one  side.  The  bird  they  were 
eating  was  a large  owl  of  the  genus  Bubo. 
This  could  be  determined  from  the  head,  legs 
and  feet  which  were  still  intact. 

24 th  December.  A Greater  Spotted  Eagle 
in  immature  plumage  was  feeding  on  some 
indeterminate  meat.  While  it  was  feeding  a 
Sarus  Crane  walked  up  to  it,  approaching  to 
within  a few  centimetres  of  the  eagle.  The 
eagle  raised  its  hackles,  opened  its  beak  wide. 


21 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


spread  its  wings  and  struck  out  with  its  talons. 
After  a few  minutes  the  Sarus  walked  away. 
2 6th  December.  In  Rauji  Bund  1,  due  west 
of  Shanti  Kutir  we  observed  an  eagle  in  adult 
plumage  feeding  on  a dead  spoonbill  in  shal- 
low water. 

29 th  January  1980.  Early  in  the  morning  an 
eagle  was  feeding  on  a large  catfish  left  strand- 
ed in  the  canal  near  the  Keoladeo  Temple  by 
the  pelicans.  It’s  bill  did  not  seem  suited  to 
fish  eating  for  it  could  tear  off  only  small  pieces 
of  flesh  and  skin.  It  fed  for  more  than  two 
hours.  This  was  in  sharp  contrast  to  a Ring- 
tailed Fishing  Eagle,  which  fed  on  a catfish 
it  had  caught.  The  Fishing  Eagle  was  able  to 
pull  off  large  pieces  of  flesh  and  finished  its 
fish  in  less  than  10  minutes. 

Haliaeetus  leucoryphus 

RINGTAILED  FISHING  EAGLE 

For  a number  of  years  two  pairs  have 
nested  in  the  Sanctuary.  One  pair  in  the  north- 
ern end  of  Ram  Bund  the  other  on  the  far 
eastern  side  of  Cirra  Bund  close  to  the  eastern 
bund  itself.  In  the  winter  of  1979-80  the  Ram 
Bund  pair  did  not  breed.  Frequently  we  saw 
them  sitting  on  an  old  nest,  but  they  used  it 
only  as  a feeding  platform.  We  did  not  see 
the  birds  carry  nesting  material,  nor  were  eggs 
laid.  For  the  previous  seven  years  (Abrar 
Khan,  pers.  comm.)  the  female  laid  eggs  each 
winter.  But  not  once  did  the  eggs  hatch.  All 
the  old  nests,  of  which  we  counted  five,  are  in 
tall  kadam  trees  on  the  northern  edge  of  Ram 
Bund. 

5th  December  1979.  On  the  evening  of  De- 
cember 4th,  while  driving  to  Bharatpur,  we 
picked  up  a hare  freshly  killed  by  a truck. 
On  the  morning  of  the  5th  we  put  this  out  in 
a conspicuous  place  in  a dry  area  of  Ram 
Bund,  well  within  view  of  the  female  Fishing 
Eagle.  We  hoped  to  film  the  bird  on  the  hare. 


We  watched  the  Eagle  from  8.00  hours  to 
17.00  hours,  but  she  never  once  left  her  perch. 
13 th  December.  The  pair  nesting  in  Cirra 
Bund  had  two  eggs  in  their  nest.  The  huge 
stick  nest  was  in  a dead  kadam  tree  at  a Height 
of  16^  metres.  The  tree  was  about  150  metres 
from  the  eastern  bund  and  approximately  half 
way  between  Bison  Mori  and  the  southern 
bund. 

22nd  December.  At  11.40  hours  a Forest 
Guard  climbed  up  to  the  nest  to  check  its 
content.  The  female  eagle  did  not  leave  the 
nest  till  the  guard  had  climbed  to  a height 
of  four  metres,  then  she  circled  low,  making 
clicking  noises.  The  male  also  came  and  settled 
in  a nearby  tree.  The  guard  reported  that 
there  were  two  young  in  the  nest,  white  and 
downy  and  very  small.  One  young  was  larger 
than  the  other  and  the  smaller  one  appeared 
damp.  There  were  two  fish,  each  about  30 
centimetres  long,  on  the  nest  rim.  Only  small 
pieces  had  been  eaten.  By  the  time  we  had 
walked  less  than  a 100  metres  from  the  nest 
tree,  both  birds  had  returned  to  the  nest. 

24 th  January  1980.  Saw  parents  feed  chicks. 
2 6th  January.  We  checked  the  contents  of 
the  nest.  It  was  empty.  The  adults  were  sitting 
in  a neighbouring  tree.  Perhaps  the  young 
had  been  taken  by  Dusky  Horned  Owls  which 
are  common  in  the  area.  According  to  New- 
ton (1979)  owls  of  the  genus  Bubo  are  known 
to  take  the  young  of  raptors.  He  reported  that 
most  of  this  predation  is  on  large  young  no 
longer  covered  by  the  female  at  night. 

\lth  February.  The  base  of  the  eagle’s  nest 
tree  had  been  deliberately  set  on  fire  by  herds- 
men. The  huge  tree  toppled. 

This  was  one  of  many  dead  kadam  trees 
cut  or  burnt  down  during  1979-80.  The  wood 
was  taken  out  within  days  by  herdsmen  and 
other  villagers.  The  Fishing  Eagles  remained 
in  the  area. 


22 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Sqc.  79  Plate  I 

Breeden:  Keoladeo  Ghana  Sanctuary 


Above : Male  Blacknecked  Stork  attacks  a group  of  White  Pelicans  in  Cirra  Bund. 
January  1980. 

Below : Female  Mottled  Wood  Owl  on  its  nest  in  a neem  tree.  Photograph  was 
taken  in  the  daytime.  April  1980. 

( Photos : Stanley  & Belinda  Breeden) 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  II 

Breeden:  Keoladeo  Ghana  Sanctuary 


Above : Female  Mottled  Wood  Owl  feeding  its  chicks  on  a Roseringed  Parakeet. 
Photograph  was  taken  at  night.  April  1 980. 

Below : Collared  Scops  Owl  feeding  young  almost  ready  to  fledge.  Photographed 
at  night.  April  1980. 

( Photos : Stanley  and  Belinda  Breeden) 


1 • - 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


Sometime  in  late  March  or  early  April 
both  pairs  of  eagles  left  the  Sanctuary. 

2 6th  August.  A male  eagle  had  returned  to 
Ram  Bund. 

4th  September.  A pair  of  eagles  had  return- 
ed to  the  eastern  side  of  Cirra  Bund. 

6th  September.  The  pair  had  begun  building 
a nest  in  a tall  jamun  at  Bison  Mori. 

21th  September.  The  pair  built  a new  nest 
in  the  top  of  a babul  tree  only  about  30  metres 
from  the  jamun.  They  appeared  to  be  brood- 
ing eggs.  The  nest  was  in  too  thin  branches 
to  climb  safely. 

llih  October.  A large  (female)  Ringtailed 
Fishing  Eagle  in  immature  plumage  arrived  at 
Ram  Bund.  When  we  left  Bharatpur  on  13th 
November  she  was  still  there.  The  adult 
female,  normal  resident  in  this  area,  had  not 
returned  by  this  date. 

Neophron  percnopterus  ginginianus 

INDIAN  SCAVENGER  VULTURE 

From  September  1979  onwards  the  Indian 
Flapshelled  Turtles,  Lissemys  punctatus,  left 
the  drying  marshes  in  large  numbers.  Tn  what 
seemed  a random  movement,  they  wandered 
off  in  all  directions,  keeping  walking  until  they 
found  shelter  in  the  woodlands  or  areas  of 
pumped  water.  To  reach  the  shelter  of  dense 
vegetation  or  ground  litter  they  had  to  walk 
many  kilometres  over  bare  ground.  Amongst 
the  birds  there  was  only  one  predator  on  these 
turtles  and  that  was  the  Scavenger  Vulture. 
These  birds  would  walk  up  to  a turtle,  turn  it 
over,  and  dig  underneath  one  of  the  rear  flaps 
with  its  sharp  and  narrow  beak.  Only  these 
vultures  could  open  the  flaps.  Once  opened. 
King  Vultures  and  Whitebacked  Vultures 
would  often  commandeer  the  turtle.  We  saw 
turtles  wandering  about  and  Scavenger  Vul- 
tures feeding  on  them  till  about  two  weeks 


after  the  rains  arrived,  i.e.  about  July  10th 
1980. 

2 8th  November  1979.  A vulture  in  immature 
plumage,  carrying  a stone  in  its  bill,  walked 
up  to  a turtle  lying  upside  down  in  a dry 
marsh  and  then  dropped  the  stone  on  the 
turtle’s  shell.  It  was  an  action  very  similar 
to  that  observed  of  the  Egyptian  Vulture 
( Neophron  p.  percnopterus)  in  Africa  which 
uses  stones  to  break  the  eggs  of  ostriches  (Van 
Lawick-Goodall  1970). 

Circus  aeruginosus 

MARSH  HARRIER 

We  saw  the  first  bird  to  arrive  from  migra- 
tion on  August  13th  1980.  It  was  in  imma- 
ture plumage,  as  were  all  the  birds  we  saw 
this  season.  Apart  from  taking  the  eggs  from 
a Spotbill’s  nest,  we  saw  a harrier  take  the 
eggs  of  a Purple  Moorhen  (26th  September), 
and  a nestling  of  a Little  Cormorant  (20th 
September) . 

Falco  peregrinus 

PEREGRINE  FALCON 

Abdulali  & Panday  (1978)  rate  the  Pere- 
grine as  occasional  at  Bharatpur  and  Saxena 
(1975)  considers  it  rare.  Neither  list  specifies 
the  subspecies.  On  26th  January  1980  we  saw 
a Peregrine  perched  in  a dead  kadam  tree  in 
full  sunlight  and  we  could  approach  it  closely. 
With  the  aid  of  a friend’s  powerful  telescope 
we  were  able  to  identify  it  as  F.  p.  japonensis. 
The  black  cap  and  moustachial  stripes  and 
very  pale,  almost  white,  underside  were  diag- 
nostic. 

Grus  antigone 

SARUS  CRANE 

In  December  1979  there  was  a tremendous 
influx  of  Saruses  every  evening  into  Cirra 
Bund  and  the  NE  portion  of  Hans  Sarovar 


23 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Bund.  The  birds  began  to  arrive  about  an 
hour  before  sunset  and  continued  to  stream 
in  until  dark.  Some  arrived  even  after  dark. 
All  but  a few  left  again  at  sunrise. 

20 th  December  1979.  We  counted  the  Saru- 
ses  at  18.05  hours.  There  were  194  in  Cirra 
Bund  and  240  in  adjoining  Hans  Sarovar 
Bund.  This  appears  to  be  the  largest  con- 
centration of  Saruses  recorded  in  the  Sanc- 
tuary (Salim  Ali,  pers.  comm.). 

During  March  and  April  1980  when  pumped 
water  began  to  collect  in  Ram  Bund,  the 
top  end  of  Rauji  Bund  1 and  Cirra  Bund, 
Saruses  remained  feeding  there  all  day.  Most 
days  there  were  well  over  100  Saruses  in  both 
Cirra  Bund  and  Rauji  Bund  1.  On  April  4th, 
in  mid-afternoon  we  counted  238  Saruses  at 
Cirra  Bund  alone  and  on  19th  April  there 
were  101  at  Rauji  Bund  1.  On  17th  May  there 
were  214  Saruses  at  Cirra  Bund  but  none  at 
Rauji  Bund  1 where  pumping  had  stopped. 
Water  was  shrinking  at  Cirra  Bund  in  the 
latter  part  of  May  as  power  cuts  restricted 
the  pumping.  On  May  23rd  there  were  only 
63  Saruses  at  Cirra  Bund  and  none  at  Rauji 
Bund  1.  Once  the  rains  started,  on  June  21st, 
the  Saruses  dispersed  and  were  present  in  only 
small  numbers. 

In  good  seasons  Saruses  begin  nesting  in 
March,  but  in  1980  none  nested  before  the 
rains. 

18 th  July  1980.  We  watched  two  different 
pairs  of  Saruses  build  nests  in  shallow  parts 
of  Rauji  Bund  1.  The  birds  pulled  up  grasses 
and  other  aquatic  vegetation  and  tossed  it 
into  a pile.  The  effect  was  to  create  a small 
platform  surrounded  by  a narrow  moat  of 
water. 

13 th  August.  From  a distance  we  saw  a 
Sarus  sitting  on  a treeless  mound  just  NW  of 
the  watchtower.  The  bird  appeared  to  be  sit- 
ting on  a nest.  We  poled  towards  it  in  a boat 


and  only  when  we  were  within  a few  metres 
did  the  bird  stand  up  and  walk  away.  But  it 
was  not  incubating  an  egg,  it  had  been  sitting 
on  a stone,  roughly  the  size  of  a Sarus  egg. 
The  stone  was  pale  yellow-brown  in  colour, 
and  pitted  with  small  holes.  We  watched  a 
pair  of  Saruses  in  this  same  area  till  early 
November,  but  though  they  built  several  nests 
we  never  found  any  eggs  or  saw  any  chicks. 
14 th  August.  Found  a nest  with  two  eggs  at 
Bison  Mori.  On  8th  September  we  observed 
the  nest  from  a distance.  Both  parents  were 
there.  There  were  two  chicks  on  the  nest — one 
stood  strongly  upright.  The  other  was  smaller, 
still  wet  and  still  at  the  tottering  stage.  One 
parent  carried  off  some  eggshells;  the  smaller 
chick  must  have  just  hatched.  On  15th  Octo- 
ber we  filmed  a pair  of  Sarus  with  two  well 
grown  young  at  this  nest  site.  Young  were 
still  being  fed  by  their  parents. 

11th  August.  We  found  two  nests,  each  with 
two  eggs,  in  the  northernmost  portion  of  Rauji 
Bund  1.  We  found  the  chicks  from  one  of  the 
nests  when  the  chicks  were  approximately  one 
week  old.  This  was  on  September  14th. 

2 0th  August.  We  found  a nest  with  one  egg 
about  80  metres  west  of  the  main  road  at  a 
level  with  the  watchtower.  We  checked  this 
nest  daily  and  the  second  egg  was  laid  oil 
August  23rd.  There  is  not  much  information 
on  the  incubation  period  of  the  Sarus  Crane. 
Ali  & Ripley  (1968),  quoting  Lahiri,  say  it 
is  28  days.  The  Moghul  Emperor  Jahangir 
states  in  his  memoirs  that  the  eggs  hatched 
after  34  days  incubation  (Ali  1927).  At  the 
International  Crane  Foundation  it  was  found 
that  Sarus  eggs  hatch  after  30-32  days  in  an 
artificial  incubator  (Sauey,  pers.  comm.).  On 
September  21st  we  could  hear  a chick  chip- 
ping in  each  egg  and  from  one  we  could  hear 
pipping  sounds.  On  23rd  September  one  egg 
was  pipping  at  6.12  hours.  At  16.00  hours 


24 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


the  second  egg  was  pipping  and  the  first  egg 
was  almost  ready  to  hatch.  We  left  the  nest 
at  18.30  hours  and  returned  at  19.30  hours 
by  which  time  the  first  had  hatched.  It  was 
full  moon.  We  returned  to  the  blind  at  6.00 
hours  on  September  24th.  At  6.05  hours  both 
adult  Sarus  arrived  at  the  nest.  The  male  ate 
the  membrane  and  eggshell  of  the  egg  which 
hatched  the  day  before.  Shortly  after  10.00 
hours  the  chick,  still  unsteady,  stumbled  off 
the  nest.  The  male  stayed  with  it  and  fed 
it  small  items  very,  very  gently.  At  sunrise 
on  September  25th  the  second  egg  was  almost 
ready  to  hatch.  The  female  brooded  it  while 
the  male  stayed  close-by  with  the  first  chick. 
When  the  second  egg  hatched  at  9.40  hours 
the  male  joined  the  female  on  the  nest.  Both 
parents  swallowed  small  portions  of  the  egg- 
shell but  the  male  carried  most  of  the  shell 
and  membrane  off  and  dumped  them  a few 
metres  from  the  nest.  So  the  first  egg  hatched 
in  34  days  and  the  second  in  33. 

Grus  leucogeranus 

SIBERIAN  CRANE 

Of  the  14  species  of  Crane,  the  Siberian 
is  considered  the  most  endangered  by  the  In- 
ternational Crane  Foundation  (Sauey,  pers. 
comm.).  Once  this  species  occurred  over  a 
fairly  wide  area  of  northern  India  (Hume  and 
Marshall  1880).  But  in  recent  years  Bharatpur 
Sanctuary  has  been  the  only  known  wintering 
ground  for  this  species  in  India.  And  even 
during  that  time  there  has  been  a drastic 
decline  in  the  numbers  coming  to  Bharatpur. 
Below  are  the  numbers  of  birds  recorded  for 
the  Sanctuary  for  the  decade  1970-1980.  The 


figures  have  been  compiled  by 
national  Crane  Foundation. 

the  Inter- 

March 1970 

— 76 

cranes 

Winter  1974-75 

— 63 

99 

February  1976 

— 61 

99 

February  1977  — 57  cranes 

February  1978  — 55 

Winter  1978-79  — 41  to  43  „ 

Winter  1979-80  — 33 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Siberians  are 
undoubtedly  the  Sanctuary’s  most  important 
species,  they  suffered  the  worst  from  the 

drought  of  1979-80.  The  birds  fed  almost  ex- 
clusively at  Cirra  Bund  and,  when  at  Bharat- 
pur, were  seen  in  other  locations  within  the 
Sanctuary  only  a few  times  and  usually  as  a 
result  of  a disturbance  at  Cirra  Bund. 

Cirra  Bund  was  the  last  to  dry  up  and  with 
two  exceptions  the  area  of  soft  mud  and  shal- 
low water  within  this  Bund  was  the  only  place 
the  cranes  were  seen  feeding.  The  other  two 
places  were  a small  pond  only  a few  metres 
in  diameter  at  Sapan  Mori  where  two  of  these 
cranes  briefly  fed  on  January  28th  1980,  and 
Ram  Bund  where  a single  Siberian  stayed 
from  March  18th  to  30th. 

No  matter  what  the  time  of  day  the  Siberians 
were  always  feeding  when  we  observed  them, 
even  during  moonlit  nights.  They  spent  no 
extended  periods  preening.  Unison  calls  and 
other  interactions  were  extremely  rare.  The 
only  vocalisations,  apart  from  the  very  occa- 
sional unison  calls,  were  soft  calls  during 
flight.  Feeding  required  the  expenditure  of  a 
great  deal  of  energy,  the  birds  having  to  move 
substantial  quantities  of  mud  to  uncover  the 
small  tubers  on  which  they  fed.  The  tubers 
were  not  as  numerous  as  in  normal  years. 

The  drying  up  of  Cirra  Bund,  the  only  place 
in  the  Sanctuary  the  cranes  could  feed,  meant 
that  the  birds  were  disturbed  quite  often  by 
herdsmen  and  also  by  tourists.  Neither  the 
herdsmen  and  their  buffaloes  nor  the  tourists 
were  effectively  controlled  by  the  Sanctuary 
management.  Whenever  the  cranes  were  dis- 
turbed they  would  circle  over  the  Bund  for  a 
few  minutes  or  sometimes  for  several  hours 


25 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


and  then  invariably  fly  off  to  a destination 
outside  the  Sanctuary.  Often  the  cranes  left 
the  Sanctuary  for  many  days  on  end.  It  was 
never  discovered  where  they  went. 

Water  pumped  into  Cirra  Bund  from  pump 
C was  for  some  reason  directed  towards  the 
eastern  portion  only,  an  area  devoid  of  Sibe- 
rian Crane  food. 

The  conditions  for  the  cranes  and  their 
behaviour  during  the  1979  drought  was  very 
different  to  that  in  a normal  season.  We  ob- 
served this  species  in  January  1975  and  again 
in  February  1977.  In  both  these  winters  there 
was  enough  area  of  marsh  so  that  the  cranes, 
if  disturbed  (which  happened  rarely),  could 
move  to  another  area.  They  never  left  the 
Sanctuary.  Food  was  plentiful  in  all  the  major 
Bunds.  The  birds  interacted  frequently  and 
their  unison  calls  were  heard  daily  and  often. 
They  spent  long  periods  preening. 

The  first  Siberian  Cranes  arrived  on  Decem- 
ber 7th  1979.  Four  of  the  birds  arrived  that 
day.  By  December  15th  twelve  cranes  were 
at  Cirra  Bund  including  one  juvenile.  On  18th 
December  all  twelve  cranes  flew  off  at  14.00 
hours.  One  returned  at  16.00  hours.  On  19th 
December  seven  cranes  arrived — two  at  9.00 
hours,  two  at  11.56  hours  and  three  (includ- 
ing a juvenile)  at  12.00  hours. 

On  December  20th  and  21st  there  were  eight 
cranes  all  day.  On  the  22nd  the  eight  cranes 
were  joined  by  a further  two  at  16.50  hours. 
On  23rd  December  the  cranes  were  disturbed 
at  9.20  hours  by  a tourist  and  flew  up  but  all 
returned  by  10.00  hours.  Two  more  Siberian 
arrived  between  15.30  hours  and  16.30  hours. 
On  December  25th  only  eight  cranes  remained 
and  all  of  these  took  off  in  a NW  direction 
in  the  afternoon  of  December  26th. 

We  were  absent  from  Bharatpur  from  De- 
cember 27th  1979  to  January  7th  1980.  On 
the  morning  of  January  8th  33  Siberian 


Cranes  were  recorded  (Abrar  Khan,  pers. 
comm.),  but  that  afternoon,  when  we  arrived 
only  16  were  left,  including  three  juveniles. 
The  morning  of  January  8th  was  the  only 
occasion  during  the  whole  winter  that  all  33 
cranes  were  seen  in  the  Sanctuary.  On  January 
14th  we  saw  28  Siberian  Cranes,  but  this  was 
the  only  occasion  we  saw  that  many.  There 
were  no  cranes  on  January  17th.  On  January 
24th  and  25th  there  was  one  pair.  On  the 
morning  of  January  26th  the  pair  was  joined 
by  another  pair  accompanied  by  a juvenile. 
One  of  the  new-comers  squatted  down  and 
slept  with  its  head  resting  on  its  back.  The 
other  fed  and  the  young  just  gazed  around. 
This  trio  left  again  on  January  27th.  On  Jan- 
uary 28th  the  “resident”  pair  were  joined  by 
another  pair.  At  about  midday  both  pairs 
were  disturbed  by  a herdsman  and  left  the 
Sanctuary.  We  were  absent  from  Bharatpur 
from  February  1st  to  16th.  On  the  16th  only 
one  pair  was  in  the  Sanctuary.  According  to 
Abrar  Khan  these  two  cranes  were  present 
nearly  all  the  time  we  were  away.  On  Feb- 
ruary 11th  they  were  joined  by  six  others 
(Abrar  Khan,  pers.  comm.) — two  pairs,  each 
with  a juvenile — but  they  only  stayed  a few 
hours.  The  “resident”  pair  left  on  February 
28th  1980.  According  to  Abrar  Khan  six  Sibe- 
rian Cranes  arrived  on  the  evening  of  March 
3rd  and  left  again  at  9.30  hours  on  March 
4th.  From  March  18th  to  30th  a single  Sibe- 
rian Crane  stayed  in  Ram  Bund  and  then 
left  the  Sanctuary. 

Porzana  pusilla 

baillon’s  crake 

We  first  noticed  this  species  on  August  19th 
1980  and  saw  it  regularly  after  that.  Although 
we  looked  for  nests  when  flushing  the  bird, 
we  never  found  one.  We  always  saw  it  on  the 


26 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


aquatic  vegetation  such  as  grasses  and  water- 
lilies  while  we  were  out  in  a boat. 

Amaurornis  akool 

BROWN  CRAKE  NR 

We  first  identified  this  bird  in  the  Sanctuary 
on  17th  November  1979  and  saw  it  regularly 
until  the  breaking  of  the  monsoon.  We  did 
not  see  it  after  that.  Neither  Abdulali  and 
Panday  (1978)  nor  Saxena  (1975)  list  this 
species  for  Bharatpur. 

Amaurornis  phoenicurus 

WHITEBREASTED  WATERHEN 

At  dusk  on  August  19th  we  observed  a 
Whitebreasted  Waterhen  leading  its  chicks 
from  a bund  out  on  to  the  marsh.  The  adult 
folded  some  grasses  over  to  form  a platform 
after  which  it  fluffed  itself  out  and  brooded 
the  four  small,  black  and  downy  young. 

Porphyrio  porphyrio 

PURPLE  MOORHEN 

There  were  no  Purple  Moorhens  observed 
during  the  winter,  spring  and  early  summer. 
We  first  noticed  this  species  in  very  small 
numbers  at  Ram  Bund  on  June  18th.  On 
July  18th  pairs  were  busy  courting  and  mak- 
ing nest-platforms  by  bending  the  reeds.  By 
24th  of  July  there  had  been  a big  increase  in 
numbers  in  all  parts  of  the  marshes.  We  found 
five  nests  in  Ram  Bund  on  August  1st,  the 
number  of  eggs  varied  from  two  to  five  per 
nest.  All  these  nests  were  built  in  tall  reeds. 
By  13th  August  the  nests  were  submerged  as 
a result  of  water  let  into  Ram  Bund  from 
Ajan  Bund.  Between  17th  August  and  15th 
September  we  found  nine  more  nests.  Com- 
pleted clutches  varied  from  four  to  seven.  All 
these  nests  were  in  aquatic  grass  in  the  area 
west  of  the  watchtower  in  Rauji  Bund  1. 


Hydrophasianus  chirurgus 

PHEASANT-TAILED  JAgANA 

We  spotted  the  first  jacana  in  breeding  plum- 
age on  May  9th  1980  in  the  green  grassy  area 
around  pump  D in  Cirra  Bund.  Large  num- 
bers arrived  in  early  June  when  scores  of 
pairs  were  calling  in  Cirra  Bund,  Ram  Bund 
and  Rauji  Bund  1.  We  saw  a loose  congrega- 
tion of  35  in  Ram  Bund  on  22nd  June.  By 
June  25th  numbers  were  fewer  throughout  the 
Sanctuary;  perhaps  30  pairs  where  before 
there  had  been  several  hundred  individuals. 
On  July  19th  we  observed  a nest  from  a blind. 
The  nest  was  out  in  the  marsh  12  metres  from 
the  northern  bund  of  Ram  Bund.  Our  obser- 
vations began  at  16.00  hours  and  lasted  for 
about  two  hours.  The  floating  nest  was  in  the 
open  water  so  the  bird  could  not  walk  to  it, 
but  had  to  fly.  When  it  first  arrived  the  bird 
was  wet  from  wading  in  some  damp  grass. 
Before  settling  on  the  four  eggs  the  bird  re- 
moved the  water  drops  from  its  underside 
with  sweeps  with  its  beak.  Then  the  bird  in- 
cubated the  eggs  by  scooping  them  under  itself 
with  its  wings.  The  wings  were  between  the 
eggs  and  the  damp  surface  of  the  nest.  The 
spurs  on  the  bird’s  carpal  joints  were  clearly 
visible.  Between  1st  August  and  15th  Septem- 
ber we  found  six  more  nests — all  of  them  in 
Ram  Bund  and  the  northern  edge  of  Rauji 
Bund  1. 

Metopidius  indicus 

BRONZEWINGED  JAgANA 

Like  the  Pheasant-tailed  Jacana,  this  species 
was  absent  from  the  Sanctuary  from  December 
onwards.  We  noticed  the  first  arrival  on  June 
18th,  a single  bird.  This  species  was  not  nearly 
as  numerous  as  the  Pheasant-tailed  Jacana,  nor 
was  it  as  vocal.  We  found  the  first  nest  of  this 
species  on  August  1st  in  the  southern  part  of 


27 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Ram  Bund.  It  contained  one  egg.  When  we 
next  visited  the  nest  on  August  13th  there  were 
four  eggs.  The  nest  was  a densely  packed, 
floating  mass  of  acquatic  vegetation  in  a patch 
of  sparsely  spaced  reeds.  It  seemed  to  be  loose- 
ly anchored  for  the  nest  would  float  only  a few 
centimetres  whenever  a breeze  sprang  up.  The 
nests  of  both  species  of  jacana,  which  were 
subject  to  the  same  rising  waters  as  those  of 
the  Purple  Moorhens,  were  not  inundated. 
The  following  are  observations  on  the  nest  we 
first  found  on  August  1st — 

25 th  August,  1980.  One  egg  had  disappear- 
ed from  the  nest. 

28 th  August.  Checked  the  nest  at  8.32  hours 
and  two  eggs  were  pipping.  Stayed  in  the  blind 
overlooking  the  nest  till  12.25  hours.  During 
that  time  the  bird  rushed  off  the  nest  twice  to 
distract  a House  Crow  that  had  perched  in  a 
babul  tree  about  30  metres  away.  In  each  case 
the  jacana  took  off  with  such  force  that  an 
egg  rolled  off  the  nest.  When  it  returned  the 
bird  rolled  the  egg  back  onto  the  nest  with  its 
beak.  Like  the  Pheasant-tailed  Jacana,  this 
species  scoops  the  eggs  underneath  itself  with 
its  wings  when  settling  down  to  incubate. 

29 th  August.  Arrived  at  the  blind  at  6.00 
hours.  The  bird  did  not  get  off  the  nest  as  I 
entered  the  blind.  The  bird  gave  a call  we 
had  not  heard  before,  a very  soft  “preeow, 
preeow”  with  the  beak  barely  opened.  The 
eggs  had  not  yet  hatched  at  6.20  hours.  We 
went  back  to  the  nest  at  8.15  hours  and  found 
that  one  egg  was  nearly  ready  to  hatch,  we 
could  hear  the  chick  peeping.  Perhaps  the 
adult’s  new  call  was  in  response  to  the  peep- 
ing of  the  chick.  The  chick  hatched  at  8.37 
hours.  The  sitting  bird,  presumably  the  male, 
raised  himself  slightly  and  the  hatchling  tot- 
tered towards  him  and  while  still  wet  pushed 
underneath  one  of  the  adult’s  wings,  lodging 
between  his  body  and  the  wing.  At  8.53  hours 


the  male  stood  up,  gently  opened  his  wing 
and  dropped  the  young,  he  ate  a few  small 
fragments  of  egg  shell  and  took  the  larger 
pieces  of  shell  away.  When  he  returned  the 
chick  squirmed  back  under  one  of  the  male’s 
wings.  The  male  called  softly  all  the  while 
and  held  his  wings  slightly  open.  The  male  left 
the  nest  four  more  times  before  10.14  hours 
when  we  left  the  blind.  Each  time  the  voung 
was  gently  dropped  and  each  time  the  adult 
returned  it  struggled  back  under  one  of  his 
wings. 

30th  August.  Arrived  at  the  blind  6.04 
hours.  At  6.07  hours  the  jacana  stood  up 
briefly,  the  long  pink  legs  and  feet  of  a chick 
dangled  from  under  each  wing.  The  third  egg 
had  not  yet  hatched.  At  6.15  hours  the  male 
suddenly  flew  off  the  nest  dropping  the  two 
young.  One  landed  in  the  water  where  it  stay- 
ed “frozen”  until  the  parent  returned  at  6.22 
hours,  then  both  young  rushed  to  him  and 
pushed  one  under  each  wing.  At  6.31  hours  the 
male  tucked  the  egg  under  himself.  From  6.39 
hours  onwards  the  adult  no  longer  sat  on  the 
egg  but  rested  on  his  tarsi  when  on  the  nest. 
The  young  occasionally  squirmed  out  from 
under  the  male’s  wings  and  foraged  around 
the  nest.  Three  times  in  quick  succession  the 
male  rushed  off  the  nest  end,  screeching  loud- 
ly chased  another,  larger  Bronzewinged  Jaca- 
na, presumably  a female.  At  8.40  hours  the 
male  ran  off  taking  a young  under  each  wing 
with  him.  The  male  stood  on  floating  aquatic 
plants  about  six  metres  from  the  nest.  At  8.46 
hours  the  male  dropped  the  young  to  chase 
another  BW  Jacana.  Two  minutes  later  he 
returned  and  the  young  pushed  under  his 
wings,  then  he  dropped  them  again  and  they 
foraged  around  the  adult’s  feet.  By  9.33  hours 
the  adult  brought  the  chicks  back  to  the  nest, 
but  did  not  sit  on  the  egg  again.  At  10.43 
hours  he  walked  off  the  nest,  carrying  the  two 


28 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 
Breeden:  Keoladeo  Ghana  Sanctuary 


Plate  III 


Above : Stone  Curlew  at  its  nest.  April  1980. 
Below : Openbill  Storks  nestbuilding.  July  1980. 
( Photos : Stanley  and  Belinda  Breeden) 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 
Breeden:  Keoladeo  Ghana  Sanctuary 


Plate  IV 


ilPlil 

IlSilil 


A pair  of  Painted  Storks  preening  each  other  during  courtship.  August  1980. 
(Photo  : Stanley  and  Belinda  Breeden) 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


young  and  did  not  return  to  the  nest.  On 
inspection  the  third  egg  turned  out  to  be  in- 
fertile. 

When  in  the  blind,  using  close  focusing 
binoculars,  we  were  able  to  examine  the  colours 
of  the  adult’s  lappet  and  beak.  The  colours 
are  as  in  figure  1.  The  lappet  is  entirely  pale 


Fig.  1.  Head  of  male  Bronzewinged  Jacana, 
Metopidius  indicus. 

Beak:  pale  yellow,  duller  towards  tip.  Lappet:  pale 
blue-grey.  Triangular  area  at  the  base  of  the  upper 
mandible:  bright  red. 

blue-grey  with  a triangle  of  red  on  the  upper 
mandible.  This  we  found  to  be  the  case  with 
all  Bronzewinged  Jacanas  we  saw  right  up  to 
the  end  of  January  1981.  Most  bird  books, 
Ali  & Ripley  (1969),  King  et  al.  (1975)  and 
Woodcock  (1980)  show  or  describe  the  lappet 
as  being  completely  red. 

Yanellus  indicus 

REDWATTLED  LAPWING 

We  found  the  first  nest  of  this  species  on 
a mound  in  Ram  Bund  on  19th  April  1980. 
It  contained  four  eggs.  We  found  another  nine 
nests  between  that  date  and  June  27th  but 


none  after  that.  A nest  we  found  on  May 
14th  was  situated  on  the  baked,  hot,  bare  earth 
of  Hans  Sarovar  Bund  very  close  to  Keola- 
deo  Temple.  The  shade  temperature  during 
that  day  and  the  next  three  fluctuated  between 
42°C  and  45 °C.  The  temperature  out  in  the 
full  sun  and  on  the  bare  earth  must  have  been 
considerably  higher.  On  May  14th  the  nest 
contained  three  eggs.  The  next  day  there  were 
four.  On  May  17th  we  observed  the  nest  from 
10.45  hours  to  13.00  hours.  The  birds  changed 
over  at  the  nest  at  10.55  hours,  at  11.42  and 
then  at  12.42  hours.  That  meant  they  sat 
for  periods  of  47  and  60  minutes  out  in  the 
sun.  While  sitting  the  birds  panted  constantly 
with  feathers  fluffed  out,  except  when  Black 
Kites  wheeled  overhead  when  the  birds  would 
sleek  their  feathers,  stop  panting  and  press 
close  to  the  ground.  The  relieving  bird  walked 
cautiously  and  slowly  all  the  way  from  the 
bund,  150  metres  away,  over  the  cracked  soil 
to  the  nest.  The  bird  on  the  nest  would  not 
rise  till  its  partner  was  only  a few  paces  away, 
then  it  stood  up.  The  new  arrival  then  slipped 
on  to  the  eggs  while  the  other  stood  shading 
them.  The  relieved  partner  walked  a few  paces 
and  then  flew  to  the  southern  edge  of  Cirra 
Bund  close  to  the  Keoladeo  Temple  where 
there  was  a small  amount  of  water.  The  birds 
arriving  at  the  nest  had  invariably  wet  the 
feathers  of  their  undersides. 

The  nest  we  found  on  June  27th  was  in 
babul  woodland  just  north  of  Ram  Bund.  It 
was  washed  away  in  a torrential  downpour 
in  the  early  hours  of  August  11th  when  virtual- 
ly the  whole  Sanctuary  was  under  15  centi- 
metres of  water. 

Tringa  erythropus 

SPOTTED  REDSHANK 

This  species  was  present  in  small  numbers 
throughout  the  winter  and  spring.  The  last 


29 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


one  we  obeserved  was  a bird  in  breeding  plum- 
age seen  near  Pump  D on  May  5th  1980. 

Rostratula  benghalensis 

PAINTED  SNIPE 

The  first  bird  noted  was  a female  near  Pump 
D in  Cirra  Bund  on  April  14th  1980.  On  April 
26th  there  were  three  pairs  in  Ram  Bund. 
By  May  11th  many  birds  were  calling  in  the 
green  areas  in  Cirra  Bund  and  Ram  Bund. 
Observed  a pair  from  a blind  on  May  14th. 
They  were  in  short  green  grass  growing  in 
about  six  centimetres  of  water.  The  female  was 
busy  for  about  15  minutes  pulling  blades  of 
grass  together  as  though  building  a nest.  But 
no  nest  was  built.  Numbers  continued  to  in- 
crease until  there  were  about  90  to  100.  In 
one  small  muddy  puddle  at  the  edge  of  Ram 
Bund  there  were  14  of  these  birds,  ten  of  them 
females.  This  was  on  May  23rd.  Once  the  rains 
came  and  the  marshes  began  to  fill  we  saw 
no  more  of  them.  We  did  not  find  any  nests, 
though  we  did  search  for  them. 

Recurvirostra  avosetta 

AVOCET 

Saxena  (1975)  rates  the  Avocet  as  rare. 
During  November,  December  1979  and  Janu- 
ary 1980  small  numbers,  never  exceeding  12, 
stayed  for  extended  periods.  The  birds  invari- 
ably came  to  the  muddy  pool  in  the  centre  of 
Cirra  Bund.  By  the  end  of  November  this 
area  was  totally  devoid  of  vegetation  and  the 
muddy  edges  attracted  wading  birds  in  large 
numbers. 

Burhinus  oedicnemus 

STONE  CURLEW 

On  April  25th  1980  Abrar  Khan  showed 
us  the  nest  of  a Stone  Curlew  in  woodland 
between  the  Tourist  Bungalow  and  Ram  Bund. 
The  nest  was  under  a piloo  bush.  In  late  April 


and  early  May  the  birds  were  very  vocal 
throughout  the  Sanctuary,  calling  mostly  at 
dusk.  We  were  shown  other  nests  near  Cirra 
Bund  (1st  May),  at  Python  Point  (10th  May) 
and  at  Bakalaya  beside  the  main  road  (15th 
May).  All  nests  contained  two  eggs  and  were 
under  piloo  or  babul  shrubs  in  woodland. 

At  5.30  hours  on  May  13th  we  noticed  the 
eggs  in  the  nest  we  were  shown  on  April  25th 
were  pipping.  We  observed  the  nest  from  a 
previously  erected  blind  from  6.30  onwards. 
At  8.32  hours  the  first  chick  hatched.  It  soon 
dried.  The  parents  changed  over  twice  between 
8.32  hours  and  10.32  hours  when  we  left.  They 
did  not  stay  at  the  nest  together.  As  soon  as 
one  arrived  the  other  left.  At  first  the  chick 
was  ignored.  The  sitting  parent  picked  up  and 
ate  small  fragments  of  eggshell  but  the  large 
pieces  of  shell  they  tucked  under  themselves 
and  brooded  them  together  with  the  young 
and  the  second  egg.  Finally  at  9.52  hours  one 
parent  flung  the  empty  shells  away  but  only 
about  half  a metre  from  the  nest.  It  did  not 
pick  the  shells  up  and  carry  them  away. 

On  the  afternoon  of  May  15th  Abrar  Khan 
showed  us  yet  another  nest  (i.e.  the  fifth  nest) 
in  woodland  near  Shanti  Kutir  that  had  two 
pipping  eggs.  The  young  hatched  that  evening. 

On  May  23rd  in  the  early  morning  we  saw 
a pair  of  Stone  Curlews  with  a single  downy 
chick  near  the  main  road  at  the  turnoff  to 
Python  Point.  While  we  were  watching  a mon- 
goose trotted  close  by.  Both  parents  success- 
fully distracted  the  mammal  by  doing  a drib- 
bling, running  broken-wing  act. 

Larus  argentatus 

HERRING  GULL 

On  January  16th  1980  two  of  these  gulls 
were  in  Cirra  Bund  near  the  Keoladeo  Temple 
feeding  on  a dead  fish.  This  species  was  not 
noticed  again. 


30 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


Larus  ichthyaetus 

GREAT  BLACKHEADED  GULL 

On  April  18th  1980  a single  individual  of 
this  species  landed  in  Ram  Bund.  On  April 
19th  it  was  joined  by  another  four  which  were 
changing  into  breeding  plumage.  On  the  morn- 
ning  of  the  20th  they  left. 

Larus  brunnicephalus 

BROWN  HEADED  GULL 

Twenty-four  Brownheaded  Gulls  in  full 
breeding  plumage  landed  in  the  north-west 
corner  of  Rauji  Bund  1 on  the  afternoon  of 
April  19th  1980.  They  left  the  next  morning. 

Pterocles  exustus 
INDIAN  SANDGROUSE 

Abdulali  and  Panday  (1978)  note  this  spe- 
cies as  occasional  and  Saxena  (1975)  con- 
siders it  rare.  From  January  to  early  June 
1980  this  species  came  regularly  and  in  some 
numbers  to  drink  at  Ram  Bund  and  the  area 
round  Pump  D at  Cirra  Bund.  At  first  the 
birds  came  in  twos  and  threes  but  by  late 
April  they  were  coming  in  flocks  of  50  or 
more.  On  May  15th  we  saw  scores  of  these 
sandgrouse  feeding  in  the  grassland  just  north 
of  Kola  Dehar. 

Treron  phoenicoptera 

GREEN  PIGEON  NBR 

Green  Pigeons  were  seen  in  the  Sanctuary 
in  some  numbers.  We  found  three  nests,  one 
on  2nd  May,  1980,  one  on  11th  May  and 
one  on  25th  May.  Each  was  in  a babul  tree 
at  a height  of  about  12  metres.  Saxena  (1975) 
does  not  record  this  species  as  breeding  in  the 
Sanctuary. 


Streptopelia  sp. 

DOVES 

Three  species,  S.  decaocto,  S.  tranquebarica 
and  S.  senegalensis  breed  in  Bharatpur.  S. 
decaocto  and  S.  senegalensis  began  nesting  in 
late  March  1980  and  stopped  at  the  end  of 
May.  We  saw  several  pairs  of  S.  tranquebarica 
collect  and  carry  nesting  material  (only  around 
the  eastern  end  of  Ram  Bund)  in  April,  but 
we  found  no  nests  with  either  eggs  or  young 
in  the  pre-monsoon  period.  In  late  May  and 
June  these  doves  moulted  and  then  began 
nesting  again  in  the  second  half  of  August 
and  continued  to  October.  In  the  monsoon 
and  post-monsoon  breeding  S.  tranquebarica 
began  earlier.  We  found  the  first  nest  on  29th 
July  1980.  The  other  two  species’  first  mon- 
soon nests  were  found  on  13th  August.  Many 
pairs  of  S.  decaocto  nested  in  the  babul  trees 
in  the  heronries  and  we  observed  several  nests 
from  positions  where  our  blinds  were  set  up 
to  photograph  egrets  or  storks.  On  August 
24th  a House  Crow  took  eggs  from  beneath 
a sitting  bird.  The  crow  boldly  approached  the 
nest,  even  though  the  dove  beat  at  it  with  its 
wing.  The  crow  ignored  the  battering  and 
grabbed  an  egg.  A short  time  later  it  returned 
to  take  the  second  egg. 

S.  decaocto  nested  at  heights  between  three 
and  six  metres  while  all  the  nests  of  S.  sene- 
galensis we  found  were  in  thorny  shrubs  at 
heights  between  one  and  two  metres. 

Clamator  jacobinus 

PIED  CRESTED  CUCKOO  NBR 

We  first  saw  this  species  on  June  15th  1980 
(we  were  absent  from  June  1st  to  14th).  On 
the  morning  of  June  24th  we  observed  a pair 
mating  in  the  trees  around  Keoladeo  Temple. 
On  July  12th  a party  of  five  Jungle  Babblers 
was  feeding  a fledgeling  Pied  Crested  Cuckoo. 


31 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


The  fledgeling  was  mostly  brown,  dark  above, 
pale  below  and  already  had  a well-defined 
crest.  On  July  16th  along  the  bund  just  west 
of  Shanti  Kutir  we  observed  a party  of  five 
Jungle  Babblers  feeding  two  Pied  Crested 
Cuckoos.  At  dusk  the  whole  party  huddled 
closely  together,  babbler  style,  to  settle  down 
for  the  night.  Saxena  (1975)  does  not  list  this 
cuckoo  as  a breeding  species  for  Bharatpur. 

Cuculus  canorus 

cuckoo  NR 

Neither  Abdulali  and  Panday  (1978)  nor 
Saxena  (1975)  list  this  species  for  Bharatpur. 
Between  June  22nd  and  26th  1980  there  was 
a great  influx  of  Common  Hawk-Cuckoos  and 
Cuckoos  into  Bharatpur.  The  majority  of  them, 
about  25  of  the  two  species  combined,  siayed 
in  the  babul  trees  along  the  western  bund  of 
Ram  Bund.  During  these  days  the  Cuckoo 
was  seen  and  heard  frequently. 

Cacomantis  merulinus 
PLAINTIVE  CUCKOO  NR 

This  is  another  cuckoo  not  previously  re- 
corded for  Bharatpur.  On  June  26th  1980  we 
saw  an  hepatic  female  or  immature  of  this 
species  in  the  woodland  immediately  to  the 
west  of  Shanti  Kutir. 

Centropus  sinensis 

COMMON  CROW-PHEASANT 

During  the  winter  and  spring  this  species 
was  largely  a scavenger.  We  saw  it  feeding 
on  stranded  fish,  a dead  coot,  a dead  roller, 
turtles  killed  by  Scavenger  Vultures  and  on 
one  occasion  on  a Crow- Pheasant  which  had 
been  killed  on  the  main  road. 

Otus  bakkamoena 

COLLARED  SCOPS  OWL  NBR 

We  first  saw  this  species  in  a hollow  in  a 
huge  babul  tree  on  24th  November  1979.  The 
tree  was  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  main  road 


about  one  kilometre  south  of  Shanti  Kutir.  The 
pair  had  occupied  this  hollow  for  some  years 
(Abrar  Khan;  pers.  comm.).  We  saw  the  pair 
regularly  until  14th  April  1980  when  we  notic- 
ed the  hollow  had  been  taken  over  by  bees 
( Apis  sp.).  On  March  3rd  1980  we  found  a 
nest  in  a hollow  in  a babul  tree  right  beside 
the  Keoladeo  Forest  Outpost.  The  hollow, 
which  in  previous  years  had  been  occupied 
by  rollers  (Abrar  Khan,  pers.  comm.),  was 
5-J  metres  up  in  the  tree.  We  first  inspected 
the  hollow  on  March  24th  when  it  contained 
one  egg.  On  April  1st  we  found  a single  young, 
covered  in  pure  white  down  and  about  three 
centimetres  in  length.  By  April  27th  the  young 
was  sitting  at  the  nest  entrance.  Between  28th 
April  and  1st  May  we  observed  the  birds  from 
a blind  for  several  hours  each  evening.  The 
young  would  be  at  the  nest  entrance  by  dusk. 
Shortly  after  dark  one  of  the  parents  would 
come  with  food  at  which  time  the  young  would 
clamber  out  of  the  nest-hole  and  sit  on  a near- 
by branch.  By  morning  the  young  was  back  in 
the  hole,  but  the  parents  roosted  in  the  foliage 
of  a neem  tree  about  ten  metres  from  the  nest. 
Of  the  prey  brought  to  the  young  by  the 
parents  we  could  identify  (from  photographs) 
centipedes,  moths  and  mole-crickets.  One  of 
the  parents  had  orange  eyes,  those  of  the  other 
were  dark  brown. 

The  appearance  of  the  birds  during  the  day, 
when  they  were  roosting,  was  very  different  to 
what  they  looked  like  at  night.  During  the  day 
they  sat  fluffed  out,  their  eyes  were  slits  and 
their  “ear”  tufts  very  pronounced.  At  night 
their  heads  appeared  more  rounded  with  only 
a vestige  of  “ear”  tufts  visible. 

Bubo  sp. 

HORNED  OWLS 

Three  species,  B.  bubo,  B.  coromandus  and 
B.  zeylonensis  occur  in  the  Sanctuary,  B.  bubo 


32 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 
Breeden:  Keoladeo  Ghana  Sanctuary 


Plate  V 


Above:  Darter  feeding  young.  September  1980. 

Below : Bronzewinged  Jacana  carrying  young  under  its  wings.  August  1980. 
( Photos : Stanley  and  Belinda  Breeden) 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 
Breeden:  Keoladeo  Ghana  Sanctuary 


Plate  VI 


Above : Kadam  tree  with  nest  of  Ringtailed  Fishing  Eagle  after  it  had  burnt  down. 
February  1980. 

Below:  Cirra  Bund  at  the  height  of  the  drought — May  1980.  Some  water  had 
been  pumped  into  the  area  and  in  the  distance  Sarus  Cranes  can  be  seen  standing 
in  the  shallow  pools. 

( Photos : Stanley  and  Belinda  Breeden) 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


and  B.  coromandus  in  remarkably  large  num- 
bers for  such  a small  area.  B.  zeylonensis  is  a 
rare  visitor  and  we  did  not  see  it.  The  Dusky 
Horned  Owl,  B.  coromandus,  seems  to  be  the 
more  common  and  roosts  almost  invariably  in 
groves  of  tall  kadam  trees.  These  groves  ex- 
tend in  an  arc  from  just  west  of  Ram  Bund, 
to  the  nursery  then  down  along  the  eastern 
boundary  to  Kadam  Kunj.  There  is  also  a 
grove  at  Lai  Payare  Ka  Kund.  At  night  these 
owls  range  the  forests  and  the  tree-lined  bunds 
surrounding  the  marshes.  During  the  monsoon 
we  frequently  saw  them  in  and  around  the 
heronries  on  moonlit  nights. 

The  Great  Horned  Owl,  B.  bubo,  is  con- 
fined to  the  drier  and  less  accessible  parts  such 
as  Python  Point,  areas  to  the  south  of  it  and 
the  Deer  Park,  where  we  saw  them  frequently. 
Once,  on  11th  July  1980  we  saw  a Great  Horn- 
ed Owl  in  scrub  beside  the  main  road  just 
south  of  Shanti  Kutir. 

Strix  ocellata 

MOTTLED  WOOD  OWL  NR,  NBR 

We  first  saw  this  species  in  the  Sanctuary 
on  November  17th  1979.  This  was  the  first 
time  it  had  been  positively  identified  in  the 
region.  We  saw  it  in  the  beam  of  a powerful 
spotlight  along  the  bund  about  half  a kilo- 
metre west  of  Sapan  Mori.  On  November  23rd 
we  saw  three  of  these  owls  at  dusk  in  a euca- 
lypt  tree  on  the  southern  edge  of  Bharatpur 
city,  about  two  miles  from  the  Sanctuary. 

On  March  5th  1980  Abrar  Khan  showed  us 
the  nest  of  a Mottled  Wood  Owl  in  fairly 
dense,  dry  scrub  in  the  western  portion  of  the 
Deer  Park.  The  nest  was  situated  in  the  lowest 
crotch  of  a large  neem  tree,  at  a height  of 
just  over  four  metres.  There  were  two  eggs 
laid  directly  in  the  tree  crotch.  There  was  no 
nesting  material  whatever.  The  female,  larger, 
bird  was  sitting.  The  male  sat  higher  up  in 


the  neem  tree  in  a dense  patch  of  foliage. 
Abrar  Khan,  who  had  been  unable  to  identify 
the  bird,  told  us  he  had  found  a nest  of  this 
species  in  this  same  place  for  the  first  time 
in  1974.  He  observed  them  there  every  year 
since  then  with  the  exception  of  1979.  (The 
birds  nested  there  again  in  February /March 
1981.  Abrar  Khan,  pers.  comm.).  On  March 
29th  1980  we  checked  the  nest  and  found 
one  small  young  and  one  egg.  By  April  12th 
the  larger  chick  was  lightly  feathered.  The 
feathers  on  its  chest  and  back  were  almost 
white  at  the  tips  but  suffused  with  rufous  at 
the  base  and  finely  barred  in  black.  The 
smaller  chick  was  still  covered  in  down.  At 
dusk  the  male  and  female  called  to  each  other 
— the  female’s  call  is  a resonant  “kroo”,  the 
male’s  is  the  same  but  of  higher  pitch  and 
more  scratchy. 

On  April  15th  we  watched  the  nest  at  night 
from  a towerblind.  At  21.20  hours  the  female 
came  and  fed  the  young  on  a juvenile  Magpie 
Robin  (identified  from  photographs).  The 
female  fed  the  chicks  very  small  pieces  of  the 
prey.  The  young  were  not  fed  again  before 
23.30  hours  when  we  left  the  blind.  On  the 
night  of  16th  April  the  female  first  came  to 
the  nest  at  19.45  hours.  She  brought  a large, 
still-squirming  centipede  which  she  tore  into 
small  pieces  and  fed  to  the  young.  At  23.06 
hours  a wood  owl  called — a far-carrying,  quav- 
ering “kro-oo-wah” — the  bird  called  three 
times.  The  parents  did  not  come  to  the  nest 
again  before  we  left  at  a few  minutes  after  mid- 
night. On  April  17th  both  birds  arrived  near  the 
nest  at  19.57  hours  and  called  to  each  other.  The 
young  responded  with  mewing  sounds.  A few 
minutes  later  the  female  landed  on  the  nest  and 
fed  the  young  on  a small  insectivorous  bat. 
On  April  18th  both  parents  arrived  and  land- 
ed on  a thick  branch  about  four  metres  from 
the  nest  at  21.35  hours.  They  called  vigorously 

33 


3 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


to  each  other  in  “kri  kri”  and  “kroo  kroo”  calls. 
The  male  had  brought  a Roseringed  Parakeet 
and  was  devouring  it.  The  female  begged  food 
from  the  male  and  he  gave  her  a small  piece, 
which  she  took  to  the  nest  and  fed  to  one  of 
the  young.  Ten  times  she  fed  the  young  this 
way — the  larger  chick  receiving  eight  pieces, 
the  younger  one  two.  Finally  the  female  got 
a leg  of  the  parakeet,  flew  to  the  nest  and 
fed  it  whole,  complete  with  feathers,  to  the 
smaller  chick.  The  female  then  thoroughly 
cleaned  the  nest,  swallowing  several  feathers 
of  prey  species  in  the  process.  She  flew  off  at 
22.23  hours  and  did  not  return  before  23.10 
hours  when  we  left.  We  examined  the  feathers 
of  the  parakeet  plucked  by  the  male  and  scat- 
tered at  the  base  of  the  tree.  The  parakeet’s 
primaries  and  retrices  were  still  partly  en- 
closed in  their  sheaths  which  suggests  that, 
like  the  Magpie  Robin,  it  was  a fledgeling. 
On  May  5th  we  found  one  fledged  owl  and 
both  parents  in  the  neem  tree,  though  not  on 
the  nest.  We  could  find  no  sign  of  the  second 
young. 

We  saw  a single  Wood  Owl  in  a kadam 
grove  at  Syar  Mori  on  May  23rd. 

Caprimulgus  indicus 

JUNGLE  NIGHTJAR 

This  species  was  calling  everywhere  in  the 
Python  Point  area  during  April  and  early  May 
1980.  On  April  27th,  by  using  a spotlight,  we 
found  a pair  with  two  young  just  SW  of 
Python  Point.  The  young,  already  well  feather- 
ed, were  huddled  together  on  the  sand;  there 
was  no  sign  of  a nest.  The  next  day  we  search- 
ed the  area  by  daylight  but  could  not  find  the 
young,  though  we  did  find  one  of  the  young 
again  that  night  with  the  aid  of  a spotlight. 


Alcedo  afthis 

SMALL  BLUE  KINGFISHER 

Normally  this  species  is  resident  at  Bharat- 
pur  all  year  round  and  nests  there  between 
March  and  June.  In  1980  this  species  dis- 
appeared from  the  Sanctuary  in  early  March 
and  was  not  noticed  again  until  15th  June. 

Halcyon  smyrnensis 

WHITEBREASTED  KINGFISHER 

This  kingfisher,  while  present  in  small  num- 
bers throughout  the  drought,  did  not  nest  in 
spring,  as  it  usually  does.  But  on  June  22nd, 
when  the  humidity  increased  and  a few  pre- 
monsoon showers  had  fallen,  we  noticed  two 
pairs  excavating  nest-tunnels  in  the  banks  of 
the  pond  opposite  Keoladeo  Temple.  When 
the  Sanctuary  was  flooded  in  the  second  half 
of  July  these  nest-tunnels  were  inundated.  On 
June  22nd  we  also  saw  a pair  of  these  birds 
with  three  fledgelings  at  Ram  Bund  which  had 
remained  filled  with  water.  This  was  the  only 
record  of  this  species  nesting  successfully  in 
1980. 

Coracias  benghalensis 

INDIAN  ROLLER 

During  January  1980  we  found  five  dead 
rollers  in  various  parts  of  the  Sanctuary.  Other 
visitors  also  reported  finding  many  dead  indi- 
viduals. The  ones  we  found  were  emaciated. 

On  March  5th  we  noticed  the  first  aerobatic 
courtship  displays  of  the  roller.  We  found  one 
occupied  nest  in  a large  hollow  in  a jamun  tree 
near  Agar  Gate  on  April  15th.  Usually  this 
species  nests  in  some  numbers  during  March 
and  April  (Abrar  Khan,  pers.  comm.)  but  the 
nest  at  Agar  Gate  was  the  only  one  we  found 
that  spring.  Courtship  flights  continued 
throughout  the  summer. 

We  found  that  a pair  of  rollers  had  begun 


34 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


nesting  in  a hollow  in  the  babul  tree  near  the 
Forest  Department  Outpost  at  Keoladeo 
where  they  had  nested  many  seasons  before. 
There  were  two  eggs  on  June  15th.  This  was 
the  same  hollow  in  which  a pair  of  Collared 
Scops  Owls  raised  a single  young  in  March/ 
April.  We  found  another  roller’s  nest  on  June 
22nd.  Both  nests  were  later  abandoned  when 
they  filled  up  with  water  after  heavy  rain  on 
June  28th  and  29th. 

Megalaima  haemacephala 
CRIMSON  BREASTED  BARBET 

The  nesting  season  for  this  species  appear- 
ed normal  and  we  saw  a number  of  nests  dur- 
ing March-April.  We  closely  observed  a nest 
near  the  Keoladeo  Temple.  It  was  in  a babul 
tree  at  a height  of  about  2\  metres.  About  15 
metres  away  stood  a large  pipal  tree  which 
was  fruiting.  Over  the  two  weeks  we  watched 
the  parents  feed  the  young  in  the  nest  we  saw 
them  bring  food  other  than  pipal  fruit  on  only 
two  occasions.  On  both  occasions  they  brought 
a large  dragonfly. 

Pitta  brachyura 

INDIAN  PITTA 

Saxena  (1975)  does  not  list  this  species  for 
Bharatpur  and  Abdulali  and  Panday  (1978) 
note  it  as  “occasional”.  We  saw  an  Indian 
Pitta  on  June  28th  1980  in  a jamun  thicket 
just  SE  of  the  watchtower. 

Ammomanes  phoenicurus 

RUFOUSTAILED  FINCH-LARK  NBR 

Saxena  (1975)  does  not  record  this  as  a 
breeding  species.  We  observed  one  collecting 
nesting  material  on  April  2nd  1980  in  the  dry 
area  between  Ram  Bund  Road  and  the  Tour- 
ist Bungalow. 


Sturnus  roseus 

ROSY  STARLING 

Rosy  Starlings  are  passage  migrants  at  Bha- 
ratpur. We  observed  the  first  parties  on  the 
outward  passage  on  March  24th  1980.  They 
were  present  in  considerable  numbers  from 
that  day  till  April  26th.  They  fed  on  the  piloo 
berries  which  were  present  in  profusion. 

We  saw  the  first  birds  on  the  inward  journey 
on  July  30th.  This  was  a small  party  of  11 
birds  including  several  young  ones.  On  August 
1st  there  was  a flock  of  400-500  birds  roost- 
ing in  a big  tree  near  Shanti  Kutir. 

Tephrodornis  pondicerianus 

INDIAN  WOOD  SHRIKE 

On  June  30th  1980  we  found  a nest  with 
two  eggs  in  a small  bush  west  of  the  Tourist 
Bungalow.  When  we  checked  the  nest  on 
July  12th  we  found  it  deserted  and  with  a 
stout  shoot  from  the  shrub  growing  through 
the  middle  of  it. 

Pycnonotus  cafer 

REDVENTED  BULBUL 

On  August  20th  1980  we  found  a nest  of  a 
Redvented  Bulbul  about  l\  metres  up  in  a 
babul  in  the  Ram  Bund  marsh.  The  nest  con- 
tained five  eggs.  This  seems  an  unusually  large 
clutch.  According  to  Vijayan  (1980)  a clutch 
size  of  more  than  three  eggs  has  not  been 
recorded  for  P.  cafer.  Perhaps  clutch  size 
varies  between  subspecies.  According  to  Ali 
and  Ripley  (1971)  P.  c.  cafer , which  is  the 
subspecies  occurring  in  Vijayan’s  study  area  at 
Point  Calimere  in  Tamil  Nadu,  has  a clutch 
size  of  two  to  three  eggs.  For  P.  c.  humayuni, 
which  is  the  subspecies  at  Bharatpur,  the  same 
authors  record  a clutch  size  of  three  to  four 
eggs. 


35 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Terpsiphone  paradisi 

PARADISE  FLYCATCHER 

This  species  was  not  seen  in  Bharatpur  by 
us  during  the  winter  months.  Our  first  sight- 
ing was  on  March  25th  1980,  an  adult  male. 
We  further  sighted  this  species  on  March  30th, 
April  10th,  April  15th,  May  14th  and  June 
19th.  We  always  saw  single  individuals. 

Phoenkurus  ochruros 

BLACK  REDSTART 

This  redstart  is  a common  winter  visitor. 
Numbers  in  the  Sanctuary  began  to  decline  in 
early  April  and  our  last  record  for  the  season 
was  May  15th  1980.  This  was  of  a female 
with  an  injured  leg.  From  April  13th  onwards 
all  our  sightings  were  of  females  only.  The  first 
redstart  we  saw  in  autumn  was  a male,  it  was 
seen  on  September  27th. 

Salpornis  spilonotus 

SPOTTED  GREY  CREEPER  NBR 

We  first  noticed  this  species  on  April  19th 
1980,  a single  individual  foraging  on  the 
trunks  of  babul  trees  on  the  eastern  edge  of 
Ram  Bund.  On  June  28th  we  observed  a pair 
building  a nest  in  woodland  between  Shanti 
Kutir  and  the  watchtower.  The  nest  was  built 
at  a height  of  about  six  metres  and  was  at- 
tached to  a fork  in  a dead  branch.  We  watch- 
ed the  pair  build  for  the  next  two  days.  But 
after  several  days  of  heavy  rain  the  nest  was 
abandoned.  This  is  the  first  breeding  record 
for  Bharatpur  for  this  species. 

Petronia  xanthocollis 

YELLOWTHROATED  SPARROW  NBR 

Saxena  (1975)  does  not  record  this  sparrow 
as  breeding  in  Bharatpur.  But  during  March, 


April  and  May  we  found  scores  of  nests.  The 
nests  were  always  in  small  tree  hollows  at  a 
maximum  height  of  four  metres. 

Ploceus  manyar 

STREAKED  WEAVER  BIRD  NBR 

This  species  is  not  recorded  as  breeding  in 
the  Sanctuary.  During  the  monsoon  several 
vigorous  colonies  were  active  in  the  reeds  of 
Ram  Bund. 

Lonchura  punctulata 

SPOTTED  MUNIA  NBR 

On  July  21st  1980  Abrar  Khan  showed  us 
a nest  of  this  species  in  a babul  tree  near  the 
watchtower.  During  the  next  month  we  saw 
this  species  building  nests  in  and  around  the 
heronry  at  Rauji  Bund  1.  On  September  26th 
we  observed  a pair  building  their  nest  inside 
that  of  a Painted  Stork.  This  too  is  a new 
breeding  record  for  the  Sanctaury. 

Lonchura  malacca 

BLACKHEADED  MUNIA 

On  June  25th  1980  we  saw  three  of  these 
munias  on  a colony  of  Streaked  Weaver  Birds 
in  Ram  Bund.  Saxena  (1975)  does  not  record 
this  species  for  Bharatpur  and  Abdula ii  and 
Panday  (1978)  list  it  as  a stray. 

Eniberiza  buchanani 

GREYNECKED  BUNTING  NR 

On  April  18th  1980  we  saw  a single  indi- 
vidual of  this  species  in  dry  open  woodland 
with  a grassy  understory  in  the  Deer  Park. 
Neither  Saxena  (1975)  nor  Abdulali  and  Pan- 
day (1978)  list  this  species  for  Bharatpur. 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  greatly  indebted  to  Abrar  Khan  for 
sharing  his  many  interesting  observations  and 


36 


KEOLADEO  GHANA  SANCTUARY 


his  great  knowledge  of  the  Sanctuary  with  us. 

Ronald  T.  Sauey  and  The  International 
Crane  Foundation  kindly  gave  us  data  on 
cranes  and  Romulus  Whitaker  identified  the 
various  species  of  turtles. 

We  are  grateful  to  The  Regional  Meteoro- 

Refer 

Abdulali,  H.  and  Panday,  J.  D.  (1978) : Check- 
list of  the  Birds  of  Delhi,  Agra  and  Bharatpur. 

Ali,  Salim  (1927-28):  The  Moghul  Emperors  of 
India  as  Naturalists  and  Sportsmen.  Parts  I to  III. 
J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  Vols.  31  and  32. 

(1953):  The  Keoladeo  Ghana  of 

Bharatpur  (Rajasthan) . J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc. 
51:  453-461. 

Ali,  Salim  and  Ripley,  S.  D.  (1968-74) : Hand- 
book of  the  Birds  of  India  and  Pakistan.  Vols.  1-10. 
Oxford  University  Press,  Bombay. 

Becking,  J.  H.  (1981):  Notes  on  the  Breeding 
of  Indian  Cuckoos.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  78: 
201-231. 

Hume,  A.  O.  and  Marshall,  C.  H.  T.  (1878- 
80) : The  Game  Birds  of  India,  Burmah  and  Cey- 
lon. 3 Vols.  Published  by  the  authors,  Calcutta. 

Kahl,  M.  P.  (1970)  : Observations  on  the  Breed- 


logical  Centre,  New  Delhi,  for  supplying  the 
rainfall  figures  for  Agra  shown  in  Table  One. 

We  wish  to  especially  thank  the  US  Fish 
and  Wildlife  Service  for  supporting  us  in  the 
field  and  subsequently  while  preparing  this 
paper. 

1NCES 

ing  of  Storks  in  India  and  Ceylon.  J.  Bombay  nat. 
Hist.  Soc.  67:  453-461. 

King,  B.,  Woodcock,  M.  and  Dickinson,  E.  C. 
(1975):  A Field  Guide  to  the  Birds  of  South-East 
Asia.  Collins,  London. 

Lawick-goodall,  J.  van  (1970)  : Tool-using  in 
Primates  and  other  Vertebrates.  Advances  in  the 
Study  of  Behaviour  3:  195-249. 

Newton,  I.  (1979) : Population  Ecology  of  Rap- 
tors. T.  and  A.  D.  Polyster  Ltd.,  London. 

Saxena,  V.  S.  (1975) : A Study  of  Flora  and 
Fauna  of  Bharatpur  Bird  Sanctuary.  Dept,  of  Tour- 
ism, Rajasthan,  Jaipur. 

Vijayan,  V.  S.  (1980) : Breeding  Biology  of  Bul- 
buls, Pycnonotus  cafer  and  Pycnonotus  luteolus, 
with  Special  Reference  to  their  Ecological  Isolation. 
J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  75:  1090-1117. 

Woodcock,  M.  (1980) : Handguide  to  the  Birds 
of  the  Indian  Sub-Continent.  Collins,  London. 


37 


BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY 


The  Builders  and  the  Guardians 
Part  3 
Salim  Ali 
{With  two  plates) 
[Continued  from  Vol  78(2):  23 9] 


John  William  Yerbury,  lieut.  col.  1847- 
1926  (Vol.  32:  786)  Anon. 

Born  March  30,  1847  at  Serampore 

(Bengal)  knocked  down  and  killed  by  a 
motor  car  on  November  10,  1927  at  the 
age  of  80.  He  served  in  the  Royal 
Artillery  between  1868  and  1892  in  various 
parts  of  the  world  and  was  stationed  for 
many  years  in  Aden  where  he  made  consi- 
derable collections  of  mammals,  birds,  rep- 
tiles, butterflies  and  moths,  flies  (Diptera)  and 
sea  shells,  which  he  eventually  presented  to 
the  British  Museum,  and  in  all  of  which  he 
was  keenly  interested.  He  was  well  known  to 
ornithologists  from  his  papers  on  the  birds 
of  Aden  published  in  The  Ibis  for  1886  and 
in  JBNHS  for  1897.  Col.  Yerbury  was  one 
of  the  earliest  members  of  BNHS  being  on 
the  rolls  in  1886  when  the  Society  issued  its 
first  Journal.  His  most  important  contribu- 
tions to  it  are: 

‘The  Butterflies  of  Aden  and  Neighbour- 
hood with  some  notes  on  their  Habits,  Food 
plants,  etc.’  (Vol.  7:  207). 

‘A  list  of  the  Birds  of  Aden’  (Vol.  11:  75). 

After  retirement  his  chief  interest  appears 
to  have  been  confined  to  Diptera  on  which 
he  wrote  several  valuable  papers. 

His  appeal  for  assistance  in  collecting  gad 
flies,  bot  flies  and  warble  flies  (Vol.  13:  683) 


contains  some  very  useful  instructions  for  col- 
lecting this  group  of  insects. 

Oldfield  Thomas,  f.r.s.  1858-1928  (Vol. 
33:  966)  by  M.A.C.H. (inton). 

Born  February  21  at  Millbrook,  Bedford- 
shire, U.K.,  died  ‘in  tragic  circumstances’ 
(?)  on  June  16.  From  early  boyhood  he 
developed  a marked  taste  for  Natural  His- 
tory and  decided  to  become  a Naturalist. 
On  leaving  school  he  started  life  as  a 
clerk  in  the  office  of  the  British  Museum 
and  voluntarily  devoted  his  leisure  to 
zoological  studies  under  the  great  Huxley 
for  a couple  of  years.  He  was  transferred  to 
the  Zoology  Department  of  the  Museum  in 
1878  and  later  placed — willy  nilly  at  first  be- 
cause his  real  interest  was  Echinoderms — in 
charge  of  the  Mammal  collection,  a position 
which  he  held  for  45  years,  till  his  official 
retirement  in  1923.  By  diligence,  thoroughness 
and  industry  he  worked  up  and  published  in 
1888,  the  Museum  Catalogue  of  Marsupialia 
and  Monotremata  which  remains  to  this  day 
the  solid  foundation  of  all  systematic  work 
on  the  groups.  Thomas  soon  gathered  around 
him  a band  of  enthusiastic  voluntary  workers 
in  the  Museum.  One  of  the  great  secrets  of 
his  success  in  enlisting  private  help  for  the 
execution  and  financing  of  his  collecting  pro- 


38 


BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY 


jects,  lay  in  the  promptitude  with  which  he 
worked  out  and  published  accounts  of  the 
material  collected,  from  which  benefactors  saw 
immediate  results.  He  worked  with  amazing 
rapidity  and  had  the  gift  of  seeing  the  essen- 
tials of  any  problem  that  came  to  him  for 
solution,  and  of  getting  to  the  point  in  the 
shortest  way  while  never  forgetting  anything 
of  real  importance.  In  1897  Thomas  became 
fortuitously  acquainted  with  R.  C.  Wroughton, 
a Conservator  of  Forests  in  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, then  on  leave  in  England  and  working 
in  the  Mammal  Room  of  the  BM  on  a col- 
lection of  bats  he  had  made  in  the  Surat  and 
Thana  districts.  These  were  worked  out  with 
the  help  of  Thomas  who  described  them  in 
JBNHS  (Vol.  11  : 274).  Thus  started  the 
close  personal  friendship  between  these  two 
men  which  proved  the  real  genesis  of  the 
Society’s  epoch-making  Mammal  Survey  of 
India,  Burma  and  Ceylon.  Wroughton,  sup- 
ported and  advised  by  Thomas,  urged  the 
Society  to  undertake  the  Survey  “of  which  any 
Society  or  Government  in  the  world  might 
well  be  proud.” 

In  working  out  the  scientific  results  from 
the  Mammal  Survey  Miss  Kathleen  V.  Ryley 
of  the  B.  M.  gratefully  acknowledges  the  help 
and  advice  she  received  throughout  from  Mr 
Oldfield  Thomas.  During  his  career  as  a mam- 
malogist,  Thomas  described  over  2000  species 
and  more  than  200  genera,  including  several 
from  India.  His  papers  are  models  of  terse 
description  with  nothing  superfluous  anywhere; 
indeed,  often  he  might  have  said  a little  more 
with  advantage.  People  who  knew  him  only 
by  his  writings  were  inclined  to  regard  him 
as  a narrow  systematist,  but  in  fact  Thomas 
was  essentially  a field  naturalist  and  on  his 
various  journeys  made  important  collections 
of  mammals  in  addition  to  invertebrates.  His 
dedicated  labours  have  built  the  unrivalled 


collection  of  mammals  in  the  British  Museum 
and  the  vast  literature  relating  to  it. 

George  Michael  Ryan,  i.f.s.  ... — 1932 
(Vol.  35:  879)  Anon. 

Was  in  the  Bombay  Presidency  cadre  of 
the  Indian  Forest  Service  from  1883  to 
1914,  and  an  old  member  of  the  Society. 
He  was  widely  known  for  his  researches 
and  the  practical  application  of  his 

scientific  knowledge  to  the  preservation  and 
improvement  of  old  trees.  The  authorities  at 
Kew  recognised  his  expertise,  and  after  his 
retirement  in  England,  frequently  referred  to 
him  for  advice  inquirers  from  all  parts  of  the 
country.  During  his  residence  in  India  Mr 
Ryan  contributed  a number  of  notes  to  the 
Society’s  Journal  mostly  of  botanical  interest. 
Among  these  are  the  papers  on  Edible  wild 
Yams  as  Famine  Foods  (Vol.  14:  772  and 
Vol.  15:  721)  and  the  Water-yielding  Plants 
of  the  Thana  forests  (Vol.  16:  65). 

Thomas  Burgess  Fry  1850-1931  (Vol.  36: 
225 — photo)  by  R.  I.  P.  (ocock). 

Born  at  Crowsborough,  Sussex,  U.K.  on 
July  8,  1850,  died  on  November  20,  1931 
aged  81.  Fry  served  in  the  Indian 

Forest  Service  (Bombay  Presidency)  till  his 
retirement  in  July  1905.  Soon  there- 
after, he  joined  his  brother-in-law,  R.C. 
Wroughton,  then  working  at  the  Natural  His- 
tory Museum,  London,  to  help  him  in  sorting, 
cataloguing,  identifying  and  subsequent  dis- 
persal to  various  museums,  of  the  vast  collec- 
tions of  mammal  skins  and  skulls  being  re- 
ceived by  the  Museum.  He  had  had  no  for- 
mal zoological  training  and  all  his  knowledge 
of  mammals  was  what  he  had  acquired  as  a 
sportsman  during  his  service  in  India.  Yet  by 


39 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


diligent  application  during  his  apprenticeship 
with  Wroughton,  he  had  developed  the  neces- 
sary technical  knowledge  for  identifying  the 
species,  even  to  the  extent  of  learning  the 
structural  details  of  the  skulls  and  teeth  of 
obscure  groups  like  bats,  shrews  and  mice, 
by  the  time  the  vast  collections  of  the  So- 
ciety’s Mammal  Survey  commenced  reaching 
the  British  Museum  in  1913.  To  the  great 
majority  of  our  older  members  C.  B.  Fry 
will  only  be  known  as  the  joint  author,  with 
M.A.C.  Hinton  and  R.C.  Wroughton,  of  seve- 
ral reports  published  in  JBNHS  of  the  Mam- 
mal Survey  collections.  He  had  acquired  such 
professional  expertise,  that  when  Wroughton 
died  he  carried  on  the  task  often  single- 
handed,  putting  in  6 hours  of  work  on  5 days 
in  the  week  with  short  breaks  only  for  the 
summer  holidays.  In  his  younger  days  he  was 
an  accomplished  athlete  and  sportsman,  and 
he  kept  up  his  interest  in  games  and  sports 
to  the  last.  In  his  later  years,  he  indulged 
actively  only  in  golf  and  it  was  actually  while 
in  the  middle  of  a round  that  he  suddenly 
collapsed  and  died  on  the  course.  Only  a 
few  days  before  his  death  he  had  handed  over 
to  Mr  Hinton,  for  revision,  his  report  on  the 
Mammal  Survey  collection  from  the  Eastern 
Ghats  which  coincidentally  also  happened  to 
be  the  last  of  the  regular  series  from  the 
Survey’s  field  work. 

A.  W.  AlCOCK,  LIEUT.  COL.,  I.M.S.,  F.R.S. 
1850-1933  (Vol.  36:  726— photo)  by  B.  P. 
(Baini  Prashad). 

Though  trained  as  a zoologist  in  Aberdeen 
University,  Alcock  first  came  out  to  India  to 
teach  Classics  in  Darjeeling  and  then  worked 
as  an  assistant  on  one  of  the  Bihar  planta- 
tions for  several  years  before  competing  for 
the  Indian  Medical  Service  which  he  entered 


in  1885.  After  1888  he  was  selected  for  the 
post  of  Surgeon-Naturalist  to  the  Marine  Sur- 
vey of  India  and  in  1893  succeeded  J.  Wood- 
Mason  as  Superintendent  of  the  Indian 
Museum,  a post  which  he  held  up  to  his 
retirement  in  1907.  On  return  to  the  U.K. 
thereafter,  he  worked  as  a lecturer  in  Medical 
Entomology  in  the  London  School  of  Tropi- 
cal Medicine  and  ended  up  in  1924  as  Pro- 
fessor of  Medical  Zoology  in  the  University  of 
London.  Perhaps  Alcock ’s  most  important 
contribution  to  Indian  zoology  lies  in  the 
original  researches  he  carried  out  while  Sur- 
geon-Naturalist on  the  survey  ship  ‘Investi- 
gator’, reported  in  the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  in  Bengal  (JASB)  from  1890  onward, 
and  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London.  Among  the  50  or  more  papers  on 
marine  zoology  that  Alcock  published  up  to 
the  time  of  his  retirement  from  the  Indian 
Museum  in  1907,  those  on  deep  sea  fishes 
and  Crustacea  deserve  special  notice.  Besides 
systematic  accounts  of  various  marine  animal 
groups,  he  published  a number  of  papers  on 
viviparous  fishes,  on  “An  Instance  of  Natural 
Effect  of  Warning  Colours  on  the  toxic  pro- 
perties of  Saliva  in  certain  Colubrine  Snakes”, 
“On  a new  Flying  Lizard  from  Assam”,  “An 
Account  of  the  Reptiles  collected  by  the 
Afghan  Boundary  Commission”,  and  “On  a 
new  apodous  Amphibian  from  India”  in  the 
Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  History 
and  elsewhere.  The  last  paper  includes  a learn- 
ed discussion  on  the  changes  in  the  configu- 
ration of  the  various  continents  as  deduced 
from  the  distribution  of  the  limbless  amphi- 
bians. In  1905  Col.  Alcock  developed  a special 
interest  in  Entomology,  particularly  in  the 
different  forms  of  insects  incriminated  as 
disease-carriers.  His  Entomology  for  Medical 
Officers  published  about  1911  is  a very  well 
conceived  and  lucid  text  book  of  tropical 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Salim  Ali:  BNHS 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  II 

Salim  Ali:  BNHS 


Ethelbert  Blatter,  SJ. 
(1877-1934) 


BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY 


zoology.  Though  working  under  frustrating 
conditions  as  Superintendent  of  the  Indian 
Museum,  he  did  very  valuable  work  in  carry- 
ing out  salutary  reforms  in  the  general 
management  of  the  institution  and  arrange- 
ment of  exhibits  in  the  public  galleries,  the 
latter,  often  largely  prepared  with  his  own 
hands.  At  the  same  time  he  published  a num- 
ber of  handy  and  interesting  guide  books  in 
order  to  popularise  the  Museum  and  make 
the  exhibits  understandable  by  the  lay  public. 
His  book,  a naturalist  in  Indian  seas,  pub- 
lished in  1902,  is  a classic  of  continuing  rele- 
vance. While  in  Calcutta,  he  was  intimately 
associated  with  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal 
and  most  of  his  scientific  publications  were 
either  in  the  JASB  or  in  Annals  and  Magazine 
of  Natural  History.  His  only  two  articles  in 
JBNHS  are  “Deep  sea  life  in  the  Bay  of  Ben- 
gal” (8:  545)  and  “An  instance  of  the  natural 
repellant  effects  of  ‘Warning  Colours”  (11: 
149).  Col.  Alcock  died  on  March  24,  1933. 
Though  not  connected  directly  with  the  affairs 
of  Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  his  pre- 
sence in  India  as  Superintendent  of  the  Indian 
Museum  and  as  Naturalist  of  the  survey  ship 
‘Investigator’  was  in  many  ways  of  considerable 
benefit  to  the  Society  during  its  formative 
years. 

Ethelbert  Blatter,  s.j.,  1877-1934  (Vol. 
37:  466)  by  C.  McC(ann). 

Born  in  an  aristocratic  family  in  Switzerland 
on  December  15,  1877;  Joined  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  October,  1896.  Died  in  Poona  on  May 
26,  1934.  In  1903,  during  the  interval  between 
his  philosophical  and  theological  studies  in 
Austria  and  Holland,  Blatter  came  to  India 
for  the  first  time.  Botany  had  been  his  hobby 
from  his  early  years;  as  a boy  he  could  name 
almost  all  the  plants  of  his  native  hills  “not 


only  by  sight  but  also  by  taste”.  Later,  as  a 
mature  scientist,  although  he  had  acquired 
equal  proficiency  in  Zoology  and  Geology,  he 
elected  to  concentrate  on  his  first  love.  Botany 
— a subject  in  which  he  was  to  win  inter- 
national renown.  He  joined  St  Xavier’s  College 
as  Professor  of  Biology  soon  after  his  arrival 
in  India  in  January,  1904.  About  this  time  he 
also  joined  the  Bombay  Natural  History  So- 
ciety and  remained  one  of  its  most  active  and 
helpful  members  till  the  end  of  his  days,  not 
only  by  his  scientific  contributions  in  the 
Journal,  but  also  in  the  Society’s  administra- 
tion as  a member  of  the  Executive  Committee 
and  as  a Vice  President.  Fr  Blatter  was  a man 
of  weight  and  substance  [c.  250+  lb!]  not  only 
physically  but  also  for  the  influence  he  carried 
in  the  governmental,  educational  and  scientific 
circles  of  his  day.  By  the  time  he  returned  to 
Europe,  in  1909,  to  complete  his  ecclesiastical 
studies,  he  had  acquired  a deep  knowledge  of 
the  flora  which  marked  him  out  as  a leader 
in  the  field  of  systematic  botany  of  the  Indian 
Region.  After  being  ordained  as  a priest  in 
1912  he  spent  a year  in  Holland  and  then 
some  time  in  special  studies  in  London.  He 
was  a frequent  visitor  to  Kew  Herbarium,  and 
the  close  liaison  he  established  there  with  the 
leading  botanists  of  the  time  stood  him  in 
good  stead  in  his  work  in  India.  He  was  still 
in  London  in  1914  when  World  War  I broke 
out,  and  it  was  with  some  difficulty  that  he 
eventually  managed  to  reach  Bombay  in 
October,  1915  on  a Japanese  ship,  through 
the  Suez  Canal  and  Turkish  rifle  fire.  On  his 
return.  Blatter  once  more  assumed  the  pro- 
fessorship of  Biology  in  St  Xavier’s  College 
and  launched  the  extensive  collecting  forays 
in  every  part  of  the  country  which  have  re- 
sulted in  making  the  St  X.  C.  Herbarium  (later 
named  after  him)  one  of  the  finest  in  India. 
In  1919,  he  was  appointed  Principal  of  the 


41 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


College,  but  though  administrative  duties  and 
responsibilities  as  a member  of  the  Bombay 
University  Senate  hampered  his  scientific  acti- 
vities considerably,  he  nevertheless  continued 
to  function  as  Professor  of  Botany.  In  1925, 
he  retired  to  Panchgani  as  parish  priest,  and 
this  left  him  freer  to  pursue  his  botanical 
studies.  In  1930,  while  on  a collecting  expedi- 
tion in  Waziristan  he  had  a bad  fall  from 
his  horse  and  suffered  a slight  concussion  of 
the  brain  and  a mild  paralytic  stroke.  Though 
he  recovered  sufficiently  to  carry  on  his  in- 
tramural botanical  work  for  the  next  three 
years,  his  health  had  begun  to  fail  from  that 
time  and  he  died  in  Poona  on  May  26,  1934. 
In  recognition  of  his  ‘ Conspicuously  important 
contributions  to  the  knowledge  of  Asiatic 
Botany ’ Fr  Blatter  was  awarded  the  Johannes 
Bruehl  Memorial  Medal  of  the  Asiatic  So- 
ciety of  Bengal,  a distinction  which  he  greatly 
valued. 

Fr  Blatter  was  a ceaseless  and  indefati- 
gable worker  and  a prolific  multilingual  scien- 
tific writer.  His  papers  on  systematic  botany 
are  classical  and  have  earned  him  international 
fame.  But  above  all  he  was  a Biologist,  and 
though  specializing  in  systematic  botany,  he 
was  equally  interested  and  proficient  in  zoo- 
logy. He  was  a great  believer  in  field  work 
and  the  study  of  ecology,  and  always  liked 
to  poke  fun  at  “the  deep  thinkers  who  never 
returned  to  the  realities  of  creation”.  From  the 
long  list  of  publications  appended  to  his  obi- 
tuary in  JBNHS  Vol.  37,  I have  picked  out 
a few  titles  at  random  to  show  that  besides 
learned,  purely  scientific  papers — ‘dry  as  dust’ 
as  the  layman  would  call  them — he  was  cap- 
able of  discoursing  on  many  other  interesting 
natural  history  topics  in  a way  that  the  layman 
can  readily  comprehend. 

The  Fauna  and  Flora  of  our  Metallic 
Money.  16:  334-39  (1905). 


Flowering  Season  and  Climate.  17:334-50 
(1906). 

Caterpillars  as  Ants’  Pets.  18:591-95  (1908). 

History  of  the  Sea  Coconut.  19:  925-37 
(1910). 

Scorpion  Sting  and  Garden  Rue.  24:  839-43 
(1916). 

Oleander  Poisoning  Camels.  26:  306-9 

(1918). 

Luminiscence  in  Plants  and  Animals.  31: 
748-53  (1926). 

What  Age  can  a Tree  reach?  34:  594-97 
(1930). 

Fr  Blatter’s  most  important  books  with  a 
popular  appeal  are:  The  Palms  of  British 
India  and  Ceylon.  (Oxford  University  Press, 
1926). 

Beautiful  Flowers  of  Kashmir.  [John  Bale, 
Sons  & Danielsson.  London.  Vol.  1.  (1927), 
Vol.  2 (1928)]. 

Some  Beautiful  Indian  Trees,  with  W.  S. 
Millard.  Bombay  Natural  History  Society, 
1937. 

As  a biology  teacher,  Fr  Blatter  was  ex- 
tremely thorough,  painstaking  and  patient  and 
quick  to  discern  who,  among  his  students, 
was  genuinely  earnest  and  who  merely  a 
degree-seeker.  For  the  former  he  would  spare 
no  pains  in  channelling  and  developing  their 
special  aptitudes,  as  his  many  former  students 
who  are  front  line  botanists  today  will  readily 
testify.  Other  admirable  attributes  about  the 
man  were  his  infectiously  cheerful  presence, 
his  friendly  humanity  and  his  unfailing  sense 
of  humour  with  the  rare  capacity  to  some- 
times laugh  at  his  own  expense.  His  obituarist 
narrates  that,  while  in  England,  Blatter  work- 
ed for  some  time  as  Chaplain  to  the  dowager 
Duchess  of  Sussex.  “He  used  to  relate  with 
loud  laughter  how  the  noble  lady  was  wont 
to  apportion  him  a single  slice  of  meat  which 
she  carved  in  truly  ducal  manner  from  the 


42 


BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY 


daily  shoulder  of  mutton.  She  considered  this 
ample  fare,  for  an  obviously  overnurtured 
Jesuit.  Unable  to  agree  with  her  judgement  of 
his  capacity  as  a good  trencherman.  Blatter, 
unknown  to  the  Duchess,  was  compelled  to 
go  to  the  local  inn  to  supplement  Her  Grace’s 
ration  with  more  generous  if  more  plebian 
fare.”  Fr  Blatter  was  also  wont  to  relate, 
with  much  puckish  amusement,  an  experience 
he  once  had  in  Calcutta  while  riding  in  a 
ramshackle  hack  ‘tikka  gharry’ — a primitive 
box-like  contraption  on  wheels  drawn  by  a 
pair  of  bony  rat-sized  ponies — when  the  floor- 
boards suddenly  gave  way  underfoot  and  he 
found  himself  on  the  road  shuffling  along  be- 
hind trying  to  keep  up  with  the  ponies.  His 
agonized  shouts  brought  the  ‘gharry’  to  a 
halt  and  the  coachman  down  from  his  seat 
to  investigate.  “With  a surprised  expression” 
the  portly  Fr  Blatter  recounted  “the  man  first 
looked  at  me,  then  at  the  splintered  foot- 
boards, then  more  meaningfully  again  at  me, 
as  if  suspecting  some  connection  between  the 
two”! 

Francis  James  Mitchell  1855-1933  (Vol. 
37:  475)  Anon. 

Better  known  among  his  friends  as  Frank 
Mitchell.  Born  in  Scotland,  he  came  out 
to  India  at  the  age  of  18  to  join  his 
brothers  in  a contracting  and  brokering 
business  at  Cawnpore  (Kanpur).  With  his  bro- 
thers he  was  concerned  in  many  pioneering 
enterprises  in  the  country  including  the  build- 
ing of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  and  the 
Jhelum  Valley  road  from  Kohala  to  Srinagar. 
Among  his  many  other  pioneering  achieve- 
ments was  the  establishing  of  an  olive  plan- 
tation at  Kahire  Murat  near  Rawalpindi,  and 
a 400  acre  fruit  farm  in  the  newly  canal- 
colonized  Montgomery  district  (now  in  Pakis- 


tan) known  as  Indian  Mildura  Fruit  Farm 
Ltd. — one  of  the  largest  fruit  farms  in  the 
Indian  subcontinent.  In  Kashmir,  where  he 
developed  a lucrative  export  trade  in  carpets, 
he  employed  his  leisure  largely  in  pheasant 
rearing  and  fish  culture.  It  was  Frank  Mitchell 
who  first  conceived  the  idea  of  introducing 
trout  into  Kashmir;  he  helped  to  found  the 
Kashmir  Trout  Fishing  Club  and  managed 
to  obtain  for  them  trout  ova  while  on  a visit 
to  England.  After  a poor  start  and  a second 
attempt,  the  ova  eventually  hatched  out  at 
Harwan,  and  the  Dachigam  river  was  stocked. 
He  established  hatcheries  at  Harwan  and 
Achibal  and  supplied  the  stock  for  most  of 
the  Kashmir  rivers  and  lakes.  Mitchell  train- 
ed the  local  men  in  trout  culture  and  taught 
them  the  work  from  spawning  to  the  distri- 
bution of  yearlings.  His  story  of  how  trout 
were  introduced  into  Kashmir  is  published  in 
the  Journal  (36:  295).  One  of  the  many  things 
he  did  for  Kashmir,  which  country  he  loved 
dearly,  was  to  induce  his  friend  Fr  Blatter  to 
write  the  Beautiful  Flowers  of  Kashmir  and 
financed  its  publication.  Two  volumes  were 
published  in  1927  and  1928  and  a third  was 
being  considered  when  the  plans  were  unfor- 
tunately cut  short  by  the  death  of  both  author 
and  sponsor.  Frank  Mitchell  was  an  old  and 
valued  member  of  BNHS;  he  is  described  as 
a genial  lovable  man  who  had  endeared 
himself  to  all  with  whom  he  came  in  contact, 
for  besides  his  many  abilities  ‘he  possessed 
just  those  qualities  which  endear  the  best  type 
of  Englishman  to  the  Indian  villager’. 

A.  J.  W.  Milroy,  i.f.s.,  18.. -1936.  (Vol. 
39:  376)  by  N.L.B.(or). 

A Conservator  of  Forests  in  Assam,  he 
is  best  remembered  for  his  work  in  the 
cause  of  game  preservation  and  for  intro- 


43 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


ducing  a new  method  of  elephant  hunting 
which  revolutionized  the  brutalities  prac- 
tised in  Assam  up  till  1920  or  so.  He 
also  succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to  the  far- 
flung  rhinoceros  poaching,  financed  by  unscru- 
pulous wealthy  traders,  which  had  brought  the 
animal  to  the  verge  of  extinction  in  the  Kamrup 
and  Kaziranga  Game  Sanctuaries.  Prior  to 
1920,  the  hunting  of  elephants  in  Assam  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  Assamese  and  Kampti 
mahaldars.  The  methods  they  employed  in- 
volved the  most  unheard  of  cruelty  to  the 
animals.  A herd  was  driven  from  a salt-lick 
into  a stockade  built  nearby  or  along  one  of 
their  own  paths  astride  it.  The  animals  were 
left  in  the  stockade  for  anything  up  to  a fort- 
night or  even  three  weeks  until  they  had  been 
weakened  sufficiently  by  hunger  and  thirst  to 
be  safe,  as  the  native  mahaldars  believed,  for 
the  koonkies  to  be  entered  into  the  stockade. 
The  condition  of  the  animals  after  the  lapse 
of  such  a period  was  beyond  belief  and  can- 
not be  imagined  by  anyone  who  has  never 
seen  it.  The  interior  of  the  stockade  would 
be  littered  with  the  carcases  of  the  calves  kill- 
ed by  hunger,  thirst  or  being  gored  by  mad- 
dened tuskers;  the  tails  of  the  rest  would  have 
been  bitten  off.  The  picture  of  those 

left,  with  sides  fallen  in,  heads  down  and 
mouths  open  with  blackened  tongue  protrud- 
ing and  covered  with  filth  and  blood,  would 
be  a sight  never  to  be  forgotten.  In  this  con- 
dition when  the  wild  elephants  would  be  too 
exhausted  to  give  any  trouble  in  the  stockade, 
the  sleek  well-fed  koonkies  would  be  marched 
in  and  the  captives  noosed  and  dragged  out. 
“Any  attempt  to  regain  their  freedom  was 
promptly  dealt  with  by  the  phandies  who 
slashed  open  the  skin  at  the  back  of  the  neck 
where  the  noose  fitted,  and  rubbed  some  sand 
into  the  wound”.  No  veterinary  aid  was  given 
with  the  result  that  all  abrasions  went  septic 


and  the  most  appalling  maggot-infested 
wounds  were  a commonplace.  Casualties  dur- 
ing training,  also  by  the  most  inhuman 
methods,  were  as  high  as  48  per  cent,  and  for 
the  entire  period,  till  the  animals  were  fit  for 
service,  as  much  as  80  per  cent!  Milroy’s 
methods  revolutionised  elephant  hunting  in 
Assam:  in  the  two  years  of  training,  casual- 
ties were  reduced  to  1 per  cent,  and  the  total 
casualties,  to  not  more  than  3 per  cent.  No 
elephant  was  to  be  left  in  a stockade  more 
than  72  hours  and  no  spears  were  to  be  taken 
into  a stockade  for  prodding  the  animals.  It 
was  characteristic  of  the  man  that  he  rode  a 
koonkie  into  the  stockade  that  housed  his  first 
catch  to  prove  to  the  doubting  phandies  that 
the  unstarved  wild  elephants  could  be  taken 
out  without  a single  scratch.  At  the  depot  a 
trained  veterinarian  was  always  present  to 
attend  to  any  wounds  twice  a day.  “No  spears 
were  allowed  and  anyone  who  used  one  got  a 
lambasting  with  the  handle  thereof.”  Milroy’s 
methods  of  catching  and  training  humanely 
and  in  shorter  time  proved  a complete  success 
and  are  now  accepted  as  the  only  methods 
to  be  followed  in  Assam,  “and  woe  betide 
the  Assamese  mahaldar  whose  casualties  ex- 
ceed the  prescribed  minimum.”  His  knowledge 
of  elephants  and  of  jungle  life  generally  was 
such  that  few  Europeans  acquire.  His  articles 
in  the  Journal  on  Elephant  catching  in  Assam 
(29:80)  and  on  the  Preservation  of  Wildlife 
in  India  (Assam)  (37:  97-104,  Supplement) 
are  highly  interesting  and  informative  and 
amply  substantiate  this  claim.  When  elephant 
hunting  Milroy  was  indefatigable;  he  drove 
with  the  drivers  or  acted  as  doorkeeper  at  a 
stockade,  or  as  one  of  the  stops,  and  often 
bestrode  an  elephant  like  a phandie  while 
training  it.  In  fact  he  knew  the  business  from 
A to  Z. 

Among  other  benefits,  his  methods  proved 


44 


BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY 


to  the  mahaldars  that  elephants  could  be  train- 
ed in  a very  short  time:  that  casualties  in 
the  training  depot  could  be  reduced  to  negli- 
gible proportions:  and  that  an  elephant  train- 
ed by  a mixture  of  firmness  and  kindness  was 
in  every  way  superior  to  a broken-spirited 
animal  trained  according  to  the  former  brutal 
methods.  Milroy  was  a man  possessing  a 
wonderful  personality  and  a singular  charm  of 
manner,  and  with  a great  sense  of  humour. 
He  was  hero-worshipped  by  the  junior  officers 
and  subordinates  of  the  Assam  Forest  Service. 
He  died  on  September  26,  1936. 

Frederick  Victor  Evans  1865-1940  (Vol. 
42:  431)  Anon.  (Editors) 

Came  out  to  India  in  1886  and  with  a 
partner  founded  (in  c.  1892)  the  pros- 
perous department  store  of  Evans,  Fraser 
& Co.  in  Bombay,  himself  retiring  from 
active  business  to  England  in  1908.  Dur- 
ing his  later  years  in  Bombay,  Evans 
found  recreation  in  shikar  about  the  Thana 
Creek  and  nearby  districts  and  he  was  fond 
of  camp  life  and  sailing  and  fishing  in  the 
Harbour.  His  practical  support  to  the  interest 
of  local  fishing  clubs,  led  to  the  development 
of  the  Lonavala  lakes  belonging  to  the  Tata 
Hydroelectric  schemes  as  possible  fishing  areas. 
His  active  interest  in  BNHS  seems  to  have 
begun  some  years  later;  he  was  elected  a Vice 
Patron  in  1928  in  recognition  of  the  very 
generous  financial  assistance  and  support 
which  he  gave  to  the  Society.  His  several  sub- 
stantial contributions  were  chiefly  utilised  for 
the  exhibition  galleries  of  the  Natural  History 
Section  (Prince  of  Wales  Museum),  then  under 
construction.  And  harking  back  to  his  fishing 
days  in  India,  when  he  had  difficulty  in  get- 
ting his  catches  identified,  he  maintained  at 
his  own  expense  for  over  a period  of  ten  years 


the  services  of  a modeller  for  the  preparation 
of  a series  of  casts  of  local  marine  and  fresh- 
water fishes  for  the  Fish  Gallery.  The  beautiful 
models  of  local  fishes  in  wax  and  papier 
mache  now  on  exhibition  in  the  P.W.  Museum 
are  the  outcome  of  his  altruistic  benefactions 
since  he  himself  was  unlikely  ever  to  see 
them.  Mr  Evans  also  presented  to  the  budd- 
ing Museum  the  series  of  beautiful  and  ex- 
pensive enlarged  models  illustrating  insects  in 
relation  to  disease.  The  Society’s  Journal  pro- 
fitted  by  his  magnanimous  offer  to  meet  the 
cost  of  many  of  the  coloured  and  black-and- 
white  plates  for  the  serial  on  ‘Wild  Animals 
of  the  Indian  Empire’  and  the  illustrations  for 
Mr  Mosely’s  lengthy  serial  on  Caddis  Flies. 
In  addition,  he  gifted  to  the  Society’s  library 
a collection  of  rare  and  valuable  old  books 
of  Bombay  and  Western  India  and  a complete 
set  of  the  7 elephant  folio  volumes  of  the 
priceless  Gould’s  Birds  of  Asia,  and  a copy 
of  A Century  of  Birds  of  the  Himalayan 
Mountains  by  the  same  author.  Mr.  Evans 
had  no  children;  “he  lived  a very  retired  life 
in  England,  and  if  there  is  any  meaning  in 
the  term  ‘Spiritual  Home’  his  certainly  was  in 
India,  which  he  loved  very  much.” 

Maharao  Shri  Khengarji  of  Kutch  1886- 
1942  (Vol.  43:  242)  by  S.  H.  P.  (rater). 

Succeeded  to  the  gadi  of  Kutch  at  the  age  of 
10  and  ruled  the  State  with  sagacity  and  states- 
manship for  close  on  60  years.  Maharao  Khen- 
garji enjoyed  high  esteem  among  his  compeers 
in  princely  India  as  well  as  from  the  British 
Indian  Government.  “He  loved  no  ostentation 
or  display.  But  his  stately  courtesy  and  charm 
of  manner  invested  him  with  a natural  dignity 
which  impelled  respect”.  The  Maharao  was 
an  exceedingly  observant  and  knowledgeable 
field  naturalist  and  sportsman — especially  a 


45 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


big  game  hunter.  His  association  with  BNHS 
went  back  almost  to  the  year  of  its  founda- 
tion, his  name  already  appearing  among  the 
list  of  members  published  in  Vol.  2 of  the 
Journal  in  1887.  He  maintained  a keen  per- 
sonal interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  Society 
throughout  the  years;  was  elected  a Vice  Pre- 
sident in  1921  and  became  a Vice  Patron  in 
1924.  Maharao  Khengarji  has  the  distinction 
of  being  the  first  to  report  the  breeding  of 
the  Flamingo  in  India  in  1893,  following  this 
up  later  with  a note  and  supporting  photo- 
graphs in  the  Journal  ‘Breeding  of  Flamingo 
in  the  Rann  of  Cutch’  (Vol.  15:  706).  The 
data  provided  in  this  note  enabled  the  So- 


ciety 43  years  later  to  send  an  expedition  to 
the  Great  Rann  to  collect  the  material  for  the 
beautiful  diorama  of  the  flamingo  nesting 
colony  exhibited  in  the  Prince  of  Wales  Mu- 
seum. The  entire  cost  of  the  expedition  as 
well  as  of  the  museum  exhibit  was  donated 
by  the  Maharao.  The  information  collected  by 
the  expedition  forms  the  basis  of  the  leader, 
Mr  McCann’s  excellent  seminal  article  on 
“The  Flamingo  ( Phoenicopterus  ruber  anti- 
quorum’ in  JBNHS  41:  12-38,  which  marked 
the  beginning  of  many  subsequent  study  ex- 
peditions to  the  Rann  by  other  naturalists. 

{To  be  continued ) 


46 


PHAYRE’S  LEAF  MONKEY  (PRESBYTIS  PHAYREl 
BLYTH,  1847)  OF  TRIPURA1 


R.  P.  Mukherjee2 
(With  a text-figure) 

This  paper  deals  with  the  abundance,  distribution,  social  structure,  food  and 
feeding  behaviour  of  Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  of  Tripura.  During  the  survey  of  north, 
south  and  part  of  the  west  districts  a total  of  36  groups  containing  409  Phayre’s 
leaf  monkey  were  seen.  Out  of  the  36  groups,  35  groups  were  bisexual  and  one 
was  an  all  male  group.  The  paper  includes  the  ecology  of  the  study  areas  and  a 
list  of  food  plants  and  the  feeding  behaviour  of  the  monkey. 


Introduction 

Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  ( Presbytis  phayrei 
Blyth,  1847)  which  is  restricted  in  its  distri- 
bution to  the  state  of  Tripura  in  India  is 
poorly  known.  Agrawal  (1974)  Agrawal  and 
Bhattacharya  (1977)  studied  its  taxonomy 
and  briefly  described  its  distribution.  Green 
(1978)  in  his  report  on  “Primates  of  Bangla- 
desh” reported  the  occurrence  of  this  money 
in  a few  areas  of  Bangladesh  adjacent  to 
Tripura.  In  his  preliminary  survey  of  popu- 
lation and  habitat  of  monkeys  in  Bangladesh 
he  has  recorded  the  Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  from 
the  regions  of  Sylhet  and  Chittagong.  The 
present  study  shows  that  this  monkey  is  wide- 
ly distributed  in  Tripura.  The  surveys  carried 
out  by  Green  in  Bangladesh  and  by  me  in 
Tripura  revealed  that  this  species  is  more 
widely  distributed  in  Tripura  than  in  Bangla- 
desh. 

I had  the  opportunity  of  visiting  Tripura 
twice  and  studying  this  little  known  colobid 
monkey  in  its  natural  habitat.  During  the 
months  of  November-December,  1976,  a sur- 

1  Accepted  November  1980. 

2 Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta. 


vey  of  the  south  and  part  of  the  west  dis- 
tricts of  this  state  was  conducted.  The  second 
survey  was  carried  out  in  the  months  of  May- 
June,  1978,  in  the  same  two  districts  and 
also  in  the  north  district  with  an  idea  to  cover 
the  area  as  much  as  possible  and  to  collect 
information  on  the  abundance,  distribution 
and  ecology  of  the  monkey.  The  last  trip  was 
also  utilised  to  collect  information  on  the 
abundance  of  rhesus  monkey  in  the  south 
district  of  Tripura.  This  paper  deals  with  the 
abundance,  distribution,  social  structure,  food 
and  feeding  behaviour  and  the  relation  of  this 
species  with  other  species  of  monkeys  that 
are  found  in  the  study  area. 

The  monkeys  that  were  observed  in  the 
various  forests  of  Tripura  during  these  two 
surveys  were  rhesus  macaques  (Macaca 
mulatto) , stumptailed  macaques  ( Macaca  spe- 
ciosa  arctoides) , hoolock  gibbons  ( Hylobates 
hoolock),  capped  langurs  ( Presbytis  pileatus), 
Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  ( Presbytis  phayrei)  and 
slow  loris  ( Nycticebus  coucang).  Mukherjee 
(1977)  has  published  a brief  note  on  the 
rhesus  and  other  monkeys  of  Tripura. 

Agrawal  (1974)  studied  the  taxonomy  and 
discussed  the  status  of  P.  phayrei  and  P.  bar- 
bei.  His  study  was  based  on  the  specimens 


47 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


mainly  collected  from  Tripura.  The  colour  of 
the  body  of  Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  is  dusky 
grey  with  golden  or  pale  buff  on  the  back. 
The  head  is  of  the  same  colour  as  that  of  the 
body  except  back  and  erect  brow  hairs.  A 
well  defined  crest  is  found  over  the  head  only 
in  freshly  killed  specimens.  The  whiskers  are 
long  and  partially  conceal  the  ears.  Areas 
around  eyes  are  naked  and  milky  white.  The 
lips  are  also  milky  white  and  studded  with 
sparse  white  hairs.  Fur  on  the  ventral  side  is 
silver  white  and  fore  and  hind  limbs  are  of 
same  colour  as  that  of  body  except  black 
dorsum  of  hand  and  foot.  The  tail  is  paler 
than  body  and  has  a tuft  of  blackish  brown 
hairs  at  the  tip.  In  males  the  area  below  pubic 
callosities  is  light  grey  but  it  is  yellowish  in 
females  (Agrawal  1974).  In  the  field  it  can 
easily  be  recognised  even  from  a distance  by 
its  colour  around  eyes  and  lips. 

Study  method 

Field  studies  were  mainly  conducted  in  the 
winter  and  summer  months.  During  the  last 
part  of  the  second  survey  there  was  heavy 
rain  as  monsoon  had  set  in.  The  surveys  were 
conducted  in  forests,  villages,  towns,  temples 
and  cities.  The  observations  were  mostly  car- 
ried on  foot  and  on  vehicle.  In  the  second 
survey  a vehicle  was  used,  and  an  elephant 
was  used  in  surveying  parts  of  Garjee  forest 
in  the  south  district  during  the  first  survey. 
Most  of  the  surveys  were  carried  out  from 
dawn  to  dusk.  The  methods  that  were  used 
to  locate  the  groups  were  road  side,  transect 
and  point  census.  In  the  forest  the  procedure 
adopted  was  to  move  slowly  with  least  noise 
and  stop  every  half-kilometer  for  ten  minutes 
and  scan  the  area  thoroughly.  The  transect 
method  was  carried  out  usually  with  two 
observers  in  each  party. 


Once  a group  was  observed  the  notes  on 
me  group  size  and  composition,  habitat,  food 
and  feeding  behaviour,  its  interaction  with 
other  species  of  monkeys,  etc.  were  taken. 
Besides  this,  some  groups  were  selected  for 
extensive  study  of  their  food  and  feeding 
behaviour.  The  mechanical  aids  which  were 
used  in  the  field  studies  were  binoculars  and 
still  camera  with  a telephoto  lens  of  200  mm 
was  used. 

The  monkeys  that  were  not  weaned  were 
usually  carried  by  the  mothers  during  group 
movements  and  were  classified  as  infants.  The 
monkeys  which  were  independent  of  their 
mothers  were  grouped  as  juveniles. 

No  attempt  was  made  to  follow  all  the 
groups  for  long  distances.  In  most  of  the 
groups  it  was  possible  to  study  them  at  close 
quarters  and  it  was  feasible  to  observe  the 
activities  of  the  groups  from  a distance  of  30  m. 
In  groups  which  were  not  shy,  it  was  possible 
to  study  by  sitting  under  the  trees  on  which 
they  were  feeding  or  resting.  However,  the 
only  difficulty  that  was  faced  on  such  occa- 
sions by  the  observer  was  that  if  the  group 
was  scared  due  to  the  presence  of  the  observer 
the  dominant  male  gave  loud  barks  and  most 
of  the  monkeys  started  to  urinate  and  defe- 
cate. This  not  only  interfered  the  normal 
activity  of  the  group  but  also  disturbed  the 
observer. 

Ecology  of  the  study  area : Tripura  (23°  50' 
N,  91°  15'E)  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  about 
338  m.  The  configuration  of  the  land  is  mostly 
hilly,  gently  undulating  or  flat.  There  are  two 
main  hill  ranges  in  the  southern  division  name- 
ly Barmura  — Deotamura  and  Tekkatulshi. 
These  two  hill  ranges  are  parallel  to  each 
other  and  run  north  to  south.  In  the  flat  lands 
there  are  many  low  hillocks  locally  known  as 
tillas.  Many  rivers  and  their  tributaries  criss- 
cross the  flat  lands.  Almost  all  the  flat  lands 


48 


PHAYRE'S  LEAF  MONKEY 


are  put  to  agricultural  use  and  the  cultivations 
have  extended  into  the  valleys  between  the 
hillocks,  and  the  continuity  of  the  forest  is 
broken. 

The  hills,  which  are  clayey,  appear  to  be 
of  recent  origin,  mostly  belong  to  tertiary  age 
and  are  related  to  Surma  and  Tipan  series. 
The  soil  is  formed  by  the  disintegration  and 
weathering  of  these  rocks.  The  soil  is  general- 
ly sandy  loam  to  loamy  sand  or  clayey  loam 
to  pure  clay.  Its  colour  mostly  varies  from 
grey  to  brown.  The  soil  in  the  forested  areas 
is  generally  loamy  sand.  It  is  practically  with- 
out humus.  The  soils  of  the  state  have  been 
classified  into  three  broad  soil  types.  They 
are  alluvial,  red  and  yellow  soils.  The  ash 
produced  by  the  annual  forest  fire  is  washed 
down  into  the  cultivated  fields  in  the  valleys. 

The  climate  is  tropical  and  the  tropic  of 
Cancer  passes  through  this  state.  It  is  gene- 
rally hot  and  moist  and  there  are  three  distinct 
seasons:  summer,  rains  and  winter.  The  high 
temperature  in  summer,  which  lasts  from 
March  to  May,  is  tempered  by  occasional 
rains.  The  monsoon  starts  from  June  and  con- 
tinues upto  October.  Pre-monsoon  showers  are 
also  common  in  the  month  of  May.  The  win- 
ter lasts  from  November  to  February. 

The  average  maximum  and  minimum  tem- 
peratures recorded  were  29.15°C  and  15.50°C 
respectively.  The  maximum  and  minimum  tem- 
peratures recorded  were  35.75°C  and  8.25°C 
in  the  year  1954  and  1950,  respectively.  The 
highest  and  lowest  temperatures  are  usually 
reached  in  May  and  January  respectively. 
Almost  the  entire  rainfall  is  received  during 
the  monsoon  but  summer  and  winter  rains 
are  fairly  common.  During  winter,  at  times, 
mild  frost  occurs  in  low  lying  areas.  The  ave- 
rage rainfall  is  about  1582  mm.  The  maxi- 
mum humidity  recorded  so  far  was  100%, 
and  the  minimum  42%.  The  average  humidity 


4 


usually  varies  from  68%  to  71%.  The  highest 
humidity  is  reached  in  the  month  of  July. 
The  winter  is  severe  and  is  characterised  by 
the  fall  of  dew.  The  various  rivers  and  streams 
form  the  main  source  of  water  supply.  The 
forests  of  this  state  belong  to  the  moist  tro- 
pical type  and  they  can  broadly  be  divided 
into  tree  and  bamboo  forests  with  open  scrub 
jungle  and  grasslands.  The  composition  of 
the  forests  varies  from  place  to  place  and 
these  can  be  grouped  into  Sal  forests,  ( Shorea 
robusta),  garjan  forests  ( Artocarpus  chap- 
lasha ),  dense  mixed  deciduous  and  evergreen 
forests,  mixed  bamboo  forests  and  open  scrub 
forests  with  thatch  and  tall  grasses. 

The  principal  trees  which  form  the  top 
canopy  are  Albizzia  procera,  Albizzia  stipu - 
lata,  Artocarpus  chaplasha,  Bursera  serrata, 
Careya  arborea,  Garuga  pinnata,  Gmelina 
arborea,  Lagerstroemia  parviflora,  Lannea 
grandis,  Schima  wallichii,  Shorea  robusta, 
Sterculia  villosa,  Syzygium  cuminii,  Termina- 
lia  bellirica,  Vitex  peduncularis,  Stereos  per  - 
mum  and  Machilus  species.  The  middle  storey 
is  generally  composed  of  Careya  arborea, 
Dillenia  pentagyna,  Lagerstroemia  parviflora, 
Mallotus  philippensis,  Premna  bengalensis, 
Shorea  robusta,  Bridelia,  Machilus  and  Wrigh- 
tia  species. 

The  undergrowth  consists  of  Coffea  benga- 
lensis, Clerodendron,  Eupatorium,  Flemingia 
and  Thatch.  These  undergrowths  are  usually 
thin  in  the  flat  areas  and  on  the  gently  slop- 
ing hill  tops  but  are  thick  in  moist  areas.  The 
climbers  that  are  found  in  these  forests  are 
Acacia  pennata,  Bauhinia  vahlii,  Butea  par- 
viflora, Dalbergia  stipulacea,  Mikania  scan- 
dens  and  Millettia  pachycarpa.  In  the  mixed 
forest  the  canopy  is  very  much  open  and 
broken.  The  damage  to  the  forests  are  caused 
mainly  by  encroachment,  jhuming,  illicit  fell- 
ing and  fire.  Some  of  the  main  ecological  fea- 

49 


/ 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


tures  of  the  study  area  are  presented  in  A total  of  409  monkeys  were  counted  in 
Table  1.  the  36  groups,  out  of  which  73  were  males. 


Table  1 

Ecological  features  of  the  study  area 


Characters 

State  of  Tripura 

Altitude 

338m 

Longitude 

91°15'E 

Latitude 

23°50'N 

Rainfall 

1582.38  mm 

Temperature 

16.6°-29.4°C 

Summer  months 

March- May 

Main  monsoon 

South-East 

Monsoon  months 

June-October 

Humidity 

42% -100% 

Forest  type 

Moist  tropical  (Tree  and 
bamboo  forests) 

Human  population 

Dense 

Other  primates 

Rhesus  and  stumptailed 
macaques,  Capped  langurs, 
Hoolock  gibbons  and 
Slow  loris. 

Possible  predators  of 

Carnivores,  Eagles  and 

Phayre’s  leaf  monkey. 

Pythons. 

Group  size  and  composition : Out  of  the 
36  groups  of  Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  that  were 
encountered  during  the  two  surveys,  8,  17 
and  1 1 groups  were  recorded  from  north, 
south  and  west  districts  respectively  (Fig.  1). 
A total  of  about  1484  sq.  km.,  1797  sq.  km. 
and  664  sq.  km.  of  these  three  respective  dis- 
tricts were  surveyed.  The  average  group  size 
of  the  bisexual  groups  in  these  three  districts 
were  14.25  (±  3.58),  12.18  (±  1.22)  and  8.10 
(±  1.12)  respectively.  The  population  distri- 
bution and  social  structure  of  bisexual  groups 
of  this  monkey  in  different  districts  of  Tri- 
pura are  shown  in  Table  2.  Of  the  36  groups, 
35  were  bisexual  groups  and  one  was  an  all 
male  group.  The  only  male  group  of  7 mon- 
keys was  recorded  from  west  district. 


169  were  females,  92  were  juveniles  and  75 
were  infants.  The  group  size  varied  from  4 
to  38.  Though  smaller  number  of  groups  were 
encountered  in  the  northern  district,  the  big- 
gest group  with  38  members  was  observed 
here.  The  group  size  and  composition  of  diffe- 
rent groups  are  presented  in  Table  3. 

A group  with  one  male,  one  female,  one 
juvenile  and  one  infant  that  was  observed  in 
the  west  district  appears  to  have  been  of  recent 
formation.  Out  of  the  35  bisexual  groups,  14 
groups  contained  only  one  male  and  an  equal 
number  of  groups  contained  two  males,  where- 
as the  4 and  3 groups  contained  three  and 
four  males  respectively.  Majority  of  the 
groups  that  contained  more  than  one  male, 
only  one  was  an  adult  male,  the  rest  were 


50 


PH  AY  RES  LEAF  MONKEY 


51 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Table  2 


Population  survey  and  social  structure  of  bisexual  groups  of  Phayre’s  monkey  of  Tripura 


Districts 

Sq.  Km.  area 
surveyed 
(approx.) 

Total  number 
of  bisexual 
groups  observed 

Average 

group 

size 

Adult 

8 $ 

$ $ 

Sub-adult 

8 8 $ $ 

North 

1484 

8 

14.25 

13 

49 

31 

19 

±3.58 

1.88+h 

6.1 2+: 

3.88+: 

2.71  ± 

0.35 

1.66 

1.20 

0.57 

South 

1797 

17 

12.18 

36 

88 

43 

40 

±1.22 

2.12± 

5.18+: 

2.69  ± 

2.78  ± 

0.24 

0.56 

0.30 

0.50 

West 

664 

10 

8.10 

15 

32 

18 

16 

±1.12 

1.50+: 

3.20± 

2.25  ± 

1.78± 

0.22 

0.51 

0.41 

0.36 

sub-adult.  In  35  bisexual  groups,  the  percen- 
tage of  males,  females,  juveniles  and  infants 
were  16.41,  42.04,  22.90  and  18.65  respec- 
tively. The  sex  ratio  of  adult  males  to  females 
was  1:2.3  and  the  ratio  of  females  to  infants 
was  1:0.44. 

In  the  bisexual  group  no  interaction  bet- 
ween the  adult  males  and  females  was  ob- 
served. The  members  of  the  group  when 
alarmed  moved  inside  the  forest  by  leaping 
from  branch  to  branch  thus  covering  the  dis- 
tance quickly.  The  daily  activity  of  the  all 
male  group  was  almost  the  same  as  that 
observed  in  a bisexual  group.  The  males  alarm 
bark  was  similar  to  that  of  the  golden  langur. 

Food  and  feeding  behaviour : Phayre’s  leaf 
monkey  feeds  almost  entirely  on  leaves.  On 
only  one  occasion  a group  came  close  to 
human  habitation  and  a few  members  of  the 
group  descended  on  the  roof  of  a house.  Most 
of  the  groups  were  found  in  the  mixed  forest 
and  occasionally  they  moved  into  the  sal 
forest,  usually  for  resting. 

Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  was  observed  to  start 
feeding  activity  shortly  after  waking  up  in  the 
morning  and  continues  for  a considerable 


period.  During  feeding  the  monkeys  remained 
on  the  same  tree  for  a long  period  or  fre- 
quently moved  from  tree  to  tree.  The  whole 
group  feeds  and  moves  as  a unit.  The  inten- 
sity of  the  feeding  decreased  considerably  at 
noon,  particularly  during  summer  months,  but 
increased  again  in  the  evening.  Feeding  was 
never  a continuous  activity  and  was  frequent- 
ly interrupted  by  short  non-feeding  spells 
during  which  the  individuals  either  rest  or 
move.  Individuals  generally  caught  hold  of  the 
nearby  hanging  twigs  and  bent  them  to  the 
level  of  their  mouths  and  either  nibbled 
directly  at  the  buds,  leaves  and  flowers  or 
plucked  them  with  hands  and  ate.  They  usual- 
ly plucked  fruits  with  their  hands.  During 
rains  there  was  considerable  decline  in  the 
feeding  and  other  activities  and  when  there 
was  heavy  rain  the  monkeys  sat  high  up  on 
the  thick  branches  of  the  trees  for  hours  to- 
gether without  any  activity.  The  feeding, 
activity  was  resumed  after  cessation  of  rains. 
In  case  the  food  was  in  plenty  a group  re- 
mained at  one  place  for  a considerable  period 
and  spent  a major  part  of  its  activity  in  feed- 
ing. A group  was  observed  to  cover  a distance 


52 


PH  AY  RE’S  LEAF  MONKEY 


Table  3 


Group  size  and  composition  of  Phayre’s  monkey  of  Tripura. 


SI. 

No. 

Districts 

Male 

Female 

Juvenile 

Infant 

Group  Remarks 

size 

1. 

S 

2 

5 

3 

4 

14 

2. 

1 

6 

3 

— 

10 

3. 

3 

11 

3 

2 

19 

4 

4 

7 

4 

3 

16 

5. 

O 

3 

6 

3 

1 

16 

6. 

2 

3 

3 

1 

9 

7. 

2 

2 

2 

— 

6 

8. 

2 

4 

2 

3 

11 

9. 

u 

2 

4 

2 

2 

10 

10. 

2 

2 

1 

2 

7 

11. 

1 

3 

1 

1 

6 

12. 

4 

8 

5 

8 

25 

13. 

T 

1 

4 

2 

1 

8 

14. 

3 

4 

2 

— 

9 

15. 

1 

6 

3 

2 

12 

16. 

1 

6 

5 

3 

. 15 

17. 

H 

2 

7 

2 

3 

14 

18. 

W 

1 

2 

2 

1 

6 

19. 

1 

3 

2 

1 

7 

20. 

2 

2 

— 

1 

5 

21. 

E 

1 

5 

2 

2 

10 

22. 

1 

5 

2 

3 

11 

23. 

2 

3 

2 

— 

7 

24. 

7 

— 

— 

— 

7 All  male  group 

25. 

S 

3 

3 

2 

1 

9 

26. 

2 

2 

— 

2 

6 

27. 

1 

6 

5 

4 

16 

28. 

T 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

29. 

N 

4 

17 

12 

5 

38 

30. 

2 

3 

2 

3 

10 

31. 

O 

1 

4 

3 

3 

11 

32. 

2 

3 

2 

— 

7 

33. 

R 

2 

5 

2 

2 

11 

34. 

1 

7 

4 

1 

13 

35. 

T 

1 

3 

2 

1 

7 

36. 

H 

2 

7 

4 

4 

17 

TOTAL 

73 

169 

92 

75 

409 

Means 

2.03 

4.69 

2.55 

2.08 

11.36 

Standard  error 

—0.21 

±0.40 

±0.36 

±0.29 

±0.94 

Population 

composition 

17.85% 

41.32% 

22.49% 

18.34% 

53 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


of  about  402  metres  in  3^  hours  during  winter 
month  of  December  and  during  this  period 
the  group  fed  and  rested  while  moving  from 
tree  to  tree. 

Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  was  never  observed 
to  invade  cultivated  fields  whereas  the  rhesus 
monkey  fed  exclusively  on  paddy  when  it  was 
ripe,  just  before  harvesting  (Mukherjee  1977). 
The  feeding  activity  of  Phayre’s  leaf  monkey 
was  restricted  very  much  to  the  upper  and 
middle  stories  but  rarely  to  lower  storey.  It 
appears  that  their  water  requirements  are  met 
from  the  water  content  of  the  food  that  they 
eat.  I did  not  notice  them  drinking  water  dur- 
ing my  study.  However,  it  was  observed  that 
they  lick  the  water  from  the  leaves  or  collect- 
ed on  their  bodies  after  rains. 

The  food  of  Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  consists 
of  leaves,  flowers  and  fruits  of  various  plants. 
Table  4 includes  the  list  of  food  plants  and  the 


parts  eaten,  based  on  observation  during  dif- 
ferent surveys.  The  larger  and  mature  leaves 
were  eaten  individually  by  pulling  them  off 
the  branches.  They  were  not  observed  feed- 
ing on  animal  food.  The  wide  dispersal  of 
food  plants  in  Tripura  helps  this  monkey  to 
spread  widely  in  this  state. 

On  one  evening  in  the  month  of  June,  1978, 
an  eagle  made  repeated  attempts  to  pick  up 
a Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  in  the  forest  of  Cha- 
mol  Chora  in  the  north  district.  This  group, 
consisting  of  17  monkeys,  was  busy  feeding 
after  sunset  when  the  eagle  appeared  and  first 
dived  at  the  dominant  male.  Later  the  bird 
made  repeated  attempts  to  pick  up  a juvenile. 
The  group  members  were  observed  moving 
down  or  to  drop  from  the  top  canopy  to  the 
lower  branches  and  to  hide  themselves  from 
the  bird  among  the  thick  foliage. 

Relationship  with  other  monkeys : A mark- 


Table  4 


Food  plants  of  Phayre’s  leaf  monkey 


Plants 

Types  of  plants 

Parts  eaten 

Ar  to  car pus  chaplasha 

Tree 

Leaves  & Petiole 

Albizzia  procera 

Tree 

Leaves 

Bursera  serrata 

Tree 

Leaves 

Careya  arborea 

Tree 

Leaves 

Dalbergia  stipulacea 

Climber 

Leaves  & buds 

Dendrocalamus  longispathus 

Bamboo 

Shoots 

Dillenia  pentagyna 

Tree 

Leaves 

Dipterocarpus  turbinatus 

Tree 

Leaves 

Eugenia  jambolana 

Tree 

Leaves  & Fruits 

Ficus  carica 

Tree 

Leaves  & Fruits 

Gmelina  arborea 

Tree 

Leaves 

Grewia  microcos 

Tree 

Leaves 

Lagerstroemia  flos-reginae 

Tree 

Leaves 

Lagerstroemia  parviflora 

Tree 

Leaves 

Mangifera  indica 

Tree 

Fruits 

Mikania  scandens 

Climber 

Leaves,  buds  and  Flowers 

Schima  wallichii 

Tree 

Leaves 

Salmaiia  walabarica 

Tree 

Flowers 

Terminalia  bellirica 

Tree 

Leaves 

54 


PH  AY  RES  LEAF  MONKEY 


ed  tolerance  was  noticed  when  Phayre’s  leaf 
monkey  came  in  contact  with  other  species  of 
monkeys.  There  was  not  much  agonistic  be- 
haviour observed  within  a group.  No  inter- 
action was  observed  between  this  monkey 
feeding  on  top  and  macaques  feeding  on  low 
branches  or  on  ground  below  the  same  tree. 
On  one  occasion  a group  of  25  Phayre’s  leaf 
monkeys  and  a group  of  18  rhesus  monkeys 
were  observed  feeding  close  to  each  other  in 
Abhoya  forest  in  South  district  and  finally 
when  both  the  groups  moved  in  the  same  direc- 
tion and  emerged  at  one  point  on  the  same 
tree,  both  the  groups  gave  vocal  threats  and 
then  retreated  in  the  opposite  directions.  Not 
much  interaction  was  noticed  between  this 
species  of  monkey  and  the  other  two  species 
namely,  hoolock  gibbons  and  capped  lan- 
gurs, that  shared  the  habitat  and  food  with 
the  Phayre’s  leaf  monkey.  The  capped  lan- 
gurs were  observed  feeding  on  the  same  type 
of  food  that  was  taken  by  the  Phayre’s  leaf 
monkey.  On  many  occasions  it  was  observed 
that  the  capped  langurs  feeding  close  to 
Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  without  any  agonistic 
behaviour  and  their  home  ranges  also  over- 
lapped extensively. 

On  Dec.  3,  1976  in  Garjee  forest  of  the 
south  district  a male  capped  langur  was  ob- 
served in  association  with  a group  of  Phayre’s 
leaf  monkey.  The  Phayre’s  group,  consisting 
of  2 males,  3 females,  3 juveniles  and  1 in- 
fant, was  quite  tolerant  to  this  capped  langur. 
Out  of  the  two  males  one  was  sub-adult  and 
the  capped  langur  occasionally  chased  the 
sub-adult  male  and  the  juveniles,  but  the 
dominant  male  of  the  Phayre’s  group  defend- 
ed the  group  members  and  chased  out  the 
capped  langur.  This  capped  langur  was  ob- 
served in  association  with  the  group  for  two 
consecutive  days.  On  the  third  day  the  group 
moved  into  the  thick  forest  of  the  valley  and 


was  not  traceable. 

On  May  30,  1978  in  a forest  of  north 
district,  located  16  km  from  Ambasa  on  the 
Ambasa-Manu  road,  a male  Phayre’s  leaf 
monkey  was  observed  in  association  with  a 
group  of  rhesus  monkeys.  The  rhesus  group 
consisting  of  48  members  was  quite  tolerant 
of  the  Phayre’s  monkey.  When  first  seen  this 
monkey  was  observed  in  the  centre  of  the 
group  sitting  on  the  top  of  a tree  and  feeding 
on  its  leaf,  whereas  the  members  of  the  rhesus 
group  were  busy  feeding  on  the  ground  below 
and  on  the  low  branches  of  the  trees. 

Discussion 

Little  is  known  about  the  ecology  and  be- 
haviour of  Phayre’s  monkey.  Blanford  (1888- 
91)  stated  that  this  species  is  found  in  the 
dense,  high  and  bamboo  forests  of  Burma. 
Fooden  (1971)  reported  its  occurrence  in 
evergreen  forests  about  15-50  m above  ground 
level  in  Thailand.  Green  (19-78)  recorded  this 
species  in  the  secondary  and  primary  forests 
of  Sylhet  and  Chittagong  in  Bangladesh.  The 
survey  conducted  in  Tripura  revealed  that  this 
species  is  widely  distributed  in  this  state.  It 
inhabits  mixed  forest  and  occasionally  forays 
into  sal  forests.  On  a few  occasions  it  was 
observed  that  they  select  sal  trees  for  roosting 
at  night. 

Blanford  (loc.  cit.)  recorded  group  sizes 
of  20-30  animals  in  Burma.  Fooden  (loc.  cit.) 
observed  groups  of  3 to  30  monkeys  in  Thai- 
land. Green  (loc.  cit.)  in  six  sightings  observ- 
ed 35  Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  in  Bangladesh. 
The  group  size  of  4 to  38  was  observed  in 
the  survey  conducted  at  Tripura.  The  all  male 
group,  which  is  a frequent  occurrence  in  the 
hanuman  langur,  appears  to  be  less  common 
in  the  Phayre’s  monkey.  Though  some  of  the 
bisexual  groups  contained  as  many  as  4 males 


55 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


the  occurrence  of  1 to  2 males  was  more  com- 
mon. Most  of  the  groups  had  juveniles  and 
infants.  Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  and  capped 
langur  were  observed  feeding  close  to  each 
other  thus  they  are  sympatric  in  distribution. 
This  was  also  observed  by  Green  (loc.  cit.) 
in  Bangladesh.  Leaves  form  the  bulk  of  the 

Refe: 

Agrawal,  V.  C.  (1974) : Taxonomic  status  of 
Barbe’s  leaf  monkey,  Presbytis  barbei  Blyth.  Pri- 
mates. 15  (2-3):  235-239. 

Agrawal,  V.  C.  and  Bhattacharya,  T.  A.  (1977) : 
Report  on  a collection  of  mammals  from  Tripura. 
Rec.  Zool.  Surv.  India  73:  135-157. 

Blanford,  W.  T.  (1888-91):  The  fauna  of  British 
India  including  Burma  and  Ceylon : Mammalia 

London:  Taylor  and  Francis. 

Fooden,  J.  (1971) : Report  on  primates  collected 
in  western  Thailand,  January- April,  1967.  Ficldiana 
(Zoology),  59:  1-62. 


food  of  Phayre’s  monkey  in  Tripura  and  this 
supports  the  observation  of  Fooden  (loc.  cit.). 
However,  they  were  also  found  feeding  on  the 
petioles,  flowers,  buds,  fruits  and  bamboo 
shoots  at  Tripura.  Green  (loc.  cit.)  has  also 
observed  these  monkeys  feeding  on  bamboo 
shoots  and  stems  at  Bangladesh. 

EN  CES 

Green,  K.  M.  (1978):  Primates  of  Bangladesh: 
A preliminary  survey  of  population  and  habitat. 
Biol.  Conserv.,  13:  141-160. 

Mukherjee,  R.  P.  (1977):  Rhesus  and  other 
monkeys  of  Tripura.  Newsl.  Zool.  Surv.  India, 
5(3):  111. 

(1979) : Phayre’s  leaf  mon- 
key ( Presbytis  phayrei  Blyth,  1847)  of  Tripura. 
Vllth  Congress  of  the  International  Primatological 
Society  (Abstract).  128. 

Roonwal,  M.  L.  and  Mohnot,  S.  M.  (1977): 
Primates  of  South  Asia:  Ecology,  Sociobiology,  and 
Behaviour.  Harvard  University  Press,  Cambridge. 


56 


A BOTANICAL  TOUR  TO  PANGI  & TRILOKNATH 
IN  THE  UPPER  CHENAB1 


U.  C.  Bhattacharyya  and  B.  P.  Uniyal2 
(With  two  plates  and  a text-figure) 

The  paper  presents  an  account  of  exploration  of  a remote  N.  W.  Himalayan  valley 
along  a pilgrimage  route  in  the  intersection  of  Lahul  and  Pangi  valleys.  Apart  from 


highlighting  its  main  features  of  vegetation, 
paper  also  enumerates  a list  of  235  species 
in  the  upper  Chenab,  with  short  ecological 
reported  from  the  Lahul  valley. 

I N TROD  U CTIO  N 

Most  of  the  approachable  river  valleys  in 
the  Western  Himalaya  have  more  than  one 
religious  centre  visited  by  people  from  time 
immemorial  inspite  of  natural  hazards  and 
physical  discomforts.  One  such  famous  shrine 
of  Triloknath  (also  spelt  Trilokinath)  is  situa- 
ted in  the  upper  Chenab  valley.  The  easiest 
route  to  reach  the  area  is  through  the  pic- 
turesque Lahul  valley  after  crossing  the 
Rohtang  Pass  (3980  m).  During  July  and 
August,  1971  we  undertook  an  exploration 
tour  to  the  upper  Chenab  for  collecting  speci- 
mens for  information  on  the  Botany  of  the 
area  hitherto  little  known  through  published 
literature.  With  the  inclusion  of  the  Pangi 
valley  as  an  area  for  the  conservation  of  wild 
life,  the  exploration  report  of  this  botanically 
interesting  area  was  felt  to  be  of  considerable 
importance. 

Chenab  valley  in  Lahul  is  known  as  ‘Man- 
chat’  or  low  land  or  low  valley  (Aitchison 
1868)  and  locally  this  is  also  called  as  Patan 

1 Accepted  September  1980. 

2 Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Northern  Circle, 
Dehra  Dun. 


botanical  wealth  and  physiography,  the 
under  54  families,  particularly  collected 
notes  including  62  species  hitherto  un- 
valley. It  is  the  most  thickly  populated  area 
in  Lahul  with  extensive  cultivated  lands  and 
preserves,  dense  forested  areas  and  herbace- 
ous greeneries  (Randhawa  1959)  unlike  any 
other  part  of  the  dry  and  desolate  Lahul  & 
Spiti  valleys.  The  journey  along  the  valley  to 
Triloknath  and  further  west  to  Udaipur,  pre- 
sents soothing  landscapes  of  the  winding 
Chenab  with  green  villages  and  multicoloured 
network  of  cultivated  terraced  fields.  The 
beauty  of  the  valley  is  further  enhanced  by 
the  dark  green  Pinus  wallichiana  and  Picea 
smithiana  on  the  north  facing  slopes  and  with 
contrasting  yellowish  green  Juniperus  polycar - 
pos  covering  the  opposite  slopes  of  the  mag- 
nificent mountains  standing  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  valley.  After  a bleak  and  rugged 
mountainous  feature  of  the  Chandra  valleys 
a journey  along  the  Chenab  brings  joyous  re- 
lief to  trekkers  and  botanical  explorers. 

Triloknath 

Triloknath  is  situated  at  a distance  of 
about  42  kilometres  downstream  along  the 
Chandra-Bhaga  or  Chenab  from  Tandi.  Only 
very  recently  the  Chenab  valley  up  to  Udaipur 
has  been  connected  by  motorable  road  where 


57 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


58 


Fig.  1.  Route  map  of  the  area  explored. 


BOTANICAL  TOUR  IN  UPPER  CHENAB 


buses  are  regularly  plying  to  the  close  vicinity 
of  Triloknath  and  people  can  reach  the  place 
without  facing  much  difficulty.  The  small 
white  temple  of  the  shrine  stands  at  the  edge 
of  a precipitous  rock  and  the  surrounding 
panorama  from  a distance  reveals  a pictorial 
view  of  the  snowclad  mountains  in  the  back- 
ground and  a vast  extension  of  the  Chenab 
with  large  winding  course  disappearing  into 
the  great  wilderness  of  the  snowy  heights.  The 
mountain  slopes  facing  north  above  Trilok- 
nath subtend  beautiful  forests  of  Pinus  walli- 
c hi  ana  and  Picea  smithiana  up  to  the  visible 
limit  and  end  in  complete  barrenness  predo- 
minated by  a reddish  carpet  of  Polygonum 
affine  above  3500  m.  On  the  farside  of  Trilok- 
nath the  valley  appears  quite  rugged  with  pale 
green  Juniperus  polycarpous,  sparsely  covering 
the  eroded  slopes.  Down  at  the  bottom,  the 
colourful  terraced  fields  of  Kishori  village  are 
visible.  The  latter  is  thickly  populated  and 
serves  as  a base  for  people  intending  to  pay 
a visit  to  the  shrine. 

A steep  climb  from  the  Kishori  village 
through  shades  of  salices,  cultivated  terraces, 
flowering  meadows  and  extremely  rugged 
slopes  brings  one  to  the  relieving  surround- 
ings of  Triloknath  (2900  m).  Towards  the  end 
of  August  the  valley  including  Triloknath  be- 
comes quite  warm.  Every  year  during  this 
period  people  from  remote  places  gather  for 
a fair  at  Triloknath  in  colourful  dresses  and 
caps  feathered  with  winged  seeds  of  Oroxylum 
indicum.  They  dance  for  hours  together  in 
simple  rhythmic  steps  to  the  monotonous 
music  of  a drum  and  a flute. 

Approach  and  Physiography 

Before  Manali  — Leh  High-Way  was  con- 
structed people  could  enter  the  Lahul  valley 
with  great  difficulty  after  crossing  the  formi- 
dable Rohtang  Pass  (3980  m).  The  fearful- 


ness of  the  journey  can  be  traced  in  one  of 
the  travel  accounts  to  these  areas  (Borradaile 
1928).  At  present  people  can  cross  Rohtang 
by  bus  and  reach  most  of  parts  of  Lahul 
including  the  Chenab  valley  up  to  Udaipur 
within  a day  from  Manali,  provided  natural 
disasters  do  not  occur. 

The  picturesque  Lahul  valley  is  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  soaring  mountains  to  which 
the  easiest  approach  is  through  this  pass.  The 
whole  topography  within  Lahul  changes  when 
the  pass  is  crossed  with  a view  of  bleak,  sunny 
gigantic  ranges,  snow  clad  peaks  and  massive 
glaciers.  An  endless  descent  begins  from  Roh- 
tang towards  the  Chandra  river  basin  to  reach 
Koksar  along  the  furiously  windy  Rohtang 
slope.  The  road  crosses  the  Chandra  at  Kok- 
sar and  follows  the  course  of  the  river  along 
its  northern  bank  with  a smooth  course  up 
to  Sissoo.  Beyond  Sissoo  and  up  to  Gondla 
the  journey  continues  through  extremely  dry 
bleak  mountains  where  dwarf  form  of 
Scabiosa  speciosa  and  Nepeta  eriostachya 
dominate  as  survivors  after  August.  A splash 
of  green  is  seen  wherever  there  is  a source 
of  stream  or  the  slopes  are  artificially  irri- 
gated. Beyond  Gondla  the  motor  road  des- 
cends again  to  the  basin  of  the  Chandra  river 
and  runs  almost  parallel  through  extremely 
loose  and  vertical  slope  where  Heracleum 
thomsoni  is  a successful  straggler.  The  river 
Chandra  ultimately  ends  with  a northerly 
course  and  joins  the  river  Bhaga  near  Tandi. 

Chenab  or  Chandra-Bhaga  is  practically  the 
only  outlet  of  the  massive  glaciated  valleys  of 
Lahul.  The  whole  water  reserve  of  the  vast 
triangular  glacial  system  of  the  central  Hima- 
layan ranges  enclosed  within  the  Lahul  valley 
is  drained  out  by  two  rivers  of  Lahul  namely 
Chandra  and  Bhaga  originating  from  the 
mountains  situated  at  the  northern  extremities 
of  the  district  at  Baralacha  La  and  encircles 


59 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


the  glaciated  region  on  all  sides  till  it  comes 
out  to  form  a joint  flow  through  an  outlet 
at  Tandi.  The  combined  flow  with  the  name 
Chandra-Bhaga  or  Chenab  takes  its  course 
towards  northwest  through  Lahul  up  to  Thirot 
and  then  enters  into  Pangi  subtehsil  of  Chamba 
(at  present  within  Lahul)  and  ultimately  flows 
through  Kishtwar  and  Jammu  till  it  emerges 
in  Pakistan.  Entrance  to  the  upper  Chenab 
valley  through  Kishtwar  is  not  easy  due  to 
difficult  terrain  and  un-inhabited  areas  of  the 
valley  in  Pangi.  People  intending  to  pay  a 
visit  to  Triloknath  after  seeing  the  shrine  of 
Manimahesh  in  Chamba  often  venture  to  en- 
ter the  upper  Chenab  near  Shansha.  But  it  is 
also  a difficult  route  through  high  altitude 
passes  and  desolate  areas. 

From  its  origin  near  Tandi  the  Chenab  has 
made  its  course  through  a narrow  valley  and 
has  widened  considerably  at  certain  places  like 
Shansha,  Jahlman  and  Udaipur  helping  the 
development  of  well  populated  localities  with 
flourishing  cultivation.  The  steep  mountains 
of  Gneissic  rock  along  the  southern  bank  of 
Chenab  extend  as  far  as  the  border  of 
Chamba  giving  a dark  brown  or  greyish  look. 

The  western  boundary  of  Lahul  was  previ- 
ously delimited  by  Thirot  Nala  and  from  here 
the  southern  vertical  rock  faces  become  more 
gradual  together  with  the  lowering  of  height 
and  density  of  Pinus  wallichiana  in  associa- 
tion with  Picea  smithiana  increases  up  to  Tri- 
loknath. The  northern  slopes  of  the  valley  on 
the  other  hand  show  a complete  barrenness 
in  the  upper  reaches  and  vast  extension  of 
blunt  crests  and  troughs  make  the  typical  topo- 
graphy of  Lahul  without  any  tree  vegetation 
up  to  Kirting.  However,  the  picture  in  the 
basin  is  very  different  where  planted  Salices 
and  cultivated  fields  present  a beautiful  colour 
scheme  with  Potato,  Buckwheat,  Barley  and 
vegetable  cultivation. 


The  mountains  on  the  northern  part  of  the 
valley  are  mainly  composed  of  sedimentary 
deposits  of  clay  and  silt  and  show  the  force- 
ful action  of  glaciation  and  erosion  with  more 
or  less  uniform  dryness  throughout  the  valley. 
This  sunny  topography  is  particularly  domi- 
nated by  Juniperus  polycarpos  (J.  macropocla ) 
after  16  kms  from  Tandi  and  remains  un- 
contested by  any  other  conifer.  Apart  from 
the  massive  drainage  of  the  turbulent  flow  of 
the  river  several  other  congenial  factors  have 
changed  the  face  of  the  upper  Chenab  both 
within  Lahul  and  Pangi  influencing  its  vege- 
tational  pattern  and  also  by  showing  a re- 
markable demarcating  zone  for  Lahul  and 
Pangi  along  the  valley. 

In  addition  to  its  comparatively  low  alti- 
tude ranging  between  2600-2900  m the  valley 
has  a good  number  of  perennial  and  turbu- 
lent tributaries  of  Chenab  between  Tandi  and 
Udaipur  which  are  chiefly  responsible  for 
rendering  the  valley  more  hospitable  and 
greener.  The  most  important  climatic  condi- 
tion which  has  kept  the  valley  more  moist  is 
the  absence  of  typical  desiccating  dry  and 
chilly  wind  of  the  Chandra  valley.  This 
characteristic  furious  wind  of  easterly  origin 
is  obstructed  by  the  high  snowclad  peaks  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Chenab  and  is  diverted  to- 
wards the  Bhaga  valley  along  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  north  facing  slopes  above 
Kardong  rendering  the  farside  of  Keylang 
almost  barren  leaving  only  bushy  Juniperus 
communis.  A few  stunted  trees  of  Pinus  walli- 
chiana visible  from  Keylang  are  already  a 
victim  of  this  wind. 

Botanical  History 

The  earliest  information  about  the  Botany 
of  Lahul  valley  is  known  through  the  com- 
prehensive account  of  plants,  vegetable  pro- 
ducts and  authentic  records  published  by 


60 


BOTANICAL  TOUR  IN  UPPER  CHENAB 


Aitchison  (l.c.)  based  mainly  on  Jaeschke’s 
and  his  own  collection  gathered  from  within 
the  political  boundary  of  Lahul  including  the 
upper  Chenab  up  to  Thirot.  But  the  account 
does  not  reveal  the  more  interesting  nature 
of  vegetation  beyond  Thirot  and  further  down 
along  the  valley  in  Pangi.  With  the  establish- 
ment of  better  communication  facilities  many 
new  plants  to  the  existing  list  have  been  sub- 
sequently added.  After  Aitchison,  the  flora  of 
Lahul  is  described  in  a short  account  by 
Watt  (1881).  He  made  a general  collection 
from  the  upper  Chenab  and  added  informa- 
tion to  the  botanical  knowledge  of  the  valley. 
Later  plants  have  been  gathered  from  Lahul 
by  well  known  collectors  like  Lace,  Koelz, 
Stewart  and  others  with  their  collections  scat- 
tered in  different  herbaria  of  the  world. 

During  the  present  century  most  extensive 
collections  have  been  gathered  by  late  N.  L. 
Bor  from  Lahul  during  1941-42  and  are 
preserved  in  the  Forest  Research  Institute 
Herbarium  (DD.)  His  collections  specially 
along  Billing  Nala  (Billing  Lungpa)  are  highly 
interesting.  Koelz’s  collections  are  also  very 
extensive  from  Lahul  but  excepting  some  stray 
gatherings  very  little  material  is  available  from 
the  upper  Chenab.  Joshi  (1952)  presented  a 
short  account  of  the  aquatic  flora  of  Lahul 
and  included  few  important  plants  of  aquatic 
and  moist  habitat.  Sethi  and  Negi  from  FRI 
also  paid  a visit  in  Lahul  during  1958  and 
gathered  a good  collection  from  upper  Chenab. 

From  Northern  Circle  of  the  Botanical 
Survey  of  India  collections  from  Lahul  and 
Spiti  valleys  have  been  gathered  during  the 
sixties  by  Rau  (1960)  and  Nair  (1964) 
but  the  area  under  present  report  remained 
uncovered  during  those  visits.  Recently  some 
account  of  exploration  and  new  records  from 
the  Lahul  valley  have  been  of  additional  in- 
formation. (Kapahi  & Sarin  1979  and  Aswal 


& Mehrotra  1970).  The  present  account  is 
based  only  on  the  exploration  conducted  along 
the  upper  Chenab  from  Tandi  to  Udaipur  a 
distance  of  about  50  km  including  the  envi- 
rons of  Triloknath  on  the  way. 

General  vegetation  and  botany  of  the 
route 

The  vegetation  of  this  inner  valley  is 
characterised  by  a combination  of  a compara- 
tively lush  flora  represented  by  the  dry  and 
wet  Himalayan  elements  of  both  Lahul  and 
Pangi.  The  explored  area  of  the  valley  may 
be  broadly  divided  into  three  sections  com- 
prising the  initial  dry  and  bleak  zone  from 
Tandi  and  westward  about  10  km,  the  central 
well  vegetated  part  between  Kirting  and 
Thirot  and  the  typical  flora  of  Pangi  between 
Thirot  to  Udaipur.  Towards  the  ultimate 
western  part  the  infiltration  of  the  characte- 
ristic wet  Himalayan  flora  becomes  apparent 
with  the  advent  of  exclusive  stands  of  Cedrus 
deodar  a beyond  Triloknath. 

Tandi  from  where  the  Chenab  begins  is  a 
small  village  situated  at  an  altitude  of  2900m 
at  the  confluence  of  Chandra  and  Bhaga.  The 
precipitous  rocks  on  the  farside  at  the  begin- 
ning show  a restricted  growth  of  Firms  walli- 
c hi  ana  and  Betula  sp.  and  largely  planted 
Salices  are  the  only  tree  vegetation  around 
Tandi.  However,  on  sheltered  sandy  slopes 
some  characteristic  plants  like  Heracleum 
thomsoni  with  stiff  projecting  flowering  bran- 
ches, yellow  flowered  Galium  verum  and 
Heteropappus  holoharmaphroditus  are  com- 
mon. The  most  interesting  plant  of  the 
Chandra  valley  is  the  cream  flowered  Saussu- 
rea  jacea  forming  green  patches  on  the  west 
facing  slopes  near  Tandi.  On  eroded  slopes 
and  cuttings  Astragalus  bicuspis,  A.  subumbel - 
latus,  Androsace  rotundifolia,  Leptorhabdos 


61 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


parvi flora,  Ribes  alpestre,  Hyoscyamus  niger, 
Cotoneaster  falconeri,  Scorzonera  divaricata 
occur.  Scattered  bushes  of  Rosa  webbiana  are 
fairly  common  on  dry  open  slopes.  From 
Tandi  the  motor  road  climbs  up  towards 
Kirting  along  the  higher  reaches  of  the  south 
facing  slopes.  Artemisia  maritima,  Nepeta 
eriostachya  with  occasional  bushes  of  Astra- 
galus bicuspis  and  Rosa  webbiana  are  seen  on 
the  slopes.  Occasional  bushes  of  Berberis 
jaeschkeana  also  occur  in  Salix  groves. 

The  southern  part  of  the  Chenab  stands 
as  a sheer  wall  for  more  than  20  kms  from 
Tandi  westward  except  at  places  where  it  has 
been  interrupted  by  gullies,  rivers  or  slanting 
morain  deposits.  A sparse  growth  of  Pinus 
wallichiana  and  Picea  smithiana  on  the  steep 
rock  is  replaced  by  dense  forest  beyond  Kirt- 
ing of  Juniperus  communis  and  Salix  denti- 
culata.  The  latter  flourishes  specially  on  shady 
troughs  and  moist  gullies. 

Kirting  marks  the  first  village  from  where 
the  valley  towards  its  west  is  remarkably 
green  with  plantations  and  natural  vegetation. 
A torrent  flowing  through  the  village  greatly 
influences  its  vegetation  and  along  its  course 
there  is  a lush  growth  of  Hippophae  rham- 
noides  var.  turkistanica  and  Salix  oxycarpa. 
The  slopes  hold  growths  of  Polygonum  poly- 
stachyum,  Impatiens  gigantea,  Cirsium  walli- 
chii,  Datisca  cannabina,  Mentha  longi folia, 
Aster  indamellus,  Epilobium  angustifolium, 
Juncus  himalensis,  Plantago  major,  Parnassia 
ovata,  Ranunculus  hirtellus,  Erigeron  alpi- 
nus,  Medicago  lupulina  and  Plantago  de- 
pressa.  The  herbaceous  and  shrubby  members 
specially  on  irrigated  slopes  and  around  culti- 
vated fields  offer  a typical  assemblage  of 
Nepeta  spicata,  Medicago  sativa,  Silene  vulga- 
ris, Senecio  chrysanthemoides,  Heracleum 
lanatum,  Swertia  cor  data,  Jaeschkea  gentia- 
noides,  Pedicularis  pectinata,  Polygonum 


alpinum,  and  few  others.  Some  of  the  charac- 
teristic herbaceous  elements  growing  in  the 
village  along  the  canal  banks  are  Impatiens 
brachycentra,  Elsholtzia  ciliata,  Chenopodium 
botrys  and  Cannabis  indica.  Extensive  areas 
of  the  valley  are  under  Potato,  Buckwheat 
and  occasionally  Barley  and  Wheat  cultivation. 
Fruit  trees  like  Pyrus  malus,  Prunus  armeniaca 
have  been  planted  but  are  mostly  attacked  by 
virus  infection.  Signs  of  similar  infection  are 
found  to  be  spreading  on  introduced  Populus 
also.  A gentle  slope  extending  from  Shansha 
right  to  the  margin  of  the  Chenab  harbours 
some  typical  plants  like  Halerpestes  tricuspis, 
Cyperus  squarrosus,  Calamagrostis  pseudo- 
phragmites,  Lotus  corniculatus,  Plantago 
major,  Melilotus  officinalis  and  Scirpus  seta- 
ceus.  The  area  near  the  river  bank  is  almost 
a sandy  waste  where  apart  from  planted  Salix 
oxycarpa  the  open  areas  hold  Hippophae 
rhamnoides,  Myricaria  germanica  with  the 
twining  Polygonum  dumetorum.  Compara- 
tively drier  marginal  areas  have  Dianthus 
angulatus,  Polygonum  paronychioides,  P.  tubu- 
losum  together  with  occasional  growths  of 
Heracleum  thomsoni,  Galium  verum,  Lindelo- 
fia  anchusoides  and  Astragalus  amherstianus. 
Unlike  the  complete  barren  look  of  the  sunny 
slopes  between  Kirting  and  Tandi  the  south 
facing  slopes  around  Shansha  show  a profuse 
growth  of  prickly  bushes  of  Rosa  webbiana, 
and  R.  macrophylla.  At  some  places  R.  foetida 
is  occasionally  met  with  on  hedges.  Among 
herbaceous  perennials  pioneering  on  the  slopes 
are  Artemisia  maritima,  A.  dracunculus,  Ori- 
ganum vulgar e and  Verbascum  thapsus  and 
with  the  availability  of  water  a lush  growth 
of  plants  characteristic  of  Lahul  makes  its 
appearance. 

The  vegetation  above  3000  m on  the  sunny 
aspect  in  the  valley  is  very  poor.  This  appa- 
rently barren  and  dry  slopes  have  extensive 


62 


BOTANICAL  TOUR  IN  UPPER  CHENAB 


growth  of  Cousinia  thomsoni  between  3000- 
3600  m.  Among  boulders  Meconopsis  aculeata 
is  not  uncommon  but  it  is  mostly  sterile  due 
to  grazing.  The  semicushion  forming  Minuar- 
tia  lineata  is  the  most  successful  survivor. 
Gentle  troughs  have  a thick  covering  of  Iris 
kumaonensis  and  Taraxacum  officinale.  Some 
of  the  interesting  plants  along  dry  gullies  at 
lower  elevation  are  Scutellaria  prostrata, 
Galium  serpylloides,  Sempervivella  acuminata, 
Androsace  rotundifolia,  Astragalus  bicuspis, 
Cotoneaster  rotundifolius. 

Comparatively  richer  and  denser  vegetation 
on  the  north  facing  slopes  of  the  Chenab  is 
seen  after  crossing  the  torrential  river  about 
4 km  west  of  Kirting.  A bridle  path  from  the 
main  road  leads  towards  the  basin  of  the  valley 
and  after  crossing  the  river  approaches  the 
villages  Rappe  and  Rasse  on  the  other  side. 
A journey  to  the  upper  reaches  alongside  gla- 
cial fed  streams  offers  congenial  habitats  for  a 
number  of  uncommon  plants  not  seen  on  the 
sunny  slopes  of  the  valley.  Some  of  these  are 
Hyssopus  officinalis  with  pretty  purplish  blue 
spikes  and  strong  aroma,  Anaphalis  stoliczkai 
forming  graceful  clumps,  and  Pimpinella  diver  si- 
folia,  Senecio  pedunculatus  f.  alba  (nov.). 
Their  vertical  distribution  hardly  extends 
more  than  50  m from  the  level  of  the  river 
water.  There  is  a rich  herbaceous  growth  com- 
posed of  Medicago  sativa,  Polygonum  alpi- 
num,  Thalictrum  minus,  Jaeschkea  gentianoi- 
des,  Heracleum  lanatum,  Silene  vulgaris, 
Swertia  cordata,  Nepeta  spicata,  Pedicularis 
pectinata,  Senecio  chrysanthemoides,  Dactylis 
glomerata  and  a few  others  near  the  village 
of  Rappe.  Dense  thickets  of  thorny  Hippophae 
rhamnoides  var.  turkistanica  flourish  on  the 
slopes  at  a lower  elevation. 

A steep  foot  track  from  the  neighbouring 
village  Rasse  climbs  upwards  to  provide  an 
easy  route  to  reach  the  thick  forest  of  Pinus 


wallichiana  on  the  north  facing  slopes  of  the 
valley  and  people  intending  to  visit  Triloknath 
from  Manimahesh  go  along  this  path.  Through 
a vast  slope  of  moraine  deposits  the  winding 
path  gradually  attains  height.  The  slope  is 
strewn  with  handsome  clumps  of  Stipa  sibirica 
and  some  interesting  species  like  Heracleum 
thomsoni,  Galium  verum,  Anemone  rupicola, 
and  Oxytropis  thomsoni.  Herbaceous  species 
like  Impatiens  thomsoni,  Oxyria  digyna,  Epi - 
lobium  alpinum,  Crepis  multicaulis,  Gnapha - 
Hum  thomsoni,  Taraxacum  officinale  are  also 
seen  where  the  moraine  is  moist.  A little  higher 
up  on  a slashy  rock  large  number  of  white 
flowering  clumps  of  Silene  persica  and  yellow 
flowered  Potentilla  curviseta  occur. 

Up  to  this  part  of  the  Chenab  valley  the 
ultimate  tree  limit  consists  of  a pure  growth 
of  Pinus  wallichiana  and  is  associated  with 
Juniperus  communis,  Lonicera  obovata, 
Syringa  emodi,  Viburnum  cotinifolium  and 
Salix  denticulata  as  dominating  undergrowth. 
The  Salix  gives  a thick  coverage  specially 
along  moist  shady  gullies.  On  dry  shady  slopes 
Ephedra  gerardiana,  Bergenia  stracheyi, 
Potentilla  curviseta,  and  Polygonum  affine  are 
the  main  herbs  at  higher  reaches  and  on  dry 
cliffs  a few  bushes  of  Potentilla  salessoviana 
occur  rarely.  Above  3300  m the  dry  and  shady 
rocks  and  slopes  hold  mainly  Ephedra  gerar- 
diana, Bergenia  stracheyi,  Potentilla  curviseta 
and  Polygonum  affine.  A beautiful  field  of 
Stipa  sibirica  is  seen  on  a vast  west  facing 
gentle  slope.  The  grass  is  locally  known  as 
“Rohari”  and  is  largely  exploited  for  the 
panicles,  which  are  used  for  making  brooms. 

The  journey  from  Kirting,  to  Jahlman  does 
not  offer  any  appreciable  change  in  the  com- 
position of  the  vegetation  on  either  side  of  the 
Chenab  and  thick  plantations  of  Salix  oxycarpa 
alongside  the  road  provide  greenery  within 
the  village.  Thickets  of  Rosa  webbiana,  Rosa 


63 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


macrophylla  associated  with  Artemisia  mari- 
tima extend  over  large  areas  on  dry  south 
facing  slopes  on  way  to  Jahlman.  The  valley 
at  Jahlman  widens  and  the  gentle  slopes  pro- 
vide facilities  for  extensive  terraced  cultiva- 
tion by  artificial  irrigation. 

After  the  bleakness  of  the  higher  reaches 
at  Tandi,  the  common  dry  Himalayan  Juni- 
perus  polycarpos  appears  again  in  a stunted 
form  from  Junde.  Elegant  forests  of  this 
Juniper  flourish  between  Kamring  and  Thirot 
but  the  trees  are  largely  infected  by  Arceutho- 
bium  oxycedri  in  the  vicinity  of  Thirot.  The 
mimicry  of  this  obligate  parasite  to  the  foliage 
of  the  host  is  almost  perfect  and  it  is  not 
detected  till  its  action  becomes  detrimental  to 
the  tree.  It  is  likely  to  cause  tremendous  loss 
to  this  species,  threatening  its  very  existence 
in  the  whole  of  Lahul  valley  in  the  near  future. 
Undergrowth  in  this  forest  is  rather  poor  and 
Artemisia  maritima  is  found  to  be  the  best 
survivor.  Other  herbaceous  elements  met  in 
this  forest  are  Origanum  vulgar e,  Artemisia 
dracunculus,  A.  sacrorum,  Thymus  serpyllum, 
Chenopodium  botrys,  Malva  pusilla,  Scutella- 
ria prostrata  and  occasional  bushes  of  Rosa 
webbiana.  Near  Kamring  Cymbopogon  schoe- 
nanthus  is  an  interesting  grass  well  represent- 
ed in  Juniper  us  undergrowth.  In  some  of  the 
forest  clearings  and  dry  gullies  flourishing 
growths  of  Sorbaria  tomentosa  is  a rarity  for 
the  Lahul  valley.  These  are  frequently  infest- 
ed with  Cuscuta  reflexa. 

The  administrative  boundary  of  Pangi  sub- 
division begins  from  Thirot.  A turbulent  tribu- 
tary of  Chenab  known  as  Thirot  Nala  flows 
through  the  small  village  and  the  course 
preserves  a similar  plant  community  seen 
earlier  at  Kirting.  Along  with  thickets  of 
Salix  oxycarpa,  Hippophae  rhamnoides,  Loni- 
cera  quinquelocularis,  Viburnum  cotinifolium 


near  the  basin,  the  herbaceous  growth  is  en- 
riched by  Pedicularis  punctata,  Impatiens 
thomsonii,  Datisca  cannabina,  Ranunculus 
hirtellus,  Aster  indamellus  and  a few  others. 

The  most  interesting  features  of  vegetation 
in  the  main  valley  is  the  isolation  of  the  flori- 
stic  elements  of  Pangi  by  a demarcating 
boundary  towards  the  eastern  vicinity  of 
Thirot.  The  shrubby  members  represent 
a typical  composition  in  the  valley 
and  are  dominated  by  Fraxinus  xanthoxy - 
loides,  Berberis  pseudoumbellata,  Rosa  web- 
biana, R.  macrophylla,  Cotoneaster  pangien- 
sis,  C.  roseus  and  C.  gilgitensis  close  to  the 
river  basin.  Upward  distribution  of  the  said 
species  on  the  sunny  slope  extend  to  a limited 
height  and  cover  the  northern  bank  of  the 
river  uninterruptedly  between  Kamring  and 
Udaipur.  The  journey  on  way  to  Triloknath 
from  Thirot  offers  soothing  landscape  with 
a combination  of  Pinus  wallichiana  and  Picea 
s mi  t hi  ana  on  the  north  facing  slope  and  the 
motor  road  stretching  westward  passes  almost 
at  a parallel  height  with  a gentle  ascent.  The 
slopes  become  more  rocky  and  drier.  Few 
huge  and  wild  trees  of  Juglans  regia  form  an 
impressive  green  patch  within  a kilometer  from 
Thirot.  Some  of  the  typical  members  of  Rosa- 
ceae  like  Crataegus  oxyacantha,  Pyrus  jacque- 
montii  are  commonly  associated  with  the 
scrubby  elements  noted  earlier.  Excepting  in 
rarely  moist  situation  the  herbaceous  members 
are  poorly  represented  within  the  dry  shrubby 
vegetation  however,  the  common  ones  are 
Artemisia  maritima,  A.  sacrorum.  Origanum 
vulgare,  Rumex  nepalensis,  Pterotheca  falco- 
neri,  Verbascum  thapsus,  Thymus  serpyllum, 
Chenopodium  botrys,  Scrophularia  koelzii , 
Datisca  cannabina,  Herniaria  hirsuta  and  few 
others.  On  dry  cliffs  Seseli  sibiricum  is  a rarely 
collected  strongly  aromatic  plant  frequently 
come  across  but  mostly  they  are  inaccessible. 


64 


Plate  I 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 
Bhattacharyya  & Uniyal;  Pangi  and  Triloknath 


Above:  Triloknath  temple  and  sunny  slope  strewn  with  stunted  J.  poly  car  pos  Koch. 
Below : Salix  oxycarpa  Anders,  at  Kishori  village  below  Triloknath. 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  II 

Bhattacharyya  & Uniyal:  Pangi  and  Triloknath 


Above:  Natural  forests  of  Cedrus  deodara  (Roxb.)  G.  Don  at  Pangi  near 
Udaipur. 

Below:  Contrasting  Juniper  us  and  Cedrus  on  northern  and  southern  slope 
respectively. 


BOTANICAL  TOUR  IN  UPPER  CHENAB 


Spiraea  canescens  and  Solidago  virga-aurea 
are  also  common  on  rocky  slopes. 

From  the  main  bus  route  a mule  track 
branches  downwards  about  two  kilometres 
before  Triloknath  and  approaches  a suspen- 
sion bridge  over  the  Chenab.  In  addition  to 
common  shrubby  vegetation  Plectranthus 
rugosus  and  Sorbaria  tomentosa  infested  with 
Cuscuta  reflexa  mark  changing  components  on 
this  route.  On  a moist  slope  elegant  growth 
of  lmpatiens  roylei  and  Inula  grandiflora  are 
interesting  to  come  across.  An  impressive  view 
of  the  unrivalled  scenery  appears  from  the  sus- 
pension bridge  while  approaching  the  village  at 
the  foot  of  Triloknath.  A steep  climb  through 
planted  Salix  oxycarpa  begins  from  the  bridge 
to  the  neighbouring  Kishori  village.  Due  to 
adequate  irrigation  facilities  the  small  village 
maintains  a considerable  area  under  cultiva- 
tion of  common  Potato  and  Buckwheat  and 
in  addition  small  plots  containing  wheat,  bar- 
ley and  few  vegetables  are  not  uncommon. 
The  vegetation  around  the  village  does  not 
show  any  interesting  feature  except  in  pools 
along  the  shady  river  bank,  where  characte- 
ristic plants  of  aquatic  habitats  such  as  Poly- 
gonum hydropiper  ssp.  megalocarpum,  Eleo- 
charis  palustris,  Limosella  aquatica,  Callitriche 
verna,  Triglochin  palustre  and  Haler pestes 
sarmentosa  occur.  The  moist  slopes  and  waste 
lands  around  cultivated  fields  hold  Carum 
carvi,  Corydalis  ramosa,  Dactylis  glomerata, 
Geranium  aconitifolium,  Lamium  amplexi- 
caule,  Lepyrodiclis  holosteoides,  Medicago 
sativa,  Nepeta  spicata,  Senecio  chrysanthe- 
moides,  Swertia  cor  data,  Trifolium  repens, 
Urtica  dioica,  Veronica  persica  etc.  A lush 
and  interesting  vegetation  is  seen  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Chenab  near  the  village.  Due  to 
low  height  (2400  m)  of  the  valley  here,  seve- 
ral wet  and  semidry  habitat  Himalayan  plants 
like  Salvia  nubicola,  Sium  latijugum,  Campa- 


nula latifolia,  Codonopsis  rotundifolia,  Lespe- 
deza  juncea,  Medicago  lupulina,  Nepeta  linea- 
ris, Elscholtzia  ciliata,  Bothriochloa  ischaemum, 
Phragmites  australis,  Allium  rubellum,  A. 
strachyi,  Jurinea  ceratocarpa,  Leibnitzia  nepa- 
lensis  etc.  present  a characteristic  vegetation 
on  the  shady  river  bank. 

A journey  to  Triloknath  proper  from 
Kishori  village  begins  through  an  irrigated 
pasture  and  then  a rugged  dry  rocky  slope 
with  a steep  ascent  till  the  plateau  is  reached. 
Excepting  a thin  scrubby  growth  of  Rosa 
webbiana,  Prunus  jacquemontii,  Fraxinus  xan- 
thoxyloides  accompanied  by  few  interesting 
plants  like  Heteropappus  altaicus,  Dianthus 
angulatus,  Physochlaina  paraealta,  Rubia  cor- 
difolia  etc.  the  route  beyond  the  village  does 
not  sustain  notable  plants.  On  the  other  hand 
the  vegetation  becomes  more  interesting  while 
climbing  the  slopes  above  Triloknath  to  reach 
the  thick  forest  of  Pinus  wallichiana  and 
Picea  smithiana.  The  moist  irrigated  north 
facing  slopes  have  Angelica  glauca,  Anaphalis 
cuneifolia,  Astragalus  himalayanus,  Bupleu- 
rum  jucundum,  B.  falcatum,  Galium  boreale, 
Pedicularis  pectinata,  Polygonum  alpinum,  F. 
polystachyum,  P.  nepalense,  P.  hydropiper, 
Corydalis  ramosa,  Valeriana  hardwickii,  Orchis 
latifolia,  Herminium  monorchis,  Polygonatum 
geminiflorum,  Phlomis  bracteosa  and  others. 

An  exploratory  trip  along  the  adjoining 
valley  of  Hinsa  Nala  up  to  the  limit  of  the 
glacial  moraine  through  the  Pinus-Picea 
forest  was  fascinating.  The  extension  of  the 
narrow  valley  of  the  stream  does  not  show  a 
rich  herbaceous  growth.  A few  shrubs  of 
Syringa  emodi,  Viburnum  cotinifolium,  Ribes 
alpestre,  Rubus  irritans,  Berberis  pachya- 
cantha,  Sorbus  aucuparia  are  come  across. 
Before  the  termination  of  the  stream  at  the 
moraine  deposits  the  thickness  of  the  Pinus- 
Picea  forest  declines  and  ultimately  the  slopes 

65 


5 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


support  prostrate  bushes  of  Juniper  us  com- 
munis only.  The  sheltered  slopes  supported 
Polygonum  affine  and  Bergenia  stracheyi  on 
rocks.  At  higher  reaches  Ephedra  gerardiana 
is  also  found  to  flourish  on  shady  rock.  The 
slopes  towards  the  bottom  of  the  valley 
appears  to  be  quite  bleak  and  Nepeta  dis- 
color, Taraxacum  officinale,  Leontopodium 
alpinum,  Galium  serpylloides  together  with 
few  ferns  like  Asplenium  trichomanes,  A. 
septentrionale  and  Pellaea  gracilis  are  met 
with. 

The  Chenab  valley  widens  considerably  to- 
wards west  of  Triloknath  near  Udaipur  and 
a remarkable  change  in  the  tree  vegetation 
is  noted  by  the  appearance  of  Cedrus  deodara 
on  both  sides  of  the  valley.  A high  rate  of 
natural  regeneration  becomes  evident  by  their 
extensive  distribution  on  the  slopes  as  well  as 
on  the  river  bed  and  adjoining  plains.  In  the 
undergrowth  and  on  barren  slopes  the  domi- 
nant plants  are  Artemisia  maritima  and  Juni- 
perus  communis.  The  latter,  however,  is  more 
on  open  slopes  facing  north.  The  dry  open 
slopes  when  devoid  of  any  tree  growth  is 
covered  mainly  by  Artemisia  maritima.  There 
is  a marked  stuntedness  of  Juniper  us  poly- 
carpos  on  way  to  Udaipur  from  Triloknath 
and  similarly  the  general  shrubby  vegetation 
on  the  sunny  part,  represented  by  Fraxinus, 
Cotoneaster,  Berber  is,  Ribes  and  Rosa  are 
also  much  dwarfed  in  habit.  On  river  banks 
and  slopes  a few  uncommon  plants  are  come 
across  namely  Echinops  cornigerus,  Scrophu - 
laria  scabiosaefolia,  Hypericum  perforatum, 
Erianthus  ravennae.  Excepting  the  handsome 
Cedars  the  area  around  Udaipur  has  poor 
vegetation  and  a few  planted  trees  give  a 
monotonous  landscape  to  the  village  repre- 
sented by  Populus  alba,  Salix  oxycarpa,  Jug- 
lans  regia,  Prunus  armeniaca  etc. 

A list  of  plants  gathered  during  the  trip 


are  ennumerated  with  short  field  notes 
and  all  the  collection  numbers  are  deposited  at 
BSD  under  the  senior  author’s  name.  As  the 
period  of  collection  is  restricted  to  12th  to 
23rd  August,  1971,  the  date  of  collection  has 
not  been  specifically  mentioned.  As  far  as 
practicable  the  nomenclature  of  plants  have 
been  brought  up  to  date.  Plants  not  recorded 
earlier  are  marked  with  an  asterisk. 

DICOTYLEDONS 

Ranunculaceae 

Anemone  rupicola  Camb. 

On  north  facing  dry  slope,  flowers  white. 
Rasse  3000  m,  45343. 

Halerpestes  sarmenfosa  (Adams)  Komarov 
On  moist  soil  and  shady  pools,  flowers 
yellow. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45253;  Kishori  2400  m, 
45992. 

Ranunculus  hirtellus  Royle 

On  moist  shady  slope,  flowers  yellow. 
Kirting  2900  m,  45289. 

R.  hyperboreus  Rottb. 

On  slushy  slope,  flowers  yellow. 

Rasse  3200  m,  45327. 

Thalictrum  minus  Linn.  var.  foetida  (Linn.) 
Hook.  f.  & Thoms. 

On  west  facing  moist  slope.  In  fruit. 
Roding  3000  m,  45309. 

Berberidaceae 

Berberis  jaeschkeana  Schneid. 

Under  shade  of  salices.  Fruits  green. 

Lot  3200  m,  40704. 

B.  pachyacantha  Koehne 
On  shady  slope  within  Picea-  Pinus  forest. 

Fruits  reddish  green. 

Triloknath,  Hinsa  Nala  3200  m,  45911. 


66 


BOTANICAL  TOUR  IN  UPPER  CHENAB 


B.  pseudumbellata  Parker 

On  south  facing  dry  slope.  Fruits  pruinose 
blue. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45359. 

Fumariaceae 

Corydalis  ramosa  Wall,  ex  Hook.  f.  & Thoms. 
Along  north  facing  gully,  flowers  yellow. 
Triloknath  2900  m,  45904. 

Brassicaceae  (Cruciferae) 

Brassica  napus  Linn. 

Occasionally  cultivated. 

Rappe  2600  m,  45334. 

Descurainia  sophia  (Linn.)  Webb,  ex  Prantl. 
On  roof  of  houses,  flowers  yellow. 

Kishori  2400  m,  45382. 

Thlaspi  arvense  Linn. 

Weed  in  Potato  field,  flowers  white,  fruits 
orbicular. 

Triloknath  2900  m,  45396. 

Caryop  h yll  aceae 

Arenaria  serpyllifolia  Linn. 

On  dry  south  facing  slope.  Fruiting  cymes. 
Rappe  2600  m,  45331. 

Cerastium  glomeratum  Thuill. 

On  moist  shady  slope,  flowers  white. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45379. 

Dianthus  angulatus  Royle 
On  dry  river  bed  and  stony  slope,  flowers 
pink  and  white. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45265;  Triloknath  2800  m, 
45924. 

* Herniaria  hirsuta  Linn. 

On  shady  soil,  flowers  and  fruits  minute. 
Thirot  2600  m,  45369;  Udaipur  2400  m, 
45942. 

* Lepyrodiclis  holosteoides  Fenzl.  ex  Fisch. 

et  Mey. 


A weed  in  cultivated  field,  flowers  white. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45241;  Triloknath  2700  m, 
45927. 

Sagina  saginokles  (Linn.)  Karsten 
On  moist  shady  soil,  flowers  green, 

Thirot  2600  m,  45371. 

Sileue  persica  Boiss.  ssp.  moorcroftiana 
(Rohrb.)  Chaudhuri 

On  moist  rock  and  shady  slopes,  flowers 
white,  purple  beneath. 

Rasse  3200  m,  45320;  Triloknath  3000  m, 
45998. 

S.  vulgaris  (Moench.)  Garcke 
On  moist  irrigated  slopes,  flowers  white. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45280. 

Stellaria  media  (Linn.)  Vill. 

On  shady  slopes,  flowers  white. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45293. 

Tamaricaceae 

Myricaria  germanica  (Linn.)  Desv. 

On  sandy  river-bed.  Fruiting  spikes  present. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45236. 

Guttiferae  (Hypericaceae) 

* Hypericum  perforatum  Linn. 

On  dry  rocky  slopes,  flowers  yellow. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45350;  Triloknath  2800  m, 
45951. 

Malvaceae 

Malva  pusilla  Sm. 

On  waste  land  around  villages. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45241;  Kishori  2400  m, 
45999. 

Geraniaceae 

* Geranium  aconitifolium  L’Herit 

On  moist  north  facing  slopes,  flowers  showy 
purple. 

Kishori  2400  m,  45974. 


67 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


G.  nepalense  Sw. 

On  shady  slopes,  flowers  pale  pink. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45244. 

* Erodium  stephanianum  Willd. 

On  north  facing  stony  slopes,  flowers  pink. 
Triloknath  2600  m,  45994. 

Balsaminaceae 

* Impatiens  brachycentra  Kar.  et  Kir. 

On  shady,  moist,  slopes,  flowers  small  pin- 
kish white. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45383. 

Celastraceae 

* Euonymus  fimbriatus  Wall,  ex  Roxb. 

On  open  rocky  areas.  In  fruit.  Rare. 
Thirot  2600  m,  45884. 

Rhamnaceae 

* Rhamnus  prostrata  Jacq.  ex  Parker 
On  dry  cliffs.  In  fruit. 

Kirting  3500  m,  45316. 

Papilionaceae 

Astragalus  amherstianus  Benth. 

On  dry  sandy  river  beds.  In  fruit. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45263. 

A.  himaiayanus  Klotzsch 
On  moist  irrigated  slope,  flowers  purple. 
Kishori  2400  m,  45903. 

Lens  culinaris  Medic. 

In  waste  land  cultivated  field.  In  fruit. 
Kirting  2800  m,  45250. 

* Lespedeza  juncea  (Linn,  f.)  Pers. 

On  dry  gentle  slopes,  flowers  white. 
Udaipur  2400  m,  45941. 

Lotus  corniculatus  Linn. 

On  moist  irrigated  plains,  flowers  yellow 
and  orange. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45238. 


Medicago  lupulina  Linn. 

In  shady  wastelands,  flowers  yellow,  fruits 
black. 

Kishori  2400  m,  41298. 

M.  sativa  Linn. 

On  moist  irrigated  slopes,  flowers  yellow. 
Kishori  2400  m,  45997. 

* Mclilotus  alba  Medic. 

On  open  irrigated  slopes,  flowers  white. 
Roding  3000  m,  45311. 

* M.  officinalis  (Linn.)  Pallas 

In  open  irrigated  plains,  flowers  yellow. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45240;  Kishori  2400  m. 
Oxytropis  thomsoni  Benth.  ex  Baker 
On  dry  slopes,  flowers  purple. 

Roding  3000  m,  45314;  Rasse  3000  m,  45322 

Rosaceae 

* Crataegus  oxyacantha  Linn. 

On  dry  open  stony  slopes,  fruits  red. 
Thirot  2600  m,  45364;  Kishori  2400  m, 
45948. 

Fragaria  vesca  Linn. 

On  shady  slopes,  flowers  white. 

Kishori  2400  m,  45982. 

Potentilla  argyrophylla  Wall.  var.  leucochroa 
Hook.  f. 

On  glacial  scree,  flowers  yellow. 

Rasse  2900  m,  45347. 

P.  ambigua  Camb. 

On  glacial  scree,  flowers  yellow. 

Rasse  2800  m,  45342. 

Potentilla  curviseta  Hook.  f. 

On  shady  cliffs,  flowers  yellow. 

Rasse  3600  m,  45340. 

Potentilla  salessoviana  Steph. 

On  shady  dry  rocks.  In  fruit. 

Rasse  3400  m,  45338. 

* Prunus  jacquemontii  Hook.  f. 

On  rocky  slopes.  Fruits  red. 

Triloknath  2800  m,  45934. 


68 


BOTANICAL  TOUR  IN  UPPER  CHENAB 


Pyrus  baccata  Linn. 

On  south  facing  dry  slopes,  fruits  reddish 
green. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45362. 

Rosa  foetida  Herrm. 

Along  hedges,  flowers  yellow. 

Shansha  2500  m,  45313. 

R.  macrophylla  Lindl. 

On  open  stony  slopes,  flowers  pale  pink. 
Kirting  2800  m,  45293. 

R.  webbiana  Wall.  ex.  Royle 

On  dry  stony  slopes,  flowers  pink. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45333. 

Rubus  irritans  Focke 

On  shady  slopes  with  Picea  forming  large 
patches,  fruits  orange. 

Hinsa  Nala  3000  m,  45910. 

* Sorbaria  tomentosa  (Lindl.)  Rehder 
Along  narrow  gullies  facing  south,  fruits  in 
brown  panicle. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45360. 

Sorbus  aucuparia  Linn. 

On  shady  slope  in  Picea  forest,  fruits  white. 
Triloknath  2900  m,  45908. 

Spiraea  canes cens  D.  Don 

On  open  stony  slopes,  flowers  white. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45348;  45354. 

Parnassiaceae 

Parnassia  ovata  Ledeb. 

On  moist  shady  slopes,  flowers  white. 
Kirting  3000  m,  45290. 

Saxifragaceae 

Saxifraga  sibirica  Linn. 

Under  shade  of  boulders,  flowers  white. 
Kishori  2400  m,  45983. 

Grossulariaceae 

Ribes  alpestre  Wall,  ex  Dene. 

On  shady  slopes  in  Picea  forest,  fruits 


orange  coloured. 

Hinsa  Nala  3200  m,  45908. 

R.  orientale  Desf. 

On  slopes  alongside  turbulent  stream,  fruits 
yellow. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45372. 

Callitrichaceae  (Haloragidaceae) 

* Callitriche  veraa  Linn. 

In  shallow  pools,  flowers  minute  green. 
Kishori  2400  m,  45959. 

Crassulaceae 

Sedum  acuminatum  R.  Hamet 

Along  dry  stony  gullies,  flowers  white. 
Roding  3000  m,  45297. 

Onagraceae 

* Epilobium  brevifoiium  D.  Don 

On  slushy  stony  areas,  flowers  pink. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45284. 

E.  royleanum  Haussk. 

On  moist  stream  beds,  flowers  pink. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45287. 

CUCURBITACEAE 

* Bryonia  dioica  Jacq. 

On  hedges  in  waste  lands,  flowers  & fruits 
green. 

Triloknath  2800  m,  45931. 

Datiscaceae 

* Datisca  cannabina  Linn. 

On  sandy  slope  along  gullies  and  always  on 
sunny  part  of  the  valley.  Flowers  dioe- 
cious pale  green. 


69 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Apiaceae  (Umbelliferae) 

* Angelica  glauca  Edgew. 

On  north  facing  irrigated  slope,  fruits  large 
winged. 

Triloknath  2900  m,  45905. 

Bupleurum  falcatum  Linn.  var.  marginatum 
(Wall,  ex  DC.)  C.  B.  Clarke. 

On  moist  north  facing  slope,  flowers  yellow. 
Triloknath  2900  m,  45916. 

B.  jucundum  Kurz 

On  moist  irrigated  slope,  flowers  yellow. 
Triloknath  2900  m,  45913. 

Carum  carvi  Linn. 

On  moist  shady  slope,  flowers  white. 
Triloknath  2700  m,  45975. 

Ferula  jaeschkeana  Vatke 

On  dry  slopes,  fruits  large  purple. 

Roding  3000  m,  45310. 

* Heracleum  thomsoni  C.  B.  Clarke 
On  sandy  riverbed,  flowers  white. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45267. 

* Pimpinella  diversifolia  DC. 

On  moist  slopes  along  river  bank,  flowers 
white. 

Rappe  2800  m,  45325. 

* Seseli  sibiricum  (Linn.)  Boiss. 

On  steep  dry  rock,  flowers  white.  Pungently 
aromatic,  not  collected  earlier,  during  this 
century. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45387. 

* Sium  latijugum  C.  B.  Clarke 

Along  irrigation  canal  in  shade,  flowers 
white. 

Hinsa  2400  m,  45939. 

Caprifoliaceae 

Lonicera  heteropbylla  Dene. 

On  banks  of  a turbulent  streams,  fruits  red. 
Thirot  2650  m,  45378. 


L.  obovata  Royle  ex  Hook.  f. 

On  shady  north  and  west  facing  slopes, 
fruits  blue. 

Rasse  3400  m,  45335. 

L.  quinquelocularis  Hardw. 

On  banks  of  turbulent  streams,  fruits  green. 
Kirting  2900  m,  45275. 

Viburnum  cotinifolium  D.  Don 

On  shady  stream  bank,  fruits  purple. 
Thirot  2650  m,  45374. 

Rubiaceae 

Galium  boreale  Linn. 

On  moist  irrigated  slopes,  flowers  white. 
Triloknath  2900  m,  45925. 

G.  serpylloides  Royle  ex  Hook.  f. 

On  open  stony  slopes,  fruits  white,  bristly. 
Roding  3000  m,  45295;  Elinsa  Nala  3100  m, 
45392. 

G.  verum  Linn. 

On  dry  sandy  river  bed,  flowers  yellow. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45266. 

Rubia  cordifolia  Linn. 

On  shady  slopes,  fruits  black. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45281;  Triloknath  2700  m, 
45923. 

Valerianaceae 

Valeriana  hardwickii  Wall. 

On  shady  slopes,  flowers  white. 

Kishori  2400  m,  45914. 

Asteraceae  (Compositae) 

Aichillea  millefolium  Linn. 

On  moist  irrigated  slopes,  heads  with  yellow 
disk  and  white  rays. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45300. 

Anaphalis  cuneifolia  Hook  f. 

On  shady  slopes,  heads  scarious  white. 
Triloknath  2900  m,  45922; 


70 


BOTANICAL  TOUR  IN  UPPER  CITENAB 


A.  royleana  DC. 

In  Pine  forest  undergrowth,  heads  scarious 
white. 

Triloknath  2600  m,  45971. 

A.  stoliczkai  C.  B.  Clarke 
On  river  bank  slopes  along  Chenab,  heads 
white. 

Rappe  2800  m,  U.C.B.  45829. 

Anfhemis  cotula  Linn. 

In  shady  waste  lands  around  village,  heads 
with  white  rays  and  yellow  disc. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45243. 

Arctium  lappa  Linn. 

In  shady  waste  land,  heads  purple  thin 
hooked  spines. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45967. 

Artemisia  maritima  Linn. 

On  dry  slopes,  head  cinereous. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45251;  Udaipur  2400  m. 
45969. 

A.  nilagirica  Pampanini. 

On  moist  slope,  heads  brown. 

Thirot  2650  m,  45361. 

A.  sacrorum  Ledeb. 

On  dry  shady  rock,  heads  yellow. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45970. 

A.  scoparia  Waldst.  et  Kit. 

On  sandy  river  bed  and  fallow  fields,  heads 
greenish  white. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45229;  Kishori  2600  m, 
45980. 

* A.  tournefortiana  Reichb. 

On  slopes  alongside  road,  heads  green  in 
strict  panicles. 

Kamri  2900  m,  45302. 

Aster  indamellus  Grierson 
On  shady  slope  along  irrigation  canal,  heads 
white. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45272. 

Brachyactis  umbrosa  Benth. 

In  shady  waste  lands,  heads  yellow. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45286. 


Carduus  nutans  Linn. 

On  dry  exposed  soil  slope,  heads  purple. 
Kirting  2900  m,  45268. 

* Cirsium  wallichii  DC.  var.  platylepis 

Hook.  f. 

On  open  slope,  heads  white. 

Kirting  3600  m,  45319. 

Cousinia  thomsoni  C.  B.  Clarke 
On  south  facing  dry  slope,  heads  purple. 

Abundant  above  3400  m. 

Roding  3000  m,  45306. 

Crepis  multicaulis  Ledeb.  ssp.  genuina  (Regel) 
Babe. 

On  moist  glacial  morain,  heads  yellow. 
Rasse  3400  m,  U.C.B.  45341. 

Echinops  comigerus  DC. 

On  terraced  open  slope,  heads  spherical 
white. 

Opposite  Kishori  2400  m,  45949. 

Erigeron  alpinus  Linn. 

On  shady  slope,  heads  lilac. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45279;  Triloknath  2800  m, 
45995. 

* E.  canadensis  Linn. 

In  waste  land  alongside  road,  heads 
yellowish  white. 

Udaipur  2400  m,  45943. 

* Filago  arvensis  Linn. 

On  moist  open  slope,  heads  white. 
Triloknath  2700  m,  45928. 

* F.  spathulata  Presl. 

On  shady  slope,  heads  brownish  white. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45288. 

* Galinsoga  parviflora  Cav. 

Along  shady  gullies,  disc  yellow,  rays  white. 
Thirot  2600  m,  45358. 

* Gnaphalium  thomsoni  Hook  f. 

On  moist  morain  slope,  heads  white. 

Rasse  3500  m,  45324. 

Heteropappus  altaicus  (Willd.)  Novopokr.  var. 

altaicus 

On  north  facing  stony  slope,  rays  white  disc 
yellow. 


71 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Thirot  2650  m,  45367;  Triloknath  2700  m, 
45393. 

Inula  grandiflora  Willd. 

On  slushy  south  facing  slope,  heads  yellow. 
Triloknath  2400  m,  45383. 

I.  racemosa  Hook.  f. 

Stout,  planted,  medicinal  herb,  heads  large 
yellow. 

Kamring  26500  m,  45370. 

Jurinea  cerotocarpa  (Dene.)  Benth. 

On  boulders  containing  soil,  heads  purplish 
white. 

Kishori  2400  m,  45947. 

Lactuca  sativa  Linn. 

Cultivated,  heads  yellow. 

Kishori  2650  m,  45938. 

* Leibnitzia  nepalensis  (Kunze)  Kitamura. 

On  shady  moist  slope  in  Picea  forest,  with 
young  heads. 

Kishori  east  2600  m,  45977. 

Saussurea  albescens  (DC.)  Hook.  f.  & Thoms. 
On  open  irrigated  slope,  heads  white. 
Roding  3000  m,  45301. 

S.  jacea  (Klotzsch)  C.  B.  Clarke 

On  loose  eroded  slope,  heads  cream  white. 
Tandi  2900  m,  45132. 

Senecio  chrysanthemoides  DC. 

On  open  irrigated  slope,  heads  yellow. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45282;  Kishori  2600  m, 
45968. 

Senecio  pedunculatus  Edgew. 

On  shady  soil  slope,  heads  yellow. 

Kishori  2500  m,  45984. 

S.  pedunculatus  Edgew.  var.  albus  nov. 

On  moist  slope  in  shade  on  river  bank,  heads 
white. 

Rappe  2600  m,  45329. 

Solidago  virga-aurea  Linn. 

On  steep  rock  fissure,  heads  yellow. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45349. 


Taraxacum  officinale  Wigg. 

On  dry,  stony,  west  facing,  slope,  heads 
yellow. 

Campanulaceae 

Campanula  latifolia  Linn. 

On  shady  slope.  In  fruit. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45938. 

Codonopsis  rotundifolia  Benth. 

On  shady  slope.  In  fruit. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45945. 

Primulaceae 

Androsace  rotundifolia  Hardw. 

On  stony  slope  along  gullies.  In  fruit. 
Roding  3000  m,  45304. 

Oleaceae 

Fraxinus  xanthoxyloides  Wall,  ex  DC. 

Most  common  shrub  on  dry  south  facing 
slope,  near  river  basin,  fruits  winged  in 
attractive  fascicles. 

Thirot  2000  m,  45353;  Triloknath  2500  m, 
45952. 

* Jasminum  bundle  Linn. 

On  south  facing  submoist  slope.  In  fruit, 
flowers  yellow. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45365. 

Syringa  emodi  Wall,  ex  D.  Don 
On  shady  slope.  In  fruit. 

Hinsa  Nala  300  m,  45907. 

Gentianaceae 

Jaeschkea  gentianoides  Kurz 

On  moist  irrigated  slope,  corolla  purplish 
white,  inflated. 

Rappe  2800  m,  45323. 

Swertia  cordata  (G.  Don)  C.  B.  Clarke 
On  moist  irrigated  slope,  flowers  white. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45247;  Kishori  2600  m, 
45926. 


72 


BOTANICAL  TOUR  IN  UPPER  CHENAB 


Boraginaceae 

Eritrichium  fruticulosum  Klotzsch 
On  shady  stony  slope,  flowers  blue. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45964. 

Pseudomertensia  echioides  (Benth.)  Riedl. 

On  open  rocky  slope,  flowers  purplish  blue. 
Triloknath  3000  m,  45391. 

Solan  aceae 

Hyoscyamus  niger  Linn. 

In  shady  waste  land  flower  dull  yellow  with 
purple  network. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45234. 

* Nicotiana  rustica  Linn. 

In  shady  waste  land,  flowers  palegreen. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45339. 

Physochlaina  praealta  Miers 

On  rocky  slope,  flowers  pale  green. 
Triloknath  2700  m,  45394. 

Solanum  nigrum  Linn. 

On  rocky  slope  facing  north,  flowers  white, 
fruits  orange. 

Triloknath  2800  m,  45932. 

S.  tuberosum  Linn. 

Cultivated,  excessively  flowering  & fruiting. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45345. 

SCROP  H U LARI  ACE  AE 

* Euphrasia  flabellata  Pennell 

On  moist  irrigated  slope,  flowers  white. 
Kirting  3000  m,  45307. 

Euphrasia  jaeschkei  Wettst. 

On  west  facing  semidry  slope,  flowers  violet. 
Rasse  3400  m,  45332. 

Limosella  aquatica  Linn. 

In  fresh  water  pool,  flowers  minute,  pale 
blue. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45991. 

Pedicularis  pectinata  Wall,  ex  Benth. 

On  irrigated  shady  slope.  In  fruit. 
Triloknath  2900  m,  45915. 


P.  punctata  Dene. 

On  moist  open  slope,  flowers  purple. 
Thirot  2650  m,  45380. 

Scrophularia  koelzii  Pennell 

On  dry  south-facing  slope,  flowers  pinkish 
white. 

Opposite  Kishori  2700  m,  45946. 

Veronica  beecabunga  Linn. 

Along  shaded  stream,  flower  pale  blue. 
Kirting  3000  m,  45315. 

V.  persica  Poir. 

On  borders  of  cultivated  field,  flowers  blue. 
Kishori  2600  m,  45987. 

Lamiaceae  (Labiatae) 

Clinopodium  umbrosum  (M.B.)  C.  Koch. 

On  moist  irrigated  slope,  flowers  pink. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45283. 

Elsholtzia  ciliata  (Thunb.)  Hyland. 

On  shady  slope,  flowers  white. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45291,  Kishori  2600  m, 
45940. 

E.  densa  Benth. 

In  cultivated  field,  flowers  pink. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45262;  Triloknath  2800  m, 
45920. 

* Hyssopus  officinalis  Linn. 

On  slopes  along  river,  flowers  purplish  blue. 
Rappe  2600  m,  45330;  Kishori  2500  m, 
45955. 

* Mentha  longifolia  (Linn.)  Huds.  var.  roy- 

leana  (Benth.)  Raiz.  et  Saxena 
Along  water  course,  flowers  pale  pink. 
Kirting  3000  m,  45277;  Kishori  2600  m, 
45953. 

Nepeta  discolor  Royle  ex  Benth. 

On  west  facing  dry  slopes,  flowers  blue. 
Hinsa  Nala  3200  m,  45400. 

N.  linearis  Royle 

On  south  facing  stony  slope,  flowers  pale 
pink. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45950. 


73 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


N.  spicata  Benth. 

On  borders  of  cultivated  field,  flowers  blue. 
Kishori  2600  m,  45972. 

Origanum  vulgare  Linn. 

On  dry  slopes,  flowers  white. 

Shansha  2900  m,  45252. 

Plectranthus  rugosus  Wall. 

On  open  slopes  along  river,  flowers  white. 
Kishori  2500  m,  45957. 

Salvia  nubicola  Sweet 

On  shady  moist  slope,  flowers  yellow. 
Kishori  2600  m,  45944. 

Scutellaria  prostrata  Jacq.  ex  Benth. 

On  dry  slopes,  flowers  yellowish  white. 
Kirting  2900  m,  45285;  Thirot  2600  m;  45389 

* Stachys  sericea  Wall. 

On  moist  irrigated  slope,  flowers  pale  pink. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45245. 

Thymus  serpyllum  Linn. 

On  cutting  slopes,  flowers  white. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45998. 

* Ajuga  bracteosa  Wall,  ex  Benth. 

In  Pinus  forest  undergrowth,  flowers  white| 
Kishori  east  2600  m,  45996. 

Plantaginaceae 

* Plantago  asiatica  Linn. 

On  moist  irrigated  field,  spikes  green. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45232. 

Plantago  depressa  Willd. 

On  shady  soil  slope,  spikes  green. 

Kirting  3000  m,  45296;  Kishori  2600  m, 
45973. 

Amaranthaceae 

Amaranthus  hybridus  Linn.  ssp.  cruentus 
(Linn.)  Thell. 

Cultivated,  panicle  red  or  yellow. 

Kishori  east  2600  m,  46000. 


Chenopodiaceae 

Chenopodium  album  Linn. 

In  cultivated  field,  spikes  green  capitate. 
Triloknath  2800  m,  45976. 

C.  botrys  Linn. 

Common,  not  collected. 

Shansha  2800  m. 

C.  foliosum  (Moench.)  Aschrs. 

In  dry  waste  places,  fruits  red  juicy. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45378. 

* C.  hybridum  Linn. 

In  shady  waste  places,  spikes  green. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45259. 

POLYGONACEAE 

* Fagopyrum  esculentum  Moench. 

In  shady  waste  places,  flowers  white. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45239. 

Oxyria  digyna  Hill. 

On  morain  slope,  flowers  yellow,  fruits  red. 
Hinsa  Nala  3200  m,  45909. 

Polygonum  affine  D.  Don 
On  stony  slope,  spikes  pink. 

Triloknath,  Hinsa  Nala  3300  m,  45399. 

P.  al  pi  mini  All. 

On  north  facing  irrigated  slope,  flowers 
white. 

Triloknath,  2900  m,  45912. 

P.  aviculare  Linn. 

Under  shade  of  Solix,  flowers  white. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45230. 

* P.  dumetorum  Linn. 

Twining  on  Hippophae,  flowers  green,  fruits 
winged. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45259. 

* P.  glabrum  Willd. 

On  moist  cultivated  field,  flowers  pink. 
Triloknath  2900  m,  45921. 

P.  glaciale  Hook.  f. 

On  submoist  stony  slope,  flowers  pale  green. 
Hinsa  Nala  3200  m,  45390. 


74 


BOTANICAL  TOUR  IN  UPPER  CHENAB 


* P.  hydropiper  Linn.  ssp.  niegalocarpum 

Danser 

In  shallow  water  pools,  flowers  white. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45963. 

P.  paronychioides  C.  A.  Mey. 

On  dry  sandy  river  bed,  flowers  pink. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45261. 

P.  polystachyum  Wall,  ex  Meissn. 

On  moist  slope  alongside  stream,  flowers 
white. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45292. 

* P.  tubulosum  Boiss. 

On  dry  river  bed  and  stony  slopes,  flowers 
pink. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45260;  Triloknath  3100  m, 
45395. 

P.  vivipanim  Linn. 

On  moist  irrigated  slope,  flowers  white. 

Triloknath  2900  m,  45929. 

Rumex  nepalensis  Spreng. 

Along  irrigation  canal,  flowers  green,  fruits 
with  hooked  bristly  wings. 

Triloknath  2900  m,  45918. 

Elaeagnaceae 

Happophae  rhamnoides  Linn,  subsp.  turkista- 
nica  A.  Rausi 

Extremely  common  along  gullies  and  moist 
slope,  fruits  yellow. 

Kirting-Shansha  2800  m,  45257;  45270. 

Loranthaceae 

Arceuthobium  oxycedri  M.  Bieb. 

A common  parasite  on  Juniperus  poly  car pos 
forming  moss  like  fascicles.  A heavily 
infected  tree  dies  after  a few  years. 
There  are  indications  of  much  damage  to 
several  standing  trees.  Infections  are  loca- 
lised and  not  widespread  in  the  valley. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45351. 


Urticaceae 

Parietaria  debilis  Forst. 

Under  shade  of  boulders,  flowers  minute 
pale  green. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45256. 

Urtica  dioica  Linn. 

On  shady  slope  and  along  hedge,  flowers 
pale  green. 

Kishori  2650  m,  45985. 

Cannabidaceae 

Cannabis  sativa  Linn. 

In  waste  land  around  village,  flowers  white 
green. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45248,  45249. 

JUGLANDACEAE 

Juglans  regia  Linn. 

Gregarious  on  south  facing  submoist  slope 
with  fruits. 

Thirot  2650  m,  45368. 

Salicaceae 

Salix  denticulata  Anderss. 

Along  moist  north  facing  gullies.  In  fruit, 
catkins. 

Rasse  3400  m,  45337. 

S.  oxycarpa  Anderss. 

Along  turbulent  stream  course.  In  fruit, 
catkins.  Largely  planted  alongside  road 
in  villages. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45271. 

MONOCOTYLEDONS 

Orchidaceae 

Herminium  monorchis  (Linn.)  R.  Br. 

On  moist  irrigated  slope,  flowers  green. 
Triloknath  2900  m,  45930. 


75 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Orchis  latifolia  Linn. 

On  north  facing  moist  irrigated  slope.  In 
fruit. 

Triloknath  2900  m,  45917. 

Iridaceae 

Iris  kumaonensis  Wall,  ex  D.  Don 
Along  shady  moist  gullies  under  planted 
salices,  with  fruits. 

Kirting  3000  m,  45308. 

Liliaceae 

Allium  ruhellum  M.  Bieb. 

On  stone  slab  along  river  bank,  flowers 
purple. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45936. 

A.  sativum  Linn. 

Occasionally  cultivated,  flowers  white. 
Roding  3000  m,  45294. 

A.  stracheyi  Baker 

On  shady  stone  slab  along  river  bank,  flowers 
white. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45935. 

JUNCACEAE 

Juncus  hufonius  Linn. 

On  moist  shady  slope,  flowers  green. 
Kishori  2650  m,  45956. 

J.  himalensis  Klotzsch 

Along  canals  on  shady  slope,  spikes  brown. 
Kirting  2900  m,  45275;  Thirot  2600  m, 
45373. 

J.  lampocarpus  Ehrh. 

Along  canals  on  shady  slope,  flowers  green. 
Thirot  2650  m,  45375. 

JUNCAGINACEAE 

Triglochin  palustre  Linn. 

On  moist  shady  north-facing  slope,  with 
green  fruits. 

Triloknath,  2900  m,  45919. 


Cyperaceae 

* Cyperus  squarrosus  Linn. 

On  moist  irrigated  plain,  spikes  green. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45254. 

Eleodiaris  palustris  R.  Br. 

In  shallow  water,  spikes  white. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45990. 

Scirpus  setaceus  Linn. 

On  moist  open  field  with  brownish  green 
spikes. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45255;  Kishori,  2600  m, 
45954. 

POACEAE  (GRAMINEAE) 

Agropyron  canaliculatum  Navslci 

On  sandy  river  bank,  spikes  purplish  green. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45237. 

Agrostis  canina  Linn. 

On  semidry  open  plain,  spikes  pale-brown. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45233. 

A.  stolonifera  Linn. 

On  moist  sandy  stream  bed  with  purplish 
brown  panicle. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45276. 

* Arthraxon  prionodes  (Steud.)  Dandy 
On  dry  stony  slope,  panicle  purple. 
Triloknath  2600  m,  45386. 

Bothriochloa  ischaemum  (Linn.)  Keng 

Gregarious  on  north-facing  slope,  panicle 
purple. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45979. 

Bromus  japonicus  Thunb. 

On  sandy  river  bank,  spikes  purplish  green. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45231. 

Calamagrostis  pseudophragmites  (Hall,  f.) 

Koeler 

On  moist  sandy  stream  bed,  panicle  purplish 
green. 

Kirting  2900  m,  45235;  Thirot  2650  m,  453 55. 


76 


BOTANICAL  TOUR  IN  UPPER  CHENAB 


* Chrysopogon  echinulatus  (Nees)  W.  Wats 
On  open  south  facing  slope,  panicle  dark 

purple. 

Roding  3000  m,  45299. 

* Cymbopogon  schoenanfhus  (Linn.)  Spreng. 
On  dry  slopes  under  Juniperus. 

Kamri  2700  m,  45377. 

Dactylis  glomerata  Linn. 

On  moist  slope  around  cultivated  field, 
spikes  white. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45989. 

* Eragrostis  poaeoides  P.  Beauv. 

On  fallow  fields,  panicle  blackish  green. 
Kishori  2600  m,  45981. 

* Erianthus  ravennae  (Linn.)  P.  Beauv. 

On  south  facing  sandy  eroded  slope,  panicle 
purple,  large, 

Kishori  2600  m,  45958. 

* Oryzopsis  gracilis  (Mez)  Pilger 

On  open  sandy  plain,  spikes  green,  slender. 
Shansha  2800  m,  45267. 

* O.  muitroi  Stapf  ex  Hook  f. 

On  dry  south  facing  barren  slope,  panicle 
green. 

Kirting  3600  m,  45318. 

* Phragmites  australis  (Cav.)  Trin.  ex  Steud. 
On  moist  irrigated  north  facing  slope,  pani- 
cle dark  purple  effuse. 

Kishori  2600  m,  45937. 

Poa  annua  Linn. 

Under  shade  of  Salices,  panicle  pale  green. 
Kirting  ‘3000  m,  45317. 

* Setaria  viridis  (Linn.)  P.  Beauv. 

On  dry  sandy  plain,  spike  purple. 

Shansha  2800  m,  45264. 

* Stipa  jacquemontii  Jaub.  et  Spach 
On  cliffs,  spikelets  purple. 

Rasse  3400  m,  45336. 

* S.  sibirica  (Linn.)  Lamk. 

Gregarious,  forming  uniform  large  lumps, 
panicle  pale-green. 

Rasse  3000-3600  m,  45326. 


GYMNOSPERMS 

Ephedraceae 

Ephedra  gerardiana  Wall,  ex  Stapf 

On  rock  fissure,  male  flowers  mostly 
shedding. 

Roding  3000  m,  45312. 

PlNACEAE 

Cedrus  deodara  (Roxb.)  G.  Don 

Forming  natural  forest  on  north  facing  slope 
also  along  Maier  Nala,  with  male  and 
female  cones. 

Udaipur  2400  m,  45960. 

Picea  smithiana  (Wall.)  Boiss. 

Forming  natural  forest  on  north  facing  slope, 
associated  with  Pinus  wallichiana,  with 
male  and  female  cones. 

Triloknath  26-3500  m,  45933,  45965. 

Pinus  wallichiana  Jackson 

Forming  elegant  forest  on  north  facing  slope 
mostly  associated  with  Picea  smithiana, 
with  female  cones. 

Triloknath  26-3500  m,  45966. 

CUPRESSACEAE 

Juniperus  communis  Linn. 

In  Pinus-Picea  forest  undergrowth,  always 
on  north-facing  slopes.  Female  cones  pre- 
sent. 

Rasse  34-3600  m,  45328. 

J.  polycarpos  Koch. 

Forming  natural  forest  only  on  dry  south 
facing  slope.  Male  and  female  cones  pre- 
sent. 

Thirot  2600  m,  45352. 

PTERIDOPHYTES 

SELAGI  NELL ACE AE 

* Selaginella  sanguinolenta  (Linn.)  Spring  f. 
indica  (Medic.)  Alston 


77 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


On  north  facing  rock  fissure.  Cones  present. 
Kishori  2600  m,  41297. 

Aspleniaceae 

Asplenium  septentrionale  Hoffm. 

Among  boulders  on  west  facing  slope,  sori 
brown. 

Hinsa  Nala  3300  m,  45902. 

* A.  trichomanes  Linn. 

Under  shade  of  boulders,  sori  brown. 
Hinsa  Nala  3100  m,  45901. 


Refer 

Aitchison,  J.  E.  T.  (1968) : Lahul  its  flora  and 
vegetation  products.  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  Bot.  10:  69- 
101. 

Aswal,  B.  S.  & Mehrotra,  B.  N.  (1979):  New 
Record  of  Plants  from  Himachal  Pradesh.  Ind. 
Journ.  of  Forestry  2 (4)  : 322. 

Borradaile,  J.  W.  (1928):  A journey  across  the 
Himalayas.  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  32:  163-168. 

Josh  i,  A.  C.  (1952) : Aquatic  vegetation  of 

Lahul.  Palaebot.  India,  1 : 277-280. 

Kapahi,  B.  K.  & Sarin,  Y.  K.  (1979) : Contri- 
bution to  the  Botany  of  Lahul.  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Soc.  74  (Suppl.) : 627-639. 


Pteridaceae 

* Pellaea  gracilis  Hook. 

Under  shade  of  boulders,  sori  with  broad 
indusia. 

Triloknath  3000  m,  45398. 

Acknowledgement 

We  are  thankful  to  the  Director,  Dr.  S.  K. 
Jain,  for  his  keen  interest.  Our  sincere  thanks 
are  also  due  to  Dr.  M.  A.  Rau  the  former 
Deputy  Director,  for  his  constant  encourage- 
ment. The  facilities  for  consultation  of  the 
Forest  Research  Institute  Herbarium  are 
thankfully  acknowledged. 

E n ce  s 

Nair,  N.  C.  (1964) : On  a botanical  tour  to  Lahul 
and  Spiti  (Punjab  Himalaya).  Bull.  Bot.  Surv.  India 
6(2-4):  219-235. 

Randhawa,  M.  A.  (1959):  Farmers  of  India, 
Volume  1,  Punjab,  Himachal  Pradesh,  Jammu  & 
Kashmir,  New  Delhi. 

Rau,  M.  A.  (1960) : On  a collection  of  plants 
from  Lahul.  Bull.  Bot.  Surv.  India  2 (1-2) : 45-56. 

(1975):  High  altitude  flowering  plants 

of  West  Himalaya.  Howrah. 

Watt,  G.  (1881):  Notes  on  the  vegetation  of 
Chamba  State  and  British  Lahul.  Journ.  Linn.  Soc. 
Bot.  18:  368-382. 


78 


BHADRA  WILDLIFE  SANCTUARY  AND  ITS 
ENDANGERED  ECOSYSTEM1 


K.  Ullas  Karanth2 
{With  a map) 

Remnants  of  Karnataka’s  once  grand  wildlife  are  now  concentrated  in  a few  forest 
pockets  in  and  around  Western  Ghats.  The  little  known  Bhadra  wildlife  sanctuary, 
is  one  such  area,  potentially  superior  to  many  of  our  better  known  wildlife  habitats. 
It  has  many  features  which  make  it  a priority  area  for  conservation  and  environmental 
management. 

It  is  ironical  that  this  area,  which  owes  its  uniqueness  to  an  irrigation  project,  is  now 


being  threatened  by  ecologically  ill-conceived 
economic  value. 

I N TROD  U CTIO  N 

Karnataka  has  two  major  wildlife  sanc- 
tuaries, at  Bandipur  and  Nagarahole,  which 
are  well  known  for  their  fauna.  Little-known 
Bhadra  Wildlife  sanctuary,  not  only  far  sur- 
passes them  in  scenic  beauty  but  is  also 
potentially  perhaps  a better  wildlife  habitat. 
In  this  paper  I make  an  attempt  to  fill  the  gap 
in  our  knowledge  of  the  natural  history  of 
this  fascinating  area. 

In  1951,  a part  of  this  area  covering  252 
sq.  km.  was  constituted  as  “Jagara  Valley 
Game  Sanctuary”.  In  1972,  ‘‘Bhadra  Wildlife 
Sanctuary”  was  constituted  by  amalgamating 
Jagara  Valley  with  the  adjoining  Lakkavalli 
forests.  Bhadra  sanctuary,  split  between  Chick- 
magalur  and  Bhadravathi  forest  divisions,  now 
has  an  area  of  492  sq.  kms.  Its  two  com- 
ponent areas,  Muthodi  and  Lakkavalli,  are 
ecologically  somewhat  distinct  and  are  almost 
conterminous  with  the  two  forest  ranges  of 
the  same  name. 

1 Accepted  August  1981. 

2 268,  16th  Main,  Mysore-570  009. 


developmental  activities  of  rather  dubious 

It  must  be  noted  that  considerable  forest 
area,  which  forms  a part  of  the  sanctuary  to 
the  north  of  Bhadra  reservoir,  is  in  degrad- 
ed condition  and  so  do  not  hold  wildlife  in 
any  appreciable  numbers. 

Materials  and  Methods 

I have  visited  the  sanctuary  in  1972,  73,  74, 
78  and  twice  in  1980.  Most  of  the  informa- 
tion presented  here  was  obtained  during  a 
status  survey  of  the  area  carried  out  on  behalf 
of  World  Wildlife  Fund  (Karanth  1978).  I 
have  covered  almost  the  entire  area  on  foot 
and  by  jeep,  concentrating  particularly  on  the 
favoured  wildlife  habitats. 

Data  on  the  population  status  of  various 
wild  animals  were  obtained  by  means  of  sight- 
ings and  other  supplementary  evidence  like 
tracks,  calls,  droppings,  wallows  etc.  Addi- 
tional information  was  obtained  from  forest 
department  staff  and  other  reliable  local 
sources. 

These  data  on  the  current  status  of  wild 
mammals  and  some  reptiles  are  shown  in 
Table  1,  on  a comparative  scale  used  by 


79 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Prasad  et  al.  (1979).  The  bird  identifications 
were  based  on  Ali  and  Ripley  (1968). 

Location  and  Physical  Features 
Topography : 

Bhadra  sanctuary  is  located  in  Malnad  re- 
gion of  Karnataka,  about  50  km  to  the  east 
of  Western  Ghats.  (130°  30'  N.,  75°  30'  E.). 

An  imposing  outspur  of  the  Western  Ghats 
called  Bababudan  mountain  range  rises  abrupt- 
ly from  the  Deccan  plateau  forming  a rough 
crescent  shape  here.  Inside  the  ‘crater’  form- 
ed by  them,  the  terrain  is  gently  undulating 
(670-760  m elevation)  but  the  mountains  reach 
an  elevation  of  1200-1500  m.  One  of  these 
peaks  called  “Mullaiahna  Giri”  is,  at  1900  m, 
the  highest  in  Karnataka.  Inside  the  ‘crater’ 
another  chain  of  hills  called  “Kagemane  Giri” 
(Crow’s  house  mountain-in  Kannada)  further 
divides  the  valley.  The  wildlife  sanctuary 
essentially  comprises  of  Muthodi  area  lying 
inside  the  crescent  and  Lakkavalli  area  spread 
on  the  northern  outer  slopes  of  Bababudans. 

Boundaries  and  approaches'. 

The  sanctuary  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Bhadra  reservoir  and  cultivated  plains,  on  the 
east  and  south  by  the  coffee  estates  in  the 
mountains  and  on  the  west  by  Bhadra  river. 

Muthodi  is  32  kms  away  from  Chickmaga- 
lur,  and  Lakkavalli  about  the  same  distance 
from  Shimoga,  both  being  connected  by  all 
weather  roads.  In  addition  the  entire  sanctuary 
is  traversed  by  various  forest  roads,  game 
roads  and  unmapped  lorry  tracks. 

Climate : 

The  temperature  in  the  valley  ranges  from 
10°C  to  32°C.  Bulk  of  the  rainfall  occurs 
during  the  Southwest  monsoon,  between  June 
and  September.  The  annual  precipitation  is 


2000-2540  mm  and  considerably  higher  than 
the  750-1000  mm  generally  received  by  the 
surrounding  plains.  This  is  primarily  due  to 
the  great  altitude,  topography,  vegetation  and 
the  consequent  characteristic  orography  of 
Bababudans. 

Water  resources : 

Bhadra  river,  originating  in  the  Western 
Ghats,  flows  in  a northeasterly  direction  along 
the  foot  of  the  western  outer  slopes  of  Baba- 
budans. Somavahini  river,  draining  the  area 
inside  the  crater  passes  through  a narrow  gap 
in  the  mountain  walls  and  joins  Bhadra  river 
at  Hebbe. 

Further  downstream,  Bhadra  is  dammed  up 
at  BR  Project  area  forming  a vast  (about 
200  sq.  kms.)  reservoir  whose  backwaters  ex- 
tend nearly  13  kms  backwards  and  lap  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain  range. 

In  addition  to  these  major  water  sources, 
there  are  numerous  streams  and  tanks  scat- 
tered all  over  the  area,  quite  a few  of  them 
being  perennial  sources. 

Vegetation 

The  forests,  of  the  valley  floor  and  north- 
ern outer  slopes,  are  of  wet  deciduous  type. 
The  inner  slopes  are  covered  by  grassy 
downs  with  wet  deciduous  semi-evergreen 
sholas.  On  the  outer  edges  of  Lakkavalli  area, 
the  forests  tend  to  intergrade  into  dry  deci- 
duous type.  On  the  whole,  Muthodi  area  is 
wetter  and  more  verdant  than  Lakkavalli, 
particularly  in  the  dry  seasons. 

The  upper  forest  canopy  contains  valuable 
timber  species  like  Tectona  grandis,  Dalbergia 
latifolia,  Terminalia  tomentosa,  Terminalia 
paniculata,  Pterocarpus  marsupium  and  Lager- 
stroemia  lanceolata.  Somewhat  uniquely,  many 
fig  trees  ( Ficus  sp.)  occur  both  independently 


80 


BHADRA  WILDLIFE  SANCTUARY 


as  well  as  parasitical  strangling  figs.  The  most 
noteworthy  feature  of  these  forests  is  the  vast 
continuous  under  canopy  of  bamboos,  both 
Dendrocalamus  strictus  and  Bamboosa  arun- 
dinacea  occurring  extensively.  On  the  forest 
floor,  dense  stands  of  reeds  of  Oxytenathera 
sp.  and  Ochlandra  sp.  can  be  seen  at  many 
places. 

Where  the  canopy  is  closed,  the  forest  floor 
is  carpeted  with  wild  ginger  (Globba  sp.)  and 
where  it  is  more  open,  the  weed  Eupatorium 
has  been  spreading  rapidly. 

Low  lying  areas  of  the  valley  floor  are 
often  marshy  glades  (called  ‘Hadlus’)  cloth- 
ed in  luxuriant  growth  of  grasses.  There  are 
also  some  grassy  banks  on  mountain  slopes 
and  along  the  edge  of  the  backwaters. 

Overall,  from  the  point  of  view  of  fodder 
availability,  the  dry  season  ‘pinch  period’ 
seems  less  severe  in  this  area  than  in  many 
other  South  Indian  sanctuaries. 

The  natural  vegetation  has  been  consider- 
ably modified  by  human  activity.  Forest  de- 
partment plantations,  mainly  of  teak,  cover 
about  6%  of  the  sanctuary  area.  The  inner 
slopes  of  Bababudans  is  under  private  coffee 
plantations,  sometimes  encroaching  into  the 
forests.  Quite  a few  of  the  ‘hadlus’  and  river 
banks  are  occupied  by  paddy  farmers. 

However,  inspite  of  these  drawbacks,  it 
apparently  is  still  an  excellent  wildlife  habi- 
tat, as  shown  by  its  faunal  wealth. 

Wildlife 

The  present  status  of  wildlife,  determined 
as  accurately  as  possible,  is  presented  in  this 
paper.  I have  not  taken  into  account  the 
Amphibians,  smaller  reptiles,  common  rodents 
and  Bats.  (Table  1). 

Reptiles : 

Marsh  crocodiles  used  to  be  found  in 


Bhadra  river  in  the  past,  though  I could  not 
get  any  information  on  their  present  status. 
Perhaps  they  have  been  decimated  by  dyna- 
mite using  fish  poachers  who  seem  to  be 
active.  Monitor  lizards  are  however  fairly 
common.  Rock  Python  and  Hamadryad  (King 
Cobra)  both  occur  — the  latter  being  confin- 
ed to  the  Muthodi  area. 

Birds : 

Apart  from  the  great  variety  of  species 
encountered,  what  impressed  me  was  the  sheer 
numbers  of  birds  found  all  over  the  sanctuary, 
particularly  in  Muthodi  area.  While  in  many 
similar  forests,  one  can  walk  considerable 
distances  without  coming  across  birds,  in 
Muthodi  every  acre  of  the  forest  seems  to 
be  alive  with  birds!  During  the  brief  survey 
99  species  of  birds  were  identified  and  half  a 
dozen  escaped  identification.  The  total  bird 
count  for  the  sanctuary  is  likely  to  be  over 
two  hundred  species. 

Some  of  the  birds  noted  during  the  survey 
were;  Peafowl  (Pavo  cristatus),  Grey  Jungle- 
fowl  (G alius  sonneratii ),  Red  spurfowl  {Gal- 
loper edix  spadicea ),  Painted  Bush  Quail 
{Perdicula  erythrorhyncha) , Peninsular  Turtle 
Dove  {Streptopelia  orientalist , Emerald  Dove 
( Chalcophaps  indica ),  Southern  Green  Impe- 
rial Pigeon  {Ducula  aenea ),  Jerdon’s  Imperial 
Pigeon  {Ducula  badia ),  Malabar  Trogon 
{Harpactes  fasciatus ),  Bluebearded  Bee-eater 
{Nyctyornis  athertoni ),  Malabar  Grey  Horn- 
bill  {Tockus  griseus ),  Great  Black  Wood- 
pecker {Dryocopus  javensis).  Pigmy  Wood- 
pecker {Picoides  nanus),  Blacknaped  Oriole 
{Oriolus  chinensis).  Southern  or  Whitebellied 
Tree  Pie  {Dendrocitta  leucogastra) , South  In- 
dian Black  Bulbul  {Hypsi petes  madagascari- 
ensis ) and  Rubythroated  Yellow  Bulbul 
{Pycnonotus  melanicterus) . Water  birds  like 
Darter  ( Anhinga  rufa).  Cormorants  ( Phalacro - 

81 


6 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Table  1 

Present  status  of  the  major  animals  of  bhadra  wildlife  sanctuary 


Common  Name 

Scientific  Name 

Status 

Favoured  Localities 

Muthodi  Lakkavalli 

Bonnet  macaque 

Macaca  radiata 

2 

2 

Occurs  around  villages 

Common  langur 

Presbytis  entellus 

4 

4 

All  over 

Slender  loris 

Loris  tardigradus 

2 

2 

Tiger 

Panther  a tigris 

3 

2 

Kagemanegiri,  Tegara  gudda 

Leopard 

Panther  a pardus 

2 

2 

Leopard  cat 

Felis  bengalensis 

2 

2 

Jungle  cat 

Felis  chaus 

2 

2 

Rusty  spotted  cat 

Felis  rubiginosa 

- 

- 

Part  of  its  nominal  range 

Small  Indian  civet 

Viverricula  indica 

- 

- 

” ” 

Common  Palm  civet 

Paradoxurus  hermophroditus 

2 

2 

Brown  Palm  civet 

Paradoxurus  jerdoni 

- 

- 

Its  normal  range 

Common  mongoose 

Herpestes  edwardsi 

2 

2 

Stripenecked  mongoose 

Herpestes  vitticollis 

2 

2 

Ruddy  mongoose 

Herpestes  smithi 

- 

- 

Part  of  its  range 

Brown  mongoose 

Herpestes  fuscus 

- 

- 

Part  of  its  range 

Striped  hyena 

Hyaena  hyaena 

1 

1 

very  rare 

Jackal 

Canis  aures 

3 

3 

All  over 

Indian  fox 

Vulpes  bengalensis 

- 

- 

Doubtful 

Indian  wild  dog 

Cuon  alpinus 

3 

2 

All  over 

Sloth  bear 

Melursus  ursinus 

1 

2 

Kavalapura 

Common  otter 

Lutra  lutra 

- 

2 

Bhadra  reservoir 

Smooth  Indian  otter 

Lutra  perspicillata 

- 

- 

? 

Rate! 

Mellivora  capensis 

- 

- 

Doubtful 

Large  brown  flying  squirrel 

Petaurista  petaurista 

2 

2 

Indian  giant  squirrel 

Rutufa  indica 

4 

4 

All  over 

Indian  porcupine 

Hystrix  indica 

3 

3 

Blacknaped  hare 

Lepus  nigricollis  nigricollis 

3 

3 

All  over 

Elephant 

Elephas  maximus 

3 

3 

Gaur 

Bos  gaur us 

4 

4 

Fourhorned  antelope 

Tetracerus  quadricornis 

0 

- 

Sambar 

Cervus  unicolor 

3 

3 

All  over  the  Muthodi 
Region 

Spotted  deer 

Axis  axis 

2 

3 

Chandrana  hadlu 

Barking  deer 

Muntiacus  muntjak 

3 

3 

All  over 

Mouse  deer 

Tragulus  meminna 

2 

2 

Wild  pig 

Sus  scrofa 

4 

4 

All  over 

Pangolin 

Manis  crassicaudata 

2 

_ 

Python 

Python  molurus 

2 

2 

Hamadrayad 

Ophiophagus  hannah 

2 

0 

Muthodi 

Marsh  crocodile 

Crocodylus  palustris 

- 

- 

Monitor  lizard 

Varanus  bengalensis 

2 

- 

0 = Absent;  — = No  Information;  1 = Rare;  2 = Present;  3 = Frequent;  4 = Very  Common. 


82 


BHADRA  WILDLIFE  SANCTUARY 


corax  sp.)  and  Large  Egret  ( Egretta  alba ) 
were  observed  on  the  shallow  backwaters. 
These  with  many  half  submerged  trees  and 
small  islands,  may  attract  more  water  birds 
at  other  times  of  the  year.  Potentially,  this 
part  of  the  sanctuary  seems  to  be  an  excellant 
waterfowl  habitat. 

Mammals : 

Common  langur  is  abundant  in  the  forests 
but  Bonnet  macaque  is  rather  uncommon. 
Liontailed  macaque  is  absent. 

Tigers  are  not  unusual,  as  frequent  cattle 
kills  are  reported,  particularly  around  Tegara 
Gudda  and  Kagemane  Giri,  where  the  Tigers 
retreat  to  avoid  the  disturbance  caused  by 
bamboo  extraction.  There  may  be  about  half 
a dozen  tigers,  though  a census  conducted  in 
1972  reported  12  tigers.  Whatever  their  actual 
present  population  is,  by  properly  managing 
the  sanctuary,  many  more  tigers  will  move  in 
from  the  adjoining  disturbed  forest  areas.  This 
is  one  of  the  few  areas  where  a breeding  popu- 
lation of  tigers  can  establish  itself,  and  survive 
on  natural  prey. 

Leopards  are  fairly  common  particularly  in 
Lakkavalli  area.  In  1980  April,  I saw  a leo 
pard  stalking  langurs  near  Sukalahatti.  Among 
other  smaller  carnivores,  like  cats,  civets  and 
mongooses,  I could  positively  determine  the 
existence  of  a few.  However,  some  other 
species  about  which  no  information  could  be 
obtained  are  also  likely  to  be  present  (Prater 
1965). 

Striped  hyenas  are  rare  in  the  sanctuary. 
They  seem  to  be  more  common  in  the  drier 
plains  and  also  used  to  be  common  in  the 
heavy  rainfall  regions  of  Karnataka’s  coastal 
districts.  But  for  some  ecological  reason  they 
seem  to  avoid  the  wet  deciduous  forest  tracts 
between  the  Western  Ghats  and  the  plains  of 
Deccan.  Wild  dog  tracks  are  found  all  over 
the  area. 


Sloth  bears  are  rare  and  mostly  confined  to 
higher  regions  of  Lakkavalli.  There  is  a record 
of  a bear  being  run  over  by  a truck  near 
Muthodi  in  the  early  seventies.  This  relative 
scarcity  of  bears  here,  when  compared  to  the 
wet  deciduous  forests  of  Mysore  plateau  and 
evergreen  forests  of  Western  Ghats,  is  rather 
intriguing. 

Giant  squirrels  are  abundant  and  otters 
(Lutra  sp.)  are  reported  to  occur  in  Bhadra 
reservoir. 

Elephants  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  sanctuary 
and  seem  to  migrate  locally  between  Muthodi 
and  Lakkavalli  depending  to  some  extent  on 
the  ripening  of  paddy  crops  in  the  villages  in 
and  around  the  forests.  During  November 
1980,  for  instance,  most  of  the  elephants  seem- 
ed to  be  in  Muthodi  area. 

Gaur  certainly  are  the  pride  of  Bhadra. 
Ecological  suitability  of  the  habitat  coupled 
with  the  isolation  of  this  area  from  the  out- 
breaks of  Rinderpest  in  1968,  seem  to  be  the 
cause  of  their  relative  abundance.  At  a very 
rough  guess,  there  may  be  around  1000  gaur 
here.  They  are  certainly  more  numerous  here 
than  in  many  of  the  better  known  sanctuaries 
of  our  country.  The  large  proportion  of  calves 
seen  with  the  herds  indicates  a growing  popu- 
lation. Also  apparently,  the  carrying  capacity 
of  the  habitat  seems  to  be  adequate  for  the 
gaur  population  since  they  do  not  raid  crops 
here  as  in  other  parts  of  their  range  in  Western 
Ghats.  However,  with  the  flowering/ death  of 
bamboo  Dendrocalamus  strictus  in  1980,  there 
will  be  a severe  reduction  of  fodder  availabi- 
lity to  gaur  and  elephants.  The  death  of 
bamboo  and  consequent  opening  up  of  the 
canopy  will  further  increase  fire  hazards  and 
accelerate  the  spread  of  Eupatorium  weed, 
which  in  turn  will  further  reduce  fodder  sup- 
ply to  the  wild  herbivores.  Consequently, 


83 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


\JUNCTU 


[lakkavau 


BHADRA 

RESERVOIR 


KAVALAPUR' 
FL.  v. 


5UKALHA1TI 

• FLc/-'“V 


HiPLA 


/ J AGAR A 


CULTIVATION 


BHADRA  WILDLIFE  SANCTUARY 


-to  . 

jfihimoga 

i To  Bhadravath* 


UMBLt 

&VLE 


4 KMS. 


— sanctuary  Boundary 

Roads 

water  source 
— A— * Crestline  Of  Hills 

° Village 

@ Good  Wildlife 

Localities 

M Mining  (proposed) 


corpse 


ESTATE 


malige 


M . />•" 

KOOI  W/J 

p!r  /S' 

jZ<  rrs 


Vatti 


GUN&I 


to  chiick»ma«»lur 


/Wkemmawa- 

vj  \\  GUNDI 

AA  ^ 

Mi  f 

}~Z>  ( 


to  s<an9*meshwarpet 


BHADRA  WILDLIFE  SANCTUARY 


incidence  of  crop  raiding  and  conflict  with  the 
farmers  will  also  increase. 

Sambar,  spotted  deer,  barking  deer,  wild 
pig  and  mouse  deer  occur.  The  four-horned 
antelope  does  not  occur  in  the  sanctuary 
though  its  presence  in  the  drier  fringes  of 
Lakkavalli  cannot  be  entirely  ruled  out. 

With  a minimum  of  management,  primarily 
in  terms  of  antipoaching  work  and  rational 
forestry,  this  splendid  area  will  be  an  ideal 
habitat  for  a wide  range  of  wild  animals. 
Even  now,  Chandrana  Hadlu,  Dodda  Hadlu, 
Nagara  bhavi,  Tegara  Gudda,  Kavalapura, 
Koramar  gudda  and  Sukhalatti  are  excellent 
loclities  for  wildlife  (see  map). 

Conservation  and  associated  problems: 

Dams  and  irrigation  projects  have  generally 
spelled  disaster  for  forests  and  wildlife  in  our 
country.  Bhadra  wildlife  sanctuary  so  far 
seems  to  be  a happy  exception  to  this  rule! 
Bhadra  reservoir  created  in  the  sixties,  com- 
pletely cut  off  the  two  main  roads  running 
through  this  area,  connecting  Chickmagalur  to 
towns  in  Shimoga  district.  As  a result,  the 
wildlife  rich  Muthodi  valley  became  isolated 
and  remained  mercifully  backward  in  terms 
of  “development”,  as  measured  in  our  coun- 
try. In  the  seventies,  some  dynamic  officers 
of  the  State  Forest  Department  armed  with 
the  Wildlife  Protection  Act  (1972)  did,  to 
some  extent,  curtail  the  rampant  poaching 
spree  of  earlier  days.  All  these  factors  helped 
the  wildlife  populations  to  recover  and  the 
sanctuary  improved  gradually  upto  1978. 

Since  then,  however,  human  pressures  are 
building  up  again  and  are  likely  to  undo  all 
the  good  work  of  the  past. 

1.  The  State  Irrigation  Department,  is  plan- 
ning a dam  across  Somavahini  river  within  the 
Muthodi  valley,  to  divert  its  waters  from  the 


Bhadra  reservoir  to  irrigate  some  other  areas 
beyond  the  Bababudan  mountains!  If  this  pro- 
ject with  its  rather  nebulous  ‘economic  value’ 
is  executed,  the  forestry,  agriculture  and  wild- 
life in  the  entire  valley  will  be  totally  des- 
troyed. 

2.  National  Mineral  Development  Corpora- 
tion’s (NMDC)  investigations  indicate  the 
feasibility  of  establishing  magnetite  ore  mines 
on  the  inner  slopes  of  Bababudans.  These  are 
visualised  to  be  three  times  the  size  of  the 
gigantic  (Rs.  6000  million)  Kudremukh  Pro- 
ject. The  environmental  impact  of  these,  on 
the  local  rainfall  pattern  (vital  to  the  coffee 
crop),  soil,  siltation  rate  in  Bhadra  reservoir, 
forestry  resources  and  wildlife  have  been  ignor- 
ed. However,  due  to  problems  connected  with 
the  international  iron  ore  market,  this  parti- 
cular threat  seems  to  be  off,  temporarily. 

3.  State  Government  owned  Mysore  Paper 
Mills  at  Bhadravathi  has  started  intensive  ex- 
traction of  bamboo  in  the  sanctuary  since 
1978.  So  far,  this  extraction  has  been  done  in 
a most  haphazard  manner,  with  scarcely  a 
thought  for  wildlife  and  its  requirements.  I 
feel,  the  wildlife  sanctuary,  or  at  least  a suffi- 
ciently large  part  of  it  vital  to  wildlife,  must 
be  left  unexploited.  Of  late,  there  seems  to 
be  some  interest  being  shown  by  the  paper 
mills  in  these  things.  Incidentally,  this  paper 
mill  has  gaur  (bison)  as  its  trade  mark! 

4.  This  wildlife  sanctuary  badly  needs  effec- 
tive management  in  terms  of  anti-poaching 
work,  fire  protection,  relocation  of  villages,  con- 
trol over  grazing  by  domestic  cattle  and  ill- 
conceived  plans  for  ‘wildlife  tourism’.  I was 
particularly  unhappy  to  note  that  since  1979, 
antipoaching  work  seems  to  have  declined  and 
poaching  seemed  to  be  on  the  increase. 
Prompt  payment  of  compensation  for  cattle 
killed  by  carnivores  has  also  declined  during 
this  period,  endangering  tigers.  All  these 


85 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


lacunae  are  likely  to  prove  disastrous  for  the 
wildlife,  in  an  area  like  this,  surrounded  as 
it  is,  by  wealthy,  trigger-happy  planters  and 
farmers. 

Conclusions 

It  is  hoped  that  various  organisa- 
tions concerned  with  conservation  will  take 
note  of  this  and  pressurise  the  State  and  Cen- 
tral Governments  to  take  immediate  steps  to 
properly  manage  this  area,  ecologically  vital 
not  only  for  its  wildlife  but  also  to  the  rich 
agricultural  systems  and  industries  that  depend 
on  it. 

Refe 

Alt,  S.  A.  and  Ripley,  S.  D.  (1968):  Handbook 
of  the  Birds  of  India  and  Pakistan.  Volumes  1 to 
10,  Bombay. 

Karanth,  K.  U.  (1978)  : Status  Survey  Report: 
Jagara  Valley  (Mimeographed).  Bangalore. 


Acknowledgements 

I am  indebted  to  Dr.  Mewa  Singh,  who  made 
many  useful  suggestions.  Also,  I have  bene- 
fited greatly  from  discussions  with  Rev.  C.  J. 
Saldanha  of  St.  Joseph’s  College,  Bangalore. 

I am  grateful  to  the  World  Wildlife  fund 
which  sponsored  the  1978  visit,  and  Karna- 
taka Forest  Department  which  provided  gene- 
rous co-operation.  I particularly  thank  Mrs.  D. 
Variava,  M.  A.  Parthasarathy,  K.  R.  Sethna 
(all  concerned  with  WWF)  and  U.  T.  Alva, 
P.  D.  Gaonkar  (Conservators  of  forests)  and 
Devraju,  R.  G.  Kenchappa,  M.  M.  Nissar, 
Krishna  Urs  (RFO’s)  and  their  subordinates. 

ENCES 

Prater,  S.  H.  (1965):  Book  of  Indian  Animals. 
Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  Bombay. 

Prasad,  S.  N.,  Nair,  P.  V.,  Sharatchandra,  H. 
C.  and  Gadgil,  Madhav  (1979) : On  factors  govern- 
ing the  distribution  of  Wild  mammals  in  Karna- 
taka. J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  75  (3)  : 718-743. 


86 


THE  BEHAVIOUR  OF  THE  NEST-GUARDING 
SALTWATER  CROCODILE  ( CROCODYLUS  POROSUS , 
SCHNEIDER)  — A PRELIMINARY  QUANTITATIVE 

STUDY1 

H.  R.  Bustard2  & S.  Maharana3 
(With  a text-figure) 

C.  porosus  usually  guards  the  nest  from  one  or  more  wallows.  Nest-guarding  is  not 
a continuous  process  and  in  the  present  study  on  a captive  female,  occupied  75% 
of  the  total  observation  period.  The  crocodile  retreated  to  the  pool  in  the  early 
hours  of  the  morning  and  also  during  the  day,  presumably  on  thermoregulatory 
considerations.  Absences  were  usually  of  short  duration,  mean  1.46  hours.  Nest- 
guarding  occurred  from  different  sites.  The  imolications  for  management  are  discussed. 


Introduction 

Nest-guarding  in  crocodiles  is  well  known 
Cott  (1971);  Bustard  (in  press)  for  reviews 
and  C.  porosus  is  no  exception  Deraniyagala 
(1939);  Bustard  and  Choudhury  (in  press) 
Choudhury  and  Bustard  (1979).  The  Nile 
Crocodile  (C.  niloticus ) is  said  to  remain  in 
attendance  at  or  near  the  nest  site  during  the 
whole  three  months  incubation  period  (Cott 
1971).  Cott,  however,  also  mentions  females, 
whose  nesting  sites  were  exposed  to  the  full 
heat  of  the  sun,  visiting  the  water  to  cool 
off  (Cott  1961)  as  does  Modha,  (1967).  Cott 
(1971)  pointed  out,  “Little  is  known  of  the 
night  life  of  females  during  the  incubation 
period.  A crocodile  is  nocturnally  aquatic: 
yet  females  are  certainly  found  occupying  the 
grounds  at  night.  However,  no  all-night  obser- 
vations on  particular  individuals  have  been 

1 Accepted  September  1980. 

2 Central  Crocodile  Breeding  and  Management 
Training  Institute,  Lake  Dale,  Rajendranagar  Road, 
Hyderabad-500  264. 

3 Department  of  Zoology,  Ravenshaw  College, 
Cuttack. 


made,  and  we  do  not  know  to  what  extent  an 
all-night  vigil  is  maintained.” 

Cott  also  produced  evidence  suggesting  that 
the  female  Nile  crocodile  fasts  throughout  the 
incubation  period.  When  the  nest  site  was  at 
a distance  from  the  water,  Cott  referred  to 
females  being  found  in  a comotose  state  as 
the  incubation  proceeds  and  concluded, 

“It  seems  almost  certain  that  such  crocodiles 
remain  on  the  rookery  until  hatching  time, 
without  once  visiting  the  water.” 

It  has  been  assumed,  perhaps  on  the  basis 
of  the  nest-guarding  behaviour  of  the  Nile 
crocodile,  that  the  saltwater  crocodile  behaves 
similarly.  Loveridge  (1946)  encouraged  this 
view  stating  that  the  female  porosus  digs  two 
wallows  and  remains  in  one  or  the  other  during 
the  incubation  period.  Deraniyagala  (1939) 
believed  this  to  be  the  case  in  C.  porosus  and 
gave  as  corroborating  evidence  the  fact  that 
two  nest-guarding  crocodiles  shot  by  him  had 
empty  stomachs.  As  pointed  out  by  Chou- 
dhury and  Bustard  (1979)  the  stomachs  of 
many  crocodiles  are  empty  in  nature,  (Cott 
1961)  so  that  this  is  not  conclusive  evidence 


87 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


that  the  nest-guarding  females  were  not 
feeding. 

During  visits  to  many  C.  porosus  nests,  prin- 
cipally in  Northern  Australia  and  India,  the 
senior  author  has  noted  presence  or  absence 
of  the  nest-guarding  females.  When  absent, 
fresh  tracks  are  often  visible  leading  to  the 
water,  strongly  suggesting  that  the  adult  croco- 
dile has  been  in  the  vicinity  (Webb  et  al. 
1977;  Choudhury  and  Bustard,  in  press). 

In  a study  of  nest  predation  Choudhury 
and  Bustard  (1979)  pointed  out  the  import- 
ance of  knowing  more  about  these  absences 
from  the  nest  — particularly  their  frequency 
and  duration.  This  information  has  important 
implications  in  the  field  of  management  and 
conservation  — it  being  necessary  to  be  able 
to  quantitatively  assess  the  survival  value  of 
nesting-guarding  behaviour  to  the  progeny. 
No  quantitative  data  on  this  aspect  have  been 
published. 

Materials  and  Methods 

Information  was  obtained  from  a female 
saltwater  crocodile  reared  from  infancy  in 
Nandankanan  Biological  Park,  Orissa  which 
laid  eggs  in  each  of  the  past  three  years 
(Acharjyo  and  Misra,  in  press).  At  the  time 
the  observations  were  made  (August  1978) 
the  female  was  stated  to  be  14  years  old,  and 
measured  approximately  3 m.  The  enclosure 
measures  10.5  x 9.3  m,  with  a cement  boun- 
dary wall  1.3  m high.  A pool  approximately 
5x5  m,  with  maximum  depth  of  1.1  m,  occu- 
pies between  one-quarter  to  one-third  of  the 
total  area.  The  substrate  is  red  laterite  with 
rubble  and  stones  with  sand  in  parts.  Only 
one  of  the  four  trees  in  the  enclosure  is  large, 
this  is  an  8.5  m Indian  almond  ( Terminalia 
catappa),  the  other  are  rain  trees  ( Samanea 
samari). 


The  female  constructs  her  nest  each  year 
near  the  Terminalia  tree,  digs  the  wallow  at 
a distance  of  1.2  m from  the  nest  and  savage- 
ly defends  the  nest  against  intruders.  Since 
there  is  no  male,  the  eggs  are  infertile.  It 
should  be  noted  that  unmated  crocodiles  like 
this  may  lay  eggs  in  captivity  and  presumably 
also  in  the  wild.  This  is  probably  one  expla- 
nation for  clutches  occurring  in  nature  which 
are  completely  infertile.  The  captive  female 
guards  the  nest  viciously  driving  off  even 
human  intruders  throughout  the  entire  incuba- 
tion period. 

Continuous,  round  the  clock  observations 
were  maintained  on  the  crocodile  enclosure 
using  a team  of  research  assistants  assisted  by 
the  junior  author  over  a period  of  77  hours 
commencing  at  1900  hours  on  3 August  1978. 

Nest  guarding  was  only  scored  from  the  pool 
when  the  crocodile  remained  near  the  pool- 
side  immediately  adjacent  to  the  nest. 

Results 

Behaviour  of  the  nest-guarding  female 

During  the  incubation  season  the  behaviour 
of  the  female  undergoes  a pronounced  change. 
Instead  of  its  normal,  lethargic  disinterested 
posture,  typical  of  zoo  crocodilians  used  to 
the  public,  it  is  alert,  closely  observing  any 
activity  around  its  enclosure  and  at  the  same 
time  keeping  a watch  over  the  nest,  any  ani- 
mal entering  the  pool  at  such  time  is  attack- 
ed. The  keeper  cannot  enter  the  pool  through- 
out the  incubation  period.  Even  when  not 
specifically  guarding  the  nest  the  female  re- 
mains alert  — the  whole  behaviour  is  mark- 
edly different  from  other  times  of  the  year. 

Nest-guarding  is  used  here  to  indicate  that 
the  female  is  in  close  proximity  to  the  nest, 
lying  either  in  the  wallow  adjacent  to  the  nest, 
on  the  land  beside  and  facing  the  nest,  or  in 


88 


NEST-GUARDING  BY  C.  POROSUS 


the  pool  with  the  head  protruding  from  the 
water  near  the  edge  of  the  pool  closest  to  the 
nest.  In  contradistinction,  were  it  to  lie  along 
the  edge  of  the  land  area  adjacent  to  the  com- 
pound wall  or  rest  in  the  pool  where  this 
adjoins  the  outer  compound  wall  where  it  is 
close  to  visitors  (which  is  a common  resting 
position  at  other  times  of  the  year)  it  would 
not  be  considered  to  be  nest-guarding. 

N est- guar  ding 

It  was  observed  that  nest-guarding  was  not 
a continuous  process.  However,  during  this 
period,  nest-guarding  occurred  for  60  of  the 
77  hours  (75.3%  of  the  observed  period).  This 
behaviour  is  shown  diagramatically  in 
Figure  1. 


A diurnal  pattern  can  be  seen  in  the  acti- 
vities (Figure  1).  There  was  a retreat  to  the 
water  in  the  early  morning  on  all  days  (pro- 
bably because  of  the  cool  night  temperature, 
the  pool  being  warmer).  This  again  occurred 
in  the  early  afternoon  — the  hottest  part  of 
the  day  — probably  to  cool  off. 

As  indicated  in  the  Figure  these  were  diffe- 
rences between  days.  The  crocodile  was  absent 
from  the  nest  for  10i  of  the  first  29  hours  and 
subsequently,  for  3}  and  5\  hours  in  each 
succeeding  24  hour  day,  a percentage  ab- 
sence of  36.2,  14.6  and  20.8  per  cent  respec- 
tively. With  the  exception  of  the  first  night, 
when  perhaps  nocturnal  observation  tempora- 
rily upset  the  normal  behaviour  pattern  (the 
zoo  closes  to  the  visitors  half  an  hour  before 


//22y22222^ 

l i i i i 

O I I I I i Sami  I I I I 12  I I I I I 6pml  I I I I O 
midnight  noon  midnight 


Fig.  1.  The  record  commences  at  1900  hours  on  3 August  1978  (top  right)  and  runs  continuously  from 
left  to  right  (here  split  up  into  days  for  convenience)  until  midnight  on  6 August.  Symbols : open 
areas  — crocodiles  inside  water  not  nest-guarding  diagonal  lines  — nest-guarding  from  wallow;  horizontal 
lines  — nest-guarding  from  the  pool;  solid  black  — nest-guarding  from  land. 


89 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


sunset),  there  was  a prolonged  period  of  nest- 
guarding  of  8,  5 and  8 hours  respectively  in 
each  of  the  succeeding  days.  On  the  first  day 
the  two  longest  continuous  gaps  in  nest- 
guarding  of  the  three  day  observation  period 
were  observed.  These  were  4 hours  between 
2100  and  0100  hours  and  3 hours  between 
1000  and  1300  hours.  However,  absences  were 
usually  of  short  duration,  about  1 hour.  The 
mean  for  the  13  observed  absences  being  1.46 
hours. 

The  longest  period  of  continuous  nest- 
guarding  activity  was  12  hours  (1300-0100 
hours)  on  the  first  day. 

Nest-guarding  stations 

In  the  present  study  the  crocodile  guarded 
the  nest  from  the  wallow,  from  a position  in 
the  water  immediately  adjacent  to  the  nest, 
and  from  the  land  other  than  in  the  wallow. 
The  division  of  time  spent  between  the  vari- 
ous nest-guarding  stations  is  also  shown  in 
Figure  1.  A total  of  29  hours  of  nest-guarding 
was  carried  out  from  the  wallow  close  to  the 
nest.  This  represented  49.2%  of  the  total  nest- 
guarding  time.  Twentynve  hours  were  spent 
guarding  the  nest  from  the  water  of  the  pool 
(42.4%  of  nest-guarding  time)  and  only  5 
hours  (8.5%  of  the  time)  from  the  land  other 
than  the  wallow. 

Discussion 

This  study  shows  that  the  nest-guarding 
female  does  not  guard  the  nest  continuously 
as  is  confirmed  in  nature  by  sometimes  find- 
ing females  absent  from  the  nests,  Webb  et 
al.  (1977);  Bustard  (in  press);  Bustard  & 
Choudhury  (in  press);  and  Choudhury  & 
Bustard  (1979).  However,  since  the  present 
study  is  quantitative  it  provides  insight  into 
the  amount  of  time  the  female  may  spend 
away  from  the  nest. 


The  study  also  indicates  the  importance  of 
the  wallows  in  nest-guarding.  Neill,  as  recent- 
ly as  1971,  has  doubted  that  the  saltwater 
crocodile  digs  wallows  tor  nest-guarding  pur- 
poses. However,  presence  of  wallows  is  cer- 
tainly the  normal  situation  in  both  the  Austra- 
lian and  Indian  regions  — at  opposite  ends 
of  the  geographic  range,  Deraniyagala  (1939); 
Webb  et  al.  (1979);  Bustard  (in  press)  Bus- 
tard & Choudhury  (in  press);  Choudhury  & 
Bustard  (1979).  These  data  strongly  suggest 
that  wallows  occur  throughout  the  range  of 
the  species,  so  that  it  is  surprising  that  Neill 
had  not  encountered  them. 

In  the  present  enclosure,  it  is  probable  that 
the  pool  (approximately  5 x 5 m)  functions 
like  a large  wallow  in  nature.  Both  Webb  et 
al.  (1977);  and  Bustard  & Choudhury  (in 
press)  have  pointed  out  that  there  are  two 
kinds  of  wallows,  the  latter  sometimes  re- 
sembling a pool,  see  Webb  et  al.  (1977, 
Figure  2).  If  this  hypothesis  is  accepted,  then 
guarding  from  the  wallow  is  seen  to  occur 
91.1%  of  the  total  nest-guarding  time  — split 
almost  evenly  between  the  two  types  of 
wallows.  As  pointed  out  by  Choudhury  & 
Bustard  (1979)  the  latter  type  of  wallow  has 
psychological  advantages  for  the  nest-guarding 
crocodile  in  that  it  can  lie  completely  hidden. 
However,  surveillance  of  the  nest  is  probably 
better  from  the  smaller  wallows. 

Both  Webb  et  al.  and  Choudhury  & Bus- 
tard have  also  pointed  out  the  temperature 
(thermoregulatory)  advantage  of  the  wallow 
especially  when  the  nest  is  exposed  to  direct 
sun  for  part  of  the  day. 

As  assessment  of  the  survival  value  of  the 
progeny  of  nest-guarding  depends  on  the 
efficiency  of  nest-guarding,  of  which  length  of 
absence  from  the  nest  — both  the  actual  time 
at  which  absences  occurred  and  also  their 
duration  — is  an  important  factor.  Observa- 


90 


NEST-GUARDING  BY  C.  POROSUS 


tions  in  the  wild  have  to  be  made  extremely 
carefully  since  as  pointed  out  by  Cott  (1971); 
Bustard  (1978,  in  press);  Bustard  and  Chou- 
dhury  (in  press)  and  Choudhury  and  Bus- 
tard (1979);  crocodiles  have  learnt  to  fear 
man  and  generally  nowadays  do  not  protect 
their  nests  against  man.  However,  there  are  am- 
ple data  to  show  that  this  was  not  the  case  for- 
mally. Cott  (1971);  S.  Kar  (pars,  comm.) 
and  Bustard  and  Choudhury  (in  press)  have 
data  showing  defence  of  the  nest  by  the  nest- 
guarding  crocodiles  in  India  today.  It  is  per- 
haps important  to  stress  that  active  nest- 
guarding  does  take  place,  since  due  to  chang- 
ed behaviour  towards  man,  perhaps  as  a result 
of  large-scale  hunting,  this  may  be  easily  over- 
looked. For  instance,  Webb  et  al.  (1977)  state, 
“It  is  not  known  whether  C.  porosus  protect 
the  nest  against  predators  or  not.” 

Crocodiles  exhibit  rapid  learning  (Bustard 
1968)  and  it  is  most  important  to  bear  this 
in  mind  in  the  field  during  ecological  studies, 
in  order  to  keep  interference  with  their  normal 
behaviour  to  an  absolute  minimum. 

The  retreat  to  the  pool  in  the  early  morn- 
ing (night)  hours  and  again  in  the  heat  of  the 
day  serves  to  underline  the  value  of  the  larger 
type  of  wallow  (with  which  it  is  suggested 
that  the  pool  is  synonymous)  in  thermoregu- 
lation. Undoubtedly,  these  cyclical  movements 
are  temperature-related. 

In  India,  for  instance,  the  water  monitor 
Varanus  salvator,  perhaps  the  most  serious 
non-human  predator,  is  entirely  diurnal. 
Varanus  are  important  nest  predators  through- 
out the  range  of  porosus  as  are  wild  pigs  (true 
wild  pigs  or  feral  pigs  as  in  Australia/New 
Guinea) . 

The  prolonged  period  of  nest-guarding, 
commencing  around  nightfall,  is  most  signifi- 
cant as  this  is  likely  to  be  the  time  of  greatest 
predation.  Most  animals  are  active  in  the 


evening  hours  (postcrepuscular)  and  it  is  at 
such  times  that  potential  egg  eaters  such  as 
wild  pigs,  are  most  likely  to  be  active.  Con- 
versely, retreat  to  the  water  during  the  heat 
of  the  day  is  not  very  serious  if  found  to 
occur  in  nature  as  at  such  times  most  poten- 
tial predators  will  also  be  lying  up.  Even 
diurnal  predators  such  as  V.  salvator  are  like- 
ly to  have  a bimodal  activity  pattern  with  acti- 
vity reduced  or  absent  during  the  hottest 
hours. 

During  the  nest-guarding  period  the  female 
crocodile  did  not  accept  food  daily  as  normal. 
There  is  indication  of  reduced  appetite  during 
the  nest-guarding  season. 

There  may  have  been  differences  in  this 
captive  situation  compared  to  the  wild  state. 
However,  disturbance  effects,  to  the  extent 
that  these  may  have  been  present  in  an  animal 
raised  from  infancy  in  the  zoo,  were  most 
likely  to  interrupt  the  nest-guarding  activity 
than  strengthen  it.  The  study  shows  a very 
well  developed  nest-guarding  activity  and  ab- 
sences from  nest-guarding  usually  of  short 
duration. 

Management  implications  of  maternal  care 
in  C.  porosus  — the  nest-guarding  phase 
should  not  be  looked  at  in  isolation  — are 
discussed  by  Bustard  & Choudhury  (in  press). 

This  preliminary  study  should  be  followed 
by  an  investigation  over  a longer  period.  It 
is  hoped  to  conduct  this  during  the  1980  nest- 
ing season.  It  would  also  be  extremely  valua- 
ble to  parallel  this  work  with  a similar  study 
conducted  in  the  wild,  as  would  be  possible, 
for  instance,  in  the  Bhitar  Kanika  Saltwater 
Crocodile  Sanctuary  in  Orissa. 

Acknowledgements 

We  thank  Orissa  Forest  Department  for  re- 
search facilities  for  one  of  us  (S.M.)  to  carry 
out  work  at  Nandankanan  Biological  Park, 


91 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Orissa.  We  thank  Mr.  B.  C.  Choudhury  and  cript  and  Mr.  B.  C.  Choudhury  for  preparing 
Dr.  J.  B.  Sale  for  critical  reading  of  the  manus-  the  figure. 

References 


Acharjyo,  L.  N.  & Misra,  C.  G.  (In  press) : 
Egg-laying  and  Nest-guarding  behaviour  of  Estua- 
rine Crocodile  ( Crocodylus  porosus ) in  captivity.  In 
Indian  Crocodiles  — Conservation  and  Research. 
Occ.  Pubis.  1,  Cen.  Croc.  Br.  Mgmt.  Trg.  Inst., 
Hyderabad,  India. 

Bustard,  H.  R.  (1968) : Rapid  learning  in  wild 
crocodiles  ( Crocodylus  porosus).  Herpetologica  24 
(2):  173-175. 

(In  press) : Crocodile  Population 

Ecology  and  Management.  Zool.  Surv.  Ind.  Symp. 
on  Animal  Ecology,  Calcutta. 

(In  press) : Parental  Care  in 

Crocodiles,  with  special  Reference  to  Indian  Croco- 
diles — a Review.  In  Indian  Crocodiles  — Conserva- 
tion and  Research.  Occ.  Pubis.  1 Cen.  Croc.  Br. 
Mgmt.  Trg.  Inst.,  Hyderabad,  India. 

& Choudhury,  B.  C.  (In  press) : 

Parental  care  in  the  Saltwater  Crocodile  ( Croco- 
dylus porosus,  Schneider).  In  Indian  Crocodiles  — 
Conservation  and  Research.  Occ.  Pubis.  1 Cen.  Croc. 
Br.  Mgmt.  Trg.  Inst.,  Hyderabad,  India. 

Choudhury,  B.  C.  & Bustard,  H.  R.  (1979): 
Predation  on  natural  nests  of  the  Saltwater  Croco- 
dile ( Crocodylus  porosus  Schneider)  on  North 


Andaman  Island  with  notes  on  the  crocodile  popu- 
lation. J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  76  (2):  311-323. 

Cott,  H.  B.  (1961)  : Scientific  results  of  an  in- 
quiry into  the  ecology  and  economic  status  of  the 
Nile  Crocodile  ( Crocodylus  niloticus ) in  Uganda 
and  Northern  Rhodesia.  Trans,  zool.  Soc.  Lond.  29: 
211-356. 

(1971)  : Parental  care  in  Crocodilia, 

with  special  reference  to  Crocodylus  niloticus.  In 
Crocodiles  IUCN  Pubis.  N.  S.  Suppl.  Pap.  No.  32: 
166-180. 

Deraniyagala,  P.  E.  P.  (1939):  The  Tetrapod 
Reptiles  of  Ceylon  1.  Testudinates  and  Crocodilians. 
Colombo  Museum,  Ceylon. 

Loveridge,  A.  (1946) : Reptiles  of  the  Pacific 
World.  Macmillan,  New  York. 

Modha,  M.  L.  (1967) : The  Ecology  of  the  Nile 
Crocodile  ( Crocodylus  niloticus)  on  Central  Island, 
Lake  Rudolf.  E.  Afr.  Wildlife  J.  5:  74-95. 

Neill,  W.  T.  (1971) : The  Last  of  the  Ruling 
Reptiles.  Alligators,  Crocodiles  and  their  Kin.  Colum- 
bia University  Press,  New  York. 

Webb,  G.  J.  W.,  Messel,  H.  & Magnusson,  W. 
(1977)  : The  Nesting  of  Crocodylus  porosus  in 
Arnhen  Land,  Northern  Australia.  Copeia,  1977  (2)  : 
238-249. 


92 


NOTES  ON  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CERTAIN  RARE, 
ENDANGERED  OR  ENDEMIC  PLANTS  OF  MEGHALAYA 
WITH  A BRIEF  REMARK  ON  THE  FLORA1 

R.  R.  Rao  and  K.  Haridasan2 


Introduction 

In  India,  as  elsewhere,  the  main  causes  for 
disappearence  or  threat  to  species  are  defore- 
station, afforestation  with  single  species,  and 
introduction  and  spread  of  foreign  weeds  (Rao 
1979).  With  the  disturbance  of  the  natural 
habitat,  a large  number  of  species  are  threat- 
ened with  extinction  in  India.  A preliminary 
list  of  such  endangered  or  threatened  plants 
of  the  country  has  been  recently  compiled  by 
Jain  and  Sastry  (1980).  Disturbance  or  clear- 
ence  of  natural  vegetation  in  Meghalaya  has 
especially  rendered  a large  number  of  species 
rare  or  endangered,  which  were  otherwise 
quite  common  at  a time,  when  Flora  of  British 
India  (Hooker  1872-97)  was  compiled.  Recent 
studies  by  us  on  the  flora  of  Meghalaya  re- 
veals a large  number  of  such  rare  species  with 
limited  distribution  in  the  state.  Most  of  these 
species  have  not  been  reported  by  Jain  and 
Sastry  (op.  cit.),  and  are  therefore  enumerated 
in  this  paper. 

Location  and  general  features  of 

VEGETATION  OF  MEGHALAYA 

The  state  of  Meghalaya  lies  between  25° 
47'  and  20°  10'  N and  89°  45'  to  92°  47'  E 
in  north-east  India.  The  topography  of  the 
region  is  remarkable  with  undulating  hills  and 

1 Accepted  June  1981. 

2 Department  of  Botany,  North-Eastern  Hill  Uni- 
versity, Shillong. 


steep  slopes  dissected  by  a network  of  rivers 
and  their  tributaries.  These  hills  constituting 
the  Sub-Himalayan  ranges  have  access  to  the 
Himalayas,  south  China,  Malay  Peninsula 
through  Burma  and  to  Peninsular  India.  This 
has  resulted  in  an  astonishingly  high  floristic 
diversity. 

The  vegetation  of  Meghalaya  has  been  cate- 
gorised under  the  tropical  and  temperate  types 
(Rao  and  Panigrahi  1961,  Rao  1974).  The 
tropical  vegetation  is  confined  to  elevations 
up  to  1800  m and  comprises  of  (a)  tropical 
evergreen  and  semievergreen  forests  along  the 
high  rainfall  area  of  the  southern  belt  (b) 
tropical  deciduous  forests  occupying  a major 
portion  of  the  state  and  include  such  econo- 
mically important  species  as  Tectona  grandis, 
Shorea  robusta,  Pterocarpus  marsupium  and 
others  (c)  subtropical  pine  forests  (with  Pinus 
kesiya)  as  the  chief  element  over  the  high 
altitudes  of  Khasi  and  Jaintia  hills. 

The  temperate  forests  in  Meghalaya  are 
chiefly  confined  to  elevations  between  1800  m 
to  1950  m.  The  dense  patch  of  ‘Sacred  forests’ 
at  Shillong  Peak  and  Mawphlang  represent  the 
true  temperate  forests,  which  show  a high 
percentage  of  Himalayan  elements.  These 
sacred  forests  which  are  almost  untouched  due 
to  religious  beliefs  represent  the  relict  flora  of 
the  region  and  now  act  as  sanctuaries  for 
most  of  the  rare,  endangered  or  endemic  plant 
species,  which  could  have  been  probably  fair- 
ly well  distributed  at  one  time. 

The  forests,  in  Meghalaya,  have  suffered 


93 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


heavy  deforestation,  mainly  due  to  the  evil 
practice  of  the  so  called  ‘jhumming’  or  shifting 
agriculture,  which  involves  cutting  down  and 
burning  of  forests  for  agriculture  for  a period 
of  2 or  3 years  and  then  following  the  area. 
In  fact  it  can  be  said  that  there  is  hardly 
any  area  in  Meghalaya  which  has  not  been 
jhummed  at  one  time  or  other  (except  the 
sacred  forests),  with  the  result  that  the  once 
luxuriant  forest  covered  hills  in  the  state,  are 
now  turned  to  grasslands  and  barren  areas 
(Rao  1979).  Comparative  studies  on  the  vege- 
tation of  sacred  forests  with  that  of  adjacent 
areas  can  give  us  an  indication  of  the  extent 
to  which  the  original  forests  might  have  been 
disturbed.  Thus,  deforestation  in  Meghalaya 
has  resulted  in  the  disappearence  or  has  made 
rare  a number  of  taxa.  Such  rare  or  threaten- 
ed plants  are  now  confined  only  to  some 
sacred  forests  or  to  small,  comparatively  less 
disturbed  pockets  of  vegetation  in  the  state. 

Enumeration  of  rare,  endangered  or 

ENDEMIC  PLANTS  OF  MEGHALAYA 

The  paper  reports  70  species  which  are 
either  rare,  endangered  or  endemic  in  Megha- 
laya along  with  their  habit,  previous  distri- 
bution and  present  occurrence  in  Meghalaya. 

In  the  following  enumeration  of  rare,  en- 
dangered or  endemic  plants  of  Meghalaya,  the 
species  are  alphabetically  arranged.  Cate- 
gories3 or  status  of  taxa  like  Rare  (R),  ende- 
mic (E),  endangered  (EN)  and  vulnerable 
(V)  are  indicated  and  this  is  abbreviated  as 
shown.  Then  follow  the  name  of  the  family 
to  which  the  species  belong.  This  is  followed 
by  brief  notes  on  distribution  in  India  and  in 

3 The  definitions  for  these  various  categories  have 
been  provided  by  Jain  and  Sastry  (op.  cit.). 

4 The  abbreviation  ‘NEHU’  is  yet  to  find  a place 
in  ‘Index  HerbariorunT. 


Meghalaya;  and  citation  of  voucher  specimens, 
which  are  deposited  in  the  Herbarium,  North- 
Eastern  Hill  University,  Shillong  (NEHU4) 

Acer  laevigatum  Wall.  (R)  (Aceraceae). 

Trees;  Temperate  Himalayas  from  Shillong 
Simla  to  Khasi  hills;  now  confined  only  to 
sacred  forests  of  Shillong  peak  and  Mawph- 
lang  in  Meghalaya.  Haridasan  2393. 

Agapetes  obovata  Hk.  f.  (V)  (Vacciniaceae) 
Epiphytic  shrubs;  Khasi  hills.  Presently  this 
species  is  confined  only  to  sacred  groves  of 
Shillong  peak,  Mawphlang  and  Mawsmai. 
Haridasan  10005. 

A pi  os  carnea  Benth.  (R)  (Fabaceae) 
Twiners;  Nepal  and  Khasi  hills.  We  have 
recorded  this  only  from  Laitkor  and  Shillong 
peak  forests.  Haridasan  2395. 

Apodites  benthamiana  Wt.  (V)  (Olacinaceae) 
Trees;  Hooker  reports  this  from  western 
peninsula,  Nilgiris  and  Meghalaya.  We  have 
noted  this  only  from  Mawlai  in  Khasi  hills. 
Haridasan  5271. 

Artocarpus  lakoocha  Roxb.  (E)  (Moraceae) 
Deciduous  trees,  throughout  the  north-east 
India,  tropical  Himalaya  and  Burma;  we  have 
recorded  this  only  from  Baghmara  and  Damra 
of  Garo  hills.  Haridasan  4620. 

Baliospermum  micranthus  Muell.-Arg.  (V) 
(Euphorbiaceae) 

Small  trees;  Hooker  reports  this  from  Khasi 
and  Jaintia  hills;  presently  confined  to  sacred 
forests  of  Mawsmai  only.  Haridasan  2898. 

Berchemia  floribunda  Wall,  ex  Brandis  (R) 
(Rhamnaceae) 

Shrubs;  Tropical  himalayas.  East  Bengal 
and  Khasi  hills  (Hooker  1872-97).  Very  rare 
in  Meghalaya,  collected  only  once  from 
Mawlai.  Haridasan  5272. 


94 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ENDANGERED  PLANTS 


Butea  monosperma  (Lam.)  Taub.  (V) 
(Fabaceae) 

Trees;  Common  throughout  India  and 
Burma  extending  to  Malaya.  Confined  to  Garo 
hills  in  Meghalaya;  the  population  of  this 
species  has  been  considerably  reduced.  Hari- 
dasan  2799. 

Campanumoea  javanica  Bl.  (V)  (Campanu- 
laceae) 

Twiners;  Sikkim  and  eastwards  to  Burma 
and  Java;  now  only  recorded  from  Shillong, 
Nongstoin  and  Jowai.  The  population  of  this 
species  is  considerably  reduced.  Haridasan 
3391. 

Cardamine  impatiens  L.  (R)  (Brassicaceae) 
Herbs;  Temperate  Himalayas,  Sikkim  to 
Bhutan;  Asia  and  Europe.  Collected  only 
once  in  Shillong,  very  rare.  Haridasan  4600. 

Chirita  hamosa  R.  Br.  (E  and  EN)  (Gesne- 
riaceae) 

Herbs;  Hooker  records  this  from  Khasi 
hills,  Burma  and  Malaya.  Very  rare  in  Megha- 
laya and  the  present  report  forms  the  second 
report  from  this  region;  confined  to  limestone 
forests  of  Balphakram  in  Meghalaya.  Hari- 
dasan 10067. 

Clerodendrum  hastatum  Lindl.  (EN)  (Verbe- 
naceae) 

Shrubs;  Khasi  hills  and  Sylhet  (Hooker 
1872-97);  we  have  recorded  this  only  once 
from  Umsemlem.  Haridasan  4568. 

Coldenia  procumbens  L.  (R)  (Boraginaceae) 
Herbs;  Throughout  Tropical  India,  Africa, 
Asia  and  Australia;  but  we  have  recorded  only 
once  as  a weed  in  paddy  fields  at  Baghmara 
of  Garo  hills.  Haridasan  2796. 

Connarus  paniculatus  Roxb.  (V)  (Connara- 
ceae) 

Trees;  Sylhet  and  Khasi  hills;  now  confined 


to  Sacred  forests  of  Mawsmai  only;  the  popu- 
lation of  this  species  has  considerably  reduced. 
Haridasan  4796. 

Corylopsis  himalayana  Griff.  (V)  (Hama- 
melidaceae) 

Shrubs;  Khasi  hills,  Bhutan  and  S.  China; 
now  the  population  of  this  species  has  consi- 
derably reduced  and  is  found  along  a narrow 
belt  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state.  Haridasan 
10253. 

Dalhousiea  bracteata  Grah.  (R)  (Fabaceae) 
Scandent  shrubs;  Eastern  Himalaya,  Assam 
and  Sylhet.  In  Meghalaya  very  rare  and  col- 
lected only  from  Umtesar,  Khasi  hills.  Hari- 
dasan 4684. 

Daphniphyllum  himalayense  Muell.-Arg. 
(EN)  (Daphniphyllaceae) 

Trees;  Temperate  Himalaya,  Mishmi  hills 
and  Sikkim  and  Khasi  hills.  We  have  recorded 
this  only  from  the  sacred  groves  at  Shillong 
Peak,  Mawsynram  and  Mawphlang;  another 
species  with  a decreased  population.  Haridasan 
4791. 

Dipsacus  asper  Wall,  ex  DC.  (V)  (Dipsaca- 
ceae) 

Herbs;  Khasi  hills;  now  the  population  of 
this  species  in  Meghalaya  is  highly  reduced. 
Haridasan  3392. 

Elaeocarpus  acuminatus  Wall,  ex  Mast.  (R) 
(Elaeocarpaceae) 

Trees;  East  Bengal  and  Assam  and  Khasi 
hills;  we  have  collected  this  only  from  sacred 
forests  of  Shillong  Peak.  The  population  of 
this  species  has  also  been  reduced  considera- 
bly. Haridasan  4297. 

Elaeocarpus  prunifolius  Wall,  ex  Mast.  (R) 
(Elaeocarpaceae ) 

This  has  been  recorded  from  Sylhet  and 
Khasi  hills;  but  now  it  is  seen  only  in  sacred 


95 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


forests  near  Jarain  in  Jaintia  hills.  Haridasan 
2055. 

Endospermum  chinense  Benth.  (V)  (Euphor- 
biaceae) 

Trees;  Kanjilal  et  cd.  (1934-40)  report  that 
this  is  very  common  throughout  the  province; 
but  now  it  is  very  rarely  met  with  along  the 
banks  of  rivers  near  Lailad,  Khasi  Hills. 
Haridasan  5296. 

Engelhardtia  wallichiana  Lindl.  (R)  (Juglan- 
daceae) 

Trees;  Khasi  and  Jaintia  hills;  Now  only 
few  trees  are  noticed  in  Lailad  of  Khasi  hills. 
Haridasan  3396. 

Epipogeum  roseum  Lindl.  (R)  (Orchidaceae) 
Saprophytic  orchids;  Tropical  Himalayas, 
Nepal,  Sikkim  and  Khasi  hills.  In  Meghalaya, 
extremely  rare  and  we  have  collected  this  only 
once  near  Nongpoh.  Haridasan  5281. 

Erycibe  peguensis  Roxb.  (R)  (Convolvula- 
ceae) 

Large  climbers;  Throughout  India,  Hima- 
layas, Malaya  and  Australia;  But  we  have  col- 
lected this  only  from  Mahadeo  in  Garo  hills. 
Haridasan  4175. 

Euonymus  bullatus  Wall,  ex  Lindl.  (EN) 
(Celastraceae) 

Small  trees;  Khasi  and  Jaintia  hills;  Now 
found  only  at  sacred  forests  in  Mawsmai. 
Haridasan  4664. 

Fraxinus  floribunda  Wall.  (V)  (Oleaceae) 
Trees,  Temperate  and  subalpine  Himalayas 
(Hooker  1872-97);  in  the  entire  Meghalaya 
we  have  noticed  only  a couple  of  trees  near 
Malki  in  Shillong.  Haridasan  4548. 

Galeola  falconeri  Hk.  f.  (R)  (Orchidaceae) 
Parasitic  orchids;  subtropical  Himalaya  and 
Sikkim;  in  Meghalaya,  extremely  rare  and 


collected  only  once  in  Tura  peak.  My rt hong 
1841. 

Gastrodia  exilis  Hk.  f.  (R)  (Orchidaceae) 
Saprophytic  orchids;  Hooker  (1872-97)  re- 
ports this  from  Khasi  hills;  there  are  no  col- 
lections of  this  in  the  Assam  herbarium; 
our  collections  from  Raliang  sacred  forest 
forms  a second  report  from  this  region. 
Haridasan  3387. 

Goniothalamus  simonsii  Hk.  f.  & Th.  (R) 
(Annonaceae) 

Small  trees;  Hooker  reports  this  from  Khasi 
hills.  Presently  it  is  restricted  only  to  the 
Lailad  area  of  Nongkyllem  reserve  forest  in 
Meghalaya.  Haridasan  10288. 

Hedera  helix  L.  (V)  (Araliaceae) 

Climbers;  Khasi  hills,  Bhutan  Himalayas; 
in  the  present  Khasi  hills  the  population  of 
this  species  is  getting  reduced  due  to  forest 
clearings.  Haridasan  2400. 

Hymenodictyon  excelsum  Wall.  (R)  (Rubia- 
ceae) 

Trees;  W.  Himalaya,  Nepal  and  Bangla 
Desh;  we  have  recorded  this  only  once  in 
Tura  peak.  Haridasan  4621. 

Ilex  khasiana  Purkaystha  (V)  (Aquifolia- 
ceae) 

Trees  reported  from  Khasi  hills;  now  there 
are  only  a couple  of  trees  in  the  Shillong 
peak  and  Elephant  falls  area.  Haridasan  4799. 

Ilex  venulosa  Hk.  f.  (R)  (Aquifoliaceae) 
Another  species  reported  from  Khasi  hills; 
now  very  rare  in  Khasi  hills  as  its  habitat 
near  Laitlyngkot  has  been  destroyed.  Hari- 
dasan 3393. 

Lasiobaema  scandens  (L.)  de  Wit  (R) 

( Caes  alpi  niaceae  ) 

Lianas;  Eastern  Bengal,  Sikkim,  Burma  and 


96 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ENDANGERED  PLANTS 


Malaya.  An  extremely  rare  plant  in  Megha- 
laya; collected  from  Daveband,  Maheshkola 
in  Garo  hills  (only  one  plant  was  noticed). 
Haridasan  10099. 

Leptodermis  griffithii  Hk.  f.  (V)  (Rubiaceae) 
Shrubs  reported  from  Khasi  hills;  presently 
it  is  seen  only  in  Upper  Shillong  where  it  is 
facing  extinction.  Haridasan  2397. 

Leucosceptrum  canum  Sm.  (R)  (Lamia- 
ceae) 

Small  trees;  Temperate  Himalaya,  Bhutan 
and  Khasi  hills;  presently  confined  only  to 
some  pockets  in  Shillong.  Haridasan  4598. 

Litsea  elongata  Wall.  (R)  (Lauraceae) 

Trees;  Assam,  Khasi  and  Jaintia  hills;  now 
mostly  confined  to  sacred  forests  at  Shillong 
peak  and  Mawphlang.  Haridasan  2394. 

Manglietia  insignis  Bl.  (R)  (Magnoliaceae) 
Trees;  Nepal  and  Khasi  hills;  presently  the 
species  is  confined  only  to  sacred  forests  in 
Meghalaya.  Haridasan  2396. 

Medinilla  rubicunda  Bl.  (V)  (Melastoma- 
ceae) 

Epiphytic  shrubs;  sub-Himalayan  ranges, 
Sikkim  eastwards  to  Khasi  hills.  Now  restrict- 
ed only  to  sacred  forests  in  Meghalaya. 
Haridasan  4300. 

Meliosma  pinnata  Roxb.  (R)  (Sabiaceae) 
Trees;  Sikkim,  Himalayas  and  Khasi  hills; 
the  only  collection  we  have  is  from  Shillong 
Peak,  where  a solitary  tree  exists.  Haridasan 
4218. 

Melodorum  rubiginosum  Hk.  f.  & Th.  (E) 
(Annonaceae) 

Climbers;  Assam,  Sylhet  and  Burma;  only 
present  in  Rongrengiri  Reserve  forest  of  Garo 
Hills,  where  the  population  of  the  species  is 
highly  reduced.  Haridasan  9948. 


Michelia  punduana  Hk.  f.  & Th.  (R)  (Magno- 
liaceae) 

Hooker  and  Thomson  (1872)  report  this 
species  from  Khasi  hills;  we  have  not  been 
able  to  collect  anywhere  in  Khasi  hills,  but 
our  collection  is  from  Jaintia  hills.  Haridasan 
2834. 

Monotropa  uniflora  L.  (R)  (Monotropa- 
ceae) 

Saprophytic  herbs;  Temperate  Himalayas, 
Khasi  hills  and  Japan.  Extremely  rare  in 
Meghalaya  and  found  only  in  sacred  grooves 
of  Shillong  peak  and  Mawphlang;  this  species 
is  also  at  risk  now.  Haridasan  2399. 

Munronia  pinnata  (Wall.)  Harms.  (R) 
(Meliaceae) 

Herbs,  Eastern  Himalaya,  Sikkim,  Khasi 
hills  and  Nilgiris.  The  population  of  this 
species  is  extremely  low  due  to  forest  clear- 
ings. Haridasan  2791. 

Nepenthes  khasiana  Hk.  f.  (E)  (Nepentha- 
ceae) 

This  is  the  pitcher  plant  of  Meghalaya;  one 
of  the  endemic  plants  struggling  for  survival 
in  small  pockets  in  Jarain,  Maheshkola,  and 
Baghmara  and  other  places  in  the  southern 
belt  of  the  state.  Haridasan  3398. 

Ochna  squarrosa  Planet.  (V)  (Ochnaceae) 
Trees,  Burma,  Andamans  and  Khasi  hills; 
very  rare  in  Meghalaya  and  collected  only 
from  Balphakram  sanctuary.  Haridasan  947. 

Parkia  roxburghii  A.  DC.  (R)  (Mimosaceae) 
Trees;  Assam,  Sylhet,  Burma  and  Malay 
Peninsula.  In  Meghalaya  very  rare  due  to 
j humming  and  indiscriminate  felling;  only  few 
plants  are  noticed  along  the  southern  part  of 
Garo  Hills,  Garampani  and  Nongpoh.  Hari- 
dasan 4280. 


97 


7 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Paurthiaea  arguta  Decne  (R)  (Rosaceae) 
Trees  reported  from  Khasi  hills;  presently 
confined  to  Shillong  peak  only,  where  only  a 
few  trees  are  present.  Haridasan  4529. 

Pentapterygium  rugosum  Hk.  f.  (R)  (Vacci- 
niaceae) 

Epiphytic  shrubs;  Bhutan  and  Khasi  hills; 
now  confined  to  sacred  forests  in  Khasi  hills. 
Haridasan  3397. 

Photinia  integrifolia  Lindl.  (R)  (Rosaceae) 
Trees;  Himalayas,  Nepal,  Sikkim  and  Khasi 
hills;  presently  found  only  in  Cherrapunji  in 
Khasi  hills.  Haridasan  3394. 

Phyllanthus  longiflorus  Heyne  (R)  (Euphor- 
biaceae) 

Shrubs  to  herbs;  southern  India.  Recently 
collected  from  Balphakram  sanctuary,  rare. 
(Rao  et  al.  1981).  Haridasan  4156. 

Pittosporum  humile  Hk.  f.  & Th.  (EN) 
(PlTTOSPORACEAE ) 

Shrubs;  Khasi  hills.  We  have  recorded  this 
from  Barapani  and  Mawlai  near  Shillong. 
Haridasan  10193. 

Polygala  tricholopha  Chodat  (V)  (Polygala- 
ceae) 

Scandent  shrubs;  Assam,  Cachar  Hills;  ex- 
tremely rare  in  Meghalaya  and  getting  drasti- 
cally reduced;  collected  only  once  from  the 
sacred  forests  of  Mawsmai,  which  forms  the 
first  report  after  1931  (Haridasan  et  al.  1981) 
Haridasan  5959. 

P or  ana  racemosa  Roxb.  (R)  (Convolvula- 
ceae) 

Climbers;  Assam,  Andamans  and  Eastern 
Peninsula.  In  Meghalaya  very  rare  and  found 
only  in  Shillong  peak  and  Raliang.  Haridasan 
3390. 


Rhododendron  jormosum  Wall.  (R)  (Erica- 
ceae) 

Ornamental  shrubs;  Bhutan  and  Khasi  hills; 
very  rare  in  truly  wild  condition  in  Megha- 
laya; only  once  collected  near  Jakrem.  Hari- 
dasan 4184. 

Salix  tet rasper ma  Roxb.  (V)  (Salicaceae) 
Trees;  Himalayas,  Assam  and  eastwards  to 
Java;  now  very  rare  and  only  a few  isolated 
trees  were  seen  in  Khasi  hills.  Haridasan  3395. 

Schima  khasiana  Dyer  (R)  (Theaceae) 
Trees;  Khasi  hills;  now  found  only  in  Shil- 
long peak,  Mawphlang  and  Sohrarim.  Hari- 
dasan Mil. 

Schizandra  neglecta  Sm.  (R)  (Schizandra- 
ceae) 

Climbers;  Temperate  Himalayas,  Sikkim  and 
Khasi  hills;  now  extremely  rare  in  Khasi  hills 
and  we  have  located  only  a few  plants  in 
Upper  Shillong.  Haridasan  4274. 

Sophora  acuminata  Benth.  ex  Baker  (R) 
(Fabaceae) 

Shrubs;  Bangladesh,  Eastern  Himalayas, 
Khasi  hills  and  Assam.  We  have  recorded  this 
plant  only  from  the  sacred  forests  at  Maws- 
mai, where  only  a few  plants  were  noticed. 
Haridasan  4663. 

Strobilanthes  acrocephalus  T.  Anders.  (R) 
(Acanthaceae) 

Herbs  reported  from  Khasi  hills;  we  have 
recorded  this  only  from  Shillong  Haridasan 
2793. 

Strophanthus  wallichii  A.  DC.  (R)  (Apocy- 
naceae) 

Climbing  shrubs;  Khasi  hills,  Chittagong, 
Burma.  In  Meghalaya,  now  extremely  rare 
and  collected  only  once  from  Lailad,  Khasi 
hills,  where  a solitary  plant  was  noticed.  Hari- 
dasan 5289. 


98 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ENDANGERED  PLANTS 


Stylidium  kunthii  Wall,  ex  Cl.  (R)  (Styli- 
diaceae) 

Herbs;  Bangladesh,  Burma,  Sikkim  and 
Khasi  hills;  a recent  report  (Haridasan  et  al. 
op.  cit.)  from  Garo  hills  is  the  only  collec- 
tion after  about  100  years  from  this  region. 
Haridasan  4108. 

Thunbergia  coccinea  Wall.  (R)  (Acantha- 
ceae) 

Climbers;  Himalayas,  Bhutan,  Assam  and 
Khasi  hills.  We  have  collected  this  only  from 
the  sacred  forests  at  Mawsmai.  Haridasan 
2398. 

Tupidanthus  calyptratus  Hk.  f.  & Th.  (R) 
(Araliaceae) 

Shrubs;  Khasi  hills;  we  have  not  been  able 
to  record  this  from  Khasi  hills.  Our  only  col- 
lection is  from  Balphakram  in  Garo  hills. 
Haridasan  2738. 

Ulmus  lanceifolia  Roxb.  (V)  (Ulmaceae) 
Trees;  sub-tropical  Himalayas,  Sikkim,  Khasi 
hills  and  eastwards  to  Burma;  during  our 
studies  we  have  recorded  this  only  from  Lailad 
in  Khasi  hills.  Haridasan  10224. 

Unona  longiflora  Roxb.  (V)  (Annonaceae) 
Scandent  shrubs;  Assam,  Khasi  hills  and 
Chittagong;  now  confined  to  Tura  peak  (Garo 

Refei 

Haridasan,  K.,  Kumar,  Y.  and  Rao,  R.  R. 
(1981):  Two  interesting  plant  records  from  Megha- 
laya. /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  (in  press). 

Hooker,  J.  D.  (1854) : Himalayan  Journals,  2 
vols.  London. 

(1872-97):  The  Flora  of  British 

India,  7 vols.  London. 

(1904):  A sketch  of  the  flora  of 

British  India,  London. 

Jain,  S.  K.  and  Sastry,  A.R.K.  (1980):  Threat- 
ened plants  of  India,  A state-of  the-Art  report. 
Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Howrah. 

Kanjilal,  et  al.  (1934-40) : Flora  of  Assam. 
5 vols.  Shillong. 


hills)  and  Nongkyllem  reserve  forest  in  Khasi 
hills.  Haridasan  10257. 

Uvaria  hamiltonii  Hk.  f.  & Th.  (V)  (Anno- 
naceae) 

Climbers;  Sikkim,  Bihar,  Orissa  and  Assam. 
The  population  of  this  species  is  decreasing 
rapidly;  collected  only  once  from  Rongrengiri 
forest  in  Garo  hills.  Haridasan  5266. 

Uvaria  lurida  Hk.  f.  & Th.  (V)  (Annona- 
ceae) 

Another  rare  climber  in  the  state;  only  re- 
corded once  from  Balphakram  in  Garo  hills. 
Haridasan  10098. 

Xylia  dolabriformis  Benth.  (R)  (Mimosa- 
ceae) 

Trees;  Western  Peninsula,  Burma  and  Sin- 
gapore; extremely  rare  in  Meghalaya  and  con- 
fined to  Nongkyllem  reserve  forest  in  Khasi 
hills.  Haridasan  10209. 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  thankful  to  the  Head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Botany,  North-Eastern  Hill  Univer- 
sity, Shillong  for  facilities  and  encouragement. 
One  of  us  (Haridasan)  is  also  thankful  to  the 
North-Eastern  Hill  University  for  the  award 
of  a Junior  Research  Fellowship,  during  the 
tenure  of  which,  part  of  this  work  was  carried 
out. 

ENCES 

Rao,  A.  S.  (1974):  The  vegetation  and  phyto- 
geography  of  Assam-Burma.  In  : Ecology  and  Bio- 
geography in  India,  ed.  M.  S.  Mani.  204-246,  The 
Hague. 

Rao,  R.  R.  (1979):  Changing  pattern  in  the 
Indian  flora.  Bull.  Bot.  Surv.  India  19  (1-4)  : 156- 
166. 

Rao,  R.  R.,  Haridasan,  K.  and  Kumar,  Y.  (1981) : 
New  distributional  records  of  plants  for  north-east 
India.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  (in  press). 

Rao,  R.  S.  and  Panigrahi,  G.  (1961):  Distribu- 
tion of  vegetational  types  and  their  dominant  species 
in  Eastern  India.  /.  Indian  Bot.  Soc.  40  (2)  : 274-285. 

99 


POLLUTION,  FISH  MORTALITY  & ENVIRONMENTAL 
PARAMETERS  IN  LAKE  NAINITAL1 

S.  M.  Das2  and  Jyotsna  Pande3 

Indepth  studies  on  pollution,  fish  mortality  and  waterborne  human  disease  have 
revealed  severe  pollution  in  the  entrophied  Himalayan  lake  Nainital,  India,  as 
evidenced  by  physico-chemical  and  biological  indicators.  The  hazardous  effect  on 
fish  life  has  been  evidenced  by  mass  fish  mortality  every  winter  and  decimation  of 
fish  population  of  the  lake  (mainly  Mahseer,  Tor  tor,  T.  putitora;  the  common  carp, 
Cyprinus  carpio;  the  Himalayan  trout  Schizothorax  richardsoni  and  the  forage  fish, 
Puntius  species  — conchonius,  sophore  and  ticto). 

Metallic  pollution  of  the  lake  is  high,  as  estimated  by  atomic  absorption  spectro- 
photometry. Bacteriological  studies  have  also  revealed  contamination  by  Escherichia 
coli  and  other  coliforms;  causing  human  diseases  in  Nainital,  as  confirmed  by  records 
of  Govt,  and  other  hospitals  in  Nainital  and  Weibel  et  al.  (1964). 


Introduction 

Lake  Nainital  is  a huge  cul-de-sac,  situated 
at  an  altitude  of  1938  m,  asl,  (29°  24'  N,  79° 
23'E).  It  is  a beanshaped  lake  divisible  into 
a large  Mallital  and  small  Tallital  basins.  The 
lake  is  1433  metres  long  and  463  metres 
broad,  the  depth  ranging  from  6 to  24  metres. 
Its  area  is  about  48.78  hectares,  and  the  lake 
capacity  (volume  when  full)  10,772,236/000 
Cu  M.  It  is  an  eutrophic  lake  moving  towards 
dystrophic  condition. 

In  India,  recent  studies  on  aquatic  pollution 
are  by  David  (1959),  Ray  (1968),  Jhingran 
(1970),  Lohani  (1970),  Saxena  et  al  (1972), 
Rana  & Kumar  (1974),  Verma  and  Dalela 
(1975),  Hussaini  (1976)  and  Agrawal  & Raj 
(1978).  However,  no  scientific  investigation 


1 Accepted  September  1980. 

2 Chief  Investigator,  DST  Lakes  Project,  Kumaun 
University,  Nainital,  U.P. 

3 Junior  Research  Fellow,  DST  Lakes  Project, 
Nainital,  U.P. 


into  the  nature,  extent  and  effects  of  pollu- 
tion on  fishes,  lake  life  and  man,  have  been 
carried  out  in  the  past  for  Himalayan  lakes 
except  for  Dal  lake  (Das  1967a,  1969,  1970, 
1971,  1973;  Zutshi  & Vass  1978),  and  lake 
Nainital  (Das  1978,  Das  & Pande  1978,  Das 
& Khanka  1979,  Das  & Upadyaya  1979). 

In  the  present  investigation  some  of  the 
physical,  chemical  and  biological  factors  affect- 
ing fish  and  man  have  been  studied  in  lake 
Nainital. 

Material  and  Methods 

Detection  of  pollution  was  done  by  five 
methods : 

(a)  Physical  — colour,  odour,  temperature 
and  turbidity; 

(a)  Chemical  — pH,  02,  C02,  alkalinity,  P04- 
P,  N03-  N,  NH3-  N,  BOD  and  DOM; 

(c)  Biological  — High  population  of  pollu- 
tion indicators  and  fish  mortality; 

(d)  Quantitative  analysis  of  metal  pollution 
by  atomic  absorption  spectrophotometer; 


100 


POLLUTION  IN  LAKE  NAIN1TAL 


(e)  Estimation  of  bacterial  pollution  by  asses- 
sing Coliforms  and  E.  coll. 

The  physico-chemical  parameters  were  esti- 
mated according  to  the  standard  methods 
given  by  ISI  (1963),  WHO  (1975),  FAO 
(1967),  APHA  (AWWA)  (1975),  Goiter- 
man  (1969)  and  Schwoerbel  (1970). 

The  biological  indicators  of  pollution  were 
estimated  according  to  the  methods  of  Kolk- 
witz  (1950),  Bick  (1963),  Sladecek  (1963), 
Hynes  (1966),  Kolkwitz  & Marson  (1967), 
Hart  & Fuller  (1974)  and  McCaull  & Cross- 
land (1974). 

One  thousand  dead  fishes  were  collected  in 
December  & January  by  random  sampling  after 
fish-kill,  which  were  identified  as  adult  Puntius 
(3  species),  Cyprinus  carpio  juveniles  and 
Schizothorax  richardsoni  adult  and  juveniles. 

Some  Nainital  data  have  been  compared 
with  those  of  oligotrophic  lake  Bhimtal 
(Tables  I and  II),  in  order  to  show  the  con- 


Observations  and  Results 

Polluting  matter  is  brought  into  Nainital 
lake  through  24  inlet  channels  observed  around 
the  lake.  Fifteen  of  them  are  seasonal  and 
carry  mainly  erosion  silt  and  minerals  into 
the  lake  in  the  rainy  season  (July  to  Sept- 
ember) ; while  the  other  9 are  permanent 
municipal  nallahs  or  channels  which  bring 
highly  polluted  water  from  the  Nainital  town 
and  the  lake  environs.  The  effluents  falling 
into  the  lake  contain  domestic  wastes,  general 
garbage,  organic  matter,  detergents,  chemicals 
from  the  laboratories  around  the  lake,  and  also 
some  sewage  from  the  densely  populated  parts 
of  the  town. 

Physico-chemical  Parameters: 

The  ranges  of  physical  parameters  of 
Nainital  (for  the  year  1978-79)  are  as  follows: 

Temperature  varied  from  10.5°C  (January) 


Table  I 

Percentage  occurrence  of  main  groups  of  Zooplankton  (1978-79) 


Nainital 

Bhimtal 

Months 

Rotifers 

Copepods 

Cladocerans 

Rotifers 

Copepods 

Clado- 

cerans 

1978 

October 

4.98 

92.00 

2.00 

1.32 

60.00 

26.00 

November 

7.90 

91.00 

0.80 

12.00 

58.00 

19.00 

December 

1.10 

98.00 

0.50 

0.80 

60.00 

15.00 

1979 

January 

Rare 

100.00 

Rare 

Rare 

56.00 

25.00 

February 

Rare 

100.00 

Rare 

Rare 

74.00 

24.00 

March 

61.00 

38.00 

Rare 

9.00 

73.00 

14.00 

April 

40.00 

59.00 

Rare 

3.00 

24.00 

8.00 

trast  between  the  eutrophic  and  the  oligotro- 
phic lakes.  Similarly,  the  results  have  been 
compared  with  eutrophic  polluted  lakes  in 
Western  countries. 


to  25.0°C  (June);  colour  changed  from 
brownish  green  (January-February)  to  dark 
green  (May- June),  yellowish  green  (July, 
August,  September),  and  finally  bluish  green 


101 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


(November),  while  December- January  it  is 
brownish  green  to  rust  colour.  The  odour 
varied  from  strong  methane  (May)  to  fishy 
and  H2S  (November,  December,  January); 
Turbidity  (Secchi)  recorded  as  100  cm  (Aug- 
ust) to  178  cm  (December);  pH  ranged  from 
6.8  (January)  to  8.9  (July- August). 

In  the  chemical  parameters,  DO  ranged 
from  0.8  mg/1  (December)  to  12.3  mg/1 
(May);  C02  from  zero  (during  six  warm 
months)  to  18.6  mg/1  (December- January); 
alkalinity  from  270  mg/1  (June)  to  330  mg/1 
(February);  P04-P  from  0.02  mg/1  (March) 
to  0.05  mg/1  (June);  No3-N  from  0.12  mg/1 
(July)  to  0.64  mg/1  (April);  NH4-N  0.017 
mg/1  (July)  to  0.52  mg/1  (December);  Cl 
from  26.5  ppm  (July)  to  35.5  ppm  (January); 
DOM  from  26.5  ppm  (March)  to  55.5  ppm 
(January);  BOM  (bottom  organic  matter)  60 
mg/g  (August)  to  190  mg/g  (January),  which 
forms  a thick  organic  mat  throughout  the  year. 
It  is  evident  from  the  parameters  that  most 
of  the  values,  hazardous  to  lake  life  including 
fishes,  lie  in  December- January,  the  two 


months  when  severe  fish  mortality  was  found 
to  occur. 

If  we  compare  these  physico-chemical  para- 
meters of  lake  Nainital  with  those  of  lake 
Bhimtal,  the  contrast  in  lake  status  becomes 
evident.  Bhimtal  turbidity  (Secchi)  ranges 
from  385-500  cms.  when  compared  with  100 
to  178  cms.  of  lake  Nainital.  DO  values  are 
also  high  throughout  the  year,  being  8.1  mg/1 
to  13.6  mg/1;  C02  nil  to  4.0  mg/1  only;  pH 
7.7  to  8.6;  alkalinity  low  (26.6  to  56.7  ppm); 
whereas  NHt-N  even  in  the  winter  is  nil.  Of 
special  significance  is  the  near  absence  of 
BOM  in  lake  Bhimtal,  while  in  Nainital,  there 
is  a thick  organic  bottom  mat.  All  these  data 
show  that  Bhimtal  is  oligotrophic  but  Nainital 
is  eutrophic  and  polluted. 

Metallic  environmental  pollution  is  a signi- 
ficant factor  in  lake  Nainital  (Table  IV).  The 
high  values  of  manganese,  lead,  zinc,  potas- 
sium and  calcium,  specially  in  the  sediments, 
are  environmental  factors  detrimental  to  fish. 
A.  Zooplankton  and  Pedon : 

These  have  been  recorded  by  Das  (op.  cit.). 


Table  II 


Percentage  occurrence  pedon 


Nainital  % 

Bhimtal  % 

Months 

Tubifi- 

cids 

Lee- 

ches 

Chiro- 

nomids 

Mol- 

luscs 

Larvae 
May  fly 

Aq. 

Insects 

Clado- 

cera 

Crab 

Moll- 

uscs 

1978 

May 

22 

5.0 

50 

15 

25 

15 

10 

2 

2 

June 

25 

3.5 

55 

15 

30 

25 

20 

3 

2 

July 

13 

5.0 

13 

4 

40 

15 

30 

5 

3 

August 

40 

6.0 

30 

5 

20 

15 

10 

2 

3 

September 

20 

5.0 

50 

2 

30 

10 

20 

2 

1 

October 

15 

5.0 

30 

6 

10 

10 

30 

2 

12 

November 

20 

1.5 

30 

5 

Rare 

15 

50 

3 

5 

December 

15 

0.5 

25 

17 

Rare 

30 

40 

5 

5 

1979 

January 

10 

1.5 

70 

10 

7 

10 

40 

2 

5 

February 

12 

2.0 

70 

15 

6 

10 

54 

3 

6 

102 


POLLUTION  IN  LAKE  NAINITAL 


Das  & Pande  (op.  cit.)  and  Das  & Upadhyaya 
(op.  cit.),  which  exhibit  many  biological  in- 
dicators of  pollution  thriving  in  the  lake,  some 
of  which  are  present  during  November-Dee  - 
ember  along  with  Anacystis  bloom.  Much  of 
the  plankton  dies  off  during  December- 
January,  when  only  Chironomids  and  molluscs 
remain  in  numbers  (Table  II).  The  quanti- 
tative percentage  composition  of  zooplankton 
also  suffers,  since,  except  for  Cyclops  swarms, 
only  a few  species  of  copepods  remain  in 
moderate  numbers  during  winter.  The  rotifers 
and  cladocerans  are  also  decimated  (Table  I). 

For  example,  the  chief  zooplanktons  record- 
ed by  the  authors  on  January  9,  1979  (along 
with  fish-kill)  were  Euglena,  Bursgria  (Pro- 
tozoa); Philodina,  Rotifer,  Colurus  (Rotifera); 
Cyclops,  Simocephalus,  Diaptomus  (Crusta- 
cea); Chironomus,  Forcipomyia  (Insecta); 
Rhabdolaimus,  Dorilaimus  (Nematoda). 

The  percentage  occurrence  of  Pedon  (Table 
II)  also  shows  radical  differences  between 
Nainital  and  Bhimtal,  the  former  having 
higher  percentage  of  Chironomids  (pollu- 
tion) and  the  latter  higher  cladocera  (oligotro- 
phic) . 

B.  Phytoplankton  and  Algae : 

Das  & Upadhyaya  (op.  cit.)  recorded  domi- 
nance of  blue  greens  (Cyanophyceae)  during 
autumn,  when  Anacystis  was  in  bloom.  But 
during  winter  fish-kill  most  Anacystis  died  and 
only  Chroococcus  was  abundant.  These  also 
died  at  December  end  and  early  January, 
forming  a soupy  mass  along  with  other  dead 
plankton.  The  scant  algae  left  were  the  rope- 
like Rhizoclonium,  Ulothrix,  Spirogyra  and 
remnants  of  Anacystis  and  Chroococcus. 

The  diatoms  were  represented  by  moderate 
population  of  Scenedesmus,  Cymbella  and 
Synedra  (pollution  indicators)  along  with 
sparse  population  of  Nitzchia  and  Meridion. 


The  spring  and  summer  diatoms  were,  how- 
ever, dominated  by  Cymbella,  Rhoicosphenea, 
Pinnularia,  Synedra,  Fragilloria  and  Navicula, 
The  phytoplankton  population  in  Nainital  lake 
was  at  its  peak  in  August,  with  the  green  algae 
Chlamydomonas,  Clorterium  and  Endorina  as 
dominant  phytoplanktons  (60%).  But  an- 
other peak  was  observed  in  October,  when 
82%  of  the  phytoplanktons  consisted  of 
Microcystis,  ( Anacystis ) and  Anabaena.  The 
Microcystis  bloomed  in  autumn  (November) 
and  died  in  winter  (December,  January), 
causing  organic  water  pollution  and  secretion 
of  toxins  that  are  hazardous  to  fish.  This  was 
succeeded  by  the  micro -plankton  bloom  of 
Chroococcus,  imparting  a soupy  rust  colour 
to  the  lake  accompanied  by  high  winter  fish 
kill.  The  summer  filamentous  algae  ( Spiro- 
gyra, Oscillatoria,  Rhizoclonium  etc.)  also 
underwent  death  and  decay  during  winter 
season  causing  further  organic  pollution. 

C.  Bacterial  pollution : 

The  coliform  bacteria  and  E.  coli  have 
been  worked  out  qualitatively  and  quantita- 
tively for  the  first  time  in  lake  Nainital.  These 
bacteria  are  not  only  indicators  of  sewage 
pollution  but  are  hazardous  to  man  and  ani- 
mals if  they  drink  the  lake  water.  The  constant 
high  counts  of  coliform  and  E.  coli  (Table 
III)  signify  that  there  is  constant  entry  of 
faecal  matter  into  the  lake  through  the  many 
nullahs  (since  E.  coli  would  die  within  10-15 
days  when  exposed  to  air  and  sun  in  the 
open  lake).  Thus,  the  high  values  of  E.  coli 
signify  continuous  faecal  contamination  of  the 
water  in  the  zone  of  sepsis  (Station  I).  For 
instance,  even  outside  the  zone  of  sepsis  (100 
metres  away.  Station  II),  the  E.  coli  values 
ranged  from  0.05  x 104  to  9.70  x 104,  which 
is  higher  than  the  permissible  limits  (Prescott 
1970;  Geldrich  1970). 


103 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Table  III 


Total  coliforms  and  E.  coli  of  Nainital  lake  water 


Months 

STATION-I 

STATION-II 

Coliforms 
MPN/100  ml 

E.  coli  MPN  / 
100ml 

Coliforms 
MPN/100  ml 

E.  coli  MPN/ 
100  ml 

March 

6.70  x 10* 

6.70x  10* 

0.22x10* 

0.09x10* 

April 

17.00x10* 

13.80x10* 

1.25x10* 

1.22x10* 

May 

50.50x10* 

50.50x  10* 

0.68x10* 

0.25x10* 

June 

12.00x10* 

4.30x10* 

4.60x10* 

4.60x10* 

July 

17.25x10* 

13.00x10* 

1.60x10* 

1.00x10* 

August 

18.60x10* 

4.69x10* 

15.00x10* 

4.00x10* 

September 

21 . 30  x 10* 

13.60x10* 

12.70x10* 

9.70x10* 

October 

25.50x10* 

22.50x10* 

4.85x10* 

2.17x10* 

November 

18.60x10* 

18.60x10* 

0.80x10* 

0.20x10* 

December 

14.25x10* 

11.25x10* 

2.50x10* 

0.67x10* 

January 

9.20x10* 

4.30x10* 

0.11x10* 

0.05x10* 

February 

7.80x10* 

4.  lOx  10* 

0.15x10* 

0.07x10* 

rubble  and  silt  project  into  the  lake  today. 
With  high  siltation  the  suspensoids  (suspend- 
ed organic  matter)  get  coated  round  the  silt 
particles  and  settles  down  to  the  bottom, 
preventing  natural  oxidation,  since  DO  in 
bottom  water  never  rises  above  5-6  mg/1  and 
becomes  0.08  mg/1  during  winter.  The  bottom 
water  and  mud,  even  in  mid-lake,  is  highly 
odorous  with  strong  H2S  and  Methane  odours. 
This  has  already  been  observed  in  zones  of 
immediate  pollution  in  the  lake  (Das  1978), 
and  during  the  present  investigations. 

Fish  mortality : 

High  Winter  fish  mortality  occurs  every 
winter  in  lake  Nainital,  the  majority  of  about 
60,000  fishes  killed  during  December  1978  to 
January  1979,  being  Puntius  species.  But 
some  Cyprinus  carpio,  Schizothorax  richard - 
soni  and  their  juveniles  also  died.  The  once 
famous  Mahaseer  ( Tor  tor,  T.  putitora)  are 
now  extinct  in  lake  Nainital,  probably  due  to 
pollution. 

The  causes  of  high  winter  fish-kill  has  been 


It  has  been  calculated  in  western  countries 
(McCaull  & Crossland  (op.  cit.)  that  decom- 
posing organic  matter  from  cities  and  towns 
can  be  calculated  at  1 Kg /man /day.  Even 
with  a population  of  50  thousand  around  the 
lake  Nainital,  this  amounts  to  an  input  of  50 
thousand  kilos  of  DOM  and  SOM  into  the 
lake  per  day.  This  means  an  addition  of  about 
18  million  Kgs.  of  DOM  and  SOM  into  the 
lake  per  year.  Even  if  a small  part  of  this 
accumulates  without  being  oxidised  at  the 
bottom  (forming  a BOM  mat),  the  pollution 
status  of  the  lake  becomes  self  evident  and 
explanatory. 

Siltation : 

Rapid  silting  of  lake  Nainital  is  another 
cause  of  lake  pollution  and  shallowing.  Fifty 
years  back,  the  lake  was  29  metres  deep  at 
the  centre  (Neville  1922).  Today  it  is  only 
24  metres  (Das  & Khanka  1979).  Silt  enters 
the  lake  through  almost  all  the  24  nullahs 
but  specially  from  Mallital  and  North  Mall 
road  side,  where  small  peninsulas  of  debris. 


104 


POLLUTION  IN  LAKE  NAINITAL 


found  to  be  depletion  of  Oxygen  in  bottom 
waters,  when  anaerobic  bacteria  take  over  the 
process  of  decomposition  of  BOM,  releasing 
foul  smelling  H2S,  Methane  and  Ammonia 
(Aerobic  bacteria  evolve  only  C02  when  orga- 
nic matter  is  decomposed  in  the  presence  of 
oxygen).  These  gases  not  only  deplete  oxygen 
in  water  but  are  toxic,  killing  most  of  the 
plankton,  algae  and  zooplankton  in  the  lake. 
The  dead  plankton  and  SOM  clog  the  gills 
of  the  fishes  causing  asphyxiation.  The  DO 
content  is  reduced  to  almost  zero  / mg /I  in 
which  no  fish  or  plankton  can  live. 

Fish  diseases  are  common  in  lake  Nainital 
due  to  attack  of  fungi -Saprolegnia  & Achlya; 
the  protozoans  Chilodenella,  Costia,  Tricho- 
dina,  Ichthyophthirius,  and  Myxosporidium. 
The  trematode — Dacrylogyrus ; the  leeches — 
Hemiclepsis  and  Glossiphonia ; and  the  crusta- 
cean Argulus. 

Discussion 

The  most  important  factors  responsible  for 
eutrophication  of  fresh  water  lakes  are  Phos- 
phorus (P04-P)  and  Nitrogen  (N03-N) 
(McCaull  & Crossland  1974).  Lake  Nainital 
receives  about  63%  P04-P  from  municipal 
and  urban  run-off;  consisting  of  sewage, 
domestic  wastes  and  detergents;  30%  from 
horse  dung.  Kitchen  garden  and  minor  crop 
fertilizers;  2%  from  precipitation;  and  4% 
from  surface  ground  waters  in  the  form  of 
springs.  The  NOs-N  comes  to  about  50% 
from  the  ground  sub-surface  water;  20%  by 
precipitation;  10%  by  municipal  and  urban 
run-off;  10%  from  chemical  laboratories  and 
10%  from  minor  crop  and  garden  fertilizers. 
It  has  been  calculated  (Edmondson  1970) 
that  about  93%  P in  polluted  lakes  and  over 
30%  N are  due  to  human  activities.  The  high 
P and  N values  in  lake  Nainital  have  caused 


rapid  eutrophication  and  algal  blooms  of 
myxophyceae.  Excess  N may  cause  Methae- 
moglobinemia  — a health  hazard  to  man,  and 
even  injurious  to  fishes. 

Overdose  of  Nitrogen  and  Phosphorus,  the 
very  nutrients  essential  for  the  growth  of 
plankton  and  aquatic  plants,  results  in  high 
eutrophication,  algal  blooms  and  explosion  of 
macrophytes  (Landner  1975).  Excess  POt-P 
comes  from  detergents  and  sewage  both  of 
which  enter  lake  Nainital  in  large  amounts 
today.  Excess  NOs-N  also  comes  from  chemi- 
cal effluents  and  aerobic  decomposition  of 
organic  lake  sediments.  Excess  POd-P  is  also 
released  by  breaking  up  of  the  iron  salts  layer 
at  bottom  mat  (since  the  hypolimnion  is 
anaerobic)  eleven  times  faster  than  when  02 
is  present  (McCaull  & Crossland  1974).  This 
appears  to  be  the  case  also  in  Nainital  where 
the  bottom  water  (6-24/m)  smells  strongly 
of  H2S,  indicating  anaerobic  decomposition  of 
BOM. 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  compare  lake 
Nainital  with  other  polluted  lakes  in  Western 
countries.  Lake  Zurich  (McCaull  & Crossland 
1974)  has  the  deep  lower  basin  (50  m)  highly 
polluted,  while  the  shallow  upper  basin  (14  m) 
remains  unpolluted.  This  pollution  of  the 
lower  basin  started  only  50  years  back  on 
account  of  increase  of  human  habitations 
around  the  basin,  exactly  as  has  happened  in 
lake  Nainital  during  the  same  period.  Fish 
population  in  the  polluted  Zurich  basin  has 
become  depleted  and  only  coarse  fishes  are 
present;  while  the  upper  basin  still  has  fine 
fish. 

Lake  Lago-da-Orta  (Das  1973)  is  a dead 
lake  today  due  to  copper  mining  in  lake 
environs  and  copper  poisoning  of  all  lake  life. 
The  Nainital  lake  sediments  have  accumulated 
more  than  2159  mg  /kg.  of  Lead  and  60  mg,/ 
kg.  of  Copper,  as  in  our  values  (Table  IV). 


105 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Table  IV 

Concentration  of  heavy  and  alkali  earth  metals  in  lake  Nainital 


Metal 

Water  mg/1 

Sediments 

mg /kg 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Copper 

0.0008 

0.0155 

19.3639 

60.6225 

Cobalt 

0.0079 

0.0202 

5.5954 

12.9892 

Lead 

0.0202 

0.0886 

71.3645 

268.9156 

Manganese 

0.1893 

1.1951 

769.2307 

2158.8362 

Zinc 

Nil 

0,0057 

49.4151 

152.1322 

Thalium 

0.2105 

0.4429 

78.5340 

149.8814 

Lithium 

0.0055 

0.0087 

9.0909 

18.2183 

Sodium 

0.7893 

1 . 1093 

21.3333 

68.0851 

Potassium 

95.4545 

167.0454 

27840.9090 

101547.3800 

Calcium 

37.0857 

44.0000 

9114.2857 

49299.9170 

These  may  cause  severe  metal  poisoning  in 
years  to  come  when  the  metallic  content  in 
water  will  also  become  very  high  and  kill  off 
all  life. 

The  Baltic  lake  (Sea),  although  deep,  is 
undergoing  eutrophication  and  stagnation,  due 
to  excessive  nutrient  inputs.  Similarly  lake  Erie, 
Washington  and  Mandots  (USA)  are  also 
slowly  going  dead  due  to  high  pollution  in- 
puts (McCaull  & Crossland  1974).  A similar 
condition  has  been  found  in  lake  Kariba  in 
Africa  (Begg  1970). 

High  eutrophication  and  pollution  can  be 
reversed  by  reducing /removing /controlling 
P04-P  inflow  (chiefly  detergents  as  in  lake 
Nainital).  But  as  in  lake  Erie  (McCaull  & 
Corssland  1974),  in  lake  Nainital  also  (Das 
1978),  Phosphate  has  been  built  up  in  the 
lake  sediment  over  decades;  and  thus  from 
this  store  of  phosphate  sufficient  nutrient  can 
be  released  even  if  future  pollution  inputs  are 
stopped. 

The  mass  fish  mortality  sequence  in  lake 
Nainital  can  be  summed  up  as  follows  : — 

Autumn  Anacystis  bloom > Winter  death 

of  most  plankton > high  DOM  and 


SOM > Depletion  of  Oxygen  in  Decem- 
ber-January  (Winter) > evolution  of 

Ammonia,  H2S  & Methane > FISH 

KILL. 

Silt  particles  form  nuclei  for  accumulation 
of  organic  matter  (DOM,  and  SOM)  around 
them.  These  have  been  observed  to  clog  the 
gills  of  fishes  as  revealed  by  microscopical 
examination  and  cause  asphyxiation.  Besides, 
the  decaying  Anacystis  blooms  may  also  pro- 
duce toxins  which  are  harmful  to  fish  life 
(Saxena  et  al  1972,  Doudoroff  & Katz  1953, 
Hart  and  Fuller  1974). 

The  maximum  mortality  was  of  Puntius 
ticto,  P.  sophore,  P.  conchonius,  as  well  of 
juveniles  of  Cyprinus  carpio  and  Schizothorax 
richardsoni.  Surprisingly,  no  juveniles  of  Tor 
tor,  and  T.  putitora  were  collected  during 
winter  fish  kill,  although  about  1000  dead  fishes 
were  collected  and  identified,  nor  were  the 
adults  seen.  It,  therefore,  appears  that  mahseer 
(Tor  spp.)  is  now  extinct  from  lake  Nainital, 
whereas  25-30  pounders  were  available  even 
20  years  ago. 

It  appears  that  the  toxicity  of  Ammonia  and 
its  compounds,  as  also  of  HsS,  is  strictly  cor- 


106 


POLLUTION  IN  LAKE  NAINITAL 


related  with  the  permeability  of  the  gills  (Jones 
1962).  According  to  Lagler  (1964)  a BOD 
above  3 mg/1,  NH4-N  above  0.5  mg/1  and 
DO  less  than  5 mg/1  are  fatal  to  fish.  Our 
average  values  of  BOD  15.6  mg/1,  DO  1.40 
mg/1  and  NH*-N  0.84  mg/1  during  winter, 
offers  a combination  of  pollutants  in  which 
no  fish  can  live.  Our  results  for  lake  Nainital 
conform  to  the  conclusions  of  Hart  (1948), 
Wallen  (1951),  Lagler  (1964),  Arnold  (1969), 
Cairns  (1972)  and  Frost  & Collinson  (1977) 

Refer 

Agrawal,  V.  K.  & Raj,  K.P.S.  (1978):  Heavy 
metal  contents  in  the  water  and  sediments  of  Sur- 
sagar  Lake  of  Baroda  (Gujarat),  India.  Internat.  J. 
Environmental  Studies.  11:  250-251. 

APHA  (AWWA)  (1975):  Standard  methods  for 
examination  of  water  and  waste  water.  Amer.  Publ. 
Heth.  Assoc.  New  York,  pp.  1015  (Reprint  of  1971 
edition) . 

Arnold,  D.  C.  (1969) : The  ecological  decline 
of  lake  Erie.  Fish  Game  J.  16:  27-45. 

Begg,  G.  W.  (1970):  Limnological  observations 
on  lake.  Kariba-Limnol.  Oceanogr.  15:  776-788. 

Bennett,  G.  W.  (1970) : ‘Management  of  lakes 
& Ponds’.  Van  Nostrand  Reinhold  Co.  New  York 
375  pp. 

Bick,  H.  (1963):  A review  of  central  European 
methods  for  the  biological  estimation  of  water 
pollution  levels.  Bull.  Wld.  Hlth.  Org.  29:  401-413. 

Brooks,  R.  R.  & Rumsby,  M.  S.  (1965):  The 
biogeochemistry  of  trace  elements  uptake  by  some 
New  Zealand  bivalves.  Limnol.  Oceanogr.  10:  521- 
527. 

Cairns,  J.  (1968) : The  need  for  regional  water 
resources  Management.  Trans.  Can.  Acad.  Sci.  41 : 
480-490. 

Cairns,  J.  (1972):  The  response  of  aquatic  com- 
munities to  spills  of  hazardous  materials.  Proc.  Nat. 
Conf.  Haz.  Wat.  Spills:  179-197. 

Cochran,  W.  G.  (1950) : Estimation  of  Bacte- 
rial densities  by  means  of  the  most  probable  number 
(NPN)  Biometrics.  6:  105-116. 

Cook,  J.  (1977):  Environmental  pollution  by 

heavy  metals.  Internat.  J.  Environmental  Studies.  9: 
253-256. 

Das,  S.  M.  (1967):  Recent  advances  in  Fish 


for  polluted  lakes  of  Western  countries. 

Acknowledgements 

This  research  work  has  been  financed  by 
the  grant  made  available  by  the  Department 
of  Science  and  Technology,  Government  of 
India.  Thanks  are  due  to  the  Vice-Chancellor. 
Kumaun  University  for  affording  general  faci- 
lities; and  to  the  Head,  Department  of  Zoo- 
logy, for  laboratory  facilities. 

iNCES 

Ecology,  Presidential  address.  Biological  Sciences. 
Nat.  Acad.  Sci.  India.  Annual  number:  pp  1-10. 

(1967) : Ecology  and  fish  productivity 

in  fresh  waters.  Ichthyologica,  3 (1-2):  103-114. 

(1969):  Some  aspects  of  fish  ecology 

in  Western  Himalayas.  UNESCO  Report  on  Semi- 
nar on  Ecology  of  Tropical  Himalayas,  Kathmandu, 
Nepal:  15-27. 

(1969) : Studies  on  organic  produc- 
tion in  high  altitude  lakes  of  India,  Part  I.  The 
general  ecology  and  zooplankton  of  Kashmir  lakes. 
Kashmir  Sci.  7 (1-2) : 1-22. 

(1970):  Studies  on  organic  produc- 
tion in  high  altitude  lakes  of  India.  Part  II:  zoop- 
lankton, phytoplankton  and  pedon  of  Kaunsernag 
(4500  m)  Alapathar  (4000  m)  correlated  with  pH 
and  temperature.  Kashmir  Sci.  8 (1-2):  119-132. 

(1971) : Ecology  of  high  altitude  lakes 

of  Kashmir.  Ichthyologica.  10  (1-2)  : 6-12. 

(1973)  : High  altitude  fish  ecology 

and  fish  production.  1UCN  Report:  18-23. 

— (1978)  : High  pollution  in  lake  Naini- 
tal, U.P.  India,  Science  & Culture  44  : 236-237. 

& Pande,  Jyotsna  (1978):  Some 

physico-chemical  and  biological  indicators  of  pollu- 
tion in  lake  Nainital,  U.P.,  India.  Indian  J.  Ecol. 
5 (1):  7-16. 

Das,  S.  M.  & Khanka,  L.  S.  (1979) : Physio- 
graphy and  Hydrography  of  Nainital  lake.  Geogr. 
Review  of  India.  41  (2)  : 139-143. 

Das,  S.  M.  & Upadhyaya,  J.  C.  (1979) : Studies 
on  qualitative  and  quantitative  fluctuations  of  plank- 
ton in  two  lakes:  Nainital  and  Bhimtal  (India). 
Acta.  Hydrobiol.  21  (1) : 9-17. 


107 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


David,  A.  (1959):  Effect  of  Calcutta  sewage  upon 
the  fisheries  of  the  Kulti  estuary  and  connected 
fisheries.  J.  Asiat.  Soc.  Bengal  (N.S.)  1 (4) : 339- 
363. 

Dean,  J.  C.,  Bosqui,  F.  L.  & Lanoville,  K.  H. 
(1972) : Removing  heavy  metals  from  waste  water. 
Environ.  Sci.  Technol.  6:  518-522. 

Doudoroff,  P.  & Katz,  M.  (1953) : Critical  re- 
view of  literature  on  toxicity  of  Industrial  wastes 
to  fish  II,  The  metals  and  Salts.  J.  Sew.  Industr. 
Wastes.  25:  809-839. 

Edmondson,  W.  T.  (1970):  Phosphorus,  Nitro- 
gen and  algae  in  lake  Washington  after  diversion 
of  sewage.  Science  169:  690-691. 

Eyres,  J.  R.  & Thomas,  M.  P.  (1978) : Heavy 
metal  pollution  of  River  Irwell  (Lancashire  U.K.) 
demonstrated  by  analysis  of  substrate  and  macro- 
invertebrate tissue.  Environ.  Pollution  16  (2)  : 129- 
136. 

FAO  (1967) : Report  to  the  Government  of  India 
on  water  pollution  researches  with  respect  to  inland 
fisheries.  Rep.  FAO/INIP  ( TA ):  2449,  76  pp. 

Frost,  S.  & Collinson,  M.P.T.  (1977):  Manga- 
nese in  drinking  water,  lnternat.  J.  Env.  Studies,  14: 
645-649. 

Geldrich,  E.  E.  (1970):  Applying  bacteriological 
parameters  to  recreational  water  quality.  J.  Amer. 
Water  Works  Association.  26:  113. 

Golterman,  H.  L.  (1969)  : Methods  for  chemi- 
cal analysis  of  fresh  water:  IBP  Handbook,  No.  8. 
Blackwell  Scient.  Publ.  London. 

Hart,  W.  B.  (1948) : Use  of  fish  as  test  animals 
for  evaluating  toxicity.  Trans.  Amer.  Fish,  Soc.  75: 
228-236. 

Hart,  C.  W.  & Fuller,  S.L.H.  (1974):  Pollution 
ecology  of  fresh  water  invertebrates.  Acad.  Press. 
New  York.  pp.  230. 

Hussain i,  M.  A.  (1976) : Pollution  of  lake  Hus- 
saini  Saugar  caused  by  industrial  effluents.  Indian 
J.  Environ.  Hith.  18  (3):  227-232. 

Hutchinson,  G.  E.  (1967) : ‘A  treatise  on  limno- 
logy’, Vol.  II  John.  Wiley  & Sons,  pp.  600. 

Hynes,  H.B.N.  (1966):  The  biology  of  polluted 
waters.  Liverpool  University  Press:  pp.  286. 

(1970)  : ‘The  ecology  of  running 

waters’.  Univ.  Toronto  Press,  Toronto:  pp.  180. 

ISI  (1963) : Tolerance  limits  for  inland  surface 
waters  for  raw  water  used  for  public  water  supplies 
and  bathing  ghats.  ISI  2296.  Indian  Standards  In- 
stitution. New  Delhi. 


Jhingran,  V.  G.  (1970):  The  problem  of  aquatic 
pollution  in  India.  Proc.  Seminar  on  pollution  and 
Human  environment.  Bhabha  Atomic  Res.  Centre 
Trombay:  304-312. 

Jones,  J.  R.  E.  (1962) : Fish  and  river  pollution, 
In:  Ed.  Book  “River  Pollution”  Butterfield  Publ. 
London : pp.  245. 

Kolkwitz,  R.  (1950) : ‘Oekologie  der  Saprobien’ 
Schr.  Reine  Vers.  Wasserhyg  No.  4 Piscator-Nc rlag, 
Stuttgart. 

Kolkwitz,  R.  & Marson,  M.  (1967):  Biology 
of  water  pollution,  U.S.  Dept.  Interior,  Fed.  Water 
Poll.  Centre  Admin.  Cincinnati:  47-51. 

Lagler,  K.  F.  (1964) : Freshwater  fishery  Bio- 
logy, II  Edn.  William  C.  Brown  Company,  Dubos- 
que,  Iowa  325  pp. 

Landner,  L.  (1975):  ‘Eutrophication  of  lakes’. 
WHO  Regional  Office  for  Europe. 

Lind,  O.  T.  (1974)  : ‘Handbook  of  common 

methods  in  Limnology’,  C.  V.  Mosby  & Co.  St. 
Luois  U.S. A.  154  pp. 

Lohani,  J.  C.  (1970):  Mortality  of  fishes  in  Sita- 
pur  ponds.  Fish  Papers,  Dept,  of  Fisheries,  U.P. 

pp.  1-8. 

Macan,  T.  T.  (1974):  ‘Freshwater  Ecology’.  II 
Edn.  John  Wiley  & Sons,  New  York;  224  pp. 

Miakhan,  M.  (1971) : Water  pollution  problem 
in  Tamil  Nadu.  Indian  J.  Env.  Hlth.  13  (1)  : 91-94. 

McCaull,  J.  & Crossland,  J.  (1974):  Water 
Pollution,  pp.  206  Publ.  Harcourt  Brace  Jovanovich 
Inc.  New  York. 

Neville,  H.  R.  (1922) : District  Gazetteer  of 
United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh,  Vol.  34. 

Prescott,  G.  W.  (1970) : Bacteriological  methods 
(Book). 

Rana,  B.  C.  & Kumar,  H.  D.  (1974):  Ecophy- 
siological  studies  on  the  uptake  of  pollutants  Cu, 
Zn,  P04,  by  certain  algae.  Indian  J.  Ecol.  1 (1)  : 
1-11. 

Ray,  P.  (1962)  : A case  of  fish  mortality  caused 
by  precipitation  of  Ferric  Ion.  Indian  J.  Fisheries 
9(1):  117-122. 

Royce,  W.  F.  (1972) : ‘An  introduction  to  the 
fishery  science’.  Academic  Press  New  York  351  pp. 

Saxena,  P.  N.,  Tiwari,  A.,  Lausana,  B.  K.  & 
Khan,  M.M.A.  (1972)  : Ecological  studies  on  algae 
of  sewage  and  their  harvesting  from  oxidation  ponds. 
Final  report  of  P.  L.  480  project  A-7-46.  U.S.  Dept, 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  U.S.A. 

Schwoerbel,  J.  (1970):  Methods  of  freshwater 


108 


POLLUTION  IN  LAKE  NAIN1TAL 


hydrobiology,  Pergamon  Press:  200  pp. 

Skei,  J.  M.,  Price,  N.  B.  & Calvart,  S.  E.  (1972) : 
The  distribution  of  heavy  metals  in  sediments  of 
Safjord,  West  Horway,  Water  air  and  Soil  pollu- 
tion I:  452-461. 

Sladecek,  J.  (1963)  : A guide  to  limnosaprobial 
organisms,  Sci.  Pap.  Inst.  Techn.  Progr.  Technol. 
Water  7:  543-562. 

Verma,  S.  R.  & Dalela,  R.  C.  (1975)  : Biolo- 
gical index  of  pollution  of  a river  in  India.  Acta. 
Hydrochem.  et  Hydrobiol.  3 ( 3)  : 259-274. 

Wallen,  I.  R.  (1951):  The  direct  effect  of  tur- 


bidity on  fish.  Bull.  Okla.  Agrc.  Tech.  Coll.  48(2). 

WHO  (1975) : ‘International  standards  for  drink- 
ing water’.  3rd  Ed.  Geneva:  pp.  70. 

Welch,  P.  S.  (1952) : ‘Limnological  methods’. 
McGraw  Hill  book  Co.  New  York. 

Weibel,  S.  R.,  Dixon,  F.  R„  Weider,  R.  B.  & 
McCabe,  L.  J.  (1964) : Waterborne  disease  outbreaks 
(1946-1960).  J.  Am.  Waterworks  Assoc.  56(2): 
947-958. 

Zutshi,  D.  P.  & Vass,  K.  K.  (1978) : Limno- 
logical studies  on  Dal  lake  Kashmir.  Indian  J.  Ecol. 
5:  90-97. 


109 


CHELONIANS  OF  BANGLADESH  AND  THEIR 
CONSERVATION1 


Mohammad  Ali  Reza  Khan2 
{With  two  plates ) 

Bangladesh  supports  18  species  of  freshwater,  two  land  tortoises  and  five  marine 
turtles.  Two  of  these  are  endemic  when  three  other  species  are  included  in  the  Red 
Data  Book  of  IUCN.  Most  species  are  threatened  in  the  country  mainly  because  of 
uncontrolled  and  round  the  year  exploitation  for  commercial  purposes. 

Introduction 


Bangladesh  is  potentially  a rich  chelonian 
country  of  the  Indian  sub-continent.  Altoge- 
ther 3 1 species  or  so  of  freshwater  and 
marine  turtles,  and  land  tortoises  are  likely  to 
be  present  in  the  sub-continent  (Pritchard 
1979  and  Whitaker,  pers.  comm.).  Of  these, 
about  25  species  are  expected  to  be  present 
in  the  present  jurisdiction  of  Bangladesh,  20° 
34'  to  26°  37'  N and  88°  45'  to  92°  40'  E., 
including  10  endangered  species  listed  in  Sche- 
dule I of  Convention  on  International  Trade 
in  Endangered  Species  of  Wild  Fauna  and 
Flora,  Washington  1973  (CITES).  Along  with 
others  all  10  endangered  species  are  exported 
in  large  quantities  and  also  consumed  locally. 
There  is  no  ban  on  the  chelonian  trade  in 
Bangladesh.  The  statistics  of  the  export  pro- 
motion bureau  (Anonymous  1981)  revealed 
that  there  is  a steady  increase  in  the  volume 
of  export  from  Taka  1,000.00  (Tk.  15.00  is 
equivalent  to  1 US  Dollar)  to  Taka 
12,948,000.00,  between  1974-75  and  1979-80 
fiscal  years.  The  average  export  price  is  bet- 
ween 0.75  and  1.00  US  dollar  per  kilo  of 

1 Accepted  September  1981. 

2 Department  of  Zoology,  University  of  Dacca, 
Dacca-2,  Bangladesh. 


live  turtle.  Marine  turtle  has  no  export  value. 
This  means  about  1,000,000  kg.  of  freshwater 
turtles  have  been  exported  out  of  Bangladesh 
in  1979-80.  The  figure  is  expected  to  be  much 
higher  in  1981.  According  to  local  dealers  and 
exporters  about  an  equal  amount  or  more  is 
consumed  by  the  local  residents.  Potential  live 
turtle  buyers  are  Hong  Kong,  Singapore, 
Thailand  and  Japan.  Olivier  (1979)  men- 
tions, “...it  is  openly  admitted  by  officials 
(of  Bangladesh)  that  the  legal,  documented 
trade  in  turtles  represents  the  “tip  of  an  ice- 
berg”, with  large  quantities  being  smuggled 
out  illegally,  principally  to  India,  where  they 
are  re-exported”.  Thus  the  export  figure  re- 
present less  than  one  third  of  the  total  turtle 
trade. 

Kachuga  tecta,  Kachuga  tentoria,  Lissemys 
punctata,  Trionyx  hurum  and  Trionyx  gange- 
ticus  are  the  main  species  that  dominate  the 
export  trade  although  all  freshwater  turtles 
may  actually  be  in  the  export  list.  These  species 
and  the  land  tortoises  are  consumed  through 
local  markets  while  the  eggs  of  all  the  species 
of  marine  turtles  are  eaten  by  the  tribals. 

So  far  three  scientific  reports  have  appeared 
on  the  turtles  and  tortoises  of  Bangladesh  and 
erstwhile  East  Pakistan  after  the  publication 
of  Fauna  of  British  India  by  Smith  (1931). 
These  are  Ahamed  (1955),  Shaft  & Quddus 


110 


CHELON1ANS  OF  BANGLADESH 


(1977)  and  Husain  (1979).  The  last  two 
papers  are  in  Bengali.  Ahamed  (1955)  listed 
nine  species  of  freshwater  turtles  whereas 
Shah  & Quddus  (1977)  reported  11  species 
including  the  nine  of  the  preceding  author 
and  another  five  species  of  marine  turtles. 
Husain  (1979)  added  one  unidentified  species 
of  Geochelone  ( Testudo ) to  Shaft  & Quddus 
and  provided  some  information  on  the  status. 
Although  Shall  & Quddus  (1977)  claimed  that 
their  report  is  based  on  the  collection  of  speci- 
mens, this  is  difficult  to  substantiate  as  there 
appears  to  be  a few  specimens  in  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Dacca  University  Zoology  Museum 
(DUZM).  Inclusion  of  Chrysemys  picta 
seems  to  be  an  erroneous  one  as  it 
is  purely  a New  World  species,  according 
to  Pritchard  (1979).  Emyda  granosa  is  possi- 
bly not  a valid  species  and  it  is  considered  to 
be  a subspecies  of  Lissemys  punctata.  Also 
addition  of  Chelonia  emys  and  ^Chelonia 
amboinensis  under  marine  turtles  can  not  be 
justified  as  no  current  literature  includes  such 
names  in  this  group  (vide  Pope  1964,  Prit- 
chard 1979  etc.)  Hence  the  total  number  of 
turtles  and  tortoises  listed  from  here  by  all 
previous  workers  of  the  country  stands  to 
only  13  that  is,  10  freshwater,  one  land  and 
two  marine.  But  according  to  my  own  field 
and  literature  survey  there  are  about  25  species 
of  chelonians  in  Bangladesh  including  two 
endemic  species  — Trionyx  nigricans  and 
Morenia  petersi  as  stated  below. 

Family  Emydidae 

1 . Hardella  thurji  Gray.  Brahminy  River 
Turtle/Kali  Kaitta3 4 

3 Once  the  authors  have  used  ‘Chelonia’  and  again 
‘Chelone’,  possibly  synonymously. 

4 Bengali  name.  All  hard-shell  freshwater  species 
are  called  kaitta;  soft-shell  ones  kasim  and  land 
tortoises  as  kossop. 


Hardella  thurji  occurs  in  all  major  rivers 
of  Bangladesh,  from  Padma  in  the  west  to 
Kushiyara  in  the  east,  and  in  their  tribu- 
taries. Along  with  all  the  other  species 
of  freshwater  turtles  this  species  is  sold  in 
the  markets  of  Dacca,  Savar,  Narayanganj, 
Narsinghdi,  Daudkandi,  Chandpur,  Chittagong, 
Mymensingh,  Phulchari  ghat,  Bagerhat,  Chalna 
port,  Barisal  Sri  Mongal  and  Sunamganj. 
Actually  these  are  the  main  turtle  markets 
of  the  country.  Kali  kaitta  is  common  no- 
where in  Bangladesh  and  there  is  only  one 
specimen  in  DUZM.  The  maximum  catch  is 
between  October  and  March  and  it  is  occa- 
sionally exported. 

2.  Batagur  baska  Gray.  Common  Batagur 

Batagur  baska  is  largely  an  estuarine  species. 

It  has  never  been  reported  from  Bangladesh 
although  IUCN  Red  Data  Book  on  turtles 
(Groombridge,  in  press)  included  Bangladesh 
within  its  range  while  Olivier  (1979)  and 
Gittins  (1980)  doubted  its  presence  in  Bangla- 
desh. Recently  a large  specimen  has  been 
brought  to  Dacca  Zoological  Garden  from  the 
estuarine  river,  bordering  the  Sunderbans 
Mangrove  Forest.  It  was  caught  by 
the  fishermen  from  the  river  Mongla  — a 
tributary  of  the  largest  estuarine  river  Passur 
that  cuts  across  the  Sunderbans  before  dis- 
charging into  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  This  is  the 
first  authentic  report  of  the  occurrence  of  B 
baska  in  Bangladesh  based  on  actual  specimen. 

It  breeds  along  the  mouths  of  the  rivers 
Katka  and  Konga  within  Sarankhola  Range  of 
the  Sunderbans  (Whitaker  1982,  pers.  comm.). 

3.  Kachuga  tecta  tecta  Gray.  Roofed  Turtle/ 
Kori  Kaitta 

K.  t.  tecta  is  the  commonest  and  the  smallest 
of  the  chelonians  of  Bangladesh.  It  is  found 
all  over  the  country,  barring  the  hilly  areas 
of  the  east,  and  the  distribution  is  rather 
uniform  over  the  entire  range.  I have  seen 


111 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


them  both  in  running  and  stagnant  waters  in- 
cluding pools  and  puddles  in  the  villages.  They 
often  cross  the  crop  fields,  when  the  pools 
get  dried  up  during  winter,  with  a view  to 
reaching  a new  pool.  It  is  caught  in  large 
numbers  and  is  relished  by  the  local  hindus 
and  Christians.  They  buy  them  in  hundreds 
and  keep  them  in  empty  kerosine  oil  tins 
and  use  them  whenever  needed.  DUZM  speci- 
mens (other  than  that  of  Shafi  & Quddus 
1977)  do  not  exceed  12  cm,  carapace  length. 
It  is  included  in  Schedule  I of  CITES. 

4.  Kachuga  tentoria  Gray.  Roofed  Turtle/ 
Majhari  Kaitta 

Kachuga  tentoria  has  received  its  specific 
status  in  the  recent  past.  Formerly  it  used  to 
be  considered  as  a subspecies  of  Kachuga 
tecta  (Pritchard  1979).  May  be  for  the  same 
reason  it  has  never  been  included  in  the  list 
of  Bangladesh  turtles.  Both  these  species  were 
found  in  the  same  pond  at  Faridpur  (Fig.  1). 
It  is  as  common  as  the  preceding  one  and 
has  a similar  distribution  in  the  country,  that 
is,  it  occurs  sympatrically  with  the  former. 
DUZM  has  a dozen  of  them. 

5.  Kachuga  smithi  Gray.  Roofed  Turtle/ 
Vaittal  Kaitta 

Kachuga  smithi  is  a poorly  known  species 
of  Roof  Turtle  from  Bangladesh.  According 
to  Smith  (1931),  Annandale  collected  seve- 
ral specimens  of  this  species  from  Rajshahi. 
Shafi  & Quddus  (1977)  has  given  no  account 
of  its  distribution  within  the  country  or  abun- 
dance. It  is  occasionally  found  along  the  river 
Padma  and  its  tributaries,  and  marshy  areas 
(Chalan  beel)  attached  to  these  within  Raj- 
shahi, Pabna  and  Kushtia  districts.  I did  not 
see  any  basking  aggregations  of  it  in  the 
Padma.  Pritchard’s  (1979)  statement  that  ‘this 
is  a common  species  in  Bangladesh  south  of 
Jhelum’  appears  to  be  erroneous  as  Jhelum 


is  a river  of  the  Indus  system  in  Pakistan. 
Moreover  the  species  is  not  common  in 
Bangladesh. 

6.  Kachuga  dhongoka  Gray 

Smith  (1931)  has  given  its  distribution  as 
‘N.  E.  India;  the  Ganges  as  far  west  as  Alla- 
habad and  north  to  Nepal.  Anderson  states 
that  it  has  been  found  in  the  Brahmaputra 
in  Assam’.  Recently  (1981)  a shell  has  been 
collected  from  the  suburbs  of  Dacca. 

7.  Kachuga  kachuga  Gray 

It  is  occasionally  found  in  the  Padma,  near 
Rajshahi  and  is  also  sold  in  the  market,  which 
needs  confirmation  as  I failed  to  procure  one 
when  I visited  the  markets. 

8.  Kachuga  sylhetensis  Jerdon 

Kachuga  sylhetensis  is  likely  to  be  present 
in  Khasia  and  Jaintia  of  Sylhet  and  Garo  hill 
areas  of  Jamalpur  and  Mymensingh  districts 
bordering  the  Khasia  and  Garo  Hill  Ranges 
of  India. 

9 . Melanochelys  tricarinata  Blyth.  Threekeel- 
ed  Terrapin 

M.  tricarinata  is  possibly  present  in  the  ex- 
treme north-west  corner  of  Bangladesh  that  is 
in  Tentulia  and  Panchagarh  areas  of  Dinajpur 
district  as  has  been  suggested  by  Pritchard 
(1979).  One  specimen  has  been  collected  from 
Mymensingh  district.  About  the  occurrence 
of  Melanochelys  trijuga  indopeninsularis  An- 
nandale, Pritchard  (1979)  said,  it  is  found  in 
Chota  Nagpur  and  Jalpaiguri  District  of  north- 
ern Bangladesh.  Although  the  ‘Jalpaiguri 
District’  is  within  the  Indian  state  of  West 
Bengal  parts  of  Sylhet,  Mymensingh,  Jamalpur, 
Rangpur  and  Dinajpur  may  be  prospective 
areas  in  Bangladesh  for  its  occurrence. 

M.  tricarinata  is  in  Schedule  I of  CITES 

10.  Curora  amboinensis  Daudin.  Malayan 
Box  Turtle/Diba  Kasim 

C.  amboinensis  has  not  yet  been  reported 
from  any  part  of  Indian  sub-continent.  Its 


112 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 
Reza  Khan:  Chelonians 


Plate  I 


Above : Trionyx  nigricans  from  Bostani  tank  at  Chittagong. 
Below : Trionyx  hunum  from  foot  of  Garo  hills. 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist,  Soc.  79 
Reza  Khan:  Chelonians 


Plate  II 


Above:  Head  of  a Trionyx  gangeticus. 

Middle : (Left) — Lyssemys  p.  punctata  from  Cox’s  Bazar: 

(Right) — Side  view  of  Cur  ora  amboinesis. 

Below:  (Left)— The  3rd  central  (Vertebral)  is  a divided  one  C.  amboinensis. 
(Right) — Ventral  side  of  a C.  amboinensis . 


CHELONIANS  OF  BANGLADESH 


distribution  has  been  given  as  “Tenasserim, 
Thailand,  Cambodia,  Vietnam,  Malaysia,  In- 
donesia.. .Philippines”  by  Pritchard  (1979), 
who  has  actually  adopted  this  distribution 
from  Smith  (1931).  Recently  I have  collected 
a live  specimen  from  Cox’s  Bazar  area  of 
south-eastern  Bangladesh  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  a semi-evergreen  forest.  The 
turtle  was  crossing  a highway  that  cuts  across 
the  denuded  forest  which  is  now  planted 
with  Malayan  Oil  Palm.  Groombridge’s  (pers. 
comm.)  conjecture  that  it  might  have  been 
transported  from  Malayasia  along  the  oil 
palm  seems  unlikely. 

11.  Morenia  petersi  Anderson.  Yellow  Turtle/ 
Haldey  Kaitta 

Although  Smith  (1931)  and  Pritchard 
(1979)  restricted  the  distribution  of  M.  petersi 
to  Jessore,  Dacca  and  Fategarh  (?)  within 
Bangladesh,  to  me  it  is  a common  turtle  seen 
basking  in  Padma  and  Jamuna  river  systems 
of  Bangladesh.  It  basks  in  rows  on  the  newly 
accreted  sandbars  or  on  sand  slabs  along  the 
eroded  bank  of  these  rivers.  They  drop  down 
to  water  at  the  slightest  disturbance  or 
approach  of  a boat,  fisherman  or  bather  but 
stick  their  heads  out  of  water  again  in  no 
time,  a few  paces  away  from  the  intruder. 
It  is  caught  in  good  number  and  is  eaten  too. 

12.  Geoclemys  hamiltoni  Gray.  Black  Pond 
Turtle /Mogom  or  Kalo  Kaitta 

G.  hamiltoni  is  usually  found  in  old  fairly 
large  tanks,  perennial  marshes,  etc.  and 
although  distributed  over  the  entire  country, 
minus  the  hilly  areas,  cannot  be  considered 
a common  species.  It  is  eaten  by  the  local 
people.  The  species  has  been  included  in 
Schedule  I of  CITES. 

Family  Testudinidae 

13.  Geochdone  emys  Schlegel  & Muller, 


Brown  Burmese  Tortoise /Pahari  Kossop 

Husain  (1979)  was  the  first  to  report  of  its 
occurrence  in  Bangladesh  although  he  did 
not  mention  the  species  name.  I had  the  occa- 
sion to  check  the  empty  shell  of  this  species 
with  him  which  turned  out  to  be  G.  emys . 
This  species  is  found  only  in  the  forested  belt 
of  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts  district  of 
Bangladesh.  During  my  several  visits  to  these 
forests  I did  not  come  across  one.  But  the 
tribal  chakmas  told  me  that  occasionally  they 
collect  it.  It  has  a very  high  market  value 
and  specially  so  during  the  biju  festival  of 
the  chakmas.  Sometimes  they  use  the  empty 
shell  of  G.  emys  for  washing  clothes  or  for 
making  door-step  for  their  thatched  houses. 

14.  Geochdone  elongata  Blyth.  Hill-Tortoise/ 
Pahari  Haldey  Kossop 

Unlike  the  preceding  species  G.  elongata  is 
not  rare  in  the  forested  areas  of  Chitta- 
gong Hill  Tracts.  On  three  occasions  I have 
recorded  them  from  the  chakmas,  who  were 
taking  them  home  from  the  reserved  forest 
area.  Olivier’s  (1979)  report  of  its  export 
from  Bangladesh  is  questionable  as  it  is  never 
gathered  and  sold  in  bulk  in  any  market  both 
inside  and  outside  the  hilly  areas,  and  local 
exporters  failed  to  confirm  his  report.  There- 
fore this  is  the  first  confirmed  report  of  its 
occurrence  in  Bangladesh. 

Family  Trionychidae 

15.  Lissemys  punctata  punctata  Bonnaterre. 
Spotted  Flap-Shell /Sundhi  or  Tila  Kasim 

One  of  the  commonest  of  the  soft-shells 
L.  p.  punctata  is  found  all  over  Bangladesh, 
mostly  in  stagnant  water  specially  in  village 
ponds  and  marshy  areas.  It  is  sold  in  all  turtle 
markets  and  is  exported  out  too.  The  species 
has  been  listed  under  Schedule  I of  CITES. 

16.  Trionyx  gangeticus  Cuvier.  Ganges  Soft- 

113 


8 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Shell ,/Khalua  or  Gonga  Kasim 

T.  gangeticus  is  common  in  all  major  rivers 
of  Bangladesh.  Found  in  good  number  in 
ox-bow  lakes  and  larger  bodies  of  water.  It 
is  one  of  the  species  that  is  sold  in  the  market 
round  the  year,  has  the  highest  market  value 
and  is  exported. 

17.  Trionyx  hurum  Gray.  Peacock  Soft-Shell| 
Dhum  Kasim 

Like  the  preceding  species  it  is  very  com- 
mon round  the  year,  and  found  in  all  rivers 
excepting  the  hill  ones  and  has  good  market 
value  during  monsoon  when  catches  of  other 
species  is  low.  It  has  good  export  market  too. 
Both  T.  gangeticus  and  T.  hurum  are  sold 
at  a flat  rate  of  one  US  dollar,  during  mon- 
soon, per  kilo  of  freshly  cut  turtle.  The 
butchers  cut  them  live  through  the  hinder  part 
of  the  frontal  pair  of  callosities,  when  the 
poor  turtle  bleed  profusely  right  in  front  of 
the  buyers. 

18.  Trionyx  nigricans  Anderson.  Bostami 
Turtle /Bostami  Kasim 

T.  nigricans  is  an  endemic  species  found  only 
in  small  pond,  attached  to  the  shrine  of  Hazrat 
Byazid  Bostami,  at  the  outskirt  of  Chittagong 
town  (Khan  1980).  All  three  reports  from 
Bangladesh  (vide  Ahamed  1955,  Shaft  & 
Quddus  1977,  and  Husain  1979)  did  not  in- 
clude this  species  in  their  list  inspite  of  the 
fact  that  Smith  (1931)  quoting  Annandale 
gave  a quite  comprehensive  account  of  the 
species.  I have  already  mentioned  that  all  large 
specimens  in  the  pond  has  some  sort  of  fungal 
infection  on  their  skins  of  neck  and  limbs. 
These  turtles,  numbering  about  200,  are  al- 
most entirely  dependent  on  the  food  supplied 
to  them  by  the  shrine  visitors.  It  mostly  com- 
prised of  beef  offal,  prawns,  plantain  and 
puffed  rice. 

All  the  abovementioned  three  species  of 
Trionyx  are  included  under  Schedule  I of 


CITES,  Although  the  Bostami  Turtle  enjoys 
highest  protection  the  remaining  two  are  mer- 
cilessly exploited  for  commercial  purposes. 

19.  Chitra  indica  Gray.  Asiatic  Soft-Shell 
Turtle/Sim  or  Chitra  Kasim 

C.  indica  is  the  largest  of  all  turtles  of 
Bangladesh  and  found  over  entire  Padma  and 
Jamuna  river  systems  and  in  their  tributaries. 
A great  number  of  them  are  sold  in  the 
market  and  exported  during  winter,  between 
October-February,  and  sometimes  up  to  May- 
June,  before  the  break-out  of  heavy  monsoon. 
Although  Pritchard  (1979)  suggested  that  ‘it 
prefers  clear  water’  all  rivers  of  Bangladesh 
become  quite  turbid  during  monsoon  and  all 
will  have  crystal  clear  water  before  winter 
which  will  last  up  to  next  monsoon. 

20.  Pelochelys  bibroni  Owen.  Bibron’s  Soft- 
Shell/ Jata  Kasim 

Although  Smith  (1931)  altogether  doubted 
its  presence  in  Bengal,  Pope  (1964)  and 
Pritchard  (1979)  did  not  even  include  Indian 
sub-continent  within  its  range,  whereas  Shaft 
& Quddus  (1977)  and  Husain  (1979)  have 
categorically  included  Pelochelys  bibroni  in 
their  lists.  It  is  said  to  have  wide  distribution 
and  is  marketed  too. 

Family  Cheloniidae 

21 . Chelonia  mydas  Linnaeus.  Green  Turtle 

22.  Caretta  caretta  Linnaeus.  Loggerhead 
Turtle 

23.  Lepidochelys  olivacea  Eschscholtz.  Olive 
Ridley  Turtle 

24.  Eretmochelys  imhricata  Linnaeus.  Hawks- 
bill  Turtle 

Family  Dermochelyidae 

25.  Dermochelys  coriacea  Linnaeus.  Leather- 
back Turtle 


114 


CHELONIANS  OF  BANGLADESH 


All  the  five  species  of  marine  turtles,  from 
no.  21  to  25,  are  locally  called  Samudrik 
Kasim.  They  are  usually  found  along  the 
coast  of  Bay  of  Bengal,  from  the  Sunderbans 
in  the  West  to  the  St.  Martin  Island  in  the 
extreme  south-east.  The  eggs  of  Green, 
Ridley,  Hawksbill,  and  Leatherback  turtles 
are  usually  collected  and  eaten  by  fishermen, 
specially  the  tribal  moghs  and  low-caste 
hindus.  The  Green  Turtle  is  the  commonest 
of  the  Marine  Turtle  found  in  Bangladesh. 

Conservation  Measures 

The  Government  has  promulgated  Bangla- 
desh Wildlife  (Preservation)  Order  1973 
which  under  Schedule  III  bans  hunting,  kill- 
ing capturing  and  exporting  of  all  wild  ani- 
mals excepting  those  mentioned  in  Schedule 
I and  II.  Although  these  two  schedules  do 
not  include  turtles  and  tortoises  the  turtle 
trade  seems  to  be  absolutely  uncontrolled 
and  literally  there  is  no  implementation  of 
the  Ordinance  so  far  as  turtles  are  concerned. 
This  is  mainly  because  turtles  are  handled  by 
the  Ministry  of  Fisheries  and  Livestock  who 
are  mostly  concerned  with  commercial  exploi- 
tation rather  than  protection  of  animals, 
which  is  done  by  Ministry  of  Forests. 

Uncontrolled  and  ill-planned  exploitation  of 
all  the  species  of  freshwater  and  land  cheJo- 
nians,  and  egg-collection,  for  the  sake  of  trade 
alone  might  lead  to  the  extinction  of  several 
species  from  Bangladesh.  Therefore  immediate 
steps  are  necessary  to  bring  the  turtle  under 
the  management  of  the  Forest  Department  as 


they  have  some  personnel  for  protection.  The 
entire  turtle  trade  must  be  handled  carefully 
and  judiciously. 

A general  survey  of  the  status  and  distri- 
bution of  the  chelonians  must  be  done  imme- 
diately with  a view  to  assessing  the  export 
and  home  consumption  potential.  Export  of 
all  species  of  freshwater  turtles  mentioned  in 
the  Schedule  I of  CITES  be  banned  and 
quota  to  be  fixed  for  the  annual  export  for 
the  species  not  covered  by  CITES. 

ACK  NOWLEDGE  M E N TS 

I am  thankful  to  Mr.  Romulus  Whitaker, 
Director,  Madras  Snake  Park,  India  and  Mr. 
Tsutomu  Hikida,  Kyoto  University,  Japan, 
who  allowed  me  and  provided  facilities  to 
accompany  them  in  their  survey  of  the 
Varanus  species  of  Bangladesh  during  June- 
July,  1981,  when  I picked  up  Curora  amboi- 
nensis  from  Cox’s  Bazar.  I thank  Prof.  Kazi 
Zaker  Husain,  Dept,  of  Zoology  and  Dr. 
Mahmud-ul  Ameen,  Professor  and  Chairman, 
Dept,  of  Zoology,  University  of  Dacca,  for 
permitting  me  to  check  the  specimens  of  turtles 
lying  with  and  DUZM,  and  those  of  Shaft 
and  Quddus  kept  in  the  reference  cabinet. 
Thanks  are  also  due  to  Prof.  Edward  O.  Moll, 
Chairman,  Freshwater  Chelonian  Specialist 
Group;  Mr.  J.  C.  Daniel,  Curator,  Bombay 
Natural  History  Society,  and  Dr.  Brian 
Groombridge,  Compiler,  RDB-Amphibia/ 
Reptilia,  for  making  enquiries  regarding 
Bangladesh  chelonians  which  has  literally 
forced  me  to  take  a fresh  look  at  the  subject. 


115 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


References 


Ahamed,  N.  (1955) : On  edible  turtles  and  tor- 
toises of  East  Pakistan.  Directorate  of  Fisheries, 
East  Pakistan,  pp.  18. 

Anonymous  (1981) : Export  from  Bangladesh 
during  the  fiscal  years  1972-73  to  1980-81.  Export 
Promotion  Bureau,  Dacca,  pp.  3. 

Gittins,  S.  P.  (1980):  Project  report:  A survey 
of  the  primates  of  Bangladesh.  Fauna  & Flora 
Pres.  Soc.,  London,  pp.  64. 

Husain,  K.  Z.  (1979) : Bangladesher  bonyajontu- 
swampad  o tar  songrakhshan  (bengali).  Bangla 
Academy  Bijnan  Potrika  5 (3)  : 29-31. 

Khan,  M.  A.  R.  (1980):  A ‘holy’  turtle  of 
Bangladesh.  Hornbill  1980  (4):  7-11. 


Oliver,  R.  C.  D.  (1979) : Wildlife  conservation 
and  management  in  Bangladesh.  Report.  F.A.O., 
Rome  vii  + 148  pp. 

Pope,  C.  H.  (1964) : The  reptile  world.  Alfred 
A.  Knopf,  N.  Y.  pp.  325. 

Pritchard,  P.  C.  H.  (1979) : Encyclopedia  of 
turtles.  T.F.H.  Publications,  Inc.,  Hong  Kong, 
pp.  895. 

Shafi,  M.  & Quddus,  M.  M.  A.  (1977):  Bangla- 
desher mothshya  swampada  (bengali).  Bangla 
Academy  Bijnan  Potrika  3 (2)  : 14-36. 

Smith,  M.  A.  (1931):  The  fauna  of  British  India, 
including  Ceylon  and  Burma.  Reptilia  and  Amphi- 
bia. Vol.  I.  Loricata.  Testudines.  Taylor  & Francis, 
London,  xxxiii  + 185  pp. 


116 


NEW  PLANTS  FROM  URBAN  ENVIRONMENT 
OF  BARODA,  GUJARAT1 

S.  N.  Patil  and  S.  D.  Sabnis2 
( With  a plate) 


I N TROD  U CTIO  N 

The  urban  centre  of  Baroda  has  of  late 
been  experiencing  phenomenal  growth  of 
population  and  human  settlements  due  to  rapid 
industrialization.  These  sudden  developments 
have  created  problems  affecting  the  physical 
environment  and  the  biotic  components  as 
well.  The  effects  of  these  intense  biotic  stresses 
on  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  vegetal 
cover  at  Baroda  are  presently  being  assessed. 
While  working  with  this  ecological  problem, 
a number  of  plants  hitherto  not  reported  either 
from  Baroda  or  from  the  wider  region  of 
Gujarat  (Shah  1980)  have  been  noted.  The 
present  note,  therefore  includes  our  observa- 
tions on  the  morphology,  phenology  and 
availability  of  these  plants  in  the  urban  areas 
of  Baroda. 

Amaranthus  dubius  Mart.  Hort.  Erl.  197,  1814; 

FI.  Males.  4 (1):  79,  1954. 

An  erect,  much-branched  annual  herb  with 
striate  stem.  Leaves  ovate,  cuneate  at  the  base. 
Flowers  in  axillary  and  terminal  spikes;  bracts 
ovate  with  a long  mucro,  thinly  membranous; 
tepals  5,  with  a thin  midrib  in  lower  half, 
much  thickened  in  the  upper  half;  stamens  5; 
styles  3. 

Rare,  the  plant  was  noted  along  the  banks 
of  a nallah  near  the  sewage  disposal  area. 

1 Accepted  May  1980. 

2 Taxonomy  Laboratory,  Department  of  Botany, 
M.  S.  University  of  Baroda,  Baroda,  Gujarat, 


Flowers  & Fruits : July-October. 

SNR  536. 

Andrachne  telephioides  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  1014, 
1753;  Hooker  5:284;  Tackholm  245.  (Plate). 
A prostrate,  glabrous  herb.  Stems  many, 
6 to  20  cms.  long,  arising  from  the  root 
stock,  slender,  leafy.  Leaves  sessile,  obovate, 
fleshy  with  tapering  base.  Male  flowers  smaller, 
clustered  in  axils,  and  females  solitary  and 
double  in  size;  disc  glands  slightly  lobed,  mem- 
branous; style  3 fid.  Capsule  depressed  globose, 
hairy. 

The  plant  was  collected  from  the  moist 
banks  of  Timbi  tank. 

Flowers  & Fruits : December-March. 

SNP.  721,  1036,  1037. 

Conyza  leucantha  (D.  Don)  Ludlow  and 
Raven,  Kew  Bull.  17  71,  1963. 

C.  viscidula  Wall,  ex  DC.,  Prodr.  5:  383, 
1836;  Hooker,  3:  258;  Duthie  1:  410. 

A tall,  glandular-pubescent  corymbosely 
branched  herb.  Leaves  lanceolate,  narrowed 
at  both  ends,  viscid-puberulous  on  both  sur- 
faces. Heads  yellow,  in  large,  loose  corymbs. 
Achenes  obovoid,  margined,  first  minutely 
hairy  then  glabrous. 

The  plant  was  collected  in  wheat  fields  from 
Makarpura  and  Maneja  area. 

Flowers  & Fruits : December-February. 
SNP.  742,  1086. 

Cyperus  pulcherrimus  Willd.  in  Kunth,  Enum. 
v.  2 (1837)  p.  35;  Hooker  6:  600;  Cooke 
3:  376. 

A tufted  stout  herb.  Stem  trigonous.  Leaves 


117 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


narrowly  linear,  1 -nerved.  Umbel  com- 
pound, contracted  with  many  rays;  bracts 
3-6.  Spikelets  densely  crowded;  Rachilla  not 
winged;  glumes  ovate-oblong,  obtuse,  with 
crisped  incurved  tips,  sides  hyaline  with  2 red- 
dish brown  bands;  stamens  2.  Nut  half  as 
long  as  glume,  stipitate,  trigonous,  acute  at 
both  ends,  granulate. 

The  plant  was  collected  from  shady  loca- 
lities on  moist  banks  of  Vishwamitri  river. 
Flowers  & Fruits : January- April. 

SNP.  768,  1074,  1075. 

Eriocaulon  cinemim  R.  Br.  Prodr.  254,  1810. 
E.  sieboldianum  Sieb.  & Zucc.  ex  Steud. 
Syn.  PI.  Cyp.  2:  272,  1855;  Hooker  6: 
577;  Cooke  3:  357. 

A stemless,  glabrous  herb.  Leaves  linear- 
oblong.  Peduncles  glabrous,  many-ribbed; 
heads  white-puberulous;  receptacles,  involu- 
cral  and  floral  bracts  glabrous. 

Not  common;  observed  on  the  muddy 
banks  of  Harni  and  Timbi  ponds. 

Flowers  & Fruits : September-December. 
SNP.  687,  996. 

Euphorbia  zornioldes  Boiss.  in  DC.  Prodr. 
15(2)  19,  1862;  Hooker  5:  246;  Cooke  3:  60. 

A glabrous  erect  herb  with  reddish  stem. 
Leaves  linear-oblong  with  pink  margins.  In- 
volucres solitary,  glabrous;  petaloid  limbs  rosy 
with  ovate  lobes.  Capsule  globose. 

Noted  in  cultivated  fields  mixed  with  grasses 
at  Pratapnagar  area. 

Flowers  & Fruits : July- September. 

SNP.  92,  330. 

Hemigraphis  crenata  (Bth.  ex  Hohenack.) 
Bremek.  in  Mat.  Mon.  Strob.  137,  1944. 
FT.  elegans  Nees  var.  crenata  (Bth.  ex 
Hohenack.)  Clarke,  in  Hk.  f.  FBI.  4:  425, 
1844;  Cooke  2:  435. 

A partly  diffuse,  viscid  herb,  softly  white 
hairy.  Younger  stem  subquadrangular,  hairy. 
Leaves  ovate,  crenate-serrate,  not  sharply 


toothed,  base  cuneate,  hairy.  Flowers  in  heads; 
sepals  subequal,  one  much  larger  than  other 
four,  linear  hairy,  and  ciliate.  Corolla  tube 
pale  blue,  limbs  blue,  ovate;  stamens  4,  two 
longer  densely  bearded  in  their  upper  half  by 
long,  flat  papilose  hairs.  Capsule  linear-oblong, 
pubescent;  seeds  8-10,  orbicular. 

The  plant  was  collected  from  moist  banks 
of  Vishwamitri  river. 

Flowers  & Fruits'.  January- April. 

SNP.  540,  745,  1079. 

Shah  (op.  cit.)  reports  this  species  on  the 
authority  of  Saxton  and  Sedgwick  (1918,  p. 
289)  who  collected  it  from  North  Gujarat. 
Hydrocotyle  javanica  Thunb.  Dissert.  Hydroc. 
p.  3,  No.  17,  p.  6,  t.  2,  1798;  Hooker  2: 
667;  Cooke  1 : 597.  (Plate). 

A long,  succulent  prostrate  and  decumbent 
herb.  Leaves  sub-orbicular,  sub-entire,  coarse- 
ly crenate,  hairy  on  nerves.  Flowers  pale 
green,  crowded  in  dense,  globular  umbels.  Fruit 
orbicular,  mericarps  with  acute  primary  ridges. 

The  plant  was  collected  from  the  moist 
banks  of  Harni  tank  under  the  shade. 
Flowers  & Fruits : October- January. 

SNP.  694,  1030. 

Cooke  in  Flora  of  Bombay  Presidency  has 
included  this  plant  on  Woodrow’s  authority. 
He  has  seen  no  Bombay  specimen  and  none 
from  that  of  the  Presidency  in  Herb.  Kew. 

According  to  Santapau  [FI.  Saurashtra 
(1963),  p.  254]  Hydrocotyle  is  occasionally, 
though  rarely  found  in  Western  India. 
Tribulos  rajasthanensis  Bhandari  et  Sharma 
in  Bot.  Notiser,  129:  367,  1976;  Bhandari, 
FI.  Ind.  Desert  88,  1978.  (Plate). 

A diffusely  prostrate  herb.  Stem  densely 
pubescent  and  sparingly  hirsute.  Leaves  oppo- 
site, alternate  in  lower  region,  unequal  at 
nodes;  leaflets  upto  7 pairs.  Flowers  bright 
yellow;  stamens  8;  ovary  with  bulbous-based, 
bristly  hairs  directed  upwards;  stigma  pyra- 


118 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist,  Soc.  79 
Patil  & Sabnis:  Plants  from  Baroda 


PLANTS  FROM  BARODA 


midal.  Fruit  with  5 cocci,  with  2 main  spines 
and  many  smaller,  unequal  spines,  densely 
hirsute. 

It  is  easily  separated  from  T.  terrestris  Linn, 
by  much  more  densely  hirsute  cocci  and 
absence  of  a pair  of  secondary  spines;  instead 

Refer 

Bhandari,  M.  M.  (1978):  Flora  of  the  Indian 
Desert.  Jodhpur. 

Cooke,  T.  (1901-1908) : The  Flora  of  the  Presi- 
dency of  Bombay.  Calcutta.  (Reprinted  ed.,  3 Vols.). 

Duthie,  J.  F.  (1903-1929):  Flora  of  Upper 

Gangetic  Plain. . . . Sub-Himalayan  tracts.  Calcutta. 

3 Vols, 

Hooker,  J.  D.  et  al.  (1872-1897):  The  Flora  of 
British  India.  London.  7 Vols. 

Santapau,  H.  (1962):  The  Flora  of  Saurashtra. 
Part  I.  Rajkot. 


much  more  pronounced  and  stouter  spines  are 
present. 

It  was  collected  from  Cotton  fields  at 
Atladara. 

Flowers  & Fruits'.  September-November. 
SNP.  623,  624. 

E N CES 

Saxton,  W.  T.  and  Sedgwick,  L.  J.  (1918) : Plants 
of  Northern  Gujarat.  Rec.  Bot.  Surv.  India  6 (7) : 
209-323. 

Shah,  G.  L.  (1980) : Flora  of  Gujarat  State. 
Vallabh  Vidyanagar.  2 Vols. 

Steenis,  C.  G.  G.  J.  van  (1948-1962)  : Flora 
Malesiana  (Ser.  I);  Vol.  4,  1948-54;  Vol.  5,  1955- 
58  and  Vol.  6,  1960-62.  Djakarta  and  Groningen. 

Tackholm,  V.  (1956) : Students  Flora  of  Egypt. 
Cairo. 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  FOOD  HABITS  OF  SIX  SPECIES 
OF  INDIAN  FROGS1 


P.  Mohanty-Hejmadi  and  B.  K.  Acharya2 

The  analysis  of  the  stomach  contents  of  six  species  of  frogs  Rana  breviceps,  Rana 
cyanophlyctis,  Rana  limnocharis,  Microhyla  ornata,  Uperodon  sy stoma  and  Rhaco- 
phorus  maculatus  were  done  during  July  and  August  1978.  This  investigation  showed 
partial  selectivity  in  feeding  which  probably  is  based  on  the  ecological  niche  each 
occupies  and  thus  provided  an  insight  into  the  interactions  amongst  members  of  the 
six  species. 


Introduction 

A good  deal  of  literature  is  available  on  the 
food  habits  of  anurans  to  demonstrate  that 
they  are  some  of  the  major  predators  of  pests 
in  nature.  Several  comprehensive  papers  such 
as  that  of  Clarke  (1974)  on  the  genus  Bufo, 
and  Blackith  and  Speight  (1974)  on  the  genus 
Rana  are  available.  However,  most  of  the  in- 
formation is  based  on  work  on  temperate 
species.  Relatively  little  information  is  avail- 
able on  the  species  from  tropical  regions,  espe- 
cially that  from  India.  Out  of  the  111  species 
of  anurans  in  India  (Daniel  1963),  only  the 
food  habits  of  Rana  tigerina  (See  literature 
review  by  Issac  and  Rege  1975)  and  Bufo 
melanostictus  (Behura  et  al.  1971,  and  Ranga- 
swamy  and  Channabasavanna,  1973)  are 
known.  In  the  course  of  the  study  of  Biology 
of  anurans  from  Orissa  (Mohanty-Hejmadi 
1977),  the  food  habits  of  six  species,  Rana 
breviceps,  Rana  cyanophlyctis,  Rana  limno- 
charis, Microhyla  ornata,  Uperodon  sy  stoma 
and  Rhacophorus  maculatus,  were  studied. 

1 Accepted  August  1980. 

2 Post-Graduate  Department  of  Zoology,  Utkal 
University,  Bhubaneswar-751  004,  Orissa. 


Materials  and  Methods 

Study  site : All  the  frogs  were  collected 
from  an  area  of  one  square  kilometer  radius 
around  the  Vani  Vihar  campus  of  Utkal  Uni- 
versity, Bhubaneswar.  Vani  Vihar  is  located 
25  metres  above  sea  level  at  20°  17'  55"N  lati- 
tude and  85°  50'  12"  E longitude.  The  climate 
of  Bhubaneswar  and  the  surrounding  area  is 
of  tropical  monsoon  type  with  dry  evergreen 
forest,  vegetation  of  wide  variety.  Shrub 
forests,  cultivable  land,  ponds  and  ditches 
which  are  filled  with  floating  or  submerged 
vegetation.  Collection  data  for  the  6 species  of 
frogs  from  different  localities,  taken  during 
or  immediately  after  rainfall  are  as  follows. 
The  data  obtained  is  for  one  season  in  the 
year. 

Rana  breviceps : These  frogs  were  collect- 
ed from  three  different  localities  only  during 
the  breeding  season.  The  first  batch  was  col- 
lected from  a rocky  area  near  Orissa  State 
Housing  Board  near  Utkal  University  campus 
at  night  on  22nd  July,  1978.  The  second  and 
third  batches  were  collected  from  the  bank 
of  two  semipermanent  pools  inside  Utkal 
University  campus  at  night  on  23rd  July, 
1978. 


120 


FOOD  HABITS  OF  INDIAN  FROGS 


Rana  cyanophlyctis : They  were  captured 
from  three  different  localities.  Two  batches 
were  collected  at  night  from  two  semiperma- 
nent pools  inside  Utkal  University  campus 
on  21.  VII.  1978.  The  third  batch  was  collected 
in  the  morning  from  a temporary  pool  near 
Orissa  State  Housing  Board  on  3rd  August. 

Rana  limnocharis : Two  batches  were  cap- 
tured at  night  from  the  bank  of  two  semi- 
permanent pools  located  about  100  metres 
apart  inside  Utkal  University  campus  on  11. 
VII.  78  and  on  12.  VII.  78. 

Microhyla  omata : The  frogs  were  collected 
from  two  different  localities  during  July,  1978. 
The  first  batch  was  collected  at  night  from 
a scrub  area  near  P.  G.  Department  of 
Botany,  Utkal  University  on  12.VII.78.  The 
second  batch  was  also  collected  the  same 
night  from  a scrub  area  near  Orissa  State 
Housing  Board. 

Uperodon  systoma : Three  batches  of  these 
burrowing  frogs  were  captured  at  night  from 
three  different  localities.  The  first  batch  was 
collected  from  a temporary  pool  located  in- 
side Regional  Research  Laboratory,  adjacent 
to  Utkal  University  Campus.  The  second  and 
third  batches  were  collected  from  two  tem- 
porary pools  located  inside  Utkal  University 
Campus  on  23. VII. 78. 

Rhacophorus  maculates  : Two  batches  were 
collected  at  night  from  the  bank  of  a semi- 
permanent pool  on  12. VII. 78  and  again  on 
13. VII. 78.  The  last  batch  was  collected  at 
night  from  a rocky  area  on  15. VII. 78.  All 
these  areas  are  located  inside  Utkal  University 
Campus. 

All  six  species  of  frogs  were  captured  by 
hand  or  net  depending  on  their  habits.  The 
frogs  were  dissected  within  4 hr.  after  collec- 
tion. The  volume  of  the  stomach  contents 
were  measured  by  water  displacement.  The 
stomach  contents  were  analysed,  identified 


and  classified,  as  far  as  possible  and  preserved 
in  4%  formalin.  The  number  and  percentage 
of  each  kind  of  prey  item  was  summarized 
for  each  species  of  frog. 

Results 

Rana  breviceps  (Schneider):  A number  of 
items  were  found  but  two  food  items  made 
up  a major  portion  of  the  diet  (Table  1). 
These  were  adult  winged  termites  (Isoptera) 
and  beetles  (Coleoptera).  Other  items  were 
members  of  Hymenoptera,  Dictyoptera,  Ortho- 
ptera  and  spiders  (Arachnid).  In  some  of  the 
stomachs  pebbles  and  vegetation  were  also 
recovered.  Thirty-two  per  cent  of  stomachs 
were  found  empty.  The  size  range  of  food 
items  varied  from  2 (Coleoptera)  to  12  mm 
(winged  termite). 

Rana  cyanophlyctis  (Schneider) : Stomach 
content  analysis  revealed  that  their  major 
food  item  was  earthworm  (Annelida).  The 
second  most  important  item  was  Coleoptera 
followed  by  Isoptera.  Other  food  items  con- 
sisted of  members  of  Hymenoptera,  Orthop- 
tera,  insect  eggs  and  even  tadpoles.  In  some 
of  the  stomachs  vegetation  was  also  recover- 
ed. Earthworms  occurred  as  a major  food 
item  in  all  the  three  batches  of  these  frogs 
(Table  1).  The  size  range  in  length  of  food 
items  was  from  3 mm  (ant)  to  90  mm 
(earthworm). 

Rana  limnocharis  (Weigmann) : Insects 

belonging  to  Coleoptera  followed  by 
Hymenoptera  were  the  most  common  food 
item  for  them.  Other  prey  items  included  sam- 
ples from  unidentified  Hymenoptera,  insect 
appendages,  arthropod  larva,  spider  and  an 
unidentified  invertebrate.  Besides  these,  in  some 
of  the  stomachs  pebbles  and  vegetation  were 
also  recovered. 

Microhyla  ornata  (Dum-bib)  : Insects  be- 
longing to  Hymenoptera,  especially  to  family 


121 


Food  of  six  species  of  Frogs,  Rana  breviceps,  Rana  cyanophlyctis,  Rana  limnocharis,  Microhyla  ornata,  Uperodon 
systoma  and  Rhacophorus  maculatus  from  Bhubaneswar,  Orissa. 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Co 

3 »J 

~ a 

•S3  d 

oo  © 

tN 

3 

fts 

in 

t"  d 

ON 

in 

1 & 
1 S 

IN 

cn  t" 
d d 

o 

5? 

Sh 

ft 

K 

^ 5 

P I 


^ a 

l! 


*3  « 

« £ 
§ 


o 

if 


in 

n 


ON  JN 

£ S 


in  oo 
cn  O 

£ ri 


5 


in 

in  NO 


3 


5 


d- 


oo  00 
in  N M 

^ oo 


8 -H  d ^ 

3 ON 

in 

o> 


I I d I d I 


I I 


d d 
<-h  \£> 


I | ^ I ^ I I ||l  I I 


6 § 


in  O 

a £ 

ft 


NO 


I 1 I I I 1 I I 1 I I 


I 1 1 I 1 1 I I I I I 


! I I I I I 1 I 1 1 - I 


On  cn 
ON  d 


O O 
d 


in  ON  vo  -h 
O 


I I I I I I I I I I M I 


ni  -h  no 
On  m d 


o S 

O r-H  O in  I -H 


I I 


»n  co 
oo  On 


00  T-H 

cn 


2 I - I 


OO  d 
NO  OO 


in  *-h  *-h  I ^ I tJ-  N O 


DO  °C  Tf  J 

cj  N tn  ON 
^ rn  ^ d O 


1 Iril  1 I 


ra 

d 


oo 

O 


NO 


O 

ON 


o 3 


O fl\  OO  rl  H 


^ ' fH 

O Z 

Jh 
PH 


1 I N 1 I I I 


1 s 


<N  d 


» ri 

I'eS" 


o oo  cj  vc 

ci  n hh 


00  00  NO  . 

| o I o I I I I I 


d NO 
d m 


8 

d Q 


O NO 
ON  H 


d ON 


| - I - I I M I I I 


d in  oo 


d 

'aT  <3 

£ a, 

3 o 

ft  d 

C/5  fl) 

£ I 


in 

■8-9 

PQ 


-DO 

Is  « 

O 

2 

«H 

3 

ft 

ft 

O 

d 

ft  ^ 
d d 

a 

o 

3 

0 

n 

§ 

d •§ 

.a 


in  d 

W P 


O o 
£ d 

3 ^ 

X)  ^ 

’5  £* 
< a 


aJ  d 
u u 

a>  t 5 

4->  4-» 

ft  ft 
o o 
3 3 
tn  tn 

o o 


c« 

d> 

00 

d 

’d 

d 

d 

s a 

&& 

° ts 

3 § 

Q >5 


co  d 

M 

Ji 

II 


3 03 

O 3 

11 

£ 2 

C < 


333  «j  T 
^ g 3 3 £ 

g 3 ft  3 J 

h 'H  n 0 

S 3 d 1>  « 

< P H ft  > 


FOOD  HABITS  OF  INDIAN  FROGS 


Formicidae  were  the  most  important  food  of 
these  frogs.  Other  food  items  included  sam- 
ples from  Termitidae  (non  winged  forms), 
Coleoptera  and  Vespidae  (Hymenoptera) . In 
some  of  the  stomachs  pebbles  were  also  ob- 
served (Table  1). 

Uperodon  systoma  (Schneider)  : A number 
of  items  were  found,  but  there  were  as  many 
as  360  termites  (winged  forms)  in  7 stomachs, 
indicating  that  termites  (Isoptera)  were  the 
favourite  food  of  Uperodon  systoma  (Table  1) 
Other  food  items  included  examples  from 
Coleoptera  and  Hymenoptera  (Formicidae) 
Some  of  the  stomachs  contained  pebbles  and 
vegetation. 

Rhacophorus  maculatus  (Gray)  : The  food 
items  of  this  frog  include  samples  from  termi- 
tidae (Isoptera),  Coleoptera,  Hymenoptera, 
Orthoptera  and  Dictyoptera.  Most  of  the 
stomachs  (64%)  were  empty  indicating  that 
it  is  an  opportunistic  feeder.  The  number  of 
food  items  were  also  less.  But  the  most  com- 
mon food  of  this  species  were  the  insects  be- 
longing to  Isoptera,  which  ranked  first.  In 
some  of  the  stomachs  vegetation  was  also 
recovered.  The  length  range  of  food  item  was 
from  3 mm  (ant)  to  17  mm  (Orthoptera). 

Discussion 

According  to  the  size  of  frogs,  M.  ornata 
is  the  smallest  and  consumed  food  items  with- 
in the  narrow  range  of  3.0  to  3.4mm.  Rana 
limnocharis  which  is  next  in  size,  had  a larger 
range  in  size  of  food  items  (3.4  to  11mm), 
but,  concentrated  mostly  on  smaller  sized 
Coleoptera  (3-4  mm).  Rana  breviceps,  a 
burrowing  frog  came  next  in  size  which  con- 
sumed food  items  in  the  range  of  2 to  12  mm 
however,  concentrating  mostly  on  larger  sized 
termites.  Rana  cyanophlyctis  is  the  only  aqua- 
tic of  the  six  species.  Therefore,  it  consumed 


aquatic  insects  and  annelids.  The  range  of 
food  item  was  from  3 mm  to  9 cm  (earth- 
worm). Being  given  to  considerable  movement 
at  night  it  also  had  consumed  other  terrestrial 
insects.  Earlier  Mohanty-Hejmadi  et  al.  (1979) 
have  reported  that  this  frog  being  both  diurnal 
and  nocturnal  feeds  both  during  day  and 
night  but  the  intake  is  higher  at  night. 

Rhacophorus  maculatus,  the  most  mobile  of 
the  six  which  can  sometimes  be  found  on  the 
3rd  floor  of  the  buildings,  did  not  seem  to 
concentrate  on  any  particular  food  item.  A 
high  percentage  of  the  stomach  were  empty 
indicating  that  it  is  a highly  opportunistic 
feeder  perhaps  feeding  on  insects  that  happen 
to  be  available.  Although  the  range  of  food 
items  was  from  3 to  17  mm,  the  frog  concen- 
trated mostly  on  larger  items.  Mohanty- 
Hejmadi  et  al.  (1979)  have  reported  that  this 
frog,  being  totally  nocturnal,  feeds  at  night. 

Uperodon  systoma,  the  spade  foot  frog  of 
India,  was  the  largest  of  the  two  burrowing 
frogs.  The  percentage  of  termites  in  their  food 
items  would  indicate  that  it  is  selective  for 
termites.  One  frog  had  eaten  as  many  as  150 
termites.  The  range  of  food  item  was  from 
3 to  11  mm  concentrating  mostly  on  10-11  mm 
winged  termites.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
these  frogs  are  found  in  numbers  near  termi- 
taries and  the  emergence  of  this  frog  coincides 
with  the  emergence  of  termites  following 
heavy  rains  (Mohanty-Hejmadi,  unpublish- 
ed). Whitaker  et  al.  (1977),  have  shown  that 
termites  were  one  of  the  most  important  food 
items  for  Scaphiopus  couchii,  in  all  three 
samples.  They  also  reported  that  much  of  the 
bulk  of  food  of  Scaphiopus  were  large  items. 
That  burrowing  frog  populations  usually  in- 
habit concentrated  food  areas  have  been  dis- 
cussed by  Emerson  (1976).  Our  findings 
agree  with  her  view.  The  concentration  on 
winged  termites  and  lack  of  mud  supports  the 


123 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


view  that  Uperodon  mainly  feeds  at  the  sur- 
face rather  than  underground.  Mohanty- 
Hejmadi  et  al.  (1979)  have  reported  that  the 
feeding  schedule  is  perhaps  restricted  to  the 
breeding  season  in  this  animal. 

If  one  takes  by  habitat  niche  each  frog 
occupies,  the  two  burrowing  ones,  R.  breviceps 
and  U.  systoma  compete  with  each  other  as 
they  concentrate  on  larger  termites. 

The  small  frogs  which  live  under  debris  and 
stones  near  ponds  like  M.  ornata  and  R.  lim- 
nocharis  consume  smaller  food  items.  How- 
ever, M.  ornata  seems  to  concentrate  on  ants 
while  R.  limnocharis  concentrates  more  on 
smaller  beetles.  This  would  indicate  a partial 
niche  separation  in  their  feeding  habits.  The 
aquatic  R.  cyanophlyctis  seemed  to  consume 
items  not  readily  available  to  other  frogs.  How- 
ever, it  is  a competitor  of  the  other  carnivo- 
rous aquatic  fauna  such  as  fishes.  Since  R. 
cyanophlyctis  can  move  with  equal  facility  on 
land,  it  also  consumes  other  insects  and  thus 
its  food  niche  overlaps  to  some  extent  that 
of  other  anurans.  R.  maculatus  being  a terres- 
trial frog,  ventures  into  niches  not  accessible 

Refer 

Blackith,  M.  Ruth  and  Speight,  M.C.D.  (1974) : 
Food  and  feeding  habits  of  the  frog  Rana  tempo- 
raria  in  Bogland  Habits  in  the  west  of  Ireland, 

/.  Zool.  Lond.  172:  67-79. 

Behura,  B.  K.,  Das,  P.  K.,  Mohanty,  P.  and 
Ghosh,  G.  S.  (1971) : On  the  diet  and  feeding 
habits  of  the  common  toad,  Bufo  melanostictus 
Schneider.  Prakruti-Utkal  Univ.  J.  Science,  8:  79- 
86. 

Clarke,  D.  Raymond  (1974) : Food  habits  of 
toads  Genus  Bufo  (Amphibia;  Bufonidae).  The 
American  Midland  Naturalist  91:  140-147. 

Daniel,  J.  C.  (1963) : Field  guide  to  the  amphi- 
bians of  Western  India.  Part  1.  J.  Bombay  nat. 
Hist.  Soc.  60:  415-438. 

Emerson,  B.  Sharon  (1976) : Burrowing  in 

Frogs.  J.  Morph.  149:  437-458. 

Isaac,  S.  and  Rege,  M.  S.  (1975) : Food  of 


to  other  frogs.  This  is  reflected  in  its  lack  of 
food  preference.  The  high  number  of  empty 
stomach  reflects  that  it  eats  less  frequently 
than  the  other  frogs  examined.  When  it  eats 
it  prefers  larger  prey,  the  number  being  less. 
In  contrast,  U.  systoma  concentrates  both  on 
number  as  well  as  larger  size.  A close  exami- 
nation of  the  food  habits  indicate  that  Smith’s 
(1950)  comment  on  the  food  of  Scaphiopus 
bombifrons  that  “large  enough  to  be  seen  and 
small  enough  to  be  swallowed”  seems  to  be 
an  appropriate  description  of  the  prey  the  frogs 
choose.  Availability  probably  is  the  next  para- 
meter for  the  food  items  as  the  habitat  each 
of  the  frog  was  reflected  in  each  of  the  frogs 
food  habits. 

Acknowledgements 

We  would  like  to  thank  Mr.  Sushil  K. 
Dutta  for  his  help  in  the  collection  of  frogs. 
Miss  K.  Bohidar  for  her  help  in  the  identifi- 
cation of  insects,  and  Dr.  B.  K.  Behura  for 
kind  encouragement  throughout  this  study. 
This  work  has  been  supported  by  UGC  grant 
No.  050 / Biol /78  to  Dr.  P.  Mohanty-Hejmadi. 

iNCES 

Rana  tigerina  (Daud.)  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc. 
72:  143-157. 

Mohanty-Hejmadi,  P.  (1977):  The  amphibian 
fauna  of  Orissa.  Prakruti-Utkal  Univ.  J.  Science.  11: 
89-97. 

Mohanty-Hejmadi,  P.,  Dutta,  S.  K.,  Acharya, 
B.  K.  and  Khan,  I.  (1979)  : Observations  on  food 
habits  of  three  species  of  frogs,  Rana  cyanophlyctis 
(Schneider),  Rhacophorus  maculatus  (Gray)  and 
Uperodon  systoma  (Schneider).  Proc.  6th  Orissa 
Adv.  Sc.,  (Ravenshaw  College,  Cuttack)  : p.  6. 

Rangaswamy,  H.  R.  and  Channabasavanna,  G. 
P.  (1973):  Food  and  feeding  habits  of  the  toad, 
Bufo  melanostictus  Schneider  (Amphibia:  Bufo- 

nidae). J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  70:  558-563. 

Whitaker,  John,  Rubin,  O.  D.  jr.  and  Munsee, 
Jack  R.  (1977)  : Observations  on  food  habits  of 
four  species  of  spadefoot  toad,  Genus  Scaphiopus 
Herpetologica  33 : 468-475. 


124 


A CATALOGUE  OF  APHIDIID  (HYMENOPTERA: 
APHIDIIDAE)  PARASITES  OF  APHIDS  (HOMOPTERA) 

OF  INDIA1 

A.  K.  Ghosh2 3 
and 

B AS  ANT  K.  AGARWALA2 


I  N TROD  U CTIO  N 

Aphids  are  known  to  be  preyed  upon  or 
parasitized  by  a number  of  insect  groups  in- 
cluding Coleoptera,  Diptera,  Neuroptera, 
Heteroptera  and  Hymenoptera.  Amongst  the 
parasitoid  Hymenoptera  the  members  of  the 
family  Aphidiidae  form  the  major  group  of 
primary  parasites  of  aphids.  Mackauer  (1968) 
has  listed  331  species  in  his  world  catalogue 
of  Aphidiidae  of  which  only  7 species  were 
recorded  from  India.  Stary  (1970)  has  given 
an  extensive  account  of  the  biology  of  aphi- 
diid  parasites  with  respect  to  aphid  control 
including  a list  of  known  genera  of  Aphidiidae 
of  the  world. 

The  first  published  information  on  aphidiid 
parasites  in  India  could  be  traced  back  to 
1912  when  Viereck  described  a new  species 
of  the  group  from  south  India.  Subsequently 
a number  of  stray  records  have  been  publish- 
ed mostly  from  north,  north-eastern  as  also 
from  south  India.  But  no  comprehensive 
account  of  the  group  from  India  has  been 
published  till  date. 

In  the  present  catalogue  46  species  and 
12  other  undetermined  species  or  species  com- 

1  Accepted  May  1979. 

2 Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta  700  016. 

3 Department  of  Zoology,  Calcutta  University, 
Calcutta  700  019. 


plex,  belonging  to  14  genera  out  of  30  genera 
known  from  the  world  and  three  subfamilies, 
have  been  listed  along  with  their  aphid  hosts, 
aphid  host-plants,  period  of  incidence,  distri- 
bution and  references.  A separate  host  parasite 
index  added.  The  generic  classification  as  given 
by  Stary  (1970)  has  been  followed  in  the 
present  work. 

Subfamily:  ephedrinae 
Genus  Ephedrus  Haliday  1833 

E.  campestris  Stary 

Host : Macrosiphoniella  sanborni  (Gill.)  ex. 
Chrysanthemum  (Oct.). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit. : Shuja  Uddin  1978. 

E.  lacertosus  (Haliday) 

Hosts : Myzus  persicae  (Sulzer)  ex.  indet. 
host,  Neomyzus  circumflexus  (Buckt.)  ex. 
Convolvulus  major  (Jan.);  indet.  aphid. 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir,  Himachal  Pra- 
desh, Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Rao  1969,  Subba  Rao  & Sharma  1960 
b,  Sharma  & Subba  Rao  1964. 

E.  niger  Gautier,  Bannamour  & Gaumont 

Hosts : Macrosiphoniella  sanborni  (Gill.) 

ex.  Chrysanthemum  (Nov.);  Uroleucon 
tanaceti  indicus  A.  K.  Ghosh  & Raychau- 
dhuri  ex.  Chrysanthemum  (Nov.). 

Dist.:  Jammu  & Kashmir,  Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Rishi  1976,  Stary  & Ghosh  1975. 


125 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


E.  persicae  Froggatt 

Host : Not  mentioned. 

Dist.:  Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit. : Rishi  1976. 

E.  plagiator  (Nees) 

Hosts : Acyrthosiphon  pisum  (Harris)  ex. 
Pisum  sativum  (Mar.);  Aphis  citricola 
v.d.  Goot  ex.  Bidens  pilosa  (Dec.-Jan.), 
Cyphomendra  betaceae  (Dec.-Jan.),  Eupa- 
torium  riparium  (Feb.-Mar.),  Spiraea 
(Mar.);  A.  craccivora  Koch  ex.  uniden- 
tified; Lantana  camara,  Psidium  guajava 
(Jan.-Apr.),  Spiraea  (May);  A.  fabae 
solanella  Theobald  ex.  Solarium  nigrum; 
Brachycaudus  helichrysi  (Kalt.)  ex. 
Gynura  crepidiodes  (Dec.);  Capitophorus 
sp.  ex.  Polygonum;  Macrosiphoniella  san- 
borni  (Gill.)  ex.  Chrysanthemum  (Apr.- 
May);  Macrosiphum  pachysiphon  H.  R.  L. 
ex.  Rubus  rosaefolius;  M.  rosae  (L.)  ex. 
Rosa  canina  (May);  Macrosiphum  sp.  ex. 
Rosa;  Myzus  ornatus  Laing  ex.  Durant  a; 
M.  persicae  (Sulzer)  ex.  Antirrhinum 
majus  (Feb.),  Artemisia  vulgaris  (Aug., 
Oct.),  Brassica  spp.  (Jan.-Apr.),  Capsi- 
cum annuum  (Jan.-Apr.),  Chenopodium 
album  (May-Jul.),  Cyphomandra  betacea 
(Jan.-Apr.),  Eupatorium  riparium  (Feb.), 
lmpatiens  balsamina,  Solanum  tuberosum 
(May-Jul.),  Lantana  camara  (Oct.), 
Pisum  sativum  (Nov.),  Polygonum  (May- 
Jul.),  Prunus  communis , Psidium  guajava 
(Nov.),  Rubus  rosaefolius  (Aug.),  Sola- 
num tuberosum,  Sonchus  arvensis,  Son- 
chus  corymbosa,  Triticum  spp. 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir,  Uttar  Pradesh, 
Northeast  India,  Karnataka. 

Lit. : Rao  1969,  Rishi  1976,  Stary  & Ghosh 
1978,  Raychaudhuri  et  al.  1978. 

Ephedrus  sp. 

Hosts:  Aphis  citricola  v.d.  Goot.  ex.  Spiraea 
(Jul.);  A.  ruborum  longisetosus  Basu  ex. 


Rubus  ellipticus  (Dec.);  Myzus  dycei 
Carver  ex.  a plant  of  Urticaceae  (Dec.). 

Dist. : Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Stary  & Ghosh  1975. 

Genus  Toxares  Haliday  1840 
T.  deltiger  (Haliday) 

Hosts:  Aphis  citricola  v.d.  Goot  ex.  Hibiscus 
(Apr.);  Brachycaudus  helichrysi  (Kalt.) 
ex.  Prunus  domestica  (Apr.),  Capitopho- 
rus hippophaes  Walker  ex.  Polygonum 
chinensis  (Jan.);  Metopolophium  euryae 
(Takashshi)  ex.  Eurya  acuminata  (Feb.); 
Myzus  ornatus  Laing  ex.  Unidentified 
plant  (Apr.);  Myzus  persicae  (Sulzer) 
ex.  Diant hus  (Feb.),  Gynura  crepidoides 
(Jan.),  Solanum  khasianum  (Apr.); 
Sc  hi  zap  his  ortundiventris  (Signoret)  ex. 
Pyrus  communis  (Apr.). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir,  Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Rishi  1976,  Stary  & Ghosh  1978. 

T.  macrosiphophagum  Shuja  Uddin 

Host:  Macrosiphoniella  sanborni  (Gill.)  ex 
Chrysanthemum  (Sep.). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit. : Shuja  Uddin  1974. 

T.  shigai  Takada 

Hosts:  Brachycaudus  helichrysi  (Kalt.)  ex. 
Pyrus  (Apr.);  unidentified  host  ex.  Tri- 
ticum vulgare. 

Dist.:  Jammu  & Kashmir,  Meghalaya,  West 
Bengal. 

Lit.:  Dharmadhikari  & Ramaseshiah  1970, 
Stary  & Ghosh  1975,  Rishi  1976. 

T.  zakai  Shuja  Uddin 

Host:  Myzus  persicae  (Sulzer)  ex.  Solanum 
nigrum  (Sep.). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit.:  Shuja  Uddin  1974. 

Subfamily  prainae 
Genus  Areoproan  Mackauer  1959 
Areoproan  sp. 

Host.:  Not  mentioned. 


126 


CATALOGUE  OF  APH1DUD  PARASITES 


Dist .:  Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit. : Rishi  1976. 

Genus  Proem  Haliday  1833 

P.  abjectum  (Haliday) 

Host : Aphis  craccivora  Koch  ex.  Dolichos 
lablab  (Nov.). 

Dist. : Karnataka. 

Lit. : Dharmadhikari  & Ramaseshiah  1970. 

P.  aff.  absinthii  Bignell 

Hosts : Aphis  gossypii  Glover  and  Dactyno- 
tus  sp.  ex.  Artemisia  vulgaris  (Jan.). 

Dist. : Meghalaya. 

Lz7. : Dharmadhikari  & Ramaseshiah  1970. 

P.  longicorne  Marshall 

Host:  Indet.  aphid  (Jun.);  elsewhere  seve- 
ral species  of  Acyrthosiphon,  Dactynotus, 
Macrosiphoniella,  Microlophium,  Paczos- 
kia  (Mackauer  1968). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit.:  Subba  Rao  & Sharma  1969  b. 

P.  myzophagimi  Mackauer 

Hosts:  Acyrthosiphon  pisum  (Harris)  ex. 
Pisum  sativum;  Aphis  citricola  v.  d.  Goot 
ex.  Bidens  pilosa;  Macrosiphum  sp.  ex. 
Rosa;  Myzus  ornatus  Laing  ex.  Durant  a; 
M.  persicae  (Sulzer)  ex.  Argemone 
mexicana,  Brassica  oleracea  var.  capitata 
(Oct.),  B.  oleracea  (Jan.-May),  Nico- 
tiana  tabacum  (Jan.-May),  Polygonum 
perfoliatum,  Polygonum  (Dec.),  Rapha- 
nus  sativus  (Jan.-May),  Solanum  tubero- 
sum; Indet.  aphid  ex.  Argemone  mexi- 
cana, Artemisia  vulgaris  (Jan.-May), 
Durant  a and  Rosa  sp. 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir,  Himachal  Pra- 
desh, Assam,  Meghalaya,  West  Bengal. 

Lit.:  Dharmadhikari  & Ramaseshiah  1970, 
Rao  1969. 

P.  aff.  myzophagum  Mackauer 

Host:  Aphis  gossypii  Glover  ex.  Lantana 
camara. 

Dist.:  Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Rao  1969. 


P.  necans  Mackauer 

Host:  Rhopalosiphum  nymphae  (L.)  ex. 
Trapa  bispinosa  (Mar.). 

Dist. : Delhi. 

Lit.:  Subba  Rao,  Sarup  & Sharma  1963, 
Mackauer  1968. 

P.  volucre  (Haliday) 

Host : Not  mentioned;  elsewhere  a number 
of  hosts  all  belonging  to  Aphidinae 
(Mackauer  1968). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir,  Delhi. 

Lit.:  Subba  Rao  & Sharma  1960  b. 

Proan  sp. 

Hosts:  Aphis  craccivora  Koch  ex.  Dolichos 
lablab  (Nov.);  Amphorophorail)  sp.  ex. 
Rubus  moluccanus,  A.  gossypii  Glover 
ex.  Eupatorium  odoratum  & Rubus  molu- 
ccanus; Aphis  sp.  ex.  Rubus  moluccanus; 
Brachycaudus  helichrysi  (Kalt.)  ex.  Pru- 
nus  domestica  (Apr.);  Dactynotus  (?)  sp. 
ex.  Rubus  moluccanus;  Macrosiphoniella 
spinepes  Basu  ex.  Artemisia  (Sep.); 
Macrosiphum  pachysiphon  H.R.L.  ex.  un- 
identified garden  plant  (Jun.);  M.  ( Sito - 
bion)  rosaeformis  Das  ex.  Rosa  (Apr.); 
Myzus  ornatus  Laing  ex.  Eupatorium 
odoratum;  M.  persicae  (Sulzer)  ex.  Anti- 
rrhinum majus  (Feb.);  Myzus  sp.  a plant 
of  Rubiaceae  (Jan.);  Rhopalosiphum 
nymphae  (L.)  ex.  Rosa  (Apr.). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir,  Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Dharmadhikari  & Ramaseshiah  1970, 
Stary  & Ghosh  1975  and  1978,  Rishi  1976. 

Subfamily:  aphidiinae 
Tribe:  APHIDINI 
Subtribe:  lysiphlebina 
Genus:  Lysiphlebus  Foerster  1862. 

L.  ambiguus  (Haliday) 

Host:  Not  mentioned;  elsewhere  species  of 
genera  Aphis,  Brachycaudus,  Hydaphis, 
Melanphis  and  Toxoptera  (Mackauer 
1968). 


127 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Dist .:  Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit. : Rishi  1976. 

L.  delhiensis  (Subba  Rao  & Sharma) 

Host : Longiunguis  sacchari  (Zehntner)  ex. 
Sugarcane  (Oct.-Nov.). 

Dist. : New  Delhi. 

LzY.:  Subba  Rao  & Sharma  1960  a. 

L.  testaceipes  (Cresson) 

Hosts:  Aphis  craccivora  Koch  ex.  Dolichos 
lablab  and  Glyricidia  maculata  (Dec.- 
Mar.);  Longiunguis  sacchari  (Zehntner) 
ex.  Sugarcane  (Nov.). 

Dist. : New  Delhi,  Andhra  Pradesh. 

Lit. : Narayanan,  Subba  Rao  & Sharma 
1958,  Ramaseshiah,  Bhat  & Dharmadhi- 
kari  1968. 

Lysiphlebus  sp. 

Hosts : Aphis  craccivora  Koch  ex.  Cajanus 
cajan;  A.  gossypii  Glover  ex.  Hibiscus 
rosasinensis ; Macrosiphum  avenae?  and 
Rhopalosiphum  maidis  (Fitch)  ex.  Triti- 
cum  vulgare. 

Dist.:  Jammu  & Kashmir,  Punjab,  Assam. 

Lit. : Rao  1969,  Dharmadhikari  & Rama- 
seshiah 1970. 

L.  mirazi  Shuja  Uddin 

Host:  Longiunguis  sacchari  (Zehntner)  ex. 
Saccharum  officinarum  (Nov.). 

Dist. : Uttar  Pradesh. 

Lit.:  Shuja  Uddin  1975. 

Genus  Diaeretus  Foerster  1862 

D.  leucopterus  (Haliday) 

Host:  Eulachnus  thunbergii  Wilson  ex. 

Pinus  (Feb.). 

Dist. : Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Stary  & Ghosh  1975. 

Subtribe  protaphidiina 
Genus  Pauesia  Quilis  1931 

P.  indica  Stary 

Host:  Lachnus  tropicalis  (v.  d.  Goot)  ex. 
unidentified  plant  (Jun.). 


Dist.:  Manipur. 

Lit. : Stary  & Raychaudhuri  1978. 

P.  laricis  (Haliday) 

Host:  Cinara  ( Cinarella ) atrotibialis  David 
& Rajasingh  ex.  Pinus  (Oct.-Nov.). 

Dist. : Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Stary  & Ghosh  1975. 

Subtribe  aphidiina 
Genus  Aphidius  Nees  1818 

A.  nr.  avenae  (Haliday) 

Host:  Not  mentioned. 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit.:  Rishi  1976. 

A.  colemani  Viereck 

Host:  Aphis  sp.  ex.  on  tobacco;  A.  gossypii 
Glover  ex.  Vitis  (Jan.). 

Dist. : Meghalaya,  Karnataka,  Southern 

India. 

Lit.:  Krishnamurti  & Usman  1955,  Stary  & 
Ghosh  1978. 

A.  commodus  Gahan 

Host. : Macrosiphoniella  pseudoartemisae 

(Shinji)  ex.  Artemisia  (Apr.);  M.  san- 
borni  (Gill.)  ex.  Chrysanthemum  (Oct.). 

Dist. : Uttar  Pradesh,  West  Bengal. 

Lit.:  Dharmadhikari  & Ramaseshiah  1970. 

A.  matricariae  Haliday 

Hosts:  Brachycaudus  helichrysi  (Kalt.)  ex. 
Prunus  (Apr.);  Brevicoryne  brassicae  (L.) 
ex.  Brassica  (Apr.);  Capitophorus  hippo- 
phaes  indicus  A.  K.  Ghosh  ex.  Polygo- 
num chinensis  (Jan.);  Lip  aphis  erysimi 
(Kalt.)  ex.  Brassica  napus  (Jun.);  Myzus 
dycei  Carver  and  M.  persicae  (Sulzer)  ex. 
unidentified  plant  (Dec.);  Myzus  sp.  ex. 
a plant  of  Rubiaceae  (Jan.). 

Dist. : Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Stary  & Ghosh  1975  and  1978. 

A.  rosae  Haliday 

Host:  Macrosiphum  rosae  (L.)  ex.  Rosa 
canina  and  Rosa  sp. 


128 


CATALOGUE  OF  APH1DUD  PARASITES 


Dist.:  Jammu  & Kashmir,  Sikkim,  West 
Bengal. 

Lit.:  Rishi  1976,  Raychaudhuri  et  al.  (in 
press). 

A.  smith!  Sharma  & Subba  Rao 

Host : Acyrthosiphon  pisum  (Harris)  ex. 
Visum  sativum  (Feb. -Mar.). 

Dist : Punjab,  Delhi,  Uttar  Pradesh,  West 
Bengal. 

Lit.:  Subba  Rao  & Sharma  1958,  Rao  1969. 

A.  franscaspicus  Telenga 

Host.’.Rhopalosiphum  maidis  (Fitch). 

Dist.:  Karnataka. 

Lit.:  Kashiviswanathan  1972. 

A.  uzbeckistanicus  Luzhetzki 

Host'.Macrosiphum  ( Sitobion ) sp.  ex. 
Triticum  aestivum  and  Avena  sativa  (Jan.- 
Apr.). 

Lit.:  Shuja  Uddin  1975. 

Aphidius  sp. 

Hosts:  Acyrthosiphon  pisum  (Harris)  ex. 
Pisum  sativum  (Feb-Mar.);  Aphis  citri- 
cola  v.  d.  Goot  ex.  Bidens  bipinnata  and 
B.  biternatus  (Feb.),  Eupatorium  odora- 
tum  and  E.  riparium  (Feb.),  an  unidenti- 
fied plant  (Jul.);  A.  gossypii  Glover  ex. 
Abelmoschus  esculentus  (Nov.-Apr.); 
Artemisia  vulgaris  (Apr.),  Cestrum  noc- 
turnum,  Cyphomandra  betacea  (Dec.- 
Mar.),  Duranta,  Gossypium  (Nov.-Apr.), 
Hibiscus  rosasinensis  (Nov.-Apr.),  Lan- 
tana  camara,  Leucoceptrum  annum,  Mal- 
vaviscus  conzonthie,  Solanum  melongena 
(Nov.-Apr.);  A.  fabae  solanella  Theobald 
ex.  unidentified  plant;  Capitophorus  sp. 
ex.  Artemisia  vulgaris  (Apr.);  Dactynotus 
sonchi  (L.)  ex.  Lactuca  (Mar.);  Dacty- 
notus sp.  ex.  Artemisia  vulgaris ; Macro- 
siphum  ( Sitobion ) rosaeiformis  Das  ex. 
Rosa  sp.  (Jun.-Nov.);  Myzus  ornatus 
Laing  ex.  Duranta,  Malvaviscus  conzon- 
thie; M.  persicae  (Sulzer)  ex.  Cypho- 


mandra betacea  (Feb.),  Malvaviscus 
conzonthie;  Schizaphis  rotundiventris 
(Signoret)  ex.  Pyrus  communis  (Apr.). 

Dist. : Widely  distributed  all  over  India. 

Lit.:  Raju  Rao  1954,  Rao  1969,  Stary  & 
Ghosh  1975,  Rishi  1976,  Stary  & Ghosh 
1978. 

Genus  Diaeretiella  Stary 
D.  rapae  (M’  Intosh) 

Hosts:  Aphis  gossypii  Glover  ex.  Leucas 
aspera  (Jan.);  A.  fabae  solanella  Theobald 
ex.  Cestrum  fasciculatum;  Brevicoryne  bra- 
ssicae  (L.)  ex.  Brassica  (Dec.-Apr.);  Hya- 
lopterus  atriplices  (L.)  ex.  Chenopodium; 
Lipaphis  erysimi  (Kalt.)  ex.  Brassica  spp. 
(Dec.-Mar.);  Myzus  persicae  (Sulzer)  ex. 
Cyphomandra  betacea ; Indet.  host.  ex. 
Euphorbia  sp. 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir,  Himachal  Pra- 
desh, Punjab,  Uttar  Pradesh,  Assam, 
Meghalaya,  West  Bengal,  Karnataka. 

Lit.:  Batra  & Wadhi  1962,  Kundu  et  al. 
1965,  Rao  1969,  Stary  & Ghosh  1975  and 
1978. 

Genus  Lysaphidus  Smith  1944 
L.  erysimi  Stary 

Host:  Not  mentioned;  elsewhere  Brevicoryne 
erysimi  Holman  and  Lipaphis  erysimi 
(Kalt.)  (Mackauer  1968). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit.:  Rishi  1976. 

L.  qadrii  Shuja  Uddin 

Host.:  Indet.  host  ex.  Artocarpus  hetero- 
phyllus  (Mar.). 

Dist. : Uttar  Pradesh. 

Lit. : Shuja  Uddin  1977. 

Lysaphidus  sp. 

Hosts:  Aphis  craccivora  Koch;  Macrosipho- 
niella  sanborni  (Gill.)  ex.  Chrysanthe- 
mum; Myzus  persicae  (Sulzer)  ex. 
Cyphomandra  betacea,  Rhopalosiphum 
maidis  (Fitch)  ex.  Sorghum. 


129 


9 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Dist. : Punjab,  Uttar  Pradesh,  West  Bengal. 

Lit. : Rao  1969,  Dharmadhikari  & Rama- 
seshiah  1970. 

Tribe  trioxini 

Subtribe  MONOCTININA 

Genus  Monoctonus  Haliday  1833 

Monoctonus  sp. 

Host.:  Not  mentioned. 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit. : Rishi  1976. 

Subtribe  trioxina 

Genus  Lipolexis  Foerster  1862 

L.  gracilis  Foerster 

Host : Lipaphis  erysimi  (Kalt.)  ex.  Brassica 
campestris  (Jan.);  Indet.  aphid  ex. 
Cajanus  cajan  (Mar.). 

Dist.:  Jammu  & Kashmir,  Delhi. 

Lit.:  Sharma  & Subba  Rao  1964,  Rishi  1976. 

L.  scutellarus  Mackauer 

Hosts:  Aphis  citricola  v.  d.  Goot  ex.  Bidens 
pilosa,  B.  pinnata  (through  out  the  year), 
Dracocephalum  sp.  (?  latifolium ),  Erech- 
thites  valarianaefolia,  Eupatorium  odora- 
tum,  Jacaranda  mimosifolia,  Melanthesa 
patens,  Mikania  cordata,  Prunus  amygda- 
lus,  Spiraea  corymbosa;  A.  gossypii  Glover 
ex.  Cosmos  (Sep.),  Eupatorium  (Jul.), 
Hibiscus  rosasinensis  (Jun.-Sep.),  Lan- 
tana  camara  (Dec.),  Psidium  guajava 
(Jul.);  A.  nerii  B.  d.  Fonscolombe  ex. 
Calotropis  gigantea  (Dec. -Jan.);  A.  rubo - 
rum  longisetosus  Basu  ex.  Rubus  ellipti- 
cus  (Jun.);  A.  fabae  soianella  Theobald 
ex.  Solanum;  Aphis  sp.,  ex.  Cestrum 
nocturnum;  Greenidea  ( Trichosiphum ) 
formosana  ? ex.  Psidium  guajava ; Toxop- 
tera  aurantii  (B.  d.  Fonscolombe)  ex. 
Schima  wallichii;  T,  citricidus  (Kirkaldy) 
ex.  Citrus  (Sep.),  Zanthoxylum  (Sep.); 
Tuberolachnus  salignus  (Gmelin)  ex. 
Salix  (Sep.). 


Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir,  Punjab,  Uttar 
Pradesh,  Assam,  Meghalaya,  West  Ben- 
gal, Andhra  Pradesh,  Tamilnadu,  Karna- 
taka, Kerala. 

Lit. : Rao  1969,  Dharmadhikari  & Rama- 
seshiah  1970,  Stary  & Ghosh  1975,  Rishi 
1976. 

Genus  Trioxys  Haliday  1833 
Subgenus  Betuloxys  Mackauer  1960 
T.  (B.)  assamensis  Stary 

Host:  Betacallis  querciphaga  Basu,  Ghosh 
& Raychaudhuri  ex.  unidentified  plant 
(Oct.). 

Dist. : Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Stary  & Ghosh  1975. 

T.  (B.)  hortorum  Stary 
Host:  Not  mentioned. 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit. : Rishi  1976. 

T.  (B.)  intermedius  Shuja  Uddin 

Host:  Indet.  aphid  ex.  Centaurea  iberica 
(Sep.). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit.:  Shuja  Uddin  1975. 

T.  (B.)  takecallis  Stary 

Host.’.Takecallis  arundinariae  ex.  unidenti- 
fied Gramineae  (Dec.). 

Dist. : West  Bengal. 

Lit.:  Stary  & Raychaudhuri  1978. 

Subgenus  Binodoxys  Mackauer 
T.  (B.)  acalephae  Marshall 

Host.:  Aphis  gossypii  Glover  ex.  Cyanotis 
axillaris  (Jul.). 

Dist. : Karnataka. 

Lit.:  Dharmadhikari  & Ramaseshiah  1970. 
T.  (B.)  basicuryus  Shuja  Uddin 
Host : Aphis  gossypii  Glover  ex.  Rubus 

(May). 

Dist.:  Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit. : Sharma  & Subba  Rao  1964. 

T.  (B.)  eutrichosiphini  Stary 

Host:  Eutrichosiphum  sp.  ex.  Castanopsis 


130 


CATALOGUE  OF  APHID1ID  PARASITES 


(Sep.),  Litsea  (Oct.). 

Dist. : Meghalaya. 

Lite.  Stary  & Ghosh  1975. 

T.  (B.)  indicus  Subba  Rao  & Sharma 

Hosts'.  Aphis  citricola  v.  d.  Goot  ex.  Spi- 
raea (Jul.);  A.  craccivora  Koch  ex.  a 
plant  of  Leguminosae  (Sep.);  A.  fabae 
solanella  Theobald  ex.  Maesa  (Dec.);  A. 
gossypii  Glover  ex.  Abelmoschus  esculen- 
tus  (May-Jul.),  Bidens  pilosa,  Capsicum, 
Cestrum  nocturnum,  Chrysanthemum, 
Coccinea  cordifolia,  C.  esculenta,  C.  in - 
dica,  Colocasia  (May),  Cuscuta  reflexa 
(Sep.,),  Cymopsis  tetagonaloba,  Cypho- 
mandra  betacea,  Dolichos  lablab,  Dur- 
anta,  Eupatorium,  Gossypium  hirsutum 
(Feb.),  Gossypium  sp.,  Gynura  crepidio- 
ides,  Hibiscus  rosasinensis  (Sep. -Oct., 
Dec.),  Lagenaria  siceraria,  L.  vulgaris, 
Lantana  camara,  Portulaca,  Psidium  gua- 
java  (May,  Sep.),  Rumex  dentatus,  Sola- 
num  melongena  (Nov. -Mar.),  S.  tubero- 
sum, Tinospora,  Trichosanthes  anguina; 
A.  nerii  B.  d.  Fonscolombe  ex.  Calotropis 
procera  (Mar.),  A.  ruborum  longisetosus 
Basu  ex.  Rubus  (Dec.);  Brachycaudus 
helichrysi  (Kalt.)  ex.  Gynura  crepidioi- 
des  (Dec.);  Myzus  persicae  (Sulzer)  ex. 
Cyphomandra  betacea  and  an  unidenti- 
fied plant  (Nov.);  Sinomegoura  citricola 
(v.  d.  Goot)  ex.  Ardisia  (Sep.);  Toxop - 
tera  aurantii  (B.  d.  Fonscolombe)  ex. 
Ilex  (Sep.);  T.  citricidus  (Kirkaldy)  ex. 
Citrus  (Sep.),  Zanthoxylum  (July-Sep.). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir,  Punjab,  Delhi, 
Uttar  Pradesh,  Meghalaya,  Manipur,  West 
Bengal,  Karnataka. 

Lit.:  Narayanan,  Subba  Rao  & Sharma 
1958,  Subba  Rao  & Sharma  1958,  Rao 
1969,  Shuja  Uddin  1973,  Stary  & Ghosh 
1975,  Rishi  1976,  Raychaudhuri  et  al. 
1978,  Stary  & Ghosh  1978. 


T.  (B.)  rubicola  Shuja  Uddin 

Host:  Aphis  gossypii  Glover  ex.  Rubus 
(May). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit.:  Shuja  Uddin  1973. 

T.  (B.)  shillongensis  Stary 

Host:  Sinomegoura  pyri  Ghosh  & Ray- 
chaudhuri ex.  unidentified  plant  (Sep.). 

Dist. : Meghalaya. 

Lit. : Stary  & Ghosh  1978. 

T.  (B.)  sinensis  Mackauer 

Host:  Aphis  craccivora  Koch  and  A.  gos- 
sypii Glover  ex.  Cestrum  nocturnum 
(Nov.-Dee.). 

Dist. : Uttar  Pradesh. 

Lit. : Rao  1969. 

Subgenus  Trioxys  Haliday  1833 
T.  (T.)  auctus  (Haliday) 

Host : Rhopalosiphum  maidis  (Fitch)  ex. 
Sagittaria  sagittifolia. 

Dist.:  Assam. 

Lit.:  Dharmadhikari  & Ramaseshiah  1970. 
T.  (T.)  pallidus  (Haliday) 

Host:  Not  mentioned;  elsewhere  several 
species  of  Drepanosiphinae  (Mackauer 
1968). 

Dist : Jammu  & Kashmir. 

Lit.:  Rishi  1976. 

Trioxys  spp. 

Hosts:  Macrosiphoniella  spinipes  Basu  ex. 
Chrysanthemum  (Nov.);  MollitrichosU 
phum  tenuicorpus  (Okajima)  ex.  a plant 
of  Fagaceae  (Apr.);  Tuberculatus  indicus 
L.  K.  Ghosh  ex.  Quercus  griff it  hi  (Apr.). 

Dist. : Jammu  & Kashmir,  Meghalaya. 

Lit.:  Stary  & Ghosh  1975  and  1978,  Rishi 
1976. 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  thankful  to  the  Director,  Zoologi- 
cal Survey  of  India,  Calcutta  and  to  the  Head, 
Department  of  Zoology,  University  of  Calcutta 
for  providing  working  facilities. 


131 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


HOST  PARASITE  INDEX 


Acyrthosiphon  pisum 

: Aphidius  smithi 
Aphidius  sp. 
Ephedrus  plagiator 

Aphis  nerii 

: Lipolexis  scutellaris 
Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
indicus 

Proan  myzophagum 

Aphis  rubor um 

Ephedrus  sp. 

Amphorophora  sp. 

• Proan  sp. 

longisetosus 

: Lipolexis  scutellaris 

Aphis  spp. 

• Aphidius  colemani 
Lipolexis  scut  ell  ar  is 

Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
indicus 

Proan  sp. 

Betacallis  querciphaga 

: Trioxys  ( Betuloxys ) 

Aphis  citric ola 

• Aphidius  spp. 

assamensis 

Ephedrus  plagiator 
Ephedrus  sp. 
Lipolexis  scutellaris 
Proan  myzophagum 
Toxares  deltiger 
Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
indicus 

Brachycaudus  helichrysi 

: Aphidius  matricariae 
Ephedrus  plagiator 
Proan  sp. 

Toxares  deltiger 
Toxares  shigai 
Trioxys  ( Binidoxys ) 
indicus 

Aphis  craccivora 

: Ephedrus  plagiator 
Lipolexis  scutellaris 

Brevicoryne  brassicae 

: Aphidius  matricariae 
Diaeretiella  rapae 

Lysaphidus  sp. 
Lysiphlebus  sp. 

Capitophorus  spp. 

: Aphidius  sp. 
Ephedrus  plagiator 

Proan  abjectum 
Proan  sp. 

Capitophorus  hippophaes 
Capitophorus  hippophaes 

: Toxares  deltiger 

Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 

indicus 

: Aphidius  matricariae 

indicus 

Cinara  atrotibialis 

: Pauesia  laricis 

Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
sinensis 

Dactynotus  spp. 

'.Aphidius  sp. 

Proan  sp.  aff.  absinthii 

Aphis  fctbae  solanella 

• Aphidius  sp. 

Proan  sp. 

Diaeretiella  rapae 

Dactynotus  sonchi 

: A phidius  sp. 

Ephedrus  plagiator 

Eulachnus  thunbergii 

: Diaeretiella  leucopterus 

Lipolexis  scutellaris 
Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
indicus 

Eutrichosiphum  sp. 
Greenidea  ( Trichosiphum ) 

Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
eutrichosiphini 

Aphis  gossypii 

'•  Aphidius  colemani 

formosana 

: Lipolexis  scutellaris 

A phidius  spp. 

Hyalopterus  atriplices 

: Diaeretiella  rapae 

Diaeretiella  rapae 
Ephedrus  plagiator 

Lachnus  tropicalis 

: Pauesia  ( Paraphidius ) 
indica 

Lipolexis  scutellaris 
Lysiphlebus  sp. 

Proan  sp.  aff.  absinthii 

Lipaphis  erysimi 

: Aphidius  matricariae 
Diaeretiella  rapae 
Lipolexis  gracilis 

Proan  sp.  aff.  myzophag 
Proan  sp. 

Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 

Longiunguis  sacchari 
Macrosiphoniella 

: Lysiphlebia  mirazi 
Lysiphlebus  dehiensis 

acalephae 

pseudoartemisiae 

: Aphidius  commodus 

Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
basicuryus 

Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
indicus 

Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
ru  bicola 

Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
sinensis 

Macrosiphoniella  sanborni 

: Aphidius  commodus 
Ephedrus  campestris 
Ephedrus  niger 
Ephedrus  plagiator 
Lysaphidus  sp. 

T oxares 

macrosiphophagum 

132 


CATALOGUE  OF  APHIDI1D  PARASITES 


Macrosiphoniella  spinipes  : 

Macrosiphum  sp.  : 

Macrosiphum  ( Sitobion ) sp. 

Macrosiphum  avenae  : 

Macrosiphum  pachysiphon : 

Macrosiphum  ( Sitobion ) 
rosaeiformis  : 

Macrosiphum  rosae  : 

Metopolophium  eurae  : 

Mollitrichosiphum 

tenuicorpus  : 

Myzus  sp.  : 

Myzus  dycei  : 

Myzus  ornatus  : 


Myzus  persicae 


Proan  sp. 

Trioxys  sp. 

Ephedrus  plagiator 
Proan  myzophagum 
Aphidius  uzbekistanicus 
Lysiphlebus  sp. 
Ephedrus  plagiator 
Proan  sp. 

Aphidius  sp. 

Proan  sp. 

Aphidius  rosae 
Ephedrus  plagiator 
Toxares  del  tiger 

Trioxys  sp. 

Aphidius  matricariae 
Aphidius  matricariae 
Ephedrus  sp. 

Aphidius  sp. 

Ephedrus  plagiator 
Proan  myzophagum 
Proan  sp. 

T oxares  del  tiger 
Aphidius  matricariae 
Aphidius  sp. 

Diaeretiella  rapae 
Ephedrus  lacertosus 
Ephedrus  plagiator 
Lysaphidus  sp. 

Proan  myzophagum 
Proan  sp. 


Neomyzus  circumflexus 
Rhopalosiphum  maidis 

Rhopalosiphum  nymphae 
Schizaphis  rotundiventris 
Sinomegoura  citricola 
Sinomegoura  pyri 
Takecallis  arundinariac 
Toxoptera  aurantii 

Toxoptera  citricidus 

Tuberculatus  indicus 
Tuber olachnus  salignus 
Uroleucon  tanaceti 
indicus 


Toxares  deltiger 
Toxares  zakai 
Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
brevicornis 
Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
indicus 

: Ephedrus  lacertosus 
: Aphidius  transcaspicus 
Ephedrus  plagiator 
Lysiphlebus  sp. 

Trioxys  ( Trioxys )? 
auctus 

'■  Proan  necans 
Proan  sp. 

: Aphidius  sp. 

Toxares  deltiger 

• Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 

indicus 

• Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 

shillongensis 
' Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
takecallis 

■ Lipolexis  scutellaris 
Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
indicus 

'•  Lipolexis  scutellaris 
Trioxys  ( Binodoxys ) 
indicus 

'■  Lipolexis  scutellaris 

• Trioxys  sp. 

• Ephedrus  niger 


References 


Batra,  H.  N.  and  Wadhi,  S.  R.  (1962) : Addi- 
tional notes  on  insects  of  economic  importance  in 
Kulu  Valley,  Punjab.  Indian  J.  Ent.,  24:  135-136. 

Dharmadhikari,  P.  R.  and  Ramaseshiah,  G. 
(1970):  Recent  records  of  aphidiids  (Hym. : Aphi- 
diidae)  in  India.  Tech.  Bull.,  Common.  Inst.  biol. 
Control,  13 : 83-89. 

Kashiviswanthan,  P.  R.  (1972)  : New  records 
of  Aphidius  transcaspicus  (Telenga)  (Braconidae: 
Hymenoptera)  as  a parasite  of  Rhopalosiphum 
maidia  (Fitch).  Indian  J.  Ent.,  34  (1):  74. 

Krishnamurty,  B.  and  Usman,  S.  (1955):  Some 
insect  parasites  of  economic  importance  noted  in 
Mysore  State,  Indian  J.  Ent.,  16  (4)  : 327-344. 

Kundu,  G.  G.,  Sharma,  V.  K.,  Anand,  R.  K. 


and  Rai,  Samarjit  (1965):  New  record  of  Diaere- 
tiella rapae  (Curtis)  as  a parasite  of  mustard  aphid, 
Lipaphis  erysimi  (Kalt.)  (Hemiptera:  Aphididae). 
Indian  J.  Ent.,  27:  497-498. 

Mackauer,  M.  (1968) : Hymenopterorum  cata- 
logus  (nova  editio)  Pars.  3.  Aphidiidae.  Dr.  W.  Junk 
N.  V.  ’S  - Gravenhage,  1-103. 

Narayanan,  E.  S.,  Subba  Rao,  B.  R.  and  Sharma, 
A.  K.  (1958) : Notes  on  three  interesting  parasitic 
hymenoptera  from  India.  Indian  J.  Ent.,  20  (2)  : 160. 

(1960) : 

A catalogue  of  the  known  species  of  the  world 
belonging  to  the  subfamily  Aphidiinae  (Hymenop- 
tera: Braconidae).  Beitr.  Ent.,  10  (5-6):  545-581; 
622-720. 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Raju  Rau,  S.  A.  (1954) : Bionomics  and  life- 
history  of  Aphidius  sp.,  — a parasite  on  Aphis 
gossypii  Glover  on  brinjal  ( Solatium  melongena). 
Indian  J.  Ent.,  16  (4) : 362-371. 

Ramaseshiah,  G.,  Bhat,  K.  V.  and  Dharma- 
dhikari,  P.  R.  (1968)  : Influence  of  host  aphid,  host 
plant  and  temperature  of  the  laboratory  breeding  of 
Lysiphlebus  testaceipe.  Indian  J.  Ent.  30  (4)  : 281- 
285. 

Rao,  V.  P.  (1969):  Survey  for  natural  enemies  of 
aphids  in  India,  Commonwealth  Institute  of  Biolo- 
gical Control,  Indian  Station,  U.  S.  PL  480  Pro- 
ject, Final  Technical  Report,  1-93. 

Raychaudhuri,  D.  N.,  Dutta,  S.,  Agarwala, 
Basant  K.,  Raychaudhuri,  D.  and  Raha,  S.  K. 
(1978)  : Some  parasites  and  predators  of  aphids  from 
northeast  India  and  Bhutan.  Entomon,  3 (1)  : 91-94. 

Raychaudhuri,  D.  N.,  Dutta,  S.,  Agarwala, 
Basant  K.,  Rana,  S.  K.,  and  Raychaudhuri,  D. 
(In  Press)  : Some  parasites  and  predators  of  aphids 
of  Northeast  India  and  Bhutan  II.  Entomon. 

Rishi,  N.  D.  (1976)  : Survey  and  studies  of  aphi- 
diid  parasites  of  aphids.  Abstracts;  — Symposium 
on  modern  trends  in  Zoological  researches  in 
India:  47-48. 

Sharma,  A.  K.  and  Subba  Rao,  B.  R.  (1958): 
Description  of  two  new  parasites  of  an  aphid  from 
North  India  (Aphididae : Ichneumonosdea  and  Ptero- 
malidae:  Chalcidoidea) . Indian  J.  Ent.,  20  (3):  181- 
188. 

Sharma,  A.  K.  and  Subba  Rao,  B.  R.  (1964):  A 
further  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  the  taxo- 
nomy and  biology  of  aphidiidae  (Ichneuomoides : 
Hymenoptera)  with  particular  reference  to  Indian 
Forms.  Indian  J.  Ent.,  26  (3):  458-460. 

Shuja  Uddin  (1973)  : Three  species  of  Trioxys 
Haliday  (Hymenoptera:  Aphidiidae)  recorded  from 
India.  Indian  J.  Ent.,  35  (1)  : 9-14. 

(1974) : Two  new  species  of  the 

genus  Toxares  Westwood  (Aphidiidae:  Hymenop- 
tera) from  India  with  a note  on  the  genus.  Indian 
J.  Ent.,  36  (4)  : 268-274. 

(1975):  Two  new  species  of  Aphi- 
diidae (Hymenoptera)  from  India.  Ree.  zool.  Surv. 
India,  68:  415-420. 

(1975) : Field  observations  on 

Aphidius  uzbekistanicus  Luzhetzki  (Hymenoptera: 
Aphidiidae)  and  its  host  Macrosiphum  ( Si  to  bi  on ) 
sp.  (Hemiptera:  Aphidiidae)  infesting  Triticum 


aestivum  L.  Indian  J.  Ent.,  37  (2)  : 191-193. 

— (1977) : A new  species  of  Lysa- 

phidus  from  India  (Hymenoptera:  Aphidiidae).  J. 
Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  73  (2)  : 314-316. 

(1978)  : New  records  of  Ephedrus 

campestris  Stary  (Aphidiidae:  Hymenoptera)  from 
India.  Ind.  J.  zool.,  6 (1):  60-61. 

Stary,  P.  (1970)  : Biology  of  Aphid  parasites. 
Series  entomologia,  Vol.  6,  Dr.  W.  Junk  N.  V.  — 
The  Hauge.  1-643. 

Stary,  P.  and  Ghosh,  A.  K.  (1975):  Aphid 
parasite  (Hymenoptera:  Aphidiidae)  from  Megha- 
laya, India.  Orient.  Insects.  9 (3)  : 343-349. 

0 978):  Further 

records  of  aphid  parasitoids  (Hymenoptera:  Aphi- 
diidae) from  Meghalaya,  India.  Orient.  Insects,  12 
(1):  77-78. 

Stary,  P.  and  Raychaudhuri,  D.  N.  (1977):  A 
new  species  of  Pauesia  (Hymenoptera:  Aphidiidae) 
parasitic  on  Lachnus  tropicalis  (Homoptera:  Aphi- 
didae) in  India.  Orient.  Insects.  11  (2)  : 233-235. 

(1978.  Trio_ 

xys  ( Betuloxys ) takecallis  sp.  nov.  from  India 
(Hymenoptera:  Aphidiidae).  Orient.  Insects,  12  (3): 
235-242. 

Subba  Rao,  B.  R.  and  Sharma,  A.  K.  (1958): 
Description  of  two  new  parasites  of  an  aphid  from 
north  India  (Aphidiidae)  : Ichneumonoidea  and 

of  Aphis  gossypii  Glover.  Indian  J.  Ent.,  20  (3)  : 
181-188. 

(1958): 

Trioxys  ( Trioxys ) indicus,  new  species,  a parasite 
of  Aphis  gossypii  Glover.  Indian  J.  Ent.,  20  (3)  : 
199-202. 

(1960  a): 

Three  new  species  of  Braconidae  from  India.  Proc. 
Indian  Acad.  Sci.,  Bangalore,  51  (2)B:  82-88. 

(1960  b): 

First  records  of  two  aphidiinae  genera  from  India. 
Indian  J.  Ent.,  22:  233-235. 

(1962): 

Studies  on  the  biology  of  Trioxys  indicus  Subba 
Rao  and  Sharma  (1958),  a parasite  of  Aphis  gos- 
sypii Glover.  Proc.  Nat.  Inst.  Sci.  India.,  28  (13)  : 
164-182. 

Subba  Rao,  B.  R.,  Sarup,  Prakash  and  Sharma, 
A.  K.  (1963) : A new  species  of  the  genus  Proan 
Haliday  (1833)  (Hymenoptera:  Braconidae  Aphi- 
diidae). Beitr.  Ent.,  13:  189-191, 


134 


A CATALOGUE  OF  THE  BIRDS  IN  THE  COLLECTION 
OF  THE  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY— 24 


Pycnonotidae 
Humayun  Abdulali 
[Continued  from  Vol.  78  (2) : 286] 


This  part  covers  640  specimens  of  58  species 
and  subspecies  up  to  No.  1151  in  Indian 
Handbook. 

1111  Spizixos  canifrons  canifrons  Blyth 
(Khasia  Hills)  Finchbilled  Bulbul  1:400 

6:  1 $ 2 9 $ 3 o?  (1  *fledgling) 

1 Dumpep,  1 * Shillong,  Assam;  1 Pan  Thabet  water- 
shed 6500';  1 Katuring,  Mogok  Road,  1 Mt.  Victo- 
ria, 7000'  Pakokku  Hill  Tracts;  1 Pimpri  Ban,  N. 
Shan  States,  Burma. 

The  single  adult  female  from  Shillong  has 
the  underparts  slightly  paler  than  in  the  others. 
The  fledgling  from  the  same  area  is  like  the 
adult  but  paler  all  over,  with  the  black  on  the 
head  replaced  by  an  olive-green  which  is  darker 
than  on  the  back.  The  throat  and  upper  breast 
are  light  brownish  white,  and  the  lower  parts 
yellowish.  If  Bangs  and  Phillips’s  ingrami  is  to 
be  accepted  the  bird  from  N.  Shan  State  may 
be  of  this  race. 

Measurements  on  p 146. 

1112  Pycnonotus  atriceps  atriceps  (Tem- 
minck)  (Java)  Blackheaded  Bulbul  1:423 

4:2  $ $ 2 $ $ 

2 Rewa  Tea  Estate,  S.  Sylhet,  Assam;  1 Changtha, 
W.  of  Arakan  Yomas;  1 Htugy,  Henzada  dist; 
Burma. 

The  tails  are  shorter  than  indicated  in  lnd. 
Handbook  (6:70)  ex.  Stuart  Baker’s  Fauna. 

Measurements  on  p.  146. 

1113  Pycnonotus  atriceps  f uscoflavescens 
(Hume)  (Port  Mouat  and  Mt.  Harriet,  Anda- 


mans) Andaman  Blackheaded  Bulbul  1:425 

9:  6 $ $ 3 $ $ 

2 Bakultala,  Middle  Andamans;  1 Port  Blair,  3 
Wrightmyo,  1 Mannarghat,  1 Bambooflats,  1 Chirria 
Tapoo,  South  Andamans. 

Of  the  six  males,  four  have  dark,  almost 
black  caps,  and  are  marked  as  with  enlarged 
gonads.  The  other  two  males  and  the  females 
have  a varying  amount  of  duskiness  on  the 
crown,  but  none  as  dark  as  in  the  breeding 
males.  This  dark  cap  appears  to  be  a sexual 
difference  which  has  yet  been  overlooked. 
Indian  Handbook  (6:70)  quotes  the  Fauna 
to  the  effect  that  the  measurements  are  as  in 
nominate  atriceps , but  the  wings  appear  to  be 
distinctly  smaller  and  the  bills  larger. 

Measurements  on  p.  146. 

1114  Pycnonotus  prioeephalus  (Jerdon) 
(Peria  Pass,  Malabar)  Greyheaded  Bulbul 

1:425 

11:  8 $ $ 2 $ $ 1 o? 

1 Molem,  2 Canacona,  Goa;  1 Karwar,  1 N.  Kanara; 
1 Antarsante,  1 Kallar  (?)  1 Sakleshpur,  Hassan, 
Mysore;  2 Palni  Hills;  1 Balamore  Estate,  Ashambu 
Hills,  Travancore. 

c?  No.  2092  from  Sakleshpur,  Hassan  dist., 
Mysore,  lacks  the  grey  on  the  head.  The  olive- 
green  on  the  upperparts  in  different  specimens 
shows  some  variation. 

Measurements  on  p.  146. 

1115  Pycnonotus  melanicterus  flaviventris 

(Tickell)  (Dampara  in  Dholbhum)  Blackcrest- 
ed  Yellow  Bulbul  1:397 


[418] 


135 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


44:  24  $ $ 16  $ 2 4 o? 

1 Bori,  Hoshangabad;  2 Kameli,  Bailadila,  1 Anta- 
garh,  2 Darba,  M.P.;  2 Kutri,  Daspalla,  3 Koira 
(Bonai),  2 Badrama  (Bamra),  Orissa;  2 Anantgiri, 
1 Upper  Silera,  Vizagapatnam;  3 Dehra  Dun;  1 
Ranibagh,  Kumaon,  2 Pilibhit  Terai,  U.P.;  1 Rang- 
po,  Sikkim;  1 Ganglipokte,  Bhutan;  1 Longview, 
Darjeeling,  Bengal;  2 Goalpara,  2 Margherita,  1 
Yagte;  1 Tezu,  Lohit  Valley,  1 Namchik,  A.P.;  1 
Gorakhpur,  S.  Slyhet;  2 N.  Cachar;  1 Kohima,  Naga 
Hills,  Assam;  1 Sailong,  Chindwin;  1 s.e.  of  Maymyo; 
1 Thayetmyo,  1 Kganklabajiu,  Mogok  Road;  1 
Sagaw,  Chaung,  Sandoway;  1 Htugyi,  1 Kywizin, 
Henzada;  1 Bassein,  N.  Yomas,  Burma. 

Measurements  on  p.  146. 

1116  Pycnonotus  melanlcterus  guiaris 

(Gould)  (Travancore)  Rubythroated  Yellow 
Bulbul  1:415 

13:  4 8 $ 7 $ 9 2 o? 

2 Molem,  Goa;  1 Santgal,  1 Karwar,  1 N.  Kanara; 
1 Agumbe,  Shimoga  dist;  1 Sagar,  Mysore;  1 Kat- 
tamalai,  Charambadi,  2 Gudallur,  Nilgiris;  1 Bam- 
boo forest;  Wynaad;  1 Merchiston  Ponmudi,  1 
Rajaipara,  Panthalam  Hills,  Travancore. 

Measurements  on  p.  146. 

1117  Pycnonotus  inelanicterus  melanicterus 
(Gmelin)  (Ceylon)  Blackcapped  Yellow  Bulbul 

1 : 414 

1 2 Kudava,  Sinharaja,  Ratnapura,  Ceylon. 

Measurements  on  p.  146. 

1118  Pycnonotus  jocosus  pyrrhotis  (Bona- 
parte) (Nepal)  Kumaon  Redwhiskered  Bulbul 

1 2 Pilibhit  — Terai. 

Measurements  on  p.  146. 

1119  Pycnonotus  jocosus  abuensis  (Whistler) 
(Mount  Abu)  Rajasthan  Redwhiskered  Bulbul 

nil. 

1120  Pycnonotus  jocosus  fuscicaudatus 
(Gould)  (Nilgiri  Hills)  Southern  Redwhiskered 
Bulbul 


33:  23  $ $ 8 $ $ 2 o? 

1 Kanheri,  1 Goregaon,  2 Trombay,  1 Andheri, 
Bombay;  1 Matheran;  1 Khandala;  1 Savantwadi; 
1 Molem,  Goa;  1 Castle  Rock,  N.  Kanara;  1 Anan- 
dapuram,  1 Ulavi,  2 Murgimatta,  Sagar,  Mysore; 
4 Bangalore;  1 Runnymede,  2 Longwood  Shola, 
Kotagiri,  Nilgiris,  1 Kodaikanal;  2 Billaj,  Billigiri- 
rangan,  Coimbatore;  1 Shembaganur;  2 Begur, 
Manantaddy,  1 Balamore,  Ashambu  Hills,  Kerala;  3 
Shevaroy  Hills;  2*  Kurumbapatti,  Salem.  * (missing). 

There  is  some  variation  in  the  depth  of 
colour  of  the  upperparts.  The  birds  from 
from  around  Bombay  have  been  accepted  as 
fuscicaudatus  one  of  the  characters  of  which 
is  an  unbroken  band  across  the  breast.  Speci- 
mens from  Kanheri  and  Matheran,  have  broken 
bands  and  field  observations  subsequent  to 
commencement  of  this  study,  and  confirmed 
by  others  indicate  that  they  do  have  a broken 
band  around  Bombay.  No  specimens  of 
abuensis  are  available  but  this  form  in  addi- 
tion to  having  a broken  band,  is  presumably 
much  paler,  and  all  birds  from  as  far  north 
as  the  neighbourhood  of  Bombay  are  only 
tentatively  left  under  fuscicaudatus. 

Measurements  on  p.  147. 

1121  Pycnonotus  jocosus  emeria  (Linnaeus) 
(Benghala)  Bengal  Redwhiskered  Bulbul 

1 : 394  (part) 

12:  6 $ $ 6 $ 2 

4 Anantgiri,  Vizagapatnam;  3 Bailadila,  1 Kotam- 
sar,  Bastar,  M.P.;  1 Keonjgarh,  1 Gonia,  Daspalla, 
1 Koira,  Orissa;  1 Sanchi,  1000',  West  Bhutan. 

cf  1973  from  Anantgiri,  has  no  white  tip 
to  the  tail,  though  this  is  present  in  the  others 
and  is  probably  a juvenile  (Hume,  S.  F.  xi  p. 
181).  The  bird  from  West  Bhutan  was  obtain- 
ed at  an  elevation  of  only  1000'  and  not  being 
as  dark  as  the  others  under  monticola  is  left 
with  this  form. 

Measurements  on  p.  147. 


136 


[419] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 24 


1121a.  Pycnonotus  jocosus  monticola  (Mc- 
Clelland) (Kassia  Mountains,  Assam)  Assam 
Redwhiskered  Bulbul  1:394  (part) 

16:  9 $ $ (1*  juv.)  2 $ 9 5 o? 

1 Sevoke,  Teesta  Valley,  Sikkim;  1*  Dibrugarh,  2 
Sadiya,  2 Dibang  Valley,  Mishmi  Hills,  Assam;  3 
Rupachena,  Cachar;  2 Sailong,  Chindwin,  2 Kabaing, 
Mogok  Road,  2 Tawman,  1 Mankim,  Upper  Burma. 

Of  the  3 birds  from  Rupachena,  Cachar, 
two  have  complete  collars  with  one  of  them 
having  no  white  tips  to  the  tail,  while  the 
third  agrees  with  others  in  the  present  group. 

Measurements  on  p.  147. 

1122  Pycnonotus  jocosus  whlstleri  Deignan 
(Cinque  I.,  Andaman  Is.)  Andaman  Red- 
whiskered  Bulbul 

13:  7 $ $ 6 $ $ 

2 Wrightmyo,  2 Mannarghat,  Andamans;  4 
Camorta,  2 Trinkut,  3 Nancowry,  Central  Nicobars. 

In  some  specimens  from  the  Nicobars, 
(where  it  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
from  the  Andamans)  the  bills  are  noticeably 
heavier  than  in  emeria. 

Measurements  on  p.  147. 

1123  Pycnonotus  leucogenys  leucotis  (Gould) 
(Karachi,  Sind)  White-eared  Bulbul  1 : 390 

31:  12  $ 8 17  $ 9 2 o? 

These  birds  can  be  separated  into  two 
groups,  one  pale  and  the  other  dark  on  the 
upperparts.  The  material  however  is  insuffi- 
cient to  warrant  the  description  of  a new  race, 
and  I am  only  drawing  attention  to  this  fact, 
listing  and  measuring  them  separately. 

(a)  pale  birds  15 : 4 $ $ 10  9 9 1 o? 

1 Charbar,  Persian  Gulf;  1 4000'  Bhani  (Greshog), 
132  m.  s.s.w.  of  Kalat,  Baluchistan;  1 Garo  .Sind; 
3 Hamavas  Lake,  Pali,  Jodhpur;  1 Rudra  Mata,  2* 
Kuar  Bet,  Kutch;  1 Kharaghoda,  2 Dabka,  Baroda; 
3 Cawnpore  (cage  birds). 

* This  is  an  exceptionally  pale  juvenile  with 
bars  on  the  tail  and  an  example  of  hetero- 


chrosis.  Some  remarks  on  the  specimens  have 
been  published  (Salim  Ali,  JBNHS  57(3)  p. 
658).  Excluding  the  3 cage  birds  from  Cawn- 
pore (which  are  very  old  and  faded),  all  have 
been  obtained  in  a contiguous  area  separate 
from  that  of  the  dark  birds.  If  the  two  groups 
are  separable,  these  will  remain  leucotis. 

(b)  dark  birds  16:  8 $ $ 7 2 9 1 o? 

3  Lahore,  2 Multan,  Punjab;  1 Bhung,  Bahawalpur; 
5 Bharatpur;  2 Delhi;  2 Goregaon,  Bombay;  1 
Dharamtar  Creek,  Kolaba. 

The  birds  from  the  Bombay  area  are  pre- 
sumably relatively  recent  arrivals  (first  noted 
1932  et  seq ) and  may  represent  escapes  which 
have  managed  to  settle  and  are  extending  their 
range.  When  recording  the  first  bird  ( JBNHS 
37  p.  221)  1 drew  attention  to  a small  patch 
of  orange-coloured  feathers  at  the  base  of  the 
bill  (which  character  was  noted  in  subsequent 
specimens  too).  This  is  published  with  another 
letter  (loc.  cit.)  thanking  the  Society  for  draw- 
ing attention  to  the  fact  that  birds  from  Persia 
and  Mesopotamia  showed  the  same  trait  which 
is  not  now  visible  in  any  specimen. 

In  addition  to  the  darker  upperparts,  most 
of  them  have  their  underparts  greyish,  a 
character  lacking  in  all  the  pale  birds.  The 
female  from  Multan  (No.  16254)  has  the 
undertail  coverts  tinged  orange. 

Measurements  on  p.  147. 

1124  Pycnonotus  leucogenys  humii  (Oates) 
(Jalalpur  near  Jhelum,  Punjab)  Hume’s  White- 
eared  Bulbul  1 : 391 

9:  4^2$?3o? 

1 Chitral,  N.W.F.P.;  1 Rawalpindi,  1 Choa,  Sardai 
State,  Salt  Range,  1 Jhelum,  5 Campbellpur,  Punjab. 

Three  Campbellpur  specimens  from  the  A.E. 
Jones  Collection  are  marked  “Series  shows 
much  variation”  and  include  two  which  I have 
listed  under  nominate  leucogenys. 

Most  observers  in  the  north-west  have  re- 
ferred to  both  leucotis  and  leucogenys  as 


[420] 


137 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


migratory  and  there  really  appears  to  be  no 
reason  why  humii  and  leucogenys  should  not 
occupy  the  same  area,  one  or  the  other  (pro- 
bably the  latter)  as  a non-breeding  migrant. 
Excluding  the  two  specimens  referred  to  above, 
there  appears  to  be  a fair  amount  of  unifor- 
mity among  those  listed  as  humii,  which  is 
undoubtedly  an  intermediate,  though  distinct 
form.  As  there  are  at  least  two  Jalalpurs  in 
the  Punjab,  it  would  be  better  to  describe  the 
type  locality  in  greater  detail  as  was  done  by 
Oates. 

The  vent  is  sulphur  yellow  as  in  nominate 
leucogenys  and  not  a paler  yellow  as  in 
leucods. 

Measurements  on  p.  147. 

1125  Pycnonotus  leucogenys  leucogenys 
(Gray)  (Kashmir)  White-cheeked  Bulbul  1:389 

32:  15  $ $ (1  juv.)  15  $ $ (1  juv.)  2 o? 

2 Campbellpur,  Punjab;  1 Kashmir  Valley;  1 Keon- 
thal,  1 Dharamsala,  11  Simla;  1 Mussoorie,  1 Tha- 
rati,  Gharwal;  1 Sameti,  1 Almora,  1 Kongain 
Jamsar,  1 Kumaon;  1 Nagarkhot,  1 Kollapi  7000' 
Nepal;  2 Sikkim;  1 Chazam,  below  Tashigong,  Rong- 
tong,  E.  Bhutan;  3 Longview,  Darjeeling,  1 Maja- 
khot,  Ranikhet;  1 Martam,  Rong  Valley,  Assam. 

All  have  the  head  and  crest  brown  and  not 
black  as  the  chin,  throat,  and  upper  breast. 
The  shade  of  brown  varies  in  individuals  from 
the  same  place,  some  of  the  feathers  of  the 
crest  having  pale,  almost  white  fringes.  All 
have  the  head  darker  than  the  back  except 
c?  22423  from  Chazam,  Rongtong,  E.  Bhutan, 
in  which  it  is  the  same  colour  as  the  back, 
and  the  chin  and  throat  are  also  not  jet  black. 
It  does  appear  different  but  there  is  no  evi- 
dence of  additional  specimens  having  been 
procured  in  this  area  and  Salim  Ali  in  birds 
OF  THE  EASTERN  HIMALAYAS  (1977)  p.  120 
refers  to  Bhutan  birds  as  of  this  race. 

Measurements  on  p.  147. 


Hybrid  pycnonotus  cafer  x leucogenys 

2:  1 $ 1 $ 

Rawalpindi  14  Jan.  1927  and  6 January  1930. 

The  white  on  the  cheeks  is  replaced  by 
grey,  the  breast  is  as  in  cafer  and  the  rump 
slightly  paler  than  the  back.  The  under  tail 
coverts  are  yellow  in  the  female  and  mixed 
red  and  yellow  in  the  male.  This  hybrid,  pre- 
sumably with  varying  colours,  is  sufficiently 
common  to  have  acquired  a local  name 
Neemchi  (half-breed)  (IH  6 p.  86).  It  is  curi- 
ous that  this  should  be  in  the  same  area  where 
leucotis  and  leucogenys  have  met  and  establi- 
shed a recognisable  subspecies  humii.  The 
hybrid  form  from  Bannu,  N.  W.  F.  P.  was 
named  magrathi  by  Whitehead  (1908,  Bull. 
B.O.C.  21  p.  48).  This  matter  is  discussed  at 
length  by  Sibbs  & Short  (1959)  Ibis  101  pp. 
177-182. 

Measurements  on  p.  147. 

EL  Pycnonotus  leucogenys  lapersonnei  mss. 

4:  2 $ $ 2 $ $ 

Nasratavad,  Seistan  Delta  (31°  N,  61°  10'E) 

All  four  obtained  by  Lapersonne  in  Octo- 
ber 1926  have  their  labels  marked  Molpastes 
leucogenys  lapersonnei  in  the  hand- writing*  of 
the  late  Col.  Meinertzhagen  but  I cannot 
trace  any  published  description,  and  this  would 
appear  to  be  only  a manuscript  name.  They 
are  closer  to  the  pale  form  of  leucotis  (1123a 
above)  both  in  size  and  colour  than  to  meso- 
potamiae,  and  may  be  the  form  described  as 
farahensis  by  Koelz  from  Kandahar.  Or  the 
difference  from  leucotis  may  be  just  due  to 
Lapersonne’s  exceptionally  good  skinning! 

Measurements  on  p.  147. 

* identified  by  Dr.  Salim  Ali. 

EL  Pycnonotus  leucogenys  mesopotamiae 

Ticehurst  (Basra,  Lower  Mesopotamia). 

12:  6 $ $ 6 9 9 

4 Nahr  Umar,  Right  Bank,  Tigris,  1 Hilla,  1 Euph- 

[421] 


138 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 24 


rates,  1 Qarradh,  1 Baghdad,  1 Basra,  Mesopotamia; 

2 Shiraz,  1 Shustar,  South  Persia, 

This  bird  is  distinctly  larger  than  the  other 
races,  though  no  trace  of  the  yellow  rim  round 
the  eye  is  now  visible.  The  three  from  Persia 
have  their  bills  shorter  than  the  average. 

Measurements  on  p.  147. 

Pycnonotus  cafer 

This  species  has  been  divided  into  several 
races  in  India  and  further  eastwards  but  though 
a fair  number  of  specimens  is  available,  there 
is  much  variation  and  it  is  not  possible  to  be 
very  sure  about  the  identity  of  several  speci- 
mens leaving  no  option  but  to  separate  many 
on  geographical  grounds. 

There  is  no  definite  evidence  of  the  species 
undertaking  any  appreciable  migration. 

1126  Pycnonotus  cafer  intermedins  Blyth 
(Upper  Provinces  = Murree)  Redvented  Bulbul 

1 : 389 

13:  5 $ $ 5 9 9 3 o? 

1 Kohat,  N.W.F.P.;  1 Campbellpur,  1 Taxila,  1 
Rawalpindi;  1 Kolka,  1 Mubarakpur,  nr.  Ambala, 
Punjab;  1 Bula,  1 Keonthal,  4 Simla,  1 Naini  Tal, 
U.P. 

In  addition  to  the  brown  ear  coverts  and  the 
black  of  the  head  grading  into  the  brown 
back,  they  can  be  distinguished  from  huma- 
yuni  by  their  longer  and  more  distinct  crest 
feathers. 

Measurements  on  p.  148. 

1127  Pycnonotus  cafer  Iiumayunl  Deignan 
(Deesa)  Gujerat  Redvented  Bulbul  1 : 385 

16:  8 $ $ 8 $ $ 

1 Multan,  2 Lahore,  W.  Punjab;  2 Ambala;  2 Delhi; 
2 Bulundshar,  U.P.;  1 Hamavas  Lake,  Pali,  Jodh- 
pur; 1 Tapheshwar,  Kutch;  1 Vaghjipur,  Mehsana, 
1 Dohad,  Panch  Mahals,  1 Dabka,  Baroda,  1 Gir, 
Amreli,  1 Laochali,  Surat  Dangs. 

$ 1873  from  Hamavas  Lake,  Pali  district, 
Jodhpur  is  very  pale  followed  by  cf  2744  from 


Vaghjipur,  Mehsana.  The  others  show  differ- 
ences and  some  can  barely  be  separated  from 
individuals  of  the  adjoining  races.  The  two 
from  Bulandshar  have  been  included  here  but 
they  were  collected  in  1903  and  the  paleness 
is  possibly  due  to  fading. 

Both  birds  from  Lahore  have  a sooty  wash 
on  the  underparts,  a character  shared  with  a 
brown-eared  female  ( intermedius ) from  Rawal- 
pindi. 

Measurements  on  p.  148. 

1128  Pycnonotus  cafer  cafer  (Linnaeus) 

(Pondicherry)  Redvented  Bulbul  1 : 385 

28:  17  $ $ 11  $ $ 

2 Bharatpur,  Rajputana;  1 Sarawaya,  Gwalior;  1 
Jalgaon,  E.  Khandesh;  1 Malegaon,  Surat  Dangs; 
2 Jabalpur,  M.P.;  1 Dahisar,  1 Thana,  2*  Andheri, 
Bombay,  1 Khandala,  1 Poona;  1 Alibag,  Kolaba; 

1 Satara;  1 S.  Konkan;  1 Gotagali,  1 Santgal,  N. 
Kanara;  1 Thattakad,  N.  Travancore,  1 Travancore; 

2 Malavalli,  Sidhpur,  Mysore;  1 4500'  Shevaroy 
Hills,  1 Kurumbapatti,  Salem,  1 Palkonda  Hills,  2 
Sheshachalam  Hills,  S,  Cudappah;  1 coll.  J.P. 
Cook  = S.  India(?) 

(*1  missing) 

The  two  from  Bharatpur  are  distinctly 
darker  than  others  under  humayuni.  9 16216 
from  Jabalpore  has  the  central  pair  of  tail 
feathers  completely  white.  One  bird  from 
Laochali,  Surat  Dangs  has  been  placed  in  the 
last  group,  while  another  ( $ 16260)  is  as  dark 
as  any  other  cafer . cf  1877  from  Satara  is  pale 
but  dates  back  to  1897. 

Measurements  on  p.  148. 

1129  Pycnonotus  cafer  haemorrhousus  (Gme- 
lin)  (Ceylon)  Ceylon  Redvented  Bulbul  1 : 383 

nil. 

1130  Pycnonotus  cafer  wetmorei  Deignan 
(Anantagiri,  Vizagapatnam)  Orissa  Redvented 
Bulbul. 


[422] 


139 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


12:  4 $ $ 8 9 9 (3*  paratypes  of  saturatus ) 

1  Sonawani,  Balaghat;  1 Lohatta  R,  F.,  2 Bhanu- 
prattapur,  Ranker  C.P.;  1*  Jeypore  Agency,  2 

Sankrametta,  Vizagapatnam,  1 Mahendragiri,  1 Das- 
palla,  1 Kutri  Das,  1 Karkot  (Bamra),  1 Koira 
(Bonai),  Orissa. 

This  subspecies  was  separated  from  nomi- 
nate cafer  as  darker  and  with  less  white  on 
the  abdomen.  The  two  ( c?  and  9 ) from  Sankra- 
metta have  almost  no  markings  or  white  on 
the  underparts  but  that  from  Jeypore  Agency 
which  was  included  in  the  series  described  as 
saturatus  by  Whistler  and  Kinnear  is  no  diffe- 
rent from  nominate  cafer  from  south  and  west. 
9 1883  from  Sonawani,  Balaghat  is  very  dark 
below  but  marked  pallidas  ( humayuni ) by 
Salim  Ali. 

Measurements  on  p.  148. 

1131  Pycnonotus  cafer  bengalensis  Blyth 
(Bengal)  Bengal  Redvented  Bulbul  1 : 387 

25:  17  $ $ 8 9 9 

1 Ranibagh,  1 Guptakashi,  Garhwal,  1 Majkhali, 
Ranibagh,  2 Pithorgarh,  Almora,  Kumaon;  1 Bon- 
zini,  1 Nawacot,  Nepal;  1 Baghowni,  1 Tirhut,  Bihar; 

1 Rinchingpong,  1 Rangpo,  W.  Sikkim,  1 Sevoke,  1 
Singtam,  Teesta  Valley,  Sikkim;  1 Darjeeling;  1 
Samchi  (West),  1 Shangong  (Central),  1 Deothang, 

2 Gomchu  (East),  1 Khosela,  Bhutan;  1 Maniktola, 
Calcutta,  1 Rupchena,  Cachar;  2 Dibrugarh,  1 
Sadiya,  Assam. 

The  ear-coverts  in  birds  from  scattered  places 
are  light/dark  brown. 

Measurements  on  p.  148. 

1132  Pycnonotus  cafer  Stanford!  Deignan 
[Taro  or  Dalu  (lat.  26°  20'N.,  long.  96°  10'E), 
Upper  Chindwin  District,  Sagaing  Div.,  Burma] 
Burmese  Redvented  Bulbul 

6:2  $ $ 1 9 3 o? 

1 Kabaing  — Mogok  Road,  Ruby  Mines  Dist.,  3 
Upper  Burma;  1 N.  Shan  States;  1 Maymyo. 

These  are  paler  than  bengalensis  both  above 
and  below,  and  have  a shorter  crest. 

Measurements  on  p.  148. 


EL  Pycnonotus  cafer  inelanchimus  Deignan 
(Rangoon  Town,  Pegu,  Burma) 

1 $ Prome,  Burma. 

Differs  from  stanfordi  in  having  the  feathers 
of  the  upperparts  more  narrowly  edged  with 
ashy.  It  is  not  unlike  nominate  cafer  from 
peninsular  India,  but  differs  in  having  a larger 
patch  of  black  on  the  underbreast,  and  hair- 
brown  and  not  black  ear-coverts. 

Measurements  on  p.  148. 

EL  Pycnonotus  aurigaster  klossi  (Gylden- 
stolpe)  (Doi  Khun  Tan,  northern  Siam  lat. 
18°  30'N.,  long,  90°  20'E.) 

1 $ Ataran,  Amherst,  Burma. 

The  cheeks  are  whitish,  there  is  a small 
patch  of  brownish  on  the  chin  and  the  rest 
of  the  underparts  are  whitish  with  patches  of 
light  brown.  The  original  label  is  marked  M. 
nigripilius.  Wing  95,  bill  17.5,  tail  85. 

1133  Pycnonotus  striatus  striatus  (Blyth) 
(Darjeeling)  Striated  Green  Bulbul  1 : 379 

10:  4 $ $ 6 9 9 (1  topotype) 

1 Darjeeling,  Bengal;  1 Rinchingpong,  Sikkim;  2 
Shamgong,  6500'  (Central),  4 Narphong  5000' 
(East),  1 Batawe,  Bhutan;  1 Tiddim,  Burma. 

See  remarks  under  1134. 

Measurements  on  p.  148. 

1134  Pycnonotus  striatus  arctus  Ripley 

(Dreyi,  Mishmi  Hills)  Mishmi  Striated  Green 
Bulbul  1 : 379 

3  $ $ (2  topotypes) 

2 Dreyi,  Lohit  Valley,  Mishmi  Hills,  N.  E.  Assam; 

1 Langham,  Naga  Hills. 

The  topotypes  do  not  appear  different  from 
the  nominate  from  further  west  and  the  two 
races  have  been  arranged  in  accordance  with 
the  distribution  in  Ind.  Handbook  (6:94). 

The  two  males  from  Tiddim,  Burma,  just 
south  of  Manipur,  (No.  1864)  and  Langhana, 
Naga  Hills  (1866)  should  be  of  the  nominate 
race  and  arctus  respectively.  They  differ  from 


140 


[423] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION—24 


all  the  others  by  their  smaller  size,  wings 
103(2),  bills  16.6,  15.2,  tails  94,  92  (, contra 
combined  averages  of  males  and  females  of 
both  forms  110,  17.2  and  98)  and  yellower 
underparts. 

Measurements  on  p.  148. 

1135  Pycnonotus  xantholaemus  (Jerdon) 

(Eastern  Ghats  west  of  Nellore)  Yellowthroat- 
ed  Bulbul  1 : 415 

4:  1 $ 3 o? 

1 Jogimaradi,  Chitaldroog,  2 Horseleykonda  13° 
40'N,  78°  26'E  (Mysore);  1 Sankaridrug,  Salem, 
Madras. 

The  most  recent  (1940)  specimen  shows  a 
slight  grey  tinge  on  the  upper  parts  and  more 
yellow  on  the  head  contra  brownish  in  the 
others  which  go  back  to  1902  and  1908  (2). 
Measurements  on  p.  149. 

1136  Pycnonotus  penicillatus  Blyth  (Ceylon) 

Yellow-eared  Bulbul  1 : 426 

2 o?  Ceylon. 

Measurements  on  p.  149. 

1137  Pycnonotus  flavescens  ffavescens  Blyth 

(Arakan)  Blyth’s  Bulbul  1 : 392 

3:  1 $ 1 $ 1 o? 

2 Laisang,  N.  Cachar;  1 Minderi  Yoma,  Thayetmyo, 
Burma;  1 no  locality. 

The  male  has  the  head  distinctly  darker 
than  the  back  and  appears  to  show  streaks 
on  the  breast  not  visible  in  any  others  either 
of  this  or  the  next  race. 

Measurements  on  p.  149. 

EL  Pycnonotus  flavescens  vividus  (Stuart 
Baker)  Salween  District  and  Mulayit  Taung, 
Amherst,  Tenasserim)  Mulayit  Bulbul  1 : 393 

3 o?  (1  juv.) 

2 N'  Kraung,  Upper  Burma,  1 Loi  Hansep,  N. 
States,  Burma. 

One  specimen  from  N'  Kraung  shows  yellow 
upto  the  throat,  which  is  dirty  grey.  Both 


adults  have  distinct  dark  caps  and  differ  from 
the  nominate  specimens  only  in  having  yellow 
and  not  white  lores. 

Measurements  on  p.  149. 

1138  Pycnonotus  luteolus  luteolus  (Lesson) 
(Bombay)  Whitebrowed  Bulbul  1 : 417 

29:  15  8 $ (3  juv.)  12  $ $ 2 o? 

1 Dabka,  Baroda;  1 Goregaon,  1 Malad,  2 Bandra, 
1 Raita,  Kalyan,  1 Bombay;  1 Malwan,  Ratnagiri; 
1 Canacona,  Goa;  1 Bolgutt,  1 N.  Kanara;  1 Ban- 
galore; 1 Aramboli,  1 Travancore;  1 Kurumbapatti, 
1 Chitteri  Range,  Salem;  2 Mettapalayam,  Madras; 

1 Palkonda  Hills,  1 Seshachalam  Hills,  1 Nallamalai 
Hills;  2 Konta,  Bastar,  M.P.;  3 Barkul,  Chilka  Lake, 
1 Tikarpura,  Angul  disk,  1 Champeshwar,  Orissa; 
1 $ * no  data. 

There  is  some  variation  in  the  colour  of 
the  upperparts;  some  (juveniles?)  showing 
more  rufous  than  the  others.  The  amount  of 
duskiness  on  the  upper  breast  also  varies  and 
appears  more  prominent  in  the  birds  from 
around  Bombay,  which  also  have  heavier 
bills.  In  some  specimens  the  head  is  slightly 
darker  than  the  back. 

* Sp.  No.  2087  with  no  data  found  listed 
with  the  species,  has  an  almost  chestnut  brown 
head  much  more  prominent  than  in  the  others. 

Indian  Handbook  (6,  p.  99)  refers  to  3 or 
4 filoplumes  on  the  nape.  This  occurs  in 
both  sexes  but  is  not  visible  in  all  the  speci- 
mens. 

Measurements  on  p.  149. 

1139  Pycnonotus  luteolus  insulae  Whistler 
& Kinnear  (Ceylon)  Ceylon  Whitebrowed 
Bulbul 
nil. 

EL  Pycnonotus  xanthorrhous  xanthorrhous 
Anderson  [Kakhyen  (Kachin)  Hills,  Burma] 
Anderson’s  Yellowvented  Bulbul  1:411 

1 o?  North  Shan  States. 

Wings  89  (85-93),  bill  16.3  (about  15),  tail  84 
(about  95). 


[424] 


141 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


EL  Pycnonotus  finlaysoni  finlaysoni  Strick- 
land (Malacca)  Stripethroated  Bulbul  1 : 412 

1  $ Ataran,  Amherst,  Burma. 

The  specimen  from  east  of  the  Sittang  River 
is  old,  faded  and  in  poor  condition  and  can- 
not be  separated  from  davisoni  below  by  the 
colour  of  the  forehead.  It  is  however  appre- 
ciably smaller. 

Measurements  on  p.  149. 

EL  Pycnonotus  finlaysoni  davisoni  (Hume) 
(12  m.  north  of  Rangoon)  Stripethroated 
Bulbul  1 : 413 

6:  3 $ $ 3 $ $ 

1 Upper  Burma;  1 Sandoway;  2 Bassein;  2 Ran- 
goon, Burma. 

See  remarks  under  P.  /.  finlaysoni. 

Measurements  on  p.  149. 

EL  Pycnonotus  barbatus  xanthopygos  (Hem- 
prich  & Ehrenberg)  (Arabia)  Yellow-vented 
Bulbul 

2 $ $ Muscat,  Arabia. 

Wing  97,  98,  bill  17.8,  18.6,  tail  85. 

EL  Pycnonotus  blanfordi  blanfordi  Jerdon 
(Pegu)  Blanford’s  Olive  Bulbul  1 : 420 

5 : 1 $ 3 $ $ 1 o? 

1 Shwebo,  Upper  Burma,  1 Shurdaung,  1 Prome; 
1 Luzon,  1 Ingabin,  Henzada,  Burma. 

Measurements  on  p.  149. 

EL  Hypsipetes  thompsoni  (Bingham)  (Loi 
San  Pa  = Taung  Palaung)  (lat.  21°  46'N,  long. 
96°  55'  E,  Southern  Shan  States)  Bingham’s 
Whiteheaded  Bulbul  1 : 373 

3 o? 

1 Taungyi,  S.  Shan  States;  1 3500'  Dawna  Range, 
Amherst  District;  1 no  data. 

Measurements  on  p.  149. 

1140  Criniger  flaveolus  flaveolus  (Gould) 
(Nepal)  Whitethroated  Bulbul  1 : 363 

37:  18  $ $ 13  $$  6 $ $ 

In  the  absence  of  sufficient  material  and 
literature  it  is  not  possible  to  untangle 


a very  confused  position.  Seven  of  the 
specimens  from  the  Chindwin  area  are  part 
of  a series  of  21  obtained  by  the  Vernay- 
Hopwood  Chindwin  Expedition  in  1935  and 
reported  upon  by  Mayr  ( Ibis  1938  p.  291). 
He  said  that  “in  series  they  agreed  with  a 
series  of  typical  flaveolus  from  N.  Cachar,  ex- 
cept that  the  crown,  back  and  wings  are  more 
washed  with  olivaceous,  and  the  underwing 
is  more  yellowish  less  buff”.  The  single  speci- 
men from  N.  Cachar  resembles  the  others  from 
Indian  limits  and  the  olivaceous  wash  on  the 
upperparts  and  a different  yellow  on  the 
underparts  does  isolate  the  Chindwin  birds — 
no  difference  is  visible  on  the  underwing.  The 
labels  are  marked  ochraceus,  burmanicus  and 
gularis  by  different  workers  indicating  at  least 
that  they  did  not  think  they  were  the  same 
as  flaveolus  from  India. 

Two  birds  from  Gamon  Chaung,  Sandoway 
( $ 1782)  and  Nyaunggyo,  Prome  ( $ 1783) 
have  their  underparts  a paler  yellow  than  in 
the  others  and  the  white  of  the  throat  des- 
cends a little  lower  down  the  breast.  There  is 
a little  grey  on  the  forehead  more  prominent 
than  in  the  others,  but  burmanicus  (Oates, 
Toungoo,  n.  of  Pegu)  should  have  the  whole 
crown  and  crest  grey,  and  this  is  not  so.  These 
are  the  only  specimens  which  show  a white 
supercilium  which  according  to  Stuart  Baker 
(1:363)  is  always  present!?  I am  for  the  mo- 
ment listing  them  all  in  separate  groups  under 
nominate  flaveolus. 

(a)  flaveolus  28:  14  $ $ 9 9 $ 5 o? 

2 Berrick,  Sikkim;  3 Darjeeling,  Bengal;  2 Tama 
4000',  3 Deothang,  1 Mangdechum,  E.  Bhutan;  2 
Cherrapunji,  Khasi  Hills,  1 S.  Sylhet,  2 Roopachena, 
1 N.  Cachar  Hills;  2 Margherita,  2 Sadiya,  1 Tezu, 
Lohit  Valley;  1 Bipani,  1 Asipani,  Dibang  Valley, 
1 Rotang,  1 Maya,  1 Abor  country,  Mishmi  Hills, 
Assam;  1 n.  of  Maymyo,  Burma. 

There  is  appreciable  variation  in  the  extent 
of  yellow  in  the  bill,  and  $ No.  180  from 


142 


[425] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 24 


Maya  has  it  all  yellow.  In  addition  to  an  almost 
complete  brown  band  across  the  upper  breast, 
this  specimen  also  shows  a yellow  collar  round 
the  hind  neck. 

(b)  7:  3 £8  3 $ $ lo? 

1 Punsin,  1 Yora,  2 Hai  Bun,  2 Tawman,  1 Dalu, 
Chindwin  River,  Burma. 

See  remarks  above. 

(c)  2:  1 $ 1 $ 

1 Nyaunggyo,  Prome  District ; 1 Gamon  Chaung, 
Sandoway,  Burma. 

See  remarks  above. 

Measurements  on  p.  150. 

1141  Hypsipetes  viridescens  cacharensis 
(Deignan)  (Chutla  Bhil,  Cachar  District,  Surma 
Valley  & Hill  Division,  Assam)  Olive  Bulbul. 

1 : 406 

1 $ Rupachena,  Cachar,  Assam. 

The  single  specimen  is  separated  from  the 
two  nominate  ones  on  the  basis  of  the  distri- 
bution in  Deignan,  1948;  Races  of  the  Bulbul 
Microscelis  charlottae  (Finsch)  and  its  Rela- 
tives ( Proc . Biol.  Soc.  Washington,  1948,  pp. 
M2). 

Wing  84,  bill  17.4,  tail  70. 

EL  Hypsipetes  viridescens  viridescens  (Blyth) 
(Arakan  Division,  Burma). 

2 $ $ 

1 Mai  Village,  Sandoway  Dist.,  1 Kyi  bin,  Henzada 
Dist.,  Burma. 

Wing  79,  84;  bill  17,  17.5;  tail  70,  73. 

The  eye  colour  has  not  been  recorded. 

The  subspecific  identification  is  based  on 
Deignan  loc.  cit.  (1948). 

EL  Hypsipetes  charlottae  propinquus  (Ousta- 
lot)  (Laichau  Province  North-western  Tong- 
king) 

2 o? 

1 Yangte,  1 Pimpri  Ban,  N.  Shan  States. 

These  were  listed  with  H.  viridescens  above. 
The  skins  appear  larger  than  indicated  by  the 
measurements,  while  the  undertail  coverts  are 
cinnamon  and  not  yellow.  The  subspecific 


identification  is  based  on  Deignan  loc.  cit. 

Wing  85,  87;  bill  16,2,  17;  tail  78,  81. 

1142  Hypsipetes  nicobariensis  Moore  (Nico- 

bars)  Nicobar  Bulbul  1 : 408 

10:  7 $ $ 2 $ $ 1 o? 

6 Camorta,  2 Trinkut,  1 Katchal,  1 Nancowry,  Cen- 
tral Nicobars. 

c?  No.  22669  from  Nancowry  has  a greyish 
tinge  on  the  upperparts  rendering  it  paler  than 
any  of  the  others.  The  wing  and  bill  are  the 
smallest,  and  this  is  presumably  a juvenile 
plumage. 

Measurements  on  p.  150. 

1143  Hypsipetes  indicus  ictericus  (Strick- 

land) (East  Indies  = Mahableshwar)  N. 
Sahyadri  Yellowbrowed  Bulbul  1 : 405 

9:  5 $ $ 3 $ $ lo? 

2 Mahableshwar;  2 Ratnagiri;  2 Molem,  Goa;  2 
Castle  Rock,  Goa  Frontier  (on  east). 

In  Birds  of  Goa  (1976  JBNHS  73:  50) 
Grubh  and  Salim  Ali  refer  to  5 collected  at 
Valpoi  in  Goa  and  identify  them  as  of  the 
nominate  form.  The  four  from  Molem  col- 
lected on  the  same  trip  are  not  referred  to 
(being  presumably  the  same  birds)  but  if 
ictericus  is  recognised,  they  agree  more  closely 
with  it.  The  fifth  bird  marked  as  from  Valpoi 
is  slightly  deeper  in  colour  and  may  be  so 
accepted  as  indicus.  The  three  accepted  races 
are  not  very  distinct. 

Measurements  on  p.  150. 

1144  Hypsipetes  indicus  indicus  (Jerdon) 

(West  Coast,  restricted  to  Wynaad)  Yellow- 
browed Bulbul  1 : 405  (part) 

24:  13  $ $ 8 $$  3o? 

1 Valpoi,  Goa;  1 Bhowra?  (1878  Dr.  Anderson), 
1 Santgal,  1 Kadra,  2 Karwar,  1 Kumta,  3 N.  Kanara; 
1 Mercara,  Coorg;  1 Gudalur  3000',  3 Cherambadi, 
Nilgiri;  1 Ballaji,  1 Honnametti,  Billigirirangans,  1 
Foothills,  1 4000'  Manalur,  1 Bombay  Shola,  1 
Cooly  Ghat,  1 Palni  Ghats;  1 Thettakad,  1 The- 
kady,  Periyar  Lake,  Travancore. 

Measurements  on  p.  150. 


[426] 


143 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


1145  Hypsipetes  indicus  guglielmi  (Ripley) 
(Rakwana,  Sabargamuwa  Province)  Ceylon 
Yellowbrowed  Bulbul 

2:1#  Hunu  Wella  Estate,  Opanake,  1 $ Colombo 
Museum,  no  data. 

The  first  bird  is  marked  guglielmi  by  Ripley, 
and  is  perhaps  a slightly  deeper  olive  above 
and  yellow  below.  This  subspecies  is  restrict- 
ed to  south-western  Ceylon,  but  the  other 
specimen  agrees  with  those  more  deeply  colour- 
ed among  indicus  and  may  perhaps  be  accept- 
ed within  the  range  of  variation  within  the 
present  form. 

Measurements  on  p.  150. 

1146  Hypsipetes  mcclellandi  mcclellandi 

Horsfield  (Assam)  Rufousbellied  Bulbul. 

1 : 377 

17:  8 $ $ 5 $ $ 4o?  (1  juv.*) 

1  Mornaula,  7600',  2 Kumaon,  U.P.;  1 Chalun 
Khel,  Nepal;  1 Rinchingpong,  W.  Sikkim,  1 Tung 
5650'  Sikkim;  2 Gedu,  W.  Bhutan;  1 Betase,  2 
Narphong,  1 Tama,  E.  Bhutan;  1 Kalaktang,  Aruna- 
chal  Pradesh,  1 Kohima,  Naga  Hills,  1 Abor  coun- 
try, Assam;  1 N’Kraung,  1 Upper  Burma. 

The  birds  from  the  western  portion  of  its 
range  upto  and  including  Sikkim  and  Naga 
Hills  are  more  golden  green  above  than  the 
others  from  Bhutan  and  northern  Assam.  They 
include  the  older  skins  from  1900  to  1953  while 
the  others  are  from  1966-68,  and  the  differ- 
ences may  be  due  to  fading.  The  measurements 
are  separately  shown  and  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  eastern  birds  are  larger.  *This  was 
identified  at  the  Smithsonian  by  Mr.  Bond,  hav- 
ing been  listed  as  P.  simplex,  along  with  a 
juvenile  of  Pycnonotus  flavescens. 

Measurements  on  p.  151. 

EL  Hypsipetes  mcclellandi  tickelli 

3 o? 

1 Sima,  Upper  Burma;  1 Loi  Sang,  1 Pimpri  Bum, 
N.  Shan  States,  Burma. 

All  three  have  their  backs  greyish  brown 


rather  than  green,  and  less  rufous  on  the  under- 
parts making  them  according  to  Stuart  Baker’s 
Fauna,  binghami  Hartert  (Taung,  Palaung  lat. 
21°  46'  N,  long.  96°  55'  E,  Southern  Shan 
States)  but  which  is  synonymised  with  tickelli 
in  Peters  (IX  p.  290)  and  whose  distribution 
is  said  to  be  Eastern  Burma  from  N.  Shan 
States  southwards,  through  the  Southern  Shan 
and  Karenni  States  to  Amherst  Dist.  of  Tena- 
sserim. 

Measurements  on  p.  151. 

1147  Hypsipetes  flavalus  flavalus  (Blyth) 
(Sub-Himalayan  Ranges)  Brown-eared  Bulbul 

1 : 374 

36:  16  $ $ 16  $ $ 4 o? 

4 Ranibagh,  1 Kumaon,  U.P.;  1 Martam  Rongin 
Valley,  1 Singtam,  Teesta  Valley,  Sikkim;  2 Tama, 
1 Deothang,  1 Mangdechu,  E.  Bhutan;  1 Margherita; 

1 Tezu,  3 Dening,  Lohit  Valley,  N.E.  Assam,  1 Maya. 
Dibang,  Mishmi;  2 Tirap  Div.,  Arunachal  Pradesh; 

2 Cherrapunji,  Khasi  & Jaintia  Dist.,  2 Kohima, 
Naga  Hills,  1 Rupachena,  1 Laiti  Eynsew  (?);  2 
N.  Cachar;  1 Hai  Bum,  1 Pun  Sin,  1 Gora,  Chind- 
win;  1 Tawman,  Jade  Mines,  Upper  Burma,  1 Yante, 

1 Tangle,  N.  Shan  States;  2 Nyamggyo,  Prome;  1 
Aka  Hills,  Burma. 

The  intensity  of  the  grey  on  the  upperparts 
varies  to  some  extent,  but  in  series  the  males 
are  darker  and  also  show  darker  heads,  the 
paler  males  being  presumably  birds  of  the  year 
as  is  confirmed  by  their  shorter  bills. 
Measurements  on  p.  151. 

1148  Hypsipetes  madagascariensis  psaroides 

Vigors  (Himalayan  Mts.  - Simla)  Himalayan 
Black  Bulbul  1 : 369 

40:  27  $ $ (1  juv.)  11  $ $ 2 o? 

3  Chitral,  N.W.F.P.;  1 Srinagar,  1 Moghulmaidan, 
Kishtwar,  Kashmir;  7 Simla,  1 Solon  5000'  Bhagat 
State,  1 Koti  State,  1 Patiala;  4 Garhwal,  2 Mar- 
nauli,  1 Konain  Jaunsar,  1 Lambathatch,  1 Kumaun, 
U.P.;  1 Godaveri,  1 Nagarcot,  1 Chalnakhel,  Nepal; 

2 Temi,  West  Sikkim;  3 Darjeeling;  1 Honka,  West 
Bhutan,  4 Gomchu,  1 Rontang,  E.  Bhutan,  1 Shan- 
gon,  Bhutan,  1 Hasnia  Tea  Estate,  Bhutan  Duars. 


144 


[427] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 24 


Juvenile  <$  No.  16202  from  Simla  has  the 
head  sparsely  feathered  and  the  throat  whitish. 
The  colour  of  the  bill  and  legs,  where  noted  is 
said  to  be  coral-red  but  is  now  yellow  in  all. 
All  have  white  margins  to  the  undertail 
coverts.  There  is  variation  in  the  shade  of  the 
grey  both  above  and  below. 

Measurements  on  p.  151. 

1149  Hypsipetes  madagascariensis  ganeesa 

Sykes  (Ghauts,  Dukhun)  South  Indian  Black 
Bulbul  1 : 372 

19:  14  $ $ (1  juv.)  5 $ $ 

2 Bhimashankar,  Poona;  2 Castle  Rock,  N.  Kanara; 
1 Belimane,  Sagar,  Shimoga,  Mysore;  2 Avalanche, 
1 Wynaad,  Nilgiris;  5 Shembaganur,  1 Palnis,  Madura 
Dist.,  2 Honametti,  Billigirirangans;  1 Muthu- 
kuzi,  Ashambo  Hills;  2 Shevaroy  Hills,  Salem  Dist. 

This  subspecies  has  no  black  stripe  below 
the  eye  and  the  tail  is  less  conspicuously  fork- 
ed than  in  the  Himalayan  race.  In  life  the  bill 
is  bright  orange  which  dries  to  yellow  as  in 
the  last.  The  bill  of  the  juvenile  is  now  dark. 
Measurements  on  p.  151. 

1150  Hypsipetes  madagascariensis  humii 

(Whistler  & Kinnear)  (Ceylon)  Ceylon  Black 

Bulbul 


2:  1 $ 1 $ near  Kundava,  Sinharaja,  Ratnapura, 
Sri  Lanka. 

The  two  fresh  skins  are  now  much  greyer 
than  the  others  ( ganeesa ) and  have  the  bills 
reddish  cf.  yellow. 

Measurements  on  p.  151. 

1151  Hypsipetes  madagascariensis  nigrescens 
Stuart  Baker  (Upper  Chindwin)  Assam  Black 
Bulbul  1 : 371 

8:6  $ $ 1 $ lo? 

1 Laising,  N.  Cachar,  1 Naga  Hills,  1 Cherrapunji, 
Khasi  & Jaintia  Hills,  1 Assam;  1 Nyaunggyo,  Prome 
dist.,  1 Mindon  Yoma,  1 Thayetmyo;  1 Tongme 
( Pomed ) , Burma. 

These  are  brown  rather  than  grey  above. 
Some  are  marked  nigriscens  by  an  earlier  wor- 
ker. The  black  of  the  head  is  distinct  from 
the  upper  back.  Some  have  the  feathers  of  the 
upper  back  centrally  streaked  with  black. 

Measurements  on  p.  151. 

EL  Hypsipetes  madagascariensis  concolor 
Blyth  (Tenasserim)  Burmese  Black  Bulbul 

1 : 372 

1 o?  Sp.  No.  1831  Thangaung,  Burma. 


[428] 


145 


10 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


tj-  in  so  Os 
H oo  oo  oo  oo 


© 

•a 

s 

5/5 

O 

* 

N 

*3< 


O 

so 

in  in  jrj 
•n"  ^ 3 


^ in  4 r4 

^ m in  in 
ffl  -H 


3 

s. 


5 

03 

5/5 

a 

8 

5 

3 


o 

> 

o O''  ^ ^ °2 

^ ^ oo  ^ 

^ 00  ^ „ 

©Os  . m 

i"  so  O SO  vo 


m 

in  oo 
in 


m 


^ ^ r-H  r) 

cn  rn  in  m 


3 

u 

Os 

oo 

C4 

© 

cf 

_ 

© 

so 

so 

t> 

.« 

oo 

t-" 

00 

> 

e 

3 

> 

> 

> 

> 

03 

03 

/ \ 

03 

/—■ s 

cd 

a 

/ N 

1 

in 

C\  tv  m 

© 

© 

cn 

^t 

so 

os 

Os 

in 

r~ 

rp  r- 

s 

OO 

Os 

rp 

rP 

00 

00 

so 

SO 

so 

© 

© os  6 

4 

4 

4 

OO 

m 

Os 

xr 

4 «n 

4 

f- 

r->-  so  r- 

• 

t"- 

00 

SO 

so 

r- 

r-' 

so 

so  so 

so 

S 

1/5 

^3 

'a 

JS 

eu 

8 

© 

•s 


i/i 

s 

1 

a 

© 


^ t- 


so 

I 

Tf- 


T3 

3 

cc 

•c 

pS 

3 

DC 


m 

4 

"42: 

% 


m 

SO  28 

I 

*0 


. 4 

> ^ ^ 


t"-  SO 
in 


so 

I 

*0 


"5f 

3^-3 

s 

in 

3 

> 

c3 

3 

CO 

3 

S 

3 

3 

4 

^ ^ 
<Z)  ’-H  c/3 

Pn 

in 

i/i 

<S 

m 

(« 

in 

CO 

M 

tn 

oo 

s^s 

4 

s 

in 

2 

4 

£ 

£ 

<N  g 

4 

o * ; o 

U Vh 

tfl' 

•E 

cn 

o 

i-i 

4 

o 

!h 

CO 

2 

i 

CO 

2 

4 2 

> 

i 


s=«> 

© 

C 

t-H 

r-H 

© 

© 

3 

SO 

*g 

r-H 

9 

oo 

so 

o 

*3 

00 

© 

3 

<6 

OS 

CJ 

.2 

Os 

fv. 

r- 

Os 

© 

00 

C-" 

00 

00 

t — 

00 

g 

os 

in 

Os 

Os 

Of 

3* 

Of 

> 

r~ 

> 

i'- 

rp 

g 

> 

Os 

> 

rp 

> 

oo 

£ 

Os 

in 

r- 

CO 

© 

m 

c3 

Cfl 

cd 

d3 

in 

00 

in 

r~ 

5/5 

C3 

in 

00 

C5J 

4 

fv. 

cS 

cA 

oo 

Os 

Os 

oo 

00 

T— 1 

OS 

r- 

(N 

cn 

ffi 

t-H 

ffi 

00 

s 

rp- 

s 

3 

■3 

OS 

1 

3 

OO 

3 

Os 

3 

l 

1 

ra 

in 

of 

i 

(— ( 

t-H 

SO 

CO 

Gs 

T'- 

SO 

4 

© 

'If 

nJ 

4 

OS 

os 

Os 

oo 

00 

O' 

s~~' 

t" 

s-^ 

3 

00 

^ ^ 

' — ' 

00 

OS 


CN 


nl 

C3  w nT 

W Of  w 
<fO  Of  *o 


&a  55 

Ci,  ^ 

o 

C h 

3 « 

<N  n 


cn  ^ 


«0  Of 


.SO 

<3 

>■-» 

3 

oo 

«o 

<?o 


.52 

j§ 

So 

Of 

Of 

SO 


146 


[429] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 24 


m 

in 

i- 

00 

•n 

CO 

*n 

d 

cn 

en 

O 

80 

oo 

o 

in 

oo 

r» 

o 

oo 
s r- 

vd 

i> 

Tf 

F" 

TT 

» 

4 

r~- 

4 

OO 

vd 

oo 

CO* 

r- 

vd 

F- 

oo 

vo 

oo 

-H 

> 

> 

> 

r-~ 

cp  > 

> 

>* 

> 

> 

> 

> 

> 

> 

kP 

> 

cd 

cd 

cd 

cd 

1 cd 

rA  Cd 

cd 

^ cd 

cd 

cd 

cd 

cd 

cd 

cd 

cd 

cd 

£— i 

/— s 

| 

04 

oo 

i 

/—s 

/— N 

© 

/ — \ 

in 

c- 

m 

Tf 

c- 

w f" 

y—( 

Cs 

oo 

1 ^ ft 

d 

m 

Tf  O 

o 

in 

o 

CS 

— -1 

© 

00 

VO 

vo 

vo 

cs 

oo 

00 

oo 

oo 

cs 

oo 

oo 

w 00 

00 

rp 

1 o oo 

rp 

oo 

oo  00 

cs 

© 

os 

00 

C" 

OO 

00 

oo 

oo 

oo 

oo 

•A 

00 

•A 

in 

4 

4 

00 

O »n 

4 

d 

cn 

4 4 

© 

«n 

vd  © 

4 

4 

4 

95 

VO 

4 

Os 

00 

m 

Os 

© 

in 

© ^ 

00 

Tj- 

i> 

r- 

r- 

00 

r- 

r- 

c-  r- 

o 

r-- 

00 

C"  C" 

c- 

F- 

VO  £ 

OO 

oo 

00 

VO 

vo 

r- 

00 

00  00 

00 

Oli 


£ 

Oh 

Tf 

OS 

o 

m 

£ 

3 

00 

vo 

>n 

00 

X) 

r- 

© 

os 

<n 

© 

ri 

>r»H 

3 

m 

OS 

16 

Os 

os 

CO 

03 

S* 

© 

Tf 

Tf* 

00 

cl 

vd 

n 

00 

Tf 

00 

VO 

© 

© 

Os 

00 

zs 

co 

03 

av. 

rA 

in 

m 

■ 

— H 

vo" 

$ 

>4 

CO 

£ 

£ 

oo 

av. 

d 

av. 

CO 

> 

cd 

& 

■ 

»n 

■ 

Os 

> 

cd 

dj 

vd 

tH 

4 

oo 

>n 

CO 

1—1 

vd 

1 

•n 

d 

3 

> 

cd 

00 

G 

o 

G 

in 

5 

m 

3 

n 

Os 

3 

WD 

© 

m 

>n 

3 

3 

Cl 

3 

00 

> 

cd 

> 

cd 

>* 

cd 

*3 

ft! 

a 

3 

VO 

> 

cd 

s 

3 

oo 

co 

£ 

& 

1 ^ 

M 

<n 

<+H 

vd 

% 

r- 

M 

CO 

r-> 

1 ^ 

© 

in 

in* 

to 

M 

to 

oo* 

to 

t" 

vo 

00 

ad 

CO 

VD 

M 

to 

r-' 

PQ 

vH 

s 

Tf 

t-H 

m 

#© 

1 

r- 

a 

vo 

£ 

r- 

d' 

£ 

OO 

r'l 

£ 

<N 

a 

cn 

ri 

a 

in 

1 

a 

vo 

r—H 

a ^ 

a 

r- 

1 

t-H 

in 

a 

a 

vd 

a 

vo" 

4 

«e 

<n 

2 

in 

o 

S«i 

3 

vo* 

2 

Tf 

»n 

o 

m 

o 

♦-H 

vd 

vd 

2 

Tf 

CO 

o 

S-H 

1 

to 

2 

v~i 

2 ^ 

r 

in 

to 

■ 

Tf 

2 

o 

?H 

i 

Tf 

2 Id 

4 

i 

in 

s 

-H 

<+-i 

— i 

— < 

H-H 

— H 

—a 

tt— i 

— H 

’“i 

4H 

5 

G-t 

V-i 

v-H 

M-t  ^ 

i 

i—i 

r-H 

i— t 

t-H 

i—1 

«4— i ^ 

vH 

i— * 

O 

S3 

© 

a 

© 


m 

vd  £ 

00  00 

«n 


OS 


vo 

c4 

00 


in  . oo  . »n  in 

> CS  >00  > CS  < ON 

cd  4 ^4  cd  4 

^oo^oo^oo^oo 

00w00w°°w00w 


, O 
d go 
© 


K ~ ffi  . 
K r-  K © 
w oo  w t"- 


% 


co 

<N 


Os 


£S£ 


« !S 

« = ,• 
^ T-H  00 


Os 


d 

oo  oo 


vo  oo 
00  oo 


Tf 

t" 


vo 


_ Id  VO 
00  00 

d *n  4 
00 


oo  oo  oo 

£«-£^ 
w 00  w 00 


Os 


§ 

vo 

oo  ti- 
cs 


OS 


«°*s 

*Q  § 


o 

*1 
* 6- 
00 


13 

ft 


*o 

&’§ 

§ § 
§0  g 

CO  ^ 

$$  ft 


O 

ft 

-n  o 

* s S 


ca  1-1 
<3  4 


o tS 

o s 

Of  13  T3 
ft 


CO  m 
d d 


m 
v— / 

?s 

§ 

o 

CJ 

SS 

vo 

"Ha 

tn 

d 


[430] 


147 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


CO 

VO 

Ol 

f" 

96.8 

VO 

to 

<N 

VO 

to 

On 

CO 

’—i 

4 

oi 

ri 

ON 

o’ 

ri 

On 

oo 

00 

oo 

On 

o 

00 

oo 

O 

> 

> 

a 

> 

> 

> 

cd 

> 

> 

> 

> 

> 

> 

r-s 

cd 

cd 

cd 

/ S 

cd 

cd 

cd 

03 

«“ » 

03 

a 

r-s 

t"-' 

C4 

co 

/ s 

/ \ 

8 

CO 

VO 

/• s 

no 

/ — V 

00 

VO 

On 

O 

O 

VO 

to 

r— 1 

On 

o 

Tf 

On 

O 

00 

f> 

VO 

o 

tO 

CO 

r- 

»0 

m 

00 

i 

t- 

to 

ON 

O 

r-H 

oo 

On 

On 

00 

oo 

OO 

OO 

O 

o 

o 

oo 

oo 

00 

00 

* 

00 

On 

On 

* 

4 

co 

CO 

C?N 

00 

4 

d- 

d~ 

On 

i 

6 

co  On 

4 

ON 

00 

CO 

4 

oo 

00 

*0  On 

tT 

00 

C4 

ON 

On 

r- 

r- 

r- 

r- 

r- 

C- 

ON 

On 

00  O OO 

00 

t- 

l> 

r" 

00 

00  00 

On 

On 

On 

& 

X> 


a ) 
© 


© 

i 

£ 

(N 

co 

VO 

<N 


CO 

to 

00 

C4 

C4 

(N 

CO 

u 

a 

oo 

rl 

vo 

vo’ 

_4 

On 

On 

CO 

ON 

o 

vo’ 

o 

vo’ 

vd 

00 

n 

Ol 

S' 

r- 

T— 1 

CM 

T— ( 

n 

r-4 

<N 

oi 

r—t 

T— 1 

ol 

C4 

T— 1 

, 

(N 

n 

> 

On 

> 

1 

ON 

> 

i 

ON 

6 

(N 

> 

i 

00 

> 

1 

oi 

c3 

r- 

r— H 

■ 

OO 

>■ 

> 

O 

8 

> 

oo 

On 

B 

5S 

!>’ 

cd 

cd 

a 

cd 

cd 

cd 

a 

Cj 

> 

> 

C-- 

CO 

3 

3 

3 

3 

»o 

3 

r4 

3 

cd 

cd 

3 

O 

3 

VO 

3 

3 

to 

3 

> 

P 

3 

oo’ 

4 

a 

oo 

CO 

on 

a 

00 

■ 

r- 

a 

C/3 

a 

00* 

to 

a 

oi 

Vi 

a 

C4 

i 

CO 

On 

1 

V 

2 

vo 

i 

a 

r- 

i 

to 

M 

V 

a 

CO 

a 

r- 

4 

'v 

a 

cd 

o 

rl 

M 

V 

a 

05 

B 

r 

■ 

* 

VO 

a 

i 

* 

C4 

CO 

2 

to 

o 

Vh 

to 

o 

U 

o 

Vh 

vo’ 

o 

—H 

00 

o 

u 

oo’ 

o’ 

r- 

o 

U 

to 

2 

4 

o 

s- 

2 

»o 

<£ 

i 

2 ON 

a 

•fi 

vd 

2 

to 

*4-4 

1 

t+— l 

<4-1 

T—l 

<4-4 

r"H 

*4-4 

1 

C4 

i 

1 

<« 

1—1 

t4— i 

r_ 1 

1 

»4-i  <— < 

<“ 1 

M-l 

1—1 

& 

«3 

1 

§ 

s 

£ 


vo 

Ojq 

CO 

ON 

to 

to 

r- 

CO 

O 

3 

00 

vo 

VO 

i 

Tf 

CO 

'd* 

ov 

> 

O 

On 

> 

cd 

ON 

On 

> 

O 

o 

o 

£ 

-3 

3 

Os 

> 

cd 

04 

O 

ON 

> 

to 

On 

o’ 

Os 

> 

00 

Os 

ON 

/^S 

ON 

> 

4 

oo 

b— s 

i 

rl 

o 

a 

fH 

rT 

Tl- 

dl 

o' 

cd 

dl 

6 

CO 

cd 

O 

00 

vo 

<z> 

cO 

o 

cd 

cd 

to 

ri 

cd 

CO 

On 

t-h 

o 

T—t 

ON 

On 

OS 

00 

ON 

r- 

cd 

o 

oo 

00 

' — ' 

<o 

00 

On 

O 

C" 

o 

o 

o 

to 

vo 

vo 

o 

Os 

ffi 

£ 

ffi 

Os 

ffi 

1 

W 

■ 

M 

1 

OS 

X 

Os 

1 

£ 

£ 

On 

£ 

1 

ffi 

rn 

X 

CO 

HH 

4 

HH 

6 

l-H 

00 

r- 

HH 

00 

to 

HH 

OS 

t"- 

OO 

On 

to 

o 

o 

Os 

ON 

' — ' 

Os 

o 

ON 

On 

o 

00 

00 

Vw' 

00 

l— J 

On 

ON 

' — ' 

S3 

3 

3 

5 

3 

-3 


VO 


s 

o w 

3 


On  O 
C4  CO 


£ o 3 

C*N 

^3  .s 

5^  W)  ^ 

-ill- 

3 .3  -2  Of 

*■»  . . <u 

S 


05 

/ — ^ 

00 

s 

^ 

/ — V 

2 00 

o w 

.*3 

s— y 

^ *r* 

o o 

S3 

3 

3 a 

OO 

1 

^N  ■*-< 
<<  ^ 

<ii 

-Cl 

S3 

C 

4-, 

05 

00 

On  O 

Ol 

C4 

04  co 

co 

CO 

148 


[431] 


1133  striatus  (6)  108-114  av.  109.8  16.5M8.5  av.  17.3  96-110  av.  98 

(TH  98-107  from  skull  19-22  97-103) 

* Specimen  Nos.  1864  and  1866  referred  to  in  text. 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY 


SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 24 


a ^ 
H r-  vo 
oo  oo 


3 

E 

4> 

C8 

© 

I s« 

a " = 


I 

Si 

in 

co 


£ - 


oo 

r-  — 
oo 

Tj-  nl 


C5  £ 

•1  — 

•a 


4> 

& 

50 

! 

B 

© 

B 

o 


£ x 

</> 

rn  g 


Of 

<N 

00 

ffi 

O HH 
OO  W 


i"-  x in 

ON  00  03  ON 


T3 

B 

c3 


O 

s 

§ 

£ 

CO 


NO 


-M  'sl- 

o „ 

i- 

1— 1 Cd  T- 1 


oo  oo 

■ I 

<-i  o 

OO  00 

o 

Of  ON  Of 
on  r»  *o  on  *° 

00  OO  w 00  w 


<50  Of 


> > 

oS  c3 

m no  oi  n 
OO  CO  00  00 
m in  in  tJ- 
t c~-  t — C~~ 


2 in  rj- 

"o  x q no  © 

t2  ^oo-oo 

S > T-H  >. 

*-*  «S  03 


c« 

B 

"3 

0) 


^ 3 

£ g 
•A  2 


o 

s? 

oo 

CO 


rr-t 

On 

oo 

m 
> ON 
r) 

ra  00 

2 E 

HH 

00  W 


NO 

00 

o 

>'  ^ 
<3  NO 

O °° 

^ ffi 

tJ-  P 

00  w 


<— n in  in 
«o  oo  oo 
oo 

.,  cn  o 
3 00  oo 
_ o „ „ 
£;  x o © 
^ cs  oo  oo 


a 

8 

V 

3 

T3 

•a 

8 

£ 


© 

03 

03 


<B 

wa 

S 

© 

B 

O 

s 

J 

w 


I 2 


<N 


. O ^ 

N O £ in  in 
»— I ctf 


. ON  ©N 

>n  oo  92 
t"- 

00  X 
<50  OO  CO 


«0 


'tf-  Ti- 


ND  oo 

^ .S 
^ c 

P 

r-H 

60 
c 


p 

o 

c« 

3 

E 

p 

03 

X 


T3 

G 

X 

G 

O 

00 

60 


W 


! 


£ 3 


© 

B 

© 

s 

Si 

J 

W n- 
00 


ON 

00  oo 
00 

i *n 
ri  oo 

00  W 


r? 

J3 

3 

m 
«o  w 

X 

w 

*0  Of 

>>> 

Of 

© 

*5  °f 

X 

op 

Of 

Of 

.p 

§ 

cn 

«o 

in 

oo 

cn 

oS  <* 

In"  00 
oo  fr; 


00 


«o 


>' 

s 

r-l 

cd 

fc 

© 

00 

NO 

in 

i 

in 

r- 

0) 

cu 

03 

00 

iA 

P 

€ 

in 

g 

O 

G 

NO* 

X 

03 

0 

03 

p 

a 

i 

E 


Of 

a 03 

03  <D 

X X 

60  O 

a .g 

S „ 


[432] 


149 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


r~ 

oo 


"t 

ON 

rn  cl  -rf  in 
oo  Os  oo  00 


00 

> 00 

a 

r—v  r~ 
— ' m o° 
O'.  on 


in  1+,' 

;£*« 
>A  m rf  o 
oo  oo  oo  00 


t — OO  I 

oo  oo  oo 

VO  r1-  ®® 

r-  i-~  C"-  30 


OO  £ 

„ <3 

Q\  c~\  o-'s 

rC  rC  — re 

00  OO  00  ^ 

in  rf  t~-~  O On 

r-  c-  r~~  c-  oo  c~ 


©fl 


5 


o 

^t 


w 


'St 

B2 


60  • 

•|S7- 

> O'.  o o 
O T-1  r-H 


o o 
o o 


ON 

V J 

cl 

r^i 

o) 

av.  1 

6 

04 

o 

av. 

& 

o 

3 

ci 

Cl 

* 

3 

Cl 

r— i 

„ 

i—J 

03 

/—N 

cl 

CO 

On' 

c<* 

i 

CJ 

d 

1 

in 

g 

in 

cn 

c 

o 

Si 

M-H 

oo  c~ 

oo 

o 

5h 

4-t 

17, 

00 

NO 

o 


oo 
60  on 
© 


Vi 

*s 

S 

0 

1 

■§ 
u 

*3 


© _ 
o ON 
' l-H  ON 


Cl 

3 ^ S 

ra  «n  r l 

ci  . 

• 3 ”3 

^ M M 

«*  * • 1/5 

O 

^ g ^ g 

8 © 8 
h r)  ^ 


© 

a 


§2 

rJ 

■"t 


»n  c-  C?  cl 
O ON  ^ On 

5 x s a 

O -H  O >— 


Oh 

Oh 

C/3 

3 

C/3 

Vi 

3 

• P4 

'■O 

s 


#0h 

& 


co 

Tt" 


00 

Cl 

ON 

Cl 

oo 

T— 1 

ON 

> 

T— ( 

T— 1 

a 

> 

— , 

r— 1 

3 

cO 

3 

ON 

M 

c/3 

?1 

u 

V) 

in 

c- 


P <-‘ 


P t-  oo 


> O'  > ^ 

cci  O ^ 00 
ON  _ 00 

m o© 

ON 


£S£-5 


O NO  _ 
^ • r4 

OO  ON 

r-H 

35  > ^ 

oo  3 3 

- ^ » % 


00  B 

^ 2 


or,  OO 

oo  g 00 


2 od  On 


ON  > On 
, oo  OS  on 
T-,  OO  oo 
ON  £ 

-£5£ 

00  W oo  w 


'St 

c* 

m 

Os' 

>3 

.g  5 

CO 

<o  o 
<00 

3 2 o+ 
a 5 _, 

3 

CO 

«o  >■ 

Q 

3 I'01- 

«s 

U 3 

/— S /«N 

/-N 

oj 

X)  o 

cd 

'w'  ^ ^ 

X!  3 

o ^ 

sS 


nnd 

<?o 


<o  c 

SSj 

<o  P: 


•Si 

so 

oo 

V) 


JC 

3 

"Sd 

So 

»n 


150 


[433] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 24 


Os 

d 

o 

© 

in 

87 

On 

'w- 

r-2 

O 

> 

nv  O 

o 

/^S 

ci3 

NO 

oo 

m y—l 

o 

in 

g\ 

r— v 

O 

o 

*— H 

ON 

o 

CO 

m 

T— 1 

y— 1 

T— 1 —T 

i-H 

ON 

ON 

NO 

NO 

oo  © 

CO 

in 

m 

d 

1 

in 

ON 

On 

On  -h 

ON 

On 

On 

oo 

oo 

a * 
cu 

£ 

S 


t/3 

a 

1 

as 


vo 


Cl  rj- 
<N  Cl 


03 


W)  © 2 ^ c? 
^ d m © © 


£ 3 


^ £ 

SlQ 

cf  ^ 

/—V  3 

* 


in  NO 

O ci 
cl  ci 


ci  in 

o o 


O m 

o o 


& 

6 Jh 


3 

> 

a 

53 

& 

53 

ffl 

r- 

■\t* 


^ 6 
_ • Cl 


VO 

^ £ S3 


£ 8 


o 

3 5 2 £ 

ON  w'  ON  w 


a 

a> 

>> 

.§ 


a, 

S~i  Oj 

O £7 

- *2 

<o  3 
03  1/3 

S .2 
.1  i 

<y 

O 1 

2!  1 
o3  S. 


TS 

C5 

2 

W5 

| 

5ft 

£ 

S3 


I— 1 o 

cS 

<3 

*— i o 

c- 

a 

s 

1 

On 

■K» 

in 

</> 

<30 

6 

© 

> 

a 

in 

O 

Tf 

On 

> 

ciS 

in 

ns 

89-98 

-<-> 

d 

0) 

S 

OO 

Tf 

r*H 

> 

— J rt 

’«J  „ vo 


H 22  3 


s °° 

oo  i— < m in  ^ 

■ ° ° 

7 n 7 'T  o 

t O V3  CO  O 

ON  i-H  On  On  *— i 


, cl  On  oo 

*n  7 7 7 ^ 

^ © »n  no  o' 

^ N - -h  m 


cn 

■sj- 

ON 

24.9 

ON 

Cl 

Cl 

m 

i 

c> 

in 

ri 

NO 

NO 

Cl 

Cl 

n 

> 

Cl 

> 

oS 

3 

oS 

3 

3 

av. 

. 

co 

CO 

NO 

CO 

NO 

NO 

ri 

a 

n 

i 

in 

a 

c- 

a 

o 

Cl 

in 

rl 

o 

ccj 

o 

U-\ 

NO 

£ 

cc 

rl 

<Jh 

<N 

«+H 

n 

Cl 

> 

to  c3 

.3 
£ 


o . ■'3- 
cc  > ci 


oo 


ci  22  <-c 
m _ d 


d 


£ 

I— I r—l  I— I d 


ec  ^ 
d oo 


oo 

Cl 


in 


m - N m n >n 
On  On  On  ON  On  On 


d 


ci  io 


in.  O in  NO  OO  t^-  'sf 


s a * 


> oi 

c3  0 
M 


S3 
<o  m 


en  NO 


>2  > ^ ^ 
c3  i cj  i 

ON  - £ £ 

N H H H f”1. 


ffi  ^ ffi  6 ffi  in 


in  tj-  m 
d 


nv  n-N 

cc 

nv  n—v 

cd  -O 

' — ' 

03  4D 

3 3 

Of 

» O 

oj  3 

c3  3 

in 

N? 

CS  c! 

C C 

* — 1 

— - 

a a 

s 

o 

a a 

o o 

0+ 

o o 

NO 

0+ 

Cl  c 

.Nj 

c c 

Of 

NO 

-u* 

NO 

Ct- 

uJ 

T~ 

pq 

— H 

I 

5 

in 

ft, 

00 

TT 


Q 

in 

U 

U 

C 

V3 

| 

e 

CO 

% 

.Op 

$ $ 

saroides 

<3 

5 

'W' 

1 

Oo 

►S3 

3 

a 

Oo 

*5 

ON 

O 

t-H 

00 

ON 

o 

S 0 
M $ 

C a 

Oo  <L> 

e § 

_ <J 


22  22  J 

- -H  PJ 


[434] 


151 


ON  A NEW  SUBSPECIES  OF  PELLORNEUM  RUFICEPS 
(SWAINSON)  IN  PENINSULAR  INDIA1 

Humayun  Abdulali 


It  has  been  customary  to  accept  specimens 
of  Pellomeum  ruficeps  (Swainson)  from  all 
over  Peninsular  India,  excluding  the  south- 
west whence  grand  has  been  described,  as  of 
the  nominate  form  with  the  type  locality  in 
the  Nilgiris. 

Some  years  ago  while  going  through  the 
Bombay  collection  for  determination  of  the 
subspecies  to  be  included  in  the  Checklist  of 
the  Birds  of  Maharashtra,  I had  noticed  that 
the  series  collected  in  the  Eastern  Ghats  by  the 
Vernay  Scientific  Survey  (1929-30)  appeared 
very  different  from  specimens  from  other  parts 
of  India,  but  in  the  absence  of  topotypes  no 
action  was  possible.  The  same  problem  pre- 
sented itself  again  when  cataloguing  the  birds 
in  the  Bombay  collection  but  I have  now  been 
able  to  give  the  matter  some  more  attention. 

The  bird  was  originally  described  from 
India  by  Swainson,  1832,  Fauna  Boreali  Ame- 
ricana p.  487,  but  Stuart  Baker  (1921,  p.  238) 
said  the  type  locality  was  the  Nilgiris.  Deignan 
(1947)  explained  that  “many,  if  not  all,  the 
specimens  listed  by  Swainson.  in  Fauna 
Boreali  Americana  came  into  Gould’s  posses- 
sion” and  “the  type  specimen  is  probably  the 
one  from  the  Nilgiri  Hills,  ex  Gould’s  collec- 
tion recorded  by  Bowdler  Sharpe,  Catalogue 
of  Birds  in  British  Museum,  Vol.  7,  1883, 
p.  251.”  He  then  restricted  the  type  locality 
to  Coonoor,  Nilgiri  Hills  Disk,  Madras  Presi- 
dency. 

Kinnear  & Whistler  (1930,  p.  393)  when 


1 Accepted  November  1981. 


reporting  on  the  first  lot  of  birds  collected 
by  the  Vernay  Scientific  Survey  of  the  Eastern 
Ghats  referred  to  five  specimens  of  Pellomeum 
ruficeps  obtained  at  Kurumbapatti,  Salem  dist., 
Madras,  in  the  low  country  about  half  a mile 
from  the  Shevaroy  Hills.  Here  they  indicated 
the  type  locality  as  the  Nilgiris  and  said: 

“The  above  series  appears  to  be  indistin- 
guishable from  Nilgiri  birds.  Harington  origi- 
nally confined  his  dark  race  grand  to  Travan- 
core  and  we  are  not  certain  that  the  Fauna 
is  right  in  attributing  to  it  also  the  birds  from 
Coorg,  the  Wynaad  and  South-West  Mysore. 
A fine  series  of  the  species  is  coming  in  from 
some  of  the  later  collecting  camps  and  it  should 
be  possible  later  on  to  speak  more  positively 
of  the  distribution  of  the  races  of  this  common 
bird”. 

Later  when  reporting  on  the  whole  col- 
lection, 1932,  JBNHS  35,  pp.  746-747  they 
quoted  the  same  source  for  Swainson’s  origi- 
nal description  but  reverted  to  “India”  as  the 
type  locality.  The  series  of  36  skins  then 
available  from  Kurumbapatti,  Shevaroy  Hills, 
and  northwards  along  the  ghats  to  Anantgiri, 
Sankrametta,  and  Jaipur,  in  the  Vizagapatnam 
Hills,  was  said  to  be  remarkably  constant  in 
size  and  coloration  though  there  was  a ten- 
dency for  the  coloration  to  grow  slightly 
richer  in  tint  in  the  north-east  about  Orissa, 
but  not  sufficient  to  warrant  a subspecies”. 

This  reversion  from  the  Nilgiris  to  India, 
the  failure  to  refer  to  any  specific  specimens 
from  the  Nilgiris  (which  are  scarce  in  collec- 
tions) or  to  compare  the  Orissa  birds  with 
those  from  other  parts  of  India  suggest  some 


152 


A NEW  SUBSPECIES  OF  PELLORNEUM  RUFICEPS 


confusion  and  the  possibility  of  only  the  first 
specimens  from  Kurumbapatti  (actually  inter- 
mediate between  the  Nilgiri  birds  and  the 
new  race  and  once  said  to  be  indistinguishable 
from  the  Nilgiri  birds)  being  compared  with 
the  new  arrivals  and  all  being  named  as  nomi- 
nate ruficeps,  while  the  north-eastern  birds 
which  are  darker  and  closer  to  those  from  the 
Nilgiri’s  and  other  parts  of  India  are  said  to 
be  different  from  ruficeps , but  not  separable. 

This  confusion  has  led  to  all  the  birds  from 
Peninsular  India,  excluding  the  dark  birds 
from  the  south-west  ( granti ) being  lumped 
together  as  ruficeps. 

A glance  at  the  fair  series  available  from 
the  Shevaroy  Hills,  Chitteri  Range  and  Pal- 
konda  Hills,  immediately  shows  that  they  are 
very  distinct  from  all  the  others  available,  in 
having  pale  upperparts  with  a faint  olive  green 
wash  and  also  a much  paler  rufous  cap.  The 
British  Museum  have  been  kind  enough  to 
lend  me  some  specimens  including  one  col- 
lected by  H.  R.  Baker  at  Segoor  4000',  Nil- 
giris,  and  others  from  the  different  collecting 
camps  of  the  Eastern  Ghats  Survey. 

With  the  examination  of  even  one  speci- 
men from  the  Nilgiris,  I have  no  hesitation  in 
deciding  that  though  those  from  Kurumbapatti 
in  the  low  country  are  intermediate,  the  others 
further  north  along  the  Eastern  Ghats  are 
quite  different  from  ruficeps  from  the  Nilgiris 
and  I name  them: 

Pellorneum  ruficeps  pallidum  subsp.  nov. 

Type:  B.N.H.S.  Sp.  No.  1259  (Collec- 
tor’s No.  650)  collected  by  V.  S.  La  Personne 
at  1000'  in  Palkonda  Hills,  South  Cuddapah, 
Madras,  on  4th  August  1929. 

9 cotypes:  7 c?  c?  2 $ $ (all  April  to 
August  1929)  1 3500',  1 4000'  Shevaroy  Hills; 


1 2000',  1 3000',  Chitteri  Range,  Salem  dist.; 
5 1000'  Palkonda  Hills,  South  Cuddapah, 
Madras. 

4 specimens  from  Palkonda  and  Shevaroy 
Hills  and  Chitteri  Range  from  the  British 
Museum  all  agree  with  the  above.  All  the 
specimens,  both  in  Bombay  and  from  Tring, 
were  collected  by  V.  S.  La  Personne  during 
the  Eastern  Ghats  Survey. 

Diagnosis'.  Olive  green  of  upperparts  and 
chestnut  of  head  strikingly  paler  than  in 
ruficeps  from  the  Nilgiris  and  further  west  and 
north  along  Western  Ghats.  A similar  charac- 
ter separates  punctatum  from  mandelli  in  the 
north  and  is  referred  to  as  “a  greyish  cast” 
by  Deignan  (1947). 

Specimens  listed  above  cover  the  known 
range  of  the  subspecies  though  Bowdler 
Sharpe  (loc.  cit.)  refers  to  a specimen  from 
Madras  (Dr.  Jerdon)  in  which  the  general 
cast  of  the  plumage  is  ashy  and  the  crown 
only  slightly  more  rufescent  than  the  back.  He 
also  mentions  that  the  superciliary  streak  is 
whitish.  We  do  not  know  how  close  to  Madras 
this  species  is  now  found,  but  the  description 
is  suggestive  of  this  race. 

The  Spotted  Babbler  is  common  in  well- 
wooded  localities  over  most  of  India,  Burma, 
China,  Thailand,  and  other  parts  of  south- 
east Asia,  and  26  subspecies  are  listed  in 
Peters’  Checklist  Vol.  X (1964).  Deignan  (loc. 
cit.,  p.  4)  “after  seeing  the  variations  in  the 
populations  in  the  countries  to  the  east,  finds 
it  “difficult  to  believe  that  a careful  study  of 
good  series  will  not  show  that  in  India  also 
considerable  subspeciation  occurs ” 

One  good  series  has  been  found  distinctly 
different,  and  I have  no  doubt  that  further 
study  will  endorse  his  remarks. 


153 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


References 


Ali,  Salim,  & Ripley,  S.  Dillon  (1971):  Hand- 
book of  Birds  of  India,  Pakistan  & Ceylon,  Vol.  6. 
Oxford  University  Press,  Bombay. 

Baker,  E.  C.  Stuart  (1921) : Fauna  of  British 
India,  Birds.  Vol.  I. 

Deignan,  H.  G.  (1947):  A Review  of  the  races 
of  the  Spotted  Babbling  Thrush  Pellorneum  ruficeps 
Swainson.  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.  Vol.  107,  No.  14, 

pp.  1-20. 

Deignan,  H.  G.,  Paynter,  R.  A.,  & Ripley,  S. 
Dillon  (1964) : Checklist  of  Birds  of  World. 

Vol.  X. 


Harington,  H.  H.  (1913)  : Pellorneum  ruficeps 
granti,  Pterythius  xanthochloris  occidentalis  and  P. 
pallidus  hybrida  described.  Bull.  British  Orn.  Club, 
33,  p.  81. 

Kinnear  N.  B.  & Whistler  H.  (1930) : The 
Vemay  Scientific  Survey  of  the  Eastern  Ghats. 
Ornithological  Section.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  34: 
386-403. 

(1932):  loc. 

cit.,  Part.  2.  ibid.  35:  737-760. 

Sharpe,  R.  Bowdler  (1883) : Catalogue  of  the 
Passeriformes  or  Perching  Birds  in  the  Collection 
of  the  British  Museum.  Vol.  7. 


154 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


STUDIES  ON  SOME  APHELINID 
(HYM.:  CHALCIDOIDEA ) PARASITES  OF 
HEMIPTEROUS  INSECTS  OF  INDIA1 

Tasawwer  Husain  and  Man  Mohan  Agarwal2 

{With  twenty-five  text-figures ) 

Three  new  Aphelinid  species  viz.,  Eretmocerus  hydrabadensis;  Azof  us  aleuroides  and 
Physcus  oriensis  have  been  described.  Prospalteila  clypealis  Silvestri  has  been  redes- 
cribed in  greater  detail.  Keys  to  Indian  species  of  Eretmocerus  and  Physcus  have 
also  been  proposed. 


Eretmocerus  Haldeman 

Haldeman,  1850.  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  Arts. 
9 (2):  111. 

Type  species:  Eretmocerus  corni  Haldeman. 

The  genus  can  be  easily  separated  from 
allied  genera  of  the  family  by  the: 

Five  segmented  antennae  with  two  annular 
funicle  segments  and  a long  unsegmental  club; 
four  segmented  tarsi.  Characters  suggested  by 
Hayat  (1972)  apply  well  to  the  species,  namely, 
“pronotum  consisting  of  two  triangular  lobes 
joined  in  the  middle  by  a membrane;  sub- 
genital  plate  broad,  posterior  margin  with  a 
notch  in  the  middle;  outer  plates  of  ovipositor 
with  submarginal  ridge  along  dorsal  margin”. 

Fletcher  (1914)  reported  for  the  first  time 
an  undescribed  species  bred  from  castor  white- 
fly.  Mani  (1941)  described  a new  species  based 
on  male.  Samuel  (1950)  reported  E.  masii 

1 Accepted  June  1981. 

2 Section  of  Entomology,  Department  of  Zoology, 
Aligarh  Muslim  University,  Aligarh. 

3 E.  masii  Silvestri  and  E.  delhiensis  Mani  are 
not  included  in  the  key  as  they  are  recorded  from 
males. 


Silv.  Hayat  (1972)  added  three  new  species, 
namely,  E.  indicus  Hayat,  E.  mashhoodi  Hayat 
and  E.  gunturiensis  Hayat. 

Key  to  Indian  species  of  the  genus  Eretmocerus 
Haldeman  based  on  females3 

1 . Pedicel  three  or  more  than  three  times  longer 

than  wide  2 

— Pedicel  less  than  three  times  longer  than 

wide  5 

2.  Marginal  vein  longer  than  stigmal 3 

— Marginal  vein  as  long  as  stigmal 

E.  haldemani.  Howard 

3.  Speculum  bounded  by  two  or  more  than  two 

rows  of  setae 4 

— Speculum  bordered  by  a single  row  of  setae; 

submarginal  with  two  setae;  marginal  fringe  1/6 
of  wing  disc  E.  indicus  Hayat 

4.  Speculum  bordered  by  two  rows  of  setae;  first 

funicle  segment  triangular;  scutellum  with  4 
setae;  thorax  and  gaster  yellow 

E.  mashhoodi  Hayat 

— Speculum  bordered  by  two  complete  and  third 

incomplete  row  of  setae;  first  funicle  ring  like; 
scutellum  with  6 setae;  thorax  light  brown, 
gaster  dark E.  hydrabadensis  sp.  nov. 

5.  Club  spatulate;  first  funicle  triangular  or 

quadrate  6 

— Club  cylindrical;  first  funicle  ring  like,  much 
shorter  than  second;  club  nine  times  as  long 


155 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


as  wide;  speculum  bordered  by  11  setae 

E.  gunturiensis  Hayat 

6.  First  funicle  triangular,  second  wider  than 

long E.  corni  Haldeman 

— First  funicle  quadrate;  second  longer  than  wide 
• E.  mundus  Mercet 

Eretmocerus  hydrabadensis  sp.  nov. 

(Figs.  1-6) 

FEMALE 

Head  (Fig.  1)  — Light  brown,  wider  than 
long  in  facial  view  (0.31:  0.23);  vertex 


sparsely  setose,  frons  with  few  setae;  eyes 
dark;  malar  space  more  than  the  longitudinal 
diameter  of  eyes  (0.14:  0.12);  ocelli  in  obtuse 
angled  triangle,  basal  ocellus  removed  from 
occipital  margin  by  about  its  own  diameter 
(0.02)  and  from  eye  rim  by  slightly  more  than 
its  own  diameter;  maxillary  palpi  two  seg- 
mented, labial  palpi  unsegmented;  mandibles 
tridentate. 

Antennae  (Fig.  2)  — Whitish;  scape  about 
four  times  as  long  as  wide  (0.1  : 0.025);  pedi- 


Figs.  1-6.  Eretmocerus  hydrabadensis  sp.  nov. 

L Head  (facial  view);  2.  Antenna  $;  3.  Thorax;  4.  Pronotum;  5.  Part  of  forewing 

venation;  6.  Antenna  $, 


156 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


cel  three  and  a half  times  as  long  as  wide 
(0.07  : 0.02);  first  funicle  segment  ring  like, 
second  one  and  a half  times  wider  than  long; 
club  about  six  times  (0.17  :0.03)  as  long  as 
wide  with  three  pairs  of  sensoria  on  margins. 

Thorax  (Fig.  3)  — Light  brown,  pronotum 
orange  yellow  with  two  (Fig.  4)  lobes  joined 
in  the  middle  by  a membrane;  axillae  some- 
what triangular  with  a single  seta;  parapsides 
hammer  shaped,  broad  at  apex,  narrow  at 
base;  scutum  and  scutellum  with  6 setae 
each;  metanotum  a transverse  strip;  meso- 
postphragma  long,  reaching  upto  middle 
length  of  abdomen,  rounded  at  apex. 

Forewings — Hyaline,  less  than  three  times 
as  long  as  wide,  (0.65:0.25),  marginal  vein 
shorter  than  submarginal,  about  one  and  a 
half  times  as  long  as  stigmal  (0.08:0. 05) 
(Fig.  5),  postmarginal  absent;  speculum  mesal- 
ly  bounded  by  twenty  setae  arranged  in  two 
complete  and  a third  incomplete  row;  margi- 
nal fringe  short. 

Hind  wings  — Hyaline,  long,  narrow,  about 
ten  times  longer  than  wide;  marginal  fringe 
long,  longer  than  wing  disc. 

Legs  — Coxae  and  femora  orange  yellow 
except  at  apex  and  base,  apex  and  base  of 
femora,  tibiae  and  tarsi  whitish. 

Gaster  — Dark  brown,  longer  than  thorax; 
ovipositor  slightly  exserted  arising  from  base 
of  gaster;  subgenital  plate  broad  anteriorly 
with  anterior  margin  straight,  posterior  mar- 
gin narrow  with  a notch  in  the  middle;  first 
valvifers  somewhat  triangular;  second  valvifers 
with  outer  margin  thickened;  third  valvulae 
movably  articulated  with  second  valvifers; 
outer  plates  of  ovipositor  narrow  at  base, 
broad  at  apex  with  a ridge  along  dorsal 
margin. 

Female  length  : 0 . 87  mm 

male  — resembles  the  female,  except  for 
the  following  differences: 


Antennae  (Fig.  6)  three  segmented;  scape 
about  four  times  longer  than  wide  (0. 15:0.04); 
pedicel  slightly  longer  than  wide  (0.4:0.03); 
club  unsegmented  about  twelve  times  as  long 
as  wide  (0.51:0.043)  with  many  sensoria. 
Male  length:  0.81mm. 

Material  studied : Holotype  $ and  c?  India, 
Andhra  Pradesh,  Hyderabad  ex  white-fly  on 
Nerium  odorum , 3.  X.  1977  (T.  Husain). 

Paratypes  2 S d1  • Data  same  as  for  holotype. 
Material  deposited  with  Zoology  Museum, 
Department  of  Zoology,  AMU  Aligarh. 

Genus  Azof  us  Howard 
Azotus  Howard,  1898:  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Wash. 
4:138. 

Type  species;  Azotus  marchali  Howard 
Dimacrocerus  Brethes,  1914:  Nunguam 

Otiosus,  Buenos  Aires:  4 
Type  species:  Dimacrocerus  platensis  Brethes 
This  genus  can  be  easily  distinguished  from 
others  by  the:  seven  segmented  antennae  with 
varied  colours,  four  segmented  funicle  and  an 
unsegmented  club.  Zinna  (1962),  Agarwal 
(1964)  and  Jasnosh  (1966)  suggested  some 
new  characters  of  the  pronotum,  subgenital 
plate  and  components  of  the  female  genitalia 
which  are  quite  helpful  in  the  generic  diagnosis 
and  have  proved  stable. 

A.  delhiensis  Lai,  1938  was  the  first  record 
from  India.  Agarwal  (1964)  described  two 
new  species  and  Khan  & Shafee  (1976)  added 
three  new  species  (all  based  on  females).  A 
new  species  A.  aleuroides  is  being  described, 
based  on  Male. 

Azotus  aleuroides  sp.  nov. 

(Figs.  7 & 8) 

MALE 

Head  — Light  brown,  vertex  orange  yellow, 
eyes  red,  wider  than  long  in  facial  view;  ocelli 
in  acute  triangle,  basal  ocellus  removed  from 
eye  rim  by  about  its  own  diameter  (0.02) 
and  from  occipital  margin  by  three  times  its 


157 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


diameter;  antennae  inserted  very  close  to  oral 
margin;  maxillary  palpi  two  segmented; 
labial  palpi  unsegmented;  mandibles  triden- 
tate. 

Antennae  (Fig.  7)  — Light  brown;  scape 
about  three  times  as  long  as  wide  (0.09:0.03); 
pedical  about  one  and  a half  times  as  long 
as  wide  (0.035:0.025),  first,  second  and 
fourth  funicle  segments  subequal,  slightly 
more  than  three  times  as  long  as  wide  (0.09  : 
0.029),  third  funicle  ring  like;  club  unseg- 
mented, about  six  times  as  long  as  wide  (0.16  : 
0.027),  as  long  as  preceding  two  and  half  of 
second  funicle  segment  combined;  first  funi- 


cle to  club  except  third,  with  5,  3,  4 and  6 
sensoria  respectively. 

Thorax  — Scutellum  and  scutum  dark 
brown,  light  brown  on  remaining  part;  pro- 
notum  with  anterior  and  posterior  margins 
deeply  concave,  anterior  margin  with  a wide 
notch  in  the  middle;  parapsides  and  axillae 
with  one  seta  each;  scutum  and  scutellum 
with  a pair  of  setae  each;  mesopostphragma 
rounded  at  apex. 

Fore  wings  (Fig.  8)  — About  three  times  as 
long  as  wide  (0.6: 0.2);  without  infuscated 
bands,  disc  with  sparsely  arranged  dark  setae, 
area  below  stigmal  vein  without  setae;  costal 


Figs.  7-8.  Azotus  aleuroides  sp.  nov. 

7.  Antenna  $;  8.  Forewing. 

Figs.  9-16.  Physcus  oriensis  sp.  nov. 

9.  Antenna  $ ; 10.  Thorax;  11.  Pronotum;  12.  Part  of  forewing  venation;  13.  Sub- 
genital plate;  14.  Outer  plate  of  ovipositor;  15.  First  valvifer;  16.  Second  and 

third  valvulae. 


158 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


cell  broad;  submarginal  as  long  as  marginal 
(0.15),  submarginal  vein  with  a single  seta 
and  14  bullae  on  its  posterior  margin;  margi- 
nal comparatively  thick  with  five  setae,  post- 
marginal reduced,  stigmal  expanded  at  apex; 
marginal  fringe  about  one-fourth  wing  width. 

Hind  wings  — Hyaline,  more  than  six  times 
longer  than  wide;  marginal  fringe  long,  longer 
than  wing  width. 

Legs  — Light  brown  except  at  apex  and 
base  of  tibiae  and  tarsi  whitish. 

Gaster  — Dark  brown. 

Male  length:  0.89  mm. 

Material  studied  — Holotype  d\  India, 
Uttar  Pradesh,  Aligarh,  ex.  white-fly  on  Citrus 
medica,  10. IX.  1977  (T.  Husain).  Zool.  Mus- 
AMU. 

Comments  — A.  aleuroides  sp.  nov.  is  very 
close  to  A.  delhiensis  Lai,  but  differs  from  it, 
in  the  absence  of  infuscated  bands  on  the  fore 
wings  and  in  the  presence  of  a reduced  post- 
marginal vein. 

Genus  Physcus  Howard 

Physcus  Howard,  1895:  U.  S.  Depth  Agric. 
Bur.  Ent.  Tech.  Ser.  Bull.  1:43 

Type  species:  Coccophagus  varicornis 
Howard 

This  genus  can  be  distinguished  from  allied 
genera  by  the:  7-segmented  antennae  of  varied 
colour  with  all  the  three  funicle  segments 
subequal  and  a two  segmented  club.  Addi- 
tional characters  suggested  by  Hayat  (1971), 
“Outer  plates  of  ovipositor  narrow  at  base, 
gradually  widening  posteriorly  with  a submar- 
ginal ridge  and  obliquely  truncated  at  apex; 
posterior  margin  of  sebgenital  plate  with  a 
notch  in  the  middle,  knobs  on  either  side  of 
the  notch  followed  by  laterally  directed  ridges”, 
are  stable  and  useful  in  generic  diagnosis.  We 
are  in  agreement  that  the  shape  of  the  pro- 
notum-having  expanded  lateral  lobes  joined 
by  a narrow  bridge  in  the  middle,  can  also 


be  tested  at  the  generic  level. 

Five  species  have  so  far  been  described 
from  India  namely  P.  albipodus  Agarwal,  P. 
flaviceps  Girault  et  al.;  P.  reticulatus  Compere 
et  al.;  P.  compere  Hyat,  P.  gunturiensis  Shafee. 
A new  species  P.  oriensis  is  added  and  a key 
to  Indian  species  of  the  genus  based  on  females 
proposed. 

Key  to  Indian  species  of  the  genus  Physcus 
How.  BASED  ON  FEMALES 

1.  Body  predominantly  black  or  brown 2 

— Body  yellow,  funicle  I and  II  dark  brown.... 
P.  flaviceps  Girault  & Dodd 

2.  Club  distinctly  shorter  than  funicle 3 

— Club  as  long  as  funicle;  scape  four  times  as 

long  as  wide;  pedicel  as  long  as  first  funicle; 
funicle  II  and  III  pale  yellow;  abdomen 
brown P.  reticulatus  Compere  & Annecke 


3.  Club  brown  4 

— Club  yellow  6 

4.  Second  funicle  orange  yellow 5 


— Second  funicle  light  brown,  scape  four  times  as 
long  as  wide;  submarginal  vein  with  16  setae 

and  12  bullae;  postmarginal  vein  absent 

.......................  P.  albipodus  Agarwal 

5.  Postmarginal  vein  absent;  abdomen  pale  yellow, 
sides  of  dorsum  and  ventre  with  brown  spots 
reaching  upto  cereal  plates. . . .P.  compere  Hayat 

— Postmarginal  vein  slightly  developed;  abdomen 
brown  without  spots . . P.  gunturiensis  Shafee  et  al. 

6.  Scape  brown  except  apex,  one  and  two  funicle 
pale  yellow;  gaster  white  with  a longitudinal 
brown  band  on  either  side . . P.  aligarhensis  Hayat 

— Scape  light  yellow,  first  funicle  dark,  second 

white;  gaster  rusty  and  without  bands 

P.  oriensis  sp.  nov. 

Physcus  oriensis  sp.  nov. 

FEMALE 

Head  — Rust  coloured,  wider  than  long  in 
facial  view  (0.35  : 0.22);  sparse  setae  on  vertex 
and  frons;  occipital  margin  rounded;  fronto- 
vertex  longer  than  wide  (0.30 : 0.25);  eyes 
dark;  ocelli  in  obtuse  triangle,  basal  ocellus 
removed  from  eye  rim  and  from  occipital 
margin  by  about  its  own  diameter  (0.15); 


159 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


antennal  sockets  just  above  the  ventral  mar- 
gins of  eyes;  malar  space  less  than  eye  length 
(0.12:0.15);  maxillary  palpi  two  segmented, 
labial  palpi  unsegmented;  mandibles  tridentate. 

Antennae  (Fig.  9)  — Scape  and  pedicel  light 
yellow,  first  funicle  dark,  second  white,  remain- 
ing orange  yellow;  scape  about  five  and  a 
half  times  as  long  as  wide  (0.10:0.019); 
pedicel  less  than  twice  as  long  as  wide  (0.035 : 
0.02);  club  two  segmented,  less  than  four 
time  as  long  as  wide  (0.1  : 0.028),  as  long  as 
preceding  two  and  half  of  first  funicle  segment 
combined. 

Thorax  (Fig.  10)  — Rust  coloured;  prono- 
tum  (Fig.  11)  having  expanded  lateral  lobes 
joined  by  a narrow  bridge  in  the  middle,  ante- 
rior margin  deeply  notched  in  the  middle, 
posterior  margin  with  a row  of  sixteen  sub- 
marginal  setae;  scutum  as  long  as  but  wider 
than  scutellum,  with  sparse  setae;  scutellum 
with  three  pairs  of  setae;  parapside  narrow  at 
base,  broad  at  apex;  axillae  somewhat  trian- 
gular; mesopostphragma  long  and  notched  at 
apex. 

Forewings  — Hyaline,  about  three  times  as 
long  as  wide  (0.68:0.22),  disc  profusely 
ciliated;  costal  cell  broad;  submarginal  and 
marginal  veins  subequal  (0.22),  stigmal  five 
times  longer  than  short  postmarginal  (Fig.  12); 
marginal  fringe  short. 

Hind  wings  — Hyaline,  about  five  times  lon- 
ger than  wide;  marginal  fringes  long,  more 
than  half  width  of  wing  disc. 

Legs  — Uniform  whitish  yellow;  midtibial 
spur  shorter  than  basitarsus. 

Gaster  — Rust  coloured,  dorsum  flat,  ven- 
tre boat  shaped;  ovipositor  slightly  exserted; 
subgenital  plate  (Fig.  1'3)  of  almost  uniform 
width,  posterior  margin  with  a notch  flanked 
by  knobs  followed  by  laterally  directed  ridges 
with  straight  anterior  margin;  outer  plates  of 


ovipositor  (Fig.  14)  narrow  and  truncated  at 
apex,  submarginal  ridge  prominent;  first  valvi- 
fers  (Fig.  15)  somewhat  triangular,  apical  and 
basal  angles  at  the  same  level;  second  valvi- 
fers  long  with  thickened  dorsal  margin;  third 
valvulae  lanceolate  and  in  a 1:3  ratio  with 
second  valvifers  (Fig.  16)  movably  articulated. 
Female  length : 0.95  mm. 

Material  studied : Holotype  $ , India,  Uttar 
Pradesh,  Bijnor,  ex.  Coccus  hesperidum 
on  Citrus  sp.,  3.5.1876  (T.  Husain). 

Paratypes  15  $ $ data  same  as  for  holo- 
types.  with  Zool.  Mus.  A.M.U. 

Genus  Prospaltella  Ashmead 

Prospalta  Howard,  1894:  Insect  life,  7:6 
(Preoccupied  by  Prospalta  Walker,  1875) 

Type  species:  ( Prospalta  murtfeldtii 

Howard)  = Prospaltella  murtfeldtii 

(Howard) 

Prospaltella  Ashmead,  1904:  Proc.  ent.  Soc. 
Wash.  6:126 

Minatomus  Cockerell,  1911:  Ent.  News,  22: 
464 

Type  Minatomus  peltalus  Coq. 

This  genus  can  be  distinguished  by  the 
characters  given  by  Ferriere  (1965).  From 
Encarsia  Forster,  to  which  it  is  closely  relat- 
ed, it  can  be  separated  on  the  characters  sug- 
gested by  Agarwal  (1964)  namely,  subgenital 
plate  with  anterior  margin  straight,  posterior 
margin  convex,  gradually  narrowing  posteriorly 
without  a median  notch;  outer  plates  of  ovi- 
positor narrow  at  base,  broad  and  truncated 
at  apex  with  a very  narrow  inflexion  along 
dorsal  margin  extending  upto  three-fourth 
length  of  the  plate. 

Prospaltella  clypealis  Silvestri  was  recorded 
for  the  first  time  from  India  by  Smith  in 
1950.  Later  Flanders  (1969)  and  Shafee  (1973) 
also  recorded  it.  This  species  is  redescribed 
to  incorporate  greater  details  . 


160 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Figs.  17-25.  Prospaltella  clypealis  Silvestri. 

17.  Head  (facial  view);  18.  Head  (dorsal  view);  19.  Antenna  $;  20.  Thorax; 
21.  Pronotum;  22.  Part  of  forewing  venation;  23.  Outer  plate  of  ovipositor;  24.  First 
valvifer;  25.  Second  and  third  valvulae. 


Prospaltella  clypealis  Silvestri 
(Figs.  17-25) 

FEMALE 

Head  (Figs.  17  & 18)  — Chestnut  coloured 
with  sparsely  arranged  setae  on  vertex,  wider 
than  long  in  facial  view  (0.3:0.23);  height 
of  malar  space  equal  to  the  major  axis  of 
eyes  (0.14);  eyes  dark,  sparsely  setose;  vertex 
with  two  oblique  dark  bands  just  behind  basal 
ocelli;  ocelli  in  acute  triangle,  basal  ocellus 
removed  from  eye  rim  and  occipital  margin 
by  about  one  and  a half  times  its  diameter; 
mixillary  palpi  two  segmented,  labial  palpi 
unsegmented;  mandibles  tridentate. 

Antennae  (Fig.  19)  — Orange  yellow;  space 


four  and  a half  times  longer  than  wide  (0.22  : 
0.05),  as  long  as  pedicel  to  second  funicle  seg- 
ment combined;  pedicel  slightly  longer  than 
wide  (0.07:0.05),  first  funicle  almost  qua- 
drate (0.05),  second  funicle  to  last  club  seg- 
ments subequal,  less  than  twice  as  long  as 
wide  (0.09  : 0.06);  second  funicle  to  club  with 
3,  3, 3, 4 and  3 sensoria  respectively. 

Thorax  (Fig.  20)  — Orange  yellow,  parap- 
sides  and  metanotum  slightly  dark;  pronotum 
(Fig.  21)  with  straight  posterior  margin  with 
18  setae,  anterior  margin  notched  in  middle, 
notch  flanked  by  ridges;  scutum  with  1 +4+4+1 
setae,  scutellum  with  2+2  setae;  parapsides 
with  a single  seta  each  and  axillae  somewhat 


161 


11 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


rectangular  with  only  one  seta;  mesopost- 
phragma  with  a notch  at  apex. 

Fore  wings  — Hyaline  less  than  three  times 
as  long  as  wide  (0.65  :0.25);  costal  cell  nar- 
row; speculum  bounded  by  two  rows  of  setae; 
submarginal,  marginal  and  stigmal  in  a ratio: 
3 : 2.3  : 1 respectively;  postmarginal  absent; 
submarginal  with  two  and  marginal  with  nine 
setae;  marginal  fringe  very  short. 

Hind  wings  — Hyaline,  about  seven  times 
as  long  as  wide,  marginal  fringe  long,  longer 
than  wing  width. 

Legs  — Coxae  and  femora  except  apex  light 
brown;  apex  of  femora,  tibiae  and  tarsi  light 
yellow;  mid  tibial  spur  shorter  than  basitarsus. 

Caster  — Chestnut  coloured;  subgenital  plate 
with  anterior  margin  straight,  posterior  mar- 
gin convex,  gradually  narrowing  posteriorly, 
without  a median  notch;  outer  plates  of  ovi- 
positor (fig.  23)  narrow  at  base,  broad  and 
truncated  at  apex  with  a very  narrow  inflexion 
along  dorsal  margin  extending  upto  three- 
fourth  length  of  the  plate;  first  valvifers  (Fig. 

Refe 

Agarwal,  M.  M.  (1964) : Studies  on  forms  of 
Aphelinidae  (Hym.  Chalcidoidea)  collected  at 
Aligarh  (India)  II.  Proc.  Ind.  Acad.  Sci.  ( B ) 60: 
315-335. 

Hayat,  M.  (1971):  Three  new  species  of  Apheli- 
nidae (Hym.,  Chalcidoidea)  from  India.  Bull.  Ent. 
12  (2):  118-121. 

(1971)  : Three  new  species  of  Apheli- 
nidae (Hym.,  Chalcidoidea)  parasitic  on  Aonidiella 
orientalis  (Newst)  from  India.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Soc.  71  (1):  64-71. 

(1972):  The  species  of  Eretmocerus 

Haldeman,  1850  (Hymenoptera;  Aphelinidae)  from 
India.  Entomophaga  17  (1) : 99-106. 

Howard,  L.  O.  (1895) : Revision  of  the  Aphali- 
nidae  of  North  America.  U.  S.  Bur.  ent.  Tech.  ser. 
1 : 1-44. 

(1898) : On  some  parasites  of 

Coccidae  with  descriptions  of  two  new  genera  of 
Aphelinidae.  Proc.  ent.  Soc.  Wash.  4(2):  133-139. 


24)  triangular  with  basal  and  apical  angles  at 
the  same  level;  second  valvifers  long  with 
thickened  dorsal  margin,  third  valvulae  very 
long,  and  about  half  the  length  of  second 
valvifers,  movably  articulated.  (Fig.  25). 
Female  Length:  0.91  mm. 

Material  studied  — 3 $ $ India,  Uttar 

Pradesh,  Aligarh,  ex.  Aleyrodes  sp.  on 
Caesalpinia  pulcherrima  L.  15.3.1977  (T. 
Husain)  with  Zool.  Mus.  A.M.U. 

Comments  — In  all  10  species  have  so  far 
been  recorded  from  India  — P.  brevicla- 
vata  Shafee;  P.  flava  Shafee;  P.  indica 
Shafee;  P.  opulent  a Silvestri;  P.  clypealis 
Silvestri;  P.  citri  Agarwal;  P.  smithi  Sil- 
vestri; P.  diver  gens  Silvestri;  P.  pseudo- 
cocci Agarwal  and  P.  udaipuriensis  Shafee. 
Shafee  (1973)  has  presented  a very  good 
key  to  the  identification  of  Indian  species. 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  grateful  to  the  Head,  Department  of 
Zoology  for  providing  necessary  facilities. 

ENCES 

Jasnosh,  V.  A.  (1966):  Classification  of  para- 
sitic Hymenoptera  of  the  family  Aphelinidae  (Chal- 
cidoidea). Ent.  Obzor.  55:  1-168. 

Khan,  M.  Y.  and  Shafee,  S.  A.  (1976):  Indian 
species  of  the  genus  Azotus  Howard  (Hymenoptera: 
Aphelinidae).  Geobios  3:  172-174. 

Lal,  K.  B.  (1938) : On  some  parasites  of  Coc- 
cidae with  description  of  two  new  genera  of 
Aphelinidae.  Proc.  ent.  Soc.  Wash.  4 (2):  133-139. 

Mani,  M.  S.  (1941):  Studies  on  Indian  parasitic 
hymenoptera  I.  Ind.  J.  ent.  3:  25-36. 

Samuel,  C.  K.  (1950) : Parasites  & Parasitism  of 
the  white  fly  Bemisia  tabaci  (Gen.)  vector  of  tobacco 
leaf-curl  in  Northern  India.  Ind.  J.  ent.  12:  248-250. 

Shafee,  S.  A.  (1973) : Indian  species  of  the  genus 
Prospaltella  Ashm.  (Hym.,  Aphelinidae).  Entomo- 
phaga 18  (3):  251-258. 

Zinna,  G.  (1961) : III  Specilizzazione  entomopa- 
rasitica  negli  Aphelinidae.  Boll.  Lab.  ent.  Agric. 
Portici  20:  73-184. 


162 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


A NEW  SPECIES  OF  SCHEFFLERA  J.  R.  & G.  FORST. 
( ARALI ACEAE ) FROM  KERALA  STATE,  INDIA1 

K.  Ramamurthy  and  R.  Rajan2 
( With  seven  text -figures) 


Schefflera  chandrasekharanii  sp.  nov. 

Schefflera  bourdilloni  Gamble  affinis,  sed 
differt  imprimis : foliolis  1 - 2,  magnioribus, 
obovatis,  undulato-crenatis,  apiculatis,  basibus 
contractis  pariter  vel  impariter;  cicatricibus 
foliorum  delapsorum  prominentibus;  floribus  a 
paniculis  amplis  terminalibus  umbellatis; 
pedunculis  et  pedicellis  tomentosis  stellate; 
staminibus  petalis  longioribus;  filamentis  incur- 
vatis;  staminodiis  absentibus. 

Holotypus  Ramamurthy  66388  (CAL)  et 
isotypi  Ramamurthy  66388  (MH  - num.  acc. 
109030  to  109032)  lecti  a sylva  densa  semper- 
virens  secus  via  Munnar-Kumili,  Idukki  Dis- 
trict in  Ditione  Kerala  ad  altit.  2000  m ca., 
die  26-3-1980. 

Schefflera  chandrasekharanii  sp.  nov. 

Allied  to  S.  bourdillonii  Gamble,  but  differs 
chiefly  in:  leaflets  1-2,  larger,  obovate,  wavy- 
crenate,  apiculate  at  apex,  tapering  into  an  equal 
or  unequal  base;  scars  of  the  fallen  leaves  pro- 
minent. Flowers  in  large  terminal  umbellate 
panicles;  peduncles  and  pedicels  stellately  to- 
mentose;  stamens  longer  than  petals,  filaments 
incurved;  staminodes  absent. 

Small  trees;  branchlets  terete,  lenticellate, 
pale  shiny,  bark  papery  when  dry,  scars  of 
the  fallen  leaves  prominent.  Leaves  alternate, 
at  the  ends  of  branchlets,  digitately  1 -2-folio- 
late;  petioles  0.5-  1 . 5 cm  long,  terete  with 
swollen  sheathing  base,  glabrous.  Leaflets 
5-10  x 3-4  cm,  obovate,  coriaceous,  wavy- 

1 Accepted  September  1981. 

2 Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Coimbatore,  641  003. 


crenatus,  apiculate  at  apex,  tapering  equally 
or  unequally  at  base;  nerves  reticulate,  conspi- 
cuously distinct,  curved  and  united  at  margins 
on  both  sides,  lower  more  distinct;  petiolules 
0.5- 1.5  cm  long,  terete.  Flowers  bisexual,  in 
terminal  umbellate-panicles;  each  umbel  10-15- 
flowered;  peduncles  up  to  2 cm  long;  pedicels 
1 - 2 mm  long,  stellately  white-tomentose.  Calyx 
c.  1 mm  long,  cup  shaped,  not  lobed,  adnate 
to  ovary.  Petals  5,  each  c 1 mm  long,  ovate, 
acuminate,  inflexed,  glabrous,  deciduously  caly- 
pterate.  Stamens  5,  alternating  with  the  petals, 
inserted  round  the  epigynous  disc;  filaments 
c.  2 mm  long,  incurved;  anthers  oblong,  dorsi- 
fixed,  dehiscing  longitudinally;  staminodes  ab- 
sent. Ovary  inferior,  5-loculed,  one  ovule  in 
each  locule;  style  short,  connate.  Fruits  not 
seen. 

Holotype  Ramamurthy  66388,  (CAL)  and 
isotypes  Ramamurthy  66388,  (MH-Acc.  no. 
109030  to  109032)  were  collected  in  dense 
evergreen  forest  along  Munnar-Kumili  Road, 
Idukki  District,  Kerala  State,  India  at  an  alti- 
tude of  about  2000  m on  26-3-1980. 

The  specific  name  is  given  in  honour  of  Dr. 
N.  Chandrasekaran  Nair,  D.Sc.,  Joint  Director, 
Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Southern  Circle, 
Coimbatore  (MH)  for  his  valuable  contribu- 
tion to  Indian  Botany. 

Acknowledgements 

We  wish  to  express  our  thanks  to  the 
Director,  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew,  Eng- 
land for  the  kind  help  rendered  in  connection 


163 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


Figs.  1-7.  Schefflera  chandrasekharanii  sp.  nov. 

1.  Portion  of  a branch;  2.  Inflorescence;  3.  Flower;  4.  Flower  L.S.;  5.  Calyx; 

6.  Petal;  7.  Stamens. 


with  the  comparison  of  the  materials  at  Kew  ful  suggestions  and  to  the  Director,  Joint 
Herbarium  and  for  his  valuable  comments.  Directors  of  CAL  and  MH  of  the  Botanical 
Our  thanks  are  also  due  to  Dr.  V.  J.  Nair  for  Survey  of  India  for  their  constant  encourage- 
latin  diagnosis,  Dr.  A.  N.  Henry  for  his  help-  ment  during  this  investigation. 


164 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


A NEW  SPECIES  OF  ERIOCAULON  L. 

( ERIOCAULACEAE ) FROM  SOUTH  INDIA1 

M.  Chandrabose  and  V.  Chandrasekaran2 
{With  eighteen  text-figures) 


Eriocaulon  nairii  sp.  nov. 

Affinis  ad  Eriocaulon  longicuspis  Hook,  f., 
tamen  differt  caulis  ad  30  cm  longis;  pedunculis 
1-3,  5-costatis;  vaginis  foliis  brevioribus;  dua- 
bus  segmentis  calycis  flores  masculis  connatis, 
altero  vero  libero;  sepalis  flores  foemineis  late 
obovatis;  seminibus  cum  striis  horizontalibus. 

Holotypus  Chandrabose  65821  (CAL)  et 
isotypi  Chandrabose  65821  (MH.  Acc.  No. 
108772,  108773,  108774,  108775,  108776, 

108777,  108778)  lecti  apud  Konalar,  Anama- 
lai,  Dist.  Coimbatore  in  statu  Tamil  Nadu  die 
16-2-1980. 

Eriocaulon  nairii  sp.  nov. 

Allied  to  Eriocaulon  longicuspis  Hook.  f. 
but  differs  in  having  stems  elongate  up  to 
30  cm  long;  peduncles  1-3,  5-ribbed,  sheaths 
shorter  than  the  leaves;  two  calyx  segments 
of  male  flowers  connate  and  the  other  one 
free;  sepals  of  female  flowers  broadly  obovate; 
and  seeds  with  horizontal  striations. 

Herbs  up  to  30  cm  tall;  stems  10-30  cm 
long,  densely  covered  with  leafy  sheaths, 
branched  at  apex.  Leaves  2-5  x 0.4-1  cm, 
many,  dense,  in  spirals,  along  the  upper  part 
of  the  stems,  lanceolate  or  ensiform,  glabrous 
except  at  sheathing  base,  acute  or  acuminate 
at  apex,  18-25-nerved.  Peduncles  1-3,  10-18  cm 
long,  5-ribbed,  glabrous;  sheaths  up  to  5 cm 
long,  oblique  at  the  mouth,  glabrous.  Heads 
1-1.3  x 0.6-0. 8 cm,  depressed  globose,  and- 
rogynous; involucral  bracts  ±4x2  mm,  black, 
obovate,  concave,  rounded  at  apex,  erose  when 

1 Accepted  August  1981. 

2 Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Coimbatore-641  003. 


old,  glabrous;  receptacle  ovoid,  plano-convex, 
villous  with  long  hairs.  Male  flowers:  Calyx 
segments  3,  one  free  ± 2 x 1.2  mm,  the  other 
two  connate  into  a lobed  sheath  ± 2x1.7  mm, 
obovate,  subobtuse  or  subacute,  serrulate  at 
apex,  papillose  hairy  near  the  tip.  Corolla  tube 
± 1 mm  long,  obconical,  glabrous;  petals  3, 
white,  unequal,  one  larger  than  the  other  two, 
larger  petal  ± 5.5  x 0.5  mm,  smaller  ones 
± 1 x 0 . 3 mm,  linear-oblanceolate,  acute,  with 
a black  gland  near  the  tip,  densely  pilose  with 
long  white  hairs.  Stamens  6,  filaments  subu- 
late ±1.2  mm  long;  anthers  ±0.5  mm,  black. 
Abortive  ovary  black,  3 -lobed.  Floral  bract 
± 3.5  x 1.2mm,  oblanceolate,  concave,  acu- 
minate with  a pointed  tip,  papillose  without, 
pilose  hairy  from  the  base,  1 -nerved.  Pedicels 
± 1.2  mm  long.  Female  flowers:  Sepals  3, 
each  1.8-2. 2 x 1-1. 2 mm,  black,  free,  sub- 
equal, obovate,  subobtuse,  pilose  along  the 
margins  and  at  base.  Petals  3,  white,  each  2.5- 
3.5  x 0.3-0.5  mm,  one  little  longer  than  the  other 
two,  linear-oblanceolate,  acute  with  a black 
gland  near  the  tip,  densely  pilose  with  long  white 
hairs.  Ovary  ± 0.6  x 0.5  mm,  yellow,  sub- 
orbicular,  3 -lobed,  glabrous,  3-loculed,  1 ovule 
in  each  locule;  style  0.5-0. 7 mm  long,  filiform, 
3-fid,  stylar  branches  1.5- 1.8  mm  long.  Floral 
bract  ± 4.5  x 2.5mm,  orbicular-obovate, 
concave,  acuminate  with  a pointed  tip,  serru- 
late at  apex,  sparsely  hairy  without.  Pedicels 
± 0.7  mm  long.  Capsules  ± 0.7  x 1.1  mm, 
depressed  globose,  3 -lobed,  glabrous,  3 -seeded; 
seeds  ± 0.6  x 0.5  mm,  yellow,  ovoid,  obscure- 
ly striate.  (Figs.  1-18). 

The  holotype  Chandrabose  65821  (CAL) 


165 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


J3'mm 


Figs.  1-18.  Eriocaulon  nairii  sp.  nov. 

1 Plant;  2.  Involucral  Bract;  3.  Male  flower;  4.  Floral  bract  of  male  flower; 
5 & 6.  Calyx  segments  of  male  flower;  7.  Sepals  & stamens  of  male  flower  removed 
showing  the  corolla;  8.  Female  flower;  9.  Floral  bract  of  female  flower;  10-12.  Sepals 
of  female  flower;  13-15.  Petals  of  female  flower;  16.  Pistil;  17.  Capsule;  18.  Seed. 


166 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


and  isotypes  Chandrabose  65821  (MH.  Acc. 
No.  108772,  108773,  108774,  108775,  108776, 
108777,  108778)  were  collected  in  Konalar, 
Anamalai,  Coimbatore  District,  Tamil  Nadu 
on  16-2-1980. 

This  species  grows  in  tufts  on  grassy  slopes 
especially  in  wet  places  at  an  altitude  of  about 
1900  m.  This  species  is  named  in  honour  of 
Dr.  N.  Chandrasekharan  Nair,  Joint  Director, 


Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Coimbatore  for 
his  contributions  to  the  taxonomy  of  Indian 
Plants. 

Acknowledgement 

Our  grateful  thanks  are  due  to  Rev.  Fr.  K. 
M.  Mathew,  S.J.,  Rapinat  Herbarium.,  St. 
Joseph’s  College,  Tiruchirapalli-2  for  the  latin 
translation. 


A REVISION  OF  THE  GENUS  CALL1T RICHE  L.  IN  THE 
NORTH  WESTERN  HIMALAYAS1 

A.  Majeed  Kak2  and  G.  N.  Javeid3 
{With  two  text -figures) 


The  genus  Callitriche  L.,  (Callitrichaceae) 
with  25  species  (Airy  Shaw  1966),  is  distri- 
buted throughout  the  temperate  and  warmer 
countries  of  the  world.  Hooker  (1878)  report- 
ed only  two  species  from  the  Indian  subcon- 
tinent and  subsequent  authors  did  not  add 
to  this  number.  Later  one  species  was  recorded 
from  Ladakh  (Kak  & Javeid  1976).  In  the 
present  communication,  besides  a detailed 
account  of  three  species  (C.  stagnalis  Scop, 
C.  palustris  L.  and  C.  obtnsangula  Le  Gall), 
another  species  (C.  truncata  Guss.)  is  reported 
for  the  first  time  and  a new  species  (C.  feh- 
medianii  sp.  nov.)  is  added. 

The  species  of  Callitriche  L.  are  biennial  or 
perennial  aquatic  plants.  Certain  polymorphic 
species  exhibit  different  phenotypes  in  water 
and  drier  sandy  soils.  In  the  terrestrial  forms 
which  are  normally  submerged,  the  modifica- 
tions are  primarily  quantitative  like  shorten- 

1  Accepted  February  1980. 

2 Department  of  Botany,  Islamia  Degree  College 
of  Science  and  Commerce,  Srinagar  190  002. 

5 Director,  Research  Wing,  Sericulture  Depart- 
ment, Mirgund,  Kashmir,  India. 


ing  of  the  internodes,  a reduction  in  the  size 
of  the  leaves  and  a decrease  in  the  frequency 
of  chloroplast  in  the  epidermal  cells.  Fasset 
(1951)  described  the  bewildering  polymor- 
phism of  many  species  with  as  many  as  few 
distinct  individuals  in  C.  heterophylla  and  drew 
attention  to  the  occasionally  very  close  mor- 
phological similarities  of  ecological  forms 
which  really  belong  to  different  species. 

Extensive  populations  of  Callitriche  L.  are 
gradually  spreading  like  a weed  within  the 
Kashmir  valley  though  they  have  not  yet  pre- 
sented any  serious  problem.  They  block  small 
streams  and  irrigating  channels,  reducing  the 
flow  of  water,  eventually  causing  flooding. 
They  also  infest  ponds  and  lakes  thus  reduc- 
ing the  recreational  amenities.  The  rapid  spread 
of  the  species  can  be  controlled  by  Sodium 
arsenite  in  the  dosage  of  2.5  ppm,  which  is 
not  expensive  and  simple  to  apply  (Hooker 
and  Cook  1957). 

Callitriche  L.  Sp.  PI.  969  (1753). 

A group  of  highly  polymorphic  species 
owing  to  the  leaf  shape,  whether  they  are  sub- 
merged or  floating  and  also  dependant  upon 


167 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


the  depth  and  the  rate  of  movement  of  the 
water,  thus  the  key  based  on  the  leaf  shape  is 
not  dependable;  a key  based  on  the  fruit 
characters  is  more  reliable  which  again  can 
not  be  used  because  of  the  sterility  of  those 
species  which  particularly  grow  in  deep  water. 

Key  to  species  of  Callitriche 

1.  Plants  free  floating,  rarely  submerged 

2.  Plants  12-45  cm  long;  leaves  dimorphic,  upper 
ones  spatulate,  1.2-1. 5 cmx4  mm,  3 nerved, 
lower  ones  linear,  1.5-2  x 1-1.5  mm;  style 

erect.  Fruits  1x1.2  mm C.  palustris 

2.  Plants  6-10  cm  long,  all  leaves  of  one  kind, 
linear  or  lanceolate,  auricled,  obtuse,  slightly 
notched;  single  veined;  style  divergent.  Fruit 

1-1.5  x 0.6 — 1 mm  C.  truncata 

1.  Plants  totally  submerged;  sometimes  slightly 
touching  the  surface 

3.  Leaves  homophyllous;  flowers  unisexual 
separately  borne  in  opposite  axils  on  the 
same  node 

4.  Plants  10-20  cm  long,  leaves  linear  or 

linear  lanceolate  C.  fehmedicmii 

4.  Plants  40-49  cm  high;  leaves  spatulate 

C.  stagnalis 

3.  Leaves  heterophyllous.  Flowers  bisexual; 
2 perfect  flowers  in  opposite  axils  on  the 
same  node  C.  obtusangula 

Callitriche  palustris  L.  Sp.  PI.  969  (1753); 

Stewart,  FI.  W.  Pak.  459  (1972).  C.  verna 
L.  FI.  Suec.  ed.  2,  4.  (1755);  Clarke,  FI. 
Brit.  Ind.  2.434  (1879).  C.  palustris  var. 
verna  Fenley  ex  Jepson,  FI.  Calif.  2.435 
(1936). 

Free  floating  rarely  submerged  herbs  grow- 
ing in  slow  moving  waters;  roots  arising  from 
the  base  or  from  lower  few  nodes,  6-8  cm 
long;  stems  cylindrical,  weak,  12-45  cm  long, 
green,  translucent;  nodes  thick;  internodes 
1. 5-2.3  cm  long,  smooth;  leaves  opposite,  ses- 
sile, smooth;  submerged  ones  linear  1. 5-2.5  cm 
long,  1-1.5  mm  broad;  3 veined.  Flowers  axil- 
lary, sessile,  unisexual,  translucent,  1 mm  long; 


stamens  1-1.2  mm  long;  filaments  cylindrical, 
white;  anthers  bilobed,  0.5-0.7  mm  broad,  ex- 
erted, brown;  ovary  sessile,  0.3 -0.5  mm  long, 
green,  4 angled,  4 lobed;  style  2,  persistent, 
equal,  1.5-2  mm  long,  exerted,  white;  stigma 
linear,  brownish.  Fruits  globular,  1 mm  long, 
1.2  mm  broad  deeply  grooved  at  base,  mar- 
gins white,  transparent,  notched  at  apex. 
Flowers  and  fruits:  June- July. 

Gulmarg : AMK  3255;  Nishat:  AMK  2049; 
Harwan : AMK  1138;  Shalimar:  AMK  3383; 
Javeid,  783  (HUK).  Gulmarg;  Naqshi,  1025 
(HUK). 

Type  locality:  Europe. 

Distribution : Eurasia;  California:  N.  America. 

Callitriche  stagnalis  Scop.  FI.  Carn.  ed.  2,  2; 

251  (1772);  Clarke,  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  2;  434 

(1878);  Subramanyam,  Aq.  Ang.  18  (1962); 

Prain,  Bengal  PI.  2,  965  (1963);  Gamble, 

FI.  Madras  1.322  (1967);  Stewart,  1.  c.  457. 

Submerged  herbs,  20-49  cm  long  with  roots 
arising  at  the  base  or  along  upper  few  nodes; 
stems  cylindrical,  green;  nodes  thick;  inter- 
nodes 1-2  cm  long,  branched  or  unbranched; 
submerged  leaves  opposite,  sessile,  spatulate, 
greenish  yellow,  entire,  1 nerved  from  base; 
upper  leaves  floating,  spatulate,  arranged  in 
rosettes  1 cm  x 4 mm,  entire,  1 nerved  at  base, 
smooth,  green.  Flowers  unisexual,  axillary, 
sessile,  surrounded  by  2 spongy  navicular 
bracts  1 mm  long;  stamen  0.7-5  mm  long; 
filaments  cylindrical,  0.4  mm  long,  flat,  yel- 
lowish-green; anthers  0.5-0.7  mm  broad;  ovary 
tetralocular,  deeply  furrowed,  subglobose  1- 
1 . 2 mm  long,  1 mm  broad,  quadriangular; 
style  2,  erect,  linear,  persistent,  1-3  mm  long; 
stigma  brown.  Fruits  4,  2-4.4  mm  long,  coria- 
ceous. Seeds  4,  bean  shaped,  1-1.2  mm  long, 
0.5-0.7  mm  broad. 


168 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Flowers  and  fruits:  June- August. 

Gulmarg:  AMK  602,  603,  3254;  Gurcharan 
Singh  13  (HUK). 

Distribution : Europe,  N.  Asia;  Tropical  Afri- 
ca; Malaya;  Australia,  New  Zealand. 

Callitriche  obtusangula  Le  Gall,  FI.  Morbihan. 
202  (1852)  & Hegelm.  Bot.  Ver  Braden. 
10:114  (1868);  Clapham  etal.  FI.  Brit.  Isles, 
488  (1862);  Walters  in  Tutin  et  al  FI. 
Europe,  3:125  (1972). 

Submerged  aquatic  herbs,  9-15  cm  long; 
roots  2-9  cm  long,  roots  arising  frm  base  and 
upper  nodes;  stems  cylindrical  rarely  com- 
pressed, smooth,  nodes  thick;  internodes  3-5 
cm  long,  yellowish  green;  leaves  10-13x4-5 
mm,  spatulate  or  circular,  narrowing  down- 
wards abruptly,  entire,  3-7  nerved,  green;  up- 
per ones  arranged  on  well  marked  rosettes; 
lower  ones  linear.  Flowers  small,  axillary; 
bracts  2,  hyaline,  navicular,  0.9-1. 1 x 1 mm, 
persistent;  stamen  one,  exerted,  3 mm  long; 
filament  hyaline,  slightly  flat  at  base,  tapering 
upwards;  anthers  brown,  reniform,  basifixed, 
0,7-0.8  mm  broad;  ovary  4 mm  long,  tetran- 
gular  deeply  furrowed;  styles  2,  erect,  hyaline, 
persistent,  3 mm  long;  stigma  linear,  brownish. 
Fruits  sessile  1.2x1  mm,  with  2 central  fur- 
rows, apically  notched,  dark  green  to  dirty 
brown,  pitted,  edges  convex. 

Flowers  and  fruits:  July- August. 

Menamarg  (Zanskar),  AMK  901,  337;  Gul- 
marg, AMK  819,  448a. 

Distribution : France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Italy, 
N.  Africa,  Kashmir. 

Callitriche  trancata  Guss.  PI.  Rar.  4,  tab  3, 
(1826);  Boiss  FI.  Or.  2,756  (1852);  Butcher 
Illus.  Brit.  FI.  1:811  (1961). 

Short  herbaceous  annuals,  submerged  or 
floating;  roots  many  arising  from  the  basal 


nodes  ; stems  cylindrical,  glabrous,  translucent 
with  longitudinal  ridges  6-10  cm  long;  nodes 
thick;  internodes  5-8  mm  long;  leaves  homo- 
phyllous,  linear  or  lanceolate,  sessile,  auricled 
at  base,  obtuse  or  slightly  notched,  entire,  1 
nerved,  glabrous,  3-4  mm  long,  1-1.3  mm 
broad.  Flowers  axillary,  minute;  male  and 


A.  Habit;  B.  Arrangement  of  flowers  in  the  axil; 
C.  Staminate  flower;  D.  Pistillate  flower;  E.  Imma- 
ture fruit;  F-H.  Variation  in  the  leaves;  I-J.  Fruit. 
Front  and  lateral  views. 

female  flowers  in  opposite  axils;  bracts  smooth, 
translucent,  navicular,  0.5-0.7x0.2  mm;  male 
flowers  represented  by  a single  stamen,  0.3- 
0.5  mm  long;  filaments  cylindrical;  anthers 
bilobed,  globular,  inserted,  green  or  dark  green; 
female  flowers  enclosed  by  2 transparent 


169 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Fig.  2.  Callitriche  fehmedianii  sp.  nov. 

A.  Habit;  B.  Portion  of  stem  and  leaves;  C.  Pistillate  flowers  with  spongy  bracts; 
D.  Staminate  flowers  with  a single  stamen  and  bracts;  E.  Arrangement  of  flowers  in 
axial  of  leaf;  F.  Fruit,  front  view;  G.  Lateral  view. 


170 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


bracts,  0.7-0.9  mm  long,  spongy,  navicular, 
transparent  with  reticulate  markings;  ovary 
tetragonal  1 x 0.7  mm,  furrowed;  styles  2, 
divergent,  caducous;  stigma  linear,  brown. 
Fruits  1. 5-1. 7 x 0.6-1  mm  broad,  apically  not- 
ched, broad  at  base,  narrowing  forward  apex. 
Flowers  and  fruits:  June- July.  New  record 
Tungboo  (Zanskar)  AMK  979. 

Distribution : S.  and  W.  Europe,  Belgium, 
Kashmir. 

Callitriche  fehmedianii  sp.  nov. 

Herba  annus,  infirme  submersus  aquaticus. 
Radices  prostrata  et  numerosus  radii  secon- 
darii  e nodis.  Caulis  infirme.  10-20  cm  longus, 
cylindricus,  translucidus;  ramosi  vel  simplices. 
Folia  ominis  similaris,  rosulata  linearis  vel 
linearlis-lanceolatus,  oppositus-decusatus,  0.9- 
1.5  mm  longus,  2 mm  latus,  sessilis,  basis  auri- 
culatus,  margins  integro,  apices  transcatus  vel 
retusus.  Floris  axillaris,  sessilis;  floris  mascula 
bracteae  1 mm  longa;  filamentae  complanatus; 
antherae  biloba.  Floris  feminei  bracteae  alba 
spongiosus  translucidus  0.2-0.3  mm  longa  et 

0. 5. mm  lata  reniformis  brunneus. 

Holotypus : Shalimar  (Srinagarensis,  Kash- 

merienis),  1500  m super  mare  planus,  in 
stagnanus  vel  terdus  motus  rivula,  June  15. 
1976.  AMK  3823. 

Paratypus : Malgam  Rakh  1490  m supra  mare 
planus,  July  3.1796  AMK  3915.  In  herbario 
Universtatus  Kashmeriensis  (Srinagariensis) 
Conservatur. 

Species  haec  affinis  C.  truncatus  a qua  im- 
primis differet. 

1 . Planta  viridis  vel  flavidus,  vix  ultra  30  cm 
longa. 

2.  Folia  obtusa,  auriculatus,  apices  truncata 
vel  retusa,  nervus  medius  singularis. 

3 . Floris  mascula  et  feminie  obtectus  a trans- 
lucidus albus  spongiosus  bractea. 


Callitriche  fehmedianii  sp.  nov. 

Annual  weak  submerged  herbs  in  stagnant 
or  slow  running  waters;  roots  prostrate, 
brownish  with  a large  number  of  secondary 
roots  at  nodes;  stems  weak,  10-20  cm  long, 
cylindrical,  translucent;  nodes  thick  internodes 
1-2  cm  long,  smooth,  branched  or  unbranch- 
ed. Leaves  of  one  kind,  all  submerged;  upper 
ones  reaching  the  surface,  not  floating  neither 
in  rosettes,  linear  or  linear  lanceolate,  decus- 
sately opposite,  0.9- 1.5  cm  long,  2 mm  broad, 
sessile;  base  auricled;  single  veined,  margins 
entire,  thin,  apex  truncate  or  retuse.  Flowers 
axillary,  sessile;  in  staminate  flowers  bracts 
1 mm  long;  filaments  flat;  anthers  bilobed, 
brown;  pistillate  flowers  covered  by  spongy, 
translucent  bracts,  0.2-0.3  mm  long  1-1.4  mm 
broad  with  deep  apical  notch,  lobes  easily 
separable.  Seed  0.1  x 0.5  mm  broad,  reniform, 
brown. 

Flowers  and  fruits:  June- July. 

Holotype : Shalimar  (Srinagar,  Kashmir)  1500 
m in  the  marshes  June  15,  1976.  AMK  3823. 
Paratype : AMK  3915,  Malgam  Rakh  (Sri- 
nagar, Kashmir)  1490  m above  sea  level 
along  the  margins  of  marshy  and  paludal 
area,  July  3,  1976.  The  specimens  have  been 
deposited  in  the  Herbarium,  University  of 
Kashmir. 

The  species  is  close  to  C.  truncata  but  dif- 
fers from  it  in  the  following  characters: 

1.  Plants  green  or  yellowish  green,  hardly 
25-30  cm  long. 

2.  Leaves  obtuse,  auricled,  apex  truncate  or 
retuse,  single  veined  to  start  with  divid- 
ing in  the  centre  of  the  blade  giving  rise 
two  conspicuous  lateral  veins. 

3 . Both  male  and  female  flowers  enclosed  by 
white  spongy  bracts. 

Acknowledgements 

Financial  assistance  from  the  UGC  to  the 


171 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


senior  author  is  gratefully  acknowledged.  We 
are  also  thankful  to  the  Director,  Royal  Bota- 

Refe 

Airy  Shaw  (1966):  Willis — A Dictionary  of 

Flowering  plants  and  Ferns.  Cambridge. 

Arber,  A.  (1919):  Heterophylly  in  water  plants. 
Amer.  Nat.  Vol.  53. 

(1920) : Water  plants.  Cambridge. 

Correll,  D.  S.  & Correll,  H.  B.  (1972):  Aqua- 
tic and  Wetland  plants  of  S.  W.  United  States 
Washington. 


nical  Garden,  Kew  for  critical  examination  of 
the  material. 

EN  CES 

Kak,  A.  M.  & Javeid,  G.  N.  (1976):  An  addi- 
tion to  the  Indian  Callitrichaceae.  Geobios  3 (6). 

Stewart,  R.  R.  (1972):  An  annotated  Catalogue 
of  the  Vascular  plants  6f  W.  Pak.  and  Kashmir, 
Karachi. 

Subram  an  i am,  K.  (1962):  Aquatic  Angiosperms. 
C.S.I.R.  New  Delhi. 


TWO  NEW  AQUATIC  PLANT  SPECIES  FROM 
KASHMIR  HIMALAYAS1 

A.  Majeed  Kak2  and  G.  N.  Javeid3 
{With  two  text-figures) 


During  the  study  of  the  aquatic  and  wetland 
plants  of  the  north  western  Himalayas  (Kash- 
mir) for  the  last  five  years,  we  collected  the 
following  two  species,  which  are  markedly 
different  from  all  other  allied  species  so  far 
reported  from  India  and  the  world. 

Scirpus  dialgamensis  sp.  nov. 

The  species  is  allied  to  Scirpus  fluitans  L. 
but  differs  from  it  in  having  stems  3-5  cm 
long,  erect,  ribbed,  branched  and  leafy 
at  the  base;  bracts  usually  longer  than  the 
spikelets;  glumes  longer  than  nuts;  nut  reti- 
culation prominent. 

Scirpus  dialgamensis  sp.  nov. 

Annum  herba,  erecta,  3-5  cm  alta,  inferio- 
bus  radicantes.  Culmi  paucus,  costatus;  ter- 

1  Accepted  September  1980. 

2 Department  of  Botany,  Islamia  College  of 
Science  and  Commerce,  Srinagar  190  002,  Kashmir. 

3 Director,  Research  Wing,  Sericulture  Depart- 
ment, Mirgund,  Kashmir,  India. 


minus  inflorescentia  acicularis,  obtusa,  1-costa, 
basis  vaginans,  2-3  mm  diam.  Spiculae  isolita- 
rii,  ovatus,  ovoideus,  5-7  x 3-7  mm,  rubro- 
brunneus;  bractea  1-2,  acicularis,  10-15  mm 
longa.  Glumae  distichus,  inferiora  sterilis,  supe- 
rus  navicularis,  3x2  mm,  acuminata,  1 -costa; 
stamina  2,  filamenta  postea  elongata;  styli 
aequans  vel  breviores  quam  ovaribus;  stigmata 
bifidus,  exertus.  Nux  ovoideus,  plano-convexus, 
cum  manifeste  reticulum. 

Holotypus:  Dialgamensis  (Anantnagensis), 

1700  m super  mare  planus,  15.7.1976.  In  her- 
bario  Universtatus,  Kashmirensis  Conservatur, 
AMK  3736. 

Paratypus : Anantnagensis  (Kashmirensis); 

1700  m,  AMK  4018. 

Scirpus  dialgamensis  sp.  nov. 

Diffused,  erect  annual  3-5  cm  long,  rooting 
at  the  base.  Culms  few,  ribbed,  terminating  in 
a spike.  Leaves  equal  or  slightly  shorter  than 
spike,  acicular,  obtuse,  1 -nerved,  base  sheath- 
ing, 2-3  mm  dia.,  parallel  veined.  Spikelets 


172 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


single,  ovate,  ovoid,  5-7  x 3-4  mm,  reddish 
brown;  bracts  1-2,  acicular,  10-15  mm  long; 
glumes  distichous  lower  few  sterile,  upper  na- 
vicular, 3x2  mm,  acuminate,  1 -nerved;  sta- 
mens 2,  filaments  elongate  later;  style  equalling 
or  slightly  shorter  than  ovary;  stigma  bifid. 


exerted.  Bristles  and  buttons  totally  lacking. 
Nuts  ovoid,  plano-convex,  2x1  mm,  reticu- 
lations prominent. 

Near  wet  and  swampy  areas  on  the  margins 
of  slow  moving  streams. 

Holotype ■ Dialgam,  opposite  to  the  Agricul- 


Fig.  1.  Scirpus  dialgamensis  sp.  nov. 

A.  Habit;  B.  Spike;  C.  Leaf  sheath  with  cilia;  D.  Glume;  E.  Carpel  enclosed  in  the 
glume;  F.  Pistil;  G.  Stamen;  H.  Mature  Nut. 


173 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Fig.  2.  Bidens  tetraspinosa  sp.  nov. 

A.  Habit;  B-C.  Leaves  (variations);  D-F.  Outer  and  inner  phylleries;  G.  Flower, 
H.  Corolla  tube;  I.  Stamen;  J,  K.  Young  achene;  L.  Mature  achene. 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


ture  farm  (Anantnag)  1700  m,  AMK  3746. 
Paratype : Anantnag  (Kashmir),  AMK  4018, 

The  holotype  was  collected  wet  and  marshy 
places  under  complete  shade  of  Salix  and  Popu- 
lus  and  has  been  deposited  in  the  Herbarium 
of  the  University  of  Kashmir,  Srinagar. 

Bidens  tetraspinosa  sp.  nov. 

The  species  is  close  to  Bidens  cernua  L.  but 
differs  from  it  in  having  linear  leaves,  more 
than  .10  cm  long;  ovary  smooth,  never  hispi- 
dulous.  Achenes  with  4 unequal  spines,  two 
shorter  ones  smooth,  2 longer  ones  with  or 
without  retrose  barbs. 

Bidens  tetraspinosa  sp.  nov. 

Annum  paxe  vel  ascendene  herba;  radicellae 
basis  nodus.  Caulis  sulcata,  glabra,  ramosus; 
folia  cauline  basilis  integer  vel  ramoluis- 
culus  dentatus,  basis  cuneatus.  Phyllaria 
exterior  2-6,  linearia  lanceolata  c.  0.6-2 
cm  x 0.5 -1.8  mm,  lutens  ad  bruneus  stria, 
obtusus  membraneus;  bractea  receptaculas  ob- 
longa  similis  bractea  exterior.  Receptaculus 
planus  vel  tholus,  foveatus,  4 mm  diam.  Florea 
3-4  x 1.2- 1.5  mm,  homogamous;  exterior  bre- 
vior,  pappi  4,  in  4 angulo  e quadriangule  ova- 
rium, leavis,  sine  serra,  2 brevis  0.5-1  mm, 
2 longior,  1.5- 1.8  mm  longa. 

Holotypus : Nagin  lake  (Srinagariensis)  1600 
m super  mare  planus,  15-8-1976:  AMK  624, 
in  herbario  Universtatus  Kashmiriensis  Con- 
servatur. 

Paratypus : Leper  Hospital  (Srinagariensis) 

1600  m super  mare  planus  AMK  625,  627. 

Bidens  tetraspinosa  sp.  nov. 

Diffused  or  ascending  annual  herbs.  Roots 
also  arising  from  the  lower  nodes.  Stems  sul- 


cate,  much  branched;  upper  leaves  linear,  7-10 
cm  long,  acute,  irregularly  serrate;  lower  leaves 
entire  or  remotely  toothed,  base  cuneate  or 
subsessile;  outer  phylleries  2-6,  linear  lanceo- 
late 6x3  mm,  yellow  with  brown  streaks,  ob- 
tuse, membraneous;  receptacular  bracts  oblong, 
receptacle  flat  or  dome  shaped,  pitted,  4 mm 
dia.  Flowers  homogamous,  3-4  x 1.5  mm,  outer 
ones  slightly  shorter;  pappus  4,  on  the  four 
corners  of  of  the  quadriangular  ovary,  smooth 
without  serra,  2 shorter  (0.5-1  mm)  and  2 
longer  (1.5- 1.8  mm);  corolla  companulate,  5 
fid;  stamens  with  apical  acute  appendages;  stig- 
ma rays  shorter,  linear.  Achenes  cunate,  3-4.2  x 
1.5-2  mm.  4 angled,  striate  flat  top,  with  4 un- 
equal smooth  spines;  shorter  ones  1-1.2  mm; 
longer  ones  2 mm  long;  margins  retroserrate 
(sometimes  serrate,  rarely  absent  in  one  or 
two  margins). 

Mostly  near  swamps,  lowland  areas,  and  on 
floating  islands. 

Holotype : was  collected  in  a gregarious  patch 
on  the  margin  of  floating  islands  near  Leper 
Hospital  (Nagin  lake)  1600  m on  15-8-1976, 
AMK  624;  deposited  in  the  Herbarium,  Uni- 
versity of  Kashmir,  Srinagar. 

Paratype  was  also  collected  at  various  places; 
Suderbal — Leper  Hospital  side  (Srinagar) 
1600  m,  AMK  625,  627. 

The  same  species  was  subsequently  collect- 
ed in  two  other  localities  in  Srinagar  District — 
Shalimar  1700  m,  in  marshy  places;  and  An- 
char  lake  1600  m on  floating  islands. 


Acknowledgements 

We  are  deeply  grateful  to  the  Director,  Ro- 
yal Botanic  Gardens,  Kew,  and  to  Dr.  Subra- 
manyam,  for  valuable  suggestions  on  the  plants 
and  to  the  University  Grants  Commission  for 
providing  financial  aid  to  the  senior  author. 


175 


REVIEWS 


1.  SAVING  THE  TIGER.  By  Guy  Mountfort.  pp.  124  (27.5  x 23  cm), 
with  124  Black-and-White  and  coloured  photographs.  London,  1981. 
Michael  Joseph.  Price  £ 7.95  net. 


Guy  Mountfort  is  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  World  Wildlife  Fund.  His  lifelong  fascina- 
tion for  the  tiger  was  given  a practical  outlet 
when  he  became  the  prime  mover  in  the  cam- 
paign to  save  the  tiger.  He  enlisted  the  support 
of  the  Prime  Minister  of  India  for  this  cam- 
paign, and  was  largely  instrumental  in 
initiating  Project  Tiger  in  India,  with  a gene- 
rous allocation  of  funds  by  the  Government 
of  India  and  very  substantial  assistance  from 
the  world  wide  fund  raising  campaign  mount- 
ed by  the  World  Wildlife  Fund. 

The  book  is  a labour  of  love.  Gay  Mount- 
fort traces  the  history,  behaviour  and  habits 
of  the  tiger,  bringing  together  a great  deal  of 
information  which  has  been  collected  in  recent 
years.  The  territory  marking,  the  mating  and 
breeding  behaviour,  the  care  of  the  young  etc. 
are  all  described  in  the  light  of  the  latest 
scientific  information.  The  conditions  which 
may  lead  a tiger  to  attack  man,  whom  he 
usually  avoids,  are  also  discussed,  and  it  can 
be  seen  that,  in  India  particularly,  man  eating 
by  tigers  is  frequently  a result  of  encroach- 
ment on  its  habitat,  and  destruction  of  its 
natural  food  sources,  by  man  and  his  domestic 
animals. 

The  advent  of  firearms,  and  the  rapid  de- 
cimation of  the  tiger  in  India  which  followed 
this  development,  together  with  the  fascination 


for  shikar  and  collection  of  trophies,  are  briefly 
outlined. 

A survey  is  given  in  part  three,  of  the  ope- 
rations to  save  the  tiger,  the  setting  up  of 
tiger  sanctuaries,  and  the  types  of  studies 
which  are  being  undertaken  in  some  of  these, 
using  the  latest  telemetry  techniques. 

The  importance  of  the  habitat,  and  the  fact 
that  saving  a tiger  means  we  are  saving  25 
or  more  square  miles  of  a natural  environ- 
ment with  all  its  potential  for  resource  regene- 
ration, has  been  touched  upon.  This  fact  needs 
more  emphasis  if  the  campaign  is  to  carry 
conviction  to  the  layman. 

Within  a small  compass  the  book  packs  a 
great  deal  of  information,  fascinatingly  written 
and  well  presented.  The  book  would  be  worth 
the  price  for  the  photographs  alone.  Yet,  at 
the  present  price,  the  book  is  likely  to  appeal 
only  to  the  enthusiast,  who  is  already  ‘sold’ 
on  wildlife,  but  is  unlikely  to  attract  the  gene- 
ral reader.  For  ultimate  success  of  the  project, 
it  is  essential  to  involve  the  general  reader, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  a cheaper  edition,  even 
if  it  means  cutting  out  a large  number  of  the 
excellent  plates,  will  soon  be  made  available 
at  a price  which  will  make  it  attractive  to  the 
non-enthusiast. 

A.  N.  D.  NANAVATI 


176 


REVIEWS 


2.  THE  BIRDS  OF  OMAN.  By  Michael  Gallagher  and  Martin  W.  Wood- 
cock. Foreword  by  H.  M.  the  Sultan,  pp.  310,  (21.5  x 30  cm).  Plates 
I-XII  (photos)  and  1-120  of  paintings  by  Martin  W.  Woodcock.  4 end- 
plate  maps,  5 appendixes.  Bibliography  and  Index.  Quartet  Books  Ltd., 
London,  1980.  Price  £ 37.50. 


The  sultanate  of  Oman  lies  along  the 
eastern  tip  and  seaboard  of  the  Arabian 
Peninsula  at  approximately  the  same  latitude 
as  the  tip  of  the  Kathiawar  peninsula  c.  600 
miles  eastward  across  the  northern  Arabian 
Sea.  Though  flanked  by  the  great  belt  of  arid 
deserts  which  stretches  from  W.  Africa  to 
China,  the  country  itself  is  favourably  situated : 
it  escapes  the  harshness  of  desert  conditions 
and,  contrary  to  popular  conception,  it  enjoys 
a comparatively  cool  climate  with  a moderate 
but  unevenly  distributed  rainfall  and  mainly 
two  distinct  seasons  — a hot  summer  and  a 
cool  winter,  more  or  less  as  in  the  Indian  sub- 
continent. 

The  physiography  of  the  country  is  well 
described  in  an  introductory  chapter.  Surpris- 
ingly for  the  outside  world  it  is  land  of  un- 
expectedly diverse  ecology.  In  addition  to  roll- 
ing sand  dunes  and  oasis  cultivation,  it  has 
reed-lined  creeks,  grassy  plains,  wooded  hills, 
high  mountains,  deep  gorges  and  perennial 
streams.  The  varied  physiography  supports  a 
correspondingly  diverse  avifauna,  thus  this 
comprehensive  chapter  is  of  great  interest  in 
providing  an  adequate  background  for  the 
unexpecting  reader.  “Most  of  the  372  species 
of  birds  known  in  Oman”  says  the  author  “are 
of  Palaearctic  origin  though  there  are  no 
relict  species  as  in  SW  Arabia.  There  are  also 
endemic  Arabian  species  and  birds  from  India 

and  Africa ” In  a useful  historical  account 

of  Oman  ornithology  one  notes  that  some  of 
the  pioneering  work  on  Arabian  birds  in  the 
last  century  has  been  done  by  names  inti- 
mately connected  with  Indian  ornithology  such 


as  W.  T.  Blanford,  A.  O.  Hume  and  Surgeon 
Lieut.  Col.  A.  S.  G.  Jayakar  (discoverer  of 
the  Arabian  Tahr  in  the  mountains  of  Yemen), 
Col.  R.  Meinertzhagen,  Sir  Percy  Cox  and 
Dr.  S.  Dillon  Ripley.  Short  sections  follow 
on  Habitats  (in  general).  Habitats  of  breed- 
ing birds  with  the  species  found  in  each  of 
the  following:  Mountains,  Coastal  plain.  De- 
sert, Semidesert,  Wetlands.  One  chapter 
“Observing  Birds”  is  addressed  primarily  to 
beginners  which,  in  view  of  the  awakening 
awareness  among  local  residents  of  the  great 
variety  of  bird  life  to  be  found  in  the  sulta- 
nate, and  the  wide  range  of  available  habi- 
tats, should  prove  helpful  to  beginners  and 
prospective  beginners  in  bird  watching.  It 
gives  useful  practical  tips  on  how  and  what 
to  observe  and  record,  the  binoculars  to 
choose,  and  so  on;  also  on  cameras  and  bird 
photography. 

The  120  full  page  colour  plates  depict  seve- 
ral species  each,  sometimes  both  sexes  and 
sometimes  also  seasonal  dimorphism.  The 
paintings  are  beautifully  executed  and  excel- 
lently reproduced.  The  concise  descriptive 
captions  on  the  facing  pages  aptly  supplement 
the  illustrations.  The  families  are  arranged  in 
the  modern  taxonomical  sequence  which  makes 
for  easy  comparison  of  related  species.  In 
addition  to  distinguishing  characters  the  text 
gives  the  distribution  and  status  of  the  birds 
within  and  outside  the  sultanate  whether 
migrant  or  resident,  the  habitat  in  which  it 
may  be  found,  and  such  other  relevant  details. 
All  this  in  fact  makes  the  book  an  ideal  pic- 
torial guide  to  the  birds  of  Oman.  But  while 

177 


12 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


the  large  format  makes  for  aesthetic  attrac- 
tiveness on  the  “coffee  table”  and  allows  better 
justice  being  done  to  the  colour  plates  it  also 
cripples  the  usefulness  of  the  book  as  a field 
guide  for  the  beginner  and  the  bird  watching 
tourist  who  would  appreciate  a handier 
volume  that  can  easily  be  carried  in  the  field. 
For  the  benefit  of  budding  birdwatchers  in 
Oman  and  neighbouring  Arab  countries  it  is 


to  be  hoped  that  the  publication  of  a standard 
fieldguide-sized  version  of  the  book  will  be 
considered  by  the  authors  and  publisher.  The 
text  is  clear  and  concise  and  refreshingly  free 
from  obvious  typographical  errors  except  that 
on  p.  82  Marmoretta  should  of  course  read 
Mannar  onettal 

SALIM  All 


3.  PERMA-CULTURE  ONE:  a perennial  agriculture  for  human 
settlements.  By  Bill  Mollison  & David  Holmgren,  pp.  vii  + 128  (27.5  x 
21  cm)  with  many  illustrations.  Australia,  1978.  Corgi  Books.  Price  $4.95 
(Australia),  $5.50  (New  Zealand). 

PERMA-CULTURE  TWO:  practical  design  for  town  and  country 
in  permanent  agriculture.  By  Bill  Mollison.  pp.  ix  + 150  (27.5  x 21  cm) 
with  many  illustrations.  Australia,  1979.  Tagari  Books.  Price  $8.00 
(Australia),  $ 8.50  (New  Zealand). 


Several  decades  ago  Karl  Gayer  and  Franz 
Heske,  two  eminent  German  foresters,  advo- 
cated the  ‘Back  to  Nature’  movement  empha- 
sising the  importance  of  biological  laws  to 
sustain  the  productivity  of  soil.  Today  Masa- 
nobu  Fukuoka  of  Japan  (The  One-Straw 
Revolution:  An  Introduction  to  Natural  Farm- 
ing; Rodale  Press  1978)  and  Bill  Mollison  of 
Australia  are  among  the  foremost  gurus  who 
successfully  demonstrate  through  their  prac- 
tice the  perennial  philosophy  of  Permaculture 
— a system  of  conservation,  the  wise  use  of 
natural  plant  and  animal  resources,  capable  of 
optimum,  sustainable  production. 

Bill  Mollison’s  Permaculture  One  and  Per- 
maculture Two  are  of  fundamental  importance 
to  agriculture  and  forestry.  They  explain  how 
permacultural  systems  can  confer  benefits  to 
urban  areas  as  well.  After  a single  twenty- 
minute  radio  talk  from  Melbourne  on  Perma- 
culture on  May  24,  1977  Bill  Mollison  receiv- 
ed 3500  letters  from  council  engineers,  horti- 


culturists, doctors,  churchmen  and  house- 
wives. Postmen  volunteered  to  carry  seed  and 
some  people  announced  that  they  were  com- 
mencing a permaculture  from  that  date.  Ex- 
tracts from  the  two  books  are  reproduced 
below  to  convey  the  gist  of  Mollison’s  ideas. 

Yields 

The  productivity  of  agriculture  is  usually 
assessed  by  the  yield  per  unit  area.  Yields/ 
unit  area  from  any  particular  species  are  likely 
to  be  lower  in  a permaculture  ecosystem  than 
in  monoculture.  However,  the  sum  of  yields 
from  a permaculture  will  be  greater,  simply 
because  a single-species  system  can  never  use 
all  available  energy  and  nutrients.  For  exam- 
ple, a multistorey  plant  system  uses  all 
available  light  for  photosynthesis.  Species  of 
trees,  as  Kern  points  out,  have  different- 
shaped root  systems  tapping  different  water 
and  nutrient  sources.  Therefore,  in  mixed 
forest  stands  there  is  more  complete  use 


Si'-*1 


178 


REVIEWS 


of  resources  than  in  single-species  stands. 
A plankton-eating  fish  in  no  way  competes 
directly  with  an  algal  browser  in  a pond,  since 
it  cannot  use  the  algal  food.  Poultry  and 
guinea  fowl  can  range  on  the  same  area  since 
the  former  are  primarily  seed-eaters  and  the 
latter  grazers.  Thus  a complex  permaculture 
can  maximise  use  of  all  available  resources  and 
so  increase  total  yield. 

The  Edge  Effect 

The  “edge  effect”  is  an  important  factor  in 
permaculture.  It  is  recognised  by  ecologists 
that  the  interface  between  two  ecosystems  re- 
presents a third,  more  complex  system  which 
combines  both.  At  interfaces,  species  from 
both  systems  can  exist  and  the  edge  also  sup- 
ports its  own  species  in  many  cases.  Gross 
photosynthetic  production  is  higher  at  inter- 
faces. For  example,  the  complex  systems  of 
land /ocean  interfaces  — such  as  estuaries  and 
coral  reefs  — show  the  highest  production  per 
unit  area  of  any  of  the  major  systems.  Forest/ 
pasture  interfaces  show  greater  complexity 
than  either  system  in  both  “producers”  (plants) 
and  “consumers”  (animals).  It  seems  that  the 
Tasmanian  aborigines  burnt  forest  to  main- 
tain a large  interface  of  forest/plain,  since 
these  transitional  areas  provided  a great 
variety  and  amount  of  food.  Animals  are 
found  in  greater  number  on  edges,  for  exam- 
ple. 

Pest  Control  in  Permaculture 

Prevention  can  play  a major  role  in  pest 
control.  Complex  ecosystems  tend  to  be  more 
stable  than  simple  ones  and  less  prone  to  un- 
checked rises  in  particular  populations.  It  is 
generally  accepted  that  monoculture  leads  to 
dramatic  increases  in  pest  populations,  these 
benefiting  from  the  presence  of  the  crop  while 
the  new  environment  may  be  unfavourable  to 


their  predators  — plague  is  the  result.  If  we 
have  a system  with  diverse  plant  and  animal 
species,  habitats  and  micro-climate,  the  chance 
of  a bad  pest  situation  arising  is  reduced.  This 
is  especially  true  of  arthropod  pests. 

Ducks,  hens  and  other  domestic  birds  are 
generalised  feeders,  keeping  the  areas  in  which 
they  range  fairly  free  of  many  pests,  particu- 
larly slugs  and  snails. 

Permaculture  in  Cities  and  Towns 

All  cities  have  unused  open  land;  roadsides, 
corners,  lawns,  areas  front  and  back  of  houses, 
tubs,  verandahs,  concrete  roofs,  balconies, 
north-facing  glass  walls  and  windows.  Many 
suburbs  are  well  planted  but  if  one  deliberately 
selected  a group  of  plants  useless  for  man,  these 
are  what  we  see  in  the  city.  It  is  as  though  a 
useful  tree,  shrub,  vine  or  herb  is  shameful;  as 
though  it  is  a sign  of  status  to  grow  only 
unusable  plants;  a form  of  conspicuous  wealth. 
The  city  could,  at  little  expense,  provide  a 
great  deal  of  its  food  and  in  so  doing,  use 
much  of  its  own  wastes  as  mulch  and  com- 
post. But  perhaps  the  most  valuable  product 
of  a city  devoted  to  permaculture  would  be 
peace  of  mind;  a paranoia  pervades  cities  and 
it  is  a product  of  helplessness  in  the  face  of 
approaching  energy  shortages  and  uncertain 
futures. 

By  developing  private  and  public  permacul- 
tures,  people  could  see  a food  resource  allied 
to  the  shelter  the  city  over-provides  and  in- 
volve themselves  in  meaningful  tasks,  aiding 
their  own  (and  others)  survival. 

The  sane  ethic  is  to  use  all  land  close  to 
settlement  as  permaculture;  any  botanic  garden 
demonstrates  the  possible  rich  variety  availa- 
ble to  city  agriculture  and  could  also  provide 
seed,  advice  and  expertise.  Similarly,  councils 
and  public  authorities  have  small  armies  of 
men  tending  non-productive  systems.  It  is  only 


179 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


a matter  of  public  persuasion  and  responsible 
decision  to  direct  these  activities  to  useful 
species,  in  a multi-dimensional  and  many 
faceted  permaculture.  Nothing  of  beauty  or 
variety  need  be  sacrificed  and  a year  or  two 
of  such  effort  would  ensure  a long-term  re- 
source within  the  city  and  at  its  boundaries, 
where  transport  and  processing  costs  are  least. 

On  Permaculture  and  Community 

Permaculture  both  conserves  and  generates 
the  fuel  energies  of  transport  systems,  and 
would  enable  any  community  to  exist  com- 
fortably on  very  restricted  land  areas.  Supple- 
mented with  the  appropriate  and  available 
technologies  of  methane  and  alcohol  fuels,  dry 
distillation  processes,  and  wind,  wave,  water 
or  solar  energies,  it  would  provide  the  basis 
of  a sustainable  and  regionalised  society. 
Combined  with  community  cooperation,  per- 


maculture promises  freedom  from  many  of 
the  ills  that  plague  us,  and  accepts  all  the 
organic  wastes  of  the  community  it  serves. 

Permaculture  must  be  practised  widely  in 
India.  It  is  labour-intensive  and  will  create 
employment  for  many  to  increase  production 
of  essential  materials  both  in  rural  and  urban 
areas.  Every  discipline,  trade  and  skill  would 
be  used  in  the  planning,  control  and  produc- 
tion of  the  system.  Involvement  in  perma- 
culture will  provoke  a philosophical  and  natural 
approach  to  the  environment  and  its  products, 
demonstrate  the  intrinsic  values  of  complex 
systems  and  generate  the  basis  of  a fully  in- 
tegrated environmental  science.  It  is  a philo- 
sophy which  would  create  not  merely  material 
wealth  but  spiritual  wellbeing  as  well. 


SHANKAR  RANGANATHAN 


180 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


1 . ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  GENUS  CROCIDURA  (MAMMALIA : 
INSECTIVORA)  IN  PENINSULAR  INDIA 


I read  with  interest  a note  by  Dr.  Rao  and 
Aswathanarayana  (/.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc. 
75(2):  473,  1978)  in  which  they  have  record- 
ed the  occurrence  of  the  genus  Crocidura  in 
peninsular  India  (Mysore).  I would  like  to 
point  out  that  this  is  not  the  first  record  of 
the  genus  from  the  area  as  it  has  already  been 

Natural  History  Research  Centre, 
Baghdad  University, 

Baghdad,  Iraq, 

May  14,  1981. 


recorded  by  me  on  the  basis  of  a skull  found 
in  the  pellets  of  an  owl  in  Jabalpur  District 
of  Madhya  Pradesh  ( Cheetal , 51(1):  46-47, 
1972).  I appreciate  authentic  identification  of 
the  species  and  further  distributional  informa- 
tion. 

H.  KHAJURIA 


2.  NOTES  ON  THE  INDIAN  PIGMY  PIPISTRELLE  ( PIPISTRELLUS 
MIMUS  WROUGHTON)  IN  THE  THAR  DESERT 


The  Indian  Pigmy  Pipistrelle  ( Pipistrellus 
mimus)  is  the  most  common  and  widely  distri- 
buted bat  in  the  Indian  desert,  in  wilderness 
areas  as  well  as  villages  and  towns.  It  lives 
singly  or  in  a small  group  in  buildings,  cre- 
vices of  rocks  and  hollows  of  trees.  The  pipi- 
strelle lives  in  crevices  of  walls  and  is  common 
in  the  Rajasthan  desert  (Prakash  1960)  it 
may  also  live  under  the  bark  of  Banyan  tree. 
The  breeding  season  is  March  to  May  (Bros- 
set  1962).  I observed  this  bat  from  April 
1977  to  September  1979. 

It  roosted  in  hollows  of  Prosopis  cineraria, 
Salvadora  spp.  and  Tecomeila  undulata  trees 
as  well  as  fissures  and  crevices  of  rocks.  In 
villages  and  towns  it  roosts  in  crevices  and 
in  walls,  holes  around  windows,  or  similar 
cracks  in  constructions  were  found  to  be  the 
most  favoured  roost  sites  for  this  bat  in  urban 


areas.  Single  to  groups  upto  five  bats  were 
observed  roosting  in  suitable  roost  spaces. 
They  left  the  roost  site  very  early  at  dusk, 
about  10  minutes  after  sunset  where  as  other 
bats  leave  after  about  30  minutes.  Flies  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  roost  for  a few  minutes  before 
proceeding  to  the  usual  hunting  ground  which 
may  be  750  metres  or  even  5 kms  away  from 
the  roost  site. 

The  returning  timing  was  found  to  be  25  to 
15  minutes  before  sunrise  and  it  makes  several 
rounds  for  a few  minutes  near  its  roost 
crevice  before  entering  it  for  the  day. 

The  bat  is  widely  distributed  in  the  Indian 
desert  except  in  treeless  areas.  It  is  common 
in  villages  and  towns  because  food  (insects) 
availability  and  roosting  facilities.  Similarly 
populations  were  higher  in  Salvadora,  Prosopis 
juli flora,  P.  cineraria  dominant  jungles. 


181 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


By  the  analysis  of  its  droppings  (wings  and 
cuticles  of  eaten  insects)  it  appears  that  it 
largely  takes  Diptera,  Lepidoptera,  termites, 
Hymnoptera  and  small  Coleoptera  insects.  It 
hunts  insects  over  Prosopis  juliflora  and  Salva- 
dor a spp.,  over  water  surfaces  (tanks  and  rain 
pools),  grasslands  (lawns  in  towns)  and  agri- 
cultural fields  etc.  In  towns,  lamp  posts  of 
streets  are  its  most  favourite  hunting  grounds, 
it  was  noted  that  as  bright  lamps  (mercury 
vapour  lamps)  attracts  more  insects,  so  these 
indirectly  attract  the  bat  more  for  food. 

The  bat  flies  between  4 to  10  metres  above 
the  ground  for  hunting  insects  but  may  dive 
low  upto  25  cms  above  the  ground  while 
chasing  a prey. 

Hibernation:  From  December  to  February 
when  temperature  at  nights  is  below  15°  it  was 
not  observed  coming  out  of  its  roost  for  hunt- 

Bhagwati  Bhavan, 

Ratanada  Road, 

Jodhpur-342  020, 

October  27,  1979. 


ing  and  moved  deeply  in  to  crevices  to  have 
less  effect  of  cold,  yet  it  was  observed 
to  be  active  therein,  moving  and  scratching  etc. 
The  bat  flights  in  light  drizzles  but  in  heavy 
rains  ceases  to  fly. 

Breeding : The  young  were  observed  from 
March  to  April,  litter  size  largely,  one  young. 
A young  measured  head  ='  1.2  cms,  ear  = 0.6 
cm,  wing  (patagium)  = 3.0  cms,  whole  length 
3,5  cms.  The  mother  licks,  suckles  her  young 
and  occasionally  wraps  it  with  her  patagium. 
Young  wean  in  three  months. 

A very  useful  bat  which  consumes  harmful 
insects  and  has  finely  adapted  itself  to  be  a 
commensal  of  man  in  urban  areas  enjoying 
roosting  and  feeding  facilities  there.  As  its 
droppings  dirty  house  people  often  plug  its 
roost  crevices  in  houses. 

INDRA  KUMAR  SHARMA 


References 

Brosset,  A.  (1962):  Survey  of  bats  in  Western  Mus.  59:  149-170. 

India.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  59:  17-19.  Walker,  E.  (1975):  Mammals  of  the  World. 

Prakash,  I.  (1960):  Taxonomical  and  biological  John  Hopkins  University  Press,  Baltimore, 
observations  on  bats  of  Rajasthan  Desert.  Rec.  Ind. 


3 . OBSERVATIONS  ON  A ROOST  OF  FREE-TAILED  BAT 
TAD  ARID  A PLICATA  PLICATA  (BUCHANAN)  IN  EAST-NIMAR 


During  the  study  of  bats  of  East  Nimar  in 
1976  and  1977  some  data  were  gathered  on  a 
migratory  colony  of  Tadarida  plicata  plicata 
(Buchanan).  These  bats  which  constitute  a 
major  population  of  molossid  fauna  in  East 
Nimar  from  26th  May  to  September  16,  were 
absent  from  their  roosts  during  the  rest  of  the 
year.  During  May  to  September  the  number 


of  individuals  in  the  colony  varied  at  different 
times:  300,  on  28th  May  1976;  200,  on  26th 
May  1977;  500,  on  20th  July  1977;  500,  on 
18th  August;  200,  on  1st  September;  Empty 
10th  September.  The  population  of  these  bats 
decreased  substantially  daily  from  September, 
1;  and  the  habitat  was  left  vacant  by  Septem- 
ber 10.  Although  there  is  no  migratory  record 


182 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


nor  any  evidence  of  shift  in  their  population 
in  East  Nimar  during  Autumn  to  the  follow- 
ing summer,  it  is  very  likely  that  they  migrate 
to  other  roosts  during  this  period. 

Collection  localities : 

Only  one  colony  was  observed  in  this  survey. 
These  bats  have  been  found  roosting  a big 
room  in  Anand  Talkies  at  Khandwa.  The 
room  is  40x20x35  feet  in  size  is  dimly  lighted 
and  frequently  disturbed  and  waste  materials 
are  dumped  in  this  room. 

Tadarida  plicata  plicata  has  well  defined 
field  characters  by  which  it  can  be  distinguish- 
ed from  Tadarida  aegyptiaca.  The  former  has 
broad  head,  and  the  snout  tip  to  tragus  length 
is  always  greater  than  that  of  Tadarida  aegyp- 
tiaca. Tadarida  plicata  plicata  has  six  incisors 
in  lower  jaw.  The  patterns  of  fur,  covering 
neck  regions,  appears  to  be  forming  a collar- 
like shape  which  gets  separated  from  the  rest 
of  body  when  the  head  moves  down-wards. 
There  is  a marked  variation  in  the  colour  of 
its  fur.  This  has  been  noticed  in  the  two  indi- 
viduals of  this  colony.  Two  main  types  given 
below  were  mainly  observed: 

(1)  Buff  brown  above  and  grey  below. 

(2)  Blackish  grey  above  and  grey  below. 

It  was  noticed  that  this  bat  selects  the 

warmer  parts  of  the  room  whether  on  the  ceil- 
ing or  in  a crack.  The  highest  temperature  of 
this  room  was  about  40°C.  The  daily  fluctua- 
tions may  be  10°C  in  a day. 

In  the  rainy  season  these  bats  were  found 

Department  of  Zoology, 

University  of  Saugar, 

Sagar  (m.p.). 

May  23,  1981. 


to  be  present  in  clusters  on  rough  surface 
of  the  walls  in  the  highest  parts  of  the  room. 
The  clustering  and  colony  composition  it  was 
observed,  showed  no  definite  sequence.  A 
pungent,  musky,  odour  was  noticed  in  this 
room  on  June  15th  1977,  when  a large  number 
of  bats  arrived  and  both  horizontal  and  verti- 
cal cracks  of  the  room  v/ere  packed  with 
these  bats. 

The  testes  (7.5  x 5 mm)  of  males  were 
exabdominal  and  scrotum  was  present.  The 
average  body  weight  of  male  was  17  to  19  gm, 
and  of  the  female  was  17  to  20  gm.  The 
weight  of  testis  was  100  mg. 

A large  number  of  females  had  a single 
embryo,  of  7 to  10  mm  length,  in  the  right 
horn  of  uterus.  This  was  noticed  in  the  majo- 
rity in  July  1977,  and  were  so  developed  that 
the  delivery  was  expected  in  October,  1977. 

In  this  roost  bats  emerged  for  foraging  soon 
after  sun-set  and  within  half  an  hour  the  room 
becomes  completely  empty.  They  returned 
after  one  hour. 

Ack  no  wledge  m e n ts 

I express  my  indebtedness  to  Prof.  D.  R. 
Sharma  for  valuable  suggestions.  Thanks  are 
also  due  to  Department  of  Zoology,  S.  N. 
College,  Khandwa  for  providing  the  necessary 
facilities,  during  this  investigation.  The  finan- 
cial assistance  offered  by  the  University  Grants 
Commission,  New  Delhi  for  this  research  work 
is  gratefully  acknowledged. 

S.  K.  KASHYAP 


183 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


4 . NOTES  ON  BARBE’S  LEAF  MONKEY  PRESBYTIS  BARBl  BLYTH 


Barbe’s  Leaf  Monkey  locally  known  as 
Dudhi  Mukho  Bandor  or  Chasma  Chok,  is 
found  in  all  three  districts  of  Tripura,  but 
the  species  has  not  been  included  among  the 
18  non-human  primate  species  recorded  in  diffe- 
rent parts  of  the  country  (Mohnot  1980). 
Other  primate  species  besides  Barbe’s  leaf 
monkey  occurring  in  Tripura  are  common  tree 
shrew  ( Tupaia  glis).  Slow  loris  ( Nycticebus 
coucang),  Assamese  Macaque  ( Macaca  assa- 
mensis).  Rhesus  Macaque  ( Macaca  mulatto). 
Pigtailed  macaque  ( Macaca  nemestrina). 
Capped  langur  ( Presbytis  pileatus ) and  Hoo- 
lock  Gibbon  ( Hylobates  hoolock).  Practically 
no  work  has  been  done  on  the  ecology  of  any 
of  the  species  known  from  Tripura.  Barbe’s 
leaf  monkey  is  probably  found  only  in  Tripura 
in  India. 

The  head  and  body  are  dusky  grey  with  pale 
buff  sheen  on  the  back  and  black  erect  brow. 
A well  defined  crest  present.  The  whiskers  are 
fairly  long  and  partially  cover  the  ears.  The 
area  around  eyes  and  upper  and  lower  lips, 
chalk  white.  Ventral  fur  silvery  white.  Fore 
and  hind  limbs  are  of  the  same  colour  as  the 
body  except  the  black  hand  and  feet.  The 
tail  slightly  paler  than  the  body  with  a tuft 
of  black-brown  hairs  at  the  tip.  The  area  below 
pubic  callosities  light  grey  in  male  but  yello- 
wish in  female.  The  young  ones  are  pale  in 
colour. 

Barbe’s  Leaf  Monkey  is  found  in  Tripura 
where  rainfall  is  high  and  forests  are  tropical 
evergreen /tropical  semi-evergreen  and  moist 
deciduous  forests  with  Bamboo  brakes.  They 


are  completely  arboreal  and  seldom  found 
near  human  habitations. 

The  troops  consists  of  a dominent  male 
with  5/6  females,  subadults  and  young  ones, 
which  are  usually  born  during  September- 
October.  The  average  troop  size  is  10-12,  and 
the  largest  troop  seen  was  of  22,  at  Paratia 
under  Udaipur  Division. 

They  feed  mostly  on  leaves,  flowers  and 
fruits  and  were  never  seen  on  the  ground. 
The  leaf  monkey  was  seen  feeding  on  the 
following  trees.  Young  shoots  being  favoured. 

Mangifera  sylvatica,  Phyllanthus  emblica, 
Terminalia  bellerica,  Hymenodictyon  excelsum, 
Artocarpus  chaplasha,  Alstonia  scholaris, 
Gmelina  arborea,  Dipterocarpus  turbinatus, 
Dillenia  pentagyna,  Albizzia  stipulata,  Termi- 
nalia chebula,  Bur  sera  serrata,  Amoora  rohi- 
tuka,  Cedrela  toona,  Schleicher  a trijuga, 
Amoora  wallichii,  Bombax  ceiba,  Legerstroe- 
mia  flos-reginea,  Anthocephalus  cadamba, 
Bauhinia  spp.,  Schima  wallichii,  Swietenia 
mahagoni,  Erythrina  suberosa. 

Though  an  exact  census  has  not  been  con- 
ducted, it  is  estimated  that  the  total  popula- 
tion in  Tripura  will  be  around  400  and  60% 
of  these  are  found  in  the  south  and  west 
districts  of  Tripura. 

ACK  NOWLEDGEM  EN  TS 

I am  thankful  to  Dr.  V.  C.  Agarwal  and 
Dr.  R.  P.  Mukherjee  of  Zoological  Survey  of 


184 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


India,  Calcutta  for  their  valued  information  I am  also  thankful  to  my  friend  Shri  Suradas 
based  on  which  this  article  has  been  written.  Ghosh  who  helped  me  in  many  respects. 

Deputy  Conservator  of  Forests  S.  K.  MUKHERJEE 

(Wild  Life), 

Office  of  The  C.  C.  Forests, 

P.  O.  Kunjaban, 

Agartala,  Tripura  (West), 

May  30,  1981. 

Reference 

Mohnot,  S.  M.  (1980):  On  the  Primate  resources 
of  India.  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  75  (Supplement) : 

961-970. 

5.  INCIDENTAL  OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  SPOTTED  LINSANG 
(PRIONODON  PARD1COLOR) 


The  spotted  linsang  is  recorded  from  pri- 
mary and  secondary  forests  in  Nepal,  Assam, 
northern  Burma,  and  Indo-China  at  elevations 
of  150  m (above  sea  level)  to  1850  m (Prater 
1971).  Little  is  known  of  the  ecology  or 
natural  history  of  the  linsang.  Breeding  is 
thought  to  occur  in  February  and  possibly 
again  in  August.  An  individual  kept  in  capti- 
vity in  Darjeeling  refused  to  eat  fish,  eggs  and 
fruit  but  lived  on  raw  meat  (Prater  1971). 
However,  two  banded  linsang  (P.  linsang ) in 
captivity  in  Malaysia  readily  ate  white  mice, 
birds,  fresh  fish  and  fresh  eggs  but  rejected 
fruits  such  as  banana  and  papaya  (Liat  1973). 
Stomach  contents  of  three  wild-caught  banded 
linsang  included  remains  of  spiny-furred  rats, 
birds  and  a tree  lizard,  indicating  that  the  lin- 
sang hunts  on  and  above  the  forest  floor  (Liat 
1973).  Indeed,  of  12  banded  linsang  collected 
in  Malaysia,  eight  were  shot  while  moving 
between  three  and  eight  metres  above  the  forest 
floor;  the  remainder  were  trapped  on  the 
ground  (Liat  1973). 

Four  observations  of  spotted  linsang  in  the 
lowland  forests  and  grasslands  (150  m a.s.l.) 


of  Royal  Chitawan  National  Park  in  southern 
Nepal  (latitude  27°30'N;  longitude  84°20'E) 
support  this  information.  In  one  instance  in 
late  February  (1975)  an  adult  male  and  an 
adult  female  fell  into  a well  and  drowned. 
Such  a close  association  suggests  that  mating 
activity  was  involved.  The  remaining  observa- 
tions indicate  the  animal  is  an  opportunistic 
carnivore.  On  17  January  1975  a linsang  was 
driven  out  of  dense  vegetation  surrounding  a 
tiger  ( Panthera  tigris ) kill  when  domestic  ele- 
phants moved  through  the  area.  The  habitat 
was  a mosaic  of  riverine  forest  and  tall,  dense 
grasses.  This  individual  was  probably  an  adult 
based  on  measurements  given  in  Walker  (1975: 
1231).  Another  linsang,  also  judged  to  be  an 
adult,  was  seen  feeding  on  the  carcass  of  a 
tiger  kill  at  1830  hr  on  4 February  1975.  The 
kill  was  located  in  an  area  of  dense  riverine 
forest.  While  the  observation  of  4 February 
was  only  2 km  east  of  that  for  17  January 
it  was  unlikely  that  the  same  animal  was  in- 
volved because  it  would  have  had  to  cross  a 
river  about  150-200  m wide.  The  third  obser- 
vation occurred  in  mid-March  (1979)  in  an 


185 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


area  of  sal  (Shorea  robust  a)  forest  interspersed 
with  dense  grasses.  A linsang,  presumably  an 
adult,  came  to  the  remains  of  a tiger  kill  at 
about  1700  hr  and  began  feeding.  This  loca- 

CONSERVATION  AND  RESEARCH  CENTER,  NZP, 
Front  Royal,  Virginia  22630, 

USA, 

August  10,  1981. 

Refer 

Liat,  L.  B.  (1973):  The  banded  linsang  and  the 
banded  musang  of  West  Malaysia.  Malay.  Nat.  J. 
26:  105-111. 

Prater,  S.  H.  (1971):  The  Book  of  Indian  Ani- 


tion  was  2.8  km  west  of  the  17  January  obser- 
vation. No  other  linsangs  were  observed  at  the 
three  tiger  kills,  suggesting  that  these  indivi- 
duals were  traveling  alone. 

M.  E.  SUNQUIST 


E N CE  S 

mals.  Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  Bombay, 
India. 

Walker,  E.  P.  (1975):  Mammals  of  the  World 
(Third  Edition).  Johns  Hopkins  University  Press, 
Baltimore. 


6.  BLACKBUCK  CENSUS  IN  POINT  CALIMERE : A REJOINDER 


Dr.  S.  S.  Nair  ( JBNHS  73:  304-310,  1978), 
after  doing  a one  man  survey  of  Black-buck 
in  the  Point  Calimere  sanctuary  in  October 
1974,  concluded  that  a)  only  340  animals 
exist  in  the  Sanctuary  in  opposition  to  the 
Forest  Department  estimate  of  1000+;  b)  this 
indicates  a steep  population  decline,  or  in- 
correct censussing.  This  is  used  to  argue  that 
there  is  both  a lack  of  proper  conservation 
measures  and  that  Forest  Department  estimates 
anywhere  in  India  cannot  be  trusted  (He 
appears  to  miss  the  contradiction  between  these 
two  statements).  He  further  warns  that  unless 
corrective  measures  are  taken  soon,  black- 
buck  will  become  a memory  of  the  past,  with- 
out unfortunately  spelling  out  what  these  cor- 
rective measures  should  be. 

I will  not  stress  here  the  obvious  point  that 
more  animals  need  not  necessarily  mean  better 
management,  as  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
habitat  could  easily  be  exceeded.  I would  like, 
however,  to  point  out  some  of  the  methodo- 
logical flaws  in  Dr.  Nair’s  census. 

The  technique  used  by  the  Forest  Depart- 
ment is  that  of  a total  visual  count,  a tested 


and  simple  method  recognised  and  used  as  a 
standard  technique  today  and  is  known  as 
Spatial  census  2 in  which  a count  is  made  of 
all  the  animals  in  a specified  area  at  a specified 
point  in  time.  The  count  is  instantaneous  in 
its  properties.  This  technique,  which  is  ideally 
suited  for  open  habitat  animals,  like  the  black- 
buck  at  Point  Calimere  calls  for  no  special 
qualification,  training,  skill  or  scientific  know- 
ledge except  that  the  enumerators  should  be 
able  to  age  and  sex  the  animals  they  see.  As 
we  are  not  omniscient  and  omnipresent,  we 
usually  employ  sufficient  numbers  of  census 
parties  and  more  than  one  individual  in  each 
census  party. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  disadvan- 
tages of  the  one  man  survey  may  be  consi- 
dered. The  black-buck  is  not  a static  animal, 
and  duplications  are  likely,  especially  since 
individual  recognition  is  extremely  difficult. 
Visibility  is  reduced  due  to  the  undulating 
terrain  at  Point  Calimere  and  the  evergreen 
thickets.  Waterlogged  conditions  in  October 
would  also  prevent  any  observer  from  moving 
in  a straight  line.  At  one  time  normally,  any 


186 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


observer  cannot  command  a view  greater  than 
140°  and  an  area  of  44  Ha.  is  very  flat  coun- 
try if  the  view  is  not  obstructed  upto  600M. 
In  such  situations  any  count  arrived  at  can- 
not be  called  “Total”  but  in  effect  is  a rather 
inefficient  sampling  method. 

To  illustrate  my  point  Dr.  Nair  states  that 
there  were  “no  animals  in  plots  9,  11,  13  and 
14”  (his  table  1).  The  only  valid  inference 
however  is  that  no  animals  were  sighted  by 
him  at  the  time  of  the  survey!  The  counting 
in  each  plot  may  have  taken,  say,  one  hour 
projecting  randomly  selected  one  hour  results 
to  24  hours  is  hardly  likely  to  lead  to  accu- 
racy in  this  case. 

Again  the  total  length  of  the  census  lines 
works  out  to  be  approximately  18  Km.  where 
compared  with  from  Survey  of  India  maps 
(unfortunately,  Nair  has  not  indicated  the 
scale  of  the  map).  These  census  lines  and 
triangles  appear  efficient  on  paper.  They  are 
useless  for  census  work  since  they  are  not 
marked  on  the  ground.  Also,  because  of  pos- 
sible duplicates  in  counting  due  to  the  animals 
moving,  caution  should  be  exercised  in  inter- 
preting density,  herd  composition  and  age 
structure.  Using  Dr.  Nair’s  own  data,  if  the 
minimum  herd  size  is  multiplied  by  the  num- 
ber of  herds,  the  total  number  of  animals 
arrived  at  is  722+  Minimum  722  Maximum 

Wildlife  Warden, 

Kalakad  Sanctuary, 

Tirunelveli-  627011, 

Tamil  Nadu, 

April  1,  1981. 

Refei 

Johnson,  J.  Mangalaraj  (1974):  The  Black-buck 
in  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary,  Tamilnadu  Population 
Dynamics  and  observation  on  behaviour.  Indian 
Forester  101  (8). 

Nair,  S.  S.  (1978):  A population  survey  and  ob- 


1140  and  mean  931.  It  is  a pity  that  the  enu- 
merator did  not  take  along  local  staff  to  assist 
him,  as  was  done  in  Mr.  J.  C.  Daniel’s  census 
in  1967.  It  is  obvious  that  even  a total  census 
will  result  in  some  errors.  However,  Nair’s 
sampling  is  vitiated  by  the  fact  that  he  does 
not  give  estimates  of  variance,  or  the  confi- 
dence limits  to  be  placed  on  his  observations. 
In  view  of  this,  one  would  fail  to  understand 
why  Forest  Department  census  estimates  in 
India  as  a whole  should  be  condemned.  I 
would  like  to  state  that  a number  of  non- 
Forest  Department,  non-official  people  have 
always  been  involved  with  our  censussing  and 
this  data  is  not  “Cooked  up”  as  the  implica- 
tion seems  to  be.  We  would  happy  to  correct 
our  techniques  if  some  specific  fault  was  point- 
ed out.  We  would  be  happy  to  have  Dr.  Nair 
as  an  observer  on  our  next  census. 

I would  like  to  make  a final  point.  Absolute 
numbers  of  an  animal  species  are  less  impor- 
tant than  the  population  structure,  age  class 
distributions.  And  the  trends  over  time  that 
matter.  Judgements  should  therefore  not  be 
made  on  “absolute  numbers”  alone,  but  the 
other  factors,  which  are  more  relevant  in  con- 
serving and  managing  a particular  eco-system. 

To  quote  Aldo  Leopold,  “When  people  run 
out  of  ideas,  they  start  counting  in  the  hope 
that  somehow  it  will  give  them  some ” 

J.  MANGALRAJ  JOHNSON 


E N CE  S 

servations  on  the  behaviour  of  the  black-buck  in 
the  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary,  Tamil  Nadu.  J.  Bom- 
bay nat.  Hist.  Soc.  73  (2) : 304-310. 

Overton,  W.  Scott  (1971):  Wildlife  Manage- 
ment Techniques. 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


7.  SOME  OBSERVATION  ON  WILD  BUFFALO,  BUB  ALUS 
BUBALIS  LINN.,  IN  KAZIRANGA  NATIONAL  PARK,  ASSAM 


Introduction 

There  is  now  a need  to  determine  how  far 
the  pure  wild  strain  of  the  Buffalo  in  the 
Kaziranga  Sanctuary  has  been  affected  by 
domestic  strains.  The  confusion  that  has  pre- 
vailed is  evident  from  the  fact  that  several 
forms  were  recognised  in  earlier  literature, 
such  as  Blanford  (1891)  who  listed  four  vari- 
eties on  the  basis  of  horn  shape,  colour  and 
size,  namely: 

A.  Colour  Blackish : 

(a)  Horns  sub-circular  B.  b.  bubalis 

(b)  Horns  directed  mainly  outward 

B.  b.  macroceros 

B.  Colour  brown  dun : 

B.  b.  julvus 

C.  Size  medium : B . b.  hosei 

In  March  1980,  we  made  an  attempt  to 
find  answers  for  the  queries  that  have  been 
often  raised  in  the  context  of  the  wild  buffalo 
population  at  Kaziranga  National  Park,  such 
as: 

(a)  How  many  forms  of  wild  buffalo  occur 
in  Kaziranga  National  Park? 

(b)  Do  feral  buffaloes  occur  in  Kaziranga  and 
if  so,  their  identity  from  the  wild  stock? 

(c)  How  many  of  the  estimated  population  of 
six  hundred  + wild  buffaloes  in  Kaziranga 
are  really  wild? 

(d)  Do  wild  buffalo  stock  mix  freely  with  the 
feral  ones? 

We  concentrated  our  efforts  in  the  Baguri 
Block  of  the  Sanctuary  which  is  a favoured 
habitat  of  the  buffalo.  Of  the  estimated  660 
buffaloes  in  Kaziranga  in  1978  (census  by 
forest  department)  about  50%  was  accounted 
for  from  Baguri  Block.  This  situation  is  pro- 
bably of  the  extensive  grasslands. 


We  were  in  Kaziranga  National  Park  from 
19  to  24th  March,  1980.  During  this  period, 
we  followed  buffalo  herds  on  elephant  back 
from  dawn  to  dusk.  The  observation  period 
was  from  6 a.m.  to  6 p.m.  with  afternoon 
break  of  3 hours.  Two  trained  elephants,  a 
male,  and  a female  were  hired  by  us  from  the 
Forest  Department  for  six  days,  and  we  had  a 
total  of  56  hours  of  observation. 

We  transected  the  forest  on  elephant  back 
in  single  file.  The  buffalo  herds  when  sighted 
were  approached  carefully.  The  herd  on  see- 
ing us  would  turn  towards  us  stand  in  alert 
attentive  posture,  staring  with  raised  head  often 
for  an  hour  or  more.  During  our  observation 
when  we  approached  certain  buffalo  herds  to 
within  about  500  metres,  the  whole  herd  would 
bold  to  cover  in  tall  reeds.  With  other  herds 
we  could  steadily  approach  them  and  station 
our  two  elephants  right  in  the  midst  of  the 
herd.  In  the  remote  northern  end  of  the  Park, 
we  followed  a large  herd  of  50  buffalo  as  close 
as  10  metres. 

The  herd  strength,  composition,  build,  colour 
and  behaviour  were  noted.  We  observed  seve- 
ral such  herds  and  noted  the  behaviour  when 
the  herd  had  not  located  us,  when  the  herd 
located  our  position,  reaction  to  our  approach- 
ed, behaviour  when  we  stationed  our  elephants 
right  in  their  midst.  Behaviour  when  the  herd 
was  moving  from  one  bheel  towards  another, 
resting  behaviour  reaction  to  disturbance,  cow 
and  calf  relation,  and  the  behaviour  of  solitary 
bulls. 

Spots  where  a particular  herd  was  sighted 
earlier  was  revisited  to  note  if  that  herd  kept 
to  the  same  territory.  Villages  surrounding  the 
Kaziranga  Park  were  visited  to  collect  infor- 


188 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


mation  on  possible  occurrence  of  feral 
buffaloes. 

Results 

In  the  6 days  of  actual  field  work  we  spot- 
ted 300  + wild  buffaloes  in  the  study  area. 

The  herd  ranged  from  8 to  20  individuals. 
However,  at  Borbeel  a larger  herd  of  over  40 
individuals  were  sighted.  The  herd  composi- 
tion was  adult  females,  sub-adult  males  and 
females  and  in  two  instances  adult  bulls. 

At  Baithamari  bheel  a herd  of  19  individuals 
were  sighted  (9  females  + 6 sub-adults  + 4 cows). 
The  animals  were  blackish  grey  with  sub- 
circular  horns  and  were  of  large  size.  In  fore- 
noon, when  we  were  one  kilometre  away  from 
the  herd  located  our  position. 

On  sighting  us  the  herd  turned  towards  us, 
with  head  raised,  and  alertly  stared  at  us. 
Twenty  minutes  later  we  moved  towards  the 
herd  and  reached  the  edge  of  the  Baithamari 
Bheel,  the  buffaloes  which  were  at  this  stage 
300  metres  away  across  the  bheel  bolted  and 
took  cover  in  the  tall  reeds  growing  at  the 
edge  of  the  grass  patch. 

After  a lapse  of  20  minutes  the  herd  return- 
ed to  the  bheel  and  continued  to  be  there 
when  we  left  the  site  an  hour  later.  In  the 
afternoon  we  observed  the  herd  still  at  the 
same  bheel  when  we  watched  them  from  a 
concealed  observation  site.  The  entire  herd 
was  resting  excepting  two  sub-adults  and  2 
calves  which  were  grazing  leisurely.  Our  obser- 
vations showed  that  some  buffalo  herds  like 
the  above  one  at  Baithamari  Bheel  stare  at 
an  intruder  for  a long  time  and  on  closer 
approach  flee  to  the  cover  of  tall  reeds.  Smaller 
buffalo  groups,  in  twos  and  threes  (cows  and 
calves),  were  inclined  to  panic  and  not  permit 
close  approach.  Solitary  bulls  invariably  fled 
to  cover  on  sighting  us  even  from  a distance 
of  our  800-1000  metres. 


At  Danga  bheel  a herd  of  17  individuals 
were  sighted  (9  adult  females,  6 sub -adults  and 
2 calves).  The  animals  were  medium  sized, 
dun  coloured  and  had  horns  mainly  directed 
outwards  but  a few  had  sub-circular  horns. 
The  herd  sighted  us  when  we  were  200  metres 
from  them  and  on  the  same  side  of  Danga 
bheel.  On  sighting  us  all  the  individuals  ex- 
cepting a few  cows  turned  towards  us,  with 
their  head  raised  and  stood  staring  at  us.  The 
cows  continued  grazing.  After  15  minutes  we 
approached  the  herds  steadily  and  our  two 
elephants  were  soon  stationed  in  the  midst  of 
the  herd.  Excepting  sub-adult  females  all  indi- 
viduals resumed  grazing.  One  male  sub-adult 
(horn  c.  30  cm)  suckled  from  an  adult  cow 
for  over  an  hour  hardly  a few  metres  away 
from  us.  We  had  similar  experience  with  a 
large  herd  of  50  + animals  at  Borbheel. 

Our  observations  on  some  buffalo  herds 
like  the  one  sighted  at  Danga  bheel  indicated 
that  the  individuals  were  less  shy  and  less  in- 
clined to  panic,  so  much  so  that  we  could 
steadily  move  amidst  a herd  of  over  20  animals. 
After  sometime  the  older  cows  and  some  juve- 
niles, continued  their  grazing  and  lost  all  in- 
terest in  us.  The  herds  mentioned  above  in- 
variably were  of  dun  colour. 

Our  enquiries  with  villagers  in  villages  on 
the  margins  of  the  Kaziranga  Park  revealed 
that  there  are  over  200  animals  in  the  park 
which  have  come  from  Shivsagar  area  on  the 
northern  periphery  of  the  park.  These  animals 
identified  as  “Nepals”  by  locals,  had  taken 
shelter  in  the  Park  during  high  floods  in 
1976  (?)  and  since  then,  had  run  wild.  These 
feral  herds  are  known  to  mix  with  domestic 
ones  and  often  follow  them  into  the  villages. 
Four  such  feral  ones  captured  and  tamed  in 
1979  were  seen  by  us. 

Some  of  these  dun  coloured  animals  have 
settled  along  the  southern  margin  of  the  park 


189 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


near  Baguri  Rest  House.  Similar  herds  were 
encountered  by  us  in  the  western  part  of  the 
National  Park  near  Kanchanjuri  area.  We 
noted  two  conspicuous  whitish  hair  band  one 
inch  wide  and  4 inch  apart,  on  throat  of  all  the 
individuals  in  the  herd  sighted  by  us  at  Danga 
Bheel.  Similar  whitish  throat  bands  were  noted 
on  all  four  individuals,  caught  and  tamed  by 
the  villagers. 

Summary  of  Findings 

Buffalo  herds  with  blackish  colour  and  also 
herds  with  dun  colour  were  seen  in  Kaziranga. 
They  also  showed  different  behaviour,  that  is, 
buffaloes  with  blackish  colour  fled  on  approach 
whereas  the  dun  coloured  ones  were  not  in- 
clined to  panic.  The  dun  coloured  buffaloes 
were  encountered  within  the  entire  study  area. 

Two  whitish,  one  inch  wide,  four  inch  apart 
throat  bands  were  seen  on  the  dun  colour 


buffalo  herds.  These  bands  are  not  recorded 
by  earlier  observers. 

The  situation  in  Kaziranga  National  Park 
warrants  a systematic  study  of  wild  buffalo, 
particularly  their  genetic  status.  We  opine  that 
large  number  of  domestic  buffaloes  have  been 
let  loose  in  the  park  area.  Many  may  be  now 
feral  and  this  is  not  a desirable  state  as  ulti- 
mately their  presence  will  lead  to  deterioration 
of  the  wild  stock. 

ACK  NOWLEDGE  M E NTS 

Our  thanks  are  due  to  the  Chief  Conservator 
of  Forest,  Assam,  the  D.F.O.  and  the  forest 
Range  Officer  incharge  of  the  Kaziranga 
National  Park  who  helped  us  in  conducting  the 
survey.  We  are  grateful  to  Dr.  Behura  of 
Utkal  University  for  his  co-operation  in  plan- 
ning the  trip  and  to  the  Bombay  Natural 
History  Society  for  deputing  one  of  us  (Mr. 
P.  B.  Shekar)  to  undertake  the  study. 


B/22,  Balsunder  Society, 
M.  G.  Road,  Naupada, 
Thane-400  602, 

March  27,  1981. 


H.  K.  DIVEICAR 
K.  K.  MOHAPATRA 
P.  B.  SHEKAR 


8.  CAUSES  OF  MORTALITY  IN  MAMMALS  OF  BOV1DAE  FAMILY 
IN  CAPTIVITY  AND  FREE  LIVING  STATE  IN  INDIA 


Diseases  of  wild  ungulates  have  considerable 
epidemiological  and  ecological  significance. 
Apart  from  having  a direct  impact  on  the 
wildlife  populations  themselves,  the  occurrence 
of  communicable  diseases  in  some  of  the 
species,  constitute  a great  hazard  to  domestic 
livestock  populations,  particularly  in  areas 
where  such  diseases  have  been  controlled  or 
eradicated.  In  order  to  have  effective  disease 
control  programmes,  both  in  wild  and  domes- 
tic stock,  it  is  essential  to  know  the  natural 
nidi  and  host  range  of  various  infectious 
agents. 


The  infectious  diseases  of  Bovidae  report- 
ed in  India  are  Rinderpest  in  gaur,  wild 
buffalo,  nilgai,  chousingha.  Black  buck  (Hallen 
et  al  1871,  Burton  1953,  Schaller  1967,  Gupta 
and  Verma  1949),  Anthrax  (Peacock  1933), 
Foot  and  Mouth  Disease  (Ali  1935),  tuber- 
culosis in  captive  antelopes  and  sheep  (Liston 
and  Soparkar  1924)  etc.  Reports  of  parasitic 
infestations  in  Bovidae  are  scanty  (Pande  et 
al.  1970,  Patnaik  and  Acharjyo  1970,  Sen 
Gupta  1974). 

This  paper  describes  the  causes  of  mortality 
among  various  species  of  Bovidae  family  en- 


190 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


countered  at  Zoological  Parks,  National  Parks, 
Sanctuaries  and  reserve  forests  in  different 
parts  of  the  country. 

Materials  and  Methods 

The  information  in  respect  of  mortality  re- 
corded during  three  years  (1975-1977)  in 
various  species  of  Bovidae  family  was  obtain- 
ed from  thirteen  zoological  parks  (Bhilai, 
Bombay,  Darjeeling,  Delhi,  Hyderabad,  Juna- 
garh,  Kanpur,  Mysore,  Pune,  Renuka  (HP), 
Shillong,  Tutikandi  (HP),  and  Visakhapat- 
nam,  one  National  Park  and  reserve  forests 
in  two  States  (West  Bengal  and  Jammu  & 
Kashmir). 

A total  of  220  deaths  were  recorded  in 
various  species  of  animals  which  included  Gaur 
( Bos  gaurus — 17  cases);  Yak  (Bos  grunniens 
— 1);  Gnu  (Connochaetini  sp. — 1);  Black-buck 
(Antilope  cervicapra — 86);  Chousingha  (Tetra- 
cerus  quadricornis — 27);  Nilgai  (Boselaphus 
tragocamelus — 25);  Eland  ( Taurotragus  oryx 
— 10);  Chinkara  ( Gazella  gazella — 21);  Goite- 
red  gazelle  (Gazella  subgutturosa — 2),  and 
Goral  Nemorhaedus  goral — 18). 

Out  of  these  220  deaths,  8 were  recorded 
in  free  living  state  and  remaining  212  in 
captivity. 

In  addition,  39  cases  of  deaths  were  record- 
ed in  wild  goats  and  2 in  wild  sheep.  How- 
ever, the  exact  taxonomic  nomenclature  of 
these  members  of  sub-family  Caprinae  could 
not  be  determined. 

Results  and  Discussion 

The  recorded  causes  of  deaths  have  been 
classified  into  specific  diseases,  non  specific 
disease  conditions  and  diseases  due  to  un- 
determined etiology.  As  shown  in  Table  1, 
Rinderpest  was  recorded  as  a major  cause  of 


death  in  gaur  (B.  gaurus)  accounting  for  9 
out  of  17  deaths  in  this  species.  Eight  cases 
were  recorded  at  the  Hyderabad  Zoo  and  one 
at  the  Mysore  Zoo.  During  the  rinderpest  out- 
break at  Nehru  Zoological  Park,  Hyderabad 
in  the  months  of  January-February,  1979,  all 
the  six  animals  kept  in  one  enclosure  died. 
No  other  zoo  animal  was  affected.  Cases  of 
Rinderpest  had  been  recorded  among  pigs  in 
a village  close  to  the  zoo,  about  ten  days 
before  the  onset  of  disease  in  gaurs.  The  exact 
source  and  method  of  transmission  of  disease 
could  not  be  detected. 

Among  220  deaths  pertaining  to  11  species 
of  animals,  tuberculosis  was  recorded  only  in 
Blackbuck  ( Antilope  cervicapra).  Three  cases 
were  recorded  at  Bombay  Zoological  Garden 
and  two  at  Delhi  Zoological  Park.  At  both 
the  places,  tuberculosis  was  diagnosed  also  in 
spotted  deer  and  monkeys.  It  would  appear 
that  among  the  members  of  Bovidae  family. 
Black  bucks  are  most  susceptible  to  tuber- 
culosis. 

An  isolated  case  of  Anthrax  was  recorded 
in  Chinkara  (G.  gazella)  at  Kanpur  Zoo.  No 
other  animal  was  reported  to  be  affected. 
Similarly  a case  of  Black  Quarter  was  record- 
ed at  Shillong  Zoo  in  Blackbuck. 

Deaths  due  to  parasitic  diseases  were  re- 
corded in  14  cases.  The  cases  of  babesiosis 
were  recorded  in  one  gaur  and  one  Black 
buck  at  Bhilai  Zoo  and  a Chinkara  at  Kanpur 
Zoo.  Trypanosomiasis  in  one  Nilgai  was  re- 
corded at  Kanpur  Zoo.  At  the  Nehru  Zoolo- 
gical Park,  Hyderabad,  one  Chinkara  died  due 
to  Coccidiosis.  Helminthic  infestations  were 
responsible  for  six  deaths  in  four  species 
(Yak — 1,  Blackbuck— 2,  Chousingha — 2,  and 
Goral — 1)  whereas  ectoparasites  (unspecified) 
accounted  for  3 deaths  in  goitered  gazelle. 

A male  wild  gaur  of  about  8 years  age  died 
of  horn  cancer  in  the  reserve  forest  of  Jal- 


191 


Recorded  causes  of  deaths  in  members  of  bovidae  family 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


13  © 

© T> 
X n 
O cd 

o 00 


•S  2 

XI  cd 

Q 


a oj 

o ^ 

6 .s 

rr\ 


'o  M 
a o 

« M 


. o 
oo  55 


<N  O -H  00 
(N 


Tf  r-  IT,  O ^ 

Tf  CO 


I I 


I I I 


- S I 

O cd  I 

H 


- I I I!  I I I 


f*1  o 

w 


I I I I I I “ I I III" 


I I lN  I 


ls#s«oi  |M  is 


I II  5 I 


I I I 


VO  vr> 


h N N 


£ 

I ^ & 


I ^ I N I I I 


£• 

I SRI  I 


^ N C C4  *-h  1 
o o I 


x 53  O' 

I S'0*0  5 


H N h N N 

n 


I I 


- a , 

o £ I 


I I 


I I I I I I I I I I I I 


ON  I S-° 

I O a 
PQ 


I N l I I I I l I '*■  I 


s 1 N 


V 


& 


Si 

H 


cd  cd 

1 .8 

Pi  X 


© © 
cd  ,© 

33 


cd  S 


X 
© 

a .ss  _ 

H cd  © 
Cu 


Is 


« «.  ~ 
fl2»3 
cd  0 


C cd 

||  &! 

BfcOiiO  IqSzRiS'll 


3 © 


e cd  .®r  s x >»  .3 


H N « 


IO  h>  00  ff\ 


O H N to  rj-  V)  \D 


192 


Abbreviations  used: — Bab  = Babesiosis;  Cocci  = Coccidiosis;  Tryp  - Tyrpanosomiasis;  Taen  = Taeniasis;  Fasc  = Fascioliasis; 
Ect  = Ectoparasite;  RW  = Roundworm;  B.Q.  = Black  Quarter. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


paiguri.  A second  case  of  Horn  cancer  was 
recorded  in  a 22  year  old  male  Gnu  at  Bom- 
bay Zoological  Gardens. 

The  deaths  due  to  pneumonia,  gastroenteri- 
tis, anemia  and  general  debility  were  record- 
ed in  13.6  per  cent,  9.1  per  cent  and  15.4  per 
cent  of  the  total  deaths  respectively.  These 
disease  conditions  are,  to  a great  extent,  due 
to  faulty  management  or  malnutrition  and 
hence  can  be  minimised  or  prevented  by  im- 
proving the  management  practices. 

Deaths  due  to  injuries  were  recorded  in  20 
per  cent  of  the  total  cases.  In  the  majority  of 
cases,  injuries  were  inflicted  during  intra  or 
inter  species  fighting,  accidents,  or  at  times, 
during  capture  operations  for  treatment  and 
other  managemental  purposes.  As  such,  the 
losses  due  to  trauma  can  be  prevented  by  using 
chemical  transquillizers  and  by  improving 
management  practices  etc. 

Scientist,  S — 2, 

Indian  Veterinary  Research  Institute, 
Hebbal,  Bangalore-  560  024. 


Ali,  S.  (1953):  Hyderabad  State  pp.  82-89,  Re- 
produced by  Burton,  R.W.  (1953) : in  ‘‘The  Pre- 
servation of  Wildlife  in  India.’’ 

Burton,  R.  W.  (1953):  The  Preservation  of 
Wildlife  in  India — a compilation.  Bangalore  Press. 

pp.  11,  88,  110. 

Gupta,  K.  C.  S.  and  Verma,  N.  S.  (1949): 
Rinderpest  in  wild  ruminants.  Indian  J.  Vet.  Sci.  19: 
219-24. 

Hallen,  J.  H.  B.,  Mcleod,  K.,  Charles,  J.  G., 
Kerr,  H.  C.  and  Jan,  M.  M.  A.  (1871):  Report  of 
Indian  Cattle  Plague  Commissioner.  Govt.  Print. 
Calcutta. 

Liston,  W.  G.,  and  Soparkar,  M.  B.  (1924) : 
Bovine  tuberculosis  in  India,  an  outbreak  of  tuber- 
culosis among  animals  in  the  Bombay  Zoological 
Gardens.  Indian  J.  Med.  Res.  2:  671-80. 


The  disease  conditions  responsible  for  mor- 
tality in  wild  goats  were  Pneumonia  (6  cases), 
gastroenteritis  (10),  general  debility  and  anae- 
mia (6),  injury  (5),  hepatitis  (1),  and  un- 
determined causes  (11).  The  recorded  causes 
of  mortality  in  two  wild  sheep  were  undeter- 
mined etiology  (1),  enteritis  (1). 

Acknowledgemen  ts 

We  are  thankful  to  Dr.  C.  M.  Singh,  Direc- 
tor, Indian  Veterinary  Research  Institute,  Izat- 
nagar  for  providing  facilities  and  encourage- 
ment for  undertaking  the  survey.  The  Chief 
Conservators  of  Forests,  Chief  Wildlife 
Wardens,  of  various  States,  Directors /Super- 
intendents/Veterinarians  of  various  Zoological 
Parks,  National  Parks  and  Sanctuaries  arrang- 
ed to  supply  the  information  concerning  the 
Survey  for  which  we  express  our  thanks  to 
all  of  them. 

B.  S.  RATHORE 


S.  S.  KHERA 


Pande,  B.  P.,  Biiatia,  B.  B.,  Chauhan,  P.  P.  S., 
and  Garg,  R.  K.  (1970):  Species  composition  of 
Coccidia  of  some  of  the  mammals  and  birds  at  the 
Zoological  Gardens,  Lucknow  (Uttar  Pradesh). 
Indian  J.  Anim.  Sci.  40:  154-166. 

Patnaik,  M.  M.  and  Acharjyo,  L.  N.  (1970): 
Notes  on  the  helminth  parasites  of  vertebrates  in 
Baranga  Zoo  (Orissa).  Indian  Vet.  J.  47:  723-730. 

Peacock,  E.  (1933) : A game  book  for  Burma 
and  adjoining  territories.  London.  Cited  by  Schaller 
1967.  p.  181. 

Schaller,  G.  B.  (1967) : The  deer  and  tiger  — 
A study  of  wildlife  in  India.  Univ.  of  Chicago  Press, 
Chicago,  pp.  54-56,  108-110,  181-182. 

Sen  Gupta,  M.  R.  (1974) : A preliminary  report 
on  diseases  and  parasites  of  zoo  animals,  birds  and 
reptiles.  Indian  J.  Anim.  Helth.  13:  15-24. 

193 


Scientist,  S — 3,  Div.  of  Epidemiology, 

Indian  Veterinary  Research  Institute, 

IZATNAGAR,  U.P., 

April  16,  1981. 

References 


13 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


9.  THE  FLAMINGOS  OF  SAMBHAR  LAKE 


Sambhar  lake  is  the  largest  inland  alkaline, 
saline  lake  in  India.  It  lies  in  a shallow  de- 
pression to  the  east  of  the  Aravalli  hills  in 
Central  Rajasthan)  (27°58'N,  75°55'E)  and  is 
approximately  190  sq.  km  in  area.  On  the 
eastern  side  of  the  lake  a big  reservoir  (41.72 
sq.  km),  salt  pans  and  crystalisers  are  present 
which  were  used  for  the  manufacturing  of  salt. 
These  water  bodies  have  experienced  severe 
floods  during  the  last  decade  (1971,  1974, 
1975,  1976  and  1977).  As  a consequence  of 
these  floods  the  salinity  has  reduced  eleven 
times  to  what  has  been  previously  reported 
by  Baid  (1968,  Max.  164%o).  This  drastic 
change  in  salinity  consequently  affected  the 
faunal  and  floral  composition  of  the  lake 
(Alam  1980). 

Two  species  of  flamingos  Phoenicopterus 
antiquorum  and  Phoeniconaias  minor  have 
been  reported  from  Sambhar  lake.  Previously 
the  flamingos  were  casual  visitors  (Aggarwal 
1951,  Baid  1968)  to  the  lake.  They  came  to 
the  lake  soon  after  the  annual  rainfall  and 
lived  upon  the  insect  life  and  algae  which 
flourished  in  the  lake  while  the  density  of  the 
brine  remained  low.  They  emigrated  as  soon 
as  the  specific  gravity  of  the  lake  brine  in- 
creased and  all  insects  and  vegetables  orga- 
nisms were  destroyed  by  the  rising  density 
of  the  brine  (Aggarwal  1951).  However,  during 
the  present  study  (July  1977 — June  1978)  it 
was  found  that  flamingos  (including  the  larger 
Phoenicopterus  roseus)  have  become  perma- 
nently resident  but  confined  only  to  the  re- 
servoir where  one  could  see  thousands  appear- 
ing like  pink  and  white  clouds  as  they  rise  in 
flight.  This  change  in  habits  of  the  Sambhar 
flamingos  might  be  due  to  the  availability  in 
the  reservoir  throughout  the  year  of  blue-green 
algae  ( Spirulina  spp.)  which  is  the  principal 
food  of  the  lesser  flamingo  (Jenkin  1957). 

194 


CD 

O 

o 

04 

a 

cj 

sn 

q 

Os 

CO 

00 

3 

04 

00 

cd 

Os 

o 

a 

04 

r- 

04 

OS 

& 

§ 

o 

OS 

Os 

Os 

04 

2 

2 

© 

oi 

VO 

o 

cd 

00 

C-H 

04 

Ih 

O 

o 

oo 

vo 

a. < 

co 

O' 

CO 

CO 

•z 

< 

OO 

vd 

of 

oo 

04 

»— ! 

04 

00 

T“l 

Vh 

o 

o 

vo 

O' 

| 

cd 

o 

*0 

oo 

CO 

00 

s 

of 

cd 

od 

o-' 

Ov 

ol 

o4 

00 

04 

8 

O 

CO 

of 

cO 

CO 

CO 

r- 

CO 

Ph 

vd 

© 

Os 

00 

Os 

04 

04 

qj 

O 

o 

04 

Os 

l 

cd 

00 

oo 

sq 

q 

vo 

VO 

vd 

Of 

•O 

vo 

vo 

Os 

vo 

u 

4) 

Q 


> 

o 

£ 


o 

O 


I 


I 


o 

o 

Of 

CO 

Os 

vo 

o- 

r- 

Of 

oo 

rd 

Of 

Os 

04 

o 

CO 

oo 

o4 

© 

o 

O' 

O 

vo 

VO 

vo 

00 

oo 

Os 

of 

8 

t—4 

d 

rd 

00 

CO 

vo 

00 

of 

o 

04 

CO 

O' 

VO 

CO 

CO 

04 

04 

ON 

cd 

o 

cd 

Of 

04 

o 

CO 

O' 

Os 

-—i 

T*H 

00 

o 

vo 

as 

04 

o 

04 

00 

q 

VO 

rd 

d 

04 

o 

of 

O' 

vo 

04 

CO 

Of 

00 

C"» 

vo 

vo 

Of 

O' 

CO 

VO 

vd 

d 

O'" 

vo* 

O'" 

Os 

CO 

00 

00 

VO 

o4 

Of 

r- 

CO 

oo 

Os 

00 

Of 

O 

o 

CO 

00 

vd 

04 

d 

Os 

vd 

i 

of 

OS 

CO 

Pi 

Hi 

Pi 

g 

o 

0 

cd 

i 

0> 

o 

Po 

cd 

43 

<3 

^ & 
3 

S' 

a* 

d 

•S 

a 

o o ^ C 
H 0-i  x D 

s 

’5, 

MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


The  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  phyto- 
planktonic  composition  between  the  lake  and 
its  reservoir  might  be  responsible  for  the  diffe- 
rence in  the  presence  of  these  birds.  The 
reservoir  harboured  the  blue  green-algae 
(Cyanophyceae)  comparatively  higher  in  per- 
centage and  dominating  over  other  algae  in 
the  most  of  the  observations  (Table  1).  The 
percentage  of  Spirulina  spp.  in  the  total  phyto- 
plankton was  always  found  higher  than  50% 
except  in  the  month  of  September  and  the 
reservoir,  whereas  in  the  lake  it  was  found 
mostly  lower  in  percentage  and  sometimes 
totally  absent  (Table  1).  The  trophic  relation- 
ship between  Spirulina  spp.  and  flamingos  has 
also  been  reported  by  Hecky  and  Kilham 
(1973)  and  Melack  and  Kilham  (1974)  in  the 
alkaline,  saline  lakes  of  East  Africa  (Nakura 

Department  of  Zoology, 

University  of  Jodhpur, 

Jodhpur-342  001,  India, 

May  14,  1981. 


and  Elmenteita  of  Kenya;  Reshitani  and  Big 
Momela  of  Tanzania). 

Besides  the  Spirulina  (phytoplankton),  zoo- 
plankton like  copepods  ( Cyclops  spp.),  Clado- 
cera  ( Moina  sp.).  Rotifers  ( Brachionus  sp.) 
and  Chironomus  spp.  larvae  were  also  found 
in  abundance  both  in  the  lake  and  the  reser- 
voir. However,  the  Chironomus  spp.  on  which 
these  birds  also  feed  (Jenkin  1957)  were 
found  many  times  more  in  the  lake  than  in 
the  reservoir  (Alam  1980).  But  the  absence 
of  the  flamingos  in  the  lake  might  be  due  to 
the  availability  of  Chironomus  spp.  (bottom 
dwellers)  only  in  the  deep  water  bottom. 

The  author  is  thankful  to  Dr.  S.  C.  Bhar- 
gava  for  guidance  and  to  Prof.  S.  D.  Misra  for 
providing  the  laboratory  facilities. 

MOHD.  ALAM 


References 


Agarwal,  S.  C.  (1951):  The  Sambhar  lake  salt 
resource.  Government  of  India  Publication,  New 
Delhi. 

Alam,  M.  (1980) : Limnological  studies  of  Sam- 
bhar Salt  lake  and  its  reservoir.  Ph.D.  Thesis, 
University  of  Jodhpur,  Jodhpur. 

Baid,  I.  C.  (1968):  The  arthropod  fauna  of  Sam- 
bhar salt  lake,  Rajasthan,  India.  Oikos  19:  292-303. 

Hecky,  R.  E.  and  Kilham,  P.  (1973) : Diatoms 


in  alkaline,  Saline  Lakes.  Ecology  and  Geochemical 
Implication.  Limnol.  Oceanogr.,  18:  53-71. 

Jenkin,  P.  M.  (1957):  The  filter-feeding  and 
food  of  Flamingos  (Phoenicopteri) . Phil.  Trans.  R. 
Soc.  Lond.  Ser.  B.  240:  401-493. 

Melack,  J.  M.  and  Kilham,  P.  (1974) : Photo- 
synthetic rates  of  Phytoplankton  in  East  African 
alkaline,  saline  lakes.  Limnol.  Oceanogr.,  19:  743- 
755. 


10.  BREEDING  OF  BUSTARDS  — AN  OBSERVATION 
IN  AUSTRALIA 


In  our  country,  the  bustards  in  general  and 
the  Great  Indian  bustard  in  particular  have 
been  very  much  in  the  news  of  late,  especially 
with  falconry  crossing  international  borders 
threatening  the  very  existance  of  these  species. 


At  one  time  the  Great  Indian  bustard  Chorio- 
tis  nigriceps  was  well  distributed  over  the 
country  spread  over  the  states  of  Rajasthan, 
Gujarat,  Maharashtra,  Madhya  Pradesh  and 
Karnataka  but  is  now  restricted  in  numbers. 


195 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


having  been  shot  indiscriminately  by  trigger 
happy  sportsmen. 

The  Indian  Board  for  Wildlife,  concerned 
with  the  species  being  threatened  with  extin- 
ction, have  time  & again  recommended  crea- 
tion of  sanctuaries  to  conserve  these  species 
and  also  to  take  up  captive  breeding.  While 
the  Government  of  Karnataka  have  created  a 
sanctuary  for  the  blackbuck  and  the  Great 
Indian  bustard  at  Ranibennur,  Maharashtra 
& Madhya  Pradesh  are  in  the  process  of  noti- 
fying areas  for  conserving  & breeding  the 
Great  Indian  bustard  and  training  officials  for 
the  purpose. 

While  these  attempts  are  afoot,  given  below 
are  some  observations  made  and  information 
collected  by  the  author  on  breeding  the  Austra- 
lian bustard  at  the  Serendip  Wildlife  Research 
Station,  Victoria,  Australia,  while  attending 
the  National  Parks  & Reserves  Planning  & 
Management  Course  from  February  to  May 
1978,  which  could  be  considered  for  adoption 
for  the  breeding  of  the  Great  Indian  bustard 
in  our  country. 

The  Australian  bustard  — Ardeotis  australis 
is  no  better  off  than  its  Indian  counterpart. 
Known  as  the  ‘Plains  turkey’,  once  a favourite 
game  bird,  this  bustard  has  been  made  rare  or 
even  wiped  out  in  places  during  the  last  two 
centuries.  Concerned  at  the  diminishing  num- 
bers, the  Victoria  Fisheries  & Wildlife  depart- 
ment finally  captured  & established  in  1966, 
24  birds  in  a cleverly  designed  complex  of 
eight  one-acre  pens  at  Serendip.  These  pens 
are  octagonal  in  shape  (sketch  enclosed)  and 
radiate  like  segments  of  an  orange  with  an 
observation  tower  & feeding  & catching  enclo- 
sure at  the  centre.  In  each  pen  a large  male 
bustard  is  isolated,  but  the  much  smaller 
females  can  move  through  the  whole  area  by 
means  of  small  gates  in  the  fence  which  only 
permits  the  smaller  sized  females  to  pass 


through.  The  enclosures  should  have  sufficient 
cover,  e.g.  high  grass  or  low  shrubs  where  birds 
can  shelter  from  wind  or  human  disturbance 
and  can  acclamatise  themselves  to  the  new 
surroundings.  This  would  mean  planting  of 
the  habitat  before  the  desired  effect  was 
achieved.  Birds  are  pinioned  if  open  enclosures 
are  used. 

Breeding  behaviour : 

Males  reach  sexual  maturity  between  5-7 
years  & the  first  female  to  lay  eggs  was  at 
the  age  of  6.  Males  stand  & strut  during  dis- 
play with  the  gular  pouch  being  inflated  and 
the  tail  reversed  over  the  back.  The  display 
occurs  between  June  & November  in  Victoria 
where  seasonal  conditions  are  stable.  Females 
are  quite  compatible  between  themselves  and 
with  the  males.  Several  females  can  nest  in 
one  enclosure  successfully  and  usually  lay  close 
to  the  same  location  each  year.  Eggs  are  taken 
away  as  soon  as  the  clutch  of  one  or  two  is 
completed,  for  artificial  incubation.  Attempts 
at  allowing  females  to  hatch  their  own  eggs 
have  been  unsuccessful. 

Rearing : 

1-5  days'.  For  the  first  five  days  after  hatch- 
ing the  young  chicks  are  kept  in  a box  with 
a number  of  partitioned  sections  of  dimen- 
sions 30  cm  W x 58  cm  L x 27  cm  H.  Heating 
is  done  by  clear  carbon  heat  lamp  of  240  W x 
115W,  to  give  floor  level  heat  of  37.5°C.  The 
chicks  are  fed  powdered  turkey  started  crum- 
bles 24%  protein,  fresh  liver  (cut  in  very 
small  pieces)  & meal  worms  (to  develop  peck- 
ing). Chicks  are  fed  with  tweezers  4-6  times 
a day.  A clean  feather  duster  is  hung  in  the 
box  at  the  warm  end  and  the  chick  soon  learns 
to  shelter  under  it.  Bustard  chicks  are  reared 
in  open  pens,  until  twenty-eight  days  old. 

On  the  6th  day  the  chicks  are  placed  in  a 


196 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


circular  pen  30  cm  H x 1 .5  m in  diameter. 
A thick  layer  of  sand  is  used  on  the  floor. 
Young  chicks  are  sometimes  agressive  & better 
separated  by  glass  between  pens. 

After  the  11th  day  the  chicks  are  moved 
to  a large  indoor  enclosure  1.5mWx3mL 
x 60  cm  high  with  sand  floor.  They  are  more 
compatible  as  they  grow  older,  but  should  be 
watched  closely  when  put  together  in  a small 
area. 

30  day  old  chicks  are  shifted  to  enclosures 
10'W  x 30'L  with  the  first  10'  covered  in. 
Clover  & lucerne  are  grown  in  the  enclosures. 
When  the  chicks  are  four  months  old  they  are 

Divisional  Forest  Officer, 

Working  Plans  Division, 

584  De wan’s  Road, 

Mysore-  570  004, 

June  22,  1979. 


transferred  to  open  enclosures  with  plently  of 
trees  & shrubs. 

Diseases’.  There  have  been  no  problem  with 
diseases  as  the  species  are  very  hardy.  The 
main  losses  are  due  to  fractures  of  the  wings 
& legs  especially  when  rearing  wild  caught 
chicks,  due  to  a combination  of  insufficient 
calcium  in  the  diet  causing  bone  deterioration 
and  poor  management  regarding  handling 
them. 

At  the  time  of  my  visit,  Serendip  had  eight 
adult  males,  six  adult  females  twelve  years  & 
over.  In  addition  there  are  seven  hand  reared 
juveniles,  two  males  & five  females. 

M.  K.  APPAYYA 


11.  FEEDING  HABITS  OF  COPPERSMITH  MEG AL AIM A 
HAEMACEPHALA  (MULLER) 


The  Coppersmith,  Megalaima  haemacephala 
is  a frugivorous  bird.  Recently  a Coppersmith 
( Megalaima  haemacephala ) was  caught  in  one 
of  the  mulberry  fields  in  the  campus  of  the 
Tamil  Nadu  Agricultural  University,  Coimba- 
tore. The  bird  was  kept  in  a cage  and  fed 
with  fruits  of  mulberry,  grapes,  and  Ficus 
bengalensis,  thrice  daily  in  the  morning,  after- 
noon and  evening  and  the  quantity  of  the 
fruits  consumed  each  time  was  recorded.  The 
bird  was  fed  with  mulberry  for  six  weeks 
whereas  Ficus  bengalensis  and  grapes  were 
restricted  to  one  week  only.  The  data  gathered 
are  furnished  in  the  Table  1.  The  feeding 
studies  reveal  that  the  bird  consumed  48.64 


Table  1 


Types  of 
Food 

No.  of 
weeks 

Mean  quantity 
of  berries  con- 
sumed in  gms  / 
day 

Energy* 

(kilo 

joules) 

Mulberry 

I 

48.64 

100 

II 

52.54 

108 

III 

66.30 

136 

IV 

75.36 

155 

V 

74.25 

152 

VI 

75.77 

155 

Ficus 

I 

54.06 

163 

Grapes 

I 

35.35 

124 

* Adopted  from  Gopalan  et  at.  (1971). 
1 calorie  = 4.184  joule. 


197 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


to  75.77,  54.06,  35.35 g of  mulberry,  ficus  and 
grapes  respectively.  Lack  (1954)  pointed  out 
that  the  food  requirement  of  birds  may  be 
stated  in  calories  rather  than  grammes  since 
the  quantity  of  food  varies  with  the  nutritive 
value.  Hartley  (1964)  reported  that  berry 
eating  thrushes  commonly  take  three  full  meals 
a day.  According  to  Kear  (1972)  small  species 
consume  more  in  proportion  to  their  size  than 
large  ones.  The  present  observations  indicate 

Tamil  Nadu  Agricultural 
University, 

Coimbatore-  641  003, 

December  20,  1980. 


that  the  Coppersmith  weighing  30.0  g can  con- 
sume berris  equivalent  to  1.6  to  2.6,  1.8  and 
1 . 1 times  of  its  own  body  weight  and  feed 
steadily  during  the  day.  It  would  be  necessary 
to  try  this  experiment  with  more  than  one 
individual  before  making  further  conclusions. 

The  energy  requirements  of  the  bird  in 
terms  of  kilojoules  ranged  from  100  to  163  per 
day. 

T.  S.  MUTHUKRISHNAN 
RAJESWARI  SUNDARABABU 


References 


Gopalan,  C.,  Ramasastri,  B.  V.,  and  Bala- 
subramanian,  S.  C.  (1971) : Nutritive  value  of 
Indian  food.  National  Institute  of  Nutrition  Publi- 
cation, Hyderabad.  204  pp. 

Hartley,  P.  H.  T.  (1964):  ‘Feeding  habits'  by 
Thompson,  A.  L.  (ed.).  A new  Dictionary  of  birds. 


London. 

Kear,  Janet  (1972) : Feeding  habits  of  birds. 
International  Encyclopaedia  of  Food  and  Nutrition, 
18:  471-503. 

Lack,  D.  (1954):  The  Natural  Regulation  of  Ani- 
mal numbers.  Oxford. 


12.  PERICROCOTUS  FLAMMEUS  (FORSTER)  IN  KUTCH  AND 
SOME  GENERAL  COMMENTS 


December  25,  1980  I saw  a female  scarlet 
mini  vet  in  my  garden  here  (in  Bhuj,  and  it  is 
still  there  till  today).  This  is  the  first  time  this 
species  has  been  seen  in  this  area. 

Taken  by  itself,  this  may  be  considered  as  a 
rare,  or  accidental  occurrence.  However  if  one 
were  to  take  the  appearance  of  Pericrocotus 
flammeus  in  Kutch  together  with  that  of  other 
birds  like  the  green  pigeon  (seen  on  30th  and 
collected  on  31st  Jan.,  1980  by  M.  K.  Han- 
vantsinghji  at  Mata-no-Mad,  about  90  km. 

Jubilee  Ground, 

Bhuj,  Kutch, 

February  3,  1981. 


west  of  Bhuj),  the  goldenbacked  woodpecker 
(already  reported  by  me)  and  several  other 
species  which  have  been  recorded  for  the  first 
time  only  in  the  last  decade  or  so,  the  ques- 
tion would  arise  as  to  whether  some  birds  have 
extended  their  known  ranges.  It  could  very 
possibly  be  so  owing  to  favourable  changes 
having  taken  place  in  the  ecology  of  some 
areas  through  irrigation  etc.  This  can  only  be 
confirmed  through  careful  and  meticulous 
monitoring  by  resident  birdwatchers  in  Kutch. 

M.  K.  HIMMATSINHJI 


198 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


13.  ON  THE  VALIDITY  OF  TURDOIDES  CAUDATUS  ECLIPES 

(HUME) 


In  1877,  Hume  ( Stray  Feathers  5,  p.  337) 
described  a new  species  of  Babbler  from  north- 
western India  as  Chatorhea  (now  Turdoides ) 
eclipes  “Like  C.  caudata,  but  much  larger, 
the  upper  surface  darker  and  more  strongly 
striated,  tail  more  strongly  banded,  feathers  of 
breast  and  sides  dark  shafted”.  He  also  refer- 
red to  its  being  as  large  as  huttoni  (Blyth,  type 
Kandahar,  Afghanistan)  from  Khelat  and 
Persia,  but  much  darker  and  warmer  colour- 
ed than  huttoni  which  is  paler  and  greyer,  and 
said  the  ear-coverts  were  darker  than  in 
caudatus  in  India. 

Oates  1889,  Fauna  1,  p.  106,  included  both 
huttoni  and  eclipes  as  synonyms  of  caudata. 
Baker  1922,  Fauna  1,  pp.  198/9,  accepted 
huttoni  from  Afghanistan,  Baluchistan  and  S.E. 
Persia,  as  also  a specimen  from  “the  Jay  River 
Hills”  in  Sind  as  very  typical,  but  said  he  could 
not  separate  eclipes.  Later,  1926,  Ticehurst 
JBNHS  31,  p.  491,  corrected  his  earlier 
(Ibis  1922,  p.  540)  statement  that  eclipes  was 
the  same  as  nominate  caudata.  On  p.  694  of 
the  same  Journal  he  re-confirms  its  distinct- 
ness as  an  interesting  form  from  Rawalpindi, 
Peshawar  (type  locality),  Campbellpur  (south 
to  Kohat?).  In  Indian  Handbook  (1971)  6, 
p.  215,  it  is  again  synonymised  with  caudatus, 
while  huttoni  is  accepted  in  West  Pakistan. 

While  cataloguing  the  Bombay  collection  it 
was  evident  that  the  birds  from  the  north- 
west were  strikingly  different  from  caudata  and 
the  characters  referred  to  in  the  original  des- 
cription were  very  constant  and  perhaps  justi- 
fied Hume’s  statement  that  it  “was  far  more 
entitled  to  specific  (now  subspecific)  distinc- 
tion than  C.  huttoni  Blyth. 

The  bars  on  the  tail  are  visible  in  some 
caudatus,  but  not  in  any  of  the  larger  races, 


T'J"  v-> 


> O > oo 

a a 2 23 

s n i a d 


m 


i 


> > 

cS  «J  © 2 
m o 

IN  — 1 


£ ss 


CN 

O 


• >n 

VO  <n 

CN 


to 

3 £ 


CA 

g *0  £ 


£ 2}  > S 


c3 


in  vo  _ oo 

^ OO  " 8 ^ 
CN  <? 


<N  *0 
id 

CN  ^ 


in 

id 

<N 


3 8 


*0  in 

id  X:  ^ 

<N  0\ 


CN 


CN 


GQ 


. > 

OO  O N 

5 > 2 S a 

3 vo  2 

^ ^ ^ 2 2 

™ ~ ^ ^ 

o 


^2^co 
. 6 — ; 

> CN  CN 

> 03  - ~ 
^ in  3 ^ 
^ Ch  ^ 
O V . 

r,’  S rJ 

OO  00  O CN 


<31  .J 

1 00 

> m . N- 
oo  > Oi 

Z vb  * * 

Sf'-oo 

r-»  n- 

00  Of 


S S 


_ OO 

a rl 

S4 


/ — \ 
t'-' 

/— N 

O 

CN 

in 

v — ' 

m 

§ 

a 

S a 

°*  ^ as 

« g 3 

"C 

rvL  O CS 

199 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


huttoni  and  salvadori  (De  Filippi,  Shiraz, 
Fars)  from  the  north  and  west. 

The  11  (5  c?  c?  5 9 ? lo?)  available  from 
Peshawar  (2),  Rawalpindi  (5),  Campbellpur 
(1),  Jholar,  Kala  Chitta  Hills,  Salt  Range  (1), 
South  Waziristan  (1)  and  Damdil,  Waziristan 
(1)  may  be  said  to  be  of  this  form,  the  eastern 
distributional  limit  being  the  Jhelum  and  not 
the  Indus. 

75,  Abdul  Rehman  Street, 

Bombay-400  003. 

Research  Assistant, 

Bombay  Natural  History  Society, 

Shahid  Bhagat  Singh  Road, 

Bombay-400  023, 

November  13,  1981. 


One  of  us  (H.A.)  has  a note  to  the  effect 
that  Gaston  (1975)  said  that  the  birds  in  the 
Salt  Range  were  larger  than  those  in  Delhi, 
but  the  source  cannot  be  traced.  Eclipes  is 
accepted  in  Peters  Checklist  vol.  X,  p.  333 
(1964). 

The  evidence  appears  to  be  sufficient  to  esta- 
blish the  validity  of  the  race  eclipes. 

HUMAYUN  ABDUL ALI 
ERIC  D’CUNHA 


14.  DESTRUCTION  OF  PEARL  MILLET  NURSERY  BY 
SPARROWS  PASSER  DOMESTICUS  (LINNAEUS)  AND 
ITS  AVOIDANCE 


Damage  due  to  bird  pests  is  always  taken 
for  granted  and  is  not  paid  due  attention. 
Birds  cause  losses  to  almost  all  the  millet 
crops  throughout  the  cultivation  range  and  the 
damage  is  severe  in  some  places  (Jotwani  et 
al.  1967).  They  deserve  attention  in  arid  areas 
where  the  damage  commences  from  sowing 
stage  and  needs  protection  with  suitable  pes- 
ticide treatment  (Bhatnagar  1976). 

Sparrows,  hitherto  considered  as  the  major 
pest  problem  in  this  region  for  ripening  fields 
of  pearl  millet,  sorghum,  sunflower  and  paddy 
etc.,  are  now  causing  concern  by  widespread 
destruction  of  pearl  millet  crop  at  the  nursery 
stage.  It  was  observed  this  year  in  Kharif  1980, 
that  the  pearl  millet  experimental  downy 
mildew  sick  plot  nursery  of  about  one  acre 
at  the  College  Farm  of  Andhra  Pradesh  Agri- 


cultural University,  Rajendranagar,  Hyderabad, 
was  damaged  to  an  extent  of  100  per  cent.  The 
birds  damage  the  crop  before  there  is  evidence 
for  the  need  to  control.  The  present  investi- 
gation deals  with  the  attack  and  nature  of 
damage  caused  by  sparrows,  and  the  effective 
method  employed  for  its  avoidance. 

Sparrows  visit  the  field  in  small  or  large 
congregations  or  even  singly  and  feed  on  the 
seed  grains.  Their  colour  being  similar  to  that 
of  soil,  they  are  not  noticed. 

Sparrows  expose  with  their  beaks  pre-germi- 
nated  and  germinated  seeds  and  pull  out  the 
just  sprouted  seedlings  before  they  establish 
and  also  feed  on  the  individual  ripening  grains. 
The  seedlings  which  escape  and  reach  vegeta- 
tive phase  have  their  tiny  stems  stripped  off 
by  the  sparrows,  and  in  course  of  time  wither 


200 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


and  die.  Damage  to  the  whole  nursery  is  enor- 
mous and  rapid. 

Application  of  10  per  cent  BHC-dust  @ 12.5 
kg. /ha  applied  in  a line  along  the  pearl  millet 
rows  in  combination  with  careful  watch  and 
scaring  with  sounds  made  by  the  beating  of 
empty  drums  immediately  after  sowing  have 
provided  significant  protection  against  sparrows 

All  India  Coordinated  Millet 
Improvement  Project, 

A.  P.  Agricultural  University, 
Agricultural  Research  Institute, 

RAJ  ENDRAN  AGAR, 

Hyderabad-  500  030, 

June  2,  1981. 


and  the  seeds  germinated  well  and  grew  with- 
out any  loss. 

Ack  nowledge  m e n ts 

We  are  thankful  to  Mr.  T.  G.  Manmohan 
Singh,  Junior  Zoologist  of  A.P.A.U.,  Hydera- 
bad for  the  cooperation  and  encouragement. 

H.  A.  K.  SARWAR 
K.  N.  MURTY 


References 

Bhatnagar,  R.  K.  (1976):  Significance  of  bird 
management  and  control.  Pesticide  Annual : pp.  74-83. 

Jotwani,  M.  G.,  Beri,  Y.  P.  and  Verma,  K.  K. 
(1969) : A note  on  bird  damage  in  millets.  The 
Allahabad  Farmer  43  (1)  : 43-44. 


15.  BIRD  DAMAGE  IN  MAIZE 


Introduction 

The  Roseringed  Parakeet  ( Psittacula  kra- 
meri)  as  a bird  pest  of  Maize  ( Zea  mays)  has 
been  reported  by  Salim  Ali  (1974),  but  the 
nature  and  extent  of  damage  is  not  known. 
Studies  to  determine  this  were  undertaken  at 
the  Andhra  Pradesh  Agricultural  University 
at  Hyderabad  since  1974  and  the  results  ob- 
tained are  presented  here. 

Material  and  Methods 

Studies  on  the  bird  visitants  in  Maize  were 
conducted  at  Maize  Research  Station,  Amber- 
pet,  (Hyderabad)  during  Kharif  and  Rabi 
1974-75  in  an  area  of  900.00  sq.  metres  and 


2190.00  sq.  metres  respectively.  A unit  area 
of  25  x 25  sq.  metres  was  demarcated  in  a 
maize  field  in  Kharif  and  Rabi  season  for 
counting  birds.  The  percentage  of  damage  was 
assessed  and  compared  for  the  two  seasons 
(Kharif  and  Rabi)  by  taking  counts  of  healthy 
and  damaged  cobs  in  this  unit  area.  The  bird 
counts  were  made  in  the  morning  and  even- 
ing only,  since  preliminary  studies  made  from 
dawn  to  dusk  showed  these  to  be  the  feeding 
hours.  The  observations  were  made  with  7 x 
50  magnification  field  binocular  to  watch  the 
bird  pests  from  a distance.  The  studies  were 
carried  out  during  the  peak  hours  bird  visits 
from  6 a.m.  to  10  a.m.  in  the  morning  and 

3.00  p.m.  to  6.00  p.m.  in  the  afternoon.  The 


201 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


r-.  r-  oc  m Tf  ^ 
tN  't  N N N ^ 

VS  Tf  ^ | | 

cn  OO  00  vo  00  C- 

o o O 00  vo  Os 
Os  t*“>  j ] ^ 00 

[x  M M M 'O 

oo  vs  *-*  *-4  ^ »os 

1^  o M N OI  Tt 


co  vo  ^ oo  vo  o 


co  © vo  ^ 


CO  o co  Tt  ON  t- 


vo  Nt  n oovo 


6"  I - I N " 


VS  VS  (n) 


in  w -H  N as 

& 


inOf^NNN 


ON  r-  00  oo  o 

m vo  Tj-  On  ro 
t-h  m 


vs  CO  O co  CO  oo 
t-h  no  vo  vs  vs  vs 


CO  O ON  00  OO  O 
CO  cs  Tf  T^- 


movooo^ 

r)  N h m Nf  N 


in  oo  m h - ^ 
co  c~  r-  vo  oo  oo 


in  oo  O vo  On 
CO  On  t — f'  0O  OO 


H ro  fO  Oi  o 

CO  ON  vo  oo  vo  t" 


Tf  oo  irs  OO  On  O 

co  co  cs  -*j-  vs 


Tj-  tJ-  ^ rj-  ^ ^ 

c-  r-  c-  t"  c~ 

On  On  On  ON  On  ON 

£ * & £ * X 


I in  lO  oo 


vo  O VO  oo  O 'O  'O 

^ cs  vs  co  cs  co  CO 


I I I I I I 
I - I i I I 
I I I 


^ tf)  H H H H 

^ m m Tt  N to 
C-  vs  ^ Tj-  m CO 


co 


- I “ I I”  I 

I I I I I I I 


,_i  i— i CO 


CO  ’-l  ^ CO  «-• 


VS  VS  VS  VS  VS  VN  vs 

r-  r-  c-  c-  £>•  £-• 

On  On  ON  ON  ON  ON  ON 

^ 'T  JT  . i .i  .ju 

m 4 VS  vo  h oo  Ol 

co  co  co  co  cl  ro  co 


202 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


method  adopted  for  assessing  the  population 
in  the  field  was  by  visual  counting.  For  each 
bird  species  the  population  of  birds  per  hour 
indicates  the  total  number  of  a particular  bird 
pest  species  which  visited  the  fields  in  diffe- 
rent groups  at  different  junctures  during  the 
particular  hour. 

Results  and  Discussion 

The  data  recorded  showed  that  the  pigeons 
( Columba  livia)  and  House  Crows  ( Corvus 
splendens ) were  the  first  to  invade  the  crop 
after  sowing  and  cause  damage  at  the  germi- 
nation and  seedling  stages.  These  pests  picked 
the  seed  from  the  field  after  the  post-sowing 
irrigation  and  fed  on  the  soaked  seeds  which 
were  in  the  process  of  germination.  They 
also  pluck  out  the  developing  young  seedlings. 
Damage  by  these  birds  was  not  noticed  in  the 
subsequent  phases  of  crop  growth. 

At  the  flowering  stage,  the  Roseringed 
Parakeets  ( Psittacula  krameri ) infest  the  male 
inflorescence  (Tassel)  and  feed  on  the  anthers 
and  pollen  grains.  At  the  tender  cob  stage, 
the  parakeets  damage  the  cobs  with  the  silky 
style  and  green  husk.  This  type  of  damage 
was  negligible  compared  to  the  damage  at 
the  subsequent  milky  stage  of  the  cob  when 
they  split  and  strip  away  the  covering  (bracts) 
thereby  exposing  the  grain  for  easy  feeding 
and  further  damage.  This  type  of  feeding  is 
continued  upto  maturity  of  the  cob  but  maxi- 
mum damage  was  recorded  at  the  dough  stage 
of  the  cobs. 

Data  recorded  on  the  population  density  of 
the  birds  infesting  maize  crop  at  the  dough 
stage  during  the  various  periods  of  the  day 
are  summarised  in  Table  1.  Damage  by  crows 


started  after  the  grains  in  the  cob  attained 
the  dough  stage.  Crows  prefer  the  cobs  in 
which  damage  was  already  initiated  by  para- 
keets and  in  such  cobs  they  completely  re- 
moved the  spathes,  exposed  the  cob  and  ate 
the  grains.  However,  crows  damaging  a fresh 
healthy  cob  from  the  apical  portion  by  pull- 
ing down  the  green  spathes,  is  not  uncommon. 
During  this  process,  each  green  spathe  is  torn 
into  small  pieces  to  expose  the  grains  fully. 
Mynas  ( Acridotheres  tristis ) also  visited  the 
crop  but  only  in  small  numbers  and  they  were 
mostly  seen  picking  the  insects  from  the  fields 
and  occasionally  eating  a few  maize  grains. 

The  damage  to  maize  crop  due  to  bird  pests 
at  the  cob  stage  was  assessed  by  taking  counts 
of  healthy  and  damaged  cobs  in  the  unit  area. 
The  extent  of  damage  in  terms  of  cobs  was 
82.46%  in  Kharif  and  11.47%  in  Rabi  under 
unprotected  conditions  in  the  field.  The  higher 
percentage  damage  in  Kharif  can  be  attri- 
buted to  a convincingly  high  population  of 
birds  infesting  the  crops  during  the  Kharif 
season  (Table  1).  Further,  the  standing  paddy 
crop  adjacent  to  the  Maize  plots  in  dough 
stage  also  served  as  a source  of  food  for 
parakeets. 

It  is  inferred  from  the  foregoing  that  House 
Crows  and  Roseringed  Parakeets  are  the 
major  bird  pests  of  maize  as  observed  at  the 
Maize  Research  Station,  Amberpet.  However 
a survey  carried  out  in  the  cultivators’  field 
in  major  maize  growing  areas  in  Telangana 
(Karimnagar  and  Medchal  districts)  and  also 
as  reported  by  the  farmers  have  shown  that 
crows  are  not  a pest  in  maize  when  the  crop 
is  grown  in  large  acreage.  In  experimental 
plots  or  in  maize  crops  raised  near  human 
habitations,  damage  by  crows  may  also  be 
evident. 


203 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Acknowledgements 

Thanks  are  due  to  the  Indian  Council  of 
Agricultural  Research,  New  Delhi  for  financ- 

Andhra  Pradesh  Agricultural 
University, 

RAJ  ENDRAN  AGAR, 

Hyderabad, 

May  23,  1981. 


ing  a scheme  for  “Studies  on  the  Biology  and 
Control  of  Bird  Pests”  under  which  the  studies 
are  carried  out. 

MIR  HAMID  ALI 
B.  H.  KRISHNAMURTHY  RAO 
M.  ANANDA  RAO 
P.  SYAMSUNDER  RAO 


Ali,  Salim,  and  Ripley,  S.  D.  (1969) : Handbook 
of  the  Birds  of  India  and  Pakistan.  Vol.  3.  Oxford 
University  Press,  Bombay. 


16.  BIRD  FAUNA  OF  THE  RICE  CROP  ECOSYSTEM  IN 
PONDICHERRY  REGION 


In  the  rural  economy  of  an  agriculturist 
birds  play  a vital  role  since  some  birds  are 
beneficial  or  useful  to  him  and  others  claim 
a heavy  toll  of  his  produce.  In  this  paper  an 
attempt  is  made  to  list  out  the  common  species 
of  birds  both  resident  and  migratory  in  this 
region.  A detailed  observation  was  made  for 
the  insectivorous  avian  fauna  visiting  the  rice 
ecosystem  throughout  the  years  of  1978-80. 
The  principal  agro-ecosystem  in  Pondicherry 
region  is  rice-based  and  the  irrigation  needs 
are  met  mostly  by  Ousted  and  Bahour  tanks 
and  by  a network  of  tube  wells.  Light  rains 
are  received  in  the  South-West  monsoon 
months  of  July  to  September  and  heavy  rains 
during  the  North-East  monsoon  months  of 
October  to  December.  The  total  annual  pre- 
cipitation is  around  1200  mm.  During  the 
rainy  months,  the  tanks  get  filled  up.  From 
May  to  February  the  double  cropped  wet- 
lands receive  canal  water  and  the  third  crop 
receives  water  from  tube  wells.  In  some  areas 
of  this  region  paddy  remains  in  fields  through- 
out the  year  which  supports  a rich  aquatic 
biome.  The  aquatic  biome  of  the  rice  ecosystem 


includes  the  invertebrate  fauna  comprising  in- 
sect pests  like  stem  borers,  leaf  rollers,  plant 
hoppers,  earhead  bugs,  blackbugs,  grasshoppers 
etc.  The  non-pest  fauna  include  waterbugs, 
beetles,  odonates  and  a variety  of  other  in- 
sects. The  paddy  fields  and  water  storing 
tanks  also  harbour  fishes,  crabs,  frogs,  snakes 
and  aquatic  insects  which  provide  the  condi- 
tions to  attract  a host  of  insectivorous  birds  to 
this  region.  The  observations  were  made  in 
the  farm  attached  to  the  Krishi  Vigyan  Kendra 
and  its  vicinity,  Ousteri  and  Bahour  tanks,  and 
in  the  different  communes  like  Villianoor, 
Ariankuppam,  Nettapakkam  etc.  The  birds  are 
classified  in  the  following  groups. 

1.  Very  common  — Seen  in  large  numbers 

2.  Common  — Seen  in  less  numbers 

3.  Less  common  — Seen  in  less  numbers 

and  only  in  certain 
* places 

4.  Rare  — Seen  in  singles  or  in 

few  in  numbers  occa- 
sionally. 

The  birds  were  compared  for  identity  and 


204 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Table 


Common  Name 

Scientific  Name 

Status 

Season 

Paddybird 

Ardeola  grayii 

Very  common 

Throughout 

Cattle  egret 

Bubulcus  ibis 

Common 

Oct-Feb 

Redwattled  lapwing 

Vanellus  indicus 

Common 

Throughout 

Little  ringed  plover 

Charadrius  dubius 

Common 

Throughout 

Pintail  snipe 

Capella  stenura 

Common 

Oct-Feb 

Blackwinged  stilt 

Himantopus  himantopus 

Common 

Oct-Feb 

Avocet 

Recurvirostra  avosetta 

Rare 

Oct-Feb 

Indian  whiskered  tern 

Chlidonias  hybrida 

Common 

Oct-Feb 

Spotted  dove 

Streptopelia  chinensis 

Very  common 

Throughout 

Blue  rock  pigeon 

Columba  livia 

Less  common 

Throughout 

Red  turtle  dove 

Streptopelia 

Less  common 

Throughout 

Roseringed  parakeet 

tranquebarica 
Psittacula  krameri 

Common 

Throughout 

Koel 

Eudynamys  scolopacea 

Less  common 

Nov-Jan 

Spotted  owlet 

Athene  brama 

Common 

Throughout 

Indian  nightjar 

Caprimulgus  asiaticus 

Less  common 

Throughout 

House  swift 

Apus  affinis 

Very  common 

Throughout 

Small  blue  Kingfisher 

Alcedo  at  this 

Common 

Throughout 

Whitebreasted  King- 

Halcyon smyrnensis 

Common 

Throughout 

fisher 

Pied  Kingfisher 

Ceryle  rudis 

Common 

Throughout 

Small  green  bee-eater 

Merops  orient alis 

Less  common 

Throughout 

Indian  roller 

Coracias  benghalensis 

Common 

Throughout 

Blackbellied  finchlark 

Eremopterix  grisea 

Very  common 

Throughout 

Crested  lark 

Galerida  cristata 

Very  common 

Throughout 

Redrumped  swallow 

Hirundo  daurica 

Common 

Throughout 

Black  drongo 

Dicrurus  adsimilis 

Very  common 

Throughout 

Common  myna 

Acridotheres  tristis 

Very  common 

Throughout 

House  crow 

Corvus  splendens 

Very  common 

Throughout 

Redvented  bulbul 

Pycnonotus  cafer 

Less  common 

Throughout 

lungle  babbler 

T urdoides  striatus 

Very  common 

Throughout 

Ashy  wren-warbler 

Prinia  socialis 

Very  common 

Throughout 

Indian  robin 

Saxicoloides  fulicata 

Common 

Throughout 

Large  pied  wagtail 

Motacilla 

Common 

Throughout 

House  sparrow 

maderaspatensis 
Passer  domesticus 

Very  common 

Throughout 

Baya  weaver  bird 

Ploceus  philip pin  us 

Common 

Throughout 

Spotted  munia 

Lonchura  punctulata 

Common 

Throughout 

nomenclature  with  the  authenticated  guides  by 
Fletcher  and  Inglis  (1926),  Salim  Ali  (1977) 
and  Ganguli  (1975)  and  the  observations  are 
presented  in  the  table.  Among  the  birds  the 
black  drongo,  Dicrurus  adsimilis  seems  to  be 


a purely  insectivorous  bird  destroying  injuri- 
ous insects  like  stemborer  moths,  skippers,  leaf 
rollers  etc.  in  enormous  numbers.  In  company 
with  crows  and  mynahs  this  bird  is  sure  to 
be  present  in  large  numbers  wherever  pest  in- 


205 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


sects  are  predominant.  Drongos  were  report- 
ed to  feed  mostly  on  injurious  insects  (Thiru- 
murthi  and  Abraham  1975).  The  house  crow, 
Corvus  splendens  and  myna,  Acridotheres  tris- 
tis  are  highly  beneficial  to  the  agriculturists  as 
they  help  to  eradicate  the  soil  insects  and  pupae 
at  the  time  of  ploughing  and  during  and  after 
the  harvest.  The  paddy  bird  Ardeola  grayii, 
always  found  in  paddy  fields  and  in  water- 
sheds, is  very  active  and  beneficial  in  fields 
where  young  seedlings  are  cut  up  by  immature 
crabs.  The  stilt  and  pintail  snipe  found  in 
marshes  and  paddy  stubbles  often  probe  into 

Krishi  Vigyan  Kendra, 

Pondicherry-650  010, 

April  3,  1981. 


the  mud  for  worms,  larvae  and  other  aquatic 
insects.  The  kingfishers,  especially  Halcyon 
smyrnensis,  commonly  noticed  in  rice  fields, 
appear  to  be  important  in  their  predatory 
habit  on  insects. 

Thus  it  is  evident  that  certain  birds  like 
crow,  myna,  drongo,  paddy  bird  are  useful 
in  the  control  of  injurious  insects  and  hence 
deserve  to  be  protected  and  encouraged. 

We  wish  to  thank  Master  Christian 
Nathan  son  of  the  first  author  for  his  constant 
help  in  field  trips  and  locating  the  habitats 
of  birds. 

S.  P.  FRANCIS  NATHAN 
B.  RAJENDRAN 


References 

Ali,  Salim  (1977):  The  Book  of  Indian  Birds.  Delhi  area.  ICAR,  New  Delhi. 

Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  Bombay.  Thirumurthi,  S.  and  Abraham,  E.V.  (1975): 

Fletcher,  T.  B.  and  Inglis,  C.  M.  (1926):  Birds  A note  on  the  bird  predators  of  the  Death’s  head 
of  an  Indian  gardeh.  Thacker,  Spink  & Co.,  Calcutta.  hawkmoth  Acherontia  styx  W.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Ganguli,  U.  (1975):  A guide  to  the  birds  of  Soc.  72:  204. 


17.  SIZE  AT  FIRST  BREEDING  IN  THE  GHARIAL  [GAVIALIS 
GANGETICUS  (GMELIN)]  (REPTILIA,  CROCODILIA)  IN 

CAPTIVITY 


Size  and  age  at  first  breeding  in  the  gharial 
in  the  wild  are  not  known  for  either  sex.  In 
Katerniaghat  Wildlife  Sanctuary  in  Bahraich 
District,  Northern  Uttar  Pradesh,  the  smallest 
breeding  female  was  estimated  as  3.12  m dur- 
ing 1977  nesting  season  (Srivastava  1981). 

■ McCann  (1940)  in  a well-reasoned  discus- 
sion on  the  Indian  mugger  ( Crocodylus 
palustris)  in  the  wild,  correctly,  in  our  view, 
stated, 

“However,  with  reptiles,  I think,  it  is  perhaps 
better  to  arrive  at  the  size  at  which  they  breed 
rather  than  place  any  reliance  on  age.” 


For  captive  crocodilians  in  India  prior  to 
initiation  of  the  Government  of  India  Project 
Crocodile  Breeding  and  Management  in  1975, 
and  in  many  overseas  institutions  (Bustard 
1980)  due  to  poor  growth,  age  is  not  a valid 
criterion  on  which  to  judge  attainment  of 
sexual  maturity  (Choudhury  and  Bustard,  in 
press). 

Three  gharial  were  reared  in  captivity  at 
Nandankanan  Biological  Park,  Orissa.  This 
group  comprised  1 male  and  two  females.  One 
of  these  females  bred  for  the  first  time  in 
1980  (Bustard  and  Maharana  1980)  at  a 


206 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


length  of  3.17  m.  The  other  female  bred  for 
the  first  time  in  1980  at  a length  of  3.0  m.  We 
consider  these  figures  to  represent  the  size  at 
first  breeding.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  figure 
of  3.12  m given  by  Srivastava  (loc.  cit.)  falls 
within  this  size  range. 

The  gharial  is  one  of  the  largest  species  of 
crocodiles  and  as  such  can  be  expected  to 
attain  breeding  size  at  a greater  length  and  age 

Central  Crocodile  Breeding  & 

Management  Training  Institute, 

Raj ENDRAN AGAR  ROAD, 

Hyderabad. 

Nandankanan  Biological  Park, 

Barang,  Orissa, 

May  4,  1981. 

Refer 

Bustard,  H.  R.  (1980) : Captive  Breeding  of  Cro- 
codiles pp.  1-20.  In  The  care  and  breeding  of  captive 
reptiles.  S.  Townson,  N.  J.  Millichamp,  D.G.D.  Lucas 
and  A.  J.  Mellwood  (Eds.).  A collection  of  papers 
published  by  the  British  Herpetological  Society. 

Bustard,  H.  R.  & Maharana,  S.  (1980):  First 
captive  Breeding  of  the  Gharial,  ( Gavialis  gangeti- 
cus).  Brit.  J.  Herpetol.  6 (3):  106. 

Choudhury,  B.  C.  & Bustard,  H.  R.  (In  press) : 
Stunted  growth  in  captivity-reared  gharial.  /.  Bom- 
bay nat.  Hist.  Soc. 

Cott,  H.  B.  (1961):  Scientific  results  of  an  in- 


than  smaller  freshwater  species  such  as  the 
Indian  mugger.  The  Nile  crocodile  ( Crocody - 
lus  niloticus)  provides  comparative  data  for  a 
similar-sized  crocodile.  Cott  (1961)  stated  that 
C.  niloticus  attains  sexual  maturity  at  a length 
of  2.7-3.45  m in  the  female.  Guggisberg  1972 
stated  that  more  than  half  of  the  female  C. 
niloticus  begin  breeding  after  attaining  a length 
of  3.0  m. 


H.  R.  BUSTARD 


S.  MAHARANA 


E N CE  S 

quiry  into  the  ecology  and  economic  status  of  the 
Nile  crocodile  ( Crocodilus  niloticus ) in  Uganda  and 
Northern  Rhodesia.  Trans.  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.  29  (4)  : 
211-356. 

Guggisberg,  C.  A.  W.  (1972) : Crocodiles.  David 
& Charles,  London. 

McCann,  C.  (1940) : A reptile  and  amphibian  mis- 
cellany. J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  41  (4)  : 742-747. 

Srivastava,  A.  K.  (1981):  Some  Ecological  studies 
on  the  gharial  ( Gavialis  gangeticus ) with  particular 
reference  to  the  natural  population.  Ph.D.  Thesis, 
submitted  to  the  University  of  Lucknow,  Lucknow. 


18.  A RECORD  (?)  GHARIAL  CLUTCH 


Malcolm  Smith  (1931)  gave  the  clutch  size 
for  the  gharial  as  “40  or  more  number”. 
Prashad  (1914)  shot  a gravid  female  gharial 
at  Ferozpore  in  1913  which  had  32  eggs  in 
the  right  and  24  in  the  left  oviduct  giving  a 
clutch  size  of  56  eggs.  Bustard  (1980)  provided 
data  on  35  clutches  of  gharial  eggs  collected 
over  three  nesting  seasons  (1976,  77  and  78) 


in  Nepal.  The  mean  clutch  size  was  31.7  and 
the  maximum  61  eggs. 

The  clutch,  which  we  think  constitutes  a 
record,  consisted  of  97  eggs  and  was  laid  in 
Katerniaghat  Wild  Life  Sanctuary,  Bahraich, 
Northern  Uttar  Pradesh  in  Girwa  river  3 kms 
below  the  border  with  Nepal  at  Kotiya  Ghat. 
The  clutch  was  normal  in  every  way.  It  was 
collected  for  hatchery  incubation  producing  69 


207 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 

hatchlings  (71.1%  hatch).  Can  any  of  your  clutches  or  large  clutches  of  mugger  or  salt- 
readers  provide  information  on  larger  gharial  water  crocodile  eggs? 

Central  Crocodile  Breeding  & H.  R.  BUSTARD 

Management  Institute, 

Rajendranagar  Road, 

Hyderabad-500  264. 

Kukrail  Manoranjan  Van,  D.  BASU 

Gazipur, 

Lucknow-226  010, 

May  26,  1981. 


References 


Bustard,  H.  R.  (1980) : Clutch  size,  incubation 
and  success  of  gharial  [( Gavialis  gangeticus ) (GME- 
LIN)]  eggs  from  Narayani  river,  Nepal  1976-1978. 
J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  77  (1)  : 100-105. 

Parshad,  B.  (1914):  The  gharial  ( Gavialis  gan- 


geticus). J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  23:  369-370. 

Smith,  M.  (1931)  : The  Fauna  of  British  India, 
including  Ceylon  and  Burma.  Reptilia  and  Amphi- 
bia. Vol.  I.  Loricata,  Testudines.  Taylor  and  Francis, 
London. 


19.  LIZARDS  FROM  NORTH-EASTERN  INDIA 


The  reptile  collection  of  the  Eastern  Re- 
gional station.  Zoological  Survey  of  India, 
Shillong,  has  22  species  of  lizards  belonging 
to  14  genera  under  6 families.  Of  these  two 
species  were  hitherto  unknown  from  this  re- 
gion. 

Family  Gekkonidae 
Cnemaspis  jerdoni  (Theobald) 

Specimens  examined:  1 ex,  INDIA:  Megha- 
laya, Garo  Hills,  extreme  south  of  Dainadubi 
forest,  14.4.1971,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai. 

Remark:  This  species  was  earlier  reported 
only  from  south  India  and  Sri  Lanka.  The 
specimen  though  it  agrees  well  with  Smith’s 
description  of  the  species,  has  1 1 pairs  of 
femoral  pores  on  each  side  and  6 preanal 
pores. 

Hemidactylus  frenatus  Schlegel 
Specimens  examined:  1 ex,  India:  Megha- 


laya, Sonapur  IB  compound,  27.8.1974,  Coll. 
A.  R.  Lahiri;  1 exs,  Assam,  Sibsagar,  Kohora 
Soil  Conservation  IB,  17.2.1974,  Coll.  M.  M. 
Datta;  1 ex,  Goalpara,  Lakhipur  IB,  19.1.1972, 
Coll.  S.  Biswas;  1 ex,  Goalpara,  Blodhurari, 
4 kms.  south-east  of  forest  rest  house, 
16.1.1972,  Coll.  S.  Biswas;  1 ex,  Goalpara, 
Dudhnai  IB,  8.4.1971,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai;  3 
exs,  Goalpara,  Rongali  IB,  12.1.1972,  Coll.  S. 
Biswas,  1 ex,  Goalpara,  Deagdhoa  Paharsing- 
para,  about  14  kms.  went  of  Goalparasadar, 
17.1.1972  Coll.  S.  Biswas;  1 ex,  Kamrup, 
Mothongiri  IB,  14.12.1974,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao; 
1 ex,  Tripura,  Santir  Bari  P.W.D.  IB,  7.8.1979, 
Coll.  K.  P.  Singh. 

Remarks:  The  variation  in  the  number  and 
position  of  the  tubercles  in  this  species  is  al- 
ready reported  by  Smith  (1935).  In  one  of 
the  present  collection,  the  third  and  fourth 
toes  originate  from  a single  stalk  and  the  third 
gets  united  with  the  fifth.  Some  mites  were 


208 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


observed  on  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body 
of  another  specimen. 

This  is  the  first  record  of  this  species  from 
North-Eastern  states. 

Family  Sciencidae 

Lygosoma  courcyanum  Annandale. 

Specimens  examined:  1 ex,  INDIA:  Megha- 
laya, Khasi  Hills,  Mawphlang,  21.9.1973,  Coll. 
A.  K.  Ghosh. 

Remarks:  Distance  between  the  end  of  the 
snout  and  forelimb  contained  2 times  in  the 
distance  between  axilla  and  groin.  Prefontal 
not  in  contact  with  one  another.  70  scales 
down  the  middle  of  the  back.  Limbs  short, 
far  apart  when  adpressed.  Total  length  from 
snout  to  vent  54  mm,  tail  36  mm.  This  speci- 
men has  an  abnormal  foot  with  only  a single 
free  digit.  The  other  digits  are  not  differen- 
tiated and  the  sole  ends  in  a conical  mass. 

Zoological  Survey  of  India, 

Eastern  Regional  Station, 

Shillong-793  003, 

September  4,  1981. 


Family  Agamidae 

Ptyctolaeinus  gularis  Peters. 

This  species  is  abundant  in  Shillong.  Males 
of  this  species  are  capable  of  remarkable  colour 
display.  During  breeding  season,,  sexual  dimor- 
phism is  clearly  shown  by  males  by  the  fully 
extended  throat  with  its  conspicuous  blue 
colour.  A pale  yellow  (with  a greenish  tinge) 
longitudinal  stripe,  along  the  lateral  sides  on 
either  side,  commencing  from  a little  behind 
the  tympanum  and  extending  to  one  third  of 
the  body  is  very  distinct  during  this  time. 

Acknowledgements 

I am  grateful  to  the  Director,  Zoological 
Survey  of  India,  Calcutta  and  to  Dr.  Asket 
Singh  and  Mr.  C.  Radhakrishnan,  successive 
Officers-in-Charge,  Eastern  Regional  Station, 
Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Shillong  for  faci- 
lities and  guidance. 

R.  MATHEW 


Reference 

Smith,  M.  A.  (1935) : The  Fauna  of  British  India, 
including  Ceylon  and  Burma.  Reptilia  & Amphibia, 
Vol.  II.  Sauria.  Taylor  & Francis,  London. 


20.  RAT  SNAKE  SEIZING  BABY  MUNTJAC 


Some  women  workers  on  my  Coffee  Plan- 
tation near  Manantody,  Kerala  hearing  a 
young  animal  crying  in  distress,  found  on  in- 
vestigation that  a Rat  Snake  had  seized  a baby 
Muntjac.  The  snake  was  coiled  around  the 
victim,  seeing  the  workers  it  released  its  hold 

Bissal  Munti, 

Mysore-  570  001, 

June  24,  1981. 


and  moved  off,  but  the  little  Muntjac  was  dead 
when  picked  up. 

Rat  Snakes  are  quite  common  on  the  Plan- 
tation and  probably  live  on  birds  and  rats 
this  is  the  first  occasion  I have  known  of  a 
Rat  Snake  seizing  a small  deer  for  its  prey. 

E.  J.  VAN  INGEN 


209 


14 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


21.  SUCCESSFUL  ARTIFICIAL  BREEDING  OF  LISSEMYS 
PUNCTATA  GRANOSA  (SMITH)* 


Introduction 

The  Southern  Flap-shell  turtle  — Lissemys 
punctata  granosa  (Smith)  occurs  throughout 
peninsular  India  and  Sri  Lanka.  Around 
Madras  this  turtle  occurs  in  fairly  large  num- 
bers and  is  usually  hunted  for  food  by  the 
locals. 

Deraniyagala  (1953)  reports  that  in  Lissemys 
punctata  ceylonensis,  which  he  believes  as  bare- 
ly seperable  from  Lissemys  punctata  granosa , 
breeding  maxima  are  towards  the  commence- 
ment and  end  of  the  year.  On  November  1st, 
1980,  just  after  the  rains,  Chockulingam,  an 
Irula  tribal  employee  at  the  Madras  Snake 
Park,  took  me  and  two  of  my  colleagues  on 
a field  survey  off  the  city  limits,  south  of 
Taramani.  Just  west  of  Taramani  Radio  Sta- 
tion, while  walking  on  the  beaten  track  along 
the  fence  of  a farm  house,  Chockulingam 
pointed  to  a raised  mound  of  fine,  loose,  wet 
sand  nearly  one  foot  high.  The  mound  was 
surrounded  by  a thick  growth  of  bushes  and 
grasses,  receiving  filtered  sunlight.  It  was  the 
nest  of  the  Southern  flap-shell  turtle,  Lissemys 
punctata  granosa. 

Materials  and  Methods 

Nest  measurements : The  nest  was  opened 
by  us  to  take  back  the  eggs.  It  was  dug  at 
an  angle  to  the  ground  surface. 

* Dr.  Robert  Webb  in  his  paper  ‘The  identity  of 
Testudo  punctata  Lacepede,  1788  (Testudines,  Trio- 
nychidae)  Webb,  1980  has  redescribed  the  nomen- 
clatural  and  taxonomic  history  of  that  holotype.  He 
has  renamed  the  yellow  spotted  Lissemys  punctata 
punctata  of  North  India  as  Lissemys  punctata  an- 
dersoni  and  the  Southern  Lissemys  punctata  granosa 
as  the  actual  Lissemys  punctata  punctata. 


The  nest  depth  to  the  first  exposed  eggs 
was  8 cm.  The  nest  chamber  measured  8 cm. 
in  diameter.  The  total  depth  of  the  nest  was 
12  cm.  There  were  8 eggs  in  the  nest.  The 
eggs  were  still  moist  with  mucus  and  were 
estimated  to  be  3 days  old  at  the  most. 

Deraniyagala  (1953)  reports  that  Lissemys 
punctata  ceylonensis  lays  2-6  eggs  within  a few 
weeks  of  one  another.  Malcolm  Smith  (1931) 
reports  that  10-12  eggs  are  laid  at  a time. 
Gunther  (1864)  records  a report  by  Dr. 
Kelaart  about  a female  L.  p.  ceylonensis  which 
laid  three  eggs  of  about  1"  diameter,  with  a 
hard,  calcareous  shell. 

Egg  measurements : The  eggs  were  perfect- 
ly spherical,  hard  shelled.  They  measured  as 
follows  : 


Diameter:  1)  25.9mm,  2)  26.6  mm,  3)  26.1mm, 
4)  26.6mm,  5)  26.5mm 

Weight:  1)  ll.Ogm,  2)  12.5  gm,  3)  ll.Ogm, 

4)  11.0  gm,  5)  12.0  gm 

Diameter:  6)  26.4mm,  7)  26.8mm,  8)  27.5mm. 
Weight:  6)  ll.Ogm,  7)  12.0 fim,  8)  11.5  gm. 


According  to  Deraniyagala  (1953)  Lissemys 
p.  ceylonensis  eggs  measured  30  mm-33  mm 
and  weighed  17  gm-19.5  gm. 

Incubation : The  eggs  were  brought  to  the 
Snake  Park  laboratory  to  be  incubated.  A 
plastic  shoe  box  filled  with  about  8 cm  earth 
and  3 cm  air  space  was  used  as  an  incubator. 
The  eggs  were  placed  completely  covered  with 
the  earth,  the  box  was  also  kept  covered.  Mois- 
ture on  the  lid  and  sides  of  the  box  was  wiped 
dry  daily. 

On  May  8th,  1981,  6 months  after  egg  col- 
lection, one  of  the  eggs  was  opened.  The 


210 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


embryo  within  was  fully  formed  with  a large 
amount  of  yolk.  It  was  alive  and  pulsating 
and  had  a carapace  length  of  20  mm  and  it 
weighed  4 gm,  the  egg  before  opening  weighed 
9 gm. 

On  July  6th,  two  eggs  were  opened  and 
found  to  be  infertile.  On  20th  July  two  more 
eggs  were  opened.  The  turtles  were  full  term 
and  ready  to  hatch.  On  removing  the  cover- 
ing thin  transparent  membrane  they  wriggled 
vigorously.  The  yolk  sac  was  almost  com- 
pletely withdrawn  in  both  turtles.  On  22nd 
July  another  egg  was  opened  and  on  24th  July 
the  last  two  eggs  were  opened  after  an  incuba- 
tion period  of  nearly  9 months.  The  incubation 
temperatures  were  32.2°C  nest;  32. 6°C  air. 

As  related  to  this  incubation  period,  in 
Testudo  elegans  the  incubation  period  is 
thought  to  be  4-5  months — Minton  in  Prakash 
(1971).  In  Testudo  horsfieldi  (Gray)  the  incu- 

Research  Associate, 

Madras  Snake  Park, 

Guindy  Deer  Park, 

Madras-600  022, 

August  10,  1981. 


bation  time  is  76  days.  Roberts  (1975). 

In  Trionyx  ferox  (Schneider)  the  incubation 
period  is  56  days  — Lardie  (1973). 

Hatching  measurements : 

1 . R.  Lardie:  CL  39 mm  CB  — PL  32  mm  — 
Trionyx  ferox 

2.  Deraniyagala : CL  44  mm  CB  35  mm 

PL  41  mm Wt.  10  gm 

L.  p.  ceylonensis 

3.  M.S.P.  1981:  CL  42  mm  CB  40  mm 
PL  39  mm  SH  15  mm  Wt.  8.2  gm. 

L.  p.  granosa 

CL — Carapace  length,  CB — Carapace  breadth,  PL — 
Plastron  length,  SH — Shell  height 

At  present  the  five  hatchlings  are  being  fed 
on  earthworms,  Rhacophorus  maculatus  tad- 
poles and  wasp  and  beetle  grubs. 

J.  VIJAYA 


References 


Deraniyagala,  P.  E.  P.  (1953) : A Colored  Atlas 
of  Some  Vertebrates  from  Ceylon.  Tetrapod  Repti- 
lia.  Vol.  2,  pp.  26. 

Gunther,  A.  C.  L.  G.  (1864):  The  Reptiles  of 
British  India,  pp.  45. 

Larde,  R.  L.  (1973) : Notes  on  eggs  and  young 
of  Trionyx  forex  (Schneider).  /.  Herpetology  7 (4): 
377-78. 

Prakash,  I.  (1971)  : Testudo  elegans  in  Western 
Rajasthan.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  68  (1):  273- 
274. 


Roberts,  T.  J.  (1975) : A note  on  Testudo  hors- 
fieldi (Gray),  the  Afghan  tortoise  or  Horsfield’s  four- 
toed tortoise,  ibid.  72  (1)  : 206-208. 

Smith,  M.  A.  (1931):  The  Fauna  of  British 
India,  Reptilia  and  Amphibia,  Vol.  1,  pp.  185. 

Webb,  Robert  G.  (1980) : The  identity  of  Tes- 
tudo punctata  Lacepede,  1788  (Testudines,  Trio- 
nychidae).  Bulletin  of  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History  of  Paris  4e  ser.,  2,  Section  A,  no.  2:  pp. 
547-557. 


211 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


22.  A FEW  MOMENTS  WITH  AN  EGG  LAYING 
ISTIBLENNIUS  STR1ATOMACULATUS 


On  January  3,  1980,  we  were  on  a field  trip 
as  a part  of  our  study  programme  on  the  rock- 
pool  ecosystems  off  Visakhapatnam.  While 
making  observations,  we  were  glad  to  see  a 
ripe  female  of  Istiblennius  striatomaculatus 
(Kner  1866)  in  the  process  of  laying  eggs  in 
an  empty  barnacle,  shell  at  the  top  of  a rock 
outcropping  of  a tidepool.  It  was  3.40  P.M., 
and  the  sea  had  receded  exposing  the  upper 
one  metre  of  the  triangular  outcropping  rock 
which  was  almost  dry.  The  lone  fish  leaped  on 
to  the  surface  of  the  steep  rock  from  the  water 
level.  Aided  by  the  pelvic  fins  in  holding  the 
rock  surface,  it  started  then  to  climb  up  by 
wriggling  movements  and  wagging  its  tail. 
After  reaching  the  apex  of  the  rock,  it  entered 
an  empty  barnacle  shell  containing  a little 
sea  water;  there  it  settled  with  its  head  pro- 
truding. All  this  it  did  with  much  ease  and 
agility,  as  if  it  had  previous  experience  of  visi- 
ting the  same  spot.  Then  it  began  laying  eggs. 
While  it  was  laying  eggs  no  major  body  con- 

Andhra  University, 

Waltair  530  003, 

Andhra  Pradesh, 

April  16,  1981. 


volutions  were  observed,  but  for  slight  move- 
ments, probably  to  spread  the  eggs,  evenly. 
It  remained  laying  eggs  for  4\  minutes  and 
all  the  time  the  fish  relied  on  aerial  breathing 
aided  by  a few  gulps  of  sea  water  from  the 
barnacle  shell.  The  fish  then  came  out  of  the 
barnacle  shell  and  jumped  back  into  the  water. 
After  an  interval  of  12  minutes,  it  returned 
to  its  breeding  nest,  in  the  same  way  as  it  did 
before  and  remained  there  for  3 minutes.  By 
4.20  P.M.  the  tide  was  rising  and  we  had  to 
leave  the  place  collecting  a sample  of  the  eggs. 
The  eggs  were  dome  shaped,  attached  to  floor 
by  sticky  disc  and  measured  0.5-0.6  mm  in 
horizontal  axis  and  0 . 4-0 . 5 mm  in  vertical 
axis.  The  egg  was  more  or  less  transparent 
containing  an  yellow  oil  globule. 

The  University  Grants  Commission  and  the 
Council  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research 
are  acknowledged  for  financial  assistance  res- 
pectively to  senior  and  junior  author. 

N.A.V.  PRASAD  REDDY 
C.  UMA  DEVI 


23.  EEL  FISHING  WITH  BRUSH  HIDEOUT 


From  ancient  times  fishermen  of  Nepal  have 
developed  many  and  varied  fishing  tactics  to 
suit  local  exigencies.  One  fishing  method  that 
deserves  special  mention  could  be  called  the 
“Brush  hideout  for  eels”.  This  method  of  fish- 
ing is  based  on  the  fact  that  eels  frequent 


weedy  lakes  and  boggy  banks  of  rivers  and 
hide  among  weeds,  and  in  holes,  crevices  in 
the  shallows  of  the  lake  or  river  bank  during 
day  time.  This  habit  is  utilized  by  experienced 
fishermen  to  catch  the  spiny  eels  ( Macrogna - 
thus  aculeatum,  M.  pancalus).  This  method  is 


212 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


also  effective  for  catching  gar  fish  ( Xenentodon 
cancila)  and  freshwater  eel  ( Anguilla  bengal- 
ensis)  are  also  caught  by  this  method. 

The  weedy,  shallow  section  of  rivers  or  lakes 
with  a depth  about  2-3  m is  selected  for  fish- 
ing. Generally  a sheltered  back-water  is  pre- 
ferred. In  such  stagnant  water,  eel  carrying 
capacity  is  high.  A test  fishing  is  carried  out 
in  order  to  gain  a rough  idea  about  the  species 
composition  of  the  lake  or  river  section. 

Eels  are  attracted  by  green  twigs  of  broad 
leaved  plants.  Plant  species  chosen  for  the 
purpose  vary  with  the  locality.  Generally, 
twigs  of  pipal  ( Ficus  religiosa),  Kaniu  ( Ficus 
glomerata) , Fadelo  ( Erythrina  indica ),  Gideri 
( Premna  integrijolia) . Satibayer  ( Rhus  parvi- 
flora ) (=  Litsea  monopetala)  are  chosen  for 
the  purpose.  These  plants  do  not  have  sharp 
thorns  and  are  suitable  for  making  brush  hide- 
out. Twigs  of  about  3 metres  length  are  taken 
for  the  making  the  hideout.  About  200  twigs 
are  tied  together  into  bundle  leaving  interstices 
for  keeping  stones. 

Fresh  twigs  having  a length  of  three  metres 
are  laid  parallel  and  one  over  the  other.  A 
brush  bundle  is  made  by  juxtaposing  about 
200  twigs.  To  create  a sheltering  den  inside 
the  bundle,  stones  are  put  inside.  The  stones 
also  act  as  sinkers  and  keep  the  bundle  sub- 
merged. The  whole  bundle  is  tied  securely 
with  green  bamboo  bark  ( chuina ).  The  bundle 
should  be  fastened  loosely  so  that  there  is 
enough  sheltering  space  for  eels.  On  some 
occasions  wheat  or  maize  flour  soaked  with 
goat  blood  or  mixed  with  cowdung  is  put  in- 
side the  twig  bundle. 

The  brush  bundle  ready  for  setting  is  taken 
to  a suitable  section  of  the  river  or  lake.  The 
bundle  is  draped  externally  with  leaf  of  aqua- 
tic plants  (preferably  dead)  or  rotten.  The 
bundle  is  trodden  under  foot  and  some  heavy 
stones  are  kept  over  the  bundle  to  keep  it 


submerged.  The  hideout  bundle  is  kept  un- 
disturbed overnight. 

The  brush  bundle  fisher  visits  the  spot  early 
in  the  morning.  He  dislodges  the  stones  put 
over  the  bundle  very  carefully  so  that  the  shel- 
tering eels  are  not  disturbed.  He  holds  the 
rear  end  of  the  bundle  firmly  and  throws  the 
bundle  towards  the  shore.  If  he  finds  many 
eels  wriggling  out  he  encircles  the  bundle  with 
a cast  net  and  catches  them  one  by  one.  In 
this  way  he  explores  other  bundles  set  nearby. 
Usually  a fisherman  sets  three  twig  bundles  at 
a time  in  a spot  as  there  is  every  possibility 
of  theft  of  the  bundle. 

In  Narayani,  Rapti,  and  Kaligandaki  water- 
sheds, fishermen  start  this  fishing  activity  dur- 
ing September  and  October.  At  this  time  river 
and  lake  margin  is  accessible  and  become 
fishable  due  to  the  rotting  algae.  In  Rupa  and 
Begnas  lake  fishing  activity  is  at  its  peak  dur- 
ing November.  In  the  marshlands  of  terai  this 
fishing  is  productive  throughout  the  year. 

Generally  armoured  eel  ( Mastacembelus 
armatus,  M.  pancolus ) dominate  the  catch  in 
Rapti  and  Narayani  watershed.  Besides  these. 
Gar  fish  ( Xenentodon  cancila ),  Mud  eel 
( Amphipnous  cuchia ) are  also  fairly  well  re- 
presented in  every  catch.  In  the  watershed  of 
rivers  and  lakes  of  Kaligandaki  and  Bokhara 
lakes  the  Spiny  eel  ( Macrognathus  aculeatum ) 
predominates  in  every  catch.  On  some  occa- 
sions a few  freshwater  eels  ( Anguilla  bengal- 
ensis ) are  also  caught.  In  a twig  bundle  about 
3-5  kg.  of  fish  is  harvested.  Enquiries  show  that 
this  method  has  been  in  use  for  over  two  cen- 
turies. 

Ack  nowledgem  en  ts 

I am  indebted  to  the  National  Council  for 
Science  and  Technology  HMG,  Nepal,  for 


213 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


financing  “Fishing  method  and  Gear  Study”  thankful  to  Dr.  K.  L.  Shrestha,  secretary  of 
scheme,  as  principal  Investigator.  I am  also  the  Council  for  encouragement  and  help. 

Department  of  Zoology,  TEJ  KUMAR  SHRESTHA 

Tribhuvan  University, 

Kirtipur  Campus, 

Kathmandu,  Nepal, 

May  6,  1981. 


24.  COMMON  METHODS  OF  CATCHING  AIR  BREATHING 
FISHES  IN  DARBHANGA  (BIHAR) 


From  fisheries  point  of  view,  Darbhanga  is 
an  important  district  of  north  Bihar.  It  lies 
between  85°31'  and  86°44'  east  latitude  and 
25°28'  and  26°40'  north  longitude  having  a 
waterspread  area  of  5,986  ha.  The  annual 
freshwater  marketable  surplus  fish  of  the  dis- 
trict has  been  estimated  to  over  10,000  tons 
of  which  live  fish  constitute  about  28  per  cent. 
In  Bihar,  seasonal  supply  of  air-breathing  fishes 
comes  mostly  from  the  chaurs,  low  lying  fields 
which  get  inundated  by  the  rising  rivulets  of 
the  Koshi,  which  is  not  considered  to  be  a 
carp  bearing  river  (Jhingran  1974).  Thus,  the 
chaur  fishery  of  Darbhanga  is  dominated  most- 
ly by  the  catfishes,  and  some  miscellaneous 
varieties. 

The  chaurs  surveyed  during  the  present 
study  are  seasonal,  retaining  water  with  vary- 
ing depths  for  6 to  9 months.  The  fishes  cap- 
tured are  brought  to  Supaul  fish  market  for 
disposal  which  is  an  important  fish  assembly 
centre  of  this  district,  situated  about  90  km 
south-east  of  Darbhanga  township.  The  fish 
population  in  the  chaurs  are  self-recruited 
every  year  through  the  flood  waters.  When 
the  rivers  recede,  the  chaurs  are  left  with  vari- 
ous types  of  fish  and  fish  seed.  The  average 
catch  composition  of  chaur  fishery  has  been 
worked  out  as  carp  — 20%,  catfish  — 15%, 
air-breathing  fish  — 45%  and  miscellaneous 


— 20%.  Fishing  in  chaurs  commences  from 
January-February  every  year  when  the  water 
level  comes  down  considerably  and  is  conti- 
nued till  June.  In  the  beginning,  carps  dominate 
the  catch  but  after  March  they  are  replaced 
by  air-breathing  and  miscellaneous  fishes. 
Fishing  starts  from  early  morning  and  ends  by 
midday.  The  catch  is  brought  to  the  assembly 
centre  in  split  bamboo  basket  on  sling.  On 
an  average  300-400  kg  fish/day  are  assembled 
during  December-February  and  1,000-2,000  kg 
during  March-June  at  Supaul  market.  The 
fishes  are  first  graded  sizewise  and  specieswise 
and  then  sold.  The  prices  of  sing  hi  and  magur 
vary  between  Rs.  5-7  per  kg  and  Rs.  4-5  per 
kg  respectively. 

Although  none  of  the  following  fishing 
methods  is  used  exclusively  for  air-breathing 
fishes,  the  catch  comprises  a majority  of  these 
fishes. 

Tobacco  Poisoning 

This  method  is  used  during  late  summer 
when  cracks  appear  in  the  earth.  The  depth 
of  individual  cracks  varies  upto  1.5  m.  In  this 
method,  fishermen  put  a few  dry  leaves  (c  200 
g in  weight)  of  tobacco  ( Nicotina  spp.)  at 
the  crack  mouth  and  sprinkle  water  to  make 
them  wet.  After  30  minutes  or  so,  the  wet 
leaf  releases  decoction  of  nicotine  which  pene- 


214 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


trates  into  the  cracks  and  whatever  fish  are 
in  the  crack  come  up  to  the  surface  within  an 
hour  in  distress.  The  catch  is  mostly  magur 
and  singhi. 

Cover  Pot  or  Plunge  Basket 

A bell-shaped  bamboo  strip  pot,  known  as 
‘Tapi  is  cast  over  the  fish  in  muddy  and 
shallow  water  areas  and  whatever  fish  is  pre- 
sent is  hand  picked.  Tapi  has  two  openings 
— top  and  bottom.  The  circumferences  of 
these  openings  are  70  and  20  cm  respectively. 
Its  height  also  varies  between  40-60  cm.  The 
gear  is  very  much  effective  for  small  murrels 
but  sometimes  minnows  are  also  caught. 

Apiyar 

It  is  a typical  method  for  capturing  air- 
breathing  fishes  from  the  chaurs  and  low-lying 
paddy  fields,  particularly  at  places  where  there 
is  definite  difference  in  the  gradient  of  the 
terrain.  An  artificial  barrier,  made  of  earth 
and  aquatic  plants,  is  erected  across  the  lower 
portion  of  the  terrain  with  a small  opening  at 
a corner.  A small  circular  ditch  (sometimes 
rectangular,  60  x 60  cm),  locally  known  as 
‘ Apiyar  (also  referred  as  ‘Chhoh'  or  ‘Deba 
according  to  place  of  operation),  is  dug  near 
this  opening.  A bamboo  screen  (50  x 70  cm) 
is  fixed  vertically  at  the  opening  and  water 
is  allowed  to  pass  from  upper  level  to  lower 
level.  Instinctively,  the  fishes  inhabiting  the 
lower  level  side  start  ascending  towards  upper 
level  zone.  In  doing  so,  when  fishes  come  in 
contact  with  the  split  bamboo  screen,  they  jump 
into  the  apiyar  and  get  trapped.  The  catch 
mostly  comprises  singhi , magur,  koi,  and  mur- 
rels. 

Fisheries  Research  Station, 

(Govt,  of  Bihar), 

Darbhanga-846  001, 

August  4,  1981. 


Cast  Net 

Locally  it  is  known  as  ‘phenka  jal\  The 
net  is  made  of  either  cotton  (20/5/1)  or  syn- 
thetic twine  (210/2/3).  The  nets  are  provid- 
ed with  peripheral  pockets  ( ghars ),  made  by 
folding  4-6  meshes  and  stiched  at  the  intervals 
of  6-9  meshes.  The  pickets  are  provided  with 
oval  shaped  iron  sinkers,  each  weighing  50  g. 
The  peripheral  circumference  of  the  net  varies 
between  120  and  200  cm  and  the  height  bet- 
ween 1 . 5 and  2.5m.  The  mesh  size  also  varies 
between  5 and  12  mm.  The  net  is  either  ope- 
rated from  the  shore  or  from  a boat  to  any 
depth  of  water.  The  catch  is  koi,  singhi,  besides 
other  fishes. 

In  Darbhanga,  air-breathing  fishes  are  also 
caught  through  drag  net,  line  fishing  and  vari- 
ous types  of  traps  in  addition  to  the  methods 
given  above  but  they  are  not  so  very  common 
in  practice. 

Ack  nowledge  m e n ts 

I am  grateful  to  Dr.  P.  S.  Prasad,  Director 
of  Fisheries,  Bihar,  Patna  for  taking  interest 
in  the  work.  I also  express  my  gratitude  to 
Sri  S.  R.  Banerji,  Joint  Director  of  Fisheries 
(Research),  Bihar,  Patna  for  suggesting  the 
topic  and  going  critically  through  the  manus- 
cript. Assistance  given  by  Sri  D.  K.  Singh, 
Fisheries  Research  Station,  Darbhanga  is 
thankfully  acknowledged.  Thanks  are  also  due 
to  Dr.  N.  K.  Thakur,  Officer-in-charge,  Cen- 
tral Inland  Fisheries  Research  Centre,  Patna 
for  giving  valuable  suggestions  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  revised  manuscript. 

R.  R.  PRASAD1 


1 Present  address:  Fish  Farmers’  Development 

Agency,  Mission  Road,  Siwan-841  226,  Bihar. 


215 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Reference 

Jhingran,  V.  G.  (1974) : Fish  and  Fisheries  of 
India.  Hindustan  Pub.  Corpn.,  New  Delhi:  954  p. 

25.  MORE  BUTTERFLIES  FROM  BOMBAY  — 2 


Four  additions  are  made  here  to  the  list  of 
Butterflies  of  Bombay  and  Salsette  published 
in  this  Journal  by  Best  and  others  (Vols.  50: 
331-339,  53:  282-284,  54:  215-216,  56:  358- 
359,  57:  233-234,  74:  190-191,  76:  369, 

77:  531-532). 

Precis  atlites  (Johanssen)  — Grey  Pansy. 
In  Volume  16  (p.  576)  of  this  Journal  L.C.H. 
Young  wrote  of  this  species,  “ . . . . though  it 
does  not  occur  in  the  Konkan  or  nearer  Bom- 
bay than  Goa  it  is  yet  found  in  all  the  other 
forest  regions  of  the  Peninsula.”  I saw  this 
butterfly  for  the  first  time  in  the  Konkan  on 
25/xii/ 1978  at  Kihim,  Alibag,  Kolaba  and 
then  in  the  Borivli  National  Park  on  29/xii  / 
1980,  and  finally  caught  one  on  6/vii/ 1980. 
Also  seen  near  Tulgi  at  about  the  same  time 
this  year  and  at  Devnar,  Bombay  on  14/viii/ 
1980. 

Bombay  may  now  be  considered  to  be  at  the 
north-western  limit  of  the  distribution  of  this 
butterfly. 

Chilades  laius  laius  (Cramer)  — Lime  Blue. 
Not  recorded  earlier  from  Konkan  or  North 
Kanara,  I found  this  on  15/i / 1975  in  a garden 
at  Devnar  which  has  lime  trees  growing  in  it. 
The  specimens  are  in  the  dry  season  form  and 
have  the  dark  clouded  discal  patch  which  is 
supposed  to  characterise  them.  They  agree  with 

3,  Reshma  Apartments, 

13  Pali  Hill,  Bandra, 

Bombay-  400  050, 

August  6,  1981. 


colour  plate  175/31  in  Lewis  (butterflies 
of  the  world).  According  to  Wynter-Blyth 
(BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  INDIAN  REGION,  p.  284) 
the  Lime  Blue  “is  common  throughout  the 
plains  of  India  wherever  its  foodstuffs,  lime 
and  Pomelo  grow.” 

Anaphaeis  aurota  aurota  (Fabricius)  — 
Pioneer.  Not  included  in  the  list  mentioned 
above  but  Aitken  and  Comber  described  it  as 
“More  or  less  common  everywhere.”  in  “A 
list  of  the  Butterflies  of  the  Konkan”  (7.  Bom- 
bay nat.  Hist . Soc.  15:  51).  I found  it  very 
abundant  in  the  Borivli  National  Park  on 
29  /vi/ 1980  and  again  at  about  the  same  time 
this  year.-Also,  one  male  at  Devnar  on  13/vii  / 
1981. 

Sarangesa  purendra  pandra  Evans  — Spot- 
ted Small  Flat.  According  to  Evans  (a  cata- 
logue OF  THE  HESPERIIDAE  OF  EUROPE,  ASIA 

and  Australia,  p.  119)  there  are  3 $ $ 2$  9 of 
this  subspecies  in  the  British  Museum  (Natural 
History)  from  Bombay.  Comber  (/.  Bombay 
nat.  Hist.  Soc.  15:  357)  wrote  “Mr.  E.  H. 
Aitken  found  this  species  by  no  means  uncom- 
mon at  Vehar  in  March,  and  I took  several 
at  Matheran  in  April.”  Though  not  found  by 
Best.  I took  one  in  the  Borivli  National  Park 
on  6/viii/ 1980. 

SALMAN  ABDULALI 


216 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


26.  SOME  BUTTERFLIES  FROM  BHUTAN 


The  butterfly  Fauna  of  India  and  neigh- 
bouring countries  has  been  studied  extensively. 
But  there  is  no  specific  literature  available 
on  the  butterflies  of  Bhutan  (Varshney  1977). 
Hence  a small  collection  of  butterflies  made 
by  the  Society’s  staff  member,  Mr.  Rex  Pimento 
during  the  Ornithological  Survey  of  Bhutan 
in  1973  will  be  of  some  interest  to  the  lepi- 
dopterist. 

Collections  were  made  at  Phuntsholing 
c 2000  ft  on  30th  September  and  1st  October, 
Tongsa  c 7000  ft  from  5th  to  11th  October 
and  Bumthang  c 9000  ft  from  6th  to  20th 
October.  Butterflies  collected  were  identified 
as  belonging  to  the  following  species. 

Family:  Danaidae 

1 . Da  nan  s aglea  (Kluk)  Glassy  Tiger 
Common  at  Tongsa  and  Phuntsholing. 

2.  D.  melaneus  (Cramer)  Chocolate  Tiger 
Rare,  Single  specimen  was  collected  from 
Tongsa. 

3.  D.  sita  sita  (Kollar)  Chestnut  Tiger 
Rare,  Single  specimen  was  collected  at 
Lodrai  (Boorder  Road  Camp)  Near 
Hatisar. 

4.  D.  genutia  (Cramer)  Common  Tiger 
Common  at  Phuntsholing,  Tongsa. 

Family:  Satyridae 

5.  Ypthima  hubneri  Kirby  Common  Fourring 
Common,  specimens  collected  from 
Phuntsholing. 

Family:  Nymphalidae 

6.  Neptis  yerburyi  But.  Yerbury’s  Sailer 
Common,  specimens  collected  from  Phunt- 
sholing. 


7.  Precis  hierta  (Fabricius)  Yellow  Pansy 
Single  $ and  $ was  collected  from  Tongsa 
on  5th  October. 

8.  P.  iphita  (Cramer)  Chocolate  Pansy 
Single  specimen  collected  from  Tongsa. 

9.  Vanessa  cardui  (Linnaeus)  Painted  Lady 
Common,  specimens  collected  from 
Tongsa  & Bumthang. 

10.  Argynnis  lathonia  (Linnaeus)  Queen  of 
Spain  Fritillary 

Very  common  at  Tongsa  and  Bumthang. 
Family:  Erycinidae 

1 1 . Zemeros  flegyas  (Cramer)  Punchinello 
Very  common,  collected  from  Tongsa, 
Bumthang  and  Phuntsholing. 

12.  Abisara  neophron  (Hewitson)  Tailed  Judy 
Rare  — single  specimen  collected  at 
Phuntsholing. 

Family:  Lycaenidae 

13.  Hypolycaena  erylus  (Godart)  Common  Tit 
Common,  two  specimens  collected  from 
Phuntsholing. 

Family:  Papilionidae 

14.  Papilio  clytia  forma  dissimilis  (Linnaeus) 
Common  Mime 

Common,  specimen  collected  from  Phunt- 
sholing. 

15.  Papilio  polytes  (Linnaeus)  Common 
Mormon 

Common,  single  butterfly  was  collected 
30  km  away  from  Tongsa. 

Family:  Pieridae 

16.  Cepora  nerissa  phryne  (Fabricius)  Com- 
mon Gull 


217 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Wet  Season  Form,  common,  collected 
from  Phuntsholing. 

17.  Cepora  nandisia  nandina  (Lucas)  Lesser 
Gull 

Common,  collected  from  Phuntsholing. 

18.  Appias  Syncida  M.  Chocolate  Albatross 
Common. 

19.  Pieris  napi  montana  (Linnaeus)  Green 
Veined  White 

Common. 


20.  Ixias  pyrene  (Linnaeus)  Yellow  Orange 
Tip 

Common  $ & $ collected  from  Tongsa. 

21 . Hebomoia  glaucippe  (Linnaeus)  Great 
Orange  Tip 

Common,  $ & $ collected  from  Phunt- 
sholing, common  at  Tongsa. 

22.  Catopsilia  crocale  (Cramer)  Common 
Emigrant 

Common  at  Tongsa,  Phuntsholing. 


Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  NARESH  CHATURVEDI 

Hornbill  House, 

Shahid  Bhagat  Singh  Road, 

Bombay-400  023, 

August  29,  1981. 

Reference 

Varshney,  R.  K.  (1977):  Index  Rhopalocera 

Indica.  An  Index  of  the  local-lists  of  Butterflies  from 
India  and  neighbouring  countries.  Rec.  Zool.  Surv. 

India  73:  159-177. 


27.  STRANGE  PRACTICE  OF  A CATERPILLAR  — A CORRECTION 


In  a note  titled  “Strange  practice  of  a 
Caterpillar”,  (1980,  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc. 
Vol.  76  (2) : 368-369)  A.S.  Bhaduri  wrote, 
“. . .1  found  a medium  big  butterfly  with  white 
spotted  black  wings  resting  on  the  wall  near 
that  Curcuma  plant.  It  was  resting  with  its 
forewings  upright  and  slightly  apart  and  the 
hindwings  resting  flat,  the  white  spots  in  the 
wings  thus  showing  to  advantage ....  I take 
it  to  be  a Hesperiid.” 

Sevastopulo  in  a note  with  the  same  title 
(1981,  ibid.,  77  (3):  532)  wrote,  “The  butter- 
fly with  ‘white-spotted  black  wings’  observed 
on  the  near-by  wall  was  almost  certainly  the 
imago  that  had  emerged  from  the  Curcuma- 
feeding  caterpillar,  probably  Celaenorrhinus 
sp.” 

Sevastopulo’s  identification  is  wrong  since 

3,  Reshma  Apartments, 

13  Pali  Hill,  Bandra,  Bombay  400  050, 
August  6,  1981. 

218 


(a)  Curcuma  is  not  a foodplant  of  Celaenor- 
rhinus. In  fact  Celaenorrhinus  belongs  to  sub- 
family Pyrginae  whose  foodplants  are  restrict- 
ed to  the  Dicot}4edons,  whereas  Curcuma  is  a 
Monocotyledon.  All  Indian  Hesperiidae  feed- 
ing on  Monocotyledons  belong  to  subfamily 
Hesperiinae.  (b)  Celaenorrhinus  sp.  always 
settle  with  both  wings  flat;  not  in  the  manner 
described  by  Bhaduri. 

On  the  basis  of  Bhaduri’s  description  I 
would  identify  the  butterfly  as  Udaspes  folus, 
or,  possibly  Notocrypta  sp. 

Incidentally,  a caterpillar  I found  on  Cur- 
cuma in  the  Borivli  National  Park,  Bombay 
on  12th  July  1981  pupated  on  the  13th  or 
14th  of  that  month  and  the  butterfly  which 
emerged  on  20th  July  1981  turned  out  to  be 
Udaspes  folus. 

SALMAN  ABDULALI 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


28.  EFFECT  OF  METEPA  ON  SOME  LARVAL  TISSUES  OF 
MUSCA  DOMESTIC  A NEBULO 

( With  thirteen  text-figures ) 


Introduction 

Recently  experiments  have  been  conducted 
by  various  workers  which  show  cytological 
effects  of  many  chemosterilants.  For  example 
the  germ  cell  chromosomes  fragmented  and 
chromatin  clumped  and  stained  atypically  when 
male  house  flies  were  treated  with  apholate  or 
tepa.  When  female  of  the  house  flies  were  fed 
on  the  hempa  or  apholate,  chromatin  clump- 
ing and  vacuolation  of  the  oocytes  and  nurse 
cells  were  caused.  In  some  instances  it  was 
followed  by  degeneration  of  the  cytoplasm  and 
atrophy  of  the  follicular  epithelium.  All  re- 
sults indicate  that  both  the  severity  and  type 
of  injury  produced  were  frequently  more  de- 
pendent on  dosage  than  on  the  type  of  chemo- 
sterilant  used.  Such  an  experimental  evidence 
goes  to  suggest  that  chemosterilants  induce 
sexual  sterility  by  clumping  of  chromatin, 
vacuolation  of  oocytes  and  degeneration  of  fol- 
licular cells,  nurse  cells  and  the  germ  cell 
chromosomes  in  adult  house  flies.  But  in  what 
manner  the  immature  stages  are  affected  in 
the  house  fly  Musca  domestica  nebulo , yet 
remains  to  be  seen. 

In  the  line  of  information  given  above  it 
was  considered  feasible  to  see  the  effect  of 
metepa  by  treating  the  eggs  and  observing 
any  histopathological  effects  on  the  larval  tis- 
sues of  the  house  fly. 

Materials  and  Methods 

The  flies  used  during  the  present  studies 
were  obtained  from  a normal  laboratory  stock 
that  is  being  maintained  since  1961  at  a tem- 


perature of  28±1°C  and  60  to  70  per  cent  rela- 
tive humidity.  The  flies  lay  eggs  on  cotton 
pads  soaked  in  diluted  buffalo  milk  in  the 
dishes  which  were  replaced  by  fresh  petri  dishes 
at  twenty  four  hours  interval.  The  freshly  laid 
eggs  were  carefully  transferred  along  with  the 
cotton  pads  into  glass  jars  for  further  deve- 
lopment. These  jars  were  covered  with  cloth 
in  order  to  prevent  the  larvae  from  escaping. 
On  the  sixth  day  a layer  of  dry  cotton  was 
added  for  the  pupation  of  larvae.  The  pupae 
were  sorted  out  and  kept  in  petri  dishes  in 
cages  for  the  adults  to  emerge.  In  order  to 
determine  the  effect  of  metepa  two  hundred 
eggs  from  the  normal  flies  were  obtained,  half 
of  them  were  allowed  to  develop  without  any 
treatment  (served  as  control)  and  the  remain- 
ing hundred  were  dipped  in  ethanol  solution 
of  metepa  of  0.0156  per  cent  for  fifteen 
minutes.  This  strength  of  the  ethanol  solution 
by  experience  was  found  to  be  the  maximum 
effective  concentration  without  too  much  mor- 
tality. Living  larvae  of  the  first,  second  and 
third  instar  were  collected  at  desired  time  in- 
tervals, fixed  and  sectioned  to  see  the  progress 
of  damage  done  to  the  tissues.  The  idea  be- 
hind this  set  of  experiments  was  to  determine 
within  possible  limitations  the  cause  of  morta- 
lity of  larval  stages. 

Result  and  Discussion 

The  chief  interest  of  workers  employing 
chemosterilizing  technique  has  been  to  effeU 
a reduction  in  the  population  of  harmful  in- 
sects. Their  data  regarding  the  efficiency  of 
this  system  are  based  on  the  rate  of  mortality 


219 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


0) 


&d^*  g so 

7T  d < hn—  J"!  O 


0) 


I <4-1 


o'  S 13  ooi3  -a  o 


J-H 


03 


..SCO 
0)  4)  0) 

-J3  > > c 

,,a§&88.l 

g S rS't'e0-0-  « 

-s/o  « g.S  0bo<.2 

S O-g 

-bc  x*~«ogr° 


e ^ § d oo  g-£  . c a a 

5 Z*Z* 


o d 

<U 

> 


0,1  mm 


0*1  mm. 


0.1  mm. 


° ao  pS,  § « 

du-4  ° > 0X5 

o o 


_ Uh 

ob<~  ^ • -2 
a tn  a t3  • E o ^ g d 
5 ^ o _,  o>  oo^<  *.o  cl> 

E g >'l  g'^  «Je1  § 

t>  5?a  £*o£ 

E-StS  S ^g.S 

.^•512  S3  ooo*S  o c 2 o 

II  #!!' ”11-1-1  s-s 

&*)*_,  <3+3  5 to  3 

o c 3-dp  Mfl  > 

^o-H.id«">o  o C:d^  £ 
^ -iSnSSo  OH 
d g £ 00 ’+2  60  _ 

o a 03  d OO’O 


§ & « oo2  2 ’I  <S 


g-o  C <U 
F 03  d o 


F o3  t>  ^ o3  - 
^ > 03 


03 


.S-0  o ■ > ..._, 

'P  J2  GO  M d C/5 

d ^ d cs  > d 


d.d  '".d^ 


d 

o d M ^ U L 

n ° £ o 14 

uO  " ts  - 

ri  .rS— ica.SwiM^^'H'o 
,fn  O 2 to  ^ S '+S  ^^3  a -a  -F 

oo  . cj.S  d «5,S,2  d^j  go-0 

oo  t3  •’-' .b  o’-1  q h- 

* g fl  8 * 

g ^ 8 .8  «j  n o 

O'  o jn (fl  c3 


U<.2?2S 


a> 


•S  22 


a. 2 


dg»K_ 

- o.2  o cs  - 

5 ’X3  Tn  d o T3  o 

-.2  o ??o  di3  ^ 

d^D^'-^n^Od10 
•-  o GO  d 00.2  ^ o o 

gq^g<»8^“8t>.2&H'c3 
d oS^  13 -j  a » ® d 

^ d os--:  a 03 <*>  a<4_<  p: 

5 d 2d  .b!3F_H'F'3^'0 

o d 


_ rj-O  c d d3  +3  o3  _ , 

2 o*3)  ?*•-!  -i  c.h  f? 


g.2  £?ob| 
03  o <j_!  3 
§£-  o* 
o _ d 


pdgo 

r\  ■+"*  O »-■* 


S f *C.S.S  S CJ  00 

00  073^  0 g c 

o d ~ f -2  o 
£ ° 'T3"’'H'o'4h  W O 

_|»o»=S« 

.So^oa^H^^ 
<u  *rj  ^ o d -d  .h 
x3  _,  tn  ^ .2  d 2 

- § S.-sJtS^I  g 

.1.3 


rsal:  &<i.s-,« 


Q o 


25  oo  d.S  O 
«m  dgg  .^2*5  ' 

• > 7i  ll,  > a 


h-  oo.; 

c d » 


OO  ^ 

i3.2?<  o Z 


= «.  d.S  F C 

- ' d^  " 

hH  ^ . S , m t/5 

.^O^'jFdoFF 
■2d  . •-  . oo  O bi  3 F d 
d > &n  «->  op  d 5o  f .2.2 


ftf)  ;*  ; , gjj  ^ wxj  «— i nn  ♦— i . ^ 

eS^e  &e  as  ?.aj3 


220 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


of  various  stages  of  development  and  the  inhi- 
bition of  the  reproductive  process  in  the  adults. 
Few  papers,  nevertheless,  deal  with  the  histo- 
logical changes  that  are  either  the  result  of 
toxicity  of  these  chemicals,  severly  injuring  the 
chromosomes  of  the  sperm  and  the  ovum,  or 
merely  interfere  with  the  physiological  pro- 
cesses culminating  in  the  failure  of  the  female 
to  oviposit.  The  later  is  considered  as  good 
criterion  in  the  evaluation  of  a compound  as 
a chemosterilant.  Metepa  that  has  been  used 
in  the  present  experiment  in  maximum  effective 
concentration  without  too  much  mortality 
(0.0156%)  on  the  eggs  of  house  fly  can  be 
considered  as  a chemical  which  does  not  show 
any  marked  effect  on  the  germ  ceils  in  the 
first  instar  larva.  A varying  degree  of  vacuoli- 
zation is  however,  seen  in  the  tissues  of  the 
first  instar  but  without  any  sign  of  histolysis 
in  the  affected  tissue.  Besides  this  there  is  no 
other  evidence  available  in  the  tissues  of  the 
first  instar  larva  which  could  be  regarded  as 
relevant  from  the  histopathological  point  of 
view.  In  the  later  instars  a marked  degree  of 

Section  of  Entomology, 

Department  of  Zoology, 

Aligarh  Muslim  University, 

Aligarh,  U.P. 

Department  of  Entomology, 

College  of  Agriculture, 

G.B.P.U.A.  & T., 

Pan  TN  AGAR, 

Nainital,  U.P., 

September  25,  1980. 


fragmentation  along  with  vacuolization  is  seen 
in  the  region  of  the  proventriculus,  brain  and 
ventral  ganglion.  This  fragmentation  progres- 
sively becomes  more  pronounced  in  the  third 
instar  larva  as  compared  with  the  section  of 
the  normal  larva  of  corresponding  stage.  The 
fragmented  region  shows  a dissolution  of  the 
cells  causing  cleft  between  the  healthy  tissues. 
This  may  be  taken  as  an  evidence  of  the  toxic 
effect  of  the  chemical. 

Further,  the  sterilizing  quality  assigned  to 
metepa  does  not  seem  to  express  itself  during 
the  immature  stages.  Its  sterilizing  quality  may 
be  evident  in  the  adult  flies  which  would  hatch 
from  the  treated  eggs. 

ACK  NOWLEDGE  M E N TS 

We  are  greatly  indebted  to  Dr.  M.  Moin 
Farooqui  for  his  guidance  during  the  progress 
of  this  work.  We  are  also  grateful  to  Prof.  S. 
Mashhood  Alam,  Head,  Department  of  Zoo- 
logy, Aligarh  Muslim  University,  Aligarh  for 
providing  necessary  laboratory  facilities. 

NIKHAT  ARIFA 


MAJID  ALI  KHAN 


221 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


29.  A NEW  POD  BORER,  AD1SURA  MARGIN AL1S  (WALKER) 
(LEPIDOPTERA:  NOCTUIDAE)  ON  REDGRAM, 
CAJANUS  CAJAN  (L.) 


Under  the  genus  Adisura,  five  species  name- 
ly A.  atkinsoni  Moore,  A.  aerugo  (Feld.),  A. 
dulcis  Moore,  A.  marginalis  (Walker)  and  A. 
straminea  Hampson  have  been  recorded  from 
various  parts  of  the  world  including  India. 
According  to  Hampson  (1903),  Adisura  mar- 
ginalis (Walker)  is  distributed  in  Sulthanpur 
(Punjab),  Campbellpur,  Manpuri,  Sikkim, 
Calcutta  and  Cuddapah  of  India.  Lefroy 
(1909)  reported  Adisura  ( Chariclea ) margi- 
nalis (Walker)  a pretty  pink  and  yellow  moth 
to  be  common  in  the  plains  of  India,  but  no 
mention  of  its  host  is  found  in  literature. 

We  observed  the  infestation  of  the  pod  bor- 
ing caterpillar,  Adisura  marginalis  (Walker) 
on  redgram,  Cajanus  cajan  at  the  Main  Re- 
search Station,  University  of  Agricultural  Scien- 
ces, Bangalore  during  September- January 
1972-73.  The  percentage  of  incidence  on  tur 
pods  in  the  field  was  6.  The  insect  has  been 
observed  on  redgram  for  the  first  time  in 
Mysore  State,  and  this  constituted  a new  re- 
cord of  host  in  India. 

Adults  were  Medium-sized  moths  with  light 
brown  forewings;  cilia  of  the  fore  wing  were 
pink  at  the  base  and  white  at  tip;  hind  wings 

Department  of  Entomology, 

Agricultural  College, 

Bangalore-560  024, 

April  25,  1980. 


were  pale  brown  in  colour.  These  moths  differ 
from  A.  atkinsoni  (the  major  pod  borer  moth 
of  Dolichos  lablab)  in  having  a white  costal 
margin  on  the  forewing.  The  moths  were  very 
active. 

The  eggs  were  oval,  whitish  and  laid  on 
flower  buds  and  tender  pods.  The  young  cater- 
pillars fed  by  boring  into  flower  buds  and 
pods.  As  the  caterpillars  grew  old,  they  fed  on 
seeds  by  boring  into  mature  pods.  The  last 
instar  caterpillars  was  green  in  colour,  and 
rarely  light  brown,  with  lateral  white  stripes. 
The  larva  of  this  species  differed  from  that 
of  Adisura  atkinsoni  in  the  absence  of  brown 
markings  on  the  sides  of  the  body.  The  last 
instar  caterpillars  of  A.  atkinsoni  and  A.  mar- 
ginalis, on  an  average  measured  30.0  and 
27.4  mm  in  length,  respectively.  The  full 
grown  caterpillar  of  A.  marginalis  was  also 
found  to  curl  up  when  disturbed.  Pupation 
took  place  in  the  soil  inside  an  earthen  cell. 

Detailed  studies  on  its  biology  and  morpho- 
logy are  in  progress. 

We  are  thankful  to  Dr.  G.  P.  Channa  Basa- 
vanna.  Professor  of  Entomology  for  providing 
facilities  and  encouragement. 

T.  S.  THONTADARYA 
K.  V.  SESHU  REDDY 
R.  GOVINDAN 


References 

Hampson,  G.  F.  (1903)  : Catalogue  of  the  Lepi- 
doptera  Phalaenae  in  the  British  Museum,  4,  119. 

Lefroy,  H.  M.  (1909) : Indian  insect  life.  (Rep. 
ed.,  1971,  Today  and  Tomorrow’s  print  and  pub., 
New  Delhi).  Thacker  Spink  & Co.,  Calcutta. 


222 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


30.  AN  AMPLIFIED  DESCRIPTION  OF  A HITHERTO 
UNCOMMON  SPECIES  CRA IBIODENDRON  MANNII  W.  W.  SMITH 

(ERICACEAE) 

( With  nine  text-figures) 


Many  areas  in  India  still  hold  several  taxa 
to  be  discovered  and  described.  Of  even  more 
importance  is  the  scanty  descriptions  of  old 
taxa  collected  in  India  by  early  workers  which 
have  not  been  fully  described.  The  striking- 
example  to  illustrate  this  is  the  uncommon 
species  Craibiodendron  mannii  W.  W.  Sm.  of 
the  Ericaceae  which  a complete  needs  redes- 
cription. The  genus  Craibiodendron  was  first 
founded  and  described  by  W.  W.  Smith  (1911), 
as  an  honour  to  Mr.  W.  G.  Craib,  on  the 
basis  of  Burma  and  Siam  specimens  of  C. 
shanicum  deposited,  in  Kew  and  Edinburgh 
herbaria.  Subsequently,  Smith  (1912)  describ- 
ed insufficiently  C.  mannii  taking  the  specific 
epithet  from  the  MS  name  Leucothoe  mannii 
King  et  Prain  (MS  deposited  in  CAL).  The 
specimen  was  collected  by  Gustav  Mann  from 
Juudmaka  Pahar  of  Jowai,  near  Jaintia 
Hills,  Meghalaya  of  India.  Some  plants 
were  also  collected  by  King  et  Prain 
from  the  same  locality  whereas  N.  L. 
Bor  collected  this  plant  from  Naga  Hills 
of  Nagaland.  Kanjilal  (1939)  recorded 
a scanty  and  quite  erroneous  description  of 
this  plant  and  also  did  not  illustrate;  further 
he  kept  it  under  Pier  is  formosa  D.  Don.  A 
check  of  the  herbarium  sheets  of  the  Eastern 
Circle  of  BSI  (ASSAM),  Shillong,  and  Forest 
Research  Institute  Herbarium  (DD),  Dehra 
Dun,  has  revealed  that  there  is  no  recent  col- 
lections of  this  plant.  Further  this  species  differs 
from  the  species  of  the  related  genera 
in  the  presence  of  terminal  spheroidal  cells 
which  is  evidently  a generic  feature  of  the 
mesophyll  of  all  the  other  species  of  Craibio- 


dendron (details  of  which  will  be  published 
elsewhere). 

Craibiodendron 

W.  W.  Sm.,  Rec.  Bot.  Surv.  India  4:  276. 
1911  et  Notes  R.  bot.  Gdn.  Edinb.  24:  157. 
1912;  Stevens,  Notes  R.  bot.  Gdn.  30(2):  342. 
1970  (including  Nuihonia  Dop  in  Lecomte,  FI. 
Gen.  Indo-China  3:  719.  1930). 

Type  sp.  C.  shanicum  W.  W.  Sm. 

The  seven  species  of  this  genus  is  confined 
to  South  East  Asia.  Among  them  C.  mannii 
is  endemic  in  India  and  restricted  to  Megha- 
laya and  Nagaland.  C.  shanicum  is  recorded 
in  Manipur  (INDIA)  and  other  regions  of 
South  East  Asia.  The  other  5 species  have 
scattered  distribution  in  China,  Burma,  Cam- 
bodia, Laos  and  Thailand. 

Craibiodendron  mannii  W.W.  Sm.  Notes  R. 
bot.  Gdn.  24:  159.  1912;  Kanjilal  et  al.  FI. 
Assam  3:  151.  1939. 

Robust  shrubs  or  small  trees.  Branches 
and  branchlets  glabrous.  Leaves  8-8.5  x ± 
3 cm,  alternate,  ovate-lanceolate,  apex  acute  or 
subobtuse,  base  cuneate,  margins  entire,  coria- 
ceous, glabrous  on  both  surfaces,  nerves  c.  20- 
paired,  conspicuous  on  both  surfaces,  secon- 
dary veins  brochidodromous,  abaxially  conspi- 
cuous; petioles  ± 1 cm,  glabrous.  Inflores- 
cences raceme,  clustered  panicle  to  thyrse,  =t 
8 cm  long,  compressed;  pedicels  ± 0.2cm; 
bracteoles  2,  deciduous.  Flowers  c.  0.3  x 0.25 
cm,  pendulous,  alternate  or  opposite  but  always 
terminally  paired.  Sepals  5,  ± 0.15  cm  long, 
base  slightly  imbricate  apex  free,  persistent. 


223 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Figs.  1-9.  Craibiodendron  mannii  W.W.  Smith 
1.  Flowering  and  fruiting  twigs;  2.  Flower;  3.  Androecium;  4.  & 5.  Stamens;  6.  Ovary; 
7.  Transection  of  ovary  — axile  placentation;  8.  Capsule;  9.  Triangular  seeds  uni- 
laterally winged. 


224 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


tomentose  in  buds.  Corolla  tubes  0.25  cm, 
narrowly  campanulate,  lobes  5,  0.15  cm  long, 
erect,  slightly  imbricate,  completely  joint  in 
buds.  Stamens  ± 0 . 2 cm  long,  filaments  adnate 
at  the  base  of  the  corolla-tube,  lower  half 
pouched,  slightly  puberulous,  base  serrulate, 
falsely  adhered  on  the  thalamous,  encircling 
the  style  base,  upper  half  curled,  geniculate, 
free;  anthers  2-lobed,  muticous,  pseudo- 
syngenesious;  back  of  the  anthers  in  bud  are 
covered  with  narrow  patches  of  white  deposits 
of  dissolution  tissue,  composed  of  unicellular 
hairs.  Ovary  ± 0 . 2 cm  x 0.1  cm,  apparently 
oblageniform,  superior,  covered  with  triangular 
worts,  5-chambered;  ovules  solitary,  triangu- 
lar placentation  axile,  styles  ± 0.1  cm  long, 
warted;  stigmas  5-angular,  sparsely  strigose, 
projecting.  Capsules  1 cm  across,  puberulous, 
locules  5,  splitting  up  to  the  centre  at  matu- 
rity; seeds  pendulous,  ± 0.5  cm,  triangular, 
unilaterally  winged.  (Figs.  1-9). 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Howrah-711  103, 

July  22,  1980. 


Type:  Meghalaya,  Juudmaka  Pahar  (6000 
ft),  August  1891.  G.  Mann  s.n.  (CAL). 

Specimens  examined: 

India-Nagaland,  Naga  Hills,  N.  L.  Bor  2828 
(assam);  Jowai,  Dr.  King’s  collector  s.  n.; 
Jaintia  hills.  Dr.  King’s  collector  s.  n.;  Juud- 
maka Pahar,  G.  Mann  s.  n.  (CAL);  Naga 
hills,  N.  L.  Bor  6271,  2828  (DD).  C.  shanicum 
W.  W.  Sm.,  India-Manipur,  Shugnu,  D.  B.  Deb 
2633  (CAL). 

Acknowledgements 

We  wish  to  thank  Dr.  J.  Joseph,  Deputy 
Director,  Eastern  Circle,  B.S.I.,  Shillong,  and 
Sri  K.  M.  Vaid,  Systematic  Botany  Branch, 
Forest  Research  Institute,  Dehra  Dun,  for 
sending  the  herbarium  specimens  for  our  study. 

T.  ANANDA  RAO 
SWAPNA  CHAKRABORTI 


31.  LYCIUM  CH1NENSE  MILL.  (SOLANACEAE)  FROM  INDIA 

{With  a text -figure) 


Lycium  chinense  Mill.  — a native  of  China 
and  Japan,  also  growing  in  Tibet  and  culti- 
vated in  Eastern  Asia  for  showy  rambling 
habit,  evergreen  leaves  and  colourful  berries 
— is  now  recorded  here  for  the  first  time  in 
India  from  West  Bengal. 

The  occurrence  of  this  taxon  in  West  Ben- 
gal suggests  its  introduction  by  human  agency 
at  an  earlier  date  and  subsequent  migration 
either  directly  through  North  Bengal  or 
through  Assam  via  Tibet  into  Eastern  India 


or  as  garden  escape. 

A concise  description  alongwith  an  illustra- 
tion of  this  taxon  is  provided  here. 

Lycium  chinense  Mill.  Gard.  Diet.  ed.  VIII 
n.  5.  1768;  Bailey  Stand.  Cyclop.  Hort.  4 
(L-O):  1930.  1916  and  Manual  Cult.  PI. 
872.  1924;  Baker  and  Bakhuizen  f.  FI.  Java 
2:  467.  1965. 

Erect  to  rambling  shrub,  much  branched, 
older  twigs  often  with  few  spines.  Leaves  alter- 
nate and  fascicled,  very  variable  in  size  and 

225 


15 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Fig.  1.  Lycium  chinense  Mill. 

A.  Habit  (in  part) ; B.  Calyx;  C.  Split  Corolla;  D.  Stamen;  E.  Pistil;  F.  Fruit;  G.  Seeds. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


shape,  1-4.5  cm  x 0.5-1  cm,  obovate-rhomboid 
spathulate,  acute,  entire,  base  cuneate  to  at- 
tenuate gradually  ends  in  short  5-8  mm  long 
narrow  petiole.  Flowers  axillary,  solitary  or 
fascicled,  1-2  flowered;  pedicels  slender,  10  mm 
long,  glabrous.  Calyx  irregularly  5-lobed,  1-1.5 
mm  union,  two  lobes  united  of  two  and  one 
alone,  ovate,  2 mm  x 1-1.2  mm,  acute,  ciliate 
at  apex  margin  as  well  as  subciliate  to  the 
outer  surface.  Corolla  5-lobed  slightly  hetero- 
morphic,  2 broader  and  3 smaller,  salver- 
shaped, tube  3 mm  long,  shorter  than  lobes, 
constricted  at  1 . 5 mm  above  base,  lobes  ovate 
elliptic,  4-4.2  mm  x 2.8-3  mm,  reflexed  dur- 
ing anthesis,  margin  minutely  ciliate,  base  with 
a ring  of  minute  hairs  alongwith  the  filaments 
base.  Stamens  5,  slightly  unequal  in  length, 
2 longer  and  3 smaller,  filaments  5.5-6  mm 
long,  exserted,  base  swollen  with  a tuft  of  hairs; 
anthers  1.5  mm  long,  oblong,  1 -celled,  longi- 
tudinally dehiscent.  Ovary  oblong,  2 mm  long, 
2-celled,  few  to  many  ovuled;  style  8 mm  long, 
slender,  glabrous;  stigma  bilobed,  widened. 
Berry  ovoid-ellipsoid,  6-8  mm  diam.;  seeds 
many,  descending  imbricate,  reniform-circular, 
2 mm  x 1.5 -1.8  mm,  compressed,  orange 
brown,  finely  reticulate  (Fig.  A-G). 

Flowers  and  fruits  — January  to  April. 

Rare,  in  waste  land. 

Field  notes : This  species  was  found  growing 
in  open  association  with  Alternant  her  a sessilis 
(Linn.)  R.  Br.  ex  DC.  Cleome  gynandra  Linn., 
Coccinia  grandis  (Linn.)  Voight,  Cynodon 
dactylon  Pers.,  Imperata  cylindrica  (Linn.) 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Indian  Botanic  Garden, 

Howrah-711  103, 

November  15,  1980. 


Beauv.,  Malachra  capitata  Linn. 

Specimens  examined : 

India;  West  Bengal;  24-Parganas,  Titagarh, 
Das  s.  n.  (CAL). 

China:  Flupeh  3346  (CAL)  Yokohama  s.  n. 
(CAL)  (Fokein  China,  Dunn  s.  n.  (CAL). 

Japan:  Maximowicz  s.  n.  (CAL) 

Tibet:  Shanghi;  A-C  Maingay  297  & 680 
(CAL)  Pinfa  kweichow;  Y.  Tsiang  5396 
(CAL);  Djeddu  s.  n.  (CAL);  Lhassa; 
Dungboo  s.  n.  (CAL). 

In  India  three  other  species  as  L.  europaeum 
L.,  L.  barbatum  L.  and  L.  ruthenieum  Murr. 
are  growing  in  Rajasthan,  Punjab  and  Kash- 
mir. The  present  taxon  is  closely  related  to 
the  last  one.  A key  to  all  Indian  species  pre- 
sented here  to  facilitate  the  identification  of 
Indian  Lycium  L. 

A.  Leaves  linear-oblong;  filaments 
glabrous  throughout; 

B Corolla  lobes  not  half  so  long 

as  the  tube  europaeum 

BB  Corolla  lobes  more  than  half 

as  the  tube  barbatum 

AA  Leaves  linear  or  ovate-rhomboid 
spathulate,  filaments  at  base  swol- 
len and  hairy; 

B’  Leaves  linear,  2-5  cm  long 
with  rounded  to  obtuse  apex; 
flowers  4-5  in  each  cluster; 
berry  globose,  few  seeded  ruthenieum 

B’B’  Leaves  obovate  — rhomboid 
spathulate,  1-4.5  cm  long  apex 
acute,  flowers  1-2  in  each  clus- 
ter, berry  ovoid  to  ellipsoid, 
many  seeded  chinense 

BARIN  GHOSH 
GOUR  GOPAL  MAITY 


227 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


32.  GENTIAN  A PROSTRATA  HAENKE  VAR.  MANGOLICA  KUSN. 
(GENTIANACEAE)  — A NEW  RECORD  FOR  INDIA 

(With  seven  text-figures ) 


While  engaged  in  revising  the  fam.  Gentia- 
naceae,  at  Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Northern 
Circle,  Dehra  Dun  (BSD),  a few  specimens 
collected  by  Dr.  U.  C.  Bhattacharyya,  were 
found  to  be  Gentiana  prostrata  Haenke  var. 
mangolica  Kusn.  (1904).  Comparison  with  a 
duplicate  of  the  syntype  of  var.  mangolica 
Kusn.,  at  CAL  confirmed  the  identity. 

Further  the  list  of  Indian  Gentianaceae,  re- 
vealed that  the  taxon,  is  new  to  India. 

The  var.  mangolica  Kusn.  is  quite  distinct 
from  other  varieties  of  Gentiana  prostrata 
Haenke.  The  rotundate  apices  of  corolla  lobes, 
oblong  capsule  with  rounded  base  and  larger 
size  of  seeds  are  good  differentiating  characters 
of  the  taxon  from  allied  ones.  The  full  cita- 
tion and  distribution  etc.  is  as  follows  — 

Wealth  of  India,  Botany  Section, 
Publications  & Information 
Directorate  (CSIR), 

New  Delhi- 12, 

September  8,  1981. 


Gentiana  prostrata  Haenke  var.  mangolica 
Kusn.  in  Acta  Horti  Petrop.  15  (3):  369. 
1904. 

Syntypes : Mongolia:  Kossogol,  Czekanow- 

sky  s.  n.  (LE);  Ubsa,  Potanin  (LE);  Korea 
11000-12000  ft  (±  3594-3920  m),  1885, 
Przewalsky  s.  n.  (LE,  Dupl.  CAL!) 
Etymology : Named  on  type  locality,  Mongolia. 
Distribution : India:  Jammu  & Kashmir, 

Mongolia. 

Specimens  Examined : Jammu  & Kashmir  — 
Ladakh,  Debring,  Rupshu,  4600  m,  4 Sept. 
1970,  Bhattacharyya  4 1003 A (BSD). 

Since  in  literature  there  is  no  illustration  of 
the  taxon,  a figure  of  the  habit-sketch,  enlarged 
and  opened  floral  parts,  is  being  given  here. 

SUNITA  AGRAWAL 


33.  RECORD  OF  PLANT  AGO  AFRA  LINN.  (PL  ANT  AGIN  ACE  AE) 

FROM  MAHARASHTRA 


While  studying  the  specimens  of  Plantago 
Linn,  in  the  herbarium  of  the  Western  Circle 
of  Botanical  Survey  of  India  ( BS1 ) at  Pune, 
some  unidentified  specimens  kept  under  a 
species  folder  labelled  as  Plantago  species 
dubia  were  critically  examined  and  subsequent- 
ly identified  as  Plantago  afra  L.,  which  is  a 
native  of  Mediterranean  region.  J.  D.  Hooker 
(1885)  reported  it  from  ‘North-Western  Pun- 


jab’. This  plant  has  not  been  reported  by  Cooke 
(1906).  Subsequently  it  was  reported  by 
Chohan  and  Shah  (1965)  from  Gujarat  State, 
as  a weed  in  Cuminum  cyminum  Linn,  fields. 
This  is  the  first  record  of  this  taxon  from 
Maharashtra.  The  plant  is  medicinally  and  eco- 
nomically useful  (Anonymous  1969).  Its  cita- 
tion and  brief  description  are  as  follows: 
Plantago  afra  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  ed.  2.  168.  1762; 


228 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Figs.  1-7.  Gentiana  prostrata  Haenke  var.  mangolica  Kusn. 

1.  Habit  sketch;  2.  Calyx  (opened);  3.  Corolla  (opened);  4.  Stamen;  5.  Gynoecium; 

6.  Capsule;  7.  Seeds. 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Verde,  in  Kew  Bull.  23:  509.  1969.  P.  psyllium 
Linn.  Sp.  PI.  ed.  2.  167.  1762.  non  Linn.  Sp. 
PI.  115.  1753;  Hook.  f.  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  4:  707. 
1885;  Bamber,  PI.  Punj.  426.  1916. 

Erect,  branched  herbs  up  to  14  cm  tall. 
Young  branches  glandular-pubescent.  Leaves 
cauline,  linear,  upto  4 cm  long,  opposite  or 
sub-opposite.  Flowers  in  spikes  on  axillary 
peduncles.  Spikes  up  to  1.2  cm  long,  ovoid, 
bracts  upto  0.7  cm  long,  with  grandular  and 
simple  hairs.  Calyx  lobes  with  scarious,  glan- 
dular and  simple  hairy  margins.  Corolla  tube 
rugulose,  lobes  ovate,  acute.  Stamens  4.  Style 
hairy,  stigmas  2.  Fruit  circumscissile  a little 
below  the  middle.  Seeds  boat  shaped. 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Western  Circle, 

Pune-411  001, 

June  18,  1980. 


lllus : P.  psyllium  Linn,  l.c.:  Chohan  and 
Shah,  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  62:  327.  fig. 
1-4.  1965;  P.  ctjra  Linn,  l.c.:  Verde,  in  Milne 
Redhead  and  Polhill,  FI.  Trop.  E.  Africa, 
Plantaginaceae  6.  fig.  1/10.  1971;  Kazmi  in 
Nasir  and  Ali,  FI.  W.  Pak.  no.  62:  19,  fig.  3A- 
B.  1974. 

FI.  & Frt .:  July.  Loc.:  Poonagiri,  9-7-1925 
(without  collector’s  name  and  number). 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  thankful  to  the  Director,  Botanical 
Survey  of  India,  Howrah  and  the  Deputy 
Director,  Western  Circle,  Botanical  Survey  of 
India,  Pune  for  facilities. 

S.  KARTHIKEYAN 
ANAND  KUMAR 


References 


Anonymous  (1969):  The  Wealth  of  India  8: 
153.  fig.  53.  CSIR,  New  Delhi. 

Chohan,  J.  G.  & Shah,  G.  L.  (1965) : On  the 
occurrence  of  Plantaga  psyllium  Linn,  in  Gujarat. 
J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  62:  327. 


Cooke*  T.  (1906) : Flora  of  the  Presidency  of 
Bombay.  Vol.  II.  London. 

Hooker,  J.  D.  (1885) : The  Flora  of  British  India. 
Vol.  4.  Kent. 


34.  ST ACHYT ARPHET A CAYENNENSIS  (L.  C.  RICH.)  SCHAU.  — 
A NEW  RECORD  FOR  INDIA  AND  WITH  A KEY  TO  THE 

INDIAN  SPECIES 


{With  six  text-figures) 


According  to  literature  available  at  hand  the 
American  genus  Stachytarpheta  Vahl  (Verbe- 
naceae)  is  commonly  represented  in  India,  by 
the  naturalised  species  Stachytarpheta  indica 
(Linn.)  Vahl  and  S.  jamaicensis  Vahl  as  weeds 
of  waste  places  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. Another  species,  Stachytarpheta  mutabilis 
(Jacq.)  Vahl,  has  recently  been  introduced  into 


some  of  the  Indian  Gardens  in  the  hills  and 
is  sometimes  found  as  an  escape.  A fourth 
species  is  now  rapidly  spreading  as  a weed  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Peninsular  India,  parti- 
cularly as  undergrowth  among  plantations  and 
along  the  banks  of  canals,  streams  and  rivers 
creating  some  concern  among  people  about 
future  consequences.  When  and  how  this  plant 


230 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Figs.  1-6.  Stachytarpheta  cayennensis  (L.  C.  Rich.)  Schau. 

1.  A branch;  2.  Bract;  3.  Calyx  tube  showing  the  four  prominent  teeth;  4.  Part  of 
calyx  tube  showing  the  fifth  tooth;  5.  Corolla  split  opened;  6.  Gynoecium. 


231 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


entered  into  this  country  is  not  known.  It 
closely  resembles  Stachytarpheta  indica  (Linn.) 
Vahl  and  is  usually  mistaken  to  be  the  same 
species.  On  closer  scrutiny  this  new  entrant 
turned  out  to  be  S.  cayennensis  (L.  C.  Rich.  ) 
Schau.,  a native  of  Tropical  America,  now 
running  wild  in  Africa  (Brenan  1950).  Stachy- 
tarpheta cayennensis  (L.  C.  Rich.)  Schau.  can 
be  distinguished  from  other  Indian  species 
using  the  following  key:  — 

1.  Calyx  10-14  mm  long;  spike  40-100  cm  long; 
c.  5 mm  across;  bracts  10-12  mm  long;  limb 
of  corolla  15  mm  across S.  mutabilis 

1.  Calyx  4-6  mm  long;  spike  15-40  cm  long,  c. 

2.5  mm  across;  bracts  4-5  mm  long;  limb  of 
corolla  7-12  mm  across 2 

2.  Calyx  teeth  5,  4 teeth  more  or  less  equal  in 
length,  fifth  one  very  short;  bracts  0.5-1  mm 

wide,  prominently  ciliate  on  margins 

S.  cayennensis 

2.  Calyx  teeth  4,  all  equal  in  length  or  nearly  so; 

bracts  1.25-2.5  mm  wide,  obscurely  ciliate  on 
margins  3 

3.  Leaves  ovate  or  ovate-elliptic,  coarsely  crenate- 

serrate,  pale  green;  secondary  lateral  nerves 
prominent  beneath S.  jamaicensis 

3.  Leaves  oblong  or  subovate,  finely  serrate,  bright 
green;  secondary  lateral  nerves  not  prominent 
beneath  5.  indica 

A description  of  the  species,  and  figures  are 
provided  for  easy  determination  of  the  taxon. 
The  specimens  cited  are  deposited  in  the  Her- 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Coimbatore,  Tamil  Nadu, 

September  8,  1980. 


barium  of  Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Coim- 
batore (MH). 

Stachytarpheta  cayennensis  (L.  C.  Rich.) 
Schau.  in  DC.  Prodr.  11:  562.  1847;  Danser  in 
Ann.  Jard.  Bot.  Buitenz.  40:  2.  1929,  Brenan 
in  Kew  Bull.  5:  223.  1950. 

Undershrub,  c.  1 m high;  branches  slender, 
pubescent.  Leaves  1-5  x 0.5-3  cm,  opposite, 
ovate  to  oval-elliptic,  more  or  less  densely 
hairy  on  nerves;  crenate-serrate  with  10-18 
serratures  on  either  side,  obtuse  at  apex,  obli- 
que at  base.  Flowers  in  axillary  and  terminal, 
pubescent  spikes  15-23  cm  long  and  c.  3 mm 
across;  bracts,  c 4 mm  long,  linear-lanceolate, 
ciliate  on  margins.  Calyx  tube  4-5  mm  long, 
1 . 5-2  mm  across,  narrowly  cylindric,  pubes- 
cent; teeth  5,  4 posterior  on  the  anticous 
(outer)  side,  unequal;  fifth  tooth  very  small. 
Corolla  white;  tube  4-5  mm  long,  hirsute  on 
throat;  lobes  5,  each  c.  1.5  mm  long.  Perfect 
stamens  2,  epipetalous,  included;  filaments  very 
short,  pubescent;  staminodes  2,  hairy.  Ovary 

2- loculed,  ovules  solitary;  style  filiform;  stigma 
capitate  or  slightly  bilobed.  Fruit  3-3.5  mm 
long,  c.  1 mm  across,  glabrous. 

Distribution : Tropical  America,  Africa. 

Specimens  examined : kerala.  Quilon 

Dt.:  Placherry,  Ranni  R.F.,  16-12-1979,  C.  N. 
Mohanan  63767;  Alleppey  Dt.:  Nedumudy, 

3- 3-1980,  P.  V.  Sreekumar  67040. 

N.  C.  NAIR 
C.  N.  MOHANAN 
P.  V.  SREEKUMAR 


Reference 

Brenan,  J.  P.  M.  (1950) : Plants  of  the  Cam- 
bridge expedition  1947-1948  — I.  Kew  Bull.  5:  223. 


232 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


35.  STACHYTARPHETA  DICHOTOMA  VAHL  (VERBENACEAE)  — 
A NEW  RECORD  FOR  INDIA 


( With  a text-figure ) 


The  genus  Stachytarpheta  Vahl  is  represent- 
ed by  2 species  in  India  — S.  indica  Vahl 
( S . jamaicensis  Vahl)  and  S.  mutabilis  Vahl. 
During  the  course  of  a botanical  exploration  in 
Garo  Hills  in  Meghalaya,  another  interesting 
species  was  collected  as  a dominant  weed  along 
roadsides  and  in  forest  clearings.  The  species 
was  identified  as  S.  dichotoma  Vahl.  Reference 


to  literature  reveals  that  this  species,  like  most 
other  species  of  the  genus  is  mostly  confined 
to  tropical  American  countries  and  thus  the 
present  report  from  Meghalaya  forms  a new 
record  for  India 

Stachytarpheta  dichotoma  closely  resembles 
S.  indica  and  some  of  the  sheets  have  been 
wrongly  identified  as  S.  indica  in  the  Assam 


Fig.  1.  Stachytarpheta  dichotoma  Vahl. 

A — a twig;  B — flower;  C — flower  cut-open  showing  stamen  & pistil;  D — bract; 

E — calyx. 


233 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


herbarium.  Probably  this  species  may  also  occur 
in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  being 
confused  with  the  other  species.  However,  the 
present  species  can  be  separated  from  S.  indica 
as  follows: 

Branches  green,  spikes  erect;  corolla  deep  blue; 

limb  6-8  mm  across,  tube  6-8  mm  long 

indica 

Branches  purple  or  green;  spikes  decurved  or  droop- 
ing; corolla  light  blue  turning  white;  limb 
3-4  mm  across;  tube  4-5  mm  long. . . .dichotoma 

Detailed  description  along  with  illustrations 
of  the  plant  are  given  to  facilitate  its  easy 
identification. 

Stachytarpheta  dichotoma  Vahl,  Enum.  PI. 
1:  207.  1805. 

Much  branched  undershrubs;  branches  dicho- 
tomous, purplish  or  sometimes  green,  faintly 
quadrangular,  sparsely  hairy;  leaves  5-10  x 
2-4 . 5 cm,  ovate-elliptic,  dentate,  base  decur- 
rent along  the  petiole;  flowers  sessile,  immers- 
ed in  long,  slender  decurved  spikes,  bracteate; 

Department  of  Botany, 

North-Eastern  Hill  University, 
Shillong-793  014, 

July  22,  1980. 


bracts  lanceolate-subulate,  4-4.5  mm  long  (D); 
spikes  10-30  cm  long;  calyx  tubular,  5-ribbed, 
5 mm  long  (E);  corolla  salver-shaped,  light 
blue  turning  to  white  (C) ; limb  3-4  mm  across, 
oblique,  5-lobed;  tube  curved,  5 mm  long,  hairy 
within  (C);  stamens  2,  filaments  slender,  in- 
cluded; ovary  2 locular,  ovule  1 in  each  locule; 
style  long,  filiform,  persistent;  stigma  capitate; 
drupe  firmly  enclosed  in  the  calyx  tube,  break- 
ing up  into  two  1 -seeded  pyrenes. 

FIs  & Frts.:  Major  part  of  the  year. 

Notes : Native  to  Tropical  America,  fairly 
naturalized  in  Meghalaya,  specially  in  Garo 
Hills. 

Specimens  studied : Meghalaya:  Garo  Hills- 
Tasek  B.  Neogi  3569;  K.  Haridasan  4110, 
Darugiri  4125  (*NEHU). 

We  are  thankful  to  the  Director,  Royal 
Botanic  Garden,  Kew  for  determining  our 
specimens. 

R.  R.  RAO 
B.  NEOGI 
K.  HARIDASAN 


* The  abbreviation  ‘NEHU’  is  yet  to  find  a place 
in  ‘ Index  Herbarium’. 


j. 

36.  NOTES  ON  THREE  RARE  AND  INTERESTING  ORCHIDS 
COLLECTED  FROM  TRIVANDRUM  DISTRICT,  KERALA 


The  systematic  and  intensive  exploration  of 
the  botany  of  Trivandrum  Dt.,  Kerala  have 
so  far  resulted  in  the  rediscovery  of  a number 
of  rare  and  little  known  plants.  Notes  on  three 
rare  terrestrial  orchids  namely  Aphyllorchis 
montana  (Thw.)  Reichb.  f.,  F,ulophia  cellenii 
(Wight)  Blume  and  Malaxis  latifolia  Sm.  are 
presented  in  this  paper. 


Aphyllorchis  montana  (Thw.)  Reichb.  f?  }in 
Linnaea  41:  57.  1876;  Hook  f.  FI.  Brit. 
India  6:  116.  1890;  Fischer  in  Gamble, 
FI.  Pres.  Madras  3:  1014.  1957  (repr.  ed.); 
King  & Pantl.  in  Ann.  Roy.  Bot.  Gard. 
Calcutta  8:  t.  349.  1898.  Apaturia  mon- 
tana Thw.  Enum.  301.  1861. 

Terrestrial,  saprophytic  herbs  devoid  of 


234 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


chlorophyll,  50-60  cm  high;  stems  sheathed. 
Basal  sheaths  1 cm  long,  close;  upper  1.5  cm 
long,  4-5  cm  apart.  Flowers  straw-coloured  in 
racemes  upto  20  cm  long;  bracts  up  to  1 cm 
long,  lanceolate.  Sepals  up  to  1 cm  long,  ovate, 
obtuse.  Petals  up  to  1 cm  long  with  a promi- 
nent mid  rib;  lip  1 x 0.5cm,  3-lobed,  broader 
than  the  sepals,  clawed,  mid  lobe  tapering 
towards  the  apex  into  an  obtuse  tip,  side  lobes 
rounded;  column  9 mm  long;  stigma  short, 
ovate;  anthers  2-celled;  pollinia  2,  each  2-lobed. 

Hooker  (1.  c.)  recorded  this  species  from 
“Khasia  Mts.,  and  Sikkim  Himalaya  (Griffith) 
and  Ambagamowa  Dt.  in  Ceylon  (Thwaites)”. 
Although  Gamble  (l.c.)  stated  that  this  plant 
occur  in  “Mysore  at  Cadamany  (Barber)  Ana- 
malai  Hills;  Karianshola  in  dense  evergreen 
forests  at  2500  ft.  (Fischer)”,  no  representa- 
tive collection  of  this  species  is  available  in 
MH  and  no  collection  from  South  India  is 
available  in  CAL.  The  present  collection  from 
Boneccord  in  Trivandrum  Dt.  is  its  first  report 
from  Kerala. 

Aphyllorchis  montana  (Thw.)  Reichb.  f.  is 
closely  allied  to  A.  prainii  Hook,  f.,  and  both 
of  them  are  often  treated  as  conspecific.  Seiden- 
faden  writes  (on  the  Herbarium  Sheet  No.  171 
of  A.  prainii  Hook.  f.  collected  by  G.  Craib 
and  deposited  at  CAL):  “L believe  A.  prainii 
to  be  conspecific  with  A.  montana”.  A.  mon- 
tana is,  however,  distinct  from  A.  prainii  by 
the  absence  of  the  Ovate,  acute  wing  like  auri- 
cles at  the  claw  of  the  lip. 

This  plant  is  very  rarely  found  in  the  shady 
undergrowth  of  the  dense  evergreen  forest  in 
moist  humus  enriched  soil. 

Specimens  examined : Assam.  Dasrung: 

Jaintia  Hills,  June  1899,  Dr.  Train  304  (CAL). 
SIKKIM  HIMALAYA.  Suru  Bathan,  August  1894, 
R.  Pantling  344  (CAL),  kerala.  Trivandrum 
Dt.:  Boneccord,  26-5-1979,  M.  Mohanan 

63292  (MH). 


Eulophia  cullenii  (Wight)  Blume,  Orch. 
Archip.  Ind.  182.  1858,  in  Obs.;  Radha- 
krishnan  in  Bull.  bot.  Surv.  India  13:  3. 
1971.  Cyrtopera  cullenii  Wight,  Icon.  t. 
1754.  1851.  Eulophia  flava  (Lindl.)  Hook, 
f.  FI.  Brit.  India  6:  7.  1890.  p.  p.  E. 
cullenii  (Wight)  Fischer  in  Gamble  FI. 
Pres.  Madras  1435.  1928. 

Terrestrial  herbs,  up  to  0.5  high;  rhizome 
tuberous.  Leaves  up  to  27  x 6 cm,  oblong- 
lanceolate,  acute  appearing  with  the  inflores- 
cence. Flowers  5 . 5 cm  long,  bright  yellow,  in 
racemes  up  to  0.4m  long;  bracts  1.5  x 0.3  — 
0.5  cm,  ovate-  lanceolate,  acuminate,  yellow; 
pedicels  2 . 5 cm  long.  Dorsal  sepals  3 cm  long, 
narrowly  lanceolate,  acute;  laterals  up  to  3.5  cm 
long,  falcate,  oblanceolate.  Petals  2.5  x 1.5  cm, 
broadly  ovate,  clavate.  Lip  3-lobed;  lateral 
lobes  up  to  2 cm  long,  obtuse,  falcate;  midlobes 
1 cm  long  tongue-shaped  with  3 crests.  Men- 
tum  conical;  column  1 . 5 cm  long,  flat;  stigma 
conical,  oblique;  pollinia  two,  jointed  with  a 
strap,  granular. 

This  species  is  closely  allied  to  E.  flava 
(Lindl.)  Hook.  f.  but  differs  by  the  mature 
leaves  being  larger  in  size  and  the  absence 
of  pyriform  basal  cali  at  the  disc.  Distinguish- 
ing the  two  species,  Robert  Wight  l.c.  writes, 
“I  am  indebted  to  General  Cullen,  Resident 
of  Travancore,  for  my  specimens  of  this  gor- 
geous plant.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  C.  flava,  with 
which  I at  first  confounded  it.  Like  it  the 
flowers  are  yellow  and  scape  appears  before 
the  leaves,  but  the  appearance  of  the  plant  so 
far  as  I can  learn  from  the  comparison  with 
Dr.  Royles  figure  is  altogether  different.  On 
these  grounds  I have  dedicated  it  to  the  dis- 
coverer, a zealous  investigator  of  the  plants  of 
that  tract  of  country  but  more  especially  of 
the  economical  application  of  the  useful  ones. 
This  plant  seems  to  be  a large  one  some  of 
the  leaves  being  nearly  2 ft.  in  length.” 


235 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


This  species  is  not  so  far  represented  in 
MH.  The  present  collection  is  made  during 
March  from  Pattampara,  on  the  way  to  Agas- 
tyarkudam  where  a small  population  of  it  was 
seen  in  flower  in  the  rocky  regions  of  the  grassy 
slopes.  It  was  introduced  in  the  experimental 
garden  at  Coimbatore  but  it  failed  to  flower 
so  far. 

The  valid  publication  of  E.  cullenii  dates 
from  Blume  (1858)  and  the  combination  made 
afresh  by  Fischer  (1928)  is  superfluous. 

Specimens  examined : kerala.  Trivandrum 
Dt.:  Pattampara,  17.3.1978,  M.  Mohanan 
54686  (MH). 

Malaxis  latifolia  Sm.  Rees.  Cycl.  22:  no.  3. 
1819;  Holttum  in  Revis.  FI.  Malaya  1: 
195.  1972  (repr.  ed.);  Seidenfaden  & 
Smitinand  in  Orch.  Thailand  2(1):  146. 
1959.  Microstylis  latifolia  J.  J.  Sm.  FI.  Buit. 
6:  248,  f.  185.  1905.  M.  congesta  Reichb. 
f.  Walp.  Ann.  6:  206.  1861;  Hooker  in 
FI.  Brit.  India  5:  680.  1890;  King  & Pantl. 
in  Ann.  Roy.  Bot.  Gard.  Calcutta  8:  PI. 
23.  1898. 

Terrestrial  herbs;  stems  stout,  4-5  leaved. 
Leaves  14-27  x 7-8  cm,  ovate-elliptic;  petioles 
broad  with  a sheath  of  3-4  cm  long.  Scape 
with  raceme  20-25  cm  long,  stout.  Flowers 
yellowish  green,  closely  arranged;  bracts  up 
to  5 mm  long;  pedicels  3 mm  long.  Sepals 
curved  inwards;  dorsal  3-4  x 1 mm;  laterals 
3-4  x 1.5  mm,  3-nerved.  Petals  4 x 0.5  mm; 
lip  2 x 2 mm,  3-lobed,  side  lobes  broad  and 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Coimbatore- 641  003, 

September  26,  1980. 


blunt.  Column  0.9mm  long;  anthers  on  the 
back  of  the  column,  pollinia  4. 

Although  Hooker  recorded  this  plant  from 
Deccan  Peninsula  no  earlier  collections  from 
South  India  and  elsewhere  is  represented  in 
MH  so  far.  The  species  was  found  rare  in  the 
undergrowth  of  dense  evergreen  forests  of 
Boneccord. 

This  species  is  an  addition  to  the  Gamble’s 
FI.  Pres.  Madras  and  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  other  South  Indian  species  as  follows: 

1.  Lip  with  auricles M.  acuminata 

1.  Lip  without  auricles: 

2.  Lip  distinctly  3-lobed;  lobes  entire  at 

apex  M.  latifolia 

2.  Lip  without  distinct  lobes,  apex  lacirate: 

3.  Plants  with  pseudobulbs;  leaves  sessile. 

M.  densiflora 

3.  Plants  without  pseudobulbs;  leaves 
petioled : 

4.  Flowers  less  than  5 mm  long;  lip  re- 

tuse  in  outline M.  versicolor 

4.  Flowers  7-10  mm  long;  lip  semi- 
orbicular  in  outline M.  stocksii 

Specimens  examined : Assam.  N.  Cachar 

Hills,  28.8.1908,  William  G.  Craib  514  (CAL); 
Mizo  hills,  R.  M.  Datta  33268  (CAL);  Ienkeri, 
July,  1859,  s.l.  652  (CAL),  bihar.  Paraniatte, 
s.L  Acc.  No.  449378  (CAL),  kerala.  Trivan- 
drum Dt.:  Boneccord,  22-5-1979,  M.  Mohanan 
63216  (MH).  sikkim.  Tropical  valleys,  July, 
1892,  R.  Pantling  89  (CAL);  “Namaga  Ind.”; 
Oct.  1886,  Dr.  King's  Collector  Acc.  No. 
449369  (CAL). 

M.  MOHANAN 
A.  N.  HENRY 
N.  C.  NAIR 


236 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


37.  CULTIVATION  OF  ENDANGERED  PLANTS  IN  SOUTH 
INDIA  — 2.  BENTINCKIA  CONDAPANNA  BERRY  EX  ROXB. 

(With  a plate) 


This  note  relates  to  a palm  namely  B.  con- 
dapanna  Berry  ex  Roxb.  which  is  highly  rest- 
ricted and  endemic  to  a few  hills  of  Tamilnadu 
and  Kerala  in  Western  ghats. 

B.  condapanna  Berry  ex  Roxb.  commonly 
known  as  hill  areca  nut  (Tam:  Varekamugu, 
Tel:  Cadapanna,  Mai:  Kanthal)  (Gamble 
1957,  Sundararaj  and  Balasubramanyam  1959) 
belongs  to  the  family  Arecaceae  (Palmae). 
The  genus  Bentinckia  is  named  after  Sir 
William  Henry  Cavendish  Bentinck,  ex  Gover- 
nor General  of  the  East-Indies  by  Berry  in 
Roxb.  FI.  Ind.  Ill,  621  (Hooker  1894).  This 
genus  is  represented  by  2 species  in  India 
namely  B.  condapanna  Berry  ex  Roxb.  and 
B.  nicobarica  (Kurz)  Becc.  (Hooker  1894).  B. 
condapanna  Berry  ex  Roxb.  is  a tall,  slender, 
unbranched  tree  of  about  30  feet  appearing 
gregariously  in  certain  cliffs  of  Western  ghats 
in  Tirunelveli,  Kanyakumari  and  Madurai  dis- 
tricts of  Tamilnadu  and  Trivandrum  district 
of  Kerala  (plate  1).  These  palms  seem  to  like 
the  western  slopes  particularly  with  some  pro- 
tection from  sweep  of  direct  wind.  These  have 
been  located  in  Kakachi  and  Nalumukku  cliffs 
on  the  way  to  Kodayar,  in  Perumal  malai, 
Naterikal  in  Kalakkadu  hills,  Manjanamparai 
and  western  slopes  of  Agasthyamalai  in  an 
altitude  range  of  90-1350  Mts.  F.  Blasco 
(1971)  states  “Dans  ces  forets  des  vallees  la 
flore  S’enrichit,  par  rapport  au  type  precedent 
en palmiers  ( Bentinckia  — con- 
dapanna versant  N.  E.  des  Palni, ) 

. .etc.”  The  detailed  herbarium  data  in  M.  H., 
Coimbatore  is  furnished  in  table  1. 

There  has  not  been  much  information  from 
the  published  records  on  cultivation  of  this 


species  as  an  ornamental  in  any  of  the  known 
Botanical  gardens  of  India  and  abroad  except 
at  Peradeniya  Gardens,  Sri  Lanka  (Blatter, 
1926).  The  terminal  buds  of  these  trees  are 
reported  to  be  edible  (Gamble  1957). 

Due  to  its  highly  restricted  distribution  and 
non-occurrence  of  this  palm  in  any  other  part 
of  the  country  or  abroad  this  has  been  de- 
clared highly  endangered  (Jain  and  Sashtri 
1980). 

The  experimental  garden  of  the  Botanical 
Survey  of  India,  Southern  Circle,  Yercaud 
brought  saplings  of  this  species  from  natural 
habitat  from  time  to  time  since  1974  and  in- 
troduced in  rock  crevices  particularly  facing 
west  almost  simulating  natural  habitat,  but 
they  failed  to  establish.  In  the  year  1977  again 
6 plants  were  obtained  from  collections  of  Dr. 
A.  N.  Henry  and  further  trials  were  made  at 
Yercaud.  They  were  introduced  in  different 
places  after  acclamatizing  in  pots  in  nursery 
for  nearly  one  year.  The  first  planting  made 
in  September,  1978  in  a shady  rocky  area  on 
the  slope  facing  west  did  not  establish  inspite 
of  all  care.  In  October,  1978  two  other  plants 
in  stock  with  almost  similar  size  were  put  into 
deep  pits  of  4'  x 4'  in  rich  humus  soil  with 
plenty  of  shade  above.  Regular  watering,  dig- 
ging, weeding  etc  were  attended.  Though  one 
plant  showed  inhibition  in  growth,  another 
grew  better  with  healthy  leaves  and  good  spread 
(plate).  2 other  in  pots  have  also  been 
healthy  though  stunted  in  growth.  These  have 
since  been  planted  in  suitable  locality  during 
the  current  rainy  season.  The  measurements  of 
the  first  two  plants  in  beds  in  given  in  table-2 
to  indicate  the  growth  behaviour  in  this  clima- 


237 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Table  1 


Field  No. 

Date 

Place  of 
collection. 

Collected  by 

Remarks. 

52652 

4.3.1917. 

Near  Neterikal, 
Tirunelveli  Dt., 
T.N. 

16383 

30.5.1963. 

Manjanamparai, 
Tirunelveli  Dt., 
T.N. 

A.  N.  Henry. 

Pinkish  red  flowers. 

1039 

28.8.1967. 

Perumalmalai, 
Madurai  Dt., 
T.N. 

Thanikaimani. 

Fruits  red,  smooth 
and  speroidol  when 
fresh,  Immature  fruits 
contains  a central 
cavity  filled  with  a 
waxy  sap. 

44639 

6.10.1973. 

Western  slope  of 
Agastyamalai, 
Trivandrum  Dt., 
Kerala. 

J.  Joseph. 

Spadix  arising  from 
the  axils  of  fallen 
leaves  below  the 
crown;  flowers  pin- 
kish red;  fruits  ovate 
globose,  bright  choco- 
late coloured. 

49651 

7.8.1977. 

Way  to  valve  house, 
upper  Kodayar, 
Kanyakumari  Dt. 
T.N. 

A.  N.  Henry. 

Tall  tree,  ± 20  mt. 
high  on  rocky  slopes, 
fruits  red,  pinkish  red, 
very  common. 

73126 

Kalakkadu  hills, 
Tirunelveli  Dt., 
T.N. 

Table  2 

Measurements  recorded  as 

on  15-7-1980 

Plant  No. 

Height  of  the 
Shoot. 

Girth  of  the 
plant  at 
ground  level. 

No.  of  leaves 

Length  & 
Breadth  of  the 
largest  leaf. 
(L  x B) 

1. 

26  Cms. 

22  Cms. 

8 

1.3  x 0.75  M 

2. 

10  Cms. 

10  Cms. 

6 

0.65  x 0.26  M 

238 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 

Rao  & Banerjee:  Bentinckia  condapanna. 


i 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


tic  condition.  Further  observation  on  the 
growth  cycle  of  these  plants  are  being  re- 
corded. 

Ack  nowledge  m en  ts 

We  are  thankful  to  Dr.  N.  C.  Nair,  Deputy 

Botanical  Survey  of  India. 

Southern  Circle, 

P.  O.  Yercaud,  Salem  Dt., 

Tamilnadu-  636  601, 

August  14,  1980. 

Refer 

Blasco,  F.  (1971)  : Montagnes  Du  Sud  De  L’inde, 
Forests,  Savanes,  Ecologie,  B.  N.  K.  Press  Pvt.  Ltd., 
Madras-26. 

Gamble,  J.  S.  (1957) : Flora  of  the  Presidency 
of  Madras,  Vol.  3.,  Bot.  Surv.  of  India,  Calcutta. 
(Reprinted  Edition). 

Hooker,  J.  D.  (1894) : The  Flora  of  British  India, 


Director  and  Dr.  A.  N.  Henry,  Regional  Bota- 
nist, Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Sauthern  Cir- 
cle, Coimbatore-3  for  their  kind  encouragement 
during  the  course  of  this  work. 

A.  V.  N.  RAO 
A.  K.  BANERJEE1 


E N CE  S 

Vol.  6.,  L.  Reeve  & Co.  Ltd.,  Kent. 

Jain,  S.  K.  and  Sashtri,  A.R.K.  (1980):  Threa- 
tened Plants  of  India  A State-of-the  Art — Report, 
Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Howrah. 

SUNDARARAJ,  D.  DANIEL  AND  BALASUBRAMANYAM, 
Girija  (1959) : Guide  to  the  Economic  Plants  of 
South-India,  Amudha  Nilayam  Pvt.  Ltd.,  Madras-18. 


1 Present  Address : Botanical  Survey  of  India,  10- 
Chatham  Lines,  Allahabad-2.  U.P. 


239 


ERRATA 


Corrections  to  the  “Seasonality  and  Occurrence  of  Birds  in  the 
Eastern  Ghats  of  Andhra  Pradesh”  Vol.  76  (3)  1979  pp.  379-422. 

p.  402  The  figure  caption  refers  to  the  figures  on  pp.  400-401.  The  figure 
on  p.  402  should  be  accompanied  by  the  caption:  Fig.  14  The  percentage 
of  recaptures  in  the  total  summed  catch  over  each  three  week  period. 

p.  418  The  description  given  for  the  Orangeheaded  ground  thrush  refers 
to  the  Whitethroated  ground  thrush,  Zoothera  citrina  cyanotus.  The 
orangeheaded  ground  thrush’s  description  was  omitted  and  is  given  here: 

Orangeheaded  ground  thrush,  Zoothera  citrina  citrina.  Records  for 
the  30th  September,  the  11th,  25th  and  28th  October  and  the  4th  May. 
Passage  migrant. 

I thank  Humayun  Abdulali  for  pointing  out  this  last  omission. 

Trevor  Price 

Division  of  Biological  Sciences 
Natural  Science  Building 
Ann  Arbor,  Michigan  48109 
U.S.A. 


THE  SOCIETY’S  PUBLICATIONS 


Mammals 

The  Book  of  Indian  Animals,  by  S.  H.  Prater,  4th  edition  (reprint).  28  plates  in 
colour  by  Paul  Barruel  and  many  other  monochrome  illustrations.  Rs.  60.00 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  55) 

The  Ecology  of  the  Lesser  Bandicoot  Rat  in  Calcutta,  by  James  Juan  Spillett. 

Rs.  10 

Birds 

The  Book  of  Indian  Birds,  by  Salim  Ali.  11th  (revised)  edition.  74  coloured  and 
many  monochrome  plates.  Rs.  60.00 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  55) 

A Synopsis  of  the  Birds  of  India  and  Pakistan,  by  S.  Dillon  Ripley  II.  An  up-to- 
date  checklist  of  all  the  birds  resident  and  migrant,  including  those  of  Nepal, 
Bhutan,  Bangladesh  and  Sri  Lanka.  2nd  edition.  Rs.  100.00 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  80) 

Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Maharashtra,  by  Humayun  Abdulali,  2nd  edition.  Rs.  4 
Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Delhi,  Agra  and  Bharatpur,  by  Humayun  Abdulali  & 
J.  D.  Panday.  Rs,  3.00 

Reptiles 

The  Book  of  Indian  Reptiles  By  J.  C.  Daniel  ( in  press) 

Identification  of  Poisonous  Snakes,  Wall  chart  in  Gujarati,  and  Marathi.  Rs.  5 

Plants 

Some  Beautiful  Indian  Trees,  by  Blatter  and  Millard.  With  many  coloured  and 
monochrome  plates.  3rd  edition  (Reprint).  Rs.  40.00 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  35) 

Some  Beautiful  Indian  Climbers  and  Shrubs,  by  Bor  and  Raizada.  With  many 
coloured  and  monochrome  plates.  2nd  edition.  Rs.  100.00 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  75) 

Grasses  of  Western  India,  by  Toby  & Patricia  Hodd.  With  64  monochrome  plates. 

Rs.  50.00 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  37.50) 

Miscellaneous 

Encyclopedia  of  Indian  Natural  History  Edited  by  R.  E.  Hawkins  {in  press) 

A Century  of  Natural  History  Edited  by  J.  C.  Daniel  ( in  press) 

Glimpses  of  Nature  Series  Booklets  : 

1.  Our  Birds  I (with  8 coloured  plates)  in  Kannada 

2.  Our  Monsoon  Plants  (with  8 coloured  plates)  in  Hindi 

and  Marathi. 

3 . Our  Animals  (with  8 coloured  plates)  in  English,  Gujarati, 

and  Hindi. 

Glimpses  of  Nature  in  India  (with  40  coloured  plates)  in  English 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  5) 

Back  numbers  of  the  Society’s  Journay.  Rates  on  application. 

The  Society  will  gratefully  accept  back  numbers  of  the  Journal,  from  members 
who  may  not  wish  to  preserve  them. 

TERMS  OF  MEMBERSHIP 

Entrance  Fees : 

Ordinary  and  Life  Members 
Student  Members 

Subscription  : 

{a)  Ordinary  individual  Members 

(b)  Ordinary  Corporate  Members 

(c)  Ordinary  Members  resident  outside  India 
Life  Members 

(Rs.  250 

Compound  Corporate  Members  . . . . . . . . Rs.  1500 

Student  Members  (without  Journal)  . . . . . . Rs.  15 

Annual  subscription  to  Journal  ..  ..  ..  ..  Rs.  135 

Members  residing  outsidp  India  should  pay  their  subscription  by  means  of  orders  on 
their  Bankers  to  pay  the  amount  of  the  subscription  to  the  Society  in  Bombay  on  the  1st 
January  in  each  year.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  then  the  sum  of  £ 6.50  should  be  paid  annually 
to  the  Society’s  London  Bankers — The  Grindlays  Bank  Ltd.,  13,  St.  James’s  Sq.,  London 
SW1Y  4LF.  Account  No.  1101091. 

The  subscription  of  members  elected  in  October,  November,  and  December  covers  the 
period  from  the  date  of  their  election  to  the  end  of  the  following  year. 


Rs.  0.62 


Rs.  0.80 


Rs. 

Rs. 


1.25 

7.50 


Rs. 

25 

Rs. 

10 

Rs. 

60 

Rs. 

125 

Rs. 

95 

Rs. 

800 

after  20  years) 

CONTENTS 


The  drought  of  1979-1980  at  the  Keoladeo  Ghana  Sanctuary,  Bharatpur, 
Rajasthan.  By  Stanley  & Belinda  Breeden 
Bombay  Natural  History  Society  — The  Builders  and  the  Guardians.  Part  3. 
By  Salim  Ali 

Phayre’s  leaf  monkey  ( Presbytis  phayrei  Blyth,  1847)  of  Tripura.  By  R.  P. 
Mukherjee 

A BOTANICAL  TOUR  TO  PANGI  & TRILOKNATH  IN  THE  UPPER  CHENAB.  By  U.  C. 
Bhattacharyya  and  B.  P.  Uniyal 

Bhadra  Wildlife  Sanctuary  and  its  endangered  ecosystem.  By  K.  Ullas  Karanth 

The  behaviour  of  the  nest-guarding  saltwater  crocodile  ( Crocodylus  porosus, 
Schneider)  — A preliminary  quantitative  study.  By  H.  R.  Bustard  & S. 
Maharana 

Notes  on  the  distribution  of  certain  rare,  endangered  or  endemic  plants  of 
Meghalaya  with  a brief  remark  on  the  flora.  By  R.  R.  Rao  and  K.  Haridasan 

Pollution,  fish  mortality  & environmental  parameters  in  Lake  Nainital. 

By  S.  M.  Das  and  Jyotsna  Pande 

Chelonians  of  Bangladesh  and  their  conservation.  By  Mohammad  Ali  Reza  Khan 

New  plants  from  urban  environment  of  Baroda,  Gujarat.  By  S.  N.  Patil  and 
S.  D.  Sabnis 

Observations  on  food  habits  of  six  species  of  Indian  frogs.  By  P.  • Mohanty- 
Hejmadi  and  B.  K.  Acharya 

A Catalogue  of  Aphidiid  (Hymenoptera  : Aphidiidae)  parasites  of  Aphids 
(Homoptera)  of  India.  By  A.  K.  Ghosh  and  Basant  K.  Agarwala 

A Catalogue  of  the  Birds  in  the  Collection  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History 
Society  — 24.  By  Humayun  Abdulali 

On  a new  subspecies  of  Pellorneum  ruficeps  (Swainson)  in  Peninsular  India. 
By  Humayun  Abdulali 

• New  Descriptions 
Reviews 

Miscellaneous  Notes 


Page 

1 

38 

, 47 

57 

79 

87 

93 

100 

110 

117 

120 

125 

135 

152 
155 
176 
. 181 


Printed  by  Bro.  Leo  at  St.  Francis  Industrial  Training  Institute,  Borivli,  Bombay  400  092 
and  published  by  Editors:  J.  C.  Daniel,  P.  V.  Bole  and  A.  N.  D.  Nanavati  for  Bombay 
Natural  History  Society,  Hornbill  House,  Shaheed  Bhagat  Singh  Road,  Bombay  400  023. 


. 

NOTICE  TO  CONTRIBUTORS 


Contributors  of  scientific  articles  are  requested  to  assist  the  editors  by 
observing  the  following  instructions  : 

1.  Papers  which  have  at  the  same  time  been  offered  for  publication  to 
other  journals  or  periodicals,  or  have  already  been  published  elsewhere,  should 
not  be  submitted. 

2.  The  MS.  should  be  typed  (double  spacing)  on  one  side  of  a sheet  only, 
and  the  sheets  properly  numbered. 

3.  All  scientific  names  to  be  printed  in  italics  should  be  underlined. 

4.  Trinomials  referring  to  subspecies  should  only  be  used  where  identifica- 
tion has  been  authentically  established  by  comparison  of  specimens  actually  collected. 

5.  Photographs  for  reproduction  must  be  clear  and  show  good  contrast. 
Prints  must  be  of  a size  not  smaller  than  8.20  X 5.60  cm  (No.  2 Brownie)  and  on 
glossy  glazed  paper. 

6.  Text-figures,  line  drawings,  and  map v should  be  in  Indian  ink,  prefera- 
bly on  Bristol  board. 

7.  References  to  literature  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  paper,  alpha- 
betically arranged  under  author’s  name,  with  the  abridged  titles  of  journals  or 
periodicals  underlined  (italics)  and  titles  of  books  not  underlined  (roman  type), 
thus  : 

Banerji,  M.  L.  (1958)  : Botanical  Exploration  in  East  Nepal.  J.  Bombay 
naU  Hist.  Soc.  55  (2)  : 243-268. 

Prater,  S.  H.  (1948)  : The  Book  of  Indian  Animals.  Bombay.  Titles  of 
papers  should  not  be  underlined. 

8.  Reference  to  literature  in  the  text  should  be  made  by  quoting  the  author’s 
name  and  year  of  publication,  thus  : (Banerji  1958). 

9.  Synopsis  : Each  scientific  paper  should  be  accompanied  by  a concise, 
clearly  written  synopsis,  normally  not  exceeding  200  words. 


10.  Reprints  : Authors  are  supplied  25  reprints  of  their  articles  free  of  charge. 
In  the  case  of  joint  authorship,  50  copies  wHl  be  given  gratis  to  be  distributed 
among  the  two  or  more  authors.  Orders  for  additional  reprints  should  be  in 
multiples  of  25  and  should  be  received  within  two  weeks  after  the  author  is  informed 
of  the  acceptance  of  the  manuscript.  They  will  be  charged  for  at  cost  plus  postage 
and  packing. 

1L  The  editors  reserve  the  right,  other  things  being  equal,  to  publish  a 
member’s  contribution  earlier  than  a non-member’s. 

Ho nlbill  House,  Editors, 

Shaheed  Bhagat  Singh  Road,  Journal  of  the  Bombay 

Bombay-400  023.  Natural  History  Society. 


■ ' — w ' ' - V 


VOLUME  79  NO.  2 : AUGUST  1982 


Date  of  Publication  : 15-2-1983 

CONTENTS 

Page 

Territorial  behaviour  of  the  Indian  Blackbuck'  {Antilope  cervicapra , Linnaeus,  1758)  in 
tee  Velavadar  National  Park,  Gujarat.  By  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh.  ( With  three  plates 
and  a text-figure)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 

Some  post-monsoon  birds  observed  in  central  Nepal.  By  Paul  Hendricks  . . . . 247 

Biology  and  morphology  of  immature  stages  of  Bracon  brevicornis  (Hymenoptera  : Bra- 
conidae)  an  important  biological  control  agent  of  the  black-headed  caterpillar 
pest  of  coconut.  By  V.  V.  Sudheendrakumar,  U.  V.  K.  Mohamed,  T.  C.  Narendran  and 
U.  C.  Abdurahiman.  ( With  fifteen  text-figures)  . . . . . . . . 254 

The  aquatic  and  marshland  flora  of  Kheri  District,  Uttar  Pradesh.  By  K.  K.  Singh 

and  R.  P.  S.  Tomar.  {With  a text-figure)  ..  ..  ..  ..  . . 261 

Restocking  mugger  crocodile  Crocodylus  palustris  (Lesson)  in  Andhra  Pradesh  : evalua- 
tion of  a pilot  release.  By  B.  C.  Choudhury  and  H.  R.  Bustard.  ( With  two  plates  and 
three  text-figures)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 

Studies  on  the  estuarine  Odonata  from  24  Parganas  District  of  West  Bengal,  with  a 
note  on  the  reproductive  behaviour  in  Urothemis  signata  signata  (Rambur)  (Odonata  : 

Insecta).  By  M.  Prasad  and  S.  K.  Ghosh.  {With  six  text-figures)  . . ..  ..  290 

Distribution,  feeding  habits  and  burrowing  patterns  of  Tatera  indica  cuvieri  (Water- 

house).  By  C.  M.  George,  P.  J.  Joy  and  C.  C.  Abraham.  ( With  two  text-figures)  . . 296 

Recent  changes  to  the  Burmese  mammal  list.  By  G.  W.  H.  Davison  . . . . 302 

Material  to  the  Flora  of  Mahabaleshwar-3.  By  P.  V.  Bole  and  M.  R.  Almeida  . . 307 

Some  aspects  of  the  reproductive  biology  of  the  Liontail  Macaque — Macaca  silenus 

(Linn.) — A zoo  study.  By  L.  S.  Ramaswami,  G.  U.  Kurup  and  B.  A.  Gadgil  . . 324 

Taxonomic  significance  of  Spermatheca  in  some  Indian  Grasshoppers  (Orthoptera  : 
Ucrididae).  By  Kharibam  Meinodas,  Shaikh  Adam  Shafee  and  Mohammad  Kamil  Usmani. 

{With  Twenty-three  text-figures)  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  331 

A Catalogue  of  the  Birds  in  the  Collection  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society— 25 

By  Humayun  Abdulali  . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 

New  Descriptions  : 

A New  species  of  the  Genus  Asopus  (Heteroptera  : Pentatomidae).  By  M.  Nayyar  AJm 

and  S.  Adam  Shafee.  {With  a text-figure)  . . . . . . . . . . 361 

First  record  of  Genera  Niphadonyx  Dalla  Torre  and  Ischnopus  Fst.  and  Description  of  Two 
New  Species  from  India  (Coleoptera  : Curculionidae  : Hylobiinae).  By  H.  R.  Pajni 
and  Sukesha  Sood.  {With  eleven  text-figures)  . . . . . . . , 363 


II 


CONTENTS 


Species  of  the  Genus  Pediobius  Walker  (Eulophidae  : Entedontinae)  from  India.  By  M. 

Younus  Khan  and  S.  Adam  Shafee.  {With  a plate ) . . . . . . . . 370 

A New  Species  of  Tetrastichus  Haliday  1843  (Hymenoptera  : Eulophidae)  from  high  alti- 
tude of  India.  By  M.  A.  Khan.  ( With  thirteen  text-figures ) . . . . . . 375 

A New  Species  of  Ophiorrhiza  L.  (Rubiaceae)  from  Nagaland,  India.  By  D.  B.  Deb  and 

D.  C.  Mondal.  {With  a text-figure)  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  379 

Two  more  New  Species  of  Impatiens  L.  from  South  India.  By  V.  Bhaskar  and  B.A.  Razi. 

{With  a plate ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 

A New  Pteris  from  Silent  Valley,  Kerala.  By  S.  R.  Ghosh  and  R.  K.  Ghosh.  {With  three 

text-figures)  . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 385 


Reviews  : 

1 . A Synopsis  of  the  birds  of  India  and  Pakistan.  2nd  Edition.  (T.  J.  Roberts)  . . 387 

2.  The  Plovers,  Sandpipers,  and  Snipes  of  the  world.  (Sdlim  Ali)  . . . . 391 

3.  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  Mesopotamian  Ecology  and  Destiny.  (B.  F.  Chhapgar)  . . 392 

4.  Material  for  a Flora  of  the  Tamilnadu  Carnatic.  (M.  R.  Almeida)  . . . . 394 

5.  Thonner’s  analytical  key  to  the  Families  of  flowering  plants.  (K.  M.  Matthew)  . . 395 

6.  A Revised  Handbook  to  the  Flora  of  Ceylon.  (M.  R.  Almeida)  . . . . 396 

7.  An  Introduction  to  plant  Nomenclature.  (P.  V.  Bole)  . . . . . . 397 

8.  Applied  botany  abstracts.  (P.  V.  Bole)  . . . . , . . . . . 397 


Miscellaneous  Notes  : 

Mammals  : 1.  The  Western  limit  of  pigtail  macaque  distribution  in  Assam.  By  Ronald  L.  Tilson 
(P.  399) ; 2.  Dominant  behaviour  of  a sub-adult  male  lion-tailed  macaque  in  semi-natural  conditions. 
By  J.  Mangalraj  Johnson  (p.  400)  ; 3.  Andersen’s  rufous  horseshoe  bat,  Rhinolophus  rouxi  sinicus  Andersen 
(Chiroptera  : Rhinolophidae)  from  Arunachal  Pradesh,  India.  By  J.  P.  Lai  (p.  402) ; 4.  Stomach  contents 

of  a common  palm  civet,  Paradoxurus  hermaphroditus  (Pallas).  By  L.  A.  K.  Singh  (p.  403) ; 5.  Birth  of 
White  tiger  {Panther a tigris)  Cubs  to  Normal  coloured  tigers  in  captivity.  ( With  a text-figure).  By  Ch.  G. 
Mishra,  L.  N.  Acharjyo  and  L.  N.  Choudhury  (p.  404) ; 6.  An  instance  of  fostering  in  captivity  in  the 
Western  Ghats  Squirrel,  Funambulus  tristriatus  Waterhouse.  By  S.  Keshava  Bhat  (p.  407) ; 7.  On  the 
occurrence  of  Vandeleuria  oleracea  in  a rural  Residential  habitat  in  the  desert  biome  of  Rajasthan. 
By  Ranjan  Advani  and  R.  P.  Mathur  (p.  408) ; 8.  On  factors  governing  the  distribution  of  wild  mammals 
in  Karnataka — A comments.  By  K.  Ullas  Karanth  (p.  409). 

Birds  : 9.  Black-eared  kite  [Milvus  migrans  lineatus  (Gray)]  near  Bombay.  By  Humayun  Abdulali 
and  Nosherwan  Sethna  (p.  411)  : 10.  Nesting  of  redheaded  merlin  {Falco  chicquera  Daudin)  in  Bangalore, 
Karnataka.  {With  a text  figure).  By  S.  Subramanya  (p.  412) ; 11.  Unusual  nesting  of  redwattled  lap- 
wing {Vanellus  indicus).  By  Raza  H.  Tehsin  and  Juzer  Lokhandwala  (p.  414) ; 12.  Collective  defensive 
strategy  in  blue  rock  pigeon  {Columba  livia).  By  Raza  H.  Tehsin  (p.  414)  ; 13.  Occurrence  of  the  Northern 
Green  Barbet  Megalaima  zeylanica  caniceps  (Franklin)  at  Ludhiana  (Punjab).  By  Manjit  S.  Dhindsa  and 
P.  S.  Sandhu  (p.  415) ; 14.  On  the  occurrence  of  the  Yellowbellied  wren-warbler  {Prinia  flaviventris  flavi- 

ventris),  Striated  marsh  warbler  {Megalurus  palustris)  and  Whitetailed  Bush  Chat  {Saxicola  leucura)  at 
Hastinapur  near  Meerut  (Uttar  Pradesh).  By  Yado  Mohan  Rai  (p.  416) ; 15.  Birds  and  standing  crops. 
By  Prakash  Gole  (p.  417). 


CONTENTS 


iii 


Reptiles  : 16.  Female  territoriality  in  immature  saltwater  crocodiles  Crocodylus  porosus  Schneider 
in  captivity  and  its  effect  on  growth  and  survival.  (With  two  text-figures).  By  H.  R.  Bustard  and  S. 
Maharana  (p.  419) ; 17.  The  extinction  of  the  Gharial  [Gavialis  gangeticus  (Gmelin)]  from  the  Brahman! 
and  Baitarani  Rivers  of  Orissa.  By  L.  A.  K.  Singh  and  H.  R.  Bustard  (p.  424) ; 18.  A taxonomic  note  on 
mugger  subspecies  (Crocodylus  palustris).  By  Romulus  Whitaker  and  Zahida  Whitaker  (p.  426) ; 19. 

The  distribution  of  the  Gharial.  By  H.  R.  Bustard  and  B.  C.  Choudhury  (p.  427) ; 20.  A Range  extension 
of  Geochelone  elongata.  By  Charles  A.  Ross  and  Charles  R.  Crumly  (p.  429). 

Amphibia  : 21.  Some  field  notes  on  the  newly-described  toad,  Bufo  camortensis  Mansukhani  & Sarkar, 
By  Humayun  Abdulali  (p.  430). 

Fishes  : 22.  Extension  of  Range  of  the  putitor  mahseer,  Tor  putitora  (Ham.)  (Cypriniformes  ; Cypri- 
nidae ; Barbinae)  to  Poonch  Valley  (Jammu  and  Kashmir).  By  Surendra  Nath  (p.  430). 

Insects  : 23.  Does  formalin  permit  the  larval  development  in  Aedes  aegypti  and  Culex  pipiens  fatigans  ? 
By  I.  Vijayakumar  (p.  431) ; 24.  Record  of  Ephestia  cautella  Walker  (Pyralidae  : Leptidoptera)  from 
chilly  powder  at  Ludhiana,  Punjab  (India).  By  M.  Ramzan  and  Darshan  Singh  (p.  434) ; 25.  New 
record  of  Scambus  (Scambus)  striatus  Gupta  and  Tiker  (Ichneumonidae  : Hymenoptera)  from  Pectino - 
phora  gossypiella  (Saunders)  and  its  Biology.  By  Maninder  and  G.  C.  Varma  (p.  434) ; 26.  A new  record 
of  a Parasitic  flesh  fly,  Parasarcophaga  knabi  (Parker)  (Sarcophagidae  : Diptera)  on  the  Oak  Tasar  Silk- 
worm. By  K.  C.  Singh  and  B.  Prasad  (p.  435) ; 27.  Predation  of  the  Plum  Scale,  Eulecanium  coryli  (L.) 
(Homoptera  : Coccidae),  by  Ballia  bayaderae  Mulsant  (Coleoptera  : Coccinellidae),  in  Kashmir.  By  M. 
Zaka-Ur-Rab  (p.  436). 

Other  Invertebrates  : 28.  Food  and  feeding  behaviour  of  the  Mole  Crab  Emerita  holthuisi 
(Crustacea  : Anomura  : Hippidea).  By  K.  M.  Kulkarni  (p.  436) ; 29.  On  the  occurrence  of  a fairy  shrimp 
Streptocephalus  simplex  echinus  in  the  freshwater  ponds  of  Chingleput  District,  Tamil  Nadu.  ( With  a 
text-figure ).  By  N.  Munuswamy  (p.  439) ; 30.  Instar  duration,  Instar  number,  Egg  production  and  longevity 
in  Ceriodaphnia  cornuta  Sars  at  two  temperature  ranges.  By  D.  R.  Kanaujia  (p.  441) ; 31.  Occurrence 
of  the  leech,  Haemadipsa  montana  Moore,  in  Darjeeling  district,  West  Bengal.  By  Rathin  Mukherjee 
and  G.  C.  Ghose  (p.  445). ; 32.  New  polychaete  records  from  Indian  Waters.  ( With  twelve  text- figures). 
By  D.  Srinivasa  Rao  and  D.  V.  Rama  Sarma  (p.  446). 

Botany  : 33.  Exacum  walkeri  Griseb.  (Gentianaceae)— A new  record  for  India.  By  M.  Mohanan, 
A.  N.  Henry  and  N.  C.  Nair  (p.  450) ; 34.  Some  new  combinations  under  Primula  L.  By  S.  S.  R. 
Bennet  (p.  451) ; 35.  Monotropa  uniflora  Linn. — A new  Record  for  Mussoorie  Hills.  By  M.  Sharma 
(p.  452) ; 36.  A note  on  the  Nomenclature  of  Two  Peninsular  Indian  Plants.  By  K.  K.  N.  Nair  (p.  453)  ; 
37.  New  Distributional  records  of  plants  for  North-East  India.  (With  two  text-figures).  By  R.  R.  Rao, 
K.  Haridasan  and  Y.  Kumar  (p.  455) ; 38.  Floral  Spirals  in  Amorphophallus  spp.  not  conforming  with 
Fibonacci  numbers.  (With  a plate).  By  Elizabeth  A.  Widjaja  (p.  458);  39.  On  the  Occurrence  of 
Salacia  khasiana  in  Arunachal  Pradesh.  By  K.  M.  Vaid  and  H.  B.  Naithani  (p.  461) ; 40.  Rediscovery 
of  Meteoromyrtus  wynaadensis  (Bedd.)  Gamble  (Myrtaceae)  more  than  a century  after  its  earlier  collec- 
tion. By  V.  S.  Ramachandran,  N.  C.  Nair  and  V.  J.  Nair  (p.  461) ; 41.  Swertia  kingii  Hook.  f. — A New 
Record  for  North-West  Himalayas.  By  Sunita  Agarwal  (p.  463) ; 42.  Selaginella  ornata  (Hook,  et 
Grev.).  Spring — New  to  India.  (With  a text-figure).  By  R.  D.  Dixit  (p.  464) 

Annual  Report  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  for  the  Year  1980-81  . . . . 466 

Statement  of  Accounts  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  . . . . 475 

Minutes  of  the  Annual  General  Meeting  . . . . . . , . . . 490 


JOURNAL 

OF  THE 

BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY 

SOCIETY 


AUGUST  1982 


VoL  79 


No.  2 


TERRITORIAL  BEHAVIOUR  OF  THE  INDIAN  BLACKBUCK 
{ANTILOPE  CERVICAPRA , LINNAEUS,  1758)  IN  THE 
VELAVADAR  NATIONAL  PARK,  GUJARAT1 

M.  K.  Ranjitsinh2 
( With  three  plates  and  a text-figure) 


The  word  ‘ lek  ’ is  of  Scandinavian  origin 
meaning  play.  In  ethology  the  word  has 
come  to  denote  restricted  territories  occupied 
and  intensively  used  by  breeding  males  for 
display  and  mating.  Blackbuck  territories  are 
of  various  sizes.  In  Mudmal,  Andhra  Pradesh, 
Rao  & Prasad  (1982)  found  the  average  terri- 
tory to  be  of  9.19  hectares.  In  Kanha,  National 
Park  in  Madhya  Pradesh,  Schaller  (1967) 
found  the  territory  to  be  of  8.09  hectares. 

Blackbuck  also  maintain  small,  round  or  oval 
territorial  breeding  grounds  which  bear  close 
affinity  in  character  and  purpose  to  similar 
grounds  of  the  Uganda  Kob  (Adenota  kob 
thomasi  Sclater,  1896),  and  which  in  turn  are 
conceptually  similar  to  the  4 leks  ’ of  the 
prairie  chicken  ( Tympanuchus  cupido),  sage 
grouse  {Centrocercus  urophasianus),  sharp-tailed 
grouse  (Pedioecetus  phasianellus ),  Gould’s  mana- 
kin  ( Mcinacus  vitellinus)  and  others  (Buechner 

1 Accepted  March  1982. 

2 Secretary,  Forest  Department,  Govt,  of  Madhya 
Pradesh,  Bhopal. 


1974).  For  purposes  of  convenience  these 
territorial  breeding  grounds  of  blackbuck  would 
be  also  referred  to  as  leks.  These  leks,  how- 
ever, were  only  observed  in  the  Velavadar 
National  Park,  for  only  here  were  the  terri* 
tories  small,  precisely  defined,  in  close  proxi- 
mity of  each  other  and  occupied  for  a length  of 
time.  As  in  the  case  of  the  leks  of  the  Uganda 
Kob  seen  by  the  author  at  Karuma  Falls  in 
Uganda  (1964),  the  blackbuck  leks  bore  the 
marks  of  overusage  through  grazing  and  pacing 
in  a very  restricted  area  and  were  identifiable 
from  the  surrounding  grassland  by  the  less 
vegetation  they  bore.  These  small  territories 
are  called  4 akhlis  5 in  the  Gujarati  language. 

Blackbuck  achieve  territorial  marking  and 
delineation  in  several  ways.  Firstly,  with  his 
strikingly  black  and  white  colour  scheme  and 
spectacular  horns,  the  most  conspicuous  terri- 
torial marker  is  the  presence  of  the  male  himself 
on  his  territory  (Schaller  1967).  As  sexual 
activity,  of  which  territoriality  is  a manifesta- 
tion, enhances  the  testosterone  production 


241 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY , VoL  19 


which  in  turn  causes,  in  all  probabihty,  the 
darkening  of  the  coat  (Mungall  1978)  the 
darker  coat  of  a territorial  buck  would  in  all 
probabihty  enhance  his  ability  to  pronounce 
his  territory  and  to  retain  it.  It  was  no  coinci- 
dence that  all  territorial  males  observed  in  this 
lek  ground  (January  1981)  December  1981  were 
all  black  or  dark  chocolate  brown. 

Another  important  territorial  marking  are  the 
pellet  piles  in  certain  selected  spots.  In  the 
larger  territories  which  blackbuck  usually  main- 
tain, including  those  that  have  a recognizable 
core,  the  pellets  were  deposited  in  a number  of 
strategic  points  along  the  periphery.  In  the 
leks  of  Yelavadar  which  are  very  small,  the 
pellet  heaps  were  in  approximately  the  middle 
of  the  leks.  The  pellet  deposition  is  almost 
invariably  immediately  preceded  by  urination 
and  since  the  blackbuck  usually  sits  upon  these 
sites,  the  purpose  of  selecting  such  sites  for 
bedding  is  therefore,  in  all  probabihty,  to 
acquire  scent  on  the  coat.  The  Great  Indian 
one-horned  rhinoceros  urinates  in  its  wallows 
whose  purpose,  in  all  probabihty,  is  to  acquire 
scent  on  its  body  (Laurie  1978).  It  is  likely  that 
blackbuck  too  has  a similar  objective,  and  it 
is  possible  that  scent  excreted  with  either  the 
dung  or  the  urine  is  from  an  anal  or  urinary 
scent  gland  and  has  olfactory  sexual  signi- 
ficance. 

These  excreta  cum  bedding  sites  normally 
command  a good  vantage  point  for  observa- 
tion. 4 Lindy  * my  tame  blackbuck  also  rested 
on  these  excreta  sites. 

Close  to  the  excreta-cum-resting  sites,  scrapes 
Were  seen  and  these  also  perhaps  are  visual 
territorial  markings,  especially  in  areas  of  short 
grass  and  on  the  Ranns  and  tals  of  arid  western 
India.  These  scrapes  were  also  observed  in 
the  leks  of  Velavadar.  Lindy  scraped  persis- 
tently, but  this  exaggeration  of  this  particular 
behaviour  may  have  been  caused  by  the  fact 
that  he  was  frequently  tied  with  a long  rope  and 
could  not  go  beyond  a certain  point  where  he 


scraped,  especially  when  someone  was  approach- 
ing him.  Scraping  was  also  observed  when  a 
territorial  buck  was  in  the  vicinity  of  another. 
Scrapes  by  the  dragging  of  feet  was  never 
noticed. 

Scraping  is  also  done  prior  to  urination  and 
deposition  of  pellets,  frequently  preceded  by  a 
sniffing  of  the  dung  pile  (Schaffer  1967).  Terri- 
torial males  were  also  observed  to  scrape  their 
dung  piles,  on  four  occasions,  before  depositing 
pellets  on  those  dung  piles.  Scraping  prior  to 
pellet  deposition,  however,  was  not  observed 
outside  the  leks.  One  communal  pellet  pile 
measuring  almost  2 metres  by  1.60  metres, 
however,  did  have  scrape  markings  on  it. 

Another  olfactory  marking  consisting  of 
wiping  of  the  secretion  of  the  preorbital  glands 
on  prominent  reeds,  twigs  and  grasses,  and 
occasionally  by  rubbing  the  glands  against  tree 
trunks  and  leaves. 

Lindy,  my  tame  blackbuck,  practised  this 
regularly.  The  strong-smelling  secretion  left  a 
distinct  smell  that  was  discernible  for  upto  3 
days  in  dry  weather.  The  deposition  of  the 
scent  of  the  pre-orbital  glands  was  noticed 
to  be  more  frequent  amongst  solitary  males 
and  male-pairs  than  with  either  the  mixed 
herd  males  or  with  members  of  male  groups. 

In  Velavadar  where  the  only  vegetation  where 
such  markings  could  have  been  made  was  the 
thorny  Prosopis  juliflora  and  these  too  do  not 
occur  in  the  close  vicinity  of  the  leks,  such 
markings  with  everted  eyeglands  on  Prosopis 
saplings  was  observed  only  7 times. 

To  the  east  of  Velavadar  village  and  at  the 
edge  of  the  National  Park  of  the  same  name, 
is  the  tourist  lodge.  South  of  that  is  a water 
trough  and  beyond  it  is  a kidney  shaped  area 
where  a conglomeration  of  adjacent  leks  or  terri- 
torial grounds  occupied  by  48  to  52  males, 
with  5 more  semi-transient  males  on  the 
southern  periphery  of  this  area  ( Fig.  1 ), 
observed  in  January  1981. 


242 


TERRITORIAL  BEHAVIOUR  OF  THE  INDIAN  BLACKBtJck 


the  explanation  for  all  the  leks  being  on  the 
south  side  of  the  water  trough  only,  appears  to 
be  that  with  the  Velavadar  village  being  to  the 
west  and  a cart  track  being  to  the  north  of  the 
water-trough,  the  main  approach  of  the  black- 


National  Park,  blackbuck  male  territories  are 
most  evident  in  close  juxtaposition  around  a 
focal  point  of  attraction,  such  as  a source  of 
water  or  food,  rather  than  scattered  all  over 
the  terrain,  and  constitutes  a lek  ground. 


buck  herds  to  the  water  is  from  the  east  and 
the  south.  The  cart  track  would  also  consti- 
tute a source  of  disturbance  to  any  leks  if 
they  had  happened  to  be  established  there. 
The  southern  side  is  more  preferred  because 
the  antelope  returning  from  the  fields  and 
going  to  it  from  the  park  pass  through 
that  flank.  It  was  also  observed  that  in  areas 
of  high  antelope  concentration  and  where  the 
open  even  terrain  precludes  precise  marking 
of  boundaries  as  in  the  case  of  the  Velavadar 


The  Velavadar  lek  area  measured  680  metres 
by  430  metres,  but  the  main  ground  of  concentra- 
tion, which  was  approximately  at  the  core  of 
the  kidney  shaped  area,  was  380  metres  by 
290  metres  and  comprised  of  30  leks.  The 
smallest  lek  was  just  28  metres  by  24  metres. 
These  leks  in  the  prime  core  area  were  smaller 
than  the  others,  and  the  occupants  remained 
seated  in  them  for  longer  periods  than  in  the 
others.  They  occupied  them  earlier  in  the 
morning  and  left  them  later  in  the  evening,  and 


243 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


consequently  these  territorial  males  in  the 
prime  area  of  the  lek  ground  grazed  less. 
They  also  moved  about  the  least  in  their 
circumscribed  territories. 


The  males  in  the  core  area  usually  occupied 
their  territories  within  20  minutes  of  sunrise, 
most  of  them  before  sunrise,  and  started 
leaving  them  a few  minutes  after  sunset.  Upon 
arrival  on  their  respective  territories  at  dawn, 
the  males  sit  upon  their  territories  in  an  act  of 
reoccupation  and  reconfirmation  of  their  terri- 
tories. About  20  minutes  after  sunrise  they 
start  to  get  up  and  graze,  and  their  is  a slight 
relaxation  of  territoriality  in  so  far  as  the  males 
often  stray  close  to  each  other  and  trespass  on 
each  other’s  territories.  Later  on  they  sit  once 
more  upon  their  territories  and  become  insular. 


A log  of  their  day’s  movements  (15/1/81) 


7.10  A.M. 
7.40  A.M. 
8.05  A.M. 
8.45  A.M. 


44  males  on  the  lek  ground. 

8 sitting  down,  7 all  in  the 
prime  area. 

46  males  on  the  lek  ground. 

26  sitting  down,  17  of  them  in 
the  prime  area. 

48  males  on  the  lek  ground. 

31  sitting  down,  24  in  the 
prime  area. 

52  males  on  the  lek  ground. 

39  sitting  down,  29  in  the 
prime  area. 


11.05  A.M. 
3.15  P.M. 
6.30  P.M. 
7.00  P.M. 


54  males  in  the  lek  ground. 
48  sitting  down,  29  in  the 
prime  area. 

52  males  on  the  lek  ground. 

46  sitting  down,  28  in  the 
prime  area. 

47  males  on  the  lek  ground. 
34  silting  down,  23  in  the 

prime  area. 

2 males  standing  and  eating 
on  the  lek  ground. 


In  the  moonlight  after  9 P.M.  there  were  no 
blackbuck  to  be  seen  on  the  lek  ground. 

600  metres  away  from  the  lek  ground  was 
the  preferred  resting  ground  of  the  largest 
all-male  group,  which  in  fact  was  a loose 
association  of  smaller  groups  of  males  the  total 
strength  of  which  varied  from  about  77  to 
160  males.  All  barring  8 to  10  per  cent  were 
mature  males.  They  sat  in  close  proximity  of 
each  other  and  the  only  agnostic  interactions 
noticed  were  two  sparring  matches,  each  not 
lasting  over  40  seconds.  These  large  all  male 
groups  often  have  cores,  usually  of  males  of  the 
same  age  group. 

On  the  lek  ground  the  males  usually  sat  with 
their  backs  to  the  wind,  facing  the  winter  sun. 
Frequently,  they  stretched  out  and  lay  their 
heads  on  the  ground  in  the  front,  and  often 
tilted  their  heads  to  rest  a horn  on  the  ground. 

The  lengthy  periods  of  sitting  down  in  the 
smaller  territories  in  the  prime  area  of  the  lek 
ground  not  only  serves  the  purpose  of  giving  a 
greater  territorial  possessivity  to  the  male 
occupant,  but  also  helps  to  avert  frequent 
agnostic  interactions  between  territorial  males 
in  such  close  proximity  of  each  other.  In  fact, 
such  interactions  and  displays  occurred  almost 
invariably  only  when  other  blackbuck  of  either 
sex  happened  to  pass  by,  or  when  the  territorial 
males  happened  to  leave  their  grounds  to  drink 
or  to  feed.  When  a group  of  11  males  filed 
past  the  lek  ground,  the  nearest  territorial 
males  on  the  lek  ground  approached  the  group 
with  the  head-up-ears-down  display,  head  and 
horns  bobbing  in  rythmic  jerks,  and  the  animals 
emitting  the  grunt-call.  Some  of  the  members 
of  the  all-male  group  broke  into  a slow  trot 
while  the  others  walked  hurriedly  past. 

The  territorial  males  that  had  to  vacate  their 
territories  due  to  the  proximity  of  my  vehicle 
and  had  to  enter  their  neighbour’s,  often  ended 
up  by  jousting  with  the  others.  The  combat- 
ants would  then  disengage,  often  struck  parallel 
to  each  other,  and  then  the  interloper  would 


244 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  19 
Ranjitsinh  : Antilope  cervicapra 


Plate  1 


Male  with  both  horns  broken  occupying  a lek,  with  another  territorial  male  in  an 
adjacent  lek.  Note  the  dark  patches  showing  the  pellet  piles. 


All-male  group  on  its 
proximity  of  each  other. 


preferred  resting  ground,  the  individuals  sitting  in  clo5 

{Photos:  Author) 


L Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 
Ranjitsinh  : Antilope  cervicapra 


Plate  II 


Territorial  males  on  the  lek  ground. 


Males  of  adjacent  leks  sparring.  Other  territorial 
the  background. 


( Photos : Author) 


males  occupying  their  leks  in 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 
Ranjitsinh  : Antilope  cervicapra 


Plate  III 


A fine  specimen  on  its  pellet  pile,  reluctant  to  leave  its  lek.  Another  territorial 
male  in  the  background. 

( Photos : Author) 


Non-territorial 


males  of  the  all-male  group  resting  in  close  proximity  of  each  other. 


TERRITORIAL  BEHAVIOUR  OF  THE  INDIAN  BLACKBUCK 


veer  away  and  attempt  to  return  to  his  own 
territory.  The  owner  of  the  territory  would 
stand  for  a while  displaying  with  head  up  and 
pre-orbital  glands  everted,  and  then  return  to 
the  middle  of  his  territory  to  sit  down  again.  In 
some  instances  one  or  both  combatants  stamped 
their  forefeet. 

Two  males,  each  with  both  broken  horns  of 
about  equal  length,  and  one  with  stumps  only 
1 8 cm  long,  were  occupying  territories  in  the 
prime  area  of  the  lek  ground,  jousted  with 
others  with  undamaged  horns,  and  were  obvi- 
ously able  to  hold  adjacent  prime  territories. 
The  former  male,  easily  recognizable  was  found 
in  a mixed  group  11  months  later  (December 
1981).  On  the  other  hand,  a male  with  one  large 
horn  measuring  about  57  cm  but  the  other 
broken  olf  at  root,  was  only  holding  a tenuous 
territory  on  the  extreme  western  periphery. 
In  December,  1981  a single-horned  male  was 
again  occupying  a peripheral  lek. 

The  mixed  and  larger  female  groups  with 
adult  males  seemed  to  prefer  not  to  go  through 
the  lek  area,  and  when  they  did  so,  they  ten- 
ded to  skirt  past  the  periphery,  with  the  adult 
males  keeping  to  the  side  of  the  herd  nearer 
to  the  lek  area,  the  males  in  which  were  strut- 
ting and  pacing  about  as  the  herd  passed. 
When  a transient  male  traversed  the  lek  ground 
the  agnostic  behaviour  displayed  by  the  terri- 
torial males  was  less  pronounced. 

In  the  absence  of  any  vegetation  on  the  lek 
ground,  the  principal  form  of  redirected  aggres- 
sion noticed  was  thrashing  of  the  ground  with 
legs  spreadeagled  but  stationary,  horns  parallel 
and  lowered  to  the  ground,  the  head  moving  in  a 
vigorous  half-circular  motion.  On  some  occa- 
sions Prosopis  sapling  were  also  thrashed  in  the 
adjacent  areas. 

When  a pack  of  three  pidogs — which  are  a 


veritable  scourge  of  the  blackbuck-caused  some 
female  blackbuck  to  run  into  the  lek  ground, 
the  territorial  males  chased  them  and  attempted 
to  court  them  through  display,  even  though  the 
rampaging  dogs  were  within  70  metres,  and 
the  males  were  most  reluctant  to  leave  their 
territories  even  when  the  dogs  were  running 
past  them. 

On  some  occasions  territorial  males,  when 
approached,  showed  extreme  reluctance  to  leave 
their  territories.  They  stood  up  from  where 
they  were  sitting  on  their  pellet  piles,  but  stood 
their  grounds,  straddling  over  their  pellet  piles 
in  a characteristic  stand-stance,  with  front  legs 
close  together  and  the  hind  legs  spread-eagled, 
and  head  slightly  upraised. 

In  mid  July  (1981)  there  were  no  territorial 
males  on  the  lek  ground,  which  in  fact  was  the 
least  frequented  area  by  the  blackbuck  as  the 
forage  on  this  ground,  predictably,  was  the 
poorest  due  to  overusage  during  the  rutting 
period.  By  way  of  contrast,  the  usual  resting 
place  of  the  largest  all-male  group  during  the 
peak  rutting  period — to  the  north-east  of  the 
Velavadar  rest  house — continued  to  be  occu- 
pied by  the  all-male  group  in  July.  An  all- 
male group  of  82  to  86  animals,  again  the  largest 
all-male  group  in  the  park,  albeit  fawn-coloured 
now,  continued  to  rest  on  this  same  patch. 
The  old  pellet  piles  on  the  lek  ground,  how- 
ever, contained  only  old  pellets  with  no  fresh 
depositions. 

In  December  1981  the  lek  ground  as  well  as 
the  preferred  resting  area  of  the  largest  all-male 
group  were  found  to  be  the  same  as  in  January, 
1981.  On  the  basis  of  observations  made 
during  six  winters  the  peak  winter  rutting 
period  in  Velavadar  was  found  to  be  January- 
February. 


245 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


References 

Buechner,  H.  K.  (1974) : Behaviour  of  ungulates  Ramana  Rao,  J.  V.  and  Prasad,  N.L.N.S.  (1982) : 
and  its  relation  to  management.  Vol.  2,  IUCN  publi-  Management  and  Husbandry  of  blackbuck,  food  and 
cation  24.  Agriculture  organization  of  the  United  Nations- 

Laurie,  W.  A.  (1978) : Ecology  and  Behaviour  of  the  Bangkok,  No.  RAPA  53. 

Greater  one  horned  rhinoceros.  University  of 

Cambridge.  Schaller,  G.  B.  (1967) : The  Deer  and  the  Tiger  : 

A study  of  Wildlife  in  India.  University  of  Chicago 
Mungall,  E.  C.  (1978) : The  Indian  Blackbuck  press>  Chicago, 
antelope  : a Texas  view.  Kleberg  Studies  in  Natural 
Resources,  No.  3,  184  pp. 


246 


SOME  POST-MONSOON  BIRDS  OBSERVED  IN  CENTRAL  NEPAL1 

Paul  Hendricks2 


Though  Pokhara,  and  the  surrounding  terrain 
in  Gandaki  Anchal,  is  one  of  the  more  readily 
accessible  regions  in  Nepal,  surprisingly  little 
information  has  been  published  on  the  avifauna 
of  that  area.  Woodcock  and  Woodcock  (1976) 
provided  information  on  monsoon  season 
(July  and  August)  birds.  They  expressed  hope 
that  their  account  would  stimulate  others  to 
keep  records  on  the  birds  encountered  in  the 
same  area,  particularly  during  other  seasons. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  I present  the  following 
observations.  They  were  made  during  the 
post-monsoon  season  between  17  October  and 
30  December,  1974  while  I was  stationed  at 
Batulechar  3 km.  N of  Pokhara  with  the  U.S. 
Peace  Corps  program.  I have  also  included 
species  observed  on  a short  trek  from  Bandipur 
to  Bharatpur,  SB  of  Pokhara  and  in  the  same 
watershed,  in  December.  All  observations  were 
made  below  2000  m.  For  a general  descrip- 
tion of  the  vegetation  and  physiography  of  the 
region  see  Biswas  (1966).  Identification  of 
species  encountered  was  originally  based  on 
accounts  in  Ali  (1949,  1972).  Subsequently 
these  have  been  correlated  to  accounts  in  Flem- 
ing et  al.  (1976),  whose  common  and  scientific 
nomenclature  I use  in  this  paper. 

Woodcock  and  Woodcock  (op.cit.)  listed  107 
species  from  the  Pokhara  region  to  which  I 
have  added  36  species  not  reported  in  their 
paper.  Lists  of  species  in  themselves  are  of 
limited  value,  but  when  the  data  are  combined, 
particularly  if  it  has  been  collected  during 
different  times  of  the  year  ufthe  same  area, 
then  some  conclusions  on'the  seasonal  presence, 


abundance,  and  movements  of  species  can  be 
made.  With  this  in  mind  I have  compared 
my  notes  with  species  reported  from  Kath- 
mandu Valley  (KV)  by  Proud  (1949,  1952, 1955, 
1958, 1961a,  1961b),  and  with  the  fist  of  Pokhara 
area  birds  by  Woodcock  and  Woodcock  (op. 
cit.),  hereafter  abbreviated  WW  when  referred  to. 
Though  my  list  of  post-monsoon  birds  is  not 
comprehensive  it  never-the-less  provides  a 
nucleus  of  data  with  which  future,  more  detailed, 
work  can  be  compared.  Considering  the  rapid 
deforestation  of  Nepal  (Eckholm  1975  ; Cronin 
1979),  and  the  associated  ecological  problems 
created,  this  kind  of  information  is  urgently 
needed  if  any  future  management  plan  is  to 
be  intelligently  implemented.  Additionally,  I 
have  included  brief  notes  on  behaviour  and 
ecology  where  appropriate. 

I thank  Jon  Swenson  for  useful  suggestions 
and  encouragement  on  the  manuscript. 

Ardeola  grayii  Pond  Heron 

Seen  around  Bharatpur  18  December ; a 
group  of  10  perched  and  preening  atop  a 
bamboo  grove  in  Batulechar  23  December. 
Not  seen  around  Pokhara  by  WW  ; considered 
abundant  year  round  in  KV  (Proud  1949). 

Bubulcus  ibis  Cattle  Egret 

Common  in  fields  with  cattle  around  Bharat- 
pur on  17  December. 

Ciconia  episcopus  White-necked  Stork 

Batulechar  ; on  4 December  a flock  of  24 
flying  slowly  from  N to  S.  On  1 1 December  a 
single  bird  flying  in  wide  circles  over  the  village. 
Not  seen  by  WW  ; occasional  year  round  in 
KV  (Proud  1949). 


1 Accepted  June  1981. 

2 305  East  Maplewood  Avenue, 
Uttleton,  Colorado  80121,  U.S.  A- 


247 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY , Ko/.  79 


Mergus  merganser  Merganser 
On  Seti  river  S of  Bandipur  ; a flight  of  7 
followed  by  a flight  of  5 headed  upriver  on 
16  December.  All  were  females. 

Milvus  migrans  Dark  Kite 

Common  at  Bokhara  ; less  so  at  Batulechar, 
single  birds  being  seen  there  on  4,  21,  24,  29 
Nov.,  and  23  Dec.  Concentrates  at  centers  of 
human  habitation. 

Buteo  buteo  Eurasian  Buteo 

Regularly  seen  at  Pokhara  and  Batulechar 
between  9 Nov.  and  24  Dec.  Single  birds 
usually  riding  updrafts  over  the  river  gorges 
or  cliffs,  sometimes  in  the  company  of  vultures. 
Not  seen  by  WW ; apparently  a winter  visitor. 

Torgos  calvus  Black  Vulture 

Batulechar  ; on  19  Nov.  3 birds  soaring  over 
the  river  gorge  in  company  with  2 Egyptian 
Vultures.  Fairly  common  year  round  in  KV 
(Proud  1949)  less  so  around  Pokhara. 

Gyps  bengalensis  Whitebacked  Vulture 
Batulechar  ; on  6 Nov.  one  flushed  from  a 
dead  cow  when  approached  within  20  m.  On 
25  Dec.  several  soaring  over  the  river  gorge 
near  the  village.  Considered  the  common 
vulture  in  KV  (Proud  1949). 

Neophron  percnopterus  Egyptian  Vulture 
Common  at  Pokhara,  less  common  at 
Batulechar.  Usually  single  birds  soaring  within 
100  m.  off  the  ground.  One  observed  preening 
its  breast  plumage  while  gliding  over  the  river 
gorge  near  Batulechar.  Surprisingly,  Proud 
(1949,  1952,  1955)  did  not  see  this  species  in  KV, 
suggesting  this  species  has  expanded  its  range 
into  this  region  within  the  last  25  years. 

Falco  tinmmculus  Eurasian  Kestrel 

Seen  infrequently  near  Pokhara.  Single  birds 
notecTon  17,  25  Oct.,  14,  16,  and  25  Dec.  A 


winter  visitor  in  KV  (Proud  1949,  1955) ; seen 
by  WW  around  Pokhara  in  summer. 

Vanellus  spinosus  Spurwinged  Lapwing 

On  16  Dec.  2 individuals  were  seen  on  the 
sandy  beaches  along  the  Seti  river  S of  Bandipur. 
A 3 sec  flight  chase  ensued  when  the  first  bird 
flew  by  the  second.  Not  mentioned  by  WW 
nor  by  Proud  (1949,  1952,  1955). 

Calidris  temminckii  Temminck’s  Stint 
Two  seen  on  the  river  bank  on  17  Dec.  near 
Bharatpur.  A winter  visitor  (Proud  1955). 

Sterna  aurantia  Indian  River  Tern 

Many  over  flooded  paddies  outside  of  Bharat- 
pur on  17  Dec. 

Columba  livia  Blue  Rock  Pigeon 
Common  around  Pokhara. 

Psittacula  cyanocephala  Blossom-headed  Para- 
keet 

On  17  Dec.  a flock  of  20  flew  in  a tight 
group  out  of  a wooded  area  and  over  millet 
fields  S of  Bharatpur.  Both  sexes  present. 

Psittacula  himalayana  Slaty-headed  Parakeet 
Batulechar  ; on  3 Nov.  a flock  of  15  flying 
into  a dense  grove  of  trees  silently.  Appeared 
to  be  all  males.  Not  seen  by  WW ; a winter 
visitor  in  KV  (Proud  1955). 

Bubo  bubo  Great  Horned  Owl 

Seen  at  dusk  22,  24  Oct.,  and  9 Nov.  near 
Pokhara  on  the  cliffs  above  the  Seti  river. 
Heard  hooting  several  times.  Net  mentioned 
by  Proud  (1949,  1952,  1955)  nor  WW. 

Glaucidium  cuculoides  Barred  Owlet 
Batulechar  ; one  seen  perched  4 m above  a 
trail  mid-morning  on  25  Dec.  A common  and 
diurnal  species  around  KV  (Proud  1955),  not 
seen  by  WW, 


248 


POST-MONSOON  BIRDS  IN  CENTRAL  NEPAL 


Caprimulges  macrurus  Longtailed  Nightjar 
Batulechar  ; on  12  Dec.  one  heard  calling 
irregularly  from  1945-2015,  one  call  every  7 
sec/series  of  calls.  Heard  by  Proud  (1949)  in 
KV  but  not  earlier  than  mid-March. 

Coracias  benghalensis  Indian  Roller 

Seen  daily  at  Batulechar ; usually  single 
birds  and  some  pairs  observed  on  same  perches 
each  day,  making  sallies  to  the  ground  to  catch 
insects.  Daily  occurrence  at  same  perches 
suggests  the  possibility  of  winter  territorial 
behaviour,  though  no  agonistic  encounters 
were  observed.  Fairly  common  in  forested 
areas  around  KV  but  not  in  the  valley  itself 
(Proud  1955,  1961a). 

Ceryle  lugubris  Large  Pied  Kingfisher 
Batulechar  ; one  seen  along  a clear  water 
river  on  25  Dec.  Since  kingfishers  hunt  their 
prey  by  sight  their  occurrence  along  rivers 
carrying  large  quantities  of  suspended  glacial 
sediments  would  not  be  expected.  Not  seen 
by  WW. 

Alcedo  atthis  Euras:an  Kingfisher 
Ba-ulechar  ; on  16  Nov.  one  seen  on  a clear 
water  river.  It  flew  from  a bank-side  perch 
and  hovered  5 m over  the  water  for  2-3  sec. 
before  diving  and  catching  a fish  which  it 
carried  off.  Year  round  resident  in  small 
numbers  in  KV  (Proud  1949) ; not  seen  by  WW. 

Megalaima  asiatica  Bluethroated  Barbel 

Batulechar  ; seen  on  2,  4,  and  12  Dec.  Sun- 
ning in  the  early  morning  atop  a bamboo  grove 
with  drongos,  mynas,  and  Himalayan  Tree 
Pies  ; 4-5  foraging  with  a group  of  Yellow- 
cheeked Tits.  Year  round  resident  in  the  hill 
regions  (Proud  1949  ; WW). 

Megalaima  haemacephala  Crimsonbreasted 
Barbet 

Batulechar  ; one  seen  on  1 1 Dec.  sunning  and 
preening  in  the  early  morning  atop  a bamboo 


grove.  Pleard  by  WW  ; considered  a monsoon 
visitor  to  KV  (Proud  1949). 

Chrysocolaptes  lucidus  Large  Golden-backed 
Woodpecker 

One  male  seen  in  open  oak  forest  several  km 
N of  Bharatpur  on  16  Dec. 

Dendrocopos  macei  Fulvous-breasted  Pied 
Woodpecker 

Batulechar;  a female  seen  in  the  same  area  on 
6,  12,  and  13  Dec.  On  15  Dec.  a pair  was  seen 
along  the  Seti  river  S of  Bandipur.  Not  seen 
by  WW ; common  in  KV  (Proud  1949). 

Apus  affinis  House  Swift 
Roosts  under  the  roofs  of  houses  in  Pokhara 
and  seen  frequently  hunting  over  the  city  and 
nearby  river  gorge  until  Nov. 

Hirimdo  rustica  Barn  Swallow 
Seen  regularly  around  Pokhara  until  Dec. 

Hirimdo  daurica  Striated  Swallow 
Seen  regularly  around  Pokhara  until  Nov. 

Lanins  schach  Blackheaded  Shrike 
Batulechar  ; seen  23  Oct.,  9^  11,  and  23  Dec. 
Usually  perched  atop  a bush  hunting  ground- 
dwelling  insects.  One  seen  in  company  with  2 
mynas.  Year  round  resident  (Proud  1949 ; 
WW). 

Oriolus  xanthornus  Blackheaded  Oriole 

One  seen  feeding  with  a group  of  Scarlet 
Minivets  atop  20  m tall  trees  along  the  Seti 
river  S of  Bandipur  on  15  Dec. 

Dicrunis  leucophaeus  Ashy  Drongo 
Batulechar ; several  usually  in  association 
with  Black  Drongos  during  Dec.  The  behaviour 
of  the  two  species  is  similar.  Not  seen  around 
Pokhara  in  summer  but  found  at  higher  ele- 
vations (WW).  Seems  to  move  to  lower  and 
more  open  habitats  in  winter  (Proud  1949). 


249 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


Dicrurus  adsimilis  Black  Drongo 

Batulechar ; seen  regularly  each  morning 
sunning  and  preening  atop  a bamboo  grove. 
Group  varied  in  size  from  4-20.  Other  morning 
tree-top  associates  included  Ashy  Drongo, 
Jungle  Myna,  Common  Myna,  Blue-throated 
Bar  bet,  Red-vented  Bulbul,  Himalayan  Tree 
Pie,  and  Jungle  Crow.  One  crow  was  mobbed 
by  several  drongos  when  it  departed  the  bam- 
boos. Intraspecific  flight  chases  were  common  ; 
some  individuals  made  sallies  from  the  bamboo 
to  the  ground  and  back  once  warmed  up  (about 
0700).  Individuals  dispersed  during  the  day 
in  smaller  groups.  Common  year  round  (Proud 
1949  ; WW). 

Sturnus  contra  Pied  Myna 

One  seen  on  17  Dec.  in  Bharatpur. 

Acridotheres  tristis  Common  Myna 

Seen  daily  in  Batulechar,  usually  in  the  com- 
pany of  Jungle  Mynas.  Both  species  roosted 
together  in  a nearby  bamboo  grove,  becoming 
active  and  vocal  with  first  light  (0600-0630). 
Evening  roosts  began  to  form  at  1800  accom- 
panied by  noisy  chatter.  In  early  morning, 
after  sunning,  flocks  dispersed  in  groups  of 
20-30  individuals/flock.  Flocks  usually  were 
composed  of  conspecifics  only,  though  both 
species  foraged  together. 

Acridotheres  fuscus  Jungle  Myna 

Seen  daily  in  Batulechar.  Exhibits  more 
variation  in  seasonal  abundance  than  the  former 
species  (Proud  1949).  For  additional  notes  see 
the  previous  account. 

Cissa  erythrorhyncha  Red-billed  Blue  Magpie 

Batulechar  ; seen  infrequently.  A group  of  3 
appeared  in  the  same  area  15  and  17  Nov.,  and 
27  Dec.,  making  a series  of  short  flights  from 
tree  to  tree.  Not  seen  by  WW ; considered 
very  common  in  KV  (Proud  1949). 


Dendrocitta  formosae  Himalayan  Tree  Pie 

Seen  regularly  at  Batulechar  during  Dec. 
Usually  single  birds  or  pairs  sunning  in  the 
early  morning  atop  a bamboo  grove  favoured  by 
mynas  and  drongos.  Inhabits  higher  eleva- 
tions in  the  summer  (WW),  wintering  at  lower 
elevations  in  the  hills  (Proud  1949). 

Corvus  splendens  House  Crow 

Common  at  Pokhara,  less  frequently  seen  at 
Batulechar  where  sightings  included  a flock 
of  30  flying  by  on  1 Dec.,  one  bird  perched  atop 
a bamboo  grove  on  9 Dec.,  and  one  bird  passing 
through  the  village  on  28  Dec. 

Corvus  macrorhynchos  Jungle  Crow 

Seen  daily  in  Batulechar,  sometimes  in  groups 
of  10-15  individuals.  Several  seen  mobbing  a 
hawk  5 Dec.  More  rural  in  distribution  and 
abundance  than  the  former  species  (Proud 
1949  ; WW). 

Pericrocotus  flammeus  Scarlet  Minivet 

Batulechar  ; a female  was  seen  on  9 Dec. 
hunting  insects  from  a low  tree  limb  ; on  15 
Dec.  a group  of  8 (equal  sexes)  foraging  through 
tree  crowns  along  the  Seti  river  S of  Bandipur, 
accompanied  by  one  Black-headed  Oriole. 
Not  seen  by  WW. 

Pycnonotus  melanicterus  Blackheaded  Yellow 
Bulbul 

One  low  in  a tree  near  Bandipur  on  14  Dec. 
Not  seen  by  WW. 

Pycnonotus  cafer  Redvented  Bulbul 

Batulechar  ; seen  daily  in  Dec.  beginning  with 
one  bird  on  2 Dec.  and  increasing  to  a group 
of  20  by  13  Dec.  Usually  sunning  atop  trees 
in  the  early  morning  with  several  other  species. 
Flocks  usually  foraged  low  in  trees  or  shrubs. 
Common  in  the  summer  (WW). 


250 


POST-MONSOON  BIRDS  IN  CENTRAL  NEPAL 


Leiothrix  argentauris  Silvereared  Mesia 

A group  of  7-8  foraging  in  shrubs  and  trees 
above  the  Seti  river  S of  Bandipur,  hanging 
from  thin  branches  in  the  early  morning  (0700) 
on  16  Dec.  Accompanied  by  a White-throated 
Fantail  Flycatcher.  Not  seen  by  WW. 

Rhipidura  hypoxantha  Yellowbellied  Fantail 
Flycatcher 

Batulechar ; one  low  in  a tree  at  forest-field 
edge  on  25  Dec.  A common  winter  resident 
in  KV  (Proud  1949,  1955,  1958),  moving  to 
higher  elevations  to  breed. 

Rhipidura  albicollis  Whitethroated  Fantail  Fly- 
catcher 

On  16  Dec.  one  in  the  company  of  a group 
of  Silver-eared  Mesias  above  the  Seti  river  S of 
Bandipur.  An  uncommon  winter  visitor  in 
KY  (Proud  1952). 

Culicicapa  ceylonensis  Grayheaded  Flycatcher 
Batulechar  ; one  seen  on  6,  7,  and  26  Dec. 
chattering  constantly  and  flicking  its  tail,  making 
short  sallies  from  a twig  perch  at  the  forest - 
field  edge,  catching  aerial  insects.  Common  at 
higher  elevations  during  summer  (WW) ; usually 
leaves  KV  by  Nov.  (Proud  1955). 

Erithacus  pectoral  is  Himalayan  Rubythroat 
Batulechar  ; one  male  seen  in  dense  under- 
growth in  woods  on  25  Dec.  A winter  migrant 
in  KV  (Proud  1955). 

Erithacus  brunneus  Blue  Chat 
Batulechar ; a female  on  a forest  lined  trail 
on  7 Dec.,  a female  seen  in  similar  habitat  on 
10  Dec.  Appears  to  be  a winter  visitor*  breed- 
ing at  higher  elevations  (Proud  1955). 

Copsychus  saularis  Magpie  Robin 
Batulechar ; both  sexes  seen  frequently, 
usually  in  low  shrubs  and  undergrowth  along 
hedges.  Males  singing  early  in  the  morning 
(0700)  in  Dec.  ; some  birds  appeared  to  be 


paired  and  may  have  had  winter  territories, 
since  they  were  seen  in  the  same  places  daily. 
Never  more  than  2 birds  (one  male  and  one 
female)  were  seen  together.  Surprisingly,  WW 
did  not  report  this  species  for  the  Pokhara  area 
though  they  did  see  it  in  KV.  Proud  (1949) 
found  it  common  year  round  in  KV.  She  did 
not  report  mid-winter  song,  but  reported  pairs 
remained  territorial. 

Chaimarrornis  leucocephalus  Whitecapped  River 
Chat 

Batulechar  ; common  along  the  rivers  hunting 
insects  low  over  the  water  surface,  moving  from 
boulder  to  boulder  while  rapidly  pumping  the 
tail.  Seen  within  2 m of  conspecifics,  Plum- 
beous Redstarts,  and  Brown  Dippers  without 
agonistic  behavior  shown.  A winter  visitor 
(Proud  1949),  not  seen  by  WW. 

Rhyacornis  fuliginosus  Plumbeous  Redstart 
Batulechar  ; seen  more  frequently  than  the 
previous  species  in  the  same  riverine  habitat. 
Hunting  behaviour  of  the  two  species  also  similar. 
Most  individuals  seen  were  males,  who  wagged 
and  fanned  their  tails  as  they  sang  from  river 
boulders.  Only  single  birds  were  encountered. 
Common  in  summer  (WW) ; Proud  (1949) 
considered  it  common  year  round  in  KV. 

Saxicola  caprata  Pied  Bush  Chat 
Batulechar  ; one  male  perched  on  an  electric 
line  near  woods  on  8 Dec.  After  remaining 
stationary  for  5-6  min.  it  began  hawking  insects. 

Zoothera  dauma  Speckled  Mountain  Thrush 
One  seen  in  Batulechar  on  3 Dec.  in  low 
dense  brush.  Several  individuals  in  similar 
habitat  around  Bharatpur.  Seen  by  WW  in  the 
summer  near  Pokhara  ; usually  a winter  visitor 
in  KV  (Proud  1955). 

Myiophoneus  caeruleus  Whistling  Thrush 
One  seen  in  Batulechar  along  a river  on  2 
Dec.  As  it  moved  amongst  rocks  it  paused 


251 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , PW.  79 


several  times  to  slowly  stretch  and  bow  its 
body  as  it  raised  its  tail,  spreading  the  retrices, 
then  slowly  lowering  the  tail  again.  The  bird 
appeared  to  be  alone.  A year  round  resident 
(WW). 

Cinclus  pallasii  Brown  Dipper 
Seen  infrequently  only  along  clear  water 
rivers  around  Batulechar.  Most  observations 
were  of  lone  birds,  but  a pair  was  seen  on  10 
Nov.  Both  birds  moved  together.  Dippers 
are  territorial,  and  intolerant  of  conspecifics 
except  during  the  breeding  season,  which  begins 
in  Dec.  (Sunquist  1976)  or  Jan.  (Fleming 
et  al.  1976).  Fledglings  have  been  seen  in 
Feb.  (Proud  1955).  Two  birds  together  in 
Nov.  suggests  that  pairing  may  occur  earlier 
than  previously  reported.  Distribution  of  this 
species  is  probably  restricted  to  clear  water 
since  it  hunts  aquatic  prey  by  sight  and  its  prey 
base  is  sensitive  to  sediment  load.  Not  seen  by 
WW. 

Parus  major  Gray  Tit 

On  16  Dec.  a group  foraging  in  trees  and 
shrubs  along  the  Seti  river  S of  Bandipur. 
Several  foraging  with  Yellowcheeked  Tits  in 
Batulechar  on  26  Dec. 

Parus  xanthogenys  Yellowcheeked  Tit 
Batulechar ; common  in  Dec.,  usually  in 
company  of  other  species,  foraging  in  open 
stands  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

Sitta  castanea  Chestnutbellied  Nuthatch 
Noisy  group  of  8-10  moving  through  a patch 
of  woods  S of  Bandipur  on  1 5 Dec.  Considered 
common  by  Proud  (1949)  in  KV  ; not  seen  in 
the  Pokhara  area  by  WW. 

Anthus  novaeseelandiae  Paddyfield  Pipit 
Batulechar ; common  in  Dec.,  usually  in 
fields  in  flocks  of  6-15  birds.  A winter  visitor 
in  KV  (Proud  1961b). 


Motacilla  flava  Yellow  Wagtail 
One  seen  in  Pokhara  on  25  Oct.  in  a grassy 
meadow.  A winter  visitor  (Proud  1955). 

Motacilla  caspica  Gray  Wagtail 
Batulechar  ; seen  infrequently  along  rivers 
in  Nov.  and  Dec.  Only  single  birds  noted. 
A winter  visitor  (Proud  1955). 

Motacilla  citreola  Yellowheaded  Wagtail 
Batulechar  ; one  seen  along  a river  on  7 
Nov.  A winter  visitor  (Proud  1955). 

Motacilla  alba  Pied  Wagtail 
Seen  regularly  around  Batulechar,  usually 
in  grassy  meadows  but  also  along  river  bottoms. 
Mostly  single  birds,  but  pairs  and  one  group 
of  3 noted.  The  most  abundant  wintering 
wagtail  in  the  Pokhara  area  and  KV  (Proud 
1949). 

Aethopyga  siparaja  Scarletbreasted  Sunbird 
Batulechar  ; an  adult  male  visiting  poinsetta 
flowers  on  28  Nov.  Single  males  visiting 
poinsettas  on  4 and  22  Dec.  Both  of  these 
birds  were  molting  head  plumage,  with  the 
brilliant  red  feathers  of  the  head  and  breast 
present  in  small  patches.  Proud  (1949)  con- 
sidered it  scarce  in  KV  in  spring  and  fall,  and 
did  not  see  it  in  summer  or  winter.  Not  seen 
by  WW. 

Passer  domesticus  House  Sparrow 
Seen  daily  in  Batulechar,  but  usually  only  a 
pair  or  small  group  within  a large  flock  of  Tree 
Sparrows.  Proud  (1949)  considered  it  a scarce 
summer  visitor  in  KV.  It  appears  to  have 
become  established  in  small  numbers  in  many 
places  since  then. 

Passer  montanus  Tree  Sparrow 
Batulechar  ; common  in  flocks,  which  roost 
under  roofs  of  houses.  Much  more  abundant 
than  House  Sparrows.  Abundant  m KV 
(Proud  1949), 


252 


POST-MONSOON  BIRDS  IN  CENTRAL  NEPAL 


References 


Ali,  S.  (1949) : Indian  Hill  Birds.  Oxford  Univ. 
Press,  London. 

(1972)  : The  Book  of  Indian  Birds,  Ninth 

Edition,  Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  Bombay. 

Biswas,  B.  (1966) : The  birds  of  Nepal,  part  12. 
/.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  63  : 365-377. 

Cronin,  E.  W.  Jr.  (1979) : The  Arun  ; A Natural 
History  of  the  World’s  Deepest  Valley.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Com.  Boston. 

EcKHOLm,  E.  P.  (1975)  : The  deterioration  of  moun- 
tain environments.  Science  189  : 764-770. 

Fleming,  R.  L.  Sr.,  Fleming,  R.  L.  Jr.,  andBangdel, 
L.  S.  (1976) : Birds  of  Nepal.  Arun  K.  Mehta, 
Vakil  and  Sons,  Bombay, 

Proud,  D.  (1949) : Some  notes  on  the  birds  of  the 
Nepal  Valley.  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  48  : 695-719. 


(1952) : Further  notes  on  the  birds  of 

the  Nepal  Valley,  ibid.,  50  : 667-670. 

(1955) : More  notes  on  the  birds  of  the 

Nepal  Valley,  ibid.,  53  : 57-78. 

(1958) : Bird  notes  from  Nepal,  ibid., 

55  : 345-350. 

— (1961a)  : Notes  on  the  birds  of  Nepal. 

ibid.,  58  : 798-805. 

(1961b)  : Corrections  to  ‘Some  notes  on 

the  birds  of  the  Nepal  Valley  \ ibid.,  58  : 806-807. 

Sunquist,  M.  E.  (1976) : Territory  size  and  nesting 
habits  of  Brown  Dippers  Cinclus  pallasii.  Ibis  118  : 
577-578. 

Woodcock,  M.  W.  and  Woodcock,  B.  J.  (1976) : 
Some  birds  observed  in  the  monsoon  in  Central  Nepal. 
J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  73  : 296-303. 


253 


BIOLOGY  AND  MORPHOLOGY  OF  IMMATURE  STAGES 
OF  BRACON  BREVICORNIS  (HYMENOPTERA  : BRACONIDAE) 
AN  IMPORTANT  BIOLOGICAL  CONTROL  AGENT  OF  THE 
BLACK-HEADED  CATERPILLAR  PEST  OF  COCONUT1 

V.  V.  SUDHEENDRAKUMAR,  U.  V.  K.  MOHAMED, 

T.  C.  Narendran  and  U.  C.  Abdurahiman2 

{With  fifteen  text-figures) 

Brdcon  brevicornis  (Bfaconidae  : Hymenoptera)  is  one  of  the  important  biological  control  agents  of 
Nephantis  serinopa , the  black  headed  caterpillar  pest  of  coconut.  An  account  of  the  biology  and 
morphology  of  the  immature  stages  of  this  parasitic  wasp  is  given.  There  are  five  larval  instars  and 
the  duration  of  development  from  egg  to  adult  takes  about  7-8.5  days. 


Introduction 

Bracon  brevicornis  (Hymenoptera  : Braconidae) 
is  one  of  the  important  biological  control 
agents  of  Nephantis  serinopa , the  black-headed 
caterpillar  pest  of  coconut  in  S.  India.  Though 
information  on  the  biology  of  this  parasitic 
wasp  is  available  (Cheriyan  1928  ; Rama- 
chandra  Rao  et  al.  1948  ; Nirula  1955)  no 
detailed  studies  have  been  made  on  the  biology 
and  morphology  of  its  immature  stages,  hence 
the  present  study  has  been  undertaken. 

Materials  and  Methods 

In  the  laboratory  Corcyra  cephalonica  S.  was 
used  as  the  host  for  rearing  the  parasite.  Ob- 
servations on  the  immature  stages  were  done 
under  Leitz  Wetzlar  Ortholux  and  Bausch  & 
Lomb  Stereozoom  microscopes.  Measurements 
of  immature  stages  were  taken  using  ocular 
micrometer.  For  the  study  of  mouth  parts, 
larvae  were  mounted  in  gum  chloral.  The  dia- 
grams were  drawn  by  using  camera  lucida. 
The  larval  instars  are  determined  by  measuring 

1 Accepted  February  1979. 

2 Department  of  Zoology,  University  of  Calicut, 
Calicut  University  P.  O.  673  635.  India. 


the  size  of  the  mandibles  as  well  as  the  dia- 
meter of  the  first  thoracic  spiracle  which  varies 
from  instar  to  instar. 

Observations  and  Results 

Description  of  Life  stages  : 

Egg  (Fig.  1) 

Freshly  laid  egg  is  typically  hymenopteriform 
and  measures  0.40  to  0.55  mm  in  length  and 
0.13  to  0.15  mm  in  width.  It  is  translucent 
and  milky  whitish  in  colour.  Chorion  is 
smooth,  sh-ny  and  devoid  of  any  sculpturing. 
It  contains  little  yolk  when  laid  and  it  occupies 
the  entire  area  within  the  chorion  leaving  only  a 
little  space. 

Hatching 

The  incubation  period  varies  from  24-28 
hours.  When  the  egg  is  approximately  twenty 
hours  old,  developing  larva  is  visible  through 
the  transparent  chorion.  A wriggling  move- 
ment of  the  larva  is  noted  4-5  hours  prior  to 
eclosion.  Segmentation  of  the  larva  is  quite 
distinct  at  this  stage.  Later  4-5  hours  after 
the  start  of  the  wriggling  movement  a rupture 
forms  on  the  chorion  at  the  cephalic  end  of  the 


254 


BIOLOGY  OF  BRACON  BREVICORNlS 


Fig.  1.  Egg. 

Figs,  2-6.  Larval  instars  (first  to  fifth). 


egg  due  to  the  action  of  the  mandibles  and  movement  of  the  larva  finally  enables  itself  to 

possibly  from  the  increased  pressure  from  escape  completely  from  the  chorion.  It  takes 
within  the  egg.  Through  this  rupture,  the  about  15-20  minutes  for  the  larva  to  become 
larval  head  first  protrudes  out.  The  wriggling  completely  free  from  the  chorion. 


255 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Larva 

Soon  after  hatching  the  first  instar  larva 
makes  a puncture  on  the  body  of  the  host  with 
the  mandibles  and  starts  feeding  by  conti- 
nuously ingesting  the  host  haemolymph  by 
pharyngeal  pumping.  Once  the  parasite  begins 
its  regular  feeding  movements,  development  is 
rapid. 

Larval  instars 

There  are  five  larval  instars.  The  measure- 
ments of  mandibles  and  prothoracic  spiracle  of 
various  instars  are  tabulated  (Table  1).  Be- 
cause of  the  circular  nature  of  the  spiracles  an 
accurate  measurement  can  be  taken  from  any 
angle,  as  long  as  the  maximum  diameter  of  the 
apparent  elliptical  out -line  is  considered. 

Table  1 

Measurement  in  mm.  of  the  size  of  the 

PROTHORACIC  SPIRACLE  AND  MANDIBLE 
OF  DIFFERENT  LARVAL  INSTARS 

(Mean±SE) 


Instar 

Diameter  of 
Prothoracic  Spiracle 

Length  of 
Mandible 

1 

0.002+  .0001 

0.030±  .002 

2 

0.009  ± .0003 

0.035±  .002 

3 

0.01 5 ±.002 

0.047  ±.004 

4 

0.024  ±.003 

0.057  ±.003 

5 

0.033  ±.002 

0.068  ±.001 

First  instar  larva  (Fig.  2) 

First  instar  larva  is  typically  hymenopteri- 
form  with  well  defined  head  and  thirteen  body 
segments.  It  is  glassy  whitish  in  colour.  The 
skin  is  smooth  without  any  cuticular  structures. 


The  larva  measures  about  0.45-0.85  mm  in 
length  and  0.16  to  0.36  mm  in  width. 

The  head  is  thimble  shaped  and  possesses 
a pair  of  stumpy  antennae.  Head  capsule 
measures  an  average  of  0.15  mm  in  width. 
Mouth  opening  is  situated  at  the  front  end  of 
the  head  at  the  apex.  In  describing  the  mouth 
parts  (Fig.  7)  the  terminology  of  Vance  and 
Smith  (1933)  has  been  employed.  Epistoma, 
pleurostoma  and  hypostoma  are  clearly  demar- 
cated. Mandibles  are  triangular  in  outline  and 
little  chitinised.  Each  mandible  is  articulated 
anteriorly  with  the  superior  pleurostomal  ramus 
and  posteriorly  with  the  inferior  pleurostomal 
ramus.  Mandibles  consist  of  a main  tooth 
followed  by  small  bristle-like  teeth  in  a comb- 
like arrangement  along  the  inner  edge  (Fig.  8). 
Tracheal  system  is  composed  of  two  well 
developed  lateral  trunks  united  transversely 
in  the  first  thoracic  segment  and  posteriorly  in 
the  ninth  abdominal  segment.  There  are  nine 
pairs  of  spiracles,  a pair  in  the  first  thoracic 
segment  and  one  each  in  the  first  eight 
abdominal  segments. 

EP 


I 


Fig.  7.  Head  of  first  instar  larva — front  view.  EP— 
Epistoma,  PL— Pleurostoma,  SPLR — Superior  pleuros- 
tomal ramus,  IPLR — Inferior  pleurostomal  ramus, 
Hy-Hypostoma. 


256 


BIOLOGY  OF  BRACON  BREVICORNIS 


Second  instar  larva  (Fig.  3) 

Second  instar  larva  measures  0.85-1.4  mm. 
in  length  and  0.36-0.50  mm.  in  width.  The 
duration  of  second  instar  varies  from  7 to 
7.5  hours.  It  is  translucent  and  pale  yellowish 
white  in  colour.  It  can  be  readily  distinguished 
from  the  previous  stage  by  the  sizes  of  the  head 
capsule,  mandibles  (Fig.  9)  and  the  spiracle. 
The  head  capsule  measures  an  average  of 
1.9-2  mm.  in  width. 

Third  instar  larva  (Fig.  4) 

The  duration  of  third  instar  larva  varies 
from  5 to  6.5  hours.  It  measures  1.2  to  1.9  mm 
in  length  and  0.52  to  0.72  mm.  in  width.  Head 
capsule  measures  an  average  of  0.28  mm.  in 


8 9 


Figs.  8-12.  Mandibles  of  first  to  fifth  instar  larval 
stages. 


width.  Mouth  parts  resemble  that  of  second 
instar  with  increase  m the  size  of  the  mandibles 
(Fig.  10). 

Fourth  instar  larva  (Fig.  5) 

Fourth  instar  larva  shows  only  minor  diffe- 
rences from  the  third  instar.  Duration  of  the 
fourth  instar  varies  from  6 to  6.5  hours.  The 
larva  measures  1.9  to  2.5  mm.  in  length  and 
0.72  to  0.85  mm.  in  width.  Head  capsule 
measures  0.35  mm.  in  width  on  the  average. 
Mandibles  show  remarkable  change  in  the 
shape  (Fig.  1 1). 

Fifth  instar  larva  (Fig.  6) 

Fifth  instar  stage  is  reached  26-29  hours  after 
eclosion  and  its  duration  varies  between  12 
and  13  hours.  The  body  is  yellowish  white 
in  colour  and  it  tapers  towards  both  ends.  It 
can  be  easily  distinguished  from  the  previous 
stage  by  the  presence  of  cuticular  spines  in  all 
segments,  except  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  abdomi- 
nal ones.  The  cuticular  spines  are  arranged  as 
transverse  bands  on  each  segment  and  is  absent 
on  the  ventral  side.  Fifth  instar  larva  measures 
about  2.27-3.18  mm  in  length  and  0.85-1,2  mm 
in  width. 

The  head  (Fig,  13)  shows  distinct  features. 
The  various  parts  are  : the  vertex,  the  temporal 
region,  the  antennal  region,  frontal  region  and 
the  genal  region.  The  mouth  parts  are  quite 
distinct.  The  mandibles  (Fig,  12)  are  well 
sclerotised  and  brownish  at  the  tip.  Main 
tooth  is  followed  by  eight  bristle-like  teeth 
arranged  in  a comb-like  fashion.  Labrum  is 
enclosed  above  by  epistoma.  Maxilla  is  boun- 
ded above  by  hypostoma  and  below  by  maxi- 
llary sclerome.  Cardo  and  stipes  are  demar- 
cated by  a stout  vertical  thickening  of  chitin, 
the  stipital  sclerome.  Middle  region  of  the 
labium  is  thickened  into  an  oral  area  bounded 


2 


257 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Fig.  13.  Head  of  Final  instar  larva — front^view. 

AN — Antennal  bud,  MXL — Maxilla,  EP — Epistoma, 
CRD — Cardo,  FRN — Frontal  region,  STP — Stipes, 
SENS— Sensilla,  LBR— Labrum,  LBSTSC— Labio- 

stipital  sclerome,  MXSC — Maxillary  sclerome,  STPSC — 
Stipital  sclerome,  HY — Hypostoma,  PL — Pleurostoma. 

by  labiostipital  sclerome.  Labium  preserves  its 
division  into  postmentum  and  prementum. 
Tracheal  system  is  well  developed.  The  num- 
ber of  spiracles  is  same  as  in  the  first  instar 
larva. 

Prepupa  and  cocoon 

The  end  of  larval  duration  is  when  the  larva 
stops  feeding.  Total  duration  of  the  larval  stages 
of  B.  hrevicornis  varies  from  39  to  43.5  hours. 
The  full  fed  larva  first  detaches  from  the  hosts’ 
body  and  starts  spinning  a cocoon  with  white 
silken  fibres.  Usually,  the  larvae  which  detach 
from  the  same  host  body  construct  their  cocoon 
very  close  to  each  other.  The  Cocoon  is  oval 
in  outline  with  a convex  dorsal  surface  and  a 
flat  base.  Outer  surface  of  cocoon  is  translu- 
cent whereas  the  base  is  transparent  and  the 
larva  lying  inside  is  visible.  Cocoon  measures 
about  3.63  mm.  in  length  and  1.7  mm.  in  width 
on  an  average.  Each  larva  usually  takes  about 


8-10  hours  to  construct  its  cocoon.  After  cons- 
truction of  the  cocoon,  within  14-20  hours  the 
larva  voids  its  meconium  which  is  stored  at 
the  posterior  end  of  the  cocoon  as  a black 
semi -solid  mass.  The  larva  at  this  stage  is 
called  as  prepupa.  Prepupa  (Fig.  14)  is  yello- 
wish white  in  colour.  Cuticular  spines  present 
on  the  body  as  in  the  case  of  fifth  instar  larva. 


14 


Fig.  14.  Prepupa— Lateral  view. 


258 


•05  mm 


BIOLOGY  OF  BRACON  BREVICORNIS 


It  is  sluggish  and  is  capable  of  feeble  wriggling 
action. 

Pupa  (Fig.  15) 

Prepupal  stage  lasts  about  13  to  15  hours. 


15 


Fig.  15.  Pupa— dorsal  view. 


Prior  to  pupation  thoracic  and  abdominal 
regions  become  differentiated  by  a construc- 
tion at  the  junction  of  fourth  and  fifth  segments. 
The  prepupa  finally  casts  off  its  skin  and  the 
pupa  emerges.  Pupa  is  exarate  and  yellowish 
white  in  colour.  About  24  to  32  hours  after 
pupation  the  body  colour  changes  into  pale 
reddish  brown.  The  eyes  and  the  three  ocelli 
which  are  red  in  colour  later  change  to  black. 
The  head  of  the  pupa  is  flexed  downwards. 
Antennae  are  directed  backwards  on  the  ventral 
surface.  Developing  wing  pads  are  distinct. 
Segmentation  of  the  abdomen  is  distinct. 
The  duration  of  pupal  stage  varies  between 
72  to  84  hours. 

Emergence 

Approximately  ten  hours  before  emergence, 
pupal  moult  takes  place.  At  first,  the  pupa  lies 
with  its  ventral  side  facing  the  base  of  the  cocoon. 
After  its  primary  emergence  from  the 
pupal  exuvium,  the  adult  turns  round  and 
lies  upside  down  within  the  cocoon  with  its 
dorsal  side  facing  the  base  of  the  cocoon.  Prior 
to  secondary  emergence  from  the  cocoon,  the 
adult  gnaws  an  irregular  hole  at  the  antero- 
dorsal  side  of  the  cocoon.  Later  it  comes 
out  through  this  hole. 

Discussion 

According  to  Clausen  (1940)  the  eggs  of 
Microbracon  lendicivorus  have  a slender  tapering 
stalk,  slightly  longer  than  the  egg  body.  In 
Bracon  brevicornis  the  egg  is  cylindrical,  elon- 
gate and  represents  the  general  form  of  braconid 
egg,  Munro  (1917)  observed  that  in  B . 
hylobii  Ratz.  the  early  larval  stages  possessed 
no  spiracles  and  they  first  appeared  only  in 
the  fourth  instar  stage.  B . brevicornis  shows 
the  presence  of  9 pairs  of  spiracles  throughout 
the  larval  stages.  According  to  Clausen  (1940) 
the  mandibles  of  B.  tachardiae  are  4 dentate 
and  it  reveals  an  increasing  number  of  small 
teeth  on  the  inner  margin  of  the  mandibles, 


259 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


in  the  intermediate  instars  ; the  four  teeth  of 
the  first  instar  are  succeeded  by  five  in  the 
second  and  third.  In  the  case  of  B.  brevi- 
cornis  the  main  tooth  is  followed  by  eight 
small  teeth  in  comb-like  arrangement,  from 
the  first  instar  stage  onwards. 


Refer 

Cheriyan,  M.  C.  (1928)  : Microbmcon  serinopa,  a 
parasite  of  Nephcintis.  Year  Book  Dept.  Agric,  Madras. 
12-22. 

Clausen,  C.  P.  (1940)  : Entomophagous  insects. 
Hafner  Publishing  Company,  New  York,  688  pp. 

Munro,  J.  W.  (1917)  : The  structure  and  life  history 
of  Bracon  sp.  : a study  in  parasitism.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinb. 
Proc.  36  : 313-333. 

Nirula,  K.  K.  (1955)  : Investigation  on  the  pest  of 


Acknowledgement 

The  research  has  been  financed  in  part  by  a 
grant  made  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  under  co-operative  Agricultural 
Research  Grant  Programme  (P.  L.  480). 


; n ces 

coconut  palms.  Part  III.  Nephantis  serinopa  M. 
lnd.  Coe.  Jour.  9 (1)  : 175-201. 

Ramachandra  Rao,  Y.,  Cheriyan,  M.  C,  Anantha- 
narayan,  K.  P.  (1948) : Infestation  of  Nephantis. 
serinopa  in  S.  India  and  their  control  by  biological 
method.  Ind.  Jour.  Ent.  10  (1) : 205-47. 

Vance,  A.  M.  & Smith,  H.  D.  (1933)  : The  larval 
head  of  the  parasitic  hymenoptera  and  nomenclature 
of  its  parts.  Ann.  ent.  Soc.  Amer.  26  : 86-94. 


260 


THE  AQUATIC  AND  MARSHLAND  FLORA  OF  KHERI 
DISTRICT,  UTTAR  PRADESH1 


K.  K.  Singh2  and  R.  P.  S.  Tomar3 
(With  a text-figure) 

The  paper  presents  an  account  of  the  aquatic  and  marshy  angiosperms  of  Kheri  district,  Uttar  Pradesh. 
Topographical  and  climatic  conditions  of  the  area  have  been  described.  The  whole  area  of  present  investi- 
gation comprises  six  main  forest  ranges  and  distribution  of  species  along  with  field  numbers  is  recorded. 
The  present  study  shows  that  179  species  of  angiosperms  belonging  to  54  families  inhabit  the  lakes,  ponds, 
swamps,  marshes  and  river  banks  of  the  district. 


Introduction 

In  India  the  study  on  hydrophytes  and  marsh- 
land plants  has  been  carried  out  by  a number 
of  workers  : Biswas  and  Calder  (1937),  Misra 
(1946),  Mirashi  (1954,  1957,  1958),  Sen  and 
Chatterjee  (1959),  Subramanyam  (1962), 
Maheshwari  (I960)  and  Vyas  (1964)  etc.  The 
systematic  and  ecological  studies  on  aquatic 
and  marshy  plants  of  Kheri  district  has  been 
undertaken  while  conducting  floristic  studies  of 
the  forest  of  the  district.  The  area  has  been 
partly  botanically  explored  by  Duthie  (1923), 
P.  C.  Kanjilal  (1966)  and  G.  Saran  (1954  & 
1956)  of  National  Botanical  Research  Institute 
Lucknow.  However,  no  separate  work  on 
aquatic  plan  s of  Kheri  district  has  been  publi- 
shed. A thorough  study  of  the  present  day 
aquatic  and  marshland  plants  is,  therefore, 
necessary.  The  area  was  surveyed  in  different 
seasons  during  the  years  1972  to  1978.  Speci- 
mens are  preserved  in  the  Medicinal  Plant 
herbarium  of  Central  Drug  Research  Institute, 
Lucknow.  The  order  of  families  followed  in 
this  paper  is  according  to  Bentham  and  Hooker’s 
Genera  Plantarum  1862-63.  However,  in 
splitting  of  certain  families,  Hutchinson’s  (ed. 

1 Accepted  December  1980. 

2 Botany  Division,  Central  Drug  Research  Institute, 
Lucknow. 

3 Department  of  Botany,  Y.  D.  Postgraduate  College, 
Lakhimpur-Kheri. 


1959,  1973)  classification  has  been  adopted. 
An  attempt  has  been  made  to  bring  the  nomen- 
clature up-to-date  as  far  as  possible. 

Location  and  Habitats 

Kheri  district  occupies  north-west  position  in 
Uttar  Pradesh  between  27°  41'  and  28°  42'  N. 
latitude  and  30°  2'  and  81°  19'  E.  longitude. 
The  district  is  bounded  on  east  by  the  district 
of  Baharaich,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
river  Kauriala,  on  the  south  by  Sitapur  and 
Hardoi,  on  the  west  by  Shahjahanpur  and 
Pilibhit  districts  and  on  the  north  by  the  terri- 
tory of  Nepal,  separated  by  Mohan  river.  The 
thick  forest  belts  are  situated  in  the  terai  regions 
of  the  foothills  of  Himalayas  in  close  vicinity 
of  the  territory  of  Nepal.  It  occupies  a 
total  area  of  4,740  sq.  km.  Major  parts  of 
the  district  are  provided  with  permanent  ponds, 
Jheels,  riverbeds  and  marshes  which  get  filled 
up  by  water  during  the  rainy  season  and 
maintain  a rich  aquatic  and  marshland  flora. 
The  present  study  conducted  over  a greater  part 
of  the  district  with  special  reference  to  the 
following  ranges  from  where  the  species  have 
been  collected. 

1.  Mailani,  2.  Golagokarannath,  (3)  Dudwa, 
(4)  Bankati,  (5)  Bellrain,  (6)  Sonaripur.  These 
ranges  have  a large  number  of  ponds,  ditches, 
jheels,  river  banks  and  marshes  which  support 


261 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


rich  aquatic  and  marshy  vegetation  throughout 
the  year.  (Fig.  1). 

Topography  and  Soils 

In  its  general  aspect,  Kheri  district  occupies 
large  stretches  of  alluvial  plain,  covered  in  the 
northern  half  with  forests  and  intersected  in 
between  by  many  rivers  and  water  courses. 
In  general,  the  slope  of  the  district  is  from  north- 


west to  south-west.  A major  portion  of  the 
district  is  low-lying  and  gets  filled  with  water 
during  the  rainy  season.  Marshlands  occur 
commonly  in  the  district.  The  district  is  mainly 
composed  of  gangetic  alluvium  showing  a suc- 
cession of  beds  of  sands  and  loam,  varying  in 
depth  according  to  the  configuration  of  the 
ground.  In  areas  where  clay  has  been  deposi- 
ted on  the  surface  as  in  depressions,  the  ground 
becomes  swampy  during  the  rainy  season. 


Fig.  1.  Map  of  Kheri  District,  Uttar  Pradesh. 


AQUATIC  AND  MARSHLAND  FLORA  OF  KHERI  DISTRICT 


Climate 

The  climate  of  Kheri  district  is  of  monsoon 
type.  The  year  may  be  broadly  divided  into 
rainy,  winter  and  summer  seasons.  The  average 
total  annual  rainfall  is  about  1159.76  mm.  The 
mean  maximum  temperature  in  May  reaches 
as  much  as  46°  C and  mean  minimum  tempe- 
rature is  8.32°C  in  the  month  of  December. 

Observations 

The  common  habitats  of  hydrophytes  and 
marshland  vegetation  are  the  lakes,  ponds, 
bank  of  rivers,  low-lying  areas  and  marshy 
places  of  the  district,  which  remain  submerged 
throughout  the  year.  The  following  six  cate- 
gories are  recognised,  depending  upon  the 
nature  of  habitats  and  their  contact  with  soil, 
water  and  air  : 

1 . Free-floating  hydrophytes. 

2.  Suspended  hydrophytes. 

3.  Submerged  attached  hydrophytes. 

4.  Floating  attached  hydrophytes. 

5.  Emergent,  amphibious  hydrophytes. 

6.  Wetland  and  marshy  plants. 

The  aquatic  and  marshy  vegetation  shows 
some  pure  patches  of  plants  like  Eichhornia 
crassipes  (Mart.)  Solms,  Nelumbo  nucifera 
Gaertn.,  Monochoria  vaginalis  Presl,  Typha 
angustata  Bory  & Chaub,  Potentilla  supina 
Linn.,  Ranunculus  sceleratus  Linn,  in  different 
localities  of  the  district.  Besides,  there  are 
number  of  common  associations  of  aquatic  and 
marshy  species  which  are  noticeable  in  these 
areas  : 

Associates  of  Aquatic  plants  : 

(a)  Nymphaea,  Eleocharis,  Aeschynomene 

(b)  Potamogeton , Ottelia,  Hygroryza. 

(c)  Nymphaea,  Nymphoides,  Hydrilla. 

Associates  of  Marshy  and  Wetland  plants  : 

(a)  Ludwigia,  Scirpus,  Hy  dr  ole  a. 

( b ) Caesulia,  Tenagocharis , Sphenoclea. 


(c)  Phragmites,  Oxystelma,  Car  ex. 

(d)  Ipomoea,  Hydrolea,  Ammannia. 

Plants  like  Eclipta  prostrata  (Linn.)  Linn., 
Alternanthera  sessilis  (Linn.)  D.C.  Ipomoea 
aquatica  Forsk.,  Ammannia  baccifera  Linn, 
show  wide  range  of  distribution.  The  present 
study  shows  that  one  hundred  and  seventy-nine 
species  of  angio sperms  belonging  to  fifty-four 
families  inhabit  the  lakes,  ponds,  marshes  and 
river  beds  of  the  district. 


enumeration  of  the  taxa 

1.  Ranunculaceae 

1.  Ranunculus  sceleratus  Linn. 

Common  in  marshes  of  the  district.  FI. 
March  to  June.  Local  name  Jaldhania.  KKS 
2810, 7266. 

2.  R.  cantoniensis  DC. 

Rare,  Bankati  range  of  the  district  in 
marshes.  FI.  April  to  May.  KKS  7164. 

2.  Nymphabaceae 

3.  Nymphaea  nouchali  Burm.  f. 

Common  in  ponds  and  jheels  during  the 
rainy  season.  FI.  August  to  October.  Local 
name:  Kumodini,  Kokaveli.  KKS  7440. 

4.  Nymphaea  stellata  Willd. 

Occasional  in  ponds  and  lakes,  often  mixed 
with  N.  nouchali  Burm.  f.  FI.  August  to  Octo- 
ber. Local  name  : Chota  Kamal.  KKS  7508, 
7696. 

3.  Nelumbonaceae 

5.  Nelumbo  nucifera  Gaertn. 

Frequent  in  jheels  and  ponds.  FI.  April  to 
October.  Local  name  : Kamal  KKS  3007, 


263 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


4.  Brassicaceae  (Crucifer ae) 

6.  Rorippa  Mica  (Linn,)  Hiern 
Occasional  in  moist  shady  places.  FI.  Feb- 
ruary to  August.  KKS  2933,  4306. 

7.  Coronopus  didymus  (Linn.)  Sm. 

Frequent  in  moist  places.  FL  January  to 
April.  KKS  7792. 

5.  Elatinaceae 

8.  Bergia  amraaimioides  Heyne  ex  Roth 

Rare,  in  wet  and  marshy  places  along  with 
Ammannia  spp.  FL  November  to  May.  KKS 
7791. 

6.  Sterculiaceae 

9.  Melodiia  corchorifoSia  Linn. 

Common  in  muddy  and  marshy  places.  FI. 
July  to  September.  KKS  7443,  7732. 

7.  Tiliaceae 

10.  Corchorus  aestuans  Linn. 

Common  in  moist  shady  places.  FI.  August 
to  October.  KKS  3069,  7561. 

11.  C.  capsularis  Linn. 

Frequent  on  moist  ground.  FL  July  to 
September.  KKS  3064. 

8.  Fabaceae  (Papilionaceae) 

12.  Aeschynomene  Mica  Linn. 

Common  in  wastelands,  ponds  and  rice 
fields.  FL  July  to  October.  Local  name  : 
Thing  ini.  KKS  2968,  7711. 

9.  Rosaceae 

13.  Potentiila  Mica  (Andr.)  Wolf. 

Occasional  in  moist  shady  places  and  in 

marshy  area.  FL  September  to  October.  KKS 
7342, 8365. 


14.  P.  supina  Linn. 

Common  throughout  the  area  in  marshy 
and  muddy  areas.  FL  January  to  April.  KKS 
2887,  7103,  8402. 

10.  Myrtaceae 

15.  Syzygium  heyneanum  (Duthie)  Wall  ex- 
Gamble 

Occasional  on  river  banks  and  in  swamps. 
FL  April  to  September-  Local  name  : Kathja- 
muni.  KKS  7352. 

11.  Lecythidaceae 

16.  Bamngtoma  acutangula  (Linn.)  Gaertn. 

Found  frequently  in  marshy  places  and  along 
river  banks.  FL  May  to  September-  Local 
name  : Panyala.  KKS  4342. 

12.  Lythraceae 

17.  Ammannia  baccifera  Linn. 

Common  in  moist  and  marshy  places  through  - 
out the  area.  FL  major  part  of  the  year. 
KKS  4149,  7219. 

18.  A.  multiflora  Roxb. 

Common  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  Fl. 
October  to  January.  KKS  4148. 

19.  Rotala  indica  (Willd.)  Koehne 

Common  in  moist  and  muddy  places  along 
forest  roads.  FL  October  to  January.  KKS 
4180,  7859. 

20.  R.  mexicana  Cham.  & Schlect. 

Common  on  moist  and  muddy  ground  along 
forest  roads.  FL  October  to  December.  KKS 
4203,  7857. 


264 


AQUATIC  AND  MARSHLAND  FLORA  OF  KHERI  DISTRICT 


13,  Onagraceae 

21.  Ludwigia  adscendens  (Linn.)  Hara 

Common  in  ponds  during  rainy  season,  FI. 
September  to  November.  KKS  3083,  4368, 
7409. 

22.  L.  prostrata  Roxb. 

Frequent  in  moist  and  muddy  places  along 
forest  roads.  Fl.  August  to  November.  KKS 
7538.7713,8482. 

23.  L.  octovalvis  (Jacq.)  Raven  subsp.  sessiii- 

flora  (Mich.)  Raven 

Frequent  in  marshy  and  water-logged  areas. 
Fl.  October  to  December.  KKS  4261,  7887. 

24.  L.  perennis  Linn. 

Co  mmon  in  muddy  and  shaded  areas  along 
forest  roads.  Fl.  September  to  November. 
KKS  7413,7538,8532. 

14,  Trap  ace  ae 

25.  Trapa  natans  Linn.  var.  bispinosa  (Roxb.) 

Makino 

Commonly  cultivated  in  ponds  and  jheels  in 
the  area.  Fl.  August  to  November,  Local 
name  : Sing  hara.  KKS  7694. 

15.  Molluginaceae 

26.  Glinus  lotoides  Linn, 

Common  in  drying  ponds,  puddles  and  moist 
sandy  places.  Fl  April  to  August.  KKS  2927. 

16.  Apiaceae  (Umbelliferae) 

27.  Hydrocotyle  sibthorpoides  Lamk. 

Rare  in  moist  and  muddy  places.  Fl.  Septem- 
ber to  November.  KKS  7651. 


28.  Centella  asiatica  (Linn .)  Urban 

Common  in  moist,  shady  places  and  along 
river  banks.  Fl.  April  to  August  Local  name  : 
Brafuni . KKS  2931 , 4223,  7137, 

29.  Cnidium  mourner i (Linn.)  Cusson 

Frequent  in  open,  muddy  and  marshy  places . 
Fl.  April  to  May.  KKS  2938,  7162. 

17.  Rubiaceae 

30.  Cephalanthus  occidental  is  Linn. 

Occasional  in  marshy  area  along  river  bank. 

Fl.  March  to  July.  Inayat  22381. 

31.  Oldenlandia  corymbosa  Linn 

Frequent  in  moist  and  muddy  places.  FL 
September  to  October.  KKS  4168,  4209. 

32.  O.  paniculata  Linn. 

Occasional  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  Fl. 
August  to  October.  KKS  3039,  7955. 

33.  Hyptianthera  stricta  W.  & A. 

Rare  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  March  to  May. 
KKS  7140,  7195. 

34.  Borreria  articularis  (Linn,  f.)  F.N.  Wils. 
Common  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  August  to 

October,  KKS  3012,  7434. 

18.  Asteraceae  (Compositae) 

35.  Adenostemma  lavenia  (Linn.)  O.  Ktze.  var, 
lavenia. 

Common  in  moist,  shady  and  marshy  places. 
Fl.  September  to  February.  KKS  4171,  7938. 

35.  Caesulia  axillaris  Roxb. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places  and  in  rice  fields. 
FL  September  to  April.  KKS  4255,4325,  7803. 


265 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


37.  Dichrocephala  integrifolia  (Linn,  f.)  0.  Ktze. 

Occasional  in  moist,  shady,  and  marshy  places. 
FI.  August  to  October.  KKS  4133,  7327. 

38.  Centipeda  minima  (Linn.)  A.  Br.  & Aschers. 
Frequent  in  moist  and  muddy  places.  FI. 

October  to  December.  Local  name:  Nakchikcini. 
KKS  2895,7156. 

39.  Cotula  anthemoides  Linn. 

Occasional  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  FI. 
February  to  March.  KKS  4340,  7178. 

40.  C.  hemisphaerica  (Roxb.)  Wall,  ex  Clarke 
Occasional  in  marshy  places.  FI.  January  to 

March.  KKS  7683. 

41.  Cyathocline  purpurea  (D.  Don)  O.  Ktze. 
Common  in  marshy  places  and  along  river 

banks.  FI.  November  to  March.  KKS  7186, 
7227. 

42.  Emilia  sonchifolia  (Linn.)  DC. 

Frequent  in  muddy  places  and  other  moist 

places.  FL  September  to  November.  KKS 
7633,  7715. 

43.  Eclipta  prostrata  (Linn.)  Linn. 

Common  in  marshy  places.  FI.  most  part 

of  the  year.  Local  name  : Bhangara.  KKS 
7168. 

44.  Grangea  maderaspatana  (Linn.)  Poir. 
Common  in  marshy  places  and  along  river 

banks,  puddles  etc.  FI.  October  to  March. 
KKS  2884,  7182,  7589,  8328. 


19.  Campanulacbae 

45.  Lobelia  alsinoides  Lamk. 

Common  in  moist  and  muddy  grounds 
along  forest  roads.  FI.  September  to  December. 
KKS  4184,  8511. 


46.  Wahlenbergia  marginata  (Thunb.)  DC. 
Frequent  in  damp  places  and  along  river 

streams.  FI.  November  to  March.  KKS 
7110,7128,7638. 

47.  Campanula  bentbamii  Wall,  ex  Kitamura 
Frequent  in  moist,  shady  places  and  along 

river  banks.  FI.  December  to  March.  KKS 
2854,7102,7105. 

20.  Sphenocleaceae 

48.  Sphenoclea  zeylanica  Linn. 

Frequent  in  marshy  areas  and  in  rice  fields. 
FI.  August  to  November.  KKS  7482,  8488. 

21.  Primulaceae 

49.  Primula  umbellata  (Lour.)  Bentv. 
Occasional  in  moist,  shady  places.  FI.  Decem- 
ber to  March.  KKS  7104, 7636. 

50.  Lysimachia  Candida  Lindl.  subsp.  abovata 
R.  Kunth 

Rare  in  marshy  places.  FI.  March  to  October. 
KKS  7952. 

22.  Asclepiadaceae 

51.  Oxystelma  secamone  (Linn.)  K.  Schum. 

In  marshy  places  and  along  river  banks. 

FI.  July  to  November.  Local  name  : Dudhibel. 
KKS  4356,  7492. 

23.  Gentianaceae 

52.  Nymphoides  indicum  (Linn.)  O.  Ktze. 
Commonly  in  ponds,  Jheels  etc.  FI.  April  to 

October.  KKS  7697,  8340. 

53.  Canscora  decussata  (Roxb.)  Roem  & Schult. 
Frequent  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  FI. 

August  to  November.  KKS  4207,  7850. 


266 


AQUATIC  AND  MARSHLAND  FLORA  OF  KHERI  DISTRICT 


24.  Hydrophyllaceae 

54.  Hydrolea  zeylanica  (Linn.)  Vahl. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  in  rice  fields. 

FI.  September  to  December.  KKS  4270,  7846. 

25.  CONVOLVULACEAE 

55.  Volvulopsis  nummular  ia  (Linn.)  Roberty 
Frequent  in  muddy  places.  FI.  August  to 

February.  KKS  3052. 

56.  Ipomoea  aquatica  Forsk. 

Common  in  muddy  places  near  pond.  FI* 
September  to  February.  KKS  2890,  3082,  4109. 


26.  SCROPHU  LARI  ACE  AE 

57.  Verbascum  chinense  (Linn.)  Sant. 
Occasional  along  river  banks.  FI.  February 

to  April.  KKS  8409. 

58.  Striga  angustifolia  (D.  Don)  Saldanha. 
Occurs  near  the  banks  of  ponds  amongst 

grasses.  FI.  September  to  November.  KKS 
7476, 7700. 

59.  Lindenbergia  macrostachya  (Be nth.)  Benth. 
Rare.  Along  river  banks.  FI.  February 

to  May.  KKS  7101,  7118,  8393. 

60.  Mazus  pumilus  (Burm.  f.)  van  Steenis 
Frequent  along  river  banks.  FI.  September 

to  February.  KKS  4251. 

61.  M.  delavayi  Bonati. 

Occasionally  in  moist  places  and  along  river 
banks.  FI.  September  to  December.  KKS 
7116,7637. 

62.  Limnophila  indica  (Linn.)  Druce. 

Common  in  permanent  pools,  ponds  and  in 

marshy  places.  FI.  September  to  December. 
KKS  4275,  4328,  7856,  7870. 


63.  Lindemia  Crustacea  (Linn.)  F.  Muell. 
Occasionally  in  marshy  places.  FI.  Septem- 
ber to  December.  KKS  7463,  8464. 

64.  L.  ciliata  (Colsm.)  Pennell. 

Frequent  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  FI. 
September  to  December.  KKS  7428. 

65.  L.  anagallis  (Burm  f.)  Pennell. 

Frequent  in  moist  shady  and  marshy  places. 
FI.  September  to  December.  KKS  3038,  4146. 

66.  Bacopa  mourned  (Linn.)  Pennell. 

Occasionally  in  wet  and  marshy  places.  FI. 
August  to  November.  KKS  3071,  7941. 

67.  Mella  hamiltoniana  (Benth.)  Pennell. 

Rare  in  marshy  places.  FI.  September  to 

October.  KKS  8502. 

68.  Veronica  anagallis-acquatica  Linn. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  along  river 
banks.  FI.  February  to  April.  KKS  7107, 
7232,  8324. 

27.  Lentibu  lari  ace  ae 

69.  Utricularia  aurea  Lour. 

Frequent  in  stagnant  water  of  ponds  and 
ditches  etc.  FI.  September  to  December.  KKS 
7568. 

28.  Acanthaceab 

70.  Hygrophila  auriculata  (K.  Schum.)  Heine. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  near  ponds 
and  ditches.  FI.  October  to  December.  KKS 
2892. 

t 

71.  H.  salicifolia  (Vahl)  Nees. 

Occasional  in  moist  and  marshy  places. 
KKS  7580. 


267 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST , SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


72,  Hemiadelphus  polyspermus  (Roxb).  Nees. 
Common  in  marshy  places  and  along  river 

beds.  FI.  September  to  March.  KKS  2845, 
2895,  7681,  7812,  8329. 

29.  Verbenaceae 

73,  Phyla  nodiflora  (Linn.)  Greene 
Common  in  marshy  places  and  along  river 

banks.  FI.  April  to  August.  KKS  3075,  4115, 
7224. 

30.  Lamiaceae  (Labiatae) 

14,  Aerocephalus  indicus  (Barm,  f.)  O.  Ktze. 

Common  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  FI. 
September  to  December.  KKS  4165,  7851. 

75.  Salvia  pleheia  R.  Br. 

Common  in  moist  places,  along  river  banks 
and  in  marshes.  FI.  September  to  April. 
KKS  2804,  2842,  4138,  7158,  8383. 

76.  Eesteralis  stellata  (Lour.)  Panigrahi. 
Frequent  in  marshy  and  muddy  areas  along 

forest  roads.  FI.  September  to  November. 
KKS  4280,  7809,  DP  Raturi  2557. 

31.  Amaranthaceae 

77.  Centrostacliys  aquatica  (R.  Br.)  Wall,  ex- 
Moq. 

Rare  in  ponds.  FI.  September  to  December. 
KKS  7515. 

78.  A!  tern  anther  a sessilis  (Linn.)  DC. 

Common  in  moist,  marshy  places  and  along 

river  banks.  FL  Major  part  of  the  year. 
KKS  3066,  7155. 

79.  A.  paronychioides  St.  Hil. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  near  ponds. 
FI.  All  season.  KKS  7259,  7466,  7604. 


32.  Chenopodiaceae 

80,  Cheuopodium  ambrosioides  Linn. 

Frequent  along  river  banks.  FI.  March  to 
September.  KKS  3048,  7329. 


33.  Polygon  ace  ae 

81.  Polygonum  plebeium  R.  Br. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  near  ponds 
etc.  FI.  August  to  April.  KKS  2809',  2814, 
7169,  7319. 

82.  P.  glabrum  Willd. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places  and  along  river 
banks.  FL  September  to  March.  KKS  7828. 

83.  P.  lanigerum  R.  Br. 

Common  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  September 
to  December.  KKS  7505,  7884. 

84.  P.  limbatum  Meissn. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places  and  near  ponds. 
FL  September  to  December.  KKS  7661,  7976. 

85.  P.  barbatum  Linn,  subsp.  giacile  Dansen. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  in  ditches. 
FL  September  to  March.  KKS  2978,  4226, 
4303,  7223. 

86.  P.  hydropiper  Linn,  subsp,  microcarpum 

Danser  var.  lenticularis  Danser- 

Occasional  in  marshy  places  and  in  ditches. 
Fl.  September  to  March.  KKS  7559,  8920, 
8404,  8471. 

87.  Rumex  dentatus  Linn. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  along  river 
beds.  Fi.  January  to  June.  KKS  2828,  7138, 
7593,  8325. 


268 


AQUATIC  AND  MARSHLAND  FLORA  OF  KHERl  DISTRICT 


34.  PlPERACEAE 

88.  Piper  longum  Linn. 

Common  in  moist  and  marshy  places  in  sal 
forest.  Fl.  August  to  October.  Local  name  : 
Piper . KKS  3042,  7963,  8478. 

35.  Euphorbiaceae 

89.  Bischofia  Javamea  Blume. 

Rare  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  Fl. 
March  to  April.  KKS  7911. 

90.  Trewia  midiflora  Linn. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  February 
to  April.  Local  name  : Gutel.  KKS  2905, 
7188,  7655. 

91.  Gloehidion  lanceolarium  Voigt 
Frequent  in  marshy  places.  FL  March  to 

April.  KKS  3059,  7964. 

92.  G.  multiloculare  Voigt, 

Occasional  in  marshy  places.  FL  March 
to  May.  KKS  4304,  8497. 

93.  Kirganeiia  reticulata  (Poir.)  BailL 
Frequent  in  marshy  places  and  along  streams. 

FL  April  to  July.  KKS  2848,  7130,  7625. 

36.  Urticaceae 

94.  Pouzolzia  zeylasiica  (Linn.)  Benn. 

Frequent  along  river  banks  and  in  moist 

shady  places.  FL  September  to  January.  KKS 
2989,  3043,  4170. 

95.  P.  pentandra  (Roxb.)  Benn. 

Occasional  in  moist  places  along  streams. 

FL  September  to  January.  KKS  7885. 

96.  P.  hirta  (BL)  Hassk. 

Rare.  Along  streams  and  in  moist  places. 
FL  September  to  December.  KKS  7965. 


37.  Mqraceae 

97.  Ficus  heterophylla  Linn.  f. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places.  FL  October 
to  May.  KKS  7258,  7328,  7667,  7954. 

38.  Salic  ace  ae 

98.  Salix  tetrasperma  Roxb. 

Frequent  along  river  beds.  FL  October 
to  March.  Local  name : Sukulbent.  KKS 
2880,  4217,  7986. 

39.  Ceratqphyllaceae 

99.  Ceratoptiyllum  demersum  Linn. 

Common  in  lakes,  ponds  and  ditches.  FL 

September  to  November.  KKS  2559. 

40.  Hydrocharitaceae 

100.  Hy  dr  ilia  verticillata  (Linn,  f.)  Royle. 
Frequent  in  tanks  and  ponds  and  slowly 

running  water  of  ditches.  FL  September  to 
November.  KKS  8354,  8419. 

101.  Ottelia  alismoldes  (Linn.)  Pers. 

Common  in  tanks,  ponds  and  slow  running 
water.  FL  September  to  December.  KKS 
7556,  7708. 

102.  Vallisneria  spiralis  Linn. 

Frequent  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  ditches. 
FL  October  to  March.  KKS  8564. 


41.  PONTEDERIACEAE 

103.  Eichhornia  erassipes  (Mart.)  Solms, 

Common  in  ponds  and  ditches  forming  pure 
patches.  FL  September  to  November.  Local 
name  : Jalkumbhi.  KKS  7370. 


269 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


104.  Monochoria  vaginalis  (Burm.  f.)  Presl. 
Common  in  marshy  places  and  along  the 

edge  of  ponds.  FI.  August  to  November. 
KKS  7483,  7748,  3489. 

42.  COMMBLINACEAE 

105.  Amischophacelus  axillaris  (Linn.)  R.  Rao  & 
Kammathy. 

Common  in  marshy  places.  FI.  August  to 
December.  KKS  4272,  7541 . 

106.  Cyanotis  oristata  (Linn  ) D.  Don 
Frequent  in  damp  and  muddy  places.  FI. 

July  to  November.  KKS  4216,  7539,  7819. 

107.  Murdannia  scapiflora  Roxb. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places.  FI.  August 

to  November.  KKS  4139. 

43.  JUNCACEAB 

108.  Juncus  prismatocarpus  R.  Br. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  October 
to  April.  Inayat  22831. 

109.  J.  bufonius  Linn. 

Frequent  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  Fl. 
October  to  March.  G.  Saran  26298,  26374. 

44.  Arecaceab  (Palmab) 

110.  Calamus  tenuis  Roxb. 

Frequent  in  marshy  areas  and  along  river 
banks.  Fl.  September  to  December.  Local 
name  : Bent.  KKS  7713. 

45.  Typhaceae 

111.  Typha  augustata  Bory  & Chaub, 

Common  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  May  to 

November.  Local  name  : Pater.  KKS  7652, 
7940. 


46.  Araceae 

112.  Pistia  strati© tes  Linn. 

Rare.  In  still  water  of  tanks  and  ditches. 
Fl.  August  to  November.*  KKS  7830. 

113.  Plesmonium  margaritiferum  Schott 
Rare.  In  marshy  places.  Fl.  August  to 

October.  KKS  7745. 

47.  LBMNACEAE 

114.  Lemna  paucicostata  Hegelm. 

Frequent  in  ponds  and  ditches.  KKS  8410. 

115.  Wolfia  arrliiza  (Linn.)  Horkel  ex-Wimmer 
Occasional  in  ponds  and  ditches.  KKS  8412. 

116.  Spirodela  polyrhiza  (Linn.)  Schleid 
Common  in  still  water  of  ponds  and  ditches. 

KKS  8411. 

48.  Alismataceae 

117.  Sagittaria  sagittifolia  Linn. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  September 
to  February.  KKS  7353. 

118.  S.  guayanensis  H.  B.  & K. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places  and  in  ponds. 
Fl.  September  to  December.  KKS  7484, 
7695. 

119.  Caldesia  pamassifolia  (Linn.)  Pari. 

Rare.  In  stagnant  water  of  ponds.  Fl. 
July  to  October.  KKS  7555. 

49.  Butomaceae 

120.  Tenagodiaris  latifolia  (D.  Don)  Buchen. 
Occasional  in  open  marshy  places  and  in 

rice  fields.  Fl.  September  to  December.  KKS 
4334,  7847. 


270 


AQUATIC  AND  MARSHLAND  FLORA  OF  KHERI  DISTRICT 


50.  Aponogetonaceae 

121.  Aponogeton  crispum  Thunb. 

Frequent  in  ponds  and  jheels.  Fl.  August 
to  November.  KKS  7553. 


51.  POTAMOGETONACEAE 

122.  Potamogefon  nodosus  Poir. 

Occasional  in  ponds  and  in  marshy  places. 

Fl.  November  to  December.  KKS  7268. 

123.  P.  crispus  Linn. 

Frequent  in  ponds.  Fl.  December  to  April. 
KKS  7245. 

124.  P.  pectinatus  Linn. 

Common  in  ponds  and  tanks.  Fl.  October 
to  April.  KKS  7246,  8460. 

52.  EriocaUlaceae 

125.  Eriocaulon  cinereum  R.  Br. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  in  rice  fields. 
Fl.  September  to  January.  KKS  7489,  7854. 

53.  Cyperaceae 

126.  Carex  cernua  Boott. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  February 
to  April.  Inayat  22886. 

127.  C.  fedia  Nees. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  near  ponds 
etc.  Fl.  September  to  April.  KKS  2819, 
7172,  7660. 

128.  Cyperus  micheliamis  (Linn.)  Link  subsp. 
pygmaeus  (Rottb.)  Asch.  & Graebn. 

Frequent  near  ponds  and  marshy  places.  Fl. 
October  to  July.  Inayat  23898. 


129.  C.  triceps  (Rottb.)  Endl. 

Occasional  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  FL 
September  to  October.  KKS  8568. 

130.  C.  kyllingia  Endl. 

Common  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  August  to 
March.  KKS  2955,  4181,  7418. 

131.  C.  cyperoides  (Linn.)  O.  Ktze. 

Common  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  September 

to  November.  KKS  3017,  7916,  8470,  8522. 

132.  C.  compactus  Retz. 

Frequent  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  FL 
August  to  November.  KKS  2953,  4271,  7451. 

133.  C.  platystylis  R.  Br. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places  and  along  river 
banks.  Fl.  July  to  February.  Sis  Ram  46453. 

134.  C.  difformis  Linn. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places.  FL  August  to 
December.  KKS  8425. 

135.  C.  silltensis  Nees. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places.  FL  August  to 
November.  KKS  4362,  7893,  8510. 

136.  C.  tenuispica  Steud. 

Occasional  in  rice  fields  and  other  marshy 
places.  FL  October  to  November.  KKS  7491. 

137.  C.  haspan  Linn. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  September 
to  November.  KKS  7889. 

138.  C.  compressus  Linn. 

Frequent  in  moist  and  marshv  places.  FL 
August  to  November.  KKS  8432. 

139.  C.  iria  Linn. 

Common  in  rice  fields  and  other  marshy 
places.  Fl.  August  to  November.  KKS  2976, 
7472,  8446. 


271 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


140.  C.  aMatus  Kern. 

Common  in  rice  fields  and  in  other  marshy 
places.  FI.  September  to  November.  KKS 
2977. 

141.  C.  niveus  Retz. 

Frequent  in  moist  and  marshy  places.  Fi. 
July  to  October.  KKS  7387. 

142.  C.  corymbosus  Rottb. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places.  FI.  August  to 
November.  KKS  8505. 

143.  C.  digitate  Roxb. 

Frequent  in  moist  shady  and  marshy  places. 
FI.  August  to  December.  KKS  8472. 

144.  C.  pilosus  Vahl. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places  and  in  rice 
fields.  FI.  August  to  December.  KKS  7557# 
7763. 

145.  C.  distans  Linn.  f. 

Frequent  in  moist  and  muddy  places.  Fl. 
August  to  October.  KKS  8459,  8526. 

146.  C.  pangorei  Rottb. 

Frequent  in  moist  and  muddy  places.  Fl. 
August  to  January.  KKS  8437. 

147.  C.  exaltatus  Retz. 

Common  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  August  to 
December.  KKS  2951,  7452,  7755. 

148.  Eleodiaris  dulci$  (Burnt,  f.)  Henschel. 
Frequent  in  marshy  places  and  in  shallow 

water  of  ponds  and  ditches.  Fl.  September 
to  December.  KKS  8426. 

149.  E.  atropurpurea  (Retz.)  Kunth. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  in  rice  fields. 

Fl,  September  to  December.  KKS  7488. 

150.  E.  palustris  R.  Br. 

Common  in  marshy  places.  Fi.  October  to 
April.  KKS  7664,  8428. 


151.  Fimbristylis  bisumbellata  (Forsk.)  Bub. 
Common  along  river  banks  and  other  marshy 

places.  Fl,  February  to  April.  KKS  7174, 
7241,  7709,  8469. 

152.  F.  diehotoma  (Linn.)  Vahl. 

Frequent  in  muddy  places  and  in  rice  fields. 
Fl.  July  to  November.  KKS  3045,  4159, 
7552. 

153.  F.  littoralis  Gand. 

Common  in  rice  fields  and  other  marshy 
places.  Fl.  September  to  December.  KKS 
8455. 

154.  Scirpus  affinis  Roth. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  February 
to  May.  KKS  7323,  8329. 

155.  S.  micheiianus  Linn. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  September 
to  November.  Inayat  22864. 

156.  S.  articulate  Linn. 

Frequent  in  marshy  and  muddy  places.  Fi. 
September  to  November.  KKS  4295,  7351. 

157.  S.  mucronatus  Linn. 

Occasional  in  muddy  places.  Fl.  September 
to  November.  KKS  8338. 

158.  S.  tuberosus  Desf. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places.  Fl.  September 
to  December.  Inayat  22872,  22866  (DD). 


54.  POACEAE  (GrAMINEAE) 

159.  Saccharum  spouianeum  Linn. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places  and  along  river 
banks.  FL  September  to  January.  KKS  3028, 
7500. 


272 


Aquatic  and  marshland  flora  of  kheri  district 


160.  Ischaemum  rugosum  Salisb. 

Common  near  ponds  and  marshy  places.  FI. 
September  to  December.  KKS  7945,  8423. 

161.  Hemarthira  compressa  (Linn,  f.)  R.  Br. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  in  rice  fields. 
FI.  July  to  September.  KKS  8440,  8467. 

162.  Rottboellia  cxaltata  Linn.  f. 

Frequent  near  ponds  and  along  streams.  FI. 
August  to  November.  KKS  7951. 

163.  Mnesithea  laevis  (Retz.)  Kunth. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places  and  in  rice  fields. 
FI.  July  to  December.  KKS  7707. 

164.  Vetiveria  zizanioides  (Linn.)  Nash. 

Common  in  marshy  places.  FI.  July  to 
November.  Local  name  : Seenk.  KKS  2983, 
7505,  7550,  7764. 

165.  Bothriochloa  pertusa  (Linn.)  A,  Camus 

Frequent  in  marshy  places.  FI.  September 
to  January.  KKS  8540,  8551. 

166.  Panicum  austroasiaticum  Ohwi. 

Frequent  near  ponds  and  other  moist  places. 
FI.  September  to  December.  KKS  8524. 

167.  P.  trypheron  Schult. 

Frequent  in  moist  and  muddy  places.  FI. 
August  to  December.  KKS  7722. 

168.  P.  paludosum  Roxb. 

Common  in  marsh  lands,  still  water,  and 
banks  of  ponds.  FI.  September  to  December. 
KKS  7730,  8473,  8563. 

169.  Hymenachne  pseudointertupta  C.  Muell. 

Occasional  in  marshy  places  and  in  water- 
logged areas.  FI.  September  to  December. 
KKS  7874. 


170.  Echinochloa  stagnina  (Retz.)  P.  Beauv. 

Common  in  stagnant  ditches  and  banks  of 
ponds.  FI.  August  to  December.  KKS  7824, 
8501. 

171.  E.  colonum  (Linn.)  Link. 

Common  in  rice  fields  and  other  marshy 
places.  FI.  July  to  November.  KKS  7523, 
8417. 

172.  E.  crusgalli  (Linn.)  Beauv. 

Common  in  moist  places,  ponds  and  in  rice 
fields.  FI.  August  to  November.  KKS  7761. 

173.  Paspalidium  flavidum  (Retz.)  A,  Camus 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  in  rice  fields, 
FI.  July  to  November.  KKS  7886,  8424, 
8442,  8505. 

174.  Paspalum  distichum  Linn. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  in  still  waters 
of  ponds,  ditches  etc.  FI.  July  to  September. 
KKS  7417,  8427. 

175.  P.  commersomi  Lamk. 

A weed  in  rice  fields.  FI.  September  to 
January.  KKS  2988. 

176.  Brachiaria  reptans  (Linn.)  Gard.  & Hubb. 

Frequent  in  marshy  places  and  in  rice  fields. 
FI.  September  to  January.  KKS  8459. 

177.  Phragmites  maxima  (Forsk.)  Blatt.  & 
McC. 

Common  in  marshy  places  and  along  streams 
beds.  FI.  December  to  January.  KKS  2818, 
2997,  4229,  7240,  7498. 

178.  Hygroryza  aristata  (Retz.)  Nees  ex-W.  & A. 

Common  in  ponds,  ditches  etc.  FI.  October 
to  February.  KKS  7454. 


3 


273 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Ft?/.  79 


179.  Oryza  rufipogon  Griff. 

Common  in  rice  fields  and  other  marshy 
places.  FI.  October  to  November.  KKS 
7746,  8487. 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  grateful  to  Dr.  Nitya  Nand,  Director 
and  Dr.  M.  M.  Dhar,  Scientist-in-Charge, 


Botany,  Central  Drug  Research  Institute, 
Lucknow  for  the  facilities  provided  during 
this  investigation  and  to  Dr.  J.  K.  Maheshwari, 
Sr.  Assistant  Director,  N.  B.R.  I.  for  going 
through  the  manuscript.  One  of  us  (R.P.S.T.) 
is  also  thankful  to  the  Principal,  Y.  D.  Post- 
Graduate  College,  Lakhimpur-Kheri  for  facili- 
ties. 


Refer 

Biswas,  K.  and  Calder,  C.  (1937)  : Handbook  of 
Common  Water  and  Marsh  Plants  of  India  and  Burma. 
Delhi. 

Duthie,  J.  F.,  (1923) : Flora  of  the  upper  Gangetic 
Plain  and  of  the  adjacent  Siwalik  and  Sub-Himalayan 
tracts  I & II.  (repr.  ed.  1960) 

Maheshwari,  J.  K.  (1960):  The  vegetation  of  Marshes, 
Swamps  and  Riverside  in  Khandwa  district,  M.  P. 
/.  Bombay  nat . Hist.  Soc . 57  : 371-387. 

Mirashi,  M.  V.  (1954) : Studies  on  the  Hydro- 
phytes of  Nagpur.  /.  Indian  bot . Soc.  33  : 298-308. 

Misra,  R.  D.  (1946) : The  Ecology  of  low  lying 
lands.  Indian  Ecol.  1 : 1-20. 


iNCES 

Paul,  S.  R.  (1973) : On  the  aquatic  and  marsh 
plants  of  Monghyr,  Bihar.  Botanique  4 no.  2,  140-151. 

Sen,  D.  N.  and  Chatterjee,  U.  N.  (1959):  Ecological 
studies  on  aquatic  and  swampy  vegetations  of  Gorakh- 
pur. A Survey.  Agra  Univ.  J.  Research  (Sci.)  8 : 17-29. 

Subramanyam,  K.  (1962)  Aquatic  Angiosperms. 
C.S.I.R.  New  Delhi. 

Trivedi,  B.  S.  and  Sharma,  P.  C.  (1965) : Studies 
on  the  hydrophytes  of  Lucknow  and  environs.  1 . Distri- 
bution and  habit,  with  reference  to  ecological  classifi- 
cation. Proc.  Nat.  Acad.  Sc.  India.  35  : 1-14. 

Vyas,  L.  N.  (1964) : A study  of  the  hydrophytes 
and  marsh  plants  of  Alwar  and  environs.  J.  Indian 
bot.  Soc.  43  : 17-30. 


274 


RESTOCKING  MUGGER  CROCODILE  CROCODYLUS 
PALUSTRIS  (LESSON)  IN  ANDHRA  PRADESH  : EVALUATION 

OF  A PILOT  RELEASE1 

B.  C.  Choudhury2  and  H.  R.  Bustard3 

(With  two  plates  and  three  text-figures ) 

Four  years’  monitoring  results  of  a pilot  mugger  crocodile  release  carried  out  at  Ethipothalla  falls  in  Andhra 
Pradesh  indicated  excellent  survival  and  growth  and  very  little  movement  in  the  wild.  The  methodology 
of  planning  and  carrying  out  a crocodile  restocking  programme  together  with  the  monitoring  methods 
evolved  during  a four  years’  observation  period  are  reported.  The  success  of  this  pilot  release  programme 
provided  the  background  for  further  large-scale  releases  in  the  State  of  Andhra  Pradesh.  First  ever  bree- 
ding of  these  released  mugger  took  place  in  1981. 


Introduction 

The  Indian  mugger  (Crocodylus  palustris)  was 
considered  to  be  a depleted  species  by  Gee 
(1964),  Misra  (1970),  Daniel  (1970),  Biswas 
(1970),  Mukherjee  (1974),  Bustard  (1974)  and 
Shahi  (1977).  Naturally,  the  degree  of  deple- 
tion shows  considerable  regional  variation  in  a 
country  of  the  size  of  India.  The  Government 
of  India  Crocodile  Project,  following  the  advice 
of  Bustard  (FAO  1974),  aimed  to  quickly 
rehabilitate  India’s  three  species  of  crocodilians 
by  active  management— collection  of  wild 
laid  eggs  for  safe  hatchery  incubation  and  sub- 
sequent rearing  of  the  young  to  a size  of  1 .20  m 
before  restocking  them  in  selected,  well-pro- 
tected areas  of  the  natural  habitat. 

In  1976,  the  Andhra  Pradesh  Forest  Depart- 
ment initiated  a State  Crocodile  Project  in 
association  with  the  Government  of  India 
Project  Crocodile  Breeding  and  Management, 
receiving  technical  assistance  from  FAO/UNDP. 

Detailed  surveys  carried  out  in  the  two  major 
river  systems  of  Andhra  Pradesh  (the  Krishna 

1 Accepted  December  1981. 

2 Andhra  Pradesh  Crocodile  Conservation  Project, 
Nehru  Zoological  Park,  Hyderabad-500  264. 

3 Central  Crocodile  Breeding  and  Management 
Training  Institute,  Lake  Dale,  Rajendranagar  Road, 
Hyderabad-500  264. 


and  Godavari)  and  in  the  State’s  numerous 
reservoirs,  during  the  winter  of  1976/1977  indi- 
cated that  the  total  population  of  mugger 
crocodiles  in  Andhra  Pradesh  was  extremely 
small.  Only  six  breeding  females  were  re- 
corded in  the  entire  State  and  the  total  popula- 
tion estimate  was  30  individuals  of  above 
1.0-1. 5m  (Choudhury,  in  prepn.). 

Clearly,  the  mugger  was  critically  endangered 
in  Andhra  Pradesh.  It  was,  therefore,  con- 
sidered essential  to  restock  mugger  in  suitable 
habitat  areas  in  the  State  which  could  be  given 
adequate  protection  by  gazetting  them  as 
sanctuaries,  in  order  to  build  up  natural  breeding 
groups.  This  restocking  would  be  carried 
out  using  project  hatched  and  reared  juveniles. 

Bustard  (FAO  1974),  after  examining  several 
mugger  habitats  in  Andhra  Pradesh,  had 
recommended  the  large  pool  and  associated 
portion  of  the  Chandravanka  River,  a tributary 
of  the  Krishna  river  immediately  below  the 
Ethipothalla  waterfalls  (Fig.  1),  as  an  ideal 
area  for  pilot  restocking  purposes.  Ethipo- 
thalla falls  now  lies  in  the  easternmost  limits  of 
the  Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam  (Krishna)  Sanc- 
tuary declared  and  gazetted  through  the  Croco- 
dile Project  in  June  1978.  The  sanctuary 
covers  an  area  of  3600  sq.  km.  including  much 
excellent  mugger  and  tiger  habitat.  Bustard 


275 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  N At  URAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


pointed  out  that  Ethipothalla  was  a natural 
mugger  habitat  and  recommended  restocking 
using  captive-reared  juveniles  from  Nehru 
Zoological  Park,  Hyderabad,  where  a number 
of  individuals  of  Andhra  Pradesh  stock  were 
currently  being  reared.  He  also  recommended 
a number  of  management  objectives  for  the 
area.  These  included  posting  of  guards  to 
prevent  people  from  going  down  to  the  falls, 
[both  the  falls  and  the  crocodiles  could  be 
viewed  from  the  top  of  the  falls  (FAO  1974)], 
and  to  prevent  cattle  grazing  and  cutting  of 
grass  and  other  disturbances  in  the  river-bed 
below  the  falls.  These  proposals  were  accepted 
by  the  Government  of  Andhra  Pradesh  and 
the  first  release  in  Andhra  Pradesh,  which  was 
also  the  first  release  of  captive-reared  mugger 
in  Asia,  took  place  at  Ethipothalla  falls  on  8th 
February,  1977  at  which  time  the  guards  were 
posted. 

Subsequent  releases,  each  of  two  individuals, 
took  place  on  23-12-78  and  16-9-1980  res- 
pectively. 

In  order  to  evaluate  the  success  of  this  pilot 
release,  on  which  further  releases  in  the  State 
would  be  based,  detailed  monitoring  of  the 
released  mugger  was  devised  in  order  to  collect 
data  on  their  survival,  growth  and  movement 
in  the  wild.  This  paper  sets  out  this  methodo- 
logy and  presents  results  obtained  over  the 
last  four  years.4 

Restocking 

The  pilot  restocking  of  mugger  crocodiles 
in  Andhra  Pradesh  required  the  following 
action  to  be  taken  : 

1.  Selection  of : 

(a)  a release  site 

(b)  the  best  time  for  release 

(c)  crocodiles  to  be  released. 

4 Following  this,  a further  176  mugger  have  been 
released  into  three  wild  life  sanctuaries  in  Andhra 
Pradesh. 


2.  Pre-release  check  on  the  habitat  to  decide 
immediate  action  required. 

3.  Marking  crocodiles  for  release. 

4.  Transporting  crocodiles  to  the  release 
site. 

5.  Actual  release. 

1 (a).  Selection  of  the  release  site 

Ethipothalla  was  chosen  as  the  first  release 
site  on  the  basis  of  the  recommendation  made 
by  Bustard  (FAO  1974)  specifically  : 

(a)  The  area  was  formerly  a mugger  habitat 
holding  a good  mugger  population  until 
the  early  1960’s. 

(b)  By  1977,  the  site  was  still  ideal  as  a 
mugger  habitat — in  addition  to  the  main 
pool  immediately  below  the  falls,  there 
are  ten  other  pools  up  to  5 m deep  in  a 
3 km  stretch  of  the  Chandravanka  river 
before  joining  the  Krishna  river  5 km 
below  Ethipothalla  falls.  (Plate  1). 
These  deep  pools  provide  abundant 
perennial  water.  There  is  a good  fish 
population  in  the  pools.  This  fish  popu- 
lation in  the  pools  and  small  mammals 
from  the  surrounding  jungle,  provide 
food  for  the  crocodiles. 

The  cessation  of  fishing  activity  under  the 
management  regime  would  ensure  that  the 
food  resources  would  be  available  only  for  the 
crocodiles. 

Additional  advantages  of  this  site  for  a 
pilot  release  of  its  kind  were  : 

(a)  a manageable  small  area  for  protection, 
from  below  the  falls  to  the  Krishna  river 
confluence— a distance  of  5 km.  The 
ideal  mugger  habitat  extended  over 
approximately  3 km  and,  therefore,  was 
easier  to  monitor  closely. 

(b)  Since  there  were  no  existing  mugger  at 
the  time  of  release  all  observed  mugger 


276 


RESTOCKING  MUGGER  CROCODILE 


could  be  positively  identified  as  released 
individuals  without  the  need  to  check  for 
marking. 

(c)  The  waterfall  and  crocodiles  can  be  viewed 
easily  from  the  top  of  the  falls  by  research/ 
wildlife  staff*  and  by  visitors  alike,  with 
minimum  disturbance. 

1 (b).  Release  time 

The  chosen  release  site  experiences  the  south- 
west monsoon  from  June  to  September.  During 
this  time  the  waterfall  is  usually  in  flood  inun- 
dating the  banks.  The  monsoon  flow,  com- 
bined with  release  of  surplus  water  from  the 
right  bank  canal  of  the  Nagarjunasagar  reser- 
voir into  the  Chandravanka  river  (Fig,  1) 
keeps  the  waterfall  discharge  high  up  to  De- 


cember-January  (Plate  1).  Therefore,  from 
July  to  December,  the  waterfall  is  usually 
under  heavy  discharge  depending  on  rainfall 
and  surplus  water  release.  For  the  rest  of  the 
year  (January  to  end  of  June)  there  is  a modest 
water  flow  over  the  waterfall  (Plate  2).  This 
low  water  period  also  coincides  with  the  nesting 
season  of  mugger  which  is  March  to  April  in 
this  region. 

Early  February  was  considered  the  best  time 
for  release  in  order  to  give  the  captive-reared 
crocodiles  a four  month  period  to  settle  down 
and  get  acquainted  with  the  habitat  before  the 
onset  of  monsoon  and  resultant  floods.  Mean- 
while, during  this  dry  period,  the  released 
crocodiles  could  be  monitored  easily  and  on  the 
basis  of  these  data,  a broad,  clear-cut  monitoring 
programme  could  be  formulated. 


Fig.  1.  Andhra  Pradesh,  showing  the  location  of  Nagarjunasagar  Wild  Life  Sanctuary  and  inset 
showing  the  portion  of  the  Sanctuary  including  Ethipothalla  water  falls  on  the  Chandravanka  River.  The 
pools  referred  to  in  the  text  are  numbered.  Pool  1 is  located  immediately  below  the  falls.  Scale  of  inset 
in  metres. 


277 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


1 (c).  Selection  of  crocodiles  for  release 

At  this  time,  Nehru  Zoological  Park,  Hydera- 
bad was  rearing  twelve  wild  caught  juvenile 
mugger  crocodiles— all  caught  in  the  nets  of 
fishermen  in  the  Krishna  and  Godavari  rivers 
within  the  State.  Four  mugger,  all  above  1 m 
in  size  (Table  1)  were  chosen  for  release  since 
it  was  considered  that  at  this  size  crocodiles 
are  capable  of  defending  themselves.  The 
group  consisted  of  one  male  and  three  females. 
Subsequently,  two  more  female  mugger  of 
1975  year  class,  taken  over  from  Nagarjuna- 
sagar  P.W.D.  were  released  and  a further 
selection  of  two  more  males  for  release  was 
made  from  the  Nehru  Zoological  Park’s  collec- 
tion (Table  1). 

Table  1 

Details  of  mugger  released. 


Length  |m)  Weight  (Kg),  sex  (M-male)  (F-female), 

APPROXIMATE  AGE  (MONTHS) 


S.No. 

Date  of 
Release 

Length 

Wt. 

Sex  Approx. 
Age 

1 

8-2-1977 

1.08 

5.0 

F 

32 

2 

8-2-1977 

1.09 

6.0 

F 

32 

3 

8-2-1977 

1.11 

6.0 

M 

32 

4 

8-2-1977 

1.17 

7.5 

F 

32 

5 

23-12-1978 

1.52 

F 

42 

6 

23-12-1978 

1.63 

. . 

F 

42 

7 

16-9-1980 

1.90 

22.5 

M 

not 

known 

8 

16-9-1980 

1.63 

18.0 

M 

69 

2.  Pre-release  actions 

Pre-release  action  at  the  site  included  pre- 

vention of  all  kinds  of  disturbances.  These 
were : 

(a)  a ban  on  cattle  and  goat  grazing  below 
and  near  the  fall  and  along  the  river 
banks. 


(b)  a ban  on  fishing  of  any  kind  in  the  habitat 
combined  with  a general  ban  on  the  use 
of  the  main  pool  below  the  fall  for  re- 
creational purposes,  like  swimming  and 
bathing  etc.  This  was  considered  essen- 
tial in  order  to  avoid  conflict  between  the 
crocodiles  and  people. 

3.  Marking  crocodiles  for  release 

Prior  to  release,  the  crocodiles  were  measured, 
sexed  and  marked  for  future  identification. 
The  marking  method  adopted  was  clipping  of 
the  enlarged  scutes  on  the  dorsal  caudal  region 
(Fig.  2).  Males  were  clipped  by  removal 
(Plate  2)  of  the  last  left  double  caudal  scute, 
looking  at  the  animal  from  tail  to  head.  No 
scute  was  clipped  to  indicate  female  sex.  For 
the  first  year  of  release  (1977),  the  first  scute  of 
the  single  scuted  portion  of  the  tail  was  clipped 
in  all  four  released  crocodiles.  The  two  females 
released  in  1978  had  the  second  single  scutes 
clipped  and  the  two  males  released  in  1980 
had  the  third  single  scutes  clipped  (third  year  of 
release)  in  addition  to  the  clipping  of  the  last 
left  double  scute  (sex  code).2 * * 5 

4.  Transporting  the  crocodiles 

Crocodiles  for  release  were  transported  by 
jeep  on  the  night  of  7-2-1977  to  avoid  the  heat 
of  the  day.  For  this  journey,  of  180  km,  the 
crocodiles  were  packed  in  specially  made 
wooden  crates  with  elongated  partitions  so  as 
to  allow  each  crocodile  to  remain  in  one  chamber 
— each  chamber  was  well  ventilated  by  2.5  cm 
diameter  air  holes  made  on  the  sides  of  the  box, 
and  had  a door  on  one  end  to  allow  the  croco- 
diles to  come  out  when  the  door  was  opened. 
The  inner  walls  of  the  chambers  were  padded 
with  straw  and  gunny  bags  to  prevent  injury 
to  crocodiles  during  transportation.  On  reach- 

5 For  details  concerning  the  marking  of  crocodilians 
for  release,  see  Bustard,  H.  R.  and  Choudhury,  B.  C. 
(1981). 


278 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  1 

Choudhury  & Bustard  : Crocodylus  palustris 


Mugger  habitat  on  the  Chandravanka  river  below  the  Ethipothalla  waterfall  with  a 
succession  of  rapids  interspersed  with  deep  pools. 


Ethipothalla  falls— monsoon  level  of  water  discharge, 
( Photos  : H,  R.  Bustard) 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  2 

Choudhury  & Bustard  : Crocodylus  palustris 


Ethipothalla  falls  during  the  lean  season  showing  modest  water  discharge. 


Clipping  the  second  of  the  single  scutes  to  identify  year  of  release. 
( Photos  ; fi.  R.  Bustard) 


RESTOCKING  MUGGER  CROCODILE 


I 


I 


Fig.  2.  Crocodile  tail  showing  arrangement  of  double  and  single  scutes.  The  dotted  lines  show 
the  division  between  these.  The  last  of  the  double  scutes  on  the  left  hand  side  has  been  clipped 
denoting  that  the  individual  is  a male.  The  second  of  the  single  scutes  has  also  been  clipped 
denoting  year  two  release.  In  both  cases  the  dotted  portion  of  the  scutes  has  been  removed. 


mg  the  destination,  the  crocodiles  were  kept 
in  the  shade  well  moistened  until  the  release 
time. 

5.  Actual  release 

The  initial  release  took  place  at  1700  hours 
on  8-2-1977.  The  crates  containing  the  croco- 
diles were  taken  down  to  the  main  pool  below 
the  falls  and  kept  with  their  door  end  facing 


the  water.  On  opening  the  door  of  the  crates, 
the  crocodiles  faced  the  water,  and  could  come 
out  of  the  box  on  to  the  bank  of  the  pool.  The 
time  taken  for  the  crocodiles  to  emerge  varied 
from  five  to  fifteen  minutes. 

Further  releases  of  two  female  mugger  on 
23-12-1978  and  two  males  on  16-9-1980  were 
carried  out  at  the  same  spot. 


279 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fn/.  79 


Monitoring 

Since  at  the  time  of  release,  there  were  no 
resident  crocodiles  in  the  habitat,  any  crocodiles 
observed  were  released  ones.  The  ability  to 
view  four  pools  including  the  main  pool  im- 
mediately below  the  falls,  from  above  the  falls 
greatly  facilitated  monitoring.  The  usual  moni- 
toring practice  adopted  was  to  walk  on  top  of 
the  escarpment  looking  for  any  signs  of  the 
crocodiles  including  spoor  and  faecal  pellets 
and  recording  observations.  Monitoring  was 
done  during  day  time  due  to  the  ease  with 
which  crocodiles  could  be  spotted  in  the  un- 
disturbed habitat  often  basking  on  the  rocks. 
This  habitat  is  not  suited  for  night  spotting 
due  to  many  boulders  and  vegetation  which 
obscured  the  crocodiles  from  the  light  source. 


The  guards  appointed  at  the  site  for  protection 
kept  daily  records  of  the  movements  of  croco- 
diles. This  record  was  checked  by  the  local 
supervising  staff  and  a fortnightly  report  was 
prepared  on  a supplied  proforma  (Appendix  I). 
One  of  us  personally  monitored  the  site  once 
a month  to  check  the  records  and  to  advise  the 
protection  staff  on  future  monitoring  and  record 
keeping  as  well  as  protection  problems. 

After  the  third  release  on  16-9-1980,  it  was 
decided  to  use  the  protection  staff  to  record 
daily  sightings  on  a simplified  proforma  (Appen- 
dix II).  This  only  indicated  the  names  of  the 
deep  pools  against  which  they  have  to  record 
only  the  number  and  time  of  sighting  crocodiles 
in  the  respective  pools. 


Appendix  I 

Fortnightly/ Monthly  monitoring  report  of  released  crocodiles  at  Ethipothalla  Falls 


Species  released — Mugger  ( Cvocodylus  palustris ) 


. . 8th  February  1977,  23rd  December  1978  and 
16th  September  1980 
. . Eight  (four + two + two) 

. . Three  males  and  five  females 
. . Males  last  left  double  caudal  scute  and  first 
or  third  single  caudal  scutes  clipped.  Females 
first  or  second  single  caudal  scutes  clipped. 


To  be  filled  in  by  the  Observer 

1 . Date  of  Observation 

2.  Water  level  in  the  fall 

3.  Weather  condition 

4.  Air  temperature 

5.  Water  temperature 

6.  Crocodiles  observed  (number,  location  etc.) 

7.  Average  basking  time  of  crocodiles  for  the  day 

8.  Information  on  observations  by  local  watchmen  during 

last  fortnight/month 

9.  Remarks /Suggestions  of  the  observer 


Low  /Moderate/High 
Sunny/Cloudy/Rainy 


1 . Dates  of  release 

2.  Total  number  released 

3.  Details  of  sex 

4.  Marking  codes 


Date : 


Signature  of  the  observer 
Name  in  full : 


Appendix  II 

Daily  Observation  Proforma  (to  be  Recorded  by  Local  Watchers) 


RESTOCKING  MUGGER  CROCODILE 


s 


8 2 

^ ^4 


I S 

< Ah 


£ 

T3 

a 

a 

co 


>» 

•s 

§ 


>> 

ctf 

T3 


£ 

T3 

co 

<U 

a 

TJ 

I 


>» 

03 

-a 

i 

H 


>> 

03 

X) 

£ 


03 

T3 


• 

• 

• 

m 

* 

• 

oo 

OO 

OO 

oo 

OO 

ON 

ON 

»-H 

■ 

ON 

1— H 

ON 

i-H 

ON 

rt 

4 

•A 

l 

•o 

OO 

<N 

On 

o 

CO 

*— i 

1 

CM 

28  J 


Name  and  signature  of  recorder 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


Results 

The  results  set  out  below  are  grouped  under 
three  headings  ; survival,  movement  and  growth. 

Survival 

The  total  number  of  crocodiles  observed 
on  each  monitoring  trip  by  one  of  us  (BCC)  is 
given  in  Table  2.  Table  3 gives  the  crocodiles 
sighted  by  the  supervisory  staff  in  each  monitor- 
ing trip,  and  in  Table  4 the  daily  records  of 
the  local  protection  staff  are  set  out  for  the 
month  of  January  1981.  Combining  the  data 
from  the  three  Tables,  a clear  picture  of  the 
survival  of  released  mugger  can  be  obtained. 
The  supervisory  monitoring  and  the  research 
monitoring  visits  were  mostly  of  one  day’s 
duration  and  allowed  a maximum  5-6  hours 
observation  at  the  release  site.  On  the  last 
6 visits  by  us,  the  actual  monitoring  time  has 
been  reduced  to  2-3  hours  per  visit.  Despite 
the  brief  duration  of  these  visits,  it  can  be 
clearly  seen  from  Table  2 that  the  1977  released 
crocodiles  were  resighted  regularly  following 
the  release.  That  all  survived  after  rehabilita- 
tion to  the  wild  from  zoo  life  is  apparent  from 
the  monitoring  result  of  8 February  1978  (a 
full  year  after  release),  when  all  four  were  again 
resighted.  One  year  later  (on  13  March  1979) 
five  of  the  (then)  six  released  crocodiles  were 
resighted.  Following  release  of  a further  two 
individuals  on  16-9-1980  the  maximum  number 
sighted  has  been  seven. 

The  monitoring  data  of  the  local  staff  is 
more  complete  (Table  4),  with  5 individuals 
seen  on  a single  day  (January  3,  1981)  and  on 
several  observations  six  individuals  have  been 
observed  (Fig.  3).  On  17th  May  1981  the 
local  staff  sighted  7 (of  the  8)  crocodiles.  Since 
the  local  protection  staff  were  present  most  of 
the  time  and  operate  from  both  ends  of  the 
habitat,  their  monitoring  was  more  complete 
and  they  have  sighted  seven  out  of  eight  croco- 
diles so  far. 


Though  all  the  eight  mugger  released  have 
never  been  observed  on  any  one  day,  it  is 
believed  that  the  survival  has  been  100%  and 
that  all  mugger  have  not  been  observed  because 
attempts  to  cover  the  whole  area  on  a single  day 
for  a longer  observation  period  have  not  been 
made.  Pending  this,  it  can  be  definitely  stated 
that  seven  out  of  the  eight  mugger  have  survived. 

Movement 

Taking  the  1977  release  first,  it  can  be  seen 
that  extremely  little  movement  occurred  in  the 
year  following  release.  Two  mugger  showed 
movement  of  within  100  m,  one  moved  500  m 
downstream  and  returned  to  pool  1 and  one 
female  moved  a distance  of  800  m and  took 
up  residence  in  pool  5.  One  individual  of 
the  second  release  (December  1978)  has  been 
sighted  in  pool  1 1 at  a distance  of  3 km  below 
the  release  site  from  September  1980,  and  the 
sighting  of  most,  if  not  all,  crocodiles  on  each 
monitoring  trip  provided  clear  evidence  that 
movement  out  of  the  area  had  not  taken  place. 
With  improvement  of  the  monitoring  work 
and  further  releases  over  the  years,  all  areas 
below  the  falls  have  been  mapped  and  their 
distance  from  the  main  release  pool  measured. 
Since  the  mugger  cannot  move  upstream  due 
to  the  high  falls,  movement  only  took  place  in 
one  direction — downstream.  The  data  indi- 
cate how  far  mugger  crocodiles  move  down- 
stream, either  voluntarily  or  due  to  effect  of 
monsoon  floods.  As  has  been  described  above, 
the  release  site  consists  of  a series  of  deep 
pools  and  for  our  monitoring  purpose,  1 1 pools 
have  been  mapped.  The  last  pool  is  located 
at  a distance  of  3 km  below  the  fall.  The 
nearest  pool  to  the  main  pool  is  only  50  m 
distant.  All  movements  were  restricted  to 
this  3 km  stretch  even  allowing  for  four  mon- 
soon floods  (the  1977  monsoon  following  the 
first  release  was  the  worst  in  living  memory 
extensively  flooding  the  area.) 


28  2 


RESTOCKING  MUGGER  CROCODILE 


Table  2 

Monitoring  results  of  research  staff.  The  distance  moved  by  crocodiles  which  had 

MOVED  DOWNSTREAM  FROM  THE  MAIN  POOL  IS  GIVEN  IN  METRES  IN  BRACKETS 


Date 

Total  Number  of 
crocodiles  seen 

Main  Pool 

Distance  below 
main  pool 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1977 

25th  March1 

.. 

4 

2 

2(100) 

22nd  April 

3 

2 

1 (100) 

17  th  May 

4 

2 

1 O00),  1(50) 

8th  June 

4 

3 

1 (300) 

3rd  July 

3 

2 

1 (100) 

8th  August 

3 

2 

1 (100) 

9th  October 

4 

2 

2(50) 

23rd  November 

14th  December 

2 

1 (100),  1(500) 

1978 

28th  January 

2 

2 

8th  February 

4 

3 

1(800) 

30th  March 

2 

2 

28th  April 

3 

3 

28th  May 

3 

3 

14th  June 

3 

3 

6th  September 

3 

3 

23rd  December2 

4 

2 

1 (500),  1 (200) 

1979 

13  th  March 

5 

4 

1 (50) 

3rd  April 

3 

3 

11th  August 

# , 

2 

2 

17th  November 

2 

2 

. . 

1980 

13th  January 

# % 

3 

2 

1 (500) 

21st  February 

3 

3 

3rd  May 

• . 

4 

2 

1 (400),  1 (100) 

15th  June 

, , 

3 

2 

1 (400) 

17th  September3 

2 

1 

1 (200) 

9th  November 

3 

1 

1 (100),  1(800) 

1981 

27th  January 

3 

2 

1 (500) 

27th  February 

3 

3 

•• 

1 Four  crocodiles  released. 

2 Two  additional  crocodiles  released  on  23-12-1978  increasing  the  total  population  to  six  individuals.  On  this 
date  monitoring  was  carried  out  prior  to  this  release  and  all  four  individuals  sighted. 

3 Two  additional  crocodiles  released  on  16-11-80  increasing  the  total  to  8. 


283 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


Table  3 

monitoring  results  of  local  supervisory  wild  life  staff,  conducted  at  approximately 

FORTNIGHTLY  INTERVALS,  COVERING  THE  PERIOD  28  DECEMBER  1977  TO  1 SEPTEMBER  1980. 
The  distance  moved  by  CROCODILES  which  had  moved  downstream  from  the  main  pool  is 

GIVEN  IN  METRES  IN  BRACKETS 


Date 

Total  number 
of  crocodiles 
seen 

Main  Pool 

Distance 
below 
main  pool 

Waterflow 

1977 

28th  December 

•• 

•• 

•• 

Moderate 

1978 

5th  February  . . 

Moderate 

9th  March 

2 

2 

Moderate 

21st  May 

1 

1 

Low 

24th  May 

2 

2 

Low 

14th  June 

3 

2 

1 (500) 

Moderate 

11th  August 

3 

3 

Full 

25th  August 

2 

2 

1 (500),  1 (100) 

Full 

22nd  December  . . 

4 

2 

1979 

6th  January  . . 

4 

3 

1(500) 

Moderate 

18th  January 

3 

3 

Moderate 

28th  January 

3 

3 

Low 

3rd  February  . . 

2 

2 

Low 

11th  February  .. 

4 

4 

Low 

18th  February  .. 

2 

2 

Low 

9 th  April 

2 

2 

Low 

16th  April 

4 

4 

Low 

23rd  April 

5 

3 

2 (600) 

Low 

6th  May 

3 

3 

Low 

13th  May 

3 

1 

2 (600) 

Low 

20th  May 

5 

3 

2 (600) 

Low 

27th  May 

2 

2 

Low 

3rd  June 

4 

2 

2(600) 

Low 

12th  June 

5 

3 

2 (600) 

Low 

24th  June 

2 

2 

Low 

10th  July 

3 

3 

Low 

22nd  July 

4 

4 

Low 

5th  August 

4 

4 

Low 

12th  August 

3 

3 

Low 

28th  August 

2 

2 

Low 

1 1 th  September 

1 

1 

Full 

23rd  September 

2 

2 

Full 

7th  October  . . 

3 

3 

Moderate 

14th  October  . . 

3 

3 

Moderate 

21st  October 

1 

1 

Moderate 

28th  October 

2 

2 

Moderate 

4th  November 

2 

2 

Moderate 

19  th  November 

2 

2 

Moderate 

2nd  December 

3 

3 

Moderate 

384 


Restocking  mugger  crocodile 


Date 

Total  Number 
of  crocodiles 
seen 

Main  Pool 

Distance 
below 
main  pool 

Waterflow 

1980 

1st  January 

2 

2 

Moderate 

16th  January  . . 

3 

3 

Moderate 

1st  February  . . 

3 

3 

Moderate 

16th  February  . . 

2 

2 

Moderate 

2nd  March 

2 

2 

Moderate 

16th  March 

2 

2 

Low 

1st  April 

2 

2 

Low 

16th  April 

2 

2 

Low 

1st  May 

2 

2 

Low 

16th  May 

2 

2 

Low 

1st  June 

2 

2 

Low 

16th  June 

3 

2 

1 (100) 

Low 

1st  July 

2 

2 

Low 

16th  July 

2 

2 

1st  August 

2 

2 

16th  August 

2 

2 

1st  September  . . 

2 

2 

* • 

Growth 

At  the  time  of  the  first  release  of  four  mugger 
of  estimated  age  2 years  8 months,  on  8 th 
February,  1977,  the  average  size  was  1.11  m 
(Table  1).  At  the  time  of  the  second  release 
of  two  mugger  estimated  to  be  three  and  a 
half  years  old,  on  23rd  December,  1978  (22 
months  after  the  first  release),  a footprint  of 
the  first  released  mugger  was  measured  and 
from  this  it  was  estimated  that  the  size  of  the 
mugger  was  1.6  m (the  possible  error  of  esti- 
mation at  this  size  is  ± 5 cm).  This  indicated 
a growth  rate  of  about  50  cm  in  22  months  by 
which  time  the  mugger  were  approximately 
four  and  a half  years  old. 

Thereafter,  no  further  footprints  have  been 
measured,  and  size  estimation  has  been  carried 
out  visually.  On  the  day  of  the  third  release 
on  16th  September  1980,  (22  months  after 
second  release)  the  resident  mugger  were  almost 
identical  with  the  1.9  m male  released  on  that 
day.  The  growth  rate,  therefore*  during  the 
next  22  months,  by  which  time  the  mugger 
were  about  six  and  a half  years  old,  was  about 


30  cm.  An  overall  growth  of  80  cm,  was 
recorded  in  44  months,  in  the  wild,  for  mugger 
between  the  approximate  ages  of  two  and  a 
half  years  and  six  and  a half  years. 

Breeding 

The  first  wild  breeding  of  these  released 
mugger  took  place  in  1981.  The  female,  from 
the  second  release,  which  bred,  was  in  her 
seventh  year.  A full  account  of  this  will  be 
published  in  due  course. 

Discussion 

The  importance  of  selecting  an  ideal  release 
site  cannot  be  overstressed.  If  this  is  wrongly 
chosen  the  release  is  doomed  to  failure.  In 
order  to  give  the  released  crocodilians  every 
opportunity  to  adjust  to  and  become  acquainted 
with  their  new  surroundings,  prior  to  the  onset 
of  the  monsoon,  the  release  season  is  also  of 
key  importance.  Crocodiles  should  be  re- 
leased in  the  early  spring,  at  least  three  months 
prior  to  the  commencement  of  the  monsoon. 


285 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


Table  4 

Monitoring  results  by  the  local  protection  staff  on  a daily  basis.  These  results  are 
given  for  January  1981  for  comparison  with  the  data  in  Table  2.  An  asterisk  (s) 
indicate(s)  the  sighting  of  a crocodile(s),  the  time  of  sighting  is  also  given. 

The  location  references  are  given  in  the  text  and  in 
Figure  1 


Date 

(Jan.  1981) 

Location 

Total 

seen 

Pool  1 

2 3 

4 

5 6 7 8 

9 10  11 

1 

..  **1545 

• • • 0 

*0900 

• • e e * # # 

*1200 

4 

2 

. . *0930 

. . 

. . *1200 

..  *1600 

3 

3 

. . *0900 

. . 

*0945 

..  *1200 

*1400  . . *1600 

5 

4 

. . *0900 

*1000 

..  *1330 

..  *1600 

4 

5 

. . *0930 

*1100 

. . 

2 

6 

. . *1000 

*1030 

..  *1545 

3 

7 

. . *0900 

..  *1100 

*1500 

3 

8 

. . *0930 

. . 

..  *1200  *1230 

3 

9 

. . 

. . *1400 

. . *1600 

2 

10 

..  **0945 

*1030 

. . *1600 

4 . 

11 

. . *0900 

*1000 

. . 

2 

12 

..  **1100 

*0930 

*1500 

. . 

4 

13 

..  **1545 

*1000 

. . *1600 

3 

14 

. . *1000 

. . *1500 

. . 

*1530 

4 

15 

..  **1230 

. . *1600 

3 

16 

..  **1600 

*1530 

*1000 

4 

17 

..  **1045 

. . *1200 

*1400 

4 

18 

..  **1100 

. . 

*1230 

. . *1400  . . *1500 

*1630 

6 

19 

. . *0900 

. . 

*1100  ..  *1300 

..  *1600 

4 

20 

..  **1200 

*1430 

. . 

*1500 

4 

21 

..  **0800 

*1000 

..  *1200 

4 

22 

. . *0930 

. . 

*1100 

*1400 

3 

23 

. . *1000 

. . *1400 

. . *1600 

3 

24 

..  **1130 

. . 

*1230 

*1630 

4 

25 

. . *0900 

. . 

*1030 

...  , ^ , t . 

2 

26 

. . *0930 

*1000 

*1500 

3 

27 

..  **1200 

. . 

*1500 

. . 

3 

28 

..  *1500 

. . 

... 

. . . . . . 

1 

29 

..  *1000 

. . 

*1130 

. . . . 

. . 

2 

30 

..  **1500 

. . 

*1000 

. . . . . . . . 

..  *1530 

4 

31 

. . *1000 

.. 

•• 



1 

286 


RESTOCKING  MUGGER  CROCODILE 


The  best  size  for  release  also  requires  dis- 
cussion. It  is  possible  with  mugger  crocodiles, 
for  instance,  to  release  individuals  much 
smaller  than  the  1.1  m size  used  here.  Singh 
(1976)  reported  on  two  mugger  of  56  and 


under  all  conditions  throughout  the  country. 
There  are  a number  of  good  reasons  for  select- 
ing this  size.  There  are  also  doubts  that  small 
mugger  will  show  good  survival  at  least  in 
certain  habitats  as  they  will  be  unable  to  defend 


t*m  ‘ T — r* t* -t— - — - f I - "T"1  " t ■ t r-  r" — » T"  — 

1 a S’  to  15  20  25 

W e e s 

Fig.  3.  Daily  maxima  for  crocodile  sightings  plotted  on  a weekly  basis  for  the  period  29  September 
1980  to  7th  March  1981.  The  form  of  this  plot  does  not  indicate  a falling  trend  in  numbers  observed. 
The  apparent  fall  in  February /March  is  due  to  the  heat  of  the  summer  when  the  crocodiles  remain 
mostly  in  the  water  making  observation  difficult.  Furthermore,  7 individuals  were  seen  on  17th  May, 
1981,  a higher  figure  than  that  recorded  since  the  study  has  commenced. 


41  cm  respectively,  which  escaped  from  their 
hatchling  pool  into  the  adjacent  Mahanadi 
river  (Orissa)  during  October  1975.  Both 
survived  and  are  still  there  today.  The  release 
sizes  recommended  here,  of  1.0-1. 2m,  is  that 
for  which  we  feel  the  survival  rate  will  be  high 


themselves  from  all  predators.  Burrow  con- 
struction is  also  important  in  the  mugger  as  a 
means  of  avoiding  extremes  of  both  heat  and 
cold.  Animals  of  below  1.2  m have  not  been 
observed  digging  burrows  (B.C.  Choudhury, 
unpubl.  observ.).  Further  below  80  cm,  it  is 


287 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY , Po/.  79 


not  possible  to  reliably  sex  mugger  using  the 
cloacal  probing  technique. 

It  is  essential  that  the  protection  staff  are 
appointed  prior  to  the  release  in  order  not  to 
lose  valuable  data  (see  below). 

Crocodiles  for  release  should  be  fed  only 
natural  food  (live  fish)  for  at  least  three  months 
prior  to  release.  If  they  are  fed  on  unnatural 
diet  such  as  chopped  beef  in  the  rearing  station, 
they  may  face  some  difficulty  in  adjusting  to 
conditions  in  the  wild. 

Crocodiles  used  to  a fish  diet  have  no  diffi- 
culty in  catching  their  own  food  even  immedi- 
ately following  release.  We  have  both  ob- 
served mugger  feeding  in  the  wild  within  24 
hours  of  release  and  S.  Choudhury  (pers. 
comm.)  has  seen  gharial  feeding  on  the  day  of 
release. 

From  the  excellent  growth  data  reported 
below,  it  is  apparent  that  these  mugger  were 
readily  able  to  secure  sufficient  food  in  the 
wild.  This  food  included  small  mammals 
as  well  as  fish,  from  the  faecal  samples  collected 
but  yet  to  be  analysed.  Provided  sufficient 
food  is  available  in  the  natural  habitat,  that  is, 
that  the  food  resources  have  not  become  unduly 
depleted,  captive  reared  mugger  will  face  no 
difficulty  in  obtaining  their  requirement. 

The  results  indicate  that  definitely  seven 
out  of  eight  released  mugger  survived  and  we 
suspect  that  all  eight  have  survived.  This  result, 
in  itself,  demonstrates  the  validity  of  the  4 rear 
and  release’  technique. 

We  believe  that  given  the  ideal  conditions, 
in  undisturbed  natural  habitats,  mugger  move 
very  little,  if  at  all.  This  belief  is  also  borne 
out  by  the  results  of  this  pilot  release.  The 
release  point  is  5 km  upstream  from  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Chandravanka  river  with  Krishna 
river.  Even  despite  the  massive  floods  of  1977, 
none  of  the  mugger  ever  went  down  to  the 
Krishna  during  the  four  years  covered  by  this 
study.  The  maximum  distance  moved  by 


individuals  of  the  first  release  was  by  one  female 
which  moved  800  m downstream  in  1978  (the 
year  following  release).  The  female  has  sub- 
sequently remained  at  this  site.  A female  of 
the  December  1978  release,  moved  to  pool  11, 
a distance  of  3 km  from  the  release  point, 
where  it  was  first  sighted  in  September  1980. 
Three  individuals  have  remained  throughout 
in  the  release  spot  immediately  below  the 
waterfall.  The  others  have  moved  distances 
ranging  between  500  m to  1.5  km. 

The  growth  reported,  of  approximately  50 
cm  over  22  months,  between  approximate 
ages  of  two  and  a half  to  four  and  a half  is 
considered  good  wild  growth  for  the  Indian 
mugger  as  is  a further  30  cm  over  the  next 
22  months  between  the  approximate  ages  of 
four  and  a half  to  six  and  a half.  Acharjyo 
and  Mohapatra  (1978)  recorded  on  recapture, 
a growth  of  50  cm  in  four  years  and  nine 
months  in  a mugger  that  lived  in  the  wild 
escaping  from  captivity.  When  it  escaped 
it  measured  170  cm  and  on  recapture  measured 
220  cm.  No  other  wild  growth  data  have 
been  published  on  the  Indian  mugger.  How- 
ever, extensive  (unpubl.)  captive  growth  data 
are  available.  Bustard,  Singh  and  Choudhury 
(in  prepn.)  provided  data  on  rapid  growth 
in  selected  mugger  strains  from  Tamilnadu. 
It  is  known  that  such  individuals  can  grow 
much  faster  than  in  the  wild  (Bustard  1980). 
These  rapid  growing  captives  increased  by 
about  65  cm,  during  the  same  period  that  the 
wild  mugger  here  described  increased  by  50 
cm.  In  the  5th  year  the  captive  mugger  grew 
by  30  cm,  whereas  the  wild  individuals  took 
two  years  to  show  this  length  increase  from 
four  and  a half  to  six  and  a half  years  of 
age. 

Data  collected  from  the  pilot  release  and 
monitoring  of  mugger  crocodiles  at  Ethipo- 
thalla  falls  provided  the  Andhra  Pradesh 
Crocodile  Project  the  required  informational 


288 


RESTOCKING  MUGGER  CROCODILE 
basis  for  further  releases.  Other  than  con-  Acknowledgements 


firming  most  of  the  hypothesis  on  mugger 
behaviour,  survival,  movement  and  growth, 
the  pilot  release  also  provided  opportunity 
to  evolve  a good  monitoring  system  and  to 
train  personnel  on  management  methodology. 
Furthermore,  such  small  pilot  releases  pre- 
vented the  risk  of  large-scale,  unsuitable  release 
of  mugger  that  are  produced  in  rearing  stations 
with  maximum  effort  and  expenditure.  Most 
important  of  all,  resources  like  rare  species 
of  crocodilians  should  not  be  allowed  to  be 
wasted  by  unplanned  releases. 


REFER 

AcharjVo,  L*  N.  And  MohapatrA,  S.  (1978) : 
Return  of  the  Captive  Marsh  Crocodile  ( Crocodylus 
palustris ) into  the  wild,  Indian  Forester  104  (5)  : 385. 

Biswas,  S.  (1970)  : Proposal  for  the  protection  of 
Marsh  Crocodile.  Indian  Forester  96  (9)  : 704. 

Bustard,  H.  R.  (1980) : Captive  breeding  of  croco- 
diles. In  The  Care  and  Breeding  of  Captive  Reptiles. 
S4  Townson,  N.  J.  Millichamp,  Di  G.  D.  Lucas  and 
Ai  J.  Millwood  (Eds.).  British  Herpetological  Society, 
1980.  1-20. 

—  AND  ChoudhurV,  B.  C.  (1981)  : Marking 

Crocodiles  for  release  back  into  the  wild  for  subsequent 
identification.  Indian  Forester , 107  (8) : 477-485. 

—  , SiNGft,  L.  A.  K.  And  CiIoudhury,  B.  C. 

(In  prepn.)  : Growth  in  three  population  of  Indian 
mugger  crocodile*  Crocodylus  palustris.  Lesson,  from 
Tamil  Nadu,  South  India. 

Choudhury,  B.  C,  (In  prepn.):  Status  of  Mugger 
crocodile  ( Crocodylus  palustris , Lesson)  in  Andhra 
Pradesh. 

DanIel,  J.  C (1970)  : A Review  of  the  present  status 


We  wish  to  acknowledge  our  appreciation 
to  the  field  personnel  of  the  Andhra  Pradesh 
Forest  Department  who  helped  in  monitoring 
and  recording  the  data  on  proformas  during 
the  whole  period  of  the  study.  We  would 
like  to  single  out  Shri  Pushp  Kumar,  I.F.S., 
Conservator  of  Forests  (Wild  Life  Manage- 
ment), Andhra  Pradesh  and  Director,  Central 
Crocodile  Breeding  and  Management  Training 
Institute,  Hyderabad,  for  his  suggestions  and 
assistance  throughout  the  period. 


ENCES 

and  position  of  endangered  species  of  Indian  Reptiles. 
In.  Proc.  11th  Tech.  Meeting  IUCN  Pub.  New  Series 
18  : 75-76. 

F.A.O.  (1974) : India.  A preliminary  survey  of  the 
prospects  of  Crocodile  Farming.  (Based  on  the  work 
of  H.  R.  Bustard.)  FAO  Rome  (FO  : IND/71/033) 
Oct.  1977. 

Gee,  E.  P.  (1964) : The  Wildlife  of  India.  Collins, 
London. 

Misra,  R.  N.  (1970):  The  endangered  crocodiles  of 
India.  In  Proc.  11  th  Tech . Meeting  IUCN  Pub.  New 
Series  18  : 77-81. 

Mukherjee,  A.  K.  (1974)  : Some  examples  of  recent 
Faunal  Impoverishment  and  Regression.  In  Ecology 
and  Biogeography  in  India  (Ed)  M.  S.  Mani.  Dr.  W. 
Junki  b.  v.  Pub.  The  Hague,  330-367. 

SINGH*  L.  A.  K.  (1976) : When  back  to  the  wild 
and  Back  to  the  wild.  Cheetal,  Journal  of  the  Wildlife 
Preservation  Society  of  India.  18  (1  and  2) : 20-23. 

Shahi,  S.  P.  (1977) : Backs  to  the  Wall-Saga  of 
wildlife  in  Bihar,  India.  East-West  Press,  New  Delhi. 


4 


289 


STUDIES  ON  THE  ESTUARINE  ODONATA  FROM 
24  PARGANAS  DISTRICT  OF  WEST  BENGAL,  WITH  A NOTE 
ON  THE  RE-PRODUCTIVE  BEHAVIOUR  IN  UROTHEMIS 
SIGNATA  SIGNATA  (RAMBUR)  (ODONATA  : INSECTA)1 

M.  Prasad  and  S.  K.  Ghosh2 
(With  six  text-figures) 


Introduction 

Dragonfly  fauna  of  West  Bengal,  specially 
from  the  estuarine  area  is  inadequately  known 
which  is  evident  from  the  works  of  Fraser 
(1933,  1934  and  1936),  Bhasin  (1953)  and  Mitra 
et  al.  (1976).  However,  Fraser  and  Dover 
(1922)  and  Laidlaw  (1921)  have  recorded  30 
species  of  Odonata  from  the  saline  and  semi- 
saline areas  of  Barkuda  Islands  in  Chilka  lake. 
To  fill  this  lacunae,  we  made  an  extensive 
collection  of  Odonata  from  Diamond  Harbour 
(Diamond  Harbour  and  Sonadanga),  Fraserganj 
(Amrawti,  Bakkhaii  and  Fraserganj)  and  Kakd- 
wip  (Gangadharpur,  Kakdwip  and  Trilokchand- 
pur)  in  24  Parganas  district  of  West  Bengal 
(Fig.  1). 

The  material  includes  specimens  of  23  species 
(8  belonging  to  suborder  Zygoptera  and  15 
to  suborder  Anisoptera)  from  the  estuarine 
areas  of  24  Parganas.  Most  of  the  species 
agree  fairly  well  with  the  descriptions  of  Fraser 
(l.c.).  Differences  wherever  noted  from  the 
published  descriptions  have  been  recorded 
under  various  species.  Specimens  of  Pantala 
flavescens  (Fabricius)  were  observed  on  wing 
at  Diamond  Harbour,  but  we  were  unable 
to  collect  them.  In  addition,  some  interesting 
observations  on  the  reproductive  behaviour 
in  Urothemis  signata  signata  (Rambur),  made 

1 Accepted  April  1979. 

2 Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta. 


from  a permanent  monsoon  pond  at  Paikpara, 
Calcutta,  are  reported  in  the  present  paper. 

Systematic  Account 

Order  . . Odonata 

Suborder  . . Zygoptera 

Family  . . Coenagrionidae 

1.  Pseudagrion  microcephalum  (Rambur) 

Material : lcT,  Diamond  Harbour,  5-6-1978. 

Remarks  : Agree  fairly  well  with  the  published 
description,  except  9 postnodal  nervures  in 
fore  wings  and  8 in  hindwings. 

2.  Pseudagrion  decorum  (Rambur) 

Material : lcT,  1$,  Fraserganj,  31-5-1978. 

3.  Ceriagrion  coromandelianum  (Fabricius) 

Material : 1?,  Amrawti,  3.6.1978  ; lj\ 

Fraserganj,  31.5.1978  ; 1J\  Kakdwip,  27.5.1978 
and  lcT>  Sonadanga,  6.6.1978. 

Remarks  : Commonly  available  on  both  per- 
manent and  temporary  waterbodies,  and  can 
be  collected  in  large  numbers  without  much 
effort. 

4.  Ceriagrion  cerinorubellum  (Brauer) 

Material : 2cTcT,  Amrawti*  3.6.1978  and  lcT, 
Trilokchandpur,  28.5.1978. 


290 


Fig.  1.  Map  of  Diamond  Harbour,  Fraserganj  and  Kakdwip  of  24  Parganas  district 
(West  Bengal)  showing  collection  sites. 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


5.  Xschnura  senegalensis  (Rambur) 

Material : lj1,  Amrawti,  3.6.1978  ; 3cfd\ 
Bakkhali,  2.6.1978  and  3 cfcf,  1?,  Fraserganj, 
31.5.1978. 

Remarks  : It  is  also  commonly  distributed 
in  this  area. 

6.  Agriocnemis  lacteola  Selys 

Material : 2 cfd\  Sonadanga,  6.6.1978. 

7.  Agriocnemis  pygmaea  (Rambur) 

Material : ld\  1?,  Fraserganj,  31.5.1978. 

8.  Onychargia  atrocyana  Selys 

Material : IcT,  Diamond  Harbour,  5.6.1978. 

Suborder  . * Anisoptera 

Family  . . Gomphidae 

9.  Ictinogomphus  rapax  (Rambur) 

Material : 2(7,c7,}  2$$,  Bakkhali,  1.6.1978. 

Remarks  : Nodal  index  varies  from 

11— 21  | 20—11  14—22  | 24—14 

— -1 to 1 

12— 15  | 15—13  15—17  | 20—14 

in  both  male  and  female.  Specimens  of  this 
species  were  most  commonly  observed  on  the 
semisaline  ponds  near  Bakkhali  during  08.00 
hrs.  to  14.00  hrs. 

Family  . . Macrodiplactidae 

10.  Macrodiplax  cor  a (Brauer) 

Material : 1 Amrawti,  3.6.1978. 

11.  Aethriamanta  forevipennis  brevipennis 

(Rambur) 

Material : 1 $,  Sonadanga,  6.6.1978. 

12.  Urothemis  signata  signata  (Rambur) 

(Fig>.  2-6) 

Material : 1 ?,  Bakkhali,  1.6.1978;  1 ?, 
Sonadanga,  6.6.1978  and  1 cA  1 ¥,  Trilokchand- 
pur,  28.5.1978. 


Remarks  : It  is  also  a very  common  species 
in  this  area.  Male  has  nodal  index  number- 
ing 

8—7  | 7—7 

8—5  I 5—8 

Reproductive  behaviour  : 

Reproductive  behaviour  in  Urothemis  s. 
signata  (Rambur)  was  observed  several  times 
in  the  month  of  August  and  September,  1978, 
at  a permanent  monsoon  pond  near  Paikpara, 
Calcutta,  during  the  sunny  days.  A large 
number  of  males  and  females  can  be  easily 
seen  there  on  wing  during  these  periods.  A 
male,  which  used  aquatic  plants  or  other 
twigs  as  its  base  perch  was  seen  regularly 
flying  within  an  area  of  70  cm  to  1.80  m of  the 
pond,  which  marked  its  territory.  It  sometimes 
made  flights  outside  its  territory  as  well  but 
not  far  from  it.  Abdomen  raising  display 
[=threat  posture  (Moore  1960)  and  obelisk 
posture  (Corbet  1962)]  was  performed  by 
male,  to  defend  intrusion  of  any  other  male 
in  the  territory.  It  was  peculiar  to  note,  that, 
if  a male  of  other  species  already  perched  earlier, 
then  the  territory  was  not  defended,  unless  it 
interfered.  Male  makes  regular  flights  within 
the  territory  and  sometimes  outside  it. 

As  soon  as  a female  entered  the  territory, 
the  male  immediately  started  chivying,  even 
when  on  the  wing,  and  tried  to  form  tandem 
(Figs.  2-4).  Subsequently  copulation  wheel  was 
formed  by  the  pair  within  5 to  10  seconds,  and 
continued  for  35  seconds  (Fig.  5).  Duration 
between  each  break  of  copulation  wheel,  in 
this  species,  varies  from  28  to  46  seconds 
(observed  in  6 different  pairs).  Female  moved 
towards  oviposition  site,  and  after  a few  seconds, 
started  egg  laying  in  the  water  near  aquatic 
plants  and  weeds  (Fig.  6).  Oviposition  was 
continued  for  5-12  seconds.  Male  tried  several 
times  to  form  the  copulation  wheel  during  the 
oviposition  period  and  ultimately  the  wheel  was 


292 


ESTUARINE  ODONATA  FROM  24  PARGANAS,  W.  BENGAL 


6 


Figs.  2-6.  Reproductive  behaviour  of  Urothemis  signata  signata  (Rambur)  (2-3  Male-female  precopulatory 
position,  4.  Male-female  tandem,  5,  Male-female  copulation  wheel,  6.  Female  starting  oviposition). 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


formed  twice.  Soon  after  the  break  of  every 
copulation  wheel,  female  started  oviposition. 

Family  . . Libellulidae 

13.  Orthetrum  sabina  sabina  (Drury) 

Material : 1 <j>,  Bakkhali,  30.5.1978  and  1 cf, 
1 9>  Gangadharpur,  27.5.1979. 

Remarks  : Nodal  index  varies  from 

11—13  | 12—9  11—12  | 12—11 

■ 1 to 1 . 

11—10  I 10—10  10—10  I 10—12 

14.  Brachydiplax  sabrina  (Rambur) 

Material : 1 cT,  Sonadanga,  6.6.1978. 

Remarks : 2 cubital  nervures  present  in 

1 left  side  and  in  right  side  of  hindwing.  Only 
one  cubital  nervure  present  in  forewing. 

15.  Brachydiplax  chalybea  Brauer 
Material : 1 cf,  Trilokchandpur,  28.5.1978. 
Remarks  . Burnt-brown  marking  at  the  base 

of  both  the  wings  extends  only  upto  the  first 
antenodal  nervures. 

1 6.  Acisoma  panorpoides  panorpoides  Rambur 

Material  * 1 Sonadanga,  6.6.1978. 

17.  Diplacodes  trivialis  (Rambur) 

Material : 1 d*,  Bakkhali,  1.6.1978  ; 1 (?, 
Diamond  Harbour,  7.6.1978  and  1 <?,  Fraser- 
ganj,  31.5.1978. 

Remarks : Brownish-yellow  marking  pre- 
sent in  labrum  and  labium.  It  is  attracted 
towards  light  during  night,  and  commonly 
seen  on  the  semisaline  waterbodies. 

18.  Diplacodes  nebulosa  (Fabricius) 

Material : 1 <j>,  Sonadanga,  6.6.1978. 

19.  Crocothemis  servilia  servilia  (Drury) 
Material : 2 9¥>  Amrawti,  3.6.1978  ; 1(J, 

2 99,  Bakkhali,  30.5.1978  ; 1 tf,  1 ?,  Fraserganj, 
31.5,1978  and  1 cf  Sonadanga,  6.6.1978, 


Remarks  : Light  pale-yellow  markings  pre- 
sent on  the  labrum  and  labium  of  teneral 
females.  Dark  brownish-yellow  marking  pre- 
sent at  the  base  of  wings  in  both  mature  males 
and  females.  In  one  specimen,  2 rows  of  cells 
present  between  IRIII  and  RSPL. 

20.  Neurothemis  tullia  tullia  (Drury) 

Material ; 1 9,  Amrawti,  3.6.1978. 

Remarks  : 4 cubital  nervures  in  forewing 
and  2 in  hindwing.  One  row  of  cells  present 
in  between  IRIII  and  RSPL. 

21.  Brachythemis  contaminata  (Fabricius) 

Material : 2 <?<},  Amrawti,  3.6.1978  ; 2 S3, 

2 $$,  Fraserganj*  31.5.1978  ; 1 <J,  Kakdwip, 
27.5.1978  ; 1 (J,  1 $,  Sonadanga  and  6.6.1978  ; 
and  1 <J,  Trilokchandpur,  28.5.1978. 

Remarks : Specimens  of  this  species  were 
common  at  saline  as  well  as  semisaline  water- 
bodies,  and  a large  number  of  specimens  can 
be  collected  without  much  efforts.  Detailed 
intraspecific  variations  are  being  studied,  and 
will  be  submitted  for  publication  separately. 

22.  Trithemis  pallidinerves  Kirby 

Material : 1 <jt,  Amrawti,  3.6.1978;  2 

2 99  Bakkhali,  30.5.1978  and  1 cT,  Fraserganj, 
31.5.1978. 

23.  Rhyothemis  variegata  variegata  (Linn.) 

Material : 1 9>  Fraserganj,  31.5.1978  and 
1 9,  Sonadanga,  6.6.1978. 

Summary 

Odonata  fauna  of  estuarine  area  of  24  Par- 
ganas  district  (West  Bengal)  has  been  studied 
and  a total  of  23  species  (8,  Zygoptera  and  15, 
Anisoptera)  were  recorded.  Some  interesting 
reproductive  behaviour  in  Urothemis  s.  signata 
(Rambur)  has  also  been  observed  and  reported 
from  a permanent  freshwater  pond  at  Paikpara 
in  Calcutta, 


294 


ESTUARINE  ODONATA  FROM  24  PARGANAS , W.  BENGAL 


Acknowledgements 


We  are  thankful  to  the  Director,  Zoological 
Survey  of  India  for  permission  and  various 
facilities  to  carry  out  this  work.  Thanks  are 


Refer 

Bhasin,  G.  D.  (1953) : Odonata,  In  Roonwal  et  al ., 
A systematic  catalogue  of  the  main  identified  collection 
of  the  Forest  Research  Institute,  Dehra  Dun,  part  9-21. 
Indian  Forest  Leaflet,  121  (3)  : 63-69. 

Corbet,  P.  S.  (1962)  : A biology  of  dragonflies. 
Witherby,  London. 

Fraser,  F.  C.  (1933) : The  Fauna  of  British  India, 
Odonata,  (London),  1 : 1-423. 

— , (1934)  : The  Fauna  of  British  India, 

Odonata,  (London)  2 : 1-398. 

, (1936):  The  Fauna  of  British  India, 

Odonata,  (London),  3 : 1-461. 

Fraser,  F.  C.  and  Dover,  C.  (1922)  : The  fauna 


also  due  to  Sri  P.  K.  Karmakar,  Artist  of  this 
Department,  for  the  preparation  of  diagrams. 


iNCES 

of  an  Island  in  the  Chilka  lake,  Dragonflies.  Rec. 
Indian  Mas.,  24  (3)  : 303-312. 

Laidlaw,  F.  F.  (1921) : A list  of  the  Dragonflies 
recorded  from  the  Indian  Empire  with  special  reference 
to  the  collection  of  the  Indian  Museum.  Part  V. 
The  subfamily  Gomphinae.  (with  an  appendix  by 
F.  C.  Fraser).  Rec.  Indian  Mus .,  22  : 367-426. 

Mitra,  T.  R.,  Lahiri,  A.  R.,  and  Ray  Chaudhuri, 
D.  N.  (1976)  : Remarks  on  dragonflies  (Odonata : 
Anisoptera)  of  Calcutta.  Third  All  India  Congr. 
Zoology  : 64. 

Moore,  N.  W.  (1960):  The  behaviour  of  the  adult 

dragonfly.  In  Dragonflies  (P.  S.  Corbet,  C.  L.  Long- 
field  and  N.  W.  Moore),  Collins,  London.  Chapter  9. 


DISTRIBUTION,  FEEDING  HABITS  AND  BURROWING 
PATTERNS  OF  TATERA  INDICA  CUVIERI  (WATERHOUSE)1  & 2 

C.  M.  George,  P.  J.  Joy  and  C.  C.  Abraham1 2 3 
{With  two  text-figures ) 

A survey  of  the  distribution  of  Tatera  indica  revealed  that  T.  i.  cuvieri  is  present  throughout  Kerala.  The 
burrow  system  followed  no  definite  patterns  being  either  short,  simple  or  elongated  and  winding.  Each 
burrow  system  showed  a minimum  of  three  openings  and  there  was  no  evidence  of  grain  hoarding.  The 
nesting  materials  inside  the  burrows  consisted  of  dry  teak  leaves,  dry  grasses,  dry  leaves  of  Terminalia 
paniculate  dry  rubber  leaves,  dry  cowpea  shoots,  coconut  root-bits,  and  dry  stems  of  Eupatorium  odoratum 
depending  on  the  vegetation  around  the  burrow  location.  In  Kerala,  these  rats  cause  damage  to  tapioca. 


pulses,  paddy,  jowar  and  ginger  crops. 

Introduction 

Information  on  the  distribution  and  burrow 
patterns  of  rat  spscies  is  an  important  pre- 
requisite for  successful  implementation  of 
control  programmes.  Extensive  surveys  of 
the  distribution  of  rats  in  Kerala  have  not 
been  conducted  so  far.  In  order  to  obtain 
detailed  information  on  the  structural  features 
of  the  burrow  pattern  of  T.  indica  occurring 
in  diverse  conditions  and  to  study  their  relative 
abundance,  a survey  was  conducted  in  the 
State  during  September,  1978  to  February, 
1979. 

Materials  and  methods 

For  the  survey  work,  the  State  was  divided 
into  eight  agro-climatic  zones  and  in  each  zone, 
four  representative  areas  were  selected  (Table  1). 

The  burrow  patterns  were  studied  by  first 
locating  the  emergency  escapes  by  random 
probing  with  a crow-bar  in  a specific  direction 

1 Accepted  January  1980. 

2 Part  of  the  M.Sc.  (Ag.)  thesis  submitted  to  the 
Kerala  Agricultural  University  by  the  senior  author  for 
the  award  of  the  M.Sc.  (Ag.)  Degree. 

3 Department  of  Entomology,  College  of  Horti- 
culture, Vellanikkara,  Trichur-680  654,  Kerala. 


along  the  burrow,  following  the  location  of 
the  soil-crest.  Around  the  emergency  escape, 
the  soil  easily  crumbled  down  and  such  areas 
were  immediately  sealed  off  by  compaction. 
Additional  emergency  escapes  if  any  were  then 
marked  out  by  observing  whether  the  rats 
escape  from  the  burrow  system  consequent 
on  smoking.  For  smoking,  all  the  burrow 
entrances  other  than  the  principal  one,  was 
closed  initially  by  putting  rubble  and  by  com- 
pacting the  areas  around  the  openings.  Smoke 
was  then  let  into  the  burrow  system  through 
the  main  entrance  by  burning  tightly  tied 
sheaves  of  dry  coconut  leaflet-strips  of  about 
40  cm  length,  which  were  inserted  into  the 
burrow  entrance.  The  burning  end  was  fanned 
continuously  to  ensure  steady  inflow  of  smoke 
stream  through  the  other  end  and  thus  to  induce 
asphyxiation  of  rats  inhabiting  the  burrows. 

The  entire  burrow  net-work  was  then  exposed 
by  gently  working  with  crow-bar  and  spade, 
and  the  internal  structuring  of  burrow  system 
and  details  of  the  brood  chamber/chambers 
and  the  food  chamber/chambers  were  studied. 
The  depth  of  the  different  regions  of  the  burrow 
systems  were  also  recorded. 

The  nature  of  damage  caused  by  T.  indica 
was  studied  by  examining  the  stand  of  the 


296 


DISTRIBUTION  ETC.  OF  TATERA  INDICA  CUVIERI 


Table  1 

Details  of  agro-climatic  zones  selected 


for  Survey 

WORK 

S.No. 

Zones 

Localities 

of  zone 

selected  for 
survey  work 

1. 

Trivandrum  and  Quilon 

Vellayani,  Attingal, 

districts 

Varkala,  Adoor. 

2. 

Kottayam  and  Alleppey 

Ettumannur, 

districts 

Kurianadu,'Mon- 
compu,  Kidangara. 

3. 

Idukki  and  Ernakulam 

Muthalakodam,  Moola- 

districts 

mattom,  Perumba- 
voor,  N.  Parur. 

4. 

Trichur  and  Malappuram  Vellanikkara,  Pattik- 

districts 

kadu,  Tavanur, 
Ponnani 

5. 

Palghat  district 

Melarkode,  Nemmara, 

Thiruvazhiyodu, 

Vadakumcheri. 

6. 

Attappady  in  Palghat 

Thavalam,  Chundu- 

district 

kulam,  Koolikadavu, 
Aanakatty. 

7. 

Wynaad  in  Calicut 

Kuppamudi,  S.  Battery, 

district 

Meenangadi,  Kalpatta. 

8. 

Cannanore  district 

Thirumeni,  Cheru- 
puzha,  Aravanchal, 
Vellirikundu. 

crop  around  the  burrow  location.  The  rem- 
nants of  partially  fed  food  materials  recovered 
from  the  burrow  were  recorded  as  an  index 
of  the  normally  preferred  food  articles. 

Results  and  discussion 

T.  i.  cuvier i was  found  to  be  the  only  sub- 
species occurring  in  Kerala.  The  populations 
were  relatively  heavier  throughout  the  State, 
excepting  parts  of  Wynaad  region  in  the  Kozhi- 
kode District  and  parts  of  the  Cannanore 


District.  This  is  in  conformity  with  Ellerman’s 
(1961)  report  that  in  South  India,  T.  indica 
populations  consists  mostly  of  T.  i.  cuvieri. 

These  rats  were  found  in  a wide  range  of 
habitats  such  as  in  crop  fields,  backyards  of 
houses,  thick  grass  growth,  teak  plantations 
and  in  waste  lands.  Krishnakumari  (1968) 
recorded  somewhat  similar  habitats  for  the 
species.  However,  the  present  observation  is 
not  in  accordance  with  the  report  of  Srinivasa- 
char  (1972)  who  stated  that  these  rats  were 
found  only  in  crop  fields  along  the  bunds. 
The  habitat  variations  may  be  attributed  to 
the  differences  in  the  geographic  features  of 
the  localities. 

A total  of  twelve  burrow  systems  of  T.  i. 
cuvieri  were  studied  and  these  were  of  two  basic 
types,  namely,  short  simple  and  those  with 
extensive  ramifications.  The  structural  details 
and  other  pertinent  information  of  these  two 
basic  types  of  burrow  systems  are  furnished 
in  Table  2 and  depicted  in  figures  1 and  2. 

Pingale  et  al.  (1967)  reported  that  the  burrows 
of  T.  indica  were  elongated  consisting  of  wind- 
ing passages,  numerous  emergency  escapes 
and  a breeding  or  living  chamber  located 
in  the  centre.  In  the  present  studies,  it  was 
found  that  certain  burrows  were  quite  simple 
in  construction,  while  in  certain  other  cases, 
the  construction  was  quite  complicated  and 
extensive  with  winding  passages.  Another 
marked  deviation  from  the  previous  reports 
is  that  the  brood  chamber/living  chamber  is 
not  always  centrally  located. 

Yashoda  (1968)  indicated  that  the  live  burrow 
systems  of  T.  indica  can  be  traced  out  by  the 
presence  of  beaten  pathways  from  one  opening 
to  the  other  and  by  the  left  over  bits  of  leaves 
and  slender  branches  across  their  runs.  The 
present  study  clearly  revealed,  for  the  first  time, 
that  the  presence  of  a soil  plugging  within  the 
burrow  close  to  the  opening  is  the  definite 
and  reliable  indication  to  the  presence  of  live 
rats  within  the  burrow. 


297 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Table  2 


Structural  Features  of  Burrow  Systems  of  T.  i.  cuvier i 


Burrow  System- 1 
(Simple  type) 

Burrow  System-2 
(Elongate,  extensively  ramifying 
type) 

Location  : 

Melarkode 

Aravanchal 

Period  of  excavation 

November  1978 

January  1979 

Nature  of  vegetation  in 

the  immediate  vicinity 

Coconut,  banana  and  mango 

denuded,  rocky  grassland. 

Nature  of  soil 

Laterite 

Gravelly 

No.  of  openings  including 

emergency  escapes 

Three 

Six 

No.  of  emergency 

escapes 

One 

Two 

Total  horizontal  profile 

dimensions 

2.9  X 2 m. 

4.  95  m2. 

Total  length  of  the 

burrow  system 

4.94  m. 

20.3  m. 

Burrow  width 

Range  5-20  cm. 

7-20  cm. 

No.  of  brood  chambers 

One 

One 

Depth  of  brood  chamber 

34  cm. 

31  cm. 

Nature  of  nesting 

Dry  leaves  of 

material 

Terminalici  paniculata 

Dry  grasses 

No.  of  blind  alleys 

One 

Four 

No.  of  soil  pluggings 

Two 

Three 

Nature  of  opening  for 

removal  of  excavated 

Open 

Closed  and  filled  with  soil 

soil. 

No.  of  adults  and  young 

ones  captured  from  the 

Mother  and  four  young  ones 

One  male,  mother  rat  and  four 

burrow  system 

young  ones 

Basic  shape  of  the  burrow 

‘ Y * shaped 

No  definite  shape 

In  all  the  burrows,  a minimum  of  three 
openings  including  the  emergency  escape  were 
observed  and  this  is  in  agreement  with  the 
earlier  report  of  Barnett  and  Ishwar  Prakash 
(1975).  However,  Yashoda  (1968)  had  re- 
ported two  to  four  openings  while  Bindra  & 
Prem  Sagar  (1975)  observed  that  there  were 
one  to  ten  surface  openings.  The  soil  dug 
out  during  burrow  construction  was  found 
to  be  thrown  out  only  through  a particular 
opening  and  this  phenomenon  is  reported  for 


the  first  time.  Bindra  & Prem  Sagar  (op.  cit.) 
found  that  certain  surface  openings  of  T.  indica 
burrow  systems  were  blocked  with  a small 
quantity  of  soil  and  these  were  used  only  in 
emergency  for  escape.  In  the  present  study 
such  blocked  surface  openings  were  not  ob- 
served in  any  of  the  systems.  The  burrow 
leading  to  emergency  escape  terminates  abruptly, 
1-3  cm  below  the  soil  surface,  leaving  a thin 
crust  of  soil  cover  which  is  pushed  off  in  emer- 
gencies. 


DISTRIBUTION  ETC . OF  TATERA  INDICA  CUVIER1 


The  nesting  materials  used  inside  the  burrows 
consisted  of  the  following  : depending  on  the 
nature  of  vegetation  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
burrow  : 

(1)  dry  teak  leaves  (2)  dry  grasses  (3)  dry 
leaves  of  Terminalia  paniculatci  (4)  dry  rubber 
leaves  (5)  dry  cowpea  shoots  (6)  bits  of  coco- 
nut roots  and  (7)  dry  stems  of  Eupatorium. 

In  a few  cases  mixtures  of  these  articles  were 
found  in  some  nests. 

The  nesting  materials  previously  reported 
include  hay  and  leaves  (Yashoda  1968)  and 
grasses  (Srinivasachar  1972). 


Only  one  to  three  adults  could  be  collected 
from  a single  burrow  system  as  against  one  to 
five  adults  reported  by  Sundara  Bai  (1972). 
The  occurrence  of  relatively  more  number  of 
T.  indica  (upto  twelve)  in  the  burrows  is 
reported  by  Yashoda  (1968)  and  Barnett  & 
Ishwar  Prakash  (1975). 

The  studies  on  the  nature  of  damage  by  T.  i. 
cuvieri  revealed  that  in  Kerala,  tapioca,  pulses, 
rubber  seeds,  paddy,  jowar  and  cotton  were 
the  food  crops  preferred  by  this  sub-species. 
It  was  also  noted  that  the  ginger  crop  is  subject 


299 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


Id 

5C 


Fig.  2.  Burrow  system  (elongate  and  complex  type)  of  Tatera  indica  cimeri. 


irwsbre 


i a — mam  entrance 
1 b — exit  for  soil  dug  out  while 
constructing  the  burrow 
!c  to  Id  — subsidiary  entrance 
2a  & 2b  — emergency  escapes 
3 — brood  chamber 
4a  to  4d  — blind  alleys 
5a  to  5c  — soil  plugging^ 


depth  from  the  scil  surface 


5a 


300 


DISTRIBUTION  ETC . OF  TATERA  INDICA  CUVIER! 


to  indirect  damage  due  to  the  burrowing  acti- 
vity of  the  rats. 

The  earlier  reports  of  the  food  crops  damaged 
by  these  rats  include  cereal  grains  in  general 
(Yashoda  1968  ; Sundara  Bai  1972)  and  jowar 
and  bajra  in  particular  (Srinivasachar  1972). 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  grateful  to  the  Director,  Zoological 
Survey  of  India,  Calcutta  for  identifying  the 


Refer 

Barnett,  S.  A.  and  IshwAr  Prakash  (1975):  Rodents 
of  Economic  Importance  in  India.  Arnold-Heimann, 
Publishers,  New  Delhi,  pp.  103. 

Bindra,  O.  S.  and  Sagar,  P.  (1975) : A review  of 
studies  on  the  ecology,  biology,  damage  and  control  of 
field-rats  and  field-mice  in  Punjab.  Proceedings  of 
the  All  India  Rodent  Seminar,  Ahmedabad,  September 
23-26,  pp.  82-88. 

Ellerman,  J.  R.  (1961) : The  Fauna  of  India  inclu- 
ding Pakistan,  Burma  and  Ceylon.  Mammalia  (2nd 
edition),  p.  412. 

Krishnakumari,  M.  K.  (1968) : Rodents,  Manual  of 
rodent  control,  C*  F.  T.  R.  I.,  Mysore,  pp.  13-23. 


various  rat  species  collected  during  the  survey 
work.  Dr.  V.  C.  Agrawal,  Superintending 
Zoologist,  Dr.  Sujit  Chakraborty,  Zoologist 
and  Dr.  P.  K.  Das,  Officer-in-charge,  Mammal 
and  Osteology  sections  have  rendered  valuable 
help  in  the  identification  work.  For  the 
facilities  made  available  for  the  work, 
we  are  thankful  to  the  Associate  Dean, 
College  of  Horticulture,  Kerala  Agricultural 
University. 


!N  CES 

PlNGALE,  S.  V.,  KrISHNAMURTHY,  K.  AND  RAMA- 
krishnan,  T.  (1967) : Rats.  Foodgrain  Technologists’ 
Research  Association  of  India,  Hapur,  p.  14. 

Srinivasachar,  H.  R.  (1972)  i.  General  characters  and 
classification  of  rodents.  Proceedings  of  the  All  India 
Summer  Institute  in  Rodent  Biology.  Department  of 
Entomology,  University  of  Agricultural  Sciences, 
Bangalore,  pp.  1-9. 

Sundara  Bai,  A.  (1972)  : Burrow  pattern  of  field 
rodents.  Ibid.,  pp.  56-59. 

Yashoda,  L.  U.  (1968)  : Habits  and  habitats  of 
rodents.  Manual  of  rodent  control,  C.  F.  T.  R.  L, 
Mysore,  pp.  25-35. 


301 


RECENT  CHANGES  TO  THE  BURMESE  MAMMAL  LIST1 

G.W.H.  Davison2 

The  paper  gives  taxonomic  revisions  and  additions  to  the  list  of  Burmese  mammals  since  the  publication 
of  the  checklist  by  Ellerman  and  Morrison-Scott  (1951). 


Introduction 

No  complete  list  restricted  solely  to  the  mammal 
fauna  of  Burma  has  been  published  since  that 
of  Blyth  (1875).  The  most  recent  list,  by 
Ellerman  & Morrison-Scott  (1951)  includes 
the  mammals  of  the  Palaearctic  and  the  Indian 
subcontinent.  Since  1951  there  has  been  ex- 
tremely little  work  on  mammal  collection  or 
surveying  within  Burma,  but  numerous  taxono- 
mic changes  based  on  material  from  neigh- 
bouring countries  and  on  the  older  Burmese 
museum  material  are  relevant  to  the  local 
fauna.  These  changes  and  the  few  recent 
additions  of  species  are  compiled  here  for  easy 
reference. 

Insectivora  : Soricidae 

The  confusing  history  of  the  Pegu  type 
specimens  of  the  Southeast  Asian  White- 
toothed Shrew  Crocidura  fuliginosa  has  been 
described  by  Medway  (1977).  The  currently 
accepted  nomenclature  of  the  Burmese  or  near- 
Burmese  representatives  of  the  genus  is  as 
follows  : 

Crocidura  horsfieldi  indochinensis  Robinson  & 
Kloss  1922 

North  Burma  and  the  Shan  States. 

C.  attenuata  subsp.  indet. 

North  and  central  Burma.  Geographically 
it  is  closest  to  C.  a.  rubricosa  Anderson  1877 

1 Accepted  December  1980. 

2 Zoology  Unit,  University  Kebangsaan  Malaysia, 
Bangi,  Selangor,  Malaysia. 


from  Assam  and  the  Himalayas  (Jenkins  1976), 
which  may  in  fact  extend  into  northernmost 
parts  of  Burma. 

C.  vorax  Allen  1923 

Not  yet  found  in  Burma,  but  the  eastern 
Shan  States  are  interposed  between  its  known 
localities  in  Yunnan  and  at  Doi  Inthanon  in 
north  Thailand.  This  taxon  is  most  likely 
to  prove  a subspecies  of  C.  russula  or  C.  at- 
tenuata, but  its  affinities  cannot  properly  be 
decided  on  present  evidence  (P.  D.  Jenkins, 
pers.  comm.). 

C.  fuliginosa  fuliginosa  (Blyth  1855) 

North  and  central  Burma  south  at  least  to 
Schwe  Gyin  in  Pegu,  and  doubtless  through 
Tenasserim. 

C.  fuliginosa  dracula  Thomas  1912 
Northeast  Burma. 


Primates  : Cercopithecidae 

Presbytis  femoralis  robinsoni  Thomas  1910 

Extreme  south  of  Tenasserim  around  Mali- 
wun.  Should  the  Burmese  specimens  prove 
distinct  from  those  of  Peninsular  Thailand, 
the  name  keatii  Robinson  & Kloss  1911  is 
available.  I follow  Wilson  & Wilson  (1975) 
in  equating  continental  Asian  banded  leaf- 
monkeys  with  east  Sumatran  femoralis  rather 
than  west  Sumatran  melalophos ; previously 
the  two  were  not  distinguished. 


302 


RECENT  CHANGES  TO  BURMESE  MAMMAL  LIST 


Rodentia:  Sciuridae 

TJie  representatives  of  Petinomys  are  now 
known  as  : 

Petinomys  vordermanni  phipsoni  (Thomas  1916) 

Tenasserim  ; listed  as  a subspecies  of  P.  setosus 
by  Ellerman  (1961),  and  apparently  confused 
with  that  species  by  Lekagul  & McNeely  (1977). 

P.  setosus  morrisi  (Carter  1942) 

Taro,  in  northern  Burma ; this  geographical 
isolate  may  possibly  be  a full  species. 

Hystricidae 

Porcupines  from  Tenasserim  have  been  listed 
under  the  name  H.  hodgsoni , the  eastern  Palae- 
arctic  species.  On  geographical  grounds  they 
are  more  likely  to  prove  representative  of  the 
Sundaland  H.  brachyura . Their  name  would 
then  become  H.  brachyura  subcristata  Swinhoe 
1870.  However,  it  is  also  possible  that  H . 
hodgsoni  yunnanensis  Anderson  1878  just  crosses 
the  Burma-Yunnan  border. 

Muridae 

Taxonomy  of  the  genera  Rattus  and  Mus 
has  been  the  subject  of  so  much  recent  revision 
that  the  changes  must  be  interpreted  in  the 
context  of  all  sympatric  forms.  Their  re- 
presentatives are  therefore  listed  in  full  below. 

Rattus  sikkimensis  macmillani  Hinton  1919 

Hkamti,  in  western  Upper  Chindwin. 

R.  sikkimensis  khyensis  Hinton  1919 

Chin  Hills,  Mount  Popa,  Maymyo  and 
Hsipaw;  Marshall  (in  Lekagul  & McNeely 
1977)  uses  the  name  R koratensis  Kloss  1919 
for  this  species,  on  the  grounds  that  the  type 
specimen  is  inadequately  labelled,  but  Hinton’s 
description  was  published  seven  months  before 
that  by  Kloss. 


R.  rattus  (Linnaeus  1758) 

A subspecies  of  R rattus , possibly  R.  r.  diardii 
(Jentinck  1880),  is  found  in  Burmese  cities. 
Rural  Tenasserim  rats  from  the  mainland  and 
islands  may  be  referable  to  another  species, 
R.  tiomanicus  (=R.  jalorensis ).  Karyological 
distinctions  between  these  two  are  clear  in 
the  south  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  (Medway  & 
Lim  1966,  Yong  1969),  but  individual  variants 
seem  to  bridge  these  differences  in  Thailand. 
Even  so,  the  island  subspecies  are  more  closely 
related  to  one  another  than  to  urban  R.  rattus , 
and  even  in  Thailand  the  urban  and  rural 
populations  remain  distinct  with  little  hybridi- 
zation. 

R.  tiomanicus  robustulus  (Blyth  1859) 

Schwe  Gy  in,  north  Tenasserim. 

R.  tiomanicus  tikos  Hinton  1919 

Tenasserim,  and  Malcolm,  King  and  Sullivan 
Islands. 

R.  tiomanicus  dentatus  (Miller  1913) 

Hastings  Island. 

R tiomanicus  insulanus  (Miller  1913) 

Heifer  Island. 

R.  tiomanicus  exsul  (Miller  1913) 

James  Island. 

R.  tiomanicus  for  tuna  tus  (Miller  1913) 

Chance  Island. 

R.  nitidus  obsoletus  Hinton  1919 
Chin  Hills. 

R.  exulans  concolor  (Blyth  1859) 

From  Bhamo  in  central  Burma  to  Tenas- 
serim. 

R.  norvegicus  (Berkenhout  1769) 

In  towns,  commensal  with  man. 

R.  muelleri  validus  (Miller  1900) 

Tenasserim. 


303 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , H?/.  79 


R*  mackenziei  mackeoziei  (Thomas  1916) 

Chin  Hills,  and  probably  central  Burma,  the 
Shan  States  and  north  Tenasserim.  Apparent 
sympatry  with  R . bowersi  in  Thailand  supports 
its  recognition  at  species  level  (Lekagul  & 
McNeely  1977). 

R.  bowersi  bowersi  (Anderson  1879) 

North  Burma. 

R.  bowersi  feae  (Thomas  1916) 

Muleyit. 

R.  mampulus  mampulus  (Thomas  1916) 

Kindat  and  Kabaw  valley  in  the  Chin  Hills* 

R.  berdmorei  berdmorei  (Blyth  1851) 

Mergui  in  Tenasserim. 

R.  berdmorei  mullulus  (Thomas  1916) 

Muleyit. 

R.  coxingi  andersoni  (Thomas  1911) 

North  Burma. 

R.  confucianus  (Milne-Ed  wards  1871) 

R.  bukit  (Bonhote  1903) 

R.  rapit  (Bonhote  1903) 

Various  interbreeding  fulvous  and  greyish 
rat  populations  in  Burma  and  north  Thailand 
have  formerly  been  split  between  the  taxa 
R.  niviventer  and  R.  fulvescens , names  referable 
to  damaged  Nepalese  material.  Chasen  (1940) 
and  Marshall  (in  Lekagul  & McNeely  1977) 
were  forced  to  avoid  the  use  of  these  names  for 
lack  of  evidence  on  the  affinities  of  the  types. 
These  authors  divide  the  relevant  populations 
between  the  three  species  confucianus , bukit  and 
rapit , of  which  at  least  two  and  possibly  three 
are  represented  in  Burma.  For  their  local 
populations  Ellerman  (1961)  used  the  names 
R.  niviventer  niviventer  (Hodgson  1836)  (north 
Burma),  R.  n.  mentosus  Thomas  1916  (Upper 
Chindwin),  and  R.  fulvescens  fulvescens  (Gray 
1847)  (Shan  States  to  Tenasserim).  At  present 
it  is  impossible  to  assign  the  Burmese  popu- 
lations with  certainty  even  between  the  three 


more  recently  recognized  species,  but  it  is 
thought  that  R.  confucianus  may  be  found  in 
north  Burma  and  the  Shan  States,  R.  bukit 
throughout  eastern  Burma  and  Tenasserim. 

R.  brahma  (Thomas  1914) 

Adung  Valley  in  northernmost  Burma.  This 
species  also  lives  in  Assam  and  has  been  distin- 
guished by  Musser  (1970)  as  a full  species. 

R.  eha  nirnis  Thomas  1922 
Adung  Valley  and  Imaw  Bum,  northernmost 
Burma. 

R.  cremoriventer  (Miller  1900) 

The  following  two  (or  three)  subspecies  ar£ 
continental  Asian  members  of  the  cremori- 
venter group  with  large  auditory  bullae.  Musser 
(1973)  treats  these  as  distinct  from  Sundaland 
cremoriventer  under  the  name  R.  langbianis 
with  subspecies  ranging  from  Assam  to  Vietnam, 
A compromise  treatment  would  unite  these 
northern  Asian  members  within  the  wider 
ranging  subspecies,  R.  c.  langbianis  : 

R.  cremoriventer  indosinicus  Osgood  1932 
Kindat,  Chin  Hills. 

R.  cremoriventer  tenaster  (Thomas  1916) 
Muleyit, 

R.  (?)  cremoriventer  blythi  Kloss  1917 
Schwe  Gyin  in  north  Tenasserim.  The 
affinities  of  this  taxon  are  uncertain,  but  this 
may  prove  to  be  a member  of  the  southern 
cremoriventer  group  and  the  other  members 
of  the  northern  langbianis  group, 

R.  surifer  stirifer  (Miller  1900) 

Mainland  Tenasserim.  Medway  (1978)  ill* 
eludes  south  Burma  in  the  range  of  the  sibling 
species  R.  rajah  (Thomas  1894),  but  specimens 
are  only  known  north  to  Trang  in  Peninsular 
Thailand  (Lekagul  & McNeely  1977). 

R.  surifer  luteolus  (Miller  1903) 

St.  Matthew  Island. 


304 


RECENT  CHANGES  TO  BURMESE  MAMMAl  LIST 


ft.  surifer  bentincanus  (Miller  1903) 

Bentinck  Island. 

R.  surifer  umbridorsum  (Miller  1903) 
Loughborough  Island* 

R.  surifer  casensis  (Miller  1903) 

Chance  Island. 

R*  surifer  domelicus  (Miller  1903) 

Domel  Island.  All  the  above  five  island 
populations  are  short -tailed. 

R.  edwardsi  edwards;  (Thomas  1882) 

North  Burma. 

R.  sabanus  vociferans  (Miller  1900) 

Tenasserim  north  to  Mergui  town. 

R.  sabanus  matthaeus  (Miller  1903) 

St.  Matthew  Island. 

R.  sabanus  stridulus  (Miller  1903) 

Bentinck  Island. 

R.  sabanus  lucas  (Miller  1903) 

St.  Luke  Island. 

R.  sabanus  gilbiventer  (Miller  1903) 

Sullivan  Island. 

R.  sabanus  stentor  (Miller  1913) 

James  Island. 

R*  sabanus  insularum  (Miller  1913) 

Domel  Island. 

R*  sabanus  charae  (Miller  1913) 

Clara  Island.  The  above  seven  island  popu- 
lations are  referred  to  sabanus  purely  on  grounds 
of  external  morphology. 

R.  kathleenae  (Thomas  1914) 

Pagan  and  Mount  Popa. 

Mus  musculus  tytleri  Blyth  1859 
Commensal  with  man  in  Maymyo,  Pagan, 
Rangoon  and  other  towns. 

M.  booduga  lepidoides  (Fry  1931) 

Mount  Popa. 


M.  cookii  cookii  Ryley  1914 
Central  and  west  Burma  to  the  Indian  border: 

M.  cervicolor  popaeus  (Thomas  1919) 

Maymyo,  Pegu  and  Chindwin,  Mount  Popa 
and  Bhamo.  By  implication  Marshall  (in 
Lekagul  & McNeely  1977)  regards  all  Burmese 
cervicolor  as  a single  taxon,  and  suppresses 
the  earlier  name  nitidulus  Blyth  1859  of  which 
the  identity  is  dubious.  Ellerman  (1961) 
grouped  cookii  and  popaeus  in  the  Indian 
M.  famulus  Bonhote  1898. 

M.  shortridgei  (Thomas  1914) 

Central  Burma  from  Mandalay  to  Mount 
Popa  and  Pagan. 

M.  pahari  pahari  Thomas  1916 
North  Burma. 

jVL  pahari  jacksoniae  (Thomas  1921) 

Upper  Irrawaddy  drainage. 


Perissodactyla  : Rhinocerotidae 

The  record  of  Rhinoceros  unicornis  Linnaeus 
1766  at  Bumpha  Bum  in  Myitkyina  District 
in  1962  (Yin  1967)  gives  Burma  the  distinction 
of  more  rhinoceros  species  than  any  other 
country. 

Artiodactyla  : Bovidae 

The  most  recent  mammal  species  to  be 
described  from  Burma,  Naemorhedus  cranbrooki 
Hayman  1961*  is  found  in  the  mountains  of 
northernmost  Burma  at  higher  altitudes  than 
the  common  goral. 

Acknowledgements 

I thank  P.  D.  Jenkins,  the  editor  and  an 
anonymous  referee  for  their  comments. 


5 


305 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


References 

Blyth,  E.  (1875) : Catalogue  of  mammals  and  birds  Medway,  Lord  (1978) : The  wild  mammals  of 
of  Burma.  J.  Roy.  Asiast.  Soc.  Bengal  44  (2) : 1-53.  Malaya  (Peninsular  Malaysia)  and  Singapore.  2nd  ed. 

Kuala  Lumpur. 

Chasen,  F.  N.  (1940) : A handlist  of  Malaysian 

mammals.  Bull.  Raffles  Mus.  15:  1-209.  and  Lim,  B.  L.  (1966):  Fauna  of  Pulau 

Tioman  : the  specific  relations  of  Rattus  tiomanicus 
Ellerman,  J.  R.  (1961) : The  Fauna  of  India  inclu-  (Miller).  Bull,  national  Mus.  ( Singapore ),  34  : 33-38. 
ding  Pakistan,  Burma  and  Ceylon.  Mammalia,  2nd. 

ed.  Vol.  III.  Rodentia,  Calcutta.  Mussser,  G.  G.  (1970) : Species-limits  of  Rattus 

brahma , a murid  rodent  of  northeastern  India  and 

and  Morrison-Scott,  T.  C.  R.  (1951):  northern  Burma.  Am.  Mus.  Novit.  2406:  1-27. 

Checklist  of  Palaearctic  and  Indian  mammals.  London. 

(1973) : Species-limits  of  Rattus  cremo - 

Hayman,  R.  W.  (1961) : The  red  goral  of  the  North  riventer  and  Rattus  langbianis.  Am.  Mus.  Novit.  2525  : 
East  Frontier  Region.  Proc.  zool.  Soc.  Lond.  136 : 1-65. 

317-324. 

Wilson,  W.  L.  & Wilson,  C.  C.  (1975)  : Species- 
Jenkins,  P.  D.  (1979)  : Variation  in  Eurasian  shrews  specific  vocalizations  and  the  phylogenetic  affimities  in 
of  the  genus  Crocidura  (Insectivora  : Soricidae).  Bull,  the  Presbytis  aygula-melalophus  group  in  Sumatra.  In  : 
Brit.  Mus.  nat.  Hist.  30  : 269-309.  Contemporary  Primatology  (Eds.  S.  Kondo,  N.  Kawai 

and  A.  Ehara)  : 459-463.  Basel. 

Lekagul,  B.  & McNeely,  J.  A.  (1977) : Mammals  of 

Thailand.  Bangkok.  Yin,  Tun  (1967) : The  wild  animals  of  Burma. 

Rangoon. 

Medway,  Lord  (1977) ; Mammals  of  Borneo. 

Monograph  No.  7,  Malaysian  Br.  roy  Asiat.  Soc.,  Yong,  H.  S.  (1969) : Karyotypes  of  Malayan  rats. 

Kuala  Lumpur.  - Chromosoma,  Berl.  27 : 245-267. 


306 


MATERIAL  TO  THE  FtORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR-3 


P.  V.  Bole  and  M.  R.  Almeida 
[Continued  from  voi.  78(3);  567] 


Droseraceae 
Drosera  Linn. 

1.  Drosera  indica  Linn.  Sp.  PL  282,  1753  ; 
Birdwood,  13  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 469  (499) ; Nairne, 
107. 

Quite  common  carnivorous  plant  among  the 
grasses.  The  whole  plant  is  glandular  hairy 
and  contains  digestive  enzyme,  plantagin  [see 
Phytochemistry , 8 (11)  : 2199,  1969]. 
Common  around  parking  ground  near  Lod- 
wick  point. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : August-November. 
Common  name  : Indian  Sundew  (Birdwood). 

Haloragaceae 
Myriophyllum  Linn. 

1.  Myriophyllum  intermedium  DC.,  Prodr. 
3:69,  1828;  Birdwood,  13  ; Cooke,  T.  1:470 
(500). 

M.  tetrandrum  Graham,  Cat.  Bombay  PL 
76,  1839  (nonRoxb.,  1820);  Dalz.  & Gibs., 
99. 

Haloragis  oligantha  Wight  & Arn.,  Prodr. 
338,  1834  ; Wight,  Icon.  t.  1061  (non  Arn., 
1836). 

Common  and  abundant  hydrophytic  herb 
near  Yenna  Lake.  It  grows  gregariously  in 
moist  grounds.  It  is  also  found  in  waters 
upto  one  meter  depth  but  in  that  case  the  termi- 
nal portions  always  float  on  the  surface  of 
water. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : December-February. 


COMBRETACEAE 


1.  Petals  absent 2 

2.  Calyx  segments  persistent Calycopteris 

2.  Calyx  segments  deciduous Terminalia 

L Petals  4-5 Combretum 


Calycopteris  Lamk. 

1.  Calycopteris  floribunda  Lamk.  Encycl. 
Menth.  Suppl.  2:41,  1811  ; FBI  2:499  ; Lisboa, 
213  ; Cooke,  T.  1:481  (512)  ; Talbot,  2:21,  t. 
300  ; Birdwood,  14  ; Nairne,  113. 

Getonia  floribunda  Roxb.,  Cor.  PL  t.  87, 
1819  ; Graham,  70  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  91. 

Common  climber  in  open  forest  areas  and 
along  road-sides,  especially  along  Fitzgerald 
ghat  and  Mahad  ghat.  It  is  an  attractive 
plant  both  in  young  flowers  and  in  mature 
fruits.  Young  flowers  are  light-green  in  colour 
and  mature  fruits  have  brick-red  wings. 

Flowers  : December-March  ; 

Fruits  : March-May. 

Local  names  : Baguli,  Ukshi. 

Combretum  Linn. 

1.  Combretum  ovalifolium  Roxb.  FI.  Ind.  256, 
1832  ; Birdwood,  14  ; Cooke,  T.  484  (515)  ; 
Nairne,  113. 

This  species  is  included  here  on  authority  of 
Birdwood.  Not  seen  or  collected  from  this 
locality  so  far. 

Local  names  : Madhyel,  Shendri  (Birdwood). 


307 


Journal , Bombay  natural  hist,  society , IW.  79 


Terminalia  Linn. 

i.  Fruits  not  winged 2 

2.  Leaves  alternate,  clustered  at  the  end  of  the 
branches  T.  belli rica 

2.  Leaves  opposite,  not  clustered T.  chebula 

1.  Fruits  5-winged  3 

3.  Veins  of  the  wings  ascending  T.  arjuna 

3.  Veins  of  the  wings  horizontal  T.  crenulata 


1.  Terminalia  arjuna  (Roxb.)  Wight  & Arn. 
Prodr.  314,  1834  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  91  ; Lisboa, 
213;  Cooke,  T.  1:479  (509);  Birdwood,  14; 
Nairne,  112. 

Pentaptera  arjuna  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  2:438, 
1824  ; Graham,  69. 

T.  glabra  Wight  & Arn.  Prodr.  314,  1834. 

A rare  plant  at  Mahabaleshwar  on  banks  of 
Yenna  river.  The  tree  is  very  conspicuous 
because  of  its  white  and  smooth  bark. 

Flowers  : April-May  ; 

Fruits  : May-June. 

Local  names  : Arjun,  Sadhda,  Kahu,  Pinjal. 

2.  Terminalia  bellirica  (Gaertn.)  Roxb.,  Cor. 
PI.  2 : 54,  t.  198,  1819  ; Wight,  111.  t.  91  ; Bird-, 
wood,  13  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 478  (508) ; Talbot, 
2 : 13,  t.  294  ; Nairne,  112. 

Myrobalanus  bellirica  Gaertn.  Fruct.  2 : 90, 
t.  97,  1791. 

We  have  not  seen  this  species  on  the  plateau. 
It  is  included  here  on  authority  of  Birdwood 
only. 

Flowers  : February-May  ; 

Fruits  : May-June. 

Local  names  : Behda,  Hela. 

3.  Terminalia  chebula  Retz.,  Obs.  5 : 31, 
1798  ; Graham,  69  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  91  ; Lisboa 
213  ; Cooke,  T.  647  & 1 : 478  (509)  ; Talbot 
2 : 14,  t.  295  ; Nairne,  112  ; Puri  & Mahajan, 
123  ; Santapau,  399,  1962. 


Following  two  varieties  of  this  species  are 
found  at  Mahabaleshwar  : 

1.  Leaves  glabrous  beneath 

T.  chebula  var.  chebula 

1.  Leaves  densely  coppery  pubescent  beneath 

T.  chebula  var.  foment ella 

var.  chebula 

A common  and  abundant  medium  sized 
tree  all  over  Mahabaleshwar.  It  is  more 
common  on  table  lands  of  Lingmala.  Fruit  is 
used  in  leather  industry  for  tanning  purposes, 
and  it  is  one  of  the  major  item  of  revenue 
of  the  forest  in  this  area. 

Flowers  : April-May ; 

Fruits  : May-June. 

Local  name  : Hirda. 

var.  tomentella  (Kurz.)  C.  B.  Clarke,  in  Brit. 
India,  2 : 446,  1879. 

Terminalia  tomentella  Kurz.,  For.  FI.  Brit. 
Burma,  1 : 455. 

This  is  less  common  variety  at  Lingmala 
found  intermixed  with  type  variety. 

Flowers  : April-May  ; 

Fruits  : May-June. 

4.  Terminalia  crenulata  Roth.,  Nov.  Sp.  380, 
1821  ; Wight  & Arn.,  Prodr,  314,  1834. 

T.  tomentosa  (Roxb.)  Wight  & Arn.  Prodr. 
314,  1834  (non  Mart.,  1841)  ; Birdwood,  14  ; 
Nairne,  112. 

Pentaptera  tomentosa  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  2 : 
440,  1832. 

T.  coriacea  Wight  & Arn.  Prodr.  315,  1834. 
T.  alata  Roth.,  Nov.  Sp.  379,  1821. 

This  species  is  also  included  here  on  authority 
of  Birdwood  only. 

Flowers  : April-May  ; 

Fruits  : May-June. 

Vern.  name  : Ain. 


308 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


Myrtaceae 

1.  Leaves  opposite 2 

2.  Berry  1-few  seeded  ; calyx 

4-lobed Syzigium 

2.  Berry  many  seeded  ; calyx  5- 

lobed  3 

3.  Fruits  fleshy  : trees  with  peeling 

bark  Psidium 

3.  Fruits  not  fleshy ; shrubs, 

without  peeling  bark Myrtus 

1.  Leaves  alternate  4 

4.  Leaves  petiolate Eucalyptus 

4.  Leaves  sessile Callistemon 


Callistemon  R.  Br. 

1.  Callistemon  citrinus  (Curt.)  Stapf,  in  Bot. 
Mag.  150,  t.  9050  ; 1925  : K.  M.  Mathew,  in 
Rec.  Bot.  Surv.  Ind.  20  (1) : 104,  1969. 

Metrocideros  citrina  Curtis,  in  Bot.  Mag.  8 : 
t.  260,  1794. 

C.  lanceolatum  DC.,  Prodr.  3 : 223,  1828  ; 
Bailey,  L.H.,  Man.  Cult.  PI.  725,  1958. 
Cultivated  in  gardens  for  its  drooping  foliage 
and  continuous  blossoms. 

Eucalyptus  L’Herit. 

1.  Eucalyptus  obliquum  L’Herit.,  Sert.  Angl. 
18,  t.  20,  1788  ; Birdwood,  14  ; Mathew,  113. 

Australian  species  introduced  in  forest  areas 
by  forest  department,  on  way  to  Panchgani. 

Several  other  species  and  hybrids  are  also 
cultivated  on  an  experimental  scale  at  the 
forest  nurseries  near  Mahabaleshwar. 

Flowers  : March-May  ; 

Fruits  : May-June. 

Myrtus  Linn. 

1.  Myrtus  communis  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  471,  1753  ; 
FBI  2 ; 462 ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 498  (529), 


Sweet  scented  shrub  of  South  Europe,  culti- 
vated in  gardens.  Very  often  found  along 
forest  margins  as  an  escape. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : Throughout  the  year. 
Local  name  : Vilayati  Mendi. 

Psidium  Linn. 

1.  Psidium  guajava  Linn.,  Sp.  PL  470,  1753  ; 
FBI  2 : 268  ; Lisboa,  214  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 498 
(529)  ; Nairne,  115  ; Talbot,  2 : 30  ; Santapau, 
93. 

P.  pyriferum  Linn.  Sp.  PL  ed  2,  672,  1762  ; 
Graham,  72  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  Suppl.  34. 

P.  pomiferum  Graham,  Cat.  Bombay  PL 
72,  1839  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  34. 

A common  tree  cultivated  for  its  fruits. 
Quite  commonly  it  runs  wild  and  found 
naturalised  along  edges  of  forests. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : Throughout  the  year. 
Local  name  : Peru. 

Syzygium  Gaertner 

1.  Only  cultivated  plants,  grafted  or 

layered S.  jambosa 

1.  Plants  found  growing  wild  from 

seed  germination 2 

2.  Cymes  terminal  or  in  axils  of 

present  leaves  3 

3.  Branches  4-gonous  S.  rubicunda 

3.  Branches  cylindric  or  com- 
pressed  S.  caryophy llatum 

2.  Cymes  in  axils  of  fallen  leaves 4 

4.  Large  forest  trees,  leaves 

more  than  5 cm.  wide  S.  cumini 

4.  Riverside  shrubs  ; leaves  less 

than  3 cm.  wide  S.  salicifolium 

1.  Syzygium  caryophyllatum  (Linn.)  Alston,  in 
Trim.  Handb.  FI.  Ceylone,  6:  116,  1931; 
Santapau,  92. 


309 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Myrtus  caryophyllata  Linn.  Sp.  PL  472,  1753. 

Eugenia  corymbosa  Lamk.,  Encycl.  3 : 199, 
1789  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 491  (522)  ; Talbot, 

2 : 37,  t.  309. 

S.  caryophyllaceum  Wight,  111.  2 : 15,  1850  ; 
FBI  2 : 490  ; Birdwood,  14  ; Nairne,  114. 

S.  aromaticum  (Linn.)  Merrill.  & Perry,  in 
Mem.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  & Sci.  18  : 196, 
1939  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  123. 

Common  small  size  tree  on  sides  of  Yenna 
River. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : March-July. 

Local  names  : Nimbuli,  Ran-lavang. 

2.  Syzygitim  cumini  (Linn.)  Skeels,  in  U.S. 
Dept.  Agric.  Burm.  PI.  248  : 2,  1912  ; Santapau, 
398,  1962  & 302,  1963  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  123. 

Myrtus  cumini  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  471,  1753. 
Eugenia  jambolana  Lamk.  Encycl.  3 : 198, 
1789;  FBI  2:  499;  Wight,  Icon.  t.  535;  Cooke, 

T.  648  & 1 : 492  (523)  ; Lisboa,  213,  Bird- 
wood,  14;  Nairne,  114. 

S.  jambolana  DC.,  Prodr.  3 : 259,  1828  ; 
Graham,  73  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  93. 

Commonest  and  abundant  tree  all  over 
Mahabaleshwar.  Fruits  are  edible  and  used 
for  sharbats  and  jams. 

Flowers  : March- May  ; 

Fruits  : May-June. 
local  name  : Jambhul. 

3.  Syzygium  j a mhos  (Linn.)  Alston,  in  Trimen 
Handb.  FI.  Ceylone,  6 : 15,  1931  ; Santapau, 
93. 

Eugenia  jambos  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  470,  1753  ; FBI 
2 : 474 ; Lisboa,  213;  Cooke,  T.  1 : 495  (526); 
Talbot  2 : 32,  t.  305  ; 

Jambosa  vulgaris  DC.,  Prodr.  3:286,  1828  ; 
Graham,  74  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  Suppl.  35. 

Small  cultivated  tree. 


Flowers  & Fruits  : February-March. 

Local  name  : Gulab  Jamb. 

4.  Syzygium  rubicunda  Wight  & Arn.,  Prodr. 
330,  1834  ; Graham,  74  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  94. 

Eugenia  rubicunda  Wight,  111.  2 : 15,  1850  ; 
Wight,  Icon.  t.  538;  FBI  2:  495;  Nairne,  115. 

Rare  tree  with  small  and  inferior  quality  of 
fruits.  Fruits  are  mostly  eaten  by  animals. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : March- June. 

Local  name  : Lendi  Jambhal. 

5.  Syzygium  salicifolium  Graham,  Cat.  Bombay 
PI.  73, 1 839  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  94.  (non  Wall,  cat.) 

Eugenia  salicifolia  Wight,  111.  2 : 16,  1850  ; 
Wight,  Icon.  t.  539  (non  DC.,  1828). 

E.  heyneana  Duthie,  in  Hook,  f.,  FI.  Brit. 
Ind.  2:  500,  1878;  Birdwood,  14;  Nairne,  115. 

This  species  is  reported  by  Birdwood  from 
Koyna  Valley. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : May-June. 

Lecythidaceae 
Careya  Roxb. 

1.  Careya  arborea  Roxb.  Cor.  PI.  3 : 14,  t.  218, 
1819  ; Graham,  74  ; Wight  111.  tt.  99-100  ; 
Dalz.  & Gibs.  95  ; FBI  2 : 511  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 
497  (528)  ; Birdwood,  14  ; Nairne,  116. 

A common  tree  in  open  forests.  Abundant 
at  Lingmala. 

Flowers  : March- April ; 

Fruits  : April-June. 

Local  name  : Kumbha. 

Melastomataceae 


1.  Seeds  solitary  ; trees  • • Memecylon 

1 . Seeds  many  ; annual  herbs  Sonerila 

Memecylon  Linn. 

1.  Berries  black  when  ripe  M.  umbellata 


1 . Berries  bright  yellow  when  ripe  . . M,  talbQtianum 


310 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


1.  Memecylon  talbotiamim  Brandis,  in  Talbot, 
Trees  of  Bombay,  (ed.  2)  in  Appendix,  after  p. 
iii,  1902  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 504  (536)  ; Talbot  2 : 
54,  t.  320  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  123  ; Santapau,  96. 

Mahabaleshwar  is  cited  as  one  of  the  type 
locality  of  this  species  by  the  author.  Latter 
authors  have  reported  it  from  Mahabaleshwar 
on  the  basis  of  yellow  coloured  fruits.  Rev. 
Fr.  Santapau,  in  the  Flora  of  Khandala,  feels 
that  it  does  not  deserve  even  a varietal  rank. 
After  careful  examination  of  materials  available 
in  Blatter  Herbarium  from  Mahabaleshwar  as 
well  as  from  Khandala,  labelled  as  M.  talbotia - 
num  Brandis,  we  feel  that  true  M.  talbotianum 
Brandis  does  not  occur  at  Mahabaleshwar  and 
Khandala.  Therefore  all  specimens  from 
Mahabaleshwar  identified  as  this  species  belong 
to  M.  umbellatum  Burm.  only.  We  have  also 
seen  and  collected  ripe  fruiting  materials  of  this 
species  from  North  Kanara  regions.  We  have 
observed  that  the  ripe  fruits  of  North  Kanara 
plants  have  shining  golden  yellow  colour  where- 
as yellow  colour  of  Mahabaleshwar  fruits  is 
found  in  sun- tanned  unripe  fruits  only  which 
turn  bluish  black  when  ripe.  In  herbarium 
specimens  we  have  found  that  the  dried  leaves 
of  M.  talbotianum  Brandis  from  N.  Kanara 
remain  yellow  while  leaves  from  materials 
from  Mahabaleshwar  turn  black  on  drying. 

2.  Memecylon  umbellatum  Burm.,  FI.  Ind.  87, 
1768  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 503  (535) ; Puri  & Mahajan, 
123  ; Santapau,  398,  1962  & 300,  1963. 

M.  edule  Roxb.,  PI.  Cor.  1 : 59,  t.  82,  1795  ; 

FBI  2 : 563 ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  93 ; Birdwood,  14; 

Cooke,  T.  646  ; Lisboa,  214  ; Talbot  2 : 53, 

t.  318  ; Nairne,  118. 

M.  tingtorium  Koenig  ex  Wight  & Arn. 

Prodr.  319,  1834;  Wight,  111.  t.  93;  Graham, 

71. 

This  is  one  of  the  commonest  tree  all  over 
Mahabaleshwar. 

Flowering  : January-June. 

Local  name  : Anjan. 


Sonerila  Roxb. 

1.  Sonerila  scapigera  Hook.,  in  Lond.  J.  Bot. 
7 : 672,  t.  23,  1848  ; FBI  2 : 538  ; Dalz.  & Gibs. 
93  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 501  (533) ; Santapau,  400, 
1962  & 301,  1963;  Nairne,  118. 

Small  stemless  annual  monsoon  herb  generally 
found  near  water-falls  on  wet  rocks-face. 
Dorsal  surface  of  leaf  is  green  while  ventral 
surface  is  pinkish-red  or  purple. 

Flowers  : July- August. 


Lythraceae 

1.  Herbs  2 

2.  Flowers  in  axillary  clusters  or 
cymes ; capsule  circumcissile  or 
dehiscing  irregularly  Ammania 

2.  Flowers  solitary  in  the  axil  or 
in  the  terminal  spikes  ; capsule 

4-5  valved Rotala 

1.  shrubs  or  trees 3 

3.  Stamens  numerous Lager stroemia 

3.  Stamens  definite 4 

4.  Stamens  8 Lawsonia 

4.  Stamens  12  Woodfordia 


Ammania  Linn. 

1.  Ammania  baccifera  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  (ed.  2) 
175,  1762  ; FBI  2 : 569  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  97  ; 
Cooke,  T.  1 : 509  (541)  ; Nairne,  120  ; Blatter 
& Hall.  26  : 215  ; Birdwood,  14  ; Puri  & Maha- 
jan, 123  ; Santapau,  300,  1963. 

A.  vesicatoria  Roxb.  ex  Graham,  Cat.  Bom- 
bay PI.  67,  1839. 

A.  salicifolia  Hiern.  in  Oliv.  FI.  Trop.  Africa, 
2 : 278,  1871  (excl.  synonyms,  non  Monti, 
1767)  : FBI  : 269  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  97  ; Cooke, 
T.  1 : 509  (541)  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  123. 

Card  Index,  in  Blatter  Herbarium  records 
one  specimen  of  this  species  from  Mahabalesh- 
war. But  at  present  there  is  no  specimen 
available  in  Blatter  Herbarium. 

Local  names  : Agiya,  Agin  buti. 


311 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


Lagerstroemia  Linn. 


1.  Petal  purple,  more  than  2.5  cm. 

long  ; calyx-tube  ribbed L.  speciosa 

1 . Petal  white,  less  than  1 cm.  long  ; 

calyx-tube  not  ribbed  2 

2.  Leaves  petiolate ; calyx-tube 

without  a ring  L.  lanceolata 

2.  Leaves  sessile  or  sub-sessile ; 
calyx-tube  with  a ring  on  inner 
side  L.  parviflora 


1.  Lagerstroemia  lanceolata  Wall,  ex  Wight 
& Arn.,  Prodr.  309,  1834  (p.  p.)  ; FBI  2 : 576  ; 
Birdwood,  14  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 513  (545). 

L.  microcar  pa  Wight,  Icon.  t.  109,  1840  ; 
Bedd.,  FI.  Sylvat.  t.  30,  1869. 

L.  parviflora  Dalz.  & Gibs.  Bombay  FI.  98, 
1861.  (non  Roxb.,  1795)  ; Nairne,  120. 

A medium  size  tree  with  peeling  bark.  Stem 
and  bark  white.  A rare  tree  at  Mahabaleshwar. 

Flowers  : March-May ; Fruits  : May- 

December. 

Local  name  : Nana. 

2.  Lagerstroemia  parviflora  Roxb.  PI.  Cor.  1 : 
47,  t.  66.  1795  ; Graham,  67  ; Wight,  Icon.  t. 
69,  1840  ; Bed d.,  FI.  Sylv.  t.  31,  1869  ; Lisboa* 
214  ; Birdwood,  14. 

L.  lanceolata  Dalz.  & Gibs.  Bombay  FI.  98, 
1861;  (non  Wall,  ex  Wight  & Arn.,  1834); 
Bedd.,  FI.  sylv.  t.  32  ; 1869  ; Nairne,  121. 
Common  along  the  ghats  on  way  to  Koyna 
Nagar.  This  tree  sometimes  attains  10-12  m. 
height  but  scarcely  reaches  30  cm  in  diameter  at 
the  base. 

Flowers  : May-August ; Fruits  : June- 

December. 

Local  name  : Bonderah. 

3.  Lagerstroemia  speciosa  (Linn.)  Pers.,  Syn. 
2 : 72,  1807  ; 

Munchausia  speciosa  Linn.  Mant.  2 : 243, 
1771. 


L.  flos-reginae  Retz.,  Obs.  Fasc.  5 : 25,  1789  ; 
FBI  2:  577;  Cooke,  T.  1:  513  (546); 
Birdwood,  14;  Nairne,  121. 

L.  reginae  Roxb.,  PL  Cor.  1 : 46,  t.  65,  1795  ; 

K. N.  Gandhi,  FI.  Hassan  Dist.  273,  1976. 
Small  size  tree  commonly  cultivated  in 

gardens. 

Flowers  : March-June  ; Fruits  : April- 

November. 

Local  name  : Taman. 

Lawsonia  Linn. 

1.  Lawsonia  inermis  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  349,  1753  ; 
Cooke,  T.  1 : 511  (544). 

L.  alba  Lamk.  Encycl.  Meth.  Bot.  3 : 106, 
1789;  Graham,  67,  Dalz.  & Gibs.  97;  FBI  2: 
573  ; Nairne,  120. 

Lawsonia  spinosa  Linn.  Sp.  PL  349,  1753 

(p.  p.>. 

Cultivated  shrub  commonly  used  as  a hedge 
plant.  Leaves  are  used  by  local  ladies  for 
decorating  their  hands  with  its  red  dye  especially 
during  marriage  ceremony. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : March-July. 

Local  name  : Mendi. 

Rotala  Linn. 

1.  Rotala  floribunda  (Wight)  Koehne,  in  Bot. 
Jahrb.  1 : 156,  1881  ; Gamble,  FI.  Madras, 
508,  1919  ; Santapau,  400,  1962. 

Ameletia  floribunda  Wight,  111.  206,  1840  ; 
Hook.,  Ic.  PI.  t.  826,  1845;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  96. 
Nimmonia  floribunda  Wight,  in  Madras  J. 
Sci.  6 : 34,  t.  20,  1837  ; Graham,  83. 
Ammania  floribunda  (Wight)  Clarke,  in  FI. 
Brit.  India,  2 : 567,  1897  ; Cooke,  T.  650; 
Birdwood,  14;  Cooke,  T.  1:  506  (539);  Nairne, 
119  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  123. 

Very  common  herb  on  open  rocky  ground  in 
wet  places  and  along  streams.  ‘ Mahabalesh- 
war heather  \ 

Flowers  & Fruits  ; December-January. 


312 


FLORA  OF  MAH ABALESHWAR 


Woodfordia  Salisb. 

1.  Woodfordia  fruticosa  (Linn.)  Kurz.,  in  J. 
Asiat.  Soc.  Bengal,  40  : 56,  1871  ; Santapau,  99, 
Lythrum  fruticosum  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  (ed  2)641, 
1762.  W.  floribunda  Salisb.  Prad.  London 
t.  42,  1806  ; FBI  2 : 572  (Excl.  synonyms) ; 
Nairne,  120;  T.  Cooke,  1:  510  (543);  Talbot 
For.  FI.  2:  58,  t.  322  ; Lisboa,  214  ; Bird- 
wood,  14  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  123. 

Grislea  tomentosa  Roxb.  PL  Cor.  1 : 29,  t. 
31,  1795;  Graham,  67;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  97; 
Bot.  Mag.  t.  1906. 

W.  tomentosa  (Roxb.)  Bedd.,  FI.  Sylv.  117, 
t.  14,  1869. 

Common  shrub  along  roadsides  in  ghats. 
Flowers  & Fruits  : January-June. 

Local  names  : Dhaiti,  Dhauri. 

Punicaceae 
Punica  Linn. 

1.  Punica  granatum  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  472,  1753  ; 
FBI  2 : 581  ; Cooke,  T.  516  (548)  ; Nairne,  121. 

Cultivated  in  gardens  for  flowers  as  an  orna- 
mental plant.  Fruits  are  of  poor  quality  and 
not  eaten  locally. 

Flowering  : July-December. 

Local  names  : Dalimb,  Anar. 

Onagraceae 
Oenothera  Linn. 

1.  Oenothera  rosea  Soland.,  in  Ait.,  Hort. 
Kew,  2 : 3,  1789  ; Birdwood,  14  ; Cooke,  T. 
1 : 518  (552). 

Small  cultivated  herb  grown  in  gardens. 
Plant  is  believed  to  be  the  native  of  Mexico. 

Caricaceae 
Carica  Linn. 

1.  Carica  papaya  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  1036,  1753  ; 
FBI  2 : 599  ; Graham,  80  ; Dalz.  & Gibs. 
Suppl.  37  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 524  (557)  ; Nairne,  125. 


A dioecious  or  monoecious  tree  grown  in 
gardens  for  its  edible  fruits. 

Flowering  : Throughout  the  year. 

Local  name  : Papaya. 


CUCURBITACEAE 

1 .  Petals  fimbriate  Trtchoscinthes 

1.  Petals  not  fimbriate  2 

2.  Ovules  erect  in  the  fruits Dicaelospermum 

2.  Ovules  horizontal  in  fruits  3 

3.  Petal  free  (rarely  connate  at 

the  base  only)  Momordica 

3.  Petals  united  in  companulate 

corolla  4 

4.  Tendrils  2-5  branched  . . 5 

5.  Flowers  fascicled  ....  Diplocyclos 

5.  Flowers  solitary Citrullus 

4.  Tendrils  unbranched  6 

6.  Connectives  prolonged 

beyond  anther  cells Cucumis 

6.  Connectives  not  pro- 
longed beyond  anther 

cells  7 

7.  Flowers  dioecious  . . So  ten  a 

7.  Flowers  monoecious . . 8 

8.  Fruits  globose  . . Zenheria 

8.  Fruits  ellipsoid  . . Melothria 


Citrullus  Schrad.  (Nom.  Cons.) 

1.  Citrullus  colocynthis  (Linn.)  Schrad.,  in 
Linnaea  12  : 414,  1838  ; FBI  2 : 620  ; Cooke, 
T.  1 : 537  (571)  ; Nairne,  128. 

Cucumis  colocynthis  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  1011,  1753. 
Colocynthis  vulgaris  Schradr.  Ind.  Sem.  Goett. 
2, 1833;  Chakravarty,  in  Rec.  Bot.  Surv.  India, 
17  (1)  : 113-4,  1959. 

Rare  prostrate  weed  trailing  on  grounds. 
Flowers  & Fruits  : November-January. 
Local  names  : lndrayan,  Kadu  Kakri, 


313 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Cucumis  Linn. 
1 . Male  flowers  solitary  ; fruits  ellip- 


soid-oblong or  orbicular  C.  callosus 

1 . Male  flowers  fascicled  ; fruits 

oblong  C.  sativa 


1.  Cucumis  callosus  (Rott.)  Cogn.,  in  Engler, 
Das  Pflanzenr.  88  : 129,  1924  ; Santapau,  103. 

Bryonia  callosa  Rottl.,  Neue  Schrift.  Ges.  nat. 
Fr.  Berl.  4 : 210,  1803. 

C.  trigonus  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  2 : 219,  1824  ; 
FBI  2:  619;  Birdwood,  14;  Cooke,  T.  1:  535 
(569);  Wight,  Icon.  t.  497;  Wight,  111.  t.  105; 
Nairne,  127-8. 

Common  weed  prostrate  on  ground  or  some- 
times climbing  on  small  bushy  shrubs.  Fruits 
bitter  in  taste. 

Flowers  : August-October  ; Fruits  : Octo- 
ber-June. 

Vern.  name  : Karit. 

2.  Cucumis  sativus  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  1012,  1753  ; 
FBI  2 : 620  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 536  (570)  ; Nairne, 
128. 

Cultivated  climbing  annual  grown  for  its 
edible  fruits. 

Flowering  : July-September  ; Fruits  : Sept.- 
October. 

Vern.  name  : Kakdi,  Khira. 

Dicoelospermum  Clarke 

1.  Dicoelospermum  ritchiei  Clarke,  in  Hook,  f., 
FI.  Brit.  Ind.  2 : 630,  1879  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 545 
(580)  ; Santapau,  400,  1962. 

A rare  species  found  only  on  plateau. 
Flowers  : June-October  ; Fruits  : August- 
November. 

Diplocyclos  (Endl.)  von  Post  et  Kuntze. 

1.  Diplocyclos  palmatus  (Linn.)  C.  Jeffery,  in 
Kew  Bull.  15  : 352,  1962  ; Santapau  & Janar- 
danan,  Check-list,  PI.  Saurashtra,  25,  1965. 


Bryonia  palmata  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  1012  ; 1753 
(excl.  synonyms). 

B.  laciniosa  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  1013,  1753  (p.p.)  ; 
FBI  2 : 622  ; Nairne,  129. 

Bryonopsis  laciniosa  (Linn.)  Naud.  Ann.  Sc. 
Nat.  Ser.  12  : 141,  1859  (p.p.,  excl.  type)  ; 
Cooke,  T.  1 : 534  (568). 

Quite  common  climber  among  the  bushes 
in  monsoon. 

Flowers  : August-December  ; Fruits  : Sept.- 
December. 

Vern.  names  : Shivlingi,  Popti,  Kandori. 
Momordica  Linn. 


1 . Flowers  monoecious  M.  charantia 

1 . Flowers  dioecious  M.  dioica 


1.  Momordica  charantia  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  1009, 
1753  ; FBI  2 : 616  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 530  (562)  ; 
Nairne,  127 ; Chakravarty,  Rec.  Bot.  Surv. 
Ind.  17  (1)  : 88-9,  1959. 

Cultivated  climber  grown  for  its  fruits  during 
monsoon. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : July-October. 

Vern.  names  : Karela,  Kareli. 

2.  Momordica  dioica  Roxb.  ex  Willd.,  Sp.  PL, 
4 : 605,  1805  ; FBI  2 : 617  ; Wight,  Icon.  tt. 
505-6  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 529  (563) ; Nairne,  127  ; 
Santapau,  294,  1963. 

Rare  climber  among  the  bushes. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : July-November. 

Vern.  name  : Kartoli. 

Solena  Lour. 

1.  Solena  heterophylla  Lour.,  FI.  Cochinchin. 
1 : 514,  1790  ; Santapau,  104-5,  1967. 

Melothria  heterophylla  (Lour.)  Cogn.,  in 
DC.,  Monog.  Phan.  3:  618,  1881;  Cooke,  T. 
1:  540  (574);  Puri  & Mahajan,  124;  Santapau, 
293,  1963, 


314 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


Bryonia  umbellata  Klein.,  Willd.  Sp.  PI.  4 : 
618,  1805;  Graham,  78;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  101. 
Zehneria  umbellata  Thwaites,  Enum.  PI. 
Zeyl.  125,  1858;  FBI  2:  625;  Lisboa,  214  ; 
Birdwood,  14  ; Cooke,  T.  650  ; Nairne,  129. 
Rare  climber  among  the  bushes. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : June-January. 

Vern.  name  : Gomati. 

Trichosanthes  Linn. 

1.  Trichosanthes  tricuspidata  Lour.,  FI.  Cochin* 
chin.  589,  1790  ; Jeffery,  in  Kew  Bull.  15  : 366, 
1962. 

T.  brachteata - (Lamk.)  Voight,  Cat.  Hort. 
Sub.  Calcat.  58,  1845  ; Santapau,  294,  1963. 
Modecca  brae  teat  a Lamk.,  Encycl.  4 : 210, 
1797. 

T.  palmata  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  3 : 704,  1832  ; FBI 
2:  606;  Graham,  79;  Wight,  111.  tt.  104-5  ; 
Dalz.  & Gibs.  103;  Cooke,  T.  650  & 1:  527 
(560)  ; Lisboa,  214  ; Birdwood,  14  ; Nairne, 
126  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  123. 

Quite  common  climber  in  evergreen  forests. 
Bright-red  ripe  fruits  are  used  for  decorations 
at  the  time  of  Ganesh-chaturthi  festival. 
Flowers  & Fruits  : May-August. 

Local  name  : Kaundal,  Mukal. 

Zehneria  Endl. 

1.  Zehneria  perpusilla  (Blume)  comb.  nov. 
Cucurbita perpusilla  Blume,  Cat  Hort.  Buitenz. 
105,  1823. 

Bryonia  perpusilla  Blume,  Bijdr.  926,  1825. 
B.  mysorensis  Wight  & Arn.,  Prodr.  345, 1834 ; 
Wight,  Icon.  t.  758  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  101  (non 
Walp.  1842). 

Z.  mysorensis  (W.  & A.)  Arn.,  in  Hooker’s 
J.  Bot.  3 : 275, 1841 ; Jeffery,  in  Kew  Bull.  15  : 
366,  1962. 

Melothria  perpusilla  (Bl.)  Cogn.,  in  DC. 
Prodr.  3 : 607?  1881  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 540  (574)  ; 


Chakravarty,  in  Rec.  Bull.  Bot.  Surv.  Ind. 
17  (1)  : 146-8,  1959  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  123  ; 
Santapau,  293,  1963. 

Z.  bauriana  Clarke,  in  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  2 : 624s 
1879  (non  Endl.  1833) ; Birdwood,  14 ; 
Cooke,  T.  650  ; 1885  ; Nairne,  129. 

A common  climber  among  the  bushes. 
Flowers  : June-Nov.  ; Fruits  : July-Nov. 


Begoniaceae 
Begonia  Linn. 

1.  Plants  with  subterranian  tuber B.  prixophylla 

1 . Plants  without  tuber  2 

2.  Fruits  winged  B.  crenata 

2.  Fruits  not  winged  B.  malabarica 


1.  Begonia  crenata  Dry  and,  in  Trans.  Linn. 
Soc.  London,  1 : 164,  t.  14,  1791  ; FBI  2 : 651  ; 
Graham,  172  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  104  ; Birdwood, 
14  ; Nairne,  131  ; Cooke,  T.  650  & 1 : 549 
(584)  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  124  ; Santapau,  400, 
1963  & 290,  1963. 

Common  and  abundant  succulent  herb  all 
over  in  partially  shaded  places,  in  various 
situations,  in  monsoon. 

Flowers  : July-September  ; Fruits  : Sept.- 
October. 

Vern.  names  : Berki,  Motiyen. 

2.  Begonia  malabarica  Lamk.,  Encycl.  1 : 393, 
1785  ; Birdwood,  14. 

This  species  included  here  on  authority  of 
Birdwood.  No  specimens  available. 

3.  Begonia  prixophylla  Blatter  & McCann,  in 
J.  Ind.  Bot.  Soc.  10  (1)  : 27-8,  1931. 

Rare  species  endemic  to  Mahabaleshwar  only. 
Found  on  the  precipitous  edges  of  Fitzgerald 
Ghat,  on  loose  laterite  soil.  Collection  can  be 
very  dangerous. 

Flowers  : August. 


315 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


Molluginaceae 
Glinus  Linn. 

1.  Glinus  lotoides  Linn.,  Sp.  PL  463,  1753  ; 
Graham,  83  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  16  & 311. 

Mollugo  lotoides  O.  Kuntze,  Rev.  Gen.  PI. 
264,  1891. 

M.  hirta  Thunb.,  Prodr.  FI.  Cap.  24,  1794  ; 
FBI  2 : 662  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 557  (593)  ; Nairne, 
133  ; Birdwood,  15  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  124. 
Prostrate  weed  in  rice-fields  and  in  waste- 
lands. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : February-April. 


Local  name  : Kothak. 

Apiaceae 

1 .  Umbels  simple 2 

2.  Flowers  reddish-pink Centella 

2.  Flowers  white Hydrocotyle 

1.  Umbels  compound 3 

3.  Fruits  winged  on  margins 4 

4.  Fruits  compressed  ; Leaves  pinnate  or 

bipinnate  5 

5.  Petal  not  radiant ; wings  of 

fruits  with  thin  margins  . . Peucedanum 

5.  Petals  radiant ; wings  of  fruits 

rhickened  at  margins  Heracleum 

4.  Fruits  not  compressed  ; leaves 

tripinnate  Anethum 

3.  Fruits  not  winged  on  margins  6 

6.  Calyx  teeth  distinct  Coriandrum 

6.  Calyx  teeth  not  distinct Pimpinella 


Anethum  Linn. 

1.  Anethum  graveolens  Linn.,  Sp.  PL  263, 1753  ; 
Santapau  & Janard.  Check-list  FI.  Saurashtra, 
25. 

Peucedanum  graveolens  (Linn.)  Hiern.,  in 
Oliver,  FI.  Trop.  Africa,  3 : 19,  1871  ; FBI  2 ; 
709  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 570  (606)  ; Nairne,  134. 
A.  sowa  DC.,  Prodr.  4:  186,  1830. 
Cultivated  some  places  for  vegetables. 
Flowers  : December-February  ; Fruits  : 

January-March. 

Local  names  : Shepu,  Sowa. 


Centella  Linn. 

1.  Centella  asiatica  (Linn.)  Urban,  in  ManL 
FI.  Brasil.  11  : 287,  1879  ; Santapau,  309,  1963  ; 
Puri  & Mahajan,  124. 

Hydrocotyle  asiatica  Linn.,  Sp.  PL  234,  1753  ; 
FBI  2 : 669  ; Wight,  Icon.  t.  565  ; Cooke,  T. 
650  & 1 : 562  (598)  ; Lisboa,  214  ; Birdwood, 
15  ; Nairne,  135. 

Common  creeping  herb  on  moist  grounds 
and  on  sides  of  rice  -fields. 

Flowers  : Throughout  the  year. 

Local  names  : Kariuna,  Bhamni,  Brahmi, 

Coriandrum  Linn. 

1.  Coriandrum  sativum  Linn.,  Sp.  PL  258, 1753  ; 
FBI  2 : 717  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 573  (609)  ; Nairne, 
134. 

Cultivated.  Whole  plant  as  well  as  seeds 
are  used  as  condiment. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : Throughout  the  year. 
Local  names  ; Kothmir,  Dhana. 

Heracleum  Linn. 


1.  Bracteoles  5 ; commissure 

6-vittate  H.  concanense 

l . Bracteoles  3 ; commissure 

2-vittate  H.  pinda 


1.  Heracleum  concanense  Dalz.,  in  Hook.  J. 
Bot.  2 : 26,  1850  ; FBI  2 : 716  ; Dalz.  & Gibs. 
107  ; Birdwood,  15  ; Cooke,  T.  650  & 1 : 571 
(608)  ; Nairne,  136  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  124  ; 
Santapau,  400, 1962  & 310,  1963. 

H.  grandiflorum  Dalz.,  Bombay  FI.  108,  1861. 

Quite  common  herb  among  the  grasses  at 
Wilson  Point  and  Lingmala. 

Flowers  : August-Sept.  ; Fruits  : Sept.-Oct. 

2.  Heracleum  pinda  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay  FJ, 
107,  1861  ; Nairne,  136, 


316 


FLORA  of  mahabaleshwar 


This  species  reported  from  Mahabaleshwar 
by  Nairne.  Nairne  mentions  Dr.  T.  Cooke’s 
authority  for  this  record,  but  Cooke,  in  FI. 
Presidency  of  Bombay,  includes  it  on  authority 
of  Dalzell  & Gibson. 

Flowers  : July-August. 

Local  name  : Pinda. 

Hydrocotyle  Linn. 

1.  Hydrocotyle  sibthorpioides  Lamk.,  Encycl. 
3 : 153,  1789  ; K.  N.  Gandhi,  in  FI.  Hassan 
Dist.  417,  1976. 

H.  rotundifolia  Roxb.  ex  DC.,  Prodr.  4 : 64, 
1830  ; Wight,  Icon.  t.  564  ; Birdwood,  15. 

This  species  included  here  on  authority  of 
Birdwood. 

Flowers  : March. 

Peucedanum  Linn. 

1.  Peucedanum  grande  (Dalz.  & Gibs.)  Clarke, 
in  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  2 : 710,  1879  ; Birdwood,  15  ; 
Cooke,  T.  1 : 569  (605)  ; Nairne,  135  ; Santapau, 
310,  1963. 

Pastinaca  grandis  Dalz.  & Gibs.  Bombay  FI. 
107,  1861. 

Common  succulent  herb  during  monsoon  on 
faces  of  rocks.  Occasionally  found  among  the 
grasses  also.  Often  used  as  condiment. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : July-September. 

Local  name  : Baphali. 

Pimpinella  Linn. 


1.  Flowers  hermophrodite 2 

2.  Bracts  absent P.  to  merit osa 

2.  Bracts  3-7  P.  adscendens 

1.  Flowers  monoecious  P.  wallichiana 


1.  Pimpinella  adscendens  Dalz.,  in  Hook.  J. 
Bot.  2 : 261,  1850  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  106  ; FBI  2 : 
689  : Nairne,  135  : Cooke,  T.  1 : 567  (603) ; 
Santapau,  110,  1967. 


Ascending  annual  herb  with  radical  leaves. 
Quite  common  in  open  grasslands. 

Flowers  : November-May. 

2.  Pimpinella  tomentosa  Dalz.  ex  Clarke,  in 
Hook.  f.  FI.  Brit.  India,  2 : 689, 1789  ; Woodrow, 
in  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  11  : 643,  1898  ; 
Cooke,  T.  1 : 566  (602) ; Birdwood,  15  : Puri  & 
Mahajan,  124. 

A rare  herb  along  road-sides  in  ghat  areas. 
Flowers  & Fruits  : October-November. 

3.  Pimpinella  wallichiana  (Miq.)  K.  N.  Gandhi, 
in  FI.  Hassan  Dist.  417,  1976. 

Helosciadium  wallichianum  Miq.,  Bot.  Zeit 
7 : 775,  1849. 

P.  monoica  Dalz.,  in  Kew  J.  Bot.  3 : 212, 
1851  ; FBI  2 : 687  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  106  ; 
Nairne,  135  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 566  (603)  ; 
Birdwood,  15  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  124 ; 
Santapau,  401  ; 1962  & 310,  1963. 

A rare  herb  along  road-sides  and  along 
borders  of  forests.  Common  on  Bombay  point. 
Flowers  : August-January. 

Local  name  : Bhalga. 

Rubiaceae 


1.  Trees  or  shrubs  2 

2.  Ovules  more  than  2,  usually 

many  in  each  cell  3 

3.  Flowers  in  globose  heads  . . 4 

4.  Corolla  lobes  imbricate  ; 

flowers  ebracteolate Anthocephalus 

4.  Corolla  lobes  valvate  ; 

flowers  bracteolate 3 

5.  Peduncles  axillary,  1-3 
together  ; calyx  lobed  ; 

stigma  clavate  ; capsule  cuneate, 

not  ribbed Adina 

5.  Peduncles  terminal, 

solitary  ; calyx  truncate, 
not  lobed  ; stigma  mitri- 
form ; capsule  oblong, 
faintly  10-ribbed  Mitragyna 


317 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL,  HIST.  SOCIETY , 79 


3.  Flowers  not  in  globose 

heads  6 

6.  Fruit  a capsule  7 

7.  Corolla  imbricate  or 
contorted  ; seeds  not 
winged  IVendlandia 

7.  Corolla  valvate  ; seeds 

winged 8 

8.  Panicles  with  foliaceous 
bracts ; corolla  lobes 


glabrous Hymenodictyon 

8.  Panicles  without 
foliaceous  bracts ; 
corolla  lobes  pilose 

on  the  margins  ....  Cinchona 

6.  Fruit  a berry  or  drupe  . . 9 

9.  Flowers  axillary, 

solitary  Xeromphis 

9.  Flowers  axillary  or 
terminal 

corymbose  cymes  ....  Ratldia 

2.  Ovules  one  in  each  cell  10 

10.  Corolla  lobes  contorted  11 

11.  Calyculus  present  ..  Coffea 

1 1 .  Calyculus  absent  ..  12 

12.  Stipules  inter- 

petiolar  Ixora 

12.  Stipules  intra- 

petiolar  Pavetta 

10.  Corolla  lobes  valvate  ..  13 

13.  Ovary  2-celled  ....  14 

14.  Inflorescence 

axillary Canthium 

14.  Inflorescence 

terminal  Psychotria 

13.  Ovary  more  than  2- 

celled  15 

15.  Fruit  a capsule. . Spetmadyctyon 

15.  Fruit  a drupe  . . 16 

16.  Plants  armed  Meyna 

16.  Plants  un- 
armed ....  Lesianthus 

1 . Herbs  or  undershrubs  17 

17.  Climbing  herbs  ; stipules 

leafy Rubia 


17.  Non-climbing  plants  ; 

stipules  not  leafy  18 

18.  Seeds  angular,  Globose 

or  ellipsoid  Oldenlandia 

18.  Seeds  boat-shaped  or 

plano-convex  Neanotis 

Adina  Salisb. 

1.  Adina  cordifolia  (Roxb.)  Renth.  & Hooke,  f. 
ex  Brandis,  Forest  FI.  263,  t.  33, 1874  ; Birdwood 
15  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 581  (2  : 7)  ; Nairne,  142. 
Nauclea  cordifolia  Roxb.,  PI.  Cor.  1 : 40,  t. 
53,  1796. 

This  species  given  here  on  authority  of 
Birdwood  only. 

Local  names  : Haldu,  Hed. 

Anthocephalus  A.  Rich. 

1.  Anthocephalus  cadamba  (Roxb.)  Miq.,  FI. 
Ind.  Bat.  2 : 135,  1856  ; FBI  3 : 23,  1880  ; 

Lisboa,  215  ; Birdwood,  15  ; Nairne,  141  ; 
Blatter  & McCann,  36  (4)  : 781,  1933. 

Nauclea  cadamba  Roxb.  FI.  Ind.  1 : 512, 
1820  ; Bedd.,  FI.  Sylv.  35  ; Graham,  87  ; 
Dalz.  & Gibs,  suppl.  43. 

A.  indicus  A Rich.,  in  Mem.  Soc.  Hist.  Nat. 
Paris  5 : 238,  1834  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 579  (2  : 6). 
This  tree  is  only  found  near  Wada,  below 
Mahabaleshwar.  It  is  not  reported  from  Maha- 
baleshwar  Plateau. 

Flowers  : September-FebrUary. 

Local  names  : Nhiv,  Kadamb,  Kalam. 

Canthium  Lamk. 

1 * Unarmed  trees C.  dicoccum  var. 

umbellatum 

1.  Spinous  shrubs  C.  angustifolium 

1.  Canthium  angustifolium  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  2 
169,  1824  ; Birdwood,  15,  FBI  3 : 135,  1880  ; 
Nairne,  145. 

Dondisia  leshenaulti  DC.,  Prodr.  4 : 469,  1830. 


318 


FLORA  OF  MAtiABALESHWAk 


C.  ieshenaulti  (DC.)  Wight  & Arn.,  Prodr. 
426,  1834  ; Wight,  Icon.  t.  826  ; Blatter  & 
McCann,  36  : 790. 

Plectronia  rheedei  Bedd.,  For.  Man.  in  FI. 
Sylvat.  134,  1874  ; Cooke,  t.  1 : 606  (2  : 35-6). 

C.  rheedei  DC.,  Prodr.  4 : 474,  1830  ; FBI  3 : 
134  ; Graham,  91  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  113. 

This  species  is  included  here  on  authority  of 
Birdwood. 

Local  name  : Chap  Yel. 

2.  Canthium  dicoccum  (Gaertn.)  Teys.  & Binn. 
var.  umhellatum  (Gamble)  Sant.  & Merchant, 
Bull.  Bot.  Surv.  Ind.  3 : 107,  1962  ; Santapau, 
117. 

C.  umbellatum  Wight,  Icon.  t.  1034,  1845 
(non  Korth,  1851)  Nairne,  145  ; FBI  3 : 132. 

C.  didymum  auct.  (non  Gaertn.,  1807) ; 
Beddome,  FI.  Sylvat.  t.  221,  1872  ; Graham, 
91  ; Birdwood,  16  ; Blatter  & McCann,  36  : 
790. 

Plectronia  didyma  (Gaertn.)  Kurz.,  var. 
umbellata  (Wight)  Gamble,  FI.  Madras,  624, 
1921. 

C.  dicoccum  auct.  (non  Gaertn.)  Teys  & 
Binn.  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  Bull.  Bot.  Surv.  Ind. 
2 : 124,  1960  ; Santapau,  399,  1962  & 306, 
1963. 

P.  wightii  T.  Cooke,  FI.  Presd.  Bombay, 
1 : 606,  1903. 

Handsome  unarmed  evergreen  tree.  Very 
common  in  forest  areas. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : February-May. 

Local  names  : Tupa,  Arsul. 

Cinchona  Linn. 

1.  Cinchona  succirubra  Pav.,  ex  Klotzsch, 
in  Abh.  Acad.  Berl.  1957  : 60,  1958. 

This  species  was  cultivated  at  Mahabaleshwar 
for  its  bark,  but  the  project  did  not  succeed. 


Besides  this  species  Cinchona  cordifolia  Mutis 
and  Cinchona  condaminia  Humbolt.  & Bonapl. 
have  been  reported  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Lisboa  (p.  215), 
to  have  been  planted  at  Lingmala  and  Carvalho’s 
Garden,  which  were  having  stunted  growth. 
Now  these  species  are  not  found  at  Mahabalesh- 
war. 

Coffea  Linn. 

1.  Coffea  arabica  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  172,  1753  ; 
Birdwood,  15  ; Nairne,  148  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 
626  (2  : 55). 

Few  plants  are  cultivated  between  Maha- 
baleshwar and  Panchgani,  in  gardens. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : January-April. 

Local  name  : Coffee. 

Hymenodictyon  Wall.  (nom.  cons.) 

1.  Hymenodictyon  excelsum  (Roxb.)  Wall., 
in  Roxb.  FI.  Ind.  2 : 149,  1824  ; Birdwood,  15. 

Cinchona  excelsa  Roxb.,  PL  Cor.  2 : t.  106, 
1798. 

This  species  included  here  on  authority  of 
Birdwood  only. 

Ixora  Linn. 

1.  Trees I.  arborea 

1.  Shrubs  I.  nigricans 

1.  Ixora  arborea  Roxb.  ex  J.  E.  Smith,  in 
Rees,  Cyclop.  19  : 5,  1811  ; Santapau,  119. 

/.  parviflora  Vahl,  Symb.  3 : 11,  t.  52,  1794 
(non  Lamk.  1791);  Wight,  Icon.  t.  711,  1843  ; 
Cooke,  T.  1 : 611  (2  : 39) ; FBI  3 : 142  ; Mar- 
kham, 386,  1880. 

This  species  included  here  on  authority  of 
Markham. 

2.  Ixora  nigricans  R.  Br.  ex  Wight  & Arn., 
Prodr.  428,  1824  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  113  ; Wight, 


319 


journal,  bombay natural  hist,  society,  Vol  79 


Icon.  t.  318,  1840  ; Nairne,  146  ; Cooke,  T. 
1 : 609  (2  : 38) ; Puri  & Mahajan,  124. 

I.  affinis  Wall,  ex  Blatter  & McCann,  in 

J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  36  : 791. 

A rare  shrub  in  forest  area. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : May-December. 

Lasianthus  Jack.  (nom.  cons.) 

1.  Lasianthus  venulosus  (Wight  & Arn.)  Wight* 
in  Calcutta  J.  nat.  Hist.  6 : 508,  1845  ; Wight, 
Icon.  t.  1032,  1845  ; Beddome,  FI.  Sylvat. 
134,  t.  17,  f.  5, 1869. 

Santia  venulosa  Wight  & Arn.,  Prodr.  422, 
1834;  Markham,  386;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  114. 

This  species  reported  here  on  authority  of 
Markham  (1880). 

Mitrgyna  Korthals  (Nom-Cons.) 

1.  Mitrgyna  parvifolia  (Roxb.)  Kort.,  Obs. 
Naucl.  Ind.  19,  1839  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 581  (2:8); 
Blatter  & McCann,  36  : 782,  1933. 

Nauclea  parvifolia  Roxb.,  PI.  Cor.  1 : 40, 
t.  52,  1795  ; Graham,  87. 

N.  parviflora  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay  FI. 
118,  1861. 

Stephegyne  parvifolia  Korth.,  Verh.  nat.  Ges. 
Bot.  161,  1840  ; FBI  3 : 25  ; Talbot  2 : 86-7, 
t.  335  ; Birdwood,  15  ; Nairne,  142. 

This  species  is  reported  here  on  authority  of 
Birdwood. 

Vern.  names  : Kalam,  Niv. 

Meyna  Roxb. 

1.  Meyna  laxiflora  Robyns,  Bull.  Jard.  Bot. 
Etat.  Bruxells  11  : 228,  1928  ; Santapau,  118. 

Vangueria  spinosa  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  2 : 172, 
1824  ; Graham,  90  ; FBI  3 : 136  ; Nairne,  145  ; 
Cooke,  T.  1 : 607  (2  : 36)  ; Birdwood,  16  ; 
(omnes  p.p.)  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  124. 


Rare  small  size  tree  along  forest  margins. 
Fruits  which  turn  brownish-black  after  ripening 
are  eaten  by  local  people. 

Flowers  : December-May  ; Fruits  : Decern* 
ber-July. 

Local  names  : Alu,  Halu. 


Neanotis  Lewis 

1.  Cymes  corymbose  2 

2.  Capsule  globose N.  rheedii 

2.  Capsule  broader  than  long,  not 

globose  3 

3.  Calyx  teeth  large,  deflexed 

in  fruits  ; fruits  6-seeded N.  lancifolia 

3.  Calyx  teeth  small ; fruits  20-40 

seeded  N.  calycina 

1.  Cymes  clustered  N.  foetida 


1.  Neanotis  calycina  (Wall,  ex  Hook,  f.)  W.H. 
Lewis,  Annales  Missouri  Bot.  Gard.  53  : 37, 
1966. 

Anotis  calycina  Wall,  ex  Hook,  f.,  in  FI. 
Brit.  India,  3 : 73,  1880. 

Common  and  abundant  herb  among  the 
grasses  and  on  embankments.  Very  common 
at  Wilson  point,  Kate’s  point,  Tiger  path* 
Fitzgerald  ghat,  near  Yenna  lake  and  bus  stand. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : August-November. 

2.  Neanotis  foetida  (Dalz.)  W.H.  Lewis,  Ann. 
Miss.  Bot.  Gard.  53  : 38,  1966. 

Hedy otis  foetida  Dalzell,  Hook.  J.  Bot.  Kew, 
Gard.  Misc.  2 : 134,  1850  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  116. 

Anotis  foetida  (Dalz.)  Hook,  f.,  in  FI.  Brit. 
Ind.  3 : 74,  1880  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 595  (2  : 22) ; 
Blatter  & McCann,  36  : 786. 

Common  herb  on  grassy  exposed  grounds 
and  on  laterite  flats  at  Wilson  point  and  Kate’s 
point. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : August-November. 


320 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


3.  Neanotis  lancifolia  (Hook,  f.)  W.  H.  Lewis, 
in  Ann.  Miss.  Bot.  Gard.  53  : 39,  1966. 

Hedy otis  lancifolia  Dalz.,  in  Hook.  J.  Bot. 
Kew.  Gard.  Misc.  2 : 135,  1850  (non  Schum., 
1827). 

Anotis  lancifolia  Bentham  & Hooker,  in  Gen. 
PI.  2 : 59,  1873  ; FBI  3 : 73  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 
593  (2  : 20)  ; Blatter  & McCann,  36  : 786. 
Very  common  and  abundant  herb  on  walls 
and  embankments.  Less  common  in  forest 
areas.  Found  at  Chinaman’s  falls,  Wilson 
point,  Lingmala,  Petit  Road,  Fitzgerald  ghat, 
Arther’s  seat,  sides  of  Yenna  lake  etc. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : August-December. 

4.  Neanotis  rheedei  (Wt.  & Arn.)  W.  H.  Lewis, 
Ann.  Miss.  Bot.  Gard.  53  : 40,  1966. 

Hedy  otis  rheedei  Wight  & Arn.,  Prodr.  409, 
1834. 

H.  latifolia  Dalz.,  in  Hook.  J.  Bot.  Kew 
Misc.  2 : 133, 1850  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  116. 

Anotis  rheedei  Benth.  & Hook,  f.,  in  Gen. 
PI.  2 : 59,  1873  ; FBI  3 : 73  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 
593  (2  : 21)  ; Blatter  & McCann,  36  : 786. 
This  species  is  collected  from  Wada,  below 
Mahabaleshwar  plateau.  There  is  no  reliable 
specimen  from  the  hill  proper. 

Oldenlandia  Linn. 

1.  Calyx  lobes  pubescent,  with  inter- 
mediate teeth  between  calyx  lobes . . O.  maheshwarii 
1.  Calyx  lobes  glabrous,  without 

intermediate  teeth  2 

2.  Top  of  capsule  flat,  not  pro- 
truding.   O.  corymbosa 

2.  Top  of  capsule  rounded,  pro- 
truding  O.herbacea 

1.  Oldenlandia  corymbosa  Linn.,  Sp.  PL  119, 
1753  ; FBI  3 : 64  ; Nairne,  143  ; Cooke,  T. 
650  & 1 : 588  (2  : 15)  ; Blatter  & McCann, 
36  : 784  ; Birdwood,  15  ; Puri  & Mahajan, 
124. 


Hedy  otis  burmanniana  Br.,  in  Graham,  Cat. 
Bombay  PI.  90,  1839  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.,  116. 
A common  weed  in  rice-fields  and  in  wet 
places. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : July-November. 

Local  name  : Pitpapda. 

2.  Oldenlandia  herbacea  (Linn.)  Roxb.,  FI. 
Ind.  1 : 424,  1820  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 589  (2  : 16) ; 
Blatter  & McCann,  36  : 784. 

Hedyotis  herbacea  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  102,  1753. 

H.  heynii  R.  Br.,  in  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay 
FI.  116,  1861. 

O.  heynii  G.  Don,  Gen.  Syst.  3 : 531,  1834  ; 
Graham,  90  ; FBI  3 : 65  ; Nairne,  143. 

Common  erect  herb  among  the  grasses. 
It  is  found  abundantly  in  drying  rice-fields 
after  the  harvests. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : August-No vember. 
Local  name  : Paripath. 

3.  Oldenlandia  maheshwarii  Santapau  & Mer- 
chant, in  J.  Ind.  Bot.  Soc.  42 A : 213-5,  ff.  1-6, 
1964;  Santapau,  115-6. 

Quite  common  herb  among  the  grasses. 
Flowers  & Fruits  : September-November. 

Pavetta  Linn. 

1.  Leaves  tornentose  beneath. .......  P.  tomentosa 

1.  Leaves  glabrous  P.  crassicciulis 

1.  Pavetta  crassicaulis  Bremek.,  Fedde,  Repert 
37  : 112,  1934  & 47  : 25,  1939  ; Ker  & Pani- 
grahi,  Bull.  Bot.  Surv.  Ind.  5 : 234,  1963  ; 
Santapau,  120. 

P.  indica  auct.  plur.  (non  Linn.,  1753) ; 
Graham,  Ct.  Bombay  PI.  92,  1839  ; Dalz.  & 
Gibs.  112  ; Cooke,  T.  649  & 1 : 612  (2  : 41)  ; 
FBI  3 : 150  ; Lisboa,  215  ; Nairne,  146  ; 
Santapau,  399,  1962  & 306,  1963  ; Puri  & 
Mahajan,  124. 


6 


321 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  19 


P.  indica  Linn.  var.  glabra  Blatter  & Hallberg, 
in  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  36  : 792,  1933. 

Common  and  abundant  plant  on  sloping 
grounds.  Very  common  at  Lingmala,  China- 
man’s Falls,  Wilson  point,  Fitzgerald  ghat, 
Petit  Road,  Yenna  lake  banks  and  on  way  to 
Wada. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : Throughout  the  year* 
Local  names  : Papat,  Papti. 

2.  Pavetta  tomentosa  Roxb.,  ex  Rees,  Cyclop. 
26  : 2,  1819  ; Wight  & Arn.,  Prodr.  431,  1832  ; 
Santapau,  120. 

P.  brunonis  Wight,  Icon.  t.  1065,  1845  ; 
Dalz.  & Gibs.  112. 

Ixora  tomentosa  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  1 : 386, 
1832  ; Wight,  Icon.  t.  186. 

P.  indica  Linn.  var.  tomentosa  Hook,  f.,  in 
FI.  Brit.  Ind.  3 : 150,  1880  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 613 
(2  : 41)  ; Blatter  & McCann,  36  : 792. 

P.  hispidula  sensu  Birdwood,  16,  1897  (non 
Wight  & Arn.,  1834). 

Common  all  over  Mahabaleshwar,  especially 
along  the  edges  of  the  forests  at  Lingmala 
and  Chinaman’s  falls. 

Flowers  : March-June  ; Fruits  : June- 

December. 

Psychotria  Linn.  (nom.  cons.) 

1.  Psychotria  tnmcata  Wall.,  in  Roxb.  FI. 
Ind.  (Carey  ed.)  2 : 162,  1824  ; Nairne,  148  ; 
Cooke,  T.  649  & 1 : 616  (2  : 44)  ; Birdwood, 
16  ; Santapau,  399,  1962  & 306,  1963  ; Puri  & 
Mahajan,  124. 

Grumilea  congesta  Graham,  Cat.  Bombay  PI. 
92,  1839  (non  Wight  & Arn.,  1834). 

G.  vaginans  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay  FI.  Ill, 
1861. 

P.  vaginan  Wight  & Arn.,  Prodr.  434,  1834  ; 
Lisboa,  215. 


A common  undershrub  in  shady  places 
among  the  undergrowths  near  Chinaman’s  falls. 
Flowers  & Fruits  : February-June. 

Randia  Linn. 

1.  Randia  rtigulosa  (Thwaites)  Hook,  f.,  in 
FI.  Brit.  Ind.  3 : 113,  1880  ; Talbot,  189  ; Bird- 
wood,  16  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 600  (2  : 28). 

Griffithia  rugulosa  Thwaites,  Enum.  PI.  Ceyl. 
159,  1859. 

G.  speciosa  Bedd.,  Icon.  PI.  Ind.  Or.  t.  37, 
1874. 

Rare  climbing  shrub  in  densely  shaded 
forests  along  Lingmala  and  Tiger  path. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : December-July. 

Rubia  Linn. 

1.  Rubia  cordifolia  Linn.,  Mant.  PI.  197, 
1767  ; FBI  3 : 202  ; Graham,  93  ; Dalz.  & Gibs. 
121  ; Wight,  111.  t.  128,  f.  1 (bis)  ; Cooke,  T. 
650  & 1 : 625  (2  : 54-5)  ; Nairne,  148  ; Birdwood, 
16  ; Lisboa,  215  ; Santapau,  307,  1963  ; Puri  & 
Mahajan,  124. 

R.  mangista  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  1 : 384,  1820  ; 
Wight,  Icon.  t.  187,  1839. 

Quite  common  climber  all  over  among  the 
bushes. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : August-January. 

Local  names  : Manjit,  Itari,  Itta,  Manjishtha. 

Spermadictyon  Roxb. 

1.  Spermadictyon  suaveolens  Roxb.,  PI.  Cor. 
3 : 32,  t.  236,  1815  ; Santapau,  120  ; Santapau  & 
Merchant,  Bull.  Bot.  Surv.  Ind.  3 : 110,  1961. 

Hamiltonia  suaveolens  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  2 : 
223,  1824  ; FBI  3 : 197  ; Cooke,  T.  1 : 621 
(2  : 51)  ; Birdwood,  16  ; Nairne,  147  ; Talbot 
2:  134,  t.  364,  1918  ; Blatter  & McCann, 
36  : 794. 


322 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


H.  mysorensis  Wight  Sc  Arn.,  Prodr.  423, 
1834  ; Graham,  91  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.,  115. 

Rare  species  usually  found  on  steep  hill- 
slopes  growing  in  dangerous  rock-crevices. 

Flowers  Sc  Fruits  : December-April. 

Local  name  : Gersao. 

Wendlandia  Bart. 

1.  Wendlandia  thyrsoides  (Roem.  Sc  Schultz) 
Steud.,  Nom.  ed.  2,  2 : 786,  1841  ; Blatter  & 
McCann,  36  : 782  ; Santapau,  307,  1963. 

Canthium  thyrsoideum  Roem.  & Schultez, 
Syst.  6 : 207,  1820. 

W.  notoniana  Wall,  ex  Graham,  Cat.  Bombay 
PI.  89,  1839  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  117  ; Wight,  Icon, 
t.  1033,  1845  ; Talbot  2 : 92,  t.  338  ; Nairne, 
142  ; Cooke,  T.  649  & 1 : 584  (2:11); 
Beddome,  FI.  Sylv.  t.  224,  1872  ; Birdwood, 
15  ; Puri  & Mahajan,  124. 

A common  and  abundant  small  size  tree 
along  sides  of  Yenna  River  and  near  Lingmala 
falls. 

Flowers  & Fruits  : December- May, 


Xeromphis  Rafin. 

1.  Xeromphis  spinosa  (Thunb.)  Keay,  Bull. 
Jard.  Bot.  Etat.  Bruxsells,  28  : 37,  1858  ; 
Maheshwari,  in  Bull.  Bot.  Surv.  Ind.  3 (1)  : 91, 

1961. 

Gardenia  spinosa  Thunb.,  Diss.  Gard.  no. 
7,  1780. 

Randia  brandisii  Gamble,  FI.  Madras,  616, 
1921  ; Blatter  & McCann,  36  : 787  ; Puri  Sc 
Mahajan,  124  ; Santapau,  398,  1962  & 306, 
1963. 

G.  tomentosa  Retz.,  Obs.  2 : 14,  1781. 

R.  dumetorum  Larnk.,  Encycl.  suppl.  2 : 829, 
1811  ; Graham,  89  ; Dalz.  & Gibs.  119  ; 
Wight,  Icon.  t.  580  ; FBI  3 : 110  ; Nairne, 
144;  Cooke,  T.  649  & 1 : 599  (2  : 27) ; Lisboa, 
215  ; Talbot  2 : 98,  t.  341. 

One  of  the  commonest  trees  of  Mahabalesh- 
war.  Fruits  are  used  by  local  people  for  fish- 
killing. 

Flowers  Sc  Fruits  : March-June. 

Local  names  : Gela,  MindhaL 


(to  be  continued ) 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF  THE  REPRODUCTIVE  BIOLOGY  OF 
THE  LION-TAIL  MACAQUE — MA  CA CA  SILENUS  (LINN.)— 

A ZOO  STUDY1 

L.  S.  Ramaswami2,  G.  U.  Kurup3,  and  B.  A.  Gadgil4 


The  reproductive  biology  of  the  lion-tail  monkey  at  the  Children’s  Park  Zoo,  Madras  and  at  the  Zoos 
at  Bombay  and  at  Kolhapur  was  studied.  Two  successive  pregnancies  of  the  same  female  were  checked 
in  our  Madras  study.  The  pregnant  female  did  not  show  an  enlarged  belly  ; palpation  was  not  possible  ; 
the  female  occasionally  squeezed  out  milk  from  the  nipples.  A male  baby  was  born  (20th  March  1976)  which 
died  after  4 months  and  10  days,  probably  due  to  insufficiency  of  mother’s  milk.  A second  male  baby 
was  born  of  the  same  female  on  6th  March  1977,  sired  by  the  same  male.  This  baby  grew  up  well ; the 
mother  died  on  8th  March.  The  coat  colour  of  the  babies  was  black  but  they  had  no  mane  at  birth.  When 
the  second  baby  was  examined  7 months  later,  a mane  had  grown.  The  probable  period  of  pregnancy  is 
180-187  days.  The  sex  skin  cycle  in  this  female  was  not  followed.  At  the  Bombay  Zoo  garden,  two  female 
lion-tails  showed  menstrual  cycle  with  a mode  at  39  days  ; the  menses  (both  overt  and  occult)  lasted  for 
2-2.5  days.  A summer  amenorrhea  was  noticed.  The  sex  skin  tumescence  started  from  day  6/7  of  the 
cycle  and  reached  a maximum  on  day  10.  The  subcaudal,  perianal  and  paravulval  (enclosing  the  callosities) 
tumescences  were  prominent.  Detumescence  was  noticed  from  days  22-27  of  the  cycle.  Probably  ovulation 
takes  place  around  21/22  days  of  the  cycle  when  the  sex  skin  starts  wrinkling.  Vaginal  cytology  showed  the 
presence  of  cornified  or  superficial  cells  at  this  time.  Copulations  generally  took  place  at  this  time.  On 
24th  July  1979,  a male  baby  was  born  and  when  Ramaswami  examined  this  lively  baby  on  30th  March 
1981,  he  was  1 year,  8 months  and  10  days  old.  At  the  Kolhapur  Zoo  garden,  a female  lion-tail  gave 
birth  to  a male  baby  years  ago  (which  is  continuing  to  live)  and  there  were  no  further  conceptions  and  one 
of  the  reasons  for  this  may  be  that  the  female  lived  in  constant  dread  of  the  vicious  male  in  the  same  cage. 


Introduction 

The  lion-tail  macaque  is  restricted  to  the 
southern  part  of  the  Western  ghats  of  India 
from  Jog  Falls  to  Agasthya  Ranges  (Kurup 
1977).  From  south  of  Bramhagiri  ranges  in 
Coorg,  the  Nilgiri  langur  Presbytis  johnii 
also  with  a similar  coat  colour,  is  a congener 
with  the  lion-tail  monkey.  The  latter  is  readily 
distinguished  by  its  grey  facial  mane  and  short 
tufted  tail.  Both  were  considered  to  be  en- 
dangered species  but  while  the  Nilgiri  langur 

1 Accepted  October  1980. 

2 387,  Upper  Palace  Orchard,  Bangalore-80,  India. 

3Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Western  Ghat  Regional 

Station,  2/355  Eranhipalam,  Calicut-673006. 

4 Animal  House  Warden,  Research  Division,  The 
Boots  Co.  India  Ltd.,  Sion,  Bombay-400  022. 


shows  an  upward  trend,  the  lion-tail  is  still 
very  much  endangered.  Two  recent  estimates 
of  the  lion-tail  put  the  total  population  as 
405  by  Green  and  Minkowasky  (1977)  and  800 
by  Kurup  (1977). 


Observations  and  Discussion 

At  the  Children’s  Park  Zoo,  Guindy,  Madras 
(India),  they  have  a pair  of  lion-tail  monkeys  ; 
the  male  was  procured  from  the  wild  on  28th 
April  1970.  An  adult  female,  which  was  a 
pet  with  a family,  was  donated  to  the  Zoo 
on  25th  March  1975  and  she  was  housed  with 
the  male.  She  was  probably  cycling  regularly. 
The  Forest  Officer  in  charge  of  the  Park  Zoo 
told  us  of  the  characteristic  sex  skin  in  the 


324 


REPRODUCTIVE  BIOLOGY  OF  THE  LION-TAIL  MACAQUE 


posterior  region  of  the  female  waxing  and 
waging. 

Kurup  and  Ramaswami  examined  the  above 
female  at  the  Park  Zoo  on  23rd  January  1976. 
The  sexual  swelling  had  completely  detumesced 
but  the  vulval  area  was  red  in  colour.  The 
vaginal  temperature  was  101.6°F.  A vaginal 
smear  was  taken  with  great  difficulty  but  it 
did  not  disclose  any  cornified  cells.  No  external 
manifestation  of  pregnancy  was  apparent  and 
rectal  palpation  was  not  possible  as  she  was 
too  sensitive  to  handling.  However,  a male 
baby  was  born  on  20th  March  1976.  When 
we  examined  the  female  very  clearly  on  23rd 
January  1976,  she  was  pregnant,  56  days  prior 
to  parturition.  Assuming  that  the  period  of 
gestation  was  187+?  days  in  this,  as  it  was 
in  the  second  pregnancy  which  we  also  studied, 
she  must  have  conceived  by  about  the  middle 
of  September  1975.  From  the  time  of  ad- 
mission (25th  March  1975)  to  the  middle  of 
September  1975,  we  are  not  sure  of  the  cycles 
she  may  have  passed  through  keeping  in  mind 
the  summer  amenorrhea  in  these  macaques 
and  that  each  cycle  lasts  around  39  days  in 
the  lion-tail  monkey. 

From  the  date  of  admission  to  the  Park  Zoo 
to  the  end  of  September  1975,  no  record  of 
the  reproductive  life  of  this  female  was  main- 
tained. When  the  female  delivered  a baby, 
the  adult  male  was  moved  into  another 
cage. 

The  baby  had  a blackish  coat  with  no  mane. 
It  was  4 months  and  10  days  when  it  died 
(1st  August  1976).  The  Park  Zoo  authorities 
felt  that  the  death  was  due  to  insufficiency 
of  mother’s  milk  but  hand-rearing  was  not 
resorted  to  as  it  was  found  difficult  to  separate 
the  suckling  baby  from  the  mother.  Birth 
of  lion-tail  macaques  from  an  Indian  Zoo 
(Delhi)  has  been  reported  by  Sankhala  and 
Desai  (1969). 


The  Park  Zoo  authorities  let  the  male  and 
female  lion-tails  together  again  during  the 
second  week  of  September,  1976.  Monkeys 
which  go  generally  into  summer  amenorrhea, 
return  to  cycle  by  about  the  middle  of  August. 
The  male  was  noticed  to  mount  the  female 
a number  of  times  and  he  was  then  separated. 
Kurup  and  Ramaswami  examined  this  female 
on  15th  November  1976.  The  sex  skin  including 
the  subcaudal  one  had  completely  detumesced 
and  the  vulval  area  was  red  in  colour  as  on  the 
previous  examination.  If  the  female  had  been 
impregnated  during  her  stay  with  the  male, 
she  must  be  pregnant  again,  3 months  and 
15  days  after  the  death  of  the  first  baby.  As 
before,  palpation  of  the  abdomen  did  not 
help.  It  is  difficult  to  say  when  the  female 
lion-tail  started  cycling  but  according  to  infor- 
mation from  the  Park  Zoo  authorities,  she 
became  receptive  only  after  the  death  of  the 
first  baby  (1st  August,  1976).  No  record  of 
the  tumescence  of  the  sex  skin,  after  the  death 
of  the  baby  and  after  she  renewed  her  cycles, 
had  been  maintained. 

On  4th  February  1977,  Kurup  and  Rama- 
swami again  examined  the  same  lion-tail  female 
at  the  Park  Zoo,  Guindy,  Madras.  The 
detumesced  condition  of  the  sex  skin  continued 
but  the  ischial  callosities  were  hard.  The  whole 
vulval  region  was  red  in  colour  and  sensitive  to 
handling.  The  vaginal  temperature  was  101. 0°F., 
and  the  smear  did  not  disclose  any  superficial 
cells.  Abdominal  palpation  was  not  helpful 
and  she  did  not  permit  a rectal  one.  The 
breasts  were  enlarged  and  she  occasionally 
squeezed  out  milk  from  the  pink  teats.  This 
is  not  unusual  in  pregnant  monkeys.  Speert 
(1948)  proved  that  in  the  pregnant  rhesus 
monkey,  by  the  end  of  the  4th  month,  secretory 
activity  in  the  mammary  glands  was  well 
established  ; this  continued  to  increase  up  to 
term  (165  days).  In  the  human  female,  accord- 
ing to  Jeffcoate  (1967),  4 milk  is  never  produced 


325 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


until  the  placenta  is  delivered  or  ceases  to 
function  \ Monkeys  seem  to  differ  from  the 
human  species  in  this. 

A male  baby  (christened  Reuben)  was  born 
of  this  female  on  the  afternoon  of  6th  March 
1977  which  both  Kurup  and  Ra  mas  warm 
examined  on  29th  March  1977.  His  coat  was 
completely  black  with  no  mane  confirming  our 
observation  on  the  previous  occasion.  His  face, 
hands  and  feet  were  pinkish.  Unfortunately  the 
mother  died  on  8th  March  1977.  The  baby 
was  being  bottle-fed  and  he  sucked  his  right 
thumb  incessantly.  This  is  also  noticed  in 
human  babies  which  are  weaned  prematurely. 
We  examined  Reuben  almost  7 months  later, 
on  5th  October.  He  had  grown  up  and  had 
developed  a grey  mane.  He  ran  about  freely 
and  had  become  a loved  pet.  He  had  started 
eating  solid  food  including  tender  shoots  and 
had  abandoned  his  thumb-sucking  habit.  Ac- 
cording to  Green  and  Minkowaski  (op.  cit.), 
the  lion-tail  female  may  not  give  birth  to  more 
than  2-3  babies  in  her  life-time  since  the  adults 
are  not  long-lived. 

According  to  Sugiyama  (1968),  the  new- 
born lion-tail  baby  has  brown  hair  and  pale 
pink  skin.  One  month  later,  the  skin  colour 
changes  to  a pale  brown  or  grey. 

Assuming  that  impregnation  took  place 
in  the  first  week  of  September  1976  in  the  lion- 
tail  examined  by  us  (after  which  the  female 
was  separated  from  her  mate)  the  gestation 
period  works  out  to  180-187  days.  This  is 
not  very  much  out  of  the  mark  as  Macdonald 
(1971)  reported  a maximum  of  190  days  in 
M.  arctoides  and  in  its  nearest  relative  M. 
nemestrina,  it  ranged  from  162-179  days  (Kuehn, 
Jensen  and  Morrill  1965  ; Tokuda,  Simons 
and  Jensen  1968).  Regarding  birth  of  babies, 
Webb-Peploe  (1947)  stated  that  in  southern 
India,  lion-tail  babies  were  born  in  September  ; 
Prater  (1971)  also  stated  that  young  lion-tails 


were  seen  regularly  in  September.  Sugiyama 
(op.  cit.)  noted  that  lion-tailvyoung  were  born 
in  January  and  that  there  was  no  restricted 
mating  season.  Sankhala  and  Desai  (op.  cit.) 
reported  seven  lion-tail  births  from  January 
to  October,  indicative  of  breeding  throughout 
the  year. 

At  the  Ranibaug  Zoo  Garden,  Bombay, 
there  were  three  lion-tail  monkeys  added  in 
April  1973.  Gadgil  and  Ramaswami  examined 
them  regularly  starting  from  January  1976. 
Another  consignment  of  lion-tails,  2 males  and 
3 females,  was  added  to  the  Zoo  on  23rd 
November  1976  after  rescuing  them  from  a local 
dealer  and  housing  them  for  a few  months  in 
the  Karnala  National  Park,  Maharashtra.  Of 
the  first  lot  of  three  females,  two  were  regularly 
cycling  even  in  the  absence  of  a male  and  the 
third  one  had  not  reached  menarche.  Female 
No.  1 of  this  lot  was  in  menses  on  9th  January 
1976.  Usually  there  is  both  overt/occult 
menses  of  2-2.5  days  in  these  animals  and  the 
vaginal  swabs  disclosed  the  latter  type.  The 
next  menstruation  in  this  female  was  on  16th 
February  1976  ; the  cycle  was  of  38  days.  Again 
she  menstruated  on  17th  March  ; this  cycle 
was  of  30  days.  The  third  cycle  which  we 
studied  on  4th  April  1976  was  of  20  days 
duration.  This  animal  was  again  studied 
during  the  end  of  1976  and  the  following  year. 
She  menstruated  on  9th  December  1976 ; 
16th  January  1977  ; 23rd  February  and  3rd 
April  ; these  consecutive  cycles  were  of  39 
days  duration.  The  second  female  also  showed 
similar  consecutive  cycles  of  39-40  days  dura- 
tion. Asakura  (1960)  reported  a cycle  length 
of  39.6  days  in  the  lion-tail  (under  its  older 
specific  name  albibarbata ) and  menses  of  2.5 
days  in  the  zoo  lion-tails  studied  by  him  in 
Japan.  In  our  animals,  we  studied  the  cyclical 
nature  of  the  sex  skin  in  relation  to  the  menstrual 
cycle.  The  growth  of  the  sex  skin  started 
from  day  6/7  and  on  day  10  of  the  menstrual 


326 


REPRODUCTIVE  BIOLOGY  OF  THE  LION-TAIL  MACAQUE 


cycle,  the  sex  skin  was  highly  tumescent  and 
it  continued  in  this  condition  for  another  11-12 
days.  The  subcaudal  sex  skin  was  reniform, 
either  side  of  it  projecting  above  the  tail  ; 
these  side  projections  eclipsed  the  perianal 
swellings  and  by  pushing  the  subcaudal  above, 
the  perianals  could  be  made  out.  The  peri- 
vulval  were  the  largest  swellings  and  each  one 
enclosed  the  ischial  callosity  of  its  side  and 
at  the  height  of  tumescence,  the  vulval  region, 
pink  in  colour,  was  not  visible  externally. 
We  have  never  noticed  the  right  and  left  peri- 
vulval  sex  skin  uniting  to  form  a single  one 
as  described  by  Hill  (1937).  The  ischial  callo- 
sities were  soft  at  this  time  and  were  completely 
embraced  by  the  sex  skin.  From  days  22-27 
of  the  cycle,  detumescence  was  noticed  and 
this  was  completed  well  before  the  beginning 
of  the  next  cycle.  The  perianal  and  perivulval 
swellings  completely  detumesced  quickly,  the 
skin  showing  more  and  more  shrinkage  and 
the  ischial  callosities  becoming  hard  again  ; 
the  subcaudal  swelling  was  no  more  reniform 
but  persisted  for  a few  more  days  as  a pro- 
minent swelling  at  the  base  of  the  tail  into  the 
next  cycle.  From  the  day  detumescence 
started,  it  took  17-18  days  for  the  next  cata- 
menia to  occur.  According  to  Asakura  (op.  cit.), 
the  sexual  skin  cycle  was  of  14.5  days  duration. 
Fooden  (1975)  draws  a figure  (Fig.  11,  p.  29) 
of  the  posterior  of  the  lion-tail,  based  on  the 
work  of  Pocock  (1925)  and  of  Hill  (op.  cit.), 
and  compared  it  with  that  in  the  pigtail  M.  n. 
nemestrina.  The  figure  of  the  lion-tail  was  a 
poor  representation  of  what  we  have  seen  on 
more  than  one  occasion  in  the  same  lion-tail 
in  the  zoo  and  also  in  other  lion-tail  females. 
His  figure  was  of  a lion-tail  from  the  Lincoln 
Park  Zoo  showing  the  beginning  of  tumescence 
and  the  maximum  development  of  the  sex 
skin  had  yet  to  take  place. 

If,  as  in  the  pigtail,  baboon  (Hendrickx  and 
Kraemer  1970)  and  the  chimpanzee  (Keeling 


and  Roberts  1972),  ovulation  took  place  at 
the  peak  of  tumescence  and  prior  to  the  onset 
of  detumescence  in  the  lion-tail  monkeys, 
it  would  be  around  days  21-22  of  the  cycle 
when  the  female  was  at  the  height  of  the  heat 
period  ; it  was  during  this  period  that  frequent 
copulations  took  place.  No  discharge  of 
mucus  was  noticed  during  this  period.  The 
luteal  period  was  probably  18  days.  Accord- 
ing to  Sugiyama  (op.  cit.),  the  sexual  skin 
surrounding  the  anus  and  vulva  of  an  oestrous 
female  may  or  may  not  be  swollen.  We  have 
always  seen  swollen  sex  skin  in  cycling  female 
lion-tails  at  the  height  of  the  follicular  phase. 

Two  sets  of  workers  (Kuehn,  Jensen  and 
Morrill  op.  cit.  ; Tokuda,  Simons  and  Jensen 
op.  cit.)  reported  that  the  cycle  length  in  the 
pigtail  was  32-40  days.  According  to  the  latter 
authors,  the  tumescent  and  quiescent  periods 
of  the  sex  skin  were  21  and  17  days  respectively. 
In  the  same  species,  Bullock,  Paris,  Resko  and 
Goy  (1968)  noted  that  ovulation  took  place 
on  the  first  day  of  detumescence  ; this  obser- 
vation was  confirmed  by  a study  of  plasma 
oestradiol  and  progesterone  assay  by  Eaton 
(1973).  White,  Blaine  and  Blakley  (1973) 
described  that  vaginal  cytology  and  body 
temperature  did  not  help  in  pinpointing  the 
day  of  ovulation  in  the  pigtail.  Perineal 
tumescence  helped  in  separating  the  luteal 
phase  from  the  follicular  ; maximal  tumescence 
was  seen  within  12  hrs  of  ovulation.  In  a 
cycle  length  of  28  or  29  days,  the  maximum 
swelling  lasted  1-3  days  in  three  different 
cycles.  In  a further  study  of  the  pigtail  monkey, 
Blakley,  Blaine  and  Morton  (1977)  pointed 
out  that  ovulation  and  the  first  signs  of  detume- 
scence occurred  within  a 24  hrs  period. 

Gillman  (1935)  reported  that  in  the  baboon 
there  was  a sudden  decrease  in  all  measurements 
of  the  sex  skin  at  midcycle  and  then  reached  a 
maximum  within  the  next  two  or  three  days ; 


327 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , K<?/.  79 


he  associated  the  decrease  with  ovulation  in 
this  animal. 

At  the  Bombay  Zoo  Garden,  just  before  the 
sex  skin  started  detumescing  in  a female  lion- 
tail  (22-23  December  1976),  a male,  which 
had  been  received  from  the  Karnala  National 
Park,  was  introduced  into  the  cage  ; the  female 
was  a regularly  cycling  one  which  we  had 
studied.  He  mounted  her  several  times  and 
each  time  there  were  five  pelvic  thrusts.  The 
mode  of  copulation  resembled  that  in  other 
macaques  (Tokuda  1961-62).  The  female  did 
not  conceive.  However,  at  a later  date,  a 
male  baby  was  born  on  24th  July  1979.  This 
baby  has  grown  up  nicely  and  goes  about 
moving  out  of  the  cage,  receiving  eatables  etc., 
and  then  gets  back  into  the  cage.  When  Rama- 
swami  examined  the  baby  on  30th  March  1981 
(with  the  assistance  of  veterinarian  Dr.  M.  S. 
Karawale)  he  was  looking  healthy  and  was  aged 
1 year,  8 months  and  10  days  ; weaning  had 
not  yet  taken  place.  The  Zoo  has  seven  lion- 
tails,  5 females  and  2 males,  one  of  the  latter 
being  the  juvenile  referred  to  above. 

Our  examination  of  the  vaginal  cytology 
of  the  female  lion-tails  disclosed  an  interesting 
evidence  of  the  possible  time  of  ovulation. 
At  the  height  of  tumescence  and  before  the 
start  of  detumescence  (22-23  days  of  the  cycle), 
large  number  of  cornified  cells  (superficial 
cells)  were  noticed  in  the  smear,  stained  pinkish 
by  the  Papinacoloau  technique  ; no  other  cells 
were  present.  This  probably  was  also  the 
time  of  ovulation.  Such  scales  also  appeared 
in  lesser  numbers  in  the  smears  in  the  days 
following  the  start  of  detumescence  (noticed 
as  shrinkage  of  the  sexual  skin)  and  they  do 
not  show  any  rolled  edges  as  in  the  luteal  phase 
smear  of  the  human  female  (Jeffcoate  op.  cit.). 
As  the  female  approached  the  day  of  menses, 
the  smear  swab  showed  a pink  colour  as  in 


the  human  female  and  thereafter  both  overt 
and  occult  menses  took  place.  Leucocytes 
and  cyanophilic  intermediate  cells  preponderated 
in  the  menstrual  smear  while  in  the  days  follow- 
ing menses,  there  were  scales,  a few  inter- 
mediate cells  and  a few  leucocytes.  This 
appeared  to  be  the  general  pattern  of  cell  types 
during  menstruation  studied  over  a large 
number  of  cycles  in  two  females.  The  occur- 
rence of  a large  number  of  only  superficial 
cells  coinciding  with  the  height  of  tumescence 
(21-22  days  of  the  cycle)  would  restrict  the 
time  of  ovulation  to  those  days~and  the  secretory 
phase  started  from  day  22-23  when  the  sex 
skin  also  started  shrinking.  The  vaginal  tem- 
perature was  of  no  use  in  deciding  the  day  of 
ovulation. 

At  the  Kolhapur  Zoo  Garden  (Maharashtra), 
there  are  two  pairs  of  lion-tails  ; no  records  of 
these  have  been  maintained.  One  female 
gave  birth  to  a male  baby.  No  further  concep- 
tions took  place.  This  may  be  due  to  the  very 
aggressive  nature  of  both  the  males  which  kept 
the  females  in  a state  of  tension. 

Acknowledgements 

Our  sincere  thanks  are  due  to  the  authorities 
of  the  Ranibaug  Zoo  Garden,  Bombay  and 
particularly  to  Drs.  M.  V.  Wani  and  R.  D.  Patil 
for  making  all  necessary  arrangements  for 
examination  of  the  female  lion-tails  and  for 
conducting  mating  experiments  etc.,  and  later 
(30th  March  1981)  to  Dr.  M.  S.  Karawale 
who  provided  details  from  registers  and  allowed 
me  to  photograph  the  juvenile  lion-tail  along 
with  its  mother,  and  to  the  officials  of  the 
Children’s  Park  Zoo,  Guindy,  Madras  and 
particularly  to  Sri  C.  Narayanaswamy  for 
helping  in  the  examination  of  the  female  lion- 
tail  there. 


328 


REPRODUCTIVE  BIOLOGY  OF  THE  LION-TAIL  MACAQUE 


Referen  ces 


Asakura,  S.  (1960) : Studies  on  the  reproduction 
of  monkeys,  especially  on  the  menstrual  cycle  of 
Primates.  Jap  Assn.  Zool.  Garden  & Aquaria.  2 : 85-94. 

Blakley,  G.  A.,  Blaine,  C.  R.  & Morton,  W.  R. 
(1977) : Correlation  of  perineal  detumescence  and 
ovulation  in  the  pig-tail  macaque  ( Macaca  nemestrina). 
Lab.  Anim.  Sci.  27  : 352-355. 

Bullock, D.,  Paris,  C.,Resko.,  J.  &Goy,  R.  (1968) : 
Proc.  6th  Int.  Cong.  Anim.  Reprod.  Artif.  Insem. 
Paris 2:  1657. 

Eaton,  G.  G.  (1973) : Social  and  endocrine  deter- 
minants of  sexual  behaviour  in  simian  and  prosimian 
females.  In  proc.  Int.  Cong.  Pnmatology.  Yol.  2 : 
Primate  Reproductive  behaviour,  pp.  20-35.  ed.  W. 
Montagna.  Karger  Basel. 

Fooden,  J.  (1975)  : Taxonomy  and  evolution  of  lion- 
tail  and  pigtail  macaques  (Primates : Cercopithecidae). 
Fieldiana  Zool.  Chicago.  67  : 1-169. 

Gillman,  J.  (1935) : The  cyclical  changes  in  the 
external  genital  organs  of  the  baboon  (P.  porcarius). 
S.  Afr.  J.  Sci.  32  : 342-355. 

Green,  S.  & Minkowaski,  K.  (1977) : The  lion-tailed 
monkey  and  its  south  Indian  rain-forest  habitat.  In 
Primate  Conservation,  pp.  289-337.  eds.  Rainer  III  & 
G.  C.  Bourne.  Academic  Press,  New  York. 

Hendrickx,  A.  G.,  & Kraemer,  D.  C.  (1970) : Pri- 
mates. In  Reproduction  and  breeding  techniques  for 
laboratory  animals,  ed.  E.  S.  E.  Hafez.  Lea  & Febiger. 
Philadelphia. 

Hill,  W.  G.,  Osman  (1937) : The  Primates  of  Tra- 
vancore.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  107  : 205-216. 

Jeffcoate,  T.  N.  A.  (1967)  : Principles  of  Gynae- 
cology. 3rd  edn.  Butterworths.  London. 

Karr,  J.  R.  (1973) : Ecological  and  behavioural 
notes  on  the  Liontailed  Macaque  ( Macaca  silenus)  in 
South  India.  J.  Bpmbay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  70  : 191-193. 

Keeling,  H.  E.  & Roberts,  J.  R.  (1972) : Breeding 
and  Reproduction  of  chimpanzee.  In  The  Chimpanzee, 
ed.  G.  C.  Bourne  5 : 127-152. 

Kuehn,  R.  E.,  Jensen,  G.  D.  & Morrill,  R.  K. 
(1965)  : Breeding  in  Macaca  nemestrina  : a program 
in  birth  engineering.  Fol.  Primatol.  {Basel).  3 : 251-262. 


Kurup,  G.  U.  (1977) : Distribution,  habitat  and 
conservation  of  the  rain-forest  primates  in  the  Western 
Ghats,  India.  In  Use  of  Non-human  Primates  in 
Biomedical  Research,  pp.  62-77.  eds.  M.  R.  N.  Prasad 
& T.  C.  Anand  Kumar.  Indian  National  Science 
Academy,  New  Delhi. 

McDonald,  G.  J.  (1971) : Reproductive  patterns  of 
three  species  of  macaques-  Fertil.  Steril.  22  : 373-377. 

Pocock,  R.  I.  (1925) : The  external  characters  of 
catarrhine  monkeys  and  apes.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London. 
1479-1579. 

Prater,  S.  H.  (1971) : The  Book  of  Indian  Animals. 
Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  Bombay. 

Ramaswami,  L.  S.,  Kurup,  G.  V.  & Gadgil,  B.  A. 
(1980) : Some  aspects  of  the  reproductive  biology  of 
the  lion-tailed  monkey,  Macaca  silenus  (Linn.), — A 
Zoo  study.  Antropol.  Contemp.  3 : 260  (Abstract). 

Sankhala,  K.  S.  & Desai,  J.  H.  (1969)  : Reproduc- 

tive pattern  of  some  Indian  mammals.  Cheetal  ( Dehra 
Dun).  12:  114-129. 

Speert,  H.  (1948) : The  normal  and  experimental 
development  of  the  mammary  gland  of  the  rhesus 
monkey,  with  some  pathological  correlations.  Contr. 
Embryol.  Carnegie  Instt.  Washington.  32  : 9-65. 

Sugiyama,  Y,  (1968) : The  ecology  of  the  lion-tailed 
macaque  ( Macaca  silenus)  (L.).  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Soc.  65  : 283-292. 

Tokuda,  K.  (1961-62) : A study  on  the  sexual  beha- 
viour in  the  Japanese  monkey  troop.  Primates  : 3 : 
1-40. 

Tokuda,  K.,  Simons,  R.  C.  & Jensejm,  G.  D.  (1968) : 
Sexual  behaviour  in  a captive  group  of  pig-tailed  monkeys 
( Macaca  nemestrina).  Primates.  9 : 283-294. 

Webb-Peploe,  C.  G.  (1947)  : Field  notes  on  the 
mammals  of  Tinnevelly,  S.  India.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Soc.  46  : 629-644. 

White,  R.  J.,  Blaine,  C.  R.  & Blackley,  G.  A. 
(1973)  : Detecting  ovulation  in  Macaca  nemestrina  by 
correlation  of  vaginal  cytology,  body  temperature  and 
perineal  tumescence  with  laparoscopy.  Am.  J.  Phys. 
Anthrop.  38  : 189-194. 


329 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fb/.  79 


Since  sending  the  Ms.  to  the  press  and  receiving  the 
galley  proof,  there  has  been  a Conference  on  the  lion- 
tailed monkey  at  Baltimore,  U.S.A.  Comprehensive 
accounts  of  studies  made  on  the  monkey  at  various 
zoos  were  reported  at  the  Conference  by  Lasley,  Czekala, 
Lindburg,  Shideler,  Fitch  (San  Diego  Zoo)  and  Kernpske 
(Baltimore  zoo)  and  an  account  of  the  reproductive 
behaviour  of  the  animal  in  wild  has  been  given  by  Kumar 
and  Kurup.  Both  Drs.  Kurup  and  Gadgil  attended 
the  Conference  and  from  the  Mss.  brought  by  the 
former,  the  following  highlights  are  culled  : 

1.  The  male  is  a multiple  mount  ejaculator  (Kumar  & 
Kurup  ; Lindburg). 

2.  The  menstrual  cycle  is  of  30  days  duration  (Lasley, 
Czekala  & Lindburg)  or  30-36  days  (Kernpske)  and 
ovulation  (using  the  oestrogen  peak  as  a parameter) 
takes  place  around  14th  day  of  the  cycle  and  the  luteal 
phase  is  of  16  days.  The  reported  difference  in  cycle 
length  is  due  to  differences  in  the  follicular  phase  of 
duration.  It  has  also  been  shown  in  their  Table  that 
estrone  of  the  oestrogens  is  the  major  urinary  metabolite 
(Lasley,  Czekala  & Lindburg)  like  many  other  monkeys. 

3.  The  sex-skin  behaviour  is  highly  variable  and  there- 
fore not  dependable  for  pinpointing  the  day  of  ovulation 
in  the  lion-tail  macaque. 

4.  The  period  of  pregnancy  may  range  from  154-186 
days  (mean  172  days)  (Kernpske). 


5.  The  animals  are  not  short-lived  as  opined  by 
Green  & Minkowski  from  their  study  in  wild  and  have 
been  living  for  more  than  33  years  in  the  Baltimore  zoo. 

6.  In  wild  population,  the  sex-skin  swelling  lasts 
for  34.33  days  ; copulation  thrusts  are  3-16.  Conception 
takes  place  during  June-July  (S.W.  monsoon)  and 
December  (N.E.  monsoon)  (Kumar  & Kurup). 


References 

Kempske,  S.  (Baltimore  Zoo) : Macaca  silenus — 
survey  of  U.S.  and  European  zoo  practices. 

Kumar,  A.  & Kurup,  G.  V.  (Regional  Station, 
Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Calicut,  India).  Sexual 
behaviour  of  the  lion-tailed  macaque,  Macaca  silenus. 

Lasley,  B.  L.,  Czekala,  N.  M.  & Lindburg,  D.  G. 
(San  Diego  Zoo) : Urinary  estrogen  profiles  in  the  lion- 
tailed macaque. 

Lindburg,  D.  G.  & Lasley,  B.  L.  (San  Diego  Zoo) : 
Strategies  for  optimising  the  reproductive  potential  of 
lion-tailed  macaque  colonies  in  captivity. 

Lindburg,  D.  G.,  Shideler,  S.  & Fitch,  H.  (San 
Diego  Zoo) : Sexual  behaviour  in  relation  to  time  of 
ovulation  in  the  lion-tailed  macaque. 


330 


TAXONOMIC  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  SPERMATHECA  IN  SOME 
INDIAN  GRASSHOPPERS  (ORTHOPTERA  : UCRIBIDAE)1 

Kharibam  Meinodas,  Shaikh  Adam  Shafee  and  Mohammad  Kamil  Usmani2 

{With  twenty-three  text-figures ) 

Comparative  study  of  spermatheca  was  made  on  twenty-three  species  representing  twenty  genera  of  the 
family  Acrididae  and  its  taxonomic  significance  is  shown.  Presence  or  absence  of  apical  diverticulum, 
length  and  shape  of  apical  and  pre-apical  diverticula  of  spermatheca  are  considered  as  characters  of  generic 
significance.  The  species  studied  are  arranged  under  their  respective  subfamilies. 


Introduction 

The  spermatheca  is  also  known  as  recepta - 
culum  seminis,  is  an  essential  part  of  female 
reproductive  system  in  which  the  spermatozoa 
are  stored,  and  ejected  upon  eggs  as  the  latter 
passed  from  the  oviduct.  Slifer  & King  (1936), 
Slifer  (1939,  1940  a,  b,  c,  1943),  Katiyar  (1956) 
and  Dirsh  (1957)  have  shown  the  taxonomic 
significance  of  spermatheca  in  various  sub- 
families of  Acrididae.  We  made  an  attempt 
to  make  a comparative  study  of  spermatheca 
in  twenty-three  species  representing  nine  sub- 
families of  Acrididae  with  a view  to  discover 
its  significance  for  the  identification  of  grass- 
hopper genera.  The  species  studied  are  assigned 
under  their  respective  subfamilies. 

Material  and  Techniques 

Adult  specimens  were  collected  from  the 
central  district  of  Manipur  and  Aligarh  district 
of  Uttar  Pradesh.  The  apical  half  of  the  abdo- 
minal region  was  cut  off  and  boiled  in  a test 
tube  containing  5%  KOH  solution  till  the 
structure  becomes  transparent.  Later,  this 

1 Accepted,  June  1979. 

2 Section  of  Entomology,  Department  of  Zoology, 
Aligarh  Muslim  University,  Aligarh,  India. 


was  transferred  to  water  and  washed  thoroughly 
for  complete  removal  of  KOH.  It  was  then 
dissected  under  a dissecting  binocular  micros- 
cope with  the  help  of  fine  needles  in  order  to 
take  out  the  spermatheca.  After  this,  the 
normal  process  of  dehydration  was  adopted 
and  clearing  was  done  in  clove  oil.  The  sper- 
matheca was  mounted  in  Canada-balsam  under 
a 22  mm2  cover  glass.  The  slides  were  kept 
in  a thermostat  at  a temperature  of  approxi- 
mately 40°C  for  about  four  days  to  make 
it  complete  dry.  Drawings  were  made  with 
the  help  of  camera  lucida. 

Spermatheca  in  Acrididae 
Subfamily  : Pyrgomorphinae 

1 . Chrotogonus  trachypterus  (Blanchard)  (fig. 
1) — Apical  diverticulum  absent,  pre-apical 
diverticulum  long,  tubular  and  curved.  The 
same  condition  has  been  shown  in  Chrotogonus 
sp.  by  Slifer  (1940a,  fig.  20)  and  in  Chrotogonus 
concavus  Kirby  by  Katiyar  (1956,  fig.  3f). 

2.  Poekilocenis  pictus  (Fabricius)  (fig.  2) — 
Apical  diverticulum  absent,  pre-apical  diverti- 
culum long,  tubular  and  curved.  The  same 
condition  has  been  shown  in  Poekilocerus 
vittatus  (Klug)  by  Uvarov  (1966,  fig.  88j). 


331 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , F<?/.  79 


3.  Atractomorpha  crenulata  (Fabricius)  (Fig. 
3) — Apical  and  pre-apical  diverticula  well 
developed,  tubular  and  elongated.  The  former 
slightly  longer  and  narrower  than  the  latter. 
The  same  condition  has  been  shown  in  Atracto- 
morpha ambigua  (Bolivar)  by  Slifer  (1943, 
%.  3). 

Subfamily  : Hemiacridinae 

4.  Hieroglyphus  banian  (Fabricius)  (fig.  4) — 
Apical  diverticulum  uniformly  long  and  tubular, 
pre-apical  diverticulum  well  developed.  The 
same  condition  has  been  shown  in  Hieroglyphus 
annulicornis  (Shiraki)  by  Slifer  (1940b,  fig.  59) 
and  in  H.  banian  (Fabricius),  H.  concolor 
(Walker)  and  H.  nigrorepletus  Bolivar  by  Katiyar 
(1956,  figs.  2d-g). 

5.  Spathosternum  prasiniferum  (Walker)  (fig. 
5) — Apical  diverticulum  with  basal  half  broader, 
shorter  than  the  pre-apical  diverticulum.  Pre- 
apical  diverticulum  uniformly  broad  and  curved. 
The  same  condition  has  been  shown  in  the 
same  species  by  Katiyar  (1956,  fig.  li). 

Subfamily  : Oxyinae 

6.  Oxya  intricata  (Stal)  (fig.  6) — Apical 
diverticulum  long,  bearing  a small  protuberance 
at  its  apical  one-fifth  ; pre-apical  diverticulum 
broad  and  curved,  thrice  the  width  of  apical 
diverticulum.  The  same  condition  has  been 
shown  in  Oxya  adentata  Will,  by  Slifer  (1940b, 
fig.  90). 

7.  Oxya  velox  (Fabricius)  (fig.  7) — Almost 
similar  with  Oxya  intricata  except  absence  of 
protuberance  on  apical  one-fifth  of  the  apical 
diverticulum.  The  same  condition  has  been 
shown  in  the  same  species  by  Slifer  (1940b, 
fig.  91).  The  presence  or  absence  of  protuber- 
ance on  apical  diverticulum  has  a specific 
taxonomic  significance. 


Subfamily  : Eyprepocnemidinae 

8.  Clioroedocus  robustus  (Serville)  (fig.  8) — 
Apical  diverticulum  uniformly  broad,  shorter 
than  the  pre-apical  diverticulum,  which  is 
broader.  The  same  condition  has  been  shown 
in  Heteracris  calliptamoides  Uvarov  by  Slifer 
(1940b,  fig.  56). 

9.  Eyprepocnemis  alacris  (Serville)  (fig.  9) — 
Apical  diverticulum  long  and  tubular,  truncated 
at  apex ; pre-apical  diverticulum  narrow  at 
basal  half  and  broadened  at  apical  half.  The 
same  condition  has  been  shown  in  Eyprepocne- 
mis shirakii  Bolivar  by  Slifer  (1940b,  fig.  51) 
and  in  Eyprepocnemis  roseus  Uvarov  by  Katiyar 
(1956,  fig.  If). 

Subfamily  : Catantopinae 

10.  Catantops  pulchellus  (Walker)  (fig.  10) — 
Apical  diverticulum  long  and  slender,  narrower 
than  pre-apical  diverticulum,  uniformly  broad 
and  bow-shaped.  The  same  condition  has 
been  shown  in  Catantops  brunneri  Karny  by 
Slifer  (1940b,  fig.  124)  and  in  Catantops  humilis 
humilis  (Serville)  and  Catantops  splendens 
(Thunberg)  by  Katiyar  (1956,  fig.  lc  & d). 

Subfamily  : Cyrtacanthacridinae 

11.  Cyrtacanthacris  tatarica  (Linnaeus)  (fig. 
11) — Apical  diverticulum  long  and  slender, 
longer  and  narrower  than  pre-apical  diverti- 
culum ; pre-apical  diverticulum  broad  and 
horseshoe  shaped. 

Subfamily  : Acridinae 

12.  Acrida  exaltata  (Walker)  (fig.  12) — Apical 
diverticulum  short,  apex  truncated,  shorter 
than  pre-apical  diverticulum  ; pre-apical  diverti- 
culum is  sac-like.  The  same  condition  has 
been  shown  in  Acrida  gigantea  (Herbst)  (fig.  13) 


332 


TAXONOMIC  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  SPERMATHECA 


k 0-75  mm  1,3,5,8,14  | 1-5  mm  11,12,13,15 

y < .2,6,7,9,10  , 0>5  mm , 4 

Fig.  1.  Chrotogonus  trachypterus  (Blanchard);  Fig.  2.  Poekilocerus  pictus  (Fabricius)  • 
Fig.  3.  Atractomorpha  crenulcita  (Fabricius) ; Fig.  4.  Hieroglyphs  banian  (Fabr-'cius)  • 
Fig.  5.  Spathosternumprasiniferum  (Walker)  ; Fig.  6.  Oxya  intricata  (Stal) ; Fig.  7.  Oxya 
velox  (Fabricius)  ; Fig.  8.  Choroedocus  robustus  (Serville)  ; Fig.  9.  Eyprepocnemis  alacris 
(Serville);  Fig.  10.  Catantops  pulchellus  (Walker);  Fig.  11.  Cyrtacanthacris  tatarica 
(Linnaeus)  , Fig.  12.  Acrida  exaltata  (Walker) ; Fig.  13.  Acrida  gigantea  (Herbst)  * 
Fig.  14.  Ceracris  nigricornis  (Walker)  ; Fig.  15.  Phlaeoba  infumata  (Brunner). 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , K<?/.  79 


and  in  Acrida  turrita  (Linnaeus)  by  Slifer  (1939, 
fig.  2). 

14.  Ceracris  nigricornis  Walker  (fig.  14) — 
Apical  diverticulum  short,  apex  truncated.  Pre- 
apical  diverticulum  long  and  broad,  longer 
than  apical  diverticulum. 


Subfamily  : Oedipodinae 
16.  Oedafeus  abruptus  (Thunberg)  (fig.  16) — 
Apical  diverticulum  absent,  pre-apical  diverti- 
culum broad  and  much  developed.  The  same 
condition  has  been  shown  in  the  same  species 
by  Katiyar  (1956,  fig.  3d). 

In  the  following  species  the  apical  diverti- 


Fig.  16.  Oedaleus  abruptus  (Thunberg);  Fig.  17.  Aiolopus  affinis  (Bolivar)  ; Fig.  18.  Trilophidia  cmnulata 
(Thunberg);  Fig.  19.  Acrotylus  humbertianus  { Saussure);  Fig.  20.  Gastrimcirgus  trcmsversus  (Thunberg) ; 
Fig.  21.  Locusta  migratoria  (Linnaeus)  ; Fig.  22.  Dociostaurus  decisus  (Walker)  ; Fig.  23.  Dociostcturus 

cipicalis  (Walker). 


15.  Phlaeoba  infumata  Brunner  (fig.  15) — 
Apical  diverticulum  short  and  tubercle-like, 
pre-apical  diverticulum  well  developed  and 
sac-like.  The  same  condition  has  been  shown 
in  Phlaeoba  infumata  Brunner  by  Slifer  (1939, 
fig.  49)  and  in  Phlaeoba  panteli  Bolivar  by 
Katiyar  (1956,  fig.  lb). 


culum  short,  not  much  developed  ; pre-apical 
diverticulum  broad  and  sac-like. 

Aiolopus  affinis  (Bolivar)  (fig.  17) ; 

Trilophidia  annulata  (Thunberg)  (fig.  18)  ; 
Acrotylus  humbertianus  (Saussure)  (fig.  19)  ; 
Gastrimargus  transversus  (Thunberg)  (fig.  20) ; 
Locusta  migratoria  (Linnaeus)  (fig.  21)  ; 


TAXONOMIC  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  SPERMATHECA 


The  same  condition  has  been  shown  in 
Aiolopus  tamulus  (Fabricius),  A.  thalassinus 
(Fabricius)  ; Acrotylus  insubricus  (Scop)  ; Gastri- 
margus  africanus  (Saussure)  and  Oedaleus 
senegalensis  (Krauss)  by  Slifer  (1939),  (figs. 
7,  8,  63,  76  and  84). 

/ 

Subfamily  : Gomphocerinae 

Apical  diverticulum  short,  pre-apical  diverti- 
culum broad  and  sac-like  in  Dociostaurus 


Refer 

Dirsh,  V.  M.  (1957):  The  spermatheca  as  a taxono- 
mic character  in  Acridoidea  (Orthoptera).  Proc.  R. 
ent.  Soc.  Lond .,  A .,  32  : 107-114. 

Katiyar  K.  N.  (1956) : On  variation  in  the  sperma- 
thecae  of  some  Indian  grasshoppers  (Orthoptera:  Acri- 
didae).  J.  Zool.  Soc.  India.,  8 : 35-42. 

Slifer,  E.  H.  (1939):  The  internal  genitalia  of  female 
Acridinae,  Oedipodinae  and  Pauliniinae  (Orthoptera  : 
Acrididae).  /.  Morph.,  65  : 437-70. 

— (1940a) : The  internal  genitalia  of  female 

Thrinchinae,  Batrachotetriginae,  Pamphaginae  and 
Pyrgomorphinae  (Orthoptera  : Acrididae).  ibid.,  66  : 
175-195. 

— (1940b) : The  internal  genitalia  of  female 


decisus  (Walker),  D.  apicalis  (Walker)  (figs. 
22,  23).  In  Dociostaurus  anatolicus  Krauss 
apical  diverticulum  well  developed  (Slifer  1939, 
fig.  23). 

Acknowledgement 

We  are  indebted  to  Prof.  S.  Mashhood  Alam, 
Head,  Department  of  Zoology,  Aligarh  Muslim 
University,  Aligarh  for  providing  necessary 
facilities. 


BNCES 

Ommexechinae  and  Cyrtacanthacridinae  (Orthoptera  : 
Acrididae).  ibid.,  67  : 199-239. 

(1940c) : Variations  in  the  spermatheca  of 

two  species  of  grasshoppers  (Orthoptera  : Acrididae). 
Ent.  News.,  51  : 1-3 

(1943) : The  internal  genitalia  of  some 

previous  unstudied  species  of  female  Acrididae(Orthop- 
tera).  /.  Morph.,  72  : 225-237. 

Slifer,  E.  H.  & King,  R.  L.  (1936) : An  internal 
structure  in  the  Cyrtacanthacridinae  (Orthoptera  : 
Acrididae)  of  possible  taxonomic  value.  /.  N.  Y. 
ent.  Soc.  44  : 345-348. 

Uvarov,  B.  P.  (1966) : Grasshoppers  and  Locusts. 
University  Press,  Cambridge,  1 : 481  pp. 


335 


A CATALOGUE  OF  THE  BIRDS  IN  THE  COLLECTION  OF  THE 
BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY— 25 

Muscigapidae 

Humayun  Abdulali 

[Continued  from  Vol  79  (1)  : 151] 


This  part  deals  with  636  specimens  of  96 
species  and  subspecies.  The  babblers  do  not 
fly  long  distances  and  being  restricted  to  re- 
latively small  and  sometimes  isolated  habitats 
have  often  broken  up  into  distinct  races  which 
may  or  may  not  indicate  any  reaction  to  the 
environment. 

The  present  study  has  resulted  in  the  re- 
validation of  one  subspecies  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  another,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that 
suitable  series  from  different  places  may  warrant 
the  recognition  of  more  races. 

The  earlier  part  of  the  work  was  assisted 
by  Shri  Selvaraj,  Research  Assistant  at  B.N.H.S. 

1 1 52.  Pellorneum  r uficeps  punctatum  (Gould) 

(Kalka,  Bhagat,  Simla)  Western  Spotted 
Babbler  1:241 

3 : 2 1 o ? 

1 Kalka,  1 Bhagat  State,  1 Simla. 

This  is  a distinct  but  very  restricted  form. 

Measurements  on  p.  352. 

1153.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  mandellii  Blanford 
(Sikkim)  Mandelli’s  or  Sikkim  Spotted  Babbler 

1:240 

13  : 5 M 8 

1 Kesarwala,  1 Dehra  Dun,  U.P.;  1 Dingla,  1 Bijaypur, 
Nepal;  1 Kurseong  4700',  1 Pershoke  2600',  Sikkim  ; 

1 Darjeeling,  1 Jalpaiguri,  Bengal ; 2 Samehi,  West, 

2 Lodrai,  Central,  Bhutan  ; 1*  Phulguri,  N.  Kamrup, 
Assam. 


^'Specimen  missing  and  subspecies  undeter 
mined. 

Of  the  two  from  Dehra  Dun  f No.  25900  d/ 
17.7.74  is  more  olive-brown  above  and  closer 
to  punctatum  while  the  other  £ 16043  agrees 
with  those  listed  as  mandelli , several  of  which 
show  a varying  amount  of  black  tipping  to 
the  feathers  of  the  forehead. 

Measurements  on  p.  352. 

1154.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  ruficeps  Swainson 
(Nilgiris)  Spotted  Babbler  1:238 

37  : 18  4#  12  $$  7o  ? 

1 Rajpipla  Town,  1 Songarh,  Navsari,  1 Malegaon, 
1 Pipri,  1 Laochali,  Surat  Dangs,  Gujarat;  1 Pili,  Mel- 
ghat,  Berar  ; 1 Borivili,  1 Andheri,  Bombay  ; 1 Khan- 
dala,  Pune:  1 Karwar,  1 Potoli,  N.  Kanara;  3 Molem, 
Goa;  1 Mercara,  Coorg;  1 Ulavi,  Sorab,  Mysore  ; 
1 Begur,  Manantoddy,  1 Devon  Nellacotta,  Wynaad  ; 
1 Kurumbapatti,  Salem;  4 Anantgiri,  2 Sankrametta, 
1 Velaspara,  near  Sileru,  2 R.  V.  Nagar,  Vizagapatam 
Ghats;  1 Barsur,  1 Antagarh,  1 Darba,  Bastar,  1 
Bhanuprattapur,  Kanker,  C.P.,  2 Badrama  (Bamra) , 
1 Kudildka  (Nilgiris),  2 Berbera,  Puri,  Orissa. 

In  the  birds  from  Sankrametta  and  Anant- 
giri the  spots  on  the  underparts  are  restricted 
to  a band  across  the  upperbreast,  while  they 
extend  further  down  in  the  Nilgiri  specimen 
[H.R.  Baker,  Segoor  4000'  Nilgiris,  from  British 
Museum  (N.H.)] 

As  indicated  when  describing  pallidum 
(JBNHS  79,  p.153)  suitable  series  from  different 


[435] 


336 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 25 


parts  of  the  country  may  permit  the  description 
of  additional  races.  A series  of  topotypes  is 
also  necessary  to  permit  determination  of  its 
range,  particularly  on  the  west  and  south* 

Measurements  on  p.  352. 

1154a  Pellorneum  ruficeps  pallidum  Abdulali 
(Palkonda  Hills)  Eastern  Ghats  Spotted 
Babbler 

10 : 8 2 $$  ( No.  1259  from  Palkonda 

Hills  is  type) 

2 Shevaroy  Hills  3,500  and  4*000  2.  Chitted  Range 

2000-3000'  Salem  dist.,  6 Palkonda  Hills,  S.  Cuddappah. 

This  subspecies  occupies  the  area  indicated 
by  the  specimens  listed  and  is  bordered  both 
on  the  south  and  north  by  birds  now  accepted 
as  of  the  nominate  race.1 

Measurements  on  p.  352* 

1155.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  grand  Harington 
(Mynall,  Travancore)  Kerala  Spotted  Babbler 

1:240 

3 <$<$  (1*  immature) 

1 Parambicolam,  Cochin  ; 1 Thattakad,  N.  Travan- 
core, 1*  Maraiyur  3500'  Travancore. 

The  bird  from  Maraiyur  shows  a redness 
on  the  upperparts  which  may  be  the  erythrism 
referred  to  by  Deignan. 

In  1839  Jerdon  described  olivaceum  from 
Trichur,  Wadakancheri  and  Manantoddy,  and 
as  suggested  by  the  name  this  was  a ‘ dark 
brownish  olive  above  ’,  but  he  was  admittedly 
not  conversant  with  any  other  Pellorneum  with 
a rufous  head  and  suspected  that  what  he  had 
described  might  be  the  same  as  the  original  P. 
ruficeps.  In  Birds  of  India  (1863,  2,  pt.l.  p.27) 
he  placed  it  in  the  synonymy  of  ruficeps , and 
here  it  remained  and  was  not  referred  to  by 
Harington  who  described  grand  ‘ an  altogether 
much  darker  and  richly  coloured  form  ’ on  the 

1 British  Museum  (N.H.),  Tring,  sp.  No.  1845,  1.10.21 
marked  ‘ Madras  ’ is  quite  indistinguishable. 


basis  of  a specimen  from  Mynall  in  the  British 
Museum  and  another  from  Travancore  received 
on  loan  from  the  Travancore  Museum.  In 
1947,  Deignan  reviewing  the  races  of  this  species 
revived  Jerdon’s  olivaceum  and  restricted  the 
type  locality  to  Trichur  for  ‘ though  within  a 
stone’s  throw  of  the  Nilgiris  ’ (the  type  locality 
of  ruficeps),  it  was  furthest  therefrom  among 
the  three  places  mentioned  by  Jerdon.  Stuart 
Baker’s  extension  of  grand  to  the  Wynaad 
and  Malabar  was  discredited  by  Kinnear  & 
Whistler.  Though  there  is  little  doubt  that 
there  is  a dark  race  in  the  extreme  south-west 
and  Deignan  was  well  aware  of  Jerdon’s  decision 
regarding  olivaceum,  it  does  appear  curious 
that  he  should  have  revived  the  name  without 
examination  of  any  specimen  of  either  this  form 
or  grand. 

When  working  on  pallidum,  the  British 
Museum  (N.H.)  sent  me  a specimen  obtained 
by  H.R.  Baker  at  Segoor  4000',  Nilgiris.  This 
differed  from  those  from  the  extreme  south* 
west  in  having  a paler  back  with  an  olive  wash. 

Allowing  for  the  effects  of  fading  and  the 
variation  in  plumage  over  the  rest  of  India  in 
specimens  attributed  to  ruficeps * this  agrees 
with  one  from  Begur,  Manantoddy,  Wynaad 
(one  of  Jerdon’s  type  localities  for  olivaceum) 
and  others  from  Wynaad,  Malabar,  Mysore* 
Coorg,  Mercara,  Goa,  and  further  north  along 
the  Western  Ghats,  though  the  colour  of  the 
upperparts  does  become  paler  north  of  Bombay. 
The  freshest  (1972)  specimens  from  Goa  have 
their  upperparts  almost  as  dark  as  in  grand 
but  with  an  olive  tinge  above  and  the  spotting 
restricted  to  the  breast.  In  addition  to  the 
general  darkness  of  plumage,  grand  is  more 
heavily  streaked  in  front  and  has  no  touch 
of  olive  above. 

It  would,  in  my  opinion,  be  better  to  leave 
olivaceum  as  a synonym  of  ruficeps  and  accept 
the  name  grand  for  the  darker  bird  in  the  south- 


7 


337 


[436] 


JOURNAL,  BOMBA  Y NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Veil.  79 


West.  The  identity  and  distribution  of  this 
species  in  the  different  hill  ranges  in  the  south- 
west still  requires  a lot  of  clarification.* 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 

1156.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  chamelum** 
Deignan  (Gunjong,  Cachar)  Assam  Spotted 
Babbler 

6 : 3 3 

1 North  C.,  1 Garumara  (?),  1 Cachar  ; 1 Cherra- 
punji,  1 Lait  Kaisen,  Khasi  Hills;  1 Rewa  Tea  Estate, 
South  Sylhet. 

The  rufous  on  the  head  is  paler  than  in  man - 
delli  and  the  upperparts  more  rufous  in  series, 
being  most  pronounced  in  the  bird  from 
Cherrapunji  (1906) 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 

1157.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  pectorale  Godwin- 
Austen  (Sadiya,  Assam) 

2 Tezu,  Lohit  Valley,  N.E.  Assam. 

In  one  of  the  two  the  black  on  the  mantle 
is  more  prominent  than  in  any  under  mandelli . 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 

1158.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  ripleyi**  Deignan 
(Margherita,  Assam)  Lakhimpur  Spotted 
Babbler 

nil. 


* After  completion  of  this  work,  I had  the  opportu- 
nity of  examining  the  large  number  of  specimens  of 
this  species  at  the  British  Museum  (Natural  History) 
at  Tring  which  confirmed  the  general  conclusions 
referred  to  above.  In  the  large  series  from  Matheran 
and  Mahabaleshwar  are  2 juveniles  which  resemble  the 
adults  in  the  colour  of  the  upper  parts,  but  the  spots  on 
the  breast  are  replaced  by  sooty  brown  downy  feathers 
which  form  a band  across  the  breast. 

**  In  the  second  edition  of  the  Synopsis,  (1982)  Ripley 
has  combined  both  chamelum  and  ripleyi  with  mandellii. 


1159.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  vocale  Deignan 
(Kanglatongbi,  Manipur)  Manipur  Spotted 
Babbler 

nil. 

EL.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  stageri  Deignan 

[N’Pon  Village  (on  left  bank  of  Irrawaddy,  15 
miles  north  of  Myitkyina,  Myitkyina  Dist., 
Sagaing  Division,  Burma)] 

2 o ? Kamaing,  Myitkyina,  Burma. 

The  underparts  are  heavily  streaked  on  the 
breast  and  at  the  sides. 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 

EL.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  shanense  Deignan 
(Ma-li-pa, lat.  23°  41'N.,  long.  98°  46'E.  Kokang 
State,  Burmese  WA  State) 

5:  1 4 o ? 

1 Laikaw,  1 N.  Shan  States  ; 1 South  Shan  States 
1 Loikaw , Kantarawadi,  Karenni ; 1 Thaudaway  Karen 
Hills , 20  m north  of  Toungoo , Burma. 

The  dark  centres  to  the  feathers  of  uppermost 
back  obsolescent  and  almost  absent  in  the  last 
specimen  (No.  1286)  which  also  differs  in  having 
very  fine  streaks  on  the  upper  breast. 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 

EL.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  hilarum  Deignan 
[Kyundaw  (lat.  21°  01 'N.,  long.  94d  35'E.) 
Pakokku  Dist.,  Magwe  Division,  Burma] 

1 Maymyo , Mandalay  Dist . 

Rufous  of  head,  crown  and  nape  paler  ; 
feathers  of  uppermost  back  have  the  dark 
brown  centres  less  distinct  than  in  shanense . 

This  single  specimen  is  named  largely  on  the 
basis  of  the  distribution  in  Deignan’s  paper. 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 


1437] 


338 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 25 


EL.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  minus  Hume  (Tha- 
yetmyo,  Thayetmyo  Dist.,  Magwe  Division, 
Burma)  1 : 242 

4:1^3$$ 

1 Kyuzin , Arakan  Yomas;  1 Panktaing,  1 Kanaza , 
Henzada  Dist.,  1 Ngapali,  Sandoway  Dist.,  Burma. 

There  is  some  variation  in  the  colour  of  the 
upperparts  but  they  were  all  placed  with  minor 
(minus)  by  Ticehurst,  JBNHS  37  p.  863. 
The  uppermost  back  is  marked  and  the  breast 
very  sparsely  and  finely  streaked. 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 

EL.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  subochraceum  Swin- 
hoe  (Tenasserim  provinces,  restricted  to 
Moulmein,  Amherst  Dist.  by  Deignan)  Malay 
Spotted  Babbler  1 :239 

2:  1*  1$ 

1 Rangoon,  1 Ataran. 

The  uppermost  backs  are  unmarked  as  in 
Indian  ruficeps  and  granti. 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 

EL.  Pellorneum  ruficeps  insularum  Deignan 
(Domel  Island,  lat.  11°  37'N.,  long.  98°  16'E., 
Mergui  Archipelago,  Mergui  Dist.,  Tenasserim 
Div.,  Burma) 

1 o? 

Mergui,  Tenasserim. 

A poor  skin  but  very  rufous  all  over. 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 

The  Burmese  specimens  have  all  been  marked 
mandelli/minor  by  earlier  workers  prior  to 
Deignan’s  revision. 

1160.  Pellorneum  palustre  Gould  (Cachar, 
Assam)  Marsh  Spotted  Babbler  1 :242 

2:1cm? 

1 Hassemara,  1 Gagaldhubir,  North  Lakhimpur, 
Assam,  £ Wing  64,  62  (62-68) ; bill  14.5,  14  (c.  15) ; 
tail  66,  63  (64-69) 


The  two  specimens  look  very  different  from 
the  picture  in  ind.  handbook  (PI.  70  facing 
p.  176  in  vol.  6). 

1161.  Pellorneum  fuscocapillum  fuscocapillum 

(Blyth)  (Colombo,  Ceylon)  Browncapped 
Babbler  1 :245 

See  under  1163. 

1162.  Pellorneum  fuscocapillum  babaulti 

(Wells)  (Trincomalee,  Ceylon)  Pale  Brown- 
capped  Babbler  1 :245 

See  under  1163* 

1163.  Pellorneum  fuscocapillum  scortillum 
(Ripley)  (Rakwana,  Ceylon)  Dusky  Brown- 
capped  Babbler 

2 : 1 2 1 o? 

1 Walgama > 1 Passava,  Ceylon. 

In  the  absence  of  additional  material  it  is 
not  possible  to  say  if  these  are  darker  or  paler, 
but  if  the  first  place  is  read  4 Weligama  ’ which 
is  at  the  southern  tip  of  the  island,  it  would 
distributionally  appear  to  be  scortillum  as  is 
confirmed  by  some  of  the  colour  factors.  The 
other  has  a darker  bill  and  a deeper  chestnut 
on  the  upper  breast.  v 

? o?  Wing  65,  70  ; bill  16.5,  15.5  ; tail  54,58. 

1164.  Pellorneum  albiventre  albiventre  (God- 

win-Austen)  (Manipur  Valley)  Assam  Brown 
Babbler  1 :243(part) 

4:  2 .Ml?  lo? 

2 Margherita,  Assam ; 1 Gunjong,  N.  Cachar ; i 
Chin  Hills,  Burma. 

Measurements  on  p.  353; 

1165.  Pellorneum  albiventre  sgnotum  Hum£ 
(Sadiya,  N.E.  Assam)  Mishmi  Brown  Babbler 

1:243 

2 Tezu,  Lohit  Valley,  Upper  Assam. 


339 


[438] 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , K?/.  79 


The  one  unbroken  bill  is  much  heavier  than 
in  those  in  1164  above  and  the  colour  much 
deeper  though  this  may  partly  be  due  to  fading 
in  the  nominate  birds  which  were  collected  in 
the  early  part  of  the  century.  See  note  on 
variations  in  species  (Ripley  & Hall,  Ibis  1954 
pp.  486/7). 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 

1166.  Trichastoma  tickelli  assamensis 
(Sharpe)  (Dhollah,  Assam)  TickelFs  Babbler 

1:248 

ll:  5^6  « 

1 Dibrugarh,  8 Margherita,  1 Rewa  Tea  Estate, 
S.  Sylhet ; 1 Gunjong,  N.  Cachar,  Assam. 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 

1167.  Trichastoma  abbotti  abbotti  (Blyth) 
(Ramree  I.,  Arakan)  Abbotts’  Babbler 

1:260 

13  : 10^2$?  1 o? 

1 Sukna,  Darjeeling;  1 Lodrai,  Central  Bhutan  ; 3 
Goma  Reserve,  Goalpara,  1 Doyang,  1 Dibrugarh, 
1 Rewa  Tea  Estate,  S.  Sylhet ; 1 Gawkhand,  2 Cachar, 
Assam  ; 2 Lankapakala,  nr.  R.  V.  Nagar,  Vizag.  Dist., 
A.P. 

The  recent  specimens  from  Lodrai  (1967) 
and  Doyang  (1952)  and  two  males  from 
Lankapakola  show  more  olive-green  and  less 
rufous  on  the  upperparts.  Checklist  vol.  X (1964) 
p.  255  accepts  Koelz’s  amabilis  from  Nichuguard, 
Naga  Hills,  Assam. 

Two  males  from  Lankapakala,  Vizagapatam 
Ghats,  obtained  by  Salim  Ali  on  2nd  and  3rd 
March  1981  show  more  olive-green  and 
are  slightly  larger  than  the  northern 
birds  (wings  79,  80,  tail  51,  53).  The  bills  are 
also  darker.  Comparison  with  fresh  specimens 
from  the  north  and  east  may  warrant  separation. 
They  add  appreciably  to  the  recorded  distribu- 
tion of  the  species. 

Measurements  on  p.  353. 


1168.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii*  leucogaster 

Gould  (Himalayas  = Simla)  West  Himalayan 
Slatyheaded  Scimitar  Babbler  1 : 208 

7:6^1? 

4 Kalka  2500-3000',  1 Bhagat  State,  Ambala  Dist., 
1 Simla  Hills,  1 Bhimtal,  Kumaon. 

See  remarks  under  1169. 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 

1169.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii  schisticeps 

Hodgson  (Nepal)  East  Himalayan  Scimitar 
Babbler  1:207 

9:8^1o? 

2 Bhutan  Duars ; 1 Pashoke,  1 Singhtam,  Teesta 
Valley,  Sikkim ; 1 Mangdechu,  C.  Bhutan,  1 Balasun, 
Darjeeling,  1 Laisung  1 Hungrum,  North  Cachar,  1 
Cachar. 

In  Indian  handbook  (6:129)  the  key  to  sub 
species  requires  that  this  race  should  have  a 
wing  over  100  mm,  and  leucogaster  under  100. 
Only  two  of  the  specimens  available  have  a 
wing  slightly  over  100  mm  and  though  schisticeps 
average  a shade  larger  within  the  limit,  I cannot 
separate  them  by  their  measurements.  Leuco- 
gaster have  a rufous  wash  on  the  upperparts 
while  schisticeps  are  olive-green  and  have  a 
more  distinct  cap.  In  schisticeps  the  bill  is 
higher  and  creates  a more  curved  effect. 

The  specimen  from  Bhimtal,  Kumaon,  agrees 
more  closely  with  leucogaster  though  the  distri- 
bution accepted  in  ind.  handbook  would  make 
it  schisticeps.  The  three  from  Cachar  have 
been  named  by  Dr.  Ripley  to  whom  they  were 
send  for  opinion  as  they  appeared  to  agree 
more  closely  with  mearsi  Ogilvi-Grant 
(Taungdwin,  Chaung  lat.  22°52'N.,  long. 
94°20'E,  (Lower  Chindwin)  as  in  Stuart 
Baker’s  Fauna . 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 


* The  specific  name  has  been  changed  from 
schisticeps  in  synopsis  (1982) 


[439] 


340 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 25 


1170.  Pomatorhimis  horsfieldii  salimalii 

Ripley  (Tezu,  Mishmi  Hills,  N.E.  Assam) 

1 g Sadiya,  Upper  Assam. 

The  single  specimen  has  a broad  band  of 
rufous  round  the  neck,  but  the  ear-coverts  do 
not  appear  noticeably  darker  than  in  those 
under  schisticeps. 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 

1171.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii  cryptanthus 

Hartert  (Margherita)  Lakhimpur  Slatyheaded 
Scimitar  Babbler  1 :207 

2 : 1 $ 1 £ Dibrugarh,  Assam. 

The  pair  from  Dibrugarh  is  a rich  rufous  all 
over  the  upperparts. 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 

1172.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii  ohscurus 

Hume  (Mount  Aboo)  Mt.  Abu  Scimitar 
Babbler  1:211 

3 o ? Mount  Aboo. 

The  upperparts  are  greyer  than  in  horsfieldii 
though  the  variation  in  the  latter  makes  some 
of  them  not  very  different. 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 

1173.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii  horsfieldii 

Sykes  (Mahabaleshwar,  Western  Ghats)  Indian 
Scimitar  Babbler  1:210 

31  : 15  ££  (2  juv.  1 imm.)  16  (1  juv.  2 imm.) 

1 Songadh,  Navsari,  1 Lavcholi,  2 Mahal,  1 Waghai, 
Surat  Dangs,  Gujarat;  1 Chikalda,  1 Pili,  Melghat, 
Berar  ; 1 Bhimashankar,  1 Khandala,  Pune;  1 Thane 
Hills,  1 Malad,  1 Borivli,  Salsette,  Bombay  ; 1 Castle 
Rock,  1 N.  Kanara ; 1 Talewadi,  Belgaum ; 

1 Mercara,  Coorg  ; 1 Sakleshpur,  Hassan,  2 Billaiji, 
Billigirirangan  Hills,  Mysore ; 2 Sankrametta, 

1 Anantgiri,  Vizagapatam  Hills,  5 Bailadilla,  Baster, 
M.  C. ; 1 Berberi,  Puri,  2 Mahendragiri,  1 Rasul, 
H&ndol,  Orissa, 


In  most  specimens  the  head  is  darker  than 
the  back  forming  a varyingly  distinct  cap,  which 
is  never  black  as  in  travancoreensis . The  two 
from  the  Billigirirangan  Hills  can  be  included 
with  the  latter  but  are  left  here  in  deference  to 
Whistler’s  opinion. 

The  3 juveniles  from  Mahal,  Surat  Dangs  (2) 
and  Kamela,  Bailadilla,  Bastar,  have  rufous 
ear-coverts,  rufous  on  the  sides  of  the  white 
plastron  and  a wash  on  the  upperparts.  The 
black  tips  to  the  white  feathers  of  the  lower 
throat  referred  to  in  Indian  handbook  are 
not  visible.  Three  more  from  Bailadilla  listed 
as  ‘ immature  ’ indicate  a later  plumage  in 
which  the  underparts  are  as  in  adults,  but  there 
is  a rufous  wash  above.  These  plumages 
resemble  those  of  the  adult  slaty-headed  races 
from  the  north  and  east  and  a comparative 
study  of  the  juveniles  of  the  several  races  des- 
cribed would  be  of  great  interest. 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 

1174.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii  travancoreensis 

Harington  (Peermade,  Travancore)  Kerala 
Scimitar  Babbler  1 :21 1 

17:  9^6$$  2 o ? 

1 Bandipur,  Mysore;  1 Coonoor,  Nilgiris;  1 Thek- 
kaddy,  Periyar  Lake  ; 1 Munnar,  1 Maraiyur,  3 Devi- 
colum,  High  Range,  N.  Travancore:  4 Shembaganur, 
2 Kodaikanal,  1 Palni  Ghat ; 1 Balamore,  Ashambu 
Hills,  S.  Travancore;  1 High  Wavy  Mountains,  Madura. 

The  darkness  of  the  head  created  by  the  black 
tips  to  the  feathers  varies  to  some  extent  but 
is  the  best  character  for  separating  them  from 
horsfieldii. 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 

1 175.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii  maderaspaten- 

sis  Whistler  (Kurumbapatti,  Salem  dist., 
Madras)  Tamil  Nadu  Scimitar  Babbler 

5:3^1?lo? 


341 


[440] 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


2 Kurumbapatti  (topotypes),  1 Chitteri  Range, 
Salem  dist.  ; 1 Shevaroy  Hills,  S.  Cuddappah, 

1 Palkonda  Hills,  Chitoor,  Tamil  Nadu. 

This  race  is  said  to  lack  the  black  edging  to 
the  white  plastron,  but  in  the  specimens  available 
this  does  not  appear  to  be  a very  distinct  charac- 
ter for  separation  from  the  widely-ranged 
horsfieldii. 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 

1176.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii  holdsworthi 

Whistler  (Chiya,  Ceylon) 

See  below. 

1177.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii  melanurus 

Blyth  [Uragaha  (restricted  by  Whistler) 
Ceylon]  1:212 

5:3^2$$ 

2 Hakgalla,  1 Ratnapura,  1 Kandy,  1 Kudava,  Sinha- 
raja,  Ceylon. 

From  the  literature  available  Nos.  2977 
and  2976  £ both  from  Hakgalla  can  be  listed 
as  of  the  two  races  said  to  occur  in  Ceylon,  the 
male  being  holdsworthi  with  an  olive  brown  back, 
and  the  female  like  all  the  others  with  rufous 
backs.  Only  one  25754)  from  Kudava  has  a 
black  tail  (melanurus  ?) . In  Peters’  checklist 
(1964,  X5  p.  270)  the  race  holdsworthi  is  not 
accepted,  a fact  with  which  Ripley  has  now 
agreed  (in  epist). 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 

EL.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii  nuchalis  Tweed- 
dale  (Thayetmyo,  Burma)  Tweeddale’s  Scimitar 
Babbler  1 :208 

lc?  May  my  o (?),  Burma. 

Wing  85,  bill  25,  tail  82. 

The  ear-coverts  are  olive-grey  like  the  top 
of  the  head. 


EL.  Pomatorhinus  olivaceus  olivaceus  Blyth 
(Ye,  Amherst  dist.,  Tenasserim)  Tenasserim 
Scimitar  Babbler  1:209 

1 £ Zamni  River , Ataran,  Tenasserim , Burma. 

Nominate  olivaceus  is  said  to  be  more  rufous- 
brown  above  than  ripponi , but  one  from  the 
type  locality  of  ripponi,  i.e.  N.  Shan  States  is 
more  rufous  above  ! The  single  specimen  of 
olivaceus  has  its  bill  longer  than  in  those  of  the 
next  race.  Both  olivaceus  and  ripponi  are  listed 
as  races  of  schisticeps  in  Peters’  checklist. 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 

EL.  Pomatorhinus  olivaceus  ripponi  Haring- 
ton  (N.  Shan  States)  Harington’s  Scimitar 
Babbler  1:210 

5 : 1 J 1 $ 3 o? 

1 Loi  Kan , N,  Shan  States ; 1 Sintaung,  12  miles  from 
Taunggyi,  S.  Shan  States , 1 Maymyo;  2 col.  by  J.P 
Cook  but  no  data. 

One  of  the  two  without  data  is  albinoid,  the 
coloured  parts  being  replaced  by  pale  grey. 
The  single  specimen  from  the  N.  Shan  States  is 
more  rufous  than  the  specimen  from  the  type 
locality  of  nominate  olivaceus  q.v.,  but  the 
others  are  greyish  olive  rather  than  rufous- 
brown  above. 

Measurements  on  p.  354. 

1178.  Pomatorhinus  ruficollis  ruficollis  Hodg- 
son (Nepal,  restricted  to  Khatmandu  Valley) 
Rufousnecked  Scimitar  Babbler  1:216 

3 <$<$ 

1 Mandal,  Chamoli,  Garhwal ; 1 Godaveri,  Nepal; 
1 Tongloo,  Darjeeling  dist. 

The  bird  from  Garhwal  may  be  said  to  be 
olive-brown  above,  but  all  three  differ  from 
balceri  in  having  more  prominent  rufous  collars 
on  the  hind  neck.  The  underparts  are  also 
more  brown  and  more  distinctly  streaked  on  the 


[441] 


342 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 25 


upper  breast  than  baked , and  the  hind  claw 
and  tarsus  appreciably  shorter  than  in  all  the 
others  except  the  single  specimen  from  Mt. 
Victoria,  Burma. 

Measurements  on  p.  355. 

1179.  Pomatorhinus  ruficollis  godwini 
Kinnear  (Chungkar,  Trashigong,  Duwengiri 
Road,  S.E.  Bhutan). 

The  specimens  available  from  Sikkim  and 
Bhutan  fall  into  2 groups  (a)  from  Sikkim  and 
Western  Bhutan  with  a bright  rufous  collar, 
the  rufous  spreading  on  to  the  back  which  is 
also  washed  with  rufous  and  (b)  from  eastern 
Bhutan  (presumably  from  nearer  the  type 
locality)  which  are  a deeper  olive,  less  rufous 
above,  and  have  the  white  of  the  upper  breast 
more  broadly  marked  with  brownish  streaks. 
The  western  birds  also  have  their  hind  claw 
and  tarsus  slightly  smaller  though  not  so  small 
as  in  nominate  ruficollis.  Curiously,  only  the 
brighter  birds  are  marked  godwini  by  Salim  Ali 
and  Indian  handbook  refers  to  the  race  as 
the  Sikkim  Rufousnecked  Scimitar  Babbler. 
In  view  of  my  inability  to  map  the  various 
places  mentioned  in  Bhutan  I am  leaving  the 
two  apparent  forms  found  in  this  area  together 
under  godwini  and  leaving  it  to  some  future 
worker  to  disentangle  the  problem  : 

(a)  6:  4 <?<?  2 $ 

1 Temi,  1 Kewzing-Temi,  West,  1 Rinchingpong, 
Sikkim ; 1 China  Kothi,  1 Chapcha,  West  Bhutan  ; 1 
Bomdila,  A.P. 

C b ) 10  : 5 dS  5 $$ 

2 Gedu,  Western  Bhutan ; 2 Shamgong,  Central 
Bhutan  ; 4 Wamrong,  1 Narphong,  1 Rongtong,  Eastern 
Bhutan. 

Measurements  on  p.  355. 

1180.  Pomatorhinus  ruficollis  bakeri  Haring- 
ton  (Shillong)  Harington’s  Rufousnecked 
Scimitar  Babbler  1:217 

3  Shillong,  Assam. 


The  underparts  are  a paler  brown  with  in- 
distinct streaking,  and  altogether  less  rufous 
than  others  from  the  west. 

The  hind  claw  is  also  the  smallest. 

Measurements  on  p.  355. 

EL.  Pomatorhinus  ruficollis  subsp. 

1 o ? Mt.  Victoria , Burma. 

This  (May  1906)  is  rufous  above  and  below, 
much  smaller  than  the  others  and  has  the  rufous 
collar  indistinct.  Though  Indian  handbook 
(6:140)  refers  to  bakeri' s occurrence  mostly 
between  2000  and  3000  metres  on  Mt.  Victoria, 
this  appears  quite  different  in  colour  and  size 
from  those  under  1180. 

Measurements  on  p.  355. 

1181.  Pomatorhinus  erythrogenys  erythro- 
genys  Vigors  (Simla-  Almora  area)  West 

Himalayan  Rustycheeked  Scimitar  Babbler 

1:220 

20:  8^7??  (1  juv.)  5 o ? 

1 Koroar,  Kishtwar,  Kashmir;  2 Taradevi,  1 Patiala  ; 

1 Kalka,  7 Simla;  3 Mornaula,  1 Kumaon  ; 1 Kemol, 
7 m.  north  of,  1 Mussoori,  2 Kanan  Jaunsar,  U.P. 

The  juvenile  is  washed  with  rufous  above, 
more  so  on  the  head,  and  is  paler  rufous  below 
with  a small  white  chin  patch.  One  from 
Kumaon  (No.  1 140)  has  the  chin  faintly  spotted. 

Measurements  on  p.  355. 

1183.  Pomatorhinus  erythrogenys  haringtoni 

Baker  (Darjeeling)  Sikkim  Rustycheeked 
Scimitar  Babbler  1 :220 

20:  14<&J  5??  lo? 

1 Godaveri,  1 Bouzami,  1 Khatmandu,  Nepal;  2 
Rinchinpong,  West,  1 Ranjeet  Valley,  2 Pashok  Tea 
Estate,  Sikkim;  1 Somchi,  West,  5 Tama,  Central,  1 
Deothang,  2 Rongtong,  East,  1 Khosela,  Bhutan, 

1 Kurseong,  1 Longview  Tea  Estate,  Darjeeling. 


343 


[442] 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fu/.  79 


All  three  birds  from  Nepal  have  pale  spots 
on  the  throat  (tending  towards  haringtoni  in 
which  the  spots  are  much  darker)  and  making 
the  whole  throat  grey.  If  Hodgson’s  descrip- 
tion of  ferrugilatus  from  Nepal  applied  to  these 
birds,  would  it  be  reasonable  to  discard  the 
name  as  it  applied  to  an  intermediate  form  and 
then  synonymise  it  with  the  form  with  a pure 
white  throat  (nominate  erythrogenys ),  as  is 
now  done? 

Measurements  on  p.  3 55. 

1184.  Pomatorhinus  erythrogenys  mcclellandi 

Godwin-Austen  (Khasia  Hills)  Assam  Rusty- 
cheeked Scimitar  Babbler  1:221 

6:  lc?3$?2o? 

3 Shillong,  Khasi  Hills,  2 Sadiya,  n.e.  Assam ; 1 
Chin  Hills , Burma. 

Measurements  on  p.  355. 

EL.  Pomatorhinus  erythrogenys  odicus  Bangs 
& Phillips  (Mengtsz,  Yunnan) 

2 o ? North  Shan  State , Burma . 

The  black  markings  on  the  throat  separate 
it  from  other  Indian  & Burmese  races.  They 
were  identified  by  Drs.  Salim  Ali  & Dillon 
Ripley. 

Measurements  on  p.  355. 

1185.  Pomatorhinus  hypoleucos  hypoleucos 
(Blyth)  (Arakan)  Large  Scimitar  Babbler 

1:222 

2 : l^lo?  Rupachena,  Cachar,  Bangladesh. 

Measurements  on  p.  355. 

1186.  Pomatorhinus  ferruginosus  ferruginosus 

Blyth  (Darjeeling)  Sikkim  Coralbilled  Scimitar 
Babbler  1:213 

3:1^2?$ 

1 Tama,  Central  Bhutan  ; 2 hills  around  Benichuga, 
3500',  Upper  Assam. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

[443] 


1187.  Pomatorhinus  ferruginosus  formosus 

Koelz  (Tura  Mountain,  Garo  Hills)  Assam 
Coralbilled  Scimitar  Babbler 

2:1<J1? 

1 Guilong,  1 Hungrum,  N Cachar. 

They  have  a thin  black  line  over  the  super- 
cilium,  the  bills  are  longer  than  in  phayrei,  and 
the  underparts  a richer  rufous,  though  the  cT 
is  darker  than  the  female.  There  must  how- 
ever be  considerable  variation  in  colour  for 
Stuart  Baker  {JBNHS  8:178)  refers  to  nests 
of  ferruginosus  and  phayrei  both  being  found 
at  the  same  place  in  North  Cachar  on  the  same 
day  (as  also  nests  of  Pomatorhinus  erythrogenys 
and  mcclellandi !). 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

1188.  Pomatorhinus  ferruginosus  phayrei 

Blyth  (Arracan)  Mizo  Coralbilled  Scimitar 
Babbler  1:214 

2 : 1 $ 1 o? 

1 Mokichang,  Naga  Hills ; 1 Chin  Hills , Burma. 

Both  have  the  underparts  slightly  paler  than 
in  the  two  marked  formosus.  None  of  the 
four  {formosus  and  phayrei)  have  a distinct 
cap  on  the  head.  The  bird  from  the  Chin 
Hills  is  within  the  accepted  range  of  this  race, 
while  the  bird  from  the  Naga  Hills  should 
according  to  Indian  handbook  (6,  p.  146)  and 
Ripley  ( JBNHS  77  p.  3)  be  formosus.  The 
present  material  however  is  more  in  keeping 
with  Koelz’s  statement  when  describing  for- 
mosus that  those  from  the  Naga  and  Lushai 
(Mizo)  Hills  are  similar  to  phayrei. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

1188a.  Pomotorhinus  ferruginosus  namdapha 
Ripley  (Bhimraj  Camp.  40  m east  of  Miao, 
Noa  Dihing  Road,  27°  4Q'N.,  97°E.  approx., 

Arunachal  Pradesh) 

Sf 

3 : 2 3$  1 ? paratypes 


344 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 25 


The  underparts  of  this  newly-described  race 
are  much  paler  than  in  any  of  the  other  races 
dealt  with,  and  there  is  a black  line  over  the 
white  supercilium  meeting  on  the  forehead. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

1189.  Pomatorhinus  ochraceiceps  stenor- 
hynchus  Godwin-Austen  (near  Sadiya,  Assam) 
Mishmi  Longbilled  Scimitar  Babbler 

1:219 

2 cJ(J  Dening  Valley,  N.  E.  Assam. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

1190.  Pomatorhinus  ochraceiceps  austeni 
Hume  (E.  Manipur)  Hume’s  Scimitar  Babbler 

1:218 

1 ? Mokichang,  Naga  Hills. 

Slightly  washed  with  rufous  on  underparts. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

EL.  Pomatorhinus  ochraceiceps  ochraceiceps 
Walden  (Shan  States)  2:217 

1 $ Yangte , North  Shan  States , Burma. 

The  rufous  on  the  head  merges  into  that  of 
the  back. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

1191.  Xiphirhynchus  superciliaris  superciliaris 

Blyth  (Darjeeling)  Slenderbilled  Scimitar 
Babbler  1 :224 

6 : 3 <?<j  3 o ? 

1 Gedu,  3 Honka,  West,  1 Narphong,  East,  Bhutan  ; 
1 no  data. 

Sp.  No.  20787  with  no  data  has  the  head 
and  chin  different  from  the  others,  but  it  does  not 
agree  with  the  description  of  X.  s.  intextus 
Ripley. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

1192.  Xiphyrhynchus  superciliaris  intextus 
Ripley  (Dreyi,  Mishmi  Hills,  N.E.  Assam) 
Assam  Slenderbilled  Scimitar  Babbler 

nil. 


1193.  Rimator  malacoptilus  malacoptilus 
Blyth  (Darjeeling)  Longbilled  Wren-Babbler 

1:251 

3 gg  Honka,  W.  Bhutan. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

1194.  Napothera  brevicauda  striata  (Blyth) 
(Khasia  Hills)  Streaked  Wren-Babbler. 

1 : 251 

2 : 1<?  1 ? 

2 Margherita,  Upper  Assam. 

In  spite  of  the  specific  name,  the  tail  is  longer 
than  in  the  next  species. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

1195.  Napothera  epilepidota  roberti  (Godwin- 

Austen  & Walden)  (Chakha,  Manipur)  Austen’s 
Small  Wren-Babbler  1:253 

nil. 

1196.  Napothera  epilepidota  guttaticollis 

(Ogilvie-Grant)  (Miri  Hills,  Assam)  Grant’s 
Wren-Babbler  1:254 

2 $$  (1  fledgling),  Margherita,  Assam 

The  fledgling,  downy  and  rufous  all  over 
(with  a deeper  cap)  was  obtained  by  Coltart 
and  marked  Corythocichla  squamata  as  also 
the  adult,  both  within  a week  in  April  1902. 
Squamata  was  described  by  Stuart  Baker  in 
JBNHS  13  p.  403  from  Cachar  and  in  the  next 
volume  p.  626,  hesynonymised  it  with  Napothera 
(< epilepidota ) roberti  which  name  is  marked  on 
the  fledgling  by  a subsequent  worker  too. 
However  squamata  was  described  from  Cachar, 
and  if  the  specific  identification  is  correct  the 
name  should  be  N.  e.  guttaticollis  for  Margherita 
is  in  the  accepted  range  of  this  form  and  not 
roberti.  The  adult  also  has  a reddish  cap. 
The  identifications  have  been  confirmed  by 
Dr.  Ripley. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 


345 


[444] 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Eb/.  79 


1197.  Pnoepyga  albiventer  pallidior  Kinnear 
(Dharmsala,  Punjab)  Western  Scaly  breasted 
Wren-Babbler 

7 : 5 $$  (3  white)  1 ? 1 o ? 

1 Bhagat  State  3500',  1 Koti  State  8300',  1 Keonthal 
State  8500',  1 Patiala  State  5000',  3 Simla. 

The  three  white  birds,  Simla  (2)  and  Bhagat 
State  are  all  males.  Oates  and  Stuart  Baker 
both  held  that  the  males  were  white  and  the 
females  fulvous  below,  but  Indian  handbook 
refers  to  these  differences  as  dimorphic.  I 
have  been  unable  to  find  any  information  as 
to  whether  both  forms  are  found  in  the  same 
flock  or  not.  The  upperparts  of  these  birds 
are  a duller  brown  than  in  the  nominate  race, 
but  these  are  all  older  and  this  may  be  due  to 
fading. 

Measurements  on  p.  356. 

1198.  Pnoepyga  albi  venter  albiventer 

(Hodgson)  (Nepal,  restricted  to  Chandragiri, 
above  Thankot  in  Nepal  Valley)  Eastern 
Scalybellied  Wren-Babbler  1 :458 

16  : 9 $$  (2  white)  3 $$  (2  white,  1 juvenile,  brown) 
4 o ? (2  white) 

1 Moyan  Village,  Nepal;  2 Chungthang,  N.  Sikkim; 

1 Darjeeling  ; 1 Tongloo  ; 2 Monha,  2 Gedu,  2 Chima- 
kothi,  1 Phuntshaling,  West  B#  1 Shangong, 
Central  B. ; - 1 Wamrong,  2 Gornchu,  Eastern 
Bhutan. 

INDIAN  HANDBOOK  6 p.  157  refers  to  each 
feather  on  the  underparts  being  white  (or 
fulvous)  with  a dark  centre  and  6 a narrow 
dark  margin  producing  a very  scaly  effect  \ 
The  scaly  effect  is  certainly  there  but  the  margin 
is  white  and  not  dark.  Here  also  only  one 
white  bird  (1959)  skinned  by  Gobind  Bahadur 
(?)  is  a female.  $ Specimen  No.  2146  a juvenile 
in  brown  plumage  from  Darjeeling  was  sent 
to  Dr.  Ripley  and  he  writes  that  as  it  does  not 
agree  with  the  published  descriptions  it  should 

[445] 


be  recorded  that  the  specimen  is  quite  clearly 
marked  with  narrow  pale  lines  on  the  centre  of 
the  feathers  of  the  breast  giving  a striated 
appearance  and  pale  spots  in  the  centre  of  the 
feathers  of  the  abdomen  and  belly  with  dark 
margins  giving  a scalloped  appearance  which 
is  distinct  from  the  uniform  brown  in  the  earlier 
published  descriptions. 

Measurements  on  p.  357. 

1199.  Pnoepyga  pusilla  pusilla  Hodgson 

(Nepal)  Brown  Wren-Babbler  1 :459 

20:  12&?4?$4o? 

5 Dikchu,  Gangtok,  Sikkim;  1 Buxa,  2 Hasimara, 
Bhutan  Duars;  2 Gedu,  1 Samchi,  West  B.  ; 5 Shaj- 
gong,  Central  Bhutan;  3 Margherita,  1 Laisong,  N. 
Cachar  Hills,  Assam. 

This,  like  the  last,  is  another  extraordinary 
species  with  a white  and  a rufous  phase.  Of 
the  7 white  birds,  6 are  males.  The  most 
consistent  difference  between  this  species  and 
albiventer  is  that  of  the  size  of  the  wing  and 
tarsus  which  are  exclusive.  Both  species  have 
been  obtained  at  Gedu,  West  Bhutan. 

Measurements  on  p.  357. 

1200.  Spelaeornis  caudatus  (Blyth)  (Darjee- 
ling) Tailed  Wren-Babbler  1 :456 

2 $$  1 Honka,  West,  1 Shamgong.  Central  Bhutan. 

Measurements  on  p.  357. 

1201.  Spelaeornis  badeigularis  Ripley  (Drey i, 
Mishmi  Hills,  N.E.  Assam)  Mishmi  Wren- 
Babbler 

nil. 

1202.  Spelaeornis  longicaudatus  (Moore) 
(Khasi  Hills,  Assam)  Longtailed  Wren-Babbler 

1:452 

nil. 

1203.  Spelaeornis  chocolatinus  chocolatinus 

(Godwin- Austen  & Walden)  (Hangrum, 
N.  Cachar)  1 :45Q  & 453 

nil. 


346 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 25 


1 204.  Spelaeornis  chocolatinus  oatesi  (Rippon) 

(Mt.  Victoria)  Chin  Hills  Longtailed  Wren- 
Babbler  1 :455 

nil. 

1205.  Spelaeornis  troglodytoides  sherriffi  Kin- 
near  (Dongna  La  between  Lingtse  and  Trashi 
Yangtsi,  East  Bhutan  10,500')  Spotted  Long- 
tailed Wren-Babbler 

nil. 

1206.  Spelaeornis  formosus  (Walden)  (Darjee- 
ling) Spotted  Short-tailed  Wren-Babbler  1 :449 

1 S Honka,  W.  Bhutan. 

Measurements  on  p.  357. 

1207.  Sphenocichla  humei  humei  (Mandelli) 
(Sikkim)  Sikkim  Wedgebilled  Wren  1:461 

nil. 

1208.  Sphenocichla  humei  roberti  Godwin- 

Austen  & Walden  (Hemes  Peak,  North  Cachar 
hills)  1:461 

nil. 

1209/10.  Stachyris  ruficeps  & S.  rufifrons 

The  identification  of  22  specimens  of  the 
two  species  accepted  as  Stachyris  ruficeps  Blyth 
and  S.  rufifrons  ambigua  Harington  has  re- 
vealed more  ambiguities  than  in  any  others 
which  I can  recall. 

Blyth’s  original  description  of  ruficeps  (1847) 
from  Darjeeling  as  well  as  Hume’s  rufifrons 
from  Pegu  (1873)  referred  to  birds  with  white 
chin  and  throat  and  made  no  reference  to  yellow 
anywhere  in  the  plumage.  Hume  when  des- 
cribing rufifrons  said  it  was  slightly  smaller, 
had  the  rufous  of  the  head  duller  and  not  ex- 
tending to  the  occiput,  the  upper  surface  want- 
ing the  greenish  olive  tinge  and  the  lower 
surface  wanting  the  oil  yellow  tinge  of  ruficeps. 


Blanford’s  Fauna  (1898)  referred  to  a yellow 
chin,  fulvous  yellow  lores  and  whitish  or  dull 
oil  yellow  underparts  in  ruficeps.  For  rufifrons 
it  required  a white  chin  and  throat,  a more 
restricted  rufous  cap  on  the  head  and 4 otherwise 
mostly  as  in  ruficeps  ’. 

In  1914,  Harington  dealing  with  the  Indian 
Timalidae,  upset  some  of  the  earlier  descriptions 
and  named  S.  rufifrons  ambigua  from  Cachar 
as  with  a whitish  chin  and  throat,  not  contrast- 
ing with  the  lower  plumage  and  with  yellow 
lores.  Of  the  new  race,  the  underparts  were 
said  to  be  pale  fulvous  and  not  a rich  tawny 
buff. 

Stuart  Baker  in  the  second  edition  of  the 
Fauna  (1922)  left  ruficeps  with  a pale  yellow 
chin  and  bright  yellow  lores  and  said  that 
in  ambigua  the  chin  was  whitish  and  the  lores 
yellow.  In  recent  years  there  has  been 
more  confusion  and  a footnote  in  Indian 
handbook  (6,  p.  170)  states  the  birds  from  the 
Mishmi  Hills  named  rufifrons  by  Ripley  were 
actually  ruficeps , and  in  Synopsis  (1982  footnote 
to  p.  334)  he  (Ripley)  describes  a new  subspecies 
named  by  Koelz  by  comparison  with  two 
different  species ! 

It  is  evident  that  there  is  considerable  con- 
fusion, and  the  best  I have  been  able  to  do  is 
to  divide  them  into  2 provisional  groups. 

1209.  Stachyris  rufifrons  ambigua  Harington 
(Gunjong,  N.  Cachar)  Red-fronted  Babbler 

1:270 

13:  8<a?4$$lo? 

1 Peshoke,  2,600',  Sikkim  : 1 Deothang,  E.  Bhutan  ; 
1 Dibrugarh,  1 Sadiya,  3 Margherita,  Assam  ; 1 N. 

Cachar;  1 Chakola,  Simlipal  Hills,  Mayur- 

bhang,  1 Mahendragiri,  Orissa ; 1 R.  V.  Nagar, 
2 Sankrametta,  Vizagapatam  Hills,  Andhra  Pradesh. 

The  birds  from  Assam  and  peninsular  India 
in  Orissa  and  the  Eastern  Ghats  can  immediately 


347 


[446] 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


be  distinguished  by  the  white  chin,  pale  brown 
upper  and  tawny  underparts  and  the  absence 
of  any  yellow  on  the  chin  and  lores.  Mr.  Colin 
Harrison  of  the  British  Museum  to  whom  a 
draft  copy  of  this  note  was  sent  has  drawn 
attention  to  the  fairly  distinct  transverse  zone 
of  warm  ochraceous  buff  across  the  upper 
breast  present  in  the  material  at  the  British 
Museum.  This  certainly  separates  all  of  them 
from  ruficeps.  They  also  agree  with  Hume’s 
description  of  rufifrons  from  Pegu,  but  in  the 
absence  of  any  topotype  this  is  admittedly 
insufficient  and  needs  comparison  with  birds 
from  Burma. 

Measurements  on  p.  357. 

1210.  Stachyris  ruficeps  ruficeps  Blyth 
(Darjeeling)  Redheaded  Babbler  1 ;268 

9:3^2?$4o? 

1 Gedu,  West,  1 Shamgong,  2 Batase,  Central,  2 
Gomchu,  IRongtong,  EastBhutan;  1 Darjeeling,  Bengal; 
1 Bomdila,  Arunachal  Pradesh. 

The  bird  from  Darjeeling  is  badly  foxed 
and  is  placed  here  on  the  basis  of  the  name 
placed  thereon  many  years  ago.  The  others 
have  whitish  chins  & throats  streaked  with 
black,  oily  yellow  underparts,  an  olive  wash 
above  and  distinctly  yellow  below.  The  bird 
from  Gedu  is  marked  S.  rufifrons  ambigua  by 
B.  Biswas  and  the  others  have  also  been  accepted 
as  of  this  form.  The  rufous  on  the  head  is 
in  series  more  extensive  than  in  the  1209  above. 
They  agree  more  closely  with  the  original 
description  of  ruficeps , and  lack  the  brownish 
band  across  the  breast.  If  this  radical  correc- 
tion is  not  made,  we  would  have  no  specimens 
of  this  species  in  our  collection. 

There  is  some  variation  in  the  colour  of  the 
underparts  but  without  more  representative 
series  from  different  places  it  is  not  possible 
to  gauge  their  significance. 

Measurements  on  p.  357, 


1211.  Stachyris  pyrrhops  Blyth  (Nepal) 

Black-chinned  Babbler  1:271 

11  : 2(?c?5??4o? 

2 Koti,  1 Bhagat,  1 Kalka,  1 Simla,  1 Simla  Hills; 
1 Dhanaulti,  Mussoorie,  1 Bageshwar,  1 Almora, 
1 Kumaon,  U.P.;  1 Bans  Bahari,  Nepal. 

Measurements  on  p.  358. 

1212.  Stachyris  chrysaea  chrysaea  Blyth 

(Nepal)  Golden -headed  Babbler  1 :265 

(a)  3 : 2<ftJ  1 o? 

1 Gedu,  1 Honka,  West,  1 Tama,  Central  Bhutan. 

(b)  5:  lc?4$? 

4 Miao,  1 Deban,  Tirap  div.,  Arunachal  Pradesh. 

The  birds  from  Miao  (1979)  are  much  brighter 
yellow  below  than  those  under  (a)  the  brighter 
gold  marking  on  the  head  forming  an  eye-stripe, 
while  the  yellow  wash  above  is  more  distinct. 
A $ obtained  in  January  1982  at  Deban  is 
the  brightest  and  it  is  evident  that  the  intensity 
of  colour  diminishes  rapidly  in  a few  years. 

Measurements  on  p.  358. 

1213.  Stachyris  chrysaea  binghami  Rippon 

(Mount  Victoria,  lat.  21°  15  'N.,  long.  93°  55'E., 
Upper  Burma)  1 :266 

3:  2^1? 

1 Ratane,  Dibong  Valley,  Mishmi  Hills,  2 Margherita, 
Assam. 

The  upperparts  are  greyish  olive  and  the 
underparts  with  a very  pale  yellowish  wash. 
Ear  coverts  slaty  green. 

Measurements  on  p.  358. 

1214.  Stachyris  nigriceps  nigriceps  Blyth 

(Nepal)  Black-throated  Babbler  1 :264 

13  : 6<J<?  3??4o? 

1 Pashok  T.  E. ; 1 Dikchu-Gangtok,  Sikkim ; 1 
Samchi,  1 Phuntshpling  West,  2 Mangdechu,  1 Sham- 


[447] 


348 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— IS 


gong,  1 Lodrai,  Central,  Bhutan  ; 1 Hornbill  Camp, 

2 Miao,  Tirap  ; 1 Kolaktong,  Arunachal  Pradesh  ; 1 ? 
(E.  C.  S.  Baker) 

Ripley  has  withdrawn  his  race  coei  (Dreyi, 
Mishmi  Hills)  and  this  facilitates  grouping. 

Measurements  on  p.  358. 

1217.  Stachyris  nigriceps  coltarti  Harington 

(Margherita,  Assam)  Nagaland  Black-throated 
Babbler  1 :265 

8:  3<J<?4  $?lo? 

1 Ratane,  Dibong  Valley,  Mishmi  Hills,  1 Sadiya, 

3 Margherita,  1 Laikensew,  Khasi  Hills ; 1 Dalu, 
1 Kamaing , Upper  Burma. 

These  have  a uniformly  black  chin  and  darker 
underparts  than  the  nominate  form.  Ripley 
has  synonymised  his  race  spadix  (Laisung, 
N.  Cachar)  with  this  form. 

Measurements  on  p.  358. 

1218.  Stachyris  oglei  (Godwin-Austen) 
(Sadiya,  Assam)  Austen’s  Spotted  Babbler 

1:262 

4 : 1 <£  3 

2 Miao,  1 Tirap,  Arunachal  Pradesh;  1 Margherita, 
Assam. 

Measurements  on  p.  358. 

1219.  Dumetia  hyperythra  abuensis  Haring- 

ton (Mount  Abu)  Mt.  Abu  White-throated 
Babbler  1 :230 

5 : 4(J<J  1 $ 

2 Vaghjipur,  Mehsana  Dist.,  1 Cambay  City  Environs, 

1 Dabka,  Baroda,  1 Pandwa,  Surat  Dangs,  Gujerat. 

See  remarks  under  1220. 

Measurements  on  p.  358. 

1220.  Dumetia  hyperythra  navarroi  Abdul ali 
(Khandala)  Whitethroated  Babbler 

17  : 13<J<J  2?$2o? 


2 Padgha,  Bhiwandi,  Thana  ; 1 Goregaon,  1 Ratory, 
Malad,  1 Chembur,  1 Trombay,  Salsette,  Bombay ; 
1 Murud,  Kalyan ; 2 Kihim,  Alibag,  Kolaba ; 5 
Khandala,  1 Lonavla,  Poona  ; 2 Ratnagiri. 

Navarroi  was  described  on  the  basis  of  speci- 
mens from  Khandala,  Salsette  (Bombay),  Pad- 
gha (Thane)  and  Kihim  (Kulabe  District). 
Though  accepted  in  Ripley’s  Synopsis  (1951) 
it  was  synonymised  with  abuensis  in  Indian 
handbook  (1971,  6 p.  178)  with  no  word  of 
explanation.  A re-examination  of  the  material 
available  reveals  that  among  the  whitethroated 
forms,  abuensis  can  be  separated  from  navarroi 
by  the  bright  chestnut  on  the  forehead  extend- 
ing beyond  the  crown  and  in  which  every 
feather  has  a pale  centre  bordered  with  rufous 
creating  a shiny  and  bristly  appearance.  They 
all  have  pale  yellow  bills. 

South  of  this  is  navarroi  (type  Khandala) 
with  the  heads  a deeper  brown  and  the  bills 
darker.  The  feathers  on  the  head  do  not 
show  the  shiny  centres.  In  addition  to  the 
colour  differences,  this  race  is  slightly  smaller 
than  both  abuensis  to  the  north  and  atbogularis 
to  the  south. 

Further  south  the  brown  on  the  head  again 
becomes  chestnut  but  this  is  restricted  to  the 
forehead  and  does  not  extend  as  far  as  the  crown. 
Their  bills  are  paler,  though  not  as  yellow  as 
in  abuensis . 

Under  the  circumstances,  it  seems  advisable 
to  retain  three  races  along  the  western  side  of 
the  country. 

The  two  from  Padgha  (Nos.  20107  and  21877), 
Thane  are  intermediate  with  abuensis  while 
those  from  Ratnagiri  approach  atbogularis. 

Measurements  on  p.  358. 

1221.  Dumetia  hyperythra  atbogularis  (Bly th) 
(Southern  India  restricted  to  Mysore  by 
Baker)  Whitethroated  Babbler  1:229 

25:  15 (J(J  5 o? 


349 


[448] 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HlST.  SOCIETY,  VoL  79 
i Karwar,  i N.  kanara  ; 1 Peermade,  High  Range,  The  key  to  subspecies  in  INDIAN  HANDBOOK  6, 


1  Balamore,  Ashambu  Hills,  Kerala;  2 Billigirirangan, 

1 Shenemanelle,  Coimbatore;  1 Kalhatri,  (J.P.  Cook= 
1894=S.  I.?),  5 Kurumbapatti,  1 Chitteri  Range, 

1 Gingee,  S.  Arcot;  1 Seshachalam,  5 Palkonda  Hills  ; 

1 Kodura,  S.  Cuddapah,  1 Shevaroy  Hills,  1 Nallamalai 
Range  ; 1 Upper  Burma  ?? 

In  the  northernmost  bird  from  Nallamalai 
Hills  the  white  patch  on  the  throat  is  smaller 
than  in  the  others.  In  the  last  the  label  reads 
‘ Upper  Burma  ? ? ’ and  collected  by  a Major 
Radcliffe  and  is  no  doubt  erroneous. 

Measurements  on  p.  359. 

1222.  Dumetia  hyperythra  hyperythra  (Frank- 

lin) (Ganges  near  Benares)  Rufous-bellied 
Babbler  1:228 

22  : 11  <?<J  8 $$  3 o ? 

2  Narwar  Fort,  1 Gwalior  ; 1 Saronj,  Tonk  State, 
Vidisha  ; 2 Chikalda,  Berar ; 2 Paryat,  1 Jubbulpore ; 

1 Gondia;  1 Nelipaka,  1 Borgampod,  1 Kaulas,  1 Palon- 
cha,  Hyderabad ; 1 Chota  Dongar,  1 Amraoti,Bastar ; 

2 Lohatter,  Ranker ; 1 Korlea,  Bilaspur ; 2 Sankra- 
metta,  Vizagapatnam  Ghats,  1 Tikerpara,  Augul  dist., 
Orissa. 

Measurements  on  p.  359. 

1223.  Dumetia  hyperythra  phillipsi  Whistler 
(Kumbalgamuwa,  Ceylon,  3000')  Ceylon  White- 
throated  Babbler 

1 o ? Hambantuta,  Ceylon. 

Bill  heavy  and  pale  brownish  yellow.  Upper- 
parts  dullish  and  with  slight  rufous  on  forehead. 

Measurements  on  p.  359. 

1224.  Rhopocichla  atriceps  atriceps  (Jerdon) 
(Trichoor-Wynaad)  Blackheaded  Babbler 

1:281 

14  : 8 5 $$  1 o ? 

1 Molem,  1 Conacona,  Goa  ; 1 Karwar,  3 N.  Kanara; 
1 Mercara,  Coorg ; 2 Cherambodi,  2 Gudalur,  Nilgiris  ; 
1 Wynaad  ; 2 Honametti,  Billigirirangans. 


p.  182  is  a little  confusing.  The  heads  are 
black  rather  than  dark  brown. 

Measurements  on  p.  359. 

1225.  Rhopocichla  atriceps  bourdilloni  (Hume) 

(Mynall,  Travancore)  Kerala  Black-headed 
Babbler  1:282 

7 : 1 B 4 $$  2 o ? 

1 Thattakad,  North  T.,  1 Tenmalai ; 1 Peermade, 
Central  T.,  1 Ponmudi,  1 Muthukuzi,  Ashambu  Hills, 

1 Kutyani,  South  Travancore  ; 1 Madura. 

There  are  some  differences  in  the  amount 
of  rufous  on  the  upperparts,  but  as  Whistler 
has  stated  they  are  very  liable  to  6 museum 
browning  \ The  colour  of  the  head  of  the 
two  races  is  very  distinct. 

Measurements  on  p.  359. 

1226.  Rhopocichla  atriceps  siccatus  Whistler 
(Kalawewa  N.C.P.  Ceylon)  Ceylon  Dry  Zone 
Blackheaded  Babbler 

2:  1<*1? 

1 Panadura,  1 Bible  (Uva)  Ceylon. 

The  from  Panadura  has  a little  black  on 
the  forehead  and  ear-coverts  and  may  be  of 
the  next  race. 

Measurements  on  p.  359. 

1227.  Rhopocichla  atriceps  nigrifrons  (Blyth) 

(Uragaha,  S.P.,  Ceylon)  Ceylon  Wet  Zone 
Blackheaded  Babbler  1 :282 

3  <J<? 

1 Uragaha,  2 Kudava,  Sinharaja,  Ratnapur  dist., 
Ceylon. 

Masurements  on  p.  359. 

1228.  Macronous  gularis  rtibricapilla  (Tickell) 
(Borabhum,  Bihar)  Yellowbreasted  Babbler 

1:273 

37:  19  eft?  14$$  4 o? 


(449] 


350 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBA  Y NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 25 


The  birds  show  some  variations  in  colour 
but  it  is  not  possible  to  isolate  them.  Birds 
from  the  Himalayas  and  eastwards  are  smaller 
than  those  from  peninsular  India  and  they  are 
listed  separately.  Fresh  specimens  have  more 
yellow  on  the  breast. 

(а)  Peninsular  India  22  : 12  $$  6 $$  4 o ? 

1 Antasante,  Mysore;  1 Lamasinghi,  3 Sankrametta, 
E.  Ghats,  1 Minumulur,  2 R.  V.  Nagar,  Vizagapatam 
dist. ; 1 Antagarh,  1 Dantawara,  Bastar,  M.P.;  1 
Bailadila,  3 Badrama  (Bamra),  2 Berbera,  1 Kutri, 
Daspalla,  1 Barsur,  2 Upper  Barakamra,  1 Orissa ; 
1 Manbhoom,  Bihar. 

(б)  15:  7c?c?8$? 

2 Berrick,  Sikkim ; 1 Lodrai,  2 Gaylegphug,  1 Deo- 
thang,  Central  Bhutan;  1 Kuchigan,  1 Goma  Reserve, 
Goalpara;  2 Sadiya,  1 Dayong,  1 Sonarupa,  Assam  ; 
1 Miao,  Arunachal  Pradesh;  1 Cherapunji,  1 Mar- 
gherita,  Assam. 

Measurements  on  p.  359, 

EL.  Macronous  gularis  ticefaursti  (Strese- 
mann)  [Dudaw  Taung  (lat.  21°05'N.,  long. 
94°  19'E.). 

7 : 5 l 9 l o ? 

I May my o,  1 Thayank,  1 Lindon , Thayetmyo;  1 
Kandian , Prome ; 1 Nagapali,  Sandoway,  Arakan ; 
1 Kyibin , Henzada\  1 Nathan  Village , Bassein , Burma. 

The  finer  streaks  on  the  throat  and  upper 
breast  are  noticeable. 

Measurements  on  p.  359. 

1229.  Timalia  pileata  bengalensis  Godwin- 
Austen  (Khasi  Hills)  Redcapped  Babbler 

1:226 

II  : 5<?c?4$?2o? 

1 Kumaon  Terai,  U.  P.  ; 1 Sukhera,  Darjeeling  ; 3 
Goalpara,  2 Dibrugarh,  1 Lakhimpur,  Assam  ; 1 Miao, 
Arunachal  Pradesh  ; 2 Upper  Burma . 

Measurements  on  p.  360. 


EL.  Timalia  pileata  intermedia  Kinnear  (PegU 
Div.,  Lower  Burma) 

2?? 

1 Sindhi,  1 Tarokman,  Prome , Burma. 

Measurements  on  p.  360. 

1230.  Chrysommasinense  hypoleucum  (Frank- 
lin) (U.P.,  between  Banares  & Calcutta)  Yellow- 
eyed Babbler 

26  : 15  S3  (6  juv.  with  horny  bills)  9 ?<j>  (4  juv.)  2 o? 

1 Lahore;  3 Bahawalnagar,  1 Jallunder,  2 Ambala, 
Punjab;  1 Bhagat  State,  N.  W.  Himalayas;  3 Bharatpur 
4 Jaswantpura  (Sunda  Hills)  Rajasthan  ; 2 Bhuj,  Kutch; 
1 Deesa,  Palanpur,  1 Hingolgadh,  Jasdan,  2 Baroda, 
1 Rajpipla,  Gujarat ; 2 Gwalior,  C.I. ; 1 Jab  balpur, 
M.P.,  1 Chikalda,  Maharashtra. 

The  single  specimen  from  Lahore  has  very 
noticeably  grey  underparts.  Some  specimens 
have  their  caps  rufous,  distinct  from  the  rest 
of  the  upperparts.  This  appears  to  be  a juvenile 
character,  associated  with  a horny  and  not  black 
bill. 

Measurements  on  p.  360. 

1231.  Chrysomma  sinense  sinense  (Gmelin) 

(China)  Y ellow-eyed  Babbler  1:233 

29:  16c?d9$?4o? 

The  birds  from  peninsular  India  were  accepted 
as  of  this  form  by  Whistler  ( JBNHS  35,  p.  745) 
with  the  proviso  that  this  was  due  to  the  sparsity 
of  specimen  from  China  in  the  British  Museum. 
One  of  the  two  available  had  a 105  mm  tail 
which  is  appreciably  longer  than  the  longest 
(97  mm)  in  Bombay.  Separating  hypoleucum 
from  the  north  and  northwest  by  their  greyer 
upperparts,  the  southern  birds  are  noticeably 
darker,  but  paler  than  those  listed  as  sinense 
from  Anantgiri  and  Sankrametta  in  the  Vizaga- 
patam Ghats  and  further  eastwards.  I am  for 
the  moment  placing  them  in  2 groups  : 


351 


[450  ] 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , K>/.  79 


(a)  13  : 7.^499(1  juv.)  2 o? 

Intermediate  in  colour  of  upperparts. 

1 Bhiwandi,  1 Padgha,  Thana;  1 Goregaon,  1 
Trombay,  1 Santa  Cruz,  Bombay;  1 South  Konkan  ; 
1 Terrania  T4  E;,  Nilgiris,  3 Kurumbapatti,  Salem  dist., 
1 Palkonda  Hills,  1 Koduru,  1 Seshachalam  Hills. 
S.  Cuddapah. 

( b ) 16  : 933  5 9?  (1  juv.  with  horny  bill)  2 o ? 

1 Anantapur,  1 Lamasinghi,  2 Sankrametta  (Vizaga- 
patam),  Andhra  Pradesh;  1 Bailadila,  Bastar,  Madhya 
Pradesh,  2 Koira  (Bonai),  1 Chahala,  Simlipal  Hills 
Mayurbhanj,  Orissa;  1 Kesarwala,  Dehra  Dun,  U.P. ; 
1 Darjeeling,  Bengal;  1 Goalpara,  1 Monai,  Assam  ; 
1 May  my  o 1*  Thayetmyo , 1 Sindi,  1 Takmaw , Prome 
dist.,  Burma.  *albino. 

In  Indian  handbook  Ticehurst*s  saturatior 
from  the  Bhutan  Duars  is  synonymised  with 
the  nominate  form,  but  the  single  Specimen 
from  Darjeeling  is  noticeably  darker  than  the 
others. 

Measurements  on  p.  360. 


1232.  Chrysomma  sinense  nasalis  (Legge) 
(Ceylon)  Ceylon  Yellow-eyed  Babbler  1:235 

1 $ Palamalla,  S.P,  Ceylon. 

The  keys  to  subspecies  in  both  Stuart  Baker’s 
Fauna  and  Indian  handbook  refer  to  a black 
nostril  which  is  separated  from  yellow  nostrils 
in  Indian  birds.  This  character  is  hafdly 
visible  in  dry  skins,  but  the  single  specimen  has 
much  less  rufous  in  the  wings  and  on  the  upper- 
parts  and  a very  heavy  bill. 

Measurements  on  p.  360. 

1233.  Chrysomma  altirostre  scindicum 
(Harington)  (Sukkur,  Sind)  Sind  Babbler 

1:237 

nil. 

1234.  Chrysomma  altirostre  griseigularis 

(Hume)  (Assam)  Hume’s  Babbler  1 :236 

2 : \3  1 9 

1 Gagaldhubi,  1 Hassemara,  N.  Lakhimpur,  Upper 
Assam. 

Measurements  on  p.  360. 


1152.  et  al.  Pelldrneum  rufkeps  subspp* 


1152.  punctatum 

2 lo?* 

1153.  mandellii 33  (5) 
mandellii  $9  (6) 

1154.  ruficeps  <$$  (\9) 

1154a  pallidum  33  (9) 
1154.  ruficeps  99(9) 

1154a. 

[451] 


Wing 

69,  76,  76* 

(I,H  as  in  mandelli ) 

67-78  av.  71.8 
(IH  63-75 

67- 72  av.  69.7 
(IH  66-72 

70-79  av.  73  : 9 
(IH  68-78 

68- 78  av.  73.3 

69- 78  av.  71 
(IH  66-73 


Bill 

16.9,  17,  16* 

15-17.5  av.  16.2 
from  skull  18-21 

15.7-17.5  av.  16.4 
from  skull  18-20 

15-18.6  av.  16.7 
from  skull  17-20 

17-18.8  av.  17.3 

14.5-19  av.  16.3 
from  skull  16-20 

17.5,  18.5 

352 


TarsUs 
25,  25,  24* 

21.5- 25  av.  23.1 
27-28 

23.2-25.5  av.  24.5 
27-28 

23.6- 28.5  av.  26 
25-30 

24-27.5  av.  25.5 

24.5-27.5  av.  25.5 
25-21 

24.5,  24.7 


pallidam  99  (2)  70,70 


Tail 
62,  73,  74* 

63-71  av.  67.2 
70-77) 

63-68  av.  65.3 
62-70) 

61-73  av.  67.7 
61-73) 

58-70  av.  65 

56-68  av.  62.4 
57-69) 

64,  64 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 25 


Wing 

Bill 

Tarsus 

Tail 

1155. 

granting  (3) 

74,  75,  75* 

16, 17.2 

25*,  26.3,  27 

66,  66,  67* 

(l*imm.) 

OH  73-76 

from  skull  19-20 

28-29 

66-73) 

1156. 

chamelum  (3)  72,  75,77 

17,18.1,19 

23.5,  23.5,  25.5 

65,  67,  71 

chamelum  ??  (3)  69,  72,  75 

16, 16.2,  16.8 

25.5,  25.5,  25.7 

63,  67,  71 

(ih  as  in  mandelli) 

1157. 

pectorale  (2)  77,  77 

18.1, 19 

23.3,  25.5 

70,  71 

(ih  70-76 

from  skull  18-20 

•• 

67-74) 

EL 

stageri  o ? (2) 

70,  73 

16.5,  17 

25,  25.9 

60  mltg,  72 

EL 

shanense  \ <$ 

74 

16.5 

24.4 

62 

4 o ? 

65,  66,  76,  77 

16.8,  17.5,  16.3,  16.5 

23.3,  23.5,  24,  24.2 

61,  63,  70,  75 

EL 

hilarum  1 $ 

67 

16.9 

26.1 

64 

EL 

mi/iMJ  1 3 

68  (4) 

18.6,  16.6,  17.3,  17.5 

23,  24.2  (2),  24.8 

63,  60,  66,  67 

(C.  B.  Ticehurst  JB  36  p.  922  measures  the  wings  of  2 $$  as  70  mm  ; 2 $$  65.5, 66) 

EL 

subochraceum 

66,  63 

16, 15 

22.5,  21.6 

61,52 

1<?  1$ 

(Fauna  62-68  av.  about  64) 

EL 

insularum  1 o ? 

64 

15.6 

23.5 

60 

S'" 


1164-1165  Pellorneum  albiventre  albiventre/ignotum 


1164. 

albiventre  (2) 

56,  57 

13,  15.1 

20,22.1 

53,  56 

(ih  58-60 

from  skull  14-15 

22 

47-59) 

1165. 

ignotum  (2) 

58,  61 

18.7 

22.5,  23 

47,  48 

(ih  58-60 

from  skull  15 

22 

43-49) 

1164. 

albiventre  $ (1) 

57 

13 

21 

50 

(ih  53-58 

from  skull  14-15 

. . 

40-56) 

1166. 

Trichastoma  tickelii  assamensis 

<tt(5) 
$?  (6) 

64-68  av.  66.6 
62-69  av.  63.3 
(<J?  64-67 

13.5-15.2  av.  14.4 
14.3-14.7  av.  14.5 

25-26.7  av.  26.4 
21-27  av.  25.3 

* • 

49-56  av.  53.4 
45-55  av.  50 
50-55) 

1167.  Trichastoma  ahbotti 

abbotti 

<?c?  (8) 

99  (2) 

74-77  av.  75 
75,78 
(iHcJ?  74-80 

17.5-20  av.  18.4 
~ 17.5-20 

from  skull  20-21 

22.5-25  av.  24 
25,26 
25-26 

38,  44-52  av.  48 
46,51 
47-52) 

8 


353 


[452  ] 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


1168 . et  al.  Pomatorhinus  horsfieldii  subspp. 

Wing 

Bill 

Tail 

1168.  leucogaster  (6) 

94-100  av.  97.6 

25.7-29  av.  28 

99-107  av.  102.1 

leucog aster  $ (1) 

97 

28.5 

103 

(cJ9  85-95  generally  c.  90-91  mm.) 

1169.  schisticeps 

M (8) 

94-101  av.  98.3 

28-30  av.  28.8 

95-103  av.  99.2 

(ih  98-107 

from  skull  31-32 

104-115) 

$$ 

(ih  93-100 

from  skull  31-32 

106-110) 

1170.  salimalii  <J  (1) 

95 

29.5 

93 

(ih  94,  97 

from  skull  31,  33 

95,  99) 

1 171 . cryptanthus 

95,  94 

29+,  26.5 

91,97 

(ih  as  in  schisticeps ) 

1 172.  obscurus  o ? (3) 

95,  95,  97 

26.5,  28.7,  30.5 

96,  96,  97 

(ih  7 Bill  from  skull  32-35,  other  measurements  as  in  horsfieldii  < 

Whistler) 

1173.  horsfieldii  $$  (12) 

97-101  av.  98.8 

27-32  av.  30.3 

92-101  av.  97 

(ih  91-100 

from  skull  29-35 

95-102) 

horsfieldii  (13) 

89-98  av.  94.4 

27.2-32.5  av.  30.2 

89-100  av.  94 

(ih  89-98 

from  skull  29-35 

92-108) 

1 1 74.  travancoreensis  $$  (9) 

90-101  av.  95.2 

23.7  av.  27.3 

92-102  av.  96 

(ih  90-104 

from  skull  27-38* 

94-107) 

1174.  travancoreensis  ??  (6) 

90-96  av.  93 

24-28.3  av.  26.2 

91-98  av.  94 

(ih  85-98 

from  skull  28-33 

93-100) 

1175.  maderaspatensis  <$<$  (3) 

94,  99,  100 

29,  29.3,  30.4 

95,  99,  101 

(ih  89-100 

from  skull  29-33) 

94-103) 

maderaspatensis  $ (1) 

94 

29.5 

92 

(ih  90-98 

from  skull  30-38 

91-98) 

1 1 77.  melamrus  <$$  (3) 

90,  90,  91 

25,  25.2,  27.5 

84,  87,  88 

(ih  88-90 

from  skull  28 

84-89) 

melanurus  $$  (2) 

87,  89 

22.7,  24 

84,  85 

(ih  86 

from  skull  28 

84) 

EL  Pomatorhinus  olivaceus  subspp. 

Wing 

Bill 

Tail 

nominate  olivaceus  1 

93 

27.4 

90 

(90-96 

27-28 

100-106) 

ripponi  1 $ 1 $ 

89,  84 

23.5,  23.6 

93,85 

3 o? 

89,90,  91, 

24.2,-,- 

90,  92, 94 

(<?  $ 85-88 

27-28 

95-98) 

[453] 


354 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBA  Y NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 25 


1178.  et  al.  Pomatorhinus  ruficollis  subspp. 
Wing  Bill  Tail 


Tarsus 


Hind  claw 


1178.  nominate  ruficollis  $$  (3)  77,  80,85  19.5,  22.2,23.6,  85,  86,90 

(ih  <$$  ex.  Kinnear  76-83  from  skull  22-23  80-87 


1179.  godwini(a)  (4) 

$9(2) 

godwini  (b)  <&?  (5) 


99(5) 


1180.  bakeri  (3)  <$<$  (3) 


EL  Burmese  subspp  ? ? 
(sp.  No.  1130 


79  (2),  80  (2)  20.5  (3),  22 

80,81  21,22.5 

82-86  av.  84.4  21-22.3 


(ih  78-86 

80-82  av.  81 
(ih  76-80 

84,  86,  87 
(ih  ex.  77-84 

71 


from  skull 
22-26 
21-22.5 
from  skull 
22-24 

20.7,  21.5,  — 
18.5 


25.6,26,28.4  10.4,  11,  13 

31-34  11-12) 

23,27.5(2),  12.8,  13.8,14, 

29.5  14.5 

27,  27.2  12.6,  14 

83r95av.  87.6  28-32  av.  30.4  13.5-15.  3 av. 

14.4 

30-34  12-14) 


82(2),  85 

80,  85 
83r95 

81-95 


84-89  av.  86 
80-92 

88  (2).  90 

• • 

78 


30-32.5  av.  31.4  12-13  av.  12.6 
30-37  12-15) 

28.5,  29.5,  30.5  9.5,  10.2,  10.4 

..) 


28.5 


8.7 


1181.  et.  al.  Pomatorhinus  erythrogenys  subspp. 


Wing 

Bill 

Tarsus 

Tail 

1181. 

erythrogenys  (8) 

97-102  av.  99.6 

33-35.5  av.  33.9 

32.  0-36  av.  34.2 

90-107  av.,  99.4 

(IH  95-101 

from  skull  36-39 

36-38 

96-108) 

1183. 

haringtoni  (14) 

92-100  av.  96.4 

31.3-38  av.  33.6 

32.5-35.5  av.33.5 

98-102  av.  94.2 

(ih  92-99 

from  skull  34-39 

36-40 

91-103) 

1184. 

mcclellandi  (1) 

86 

29.1 

29.5 

90 

(ih  86-96 

34-37 

36-40 

91-101) 

99 

1181. 

erythrogenys  (6) 

94-101  av.  97.3 

30.5-33.3  av.  31.9 

31.4-35  av.  33.9 

93-100  av.  97 

(ih  90-96 

from  skull  35-39 

36-38 

95-99) 

1183. 

haringtoni  (5) 

90-101  av.  95.4 

30.3-34  av.  32.5 

31.5-34.5  av.  32.7 

87-101  av.  95.2 

(ih  88-93 

34-35 

35,  36 

96  (1)) 

1184. 

mcclellandi  (3) 

90,  86,  82 

27.2-27.5,  28.7 

29,  31.5,  33.5 

82,  85,  88 

EL 

odicus  2 o ? 

86,  93 

31.8  (2) 

33,  32 

84,  97 

l<?lo? 


1185.  Pomatorhinus  hypoleucos  hypoleucos 


109,107  38,— 

(ih  1 <M$  103,  102  from  skull  45,  41 


95,  92 

91,  90  both  worn) 


355 


38.4,  36.5 
41,41 


[454] 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , PW.  79 


11 86-1 188a.  Pomatorhinus  ferruginosas  subspp. 


Wing 

Bill 

Tarsus 

Tail 

1186.  ferruginosus  S (1) 

89 

28.5 

29.1 

92 

??  (2) 

87  (2) 

27,  27.8 

29,  30.1 

95  (2) 

(jh  <?$  87-95 

27-28 

29-30 

99-110) 

1187.  formosus  1<?  1? 

100,  89 

29.5,  29 

32.2,  30.6 

97,  85 

1188.  phayrei  1?  lo  ? 

95,  90 

27.5  (2) 

30.5,  30.6 

105,  92 

1188a.  namdapha  1? 

93,  97,  92 

30,30.2,  28 

32,  34,  29 

99,  96,  98 

1189-1190.  et.  al.  Pomatorhinus  ochraceiceps  subspp. 

1189.  stenorhynchus 

90,  93 

35.2,  37 

29,  29.5 

101,102 

<#(2) 

(IH  90,  94 

from  skull  34,  38 

EL  nominate 

89 

32 

29.5 

101 

ochraceiceps  S (1)  (86-92 

30-32 

about  32 

c.  105-110) 

1190.  austeni  1 $ 

91 

34 

30 

105 

(ih  ex  Mayr  92 

from  skull  36-37 

•• 

104-107) 

1191.  Xiphirhynchus  superciliaris  supreciliaris 

(3) 

77,  82,  86 

50.5,  52.5 

29  (2).  30 

81,  88,  92 

o ? (2) 

78,  87 

. , 

27.5,  28.5 

80,  88 

(ih  74-83 

from  skull  43-57 

28-35 

82-92) 

1193. 

Rimator  malacoptilus 

Af(3) 

56,  57,  58 

20.2,  20.7,  21.2 

20,  22.6,  23 

28  (2),  29 

1194. 

Napothera  brevicauda  striata 

Ul$ 

62,  58 

14,  15 

21.6,  21 

37,  33 

(ihc??  56-61 

c.  16 

c.  24 

c,  44-46) 

1196. 

Napothera  epilepidota  guttaticollis 

2 $?  (1  fledgling) 

i 57, 45 

18.5,  — 

19.2, 17 

« • 

(c??  50-55 

12-13 

c.  18 

Cm  18) 

1197/98.  Pnoepyga  albiventer  subspp. 

1197.  pallidior  ( 5) 

60-62  av.  61.2 

12.5-13  av.  12.6 

21-22  av.  21.8 

14-20  av.  17.2 

white  only  (3) 

60,  61,61 

12.5, 12.6,  13 

21,21.5,  21.8 

14, 19,  20 

[455] 


356 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 25 

- • • V • - ' 


1198. 

albiventer  (9) 

Wing 

58-63  av.  61 

Bill 

11.5-13  av.  12.3 

Tarsus 

21-23.  6 av.  22.3 

Tail 

White  only  (2) 

61,62 

11.7,  13 

21,  23.6 

. . 

1197. 

$? 

pallidior  (1) 

59 

12 

21 

1198. 

albiventer 

59,  62 

11.5,  11.5 

23,  22.5 

# # 

white  only  (2) 

(ih  1197/8  cJ?  57-65 

from  skull  13-15 

23-25 

17-23) 

1199.  Pneoepyga  pusilla  pusilla 

Af  (12) 

47-50.5  av.  49 

11-15  av.  12.4 

16-19.5  av.  17.8 

13-17  av.  15 

??  (4) 

48-51  av.  49.5 

11.7-12.6  av.  12.2 

16-20  av.  18.1 

13,14,  14 

(iHtf?  48-53 

from  skull  12-14 

18-20 

12-15) 

1200.  Spelaeornis  caudatus 


2 <J<J 

45,  45 

11.2,12.2 

16.4,  19.4 

24,  28 

(ih  45-49 

from  skull  11-12 

18 

27-35) 

1206.  Spelaeornis  formosus 

1<J 

46 

c.  12 

17.2 

27 

(ih  46 

from  skull  14 

18 

30) 

1209.  Stachyris  rufifrons  ambigua 

(4)  Assam  & 51-54  av.  52.5  12-14.3 

15.6-19 

43-47 

north 

SS  (4)  Orissa 

54-56  13.3-13.7 

14.7-19.5 

49-51 

$$  (4) 

49,50,  51,  53  13.2,  11.9,12.5,  13 

17.5, 15.3, 15.5,  16 

49,  43  (3) 

o?(l) 

51  13 

19 

43 

(ih  <?$  50-56  from  skull  13-15 

17-22 

43-51) 

1210. 

Stachyris  ruficeps  ruficeps 

(4) 

58, 57,  56  (2) 

15, 12, 13,  14 

20.5  (2),  22  (2) 

49,  48,  46  (2) 

(m  53-58 

from  skull  15-16 

17-20 

50-52) 

??  (2) 

56,  52 

13,  12.7 

17  (2) 

44(2) 

(ih  54 

. . 

. . 

..) 

P?(3) 

57,  56,  55 

16, 13.7,13.3 

18,  20.5,  21.6 

46,  50,  mltg 

357 


[456] 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , kb/.  79 


1211.  Stachyrls  pyrrhops 


Wing 

Bill 

Tarsus 

Tail 

o ? (3) 

57,  56,  55 

16,  13.7,  13.3 

18,20.5,  21.6 

Tail  mltg.,  46,  50 

<J(2) 

54,  56 

13.5,  13.9 

18.1, 19.7 

49,  51 

(ih  52-56 

from  skull  15-16 

c.  18 

48-52) 

??  (5) 

51-55  av.  52.7 

11.7-12.5  av.  12 

15.2-18.6.  av.  17 

45-50  av.  50.8 

(ih  50-54 

from  skull  15-16 

•• 

45-51) 

1212. 

nominate 

1212/13.  Stachyrls  chrysaea  subspp. 

(a)  2<M  1 o? 

50,  54,  47 

11.5,  11.6, 11.2 

16.3, 16.6,  15.7 

43,  44, 41 

(b)  1 3 

53,  50,  51  (2) 

11.5, 10.8,11.5,11.6 

18.5,  15, 16.7,  17.9 

47,  43  (2),  48 

47-56 

from  skull  13-14 

17-19 

40-50) 

1213. 

binghami  2 ? 54,  54,  53 

13.3,  12.2,  11.8 

17.9,  15,  16.2 

48,  48, 49 

(ih  as  in  1212) 

c?<? 

1214/7.  Stachyrls  nigriceps  subspp. 

1214. 

nominate  (6) 

57-62  av.  59.6 

15.3-17.5  av.  16.6 

19-21  av.  20.4 

47-53  av.  49.5 

(ih  52-62 

from  skul  17-19 

21-22 

50-56) 

1217. 

coltarti  (3) 

56,  58,  61 

16,  16.5,  17.5 

21,21.5,  22 

46,  47,  51 

(ih  as  in  1214) 

1214. 

nominate  (3) 

56,  60,  60 

17,  15.7,  15.5 

20.5,  21,  21.5 

48,  48,  50 

(ih  56-63 

from  skull  17-18 

21-22 

47-51) 

1217. 

coltarti  (4) 

58,  60  (3) 

16.8,  17,  17.1, 18.7 

19.5,  19.6,  20.6,  21 

48,  51,  52  (2) 

1218.  Stacbyris  oglei 

c?(l) 

72 

20.6 

25.5 

58 

(Fauna  <$$  6 8-76 

c.  17 

c.  27 

c.  53) 

??  (3) 

70,  71  (2) 

18.7, 19.3,  20.6 

22.7,  24.5,  25.5 

53,  58,  60 

(ih  $ 63 

from  skull  20 

26 

53) 

1219/1223,  Dumetia  hyperythra  subspp. 

1219. 

abuensis  dd  (4) 

56-58 

13.5, 14.2,14.3 

19.3-20.5 

60-65 

abuensis  $ (1) 

56 

13.7 

17 

63 

(ih  as  in  1221) 

1220. 

navarroiSS  (12) 

53-56  av.  54.9 

12.5-14.5  av.  13.5 

16.2-19.5  av.  18.3 

54-61  av.  58.4 

navarroi  (2) 

54,  55 

13.6, 13.8 

18.2, 18.5 

57,  59 

[457] 


358 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  COLLECTIONS— 25 


Wing 

Bill 

Tarsus 

Tail 

1221. 

albogularis  $$  (15) 

54-60  av.  57.5 

13.5-15.2  av.  14 

15.5-20.2  av.  18.9 

58-66  av.  63 

(ih  53-65 

from  skull  14-15 

18-20 

59-69) 

albogularis  $?  (5) 

54-59  av.  55.8 

12-15.5  av.  13.5 

16.1-20.5  av.  18.5 

57-67  av.  60 

(ih  52-58 

from  skull  14-15 

18-21 

55-69) 

o ? (5) 

54-59  av.  57.2 

13-15  av.  13.8 

16.6-19.6  av.  18.6 

49-65  av.  57 

1222. 

f 

3 

s. 

as 

/-s 

50-57  av.  55 

11.3-14.4  av.  13.5 

15.3-20.5  av.  18 

52-64  av.  59.  7 

(ih  53-58 

from  skull  13-14 

19-21 

57-64) 

$$  (8) 

51-55  - 53.2 

12-13.4  av.  12.8 

12-20  av.  16.6 

48-60  av.  55.6 

(ih  52-55 

from  skull  13-14 

19-20 

58-63) 

1223. 

phillipsi  1 o ? 

54 

13.5 

18.6 

51 

(ih<?$  54-59 

from  skull  14-15 

19-20 

54-63) 

1224/7.  Rhopocihla  atriceps  subspp. 

1224. 

atriceps  (8) 

58-62  av.  60 

15.3-16,7  av.  16.1 

18.2-21.5  av.  20 

46-54  av.  49 

1225. 

bourdilloni  (1) 

56 

15.4 

21.5 

49 

1224/5 

(ih  55-61 

from  skull  14-16 

. . 

46-52) 

9$ 

1224. 

at  iceps  (5) 

55-60  av.  58 

15.2-16.4  av.  15.6 

19.8-21.5  av.  20.6 

45-51  av.  48 

1225. 

bourdilloni  (4) 

56,  57  (2),  60 

143, 14.6,  15.1 

16.4, 19.5,  21.5,  21.8 

45  (3),  46 

1224/5 

(ih  54-58 

from  skull  14-16 

21-22 

43-48) 

1226. 

siccatus  $ 

55  (ih  55-60) 

15,  (from  skull  14-16) 

20.7,  (21-23) 

46  (43-50) 

1226. 

siccatus  9 

53  (ih  54-60) 

15  (from  skull  14-15) 

20.5  (21-23) 

45  (42-48) 

1227. 

nigrifrons  (3)  57  (2),  58 

15.3  (2),  16 

20.5,  21,32 

45,  46,  47 

(ih<?  59-60 

from  skull  15 

22-23 

(44-48) 

($  56,  58) 

from  skull  15 

22-23 

44) 

<?<? 

1228. 

et  al.  Mammons  gularis  subspp. 

1228. 

rubricapilla  (a)  (10)  59-62  av.  60.5 

13-16.7  av.  14.5 

16-20  av.  17.5 

51-57  av.  52.3 

1228. 

rubricapilla  (6)  (6)  57-58  av.  57.5 

14-15.5  av.  14.7 

15-18.4  av.  16.8 

45-50  av.  48 

(ih  55-63 

from  skull  14-16 

17-19 

47-57) 

EL. 

ticehursti  (5) 

56-61  av.  58.6 

14.2-15.6  av.  15 

16.5-18.2  av.  17.5 

47-53  av.  50.6 

$9 

1228.  etal. 

Macronous  gularis  subspp. 

1228. 

rubricapilla  (a)  (6)  57-59  av.  58.5 

13.5-15.4  av.  14.1 

16-20  av.  18.5 

49-54  av.  50.8 

1228. 

rubricapilla  ( [b ) (7)  54-58  av.  56 

13.2-15.7  av.  14.4 

15-21.  av.  17 

45-48  av.  46.5 

(ih  52-61 

from  skull  14-16 

18-19 

46-55) 

EL. 

ticehursti  9 (1) 

55 

14.9 

14.5 

49 

359 


[458] 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


1229.  et  al.  Timalia  pileata 


wing 

Bill 

Tarsus 

Tail 

bengalensis  (5) 

61-62  av.  60.6 
(ih  58-62 

15.3-17.  av.  16.3 
from  skull  18-19 

21.5-22.5  av.  22 
23-24 

63-66  av.  64 
65-71) 

bengalensis  $$  (4) 

57-61  av.  59 
(ih  56-60 

15-18  av.  16 
15-17 

21.6-23.5 
c.  22 

av.  22.7 
c.  66) 

intermedia  $$  (2) 

61,65 

15.4, 16.5 

21- 

71,72 

smithi  o ? 

58,  62 

16.7,  17.6 

22.7,  23 

» — 

1230/32. 

Chrysomma  sinense  subspp. 

1230. 

hypoleucum  (9) 

62-70  av.  66.1 

12.1-13.7  av.  12.7 

22.8,26  av.  24.1 

76-95  av.  86.5 

hypoleucum  juv.  (6)  62-69  av.  65.6 
(ih  61-71 

11.5-13.3  av.  12.1 
from  skull  14-15 

22.8-26.4  av.  24.9 
22-27 

67-97  av.  80.2 
80-104) 

1231. 

sinense  (a)  (7) 

63-67  av.  65 

11.7-14  av.  13 

23-27.1  av.  25.7 

60-90  av.  81.2 

sinense  (b)  (9) 

64-72  av.  67.5 
(ih  62-70 

12.6-14.5  av.  13.5 
from  skull  14-15 

23.1-26.2  av.  25.1 
22-27 

74-90  av.  80.3 
73-102) 

1230. 

hypolecum  (9) 

64-68  av.  65.5 
(ih  61-67 

11.5-13.5  av.  12.2 
from  skull  13-16 

21.8-26.7  av.  24.2 
25-27 

83-97  av.  88 
84-94) 

1231. 

sinense  (a)  (4) 

62-70  av.  65.2 

12.8-13.7  av.  13.3 

25-26.5  av.  25.8 

62-83  av.  73.2 

„ (b)(4) 

(ih  62-70 
62-70  av.  66 

from  skull  13-16 
10.7-14.1  av.  12.5 

25-27 

23-26  av.  24.8 

78-100) 

74-87  av.  79.; 

1232. 

nasalis  (1) 

65 

(ih  63-69 

14 

from  skull  14 

24 

24-25 

74 

72-79) 

(To  be  continued) 


[459] 


360 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


A NEW  SPECIES  OF  THE  GENUS  ASOPUS  (HETEROPTERA : 

PENTATOMIDAE)1 

M.  Nayyar  Azim  and  S.  Adam  Shafee2 
(With  a text-figure) 


Asopus  rufus  sp.  nov. 

(Fig.  1 A-D) 

Head  (fig.  A)  : Reddish  and  finely  punctate* 
vertex  with  a dark  spot  on  inner  margin  of  each 
ocellus  ; juga  as  long  as  tylus,  lateral  margins 
sinuate  before  eyes ; eyes  dark  brown  ; space 
between  ocellus  and  inner  orbital  margin  more 
than  one-half  the  inter-ocellar  space.  Rostrum 
reddish  yellow,  extending  near  hind  coxae  ; 
segments  I,  II,  III  and  IV,  1.3,  1.9,  0.79  and 
0.46  mm  in  length  respectively.  Antennae 
(fig.  1 B)  dark  except  first  segment  red  ; seg- 
ments I,  II,  III,  IV  and  V,  0.42,  1.9,  0.98,  1.5 
and  1.6  mm  in  length  respectively. 

Thorax  (fig.  1 A) : Reddish  and  finely 
punctate  with  two  small  triangular  spots  on 
anterior  area  of  pronotum  and  two  rounded 
spots  on  each  basal  angle  of  scutellum  dark ; 
pronotum  with  anterior  margin  slightly  concave> 
maximum  width  of  pronotum  more  than 
twice  its  median  length,  humeral  angles  sub- 
acute ; scutellum  gradually  narrowing  and 

1 Accepted  March  1981. 

2 Department  of  Zoology,  Aligarh  Muslim  University , 
Aligarh-202  001,  (U.P.) 


acuminate  apically,  slightly  longer  than  wide  ; 
metastemal  scent  gland  ostiole  with  peritreme 
moderately  long  and  raised  apically.  Hemelytra 
(fig.  1 C)  with  corium  red  and  finely  punctate, 
membrane  infuscated.  Legs  : coxae,  trochan- 
ters and  femora  red  ; tibiae  except  outer  and 
inner  margins  and  tarsi  dark. 

Abdomen : Dorsum  and  connexiva  red,  venter 
whitish  except  apex  dark  ; venter  basally  with  a 
small  tubercle. 

Body  length  : 11.9  mm. 

HolotypeQ.  India:  Uttar  Pradesh,  Agra,  on 
grass,  15.  xi.  1979  (M.  Nayyar  Azim) 

The  new  species  is  closely  related  to  Asopus 
malabaricus  (Fabricius)  but  can  be  separated 
by  the  following  characters  : 

Head  (fig.  1 A)  reddish  with  two  small  dark 
spots  between  ocelli : space  between  ocellus 
and  inner  orbital  margin  more  than  one-half 
the  inter-ocellar  space  ; antennal  segment  first 
red,  second  less  than  twice  the  length  of  third 
(fig.  1 B) ; scutellum  (fig.  A)  gradually  narro- 
wing apically  ; hemelytra  (fig.  1 C)  with  corium 
completely  red;  legs  with  coxae,  trochanters  and 
femora,  abdominal  dorsum  and  connexiva 
completely  red. 


361 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol  79 


ftiffirasatei 


362 


Fig.  1 A-D.  Asopus  rufus  sp.  nov.,  $;  (A)  Head  and  thorax  in  dorsal  view  ; (B)  Antenna  ; (C)  Hemelytra  ; (D)  Fore  leg. 

{See  Overleaf) 


FIRST  RECORD  OF  GENERA  NIPHADONYX  DALLA  TORRE 
AND  ISCHNOPUS  FST.  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  TWO 
NEW  SPECIES  FROM  INDIA  (COLEOPTERA  : 
CURCULIONIDAE  : HYLOBIINAE)1 

H.  R.  Pajni  and  Sukesha  Sood2 
( With  eleven  text-figures) 


Introduction 

We  have  collected  35  species  of  the  subfamily 
Hylobiinae  under  a 5 year  PL-480  Project  on 
Indian  Curculionidae.  Fourteen  of  the  species 
collected  were  new  to  science.  Two  of  these 
species,  one  each  under  genus  Niphadonyx 
Dalla  Torre  and  Ischnopus  Fst.  are  being  repor- 
ted in  this  communication. 

Previous  work  on  Indian  Hylobiinae  consists 
of  accounts  of  individual  species  by  different 
workers  but  the  characters  of  Indian  genera 
have  been  elaborated  and  keys  for  them  have 
been  proposed  by  Marshall  (1932)  and 
Aslam  (1963). 

The  monobasic  genus  Niphadonyx  Dalla 
Torre  was  first  erected  by  Faust  (1886)  as 
Heteronyx , which  being  preoccupied  was 
replaced  by  the  present  name  by  Dalla  Torre 
et  al.  (1932).  The  genus  was  typed  on  N. ferns 
Fst.  from  Pamir.  The  type-species  and  a new 
species  have  been  collected  and  studied  by  the 
authors,  marking  the  first  report  of  this  genus 
from  India.  The  elaborated  characterization 
of  genus  and  description  of  the  new  species 
are  recorded  below.  The  information  on  male 
and  female  genitalia  of  the  type  species  of  genus 
Niphadonyx  Dalla  Torre  is  recorded  and  key 
to  the  species  of  the  genus  is  also  given. 

x Accepted  January  1981. 

2 Department  of  Zoology,  Punjab  University,  Chandi- 
garh-160014 (India). 


Genus  Niphadonyx  Dalla  Torre 

Head  with  frons  as  broad  as  or  broader  than 
base  of  rostrum  ; eyes  lateral,  small.  Prono- 
tum  with  basal  margin  rounded ; prosternum 
deeply  excavated.  Elytra  truncate  at  base, 
without  marked  shoulders.  Mid  and  hind 
tibiae  broadened  subapically,  with  their  fringes 
sinuate ; tarsal  claws  appendiculate.  Metas- 
ternum shorter  than  diameter  of  middle  coxae. 
Abdominal  stemite  2 shorter  than  3 and  4 
taken  together.  Male  genitalia  with  endophallus 
well  developed ; parameres  long  and  leaf-like. 
Spiculum  ventrale  laterally  produced  and 
medially  curved  at  its  free  end. 

Type  Species  : Niphadonyx  ferus  (Fst.) 

Key  to  species  of  genus  Niphadonyx  Dalla  Torre 
Small  species.  Frons  without  a median  fovea. 
Pronotum  closely  and  deeply  punctate.  Striae  granulate. 
Aedeagus  with  apex  pointed ferus  { Fst.) 

Large  species.  Frons  with  a median  Fovea. 
Pronotum  closely  and  rugosely  |[punctate.  Striae 
without  granules.  Aedagus  with  apex  broad 
foveatus  sp.  nov. 

Niphadonyx  ferus  (Fst.) 

(Figs.  1,  2,  3) 

Faust,  Horae  Soc.  Ent.  Ross.,  XX,  1886,  p,  172. 

Male  genitalia  : Aedeagus  long,  about  two 
times  as  long  as  broad,  broadest  at  base  and 


363 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


gradually  narrowed  towards  apex,  subacumi-  coarsely  and  rugosely  punctate,  punctures 
nate  apically,  strongly  sclerotized  laterally  and  fine  and  sparse  beyond  antennal  insertions. 


apically ; phallotreme  almost  circular,  with  a 
pair  of  lightly  sclerotized  triangular  plates 
one  on  either  side  ; aedeagal  apodemes  very 
long,  longer  than  aedeagus,  each  slightly  curved 
outwards  near  base  but  swollen  and  weakly 
sclerotized  at  free  end  ; endophallus  beset  with 
irregularly  distributed  short  tubercles ; phallo- 
base  uniformly  sclerotized,  parameres  long, 
leaf  like,  free  at  base,  with  apical  membranous 
part  of  each  furnished  with  many  short  setae  ; 
phallobasic  apodeme  as  broad  as  aedeagal 
apodemes  and  about  one-third  as  long  as  the 
former,  with  their  apical  ends  rounded. 

Female  genitalia : Coxites  long,  subtrian- 
gular,  weakly  sclerotized ; styli  longer  than 
broad,  almost  parallel-sided,  more  sclerotized 
than  coxites,  each  furnished  with  a few  short 
and  long  setae  at  apex.  Spiculum  ventrale 
V-shaped,  laterally  produced  at  free  end,  not 
uniformly  sclerotized.  Spermathecal  capsule 
short,  sligntly  curved  at  middle,  uniformly  and 
weakly  sclerotized  ; cornu  short  with  its  apex 
blunt ; ramus  and  collum  not  distinctly  marked. 

Specimen  loaned  from  Forest  Research  Insti- 
tute, Dehradun  ; reported  to  be  collected  under 
stones  in  Lidar  Valley,  State  of  Jammu  and 
Kashmir. 

Niphadonyx  foveatus  sp.  nov. 

(Figs.  4,  5,  6,  7) 

Head  piceous,  coarsely  and  closely  punc- 
tate ; frons  broader  than  base  of  rostrum,  with  a 
median  shallow  fovea  ; eyes  brownish-black, 
later  o-ventral,  acuminate  below,  separated 
beneath.  Rostrum  fuliginous,  shorter  than 
pronotum,  gradually  widened  towards  apex, 
with  a small  shallow  median  indistinct  sulcus 
near  antennal  insertion ; surface  of  rostrum 


furnished  with  very  minute  pale  setae,  setae 
long  near  apex;  scrobes  oblique,  their  apical 
ends  visible  dorsally,  widely  separated  beneath. 
Antennae  ferrugineous,  long,  inserted  near 
apex  of  rostrum ; scape  long,  slightly  longer 
than  funicle,  clavate  at  apex,  beset  with  pale 
white  sparse  setae  ; funicle  7-segmented,  beset 
with  long  yellow  setae,  segments  1 and  2 longer 
than  other  segments,  3 to  7 transverse,  7 dis- 
tinct from  club  ; club  2-segmented,  pubescent, 
terminal  segment  acuminate,  with  a few  sparse 
thin  white  setae. 

Pronotum  piceous,  almost  as  long  as  broad, 
narrow  at  base  and  broadest  at  middle,  its 
apical  margin  bisinuate  and  basal  margin 
straight ; surface  of  pronotum  coarsely  and  rugo- 
sely punctate,  marked  with  a median  carina 
stopping  short  a little  in  front  of  basal  margin- 
Scutellum  piceous,  small,  slightly  convex,  indis- 
tinctly punctate.  Elytra  piceous,  broader 
at  base  than  base  of  pronotum,  with  humeral 
angles  indistinct,  their  conjoint  apices  roun- 
ded, posterior  of  each  callosity  not  distinct, 
surface  of  each  elytron  marked  with  indistinct 
striae  formed  of  shallow  puncture  ; intervals 
broader  than  striae,  with  a few  small  scattered 
pale  yellow  setae.  Legs  piceous,  sparsely 
covered  with  pale  white  setae  ; femora  edentate 
ventrally,  front  femora  thicker  than  middle 
and  hind ; tibiae  marked  with  longitudinal 
ridges,  mid  and  hind  tibiae  broader  subapically 
and  their  fringes  sinuated  ; claws  append icu- 
late.  Thoracic  sternites  piceous,  punctate,  beset 
with  small  pale  yellow  setae  ; prosternum  with 
its  anterior  margin  deeply  sinuate,  with  a shallow 
canal  present  in  front  of  procoxae  ; metaster- 
num shorter  than  diameter  of  middle  coxae. 
Abdominal  sternites  punctate,  beset  with  small 
pale  yellow  setae,  intercoxal  process  between 
hind  coxae  broad  ; sternites  1 and  2 equally 
long,  2 shorter  than  3 and  4 taken  together, 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Figs.  1.  Male  genitalia  of  Niphadonyx  ferus(Fst.) 

2 & 3.  Female  genitalia  & spermatheca  of  Niphadonyx  ferns  Fst. 

4.  Adult  Niphadonyx  foveatus  sp.  nov.  <$ 

5.  Male  genitalia  of  Niphadonyx  foveatus  sp.  nov. 

Abbreviations  t 

AED— Aedeagus ; AEDA — Aedeagal  apodeme  ; CX— Coxite ; END  — Endophallus  ; PHBA— Phallobasic 
apodeme;  PHTR— Phallotreme  ; PMR — Paramere  ; ST — Sternite  ; STY — Styli ; SV— Spiculum  Ventrale. 


06mm 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol  79 


9 10 


Figs.  6 & 7.  Female  genitalia  and  spermatheca  of  Niphadonyx  foveatus  sp.  nov. 

8.  Adult  Ischnopus  madrasensis  sp.  nov. 

9.  Male  genitalia  of  Ischnopus  madrasensis  sp.  nov. 

10  & 11.  Female  genitalia  & spermatheca  of  Ischnopus  madrasensis  sp.  nov. 

Abbreviations  : 

AED — Aedeagus  ; AEDA — Aedeagal  apodeme  ; CX— Coxite ; END — Endophallus  ; PHB — Phallobase 
PHBA — Phallobasic  apodeme;  PHTR — Phallotreme;  ST — Sternite;  STY — Styli;  SV — Spiculum  Ventrale. 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Male  genitalia  : Aedeagus  long  and  tubular, 
almost  two  times  as  long  as  broad,  with  apex 
truncate,  strongly  sclerotized  laterally  and  api- 
cally ; phallotreme  circular,  studded  with  a 
pair  of  triangular  weakly  sclerotized  plates  ; 
aedeagal  apod  ernes  slightly  longer  than  aedea- 
gus, each  slightly  curved  outwardly  at  base, 
broad  at  base  and  narrowed  to  apex ; endo- 
phallus  beset  with  dense  short  setae  and  tuber- 
cles. Phallobase  uniformly  sclerotized  ; para- 
meres  long,  leaf-like,  separated  at  base,  with 
apical  membranous  part  of  each  furnished  with 
many  short  setae  ; phallobasic  apodeme  two- 
third  the  length  of  aedegal  apodemes,  broad 
at  base  and  narrowed  towards  apex. 

Female  genitalia  : Coxites  long,  oval,  weakly 
sclerotized  ; styli  longer  than  broad,  almost 
parallel-sided,  more  sclerotized  than  coxites, 
each  with  a few  setae  at  apex,  spiculum  ventrale 
uniformly  sclerotized,  V-shaped,  laterally  produ- 
ced at  free  end.  Spermathecal  capsule  uni- 
formly sclerotized  ; cornu  short  and  rounded 
at  apex ; collum  and  ramus  not  well  marked. 


Measurements  : 

Body  length 

. . 12.8-13.2  mm. 

breadth 

. . 4.6-5.2  mm. 

Head  length 

. . 0.8  mm., 

breadth 

. . 2.0  mm. 

Rostrum  length 

. . 2.2  mm., 

breadth 

..  0.9-1. 0 mm. 

Prothorax  length 

. . 3.0  mm.. 

breadth 

. . 3. 1-3.2  mm. 

Elytra  length 

. . 6.8-7.2  mm., 

breadth 

. . 4.6-5.2  mm. 

Holotypec?,  paratypes  2 ??;  India,  Jammu  and 
Kashmir,  Lidar  Valley,  Grass  (H.  R.  Pajni) 
Material  in  Department  of  Zoology,  Panjab 
University,  Chandigarh. 


The  monobasic  genus  Ischnopus  Fst.  is  so  far 
represented  by  a single  species  from  Sri  Lanka 
namely  /.  taprobanus  Fst.  We  have  collected 
another  species  definitely  congeneric  with  I. 
taprobanus  Fst.  but  differing  from  it.  The 
new  species  is  thus  a new  record  of  genus 
Ischnopus  Fst.  from  India.  The  revised 
features  of  the  genus  Ischnopus  Fst.,  the 
description  of  the  new  species  and  a key  to  the 
two  species  so  far  known  are  recorded  below. 


Genus  Ischnopus  Fst. 

Rostrum  with  a glabrous  epistome.  Eyes 
lateral.  Prementum  longer  and  broader  than 
postmentum.  Funicle  with  segment  1 slightly 
longer  than  2,  7 contiguous  with  club.  Pros- 
ternum in  front  of  coxae  longer  than  their 
diameter.  Elytra  without  shoulders.  Femora 
gradually  clubbed  and  unarmed,  procoxae  sub- 
globular  ; tibial  premucro  small ; tarsi  sublinear, 
third  tarsal  segment  slightly  bilobed.  Inter- 
coxal  process  between  hind  coxae  truncate  and 
as  broad  as  hind  coxa.  Male  genitalia  without 
parameres  ; endophallus  well  developed.  Female 
genitalia  with  coxites  very  narrow. 

Type  species  Ischnopus  taprobanus  Fst. 


Key  to  the  species  of  genus  Ischnopus  Fst. 

Pronotum  with  a rhomboidal  impression  ; Proste- 
rnum with  a pair  of  tubercles,  one  near  each  coxa. 

Elytron  produced  in  front  at  the  base  of  interval  4 

taprobanus  Fst. 

Pronotum  without  any  impression ; Prosternum 
without  such  tubercles.  Elytron  not  produced  at  the 
base  of  interval  4 madrasensis  sp.  nov. 


367 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Ko/.  79 


chnopns  madrasensis  sp.  nov. 

(Figs.  8,  9,  10,  11) 

Head  rusty  black,  its  surface  smooth,  without 
punctures,  finely  granular,  with  a deep  furrow 
along  posterior  margin  of  each  eye  ; frons 
almost  as  broad  as  or  slightly  narrower  than 
base  of  rostrum,  marked  with  a median  depres- 
sion. Eyes  piceous,  lateral.  Rostrum  piceous, 
shorter  than  pronotum,  slightly  broadened  near 
apex  ; surface  of  rostrum  uneven  and  coarse, 
without  well  defined  furrow  or  carina,  covered 
with  rust-coloured  pubescence  ; scrobes  almost 
reaching  apex,  their  anterior  ends  visible  dor- 
sally,  separated  beneath,  their  upper  margins 
touching  the  lower  margins  of  eyes.  Antennae 
rust  coloured,  long,  stout,  inserted  near  apex 
of  rostrum  ; scape  longer  than  funicle,  covered 
with  brown  pubescence,  clavate  at  apex ; 
funcile  7 -segmented,  pubescent  and  beset  with 
sparse  light  brown  setae,  basal  two  segments 
longer  than  broad,  segment  2 slightly  longer 
than  1,  3 to  6 transverse,  7 longer  than  broad 
and  contiguous  with  club  ; club  small,  pubes- 
cent, beset  with  light  brown  setae,  3 -segmented, 
segment  1 smaller  than  2 and  3 taken  together, 
3 very  small  and  acuminate  at  apex. 

Pronotum  piceous,  longer  than  broad,  broa- 
dest at  middle,  almost  parallel-sided,  with  a 
constriction  near  apex,  its  apical  margin  trun- 
cate and  basal  margin  almost  straight ; surface 
of  pronotum  uneven  and  coarse,  without  a 
puncture  or  seta,  marked  with  a distinct  median 
carina  and  many  oblique  and  transverse  ridges. 
Scutellum  concealed.  Elytra  piceous,  longer  than 
broad,  their  humeral  angles  indistinctly 
rounded,  with  a deep  constriction  near  their 
jointly  rounded  apex ; surface  of  each  elytron 
marked  with  striae  formed  of  broad  square 
punctures  ; intervals  narrower  than  striae,  each 
furnished  with  irregular  tubercles,  with  a promi- 
nent tubercle  on  interval  3 near  base.  Legs 
piceous,  stout,  covered  with  brown  pubes- 


cence ; forecoxae  subglobular  ; femora 
gradually  clavate,  without  a ventral  tooth  ; 
tibiae  slightly  curved  at  base,  inner  margin  of 
each  with  a premucro,  each  beset  with  small 
black  projections  and  with  a few  brown  setae 
along  inner  margin  ; tarsal  segments  not  much 
spongy,  with  segment  3 bilobed,  claws  free. 
Thoracic  sternites  piceous,  beset  with  brown 
pubescence ; prosternum  with  its  anterior 
margin  sinuate,  much  longer  in  front  than 
diameter  of  procoxae ; metepisterna  finely 
punctate,  bare.  Abdominal  sternites  piceous, 
sternites  1 and  2 irregularly  punctured,  intercoxal 
process  between  hind  coxae  truncate  ; sternite 
1 and  2 almost  equal,  2 longer  than  3 and  4 
taken  together. 

Male  genitalia : Aedeagus  long,  tubular, 
broad  at  middle  and  gradually  narrowed 
towards  apex,  strongly  sclerotized  laterally  ; 
phallotreme  long,  narrowly  triangular  ; endo- 
phallus  armed  with  many  chitinized  plates  for- 
ming an  irregular  structure  near  apex.  Phallo- 
base  uniformly  sclerotized  ; parameres  absent ; 
phallobasic  apodeme  very  short. 


Female  genitalia  : Coxites  very  long,  much 
longer  than  broad,  each  with  free  end  notched 
and  beset  with  sparse  setae  ; styli  slightly  longer 
than  broad,  strongly  sclerotized,  each  with  a 
few  long  setae.  Spiculum  vent  rale  Y-shaped, 
its  median  arm  short,  lateral  arms  narrow. 
Spermathecal  capsule  uniformly  and  weakly 
sclerotized  ; cornu  short  with  rounded  apex ; 
collum  long  ; ramus  present  at  middle  of 
capsule ; with  broad  rounded  end. 


Measurements  : 

Body  length 
breadth 

Head  length 
breadth 

Rostrum  length 
breadth 


..  15.4-18.4  mm., 

. . 4.2-4. 8 mm. 

..  0.8-1. 4 mm., 

..  1. 8-2.2  mm. 

. . 2.8-3.0  mm. 

. . 1 .02  mm. 


368 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Prothorax  length 
breadth 
Elytra  length 
breadth 


4.2- 5.2  mm, 

3. 6- 4. 2 mm. 

7. 6- 8. 8 mm, 

4.2- 4. 8 mm. 


Holotype  (J,  paratype  1 $ ; India,  Tamil 
Nadu,  Madras ; on  Cedrela  toona  (Sukesha 
Sood).  Material  in  Department  of  Zoology, 
Panjab  University,  Chandigarh. 


Acknowledgements 

We  are  grateful  to  Indian  Council  of  Agri- 
cultural Research  and  United  States,  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  for  financing  a 5 year 
project  on  family  Curculionidae  and  for  sanc- 
tioning funds  for  the  visit  of  senior  author  to 
different  European  Museums  for  the  study  of 
holotypes/paratypes  of  Ihdian  Curculionidae. 


References 

Aslam,  N.  A.  (1963) : On  the  genera  of  IndoPakistan  Faust,  J.  (1886):  Neue  exotische  Russelkafer,  Horae . 
Cleoninae  and  Hylobiinae  (Col.  Cur.).  Bull.  Brit.  Mus.  Soc.  Ent.  Ros.  20  : 170-264. 

(Nat.  Hist.),  London  Ent.,  13  : 47-66. 

DallaTorre,K.W.,Schenkling,S.  and  Marshall,  Marshall,  G.  A.  K.  (1932)  : Notes  on  Hylobiinae 
G.  A.  K.  (1932) : Coleopterorum  Catalogus,  Berlin,  (Col.  Cur.).  Ann.  Mag . Nat.  Hist.,  London  9 (10) : 
28(122):  112  pp.  341-355. 


9 


369 


SPECIES  OF  THE  GENUS  PEDIOBIUS  WALKER  (EULOPHIDAE  : 
ENTEDONTINAE)  FROM  INDIA1 

M.  Younus  Khan  and  S.  Adam  Shafee2 

( With  a plate) 

Additional  generic  characters  of  pronotum,  sub-genital  plate  and  external  female  genitalia  are 
suggested  for  the  genus  Pediobius  Walker.  Key  to  Indian  species  of  Pediobius  is  given.  P.  imbreus 
Walker  and  P.  longicorpus  sp.  nov.  are  described  and  illustrated.  Material  deposited  in  Zoological 
Museum,  Aligarh  Muslim  University,  Aligarh,  India. 


Genus  Pediobius  Walker 

Pediobius  Walker,  1846,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat. 
Hist.  17  : 184. 

Typs-species  : Eritedon  imbreus  Walker  de- 
signated by  Ashmead  (19G4). 

Tile  genus  Pediobius  was  proposed  by  Walker 
(1846).  Ashmead  (1904)  designated  Entedon 
imbreus  Walker  as  type  species  of  the  genus 
Pediobius  Walker.  Gahan  (1921)  synonymized 
the  genera,  Pseudacriasoides  Girault  and 
Epipleurotropis  Girault  with  Pleurotropis  Foers- 
ter.  Nikol’skaya  (1952)  recognized  Pediobius 
Walker  and  Pleurotropis  Foerster  as  valid  genera 
and  separated  them  on  the  basis  of  presence  of 
incomplete  and  complete  parapsidal  furrows. 
Gahan  (1932),  Ferriere  (1953),  Askew  (1962), 
Peck  (1963)  and  Boucek  (1965)  synonymized 
the  genera  Pseudacrias  Girault,  Pleurotropis 
Foerster,  Rhopalotus  Foerster,  Eupleurotropis 
Girault  and  Cluthaira  Cameron  respectively 
with  Pediobius  Walker.  Boucek  (1965)  declared 
the  genus  Microterus  Spinola  to  be  a synonym 
of  Pediobius  Walker  and  wrote  4 As  Pediobius 
is  today  already  a well-established  and  well- 
known  name,  it  is  taken  here  as  the  valid  name 
for  the  genus  and,  consequently,  Microterus , 
although  older  than  the  former  name,  is  dropped 

1 Accepted  August  1980. 

2 Section  of  Entomology,  Department  of  Zoology, 
Aligarh  Muslim  University,  Aligarh,  India. 


into  synonymy’.  He  revised  the  European 
species  of  the  genus  Pediobius.  Recently, 
Kerrich  (1973)  made  a comprehensive  study 
on  the  South  Asiatic  and  Australian  species  of 
the  genus  Pediobius.  The  generic  characters 
proposed  by  Peck  et  al.  (1964)  and  Boucek 
(1965)  apply  well  on  the  species  under  study. 
We  suggested  some  new  generic  characters 
which  are  as  follows : Pronotum  with 

antero-lateral  arms  long  and  narrow,  anterior 
margin  deeply  concave,  posterior  margin 
convex  (PI.  1,  fig.  E)  ; first  valvifers  semicircu- 
lar with  basal  and  apical  angles  at  different 
levels  (PI.  1,  fig.  I)  ; third  valvulae  short, 
movably  articulated  with  second  valvifers 
(PI.  1,  fig.  J) ; subgenital  plate  with  anterior 
margin  straight,  posterior  margin  with  a tri- 
angular notch  in  middle  (PI.  1,  fig.  L).  9 
species  of  the  genus  Pediobius  are  known  to 
occur  in  India.  We  raised  the  total  to  10  by 
describing  one  new  species.  A key  to  Indian 
species  of  Pediobius  is  provided  mainly  based 
on  Kerrich  (1973). 

Key  to  Indian  Species  of  Pediobius  Walker,  based 

ON  FEMALES. 

1.  Frontovertex  with  reticulation  strong  or  mode- 
rately strong  almost  throughout  and  more  or  less 
regular 2 

—Frontovertex  with  reticulation  not  strong  or 
moderately  strong,  but  either  fine  and  regular  or  in 
greater  part  weak  to  indistinct 7 


370 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


2.  Basalis  bearing  hairs,  normally  two,  and  cubital 

hair-row  starting  immediately  beyond  it. 3 

— Basalis  bare,  and  cubital  hair-row  starting  beyond 
the  large  speculum  postbasale  : sculpture  of  scutum  and 
scutellum  uniformly  reticulate  : scape  6 times  as  long  as 
wide,  first  funicle  segment  twice  as  long  as  wide,  longer 
than  pedicel : ocelli  arranged  in  obtuse  triangle  ; first 
abdominal  tergite  short,  one-fourth  the  length  of 
abdomen P.  longicorpus  sp.  nov. 

3.  Sculpture  of  scutellum  nearly  uniform,  either 

reticulate  or  striate  almost  throughout 4 

— Sculpture  of  scutellum  not  nearly  uniform,  partly 
striate  or  striate-reticulate  and  partly  reticulate,  often 
partly  smooth. 5 

4.  Sculpture  of  scutellum  in  greatest  part  and  cf 
mesoscutum  - similar,  reticulate  almost  throughout : 

petiolar  segment  a little  longer  than  broad 

P.  acantha  (Walker) 

— Sculpture  of  scutellum  regularly  striate  almost 
throughout,  very  dissimilar  from  that  of  mesoscutum  : 

petiolar  segment  much  broader  than  long 

P.  bethylicidus  Kerrich 

5.  Head,  seen  from  above,  not  so  broad,  less  than  2£ 

times  breadth  of  its  median  length  and  frontoveriex  less 
than  1|  times  : first  funicle  segment,  in  side  view,  about 
1£  times  as  long  as  broad : scutellum  strongly 

longitudinally  striate  at  sides  almost  to  apex,  with 
reticulation  at  apex  that  is  rather  wide-meshed  but  much 
weaker,  and  may  extend  forward  broadly  in  mid  line  or 
may  be  evanescent,  leaving  a shining  median  band  in 
about  basal  two  thirds  : space  between  notaular  pits 
about  as  broad  as  a pit 6 

—Head,  seen  from  above,  relatively  broad,  2£  to  3 
times  breadth  of  its  median  length  and  frontovertex 
usually  about  1£  times  : first  funicle  segment,  in  side 
view,  in  well-developed  specimens,  about  2|  times  as 
long  as  broad:  scutellum  longitudinally  striate-reticulate, 
merging  to  regular  reticulation  in  about  apical  third, 
the  sculpture  of  almost  uniform  strength  except  that, 
narrowly  in  mid  line  in  basal  part,  it  is  finer  yet  very 
distinct:  space  between  notaular  pits  very  much  narrower 
than  a pit P.  foveolatus  (Crawford) 

6.  Antennal  funicle  3-segmented  and  pronotal  collar 
sharply  margined  as  is  normal  for  the  genus:  mesoscutum 


having  longitudinal  striation  on  sides  of  mid  lobe  and  on 
parapsides,  its  hind  margin  between  the  notaular  pits 
raised  and  strongly  emarginate  : petiolar  segment  much 
broader  than  long : lower  face,  as  normally  in  the 
genus,  almost  smooth:  stibiae  not  or  hardly  pale  at  base 
and  apex p.  elasmi  (Ashmead) 

— Antennal  funicle  4-segmented : the  smooth 

pronotal  collar  clearly  indicated  by  a change  of  sculpture 
but  with  no  elevated  margin  : mesoscutum  without 

longitudinal  striation,  its  hind  margin  between  the 
notaular  pits  very  weakly  emarginate  : petiolar  segment 
a little  longer  than  broad  : lower  face  very  distinctly 
reticulate  except  narrowly  in  mid  line  : tibiae  very 

distinctly  pale  at  base  and  apex 

P.  agzristaz  (Cameron) 

7.  Frontovertex  at  least  in  greater  part,  with  reticula- 

tion fine  and  regular  : pronotal  collar  having  sides 
strongly,  or  rather  strongly  narrowed:  eutellum  having 
sculpture  more  or  less  uniform,  very  distinct  through- 
out : basalis  bare  and  cubital  hair-row  starting  beyond 
the  speculum  postbasale 8 

— Frontovertex  in  greater  part  with  reticulation 
weak  and  irregular  to  indistinct : pronotal  collar  having 
sides  no  more  than  moderately  narrowed:  scutellum 
having  a median  band,  percurrent  or  almost  so,  with 
sculpture  more  or  less  indistinct,  sometimes  this  median 
band  broad  and  shining : basalis  bearing  hairs  and 
cubital  hair-row  starting  immediately  beyond  it .9 

8.  Smaller  species,  of  length  about  1.3  mm  : head, 

seen  from  above  subglobose,  not  sharply  narrowed 
behind  eyes,  with  ocelli  in  a strongly  acute  triangle,  and 
no  fine  keel  running  back  from  the  lateral  ocelli,  the 
frontovertex  not  as  broad  as  its  median  length:  antennae 
having  first  funicle  segment  in  side  view  about  quadrate, 
the  second  and  third  very  distinctly  transverse  : pronotal 
collar  having  fore  and  hind  margins  parallel : 
mesoscutum  having  hind  margin  weakly  emarginate, 
the  notaular  pits  shallow  and  ill-defined  : scutellum  finely 
longitudinally  reticulate  throughout : parapsite  in 

Mantid  Oothecae P.  fraternus  (Motschulsky) 

— Larger  species : head,  seen  from  above,  more 
transverse,  sharply  narrowed  behind  eyes,  with  ocelli  in 
about  a right-angled  or  slightly  acute  triangle,  and  a fine 
keel  running  back  from  the  lateral  ocelli,  the 
frontovertex  at  least  slightly  broader  than  its  median 


371 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Ko/.  79 


length : antennae  having  first  funicle  segment  in  side 
view  about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  the  second  and  third 
distinctly  longer  than  broad  : pronotal  collar  wider  at 
sides  than  in  middle,  the  fore  and  hind  margins  not 
parallel : scutellum  strongly  longitudinally  striate, 

merging  to  reticulate  behind 

P.  stenochoreus  Kerrich 

9.  Occipital  carina  discontinuous,  'represented  only 
by  a short  ridge  developed  behind  each  laterel  ocellus  : 
antennal  scape  very  slender,  almost  parallel-sided  for  the 
greater  part  of  its  length,  about  eight  times  length  of  its 
greatest  breadth : third  funicle  segment  about 

quadrate P.  water stonii  (Masi) 

— Occipital  carina  continuous,  as  is  normal  in  the 
genus  : antennal  scape  slightly  rounded  below,  four 
times  length  of  its  greatest  breadth : third  funicle 

segment  distinctly  broader  than  long ....... 

P.  imbreus  Walker 

Pediobius  imbreus  Walker 
(Plate  1,  figs.  A-M) 

Entedon  (Pediobius)  imbreus  Walker,  1846, 
Ann.  Mag.  nat.  Hist.  17  : 184.  Pleurotropis 
detrimentosus  Gahan,  1930,  Proc.  U.  S.  natn. 
Mas.  11  : 9.  Pediobius  imbreus  Walker;  Kerrich, 
1970,  Orient.  Insects , 4 : 89. 

Female  (Redescribed  in  detail). 

Head : Dark  with  metallic  bluish  reflections, 
wider  than  long  in  facial  view ; fronto vertex  dis- 
tinctly wider  than  long,  weakly  and  finely  reti- 
culate ; ocelli  brown,  arranged  in  obtuse  tri- 
angle, lateral  ocelli  by  their  own  diameters  from 
orbital  and  occipital  margins  separately  ; occi- 
pital carina  continuous  ; frontal  fork  with  arms 
obtusely  diverging  ; eyes  silvery  ; malar  space 
as  long  as  eye  width  ; malar  sutures  absent ; 
antennae  inserted  at  lower  level  of  eyes  ; promi- 
nence between  antennal  sockets  one-fifth 
the  width  of  frons  between  eyes  ; mandibles 
with  two  acute  teeth  (fig.  A)  ; maxillary  and 
labial  palpi  each  1 -segmented  (fig.  B). 


Antennae  (fig.  C)  : Dark  with  metallic  reflec- 
tions, 7-segmented  excluding  1 ring  segment ; 
scape  four  times  as  long  as  wide  (0.16  : 0.04 
mm),  slightly  longer  than  club  ; pedicel  one 
and  a half  times  as  long  as  wide,  as  long  as 
first  funicle  segment ; funicle  3 -segmented, 
segments  1-3  gradually  decreasing  in  length  and 
increasing  in  width  distad ; first  funicle 
segment  distinctly  longer  than  wide,  second 
and  third  distinctly  wider  than  long  ; club  2- 
segmented,  slightly  more  than  twice  as  long  as 
wide  (0.13  : 0.06  mm),  longer  than  preceding 
two  funicle  segments  together. 

Thorax  (fig.  D)  : Dark  with  metallic  bluish 

green  reflections  ; parapsidal  furrows  distinct 
anteriorly  ; pronotum  with  antero-lateral  arms 
long  and  narrow,  anterior  margin  deeply 
concave,  posterior  margin  convex,  posterior 
sub-marginal  ridge  distinct  bearing  3 pairs  of 
long  setae  (fig.  E) ; scutum  reticulate  and 
scutellum  with  longitudinal  reticulate  sculpture 
having  a median  smooth  band ; scutum  and 
scutellum  with  4 and  2 setae  respectively;  propo- 
deum  with  a submedian  carina  diverging  back- 
wards, intercarinal  space  raised. 

Fore  wings  (fig.  F)  : Hyaline,  twice  as  long 
as  wide  (1.15:0.52  mm),  sparsely  setose, 
basalis  bearing  hairs  and  cubital  hair-row  star- 
ting immediately  beyond  it ; costal  cell  much 
shorter  than  marginal  vein  ; submarginal  and 
marginal  veins  with  2 and  12  setae  respectively  ; 
postmarginal  vein  slightly  shorter  than  stigmal 
vein  (fig.  G)  ; a row  of  14  setae  beneath  the  mar- 
ginal vein  ; marginal  fringe  short,  spaced  by  a 
distance  equal  to  one-third  their  length. 

Hind  wings  : Hyaline,  four  and  a half  times 
as  long  as  wide  (0.86  : 0.19  mm)  ; marginal 
fringe  short,  spaced  by  a distance  equal  to  one- 
third  their  length. 

Legs  : Coxae,  trochanters,  femora  and  tibiae 
of  all  legs  dark  with  metallic  bluish  reflections  ; 
tarsi  of  fore  legs  completely  and  pretarsus  of 


372 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 

Khan  & Shafee  : Genus  Pediobius 


Plate  1 


Figs.  A-M  : Pediobius  imbreus  Walker  $,<J  : (A)  Mandible,  $ ; (B)  Maxillary  and  Labial  palpi,  $ ; (C)  Antenna, 
? ; (D)  Part  of  thorax  in  dorsal  view,  ? ; (E)  Pronotum,  $ ; (F)  Fore  wing,  $ ; (G)  Part  of  fore  wing  venation,  $ ; 
(H)  Part  of  hind  leg,  $ ; (I)  First  valvifer,  $ ; (J)  Second  valvifer  and  third  valvula,  $ ; (K)  Outer  plate  of  ovipositor 
$ ; (L)  Subgenital  plate,  $ ; (M)  Antenna,  <?. 

Figs.  N & O.  Pediobius  longicorpus  sp.  nov.,  $ ; (N)  Antenna,  (O)  Fore  wing  venation. 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


mid  and  hind  legs  brownish  ; tarsal  joints  1-3 
of  mid  and  hind  legs  white  ; fore  legs  with  two 
small  tibial  spurs  ; middle  tibial  spur  longer 
than  basitarsus  ; hind  tibial  spur  long,  slightly 
longer  than  basitarsus  (fig.  H). 

Abdomen : Petiolate,  dark  with  metallic 
bluish  reflections,  shorter  than  head  and  thorax 
together ; first  abdominal  tergite  well  deve- 
loped, reaching  beyond  the  mid  of  abdomen  ; 
ovipositor  slightly  exserted,  arising  from  basal 
one-half  of  abdominal  venter  ; first  valvifers 
semicircular  with  basal  and  apical  angles  at 
different  levels  (fig.  I) ; second  valvifers  long 
and  narrow,  more  or  less  of  uniform  width, 
anterior  margin  of  basal  part  much  curved, 
U-shaped  ; third  valvulae  twice  as  long  as 
wide,  one-tenth  the  second  valvifers  (fig.  J)  } 
outer  plates  of  ovipositor  slightly  shorter  than 
second  valvifers  (fig.  K) ; subgenital  plate  of 
uniform  width  with  anterior  margin  straight, 
posterior  margin  with  triangular  notch  in  middle 
(fig.  L). 

Female  length  : 1.58  mm. 

Male  : 

Resembles  female  except  in  the  following 
characters  : 

Pedicel  slightly  shorter  than  first  funicle  seg- 
ment ; second  funicle  segment  slightly  longer 
than  wide  ; club  as  long  as  preceding  two 
funicle  segments  together  (fig.  M) ; fore  wings 
slightly  less  than  twice  as  long  as  wide  (0.83  : 
0.46  mm)  ; abdomen  much  shorter  than  thorax. 

Male  length  : 0.98  mm. 

Material  examined  : 8 $,  1 India  : Rajas- 
than, Udaipur,  ex  eggs  of  Spider,  on  Citrus 
sp.,  2.  x.  1975  (M.  Younus  Khan). 

Pediobius  longicorpus  sp.  nov. 

(Plate  1,  figs.  N & O) 

Female  : 

Head : Dark  with  metallic  bluish  reflec- 
tions, wider  than  long  in  facial  view  ; fronto- 


vertex  with  reticulation  strong  throughout  and 
regular,  twice  as  wide  as  long,  width  more 
than  one-half  the  total  head  width  ; ocelli  red, 
arranged  in  obtuse  triangle,  lateral  ocelli  by 
their  own  diameters  from  orbital  and  close 
to  occipital  margins  ; eyes  silvery  and  smooth  ; 
malar  space  slightly  shorter  than  eye  width  ; 
malar  sutures  absent ; antennae  inserted  at 
lower  level  of  eyes. 

Antennae  (fig.  N)  : Dark  brown,  7-segmen- 
ted  excluding  2 ring  segments  ; scape  cylindri- 
cal, six  times  as  long  as  wide  (0.3  : 0.05  mm), 
longer  than  club  ; pedicel  one  and  a half  times 
as  long  as  wide,  shorter  than  first  funicle 
segment ; funicle  3-segmented  ; first  funicle  seg- 
ment twice  as  long  as  wide,  longer  than  follo- 
wing segments  separately  ; segments  second  and 
third  subequal  in  length,  each  one  and  a half 
times  as  long  as  wide  ; club  2-segmented,  two 
and  a half  times  as  long  as  wide  (0.19  : 0.07 
mm),  shorter  than  preceding  two  funicle  seg- 
ments together. 

Thorax  : Dark  with  metallic  bluish  reflec- 
tions and  reticulately  sculptured  ; parapsidal 
furrows  distinct  anteriorly  by  depressions ; 
sculpture  of  scutum  and  scutellum  uniformly 
reticulate,  similar  and  with  6 and  2 setae 
respectively  ; propodeum  with  median  carina 
diverging  posteriorly. 

Fore  wings  : Hyaline,  twice  as  long  as  wide 
(1.85:0.92  mm);  costal  cell  broad,  shorter 
than  marginal  vein  ; basalis  bare,  cubital  hair- 
row  starting  beyond  the  large  speculum  post- 
basale  ; submarginal  and  marginal  veins  with 
3 and  21  setae  respectively  (fig.  O) ; marginal 
fringe  short,  spaced  by  a distance  equal  to 
one-third  their  length. 

Hind  wings  : Hyaline,  four  times  as  long  as 
wide  ; marginal  fringe  short,  spaced  by  a dis- 
tance equal  to  one-third  their  length. 

Fore  legs  : Dark  except  mid -longitudinal  area 
of  tibiae  and  basal  three  tarsal  segments  white. 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


Middle  legs  : Dark  except  apex  of  femora, 
base  and  apical  half  of  tibiae  and  basal  three 
tarsal  segments  white. 

Hind  legs:  Coloration  same  as  middle  legs. 

Abdomen  : Brownish,  with  purplish  reflec- 

tions, longer  than  head  and  thorax  together  ; 
first  abdominal  tergite  short,  one-fourth  the 
abdominal  length  ; ovipositor  slightly  exserted, 
arising  from  base  of  abdominal  venter. 

Female  length  : 2.5  mm. 


Holotype  : $.  India  : Uttar  Pradesh,  Ali- 
garh University  Campus,  ex  Dipterous  pupae, 
10.  ix.  1977  (M.  Younus  Khan). 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  deeply  indebted  to  Prof.  S.  Mashhood 
Alam,  Head,  Department  of  Zoology,  for 
providing  research  facilities.  Thanks  are  also 
due  to  Prof.  Nawab  H.  Khan  for  encourage- 
ment. 


References 


Ashmead,  W.H.  (1904) : Classification  of  the  chalcid- 
flies  of  the  superfamily  Clnlcidoidea,  with  descriptions 
of  new  species  in  the  Carnegie  Museum,  collected  in 
South  America  by  Herbert  H.  Smith.  Mem.  Carneg. 
Mus.  1 : 225-555. 

Askew,  R.  R.  (1962) : Some  species  of  Pediobius 
Walker  (Hymenoptera,  Eulophidae)  inhabiting  cynipid 
oak  galls.  Entomophaga  7 : 337-342. 

Boucek,  Z.  (1965) : Studies  on  European  Eulophidae, 
IV  : Pediobius  Walk,  and  two  allied  genera  (Hymenop- 
tera). Acta  ent.  Mus.  nat.  Prague  36  : 5-90. 

Ferriere,  C.  (1953)  : Les  parasites  de  * Lithocolletis 
Platani  ’ en  Italie.  Boll.  1st  Ent.  Univ.  Bologna  19  : 
395-404. 

Gahan,  A.  B.  (1921) : Remarks  on  the  genus  Pleuro. 
tropis  with  description  of  a parasite  of  Trachelus  tabidus 
Fabricius  (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea).  Proc.  ent. 
Soc.  Wash.  23  : 113-120. 

(1930) : Synonymical  and  descriptive  notes 

on  Parasitic  Hymenoptera.  Proc.  U.S.  natn.  Mus. 
11 : 1-12. 


(1932):  Miscellaneous  descriptions  and  notes 

on  Parasitic  Hymenoptera.  Ann.  ent.  Soc.  Am.  25  : 
736-757. 

Kerrich,  G.  J.  (1970) : On  the  type  material  and 
synonymy  of  Elasmus  anticles  Walker  and  Pediobius 
imbreus  Walker  (Hymenoptera:  Chalcidoidea).  Orient. 
Insects  4 : 89-92. 

(1973) : A revision  of  the  Tropical  and 

Subtropical  species  of  the  Eulophid  genus  Pediobius 
Walker  (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea).  Bull.  Brit. 
Mus.  {Nat.  Hist.)  Ent.  29  : 115,-199. 

Nikolskaya,  M.  N.  (1952) : The  chalcid  fauna  of 
the  USSR  (Chalcidoidea).  Opred.  Faun.  Zool.  Inst. 
Akad.  Nauk  SSSR  44  : 575  pp. 

Peck,  C.  (1963) : A Catalogue  of  the  Nearctic  Chalci- 
doidea (Insecta  : Hymenoptera).  Canad.  Ent.  ( Suppl .) 
30  : 1092  pp. 

Peck,  C.,  Boucek,  Z.  & Hoffer,  A.  (1964) : Keys 
to  the  Chalcidoidea  of  Czechoslovakia  (Insecta:  Hymen- 
optera) Mem . ent.  Soc.  Canad.  34  : 120  pp. 

Walker,  F.  (1846)  : Characters  of  some  undescribed 
species  of  Chalcidites.  Ann.  Mag.  nat. Hist.  17  : 177-1 85 . 


374 


A NEW  SPECIES  OF  TETRASTICHUS  HALIDAY  1843 
(HYMENOPTERA  : EULOPHIDAE)  FROM  HIGH  ALTITUDE 

OF  INDIA1 

M.  A.  Khan2 

( With  thirteen  text-figures) 


Genus  Tetrastichus  Haliday  1843  Tetrastichus  atomelSi  sp.  nov.  (Figs.  1-13) 


Genotype : Cirrospilus  attatus  Walker,  by  original 
designation  [miser  (Nees)  ] . 

Tetrastichus  Haliday,  1843,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  London, 
Vol.  3,  p.  297-298  (Type,  Cirrospilus  attatus  Walker). 

Tetrastichus  Kurdjumov,  1913,  Russ.  Ent.  Obozr 
(Rev.  Russe  Ent.).  Yol.  13,  p.  253,  (Type,  Cirrospilus 
attatus  Walker). 

Tetrastichus  Gahan,  1914,  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Vol. 
48,  p.  166,  (Type,  Cirrospilus  attatus  Walker). 

Tetrastichus  Haliday  is  one  of  the  most  easily 
recognizable  genus  of  the  family  Eulophidae. 
The  genus  has  been  revised  by  Burks  (1943) 
proposing  stable  generic  characters.  In  addi- 
tion, some  new  generic  characters  have  also 
been  proposed,  which  will  further  facilitate  the 
identification  of  this  genus,  viz.  (i)  sub-genital 
plate  with  anterior  margin  concave  in  the 
middle,  the  central  notch  of  its  posterior  margin 
with  laterally  directed  ridges  (ii)  first  valvifers 
semicircular,  (iii)  third  valvulae  moderate  size, 
movably  articulated  with  second  valvifers,  and 
(iv)  outerplates  of  ovipositor  with  a ridge 
along  basal  half  of  dorsal  margin  and  another 
ridge  starting  at  base  of  dorsal  margin  and 
running  obliquely  upto  middle  of  plate. 

1 Accepted  August  1981. 

2 Department  of  Entomology,  College  of  Agriculture, 
G.  B.  Pant  University  of  Agri.  & Tech.,  Pant  iagar, 
Nainital,  U.  P.,  India.  Research  paper  No.  2280  through 
the  Experiment  Station,  G.B.P.U.  A.  & T. 


Female  : 

Head  yellowish  with  some  infuscation  on 
face,  antennae  light  brown  with  scape  yellow- 
ish ; thorax  golden  yellow  with  dark  brown 
patches  on  greater  part  of  pronotum  and  on 
anterior  part  of  scutum,  margins  of  scutum  and 
scutellum  blackish  brown  ; propodeum  dark 
brown  with  golden  reflections  ; legs  yellowish 
with  some  parts  infuscated  ; abdomen  light 
brown  with  golden  reflections  on  dorsum. 

Head : (Fig.  1)  : Yellowish  with  some  infus- 
cation on  face,  wider  than  long  in  frontal  aspect 
(0.4 : 0.31),  width  of  frons  (0.24)  between 
eyes  slightly  more  than  one  half  of  head  width, 
fronto vertex  wider  than  long  (0.3  : 0.18),  ocelli 
red,  arranged  in  obtuse  angle  triangle,  basal 
ocelli  removed  from  eye  rim  by  three  diameter 
of  an  ocellus  and  from  occipital  margin  by 
one  ocellar  diameter,  eyes  red,  short,  bare  ; 
malar  space  longer  than  the  transverse  diameter 
of  eye  ; antennae  inserted  nearly  in  centre  of 
frons,  antennal  sockets  two  times  as  high  as 
wide,  separated  by  three  times  the  diameter 
of  a socket,  distance  between  antennal  sockets 
and  eye  slightly  more  than  the  distance  between 
two  antennal  sockets,  subocular  suture  distinct, 
mandibles  tridentate  with  red  apices  (Fig.  2), 
maxillary  (Fig.  3)  and  labial  palpi  (Fig.  4) 
each  one  segmented. 

Antennae  (Fig.  5)  : Light  brownish  with  scape 
yellowish,  setose  ; scape  slightly  flattened,  more 
than  three  times  longer  than  wide  (0.22  ; 0.07)  ; 


375 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Pb/.  79 


Figs.  1-13.  Tetrastichus  atomelli  sp.  nov.  $ 1.  Head  facial  view  ; 2.  Mandible  ; 3.  Maxillary  palp; 

4.  Labial  palp  ; 5.  Antenna  ; 6.  Thorax,  dorsal  aspect ; 7.  Pronotum  ; 8.  Part  of  fore  wing  ; 9.  Hind  wing ; 
10.  Part  of  middle  leg ; 11.  Eight  tergum ; U,  Subgenital  plate ; 13,  Ovipositor, 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


pedicel  long  more  than  twice  as  long  as 
wide  (0.11:0.05),  distinctly  longer  than 
first  funicle  segment,  funicle  with  three  ring 
segments,  funicle  segments  longer  than  wide, 
first  and  second  funicle  segments  subequal  in 
size  (0.08  : 0.05),  3rd  funicle  segment  slightly 
larger  in  size  (0.09  : 0.055)  ; club  two  segmented, 
more  than  three  times  longer  than  wide  (0.17  : 
0.055)  longer  than  preceeding  two  funicle  seg- 
ments combined. 

Thorax : (Fig.  6) : Golden  yellow  with 
dark  brown  patches  on  greater  part  of  prono- 
tum  and  on  anterior  part  of  scutum,  margins 
of  scutum  and  scutellum  blackish  brown ; 
propodeum  dark  brown  with  golden  reflec- 
tions ; posterior  margin  of  the  pronotum 
(Fig.  7)  with  ten  strong  setae  ; scutum  wider 
than  long  (0.27  : 0.15)  with  six  pairs  of  adno- 
taular  bristles  ; scutellum  (0.21  : 0.13)  shorter 
than  scutum,  with  two  longitudinal  dorsal 
grooves,  two  pair  of  scutellar  bristles  present ; 
metanotum  narrow,  band  like,  propodeum 
with  reticulate  sculpture,  mesal  length  of  propo- 
deum distinctly  less  than  one  third  as  long  as 
scutum,  propodael  spiracles  contiguous  with 
anterior  margin ; mesopostphragma  notched 
in  the  middle  and  extended  beyond  the  expan- 
ded portion  of  the  propodeum. 

Fore  wings  (Fig.  8) : Hyaline,  mr  re  than 
twice  as  long  as  wide  ; costal  cell  narrow  with 
six  setae  ; submarginal  vein  with  five  strong 
setae  ; postmarginal  vein  absent ; stigmal  vein 
less  than  i/3  as  long  as  marginal  vein  ; marginal 
fringe  long,  spaced  by  a distance  equal  to  almost 
one-fourth  length  of  a fringe. 

Hind  wings  (Fig.  9) : Hyaline,  more  than 
five  times  longer  than  wide,  submarginal  vein 
with  one  strong  setae ; marginal  vein  with 
three  curved  hooklets,  marginal  fringes  long, 
spaced  by  a distance  almost  one-sixth  length 
of  a fringe. 

Fore  legs  : Yellowish  except  basal  half  of 
coxae,  second  and  third  tarsal  segments  infus- 


ated  ; coxae  with  a cluster  of  setae  on  outer 
face  of  basal  half  and  four  long,  strong  setae 
on  outer  rim  on  distal  half,  femora  compressed. 

Middle  legs : Uniformly  yellowish  with 
coxae,  trochanter,  dorsal  margin  of  femora  and 
last  tarsal  segment  infuscated  ; outer  rim  on 
distal  half  of  the  coxae  with  two  strong  setae  ; 
tibial  spur  longer  than  basitarsus  (Fig.  10), 
apical  rim  of  tibiae,  basitarsus  and  second  tarsal 
segment  with  2,  1 and  1 leg  respectively. 

Hind  legs  : Yellowish  except  coxae,  trochan- 
ter, basal  half  of  femora  and  last  tarsal  seg- 
ment brownish  ; tibial  spur  shorter  than  basi- 
tarsus. 

Abdomen  : Light  brownish  with  golden  reflec- 
tions on  the  dorsum,  surface  smooth,  longer 
than  thorax,  eighth  tergite  as  shown  in  Fig.  1 1 ; 
subgenital  plate  (Fig.  12)  with  anterior  margin 
concave  in  the  middle,  central  notch  of  its 
posterior  margin  with  laterally  directed  ridges  ; 
first  valvifers  (Fig.  13)  semicircular  with  arti- 
cular knobs  prominent ; second  valvifers  long 
(Fig.  13)  dorsal  margin  sightly  thickened ; 
third  valvulae  (Fig.  13)  moderate  size,  movably 
articulated  with  second  valvifers  ; outer  plates 
of  ovipositor  (Fig.  13)  with  a ridge  along  basal 
half  of  dorsal  margin  and  another  oblique 
ridge  starting  at  the  base  of  dorsal  margin 
and  running  obliquely  upto  middle  of  plate  ; 
ovipositor  slightly  exserted. 

Length  of  female  : 1.15  mm. 

Male : 

Not  known. 

Holotype  : $ India,  U.P.,  Garhwal  Hills— 
Joshimath  (2895  m),  ex.  Tropicomyza  atomella 
(Malloch)  Diptera  : Agromyzidae  on  Capsicum 
annuum  L.  (M.  A.  Khan),  Hym.  Eulo.  Typ.  Nr. 
1001. 

Paratype  : 1 $,  same  data  as  holotype,  Hym. 

ulo.  Typ.  Nr.  1002. 


377 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


This  spscies  is  more  closely  related  to  Tetra- 
stichus  Oklahoma  (Girault)  Burks,  but  differs 
from  it  in  the  following  key  characters  : 

(1)  Body  black  to  dark  brown  with  some 

parts  white  or  light  yellow  ; scape  slightly  excee- 
ding level  of  vertex ; post  ocellar  and  ocello- 
cular  lines  equal  in  length,  first  funicle  segment 
one  and  one-fifth  times  as  long  as  second  ; 
club  one  and  one-fifth  times  as  long  as  second 
segment ; length  of  malar  space  five  eighths 
height  of  compound  eye  ; scutum  bearing  one 
and  a partial  second  two  of  bristle  at  each  lateral 
margin  ; stigmal  vein  one  fourth  as  long  as 
marginal  vein.  T . Oklahoma  (Girault)  Burks. 

(2)  Body  yellowish  with  some  brown  pat- 
ches or  infuscation,  compound  eyes  and  ocelli 
bright  red  ; apex  of  scape  much  below  the 
level  of  vertex;  ocello-ocular  line  slightly  shorter 
than  postocellar  line  ; first  and  second  funicle 


segment  subequal  in  length  ; club  longer  than 
preceding  two  funicle  segments  combined; 
malar  space  almost  one  half  of  the  height  of 
compeund  eyes  ; scutum  with  a row  of  bristle 
at  each  lateral  margin  ; stigmal  vein  less  than 

one  third  as  long  as  marginal  vein 

T.  atomelli  sp.  nov. 


Acknowledgements 

I am  thankful  to  Prof.  K.  C.  Sharma,  Dean, 
College  of  Agriculture,  Prof.  B.  P.  Pandya, 
Director  Research,  Experiment  Station  and 
Dr.  B.  P.  Khare,  Head,  Department  of  Ento- 
mology for  providing  necessary  facilities. 
Thanks  are  also  due  to  Dr.  V.  K.  Sehgal, 
Associate  Professor,  Department  of  Entomo- 
logy for  the  encouragement  and  identification 
of  Dipterous  host. 


Reference 

Burks,  B.  D.  (1943)  : The  north  American  parasitic 
wasps  of  the  Genus  Tetrastichus—A  contribution  to 
Biological  control  of  insect  pests.  P.  oc.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus. 


A NEW  SPECIES  OF  OPHIORRHIZA  L.  (RUBIACEAE)  FROM 

NAGALAND,  INDIA1 

D.  B.  Deb  and  D.  C.  Mondal2 

{ With  a text-figure) 


Introduction 

In  course  of  taxonomic  study  of  the  genus 
Ophiorrhiza  L.  (Rubiaceae)  in  Indian  subconti- 
nent several  gatherings  appeared  to  be  new. 
The  present  paper  is  based  on  such  a 
collection  from  Naga  Hill  by  the  late  Dr. 
N.  L.  Bor  made  on  two  occasions  from  nearby 
localities  and  distributed  to  the  Forest  Research 
Institute,  Dehra  Dun  (DD)  and  the  Royal 
Botanic  Gardens,  Kew  (K).  C.E.C.  Fischer 
examined  the  material  and  considered  it  as  an 
undescribed  species,  and  wished  to  have  more 
material.  Probably  the  absence  of  fruit  which 
is  very  characteristic  of  this  genus  for  distinc- 
tion from  allied  genera  made  him  hesitate  in 
describing  it.  No  further  material  has  been 
collected  since  then.  But  several  immature 
fruits  could  be  located  in  the  specimens  which 
are  sufficiently  characteristic  to  confirm  the 
generic  status.  Hence  this  species  is  described 
and  dedicated  to  the  collector,  the  late  Dr. 
N.  L.  Bor. 

Ophiorrhiza  borii  sp.  nov.  (Fig.  1) 

ex  affinitate  O.  t ingens  C.  B.  Clarke  ex  Fischer 
et  O.  treutleri  Hook,  f.,  ab  utroque  stipulis 
subulatis  paniculis  cymarum  helicoidearum 
terminalibus,  corollaque  extus  pubescenti. 

The  species  is  allied  to  Ophiorrhiza  tingens 
C.  B.  Clarke  ex  Fischer  and  O.  treutleri  Hook.  f. 

1 Accepted  December  1981. 

2 Indian  Botanic  Garden,  Howrah,  India. 


differing  from  both  in  subulate  stipules,  termi- 
nal panicle  of  helicoid  cymes  and  corolla 
pubescent  outside. 

Herbs  small;  stem  erect,  unbranched,  ridged, 
puberulous,  intemodes  1-3.5  cm  long.  Leaves 
opposite,  decussate,  simple,  unequally  paired, 
petiolate  ; lamina  3-8  x2-4  cm,  ovate  or  ovate- 
elliptic,  acute,  subacuminate  or  obtuse  at  the 
apex,  entire,  acute  or  attenuated  at  the  base, 
puberulous  above  and  on  the  nerves  beneath  ; 
nerves  8-10  on  either  side,  subopposite  ; petioles 
0.5-1  cm  long,  puberulous  ; stipules  subulate 
with  a very  broad  base,  sometimes  bifid  divi- 
ding almost  to  the  base,  3-8  mm  long,  puber- 
ulous. Inflorescence  terminal  panicle  of  heli- 
coid cymes,  2-3.5  cm  across,  puberulous ; 
peduncles  1-2.2  cm  long,  puberulous.  Flowers 
bracteate,  bracteolate,  pedicellate,  6-8  mm 
long,  tubular,  pink  or  white  tinged  with 
pink  ; pedicels  0.5-1.25  mm  long,  puberulous  ; 
bracts  1. 5-5.5  mm  long,  linear,  puberulous  ; 
bracteoles  1-1.5  mm  long,  linear  puberulous. 
Hypanthium  1-1.25  mm  x 1.2-1. 5 mm,  obovoid, 
puberulous.  Calyx  lobes  5,  ovate-lanceolate, 
0.5-0. 8 mm X 0.25-0. 5 mm,  obtuse,  puberulous. 
Corolla  5-6.75  mm  long,  tube  3.75-5.5  mm 
long,  slightly  swollen  at  the  base,  ribbed, 
pubescent  outside,  villous  below  the  throat 
within;  lobes  5,  lanceolate,  1-1.5  minx 0.6- 
0.75  mm,  acute  at  the  apex,  inwardly  curved, 
strongly  keeled  at  the  back.  Stamens  5,  epi- 
petalous,  adnate  to  the  corolla-tube  below  the 
middle,  inserted ; filaments  0.3-0. 5 mm 
long  ; anthers  1.2-1. 5 mm  long,  linear 


37? 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


3mm 


3mm 


Fig.  1.  Ophiorrhiza  borii  sp.  nov.  A.  habit ; B.  flower ; C.  flower  split  open  ; D,  stamen  ; E.  fruit 
(immature). 


380 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


2-lobed,  4-celled,  dorsifixed,  introrse,  dehiscing 
longitudinally.  Pollen  grains  oblate-spheroidal, 
semilobate  in  polar  outline,  polar  axis  (P)x 
equatorial  axis  (E)=30  p — (31/x)-33  px32  p— 
(34ft)-37/x,  3-colporate  ; colpi  29p-32p  x 6p  — 
6.5ft,  tapering  to  obtuse  ends ; ora  circu- 
lar, 6p-lp  in  diameter,  distributed  at  the  equa- 
torial zone  ; exine  1.75ft  in  thickness,  sexine 
1.5ft,  nexine  0.2 5ft,  rugulo- reticulate  ; lumina 
0.75ft—  Ip,  muri  0.5ft  — 0.75ft.  Ovary  1-1.2  X 1.2- 
1.4  mm,  2-loculed,  with  many  ovules  on  axile 
placenta  ; disk  0. 5-0.7  mm  high,  0.6-1  mm 
wide,  fleshy,  2-lobed  ; style  as  long  as  corolla, 
pubescent ; stigma  capitate,  bifid,  0. 3-0.4 
mm  X 0.2-0. 3 mm,  papillate  exserted.  Capsules 
(immatured)  obcordate,  compressed,  puberu- 
lous,  internally  2-loculed. 

Flowering  time  : June. 

Occurrence : Nagaland : Naga  Hill,  Zul- 


hami  and  Thekubama  at  an  altitude  of  about 
1800  m. 

Type  : India  : Nagaland,  Naga  Hill,  Zulhami, 
about  1800  m,  24-6-1935,  N.L.  Bor  4471  (holo- 
type  DD  ; isotype  K) ; Naga  Hill,  Thekubama, 
about  1800  m,  19th  June  1935,  N.  L.  Bor  4465 
(paratypes  DD,  K). 


Acknowledgements 

We  are  thankful  to  the  Director,  Royal 
Botanic  Gardens,  Kew,  U.  K.  and  Officer-in- 
Charge,  Systematic  Botany  Branch,  Forest 
Research  Institute,  Dehra  Dun,  for  loan  of 
specimens.  Thanks  are  also  due  to  Dr.  S.  K. 
Jain,  Director,  Botanical  Survey  of  India  for 
granting  a Research  Scholarship  to  one  of  the 
authors  (D.C.M.)  and  for  facilities. 


381 


TWO  MORE  NEW  SPECIES  OF  IMPATIENS  L.  FROM 

SOUTH  INDIA1 

V.  Bhaskar2  and  B.  A.  Razi3 * * 

( With  a plate) 


Impatiens  L.  (Balsaminaceae)  has  its  greatest 
development  in  the  Indian  region  and  is  remar- 
kably local  and  has  maximum  amplitude  in 
two  well  defined  regions,  namely  the  Himalaya 
in  the  North  and  the  Western  Ghats  in  the 
South.  There  is  no  doubt  in  respect  of 
Impatiens , the  Western  Ghats  are  the  second 
richest  area  in  the  subcontinent  and  perhaps 
in  the  world.  The  genus  contains  over 
200  species  in  India,  of  which  86  species 
occur  in  South  India  as  reported  earlier  by 
Hooker  (1904),  Gamble  (1915),  Blatter  (1933), 
Fischer  (1936),  and  Barnes  (1939).  Among 
them,  at  least  90  per  cent  of  the  species  are 
restricted  to  hills  of  South  India.  The  most 
important  centre  of  speciation  of  this  genus 
being  in  South  India  (Bhaskar  1981),  the 
species  of  Impatiens  have  an  individuality 
separate  from  those  recorded  from  the  north 
or  elsewhere.  Two  of  the  sections  viz ., 
6 Scapigerae  ’ and  ‘ Epiphyticae  ’ are  exclu- 
sively confined  to  peninsular  India.  A new 
6 Epiphyticae  ’ species  /.  urceolata  Bhaskar  has 

1 Accepted  October  1981. 

2 Postgraduate  Department  of  Botany,  Manasagan- 

gotri,  Mysore  University,  Mysore-560  065,  India. 
Present  address : Department  of  Farm  Forestry, 

University  of  Agricultural  Sciences,  GKVK,  Bangalore- 
560  065. 

3 Survey  of  medicinal  plants  unit,  Govt.  Central 

Pharmacy,  Jayanagar,  Bangalore-560  011.  Present 

address  : Convenor-Secretary,  Karnataka  Association 

for  advancement  of  Science,  C/o.  Dept,  of  Mathe- 
matics, Central  College,  Bangalore. 


been  already  recorded  as  a new  species  from 
South  India  (Bhaskar  and  Grey- Wilson,  in 
press).  Endemisim  in  Impatiens  has  also  been 
reflected  in  their  pollen  characters  and  a ‘pollen 
variety  ’ of  /.  acaulis  has  been  reported 
(Bhaskar  et  al.  1975).  During  the  study  on 
the  South  Indian  Impatiens  two  more  balsams 
have  been  found  to  be  new  to  science  and  are 
described  in  this  paper. 


Section  : 6 Scapigerae  * 

Impatiens  agumbeana  sp.  nov. 

Differt  a I.  stocksii  et  /.  lawsonii  calcari  cylin- 
draceo  distincto  ad  4 mm  longo  includenti 
distinctaque  ‘ auricula  dorsali’  3-4  mm  longa  ; 
lobo  distali  alae  leviter  lobato  ; alis  libere- 
dichotome  venosis. 

Differs  from  its  near  relatives  I.  stocksii 
and  I.  lawsonii  in  having  a distinct  cylindrical 
spur,  about  4 mm  long,  enclosing  a distinct 
‘ dorsal  auricle  ’ 3-4  mm  long,  and  a slightly 
lobed  distal  lobe  of  wing,  wings  with  open  dicho- 
tomous venation. 

Epiphytic  scapigerous  perennial  herb,  c.  10  cm 
tall,  tuberous  ; leaves  2-5,  radical ; petiole  3-4 
cm  long,  filiform ; lamina  1.5-1  cm,  ovate, 
obtuse,  base  acute,  margins  faintly  cre- 
nate,  crenatures  minutely  apiculate,  pubes- 
cent above  ; flowers  in  erect  scapes,  pinkish  ; 
scape  c.  10  cm  long,  slender  ; bracts  linear  or 
ovate  ; pedicels  filiform,  c.  1 cm  long,  glab- 


382 


Je  Bombay  nat*  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate 

Bhaskar  & Razi : New  sp.  of  Impatiens  L. 


Left : I.  agumbeana  sp.  nov.  : 1.  Sepal  ; 2.  Lip  with  spur  ; 3.  Wing  petal  with  dorsal  auricle  ; 4.  Seed  with  hairs. 

Right : /.  raziana  sp.nov.:  1.  The  plant;  2.  a flower  ; 3. Standard  ; 4.  Pubescent  pedicel : 5.  Linear  sepals  ; 6.  Sex  organs  ; 7.  Fruit ; 
8.  Wing  petal ; 9.  Lip  with  a rudimentary  spur. 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


rous  ; sepals  ovate,  acute,  base  slightly  cordate, 
3-nerved,  lateral  nerves  with  a short  upcurved 
vein  not  reaching  the  apex,  margins  entire;  lip 
flat,  spathulate,  4 mm  long  ; spur  straight, 
5 mm  long,  slightly  curved,  obtuse,  cylindrical ; 
standard  orbicular;  wings  11  mm  long,  3 
lobed,  distal  lobes  more  or  less  confluent, 
proximal  lobe  distinct  and  smaller ; dorsal 
auricle  prominent,  c.  4 mm  long,  venation 
open  dichotomous ; capsules  ovoid,  many 
seeded  ; seeds  oblong,  brownish,  hairy,  hairs 
dense  and  elongated  at  either  ends  of  seeds, 
spirally  banded. 

The  species  is  named  after  the  place  of  its 
collection.  It  is  a rare  epiphytic  species  occur- 
ring on  huge  tree  trunks  with;  moss  and  hygros- 
copic ferns  in  sholas.  In  I.  stocksii  and  Llawsonii 
which  are  the  near  relatives  of  /.  agumbeana 
wings  have  reticulate  venation  while  in  the  pre- 
sently described  taxon  wings  have  open-dichoto- 
mous venation.  There  is  also  difference  in  the 
chromosome  number  in  all  the  three  species. 
In  /.  agumbeana  n=8,  whereas  in  /.  stocksii 
and  I.  lawsonii  n=7  and  n=10  respectively. 

Type  : Bhaskar  386,  Agumbe,  Shimoga  Dist. 
(Karnataka),  29-9-1973  : Isotypes  have  been 
deposited  in  the  Herbarium,  Manasagangotri, 
Mysore  University  (MGM),  FIs.  and  frts : 
July-September. 

Section  : 6 Annuae 9 
Impatiens  raziana  sp.  nov. 

Proxime  aflinis  ad  speciem  collectivam  / 
oppositifoliam-I.  chinensem-I.  rivulicolam,  tamen 
differt  habitu  prostrato,  caule  quadrangulato, 
floribus  scarlatinis,  labello  cum  calcaro  minuto 
vel  rudimentario  parum  labelli  basi  exoriente. 

Closely  related  to  species  complex  of  I.  opposU 
tifolia — I.  chinensis — I.  rivulicola , but  differs  in 
having  scarlet  flowers,  prostrate  habit  with 


quadrangular  stem  ; lip  with  very  minute  or 
rudimentary  spur  arising  slightly  above  the 
base  of  lip. 

Annual  herbs,  prostrate  or  procumbent,  6 cm 
long,  rooting  at  nodes,  roots  fibrous  ; branch- 
lets  arising  from  basal  nodes,  opposite,  7-8  cm 
long ; stems  quadrangular,  glabrous,  herba- 
ceous ; leaves  opposite,  ovate  or  spathulate, 
4x7  mm,  base  attenuate,  exstipulate,  petio- 
late,  apex  obtuse,  glabrous  ; flowers  solitary, 
axillary,  scarlet,  erect ; pedicels  7 mm  long, 
very  finely  pubescent ; sepals  linear,  elliptic, 
faintly  serrulate,  veins  3,  median  distinct,  furun- 
culate,  furuncles  parallel ; lip  with  a very 
minute  spur,  arising  slightly  above  the  base 
of  lip,  lip  yellow-tinged,  acute  ; standard  ovate, 
more  or  less  mucronate,  glabrous  ; wings  ovate, 
2-lobed,  smaller  lobe  fin-shaped,  transparent, 
honey  guides  prominent ; filaments  subulate, 
unequal ; carpels  ovoid,  2 mm  long  ; capsules 
glabrous,  3-5  mm  long,  2-4  seeded  ; seeds  shiny, 
black,  smooth,  globose. 

A rare  scarlet  balsam,  which  occurs  on  grassy 
plains  near  Kotegehar,  associated  with  Justi- 
cias,  Borrerias  and  grasses.  The  species  very 
closely  resembles  Lindernias  from  a distance 
and  escapes  notice.  Its  pollen  mass  is  scarlet 
in  colour.  The  species  is  named  after  Prof. 
B.  A.  Razi,  former  professor  of  Botany,  Mysore 
University. 

Type  : Bhaskar  311,  Kotegehar,  Charmad 
Ghat  (Chickmaglore  Dist.),  Karnataka, 
26-8-1972.  Isotypes  have  been  deposited  in  the 
Herbarium,  Manasagangotri,  Mysore  University 
(MGM).  FIs.  and  frts.  : August-September. 


Acknowledgements 

We  are  greatly  indebted  to  Dr.  K.  M. 
Matthew,  St.  Joseph’s  College,  Tiruchirapalli 


383 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fb/.  79 


for  the  latin  version  and  for  critically  going 
through  the  manuscript.  We  are  also  grateful 
to  Dr.  S.  N.  Yoganarasimhan,  Survey  Officer, 
SMPU,  Bangalore  and  Dr.  M.  A.  Rau,  Rtd. 
Deputy  Director  of  Botanical  Survey  of  India 


for  their  invaluable  suggestions  and  encourage- 
ment rendered  throughout  this  study.  This 
study  was  supported  through  the  award  of  a 
Senior  Research  Fellowship  to  V.  B.  by  the 
C.S.I.R.,  New  Delhi. 


References 


Barnes,  E.  (1939):  The  species  of  Geraniaceae  occur- 
ring on  the  Travancore  High  Range,  including  the 
description  of  a new  balsam.  Journ.  Indian  bot.  Soc. 
18  (3)  : 95-105. 

Bhaskar,  V.  (1981)  : The  genus  Impatiens  L.  in  South 
India  : Endemism  and  affinities.  Indian  For.  107  (6) : 
368-376. 

Bhaskar,  V.,  Razi,  B.  A.  and  Yoganarasimhan, 
S.  N.  (1975) : A ‘ pollen  variety  ’ of  Impatiens  acaulis 
Arn.  (Balsaminaceae).  Curr.  Sci.  44  (7) : 622-623. 


Blatter,  E.  (1933) : Revision  of  the  flora  of  Bombay 
Presidency : Balsaminaceae.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Soc.  36  (2) : 307-320. 

Fischer,  C.  E.  C.  (1936) : In  Gamble’s  Flora  of 
Madras  Presidency.  Calcutta  3 : 1293-1295. 

Gamble,  J.  S.  (1915) : Flora  of  the  Presidency  of 
Madras.  Calcutta.  1 : 440-483. 

Hooker,  J.  D.  (1904) : An  epitome  of  the  British 
Indian  species  of  Impatiens.  Rec.  bot.  Surv.  India  4. 
(1) : 1-10. 


384 


A NEW  PTERIS  FROM  SILENT  VALLEY,  KERALA1 

S.  R.  Ghosh  and  R.  K.  Ghosh2 

( With  three  text-figures) 


During  an  expedition  to  Siient  Valley,  Palghat 
District,  Kerala  organised  by  the  Botanical  Sur- 
vey of  India  in  the  month  of  April-May,  1980, 
the  junior  author  collected  some  interesting 
specimens  of  Pteris  new  to  science.  The  species 
was  found  in  association  with  Bolbitis  and 
Egenolfia  growing  on  rocky  slopes  in  the  ever- 
green, dense  forest  of  Silent  Valley  where  sun- 
light does  not  penetrate.  The  species  was  con- 
fined to  such  areas  only. 

The  new  species  is  closely  related  to  P.  cretica 
Linn,  whose  occurrence  in  South  India  was 
doubted  (Nair  & Ghosh  1970)  but  differs  from  it 
in  having  the  margin  of  sterile  frond  entire  and 


Pteris  multiaurita  Ag.  in  having  simple  forked 
veins  and  creeping  rhizome. 

Pteris  sllent-valliensls  sp.  nev. 

P.  cretica  L.  aifinis,  a qua  differt  fronde 
sterili  ad  marginem,  Integra,  pinnisque 
paucioribus.  A Pteris  multiaurita  Ag.,  veins 
simplicibus  furcatis,  rhizomate  repenti  differt 

Rhizome  e rectum,  squamatum ; fronde s 
caespitosae,  dimorphae,  simplicitor  pinnatae, 
25-60  cm.  longae,  frons  fertilis  fronde  sterili 
majore,  stipes  parpureus,  ad  basin  niger, 
triangularis,  sulcatus,  laevis,  glaber,  nitens, 
filo  metallico  similis,  rhachidi  multo  longior, 
plerumque  maximus  in  fronde  fertile.  Stipes 
frondium  sterilium  12-20  cm,  longus,  hie  fron- 
dium  fertilium  15-45  cm  longus.  Pinnae 

1 Accepted  January  1982. 

2 Botanical  Survey  of  India,  P.O.  Botanic  Garden, 
Howrah-711  103  (W.B.). 


Fig.  1.  Photograph  of  Pteris  silent-valliensis  sp.  nov. 


laterrales  in  paribus  2-8  oppositis,  pinnae 
terminales  illis  lateralibus  similes,  non  decur- 
rentes,  imum  par  inferius  vel  duo  paria  infe- 
rionce  bipartita,  Pinnae  10-20  cm  longae, 
5-12  mm  latae,  glabrae,  nitidae,  virides,  coria- 
ceae,  petiolatae,  pinnae  steriles  majores  latio- 
r:sq  13,  ad  marginem  integrae,  ad  opicum 


10 


385 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


denticulatae,  vanae  semel  furcatae,  pat  elites, 
prominentes,  Rachis  nuda,  laevis,  veridula. 
Sorus  continuus  secus  marginem,  indusium 
membranaceus,  sporae  bnmneae,  tetrahedrales. 


Fig.  2.  Apex  of  the  pinnae  showing  denticulation. 
Fig.  3.  Rhizome  scale. 

Holotypus  lectus  ad  locum  Silent  Valley, 
Palghat,  Kerala,  die  21-4-80  a Vohra  et  Ghosh 
56301  et  positus  in  CAL,  sub  numero  collec- 
tione. 


Isotypi  Vohra  et  Ghosh  56301  positi  in  CAL, 
et  MH. 

Pteris  silent-valliensis  sp.  nov. 

Rhizome  erect,  scaly,  fronds  tufted,  dimor- 
phous, simply  pinnate,  25-60  cm  long,  fertile 
frond  larger  than  sterile  one  ; stipe  purple,  base 
black,  triangular,  grooved,  smooth,  glabrous, 
shining,  wiry,  much  larger  than  the  rachis, 
usually  largest  in  fertile  frond.  Stipe  of  the 
sterile  fronds  12-20  cm  long,  of  fertile  frond 
15-45  cm  long.  Lateral  pinnae  2-8  opposite 
pairs,  terminal  pinnae  similar  to  lateral  ones, 
not  decurrent,  lower  one  or  two  pairs  bipartite, 
Pinnae  10-20  cm  long,  5-12  mm  broad,  glab- 
rous, glossy,  green,  coriaceous,  petiolate, 
margin  of  the  pinnae  entire,  apex  of  the  sterile 
pinnae  denticulate ; Rachis  naked  smooth, 
greenish,  veins  once  forked,  patent,  prominent. 
Sorus  continuous  along  the  margin,  Indusium 
membranaceous,  spores  brown,  tetrahedral. 

Holotype  : way  to  Kuntipuzha  river,  Silent 
Valley,  Palghat,  Kerala,  Vohra  et  Ghosh  56301, 
21-4-1980  (CAL). 

Isotype  : way  to  Kuntipuzha  river,  Silent 

Valley,  Palghat,  Kerala,  Vohra  et  Ghosh 
56301  (CAL,  MH). 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  grateful  to  Dr.  J.  N.  Vohra,  Regional 
Botanist,  Cryptogamic  Section,  Botanical  Sur- 
vey of  India,  Howrah  and  Dr.  N.  C.  Nair, 
Joint  Director,  Southern  Circle,  Botanical  Sur- 
vey of  India.  We  also  express  gratitude  to 
Dr.  N.  C.  Mazumdar,  Systematic  Botanist, 
Central  National  Herbarium  for  his  latin  des- 
cription of  the  species. 


Reference 

Nair,  N.  C.  and  Ghosh,  S.  R.  (1970) : Pteris  qiiad - 
riaurita  Retz.  and  a few  related  taxa  in  Kerala  State. 
J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  73  : 440. 


386 


REVIEWS 


1.  A SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  BIRDS  OF  INDIA  AND  PAKISTAN— together 

WITH  THOSE  OF  NEPAL,  BHUTAN,  BANGLADESH  AND  SRI  LANKA.  By  SIDNEY 

Dillon  Ripley  II.  2nd  Edition,  pp.  xxvi+652  (25  x 17  cm).  Bombay,  1982 
Bombay  Natural  History  Society  Price  Rs.  100 


In  1961,  the  distinguished  author  published 
the  first  edition  of  A synopsis  of  the  birds 
of  India  and  Pakistan,  at  a time  when  he 
already  had  about  35  years  of  association  with 
the  region,  and  an  unrivalled  first-hand  know- 
ledge of  the  avifauna  of  Sri  Lanka  as  well  as 
the  north-eastern  Himalayas.  The  first  synop- 
sis was  undoubtedly  a major  landmark  in 
advancing  knowledge  about  the  sub-continent’s 
bird  life,  comparable  in  importance  with  the 
publication  between  the  two  world  wars,  of 
the  eight  volume  fauna  of  British  India 
series,  authored  by  Stuart  Baker.  Perhaps 
more  important  it  was  within  the  financial  reach 
of  a much  wider  readership  and  here,  briefly 
the  reviewer  would  like  to  acknowledge  the 
tremendous  personal  debt  which  he  derived 
from  this  first  synopsis,  enabling  him  after 
years  of  frustration  to  develop  a serious  interest 
in  the  region’s  bird  life. 

As  stated  in  the  introduction  of  the  2nd  revised 
synopsis,  the  1961  version  formed  the  basis 
upon  which  the  ten  volume  Handbook  series 
(jointly  authored  by  Dr.  Salim  Ali  and  Dr. 
Dillon  Ripley)  was  published  between  the  years 
1969  and  1974.  Now,  after  an  interval  of  over 
twenty  years,  there  was  an  obvious  need  for  a 
revision  of  the  synopsis  especially  in  view  of 
recent  advances  in  knowledge  of  less  accessible 
regions,  as  well  as  the  development  of  studies 
in  such  fields  in  ethology,  ecto-parasites,  egg- 
white  protein  and  genetics,  which  have  thrown 
new  light  on  phylogenetic  relationships.  Because 
of  his  heavy  public  responsibilities  as  Secretary 


of  the  famous  Smithsonian  Institute,  not  to 
speak  of  other  multifarious  duties  as  President 
of  the  International  Council  for  Bird  Preserva- 
tion and  other  conservation  bodies,  the  work  of 
revising  this  2nd  edition  appears  to  have  been 
prolonged  over  a period  of  nearly  ten  years, 
and  indeed  it  is  a wonder  that  such  a painstaking 
and  time  consuming  task  of  revision  was 
accomplished  at  all. 

The  2nd  edition  of  the  synopsis  attempts 
to  review  and  bring  up  to  date  the  latest  taxono- 
mic thinking  on  the  avian  systematics  and  the 
fauna  of  the  region,  whilst  at  the  same  time 
highlighting  briefly  the  available  information 
on  the  status  and  distribution  of  each  species 
and  sub-species  listed.  When  it  is  realised 
that  more  than  1200  species  are  covered  with  a 
total  of  2060  separate  sub-species,  the  comple- 
xity and  enormous  range  of  such  an  under- 
taking can  be  appreciated.  The  great  strength 
of  this  2nd  edition,  lies  in  its  coverage  of  the 
north-eastern  Himalayan  region  and  parti- 
cularly Sikkim,  Bhutan  and  northern  Assam 
resulting  from  the  author’s  own  personal  inte- 
rest in  and  many  expeditions  to  these  relatively 
inaccessible  regions.  Also  the  comprehensive 
coverage  and  new  information  of  the  Nicobar 
and  Andaman  group  of  islands  (largely  as  a 
result  of  the  work  done  by  that  doyen  of  Indian 
ornithologists,  Humayun  Abdulali),  and  also 
of  the  avifauna  of  Nepal,  largely  as  a result 
of  the  meticulous  recording  of  the  Bob  Fle- 
mings senior  and  junior,  (see  various  Fieldiana 
publication  cited  in  the  synopsis). 


387 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


If  the  synopsis  has  any  weaknesses,  these 
stem  from  the  difficulty  of  trying  to  convey 
meaningful  information  with  the  necessity  of 
condensation  and  simplification,  and  this  parti- 
cularly with  respect  to  the  comments  about 
each  sub-species,  habitat  preferences  and  dis- 
tributional status.  One  could  draw  the  reader’s 
attention  to  the  short  descriptive  passage  on 
habitat  preferences  for  Emberiza  striolata  (No. 
2057  in  both  editions),  whereby  a comparison 
with  the  1961  version  will  show  the  care  and 
detail  which  has  gone  into  trying  to  make  the 
2nd  edition  more  precise  and  meaningful. 
Nevertheless  because  of  the  wide  range  of  cli- 
matic, edaphic  and  elevational  factors,  affec- 
ting the  environment  selected  as  living  space 
by  birds,  there  is  a d inger  of  over-simplification 
in  the  categorisation  of  geographic  or  forest 
types  used  for  these  descriptions,  as  well  as  the 
distributional  information,  to  the  point  where 
the  complexity  of  factors  determining  a species 
habitat  requirements  may  be  masked.  To 
cite  but  two  examples,  the  phrase  ‘ resident, 
subject  to  vertical  movements’,  fails  to  convey 
the  great  variation  in  movements  which  actually 
occurs  in  many  montane  breeding  species.  For 
example  the  more  palearctic  Sittid.e  show 
remarkably  little  altitudinal  movement  even  in 
severe  winter  conditions  according  to  this 
reviewer’s  observations  in  Pakistan,  whereas 
the  Certhidae  certainly  do,  yet  both  families 
are  described  in  the  synopsis  in  the  same 
phrase,  ‘resident,  subject  to  vertical  movements’. 
To  take  another  example  describing  habitat 
or  breeding  range  biotope,  one  could  quote 
the  reference  to  Myiophonus  caeruleus  which 
the  synopsis  describes  as  ‘ frequenting  rivers 
and  torrents,  preferably  in  heavy  forest  and  not 
in  bare  country  Cliffs  and  running  water 
this  thrush  certainly  seems  to  need,  but  in 
Baluchistan  and  to  a lesser  extent  even  in  Cnitral, 
many  breeding  pairs  can  be  found  in  country 
totally  devoid  even 'of  stunted  bushes. 


In  the  field  of  taxonomy  there  will  always  be 
a divergence  of  opinion  and  controversy,  and 
many  specialists  will  disagree  with  the  treatment 
given  to  some  of  the  species  in  this  synopsis, 
but  all  such  taxonomic  reviews  are  becoming 
increasingly  indispensable  even  to  the  so-called 
‘field  worker’,  and  human  understanding 
often  advances  more  surely  where  there  has 
been  some  controversy.  Hence  this  reviewer 
is  confident  of  the  lasting  value  of  this  2nd 
edition  and  in  the  critical  comments  that  follow, 
it  is  intended  only  to  convey  the  stimulus  that 
such  a publication  is  bound  to  elicit. 

With  his  encyclopaedic  knowledge,  it  might 
seem  invidious  to  single  out  any  particular 
sections  of  the  synopsis  for  special  merit, 
but  it  can  fairly  be  stated,  that  the  author  is 
one  of  the  world’s  leading  authorities  on  the 
Timaliinae  (Babblers,  Laughing  Thrushes  etc.) 
and  the  Rallidae  and  his  treatment  of  these 
two  families/sub-families  makes  an  especially 
significant  contribution.  There  is  quite  a major 
re-arrangement  in  the  sequence  of  species  listed 
under  Ralldae,  and  this  would  surely  have 
been  more  valuable  if  accompanied  by  a more 
adequate  explanation  of  the  author’s  prefe- 
rences. Every  major  new  review  of  taxonomic 
status  should  aim  at  trying  to  reach  a consensus 
and  for  this  reason,  a liberal  use  of  footnotes 
and  commentary  is  not  only  unavoidable  but 
extremely  helpful.  Reverting  to  the  Timaliinae, 
its  continued  relegation  in  the  synopsis  to 
sub-famdy  status  and  more  primitive  phylo- 
genetic origins  than  say  the  Sylvidae  seems  to 
ignore  recent  discussions  about  the  characters 
of  this  distinct  group  (Sibley  1970  : Compara- 
tive Study  of  Egg-white  Proteins  of  Passerine 
Birds.  Bull.  Peabody  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.  32) 
as  well  as  such  behaviourists  as  Simmons  (1963. 
Avicult.  Mag.:  69)  and  such  systematists 

as  May  and  Greenway  (1956  : Sequence  of 
Passerine  Families  : Brevidra.  Mus.  Comp. 
Zool.  : 58). 


REVIEWS 


The  elevation  of  seven  sub-species  to  full  speci- 
fic rank,  in  this  2nd  edition  is  of  special  interest, 
as  indeed  are  the  total  of  35  new  species  added 
to  the  1961  list.  Examples;  of  the  former, 
include  Rhyticeros  plicatus  the  Narcondam 
Hornbill  and  Turdoides  rufescens  the  Ceylon 
Rufous  Babbler  representing  regions  where  the 
synopsis  has  unrivalled  coverage.  Sterna 
saunders ii  the  Black-shafted  Little  Tern  with 
which  the  reviewer  is  familiar  on  its  breeding 
territories  around  Karachi,  seems  to  exhibit 
less  extreme  variation  in  bill  and  leg  colour  and 
wing-tip  pattern  than  many  accepted  races  of 
the  Common  Tern  Sterna  hirundo  from,  for 
example,  the  Southeast  Pacific  region.  The 
Kashmir  Red-breasted  Flycatcher  ( MuscU 
capa  suhrubra ),  with  its  markedly  different 
vocalisations  and  sub-adult  male /female  plu- 
mage patterns  when  compared  with  the  East 
European  breeding  population,  would  certainly 
seem  to  warrant  full  specific  separation. 

Considering  some  of  the  new  species  listed, 
perhaps  the  most  interesting  is  Brachypteryx 
cryptica,  the  Enigmatic  Shortwing,  putting  the 
author  alongside  that  handful  of  men  who 
have  experienced  the  excitement  and  renown 
of  discovering  new  species  of  birds  within  the 
past  half  century.  Four  new  species  are  listed 
for  which  there  are  no  sight  records  but  which 
are  known  to  occur  in  adjacent  territories, 
such  as  the  oceanic  Gadfly  Petrels,  Bulweria 
fallax  and  B.  bulwerii , and  also  the  north-eas- 
tern Tibetan  Black  Woodpecker  ( Dryocopus 
miritus)  and  the  Streak-throated  Tit  Babbler 
(Alcippe  striaticollis).  The  probability  of  these 
species  being  discovered  within  the  territories 
covered  by  the  synopsis  is  certainly  high, 
but  their  inclusion  seems  to  be  quite  inconsis- 
tent with  the  basis  for  inclusion  of  the  rest 
of  the  species  in  the  synopsis,  and  especially 
with  the  deliberate  exclusion  of  Pious  viridis 
bampurensis , collected  from  an  area  very  close 
to  the  border  of  Baluchistan  (in  Fars  Province 


of  Iran),  Even  if  Bumpur  was  wrongly  des- 
cribed as  falling  within  Pakistan  territory  in 
the  1st  edition,  the  region  is  ecologically 
identical  to  the  adjacent  Chaghai  District  of 
Baluchistan,  where  Picus  squamatus  has  been 
recorded.  It  would  have  been  more  valuable 
to  know  whether  Zarudny’s  identification  of 
Picus  viridis  was  supported  by  specimens. 

There  are  some  instances  of  the  continued 
maintenance  of  sub-specific  status  for  birds 
which  in  a consensus  view  seem  to  merit  full 
specific  status.  Two  examples  are  Otus  scops 
sunia , with  its  exclusively  non-palearctic  distri- 
bution, and  stereotyped  very  distinct  breeding 
season  calls,  which  is  generally  recognised 
nowadays,  as  a separate  species,  Otus  sunia , 
the  Eastern  Scops  Owl  (see  Gallagher  and 
Woodcock,  Birds  of  Oman,  and  4 Vocalisations 
of  Indo-Pakistan  Scops  Owls  Roberts  and 
King  in  press).  The  second  is  Lanins  ccllurio 
isabellinus , admittedly  a representative  of  a 
taxonomically  very  difficult  group.  Several 
recent  authorities  have  argued  the  merits  for 
elevation  to  full  specific  rank,  viz.  L.  isabellinus 
(see  Stresemann,  Portenko  and  Mauersberger, 
1971,  VogJ  3,  Berlin  Akad.VerL,  and  de  Voous, 
Brit.  Birds,  Vol.  72,  No.  12),  and  because  of  its 
remarkably  different  plumage  pattern  (espe- 
cially tail)  and  breeding  distribution  at  least 
within  Pakistan  territory,  this  distinction  seems 
warranted. 

It  should  be  stressed  that  all  such  examples 
are  minor  questions  of  personal  opinion  but 
their  resolution  will  undoubtedly  help  every 
serious  field  biologist  to  understand  better  the 
ecological  requirements  or  the  factors  leading 
to  genetic  and  breeding  separation  of  the 
different  species  found  in  this  faunistically  rich 
and  diverse  region. 

In  conclusion,  the  reviewer  would  like  to 
comment  upon  one  important  and  perplexing 
area  of  information  in  this  revised  synopsis. 


389 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , F<?/.  79 


This  relates  to  the  described  status  and  distri- 
bution of  species  in  the  north-western  part 
of  the  sub-continent,  where  the  paucity  of  recent 
reliable  observers  has  certainly  resulted  in  too 
great  a reliance  upon  out-dated  distributional 
information  and  even  in  some  cases  a too  uncriti- 
cal acceptance  of  earlier  records.  After  thirty- 
five  years  residence  in  this  northwestern  region 
the  reviewer  admits  to  a heavy  bias  in  such  an 
over  view. 

To  give  some  examples  one  may  cite  some 
of  the  records  for  Baluchistan,  based  upon 
C B Ticehurst’s  papers  (J.B.N.H.S.  Vol. 
XXXI,  1926  Parts  I&  II,  and  Vol.  XXXII, 
1927  Part  III  pp.  687-771,  pp.  862-881  & 
pp.  66-97).  Though  the  author  admits  to 
very  little  personal  acquaintance  with  the 
region  and  compiles  his  paper  from  earlier 
workers  publications  as  well  as  unpublished 
manuscripts  and  various  skin  collections,  it 
must  be  well  accepted  that  he  was  a meticulous 
and  highly  discerning  ornithologist,  whose 
opinions  would  always  merit  careful  consi- 
deration. However  personal  familiarity  with 
the  region  covering  over  a score  of  field  trips 
of  which  eight  or  nine  were  during  the  spring 
nesting  season,  would  indicate  that  the  Red- 
headed Tit  Aegithalos  concinnus  certainly  does 
not  occur  in  Ziarat  or  any  high  elevation 
dry  Juniperus  biotope,  whilst  Ember iza  bruniceps 
the  Red-headed  Bunting  only  migrates  as  far 
south  as  northern  Baluch  istan  in  certain  years 
and  there  is  no  evidence  of  its  ever  having  bred 
there  (despite  W.  D.  Cummings  manuscript 
notes  and  the  nest  of  this  species  he  purported 
to  have  sent  to  Dr.  Ticehurst).  Another  exam- 
ple is  the  uncritical  acceptance  of  Colonel  Ratt- 
rays  records  for  the  Murree  Hills  (Birds  Nesting 
in  the  Murree  Hills  and  Gallies,  J.B.N.H.S., 
Vol.  16,  1904  & Vol.  16  No.  3,  1905)  Colonel 
Rattray  according  to  his  own  record  relied 
heavily  upon  ‘native  collectors’  and  none  of 
his  skins  are  preserved  in  any  museum  collec- 


tion though  he  often  averred  that  ‘he  shot 
the  female  off  the  nest,  to  make  certain  of 
identification  ’.  Thus,  such  species  as  the 
Drongo  Cuckoo  ( Surniculus  lugubris ),  which 
parasitises  exclusively  on  Garrulax  species  not 
Dicruridae,  whose  egg  Rattray  claimed  to  have 
collected,  as  well  as  Ictinaetus  malayensis, 
Phylloscopus  reguloides , and  Phylloscopus  tfo- 
chiloides  (see  Handbook  Volume  9,  pp.  167) 
seem  to  be  listed  as  occurring  in  the  Murree 
Hills  on  the  basis  of  Colonel  Rattray’s  papers. 
A familiarisation  with  the  breeding  songs  of 
all  the  Phylloscopi  in  Pakistan,  and  many  years 
of  staying  in  these  hills  during  the  spring  and 
summer  months  indicates  to  the  reviewer 
that  at  least  during  recent  decades  these  parti- 
cular species  have  not  bred  in  the  Murree 
Hi!ls,  if  indeed  they  even  occurred  as  stragglers. 
Other  puzzling  distributional  records,  worthy 
of  mention,  are  the  inclusion  of  the  Murree 
Hills  for  the  Rufouschinned  Laughing  Thrush 
( Garrulax  rufogularis)  on  the  basis  of  Stoliczka’s 
record  of  Changla  Gali,  July  1873.  NoB.N.H.S. 
or  British  Museum  skins  exist  west  of  the  Punjab 
Hill  States  in  India,  and  because  of  the  profound 
ecological  changes  which  have  occurred  due 
to  human  population  pressure  in  these  Murree 
Hills,  it  is  about  as  relevant  to  cite  an  1873 
observation,  as  to  quote  the  sighting  in  the 
1920’s  of  Carolina  Parakeets  in  the  Florida 
Everglades. 

Similarly  a study  of  Hugh  Wnistler’s  compre- 
hensive manuscript  notes,  as  well  as  extant  skin 
collections  in  Bombay  and  Tring,  has  failed  to 
clarify  why  Marshall’s  Iora  (Aegithina  nigro - 
luted)  is  included  as  occurring  in  N.W.F.P. 
and  Pakistan  Punjab,  or  whv  the  Allied 
Grosbeak  (Mycerobus)  Coccothraustes  affinis  in 
the  revised  synopsis  is  recorded  as  occurring 
in  the  Murree  Hills.  Indeed  the  record  for 
the  Allied  Grosbeak  seems  to  stem  from  an 
examination  of  skins  of  unknown  origin  (‘  The 
Hills  beyond  Murree  ’)  to  quote  by  Surgeon 


390 


REVIEWS 


General  L.  C.  Stewart  in  1886.  These  two 
examples  are  mentioned  because  they  are  so 
much  at  variance  with  the  present-day  known 
distribution  of  these  two  species,  both  so 
conspicuous  in  coloration  and  loud  vocalisa- 
tions as  to  be  difficult  to  escape  notice. 

As  our  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  India’s 
avifauna  is  increasing  with  new  distributional 
records  coming  to  notice  almost  month  by 
month,  it  is  clear  that  no  attempt  to  record 
the  range  of  species  can  be  final  or  without 
shortcomings  and  a reference  to  the  revised 
Handbooks  citation  about  the  present  distri- 
bution of  the  Orange-headed  Ground  Thrush 
(Zoothera  citrina),  No.  1733  in  the  revised 


synopsis,  together  with  a recent  note  recording 
the  occurrence  of  this  species  close  to  Islamabad 
(see  Roberts,  J.B.N.H.S.,  Yol.  78  No.  1,  1981, 
Misc.  notes  pp.  73-76)  should  testify  to  the 
fallibility  of  the  reviewer  himself  in  such 
matters. 

To  conclude,  tne  revised  synopsis  is  a worthy 
successor  to  the  first  edition,  indispensible  to 
any  serious  student  of  Indian  ornithology  and 
the  oriental  zoogeographic  region,  and  this 
reviewer  is  grateful  for  the  opportunity  which  it 
offers  for  improving  our  knowledge  and  under- 
standing of  the  region. 

T.  J.  ROBERTS 


2.  THE  PLOVERS,  SANDPIPERS,  AND  SNIPES  OF  THE  WORLD. 
By  Paul  A.  Johnsgard.  pp.  491  (28  x 21.5  cm)  with  60  coloured  and  60  mono- 
chrome plates  and  numerous  line  drawings  and  distribution  maps  in  the  text. 
Lincoln  & London,  1981.  University  of  Nebraska  Press.  Price  $ 45.00. 


The  Shorebirds  or  ‘ Waders  ’ as  a class  are 
very  richly  represented  in  the  northern  hemis- 
phere, the  Nearctic  and  Palearctic  Regions 
possessing  by  far  the  largest  number  of  breeding 
species.  They  are  very  poorly  represented 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  where  the  two 
major  subfamilies  Calidrinae  and  Trynginae 
are  totally  absent  as  breeding  birds.  Plovers, 
Snipes  and  Sandpipers  are  not  found  on  the 
mainland  of  Antarctica  at  all.  No  worldwide 
approach  to  the  shorebirds  had  been  attempted 
since  Henry  Seebohm’s  (1888)  classical  mono- 
graph. Their  taxonomy  remains  somewhat 
unsettled  and  controversial  partly  in  view  o^ 
the  great  diversity  in  their  breeding  biology  and 
the  crucial  importance  ethology  has  acquired 
in  avian  taxonomy  since  Seebohm’s  day.  The 
breeding  biology  of  shorebirds  is  enormously 
variable.  There  is  greater  diversity  in  their 
mating  systems  than  perhaps  in  any  other 
Order  of  birds  : there  is,  among  them,  Mono- 


gamy, Bigamy,  Polygamy  (both  polygyny  and 
polyandry)  as  well  as  promiscuity — the  last 
perhaps  commoner  than  hitherto  realized. 
By  the  special  stress  it  lays  on  the  behaviour 
patterns  of  breeding  shorebirds  the  book  under 
review  is  notable,  as  it  also  is  for  the  compre- 
hensive and  workmanlike  diagnostic  keys  it 
provides  to  Classes,  Families,  Subfamilies, 
Tribes  and  Genera — a feature  not  available  in 
any  other  modern  work  on  this  universally 
popular  group  of  birds.  Furthermore,  the 
natal  plumage  pattern  of  shorebirds  is  also 
of  great  significance  in  classification  ; thus  the 
illustrations  of  the  downy  young  of  as  many 
species  as  possible  make  a particularly  useful 
feature. 

The  main  text  covers  all  the  shorebirds  of 
the  world  as  named  in  the  title  of  the  book, 
with  general  descriptions  and  identification 
keys  split  up  into  genera,  species  (and  subspecies 


391 


JOURNAL , B DM  JAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fb/.  79 


if  any)  with  their  ranges  and  breeding  distri- 
butions clearly  shown  on  line  imps.  Most  of 
the  species  are  beautifully  illustrated  with 
line  drawings  of  the  complete  bird  or  its  head 
profile,  and  many  also  with  their  diagnostically 
patterned  downy  young.  In  addition  to  these 
are  60  beautiful  and  well  chosen  colour  plates 
and  an  equal  number  of  black-and-white  ones 
to  round  off  the  general  excellence  of  the 
publication. 

The  descriptions  of  individual  species  cover 
information  collated  from  widely  scattered 
sources,  but  is  largely  based  also  on  the  author’s 
personal  observations  and  on  as  yet  unpubli- 
shed research.  The  section  on  Natural  History 
(which  includes  habitats  and  foods,  social 
behaviour,  reproductive  bicdogy,  status  and 


relationships),  is  the  most  fascinating  and  infor- 
mative for  the  serious  bird  watcher  as  well  as 
the  professional  biclogist. 

The  appearance  of  this  beautiful  and  autho- 
ritative work  on  the  shorebirds  of  the  world 
is  timely  and  welcome,  not  only  because  nothing 
so  comprehensive  was  available  before  but  also 
because  it  comes  from  the  author  of  that  modern 
classic,  ‘Ducks,  Geese  and  Swans  of  the 
World  ’ — which  sets  the  zeal  of  excellence 
upon  it.  No  good  ornithological  library  can 
afford  to  do  without  this  book,  and — since 
shorebirds  are  among  the  most  fascinating, 
abundant  and  easy -to -watch  birds  anywhere- 
no  serious  bird  watcher  should  be  without  it. 

sAlim  ali 


3.  EUPHRATES  AND  TIGRIS,  MESOPOTAMIAN  ECOLOGY  AND 
DESTINY.  By  Julian  Rzoska.  pp.  x -f-  122  (24.5x16  cm)  with  36  text- 
figures.  The  Hague — Boston — London,  1980.  Dr.  W.  Junk  bv  Publishers. 
Price  Dutch  Guilders  60.00  ; US  $ 31.50. 


This  small  book,  comprising  Volume  38  of 
the  Monographiae  Biologicae  series,  is  the 
third  one  dealing  with  rivers,  having  been 
preceded  by  those  dealing  with  the  Nile  and 
the  Volga. 

It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  viz,  (I)  the  land 
and  its  life,  and  (II)  Mesopotamian  waters, 
regime  and  hydrobiology.  Part  I — the  smaller 

of  the  two  (27  pages),  has  three  chapters, 
dealing  with  the  land,  its  geology,  climate, 
soils,  vegetation  (including  crops)  and  archaeo- 
logy. The  author  opines  that  this  general 
setting  is  necessary  so  as  to  give  a background 
against  which  the  second,  main,  part  can  be 
properly  assessed. 

Tiie  second  part,  with  eight  chapters,  has  a 
more  proper  bearing  on  the  hydrobiology  of 


the  region,  comprising  present-day  Iraq.  Even 
here,  the  author  has  thought  fit  to  devote  an 
entire  chapter  on  Near  East  waters,  viz.  Lake 
Kinneret  (more  popularly  remembered  as  the 
Sea  of  Galilee),  the  Dead  Sea,  and  waters  of 
Iran  and  of  the  Azraq  Oasis. 

At  last,  in  Chapter  5,  we  come  to  what  pro- 
perly constitutes  the  studies  bearing  on  the  title 
cf  the  book,  covering  the  origin  of  these  rivers, 
their  length  and  slopes,  hydrology  and  currents, 
their  use  as  channels  for  communication  and  as 
life  arteries  for  man.  The  development  of 
marshes  and  deltas  leading  to  the  Shaft  al- 
Arab  through  the  ages  has  been  vividly  des- 
cribed with  the  help  of  six  maps. 

The  next  chapter,  written  by  J.  F.  Tailing, 
brings  us  to  the  classical  aspects  of  hydrobiology, 

3 92 


REVIEWS 


such  as  temperature,  salinity,  turbidity,  and 
chemical  composition.  Chapter  6A,  also  by 
the  same  person,  deals  with  phytoplankton. 

Water  vegetation,  animal  life  and  benthos 
are  covered  in  Chapter  7,  together  with  excerpts 
on  malaria  and  mosquitoes  extracted  from  a 
book  published  by  the  London  School  of 
Hygiene  and  Tropical  Medicine  in  1950. 

The  last  chapter,  written  by  K.  E.  Banister, 
is  a fairly  detailed  account  oi  the  fishes  ot  the 
two  rivers. 

This  book  is  certainly  a new  approach  to  the 
study  ol  Ireshwater  resources  and  the  author 
has  treated  the  contained  material  in  a cohe- 
rent manner.  Its  scientific  terminology  and 
concept  seem  definitely  oriented  toward  the 
lay  reader,  but  the  format  and  depth  of  cove- 
rage are  probably  more  suited  to  a collegiate 
level.  - 

The  book’s  real  failing  lies  in  its  brevity. 
By  attempting  to  condense  into  a little  over  a 
hundred  pages  what  ought  to  have  filled  a 
tome,  the  author  has  failed  to  do  justice  to  its 
contents.  Of  course,  the  magnitude  of  refe- 
rences is  very  impressive,  and  the  author, 
with  his  interdisciplinary  approach , has  obviously 
done  a lot  of  patient  researching  in  libraries. 

It  may  surprise  many  readers  that  the 
Journal  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society 
was  instrumental  in  publicising  the  fauna  of 
Iraq  with  a series  of  excellent  papers  between 
1929  and  1922,  the  most  oustanding  being  on 
(1)  butterflies,  (2j  Hymenoptera,  (3)  Orthoptera, 


(4)  freshwater  Crustacea,  (5)  Birds  and  (6) 
mammals  by  (1)  Peile,  (2)  Morice,  (3)  Chopard, 
Uvarov,  (4)  Gurney,  (5)  Ticehurst,  Buxton  and 
Cheesman  and  (6)  Cheesman  respectively.  A 
note  on  the  Arabian  ostrich  by  S.  H.  Prater  also 
stands  out  conspicuously.  The  author  has 
drawn  freely  from  the  ‘ Handbook  of  Iraq 
and  the  Persian  Gulf’  issued  by  Naval  Intelli- 
gence, Great  Britain  during  1944 — even  now  a 
most  comprehensive  source  of  information 
though  quite  outdated. 

Printed  on  glossy  art  paper,  which  does  justice 
to  the  many  photographs  therein,  the  book  is 
well  edited.  Even  then,  a few  errors  have 
crept  in,  mainly  with  place-names.  Thus  the 
word  4 Sumerian  ’ has  been  variously  misspelt 
as  ‘Sumercan’  (page  22,  line  11)  and  4 Sumeri- 
can  ’ (page  47,  line  26), 4 Amman  ’ as  ‘ Ammam’ 
(page  35,  third  paragraph),  and  'Mesopotamia’ 
as  4 Mesopotania  ’ (map  facing  page  108). 
Other  minor  errors  are  4 scinks  ’ instead  of 
4 skinks  ’ on  page  13  (last  paragraph),  and 

4 erosion  products  have  began. . . . ’ on 

line  5 of  page  52.  The  author  has  used  the 
words  4 Persian  ’ and  4 Arabian  ’ Gulf  inter- 
changeably at  several  places,  possibly  to  avoid 
offending  political  diehards. 

If  the  reader  finds  the  book  too  superficial, 
its  real  failing  lies  not  with  the  author,  but 
with  users  who  do  not  heed  his  admission,  in 
his  Introduction  to  the  book,  that  the  book 
offers  only  a 4 birds  eye  view  ’.  Priced  at  a 
hefty  US  $ 31.50,  it  is  an  excellent  source-book 
of  references  for  the  Iraqophile,  but  definitely 
not  for  the  common  Indian  or  ecologist. 


B.  F.  CHHAPGAR 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


4.  MATERIAL  FOR  A FLORA  OF  THE  TAMILNADU  CARNATIC. 
Volume  I — Documentation  Volume.  By  K.  M.  Matthew,  pp.  x -i-469 
(25  x 17  cm)  with  20  plates  and  2 maps.  Tiruchirapalli,  1981.  Published  by 
Rapinat  Herbarium,  St.  Joseph’s  College,  Price  Rs.  100,  £ 15.00,  $ 40.00 


This  is  the  first — Documentary  Volume— of 
the  proposed  three-volume  flora  of  a part  of 
the  Tamilnadu  State,  which  covers  almost  25% 
of  the  total  area  of  the  state.  This  volume 
consists  of  three  parts.  The  first  part  deals  with 
the  reasons  for  selecting  this  particular  area, 
topography  of  the  region  and  various  tradi- 
tional methods  used  in  this  investigation. 
The  second  part  consists  of  the  actual  docu- 
mentation or  the  check-list  of  citations  of 
32,000  specimens  belonging  to  2376  species  of 
vascular  plants  available  for  study  in  the  five 
main  South  Indian  herbaria.  The  third  part 
is  devoted  to  the  Rapinat  Herbarium  and  the 
Anglande  Institute  of  Natural  History,  Palni 
Hills. 

The  author,  Dr.  K.  M.  Matthew,  is  an  acknow- 
ledged Systematic  Botanist  and  his  works, 
4 The  Exotic  Flora  of  Kodaikanal  4 The  Flo- 
wering Plants  of  Kurseong’  and  his  mono- 
graph on  4 Genus  Mastixia  ’ are  well  known. 
In  introduction  to  this  volume  he  has  proposed 
that  there  should  be  some  selective  centres  of 
collaboration  between  the  Botanical  Survey 
of  India  and  The  Universities  and  reports  of 
such  joint  schemes  should  be  published  in  the 
appendix  to  the  Bulletin  of  Botanical  Survey  of 


India.  This  is  a very  welcome  suggestion 
But  his  claim  that,  ‘ The  days  of  general 
plant  collecting  are  over  and  the  future  of 
Systematic  Botany  in  India  lies  in  monography  % 
does  not  sound  appealing.  Hooker’s  Flora 
of  British  India  is  outdated  with  respect  to 
nomenclature  and  number  of  new  additions 
to  the  flora  subsequently  and  the  monographic 
revisions  of  various  families  are  necessary, 
the  task  in  which  Botanical  Survey  of  India  is 
already  engaged.  However  the  pace  of  the 
work  is  rather  very  slow.  But  the  general 
collections  in  regions  unexplored  is  also 
important. 

The  presentation  of  the  volume,  in  general 
is  good  and  certainly  will  be  of  good  help  to 
the  research  students  of  Systematic  Botany, 
but  it  is  felt  that  the  documentation  of  specimens 
would  have  been  better  placed  in  the  text, 
following  the  Taxonomic  Treatment  of  each 
species. 

Due  to  Government  subsidy,  the  volume 
is  considerably  underpriced  and  should  be 
accessible  to  all  pockets. 


M.  R.  ALMEIDA 


REVIEWS 


5.  THONNER’S  ANALYTICAL  KEY  TO  THE  FAMILIES  OF  FLOW- 
ERING PLANTS.  By  R.  Geesink,  A.  J.  M.  Leeuwenberg,  C.  E.  Ridsdale  & 
J.F.  Vcldkamp.  pp.  xxvi  + 231  (22.5  x 15  cm).  The  Hague/Boston/London, 
1981.  PUDOC,  Centre  for  Agricultural  Publishing  and  Documentation,  Wage- 
ningen  ; Leiden  University  Press.  Price  Dfl.  38.50/US  $21.00  (Paper  back). 


The  book  is  based  on  the  comprehensive 
analytical  key  for  the  Flowering  Plants  by  the 
Austrian  Franz  Thonner  (pp.  xii-xxi)  in  German, 
whose  final  (1917)  edition  was  reached  after 
30  years  of  original  work.  Unfortunately  the 
language  being  German  and  the  author  being 
a private  botanist  largely  led  to  overlooking 
this  important  work.  The  present  authors 
are  a team  of  young  botanists  of  the  Rijks- 
herbarium,  Leiden,  Netherlands,  well  equipped 
with  adequate  knowledge  of  the  tropical  plants 
through  their  work  for  the  Flora  Malesiana. 

The  work  is  no  mere  translation  (even  the 
number  of  couplets  has  gone  up  from  812  of 
Thonner  to  2117  in  the  present  book);  it 
gives  an  adequate  contemporary  coverage  of 
Flowering  Plants  within  Thonners  framework. 
A concise  introduction  (pp.  viii-ix)  justifies  the 
enterprise  referring  to  existing  works.  The 
authors  make  no  exaggerated  claim  but  insist 
that  this  is  a book  in  the  making  (which  is  not  ?), 
and  should  be  improved  by  international  colla- 
boration (after  all,  any  future  work  of  this 
kind  should  be  team  work).  Deletion  of  lead 
225  reminds  one  that  the  book  is  in  the  making. 
The  authors  explicitly  invite  criticisms,  sugges- 
tions and  improvements.  An  imposing  list 
of  competent  workers  who  have  already  been 
consulted  (pp.  x-xi)  indicates  the  considerable 
amount  of  improvement  already  achieved. 

Pages  xxii-xxv  give  instructions  on  how  to 
use  the  key  (this  is  no  ‘ without  tears  ’ series  !), 
which  incidentally  explain  how  to  prepare  parts 


of  herbarium  materials  for  analysis  and  study. 
Certain  leads  separated  by  a dash  ( — ) the  first 
part  strictly  contradicting  the  corresponding 
lead  of  the  couplet,  the  second  part  giving 
additional  information  is  a wise  device  of 
adhering  to  the  exigencies  of  the  dichotomous 
key  without  sacrificing  vital  information  that 
cannot  always  be  contradicted  by  the  corres- 
ponding lead  of  the  couplet.  Cross  references 
to  widely  separated  leads  are  helpful.  Multiple 
entries  are,  of  course,  unavoidable,  but  can  be 
easily  managed  from  the  detailed  index  (pp. 
214-231).  A comprehensive  Glossary  (pp.  198- 
213)  explains  all  the  technical  terms  used. 

The  modesty  of  the  authors  is  denied  by  the 
amount  of  information  and  expertise  the  book 
contains.  Firsthand  knowledge  is  written  across 
the  text.  It  is  a massive  and  painstaking 
effort,  a labour  of  love  where  the  margin  between 
work  and  pleasure  is  blurred  ! One  of  the 
authors  orally  claimed  90%  efficiency  for  this 
key  as  against  65%  for  Hutchinson. 

This  book  can  be  particularly  useful  in  India 
as  a pape-setter  if  systematic  botanists  turn  to 
the  long-overdue  monography  which  is  the 
core  of  systematic  botany  rather  than  the 
niceties  of  ‘ nomenclature  ’ or  the  publishing 
of 4 new  ’ species  or  even  records.  An  immediate 
task  for  the  next  mere  five  years  could  be  the 
writing  of  a similar  key  for  the  national  and 
the  provincial  floras  by  the  available  workers 
in  the  field.  In  such  a context,  the  present  work 
(despite  its  Rngler  and  Prantl  sequence,  not 


395 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


well  known  in  India)  cannot  only  be  useful 
but  stimulating  ; else  the  danger  is  that  this 
also  will  adorn  library  shelves  as  many  impor- 
ted and  expensive  tomes  do  now. 

This  rigorously  worked,  neatly  printed, 


excellently  produced  and  moderately  priced 
book  is  warmly  recommended  for  creative 
workers  in  systematic  botany.  An  Indian  reprint 
may  be  possible  if  the  demand  is  adequate. 

K.  M.  MATTHEW 


6.  A REVISED  HANDBOOK  TO  THE  FLORA  OF  CEYLON.  Edited  by 
M.  D.  Dassanayake  & F.  R.  Forsberg,  Vol.  I,  pp.  vii  + 508  (24x15  cm). 
Vol.  II,  pp.  vii -f  512  (24x15  cm)  with  many  illustrations.  New  Delhi, 
1980  & 1981.  Published  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  The  National 
Science  Foundation,  Washington,  D.C.,  by  Amendri  Publishing -Co.  Pvt.  Ltd. 
Price  Rs.  125  per  volume. 


This  series  of  the  revised  handbook  is  inten- 
ded to  revise  the  handbook  to  the  flora  of 
Ceylon,  by  Henry  Trimen,  published  in  five 
volumes  between  1893  and  1900,  and  an  addi- 
tional volume  added  by  A.  H.  G.  Alston,  in 
1931. 


There  is  no  index  given  at  the  end  of  each-: 
volume.  The  editors  have  promised  to  give  a 
comprehensive  index  to  these  volumes,  in  a 
separate  volume,  but  until  the  series  is  complete  ’ 
the  reader  has  to  locate  the  published  families 
on  their  own. 


According  to  the  information  available  from 
the  publishers,  the  proposed  plan  is  to  publish 
entire  revised  work  in  seven  volumes,  out  of 
which  three  are  already  out  of  press. 


The  general  quality  of  the  work  is  quite  good 
and  financial  hfip  from  Smithsonian  and  Natio- 
nal Foundation  has  made  the  price  suitable 
to  all  pockets. 


According  to  the  two  volumes  at  hand  for 
the  review  of  this  work,  it  appears  that  each 
volume  will  contain  10  families,  at  random,  as 
and  when  the  revision  is  complete  and  manus- 
cripts are  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  editors. 


The  two  volumes  available  for  review  contain 
following  families  : 

Vol.  I : 


Some  of  the  families  are  revised  by  their 
respective  world  authorities,  but  although  the 
editors  claim  to  have  suggested  one,  there  is 
no  definite  format  and  different  authors  have 
followed  their  own  style.  Application  of  the 
International  Botanical  Nomenclature  is  left 
in  the  final  authority  of  the  authors  and  this 
has  resulted  in  acceptance  of  many  outdated 
names  in  the  case  of  at  least  one  family  (Family- 
Orchidaceae)  which  is  otherwise  a well  presen- 
ted account. 


1 . Amaranthaccae 

2.  Bombacaceae 

3.  Clusiaceae 

4.  Mimosaceae 

5.  Compositae 

6.  Connaraceae 

7.  Convolvuiaceae 

8.  Dipterocarpaceae 

9.  Elatinaceae 

10.  Fabaceae 


by  C.  C.  Townsend 
by  Andre  G.  Robyns, 
by  A.  J.G.  Kostermans. 
by  A.  J.G.  Kostermans 
by  A.  J;  C.  Grierson 
By  Deva  Duttun 
Tirvengadum 
by  Daniel  F.  Austin 
by  P.  S.  Ashton 
by  S.  H.  Sohmer 
by  Velva  E.  Rudd. 


396 


REVIEWS 


Vol.II: 

1.  Apostasiaceae 

2.  Orchidaceae 

3.  Bignoniaceae 

4.  Lemnaceae 

5.  Myrtaceae 


by  D.  M.  A.  Jayaweera 
by  D.  M.  A.  Jayaweera 
by  William  L.  Theo- 
bald 

by  F.  N.  Hepper 
by  P.  S,  Ashton 


6.  Pittosporaeeae 

7.  Primulaceae 

8.  Proteaceae 

9.  Rhizophoraceae 

10.  Thymelaeaceae 


by  Deva  Duttun 
Tirvengadum 
by  S.  H.  Sohmer 
by  C.  Townsend 
by  W.  Macnae  & F.  R. 
Fosberg 

by  C.  Townsend. 

M.  R.  ALMEIDA 


7.  AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  PLANT  NOMENCLATURE  By  S.S.R.  Bennet. 
pp.  ix-}-77  (18.5  x 13  cm)  Dehra  Dun,  1979.  International  Book  Distributors. 

Price  Rs.  12. 


This  booklet  is  prepared  by  the  author  to 
explain  the  special  features  of  International 
Code  of  Botanical  Nomenclature  to  the  students 
of  Botany  especially  to  those  who  are  required 
to  study  the  various  aspects  of  naming  of  plants. 
The  booklet  explains  in  the  first  chapter  the  ranks 
of  various  groups  of  plants  (Taxa),  the  forms  of 
scientific  names,  citation  of  authors  and  lite- 
rature, abbreviations  and  six  principles  of  the 
Code.  In  the  next  chapter  the  nomenclatural  ter- 
minology is  explained,  and  dates  of  publications 


(effective  and  valid)  are  discussed.  The  last 
chapter  gives  several  interesting  exercises  in  nom- 
enclature of  Indian  plants  which  are  discussed. 

The  booklet ; as  stated  by  Prof.  M.  B. 
Raizada,  a doyen  of  Indian  plant  taxonomy,  will 
indeed  be  welcome  for  the  student  and  layman 
to  understand  the  principles  of  plant  nomen- 
clature and  wall  dispel  the  misunderstanding  in 
the  mind  of  those  who  consider  the  name 
changes  as  meaningless  exercise. 

P.  V.  BOLE 


8.  APPLIED  BOTANY  ABSTRACTS.  Vol.  1,  Nos.  1 & 2.  Editor  B.  R.  Juneja. 
pp.  1-112  & 113-244  (24.50x18.50  cm),  Lucknow,  1981.  Economic 
Botany  Information  Service,  National  Botanical  Research  Institute  (NBRI). 
Annual  Subscription  Rs.  50  ; £ 10  ; $ 20. 


This  new  Quarterly  containing  abstracts  on 
Applied  Botany  is  a Quarterly  abstracting 
periodical  brought  out  by  NBRI,  Lucknow. 
It  covers  world  literature  on  Research  and 
development  work,  aiming  at  utilisation  of  the 
wild  and  non-agricultural/n on-traditi onal/under- 


utilized economic  plants  and  plant  products  and 
development  of  production  technologies  for 
new  plant  sources  of  useful  products.  The  first 
two  issues  cover  530  entries  under  8 sections 
besides  book  and  periodical  reviews.  Each 
issue  contains  Key  word  Index  and  authors’ 


397 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Po/.  79 


index  with  an  appendix  listing  journals 
consulted. 

The  sections  under  which  the  entries  are  tabu- 
lated are  (1)  non-agricultural/non-traditional/ 
under-utilized  plants  for — (a)  non-edible  oils 
and  waxes  ( b ) proteins  and  amino-acids  (c) 
starches  and  sugars  ( d ) gums,  mucilages  and 
resins  (e)  fibres  and  other  cellulose  products  ; 

(2)  Biomass/energy  plants  for — ( a ) fuel  crops, 
petro-alcohol— crops  (c)  latex  lubricant  crops  ; 

(3)  Ornamental  plants  ; (4)  Plants  and  envi- 
ronmental pollution  ; (5)  Traditional  herbal 


drugs— {a)  Pharmacognosy  (b)  botanical 
standardisation  ; (6)  Ethnobotany ; (7)  Endan- 
gered/Threatened plants  ; (8)  Other  economic 
plants. 

The  National  Botanical  Research  Institute 
deserves  compliments  for  rendering  this  very 
valuable  service  to  the  cause  of  research  and 
development  of  application  of  botanical  sciences 
to  the  utilisation  of  plant  resources  in  India  and 
elsewhere. 

P.  V.  BOLE 


398 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


1.  THE  WESTERN  LIMIT  OF  PIGTAIL  MACAQUE  DISTRIBUTION  IN  ASSAM 


The  pigtail  macaque,  Macaca  nemestrina,  is 
found  in  continental  Asia  from  Assam  through 
southern  Burma  and  western  Thailand  to  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  extending  to  Sumatra,  Borneo 
and  the  Mentawai  Islands  (Medway  1970).  In 
Assam  it  apparently  is  confined  to  the  Naga 
Hills  (four  specimens  collected  by  McCann, 
1933),  but  to  what  extent  does  it  occur  there  and 
elsewhere  in  Assam  is  unknown  (Prater  1971). 
Because  pigtail  macaques  are  hunted  for  food 
throughout  most  of  their  range,  they  are  wary 
and  adept  at  evasion  (Bernstein  1967).  This 
predation  pressure  may  partially  account  for 
the  paucity  of  observations  on  wild  populations. 
Their  present  status  in  Assam  is  evaluated 
here. 

In  July- August  1971  and  December-February 
1972-73,  I spent  62  days  censusing  hill  forests 
bordering  the  Brahmaputra  Valley  of  Assam. 
Hill  tracts  of  the  Garo,  United  Khasi-Jaintia, 
Mikir  and  North  Cachar  Hills  lying  south  of  the 
Brahmaputra  River  and  the  Dafla  Hills  north 
of  the  river  were  the  principal  areas  visited. 
Rhesus  macaques,  Macaca  mulatta,  are  common 
in  all  of  these  hill  tracts.  Their  range  of  habitat 
varied  from  the  fringes  of  tropical  evergreen 
and  mixed  deciduous  forest  to  cultivated  tea 
gardens  and  temple  areas.  The  pigtail  macaque, 
however,  does  not  occur  north  of  the  Brahma- 
putra and  is  rare  or  absent  in  the  south.  None 
were  found  in  the  Garo  and  United  Khasi- 
Jaintia  Hills,  and  interviews  with  local  forest 

Research  Curator, 

Oklahoma  City  Zoo, 

2101  NE  50th, 

Oklahoma  City,  OK  73111, 

U.S.A., 

February  16,  1982. 


officers  concurred.  These  results  also  apply 
to  the  Mikir  Hills  in  Nowgong  District.  The 
North  Cachar  Hills  in  the  Barak  Plains  and  the 
Naga  and  Patkai  Hills  in  upper  Assam,  which 
border  Burma,  are  restricted  areas  and  were 
not  surveyed.  Forest  officers  I interviewed 
from  North  Cachar  were  unsure  if  pigtail 
macaques  were  in  their  areas,  but  they  appa- 
rently do  occur  in  the  northern  districts  of 
Sibsagar,  Lakimpur  and  Tirap  (P.  Baruah, 
personal  communication). 

I observed  one  troop  of  26  pigtail  macaques 
in  Hollongapar,  an  1800  ha  evergreen  Forest 
Reserve  12  km  south  of  Jorhat,  Sibsagar  District 
(26°70'N,  94°30'E)  in  upper  Assam.  These 
macaques,  encountered  on  nine  different  days, 
were  easy  to  observe  and  exhibited  no  signs  of 
flight  upon  my  approach.  No  solitary  indivi- 
duals or  smaller  groups  were  observed.  The 
troop  kept  mainly  to  the  lower  canopy  (5-10  m 
high),  but  some  individuals  occasionally 
travelled  and  fed  on  the  forest  floor.  Feeding 
was  concentrated  on  fruits  and  leaves.  Pigtail 
macaques  apparently  have  extensive  home 
ranges,  and  whether  they  are  confined  entirely 
to  Hollongapar  Forest  Reserve  is  unknown. 
Hollongapar  is  one  of  the  few  stands  of  ever- 
green forest  outside  of  the  extensive  tracts 
found  in  the  hilly  northeast.  Thus,  this  forest, 
which  is  about  80  km  west  of  the  Naga  Hill 
forests,  probably  is  the  western  edge  of  extant 
pigtail  macaque  distribution  in  Assam. 

RONALD  L.  TILSON 


399 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


References 


Bernstein,  I.  S.  (1967) : A field  study  of  the  pigtail 
monkey  ( Macaca  nemestrina).  Primates  8 : 217-228. 

Medway,  L.  (1970) : The  monkeys  of  Sundaland. 
In  Old  World  Monkeys  Evolution,  Systematica  and 


Behaviour.  J.  Napier  and  P.  Napier,  eds.,  New  York: 

Academic  Press. 

Prater,  S.  H.  (1971) : The  Book  of  Indian  Animals. 
Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  Bombay. 


2.  DOMINANT  BEHAVIOUR  OF  A SUB-ADULT  MALE  LION-TAILED 
MACAQUE  IN  SEMI-NATURAL  CONDITIONS 


In  Mundanthurai  Sanctuary  (8°33'N, 
77°27'33"E  ; 214M)  near  the  Forest  Rest  ITouse 
an  orphanage  for  young  wild  animals,  found 
abandoned  in  the  forests  is  maintained.  The 
Rest  House  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  two 
perennial  rivers  Servalar  and  Thambaraparani 
and  enjoys  a cool  microclimate.  Two  juvenile 
a ? (Rani)  and  a $ (Raja)  Lion-tailed  Macaques 
and  an  infant  Bonnet  Macaque  (Raufali) 
brought  by  Rauf  Ali  were  kept  in  a cage  during 
night,  but  were  permitted  to  move  freely 
during  day.  They  were  fed  with  milk,  eggs, 
cooked  rice,  peanuts,  plantains  and  other  fruits 
as  prescribed  by  the  Forest  Veterinary  Officer. 
Raja  and  Rani  extended  affection  and  exhibited 
protective  behaviour  toward  Raufali,  the  Bonnet 
infant.  Without  having  any  familiar  relation- 
ship of  their  own  they  formed  a well  knit  troop, 
were  attached  to  each  other  and  were  tolerant 
of  others  ; when  visitors  touched  or  gathered 
Raufali,  Raja  and  Rani  objected  or  resisted. 
They  slept  huddled  together,  Raja  and  Rani 
held  close  the  Bonnet  infant  against  their 
abdomen  and  breast  as  mothers  would  care. 
Raja  carried  along  Raufali  in  ventro-ventral 
position  for  short  distances.  Raja  was  the 
natural  leader  and  would  lead  them  out  of  the 
cage  on  to  the  surrounding  trees  (Tamarind, 
Neem,  Eugenia  Hopea , Teak,  Albizzia , Dslonix) 
to  the  roof  tops  and  into  the  kitchen,  Rest 
house,  office  room  and  residential  quarters. 


During  feeding  time,  morning,  noon  and 
evening  two  Bonnet  Macaque  troops  visited 
areas  around  the  cage  in  search  of  left  overs. 
One  was  Periappa’s  troop  named  after  the 
dominant  male  Periappa,  the  other  was  Rauf 
Ali’s  study  group.  The  visiting  bonnet  maca- 
ques often  pestered  by  stealing  food  given 
to  the  Lion-tailed  Macaque.  An  all  male 
Nilgiri  Langur  troop  also  visited  the  Rest 
House  area,  though  not  specifically  the  cage 
area.  Social  interactions  between  the  Lion- 
tailed Macaque  and  visiting  Bonnet  Macaques 
that  occurred  in  the  semi-natural  conditions 
were  observed  during  the  period  between  August 
1978  and  May  1979  and  recorded,  whenever 
observed. 

Allogrooming  : 

Allogrooming  between  Lion-tailed  Macaque 
and  Bonnet  Macaques  were  observed  on  54 
occasions.  This  inter-specific  allogrooming  was 
noticed  between  Rani  and  or  Raja  Macaca 
silenus  with  or  without  Raufali  and  with  visiting 
Macaca  radiata  troop  of  which  only  on  4 
occasions  Rani  was  involved.  In  all  the  four 
occasions,  Raja  also  was  around.  The  groom- 
ing bouts  were  of  short  duration  upto  9"-3'3* 
and  within  a radius  of  50  metres  of  the  cage 
though  Raja  and  Rani  roam  about  intra-specific 
grooming  is  a common  interaction  within 
troop  among  Macaca  radiata , which  showed 


400 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


the  greatest  degree  of  contact  behaviour.  The 
primary  recipient  of  the  grooming  activity 
here  was  Raja.  On  several  occasions  Raja 
solicited  grooming  by  lying  on  its  side  directly 
before  sitting  or  slowly  moving  Bonnet  Macaque 
A?  and  SA$  which  readily  responded  by 
grooming.  Raja  also  reciprocated  by  groom- 
ing, holding,  hug-holding  and  hurdling.  The 
grooming  participants  at  one  time  were  never 
more  than  three  in  number.  The  Bonnet 
Macaque  SA$  often  wrestled  rolled  over  one 
another  before  and  after  grooming.  The  con- 
sistency with  which  grooming  was  directed 
towards  Raja,  probably  indicates  Raja  was 
dominant. 

Raja  mounted  A$,  SA$,  and  SA^  ; it  could 
not  be  known  whether  the  $S  were  in  oestrus, 
the  mounting  did  not  last  for  more  4-9  seconds. 
The  mounting  appeared  casual,  imprecise  and 
without  direction. 

Pouch  examination  : 

Raja  examined  on  18  occasions  the  pouch 
contents  of  Bonnet  Macaque  (7A$,  2SA$, 
9SA<J)  on  3 occasions  it  removed  the  contents 
and  put  into  its  own  mouth.  (Contents  could 
not  be  identified.)  On  all  other  occasions  Raja 
threw  away  at  least  what  all  he  had  removed 
from  the  pouch.  On  all  occasions  the  Bonnet 
Macaques  were  passive  and  did  not  protest. 
On  one  occasion  the  Bonnet  collected  what  was 


thrown  away  by  Raja  and  put  it  back  in  its 
mouth.  The  4 pouch  examination  ’ was  not 
performed  during  feeding  hours.  I have  not 
noticed  Raja  4 pouch  examining  ’ either  Rani 
or  Raufali. 

When  a Nilgiri  Langur  Presbytis  johnii  all 
male  troop  of  4-7  members  approached  the 
Rest  house,  Raja  ran  towards  them  and  chased 
them.  When  it  ran  towards  a Nilgiri  Langur, 
the  Nilgiri  Langur  generally  moved  away. 
Nilgiri  Langur  and  Bonnet  Macaque  avoided 
Lion-tailed  Macaque  in  Forests  and  disappear 
when  latter  is  in  the  vicinity.  When  dogs  came 
near  the  Rest  house,  Rani  and  Raufali  climbed 
the  nearest  tree  while  Raja  stood  or  chased 
(2  observations). 

The  behaviour  of  Raja  can  be  considered  in 
the  light  of  the  following  factors  : 

1.  The  formative  age  of  Raja  and  its 
companions  Rani  and  Raufali  and  lack 
of  troop  tutelage. 

2.  Assured  food  supply  at  the  orphanage. 

3.  Play  and/or  curiosity  (characteristic 
of  its  age)  motivation. 

4.  Being  an  orphan,  a craving  for  social 
contact.  But  the  generally  domineer- 
ing behaviour  of  Raja  is  interesting 
though  intriguing  and  difficult  to 
explain. 


Wildlife  Warden,  J°  MANGALRAJ  JOHNSON 

Office  of  the  Mudumalai  Wildlife  Sanctuary, 

Udhagamandalam-643  001,  TamilNadu, 

September  8,  1981. 


11 


401 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST SOCIETY , To/.  79 


3.  ANDERSEN’S  RUFOUS  HORSESHOE  BAT,  RHINOLOPHUS  ROUXI  SINICUS 
ANDERSEN  (CHIROPTERA  : RHINOLOPHIDAE)  FROM  ARUNACHAL 

PRADESH,  INDIA 


A specimen  of  bat  collected  by  the  Zoological 
Survey  of  India  during  an  expedition  to  Suban- 
siri  District,  Arunachal  Pradesh  in  1974  was 
identified  as  Andersen’s  Rufous  Horseshoe 
Bat,  Rhinolophus  rouxi  sinicus  Andersen,  which 
has  not  been  recorded  from  this  area. 

Rhinolophus  rouxi  sinicus  Andersen,  1905 
Proc.  zool.  Soc . Lond.  2 : 98  Chinteh,  Anhwei, 
Southern  China. 

Material:  1<J  (ZSIJReg.  No. 19780): 
Siki,  c 15  km  from  Taliha  (c  500  m alt.), 
Subansiri  District,  Arunachal  Pradesh ; 24 
Nov.  1974  ; J.  M.  Julka  Coll. 

Measurements : (Taken  from  alcohol 

preserved  specimen).  All  measurements  are  in 
millimetre. 

External : Length  of  ear  15.5  ; Length  of 


Zoological  Survey  of  India, 
8,  Lindsay  Street, 

Calcutta  700  087. 

February  8,  1982. 


noseleaf  10.0  ; Width  of  horseshoe  7.4  ; Length 
of  forearm  46  ; Length  of  3rd  metacarpal  34.2  ; 
Length  of  4th  metacarpal  35.0  ; Length  of  5th 
metacarpal  36.0  ; Length  of  tail  22.2  ; Length 
of  tibia  20.0  ; Length  of  foot  and  claw  8.9. 

Cranial : Total  length  19.4  ; Palatal  Length 
5.9  ; cranial  width  8.7  ; inter  orbital  width  3.0  ; 
Length  of  upper  tooth-row  7.6  ; Length  of 
Lower  tooth-row  8 ; width  across  molars  7.6  ; 
mandibular  length  13.2. 

Distribution  : According  to  Ellerman  and 
Morrison-Scott  (1951),  the  distribution  of  this 
bat  is  Szechuan,  Yunnan,  Fukien  and  Chekiang 
in  China.  The  present  material,  therefore, 
constitutes  the  first  authentic  record  of  the 
species  from  India  in  Arunachal  Pradesh, 
extending  its  range  further  westward  to  within 
Indian  limits. 


J.  P.  LAL 


Reference 

Ellerman,  J.  R.  & Morrison-Scott,  T.  C.  S.  (1951) : 
Checklist  of  palaearctic  and  Indian  Mammals  1758-1946. 
British  Museum  (Nat.  Hist.)  London. 


402 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


4.  STOMACH  CONTENTS  OF  A COMMON  PALM  CIVET, 
PARADOXURUS  HERMAPHRODITUS  (PALLAS) 


The  following  account  retrieved  from  my 
diary,  on  31st  March  1979,  when  I was  residing 
at  Tikerpada  beside  the  River  Mahanadi, 
within  the  Satkoshia  Gorge  Sanctuary,  Orissa 
provides  first  hand  information  on  the  feeding 
habit  of  the  common  palm  civet,  Paradoxurus 
hermaphroditus  in  the  wild. 

At  6.00  in  the  morning  two  civets,  thought  to 
be  a courting  pair,  were  noticed  near  our  Gharial 
Yearling  enclosure.  Dwitikrishna,  Iswara  and 
Ajai  ^staff  of  the  project)  were  able  to  corner 
one  of  these  and  catch  it  with  a towel.  When 
I was  called  to  see  the  catch,  it  was  struggling 
hard  to  escape  from  captivity  in  a cage  (40  X 
40  x 40  cm  over  a stand  of  30  cm  high).  I 
decided  to  offer  it  an  escape,  if  it  could  manage 
from  the  partially  open-roofed  enclosure  of  the 
muggers  (Crocodylus  palustris ),  or  serve  as 
food  to  them  as  they  have  been  forced  to  be 
predominantly  fish-eaters. 

In  the  afternoon  when  I saw  Ml  (the  large 
male  mugger)  was  still  unsuccessfully  trying  to 
open  the  civet  and  eat  it,  I decided  to  skin  his 
kill  and  offer  him  the  meat.  Although  the 
civet  was  dead  because  of  me,  I do  not  regret 
since  it  provided  good  information  to  guide  in 
the  future. 

The  civet  was  a male  with  a total  body  length 
120  cm  (snout-vent  length  74  cm,  tail  46  cm), 
maximum  girth  20  cm  and  weight  (after  five 
hours  of  kill  but  without  visible  sign  of  de- 
composition) 2.950  kg,  producing  meat  and 
bone  of  2.150  kg. 

The  stomach  contained  the  following  : (1) 
Seeds  of  6 Kendu  ’ fruits  ( Diospyros  melan- 
oxylon) : 7 nos.  (from  at  least  two  fruits) ; (2) 
some  fleshy  white  root : 3 pieces,  each  app. 
1 cm  cube ; (3)  Eublepharis  hardwickii 


(gecko)  : 1 no.,  5 cm  long  ; (4)  portions  of  2 
scorpions,  15  cm  and  8 cm  long  ; (5)  centipedes: 

2 nos.  (portions  of  a small  and  a large 
specimen) ; (6)  Viper  snake  : 1 no.,  40  cm  TBL, 
36  cm  SV  ; (7)  Typhlops  : 3 nos.,  14.5,  7.5  and 
7.0  cm  length ; and  (8)  cockroach : 1 no., 
complete  wings  and  only  portions  of  abdomen 
exoskeleton  found. 

The  intestine  was  without  digested  food.  In 
the  distal  parts  it  was  partially  filled  with  excreta 
with  portions  of  a tape  worm.  The  pancreas 
indicated  some  nematode  infection. 

Discussion  : Civet  attacks  on  domestic  hens 
are  commonly  reported  in  villages  and  city 
suburbs.  Their  liking  for  palm  toddy,  is 
reflected  in  the  common  name  4 Toddy  cat 

Food  offered  to  civets  in  zoos  constitute  a 
mixed  vegetarian  and  non-vegetarian  diet. 
Dobroruka  (1978)  states  that  one  cub  in  Dvur 
Kralove  Zoo  refused  meat  upto  2 months,  and 
oranges  were  usually  refused  while  preferred 
food  were  bananas,  and  tomatoes. 

If,  as  it  is  presumed,  the  male  was  courting 
the  female  before  capture,  the  season  closely 
corresponds  to  that  reported  for  captive 
specimens  at  Dvur  Kralove  Zoo  by  Dobroruka 
(1978)  (mid-February)  and  at  Nandankanan 
Biological  Park,  Orissa  by  Acharjyo  and  Mishra 
(1980)  (late  February).  However  commencement 
of  the  breeding  season  for  a species  in  captivity 
may  be  earlier  than  in  the  wild. 

The  flesh  of  the  civet  is  used  in  indigenous 
medicine.  ‘ Netra  (a  Munda  tribal-head  work- 
ing under  the  project)  told  me  that  small 
pieces  of  the  meat  are  kept  in  linseed  oil  in  a 
closed  earthen  pot  and  regularly  sunned  to 
finally  extract  an  oil  which  is  used  as  a cure  for 


403 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vot.  79 


scabies.  4 A dried  piece  of  the  testis  heated 
with  ghee  from  cow’s  milk,  when  cooled  can 
be  used  as  a medicine  for  a type  of  lips  and 
tongue  disease  (in  Orissa  called  : Aliti  gha) 
seen  in  children  less  than  a year  old.  The 
same  product  also  cures  skin  sores  due  to 
contact  with  the  poisonous  urine  (?)  of  spiders’. 

Central  Crocodile  Breeding  and 
Management  Training  Institute, 

19-4-319,  Lake  Dale, 

Hyderabad-500  264, 

October  24,  1981. 

Refer 

Acharjyo,  L.  N.  and  Mishra,  C.  G.  (1980) : Some 
notes  on  age  of  sexual  maturity  of  seven  species  of  Indian 
wild  mammals  in  captivity.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc ., 
77  (3)  : 504-507. 


The  Common  Indian  Palm  Civet  is  called 
4 Salia  Patani.’  in  Oriya  language 

I wish  to  thank  the  Orissa  Forest  Department 
and  the  staff  of  the  Gharial  Research  and 
Conservation  Unit,  Tikerpada  for  assistance. 


L.  A.  K.  SINGH 


ENCES 

Dobroruka,  L.  J.  (1978) : Hand-rearing  a common 
palm  civet  Paradoxurus  hermaphroditus  at  Dvurkralove 
Zoo.  Int.  Zoo  yearbook,  18  : 210-211. 


5.  BIRTH  OF  WHITE  TIGER  (PANTHERA  TIGRIS ) CUBS  TO  NORMAL 
COLOURED  TIGERS  IN  CAPTIVITY 

(With  a text-figure) 


The  White  Tiger  (Panthera  tigris)  is  a magni- 
ficent snow  white  animal  with  ash  or  light  black 
stripes,  pink  paw  pads  and  ice-blue  eyes.  All 
the  white  tigers  so  far  available  in  captivity  had 
their  origin  from  a male  White  Tiger  named 
4 Mohan  ’ captured  from  the  forests  of  Rewa 
(Madhya  Pradesh)  in  May,  1951  at  an  estimated 
age  of  about  nine  months.  The  present  com- 
munication deals  with  the  birth  of  three  White 
Tiger  cubs  in  one  litter  at  the  Nandankanan 
Biological  Park,  Orissa  to  a pair  of  normal 
coloured  tigers  with  apparently  no  known 
history  of  having  any  relation  with  the  White 
Tiger  4 Mohan  ’. 

A normal  coloured  tigress  4 Ganga  ’ whose 
mating  with  a normal  coloured  tiger  4 Deepak  ’ 


was  observed  from  24-9-79  to  3-10-79  in  the 
Park,  gave  birth  to  three  White  Tiger  Cubs  (two 
females  and  one  male)  on  8-1-1980.  This  is 
the  result  of  a father-daughter  mating. 

The  body  colour  of  the  cubs  were  snow  white 
with  light  black  stripes,  pink  paw  pads  and 
ice -blue  eyes.  The  eyes  of  the  cubs  opened  on 
12th  day  (one  male  and  one  female  cubs)  and 
on  11th  day  (right  eye)  and  12th  day  (left  eye) 
in  case  of  the  other  female  cub. 

The  weight  and  size  of  these  cubs  recorded 
after  about  48  hours  on  10-1-1980  were  as 
follows  : weight— 1.210  Kg  (female),  1.240  Kg 
(female)  and  1.385  Kg  (male)  and  measured 
50  cm  tip  to  tip  including  15  cm  long  tail 


404 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


405 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


(females)  and  52  cm  tip  to  tip  including  16  cm 
long  tail  (male). 

The  growth  rate  of  these  cubs  to  the  age  of 
3 months  were  recorded  as  follows  : — 


Cub  No.  Cub  No.  Cub  No. 


Date 

Age  I 

(female) 

II 

(female) 

III 

(male) 

Kgs. 

Kgs. 

Kgs. 

10.1. 1S80 

48 

hours 

1.210 

1.240 

1.380 

5.2.1980 

4 

weeks 

3.400 

3.800 

3.705 

12.2.1980 

5 

weeks 

3 800 

4.200 

4.000 

19.2.1980 

6 

weeks 

4.200 

4.800 

4.200 

26.2.1980 

7 

weeks 

4.800 

5.200 

4.800 

4.3.1980 

8 

weeks 

5.200 

5.600 

5.400 

11.3.1980 

9 

weeks 

6.000 

6.400 

5.800 

18.3.1980 

10 

weeks 

6.803 

7.200 

6.430 

25.3.1980 

11 

weeks 

7.600 

8.200 

7.200 

1.4.1980 

12 

weeks 

8.800 

9.200 

8.200 

8.4.1980 

13 

weeks 

9.800 

10.400 

9.400 

The  incisors  of  the  cubs  appeared  in  the  fifth 
week  and  the  canines  appeared  in  the  seventh 
week. 

Earlier  the  female  of  this  pair  of  normal 
coloured  tigers  gave  birth  to  two  normal 
coloured  tiger  cubs  on  22-7-1979  but  both  cubs 
died  within  six  days  as  the  mother  failed  to 
nurse  them. 

The  genealogy  of  these  white  tiger  cubs  is 
given  in  the  chart  (Fig.  1).  A study  of  the 
genealogical  chart  reveals  that  31  tiger  cubs 
were  bom  in  13  litters  out  of  which  only  one 
litter  was  of  white  colour,  i.e.  7.69  % of  the  litters 

Wild  Life  Conservation  Officer, 

Orissa, 

95-Sahid  Nagar, 

Bhubaneswar-751  007. 

Veterinary  Assistant  Surgeon, 
Nandankanan  Biological  Park, 

P.  O.  Barang,  Dist  : Cuttack. 

Assistant  Conservator  of  Forests, 
Nandankanan  I Biological  Park  , 

P.O.  Barang,1  Dist  : Cuttack. 

June  17,  1980. 


and  9.67  % of  the  cubs  were  white.  The  study 
of  this  genealogical  chart  of  white  tigers 
maintained  by  the  Delhi  Zoological  Park  and 
reported  by  Saharia(1979)  apparently  does  not 
give  an  indication  of  these  white  tiger  cubs 
having  any  relation  with  the  white  tiger 
‘Mohan  \ The  origin  of  tigers  received  from 
Alipore  Zoological  Gardens,  Calcutta  beyond 
the  Animal  Dealers  could  not  be  ascertained. 
There  were  reports  of  white  tigers  being 
shot  in  Orissa  (Gee  1964  a).  Perusal  of 
the  available  literature  (Gee  1964,  a and  b, 
Sankhala  1969,  Oswald  1960,  Saharia  1979, 
Robinson  1928,  Pant  and  Dhariyal  1979) 
did  not  reveal  any  information  about  the  birth 
of  all  white  coloured  cubs  in  one  litter  to  normal 
coloured  parents.  The  genealogical  chart 
further  suggests  that  the  tigers  ‘ Deepak  ’ and 
6 Ganga  ’ were  heterozygous  having  the 
recessive  gene  for  white  colour. 

The  pairing  of  the  white  tigers  bom  in  the 
Park  with  the  white  coloured  descendants  of 
the  white  tiger  ‘ Mohan  ’ can  prevent  inbreeding 
and  thus  may  give  better  chances  for  the 
breeding  and  survival  of  the  white  tigers. 

Acknowledgement  s 

We  are  thankful  to  Shri  A.  P.  Mohanty,  i.f.s., 
Chief  Wild  Life  Warden,  Orissa,  Shri  P.  Moha- 
patra,  i.f.s.,  Addl.  Chief  Conservator  of  Forests 
and  Shri  S.  N.  Das,  i.f.s.,  Chief  Conservator 
of  Forests  for  the  facilities  provided  and  for 
their  encouragement. 

CH.  G.  MISHRA 


L.  N.  ACHARJYO 


L.  N.  CHOUDHURY 


406 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Ref  erences 

Gee,  E.  P.  (1964  a)  : The  White  Tigers.  Animals ,, 

Vol.  3 (11),  pp.  282-286. 

(1964  b)  : The  Wild  Life  of  India.  Collins, 

London,  pp.  69-75. 

Oswald,  A.  (1960) : The  White  Tigers  of  Rewa. 

Cheetal,  2 (2) : 63-67. 

Pant,  M.  M.  and  Dhariyal,  I.  D.  (1979) : White 


Tiger  Breeding— Its  economic  potentialities.  Cheetal 
21  (1)  : 3-10. 

Robinson,  F.  B.  (1928) : White  Tigers.  J.  Bombay 
nat.  Hist.  Soc.  32  (3)  : 584-585. 

Saharia,  V.  B.  (1979) : Population  Dynamics  in 
Captive  Tigers.  Wild  Life  News  Letter,  Vol.  7 (2) : 36-40. 

Sankhala,  K.  S.  (1969) : The  White  Tigers.  Cheetah 
12(1)  : 78-81. 


6.  AN  INSTANCE  OF  FOSTERING  IN  CAPTIVITY  IN  THE  WESTERN 
GHATS  SQUIRREL,  FUNAMBULUS  TRISTRIATUS  WATERHOUSE 


The  behaviour  of  fostering  was  already 
observed  and  studied  in  several  rodents  (Denen- 
berg  et  al.  1963,  Muul  1970,  Grota  1973,  Ajayi 
1975).  In  all  these  studies  the  mother  was  not 
exposed  simultaneously  to  her  own  litter  and 
that  of  others.  In  this  short  communication 
an  instance  where  a mother  Western  Ghats 
Squirrel  {Funambulus  tristriatus  Waterhouse) 
suckled  and  reared  the  young  ones  of  another 
squirrel  along  with  her  own  is  reported. 

On  6 April  1978  I collected  two  young  F. 
tristriatus  weighing  14.25  g (3)  and  17.5  g (?) 
from  a nest.  Their  eyes  were  yet  to  be  opened. 
The  female  had  developed  only  the  lower,  while 
the  male  had  both  upper  and  lower  incisors. 
Pelage  development  was  incomplete.  From 
these  characters  the  age  of  this  litter  was  assessed 
as  approximately  20  days.  These  young  ones 
were  placed  in  the  cage  (75  x 30  x 30  cm)  of  a 
female  F.  tristriatus  which  was  rearing  her  own 
40-day-old  litter.  At  first  the  mother  squirrel 


was  little  ‘ aggressive  ’ towards  the  new  comers, 
but  later  on  she  suckled  and  reared  them  along 
with  her  own  litter.  Within  a week  the  fostered 
young  ones  opened  their  eyes  and  increased  in 
body  weight  to  18.50  and  21.50  g respectively. 
They  were  raised  by  the  foster  mother  until 
weaning. 

Denenberg  et  al.  (1963)  opined  that  the  longer 
the  mothers  had  been  lactating  before  being 
given  foster  young,  the  higher  was  the  mortality 
percentage.  In  abino  rats  Denenberg  et  al. 
(op.  cit.)  observed  that  fostering  to  5 or  10  day 
lactating  mothers  resulted  in  significant  increase 
in  the  rate  of  mortality.  In  the  present  study 
the  Western  Ghats  Squirrel  adopted  the  litter 
of  another  female  even  at  40  days  post  partum. 
This  phenomenon  could  be  taken  advantage 
of  in  rearing  squirrels  in  captivity. 

The  financial  assistance  received  from  the 
CSIR,  New  Delhi  for  the  conduct  of  the  studies 
on  squirrels  is  gratefully  acknowledged. 


Central  Plantation  Crops  Research  Institute,  S.  KESHAVA  BHAT 

Regional  Station, 

Vittal-574  243, 

Karnataka,  India, 

February  2,  1982. 


407 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


References 


Ajayi,  S.  S.  (1975)  : Observations  on  the  biology, 
domestication  and  reproductive  performance  of  the 
African  giant  rat,  Cricetomys  gambianus  Waterhouse 
in  Nigeria.  Mammalia , 39  : 343-364. 

Denenberg,  V.  H.,  Grota,  L.  J.  & Zarrow,  M.  X. 
(1963)  : Maternal  behaviour  in  the  rat : analysis  of 
cross-fostering.  J.  Reprod.  &Fert.  5:  133-141. 


Grota,  L.  J.  (1973)  : Effects  of  litter  size,  age  of 
young,  and  parity  on  foster  mother  behaviour  in  Rattus 
norvegicus.  Anim.  Behav.  21  : 78-82. 

Muul,  I.  (1970) : Intra-and  inter  - familial, 

behaviour  of  Glaucomys  volans  (Rodentia)  following 
parturition.  Anim.  Behav.  18  : 20-25. 


7.  ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  VANDELEURIA  OLERACEA  IN  A RURAL 
RESIDENTIAL  HABITAT  IN  THE  DESERT  BIOME  OF  RAJASTHAN 


During  pest  control  estimation  of  rodent 
population  in  a village  complex  near  Jodhpur 
(26°18'N — 73°01'E;  mean  annual  rainfall 
366.0  mm),  a living  specimen  of  the  long-tailed 
tree  mouse,  Vandeleuria  oleracea  was  captured 
inside  a Kuchha  hut,  feeding  upon  jaggery  in  a 
container  in  the  kitchen.  The  hut  was  located 
in  a 3 hectare  agricultural  land  and  was  sur- 
rounded by  plantations  of  Neem,  Azadirachta 
indica , Ber,  Zizyphus  mauritiana  and  citrus. 
Hitherto,  this  species  has  been  recorded  from 
several  localities  in  Gujarat  (Ellerman  1961)  and 

Central  Arid  Zone  Research  Institute, 
Jodhpur-342  003, 

Rajasthan, 

December  30,  1981. 

Refer 

Ellerman,  J.  R.  (1961) : The  fauna  of  India  including 
Pakistan,  Burma  and  Ceylon  (Ed.  M.  L.  Roonwal), 
Issued  by  Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta.  Publi- 
shed by  Manager  of  Publications,  Delhi,  Part  II ; 
483-884. 


1 Present  address  : S-2,  Central  Plantation 
S.  Kanara  Dist.?  Karnataka, 


Bisalpur  (25°7'N,  73°10'E  ; mean  annual  rain- 
fall 499.7  mm.)  in  South-western  Rajasthan 
(Rana  1980). 

The  present  report  extends  the  range  of  V. 
oleracea  further  north  in  the  desert  biome  of 
Rajasthan,  and  from  a residential/premise  which 
has  not  been  hitherto  reported. 

We  are  grateful  to  Dr.  H.  S.  Mann,  Director, 
CAZRI,  Jodhpur  and  Dr.  Ishwar  Prakash, 
Professor  of  Eminence  for  providing  necessary 
facilities  and  encouragement. 

RANJAN  ADVANI1 
R.  P.  MATHUR 


E N C E S 

Rana,  B.  D.  (1980) : Occurrence  of  Bandicota 
bengalensis  and  Vandeleuria  oleracea  in  Western  Rajas- 
than. J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  77  : 501-502. 


Research  Institute,  Regional  Station,  Vittal-574  243, 


408 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


8.  ON  FACTORS  GOVERNING  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  WILD  MAMMALS 
IN  KARNATAKA— A COMMENTS 


S.  Narendra  Prasad  et  al.  (JBNHS  75,  No.  3) 
have  made  a commendable  effort  in  their  paper 
to  present  a consolidated  picture  of  distribu- 
tion of  wild  mammals  in  Karnataka.  I am  sure, 
this  paper,  though  admittedly  based  on  subjec- 
tive methodology,  will  be  quite  useful  for  those 
interested  in  scientific  wild  life  management  in 
Karnataka.  As  an  amateur  naturalist  who  has 
investigated  the  status  of  wild  life  in  some  of 
these  forests  in  the  past  fifteen  years,  I have 
some  comments  on  this  pioneering  effort. 

1.  As  pointed  out  by  the  authors  food 
availability  is  perhaps  the  main  reason  for  the 
comparatively  higher  abundance  of  larger 
mammals  in  dry/moist  deciduous  forests  as 
against  evergreen  western  ghat  forests  in 
Karnataka.  However,  another  important 
factor  is  that  historically  the  region  with  ever- 
green forests  has  had  a greater  abundance  of 
fire-arms  and  tradition  of  hunting  when  com- 
pared to  the  deciduous  forest  regions.  This 
also  has,  in  my  opinion,  decisively  affected  the 
current  population  status  of  larger  wild 
mammals. 

2.  Though  the  paper  covers  86  forest  ranges, 
some  other  forest  ranges/areas  which  do  harbour 
wild  mammals  have  been  omitted  for  some 
reason.  Some  of  these  are : Bhadravathi, 
Tarikere  and  Channagiri  (all  in  Malnad  region). 
Hunsur,  and  Periyapatna  (Mysore  plateau 
region).  Arasikere,  Melkote,  Chitradurga, 
Chittapur,  Chincholi,  and  Sandur  (all  in 
Maidaan  region). 

3.  The  various  maps  and  tables  giving  the 
occurrence  ratings  and  frequency  are  based  on 
Table  7,  which  forms  the  foundation  for  the 
whole  exercise.  In  my  opinion,  the  data  on 

population  status  may  not  be  entirely  accurate, 


in  some  cases  particularly  for  the  ‘ Crest  line  ’ 
and 3  4 Malnad  * regions.  This  has  led  to  some 
errors  in  the  occurrence  ratings.  For  example 
the  herbivores  except  the  elephants  are  certainly 
more  abundant  in  the  4 Crest  line  ’ region 
between  Kollur  and  Charmadi  rather  than 
between  Charmadi  and  Mercara  as  shown  in 
the  paper. 

4.  I am  comparing  below  the  information 
I have  obtained  during  my  field  investigations 
with  those  of  the  paper.  In  the  Mysore  plateau, 
Crest  line,  and  Malnad  regions  I have  indicated 
the  current  population  status  of  various 
mammals,  which  I feel  is  more  accurate.  Also 
I have  added  some  information  on  some 
additional  mammals  and  areas  excluded 
from  the  paper.  The  notations  used  are  the 
same  as  in  the  paper  ; 0 = absent,  4 = very 
common,  3 — frequent,  2 — present,  1 = rare, 
and  - = no  information.  The  figures  indicated 
in  brackets  are  from  the  paper. 

4.1  Elephant:  In  the  4 Crest  line’ 
region  their  status  is  ; Byndoor  range  — 0 (1), 
Coondapur  range  — 0 (1),  Periyapatna  range 
1 ( — ).  There  seems  to  be  a curious  4 gap  ’ in 
their  distribution  between  4 Charmadi  ’ and 
Kollur  in  the  western  ghats.  Superficially  there 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  ecological  reason  for 
this  4 Elephant  gap  \ 

4.2  Gaur  : Their  population  status  in 
some  of  the  ranges  is  Byndoor  2 ( — ),  Shankara- 
narayana  2 (1),  Hebri  2 (1),  Karkala  2 (1), 
Agumbe  2 (1)  and  Periyapatna  1 ( — ).  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  they  seem  to  be  raiding  crops 
only  in  some  parts  of  their  range  like  South 
Kanara  District  but  not  in  Muthodi  and  Lakka- 
valli. 


409 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , PW.  79 


4.3  Spotted  Deer  : Their  status  is  Periya- 
patna  1 ( — ),  Hunsur  1 ( — ).  It  is  remarkable 
that  these  Deer  which  are  normally  inhabitants 
of  dry/moist  deciduous  forests  have  adapted 
to  the  evergreen  forest/shola  type  of  mountain 
biome  to  the  east  of  Kudremukh  mines  where  a 
few  survive.  This  is  perhaps  the  only  region 
in  south-India  where  they  have  adapted  to 
such  a habitat. 

4.4  Sambar  : They  are  present  in  many  of 
the  4 Crest  line  ’ ranges  and  I feel  their  status 
may  be  as  below  : Byndoor  2 (1),  Shankara- 
narayana  2 (0),  Hebri  1 (0),  Karkala  2 (1), 
Periyapatna  1 ( — ) and  Tarikere  1 ( — ). 

4.5  Barking  Deer  : These  appear  to  be 
ecologically,  the  most  adaptive  species  of 
Deer  and  thrive  in  all  habitats  except  the  dry 
scrub  of  the  plains.  Where  given  protection 
they  seem  to  increase  rapidly  like  the  spotted 
deer  and  lose  some  of  their  shyness. 

4.6  Four  horned  Antelope  : I have 

heard  of  them  reported  from  Sunkadakatte, 
A.  M.  Gudi  and  Begur  areas  (Mysore  plateau), 
Kanakapura  (Kollegal  Hills).  They  formerly 
existed  in  Bhadravathi  and  Kadur  of  Malnad 
region  where  their  current  status  is  unknown. 

4.7  Blackbuck  : They  are  reported  from 
Ranibennur  and  parts  of  Raichur  and  Gul- 
barga  districts.  They  also  probably  occur  as 
scattered  remnant  populations  in  the  arid  parts 
of  Bellary,  Mandya,  Hassan  and  Mysore 
districts. 

4.8  Chinkara  : These  are  sporadically 
found  along  with  Blackbuck  populations. 
They  are  reported  from  Dharwar  and  Gulbarga 
districts.  I have  seen  a captive  specimen 
recently  obtained  in  Dharwar  district. 

4.9  Nilgai  : I have  not  heard  of  this 
antelope  reported  from  anywhere  in  Karna- 
taka recently. 


4.10  Nilgiri  Tahr  : I have  never  seen  or 
heard  of  these  animals  from  Karnataka.  Even 
the  old  British  District  Gazetteers  from  this  area 
or  old  Shikar  accounts  do  not  mention  them 
as  far  as  I know.  However  Davidar  ( JBNHS 
75,  No.  3)  mentions  a source  who  claims  to 
have  seen  them  in  Agumbe  in  1954.  This  seems 
rather  curious. 

4.11  Wild  Pig  : Since  the  wild  pig  is  so 

ubiquitous  it  probably  occurs  in  Manchikere 
and  Anekal  ranges  also. 

4.12  Tiger  : These  sporadically  occur  in 
Byndoor  1 (0)  and  Periyapatna  1 ( — ) ranges. 
Recently  a case  of  tiger  poaching  was  detected 
in  Periyapatna. 

4.13  Panther  : I have  personally  seen  pan- 
thers in  Byndoor  and  Lakkavalli  ranges.  Their 
status  is  Byndoor  1 (0),  Lakkavalli  1 (0),  Hos- 
nagara  1 (0),  Agumbe  1 (0),  Hebri  1 (0),  Periya- 
patna 1 ( — ).  They  perhaps  occur  in  many 
other  ranges. 

4. 14  Sloth  Bear  : They  occur  in  all  the 
sh  regions.  I have  seen  them  in  Nagarhole. 
They  have  been  reported  from  Lakkavalli, 
Mudigere,  Muthodi,  Kudremukh,  Sirsi,  B.R. 
Hills  and  parts  of  Chitradurga  and  Tumkur 
districts. 

4.15  Striped  Hyena:  Once  common  all 
over  the  state,  they  are  apparently  becoming 
scarce  everywhere.  I have  seen  tneir  tracks 
in  Nagarhole,  Muthodi  and  Periyapatna 
ranges  and  have  heard  them  reported  from 
H.  D.  Kote,  Bandipur  and  Kadur  areas.  A few 
years  ago  they  were  very  common  in  the 
coastal  districts. 

4.16  Wolf:  Though  becoming  rare,  wolves 
are  still  occasionally  reported  from  the  plains. 
They  occur  in  Ranebennur,  Chittapur 
(Gulbarga  district),  Nagamangala  and  other 
dry  tracts  of  Mandya  district  and  K.  R.  Nagar 


410 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


taluk  of  Mysore  district.  I have  seen  the 
fresh  carcase  of  a wolf  run  over  by  a truck  near 
‘ Arabithittu  ’ in  Hunsur  forest  range. 

4.17  Wild  Dog  : These  do  occur  at  the 
foot  of  the  western  ghats  in  South  Kanara 
district  where  I have  seen  their  tracks  in  most 
of  the  jungles.  Their  population  status  pro- 

268,  16  Main, 

Saraswatipuram, 

Mysore-560  009, 

Karnataka, 

January  3,  1981. 


bably  is  ; Periyapatna  1 ( — ),  Karkala  2 (0), 
Shankaranarayana  2 (0). 

5.  On  the  whole,  in  spite  of  some  minor 
errors,  this  paper  is  a welcome  attempt  at 
systematically  examining  the  distribution  of  wild 
mammals  over  a large  region  and  will  serve 
as  a good  basis  for  future  localised  studies  in 
Karnataka. 

K.  ULLAS  KARANTH 


9.  BLACK-EARED  KITE  [MILVUS  MIGRANS  LINEATUS  (GRAY)]  NEAR  BOMBAY 


The  Black-eared  or  Large  Indian  Kite 
[Milvus  migrans  lineatus  (Gray)]  is  well  known 
as  a winter  migrant  to  the  Indian  continent  as 
far  south  as  the  Shimoga  District,  Mysore  but 
most  of  the  records  are  of  single  birds.  On  22nd 
March  1981,  one  of  us  (H.A.)  visited  the  Deonar 
Garbage  Dumping  Ground  (with  Mrs.  Phillippa 
Mukherjee)  and  saw  several  of  these  kites  on 
the  rubbish  dumps.  When  seated,  the  black 
patch  behind  the  ear,  and  the  tuft  of  long  loose 
feathers  projecting  below  the  tibio-tarsal  joint 
were  distinctive  while  in  flight  the  rectangular 
patch  of  white  on  the  underwing  showed 
prominently. 


Yesterday  (about  8.30  a.m.)  we  were  driving 
eastwards  off  Trombay  Bridge  when  we  saw  a 
number  of  birds  of  prey  circling  high  overhead. 
We  stopped  to  glass  them  and  counted  35  of 
these  kites,  whose  size  and  colour  could  be 
compared  with  local  pariah  kites  flying  lower 
and  nearer. 

There  doss  not  appear  to  be  any  record  of 
such  congregation  of  this  species  and  which  is 
possibly  prior  to  migration.  Similar  behaviour 
has  been  noticed  in  gulls  in  Bombay,  but  in 
the  evenings. 


75,  Abdul  Rehman  Street,  HUMAYUN  ABDULALI 

Bombay-400  003. 

626,  Adenwala  Building,  NOSHERWAN  SETHNA 

Homavazir  Road, 

Dadar  Parsi  Colony, 

Bombay-400  014. 

April  13,  1981. 


411 


JOURNAL , BOMBA  Y NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


10.  NESTING  OF  REDHEADED  MERLIN  (FALCO  CHICQUERA  DAUDIN) 
IN  BANGALORE,  KARNATAKA 

(With  a text-figure) 


Fig.  1.  The  nesting  site  of  Redheaded  Merlin  in  Bangalore.  Arrow  indicates  position  of  the  nest. 


The  distribution  of  the  Redheaded  Merlin 
is  not  clear  in  South  India  (Ali  and  Ripley  1968, 
Brown  and  Amadon  1968).  Though  there  is  a 
sight-record  of  this  bird  in  Bangalore  (Govinda- 
krishnan  et  al.  1977),  its  exact  status  is  not 
known.  In  this  context,  the  present  nesting 
records  of  this  bird  for  two  successive  seasons 
in  Bangalore  is  of  interest  and  confirms  its 
status  as  ‘resident  ’ here. 

A pair  of  this  bird  was  sighted  nesting  in 
Rajajinagar  (Bangalore  City)  which,  by  the 


first  week  of  March  1979  raised  a brood  of 
three.  Further,  the  adult  birds  were  observed 
through  the  breeding  season  of  1979-80  and 
by  the  third  week  of  March  1980,  four  fledglings 
were  out  of  the  nest. 

The  nest  occupied  by  the  merlins  in  1978-79 
was  a sunken  platform  of  twigs  built  in  a fork 
of  a Casuarina  equisetifolia  tree  (c.80  ft.  high) 
while  in  1979-80  they  took  over  a similar  freshly 
built  nest  of  a Jungle  Crow  ( Corvus  macrorhyn- 
chos),  situated  two  feet  away  and  one  foot 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


above  the  previous  nest,  again  in  a fork.  Both 
the  nests  were  surrounded  completely  by  small 
branches  arising  from  the  branches  that  formed 
the  forks  in  which  the  nests  were  built. 
Records  of  falcons  occupying  the  nests  of  other 
birds  that  have  similar  nesting  site  requirements 
do  exist  in  literature  (see  Bent  1938  ; pp. 
21-22,  96,  102).  Hence,  the  present  observa- 
tion further  confirms  the  lack  of  nest-building 
instinct  in  falcons  (Brown  and  Amadon  1968). 

The  lone  tree  is  situated  in  a small  open  land 
amidst  an  urbanised  residential  area  (see 
fig.  1).  This  seems  to  be  interesting  in  view  of 
the  earlier  records  (Ali  and  Ripley  1968,  Brown 
and  Amadon  1968,  Ganguly  1975),  where  the 
redheaded  merlin  is  recorded  to  be  a bird 
of  open  country  and  rural  areas.  However,^ 
falcons  being  attracted  to  an  urban  set  up  isj 


not  unusual.  An  instance  is  seen  in  the  case 
of  a Peregrine  Falcon,  Falco  peregrinus  which 
selected  a busy  city  as  its  nesting  habitat 
instead  of  eyeries,  in  the  wild  (Welty  1975). 
The  observations  of  Dharap  (1977)  and  Gole 
(1979)  seem  to  support  the  present  observation 
where  a pair  of  redheaded  merlin  was  seen 
nesting  on  a 100  ft.  building  in  Poona, 
Maharashtra. 

Acknowledgements 

I am  grateful  to  Mr.  Abraham  Verghese, 
Mr.  A.  K.  Chakravarthy  and  Mr.  P.  Subra- 
maniam  of  the  Amateur  Birdwatching  Asso- 
ciation and  Mr.  Kumar  D.  Ghorpade  of 
the  Department  of  Entomology,  U.A.S., 
Bangalore,  for  their  useful  suggestions  while 
ithe  manuscript  was  in  preparation. 


Department  of  Entomology, 
University  of  Agriculture  Sciences, 
Hebbal, 

Bangalore-560  024, 

October  31,  1981. 


Ref  e 

Ali,  S.  & Ripley,  S.  D.  (1968) : Handbook  of  the 
Birds  of  India  and  Pakistan,  Vol.  I,  Oxford  University 
Press,  Bombay,  380  pp. 

Bent,  A.  C.  (1938) : Life  Histories  of  North  American 
Birds  of  Prey.  Part  2,  United  States  National  Museum, 
Washington,  D.C.,  482  pp. 

Brown,  L.  & Amadon,  D.  (1968) : Eagles,  Hawks 
and  Falcons  of  the  World,  Vol.  I & II,  Hamlyn  Publica- 
tions Group  Ltd.,  945  pp. 

Dharap,  R.N.  (1977) : Redheaded  Merlin  Nesting 
in  densely  Populated  Area,  Newsletter  for  Birdwatchers 
17(10):  11-12. 


S.  SUBRAMANYA 


RE  N CES 

Ganguli,  U.  (1975)  : A Guide  to  the  Birds  of  the 
Delhi  Area.  Indian  Council  of  Agricultural  Research, 
New  Delhi,  301  pp. 

Gole,  P.  (1979)  : A March  Bird  Count  in  Poona. 
J.  Bombay,  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  77  : 49-55. 

Govindakrishnan,  P.  M.,  Verghese,  A.  & Chakra- 
varthy, A.  K.  (1977) : Occurrence  of  Redheaded 
Merlin  ( Falco  chicquera  Daudin)  in  Bangalore,  Kar- 
nataka, J.  Bombay,  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  75  (2)  : 487. 

Welty,  J.  C.  (1975)  : The  Life  of  Birds.  W.  B.  Saun- 
ders Co.,  Philadelphia,  London,  Toronto,  623  pp. 


413 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol. 


11.  UNUSUAL  NESTING  OF  RED  WATTLED  LAPWING  ( VANELLUS 

INDICUS) 


Behind  our  house  in  Panchwati  at  Udaipur 
there  is  a three  storeyed  building  belonging  to  a 
school.  The  roof  of  this  building  is  of  asbes- 
tos cement  sheets.  Two  Red  wattled  lapwing 
{Vanellus  indicus)  were  usually  seen  perched 
atop  this  roof  at  the  beginning  of  May  protes- 
ting and  attacking  birds  of  prey. 

In  the  morning  of  14th  May,  1981  we  saw 
one  of  the  lapwings  with  four  chicks  at  the 
edge  of  the  roof.  For  five  days  we  saw  these 
chicks  frequently  with  the  lapwing  at  the  edge 
of  the  roof.  On  the  6th  day  two  chicks  fell 

41,  Panchwati,  Udaipur, 

Rajasthan, 

June  19,  1981. 


down  from  the  roof  and  died ; on  the  10th 
day  the  other  two  landed  safely  on  the  ground. 

Near  our  house  there  are  barren  grounds  as 
well  as  a deep  and  dry  nullah  over  100  feet 
wide  and  10  ft.  deep.  The  walls  of  the  nullah 
are  quite  high  and  men  seldom  venture  inside  it. 
Inspite  of  all  these  safe  grounds  and  flat  roofed 
buildings  being  available  why  this  pair  of 
lapwings  chose  the  sloping  and  uneven  roof 
of  the  school  building  for  nesting  is  a puzzle. 
Though  there,  are  some  stray  dogs  and  domestic 
cats  in  the  vicinity  the  nearby  nullah  is  not 
visited  by  any  of  these  predators  and  is  certainly 
safer  than  the  roof. 

RAZA  H.  TEHSIN 
JUZER  LOKHANDWALA 


12.  COLLECTIVE  DEFENSIVE  STRATEGY  IN  BLUE  ROCK  PIGEON 

( COLUMBA  LIVIA) 


About  40  km  from  Udaipur  there  is  a township 
called  Gogunda.  On  the  outskirts  of  this 
township  and  near  the  bus  stand,  there  is  a 
slight  slope  on  the  road  which  is  followed  by 
200  metres  of  straight  road,  on  both  sides  of 
which  there  are  big  trees.  From  this  vantage 
point  near  the  bus  stand  I was  watching  a crested 
hawk-eagle  {Spizaetus  cirrhatus)  circling  clock- 
wise in  the  sky.  As  it  neared  the  treetops 
about  35  blue  rock  pigeon  ( Columba  livid) 
took  fright  and  flew  away.  Then  the  flock 
turned  and  started  circling  anti-clockwise  on 
the  same  plane  as  that  of  crested  hawk-eagle. 


The  eagle  widened  its  circles  and  started 
gaining  height.  The  pigeons  followed  suit. 
When  they  crossed  each  other  some  pigeons 
brushed  past  the  eagle  and  sometimes  they 
flew  so  threateningly  that  the  eagle  had  to 
change  its  course  to  avoid  head-on  collision. 
This  went  on  for  about  10  minutes  during  which 
the  birds  reached  very  high  altitudes  and  their 
circles  widened  further.  At  this  point  when 
the  eagle  and  pigeons  were  farthest  apart 
in  the  circle  the  pigeons  dropped  vertically 
towards  the  ground  and  within  no  time  settled 
on  the  trees  having  eluded  the  predator. 


41,  Panchwati, 
Udaipur-313  001. 
June  19,  1981. 


414 


RAZA  H.  TEHSIN 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


13.  OCCURRENCE  OF  THE  NORTHERN  GREEN  BARBET  MEGALA1MA 
ZEYLANICA  CANICEPS  (FRANKLIN)  AT  LUDHIANA  (PUNJAB) 


A female  Northern  Green  Barbet  Megalaima 
zeylanica  caniceps  (Franklin)  was  collected 
from  a neem  tree  in  the  Punjab  Agricultural 
University  Campus,  Ludhiana  (30°  56r  N, 
75°  52r  E)  on  10  May  1981.  The  weight  and 
measurements  of  the  specimen  were  as  follows : 

Weight  Wing  Bill  Tarsus  Tail 

( from  skull ) 

1$  132  g 131mm  35.5  mm  32  mm  84  mm 

These  measurements  are  in  general  agreement 
with  those  already  reported  for  this  species  by 
Ali  and  Ripley  (1970)  and  Abdulali  (1974). 

According  to  Ali  and  Ripley  (1970)  this 
species  is  distributed  in  : ‘ The  lower  western 

Department  of  Zoology, 

Punjab  Agricultural  University, 
Ludhiana-141  004, 

Punjab, 

May  16, 1981. 


Abdulali,  H.  (1974)  : A catalogue  of  the  birds 
in  the  collection  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society 
— 16.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  71  (2)  : 244-265. 

Ali,  S.  and  Ripley,  S.  D.  (1970):  Handbook  of  the 
birds  of  India  and  Pakistan  vol.  4,  Oxford  University 


Himalayas  (up  to  c.  800  m)  from  Kangra  in 
Himachal  Pradesh  to  Kumaon  (U.P.)  and 
western  Nepal  terai  (to  c.  300  m).  Continental 
India  west  to  Mt.  Abu  and  Gujarat,  east  through 
Madhya  Pradesh  and  northern  Maharashtra  to 
Bihar,  W.  Bengal  (straggling  as  far  as  Calcutta), 
and  Orissa  south  to  Godavari  R cons- 

picuously common  and  abundant  in  New 
Delhi’.  In  the  Punjab,  this  species  has  been 
reported  to  occur  only  in  the  district  of  Hoshi- 
arpur  (Sharma  and  Lamba  1954)  most  of  which 
is  submontane  area  and  there  has  been  no 
record  of  this  bird  from  any  other  region  of  the 
state.  The  present  record,  therefore,  adds 
Ludhiana  to  the  range  of  the  Northern  Green 
Barbet. 

MANJIT  S.  DHINDSA 
P.  S.  SANDHU 


ENCES 

Press,  Bombay,  London,  New  York. 

Sharma,  G.  P.  and  Lamba,  B.  S.  (1954) : A prelimi- 
nary note  on  some  birds  of  the  Hoshiarpur  district, 
Punjab  (I).  Res.  Bulletin  Punjab  University , Zoology, 
No.  63,  pp.  177-186. 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


14.  ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  THE  YELLOWBELL1ED  WREN-WARBLER 
C PRINIA  FLAVIVENTRIS  FLAVIVENTRIS),  STRIATED  MARSH  WARBLER  {MEGALURUS 
PALUSTRIS)  AND  WHITETAILED  BUSH  CHAT  (, SAXICOLA  LEUCURA) 

AT  HASTINAPUR  NEAR  MEERUT  (UTTAR  PRADESH) 


Over  the  last  two  years  of  bird  study  at  and 
around  Hastinapur,  30  km.  north-west  of 
Meerut,  U.P.,  I have  come  across  some  birds 
which  do  not  appear  to  have  been  recorded  in 
this  area  : — 

(a)  1525  1 — Yellowbellied  Wren-Warbler 

( Prinia  flaviventris) 

This  can  be  heard  everywhere  throughout 
the  year  and  more  easily  seen  from  March  to 
September. 

(b)  1548  — Striated  Marsh  Warbler 
( Megalurus  palustris) 

Its  distinctive  flight  and  song,  high  up  in 
the  air  and  when  dropping  earthwards,  are  most 
noticeable  in  February  and  March. 

(c)  1699  — Whitetailed  Bush  Chat  Saxi- 
cola leucura  (Blyth) 

This  was  first  seen  in  June  1979  and  mistaken 
for  a Collared  Bush  Chat  {Saxicola  torquata) 
overstaying  into  summer.  I wrote  to 
Mr.  Humayun  Abdulali  and  upon  his  expressing 

1 Handbook  Vol.  8.  ^ 


414,  Western  Kutchery  Road, 

Meerut-250  001,  (U.P.), 

May  25,  1981. 

Refer 

Abdulali,  Humayun  & Pandey,  J.  D.  (1978) : 
Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Delhi,  Agra  and  Bharatpur. 
Popular  Press,  Bombay,  pp.  14-15. 


a doubt  regarding  the  identity  of  the  species, 
a specimen  was  collected  and  found  to  be  of 
this  species.  The  bird  is  resident  and  parties 
of  juveniles  in  various  plumages,  always  three 
together,  were  often  seen  and  were  probably 
all  of  the  same  brood. 

Hastinapur  is  an  extensive  area  of  marshland 
and  in  the  riverain  tract  of  Boorhi  Ganga  run- 
ning north  to  south  for  about  35  km.  The  area 
is  flooded  during  the  monsoon  but  retains  water 
throughout  the  year,  being  overgrown  with 
Typha  elephantina , Coix  lachrymajobi,  Phrag- 
mites  karka,  and  other  grasses  and  herbs. 

I am  grateful  to  Mr.  Humayun  Abdulali  whose 
advice  and  incentive  prompted  me  to  obtain 
specimens  of  all  three  species  and  have  them 
identified  at  the  Bombay  Natural  History 
Society. 

All  three  species  which  are  missing  from  the 
Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Delhi,  Agra  and  Bharat- 
pur, have  been  recorded  from  Delhi  by 
j Mr.  Sudhir  Vyas  (Newsletter  for  Birdwatchers, 

• vol.  XIX,  No.  11,  pp.  2-5). 

YADO  MOHAN  RAI 


2NCES 

Ali,  S.  and  Ripley,  S.  D.  (1969-73) : Handbook  of 
the  Birds  of  India  and  Pakistan,  Vols.  8-9,  Oxford 
University  Press,  Bombay. 


416 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 
15.  BIRDS  AND  STANDING  CROPS 


Birds  are  friends  of  the  farmer  and  not 
foes,  says  Dr.  Salim  Ali1  mainly  because  they 
destroy  insects  that  plague  his  crops.  Farmers, 
who  spend  hours  in  driving  the  flocks  of  birds 
away  from  their  crop,  may  not  agree.  Yet  it 
is  doubtful  how  many  of  them  precisely  know 
which  birds  are  destructive  and  which  are  not 
and  how  much  damage  the  destructive  species 
inflict  on  the  crop.  To  observe  which  birds 
come  to  the  standing  crop  and  what  exactly  they 
do  once  they  alight  in  the  fields,  20  consecutive 
mornings  were  spent  in  October  1979  in  a group 
of  cultivated  plots  which  were  mostly  left 
unguarded. 

The  cultivated  fields  measured  roughly  120'  x 
50'  each.  Two  were  adjacent  divided  only  by  a 
track,  while  the  third  was  about  a furlong  away. 
The  standing  crop  in  all  of  them  was  jowar  in 
various  stages  of  ripening.  Some  cobs  had 
very  tender  grain  while  in  others  grains  were 
ripe  and  hardened.  Out  of  the  two  adjacent 
fields,  crop  in  one  was  cut  after  it  had  been 
observed  for  4 days.  The  third  field,  though 
unguarded,  had  the  farmer’s  cottage  situated 
close  by,  and  there  was  always  some  move- 
ment  of  men  and  animals  around.  While  this 
discouraged  certain  species  who  otherwise 
would  have  come  into  the  field*  the  farming 
operations  and  fallen  grain  around  the  hut,  had 
attracted  a flock  of  about  100  house  sparrows 
who  seemed  to  have  taken  a permanent  residen- 
ce there.  As  this  tended  to  give  a certain  bias  to 
observations,  after  the  first  4 days,  observa- 
tions were  concentrated  in  the  remaining  field 
which  was  totally  unguarded  and  absolutely 
without  any  human  interference  during  the 
observation  period. 

1 Ali,  Salim  (1972) : The  Book  of  Indian  Birds, 
iXth  Edition,  Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  Bom- 
bay, pp.  152-153. 


Observations  were  recorded  during  a one- 
and-half  hour  period  between  7 and  9 a.m. 
Fields  were  also  visited  in  the  evening  between 
4 and  5 p.m.  to  record  the  evening  activity  of 
birds.  A field,  roughly  of  the  same  size  but 
about  10  km  away  in  the  opposite  direction, 
was  also  visited  thrice  in  the  morning  to  see  if 
the  number  and  variety  of  species  differed 
markedly  here  from  those  in  the  fields  under 
closer  security.  No  such  difference  was  noticed. 

Except  for  three  mornings,  the  sky  remained 
cloudy  during  the  period  of  observation.  But 
there  was  some  westerly  breeze  and  the  sun 
used  to  come  out  a little  after  8 a.m.  Evenings 
were  sunny  with  a stronger  breeze.  During  the 
observation  period  temperature  varied  between 
18°. 8'  and  32°. 7 C,  Most  of  the  observations 
were  recorded  by  going  round  the  periphery  of 
the  fields.  But  sometimes  it  became  necessary 
to  enter  the  standing  crops  to  observe  bird 
activity  at  there  base  or  about  a foot  above 
ground. 

A total  of  732  individuals  belonging  to  34 
different  species  came  to  the  fields  during  the 
period  of  observation.  The  total  of  course 
includes  the  flock  of  about  100  house  sparrows 
and  birds  such  as  a black-winged  kite,  a pair  of 
red-headed  merlins,  a white-eyed  buzzard-eagle 
sand  martins  and  common,  red-rumped  and 
wire-tailed  swallows  that  either  hovered  or  flew 
over  the  fields.  Every  day  the  number  of  species 
visiting  the  fields  varied  between  18  and  26 
with  the  total  number  of  individuals  varying 
between  75  to  165.  But  when  observations 
were  concentrated  on  the  single  field,  the  number 
of  species  per  day  (during  observation  period) 
varied  between  7 and  15  and  the  number  of 
individuals  between  24  and  58. 

Out  of  the  total  of  34  species  observed,  13 
are  known  to  eat  grain,  and  out  of  these,  eight 


12 


417 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Ko/.  79 


species  were  actually  seen  plucking  out  and 
eating  grains  from  the  cobs.  These  8 species 
were  : house  sparrow,  common  rosefinch,  baya 
weaver,  redvented  bulbul,  common  myna,  and 
whitethroated,  spotted  and  blackthroated 
munias.  The  munias  attacked  mainly  cobs 
with  very  tender  grain,  otherwise  they  tended 
to  eat  grass  and  weed  seeds  by  alighting  at  the 
foot  of  the  standing  crop.  To  a smaller  extent 
rosefinches  and  bayas  also  were  attracted  to 
tender  grain  or  searched  for  insects  on  the 
ground.  House  sparrows,  redvented  bulbuls 
and  common  mynas  ate  even  hardened  grain. 
At  one  time  a house  sparrow  or  a baya  would 
eat  a maximum  of  14  grains  each  ; a bulbul 
and  a rosefinch  would  eat  20  grains  each,  while 
a myna  would  take  a maximum  of  40  grains  at 
one  sitting.  Normally  however,  munias,  bayas 
and  house  sparrows  would  take  3-4,  bulbuls, 
rosefinches  7-8  and  mynas  13-14  grains  each  at 
one  time. 

Blackheaded  bunting,  house  and  jungle  crows, 
blue  rock  pigeon  and  yellowthroated  sparrow 
are  also  known  to  eat  grain  but  were  not 
observed  doing  so.  The  remaining  21  species 
are  known  to  be  insect  or  flesh -eaters  and  came 
to  the  fields  in  search  of  these.  If  the  3 birds 
of  prey  and  3 species  of  swallow  who  never 
alighted  in  the  fields,  are  excluded,  15  species 
of  insectivorous  birds  were  seen  to  alight  in  the 
fields.  Out  of  these  15,  six  were  actually  seen 
to  catch  and  eat  insects  and  other  animal  food. 
These  6 species  were  : rufousbacked  shrike, 
common  green  bee-eater,  piedcrested  cuckoo, 
collared  bush  chat,  ashy  wren-warbler  and 
Blyth’s  reed  warbler.  Other  insectivorous  birds 
included  : Indian  wren-warbler,  black  and  white- 
bellied  drongos,  Indian  roller,  Indian  pipit, 
Indian  robin  and  yellow  wagtail  etc. 

While  each  flock  of  grain-eaters  did  not 
remain  in  the  field  for  more  than  ten  minutes, 
the  insectivorous  birds  tended  to  spend  all  the 
time  in  the  field  in  question.  Indeed  there  is 


reason  to  believe  that  more  than  half  of  these 
species  even  roosted  in  the  field  and  for  all 
practical  purposes  never  left  the  field  during 
the  day.  While  everyone  of  the  insectivorous 
birds  was  on  the  lookout  for  insects  while  in  the 
field,  not  every  individual  from  the  gramini- 
vorous flocks  would  eat  grain  while  in  the 
field. 

The  number  of  graminivorous  species  visiting 
the  field  every  day  was  only  3 or  4.  These  birds 
normally  came  into  the  fields  in  flocks  of  3-4  to 
10-12  individuals.  But  the  number  of  indi- 
viduals actually  eating  grain  would  be  only 
1-2  to  5-6  from  each  flock.  Some  of  the  indi- 
viduals would  dive  down  at  the  base  of  the  crop 
among  grasses  and  weeds  for  seeds  and  insects. 
The  insectivorous  birds  came  as  individuals  but 
spent  almost  all  the  time  in  the  field.  Even 
from  the  large  flock  of  about  100  house  sparrows 
only  30-45  were  observed  eating  grains, 
the  others  simply  indulged  in  chirping  or 
preening. 

What  do  these  short  observations  indicate  ? 
It  appears  that  the  majority  of  birds  that  come 
to  the  fields  and  spend  most  of  their  time  there, 
are  insect-eaters.  The  grain-eaters  are  fewer  in 
numbers,  spend  less  time  in  the  field  and  even 
lesser  time  actually  consuming  the  crop. 
Some  of  them  even  search  for  insects  and  remove 
weed  seeds,  activities  beneficial  to  the  farmer. 
While  it  may  not  be  true  to  say  that  the  quantity 
of  insects  removed  by  insectivorous  birds  is 
greater  than  the  quantity  of  grain  eaten  by 
grain-eaters,  in  terms  of  value,  the  former  may 
be  doing  a greater  service  to  the  cultivator  than 
the  amount  of  damage  inflicted  by  the  latter. 
Of  course,  the  real  damage  can  only  be  assessed 
by  comparing  the  value  of  harvest  from  fields 
that  are  closely  guarded  and  that  are  not  guarded 
at  all.  On  the  basis  of  the  present  observations 
one  may  say  that  the  actual  conditions  approxi- 
mate more  to  Dr.  Salim  Ah’s  statement  than 
to  the  prevalent  view  of  the  farmers. 


418 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


BIRDS  THAT  CAME  TO  THE  FIELDS 
WITH  STANDING  CROPS 

Birds  that  ate  grain  : 

1.  Common  Myna  {Acridotheres  tristis ) 

2.  Redvented  Bulbul  ( Pycnonotus  cafer ) 

3.  House  Sparrow  ( Passer  domesticus) 

4.  Baya  Weaver  ( Ploceus  philippinus ) 

5.  Whitethroated  Munia  (. Lonchura  malabarica ) 

6.  Spotted  Munia  {Lonchura  punctulata ) 

7.  Blackheaded  Munia  {Lonchura  malacca ) 

8.  Common  Rosefinch  {Carpodacus  ery throws) 

Other  grain-eaters  : 

9.  Blue  Rock  Pigeon  {Columba  livia ) 

10.  House  Crow  {Corvus  splendens) 

11.  Jungle  Crow  {Corvus  macro rhync ho s) 

12.  Yeliowthroated  Sparrow  {Petronia  xanthocollis ) 

13.  Blackheaded  Bunting  ( Ember iza  melanocephala ) 

Birds  that  ate  insects  or  other  animal  matter  : 

14.  Pied  Crested  Cuckoo  {Clamator  jacobinus) 

15.  Green  Bee-eater  {Merops  orientalis ) 

16.  Rufousbacked  Shrike  {Lanius  schach ) 

277,  Sindh  Housing  Society, 

Poona-411  007. 

April  2,  1981. 


17.  Ashy  Wren-Warbler  {Prinia  socialis ) 

18.  Blyth’s  Reed  Warbler  {Acrocephalus  dumetofUm) 

19.  Collared  Bushchat  or  Stonechat  {Saxicola  tor  quota) 

Other  insect-eaters  : 

20.  Redwattled  Lapwing  ( Vanellus  indicus) 

21.  Indian  Roller  {Coracias  benghalensis) 

22.  Black  Drongo  {Dicrurus  adsimilis ) 

23.  Whitebellied  Drongo  {Dicrurus  caerulescens ) 

24.  Indian  Wren- Warbler  {Prinia  subflava ) 

25.  Booted  Warbler  {Hippolais  caligata) 

26.  Indian  Robin  {Saxicoloides  fulicata ) 

27.  Brown  Rock  Pipit  {Anthus  similis ) 

28.  Yellow  Wagtail  {Motacilla  flava) 

Birds  of  Prey  : 

29.  Blackwinged  Kite  {Elanus  caeruleus ) 

30.  White-eyed  Buzzard-eagle  {Butastur  teesa ) 

31.  Redheaded  Merlin  {Falco  chicquera ) 

Birds  that  hawked  insects  over  the  fields  : 

32.  Plain  Sand  Martin  {Riparia paludicola ) 

33.  Eastern  Swallow  {Hirundo  rustica ) 

34.  Redrumped  Swallow  {Hirundo  daurica ) 

PRAKASH  GOLE 


16.  FEMALE  TERRITORIALITY  IN  IMMATURE  SALTWATER  CROCO- 
DILES  CROCODYLUS  POROSUS  SCHNEIDER  IN  CAPTIVITY  AND 
ITS  EFFECT  ON  GROWTH  & SURVIVAL 


{With  two  text-  figures) 


Introduction  and  Methods 

Bustard  and  Kar  (1980)  demonstrated  the 
development  of  territoriality  in  immature  salt- 
water crocodiles  in  their  third  year  kept  in 
4 x 4 x 1 m pools. 

A group  of  seven  juveniles,  comprising  three 
females  hatched  in  August  1975  and  two  males 
and  two  females  hatched  in  August  1976  all  at 


the  Saltwater  Crocodile  Centre,  Dangmal, 
Orissa,  were  brought  to  a specially-constructed 
saltwater  crocodile  breeding  pool  in  Nandan- 
kanan  Biological  Park,  Orissa  on  22nd  February 
1978  when  the  two  age  groups  were  30  and  18 
months  old  respectively.  It  was  proposed  to 
rear  these  individuals  as  a breeding  group,  if 
necessary  removing  the  second  male  at  a later 
stage. 


419 


JOURNAL,  BOM  AY  NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY , Vol  79 


The  breeding  pool  (Figure  1)  has  a maximum 
length  of  53.4  m with  a maximum  breadth  of 
41.6  m.  The  pool  slopes  gradually  from  the 
edge  to  a maximum  depth  of  2 m.  The  water 
space  is  6202m  and  the  pool  can  hold  approxi- 
mately 6,20,000  litres.  Two  islands  occur  with- 
in the  pool  but  these  are  rocky  and  merely  serve 
to  break  up  the  configuration  of  the  pool.  They 
cannot  be  used  for  nesting  or  basking  purposes. 
The  pool  is  surrounded  by  a brick  and  mortar, 
cement-plastered,  wall  2 m in  height. 

Food  consisted  both  of  fish,  fed  live,  and  beef. 
Fish  were  released  into  the  pool  and  beef  was 


chopped  and  placed  on  seven  stone  feeding 
slabs  placed  around  the  perimeter  of  the  pool. 

Daily  observations  were  made  on  the  be- 
haviour of  the  crocodiles  and  periodically  the 
group  was  caught  and  size  and  weights  recorded. 

Results 

At  the  start,  on  22nd  February  1978  females 
C,  D and  E,  all  of  the  1975  year  class,  were  of  a 
similar  size  although  E was  slightly  heavier 
than  the  other  two  females.  The  other  four 


Fig.  1.  Saltwater  crocodile  breeding  pool,  scale  in  metres.  The  arrowed  portion  of  the  compound  wall  is  the 
total  viewing  area  for  the  public  the  inner  continuous  line  the  perimeter  of  the  pool  and  the  cross-hatched  areas 
are  rocky  islands  within  the  pool. 

Abbreviations  : I — Inlet ; OF— Overflow  used  to  regularly  inundate  an  area  of  land  to  the  rear  of  the  pool 
and  make  it  marshy. 


420 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


individuals,  of  the  1976  year  class,  comprising 
two  of  each  sex,  were  also  similar  to  each  other. 

Conflict  resulting  from  a dominant  female, 
commenced  3-4  days  after  the  crocodiles  were 
put  into  the  breeding  pool. 

Female  F and  male  G were  badly  victimised 
by  the  dominant  female  and  died  on  20-7-78 
and  24-7-78  respectively  as  a result  of  failure  to 
realise  how  badly  persecuted  they  were.  The 
persecution  took  the  form  of  chasing  and  biting 
these  individuals  which  became  too  frightened 
to  enter  the  pool  and  remained  under  bushes 
well  back  from  the  perimeter  of  the  pool. 

On  26-8-78  the  remaining  male  (A)  was 
removed  to  an  enclosure  measuring  6 x 4.5  m 
with  a pool  of  1.64  x 0.4  x 0.3  m deep. 

By  6-1-79  female  E had  become  so  dominant 
that  attempts  to  continue  to  rear  the  group  in 
the  large  breeding  pool  were  terminated. 
Female  E was  moved  to  an  enclosure  measuring 
7.0  x 4.7  m with  a pool  of  2.8  x 0.4  m deep. 
B,  C and  D were  released  in  a crocodile  enclosure 
measuring  24  x 14.4  m with  a pool  of  13.7  x 
6 x 0.9  m deep. 

Records  on  the  seven  individuals  are 
summarised  in  Table  1. 

On  23-2-79,  B was  separated  from  C and  D 
as  it  was  very  much  smaller  in  length  and  much 
lighter  in  weight  (Table  1)  (the  period  6-1-79 
to  23-2-79  is  cool  winter  weather  when  feeding 
is  minimal). 

The  effects  of  territoriality  between  B,  C and 
D on  their  growth,  both  of  length  and  of  weight, 
are  shown  graphically  for  the  period  23-2-79  to 
29-9-79  in  Figure  2.  The  very  rapid  increase 
in  the  weight  and  length  of  the  dominant  (D) 
is  apparent  during  both  summer  and  monsoon 
seasons  1979.  By  12-10-79  D had  more  than 


doubled  its  weight  to  21.6  kg  from  10.2  kg  as 
compared  to  23-2-79.  During  the  same  period 
— covering  summer  and  monsoon  seasons — 

B had  also  shown  excellent  growth  more  than 
doubling  its  weight  from  4.0  to  8.6  kg  and 
increasing  its  length  by  approximately  40% 
from  103  to  142  cm.  But  female  C,  which  was 
now  dominated  by  female  D had  shown  scarcely 
any  increase  in  length  or  weight.  Female  C 
was  removed  on  12-10-79  and  left  with  B. 

Female  C on  its  removal  to  the  enclosure  of  B 
did  not  show  any  significant  growth  and  be- 
came dominated  to  some  extent  by  B which  had 
formerly  been  considerably  smaller  (Figure  2). 
Female  C subsequently  entered  the  pool  of  D 
on  15-7-80  through  a gap  in  the  partition  and 
as  a result  of  attacks  by  D,  died  on  29-9-80. 
B again  showed  good  growth  during  the  1980 
growing  season. 

Discussion 

The  level  of  territoriality  shown  by  females 
E and  D,  and  to  a lesser  extent  by  B towards  C 
and  other  members  of  the  group,  are  likely  in 
the  wild  to  be  translated  into  spacing  out  of 
individuals  throughout  the  available  habitat. 
The  prognosis  for  smaller,  socially  inferior, 
individuals  is  extremely  bleak,  not  only  as  a 
result  of  actual  damage  sustained  as  a result 
of  attacks  by  the  dominant  territory  holder,  but 
as  a result  of  constant  suooression  of  growth. 
In  the  wild  animal  una  le  to  secure  a territory 
will  be  lost  from  the  population  through  death, 
a result  postulated  for  the  geckos  studied  by 
Bustard  (1969)  in  the  wild  which  were  unable 
to  secure  a territory. 

While  victimisation  of  small  crocodiles  by  a 
dominant  is  well  known  (Bustard  1975)  the 
delity  effects  of  this  on  vigorous  larger 
individuals — leading  to  their  death — should  be 
noted.  Had  C been  left  alone  and  suitably 


421 


JOURNAL,  BOMBA  Y NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


Table  1 


Effect  of  social  Hierarchy  on  Growth  and  Survival 


Sex 

Male  A 

Female  B 

Female  C 

Female  D 

Female  E 

Female  F 

Male  G 

Year  of  hatching 

1976 

1976 

1975 

1975 

1975 

1976 

1976 

22.7.78 

{a)  Total  length  in  cm. 

96.2 

88.9 

116.8 

116.8 

121.9 

91.4 

91.4 

0 b ) Weight  in  kgs 

2.7 

2.9 

4.5 

4.5 

6.3 

2.5 

2.5 

20.7.78**** 

( a ) Total  length 

• • o • 

o » 

» © 

• • 

88.0 

94.0 

(b)  Weight 

.. 

.. 

2.0 

1.6 

6.1.79* 

(a)  Total  length 

. . 121.0 

102.0 

131.0 

136.0 

165.0 

• • 

C b ) Weight 

6.6 

4.4 

9.0 

10.1 

17.0 

• • 

23.2.79** 

(a)  Total  length 

123.0 

103.0 

131.0 

138.0 

168.0 

, # 

• • 

(b)  Weight 

6.6 

4.0 

8.6 

10.2 

19.0 

•• 

12.10.79 

(a)  Total  length 

128.0 

142.0 

133.0 

177.0 

198.0 

. . 

lb)  Weight 

8.0 

8.6 

9.2 

21.6 

28.6 

•• 

•• 

12.12.79*** **** 

(a)  Total  length 

129.0 

142.0 

134.0. 

178.0 

200.0 

• 6 

# # 

(b)  Weight 

7.4 

10.4 

9.6 

22.0 

29.4 

•• 

5.1.80 

(a)  Total  length 

. . 129.0 

142.0 

134.0 

181.0 

201.0 

# , 

, , 

(. b ) Weight 

7.6 

11.0 

9.8 

24.0 

32.8 

•• 

26.2.80 

{a)  Total  length 

125.0 

• • 

• • 

# , 

, # 

(b)  Weight 

6.0 

. . 

• • 

•• 

28.2.80 

(a)  Total  length 

„ # , , 

142.0 

139.0 

185.0 

202.0 

# , 

(6)  Weight 

.. 

11.6 

9.4 

26.6 

34.0 

•• 

•• 

28.9.80 

(a)  Total  length 

140.0 

# , 

• • 

. , 

(b)  Weight 

. . 

10.4 

•• 

•* 

29.9.80 

(a)  Total  length 

« • 

176.0 

. , 

215.0 

228.0 

(b)  Weight 

. . 

19.3 

36.9 

44.8 

Approx.  Age 

.. 

5 years 

•• 

5 years 

5 years 

•• 

* Female  E was  transferred  to  a separate  pool,  B,  C,  and  D were  also  transferred  from  the  breeding  pool 

to  a smaller  pool. 

**  Male  A was  transferred  to  a separate  pool  on  26.8.78  and  died  in  this  pool  on  26.2.80. 

***  Female  C was  removed  from  D and  accommodated  with  B on  12.10.79. 

****  Female  F and  male  G died  on  20.7.78  and  24.7.78  respectively. 


422 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


figure  shows  very  rapid  growth  of  a dominant  (D),  virtually  zero  growth  of  a suppressed  individual  (C)  housed 
with  the  dominant,  and  rapid  growth  of  B removed  from  the  presence  of  the  dominant.  B is  one  year  younger  than  C 
but  as  a result  of  suppression  of  growth  in  C,  B overtook  it,  both  in  length  and  weight,  by  12-12-79,  at  an  age  of  3| 
years  as  compared  to  C’s  4|  years.  These  differences  are  entirely  a result  of  dominance  effects. 


423 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , To/.  79 

housed  it  would  have  resumed  good  growth  enclosure  of  B had  the  same  effect  as  one  would 
exactly  as  had  occurred  in  the  case  of  B.  expect  in  nature  as  a result  of  an  individual  not 
The  failure  to  remove  this  individual  from  the  being  able  to  locate  a vacant  territory. 

Central  Crocodile  Breeding  & H.  R.  BUSTARD 

Management  Training  Institute, 

Rajendranagar  Road, 

Hyderabad-500  264. 

Nandankanan  Biological  Park,  S.  MAHARANA 

Barang  P.O.  754  005, 

Orissa, 

June  23,  1981. 

Reference 

Bustard,  H.  R.(  1969) : The  population  ecology  of  the  Project,  India,  UNDP/FAO,  Rome.  December  1975. 
gekkonid  lizard  [ Gehyra  variegcita  (Dumeril  & Bibron)]  FO  : IND/71/033. 

in  exploited  forests  in  northern  New  South  Wales.  Bustard,  H.  R.  & Kar  S.  K.  (1980)  : Territoriality 
J.  Anim.  Ecol.  38  : 35-51.  in  immature  captive  saltwater  crocodiles  ( Crocodylus 

, (1975) : Gharial  and  crocodile  conserva-  porosus , Schneider).  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  77  : 

lion  management.  Interim  Report,  Crocodile  Farming  148-149. 


17.  THE  EXTINCTION  OF  THE  GHARIAL  [GAVIALIS  GANGETICUS  (GMELIN)] 
FROM  THE  BRAHMANI  AND  BAITARANI  RIVERS  OF  ORISSA 


The  gharial  formerly  inhabited  all  three  major 
river  systems  of  Orissa  (Singh  and  Bustard,  in 
press).  Critically-endangered  population 
remnants  still  inhabit  the  Mahanadi  river 
(Bustard  and  Singh,  in  prepn.)  where  a special 
sanctuary  has  been  created  and  an  extensive 
gharial  conservation  programme  is  in  opera- 
tion (FAO  1974,  Bustard  1975,  FAO  1975, 
Bustard  1976).  However,  the  species  is  now 
considered  to  be  extinct  in  both  the  Brahmani 
and  Baitarani  river  systems. 

Details  of  these  extinctions  are  set  out  below  : 
Brahmani  River 

Until  about  10-15  years  ago  gharial  occurred 
in  the  Brahmani  river  at  Bonaigarh,  Talcher, 


Kamakshyanagar  and  also  in  the  lower  Brah- 
mani. The  Raja  of  Sundargarh  killed  a male 
gharial  about  22  ft.  (6.6  m)  in  length  in  the 
Brahmani  near  Bonai  in  1967.  The  informant 
further  indicated  that  since  1970  there  are  no 
further  reports  concerning  the  occurrence  of 
gharial  in  the  Brahmani  river.  There  is  a 
village  near  Talcher  called  Katarapada  where 
the  river  is  called  Kumbhirakhai  ( —crocodile 
eating  place  in  Oriya)  because  a large  number 
of  gharial  occurred  in  this  area  until  twenty 
years  ago.  A dam  is  being  constructed  about 
20  miles  upstream  from  Talcher.  It  is  reported 
that  when  the  site  for  the  construction  of  the 
dam  was  selected  and  extensive  dynamiting 
took  place  in  the  area,  many  gharial  were 
killed. 


424 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


A person  from  outside  of  Orissa  killed  a 
gharial  in  the  Brahmani  in  1975.  This  was 
probably  the  last  surviving  Brahmani  gharial. 

Two  tributaries  of  the  Brahmani  formerly 
holding  gharial  were  the  rivers  Kharasuan  and 
Ramiyala.  Many  gharial  formerly  inhabited 
the  Sundarmundi  Gorge  of  the  Ramiyala 
river.  The  practice  of  dynamiting  for  fish  is 
reported  to  have  killed  many  gharial.  The 
last  definite  report  from  Ramiyala  was  during 
1958  when  two  gharial  were  killed  by  this 
fishing  practice. 

Baitarani  River 

Gharial  were  formerly  present  in  the  lower 
Baitarani  and  near  Anandpur  and  Jajpur  areas 
(Singh  and  Bustard,  in  press).  However,  there 
are  no  reports  for  the  last  10-20  years  and 
we  consider  that  the  gharial  is  now  definitely 
extinct  in  the  Baitarani  river. 

i 

Sileru  River 

The  Sileru  river  joins  the  Godavari  which 
flows  into  Andhra  Pradesh.  There  are  reports 
of  the  occurrence  of  gharial  in  the  Sileru  up  to 
1971.  We  feel  that  the  gharial  is  now  extinct 
in  the  Sileru. 

Discussion 

The  above  account  documents  how  rapidly 
the  gharial  has  been  lost  from  most  of  its  former 
habitat  in  Orissa,  a process  which  has  been 
repeated  throughout  most  of  the  gharial’s 
former  range.  We  cannot  pinpoint  the  precise 
time  when  the  gharial  became  extinct  in  the 


Baitarani  but  consider  that  this  occurred  during 
the  1960’s.  For  the  Sileru  it  was  in  the  early 
1970’s  (last  report  1971)  and  for  the  Brahmani 
it  was  as  recent  as  1975. 

The  significant  point  is  that  the  rapid  dis- 
appearance of  these  entire  populations  occurred 
without  the  knowledge  of  responsible  people 
at  the  time.  This  is  exactly  how  an  entire 
species  can  be  lost,  and  the  extinction  of  the 
Indian  Cheetah  provides  a graphic  example.  A 
species  becomes  rare,  it  is  seldom  sighted,  and 
amid  apathy,  or  lack  of  clear  understanding  of 
what  requires  to  be  done,  may  entirely  disappear. 

The  Indian  Gharial  is  a species  which  has 
been  saved  from  the  brink.  We  feel  certain 
that  the  Mahanadi  gharial  population  would 
already  have  gone  the  way  of  those  of  the 
Baitarani,  Sileru  and  Brahmani,  and  hence  the 
gharial  would  have  become  extinct  in  Orissa, 
and  in  due  course  throughout  India,  had  it 
not  been  for  the  concern  of  the  Government 
of  India  for  the  species  leading  to  an  investi- 
gation into  its  status  and  conservation  require- 
ments (FAO  1974).  Following  submission  of 
this  report  to  Government  of  India,  extremely 
rapid  conservation  action  to  save  the  gharial 
was  initiated  by  the  Government  of  India,  in 
association  with  the  States,  under  technical 
assistance  from  FAO/UNDP  (FAO,  1975). 
This  work  is  continuing. 

Acknowledgements 

We  wish  to  express  our  thanks  to  Orissa 
Forest  Department,  Government  of  India, 
F.A.O.  and  U.N.D.P.  for  various  help  during 
the  study. 

L.  A.  K.  SINGH 


H.  R.  BUSTARD 


Gharial  Research  & Conservation  Unit, 
Tikerpada-759  122, 

Dhenkanal  District,  Orissa. 

Crocodile  Breeding  & Management  Project, 
Lake  Dale,  Rajendranagar  Road, 
Hyderabad-500  264, 

June  22,  1981, 


425 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fb/.  79 
References 


Bustard,  H.  R.  (1975)  : A future  for  the  gharial.  (1975)  : India.  Gharial  and  crocodile  con- 

Cheetal  17  (2) : 3-5.  servation  management  in  Orissa  (based  on  the  work  of 

(1976) : Operation  gharial.  Cheetal  17  H.  R.  Bustard).  FAO  : IND  : 71  : 033  December,  1975. 

(3-4)  : 3-6.  FAO,  Rome. 

Fao  (1974) : India.  A preliminary  survey  of  the  Singh,  L.  A/K.  & Bustard,  H.  R.  (in  press)  : Geogra- 
prospects  for  crocodile  farming  (based  on  the  work  phical  distribution  of  the  gharial  [Gavialis  gangeticus 
of  H.  R.  Bustard).  FAO  : IND  : 71  : 033  October,  1974.  (Gmelin)]  in  Orissa,  India.  British  Journal  of 
FAO,  Rome.  Herpetology. 


18.  A TAXONOMIC  NOTE  ON  MUGGER  SUBSPECIES  ( CROCODYLUS 

PALUSTRIS ) 


In  Deraniyagala’ s (1936)  description  of  the 
Sri  Lankan  subspecies  of  Crocodylus  palustris 
(C.  p . kimbuld)  he  listed  several  features  which, 
in  his  opinion,  distinguished  it  from  Indian  C. 
palustris. 

While  examining  data  collected  by  C.  A.  Ross 
in  1974  on  scalation  of  C.  palustris  specimens 
from  several  parts  of  India  and  our  own  captive 
stock  of  1000  at  Madras  Crocodile  Bank  we 
found  that  the  characters  given  as  points  of 
sub-specific  differentiation  between  the  Indian 
and  Sri  Lankan  races  of  C.  palustris  are  invalid. 
The  small  size  of  the  sample  of  Indian  specimens 
Deraniyagala  looked  at  is  probably  to  blame. 
Of  the  four  characters  given  by  Deraniyagala 
the  only  one  which  is  presently  a point  of 
distinction  is  the  tendency  of  some  populations 
of  Sri  Lankan  mugger  to  frequent  saltwater 
(Whitaker  1979).  However  mugger  were  once 
common  in  the  salt  pans  of  Sind  (McCann  1935) 
so  even  this  feature  is  not  unique  to  the  Sri 
Lankan  mugger.  The  assertion  that  the  Sri 
Lankan  mugger  is  more  frequently  known  as  a 
maneater  than  its  northern  counterpart  could 
be  due  to  confusion  with  the  often  sympatric 
Crocodylus  porosus. 

Taken  one  by  one,  the  following  are  the 
characters  given  for  C.p.  kimbula  by  Deraniya- 
gala, each  one  followed  by  our  findings  with 
mugger  from  Tamil  Nadu,  Karnataka  and  Uttar 
Pradesh. 


(a)  Sri  Lankan  mugger  has  more  transverse 
dorsal  rows  with  six  contiguous  scutes 
than  with  four  while  seven  is  not  un- 
common and  occasionally  a row  with 
eight. 

(aa)  In  our  sample  of  sixteen  (Table  1), 
twelve  specimens  had  more  transverse 
rows  with  six  than  four,  three  had  rows 
with  seven  and  two  with  eight. 

Table  1 

Dorsal  Scale  Rows  of  Indian  Crocodylus 
palustris 


4 5 6 7 8 

scuted  scuted  scuted  scuted  scuted 
rows  rows  rows  rows  rows 


Mettur  Dam 

..  9 

4 

6 

5) 

..  9 

2 

7 

a* 

..  7 

1 

8 

2 

» 

..  7 

1 

10 

Malabar 

..  10 

5 

3 

Ranganthittoo 

..  8 

1 

10 

..  7 

3 

8 

99 

..  9 

3 

4 

99 

..  7 

2 

9 

99 

..  7 

1 

10 

99 

..  7 

2 

8 

1 

99 

..  7 

1 

8 

2 

99 

..  7 

1 

8 

2 

99 

..  6 

1 

10 

1 

99 

..  7 

2 

8 

Uttar  Pradesh 

..  3 

4 

6 

426 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


(b)  Dorsal  scutes  subequal  in  Sri  Lankan 
mugger ; only  a few  isolated  ones 
enlarged  ; while  in  the  Indian  mugger 
there  are  2 median  longitudinal  rows  of 
conspicuously  widened  dorsal  scutes. 

( bb ) We  found  the  median  longitudinal 
rows  of  dorsal  scales  highly  variable 
in  the  Indian  sample,  sometimes  sub- 
equal, sometimes  uniformly  larger, 
smaller  or  equal  in  size  to  the  other 
dorsals. 

(c)  Ventral  collar  of 4 twice  as  deep  ’ scales 
in  Sri  Lankan  mugger  and  none  in 
Indian  mugger. 

(cc)  In  all  of  the  Indian  specimens  a collar 
of  enlarged  scales  is  present  though 
often  not  conspicuous  in  juveniles. 

( d ) Sri  Lankan  mugger  not  uncommon  in 
saltwater. 

Madras  Crocodile  Bank  Trust, 

C/o.  Madras  Snake  Park  Trust, 

Madras-600  022, 

February  23,  1982. 

Refer 

Deraniyagala,  P.  E.  P.  1936 : A new  crocodile 
from  Ceylon.  Ceylon  Journal  of  Sci.,  XIX,  part  3. 
Whitaker,  R.  and  Whitaker,  Z.  (1979)  : Prelimi- 


( dd ) The  mugger  in  India  has  been  hunted 
out  of  most  of  its  original  habitat  which 
certainly  may  have  included  salt  pans 
and  estuarine  areas,  as  reported  in 
Sind. 

Conclusion  : 

The  great  variation  in  scalation  of  local  popu- 
lations of  the  wide  ranging  C.  palustris  does  not 
support  Deraniyagala’s  contention  that  the  Sri 
Lankan  race  is  a separate  subspecies.  Evidence 
is  presented  in  Table  1. 

Acknowledgements 

We  thank  our  organizations,  the  Madras 
Snake  Park  Trust  and  Madras  Crocodile  Bank 
Trust  for  their  support  of  our  work.  We  also 
thank  Shekar  Dattatri  for  reviewing  this  note. 

ROMULUS  WHITAKER 
ZAHIDA  WHITAKER 


E N CE  S 

nary  Crocodile  Survey — Sri  Lanka.  /.  Bombay  not. 
Hist.  Soc.  76  : (1)  : 66-85. 

McCann,  C.  (1935) : A reptile  and  Amphibian  Mis 
cellany.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  41  : 742. 


19.  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  GHAR1AL 


Malcolm  Smith  (1931)  gives  the  distribution 
of  gharial  as  : 

4 The  Indus,  Ganges,  Mahanadi  and  Brah- 
maputra Rivers  and  their  tributaries  and  the 
Kaladan  River,  Arakan.  Barton  (1929)  records 
a specimen  shot  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maingtha, 
a tributary  of  the  Sweli  River,  Upper  Burma  ; 
it  is  the  sole  record  from  the  Irrawaddy  River 
system.’ 


Leaving  aside  the  questionable  occurrence  in 
Burma,  the  gharial  would  appear  to  have  a 
north  Indian  distribution  in  the  Indo-Gangetic 
river  systems  and  their  tributaries.  The  occur- 
rence in  Mahanadi,  and  other  rivers  in  Orissa 
(Singh  and  Bustard,  in  prepn.),  appears  some- 
what anomalous. 

During  the  course  of  a survey  in  Godavari 
River  of  Andhra  Pradesh,  information  was 


427 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , 79 


obtained  concerning  the  previous  occurrence  of 
crocodiles,  which  from  their  description  could 
only  be  gharial,  in  the  Godavari.  Since  they 
apparently  no  longer  occur  there,  having  been 
wiped  out  in  the  post-Second  World  War  cro- 
codile hunting  phase,  which  all  but  extermi- 
nated the  gharial  in  its  north  Indian  stronghold, 
it  is  not  possible  to  further  substantiate  these 
reports  two  of  which  are  presented  below  : 

1.  In  June  1976,  when  visiting  the  trans- 
Godavari  in  the  region  of  Papikonda 
Gorge  with  Mr.  T.  V.  Subba  Rao,  Addi- 
tional Chief  Conservator  of  Forests 
(1)  of  the  Andhra  Pradesh  State  Forest 
Department,  Mr.  Subba  Rao  gave  one 
of  us  (H.R.B.)  definite  information  that 
gharial  had  been  present  a decade  or 
more  ago  in  the  River  Godavari.  He 
stated  that  he  had  been  told  of  long- 
snouted crocodiles  by  fishermen,  the 
description  of  which  could  only  apply 
to  gharial.  Since  the  only  other  croco- 
dilian in  this  area  of  Godavari  is  the 
Indian  mugger  — the  most  short- 
snouted species  of  the  genus  Croco- 
dylus  — it  is  not  possible  that  this 
animal  was  confused  with  the  gharial. 

2.  In  the  winter  of  1976  (Nov./Dec.) 
one  of  us  (B.C.C.)  was  carrying  out 
a survey  of  wild  mugger  ( Crocodylus 
palustris)  populations  on  the  river 
Godavari  and  was  likewise  informed 
by  fishermen  that  a crocodilian  other 
than  the  mugger  was  formerly  present 
in  this  River.  Once  again  the  descrip- 
tions provided  by  fishermen  were  of  a 
long  snouted  crocodile  which  they 
drew  and  from  the  drawings  could 

Central  Crocodile  Breeding  & Management 
Training  Institute,  Lake  Dale, 
Rajendranagar  Road,  Hyderabad. 

Crocodile  Project,  Nehru  Zoological  Park, 
Hyderabad, 

June  23,  1981. 


be  positively  identified  as  the  gharial. 
Report  said  that  it  occurred  at  Gundam 
but  also  from  Pochampad  to  Lanja- 
madugu,  a stretch  of  250  km.  One 
such  informant  was  Kussappa,  son  of 
Bhawani,  aged  approximately  35  years. 
He  had  been  operating  at  Pochampad 
project  for  15  years  having  originally 
come  from  Maharashtra.  Kussappa 
said  that  the  gharial  in  Godavari  grew 
toll  length  of  1 2 to  1 8 ft.  and  confirmed 
seeing  them  during  the  early  1960’s, 
evidence  which  was  confirmed  by  other 
people.  Gharial  are  reported  to  have 
been  present  in  this  area  of  the  Goda- 
vari up  to  and  including  the  early 
1960’s.  Thereafter,  however,  these  fisher- 
men reported  not  having  seen  gharial. 

Wainganga/Pranahita,  a tributary  of  the 
Godavari  originates  from  almost  the  same  lati- 
tude as  the  Mahanadi  River,  the  southernmost 
range  for  the  gharial  described  so  far.  The 
records  here  presented  indicate  that  the  recent 
range  of  the  gharial  extended  to  South  India. 

In  view  of  the  former  occurrence  of  the  gharial 
in  the  Godavari,  their  occurrence  in  Mahanadi 
and  the  other  river  systems  of  Orissa  no  longer 
appears  so  anomalous. 

We  would  be  very  interested  to  hear  from 
readers  who  have  definite  records  of  gharial  in 
Andhra  Pradesh  or  in  other  areas  where  they 
are  not  generally  known  to  have  occurred.  This 
information,  such  as  old  shikar  records,  would 
be  very  useful,  since  following  the  massive 
hunting  of  crocodiles,  gharial  must  be  expected 
to  be  extinct  in  most  peripheral  parts  of  their 
range.  Hence  such  data  cannot  be  collected 
today. 

H.  R.  BUSTARD 


B.  C.  CHOUDHURY 


428 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 
Referen  ces 

Smith,  Malcolm  (1931):  Fauna  of  British  India.  Barton,  C.  G.  (1929) : The  occurrence  of  the  Gharial 
Reptilia  and  Amphibia  Vol.  1,  Loricata  Testudines.  (Gavialis  gangeticus)  in  Burma.  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist . 
Taylor  and  Francis,  London.  Soc.  33  : 450-451. 


20.  A RANGE  EXTENSION  OF  GEOCHELONE  ELONGATA 


Three  land  tortoises  are  known  from  India, 
Geochelone  elongata,  G.  elegans  and  G.  travanco- 
rica. Geochelone  elongata  and  G. elegans  are  wide- 
spread, whereas  G.  travancorica  is  restricted  to 
the  Travancore  Hills  and  the  western  and 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Ghats  (Annandale  1915). 

Geochelone  elongata  has  been  found  in  Sal 
forests  from  the  Jalpaiguri  district,  W.  Bengal, 
Singbhum  district,  Bihar  (Chaibassa  and 
Chotanagpur),  Orissa,  Puri  district,  Simlipal 
in  the  Mayurbhanj  district  of  Orissa,  India, 
Bangladesh  (Akyab  and  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts), 
Nepal,  Burma,  Cambodia  and  Vietnam  (Biswas 
et  al.  1978).  The  reference  of  Biswas  et  al. 
(1978)  to  Nepal  G.  elongata  came  from  Smith 
(1931).  An  exact  locality  for  Smith’s  record 
is  unavailable.  Apparently,  this  species  is 
restricted  to  Sal  forests. 

In  April  1974,  one  of  us  (C.  A.  R.,  witnessed 
by  R.  Whitaker)  found  an  individual  of  G.  elon- 
gata about  300  km  further  west  than  previously 
recorded.  This  specimen  was  found  at  dusk  in 
Sal  forest  while  returning  from  gavial  survey 
work  on  the  Ramganga  River  in  northwestern 
Uttar  Pradesh,  Garhwal  district,  about  75  km 
west  of  the  Nepal  border.  The  specimen  was 
active  when  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Gairal 
Forest  Rest  House,  Corbett  National  Park, 
about  25-30  km  northwest  of  Ramnagar.  The 

Division  of  Reptiles  and  Amphibians, 
Department  of  Vertebrate  Zoology, 
National  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
Smithsonian  Institution, 

Washington,  D.C.  20560, 

February  26,  1982. 


specimen  was  photographed  and  released 
because  it  was  found  in  a national  park  and 
collection  permits  were  not  available.  Color 
slides  are  deposited  in  the  Department  of 
Herpetology,  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology, 
Harvard  University  (MCZ  slide  collection 
catalogue  number  778-79)  and  are  available  for 
verification  of  our  identification. 

Smith  (1931)  had  speculated  that  the  current 
distribution  of  G.  elongata  and  G.  travancorica 
is  relictual  and  noted  a similar  distribution  in 
Malanochelys  trijuga.  Smith  also  contended 
that  it  was  unlikely  that  G.  elongata  ever 
extended  across  the  Gangetic  Plain.  The  Uttar 
Pradesh  specimen  and  the  report  of  Biswas  et  al. 
(1978)  falsify  this  contention  and  suggests  that 
G.  elongata  may  yet  be  found  in  isolated  patches 
of  Sal  forest  throughout  northern  India. 

Acknowledgements 

We  thank  C.  Ernst,  K.  Miyata  and  G.  Zug 
for  reading  the  manuscript  and  making  valuable 
comments.  Funding  was  provided  C.A.R.  by 
the  New  York  Zoological  Society.  J.  C.  Daniel 
and  R.  Whitaker  assisted  in  the  field.  Funding 
for  C.R.C.  came  from  the  Theodore  Roosevelt 
Memorial  Fund  (American  Museum  of  Nat. 
Hist.),  Sigma  xi  and  a Smithsonian  Predoctoral 
Fellowship. 

CHARLES  A.  ROSS 
CHARLES  R.  CRUMLY 


429 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 
References 

Annandale,  N.  (1915)  : Notes  on  some  Indian  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  75 : 928-930. 

Chelonia.  Records  of  the  Indian  Museum,  9 : 189-195.  Smith,  M.  A.  (1931) : The  fauna  of  British  East 
Biswas,  S.,  Acharjyo,  L.  N.  Mohapatra,  S.  (1978)  : India,  including  Ceylon  and  Burma.  Reptilia  and 
Notes  on  the  distribution,  sexual  dimorphism  and  growth  Amphibia.  Vol.  I Loricata,  Testudines.  Taylor  and 
m captivity  of  Geoch'elone  elongata  (Blyth).  J.  Bombay  Francis,  publishers,  185  pp. 


21.  SOME  FIELD  NOTES  ON  THE  NEWLY-DESCRIBED  TOAD,  BUFO 
CAMORTENSIS  MANSUKHANI  & SARKAR 


In  Bulletin  Zoological  Survey  of  India 
3 (1  & 2) : 97-101  1980,  (Mrs.)  M.  R.  Mansu- 
khani  and  A.  K.  Sarkar  of  the  Zoological 
Survey  of  India,  Calcutta,  have  described  a new 
species  of  toad  Bufo  camortensis  based  partly 
on  specimens  obtained  by  me  at  Camorta, 
Central  Nicobars  on  30th  March  1976. 

When  first  seen  after  dusk  they  were  very 
common  along  paths  through  grass-covered 
clearings.  They  were  strikingly  paler  than  the 
Common  Toad  (B.  melanostictus ) and  drew 
further  attention  by  attempting  to  climb  on  to 

75,  Abdul  Rehman  Street, 

Bombay-400  003. 

August  29,  1981. 


the  tussocks  of  grass  in  their  efforts  to  escape. 
When  caught,  they  felt  very  cold  to  the  touch, 
another  character  which  appeared  to  separate 
them  from  melanostictus.  Similar  specimens 
were  obtained  on  Katchal  Island,  Central 
Nicobars  on  24th  March  1977  when  there  with 
Dr.  K.  K.  Tiwari,  Director,  Z.S.I.,  and  again 
noted  as  cold  to  the  touch. 

Toads  obtained  on  the  Andaman  Islands 
and  on  Car  Nicobar  have  been  identified  as 
B.  melanostictus. 


HUMAYUN  ABDUL ALI 


22.  EXTENSION  OF  RANGE  OF  THE  PUTITOR  MAHSEER,  TOR 
PUTITORA  (HAM.)  (CYPR1NIFORMES  ; CYPRIN1DAE  ; 
BARBINAE)  TO  POONCH  VALLEY  (JAMMU  AND  KASHMIR) 


In  southern  Asia  the  barbs  are  represented 
by  the  closely  related  genus  Tor  Gray  in  which 
the  scales  are  much  larger  than  in  the  genus 
Barbus  Cuvier.  These  large-scaled  barbs, 
locally  known  as  the  Mahseers,  are  distributed 
all  along  the  Himalayas,  being  found  in  various 
hill-streams  and  upper  reaches  of  rivers  of  the 
northern  latitudes.  They  are  typical  rheo- 
philes  as  their  body  is  adapted  to  life  in  moun- 
tain torrents  and  fast-flowing  streams.  Like 


the  Salmon  they  are  capable  of  leaping  against 
currents  and  ascending  waters. 

In  the  ichthyofauna  of  Jammu  and  Kashmir 
State  the  Mahseer  is  represented  by  Tor  putitora 
(Ham.)  which  was  reported  from  Kashmir 
Valley  by  Hora  (1939),  Silas  (1960)  and  Das 
(1965).  The  present  report  of  the  occurrence 
of  this  teleost  from  Poonch  Valley  is,  therefore, 
an  extension  of  the  range  of  distribution  of  this 


430 


Miscellaneous  notes 


species.  In  Poonch  Valley  Tor  putitora  (Ham.) 
is  abundantly  found  in  Sooran  torrent,  Betarh 
nallah,  Poonch  River,  Mandi  stream  and 
Baffliaz,  all  of  which  are  torrential  streams 
with  gravelly  bottoms  and  partially  submerged 
boulders. 

Khan  (1934)  observed  that  the  allied  species 
Tor  tor  (Ham.)  occurs  in  all  the  hill-tracts  of 
the  Punjab  except  the  snow-fed  streams  whose 
temperature  falls  below  60°F  in  summer.  As 
almost  all  the  streams  which  contain  Tor  putitora 
(Ham.)  in  Poonch  Valley  are  snow-fed  streams, 
it  is  evident  that  the  putitor  mahseer  has  a 
greater  ecological  tolerance  and  is  better  adapted 
to  subsist  in  colder  temperatures  than  Tor  tor 
(Ham.). 


Das  (1960)  described  the  mahseers  of  the 
Doon  Valley  and  observed  that  in  Tor  putitora 
(Ham.)  of  the  Doons  the  lips  are  extensible  and 
sometimes  produced  with  the  snout  into  greatly 
expanded  and  swollen  lobes  for  suction,  feeding 
or  attachment  to  rocks  in  fast-flowing  mountain 
streams.  The  extraordinary  thickening  of  the 
lips  is  not  so  well-marked  in  the  specimens 
obtained  from  Poonch  Valley. 

Acknowledgement 

I am  thankful  to  Dr.  A.  G.  K.  Menon,  Dy. 
Director,  Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Southern 
Regional  Station,  Madras,  for  confirming  the 
identification  of  the  specimens  under  report. 


Department  of  Zoology, 

Islamia  College  of  Science  & Commerce, 
Srinagar-190  002, 

Kashmir  (India), 

May  30,  1981. 

Refer 

Das,  S.  M.  (1960) : The  fisheries  of  the  Doon  Valley. 
Uttar  Pradesh , 18  (9) : 11-17. 

(1965) : A revision  of  fish  species  inhabiting 

Kashmir  Province.  Kashmir.  Sci.,  2 (1-2) : 13-19. 

Hora,  S.  L.  (1939) : The  game-fishes  of  India,  VIII. 
The  Mahseers  or  the  large-scaled  barbels  of  India — 


SURENDRA  NATH 


iNCES 

I : The  putitor  mahseer,  Barbus  (Tor)  putitora  (Ham.). 
J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc .,  41  : 271-285. 

Khan,  H.  M.  (1934) : Habits  and  habitats  of  the 
food  fishes  of  Punjab,  ibid.,  37  (3)  : 655-668. 

Silas;  E.  G,  (1960) : Fishes  from  the  Kashmir  Valley, 
ibid.,  57  (1):  66-79. 


23.  DOES  FORMALIN  PERMIT  THE  LARVAL  DEVELOPMENT  IN 
AEDES  AEGYPTI  AND  CULEX  PIPIENS  FATIGANS  ? 


Introduction 

When  a six  month  study  was  made  on  the 
ecology  of  mosquito  larvae  distributed  in 
various  localities  of  Tiruchirapalli,  the  presence 
of  Aedes  aegypti  larvae  was  accidentally  noted 
in  the  specimen  bottles  containing  formalin  in 
the  post  graduate  laboratory.  So  far  no 


report  has  been  published  on  occurrence  of  the 
organisms  including  mosquito  larvae  in 
formalin.  In  this  paper  results  of  the  survival 
capacity  of  A.  aegypti  larvae  in  various  concen- 
trations of  formalin  are  compared  with  that  of 
Culex  pipiens  fatigans.  To  find  out  whether 
the  mosquito  larvae  of  any  species  undergo 
normal  development  in  the  formalin  and  to 


431 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol  79 


prove  the  selective  preference  of  A.  aegypti  for 
container  habitats  an  experiment  was  designed 
using  different  concentrations  of  formalin. 

Material  and  Methods 

C.  pipiens  fatigans  and  A.  aegypti  larvae  were 
collected  from  a ditch  and  a broken  pot  respec- 
tively. Formalin  concentrations  ranging  from 
0.025%  to  0.125%  were  prepared.  Fifteen 
fourth  instar  larvae  were  added  to  the  bottles 
containing  200  ml  of  formalin  solution  of  these 
concentrations.  The  number  of  larvae  that 
pupated  and  emerged  as  adults  was  noted. 
Each  experiment  was  repeated  for  four  times. 


Results 

The  formalin  concentrations  ranging  from 
0.025  % to  0.075  % permitted  the  survival,  pupa- 
tion and  adult  emergence  of  A.  aegypti  and  C. 
pipiens  fatigans  larvae.  But  the  number  of 
larvae  that  survived,  pupated  and  emerged  as 
adults  were  high  in  A.  aegypti.  The  larvae 
belonging  to  both  species  did  not  survive  in 
0.125%  formalin  concentration.  But  the  time 
taken  by  A.  aegypti  larvae  to  die  was  longer 
than  that  of  C.  pipiens  fatigans.  (Tables  1 
and  2). 


Table  1 


The  Efficiency  of  A.  aegypti  and  C.  pipiens  fatigans  larvae  to  Pupate  in  various 
Concentrations  of  formalin 


Number  of  larvae  used 

Number  of  larvae  pupated 

Concentration 

A.  aegypti 

C.  pipiens  fatigans 

A.  aegypti 

C.  pipiens  fatigans 

0.025% 

15 

15 

11.50±  1.29 

6.25  ±0.96 

0.050% 

15 

15 

9.00±0.82 

3.00±  0.82 

0.075% 

15 

15 

7.50±  1.29 

1.50±0.29 

0.100% 

15 

15 

4.25  ±0.96 

* 

0.125% 

15 

15 

. 

. .@ 

* In  0.100%  all  C.  pipiens  fatigans  larvae  died  within  12  to  15  hours. 

@ In  0.125  % all  C.  pipiens  fatigans  larvae  died  within  2 to  4 hours  and  all  A.  aegypti  larvae  died  in  2 days 

Values  are  mean±  SD. 

Table  2 

The  Efficiency  of 

A.  aegypti  and 

C.  pipiens  fatigans  Larvae  to  Emerge  as  Adult 

In  various  concentrations  of  formalin 

Number  of  larvae  used 

Number  of  adults  emerged 

Concentration 

A.  aegypti 

C.  p ip iens  fatigans 

A.  aegypti 

C.  pipiens  fatigans 

0.025% 

15 

15 

9.25  ±0.96 

3.25  ±0.50 

0.050% 

15 

15 

5.50±0.58 

3.25  ±0.96 

0.075% 

15 

15 

5.25  ±0.96 

2.75  ±0.50 

0.100% 

15 

15 

3.50±0.70 

. , 

0.125% 

15 

15 

•• 

Values  are  mean±  SD. 


432 


Miscellaneous  notes 


Discussion 

Bates  (1949)  classified  larval  habitats  into 
three  categories  namely,  permanent,  transient 
and  container.  Larvae  belonging  to  various 
species  inhabit  different  habitats.  Some  species 
prefer  a wide  range  of  habitats,  while  others  limit 
their  choice  to  a few  habitats.  Thus  C.pipiens 
fatigans  breeds  in  all  sorts  of  natural  habitats. 
Similarly  Anopheles  subpictus  is  found  breeding 
in  temporary  small  sunlit  pools,  drains  and 
ditches,  rice  fields  and  rock  pools.  Many  of 
the  principal  and  potentially  dangerous  vectors 
of  mosquito  borne  viruses  breed  in  specific 
container  habitats.  So  the  larvae  of  A.  aegypti 
are  found  mainly  in  the  container  habitats 
(Goma  1966).  A.  africanus  and  Haemogogus 
are  found  in  tree  holes,  while  larvae  of  A.  simp - 
soni  are  observed  in  axils  of  banana  and  pine- 
apple  leaves. 

Vijayakumar  (1977)  reported  the  occurrence 
of  A.  aegypti  larvae  in  container  habitats  such 

Postgraduate  Department  of  Zoology, 
Jamal  Mohamad  College, 
Tiruchirapalli-620  020. 

August  10,  1981. 


as  bottles,  tree  holes,  discarded  tins  and  broken 
pots.  He  also  reported  the  absence  of  C.  pipiens 
fatigans  larvae  in  container  habitats.  In  this 
present  report  it  is  found  out  that  the  low 
concentrations  of  formalin  permitted  the  survival 
of  these  two  species  of  mosquito  larvae.  But 
the  data  clearly  shows  that  the  larvae  of  A. 
aegypti  thrived  well  in  formalin  solution  than 
C.  pipiens  fatigans  larvae.  The  reason  for  the 
poor  survival  capability  of  C.  pipiens  fatigans 
when  compared  to  A.  aegypti  larvae  in  formalin 
solution  may  be  attributed  to  its  habitat 
preference.  The  bottles  are  included  under 
container  habitat.  On  rearing  these  two 
species,  one  characteristic  of  container  habitat 
and  other  not,  naturally  the  former  did  well. 
Thus  the  present  study  establishes  that  the  low 
concentrations  of  formalin  permit  the  normal 
development  of  mosquito  larvae  and  that  the 
habitat  has  an  influence  over  the  development. 

I am  grateful  to  Dr.  V.  Hari  Rao  for  his 
interest  and  encouragement. 

I.  VIJAYAKUMAR1 


Referen  ces 

Bates,  M.  (1949) : The  Natural  History  of  Mosqui-  Vijayakumar,  I.  (1977) : An  ecological  study  of 
toes,  Macmillan,  New  York.  mosquito  larvae  in  and  around  Tiruchirapalli,  M.Sc. 

Goma,  L.  K.  H.  (1966) : The  Mosquito,  Hutchinson  Thesis,  University  of  Madras,  Madras. 

Tropical  Monographs. 

1 Present  address  : Dept,  of  Zoology,  University  of  Madras,  Madras-600005. 


13 


433 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  19 

24.  RECORD  OF  EPHESTIA  CAUTELLA  WALKER  (PYRALIDAE  : 
LEPIDOPTERA)  FROM  CHILLY  POWDER  AT  LUDHIANA,  PUNJAB  (INDIA) 


During  July  1976  chilly  powder  kept  for  home 
consumption  were  found  webbed  and  a number 
of  pinkish  white  larvae  were  present  in  the  silken 
tubes.  The  glass  jar  (15  cm  x 5 cm)  containing 
the  powdered  chilly  along  with  the  larvae  top 
covered  with  muslin  were  kept  in  an  incubator 
at  30°C.  The  emerging  adults  were  identified 
as  Ephestia  cautella  Walker. 

Earlier  records  of  this  species  are  on  dried 
fruits  such  as  currant,  raisins,  apples,  dates, 
berries,  figs,  almonds,  carobs,  walnuts,  pistachu, 
Primus,  oil  palm  kernels  and  also  on  fallen  and 
damaged  citrus  fruits.  It  has  also  been  recorded 
on  chocolate,  cocoa  beans,  soyabean,  biscuits. 

Department  of  Entomology, 

Punjab  Agricultural  University, 
Ludhiana, 

January  31,  1981. 


tamarind  seeds,  lac,  malted  milk,  dried  mango 
juice,  garlic  bulbs,  stored  onion,  apricot  seeds, 
ground  nut  kernels,  sesamum,  cotton  seed, 
cereals  and  cereal  products.  The  larvae  of 
E.  cautella  have  also  been  found  feeding  on 
Ceretovauna  lanigera  Zhnt.  E.  cautella  appea- 
rance in  powdered  chillies  is  a new  record. 

We  are  thankful  to  Dr.  A.  S.  Sidhu  the  then 
Professor  and  Head,  Department  of  Ento- 
mology for  providing  the  necessary  facilities 
and  to  the  Director,  British  Museum,  Common- 
wealth Institute  of  Entomology,  London  for 
identification  of  the  specimen. 

M.  RAMZAN 
DARSHAN  SINGH 


25.  NEW  RECORD  OF  SCAMBUS  {SCAM BUS)  STRIATUS  GUPTA  AND 
TIKER  (ICHNEUMONIDAE  : HYMENOPTERA)  FROM  PECTIN  O- 
PHORA  G OSS YPIELLA  (SAUNDERS)  AND  ITS  BIOLOGY 


Pectinophora  gossypiella  (Saunders)  is  a 
serious  pest  of  cotton  and  the  natural  enemies 
of  this  pest  are  being  studied  in  the  Punjab  to 
use  them  as  biological  control  agents  as  well  as 
in  the  integrated  control  programme.  While 
making  collection  an  ectoparasitoid  was 
observed  on  a paralysed  larva  of  P.  gossypiella 
in  a flower  at  Bhogpur,  Punjab.  The  parasitoid 
was  reared  in  the  laboratory  and  an  adult 
female  emerged.  It  was  identified  by  Dr.  I.  D. 
Gauld  of  the  Commonwealth  Institute  of  Ento- 
mology, London  as  Scambus  {Sc ambus)  striatus 
Gupta  and  Tiker.  This  species  is  known  only 
from  Kodaikanal,  Palni  hills,  Tamil  Nadu 


(India)  and  was  described  by  Gupta  and  Tiker 
(1967)  on  the  basis  of  net  collected  female 
specimens. 

The  female  was  kept  in  a large  size  glass 
chimney.  The  open  sides  of  the  chimney  were 
covered  with  pieces  of  voile  cloth.  Thirty  per 
cent  honey  solution  was  given  as  food  in  a 
cotton  swab  which  was  hung  from  the  top  of 
the  chimney.  Progeny  of  the  virgin  female 
were  obtained.  The  larvae  of  P.  gossypiella 
and  Corcyra  cephalonica  Stainton  were  tried 
as  laboratory  hosts.  The  fourth  instar  larvae 
at  the  rate  of  ten  per  day  were  exposed  to  the 
female.  The  larvae  were  kept  on  the  upper 


434 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


side  of  the  glass  chimney  in  facial  tissue  paper 
folds.  The  tissue  paper  with  host  larvae  was 
covered  with  a glass  slab  (10  cm  x 10  cm)  to 
restrict  the  host  movements.  The  host  larvae 
paralysed  on  each  date  were  reared  in  petridishes 
(3  cm  dia.)  and  the  pupae  formed  were  trans- 
ferred to  battery  jar  (15  cm  long  and  10  cm 
dia.)  The  P,  gossypiella  larvae  were  exposed 
for  ten  days  and  that  of  C.  cephalonica  for  two 
days. 

It  was  observed  that  only  the  larvae  of  P. 
gossypiella  were  accepted  for  oviposition.  The 
larvae  were  paralysed  before  oviposition.  Two 
to  three  eggs  were  deposited  daily  at  the  rate  of 

Department  of  Entomology, 

Punjab  Agricultural  University, 

Ludhiana,  Punjab,  India, 

November  20,  1980, 


one  per  host.  The  egg  + larval  period  was 
completed  in  5.8  ± 0.7  (n  = 11)  days  while  the 
corresponding  figure  for  pupal  period  was  9.6  ± 

1.6  (n  = 11)  days  at  24.6  ± 2.1°C  and  62.0  ± 

6.6  per  cent  relative  humidity.  The  adults  lived 
up  to  20.3  ± 6.8  days. 

We  are  thankful  to  Dr.  B.  S.  Chahal,  Profes- 
sor-cum-Head,  Department  of  Entomology, 
Punjab  Agricultural  University,  Ludhiana, 
Punjab  for  providing  facilities  and  Dr.  N.  C. 
Pant,  Director,  Commonwealth  Institute  of 
Entomology,  London  for  arranging  the  identi- 
fication of  the  parasitoid. 

MANINDER 
G.  C.  VARMA 


Reference 

Gupta,  V.  K.  & Tiker,  D.  T.  (1967):  Indian  species 
of  Scambus  Hartig  (Hymenoptera  : Ichneumonidae). 
Orient . Insects,  1 : 225. 


26  A NEW  RECORD  OF  Ar  PARASITIC  FLESHIFLY,  PARASARCOPHAGA 
KNABI  (PARKER)  (SARCOPHAG1DAE  : DIPTERA)  ON  THE  OAK 

TASAR  SILKWORM 


Antheraea  proylei  Jolly,  commonly  known  as 
Oak  Tasar  silkworm,  is  a sericigenous  insect 
which  has  helped  in  a big  way  to  the  socio- 
economic uplift  of  the  tribal  population  of  the 
remote  hill  forest  belts  of  Manipur  State  by  the 
production  of  better  quality  tasar  silk.  Since 
this  insect  is  economically  very  important,  the 
slightest  loss  from  parasites  and  predators  are 
a great  concern  to  the  rearers.  Several  kinds 
of  such  enemies  have  been  observed. 

Parasarcophaga  knabi  (Parker)  attacks  the 
different  larval  instars  of  this  silkworm.  The 


species  has  so  far  been  recorded  from  different 
parts  of  the  country  and  has  been  noticed  to  be 
attracted  to  human  feces,  dead  animals  etc. 
and  can  be  reared  on  meat  in  the  laboratory. 
It  has  not  been  recorded  from  this  region  and 
its  parasitism  on  A.  proylei  Jolly  seems  to  be  new. 

P.  knabi  (Parker)  has  been  reported  for  the 
first  time  as  parasitic  on  the  larvae  of  A . proylei 
Jolly  from  almost  all  the  tasar  silkworm  rearing 
farms  of  the  state.  The  female  oviposits  her 
eggs  on  the  body  of  the  host  which  are  glued 
to  the  surface  of  the  larva.  The  number  of  eggs 


435 


Journal,  bombay  natural  hist : society,  Voi.  79 


laid  on  a single  larva  varies  from  1 to  68.  The 
maggots,  on  hatching,  bore  their  way  through 
the  skin  of  the  host  thus  causing  injury  and  even 
death  of  the  infested  larva.  Infestation  appears 
since  the  late  first  instar  onwards,  but  the 
maximum  incidence  has  been  observed  in  the 
3rd,  4th  and  5th  instars  during  the  months  of 


April  to  May  and  July  to  September  resulting 
in  nearly  10%  loss  in  the  production. 

We  express  our  deep  sense  of  gratitude  to 
the  Director,  British  Museum,  London,  for 
the  identification  of  the  parasite. 


Laboratory  of  Entomology,  K.  C.  SINGH 

Division  of  Life  Sciences,  B.  PRASAD 

Jawaharlal  Nehru  University, 

Centre  of  Postgraduate  Studies, 

Imphal-795  003  (Manipur), 

December  16,  1980. 


27.  PREDATION  OF  THE  PLUM  SCALE,  EULECANIUM  CORYLI  (L.) 
(HOMOPTERA  : COCCIDAE),  BY  BALLIA  BAYADERAE  MULSANT 
(COLEOPTERA  : COCCINELLID AE) , IN  KASHMIR 


The  plum  scale,  Eulecanium  coryli  (L.),  is  a 
serious  pest  of  plum,  quince,  apricot,  almond 
and  cherry  in  Kashmir.  The  brown  coloured, 
mature  female  scales  have  a typical,  swollen 
appearance,  bearing  an  outward  resemblance 
to  spherical  galls.  The  infested  twigs  look  as  if 


studded  with  countless,  closely  packed  galls. 
Under  field  conditions,  these  scales  are  preyed 
upon  by  the  larvae  of  the  coccinellid,  Ballia 
bayaderae  Muls.,  chiefly  during  late  March  to 
early  May  which  checks  further  multiplication 
of  the  pest  to  a considerable  extent. 


G/O.  Dept,  of  Zoology,  M.  ZAKA-UR-RAB 

Aligarh  Muslim  University, 

Aligarh-202  001, 

November  27,  1980. 


28.  FOOD  AND  FEEDING  BEHAVIOUR  OF  THE  MOLE  CRAB  EMERITA 


HOLTHUISI  (CRUSTACEA  : 
Introduction 

Mole  crabs  of  the  genus  Emerita  have  evolved 
combinations  of  morphological  and  behavi- 
oural modifications  which  fit  them  in  a hostile 
intertidal  habitat.  One  of  these,  is  a passive 
method  of  filtering  food  with  their  antennae. 


ANOMURA:  HIPPIDEA) 


In  the  present  study  some  observations  on 
feeding  and  antennular  movements  of  Emerita 
holthuisi  from  the  west  coast  of  India  were  made 
under  laboratory  conditions.  Observations  on 
gut  content  were  also  made. 


436 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Material  and  Methods 

Extensive  mole  crab  beds  are  found  in  Mirya 
bay,  situated  1.5  km  west  of  Ratnagiri.  The 
animals  were  collected  from  the  beach  at  Ratna- 
giri from  September  1973  to  August  1974  and 
fixed  in  10  % formalin  for  observing  gut  contents. 
The  stomachs  were  removed  from  fresh  as  well 
as  previously  collected  animals  and  preserved 
in  formalin.  The  contents  were  first  examined 
with  a low-power  binocular  microscope  and 
the  larger  fragments  were  noted,  the  remainder 
being  usually  subsampled  by  pipetting  a drop 
of  the  material  on  a slide  and  examining  under 
higher  magnification.  The  method  followed 
by  Hynes  (1950)  was  used  to  determine  the 


composition  of  different  food  items  Charcoal 
particles  were  used  instead  of  food  particles  to 
determine  the  feeding  behaviour  of  the  animal. 

Results 

The  percentage  of  full  stomach  was  more  in 
rainy  season  than  in  other  months  (Table  1). 
The  following  components  were  observed  in  the 
gut. 

Debris  : 

This  category  includes  all  unidentifiable  finely 
divided  material.  The  name  is  used  in  place  of 
the  more  usual  term  ‘debritus  ’,  since  it  was  not 
known  whether  the  material  was  organic  or 
inorganic. 


Table  1 

Food  of  Emerita  holthuisi  as  Percentage  of  Gut  Content  for  the  period  September  1973 

to  August  1974 


Month 

No.  of 
stomachs 
examined 

Diatoms 

Spicules 

Sand 

Foramini- 

fera 

and 

Dinofla- 

gellates 

Inverte- 

brate 

egg 

Debris 

°/ 

/o 

°/ 

/o 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

1973 

September 

19 

25 

16 

2 

5 

3 

49 

October 

20 

23 

14 

3 

7 

5 

48 

November 

20 

16 

15 

3 

6 

7 

53 

December 

20 

16 

14 

4 

6 

5 

55 

1974 

January 

20 

20 

12 

4 

5 

4 

55 

February 

20 

28 

9 

2 

7 

5 

49 

March 

20 

21 

12 

2 

5 

3 

57 

April 

20 

30 

8 

1 

6 

3 

50 

May 

20 

30 

10 

2 

4 

3 

49 

June 

20 

39 

13 

2 

6 

2 

38 

July 

18 

35 

14 

1 

6 

1 

43 

August 

20 

30 

16 

2 

5 

2 

45 

437 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


Diatom  : 

Phytoplankton  dominated  from  June 
onwards  upto  September  and  then  gave  way  to 
Zooplankton.  Diatoms  form  a considerable 
part  of  the  stomach  content.  From  December 
upto  July  they  form  the  main  constituent  of  the 
gut  contents.  Diatoms  belonging  to  the  follow- 
ing genera  were  seen  at  different  periods  of  the 
year.  During  January-February  Concinodiscus 
excentricus  and  Rhizosolenia  semispina  were 
seen  in  abundance.  From  March  onwards 
Chaetoceras,  Ditylium,  Thalaniothrix , Stepano- 
phyxix , Biddulphia  and  Fragilaria  were  present 
in  large  numbers. 

Small  invertebrate  eggs  as  well  as  traces  of 
sand  particles  were  seen  in  the  stomach  during 
September  1973  upto  February  1974.  Foramini- 
fera  and  Dinoflagellates  form  an  important 
constituent  of  the  gut  contents  during  the  year. 

It  was  noticed  that  in  the  antennular  move- 
ment the  food  particles  were  entangled  in  all 
parts  of  the  antenna,  but  the  greatest  concentra- 
tion was  at  the  ends  of  the  shorter  inner  row 
of  setae  and  particularly  towards  the  distal  end. 
Every  few  seconds  one  antenna  was  quickly 
bent  into  the  cavity  between  the  meropodites 
of  the  third  maxillipeds  and  the  mouth  parts 
and  was  then  withdrawn  slowly  as  the  mouth 
parts  removed  the  food  and  sand  grains.  When 
clean  it  was  extended  again  and  filtering  conti- 
nued for  a few  seconds  before  the  other  antenna 
was  cleaned  in  the  same  way.  Rarely  the  same 
antenna  was  cleaned  twice  in  succession,  while 
the  other  one  remained  in  the  filtering  position. 
Such  repeated  cleaning  of  the  same  antenna  was 
most  frequently  seen  when  an  animal  was  very 
close  to  the  wall  of  the  glass  trough  or  to 
another  feeding  animal ; under  these  conditions 
the  antenna  nearest  to  the  obstacle  may  either 
remain  withdrawn  or  be  filtering  but  is  rarely 
cleaned. 

The  large  door-like  meropodites  of  the  third 
maxillipeds  are  held  close  to  the  mouth  parts 


when  the  animals  were  not  feeding  and,  with 
their  overlapping  setal  fringes  form  a barrier 
against  the  encroachment  of  sand  that  surrounds 
the  mouth.  During  feeding  their  meropodites 
open  outwards  to  form  parallel  sides  to  the 
mouth  region.  Even  in  this  position,  their  setae 
partially  close  off  the  distal  end  against  the  sand. 
Thus  the  mouth  parts  can  scrape  the  food  off 
the  antenna  without  taking  in  too  much  sand. 
It  was  noticed  that  as  soon  as  an  antenna  was 
brought  down  for  cleaning,  movements  of  the 
propodite  and  dactylopodite  of  the  maxilliped 
became  quicker  from  side  to  side  remaining 
almost  parallel  to  one  another  all  the  time. 
This  activity  continued  whilst  the  antenna  was 
in  the  mouth  region  but  as  soon  as  it  began 
filtering  again  the  propodite  and  dactylopodite 
activity  gradually  decreased,  to  recommence 
when  the  other  antenna  was  cleaned. 

Discussion 

E.  holthuisi  lives  in  one  of  the  most  rigorous 
habitats  in  the  littoral  zone . Zobell  and  Felthan 
(1938)  showed  that  Emerita  analoga  could  feed 
on  bacteria  but  it  seems  probable  that  these 
animals  were  feeding  on  bacteria  that  had 
clumped  and  only  to  a very  small  extent  on  the 
individual  cells.  They  showed  that  the  larger 
bacteria  {Bacillus  merinus  1 .3-8.1  ft,  Flavobacte- 
rium  boreale  0.6-2. Ip)  were  used  more  efficiently 
than  smaller  ones. 

In  the  present  investigation  it  was  found  that 
feeding  is  not  fully  dependent  upon  the  tempe- 
rature and  salinity  but  on  the  availability  of 
food.  Accordingly  the  gut  contents  showed 
variability  in  the  percentage  of  their  consti- 
tuents. During  the  monsoon  period  the  phyto- 
plankton Was  seen  in  larger  quantity  while  in 
other  period  it  Was  less.  The  percentage  of 
diatoms  during  the  period  November  and 
December  was  less  but  increased  from  January 
onwards.  After  the  monsoon  the  zooplankton 


438 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


became  the  dominant  constituent  of  the  plank- 
tonic fauna. 

Acknowledgements 

I am  grateful  to  Dr.  R.  Nagabhushanam, 


Professor  and  Head,  Department  of  Zoology, 
Marathwada  University  for  his  constant 
encouragement  and  thanks  are  due  to  the  autho- 
rities of  the  University  for  financial  assistance 
in  the  form  of  a research  fellowship. 


Dept,  of  Zoology,  K.  M.  KULKARNI 

Institute  of  Science, 

Bombay-400  032, 

May  23,  1981. 

References 

Hynes,  H.  B.  N.  (1950)  : The  food  of  freshwater  Ecol  19  (1)  : 35-38. 
stickle  backs  ( Gastrosleus  pungilius)  with  a review  of  Zobell  and  Felthan  (1938) : Bacteria  as  food  for 
method  used  in  studies  of  the  food  of  fishes.  /.  Anim.  certain  marine  invertebrates.  J.  Mar.  Res.  1 : 312-327. 


29.  ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  A FAIRY  SHRIMP  STREPTOCEPHALUS 
SIMPLEX  ECHINUS  IN  THE  FRESHWATER  PONDS  OF  CHINGLE- 
PUT  DISTRICT,  TAMIL  NADU 

( With  a text-figure) 


Systematic  studies  on  Branchiopods,  especially 
the  phyllopods  of  India  are  fragmentary.  The 
first  record  of  phyllopods  in  India  was  Strep  to - 
cephalus  dichotomus  by  Baird  in  1860.  Another 
species,  S.  simplex  echinus , was  reported  from 
Godavari  town  in  Andhra  Pradesh  by  Bond 
(1934).  They  occur  along  with  S.  dichotomus. 
S.  dichotomus  is  the  only  species  of  this  genus 
reported  in  Tamil  Nadu,  although  Sanjeeva  Raj 
(1951)  reported  the  occurrence  of  yet  another 
anostracan  Branchinella  kugenumaensis.  During 
a survey  of  S.  dichotomus  in  the  temporary 
ponds  of  Chingleput  district  near  Vedanthangal, 
Tamil  Nadu,  the  occurrence  of  S.  simplex 
echinus  was  noticed. 

Males  in  the  collection  measured  18  to  20  mm 
in  length  and  females  17  to  19  mm.  The 
animals  are  semi-transparent,  light  brown  in 
colour  and  smaller  than  S.  dichotomus.  Body 


and  cercopods  of  both  sexes  of  S.  simplex 
echinus  are  relatively  slender.  The  cercopods 
are  bright  red  in  colour  in  all  the  living 
specimens,  whereas  in  preserved  animals  they 
become  white  and  opaque. 

The  first  antennae  of  both  sexes  are  irregu- 
larly segmented.  The  second  antennae  of  the 
male  are  Well  developed  whereas  in  the  female 
they  are  very  small  and  narrow. 

The  length  of  the  2nd  antennae  in  the  male  is 
about  one  half  of  the  entire  body  length.  The 
function  of  this  antenna  is  said  to  be  that  of 
holding  the  female  during  copulation  (Kaestner 
1970).  The  dorsal  row  of  spines  on  the  main 
branch  of  the  finger  is  more  or  less  regular  and 
does  not  run  over  on  to  the  inner  side  of  the 
branch  (fig.  1).  There  is  also  a row  of  short, 
conical  spines  along  the  outer  side  of  the  main 


439 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


Fig.  1.  Second  antenna  of  Mai Q—Streptocephalus 
simplex  echinus 


Abbreviations'.  DRS — Dorsal  row  of  spines  ; MB — Main 
branch  of  finger ; BS — Basal  spine  ; 

VP — Ventral  process  of  thumb ; TN — 
Thumb  notch  ; F — Finger  ; SB — Sickle 
shaped  branch  of  finger. 


Unit  of  Invertebrate  Reproduction, 
Department  of  Zoology, 

University  of  Madras, 

Madras-600  005, 

May  27,  1981. 


branch  of  the  finger.  The  sickle-shaped  branch 
of  the  finger  is  armed  with  short,  closely-set 
spines.  The  thumb  is  long  with  thumb-notch  ; 
its  length  from  thumb-notch  is  about  4/5  of  the 
length  of  the  main  branch  of  the  finger  as 
measured  from  the  dorsal  spine.  The  finger- 
notch  is  not  well  marked. 

Specimens  of  females  collected  during  the 
month  of  September  were  sexually  mature. 
The  slender  ovisac  with  about  95-100  eggs 
extends  up  to  the  5th  abdominal  segment. 
Unlike  S.  dichotomus  a red  pigment  is  absent  in 
the  ventral  side  of  the  ovisac.  The  eggs  are 
brown  in  colour  with  hard  shells,  measuring 
about  0.2  mm  in  diameter.  An  interesting 
feature  is  that  the  distribution  of  this  species  is 
mainly  in  ponds  near  Vedanthangal  bird 
sanctuary.  This  may  suggest  that  the  birds 
visiting  these  ponds  may  be  instrumental  for 
their  distribution  (Baker  1926). 

A suggestion  that  the  eggs  of  phyllopods  are 
resistant  to  the  action  of  the  digestive  enzymes 
of  birds  may  be  relevant  in  this  instance  also 
(Proctor  1964,  Moore  & Faust  1972). 

Acknowledgements 

I am  very  grateful  to  Dr.  Denton  Belk, 
San  Antonio,  Texas,  U.S.A.  for  the  identifica- 
tion of  Streptocephalus  simplex  echinus . I am 
also  thankful  to  Dr.  T.  Subramoniam  for  helpful 
suggestions  and  to  the  C.S.I.R.  for  the  award  of 
a fellowship. 


N.  MUNUSWAMY 


440 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


References 


Baird,  W.  (1860)  : Description  of  two  new  species 
of  Entomostracous  Crustaceans  from  India.  Proc.  Zool. 
Soc.  London.,  28  : 415-446. 

Baker,  E.  C.  Stuart  (1926)  : Fauna  of  British  India 
including  Ceylon  and  Burma.  Vol.  6.  Taylor  and  Francis, 
London. 

Bond,  R.  (1934) : Report  on  phyllopod  Crustacea 
(Anostraca,  Notostraca  and  Conchostraca)  including  a 
revision  of  the  Anostraca  of  the  Indian  Empire.  Mem. 
Conn.  Acad.  10  : Art  V,  29-62. 


Kaestner,  A.  (1970) : Invertebrate  Zoology.  John 
Wiley  & Sons,  New  York,  3 : 1-523. 

Moore,  W.  G.  & Faust,  B.  F.  (1972)  : Crayfish  as  a 
possible  agents  of  dissemination  of  fairy  shrimp  in  the 
temporary  ponds.  Ecology.  53  : 314-316. 

Proctor,  V.  W.  (1964) : Viability  of  Crustacean  eggs 
recovered  from  ducks.  Ecology,  45  : 656-658. 

Sanjeeva  Raj,  P.  J.  (1951)  : The  first  Record  of  the 
genus  Branchinella  Sayce  in  India  and  a New  variety 
of  Branchinella  kugenumaensis.  Curr.  Sci.  20 : 334. 


30.  INSTAR  DURATION,  INSTAR  NUMBER,  EGG  PRODUCTION  AND 
LONGEVITY  IN  CERIODAPHNIA  CORNUTA  SARS  AT  TWO 

TEMPERATURE  RANGES 


Introduction 

Ciadocera  rich  in  protein,  constitute  an 
important  natural  fish  food  entering  into  the 
diets  of  carps,  particularly  in  their  earlier  stages. 
The  importance  of  Ciadocera  as  fish  food  has 
been  emphasised  by  Forbes  (1883)  and  other 
investigators.  In  India,  Michael  (1962)  and 
Murugan  (1975)  have  studied  the  life-cycle  and 
biology  of  several  species  of  cladocerans 
including  Ceriodaphnia  cornuta , a commonly 
available  species  in  fresh  Water  ponds.  Kanau- 
jia  (1979)  studied  the  culture  possibilities  of 
Ceriodaphnia  cornuta.  The  present  study  was 
made  to  find  out  the  probable  effect  of  tempera- 
ture on  longevity,  instar  duration,  instar 
number  and  egg  production  in  Ceriodaphnia 
cornuta  under  laboratory  conditions.  The 
results  obtained  are  presented  here. 

Material  and  Methods 

Experiments  were  conducted  in  two  different 
seasons  namely  (1)  September-October  when 
water  temperature  ranged  between  28°-31°C 
and  (2)  November-January  when  water  tempera- 


ture fluctuated  between  16°-25°C.  Newly 
released  young  ones  collected  from  a 100  ml 
beaker  (where  the  egg  bearing  mothers  were 
reared)  were  inoculated  in  15  cavity  blocks  (50 
ml  capacity  each)  filled  with  pond  water  filtered 
through  Filter  which  had  420M  filtering  capa- 
city. Water  in  the  cavity  blocks  was  changed 
every  24  hrs.  3-4  drops  of  fresh  cowdung  solu- 
tion were  added  in  each  cavity  block  as  addi- 
tional food  for  the  animalcules. 

During  the  period  November-January,  to 
study  the  effect  of  food  on  their  life-cycle,  one 
set  of  specimens  was  reared  only  in  filtered 
pond  water,  while  the  other  set  was  reared 
along  with  3-4  drops  of  cowdung  solution. 
The  duration  of  each  instar,  number  of  eggs  per 
brood  and  water  temperature  were  recorded. 
The  data  in  Tables  1 and  2 present  the  average 
values  for  15  specimens. 

Results 

Instar  duration,  average  number  of  eggs  per 
brood,  total  number  of  eggs  produced  and  life 
span  at  low  temperatures  (16°-25°C)  were 


441 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fb/.  79 


found  to  be  more  than  at  high  temperatures 
(28°-31°C).  However,  number  of  instars  at 
low  temperature  was  lower  than  that  at  higher 
temperature  (vide  Tables  1 and  2). 

Each  female  was  found  to  release  eggs  inside 
brood  sac  just  after  the  2nd  preadult  instar  and 
continued  to  shed  eggs  after  each  adult  instar. 
At  28°-31°C  the  penultimate  instar  shed  no 
eggs  : however,  at  16°-25°C  last  2-3  instars 
were  with  no  eggs,  although  some  of  the  middle 
instars  produced  eggs  (Table  2). 

The  relationship  between  the  two  variables 
could  be  expressed  by  the  formulae  ; log  no.  of 
eggs — 0.2786  log  instar  number  + 0.7223  (for 

Table  1 


of  total  instars  and  total  life  span  were  found 
to  be  lower  than  that  in  pond  water  (Table  1). 

Discussion 

The  present  study  indicates  that  the  instar 
duration,  number  of  instars,  egg  production 
and  longevity  of  Ceriodaphnia  cornuta  exhibit 
direct  relationship  with  temperature. 

A 27.55  hours  instar  duration  at  28°-31°C, 
increased  to  58.64  hours  at  16°-25°C,  indicated 
the  influence  of  Water  temperature  on  instar 
duration.  This  was  found  almost  similar  to  the 
observations  of  Hall  (1962)  on  Daphnia  galeata 
mendotae.  Earlier  observations  by  Murugan 
(1975)  at  28°-30°C  found  to  be  relevant  to 


Egg  Production,  Instar  duration.  Number  of  Instar  and  Life  Span  at  two  different 
Range  of  Water  Temperature  and  also  in  two  different  media 


Pond  water  with 
3-4  drops  cow- 
dung  solution 
16-25°  C 

Filtered  pond 
water  only 
16-25°  C 

Pond  water  with 
3-4  drops  of 
cowdung  solution 
28-31°  C 

Number  of  preadult  instar 

2 

2 

2 

Adult  instar  with  eggs 

17 

17 

24 

Sterile  instar 

3-4 

2-3 

1 

Average  instar  duration 

53.75  hrs. 

58.64  hrs. 

27.55  hrs. 

Range  of  instar  duration 

31-71  hrs. 

30-82  hrs. 

20-34  hrs. 

Duration  for  sterile  period 

195.60  hrs. 

180.00  hrs. 

30.00  hrs. 

Cumulative  duration  of  total  instars  (hrs.) 

1109.40 

1162.90 

746.00 

Average  no.  of  egg  per  brood 

10.1 

8.18 

6.2 

Total  eggs  produced 

172.5 

139.2 

150.9 

Maximum  eggs /brood 

18 

15 

13 

Total  life  span  (days) 

46 

48 

31 

present  observations.  However,  it  is  contra- 
dictory with  the  work  of  Michael  (1962),  where 
the  average  instar  duration  has  been  reported 
as  32  hours  at  28°-31°C.  Variations  in  instar 
duration  may  be  due  to  differences  in  climatic 
conditions,  as  the  experiments  were  conducted 
at  three  latitudes  (West  Bengal : 23°N  ; Cuttack; 

442 


lower  temperature  range)  and  log  no.  of  egg 
0.2606  log  instar  number  + 0.4863  (for  higher 
temperature  range). 

The  rate  of  egg  production  duration  of 
sterile  instar  and  number  of  sterile  instars  were 
higher  in  cowdung  solution  than  those  in  filtered 
pond  water.  However,  cumulative  duration 


( 


Showing  Instar  Duration  and  Eggs  Brood  in  5 Animals  (A-E)  of  C.  cornuta 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


m 

O 

X 

I 

1 

1 

1 

VO 

X 

1 

1 

tN 

1 

1 

I 

1 

1 

VO 

o 

oo 

X 

1 

1 

56 

o 

I 

j 

<N 

m 

Tt- 

i 

1 

i— < 

n 

64 

o 

72 

© 

I 

1 

69 

o 

48 

X 

20 

80 

o 

m 

t"~ 

o 

I 

1 

m 

iO 

00 

67 

o 

on 

T- l 

72 

Tj- 

in 

VO 

o 
1— ( 

48 

X 

79 

o 

85 

00 
T— i 

54 

00 

52 

1— 1 

76 

o 

m 

in 

m 

r*H 

56 

r- 

i-H 

58 

VO 

58 

r-~ 

48 

<N 

T— ( 

72 

i-H 

64 

00 

VO 

T— H 

54 

in 

m 

00 

72 

fN 

1— I 

48 

o 

64 

in 

in 

48 

o 

ito 

43 

Tf" 

52 

m 

48 

o 

56 

o 
1— 1 

Tl- 

lH 

48 

m 

43 

m 

48 

o 

50 

ON 

48 

ON 

u 

tt> 

rO 

58 

o 

49 

«n 

00 

VO 

o 

62 

o 

49 

•n 

1 

3 

<N 

r-H 

68 

VO 

1—1 

62 

00 

64 

m 

56 

<N 

rH 

63 

o 

z 

$ 

iH 

«n 

<N 

r— ( 

62 

14 

09 

Tf 

62 

oo 

63 

1—1 

49 

48 

m 

oo 

Tf 

Tf 

o 

m 

m 

a 

O 

i— 1 

Tt- 

y-4 

VO 

r-H 

VO 

i— i 

ON 

44 

ON 

48 

O 

t— i 

48 

ON 

09 

10 

48 

o 

00 

36 

o 

34 

36 

i— 1 

1-H 

38 

© 

48 

r- 

r- 

43 

ON 

43 

© 

f—H 

12 

37 

ON 

40 

vo 

vo 

34 

VO 

37 

00 

37 

r-H 

r-H 

37 

Tf 

39 

i> 

m 

30 

r- 

30 

00 

30 

ON 

48 

00 

53 

r- 

Ti- 

44 

00 

45 

m 

44 

00 

48 

VO 

46 

vo 

ro 

48 

m 

48 

m 

48 

m 

48 

n 

48 

«n 

<N 

42 

1 

42 

1 

42 

l 

42 

1 

42 

1 

..  30 

1 

o 

m 

1 

..  30 

l 

..  30 

1 

..  30 

I 

H 

e 

« 

.2 

g 

T3 

O 

O 

to 

£> 

G 

O 

-*-» 

-d 

o 

o 

t-l 

pq 

G 

O 

d 

5-1 

-d 

o 

o 

s 

G 

0 

1 

-d 

o 

o 

5-* 

pq 

G 

.2 

d 

to 

-d 

o 

o 

s 

to 

3 

-d 

u 

<D 

CU 

£ 

-d 

to 

<L> 

a 

3 

-d 

5-i 

a 

3 

-d 

5-1 

<3 

a 

3 

-d 

to 

to 

a 

5-1 

d 

4-> 

CO 

CO 

00 

00 

w 

d 

to 

G 

i— i 

co 

00 

oo 

W 

d 

CO 

G 

co 

00 

00 

w 

d 

1o 

s 

co 

00 

00 

H 

d 

co 

G 

i— i 

(/> 

00 

00 

W 

< 

m 

u 

Q 

w 

443 


Sterile  instar  ; x=  Death  of  the  specimen  ; — = No  eggs. 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Ko/.  79 


20°N  and  Madurai:  9°N)  or  due  to  genetic 
differences  (Banta  & Wood  1939). 

27  instars  were  recorded  at  high  temperature 
which  Was  found  to  decrease  to  22  at  low 
temperature,  which  indicated  that  the  number 
of  broods  could  be  reduced  at  lower  tempera- 
ture. However,  the  observations  made  here 
are  found  to  be  different  from  those  of  Michael 
(1962)  and  Murugan  (1975)  who  have  reported 
9 and  20  instars  respectively  in  the  same  species 
at  same  Water  temperature . An  average  number 
of  10.1  eggs  per  clutch  and  a total  of  172.5  eggs 
produced  during  a life  span  at  16°-25°C  was 
comparatively  more  than  that  at  28°-31°C  with 
6.2  eggs  per  brood  and  a total  of  150.0  eggs. 
The  average  number  of  eggs  per  brood  at  28°- 
30°G  was  found  almost  similar  with  the  study 
of  Murugan  (1975)  at  higher  temperature  range 
and  slightly  different  from  Michael  (1962).  The 
variations  in  egg  production  are  due  to 
fluctuation  in  amount  of  food,  latitude  or  genetic 
differences  as  reported  by  Dunham  (1938), 
Anderson  and  Jenkins  (1942)  and  Banta  and 
Wood  (1939).  Temperature  and  food  availa- 
bility are  the  main  factors  for  increasing  egg 
production  as  also  reported  by  MacArthur  and 
Baillie  (1929)  in  Daphnia  magna , Hall  (1962)  in 
Daphnia  galeata  mendotae  and  Murugan  (1975) 
in  C.  cornuta.  Increase  of  instar  duration  at 
low  water  temperature  could  be  one  of  the 
factors  for  producing  more  eggs  per  brood 
where  the  females  get  more  time  to  produce 
and  accumulate  yolk  and  reproductive  cells 
in  the  ovary  with  the  required  quantity  of  food. 

At  16°-25°C,  Ceriodaphnia  cornuta  survived 
for  46  days  whereas  at  28°-31°C  it  survived  only 
for  31  days,  which  indicated  that  the  animal 
survived  for  a longer  period  at  low  temperature. 
Such  a phenomena  was  stated  by  MacArthur 
and  Baillie  (1929)  in  his  study  of  Daphnia  magna , 
where  the  animal  lived  for  an  average  of  26, 
42  and  108  days  at  temperatures  of  28,  18  and 


8°C  respectively.  It  may  be  noted  that  the 
life  spans  at  higher  temperature  range  at  different 
places  in  the  same  species  are  found  to  be  quite 
different  as  in  Michael’s  (1967)  observation  of 
12  days  and  Murugan’s  (1975)  of  21.21  days. 
Factors  responsible  for  these  variations  have 
been  discussed  earlier. 

Ceriodaphnia  cornuta  passes  through  2 pre- 
adult instars,  24  adult  instars  with  eggs  and  a 
penultimate  instar  in  31  days  of  its  life  span  at 
28°-31°C.  Whereas  at  16°-25°C  it  had  similar 
number  of  preadult  instars,  17  adult  instars  with 
eggs  and  3-4  sterile  instars  in  46  days  of  its  life 
span.  These  sterile  instars  were  also  noticed 
to  occur  more  than  once  in  the  middle  of  the  life- 
cycle  (Table  2).  This  indicated  that  Cerioda- 
phnia cornuta  may  survive  for  longer  period  at 
low  temperature,  though  they  may  not  be  fertile 
for  their  whole  life.  The  trends  of  life-cycles  are 
observed  here  at  higher  temperature  range 
showing  close  similarity  with  the  work  of 
Murugan  (1975)  in  C.  cornuta , and  Murugan 
and  Sivaramakrishnan  (1976)  in  Scapholeberis 
kingi , who  have  also  reported  penultimate  instar 
with  no  egg.  However,  it  is  different  from  the 
observations  of  Michael  (1962)  where  neither 
the  first  and  second  preadult  instars  nor  the  last 
sterile  instars  are  reported.  MacArthur  and 
Baillie  (1929)  studied  Daphnia  magna  and 
reported  for  the  first  time  a sterile  period  during 
the  last  few  instars. 

Cumulative  number  of  eggs  produced  in  two 
different  media  is  plotted  against  each  instar. 
The  number  of  eggs  per  brood  and  total  number 
of  eggs  produced  were  found  to  be  more  in 
specimens  reared  in  cowdung  solution  and  less 
in  filtered  pond  water,  which  indicates  that 
Ceriodaphnia  cornuta  can  produce  more  eggs 
when  given  suitable  food  (Table  1).  It  is  well 
known  that  the  variations  in  egg  production  are 
related  to  the  fluctuation  in  amount  of  food  as 
shown  by  Dunham  (1938),  Anderson  and 


444 


Miscellaneous  notes 


Jenkins  (1942),  and  Hall  (1962).  The  present 
study  also  indicates  that  animals  reared  in  a few 
drops  of  cowdung  solution  produced  more  eggs 
but  lost  their  fertility  and  died  earlier  than  those 
reared  only  in  filtered  pond  water,  showing 
similar  trends  of  life-cycles  as  studied  by  Mac- 
Arthur  and  Baillie  (1929)  who  stated  that  the 
poor  food  supply  increases  longevity  and  in- 
fertility of  the  animals. 


Acknowledgements 

I am  deeply  indebted  to  Dr.  A.  V.  Natarajan, 
Director,  Central  Inland  Fisheries  Research 
Institute,  for  his  kind  encouragement ; to  Shri 
R.  D.  Chakrabarty  and  Shri  M.  A.  V.  Laksh- 
manan  for  their  interest  and  critically  going 
through  the  manuscript  and  making  valuable 
suggestions,  and  also  to  Shri  P.  L.  N.  Rao  for 
the  help  in  statistical  analysis. 


Central  Inland  Fisheries  Research  Sub-Station,  D.  R.  KANAUJIA1 

Cuttack, Orissa, 

August  6,  1980. 


References 


Anderson,  B.  G.  & Jenkins  J.  C.  (1942) : A time 
study  of  events  in  the  life  span  of  Daphnia  magna.  Biol. 
Bull.  83  : 260-272. 

Baisjta,  A.M.  & Wood,  T.  R.  (1939) : General  studies 
in  sexual  reproduction.  In  Banta  1939  : 131-181. 

Dunham,  H.  H.  (1938)  : Abundant  feeding  followed 
by  restricted  feeding  and  longevity  in  Daphnia.  Physiol. 
Zool.  II : 399-407. 

Hall,  D.  J.  (1962) : An  experimental  approach  to  the 
dynamics  of  a natural  population  of  Daphnia  galeata 
mendotae.  Ph.  D.  Thesis,  Univ.  Michigan. 

Kanaujia,  D.  R.  (1979) : Preliminary  observations 
on  culture  and  life  history  of  Ceriodaphnia  cornuta 
Sars  (Cladocera  : Daphnidae).  Symposium  on  Inland 
Aquaculture , p.  109. 


MacArthur,  J.  W.  & Baillie  W.  H.  T.  (1929)  : 
Metabolic  activity  and  duration  of  life.  I.  influence  of 
temperature  on  longevity  in  Daphnia  magna.  Jour.  Exp. 
Zool , 53  : 221-242. 

Michael,  R.  G.  (1962) : Seasonal  events  in  a natural 
population  of  the  Cladoceran  Ceriodaphnia  cornuta 
Sars  and  observations  on  its  life-cycle.  J.  Zool.  Soc. 
India , 14  : 211-218. 

Murugan,  N.  (1975) : Biology  of  Ceriodaphnia  cor- 
nuta (Cladocera  : Daphnidae).  J.  Inland  Fish.  Soc. 
India,  7 : 80-87. 

Murugan,  N.  & Sivaramakrishnan,  K.  G.  (1976) : 
Laboratory  studies  on  the  longevity  instar  duration, 
growth,  reproduction  and  embryonic  development  in 
Scapholeberies  kingi  (Sars,  1903)  (Cladocera  : Daphni- 
dae). Hydrobiologia , 50  : (1)  : 75-80. 


1 Present  address  : Riverine  Fisheries  Research  Unit,  Central  Inland  Fisheries  Research  Institute, 
Buxar-802  101,  Bihar. 


31.  OCCURRENCE  OF  THE  LEECH,  HAEMAD1PSA  MONTANA  MOORE, 
IN  DARJEELING  DISTRICT,  WEST  BENGAL 


The  annelids  collected  during  a general  field 
survey  by  a party  of  the  Zoological  Survey  of 
India  in  the  high  altitudinal  areas  of  Darjeeling 
District,  West  Bengal,  contain  some  specimens 
of  the  leech,  Haemadipsa  montana  Moore,  which 


according  to  extant  literature  is  yet  unreported 
from  this  State.  While  detailed  report  of  these 
material  will  be  dealt  with  elsewhere,  oppor- 
tunity is  taken  here  to  record  the  occurrence  of 
this  leech  in  West  Bengal. 


445 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  19 


Haemadipsa  montana  Moore,  1927 

Material : 6 ex ; Palmajua  (alt.  c.  2250  m), 
Darjeeling  Dist.,  West  Bengal ; 3 July  1974, 
P.  K.  Ghose  coll. 

Measurement : 15-18  mm  long. 

The  original  description  of  the  species  by 
Moore  was  based  on  the  specimens  from 
Kukkal,  Palni  Hills,  Tamil  Nadu.  Hingston 
(cited  by  Harding  and  Moore  1927)  reported  it 
from  Phadma  Chen  (c  2100  m)  and  Gangtok 
(c  1524  m and  2745  m),  Sikkim,  collected  during 
his  Mt.  Everest  expedition  in  1924.  Later, 
Chandra  (1970)  recorded  it  from  Arunachal 
Pradesh  as  well  as  from  Sikkim.  Sykes  (1955) 

High  Altitude  Zoology  Field  Station, 
Zoological  Survey  of  India, 

Solan,  H.  P., 

May  30,  1981. 

R E F E R E 

Chandra,  M.  (1970) : Notes  on  a small  collection  of 
leeches  in  Zoological  Survey  of  India.  Rec.  Zool. 
Surv . of  India,  64  107-110. 


32.  NEW  POLYCHAETE  RECORDS 


reported  the  species  from  central  Nepal  between 
450  m and  4060  m.  The  present  finding,  how- 
ever, constitutes  the  first  record  of  this  species 
from  Darjeeling  District,  West  Bengal. 

Though  the  bold  longitudinal  stripes,  median 
dorsal  black  stripes  and  pale  marginal  stripes, 
characteristic  of  the  species,  are  present,  the 
marking  on  the  body  of  the  specimens  are 
variable.  Variation  in  the  body  marking  have 
been  reported  by  earlier  workers  also. 

The  senior  author  is  deeply  indebted  to 
Dr.  Biswamoy  Biswas,  Emiretus  Scientist,  not 
only  for  his  inclusion  in  this  expedition  but  also 
for  kindly  going  through  this  manuscript. 

RATHIN  MUKHERJEE 
G.  C.  GHOSE 


N C ES 

Harding,  W.  A.  & Moore,  J.  (1927) : Fauna  of 
British  India.  Hirudinea.  Taylor  & Francis,  London, 
Sykes,  W.  R.  (1955) : Leeches.  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Soc.,  53:  148-150. 


FROM  INDIAN  WATERS 


(1 With  twelve  text-figures) 


Introduction 

During  our  study,  about  40  polychaete  species 
Were  collected  from  the  intertidal  area  of  the 
Vasishta  Godavari  estuary  (16°  18'N,  81°  42'  E) 
on  the  east  coast  of  India  (Sriniwasa  Rao  1978). 
A perusal  of  the  literature  has  shown  that  seven 
species  are  new  to  Indian  waters.  Two 
species,  Poecilochaetus  johnsoni  and  Magelona 
cincta  are  reported  earlier  (Srinivasa  Rao  and 
Rama  Sarma  1978,  1979). 


Family  : Phyllodocidae  Williams,  1851 
Sub-family  : Phyllodocinae  Williams,  1851 
Genus  : Mystides  Theel,  1879 

Mystides  southerni  Banse,  1954 
(Figs.  1-2) 

Specimens  brown  in  colour  and  upto  20  mm 
in  length.  Prostomium  broad,  long  and  some- 
what inverted,  heart  shaped.  Antennae  short. 


446 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Two  large  eyes  near  the  hind  end  of  the  prosto- 
mium.  First  segment  with  one  pair  of  tenta- 
cular cirri ; second  with  a pair  of  parapodia 
and  a pair  of  dorsal  cirri  and  third  with  para- 
podia and  leaf  like  ventral  cirri.  Dorsal  and 
ventral  cirri  oval  in  shape.  Setae  serrated. 
A pair  of  oral  cirri  present. 

Family  : Nereidae  Johnston,  1865 

Genus  : Dendronefeides  Southern,  1921 

Dendronereides  zululandica  Day,  1951 
(Figs.  3-5) 

Length  about  10  mm  for  about  30  segments. 
Peristomium  slightly  grooved  between  two 
antennae.  Tentacular  cirri  short  and  appears 
as  if  the  dorsal  and  ventral  cirri  partially  fused 
segments.  Proboscis  with  soft  papillae.  Ante- 
rior feet  with  three  notopodial  lobes  and  a 
dorsal  cirrus  of  the  same  length.  Neuro- 
podium with  a single  broad  setigerous  lobe  ; no 
inferior  lobes ; a very  short  ventral  cirrus. 
Branchiae  from  8th  foot  formed  by  four  pinnate 
divisions  of  the  superior  lobe  of  notopodium. 
Posterior  segments  in  the  specimens  are  broken. 
Neurosetae  are  all  homogomph  spinigers  and 
falcigers  with  straight  blunt  blades. 

Genus  : Nectoneanthes  Imajima,  1972 

Nectoneanthes  ijimai  (Ijuki,  1912) 

(Figs.  6-7) 

Body  40  mm  long.  Prostomium  sub  trian- 
gular with  a truncated  tip  and  two  short  anten- 
nae. Palpi  are  large  conical  and  arise  from  the 
antero-lateral  sides  of  the  prostomium.  Two 
pairs  of  eyes.  The  paragnaths  of  the  proboscis 
with  1=0  ; II=two  short  rows  ; 111=0  ; IV= 
three  cones  in  a group  ; V = 0 ; VI  = six  in  an 
oblique  group  ; VII  and  VIII  = two  continu- 
ous rows.  Parapodia  with  cordate  dorsal  ligule 
with  a pointed  end  directed  laterally.  All  noto- 


podial and  neuropodial  setae  are  homogomph 
spinigers  only. 

Family  : Spionidae  Grube,  1850 
Genus  : Prionospio  Malmgren,  1867 

Prionospio  saldhana  Day,  1961 
(Figs.  8-10) 

Body  thread-like,  upto  25  mm  long  for  nearly 
70  segments.  Prostomium  rounded  and  pro- 
duced back  as  a keel  reaching  setiger  2.  Four 
eyes.  Setiger  one  small  and  fused  to  the  peri- 
stome. Four  pairs  of  gills  on  setiger  2-5.  The 
first  three  pairs  are  smooth  and  the  fourth  pair 
larger  and  pinnate.  Anterior  notopodial  lamel- 
lae pointed  and  face  outwards.  They  reach 
maximum  size  on  setiger  6 to  9 and  then  decrease 
and  become  rounded . From  setiger  20  onwards 
the  lamella  are  united  by  dorsal  ridges.  A 
maximum  of  six  hooded  hooks  in  the  neuro- 
podia from  setiger  15  onwards  and  in  the  noto- 
podia  from  setiger  25-35.  Each  hook  with  a 
single  tooth  above  the  main  fang.  An  anterior 
sabre  setae  in  the  neuropodium  from  setiger  12. 

Family  : Ampharetidae  Malmgren,  1867 
Sub-family  : Melinninae  Chamberlin,  1919 
Genus  : Isolda  Muller,  1858 

Isolda  pulchella  Muller,  1858 
(Fig.  11) 

Body  upto  20  mm  in  length.  Prostomium 
snout-like.  Eye  spots  minute.  Buccal  tenta- 
cles smooth  with  a groove  along  one  side. 
Branchiae  in  two  groups  of  four,  inner  two  pairs 
of  gills  with  two  rows  of  long,  lateral  lamellae. 
Fine  acicular  neurosetae  on  segments  III-V  but 
not  IV.  Stout  notopodial  hooks  on  segment 
IV.  Small  notopodial  capillaries  on  segment 
V and  VI.  A total  of  13  uncigerous  thoracic 
segments  starting  from  segment  VII. 


447 


0-1  MM 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , M 79 


My  stides  souther  ni  \ Fig.  1.  Foot;  Fig.  2.  Seta. 

Dendronereides  zululandica  : Fig.  3.  Branchiferous  foot ; Fig.  4.  Heterogomph  spiniger  ; Fig.  5.  Falciger. 
Nectoneanthes  ijimai:  Fig.  6.  Posterior  foot ; Fig.  7.  Spiniger  from  neuropodium. 

Prionospio  saldhana  : Fig.  8.  Anterior  foot ; Fig.  9.  Sabre  seta  ; Fig.  10.  Hooded  hook. 

Isolda  pulchella  : Fig.  11.  Anterior  view. 


0.2  m 


Miscellaneous  notes 


Distribution  : 

Abundance  and  distribution  of  these  poly- 
chaete  species  in  the  Vasishta  Godavari  estuary 
was  studied  in  detail.  Except  Nectoneanthes 
ijimai  and  Prionospio  saldhana  the  other  three 
are  considered  6 rare  ’ to  this  estuary  as  they 
occurred  in  less  than  10  samples  out  of  270 
samples  collected  during  the  fifteen  month  study 
period  (Srinivasa  Rao  1978). 

Mystides  southerni,  the  small  phyllodocid 
extended  upto  16  km  in  the  estuary,  in  small 
numbers,  generally  confining  to  the  mid-tidal 
mark.  Isolda  pulchella  being  a filter  feeder 
restricted  itself  to  the  confluence  area  where  the 


substratum  is  dominated  by  sand  and  facili- 
tated its  mode  of  feeding.  Very  few  specimens 
of  Dendronereides  zululandica  Were  collected  in 
the  estuary. 

The  distribution  of  Nectoneanthes  ijimai  and 
Prionospio  saldhana  along  the  course  of  the 
estuary  and  tidal  level  is  shown  in  figure  12 
based  on  the  number  of  appearances  they  made 
in  the  15  samples  collected  at  each  tidal  level. 
P.  saldhana  is  absent  in  the  first  2 km  of  the 
estuary  and  failed  to  penetrate  beyond  14  km. 
It  always  avoided  the  high  tidal  levels  where 
temperature  changes  of  high  magnitude  prevail, 
and  restricted  mainly  to  the  low  tidal  mark  and 


DISTANCE  FROM  CONFLUENCE  (IN  Km). 

1 4-5  73  10.1  13.2.5  1535 

NP  NP  NP  NP  NP  NP 

i i r— 1 i — i ( 1 i 1 i 1 


MHWM 

MMWM 

MLWM 


P 


t ■ ■ ■ i I i— i i i 

m O t/T  OtO  CD  o tO  O lO 
CSI  CM  CM  CM  CM  CM 

:R  C E N TAG  I 


> i I i . I i i i » • 
ld  o to  o to  moiftom 
CM  CM  CM  CM  CM  CM 

: s 


N - NECTONEANTHES  IJIMAI 
P : PRIONOSPIO  SALOHANA 


Fig.  12.  Abundance  and  distribution  of  N.  ijimai  and  P.  saldhana  in  the  Vasishta  Godavari  estuary. 


14 


449 


JOURNAL,  BOMBA  Y NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


occasionally  appeared  at  the  mid-tidal  mark 
where  it  is  continuously  bathed  by  the  incoming 
tide.  On  the  other  hand,  N.  ijimai  successfully 
adapted  to  the  high  tidal  mark  conditions. 
Perhaps  the  active  burrowing  nature  of  this 
nereid  may  help  to  go  deeper  during  exposure. 


Acknowledgements 

Thanks  are  due  to  Andhra  University  for 
providing  facilities.  DSR  thanks  the  C.S.I.R., 
New  Delhi  for  a fellowship. 


Department  of  Zoology, 
Andhra  University, 
Waltair  530  003 
September  6,  1980. 


D.  SRINIVASA  RAO 
D.V.  RAMA  SARMA 


References 


Srinivasa  Rao,  D.  (1978) : Systematics  and  1939  (Polychaeta : Trochochaetidae)  in  the  Indian 

ecology  of  intertidal  polychaetous  annelids  from  the  waters.  Indian  J.  mar.  sci.,  7 : 127-128. 

Vasishta  Godavari  estuary.  Ph.  D.  thesis  submitted  Srinivasa  Rao,  D.  and  Rama  Sarma  D.  V.  (1979) : 
to  the  Andhra  University.  Ecology  of  Magelona  cincta  Ehlers,  1908  (Polychaeta  : 

Srinivasa  Rao,  D.  and  Rama  Sarma,  D.  V.  (1978) : Magelonidae)  in  the  Vasishta  Godavari  estuary.  East 
On  the  occurrence  of  Poecilochaetus  johnsoni  Hartman,  Coast  of  India.  Indian  J.  mar.  Sci.,  8 : 182-183. 


33.  EXACUM  WALKERI  GRISEB.  (GENTIANACEAE)— A NEW  RECORD 

FOR  INDIA 


Exacum  walkeri  Griseb.  hitherto  treated  as  en- 
demic to  Sri  Lanka  was  collected  from  Ponmudi, 
Trivandrum  district,  Kerala  in  the  year  1979- 
Another  collection  made  from  the  same  locality 
as  early  as  1933  was  unearthed  in  University 
College  Herbarium,  Trivandrum  (UCT)  *.  These 
collections  of  E.  walkeri  extend  its  distribution 
to  Peninsular  India.  This  rare  species  occurs 
in  moist  regions  particularly  in  the  crevices  of 
rocks  and  road-cuttings  of  the  grassy  slopes. 
It  resembles  E.  zeylanicum  Roxb.  but  can  be 
distinguished  from  it  by  the  flowers  being  mostly 
solitary  and  pale  blue  in  colour,  as  against 
numerous  in  corymbose  cymes  and  brilliant 
blue  in  colour. 

* Abbreviation  ours  since  not  included  in  Index 
Herbariorum  (1964). 


Exacum  walkeri  Griseb.  Gen.  et  Sp.  Gent. 
110.  1838  and  in  DC.  Prodr.  9 : 45.  1845  ; 
Wight  111.  t.  157  b,  f.  1.  1850  ; Clarke  in  Hook, 
f.  FI.  Brit.  India  4 : 96.  1883.  E.  ovale  Griseb. 
Gen.  et  Sp.  Gent.  111.  1838  & in  DC.  Prodr.  9 : 
46.  1845.  E.  zeylanicum  var.  pallidum  Trimen, 
Handb.  FI.  Ceylon  3 : 181.  1895. 

Erect  branched  herbs,  25-35  cm  tall ; stems 
quadrangular.  Leaves  2.  5-4  X 1.5-2  cm,  3- 
nerved,  sessile  or  subsessile,  ovate-lanceolate, 
acute  at  apex,  acute  or  rounded  at  base. 
Flowers  pale  blue,  axillary  and  mostly  solitary 
or  rarely  in  terminal  few  flowered  subcorymbose 
cymes,  5-merous  ; pedicels  up  to  J .5  cm  long  ; 
calyx  lobes  9 mm  long,  winged  at  base,  wings 
rounded  ; corolla  lobes  1.5  x 6 mm,  pale  blue, 


450 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


ovate,  acute  at  apex  ; stamens  up  to  6 mm  long, 
capsules  ovoid. 

Specimens  examined : Ceylon.  C.P.  1 878  (MH); 
si,  Acc.  No.  61396  (MH)  ; s.  /.  Acc.  No.  61397 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Coimbatore, 

November  13,  1980. 


(MH) ; Adam’s  peak,  1-3-1883,  s.l. 
Acc.  No.  61398  (MH).  India.  Kerala.  Trivan- 
drum Dt.  : Ponmudi,  25-5-1979,  M.  Mohanan 
63278  (MH)  Ponmudi,  Feb.  1933  s.l.  3500 
(UCT). 

M.  MOHANAN 
A.  N.  HENRY 
N.  C.  NAIR 


34.  SOME  NEW  COMBINATIONS  UNDER  PRIMULA  L. 


While  some  botanists  including  Pax  and 
Knuth  (Pflanzenreich  IV  (237)  : 172.  1905) 
and  Handel-Mazzetti  (Notes  R.  Bot.  Gard. 
Edinb.  15  : 259.  1927)  treated  Androsace  L.  as 
distinct  genus  many  others  treated  Androsace 
as  a synonj  m of  Primula  L.  Recently  Bentvelzen 
(FI.  Males.  ‘ Ser.  1’,  6(2):  186.  1962)  also 
treated  them  as  congeneric  as  it  is  not  possible  to 
demarcate  them  satisfactorily.  This  taxonomic 
treatment  necessitates  the  following  new  combi- 
nations. 

Primula  croftii  (Watt)  Derganc  var.  scaposa 
(Sant.  & Banerji)  Bennet  comb.  nov. 

Androsace  croftii  var.  scaposa  Sant.  & Banerji, 
Proc.  Nat.  Inst.  Sci.  India  24(3)  : 137.  1958. 

Nepal. 

Primula  globifera  (Duby)  Bennet  comb.  nov. 

Androsace  globifera  Duby  in  DC.  Prodr. 
8 : 48.  1844  ; Hook.f.,  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  3 : 500. 
1882  ; Pax  & Knuth  in  Pflanzenr.  IV  (237)  : 
203.  1905.  (non  Primula  globifera  Griff.,  It  in. 

Notes  148. 1837-8,  nom.  nud.) 

Western  Himalaya. 

Primula  hemisphaerica  (Ludlow)  Bennet  comb, 
nov. 

Androsace  hemisphaerica  Ludlow  in  Bull. 
Brit.  Mus.  (nat.  Hist.)  2 : 76.  1956. 

Bhutan. 


Primula  hookeriana  (Klatt)  Bennet  comb.  nov. 

Androsace  hookeriana  Klatt  in  Linnaea  32  : 
293,  t.  3.  1863  ; Hooker  f.  /.  c.  499  ; Pax  & 
Knuth  l.c.  187. 

Eastern  Himalaya. 

Primula  lanuginosa  (Wall.)  Bennet  comb.  nov. 

Androsace  lanuginosa  Wall,  in  Roxb.  FI.  Ind. 
6 ed.  Carey  ’ 2 : 15.  1824  ; Hooker  f.  l.c.  498  ; 
Pax  & Knuth  l.c.  182. 

Western  Himalaya. 

Primula  lehmamiii  (Duby)  O.Ktze.  var.  tongs- 
pedicel  lata  (Knuth)  Bennet  comb.  nov. 

Androsace  lehmannii  Duby  var.  longipedi- 
cellata  Knuth  in  pflanzenr.  IV  (237) : 202.  1905. 

Nepal. 

Primula  ludlowiana  (Hand.-Maz.)  Bennet 
comb.  nov. 

Androsace  ludlowiana  Hand.-Maz.  in  J, 
Bot.  76  : 283.  1938. 

Bhutan. 

Primula  mucronifolia  (Watt)  Derganc  var. 
uniflora  (Knuth)  Bennet  comb.  nov. 

Androsace  mucronifolia  Watt  var.  uniflora 
Knuth  in  Pflanzenr  IV  (237)  : 188.  1905. 

Western  Himalaya. 


451 


JOURNAL , BOMBA  Y NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vot.  79 


Primula  rhizomatosa  (Hand.-Maz.)  Bennet 
comb.  nov. 

Androsace  rhizomatosa  Hand.-Maz.  in  J.  Bot. 
76  : 281.  1938. 

Bhutan. 

Primula  rhizomatosa  var.  major  (Hand.- 

Maz.)  Bennet  comb.  nov. 

Androsace  rhizomatosa  var.  major  Hand.- 
Maz.  in  J.  Bot.  76  : 281.  1938. 

Bhutan. 

Primula  sarmentosa  (Wall.)  Bennet  comb.  nov. 
Androsace  sarmentosa  Wall,  in  Roxb.  FI.  Ind. 
2 : 14.  1824  ; Hooker  f.,  l.c.  498  ex  parte  ; Pax 
& Knuth  l.c.  183  ; Handel-Mazzetti  in  Notes 
R.  Bot.  Gard.  Edinb.  15  : 278.  1927. 

A.  sarmentosa  var.  watkinsii  Hooker  f.  FI. 
Brit.  Ind.  3 : 498.  1882 ; Pax  & Knuth  l.c.  183 
P.P.  (excl.  Chinese  Plant). 

Himalaya. 

Forest  Research  Institute, 

Dehra  Dun, 

September  30,  1980. 


Primula  sessUiflora  (Turrill)  Bennet  comb.  nov. 

Androsace  sessUiflora  Turrill  in  Kew  Bull. 
1922  : 150.  1922. 

Mount  Everest. 


Primula  dubyii  (Derganc)  Bennet  comb.  nov. 

Androsace  sarmentosa  var.  dubyii  Derganc  in 
Kneucker,  Allg.  bot.  Zeitsch.  10  : 110.  1904. 

A.  sarmentosa  var.  primuloides  (Duby)  Hook, 
f.  in  Curtis,  Bot.  Mag.  t.  6210, 1876  & in  FI.  Brit. 
Ind.  3 : 498.  1882. 

A.  primuloides  Duby  in  DC.  Prodr.  8:  51. 
1844  (non  Moench.  1802  ; nec  D.  Don  1825)  ; 
Pax  & Knuth  l.c.  183. 

A.  dubyii  (Derganc)  Balakrishnan  in  J. 
Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  67  : 62.  1970. 

North-west  Himalaya. 

S.  S.  R.  BENNET 


35.  MONOTROPA  UNIFLORA  LINN.— A NEW  RECORD  FOR  MUSSOORIE 

HILLS 


Recently,  two  comprehensive  books  (Gupta 
1967,  Raizada  & Saxena  1978)  have  appeared  on 
the  flora  of  Mussoorie  which  also  give  details 
of  the  earlier  plant  exploration  work  in  the  area. 
A critical  and  careful  comparison  of  the  plants 
gathered  by  me  from  Mussoorie  hills  with  these 
publications  shows  that  an  interesting  flowering 
plant,  Monotropa  uniflora  Linn,  (family  Mono- 
tropaceae)  has  not  been  recorded  hitherto  from 
this  very  well  explored  locality.  I collected  it 
on  two  different  occasions,  in  September  1969 
and  1977  from  Jabarkhet  and  Jabarkhud  respec- 
tively. These  localities  are  approximately  5 km 


from  the  heart  of  the  town.  The  species  was 
found  to  be  fairly  common  in  a forest  below 
Jabarkhet  Toll. 

The  forest  is  dominated  by  broad-leaved,  scle- 
rophyllous,  species  and  is  free  from  biotic  inter- 
ference. Common  woody  species  which  have 
been  observed  in  it  are  Cornus  macrophylld  Wall. , 
Dendroberithamia  capitata  Hutch.,  Ilex  dipyrena 
Wall.,  Lyonia  ovalifolia  Drude,  Quercus  incana 
Roxb.,  Rhododendron  arboreum  Sm.  and  Vibur- 
num mullaha  D.  Don.  Shrubby  growth  is  of 
Arundinaria  falcata  Nees,  Daphne  papyracea 


452 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Steud.,  Desmodium  elegans  DC.,  Lonicera  quin- 
quelocularis  Hardw.  and  Myrsine  africana  Linn. 
Besides,  there  is  a very  dense  growth  of  herba- 
ceous plants  including  ferns.  The  vegetation 
is  so  luxuriant  and  thick  that  it  makes  the  forest 
at  certain  places  almost  impenetrable  during 
the  rainy  season. 

There  is  a distinct  layer  of  humus  in  the  soil 
overlayed  by  undecomposed  leaf  litter.  Mono- 
tropa  Was  fairly  common  in  the  decaying  vegeta- 
ble matter  on  the  forest  floor.  The  moisture 
absorbing  humus  soil  is  very  slippery  and 
coupled  with  very  thick  growth  of  plants  and 
the  absence  of  any  regular  path  make  botanizing 
hazardous.  It  appears  that  probably  because 
of  these  difficulties,  this  forest  has  not  been 
explored  botanically  at  least  during  monsoon 
months  and  hence  the  plant  has  escaped  the 
attention  of  earlier  botanists. 

A brief  description  of  the  plant  follows  : 
A succulent,  glabrous,  waxy  white,  non- 


chlorophyllous,  unbranched  herb,  10-25  cm 
tall . Stem  erect , covered  with  alternate , broadly 
lanceolate,  appressed  scales  2 xO.7  cm  or  under. 
Normal  leaves  absent.  Flowers  2-3  x 1.5-2. 5 cm, 
Waxy  white,  solitary,  terminal,  nodding.  Sepals 
4,  scale-like.  Petals  5,  obovate-oblong.  Stamens 
10,  filaments  pilose  below.  Ovary  globose,  5- 
celled ; ovules  numerous  on  axile  placentas. 
Capsule  erect,  globose,  loculicidal,  5-valved. 

The  plant  is  often  hidden  among  leaf  litter 
and  its  location  requires  patience  and  concen- 
tration. It  turns  black  on  drying. 

Specimens  examined : M.  Sharma  545,  5384 
(PUN). 

Flowers  and  Fruits  : August-October. 

I am  grateful  to  Prof.  S.  S.  Bir  for  guidance 
and  help  and  to  K.  M.  Vaid  for  providing 
herbarium  and  library  facilities  at  FRI,  Dehra 
Dun. 


Department  of  Botany,  M.  SHARMA 

Punjabi  University, 

Patiala-147  002, 

September  26,  1980. 

References 

Gupta,  R.  K.  (1967) : Seasonal  flowers  of  the  Indian  Raizada,  M.  B.  & Saxena,  H,  O.  (1978) : Flora  of 
Su  nmer  resorts-Mussoorie  Hills.  New  Delhi.  Mussoorie.  Dehra  Dun. 


36.  A NOTE  ON  THE  NOMENCLATURE  OF  TWO  PENINSULAR  INDIAN 

PLANTS 


Oldenlandia  wightii  Hook.  f.  (Rubiaceae) 
and  Reidia  ovalifolia  Wt.  (Euphorbiaceae)  are 
two  endemic  species  of  southern  Peninsular 
India.  The  correct  nomenclature  of  these  two 
taxa  is  given  below. 

1.  Hedyotis  wightii  (Hook.f.)  K.  K.  N,  Nair 
comb,  nov , 


Oldenlandia  wightii  Hook  f.  FI.  Brit.  Ind. 

3 : 66.  1880  ; Gamble,  FI.  Presid. 
Madras  2 : 601  (424).  1921. 

Type  : Western  Peninsula,  Robert  Wight  Kew 
Dist.no.  1511  ; (CAL). 

Distribution  : South-West  India. 


453 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


Hooker  (loc.  cit.)  erected  the  species  Olden - 
landia  wightii  based  on  Robert  Wight’s  speci- 
mens from  Peninsular  India,  characterised  by 
scabrid  stems  with  woody  base  and  triangular- 
lanceate  calyx-lobes  which  equals  the  capsules 
in  their  length.  Gamble  (loc.cit.)  followed 
Hooker  in  considering  this  plant  as  a distinct 
species,  but  noted  ‘a  stiff  herb  much  resembling 
the  last,  perhaps  not  really  distinct  [Here 
6 the  last  ’ is  meant  for  Hedyotis  umbellata 
(Linn.)  Lamk.].  Gamble’s  doubt  on  the  taxono- 
mic status  of  this  plant  Was  verified  during  the 
present  study  and  it  was  found  to  be  quite 
distinct  from  Hedyotis  umbellata  in  its  scabrid 
stem  and  branches  woody  towards  base,  linear, 
lanceate,  revolute  leaves  up  to  2.5  x 0.3  cm, 
and  hemispherical,  scabrid,  loculicidal  capsules 
almost  covered  by  the  calyx-lobes. 

Recent  morphological  studies  of  Fosberg 
(Va.  J.  Sci.  2:  106-111.  1941;  Castania  19: 
25-37.  1954),  Shinners  (Field  & Lab.  17. 
166-169.  1949)  and  Lewis  (South  West.  Nat. 
3 : 204-207.  1959 ; Rhodora  63  : 216-223. 
1961)  had  led  to  the  merging  of  Hedyotis  Linn., 
Oldenlandia  Linn.,  Houstania  Linn.,  Kohantia 
Cham,  and  Excellange  Bremek.  under  Hedyotis. 
Subsequently,  Henry  and  Subramanyam  (Proc. 
Ind.  Acad.  Sci.  76  (1)  Sect.  B.  : 28.  1972)  and 
Rao  and  Hemadri  (Ind.  Forest.  99  : 372-379. 
1973)  had  transferred  most  of  the  Indian  species 
of  Oldenlandia  under  Hedyotis.  Oldenlandia 
wightii , so  far  treated  under  the  genus  Olden- 
landia is  transferred  here  under  Hedyotis. 

2.  Eriococcus  ovalifolia  (Wt.)  K.K.N.  Nair 

comb.  nov. 

Reidia  ovalifolia  Wt.  Ic.  PI.  Ind.  Orient.!. 

1904.  fig.  3. 1852. 

Phyllanthus  longiflorus  Heyne  (Wall.  Cat.  no. 

7905.  1847  nom.  nud.) 


ex  Hook.  f.  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  5 : 302. 
1887. 

Reidia  longiflora  (Heyne  ex  Hook.f.)  Gamble, 
FI.  Presid.  Madras  2:  1293 

(905).  1925. 

Type  : Wight  leone  1904.  fig.  31 : (Iconotype) 
(CAL). 

Distribution  : Southern  Peninsular  India. 

Hooker  (loc.  cit.)  doubted  the  concept  of 
Mueller  (Linnaea  32  : 49.  1865)  who  considered 
Reidia  ovalifolia  Wt.  and  R.  longiflorus  Heyne 
ex  Hook.  f.  as  conspecific,  on  the  ground  that 
the  leaves  in  R.  ovalifolia  is  comparatively 
narrow  and  smaller  than  that  of  R.  longiflorus. 
A critical  study  of  a number  of  specimens  at 
Central  National  Herbarium,  Botanical  Survey 
of  India  (CAL)  led  the  author  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  two  taxa  are  one  and  the  same  as  was 
accepted  by  Mueller  (loc.  cit.)  and  Gamble 
(loc.  cit.). 

The  concept  of  considering  Eriococcus  Hassk. 
(. Reidia  Wt.)  as  a distinct  genus  from  Phyllan- 
thus Linn,  is  accepted  here.  Eventhough  Henry 
and  Subramanyam  (Taxon  16  : 250-251.  1967) 
had  proposed  to  conserve  the  commonly  used 
generic  name  Reidia  Wt.  (1852)  against 
Eriococcus  Hassk.  (1843)  which  has  priority 
over  Reidia , the  proposal  was  not  accepted  by 
the  nomenclature  committee.  Hence  this  new 
combination  is  proposed  to  make  the  nomen- 
clature of  the  species  up-to-date. 

Acknowledgement 

I am  thankful  to  Dr.  M.  P.  Nayar,  Deputy 
Director,  Central  National  Herbarium,  Bota- 
nical Survey  of  India,  Howrah  for  all 
facilities. 


Botanical  Survey  of  India,  K.  K.  N.  NAIR1 

Calcutta-700  016, 

September  25,  1980. 

1 Present  address  : Department  of  Botany,  University  of  Kerala,  Kariavattorp  Campus, 
Trivandrum-695  581,  Kerala. 


454 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


37.  NEW  DISTRIBUTIONAL  RECORDS  OF  PLANTS  FOR  NORTH-EAST  INDIA 

( With  two  text-figures) 


During  the  course  of  studies  on  the  flora  of 
Meghalaya,  we  could  collect  2 interesting  plant 
species,  which  were  identified  as  Cardamine 
impatiens  Linn.,  and  Phyllanthus  longiflorus 
Heyne  ex  Hk.  f.,  of  Brassicaceae  and  Eupbor- 
biaceae  respectively.  Reference  to  literature 
(Hooker  1872-97,  Kanjilal  et  al.  1934-40) 
revealed  that  these  species  are  new  records  for 
North-East  India,  and  are  therefore  described 
here. 

Cardamine  impatiens  Linn,  is  a highly  variable 
species  hitherto  recorded  from  Sikkim  to 
Kashmir  mostly  in  the  Temperate  Himalayan 
region  (1650  to  4000  m).  There  are  no  speci- 
mens of  this  species  in  the  Assam  herbarium 
and  the  present  collection  from  Meghalaya 
therefore,  forms  the  first  report  of  this  plant 
from  North-East  India.  This  species  very 
closely  resembles  Cardamine  hirsuta  Linn., 
but  can  be  easily  separated  as  follows  : 

Petiole  auricled  at  base  ; petals  less  than 


twice  the  length  of  the  sepals impatiens 

Petiole  not  auricled  at  base  ; petals 
twice  the  length  of  sepals hirsuta 


Detailed  description  and  illustrations  of  this 
plant  are  given  to  facilitate  its  easy  identifi- 
cation. 

Cardamine  impatiens  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  655.  1753  ; 
Hk.  f.  FI.  Brit.  India  1 ; 138.  1872  ; Collet,  FI. 


Simlensis  33.  1902  ; Babu,  Herb.  FI.  Dehra 
Dun  56.  1977. 

FIs.  and  Frts  : February  — April. 

Distribution : Temperate  Himalayas  from 
Sikkim  to  Kashmir  ; temperate  Europe  and  Asia. 
In  Meghalaya  noted  only  in  Shillong  on  moist 
and  shaded  localities,  rather  very  rare. 

Herbarium  specimens  examined : Meghalaya: 
Khasi  Hills  — Shillong  K.  Haridasan  4600 
(NEHU). 

Phyllanthus  longiflorus  Heyne  ex  Hk.  f.  has 
been  so  far  recorded  from  Deccan  peninsular 
region  (FI.  Brit.  India  5 : 302),  and  closely 
resembles  P.  debilis  Herb.,  particularly  in 
vegetative  phase.  But  the  present  species  can  be 
easily  distinguished  from  debilis  as  follows  : 

Pedicels  much  longer  than  leaves  ; sepals 

in  male  4 and  in  female  6 longiflorus 

Pedicels  much  shorter  than  the  leaves  ; 
sepals  5-6  in  both  sexes  debilis 

Further,  the  habitat  of  these  two  species  are 
quite  distinct;  the  former  occupying  (the  dry, 
gravelly,  open  areas.  The  specimens  from 
Meghalaya  are  clearly  P.  longiflorus. 

Phyllanthus  longiflorus  Heyne  ex  Wall. 
Cat.  No.  7905)  Hk.  f.  FI.  Brit.  India  5 : 302. 
1887. — Reidia  longiflora  (Heyne)  Gamb. 
FI.  Madras  905.  1925. 


455 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


Fig.  1.  Cardamine  impatiens  Linn. 

A.  & B.  Portions  of  plant,  C.  Auricled  petiole  base,  D.  Flower,  E,  Emit, 

456 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


457 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


FIs.  and  Frts.  : Jime-December. 

Distribution : South  India ; in  Meghalaya 
recorded  only  from  Balphakram  Sanctuary. 


Herbarium  specimens  examined : Meghalaya  : 
Garo  Hills  — Balphakram  Sanctuary  Y.  Kumar 
5402  ; K.  Haridasan  4156  (NEHU). 


Department  of  Botany, 
North-Eastern  Hill  University. 
Shillong-793  014, 

September  2,  1980. 


R.  R.  RAO 
K.  HARIDASAN 
Y.  KUMAR 


References 


Hooker,  J.  D.  (1872-97) : Flora  of  British  India, 
7 vols.  London. 


Kanjilal,  U.  N.,  Kanjilal,  P.  C.,  De,  R.  N.,  Das, 
A.  and  Bor,  N.  L.  (1934-40)  : Flora  of  Assam,  5 vols. 
Shillong. 


38.  FLORAL  SPIRALS  IN  AMORFHOPHALLUS  SPP.  NOT  CONFORMING 
WITH  FIBONACCI  NUMBERS 

( With  a plate) 


The  Fibonacci  numerical  sequence  beginning 
with  0, 1, 1, 2,  3,  5,  8, 13, 21,  34  etc.  has  recently 
assumed  great  importance.  Each  term  in  the 
sequence  is  the  sum  of  the  previous  two  terms. 
There  are  infinite  mathematical  properties  for 
these  simple-looking  sequence  which  are  being 
investigated  by  hundreds  of  Mathematicians 
round  the  world  who  have  formed  themselves 
into  a society  called  Fibonacci  Association 
with  its  headquarters  in  California,  and  who 
publish  most  of  their  findings  in  their  own 
journal  called  Fibonacci  Quarterly. 

Fibonacci  sequence  has  application  in  many 
fields  apart  from  mathematics,  such  as,  archi- 
tecture, astronomy,  art,  poetry,  botany,  zoology, 
music,  engineering  and  anthropology.  Davis 
and  Bose  (1971)  published  data  from  several 
species  of  aroids.  The  spiral  numbers  in  the 
spadix  of  some  of  these  species  matched  exactly 
with  some  of  the  Fibonacci  numbers,  while 
in  other  species,  the  spirals  numbers  differ  from 
Fibonacci  numbers  as  per  summary  of  data 
given  in  Table  1, 


From  data  in  Table  1 it  is  clear,  that  out  of 
the  73  spadices  examined  from  6 species  of 
Anthurium , 72  bore  spirals  whose  numbers 
matched  with  Fibonacci  numbers.  Dijfenbachia 
dagneus  also  comes  under  this  category.  But 
in  the  rest  of  the  species,  some  or  all  of  the 
spadices  do  not  conform  to  displaying  Fibo- 
nacci spirals.  It  may  be  mentioned,  that  the 
clockwise  and  counter-clockwise  moving  spirals 
within  a spadix  in  any  Anthurium  sp.  synchro- 
nise with  two  consecutive  Fibonacci  numbers. 
But  in  five  other  species,  many  cf  the  spadices 
bear  equal  numbers  of  spirals  (5  : 5,  8 : 8,  or  13  : 
13)  running  clockwise  as  well  as  counter-clock- 
wise. 

The  observation  reported  below  relate  to 
four  species  of  Amorphophallus  grown  at  the 
Indonesia  Botanic  Garden,  Bogor,  Indonesia. 
The  spadix  of  none  of  the  species  examined 
displayed  spirals  in  accordance  with  Fibonacci 
numbers.  The  most  striking  and  spectacular 
of  the  three  species  is  A.  titanum  whose  gigantic 
inflorescence  appears  only  once  in  three 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate 

Widjaja : Amorphophallus  spp. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Table  1 


Spadices  of  aroids  displaying  floral  spirals  that  match  with  or  differ  from  Fibonacci 

Numbers 


Species 

No.  spadices  show- 
ing Fibonacci  spirals 

Spirals  combi- 
nation 

Spadices  not  match- 
ing Fibonacci  Nos. 

Anthurium  macrolobium 

20 

5 & 8 

Nil 

A.  clarionervum 

8 

8 & 13 

Nil 

A.  ornatum 

12 

8 & 13 

Nil 

A.  polyrrhizum 

9 

8 & 13 

Nil 

A.  andraeanum  rubrum  . 

10 

8 & 13 

Nil 

A.  crassinervum 

14 

13  & 21 

1 

Schizocasia  poteia 

18 

8 & 13 

1 

Spathyphyllum  sp. 

13 

5 & 8 

3 

Diffenbachia  dagneus 

9 

3 & 5 

D.  picta 

. . 

17 

D.  picta  viridis 

15 

8 & 8 

3 

Aglaonema  sp. 

1 

5 & 8 

. • 

9 

5 & 5 

3 

Syngonium  sp. 

5 

5 & 5 

15 

Alocasia  indica  mettalica 

10 

Alocasia  sp. 

1 

5 & 5 

17 

Philodendron  sp. 

7 

13  & 13 

8 

Caladium  sp. 

. . 

• • 

13 

Total 

114+37 

91 

years.  The  most  recent  flowering  was  in 
October  1979  when  the  height  of  the  spadix 
was  recorded  as  1.37  metre  (Plate).  The 
width  of  the  bloomed  flower  was  0.825  m.  The 
inflorescence  took  about  one  month  to  bloom 
from  the  time  of  its  appearance  from  the  ground 
(18  September  to  18  October  1979).  Five  days 
after  blooming,  the  inflorescence  started  decay- 
ing when  the  spathe  could  be  peeled  off  and  the 
number  of  spirals  the  469  female  flowers  dis- 


played recorded.  The  weight  of  the  tuber  was 
recorded  on  November  6,  1979  as  22  kg.  Its 
height  was  25  cm  and  maximum  diameter  47  cm. 
The  second  species  examined  was  A.  blumei 
(Plate)  which  is  much  smaller  compared  to  A. 
titanum.  The  third  species  was  A.  campanulatus , 
the  common  edible  elephant-foot  yam.  The 
fourth  species  examined  was  A.  variabilis,  which 
is  very  common  and  cosmopolitan.  Data 
relating  to  these  are  shown  in  Table  2, 


459 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , F<?/.  79 


Table  2 

Amorphophallus  spp.  Numbers  of  floral  spirals  in  each 


Species 

Number  of  spirals 

Number  of  female 
flowers  per  spadix 

spadices 

Left 

Right 

A.  titanum 

1 

18 

28 

469 

A.  blumei 

1 

18 

13 

142 

2 

10 

14 

119 

3 

11 

8 

89 

4 

16 

11 

293 

5 

10 

13 

140 

A.  campanulatus 

1 

18 

11 

413 

2 

16 

24 

. . 

3 

18 

17 

. . 

4 

23 

25 

352 

A.  variabilis 

1 

7 

8 

79 

2 

8 

11 

109 

3 

10 

9 

86 

4 

8 

7 

63 

5 

8 

6 

44 

Thus,  the  four  species  of  Amorphophallus 
behave  differently  from  the  Anthurium  species 
so  far  as  the  affinity  of  their  floral  spirals  with 
Fibonacci  numbers  is  concerned.  The  full 
significance  of  this  problem  is  not  known. 
Since  the  situations  where  Fibonacci  system 
gets  involved  are  regarded  as  more  efficient  or 
more  evolved  compared  to  similar  situations 
where  Fibonacci  system  is  inoperable,  those 
aroid  species  whose  spadices  do  not  display 
Fibonacci  spirals  in  the  arrangement  of  flowers 
have  to  be  regarded  as  less  efficient.  Professor 
R.  F.  Williams  of  Division  of  Plant  Industry, 
CSIRO,  Canberra  City,  Australia  who  made 

National  Biological  Institute, 

Bogor,  Indonesia, 

September  25,  1980. 


valuable  contributions  in  this  field  in  1975  is 
currently  working  on  geometrical  models  to 
explain  how  departures  from  the  Fibonacci 
systems  occur  in  situations  which  are  predo- 
minately influenced  by  Fibonacci  basis  or 
growth. 

I thank  Dr.  S.  Sastrapradja,  Director, 
National  Biological  Institute,  Bogor,  for  the 
encouragement  and  facilities  received.  Profes- 
sor T.  A Davis,  UNDP/FAO  Expert,  Indo- 
nesia drew  my  attention  to  an  association 
between  the  floral  spirals  in  aroids  and  Fibo- 
nacci Numbers  and  assisted  in  preparing  this 
paper. 

ELIZABETH  A.  WIDJAJA 


R eferenceS 

Davis,  T.  A.  & Bose,  T.  K.  (1971) : Fibonacci  system  Williams,  R.  F.  (1975) : The  short  apex  and  leaf 
in  aroids.  The  Fibonacci  Quart.,  9 : 253-263.  growth : A study  in  quantitative  biology.  Cambridge 

University  Press. 


460 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


39.  ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  SALACIA  KH ASIAN  A IN  ARUNACHAL 

PRADESH 


During  a botanical  exploration  in  the  Tirap 
Forest  Division  of  Arunachal  Pradesh,  we 
collected  a specimen  of  a rare  scandent  shrub 
which  was  conspicuous  on  account  of  its  orange, 
warty  fruits  about  the  size  of  a small  guava. 
After  a critical  study  at  the  Forest  Research 
Institute  Herbarium,  Dehra  Dun,  the  specimen 
was  identified  as  Salacia  khasiana  (Hippo- 
crateaceae).  It  was  earlier  collected  by  Shri 
Ram  Sharma  from  Umteswar  Forest  in  Khasi 
Hills,  Meghalaya  and  described  by  C.  S.  Purka- 

Systematic  Botany  Branch, 

Forest  Research  Institute, 

Dbhra  Dun-248  006. 

September  25,  1980. 


yastha  (Ind.  For.  64  : 277.  1938).  The  present 
report  of  its  occurrence  in  Arunachal  Pradesh 
is  therefore,  of  phytogeographical  interest. 

Specimen  examined : 

3rd  November  1976,  Nakfun  range,  Tirap 
Forest  Division  (Arunachal  Pradesh)  K.  M.  Vaid 
& H.  B.  Naithani  ser  II  No.  175. 

Habitat : On  the  bank  of  a shaded  nullah. 

K.  M.  VAID 
H.  B.  NAITHANI 


40.  REDISCOVERY  OF  METEOROMYRTUS  WYNAADENSIS  (BEDD.) 
GAMBLE  (MYRTACEAE)  MORE  THAN  A CENTURY  AFTER 
ITS  EARLIER  COLLECTION 


The  genus  Meteoromyrtus  Gamble  (Myrta- 
ceae)  is  endemic  to  India  (Willis  1973)  and  is 
known  only  from  Wynad  District,  Kerala.  It 
is  represented  by  a single  species  M.  wynaa- 
densis  (Bedd.)  Gamble.  After  the  type  collec- 
tion from  Devalicottah,  S.  E.  Wynad  by 
Beddome  no  information  about  the  species  was 
forthcoming. 

The  status  of  this  taxon  was  uncertain.  Bed- 
dome  (see  below)  treated  it  as  Eugenia  wynaa- 
densis  Bedd.  Duthie  (in  Hook.  f.  FI.  Br.  India 
2 : 506.  1879)  remarked  that,  ‘It  seems  inter- 
mediate between  Pimenta  and  Eugenia  having 
the  pendulous  ovules  of  the  former  and  the 
habit  and  inflorescence  of  the  latter  ’.  He  also 
stated  that  ‘ This  is  probably  as  Col.  Beddome 
suggests  the  type  of  new  genus  intermediate 


between  Pimenta  and  Eugenia.  The  material 
at  my  disposal  are  too  incomplete  for  the 
preparation  of  a proper  generic  description. 
The  above  is  compiled  from  Col.  Beddome ’s 
description  of  the  plant’.  Therefore,  Duthie 
(loc.  cit.)  included  the  taxon  under  doubtful  and 
excluded  species  under  Eugenia.  Gamble  (Kew 
Bull.  1918  : 241.  1918)  erected  a new  genus 
Meteoromyrtus  based  on  the  material  of 
Beddome  and  pointed  out  that  since  ‘ Both 
Beddome  in  his  leones  and  Duthie  in  the  flora 
of  British  India  have  signalized  this  species  as 
being  probably  the  type  of  the  genus,  and  so  I 
have  no  hesitation  in  describing  it  as  such 
in  spite  of  the  poor  material,  in  order  to  bring 
the  plant  into  its  proper  place  in  the  Madras 
Flora 


461 


JOURNAL,  BOMBA  Y NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol  79 


An  intensive  search  for  this  little  known 
species  was  made  since  1977  in  the  Districts  of 
Wynad  and  the  adjoining  Cannannore  and  a 
population  of  it  was  located  at  a place  near 
Chandanathode  in  1979.  As  the  fruit  of  this 
species  was  not  seen  either  by  Beddome  or 
Gamble,  the  plants  were  kept  under  observa- 
tion for  more  than  two  years  and  no  fruiting 
material  could  be  obtained  although  the  plants 
flower  profusely.  Biology  of  the  species,  there- 
fore, needs  closer  investigation.  Further,  since 
this  taxon  shares  intermediate  characters 
between  Pimenta  and  Eugenia  a biosystematic 
study  may  be  rewarding  from  the  evolutionary 
point  of  view. 

Henry  et  al.  (1979)  included  it  under  rare  and 
threatened  flowering  plants  of  South  India  and 
indicated  that  there  is  no  specimen  of  the  taxon 
in  MH.  But,  on  a close  study  of  the  unidentified 
species  of  Eugenia , a sheet  of  the  taxon  collected 
from  Wynad  with  the  remark  Eugenia  new  sp. 
could  be  located.  No  other  data  was  available 
on  the  sheet.  In  the  old  accession  register  of 
MH  it  is  indicated  that  the  specimen  was  collec- 
ted by  Beddome  in  1868. 

Meteoromyrtus  wynaadensis  (Bedd.)  Gamble 
in  Kew  Bull.  1918  : 241.  1918  et  FI.  Pres. 
Madras  1 : 343.  1957  (rep.  ed.).  Eugenia 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Coimbatore-3. 

November  27,  1980. 


wynaadensis  Bedd.  in  Madras  J.  Sci.  Ser.  3 (1)  : 
47.  1864  et  FI.  Sylv.  Part  16  : 115.  1872  et  Ic. 
PI.  Ind.  Or.  t.  161,  1874  ; Duthie  in  Hook.  f. 
FI.  Brit.  India  2:  506.  1879. 

A small  tree  up  to  ± 5 m.  Flowers  white. 

Specimens  examined.  Theerthundamalai, 
Chandanathode,  ± 975  m,  24-2-1979  V.  S. 
Ramachandran  61362,  20-12-1979  V.  S.  Rama - 
chandran  65333,  20-3-1980  V.  S.  Ramachandran 
66834.  Wynad  Beddome  s.n.  (Acc.  No.  20969). 
All  sheets  are  in  MH. 

Beddome  (loc.  cit.)  gives  the  flowering  time 
as  April.  But,  in  the  present  locality  it  flowers 
from  December  to  April. 

As  the  plants  are  restricted  to  a very  amall 
area  in  North  Kerala  they  are  likely  to  be  lost 
because  of  increasing  pressure  on  land  for 
cultivation,  etc.  Therefore  immediate  steps 
for  its  conservation  are  necessary. 


Acknowledgement 

We  are  thankful  to  Dr.  R.  Sundara  Raghavan, 
Regional  Botanist,  Royal  Botanic  Gardens, 
Kew,  for  confirming  the  identity  of  the  species. 

V.  S.  RAMACHANDRAN 
N.  C.  NAIR 
V.  J.  NAIR 


References 

Henry,  A.  N.,  Vivekananthan,  K.  & Nair,  N.  C.  Willis,  J.  C.  (1973) : A Dictionary  of  the  Flowering 
(1979)  : Rare  and  threatened  flowering  plants  of  South  Plants  and  Ferns.  (Revised  by  H.  K.  Airy  Shaw), 
India.  J.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  75  (3)  : 688.  Cambridge  University  Press,  Cambridge. 


462 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 

41.  SWERTIA  KINGII  HOOK.  F.— A NEW  RECORD  FOR  NORTH-WEST 

HIMALAYAS 


J.  D.  Hooker  (1883)  described  Swertia  kingii 
from  Sikkim,  named  in  honour  of  its  collector 
George  King.  Type  specimen  is  in  CAL  & K. 
The  species  is  allied  to  S>  petiolata  D.  Don  and 
S.  speciosa  D.  Don,  but  differs  from  the  former 
by  its  winged  seeds  and  from  both  by  its  robust 
habit,  broadly  ovate-elliptic  leaves  and  larger 
size  of  flowers. 

During  the  course  of  the  revision  of  the  fam. 
Gentianaceae,  at  Botanical  Survey  of  India, 
Northern  Circle,  Dehra  Dun,  I came  across 
a few  specimens,  deposited  in  BSD  & DD  under 
the  names  of  Swertia  petiolata  Sc  speciosa  D.  Don. 
But  careful  study  of  the  specimens  and  proto- 
logue,  illustration  and  type  of  Swertia  kingii 
Hook.f.  at  CAL  confirmed  the  identity  of  the 
specimens  as  S.  kingii  Hook.f. 

In  literature,  Swertia  kingii  Hook.f.  is  re- 
corded only  from  Sikkim  & Nepal.  Therefore 
the  present  finding  of  the  taxon  from  North- 
West  Himalayas,  records  its  extended  distri- 
butional range  from  Eastern  to  Western  Hima- 
layas and  suggests  thereby  phytogeographic 
affinity. 

A short  description  of  the  species  is  provided 
here  : 

Swertia  kingii  Hook.f.  Ic.  PI.  t.  1442, 
1883  ; Hook.f.  FI.  Brit.  India.  4:734;  1885 
(in  add.  et.  corr.) ; FI.  Langtong,  162.  1976. 

Type  : India  : Sikkim  NaTung,  24  Aug.  1878, 
Dungboo  s.  n.  (Holo.,  CAL  !,  K) 


Perennial,  erect,  robust,  branched,  bitter, 
about  100  cm  tall  herb.  Leaves  broadly  ovate- 
elliptic  or  oblong-elliptic,  subacute,  petiolate, 
5-7  nerved.  Flowers  in  dense  panicles,  bluish 
or  greenish-blue,  1. 5-2.6.  cm  long.  Calyx 
5-partite ; lobes  broadly  ovate-lanceolate, 
acuminate  with  scarious,  crenulate  margins. 
Corolla  rotate,  lobes  ovate-oblong,  tips 
crenulate ; glands  2,  ovoid-oblong  with 
fimbriate  margins.  Capsule  sessile,  ellipsoid, 
Seeds  numerous,  brownish,  winged. 

Icon  : l.c.  (!). 

FIs.  8cFrts  : September  to  November. 

Distribution  : India — Himachal  Pradesh, 

Uttar  Pradesh,  Sikkim,  Nepal. 

Ecology : Grows  in  moist  places  in  shade  ; 
stream  beds  and  alpine  grass  lands ; 2940- 
4247  m height. 

Uses  : Used  as  substitute  for  true  8 chirata  ’. 

Specimens  Examined : Himachal  Pradesh  — 
Kangra ; Kangra  valley,  Chhota  Bangbal, 
3920  m,  9 Sept.  1955,  Vaid  24230  (DD).  Uttar 
Pradesh  — Tehri : Garhwal  forest  above 

Gangi,  2940 — 3267  m,  5 Sept.  1885,  Duthie 
4214  (DD).  Chamoli : Ghangaria,  3200  m, 
2 Oct.  1962,  Bhattacharyya  24304  (BSD). 

Acknowledgement 

I thank  Dr.  U.  C.  Bhattacharyya,  Deputy 
Director,  Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Northern 
Circle,  Dehra  Dun,  for  guidance  and  for 
providing  facilities,  needed  during  the  study. 

SUNITA  AGARWAL 


Wealth  of  India, 

Botany  Section, 

Publications  & Information  Directorate  (CSIR), 
New  Delhi-110  012, 

December  3,  1980. 


463 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Voi  19 


42.  SELAGINELLA  ORNATA  (HOOK.  ET  GREV.)  SPRING— NEW  TO  INDIA 

( With  a text-figure) 


In  the  course  of  revisionary  studies  of  the 
family  Selaginellaceae  in  India,  I came  across 
a few  peculiar  specimens  which  on  scrutiny  of 
literature  and  comparison  of  the  specimens 
from  Malay  Peninsula  and  Islands  housed  in 
CAL  were  identified  as  Selaginella  ornata  (Hook, 
et  Grev.)  Spring.  Later  the  specimens  were 
also  confirmed  as  S.  ornata  (Hook,  et  Grev.) 
Spring  at  Royal  Botanic  Gardens , Kew.  Selagi- 
nella ornata  (Hook,  et  Grev.)  Spring  is  described 
in  detail  with  illustrations  as  new  to  India. 

Selaginella  ornata  (Hook,  et  Grev.)  Spring. 
Bull.  Acad.  Brux.  10  : 232.  1843  ; Mem.  Acad. 
Sci.  Belg.  24(2)  : 259.  1850  ; Alston,  Philipp. 
Joum.  Sci.  58  : 371.  1935  ; Reed.  M6m.  oc. 
Broter.  18  : 169.  1966.  Lycopodium  ornatum 
Hook,  et  Grev.  in  Hook.  Bot.  Misc.  3 : 108. 
1933. 

Stems  15-25  cm,  suberect,  thick,  stramiene- 
ous,  branched  from  the  base,  branches  com- 
pound. Rhizophores  long,  thick,  throughout 
the  stem  except  apical  Jrd  part.  Leaves  hetero- 
morphic,  contiguous  ; lateral  leaves  spreading, 
ovate,  oblique  at  base,  obtuse  at  apex,  inner 
half-leaf  ovate,  dilated,  and  ciliate  at  base,  rest 
dentate  ; outer  half-leaf  semi-oblong,  dentate  ; 
axillary  leaves  ovate,  cordate,  ciliate  at  base, 
dentate  above,  subacute  at  apex ; median 


leaves  ascending,  subfalcate,  ovate,  cordate  at 
base,  acummate  at  apex,  dentate.  Strobili 
5.7  x 1-2  mm,  single  at  the  apex  of  branchlets. 
Sporophylls  dimorphic,  dentate  ; larger  sporo- 
phylls  ovate,  falcate  ; smaller  sporophylls  ovate, 
acute.  Megaspores  300-350  pm,  papillate 
Microspores  32-35,  pm,  deep  orange,  verrucose 
(Fig.  1 A-H). 

Specimens  examined : Arunachal  Pradesh 
— Bomdila  to  Rahung,  5-6-1957.  Rao  8081 
(Assam,  dupl.  CAL).  Meghalaya  Cherra- 
punji  to  Mawmlah,  27-9-1956,  Panigrahi  3558 
(Assam).  Malay  Peninsula  — Perak  — 
Larut,  4-4500  ft.,  Sept.  1881,  King’s  Collector 
2361,2411.  Malay  Archipelago  — Java  .— 
Banjoemas  i 900  m.  16-4-1911,  Backer  355 
(CAL). 

Distribution : India  (Arunachal  Pradesh) ; 
Malesian  Islands,  Malay  Peninsula. 


Acknowledgements 

Grateful  thanks  are  due  to  Dr.  S.  K.  Jain, 
Director,  Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Howran 
for  encouragement.  I am  also  thankful  to 
(Miss)  F.  M.  Jarett  of  Royal  Botanic  Gardens, 
Kew  for  confirming  the  identity  of  the  specimens. 


Botanical  Survey  of  India,  R.  D.  DIXIT 

Allahabad, 

May  22,  1980. 


464 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


V . — ? ^ f 

F El  D 


Fig.  1.  Selaginella  ornata  (Hook,  et  Grev.)  Spring 

A.  Part  of  a leafy  branch ; B.  Lateral  leaf ; C.  Median  leaf ; D.  Part  of  strobilus ; E.  Smaller 
sporophyll ; El.  Larger  sporophyll ; F.  Distal  part  of  megaspore  ; G.  Proximal  part  of  microspore  ; 
H.  Axillary  leaf. 

465 

15 


ANNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SOCIETY  FOR  THE  YEAR  1980-81 


Executive  Committee 
President 

Dr.  Salim  Ali,  d.sc.,  f.n.a. 


Vice-Presidents 


Mr.  R.  E.  Hawkins 

Mr.  G.  V.  Bedekar,  i.c.s.  (Retd.) 

Mr.  D.  J.  Panday 


Ex  Officio 


Member 


Secretary,  Dept,  of  Science  & 
Technology,  Government  of  India. 


Elected  Members  Advisory  Committee 


Mr.  Humayun  Abdulali 
Dr.  S.  R.  Amladi,  m.d. 

Mr.  H.  G.  Acharya 

. . Ahmedabad 

Prof.  P.  V.  Bole 

Mr.  F.  C.  Badhwar,  o.b.e. 

...  New  Delhi 

Mr.  Divyabhanusinh  Chawda 

Dr.  B.  Biswas 

. . Calcutta 

Dr.  B.  Dasgupta 

Mr.  S.  Chaudhuri 

..  New  Delhi 

Mr.  H.  K.  Divekar 

Dr.  Madhav  Gadgil 

. . Bangalore 

Mr.  David  Fernandes 

Mr.  N.  D.  Jayal 

. . New  Delhi 

Dr.  C.  V.  Kulkami,  M.sc.,  ph.d. 
( Honorary  Treasurer) 

Mr.  Shivarajkumar 
Khachar 

Jasdan 

Mr.  Bansi  Mehta 

Dr.  A.  N.  D.  Nanavati,  m.d. 

Mr.  Lavkumar  Khacher 

Rajkot 

( Honoray  Secretary) 

Mr.  M.  Krishnan 

. . Madras 

Mr.  M.  S.  Srinivasan 

Mr.  Duleep  Matthai 

. . New  Delhi 

Mrs.  Dilnavaz  Variava 


466 


A.G.M.  1980-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


HONORARY  SECRETARY’S  REPORT  FOR  THE  YEAR  1980 
97th  Annual  Report 


Membership 

There  was  a steady  growth  in  membership 
of  all  categories  during  the  year.  However,  we 
can  always  improve  the  enrolment  rate.  This  is 
where  members  co-operation  is  essential.  We 
take  this  opportunity  to  thank  those  members 
who  on  their  own  and  in  response  to  appeals 
in  the  Hombill  introduced  new  members  to 
the  Society. 

We  now  appeal  to  members  for  assistance 
in  the  enrolment  of  compound  corporate  mem- 
bers. The  Executive  Committee  has  fixed  a 
minimum  target  of  1,000  compound  corporate 
members  so  that  the  corpus  will  fetch  an  annual 
return  to  meet  at  least  part  of  the  expenditure 
on  administration.  Assistance  from  members 
who  are  in  a position  to  influence  progressive 
companies  to  enrol  themselves  as  compound 
corporate  members  would  be  greatly  apprecia- 
ted. The  subscription  for  compound  corpo- 
rate members  is  Rs.  1,500  at  the  present 
time. 

We  are  glad  to  report  that  the  number  of 
dropouts  has  shown  a gratifying  decline  from 
217  in  1979  to  97  in  1980.  This  is  an  encourag- 
ing indication  that  we  are  able  to  hold  our 
members  by  catering  to  their  interest. 

Details  of  membership  for  the  past  quin- 
quennium, showing  members  fully  paid  up  on 
31st  December  of  each  year  are  given  in  the 
statement  below  : 


1977  1978  1979  1980  1981 


Ordinary  members 

512 

541 

640 

660 

764 

Corporate 

members 

190 

180 

184 

180 

168 

Life  members 

246 

257 

274 

305 

327 

Compound  corpo- 
rate members 

1 

2 

9 

9 

20 

Student  members 

20 

39 

96 

83 

94 

Honorary  members 

4 

4 

4 

4 

3 

Forest  Department 
Nominees 

973 

1023 

1207  1241 

1376 

Members  elected  in  1980,  but  not  paid  20 
Members  paid  in  1979,  but  not  paid  for  1980  97 


Publications 

Journal  : 

Five  issues  of  the  Journal  were  published 
during  the  year  under  review  though  the  effort 
at  catching  up  with  publication  dates  was  not 
successful  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  publi- 
cation of  the  issues  for  August  & December 
1980  had  to  be  carried  over  to  the  next  year. 

The  Journals  published  in  1980  included  all 
the  issues  of  volume  76  for  1979,  the  April  issue 
volume  77  (1)  for  1980  and  a supplement 
to  volume  75  the  Journal  for  1978.  This  supple- 
ment carried  the  papers  presented  as  tribute 
to  Dr.  Salim  Ali  at  a symposium  on  ‘ Ecology 
and  conservation  of  birds  and  mammals 
in  India’  held  at  Bangalore  on  1 lth-13th  Novem- 


467 


JOURNAL , BOMBA  Y NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


ber  1977.  The  authors  of  these  papers  repre- 
sent amongst  themselves  a majority  of  scientific 
workers  active  in  this  area  on  the  Indian  Sub- 
continent. Other  journals  published  during 
the  year  continued  to  present  authoritative 
information  on  the  natural  history  of 
the  oriental  region. 

Hombill  s 

The  Hombill  has  now  established  itself 
among  the  members  of  the  Society  as  a well- 
liked  popular  journal  presenting  matters  of 
natural  history  in  non-technical  language 
for  the  benefit  of  most  members  of  the  Society. 
However,  a journal  of  this  nature  cannot 
survive  unless  members  provide  4 sustenance  5 
in  the  form  of  notes  and  photographs.  We 
appeal  to  members  particularly  to  those  who 
are  active  field  naturalists  to  keep  the  Hombill 
in  mind  for  notes  & photographs. 

Books  : 

During  the  year  we  published  the  11th  edition 
of  the  Book  of  Indian  Birds  by  Salim  Ali  which 
includes  descriptions  and  colour  illustrations  of 
16  additional  species  (making  296  in  all)  and  the 
4th  edition  of  the  Book  of  Indian  Animals  by 
S.  H.  Prater.  Both  publications  had  brisk 
sales  as  is  evident  from  the  sales  statement 
given  below  : 


Sales  in 
1979  1980 

Balance 

stock 

31-12-’80 

Some  beautiful  Indian 
Trees 

147 

264 

2220 

Glimpses  of  Nature  in 
India  Booklet 

142 

353 

1804 

Checklist  of  the  Birds  of 
Maharashtra 

148 

102 

106 

Checklist  of  the  Birds  of 
Delhi,  Agra  & Bharat- 
pur 

69 

54 

148 

The  Book  of  Indian  Birds 

. . 

2197 

8009 

The  Book  of  Indian 
Animals 

. . 

1007 

3905 

Books  under  Publication  : 

Grasses  of  Western  India  By  T.  Hodd 
(1st  edition) 

A handy  field  guide  for  the  identification  of 
Grasses  of  Western  India,  with  illustrations  for 
all  the  species  described,  should  be  available 
in  1981. 

A Synopsis  of  the  Birds  of  India  & Pakistan 
by  Dillon  Riplay  (2nd  edition) 

This  definitive  work  on  bird  taxonomy  of 
the  Indian  region  is  a standard  reference  book 
for  any  study  on  Indian  birds.  The  revised 
2nd  edition  now  in  press  is  expected  to  be  ready 
by  end  1981. 

Some  Beautiful  Indian  Climbers  and  Shrubs 
by  Bor  & Raizada  (2nd  edition) 

This  popular  treatise  on  the  wild  and  culti- 
vated shrubs  and  climbers  occurring  in  India 
is  an  excellent  ready  reference  for  members 
and  others  interested  in  the  country’s  flora  and 
the  indigenous  and  exotic  cultivars.  The  second 
edition,  now  in  the  press,  is  expected  to  be  ready 
by  the  end  of  1981. 

Encyclopedia  of  Indian  Natural  History, 
Centenary  Publication,  1883-1983  : 

It  has  been  decided  to  entrust  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Encylcopedia  to  the  Oxford  Univer- 
sity Press,  which  should  ensure  a high  standard 
of  accuracy,  a handsome  book,  and  wide  dis- 
tribution. The  Encylopedia  is  meant  for  the 
general  reader  and  paticularly  for  students 
in  schools  and  colleges.  It  should  rouse  their 
interest  in  the  natural  environment,  making 
them  aware  and  appreciative  of  rivers,  rocks, 
plants  and  animals,  and  all  other  forms  of  life 
around  them.  Work  is  proceeding  satisfac- 
torily and  we  hope  to  bring  out  the  Encyclope- 
dia in  time. 


468 


A.G.M.  1980-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


A Century  of  Natural  History  : 

This  book  Will  consist  of  a selection  of  articles 
from  the  Society’s  Journal  published  during 
the  hundred  years  of  its  existence.  The  selec- 
tion will  cover  general  natural  history,  expedi- 
tions and  explorations,  hunting,  fishing,  conser- 
vation, wildlife  photography,  mammals,  birds, 
reptiles^  fishes,  insects,  other  invertebrates  and 
botany. 

Conservation 

The  Society  is  recognised  by  the  Central  and 
State  Governments  in  India  and  by  International 
Organisations  abroad  as  an  authoritative  source 
for  information  on  conservation  of  wild  life 
and  natural  resources. 

This  recognition  is  expressed  in  the  form  of 
association  of  its  officials  with  State  and  Central 
Wildlife  advisory  boards  and  representation 
on  the  specialist  groups  of  the  Species  Survival 
Commission  of  the  International  Union  for  the 
Conservation  of  Nature  and  Natural  Resources. 
More  positive  recognition  is  the  sanction  of 
funds  for  the  study  of  endangered  species  of 
wildlife  (see  under  projects). 

Silent  valley  : 

The  Society  continued  to  support  the  cam- 
paign for  the  preservation  of  the  Silent  Valley 
in  collaboration  with  Save  Silent  Valley  Com- 
mittee and  other  organisations. 

Asian  Elephant  Specialist  Group  : 

The  Species  Survival  Commission’s  Asian 
Elephant  Group,  which  has  the  Society’s  Curator 
as  chairman,  continued  to  be  active  in  organising 
conservation  action  and  protection  measures 
for  the  elephant  in  India  and  in  assessing  the 
data  obtained  from  the  surveys.  The  studies 
are  being  funded  by  the  World  Wildlife  Fund. 

Seminars  and  Conferences 

The  Curator  attended  meetings  of  the  Species 
Survival  Commission  of  the  IUCN  at  Sri  Lanka, 
Kenya  and  U.S.A, 


Members’  Activities 
Field  Research  : 

Assistance  was  given  to  two  members  of  the 
Society  Dr.  A.  J.  Gaston  and  Mr.  Vivek  Matthai 
for  a survey  of  Pheasant  Status  in  the  Western 
Himalayas. 

Solar  Eclipse  and  wildlife  : 

M/s.  H.  K.  Divekar  and  S.  R.  Amladi  with 
Society’s  staff  investigated  the  effects  of  the 
total  solar  eclipse  on  wildlife.  Their  report  is 
that  the  effect  is  negligible. 

Bonnet  Macaque/Rhesus  Macaque  Range 
Boundary  : 

Dr.  Jack  Fooden  of  the  Chicago  Natural 
History  Museum,  a member  of  the  Society 
assisted  by  the  Society’s  Staff  investigated  the 
range  boundaries  of  the  two  species  of 
macaques.  His  report  will  be  published  in  a 
future  issue  of  the  Society’s  Journal,  for  1981. 

Bird  counts  : 

The  monthly  roadside  count  of  birds  at  the 
Borivli  National  Park  on  the  last  Sunday  of 
each  month  was  continued.  Apart  from  the 
collection  of  data  to  record  the  fluctuations  in 
the  bird  fauna  the  main  aim  is  to  introduce 
members  to  bird  watching. 

Nature  walks  : 

This  programme  also  assists  in  recruiting 
more  members  for  the  Society  and  in  fostering 
interest  in  natural  history  among  members  and 
others. 

Nature  Walks  Were  organised  in  Borivli 
National  Park  and  elsewhere  for  bird-watching, 
vegetation  studies  and  general  natural  history. 
A large  number  of  members  participated. 


469 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


Nature  Camp  : 

A camp  was  organised  from  15  September- 1st 
October,  in  Manali,  87  members  participated. 
The  camp  was  organised  by  Shri  Lavkumar 
Khacher,  a member  of  the  Advisory  Committee. 

Research  & Other  Activities 

Funded  From  Field  Work  Funds 

The  field  work  funds  available  at  the  Society 
supported  the  following  activities  : 

Salim  Ali/Loke  Wan  Tho  Ornithological  Research 

Fnisd  : 

During  the  year  the  fund  supported  the 
field  studies  of  two  research  students.  Mr . S . A. 
Yahya  studied  ‘ The  Ecology  of  Barbets  ’ and 
Mrs.  K.  R.  Lalitlia  studied  ‘ Comparative 
Ecology  of  Drongos  with  special  reference  to 
Ecological  isolation  among  them  ’ . Mr.  Yahya 
completed  his  studies  during  the  year.  The 
fund  also  supported  the  search  for  the  frog- 
mouth  in  Kerala  a species  of  bird  hitherto 
considered  rare  and  whose  ecology  needs 
to  be  studied. 

Salim  Ali  Nature  Conservation  Fund  : 

In  addition  to  subsidising  the  publication  of 
the  Hombill  and  purchasing  books  for  the 
library,  the  following  field  projects  were  funded. 

(a)  Survey  of  Agastyamalai  Hills  in  Tamil 
Nadu — a potential  biosphere  reserve:  A propo- 
sal by  Dr.  Rauf  Ali  to  survey  the  Agastyamalai 
as  a potential  site  for  a second  biosphere  reserve 
in  the  Sahyadris  Biogeographic  Province  was 
funded.  A report  is  awaited. 

( b ) Andaman  Survey — Jan. -Mar.  1980: 

At  the  instance  of  Dr.  Salim  Ali,  the  Society 
organised  an  ecological  survey  team  consisting 


of  young  biologists  to  spend  about  two  months 
in  the  islands  to  collect  data  and  assess  the 
status  of  various  life  forms  on  certain  selected 
islands.  The  trip  was  financed  from  a grant 
from  the  Salim  Ali  Nature  Conservation  Fund. 
The  emphasis  of  the  study  was  to  be  (i)  gathe- 
ring of  ecological  data  (ii)  Status  of  endangered 
species  and  (iii)  collection  of  biological  speci- 
mens of  scientific  interest. 

Special  attention  was  to  be  paid  to  rare 
and  endangered  species  like  the  Andaman  Teal, 
Narcondam  Hombill  and  Megapod  e and  also 
to  the  synecology  of  the  outlying  islands  such 
as  Narcondam,  Landfall,  East,  Interview, 
North  Reef,  South  Sentinel,  Battye  Malve 
and  certain  others  of  the  Nicobar  group.  An 
assessment  of  the  various  development  activi- 
ties in  progress  and  their  possible  impact  on 
the  fauna  and  flora  were  to  be  studied  as  also, 
problems  connected  with  the  organisation, 
control  and  conservation  of  habitats  and  wildlife. 

{c)  Sarus  Crane  Study  : Mr.  Prakash  Gole 
was  funded  for  a study  of  the  breeding  beha- 
viour of  the  Sarus  at  Bharatpur. 

(d)  Siberian  Crane  Study  : Assistance  was 
given  to  Mr.  Yado  Mohan  Rai,  a member 
from  Meerut  to  investigate  possible  alternate 
winter  habitats  of  the  Siberian  Crane  in  India. 
None  of  the  areas  visited  in  U.P.  showed  any 
indication  of  being  used  by  this  Crane. 

Pirojsha  Godrej  Fund  : 

Conservation  Education : Assistance  was 
given  to  Mr.  Ulhas  Rane  to  spread  the  message 
of  Conservation  in  the  Dhule  area  with  the 
help  of  a local  social  organisation,  the  Jan- 
Vidyan  Kendra. 

Solar  Eclipse  Study : The  sudy  of  effects 
of  total  solar  eclipse  of  16th  February,  1980, 
on  wildlife  was  supported  by  a grant  from  the 
fund. 


470 


A.G.M.  1980-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


Col.  Burton  Fund  : 

Solar  Eclipse  study  : A second  group  led  by 
Mr.  Ulhas  Rane  was  funded  to  study  the  effects 
of  the  solar  eclipse  on  16th  February  1980,  on 
wildlife  in  the  Ratnagiri  area. 


Research  Funded  by  Government  & 
Governmental  Agencies 

Computer  Analysis  of  Bird  Banding  Data : 

The  Tata  Institute  of  Fundamental  Research 
which  is  collaborating  in  this  programme  repor- 
ted that  the  entire  bird  banding  data  (approx- 
imately one  lakh  thirty  thousand  records) 
keyed  into  the  data  files  have  been  validated. 
Retrieval  programmes  specified  by  the  Bombay 
Natural  History  Society  has  been  tried  out  and 
the  first  level  reports  are  ready.  The  successful 
run  of  these  programmes  suggest  the  overall 
validity  of  the  data  as  far  as  the  data  formats 
and  range  checks  are  concerned.  It  is  now 
possible  to  extract  further  reports  from  these 
data  easily ; but  effective  utilisation  of  this 
facility  calls  for  the  availability  of  the  service 
of  a programmer  for  the  Bombay  Natural 
History  Society. 

We  are  now  seeking  a suitable  programmer  for 
proper  utilisation  of  the  data. 

An  Ecological  Reconnaissance  of  Vedaranyam 

Swamp,  Thanjavur  Dist.,  Tamil  Nadu  : 

The  Vedaranyam — Muthupet — Adhirampatti- 
nam  swamp — belt  is  one  of  the  major  and 
important  refuges  of  migratory  as  well  as 
resident  water  birds  in  the  peninsula.  Every 
winter  (October-March)  over  90  species  of 
birds  (both  Passerine  and  wading)  arrive  and 
spread  along  the  swamps  and  forested  tracts 
along  the  seaboard.  The  State  Government 
has  proposed  to  develop  the  entire  24,000 
hectare  swamp  as  an  integrated  marine  chemi- 


cal complex,  and  as  an  expression  of  its  anxiety 
about  the  possible  ill  effects  of  such  a project 
on  the  ecology  of  the  area  had  asked  the  Society 
to  undertake  a study. 

The  study  had  Prof.  Neelakantan,  a life 
member  of  the  Society  and  a well  known  orni- 
thologist, as  field  investigator. 

The  major  recommendation  made  on  the 
basis  of  a year’s  data  was  that  in  developing 
the  Salt  Complex  the  greatest  possible  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  in  the  area  set  apart 
for  the  birds  the  natural  flux  (the  existing  cycles) 
of  the  water  and  fluctuations  in  salinity,  pH 
value  etc.  are  not  altered  in  any  manner. 

Studies  on  the  movement  and  population  structure 
of  Indian  Avifauna  : 

This  project  financed  by  PL-480  funds  recei- 
ved through  the  Ministry  of  Agriculure,  Govt,  of 
India,  plans  to  investigate  the  ecology  of  the 
bird  fauna  of  selected  biotopes,  particularly 
their  migratory  movements.  The  main  study 
areas  are  Keoladeo  Ghana,  Bharatpur  (Rajas- 
than) and  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary  in  Tamil 
Nadu.  The  study  has  commenced  with  Dr. 
Salim  Ali  as  Principal  Investigator  and  Mr. 
S.  A.  Hussain  as  Project  Scientist. 

The  programme  of  work  will  extend  initially 
over  a period  of  five  years. 

Hydrobiological  (Ecological)  Research  Station, 
Keoladeo  Ghana  Sanctuary,  Bharatpur,  Rajas- 
than : 

This  project  plans  to  study  the  ecology  of  the 
large  numbers  and  variety  of  water  bird  species 
breeding  at  the  Ghana  and  assembling  during 
winter.  The  proposed  research  station  would 
be  the  first  of  its  kind  in  India  and  the  research 
conducted  there  would  provide  a basis  for 
research  and  management  of  other  important 
waterfowl  reserves  in  the  country. 


471 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


The  project  has  Dr.  Salim  Ali  as  Principal 
Investigator  and  Dr.  Robert  Grubh  as  Co- 
investigator. 

The  programme  is  originally  for  five  years, 
but  we  hope  to  establish  the  research  station 
on  a long-term  basis. 

An  Ecological  Study  of  Bird  Hazards  at  Indian 

Aerodromes  : 

Birds  are  known  to  cause  slight  to  severe 
damage  occasionally  to  aircraft  and  occupants 
through  accidental  encounters.  With  the  advent 
of  faster  planes  with  lesser  preceding  noise  bird 
strikes  have  increased,  resulting  in  increased 
hazards  to  safe  operation  of  aircraft  besides 
heavy  financial  losses. 

The  specific  aims  of  the  project  were  : 

1 . To  identify  all  bird  species  that  are  poten- 
tially hazardous  to  aircaft  in  and  around 
an  aerodrome. 

2.  To  study  the  habits  and  basic  ecological 
requirements  of  these  bird  species  and 
find  out  the  reasons  for  their  occurrence 
in  and  around  the  aerodrome. 

3.  To  evolve  ways  to  discourage  the  ‘ prob- 
lem birds  ’ from  frequenting  the  airfield 
and  the  entire  air  space  used  by  aircraft 
in  and  around  aerodromes,  on  a long- 
term basis. 

The  project  which  is  funded  by  the  Aero- 
nautics Research  and  Development  Board  of 
the  Ministry  of  Defence  has  Dr.  Salim  Ali  as 
Principal  Investigator  and  Dr.  Robert  Grubh 
as  Executive  Investigator. 

Approved  Projects 

Ecology  of  Endangered  Species  and  their  habi- 
tats : 

Approval  of  the  Government  of  India  for 
funding  from  PL-480  funds  for  the  study  has 


been  received.  We  plan  to  investigate  the 
Great  Indian  Bustard  and  the  Asian  Elephant. 

Donations 

Rs.  P. 

Col.A.C.Moore  for  Salim  Ali  Nature 
Conservation  Fund  . . 5,269.00 

Pirojsha  Godrej  Foundation  for  Salim 
Ali  Nature  Conservation  Fund  5,000.00 
Dr.  Salim  Ali  for  Salim  Ali  Nature 
Conservation  Fund  . . 18,000.00 

Darbar  Shri  Alakhachar  Public 
Trust,  Jasdan  for  Salim  Ali  Nature 
Conservation  Fund 
Sir  Dorabji  Tata  Trust  for  Silent 
Valley  Conservation 
Pirojsha  Godrej  Foundation  for 
Silent  Valley  Conservation 

Messrs  Glaxo  Laboratories  for 
Silent  Valley  Conservation 
Chetak  Trust,  Udaipur  for  Silent 
Valley  Conservation 
Miss  Diana  Ratnagar,  Beauty  with- 
out Cruelty  for  Silent  Valley 
Conservation  4 

Mrs.  Perm  M.  R.  B.  Jeejeebhoy  for 
Silent  Valley  Conservation 
Mr.  G.  V.  Bedekar for  General  Fund 
Dr.  A.  N.  D.  Nanavati  for  Staff 
Welfare  Fund 

Mr.  M.  J.  Dastur for  General  Fund 
Mr.  M.  G.  Diwan for  General  Fund 
Amount  collected  at  the  exhibition 
of  Rotary  Club  for  General  Fund 
Amount  collected  at  the  Snake  exhi- 
bition . . 70,000.00 

Donations  to  the  Society  of  more  than 
Rs.  250  qualify  for  reduction  of  incometax 
under  section  80  G of  the  Incometax  Act  1961. 


3.000. 00 

5.000. 00 

5.000. 00 

4.000. 00 

5.000. 00 

2.000. 00 

1,000.00 

1,000.00 

400.00 
25.00 
25.00 

195.00 


472 


A.G.M.  1980-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


Reference  Collection 

During  the  year  under  reference  1073  speci- 
mens were  registered  into  the  collections. 


Mammals 

46 

Birds 

990 

Reptiles 

36 

Amphibians 

1 

Total 

1073 

Among  these  the  following  species  of  birds, 
were  additions  to  the  collections  : 

1 . Spelaeornis  formosus 

2.  Myzornis  pyrrhoura 

3.  Pteruthius  rufiventer 

4.  Yuhina  bakeri 

5.  Orthotomus  cucullatus 

6.  Abroscopus  schisticeps 

7.  Abroscopus  hodgsoni 

8.  Certhia  nipalensis 

9.  Carduelis  thibetana 

10.  Loxia  curvirostra 

1 1 . Propyrrhula  subhimachala 

12.  Pyrrhoplectes  epauletta 

Nature  Education  Scheme 

The  Nature  Education  Scheme  started  by  the 
Society  as  a pioneering  effort  in  1948  continues 
to  be  active  among  the  schools  of  the  city. 
Considering  the  large  student  population  in 
the  city  and  number  of  schools  (over  387), 
the  effect  that  the  Nature  Education  Organiser, 
can  produce  working  single  handed  is  limited 
However,  the  main  thrust  of  our  efforts  has 
been  to  arrange  for  the  exposure  of  the  urban 
children  to  nature  in  the  wild.  Apart  from 
introductory  slide  shows,  the  children  were 
taken  on  day  field  trips  to  Borivli  National 
Park  which  is  indeed  a very  convenient  wilder- 
ness school  for  Bombay  students.  In  1980 
the  snake  exhibition  organised  by  the  Society 


proved  a very  useful  aid  and  20,000  students 
of  300  schools  were  taught  the  natural  history 
of  reptiles. 

Snake  Exhibition 

The  Snake  Exhibition  organised  at  Cross 
Maidan,  Bombay  by  Mr.  H.  K.  Divekar  of 
the  Executive  Committee  and  Mr.  P.  B.  Shekar 
of  the  Society’s  staff  was  extremely  popular 
with  the  citizens  of  Bombay.  The  half  hourly 
lecture  by  the  Society’s  librarian  Mr.  I.  D. 
Kehimkar  on  snakes  and  their  natural  history 
illustrated  with  live  examples  enhanced  the 
value  of  the  programme  and  was  very  well 
received.  Approximately  2,36,000  people  visi- 
ted the  exhibition,  yielding  a revenue  of  Rs. 
1,80,000. 

Repairs  to  Hornbill  House 

During  repairs  to  the  roof  in  1979,  it  was 
noticed  that  seepage  had  severely  damaged 
the  concrete  roof  slabs  and  these  required 
strengthening  involving  considerable  expendi- 
ture. Before  arrangements  could  be  made  the 
rains  broke  and  with  great  difficulty  the  library 
was  saved  from  extensive  damage  by  the  quick 
action  of  the  staff. 

There  Was  prompt  response  to  our  appeal 
for  assistance  from  the  Chief  Minister,  Maha- 
rashtra and  the  Department  of  Science  & 
Technology,  Govt,  of  India  and  the  repairs  are 
in  progress. 

Meetings 

January,  17  : Slide  show  : 

Point  Calimere  Nature  Camp. 

January,  26  & 27  : Nature  Camp  : 

Kanchad  Forests. 

February,  10  : Nature  Camp  : 

Yewoor  Road. 


473 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol  79 


March,  29  & 30  : iVatare  Cam/? : 

Lonavla. 

April,  18  : Talk  : 

4 A look  at  the  Andamans  ’ by  Mr.  S.  A. 
Hussain. 

April,  27  : Nature  Walk : 

Cheena  Creek. 

June,  28  &29  : Nature  Camp  : 

Kamala  Bird  Sanctuary. 

July,  13  : Nature  Walk  : 

Chinchota  Falls. 

August,  10  : Nature  Camp  : 

Ransai  Dam. 

August,  17  : Field  Trip  : 

Walwan  Dam  (Lonavla). 

September,  28  : Nature  Walk  : 

Kanheri  Caves. 


October,  12  : Field  Trip  : 

Elephanta. 

November,  6 : Talk  : 

‘ Birds  of  East  Africa  ’ by  Mr.  John  Karmali. 

December,  14  : Nature  Walk  : 

Powai  Lake. 

Revenue  and  Accounts 

The  financial  situation  of  the  Society  has 
improved.  After  many  years  of  deficit,  the 
year’s  working  showed  a small  surplus,  after 
wiping  out  the  accumulated  deficit. 

Staff 

The  Committee  wishes  to  record  its  apprecia- 
tion of  the  willing  cooperation  of  the  staff  in 
the  activities  of  the  Society,  and  of  the  extra 
efforts  willingly  made  by  them  to  save  the 
Library  during  early  monsoon. 


474 


BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY 


A.G.M.  1980-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


s 

o 

PQ 


cq 


o 

£ 

toD 

o 

P4 


8 

On  'w' 


CO  « 

S w 


a 

HH 

> 

g 

1 

ra 

B 


g 0 

O to 
PQ 


O 

oo 

ON 


§ 

2 

co 

1 

§ 

e 

a 

B 

* 

0 

fas 

a 

to 

1 

cq 


o a o 
c£  U 

42  2 
o d 
cti  os 


T3 

3 

•2 

’C 

..  a 

&a  O 

'■§  S. 

^3  & 
a,  ^_» 

1 
o 


u ^ . a ;d 


60 

_ 'O' 

^ a ’s 

•o  t3  "G  a 

d «J  Ph  >, 

o x>  03 

42  c3  _ s 

o’Sjjto 
§ jjS'S 

a *5  u 42 

^ ’O 
g «4H  -O  <U 

o 
o 


§•  00 


° $ 
*o  K 


d g 

*J5 

60^ 

■S* 

23 


o 

o 

o' 

o 

© 

<n 

,cn 


° J 
■SI 
2 § 
“ S 

T3 

n ^ 
2 03 

-O  x> 

3$ 

X o 

g a 

d 42 

8 <3 

15  'o 

?-i  o 

^NO 

oo  Z5 

cn”  ■ 
o 3 

«N  K 


fl  3 
c o 

Pl,  a 

O ~ 

£2 

0 ^ 

a 

o .O 
d at 

«s  t3 
60  § 
s s 

vh  -a 

5 < 


••  o 

O NO 

o 2° 

W S 

5}  ON 
< ^ 
'rr  « 

S'3  O 
O 


£2  o 

p 

o 

o 


o 

o 

o 

CM 

d _ 
a © 
o o 
h4  °~ 
«s  ^ 

‘03  «3 

I— I 4-! 
«M  ° 

O O 
d 

£13 
_ o > 
150  8 

at 


m 

O 

00 

r- 

T>  m 
C4  00 

vo 

CO 

Tt- 

NO 

OO 

NO 

ON  ON 
d-  ;£■ 
U- 

l> 

cn' 

$ s 

$ -d 
S w 

^ o 


o ^ 

A « 

O « 


O 

« H 
Q o 
'O  o 

E 2 


5 d 

I m 


cj 

>> 

<D 

42 

60 

d 


o 

CO 

o 

t"; 

1 

00 

CN 

ri 

•o 

°°« 

ON 

TE 

ocT 

CO 

oo 

CO 

00 

f- 

<N 

VO 

00 

q 

K 

00* 

oi 

ON 

t^> 

ON 

NO 

«n 

vn 

VO 

ON 

Os 

(N 

d-” 

o 

© 

lo 

CN 

ITD 

CN 

VN 

o 

o 

(N 

q 

CN 

i 

o 

o 

•o 

o 

ON 

OO 

s 

o 

iri 

NO 

M2 

CO 

ON 

CO 

n 

o' 

o” 

CN 

T— ( 

tt” 

ON 

T-, 

§1 

e*t§ 


_ <u 
o tS 

■y  ^ M 

s w.S 

« « a 

.ft,  d •o 

^ d 73 

5^  13  g 

CQ  .S 

v:  s 

to  & 

jS  2 
8 c 

a d 

CO  2 

« s 

s< 

d 


K M 


4-  2 

<u  rS 
M op 
on  .d 

d>  fa 
o d 
d T3 
d t3 

at  P 

«•! 

I§ 

S3  a 
& 5 
00  2 
a S 

8 < 

R ••  5 $S  a ••  rt 

■ ■***  ^ S.  C3  ^3  >» 

t1  B ^ 


«SJ 

<6 

1 


15 

PQ  ^ 


43  S 
oa  o 

<D  O 

o d 
d hh 

^ S 

d O 

l/D  T3 
aj  U 

s| 

aw 
m d 
ctf  d 


d •• 

aJ  vj 

13  S 

PQ  Kq 


d • 
d • 

o 

o 

o 

d m 
_,  ctf 
d (o 

o >, 
<o 

§<2 

d (2 

«-g 

d d 

B-q 
•3  2 
p a 
« S 
a >r3 

x tZ 

W o 


cS 

43* 

K co 

^ - 
CU  <0 

^ a 


5P  8 

sj  d 

5 js 

SJ  d 

S m 


d 

Sf?  d d 


r“5  a, 


cs  <0 

I 

^ 3 

.§  8 

B d 

S B 

s 


111 

ca 

>■__,  ,o  T3 
odd 

M a § 
T3  to  [t. 

8?  d 
2 244 
Q,  O '— | 

PQ  P 
o ^ > 

i— 1 <11 

“31 

•*  d ^ 


475 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Fo/.  79 


o 

oo 

On 


1 

§ 


§ 

I 

Si 


e 

a 

s 

«< 

0 
fc. 

S 

Co 

1 
1 


OS  o 

Q o 

Os 

Os 

00 

00 

VS 

O 

CT) 

so 

o 

o 

t-H  vs 

SO  5 

so 

VO 

VO 

<N 

q 

CS 

vs 

(N 

o 

o 

os  rn 

6 

ri 

f<S 

<N 

Os 

rn 

so 

so  «o 

o’ 

o 

OO 

S o 

o 

T— < 

os 

Os 

00 

oo 

vs 

O 

OS  f*S 

h-H 

o 

°°^o 

oo 

cn 

(N 

vs 

vs 

cn 

CN  r<s 

o 

co 

04 

00  Tt 

OS 

Ss 

ci 

Os 

▼— < 

VS 

<o 

rT 

r—4 

<N 

oo 

cn 

o' 

Os"  T-i 
cn  Os 

os" 

<p 

o" 

CN 

r— 1 

(N 

y— t 

CN 

O O 

O O 

© 

OS  OS 

"ct  ’-h 

*-H  _j 

00 


1 

43 

bO 

s 

2 

w 


P b 
a>  P 
43  p 
CO  ^ 
o 2 
p >5 
d 

P bO 

13  .2 

PQ  g 

P co 

— 1 <L> 

J-<  oo 
o P 
0,43 

2 2 
d 3 

8^ 

G •• 

- S 

p ^ 
ffl  ^ 


u 

2 

o 

■*-» 

4=1 

3 

2 

PQ 


^2  • 

| < 

$ p 

■§  1 

5 43 
R P 
| 73 
<3  ti 

*2  & 

^ 00 

*5  < 

Q 


p 

>» 

P 

4g 

b/) 

#g 

*S 

P 

T3 


>> 

P 

£ 

<50 

#P 

'5 

p 

"a 

G 

O 


Oi 

Q 

Q 

8 


T3 

O 

O 

bJ5 


T3 

O 

O 

bJ) 

T3 

O 


a 

0 

p 
X) 

1 

si 

2 S3 

g °D 

5 £ 00 
w 2 8 
co  w g 

§ hI 

K)  ^ 


P 

e 

p 

43 

o 

73 

d 

.2 

13 

p 

p 

oo  T3 

8 w 

0 2 I 

S5  1 

<U  o % 

o o o 
H H H 


-a  • 

d • 

“s 

p 

<1)  >o 

s p 

O 43 

O '*■* 

c b 

t— I .O 


p 
<L> 
43 
CO 
..  P 

s?  d 

P 

co 


CO 

31 


<3 


O O 

,5h  O 
^ P 
aS 

T3  8 
p p i. 

fc3.P  ^ 

s § 

!& 

H W 


p 


o,  u 

43  (D 

o & 

oo 


>>  i 

O g 
a o 
£ S3 

d (D 

£ 
j-i  7* 

sx 

s'? 


P <D 

55 

b-2 


s 


.2  d 

go  cti 
CO 


I 

Q> 


» r 2, 

d 8 5 p 

O o P Ph 

g * 8 *g 

5 § >*  2 2 w 

* ^ p . 

Oh  < 


sdw: 

X)  P >»  oo 
p^  >3  O 

(U  s u V 


Oh 

§ 3 
>>  p 


S' 


11 

8 8 

o a 
§ 2 
g p 
S d 

.g  M 


P 

.H'B 

Vh  . 

CD  -H 
CO  > 


73 


. °° 
&o 
P oo 
02) 
M 

.ScS 

d ^ 
bo 

«H  ’o 

o a 

43 

. o 

o ^ 

<D 

d d 
p p 


| 

VS 

oo 

O 

CN 

q 

r- 

q 

o 

CN 

vs 

o 

os 

vs 

o 

OS* 

so 

OS 

o 

cn 

o 

O'! 

vs 

rj-' 

cn" 

VS 

CN 

r> 

P T3 


p 

e p 

•2  S 

Co 

S p 

p PQ 


» •*>»  CO 

5 « P 
^ ^ p 

s:  § p 

| t5  g 
.g  r5 
£ | P 
g *P5  PQ 


CO 

18 

a- -s 

8 .t3 

t»  V M 

43  43  O 

3 g & 

- DP 
3*1 


eo  „ 
P o 

a S 

p d 


r3  W 

<3  p x>  p 

co  Pi  > d b 

.jj  x 'P  p r£ 

42  P P w —i i 


s o o o o 

PL, 


t3 

d p 

2 S 
° o 


Oh 

« P 


.5  J5 


Is 

,*-1  p 

^ o 
o 
Vh  P 
P P 
> «■. 


«>  ^’P 
oo  bi)  a 
p^p 
9 O Oh 

X i_i  b* 

W x P 


eg 

p 

0 

■p 

..  p 

co  43 


476 


FUNDS  AND  LIABILITIES  Rs.  P.  Rs.  P.  ASSETS 


A.G.M.  1980-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


© 

VO 

^t- 

VO 

t" 

vo 

oo 

K 

© 

tri 

ro 

CO 

<N 

t-H 

(N 

«o 

XT 

©^ 

i-H 

©" 

oo 

ri 

,_T 

CN 

on 

^i- 

ON 

cs 


u 

I 

43 

bO 


pq 


1 

I 

* 

eS 

I 

8 


T3 

3 

44 

a 

PP 

>>  «3 

S >* 

-9  Gj 
S T3 
o .S 

pq  c 

a 


• >» 
c3 
X) 

^ S 

8 ,8 
co  „ 
52  44 


<44 


S3 
c3 

PP 
S3  ^3 
O <D 

4 * 

o 


f-i 

s 


<N 


■S  t-l 

* -a 

c3 

pq 


S3  oi 
44 

^ c 

T3  « 
S3  ° 

•c  « 
o 


| a 
i'S 

„ c 
S 2 
-gpq 
£ 3> 

o.S 

§ w 

pq 


> - 

■a  & 

5i 
4 m 

2 43 
oj  o 

pq  Q 

03 

o pq 


a 

c3 

pq 


.a 


c ** 
o co 
o 

*9  § 
5 °- 
£ ^ 
o ^ 

44  oo 

pq 


■S 


2 d o 

Sgu 

M 

o*& 

H 00  o 
_ <P 


5 

£§ 

ca  ^ .oo 
> _ ®3  ' 

^ c3  (2 
(DO 

231 


S3 

§•§ 
t5  g 

33  u 

pq  « 


Wg 

-g 

So  o 
o o o 
pq  © 

grt.’S 

pa  w)  o 
^ c b 

11^ 

8-g 

*3  p.fcl 
^•oco 

U 


«! 
«S  ^ 

00 

TJ 

a 

So 

Is 

os  ^ 
T3  *-h 
fl  X 
33  . 
O oo 

ft 


st 

H cS 

a> 

CO 

<9 

a p4 


J»V*  r— H 

s s 

5b 

o 

,8  3 

o -s 
j • a ts 

S a a 

3 3 3 


eo 

3 

O 

u 

pq 


477 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , 79 


o 

oo 

Os 


& 

I 

S 

§ 


1 


e 

£ 

<< 

2 

I 

s 


§ 


& 


Q 

% 

< 

CO 

Q 

2 

D 

n< 


5-1 

> 

o 

9 

2 

pq 


<50 

3 

2 

pq 


§ 

v— ✓ 

i 

Jj 

§ 

1 

§ 

»r 

js 


<M  O 

O O £> 

sl^l 

•45312 

4*314 

Sgl* 

^ <N  - 

a 


<*h  (U 

O M 
O 

“ W)hJ 
■js  g rs- 


3e 


o "3 


60 


pq  P4  S o 


St 

I 

t 

R 

I 


1z>  < 

'3  _ 

8J 

“53 
^ co 

.52  <*a 
T3  ° 
G O 
h-i  o 
O 


4 


A M A . 

,3ic  o : 

co  9 

1^0 

£0  «®  a> 

O ^ s 

ok3 

rG  'd  03 

,h  G 7 

G G ^ 

i<  — 

O T3  -3 
G <1  t3 

3&  a § 

a 


c3  , 

PQ  ^ 


g 2^.2 

£ 1*8  1 


I 2 
§ 3 
.2  W 


a 


2 

o 

K 


3 

< 

s 

3 

< 

co 


CU 

£ 

>> 

03 

X 

a 

o 

pq 


O h4 

r- 1 

CO  03 
~ Jh 

g 


o3 

£ 

>» 

o3 

X 

a 

o 

pq 


>» 

a> 

o 

O 

CO 

4 


& 

x 

a 

o 

pq 


478 


A.G.M.  mo-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


j"  ig 

ft  ft  S ^ *n 
Q w 


S’! 


ii« 

«ti 

a-  ^ « 


ft  S 6©  <3 
ft,  43  ^ 

^2-t 


05  -tf* 

I ^ 

^ «n 

§ (N 


£ 


«o 


fll 

§ gl 

£ ft  ^ 


oj 

■fe  ^3  -ft 

S S?  ’*'*  »*  O 
a s*  h.  w co 

i||lw 

^ g .3 


§55  » 

8-3  § | 

s *$3 


<§ 


* 


i co 
os  HT 
O * 
co 


o o 
q tS 
o g 
© S 

CO  g 


* ^ 
O © © *> 
O O CO  Cg 
O rH  i>  S 
O co  On  <i> 
vo  on  -g 
<N-S 


CM 

^J- 

CO 

«T> 

co 

q 

VO* 

d 

co 

CO 

t- 

ON 

ON 

<N 

CsJ 

rf 

^sh 

CO 

CM 

Tt- 

co 

CO 

rH 

co 

in 

CO 

CO 

1-H 

d 

? 

VO* 

co 

>.o 

© 

d 

CM 

CM 

CN 

oo 

ON 

CO 

r-i 

1-H 

«n 

CO 

1—1 

rH 

CM 

CO 

CO 

CM*' 

»o  ^ 

VO  GO 

• fl) 

co  Si2 

t-h  (U 

CM  ° 


TJ  <3 

U H 

E 


o ^ 

SI 

<t> 

= 1 
«3  M 


<D  1*H 

M c3 

5*S 

r^-  o 
<1 


a O 

-P  W 


m 


u . 
8 

a 

o 

p 

P 

£ 

09  ^ 

a § 

5tS 

u _, 

p 3 
PQ  .2 

. 13 

B* 


1 

5 t3 
-2  G 

J2  3 
T5  [Li 
<0  ” 

1 

si 

U 13 

£E 
^ >. 
60 
g©  o 
JS  o 

ia 


.§•§■§  : 
§o£ 

o rt 
-a  £ -g 
gH  g 

P Oj 

•§ll 
£**- 
9-  o 13  § 
4 -g  .2  3 

M o 6n+j 

ads  g 

l^ls 

CO 

G 


o g poo 

s,3«! 
Q„  gm 3 


1 § 

, o 

CD 

o H 


2 S3 

ng 
m 1 


60  0O 

fl  r- 
>>^ 
ctf 


O <p  <?  g 
^ 5 V 60 

g o p.s 
g co  a'd 

O 


(h  k CO  • 

0'2IS  ’ 

•P  d gv 

Qo 

d vy  ^ 

••3|°& 

5 8 -2 

M lZ  </s 

*«  M .3  ffl 

jj  tg  O 
> Pi 

2 ®,213  . 

1-8,11  8 

gwWZ  o 

o 


3 


479 


BALANCE  SHEET  FOR  THE  YEAR  ENDED  31  ST  DECEMBER,  1980— {Contd.) 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


wo 


<3  OO 

§ § 3 

8 8||S 

cq  sq 
co 


vs  r r-*. 
§vo 


•Si  «, 

S»  <<  -*4 

c<  ^3 


— QJ 
Si  « 


x. 


■■8 


s* 

R 0 


5 | 

^ <3 

1 sJ 


•I1 

ja  ss 

VJ 


=8  I 


>> 

<3  -u*  ^ 

^ 1 ^ 
I h'il0 
I*** 


0 

0 

O 

© 

0* 

0 

VO 

r— ( 

o 

co 

O 

© 

<n 

© 

vq 

»— 1 

ft 

vd 

d 

d 

os 

OO 

ft 

© 

OS 

T-H 

© 

© 

On 

VO 

vo 

<0 

CO 

cq 

OO 

OS 

CM 

vo" 

vo 

o' 

© 

a— ( 

c^T 

00 

CM^ 

CO 

©^ 

0- 

OSK 

CO 

cm" 

CO 

CM 


I 

'M 

I 

I 


«ja  a 

0.3 

Q.  0 
0.0 

°i 

| g 

l-H  4h 

<4-i  . 

14 

o S 


T3  O 
00 

O C?\ 


C/2 


UocT  . 

3 ^ 3 

Ja  f>  a -4 
■s  o oo 
3 25  o ■ 

c3  *— i © 

CD  OO 

ft  os 

§ «><£3 

§ 3 <7  T3 
o 3oo  i; 
w H h-  2 
<h  ON  O 
OWh  O 


O 


O o 

O GO 

d £ 

O O 

S.s 

s© 


0 

© 

0 

CO 

© 

WO 

vd 

8 

wo‘ 

t> 

© 

00 

uo 

CO 

vo  ^ 

T— * CO 

vo  £ 
r-  S 
vo  ft 
- 0 


qI 

.g« 

*3  j=! 


ad 

o f‘ 


,—  00 

O i 

<u  o 


o ^ 

O .§ 

ft 

3 V-l  2 

2o^ 

O 


T>  0 
C rO 
0 0 
[L  0 

w o 

II 

lo 

ft 


’a*  S 
o o 

V-l  ’12 

£ 0 

l-H  rQ 

Vj  0 
O 3 

3 O 
S ft 


V>  o 


© 

'EB 

vs 

5~S 

> 3 

3 £ i 

73  3 ft 


CM 


0 

> 

3 

2 

xt 

0 

0 

*g 

sl 

•I  a 

ft 

/*"\ 

co 


<3  x 
3 § 

CO 


0)  0 . 
■a  > 

S 8 

0 GO 

0 

Q 0 

3^2 

S o S 

0 k *3 

3 S 

0 > 

4*1 

S Efe 
© ;=;  0 
S ms  o 
§00-0 

u 


' 

* 

* 

* 

© 

CM 

T— 1 

VO 

© 

1—1 

OS 

VO 

vd 

vd 

CM 

ft 

0 

OO 

vo 

os 

0 

. 

vq 

os 

co" 

os" 

vo" 

vo 

'rH 

0 

© 

o 

0 

VO 

VO 

CM 

vo 

CO 

© 

© 

VO 

1—4 

vq 

© 

VO 

vd 

© 

©* 

VO 

0- 

i — i 

CO 

ft 

© 

o 

r- 

VO 

vo 

© 

©^ 

OO 

0 

0\n 

OS 

vo 

cT 

o' 

vo 

ft 

CO 

ft 

vo" 

CO 

o 

0 

Os 

VO 

1-H 

cm" 

co 

I 

: 

* 

s§ 

0 

0 

lH 

o 

So 

© 

> 

0 

00 

0 

0 

0 

ft 

© 

ft 

2 

u 

P 


3 


480 


A.G.M.  mo-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


o 

oo 

on 


<3  ^ OO 

g ^ *S  5 

"^5  « ^ « 

a 8« 

O3 

s 

^ St- 

a-i* 

£ 


03  ON 

as  w' 


oo 


~.  05 
.2  -« 


& .as  s: 

§3p| 


_ <4J 

r~  ^ ■*«•  *5 
k g to  § 

s &•§  >> 

** 


VO 


1^ 

TsjN 

fi  s” 


^ ° I 

§ s*3 

C5-  S3 


* 


§ 

o 

3 

00 

P 

o 

J-t 

PQ 


ers  '-*1  . 

8 ° • 
fl  fl 
•S  9 
3 '-P  'P 

W.J  | 

^ !3  S 
o 3 O 

3 M O 

£& S 

ts  g $ 

d o hH 

HH  ^5 
si  pS 

- a»*3 

S fl  o 

.2  p3  D, 

t3  pq  m 

a 


T3  d 

d .go 

P 5 

q p< 

g I 

.2u 

■Jrt 

2 >» 

fl  3 
u-g 

._  <D 
dfl  ;t3 

< 3 


OQ 


<5  S2 

S* 

n>  qq 
<N  w 


o 

o 

o 

q 

o 

ON 

8 

vo 

ci 

nf 

in 

(N 

o 

VO 

o 

o 

vd 

oo 

so 

VO 

m 

T”H 

VO 

i-T 

. T3 

u g 

< d 
. o 


<N 


>srl  b 


'a  d ’S 

3 cd  h 

s §1 

_r  h pq 

<D 

3 <1  > 

d <o 
M Q 

> ,<D  Xi 

o*S  g 
OflSd 

§ 


a 


o PP 


Sa 

« s 

<+H  <^- 

o 

>»  d 

T3  03 

3 'S 

M C 

*3 

.a  s- 

bO  «S 

o 

83 

« 8 
d «j 
Cffi 


16 


481 


BALANCE  SHEET  FOR  THE  YEAR  ENDED  315T  DECEMBER,  1980 —{Contd.) 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


oo 


o 
oo 

Sa  cv 

<3  n 

t;  v.  § 

s ^ 'I 

§■  « 


2 .5? 

"§s  5 

03  ^ V) 

Cu  ^ 


£ s'0 


00 


5 ^ 

-r 


; H 


Co  5? 

§ S ^ 


HJ 


•t?  <3 


„ bo  3 

^ ^ fO 

JV.  JS 


C3  <i> 


VJ  "i 

~2  fc 

bs  Cs,03) 


<N 


VO 


efunds 

djust- 

ments 

r- 

£< 

O 

0 

1H 

'si* 

vd 

rd 

vo 

10 
• CD 

CO 

vo 

Spen 
eturn 
iring , 
jear 

/-S 

VO 

' — ✓ 

vo 

t> 

00 

vo 

£ 

^ "S 

vo 

vo 

00 

0 

CN 

0 

Co 

s 

'=d- 

t-i 

■n- 

-a  5^ 

°\ 

OO 

CN 

n- 

in 

£ ^ 

/~N 

00^ 

CN 

CO 

l> 

vo 

vd' 

'*'*  vfi> 

^L~> 


CD 

> 

O 

JS 

b0 

3 

O 

in 

pq 


r/S  "*$ 

5?  is 
Cl  ^ ^ 

R 

b-5 


^3 

s ^ 

? k <1 

Cl -2  .vj 
^ S 
i?  ^ C 

2 I $ 


9 to  § 
S 3 

CD  g tg 

£ o* 

r]  cfl  cS 

O 3 3 

CO  Oh.  2 

» o-g 

3^0 


60 

O 

o 

CD 

W 


ccS  _£S 
CD 


a 

O JH 
cci  3 

~ C/2  ^ -S' 
go  O 3 
0 a 
9 ^3 


.2^3 

2 

o £ 

*5  <D 
'p  co 
>.  <D 

ffi  ^ 

in' 


00 

CN 

O 

O 

0 

0 

K 

OO 

CN 

'st- 

in 

0 

0 

m 

co 

vo" 

t'-" 

N- 

vo" 

in 


O CD  c 

& cs 

CO  Si 

03  cs 
3 si  ccS  T3 

-0  13  O o 

zsM> 

- " 0 *- 

S3  w 0 


^ CD 
3 ° CD 

0^0 


Si  ii  3 

2 g 3 

ci!  S S 

O co 

■Hi  Oh 

c SH  CD 
c 03 
Si  Q -c-4 

o 


Oh 

S 

ccS 

.„  5: 

os  in 
3 a 

o S 

o a 
0 >, 


482 


Total  8,60,026.15  27,18,469.38  10,810.41  35,89,305.94  14,86,148.09  ..  14,86,148.09  21,03,157.85 


BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY 
Bombay  Public  Trusts  Act  1950 
Schedule  IX  [vide  Rule  17(1)] 


A.G.M.  1980-81 — PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


3-  o 

ON  O 

d «n 
— ( rj- 
VO  CN 


o 

B 

3f 

<N 


O 

£ 

bJ) 

O 

c* 


o 

oo 

ON 


ft] 

1 

s 

§ 

&3 


1 

a 

§ 

i 

0 

s 

fc! 

1 
1 
§ 

I 


P4 


VO  00  o 
in  co  O 
3"  in  — i 
co  *-*  vo 

t—  *n  ON 


* 


T3 
T3  <D 
O 3 

s d k 

Bn  O <D 

O O \3 

3 i'B 
~ ? 8 
^ g!  w 

K ^ a 


o o 

^ § 
xs  v3 
u o 

X 5-1 

3 ^ 

o ^ 


^ 5 


*5 

K 5 


3 r_ < 
3 oo 

«_.  i 

.3  rO  O 

3 


O O 
O O 

d o 
o o 
vo  o 
oo 


0 

0 

0 

q 

d 

ON 

0 

VO 

0 

cT 

cm 

»o 

O O 

o o 
o o 
o o 

O in 

cd 


© o o 

o o o 

d d d 

rn  O O 

o 

JQ  rf  in 

ON 

r-4  ri 


§5  O 

In 

-3 


||fi 

v->  Cb  4) 

•5|> 

2 e | 

5 3 

|ISJ 

60  <*  5 

§J  «. 

•8  a « 

15  « ~C 
§ -3 
<§ 


= 3 

3 U 


Ul 

-3  I 


* 3 


.2  35 

M.§  3 
o 33  rT. 
-i  s3  ^ 
C/3 


1 a 

+3  3 

g u 

CD  >> 
oo  <u 

II 

2 3 

3 ID 

IS 

a <2 

a §• 

a ft 

*3 

00 


T3 

3 

8 ft 

CO 

8 fl 
a o 
x a 

ID  3 

§b  I 

§,3 

& o 

O 


3 


<D 


3 [l 
U,  a ^ 

° 3 <D 

° § ft 

2 a’fj"  <2 

< L.  I>  3 


3 

CD 

s 

a 

■ • co 


«S*  +2 

to 

2 ft 

5 v-i 

C oo 

£6 

oo 


8_< 
3 3 
3 3 
3 O 
ID 


bO 
3 

,2  a 


3 3 

5 a 
^ ft 

b0 

.S  So 
2 6 


ft 


00 


w-/  2T 
oo  > 3N 
a ON  • £ —■ 

ffl  < O 

* g<  s 

lb 

CN  d 


i/*> 

co  in 

00 

O 

q 

ON 

a-  q 

>n 

O 

d 

VO 

s 

vd  d 

3* 

ON 

CO 

d 

»n 

vo 

10 

in  00 

CO 

ON 

rf 

o' 

n— 1 

in  00 
3-  *n 

3-" 

cT 

Omoooo^ 
on  o ^ 

SD  3-  3-  rt  d 

S'  ^ ^ ^ ^ 

(N^  m 00  o ^ 

^ 3-  <N  CO 


o 

o 

»o 


0 o 

§ ON 

Ji  id  ^ .0 


co  3 

gog 

CO  J.  -<— » 

« o a 
0 ^ 3 
3 ^ S 

3 ..  3 

| 2g| 

•s  a a s 

to  a +j 

^ 2 -S  > 

& a 3 o 

In  Oh  EO 
* 


1 : 
» 8 


b) 


8 a 
I s 

a ^ 


« s 


55  ^ 00 
3 O * 
00  O 
3 1 00 

a On  ON 

3 

S2S 

ft 


co  ■ 

<3 

3 

O ^ 
ID 


O 
O 00 


^ a On 

C > 

d ° ON 

00-H 

S'f.s 

1*3 

■i'g'S- 

3 d ^0? 

,FH  3 3 o 

co  O H 00 

o 5 ON 

ft  «3  —1 
g M 
On  »H  o 

ft 


ID 


a 

4-» 

3 

o 

"S 

< 

0 

bO 

fl 

”3  ^ 
*3  o 
.2  a 
« «» 
.2  fl 

J-n  3 

3 a 
2 ^ 
GO 


to  • 33 
2 • 2 
M ‘8 


3 

o 

3 "S 

a a g 

•BAG 

a 3 b 
• 3 ft.  3 

O _ On 

° 3 
CO  TO  .2 
d'  ^ 3 

.2  2 bb 

8^  ^ 
w w 


ID 
3 
O 

a _ 
.2  3 
^ 2 
^ | 
8 bo.2 

3 a d 

»!•§! 
ft  ft  <d 


ID 
CD 

>N 

o 

Oh  „ 

g 3 a <d 


3 

O <D 


* 9&s 

W 3 (D  O 

o n <=o^ 
a u .S  3 

|pl 

H ft  2 


483 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , F<?/.  79 


O 


I 

o 

o 

0 

1 

b 

1 

g 

§ 

§ 

1 


> 

o 

3 

oo 

3 

O 

ffl 


s 

I 

$ 


o 2 

5§ 

& £ 
H ^ 

^ -H 

^ oo 

D i 

o o 
..  cl  oo 
• .«  ^ 
•3  o r-( 
co  .. 
£ o 

^ o UZ, 
^ Cl  >n 

> Q © 
c>  M 

-I 


3 

•4-J  n3 
3 3 


CO 

-I 

ffl  >> 

3 

- C 
OO  < 

O v-1 
oo  O 
3 

a 

„ a 

s o o 
& fe  U 


T3 

C/3 

<D 

CO 

3 

i> 

a, 
x 

<u  __ 
00  on 
,3 

.3  5- 


(N 


3 

m 

oo 

6 

00  C/5 

ON  .is 

b a 
O <D 

CO 


•&1 

$1 

SS-g 

si  1 

w g«i 

•2  « « 

°T* 

^ s 

3 

<aq*5 


§ * 

*5)  T) 

2 £ 
O N 

K 


£ 


cx>  a 

< .ft  'O 
h«2 
oo  C^  2 
6 O < 
oo  . 3 

Os  ,£*  ctf 

g53S 


.§! 


n:  6 B 
^ y c« 

<3  w & 
il  2 

^ c3 

r3  O ^ 
0 o ^ 

^ O <+H 

•23  DJ  O 
'Oh  O 

^ 00  C 

>5  • 3 

« O c/s 

^ oo  .22 


3 
<D 

a ^2 

S s 

.3 


ON 


o 
K Ph 


a 

a 

i-  3 
3 £ 

o oo 
o 


tl 

•s| 


* 5 

Hi  •• 

«*■§ 

£ <% 
b 


lie 

«-3 
3 3-2 
— a 3 

d O M 

O ats 

.2^2 
X)  3 
3-0 

« a p. 


6 o 
W3  3 
¥"* 


.§^0 

Is 

•2  8-3 

•§*•§ 
•&<?  S 

>*  o W 

E*sb 

M O 

o 

Uh 

(N 


I 

1 
O 5 
o PQ 

T3  « 
a >» 

3 
3 
O 
3 
3 
3 00 


vo 

ON 

O O 
— i O 

S 

<N 

ON 

cci 

vo  d 

<A 

OO 

CO 

£0 

fN 

(N 

r^- 

Os 

«n 

ri  r~{ 
3- 

»— i 

vo 

vq 

T-l 

<N 

OO 

OO 

•O 

OO 

vo^ 

rf 

«n 

•— 1 

CO 

t>T 

r4 

CO 

ON  Tj" 

vo  vq 

cri  VO 

t**  — < 

«n 

-st'  cn 

cc^ 

ecT 


C/3 

<L> 

W3 

3 

O 

a 

g 


vo  o 
OO  o 
^ vd 
CO  vo 

(N  T— i 


o 8 
— o* 

m in 
°°«  ^ 
co 


On 


O 

O >3 
C2 

3 2 u 

o o a 

v s § 

" cl 
cS.a 

; o 3 

s a 

lo# 


^5 


§ 

S3 

is  I s 

S 3 O 
■K.  ^ TO 

1 1-S 

NX* 

s$  - 


3 

is 

3 S 
cr 


C/3 

T3 

3 

£ 

O 

« 

3 

a 

1/3 


<0 


W 

<U  w 

c/3  V-i 

a ft 


0 

a 0 

3 Ov 

Vh  « 

O O 

•lii 

U-I 

3 

O 

JD 

s;  0 
*•§  £ 

1-I2 

^3 

75 

0 

0 

| a 
&«S 

v?  3 

O 3 

a « 

3^ 

co  ve 
"2  *?t  to 
s 3 

1 S-2 

U 

QO 

0 

x O 

3 

C/3  O 

TJ  -3 
3 3 

cH  g 
Q 


3 

3 +_, 
> CD 
O 0) 

”53  rS3 
i-  &o 

o « 

3 

T3  3 
21 


-3  C2 

O 2 


° 5 
3 
•3  g 

<u  ,2 

g« 

O 4> 


a 3 35 


H C 


3 


o c 

o 

tt«a 

3 3 
O is 
_ 0)  — 

§6  a 

3 &2  3 

O 3 S 
• 3 a)  3 

813 

Is 

a 


3 

in 


3 3 ’ 

ft  <3 

15  T3  +3 

Z§iS% 

>fc  § g 

J4  D.'M 

SI-8.S 

3 ^ 

«s1 

S J3*H 

ft  M 

« ^§2 

=3  o S § 
UN 

a 


a 


484 


A.G.M.  1980-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


fO 

I> 

On  O 
00  O 

O 

O 

r- 

0 

0 

0^0 
0 r4  0 

MOO  O 

IT)  P O 

O OO 
O 

SO 

r-; 

^ 0 
0 q 

cn 

ro 

vd  O 

OS  m 

O ’-J, 

O 

O 

t-H 

0 

ir> 

00 

00  to  h 

COS  fO 

OS  OS^CM 

ri  ^ 

l/s  C^S 

O mol 

0 to 

SO  PS 
00^ 

00 

m 

0^ 

so  iri 

m 

00^ 

s 

00 

■p- 

00 

hH 

os 

hH 

t> 

rf  £ to' 

rt 

00 

00 

Os 

Os 

R 

•S 

.5. 


p 

o 

5h 

pq 


a 

•c 
3 

g •§  .§■ 

Is  1/3 
to  <3  o 

1 8 s 

^2-j| 

rR  u P 

S 

S’Sl  & 

£ § « o 

^ £ u 


• on  A 

• a .& 
.2  & 

a JS 
*C  p 

o co 
09 

Q CO 
1§ 
3 § 

r& 

So 

| Sts 

•Si  g 

Kfl  Ph 


Is 

•P  CD 

apft 

11 

&o 


P3 

CO  CO 

0 2 

ii 

«S 


• <D 

■ M 
p 

c 

CO  CO 

© <0 


CD 


•P  P CO 


P S 
'o  O 


■5  -§ 

p s 

o g 

Cfi  P3  .3 

p*PQ  < 
a c 
^ p.p 

co  ‘-3  p 


5 a 


aft4 

- p.§  2 

O ? !h  J2 

5 Sou 


S-Sg 

*3  o 


d o 
.2  -2 
;3  o 

P Ph 
^ 0-, 

s 0 

ft3  P 
o 


p .y 

2 p 

§ O opq|i 
it  ^ M © to  P 

5oo^U 
co  pq  PP  00  5 


2 ^ 
O sh 
"jU  P 
03  'P 
o p 
PS  <D 

rg 

Qj 

^ CD 

o 3 
£ 3 
O £ 


PS 

o 

DO 


P4 

O 

P 

Cu 

P 

O 


83 

88 
© ^ 
o'  f" 
00 


Ph  *h 

o CD 

PP 


O O 0> 


a) 

>• 

o 

jEs 

M) 

P 

O 

Ch 

PP 


p 

CD 

2 

P 

>>  (U 

.PS  Vh 

3 <S 
a £ 

to  to 

P P 
00  CO 

O O 
Ph  ft 


CO 


p 


rO  S$ 

*0  e 

|-S^ 

0 « P 
^ ^ P 

tn  ,a  »p 

13 

ft, 

5 s 

I? 


O Ph  • 
jH  O * 

33  o -gh  S3 
°S?§gS 
*,  S °-g&:(S  3 

- °-§^^sl 

gao  S-J4  p 

S'SMOWppP 

SojchIh^Ohh 

S«S  1 aH-O 

o « 13  2 2 2 p 


CD 


T3 


©£  X-^  * -=> 

B1  co  a>  po  00  c/2 


O ft 


to  8 « 
«S  2 p 

50  S Q 

a 

1 ^ 
CD  «.  .P 

cs  S m 
pp 

POO 

°d<$~ 

S.s  S 

CO  ^ 

p p p 
g,  pp 

M 


&0  *5?  >» 

.s  > 0 «> 

So  O 

• O 
2 h a 2 

5 S ^ a 
< S,Qi2 

DO  H 


P pi 

5 3 •§  g 

&|  so 

3 cl'- 
Sa° 


o a 


pq 


CO  5h 


2 p^ 
g ° p 

a ^ i— c 

S-& 

,9  2*! 

LJ  co 


ef<« 


P T3 
O P 


O 00 

M 8 

■h  o OS 

OWh 


o £ 


co  - 

8 p 0 -a 

2 to  .25  cu 
ft 

g-  aPn  co 

W 


to  >»  • 

o DO  . 

• 3 

agS 

(D  P 

Q-g 

.s& 

X)  ^ 

>5 

«HH 

o (jj  y— I 

. O 00 
'S  ^ c> 
§•§! 
0^2 


-•  K ‘-B  ? 

t,oJa^ 

P o 
2 5 


D«  P U 
GOP” 


pi*  i-s 

l.§|g§& 


Si 


o < U § 

co  Ph  i-O  J - 
£3 

CD  O 

a3 
x 
W 


* cu  o -h 

1 Pi  ^ J 


(N 


485 


16A 


INCOME  AND  EXPENDITURE  ACCOUNT— (Contd.) 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


oH 


-5t 

o 

oo 

l> 

VO 

cn 

rn 

ON 

»rj 

O 

rn 

ra 

rn 

<d 

> 

o 

J3 

toO 

3 

O 

S-l 

pq 


m 

^ I 

o 

o 


S 

o 

J: 

§ 

§ 

I 

M 


3 


Cl 


83 
w g 

too 

s 

3 3§ 
o 3 

3 «J  O 


£ *5 
c*-<  3 

on 

0)  U 

rd>  ccS 

Ph  a 


co 

£1,  C4-1 

■s  °* 

CD  co 
2 <D  G 

^ irt  ’S 

" 5 o 

-3  <d 


GO 


too  CD 

.S3 
3 t3 

•§  s 

co  co 

T)  g 

3 o 


5 i= 


£ 3 

> (D 
toO'O 
3 


,T-  CS 

.g  £ ^ 3 

.5  £ 43  «*-. 
$ 


’§>  g 

K 3 
<3 


co  co 
« >> 
ea  3 

^ T3 

« .s 
60 


I 

.|) 

<5l> 

£ 

r 

o 


J-H 

go 

■op 
o % 


3 3 § 

0>  5 l— I 

§ s 


4 Q 


3 

!-<  >— 1 
3 ^ 
" 3 

r-.  3 

S 8" 


<d 

r-> 

o o 


e« 


R 

3 

£ 


I 

* 

s? 

<3 

6 


R ^ 
<3  O 

I’S 


3*  J3 

T3  T3 

3 ° 

<»  o 

.2  c 

too.  <2 
O rQ 

3 3 

O l“l 

« 3 
3 °* 
< 


"d 

-£2  § 
co  co 

®*  3 

C/5 
C/5 


Co 

"S  '3  <2 

r <D  < 

KX 


IS  UN, 
rR  X!  — . 

^ O)  *g 

_>< 
3 E 
o ^ 


r>3  rN 

kj  « 


O OS 

Vh 


(s)  S CJ 
,.2  2 0 
5 3 M O 

■S3  eg  u. 

3 To  O 
g 3 3, 
Cl  ^ co 
S3  CD  3 5, 

£Q 


<!U 

CO*  M 


W 

K 

P 

H 

Q 

Z 

W 

Ph 

X 

w 


CD 

> 

o 

'W 

r3 

too 


ffl 


^ -T5 


« 2H? 
2 5 § 
^ 5 ^ fe 
S 3 £ 

"*  — . 3 

o<-2 
S > 


co 


<3 

GO 

,8- 

tq 

(5 


CD 

Dh 

5 g 

0*^3  -g 


03  5 
5 io 
co  a 

b o 


w ui:  ux  _ ^ 

aos  §6 


III 

|iN 

O 53 


“ “I 


° C-& 
CO  cd  O p 

w a 6 
JS  3D 
^wofi 

W 

»n 


a 

Si 


3 3 i 4- 
8“  | § 
S 3 P_,  S 

2 ° 

T3  ^ 


oo 

ON 

K 

VO 

fNi 

VO* 

r}. 

o 

o 

o 

<N 

-3  3 

a | 

c3  3 


•— , CD 
& > 

£3 

a>  (D  % 
cB  5-h  2 t3 

T,  20  3 
O C 3 

t*-,  — cj  Ph 

S 5h  'S  3 

3 *S  0*.S 
« 3 . jfa  c3 
G.  3 0(  -O 

W 

VO 


too 

®U  o 
v 5 o 


TJ  ~ ' 3 

Ph  co  3 
CD  <D  rr 

* S „S 

o -3  5 b 

*015 

CO  S g TO 

S 1 feS 

g-  3>tt, 

w 


S : 

C3 

3 

O 

T3 

CD 

2 

3 

O 

3 u 
O 

co  +-? 
0)  CD 
do  CD 

s § 

w 

oo 


■'S  eg 
3 H 

" -3 

2§§ 

^ 2^ 
o ^ 

3 Q £ 

O H O 
co  ^ 

oo  8 ^ 

3 *3  (D 
(D  a "r~t 

agd, 

w 

ON 


^ o is  : 

-a  co 

f S3 

«og 
33  £ 5 

^ -I'g 

3 3 ^ S 

°-S)i5tS 

co  ea  < ^ 
«&dS 
fl  S|.9 

GO  > 

w 


2 

0 

T) 

1 
u 


486 


A.G.M . 1980-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


<N 

00  (N 

s 

m 

«n 

cn  os 

X 

©*  00 

io3 

vo 

m 

NO 

’—1  «o> 

©^ 

<N  rn 

NO 

rf 

ON 

vo 

*/■? 

rf 

p 

o 

u 

ffl 


II 

§ 


Cl 

$ 


d£j  *rj  2 
; on  X 

g a g 
a p S 
S £ p 

■ .a  8 4? 

-2  G 

W I ° 

P ’3  > 

o^o 

P W) 

5 c o 
‘-3  i§  ~ 
S '3  *g 

aw  m 
P4 


O H 
oooo 
ON  © 
£•  co 
ON  ON 


Wj  CO 

rt 

co  i-i 
*-l  C3 

*«J  ^ 

g p 

60  c^ 

.a  o 

TJ 

'3  o 
w O 

g 

o o 

co 

0)  t3 

fl  2 

gJ§ 

X!  ^ 

w 


co  42 

p 5:3 

- 1 

co  ■ — -. 

"§  X 

.32,  a 
x J? 
o ^ 

cp  3 

II? 

CO  CD  £J 

_ m a 
o 
o 


o o 

co 

CD  _4 
co  *0 

fl  W 
8 h 
a 5 

W 


on 

in 

© 

NO 

© 

T— 1 

r4 

On 

rn 

'53- 

to 

in 

©^ 

c 

ON 

00 

ON 

t-H 

— 

T— C 

cn 

NO 

§ 

&5 

§>  3 
•§  o 

8^ 

> to 
r>  ■•-* 

+■>  .<*> 
|f 
2 « 
pq  2 


§ 

I 


-d  A 
•P  2 

X)  w 
' c*_,  P 

|i 

X X5 
3 ^ 

’ -m  C 

CO  l-H 

"as  trt 
.2  03 
'5h  co 

O as 

O N 
<D  o3‘ 

a 

< 


0 3 
ai  o3 
Vh  g 

00  O 

«+-<  j-i 
O <D 

P^ 

2 3 
!<§ 
g > 

O 8 
£ 8 


I 1+1  C+i 

> 0 0 
<t>  +j 

0 S - 

dsj  o 6 
_r  co 

13  h !s 


g 5- 

O ^ 

<u  pq 

co  ,, 

<D  -£  O 
rX  P 0) 

w u - a 
_ P .2  ,<u 
« a-o  V) 
■=.2  SO 


fl  M W 

| as 
lia 

1 §j 

<U  •-  •£ 
£ o3  c3 

- 3 a 

P G 03 

° R-3 

co  a c 
.J>3H 
xl  C<H 
3 rt  O 

03 


W)  J u 

3 o.a 

p *c  > 
S »rJ 

S4-  o 

a ot 
2 M x) 
* a>£ 
g£2 

kj  <4 

U C++  *<. 

BO  O ^ 
ch  <*3 

2 g-p 

Pa > .2 
oflfc 


.A  3 
60 

o a 
o O 


w 


0 


44x1  H 
P .2  p 
^ M JS 

X3  P a> 
a co 
fl  .2  P 
o x fp 

P 2 --  „ 


fl^S-2  S 
-P  rrC  ■ ^3 


• 0)  -M 

• P P 

CO  O 


'j  0)  1 — ' 

2 ^ 

O < 

^ ^ | 

*S 

^ p C 

C 73  n 

o « £ 

.H  c/D  ^ 

^ G 

^ & o 
“ X u 

W 


P a> 
a> 
C3 

fl  .a 

HH  O 
V3 


c2 

C^J  +G  rGt 

h a 

g pq  bo  o ^ 

T3 
03 


O H*  ° O.X! 
m ccj  3 a>  co 

S oQE 


p a 

p p 
j-i  s 

60  .P 


. I--  «J 

# CO 

O § 

Uu 

Sh 

^ | 
o fl  5 
P P p 
o 17 

p 1/1  H 
03  <d 
60  co  co 

P P Vi 

M &l 

x ^ 

w 


lOi 


Is 

§ 

. ^ CO 

X3  P .2 
c **“'  c3 
3 rr,  P 


3 o.|  & ■ 

g*0 

C3 

^ c X 
00  c3  P 
fci  c/3 
60 

P X 


W 


<W  P 

CO  O 

G o 
0)  <u 
G-  &s 


O "P  -c 
a i-l 

fl 

o Q 


P s~>  C 03 
X3  <u  G i_ 
0)  X 03  o 

> 2 H G 


487 


INCOME  AND  EXPENDITURE  ACCOUNT— (Contd.) 


JOURNAL , BOMBA  Y NATURAL  HIST.  SOCETY,  Vol.  79 


60 

D 

O 

v>i 

pq 


<n  o 
oo 

O 
Ov 


co 


«n 

xt- 

d 

O', 

O 

O 

vo 

VO 

co 

D. 

<D  'B 

0 

00 

VO 

co 

os 

os 

os 

in 

cn 

£ >, 

(N 

O 

x 

vo" 

<N 

<u 

£ T2 

2 3 

es 

vo~ 

u 

D 

> 

o 

Jg 

60 

3 

O 

M 

PP 


|l 

§ £ 

R« 

s i; 
§ s 

S H 


<4-1  CC 

O 60 
. G 

V>  £ 

C ffl 


o 

<L> 

> 

o 

o3 

G 

<u  ^ 

o o 

§ 'S 

5 oo 


60 

O XS 
aca 
>>  15 

X5  O 

-5  -2 

o 

TJ  -5 
13  o 


V] 

+z  <D  ^ 

lp°  9 

o £ o -J= 

o o o 72 

w .S  8 

^SSjJaS 


O j-  cn  4->  (j  2 ^ a 

3 ° ^3  O 

cti  q 


S3  &•§  S 

o < 00  § « 


t3  u 

s 


o Pm 


1« 
_ § s § 
Jszlll 


CD 

S 3 


0)  rj 

2 o 


o 

G O 

•au 


G 

2 o 

O-  *-> 

X 

O m 

S3  £ 

8 0 

S .2  05 


w - 2 

G § CO 
£ 8 
0 8 g 

£ a^ 

a>  .ts 
gUM 

iS 


PM 


488 


Sd.  / -Salim  Ali  Sd./-A.  N.  D.  Nanavati  Sd./-C.  V.  Kulkarni  As  per  our  report  of  even  date 

President,  Honorary  Secretary , Honorary  Treasurer , Sd.  /-Habib  & Co., 

Bombay  Natural  History  Society  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  Chartered  Accountants 


A.G.M.  1980-81— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


£ 

W 

U 

s 

£ 

8 

GO 

HH 

ffi 

3 

6 

% 

5 

pa 

S 

o 

PQ 


I 

0 

ft 

b 

§ 

1 


o 

OQ 

Os 


-O 

S 

o 

<4i 


co 

•$ 

§ 

§ 

?s 

cu 

•s 

I 

o 

CJ 


s 

CO 

! 

Os 

^5 

R 


«r> 

o 

<o> 

m 

o 

O 

m 

CM 

CM 

q 

cn 

. 

rn 

vd 

O 

CM 

rd 

in 

Os 

vd 

oo 

oo 

O 

r-A 

vo 

oo 

m 

CM 

C'f 

cn^ 

irT 

in 

i-H 

T— I 

o 

cn 

CM 

>>  <u 
a w 

s 9 

5 25 

its 

,U  O *J3 

^ o 

o 00 

8 c? 

pi  o 


^ .S3 

”*  M 


3 

o 

T3  „ 

w 8 

<D  W> 


a 5 

o 13  ^ ^ 
•a  3 Z * 

5 8 » 


*5 


>> 

a 

X> 

a 

o 

PQ 

T3 

3 

id 

CTj 

PQ 


>>  eo 

ttf  -4-> 

^ S 


* i 

03  « 
to  O 


S w> 
60  S 
5 d 

w .a 

o 


T3 
d 

•c  d 

o S 

.d  d 
•tS  o 


£ fi  * 


T3 

W 

<D 

m 

3 

13 

£ 

,d 

Jh 

u 

t3  2 

a ,fl 

X 60 

Vh 

J? 

.d  O 

CO  .« 

ci  •«-* 

u 

CM 


O 

o 

O 

o 

(''- 

CM 

OO 

o 

•n 

CO 

d 

as 

as 

vd 

VO 

cn 

CM 

in 

«n 

CM 

oo 

CM 

to 

tC 

CM*' 

r-T 

t-H 

ri 

to 

i—i 

CM 

O o 
o O 
t-I  o 
vo  q 

,-H  CM 

of 


..! 

0 PQ 

00 

as  r 
^ 3 

b ^ 

1 « 

1 £ 


9 

» 

o 

_ a 

a -2 
§ i 

o S 
^ m 
d g 

a 5 

d ^ 
U £ 

d rC 

o .d 


*9 

S 

«l-H 

O O 
oo 

|g 

O 2 


a 

I 


& 

a 

o 

PQ 

£* 

t> 

‘5 

o 

00 

>. 


■ffi 


cti 

*3 

1 $ 
® <*$ 

2 a 

Ui  PQ 

O c 

& a 


as  s 
a 2 

§ .52 

ft  W 

?s  13 


U 


V. 

s; 

5 t§ 

C/5 


3 

13 

55 

>> 

«S 

a 

o 

PQ 


>» 

o 

o 

£ w 


Q ?s  13 


3 s 

oo 


oi 

£ 

>. 

a 

a 

« 


« a 

a a 


03 

£ 

>> 


^3 

-o 

5 


489 


MINUTES  OF  THE  ANNUAL  GENERAL  MEETING  OF  BOMBAY  NATURAL 
HISTORY  SOCIETY  HELD  ON  27TH  NOVEMBER  1981  AT  6-00  P.M. 

AT  COOMARASWAMY  HALL,  PRINCE  OF  WALES  MUSEUM,  BOMBAY 


The  following  were  present : 

1.  Mr.  G.  V.  Bedekar 

2.  Mr.  Bansi  Mehta 

3.  Mrs.  P.  Mukherjee 

4.  Mr.  Humayun  Abdulali 

5.  Mr.  M.  S.  Srinivasan 

6.  Mrs.  Parveen  Sisodia 

7.  Mr.  D.  J.  Panday 

8.  Dr.  A.  N.  D.  Nanavati 

9.  Dr.  C.  V.  Kulkarni 

10.  Dr.  Salim  Ali 

1 1 . Mr.  R.  E.  Hawkins 

12.  Mr.  J.  P.  Irani 

13.  Prof.  P.  V.  Bole 

14.  Mr.  S.  R.  Nayak 

15.  Mr.  M.  R.  Almeida 

16.  Mr.  Ulhas  Rane 

17.  Mr.  Chandrakant  Wakankar 

18.  Mr.  Oswald  Thail 

19.  Miss  Renee  Borges 

20.  Mr.  H.  K.  Divekar 

21.  Mrs.  D.  S.  Variava 

22.  Mr.  D.  P.  Banerjee 

23.  Mr.  V.  K.  Paralkar 

24.  Mr.  N.  D.  Mulla 

25.  Mr.  S.D.  Bhaumik 

26.  Mr.  R.  S.  Moral 

27.  Mr.  A.  G.  Puranik 

28.  Mr.  A.  D.  Kunte 

29.  Dr.  J.  H.  Thakkar 

30.  S/Lt.  A.  Ranga  Rajan 

31.  Mr.  M.  B.  Sukumar 

The  President  (Dr.  Salim  Ali)  requested  Mr. 
G.  V.  Bedekar,  Vice  President,  to  take  the 
Chair,  and  conduct  the  proceedings. 

Agenda  item  (1) — Committee’s  Report*  for 
calendar  year  1980  (which  is  the  97th  year  of 
the  Society’s  existence)  : The  Chairman  reques- 
ted the  Honarary  Secretary  (Dr.  A.  N.  D. 


Nanavati)  to  present  the  report  of  the  Committee 
for  the  year  1980.  As  copies  of  the  report  had 
been  made  available  and  time  had  been  allowed 
for  perusal,  the  report  was  taken  as  read  and 
the  Honorary  Secretary  invited  comments  on 
the  report. 

Mr.  Ulhas  Rane  pointed  out  that  on  page  6 
of  the  report  as  circulated  at  the  meeting  the 
word  4 Ratnagiri  ’ should  be  corrected  to 
‘Yellapur  in  North  Kanara  district’,  with 
reference  to  the  4 Solar  Eclipse  ’ study.  This 
was  accepted. 

Mr.  Humayun  Abdulali,  drew  attention  to 
the  delay  experienced  by  him  in  receiving  old 
volumes  of  the  Society’s  journal  in  connection 
with  the  compilation  of  the  book  ‘A  Century 
of  Natural  History’.  He  referred  to  the 
absence  of  the  Curator  from  Bombay,  in  connec- 
tion with  seminars,  conferences  and  meetings. 
He  also  repeated  his  complaint  that  the  compu- 
terisation of  the  bird  banding  data  has  not  yet 
produced  specific  results.  He  felt  that  the 
association  of  Dr.  Salim  Ali  as  Principal  Investi- 
gator of  several  research  projects  involved  a 
loss  of  opportunity  to  other  researchers. 
The  Chairman  and  the  Honorary  Secretary 
explained  the  correct  position  regarding  the 
compilation  4 A Century  of  Natural  History  ’, 
the  Curator’s  attendance  at  important  meetings 
in  Bombay  and  elsewhere  and  the  bird  banding 
data — computerisation  project.  Mrs.  Variava 
expressed  the  view  that  it  was  due  to  Dr.  Salim 
Ali’s  association  with  the  projects  that  they 
were  supported  by  government  funds  and  grants 
from  PL-480  allocations  and  that  the  Society 
Was  fortunate  in  this  respect.  She  felt  that 
these  projects  did  not  come  in  the  way  of  other 
research  projects  and  any  member  of  the  Society 

* see  page  467. 


490 


MINUTES  OF  THE  A.G.M.  OF  THE  B N H.S. 


was  welcome  to  submit  for  consideration  his 
own  research  project  and  if  it  was  found  feasible, 
there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  finding  funds 
for  it.  Mr.  H.  K.  Divekar  stressed  that  he 
himself  had  been  allotted  funds  for  his  two 
projects  (‘  Bastar  buffalo  survey  ’ and  4 solar 
eclipse  study’)  and  that  there  was  no  basis 
for  Mr.  Abdulali’s  complaint,  about  opportu- 
nities and  funds  for  research  projects.  Mr. 
Bansi  Mehta  stated  that  Mr.  Abdulali  seemed 
doubtful  about  the  scientific  value  of  bird 
counts  being  conducted  but  pointed  out  that 
bird  counts  were  also  meant  for  creating  inte- 
rest in  natural  history. 

Dr.  C.  V.  Kulkarni  (Honorary  Treasurer) 
clarified  that  all  research  proposals  put  forward 
by  members  were  considered  carefully  and  no 
feasible  project  would  be  turned  down.  It 
was  for  members  to  take  the  initiative  in  research. 

The  Chairman  then  requested  the  Honorary 
Secretary  to  give  a brief  account  of  the  activities 
of  the  Society  during  the  year  1981  to  date. 
The  Honorary  Secretary  stated  that  the  activi- 
ties of  the  Society  have  increased  considerably 
in  extent  as  well  as  depth.  He  added  that 
during  1981  the  publication  of  ithe  Society’s 
journal  has  been  brought  to-date,  the  August 
1981  issue  having  come  out  on  the  28th  August 
1981.  A reprint  edition  of  the  Checklist  of 
the  Birds  of  Maharashtra  was  brought  out 
during  the  year,  and  copies  are  available  for 
sale. 

The  Honorary  Treasurer  stated  that  recently 
we  have  received  two  major  donations  from 
Chen  Kim  Loke  Foundation  under  Salim 
Ali  Nature  Conservation  Fund  and  there  is  no 
difficulty  whatsoever  about  funds  for  research 
projects. 

The  Chairman  told  the  members  that  the 
project  reports  of  Avifauna,  Bird  Hazard  and 
Asian  Elephant  Group,  and  Vedaranyam 
Swamp,  are  available  for  perusal  of  members 
at  the  Society. 


The  Committee’s  report  was  approved. 

Agenda  item  (2) — The  Honorary  Treasurer 
presented  the  Balance  Sheet  and  Statement  of 
Accounts*  for  the  year  1980  and  drew  atten- 
tion to  the  income  and  expenditure  statement, 
showing  that  the  Society  has  been  able  to  wipe 
out  the  long  standing  deficit  of  Rs.75, 717.95 
and  there  was  now  a small  surplus.  This 
was  mainly  due  to  the  efforts  of  Mr.  H.  K. 
Divekar  in  organising  the  snake  exhibition  at 
Bombay.  Moreover,  the  Society  has  been 
able  to  create  a Staff  Welfare  Fund  for  the  staff 
and  a sizeable  sum  has  been  put  into  the 
Gratuity  Fund.  This  was  made  possible  by 
certain  additional  activities  and  by  levy  of 
administrative  charges  on  projects  run  by  the 
Society. 

The  accounts  were  approved. 

Agenda  item  (3) — Appointment  of  auditors 
and  fixing  their  remuneration : Dr.  C.  V. 
Kulkarni  (Honorary  Treasurer),  proposed  that 
Messrs  Habib  & Co.,  auditors  of  the  Society 
for  the  past  several  years  be  appointed  for  the 
year  1981  on  the  same  remuneration,  i.e., 
Rs.  1,000.  This  was  seconded  by  Dr. 
Nanavati  (Honorary  Secretary)  and  carried. 

Agenda  item  (4) — Election  of  Executive  Com- 
mittee for  two  years  (until  the  Annual  General 
Meeting  for  calendar  year  1982)  : The  Chair- 
man stated  that  five  nominations  for  the 
Executive  Committee  have  been  received  in 
addition  to  the  twelve  persons  recommended 
by  the  Committee  and  an  election  will  be  neces- 
sary, under  the  rules.  The  names  recommen- 
ded by  the  outgoing  Committee  are  (apart 
from  the  Secretary,  Govt,  of  India,  Depart- 
ment of  Science  & Technology)  : 

1 . Mr.  Humayun  Abdulali 

2.  Dr.  S.  R.  Amladi,  M.D. 

3.  Prof.  P.  V.  Bole 

4.  Mr.  Divyabhanusinh  Chawda 

* see  page  475. 


491 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , fa?/.  79 


5.  Dr.  B.  Dasgupta 

6.  Mr.  H.  K.  Divekar 

7.  Mr.  David  Fernandes 

8.  Dr.  C.  V.  Kulkarni 

9.  Mr.  Bansi  Mehta 

10.  Dr.  A.  N.  D.  Nanavati,  M.D. 

11.  Mr.  M.  S.  Srinivasan 

12.  Mrs.  Dilnavaz  Variava 

The  five  nominations  received  are  : 

1 . Mr.  M.  R.  Almeida 

Proposed  by  Mr.  K.  S.  Gopalakrishnan 
Seconded  by  Mr.  S.  R.  Nabar 

2.  Mr.  K.  D.  Gokhale 
Proposed  by  Mr.  G.  L.  Kalro 
Seconded  by  H.  V.  Shenoy 

3.  Mr.  Ulhas  Rane 

Proposed  by  M.  S.  Renee  Borges 
Seconded  by  Dr.  S.  D.  Jayawant 

4.  Dr.  A.  S.  Kothari 

Proposed  by  Dr.  M.  K.  Sabharwal 
Seconded  by  Dr.  R.  V.  Katre 

5.  Mrs.  Phillippa  H.  Mukherjee 
Proposed  by  Mr.  G.  Y.  Shah 
Seconded  by  Dr.  (Mrs.)  A.  S.  Mehta 

Agenda  item  (5) — Other  business : Mrs. 
Mukherjee  stated  that  some  members  find  the 
Society’s  journal  somewhat  too  technical  and 
suggested  that  there  may  be  several  members 
prepared  to  waive  receipt  of  the  journal  which 
may  be  coupled  with  reduction  in  membership 
subscription  ; and  therefore  we  should  consider 
having  two  types  of  membership,  one  with  the 
journal  and  second  without  the  journal,  with 
reduced  membership  rates. 

Mrs.  D.  S.  Variava  suggested  that  a circular 
should  be  sent  to  all  members  to  ask  them 
whether  they  are  interested  in  the  journal 
and  if  not,  whether  they  would  waive  their 


right  to  receive  the  journal  for  a stated  period. 
The  Honoray  Treasurer  stated  that  this  matter 
had  been  brought  up  several  times  in  the  past 
and  has  been  discussed  by  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee also.  A small  reduction  in  the  number 
of  printed  copies  of  the  journal  will  not  result 
in  appreciable  saving,  but  a reduction  in 
membership  fee  may  involve  an  overall  loss  of 
revenue,  with  no  commensurate  advantage. 
Prof.  P.  V.  Bole  stated  that  when  we  think  of 
non-journal  membership,  we  should  bear  in 
mind  that  outstation  members  of  the  Society 
are  more  concerned  with  the  journal  and 
Hornbill,  since  they  are  not  able  to  attend 
meetings  etc.  held  in  Bombay. 

It  was  decided  that  the  Executive  Committee 
should  consider  sending  a communication  to 
all  members  in  India  asking  them,  whether  they 
wish  to  continue  receiving  the  journal  and 
if  not,  to  express  their  waiver,  and  the  period, 
so  that  arrangements  can  be  made  to  send  the 
journals  only  to  those  who  wish  to  receive  it 
and  thus  save  on  postage /delivery  charges,  at 
least. 

The  meeting  terminated  with  a vote  of 
thanks  to  the  Chair. 

In  the  ballot  held  in  December  1981,  the 
following  were  elected  to  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee. 

1 . Mr.  Humayun  Abdulali 

2.  Dr.  S.  R.  Amladi,  m.d. 

3.  Prof.  P.  V.  Bole 

4.  Mr.  Divyabhanusinh  Chawda 

5.  Dr.  B.  Dasgupta 

6.  Mr.  H.  K.  Divekar 

7.  Mr.  David  Fernandes 

8.  Dr.  C.  V.  Kulkarni,  ph.D. 

9.  Mr.  Bansi  Mehta 

10.  Mrs.  Phillippa  H.  Mukherjee 

11.  Dr.  A.  N.  D.  Nanavati,  m.d. 

12.  Mrs.  Dilnavaz  Variava 


492 


THE  SOCIETY’S  PUBLICATIONS 
Mammals 

The  Book  of  Indian  Animals,  by  S.  H.  Prater,  4th  edition  (reprint).  28  plates  in 
colour  by  Paul  Barruel  and  many  other  monochrome  illustrations,  Rs.  60.00 

(Price  to  members  Rs.  55.00) 

The  Ecology  of  the  Lesser  Bandicoot  Rat  in  Calcutta,  by  James  Juan  Spillett.  Rs.  10 

Birds 

The  Book  of  Indian  Birds,  by  Salim  Ali.  11th  (revised)  edition.  74  coloured  and 
many  monochrome  plates,  Rs.  60.00 

(Price  to  members  Rs.  55.00) 

The  Synopsis  of  the  Birds  of  India  and  Pakistan,  by  S.  Dillon  Ripley  II.  An 
up-to-date  checklist  of  all  the  birds  resident  and  migrant,  including  those 
of  Nepal,  Bhutan,  Bangladesh  and  Sri  Lanka,  2nd  edition.  Rs.  100.00 

(Price  to  members  Rs.  80.00) 

Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Maharashtra,  by  Humayun  Abdulali.  2nd  edition  Rs.  4.00 
Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Delhi,  Agra  and  Bharatpur,  by  Humayun  Abdulali  & J.  D. 
Panday.  Rs,  3.00 

Reptiles 

The  Book  of  Indians  Reptiles  By  J.  C.  Daniel  (in  press ) 

Identification  of  Poisonous  Snakes,  Wall  chart  in  Gujarati  and  Marathi.  Rs.  5.00 

Plants 

Some  Beautiful  Indian  Trees,  by  Blatter  and  Millard.  With  many  coloured  and 
monochrome  plates.  3rd  edition  (Reprint).  Rs.  40.00 

(Price  to  members  Rs.  35) 

Some  Beautiful  Indian  Climbers  and  Shrubs,  by  Bor  and  Raizada.  With  many 
coloured  and  monochrome  plates.  2nd  edition.  Rs.  100  00 

(Price  to  members  Rs . 75) 

Grasses  of  Western  India,  by  Toby  & Patr.'eia  Hodd.  With  64  monochrome  plates. 

Rs.  50.00 

(Price  to  members  Rs.  37.50) 

Miscellaneous 

Encyclopedia  of  Indian  Natural  History  Edited  by  R.  E.  Hawkins  (it  press) 

A Century  of  Natural  History  Edited  bv  J.  C.  Daniel  (in  press) 

Glimpses  of  Nature  Series  Booklets  : 

1.  Our  Birds  I (with  8 coloured  plates)  Kannada.  Rs.  0.62 

2.  Our  Monsoon  Plants  (with  8 coloured  plates)  in  Hindi  and 

Marathi.  Rs.  0.80 

3.  Our  Animals  (with  8 coloured,  plates)  in  English,  Gujarati 

and  Hindi.  Rs.  1.25 

Glimpses  of  Nature  in  India  (with  40  coloured  plates)  ill  English  Rs.  7.50 

(Price  to  members  Rs.  5) 

.Back  numbers  of  the  Society's  Journal.  Rates  on  application. 

The  society  will  gratefully  accept  back  numbers  of  the  Journal , from  members 
who  may  not  wish  to  preserve  them. 

TERMS  OF  MEMBERSHIP 

Entrance  Fees  : 

Ordinary  and  Life  Members 
Student  Members  . . . 

Subscription  : 

(a)  Ordinary  individual  Members  . . ' 

(b)  Ordinary  Corporate  Members  . . . . 

(cj  Ordinary  Members  resident  outside  India 
Life  Members  . . . . 

. (Rs.  250  after  20  years) 

Compound  Corporate  Members  . . . . . . . . . . Rs.  1500 

Student  Members  (without  Journal)  ..  ...  ..  ..  Rs.  15 

Annual  subscription  to  Journal  Rs.  135 

Members  residing  outside  India  should  pay  their  subscription  by  means  of  orders  on  their 
Bankers  to  pay  the  amount  of  the  subscription  to  the  Society  in  Bombay  on  the  1st  January  in 
each  year.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  then  the  sum  of  £6.50  should  be  paid  annually  to  the  Society's 
London  Bankers: — The  Grindlavs  Bank  Ltd..  13,  St.  James’s  Sq.,  London  SW1Y  4LF.  Account 
No.  1101091. 

The  subscription  of  members  elected  in  October,  November,  and  December  covers  the  period 
from  the  date  of  their  election  to  the  end  of  the  following  year. 


Rs. 

25 

Rs. 

10 

Rs. 

60 

Rs. 

125 

Rs. 

95 

Rs. 

800 

CONTENTS 

Territorial  behaviour  of  the  Indian  Blackbuck  {Antilope  cervicapra , Linnaeus,  1758)  in  the 
Velavadar  National  Park,  Gujarat.  By  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh. 

Some  post-monsoon  birds  observed  in  central  Nepal.  By  Paul  Hendricks 

Biology  and  morphology  of  immature  stages  of  Bracon  brevicomis  (Hymenoptera:  Braconidae) 
An  important  biological  control  agent  . of  the  Black-headed  caterpillar  pest  of 
coconut.  By  V.  V.  Sudheendrakumar,  U.  V.  K.  Mohamed,  T.  C.  Narendran  and 
U.  C.  Abdurahiman  . . . . . . , . . . . 

. . 

The  aquatic  and  marshland  flora  of  Kheri  District,  Uttar  Pradesh.  By  K.  K.  Singh ' 

and  R.  P.  S.  Tomar  . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Restocking  mugger  crocodile  Crocodylus  palustris  (Lesson)  in  Andhra  Pradesh  : evaluation 
of  a pilot  release.  By  B.  C.  Choudhury  and  H.  R.  Bustard  . . 

Studies  on  the  estuarine  Odonata  from  24  Parganas  District  of  West  Bengal,  with  A 
note  on  the  reproductive  behaviour^  in  Urothemis  signata  signata  (Rambur)  (Odonata  : 
Insecta).  By  M.  Prasad  and  S.  K.  Ghosh  . . . . 

Distribution,  feeding  habits  and  burrowing  patterns  of  Tatera  indica  cuvieri  (Waterhouse). 
By  C.  M.  George,  P.  J.  Joy  and  G.  C.  Abraham  . . 

Recent  changes  to  the  Burmese  mammal  list.  By  G.  W.  H.  Davison 

Material  to  the  Flora  of  Mahabaleshwar-3.  By  P.  V.  Bole  and  M.  R.  Almeida 

Some  aspects  of  the  reproductive  biology  of  the  Liontail  Macaque — Macaca  silemis 
(Linn.) — A zoo  study.  By  L.  S.  Ramaswami,  G.  U.  Kurup  and  B.  A.  Gadgil 

Taxonomic  significance  of  Spermatheca  in  some  Indian  Grasshoppers  (Orthoptera  : 
Ucrididae).  By  Kharibam  Meinodas,  Shaikh  Adam  Shafee  and  Mohammad  Kamil  Usmani . . 

A Catalogue  of  the  Birds  in  the  collection  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society— 25. 
By  Humayun  Abdulali.  . . 

New  Descriptions 

Reviews 

Miscellaneous  Notes 

Annual  Report  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  for  the  Year  1980-81 

Statement  of  Accounts  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society 

Minutes  of  the  Annual  General  Meeting  . . 


PRINTED  AND  PUBLISHED  BY  K.  G.  JOHN  AT  TFIE  DIOCESAN  PRESS,  10,  CHURCH  ROAD,  VEPERY,  MADRAS. 

EDITORS  : J.  C.  DANIEL,  P.  V.  BOLE  & A.  N.  D.  NANAVATI 


241 

247 

254 

261 

275 

290 

296 

302 

307 

324 

331 

336 

361 

387 

399 

466 

475 

490 


C’3161. 


Vol.  79,  No.  3 

Editors'.  J.  C.  Daniel,  P.  V.  Bole  & A.  N.  D.  Nanavati 
DECEMBER  1982  Rs.  45 


NOTICE  TO  CONTRIBUTORS 

Contributors  of  scientific  articles  are  requested  to  assist  the  editors  by  observ- 
ing the  following  instructions: 

1.  Papers  which  have  at  the  same  time  been  offered  for  publication  to  other 
journals  or  periodicals,  or  have  already  been  published  elsewhere,  should  not  be 
submitted. 

2.  The  MS.  should  be  typed  (double  spacing)  on  one  side  of  a sheet  only, 
and  the  sheets  properly  numbered. 

3.  All  scientific  names  to  be  printed  in  italics  should  be  underlined. 

4.  Trinomials  referring  to  subspecies  should  only  be  used  where  identifica- 
tion has  been  authentically  established  by  comparison  of  specimens  actually  collect- 
ed. 

5.  Photographs  for  reproduction  must  be  clear  and  show  good  contrast. 
Prints  must  be  of  a size  not  smaller  than  8.20  x 5.60  cm  (No.  2 Brownie)  and  on 
glossy  glazed  paper. 

6.  Text-figures,  line  drawings,  and  maps  should  be  in  Indian  ink,  preferably 
on  Bristol  board. 

7.  References  to  literature  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  paper,  alpha- 
betically arranged  under  author’s  name,  with  the  abridged  titles  of  journals  or 
periodicals  underlined  (italics)  and  titles  of  books  not  underlined  (roman  type), 
thus: 

Banerji,  M.  L.  (1958):  Botanical  Exploration  in  East  Nepal.  7.  Bombay  nat. 
Hist.  Soc.  55 ( 2):  243-268. 

Prater,  S.  H.  (1948):  The  Book  of  Indian  Animals.  Bombay.  Titles  of  papers 
should  not  be  underlined. 

8.  Reference  to  literature  in  the  text  should  be  made  by  quoting  the  author’s 
name  and  year  of  publication,  thus:  (Banerji  1958). 

9.  Synopsis : Each  scientific  paper  should  be  accompanied  by  a concise, 

clearly  written  synopsis,  normally  not  exceeding  200  words. 

10.  Reprints : Authors  are  supplied  25  reprints  of  their  articles  free  of  charge. 
In  the  case  of  joint  authorship,  50  copies  will  be  given  gratis  to  be  distributed 
among  the  two  or  more  authors.  Orders  for  additional  reprints  should  be  in  multi- 
ples of  25  and  should  be  received  within  two  weeks  after  the  author  is  informed 
of  the  acceptance  of  the  manuscript.  They  will  be  charged  for  at  cost  plus  postage 
and  packing. 

11.  The  editors  reserve  the  right,  other  things  being  equal,  to  publish  a mem- 
ber’s contribution  earlier  than  a non-member’s. 

Hornbill  House,  Editors. 

Shaheed  Bhagat  Singh  Road,  Journal  of  the  Bombay 

Bombay  400  023.  Natural  History  Society. 


VOLUME  79,  NO.  3 : DECEMBER  1982 


Date  of  Publication:  28-3-1983 

CONTENTS 

Page 

Status  of  the  Grey  Wolf  ( Canis  lupus  pallipes  Sykes)  in  India  — A preliminary 

survey.  By  S.  P.  Shahi.  (With  three  plates  & two  text-figures).  493 

Foraging  behaviour  and  interactions  of  Whiteheaded  Babblers  Turdoides  affinis 
WITH  OTHER  species.  By  A.  J.  T.  Johnsingh,  K.  Paramanandham,  and  S.  Murali. 

(With  three  text-figures ) . „ 503 

Studies  on  the  grasses  of  Kheri  District,  Uttar  Pradesh.  By  K.  K.  Singh.  . . 515 

Predatory  behaviour  of  an  Assassin  Spider,  Chorizopes  sp.  (araneidae),  and  the 

defensive  behaviour  of  its  prey.  By  William  G.  Eberhard  . . 522 

Studies  on  the  spawning  ecology  of  Kumaun  mahseer  Tor  tor  (Hamilton) 

and  Tor  putitora  (Hamilton).  By  S.  S.  Pathani.  (With  a text- figure ) ..  525 

The  Gharial  (Gavialis  gangeticus ) : A review.  By  Romulus  Whitaker  and  D.  Basu. 

(With  six  plates  and  a text- figure)  . . 531 

Breeding  habits  and  associated  phenomenon  in  some  Indian  bats.  Part  VII  — 
Hipposideros  speoris  (Schneider)  (Hipposideridae)  from  Chandrapur,  Maha- 
rashtra. By  A.  Gopalakrishna  and  Deepa  Bhatia  . . 549 

First  records  of  O donates  (/Irtiiropodai  Insecta)  from  the  Silent  Valley 
and  New  Amarambalam  Reserved  Forests.  By  K.  Ramachandra  Rao  and 
A.  R.  Lahiri  ..  557 

Notes  on  the  occurrence  of  some  plants  of  West  Bengal.  By  J.  K.  Sikdar  . . 563 

Some  interesting  aspects  of  the  Avifauna  of  the  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary, 

Thanjavur  District,  Tamil  Nadu.  By  R.  Sugathan  . . 567 

Taxonomic  significance  of  Ovipositor  in  some  Indian  Grasshoppers  (Orthop- 
tera:  Acrididae).  By  M.  Kamil  Usmani  and  S.  Adam  Shafee.  (With  two 
plates  and  a text-figure).  ..  576 

The  Birds  of  Ranganathittu.  By  S.  G.  Neginhal.  (With  two  plates).  ..  581 

Material  for  the  Flora  of  Mahabaleshwar — 4.  By  P.  V.  Bole  and  M.  R.  Almeida  594 

A Catalogue  of  the  Birds  in  the  Collection  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History 

Society — 26.  By  Humayun  Abdulali  . . 607 

Geographic  variation  in  the  Barasingha  or  Swamp  Deer  (Cervus  duvauceli). 

By  Colin  P.  Groves.  (With  five  plates  & four  text-figures).  ..  620 

New  Descriptions: 

A new  species  of  Oligodon  from  the  Palni  Hills,  South  India  (Serpentes: 

Colubridae).  By  Romulus  Whitaker  and  Shekar  Dattatri.  (With  a plate).  ..  630 

On  a new  genus  and  a new  species  of  Eremninae  (Curculionidae:  Coleoptera). 

By  H.  R.  Pajni  and  C.  S.  Sidhu.  (With  two  text-figures) . . . 632 


Record  of  Polypedilum  Kieffer  (Diptera:  Chironomidae)  in  Bhutan  and  India 
with  A new  species  from  India.  By  D.  K.  Guha  and  P.  K.  Chaudhuri  {With 
seven  text-figures ).  ..  635 

On  a new  species  of  the  genus  Irdex  Burr  (Dermaptera:  Labhdae)  from 

Sri  Lanka.  By  G.  K.  Srivastava.  {With  six  text-figures)  . . 638 

A new  species  of  Anemone  L.  Ranunculaceae  from  Tehri  District  (Garhwal) 

in  India.  By  A.  K.  Goel  and  U.  C.  Bhattacharyya.  {With  seven  text-figures)  . . 641 

New  Taxa  of  Ophiorrhiza  L.  (Rubiaceae).  By  D.  B.  Deb  and  D.  C.  Mondal.  {With 

two  text-figures)  . . 644 

Indigofera  tirunelvelica  — A new  species  from  Tamil  Nadu,  S.  India.  By  M. 

Sanjappa.  {With  nine  text-figures).  ..  647 

A new  species  of  Elaphoglossum  from  India.  By  Anjali  Biswas  and  S.  R.  Ghosh. 

{With  five  text-figures)  . . 650 

Microstegium  borianum  sp.  nov.  — (Poaceae)  — A new  species  from  India. 

By  P.  R.  Sur.  {With  a text-figure).  . . 652 

Silentvalleya  — A new  genus  of  Poaceae  from  Kerala,  India.  By  V.  J.  Nair, 

P.  V.  Sreekumar,  E.  Vajravelu  and  P.  Bhargavan.  {With  eleven  text-figures)  654 

Miscellaneous  Notes: 

Mammals:  1.  Intra-generic  troop  formation  in  Presbytis  genera  in  sanctuaries  of  Tamil 
Nadu.  By  J.  Mangalaraj  Johnson  (p.  658);  2.  The  curious  death  of  a panther.  By 
Humayun  Abdulali  (p.  659);  3.  Note  on  the  autopsy  and  causes  of  death  of  a panther.  By 
S.  M.  Niphadkar,  V.  S.  Narsapur,  and  V.  S.  Deshpande  (p.  661);  4.  Transportation  of 
young  by  ratel  {Mellivora  capensis).  By  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh  (p.  661);  5.  Burrowing  patterns 
of  sand-coloured  rat,  Rattus  gleadowi.  {With  a text-figure).  By  Ranjan  Advani  and  A.  P. 
Jain  (p.  662);  6.  An  instance  of  interspecific  aggression  between  chital  {Axis  axis  Erxleben) 
and  blackbuck  {Antilope  cervicapra  Linnaeus)  at  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary.  By  S.  Faizi 
(p.  664) ; 7.  A sighting  of  a large  dhole  pack  in  Kanyakumari  district,  Tamil  Nadu.  By  S. 
Ramanathan  (p.  665). 

Birds:  8.  Pinkfooted  Shearwater  [Procellaria  carneipes  (Gould)]  in  India.  By  Humayun 
Abdulali  and  Robert  Grubh  (p.  666);  9.  The  Pintail  {Anas  acuta  Linn.) — An  addition  to  the 
list  of  birds  occurring  in  Kerala.  By  K.  K.  Neelakantan  (p.  667);  10.  Flamingos  breeding 
in  Thol  Lake  Sanctuary  near  Ahmedabad.  By  P.  S.  Thakker  (p.  668);  11.  Occurrence  of 
certain  Waders  in  Sri  Lanka.  By  T.  W.  Hoffmann  (p.  668);  12.  The  Chestnut-headed  Bee- 
eater  {Merops  leschenaulti  Vieillot)  in  Gujarat.  By  S.  G.  Monga  (p.  669);  13.  Sunbirds 
fostering  fledglings  of  the  Plaintive  Cuckoos.  By  Erach  K.  Bharucha  (p.  669);  14.  Magpie- 
Robin  feeding  on  Geckoes.  By  Stephen  Sumithran  (p.  671);  15.  Occurrence  of  forest  Wagtail 
{Motacilla  indica  Gmelin)  in  Nagzira  Sanctuary,  Bhandara  District  (Maharashtra).  By  Nitin 
Jamdar  (p.  671);  16.  Birds  in  650-1100  mm  rainfall  Zone  of  Rajasthan.  By  Ranjan  Advani 
(p.  672);  17.  Dispersal  of  sandalwood  {Santalum  album)  by  birds  in  Tamilnadu.  By  J.  Man- 
galaraj Johnson  (p.  672). 

Reptiles:  18.  Rediscovery  of  the  forest  Cane  Turtle,  Heosemys  {Geoemyda)  silvatica  (Repti- 
lia,  Testudinata,  Emydidae)  from  Chalakudy  forests  in  Kerala.  By  J.  Vijaya  (p.  676);  19. 
Behaviour  of  the  male  gharial  during  the  nesting  and  post-hatching  period.  By  S.  Maharana 
and  H.  R.  Bustard  (p.  677) ; 20.  Growth  and  behaviour  of  a blind  gharial  Gavialis  gange- 
ticus  (Gmelin).  {With  a text-figure).  By  L.  A.  K.  Singh  and  H.  R.  Bustard  (p.  681);  21 


Trap  used  for  catching  a mugger  ( Crocodylus  palustris)  from  nature.  (With  three  text- 
figures).  By  L.  A.  K.  Singh  (p.  684);  22.  Sexing  and  sex  ratios  of  gharial  ( Gavialis  gange- 
ticus ) raised  in  captivity.  (With  a plate  and  a text-figure).  By  Shyam  Lai  and  D.  Basu 
(p.  688);  23.  Gecko  feeding  on  a mouse.  By  Stephen  Sumithran  (p.  691);  24.  A new  record 
of  Salmo  trutta  fario  Linn,  from  Gobindsagar  reservoir.  By  V.  K.  Sharma  and  Y.  Rama 
Rao  (p.  692). 

Fishes:  25.  Recent  records  of  Garhwal  Mahseer  (Tor  putitora)  with  a note  on  its  present 
status.  (With  a text-figure).  By  Prakash  Nautiyal  and  M.  S.  Lai  (p.  693);  26.  Extension  of 
range  of  Enneapterygius  obtusirostre,  with  notes  on  its  ecology.  (With  two  text-figures) . By 
N.  A.  V.  Prasad  Reddy  and  C.  Uma  Devi  (p.  696) ; 27.  On  a freak  of  Istiblennius  striatoma - 
culatus.  By  N.  A.  V.  Prasad  Reddy  and  C.  Uma  Devi  (p.  698). 

Insects:  28.  On  the  occurrence  of  Cryptotermes  bengalensis  Snyder  (Isoptera:  Kalotermi- 
tidae)  in  Gujarat,  India.  By  R.  K.  Thakur  and  N.  S.  Rathore  (p.  699) ; 29.  Incidence  of 
mass  attraction  of  Cydnus  indicus  Westw.  (Heteroptera  — Pentatomidae)  to  light.  By  S.  C. 
Dhiman  (p.  700);  30.  A note  on  the  oviposition  of  Sphaerodema  rusticum  (Fabr.)  (Hemip- 
tera).  By  Tej  Prakash  Vyas  and  (Mrs.)  Madhu  Vyas  (p.  700);  31.  New  record  of  Paurop- 
sylla  depressa  Crawf.  on  Ficus  lucescens  Blume.  By  S.  C.  Dhiman  and  Vinay  Kumar  (p. 
701);  32.  Butterflies  from  Andaman  Islands  with  some  new  records.  B>  N.  C.  Chaturvedi 
(p.  702). 

Other  Invertebrates:  33.  Extension  of  range  of  the  river-crab  — Potamon  (Potamon) 
atkinsonianum  Woodmason  (Brachyura:  Cyclometopa:  Potamonidae)  — to  Poonch  Valley 
(Jammu  and  Kashmir  State).  By  Surendra  Nath  (p.  705);  34.  Cannibalism  in  the  garden 
snail  Macrochlamys  indica  Godwin-Austen  (Stylommatophora : Mollusca).  By  S.  K.  Raut 
and  K.  C.  Ghose  (p.  706). 

Botany:  35.  Two  new  combinations  under  Acacia  nilotica  (Benth.)  Brenan  (Mimosaceae). 
By  E.  Vajravelu  and  S.  Y.  Kamble  (p.  707) ; 36.  Two  interesting  plant  records  from 
Meghalaya.  (With  two  text-figures).  By  K.  Haridasan,  Y.  Kumar  and  R.  R.  Rao  (p.  708); 
37.  A name  change  for  Coleus  vettiveroides  Jacob  (Lamiaceae).  By  N.  P.  Singh  and  B.  D. 
Sharma  (p.  712);  38.  Caesalpinia  hymenocarpa  (Prain)  Hattink,  comb.  nov.  — A super- 
fluous name.  By  Tenjarla  C.  S.  Sastry  and  G.  B.  Kale  (p.  713);  39.  Record  of  Datura 
ferox  L.  from  Maharashtra.  By  S.  Y.  Kamble,  Anand  Kumar  and  S.  G.  Pradhan  (p.  714); 

40.  Heterosmilax  polyandra  (Liliaceae)  : A rare  endemic  to  India.  By  C.  R.  Das  (p.  715); 

41.  Interesting  distributional  records  of  five  Taxa  of  Cyperaceae.  By  H.  B.  Naithani  (p.  715); 

42.  The  rare  and  threatened  fern  Adiantum  soboliferum  Wall,  ex  Hook.  — A new  find  for 
Eastern  India.  By  S.  R.  Ghosh  (p.  716);  43.  On  the  occurrence  of  Selaginella  tamarscina 
(P.  Beauv.)  Spring  var.  pulvinata  (Wall,  ex  Hook,  et  Grev.)  Alston  in  India  and  Burma. 


By  R.  D.  Dixit  (p.  717). 

Minutes  of  the  Extraordinary  General  Body  Meeting  of  the 

Bombay  Natural  History  Society  719 

Annual  Report  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  for  the  Year  1981-82  724 

Statement  of  Accounts  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  732 

Minutes  of  the  Annual  General  Meeting  746 


JOURNAL 

OF  THE 

BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY 

SOCIETY 


1982  DECEMBER  Vol.  79  No.  3 


STATUS  OF  THE  GREY  WOLF  {CAN IS  LUPUS 
PALL1PES  SYKES)  IN  INDIA  — A PRELIMINARY 

SURVEY1 

S.  P.  Shahi2 


{With  three  plates  & two  text-figures ) 

In  India,  grey  wolf  is  recognised  as  an  ‘Endangered  Species’.  Its  destruction  is  also 
illegal.  While  other  subspecies  are  in  Appendix  II,  the  grey  wolf  of  the  Indian  sub- 
continent is  in  App.  1 of  CITES.  Information  on  the  species,  is,  however,  scanty.  An 
attempt  has  been  made  in  this  paper  to  identify  its  current  distribution.  The  habitat; 
ranges  from  the  deserts  of  the  Rann  of  Cutch  in  the  west  (Gujarat)  with  300  mm 
rainfall  to  areas  in  the  east  (Bihar  and  Orissa)  having  approx.  1500  mm  rainfall.  In 
the  south  wolves  occur  in  areas  characterised  by  low,  400  mm,  precipitation  (Karnataka 
and  Andhra),  scrub  forests  of  Rajasthan  in  the  north  with  300mm  rains  have  also 
wolves.  Wolves  subsist  mainly  on  sheep  and  goat  in  desert  and  dry  areas  and  prey 
upon  hare,  gazelle  and  blackbuck  in  the  scrub  forests  of  Rajasthan  and  ravined 
areas  of  Bihar  and  Orissa.  Killings  of  humans  (children)  have  been  recorded  to 
emphasise  the  uigent  necessity  for  a deeper  probe  into  the  wolf’s  aberrant  behaviour. 
A study  of  the  Wolf’s  ecology,  its  status  and  population  dynamics  has  been  recom- 
mended as  a prelude  to  suitable  conservation  measures  for  its  protection. 


Introduction 

Wolves  in  India  do  not  live  in  tree  forests, 
but  in  open  plains  with  occasional  hills.  In 
the  course  of  the  past  fifty  years  substantive 
areas  of  these  open  plains  have  been  used  for 

1 Accepted  June  1982. 

2 P.  O.  Hehal,  Ranchi  834  005,  Bihar. 


human  needs  in  the  form  of  fresh  villages, 
marginal  cultivation  and  the  wolf  habitat  has 
been  systematically  depleted.  The  table  gives 
the  names  of  the  States  in  the  Indian  Union 
and  the  administrative  districts,  currently 
known  to  contain  wolves  (C.  /.  pallipes). 

An  outline  map  of  India  showing  known 
wolf  habitats  with  hatchings,  and  the  States 
with  a number  in  brackets  accompanies  this 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Table 


SI.  Wolf  holding 
No.  States  in  che 
Indian  Union 

Localities  (Civil  districts) 

Combined  popu- 
lation of  Sheep 
and  goats  (num- 
bers) 

1. 

Andhra  Pradesh 

Anantapur,  Karimnagar,  Warangal  and  Mahboobnagar 

8,47,544 

2. 

Bihar 

Hazaribagh,  Palamau  and  Dalbhum 

10,47,229 

3. 

Gujarat 

Little  Rann  of  Cutch,  Bhavnagar,  Junagadh,  Rajkot  and 
Amreli 

24,73,768 

4. 

Karnataka 

Bidar,  Gulbarga,  Bellary,  Raichur,  Dharwar,  Bijapur, 
Chitradurga  and  Mandya 

39,44,434 

5. 

Madhya 

Rajnandgaon,  Guna,  Shivpuri,  Sehore,  Bhind  and 

Pradesh 

Morena 

5,54,277 

6. 

Maharashtra 

Sholapur,  Osmanabad,  Bir,  Bhandara  and  Wardha 

Not  available 

7. 

Orissa 

Dhenkanal 

2,76,761 

8. 

Rajasthan 

Barmer,  Jodhpur,  Jaisalmer,  Nagor,  Bikrampur,  Sikar, 
Jhunjhunu,  Churn,  Jalori,  Pali  and  Bikaner 

1,29,40,142 

paper.  The  number  in  brackets  following  the 
name  of  a State  in  the  text,  refers  to  the  cor- 
responding number  on  the  map. 

Rajasthan  (8)  has  the  highest  number  of 
sheep  and  goats.  On  either  side  of  the  com- 
mon border  of  Andhra  Pradesh  (1)  and  Kar- 
nataka (4)  wolves  occur,  and  this  wolf  habitat 
may  be  regarded  as  one  ecological  unit. 
Together  they  contain  the  second  largest  sheep 
and  goat  population.  There  seems  to  be  some 
correlation  between  the  population  of  sheep  and 
goat  and  the  spread  of  wolf  habitats.  Rajasthan’s 
wolf  habitat  is  the  largest  with  largest  sheep 
and  goat  population.  Andhra  Pradesh  (1)  and 
Karnataka  (4)  together  with  their  second 
largest  population  of  sheep  and  goats  have  the 
second  largest  wolf  habitat  all  in  areas  of 
scanty  rainfall.  They  are  marked  by  high  tem- 
peratures and  wind  velocity,  with  scanty  and 
erratic  rainfall  rendering  the  area  perennially 
drought  prone;  389  mm  to  520  mm  annual 
precipitation,  high  solar  radiation  exceeding 
450  cal/cm  per  day;  and  dessicating  winds 
blowing  from  April  to  August  (12  to  16  km/h 
velocity)  resulting  in  a high  annual  potential 


evapotranspiration  of  1857  mm.  Manifestation 
of  desertification  is  reflected  in  the  formation 
of  rocky  surfaces  (fit  for  wolf  dens)  sand- 
deflation  and  dune  formation.  Wolves  in  some 
of  these  areas  have  of  late  behaved  aberrantly 
by  lifting  children  (see  below).  In  Rajas- 
than too,  where  wolf  habitat  forms  part  of  the 
Thar  desert,  it  is  characterised  by  sand  dunes 
(fixed  as  well  as  shifting),  interspersed  with 
these  dunes  is  the  rocky  piedmont  plateaus 
and  saline  barren  flats.  I believe  that  Rajas- 
than (8),  Karnataka  (4),  Andhra  Pradesh  (1), 
and  Gujarat  (3)  — the  Little  Rann  of  Cutch 
again  a very  dry  and  saline  desert  area  with 
less  than  300  mm  rainfall  — hold  the  largest 
wolf  population  in  the  country.  Such  a pre- 
sumption has,  however,  to  be  confirmed  by 
intensive  survey.  In  these  areas,  while  agricul- 
ture sustains  80%  of  the  population,  only  10% 
of  the  net  sown  area  is  irrigated  and  rural 
economy  is  largely  pastoral. 

Taxonomy 

The  Indian  wolf  is,  indeed,  a somewhat 
smaller  and  slighter  animal  than  the  Euro- 


494 


STATUS  OF  THE  GREY  WOLF 


495 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


pean  species,  the  average  difference  in  the 
length  of  the  two  animals  being  about  13  cm. 
Also,  the  hair  is  rather  shorter  and  there  is 
little  or  no  under-fur;  while  the  colour  is  gene- 
rally rather  more  inclined  to  brown  than  in 
the  common  wolf.  The  absence  of  under-fur 
in  the  Indian  wolf  might,  we  think,  be  well 
explained  by  the  hotter  climate  in  which  it 
dwells;  but  inspite  of  this,  taxonomists  are 
probably  right  in  regarding  it  as  a distinct 
species,  under  the  name  of  the  Canis  pallipes. 
(This  paper  does  not  deal  with  the  larger 
Tibetan  Wolves  distinguished  by  their  long 
soft  hair  found  in  the  snowy  ranges  in  Ladak 
and  Kashmir,  Western  Himalayas;  described 
as  a distinct  species  Canis  laniger  or  chanco.) 

Mendelssohn  (1979)  considers  all  the  lar- 
ger wolves  in  Israel  as  C.  /.  pallipes.  He  con- 
siders the  condylobasal  length  of  the  skull 
(CBL)  from  the  anterior  extremity  of  the 
premaxillary  to  the  rear  extremity  of  the 
occipital  condylus  as  the  most  reliable  indica- 
tor of  size.  The  mean  CBL  of  eight  male  skulls 
in  the  British  Museum  is  212  mm  with  a 
range  of  201-222  mm,  and  of  three  females, 
the  mean  is  205  mm  within  the  range  198-214 
mm  (Mendelssohn).  He  found  that  the  mea- 
surements of  the  wolves  of  Israel  correspond 
with  the  above  measurements. 

Pocock,  R.  (1939)  provides  measurements 
(CBL)  of  eight  skulls,  six  male  and  two 
female  of  Canis  lupus  pallipes  of  India.  These 
are: 


Name  of  locality  and  sex 

Condylobasal 
length  in  mm 

Rajasthan  (8)  male  (adult) 

212  mm 

Rajasthan  „ male  (adult) 

209  mm 

Rajasthan  „ female  (adult) 

202  mm 

Rajasthan  „ female  (adult) 

198  mm 

Gujarat  (3)  male  (adult) 

205  mm 

Hazaribagh  (2)  male  (adult) 

207  mm 

(Bihar) 

Hazaribagh  „ male  (adult) 

204  mm 

Hazaribagh  „ male  (adult) 

201  mm 

In  addition,  I took  the  CBL  measurements  of 
seven  skulls  available  in  the  collection  of  the 
Bombay  Natural  History  Society.  These  are 
recorded  below: 

Uttar  Pradesh  (9)  male  215  mm 

Kashmir  230  mm 

(This  sample  is  of  C.  chanco  from  the  North- 
West  Himalayas  and  the  CBL  is  much  larger; 
this  subspecies  is  not  discussed  in  this  paper.) 


Punjab  208  mm 

(This  example  is  from  a State  whence  the 
wolf  is  now  extinct.) 

Madhya  Pradesh  (5)  212  mm 

Uttar  Pradesh  (9)  female  179  mm 

Uttar  Pradesh  (9)  female  178  mm 

Gangtok  (Sikkim)  178  mm 


According  to  authoritative  sources  wolves  do 
not  range  into  the  Himalayas,  and  a skull 
from  Sikkim — smallest  Himalayan  State  of  the 
Indian  Union  between  Nepal  and  Bhutan — is 
an  exception.  The  skull  was  collected  in  1915 
by  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society. 

Incidentally  wolf  is  not  found  westward  of 
the  Indus  or  in  Sri  Lanka.  That  island  seems 
indeed  to  enjoy  a happy  immunity  from  the 
presence  of  several  of  the  larger  Indian  car- 
nivores as  it  has  neither  wolves,  wild  dogs, 
hyenas,  nor  tigers. 

Two  skulls  of  Hazaribagh  wolves  destroy- 
ed for  the  suspected  killing  of  children  in 
1981  (see  page  ) have  CBLs  of  210  and 
215  mm.  Perhaps  these  are  of  unusually  large 
males.  The  mean  CBL  of  eight  male  skulls, 
including  the  latest  two  from  Hazaribagh  is 
209  mm  with  a range  of  201-215  mm  (ex- 
cluding the  chanco  and  Sikkim  samples),  and 
of  the  four  females  the  mean  is  189  mm  with 
a range  of  178-202  mm.  Perhaps  the  Indian 
pallipes  is  slightly  smaller  to  its  Israeli  counter- 
part though  such  a deduction  with  only  a few 
skull  samples  may  not  be  warranted. 

Broadly,  wolves  in  India,  occur  in  two 


496 


STATUS  OF  THE  GREY  WOLF 


distinct  ecosystems.  (A)  The  desert,  semi- 
desert,  and  arid  areas,  namely  those  in  Rajas- 
than (8),  Gujarat  (3),  Karnataka  (4)  and 
Andhra  Pradesh  (l),  and  (B)  Bihar  (Haza- 
ribagh,  Palamau  and  Singhbhum)  and  Orissa 
representing  the  second  ecological  unit.  The 
latter  is  characterised  by  higher  rainfall 
(approx.  1500  mm)  and  open  hilly  degraded 
ravined  forests  of  Sal  ( Shorea  robusta). 

The  mean  CBL  of  five  male  skulls  (female 
skulls  not  available)  from  Hazaribagh  is  207 
mm  and  the  mean  of  three  male  skulls  from 
the  desert  and  semi-desert  areas  is  208  mm. 
It  cannot  therefore  be  said  that  wolves  of 
higher  rainfall  areas  are  either  larger  or 
smaller.  Mendelssohn  conclusively  proves  that 
Mediterranean  wolves  with  over  400  mm  rain 
are  larger  than  those  from  areas  with  lesser 
rains  in  Israel.  Such  does  not  appear  to  be 
the  case  with  Indian  wolves. 

Pelage:  In  general  Cams  lupus  have  sandy, 
fawn  coat  stippled  with  black.  Pelt  colour 
varies  more  in  the  wolf  than  in  almost  any 
other  species  (Mech).  There  is  one  skin  in 
the  collection  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History 
Society  from  the  State  of  Bihar,  which  is 
rufous  in  colour  — rather  an  uncommon 
colour  for  pallipes  in  India. 

Food 

Whether  it  be  the  desert  and  arid  areas  like 
Rajasthan  (8),  Gujarat  (3),  Karnataka  (4) 
or  the  higher  rainfall  areas  of  Bihar  (2)  or 
Orissa  (7),  wolves  prey  mainly  on  sheep  and 
goat  of  the  villagers.  In  blackbuck  sanctuaries 
in  Rajasthan  (8)  and  Karnataka  (4)  how- 
ever, where  grassland  is  protected  from  cattle 
grazing,  and  the  habitat  has  progressively  im- 
proved for  the  antilopes,  not  only  very  rare 
and  endangered  Great  Indian  Bustard 
( Choriotis  nigriceps)  but  also  the  wolf  Canis 


73 

w 

Ph 

s 

73 

< 

£ 

0 

73 

73 

sj 

Z 

< 

U 

z 

1 
ffl 

73 

H 

Z 

W 

S 

w 

H 

<1 

H 

73 

a 

D 

CQ 

< 

H 


g - ^ 
6 §S 

xJ  pj 

•g  H 3 

o 


S T3  (fl  tfl 
^ zi  d) 

’5  § 

- B S3  S?3 
° 3 2 ~ 'S 

i HI 


S GO 
Cu  t-* 

oo  .r1 


° % 


GO  g 

3 £ 
a x 

I 

co 

° 3 

6 a 
!z  ° 

^ o 


V) 


a 


u XI 

'E 

c a 
a u 
* oo 

<4-1  C 

° | 
6 «s 

2 i 

o 

u 

O0  2 

o X 

'Hi  U) 
| 'H 

1/5  GO 

<4-1  C 

° 3 

o 

Z § 


c» 

O 

"E 

GO 

(Z3 

60 

c 

•S3 

<4—1 

;s 

X 

o 

3 

6 

H 

£ 

Q 

CJ 

c3  aj 

O 'B, 

H s 


497 


Percentage  30  43.10  3.10  7.70  13.80  2.30 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


lupus  pallipes  co-habit  with  the  blackbuck 
( Antilope  cervicapra).  The  blackbuck,  the 
bustard  and  wolf  prefer  open  scrub  areas  and 
in  sanctuaries  of  such  biotic  conditions,  it  is 
suspected  wolves  also  prey  upon  young  fawns 
of  antilopes.  The  Desert  National  Park  of 
Rajasthan  (8)  and  the  Ranibennur  sanctuary 
in  Karnataka  (4)  are  examples.  100  wolf 
faecal  samples  examined  in  Bihar,  however, 
indicated  that  nearly  70%  of  them  contained 
the  hair  of  goats  and  pigs  and  even  their 
hoofs.  Some  contained  feathers  of  birds,  teeth 
of  rats,  and  even  claws  of  birds. 

Indian  wolves,  found  in  small  parties  of  half- 
a-dozen  or  so,  are  never  known  to  collect  in 
large  packs.  This  may  be  explained  by  the 
fact  that  preying  on  domestic  goats,  pigs,  and 
sheep,  is  less  difficult  and  large  packs  are  not 
needed.  I have  not  seen  more  than  three 
wolves  together  in  the  Mahuadanr  valley, 
Bihar  (2)  though  evidence  indicated  that 
there  were  eleven  of  them  in  the  valley 
at  the  time  (1973-74).  Once  while  I was 
watching  from  a hide  near  a tethered 
goat,  two  young  animals  made  their  appear- 
ance at  dusk;  one  of  them  came  straight  to 
the  bait  while  the  other  stood  some  distance 
away.  The  first  wolf  put  its  muzzle  near  the 
goat’s  mouth,  as  if  sizing  up  its  prey,  then 
caught  it  by  the  scruff  of  its  neck  and  des- 
patched it  with  one  powerful  snap  of  its  jaws. 
It  then  severed  the  hoof  from  its  iron  fetters 
and  disappeared  into  the  dark  with  its  com- 
panion. The  next  evening  the  same  (?)  two 
young  wolves  appeared  at  dusk,  but  this  time 
remained  waiting  till  a larger  male  arrived  to 
make  the  kill.  The  story  was  repeated  on  the 
subsequent  night  — the  three  wolves  appear- 
ed, but  the  young  animals  waited  on  the  side 
as  the  larger  male  made  the  kill.  There  is, 
however,  a recent  case  of  five  wolves  seen 
together  (see  below). 


Mendelssohn  (1979)  records  wolves  often 
scavenging  on  livestock  carcasses  and  at  gar- 
bage dumps.  No  observation  in  India  on  this 
point  exists,  except  that  unclaimed  human 
bodies  after  postmortem  that  are  buried  in  a 
slipshod  manner  near  a morgue  in  the  town 
of  Hazaribagh,  are  eaten  by  wolves,  besides 
jackals,  hyenas,  and  dogs.  Five  wolves  were 
seen  by  spotlight  on  the  night  of  4/5  June 
1981  in  this  burial  ground  at  02.00  hrs. 

Human  Interactions 

According  to  Pulliainen  (1966)  authentic 
cases  of  wolves  stalking  and  killing  people 
have  occurred  in  Finland  and  Russia  within 
recent  years  (Mech).  In  the  proceedings  of 
the  Wolf  Symposium  in  Wilmington  N.C.  (23- 
24  May  1975),  Pulliainen’s  paper,  however 
records  differently  “no  evidence  showing  that 
wolves  are  dangerous  to  human  beings  has 
been  obtained  in  Finland  during  this  century”. 
The  general  opinion  in  Europe  and  America 
appears  to  be  that,  except  attacks  by  rabid 
wolves  there  is  no  basis  for  the  belief  that 
healthy  wolves  are  any  danger  to  human 
beings. 

Blanford  (fauna  of  British  india,  1891) 
records  “In  the  Dumoh  district  of  the  Central 
Provinces  (now  Madhya  Pradesh)  an  old 
she-wolf  and  a full-grown  cub  haunted  a patch 
of  bushes  and  grass  near  a village  standing 
on  the  slope  of  a hill,  down  which  ran  the 
main  street,  where  children  were  always  at 
play.  The  smaller  wolf  hid  amongst  bushes 
between  the  village  and  the  bottom  of  the  hill, 
whilst  the  larger  animal  went  round  to  the 
top,  and,  watching  its  opportunity,  ran  down 
the  street,  carrying  off  a child  on  the  way. 
At  first  the  people  used  to  pursue,  and  some- 
times made  the  marauder  drop  his  prey;  but 
in  that  case  the  companion  wolf  usually  suc- 


498 


STATUS  OF  THE  GREY  WOLF 


ceeded  in  carrying  off  another  of  the  children 
in  the  confusion,  whilst  the  child  first  seized 
was  generally  so  injured  as  to  be  beyond 
recovery”. 

The  District  Gazetteer  of  Hazaribagh 
(Lister,  E.  1917)  records  “Wolves  for  about 
four  years  from  1910  to  1914  killed  a large 
number  of  human  beings  near  Champaran;  but 
a special  reward  of  Rs.  50/-  (fifty)  led  to  the 
hunting  out  of  the  cubs,  and  the  evil  has  now 
ceased.  They  are  found  over  the  whole  of 
the  district  and  take  considerable  toll  of  the 
goats.  “The  statistics  relating  to  human  deaths 
caused  by  wolves  in  Hazaribagh  as  given  in 
the  Gazetteer  is: 


Year 

No.  of  Humans  Killed 

1910 

3 

1911 

44 

1912 

36 

1913 

21 

1914 

8 

1915 

3 

A reward  of  Rs.  50/-  was  paid  for  each  wolf 
killed  until  the  end  of  March  1915  as  against 
Rs.  25/-  for  a tiger. 

Pocock,  R.  (1939)  reports:  “At  Hazari- 
bagh, as  reported  by  Major  O.  A.  Smith,  the 
wolves  were  notorious  for  their  man-killing 
propensities.  Several  packs  terrorised  the 
neighbourhood,  and  became  such  a curse  that 
the  Indian  Government  offered  rewards  for 
their  slaughter.  They  hunted  by  day  in  pairs 
or  small  packs,  displaying  deadly  cunning  and 
resource,  and  pulling  down  women  and 
children  and  sometimes  men.  The  members  of 
a pack  wandered  over  a wide  area,  assembling 
at  fairly  regular  intervals  at  particular  spots. 

Wolves  of  Hazaribagh  shot  into  notoriety 
recently  when  a pack  of  five  or  six  operated 
within  an  area  of  about  seven  sq.  km.  around 


the  district  town  of  Hazaribagh.  In  eight 
months,  between  February  1981  and  August 
1981,  thirteen  children  were  eaten  away,  ail 
between  4 to  10  years  of  age  and  another  13 
had  close  calls  by  wolves. 

On  10-viii-1981  a wolf  mauled  a boy  at 
dawn  but  he  escaped  death  as  some  adults 
happened  to  be  nearby  and  scared  the  animal 
away.  Mention  has  been  made  earlier  in  the 
text  of  five  wolves  seen  at  the  burial  ground 
on  the  night  of  4/5  June  1981  at  02.00  hrs. 
One  of  this  was  shot  dead.  Prior  to  this  on 
15th  February  1980  at  dusk,  an  animal  entered 
a hamlet  and  in  the  process  of  attacking  a boy 
attracted  the  attention  of  several  elders  who 
surrounded  the  intruder  and  killed  it  with 
wooden  poles.  Hamlets  in  this  area  are  fenced 
with  brushwood  and  the  animal  could  not 
escape.  One  of  the  skulls  in  my  possession 
(CBL  210  mm)  is  of  a wolf  that  had  been 
similarly  surrounded  by  villagers  on  20th 
August  1981  and  done  to  death  when  it  attack- 
ed a child  of  4 years  in  the  fenced  area  of 
the  hamlet.  Another  wolf  shot  in  the  ravined 
scrub  forests  — this  was  not  destroyed  while 
attempting  to  kill  a human  — has  a CBL  of 
215  mm  was  believed  to  be  of  the  large  alpha 
male  that  was  reputed  to  be  the  killer. 
Villagers  breathed  a sigh  of  relief  and  hoped 
this  was  the  end  of  the  menace.  An  event 
that  followed  belied  this. 

On  the  21st  of  December  1981  again  at 
dusk,  in  a hamlet  6 km  from  the  burial  ground, 
an  animal  lifted  a boy  at  dusk  and  ran  away. 
The  Boy’s  mother  and  uncle  ran  towards  the 
animal  shouting.  There  was  another  group  of 
hamlet  a little  further  but  in  the  same  direc- 
tion in  which  the  animal  had  run  with  the 
boy  in  its  grasp.  Finding  men  chasing  him 
from  both  sides,  the  animal  dropped  the  boy 
and  leaped  into  the  ravined  scrub  forests  near 
by.  I visited  the  spot  on  the  25th.  There  were 


499 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


no  pugmarks  on  the  hard  ground.  I also  visit- 
ed the  hospital  in  Hazaribagh  town  in  which 
the  boy  was  being  treated.  This  was  the  fifth 
day  after  the  incidence.  The  photographs 
show  the  injury  in  the  region  of  the  boy’s  loin. 
The  beast  had  lifted  the  boy,  and  its  canines 
pierced  the  stomach  above  the  umbilicus  in 
front  and  near  the  spine  on  the  back  on  the 
left  flank.  The  distance  along  the  curvature  of 
the  canine  holes  on  either  side  measured  28 
cm.  The  boy  aged  7 years  was  3 '5"  in  height 
and  weighed  14.5  kg.  Wolves  or  wild  dogs 
hold  their  prey  with  their  jaws  and  teeth.  The 
tenacity  of  hold  is  their  mainstay  in  attack. 
It  has  been  made  possible  in  the  Canidae  by 


a lengthening  of  the  jaw  bones.  On  the  other- 
hand  in  case  of  the  cats  the  canines  are  sup- 
ported on  short  powerful  jaws.  This  campa- 
rative  shortness  of  the  jaws  gives  cats  that 
flatness  of  features  which  contrasts  so  mark- 
edly with  the  long  snouts  of  the  Canids.  In 
this  case  the  canines  driven  into  the  body  and 
measuring  28  cm  apart  (front  and  back) 
could  perhaps  be  only  by  a Canid  with  long 
jaws  and  not  by  a leopard  with  comparatively 
shorter  jaws.  No  weight  of  any  wolf  killed  in 
Hazaribagh  (four  were  killed  in  1981)  was 
available.  Pocock  (1939)  provides  the  follow- 
ing weights  of  three  Hazaribagh  C.  /.  pallipes. 


500 


I,  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  I 

Shahi:  Canis  lupus  pallipes 


mmmm 


I HI  ' 


Hi H 


The  canine  marks  on  the  ventral  (up)  and  dorsal  side  of  a boy  mauled  by  a wolf. 
Over  the  curve  the  distance  measures  28  cm.  Canids  have  long  jaws,  hence  this  distance. 
Leopard  will  not  leave  marks  28  cm  distance. 

(Photos:  S.  P.  Shahi ) 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  If 

Shahi:  Canis  lupus  pallipes 


Pug  mark  of  a wolf,  taken  in  the  rains  after  it  had  dropped  a child  it  had  lifted. 
The  non-retractile  claws  are  clearly  visible  on  the  wet  ground. 

(Photo:  S . P.  Shahi ) 


I 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist,  Soc.  79 

Shahi:  Canis  lupus  pallipes 


Plate  III 


■ - 

■ 

WKSSSSkSSkS^^ 


I pi  /'  .v 

■>? ' -v.  f : 


mmm 


I j|||| 


A wolf  sizes  up  the  prey  before  throttling  it. 
(Photo:  S.  P.  Shahi ) 


STATUS  OF  THE  GREY  WOLF 


(a)  Adult  Male  42  lb. 

(b)  Adult  Male  45.75  lb. 

(c)  Adult  Female  36  lb. 

The  average  weight  of  an  adult  male  works 
out  to  19.75  kg.  Probably  a 20  kg  wolf  could 
not  carry  a boy  of  14.5  kg  weight  for  a long 
distance  and  that  too  when  chased,  and  so 
dropped  the  boy  about  200  metres  away. 

3500  km  down  south  of  Hazaribagh,  in  a 
altogether  different  ecological  niche  in  the 
State  of  Andhra  Pradesh  (1)  about  the  same 
time  the  wolves  had  terrorised  villagers  in 
Hazaribagh;  a pack  of  wolves  consisting  of 
one  male,  two  adult  females,  two  semi-adults 
and  three  cubs  operated  in  an  area  30  km 
long  and  25  km  wide.  Nine  children  were 
killed,  another  twelve  injured  between  Octo- 
ber 1980  and  March  1981.  The  victims  were 
in  the  age  of  8-12.  It  was  not  possible  for 
me  to  visit  the  area  but  the  report  of  the 
local  Forest  Officer  reads:  “The  modus 

opercmdi  shows  that  the  attacking  wolf  was 
generally  hiding  in  a bush  or  amidst  crops 
in  agriculture  fields  near  the  villages  and 
pounced  upon  the  unsuspecting  children 
coming  near  them.  They  were  generally  attack- 
ed from  behind.  The  victim  was  pushed  down 
and  the  animal  bit  the  neck  and  skull  of  the 
children  to  kill  them.  The  skull  was  opened 
first  and  brain  eaten  by  the  animal,  and  if 
sufficient  time  was  available,  the  animal  ate 
other  parts  of  the  body.  Children  when  ac- 
companied by  their  elders,  were  not  attacked. 
It  was  found  that  all  the  adult  members 
of  the  pack  of  wolves,  were  killers  of  children. 
The  method  adopted  by  the  wolves,  and  their 
timings  (either  dusk  or  dawn)  for  killing 
children  was  the  same  both  in  Bihar  (2), 
Hazaribagh,  and  Andhra  Pradesh  (1)  two 
widely  separated  States  of  India. 

All  wolf-holding  States  are  not  menaced  by 
such  aberrant  behaviour.  In  Rajasthan  (8) 


killings  of  humans  are  an  exception.  So  is  the 
case  in  Melekote  Wolf  Sanctuary  in  Karna- 
taka (4),  which  I visited  in  April  1981.  The 
countryside  is  a picture  of  barren  and  denud- 
ed hills  with  eucalyptus  plantations  in  the  folds 
of  hill  ranges.  In  two  villages,  Aralkare  and 
Kattahali,  there  are  10,000  sheep  and  goats. 
Some  250  of  these  are  taken  away  by  wolves 
every  year.  A pair  had,  about  the  time  of  my 
visit  invaded  a pen  and  slaughtered  without 
logic  a number  of  sheep  which,  of  course,  they 
did  not  carry  away.  The  Melekote  villagers 
have,  however,  taken  wolf  depredations  as  an 
occupational  hazard.  Maniappa,  a villager  said 
that  in  his  life  span  of  sixty  years  he  had  not 
heard  of  any  human  being  killed,  not  even  a 
child”.  In  Gujarat  (3)  where  there  are  some 
sixty  wolves  in  the  Rann  of  Cutch,  there  is 
no  case  of  child  killing  in  living  memory.  In 
Surendranagar  district  in  which  the  Rann  falls 
there  are  over  2,25,000  (two  hundred  and 
twenty  five  thousand  sheep  and  goats)  and 
the  sixty  wolves  live  on  them.  In  Bihar 

(2)  too  while  Hazaribagh  has  been  noto- 

rious for  wolf  menace,  in  the  other  wolf 
habitat  in  the  State  — the  Mahuadanr  Valley 
— there  is  no  child  killing.  In  their  home 
range  of  about  50  sq.  km  in  this  valley  villa- 
gers own  3000  (three  thousand)  goats  and 
2000  (two  thousand)  pigs.  200  goats  and  300 
pigs  are  lifted  every  year.  The  analysis  of 

scats  is  from  this  valley.  As  in  Melkote, 

Mahuadanr  villagers  have  taken  wolf  preda- 
tion as  an  occupational  hazard.  Some  villa- 
gers were,  infact,  of  the  opinion  that  wolves 
protected  their  upland  agriculture  crops  by 
scaring  away  wild  boar  that  would  otherwise 
dig  out  the  plants.  The  position  is  that  at  the 
moment  except  Hazaribagh  in  Bihar,  and  on 
the  Common  border  of  Karnataka  and  Andhra 
Pradesh  wolves  are  not  known  to  attack 
humans. 


501 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Concluding  Remarks 

It  is  likely  that  wolves  occur  sporadically 
in  areas  other  than  those  shown  in  the  map. 
Though  the  species  is  protected  by  law  and 
no  bounty  is  paid  for  its  extermination  now, 
in  many  parts  shephards  either  club  them  to 
death  or  poison  them.  Cubs  are  either  dug 
out  or  smoked  out  and  destroyed.  It  has  not 
been  possible  to  effectively  enforce  the  law 
that  protects  the  wolf.  No  one  has  the  remotest 
idea  as  to  how  many  wolves  really  survive  in 
this  country.  Some  35  (thirty  five)  are  re- 
ported from  Rajasthan,  50  to  70  (seventy) 
exist  in  Karnataka  (4),  about  30  (thirty)  in 
Bihar  (2),  and  some  sixty  in  the  Little  Rann 
of  Cutch,  Gujarat  (3).  Nothing  is  known 
about  their  number  in  Madhya  Pradesh  (5), 
Andhra  Pradesh  (1),  Maharashtra  (6), 
Orissa  (7)  and  Uttar  Pradesh  (9)  though 

Refer 

Blanford,  W.  T.  (1891)  : Fauna  of  British  India. 
Taylor  and  Francis,  London. 

Lister,  E.  (1917) : District  Gazetteer  of  Hazari- 
bagh  (Bihar). 

Lyddeker,  R.  (1897):  Mammalia  in  Natural  His- 
tory; The  concise  knowledge  Library,  London, 
Hutchinson. 

Mech,  L.  David  (1970):  The  Wolf:  The  ecology 
and  behaviour  of  an  endangered  species. 


they  have  been  sighted  in  these  States  too. 
Perhaps  not  more  than  500  to  800  (eight  hun- 
dred) wolves,  in  small  packs  of  five  to  six 
animals  survive  in  India. 

The  future  of  the  species  lies  in  (a)  a 
survey  to  locate  viable  wolf  populations  in 
different  ecological  conditions;  (b)  a study  of 
its  aberrant  behaviour  and  other  aspects  of 
its  ecology  by  modern  techniques  (namely 
radio  tracking);  (c)  a declaration  of  viable 
areas  as  Wolf  Sanctuaries  with  scientific 
management  plans  and  provision  for  compen- 
sation to  herdsmen  for  loss  of  their  livestock, 
and  (d)  an  introduction  of  prey  animals  like 
blackbuck,  axis  deer  and  wild  boar  in  wolf 
sanctuaries.  Potential  areas  for  sanctuaries  are 
available  in  Bihar  (2),  Andhra  Pradesh  (1), 
Karnataka  (4),  Rajasthan  (8)  and  Gujarat 
(3). 

ENCES 

Mendelssohn,  H.  (1979) : Wolves  in  Israel.  Paper 
presented  at  the  Wolf  symposium.  Portland,  Oregon, 
(U.S.A.). 

Pocock,  R.  (1939):  Fauna  of  British  India.  Mam- 
malia. London. 

Pulliainen,  E.  (1966):  Ecology  of  wolf  in  the 
settled  area  of  Finland.  Proceedings  of  the  sympo- 
sium on  behaviour  and  ecology  of  wolves  held  on 
23/24  May  1975- Wilmington  NC. 


502 


FORAGING  BEHAVIOUR  AND  INTERACTIONS  OF 
WHITEHEADED  BABBLERS  TURDOIDES  AFF1N1S 
WITH  OTHER  SPECIES1 

A.  J.  T.  Johnsingh,2  K.  Paramanandham  and  S.  Murali3 
(With  three  text-figures) 

Whiteheaded  Babblers  were  studied  from  14th  August  1979  to  7th  April  1980  in  a 
0.2  km2  partly  cultivated  land  near  Sivakasi  (9°27'N.,  77°49'E.)  in  South  India. 
Their  density  in  the  study  area  was  55 /km2,  home  range  of  the  study  group  was 
0.16  km2  and  mean  home  area  0.06  km2. 

We  saw  neither  cooperative  hunting  nor  food  sharing  between  adults  even  when 
large  prey  (e,g.,  a big  green  grasshopper)  were  killed  and  eaten.  The  babblers  foraged 
mostly  on  ground  and  fed  mainly  on  animal  matter  (>  80%).  During  dry  months 
they  intensively  foraged  in  a small  part  of  their  home  range  but  covered  greater 
distance  and  were  active  at  midday  too.  They  spent  more  time  in  areas  where  water, 
food  and  shade  were  abundant. 

We  observed  a mutually  beneficial  association  between  Black  Drongo  Dicrurus 
adsimilis  and  the  babblers.  Shikra  Accipiter  badius  aroused  most  of  the  anti-predator 
responses.  Redvented  Bulbul  Pycnonotus  cafer  and  Indian  Wren-Warbler  Prinia 
subflava  were  allowed  to  feed  within  5 m.  We  hypothesize  that  this  tolerance  is  due 
to  differences  in  foraging. 

Introduction 

Of  the  nine  species  of  Turdoides  in  India 
the  Jungle  Babbler  Turdoides  striatus  and  the 
Common  Babbler  T.  caudatus  have  been  studi- 
ed extensively  (Andrews  & Naik  1970, 

Gaston  1977,  1978b).  Whiteheaded  Babblers 
T.  affinis,  which  have  many  of  the  characte- 
ristics of  cooperative  breeders  (Emlen  1978) 
are  distributed  from  the  Godavari  and  Pen- 
ganga  rivers  and  Western  Karnataka  from 
Belgaum  area  south  through  Tamilnadu  and 
Kerala  (Ali  & Ripley  1971).  However,  except 
for  the  ongoing  comparative  study  of  the 

1 Accepted  March  1982. 

2 Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  Hombill 
House,  Shaheed  Bhagat  Singh  Road,  Bombay-400  023. 

3 Department  of  Zoology,  Ayya  Nadar  Janaki 
Ammal  College,  Sivakasi  626  123,  India. 


ecology  and  behaviour  of  the  Jungle  and 
Whiteheaded  Babblers  in  Calicut  (as  reported 
in  Zacharias  & Mathew  1977)  little  work  has 
been  done  on  Whiteheaded  Babblers. 

It  has  been  well  established  that  the  most 
important  feature  of  vegetation  for  birds  is 
structure  rather  than  species  composition 
(Gaston,  pers.  com.).  We,  however,  initiated 
the  study  to  find  whether  variation  in  vege- 
tation density,  size  of  foraging  areas  and 
number  of  roosting  and  nesting  sites  influence 
the  time  spent  by  the  babblers  in  different 
parts  of  their  home  range.  Interactions  with 
other  species  were  also  recorded. 

Study  Area 

The  habitat  has  a dry  stream  bordered 
by  vegetation  on  either  side.  Approximately 
half  of  the  study  area  was  cultivated  by  water 


503 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


1 / 

A 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

2 

3 

4 

5 

\ 

P 

6 M 

\ 0 20m 

\ 1 1 
7 \ 

a' 

\ M 

\ 

\ 

\ 

14  \ 

M 

13 

M 

12  

N- 

?□ 

NM  A 

II  □ 

10 

V 

T 

9 j 

\ 

MXa 

f \ 

i V_ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

15 

\ 16 

WM 

17 

A 

18 

M P 

19 

V T + ' 
20  M;: 

\ 

\ 

"2I  <hr 

28 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

27  \ 

C 

26 

) TS 

m 

25 

FL 

24 

F 

V 

T 

23+  +r) 

*br 

PA/ 

/ 

i 

1 

22  / 

29 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

4 

.30  \ 

-r  ■+ 

/ 

M / 

8 / 

1 1 - . —TLU 

f 

31 

* 

s' 

» 

32 

: w f 

M 

33 

M V T 
M 

34 

42 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

41 

t- 

> 

\ 2 
\40  < 

39 

38 

37 

□ ft/ 

A 

43 

44 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

45  \ 

46 

47 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ CD 
\ 

S 

49 

1 

50 

56 

55 

\ ® 

\ 

54  AV 

,, 

52 

— 

51 

Fig.l.  Mop  of  study  area  showing  various  vegetation  types,  home  range 
of  the  study  group  8 other  details.  August  1979  to  April  1980. 

AMVT,  FMVT,  FL,  etc.  = various  vegetation  types  or  foraging  areas. 

(See  Table  i)  □=  well,  ■=  tomb,  a--a  = home  range  boundary  of  study  group, 

• s place  where  group  of  8 was  seen,-F  = major  roosting  site,  N = nesting  site, 
)(s  stone  waliocross  stream  bed,  l~56  = quadrat  numbers,  — = stream  bed, 
M = miscellaneous  foraging  sites 


Details  of  the  major  vegetation  types  or  foraging  areas  seen  in  the  study  area 


FORAGING  BEHAVIOUR  OF  WHITEHEADED  BABBLERS 


.s  -s 

ccS 

g- 


Vi 

0) 

-o  © 
g 


60 

fl  © 


60 

■a  a 

co  .ti 
0)  co 


^ ^ -i_> 

« X*  a 
c 13  « 
« .y  ft 

t3  Vi 
<L)  •£ 


> c « 
•■e  3 72 
cJ  c s 

3 ^ ^ 

K o a 


60  .2  co 

u ti  fi 

> 5 u 

^ S-J  **r-t 


*.S 


hH  © 

Vi 

a 03 

.2  oo 

3 -S 

■S  60 

W CCS 

60  (h 

0)  O 

> 


$ 

o 


A V 


© . 
<3  <3 

o £ 


AAA 


C © 

© 

Oh 


! I 

* *£.§ 

VO  S 't  2 

60  CO  .5  *S 

60  v»  v» 

a o o 

5 S S 


© 

-S 


g H 
■2  > 

S S 

a< 


Oo  <D 

^ > 


8 o 

hJ  & 

£ .2 
3 £ 
73 

Ph 


© 

a 

H 


© . 
<3  © 

o £ 


© 

-2  a 

gas 


® 2 
«r  o\ 


o 


A A 


A 


£ S' 

_ 7> 
.2  § 
G C 
G 
© 

Vi 

© 

Ph 


© . 
o 2 


*2  ^-S  ^ 

.5  co  .5  rj- 
o © 

s s 


8 


O 

60  — 

Gu  canvG^t,  G L_i  ( 
a.2> 

ssPsss|sfe- 


a © 

& a 

a H 


2-  & 
8 £ 
05  H 

V. 

G 
O 


© [T. 

60  ^ 
© 

> 


_ 

■ 0)  w 05 
£ § 


© 

6 00 

s > 


< 

a* 


o 


A V 


.2 

‘5 

S u 

Vi  Vi 
© © 
cd 

O £ 
£ 


•3^-§ 


a,  r- 

© C^> 
Co 
05 

c 


"Q  p, 

•s  S 
£ H 
S e 

.52  - 

5. 13 

S © 
S 60 
2 « 
a,  > 


H 


JP 

s 

H 


505 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


drawn  from  wells  and  other  areas  remained 
fallow  except  during  north-east  monsoon.  We 
divided  the  study  area  into  56  quadrats  of 
60  m2  each  and  based  on  the  numerically 
abundant  plants,  their  associations  and  terrain 
distinguished  many  vegetation  types  (Fig.  1). 
Table  1 gives  details  of  the  vegetation  types. 

The  study  group  had  11  babblers  and  be- 
sides these  there  were  two  groups  of  8 and  5 in 
the  neighbourhood.  The  birds  which  interacted 
with  the  babblers  are  Black  Drongo  Dicrurus 
adsimilis , Shilcra  Accipiter  badius,  Crow  Phea- 
sant Centropus  sinensis , Jungle  Crow  Corvus 
macrorhynchos,  House  Crow  Corvus  splendens, 
Tree  Pie  Dendrocitta  vagabunda,  Spotted  Owlet 
Athene  brama,  Blue  Jay  Coracias  bengha- 
lensis,  Indian  Myna  Acridotheres  tristis , Brah- 
miny  Myna  Sturnus  pagodarum,  Koel  Eudy - 
namys  scolopacea,  Pied  Crested  Cuckoo 
Clamator  jacobinus  and  the  Grey  Partridge 
Francolinus  pondicerianus. 

Mammals  of  the  area  are  Threestriped  Palm 
Squirrel  Funambulus  palmarum,  Blacknaped 
Hare  Lepus  nigricollis,  Common  Mongoose 
Herpestes  edwardsi  and  Jungle  Cat  Felis 
chaus.  Reptiles  seen  were  the  Cobra  Naja  naja, 
Russell’s  Viper  Vipera  russelli  and  the  Rat 
snake  Ptyas  mucosus. 

Methods 

The  Whiteheaded  Babblers  have  feeble 
powers  of  flight.  The  maximum  distance  a bird 
covered  in  a non-stop  flight  was  c.  180  m. 
Before  flying  from  one  area  to  another  usually 
they  go  up  a tree  or  tall  shrub  to  gain  height 
in  flight.  Hence  it  was  possible  to  mark  their 
foraging  route  and  the  rate  of  movement  as 
they  moved  from  one  vegetation  type  to  an- 
other. 

Babblers  were  located  mostly  by  their  ex- 
cited calls  audible  for  > 200  m even  against 


wind.  Whenever  we  decided  to  follow  the 
group  from  the  time  they  left  the  roost,  we 
located  and  followed  them  till  they  roosted  in 
the  evening.  Next  day  around  0530  hr  we 
waited  for  them  to  commence  activities.  Data 
on  the  foraging  routes  and  the  rate  of  move- 
ment was  collected  once  a month  from  August 
1979  to  March  1980  and  the  group  was  follow- 
ed from  the  onset  of  their  activity  till  they 
roosted.  The  babblers  did  not  always  move 
as  a group  as  2 or  3 birds  sometimes  lagged 
behind.  In  such  cases  we  followed  part  of  the 
group  which  had  more  members  and  never 
less  than  seven.  As  we  were  careful  not  to 
disturb  the  foraging  route,  we  did  not  go 
close  to  the  group.  This  and  the  habit  of  the 
babblers  feeding  in  the  interior  of  the  shrub- 
bery made  it  difficult  to  identify  all  food  eaten. 

Results 

Density  and  home  range 

Whiteheaded  Babblers  are  cover-dependent 
for  escaping  predators.  This  reliance  prevents 
them  from  occupying  the  vast  stretches  of  tree 
and  shrubless  plains  around  Sivakasi.  The 
habitable  area  for  the  three  groups,  including 
the  study  area,  was  around  0.4  km2  which 
gives  a density  of  60  birds  per  km2.  The  den- 
sity for  the  study  area  was  55  birds  per  km2 
and  the  home  range  of  the  study  group  was 
c.  0.16  km2. 

This  home  range  was  not  covered  when 
day  range  length  for  8 days  was  computed 
(Fig.  2)  and  for  the  estimation  of  home  range 
data  collected  on  other  days  were  also  used. 
The  home  area  (area  covered  on  single  day 
— Madison,  1978)  for  8 days  ranged  from 
0.024  to  0.099  km2,  with  a mean  of  0.06  km2. 

Normally  distance  between  neighbouring 
groups  was  between  100  and  200  m.  Twice 
group  of  11  went  deep  into  the  home  range 


506 


FORAGING  BEHAVIOUR  OF  WHITEHEADED  BABBLERS 


of  group  of  8 when  the  latter  was  not  in 
that  area  and  once  the  group  of  8 made  an 
inroad  into  the  home  range  of  group  of  11 
when  the  latter  was  feeding  c.  200  m away. 
Six  observations  showed  that  group  of  5 did 
not  have  a fixed  home  range  and  lived  along 
the  periphery  of  north-western  and  south- 
eastern parts  of  the  study  area. 

Intergroup  conflicts  were  seen  on  4 occa- 
sions — thrice  between  group  of  11  and  8 
and  once  between  group  of  11  and  5.  Conflicts 
were  characterized  by  chases  between  indivi- 


dual birds  and  loud  vocalization.  Physical 
attack  on  the  intruder  was  seen  twice. 
Foraging  behaviour 

The  babblers  commenced  feeding  c.  20 
minutes  before  sunrise.  In  a foraging  site  they 
moved  in  different  directions  and  there  was 
no  incidence  of  either  cooperative  hunting  or 
food  sharing  between  adults  even  when  large 
prey  (e.g.,  a big  green  grasshopper)  were  kill- 
ed and  eaten.  Only  once  we  saw  a babbler 
chasing  an  insect  flushed  by  another.  A 
babbler  at  a static  food  source  like  a termite 


1 

o> 

1 

D 

a. 

< 

a> 

CO 

i D 

C\J 

rO 

00 

o 

c 

-O 

a> 

o 

O) 

o 

0 

“5 

Ll 

O 

m 

'3- 

ro 

rO 

00 

00 

Fig.  2 


Cumulative  home  range  and  home  areas  of  the  study  group 
(25  Aug.  1979  - 23  Mar  1980  ) 


507 


Activities  of  Babblers  associated  with  feeding  onground  based  on  77.39  minutes  observation 

THROUGHOUT  THE  STUDY  AT  DIFFERENT  TIMES  OF  THE  DAY 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  19 


§UIUB9[§ 

§ui§uip  jnsx 

- 

qnsind  JspmH 

- 

guiqAveq  punoiQ 

m 

iqgip  poqs 

o 

§UIUB3|§ 
Aq^s  punojo 

ro 

T-H 

§UIUB91§ 

§muin;j9AO  psfqo 

t"- 

<N 

§mUB9{§ 

punojS  §uipuBJS 

gmddojj 

1388 

ssijiAipy 

Number  of 
times  seen 

s a 


§uiub9j§ 

guxSSsq  pooj 

UOIJBZIJEDOy\ 

sqnqs  guiAV 
aqsqs  jibx 

vtfm  *J°qs 

gurqjn'q 

Suqio 

Suiddoji 

uoijBospQ 

qopjjs  guiM.  suo 

qopjp  Suiav  qjog 
qop-US  §9i  qpg 

§muB9p  ^nsg 
§niu99Jdoqy 

gmnosjd  oiny 

S9IJIAIPV 


508 


Number  of 
times  seen  446 


FORAGING  BEHAVIOUR  OF  WHITEHEADED  BABBLERS 


colony  attracted  others  and  3 to  5 formed  a 
circle  and  ate. 

The  following  classification  of  the  foraging 
methods  of  babblers  is  based  on  the  study  of 
Neotropical  Tyrant  Flycatchers  (Fitzpatrick 
1980).  Hopping  was  the  major  method  of 
movement  on  the  ground  (Table  2).  Standing 
ground  gleaning  (catching  prey  standing  on 
the  ground)  was  the  most  common  method 
of  prey  capture.  Frequently  the  babblers  over- 
turned leaves  and  sticks  on  the  ground  (Object 
overturning  gleaning).  In  such  cases  it  was  not 
possible  to  differentiate  pecking  at  prey  from 
eating.  Prey  was  picked  from  vegetation 
during  a short  jump  or  flight  (Ground  sally 
gleaning)  or  snatched  from  air  (Ground 
hawking).  Rarely  insects  attached  to  the  leaf 
were  removed  and  while  doing  so  the  birds 
momentarily  clung  to  the  leaf-tip  (Leaf  cling- 
ing gleaning).  Low  flying  insects  were  rapidly 
pursued  in  flight  (Flutter  pursuit)  and  the 
babblers  with  remarkable  agility  twisted  and 
turned  in  the  air.  Foraging  was  frequently  seen 
in  foliage  (Table  3).  While  tearing  apart  large 
prey  like  grasshoppers  or  Morinda  fruit 
( Morinda  tomentosa)  or  while  plucking  grain 
from  an  earhead  a foot  was  used  to  press  down 
the  food. 

Babblers  fed  mostly  on  insects  and  cater- 
pillars (Table  4).  While  foraging  they  moved 
frequently  but  the  distance  covered  and  speed 
of  movement  varied  on  different  days  (Table 
5).  Average  speed  of  movement  for  Septem- 
ber, October,  and  November,  the  rainy  months, 
characterised  by  dense  vegetation  and  fruit 
abundance  was  around  105  m/hr  and  the 
data  for  January,  February  and  March, 
part  of  the  dry  season,  was  around  134  m/hr. 
The  abundance  of  grasshoppers,  a common 
prey,  varied  little  between  rainy  and  dry  sea- 
son. Grasshoppers  counted  along  the  foraging 
path  on  2nd  October  were  155  and  on  7th 


qniQ 


jopidS 


spodpusQ  n 


sru^doondj 

paSSnjj  co 


vsoiudiuo } 
vpuuojy 


BJVSjtlA 

uitit{8jos 


a, 

5 

d 

O 


U3P23 

pooj  JO  odAx 


509 


2 


Times  seen 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Table  5 


Foraging  distance  and  speed  of  movement  of  the  babblers 


Date 

Total  foraging 
time  (in  hours 
and  minutes) 
h. 

m. 

Total  distance 
covered 
(in  metres) 

Speed  of 

movement  (metres 
per  hour) 

25.  viii.  ’79 

12 

35 

3000 

239 

23.ix.’79 

12 

34 

1370 

109 

7.x. ’79 

12 

32 

1040 

83 

21.xi.’79 

12 

08 

1500 

124 

30.xii.  ’79 

12 

12 

1720 

141 

31  .i.  ’80 

12 

08 

1620 

134 

24 . ii . ’80 

12 

16 

1600 

130 

23.iii.’80 

12 

38 

1760 

139 

Table1  6 

Speed  of  movement  of  the  babblers  in  metres 

IN  DIFFERENT  TIMES  OF  THE  DAY 


Date 

Before 
1000  hrs. 

Between  1000- 
1400  hrs. 

After 
1400  hrs. 

25-viii-79 

308 

318 

146 

23-ix-79 

187 

91 

60 

7-X-79 

110 

68 

79 

21-xi-79 

79 

162 

160 

30-xii-79 

118 

125 

193 

3 l-i-80 

207 

140 

83 

24-ii-80 

212 

135 

78 

23-iii-80 

196 

105 

145 

Total 

1417 

1144 

944 

X 

177 

143 

118 

April,  169.  The  Mann- Whitney  U-test  show- 
ed that  the  babblers  covered  more  distance 
during  the  dry  season  (U  = O,  p < 0.05)  but 
foraged  in  a restricted  part  of  their  home 
range  (Fig.  2).  More  distance  covered  by 
babblers  in  dry  season  may  be  correlated  with 
lack  of  fruits.  In  Sivakasi,  where  the  summer 
temperature  in  day  time  rises  to  40°C,  one 
may  expect  the  babblers  to  cover  more  dis- 
tance in  early  morning  and  evening  and  re- 


main inactive  at  midday.  The  distance  covered 
by  the  babblers  and  their  speed  of  movement 
between  1000  and  1400  hr  were  not  signifi- 
cantly different  from  data  for  hours  between 
the  onset  of  foraging  and  1000  hr  (Table  6). 

If  the  time  spent  by  the  babblers  in  diffe- 
rent vegetation  types  is  calculated,  with  refe- 
rences to  the  area  of  vegetation  types, 
it  was  seen  that  the  babblers  spent  more 
time  (8.61  hr)  in  the  north  mango  area 
(see  Table  1 and  7).  This  area  until  the  end 
of  November  had  banana  plants  ( Musa  para - 
clisiaca)  and  throughout  had  abundant  food 
perennial  water.  The  Fluggea-Morinda  vege- 
tation types  (Tables  1 and  7)  comes 

as  the  second  most  intensively  utilized  area  and 
the  reason  for  this  is  the  combined  effect  of  the 
presence  of  nesting  sites,  roosting  sites,  vege- 
tation density  and  shade.  During  November 
and  December  in  this  vegetation  type  the 
babblers  fledged  a cuckoo  chick  and  in  Janu- 
ary and  February  2 babbler  chicks  were  raised. 
During  the  breeding  season  the  group  spent 
13.07  hr  in  Fluggea-Morinda  vegetation  type 
and  in  non-breeding  reason  10.12  hr.  Total 
hours  of  observation  for  the  breeding  and  non- 
breeding season  was  48.73  hr  and  50.19  hr 


510 


FORAGING  BEHAVIOUR  OF  WHITEHEADED  BABBLERS 


Fig.  3 Aggressive  interactions  between  Babblers  8 other  animals  of  study 


area.  August  1979  to  April  1980. 


Note  : 


Babbler 


■>  6 


Drongo  = 


Babbler  chased  Orongo  six  times. 


511 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


respectively.  The  time  spent  by  the  babblers 
in  this  vegetation  type  during  the  breeding 
season  was  not  significantly  different  from  the 
time  spent  during  the  non-breeding  season 
(t  = 0.56,  df  = 3,  p = > 0.05). 

Interactions  with  other  species 

There  were  32  sightings  of  drongo  feeding 
with  the  babblers.  Drongo  was  one  among  the 
three  birds  — the  other  two  being  the  Red- 
vented  Bulbul  and  the  Indian  Wren-Warbler, 
which  were  tolerated  to  feed  within  5 m,  when 
the  group  raised  cuckoo  and  babbler  chicks. 
This  suggests  a mutually  beneficial  associa- 
tion between  the  drongo  and  babblers  as  the 
aerially  hawking  drongo  benefited  by  captur- 
ing insects  flushed  by  the  babblers  (4  observa- 
tions). It  even  robbed  a grasshopper  from  a 
babbler.  No  other  bird  except  a babbler  was 
seen  chasing  a drongo  (Fig.  3),  but  drongo 
chased  off  all  predatory  birds.  When  the  group 
had  chicks,  there  was  no  incidence  of  the  ^ 
drongo  being  chased  off  by  the  group.  Bab-  * 
biers,  therefore,  may  tolerate  drongo’s  pre-  H 
sence,  especially,  when  chicks  are  present  as 
the  latter  gives  protection  from  predators. 
Presumably  the  benefit  outweighs  the  cost  to 
babblers  of  having  food  robbed  occasionally. 

The  babblers  responded  to  predators  and 
other  fear-stimulating  objects  in  different  ways 
(Table  8).  Shikra  was  the  commonest  preda- 
tor which  elicited  most  of  the  anti-predator 
responses.  Alarm  is  the  short  shriek-call  and 
as  the  call  was  given  the  babblers  flew  to  cover. 

A hare  in  the  bush,  Crow-Pheasant  and  a shed 
snake  skin  also  made  the  babblers  to  sound 
alarm.  Excited  calls  sometimes  lasted  for  more 
than  4 minutes  and  mobbing  call  could  be 
differentiated  from  an  excited  call  when  two 
or  more  babblers  called  on  seeing  a predator. 
The  Blacknaped  Hare  feeding  in  open  did  not 
excite  babblers.  Once  the  group  lost  its  inte- 
rest in  a 2 m active  snake  after  mobbing  it 
for  4 minutes.  Spotted  Owlets  were  tolerated 


S0JIS  gUI 

-§bjoj  snosu 

m ij\  (s 

^ m N m 

O' 

xl* 

M 1 ""  1 i'll” 

011  s 

M. 

06 

57 

38 

18 

On 

«o 

quiojL 

H. 

1 

CM 

vpuuoj^i 

w N xj-  O'-  OO  © VO 

i>;  ^ M co  cn  \l-  Tf 

04 

-sidosojj 

H. 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

m *0  h in  On 

( ^ M _ CM 

Vll{}iv£  IOJ 

K ill  ‘ ’ I 

- 

sidosojj 

•NOO  — coOnVOOOqo 

^(McOMfO'tO«Oo 

C«0 

-vpuuoj^l 

1 1 1 

xj- 

Vd88njj 

'VOhOOOMO\N(^ 

m 

04 

-vpuuojq 

H. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

OO 

M © xf  OO  NO  VO  o 

4 M CO  co  n tn  ^ 

xf- 

o 

1S0AV 

H. 

2 

ogireptf 

w CO  rt  CO 

g m t-h  C'N  1-H 

o- 

cn 

sl^l  ■ 

00 

vpuuop\[ 

^io-HOONricoTt- 

cOcoOcoN'trlcoici 

- 

-vdSSnu 

m 

<N 

pueq 

N OO  fs 

<i  O 

O' 

ffi  III 

vpuuop\[ 

w O0  Oc  ON  OO  CO  ON 

1 O rn  CO  1C)  CO 

O 

xf 

-9sw8y 

H. 

1 

2 

3 

2 

1 

2 

1 

V) 

S0dAx 

o > .3  « X « .i  :3  :3 

3 

QiAcAt^ri6^4cA 

Ol  <N  N co  co  N 

H 

512 


FORAGING  BEHAVIOUR  OF  WHITEHEADED  BABBLERS 


Table  8 

Various  antipredator  behaviour  of  Whiteheaded  Babblers  observed  during  the  study 


Types  of  Alarm  Excited  Mobbing  Hiding  Chase 

behaviour  call  call  in  cover 


Number  of  times 

observed  38  17 

Prominent 

causative  Shikra  Observer 

agents 


except  for  one  incident  of  babblers  mobbing 
an  owlet  when  they  had  the  cuckoo  chick. 
Jungle  Babblers  are  known  to  chase  Spotted 
Owlet  (Andrews  & Naik  1970). 

Discussion 

Density  of  babblers  reported  in  this  study 
is  not  high  when  compared  with  the  density 
of  other  species  of  Turdoides  (1067  Jungle 
Babblers  per  km2  (Andrews  & Naik  1970), 
133  Striated  Babblers  per  km2  [Gaston  1978 
(a)];  46  Common  Babblers  per  km2  [Gaston 
1978(b)].  Lack  of  dense  vegetation  entirely 
covering  the  study  area  with  fewer  nest  sites 
and  lower  food  abundance  may  be  the  reason. 

Insectivorous  birds  foraging  in  flocks  can 
beat  up  a higher  proportion  of  flying  insects 
per  bird  than  can  scattered  individuals  (Wil- 
son 1975).  Whiteheaded  Babblers  did  not 
show  this  trait.  In  the  absence  of  cooperative 
foraging,  group  living  in  babblers  may  help 
them  detect  predators  as  in  doves  (Siegfried 
& Underhill  1975)  but  an  optimum  size  of 
the  group  is  necessary  to  deter  predators.  We 
observed  that  a group  of  three  babblers  was 
not  successful  in  chasing  off  a shikra  but 
nine  did  it  effectively.  Movement  from  one 
area  of  the  home  range  to  another,  a charac- 
teristic of  many  territorial  species,  is  not  only 


10 

14 

41 

Shikra, 

Shikra 

Shikra 

Blue  Jay, 

Myna 

for  optimization  of  foraging  (Charnov  et  cd. 
1976)  but  also  for  patrolling  their  territories 
to  keep  away  conspecifics  (Gaston,  pers. 
com.). 

Since  babblers  mostly  feed  near  or  on 
ground,  we  call  them  near  ground  foragers  and 
drongos,  aerial  hawkers.  This  foraging  differ- 
ence reduces  competition  for  food.  The 
adaptive  value  of  mixed  species  flocking  in 
birds  is  generally  held  to  be  connected  with 
feeding  advantages,  protection  from  predators 
or  both  (Morse  1970).  The  babbler-drongo 
association  is  another  example. 

Babbler’s  interactions  with  other  species 
provide  examples  for  interspecific  conflict  re- 
lated to  predation,  roosting  site  and  food 
resources.  Of  the  10  species  chased  off  by 
babblers  (Fig.  3),  four  species  (Jungle  Crow, 
Shikra,  Crow  Pheasant  and  House  Crow)  were 
potential  predators  of  babbler  chicks.  All  in- 
teractions with  Blue  Jay  were  observed  at 
roost  sites.  Birds,  such  as,  Indian  Myna,  Brah- 
miny  Myna  and  Koel  probably  compete  for 
the  same  food  resource.  Low  (1971)  found 
that  35  of  the  38  species,  that  were  chased 
off  by  pomacentrid  fish  Pomacentrus  flavi- 
cauda,  were  food  competitors,  while  all  of  the 
16  species  that  were  allowed  to  trespass  un- 
molested exploited  different  food  resources. 
Redvented  Bulbul  and  Indian  Wren-Warbler, 
which  probably  do  not  compete  with  babblers 


513 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


for  the  same  food  resource  and  which  cannot 
harm  babbler  chicks,  were  tolerated  at  all 
times  and  the  drongo  was  not  chased  off  when 
chicks  were  present.  This  implies  that  babblers 
know  what  and  when  to  chase  off  from  their 
vicinity.  A proper  understanding  of  this  will 
be  evident  by  further  studies  on  this  aspect. 

Refer 

Ali,  S.  & Ripley,  S.  D.  (1971):  Handbook  of 
THE  BIRDS  OF  INDIA  AND  PAKISTAN  Vol.  6,  Oxford 
University  Press,  Bombay. 

Andrews,  M.  I.  & Naik,  R.  M.  (1970):  The  bio- 
logy of  the  Jungle  Babbler.  Pavo  5(1):  1-34. 

Charnov,  E.  L.,  Orians,  G.  H.  & Hyatt,  K. 
(1976)  : The  ecological  implications  of  resource  de- 
pression. Amer.  Natur.  110 : 247-259. 

Emlen,  S.  T.  (1978):  The  evolution  of  coopera- 
tive breeding  in  birds.  In  Krebs,  J.  R.  & Davies, 
N.  B.  (eds)  ‘Behavioural  Ecology  an  evolutionary 
approach’:  245-281,  Sinauer  Associates  Inc.,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

Fitzpatrick,  J.  W.  (1980) : Foraging  behaviour 
of  Neotropical  Tyrant  Flycatchers.  Condor  82:  43- 
57. 

Gaston,  A.  J.  (1977) : Social  behaviour  within 
groups  of  Jungle  Babblers  ( Turdoides  striatus ). 
Anim.  Behav.  828-848. 

(1978a):  Notes  on  the  Striated 

Babbler  Turdoides  earlei  (Blyth)  near  Delhi.  J. 
Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  75(1):  219-220. 


Acknowledgements 

We  thank  A.  J.  Gaston  and  Eugene  Morton 
for  having  made  many  improvements  in  the 
first  draft.  Ideas  of  J.  C.  Daniel,  Madhav 
Gadgil  and  Guy  Greenwell  are  also  gratefully 
acknowledged. 

EN  CES 

(1978b) : Ecology  of  the  Common 

Babbler  Turdoides  caudatus.  Ibis  120:  415-432. 

Low,  R.  M.  (1971) : Interspecific  territoriality  in 
a pomacentrid  reef  fish  Pomacentrus  flavicauda 
Whitley.  Ecology  52:  648-654. 

Madison,  D.  M.  (1978) : Movement  indicators 
of  reproductive  events  among  female  meadow  voles 
as  revealed  by  radiotelemetry.  J.  Mammal.  59:  835- 
843. 

Morse,  D.  H.  (1970)  : Ecological  aspects  of  some 
mixed-species  foraging  flocks  of  birds.  Ecol.  Monogr. 
40:  119-168. 

Siegfried,  W.  R.  & Underhill,  L.  G.  (1975): 
Flocking  as  an  antipredator  strategy  in  doves.  Anim. 
Behav.  23:  504-508. 

Wilson,  E.  O.  (1977):  Sociobiology  — the  new 
synthesis.  Belknap  press  of  Harvard  University 
Press,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

Zacharias,  V.  J.  & Mathew,  D.  N.  (1977): 
Malabar  Jungle  Babbler  Turdoides  striatus  malaba- 
ricus  (Jerdon)  and  Whiteheaded  Babbler  Turdoides 
affinis  affinis  (Jerdon)  jointly  caring  for  the  chicks 
of  the  latter.  J.  Bombay,  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  74:  529-530. 


514 


STUDIES  ON  THE  GRASSES  OF  KHERI  DISTRICT, 
UTTAR  PRADESH1 


K.  K.  Singh2 

This  paper  gives  an  account  of  the  grasses  of  Kheri  district.  A Dichotomous  Key  to 
the  genera  of  Poaceae  is  included.  Fifty  four  genera  and  seventy  seven  species  are 
described.  Ecological  notes,  phenology,  local  names  and  field  numbers  are  provided 
to  the  species. 


In  trodu ction 

Kheri  district  in  north  Uttar  Pradesh  lies 
between  27°41'  and  28°42'N.  latitude  and 
80°2'  and  81°19'E.  longitude.  The  district  is 
separated  on  the  east  from  Bahraich  district 
by  river  Kauriala,  and  has  to  its  south  Sitapur 
and  Hardoi  districts  and,  Shahjahanpur  and 
Pilibhit  districts  to  the  west,  and  Nepal  to  the 
north,  separated  by  Mohan  river  (Anon. 
1927).  The  thick  forest  belts  of  the  district  are 
situated  in  the  terai  regions  of  the  foot  hills 
of  Himalayas.  The  grasslands  are  well  repre- 
sented in  between  the  sal  forest  of  the  district 
and  are  locally  known  as  Phantas. 

Seventy  seven  species  of  grasses  occur  in 
this  region.  Ecological  notes,  phenology,  local 
names,  occurrence,  field  numbers  etc.  have 
been  recorded  for  the  species  enumerated. 

Key  to  the  genera  of  family  poaceae 
(nom.  alt.  Gramineae ) 

1 .  Culms  woody  with  culm  sheath 

(reduced  leaves)  Dendrocalamus 

1.  Culms  not  woody;  leaves  not  reduced  to  culm 
sheath : 

2.  Spikelets  of  two  florets,  the  upper  perfect 
and  the  lower  staminate  or  neutral  and 

1 Accepted  January  1982. 

2 National  Botanical  Research  Institute,  Lucknow. 
(U.P.). 


usually  falling  off  entirely  together  with 
glumes  at  maturity: 

3.  Male  and  female  spikelets  in  separate  in- 
florescence : 

4.  Plant  glabrous  or  slightly  hairy;  caryopsis 

enclosed  in  stony  bracts  Coix 

4.  Plant  hairy;  caryopsis  enclosed  in  thick 

lower  glumes  Chionachne 

3 . Spikelets  all  hermaphrodite  with  male  or 
barren  or  hermaphrodite  spikelets  mixed  in 
the  same  inflorescence: 

5.  Spikelets  often  paired;  with  one  sessile  and 
other  pedicelled,  glumes  as  long  as  the 
spikelets;  upper  lemma  usually  awned: 

6.  All  spikelets  alike: 

7 . Racemens  on  a short  common  axis  or 
cles  or  racemosely  arranged  on  an  elongat- 
ed common  axis: 

8.  Spikelets  all  pedicelled  Imperata 

8.  Spikelets  one  sessile,  the  other  pedicelled: 

9.  Panicles  narrow,  villous  to  tomentose; 

glumes  coriaceous  Narenga 

9.  Panicles  wide,  silky  hairy;  glumes  mem- 
branous   Saccharum 

7.  Racemes  on  a short  common  axis  or 
digitate  or  sometimes  solitary: 

10.  Spikelets  2-flowered  Eulaliopsis 

10.  Spikelets  1 -flowered: 

11.  Lower  glumes  dorsally  flattened  or 
shallowly  concave  between  the  keels; 
upper  lemma  bidentate  at  the  apex 
Eulalia 

11.  Lower  glumes  convex  on  the  back;  upper 
lemma  stipiform  . . .Pseudopogonatherum 

6.  Sessile  and  pedicelled  spikelets  dissimilar: 

12.  Joints  and  pedicels  trigonous,  rounded 
or  flat: 


515 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


13.  Upper  lemma  awned: 

14.  Racemes  many  noded,  not  enclosed 
in  a spathe  like  sheath 

Ischaemum 

14.  Racemes  1 -noded,  partially  enclosed 

into  boat-shape,  spathe A pluda 

13.  Upper  lemma  not  avvned: 

15.  Sessile  spikelets  globose 

Hackelochloa 

15.  Sessile  spikelets  not  globose: 

16.  Racemes  compressed;  spikelets  of 

each  pair  similar Hemarthria 

16.  Racemes  cylindrical;  spikelets  of 
each  pair  dissimilar: 

17.  Pedicelled  spikelets  distinct  and 

more  or  less  of  same  size 
Rottboellia 

17.  Spikelets  all  sessile;  pedicelled 

rudimentary  Mnesithea 

12.  Joints  and  pedicels  slender,  rarely  thick- 
ened upwards: 

18.  Racemes  in  whorled  panicles,  never 
spatheate : 

19.  Lower  glumes  not  flattened  on  the  back: 

20.  Panicles  dense,  contracted 


Pseudosorghum 

20.  Panicles  lax,  open  Sorghum 

19.  Lower  glumes  flattened  on  the  back: 

21.  Spikelets  triad,  one  sessile  and  two 

pedicelled  Chrysopogon 

21.  Spikelets  biad,  one  sessile  and  other 
pedicelled  Vetiveria 


18.  Racemes  digitate,  subdigitate  or  in  pairs 

or  solitary  terminal,  usually  spatheate: 

22.  Lemma  awned  from  the  back 

Arthraxon 

22.  Lemma  awned  from  the  tip  or  sinus: 

23.  Margins  of  lower  glumes  of  sessile 
spikelets  sharply  infolded,  two  keeled, 
awn  glabrous: 

24.  Lemma  awned  from  the  tip: 

25.  Racemes  in  compound  spatheate 

panicles  . — . Capillipedium 

25.  Racemes  not  in  compound  spatheate 
panicles : 

26.  Lower  involucral  glumes  with  pits 

Bothriochloa 

26.  Involucral  glumes  without  pits  

Dichanthium 

24.  Lemma  awned  from  a sinus: 


27.  Plant  aromatic:  racemes  b innate,  sup- 
ported by  spathe  arranged  in  panicles 
Cymbopogon 

27.  Plant  not  aromatic  racemes  solitary 
terminal  on  the  culms  and  branches 
Schizachrium 

23.  Margins  of  lower  glumes  inturned  and 
rounded  at  the  sides;  awn  usually  hairy: 

28.  Racemes  surrounded  at  the  base  by  an 

involucre  of  homogamous,  sessile,  non- 
deciduous  spikelets  Themeda 

28.  Racemes  without  an  involucre 

Heteropogon 

5.  Spikelets  solitary  or  paired,  more  or 
less  similar;  glumes  usually  membran- 
ous, at  the  lower  usually  smaller  or 
sometimes:  suppressed:  upper  lemma 

usually  awnless: 

29.  Spikelets  in  open  or  contracted 
panicles : 

30.  Spikelets  in  open  panicles: 

31.  Spikelets  not  supported  by  bristles: 

32.  Spikelets  gibbous  laterally  com- 
pressed   Cyrtococcum 

32.  Spikelets  not  gibbous 

Panicum 

30.  Spikelets  in  contracted  spike  like 

panicles  Hymenachne 

29.  Spikelets  in  secundate  spiciform 
racemes  or  false  spikes: 

33.  Upper  lemma  crustaceous  or  coriaceous: 

34.  Spikelets  adaxial: 

35.  Glumes  awned: 

36.  Blades  lanceolate  to  ovate 

Oplismenus 

36.  Blades  linear,  narrow 
Echinochloa 

35.  Glumes  awnless: 

37 . Lower  glumes  well  developed : 

38.  Aquatic  plants  Paspalidium 

38.  Terrestrial  or  marshy  plants 

Urochloa 

37.  Lower  glumes  absent 

Paspaium 

34.  Spikelets  abaxial Brachiaria 

33.  Upper  lemma  thinly  cartilaginous  usually 
with  flat  hyaline  margin Digitaria 

31.  Spikelets  supported  bristles: 

39.  Bristles  caducous,  forming  an  involucre; 
upper  lemma  smooth Pennisetum 


GRASSES  OF  KHERl  DISTRICT 


39.  Bristles  persistent,  solitary;  upper 

lemma  transversely  rugose .Setaria 

2.  Spikelets  always  with  a single  herma- 
phrodite floret;  if  two-flowered,  with  one  of 
the  floret  barren,  then  lemmas  as  firm  as 
glumes : 

40.  Spikelets  arranged  in  open  or  contract- 
ed spikelike  panicles  : 

41.  Spikelets  with  2 or  more  fertile 
florets : 

42.  Glumes  shorter  than  the  lowest 
florets : 

43.  Lemmas  5-many  nerved Poa 

43.  Lemmas  1-3  nerved: 

44.  Spikelets  in  open,  contracted  or  spikelike 

panicle .Erctgrostis 

44.  Spikelets  in  open,  contracted  or  spikelike 
panicle 

45.  Rachis  ending  in  spikelets: 

46.  Spikelets  falling  entire  of  straight  spikes 
which  are  numerous  and  crowded  into 
long  narrow  dense  panicles 
Desmostachya 

46.  Spikelets  breaking  up  at  maturity: 
spikes  few  to  many Eleusine 

42.  Glumes  longer  than  the  lowest 
florets : 

47.  Lemmas  and  rachila  glabrous 

Avena 

47.  Lemmas  and  rachila  joints  with  long 

silky  hairs  Phragmites 

41.  Spikelets  with  one  fertile  floret: 

48.  Glumes  minute  or  suppressed:  fertile 
lemma  and  palea  very  similar  in 
shape  and  texture: 

49.  Blade  ovate-oblong  or  ovate-lanceo- 
late with  inflated  sheath 
Hygroryza 

49.  Blade  linear,  acute  or  acuminate 

Oryza 

48.  Glumes  well  developed;  fertile  lemma 
and  palea  dissimilar: 

50.  Spikelets  with  3-florets Phalaris 

50.  Spikelets  with  1 to  2-florets: 

51.  Spikelets  with  2-florets 

Arundinella 

51.  Spikelets  with  1 -floret: 

52.  Lemmas  1 to  3-nerved 

• . . Perotis 

52.  Lemmas  5-nerved Polypogon 


40.  Spikelets  arranged  on  one  side  of  the 
tough-rachis : 


53.  Spikelets  awned  Chloris 

53.  Spikelets  awnless  Cynodon 


45.  Rachis  ending  in  a sharp  point 

Dactyloctenium 

Species  list 

1.  Dendrocalamus  strictus  (Roxb.)  Nees 
Occasionally  in  North  Kheri  forest  divi- 
sion. 

K.K.S.  7684.  Local  name — Bans. 

2.  Coix  lacryma-jobi  Linn. 

In  moist  locations  near  villages.  Rare; 
FIs.  & Frs.:  Sept. -December.  KKS  4359. 

3.  Chionachne  koenigii  (Spreng.)  Thw. 
Common  in  grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-November. 

KKS  4193,  4291,  7524. 

4.  Imperata  cylindrica  (Linn.)  Beauv. 

Common  in  grasslands  and  in  open 

grounds. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  June-October.  KKS  7672, 

8420.  Local  name — Bharuee. 

5.  Narenga  porphyrocoma  (Hance)  Bor 
Occasionally  in  open  areas  and  in  grass- 
lands. 

FIs.  & Frs. : October-November.  KKS 

4294,  7844. 

6.  Saccharum  spontaenum  Linn. 

Common  along  river  banks,  in  swamps 
and  along  the  bunds  of  fields  etc.; 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September- January.  KKS 

3024,  7500. 

Local  name — Kans. 

7.  Saccharum  bengalense  Retz. 

Frequent  in  marshes  and  along  railway 
lines. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-October.  KKS  4330 
Local  name — Munj. 

8.  Eulaliopsis  binata  (Retz.)  Hubb. 
Occasionally  in  open  dry  areas  near  sal 
forests. 


517 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


FIs.  & Frs.:  October-February.  KKS  7618. 

9.  Eulalia  leschenaultiana  (Decne)  Ohwi 
Occasional  in  moist  areas. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-November.  KKS 
7879. 

10.  Pseudopogonatherum  contortum  A.  Camus 
Frequent  in  grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs. : October-December.  KKS 

7865. 

1 1 . lschaemum  rugosum  Salib. 

Common  in  marshes  and  rice  fields. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 

7945,  8423. 

12.  Apluda  mutica  Linn. 

Common  in  open  grasslands  and  along 
railway  lines. 

FIs.  & Frs. : September-February.  KKS 

4188,  7787,  8534. 

13.  Hackelochloa  granulans  (Linn.)  O.  Ktze. 
Frequent  in  moist  places  in  sal  forest  and 
in  grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 

7397,  7788,  8520 

14.  Hemarthria  compressa  (Linn.f.)  R.  Br. 
Common  in  marshy  areas  and  in  rice  fields. 
FIs.  & Frs.:  July-September.  KKS  8440, 
8467. 

15.  Rottboellia  exaltata  Linn.  f. 

Frequent  along  water  courses. 

FIs.  & Frs. : August-November.  KKS 

7951. 

16.  Mnesithea  laevis  (Retz.)  Kunth 
Common  in  grasslands  and  in  the  moist 
bed  of  rice  fields. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  July-December.  KKS  7707. 

17.  Pseudosorghum  fascicular e (Roxb.)  A. 
Camus 

Common  in  grasslands  and  along  railway 
lines. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 
7876,  7881,  7974. 


18.  Sorghum  nitidum  (Vahl)  Pers. 

Common  in  grasslands  and  along  railway 
lines. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 
4179,  4206,  4325. 

19.  S.  halepense  (Linn.)  Pers. 

Occasional  in  cultivated  fields  and  along 
railway  lines. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 
8533. 

Local  name — Ghamoy. 

20.  Chrysopogon  aciculatus  (Retz.)  Trin. 
Frequent  in  open  wastelands. 

FIs.  & Frs. : August-November.  KKS  2984. 

21.  Vetiveria  zizanioides  (Linn.)  Nash 
Common  in  sal  forests  and  marshy  places. 
FIs.  & Frs.:  July-November.  KKS  2983, 
7550,  7764. 

Local  names — Seenk,  khas  . 

22.  Arthraxon  prionodes  (Steud.)  Dandy 
Occurs  occasionally  in  open  grasslands. 
FIs.  & Frs.:  October-February.  G.  Saran 
26286. 

23.  Capillipedium  assimile  (Steud.)  A.  Camus 
Occurs  commonly  along  railway  lines. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-December.  KKS  4182, 
7979. 

24.  Bothriochloa  intermedia  (R.  Br.)  A. 
Camus 

Common  in  grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-December.  KKS  4191, 
7686,  7937. 

25.  B.  pertusa  (Linn.)  A.  Camus 
Common  in  grasslands  and  in  dried  up 
rice  fields,  wastelands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September- January.  KKS 
8540;  8551. 

Local  name — Sandhur. 

26.  B.  kuntzeana  (Hack.)  Hern, 

Occasional  in  open  areas  and  in  grasslands 
FIs.  & Frs.:  September- January.  KKS 
7984. 


518 


GRASSES  OF  KHERI  DISTRICT 


27.  Dichant hium  annulatum  (Forsk.)  Stapf 
Common  in  lawns  and  in  wastelands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August- January.  KKS  7238, 
7600,  7619,  8332. 

28.  Cymbopogon  osmastonii  Parker 
Occasional  in  the  north  Kheri  forest  divi- 
sion along  forest  roads.  The  grass  is  ende- 
mic to  this  district. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 
7877. 

29.  C.  jwarancusa  (Jones)  Schult. 

In  open  areas.  Rare. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-December.  KKS  7181. 
Local  name — Jarakus. 

30.  C.  jlexuosus  (Nees)  Wasts.  var.  micro- 
stachys  (Hook,  f.)  Bor 

Frequent  in  grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 
4315. 

31.  Schizaehyrium  brevifolium  (Sw.)  Nees 
Occasional  in  open  areas. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 
7839. 

32.  Themeda  arundinacea  (Roxb.)  Ridley 
Common  in  low-lying  areas  in  sal  forests 
and  grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-December.  KKS 4211, 
8554. 

Local  name — Ulla. 

33.  Heteropogon  contortus  (Linn.)  Beauv.  ex 
R.  & S. 

Common  in  grasslands  and  in  open  waste- 
lands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 
4274,  7838. 

34.  Cyrtococcum  patens  (Linn.)  A.  Camus 
Frequent  in  low-lying  areas  and  other 
moist  places. 

FIs.  & Frs. : August-November.  KKS  7536. 

35.  Panicum  austro-asiaticum  Ohwi 
Frequent  in  moist  places. 


FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 
8524. 

36.  P.  trypheron  Schult. 

Frequent  in  cultivated  fields  and  in  grass- 
lands. 

FIs.  & Frs. : August-December.  KKS  7722. 

37.  P.  paludosum  Roxb. 

Common  in  marshy  places,  still  waters 
and  banks  of  tanks,  ponds  throughout  the 
district. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 
7730,  8473,  8563. 

38.  Hymenachne  pseudointerrupt  a C.  Muell 
Occasional  in  marshy  areas  in  South 
Kheri  forest  division. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-December.  KKS 
7874. 

39.  Oplismenus  compositus  (Linn.)  Beauv. 
Frequently  forms  a dense,  herbaceous, 
undergrowth  in  moist,  shady  areas  of 
orchards. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-January.  KKS  7822. 

40.  O.  burmanni  (Retz.)  Beauv. 

Common  in  moist  shady  areas  in  orchards 
and  in  forests. 

FIs.  & Frs.  September-November.  KKS 
7771,  7821. 

41.  Echinochloa  stagnina  (Retz.)  P.  Beauv. 
Common  in  stagnant  ditches  and  banks 
of  ponds  etc. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-December.  KKS  7824, 
8501. 

42.  E.  colonum  (Linn.)  Link. 

Common  in  rice  fields  and  other  marshy 
places. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  July-November.  KKS  7523, 
8417. 

43.  E.  crus-galli  (Linn.)  Beauv. 

Common  in  moist  places  near  ponds, 
ditches  and  rice  fields  of  the  district. 

FIs.  & Frs. : August-November.  KKS  7761 . 
Local  name — Sawan. 


519 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


44.  Paspalidium  flavidum  (Retz.)  A.  Camus 
Occurs  commonly  in  grasslands  and  waste- 
lands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  July-November.  KKS  7866, 
8424,  8508. 

45.  P.  punctatum  (Burm.  f.)  A.  Camus 
Common  in  moist  places  and  in  rice  fields. 
FIs.  & Frs.:  August-December.  KKS  8475. 

46.  Urochloa  panicoides  Beauv. 

Common  in  moist  places  and  in  pastures. 
FIs.  & Frs. : August-November.  KKS  8429. 

47.  Paspalum  distichum  Linn. 

Common  on  moist  banks  of  ponds  and 
ditches. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  June-September.  KKS  7417, 
8427. 

48.  P.  commersonii  Lamk. 

Occurs  occasionally  in  rice  fields. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September- January.  KKS 
2988. 

49.  Brachiaria  reptans  (Linn.)  Gard.  & Hubb. 
Frequent  in  moist  places  and  in  rice  fields. 
FIs.  & Frs.:  September- January.  KKS 
8549. 

50.  B.  distachya  (Linn.)  Stapf 
Frequent  in  grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-December.  KKS  8444. 

51.  B.  ramosa  (Linn.)  Stapf 
Frequent  in  moist  wastelands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  July-November.  KKS  8418. 

52.  B.  kurzii  (Hook,  f.)  A Camus 
Occurs  occasionally  in  moist  places. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-November.  KKS  8465. 

53.  Digitaria  adscendens  (H.B.  & K.)  Henr. 
Frequent  in  open  areas. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  July-November.  KKS  8553. 

54.  Pennisetum  polystachyon  (Linn.)  Schult: 
Occurs  occasionally  in  grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  July-November.  KKS  7645. 

55.  Set  aria  verticillata  (Linn.)  Beauv. 
Frequent  in  moist  areas. 

FIs.  & Frs. : August-November.  KKS  3067. 


56.  S.  glauca  (Linn.)  Beauv. 

Common  in  wastelands  and  in  open 
grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-October.  KKS  3029, 
7786. 

57.  S.  foment osa  (Roxb.)  Kunth 
Occurs  commonly  in  moist  grassland. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-December.  KKS  7572. 

58.  Poa  annua  Linn. 

Occurs  occasionally  on  moist  ground. 

FIs.  & Frs. : December-February.  KKS 

7890. 

59.  Eragrostis  tennella  (Linn.)  P.  Beauv.  ex 
R.  & S. 

Occurs  commonly  in  moist  places. 

FIs.  & Frs. : September-February.  KKS 

4187,  7818,  7845. 

60.  E.  japonica  (Thunb.)  Trin. 

Occurs  commonly  in  moist  places  in 
wastelands  and  in  grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs. : September-February.  KKS 

4187,  7810,  7845. 

61.  E.  atrovirens  (Desf.)  Trin.  ex  Steud. 
Frequent  in  grasslands  near  moist  places. 
FIs.  & Frs.:  August-November.  KKS  8435, 
8476. 

62.  E.  unioloides  (Retz.)  Nees  ex  Steud. 

Occurs  commonly  in  moist  shady  places. 
FIs.  & Frs.:  September-November.  KKS 

4214,  4297,  7376. 

63.  Desmostachya  bipinnata  (Linn.)  Stapf 
Frequent  in  grasslands. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  June-November.  KKS  2979, 
4108,  8552. 

Local  name — Kusha. 

64.  Eleusine  indica  (Linn.)  Gaertn. 

Occurs  as  a weed  in  cultivated  fields. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-November.  KKS  8433. 

65.  Avena  fatua  Linn. 

Occurs  occasionally  in  cultivated  wheat 
fields. 


520 


GRASSES  OF  KHERl  DISTRICT 


FIs.  & Frs.:  February- April.  KKS  7650. 
Local  name — Jaee. 

66.  Phragmites  maxima  (Forsk).  Blatt.  & McC. 
Common  in  marshy  places  and  near 
streams. 

FIs.  & Frs. : December-February.  KKS 
2818,  2997,  4229. 

Local  name — Narkul. 

67.  Hygroriza  aristata  (Retz.)  Nees  & W.&A. 
Occurs  commonly  in  lakes  and  ponds 
throughout  the  district. 

FIs.  & Frs. : October-February.  KKS  7454. 

68.  Oryza  sativa  Linn. 

Cultivated  throughout  the  district. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  September-November.  KKS 
7758. 

Local  name — Dhan. 

69.  O.  rufipogon  Griff. 

Occurs  commonly  mixed  with  paddy  in 
cultivated  fields. 

FIs.  & Frs. : October-November.  KKS 

7746,  8487. 

Local  name — Pasaee. 

70.  Phalaris  minor  Retz. 

Frequent  as  a weed  in  wheat  fields. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  January- April.  KKS  7645. 
Local  name — Senhu. 

71.  Arundinella  bengalensis  (Spreng.)  Druce 
Frequent  in  moist  shady  places. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  July-October.  KKS  8539. 

72.  Perotis  indica  (Linn.)  O.  Ktze. 

Frequent  in  open  wastelands  and  shady 
places. 


FIs.  & Frs.:  August-October.  KKS  7432, 
7720. 

73.  Polypogon  monspeliensis  (Linn.)  Desf. 
Commonly  in  moist,  sandy  areas  and  in 
sal  forests  of  the  district. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  January-March.  KKS  2813, 
7117,  7243. 

74.  Chloris  dolichostachya  Lagasca 
Frequent  in  moist  shady  places. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-November.  KKS  4151. 

75.  C.  barbata  (Linn.)  Sw. 

Occurs  commonly  in  open  grasslands  in 
sandy  places. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  August-November.  KKS 4359. 

76.  Cynodon  dactylon  (Linn.)  Pers. 

Occurs  commonly  in  wet  and  dry  location. 
FIs.  & Frs.  : Most  part  of  the  year  KKS 
8381. 

Local  names — Ghas,  Dub. 

77.  Dactyloctenium  aegypticum  (Linn.)  Beauv. 
Occurs  as  a weed  in  waste  sandy  areas 
and  cultivated  fields. 

FIs.  & Frs.:  June-November.  KKS  4386. 
ACK  NOWLEDGEMENTS 

I am  grateful  to  Dr.  Nitya  Nand,  Director, 
Central  Drug  Research  Institute,  Lucknow  for 
the  facilities  provided  during  the  course  of 
this  study  and  to  Dr.  J.  K.  Maheshwari,  Sr. 
Asstt.  Director,  National  Botanical  Research 
Institute,  Lucknow  for  going  through  the 
manuscript. 


Reference 

Anonymous  (1927):  Gazetteer  of  Kheri  district, 
U.P.,  Allahabad. 


521 


PREDATORY  BEHAVIOUR  OF  AN  ASSASSIN  SPIDER, 
CHORIZOPES  SP.  (ARANEIDAE),  AND  THE 
DEFENSIVE  BEHAVIOR  OF  ITS  PREY1 


William  G.  Eberhard2 

The  araneid  spider  Chorizopes  sp.  preys  on  other  araneids,  using  the  aggressive 
response  of  its  prey  toward  smaller-sized  intruders  in  their  webs  to  lure  them  to  their 
death.  One  prey  species  ( Leucauge  sp.)  avoids  attacks  by  cutting  free  sectors  of  the 
web  which  hold  the  predator. 


Introduction 

Spiders  are  generally  thought  of  as  solitary 
animals  which  react  aggressively  toward  others 
of  their  own  kind,  and  this  seems  to  be  the 
general  rule  in  orb  weaving  spiders.  Web 
owners  usually  respond  to  the  presence  of 
other  spiders  by  shaking  the  web  strongly;  if 
the  invader  is  smaller  and  does  not  leave,  the 
owner  moves  toward  it  and  chases  it  from  the 
web  (e.g.  Buskirk  1975,  Eberhard  et  al.  1979, 
Lahmann  and  Eberhard  1979,  pers.  obs.  of 
Alpaida,  Cyclosa,  Cyrtarachne,  Leucauge , 
Metazygia,  Nephilengys,  Tetragnatha,  Philopo- 
nella,  and  Uloborus).  This  note  describes  the 
behaviour  of  a rare  and  previously  unstudied 
spider,  Chorizopes  sp.  (Araneidae),  which 
appears  to  prey  regularly  on  orb  weavers  by 
taking  advantage  of  this  aggressive  response. 

It  is  probably  common  for  spiders  to  prey 
on  each  other  (e.g.  Bristowe  1958,  Turner 
1979),  but  most  of  this  predation  probably 
results  from  chance  encounters  involving 
species  which  take  a large  variety  of  other 
kinds  of  prey.  There  are  three  spider  groups 
known  to  be  specialized  spider  predators, 

1 Accepted  November  1980. 

2 Smithsonian  Tropical  Research  Institute  and 
Escuela  de  Biologia,  Universidad  de  Costa  Rica, 
Ciudad  Universitaria,  Costa  Rica. 


however:  Mimetidae  (e.g.  Bristowe  1958), 
Archaeidae  (Kaestner  1968),  and  some  species 
of  the  theridiid  genus  Argyrodes  (Clyne  1979, 
Eberhard  in  prep.).  This  appears  to  be  the 
first  report  of  regular  predation  on  other 
spiders  by  an  araneid. 

These  observations  were  made  in  Nov.  1979 
during  the  monsoon  at  Ayyanar  Falls  (c.  300 
m.)  5 km  W.  of  Rajapalayam,  Tamilnadu, 
India.  The  spiders  were  moderately  common 
in  underbrush  in  deciduous  forest,  but  were 
not  found  in  adjoining  thorn  scrub. 

The  first  indication  that  Chorizopes  preyed 
on  web  weaving  spiders  came  from  finding 
four  individuals  (three  mature  females  and 
one  penultimate  female)  in  close  association 
with  freshly  dead  araneids  (three  mature 
Leucauge  sp.,  and  one  mature  female  Cyrta- 
rachne sp.).  In  all  cases  the  Chorizopes  was 
substantially  smaller  than  the  other  spider. 
Two  of  them  were  apparently  feeding  on  the 
dead  spider  (mouth  in  contact  with  it,  other 
spider  somewhat  shrivelled).  As  I watched, 
a third  Chorizopes  wrapped  an  apparently 
freshly  dead  Leucauge  with  slow  alternate 
movements  of  legs  IV,  then  slowly  transport- 
ed it  along  the  edge  of  the  Leucauge  web, 
using  complex  behaviour  involving  fastening 
it  to  a frame  line,  then  breaking  the  frame 
and  letting  it  sag  by  letting  out  silk  until  the 


522 


PREDATORY  BEHAVIOUR  OF  AN  ASSASSIN  SPIDER 


piey  hung  vertically,  then  raising  the  prey  to 
attach  it  to  the  frame  again  and  repeat  the 
process  until  the  prey  was  completely  off  the 
web  and  under  a leaf.  There  the  spider  spun 
a small  mesh  sustaining  the  prey  and  began 
to  feed.  Three  times  during  the  transporta- 
tion process  the  spider  paused,  moved  to  the 
anterior  end  of  the  prey,  and  pressed  its  mouth 
against  the  prey’s  mouth  for  several  seconds, 
perhaps  feeding. 

I succeeded  in  confirming  this  suggestive 
evidence  of  predation  by  witnessing  an  attack 
in  the  following  circumstances.  I found  a 
mature  female  Leucauge  sp.  in  the  midst  of 
web  construction  30-60  min.  after  the  end  of 
a rain  shower,  after  all  nearby  conspecifics 
had  finished  their  webs.  Close  inspection  of 
this  web  showed  partially  collapsed  radii  in 
one  sector,  and  other  threads  which  suggested 
that  an  anchor  thread  on  that  side  of  the  web 
had  been  broken  near  the  end  of  radius  con- 
struction, and  that  the  spider  had  tightened 
up  the  damaged  sector  and  continued  build- 
ing. The  Leucauge  was  unusually  “nervous”, 
running  to  the  edge  of  the  web  several  times 
in  response  to  apparently  minor  stimuli,  paus- 
ing 30  sec.  or  more  during  sticky  spiral  con- 
struction several  other  times,  and  laying  the 
sticky  spiral  in  an  irregular  pattern.  The 
possible  reason  for  the  spider’s  delay,  its 
collapsed  web,  and  its  unusual  behaviour  was 
revealed  when  I searched  the  leaf  where  the 
hypothesized  broken  anchor  would  have  end- 
ed, and  found  an  immobile  female  Chorizopes. 

When  the  Leucauge  finished  building,  I 
detached  the  leaf  gently  and  brought  the 
Chorizopes  into  contact  with  an  anchor  line 
of  the  Leucauge  web,  which  it  stepped  onto 
readily.  The  Leucauge  immediately  turned  to- 
ward this  sector  and  shook  the  web  strongly, 
and  the  Chorizopes  responded  with  vigorous 
shakes  of  its  own.  The  Leucauge  then  ad- 


vanced rapidly  toward  the  invader,  pausing 
to  shake  the  web  and  receive  answering 
shakes  on  the  way.  Despite  its  small  size 
(estimated  weight  about  one  fourth  that  of 
the  Leucauge ),  the  Chorizopes  stood  its  ground 
as  the  other  advanced;  the  spiders  met  in  a 
very  brief  tangle  of  legs,  and  the  Leucauge 
fell  free  under  the  web,  hung  for  a moment 
immobile  on  its  trail  line,  then  climbed  back 
to  the  hub  where  it  briefly  cleaned  one  front 
leg  in  its  mouth,  then  settled  into  its  normal 
resting  position. 

For  the  next  six  minutes  both  Leucauge 
and  Chorizopes  remained  nearly  motionless, 
but  toward  the  end  of  this  period  the  Leu- 
cauge seemed  to  “sag”  slightly,  its  abdomen 
tilting  downward  at  the  rear  and  its  hind  legs 
extending  more  than  usual.  My  suspicion  that 
it  had  been  bitten  in  the  brief  encounter  was 
confirmed  when  the  Chorizopes  finally  began 
moving  deliberately,  first  along  the  frame  and 
then  along  a radius  toward  the  hub,  and  the 
Leucauge  failed  to  respond.  Its  only  move- 
ment was  a weak  jerk  when  the  Chorizopes 
touched  it  lightly  with  a leg;  after  the 
Chorizopes  waited  another  minute,  it  submit- 
ted without  resistance  when  it  was  bitten  and 
then  wrapped. 

I then  attempted  to  elicit  another  complete 
attack  sequence  by  transferring  the  Chorizopes 
to  three  other  Leucauge  webs,  but  instead  dis- 
covered the  defensive  behaviour  of  Leucauge 
sp.  In  a typical  sequence,  the  Chorizopes  was 
on  an  anchor  thread  when  the  owner  shook 
the  web  aggressively  and  approached  in  an 
apparent  attempt  to  chase  it  away.  Instead  of 
just  walking  along  the  anchor  toward  the  in- 
vader, however,  the  Leucauge  damaged  its 
own  web  by  breaking  the  line  and  proceeding 
by  reeling  up  the  broken  end  and  paying  out 
new  line  behind  as  it  advanced.  The  defen- 
sive significance  of  this  behaviour  became  clear 


523 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  VoL  79 


when  the  Leucauge  stopped  short  of  contact 
with  the  Chorizopes  and  released  the  anchor 
line  it  had  been  reeling  in;  the  result  was 
that  the  orb  collapsed  on  that  side,  while  the 
Chorizopes  fell  and  dangled  on  the  other  end 
of  the  broken  anchor  line,  all  connection  to 
the  Leucauge  web  now  lost. 

Discussion 

The  repeated  observations  of  Chorizopes 
with  dead  araneids  and  its  apparently  purpose- 
ful attack  behaviour  both  suggest  that  this 
species  commonly  preys  on  web  building 
spiders.  The  fact  that  both  Simon  (1896)  and 
I found  it  commonly  at  some  sites  but  could 
not  associate  it  with  any  web  is  in  agree- 
ment with  this  idea.  The  spider’s  attack 
behaviour  differs  from  that  of  other  spider  spe- 
cialists in  not  involving  stealthy  approaches 
(some  mimetids  — Bristowe;  Argyrodes  spp. 
— Clyne  1979,  Eberhard  in  prep.),  imitations 

Refer 

Bristowe,  W.  S.  (1958):  The  World  of  Spiders. 
Collins,  London. 

Buskirk,  R.  E.  (1975):  Aggressive  display  and 
orb  defence  in  a colonial  spider,  Metabus  gravidus. 
Anim.  Behav.  23:  560-567. 

Clyne,  D.  (1979) : The  Garden  Jungle.  Collins, 
London. 

Eberhard,  W.  G.  (in  prep.) : Argyrodes  attenua- 
tus  (Theridiidae)  : a web  that  is  not  a snare. 

Eberhard,  W.  G.,  Barreto,  M.,  and  Pfizenmaier, 
W.  (1979) : Web  robbery  by  mature  male  araneids. 
Bull.  brit.  arachnol.  Soc. 


of  its  host’s  courtship  behaviour  (some  mime- 
tids — Kaestner  1968),  or  quick-acting  poison 
(some  mimetids  — Bristowe  1958).  Chorizo- 
pes seems  to  rely  instead  on  superior  fighting 
ability  after  attracting  its  victim  into  range  by 
giving  aggressive  reactions  to  web  owners’ 
threats.  Perhaps  the  massive  chelicerae  with 
long  fangs  typical  of  this  genus  (Simon  1896) 
are  important  in  these  fights.  Chorizopes  may 
be  limited  to  preying  on  individuals  that  are 
larger  enough  than  itself  that  they  will  ap- 
proach it  close  enough  to  be  bitten. 

Acknowledgements 

It  is  a pleasure  to  acknowledge  the  help  and 
hospitality  of  A.  J.  T.  Johnsingh,  M.  Gadgil, 
A.  Thangamani,  J.  Joseph,  and  N.  N.  Peru- 
malraja.  Norman  Platnick  and  H.  W.  Levi 
identified  the  spiders,  and  M.  J.  W.  Eberhard 
read  the  manuscript. 

iNCES 

Kaestner,  A.  (1968) : Invertebrate  Zoology  Vol. 
II  (translated  and  adapted  by  H.  W.  Levi  and  L. 
R.  Levi.)  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York. 

Lahmann,  E.  and  Eberhard,  W.  G.  (1979) : 
Ecologia  e historia  natural  de  la  arana  colonial 
Philoponella  semiplumosa  (Araneae:  Uloboridae). 
Rev.  Biol.  Trop. 

Simon,  E.  (1892-1896) : Histoire  Naturelle  des 
Araignees  (ed.  2,  vol.  1)  Libraire  Encyclopedique 
de  Roret,  Paris. 

Turner,  M.  (1979):  Diet  and  feeding  phenology 
of  the  green  lynx  spider  Peucetia  viridans  (Ara- 
neae: Oxyopidae).  /.  Arachnol.  7:  149-154. 


524 


STUDIES  ON  THE  SPAWNING  ECOLOGY  OF 
KUMAUN  MAHSEER  TOR  TOR  (HAMILTON)  AND 
TOR  PUTITORA  (HAMILTON)1 

S.  S.  Pathani2 

; !: 

( With  a text -figure) 

The  spawning  ecology  of  mahseers  ( Tor  tor  and  Tor  putitora ) of  Kumaun  area 
was  investigated  in  Bhimtal  lake.  The  spawning  grounds  of  the  mahseers  in  the  lake 
ranged  from  a depth  of  2.00  to  2.50  m in  the  inshore  region,  with  sandy  bottom, 
pebbles  and  aquatic  weeds  where  higher  temperature  and  dissolved  oxygen  prevailed 
in  comparison  to  other  regions  of  the  lake.  Spawning  season  extended  from  April  to 
September  and  May  to  September  for  Tor  tor  and  T.  putitora  respectively.  Intermit- 
tent breeding  (four  spawning  acts  in  a season)  was  recorded.  Maturity  size  and 


age  of  both  the  sexes  of  the  mahseers  were 
Introduction 

Several  investigators  have  studied  the  pro- 
blem of  spawning  ecology  in  many  fishes  of 
commercial  importance  while  a few  have  re- 
corded preliminary  observations  on  mahseers, 
T.  tor  and  T.  putitora,  such  as  Beavan  (1877); 
Thomas  (1893);  Hora  (1939,  1940);  Khan 
(1939);  Kulkarni  (1971);  Jhingran  and  Sehgal 
(1977)  and  Pathani  (1977).  However,  the  pre- 
sent paper  deals  extensively  with  spawning 
habits,  spawning  periods,  spawning  grounds, 
maturity  size,  age  and  egg  diameter  during 
breeding  season  of  mahseers  in  the  cold  water 
lake  of  Bhimtal,  Kumaun  (U.P.) 

Materials  and  Methods 

ii 

i 

Survey  of  spawning  grounds  was  carried  out 
with  the  help  of  long  handled  dip  nets  and 
gill-nets.  The  eggs,  larvae  and  fry  were  col- 
lected by  similar  dip  nets.  The  colour  of  ferti- 
lized eggs  of  the  two  species  of  mahseers  was 

1 Accepted  October  1980. 

2 Department  of  Zoology,  D.  S.  B.  University 
College,  Nainital  (U.P.) . 


also  obtained. 

identified  by  repeated  observations.  Dissections 
of  various  mature  and  ripe  fishes  were  done 
during  last  three  years  (1975-78)  and  age  of 
mature  fishes  was  studied  with  the  help  of 
scales,  operculum  and  otoliths. 

Physical  features  of  lake  Bhimtal ; 

The  lake  is  situated  22  Km.  north-east 
(24°21'N,  29°34'E)  of  Nainital,  at  an  altitude 
of  1350  m.  The  depth  ranges  from  1.00  to 
26.00  m.  The  lake  has  a length  of  1670.00  m 
at  its  longest  and  width  of  447.00  m at  its 
broadest  region.  The  shallow  littoral  region 
ranges  from  2.00  to  5.50  m in  depth,  and  it 
is  here,  that  the  spawning  grounds  of  both  the 
mahseers  are  located.  The  map  (fig.  1)  shows 
the  location  of  spawning  grounds  and  sites 
(collection  spots)  of  the  mahseers  in  the  lake. 

Observations 

Spawning  sites  and  grounds : 

They  are  located  mostly  in  mallital  basin 
(upper  region  of  the  lake  area)  and  certain 
shore  regions  of  the  lake.  In  mallital  basin, 
where  the  main  spawning  grounds  are  situated 
the  spawning  sites  in  the  inshore  region  were 

525 


3 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Fig.  1.  Map  showing  the  location  of  spawning  grounds  and  sites  (collection 
spots)  of  the  mahseers  in  the  lake. 


SPAWNING  ECOLOGY  OF  KUMAUN  MAH  SEER 


observed  throughout  the  study  (fig.  1).  This 
spawning  ground  has  a perennial  streamlet 
(Jhingari  nullah)  which  has  a higher  tempe- 
rature (23.5°C)  than  the  other  regions 
(21.5°C)  of  the  lake  with  high  dissolved  oxy- 
gen content  (9.5  ppm).  The  bottom  is  pebbly 
with  sand  and  forms  a favourable  fish-spawn- 
ing substratum.  More  Aquatic  weeds  are  pre- 
sent in  mallital  basin  than  in  other  regions  of 
the  lake.  During  the  breeding  season  (April  to 
September),  anglers  were  able  to  get  many 
male  and  female  mature  fishes  in  the  region. 

Experimental  gill-netting  within  the  range  of 
2.50  to  5.50  m was  done  at  night  during  the 
breeding  season,  specially  in  August  and  Sept- 
ember, when  many  mature  and  ripe  male  and 
female  mahseers  were  caught  by  me.  In  other 
regions  (mid-lake  and  deep  regions),  mature 
or  ripe  fishes  were  rarely  caught.  The  abun- 
dant aquatic  weeds  of  the  region  were  iden- 
tified as  Ceratophyllum,  Myriaphyllum, 
Hydrilla,  Vallisneria,  Polygonum,  Potamogeton 
etc. 

Eggs  and  larvae  were  collected  mainly  from 
2.00  to  3.50  m.  depth  by  a long  handled  hand 
net,  indicating  that  it  was  the  spawning  site. 
However,  spawning  grounds  extended  upto  5.50 


m.  depth  in  certain  places  from  where  eggs  and 
larvae  were  occasionally  collected.  Eggs  were 
some  times  collected,  attached  to  Hydrilla 
leaves;  but  most  of  the  eggs  and  larvae  of 
T.  tor  and  T.  putitora  were  collected  free  along 
with  sand  and  pebbles  at  the  bottom.  From 
the  same  inshore  area  ripe  fishes  were  caught 
by  large  gill-nets  during  the  night,  when  mah- 
seers come  out  for  spawning,  there  by  confirm- 
ing that  this  area  was  the  breeding  ground 
of  the  fish.  In  addition  to  this  the  spawning 
of  the  fish  was  also  seen  during  mid  day  and 
evening. 

Spawning  habits : 

Courtship  is  a long  process,  when  several 
males  chase  the  females  at  breeding  sites.  Two 
to  seven  males  are  seen  chasing  a female.  When 
the  female  found  a suitable  site  the  eggs  were 
laid  and  at  the  same  time  the  males  swam 
around  the  female  contacting  it  by  making 
rapid  movements  of  the  caudal  region  after 
which  they  fertilized  the  spawned  eggs  with 
their  milt.  After  a short  time  both  males  and 
female  returned  to  the  deeper  part  of  the  lake, 
showing  no  parental  care  either  by  male  or 
female.  The  male  and  female  mahseers  could 


Table  I 

Four  interspersed  groups  of  ova  (eggs).  a,b,c,  and  d in  the  ripe  ovary  according  to  their  diameter 

IN  MAHSEERS 


Months 


Groups  (Ova  diameter  in  mm) 
Tor  tor 


Groups  (Ova  diameter  in  mm) 
Tor  putitora 


a 

b 

April 

0.512 

0.951 

May 

0.512 

0.941 

June 

0.645 

0.875 

July 

0.720 

0.883 

August 

— 

0.930 

September 

— 

1.052 

c 

d 

a 

1.40 

1.915 

— 

1.41 

1.975 

0.744 

1.42 

1.880 

— 

1.810 

2.427 

0.712 

1.507 

0.180 

0.825 

1.527 

2.840 

— 

bed 


1.196 

1.609 

2.019 

1 . 466 

1.504 

2.501 

1.312 

1.706 

2.050 

1.462 

1.980 

2.866 

1.205 

1.712 

2.410 

527 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


easily  be  identified  in  inshore  regions  by  their 
sexual  differentiating  characters  (Pathani 
1978). 

Spawning  period  and  eggs: 

Regular  dissections  of  male  and  female  T. 
tor  and  T.  putitora  showed  that  the  spawning 
period  of  T.  tor  extended  from  April  to  Sept- 
ember and  of  T.  putitora  from  May  to  Sept- 
ember. During  ripe  condition  in  both  the  fishes 
the  female  exudes  eggs  and  male  oozes  milt 
when  slight  pressure  is  applied  on  the  abdo- 
men. These  ripe  male  and  female  mahseers 
were  also  examined  by  continuous  microscopic 
observations  of  the  gonads  for  the  whole  year. 
After  October,  in  both  fishes,  the  gonads  were 
spent.  These  observations,  on  spawning 
periods  of  both  the  species,  were  also  con- 
firmed by  the  collection  of  eggs  and  larvae  of 
T.  putitora  during  May  to  September  and 
during  April  to  September,  vide  Table  II. 

Table  II 


Data  of  fertilized  eggs  of  mahseers  collected 

BY  HAND  (dip)  NET 


Tor  tor 

Tor  putitora 

Months 

No.  of 

Fertilized 

No.  of 

Fertilized 

eggs/ 

egg 

eggs/ 

egg 

trial 

diameter 

trial 

diameter 

(average) 

in  mm 

(average) 

in  mm 

April 

10 

2.16 

— 

— 

May 

8 

2.88 

25 

2.98 

June 

12 

2.76 

9 

3.02 

July 

20 

2.30 

29 

2.88 

August 

11 

2.77 

26 

2.99 

September 

7 

2.23 

12 

2.92 

The  fertilized  eggs  which  were  collected  from 
spawning  sites,  were  separated  for  T.  tor  and 
T.  putitora.  Tor  tor  has  orange  coloured  and 
smaller  sized  fertilized  eggs  than  T.  putitora; 
while  T.  putitora  has  yellow  slight  orange 


coloured  and  larger  fertilized  eggs.  No  colour 
differentiation  of  larvae  of  T.  tor  and  T.  puti- 
tora could  be  observed  as  in  the  case  of  ferti- 
lized eggs.  The  d batch  of  eggs  (vide  Table  I) 
was  always  ripe  in  both  the  mahseers  where 
the  diameter  is  variable.  The  reared  fry  (12 
days  after  hatching  in  the  laboratory)  of  both 
T.  tor  and  T.  putitora  have  acquired  charac- 
ters of  their  adults  with  their  congenital  body 
relationships  to  identify  separately  (Table  III). 
The  yolk  has  completely  disappeared.  The 
chromatophores  on  snout  and  on  head  have 
also  disappeared  but  many  chromatophores 
are  scattered  on  the  back  of  the  larvae.  The  fins 
are  fully  formed  with  9-10  rays  of  pectoral 
fins  and  9 rays  of  anal  fin.  A spot  on  caudal 
peduncle  is  present. 

Table  III 


Distinguishing  characters  of  fry  of  mahseers 


Tor  tor 

Tor  putitora 

Total  length  in  mm  (TL) 

14,01 

14.30 

TL/ Length  of  head 

4.83 

5.00 

TL/ Width  of  body 

5.00 

6.00 

To  establish  the  number  of  spawning  acts 
the  ovarian  ova  were  measured  during  the 
breeding  period.  Ovaries  in  both  T.  tor  and 
T . putitora  showed  four  groups  of  eggs  ac- 
cording to  the  size  present  in  the  ripe  ovary. 
These  different  sized  interspersed  eggs  (a,b,c, 
and  d;  Table  I)  were  present  throughout  the 
breeding  season.  But  the  group  (smallest  sized 
group  of  eggs  seen  by  naked  eye)  was  absent 
in  the  month  of  August  and  September  in 
T.  tor  as  they  had  developed  further  (to  b,c, 
and/or  d),  indicating  four  acts  of  spawning. 
The  eggs  of  T.  putitora  can  also  be  grouped 
into  four  size  groups  (a,b,c  and  d;  Table  I) 
which  were  present  throughout  the  spawning 
season,  except  in  the  month  of  September 


528 


SPAWNING  ECOLOGY  OF  KUMAUN  MAHSEER 


when  breeding  season  is  about  to  end.  Both 
T.  tor  and  T.  putitora  are  thus  intermittent 
breeders. 

Maturity  size  and  age : 

Maturity  size  and  age  of  both  mahseers 
were  obtained.  The  males  matured  before  the 
female  in  both  the  species.  The  smallest  ripe 
male  of  T.  tor  was  usually  only  about  202  mm 
in  total  length,  i.e.  after  completion  of  2 years, 
while  the  smallest  mature  and  ripe  female  was 
only  289  mm  in  total  length,  i.e.  within  3 
years  of  age.  In  T.  putitora  on  the  other  hand 
the  males  matured  (ripe)  only  after  207  mm 
in  total  length  and  2 years  of  age;  while 
females  only  after  309  mm  in  total  length  and 
within  or  after  completion  of  3 years. 

Discussion 

The  first  preliminary  account  on  spawning 
habits  of  mahseer  was  recorded  by  Thomas 
(1893);  according  to  him  the  fish  lays  its  eggs 
in  batches,  and  that  the  pelvic  fins  and  anal 
fins  are  used  during  spawning  act  by  the  male 
fish,  which  marks  out  a hollow  in  gravelly 
grounds.  In  Kumaun  T.  tor  and  T.  putitora 
four  batches  of  eggs  are  laid  in  one  breeding 
season  at  the  gravelly,  sandy  spawning  sites 
without  hollowing  the  ground. 

Khan  (1939)  recorded  that  the  mahseer 
of  Punjab  waters  spawns  thrice  in  a 
year.  The  spawning  grounds  according  to  him 
have  small  stones  and  pebbles  in  shallow  re- 
gions with  sand.  Smith  (1947)  reported  that 
mahseer  breeds  throughout  the  whole  year. 
But  in  the  present  study  tor  and  putitora 
mahseers  have  been  found  to  breed  from  April 
to  September  and  May  to  September  respec- 
tively. Jhingran  and  Sehgal  (op.  cit.)  reported 
deeper  sandy  and  gravelly  spawning  grounds 
of  mahseers  in  Himachal  Pradesh.  Some  of 


the  collected  fertilized  eggs  of  both  the  mah- 
seers were  hatched  and  reared  up  to  fry  stage 
to  distinguish  them. 

Kullcarni  (op.  cit.)  recorded  breeding  sea- 
son of  T.  khudree  from  July  to  August  when 
floods  and  low  temperature  prevails  but  no 
impact  of  floods  was  seen  in  the  spawning  of 
Kumaun  mahseers.  Desai  (1973)  observed  the 
breeding  season  of  T.  tor  (Narbada  river) 
from  July  to  March  and  fish  attained  first 
maturity  after  360  mm  in  total  length  with 
four  batches  of  eggs  in  the  mature  ovary  simi- 
lar to  Kumaun  mahseers. 

Beavan  (op.  cit.)  observed  small  batches  of 
eggs  laid  for  several  months  (May  to  August) 
by  mahseer,  while  Hora  (1940)  recorded  that 
the  breeding  season  of  T.  tor  extended  from 
August  to  September  based  on  collection  of 
young  specimens.  Cordington  (1946)  reported 
major  and  minor  breeding  season  of  mahseer. 
But  in  the  present  study,  the  breeding  season 
extended  from  April  to  September  for  tor 
and  May  to  September  for  putitora  mahseers 
of  Kumaun  Lakes. 

Chaturvedi  (1976)  reported  that  the  smallest 
mature  male  of  T.  tor  from  Udaipur  lake  was 
254  mm  and  all  males  mature  after  310  mm 
in  length;  while  the  smallest  mature  female  was 
322  mm  and  all  females  mature  after  390  mm 
in  length  within  one  year  of  age.  But  mahseers 
of  Kumaun  lakes  only  mature  between  two 
and  three  years  of  age  at  somewhat  diffe- 
rent lengths.  The  age  determined  by  Chatur- 
vedi (op.  cit.)  may  be  doubtful,  as  he  did  not 
do  scale,  operculum  and  other  studies.  Qasim 
and  Qayyum  (1961)  have  observed  that  T. 
putitora  from  Aligarh  waters  spawned  several 
times  over  a greater  part  of  the  year  having 
batches  of  eggs  at  all  stages  of  maturity  in 
the  ripe  ovary.  But  in  the  present  study  only 
four  batches  of  interspersed  eggs  were  esta- 
blished which  were  also  recorded  by  Desai 


529 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


(op.  cit.)  in  Narbada  T.  tor.  The  sizes  of  ripe 
eggs  (d  batch)  were  variable;  this  may  be  due 
to  condition  of  fish  in  the  lake,  as  stated  in  the 
case  of  Russian  fishes  by  Nikolsky  (1963). 
In  Kumaun  Mahseers  all  immature  eggs  (a, 
b,c)  were  light  cream  coloured  and  not  trans- 
parent in  contrast  to  different  coloured  eggs 
in  the  ripe  ovary  of  Tor  khudree  as  reported 
by  Kulkarni  (op.  cit.). 

Refe 

*Beavan,  R.  (1877)  : Hand  Book  of  Fresh  Water 
Fishes  of  India.  London. 

Chaturvedi,  S.  K.  (1976)  : Spawning  biology  of 
Tor  Mahseer,  Tor  tor  (Ham.).  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Soc.,  73(1):  63-73. 

Cordington,  K.  D.  B.  (1946):  Notes  on  Indian 
Mahseers.  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  46(2) : 336- 
344. 

Desai,  V.  R.  (1973):  Studies  on  fishery  and  bio- 
logy of  Tor  tor  (Ham.)  from  river  Narbada.  Proc. 
Indian  nat.  Sci.  Acad.  39( B-2) : 228-248. 

Hora,  S.  L.  (1939) : The  game  fishes  of  India, 
VIII.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  41:  272-285. 

(1940) : The  game  fishes  of  India.  IX. 

J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  41:  518-525. 

Jhingran,  V.  G.  & Sehgal,  K.  L.  (1977):  Cold- 
water  Fisheries  of  India.  Inland  Fish.  Soc.  India, 
West  Bengal,  73-92. 

Khan,  H.  (1939) : Study  of  the  sex  organs  of 
Mahseer.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  4/(1):  231-243. 


* Original  not  consulted. 


Ack  nowledge  m e n ts 


My  sincere  thanks  are  due  to  Dr.  S.  M. 
Das  for  his  valuable  suggestions  regarding  this 
contribution.  This  work  was  carried  out  with 
the  award  of  fellowships  made  available  by 
CSIR  and  DST,  Govt,  of  India,  New  Delhi. 


ences 

Kulkarni,  C.  V.  (1971) : Spawning  habits,  eggs 
and  early  development  of  Deccan  mahseer,  Tor 
khudree  (Sykes).  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  67(3): 
510-521. 

Nikolsky,  G.  V.  (1963) : The  Ecology  of  Fishes. 
Academic  Press,  London,  853  p. 

Pathani,  S.  S.  (1977):  The  Problems  of  Kumaun 
Mahseer  ( Tor  tor  and  Tor  putitora).  Uttarakhand 
Bharti,  2(1):  65-68. 

(1978).:  A note  on  secondary 

sexual  characters  in  Kumaun  mahseer  Tor  tor 
(Hamilton)  & Tor  putitora  (Hamilton)  in  Uttar 
Pradesh.  Indian  J.  Anim.  Sci.  43(10)  : 773-775. 

Qasim,  S.  Z.  & Qayyum,  A.  (1961):  Spawning 
frequencies  and  breeding  seasons  of  some  fresh- 
water fishes  with  special  references  to  those  occur- 
ring in  the  plains  of  North  India.  Indian  J.  Fish.  8: 
24-43. 

Smith,  F.  W.  (1947)  : Sex  of  Mahseer  and  Bokar 
caught  in  North-east  India.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Soc.  46(4) : 734. 

Thomas,  H.  S.  (1893):  The  Rod.  in  India.  W. 
Thacker  & Co.,  London. 


530 


THE  GHARIAL  ( GAVIALIS  GANGET1CUS ): 
A REVIEW1 


Romulus  Whitaker2  and  D.  Basu3 
{With  six  plates  and  a text -figure) 


Gharial  were  observed  over  a period  of  several  years  at  wild  locations  and  in 
captivity.  Surveys  were  carried  out  to  study  the  distribution,  status  and  habitat  of 
the  species.  The  literature  on  gharial  was  researched.  Gharial  are  fish  eaters,  being 
specialized  by  head  morphology  and  riverine  habitat.  Other  than  fish,  frogs  were 
taken  by  captive  animals.  Birds  and  rats  were  usually  refused,  though  the  literature 
includes  mammals  and  birds,  as  well  as  reptiles  in  the  gharial’s  diet.  Basking  and 
swimming  are  common  behaviours.  One  of  the  most  thoroughly  aquatic  crocodilians, 
the  adult  gharial  has  weak  front  legs  and  does  not  ‘high  walk’  or  stand;  locomotion 
on  land  is  the  ‘forward  slide’. 

Adult  males  with  prominent  ‘gharas’  (narial  excrescence)  are  dominant  in  an  apparent 
social  hierarchy  with  females  and  immature  males.  Adults  are  tolerant  of  immature 
animals  and  are  sociable,  often  basking  in  groups.  Interaction  with  mugger  ( Crocodylus 
palustris)  was  observed. 

In  India  gharial  nest  in  March  and  April,  the  dry  season;  the  female  lays  20-95 
eggs  in  a hole  50-60  cm  deep,  dug  with  the  hind  feet  in  a riverside  sand  or  silt  bank, 
one  to  five  metres  from  the  waterline.  Courtship  was  observed  in  captivity.  Gharial 
rarely  vocalize,  the  most  common  sound  being  a low  growl  when  intimidated. 

Egg  collection,  the  rearing  of  some  2000  juveniles  and  the  release  of  three  and  four 
year  old  in  three  newly  gazetted  sanctuaries,  were  carried  out  by  the  GOI/UNDP/ 
FAO  project.  Captive  breeding  was  successful  in  India  at  Nandankanan  Zoological 
Park  and  is  being  attempted  at  the  Madras  Crocodile  Bank  Trust. 


In  troduction 

The  gharial  or  gavial  has  remained  one  of 
the  least  known  crocodilians  despite  its  former 
commonness,  wide  distribution,  size  and  ac- 
cessibility. It  was  first  described  by  Gmelin 
(1788).  Adams  (1867)  expounded  on  the 
abundance  and  gregarious  nature  of  Gavialis 
in  north  India.  Francis  (1910),  Lowis  (1915) 
and  Rao  (1933)  remarked  on  their  abund- 

1  Accepted  October  1981. 

2 Madras  Snake  Park  Trust,  Guindy  Deer  Park, 
Madras  600  022,  Tamil  Nadu. 

3 D-3016,  Ram  Sagar  Misra  Nagar  Colony,  Luck- 
now 226  010,  U P. 


ance  on  the  Indus  River,  Pakistan.  I.A.K. 
(1921)  recorded  “plenty”  of  gharial  in  the 
Gandak  River,  Nepal  and  Shortt  (1921)  re- 
corded that  parts  of  the  Kosi  River  in  Bihar 
were  “teeming”  with  them. 

Anderson  (1875)  gave  the  first  description 
of  a nest,  eggs  and  young.  Hornaday  (1885) 
described  the  gharial’s  basking  habits,  voca- 
lization and  the  ‘ghara’  or  narial  excrescence 
and  proposed  early  April  as  the  laying  period. 

Several  notes  appeared,  mainly  in  this 
Journal  in  the  first  65  years  of  this  century 
mentioning  gastroliths,  unusual  stomach  con- 
tents and  exceptionally  large  specimens.  Biswas 
(1970)  reported  its  extremely  depleted  status 


531 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


in  some  areas;  Whitaker  et  al.  (1974,  1976) 
and  Bustard  (1974)  gave  further  evidence  of 
its  rarity. 

Gavialis  gangeticus  is  the  sole  surviving 
member  of  a once  well- represented  family  (see 
Fossil  history).  It  is  both  taxonomically  as 
well  as  structurally  unique,  having  the  most 
attenuated  snout  of  all  crocodilians. 

It  is  light  to  dark  olive  dorsally,  with  dark 
cross  bands  (more  prominent  in  young  ani- 
mals) and  a white  or  yellowish  underside.  The 
snout  is  3.3  to  5.5  (in  young)  times  the 
basal  width;  the  individually  socketed  long  thin 
teeth  are  arranged  thus:  5+23 — 24.  Scales  are 

25—26 

arranged  in  uniform  longitudinal  rows  with  a 
pair  of  post-occipitals  and  nuchals  consisting 
of  four  transverse  rows  of  2 scales,  continu- 
ous with  the  dorsal  scales.  There  are  21-22 
transverse  rows  of  dorsals  (6  scales  wide), 
18-20  double  crested  caudal  scales,  21-24  sin- 
gle crested  caudal  scales  and  30-31  transverse 
rows  of  ventrals  (Wermuth  1953,  Braziatis 
1973,  Singh  & Bustard  1976). 

The  future  of  the  gharial  appears  to  be 
secure  with  the  formation  of  several  protected 
habitats  and  the  successes  of  State  rehabilita- 
tion projects  in  India.  Four  research  scholars 
have  been  studying  the  species  for  the  past 
several  years  . 

Materials  and  methods 

We  have  been  involved  in  the  survey,  study 
and  captive  rearing  of  gharial  in  India  for 
several  years.  Most  major  habitats  in  India, 
Nepal  and  Bhutan  were  surveyed  using  both 
day  and  night  censuses,  behavioural  observa- 
tions on  wild  and  captive  groups  were  made, 
and  young  (from  wild  collected  eggs)  and  wild 
caught  adults  were  reared  since  1973.  At  the 


Madras  Crocodile  Bank  (MCB)  two  adults 
and  four  juveniles  are  being  reared  in  a large, 
landscaped  enclosure  for  captive  breeding. 
Basu  carried  out  egg  collection  annually  for 
six  years  in  Uttar  Pradesh  (Girwa  River)  and 
Rajasthan  (Chambal  River). 

The  literature  on  gharial  was  surveyed  and 
is  reviewed  here  to  provide  a current,  but  yet 
incomplete,  summary  of  the  species’  biology. 

Results  and  Discussion 

Fossil  history:  Members  of  the  family  Gavia- 
lidae  have  been  found  in  Tertiary  deposits  in 
Asia,  North  and  South  America  and  Europe. 
Five  Pliocene  species  were  found  in  the 
Siwalik  and  Narmada  Hills  in  India,  one  al- 
most indistinguishable  from  Gavialis  gangeti- 
cus (Smith,  1935).  Hecht  (1972)  discussed  the 
differences  between  the  Oligocene,  Pliocene  and 
Miocene  gharial  of  Colombia,  Venezuela  and 
Florida  and  the  tomistomine  crocodilians. 
Distribution  and  status  in  the  wild:  The  range 
of  the  gharial  includes  the  river  systems  of 
the  Indus  (in  present  day  Pakistan),  the 
Ganges  (India,  Bangladesh,  with  tributaries  in 
Nepal),  the  Brahmaputra  (with  one  tributary, 
the  Manas  River,  in  Bhutan)  and  the  Maha- 
nandi  in  Orissa.  The  single  record  for  the 
Maingtha  stream  of  the  Irrawadi  in  Burma 
(Barton  1927)  has  not  been  supported  by 
further  specimens.  Aung  Moe  (pers.  comm.) 
reiterates  the  unlikelihood  of  this  species  occur- 
ring in  Burma.  Bustard  and  Choudhury  (in 
litt.)  report  that  the  gharial  may  have  occurred 
on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Godavari  River 
in  recent  times. 

Old  references  indicate  the  gharial’s  abun- 
dance in  the  past:  Indus  River  in  Pakistan 
(Francis  1910,  Rao  1933);  Gandak  River  in 
Nepal  (I.A.K.  1921);  Jumna  River  in  Uttar 
Pradesh  (Hornaday  1885),  Kosi  River  in 


THE  GHARIAL : A REVIEW 


Bihar  (Shortt  1921).  Several  authors  mention 
seeing  groups  basking  together  and  in  one  area 
on  the  Jumna  River,  22  were  counted  in  two 
hours  (Hornaday  1885). 

Population  size  and  status:  Due  to  the  com- 
bined effects  of  shooting,  nesting,  hooking  for 
skin  and  meat  and  loss  of  habitat  from  river 
alteration  and  human  settlement,  the  gharial 
dwindled  to  a trace  of  its  former  abundance 
by  the  end  of  the  1960’s  (Biswas  1970,  Whita- 
ker et  al.  1974).  By  the  mid  1970’s  the  largest 
known  wild  concentration  was  34  animals  in- 
cluding adults  and  juveniles  in  5-6  kms  of 
river  at  Katerniaghat,  Uttar  Pradesh.  Two 
other  relatively  substantial  breeding  popula- 
tions were  located  on:  a)  the  Chambal  River 
(Rajasthan,  Madhya  Pradesh  and  Uttar  Pra- 
desh) consisting  of  perhaps  50  adults  and  100 
smaller  animals  in  600  kms  of  river;  b)  the 
Rapti-Narayani  Rivers  in  Chitawan  National 
Park,  Nepal,  where  14  adults  were  recorded 
(B.  Wright,  pers.  comm.). 

Gharial  seem  to  be  nearly  extinct  in  Bangla- 
desh (R.  Khan  1979),  Bhutan  (Bustard  1979) 
and  nearly  so  in  Pakistan  (Minton,  pers.  comm.). 
The  total  wild  populations  was  estimated  as 
being  under  200  (Whitaker  & Daniel  1978). 
As  a result  of  captive  rearing  and  release  there 
are  currently  about  500  gharial  in  India  now, 
in  the  wild.  Another  1800  are  in  captivity. 
Habitat:  Annandale  (1912  in  Biswas,  1970) 
remarks  that  its  distribution  corresponds  to 
that  of  Trionyx  gangeticus  and  Platanista  gan- 
geticus,  and  literature  emphasizes  its  prefer- 
ence for  deep  fast  flowing  rivers.  It  has  even 
been  surmised  that  one  of  the  reasons  for  the 
lack  of  success  in  captive  breeding  has  been 
the  failure  to  provide  flowing  water  for  the 
potential  breeders.  However,  adult  gharial  are 
not  totally  restricted  to  mainstreams;  they  have 
been  observed  in  still  water  branches  of  rivers 
and  an  adult  was  even  seen  in  a jheel  (lake) 


surrounded  by  sand  hills  (“Sind”  1922).  Rao 
(1933)  writes  of  a sudden  increase  in  gharial 
on  the  upper  Indus  and  reports  seeing  them 
in  open  water  in  the  jungle  as  well  as  on  the 
main  river  and  ributaries.  However,  these  seem 
to  be  exceptions  and  the  prime  habitat  of  the 
gharial  is  deep  rivers.  These  include  the  nor- 
thern tributaries  of  the  Ganges  (up  to  300  m 
above  MSL)  which  drain  from  the  glaciers 
and  melting  snow  of  the  Himalayas  such  as 
the  Girwa,  Gandak  and  Kosi;  the  rain  fed 
tributaries  such  as  the  Chambal,  Ken  and 
Son;  the  Brahmaputra  with  tributaries  both 
from  the  Himalayas  (north)  as  well  as  the 
smaller  hill  ranges  (south);  and  finally  the 
Mahanadi  in  Orissa,  far  south  of  the  rest  of 
the  gharial’ s range. 

Adult  gharial  show  a preference  for  the 
comparatively  velocity  free  state  found  in  the 
deep  “kunds”  or  holes  at  river  bends  and 
confluences.  Smaller  animals  seem  to  conserve 
energy  by  resting  out  of  the  main  stream  in 
sheltered  backwaters,  particularly  during  the 
monsoon  (July-September)  when  water  velo- 
cities may  multiply  by  a factor  of  5. 

For  most  of  the  year  the  Ramganga  River 
in  Corbett  National  Park  cannot  be  called  a 
deep,  fast  flowing  river;  gharial  are  concen- 
trated at  the  deep  pools  at  sharp  bends  and 
this  distribution  may  be  characteristic  of  past 
habitat  preference.  The  occurence  of  gharial 
in  some  of  these  larger  hill  streams,  though 
perhaps  not  prime  habitat,  indicates  how  little 
undisturbed  area  remains  where  the  species 
can  survive. 

Although  there  is  one  report  of  nesting  in 
a mud  bank  (Bustard  1980),  gharial  usually 
use  the  steeper  sand  banks  for  nesting.  Sand 
and  rock  outcrops  are  preferred  basking  sites 
and  deep  water  at  river  bends  and  junctions 
a usual  feature  of  confirmed  gharial  habitat. 
The  relationship  and  evolutionary  significance 


533 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


of  habitat  to  the  habit  of  depositing  eggs  in 
a hole  (hole  nesting)  has  been  suggested  in 
other  crocodilians  (Carr  1963,  Greer  1970). 
Bustard  (1974)  notes  that  while  habitat  loss 
is  a serious  threat  to  the  gharial’s  existence, 
gharial  have  adapted  to  some  degree;  nesting 
in  nullahs  (side  creeks  of  main  rivers)  is  the 
main  adaptation. 

In  contrast  to  the  adult  and  subadult  habi- 
tats, young  during  the  first  year  seem  to  favour 
hiding  in  vegetation  or  debris,  often  roots  or 
fallen  tree  branches  in  the  water  (Singh  1976). 
In  mid  August,  1978,  a 57  cm  gharial  was 
caught  by  a farmer  in  a water  logged  lowland 
(Srivastava  1978).  It  is  suggested  that  in  the 
past  when  gharial  were  numerous  the  young 
often  frequented  shallow  water  and  densely 
vegetated  flooded  areas  away  from  the  m v 
rivers. 

Size:  Hornaday  (1885)  judged  large  gharial 
he  observed  to  be  over  5.40  m long  and  men- 
tions a stuffed  specimen  at  Allahabad  Museum 
of  5.10  m and  another  at  Jardin  des  Plantes, 
Paris,  of  6.18  m.  Pitman  (1925)  gives  6.45  m 
as  the  maximum  length.  Bustard  (1974)  esti- 
mates that  gharial  reach  over  8 m and  that 
6-7  m animals  were  once  common.  Two  adult 
males  at  Satkosia  Gorge  in  Orissa  are  esti- 
mated by  Bustard  (in  litt.)  to  be  6.6  m long. 
Shortt  (1921)  felt  that  4.20  m is  the  upper 
limit  for  females  and  well  over  5.70  m for 
males.  Anderson  (1875)  gives  the  length  of 
gharial  hatchlings  as  395  mm.  Recently  ave- 
rage lengths  have  varied  from  325-374  mm 
and  average  weights  have  ranged  from  75-97 
gm  (Biswas  1970,  Singh  1976,  1979).  The  wild 
juvenile  captured  near  Katerniaghat,  Uttar 
Pradesh  and  considered  to  be  a yearling,  was 
75  cm  in  length  and  weighed  550  gm 
(Srivastava  1978);  however,  its  age  was  not 
known.  Average  lengths  and  weights  of  hatch- 
lings from  6 nests  are  given  in  Table  1.  Ave- 


rage hatchling  sizes  of  Girwa  River  (Uttar 
Pradesh)  gharial  have  been  found  to  be  signi- 
ficantly smaller  than  those  from  the  Chambal 
River  (Rajasthan)  population. 

Growth  rates:  A UNDP  news  release  of  late 
1977  states  that  the  1409  juvenile  gharial  be- 
ing reared  in  state  projects  reach  an  average 
length  of  1.02  m in  18  months.  Singh  (1979) 
reports  they  reach  1 m in  12-18  months.  A 
2.7  m male  gharial  at  the  Madras  Crocodile 
Bank  was  18  years  old,  and  a female  of  2.4  m 
estimated  to  be  over  20  years  old  (Whitaker 
et  al.  1979).  Choudhury  (1979)  gives  the  fol- 
lowing average  growth  rates  for  gharial  re- 
leased in  Uttar  Pradesh  in  1979. 


No. 

Age 

Total  length 

Weight 

5 

3 

yrs,  9 mo. 

193  cm 

22.5  kg 

9 

2 

yrs,  9 mo. 

140  cm 

5.28  kg 

15 

2 

yrs,  9 mo. 

16  7 cm 

13.6  kg 

Biswas  (1977)  gives  growth  figures  for  a 
captive  reared  male  gharial  at  Nandankanan 
Biological  Park,  Orissa.  At  1 year,  8 months 
and  length  was  135  cm;  at  11  years,  6 months 
the  length  was  250  cm  and  at  15  years,  7 
months  the  length  was  270  cm.  Table  2 gives 
the  average  measurements  of  588  juvenile  from 
6 months  to  5 years  of  age. 

Longevity:  The  only  longevity . record  in  the 
literature  is  from  a female  at  the  London  Zoo 
which  died  in  1972,  at  the  age  of  about  29 
years;  its  total  length  was  3.43  m (Guggis- 
berg  1972,  Martin  and  Bellairs  1977).  Fisher- 
men who  live  in  the  past  geographic  range  of 
the  gharial  commonly  stated  the  ‘age  of  man’ 
and  ‘over  100  years’  as  being  the  age  attained 
by  a gharial.  Certainly  their  late  maturity  and 
large  size  suggest  a long  life  span. 

Sexual  maturity:  In  cloacal  probing  of  20 
gharial  from  1 to  3 m,  Whitaker  et  al.  (1979) 
point  out  the  difficulties  of  sex  differentiation 
in  animals  under  2 m in  length.  A 2.7  m male, 


534 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate 

Whitaker  & Basu:  Gaviolis  gangeticus 


Adult  male  gharial  with  prominent  ghara. 
(Photo:  Rajesh  Bedi ) 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Sqc.  79 

Whitaker  & Basu:  Gavialis  gangeticus 


Plate  II 


This  sequence  illustrates  a gharial  positioning  a fish  by  tossing  and  then  swallowing  it. 

(Photo  : Rajesh  Bedi) 


THE  GHAR1AL : A REVIEW 


18  years  of  age  had  a penis  only  a few  cm. 
long.  Clitoral  and  penal  tips  appear  identical 
in  sub-adults.  We  feel  that  the  rate  of  sexual 
development  is  considerably  slower  than  in 
other  crocodilians. 

Hornaday  (1885)  records  that  the  smallest 
female  he  shot  which  contained  developing 
eggs  (15)  was  2.70  m.  A 2.97  m female  shot 
on  the  Sutlej  River  contained  56  eggs  (Par- 
shad  1914).  From  these  data,  the  minimum 
breeding  size  of  a female  gharial  would  appear 
to  be  approximately  2.6  m.  Males  appear  to 
usually  reach  maturity  at  a length  of  over  3 m 
and  an  age  of  13  to  14  years  (Biswas  1977). 

Geoff rey-Saint-Hilaire  (1925)  stated  that  the 
narial  excrescence  or  ‘ghara’  of  the  gharial 
is  a development  peculiar  to  adult  males.  It 
is  generally  considered  to  be  a sex  character 
of  very  large  animals.  Hornaday  (1885)  found 
no  trace  of  a ghara  in  26  specimens  up  to 
3.6  m in  length;  the  only  ones  he  saw  were 
on  ‘monsters’  of  5-6  m.  Large  males  with 
gharas  are  traditionally  recognized  as  the  adult 
males  and  are  given  special  names  (see  Table 
3)  (Whitaker  et  al.  1974;  Singh  in  Martin 
and  Bellairs  1977).  Biswas  (1977)  outlines  the 
development  of  the  ghara  of  a captive  male. 
It  first  appeared  at  an  age  of  11  years  6 
months  and  at  2.7  m (15  years  7 months)  the 
male  had  a well  developed  ghara  with  the  fol- 
lowing measurements:  length  — 5 cm;  ante- 
rior width  — 4 cm;  posterior  width  — 6 cm; 
height  — 3.5  cm.  Bustard  (in  Bellairs  1977 
and  pers.  comm.)  sexed  this  male  by  cloacal 
probing  and  confirmed  that  it  appeared  to  be 
mature. 

Hornaday  (1885)  thought  the  ghara  was  com- 
posed of  bone  and  Neill  (1971)  discredits  its 
existence.  Biswas  et  al.  (1977)  note  that  the 
ghara  grows  over  the  nostrils  and  that  the 
hissing  of  the  surfacing  male  is  caused  by 
this  blockage.  Earlier,  Champion  (1934)  notes 


that  gharial  hiss  like  escaping  steam’.  The 
whistle-like  exhalation  was  clearly  heard  at  a 
distance  of  75  m across  the  Chambal  River. 

Martin  and  Bellairs  (1977),  in  their  timely 
treatment  of  the  unique  but  little  known 
characteristic,  give  an  account  of  its  morpho- 
logy. They  propose  three  possible  functions 
of  the  hollow,  cartiligenous  ghara:  as  a re- 
sonator, as  a visual  sex  recognition  character, 
or  in  bubbling,  spouting  or  other  sexual  be- 
haviour. Records  of  vocalization  in  gharial  are 
scanty  (see  ‘vocalization’);  furthermore  there 
are  very  few  adult  males  either  in  captivity 
or  observable  in  the  wild.  The  function  of  the 
ghara  must  be  of  important  enough  evolu- 
tionary significance  to  remain  a trait  of  the 
species  for  so  long  and  to  offset  its  disadvan- 
tage in  creating  friction  while  snapping  at  fish. 

The  3.43  m female  at  the  London  Zoo  has 
a partially  developed  ghara  about  3 cm  high 
and  5.4  cm  across  the  base;  Martin  and 
Bellairs  suggest  the  animal  was  abnormal. 

Habits 

Prey  capture  and  food:  The  strongly  attenuat- 
ed snout  and  rows  of  uniform  sharp  teeth 
are  reminiscent  of  other  well  known  fish  eating 
taxa  such  as  the  bottlenose  dolphin  ( Tur slops 
sp.),  gangetic  dolphin  ( Platanista  gangeticus), 
garfish  ( Lepisosteus  sp.)  and  needlefish  (Belo- 
nidae).  The  thin  snout  meets  considerably  less 
resistance  when  snapping  at  fish  underwater 
than  does  that  of  a mugger  for  example.  Sup- 
ported by  a relatively  long,  well  muscled  neck 
it  is  a most  efficient  fish  catcher. 

Bustard  (in  Bellairs  1977)  says  that  the 
gharial  is  probably  the  most  predominantly 
fish  eating  of  all  extant  crocodilians.  Singh 
(1977)  points  out  the  distinctive  adaptation  of 
the  snout  and  teeth  to  fish  eating.  He  describes 
and  illustrates  the  method  used  by  juvenile 


535 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY.  Vot.  79 


gharial  to  manoeuvre  fish  back  to  the  open- 
ing of  the  gullet  by  jerking  the  head  back  to 
the  side;  the  fish  usually  slides  in  head  first. 
The  greater  weight  of  the  fish’s  head  allows 
for  this,  the  most  efficient  position  for  swallow- 
ing. Singh  also  describes  the  habit  of  small 
gharial  which  may  run  out  of  the  water  with 
fish,  particularly  large  active  fish  which  are 
likely  to  escape.  Gharial  also  tear  their  prey 
apart  by  the  head  jerk  technique  used  by 
other  crocodilians.  Whitaker  (1975)  gives  a 
series  of  photographs  showing  the  typical 
swallowing  procedure.  Neill  (1971)  describes 
feeding  in  juvenile  gharial.  The  sideways  snap 
at  fish  involves  the  head  and  neck  only. 

Singh  (1976)  remarks  that  juvenile  gharial 
feeding  on  tadpoles  and  fish  seem  to  rely  more 
on  tactile  reception  than  on  sight  for  catching 
prey.  This  is  certainly  the  case  with  a gharial 
born  blind  at  Satkoshia  Gorge  (Singh,  pers. 
comm.).  An  adult  female  at  MCB  which  is 
blind  in  one  eye  will  catch  thrown  fish  with 
equal  success  on  both  sides.  The  2.8  m male 
gharial  at  Nandankanan  watched  an  atten- 
dant throw  a live  1-2  kg  murrel  fish,  submerg- 
ed and  had  the  fish  at  the  surface  of  the 
almost  opaque  water  within  a few  minutes. 
One  specimen  caught  a peacock  which  flew 
into  its  pen  but  did  not  swallow  it  (Acharjyo, 
pers.  comm.)  Juvenile  and  adult  gharial  at 
MCB  has  been  observed  feeding  on  frogs  and 
catching  free  living  Tilapia  in  their  large  pond. 
Rats  thrown  to  them  were  often  snapped  at, 
occasionally  ‘chewed’  and  held  for  some  time 
but  never  swallowed.  While  captive  juvenile 
and  sub-adult  gharial  are  fairly  heavy  feeders, 
larger  captive  specimens  subsist  on  propor- 
tionately less  feed. 

S.  Choudhury  (in  litt.)  estimated  that  cap- 
tive reared  juvenile  gharial  consumed  between 
1 and  5%  of  their  body  weight  in  fish  daily 


and  that  the  rate  of  consumption  was  tempe- 
rature related. 

Stomach  contents : The  larger  the  gharial 

grows  the  shorter  and  heavier  set  is  the  snout 
in  relation  to  its  body  length  (Martin  and 
Bellairs  1977).  Large  gharial  over  15  ft  have 
fairly  massive,  strong  jaws  and  a large  gullet; 
one  can  easily  imagine  their  dealing  with  large 
strong  prey  or  large  items  of  carrion.  Shortt 
(1921)  records  that  gharial  feed  on  turtles  in 
addition  to  fish;  Biswas  (1970)  records  Trio- 
nyx gangeticus,  the  gangetic  softshell  turtle, 
as  a gharial  prey  item.  Forsyth  (1910)  records 
bird  remains  and  weeds  in  the  stomach  of  a 
4.8  m male  gharial  on  the  Sarda  River.  “Sind” 
(1921)  reports  that  a gharial  caught  a wild 
cat  ( Felis  chaus).  Pitman  (1925)  .reports  but 
doubts  a correspondent’s  claim  of  finding  the 
hindquarters  of  a donkey  in  the  stomach  of  a 
6.45  m gharial  on  the  Ghara  River. 

Hornaday  (1885)  gives  the  stomach  con- 
tents of  one  3.3  m female  as  3 half  digested 
fish;  another  3 m female  killed  the  same  day 
contained  only  a few  bits  of  a clay  pot;  others 
contained  only  fish  remains.  It  must  be  kept 
in  mind  that  fish  are  soft  bodied  and  quickly 
digested.  Contrary  to  the  standard  conception 
of  crocodilians  as  voracious  reptiles  with  great 
appetites,  Cott  (1961)  and  others  have  report- 
ed and  remarked  upon  the  high  percentage  of 
empty  stomachs  encountered  in  large  samples 
of  Nile  crocodiles. 

Hornaday  (1885)  unequivocably  states  that 
gharial  cannot  be  man-eaters  judging  from  the 
way  his  men  plunged  into  the  river  knowing 
they  were  there.  A fisherman  interviewed  on 
the  Brahmaputra  in  Assam  alleged  that  “many 
years  ago”  a seven  year  old  boy  was  caught 
and  drowned  by  a large  male  gharial  as  the 
boy  was  hunting  prawns  in  the  shallows. 
Dodsworth  (1910)  apparently  examined  a 
large  number  of  gharial  stomachs  and  remark- 


536 


THE  GHARIAL : A REVIEW 


ed  on  the  number  of  gastroliths  found.  Large 
specimens  had  empty  stomachs  except  for 
stones.  Shortt  (1921)  and  Biswas  (1970)  re- 
port that  ornaments  are  sometimes  found  in 
gharial  stomachs.  Smith  (1931)  notes  that  they 
will  feed  on  corpses,  the  probable  source  of 
the  ornaments.  Martin  and  Bellairs  (1977)  re- 
cord human  leg  bones  taken  from  the  stomach 
of  a 4.83  m specimen  killed  in  1897.  Neill 
(1971)  suggests  that  ornaments  might  be  pick- 
ed up  by  gharial  on  the  river  bottom  as  gastro- 
liths. It  is  true  that  hard  objects  other  than 
stones  are  picked  up  and  swallowed  by  croco- 
dilians.  Forsyth  (1910)  records  finding  4.5  kg 
of  stones  in  the  stomach  of  a 4.8  m male, 
the  three  largest  about  225  gms  each.  He 
raises  the  question  of  whether  the  stones  aid 
digestion.  In  1921  Shortt  wrote,  “there  is 
always  a collection  of  stones,  sometimes  quite 
large,  to  aid  digestion  I suppose.”  Gastroliths 
remain  a subject  of  considerable  debate  in 
spite  of  Cott’s  hypothesis  on  the  hydrostatic 
function  of  gastroliths  (in  Nile  crocodiles). 

Predation: 

Basu  (1980)  reports  rats  tunnelling  into  two 
of  the  13  nests  located  on  the  Chambal  in 
1979,  resulting  in  loss  of  50%  of  the  eggs.  The 
loss  of  33  eggs  to  rats  represents  about  7% 
of  the  total  of  almost  500  eggs  collected  from 
the  13  nests.  Between  1976  and  1980  nine 
attempts  of  nest  robbing  by  jackals  were  re- 
corded at  the  Chambal  River  of  which  seven 
were  unsuccessful,  for  a predation  rate  of 
5.9%  for  the  34  nests  observed  (Basu,  unpub. 
obs.). 

Female  gharial  chased  away  jackals  on  three 
occasions,  once  after  about  14  eggs  had  been 
eaten.  Several  predators  on  other  crocodilians 
found  in  gharial  habitat  are  potential  preda- 
tors on  the  eggs  and  young.  These  include  wild 
pig,  jackals,  common,  desert  and  yellow  moni- 


tor lizards,  domestic  dogs,  large  wading  birds 
and  birds  of  prey.  Cannibalism  has  not  been 
noted  in  gharial.  Tolerance  for  young  animals 
by  adults  is  noted  by  Hornaday  (1885)  in  the 
wild  and  in  captivity  at  MCB  and  Mysore 
Zoo.  Thirty  eight  young  from  a clutch  of  46 
were  seen  with  an  adult  40  days  after  hatching, 
indicating  that  maternal  protection  is  an  im- 
portant deterrent  to  potential  predators. 

Moidart  (1895)  reports  a turtle  killing  a 
small  gharial  in  Rajputana,  probably  in  the 
Chambal  River.  Indeed  the  genera  Trionyx 
and  Chitra  are  among  the  largest  freshwater 
turtles  in  the  world.  These  plus  fish  like 
Bagarius  will  no  doubt  prey  on  small  gharial. 
The  most  consistently  reported  predator  on 
large  gharial  is  man.  Most  of  the  references 
on  gharial  in  this  Journal  refer  to  the  killing 
of  one  or  many  gharial.  Aside  from  factors 
such  as  habitat  loss,  the  almost  total  demise 
of  the  species  has  been  due  to  hunting  for 
skin  and  meat  and  human  predation  on  the 
eggs  for  eating  (Whitaker  1974,  Bustard 
1974). 

Amphibious  behaviour: 

Basu  and  separately  Dodwell  in  Whitaker 
et  al.  (1974)  remark  on  the  ghariaPs  habit  of 
returning  to  the  same  spot  every  day  for  bask- 
ing, which  makes  them  very  vulnerable  to  pre- 
dation. Singh  and  Bustard  (1977)  report  that 
captive  juvenile  gharial  at  Satkoshia  in  Orissa 
bask  for  longer  periods  than  do  mugger.  They 
typically  bask  for  a few  hours  after  sunrise 
and  sometimes  at  other  times  of  day.  They 
basked  daily  in  winter  and  very  little  in  sum- 
mer. 

Whitaker  et  al.  (1979)  observed  two  gharial 
sporadically  during  April  1974  and  report 
daily  basking,  mainly  in  the  morning  hours 
until  noon.  By  18th  April  increasing  tempe- 
ratures were  apparently  responsible  for  the 


537 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


shift  in  trend  from  basking  on  the  rocky 
shelves  to  basking  on  sand  banks  in  the  shal- 
lows. High  temperatures  and  a sharp  breeze 
seemed  to  discourage  afternoon  basking. 

Hornaday  (1885)  was  impressed  by  the 
amount  of  time  during  the  day  the  gharial 
spent  basking.  He  attributes  this  to  the  cold- 
ness and  swiftness  of  water  in  their  typical 
habitat.  Shortt  (1921)  accurately  outlined  the 
basking  pattern.  In  the  cold  season  (Dec.- 
Feb.)  gharial  emerge  after  9 a.m.  and  return 
to  the  water  at  4 p.m.  As  the  hot  weather 
advances  toward  its  peak  in  June,  they  come 
out  earlier  in  the  morning  and  then  later  in 
the  evening,  returning  to  the  water  between 
10  a.m.  and  5 p.m.  He  reports  that  very  large 
animals  occasionally  bask  at  night  during  the 
hot  weather. 

Gaping: 

As  reported  for  most  other  crocodilians,  gap- 
ing is  a common  habit  of  basking  gharial.  A 
discussion  of  its  possible  significance  in  ther- 
moregulation is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  paper. 
Ross  (unpublished,  1975)  writing  about  the 
Corbett  Park  animals,  suggests  that  the  fre- 
quent display  of  the  yellowish  interior  of  the 
gharial’s  mouth  while  basking  was  actually  a 
threat  display  directed  at  mugger  basking  near- 
by. Whitaker  et  al.  (1979)  report  that  typical 
gaping  in  gharial  at  Corbett  was  for  10-20 
minute  periods  with  head  raised  about  20°. 
At  MCB  gaping  is  a regular  feature  of  basking 
at  all  times  of  the  year.  In  summer  months 
(at  the  peak  of  the  hot  season)  juvenile  and 
adult  gharial  would  rarely  leave  the  water 
during  the  day  but  hold  their  heads  out  of 
the  water  at  20-30°  angles,  gaping,  while  keep- 
ing the  rest  of  the  body  submerged.  This  was 
generally  observed  in  the  evening  about  an 
hour  before  sunset  and  seems  to  support  the 


‘cleaning  hypothesis’,  i.e.  that  the  crocodilian 
thus  rids  its  mouth  of  algae  and  parasites. 

Swimming: 

The  heavily  muscled  tail,  well  webbed  hind 
feet  and  elongated  smooth  body  are  all  adap- 
tations for  an  aquatic  existence.  Gharial  swim 
with  limbs  folded  against  the  body  except 
when  using  them  for  stability  and  the  ‘back 
dive’.  Whitaker  et  al.  (1979)  observed  gharial 
‘walking’  on  the  bottom  of  the  clear  Ram- 
ganga  River  and  reported  a sinuous  bending 
of  the  body  reminiscent  of  the  varanid  gait. 

Terrestrial  locomotion: 

Hornaday  (1885)  was  the  first  to  describe 
the  ‘lazy’  sliding  gait  of  the  gharial  on  land. 
Singh  and  Bustard  (1976)  report  the  three 
gaits  described  by  Cott  (1961)  for  Nile  croco- 
diles (high  walk,  belly  run,  gallop)  in  gharial 
up  to  ten  months  of  age.  Bustard  and  Singh 
(1977)  describe  the  gait  of  larger  gharial  as 
a ‘forward  slide’,  pushing  with  all  four  limbs 
in  a gait  the  authors  describe  as  similar  to 
that  of  a green  sea  turtle  on  land.  They  point 
out  that  gharial  rarely  move  far  from  the 
water’s  edge.  When  they  haul  out  for  basking 
they  generally  make  a ‘U’  turn  near  the  edge 
of  the  water.  This  locomotion  (due  to  feebly 
developed  front  feet),  the  authors  point  out, 
greatly  restricts  terrestrial  movement  and  could 
be  a primitive  mode  derived  from  this  oldest 
living  family  of  crocodilians.  The  fact  that 
gharial  live  in  deep  flowing  rivers  which  do 
not  dry  up  and  that  they  only  need  to  leave 
the  water  for  basking  and  nesting  favours  the 
diminishment . or  nondevelopment  of  more 
effective  powers  of  terrestrial  locomotion. 

Whitaker  (1978)  described  a 2.8  m captive 
male  gharial  at  MCB  which  climbed  over  a 
1 m brick  wall  and  used  the  forward  slide 
rather  than  a ‘high  walk’  gait  to  travel  a 


538 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 
Whitaker  & Basu:  Gavialis  gangeticus 


Wild  gharial  on  the  Girwa  River,  Uttar  Pradesh. 
(Photo:  Rajesh  Bedi ) 


j.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  IV 

Whitaker  & Basu : Gavialis  gangeticus 


Egg  collection  at  a gharial  nest  site  on  the  Chambal  River.  Rajasthan. 
(Photo:  Rajesh  Bedi ) 


THE  GHARIAL : A REVIEW 


nocturnal  circuitous  route  of  650  m around 
the  other  enclosures  before  coming  back  to  its 
own  enclosure.  Overland  migration  by  gharial 
is  not  likely  to  occur  but  in  case  of  necessity 
(accidental  isolation  in  a dry  area)  short 
distances  can  be  negotiated  by  smaller  animals. 

Homing  /migration  / dispersal: 

Singh  (1977)  describes  a 1.5  m gharial 
caught  on  the  Mahanadi  River  and  released 
15  km  downriver,  which  returned  to  its  origi- 
nal place  of  capture.  Singh  (1976)  mentioned 
the  extreme  sensitivity  of  hatchling  gharial  to 
a change  in  the  arrangement  of  the  Salix  weeds 
in  their  ponds.  Alterations  in  the  weed  arrange- 
ment caused  them  to  leave  the  water. 

Rao  (1933)  notes  the  northward  migration 
of  large  numbers  of  gharial  on  the  Indus  River 
(Pakistan)  and  attributes  their  continued  pre- 
sence on  the  upper  Indus  to  the  closure  of  a 
(then)  newly  constructed  barrage.  He  states 
that  they  generally  go  upstream  with  the  rising 
water  at  monsoon  time  and  downstream  when 
the  river  goes  down  in  the  fall  and  winter. 
Biswas  (1970)  reports  that  gharial  are  said 
to  move  downriver  from  the  Kosi  in  Bihar 
to  the  Ganges  during  flood  time  (monsoon). 
Gharial  at  Katerniaghat  are  observed  to  migrate 
locally  (8-10  kms)  every  year,  always  orient- 
ing themselves  upstream  at  the  flood  water 
period  in  the  monsoon.  Adult  migration  is 
always  very  local  and  seems  to  be  merely  to 
maintain  the  home  range.  Juvenile  migration 
(dispersal)  is  predictably  longer  and  one  re- 
leased specimen  travelled  over  150  km  down- 
stream in  a few  months  (Basu,  unpub.  obs.). 

The  return  of  the  female  to  the  nest  site 
as  reported  by  Singh  and  Bustard  (1977), 
Bustard  (1980)  and  Basu  (1980)  demon- 
strates the  homing  instinct  as  does  the  often 
reported  propensity  of  gharial  to  return  to  the 
same  spot  to  bask. 


Bustard  (1974)  estimates  that  the  34  young 
he  observed  with  a large  female  were  a month 
old,  indicating  that  young  stay  with  the  female 
for  at  least  a month.  Maternal  attendance  may 
last  for  at  least  a year  as  it  does  in  the  mugger 
(Whitaker,  unpub.  obs.).  It  is  likely  that  in 
undisturbed  conditions  gharial  display  protec- 
tive behaviour  for  several  months  or  longer. 
Bustard  (1979)  and  Choudhury  (1979)  give 
data  on  dispersal  of  captive  reared  gharial. 
Table  4 gives  the  average  dispersal  distances 
for  animals  released  in  April,  1979. 

Social  organization  and  reproduction 

Interaction  with  mugger: 

Several  of  the  older  references  refer  to 
groups  of  mugger  and  gharial  living  in  close 
proximity.  Champion  (1934)  writes  that  he 
could  count  up  to  45  of  both  species  in  a day 
on  the  Mohan  River  in  Uttar  Pradesh.  He 
records  watching  a 3 m gharial  chase  a simi- 
lar size  mugger  from  a favoured  basking  spot. 
This  is  contrary  to  the  observations  by  us  and 
of  others  who  have  observed  mugger  as  the 
dominant  aggressors.  Whitaker  et  al.  (1979) 
observed  interspecific  aggression  at  the  Gharial 
crocodile  pool  in  Corbett  National  Park.  One 
mugger  nested  on  the  same  midriver  island 
in  the  Chambal  River  as  3 to  5 gharial  during 
1976-1980.  The  mugger  nest  site  was  separated 
from  the  others  by  its  rocky  aspect  (Basu, 
unpub.  obs.). 

Territoriality  / Sociality: 

In  general  it  was  observed  that  interspecific 
aggression  is  analogous  to  intraspecific  territo- 
rialism,  with  size  being  the  most  important 
determinant  of  dominance.  The  impression 
gained  in  interviewing  persons  familiar  with 
the  species  when  it  was  abundant  is  that  the 
‘harem’  group  consisted  of  a large  ‘knobbed’ 


539 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


male  with  several  females.  There  are  nume- 
rous references  to  the  gharial’s  preference  for 
the  same  basking  spot  but  nothing  is  known 
of  the  degree  to  which  territoriality  manifests 
itself.  Basu  (1980)  writes  of  a sand  bar  and 
nearby  rocks  which  were  the  regular  basking 
places  of  4 adult  males  (though  never  toge- 
ther) and  6 females.  At  Mysore  Zoo  aim 
juvenile  was  often  seen  basking  on  the  back 
of  one  of  the  3 m to  3.5  m adults.  At  MCB 
adults  and  juveniles  have  been  housed  toge- 
ther for  several  years  with  almost  no  agonistic 
interaction.  At  Nandankanan  Zoo,  Orissa  a 
newly  introduced  adult  male  killed  the  smaller 
resident  male  in  the  breeding  enclosure,  indi- 
cating a territoriality  similar  to  that  seen  in 
other  adult  male  crocodilians. 

Vocalization: 

Champion  (1934)  writes  that  a 3 m gharial 
‘bellowed  hard’  a number  of  times,  apparently 
to  intimidate  a mugger  which  had  usurped  its 
basking  spot.  Although  vocalization  has  never 
been  reported  in  association  with  breeding, 
gharial  certainly  have  the  capacity  for  making 
sound  in  distress  situations.  Hornaday  (1885) 
wrote  that  a 3 m animal  which  had  been  shot 
‘groaned  three  or  four  times  like  a strong  man 
in  distress’.  This  groaning  sound  has  been 
heard  several  times  at  MCB  from  animals  of 
1.5  m to  2.7  m when  closely  approached. 
It  often  preceded  a sudden  rush  for  the  water. 
Choruses  of  groans  were  heard  in  groups  of 
juveniles  at  the  Kukrail  Gharial  Rehabilitation 
Centre.  Hornaday  goes  on  to  say  that  wound- 
ed gharial  would  often  ‘bawl  aloud  like  calves 
when  seized’,  a sound  evidently  similar  to  the 
distress  cry  of  a large  mugger  when  caught. 
One  of  his  shot  animals  (3.45  m female) 
‘bawled’  more  than  a dozen  times  while  strug- 
gling. Similarly  Basu  (974)  reports  that  fisher- 
men say  that  when  caught  on  hooks  buried  at 


basking  sites  gharial  emit  loud  roars.  Rajesh 
Bedi  (in  Basu  1980)  heard  the  ‘noisy  grunt’ 
of  a gharial  at  night  as  it  approached  what 
was  presumably  its  nest. 

Courtship  and  mating: 

Mating  is  in  December- J anuary,  winter 
months  with  low  water  levels  and  low  tempe- 
ratures. The  near  adult  male  gharial  at  MCB 
was  observed  to  jaw  slap  on  two  occasions  at 
breeding  time.  On  both  occasions  the  behavi- 
our consisted  of  three  open  mouthed  slaps  on 
the  water  surface  in  quick  succession.  Com- 
pared to  the  powerful  signal  in  some  croco- 
diles and  the  American  alligator,  the  gharial’ s 
jaw  slap  is  feeble.  The  jaw  slap  was  followed 
by  a hissing  exhalation  from  the  nostrils. 
One  occasion  the  sun  was  behind  the  animal 
and  a cloud  of  droplets  rose  to  about  a meter 
over  its  head  while  hissing.  According  to 
Martin  and  Bellairs  (1977),  the  ghara  on  the 
male’s  snout  (Fig.  1)  may  be  an  important  com- 
ponent of  breeding,  functioning  as  a vocal  re- 
sonator. Considering  the  weakness  of  the  jaw 
slap,  it  certainly  seems  that  vocalization  would 
be  the  more  effective  signal.  No  response  by 
conspecifics  was  observed. 

At  Nandankanan  Biological  Park  courtship 
behaviour  has  been  observed  for  several  suc- 
cessive seasons.  Maharana  (pers.  comm.) 
observed  courtship  in  January  and  February 
and  infers  that  the  male  uses  the  ghara  as  a 
hook  on  the  female’s  snout  for  leverage  when 
mounting.  A photograph  by  R.  Bedi  (in  Gore 
1978)  shows  a male  and  female  with  crossed 
snouts,  a feature  of  courtship  behaviour  also 
observed  at  MCB.  The  following  is  a descrip- 
tion of  one  sequence.  On  20  December  1977  at 
1630  the  2.7  m male  (without  ghara)  was 
observed  to  be  on  top  of  the  female  at  the 
deepest  end  of  the  poqd.  The  pair  submerged 
briefly,  surfaced  and  separated.  At  1640  the 


540 


THE  GHARIAL : A REVIEW 


Fig.  1.  Development  of  the  ghaia  or  narial  excrescence  of  the  male  gharial  (after  Martin  and  Bellairs,  1977). 
(a)  juvenile,  (b)  subadult,  (c)  subadult,  (d)  adult. 


male  approached  the  female.  The  female 
snapped  at  the  male  several  times,  bubbling 
and  geysering  small  spouts  of  water  from  her 
nostrils.  The  male  then  crossed  snouts  with 
the  female  and  swam  behind  her,  he  mounted 
and  the  pair  submerged.  A few  minutes  later 
the  female  surfaced  among  the  weeds  at  the 
shallow  end  of  the  pond.  The  male  approach- 
ed her  and  when  close,  the  female  raised  her 
head  exposing  the  white  underside  of  her 
throat.  The  male  turned  and  swam  away. 
Shortly  thereafter  the  female  swam  toward  a 
2 year  old,  1 . 25  m subadult  and  chased  it  out 
of  the  water.  This  was  one  of  the  few  occa- 
sions in  which  aggression  toward  smaller 
animals  was  seen. 


Nesting: 

Nesting  is  strongly  seasonal,  occurring  in 
March  and  April,  during  the  period  of  high 
ambient  temperatures  and  between  the  cold 
winter  months  (0-4°C)  and  the  monsoon 
floods.  Sites  with  fine  sand  are  chosen  in  pre- 
ference to  banks  of  coarse  sand.  On  the 
Chambal  River  the  earliest  nesting  was  re- 
corded on  7th  April.  Anderson  (1975)  gives 
the  first  description  of  a gharial  nest:  40  eggs 
buried  in  sand.  The  nest  was  in  two  layers 
of  20  with  sand  between.  It  is  possible  the 
female  was  disturbed  during  laying,  resulting 
in  the  two  tiers.  The  layer  configuration  of 
three  nests  on  the  Chambal  was  as  follows: 


541 


4 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Layer 

Nest  1 

Nest  2 

Nest  3 

1 

20 

20 

13 

2 

20 

20 

23 

3 

4 

7 

— 

It  is  presumed  that  the  layers  form  by  the 
action  of  gravity  rather  than  by  a deliberate 
effort  of  the  female. 

Gharial  invariably  dig  their  pitcher-shaped 
nest  holes  at  night  on  steep  sandy  river  banks. 
Singh  and  Bustard  (1977)  report  the  use  of 
mud  banks  for  nesting  on  the  Chambal  River 
after  loss  of  sand  banks  from  damming.  The 
average  nest  hole  is  40  cm  deep  and  the 
spoor  formation  at  trial  nests  confirms  that  the 
hind  legs  are  used  in  digging,  though  Bustard 
(in  litt.)  saw  a female  engaged  in  apparent 
nest  hole  digging  with  her  fore-limbs.  Nests 
are  located  1 to  5 m above  the  water  level 
and  up  to  10  m away  from  the  water’s  edge 
(Singh  and  Bustard  1977).  The  spoor  of  nest- 
ing females  was  found  at  a maximum  dist- 
ance of  22  m away  from  the  river. 

It  is  possible  that  gharial  are  communal 
nesters,  as  reported  for  the  Nile  crocodile 
(Cott  1961).  Basu  (1980)  reports  three  nests 
on  one  30  m sand  bar  on  the  Chambal  and 
close  proximity  of  nests  at  other  sites.  Trial 
nest  holes  are  a common  feature  of  gharial 
nesting.  5 females  on  the  Karnali  River  (Nepal) 
made  12  trial  holes  without  nesting.  The  dig- 
ging of  these  trials  is  a manifestation  of  the 
nesting  urge  of  the  female  (Bustard,  in  litt.). 
The  depths  of  trial  nest  holes  are  compared 
below  with  actual  nest  holes. 


Trial  holes 

Number 

Range  of 
depth 

X depth 

23 

27  — 52  cm 

35.04  cm 

Actual  nest  holes 

22 

20  — 54.5  cm 

40. 1 1 cm 

Prior  to  the 

actual 

deposition 

of  eggs 

gharial  exhibit  nesting  behaviour  consisting  of 


movement  to  the  vicinity  of  nest  site,  travel 
over  the  nest  site  and  the  digging  of  trial 
nests.  In  the  Girwa  river  4 females  that  had 
been  basking  on  mid-river  sand  bars  since  mid 
February  1975,  gave  up  the  security  of  these 
basking  sites  and  appeared  below  nesting  sites 
on  the  right  river  bank  on  the  morning  of 
31st  March.  One  nest  was  located  on  22nd 
April  in  which  eggs  were  deposited  on  the 
previous  night  but  nesting  activity  continued 
till  the  night  of  29  April.  Although  trial  dig- 
ging was  first  noticed  on  the  night  of  15  April, 
the  duration  of  the  nesting  period  is  com- 
puted to  be  29  nights,  that  is,  the  date  of 
first  appearance  below  the  nest  sites  to  the 
post  laying  cessation  of  activity. 

Table  1 

Hatchling  Measurements 


Nest 

No. 

N 

Weight 

in  grams 

Length 

in  cms 

Range 

Average 

Range 

Average 

1 

50 

96-126 

116 

35-38.5 

35.7 

2 

38 

82-  99 

90 

34.5-36.5 

35.5 

3 

4 

121-125 

123 

38-39 

38.4 

4 

25 

84-107 

94 

35-39 

37.4 

5 

49 

95-123 

115 

34-37.5 

35.7 

6 

32 

103-130 

118 

36-39.2 

37.7 

Table  2 


Growth  rates 


Year  of  Age  Num-  Weight  (Kg.)  Length  (cm) 
Hatching  Class  ber  Range  X Range  X 

(year) 


1976 

4-5 

6 

27.5-36.0: 

31.8 

209-218: 

212 

1977 

3-4 

143 

5.5-28.0: 

12.7 

130-209: 

: 172 

1978 

2-3 

196 

1.0-11.0: 

6.8 

80-158: 

138 

1979 

1-2 

91 

0.35-4.5: 

1.8 

61-116: 

: 88 

1980 

0-1 

152 

0.14-0.4: 

0.6 

42-66  : 

: 56 

On 

the  Chambal 

River 

the  spoor  of 

an 

adult  gharial  (presumably  a female)  on  22 
March  indicated  that  the  animal  had  travelled 


542 


THE  GHARIAL : A REVIEW 


Table  3 

Vernacular  names  of  gharial 


Language 

Place 

Vernacular  name(s) 

Urdu 

Pakistan 

Sansar 

Hindustani 

North  India 

Gharial  (ghara=mud  pot),  nakaar 

Bihari  Hindi 

Bihar 

Nakaar,  Basoolia  nakaar  (male) 

Oriya 

Orissa 

Gharial  (male),  thantia  (female) 

Miching 

Assam 

Shormon 

Bengali 

West  Bengal 

Mecho  kumhir  (fish-eating  crocodile) 

Nepali 

Nepal 

Chimpta  (pincers),  thondre,  lamthora 

(Whitaker  et  a\. 

1974,  Martin  and  Bellairs  1977) 

more  than  10  m.  from  the  water  without  dig- 
ging any  trial  nests.  Activity  continued  for  21 
nights  till  the  night  of  11  April,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  night  of  31  March  and  3 April. 
In  this  period  28  nest  holes  were  dug  with 
7 holes  being  the  maximum  number  in  one 
night.  In  contrast  to  the  protracted  nesting 
activity  of  these  sites  a solitary  nesting  female 
using  a site  in  a nesting  area  different  from 
all  other  areas  mentioned  above  deposited 
her  eggs  after  a single  night’s  nesting  activity 
on  the  night  of  5 April  in  which  she  dug  only 
one  other  nest  hole  apart  from  the  hole  in 
which  she  deposited  her  eggs. 

Singh  and  Bustard  (1977)  describe  a nest 
of  25  eggs  on  Satkoshia  Gorge  being  5.9  m 
from  the  water’s  edge  and  2.6  m above  water 
level.  The  first  eggs  were  37.5  cm  below  the 
surface  and  the  bottom  of  the  nest  hole  mea- 
sured 30  x 22.5  cm.  In  23  nests  on  the 
Chambal  and  Girwa,  the  depth  of  sand  cover- 
ing the  eggs  averaged  29.03  cm.  Depth  of  the 
nest  hole  averaged  48.89  cm  and  diameter 
52.90. 

The  banks  of  the  Chambal  River  can  be 
broadly  classified  into  the  following  types:  1) 
steep  sand  banks  2)  flat  sand  banks  2)  steep 
mud  banks  4)  flat  mud  banks  5)  rocky  banks. 


While  nest  hole  excavation  would  be  possible 
for  gharial  in  bank  types  1,  2 and  3 nesting 
was  confined  to  river  bank  type  1)  Alluvial 
deposits  on  a midriver  rocky  island  were  also 
used  for  nesting  each  season  between  1976 
and  1980.  Between  1975  and  1980  all  located 
gharial  nests  on  the  Girwa  River  in  the  Kater- 
niaghat  Sanctuary  were  found  on  a 3 km 
stretch  of  bank  adjoining  the  highest  land  in 
the  sanctuary.  The  same  approximate  sites  are 
used  each  season  but  there  are  considerable 
alterations  to  the  bank  each  year  due  to  ero- 
sion and  deposition  during  the  monsoon  high 
water.  The  Katerniaghat  nest  sites  are  there- 
fore almost  exclusively  sandy  subsoil  exposed 
by  erosion.  Table  5 gives  distances  from  and 
heights  above  water  for  32  nests  at  3 sites. 
Tables  6 and  7 give  clutch  sizes  and  female 
relatedness.  Twelve  nesting  female  gharial  on 
the  Chambal  measured  3.16  m to  4.54  m 
(using  the  method  described  by  Singh  and 
Bustard  1977)  with  an  average  of  3.77  m; 
clutch  sizes  of  these  females  has  ranged  from 
10  to  64  eggs  with  an  average  of  42. 

Incubation: 

Observations  on  captive  animals  indicate 
an  average  egg  development  period  of  about 


543 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Table  4 

Dispersal  of  released  juvenile  gharial  (1979) 


Locality  No.  Dispersal  Dispersal  Post 

in  one  in  two  monsoon 

month  months  dispersal 


Chambal 

River, 

U.P.  15  200-500  m <*  km  <5  km 

Girwa 

River,  U.P.  14  minimal  1-2  km 

(Bustard  1979,  Choudhury  1979) 


Table  5 
Nest  situation 

Nests  Distance  Height 

from  above 


water  (m) 

water  (m) 

A. 

Chambal 

28 

4.6-14.5:9.5 

1. 5-3.5 : 2.4 

B. 

Girwa 

3 

2.5-  4.0: 3.2 

1. 0-3.0: 2.0 

C. 

Mahanadi 

1 

5.9 

2.5 

(Singh  & Bustard  1977) 


Table  6 

Clutch  size  of  gharial  nests 


Year 

Place 

Nests  (N) 

Clutch 
size  (x) 

1976 

Girwa  R.,  Chambal  R. 

10 

45.8 

1977 

Girwa  R.,  Chambal  R. 

18 

39.5 

1978 

Girwa  R.,  Chambal  R. 

16 

39.2 

1978 

Rapti/ Narayani  R. 
(Nepal) 

10 

30.8 

1979 

Girwa  R.,  Chambal  R. 

15 

40.1 

1980 

Girwa  R.,  Chambal  R. 

11 

40.0 

Number  of  eggs  in  80  clutches  = 3147;  x = 39.3:18-95 
(V.  B.  Singh  1979,  Kimura  1978) 


30-40  days  as  courtship  was  seen  in  first  week 
February  and  eggs  were  laid  on  March  10th. 
Incubation  periods  in  collected  clutches  from 
Nepal,  Bihar  and  Orissa  ranged  from  71  to 
93  days.  In  1976  nests  took  76  to  92  days  to 


hatch,  an  average  of  84.5  (Singh  and  Bustard 
1977).  Nests  on  the  Chambal  took  an  ave- 
rage of  60-65  days  to  hatch  pointing  to  the 
tendency  for  captive  incubation  to  be  done 
at  a lower  temperature.  The  implications  of 
temperature  for  determining  the  sex  ratio  of 
a clutch  could  however  be  very  important. 
Collected  clutches  were  incubated  at  an  ave- 
rage temperature  of  30°C.  Singh  and  Bustard 
(pers.  comm.)  give  a temperature  range  of 
25  to  37°C  for  wild  nests  with  a humidity 
(sand  moisture  content  by  weight)  of  4%  to 
7%.  Nests  on  the  Chambal  had  temperatures 
at  the  top  of  the  egg  mass  ranging  from  22°C 
(in  April)  to  36.5°C  (in  May).  Six  nests 
monitored  for  5 days  in  May  had  an  average 
temperature  of  34.9°C. 

Breeding  success: 

Little  is  known  about  breeding  success  in 
the  wild.  The  disturbed  and  altered  status  of 
gharial  habitat  may  affect  breeding  success. 
For  example  Singh  (pers.  comm.)  reports  an 
infertile  nest  at  Satkoshia  Gorge  where  boat 
traffic  is  frequent  enough  that  it  may  inhibit 
contact  and  mating. 

All  70  nests  found  on  the  Chambal  and 
Girwa  Rivers  between  1975-1980  were  fertile. 
Bustard  (in  litt.)  reported  that  2.7%  of  eggs 
were  damaged  during  laying  in  nests  on  the 
Narayani  River  in  Nepal.  4.4%  of  the  eggs 
in  12  nests  collected  in  1977  on  the  Girwa 
and  Chambal  Rivers  were  decomposed.  In  one 
nest  only  5 hatchlings  emerged  from  49  eggs. 
The  remainder  died  due  to  suffocation  of  the 
embryos  when  dune  formation  covered  the  site 
with  2 m of  sand.  One  nest  excavated  natu- 
rally by  the  female  was  found  to  contain  45 
hatched  eggs,  indicating  100%  success.  Most 
nests  collected  on  the  Girwa  River  have  yield- 
ed hatchlings  with  congenital  defects  such  as 
bent  necks.  These  defects  occur  in  up  to  25% 


544 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate 

Whitaker  & Basu:  Gavialis  gangeticus 


Gharial  hatching. 
(Photo:  Rajesh  Bedi ) 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 

Whitaker  & Basu:  Gavialis  gangeticus 


Plate  VI 


Map  of  the  Indian  subcontinent  showing  the  four  main  river  systems  of  gharial  distribution 
and  location  of  the  four  rehabilitation  projects. 


THE  GHARIAL : A REVIEW 


Table  7 

Clutch  size  and  length  of  female  gharial 


Clutch  size  Total  length  of  female 

(cm) 


15  270 

30  300 

41  330-360 

44  330-360 

56  288 

44  344 

(Hornaday  1885,  Parshad  1914,  Basu,  pers.  obs.) 


Table  8 

Hatching  success  of  collected  gharial  eggs  in 
Uttar  Pradesh 


Hatch- 


Year 

Nests  (N) 

Eggs  (N)  lings  (N) 

% success 

1975 

1 

38 

21 

55.3 

1976 

10 

458 

364 

79.5 

1977 

18 

712 

632 

88.8 

1978 

16 

627 

432 

68.9 

1979 

15 

602 

492 

81.7 

1980 

11 

440 

373 

84.8 

(Singh 

1979,  Basu, 

pers.  comm.) 

of  hatchlings  in  affected  clutches  and  are  sur- 
mised to  be  of  genetic  origin. 

In  Uttar  Pradesh  gharial  eggs  are  generally 
left  in  the  natural  nest  for  over  half  the  in- 
cubation period  and  then  shifted  to  the 
hatchery  by  Forest  Department  personnel. 
Table  8 illustrates  the  high  hatching  success 
obtained  (V.  B.  Singh  1979). 

Hatching  and  post-hatching: 

Singh  and  Bustard  (1977)  report  the  only 
incident  of  ‘remnant’  nest  guarding  behaviour. 
During  May,  1976  at  Kakaraghat,  Narayarii 
River,  Nepal,  a party  of  12  persons  approach- 
ed a nest  site.  The  female  was  basking  at  the 
site  and  entered  the  water  on  arrival  of  the 


team.  While  the  eggs  were  collected  she  sur- 
faced and  remained  close  to  the  site. 

On  8/4/75  a nest  was  laid  in  Satlcoshia 
Gorge.  The  female  visited  the  site  11  times 
in  the  following  77  days;  the  last  three  visits 
being  on  the  71st,  76th  and  77th  days,  cor- 
responding to  possible  hatching  days  (Singh 
and  Bustard  1977).  Hatching  is  in  June,  dur- 
ing the  monsoon,  with  flood  water  and  medium 
temperatures. 

Singh  and  Bustard  (1977)  write  that  head 
morphology  (sharp  teeth,  location  of  eyes,  long 
snout  and  no  space  in  mouth)  preclude  gharial 
from  carrying  hatchlings  from  the  nest.  Sub- 
sequently Basu  and  Bustard  (in  press)  report 
evidence  that  gharial  do  excavate  and  carry 
their  young  to  the  water.  It  is  possible  that 
they  carry  eggs,  as  has  also  been  reported  in 
other  crocodilians,  but  this  has  as  yet  to  be 
observed  or  determined.  It  should  be  noted 
that  the  large  gullet  of  an  adult  has  ample 
room  for  hatchlings  once  in  the  back  of  the 
mouth. 

Creche  formation  and  protection  of  young 
has  been  reported  by  Singh  and  Bustard 
(1977).  The  authors  record  that  in  mid- July, 
1974  an  approximately  450  cm  female  gharial 
was 'seen  in  the  shallows  of  a nullah  off  the 
Chambal  River,  Rajasthan.  34  hatchlings  of 
about  375-400  mm  were  around  and  on  her, 
some  lying  on  her  head  and  others  on  the 
nearby  bank.  Lang  (pers.  comm.)  reports  that 
the  captive  adult  female  at  MCB  responded 
to  an  imitation  of  a hatchling  call  by  close 
approach  and  assuming  a head-emergent  at 
jawline  posture.  On  July  14,  1979,  40  days 
post-hatching,  a female  was  observed  in  the 
water  below  the  nest  site  accompanied  by  38 
hatchlings.  It  is  speculated  that  the  creche  lasts 
till  the  first  rise  of  the  river  to  flood  level, 
which  generally  occurs  by  the  end  of  July. 

Captive  breeding  of  gharial  was  achieved 


545 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


for  the  first  time  at  Nandankanan  Park,  Orissa, 
in  1980.  A 4 m male  gharial  on  loan  from  the 
Frankfurt  Zoo  killed  the  2.8  m resident  male 
and  in  early  1980  mated  with  one  of  the  two 
females.  She  laid  25  eggs  on  March  10th,  all 
of  which  reportedly  hatched  58  days  later  on 
May  7th. 

Conservation: 

Since  1975  intensive  efforts  to  rehabilitate 
the  seriously  endangered  gharial  have  met 
with  considerable  success.  Under  the  consul- 
tancy of  H.  R.  Bustard  (FAO/UNDP),  Forest 
Departments  in  the  states  of  Orissa,  Uttar 
Pradesh,  Rajasthan  and  Bihar  have  evolved 
rehabilitation  schemes.  An  estimated  100  wild 
gharial  survived  in  India  in  1975,  half  of  the 
estimated  world  population.  Collection  of  eggs 
and  rearing  the  young  at  four  main  centres 
(Tikerpada  in  Orissa,  Kukrail  in  Uttar  Pra- 
desh, Katerniaghat  in  Uttar  Pradesh  and  Hyde- 
rabad in  Andhra  Pradesh)  have  so  far  resulted 
in  a total  of  over  2000  hatchlings. 

Riverine  sanctuaries  have  been  gazetted  at 
Satkoshia  Gorge  (Orissa),  Chambal  River 
(Rajasthan,  Uttar  Pradesh,  Madhya  Pradesh), 
Katerniaghat  (Uttar  Pradesh)  and  Gandak 
River  (Bihar)  specifically  for  gharial  rehabi- 
litation. So  far  107,  2-3  year  old  have  been 
released  in  the  Satkoshia  Gorge  Sanctuary,  75 
in  the  Chambal  National  Gharial  Sanctuary 

Refer 

Acharjyo,  R.  N.,  Biswas,  S.  and  Misra,  R.  (1974): 
Some  notes  on  Gharial  ( Gavialis  gangeticus ) in 
captivity.  J.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  72.  no.  2, 
pp.  558-560. 

Adams,  Andrew  Leith  (1867) : Wanderings  of  a 
naturalist  in  India.  Edmonton  and  Douglas,  Edin- 
burgh. 

Anderson,  Andrew  (1875) : Letter  excerpt,  an 
account  of  the  eggs  and  young  of  G.  gangeticus. 
Journal  of  Zoology,  Zoological  Society  of  London. 


and  14  in  the  Katerniaghat  Sanctuary.  Studies 
on  gharial  biology  are  the  subjects  of  four 
Ph.D.  scholars  and  students  on  the  fisheries 
and  riverine  ecosystems  are  planned  to  sup- 
port the  gharial  programme  (Basu  and  Singh, 
pers.  comm.) 

Captive  breeding  has  occurred  at  Nandan- 
kanan Biological  Park,  Orissa  and  is  being 
attempted  at  the  Madras  Crocodile  Bank, 
Tamil  Nadu. 

Acknowledgements 

The  senior  author  is  grateful  to  the  staff  and 
trustees  of  the  Madras  Snake  Park  Trust  and 
Madras  Crocodile  Bank  Trust  for  help  and 
financial  support.  The  co-author  acknowledges 
the  support  of  the  Chief  Wildlife  Warden  and 
the  Forest  Department  of  Uttar  Pradesh.  H.  R. 
Bustard,  Lala  A.  K.  Singh  supplied  important 
field  observations;  Rajesh  Bedi  generously 
supplied  photographs;  financial  support  for 
field  study  and  the  gharial  rearing  facility  at 
Madras  was  given  by  the  Tamil  Nadu  State 
Department  of  Tourism,  World  Wildlife  Fund, 
USA  and  India,  New  York  Zoological  Society 
and  the  West  German  Reptile  Leather  Asso- 
ciation. Jeff  Lang,  Alistair  Graham  and 
Grahame  Webb  supplied  valuable  criticism  of 
the  manuscript  and  Zai  Whitaker  edited  and 
typed  several  drafts.  Brenda  Bhaskar  typed  the 
final  draft. 

iNCES 

p.  2 (January). 

Barton,  C.  G.  (1927) : Gharial  in  Burma.  J. 
Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  33:  450. 

Basu,  Dhruva  (1980) : Baby  crocs  in  a valley  of 
death.  International  Wildlife,  vol.  10,  no.  1,  pp.  3-11 
(Jan.-Feb.). 

Biswas,  S.  (1970):  A preliminary  survey  of  the 
gharial  in  the  Kosi  river.  Indian  Forester,  96  (9) : 
705-710  (September). 

Biswas,  S.,  Acharjyo,  L.  N.  & Mohapatra,  S. 


546 


THE  GHARIAL:  A REVIEW 


(1977)  : A note  on  the  protruberance  or  knob  on 
the  snout  of  male  gharial,  Gavialis  gangeticus 
(Gmelin).  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  74(3):  536- 
537. 

Braziatis,  Peter  (1973) : The  identification  of 
living  crocodilians.  Zoologica,  58(1-4) : 59-101. 

Bustard,  H.  R.  (1979):  Bhutan:  Crocodile  con- 
servation and  commercial  crocodile  farming.  FAO. 
FO:  DP/BHU / 78/ 003,  Rome,  pp.  1-9. 

(1974) : India:  A preliminary 

survey  of  the  prospects  for  crocodile  farming.  FAO/ 
FO:  IND/71/033,  Rome,  pp.  1-66. 

Bustard,  H.  Robert  (1980) : Maternal  care  in 
the  gharial,  Gavialis  gangeticus  (Gmelin).  Brit.  J. 
of  Herp.,  vol.  6,  pp.  63-64  (June). 

Bustard,  H.  R.  (1976) : A future  for  the  gharial. 
Cheetal,  vol.  17,  pp.  3-8. 

(1979) : News  from  the  state  cro- 
codile schemes.  Makara,  vol.  1,  no.  1,  p.  5 (Octo- 
ber). 

Bustard,  H.  R.  & Singh,  Lala  A.  K.  (1977): 
Studies  on  the  Indian  gharial,  Gavialis  gangeticus 
(Gmelin) : Change  in  terrestrial  locomotory  pattern 
with  age.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  74(3)  : 534-535. 

Bustard,  H.  R.  & Singh,  L.  A.  K.  (1977) : Studies 
on  the  Indian  gharial,  Gavialis  gangeticus  (Gmelin) : 

I.  Estimation  of  body  length  from  scute  length. 
Indian  Forester,  vol.  103,  no.  2,  pp.  140-149  (Febru- 
ary). 

Carr,  A.  (1963):  The  Reptiles.  Life  Nature 

Library,  Time-Life  Publications,  New  York. 

Champion,  F.  W.  (1934) : The  jungle  in  sunlight 
and  shadow.  Chatto  and  Windus,  London,  p.  46-51. 

Choudhury,  Sushant  (1979)  : Rehabilitation  of 
gharial  in  Uttar  Pradesh.  Makara  (newsletter  of  the 
Central  Crocodile  Breeding  and  Management  Train- 
ing Institute,  Hyderabad),  vol.  1,  no.  1,  pp.  7-8 
(October). 

Forsyth,  H.  W.  (1910) : The  food  of  crocodiles. 

J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  20:  228. 

Francis,  R.  (1910):  The  Broad-snouted  Mugger 
in  the  Indus.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  20:  1160. 

Gmelin,  J.  (1789) : Linnei  Systema  Naturae, 
Leipzig,  Ed.  13,  no.  1,  p.  1057. 

Gore,  R.  (1978) : Bad  time  to  be  a crocodile. 
National  Geographic  Magazine,  vol.  153,  no.  1,  pp. 
90-115. 

Greer,  A.  E.  (1970)  : Evolutionary  and  systematic 
significance  of  crocodilian  nesting  habits.  Nature, 
227 : 523-524  (August). 


Guggisberg,  C.  A.  W.  (1972)  : Crocodiles.  Stack- 
pole  Books,  pp.  1-195. 

Hecht,  Max  A.  & Malone,  Brian  (1972) : On 
the  early  history  of  the  gavialid  crocodilians.  Her- 
petologica,  28(3):  281-284  (September). 

Hornaday,  William  T.  (1885) : Two  years  in  the 
jungle.  Charles  Scribner’s  Sons,  New  York,  pp.  39-57. 

I.  A.  K.  (1921) : Crocodile  shooting  in  Nepal. 
/.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  28:  291. 

Khan,  M.  A.  Reza  (1979) : Gharial  extinct  in 
Bangladesh.  IUCN/SSC  Crocodile  Specialist  Group 
newsletter,  no.  16,  p.  2 (September). 

Kimura,  W.  (1978)  : Artificial  incubation  of 

gharial  eggs.  Bull.  Atagawa  Institute  Tropical  and 
Alligator  Garden,  pp.  1-16, 

Lowis,  R.  M.  (1915)  : Gharial  catching  on  the 
Indus.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  23:  779. 

Martin,  B.  G.  H.  & Bellairs,  A.  D’  A.  (1977): 
The  narial  excrescence  and  pterygoid  bulla  of  the 
gharial,  Gavialis  gangeticus  (Crocodilia) . J.  Zool. 
London,  vol.  182,  pp.  541-558. 

Moidart  (1895) : Turtle  killing  young  crocodile. 
J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  10:  153. 

Neill,  Wilfred  T.  (1971) : The  last  of  the  ruling 
reptiles.  Columbia  Univ.  Press,  pp.  1-486. 

Parshad,  Baini  (1914) : The  gharial  (Gavialis 
gangeticus),  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  23:  369. 

Pitman,  C.  R.  S.  (1924)  : Length  of  gharial.  J. 
Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  30:  703. 

Rao,  C.  J.  (1933)  : Gavial  on  the  Indus.  J.  Sind 
Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  1(4):  37. 

Ross,  C.  A.  (1975):  Reflected  glow  from  the 
eyes  of  the  gharial.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol. 
72,  no.  2,  p.  557. 

Shortt,  W.  H.  O.  (1921) : A few  hints  on  croco- 
dile shooting.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  29:  77. 

“Sind”  (1922) : Crocodile  shooting  and  snaring. 
J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  28:  809-811. 

Singh,  L.  A.  K.  & Bustard,  H.  R.  (1976):  A 
method  to  identify  individual  young  gharial,  Gavialis 
gangeticus.  Brit.  J.  of  Herp.,  vol.  5,  pp.  669-671. 

Singh,  Lala  A.  K.  (1978) : Gharial  conservation 
in  Orissa.  Indian  Forester,  vol.  104,  no.  12,  pp.  823- 
828  (December). 

Singh,  Lala  A.  K.  (1976) : Rearing  gharial  in 
captivity.  Hamadryad,  vol.  1,  no.  2,  pp.  5-6  (May). 

Singh,  Lala  A.  K.  (1977) : When  back  to  the 
wild.  Cheetal,  vol.  18,  nos.  1 and  2,  pp.  20-22. 

Singh,  L.  A.  K.  & Bustard,  H.  R.  (1976) : Loco- 
motory behaviour  during  basking  and  spoor  forma- 


547 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


tion  in  the  gharial  ( Gavialis  gangeticus).  Brit.  J.  of 
Herp.,  5:  673-676. 

Singh,  Lala  A.  K.  (1977) : Gharial  feeding.  Horn- 
bill  ( Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.),  pp.  20-21  (April- 
June). 

Singh,  Lala  A.  K.  & Bustard,  H.  Robert  (1977) : 
Studies  on  the  Indian  gharial,  Gavialis  gangeticus 
(Gmelin) : V Preliminary  observations  on  maternal 
behaviour.  Indian  Forester,  vol.  103,  no.  10,  pp. 
671-678  (October). 

Singh,  Lala  A.  K.  (1979) : Gharial  research  and 
conservation.  Wildlife  Club  Newsletter,  vol.  6,  no. 
1,  pp.  7-8  (January). 

Singh,  V.  B.  (1979):  The  status  of  gharial 
( Gavialis  gangeticus)  in  U.P.  and  its  rehabilitation. 
/.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  75(3):  668-683. 

Smith,  M.  A.  (1935) : Fauna  of  British  India, 
vol.  1.  Taylor  and  Francis  Ltd.,  London  (Ralph 
Curtis  Books  reprint,  1973). 

Srivastava,  Ajai  Kumar  (1979):  Wild  baby 

gharial  in  captivity  at  Katerniaghat.  Hamadryad, 
vol.  4.  no.  2,  p.  8 (May). 


Wermuth,  Heinz  (1953):  Systematik  der  rezen- 
ten  Krokodile.  Mitteil.  Zool.  Mus.  Berlin,  vol.  29, 
no.  2,  pp.  376-514. 

Whitaker,  R.,  Basu,  D.,  & Ross,  C.  A.  (1979): 
Gharial  survey  and  observations  on  the  Ramganga 
River,  Corbett  National  Park,  U.P.  Hamadryad 
Supplement  no.  2,  pp.  1-17. 

Whitaker,  R.,  Rajamani,  V.  C.,  Basu,  D.  & 
Balakrishnan,  V.  (1974):  Preliminary  survey  of 
the  gharial,  Gavialis  gangeticus.  Madras  Snake  Park 
Trust  Report,  pp.  1-16. 

Whitaker,  R.  & Daniel,  J.  C.  (1978) : The  status 
of  Asian  crocodilians.  Tiger  Paper  (FAO,  Asia), 
vol.  5,  no.  4,  pp.  12-17  (October). 

Whitaker,  Z.  (1978):  Gharial  walk.  Hamadryad, 
vol.  3,  no.  1.  p.  5 (January). 

Whitaker,  Romulus,  Whitaker,  Zahida  & 
Vaughan,  Allen  (1980):  Notes  on  sexing  croco- 
dilians. J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  77(2) : 341-343. 

Whitaker,  Romulus  (1975) : Status  and  con- 
servation of  the  gharial  ( Gavialis  gangeticus).  Herp. 
Review,  vol.  6,  no.  1,  pp.  2-3  (March). 


548 


BREEDING  HABITS  AND  ASSOCIATED 
PHENOMENON  IN  SOME  INDIAN  BATS 


Part  VII  — Hipposideros  speoris  (Schneider) 
(Hipposideridae)  from  Chandrapur, 

Maharashtra 

A.  Gopalakrishna  and  Deepa  Bhatia1 2 

At  and  around  Chandrapur  (19°55'N.,  79°28'E.)  in  Vidarbha  (Eastern  Maharashtra. 
India)  Hipposideros  speoris  has  an  annual  reproductive  cycle,  but  all  the  females  in 
the  colony  do  not  conceive  synchronously.  Copulation,  followed  immediately  by  ovula- 
tion and  fertilization,  takes  place  in  different  individuals  of  the  colony  on  different 
dates  from  the  last  week  of  December  to  the  second  week  of  March.  Sperms  stored 
in  the  cauda  epididymis  are  viable  for  over  2\  months  after  cessation  of  spermato- 
genetic  activity.  The  accessory  glands  in  the  males  remain  in  an  active  state  for  about 
two  months  after  the  regression  of  the  testis.  Gestation  lasts  for  135  to  140  days  and 
deliveries  in  the  colony  occur  from  the  1st  week  of  May  to  the  last  week  of  July. 
The  left  side  of  the  female  genitalia  exhibits  distinct  physiological  dominance  over 
the  right  and  a single  young  is  delivered  in  each  cycle.  Whereas  the  females  attain 
sexual  maturity  when  they  are  7y  to  8 months  old,  the  males  do  not  become 
sexually  mature  until  they  are  at  least  16  to  17  months  old.  There  is  an  unbalanced 
sex-ratio  with  the  females  outnumbering  the  males. 


Introduction 

The  breeding  habits  of  Hipposideros  fulvus 
julvus,  and  Hipposideros  ater  have  been  des- 
cribed in  previous  parts  of  this  series  of  papers 
on  the  breeding  habits  of  Indian  bats.  Hippo- 
sideros speoris,  which  has  an  extensive  distri- 
bution in  India,  has  been  chosen  for  detailed 
study  because  of  the  following  important 
reasons:  (1)  It  presents  certain  unique  fea- 
tures not  noticed  in  the  other  hipposiderid 
bats  so  far  studied;  (2)  This  is  perhaps  the 
first  non-vespertilionid  bat  so  far  studied  in 
which  there  is  a protracted  storage  of  sperma- 

1  Accepted  March  1981. 

2 Department  of  Zoology,  Institute  of  Science, 
Nagpur-440  001,  India. 


tozoa  in  the  epididymis  even  after  the  com- 
plete cessation  of  spermatogenetic  activity  in 
the  testis;  (3)  The  breeding  behaviour  of  this 
species  varies  in  important  aspects  in  different 
localities.  This  species  has  been  studied  from 
two  localities,  Chandrapur  district  in  Vidarbha 
and  Nanded  district  in  Marathwada.  The 
present  paper  embodies  observation  on  the 
species  from  Chandrapur.  The  report  on  the 
breeding  habits  of  this  species  at  Nanded  will 
be  reported  separately. 

Material  and  Methods 

The  specimens  of  Hipposideros  speoris  was 
collected  at  and  around  Chandrapur  in 
Vidarbha  district  of  Maharashtra  State,  India 
from  5th  November  1977  to  14th  May  1980 


549 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


such  that  every  calendar  month  is  represented 
by  one  or  more  collections.  Altogether  1111 
specimens  were  examined  for  the  present  re- 
port. 

Hipposideros  speoris  is  a small  delicate  bat, 
the  body  weight  of  the  male  and  adult  non- 
pregnant female  being  9 to  10  g.  They  were 
found  freely  hanging  from  the  roofs  of  dun- 
geons in  an  old  fort.  Observations  were  also 
recorded  on  the  nature  of  the  external  geni- 
talia, condition  and  presence  or  absence  of 
the  mammary  nipples  and  pubic  dugs  in  the 
female.  The  position  of  the  testis  and  the  pre- 
sence or  absence  of  the  ‘pubic  capsule’  in  the 
males  were  also  noted.  The  reproductive 
organs  and  accessory  structures  were  dissected 
out  and  fixed  in  various  fixatives,  such  as 
Bonin’s  fluid,  Rossman’s  fluid,  10%  neutral 
formalin  and  Carnoy’s  fluid.  After  24  hours  of 
fixation  the  tissues  were  transferred  to  70% 
ethanol,  in  which  they  were  preserved.  In  the 
males  the  weight  of  the  right  testis  was  record- 
ed with  the  help  of  a Mettler  balance  after 
fixation  in  70%  ethanol. 

The  characteristics  of  a batch  of  specimens 
collected  on  a calendar  date  or  during  a given 
week  or  a month  were  almost  the  same  dur- 
ing the  three  years  when  the  specimens  were 
collected.  Hence,  only  the  month  and  date 
are  mentioned  in  the  following  descriptions 
except  where  the  mentioning  of  the  year  has 
some  special  significance. 

A detailed  collection  diary  giving  the  salient 
features  of  each  specimen  was  maintained. 
Table  I and  Table  II  give  the  summary  of 
the  collection  diary  and  monthwise  collection 
of  the  specimens  respectively. 

Observations  and  Discussions 

Externally,  the  female  genitalia  resemble 
those  of  most  of  the  microchiroptera  possess- 


ing bicornuate  uterus.  Morphologically  the 
two  cornua  are  symmetrical.  An  examination 
of  serial  sections  of  the  female  genitalia  re- 
veals that,  unlike  most  other  bats,  Hipposi- 
deros speoris  does  not  have  a distinct  cervical 
canal.  Instead  the  two  uterine  cornua  meet 
medially  and  form  a common  canal,  which 
extends  into  the  median  limb  of  the  ‘Y’ 
shaped  genitalia  for  some  distance,  and  the 
epithelium  of  the  common  canal,  which  is  at 
first  made  up  of  columnar  cells  typical  of  the 
uterus,  becomes  imperceptably  changed  into 
the  cornified  squamous  epithelium  of  the 
vagina.  In  Tadarida  brasiliensis  cynocephala 
(Stephens,  1962)  and  Hipposideros  fulvus 
fulvus  (Karim,  1975),  the  vaginal  epithelium 
extends  for  some  distance  into  the  lateral  limbs 
of  the  ‘Y’  shaped  genitalia  so  that  a distinct 
typical  cervical  canal  is  not  present.  The  situa- 
tion obtaining  in  Hipposideros  speoris  is,  how- 
ever, unwatched  in  any  other  bat.  A pair  of 
pubic  dugs  without  mammary  glands  are 
present  in  the  region  of  the  groin  in  the  parous 
females.  A hard  testis  capsule  surrounds  the 
testis  in  adult  males  during  November  and 
December  when  vigorous  spermatogenesis 
occurs. 

1.  Breeding  habits.  An  examination  of  the 
collection  diary  and  Table  I reveals  a number 
of  interesting  features.  Females  with  unmis- 
takable pregnancy,  as  evident  by  the  occur- 
rence of  a bulbous  uterine  cornu,  were 
available  only  during  the  period  between  the 
middle  of  January  and  the  last  week  of  July. 
Further,  during  January,  February  and  March, 
although  the  majority  of  the  females  in  each 
collection  were  nearly  at  the  same  stage  of 
pregnancy  thereby  indicating  that  they  had 
conceived  nearly  synchronously,  there  were  a 
few  females,  which  carried  embryos  at  earlier 
stages  of  development,  and  had,  therefore 
conceived  later  than  the  group  of  specimens 


550 


BREEDING  HABITS  IN  SOME  INDIAN  BATS 


Table  I 

Summary  of  collection  diary 


Date 

Immature 
Attached  Free 
to 

mother 

Adult 

Total 

Immature 

Attached 

to 

mother 

Free 

Non- 

Preg- 

nant 

Adult 

Pregnant 

Lact- 

ating 

Total  Grand 
total 

Right 

Left 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

1-1-79 



1 

9 

10 

— 

— 











10 

2-1-80 

— 

— 

2 

2 

— 

— 

3 

— 

18 

— 

21 

23 

4-1-79 

— 

— 

6 

6 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

6 

7-1-80 

— 

1 

3 

4 

— 

— 

1 

— 

2 

— 

23 

27 

9-1-79 

— 

— 

1 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1 

18-1-80 

— 

2 

3 

5 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4 

— 

4 

9 

13-1-80 

— 

3 

3 

6 

— 

— 

1 

— 

— 

— 

1 

7 

26-1-79 

— 

1 

5 

6 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

6 

29-1-78 

— 

— • 

7 

7 

— 

— 

— 

— 

8 

— 

8 

15 

6-2-78 



— 

8 

8 





1 



5 



6 

14 

6-2-80 

— 

— 

2 

2 

— 

— 

— 

— 

6 

— 

6 

8 

15-2-78 

— x 

— 

1 

1 

— 

— 

1 

— 

18 

— 

19 

20 

17-2-79 

— 

— 

6 

6 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1 

— 

1 

7 

28-2-78 

— 

1 

5 

6 

— 

— 

1 

— 

15 

— 

16 

22 

9-3-78 

^ 



2 

2 









21 



21 

23 

13-3-79 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2 

— 

2 

2 

24-3-78 

— 

— 

2 

2 

— 

— 1 

— 

1 

11 

— 

12 

14 

5-4-78 





2 

2 









12 

— 

12 

14 

9-4-78 

— 

— 

2 

2 

— 

— 

— 

1 

17 

— 

18 

20 

12-4-79 

— 

— 

V 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

11 

— 

11 

11 

26-4-78 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

■ — 

2 

16 

— 

18 

18 

26-4-79 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1 

11 

— 

12 

12 

29-4-78 

— 

— 

6 

6 

— 

— 

— 

1 

11 

— 

12 

18 

1-5-80 

_ 

1 

6 

7 

_ 

_ 

, 



8 



8 

15 

2-5-80 

1 

— 

1 

2 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3 

1 

4 

6 

10-5-78 

1 

— 

2 

3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

7 

1 

8 

11 

14-5-80 

1 

2 

5 

8 

2 

— 

— 

— 

2 

9 

13 

21 

17-5-78 

— 

3 

4 

7 

— 

— 

— 

3 

1 

4 

8 

15 

23-5-78 

5 

— 

2 

7 

8 

— - 

— 

— 

— 

16 

24 

31 

26-5-79 

3 

— 

1 

4 

2 

1 

3 

— 

— 

4 

10 

14 

30-5-78 

7 

— 

2 

9 

6 

— 

9 

— 

— • 

6 

21 

30 

551 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

5-6-78 

5 

— 

3 

8 

6 

— 

— 

— 



15 

21 

29 

13-6-78 

12 

— 

2 

14 

5 

— 

— 

— 

— 

14 

19 

33 

13-6-79 

1 

— 

2 

3 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

7 

8 

11 

21-6-78 

— 

— 

3 

3 

— 

— 

10 

1 

1 

15 

27 

30 

30-6-78 

1 

2 

2 

5 

2 

1 

13 

— ■ 

— 

9 

25 

30 

4-7-78 

— 

— 

3 

3 

— 

2 

8 

2 

— 

11 

23 

26 

15-7-78 

1 

2 

2 

5 

— 

4 

10 

— 

— 

3 

17 

22 

24-7-79 

1 

4 

1 

6 

— 

2 

4 

— 

— 

1 

7 

13 

29-7-78 

— 

6 

1 

7 

1 

3 

7 

— 

— 

8 

19 

26 

30-7-79 

— 

1 

7 

8 

— 

2 

2 

— 

— 

3 

7 

15 

11-8-78 



2 

8 

10 

— 

2 

5 

— 

— 

7 

14 

24 

13-8-78 

— 

— 

5 

5 

— 

2 

4 

— 

— 

— 

6 

11 

24-8-78 

— 

6 

3 

9 

— 

1 

6 

— 

— 

7 

14 

23 

4-9-78 



2 

2 

4 

— 

1 

6 

— 

— 

3 

10 

14 

14-9-78 

— 

3 

9 

12 

— 

3 

11 

— 

— 

4 

18 

23 

25-9-79 

— 

2 

2 

4 

— 

2 

3 

— 

— 

— 

5 

9 

29-9-78 

— 

2 

6 

8 

— 

— * 

17 

— 

— • 

— 

17 

25 

13-10-79 



1 



1 

— 

1 

9 







10 

10 

14-10-78 

— 

7 

5 

12 

— 

3 

5 

— 

— 

— 

8 

20 

24-10-78 

— 

1 

1 

2 

— 

6 

11 

— 

— 

— 

17 

19 

5-11-77 

— 

— 

3 

3 

— 

— 

9 

— 

— 

— 

9 

12 

8-11-78 

— 

1 

7 

8 

— 

— 

8 

— 

— 

— 

8 

16 

14-11-79 

— - 

— 

4 

4 

— 

— 

8 

— 

— 

— 

8 

12 

16-11-78 

— 

3 

1 

4 

— 

— 

19 

— 

— 

— 

19 

23 

22-11-78 

— 

— 

5 

5 

— 

— 

16 

— 

— 

— 

16 

21 

24-11-79 

— 

1 

2 

3 

— 

— 

10 

— 

— 

— 

10 

13 

28-11-77 

— 

— 

1 

1 

— 

— 

11 

— 

— 

— 

11 

12 

30-11-78 

— 

2 

4 

6 

— 

— 

14 

— 

— 

— 

14 

20 

5-12-79 







— 

— 



11 

— 

— 

— 

11 

11 

7-12-78 

— 

3 

3 

6 

— 

— 

15 

— 

— 

— 

15 

21 

10-12-79 

— 

— 

2 

2 

— 

— 

8 

— 

— 

— 

8 

10 

14-12-77 

— 

— 

3 

3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3 

14-12-78 

— 

3 

9 

12 

— 

10 

— 

— 

— 

10 

22 

15-12-79 

— 

5 

6 

11 

— 

— 

3 

— 

— 

— 

3 

14 

26-12-78 

— 

1 

10 

11 

— 

— 

3 

— 

— 

— 

3 

14 

28-12-79 

— 

2 

1 

3 

— 

__ 

— 

] 

9 

— 

10 

13 

29-12-77 

— 

— 

3 

3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3 

Total 

39 

77 

229 

345 

33 

36 

296 

13 

240 

148 

766 

mi 

552 


BREEDING  HABITS  IN  SOME  INDIAN  BATS 


mentioned  above,  and  there  were  also  few 
non-pregnant  specimens.  After  about  the 
middle  of  March  until  May  all  the  females  in 
the  colony  were  pregnant,  although  at  diffe- 
rent stages  of  gestation.  The  first  delivery 
occurred  on  2nd  May.  During  the  following 
weeks  more  and  more  females  delivered  with 
the  majority  of  deliveries  occurring  between 
17th  May  and  13th  June.  After  this  date  there 
was  a progressive  increase  in  the  number  of 
females  in  lactation  and  comparative  decrease 
in  the  number  of  pregnant  females  in  the 
colony.  Since  pregnancy  commenced  on  diffe- 
rent dates  in  different  females,  deliveries  also 
took  place  on  different  dates  in  the  colony. 
The  last  delivery  in  the  colony  occurred  on 
24th  July.  Females  in  lactation  were  collect- 
ed from  the  beginning  of  May  until  14th 
September.  The  young  ones  were  carried 
by  the  mother  until  the  former  reach- 
ed a body  weight  of  about  6 g,  after  which 
the  young  ones  were  often  noticed  to  become 
free  from  their  mothers,  crawling  about  among 
the  other  members  of  the  colony  and  getting 
attached  to  any  adult  female  in  lactation  for 

Table  II 


Monthwise  collection  of  specimens 


Month 

$ $ 

$ $ 

Total 

January 

47 

57 

104 

February 

23 

48 

71 

March 

4 

35 

39 

April 

10 

83 

93 

May 

47 

96 

143 

June 

33 

100 

133 

July 

29 

73 

102 

August 

24 

34 

58 

September 

28 

50 

78 

October 

15 

35 

50 

November 

34 

95 

129 

December 

51 

60 

111 

Total 

345 

766 

mi 

suckling.  The  maximum  weight  of  the  young 
one  carried  during  flight  by  a mother  was 
8.5  g.  On  a few  occasions  more  than  one  young 
were  noticed  sucking  milk  from  the  same  mother 
simultaneously.  Free  young  ones  with  a body 
weight  of  9 g also  had  curdled  milk  in  the 
stomach.  These  facts  indicate  that  young  ones 
suck  milk  for  some  time  even  after  they  get 
free  from  their  mothers. 

Microscopic  examination  of  the  female  geni- 
talia during  November  and  December  revealed 
that  although  copulation  had  occurred  in  some 
females  on  7th  December,  and  in  many  females 
during  the  following  days  until  25th  Decem- 
ber, as  revealed  by  the  presence  of  sperma- 
tozoa in  the  female  genital  tracts,  ovulation 
had  not  taken  place  in  any  of  these  specimens. 
All  the  females  (10)  collected  on  28th  Decem- 
ber 1979  had  undergone  ovulation  and  ferti- 
lization and  had  an  embryo  each.  The 
youngest  of  the  embryos  collected  on  28th 
December  was  a six-celled  stage,  which  was 
present  in  the  ovarian  segment  of  the  fallo- 
pian tube,  and  the  most  advanced  embryo  was 
a free  unilaminar  blastocyst  in  the  cranial 
segment  of  the  left  uterine  lumen.  Since  there 
was  no  evidence  to  indicate  that  there  was 
any  retarded  early  embryonic  development  or 
that  there  was  delayed  implantation  of  the 
blastocyst,  the  size  of  the  most  advanced  em- 
bryo in  this  collection  (free  unilaminar  blasto- 
cyst) indicates  that  ovulation  followed  soon  by 
fertilization  must  have  occurred  in  this 
specimen  a maximum  of  10  to  12  days  before, 
that  is,  around  16th  to  18th  of  December.  Since 
many  inseminated  females,  which  had  not 
undergone  ovulation,  were  collected  between 
7th  December  and  25th  December,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  there  is  a short  interval  between 
copulation  and  ovulation,  or  there  are  repeat- 
ed copulations  during  the  first  two  weeks  of 
December  before  copulation  takes  place  in 


553 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


the  middle  of  the  third  week  of  December  in 
this  species.  The  first  female  in  the  colony  to 
deliver  also  must  have  been  the  first  to  have 
conceived.  Since,  the  first  conception  has  been 
shown  to  occur  around  the  16th  to  18th  of 
December  and  the  first  delivery  was  noticed 
on  2nd  May,  the  gestation  period  of  this 
species  should  be  between  135  to  140  days, 
allowing  a margin  of  two  to  three  days  on 
either  side.  Since  the  last  specimen  in  the 
colony  delivered  on  the  24th  of  July,  after 
which  there  was  not  a single  pregnant  female 
in  the  colony,  it  is  evident  that  this  specimen 
must  have  conceived  about  the  second  week 
of  March.  The  first  batch  of  mothers,  in 
which  lactation  had  ceased,  were  collected  on 
21st  June  1978.  Assuming  that  these  were  the 
females,  which  had  delivered  the  first  batch  of 
young  ones  in  the  colony  (that  is  on  2nd 
May),  it  is  evident  that  the  period  of  lactation 
is  about  50  to  55  days  in  this  species.  This 
conclusion  is  further  supported  by  the  fact 
that  no  female  was  found  to  be  in  lactation 
after  the  14th  of  September  which  would  be 
53  days  after  the  last  delivery  on  24th  July. 
The  foregoing  observations  lead  to  the  follow- 
ing conclusions: 

(i)  Although  Hipposideros  speoris  has  an 
annual  reproductive  cycle,  all  the  females  in 
the  colony  do  not  conceive  synchronously, 
(ii)  The  females  of  this  species  reach  sexual 
maturity  within  the  first  year  of  their  birth  as 
evidenced  from  the  fact  that  every  female  in  the 
colony  became  pregnant  during  the  breeding 
season.  The  absence  of  even  a single  non-preg- 
nant female  during  this  period  was  not  an  acci- 
dent since  the  specimens  were  collected  from 
several  colonies  during  three  consecutive  years 
and  at  frequent  intervals.  This  leads  to  the  fur- 
ther conclusion  that  the  young  ones  born  in  May 
(that  is  the  first  batch  of  young  delivered  in 
the  colony)  reach  sexual  maturity  when  they 


attain  an  age  of  about  to  8 months  and 
conceive  along  with  the  parous  females  in  the 
colony  during  the  latter  half  of  December. 
This  conclusion  is  based  on  the  following 
facts.  The  females  collected  in  December, 
which  had  either  undergone  copulation  or 
which  had  embryos  in  the  fallopian  tube  or 
the  uterus,  could  be  recognised  into  the  fol- 
lowing categories:  parous  animals,  which  could 
be  identified  since  they  had  prominent  pubic 
dugs  and  mammary  nipples,  and  non-parous 
females,  which  had  neither  prominent  pubic 
dugs  and  nor  mammary  nipples.  The  latter 
were  evidently  those  which  were  experiencing 
their  first  pregnancy,  and  these  were  evidently 
the  oldest  non-parous  females  in  the  colony  and, 
therefore,  must  have  been  the  ones  which 
were  delivered  in  the  first  week  of  May.  They 
were,  thus,  1\  to  8 months  old  when  they 
reach  sexual  maturity.  Since  the  season  of 
copulation  extends  from  December  to  March, 
and  it  has  been  shown  that  the  animals  reach- 
ed sexual  maturity  at  about  8 months  of  age, 
and  since  deliveries  take  place  during  May  to 
July  in  different  specimens,  there  were  females 
carrying  conceptuses  at  different  stages  of 
development  and  also  a few  non-pregnant 
females  during  the  period  between  December 
to  March.  Since  different  specimens  were  of 
different  ages  as  they  were  delivered  on  diffe- 
rent days,  and  since  the  specimens  conceived 
when  they  reached  an  age  of  1\  to  8 months 
of  age,  all  the  females  in  the  colony  were  preg- 
nant between  March  and  May,  because  by 
about  the  middle  of  March  even  the  last  of 
young  delivered  in  the  previous  year  (that  is, 
about  the  last  week  of  July)  also  had  attained 
sexual  maturity  as  they  had  reached  the  requi- 
site age. 

Microscopic  examination  of  adult  males 
afforded  strong  circumstantial  evidence  to 
these  conclusions.  Although  the  testes  regress- 


554 


BREEDING  HABITS  IN  SOME  INDIAN  BATS 


ed  and  there  was  a cessation  of  spermato- 
genetic  activity,  the  cauda  epididymis  was  full 
of  spermatozoa  and  the  accessory  glands  were 
in  an  active  state  until  the  end  of  April.  Evi- 
dently, the  adult  males  were  sexually  active 
and  contained  viable  spermatozoa  in  their 
cauda  epididymis  until  the  end  of  April,  and 
could  successfully  inseminate  the  females  as 
they  came  to  their  first  oestrus  during  January 
to  March  when  they  attained  sexual  maturity. 
This  is  why  a group  of  females  collected  on 
any  given  date  during  January  to  March  con- 
tained specimens  at  different  stages  of  gesta- 
tion and  also  a few  non-pregnant  ones,  and 
why  deliveries  extended  from  May  to  about 
the  last  week  of  July. 

2.  Growth  and  maturity.  As  noted  earlier, 
although  Hipposideros  speoris  has  an  annual 
reproductive  cycle,  all  the  females  in  the 
colony  do  not  conceive  synchronously,  and  that 
females  of  this  species  reach  sexual  maturity 
within  the  first  year  of  their  birth.  This  con- 
clusion is  based  on  the  following:  The  sexual 
maturity  in  females  can  be  determined  on  the 
basis  of  the  size  and  nature  of  mammary  nip- 
ples and  pubic  teats  taken  along  with  preg- 
nancy record.  The  mammary  nipples  and 
pubic  teats  are  not  present  in  the  non-parous 
females.  They  develop  during  the  first  preg- 
nancy and  enlarge  considerably  during  lacta- 
tion, and  remain  as  prominently  visible  pubic 
dugs  throughout  the  rest  of  the  life  although 
they  decrease  slightly  in  size  during  the 
sexually  quiescent  period.  Sexual  maturity  in 
the  primiparous  females  in  early  pregnancy 
can  be  confirmed  by  microscopic  examination 
of  the  ovaries  which  show  a distinct  extrovert 
corpus  luteum.  In  the  case  of  the  males  the 
examination  of  the  collection  diary,  the  weight 
and  the  histological  structure  of  the  testis  and 
the  size  and  structure  of  the  accessory  repro- 
ductive organs  reveal  that  there  were  several 


immature  males  in  the  colonies  during  the 
breeding  period.  This  indicates  that  the  males 
of  this  species  do  not  reach  sexual  maturity 
within  the  year  of  their  birth  and  until  they 
are  at  least  16  to  17  months  of  age  assuming 
that  the  males  born  in  July  attain  sexual  matu- 
rity by  December  of  the  following  year. 

Immediately  after  birth  the  young  get  at- 
tached itself  to  the  pubic  dugs  of  the  mother 
and  are  carried  by  it.  The  young  ones  are 
carried  by  there  mother  until  the  former  reach 
a body  weight  of  6 g,  after  which  the  young 
ones  were  often  noticed  to  be  free  from  their 
mother.  The  highest  weight  of  the  attached 
young  ones  was  8.5  g. 

During  April- July  many  females  in  full 
lactation  and  having  an  unmistakable  post- 
partum uterine  cornu  were  noticed,  thereby 
indicating  that  they  had  delivered  recently. 
But  they  were  not  carrying  a young  at  the 
breast.  Evidently  there  is  a considerable  loss 
of  young  sucklings. 

3.  Sex  ratio.  Among  1111  specimens,  col- 
lected at  random,  and  at  frequent  intervals  for 
nearly  two  years  and  a half,  766  were  females, 
and  345  were  males  giving  a sex-ratio  of  appro- 
ximately 450  to  1000  females  in  the  total  popu- 
lation. Of  the  sucklings  attached  to  the  breast 
of  the  mothers  33  were  females  and  39  were 
males  indicating  a nearly  even  sex-ratio  during 
this  stage  of  life.  Among  the  925  adult  speci- 
mens there  were  696  females  and  229  males. 
Since  collections  were  made  at  random  and 
from  different  colonies  the  above  sex-ratio 
should  represent  the  normal  sex-ratio  in  this 
species  at  different  periods  of  growths.  Among 
the  free  juvenile  specimens  the  males  outnum- 
bered the  females  (77  males  and  37  females). 
This  is  because  of  the  fact  that,  while  the 
females  reach  sexual  maturity  within  the  year 
of  their  birth,  the  males  do  not  attain  sexual 


555 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


maturity  within  the  year  of  their  birth  and 
hence  the  free  immature  specimens  were  not 
of  the  same  age  group.  The  uneven  sex-ratio 
is  evidently  due  to  the  preferential  mortality 
of  the  males. 


Acknowledgement 

Deepa  Bhatia  is  grateful  to  the  U.G.C,  for 
awarding  a Junior  Fellowship  for  carrying  out 
this  work. 


References 

Stephens,  R.  J.  (1962):  Histology  and  bioche-  Am.  J.  Anat.  Ill:  259-286. 
mistry  of  the  placenta  and  foetal  membranes  in  Karim,  K.  B.  (1973):  Occurrence  of  bicornuate 
the  bat,  Tadarida  brasiliensis  cynocephala  (with  vagina  in  the  Indian  leaf-nosed  bat,  Hipposideros 
note’s  on  maintaining  pregnant  bats  in  captivity),  fulvus  fulvus  (Grey).  Curr.  Sci.  42:  62-63. 


556 


FIRST  RECORDS  OF  ODONATES  (ARTHROPOD A: 
INSECTA)  FROM  THE  SILENT  VALLEY  AND 
NEW  AMARAMBALAM  RESERVED  FORESTS1 

K.  Ramachandra  Rao2 

AND 

A.  R.  Lahiri3 


A list  of  23  Odonate  species  constituting  the  first  records  of  Odonate  fauna  of  the 
Silent  Valley  and  New  Amarambalam  Reserved  Forests,  Kerala,  Southern  India  has 
been  provided  alongwith  necessary  collection  data  and  field  observations. 

Introduction 


The  Silent  Valley  and  the  New  Amaram- 
balam Reserved  Forests  constitute  the  thickest 
evergreen  tropical  forests  of  the  Western  Ghats 
occupying  the  southwestern  slopes  of  the 
Nilgiri  plateau.  The  area  surveyed  covers  the 
deciduous  forests  of  Nilambur  plains  to  the 
semi-evergreen  and  evergreen  tropical  forests 
of  Silent  Valley.  Kuntipuzha  in  the  Silent 
Valley  and  Cherrapuzha  in  the  New  Amaram- 
balam Reserved  forests  are  the  main  rivers 
which  drain  the  respective  forests.  The  Silent 
Valley,  45  Km  north  of  Mannarghat  in  Pal- 
ghat  district  of  Kerala  receives  on  an  average 
an  annual  rainfall  of  3000  mm.  The  tempera- 
ture ranges  between  44.67°  F to  85 °F. 

Our  knowledge  of  Odonate  fauna  of  south 
India  is  confined  to  the  works  of  Fraser  (1924, 
1932,  1933, 1934  & 1936)  on  the  odonata  fauna 
of  Western  Ghats,  south  of  Maharashtra.  The 
odonates  of  the  Silent  Valley  and  New  Ama- 
rambalam Reserved  Forests  have  not  been 
reported  on  before. 

The  present  study  is  based  on  the  collec- 

1 Accepted  March  1980. 

2 Zoological  Survey  of  India,  S.  R.  Station, 
Madras-28. 

3 Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta- 12. 


tions  made  by  Dr.  R.  S.  Pillai  from  the  Silent 
Valley  and  by  Shri  K.  R.  Rao  and  Shri  T.  S. 
N.  Murthy  from  the  New  Amarambalam  Re- 
served Forests.  Twenty-three  species  are  re- 
ported in  this  paper  out  of  which  so  far  4 are 
known  only  from  Southern  India  especially 
from  the  Nilgiris,  13  are  oriental  in  distribu- 
tion, while  the  rest  are  widely  distributed  ex- 
tending to  the  pacific  islands. 

Systematic  account 
Suborder:  Zygoptera 
Family:  Chlorocyphidae 

Rhinocypha  bisignata  Selys 

Rhinocypha  bisignata  Selys,  1853,  Syn.  Cal;  62; 
Fraser,  1934,  Fauna  Brit.  India,  Odonata,  2:  49. 

Material : 2 $ 9,  New  Amaram- 

balam Reserved  Forest,  Punjakolli,  23.ii.79. 
Coll.  K.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution : Sole  representative  of  the  genus 
from  south  India;  Palni,  Nilgiri  and  Shevaroy 
hills,  Coorg  and  to  a lesser  extent  at  Khandala. 

Remarks'.  Its  larva  was  originally  discover- 
ed in  the  Nilgiris.  The  species  has  a graceful 
flight  and  exhibits  iridescent  coloration 
while  on  wing.  The  species  was  observed  to  fly 
actively  around  a bush  near  the  bank  of  Puma- 
puzha  river. 


557 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Neurobasis  chinensis  chinensis  (Linnaeus) 
Libellula  chinensis  Linnaeus,  1758,  Sy  sterna 
Naturae,  1:  545. 

N eurobasis  chinensis  (Linnaeus) : Kirby,  1890. 

A synomymic  Catalogue  of  Neuroptera  Odonata, 
102. 

N eurobasis  chinensis  chinensis  (Linnaeus) : Ris. 
1915,  Tijdschr,  Ent;  58:  6;  Fraser,  1934,  Fauna  Brit. 
India,  Odonata,  2:  121. 

Material : 2$  $ , Silent  Valley,  South  of  2nd 
Camp,  25.L79,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai. 

Distribution’.  India,  Sri  Lanka,  Burma,  Indo- 
china and  Malaysia. 

Remarks'.  Both  pairs  of  wings  possess  a 
remarkable  deep  tint  of  burnt  brown,  and 
pterostigma  is  present  on  the  hind  wings  only. 
This  species  was  seen  near  fast  flowing  streams 
and  the  specimens  were  collected  .from  the 
banks  of  Kunti  River. 

Vestalis  apicalis  apicalis  Selys 

Vestalis  apicalis  Selys,  1873,  Bull.  Acad.  r.  Belg. 
(2)  36:  612. 

Vestalis  apicalis  apicalis  Selys:  Fraser,  1929,  J. 
Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  33:  583;  1934,  Fauna  Brit. 
India,  Odonata  2:  128. 

Material : 2 S d > New  Amarambalam  R.  F. 
Punjakolli,  22.iii.79;  1 $,  23.iii.79,  Coll.  K. 
R.  Rao. 

Distribution : Throughout  the  oriental  re- 
gion. 

Remarks : This  species  was  found  flying 
gracefully  in  the  company  of  the  next  species. 
The  species  usually  rests  on  bushes  in  heavy 
shade. 

Vestalis  gracilis  montana  Fraser 
Vestalis  gracilis  montana  Fraser,  1934,  Fauna 
Brit.  India,  Odonata  2:  128. 

Material:  1 <$ , 1 $ , 23.iii.79,  1 $ , Amaram- 
balam R.  F.  Punjakolli,  26.iii.79,  Coll.  K.  R. 
Rao. 

Distribution : S.  India;  Coorg  and  the  Nil- 
giri,  Wynad. 

Remarks:  This  was  found  to  fly  in  the  com- 
pany of  Vestalis  apicalis  apicalis  Selys  and 


Protosticta  hiersevi  Fraser.  This  species  also 
exhibits  the  same  behaviour  as  the  previous 
species. 

Family:  Platystictidae 

Protosticta  hiersevi  Fraser 

Protosticta  hiersevi  Fraser,  1922,  Rec.  Indian  Mus., 
24:  5:  1933,  Fauna,  Brit.  India,  Odonata  1:  113. 

Material:  ld\  1$,  New  Amarambalam  R. 
F.  Punjakolli,  23.iii.79,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution:  S.  India:  Nilgiris,  Anaimalais 
and  Travancore. 

Remarks:  The  female  has  an  extra  post 
model  vein  in  both  wings.  The  abdomen  mea- 
sures 35  mm  instead  of  the  usual  length  of 
32  to  33  mm.  This  species  was  found  in  the 
company  of  the  two  species  described  above. 
It  has  a cupreous  shining  colour  and  is  small 
in  size. 

Family : Platycnemidae 

Copera  marginipes  (Rambur) 

Platycnemis  marginipes  Rambur,  1842,  Hist.  nat. 
ins.  Nevropteres,  240. 

Copera  marginipes  (Rambur) : Kirby,  1890,  A 
synomymic  catalogue  of  Neuroptera  Odonata,  129; 
Fraser,  1933,  Fauna  Brit.  India,  Odonata,  1:  192. 

Material:  Itf,  11  km,  from  3rd  Camp  of 
Silent  Valley,  l.ii.79.  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai. 

Distribution:  India,  Nepal,  Burma  and 

Malaysia  in  the  East. 

Remarks:  The  species  was  collected  from 
Bamboo  forests  along  the  banks  of  stagnant 
water  bodies.  The  species  shows  a number  of 
variations. 

Copera  vittata  (Selys) 

Psilocnemis  vittata  Selys,  1863,  Bull.  Acad.  Belg. 
(2):  170. 

Copera  vittata  (Selys)  : Kirby,  1890,  A synomymic 
catalogue  of  Neuroptera  Odonata,  117;  Fraser,  1933, 
Fauna  Brit.  India,  Odonata,  1:  198. 

Material:  New  Amarambalam  R.  F. 

Punjakolli,  23.iii.79,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao. 


558 


ODONATES  FROM  SILENT  VALLEY 


Distribution : Widely  distributed  throughout 
southern  Asia. 

Remarks : The  species  rests  on  bushes  in 
heavy  shade  near  the  bank  of  Pumapuzha. 

Family:  Coenagrionidae 

Ceriagrion  auranticum  Fraser 

Ceriagrion  auranticum  Fraser,  1923,  J.  Bombay 
nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  29:  748. 

Ceriagrion  auranticum  Fraser:  Asahina,  1967, 

Jap.  J.  Zool.,  15(3):  307. 

Material : 3dd,  New  Amarambalam  R.  F. 
Sayivala,  16.iii.79;  Id1,  Punjakolli,  22.iii.79, 
Coll.  K.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution : Restricted  to  the  Western 

Ghats  around  Nilgiri  Wynad. 

Remarks'.  Reddish  brown  dragonflies  col- 
lected well  away  from  water.  The  species 
usually  keeps  to  scrub  or  tall  grass. 

Pseudagrion  malabaricum  Fraser 

Pseudagrion  malabaricum  Fraser,  1924,  Rec.  In- 
dian Mus;  26:  494;  1933,  Fauna  Brit.  India , Odo- 
nata,  1 : 284- 

Material : 2dd,  New  Amarambalam  R.  F. 
Nedungayam,  23.iii.79,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution : Throughout  the  Western  Ghats: 
Coorg,  Kodaikanal,  Nilgiris,  Ootacamund, 
Palni  hills  and  in  Sri  Lanka. 

Remarks : Collected  near  stagnant  water 
adjacent  to  Krimpuzha  river.  Usually  they  are 
found  in  great  numbers  and  their  presence  and 
their  colour  literally  makes  the  area  look  blue. 

Aciagrion  hisopa  (Selys) 

Pseudagrion  hisopa  Selys,  1876,  Bull.  Acad.  Belg. 
Cl.  Sci.  (2),  42:  509. 

Aciagrion  hisopa  (Selys)  : Selys,  1891,  Ann.  Mus. 
CIV  Genova,  30:  512;  Fraser,  1933,  Fauna  Brit. 
India,  Odonata,  1 : 340. 

Material : Id,  New  Amarambalam  R.  F. 
Sayivala,  16.iii.79,  Col.  K.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution : India,  Burma,  Sri  Lanka  and 
Malaysia. 

Remarks:  The  specimens  were  collected  from 
the  banks  of  a small  stream  in  a bamboo  forest. 


Ischnura  aurora  aurora  (Brauer) 

Agrion  delicatum  Hagen,  1858,  Verh.  Zool.  Bot. 
Ges.  Wien.  8:  479. 

Ischnura  delicata  (Hagen) : Selys,  1876,  Bull. 

Acad.  r.  Belg.  cl.  Sci.  (2)  41:  281;  Fraser,  1933, 
Fauna  Brit.  India,  Odonata,  1 : 360. 

Ischnura  aurora  (Brauer) : Ris,  1915,  Nova  Cal- 
cedonia,  Zool.,  2(4) : 67. 

Ischnura  aurora  aurora  (Brauer)  : Lieftinek,  1949. 
Nova  Guinea  (New  Ser.)  5 : 220. 

Material:  Id,  1$,  Silent  Valley,  11  km 
from  3rd  Camp,  l.ii.79;  Id,  around  3rd  Camp 
4.ii.79,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai. 

Distribution:  Widely  distributed  throughout 
southern  Asia,  India,  Sri  Lanka,  Burma, 
Malaysia,  New  Guinea,  Australia,  Philippines. 

Remarks:  This  species  has  remarkable 

powers  of  flight  and  making  use  of  upper  air 
currents  has  spread  all  over  southeast  Asia. 

Agriocnemis  pieris  Laidlaw 

Agriocnemis  pieris  Laidlaw,  1919,  Rec.  Indian 
Mus;  16:  180;  Fraser,  1933,  Fauna  Brit.  India,  Odo- 
nata, 1:  384. 

Material:  Id,  New  Amarambalam  R.  F. 
Nedungayam,  28.iii.79,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution:  Western  Ghats,  from  Castle 
Rock  to  Malabar,  Nilgiris  and  Coorg. 

Remarks : The  specimens  were  collected  from 
the  banks  of  stagnant  pools  surrounded  by 
grass. 

Agriocnemis  splendidissima  Laidlaw 

Agriocnemis  splendidissima  Laidlaw,  1919,  Rec. 
Indian  Mus;  16:  180;  Fraser,  1933  Fauna  Brit.  India , 
Odonata,  1 : 392. 

Material:  Id,  Silent  Valley,  11  km.  from 
3rd  Camp  l.ii.79.  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai;  Id,  New 
Amarambalam  R.  F.  Nedungayam,  Coll.  K. 
R.  Rao. 

Distribution:  Poona,  Mhow,  Khandala, 

Malabar;  Nilgiris  and  Coorg. 

Remarks:  The  specimens  were  collected 

from  beds  of  stagnant  water  bodies  or  narrow 
streams  with  grasslands  around. 


559 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Family:  Libellulidae 
Sub-Order : Anisoptera 

Orthetrum  chrysis  Selys 
Libella  testacea  race  chrysis  Selys,  1891,  Ann. 
Mus.  civ.  Genova,  30,  462. 

Orthetrum  chrysis  Selys:  Ris,  1900,  Archiv,  fur, 
Natur.,  1:  86;  Fraser  '936.  Fauna  Brit.  India,  Odo- 
nata,  3:  310. 

Material:  1 d,  Silent  Valley,  c.  2 km.  away 
from  3rd  Camp  3.ii.79,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai. 

Distribution : India:  Chanan  in  Travancore 
border,  Kotagiri,  in  Nilgiris;  Sri  Lanka;  Burma 
and  Malaysia. 

Remarks : Collected  from  the  beds  of  small 
mountain  streams. 

Orthetrum  pruinosum  ueglectum  (Rambur) 
Libellula  neglecta  Rambur,  1842,  Hist.  nat.  Ins. 
Nevropteres,  86. 

Libellula  pruinosa  (Brauer)  1868,  Verh,  Zool.  Bot. 
Ges.  Wien;  15:  1013. 

Orthetrum  pruinosum  (Brauer)  : Kirby,  1886,  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  Lond ; 327. 

Orthetrum  pruinosum  neglectum  (Rambur) : Ris. 
1909,  Collections  Zool.  du  Baron,  Ee  de  Selys  — 
Long  champs,  9:  181;  Fraser,  1936.  Fauna  Brit. 
India,  Odonata,  3:  311. 

Material:  Id,  19,  Silent  Valley,  Mukkali, 
18179,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai. 

Distribution : Throughout  India,  Sri  Lanka, 
Burma  extending  to  Tibet,  Indochina,  and 
Hongkong. 

Remarks’.  Collected  near  a forest  stream  in 
soft  wood  plantation.  This  species  occurs 
everywhere  from  plains  to  an  altitude  of 
7250'. 

Orthetrum  sabina  (Drury) 

Libellula  sabina  Drury,  1770,  Illustrations  of  Natu- 
ral History,  1:  114. 

Orthetrum  sabina  (Drury) : Kirby,  1889,  Trans. 
Zool.  Soc.,  Lond.;  12:  302;  Fraser,  1936,  Fauna 
Brit.  India,  Odonata,  3:  300. 

Material : Id,  New  Amarambalam  R.  F. 
Punjakolli,  22.iii.79,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao. 


Distribution'.  Throughout  India,  Sri  Lanka, 
Burma  and  ranging  from  Somaliland,  Persia  to 
Samoa  and  Australia. 

Remarks:  Collected  from  the  bank  of  a 
narrow  stream  away  from  the  main  river 
Olikatodu. 

Indothemis  caesia  (Rambur) 

Libellula  caesia  Rambur,  1842,  Hist.  nat.  ins. 
Nevropteres,  95. 

Indothemis  limbata  (Rambur):  Ris,  1911,  Col- 
lections Zool.  de  Baron  E.  de  Selys  — Longchamps, 
12:  529. 

Indothemis  caesia  (Rambur) : Fraser,  1936,  Fauna 
Brit.  India,  Odonata,  3:  340. 

Material : Id,  New  Amarambalam  R.  F. 
Punjakolli,  21.iii.79,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution:  Masinagudi  at  the  foot  of 

Sigur  Ghats  in  Nilgiris,  Hasimara,  West  Ben- 
gal and  one  specimen  recorded  from  Bangkok. 

Remarks:  Collected  from  burnt  down 

patches  of  soft  wood  forest  area. 

Crocothemis  servilia  servilia  (Drury) 

Libellula  servilia  Drury,  1770,  Illustrations  of 
Natural  History,  1:  112. 

Crocothemis  servilia  servilia  (Drury) : Fraser, 

Fauna  Brit.  India,  Odonata,  3:  345. 

Material:  Id,  Silent  Valley  South  of  2nd 
Camp,  25-1-79,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai. 

Distribution:  Mesopotamia,  India,  Sri  Lanka 
and  Burma;  S.  Asia  to  Japan,  the  Philippines 
and  Australia  and  southwards  to  Sunda  Archi- 
pelago. 

Remarks:  Collected  from  the  banks  of 

Kunti  river. 

Diplacodes  trivialis  (Rambur) 

Libellula  trivialis  Rambur,  1842,  Hist.  Nat.  Ins. 
Nevropteres,  115. 

Diplacodes  trivialis  (Rambur) : Karsch,  1891,  Ent. 
Nachr.  17:  246:  Fraser,  1936,  Fauna  Brit.  India, 
Odonata,  3 : 337. 

Material : 1 9 , Silent  Valley,  Kantipuzha, 
17.i.79,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai;  Id,  Silent  Valley, 
Eastern  side  of  camp.  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai;  Id, 
c.  11  km.  from  3rd  Camp  l.ii.79.  Coll.  R. 


560 


ODONATES  FROM  SILENT  VALLEY 


S.  Pillai;  3d  d,  4 $ 9 , 21-26.iii.79,  New  Ama- 
rambalam  R.  F.  Punjakolli,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao; 
1 $ , 14.iii.79,  Sayivala,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution : Ranges  from  Seychelles  to  the 
Pacific  through  India,  Sri  Lanka,  Burma,  S. 
Asia  to  Formosa  and  the  Philippines. 

Remarks : It  is  one  of  the  commonest  dragon- 
flies found  in  India.  Often  seen  on  roadsides 
where  it  rests  on  grass.  Distributed  at  all 
elevations. 

NeisrotSiemis  fulvia  (Drury) 

Libel  tula  fulvia  Drury,  1773,  Illustrations  of  Natu- 
ral History,  2:  84. 

Neurothemis  fulvia  (Drury)  : Kirby,  1889,  Trans. 
Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  12:  271;  Fraser,  1936,  Fauna  Brit. 
India,  Odonata,  3:  353. 

Material : Id1,  New  Amarambalam  R.  F. 
Meenmutty,  19.iii.79,  Coll.  T.  S.  N.  Murthy; 
Id.  Punjakolli,  23.iii.79,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution:  India,  sparingly  distributed  all 
over  southwest  India  and  parts  of  Tamilnadu, 
Madhya  Pradesh,  Uttar  Pradesh,  Bihar,  West 
Bengal,  Assam  and  Tripura;  Nepal;  Indo- 
china and  Sumatra  in  the  East. 

Remarks : This  species  has  been  collected 
from  shady  jungle  streams.  It  usually  occurs 
in  wet  and  semi-wet  areas  especially  in  the 
submontane  regions. 

Neurothemis  intermedia  intermedia  (Rambur) 

Libellula  intermedia  Rambur,  1842,  Hist.  Nat.  Ins. 
Nevaropteres,  91. 

Neurothemis  intermedia  (Rambur)  Selys,  1889, 
Ann.  Mus.  Civ.  Genova  27:  454. 

Neurothemis  intermedia  intermedia  (Rambur)  : 
Ris,  1911,  Collections  Zool.  dw  Baron  E.  de  Selys 
Long  champs,  13:  551;  Fraser,  1936,  Fauna  Brit. 
India,  Odonata,  3:  357. 

Material:  Id,  Silent  Valley,  2nd  Camp, 
22.i.79,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai;  2 $ $ , 2 km  from 
3rd  Camp,  3.ii.79,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai;  Id, 
around  3rd  Camp  4.ii.79,  Coll.  R.  S.  Pillai; 
lldd,  15  9 $ , New  Amarambalam  R.  F. 
Sayivala,  15  to  19.iii.79,  Coll.  K.  R.  Rao; 


13d  d,  99  9,  Punjakolli,  21-26.iii.79,  Coll. 
IC.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution:  India,  Sri  Lanka,  Nepal,  In- 
donesia and  Western  Thai. 

Remarks:  The  species  has  a weak  flight. 
Collected  from  the  banks  of  forest  streams. 

Neurothemis  tullia  tullia  (Drury) 

Libellula  tullia  Drury,  1773,  Illustrations  of  Natu- 
ral History,  2:  85. 

Neurothemis  tullia  (Drury)  : Kirby,  1890,  A syn- 
nonymic  catalogue  of  Neuroptera  Odonata,  8. 

Neurothemis  tullia  tullia  (Drury)  : Fraser,  1936, 
Fauna  Brit.  India,  Odonata,  3 : 360. 

Material : Id,  3 9 9 , New  Amarambalam 
R.  F.  Sayivala,  16  to  19.iii.79,  Coll.  IC.  R. 
Rao;  9dd,  4 9 9 Punjakolli,  26.ii.79,  Coll. 
K.  R.  Rao;  10  Nedungayam,  28.iii.79,  Coll.  IC. 
R.  Rao. 

Distribution:  India,  Sri  Lanka;  Nepal;  In- 
donesia and  Northern  Thai  in  the  East. 

Remarks:  Collected  from  weedy  streams  in 
the  forest.  Its  flight  is  short  and  weak.  They 
have  protective  coloration. 

Trithemis  aurora  (Burmeister) 

Libellula  aurora  Burmeister,  1839,  Handbuch  der 
Entomologie,  2:  859. 

Trithemis  aurora  (Burmeister):  Brauer,  1868, 

Verb.  Zool.  Bot.  Ges.  Wien.,  18:  177;  Fraser  1936, 
Fauna  Brit.  India,  Odonata,  3:  383. 

Material:  2dd»  1$,  New  Amarambalam 
R.  F.  Punjakolli,  21-22.iii.79,  Coll.  IC.  R.  Rao. 

Distribution:  India;  Tibet;  Nepal;  Philip- 
pines; Malaysia  and  Indonesia. 

Remarks:  They  were  seen  to  rest  on  her- 
bage along  the  banks  of  forest  streams.  Males 
are  very  active.  Females  wander  far  away  from 
water. 

Acknowledgements 

We  thank  the  Director,  Zoological  Survey 
of  India,  and  Dr.  R.  S.  Pillai,  Deputy  Direc- 
tor, Officer-in-Charge,  Southern  Regional  Sta- 
tion, Madras  for  all  the  laboratory  facilities 


561 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


provided.  Thanks  are  also  due  to  Shri  P.  K. 
Thampi,  Geologist,  Geological  Survey  of  India 

Refer 

Asahina,  S.  (1967) : A revision  of  the  Asiatic 
species  of  Ceriagrion  (Odonata:  Agrionidae).  Jap. 
J.  Zool.  15(3)  : 255-334. 

Fraser,  F.  C.  (1924)  : A survey  of  the  Odonate 
(Dragonfly)  fauna  of  Western  India  with  special 
remarks  on  the  genera  Macromia  and  Idionyx  and 
descriptions  of  thirty  new  species  with  appendices 
I & II.  Rec.  Indian  Mus.  26:  423-522. 

— (1932) : Additions  to  the  survey  of 

Odonata  fauna  of  Western  India,  with  descriptions 
of  nine  new  species.  Rec.  Indian  Mus.,  33  : 443-474. 


and  leader  of  the  Expedition  for  extending  all 
facilities  in  the  field. 

iNCES 

(1933,  1934  & 1936):  The  Fauna 

of  British  India,  including  Ceylon  and  Burma  (Odo- 
nata) 1:  xiii  + 1-418;  2:  xix  + 1-398;  3:  xi  4-  1- 
461. 

Lieftiniek,  M.  A.  (1940) : Revisional  notes  on 
some  species  of  Co  per  a Kirby  with  notes  on  habits 
and  larvae  (Platycneminidae) . Treuhia,  17:  281-306. 

(1954)  : Handlist  of  Malasian 

Odonata.  Treubia,  22  Suppl.:  xiii  + 1-202. 

(1971)  : Odonata  from  Ceylon. 

Ent.  Scan.  Suppl.  I:  180-207. 


562 


NOTES  ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  SOME  PLANTS  OF 

WEST  BENGAL1 

J.  K.  SlKDAR2 


During  the  course  of  intensive  botanical 
collections  in  Jalpaiguri  district  of  West  Bengal 
and  consultations  at  Central  National  Herba- 
rium (CAL)  and  Herbarium  of  the  Industrial 
Section,  Indian  Museum  (BSIS),  I studied  the 
following  plants  which  are  interesting  in  res- 
pect of  their  occurrence  in  West  Bengal.  In 
addition  to  previous  communications  on  the 
distribution  of  some  plants  in  Jalpaiguri  dis- 
trict as  well  as  in  West  Bengal,  notes  on  the 
occurrence  of  twelve  more  taxa  in  Jalpaiguri 
and  Darjeeling  districts  and  other  parts  of 
West  Bengal  are  given  here  with  their  correct 
nomenclature. 

Balsam  in  aceae 

Impatiens  decipiens  Hook.  f.  in  Rec.  Bot. 
Surv.  India  4:  17  & 22.  1905;  Hara,  FI.  East. 
Himal.  195.  1966. 

Flowering  8c  fruiting : June  to  October. 

Specimens  examined : West  Bengal:  Darjee- 
ling district  — Pomong,  zt  850  m (Acc.  No. 
71392),  (CAL). 

Distributional  note : This  plant  has  so  far 
been  known  only  from  the  type  localities- 
Sikkim  and  Chumbi  (J.  D.  Hooker,  1905) 
and  South  Tibet. 

I.  gamblei  Hook  f.  in  Rec.  Bot.  Surv.  India 
4:  15  & 20.  1905. 

Flowering  8c  fruiting : May  to  October. 

1 Accepted  September  1981. 

2 Central  National  Herbarium,  Botanical  Survey 
of  India,  Howrah-711  103. 


Specimens  examined : West  Bengal:  Darjee- 
ling district  — between  Sandakphu  and  Phallut, 
± 4000  m,  19  Oct.  1904,  Bur  kill  25229  (CAL); 
Birch  Hill,  ± 2200  m,  11  May,  1940,  K. 
Biswas  4833  (CAL). 

Distributional  note : This  species  was  previ- 
ously recorded  from  Sikkim  and  Chumbi  only 
by  J.  D.  Hooker  (1905). 

I.  gammiei  Hook  f.  in  Rec.  Bot.  Surv.  India 
4:  16  & 21.  1905. 

Flowering  8c  fruiting : September  to  October. 

Specimens  examined : West  Bengal:  Darjee- 
ling district  — South  of  Subarkum,  ± 4000  m, 
1 Oct.  1906,  Bur  kill  27688  (2-gatherings) 
(CAL);  5 miles  north  of  Sandakphu,  ± 4000 
m,  28  Sept.  1906,  Burkill  27619  (CAL). 

Distributional  note : This  taxon  was  pre- 
viously known  to  occur  in  Sikkim  and  Aruna- 
chal  Pradesh  in  India. 

I.  wallichii  Hook.  f.  in  Rec.  Bot.  Surv.  India 
4:  15  & 20.  1905;  Hara  in  Ohashi,  FI.  East. 
Himal.  3rd  Rep.  (Bull.  No.  8) : 79.  1975. 

Flowering  8c  fruiting : July  to  October. 

Specimens  examined : West  Bengal:  Darjee- 
ling district  — Tongloo,  ± 3000  m,  3 Aug. 
1862,  without  Collector’s  name  8c  number 
(CAL);  Phullalong,  ± 3000  m,  5 Oct.  1870, 
without  Collector’s  name,  12688  (CAL); 
Sandakphu,  ± 4000  m.  Sept.  1880,  J.  S. 
Gamble  8423  (CAL);  Sandakphu  west, 
± 1200  m,  16  Sept.  1962,  B.  Safui  1703 
(CAL). 

Distributional  note : It  was  recorded  so  far 
from  Sikkim  and  Nepal  by  Hooker  (1905) 
and  Hara  (1975).  Of  the  above  cited  speci- 


563 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


mens,  the  specimens  from  Tongloo  and  Phulla- 
long  have  Hooker’s  signature  on  the  sheets. 
As  Hooker  (1905)  mentioned  Sikkim  as  one 
of  the  localities,  it  is  presumed  that  the  speci- 
mens studied  by  Hooker  himself  as  evidenced 
from  his  signature  are  from  Darjeeling  district. 
Hence  the  present  record  of  the  species  from 
West  Bengal  is  an  additional  locality. 

Compositae 

Lactuca  dolichophylla  Kitamura  in  Res. 
Kyoto  Univ.  Sci.  Exped.  Karak.  & Hinduk. 
1955,  viii.  (Addit.  & Corr.  FI.  Afghan.)  150, 
March  1,  1966  et  in  Hara,  FI.  East.  Himal. 
341.  1966.  Mulgedium  sagittatum  Royle,  111. 
Bot.  Himal.  252,  t.  61,  f.  2.  1835,  not  Lactuca 
sagittata  Wald,  et  Kit.  (1802).  Lactuca  longi- 
folia  DC.  Prodr.  7:  135.  1835;  Clarke,  Comp. 
Ind.  264.  1876;  Hook,  f.,  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  3:  405. 
1881. 

Flowering  & fruiting : September  to  October. 
Specimen  examined : West  Bengal:  Jalpai- 
guri  district  — on  way  to  Buxaduar,  850  m, 
Buxaduar  forest  range,  rare  in  open  rocky  hill 
slopes,  15  Sept.  1976,  J.  K.  Sikdar  7825  (CAL) 
Distributional  note : It  is  known  to  occur 
in  Kashmir,  Himachal  Pradesh  and  Uttar  Pra- 
desh in  India  and  in  Nepal,  Afghanisthan, 
Pakistan  and  W.  China. 

Apocyanaceae 

Anodendrosi  paniculatum  DC.  Prodr.  8:  444. 
1844;  Hook,  f.,  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  3:  688.  1882; 
Prain,  Bengal  Plants  2 : 504.  1903  (repr.); 
Haines,  Bot.  Bihar  & Orissa  2:  572.  1922 
(repr.);  Das  in  Kanjilal  & Das,  FI.  Assam  3: 
270.  1939. 

Flowering : February  to  May. 

Fruiting:  January. 

Specimen  examined : West  Bengal:  Jalpai- 
guri  district  — around  Poro  forest  bungalow. 


Nimati  forest  range,  2 Apr.  1973,  Bijoy  Krishna 
464  (BSIS). 

Distributional  note : It  is  distributed  in  Ban- 
gladesh, Burma,  Sri  Lanka,  Malaya  Peninsula, 
Malesian  Islands,  Philippines  and  in  India 
known  to  occur  in  Arunachal  Pradesh,  Assam, 
Mizoram,  Bihar,  Orissa,  Maharashtra,  Karna- 
taka, Kerala  and  Andaman  & Nicobar  Islands. 
Prain  (1903)  recorded  this  species  from 
Chittagong  ( Bangladesh ) . 

SCROP  H U LARI  ACE  AE 

Lindenbergia  hookeri  Clarke  ex  Hook.  f.. 
FI.  Brit.  Ind.  4:  261.  1884;  Das  in  Kanjilal 
& Das,  FI.  Assam  3:  378.  1939;  Prijanto  in 
Reinwardtia  7:  555.  1969;  Yamazaki  in 

Ohashi,  FI.  East.  Himal.  3rd  Rep.  (Bull.  No. 
8):  98.  1975. 

Flowering  & fruiting : February  to  May. 
Specimens  examined : West  Bengal:  Jalpai- 
guri  district  — on  way  to  Buxaduar,  650  m, 
Buxaduar  forest  range,  rare  along  the  valleys 
and  rocky  situations  on  the  lower  hills,  28  Feb. 
1934,  K.  Biswas  1755  (CAL);  Bengal  & 
borders-without  precise  locality  and  date  of 
collections,  V.  Narayanswami  & Party  2589 
(2-gatherings)  (CAL). 

Distributional  note : It  was  recorded  so  far 
from  Assam,  Meghalaya,  Sikkim  and  Bhutan. 

L.  macrostachya  (Benth.)  Benth.  Scroph. 
Ind.  22.  1835;  Hook,  f.,  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  4:  262. 
1884;  Prinjanto  in  Reinwardtia  7:  554.  1969; 
G.  Raizada  in  Ind.  Jour.  For.  1(2):  153.  1978. 
Stemodia  macrostachya  Benth.  (in  Wallich, 
Cat.  3925.  1831,  nomen)  Bot.  Reg.  17:  t.  1470. 
1832. 

Flowering  & fruiting : March  to  May. 
Specimen  examined : West  Bengal : Herb. 
Griffith  3883/1  (Acc.  No.  321664)  (Distribut- 
ed at  the  Royal  Botanic  gardens,  Kew,  1862- 
3),  (CAL).  Generally  grows  along  valleys. 


564 


SOME  PLANTS  OF  WEST  BENGAL 


river  banks,  rocky  places  and  in  roadside  waste- 
lands. 

Distributional  note : It  occurs  in  Nepal, 

West  Pakistan,  Siam,  China  and  Kashmir, 
Punjab,  Uttar  Pradesh,  Bihar,  Himachal  Pra- 
desh in  India.  A single  earlier  collection  by 
Griffith  from  West  Bengal  is  thus  mentioned 
here  as  a new  distributional  record  of  the 
species  from  the  state. 

Hooker  (1884)  pointed  out  that  this  species 
is  “perhaps  only  a variety  of  L.  philippensis 
(Cham.)  Benth.  but  more  glabrous,  with 
shorter  petioles”.  Usually,  L.  macrostachya 
(Benth.)  Benth.  is  often  confused  in  its  gene- 
ral morphology  with  L.  philippensis  (Cham.) 
Benth.  It  is  distinguished  by  lax  interrupted 
inflorescence  with  smaller  flowers,  triangular 
calyx  lobes  with  acute  tips,  =fc  triangular  pos- 
terior lip  of  corolla,  comparatively  shorter 
corolla  tube  and  glabrous  ovary  and  style  base. 

Acanthaceae 

Diantliera  virgata  (Wall,  ex  Nees)  C.  B. 
Clarke  in  Hook,  f.,  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  4:  542.  1885. 
Leptostachya  virgata  Wall,  ex  Nees  in  PI. 
Asiat.  Rar.  3:  105.  1832.  Justicia  virgata  Wall. 
(Cat.  7177)  ex  T.  Anders,  in  Journ.  Linn. 
Soc.  9:  516.  1867.  Dianthera  virgata  Benth.  in 
Gen.  PI.  2:  1114.  1873;  Thothathri  in  Rec.  Bot, 
Surv.  Ind.  20(2) : 163.  1973. 

Flowering  & fruiting : November. 

Specimens  examined : West  Bengal:  Jalpai- 
guri  district  — Lapchakhawa,  ± 1200  m, 
Buxaduar  forest  range,  rare  in  shady  moist 
situations  on  the  hill  slopes,  27  Nov.  1975, 
7.  K.  Sikdar  972  (CAL). 

Distributional  note : This  species  has  so  far 
been  known  only  from  Manipur,  Arunachal 
Pradesh,  Meghalaya,  Sikkim  in  India  and 
Bhutan  and  Burma.  The  present  collection  of 
the  species  after  a lapse  of  more  than  100 


years  from  Jalpaiguri  district  shows  its  extend- 
ed distribution  in  Eastern  India  and  is  being 
recorded  here  from  West  Bengal  for  the  first 
time. 

Verbenaceae 

Clerodendnim  philippinum  Schauer,  DC. 
Prodr.  11:667.  1847.  (‘Clerodendron’);  Howard 
and  Powell,  Taxon  17:  54.  1968.  Volkameria 
japonica  Jacq.  Hort.  Schoenbr.  3:  48,  t.  338. 
1798.  Clerodendron  fragrans  Hort.  ex  Vent. 
Jard.  Malm.  2:  t.  70.  1804;  C.  B.  Clarke  in 
Hook,  f.,  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  4:  589.  1885;  Prain, 
Bengal  Plants  2:  624.  1903  (repr.). 

Flowering:  November  to  May. 

Specimens  examined : West  Bengal:  Jalpai- 
guri district  — Chunabhati,  ± 1200  m,  Buxa- 
duar forest  range,  frequent  in  grassy  areas  along 
the  rocky  forest  paths  and  here  and  there  on 
the  hill  slopes,  28  Nov.  1975,  7.  K.  Sikdar  995 
(CAL);  Buxaduar,  d=  1000  m,  Buxaduar  forest 
range,  along  the  hillslopes,  29  Nov.  1975,  7. 
K.  Sikdar  4026  (CAL);  Buxaduar  to  Chuna- 
bhati, ± 1100  m,  Buxaduar  forest  range,  12 
May,  1976,  7.  K.  Sikdar  4591  (CAL). 

Distributional  note : It  is  known  to  occur  in 
Assam,  Tripura,  Meghalaya,  Bihar,  Delhi, 
Uttar  Pradesh,  Madhya  Pradesh,  Andhra  Pra- 
desh, Karnataka,  Maharashtra,  Tamil  Nadu  in 
India  and  in  China,  Japan,  United  States, 
Mexico,  West  Indies,  Central  America,  Argen- 
tina, and  Chile.  This  report  of  the  species  from 
West  Bengal  is  a record  of  its  naturalisation 
in  the  flora  of  Jalpaiguri  district,  as  an  escape. 

Polygon  aceae 

Peraicaria  tenella  (Bl.)  Hara  in  Jour.  Jap. 
Bot.  44:  375.  1969;  FI.  East.  Himal.  23.  1971. 
Polygonum  tenellum  BL,  Bijdr.  530.  1825,  non 
Roxb.  1832.  var.  kawagoeana  (Makino)  Hara 
in  Jour.  Jap.  Bot.  375.  1969.  P.  kawagoeana 


565 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Makino  in  Bot.  Mag.  Tokyo  28:  115.  1914. 
P.  minus  Hudson  (FI.  Angl.  ed.  1,  148.  1762, 
non  vidi)  sensu  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  5:  36.  1886,  p.p.; 
Prain,  Bengal  Plants  2:  663.  1903  (repr.).  P. 
minus  subsp.  micranthum  (Meisn.)  Danser  in 
Bull.  Jard.  Bot.  Buitenz.  Ser.  3,  8:  176,  f.  8. 
1927. 

Flowering  & fruiting : April  to  December. 

Specimens  examined : West  Bengal:  Jalpai- 
guri  district  — Balapara,  Bholka  forest  range, 
rare  in  muddy  situations  towards  the  extreme 
eastern  border  of  the  district,  6 Dec.  1975,  /. 
K.  Sikdar  4163  (CAL). 

Distributional  note : This  taxon  was  record- 
ed from  Assam,  Meghalaya,  Arunachal  Pra- 
desh, Manipur,  Sikkim,  Madhya  Pradesh, 
Tamil  Nadu  in  India  and  also  from  Nepal, 
Bhutan,  Bangladesh,  Burma,  Malaysia,  China, 
Japan  and  Europe.  It  was  known  from  West 
Bengal  from  a single  specimen  in  CAL,  collect- 
ed by  Thornton  Ripley  from  Kalimpong  on 
18.7.1914,  which  was  cited  by  Danser  (1927). 
A recent  collection  by  K.  Thothathri  on  6.11. 
1960  (CAL)  from  Kalimpong  approaches 
the  present  taxon,  but  on  critical  examination 
it  was  identified  as  Persicaria  tenella  (Bl.) 
Hara  var.  kawagoeana  (Makino)  Hara  which 
was  considered  by  Danser  (1927)  and  Hara 
(1969,  1971).  The  present  collection  which  is 
also  identical  with  the  Wallich’s  specimen 
(Wall.  Cat.  1722)  from  Nepal  after  a lapse  of 
about  65  years  is  thus  interesting  and  esta- 
blishes its  occurrence  in  West  Bengal. 


Urticaceae 

Pilea  peploides  (Gaud.)  Hook.  & Arn.,  Bot. 
Beech.  Voy.  96.  1832;  Wedd.  Ann.  Sc.  Nat. 
Ser.  4,  1:  187.  1854;  J.  D.  Hooker  in  Hook, 
f.,  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  5:  554.  1888.  Dubrueilia  pep- 
loides Gaud,  in  Freyc.  Voy.  Bot.  Uran.  495. 
1830. 

Flowering  & fruiting : February. 

Specimens  examined’.  West  Bengal:  Jalpai- 
guri  district  — Chilapata,  Chilapata  forest 
range,  rare  in  marshy  ground  associated  with 
Floscopa  scandens,  Ranunculus  scleratus, 
Chenopodium  album  etc.,  25  Feb.  1976,  /.  K. 
Sikdar  4310  (CAL). 

Distributional  note : In  India  this  taxon 

occurs  in  Assam,  Meghalaya,  Sikkim,  Hima- 
chal Pradesh  and  in  Burma,  Java  and  Japan. 
Based  on  the  scrutiny  of  the  specimens  of  this 
taxon  in  CAL,  it  appears  that  this  plant  has 
been  collected  again  from  West  Bengal  for 
the  first  time  after  a lapse  of  72  years. 

Acknowledgements 

I am  grateful  to  the  Deputy  Director,  Cen- 
tral National  Herbarium,  Howrah  for  provid- 
ing facilities,  to  Prof.  R.  S.  Rao,  Andhra 
University,  Waltair  for  his  encouragement  and 
valuable  guidance  and  to  Dr.  R.  B.  Ghosh, 
Central  National  Herbarium,  Howrah  for  go- 
ing through  the  manuscript. 


566 


SOME  INTERESTING  ASPECTS  OF  THE  AVIFAUNA 
OF  THE  POINT  CALIMERE  SANCTUARY, 
THANJAVUR  DISTRICT,  TAMIL  NADU1*2 


R.  SUGATHAN3 


The  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary  in  Thanja- 
vur  District  in  Tamil  Nadu  is  one  of  the  major 
and  important  wintering  grounds  for  migrants 
from  the  north.  The  Bombay  Natural  History 
Society  had  earlier  conducted  bird  ringing 
camps  in  the  sanctuary  from  1969  to  1972. 
During  the  course  of  the  ringing  programme 
it  was  possible  to  obtain  not  only  data  on 
the  status  and  migratory  pattern  of  the  migrant 
and  resident  species  but  also  on  some  distri- 
butional peculiarities.  Some  stray  species  typi- 
cal of  wet  evergreen  forest  biotope  were  re- 
corded possibly  while  on  passage  to  similar 
biotopes  in  Sri  Lanka.  Some  of  such  typical 
species  that  were  repeatedly  recorded  were  the 
Threetoed  Forest  Kingfisher,  Pied  Thrush, 
Orangeheaded  Ground  Thrush,  Broadtailed 
Grass  Warbler  etc.  (Raju  and  Shekar  1971, 
Hussain  1976).  During  the  course  of  the  pre- 
sent study  a total  of  38280  birds  belonging 
to  178  species  were  ringed  and  released  bet- 
ween July  1980  and  March  1982.  The  follow- 
ing eight  species  have  been  recorded  for  the 
first  time  in  this  area. 

1 Accepted  August  1982. 

2 The  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  in  colla- 
boration with  the  United  States  Fish  and  Wildlife 
Service  and  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Govern- 
ment of  India,  is  currently  conducting  a project 
entitled  ‘‘Studies  on  the  movement  and  popula- 

tion structure  of  Indian  Avifauna”  with  Dr.  Salim 
Ali  as  the  Principal  Investigator.  The  project  is 
funded  from  PL-480  grant  No.  8851-558-01  released 
through  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Govt,  of  India. 


Lesser  Flamingo  Phoeniconaias  minor 

The  swamps  of  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary 
are  one  of  the  major  feeding  grounds  of  the 
Large  Flamingo  in  the  southern  peninsula.  The 
birds  arrive  on  passage  either  from  the  north 
or  from  the  south  (Sri  Lanka).  The  timing  of 
arrival  and  departure  has  been  sporadic.  The 
main  influx  occurs  soon  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  NE  monsoon  (October)  and  the 
birds  spread  out  throughout  the  swamp.  Since 
the  swamp  lies  on  the  flyway  to  Sri  Lanka 
there  is  a constant  movement  of  populations 
either  way  (northbound  and  southbound).  No 
adequate  data  are  available  of  the  migratory 
movements  of  the  flamingos  in  the  peninsula. 
Very  few  flamingos  have  been  trapped  and 
ringed  and  there  has  been  no  recovery  of  any 
of  these  birds.  A few  stray  recoveries  within 
our  limits  of  the  flamingos  ringed  in  Iran  have 
been  recorded  from  several  parts  of  India  in- 
cluding as  far  south  as  Point  Calimere  and 
Rameshwaram. 

A number  of  juvenile  Phoenicopterus  roseus 
without  any  trace  of  pink  in  the  plumage,  were 

Two  major  research  stations  — one  in  the  Keoladeo 
National  Park,  Rajasthan,  in  north  India  and 
the  other  in  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary,  Thanjavur 
District,  Tamil  Nadu  in  South  India  — have  been 
established  under  this  project  and  will  be  in  opera- 
tion for  about  five  years.  The  data  gathered  will 
be  analysed  periodically  and  published  in  the 
journal. 

3  Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  Hornbill 
House,  Shaheed  Bhagat  Singh  Road,  Bombay-400  023. 


567 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


noticed  in  Point  Calimere  swamp  from  July 
1980  to  March  1982.  They  were  observed 
feeding  along  with  adults  and  later  in  the 
season,  in  small  isolated  flocks  of  their  own. 
These  juveniles  were  perhaps  first  year  birds 
accompanying  their  parents  from  their  breed- 
ing ground  in  the  Rann  of  Kutch. 

The  Lesser  Flamingos  (Phoeniconctias  minor) 
were  first  noticed  at  Point  Calimere  in  July 
1980.4  They  were  observed  throughout  the 
season  and  also  during  the  subsequent  season. 
One  bird  was  trapped  and  ringed  in  January 
1982.  Studies  on  the  population  fluctuation, 
feeding  behaviour  and  food  habits,  are  being 
carried  out  by  the  project  staff. 

Baza  Aviceda  leuphotes  leuphotes 

The  genus  Aviceda  has  a discontinuous  dis- 
tribution typical  of  certain  forms  whose  pecu- 
liar distribution  pattern  has  given  rise  to 
speculations  and  hypotheses  on  the  incurssions 
of  Malayan  fauna  into  the  peninsula.  Both  the 
species  of  Baza  occurring  in  the  subcontinent 
namely  leuphotes  and  jerdoni,  have  a similar 
distributional  pattern.  They  affect  wet  ever- 
green biotopes  of  NE  Himalayas,  the  southern 
portion  of  the  Western  Ghats,  and  the  hill 
zone  of  Sri  Lanka. 

A single  Blackcrested  Baza  was  trapped  and 
ringed  at  Point  Calimere  on  24th  October 
1981.  The  bird  was  apparently  on  its  way  to 
Sri  Lanka.  According  to  the  key  to  the  sub- 
species in  the  handbook  (Vol.  1)  leuphotes 
differs  from  subspecies  syama  in  having  a 
chestnut  breast  band  as  against  the  all-black 
breast  of  the  latter.  The  specimen  from  Point 
Calimere  had  a distinct  rufous  band  across 
the  chest  and  could  well  be  of  the  nominate 
race. 

4 The  Lesser  Flamingo  was  first  reported  from 
Point  Calimere  by  R.  A.  S.  Melluish  in  February 
1968  (Newsletter  for  Birdwatchers  Vol.  9(1),  p.  4 
January  1969). 


Handbook  (Vol.  1)  speculates  that  the  win- 
tering populations  visiting  Sri  Lanka  could  be 
the  Himalayan  form  syama.  The  fact  that  the 
type  locality  off  leuphotes  is  Pondicherry, 
which  lies  on  the  east  coast  approximately 
160  km  north  of  Point  Calimere,  strengthens 
the  assumption  the  southern  birds  may  belong 
to  this  subspecies. 

Spoonbilled  Sandpiper  Eurynorhynchus 
pygmaeus 

The  Spoonbilled  Sandpiper  has  been  record- 
ed as  a straggler  in  West  Bengal  and  Assam. 
There  have  been  no  other  records  of  this 
species  within  our  limits  for  the  past  fifty  years. 

Two  birds  were  netted  at  Point  Calimere 
Sanctuary,  one  on  19th  February  1981  (re- 
leased with  Ring  No.  AB-  86435)  and  the 
other  on  19th  March  1981  (preserved  in 
BNHS  collection).  A third  specimen  was  ring- 
ed and  released  at  Chilka  Lake,  Orissa  on 
17th  March  1981. 

The  occurrence  of  these  birds  on  the  east 
coast  within  the  space  of  a month  suggests 
that  the  species  may  be  regularly  wintering  on 
our  southern  seaboard  but  has  been  overlook- 
ed among  the  dense  flocks  of  stints  with  which 
it  associates.  The  trappers  employed  by  the 
Project  when  questioned,  admitted  that  they 
had  trapped  these  birds  on  earlier  occasions 
before  the  commencement  of  the  bird  ringing 
programme  at  Point  Calimere.  The  spatulate 
bill  was  considered  by  them  to  be  that  of 
deformed  Little  Stint  ( Calidris  minutus) 
Greyfronted/ Orangebreasted  Green  Pigeon 
Treron  pompadora /Treron  hicincta 

Two  species  of  green  pigeons  have  been 
recorded  so  far  from  Point  Calimere.  One 
specimen  of  T.  pompadora  was  ringed  in  1969 
by  the  BNHS  ringing  camp.  Subsequently  2 
pompadora  and  2 hicincta  were  ringed  in 
April /December  1970.  A single  specimen  of 
T . hicincta  was  also  ringed  and  released  on 


568 


AVIFAUNA  OF  THE  POINT  CALIMERE  SANCTUARY 


21/12/1980.  The  latter  species  was  regularly 
seen  in  Point  Calimere  from  August  to  Dec- 
ember which  coincides  with  the  fruiting  of 
Jamun  ( Syzygium  cuminii)  in  the  area.  Sub- 
species of  pompadora  and  bicincta  occur  in 
the  low  country  of  Sri  Lanka  as  well.  It  will 
be  interesting  to  know  whether  there  is  any 
local  migration  between  Indian  peninsula  and 
Sri  Lanka. 

Scops  owl  Otus  scops  leggei  ? 

A single  specimen  (?)  was  netted  near  the 
forest  bungalow  at  Point  Calimere,  on  16/12/ 
1981.  The  specimen  has  been  preserved  in  the 
BNHS  collection.  It  has  a smaller  tarsus 
(21  mm)  and  is  darker  than  three  specimens 
of  sunia  in  BNHS  collection.  It  appears  thus 
to  be  leggei  of  Sri  Lanka. 

Indian  Cliff  Swallow  Hirundo  fluvicola 

A single  specimen  (cf ) netted  on  18/10/1980 
and  preserved  in  BNHS  collection.  The  pre- 
vious southernmost  record  for  this  species  is 
Coimbatore  at  the  foot  of  the  Nilgiris  and 
the  present  record  in  a way  confirms  the  sight 
record  by  Phillips  in  Sri  Lanka  ( JBNHS  47: 
740). 

Blue  Chat  Erithacus  brunneus 

This  species  breeds  in  higher  hills  of  the 
Himalayan  ranges  and  winters  in  the  hill  zones 
of  South  India  and  Sri  Lanka,  preferring 
evergreen  biotopes.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  it  has  not  been  recorded  in  the  plains  of 
the  peninsula  or  anywhere5  between  the  breed- 
ing and  wintering  ranges.  Seven  Blue  Chats 
were  ringed  at  Point  Calimere  in  October  1969. 
Eighteen  individuals  ( c?  $ ) were  ringed  bet- 
ween October-November,  1980.  Again  five 
were  ringed  during  the  same  period  in  1981, 

5 Recorded  at  Bhimashankar,  Western  Ghats  — 
SA. 

6 Probably  Point  Calimere  birds  come  down  the 
Western  Ghats.  The  species  is  quite  common  sea- 
sonably in  sholes  in  the  Nilgiris,  e.g.  Coonoor-SA. 


indicating  that  Point  Calimere  is  a regular 
stage  for  Blue  Chats  on  their  winter  migra- 
tion. Birds  were  regularly  noted  during  this 
period.  However,  none  were  recorded  on  spring 
migration,  suggesting  that  these  birds  may  be 
using  a different  route  (Western  Ghats?)  on 
their  return  migration.6 
Forest  Wagtail  Motacilla  indica 

Another  species  seen  on  passage  in  Point 
Calimere.  The  first  winter  arrivals  were  noted 
on  census  paths  within  the  sanctuary  on  15th 
September  1980,  and  thereafter  they  were  re- 
gularly seen  until  third  week  of  January  1981. 
Peak  influx  was  noticed  in  October-Novem- 
ber. Six  birds  were  netted  and  ringed  during 
this  period.  Once  again  no  birds  were  seen 
in  spring  migration  suggesting  that  this  species 
also  takes  a different  route  on  return  migra- 
tion. 

Rosefinch  Carpodacus  erythrinus 

This  species  has  been  recorded  as  wintering 
in  the  Indian  peninsula  but  so  far  has  not 
been  recorded  in  Sri  Lanka.  A single  female, 
(in  BNHS  collection)  was  obtained  at  Point 
Calimere  on  24-1-1981. 

Several  species  of  birds  have  been  recorded 
from  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary  during  the 
course  of  our  studies.  A checklist  of  the  birds 
ringed  /recorded  is  given  in  the  appendix.  Of 
the  birds  recorded  so  far  the  Spoonbilled 
Sandpiper,  hitherto  regarded  as  a rare  strag- 
gler, may  actually  prove  to  be  a regular  winter 
visitor  to  the  area.  Evidence  is  now  available 
that  the  Lesser  Flamingo  occurs  on  the 
eastern  seaboard  from  Chilka  in  the  north  to 
Point  Calimere  and  possibly  Rameswaram  and 
Sri  Lanka  in  the  south.  Both  large  and  lesser 
Flamingos  occur  in  the  same  areas,  but  their 
feeding  ecology  needs  to  be  studied.  The 
occurrence  of  Baza,  together  with  that  of  Blue 
Chat,  Broad-tailed  Grass  Warbler,  Threetoed 
Forest  Kingfisher  and  Scops  Owl,  is  intriguing. 


569 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Checklist  of  the  birds  of  point  cal i mere 

Breeding,  C = Common,  R =.  Resident,  M = Migrant,  SM  = Seasonal  Migrant,  Ra  = Rare, 

O = Occasional. 


Common  Name 


Species 


Status 


1.  Little  Grebe 

Podiceps  ruficollis 

SM,  B 

2.  Grey  or  Spottedbilled  Pelican 

Pelecanus  philippensis 

SM 

3.  Cormorant 

Phalacrocorax  carbo 

O 

4.  Indian  Shag 

Phalacrocorax  fuscicollis 

o 

5.  Little  or  Pygmy  Cormorant 

Phalacrocorax  niger 

o 

6 . Darter 

Anhinga  rufa 

o 

7.  Grey  Heron 

Ardea  cinerea 

SM 

8.  Purple  Heron 

Ardea  purpurea 

SM 

9.  Little  Green  Heron 

Butorides  striatus 

O 

10.  Pond  Heron 

Ardeola  grayii 

c 

11.  Cattle  Egret 

Bubulcus  ibis 

c 

12.  Large  Egret 

Ardea  alba 

c 

13.  Smaller  Egret 

Egretta  intermedia 

c 

14.  Little  Egret 

Egretta  garzetta 

c 

15.  Indian  Reef  Heron 

Egretta  gularis 

c 

16.  Night  Heron 

Nycticorax  nycticorax 

SM 

17.  Black  Bittern 

Ixobrychus  flavicollis 

Ra 

18.  Painted  Stork 

Ibis  leucocephalus 

C 

19.  Openbill  Stork 

Anastomus  oscitans 

SM 

20.  Whitenecked  Stork 

Ciconia  episcopus 

SM 

21.  Blacknecked  Stork 

Ephippiorhynchus  asiaticus 

SM 

22.  White  Ibis 

Threskiornis  melanocephala 

SM 

23.  Spoonbill 

Platalea  leucorodia 

SM 

24.  Flamingo 

Phoenicopterus  roseus 

SM 

25.  Lesser  Flamingo 

Phoeniconaias  minor 

SM 

26.  Barheaded  Goose 

Anser  indie  us 

Ra 

27.  Pintail 

Anas  acuta 

M 

28.  Common  Teal 

Anas  crecca 

M. 

29.  Spotbill  Duck 

Anas  poecilorhyncha 

SM 

30.  Mallard 

Anas  platyrhynchos 

Ra 

31.  Gadwall 

Anas  strepera 

M 

32.  Garganey 

Anas  querquedula 

M 

33.  Shoveller 

Anas  clypeata 

M 

34.  Cotton  teal 

Nettapus  coromandelianus 

SM. 

35.  Blackwinged  Kite 

Elanus  caeruleus 

O 

36.  Indian  Blackcrested  Baza 

Aviceda  leuphotes 

R 

37.  Pariah  or  Black  Kite 

Milvus  mi  grans 

O 

38.  Brahminy  Kite 

Haliastur  indus 

C,B 

39.  Shikra 

Accipiter  badius 

SM 

40.  Sparrow-Hawk 

Acci piter  nisus 

M 

41.  Besra  Sparrow-Hawk 

Accipiter  virgatus 

M 

42.  White-eyed  Buzzard-Eagle 

Butastur  teesa 

O 

570 


AVIFAUNA  OF  THE  POINT  CALIMERE  SANCTUARY 


Common  Name 

Species 

Status 

43.  Booted  Hawk-Eagle 

Hieraatus  pennatus 

O 

44.  Tawny  Eagle 

Aqui'la  rapax 

O 

45.  White-bellied  Sea  Eagle 

Haliaeetus  leucogaster 

o 

46.  Egyptian  or  Scavenger  Vulture 

Neophron  percnopterus 

o 

47.  Pale  Harrier 

Circus  macrourus 

M 

48.  Montagu’s  Harrier 

Circus  pygargus 

M 

49.  Pied  Harrier 

Circus  melanoleucos 

M 

50.  Marsh  Harrier 

Circus  aeruginosus 

M 

51.  Short-toed  Eagle 

Circaetus  gallicus 

O 

52.  Crested  Serpent  Eagle 

Spilornis  cheela 

O 

53.  Osprey 

Pandion  haliaetus 

M 

54.  Peregrine  Falcon 

Falco  peregrinus 

M 

55.  Redheaded  Merlin 

Falco  chicquera 

M 

56.  Kestrel 

Falco  tinnunculus 

SM 

57.  Grey  Partridge 

Francolinus  pondicerianus 

C,R 

58.  Jungle  Bush  Quail 

Perdicula  asiatica 

C,R 

59.  Common  Bustard-Quail 

Turnix  suscitator 

C,R 

60.  Bluebreasted  Banded  Rail 

Rallus  striatus 

M 

61.  Banded  Crake 

Rallina  eurizonoides 

SM 

62.  Whitebreasted  Waterhen 

Amaurornis  phoenicurus 

C,R 

63.  Water  Cock,  Kora 

Gallicrex  cinerea 

SM 

64.  Moorhen 

Gallinula  chloropus 

SM 

65.  Bronzewinged  Jacana 

Metopidius  indicus 

SM 

66.  Oystercatcher 

Haematopus  ostralegus 

M 

67.  Blackwinged  Stilt 

Himantopus  himantopus 

SM 

68.  Avocet 

Recurvirostra  avosetta 

M 

69.  Crab  Plover 

Dromas  ardeola 

SM 

70.  Stone  Curlew 

Burhinus  oedicnemus 

SM 

71.  Great-Stone  Plover 

Esacus  magnirostris 

SM,B 

72.  Collared  Pratincole 

Glareola  pratincola 

SM 

73.  Small  Indian  Pratincole 

Glareola  lactea 

O 

74.  Redwattled  Lapwing 

Vanellus  indicus 

C,R 

75.  Yellow- wattled  Lapwing 

Vanellus  malabaricus 

C,R 

76.  Grey  Plover 

Pluvialis  squatarola 

M,C 

77.  Eastern  Golden  Plover 

Pluvialis  dominica 

M,C 

78.  Large  Sand  Plover 

Charadrius  leschenaultii 

M 

79.  Little  Ringed  Plover 

Charadrius  dubius 

C,R 

80.  Ringed  Plover 

Charadrius  hiaticula 

O 

81.  Kentish  Plover 

Charadrius  alexandrinus 

C,R 

82.  Lesser  Sand  Plover 

Charadrius  mongolus 

M,C 

83.  Whimbrel 

Numenius  phaeopus 

M,C 

84.  Curlew 

Numenius  arquata 

M,C 

85.  Blacktailed  Godwit 

Limosa  limosa 

M,C 

86.  Bartailed  Godwit 

Limosa  lapponica 

M,C 

87.  Spotted  or  Dusky  Redshank 

Tringa  erythropus 

M 

88.  Common  Redshank 

Tringa  tot  anus 

M,C 

89.  Marsh  Sandpiper 

Tringa  stagnatilis 

M,C 

571 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Common  Name  Species  Status 


90 . Greenshank 

91.  Green  Sandpiper 

92.  Wood  Sandpiper 

93.  Terek  Sandpiper 

94.  Common  Sandpiper 

95.  Turnstone 

96.  Snipebilled  Godwit 

97.  Pintail  Snipe 

98.  Swinhoe’s  Snipe 

99.  Fantail  Snipe 

100.  Knot 

101.  Eastern  Knot 

102.  Sanderling 

103.  Little  Stint 

104.  Temminck’s  Stint 

105.  Longtoed  Stint 

106.  Dunlin 

107.  Curlew-Sandpiper 

108.  Spoonbilled  Sandpiper 

109.  Broadbilled  Sandpiper 

110.  Ruff  and  Reeve 

111.  Rednecked  Phalarope 

112.  Herring  Gull 

113.  Lesser  Blackbacked  Gull 

114.  Great  Blackheaded  Gull 

115.  Brownheaded  Gull 

116.  Blackheaded  Gull 

117.  Whiskered  Tern 

118.  Whitewinged  Black  Tern 

119.  Gullbilled  Tern 

120.  Caspian  Tern 

121.  Roseate  or  Rosy  Tern 

122.  Common  Tern 

123.  Sooty  Tern 

124.  Little  Tern 

125.  Large  Crested  Tern 

126.  Indian  Lesser  Crested  Tern 

127.  Indian  River  Tern 

128.  Pompadour  or  Greyfronted  green  pigeon 

129.  Orangebreasted  Green  pigeon 

130.  Blue  Rock  Pigeon 

131.  Indian  Ring  Dove 

132.  Spotted  Dove 

133.  Roseringed  Parakeet 

134.  Redwinged  Crested  Cuckoo 

135.  Pied  Crested  Cuckoo 

136.  Large  Hawk-Cuckoo 


Tringa  nebularia 

M,C 

Tringa  ochropus 

M,C 

Tringa  glareola 

M,C 

Tringa  terek 

m,o 

Tringa  hypoleucos 

M,C 

Arenaria  interpres 

M,C 

Limnodromus  semipalmatus 

M.O 

Gallinago  stenura 

M,0 

Gallinago  megala 

M,0 

Gallinago  gallinago 

M,0 

Calidris  canutus 

M,0 

Calidris  tenuirostris 

M,0 

Calidris  alba 

M,0 

Calidris  minutus 

M,C 

Calidris  temminckii 

M,0 

Calidris  subminutus 

M,0 

Calidris  alpinus 

M,C 

Calidris  testaceus 

M,C 

Eurynorhynchus  pygmaeus 

M.Ra 

Limicola  falcinellus 

M,C 

Philomachus  pugnax 

M,C 

Phalaropus  lobatus 

M,0 

Larus  argent  at  us 

M,C 

Larus  fuscus 

M,C 

Larus  ichthyaetus 

M,C 

Larus  brunnicephalus 

M,C 

Larus  ridibundus 

M,C 

Chlidonias  hybrida 

M,C 

Chlidonias  leucopterus 

M,C 

Gelochelidon  nilotica 

M,C 

Hydroprogne  caspia 

M,C 

Sterna  dougalli 

M,0 

Sterna  hirundo 

M,C 

Sterna  fuscata 

M,0 

Sterna  albifrons 

R,B 

Sterna  bergii 

M,0 

Sterna  bengalensis 

M,0 

Sterna  aurantia 

M,0 

Treron  pompadora 

S,M 

Treron  bicincta 

S,M 

Columba  livia 

C 

Streptopelia  decaocto 

R,B 

Streptopelia  chinensis 

R.B 

Psittacula  krameri 

C,SM 

Clamator  coromandus 

M 

Clamator  jacobinus 

SM,B 

Cuculus  sparverioides 

SM 

572 


AVIFAUNA  OF  THE  POINT  CALIMERE  SANCTUARY 


Common  Name  Species  Status 


137.  Small  Cuckoo 

138.  Common  Hawk-Cuckoo  or  Brain  fever  Bird 

139.  Indian  Cuckoo 

140.  Indian  Plaintive  Cuckoo 

141.  Indian  Banded  Bay  Cuckoo 

142.  Koel 

143.  Small  Greenbilled  Malkoha 

144.  Crow-Pheasant  or  Coucal 

145.  Barn  Owl 

146.  Eagle  Owl,  Great  Horned  Owl 

147.  Scops  Owl 

148.  Spotted  Owlet 

149.  Shorteared  Owl 

150.  Indian  Jungle  Nightjar 

151.  European  Nightjar 

152.  Longtailed  Nightjar 

153.  Common  Indian  Nightjar 

154.  Palm  Swift 

155.  Lesser  Pied  Kingfisher 

156.  Common  Kingfisher 

157.  Threetoed  Kingfisher 

158.  Whitebreasted  Kingfisher 

159.  Blackcapped  Kingfisher 

160.  Chestnut-headed  Bee-eater 

161 . Bluetailed  Bee-eater 

162.  Green  Bee-eater 

163.  Indian  Roller  or  Blue  Jay 

164.  Hoopoe,  Hudhud 

165.  Wryneck 

166.  Lesser  Goldenbacked  Woodpecker 

167.  Indian  Pitta 

168.  Bush  Lark 

169.  Redwinged  Bush  Lark 

170.  Ashycrowned  Finch-Lark 

171.  Sand  Lark 

172.  Crested  Lark 

173.  Eastern  Skylark 

174.  Collared  Sand  Martin 

175.  Swallow 

176.  Indian  Cliff  Swallow 

177.  Baybacked  Shrike 

178.  Brown  Shrike 

179.  Golden  Oriole 

180.  Black  Drongo  or  King  Crow 

181.  Grey  or  Ashy  Drongo 

182.  Whitebellied  Drongo 

183.  Ashy  Swallow-Shrike 


Cuculus  poliocephalus 

SM 

Cuculus  varius 

SM 

Cuculus  micro pterus 

SM 

Cacomantis  merulinus 

SM 

Cacomantis  sonneratii 

SM 

Eudynamys  scolopacea 

C,SM 

Rhopodytes  viridirostris 

C,R 

Centropus  sinensis 

C,R 

Tyto  alba 

O 

Bubo  bubo 

O 

Otus  scops 

Ra 

Athene  brama 

C,R 

Asio  flammeus 

M,0 

Caprimulgus  indicus 

M,0 

Caprimulgus  europaeus 

Ra 

Caprimulgus  macrurus 

? 

Caprimulgus  asiaticus 

9 

Cypsiurus  parvus 

C.R 

Ceryle  rudis 

SM 

Alcedo  at  this 

C,SM 

Ceyx  erithacus 

SM 

Halcyon  smyrnensis 

C,R 

Halcyon  pileata 

SM 

Merops  leschenaulti 

SM 

Merops  philippinus 

SM 

Merops  orient alis 

R,C 

Coracias  benghalensis 

C,R 

Upupa  epops 

SM 

Jynx  torquilla 

O 

Dinopium  benghalense 

C,R 

Pitta  brachyura 

SM 

Mirafra  assamica 

SM 

Mirafra  erythroptera 

SM 

Eremopterix  grisea 

SM 

Calandrella  raytal 

? 

Galerida  cristata 

SM 

Alauda  gulgula 

R,C 

Riparia  riparia 

O 

Hirundo  rustica 

M 

Hirundo  fluvicola 

M,0 

Lanius  vittatus 

SM 

Lanius  cristatus 

C,R 

Oriolus  oriolus 

C,R 

Dicrurus  adsimilis 

C,R 

Dicrurus  leucophaeus 

SM 

Dicrurus  caerulescens 

SM 

Artamus  fuscus 

C,R 

573 


6 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Common  Name 

Species 

Status 

184.  Greyheaded  Myna 

Sturnus  malabaricus 

SM 

185.  Blackheaded  or  Brahminy  Myna 

Sturnus  pagodarum 

SM 

186.  Rosy  Pastor 

Sturnus  rose  us 

SM 

187.  Common  Myna 

Acridotheres  tristis 

C,R 

188.  Indian  Tree  Pie 

Dendrocitta  vagabunda 

C,SM 

189.  House  Crow 

Corvus  splendens 

C,R 

190.  Jungle  Crow 

Corvus  macrorhynchos 

C,R 

191.  Common  Wood  Shrike 

Tephrodornis  pondicerianus 

C,R 

192.  Blackheaded  Cuckoo-Shrike 

Coracina  melanoptera 

C,R 

193.  Common  Iora 

Aegithina  tiphia 

C,R 

194.  Redvented  Bulbul 

Pycnonotus  cafer 

C,R 

195.  Whitebrowed  Bulbul 

Pycnonotus  luteolus 

C,R 

196.  Jungle  Babbler 

Turdoides  striatus 

C,R 

197.  Brown  Flycatcher 

Muscicapa  latirostris 

M 

198.  Brownbreasted  Flycatcher 

Muscicapa  muttui 

M 

199.  Redbreasted  Flycatcher 

Muscicapa  parva 

M 

200.  Bluethroated  Flycatcher 

Muscicapa  rubeculoides 

M 

201 . Paradise  Flycatcher 

T erpsi  ph  one  par  ad  isi 

M 

202.  Blacknaped  Flycatcher 

Monarcha  azurea 

SM 

203.  Tailor  Bird 

Orthotomus  sutorius 

C.R 

204.  Thickbilled  Warbler 

Phragmaticola  aedon 

M 

205.  Broadtailed  Grass  Warbler 

Schoenicola  platyura 

Ra 

206.  Blyth’s  Reed  Warbler 

Acrocephalus  dumetorum 

M 

207.  Paddyfield  Warbler 

Acrocephalus  agricola 

M 

208.  Booted  Warbler 

Hippolais  caligata 

M 

209.  Lesser  Whitethroat 

Sylvia  curruca 

M 

210.  Largebilled  Leaf  Warbler 

Phylloscopus  magnirostris 

M 

211.  Dull  Green  Leaf  Warbler 

Phylloscopus  trochiloides 

M 

212.  Blue  Chat 

Erithacus  brunneus 

M 

213.  Magpie-Robin 

Copsychus  saularis 

C,R 

214.  Indian  Robin 

Saxicoloides  fulicata 

C,R 

215.  Pied  Ground  Thrush 

Zoothera  wardii 

M 

216.  Orangeheaded  Ground  Thrush 

Zoothera  citrina  cyanotus 

M 

217.  Pipit 

Anthus  sp. 

M 

218.  Paddyfield  Pipit 

Anthus  novaeseelandiae 

M 

219.  Forest  Wagtail 

Motacilla  indica 

M 

220.  Yellow  Wagtail 

Motacilla  flava 

M 

221.  Grey  Wagtail 

Motacilla  caspica 

M 

222.  Pied  or  White  Wagtail 

Motacilla  alba 

M 

223.  Large  Pied  Wagtail 

Motacilla  maderaspatensis 

C,B 

224.  Tickell’s  Flowerpecker 

Dicaeum  erythrorhynchos 

C,R 

225.  Purplerumped  Sunbird 

Nectarinia  zeylonica 

SM,B 

226.  Loten’s  Sunbird 

Nectarinia  lotenia 

O 

227.  Purple  Sunbird 

Nectarinia  asiatica 

SM,B 

228.  House  Sparrow 

Passer  domesticus 

C,R 

229.  Yellow  throated  Sparrow 

Petronia  xanthocollis 

SM 

230.  Baya 

Ploceus  philippinus 

SM 

231.  Blackheaded  Munia 

Lonchura  malacca 

SM 

232.  Common  Silverbill 

Lonchura  malabarica 

SM 

233.  Common  Rosefinch 

Carvodacus  erythrinus 

M 

574 


AVIFAUNA  OF  THE  POINT  CALIMERE  SANCTUARY 


It  has  been  postulated  (Meher-Homji  1974, 
a & b)  that  the  climatic  conditions  in  the 
Coromandel  Coast  in  the  peninsula  was  humid 
with  equatorial  climate  not  unlike  that  of 
S.  W.  part  of  Sri  Lanka  in  the  recent  past, 
suggesting  the  occurrence  of  a contiguous  eco- 

Refei 

Hussain,  S.  A.  (1976):  Occurrence  of  the  Broad- 
tailed Grass  Warbler  [Schoenicola  platyura  (Jer- 
don)]  on  the  Coromandel  Coast.  J.  Bombay  nat. 
Hist.  Soc.  73(2):  400-401. 

Meher-Homji,  V.  M.  (1974  a) : Bioclimates  of 
south  India  and  Ceylon.  Inst.  Fr.  Pondicherry  Tr. 
Sect.  Sci.  Tech  3(2):  134-176, 

(1974  b) : On  the  origin 


system  between  Indian  Peninsula  and  Sri 
Lanka.  The  occurrence  and  pattern  of  move- 
ments of  several  species  of  birds  typical  of 
wet  evergreen  biotopes  in  the  Point  Calimere 
scrub,  seems  to  support  the  above  theory. 


E n ce  s 

of  Tropical  dry  evergreen  forest  in  S,  India.  Inst. 
./.  Ecol.  Env.  Sci.  (1)  : 19-39. 

Phillips,  W.  W.  A.  (1948) : Occurrence  of  the 
Indian  Cliff-Swallow  (Hirundo  fluvicola)  in  Cey- 
lon. /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  47:  740. 

Raju,  K.  S.  R.  Krishna  & Shekar,  P.  B.  (1971) : 
Some  interesting  records  from  Point  Calimere.  ibid. 
68(2):  457-459. 


575 


TAXONOMIC  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  OVIPOSITOR  IN 
SOME  INDIAN  GRASSHOPPERS  (ORTHOPTERA: 

ACRIDIDAE)1 

M.  Kamil  Usmani  and  S.  Adam  Shafee2 
{With  two  plates  and  a text -figure) 

Comparative  study  of  ovipositor  is  made  in  thirty  Indian  species  representing  twenty- 
eight  genera  of  the  family  Acrididae.  Its  taxonomic  significance  is  shown.  Shape  of 


dorsal  and  ventral  valves,  length  of  dorsal 
as  characters  of  taxonomic  significance. 

In  troduction 

The  ovipositor  is  an  organ  for  the  process 
of  deposition  of  eggs.  It  consists  of  three  pairs 
of  valves.  Slifer  (1939),  Agarwala  (1951)  and 
Uvarov  (1966)  named  first  and  third  valves 
of  ovipositor  as  ventral  and  dorsal  valves  res- 
pectively. Qadri  (1940)  named  them  as  ante- 
rior and  lateral  valves.  The  second  valve  was 
named  as  upper  egg-guide  by  Slifer  (1939), 
posterior  valve  by  Qadri  (1940),  mesial  valve 
by  Agarwala  (1951)  and  inner  valve  by  Uvarov 
(1966).  The  present  writers  followed  Agar- 
wala (1951)  in  adopting  the  names,  ventral, 
mesial  and  dorsal  valves  for  first,  second  and 
third  valves  of  ovipositor  respectively  (fig.  1). 
Agarwala  (1953)  made  a comparative  study 
of  ovipositor  in  various  species  of  Acrididae 
and  correlated  the  morphology  of  ovipositor 
with  the  nature  of  the  oviposition  sites. 
Mishchenko  (1952)  and  Willemse  (1967,  1968, 
1975,  1977)  gave  brief  descriptions  and  illus- 
trations of  ovipositor  in  some  species  of 
Acrididae. 

Keeping  in  view  the  taxonomic  importance 
of  ovipositor,  the  present  writers  made  an 

1 Accepted  February  1980. 

2 Section  of  Entomology,  Department  of  Zoology, 
Aligarh  Muslim  University,  Aligarh,  India. 


valve  and  lateral  apodeme  are  suggested 

attempt  to  make  a comparative  study  of  ovi- 
positor in  thirty  Indian  species  representing 
twenty-eight  genera  of  the  family  Acrididae. 
The  characters  i.e.  shape  of  dorsal  and  ventral 
valves,  length  of  dorsal  valve  and  lateral 
apodeme  of  ovipositor  are  suggested  as  charac- 
ters of  taxonomic  significance. 

Descriptions  of  ovipositor : 

1.  Pyrgomorpha  conica  (Olivier)  (PI.  1,  fig. 
A). — Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad,  slightly 
more  than  three  times  as  long  as  wide,  dis- 
tinctly shorter  than  lateral  apodeme,  dorsal 
condyle  prominent;  ventral  valve  with  apical 
tip  pointed,  basal  sclerite  well  developed, 
setose. 

2.  Atractoniorpha  ere  si  u lata  (Fabricius) 

(PI.  1,  fig.  B). — Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad, 
four  times  as  long  as  wide,  slightly  longer  than 
lateral  apodeme,  dorsal  condyle  much  pro- 
minent; ventral  valve  with  slope  deeply  con- 
cave, basal  sclerite  narrow;  mesial  valve  and 
apical  tip  long  and  pointed. 

3.  Chrotogonus  trachypteros  (Blanchard) 
(PI.  1,  fig.  C). — Dorsal  valve  broad,  two  and 
a half  times  as  long  as  wide,  as  long  as 
lateral  apodeme,  dorsal  edge  tuberculate,  dor- 
sal condyle  not  prominent;  ventral  valve  with 
apical  tip  pointed,  basal  sclerite  narrow. 


576 


OVIPOSITOR  IN  INDIAN  GRASSHOPPERS 


setose  on  apical  half;  mesial  valve  almost 
triangular. 

4.  Aularches  scabiosae  (Fabricius)  (Pl.  1, 
fig.  D). — Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad, 
slightly  more  than  three  times  as  long  as  wide, 
longer  than  lateral  apodeme,  apical  tip  curv- 
ed and  pointed,  dorsal  edge  tuberculate, 
dorsal  condyle  not  prominent;  ventral  valve 
with  slope  deeply  concave,  basal  sclerite 
narrow  and  tuberculate. 

5.  Poekilocerus  pictus  (Fabricius)  (PI.  1, 
fig.  E). — Dorsal  valve  broad,  less  than  two  and 
a half  times  as  long  as  wide,  much  shor- 
ter than  lateral  apodeme,  apical  tip  small  and 
pointed,  dorsal  edge  with  irregular  ridges, 
dorsal  condyle  less  prominent;  ventral  valve 
with  slope  deeply  concave,  basal  sclerite  nar- 
row and  smooth. 

6.  Ortliacris  ceylonica  (Kirby)  (PI.  1,  fig.  F). 
— Dorsal  valve  more  or  less  of  uniform  width, 
five  times  as  long  as  wide,  longer  than  lateral 


apodeme,  apical  tip  blunt,  dorsal  condyle  much 
prominent;  ventral  valve  with  apical  tip  blunt, 
lateral  tooth  distinct,  basal  sclerite  narrow, 
serrated  apically;  mesial  valve  with  apical  tip 
small  and  pointed. 

7.  HierogSyphus  banian  (Fabricius)  (PI.  1, 
fig.  G). — Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad,  three 
and  a half  times  as  long  as  wide,  slightly 
shorter  than  lateral  apodeme,  dorsal  condyle 
prominent;  ventral  valve  with  slope  deeply 
concave,  lateral  tooth  well  developed,  lateral 
and  basal  sclerites  serrated  basally;  mesial 
valve  dilated  apically. 

8.  Spathosternum  prasiniferum  (Walker)  (PI. 
1,  fig.  H). — Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad, 
slightly  more  than  three  times  as  long  as  wide, 
as  long  as  lateral  apodeme,  dorsal  condyle 
much  prominent;  ventral  valve  with  slope 
deeply  concave,  lateral  tooth  absent,  lateral 
and  basal  sclerites  smooth;  mesial  valve  blunt 
apically. 


Fig.  1.  Ovipositor  in  lateral  view. 

Abbreviations : Arc.-Arcus;  B.Sc.  — Basal  sclerite;  D.Ap.  — Dorsal  apodeme;  D.C.  — Dorsal  condyle; 
D.Ed.  — Dorsal  edge;  D.V.  — Dorsal  valve;  L.Ap.  — Lateral  apodeme;  L.  Sc.  — Lateral  sclerite;  M.T.  — 
Mesial  tooth;  M.V.  — Mesial  valve;  SI.  — Slope;  T.  — Tip;  V.C.  — Ventral  condyle;  V.V.  — Ventral  valve. 


577 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


9.  Oxya  hyla  Serville  (PI.  1,  fig.  I). — Dorsal 
valve  long  and  narrow,  five  and  a half  times 
as  long  as  wide,  longer  than  lateral  apodeme, 
dorsal  edge  with  acute  spines;  ventral  valve 
long,  lower  margin  with  acute  spines,  basal 
sclerite  narrow  and  serrated;  mesial  valve  long 
and  pointed. 

10.  Oxya  velox  (Fabricius)  (PI.  1,  fig.  J). — 
Dorsal  valve  long  and  narrow,  six  and  a half 
times  as  long  as  wide,  longer  than  lateral  apo- 
deme, dorsal  edge  with  small  blunt  spines; 
ventral  valve  long,  lower  margin  with  small 
blunt  spines,  basal  sclerite  narrow  and  smooth; 
mesial  valve  long  and  pointed. 

11.  Choroedocus  robust  us  (Serville)  (PI.  1, 
fig.  K). — Dorsal  valve  broad,  slightly  less 
than  three  times  as  long  as  wide,  much  shorter 
than  lateral  apodeme;  ventral  valve  with  slope 
slightly  cancave,  basal  sclerite  tuberculate  at 
apical  half;  mesial  valve  dilated  apically. 

12.  Eyprepocnemis  alacris  (Serville)  (PI.  1, 
fig.  L). — Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad,  more 
than  three  times  as  long  as  wide,  as  long  as 
lateral  apodeme;  ventral  valve  with  slope 
broadly  concave,  basal  sclerite  punctate; 
mesial  valve  slightly  dilated  apically. 

13.  Acrida  turrifa  (Linnaeus)  (PI.  1,  fig.  M). 
— Dorsal  valve  broad,  two  and  a half  times 
as  long  as  wide,  much  shorter  than  lateral 
apodeme,  apical  tip  short;  ventral  valve  with 
apical  tip  short,  basal  sclerite  narrow  and 
tuberculate;  mesial  valve  with  apical  tip  short 
and  blunt. 

14.  Acrida  exaltata  (Walker)  (PI.  1,  fig.  N). 
— Dorsal  valve  broad,  slightly  more  than  three 
times  as  long  as  wide,  shorter  than  lateral 
apodeme;  ventral  valve  with  apical  tip  short, 
basal  sclerite  narrow  and  tuberculate;  mesial 
valve  slightly  dilated  apically. 

15.  Ceracris  nigricornls  Walker  (PI.  1,  fig. 
O). — Dorsal  valve  narrow,  four  times  as  long 
as  wide,  shorter  than  lateral  apodeme,  apical 


tip  blunt;  ventral  valve  with  apical  tip  long 
and  pointed,  slope  deeply  concave,  basal  scle- 
rite narrow. 

16.  Phlaeoba  infumafa  Brunner  (PI.  1,  fig. 
P). — Dorsal  valve  narrow,  slightly  more  than 
four  times  as  long  as  wide,  shorter  than  lateral 
apodeme;  ventral  valve  with  apical  tip  long 
and  pointed,  slope  deeply  cancave,  mesial  tooth 
truncated,  basal  sclerite  setose  on  apical  half; 
mesial  valve  blunt. 

17.  Xenocatantops  humilis  (Serville)  (PL  2, 
fig.  A). — Dorsal  valve  narrow,  more  than 
three  times  as  long  as  wide,  shorter  than  late- 
ral apodeme,  apical  tip  blunt;  ventral  valve 
with  apical  tip  long  and  pointed,  slope  deeply 
concave,  basal  sclerite  narrow  and  smooth; 
mesial  valve  dilated  apically. 

18.  Eucoptacra  praemorsa  (Stal)  (PI.  2,  fig. 
B). — Dorsal  valve  narrow,  more  than  four 
times  as  long  as  wide,  much  longer  than  late- 
ral apodeme,  apical  tip  long  and  blunt,  dorsal 
condyle  prominent;  ventral  valve  with  apical 
tip  long  and  pointed,  slope  deeply  concave, 
basal  sclerite  narrow. 

19.  Orthacanthacris  sp.  (PI.  2,  fig.  C). — 
Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad,  three  and  a 
half  times  as  long  as  wide,  shorter  than  lite- 
ral apodeme,  apical  tip  long  and  blunt,  dor- 
sal condyle  much  prominent;  ventral  valve 
with  apical  tip  blunt,  slope  concave,  basal 
sclerite  narrow  and  tuberculate;  mesial  valve 
dilated  apically. 

20.  Brachyxenia  scutifera  (Walker)  (PI.  2, 
fig.  D). — Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad,  less 
than  four  times  as  long  as  wide,  longer  than 
lateral  apodeme,  apical  tip  blunt;  ventral 
valve  with  apical  tip  acute,  basal  sclerite  punc- 
tate. 

21.  Caloptenopsis  glaucopsis  (Walker)  (PI. 
2,  fig.  E). — Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad, 
more  than  three  times  as  long  as  wide,  as 
long  as  lateral  apodeme,  apical  tip  blunt; 


578 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  1 

Usmani  & Shafee:  Indian  Grasshoppers 


Figs.  A-P.  Ovipositor  in  lateral  view:  (A)  Pyrgomorpha  conica  (Olivier);  (B)  Atarctomorpha 
crenulaia  (Fabricius);  (C)  Chrotogonus  trachypterus  (Blanchard);  (D)  Autarches  scabiosae 
(Fabricius);  (E)  Poekilocerus  pictus  (Fabricius);  (F)  Orthacris  ceylonica  (Kirby);  (G) 
Hieroglyphus  banian  (Fabricius);  (H)  Spathosternum  prasiniferum  (Walker);  (I)  Oxya  hyla 
Serville;  ( J)  Oxya  velox  (Fabricius) ; (K)  Choroedocus  robustus  (Serville) ; (L)  Eyprepoc- 
nemis  alacris  (Serville);  (M)  Acrida  turrita  (Linnaeus);  (N)  Acrida  exaltata  (Walker);  (O) 
Ceracris  nigricornis  Walker;  (P)  Phlaeoba  infumata  Brunner. 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 

Usmani  & Shafee:  Indian  Grasshoppers 


Plate  2 


Figs,  A-N.  Ovipositor  in  lateral  view:  (A)  Xenocatantops  humilis  (Serville);  (B)  Eucoptacra 
praemorsa  (Stal);  (C)  Orthacanthacris  sp.;  (D)  Brachyxenia  scutifera  (Walker);  (E)  Calo- 
ptenopsis  glaucopsis  (Walker);  (F)  Oedaleus  abruptus  (Thunberg) ; (G)  Aiolopus  affinis 
(Bolivar);  (H)  Acrotylus  humbertianus  Saussure;  (I)  Trilophidia  annulata  (Thunberg);  (J) 
Gastrimargus  transversus  (Thunberg);  (K)  Locusta  migratoria  (Linnaeus);  (L)  Morphacris 
citrina  Kirby;  (M)  Dociostaurus  decisus  (Walker);  (N)  Stauroderus  bicolor  (Charpentier). 


OVIPOSITOR  IN  INDIAN  GRASSHOPPERS 


ventral  valve  with  apical  tip  blunt,  slope  con- 
cave. 

22.  Oedaleus  abruptus  (Thunberg)  (PI.  2, 
fig.  F). — Dorsal  valve  broad,  slightly  less  than 
three  times  as  long  as  wide,  shorter  than 
lateral  apodeme,  apical  tip  blunt,  dorsal  con- 
dyle not  prominent;  ventral  valve  with  slope 
slightly  concave,  basal  sclerite  tuberculate; 
mesial  valve  with  apical  tip  blunt. 

23.  Aiolopus  affinis  (Bolivar)  (PI.  2,  fig.  G). 
— Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad,  more  than 
three  times  as  long  as  wide,  shorter  than  late- 
ral apodeme,  apical  tip  long  and  much  acute, 
dorsal  condyle  much  prominent;  ventral  valve 
with  apical  tip  long,  curved  and  pointed,  basal 
sclerite  punctuate. 

24.  Acrotylus  humbertianus  Saussure  (PI.  2, 
fig.  H). — Dorsal  valve  broad,  less  than  three 
times  as  long  as  wide,  much  shorter  than  late- 
ral apodeme,  apical  tip  long  and  acute,  dorsal 
condyle  much  prominent;  ventral  valve  with 
slope  deeply  concave,  basal  sclerite  narrow, 
setose  apically;  mesial  valve  with  apical  tip 
short. 

25.  Trilophidia  annulate  (Thunberg)  (PI.  2, 
fig.  I). — Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad,  slight- 
ly more  than  three  times  as  long  as  wide, 
slightly  shorter  than  lateral  apodeme,  apical 
tip  short  and  blunt,  dorsal  condyle  not  much 
prominent;  ventral  valve  with  apical  tip  short 
and  blunt,  basal  sclerite  well  developed,  tuber- 
culate apically;  mesial  valve  with  apical  tip 
of  medium  size. 

26.  Gastrimargus  transversus  (Thunberg) 
(PI.  2,  fig.  J). — Dorsal  valve  broad,  less  than 
three  times  as  long  as  wide,  as  long  as  lateral 
apodeme,  apical  tip  long  and  pointed,  dorsal 
condyle  prominent;  ventral  valve  with  slope 
deeply  concave,  mesial  tooth  broadly  truncat- 
ed, basal  sclerite  tuberculate;  mesial  valve 
much  dilated  apically. 

27.  Locusta  migratoria  (Linnaeus)  (PI.  2,  fig. 


K). — Dorsal  valve  uniformly  broad,  three  and 
a half  times  as  long  as  wide,  shorter  than 
lateral  apodeme,  apical  tip  short  and  acute, 
dorsal  condyle  blunt,  much  prominent;  ven- 
tral valve  with  slope  slightly  concave,  basal 
sclerite  broad  and  tuberculate. 

28.  Morphacris  citrina  Kirby  (PI.  2,  fig.  L). 
— Dorsal  valve  moderately  broad,  three  times 
as  long  as  wide,  shorter  than  lateral  apodeme, 
apical  tip  blunt,  dorsal  edge  with  small  tuber- 
cles, dorsal  condyle  blunt  and  much  promi- 
nent; ventral  valve  with  slope  slightly  con- 
cave, basal  sclerite  serrated;  mesial  valve  dilat- 
ed apically. 

29.  Dociostaurus  decisus  (Walker)  (PI.  2,  fig. 
M). — Dorsal  valve  broad,  three  times  as  long 
as  wide,  shorter  than  lateral  apodeme,  apical 
tip  short  and  blunt;  ventral  valve  with  apical 
tip  short,  mesial  tooth  well  developed. 

30.  Staurodenis  bicolor  (Charpentier)  (PI.  2, 
fig.  N). — Dorsal  valve  narrow,  more  than  three 
times  as  long  as  wide,  shorter  than  lateral 
apodeme;  ventral  valve  with  apical  tip  long 
and  pointed,  slope  tuberculate,  not  much 
curved,  basal  sclerite  broad  and  tuberculate; 
mesial  valve  dilated  apically. 

Discussion 

Comparative  study  of  ovipositor  in  thirty 
species  of  Acrididae  revealed  that  there  are 
certain  characters  i.e.  length  of  lateral  apo- 
deme and  shape  of  ovipositor  valves  have 
significant  value  in  separating  various  genera 
of  the  family  Acrididae.  Dorsal  valve  broad 
and  shorter  than  lateral  apodeme  in  Pyrgo- 
morpha,  Poekilocerus , Hieroglyphus,  Choroe- 
docus,  Acrida,  Orthacanthacris,  Oedaleus , Aio- 
lopus, Acrotylus,  Trilophidia,  Locusta,  Mor- 
phacris and  Dociostaurus;  dorsal  valve  narrow 
and  shorter  than  lateral  apodeme  in  Ceracris, 
Phlaeoba,  Xenocatantops  and  Stauroderus; 


579 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


dorsal  valve  broad  and  longer  than  lateral 
apodeme  in  Atractomorpha,  Aularches  and 
Brachyxenia;  dorsal  valve  narrow  and  longer 
than  lateral  apodeme  in  Orthacris,  Oxya  and 
Eucoptacra ; dorsal  valve  broad  and  as  long 
as  lateral  apodeme  in  Chrotogonus,  Spathoster- 
num,  Eyprepocnemis,  Caloptenopsis  and 
Gastrimargus. 

Refer 

Agarwala,  S.B.D.  (1951):  A comparative  study 
of  the  ovipositor  in  Acrididae.  Indian  J.  Ent.,  13: 
147-81. 

(1953):  A comparative  study 

of  the  ovipositor  in  Acrididae.  Indian  J.  Ent.,  15 : 
53-69. 

Mishchenko,  L.  L.  (1952):  Fauna  of  U.S.S.R. 
Orthoptera.  Locusts  and  Grasshoppers  (Catanto- 
pinae). Zool.  Inst.  Nauk  SSSR.  4:  1-560.  (Trans- 
lated from  Russian.) 

Qadri,  M.A.H.  (1940):  On  the  development  of 
genitalia  and  their  ducts  of  Orthopteroid  insects. 
Trans.  R.  ent.  Soc.  Lond.,  90:  121-175. 

Slifer,  E.  H.  (1939) : The  internal  genitalia  of 
female  Acridinae,  Oedipodinae  and  Paulininae 
(Orthoptera:  Acrididae).  J.  Morph.,  65:  437-469. 


Acknowledgements 

We  are  indebted  to  Prof.  S.  Mashhood 
Alam,  Head,  Department  of  Zoology,  Aligarh 
Muslim  University,  Aligarh  for  providing  re- 
search facilities.  Thanks  are  also  due  to  Prof. 
Nawab  H.  Khan  for  encouragement. 


ENCES 

Uvarov,  B.  P.  (1966):  Grasshoppers  and  Locusts. 
Cambridge.  1:  1-481. 

Willem se,  F.  (1967) : A preliminary  revision  of 
the  genus  Tauchiridea  I.  Bolivar,  1918  (Orth., 
Acridoidea,  Acrididae,  Oxyinae).  Publties  natuurh. 
Genoot.  Limburg.  17:  19-26. 

(1968) : Revision  of  the  genera 

Stenocatantops  and  Xenocatantops  (Orthoptera, 
Acridiidae.  Catantopinae) . Mon.  Ned.  Ent.  Ver.,  4: 
1-77. 

(1975):  Studies  on  the  Acridoid 

genera  Opiptacris  Walker  and  Bumacris  Willemse 
(Orthoptera,  Acridoidea).  Tijdschr.  Ent.,  118:  117- 
158. 

(1977)  : A study  on  the  genus 

Cranae  Stal  (Orthoptera,  Acridoidea,  Catantopinae). 
Tijdschr.  Ent.,  120:  121-152. 


580 


THE  BIRDS  OF  RANGANATHITTU 


S.  G.  Neginhal1 2 
{With  two  plates ) 


I N TROD  U CTIO  N 

Ranganathittu  Bird  Sanctuary,  near  Mysore, 
is  a well-known  heronry  of  south  India  where 
fourteen  species  breed  from  May  to  Novem- 
ber on  the  islets  of  the  Kaveri  river.  These 
are:  Openbill  stork  {Anastomus  oscitans). 

Eastern  Large  Egret  ( Egretta  alba).  Smaller 
or  Median  Egret  {Egretta  intermedia) , Little 
Egret  {Egretta  garzetta).  Cattle  Egret  {Bubul- 
cus  ibis).  White  Ibis  {Threskiornis  melanoce- 
phala).  Spoonbill  {Platalea  leucorodia),  Dar- 
ter or  Snake-bird  {Anhinga  rufa).  Large 
Cormorant  {Phalacrocorax  car  bo),  Indian 
Shag  {Phalacrocorax  fuscicollis),  Little  Cor- 
morant {Phalacrocorax  niger).  Night  Heron 
{Nycticorax  nycticorax),  Indian  Pond  Heron 
or  Paddy  bird  {Ardeola  grayii),  and  Eastern 
Purple  Heron  {Ardea  purpurea). 

From  November  onwards  other  birds  like 
the  Great  Stone  Plover  {Esacus  magnirostris) , 
the  Indian  River  Tern  {Sterna  aurantia ),  the 
Indian  Cliff  Swallow  {Hirundo  fluvicofa)  and 
the  Streaked  Weaver  Bird  {Ploceus  manyar) 
breed.  In  addition  the  Lesser  Whistling  Teal 
{Dendrocygna  javanica),  the  Pied  Kingfisher 
{Ceryle  rudis),  the  Whitenecked  Stork  {Cico- 
nia  episcopus),  the  Large  Pied  Wagtail  {Mota- 
cilla  maderaspatensis) , the  Osprey  {Pandion 
haliaetus) , and  the  Redwattled  Lapwing 

1 Accepted  July  1982. 

2 Deputy  Conservator  of  Forests,  Varahi  Utiliza- 
tion Division,  At  & Post  Thirthahalli-577  432,  Dist. 
Shimoga  (Karnataka). 


{Vanellus  indicus)  and  a variety  of  other 
birds  are  also  seen,  some  throughout  the  year, 
on  the  vegetation  growing  along  the  banks  of 
the  river. 

History.  At  Ranganathittu  there  is  an  ancient 
weir  across  the  Kaveri  river  to  impound  the 
waters  and  convey  through  an  aqueduct  to 
Srirangapatna,  a historical  and  ancient  island- 
town  nearby.  The  weir  and  the  aqueduct  were 
constructed  between  1645-1648  A.D.  during 
the  reign  of  Sri  Kanthirava  Narasaraj,  a king 
of  Mysore,  to  perpetuate  the  name  of  his 
favourite  consort  “Doddajamma”.  The  weir 
impounded  water  to  form  a large  and  deep  re- 
servoir and  has  a number  of  islets.  When 
exactly  the  birds  started  breeding  here  is  of 
course  not  recorded. 

The  islets  were  legally  constituted  as  a bird 
sanctuary  in  1940  at  the  suggestion  of  Salim 
Ali,  during  his  survey  of  the  birds  of  Mysore. 

Nesting  vegetation.  There  are  5-6  small  islets 
in  the  impounded  waters  of  the  Kaveri  river. 
These  islets  are  insulated  by  deep  waters  20-30 
ft  deep  and  bear  some  riverine  vegetation,  on 
which  the  birds  nest.  The  main  nesting  trees 
are  Terminalia  arjuna,  Pongamia  glabra , Salix 
sp.,  Vitex  sp..  Ficus  sp.,  Pandanus  and  Caesal- 
pinia  bonducella  tangles  and  rushes;  and  even 
sedges  form  the  nesting  vegetation  at  Ranga- 
nathittu. 

The  sanctuary  is  surrounded  by  irrigated 
agricultural  lands,  which  provide  the  feeding 
grounds  for  the  nesting  birds. 

Arrival  and  Breeding.  The  arrival  timings  of 
the  nesting  birds  at  Ranganathittu  varies  from 


581 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


year  to  year.  Naturally  the  birds  do  not  settle 
down  to  breed  unless  the  food  is  assured  to 
them,  which  at  Ranganathittu,  depends  upon 
the  release  of  the  K.R.S.  Dam  waters  by 
which  the  agricultural  fields  are  flooded  and 
prepared  for  planting  the  paddy  seedlings.  The 
commencement  of  the  rainy  season,  after  a 
long  dry  spell  of  the  summer,  decides  the 
commencement  of  the  breeding  season  of  the 
heronry  birds.  Even  then  the  arrival  and 
breeding  timings  of  the  various  species  of  the 
birds  are  not  the  same.  Some  birds  like  the 
Openbill  Storks  arrive  earlier  in  the  breeding 
season  and  some  like  the  Spoonbills  come 
later.  The  Table  gives  the  arrival  timings  of 
some  of  the  birds  that  breed  at  this  Sanctuary. 

Predation.  Crows  (both  Corvus  macrorhyn- 
chos  and  C.  splendens)  cause  heavy  damage 
to  the  eggs  and  nestlings  of  the  breeding  birds. 
At  Ranganathittu  boats  and  coracles  take 
visitors  around  the  islets  for  seeing  the 
heronry.  When  the  boats  and  coracles  go  very 
near,  the  breeding  birds  get  frightened  and 
fly  away  leaving  their  nests  unprotected.  The 
crows  anticipating  this  situation  follow  the 
boats  and  pillage  the  eggs  and  even  take  away 
the  nestlings  from  the  unguarded  nests. 

The  Brahminy  Kite  ( Haliastur  indus)  is 
also  sometimes  seen  taking  away  the  nestlings, 
but  not  the  eggs. 

During  the  breeding  season  the  Bonnet 
macaques  ( Macaca  radiata)  in  troops  swim 
across  the  river  to  the  islets  and  plunder  the 
eggs  from  the  nests.  The  Bonnet  monkeys 
cause  heavy  damage  to  the  birds.  The  tourists 
going  close  to  the  islets  in  the  boats  aggre- 
vate  the  situation  as  the  birds  leave  their  nests 
unprotected  against  the  monkey  damage.  The 
birds  ineffectively  jab  at  the  monkeys,  which 
simply  ignore  this  protest  and  pillage  and 
feed  on  the  eggs.  When  the  river  is  in  flood 


-a 


-a  -g 

Si  J— I i-H  »1 

cn  m cn  m 


a)  a>  d a>  o o kT 

g d g g g g 

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 


H 


73  "d 
Si  G 
m 


Qji  0) 

<3  gj 
£ £ 

tS  £ 

*-<  "tf- 


>>  <L>  4)  <D  <D  <D 

3 G G G G G 

^ 3 3 3 3 3 3 


e M M M 

G (U  0)  (U  <L) 

£ a>  a)  a) 

^ £ £ £ £ 


32  a>  d a>  a> 

32  G G G G 

3 3 3 3 


X!  Xi 


& & s * * 


<D 
G 

5 S S 


3 o O O O O 

S Z Z Z Z Z 


>»  >* 
3 3 


>*  >»  « 
3 3 G 


on 

.22 

o 

a) 

Oh 

C/5 


g «)  22  «i 

oo  W &x)  w IS 

w 

8>|  ® ■S  § 


(Tj  H CO 

O 


582 


THE  BIRDS  OF  RANGANATHITTU 


the  monkey  damage  is  averted  as  the  maca- 
ques cannot  swim  in  the  turbulent  river.  The 
climax  of  the  egg  laying  period  takes  place 
when  the  river  is  in  spate,  which  prevents 
damage  from  monkeys  to  a great  extent. 

Floods.  Within  about  ten  miles  upstream  of 
the  Sanctuary  a big  dam  known  as  K.R.S. 
dam  occurs  across  the  Kaveri  River.  The  im- 
pounded waters  are,  from  time  to  time,  re- 
leased for  irrigation.  This  sudden  release  of 
waters  causes  heavy  damage  to  the  breeding 
birds  by  washing  away  the  low  built  nests  and 
the  nesting  vegetation.  Sometimes  even  some 
portions  of  the  islets  are  washed  away. 

When  the  birds  arrive  for  breeding  in  the 
months  of  May  and  June  the  water  level  of 
the  river  is  low.  The  birds  build  their  nests  on 
all  the  vegetation  including  the  low  vegetation. 
In  the  months  of  late  July,  August  and  early 
September  there  will  be  floods  due  to  release 
of  waters  from  the  upstream  reservoir,  which 
wash  away  all  the  low  built  nests. 

Median,  Little  and  Cattle  Egrets  and  the 
Night  and  Pond  Herons  are  much  affected 
by  the  floods,  as  they  nest  at  lower  levels. 
Openbill  storks.  White  Ibis,  Cormorants  and 
Darter  are  not  much  affected  by  the  floods,  as 
they  nest  above  the  flood  level. 

Inter  and  intra  specific  relationships.  The 
birds  nest  in  their  own  separate  colonies,  oc- 
cupying the  same  niches  year  after  year.  This 
tendency  for  segregation  and  sticking  to  almost 
permanent  niches  for  nesting  naturally  avoids 
to  a great  extent  interspecific  competition 
amongst  various  species,  although  some  com- 
petition cannot  be  ruled  out  at  the  fringes. 

As  the  birds  nest  in  segregated  colonies, 
with  closely  packed  nests,  intra-specific  com- 
petitions and  fights  do  take  place  to  some 
extent,  although  the  birds  are  by  and  large  not 
aggressive. 


Departure  and  migration.  By  end  of  Octo- 
ber the  water  flow  in  the  river  is  much  re- 
duced. Release  of  water  into  the  canals  is 
also  stopped.  The  paddy  fields  are  dry.  The 
young  birds  are  also  sufficiently  grown  to  take 
care  of  themselves.  This  is  the  time  when  most 
of  the  heronry  birds,  that  bred,  leave  the 
Sanctuary;  and  by  November  most  of  the 
birds  are  gone. 

As  the  water  in  the  river  is  much  reduced 
by  November  the  sheet  rocks  and  boulders 
in  the  river  are  exposed  and  on  these  birds 
like  the  Great  Stone  Plover  ( Esacus  magniro- 
stris)  and  the  Indian  River  Tern  ( Sterna 
aurantia ) breed. 

It  is  not  known  from  where  the  heronry 
birds  come  to  Ranganathittu  for  breeding  and 
to  where  they  go  after  breeding.  To  study 
this,  ringing  of  the  young  was  taken  up  in 
September  1975  with  the  help  of  the  Bombay 
Natural  History  Society.  Recovery  reports  are 
not  yet  reported. 

Crocodiles  and  other  animals.  Marsh  Croco- 
diles ( Crocodylus  palustris ) also  breed  at 
Ranganathittu.  They  are  often  seen  basking 
on  the  exposed  sheet  rocks  in  winter  (Novem- 
ber to  February).  Otters  ( Lutra  sp.)  are  occa- 
sionally seen.  Fruit  Bats  ( Pteropus  giganteus) 
roost  in  hundreds  during  day  time  on  some 
of  the  larger  trees  along  the  bank  of  the  river 
and  on  the  main  island  where  the  heronry 
birds  do  not  breed.  Ranganathittu  is  also  a 
Sanctuary  for  fish;  and  thirteen  species  are 
known  to  breed. 

Tourism.  The  heronry  attracts  annually 
about  a lakh  of  tourists.  Boats  and  cora- 
cles are  provided  to  take  the  visitors  on 
the  river  for  rowing  round  the  islets  to  see  the 
breeding  birds.  The  money  collected  for  en- 
trance, boating,  photography  etc.  from  the 
visitors,  forms  a sizable  revenue. 


583 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Notes  on  breeding  birds 
Open  bill  Stork  ( Anastomus  oscitans) 

With  the  onset  of  premonsoon  showers  in 
May /June  about  200  Openbills  come  for  breed- 
ing at  Ranganathittu.  They  nest  almost  ex- 
clusively on  a lone,  medium  sized,  Terminalia 
arjuna  tree  that  stands  in  mid-river.  Some 
Openbills  also  nest  on  low  growing  Ficus 
glomerata,  Pongamia  glabra  and  Pandanus 
plants  that  also  stand  in  water.  The  Termina - 
Iia  arjuna  tree  holds  the  main  colony.  Un- 
occupied spaces  on  the  trees  are  utilised  for 
nesting  by  some  Egrets,  Darters,  Little  Cor- 
morants, Night  Herons  and  Pond  Herons  (the 
last  three  species  inside  the  foliage).  . 

When  the  Openbills  arrive  in  May /June 
their  plumage  is  snow-white  except  the  deep 
purplish  (greenish  tinged)  remiges  and  char- 
coal black  tail.  Later  as  the  season  advances 
the  snow-white  coat  changes  gradually  to 
light  grey,  which  looks  dirty.  The  change  of 
colour  from  white  coat  to  light-grey  coat  is 
so  natural  and  gradual  that  one  misses  it. 
When  the  Openbills  commence  building  nests, 
which  is  usually  by  the  end  of  3rd  week  or 
beginning  of  4th  week  of  June,  all  have  snow- 
white  coat.  This  white-coat  continues  through- 
out July,  when  about  50%  of  them  will  have 
laid  eggs  and  others  will  be  building  nests. 
The  birds  start  turning  greyish  as  the  incuba- 
tion period  advances  and  by  the  3rd  week 
of  August  about  50%  of  the  birds  would  have 
become  grey  and  the  remaining  50%  would 
be  turning  grey.  A few  may  remain  (ten  seen 
in  August  1977)  in  pure  white  plumage.  By 
end  of  August  all  breeding  birds  would  have 
turned  light  grey,  by  which  time  they  will 
have  chicks  in  the  nest.  One  bird  with  white 
coat  was  seen  as  late  as  in  the  1st  week  of 
September  in  1977,  when  all  others  had  turn- 
ed light  grey,  but  this  had  no  nest.  Again  by 


January  onwards  the  greyish  coat  starts  turn- 
ing whitish;  and  this  process  of  change  of 
colour  continues  upto  April,  as  seen  from 
some  birds  remaining  in  the  sanctuary. 

The  young  from  the  nestling  stage  to  sub- 
adult have  light  greyish  colour.  When  the  sub- 
adults become  adults  (in  the  next  year)  i.e., 
when  the  gap  in  their  bills  becomes  promi- 
nent, they  also  commence  putting  on  the 
white  coat  of  maturity  by  late  June. 

In  1975  the  Openbills  were  seen  mating  on 
1 5-vi- 1 975  and  commenced  nesting  on  21-vi- 
1975.  Matings  were  seen  upto  2-viii- 1975. 

Kahl  (1970)  has  recorded  for  Bharatpur 
that  the  Openbills  regurgitate  a quantity  of 
water  over  the  eggs.  This  was  not  observed  at 
Ranganathittu. 

The  Openbills  normally  raise  only  one 
brood  at  Ranganathittu.  A few  also  raise  a 
second  brood,  if  their  first  clutch  of  eggs  is 
pillaged  by  the  macaques  and  crows.  As  these 
birds  nest  at  a higher  level  i.e.,  well  above 
the  flood  level,  they  are  not  affected  by  floods, 
which  destroy  the  low  built  nests  of  other  birds 
at  this  sanctuary.  So  most  of  the  Openbills  do 
not  have  the  need  to  raise  a second  brood. 

A few  juveniles  with  undeveloped  gap  or 
just  developing  gap  in  their  bills  are  seen  to 
accompany  adult  Openbills,  that  come  for 
breeding  at  Ranganathittu,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  breeding  season  (such  sub-adults,  how- 
ever, number  hardly  about  5 to  10  each  year). 

From  the  third  week  of  August  onwards 
chicks  are  seen  and  the  parents  make  several 
sorties  to  feed  the  chicks.  One  of  the  pair 
always  stands  as  a sentry  over  the  chicks  till 
the  other  partner  returns  with  food.  In  August, 
September  and  October,  when  the  days  are 
hot,  the  parents,  protect  the  young  against  the 
sun  by  providing  shade  with  their  half  or  fully 
spread  wings.  In  some  nests  both  the  eggs  and 
chicks  are  seen  together,  which  fact  explains 


Os  -a 
is.  X 
. o3 
U C 
O 03 
CO  feO 
G 

g oj 


H 
C 
fc  • = 
CO 

< 4h‘ 
« 03 

s 

c 

5b 

o3 


« 


Left — A bove : Openbills  in  their  white  nupital  coat,  as  they  arrive  for  breeding.  The  one  at  the  centre,  by  the 
side  of  White  Ibis,  is  having  grey  coat.  Below : White  Ibises  busily  engaged  in  nesting  on  low  bushes. 

Right — Above:  A Spoonbill  incubating  at  its  nest  on  a Pandanus  thicket.  Below:  Little  Cormorants  on  a Salix 
plant. 

(Photos:  5.  G.  Neglnhal ) 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  II 

Naginhal:  Birds  of  Ranganathittu 


u a> 

0 cu 

^ QJ 

. <U 

< M 

• • 

£ 00 
o ^ 
o 

oq  a) 


It! 


fl  T3 

o c 

co  «* 
a) 

G ^ 

1 1 
Cu  o 


>>  a> 


15  O 

a5  O 
'G  N 


co  O 
<U  co 

G 


00  -£ 

.5 

Vh 

cd  3 
•§.2 
5 > 

•a  jg 

■ai 


S g> 

o .S 
to  £ 

43  | 

3 £ 

“ go 

§ - 

S > 

^ o 


0) 

g 

oo  o 

<u  co 

<u  +-* 
co  oj 

3 £ 

4-1  a 

oo 

a> 


o o 

u 

a ^ 


c I 

J3  S’ 

03 

00  ^ 
G 

3 on 


^ I 

-C5 


•S  3 

43  * 


THE  BIRDS  OF  RANGAN  ATHITTU 


the  size-difference  later  seen  in  the  fledglings 
in  some  cases  (normally  all  the  young  ones 
in  a nest  are  uniformly  sized). 

When  boats  carry  visitors  very  near  to  the 
nesting  trees,  the  parent  birds  move  or  fly 
away  from  their  nests.  The  crows  (both 
House  and  Jungle)  at  this  moment  rob  the 
eggs  and  the  young  chicks.  The  parent  birds, 
even  if  perching  within  a distance  of  one 
metre  of  their  nests  do  not  defend  their  nests 
in  such  circumstances.  But  if  men  clear  out  at 
once,  the  birds  immediately  rush  back  to  their 
nests  and  scare  away  the  crows.  If  in  the  mean 
time  the  crows  have  done  damage  to  the  eggs, 
the  parent  birds  pick  up  such  broken  eggs 
in  their  bills  and  throw  them  out.  I have  also 
seen  parent  birds  threatening  the  crows  com- 
ing near  their  nests  and  protecting  the  nestl- 
ings by  covering  them  with  their  slightly  spread 
out  wings,  if  men  are  not  nearby  in  boats. 

The  Openbill  fledglings  stay  in  their  nests 
and  are  dependent  on  their  parents  for  a lon- 
ger time  than  those  of  other  species.  The 
parents  were  seen  to  feed  them  at  their  nests, 
in  some  cases,  as  late  as  December- January 
long  after  other  breeding  birds  had  left  the 
Sanctuary. 

The  fledglings  spend  most  of  their  time  in 
the  nests  unlike  the  fledglings  of  other  species 
and  over  70%  of  the  fledglings  are  at  their 
nests  as  late  as  November.  From  November 
onwards  the  parents  are  away  most  of  the 
time  of  the  day  outside  the  sanctuary,  leaving 
the  young  to  spend  time  by  themselves  in  the 
Sanctuary. 

As  soon  as  the  parents  land  down  at  the  nest 
(at  times  even  earlier  as  the  fledglings  sight  their 
parents  in  the  sky)  the  fledglings  stand  in  a semi- 
circle and  commence  squealing,  and  till  the 
food  is  regurgitated  on  to  the  floor  of  the  nest 
the  fledglings  keep  on  squealing  and  moan- 
ing. They  half  open  their  wings,  raise  the  tail- 


feathers  and  move  the  head  up  and  down, 
pointing  to  and  hitting  with  their  bills  on  the 
floor  of  the  nest.  If  the  parent  does  not  disgorge 
the  food  early,  the  young  peck  at  the  feet  and 
bill  of  the  parent  and  again  hit  the  floor  of 
the  nest  with  their  bill.  The  squealing  conti- 
nues till  regurgitation  takes  place,  on  which 
the  young  feed  noisily  and  greedily.  The 
parent  regurgitates  food  rapidly  several  times 
at  the  centre  of  the  nest.  Quite  often,  when  the 
parents  of  adjoining  nests  land  at  their  nests, 
the  young  first  commence  their  routine  squeal- 
ing but  later  stop  when  they  realise  their 
mistake. 

Once  I saw  a parent  Openbill  coming  to  its 
nest  and  feeding  its  three  young  ones  by  re- 
gurgitating. At  this  juncture  a grown  up  fledg- 
ling came  quite  close  to  this  bird.  The  parent 
Openbill  immediately  started  jabbing  at  the 
intruding  fledgling.  A little  later  the  fledgling 
again  slowly  and  steadily  approached  the 
parent  bird,  submissively  squealing  and  the 
parent  this  time  kept  quiet.  This  intruding 
fledgling  might  have  been  of  the  parent’s 
earlier  clutch  (this  is  quite  rare)  or  an  orphan, 
which  perhaps  survives  by  getting  food  this 
way. 

In  some  nests,  if  a second  brood  was  be- 
ing raised  on  account  of  damage  to  the  earlier 
clutch  by  monkeys  or  by  crows,  a senior 
fledgling  is  often  seen  along  with  the  younger 
brood  of  the  second  clutch.  This  senior  fledgl- 
ing on  many  occasions  is  pestered  by  the 
junior  fledglings  for  food,  which  are  seen  col- 
lecting in  a semi-circle  around  the  senior 
fledgling  and  ceremoniously  demanding  food. 
If  the  senior  has  become  a juvenile,  it  may 
even  try  to  feed  the  younger  fledglings  of  its 
nest,  in  the  absence  of  its  parents  who  are 
out  foraging.  In  mid  January  1976,  I observed 
one  sub-adult  (without  the  development  of  the 
gap  in  the  bill)  Openbill  bringing  a small 


585 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


round  shelled  mollusc  in  its  bill  to  a nest.  As 
soon  as  it  landed  on  its  nest  another  youn- 
ger fledgling  that  was  already  in  the  nest  start- 
ed ceremoniously  demanding  food.  The  sub- 
adult that  had  brought  the  food  obliged.  It 
was  also  seen  disgorging  other  food.  Both  the 
parents  of  this  nest  had  gone  out,  when  this 
happened. 

The  fledglings  of  one  nest  do  not  steal  the 
food  of  the  adjoining  nests,  but  wait  for  their 
own  parents  to  come  and  feed  them. 

The  frequency  of  feeding  of  the  young 
ones  is  much  reduced  from  November  on- 
wards, and  the  fledglings  are  left  to  themselves 
most  of  the  day.  By  January  most  of  the 
fledglings  leave  their  nests  and  spend  time  on 
the  rocks  in  the  river.  Later  they  roost  in  the 
evening  on  river-side  trees  up-stream  with  adult 
Openbills  and  other  species. 

Initially,  as  the  Openbills  start  breeding 
there  is  not  much  of  intra-specific  competi- 
tion, but  as  more  birds  come  the  competi- 
tion to  occupy  nesting  sites  sets  in.  In  such 
circumstances  the  birds  were  observed  fight- 
ing amongst  themselves  by  jabbing  and  peck- 
ing at  each  other. 

In  October  1976  nests  of  three  pairs  of 
Openbills  were  seen  on  a bough  of  a tree, 
built  very  near  to  each  other.  All  three  nests 
had  three  nestlings  in  their  nests  and  were 
covered  by  a parent  bird  in  each  nest.  The 
parent  bird  in  the  middle  nest  was  observed 
pecking  at  the  bills  of  the  parent  birds  stand- 
ing in  their  respective  nests,  on  either  side 
whenever  these  two  birds  positioned  them- 
selves close  to  the  middle  nest. 

Sometimes  the  Openbills  suddenly  erupt  into 
quarrels  amongst  themselves  for  reasons 
best  known  to  themselves.  On  one  occasion, 
two  Openbills,  of  one  nest  and  two  of  an 
adjoining  nest  suddenly  started  jabbing  at  each 


other  without  any  apparent  reason.  Both 
nests  had  eggs. 

The  fledglings  are  also  seen  to  defend  their 
nests  against  the  fledglings  of  adjoining  nest 
if  they  inadvertently  intrude. 

Egrets 

Ranganathittu  provides  rare  opportunities 
for  studying  the  breeding  behaviour  of  four 
Egrets  namely  E.  alba,  E.  intermedia,  E. 
garzetta  and  Bubulcus  ibis.  These  birds  offer 
an  added  charm  to  this  heronry  with  their 
attractive  breeding  plumage.  Together  they 
form  the  majority  of  the  breeding  birds  of 
this  heronry.  Amongst  themselves  E.  interme- 
dia and  E.  garzetta  form  the  majority. 

Eastern  large  egret  ( Egretta  alba) 

No  detailed  study  has  been  done  on  the 
food  habits  of  these  birds  at  Ranganathittu. 
It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in  September 
1975,  while  ringing  young  ones  of  the  breed- 
ing birds  at  Ranganathittu,  a nestling  of  a 
Large  Egret  while  being  handled  disgorged 
from  its  crop,  seventy  eight  fish  fry  due  to 
fright.  Another  nestling  vomited  some  fish  fry 
and  a half  digested  small  crab. 

The  birds  put  on  two  attractive  nuptial 
costumes  during  the  breeding  season  namely 
snow-white  dorsal  plumes  and  beautiful  blue 
colour  on  the  lores  and  orbital  skin  (Salim 
Ali  1968).  These  plumes  are  often  kept  erect 
and  spread  out  during  courtship  and  nidifica- 
tion  periods.  The  intra-  and  inter-specific 
competition  for  acquiring  and  defending  nest- 
ing sites  also  provoke  these  birds  to  spread 
out  the  plumes.  The  plumes  adorn  the  birds 
right  from  their  arrival  in  May /June  to  middle 
of  August,  when  they  will  have  nestlings. 
Later  they  disappear.  The  blue  colour  of  the 
orbital  skin  does  not  last  long.  It  is  bright  blue 


586 


THE  BIRDS  OF  RANGANATHITTU 


in  May/ June  and  starts  fading  and  reducing 
as  soon  as  the  birds  have  eggs  by  the  middle 
or  third  week  of  July.  By  the  time  the  birds 
have  nestlings,  the  blue  colour  completely 
fades  in  the  fourth  week  of  July  and  dis- 
appears by  the  third  week  of  August. 

The  birds  do  not  segregate  but  nest  in 
association  with  Openbill  Storks,  Median  and 
Cattle  Egrets,  Night  Herons,  Paddy  birds  and 
Darters.  They  prefer  the  low  Pandanus  thic- 
kets to  the  tall  trees  for  nesting. 

Mating  is  seen  in  the  months  of  May  /June 
as  soon  as  they  come  for  breeding. 

In  July  1976,  I saw  a Large  Egret,  with 
blue  coloured  lores,  attempting  to  mount  a 
Median  Egret,  with  Yellowish-orange  coloured 
lores.  The  latter  obliged  without  protesting  and 
the  male  Large  Egret  had  mounted  the  female 
Median  Egret,  but  before  the  copulation  could 
take  place  another  Large  Egret  with  the  blue 
lores  came  and  drove  away  the  mounting  Large 
Egret.  This  incident  suggests  the  possibility  of 
occurrence  of  inter-species  mating  between 
Large  and  Median  Egrets. 

Both  sexes  take  part  in  incubation.  One  of 
the  parents  is  always  at  the  nest  when  they 
have  eggs  or  nestlings.  The  nestlings  soon 
grow  into  fledglings,  and  when  they  are  large 
enough  to  be  beyond  predation  both  the 
parents  were  observed  going  out  for  foraging. 
While  the  parents  are  away  the  fledglings  leave 
their  nests  and  take  shelter  in  the  foliage  of 
the  nesting  plants  till  their  parents  return  to 
feed  them.  When  the  days  are  hot  (34-35°C.) 
the  parents  shield  their  nestlings  against  the 
sun  by  providing  shade  with  their  half  open 
wings. 

Whenever  troops  of  macaques  raided  the 
Large  Egrets  were  seen  squealing  and  pro- 
testing and  even  jabbing  at  the  monkeys.  Once 
after  the  monkeys  had  left  a Pandanus  thicket 
after  pillaging  the  nests,  a Large  Egret  was 


seen  returning  to  its  nest  and  picking  and 
throwing  into  the  river  its  damaged  eggs. 

Smaller  or  Median  Egret  Egretta  intermedia 

Birds  with  both  black  iris  with  a white  ring 
and  birds  with  reddish  iris  without  the  white 
ring  were  seen.  Whether  these  characters  in- 
dicate sex  difference  needs  to  be  studied. 

The  Median  Egrets  develop  attractive 
Yellowish-orange  colour  on  the  orbital  skin 
and  on  the  lores  during  the  breeding  season. 
The  birds  have  this  bright  nuptial  colour  from 
May /June  to  end  of  July.  As  the  birds  lay 
eggs  the  yellowish-orange  colour  on  the  lores 
starts  fading  and  reducing  in  area.  By  the 
time  they  start  having  chicks  a much  faded 
yellowish  colour  remains  on  the  skin  around 
their  eyes,  and  by  end  of  August  the  colour 
completely  disappears.  Unlike  the  Large 
Egrets,  the  Median  Egrets  develop  nuptial 
plumes  both  on  the  back  and  on  the  breast, 
the  latter  being  shorter.  The  nuptial  plumes 
are  often  kept  erect  to  look  like  “Misty- 
showers”.  The  birds  have  the  plumes  from 
the  fourth  week  of  April  to  end  of  August, 
when  they  normally  have  chicks  in  the  nest. 

These  birds  nest  gregariously  in  association 
with  the  Little  Egrets,  almost  at  ground  level, 
on  the  low  thorny  tangles  of  Caesalpinia  bon- 
ducella  growing  on  the  “Rain-tree  island”. 
Some  of  these  birds  also  nest  in  a scattered 
way  on  small  trees  and  on  Pandanus  thickets 
in  association  with  other  birds. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  these  birds 
(Little  Egrets  too)  collect  the  floating  grass, 
straw,  tiny  twigs  and  sticks,  that  come  down 
the  river  in  the  floods,  for  constructing  the 
nests,  in  addition  to  the  nesting  material  that 
they  bring  from  outside.  They  fly  low  over 
the  water  and  pick  up  the  floating  and  drift- 
ing nesting  material  with  their  bills. 

Initially  when  these  birds  arrive  for  breed- 


587 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


ing,  the  heronry  resounds  to  their  croaking 
sounds  while  they  jealously  defend  their  nest- 
ing places. 

When  the  Bonnet  monkeys  raid  the  islets 
the  Median  Egrets  jab  and  lunge  at  the  mon- 
keys, keeping  erect  their  plumes.  They  go  on 
squealing  and  croaking  till  the  intruders  vacate 
the  islets.  On  one  occasion  four  Median  Egrets 
were  observed  unitedly  jabbing  at  a raiding 
macaque. 

Little  Egret  Egretta  garzetta 

Little  Egrets  come  in  more  numbers  to  breed 
at  Ranganathittu  than  the  other  Egrets.  They 
have  yellow  feet  as  a rule,  but  a few  have  pink 
feet  also. 

Two  long  nuchal  plumes  (nuptial  plumes) 
adorn  these  birds  from  about  third  week  of 
April  to  end  of  August,  by  which  time  they 
have  chicks.  The  orbital  skin  also  gets  light 
greenish  yellow  in  colour,  which  is  not  so 
prominent  as  that  of  the  breeding  Large  and 
Median  Egrets.  (Birds  with  pink  feet  develop 
pink  colour  on  the  orbital  skin.) 

These  Egrets  nest  gregariously  on  the  low 
Caesalpinia  bonducella  tangles,  on  “Rain-tree 
islet”  in  association  with  the  Median  Egrets. 
Some  also  nest  among  other  birds.  The  Little 
Egrets  also  collect  the  floating  and  drifting 
nesting  materials. 

Little  Egrets  are  comparatively  more  aggres- 
sive than  the  other  Egrets.  They  were  ob- 
served vociferously  acquiring  and  defending 
their  roosting  and  nesting  territories. 

As  already  stated  a few  Little  Egrets  (3-4 
pairs)  with  pink  feet  and  pink  lores  and  pink 
orbital  skin  were  observed  coming  to  Ranga- 
nathittu for  breeding.  They  bred  separately  — 
not  mixing  with  the  normal  Little  Egrets  with 
yellow  feet.  They  have  two  long  nuchal  plumes 
also,  and  shed  these  after  the  breeding  is  over. 


Cattle  Egret  Bubulcus  ibis 

The  birds  start  turning  golden  buff  (their 
nuptial  costume)  by  early  or  middle  of  March. 
The  buff  colour  first  covers  the  face  and  neck 
and  then  slowly  spreads  on  the  back  and 
breast.  After  the  peak  of  the  breeding  season 
is  over,  the  bright  buff  coat  starts  fading.  By 
first  week  of  October,  when  the  birds  have 
fledglings,  these  become  almost  white;  and  by 
end  of  October  the  birds  turn  snow-white 
again. 

By  the  second  week  of  June  the  birds  com- 
mence nesting.  They  do  not  nest  gregariously 
but  in  association  with  other  Egrets,  Night 
and  Pond  Herons.  The  Cattle  Egrets  very 
jealously  guard  their  nests. 

White  Ibis  Threskiornis  melanocephala 

The  white  ibis  nest  gregariously  on  low 
vegetation.  Such  of  the  birds  that  come  late 
in  the  breeding  season  even  nest  in  communes 
on  the  bare  ground  of  “Rain-Tree  islet.”  This 
was  observed  in  1973  and  1975  when  a large 
number  of  white  ibises  came  for  breeding.  They 
nested  gregariously  on  the  ground  using  a bare 
minimum  of  twigs  and  some  had  laid  eggs  on 
the  ground  without  even  forming  nests! 

Most  of  the  hatchlings  are  seen  in  August. 
The  hatchlings  grow  remarkably  fast  into  fair- 
ly large  sized  nestlings  within  a week.  When 
hardly  one  month  old,  they  start  crawling 
about  and  get  mixed  up  with  the  young  ones 
of  adjoining  nests  of  their  kind. 

In  October  the  grown  up  juveniles  are  seen 
flying  around  and  spending  their  time  in  groups 
on  the  exposed  sheet  rocks  of  the  river,  feed- 
ing by  themselves  on  titbits  till  their  parents 
come  and  feed  them. 

Spoonbill  Platalea  leucorodia 

Only  6 to  7 pairs  come  to  Ranganathittu 
for  breeding.  Their  number  has  remained  re- 


588 


THE  BIRDS  OF  RANGANATHITTU 


markably  constant  through  out  these  years. 

These  birds  come  quite  late  in  the  season 
and  seem  to  be  exacting  in  their  requirement 
of  breeding  conditions.  Unless  favourable  con- 
ditions are  available,  they  do  not  take  up 
nesting  and  may  even  skip  a year  without 
breeding,  if  proper  conditions  are  not  avail- 
able. This  happened  in  1976,  when  five  pairs 
of  spoonbills  were  seen  but  none  nested. 
Floods  seem  to  have  some  bearing  on 
breeding  of  these  birds  at  Ranganathittu.  Ini- 
tially on  arrival  they  are  seen  spending  their 
time  by  standing  and  dozing  on  the  rocks  and 
plants.  As  soon  as  the  river  is  in  spate  they 
spring  into  action  and  commence  nesting. 

Spoonbills  have  a favourite  nesting  place  at 
Ranganathittu,  where  they  nest  on  low  grow- 
ing shrubbery,  at  a corner  of  ‘Rain-tree’  island, 
segregating  into  their  own  colony,  with  no 
other  birds  nesting  nearby.  But  this  traditional 
place-  was  temporarily  abandoned  in  1975, 
when  the  unusual  floods  washed  away  their 
nests  and  eggs. 

Cormorants  Phalacrocorax  sp. 

Three  Species  of  Cormorants  come  to  Ran- 
ganathittu. Large  Cormorant  ( Phalacrocorax 
carbo)\  Indian  Shag  ( Phalacrocorax  fuscicol- 
lis)’.  Little  Cormorant  {Phalacrocorax  niger). 

Little  Cormorants  in  hundreds  come  and 
roost  at  Ranganathittu,  but  only  about  fifty 
pairs  breed  here  in  the  season.  Large  Cormo- 
rants and  the  Indian  Shag  irregularly  breed. 
In  the  years  1972  and  1973  only  2-3  pairs  of 
Large  Cormorants  nested  and  although  a few 
pairs  came  from  1974  to  1977  they  did  not 
nest.  The  Indian  Shags  also  irregularly  nest. 
Between  the  years  1972  and  1977  the  Indian 
Shag  nested  (six  pairs)  only  in  1976,  which 
was  surprisingly  a drought  year,  when  mon- 
soons failed  and  the  river  did  not  flood. 

Little  Cormorants  commence  nesting  earlier 


than  the  other  two  Cormorants  in  June/ July. 
The  Large  Cormorants  and  the  Shags  nest 
later  in  August/ September.  Little  Cormorants 
nest  on  medium  sized  trees  in  association  with 
Darters,  Egrets,  Openbill  Storks  etc. 

The  Indian  Shag  has  a tendency  to  segre- 
gate and  is  found  nesting  on  the  Salix  on 
‘Salix’  islet,  on  which  the  Darters  also  nest. 
The  Large  Cormorants  build  their  nests  on 
the  lone  large-sized  Rain-tree  {Pithecolobium 
saman ) on  Rain-tree  islet.  In  addition  to 
bringing  nesting  materials  from  the  round 
about  areas,  the  Little  Cormorants  were  also 
observed  collecting  nesting  materials  that  come 
drifting  down  the  river. 

Darter  or  Snake-bird  Anhinga  rufa 

The  Darter  prefers  the  low  growing  Salix 
trees  for  nesting.  They  nest  gregariously. 
Some  birds  also  nest  in  association  with  other 
birds.  These  (Night  and  pond  Herons  also) 
commence  nesting  earlier  than  other  birds. 
By  middle  of  April  they  are  seen  thumping 
down  the  vegetation  to  make  their  tops  flat 
to  begin  the  nesting  and  within  a week  their 
nests  would  be  almost  half  ready.  Nidification 
may  be  postponed  to  May  or  June  depending 
on  monsoon  conditions.  At  the  time  of  nest- 
ing, and  even  a little  earlier,  these  birds  be- 
come noisy,  and  call  repeatedly  with  a “Keke- 
Ko,  Keke-Ko”.  They  also  keep  erect  their 
nuptial  silvery-grey  plumes  on  their  back  while 
defending  their  nesting  sites  and  nests.  They 
are  more  vociferous  in  April/May;  and  in 
later  months  they  become  almost  silent.  By 
middle  of  May  they  are  seen  incubating  in 
their  nests  with  their  long  necks  and  tails 
projecting  outside  their  nests. 

Both  sexes  take  part  in  nest  building  and 
other  activities.  The  birds  also  collect  floating 
twigs  for  nesting  (in  addition  to  fetching 

589 


7 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


material  from  outside).  The  snow-white  nestl- 
ings turn  grey  as  they  grow  into  fledglings. 

Night  Heron  Nycticorax  nycticorax 

These  crepuscular  birds  become  conspicu- 
ously diurnal  during  the  breeding  season.  The 
Night  Herons  are  seen  sitting  and  suspicious- 
ly staring  at  the  intruders  with  their  large 
blood  red  eyes,  their  general  coloration  so 
naturally  blending  with  the  vegetation  that, 
unless  they  fly,  they  are  not  easily  sighted.  The 
birds  which  are  silent  during  the  day,  be- 
come noisy  at  dusk;  and  commence  flying 
noisily  about  giving  out  a harsh  “Kwaclc, 
Kwack”  call.  Night  Herons  are  seen  foraging 
in  the  freshly  transplanted  paddy  fields.  While 
ringing,  a fledgling  disgorged  quite  a big  fish, 
remarkable  for  the  fledgling’s  small  size.  These 
birds  (and  Little  and  Cattle  Egrets  also)  are 
at  times  seen  around  Crocodiles  that  bask  on 
the  rocks,  perhaps  to  feed  on  the  ecto- 
parasites. 

The  two  long  nuptial  plumes  (nuchal)  are 
kept  erect  during  various  competitive  and 
aggressive  activities  of  the  breeding  birds. 
Although  nidification  activities  are  mostly  seen 
in  the  afternoons,  the  birds  are  sometimes 
observed  carrying  nesting  twigs  even  during 
the  mid  day.  The  birds  vehemently  defend 
their  nesting  sites  against  other  birds.  They 
prefer  Pandanus  breaks  for  nesting,  and  nest 
gregariously  in  association  with  other  birds. 
Though  some  birds  are  seen  with  eggs  as  early 
as  the  third  week  of  March,  the  birds  gene- 
rally commence  nesting  in  April /May. 

The  Night  Herons  defend  their  nests  against 
Crows  and  Bonnet  Monkeys  by  fluffing  out 
their  feathers,  raising  their  crest  feathers  and 
jabbing.  They  squeal  and  protest  till  the  mon- 
keys move  away  from  their  nests. 

These  birds  do  not  easily  give  up  their 
drowning  nests  during  floods.  They  sit  tightly 


on  their  nests,  till  the  rising  waters  forcefully 
drag  away  the  nests.  During  floods  I saw 
many  of  these  birds  sitting  tightly  on  their 
nests,  which  were  lifted  off  by  the  rising 
waters  and  were  being  carried  away  down 
stream.  The  Night  Herons  floated  down  the 
river  sitting  on  their  nests  and  only  when  their 
nests  disintegrated  did  they  fly  off. 

Indian  Pond  Heron  or  Paddy  Bird 

Ardeola  grayii 

The  Pond  Heron  has  an  attractive  bluish 
colour  to  its  orbital  skin  and  looks  handsome 
with  its  changed  nuptial  colour  of  dark  red- 
dish colour  during  the  breeding  season. 

Pond  Herons  favour  Pandanus  thickets  for 
nesting.  They  repair  the  previous-season’s  nests 
for  breeding  in  addition  to  building  new  ones. 
They  nest  in  loose  association  with  Night 
Herons  and  Egrets,  and  occupy  the  lower  and 
interior  portions  of  the  vegetation  (like  the 
Night  Herons)  for  nesting. 

Eastern  Purple  Heron  Ardea  purpurea 

These  are  very  shy  birds,  and  at  the  sight 
of  man,  even  from  a distance  they  fly  away 
inconspicuously  without  making  any  sound. 
Only  in  1977  did  I spot  the  Purple  Heron 
breeding  a little  distance  upstream  from  the 
main  islets  on  which  other  birds  normally 
bred.  It  was  a chance  discovery.  The  Purple 
Herons  gregariously  nest  in  exclusive  colo- 
nies, on  Pandanus  thickets  that  stand  in  the 
river.  The  birds  nest  on  the  top  of  the  Pan- 
danus after  flattening  the  leaves.  The  nests  are 
markedly  small  in  size  compared  to  the  birds’ 
large  size.  The  light  blue  eggs  are  quite  big. 
I have  observed  these  birds  incubating  from 
January  to  June. 

As  one  goes  in  the  boat  to  the  nesting 
colony  of  Purple  Herons,  the  birds  leave  their 
nests  unprotected  and  go  and  perch  on  nearby 


590 


THE  BIRDS  OF  RANGANATHITTU 


trees,  watching  the  intruders.  However  when 
crows  come  to  take  advantage  of  this  situa- 
tion to  rob  the  nests,  the  Purple  Herons  im- 
mediately return  to  their  nests  to  protect  their 
nests,  if  the  men  in  the  boat  are  reasonably 
away  or  prudently  withdraw.  While  returning 
to  protect  their  nests,  the  birds  give  out  a 
peculiar  protesting  harsh  ‘honks’  with  the 
plumes  on  their  crest  (nuptial)  raised.  They 
jab  at  the  crows  and  drive  them  away. 

Great  Stone  Plover  Esacus  magnirosiris 

Great  Stone  Plovers  commence  breeding  at 
Ranganathittu  after  the  breeding  season  of  the 
heronry  birds  is  over.  As  the  river  recedes, 
(soon  after  the  monsoons  are  over)  these 
birds  appear  on  the  exposed  sheet  rocks,  on 
which  they  breed.  They  are  often  seen  dur- 
ing the  day  dozing  and  drowsing  on  the  rocks, 
surrounded  by  water.  If  men  in  boats  go  to- 
wards them,  they  fly  giving  out  agitated 
and  quick  “Kill-ick,  Kill-ick,  Kill-ick”  calls  in 
quick  succession. 

One  to  two  eggs  (two  common)  are  laid 
on  the  bare  sheet  rocks  surrounded  by  deep 
water,  in  the  middle  of  the  river.  Sometimes 
eggs  are  laid  at  the  base  of  short  grasses 
growing  on  the  rocks.  The  eggs  are  at  times 
seen  surrounded  by  dry  fallen  leaves  of  near- 
by shrubbery.  The  nests  cannot  be  easily 
traced  out  although  in  the  open,  the  camou- 
flage being  so  perfect.  As  the  incubation 
advances  the  eggs  become  smudged  and  cover- 
ed with  red  and  white  coloured  excreta.  This 
makes  the  surroundings  so  natural  that  the 
eggs  are  not  easily  spotted  by  nest-robbers. 

I have  seen  these  birds  with  eggs  in  all  the 
months  from  November  to  March.  While  one 
of  the  parents  is  incubating,  the  other  is 
usually  found  nearby  squatting  and  dozing. 
The  birds  are  very  timid  and  wary.  On  near 
approach  the  incubating  birds  get  up  and 


start  running  from  one  end  of  the  rock  to 
the  other  calling  with  a deep  whistling  note 
and  keeping  watch  over  the  intruder’s  move- 
ments. Ultimately  they  fly  away  taking  a long 
semi-circle,  but  keep  watch  on  the  intruder 
from  a distant  rock.  If  a crow  tries  to  take 
advantage  of  the  situation,  the  birds  imme- 
diately return  to  their  nests  to  protect  the 
eggs  (if  we  clear  out  in  the  meantime).  The 
nesting  River  Terns  ( Sterna  aurantia)  in  the 
vicinity  offer  added  indirect  protection  to  the 
nests  of  these  birds,  as  the  River  Terns  vehe- 
mentally  drive  away  any  intruder  coming  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  their  nests.  Once  a pair 
of  River  Terns  were  seen  attacking  even  a 
nearby  Great  Stone  Plover  which  was  incubat- 
ing in  its  nest.  The  Stone  Plover  fanned  out 
its  tail  and  ducked  several  times  to  avoid  the 
attack  of  the  River  Terns. 

Salim  Ali  (1969)  states  that  the  incubation 
period  of  the  Great  Stone  Plover  has  remain- 
ed undetermined.  However  from  my  field 
observations  I deduce  the  incubation  period 
of  the  birds  to  be  28  days. 

While  I was  the  Curator,  Mysore  Zoo  a 
Great  Stone  Plover  had  laid  an  egg  on  28-1- 
1978,  which  hatched  on  26-2-78.  So  the  in- 
cubation period  at  the  Zoo  was  also  28  days. 

Even  one  day  old  chicks  are  marvellously 
active.  They  run  about  quite  fast  on  the  rocks. 
They  can  also  swim  quite  swiftly  and  easily 
and  go  from  one  rock  to  the  other,  when 
followed.  They  lie  doggo  either  floating  in 
water  or  on  the  rocks  with  their  eyes  wide 
open,  watching  the  activities  of  the  intruders. 
Their  ccdour  so  perfectly  camouflages  that 
hours  of  searching  may  be  futile,  even  when 
the  nestlings  are  quite  close  by.  As  the  boats 
go  near  the  nesting  rocks  the  parents  give  a 
cautioning  deep  whistling  and  the  nestlings 
freeze,  A nestling  was  observed  lying  doggo 
for  full  two  hours.  Once  a one  day  old  chick 


591 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


was  observed  swimming  in  water  and  going 
from  one  rock  to  the  other  continuously  for 
45  minutes.  Even  a fortnight  old  nestling  sud- 
denly hides  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks,  on 
hearing  the  cautioning  whistle  of  their  parents 
on  the  approach  of  intruders.  They  feign  death 
without  moving  but  with  eyes  wide  open.  They 
do  not  move  even  after  one  takes  them  in 
one’s  hand  and  even  after  keeping  them  back 
on  the  rock.  They  are  amazingly  immobile  for 
an  indefinite  time  till  the  intruders  clear  out. 

At  the  Mysore  Zoo  I observed  the  strange 
behaviour  of  a captive  pair  of  adult  Great 
Stone  Plovers.  On  entering  the  cage  the  pair 
used  to  come  and  attack  the  cage  keeper  and 
others  by  keeping  their  wings  horizontally 
spread  out  and  their  tail  feathers  fanned  out. 
I soon  found  the  reason  for  this  strange  be- 
haviour. The  pair  was  trying  to  protect  their 
false  egg;  a roundish  stone  of  their  egg  size. 
As  the  cage  keeper  with  a broom  went  near 
this  stone,  on  which  one  of  the  birds  was 
squatting  as  if  to  incubate,  it  used  to  issue  out 
hissing  sounds  and  fly  up  at  his  face.  On  keep- 
ing the  broom  on  the  ground  the  bird  would 
vehementally  pull  out  the  long  leaves  of  Agave 
plants  planted  inside  the  cage  with  its  bill. 
A re-directed  action!  This  behaviour  was  not, 
however,  observed  in  the  wild  at  Rangana- 
thittu,  where  the  birds  were  very  timid,  though 
I went  very  near  to  the  nests.  The  parents  used 
to  stand  far  away  on  other  rocks  observing  my 
activities. 

Indian  River  Tern  Sterna  aurantia 

River  Terns  are  seen  at  Ranganathittu  by 
October  after  the  main  breeding  season  of 
the  heronry  birds  is  over.  At  this  time  the 
waters  become  still  as  the  river  almost  stops 
flowing;  and  the  River  Terns  are  seen  flying 
over  the  Ranganathittu  reservoir  in  an  “Up 
and  down”  manner,  or  are  found  sitting  on 


rocks.  The  birds  commence  pairing  by  Nov- 
ember, and  then  become  noisy. 

In  the  natural  depressions  of  bare  rocks 
exposed  by  the  receding  water,  in  the  midst 
of  the  Ranganathittu  reservoir,  the  River  Terns 
lay  eggs.  Sometimes  gravel  may  be  found 
around  the  eggs,  which  help  to  prevent  the 
eggs  rolling  down  into  the  water.  Year  after 
year  the  same  rocks  and  depressions,  even 
when  disturbed  are  used  for  laying  eggs. 

Two  to  three  eggs  are  laid  in  each  clutch. 
More  than  one  brood  is  raised  in  each  season. 
Even  when  the  fledgling  of  the  first  clutch  is 
present,  the  parents  start  the  second  clutch. 
The  eggs  are  seen  from  January  to  May  and 
are  smaller  in  size  compared  to  the  eggs  of 
the  Great  Stone  Plovers. 

The  chicks  freeze  in  the  depressions  of  the 
rocks  on  hearing  the  warning  calls  from  their 
parents  on  the  near  approach  of  men.  Their 
greyish  colour  perfectly  camouflages  with  the 
greyish  colour  of  the  nesting  rocks.  As  the 
chicks  are  on  bare  hot  rocks  they  need  to  be 
kept  cool  by  the  parents.  So  one  of  the  parents 
is  always  at  the  nest  keeping  the  chicks  below 
its  breast  and  thereby  giving  protection  against 
the  hot  sun.  The  parents  are  also  seen  flying 
very  low  over  water  and  grazing  against  the 
water-surface,  keeping  their  wings  horizontally 
stretched,  to  wet  their  feet,  stomach  and 
breast.  After  this  skating  on  water-surface,  the 
parents  fly  back  and  settle  on  their  nests,  put- 
ting the  chicks  below  their  wet  breast  and 
stomach  to  moisten  them.  This  helps  them  to 
considerably  cool  their  chicks  and  the  hot 
rocks  below.  The  chicks  also  appear  to  lick 
the  wet  breast  feathers  of  their  parents  to 
quench  their  thirst.  This  grazing  flight  is  also 
performed  as  a re-directed  action  against  in- 
truders. The  nestlings  were  observed  calling 
to  their  parents  flying  above  them  with  a 
whistling  note. 


592 


THE  BIRDS  OF  RANGAN ATHITTU 


The  hatchlings  were  not  observed  swimming 
immediately  on  hatching,  as  the  hatchlings 
of  the  Great  Stone  Plovers  do.  However  3-4 
days  old  chicks  enter  water  and  paddle  at 
the  sight  of  approaching  human  beings.  Some 
nestlings  even  took  15  days  to  get  into  water 
and  swim.  They  would  helplessly  stand  at  their 
nests  even  without  running.  The  nestlings  have 
slightly  developed  webbed  feet,  which  help 
them  to  paddle  and  later  swim  in  water.  When 
their  young  get  into  water  and  start  swimming 
from  rock  to  rock  to  evade  approaching 
human  beings,  the  parents  follow  them  in  the 
air  giving  out  anxious  assuring  notes.  The 
nestlings  lie  doggo  and  feign  death  till  the 
observers  move  away.  Even  swimming  nestl- 
ings are  observed  to  feign  death  by  becoming 
absolutely  immobile  and  freezing  and  floating 
in  the  water,  keeping  their  eyes  wide  open. 


till  the  observers  move  away.  When  the  young 
are  about  23  to  25  days  age  they  commence 
flying  from  rock  to  rock.  Both  parents  con- 
tinue taking  care  even  after  the  young  start 
flying.  Even  when  the  parents  raise  their 
second  clutch  the  fledglings  are  seen  resting 
by  the  side  of  the  incubating  parents,  and 
even  at  this  stage  they  are  dependent  upon 
their  parents  for  food. 

The  River  Terns  jealously  guard  their  nests 
and  the  young.  Inspite  of  this,  crows  rob  the 
eggs.  How  the  crows  manage  to  penetrate  the 
surveillance  of  the  terns  is  an  unobserved 
mystery  to  me.  However  in  many  cases  the 
eggs  are  lost  before  hatching.  Bonnet  monkeys 
and  perhaps  otters,  may  also  cause  damage. 
In  addition  many  of  the  second  and  third 
clutches  are  washed  off  by  the  unpredictable 
premonsoonic  showers. 


References 

Ali,  Salim  and  Ripley,  S.  D.  (1968) : Handbook  Kahl,  M.  P.  (1970):  Observations  on  the  Breed- 
of  the  Birds  of  India  and  Pakistan.  Vol.  I.  Bombay  ing  of  Storks  in  India  and  Ceylon.  J.  Bombay  nat. 
Oxford  Univ.  Press.  Hist.  Soc.  67:  454-456. 


593 


MATERIAL  FOR  THE  FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR— 4 


P.  V.  Bole  and  M. 
[continued  from  Vol. 


Asteraceae 

4. 

16. 

1. 

All  florets  on  the  same  head  bearing  same 

16. 

colour 

17. 

2. 

All  florets  orange,  yellow  or 

white  3 

18. 

3. 

All  florets  orange  

19. 

3. 

All  florets  yellow  or  white  . 

4 

19. 

4. 

All  florets  white  

5 

18. 

5. 

Florets  in  same  head  either 

all  ligulate  or  all 

20. 

tubular 

6 

21. 

6. 

Florets  all  ligulate  

22. 

6. 

Florets  all  tubular 

7 

22. 

7. 

Stems  with  white  cottony 
pubescens 

21. 

7. 

Stems  without  white  cottony  pubescens 8 

20. 

8. 

Stems  glabrous,  prostrate  or 
spreading  

23. 

8. 

Stems  pubescent;  plants  erect 

9 

23. 

9. 

Leaves  alternate  

10 

10. 

Heads  collected  in  globose  or 

ovoid 

17. 

clusters  

24. 

10. 

Heads  not  collected  in  globose  or  ovoid 

25. 

clusters 

11 

11. 

Pappus  absent  

Artemisia  (p.p.) 

25. 

11. 

Pappus  present 

24. 

9. 

Leaves  opposite  

12 

26. 

12. 

Involucral  bracts  very  acute,  ribbed  on  the 

27. 

back,  ciliolate  and  scarious  on  the 

27. 

margins  

28. 

12. 

Involucral  bracts  obtuse  or  sub-acute,  glabrous, 

glandular  or  scabrid;  margins 

not 

28. 

scabrous  

5. 

Inner  and  outer  florets  in  the 

same  head 

29. 

different 

13 

29. 

13. 

Leaves  sessile  

30. 

13. 

Leaves  petiolate 

14 

14. 

Palea  narrow;  pappus  of  2-4  spreading 

30. 

awns 

. . Bidens  (p.  p.) 

14. 

Palea  concave;  pappus  0 or 

of  few  unequal 

26. 

acute  scales 

15 

31. 

15. 

Achenes  ciliate;  pappus  0 . . 

Spilanthes 

15. 

Achenes  not  ciliate;  pappus  of  few 

32. 

scales 

33. 

R.  Almeida 
79(2): 323] 


All  florets  yellow 16 

Achenes  curved,  muricate  Calendula 

Achenes  not  curved,  not  muricate  17 

Leaves  lobed  18 

Plants  with  radical  leaves  19 

Pappus  absent Cyathocline 

Pappus  present Sonchus  (p.  p.) 

Plants  without  radical  leaves  20 

Leaves  alternate 21 

Florets  either  all  ligulate  or  all  tubular 22 

Florets  all  ligulate Sonchus  (p.  p.) 

Florets  all  tubular  Artemisia  (p.  p.) 

Outer  florets  ligulate, 

inner  tubular Senecio  (p.  p.) 

Leaves  opposite 23 

Pappus  of  2-4  retrorsely  hispid 

hairs Bidens  (p.  p.) 

Pappus  of  many  aristate,  feathery 

bristles  Tridax 

Leaves  entire  or  serrate,  not  lobed  24 

Radical  leaves  present  25 

Florets  outer  ligulate,  inner 

tubular  Senecio  (p.  p.) 

Florets  all  ligulate  Sonchus  (p.  p.) 

Radical  leaves  absent  26 

Leaves  opposite  27 

Achenes  ciliate  Spilanthes  (p.  p.) 

Achenes  not  ciliate  28 

Achenes  of  ray  florets 

cuneiform  Blainvillea  (p.  p.) 

Achenes  of  ray  florets 

not  cuneiform  29 

Achenes  of  two  types  Synedrela 

Achenes  of  one  type  30 

Achenes  longitudinally  ribbed; 

pappus  absent  Guizotia 

Achenes  not  ribbed;  pappus  a ciliolate 

ring  Wedelia 

Leaves  alternate  31 

Outer  florets  ligulate, 

inner  tubular  32 

Leaves  sessile  or  subsessile  33 

Anther  bases  obtuse  entire  Conyza 


594 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


33 . Anther  bases  variously  tailed  or  sagittate ....  34 

34.  Involucral  bracts  1-2  seriate, 

equal  Senecio  (p.  p.) 

34.  Involucral  bracts  many-seriate, 

unequal  Vicoa 

32.  Leaves  petiolate 35 

35.  Achenes  of  the  disc  florets  truncate, 

triquetrous 36 

36.  Pappus  of  2-5  unequal 

bristles Blainvillea  (p.  p.) 

36.  Pappus  of  15-20  fimbriate  scales Galinsoga 

35.  Achenes  of  the  disc  florets  not 

triquetrous 37 

37.  Achenes  5-10  ribbed  Senecio  (p.  p.) 

37.  Achenes  not  ribbed 38 

38.  Heads  less  than  2 cm  across Vicoa 

38.  Heads  more  than  10  cm  across Helianthus 

31.  Florets  all  tubular,  or  tubular  and 

ligulate  in  the  same  head,  but  ligulate  ones 
are  small  and  inconspicuous 39 

39.  Leaves  petiolate 40 

40.  Pappus  absent Artemisia  (p.  p.) 

40.  Pappus  present 41 

41 . Pappus  copious  Notonia  (p.  p.) 

41.  Pappus  uniseriate,  slender  . . . .Blumea  (p.  p.) 

39.  Leaves  sessile  or  subsessile  42 

42.  Pappus  absent Artemisia  (p.  p.) 

42.  Pappus  present  43 

43.  Pappus  many  seriate Notonia  (p.  p.) 

43.  Pappus  1-2  seriate 44 

44.  Anther  bases  obtuse,  entire Conyza 

44.  Anther  bases  sagittate  45 

45.  Heads  solitary  Blumea  (p.  p.) 

45.  Heads  in  clusters  Gnaphaiium 

2.  Florets  in  the  head  red,  pink,  purple, 

violet  or  blue 46 

46.  All  leaves  sessile  47 

47.  Anthers  tailed  Eupatorium 

47.  Anthers  not  tailed  48 

48 . Receptacle  densely  bristly  Carthamus 

48.  Receptacle  not  densely  bristly  .....49 

49.  Leaves  all  radical  Elephantopus 

49.  Leaves  all  not  radical  50 

50.  Leaves  white  tomentose  beneath  Vernonia 

50.  Leaves  not  white  tomentose  beneath  51 

51.  Pappus  absent  or  of  few  short  hairs  52 

52.  Involucral  bracts  scarious  Tricholepis 

52.  Involucral  bracts  not  scarious  Adenoon 

51.  Pappus  present  Vernonia  (p.  p.) 

46.  All  leaves  petiolate  .53 


53.  Leaves  dense  white  tomentum  beneath  54 

54.  Achenes  8-10  ribbed  Centratherum 

54.  Achenes  not  ribbed  Lamprachenium 

53.  Leaves  without  white  tomentum  55 

55.  Fruits  covered  with  hard  spines Xanthium 

55.  Fruits  not  covered  with  hard  spines  56 

56.  Leaves  opposite  Ageratum  (p.  p.) 

56.  Leaves  alternate  57 

57.  Pappus  uniseriate Blumea  (p.  p.) 

57.  Pappus  2-many  seriate  Vernonia  (p.  p.) 

1 . Florets  in  same  head  with  two  or  more 

colours 58 

58.  Leaves  compound  Bidens  (p.  p.) 

58.  Leaves  simple 59 

59.  Florets  all  tubular Artemisia  (p.  p.) 

59.  Outer  florets  ligulate,  inner  tubular  60 

60.  All  leaves  petiolate  Dichrocephala 

60 . Leaves  cauline  and  sessile  Erigeron 

Adenoon  Dalzell 

1.  Adenoon  indicum  Dalz.  in  Kew  Journ. 
Hot.  2:344,  1850;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  121;  FBI 
3:299;  Birdwood,  16;  Cooke,  T.  650  & 2:9  (2: 
64);  Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

Frequent  herb  on  exposed  hill-slopes  near 
Lingmala.  Rarely  seen  at  Bhilar  Estate,  Arthur 
seat  and  behind  Madhu  Kosh. 

flowers  & fruits:  October-November. 
local  names:  Kusamb,  Mothi  Sonki. 

Adenostemma  Forst. 

1.  Adenostemma  lavenia  (Linn.)  O.  Kuntze, 
Rev.  Gen.  PI.  304,  1891;  Santapau,  124. 
Verbesina  lavenia  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  902,  1753. 

A.  viscosum  Forst.,  Char.  Gen.  90,  1776;  Graham, 
98;  FBI  3:  242;  Birdwood,  16;  Cooke,  650  & 2: 
13  (2:  69);  Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

A.  latifolium  Don.  Prodr.  FI.  Nepal.  181,  1825. 
Wight,  Icon.  t.  1087;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  122. 

A.  rivale  Dalz.  in  Kew  J.  Bot.  3:  231,  1851. 
Common  herb  along  the  edges  of  the  forests 
and  along  the  water  courses.  Quite  common 
at  Kate’s  point,  Wilson  point,  Lodwick  point. 


595 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Madhu  Kosh,  Fitzgerald  ghat  and  Folkland 
point,  but  nowhere  it  is  abundant. 

flowers  & fruits:  October-December. 

local  name:  Jungli  jira. 

Ageratum  Linn. 

1 . Leaves  cordate  at  base;  margins  deeply  crenate, 

not  ciliate  A.  houstonianum 

1.  Leaves  blunt  or  rounded  at  base,  narrowing 
into  the  petiole;  margins  crenately  dentate, 
ciliate A.  conyzoides 

1.  Ageratum  conyzoides  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  839, 
1753;  Graham,  243;  FBI  3:  243;  Cooke,  T. 
650  & 2:14  (2:70):  Lisboa,  215;  Birdwood, 
16;  Puri  & Mahajan,  124. 

Common  weed  of  wastelands  in  white 
flowers.  Whole  plant  has  some  unpleasant 
smell  and  locally  applied  for  healing  cuts  and 
wounds  by  local  people. 

flowering:  Throughout  the  year. 

local  names:  Osadi,  Ghanera 

localities:  Chinaman’s  Falls,  Petit  Road. 

2.  Ageratum  haustonianum  Mill.,  Gard. 
Diet.  ed.  8,  no.  2,  1768. 

An  erect  herb  common  in  wet  places  near 
Chinaman’s  falls.  Flowers  blue  in  colour. 

flower  : August-December. 

localities:  Madhu  Kosh,  Chinaman’s  Falls, 
Dhobi’s  Falls. 

Anaphalis  DC. 

Dr  H.  M.  Birdwood  (1897)  has  reported 
Anaphalis  oblonga  DC.,  in  his  catalogue.  We 
have  not  seen  this  species  at  Mahabaleshwar 

* Clements  R.  Markham,  ‘Peruvian  Bark’,  A popu- 
lar Account  of  the  introduction  of  Cinchona  culti- 
vation into  British  India.  Chapter  VIII.  The  Maha- 
baleshwar Hills,  pp.  384-386,  1880. 


and  there  is  no  reliable  specimen  in  any  of 
the  herbaria  consulted. 

Artemisia  Linn. 


1.  Disc  flowers  sterile  A.  parviflora 

1.  Disc  florets  fertile  A.  nilagirica 


1.  Artemisia  nilagirica  (Clarke)  Pampanini. 
in  Nov.  Giorn.  Bot.  Ital.  33:  452,  1926. 

A.  vulgaris  var.  nilagirica  Clarke,  Comp.  Ind.  162, 

1876. 

A.  vulgaris  auct.  ( non  Linn.,  1753)  Hook  f.  in 

Flora  Brit.  India,  3:  325,  1881;  Cooke,  T.  2:  47  (2: 

105);  Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

A.  indica  Graham,  Cat.  Bombay  PI.  102,  1839 
{non  Willd.  1801);  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  112;  Markham* 

386. 

A common  undershrub  in  grasslands  and 
along  roadsides.  Abundant  at  Bhilar  Estate. 

There  is  a certain  amount  of  confusion  re- 
garding the  nomenclature  of  this  species.  J.  D. 
Hooker  in  Flora  of  British  India  (vol.  3:  325, 
1881),  gives  a long  synonymy  under  Artemisia 
vulgaris  Linn.  Rev.  Fr.  Santapau,  in  FI.  Khan- 
dala  (ed.  3,  p.  134,  1967)  states  “Pampanini 
(loc.  cit.)  has  demonstrated  that  none  of  the 
Indian  species  of  Artemisia  corresponds  to  the 
European  A.  vulgaris  of  the  Linnaean  herba- 
rium, and  in  this  case  the  oldest  name  for  the 
plant  is  that  of  Clarke,  which  is  therefore 
raised  to  specific  rank”.  J.  D.  Hooker  while 
merging  Artemisia  grata  Wall,  ex  DC.  from 
western  peninsula  with  A.  vulgaria  expresses 
his  inability  to  separate  these  two  species  ex- 
cept that  A.  grata  has  broader  leaves.  There- 
fore we  feel  Artemisia  grata  Wall,  ex  DC.  is 
the  oldest  name  for  our  western  peninsular 
species. 

flowers  & fruits:  October- January. 

2.  Artemisia  parviflora  Buch-Ham.  ex 
Roxb.  FI.  Ind.  3:420,  1832;  Dalz.  & Gibs. 
314;  Birdwood,  16;  FBI  3:322;  *Markham, 


596 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


386;  Cooke,  T.  650  & 2:47  (2:104);  Puri  & 
Mahajan,  125. 

A.  glabrata  DC,  in  Wight,  Contr.  20,  1834;  Wight, 
Icon.  t.  1111. 

Common  undershrub  among  the  grasses. 
Very  common  at  Bhilar  Estate. 

local  name:  Dauna. 

flowers  & fruits:  October- April. 

1.  Bidens  biternata  (Lour.)  Merrill  & 
Sherff  ex  Sherff,  Bot.  Gaz.  88:293,  2929;  San- 
tapau,  FI.  Purandhar,  68,  1957. 

Coreopsis  biternata  Lour.,  FI.  Cochinch.  508,  1790. 

B.  pilosa  auct.  (non  Linn.,  1753)  Hook  f.,  in 
Flora  Brit.  India  3:  309,  1881;  Cooke,  T.  650  & 
2:44  (2:101);  Birdwood,  16. 

B.  wallichii  DC.,  Prodr.  5:  598,  1837;  Graham, 
101;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  128. 

Common  weed  in  wastelands  and  among 
grasses  at  Lingmala  and  Bhilar  Estate. 

flowers  & fruits:  October- April. 
Blainvillea  Cass. 

1.  Blainvillea  acmella  (Linn.)  Philipson, 
Blumea  6:  350,  1950;  Chavan  & Oza,  FI.  Pava- 
garh,  125,  1966. 

Verbesina  acmella  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  901,  1753. 

Eclipta  latifolia  Linn.  f.  Suppl.  PI.  378,  1781. 

B.  latifolia  (Linn,  f.)  DC.  in  Wight  Contr.  Bot. 
Ind.  17,  1834;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  127;  FBI  3:  305. 

B.  rhomboidea  Cass,  in  Diet.  Sc.  Nat.  29:  494. 
1823:  Cooke,  T 2:40  (2:97). 

Rare  species  in  wastelands  and  along  road- 
sides. 

flowers  & fruits:  September-December. 

Blumea  DC.  (nom.  cons.) 

1 .  Plants  densely  white  wooly  all  over  

B.  malcomii 

1 . Plants  glabrate  or  pubescent,  never  wooly  all 

over  2 

2.  Phyllaries  at  least  the  outer  oblong-ovate  to 

oblong-lanceolate  B.  lanceolata 

var.  spectabilis 


2.  All  phyllaries  linear  or  linear-lanceolate 3 

3.  Capitula  glomerate  B.  fistulosa 

3.  Capitula  paniculate 4 

4.  Leaves  spinous-toothed;  corolla  of  both  types 

of  florets  hairy 5 

5.  Heads  in  sessile,  axillary  clusters  

B.  belangeriana 

5.  Heads  in  pedunculate  clusters  6 

6.  Plants  erect  B.  eriantha 

6.  Plants  prostrate  B.  oxyodonta 

4.  Leaves  not  spinous-toothed;  corollas  of 

female  florets  glabrous 7 

7.  Achenes  ribbed 8 

8.  Plants  glabrate  B.  virens 

8.  Plants  pubescent  or  glandular 

hairy B.  membranacea 

7.  Achenes  sub-angulate  to  terete  9 

9.  Leaves  usually  not  lobed;  corollas  purple  , to 

lilac B.  mollis 

9.  Leaves  often  lyrate;  corollas 

yellow  B.  lacera 

1.  Blumea  belangeriana  DC.,  Prodr.  5:444, 
1936;  FBI  3:266;  Cooke,  T.  2:22  (2:78); 
Randeria,  Blumea  10(1) : 277,  1960. 

Rare  species  at  Mahabaleshwar. 
flowers  : December-February. 

2.  Blumea  eriantha  DC.  in  Wight,  Contrib. 
Bot.  Ind.  15,  1834;  FBI  3:266;  Cooke,  T.  2: 
22  (2:78);  Randeria  Blumea,  10(1) :279,  1960. 

Common  along  road-sides  and  in  open  forest 
areas. 

flowers:  December-March. 
local  name:  Nimurdi. 

3.  Blumea  fistulosa  (Roxb.)  Kurz.,  Jour. 
As.  Soc.  Bengal,  46(2):  187,  1897;  Randeria, 
Blumea  10(1):256,  1960. 

B.  glomerata  DC.  in  Wight  Contrib.,  15,  1834; 
Dalz.  & Gibs.  125;  FBI  3:  262;  Cooke,  T.  2:  20 
(2:  76),  Birdwood,  16. 

B.  holosericea  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay  Flora  126, 
1861  (non  DC.,  1834). 

This  species  is  included  here  on  authority 
of  Birdwood.  Cooke  in  Flora  of  Bombay  Pre- 


597 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


sidency  reports  it  on  the  authority  of  Dalzell 
& Gibson  only. 

local  name:  Bhamburda. 

4.  Blumea  lacera  (Burm.  f.)  DC.  in  Wight 
Contrib.  14,  1834;  Graham,  97;  FBI  3:263; 
Cooke,  T.  2:20  (2:76);  Randeria,  Blumea 
10(1):  264,  1960. 

Conyza  lacera  Burm.  f.,  FI.  Ind.  180.  t.  59,  f.  1, 

1768. 

B.  leptocladea  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay  FI.  126, 

1861  (non  DC.,  1834). 

Rare  species  at  Mahabaleshwar. 

flowers  : September- J anuary . 

local  name:  Burando. 

5.  Blumea  Sanceolata  (Roxb.)  Druce  var. 
spectabilis  (DC.)  Randeria  in  Blumea  10(1): 
220,  1960. 

B.  spectabilis  DC.,  Prodr.  5:  445,  1836;  FBI  3: 

269;  Cooke,  T.  2:  23  (2:  79). 

There  is  only  one  specimen  of  this  species 
from  Mahabaleshwar  in  Blatter  Herbarium. 
Collected  by  L.  J.  Sedgwick. 

flowers:  January. 

6.  Blumea  malcolmii  (Clarke)  Hook  f.  in 
Flora  Brit.  India  3:266;  1881;  Birdwood,  16: 
Crooke,  T.  2:22  (2:78);  Puri  & Mahajan,  125; 
Randeria,  Blumea  10(1) :278,  1960. 

Pluchea  malcolmii  C.  B.  Clarke,  Comp.  Ind.  95, 

1876. 

Rare  herb  among  rocky  places  along  Fitz- 
gerald Ghat.  Common  near  Chinaman’s  falls. 

flowers:  October-March. 

7.  Blumea  membranacea  DC.,  Prodr.  5: 
440,  1836;  FBI  3:265;  Cooke,  T.  2:21  (2:77); 
Randeria,  Blumea  10(1):  269,  1960. 

Common  and  abundant  herb  on  earthbanks 
on  Fitzgerald  Ghat. 


flowers  : December-March. 
local  name:  Mharbir. 

7.  Blumea  mollis  (Don)  Merrill,  Phil.  Jour. 
Sci.  Bot.  5:256,  1910;  Randeria,  Blumea  10 
(1) :261,  1960. 

Erigeron  molle  D.  Don,  Prodr.  172,  1825. 

B.  wightiana  DC.  in  Wight  Contrib.  14,  1834; 
FBI  3:26;  Cooke,  T.  2:  19  (2:75). 

Rare  species  at  Mahabaleshwar  near  Ling- 
mala. 

flowers:  December-January. 

8.  Blumea  oxyodonta  DC.  in  Wight  Con- 
trib. Bot.  Ind.  15,  1834;  FBI  3:266;  Cooke, 
T.  2:21  (2:77);  Randeria  Blumea,  10  (1):280, 
1960,  Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

Rare  species  at  Mahabaleshwar.  Only  known 
from  a single  collection. 

flowers:  March. 

9.  Blumea  virens  DC.  in  Wight,  Contrib. 
Bot.  Ind.  14,  1834;  FBI  3:264;  Cooke,  T.  2: 
21  (2:77);  Randeria,  Blumea  10  (1):272, 
1960. 

Rare  species. 
flowers:  May- June. 

Caesulia  Roxb. 

1.  Caesulia  axillaris  Roxb.,  Pi.  Cor.  1:64, 
t.  93,  1795;  Graham,  96;  Dalz.  Gibs.  126; 
Wight,  Icon.  t.  1102;  FBI  3:  291;  Cooke,  T. 
2:35  (2:92);  Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

Rare  species  at  Mahabaleshwar,  in  damp 
places  and  in  ricefields. 

flowers:  August-May. 

Calendula  Linn. 

1.  Calendula  officinalis  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  921, 
1753;  Graham,  101;  Dalz.  & Gibs,  suppl.  48; 
Cooke,  T.  2:68  (2:126);  Bot.  Mag.  t.  3204, 
Birdwood,  17. 


598 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


Cultivated  garden  plant  frequently  grown  in 
private  gardens. 

flowers:  Throughout  the  year. 

Carthamus  Linn. 

1.  Carthamus  tinctories  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  830, 
1753;  Graham,  95;  Dalz.  & Gibs,  suppl.  45; 
Cooke,  T.  2:68  (2:126-7). 

Frequently  cultivated  for  its  oil  seed. 

flowers:  March-May. 
local  name:  Kusumba. 

Centrantherum  Cass. 


1.  Achenes  deeply  ribbed  C.  phyllolaenum 

1 . Achenes  faintly  ribbed  C.  lilacinum 


1.  Centratherum  lilacinum  (Dalz.  & Gibs.) 
comb.  nov. 

Decaneuron  lilacinum  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay  FI. 
314,  1861; 

C.  tenue  (Wight)  Clarke,  Comp.  Ind.  4:1876;  FBI 
3:228; 

Cooke,  T.  650  & 2:7  (2:  63);**  Lee,  634;  Bird- 
wood,  16; 

Puri  & Mahajan,  125;  Santapau,  122. 

C.  molle  Benth.  var.  tenui  Wight  ex  Clarke,  Comp. 
Ind.  4,  1876  (as  synonym). 

Rare  species  at  Mahabaleshwar  near  Arthur’s 
Seat,  and  along  the  Fitzgerald  Ghat. 

flowers  : October-November. 

*2.  Centratherum  phyllolaenum  (DC.)  Benth. 
ex  Clarke,  Comp.  Ind.  4:1876;  FBI  3:228; 
Cooke,  T.  2:7  (2:62);  Birdwood,  16;  Dalz. 
& Gibs.  667;  Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

Decaneuron  phyllolaenum  DC.  Prodr.  7:264,  1838. 

D.  molle  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay  FI.  122,  1861 
(non  DC.,  1838). 

**Major  H.  H.  Lee,  Apendex  A — List  of  Maha- 
baleshwar Plants,  in  Bombay  Gazetteer  Vol.  19 
(Satara),  pp.  625-646,  1885. 

* Recently  all  our  specimens  of  this  species  sent  to 
L.  K.  Kirkman,  University  of  Georgia  Herbarium 
have  been  identified  by  her  as  Phyllocephalum 
scabridum  (DC.  in  Wight)  Kirkman, 


Common  herb  in  partially  shaded  places 
along  margins  of  forests  and  along  roadsides. 
flowers  : August-October. 

Conyza  Less. 

1 . Leaves  linear  to  spathulate;  achenes  puberulous 
C.  stricta 

1 . Leaves  lanceolate;  achenes  glabrous  C.  viscidula 

2.  Conyza  stricta  Willd.,  Sp.  PI.  3:  1922, 1804; 
FBI  3:258;  Birdwood,  16;  Cooke,  T.  650  & 
2:17  (2:73);  Puri  & Mahajan,  125;  Santapau 
401,  1962. 

C.  absinthifolia  DC.  in  Wight,  Contr.  16,  1834; 
Graham,  97;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  124;  Lee,  635. 

C.  adenocarpa  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay  FI.  125, 
1861;  FBI  3:  259. 

Frequent  herb  on  loose  sandy  soil  with 
yellowish  white  flowers. 

localities:  Lodwick  Point,  Tiger  Path, 

Lingmala,  Kate’s  Point,  Wada  and  Petit  road. 

flowers  : October-December. 

2.  Conyza  viscidula  Wall,  ex  DC.,  Prodr.  5: 
383,  1834;  Clarke,  Comp.  Ind.  63,  1876;  FBI 
3:258. 

Quite  frequent,  much  branched  herb  along 
forest  borders. 

localities:  Fitzgerald  Ghat,  Chinaman’s 

Falls,  Bhilar  Estate,  near  Pratapsing  Park. 

flowers:  December- January. 

Cyathocline  Cass. 

1.  Cyathocline  purpurea  (Don)  O.  Kuntze, 
Rev.  Gen.  PI.  338,  1891;  Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

Tanacetum  purpureum  Don,  Prodr.  FI.  Nepal.  181, 
1825. 

C.  lyrata  Cass,  in  Ann.  Soc.  Sci.  Nat.  ser.  1,  17: 
420,  1829;  Wight,  Icon.  t.  1098;  FBI  3:  246; 
Birdwood,  Cooke,  T.  2:15  (2:71). 

Common  and  abundant  herb  in  semi -shaded 
places  and  along  water  courses.  It  is  also  quite 
common  in  ricefields  after  the  harvests. 


599 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


localities:  Chinaman’s  Falls,  Dhobi’s  Falls, 
Madhu  Kosh. 

flowers:  September-March. 
local  name:  Gangotra. 

Dichrocephala  DC. 

1.  Dichrocephala  integrifolia  (Linn,  f.)  O. 
Kuntze,  Rev.  Gen.  PI.  333,  1891;  Hara,  FI. 
East  Himal.  338,  1966. 

Hippia  integrifolia  DC.  in  Wight,  Contrib.  11. 
1834;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  124;  Wight,  Icon  t.  1096; 
Birdwood,  16;  Cooke,  T.  650  & 2:14  (2:70); 
Puri  & Mahajan,  125;  Santapau,  292,  1963. 
Common  and  abundant  weed  all  over  in 
wastelands  and  along  roadsides.  Plants  are  very 
variable  in  size  and  in  the  nature  of  pubes- 
cence. Mahabaleshwar  plants  show  both  glab- 
rous as  well  as  densely  pubescent  nature.  In 
fact  Rev.  Fr.  Santapau  had  separated  pubes- 
cent forms  of  this  species  and  kept  them  in  a 
separate  folder  under  the  name  D.  tomentosa , 
but  to  the  best  of  our  knowledge  it  has  not 
been  published. 

localities:  Chinaman’s  Falls,  Dhobi’s  Falls, 
Yenna  Lake,  Petit  Road,  Madhu  Kosh,  Satara 
Road,  Market. 

flowers:  May-October. 

Echinops  Linn. 

1.  Echinops  echinatus  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  3:447, 
1832;  Graham,  95;  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  131;  FBI 
3:358;  Cooke,  T.  2:54  (2:112);  Puri  & Maha- 
jan, 126. 

Common  herb  on  arid  dry  land. 

flowers:  February. 

Eclipta  Linn.  (nom.  cons.) 

1.  Eclipta  alba  (Linn.)  Hassk.,  PI.  Jav.  Rar. 
528,  1848;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  117;  FBI  3:304;  San- 
tapau, in  Rec.  Bot.  Surv.  Ind.  150,  1953;  T.  P. 
Ramamoorthy,  in  FI.  Hassan  Dist.  612,  1976. 


Verbesina  alba  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  902,  1753; 

E.  prostrata  (Linn.)  Linn.,  Mant.  2:286,  1771; 
Graham,  99;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  127;  Santapau  in  J. 
Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  54:  475,  1957. 

V.  prostrata  Linn.,  Sp.  PL  902,  1753. 

Common  gregarious  herb  in  moist  places.  It 
is  also  found  as  a weed  among  the  grasses  in 
cultivated  fields  and  in  gardens. 

flowers:  Throughout  the  year. 
local  name:  Maka,  Bhangra. 

Elephantopus  Linn. 

1.  Elephantopus  scaber  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  814, 
1753;  Graham,  96;  Wight,  Icon.  t.  1086;  FBI 
3:242;  Lee  634;  Cooke,  t.  2:12  (2:68). 

Rare  herb  in  shady  places. 

flowers  : September-December. 

Erigeron  Linn. 

1.  Erigeron  karvinskianum  DC.,  Prodr.  5: 
285,  1836;  Santapau,  126. 

Common  along  the  hedges  from  Ripon  Hotel 
to  Bus  stand.  Also  common  weed  near  race- 
course. Probably  it  is  an  escape  from  cultiva- 
tion. 

flowers;  November-March. 

Eupatorium  Linn. 

1.  Eupatorium  giandulosum  H.  B.  K.,  Nov. 
Gen.  & Sp.  4:122,  1820  & Bot.  Reg.  t.  1723, 
1834;  Bot.  Mag.  t.  8139,  1907. 

E.  adenophorum  Spreng.,  Syst.  2:420,  1826;  Koster, 
in  Blumea  1(3):  502,  1935. 

Common  herb  near  water  courses,  in  fields 
and  on  forest  fringes.  Flowers  pure  white. 

Koster,  in  Blumea  (1.  c.)  puts  E.  glandu- 
losum  H.B.K.  in  synonymy  of  E.  adenopho- 
rum Spreng.  But  E.  giandulosum  H.B.K.  is  the 
earlier  and  the  correct  name  for  this  species. 


600 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


flowers:  March- April. 
localities:  Chinaman’s  Falls,  Yenna  Lake, 
Goatweed,  Mexican  white  Floss  Flower. 

Galinsoga  Ruiz  & Pavon 

1.  Leaves  with  non-ciliate  and  dentate  margins 

G.  parviflora 

1 . Leaves  with  ciliate  and  serrate  margins 

G.  ciliata 

1.  Galinsoga  ciliata  (Raf.)  Blake,  in  Rho- 
dora,  24:35,  1922. 

Adventina  ciliata  Raf.,  New  FI.  N.  Amer.  1:67, 
1936. 

G.  parviflora  var.  hispida  DC.,  Prodr.  5:677,  1836. 
(non  G.  hispida  Benth.,  1844). 

Common  weed  in  cultivated  fields  and  in 
gardens. 

flowers  : September- April. 
localities:  Tiger  Path,  Lingmala,  Bhilar 
Estate,  Yenna  Lake,  Petit  Road. 

2.  Galinsoga  parviflora  Cav.,  Ic.  Descr.  PI. 
3:41,  t.  281,  1795;  Clarke,  Comp,  Ind.  112, 
1876;  FBI  3:311. 

An  American  weed  in  cultivated  lands  and 
in  waste  places.  Abundant  especially  on  the 
sides  of  irrigation  canals. 

localities:  Chinaman’s  Falls,  Tiger  Path, 
Madhu  Kosh,  Bhilar  Estate. 
flowers:  August-May. 

Gnaphalium  Linn. 

1 . Heads  in  leafy  spikes;  plants  less  than  15  cm 

tall  G.  polycaulon 

1.  Heads  in  corymbs;  plants  more  than  20  cm.  tall 
G.  luteo-album 

1.  Gnaphalium  luteo-album  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  851, 
1753;  FBI  3:288;  Birdwood,  16;  Cooke,  T.  650 
& 2:30  (2:86). 


Common  erect  herb  in  wet  places  and  near 
the  lake.  Flowers  heads  golden  yellow. 

flowers:  March- June. 

2.  Gnaphalium  polycaulon  Persoon,  Syn.  2: 
421,  1807;  T.  P.  Ramamoorty  in  FI.  Hassan 
Dist.  616,  1976. 

G.  indicum  auct.  {non  Linn.,  1753);  Dalz.  & Gibs. 
130,  1861;  FBI  3:289;  Cooke,  T.  2:30  (2:87); 
Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

Prostrate  herb  abundant  in  moist  soils  near 
lake  and  in  wet  places.  Branches  radiating  on 
ground. 

flowers  : October-December. 

Guizotia  Cass.  (nom.  cons.) 

1.  Guizotia  abysinica  (Linn,  f.)  Cass.,  Diet. 
Sci.  Nat.  59:  248,  1829;  FBI  3:308;  Cooke, 
T.  2:66  (2:125). 

Polymnia  abysinica  Linn.  f.  suppl.  383,  1781. 

G.  oleifera  DC.,  Prodr.  5:551,  1834;  Dalz.  & Gibs. 
128. 

Cultivated  for  oil  seeds.  Occasionally  found 
in  wild  as  an  escape  from  cultivation. 

flowers  : October- J anuary . 
local  names:  Til,  Ramtil,  Kala  Til. 

Gynura  Cass. 

1.  Gynura  cusimbua  (D.  Don)  S.  Moore  in 
Journ.  Bot.  50:212,  1912;  Santapau,  FI.  Khan- 
dala,  ed.  3,  134,  1967. 

Cacalia  cusimbua  D.  Don,  Prodr.  FI.  Nepal.  179, 
1825. 

G.  angulosa  DC.,  Prodr.  6:298,  1837;  Clarke,  170; 
FBI  3:334;  Cooke,  T.  2:49  (2:106);  Puri  & 
Mahajan,  125. 

G.  simplex  Dalz.  & Gibs.  Bombay  FI.  130,  1861; 
Cooke,  T.  650,  1885. 

G.  nitida  Woodrow  in  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc. 
11:650,  1898  {non  DC.,  1837). 

Common  along  Fitzgerald  Ghat  and  along 
the  edges  of  forests,  but  nowhere  abundant. 


601 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


flowers  : September-November. 

Helianthus  Linn. 

1.  Helianthus  annus  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  904,  1753; 
Graham,  100;  Cooke,  T.  2:66  (2:124). 

Very  common  in  gardens  as  an  ornamental 
plant.  Rarely  cultivated  on  large  scale  for  oil 
seeds. 

flowers:  Throughout  the  year. 
local  name:  Surya  phul. 

Lactuca  Linn. 

1.  Lactuca  sativa  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  795,  1753; 
Maheshwari,  FI  Delhi,  188-9,  1976. 

L.  scariola  Linn.  var.  sativa  (Linn.)  Hook.  f.  in 
FI.  Brit.  India  3:404;  Cooke;  T.  2:61  (2:119). 
Cultivated  vegetable  plant.  Leaves  used  as 
salad. 

flowers  & fruits:  October-March. 
local  names:  Lettuce,  Salad. 

Rirdwood,  in  his  catalogue  (p.  16),  has  in- 
cluded Lactuca  heyneana  DC.,  but  subsequent- 
ly this  species  has  not  been  collected  by  any 
collector  and  there  is  no  authentic  specimen 
in  any  herbarium. 

Lamprachenium  Benth. 

1.  Lamprachenium  microcephalum  (Dalz.) 
Benth.  in  Benth.  & Hook.  f.  Gen.  PI.  2:226, 
1873;  FBI  3:229;  Lee,  634;  Birdwood,  16; 
Cooke,  T.  650  & 2:8  (2:64);  Puri  & Mahajan, 
125. 

Decaneuron  microcephalum  Dalz.,  in  Kew  Journ. 
Bot.  3:  231,  1851;  Dalz.  & Gibs,  122. 

Common  herb  along  hedges  and  in  waste- 
lands. 

flowers:  December, 
local  name:  Bramhmadandi. 


Notonia  DC. 

1.  Notonia  grandiflora  DC.,  Wight,  Conic 
24,  1834;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  132;  Markham,  386; 
Birdwood,  16;  Cooke,  T.  2:50  (2:107). 

N.  corymbosa  DC.,  Prodr.  6:442,  1837. 

N.  balsamina  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay  FI.  133,  1861. 
It  is  very  common  species  along  Khandala 
Ghat  near  Wai.  But  we  have  not  seen  it  on 
Mahabaleshwar  plateau  or  Mahad  Ghat. 

flowers  : September-November. 
local  name:  Vander  roti. 

Parthenium  Linn. 

Farthenium  hysterophorus  Linn.,  Sp.  PI. 
988,  1753;  R.  S.  Rao,  in  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist. 
Soc.  54:  218-20,  t.  1,  1956. 

American  weed  gradually  spreading  in  grass- 
lands and  in  open  wastelands. 

flowers  : J uly-December. 
local  names:  Congress  gavat. 

Senecio  Linn. 

1.  Heads  ebracteolate;  pappus  absent  

S.  belgaumensis 


] . Heads  bracteolate;  pappus  present  2 

2.  Pappus  hairy,  slender  S.  dalzellii 

2.  Pappus  paleaceous  S.  grahami 


1.  Senecio  belgaumensis  (Wight)  C.  B.  Clarke, 
Comp.  Ind.  200,  1876;  FBI  3:348;  Birdwood, 
17;  Cooke,  T.  2:53  (2:111);  Puri  & Mahajan, 
125. 

Madacarpus  belgaumensis  Wight,  in  Calcutta  Journ. 
nat.  Hist.  7:157,  1847;  Wight,  Icon.  t.  1152;  Dalz. 
& Gibs.  130;  Birdwood,  17. 

Rare  herb  at  Mahabaleshwar. 

flowers:  August-January. 
local  name:  Sonki. 

2.  Senecio  dalzellii  C.  B.  Clarke,  Comp.  Ind. 
201,  1876;  FBI  3:346;  Birdwood,  17;  Cooke, 
T.  2:52  (2:110). 


602 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


S.  lawii  C.  B.  Clarke,  Comp.  Ind.  201,  1876. 
Reported  here  on  the  authority  of  Birdwood. 

flowers  : November-December. 

3.  Senecio  graliami  Hook.  f.  in  Flora  Brit. 
India  3:347,  1881;  Birdwood,  17;  Cooke,  T. 
650  & 2:52  (2:110);  Puri  & Mahajan,  125; 
Santapau,  400,  1962  & 293,  1963. 

S.  reticulata  Clarke,  Comp.  Ind.  199,  1876.  (non 
DC.,  1834). 

Doronicum  reticulatum  Wight,  Cal.  Journ.  nat. 
Hist.  7:156,  1847;  Wight,  Icon.  t.  1151B;  Dalz  & 
Gibs.  130. 

Common  and  abundant  herb  in  open  grass- 
lands. 

flowers  : August-December. 
local  name:  Sonki. 

Sonchus  Linn. 

1.  Sonchus  asper  (Linn.)  Garsault,  Fig.  PI. 
Anim.  Med.  4:332,  t.  565,  1767;  FBI  3:  414; 
Graham,  94;  Cooke,  T.  2:61  (2:120). 

S.  oleraceus  var.  asper  Linn.  sp.  PI.  794,  1753. 
Rare  plant  near  Lingmala  falls  on  earth 
banks. 

flowers:  January-March. 
local  name:  Mhatara. 

Spilanthes  Linn. 

1.  Spilanthes  paniculata  Wall,  ex  DC,  Prodr. 
5:625,  1834. 

S.  acmella  auct.  (non  [Linn.]  Murr.,  1774);  Gra- 
ham, Cat.  Bombay  PI.  99,  1839;  Dalz.  & Gibs. 
129;  FBI  3:307;  Birdwood,  16;  Cooke,  T.  650  & 
2:42  (2:99);  Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

S.  calva  Wight,  Icon.  t.  1109,  1846  (non  DC.,  1834). 
Suberect  herb  along  sides  of  streams  and 
lake.  Quite  common  in  wet  ricefields  after  har- 
vests. Leaves  on  chewing  cause  numbness  of 
tongue  followed  by  profuse  salivation. 

flowers:  December. 
local  name:  Akkalkara. 


Synedrela  Gaertn. 

1.  Synedrela  nodiflora  (Linn.)  Gaertn.  Fruct. 
2:456,  t.  171,  f.  7,  1791. 

Verbesina  nodiflora  Linn.  Cent.  PI.  1:28,  1755, 
Amoem.  Acad.  4:290,  1759. 

A tropical  American  weed  growing  in  cul- 
tivated and  wastelands. 
flowers:  November. 

Tricholepis  DC. 

1.  Pappus  absent  or  rarely  of  few  hairs 

T.  amplexicaulis 

1 . Pappus  rigid,  sub-paleaceous  ....  T.  glaberrima 

1.  Tricholepis  amplexicaulis  C.  B.  Clarke, 
Comp.  Ind.  240,  1876;  FBI  3:281;  Cooke,  T. 
2:51  (2:115);  Puri  & Mahajan,  126. 

This  is  not  a common  plant  but  found  in 
patches  at  Elphinston  Point. 

flowers:  December. 
local  name:  Dahan. 

2.  Tricholepis  glaberrima  DC.  Prodr.  6:  754, 
1837;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  131;  FBI  3:381;  Lee,  635; 
Birdwood,  17;  Cooke,  T.  650  & 2:56  (2:114); 
Puri  & Mahajan,  126. 

Serratula  indica  Willd.  Sp.  PI.  3:1642,  1804; 
Graham,  95. 

Frequent  herb  among  the  grasses  in  open 
grasslands. 

flowers:  October. 
local  name:  Dahan. 

Tridax  Linn. 

1.  Tridax  procumbens  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  900, 
1753;  FBI  3:311;  Birdwood,  16;  Cooke,  T. 
2:45  (2:102);  Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

A South  American  weed  naturalized  and 
growing  everywhere  in  wastelands  and  in 
gardens. 

flowers:  Throughout  the  year. 
local  name:  Pathri. 


603 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Vernonia  Schreb. 

1.  Achenes  pubescent  or  silky V.  cineria 

1.  Achenes  glabrous  or  glandular 2 

2.  Leaves  thin,  membranaceous,  not  tomentose 

V.  diver  gens 

2.  Leaves  thick,  coriaceous,  densely  wooly  to- 
mentose beneath  V.  indica 

1.  Vernonia  cineria  Less,  in  Linnaea  4:  291, 
1829;  Graham,  96;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  121;  FBI 
3:  233;  Birdwood,  16. 

Conyza  cineria  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  862,  1753. 

Frequent  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Ghat 
roads. 

flowers:  Throughout  the  year. 
local  names:  Sahadevi,  Moti  sadori. 

2.  Vernonia  divergens  (Roxb.)  Edg.  in  Journ. 
Asiat.  Soc.  Bengal  21:172,  1853;  FBI  3:234; 
Lisboa,  216;  Cooke,  T.  650  & 2:11  (2:67); 
Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

Eupatorium  divergens  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  3:414,  1832; 
Dalz.  & Gibs.  123. 

Decaneuron  divergens  DC.,  Prodr.  5:  68,  1836; 
Wight,  Icon.  t.  1084. 

Rare  undershrub  along  the  edges  of  the 
forests. 

flowers  : December-March. 
local  names:  Bundar,  Bondar. 

3.  Vernonia  indica  C.B.  Clarke,  Comp.  Ind. 
16,  1876;  Lisboa,  216;  FBI  3:238;  Cooke,  T. 
2:11  (2:67);  Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 

Decaneuron  dendigulense  DC.,  in  Wight,  Contrib. 
Bot.  Ind.  7,  1834  non  Vernonia  dendigulense  DC., 
1838). 

This  species  included  here  on  authority  of 
Puri  and  Mahajan. 

Vicoa  Cass. 

1.  Vicoa  cemua  Dalz.  in  Dalz.  & Gibs.  Bom- 
bay FI.  126  & 314,  1861;  FBI  3:297;  Birdwood, 
16;  Lee,  635;  Cooke,  T.  650  & 2:32  (2:89); 
Puri  & Mahajan,  125. 


Rare  herb  among  grasses  in  partially  shaded 
places  and  along  the  margins  of  forests. 

flowers:  October- January. 

Wedelia  Jacq.  (nom.  cons.) 

1.  Wedelia  urticaefolia  (Bl.)  DC.  in  Wight 
Contrib.  18,  1834;  Wight,  Icon.  t.  1106;  FBI 
3:306;  Birdwood,  16;  Cooke,  T.  2:41  (2:98). 

Wollastomia  biflora  Dalz.  & Gibs.,  Bombay  FI. 
128,  1861  (Excl.  syn.,  non  DC.,  1834). 

Verbesina  biflora  Wall,  ex  Graham,  Cat.  Bombay 
PI.  100,  1839. 

V.  urticaefolia  Blume,  Bijdr.  911,  1825. 

Rare  undershrub  in  shady  places  among  the 
undergrowths  near  the  margins  of  the  forests. 
flowers  : August-September. 

Xanthium  Linn. 

1.  Xanthium  strumarium  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  987, 
1753;  FBI  3:303;  Cooke  T.  2:37  (2:94). 

X.  indicum  Koen.  ex  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  3:601,  1832; 
Graham,  101;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  127;  Wight,  Icon.  t. 
1104. 

Rare  weed  in  wastelands. 
flowers  & fruits:  September- April. 

Lobeliaceae 
Lobelia  Linn. 

1 . Erect  stout  herbs;  flowers  in  terminal  racemes 

L.  nicotinaefolia 

1 . Prostrate  or  procumbent  herbs;  flowers  axillary, 


solitary 2 

2.  Stems  not  winged  L.  alsinoides 

2.  Stems  winged  L.  heyneana 


1.  Lobelia  alsinoides  Lamk.,  Encycl.  3:  588, 
1791;  Santapau,  FI.  Khandala,  ed.  3,  140. 

L.  trigona  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  2:111,  1824;  FBI  3: 
423;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  133;  Wight,  Icon.  t.  1170; 
Cooke,  T.  2:72  (2:130). 

Birdwood,  17;  Puri  & Mahajan,  126. 

Common  weed  in  moist  places  and  in  drying 
ricefields. 


604 


FLORA  OF  MAHABALESHWAR 


flowers:  September-March. 

2,  Lobelia  heyneana  Roem.  & Schultz.  Syst. 
5:50,  1819,  Santapau,  139. 

L.  trialata  Buch.-Ham.  in  D.  Don,  Prodr.  157, 
1825;  Birdwood,  17,  FBI  3:  425;  Woodrow,  in 
Journ.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  12:  162,  1898; 
Cooke,  T.  2:72  (2:130);  Puri  & Mahajan,  126. 
Frequent  herb  on  earth  clearings  along  road- 
sides. 

flowers  : August-October. 

3.  Lobelia  nicotinaefolia  Heyne  ex  Roth., 
Nov.  Sp.  PL  143,  1821;  Graham,  102;  Dalz. 
& Gibs.  133;  FBI  3:427;  Birdwood,  17;  Cooke, 
T.  2:72  (2:131);  Puri  & Mahajan,  126. 

Very  common  herb.  Often  gregarious  on 
open  grassy  slopes  along  the  edges  of  the 
forests.  A very  distinct  and  attractive  plant 
conspicuous  by  the  masses  of  white  flowers  in 
long  terminal  spikes,  above  the  dense  foliage. 

flowers:  October- April;  fruits:  Novem- 
ber-April. 

local  names:  Devnal,  Bokenal,  Dhaval. 
Campanulaceae 

1.  Capsules  loculicidally  dehiscent  within  the  calyx- 

teeth  2 

2.  Corolla  rotate,  lobes  linear;  stigma  capitate 

Cephalostigma 

2.  Corolla  campanulate,  lobes  short  and  broad; 

stigma  lobed  W ahlenbergia 

1.  Capsule  dehiscing  at  the  base  or  on  sides  below 
the  calyx  teeth  Campanula 

Campanula  Linn. 

1.  Flowers  dimorphic;  corolla  5-6  mm  long  

C.  cordata 

1.  Flowers  all  similar;  corolla  10-13  mm  long 

C.  alphonsii 

1.  Campanula  alphonsii  Wall,  ex  DC., 
Prodr.  7:473,  1837;  FBI  3:440;  Wight,  Icon, 
t.  1177;  Cooke,  T.  2:76  (2:134);  V.  D.  Var- 
tak,  J.  Univ.  Poona,  10:8,  1957. 


A rare  species.  Only  collected  from  a verti- 
cal rock  near  Kate’s  Point. 

flowers:  October. 

2.  Campanula  cordata  Wall,  ex  Roxb.,  FI. 
Ind.  Carey  ed.,  2:  101,  1832;  Rao,  in  Bull. 
Bot.  Surv.  India,  10  (suppl.  2):  45,  1969. 

C.  canescens  Wall.,  DC.,  Prodr.  7:473,  1837;  FBI 
3:439;  Santapau,  in  Journ.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc. 
45:  446,  1945. 

446;  1945. 

Cephalostigma  spathulatum  Thwaites,  Enum.  422, 
1859. 

Rare  slender  herb,  found  on  moist  beds  of 
streams  in  wet  soils.  Collected  from  Lingmala 
and  Old  Mahabaleshwar  only. 

flowers  & fruits:  November-December. 
Cephalostigma  DC. 

1.  Stems  erect;  leaves  oblong  C.  erecta 

1 . Stems  flexuose;  leaves  broadly  ovate 

C.  flexuosa 

1.  Cephalostigma  erecta  (Roth  ex.  R.  & S.) 
Vatke  in  Linnaea,  38:  699,  1874. 

Dentella  erectum  Roth,  ex  Roem.  & Schultes, 
Syst.  Veg.  5:25,  1819. 

C.  schimperi  Hochst.  ex  Rich.,  Tent.  Abyss.  2: 
2,  1851. 

W ahlenbergia  perfoliata  Wight  & Arn.,  in  Prodr 
405,  1834;  Wight,  Icon.  t.  842,  1844. 

C.  hirsutum  Hk.  f.  & Thomson,  in  Journ.  Linn. 
Soc.  2:9,  1858  (p.  p.);  Dalzell  & Gibs.  133  (non 
Edgew.,  1851). 

Rare  species,  only  collected  from  Bhilar 
Estate. 

flowers:  November. 

2.  Cephalostigma  flexuosa  Hk.  f.  & Thomson 
in  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  2:9,  1858;  Cooke,  T.  650 
(Bombay  Gazette). 

This  species  is  reported  here  on  the  autho- 
rity of  T.  Cooke  only.  Although  he  reports  it 
in  the  earlier  publication  he  does  not  repeat 
its  occurrence  at  Mahabaleshwar  in  Flora  of 
Bombay  Presidency  later. 


605 


8 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Wahlenbergia  Schrad. 

1.  Wahlenbergia  marginata  (Thunb.)  DC., 
Monog.  Campan.  143,  1830;  Santapau,  140. 
Campanula  marginata  Thunb.,  FI.  Japan,  89, 
1784. 

C.  dehiscens  Roxb.,  FI.  Ind.  1:504,  1832;  Graham. 
103. 

W.  gracilis  Schrad.,  Blumea  38,  1827;  FBI  3:429; 
Cooke,  T.  650  & 2:74  (2:133). 

W.  agrestis  DC.,  Prodr.  7:  434,  1836;  Dalz.  & Gibs. 
134;  Wight,  Icon  t.  1175. 

Common  in  moist  grounds  near  Yenna  Lake 
and  near  streams  and  in  ricefields. 
flowers  and  fruits:  December-May. 

Plumbaginaceae 
Plumbago  Linn. 

1 . Flowers  white  or  blue  2 

2.  Calyx  covered  with  stalked  glands  all  over 

P.  zeylanica 

2.  Calyx  glandular  in  the  upper  part  only 

P.  auriculata 

1.  Flowers  red  P.  indica 

1.  Plumbago  auriculata  Lamk.,  Encycl.  2:270, 
1786;  Degener,  in  FI.  Hawai.  f am.  292,  1946. 

P.  capensis  Thunb.,  Prodr.  Capen.  33,  1794;  Gra- 
ham, 166;  Dalz.  & Gibs,  suppl.  72;  Cooke,  T.  2: 
78  (2:137). 

Cultivated  garden  plant  with  pale  blue 
flowers  grown  as  ornamental  plant. 

flowers:  May-December. 
local  name:  Nila  chitrak. 

2.  Plumbago  indica  Linn,  in  Stickman  Herb. 
Amb.  24,  1754;  Merrill,  Interpr.  Rump.  414, 
1917. 

P.  rosea  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  ed.  2,  215,  1765;  FBI  3: 
481;  Graham,  166;  Cooke,  T.  2:  78  (2:137). 

P.  coccinea  Boiss.  in  DC.  Prodr.  12:693.  1848; 
Dalz.  & Gibs,  suppl.  71. 

An  ornamental  cultivated  plant  . 

flowers:  Throughout  the  year. 
local  name:  Lai  chitrak. 


3.  Plumbago  zeylanica  Linn.,  Sp.  Pi.  151, 
1753;  Graham,  166;  Dalz.  & Gibs.  220;  Wight 
111.  t.  179;  Cooke,  T.  2:78  (2:136-7). 

Rare  perennial  herb  along  the  edges  of  the 
forests,  in  white  flowers.  Sometimes  seen  in 
cultivations  and  in  gardens. 

flowers  : August-September. 

local  names:  Chitrak,  Safed  chitrak. 

Primulaceae 

Anagallis  Linn. 


1.  Leaves  alternate;  flowers  white  A.  pumila 

1 . Leaves  opposite;  flowers  blue  A.  arvensis 


1.  Anagallis  arvensis  Linn.,  Sp.  PI.  148,  1753; 
FBI  3:506;  Birdwood  17;  Cooke,  T.  2:80  (2: 
139);  136;  Maheshwari,  FI.  Delhi,  203,  1976. 

A.  coerulea  Lamk.,  FI.  Lips.  5:  1771. 

A.  arvensis  Linn.  var.  coerulea  (Lamk.)  Gren. 
& Godr.  FI.  Pr.  2:  467,  1852. 

Rare  herb  at  Fitzgerald  Ghat,  and  in  Yenna 
Valley. 

flowers:  September-October. 

2.  Anagallis  pumila  Swartz,  Prodr.  Veg.  Ind. 
Occ.  1:  40,  1788;  Pax  & Kunth,  Pfreich.  22: 
331,  t.  71,  1905;  Santapau,  401,  1962. 

Centanculus  tenellus  Duby,  in  DC.,  Prodr.  8:72, 
1844;  FBI  3:  506;  Cooke,  T.  2:80  (2:140). 
Micropyxis  tenella  Wight,  Icon.  t.  1585,  1850. 
One  of  the  most  common  and  abundant 
herb  among  the  grasses.  Due  to  its  smaller 
size  it  is  generally  hidden  among  the  grasses 
and  goes  unnoticed  in  field  studies. 
flowers  & fruits:  October-November. 
Lysimachia  obovata  Ham.  ex  Hook.  f. 
Flora  Brit.  Ind.  3:  503,  1881,  has  been  report- 
ed by  Lisboa  (Climate  of  Mahabaleshwar, 
1886).  But  subsequently  nobody  has  collected 
this  species  from  Mahabaleshwar.  Probably  an 
escape  from  cultivation. 

{To  be  continued ) 


606 


A CATALOGUE  OF  THE  BIRDS  IN  THE  COLLECTION  OF  THE  BOMBAY 
NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY  — 26 

Muscicapidae  (Timaliinae)  (contd.) 

Humayun  Abdulali 

[Continued  from  Vol.  79(2) : 360] 


348  specimens  of  45  species  and  subspecies 
(Nos.  1235  — 1271  in  Indian  handbook  with 
5 extra-limitals)  are  included.  The  last  speci- 
men in  this  group  is  Reg.  no.  26086.  Mr.  Eric 
D’Cunha,  Research  Assistant,  helped  with  the 
work. 

1235  Panur us  biannicus  russicus  (Brehm) 
(Russia)  Bearded  Tit-Babbler 

2:  1 $ 1 $ (?) 

I Kenya,  4300';  Khotan,  Sinkiang,  China. 

Measurements  on  p.  615. 

1236  Conostoma  aeinodium  Hodgson 

(Nepal)  Great  Parrotbill  1:104 

1 $ Dakuri,  Kumaon,  U.P. 

Wing  126  (about  130  to  133  mm);  bill  24  (cul- 
men  about  20  mm);  tarsus  38.5  (about  37  mm); 
tail  128  (about  140  mm). 

Measurements  on  p.  615. 

1237  Paradoxornis  unicolor  uiticoSor 

(Hodgson)  (the  Cachar,  Nepal)  Brown  Suthora 
Parrotbill  1:198 

2:  1 $ 1 $ 

1 Bunthang,  Bhutan;  1 Tongloo,  nr.  Darjeeling. 

The  female  from  Tongloo  which  goes  back 
to  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  is 
rufous,  while  the  male  (1973)  is  olive-brown 
above  and  marked  with  grey  below. 

Measurements  on  p.  615. 

1238  Paradoxornis  fulvifrons  fulvifrons 

(Hodgson)  (Nepal)  Fulvousfronted  Parrotbill 


2:  1 $ 1 $ Sandakphu,  Darjeeling 

Measurements  on  p.  615. 

1239  Paradoxornis  fulvifrons  diayulensis 
(Kinnear)  (Lung,  Chayul  Valley,  S.E.  Tibet) 
Tibetan  Fulvousfronted  Parrotbill 

nil. 

1239a  Paradoxornis  nipalensis  garhwalen- 
sis  Fleming  & Taylor  (Kurumtoli,  Garhwal, 
U.P.) 

nil. 

1240  Paradoxornis  nipalensis  nipalensis 

(Hodgson)  (Nepal,  restricted  to  Kathmandu 
Valley)  Ashy-eared  Parrotbill  1:109 

nil. 

1241  Paradoxornis  nipalensis  humii 
(Sharpe)  (Darjeeling)  Blackfronted  Parrotbill 

1:110 

1 o?  Shamgong,  Central  Bhutan. 

The  orange-yellow  ear-coverts  immediately 
separate  it  from  all  the  others  available. 

Measurements  on  p.  615. 

1242  Paradoxornis  nipalensis  poliotis 

(Blyth)  (Cherrapunji,  Khasi  Hills)  Assam 
Orange  Parrotbill  1:109 

4:  3 $ $ 1 $ 

1 $ Tezu,  Lohit  Valley,  Upper  Assam;  3 Miao, 
Tirap  Div.,  Arunachal  Pradesh. 


607 


[460] 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


The  single  c?  from  Tezu  shows  more 
orange-rufous  and  less  olive  on  the  upperparts 
than  the  other  3 from  Miao.  It  has  also  a 
brighter  yellow  head.  Dr.  Ripley,  who  has 
also  access  to  specimens  from  both  places, 
writes  that  he  cannot  see  any  difference  bet- 
ween them  and  I am  leaving  them  together. 
The  9 has  the  blackest  chin. 

Measurements  on  p.  615. 

1243  Paradoxornis  nipalensis  crocotius 
Kinnear  (Yonyu  La,  near  Trashigong,  E. 
Bhutan)  Tibetan  Small  Parrotbill 

nil. 

1244  Paradoxornis  nipalensis  patriciae 
Koelz  (Blue  Mountain,  Lushai  Hills)  Mizo 
Hills  Parrotbill 

nil. 

1245  Paradoxornis  atrosuperciiaris  oatesi 

(Sharpe)  (Darjeeling)  Lesser  Redheaded  Par- 
rotbill 1:117 

nil. 

1246  Paradoxornis  atrosuperciliaris  atro- 

superciliaris  (Godwin-Austen)  (Sadiya,  Assam) 
Blackbrowed  Parrotbill  1:114 

3 $ $ 

1 Dening,  Lohit  Valley,  N.  E.  Assam;  1 40th  m. 
from  Miao,  Tirap  Div.,  Arunachal  Pradesh;  1 
Cachar  Hills. 

In  the  bird  from  Dening,  the  rufous  of  the 
head  and  nape  is  darker. 

Measurements  on  p.  615. 

1247  Paradoxornis  ruficeps  ruficeps  Blyth 
(Bootan)  Greater  Redheaded  Parrotbill  1:116 

5:1  $ 4 9 9 

1 Kurseong;  2 Tama,  Central  Bhutan;  1 Buxa 
Duars;  1 40  m.  from  Miao,  Tirap  Div.,  Arunachal 
Pradesh. 

The  c?  from  Tirap  Div.,  shows  no  more 
buff  on  the  underparts  than  the  others  and 


only  differs  in  having  no  rufous  in  the  olive- 
brown  back,  but  may  well  be  left  with  the 
nominate  form. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 

1248  Paradoxornis  ruficeps  foakeri  (Har- 

tert)  Hungrum,  N.  Cachar)  Assam  Redhead- 
ed Parrotbill  1:117 

3:  IS  1 9 1 o? 

2 Rema  Tea  Estate,  Sylhet;  1 Rotung,  Abor  Hills 
28°N,  95°E. 

All  three  have  pale  buff  underparts  which 
may  well  pass  for  sullied  white  and  their 
upperparts  are  also  all  differently  coloured. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 

1249  Paradoxornis  guiaris  gularis  (Bhutan) 

Greyheaded  Parrotbill  1:118 

2:  1 $ 1 9 Tama,  C.  Bhutan. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 

1250  Paradoxornis  guiaris  transfiuvialis 

(Hartert)  (Guillong,  N.  Cachar)  Assam  Grey- 
headed Parrotbill  1:118 

1 9 Guillong,  N.  Cachar  Hills. 

The  underparts  are  very  fainty  washed  with 
buff  and  the  upperparts  slightly  redder. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 

1251  Paradoxornis  flavirostris  flavirostris 

Gould  (Nepal)  Gould’s  or  Blackthroated 
Parrotbill  1:105 

1 9 Hassemara,  N.  Lakhimpur,  Upper  Assam. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 

1252  Paradoxornis  guttaticollis  David 

(Moupin,  east  Chwanben,  China)  Whitethroat- 
ed  Parrotbill  1:106 

4:  1 S 3 o? 

2 Chin  Hills,  1 4000'  Bambo  (?),  1 N.  Shan 
States,  Burma. 

The  two  unsexed  birds  from  the  Chin  Hills 
(1915)  have  very  pale  heads  and  worn  feathers 
on  the  back. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 


608 


[461] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NAT.  HIST.  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 26 


1253  Turdoides  caudatus  buttons  (Blyth) 
(Kandahar,  Afghanistan)  Afghan  Babbler. 

1:199 

7:  4 $ $ 3$  $ 

5 Deh-Jotegh,  Sistan  Delta,  Iran;  1 Suran,  24 
m.  NE  of  Pahrah,  2800',  Persian  Baluchistan;  1 
Sitani,  28°  19 'N,  65° 5 fE,  Baluchistan. 

The  distribution  of  this  species  has  always 
been  a little  confusing,  having  been  mixed  up 
with  eclipes  in  northwest  India  and  salvadori 
in  western  Iran.  Ticehurst,  1926,  ‘Birds  of 
British  Baluchistan’  (JBNHS  31,  p.  694)  has 
given  a detailed  account  of  its  distribution  in 
Sind  and  on  our  western  borders  which  ap- 
pears to  be  correct. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 

1253a  Turdoides  caudatus  eclipes  (Hume) 
(Peshawar)  Northern  Common  Babbler 

11:5  $ $ 5 $ $ 1 o? 

2 Peshawar,  5 Rawalpindi,  1 Campbellpur,  1 
Jholar,  Kala  Chitta  Hills,  Salt  Range,  1 South 
Waziristan,  1 Damdil,  Waziristan. 

See  note  on  validity  of  this  form,  JBNHS 
Vol.  79(1):  199-200. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 

1254  Turdoides  caudatus  caudatus 
(Dumont)  (India)  Common  Babbler  1:  199 

41:  27  $ S 10  $ $ 4 o? 

1 Phulji,  Larkana,  Sind;  1 Kashmor,  Sind  Fron- 
tier; 2 Bhung,  Bahawalpur;  1 Lahore,  2 Patiala 
State  near  Kalka  (Simla),  1 Simla,  2 Chandigarh, 
1 Labru,  1 Jagadhri,  Ambala,  Punjab;  3 Delhi;  3 
Bharatpur;  1 Phalodi,  2 Hamavas  Lake,  1 Pali,  Jodh- 
pur, Rajasthan;  1 Kutch,  1 Rudra  Mata,  3 Kariro- 
har,  1 Chohri,  Bachau  disk,  Kutch;  2 Dabka, 
Baroda,  Gujarat;  1 Bhind,  1 Narwar  Fort,  Gwalior, 
1 Jaithari,  Bhopal,  M.P.;  1 Nasik;  1 Goregaon,  1 
Salsette,  Bombay;  1 Dhond  (Poona),  Maharashtra. 
1 Tirthamalai,  Salem  disk,  1 Manalur,  Palni  Range, 
T.N.;  2 Tirhut,  Bihar. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  in- 
tensity of  the  colour  of  the  upperparts  but  it 
has  not  been  possible  to  localise  the  dark  and/ 


or  pale  form  in  any  one  area,  both  being 
found  in  the  same  place.  Two  from  Bharat- 
pur (1970)  which  are  the  most  recent  addi- 
tions show  a lot  of  grey  on  the  upper  and 
lower  plumage.  This  has  almost  disappeared 
in  another  from  the  same  place  obtained  in 
1961.  The  illustration  of  hut  torn  in  Blanford’s 
zoology  of  Persia  differs  from  the  specimens 
in  the  same  manner.  An  old  undated  skin  from 
Kutch  registered  in  1907  is  almost  an  albino. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 

EL  Turdoides  caudatus  salvadori  (De 

Filippi)  (Shiraz,  Fars,  Iran). 

6:4  $ $ 2 $ $ 

3 Mishuna,  Persian  Gulf;  1 Mand,  1 Persia,  1 
Pusht-e-Kuh,  Laristan,  Persia. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 

EL  Turdoides  caudatus  theresae  (Meinert- 
zhagen)  (Baghdad) 

11:  7 $ 8 3 9 $ 1 o? 

5 Tigris,  1 Kazimani,  4 Baghdad;  1 Bursa,  Meso- 
potamia. 

These  birds  were  first  named  huttoni  but 
Ticehurst,  Buxton  and  Cheesman  in  1922  in 
‘Birds  of  Mesopotamia’  (JBNHS  28,  p.  396) 
said  they  were  the  same  as  nominate  caudatus 
and  the  name  huttoni  which  has  been  struck 
off  from  some  of  the  labels  was  presumably 
done  at  this  stage. 

Later  in  1930  Meinertzhagen  described 
theresae  presumably  without  reference  to 
salvadori,  and  subsequent  writers,  e.g.  Etche- 
copar  (1970)  and  Deignan  in  Peter’s  check- 
list (1964,  10,  p.  332)  have  synonymised  this 
with  salvadori. 

Neither  of  the  original  descriptions1  is  avail- 
able but  the  specimens  here  are  more  heavily 
streaked  and  darker  on  the  underparts,  and 

1 Both  descriptions  have  since  been  seen  and  the 
statements  made  herein  appear  to  be  in  order. 


[462] 


609 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vo!.  79 


with  larger  bills  and  tarsi.  Two  of  the  speci- 
mens have  the  feathers  of  the  forehead  “squa- 
mated”  as  in  squamiceps  (infra)  but  are  not 
large  enough  to  be  placed  among  them.  The 
material  available  appears  separable  from 
salvadori  and  is  for  the  moment  listed  apart. 

Measurements  on  p.  616. 

, EL  Turdoides  squamiceps  muscatensis  de 
Schauensee  & Ripley  (As  Sib,  near  Muscat, 
Oman). 

3 o?  Muscat,  Arabia. 

Measurements  on  p.  617. 

EL  Turdoides  squamiceps  yemensis  (Neu- 
mann) (Between  Sheikh  Othman  & Laheji) 

1 o?  Randhar,  Tanhat,  Yemen,  Arabia. 

In  the  absence  of  any  nominate  material  the 
single  specimen  is  separated  in  accordance  with 
the  distribution  in  Peter’s  checklist  (1964,  10, 
p.  3'34) 

Measurements  on  p.  617. 

1255  Turdoides  earlei  sonivius  (Koelz) 
(Khinjar  Lake,  Sind)  Western  Striated  Bab- 
bler. 

9:  6 $ $ 2 $ $ 1 o?  (juv.) 

1 Chak,  1 Sukkur,  Sind;  1 Bahawal  Nagar,  Baha- 
walpur,  6 Jagadhri,  Ambala,  Punjab. 

I cannot  separate  the  two  races  by  a paler/ 
darker  throat  and  the  grouping  has  been 
done  on  a geographical  basis.  Two  from 
Sukkur,  Sind,  have  pale  upperparts,  but  these 
go  back  to  1900  and  1915,  though  they  are 
not  the  oldest.  The  juvenile  from  Jagdalpur 
is  uniformly  buff  below,  with  a slightly  darker 
chin,  throat  and  upperbreast. 

Measurements  on  p.  617. 

1256  Turdoides  earlei  earlei  (Blyth)  (Vici- 
nity of  Calcutta)  Striated  Babbler. 

1:197 

10:  6 $ $ 3 $ $ 1 o? 

1 Bulandshar,  U.P.,  1 Darbhanga,  Bihar;  3 Mor- 


nai  Tea  Estate,  Goalpara,  1 Gafaldhubi,  N.  Lakhim- 
pur,  Assam;  1 Monywa,  1 Upper  Burma;  1 Yebank, 
Henzada,  1 Shurdaung,  Prome  Dist.,  Burma. 

The  three  from  Mornai  Tea  Estate,  Goal- 
para, Assam,  have  darker  chins  and  more 
heavily  streaked  upper  breasts. 

Measurements  on  p.  617. 

EL  Turdoides  altirostris  (Hartert)  (Fao, 
southeast  Iraq,  at  mouth  of  the  Shattal  Arab) 

7:  2 H 3 $$  2o? 

3 Amara,  3 Basra,  1 Fao,  Mesopotamia. 

The  two  sexed  males  are  larger  than  the 
females  and  also  greyer  (Jan-Feb.  contra 
March-October). 

Two  of  the  females  from  Fao  and  Amara 
are  very  rufous  and  appear  very  different,  but 
have  been  marked  altirostris  by  an  earlier 
worker  (Ticehurst?). 

Both  squamiceps  and  altirostris  though  cor- 
rectly named  on  the  original  labels  were  re- 
gistered with  caudatus. 

Measurements  on  p.  617. 

1257  Turdoides  longirostris  (Hodgson) 

(Nepal)  Slender-billed  Babbler  1:202 

2:  1 $ 1 o? 

2 Mornai  Tea  Estate,  Goalpara,  Assam. 

Measurements  on  p.  617. 

1258  Turdoides  malcolmi  (Sykes)  (Dukhun, 

Poona)  Large  Grey  Babbler  1 :200 

24:  7 $ $ 14  $ $ 3 o? 

4 Ambala,  1 Dhirpur,  Punjab;  2 Delhi;  1 Jalor, 
Jodhpur,  Rajasthan;  1 Gir  Forest,  1 Cambay  City, 
1 Dabka,  Baroda,  Gujarat;  2 Saugor,  C.P.;  1 Sak- 
bada,  Nasik,  2 Satara,  Maharashtra;  3 Chumbum 
Valley,  Kurnool  dist.,  A.P.;  3 Kalianpur.  Cawnpur, 
2*  Meerut,  U.P.  (*1  albino). 

Sp.  $ No.  1066  from  Meerut  is  an  albino 
with  the  primaries  mostly  brown.  There  is 
some  variation  in  the  intensity  of  the  colour 
of  the  underparts,  but  these  cannot  be  asso- 
ciated with  place,  sex  or  season. 

Measurements  on  p.  617. 


610 


[463] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NAT.  HIST.  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 26 


1259  Turdoides  suforufes  subnifus  (Jerdon) 
(Manantoddy,  Wynaad)  Rufous  Babbler  1 : 20 1 

14:  11  $ $ 1 $ 2 o? 

2 MolCm,  Goa,  1 Karwar,  2 Mercara,  Coorg, 

2 Billigirirangan  Hills;  2 Belemane,  Mysore;  1 Guda- 
lur,  2 Cherambadi,  Wynaad,  Nilgiris;  l Perumalai, 
Palni  Hills;  1 Shevaroy  Hills. 

There  is  much  variation  in  the  extent  of 
rufous  on  the  underparts,  and  some  are  rufous 
and  others  with  an  olive  tinge  above.  These 
differences  are  however  scattered  and  if  hype- 
rythrus  is  separable  by  the  richer  rufous  of 
the  underparts,  this  can  apply  only  to  two 
specimens  from  Travancore,  mentioned  below. 

Measurements  on  p.  617. 

1260  Turdoides-.  subrufus  hyperythrus 
(Sharpe)  (Madras,  restricted  to  Palghat)  Kerala 
Rufous  Babbler 

2 $ $ (1*  juv.) 

1*  Thirumalai,  1 Thekadi.  Travancore. 

See  remarks  above. 

Measurements  on  p.  617. 

Tordoides  striatus 

As  in  other  babblers,  an  examination  of  the 
material  available  from  over  the  whole  coun- 
try indicates  differences  which  have  not  yet 
been  accepted.  Attention  is  drawn  to  some 
of  them  below,  and  a more  detailed  exami- 
nation will  no  doubt  require  either  the  des- 
cription of  new  races  or  the  acceptance  of 
once  described  forms  now  treated  as  synonyms. 

1261  Turdoides  striatus  sindianus  (Tice- 
hUrst)  (Karachi,  Sind)  Sind  Jungle  Babbler 

1:193 

23:  7 $ $ (1  juv.)  12  $ $ (3  juv.)  4 o? 

1 Khipro,  Thar  & Parkar,  1 Katray  Taluk,  Sind; 
1 Bhunj,  Bahawalpur,  1 Mubarikpur,  near  Ambala, 

3 Ambala,  3 Simla,  1 Bhimtal,  Kumaon;  3 Bharat- 
pur,  1 Khara  Ghoda,  1 Ganganar,  Palanpur,  1 Jam- 


nagar, 2 Dabka,  1 Bodeli,  Baroda;  1 Dohad,  1 
Vallabh-Vidyanagar,  Anand;  1 Ramgarh,  Jaipur. 

Measurements  on  p.  618. 

1262  Turdoides  striatus  orientalis  (Jerdon) 
(Jungles  of  Carnatic  & Eastern  Ghats  restric- 
ted to  Horsleykonda,  west  of  Nellore)  Penin- 
sular Jungle  Babbler.  1:191  (part) 

This  was  described  as  “Lighter  than  mala- 
baricus  especially  beneath,  where  almost  white, 
upper  breast  marked”.  In  Indian  Handbook 
(6,  p.  227)  this  form  is  said  to  extend  across 
India  through  Madhya  Pradesh  and  south- 
wards in  peninsular  India.  The  birds  from  the 
Eastern  Ghats  agree  very  well  with  the  origi- 
nal description  but  not  with  those  westwards 
which  though  marked  orientalis  by  Salim  Ali 
have  their  breast  more  heavily  marked  and 
darker  underparts  tinged  with  rufous.  The 
birds  from  Mysore  were  also  named  orientalis 
by  Salim  Ali  (JBNHS  43,  p.  318)  but  none 
of  the  seven  specimens  then  listed  is  now 
available  in  Bombay.  We  have  six  more  from 
Mysore  but  they  appear  neither  orientalis  nor 
malabaricus,  and  though  perhaps  nearer  to  the 
latter  are  listed  here.  To  my  mind  there  are 
at  least  three  separate  populations  but  I am 
for  the  moment  leaving  them  under  orientalis 
but  separately. 

(a)  Nominate  orientalis  13:  9 $ $ 3 $ $ 1 o? 

2 Kurumbapatti,  1 Shevaroy  Hills,  5 Chitteri 
Range,  Salem  dist.;  2 Kaduru,  2 Palkonda  Hills,  S. 
Cuddapah,  1 Nallamalai  Range. 

Measurements  on  p.  618. 

(b)  17:  6 $ $ 10  9 9 1 o? 

1 Mathar,  Bhopal,  Narbadda  Valley;  2 Pili,  Mel- 
ghat,  1 N.  Chaurakund,  Amraoti,  Berar;  2 Jubbul- 
pore,  1 Gondia;  2 Bhopalapatnam,  2 Darba,  2 Gola- 
palli,  1 Amraoti,  1 Chota  Dongar,  1 Lohattar 
Reserve  Forest,  Bastar;  1 Bhanupratapur,  Ranker. 

The  first  four  westernmost  birds  have  pale 
underparts,  showing  a tendency  towards  sin- 
dianus in  the  northwest.  The  others  have  more 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


heavily  marked  breasts  and  darker  underparts 
tinged  with  rufous. 

These  birds  average  slightly  larger  than  those 
under  (a). 

Measurements  on  p.  618. 

(c)  6:  4 $ $ 2 $ $ 

3 Ulair,  1 Bilimani,  1 Talaguppa,  Sagar,  1 Gomat- 
ghatta,  Shimoga,  Mysore. 

These  birds  have  the  streaking  restricted  to 
the  upper  breast  and  the  lower  parts  show 
more  rufous  than  in  both  (b)  above  and  mala- 
baricus  below. 

Measurements  on  p.  618. 

1263  Turdoides  striatus  somervillei  (Sykes) 
(Ghauts  = Bombay  Ghats)  Bombay  Jungle 
Babbler.  1:197 

The  original  Latin  description  by  Sykes  as 
translated  by  Jerdon  reads  “reddish  brown; 
abdomen,  vent,  lower  back  and  tail  light 
rufous,  the  latter  obsoletely  banded  with  dar- 
ker; quills  brown;  the  feathers  of  the  throat 
and  breast  marked  in  the  middle  with  blueish 
found  in  the  Ghauts  only”. 

It  has  been  customary  to  accept  all  the  birds 
from  western  India,  from  the  Surat  Dangs  to 
South  Karwar,  in  N.  Kanara  from  both  the 
Ghats  and  the  low  country  to  the  west  as 
somervillei,  separable  from  the  other  races  by 
the  preponderance  of  rufous  all  over,  parti- 
cularly on  the  tail.  When  the  forty  specimens 
of  this  subspecies  were  laid  on  their  backs 
in  accordance  with  their  geographical  distri- 
bution, those  from  the  Ghats,  i.e.  Suriamal 
(2),  Bhimashankar  (1)  and  Khandala  (4) 
could  be  immediately  separated  by  the  bluish 
tinge  on  the  feathers  at  the  middle  of  the 
upper  breast,  and  the  almost  black  outer  pri- 
maries. This  does  not  appear  to  have  been  re- 
ferred to  in  subsequent  literature.  Those  from 
the  low  country  though  more  rufous  than  any 
of  the  other  races  described,  do  not  have  these 


characters,  nor  did  several  glassed  near  Bom- 
bay. The  birds  from  Ratnagiri  are  the  most 
rufous  all  over,  but  some  of  them  were  col- 
lected as  far  back  as  1878,  and  may  have 
foxed.  Here  the  primaries  are  dark  brown  and 
there  are  large  buff  spots  on  the  upper  breast. 

Southwards,  the  rufous  on  the  underparts 
deepens  and  in  the  birds  from  N.  Kanara  and 
Goa,  the  buff  spots  on  the  breast  have  narrow- 
ed to  streaks  and  almost  merged  into  the 
background. 

The  “ghat”  and  N.  Kanara  birds  are  sepa- 
rately listed  but  I am  leaving  them  all  under 
the  same  name  until  there  has  been  an  oppor- 
tunity to  compare  freshly  collected  series  from 
different  places. 

a)  somervillei  7:  3 ^ 3 $$  1 o? 

2 Suriamal,  Thana;  1 Bhimashankar,  4 Khandala, 
Poona, 

(b)  33:24  $ $ 8 $$  1 o? 

1 Mahal,  1 Malegaon,  2 Waghai,  Surat  Dangs; 
1 Borivli,  1 Marol,  2 Andheri,  3 Bandra,  Salsette; 
1 Mumbra,  1 Mumbra  -Taloja  Rd.,  Thana;  2 Maha- 
baleshwar,  Satara  Dist.  1 South  Konkan,  3 Rajapur, 

1 Dorli,  4 Ratnagiri;  2 Molem,  1 Goa;  1 Alanki, 

1 Kumta,  4 Karwar,  N.  Kanara. 

Measurements  on  p.  618. 

1264  Turdoides  striatus  malabaricus  (Jer- 
don) (Travancore  & forests  of  Malabar)  Mala- 
bar Jungle  Babbler  1:192 

13:  5 $ $ 7 $ $ 1 o? 

4 Nilambur  Valley;  1 Thattakad,  N.  Travancore, 

1 Changanur,  Edanad,  3 Tenmalai,  C.  Travancore; 

1 Nilgiris;  1 Palnis;  2 Shenemenalla,  Coimbatore 
dist. 

The  breast  is  strongly  marked  with  whitish 
buff  streaks  on  a dark  background.  The  streaks 
continue  further  down  than  in  any  of  the 
others.  Except  for  No.  942  from  Thattakad, 
N.  Travancore,  the  others  show  no  trace  of 
rufous  above  or  below. 

See  notes  on  Mysore  birds  under  1262 

Measurements  on  p.  618. 


612 


[465] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NAT.  HIST.  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 26 


1264a  Turdoides  striatus  orissae  (Jerdon) 
(Neotype  Barkot,  Bamra,  Sambalpur,  Orissa) 
Orissa  Jungle  Babbler 

6:  2 $ $ 4 9 $ 

1 Anantgiri,  Vizagapatnam;  1 Tikarpara,  1 Tige- 
ria,  1 Barkot,  1 Badrama,  Bamra,  Sambalpur,  1 
Barkul,  Chilka  Lake. 

These  are  uniformly  pale  rufous  below  with 
the  throat  and  upper  breast  very  faintly 
marked. 

Measurements  on  p.  619. 

1265  Turdoides  striatus  striatus  (Dumont) 

(Bengal)  Bengal  Jungle  Babbler  1:191 

8:  2 $ $ 6 9 9 

1 Sameli,  W.  Bhutan;  3 Cawnpore,  1 Bijnor,  U.P. 
1 Kishenganj,  1 Baghowni,  Behar;  1 24-Parganas, 
Bengal. 

The  feather  shafts  of  the  breast  show  up 
as  streaks  which  is  probably  the  origin  of 
the  name.  There  is  a varying  amount  of  grey 
and/or  rufous  on  the  upper  and  underparts 
but  the  absence  of  any  striking  differences  and 
with  no  series  from  any  place,  there  is  no 
option  but  to  leave  them  all  together. 

Measurements  on  p.  619. 

1266  Turdoides  rufescens  (Blyth)  (Ceylon) 

Ceylon  Rufous  Babbler  1:195 

3:  1 $ 2 $ $ 

1 Karpoogalla,  Pundalaya,  1 Opanayake,  1 Pelwa- 
dulla,  Ceylon. 

Measurements  on  p.  619. 

1267  Turdoides  affinis  affinis  (Jerdon) 
(Travancore)  Whiteheaded  Babbler  1:193 

32:  11  $ $ 17  9 9 4 o? 

1 “Specimen  No.  23880,  22  December  1973,  from 
Point  Calimere  was  labelled  T.  striatus  by  the  col- 
lector. Field  observers  have  always  considered  the 
Turdoides  species  found  in  coastal  forest  at  Calimere 
to  be  striatus  but  this  specimen  appears  to  me  to 
be  affinis.  A.J.  Gaston  (pers,  comm.)  informs  me 
that  the  vocalisations  of  the  birds  found  at  Calimere 
are  more  like  those  of  affinis  than  striatus .” 


5 N.  Kanara;  1 Mundgoda,  Dharwar  Dist;  1 
Hikkerisagar,  Mysore;  1 Kallar,  Nilgiris;  2 Tope, 
Palnis;  2 Trivandrum,  Kerala,  1 Nagarcoil,  Kanya- 
kumari  Dist.;  1 Pt.  Calimere,1  Tanjore  Dist.;  1 Titha- 
malai,  6 Kurumbapatti,  2 Chitteri  Range,  Salem 
Dist;  1 Vellore,  1 Madras  City;  1 Shriharikota,  1 
Palkonda  Hills,  1 Seshachalam  Hills,  S.  Cuddappah, 
A.P.;  2 Golapalli,  Bastar,  M.P.;  2?  locality? 

The  10  birds  with  white  heads  include  5 
(1  (f  4 9 ) from  N.  Kanara.  The  other  five 
(again  1 c?  4 9 ) are  from  Dharwar,  Salem 
(3)  and  Cuddapah  Dist.  The  N.  Kanara  series 
was  collected  in  1890/1  and  the  white  on  the 
head  is  slightly  foxed,  though  still  forming  a 
very  distinct  cap.  In  both  males  the  head  can- 
not be  said  to  be  pure  white,  the  colour  flow- 
ing into  that  of  the  back.  All  this  suggests 
that  the  white  head  is  restricted  to  the  adult 
female? 

The  series  from  N.  Kanara  has  darker 
underparts  as  also  the  two  from  Tope,  Palni 
Hills  (1958/9).  The  others  also  show  colour 
differences  which  cannot  be  isolated. 

Measurements  on  p.  619. 

1268  Turdoides  affinis  taprobanus  Ripley, 
(Ceylon),  Ceylon  Whiteheaded  Babbler. 

1 $ Uragala,  Ceylon 

The  bird  does  not  have  a white  head  and 
there  are  no  markings  on  the  chin  or  upper 
breast. 

Measurements  on  p.  619. 

1269  Turdoides  nipafensis  (Hodgson) 

(Nepal)  Spiny  Babbler  1:204 

3:  2 $ $ 1 $ 

1 Baila  3500',  Doti,  West  Nepal;  1 6500'  Nepal 
Valley;  1 5500'  N.  Katmandu  Valley. 

The  female  (R.  L.  Fleming,  Baila,  Doti) 
and  male  (D.  Proud,  N.  Katmandu  Valley) 
are  marked  as  having  the  “iris  pale  blue” 
while  the  other  male  (Nepal  Valley,  D.  Proud) 
is  said  to  have  been  “white”.  Hodgson,  quot- 
ed in  Stuart  Baker’s  fauna  said  it  was  smoky 


[466] 


613 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 

brown  while  the  handbook  (6:236)  says  1271  Babax  waddelli  waddelli  Dresser 
white.  (Tsangpo  Valley,  Tibet  = Chaksam)  Giant 

Measurements  on  p.  619.  Babax  1:189 

1 o?  Rongka,  Tibet. 

1270  Babax  lanceolate  wood!  Finn  (Kan-  Measurements  on  p.  619. 
petlet,  Mt.  Victoria,  Chin  Hills)  Chinese 
Babax  1:187 

2 : 1 $ 1 $ Mount  victoria.  Chin  Hills.  Burma.  (See  Measurements  on  pp.  615-619) 

Measurements  on  p.  619. 


614 


[467] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NAT.  HIST.  SOCIETY  COLLECT  ION —26 


00  ^ 
Cl  ^7 
^ ON 
Cl 


f"*"*  <96» 

«3Rr 

v> 

© 

VN 


i l 


co 

^ 1 

C/5  *— i «— ) 

« vo  ci  d 

[2q 

“ ci 


>/N  O 

® d 

*£ 

o 


S 


o o S 

— 4> 


^5 

Cl  </> 

s 

o 


Vi 

*s 

-e 

2 

£ 


£ i 


2.122 


vo»oiz 

^ £ 
o 


•O.  v£> 

ON  OO  ^ . 


r-^cCM 
00  ’"H  00 


= On 

vi  R c, 


£<* 

O 


*c 

C8 

oo  5£ 

^ *5 


S5  ci 


& 


75 

5«  ^ 


P 

1 

I «3 


^ e 

ci  £ 

IT  £ 

C 


tn  ci 
NO  NO 


00  fC 


.£ 


d*00* 
NO  ^oot 


d <jq 

fo 


c~ 

cc 

cl 


1C  00 

On  oo 


£ 

On 
• 00 

&00 

oo 

m 

On  vo 

cl 

NO*? 
»o  »c 

NC  Tf  Nn 

<?o^ 

Of 

fo 

Of 

^o04- 

* 

T3 

-h  ^ NO 

vn  ■'t  2 tt 

'■t  £^- 


o<o  S 

* S 

H w 


d 

r- 

.S;o 

> c-  c- 

oj 


«oOf 


r~K 


615 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol;  79 


r- 

J > in 

£r'u='A,'t' 

I 

vo 
o 


£ oo 
co 


o ^ 

°f  C-ET1  oo 

t- 


&8: 


on~oc- 


-H^Sr^^'O  n 2"  o 
_<  O _i  — < t-h  © o Zl  rl 

’—I  T— i 1 T-h  r+  ’— 1 


CO  2 


& 

Cu 

& 

3 

75 

a 

3 

1 


© 

8 

-© 


t^- 

S 


75 

3 

75  r- 

05  ' 

< 

H 


ooc5N(S 

n) 

■ 

d 

»n 

cu 

mi 

<£ 

n 

-D 

3 

75 

•a 

03 

vo 


3sS|3Ssl 

:38  I 


V*J  ^ in 

4 4 2 

COOC  ON 

O . 00 

Zoo  >Otoonrt 
C00  ^^00  00  00^ 

>>  oo 

Sg 

OO  w 


«o 


2 1 


ra 


8 

% 

T3 


£ 


O 

vn 

ON 

s 


«n 

£ .3  id  £ J? 


m 

ON  Os 

■ OO 


m 

°°°°«o  O'w 


00 

ON  m 00  o 


«o 


NO  2 


I* 

fd  ^ g> 
00  £ 

’-'  2 
T"1  u 


’-H  Of 

00 

<o 


1 

u 

tn 

03 


© 

© 

T5 

2 

£ 


n 

U-5 

<N 


m d ( 
OO.  | 

<d  r". 
in 
<d 

i 

4 


> 

^ *ON 

®°<nob 

On 


S E 


Tf 

3) 

VO  >00 

00  *6 

m oo 
oo 

4 ,. 

°°s 


cu 

cu 

75 

x> 

3 

75 

1/3 


© 

© 

73 

a> 

T3 


os^tr^r^ 
»n  v©  r-^  On 
oo  ed  rd  c-i  (nj 
<d 

• > > > > 
n d d d d 
d 

o l/Tci  *0  ^ 

cn  oo  o©  c4 
' M N N m 
70  i i i i 

NO  ^ ^ ^ 
cd  rd  »n  t--  r-- 
rd  cd  <d  rd 


t-*  N-'.  oo  “ i 
“2°?! 

in 


m t 

^vdS  4 

OCM^^C 
rd  rd  m 
„ • > cd  „ 
in  > dMt^ 

rS,;  ^.4n 

VO  r-^  ., 

vo  ON  rd  ^ m 
vd  i <n 
rd  d-  _;  td 
td  ^ 


S O ^ d <1 


H 

■ sr 

. 75 

o 


CO 

VO 

<N 


td 


N O N M N 

<?c^ofc 

^OO^On 


on  ^^4 

3 $888 
°°«sss 

NTN  I I • 

1 oo  oo  oo 


ON’— 

oo  ’— 1 d 

r-4  fd 

^ i-  • © 

^.n  ^ 

Cn)  On  VO  •' 

4o2(N 

^nJ-  n 

<Nl  GO  CTN 


vq  n 


.,© 

ON  <N 


ON 


co 

% 

VS^rC 

oo  «_^-oo 

r.’—  -o©  00 
■t—i  00  i V'N 

00^00  oo 
d-  r- 
r- 


<o 

«o 


ISILItll 


in 

S2  w C 

_ 2 Q 

c ^ ' . S's 


o w SjNs'-^-s;  o.«a  &o 


<3  - 


616 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NAT.  HIST.  SOCIETY  COLLECTION— 26 


ri'OO-CJ 
< cN  co 


vo 

g 

»— 1 1/-> 
. CN 

> — 1 
■ci 

co  On 
(N  —H 


• a „ 

> ’r;  00  M 

.JS^Soo 

CO 

*■  2 

00 

On  


s 

sis s 

sfe 

00 

ON 


00  vo 

o rl 

s - $ 

. in  > V0 

^«~=> 

lo  OS  CO  00  — * 

*7  V *A 

o oo 
cN  O 


00  in-nO 

to-t  - - 


VO 


co  £~  * 
OOoo 

HHfv 


© 

*2 

3 

H 


cN 

D *xin 

S^oo 

H ■« 

V0. 


I 

3 


$ d2 

pj3  vo, 

CN 


cn 


Ids 


00  2 
si*  ® 

S*15  ^ 

VO  <N  <✓-> 
cN  ^ 


£© 
*7  fo 


• CO 
(X  <N 
& 

£ 

3 

C/3 


cN 

co 

Ov 

CN 


C>  co 
CO 


CN 

OO 

cn  »q 

00 

ON  cs 

CN  v/N  CN 

<n2 

.. 

VO  CN  VO 

® * 

^ -VO 
vn  cl 
>c 
CN 

8 

"O 

*3 

'S 

H 


VO 

vr< 

in 

in 

cN 


> T— t 

cn  r-  > 
co 

Y]  r-T  t-h  co 

JS  d cn 

^ cN  cn 

00  dv 

2 ^ 


vo  ^ 

d d 

ok  on 

VO, 

■£osr*  £ 

cO  „ oo  cO 

<N 

VO  Ov  CN 

ON  ON 


I 00 
Cv|  © 
„cN 
co 
ON 


Tf  ON  00 

ON  00 


On  O 
00  ON 


o 00 

00  ©"«> 

r- 


© 

*2 


CO 

CN  cj 


© 

vq 

JJ- 

C/3 

O 

•a 

'c 

vq 

15 

<— < 

ON 

vq 

s 

s 

Cl 

C5 

© 

CN 

. 

d 

CN 

22 

i 

co  ^ cq 

^© 

ON  ON 

s 

9 

2 s 


T3 

•3 

1 

H 


00 

»n 

CN 


N-  vo 

t"  r- 


00  o 
t" 


CN 

CO 


CN 

CO 


g<8 

£oo4g 

ST*"  - 

>A  vi:S 

a a 


_ r^.  ON-<fr 

d 1-1  2 

> „ CO_VO 

cO  *3  *3  06 

CN  C/3  o CO 

06  §2  o£ 

rH  Int^ 


i>  n- 

O 00  ,— < 

> >-H 

^ 1 ^1  fC 

h°o<n©o 

CN  CO  VC 

^g2g^ 


& 

3 

m 

aa 

o 

»T3 


vq  * 

• co  r? 

> «o  co  co 

ci  co  co 

CO  CN  CO  r.  - 

co  vr,  VO 


G*  »n 
O-i  crv 

Jfi  CN 

43 

3 

W3 

03 

3 


^.o 

OO  CN 


. CN  »n 

>J^w»5<NO00 

«*  d • <N  <N  *-> 

ov^Ssd*-' 

. ^ < cN  cN  * 


Ov 


2 ^ 
5 - 


s 

ON 

vn 

cN 


Ov  ^v 
. Ov 
> 00 
CCS  O 

^On 

<N^° 

Ov 


CN 

Ov 

00 . O 

00  x ON 


a 00 


s s 


c^- 

° CH- 
.03 

|.S 

I S 

§ s 

-1& 


^OCM-^^O  Of' 
Of  «o  Of 


^o0f 


CN  Of 

wOf 


-c  ^ 

S ?N 

o 

vq 

CN 


■617 


1261-1265  Turdoides  striatus  subspp. 

Wing  Bill  Tarsus  Tail 

1261  sindianus  $ S (7,  1 juv.)  94-116  (Simla)  av.  20.5-21,5  av.  21.1  30.5-34.6  av.  32,5  98-116  av.  107.3 

(IH  104-111  from  skull  21-25  35-37  100-114) 


JOURNAL.  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


S2 


109 

97.7 
av.  9’ 

106 

104.4 

98.1 

101.3 

101 

99.3 

102.5 

98.2 

101.1 

99.2 

av. 

.•  rc 

r- 

av. 

av. 

av. 

, 96 

av. 

av. 

00 

> _ 
d 0 

/ s 

av. 

)5) 

av. 

102) 

■'t 

■ 

©© 

On 

^ ri 

1 

©^ 

8S~ 

©© 

rr> 

© 

00 

On 

w l 

_ ^ r-  on 
~ © © 

© 

00  . 
00  f~ 

* 

"'g: 

v5 

O'. 

is 

00  rf 
oe  On 

1 

. 31.7 
34.6 
av.  33 

N!t 

<s°-. 

r) 

00 

© 

. 33 
32.8 

m 
. oo 

P!" 

ri  ni 
m m 

<4 

rN 

<4 

m 

av. 

a «-h 

^ > 

>5 

^ m 

av. 

av 

.2 

av. 

av. 

.6 

av. 

.4 

r- 

m 

§ 

36 

rr 

_ c6 
r^  r*N 
r) 

»A 

r-  , 

t n 

r-  Sn 

m 

m 

1 

»n 

in 

in  rf> 

in  *0 
m ro 

«n 

•rt-  m 

m 

m 

S 

35” 

r6 

1 rr 
^ X 

1 ■ 

r-  -r 

\b 

^.iA 

<4 

1 

in 

1 

Nt 

O rr 

• m 
r*N 

ON 

On) 

r-  ’ 
n m 

m 

© 

m 

m 

f"  IT) 

o^1 

rl  m 
cl 

> 

d ~ 
3 

^44 


e 

n c 


os  ^ 

£ 8 > 
a 


C4 


_5  V)  00 


> 

NO  ON 


r)  on 
cl  O 

2 

8 22o< 


ON  O'. 

X © ^ 

Nr)  Hi 

ggi 

03 

rac-.  ,-s 

rn  rn  ctf 

<4,  ,2,  r j 


O 

<^ON 

'ct 

r^oc 
ci  — 


ci 


o 

.’S 

-r.a 

C)  -O 


m rs 
VO  x> 


*0  f". 
cl  ci 


> > 
d CS  »n 

ttN 

rC  m 
Cl  Cl 
On  VO 
00  On 


TO  • 


d 


r ! M i rtTf 

or)  d 

<^4 

. Cl  fN| 

N H 

~*44  ^44 

x 4/5  d 5/5 

N c r)  - 
On.H  On  *■« 


m On 
*—<  On 


S;E 


C)  cn 

2 8 2“ 


M 

2 -*nj£ 

~ od 


■i-  . 

2 


Of 

«o 


Ov.ti 

So  ^ 

^.■8 

r-  71 
oo  g 

n7_, 

— ^ On  hh 


>o 
a ~ 

£ cA 
O 


> > 
cti  cS 


3 


oe  oo 
O O 


s: 


t~-~  oo 
<4  m* 
© © 


> >Q 
cd  os  © 

CO 

o © 


1 


> jcj 


SS 

*-H  © 


Of^ 

«o0 


0C  r~i 

© s 

-g  -g 

© t-  © 

£-  2- 


Bi  8S  2* 


rc 

cl 


’foot- 

fOOf- 


rf  cl 


<oot 

foot 


» 

I? 

ftS  o 


£>r)  3 

-§voC  ^ 


«o<> 


,0 


618 


[471] 


BIRDS  IN  BOMBAY  NAT . HIST.  SOCIETY  COLLECTION-26 


vo 

§ 

^ „ t-H  CCS  'T 

■ <N 
£§2 


Vn 

CN 

,sr-° 

^ assess 


s 

o\ 


Oh>- 
’—1  of 

/■“s 

sss§ 

SS£ 

iA  ^ »A 
Oo\^CV 

8 


zzz 


^vo2 


p 

v->  *£j 
cm  iQ 

£6  g 

vo 


cu 

Oh 

C/3 

3 

C/5 


in 

vo 

<M 


3 

rf 

VO 

CM 


sS  i 'Z* 

c/5  to  ,q 

os  . -co  ^j.  co  vo  f\j 
co  co 


. co 
> co 
c3 


H cm 
co 


-H  Tt  .M* 

in  CM  NON 

<N  . rJ  <A 

<sj  _ > «*!  O <M 

d J3  . ^3 

«2"2rf^S-§ 

is  i^i 

^ S .H  ov  .H 


S 

-i-  O . 00^^ 

><^o^  . r- 

rtOv^r-i  > O 

« „ ,co  ^ ’T 

^nOhvcoooom; 
P’Ohh^Oho^ 


gog 


3 

rs 

© 

"S 


VO 

VO 

<N 


cm 

■^t  vo  »o 

<o  ^ CO  ^ 
^ co  r/M 
CO  f\J  CO 


<M 

CM  oc 

■0=83 

3D  M 4>  <4 

s"1 

0 


r-H  VO 

q<N© 

© i-i  Ov 


^>2  ^ 

3 3 


O. 

Oh 

C/3 

*o 

3 

V3 


C/5 

*8 

1 

- 

H 

00 

VO 

t"- 

VO 

CM 


7_J  CO 

CO 


> m 

& <? 

CM  I 
r-  ^ , 


r-.P? 

CM  d 


gjS^K 

cm 


6$ 


© 

"Q 

*© 


^ win  w 


2 cm  2 

24>  2 


cm  ^ 

co  2;  co  o 

o2°h 

Tj-  . C\ 
< Ov  > Ov 
03  03 

«OoO  o+ 

o ^»2  Of 

isis 


oo 

Ov 


© 


»A 

O 


VO  03 

oo  P 


CO 


cm 

O 


© 

TS 

fa 


CO  C/3 

n£ 

o 

Ih 


-=3  I CM 


8 


O 

t> 

CM 


rT«o*» 

OO 

*0  Of 


K ffi 


vn 

cm  <•; 


* 

pO 

C8 

PQ 


CM 


8 


Ov  d 


3 

! co  rs|  «n  co 

OJ 

& 

vn 

S 

o 

Oc^cm 
0v  o Ov 

0s 

CN 

■ 

‘I 

n 

i 

*© 

a 

IS 

M" 

4- 

! 

irT 

oo 

CJ 

ca 

qM 

§ 

vr>  clj 

»e 

CO 

C"  ©5 

2 

o 


© ^ 
co  W 


/— s 

VO 

CM 

S_H 

M 

CM 

/-S 

/— s 

' / 

Of 

^-H 

Of 

t-H 

«o 

*o 

Of 

Of 

<60 

Of 

/ — s 

M- 

«o 

co 

1 

co 

S 

•S 

a 

/•N 

n 

CM 

w' 

Of 

O- 

o 

#c«a 

S 

<3 

►C3 

0-\ 

CM 

s 

ci 

fa 
. ^ 

Of 

Of 

’S 

§ 

*5 

f 

O 

| 

«o 

'fo 

s 

CM 

1265 

vo 

CM 

CM 

00 

VO 

re 

toot 


[472] 


619 


GEOGRAPHIC  VARIATION  IN  THE  BARASINGHA  OR 
SWAMP  DEER  ( CERVUS  DUVAUCELI)1 


Colin  P.  Groves2 
(With  five  plates  & four-text-figures) 

The  Barasingha  or  Swamp  Deer,  C.  devauceli,  is  revised;  a new  subspecies  is  describ- 
ed from  Assam.  Adaptations  and  relationships  of  the  species  are  briefly  reviewed. 


The  Barasingha  or  Swamp  Deer  ( Cervus 
duvauceli)  was  reputedly  spread  widely  in 
Northern  India  and  southern  Nepal  in  histo- 
ric times.  Lydekker  (1907)  gives  the  distri- 
bution from  the  Assam  valley  in  the  east  to 
the  Kyarda  Dun  in  the  west,  and  from  the 
foot  of  the  Himalaya  south  to  the  Godavari 
river;  with  a few  outliers  in  the  Sunderbans  to 
the  east  and  on  the  Indus  to  the  west.  North 
of  the  Ganges  it  would  be  restricted  to  swampy 
grasslands;  south  of  it,  to  Sal  forest.  Today 
the  species  is  reduced  to  three  small  pockets: 
the  Nepal-India  border  in  the  Kumaun- 
Kanchanpur-Dudhwa-Kheri  region;  a few 
sanctuaries  in  Assam  (Manas,  Orang  and 
Kaziranga);  and  the  Kanha  National  Park, 
near  Mandla,  Madhya  Pradesh.  The  only  re- 
cent record  outside  these  three  areas  is  for 
the  Chitawan  district  of  Nepal;  Schaller  (1967) 
quotes  R.  Willan  to  the  effect  that  “a  few” 
occur  there,  but  they  are  extinct  there  today 
(A.  Laurie,  pers.  comm.).  It  seems  probable 
that  the  species  was  always  restricted  to  poc- 
kets of  suitable  country,  such  that  local  exter- 
mination was  relatively  easy. 

Since  the  work  of  Pocock  (1943),  the 
species  has  been  divided  into  two  subspecies: 

1 Accepted  April  1982. 

2 Department  of  Prehistory  and  Anthropology, 
Australian  National  University,  Canberra,  Act.  2600. 


C.  d.  duvauceli,  the  true  Swamp  Deer  from 
north  of  the  Ganges,  and  C.  d.  branded,  the 
Hard-ground  Barasingha  from  between  the 
Ganges  and  Godavari  rivers.  Apart  from  the 
hooves  — splaying,  with  bare  pasterns  in  the 
former,  and  hard-knit  with  normally  haired 
pasterns  in  the  latter  — the  differences  bet- 
ween the  two  have  always  been  a little  vague, 
due  in  part  to  the  changes  with  sex  and  season, 
in  part  to  lack  of  familiarity  with  living  speci- 
mens. 

Both  the  Assam  and  the  Nepal /U.P.  popu- 
lations have  customarily  been  assigned  to  the 
nominate  subspecies,  C.  d.  duvauceli : but  M. 
K.  Ranjitsinh  (in  epist.,  1979,  1980)  has  noted 
that  they  differ  strongly  from  one  another,  and 
suggested  to  me  that  it  might  be  worthwhile 
to  investigate  the  possibility  that  they  differ 
subspecifically. 

Material  and  Methods 

Skulls  and  antlers  of  this  species  were  exa- 
mined and  measured  in  the  following  institu- 
tions: British  Museum  (Natural  History); 

Powell-Cotton  Museum,  Birchington,  Kent; 
Bombay  Natural  History  Society;  Van  Ingen 
& Van  Ingen,  Mysore;  Indian  Forestry  Col- 
lege, Dehra  Dun;  and  the  private  collections 
at  the  palaces  of  H.  H.  the  Maharana  Saheb 
of  Wankaner  and  H.  H.  the  Maharaja  of 


620 


J.  Bombay  nat,  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  I 

Groves:  Cervus  duvauceli 


Fig.  5.  Skull  of  C.  d.  duvauceli,  BM  12.10.31.6,  from  Kheri. 
(Photo:  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh ) 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 

Groves:  Cervus  duvauceli 


Plate  II 


Above : Fig.  6.  Herd  of  C.  d.  duvauceli : Kishanpur  Sanctuary,  Pilibit  district,  U.P. 
Below : Fig.  8.  C.  d.  ranjitsinhi  in  Kaziranga  National  Park,  Assam. 

(Photo:  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh ) 


GEOGRAPHIC  VARIATION  IN  THE  BARAS1NGHA 


Table 


Measurements  of  skulls  (all  male)  and  antlers  Ccrvus  duvauceli 


C.  d.  duvauceli 

C.  d. 

ranjitsinhi 

C.  d. 

branderi 

Kumaun 

Kheri 

Assam 

M.P. 

Mean 

s.d. 

n 

Mean 

s.d. 

n 

Mean 

s.d. 

n 

Mean 

s.d. 

n 

Greatest  skull  length 

377.0 

6.24 

3 

393.2 

7.49 

6 

388.7 

10.26 

3 

366.7 

6.11 

3 

Nasal  length 

129.7 

9.07 

3 

130.5 

8.55 

6 

138.3 

9.29 

3 

127.5 

— 

2 

Nose  depth 

52.3 

4.16 

3 

53.8 

4.92 

5 

57.7 

2.08 

3 

50.0 

— I 

2 

Snout  length 

132.3 

2.89 

3 

132.6 

5.94 

5 

125.0 

— 

2 

114.5 

— 

2 

Antler  length 

686.4 

13.43 

5 

675.1 

39.79 

8 

626.0 

58,62 

3 

706.8 

39.  39 

5 

Burr  to  brow  tine 

47.6 

9.61 

5 

57.5 

8.00 

8 

58.3 

15.00 

3 

58.8 

12.89 

5 

Brow  tine  to  main  fork 

381.0 

57.69 

5 

361.5 

47.47 

8 

332.3 

28.36 

3 

402.4 

49.53 

5 

Length  of  brow  tine 

239.8 

26.98 

5 

306.9 

37.96 

8 

233.0 

89.11 

3 

299.8 

35.51 

5 

Length  of  anterior  branch 

306,0 

42.95 

5 

309.9 

46.65 

8 

263.3 

43.66 

3 

345.6 

39.48 

5 

Length  of  posterior  branch 

278.8 

53.66 

5 

276.9 

42.23 

8 

241 . 3 

69.00 

3 

264.2 

35.79 

5 

Kolhapur.  With  one  exception,  all  skulls  in  the 
collection  are  male. 

The  skull  measurements  taken  were  mostly 
those  of  Lowe  & Gardiner  (1974).  Standardi- 
sation of  skull  measurements  within  restricted 
groups  of  vertebrates  is  very  desirable,  and 
I would  like  to  take  this  opportunity  to  recom- 
mend that  future  workers  on  the  Cervidae 
follow  the  Lowe  & Gardiner  method,  which 
seems  to  describe  all  major  parameters  of  skull 
variation.  A few  measurements  were  also  taken 
on  antlers  and  their  pedicels:  both  antero- 
posterior and  transverse  diameters  of  pedicels 
and  of  the  antlers  themselves  between  burr 
and  brow-tine;  and  lengths  of  tines  and  dis- 
tances between  branching-points.  It  should  be 
noted  that  the  point  of  measurement  on  the 
antler  was  always  the  centre  of  the  node,  i.e. 
the  triradius  where  the  longitudinal  grain  of 
the  tine  meets  the  ascending  and  descending 
grains  of  the  beam. 

Results 

The  skulls  and  antlers  studied  were  assign- 
able to  four  main  geographic  samples: 


Kumaun,  Kheri  (Sarda  river,  Pilibit,  Sonari- 
pore,  Bahraich),  Assam  (including  Gauhati), 
and  Madhya  Pradesh.  Under  this  latter  head- 
ing are  included  specimens  from  the  Mandla 
district,  where  the  species  still  survives;  from 
Junga  (approx.  20°N.,  82°20'E.);  and  from 
“Dewas”,  (probably  the  Dewas  district  some 
400  km  west  of  Mandla).  Two  skulls  from 
Nanpara  and  two  from  “Nepal”  were  studied 
in  addition. 

Samples  differed  from  one  another  in  abso- 
lute skull  size,  as  measured  by  greatest  length; 
nasal  length  (Lowe  & Gardiner,  1974:  200, 
Appendix  I,  measurement  no.  7);  nose  depth 
(Lowe  & Gardiner  no.  15);  snout  length 
(Lowe  & Gardiner  no.  5);  minimum  maxilla 
breadth  (Lowe  & Gardiner  no.  9);  antler 
length;  length  of  brow-tine;  and  distances  bet- 
ween branching  points  of  antlers.  These  mea- 
surements are  listed,  with  means  and  standard 
deviations  for  each  of  the  four  samples,  in 
the  Table;  and  depicted  in  bivariate  plots  in 
Figs.  1-4. 

The  Kumaun  and  Kheri  samples  differ  in 
two  features  only:  absolute  size,  and  length 

621 


9 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Voi.  79 


Nasal  length 

Fig.  1.  Plot  of  Nasal  Length  vs.  Snout  Length  (Lowe  & Gardiner,  1974,  nos.  7 vs.  5).  Regression 
equations  as  follows: 

C.  d.  duvauceli : y = 63.77  + 0.511  x (r  = .555) 

C.  d.  ranjitsinhi  + branderi:  y = 29.00  + 0.675  x (r  = .979) 


of  brow-tine.  Although  the  size  difference  is 
quite  marked,  known  environmental  responses 
in  the  growth  of  deer  (Huxley,  1931;  Hooger- 
werf,  1956)  suggest  extreme  caution  before 
assuming  a genetic  basis  for  this.  Brow  tine 
length,  though  again  quite  strongly  different 
on  average  in  the  two,  overlaps  when  observed 
ranges  are  considered,  and  the  standard  devia- 
tion limits  nearly  overlap. 

The  two  Nanpara  skulls  are  373  and  385 
mm  long  respectively;  they  are  thus  within  the 


Kumaun  size  range,  although  separated  from 
the  Kumaun  area  by  the  Kheri  region.  This 
clearly  identifies  the  size  difference  as  of  strict- 
ly limited  significance:  a microgeographic 

phenomenon,  whether  genetic  or  environmen- 
tal. Brow-tine  lengths  are  305  mm  in  both, 
nearly  identical  to  the  Kheri  mean,  indicating 
in  this  case  a rather  clearer  geographic  trend. 
An  adult  skull  from  “Nepal”  in  the  British 
Museum  is  397  mm  long  with  a brow-tine  of 
340,  both  characters  aligning  it  with  Kheri; 


622 


GEOGRAPHIC  VARIATION  IN  THE  BARASINGHA 


but  the  exact  locality  in  Nepal  is  unknown. 
The  second  Nepal  specimen,  the  type  of  Cervus 
dimorphe  Hodgson,  is  a young  adult  of  364 
mm,  with  deformed  antlers:  it  was  reared  in 
captivity  for  at  least  a year  (Hodgson  1843), 
and  is  doubtless  stunted. 

Assam  skulls  are  between  the  two  above 


samples  in  size,  but  with  long  nasals,  deep 
muzzle,  short  snout,  short  antlers  branching 
low  down,  and  short  brow-tine.  While  none  of 
these  differences  by  itself  quite  reaches  the  con- 
ventional level  of  subspecific  differentiation 
(75%  rule),  the  bivariate  plots  throw  the  shape 
differences  into  relief.  The  nasals  are  very  long 


Minimum  maxilla  breadth 

Fig.  2.  Plot  of  Nose  Depth  vs.  Minimum  maxilla  breadth  (Lowe  & Gardiner,  1974,  nos.  15  vs.  9). 
Regression  equations  as  follows: 


C.  d.  duvauceli: 
C.  d.  ranjitsinhi : 


y = 11.94  + 0.767  x (r  = .710) 
y = -3.00  + 1.167  x (r  — .971) 


623 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Antler  length 

Fig.  3.  Plot  of  Antler  Breadth  (transverse)  vs.  Antler  Length.  Regression: 

C.  d.  duvauceli ; y = 18.54  + 0.032  x (r  = .496) 

C.  d.  ranjitsinhi ; y = -10.17  + 0.084  x (r  = .983) 


relative  to  the  snout  length  (Fig.  1);  the  nose 
is  deep  but  narrow  (Fig.  2);  the  antlers  are 
short  and  thick  (Fig.  3)  and  their  pedicels 
tend  to  be  antero-posteriorly  flattened  (Fig.  4), 
though  this  is  not  such  a strong  difference. 

Madhya  Pradesh  skulls,  referable  to  C.  d. 
branded,  are  small  in  size  with  a very  short 
snout;  the  antlers  are  very  long,  with  a long 
beam  before  the  first  fork,  and  the  anterior 
branch  is  especially  long.  In  the  shape  rela- 
tionships in  which  the  Assam  sample  differ 
from  Kheri  and  Kumaun,  the  M.P.  sample  fall 
with  the  latter:  except  in  the  long  nasals  and 
short  snout  in  which  they  are  like  Assam.  It 


is  evident  that  on  the  basis  of  its  skull  and 
antler  form,  C.  d.  branded  is  a valid  subspecies; 
while  a further  subspecies  needs  to  be  recog- 
nised for  Assam. 

Cervus  duvauceli  duvauceli  G.  Cuvier,  1823. 
Western  Swamp  Deer;  Gond. 

1823  Cervus  duvaucelii  G.  Cuvier.  “No  doubt 
North  India”  (Pocock,  1943)  ; Kumaun  here 
chosen. 

1835  Cervus  elaphoides  Hodgson.  Nepal. 

1837  Cervus  smithii  Grey.  Northern  India;  Kumaun 
here  chosen. 

1843  Cervus  dimorphe  Hodgson.  Morung  region. 
Nepal. 

1850  Cervus  euceros  Gray.  “India”:  Kumaun  here 
chosen. 


624 


GEOGRAPHIC  VARIATION  IN  THE  BARASINGHA 


1868  Cervus  eucladoceros  Falconer.  South  of  Hard- 
war. 

Specimens  seen.  Kumaun  5 [BM(NH)  3, 
IFC  2],  Nanpara  2 (Van  Ingen),  Pilibit  2 
(Wankaner),  Kheri  8 [BM(NH)],  Nepal  2 
[BM(NH)]. 


Diagnosis'.  Nasals  short  relative  to  snout 
length,  nose  not  deep,  antlers  long,  slender, 
not  compressed  or  palmated  (Fig.  5). 

Description.  Observations  of  living  herds 
show  that  the  hinds  are  very  large  in  this  form. 


Pedicel  transverse 

Fig.  4.  Plot  of  Pedicel  diameters:  transverse  vs.  antero-posterior.  Regressions  of: 


C.  d.  duvauceli; 
C.  d.  ranjitsinhi ; 
C.  d.  branded : 


5 = 5.24  + 0.829  x (r  = .83) 
y = 14.24  + 0.678  x (r  = .875) 
y = 8.55  + 0.731  x (r  = .957) 


625 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


comparable  in  size  with  the  stags,  and  with  a 
thicker  neck;  the  tail  in  both  sexes  is  rela- 
tively long  and  slim  with  prominent  white  hair 
on  the  undersurface;  the  ears  are  very  large 
and  rounded,  with  a thick  growth  of  white 
hair  on  the  inside.  Fig.  6 shows  some  of  these 
features;  good  close-up  photos  can  be  found 
in  Schaaf  (1979).  The  Kheri  sample  is,  as 
mentioned  above,  slightly  differentiated  from 
the  Kumaun  one:  by  its  large  size  (perhaps 
not  a genetic  character)  and  elongated  brow- 
tine.  The  Nanpara  specimens  are  smaller  again, 
but  have  the  same  long  brow-tine;  they  pos- 
sibly represent  the  same  population  as  the  now 
extinct  Chitawan  barasingha. 

None  of  the  names  in  the  above  synonymy 
is  very  firmly  based;  and  only  Cervus  dimor- 
phe  appears  to  be  represented  by  a type  speci- 
men, which  is  a young  adult  skull  with  antlers 
deformed  by  captivity.  On  historical  grounds 
there  is  no  probability  that  any  of  the  names 
apply  to  the  Assam  valley  race,  which  thus 
needs  a new  name. 

Cervus  duvauceli  ranjitsinhi  subsp.  nov. 
Eastern  Swamp  Deer  or  Barasingha 

Type.  British  Museum  (Natural  History) 
91.2.7.9,  skull  with  antlers,  from  Gauhati, 
Assam,  presented  by  A.  O.  Hume  in  1891.  The 
skull  is  mounted  on  a display  shield,  and  the 
basicranium  has  been  cut  off  to  mount  it. 

Referred  specimens.  (1)  BM(NH)  23.10. 
5.54,  “Assam”,  skull  with  antlers,  the  ante- 
rior maxillae  and  premaxillae  missing.  (2) 
BM(NH)  12.10.31.5,  Gauhati. 

Origin  of  name.  For  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh,  pre- 
sently Secretary  of  the  Forest  Department, 
State  of  Madhya  Pradesh,  India.  Ranjitsinh’s 
name  has  been  associated  with  many  wildlife 
conservation  projects  in  India,  and  recently  in 
Thailand;  in  the  late  1960s  his  insistence  and 
energy  was  primarily  responsible  for  reviving 
C.  d.  branderi  from  near  extinction,  and  he 


has  more  recently  been  concerned  in  the  still 
more  difficult  problem  of  saving  the  Manipur 
Thamin  ( C . eldi  eldi). 

Diagnosis.  Compared  with  the  nominate 
race,  distinguished  by  its  elongated  nasals  and 
short  deep  snout;  short  thick  antlers,  branch- 
ing low  down,  with  especially  shortened  ante- 
rior branch;  antlers  somewhat  compressed  and 
tend  to  be  palmated  (Fig.  7). 

Description.  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh  {in  press;  in 
lift.,  4.8.1980  and  2.9.1980)  points  out  that 
in  the  field  this  race  is  heavily  built,  but  linear- 
ly of  the  same  height  as  C.  d.  branderi,  i.e. 
smaller  than  the  nominate  race  and  with  the 
hinds  especially  small;  the  muzzle  is  more  slen- 
der from  side  to  side  and  pointed,  giving  the 
impression  of  being  more  elongated;  the  ears, 
which  have  very  little  white  hair  on  the  in- 
sides unlike  the  other  two  races,  are  smaller, 
less  rounded  and  distinctly  pointed;  the  tail  is 
shorter;  and  in  moult  the  white  spots  in  the 
mid-dorsal  region  are  much  less  prominent. 
These  features  are  clearly  visible  in  Figs.  8 and 
9,  as  are  the  short,  flattened,  low-branching, 
somewhat  palmated  antlers,  highly  characte- 
ristic in  the  field.  The  feet  are  splayed  with 
bare  “heels”,  as  in  the  nominate  race,  as  far 
as  is  known. 

Notes.  Although  for  comparative  purposes 
the  sma!'  number  of  specimens  is  to  be  re- 
gretted, collection  of  further  specimens  is 
clearly  undesirable  at  this  time.  From  a con- 
servation point  of  view  the  identification  of 
this  new  subspecies  is  of  the  greatest  urgency. 

Cervus  duvauceli  branderi  Pocock.  Southern 
Swamp  Deer;  Hard-ground  Barasingha 

1943  Rucervus  duvauceli  branderi  Pocock.  Mandla. 

Specimens  seen.  “Central  Provinces”  2 [BM 
(NH)],  Mandla  3 [holotype,  BM(NH);  Wan- 
kaner,  2],  Junga  1 (Powell-Cotton  Museum), 
Dewas  2 (Kolhapur). 


626 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 

Groves:  Cervus  duvauceli 


Plate  III 


§§31 


■hSI 

pgfMg 

k 


giipiiiil 


Fig.  7.  Skull  of  C.  d.  ranjitsinhi , BM  91.8.7.9.  from  Gauhati  (Holotype) 
(Photo:  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh) 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79 

Groves:  Cervus  duvauceli 


Plate  IV 


Above:  Fig.  9.  C.  d.  ranjitsinhi  in  Kaziranga  National  Park,  Assam. 
Below : Fig.  11.  C.  d.  branderi  stag:  Kanha  National  Park,  M.P. 
(Photos:  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh ) 


GEOGRAPHIC  VARIATION  IN  THE  BARASINGHA 


Diagnosis.  The  feet  are  “well-knit”,  with 
hair-covered  pasterns,  unlike  the  other  two 
races;  size  is  small;  nasals  long,  snout  short 
as  in  ranjitsinhi,  but  nose  is  not  deep;  maxilla 
rather  broad  as  in  nominate  race;  antlers  as 
in  nominate  race  but  extremely  long  and  many- 
branched,  with  long  brow-tine;  branching  high 
up  the  beam,  and  anterior  branch  especially 
long  (Fig.  10). 

Description.  According  to  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh 
{in  lift.),  the  stag  has  a darker  rutting  pelage 
than  either  of  the  other  two  races,  a better 
developed  ruff  on  the  neck,  and  a noticeably 
short  snout.  The  note  by  Dunbar  Brander 
(1923)  that  the  colour  is  “often”  much  darker 
is  plainly  a failure  to  distinguish  between  rut- 
ting and  non-rutting  pelage.  A supposed  colour 
difference  in  the  antlers,  also  mentioned  by 
Dunbar  Brander,  is  difficult  to  maintain  on 
modern  observations,  and  was  in  any  case 
disputed  by  Pocock  (1943). 

As  in  the  nominate  race  the  ears  are  large 
and  rounded,  with  thick  white  hair  internally; 
the  tail  is  somewhat  shorter,  but  not  as  short 
as  in  C.  d.  ranjitsinhi;  the  muzzle  is  broad  and 
blunt;  there  are  prominent  white  spots  along 
the  dorsal  lines,  especially  during  the  moult 
(Fig.  11).  Lydekker  (1907)  records  an 
unusual  “curved”  type  of  antler  from  the 
(then)  Central  Provinces  (now  Madhya  Pra- 
desh), on  the  evidence  of  a series  shot  by 
Major  C.  B.  Wood;  but  for  Dunbar  Brander 
this  is  the  “Terai”  type,  being  rarer  according 
to  him  in  the  Central  Provinces,  whereas  the 
straight,  spreading  type  is  rare  elsewhere.  This 
discrepancy  is  probably  a matter  of  semantics: 
most  antlers,  throughout  the  range,  would 
appear  to  be  of  the  type  Dunbar  Brander  calls 
“intermediate”  (and  which  indeed  accounts 
for  14  out  of  his  sample  of  31  heads),  but  the 
finest,  most  spreading  and  angular  antlers  are 
almost  confined  to  M.P.  It  is  interesting  that 


Dunbar  Barnder  classes  3 out  of  his  31  as  of 
“sambar  type”;  and  Ranjitsinh  (in  lilt.)  has 
occasionally  seen  individuals  in  Kanha  with 
antlers  “quite  indistinguishable”  from  sambar. 

Discussion 

The  discovery  of  a new  subspecies  of 
Cervus  duvauceli  raises  the  question  of  the 
nature  of  the  species  and  its  adaptation;  what 
are  its  nearest  relatives,  and  what  was  its  origi- 
nal habitat:  swampy  grassland,  or  Sal  forest 
and  glades? 

Although  C.  duvauceli  and  its  relatives,  C. 
schomburgki  and  C.  eldi,  have  traditionally 
been  referred  to  a subgenus  Rucervus,  there 
have  been  dissenting  voices.  Pocock  (1943) 
referred  each  to  a separate  genus  — Rucervus, 
Thaocervus  and  Panolia  respectively  — imply- 
ing that  interrelationships  among  them  are  no 
closer  than  between  any  one  of  them  and  the 
other  subgenera  of  Cervus  (or  rather,  in 
Pocock’s  scheme,  genera  of  the  Cervinae) : 
such  as  Cervus,  Rusa,  Ussa  and  Axis.  Such  a 
classification  appears  much  oversplit:  it  neither 
indicates  any  closer  degrees  of  relationship, 
nor  does  it  use  the  species  category  in  any  use- 
ful way,  since  most  of  the  genera  are  mono- 
specific. 

A very  different,  and  surely  more  useful 
classification,  is  that  of  Flerov  (1952).  This 
author  arranges  the  species  of  Cervus  in  just 
five  subgenera:  Cervus  (for  C.  elaphus  and 
C.  nippon),  Axis  (for  C.  axis,  C.  porcinus, 
C.  calamianensis  and  C.  kuhli),  Dama  (for 
C.  dama  and  C.  mesopotamica) , Przewalskium 
(for  C.  albirostris)  and  Rusa  (for  C.  alfredi, 
C.  timoriensis,  C.  tavistocki,  C.  unicolor,  C. 
duvauceli,  C.  schomburgki  and  C.  eldi).  The 
characters  on  which  this  arrangement  are  based 
are  well  defined,  and  the  fivefold  division  seems 
acceptable,  at  least  as  a working  arrangement. 


627 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


For  present  purposes,  the  point  that  “Rucer- 
vus”  and  Rusa  sensu  stricto  are  closely  related 
is  accepted. 

Many  species  of  Flerov’s  subgenus  Rusa 
are,  broadly,  adapted  to  soft  ground,  and  often 
to  parkland  as  much  as  forest  (there  is  a clear 
differentiation  here  between  C.  unicolor  and 
C.  timoriensis) . As  well  as  two  of  the  three 
races  of  C.  duvauceli,  one  of  C.  eldi  has  in- 
vaded swampland.  It  seems  plausible  that 
adaptation  to  a swampy  environment  may  have 
occurred  independently  in  different  species, 
and  equally  that  such  adaptations  may  have 
been  reversed. 

For  a number  of  reasons  it  seems  more  like- 
ly that  C.  duvauceli  is  basically  adapted  to 
swamplands,  and  that  it  is  C.  d.  branded 
which  has  invaded  a new  habitat.  First  is  the 
fact  that  C.  d.  duvauceli  does  not  utilise  the 
Sal  forest  and  interspersed  meadows  in  its 
range,  habitat  that  is  the  very  type  to  which 
C.  d.  branded  is  confined;  on  the  other  hand, 
there  is  no  suitable  swampy  grassland  habitat 
within  the  range  of  the  latter.  Thus  the  nomi- 
nate race,  as  far  as  habitat  goes,  has  a (hypo- 
thetical) choice,  and  “chooses”  swampland; 
while  branded  is  constrained. 

The  second  line  of  evidence  comes  from 
Indian  prehistory.  The  rich  profusion  of  rock 
paintings  at  Bhimbetka,  near  Hoshangabad, 
M.P.,  shows  a faunal  variety  which  includes 
rhinoceros  (presumably  Rhinoceros  unicornis ) 
and  wild  buffalo  (Bubalus  arnee),  as  well  as 
Swamp  Deer,  recognisable  at  once  by  their 
complex  antlers  (Mathpal  1978).  Buffalo  and 
rhino  are  the  two  Indo-Nepalese  species  which 
are  consistently  associated  with  swampy  plains, 
and  their  presence  in  the  Bhimbetka  paint- 
ings implies  that  [at  an  uncertain  date,  per- 
haps early  Holocene  (Mathpal  1978)]  in  the 
past  there  was  such  habitat  in  Madhya  Pra- 
desh, not  too  far  from  Kanha  and  the  Mandla 

628 


district.  The  depictions  of  Barasingha  sug- 
gests that  this  species  was  able  to  extend  its 
range  to  the  region  when  conditions  were  right, 
and  that  when  the  environment  changed  the 
Barasingha,  unlike  the  rhino  and  buffalo,  was 
able  to  adapt  and  survive  in  unfamiliar  habi- 
tat, in  isolation  (by  the  Ganges  valley)  from 
its  parent  populations  further  north. 

The  final  point  to  be  made  concerns  a Thai- 
land relative,  the  now  extinct  Schomburgk’s 
deer  ( Cervus  schornburgki) . Pocock  (1943) 
separated  this  species  from  Rucervus  as  genus 
Thaocervus;  the  differences  invoked  were  mar- 
ginal at  best,  and  depended  on  a single  skull  of 
the  new  genus.  The  habitat,  in  the  Central 
Plains  of  Thailand,  was  precisely  that  of  the 
two  northern  races  of  C.  duvauceli  (Lekagul 
& McNeely  1977),  and  indeed  Giles  (1937) 
argues  strongly  that  it  is  only  a local  form  of 
C.  duvauceli.  This  latter  view  is  probably  cor- 
rect: the  differences  from  the  Barasingha  are 
probably  no  greater  than  those  among  the 
three  Indian  subspecies.  Its  dark  colour  and 
neck  mane  were  like  branded;  the  form  of  the 
ears  and  tail  resembles  both  branded  and 
duvauceli;  but  the  form  of  the  antlers,  while 
quite  idiosyncratic,  in  their  low  branching  and 
flattened  form  were  most  like  mnjitsinhi.  It  is 
interesting  that,  despite  the  habitat,  the  pas- 
terns were  hairy  (Mohr  1968,  Abb.  11);  which 
might  mark  this  as  the  most  primitive  of  the 
subspecies  of  swamp  deer.  Whether  the  swamp- 
living “pr e- branded”  had  bare  pasterns  and 
has  lost  them,  or  never  had  them,  would  in 
this  light  be  an  open  question. 

Conclusion 

I conclude  that  Cervus  duvauceli  is  a deer 
basically  adapted  to  swampy  grassland  condi- 
tions; that  it  has  three  Indian  subspecies;  that 
a now  extinct  deer  from  Thailand  was  likewise 


J.  Bombay  nat,  Hist.  Soc  79 

Groves:  Cervus  duvauceli 


Plate  V 


Fig.  10.  Skull  of  C.  d.  branded : BM  30.4.24.7.  from  Mandla  (Holotype). 
(Photo:  M.  K.  Ranjitsinh ) 


GEOGRAPHIC  VARIATION  IN  THE  BARASINGHA 


probably  conspecific;  and  that  environmental 
change  in  Madhya  Pradesh,  south  of  the  Ganges 
valley,  forced  the  species  there  to  change  in 
response  to  an  altered  environment.  The  two 
swampland  races,  of  Assam  and  of  U.P. /Nepal, 
have  probably,  by  the  very  nature  of  their 
habitat,  been  isolated  by  environmental  fac- 
tors for  some  thousands  of  years,  rather  than 
being  separated  by  recent  extermination  of  in- 
tervening populations  as  has  usually  been 
assumed  . 

The  taxonomic  data  on  the  species  are  as 
follows : 

Genus  Cervus  Linnaeus,  1758. 

Subgenus  Rusa  H.  Smith,  1827  (synonyms 
including  Rucervus  Hodgson,  1841; 
Thaocervus  Pocock,  1943) 

Cervus  duvauceli  G.  Cuvier,  1823. 

C.  d.  duvauceli  G.  Cuvier,  1823. 
Kumaun,  Kheri,  S.  W.  Nepal. 

C.  d.  ranjitsinhi  subsp.  nov.  Assam. 
C.  d.  branded  Pocock,  1943.  Mandla 
district,  and  formerly  west  to  Dewas, 
east  to  Junga. 

C.  d.  schomburgki  Blyth,  1863.  Chao 
Phraya  valley,  Thailand  (extinct  since 
1938). 

Refer 

Dunbar  Brander  A.  A.  (1923):  Wild  Animals 
in  Central  India.  Edward  Arnold,  London,  xv  + 
296  pp. 

Flerov,  C.  C.  (1952):  Fauna  of  USSR:  Mam- 
mals. Vol.  1,  No.  2:  Musk  Deer  and  Deer.  Transl. 
Israel  Program  for  Scientific  Translation,  1960.  S. 
Monson,  Jerusalem,  257  pp. 

Giles,  F.  H.  (1937) : The  riddle  of  Cervus  schom- 
burgki. J.  Siam  Soc.  (Nat.  Hist.  Suppl .)  11:  1-34. 

Hodgson,  B.  H.  (1843) : On  a new  species  of 
Cervus,  Cervus  dimorphe.  J.  roy.  Asiat.  Soc.  Ben- 
gal 12:  897. 

Hoogerwerf,  A.  (1956) : Over  een  nieuwe  on- 
dersoort  van  het  Java  hert,  Rusa  timoriensis  laro- 
nesiotes  Van  Bemmel.  Penggemar  Alam  36:  13-28. 

Huxley,  J.  S.  (1931)  : The  relative  size  of  antlers 
in  deer.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  819-864. 

Lekagul,  B.  & McNeely,  J.  (1977):  Mammals 
of  Thailand.  Sahakambhat  Co..  Bangkok.  758  pp. 


Other  species  of  the  subgenus  are  C.  eldi 
McClelland,  1842;  C.  unicolor  Kerr,  1792; 
C.  alfredi  Sclater,  1870;  C.  mariannus  Desma- 
rest,  1822;  and  C.  timoriensis  de  Blainville, 
1822  (of  which  C.  tavistocki  Lydekker,  1900, 
is  a synonym).  For  a review  of  some  of  these 
species,  especially  those  in  the  Philippines,  see 
Grubb  & Groves  (in  press). 

Ack  nowledge  m e n ts 

Grateful  acknowledgement  is  given  to  the 
following  persons  for  access  to  specimens  in 
their  charge:  Dr.  Ian  Bishop,  Mr  John  Ed- 
wards Hill;  Mr  Lester  Barton;  Mr  J.  C.  Daniel, 
Dr  Robert  Grubh;  Messrs  J.  and  D.  Van  In- 
gen; H.  H.  the  Maharana  Saheb  of  Wankaner, 
and  M.  K.  Digvijaysinh;  the  staff  of  the  Indian 
Forestry  College,  Dehra  Dun;  and  the  staff  of 
H.H.  the  Maharajah  of  Kolhapur.  Finally,  I 
would  like  to  thank  M.  K.  Ranjitsinhji  for  the 
stimulus  for  this  study,  and  for  information  and 
correspondence;  and,  on  behalf  of  all  who  are 
concerned  with  the  survival  of  the  world’s  wild 
heritage,  for  saving  the  Hard-ground  Bara- 
singha,  and  trying  to  save  the  Manipur 
Thamin. 

E n ce  s 

Lowe,  V.  P.  W.  & Gardiner,  A.  S.  (1974):  A 
re-examination  of  the  subspecies  of  Red  deer 
(Cervus  elaphus)  with  particular  reference  to  the 
stocks  in  Britain.  /.  Zool.,  London  174:  185-201. 

K Lydekker,  K.  (1907):  The  Game  Animals  of 
India,  Burma,  Malaya  and  Tibet.  Rowland  Ward, 
London,  xiii  -f  409  pp. 

of  Bhimbetka,  Central  India.  Ph.D.  Thesis,  Deccan 

Mathpal,  Y.  (1978):  Prehistoric  Rock  Paintings 
College,  Pune,  507pp. 

Mohr,  E.  (1968) : Halting  und  Zucht  des  Schom- 
burgk-Hirsches,  Rucervus  schomburgki  Blyth,  1863. 
Zool.  Garten  36:  34-57. 

Pocock,  R.  I.  (1943) : The  larger  deer  of  British 
India.  Part  II.  /.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  43:  553-572. 

Schaaf,  D.  (1979):  Swamp  deer  in  a human  sea. 
Nat.  Hist.,  New  York,  88:  46-55. 

Schaller,  G.  B.  (1967) : The  Deer  and  the  Tiger. 
Chicago  University  Press,  370  pp. 


629 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


A NEW  SPECIES  OF  OLIGODON  FROM  THE  PALNI  HILLS, 
SOUTH  INDIA  (SERPENTES:  COLUBRIDAE)1 

Romulus  Whitaker  and  Shekar  Dattatri2 
( With  a plate) 


I NTRODU  CTION 

While  on  a herpetological  survey  of  the 
Palni  Hills,  South  India,  we  collected  a hither- 
to unreported  species  of  kukri  snake  of  Oli- 
godon  along  with  several  other  interesting  rep- 
tiles and  amphibians.  It  is  named  here  as: 

Oligodon  nikliili  sp.  nov. 

Description : 

Seven  supralabials,  the  third  and  the  fourth 
touching  the  eye;  the  sixth  rising  slightly  above 
the  labial  border;  one  anterior  temporal;  in- 
ternasals present,  loreal  absent;  nostril  in  elon- 
gated nasal  completely  divided  by  a vertical 
suture.  Scales  around  mid  body  in  fifteen  rows. 
Ventrals:  144;  Caudals:  33,  paired;  anal 

divided. 

Hemipenis  extending  to  the  13th  caudal 
plate;  proximal  quarter  of  the  organ  smooth, 
the  next  quarter  with  equal  sized  spines  and 
the  distal  half  flounced,  the  flounces  edged  with 
numerous  small  spines;  three  prominent  longi- 
tudinal folds  present. 

Colour : 

Ground  colour  light  brown,  each  scale  with 
a minute  black  speck.  Two  chocolate  brown 
dorso -lateral  stripes  1 . 5 scales  wide  extending 
from  the  posterior  end  of  the  characteristic 

1 Accepted  September  1982. 

2 Madras  Snake  Park  Trust,  Madras  600  022. 


chevron  head  pattern  to  the  tip  of  the  tail. 
Two  indistinct  lateral  lines  on  scale  row  three, 
extending  from  above  the  fifth  ventral  to  the 
anal  plate;  belly  whitish  with  prominent  ven- 
tero-lateral  speckling  and  two  broken  lines  of 
black  spots. 

Holotype : 

Museum  of  the  Madras  Snake  Park  Trust, 
an  adult  male  from  Tiger  shola,  1500  mts., 
Palni  Hills,  Tamilnadu,  South  India,  20.9.81, 
collected  by  Romulus  and  Zahida  Whitaker 
and  Shekar  Dattatri.  No  other  specimens  re- 
ported. 

Measurements : 

Snout-vent:  350  mm 
Vent-tail:  73  mm 
Total  length:  423  mm 
Head  length:  11  mm 
Head  width:  9 mm 
Neck  width:  8 mm 
Diameter  of  eye:  2 mm 

Scalation : 

Ventrals : 144 
Caudals:  33 
Scale  rows:  17-15-15 

Diagnosis  and  Discussion 

The  cylindrical  body  with  smooth  scales, 
presence  of  the  nostril  in  an  elongated  nasal, 
one  pre-  and  two  post-oculars,  circular  pupil 
of  eye,  typical  head  shape  and  pattern  esta- 


630 


J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  79  Plate  I 

Whitaker  & Dattatri:  OUgodon  nikhili  sp.  nov. 


OJigodon  nikhili  sp.  nov.  from  Palni  Hills.  Tamil  Nadu. 
(Photos:  Rom  Whitaker ) 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


blish  beyond  doubt  that  this  snake  belongs  to 
the  Genus  Oligodon. 

Of  the  33  species  of  this  Genus  recorded 
from  the  oriental  region,  eleven  other  species 
have  15  scale  rows  at  mid-body.  Tabulated 
below  are  the  differences  exhibited  by  the  holo- 
type  compared  to  the  most  similar  forms. 


collected  five  species  uropeltids  ( Uropeltis, 
Platyplectrurus  and  Teretrurus  spp.),  one 
species  of  Xylophis,  several  forest  frogs  and 
lizards.  The  new  kukri  snake  was  found  by  the 
three  year  old  son  of  one  of  us  (R.W.),  Nikhil, 
who  was  left  at  the  roadside  to  play  at  “snake 
hunting”.  The  snake  was  hiding  behind  a piece 


Character 

O.  taeniolatus 

brevicaudata 

erythrorachis 

sublineatus 

new  species 

1 . 

Supra  labials: 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

2. 

Scale  rows: 

15 

15 

15 

15 

15 

3. 

Ventrals : 

158-218 

158-173 

154 

134-161 

144 

4. 

Caudals : 

29-56 

25-29 

46 

23-37 

33 

5. 

Loreals : 

present 

absent 

absent 

present 

absent 

6. 

Inter  nasals  : 

present 

absent 

present 

present 

present 

7. 

Distribution 

India 

Western 

Assam 

Sri  Lanka 

Western 

Sri  Lanka 

Ghats 

Ghats 

From  the  characters  enumerated  above,  it  is 
evident  that  the  new  species  closely  resembles 
O.  erythrorachis  described  by  Wall  (1910) 
based  on  a single  specimen  collected  in  Assam. 
However,  it  differs  from  the  latter  in  coloration 
and  in  the  ventral  and  subcaudal  counts. 

The  next  most  closely  resembling  species  is 
O.  sublineatus  described  from  Sri  Lanka. 
However,  O.  sublineatus  differs  in  having  com- 
plete head  shields  and  in  the  hemipenis  being 
spinose  throughout,  the  spines  being  almost 
uniform  in  size  and  regularly  arranged.  This  is 
not  the  case  with  the  new  species. 

Habitat : 

Tiger  shola,  where  our  specimen  was  col- 
lected, is  a medium  altitude  rain  forest  (1500 
mts.  above  MSL)  a few  kilometres  below 
Shembaganur  on  the  Kodaikanal  ghat  road.  It 
remains  one  of  the  few  intact  pockets  of  ‘shola’ 
forest  in  the  area  and  on  the  same  trip  we 


of  cement  on  the  roadside  retaining  wall  and 
fell  at  the  child’s  feet  when  he  removed  the 
loose  slab  of  cement. 

Conclusion 

When  we  started  out  on  this  trip,  a new 
species  of  snake  was  the  last  thing  we  ex- 
pected. Our  discovery  shows  only  too  clearly 
that  a great  deal  lies  hidden  in  the  complex 
and  unique  forest  hill  ranges  of  the  Western 
ghats.  It  is  appalling  to  see  the  destruction  man 
has  wrought  in  many  of  these  areas.  Hill 
slopes  that  were  lush  with  vegetation  in  the 
senior  author’s  younger  days  are  deforested, 
barren,  hot  and  eroded  today.  What  we  are 
losing  in  terms  of  our  fauna  and  flora  is  any- 
body’s guess. 

Acknowledgement 

We  are  grateful  to  the  Madras  Snake  Park 
Trust  for  funding  the  survey. 


Reference 

Wall,  F.  (1910) : A new  snake  from  Assam.. 
Oligodon  erythrorhachis.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc. 
19:  923-924. 


631 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  VoL  79 


ON  A NEW  GENUS  AND  A NEW  SPECIES  OF  EREMNINAE 
(CURCULIONIDAE : COLEOPTERA)1 

FI.  R.  Pajni  and  C.  S.  Sidhu2 
(With  two  text -figures ) 


I N TRODU  CTION 

We  have  studied  102  species  of  subfamily 
Eremninae  during  a five  year  US  PL-480  pro- 
ject on  Curculionidae  of  India.  The  studied 
species  include  several  new  genera  and  many 
new  species.  The  present  report  concerns  the 
description  of  a new  species,  sensarmai  under 
the  new  genus  Indophytoscaphus. 

Observations  and  Discussion 

C.  chandigarhensis  was  tentatively  referred 
to  genus  Corigetus  (Pajni  & Singal  1974), 
fully  realising  the  remarks  of  Marshall  (1918) 
about  the  heterogeneous  nature  of  the  genus 
Corigetus  Desbr.  It  was  felt  that  the  species 
might  ultimately  provide  the  type  for  a new 
genus.  An  examination  of  the  true  Corigetus 
Desbr.  in  the  British  Museum  (natural  history), 
London  has  revealed  that  the  rostrum  of  the 
present  species  lacks  the  characteristic  oblique 
curved  costa  running  from  the  upper  edge  of 
the  scrobe  towards  the  middle  of  the  eye  and 
also  shows  other  differences  in  the  structure 
of  the  rostrum.  Accordingly,  this  species  has 
been  designated  as  the  type  of  a new  genus 
Indophytoscaphus  and  a new  species  is  also 
being  described  under  the  genus. 

The  two  species  of  this  genus,  according  to 
the  key  to  the  genera  of  Cyphicerini  by  Mar- 
shall (1944),  resemble  the  African  genus 

1 Accepted  July  1981. 

2 Department  of  Zoology,  Punjab  University, 
Chandigarh- 160  014.  India. 


Afrophytoscaphus  raised  by  Hustache  (1936), 
but  differ  from  it  in  several  respects.  In  this 
genus  the  antennae  are  squamose  and  have 
the  second  joint  of  funicle  equal  to  the  first, 
scrobes  do  not  reach  the  eyes  and  the  lateral 
margins  of  elytra  are  strongly  excised  near  the 
bases  to  receive  the  dilated  bases  of  metepis- 
terna.  In  the  genus  Afrophytoscaphus  Hust., 
on  the  contrary,  the  antennae  are  not  squamose 
and  have  the  second  joint  of  funicle  shorter 
than  first,  the  scrobes  reach  the  eyes  and  the 
lateral  margins  of  elytra  are  not  excised  near 
bases.  The  genus  is  very  similar  to  Phytosca- 
phus  in  outer  appearance  but  like  Afrophytos- 
caphus it  also  differs  from  Phytoscaphus  in 
having  4 setae  on  the  mentum. 

Indophytoscaphus  gen.  nov. 

Head  with  frons  somewhat  broader  than 
dorsal  area  of  rostrum;  eyes  flat,  subovate, 
large.  Rostrum  distinctly  longer  than  broad, 
interantennal  area  bifoveate;  epistome  very 
small,  forming  an  obtuse  angle  behind,  with 
two  lateral  processes  in  male;  lateral  areas 
each  with  a squamose  costa  running  straight 
from  scrobe  to  eye;  scrobes  small,  narrow, 
curving  inwards;  mentum  with  4 setae. 
Antennae  densely  squamose  and  setose;  funi- 
cle with  first  and  second  joints  subequal;  club 
oval.  Prothorax  rounded  laterally,  anterior 
margin  with  well-developed  ocular  lobes,  sub- 
truncate  at  base.  Elytra  with  dorsal  outline 
convex,  intervals  with  scale-like  setae.  Legs 
with  tibiae  less  slender,  corbels  of  hind  tibiae 
open.  Male  genitalia  with  aedeagus  pointed 


632 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


and  triangular  at  apex,  without  exophallic 
valve;  phallotreme  with  small  orincial  plates. 
Female  genitalia  with  bursa  copulatrix  mode- 
rately developed;  spermatheca  with  collum  and 
ramus  lying  parallel  to  each  other. 

Key  to  the  species  of  Genus  Indophytoscaphus 
Gen.  nov. 

i . Pro  thorax  transverse;  rostrum  stouter  and  broader; 

scutellum  squarish  

chandigarhensis  Pajni  and  Singal 

Prothorax  as  long  as  broad;  rostrum  slender  and 
narrower;  scutellum  rectangular,  longer  than 
broad  sensarmai  sp.  nov. 

Indophytoscaphus  sensarmai  sp.  nov. 

Figs.  (1  & 2) 

Head  with  frons  black,  somewhat  broader 
than  dorsal  area  of  rostrum,  flat  in  front  and 
a little  convex  behind,  separated  from  rostrum 
by  a shallow  transverse  impression,  densely 
covered  with  pale  scales  and  sub-erect  broad 
setae;  central  fovea  deep  and  elongated,  almost 
concealed  by  scales;  eyes  shining  black,  large, 
sub-ovate,  flat.  Rostrum  black,  distinctly  lon- 
ger than  its  apical  width,  running  parallel  from 
base  to  scrobes,  then  strongly  dilated  at  apex; 
dorsal  area  deeply  impressed  throughout, 
densely  covered  with  pale  scales  and  broad 
pale  setae,  with  interantennal  area  bifoveate; 
central  carina  fine,  running  throughout  its 
length,  concealed  by  scales;  dorsolateral  carinae 
distinct,  diverging  apically  and  parallel  behind; 
epistome  very  small,  forming  an  obtuse  angle 
behind;  lateral  areas  each  with  a squamose 
costa  running  from  scrobe  straight  to  eye  and 
a deep  longitudinal  stria  running  above  and 
below  it;  scrobes  small,  narrow,  curving  in- 
wards, almost  visible  from  above.  Antennae 
moderately  long,  fuscous,  densely  clothed  with 
whitish  scales  and  pale  recumbent  setae;  scape 
cylindrical,  gradually  clavate,  almost  straight, 
reaching  one-third  of  prothorax;  funicle  with 


joints  1 and  2 subequal,  3-6  subequal  but  half 
as  long  as  2,  7 a little  longer,  each  joint  with 
a distinct  whorl  of  sub -recumbent  whitish 
setae;  club  fuscous,  small,  sub-globular,  with 
apex  acuminate,  as  long  as  2 apical  funiculat 
segments,  finely  and  uniformly  pubescent. 

Prothorax  black,  almost  as  long  as  broad, 
with  anterior  margin  straight,  having  well- 
developed  ocular  lobes  and  fine  vibrissae; 
dorsal  surface  convex,  coarsely  and  somewhat 
closely  punctate  and  each  puncture  with  a very 
short  and  pale  recumbent  seta,  covered  with 
interspersed  pale  and  brownish  scales;  lateral 
sides  narrowly  rounded,  almost  as  broad  at 
apex  as  at  slightly  bisinuate  base.  Scutellum 
small,  rectangular  with  its  anterior  margin 
rounded,  completely  covered  with  whitish-pale 
scales.  Elytra  black,  oblong,  dorsal  outline  con- 
vex, running  parallel  from  base  to  beyond 
middle  and  then  narrowing  at  apex,  with  apices 
jointly  sinuate,  much  wider  at  shoulders  than 
base  of  prothorax,  shoulders  very  prominent 
and  roundly  rectangular;  striae  narrower  than 
intervals,  formed  by  deep  squarish  punctures 
and  each  puncture  with  a minute  seta,  inter- 
spaces squamose;  intervals  broad,  flat,  densely 
covered  with  dark-brown  and  brownish  scales 
and  some  patches  of  whitish  scales,  each  in- 
terval with  a row  of  distantly  placed  scale- 
like recumbent  setae. 

Legs  black,  densely  covered  with  pale  scales 
and  fine  recumbent  setae;  fore-coxae  contigu- 
ous, placed  in  middle  of  prosternum;  femora 
clavate,  each  with  a small  femoral  tooth;  an- 
terior tibiae  bisinuate  internally,  with  a row 
of  spines  on  their  inner  apical  halves,  apical 
end  of  each  tibia  with  a fringe  of  fuscous 
bristles  and  a mucro,  corbels  of  hind  tibiae 
open;  tarsi  densely  setose,  first  joint  of  hind 
tarsi  1 . 5 times  as  long  as  second,  third  bilobed 
joint  shorter  than  second  and  spongy  beneath; 
claws  free.  Thoracic  sterna  black,  densely 


633 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Fig.  1.  Adult  Indophytoscaphus  sensarmai  sp.  nov. 

Fig.  2.  Female  genitalia  of  Indophytoscaphus  sensarmai  sp.  nov. 


covered  with  pale  scales,  punctate  and  each 
puncture  with  a short  and  spathulate  pale  seta. 
Abdominal  sterna  black,  covered  with  brow- 
nish and  greenish  scales,  punctate  and  each 
puncture  with  a recumbent  pale-seta. 

Male  genitalia  not  studied.  Female  genitalia 
with  ovipositor  long  and  weakly  sclerotized; 
coxites  comparatively  more  sclerotized  and 
sparsely  setose;  bursa  copulatrix  moderately 
developed,  with  a pair  of  plates  at  apex;  spicu- 
lum  ventrale  long,  thick  and  bent,  spathulate 
at  apex.  Spermatheca  with  cornu  pointed, 
collum  and  ramus  lying  parallel  to  each  other. 
Measurements : 
length: 

Female  body:  7.0  to  7.6  mm;  rostrum: 
1.2  to  1.3  mm. 


BREADTH ! 

Female  body  2.7  to  3.1  mm;  rostrum: 
0.7  to  0.8  mm. 

Holotype  $;  Dehradun  (U.P.);  wild  vegeta- 
tion; H.  R.  Pajni : Paratypes  2 $ ; Dehradun 
(U.P.);  1 $,  Nadaun  (H.P.);  source  and  col- 
lector for  paratypes  same  as  for  Holotype: 
Material  in  department  of  Zoology,  Punjab 
University,  Chandigarh. 

Remarks : This  species  is  more  or  less  similar 
to  the  type  species  i.e.,  /.  chandigarhensis 
(Pajni  and  Singal)  in  general  appearance 
and  colour  pattern  of  the  scales  on  the  body. 
However,  it  differs  from  the  same  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  rostrum,  the  prothorax,  and  the 
scutellum.  The  rostrum  is  relatively  narrower, 
prothorax  almost  as  long  as  broad  and  the 


634 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


scutellum  is  longer  than  broad  in  this  species 
as  compared  to  the  broader  rostrum,  transverse 
prothorax  and  squarish  scutellum  in  /.  chandi- 
garhensis  (Pajni  and  Singal  1974). 

Acknowledge  m en  ts 

We  are  grateful  to  Indian  Council  of  Agri- 
cultural Research  and  U.S.  department  ot 
Agriculture  for  financing  a project  on  Curcu- 

Refe 

Hustache,  A.  (1936):  Entomological  expedition 
to  Abyssinia  1926-27  (Col.  Cur.).  Ann.  Mag.  Nat. 
Hist.,  London.  75(10)  : 353-373,  419-446,  483-505, 
563-587,  24  figs. 

Marshall,  Sir  G.  A.  K.  (1918):  Platymycterus, 
a new  genus  of  Asiatic  Curculionidae  (Col.).  Ann. 
Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  (9)7:  245-252. 


lionidae  of  India  and  for  arranging  funds  for 
the  visit  of  senior  author  to  various  European 
museums.  They  are  also  thankful  to  Dr.  R.  T. 
Thompson  of  British  Museum  (natural  his- 
tory), London,  for  allowing  the  comparison 
of  material  with  the  identified  collection.  Re- 
search facilities  provided  by  Chairman, 
Zoology  department.  Panjab  University,  Chan- 
digarh are  also  gratefully  acknowledged. 

E n ce  s 

(1944) : On  the  genera 

of  the  tribe  Cyphicerini  (Col.  Cure.).  Ann.  Mag. 
Nat.  Hist.,  (11)77:  73-98,  433-462. 

Pajni,  H.  R.  & Singal,  Shiv  K.  (1974):  Cori- 
getus  chandigarhensis  sp.  nov.,  a Curculionid  from 
Chandigarh  (Col.  Cure.  Otio.:  Ptochini:  Cyphi- 
cerina).  Zool.  J.  Linn.  Soc.,  55  (1):  61-64. 


RECORD  OF  POLYPED1LUM  KIEFFER  (DIPTERA: 
CHIRONOMIDAE)  IN  BHUTAN  AND  INDIA  WITH  A NEW  SPECIES 

FROM  INDIA1 


D.  K.  Guha2  and  P.  K.  Chaudhuri3 
(With  seven  text-figures) 


The  survey  of  Chironomids  from  Bhutan 
and  India  yielded  a large  number  of  insects 
belonging  to  the  different  subfamilies  of  family 
Chironomidae.  The  account  of  the  species 
in  each  genera  have  been  published  or 
awaits  publication  elsewhere  (Chaudhuri  & 
Ghosh  1981,  1982).  This  paper  records  three 
species  of  the  genus  Polypedilum  Kieffer,  pre- 
viously known  from  the  countries  other  than 
India,  and  describes  one  Indian  species  as  new 
to  Science.  In  Bhutan,  the  genus  is  represent- 

1  Accepted  March  1982. 

2 Department  of  Zoology,  Vivekananda  Maha- 
vidyalaya,  Burdwan  713  103,  (W.B.). 

3 Department  of  Zoology,  University  of  Burdwan, 
Burdwan  713  104.  (W.B.). 


ed  by  four  species  namely  Polypedilum 
ascium,  P.  chaudhurii,  P.  nudiceps  and  P. 
tripunctum  recently  described  by  Chaudhuri 
ed  al.  (1981). 

The  insects  including  types  of  the  species  are 
at  present  kept  in  the  collections  at  the  de- 
partment of  Zoology,  University  of  Burdwan 
and  will  be  deposited  in  the  National  Zoolo- 
gical Collections,  Zoological  Survey  of  India, 
Calcutta. 

Key  to  the  species  of  Polypedilum  Kieffer 

1 . Wing  pattern  with  clouds  and  pale  spots 2 

Wing  pattern  without  clouds  but  with  dark  spots 
3 

2.  Fore  tibial  scale  triangular  with  a sharp  spine; 

Anal  point  trifid  aegyptium  Kief. 

Fore  tibial  scale  oval  without  such  spine;  Anal 
point  simple  and  slender stictopterus  John. 


635 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Voi.  79 


3.  Gonostylus  bulky  bearing  6 setae  at  its  inner 

apical  margin  alticola  Kief. 

Gonostylus  moderate  bearing  12  setae  at  its  inner 
apical  margin  obscurum  sp.  nov. 

Polypedilum  aegyptium  Kieffer 

Polypedilum  aegyptium  Kieffer,  1925,  Bull. 
Soc.  ent.  Egypte  8:  270;  Freeman,  1958.  Bull. 
Br.  Mus.  nat.  Hist.  Ent.  6\  281.  Polypedilum 
iris  Goetghebuer,  1937,  In  Linder:  Die.  Flieg. 
Palaear.  Reg.  3(1 3c) : 61.  Polypedilum  airense 
Freeman,  1956,  Bull.  I.F.A.N.,  18(A):  96. 

This  species  is  recognised  by  the  absence  of 
frontal  tubercle,  presence  of  dark  brown  thorax 
bearing  14-16  paired  acrostichals,  8 dorsocen- 
trals,  prealars  3 and  scutellars;  triangular  fore 
tibial  scale  having  a sharp  spine;  wing  with 
similar  nature  of  brown  markings  and  clouds 
as  shown  by  Freeman  (1958).  The  hypopygeal 
features  of  the  present  species  conform  with 
those  described  by  Freeman  (1958)  in  the 
African  species. 

Material  examined : 5 $ $ , Arunachal  Pra- 
desh, Pasighat,  2-3,  iv.  1977,  Coll.  B.  Bhuyian; 
2 SS,  Burdwan,  West  Bengal,  4.  iv.  1980, 
Coll.  P.  K.  Chaudhuri;  1 $,  Garia,  West  Ben- 
gal, 18.V.1980,  Coll.  P.  K.  Chaudhuri. 

Polypedilum  alticola  Kieffer 

Polypedilum  alticola  Kieffer,  1913,  Voy.  All 
aud.  Jean.  afr.  Or.  Ins.  Dipt.,  1\  22;  Freeman, 
1955,  Explor.  Parc.  nat.  Albert.  Miss,  de  Witte, 
83:  26;  Freeman,  1955.  S.  afr.  Animal  Life, 
2:  377;  Freeman,  1958,  Bull.  Br.  Mus.  nat. 
Hist.  Ent.,  272;  Chironomus  ornatipus 
Kieffer,  1918,  Ann.  Mus.  nat.  Hung.,  16:  68. 

The  species  is  distinguished  by  the  wing 
spots  of  which  the  most  conspicuous  are  at 
the  basal  third  of  cell  R4+5,  other  markings 
being  faint.  The  characters  in  the  present 
species  fully  resemble  the  African  counterparts 


described  by  Freeman  (1958)  except  the 
chaetotaxy  which  have  been  put  forward  as: 
acrostichals  10  in  pairs,  dorsocentrals  10,  prea- 
lars 2 and  scutellars  8 in  thorax. 

Material  examined  : 4 $ S , Raniganj,  West 
Bengal,  17.vii.1977,  Coll.  P.  IC.  Chaudhuri. 

Polypedilum  stictopterus  Johannsen 

Microtendipes  stictopterus  Kieffer,  1921, 
Philip.  J.  Sci.,  18:  580. 

Polypedilum  stictopterus  Johannsen,  1932, 
Arch.  Hydrobiol.  Suppl.  11:  518. 

Identification  of  this  species  was  made  by 
pale  spots  on  the  wing,  fore  tibial  scale  and 
the  flagellomeres  of  antenna.  Other  characters 
are  more  or  less  similar  to  those  described  by 
Johannsen  (1932).  The  chaetotaxy  of  thorax 
which  may  be  added  to  the  original  descrip- 
tion are:  acrostichals  12  in  pairs,  dorsocen- 
trals 9,  prealars  3 and  scutellars  10. 

Material  examined : 3 $ $ , Darjeeling,  India, 
23.iii.1969,  Coll.  P.  K.  Chaudhuri. 

Polypedilum  obscurum  sp.  nov. 

male:  Body  length  4.41  mm,  wing  length 
1.94  mm  and  breadth  0.52  mm. 

Head:  Dark  brown  in  colour.  Vertex  with 
13  setae.  Corona  with  4 setae.  Clypeus  with 
24  setae,  clypeal  ratio  0.87.  Eyes  bare,  re- 
inform with  a dorsal  extension  of  0.12  mm 
long.  Frontal  tubercle  absent.  Antenna  dark 
brown,  length  ratio  of  flagellomeres  I - XIV 
3:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2: 1 : 1 : 1:45,  AR  1.96. 
Pedicel  ratio  1.0,  CA  0.53,  CP  1.23. 

Thorax:  Dark  brown  in  colour.  Anteprono- 
tum  thin  collar  like  without  emergination. 
Acrostichals  18-20  in  pairs,  dorsocentrals  24-26 
at  the  anterior  half,  prealars  4.  Scutellum  with 
12-13  setae,  postscutellum  dark  brown  and 
bare. 

Wing  (Fig.  1):  Hyaline  with  yellow  veins. 


636 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Figs.  1-7.  Polypedilum  obscurum  sp.  nov.  1.  Wing;  2.  Fore  tibial  scale;  3.  Male  hypopygium;  4.  Female 
genitalia  5.  Dorsomesal  lobe  6.  Ventrolateral  lobe;  7.  Apodeme  lobe. 


Brachiolum  with  1 seta.  R with  18,  Rx  11  and 
R4+s  with  20  setae;  R2+3  meets  C at  distance 
of  0.17  away  from  Rx;  r-m  proximal 
to  f-cu;  An  ends  below  f-cu.  Wing  with 
spots  distributed  as:  cell  R4+5  with  3 spots, 
distal  being  larger,  cell  M3+4  with  1 spot 
near  the  fork  and  cell  An  having  1 irregular 
marking.  In  addition  to  the  above,  1 linear 
dark  streak  runs  along  Mi+2.  Squama  with  14 
setae.  Haltere  brown.  CR  0.96,  VR  1.05. 

Legs : Yellow  to  brown  in  colour  except 


dark  brown  femur.  Fore  tibial  scale  (Fig.  2) 
with  2 setae.  LR  1.38  in  fore,  LR  0.6  in  mid 
and  LR  0.75  in  hind  legs.  TR  of  hind  leg 
1.27. 

Abdomen : Dark  brown  in  colour.  Segment 
VIII  constricted  at  the  base. 

Hypopygium  (Fig.  3):  Anal  point  0.08  mm 
long  with  3 setae  on  each  side.  Gonocoxite 
well  developed  having  10-12  setae;  gonostylus 
little  swollen  bearing  12  small  setae  along  its 
inner  apical  margin.  Appendage  1 bare,  fila- 


637 


10 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


mentous  and  bent  at  tip,  appendage  2 out- 
wardly bent  with  10  apical  incurved  setae. 

female:  Body  length  2.78  mm,  wing 

length  1.72  mm  and  breadth  0.57  mm. 

Similar  to  male  with  usual  sex  differences. 
Antenna  yellow  except  dark  brown  flagello- 
mere  V,  length  ratio  of  flagellomeres  I-V  23:18; 
20:19:38,  AR  0.48.  Genitalia  (Fig.  4): 
Notum  0.19  mm  long.  Coxosternapodeme  S 
shaped.  Gonapophysis  VIII  divided  into  long 
dorsomesal  lobe  (Fig.  5)  and  a stout  ven- 
trolateral lobe  (Fig.  6).  Apodeme  lobe  (Fig. 
7)  weak.  Gonocoxite  IX  with  2 setae.  Post- 
genital plate  V shaped.  Seminal  capsules 
rounded,  ducts  of  seminal  capsules  joined  to- 
gether before  opening  to  the  vagina. 

Material  examined : Holotype  d (Type  no. 
104,  B.U.  Ent.),  Kakdwip,  West  Bengal, 
1 1 . xi . 1978,  Coll.  A.  K.  Chatterjee.  Allotype 
$ , data  same  as  holotype.  Paratypes  5 d d\ 
3 $ $ , Burdwan,  West  Bengal,,  23-26,  x.  1979, 
Coll.  M.  Ghosh;  2 dd,  Pasighat,  Arunachal 


Pradesh,  2.viii.l979,  Coll.  B.  Bhuiyan.  Types 
and  paratypes  are  in  the  collections  of  insects 
in  the  University  of  Burdwan. 

This  species  appears  to  be  close  to  Poly- 
pedilum  nubifer  (Skuse)  from  Formosa,  Sri 
Lanka,  Africa,  Australia  and  Japan  in  respect 
of  some  aspects  of  wing,  leg  and  male  hypo- 
pygium.  It  shows  affinity  to  P.  bruneicornis 
Kieffer  from  African  Countries  in  anal  point 
and  gonostylus  and  with  P.  annulatum  Free- 
man (1958)  from  Sudan  in  wing  spots,  chaeto- 
taxy  of  thorax  and  hypopygeal  features.  But 
the  characters  like  details  of  wing  markings 
and  hypopygium  of  male  clearly  distinguish 
it  as  a new  member  of  the  genus  Polypedilum 
Kieffer. 

Acknowledgement 

Sincere  thanks  are  due  to  the  Head  of  the 
Department  of  Zoology,  University  of  Burd- 
wan for  laboratory  facilities. 


References 


Chaudhuri,  P.  K.  & Ghosh,  M.  (1981):  A new 
genus  of  Podonomine  midge  (Diptera)  from  Bhutan. 
Systematic  Entomology,  6 : 373-376. 

(1982):  Ortho- 

cladid  midges  of  the  genus  Orthocladius  v.  d.  Wulp 
(Diptera:  Chironomidae)  of  the  eastern  Himalayas. 


Annls.  Zoologici  (in  press). 

Chaudhuri,  P.  K.,  Guha,  D.  K.  and  Das  Gupta, 
S.  K.  (1981)  : Taxonomic  studies  of  Chironominae 
(Diptera:  Chironomidae).  Genus  Polypedilum  Kie- 
ffer. Tijdschr.  Ent.  124(4):  11-147. 


ON  A NEW  SPECIES  OF  THE  GENUS  IRDEX  BURR  (DERMAPTERA. 
LABIIDAE)  FROM  SRI  LANKA1 


G.  K.  Srivastava2 
(With  six  text-figures) 


Through  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Karl  V.  Krom- 
bein.  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  Washington,  D.C.,  U.S.A.,  I receiv- 

1  Accepted  January  1982. 

2 Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta. 


ed  for  study  four  specimens  of  Dermaptera 
which  were  collected  during  the  course  of  a 
field  project,  “Biosystematic  studies  of  insects 
of  Ceylon”.  Of  these  one  male  representing  a 
new  species  is  described  below. 


638 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Irdex  ceylonensis  sp.  nov. 

male:  General  colour  yellowish  brown,  an- 
tennae lighter,  sides  of  pronotum,  mouth  parts 
and  legs  yellow,  elytra  in  middle  somewhat 
lighter  in  colour,  wings  at  base  with  a trans- 
verse, yellow  stripe  and  forceps  with  tip 
black.  Body  covered  with  long  and  short  pubes- 
cence. 

Head  slightly  longer  than  broad,  frons  mode- 
rately convex,  sutures  obsolete,  hind  margin 
emarginate  in  middle.  Eyes  about  as  long  as 
post-ocular  length.  Antennae  (partly  broken; 
three  segments  on  the  left  and  nine  on  the 
right  remaining)  with  1st  segment  stout,  nar- 
rowed basally,  slightly  shorter  than  the  distance 
between  antennal  bases;  2nd  small;  3rd  long 
and  cylindrical;  4th  gently  expanded  apically 
and  slightly  shorter  than  the  preceding;  5th  as 
long  as  the  3rd  but  stouter,  remaining  thinner 
and  gradually  increasing  in  length.  Pronotum 
trapezoidal,  about  as  long  as  broad,  anteriorly 
and  laterally  straight,  latter  feebly  reflexed, 
strongly  diverging  posteriorly,  hind  angles  and 
margin  well  rounded,  median  sulcus  finely 
marked;  prozona  raised  and  well  differentiated 
from  flat  metazona.  Legs  normal,  hind  tarsi 
with  1st  segment  slightly  longer  than  the  third. 
Elytra  and  wings  well  developed.  Abdomen 
weakly  convex,  slightly  enlarged  posteriorly. 
Penultimate  sternite  transverse,  broadly  round- 
ed posteriorly  with  slight  emargination  in 
middle.  Ultimate  tergite  transverse,  depressed, 
sides  straight,  hind  margin  faintly  trisinuate, 
feebly  oblique  laterally.  Pygidium  strongly  de- 
clivous and  convex  at  base,  afterwards 
forming  a horizontal  plate,  oval  in  shape, 
laterally  in  the  middle  provided  with  a sharp, 
posteriorly  directed  minute  tooth,  hind 
margin  deeply  marginate  with  angles  pro- 
duced into  minute  point.  Forceps  remote 
at  base,  depressed,  tapering  apically,  gently 


curving  in  middle,  apices  gently  hooked  and 
pointed,  internal  margin  ventrally  sharp  with 
minute  teeth  in  middle,  armed  with  one  or  two 
larger  and  triangular  teeth  in  apical  one  third. 
Genitalia  as  in  figs.  4 and  5. 

female:  Unknown. 

Measurements  (in  mm)  : Holotype  $ : Length  of 
head  1.4;  Width  of  head  1.2;  Length  of  eye  0.39; 
Post-ocular  length  0.39;  Length  of  1st  antennal  seg- 
ment 0.52;  Distance  between  antennal  bases  0.57; 
Length  of  pronotum  1.3;  Width  of  pronotum  1.25; 
Length  of  elytra  1 . 9;  Length  of  wing  1.1;  Length 
of  ultimate  tergite  0.9;  Width  of  ultimate  tergite 
1.7;  Length  of  pygidium  8.5;  Width  of  pygidium 
0.6;  Length  of  body  7.6;  Length  of  forceps  3.0. 

Material  examined,  sri  lanka:  Rat.  Disk, 
Gilimale,  Induruwa  jungle,  collected  near  Kalu- 
ganga,  Holotype  d (genitalia  mounted  bet- 
ween two  coverslips  and  pinned  with  the  speci- 
men), 5-7  February,  1977,  Coll.  K.  V.  Krom- 
bein  and  party;  Type  No.  100312,  deposited 
in  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  Washington,  D.C.,  U.S.A. 

This  species  comes  very  close  to  Irdex  Stella 
samsingensis  Srivastava  (1975)  from  India 
(Darjeeling  Dist.)  but  differs  in  the  shape  of 
the  pronotum  being  distinctly  widened  poste- 
riorly (vs.  sides  parallel  or  a trifle  widened 
posteriorly  in  /.  5.  samsingensis) ; pygidium 
with  lateral  margin  beyond  lateral  tubercle 
gently  convex  (vs.  lateral  margin  straight); 
forceps  stouter,  armed  internally  below  in  api- 
cal one  third  with  one  or  two  sharp  teeth  (vs. 
slender;  armed  internally  along  the  ventral 
margin  with  sharp  serrations  in  apical  one 
third  and  dorsally  with  two  minute  teeth  in 
basal  two  third  and  a larger  teeth  at  apical 
one  third)  and  d genitalia  with  parameres 
enlarged  in  middle  with  external  margin  con- 
vex and  virga  longer  (vs.  parameres  almost  of 
uniform  width,  straight  and  virga  compara- 
tively shorter,  fig.  6). 


639 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Fig.  1-6:  Irdex  ceylonensis  sp.  nov.,  Holotype  $;  1.  Anterior  portion  of  body,  legs 
and  antenna  of  one  side  not  shown;  2.  Posterior  margin  of  penultimate  stemite,  3.  Ulti- 
mate tergite  and  forceps;  4 Genitalia;  5.  Paramere  of  one  side  only  enlarged.  Irdex  Stella 
samsingensis  Srivastava,  Holotype  $ ; 6.  Paramere  of  one  side  only,  enlarged. 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Acknowledgements  lities  and  to  Dr.  Karl  V.  Krombein,  Natural 

History  Museum,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
I am  thankful  to  the  Director,  Zoological  Washington,  D.C.,  U.S.A.  for  placing  this 
Survey  of  India,  Calcutta  for  necessary  faci-  material  at  my  disposal. 

References 

Srivastava,  G.  K.  (1975):  Notes  on  Indian  species  Tiwari  and  C.  B.  Srivastava  (Eds.),  Zoological  So- 
of  the  genus  Irdex  Burr  (Dermaptera:  Labiidae).  ciety  of  India,  Calcutta. 

Dr.  B.  S.  Chauhan  Comm.  Vol. : 267-278.  K.  K. 

A NEW  SPECIES  OF  ANEMONE  L.  (RANUNCULACEAE)  FROM 
TEHRI  DISTRICT  (GARHWAL)  IN  INDIA1 


A.  K.  Goel  and  U. 

( With  seven 

During  the  course  of  studies  on  “Herbaceous; 
Flora  of  Tehri  District  (Garhwal)”  a taxon 
belonging  to  the  genus  Anemone  L.  was  col- 
lected from  Gangi  (3000  m)  in  August  1978. 
A critical  study  of  literature  and  herbaria 
shows  that  it  is  taxonomically  distinct  from 
any  other  known  species  of  Anemone  L.  and 
is  being  described  as  new. 

Anemone  rani  sp.  nov. 

A.  elongatae  D.  Don  affinis,  sed  different 
foliis  majoribus,  9-18  (-20)  cm  daim,  flori- 
bus  in  cymis  dischasialibus,  perianthio  anguste 
obovate,  parviore,  9-15  x 4-6  mm,  staminibus 
20-35,  pistillis  3-6,  acheniis  1-4,  elliptico-ovatis, 
rostro  parum  curvato,  seminibusque  glabris. 

Elolotypus  lectus  ad  locum  Gangi,  3000  m, 
Garhwal  die  12-8-1978,  A.  K.  Goel  64419-A, 
et  positus  in  herbario  BSD. 

Herbae  erectae,  50-75  cm  altae,  0.4-0. 6 cm 
crassae,  caudex  perennis.  Caulis  30-50  cm  lon- 
gus,  basi  validus,  petiolorum  fibrosis  reliquiis 

1 Accepted  March  1982. 

2 Northern  Circle,  Botanical  Survey  of  India,  3, 
Lakshmi  Road,  Dehra  Dun,  (U.P.). 


C.  BH ATTACH ARYYA2 
text-figures) 

tectus,  glaber,  villosus  ad  articulos  involucrales. 
Folia  radicalia  longipetiolata,  petioli  12-32  cm 
longi,  anguste  vaginantes  ad  basin;  lamina  9-18 
(-20)  cm  diam,  palmatim  3-loba,  pentitus 
cordata,  subglabra,  pilosa  praesertim  in  nervis, 
segmenta  sessilia,  inaequaliter  late  obovata, 
prof  unde  vel  non  prof  unde  3 -partita,  cuneata, 
5-10  x 4.5-9  cm;  segmenta  secundaria  denuo 
3-loba,  irregulariter  grosse  serrata.  Inflorescen- 
tia  varie  divisa  cyma  dichasialis,  haud  umbella. 
Involucrum  ordinis  primi-2,  sessile,  utrinque 
3-5  x 4-6  cm,  late  obovatum,  cuneatum,  sub- 
glabrum,  utrinque  pilosum  in  nervis,  segmenta 
trifida,  cuneata,  unumquidque  segmentum  3- 
lobum,  irregulariter  serratum;  involucrum  ordi- 
nis secundi  et  ultra  parvius,  late  obovatum, 
cuneatum,  segmenta  3-loba,  apice  acuta,  1.5- 
3.0  cm  longa;  pedunculi  5-15  cm  longi,  pedi- 
celli  2.5-8  cm  longiis  medianus  semper  par- 
vior,  sursum  parum  pubemlus  ad  pubescens. 
Perianthium  5,  anguste  obovatum,  9-15  x 4-6 
mm,  album,  glabrum.  Stamina  20-35,  filamenta 
1 . 5-3  mm  longa,  complanata  ad  filiformia,  in- 
aequalia,  antherae  0.8- 1.2  mm  longae,  anthera 
exterior  lineari  elliptica,  ea  interior  late  obo- 
vata. Pistilla  3-6,  sessilia,  3. 0-3. 5 mm  longa. 


641 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vo!.  79 


Figs.  1-7.  Anemone  raui  sp.  nov. : 1.  Habit;  2.  Flower;  3.  Petal;  4.  Stamens;  5.  Gynoe- 
cia;  6.  Achenes;  7.  Seeds.  ( Gael  64419A,  BSD). 


642 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


glabra,  ovarium  compressum,  lineari-ovatum, 
stylo  leniter  curvato,  in  stigmatis  apice  obtusum 
angustato.  Achenia,  maturitates  attingentes, 
pauca  (1-4),  plana,  elliptico-ovata,  5-7  x 3-4 
mm,  symmetrica.  Stylus  persistens,  parum  cur- 
vus,  ad  achenium  contiguous,  anguste  margina- 
tus.  Semina  plana,  5-6  x 2.5  mm,  late  lanceo- 
Iata,  atro-brunnea,  glabra. 

Anemone  raui  sp.  nov. 

Allied  to  Anemone  elongata  D.  Don,  but 
differs  in  its  large  9-18  (-20)  cm  across 
leaves;  inflorescence  a dichasial  cyme;  perianth 
narrowly  obovate,  smaller,  9-15  x 4-6  mm; 
stamens  20-35;  pistils  3-6;  achenes  1-4,  elliptic- 
ovate  beak  slightly  curved.  Seeds  glabrous. 

Holotype : garhwal;  Gangi  3000  m,  12-8- 
1978;  A.  K.  Goel  644 19- A,  deposited  at  the 
Herbarium  of  the  Botanical  Survey  of  India, 
Northern  Circle,  Dehra  Dun  (BSD). 

Erect  herbs  50-75  cm  high,  0.4-0. 6 cm  thick; 
root  stock  perennial.  Stem  30-50  cm  long,  base 
stout  covered  with  fibrous  remains  of  petioles, 
glabrous,  villous  at  involucral  joints.  Radical 
leaves  long  petiolate;  petioles  12-32  cm  long, 
narrowly  sheathing  at  base;  lamina  9-18  (-20) 
cm  across,  palmately  3-lobed,  deeply  cordate, 
subglabrous,  hairy  chiefly  on  nerves;  segments 
sessile,  unequally  broadly  obovate,  deeply  or 
shallowly  3-partite,  cuneate,  5-10  x 4.5-9  cm; 
secondary  segments  again  3-lobed,  irregularly 
coarsely  serrate.  Inflorescence  a variously 
divided  lax  dichasial  cyme,  never  in  umbels. 
Involucres  of  first  order-2,  sessile,  each  3-5  x 
4-6  cm;  broadly  obovate,  cuneate,  subglabrous, 
hairy  on  nerves  on  both  surfaces;  segments 
trifid,  cuneate,  each  segment  3-lobed,  irregu- 
larly serrate;  involucres  of  the  second  order 
and  above,  smaller,  broadly  obovate,  cuneate, 
segments  3-lobed  with  acute  apex.  1. 5-3.0  cm 


long;  peduncles  5-15  cm  long.  Pedicels  2.5-8 
cm  long;  median  always  smaller,  slightly  pube- 
rulus  to  pubescent  above.  Perianth-5,  narrowly 
obovate,  9-15  x 4-6  mm,  white,  glabrous. 
Stamens  20-35;  filaments  1. 5-3.0  mm  long, 
complanate  to  filiform,  unequal,  anthers  0.8- 
1 . 2 mm  long;  outer  linear-elliptic,  inner  broad- 
ly ovate.  Pistils  3-6,  sessile,  3. 0-3. 5 mm  long, 
glabrous,  ovary  compressed,  linear-ovate  with 
gently  curved  style,  tapering  into  obtuse  stig- 
rnatic  apex.  Achenes  few  (1-4)  attaining  matu- 
rity, flat,  elliptic-ovate,  5-7  x 3-4  mm,  sym- 
metrical; style  persistent,  slightly  curved,  con- 
tiguous to  achene,  narrowly  margined.  Seeds 
flat,  5-6  x 2.5  mm  long,  broadly  lanceolate, 
dark  brown  glabrous. 

Type:  garhwal;  Gangi  3000  m,  12-8-1978; 
A.  K.  Gael  644 19- A (Holotype-BSD) ; 

kumaon:  Below  Odiyar  2900  m,  8-8-1972. 
C.  M.  Arora  49738  (Paratype-BSD);  Below 
Odiyar  3300  m,  6-8-1972,  C.  M.  Arora  49636 
(Paratype-BSD) . 

Flowers  & Fruits:  July-September. 

Distribution:  India;  Garhwal  and  Kumaon 
Himalaya  in  Uttar  Pradesh. 

Ecology:  Common  on  open  grassy  slopes, 
between  rocks  and  near  streams  in  temperate 
regions. 

Etymology:  The  species  has  been  named  in 
honour  of  Dr.  M.  A.  Rau,  a well  known  bota- 
nist, plant  explorer  and  retired  Deputy  Direc- 
tor, Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Northern 
Circle,  Dehra  Dun. 

ACK  N OWLEDGEM  ENTS 

We  are  thankful  to  the  Director,  Botanical 
Survey  of  India,  Howrah  for  encouragement 
and  to  Dr.  N.  C.  Majumdar,  Systematic  Bota- 
nist, Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Howrah,  for 
providing  the  latin  diagnosis. 


643 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


NEW  TAX  A OF  OPHIORRHIZA  L.  (RUBIACEAE)1 

D.  B.  Deb  and  D.  C.  Mondal2 
( With  two  text-figures) 


Ophiorrhiza  nepalensis  sp.  nov. 

Differt  ab  O.  heterostyla  Dunn  foliis  latio- 
ribus,  apice  breviter  acuminatis,  pedunculis 
confertim  pilosis,  floribus  parvioribus,  corollae 
lobis  tubos  similibus,  pollinis  granis  suboblatis. 

Typus.  East  Nepalia,  J.  D.  A.  Stainton  6881 
(Holotypus  BM). 

This  is  allied  to  O.  heterostyla  Dunn,  differ- 
ing in  broader  leaves,  shortly  acuminate  leaf 
apex,  densely  hairy  peduncle,  smaller  flowers, 
corolla  lobes  as  long  as  the  tube  and  sub- 
oblate  pollen  grains. 

Herbs  with  woody  base,  branching,  about 
50  cm  tall;  stem  terete,  quadrangular  and 
pubescent  when  young.  Leaves  petiolate,  7-14  x 
2-4.5  cm,  elliptic  or  lanceolate,  acuminate, 
entire,  attenuate  at  the  base,  glabrous  above, 
pubescent  on  the  nerves  beneath;  nerves  sub- 
opposite,  7-11  on  either  side;  petioles  0.5-1 
cm  long,  pubescent;  stipules  4-8  mm  long, 
subulate,  entire  or  bifid  above,  puberulous. 
Inflorescence  terminal  and  at  the  upper  axils, 
dichotomously  branched  corymbose  cymes, 
sometimes  the  ultimate  branches  helicoid; 
peduncles  1-2  cm  long,  pilose.  Flowers  pedi- 
cellate, bracteate,  bracteolate,  6-8  mm  long, 
pale  green;  pedicels  0.6-0. 8 mm  long,  pube- 
rulous; bracts  and  bracteoles  minute.  Hypan- 
thium  0.6-0.75  x 0.8-1  mm,  ribbed,  pube- 
rulous; calyx  lobes  5,  ovate,  0.5-0.75  x 
0.4-0. 6 mm.  acute,  puberulous.  Corolla 

1 Accepted  April  1982. 

2 Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Indian  Botanic  Gar- 
den, Howrah-711  103. 


5.25-7  mm  long,  tube  cylindric,  glabrous 
outside;  lobes  5,  linear,  as  long  as  the  tube, 
acute  at  the  apex,  inwardly  curved,  strongly 
keeled  at  the  back,  sparsely  hairy  inside  with 
a villous  ring  at  the  throat.  Stamens  5,  epipe- 
talous,  adnate  to  1 /3rd  the  length  of  the  corolla 
tube,  exserted;  filaments  3.5-4  mm  long, 
glabrous;  anthers  1.25-1.5  mm  long,  linear, 
bilobed,  dorsifixed,  introrse,  dehiscing  longitu- 
dinally; pollen  grains  suboblate,  semiangular  in 
polar  outline,  polar  axis  (P)  x equatorial  axis 
(E)  = 29-(31)-32  x 35-(36)-38  /xm,  tricolpo- 
rate,  colpi  28-30  x 5-5.5  /xm,  tapering  to 
acute  ends;  ora  circular,  5.25-6.25  /xm  in 
diameter;  exine  1.75-1.8  /xm,  sexine  1.5- 

l .  6 /xm,  nexine  0.25  /xm  ruguloreticulate; 
lumina  0.6-0. 8 /xm,  muri  0.75  /xm.  Ovary 
0.5-0. 6 x 0.75-0.8  mm,  obovoid,  2- 
loculed,  with  many  ovules  in  each  locule  on 
exile  placenta;  disc  0.4-0. 5 mm  thick,  fleshy, 
2-lobed;  style  1.5-1.75  mm  long,  glabrous; 
stigma  2-lobed,  0.75-1  mm  long,  lobes  lan- 
ceolate, acuminate,  puberulous.  Capsule  2-3  x 
5-8  mm,  obcordate,  compressed,  with  a thick- 
ened band  in  the  middle,  puberulous,  inter- 
nally 2-locular,  angle  of  divergence  of  the  locule 
with  the  midseptum  55°-60°,  locules  ovate- 
oblong,  tip  slightly  curved  outwards,  dehiscing 
loculicidally.  Seeds  numerous  in  each  locule, 
irregularly  angular,  0.3-0. 4 x 0.25-0.3 
mm,  surface  glabrous,  brown;  testa  areolate, 
areoles  alveolate,  wall  of  the  areole  thick  with 
a number  of  globules  on  it  or  hooded  over 
the  areolar  space. 

Type ; East  Nepal,  Soktim  Tea  Estate,  450 

m,  22nd  May,  1971,  /.  D.  A.  Stainton  6881 
(Holotype  BM). 


644- 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Fig.  1.  O.  nepalensis  sp.  nov. : A.  habit;  B.  flower  outer  view  showing  calyx,  corolla 
and  androecium;  C.  flower  split  open;  D.  fruit;  E.  seed. 


645 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Fig.  2.  O.  pauciflora  Hook  f.  var.  glabra  var.  nov. : A.  habit;  B.  flower  showing  calyx 
and  bracteole;  C.  flower  split  open  showing  long  style  and  short  stamens;  D.  flower 
split  open  showing  short  style  and  long  stamens. 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Growing  in  shady  places  at  about  450  m in 
East  Nepal. 

O.  pauciflora  Hook  f.  var.  glabra  var.  nov. 

A varietate  typica,  differt  in  cymis  floralibus 
partibusque  glabris,  floribus  longioribus. 

Typus.  Arunachal,  F.  Kingdon  Ward  8148 
(Holotypus  K). 

Differing  from  the  typical  variety  in  glabrous 
cyme  as  well  as  floral  parts  and  longer  flowers. 

Herbs  12-25  cm  long;  creeping  at  the  base, 
branching,  slender,  pubescent.  Leaves  petio- 
late,  0. 8-2.0  x 0.5- 1.8  cm,  ovate  or 
oblong,  obtuse  at  the  apex,  obtuse  or  slightly 
attenuated  at  the  base,  glabrous  or  with  scat- 
tered short  hairs  above;  lateral  nerves  4-6  on 
either  side,  subopposite,  pubescent  beneath; 
petioles  0.3-2  cm  long,  pubescent;  stipules 
2-3  mm  long,  linear,  entire,  sometimes  bifid, 
glabrous.  Inflorescence  terminal  cyme,  0.5- 
1 cm  across,  glabrous.  Flowers  pedicellate, 
bracteate,  bracteolate,  10-12  mm  long,  tubular, 
white;  pedicels  0.5-1  mm  long,  glabrous; 
bracts  5-6  mm  long,  linear,  with  prominent 
midrib,  acute,  glabrous;  bracteoles  3-5  mm 
long,  linear,  with  prominent,  midrib,  acute, 
glabrous.  Hypanthium  0.9- 1.4  x 1-1.5 
mm,  obovoid,  glabrous;  calyx  lobes  0.8-1 
x 0.6-0.75  mm,  ovate,  obtuse,  glabrous. 
Corolla  9-11  mm  long,  tube  cylindric,  wide  at 


the  mouth,  glabrous  outside,  villous  at  the 
middle  or  slightly  above  within;  lobes  5,  ovate, 
2-3.25  x 1.25-2  mm,  acute,  glabrous. 
Stamens  5,  epipetalous,  adnate  either  above 
the  base  or  above  the  middle  of  corolla,  in- 
serted; filaments  0.5-0.75  mm  or  1-1.3  mm 
long,  glabrous;  anthers  1.25-1.3  mm  long, 
glabrouse;  anthers  1.25-1.3  mm  long,  linear, 
bilobed,  dorsifixed,  introrse,  dehiscing  longitu- 
dinally. Ovary  0.8- 1.2  x 0.75-1.25  mm,  obo- 
void, 2-locuIar,  with  many  ovules  in  each  locule 
on  axile  placenta;  disc  0.5-0. 7 mm  high, 
fleshy,  2-lobed;  style  either  as  long  as  or 
1 /3rd  of  corolla  tube,  glabrous;  stigma  2-lobed, 
0.5-0. 6 mm  long  and  lobes  ovate  or  0.8- 1.3 
mm  long  and  lobes  ovate-lanceolate. 

Type:  Arunachal,  Lohit  district,  Debi  valley 
(28°20'N  & 96°37'E),  1500-1800  m,  3.5.1928, 
F.  Kingdon-Ward  8148  (Holotype  K). 

Note : One  flower  shows  6 stamens  and 
minute  style  and  stigma;  style  as  long  as  the 
height  of  disc  and  stigma  0.5  mm  long. 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  thankful  to  the  Directors  and  Keep- 
ers, Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew  and  British 
Museum  (Natural  History),  London  for  loan 
of  specimens  for  the  study,  and  to  the  Direc- 
tor, Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Howrah,  for 
facilities  and  granting  a scholarship  to  one  of 
the  authors  (DCM). 


INDIGOFERA  TIRUNELVELICA  — A NEW  SPECIES  FROM 
TAMIL  NADU,  S.  INDIA1 

M.  Sanjappa2 
(With  nine  text-figures ) 

Indigofera  tirunelvelica  sp.  nov.  bus  parvis,  pedunculis  fructiferis  brevioribus. 

Holotypus  lectus  ad  locum  Tirunelveli,  Tamil 

/.  glandulosa  Roxb.  ex  Willd.  affinis  sed 
differt  leguminibus  complanatis  non  altis  acute  i Accepted  April  1982 

rostratis,  valvis  prominenter  nervatis,  semini-  2 Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Howrah  711  103. 


647 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Figs.  1-9.  Indigofera  tirunelvelica  sp.  nov. : 1.  A twig  of  the  plant;  2.  Calyx;  3.  Stan- 
dard; 4.  Wing;  5.  Keels;  6.  Stamens;  7.  Carpel  (with  glands  at  the  base  of  style); 
8.  Pod;  9.  Seed. 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Nadu,  secus  viam,  inter  Kalkad  et  Sengalteri, 
330  m,  die  18  December  1980,  a M.  Sanjappa 
111  A,  et  positus  in  herbario  CAL,  Isotopi  M. 
Sanjappa  111B-F  positi  in  eodem  herbario. 

Indigofera  tirunelvelica  sp.  nov. 

Allied  to  /.  glandulosa  Roxb.  ex  Willd.  but 
differs  from  it  in  having  pods  flattened,  wing- 
less, sharply  beaked,  prominently  veined  on 
valves,  seeds  small,  fruiting  peduncles  shorter. 

Annual,  erect  herbs,  about  60  cm  high; 
branches  woody,  angular,  light  brown  pubes- 
cent when  young,  terete,  striate  and  glabrous 
at  maturity.  Leaves  3.5-4  cm  long,  pinnately 
trifoliolate,  alternate;  petioles  1-1.3  cm  long, 
slender,  canaliculate  above,  pubescent,  glan- 
dular; leaflets  (10-)  15-20  (-25)  x (5-)  10-15 
mm:  terminal  leaflet  larger,  obovate  or  elliptic- 
obovate,  base  obtuse  or  cuneate,  apex  obtuse 
to  rounded,  mucronulate,  uniformly  adpressed 
pubescent  on  both  surfaces;  brown  punctate- 
glandular  beneath;  stipules  0.8- 1.2  mm  long, 
subulate,  pubescent  without,  stipels  absent; 
petiolules  1 mm  long  pubescent.  Racemes  5-10 
mm  long,  axillary,  sessile,  rachis  pubescent, 
glandular,  elongating  in  fruits,  upto  20-flower- 
ed.  Flowers  pink,  5 mm  long;  pedicels  short, 
pubescent,  glandular;  bracts  1-1.5  mm  long, 
lanceolate,  acute,  pubescent  without,  caducous; 
calyx  2 mm  long,  5-lobed,  lobes  1-1.5  mm 
long,  adpressed  pubescent  and  glandular  with- 
out, tube  less  than  1 mm  long;  standard  3-5  x 
1-1.2  mm,  obovate  or  elliptic,  mucronulate, 
pubescent  and  glandular  without,  wings  3-4.5 
mm  long,  obliquely  oblong,  shortly  clawed  at 
base,  obtuse  at  apex,  glabrous;  keels  3-5  mm 
long,  spathulate,  pubescent  and  glandular  with- 
out, spurred,  spur  1-1.5  mm  long,  hyaline; 
stamens  diadelphous  (9+1),  standard  stamen 


free  to  the  base,  filaments  alternately  long 
and  short,  anthers  apiculate;  ovary  1-1.5  mm 
long,  glabrous,  1-2-ovuled;  style  1.5  mm  long, 
glandular  at  base,  stigma  capitate.  Pods  3-6  x 
2-2.5  mm,  oblong,  flattened,  slightly  torulose, 
sharply  beaked,  upper  suture  broader,  valves 
prominently  veined,  adpressed  pubescent,  glan- 
dular; seeds  1 mm  across,  reddish-brown 
variously  shaped,  generally  ellipsoid,  often  trun- 
cate at  one  end. 

Flowering : November-December. 

Fruiting : December-March. 

Distribution : Tirunelveli  Hills,  Tamil  Nadu. 

Specimens  examined : India:  Tamil  nadu, 
Tirunelveli  Dist.  along  the  roadside,  between 
Kalakkad  and  Sengalteri,  Alt.  300  m,  18  Dec. 
1980,  M.  Sanjappa  111  A (CAL,  holotype); 
M.  Sanjappa  111B-F  (CAL,  Isotypes);  Sen- 
galteri to  Kalakkad,  Alt.  1000  m,  16  Feb.  1913 
Hooper  and  Ramaswami  39230  (CAL);  Near 
Tiger  Falls  — way  to  Mancholai,  Alt.  333  m, 
4 Mar.  1958  K . M.  Sebastine  5520  (CAL, 
MH);  “Peninsulae  Indiae  Orientales”  (without 
locality)  R.  Wight  s.n.  (Royal  Garden,  Kew 
distribution  no.  651 -CAL). 

Etymology:  This  species  is  named  after 
the  type  locality  Tirunelveli  (“Tinnevelly”) 
district,  Tamil  Nadu,  India. 

Acknowledgements 

I am  thankful  to  Director,  Botanical  Survey 
of  India,  Howrah  for  providing  facilities  and 
to  Dr.  K.  Thothathri,  Deputy  Director,  Central 
National  Herbarium,  Howrah  for  encourage- 
ment. My  thanks  are  also  due  to  Dr.  N.  C. 
Majumdar,  Systematic  Botanist,  Botanical  Sur- 
vey of  India,  Howrah  for  rendering  diagnosis 
into  Latin. 


649 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vo/.  79 


A NEW  SPECIE S OF  ELAPHOGLOSSUM  FROM  INDIA1 

Anjali  Biswas  and  S.  R.  Ghosh2 
(With  five  text-figures ) 


During  the  revisionary  studies  on  the  genus 
Elaphoglossum  from  India,  we  came  across  a 
few  specimens,  collected  by  Dr.  King’s  collec- 
tor and  G.  Mann  from  Jowai,  Assam  and 
noted  as  Elaphoglossum  conforme.  These  after 
careful  study  turn  out  to  be  a new  species  of 
Elaphoglossum. 

This  new  species  differs  from  Elaphoglossum 
conforme  Sw.  in  the  following  characters:  (1) 
Rhizome  short  creeping  with  dark  brown  linear 
lanceolate  scales,  (2)  Lamina  base  not  de- 
current on  the  stipe,  (3)  Stipe  not  filiform. 

The  new  species  comes  nearer  to  Elaphoglo- 
ssum stelligerum  (Wall,  ex  Bak.)  T.  Moore 
ex  Alston  et  Bonner  but  differs  from  it  in 
the  following  characters.  Presence  of  short 
armed  stellate  scale  on  the  stipe  which  are 
adherent  to  the  surface;  base  of  the  stipe 
black;  Lamina  oblong-lanceolate;  apex  of  the 
lamina  acuminate,  base  shortly  cuneate,  not 
decurrent  on  the  stipe.  Lower  surface  and  mid- 
rib with  minute  dark  brown  long  armed  stellate 
scale  which  are  closely  adherent  to  the  surface; 
upper  surface  with  pale  stellate  scales  with 
long  arms  and  adherent  to  the  surface. 

Elaphoglossum  jowaiense  sp.  nov. 

E.  stelligerum  (Wall,  ex  Bak.)  T.  Moore 
ex  Alston  et  Bonner  proxime  affine,  a quo 
differt  squamis  stellatis  brevi-armatis  in  stipite, 
superficiei  adhaerentibus,  stipitis  basi  nigro, 
lamina  oblongo-lanceolata,  acuminata,  basi 

1 Accepted  January  1982. 

2 Botanical  Survey  of  India,.  P.  O.  Botanic  Gar- 
den, Howrah-711  103. 


cuneata  sed  non  decurrenti  in  stipite,  infra 
contaque  squamis  stellatis  minutis  atro- 
brunneis  longi-armatis  superficiei  adhaerentibus, 
supra  squamis  stellatis  pallidis  longi-armatis, 
superficiei  adhaerentibus. 

Rhizome  breve,  reptans,  squamis  profunde 
brunneis,  linear-lanceolatis  tecta,  ad  marginem 
Integra.  Frondes  in  seriebus  duabus  in  rhizo- 
mate,  stipes  frondis  sterilis  9-20  cm  longus 
squamatus,  squamis  brunneis  brevi-armatis  stel- 
latis, superficiei  adhaerentibus,  basi  nigellis, 
stipes  frondis  fertilis  longus,  squamatus,  squa- 
mis brevi-armatis  stellatis,  lamina  brunnea, 
oblongo-lanceolate,  25-45  cm  longa,  2.5-3  cm 
lata  ad  medium,  apice  acuminata,  basi  breviter 
cuneata,  sed  non  decurrens  in  stipite  tenuis 
sed  firma,  ad  marginem  tenuis  sine  margine 
cartilaginea.  Venae  distintae  infra.  Costa  valida, 
minus  squamato,  squamis  minutis  stellatis, 
breviarmatis,  brunnies,  superficiei  adhaerenti- 
bus, supra  squamata,  squamis  stellatis  longi- 
armatis  pallidioribus  et  superficiei  adhaerenti- 
bus. Lamina  fertilis  in  longiore. 

Holotypus  lectus  collector  Kingii  ad  locum 
Jowai,  Assam,  mense  Augusti  anni  1892  et 
positus  in  CAL  sub  numero  accessione  25226. 

Paratypus  lectus  G.  Mann  ad  locum  Jowai- 
punji,  Assam,  et  positus  in  CAL  sub  numero 
accessione  25248. 

Elaphoglossum  jowaiense  sp.  nov. 

Rhizome  short  creeping,  covered  with  linear- 
lanceolate,  deep  brown  scale  with  entire  mar- 
gin. Frond  in  two  rows  on  the  rhizome,  stipe 
of  sterile  frond  9-20  cm  long,  brown  blackish 
at  base  scaly  with  brown  short  armed  stellate 


650 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Fig.  1.  Photograph  of  Elaphoglossum  jowaiense  sp.  nov.  Fig.  2.  Rhizome  scale.  Fig.  3. 
Stellate  scale  from  upper  surface  of  lamina.  Fig.  4.  Stellate  scale  from  lower  surface 
of  lamina.  Fig.  5.  Stellate  scale  from  stipe. 


scale  which  are  adherent  to  surface,  stipe  of 
the  fertile  frond  long,  scaly  with  short  armed 
stellate  scales.  Lamina  brown  coloured,  oblong- 
lanceolate,  26-45  cm  long,  2.5  to  3 cm  broad 
at  middle,  apex  acuminate,  base  shortly  cuneate 
but  not  decurrent  on  the  stipe,  texture  thin 
firm  margin  without  cartilaginous  border. 
Veins  distinct  on  lower  surface.  Midrib  stout, 
less  scaly,  scale  minute,  stellate  with  short  arm. 


brown  closely  adherent  to  the  surface;  upper 
surface  scaly,  scale  stellate  with  long  arm,  paler, 
and  adherent  to  the  surface.  Fertile  lamina  on 
longer  stipe,  20-25  cm  long  1.5  cm  broad, 
linear. 

Holotype:  Jowai,  1500  m,  Assam,  Aug.  1892. 
Dr.  King’s  collector  s.n.  (CAL-25226). 

Paratype : Jowai  Pungi,  1500  m,  Assam,  G. 
Mann  s.n.  (CAL  25248). 


651 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Acknowledgement  C.  Mazumdar,  Systematic  Botanist,  Central 

National  Herbarium,  Sibpur,  Howrah  for  the 
We  express  our  gratitude  to  Dr.  N.  latin  description  of  the  species. 

MICRO  ST EGIUM  BORIANUM  SP.  NOV.  — (POACEAE)  — A NEW 

SPECIES  FROM  INDIA1 

P.  R.  Sur2 
(With  a text -figure) 


Microstegium  Nees  was  known  to  be  re- 
presented in  India  by  6 species.  One  more  new 
species  has  been  found  and  named  here  Micro- 
stegium borianum  sp.  nov.  from  Meghalaya 
state,  Khasia  & Jaintia  Hills,  Lowlyngdoh. 
This  new  taxon  is  near  to  M.  petiolare  (Trin.) 
Bor  but  differs  in  less  number  of  racemes  (3-4), 
rudimentary  pedicelled  spikelet,  lower  floret 
empty,  bifid  palea  of  upper  floret. 

Microstegium  borianum  sp.  nov. 

Culms  128  cm  long,  tall  stout,  simple,  gla- 
brous, pubescent  at  the  nodes  and  below  the 
panicles.  Leaves  25  cm  long  and  1.5-2  mm 
wide,  lanceolate,  acuminate,  tubercle  based 
hairs  in  both  surfaces,  ligules  linear  oblong, 
2-4.5  mm  long;  leaf  sheath  pubescent.  Inflo- 
rescence of  3-4  racemes,  forming  panicle,  5-10 
cm  long,  axis  glabrous.  Sessile  spikelet  promi- 
nent, 5.5-6  mm  long,  lanceolate,  oblong,  pedi- 
cel ciliate;  lower  involucral  glume  5.5  mm 
long,  lanceolate,  dorsally  channelled,  charta- 
ceous,  tip  2-toothed,  9 nerved,  keels  ciliate. 
Upper  involucral  glume  5.5  mm  long,  lanceo- 
late acute,  chartaceous,  keel  scabrid,  5 nerved, 
a small  awn  at  the  tip.  Lower  floret  empty, 
lemma  4.5  mm  long,  lanceolate,  toothed,  mid- 

1  Accepted  April  1982. 

2 Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Industrial  Section, 
Indian  Museum.  Calcutta  - 700  016. 


die  of  the  margins  ciliate,  3 -nerved,  hyaline; 
palea  3.5-4  mm  long,  oblong,  hyaline,  apex 
obtuse.  Upper  floret  hermaphrodite;  lemma 
3.5-4  mm  long,  ovate  oblong,  membranous, 
hyalines,  divided  into  two  lobes  from  the  mid- 
dle, lobes,  acute,  glabrous,  3-nerved,  awned 
from  the  sinus,  awn  9-10  mm  long;  palea  3.5 
mm  long,  linear  lanceolate,  hyaline,  bifid,  glab- 
rous; stamens  3,  anthers  3 mm  long,  filament 
small;  ovary  small,  style  long,  filiform,  stigma 
2,  plumose.  Pedicelled  spikelet  rudimentary. 

Holotype ; India,  Meghalaya,  Khasia  & 
Jaintia  Hills,  Lowlyngdoh,  26.9.1937,  G.  K. 
Deka  15683  (CAL). 

Microstegium  borianum  sp.  nov. 

Differt  a M.  petiolari  (Trin.)  Bor  race- 
morum  numeris  redactis  (3-4),  spicula  majore, 
spicula  pedicellata  rudimentali,  flosculo  infe- 
riore  casso,  flosculi  superioris  paleae  apice 
bifido. 

Culmi  128  cm  longi,  alti,  validi,  simpli,  glabri, 
ad  nodes  infra  paniculasque  pilosi.  Folia  25 
cm  longa,  1.5-2  mm  lata,  lanceolata,  acumi- 
nata, utrinsecus  pilosa,  pilis  basi  tuberculatis, 
folii  vagina  pubescens.  Racemi  3-4,  paniculam 
formantes,  5-10  cm  longi,  axis  glaber.  Pedi- 
cellus  ciliatus,  spicula  sessilis  prominens,  5.5-6 
mm  longa,  lanceolata,  oblonga,  gluma  involu- 
cralis  inferior  5.5  mm  longa,  lanceolata,  dor- 
saliter  canaliculata,  chartacea,  9-nervis,  apice 


652 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


A 


Fig.  1.  Microstegium  borianum  sp.  nov. : A.  Habit;  B.  Spikelet;  C.  Lower  glume; 
D.  Upper  glume;  E.  Lower  lemma;  F.  Palea;  G.  Upper  floret;  H.  Stamens  & Pistil; 
I.  Palea. 


11 


653 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


bidentata,  carinae  ciliatae,  gluma  involucralis 
superior  5 . 5 mm  longa,  lanceolata,  acuta,  char- 
tacea,  5-nervis,  carinae  scabridae,  apice  arista 
brevi.  Flosculus  inferior  cassus;  lamma  4.5mm 
longa,  lanceolata,  dentata,  3-nervis,  hyalina, 
margo  ad  medium  ciliata;  palea  3.5-4  mm 
longa,  oblonga,  hyalina,  apice  obtusa,  flosculus 
superior  bisexualis,  lemma  3.5-4  mm  longa, 
ovato- oblonga,  membranacea,  hyalina,  a medio 
bilobata,  lobi  acuti,  glabri,  3 -nerves,  a sino 
aristata,  arista  9-10  mm  longa,  palea  3.5  mm 
longa,  lineari-lanceolata,  hyalina  bifida,  glabra; 
stamina  3,  antherae  3 mm  longae,  filmenta 
parva,  ovarium  parvum,  stylus  longus  filifor- 


mis,  stigmata  2,  plumosa.  Spicula  pedicellata 
rudimentalis. 

Holotypus  lectus  a G.  K.  Deka  ad  locum 
Lawlyngdoh,  K.  & J.  Hills,  Meghalaya,  India, 
die  26.9.1937  et  positus  in  CAL. 

Ack  n owledge  m e n ts 

I would  like  to  express  my  gratitude  to  the 
Director  of  the  Botanical  Survey  of  India  for 
the  facilities  provided  and  to  Dr.  N.  C.  Mazum- 
der  of  the  Central  National  Herbarium,  How- 
rah, for  valuable  suggestions  and  Latin 
diagnosis. 


SILENTV  ALLEY  A — A NEW  GENUS  OF  POACEAE  FROM 
KERALA,  INDIA1 


V.  J.  Nair,  P.  V.  Sreekumar,  E.  Vajravelu 
AND  P.  BHARGAVAN2 
(With  eleven  text -figures) 


Silentvalleya  gen.  nov. 

Pertinet  ad  Eragrosteae  e familia  Poacearum 
et  affinis  Diplachne  P.  Beauv.,  sed  differt  spicu- 
lis  lateraliter  compressis;  callus  dense  barbatis, 
glumis  superis  3-  nervatis,  lemmatibus  longe 
aristatis,  nervis  lateralibus  glabris  et  incon- 
spicuis 

Plantae  caespitosae  et  perennes.  Laminae 
lineares.  Ligulae  membranaceae.  Inflorescen- 
tiae  effusae,  aliquot  racemis  in  axis  une  centra- 
lis. Racemi  graciles,  recti  vel  felxuosi.  Spicu- 
lae  ad  nodi  solitariae,  biseriatae,  lateraliter 
compressae,  floribus  6-10,  inter  flosculos  sece- 
dentes.  Calli  dense  barbati.  Glumae  inaequales; 
glumae  infemae  inconspicuo  1-  nervatae;  glu- 
mae superae  3-nervatae.  Lemmata  glumis 

1 Accepted  March  1982. 

2 Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Coimbatore- 3. 


exserta,  3-nervata,  nervi  laterales  glabri  et  in- 
conspicui;  apices  integri,  longe  aristati.  Paleae 
2-nervatae,  2-carinatae.  Lodiculae  2.  Stamina 
3.  Stylo  2,  stigmata  plumosa.  Caryopsides 
oblongo-lanceolatae,  teretes. 

Specia  typica  sequens: 

Silentvalleya  nairii  sp.  nov. 

Gramina  caespitosa  et  perennea.  Culmi  40- 
100  cm  alti,  erecti;  nodi  glabri.  Folia  40-60  x 
0.4-0. 6 cm,  linearia,  apicibus  filiformibus,  ver- 
sus ores  villosa  aliter  scabrida  vel  glabra.  Vagi- 
nae spisse  adligantes,  rigidae,  coriaceae,  asperae 
et  scabridae.  Ligulae  angustae,  truncatae,  mem- 
branaceae. Inflorescentiae  paniculatae,  15-30 
cm  longae,  6-10  racemis,  8-20  cm  longi,  dis- 
persis  secus  axes  unos  centrales.  Spiculae 
oblongo-lanceolatae,  c.  8x2  mm,  6-10 
floribus,  flosculo  terminali  redacto.  Glumae  in- 


654 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


Figs.  1-11.  Silentvalleya  nairii  gen.  et  sp.  nov. : 1.  Plant.  2.  Spikelet.  3.  Florets  split 
apart  to  expose  callus  (semi  diagramatic) . 4.  Lower  glume.  5.  Upper  glume.  6.  Lemma. 
7a  & b.  Palea,  dorsal  and  ventral  views.  8.  Lodicule.  9.  Stamen.  10.  Pistil.  11.  Grain. 


655 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


fernae  c.  2x1  mm,  ovatae,  acutae,  inconspicuo 

1- nervatae,  glabrae.  Glumae  superae  c.  4 x 1.25 
mm,  lanceolatae,  acuminatae,  3-nervatae,  nervi 
laterales  ineonspicui  et  tantum  manifesti  ab 
dimidio  inferno.  Lemmata  4 x 1.75  mm,  ovato- 
lanceolata,  3-nervata,  nervis  lateralibus  in- 
conspicuis;  apex  decinens  in  imam  aristam; 
arista  c.  5 mm  longa,  scabrida.  Paleae  c.  3x1 
mm,  eflipticae,  glabrae,  tenellae,  2-carinatae, 
carinis  minute  alatis  et  breviter  ciliatis.  Lodi- 
culae  2,  c.  0.3  x 0.15  mm,  obovatae,  apicibus 

2- cornutis.  Stamina  3,  anthera  c.  1.25  mm 
longa,  fila  brevia.  Ovarium  c.  0.4  x 0.25  mm, 
oblanceolatum,  breviter  stipitatum.  Styli  c.  0.3 
mm  longi.  Stigmata  c.  0.5  mm  longa,  plumosa. 
Caryopsides  c.  2 x 0.4  mm,  oblongo-lanceo- 
latae,  stipitatae. 

Silentvalleya  gen.  nov. 

Belongs  to  Eragrosteae  of  family  Poaceae 
and  is  related  to  the  genus  Diplachne  P.  Beauv. 
from  which  it  differs  in  the  spikelet  being  late- 
rally compressed;  callus  densely  bearded,  upper 
glume  3 -nerved,  lemma  long  awned  and  with 
the  lateral  nerves  glabrous  and  faint. 

Tufted  perennial  plants.  Leaf  blades  linear. 
Ligules  membranous.  Inflorescence  an  open 
panicle  with  several  racemes  on  a central  axis. 
Racemes  slender,  straight  or  flexuous.  Spike- 
lets  solitary  at  each  node,  biseriate,  laterally 
compressed,  6-10  flowered,  disarticulating  bet- 
ween florets.  Callus  densely  bearded.  Glumes 
unequal;  lower  glume  faintly  1 -nerved,  upper 
glume  3 -nerved.  Lemmas  exserted  from  the 
glumes;  tip  entire,  long  awned;  3 -nerved,  late- 
ral nerves  glabrous  and  faint.  Palea  2-nerved, 
2-keeled.  Lodicules  2.  Stamens  3.  Styles  2, 
stigmas  plumose.  Caryopsis  oblong-lanceo- 
late, terete. 

Type  species  follows: 


Silentvalleya  nairii  sp.  nov. 

Tufted  perennial  grasses.  Culms  40-100  cm 
high,  erect;  nodes  glabrous.  Leaves  40-60  cm 
long,  0 . 4-0 . 6 cm  wide,  linear  with  filiform  tips, 
tough,  glaucous,  villous  towards  mouth  and 
scabrid  or  glabrous  elsewhere.  Sheaths  closely 
fitting,  rigid,  coriaceous,  rough  and  scabrid. 
Ligule  a narrow  truncate  membrane.  Inflores- 
cence a panicle,  15-30  cm  long,  with  6-10  race- 
mes scattered  along  a central  axis,  each  8-20 
cm  long.  Spikelets  c.  8x2  mm,  oblong- 
lanceolate,  6-10  flowered  with  a terminal  re- 
duced floret,  at  times  purplish.  Lower  glumes 
c.  2x1  mm,  ovate,  acute,  faintly  1 -nerved  and 
glabrous.  Upper  glumes  c.  4 x 1.25  mm,  lan- 
ceolate, acuminate,  3 -nerved,  lateral  nerves 
faint  and  visible  only  in  the  lower  half. 
Lemmas  c.  4 x 1.75  mm,  ovate-lanceolate, 

3 -nerved,  lateral  nerves  faint,  tip  ending  in 
an  awn  3-5  mm  long  which  is  scabrid.  Paleas 
c.  3 x 1 mm,  elliptic,  2-keeled,  keels  minutely 
winged  and  shortly  ciliate,  delicate,  glabrous. 
Lodicules  2,  each  c.  0.3  x 0.15  mm,  obovate, 
2-horned  at  apex.  Stamens  3;  anthers  c.  1.25 
mm  long,  filaments  short.  Ovary  c.  0.4  x 0.25 
mm,  oblanceolate  and  shortly  stalked.  Styles 
c.  0.3  mm  long,  stigmas  c.  0.5  mm  long,  plu- 
mose. Grain  c.  2 x 0.4  mm,  oblong-lanceo- 
late, stalked. 

Holotype  — India — kerala:  Palghat  District, 
Silent  Valley  dam  site,  ± 850  m,  5.10.1979, 
N.  C.  Nair  64268  (CAL). 

Isotypes  in  MH  (3  specimens). 

Paratypes  — Same  locality,  — 700  m,  23.4. 
1980,  E.  Vajravelu  & V.  J.  Nair  67260  (1  speci- 
men in  K,  4 specimens  in  MH) ; Palghat  District, 
Silent  Valley  Reserve  Forest,  Aruvampara, 
± 725  m,  10.10.1979,  N.  C.  Nair  64465  (5 
specimens  in  MH). 

Grows  in  the  crevices  of  rocks  and  other 
similar  rocky  areas.  It  is  fairly  common  along 


656 


NEW  DESCRIPTIONS 


the  sides  of  Kunthipuzha  river  and  forms 
large  tufts  on  the  boulders  near  the  proposed 
Silent  Valley  dam  site.  It  was  also  observed 
along  the  rocky  slopes  of  Aruvampara  but  was 
less  common. 

The  generic  name  denotes  the  type  locality. 
The  specific  epithet  is  after  Dr.  N.  C.  Nair, 
the  senior  author’s  teacher  and  present  Joint 
Director,  Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Coimba- 
tore in  recognition  of  his  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  Indian  Botany.  His  collections  also 
form  type  materials  of  this  taxon. 


Dr.  Thomas  A.  Cope,  of  the  Herbarium, 
Royal  Botanic  Garden,  Kew,  after  critical  exa- 
mination of  our  specimens  gave  the  following 

opinion  (personal  communication),  “ 

is  a new  genus.  It  is,  as  you  thought,  related 
to  Diplachne  (but  not  to  Bewsio ),  presumably 
derived  from  it.  Diplachne  is  pantropical  and 
has  three  awned  derivatives.  Gouinia  in  Ame- 
rica, Lophacme  in  Africa  and  your  new  genus 
in  India”.  We  are  very  grateful  to  Dr.  Cope 
for  his  constant  help  in  our  studies  on  the 
grasses  of  South  India. 


657 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


1.  INTRA-GENERIC  TROOP  FORMATION  IN  PRESBYTIS  GENERA 
IN  SANCTUARIES  OF  TAMIL  NADU 


At  the  first  hair-pin  bend  while  proceeding 
from  Sethumadai  up  the  Ghat  road  towards 
Topslip  a bi-sexual  Unimale  troop  of  Presbytis 
entellus  is  seen.  The  troop  composition  was 
adult  cf , 3 adult  2 $ and  3 infants  on  11.3.77. 
One  sub-adult  Presbytis  johnii  was  found  in 
association  with  members  of  the  above  troop 
and  appeared  to  have  been  well  knit  into  the 
troop  fabric.  It  was  grooming  other  members 
including  the  adult  cf.  On  one  occasion  it 
held  one  grey  infant.  The  habitat  is  transition 
from  dry-deciduous  to  moist  deciduous  forest 
types,  with  trees  about  20  m to  25  m tall 
with  partially  closed  canopy,  closely  standing 
and  with  branches  touching  were  distributed 
along  the  river  course.  The  movement  pattern 
of  the  troop  coincided  with  the  general  dis- 
tribution of  trees  around  the  river  course.  All 
observations  were  made  near  the  road.  The 
sub-adult  Presbytis  johnii  continued  to  live 
(upto  23.2.81)  with  Presbytis  entellus  troop. 

Two  sub-adult  Presbytis  entellus  have  been 
associated  since  3.5.78  with  a troop  of  Nilgiri 
Langur  (Presbytis  johnii ) near  Erumaiparai. 
The  habitat  consists  of  trees  of  about  25  m 
tall  generally  situated  far  apart,  with  admix- 
ture of  Bamboo  clumps.  Ground  fire  occurs 
as  evidences  indicate.  The  composition  of 
Presbytis  johnii  troop  is  1 adult  cf,  3 adult 
2 2 and  1 sub-adult  2.  The  Presbytis  ente- 
llus and  Presbytis  johnii  were  feeding,  forag- 
ing, moving  and  resting  together.  Allogroom- 
ing  only  occurred  between  the  two  Presbytis 
entellus. 


Mundanthurai  Sanctuary 

Near  Manimuthar  falls  a Presbytis  entellus 
troop  composed  of  adult  cf , 3 adult  $2,1 
sub-adult  9 and  3 infants  has  been  accompa- 
nied by  a sub-adult  Presbytis  johnii  with  a 
broken  tail  tip  since  6.12.77.  The  habitat 
consists  of  trees  and  huge  boulders. 

In  Mundanthurai  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Power  House  of  Lower  Dam,  there  has  been 
a Presbytis  entellus  troop  of  1 adult  cf,  5 
adult  $ $ , 3 sub-adult  2 2 and  3 infants 
since  1976.  Almost  always  they  can  be  found 
near  the  road.  The  habitat  is  bouldery  with 
sparse  and  isolated  trees,  Gyrocarpus  is  fre- 
quently seen.  The  langurs  can  be  seen  either 
on  the  ground  or  on  the  boulders  and  parapet 
walls  eating  leaves  of  bushes.  Grooming  bet- 
ween of  Presbytis  entellus  and  Presbytis  johnii 
was  common.  The  Presbytis  johnii  was  found 
also  to  hold  grey  infants  on  several  times. 
When  one  sub-adult  Presbytis  entellus  died, 
probably  due  to  electrocution  and  fell  between 
boulders,  the  Presbytis  entellus  troop  with  the 
sub-adult.  Presbytis  johnii  remained  around  the 
carcass  for  3 days.  The  carcass  probably  was 
dragged  by  a Panther  into  the  boulders  dur- 
ing the  night.  The  sub-adult  $ Presbytis  johnii 
is  a member  of  Koraiyar  troop,  with  home 
range  along  the  fringe  of  the  forests  o f moist 
deciduous  trees  on  the  Koraiyar  banks.  The 
troop  was  subjected  to  poaching  and  the  troop 
was  being  slowly  decimated. 


658 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


In  a nutshell  composition  of  intra-generic 

TROOPS 


Host  troop  Guest 

Sp. 

Sp. 

Age 

Sex  No. 

ANAMALAI  SANCTUARY 

1.  First  Bend  troop 

P.e. 

P.j. 

SA 

One 

2.  Erumaiparai 

P.J 

P.e. 

SA 

Two 

MUNDANTHURAI  SANCTUARY 

3.  Manimuthar  Falls  P.e. 

P.j. 

SA 

One 

P.e. 

P.j. 

SA 

One 

KALAKAD  SANCTUARY 

5.  Nambikoil 

P.e. 

P.j. 

SA 

One 

The  following  parrellel  situations  can  be 
considered. 


1.  The  habitat  was  holding  populations  of 
both  the  species  their  home  ranges  over- 
lapped. 

2 . The  host  troops  are  Bisexual  Unimale 
troops. 

3 . Where  as  generally  dry  zone  habitat 
Presbytis  entellus  are  large  here  the  host 
troops  are  composed  of  5-12  members. 

4.  In  all  cases  the  guest  is  a sub-adult  and 
female. 

Wildlife  Warden, 

Kalakad  Sanctuary, 

Kalakad, 

Tamil  Nadu, 

October  20,  1981. 


5 . Whereas  social  grooming  is  not  a common 
social  interaction  amidst  Presbytis  johnii, 
a considerable  part  of  daily  activity  of 
Presbytis  entellus  involve  mutual  groom- 
ing! However,  when  the  sub-adult  Pres- 
bytis johnii  got  associated  with  Presbytis 
entellus  they  probably  acquired  this  be- 
haviour but  the  Presbytis  entellus  mem- 
bers of  the  Presbytis  johnii  troop  groom- 
ed only  among  themselves  and  did  not 
groom  Presbytis  johnii. 

6.  There  have  been  no  earlier  records  of 
members  of  other  species  living  with  Pres- 
bytis entellus  except  in  one  incident  when 
a male  Rhesus  macaque  probably  an 
ciation  of  Presbytis  entellus  with  Presbytis 
entellus  group  atleast  for  7 years. 

7 . Considerable  structural  fluidity  among 
groups,  peridelic  addition  to  and  depar- 
ture from,  the  group  take  place  in  Pres- 
bytis entellus.  This  may  explain  the  asso- 
ciation of  Presbytis  entellus  with  Presbytis 
johnii. 

This  may  be  a temporary  phase  only.  Never- 
theless this  area  opens  up  possibilities  of 
future  research. 

J.  MANGALARAJ  JOHNSON 


2.  THE  CURIOUS  DEATH  OF  A PANTHER 


On  22nd  February  1981,  we  spent  a day  in 
the  Borivli  National  Park.  At  about  4 p.m., 
while  returning  we  met  a Forest  Department 
jeep  driving  along  the  road  with  an  iron  cage 
on  a trailer  behind  it.  A Forest  Ranger,  whom 
I knew,  was  in  the  jeep  and  we  stopped  to 
exchange  greetings.  We  were  told  that  a pan- 


ther had  been  trapped  in  a village  near  Padgha 
(Bhiwandi  Taluka,  Thane  District)  about  40 
miles  along  the  Agra  Road  and  they  were 
driving  down  to  fetch  it.  This  sounded  an 
interesting  project  and  we  linked  up  with 
them. 

A little  before  Padgha  the  jeep  turned  off 


659 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


toward  the  Mahuli  Hills  and  after  some  tricky 
driving  (at  least  for  my  Fiat)  along  a cart 
track  we  reached  the  village  of  Railing.  A 
large  crowd  of  people  indicated  something  of 
interest.  We  left  our  car  about  50  yards  away 
and  walked  up.  The  crowd  was  densely  packed 
against  a hut  and  we  had  to  elbow  our  way 
through.  The  hut  was  the  usual  Kathori 
type,  about  18  inches  off  ground  level,  the 
floor  paved  with  cowdung  and  with  the  walls 
of  Karvi  ( Strobilanthes ) stalks.  The  Karvi  wall 
on  one  side  had  been  almost  completely 
knocked  down  to  exhibit  a full-grown  panther 
lying  at  the  far  end  of  the  room  which 
was  perhaps  10'  x 10'.  It  was  obviously 
very  sick  and  looked  helplessly  at  the  crowd 
which  had  gathered  to  see  it.  It  was  indeed 
an  extraordinary  experience  looking  at  an 
adult  live  panther  at  less  than  20  feet  with 
no  bars  in-between. 

The  forest  jeep  then  maneuvered  against 
another  wall  and  they  proposed  to  get  the 
animal  to  walk  into  the  cage.  Upon  my  en- 
quiring how  the  animal  was  to  be  persuaded 
and  what  was  to  be  done  in  the  event  of  its 
refusing  to  comply,  I was  told  that  some  blan- 
kets had  been  sent  for  and  that  these  would 
be  thrown  upon  it  if  such  a contingency  should 
arise.  I strongly  advised  against  any  such  effort 
and  offered  to  stand  by  with  a gun  if  one 
could  be  produced.  While  this  discussion  was 
in  progress  the  animal  moved  slightly  and  the 

75,  Abdul  Rehman  Street, 

Bombay-400  003, 

February  23,  1982. 


crowd  stampeded  backwards  in  such  a hurry 
that  it  was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  we 
remained  on  our  feet.  The  animal  settled  again 
in  the  same  place.  There  was  further  discus- 
sion and  as  light  was  fading  I thought  I had 
enough  of  this  adventure  and  turned  home- 
wards after  warning  the  Ranger  against  any 
attempt  to  “catch”  the  panther. 

The  next  day  we  learnt  that  the  animal  had 
died  and  that  it  had  been  sent  to  the  Bombay 
Veterinary  College  for  a postmortem. 

I was  unable  to  get  reliable  information 
regarding  the  manner  of  its  death  but  I re- 
quested Mr.  P.  W.  Soman,  a member  of  the 
Society,  who  lives  at  Bhiwandi,  to  visit  the 
place  and  get  such  information  as  he  could. 
It  would  appear  that  a farmer  Namdeo  Jadhao 
in  an  adjoining  village  had  encountered  the 
animal  on  the  previous  day  and  been  bitten 
and  scratched  in  several  places.  His  shouts 
brought  help  but  Namdeo  fell  unconscious 
and  was  removed  to  hospital.  On  the  next  day 
the  animal  injured  two  more  persons  but  was 
obviously  very  ill  and  finally  took  refuge  in  the 
aforesaid  hut. 

Though  I have  no  definite  information  as 
to  whether  the  animal  was  actually  wrapped 
up  in  a blanket  and  put  into  the  cage  or  had 
passed  out  before  this  was  done,  it  was  in- 
deed a most  curious  happening. 

The  postmortem  report  follows. 

HUMAYUN  ABDULALI 


660 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


3.  NOTE  ON  THE  AUTOPSY  AND  CAUSES  OF  DEATH  OF  A 

PANTHER 


The  carcass  was  in  an  emaciated  and  put-1 
rifled  condition. 

Throughout  its  length  the  intestine  showed 
numerous  pea-sized  fibrous  nodules  visible 
through  the  outer  surface  of  the  intestine.  Each 
nodule  communicated  with  the  lumen  of  the 
intestine  by  2 or  3 openings  and  contained  one 
to  three  nematode  parasites  10-15  mm.  long. 
The  cavity  of  the  nodule  and  also  the  inte- 
stine of  the  living  worm  were  full  of  blood, 
They  have  been  identified  as  Galunchus  sp. 
of  the  “Hook  worm”  family  which  worms  are 
well  known  as  voracious  blood  suckers.  Baylis 
and  Daubney  recorded  a single  specimen  from 
a leopard  in  Calcutta  in  1922.  The  present 
finding  is  the  first  occasion  when  such  large 
numbers  are  found  in  a single  panther  in  India. 

The  eggs  of  these  worms  pass  through  the 
faeces  of  the  panthers  and  develop  into  in- 
fective stages  in  moist  localities.  The  carnivora 
generally  acquire  the  infection  by  the  entry  of 
the  worms  in  their  soil-stages  through  their 
foot  pads  in  moist  localities. 

The  presence  of  numerous  fibrinous  nodules 
in  a large  portion  of  the  intestine  rendered  it 

Bombay  Veterinary  College, 

Parel, 

Bombay-400  012, 

February  23,  1982. 


incapable  of  absorbing  the  digested  food 
which  resulted  in  emaciation  and  loss  of  vita- 
lity. The  loss  of  blood  led  to  anaemia  and 
finally  death. 

In  addition,  the  lungs  revealed  two  hard 
nodules  of  the  size  of  a groundnut.  After  care- 
ful dissection  it  was  observed  that  each  nodule 
contained  a pair  of  flukes  identified  as 
Paragonimus  westermanii  (Lung  flukes).  They 
were  8-12  mm.  long,  4-6  mm.  broad  and  3-5 
mm.  thick.  This  parasite  was  first  discovered 
by  Westerman  in  1877  from  the  lungs  of  two 
tigers  which  died  in  the  Amsterdam  Zoo.  Man 
is  an  important  definitive  host  of  this  fluke  as 
are  other  carnivorous  animals.  The  panther 
may  have  acquired  the  flukes  by  eating  crabs 
or  cray  fish  containing  the  early  stages  of  the 
flukes  or  by  drinking  water  containing  the 
larval  stages  detached  from  dead  crabs.  Schal- 
ler  1967,  in  ‘The  Deer  and  the  Tiger’,  page 
236,  refers  to  these  matters  and  adds  that 
though  in  his  experience  no  crab  remains  were 
found  in  the  fasces,  Burton  (1936)  and  Perry 
(1964)  listed  crabs  as  being  part  of  the  tiger’s 
diet. 

S.  M.  NIPHADKAR 
V.  S.  NARSAPUR 

V.  S.  DESHPANDE 


4.  TRANSPORTATION  OF  YOUNG  BY  RATEL 
( MELLIVORA  CAPENSIS ) 


While  going  through  my  old  field  notes  I 
came  across  an  entry  which  may  be  of  inte- 
rest to  the  readers  of  the  Journal 
In  Sagar  district  of  Madhya  Pradesh  in 
1963  we  saw  a ratel  ( Mellivora  capensis ) 


running  on  the  road  in  front  of  the  vehicle 
on  a winter  evening.  A hunter  shot  the  animal, 
which  turned  out  to  be  a female.  On  going 
upto  it  we  found  that  a male  cub  which  was 
unscathed,  had  fallen  off  its  mother’s  back. 


661 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


I kept  the  cub  for  a couple  of  weeks  and  it 
was  doing  quite  well  on  a mixture  of  minced 
meat  and  milk,  laced  with  vitamins.  It  had 
already  been  weaned.  The  body  emanated  a 
very  strong,  musky  and  pungent  unpleasant 
scent  which  was  not  related  to  food  or  up- 
keep, as  it  was  always  given  fresh  food  and 
kept  clean.  Whilst  away  on  tour  the  careless-, 
ness  on  the  part  of  my  servant  allowed  it  to 

The  Palace, 

Wankaner, 

Gujarat, 

May  10,  1982. 

5. 


contract  disease  and  it  died  3 days  later. 
Autopsy  revealed  it  to  be  Pneumonia. 

Carrying  of  juveniles  and  young  on  the  back 
is  a well  recorded  fact  among  the  bear  family 
(Ursidae)  to  which,  of  course,  the  ratel  is  rela- 
ted. But  this  behaviour  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  yet  recorded  in  the  ratel  of  which, 
in  fact,  so  little  is  known. 

M.  K.  RANJITSINH 


BURROWING  PATTERNS  OF  SAND-COLOURED  RAT, 
RATTUS  GLEADOWl 


{With  a text-figure) 


The  Sand  coloured  rat,  Rattus  gleadowi 
(Murray,  1885)  has  a localised  distribution 
in  the  Indian  desert.  A highly  specialised 
species,  it  is  nearer  the  genus  Acomys  and 
possesses  characteristics  of  Gerbillinae  (second 
palatal  foramina  and  hypertrophied  bullae  tym- 
panicae).  In  western  Rajasthan,  it  occurs  in 
very  low  numbers,  0 . 6 per  cent  of  total  rodent 
fauna  and  prefers  sandy  (66.6%)  and  gravel 
(33.3%)  habitats  in  the  desert  biome  (Prakash 
et  al.  1971).  Their  burrows  are  found  scattered 
in  open  sandy  or  gravel  plains,  but  are  also 
seen  under  the  thickets  of  Zizyphus  nummu- 
lar! a.  In  Sind,  this  rat  has  been  reported  to 
live  near  the  roots  of  salt  wort  plant  (Cheno- 
podiaceae)  (Roberts  1980). 

The  rat  does  not  excavate  very  large  and 
extensive  burrow  systems  (Figure  1)  as  found 
in  case  of  the  predominant  rodent  species  of 
the  desert,  Meriones  hurrianae  (Fitz water  & 
Prakash  1969).  Most  of  the  burrows  are  sim- 
ple and  short  and  it  appears  that  such  burrows 
are  excavated  for  temporary  shelter,  feeding  or 
escaping  from  predators.  The  burrow  open- 


ings are  of  3.5  x 5 x 5 x 4 cm  dimension. 
About  50%  burrows  are  ‘L’  shaped,  30% 
‘V’  and  ‘D’  shaped,  10%  long  tunnels,  8% 
burrows  small  tunnels  with  a blind  end  and 
only  2%  are  complete  burrows.  A complete 
burrow  system  possesses  4 to  6 external  open- 
ings in  addition  to  a plugged  one,  possibly 
for  emergency  escape.  Burrow  depth  ranged 
from  9 to  21  cms.  The  largest  burrow  length 
recorded  was  130  cms  (range  7 cms  to  130 
cms)  which  is  quite  long  as  compared  to  the 
records  from  west  Sind  (45-61  cms;  Roberts, 
loc.  cit.).  Perhaps,  the  burrow  systems  in 
Pakistan  were  excavated  in  the  non-breeding 
season,  while  in  present  report  these  were  dug 
at  the  end  of  breeding  season  (in  November) 
August  to  October  (Prakash  1971). 

In  some  burrows,  gryllids  and  carabid  bee- 
tles were  found  to  inhabit  the  burrows  as 
associates.  Seeds  of  Cenchrus  biflorus,  C. 
ciliaris,  C.  setigerus  and  Trihulus  terrestris 
were  found  in  nest  chambers,  indicating  that 
this  species  may  be  damaging  the  rangeland 
in  the  Indian  desert. 


662 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Fig.  1.  Burrowing  patterns  of  Rattus  gleadowi. 


Acknowledgements 

Thanks  are  due  to  Dr.  H.  S.  Mann,  Direc- 
tor, C.A.Z.R.I.,  Jodhpur  for  providing  faci- 

COORDI NATING  & MONITORING  CENTRE 

for  Rodent  and  Training, 

Central  Arid  Zone  Research 
Institute,  Jodhpur-342  003, 

January  18,  1982. 

Refer 

Fitz water,  W.  D.  & Prakash,  I.  (1969)  : Burrows, 
behaviour  and  home  range  of  the  Indian  desert 
gerbill,  Meriones  hurrianae  Jerdon.  Mammalia  33: 
598-606. 

Prakash,  I.  (1971):  Breeding  season  and  litter 
size  of  Indian  desert  rodents.  Zeit.  angew.  Zool.  58: 
441-454. 


lities  and  to  Dr.  Ishwar  Prakash,  Professor  of 
Eminence  at  the  same  Institute  for  his  kind 
guidance  and  critical  editing  of  the  note. 

RANJAN  ADVANI 
A.  P.  JAIN 


EN  CES 

Prakash,  I.,  Gupta,  R.  K.,  Jain,  A.  P..  Rana,  B. 
D.  & Dutta,  B.  K.  (1971):  Ecological  evaluation 
of  rodent  populations  in  the  desert  biome  of  Rajas- 
than. Mammalia,  35 : 384-423. 

Roberts,  T.  J.  (1977) : The  Mammals  of  Pakis- 
tan. Ernest  Benn  Limited,  London  & Tonbridge, 
i-xxvi  + 1-361 


.663 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


6.  AN  INSTANCE  OF  INTERSPECIFIC  AGGRESSION  BETWEEN 
CHITAL  ( AXIS  AXIS  ERXLEBEN)  AND  BLACKBUCK  ( ANTILOPE 
CERVICAPRA  LINNAEUS)  AT  POINT  CALIMERE 
SANCTUARY,  TAMIL  NADU 


At  8.35  hrs  on  5th  May  1982,  I had  the 
chance  of  observing  an  aggressive  interaction 
between  a male  Chital  (Axis  axis  Erxleben) 
and  a male  Blackbuck  (Antilope  cervicapra 
Linnaeus). 

Intraspecific  fights  and  interspecific  encoun- 
ters in  the  form  of  chasing  each  other  have 
been  noticed  in  ungulates,  but  actual  physical 
encounters  has  not  been  reported  between 
these  species. 

The  area  where  this  encounter  occurred  was 
towards  the  southern  part  of  the  Sanctuary 
close  to  a wedge  of  scrub  jungle,  opening  out 
into  grassland.  Both  animals  appeared  highly 
agitated  and  it  was  not  possible  to  identify 
the  aggressor.  Each  would  back  2-3  steps  and 
then  leap  forward  to  clash  head-on.  The  con- 
testants appeared  to  be  equally  matched.  The 
forehead  was  the  most  affected  body  part  in 
the  bout  for  both  the  animals.  The  horns 
were  thrust  forcefully  when  they  tried  to  push 
back  each  other  during  the  bout.  The  spikes 
of  the  stag’s  antlers  seemed  to  be  advantage- 
ous as  they  could  reach  the  soft  portions  of 
the  body  other  than  the  forehead  of  the  enemy. 
At  least  twice  the  Buck  tried  to  twist  side- 
ways and  jab  the  side  of  the  stag,  with  its 
pointed  horns,  but  the  Chital  defended  itself 
successfully.  It  was  impossible  to  assess  as 
to  who  was  winning.  Twice  the  Buck  managed 
to  push  the  stag  a few  steps  back  and  once 
he  himself  was  pushed  back.  I observed  the 
duel  for  minutes  when  they  dispersed  on 
seeing  me.  The  Chital  ran  into  the  nearby 
jungle  and  also  the  Buck  which  ran  for  about 
15  metres  and  disappeared  into  the  same  forest 
patch.  No  other  animal  of  either  species  was 
seen  in  the  vicinity. 


Some  notes  on  the  status  of  the  two  species 
at  Point  Calimere  may  be  of  interest.  The 
preferred  food  plants  of  the  Blackbuck  in  this 
area  are  Alleuropus  sp.  and  Cyperus  sp. 
which  grow  extensively  in  the  meadows,  their 
usual  habitat.  But  in  May  all  the  grasses  in 
the  meadows,  dry-up  and  the  green  patches 
occur  only  at  certain  places.  This  situation 
is  apparently  aggravated  by  the  high  popu- 
lation of  the  Blackbuck.  All  wildlife  have  to 
compete  with  a large  number  of  domestic 
stock  for  grazing. 

The  Chital  in  this  dry  evergreen  forest  is 
chiefly  a browser  and  prefers  the  jungle  to 
the  grassy  open  areas,  unlike  Chital  in  the 
dry  deciduous  forest  as  described  by  Sharat- 
chandra  and  Gadgil  (1975)  from  Bandipur. 
The  Chital  also  faces  a shortage  of  food  in 
this  sanctuary  in  the  month  of  May  since  the 
leaf  production  is  at  a minimum  in  this  month 
(Avifauna  Project  Report — I,  1981). 

The  threat  to  the  Blackbuck  population  in 
this  sanctuary  is  mainly  due  to  their  dynami- 
cally increasing  population.  Daniel  (1967)  sug- 
gested the  possibility  of  the  population  ex- 
ceeding the  carrying  capacity  of  the  sanctuary 
in  1967  itself  when  the  population  was  750. 
The  Forest  College,  Coimbatore  team  censused 
the  population  at  2,100  in  July  1982.  Accord- 
ing to  this  latest  census  it  has  registered  an 
increase  of  280%  within  a period  of  15  years. 
Nair  (1974)  had  recorded  a decline  of  the 
population  to  340  in  1974,  the  reason  for 
which  he  attributed  mainly  to  poaching.  There 
is  apparently  a certain  amount  of  confusion 
in  census  methods.  The  increased  number  of 
fawns  however  suggests  a high  rate  of  breed- 
ing success. 


664 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


If  the  current  census  figures  are  accepted 
there  is  apparently  a cause  for  considerable 
concern.  The  individual  share  of  the  availa- 
ble grazing  land  has  been  reduced  to  0.5 
hectares.  They  have  to  share  it  with  a variety 
of  ungulates.  For  the  survival  of  viable  popu- 
lation they  need  more  area  than  the  total  of 
the  individual  shares.  This  sanctuary  is  sus- 
ceptible to  seasonal  variations  and  the  Black- 
buck  faces  food  shortage  in  the  dry  season  as 
described  above  and  the  condition  in  the 
rainy  season  deteriorates  further  as  during  this 
season  they  are  deprived  of  most  of  their 
feeding  grounds  as  these  areas  are  filled  with 
brackish  water.  They  are  then  compelled  to 
take  shelter  in  the  unflooded  patches  and  the 
jungle,  where  food  is  scarce  for  them  and  the 
seashore,  where  the  vegetation  comprises 
mainly  of  the  succulent  plants,  Salicornia 

Avifauna  Project, 

Point  Calimere  Sanctuary, 

Kodikkarai, 

Thanjavur  District, 

Tamil  Nadu, 

August  10,  1982. 


brachiata  Roxb.  and  Suaeda  maritima  Dumort, 
the  preference  of  Blackbuck  towards  these  is 
the  least.  Naturally  this  situation  drastically 
changes  their  biological  and  behavioural  acti- 
vities. Such  a large  population  will  find  it 
difficult  to  survive  in  this  circumscribed  eco- 
logical regime  with  extremely  limited  food  and 
space  for  movement.  This  may  lead  to  a steep 
decline  in  the  population  and  bring  down  the 
genetic  quality  of  the  stock,  if  not  their  total 
disappearance  from  this  sanctuary.  Proper 
management  techniques  should  be  applied  so 
that  the  biotic,  edaphic  and  climatic  factors  of 
this  ecosystem  can  remain  in  dynamic  equili- 
brium, with  respect  to  the  Blackbuck.  Introduc- 
tion of  this  unique  endemic  antelope  of  the 
Indian  plains,  from  this  sanctuary  to  other 
similar  habitats  also  can  be  tried. 

S.  FAIZI 


Referen ces 


Ali,  Salim  & Husain,  S.  A.  (1981) : Annual 
Report — I (1980-81) : “Studies  on  the  Movement 
and  Population  Structure  of  Indian  Avifauna”,  p.  32. 
Bombay  Natural  History  Society. 

Daniel,  J.  C.  (1967) : The  Point  Calimere  Sanc- 
tuary, Madras  State — May  1967.  /.  Bombay  nat. 
Hist.  Soc.  64(3):  512-523. 


Nair,  S.  S.  (1974) : A population  survey  and 
observations  on  the  behaviour  of  the  Blackbuck  in 
the  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary,  Tamil  Nadu,  J.  Bom- 
bay nat.  Hist.  Soc.  75(2):  304-310. 

Sharatchandra,  H.  C.  & Gadgil,  Madhav  (1975) : 
A year  of  Bandipur.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  72 
(3):  623-647. 


7.  A SIGHTING  OF  A LARGE  DHOLE  PACK  IN  K AN Y AKUMARI 
DISTRICT,  TAMILNADU 


In  the  first  week  of  April,  1982  while  going 
in  a jeep  through  coupe  VIII  of  a rubber 
plantation  in  Keeriparai  Division,  Kanya- 
kumari  District  a pack  of  dholes  ( Cuon 
alpinus ) was  seen.  The  time  was  around  1600 


hrs.  and  I counted  28  dholes  before  the  pack 
entered  the  adjoining  tropical  moist  decidu- 
ous forests  with  dense  undergrowth.  The  pack 
had  some  pups  and  as  the  distance  between 
the  leading  and  the  last  dhole  was  around 


665 


JOURNAL , BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


200  m.  I could  not  exactly  differentiate  the 
pups  from  the  adults. 

The  forests  of  this  division  still  have  sambar 
(Cervus  unicolor ),  wild  pigs  (Sus  scrofa)  and 
mouse-deer  ( Tragulus  meminna).  In  addition, 
numerous  domestic  cattle  graze  in  these 
forests.  Earlier,  while  working  in  Kalakad 
Wildlife  Sanctuary  as  Wild  Life  Warden  in 
1977,  I have  seen  26  dholes.  Johnsingh  (per. 

Deputy  Conservator  of  Forests 
(Head  Quarters), 

Office  of  the  Chief  Conservator  of 
Forests,  Madras  - 600  006, 

August  4,  1982. 


comm.)  reports  that  the  maximum  number  of 
dholes,  he  saw  in  Bandipur  was  18,  and  he 
attributes  this  to  the  size  of  the  common 
prey.  Chital  (Axis  axis)  which  is  one  third 
of  the  size  of  the  sambar.  If  prey  size  deter- 
mine pack  size,  the  larger  packs  seen  in  Kala- 
kad and  Keeriparai  could  be  attributed  to  the 
common  prey,  the  sambar. 

S.  RAMANATHAN 


8.  PINKFOOTED  SHEARWATER  [PROCELL A Rl A CARNEIPES 
(GOULD)]  IN  INDIA 


On  19th  May  1979,  one  of  us  (R.B.G.)  was 
at  Kanyakumari  at  the  southernmost  tip  of 
India,  when  he  saw  some  fisher  boys  on  the 
shore  offering  for  sale  six  petrels  which  they 
had  caught  on  fish-hooks  a few  miles  out  at 
sea.  Two  of  these  were  purchased,  skinned 
and  added  to  the  Society’s  collection,  but 
though  correctly  identified  as  the  Pinkfooted 
Shearwater  [Procellaria  carneipes  (Gould)] 
the  record  was  inadvertantly  not  published  at 
the  time. 

Indian  handbook  (1,  p.  11)  refers  to  two 
examples  taken  in  Ceylon,  one  in  1879  and 
the  other  in  1945  as  the  only  records  from 
our  area.  Subsequent  to  this,  small  numbers 
were  observed  by  W.W.A.  Phillips  in  Equa- 
torial Channel  in  the  southernmost  Maldives 
in  early  July  ( JBNHS  55,  p.  216)  and  Strick- 
land and  Jenner  ( JBNHS  74,  p.  490)  in  Birds 
of  Addu  Atoll  (southernmost  portion  of  the 
Maldives,  south  of  the  Equator)  say  “Pro- 
bably mainly  a passage  migrant.  Noted  March 
- — May  1958  and  16th-20th  October  1975,  but 


hundreds  of  birds  passed  close  inshore”. 

Bourne  (1960)  in  Sea  Swallow  (13  p.  26) 
Petrels  of  the  Indian  Ocean  says  “northward 
movement  starts  during  May  and  birds  are 
seen  flying  northwest  reaching  the  vicinity  of 
Java,  Ceylon,  and  south  coast  of  Arabia  by 
mid-summer  — concentrate  off  Arabian  coast 
in  late  summer  and  return  in  September,  when 
numbers  have  been  seen  off  Cochin”. 

There  is  also  a sight  record  at  08°16'N, 
69°15'E  on  4th  August  — A.  S.  Cheke,  Ibis 
1969,  p.  628. 

There  are  really  few  records  from  Indian 
limits  and  the  two  specimens  referred  to  above 
apart  from  adding  a new  species  to  the  Bom- 
bay collection  may  be  worth  publishing.  They 
are  both  males  and  their  wings  are  308  and 
322  mm.,  (vs.  299  to  316  in  Ind.  Hb.  repro- 
duced from  Stuart  Baker’s  Fauna  6:305)  bill 
42-42.5  (41-46),  tarsus  42,  42  (about  52  to 
56)  and  tails  101,  107  (137  to  148).  The  tails, 
it  will  be  noticed,  are  appreciably  shorter  than 
recorded. 


666 


75  Abdul  Rehman  Street, 
Bombay-400  003. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


HUMAYUN  ABDULALI 


Bombay  Natural  History  Society,  ROBERT  GRUBH 

Hornbill  House, 

Shahid  Bhagat  Singh  Road, 

Bombay-400  023, 

July  18,  1981. 


After  completion  of  the  above  H.A.  saw  a note 
in  the  Bulletin  of  the  British  Ornithologists  Union 
(1980)  100  p.  205  where  P.  R.  Colston,  British 
Museum  (N.  H.)  wrote  of  a sea-trip  from  Australia 
when  “the  first  Pale-footed  Shearwaters  (P,  carnei- 
pes ) were  sighted  in  rough  seas  on  16  July  near  Bom- 
bay.” In  reply  to  an  inquiry  Mr.  Colston  says  “The 
ship  arrived  and  left  Bombay  on  15  July  1963  and 


it  was  on  the  following  day  16  July  that  I saw 
c.  20  Pale-footed  Shearwaters.  I would  guess  some 
500  miles  west  of  Bombay  — en  route  for  Aden. 
So  they  were  not  close  enough  for  your  Bombay 
list”.  This  may  be  mentioned  for  completion  of 
records  in  Indian  literature. 

May  5,  1982. 


9.  THE  PINTAIL  (ANAS  ACUTA  LINN.)  — AN  ADDITION  TO  THE 
LIST  OF  BIRDS  OCCURRING  IN  KERALA 


A small  artificial  lake  brought  into  being 
around  1968  for  the  supply  of  fresh  water  to 
the  Cochin  Unit  of  the  Fertilizers  and  Chemi- 
cals Travancore  Ltd.,  at  Ambalamedu  began 
to  be  used  as  a daytime  refuge  by  wintering 
wildfowl  soon  after  its  creation.  On  my  first 
visit  to  this  excellent  refuge  (7  to  9 February, 
1981).  I was  surprised  to  find  that  in  addition 
to  the  Garganey  ( Anas  querquedula ) and  the 
Lesser  Whistling  Teal  ( Dendrocygna  java- 
nica)  there  were  not  less  than  3000  Pintail 
(Anas  acuta)  on  the  lake.  As  nearly  50%  of 
the  Pintail  were  males  in  summer  plumage, 
there  was  absolutely  no  doubt  regarding  their 
identity.  I was  able  to  watch  the  Pintail  and 
the  other  ducks  many  times  during  the  three 
days  I spent  at  Ambalamedu. 

On  7 March,  1981,  I was  able  to  spend 
a few  hours  beside  the  Ambalamedu  lake  once 
again.  On  this  occasion  too  all  the  three 
species  noted  a month  ago  were  present,  but 
the  number  of  Pintail  was  below  hundred.  On 
the  previous  day,  when  camping  at  Kumara- 


kam  near  Kottayam,  from  the  number  of 
ducks  seen  overhead  in  the  evening,  I con- 
cluded that  the  well-known  roosting  site  off 
Pathiramanal  in  the  Vembanad  backwaters 
(Salim  Ali  1969)  continues  to  be  used  by 
large  numbers  of  ducks.  Here,  however,  the 
ducks  are  being  persecuted  regularly  by  hun- 
ters, whereas  at  Ambalamedu  they  are  given 
good  protection.  Unfortunately,  the  Ambala- 
medu lake  is  too  small  for  all  the  ducks  to 
resort  to  it  during  the  daytime.  Therefore,  and 
especially  since  this  area  is  being  developed 
into  a tourist  centre  with  the  accent  on  boat- 
ing and  water-sports,  immediate  steps  have  to 
be  taken  to  provide  complete  protection  to 
the  wildfowl  that  spend  the  daytime  on  the 
water  off  Pathiramanal.  This  is  the  only  major 
waterfowl  resort  left  in  Kerala  today. 

Considering  the  fact  that  the  Pintail  is  one 
of  the  easiest  of  wild  ducks  to  identify,  it  is 
surprising  that  no  previous  record  of  its  occur- 
rence in  Kerala  seems  to  exist.  Could  the 
drought  of  1980-81  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 


667 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Peninsula  have  forced  the  Pintail  to  move 
west? 

The  Cochin  Unit  of  FACT  deserves  the 
gratitude  of  all  bird  lovers  and  conserva- 
tionists for  the  commendable  manner  in 
which  they  are  managing  the  environment 
generally,  and  the  lake  in  particular,  in  order 

26/1643  Unni’s  Lane, 

Trivandrum, 

July  6,  1981. 


to  provide  the  maximum  security  to  their 
birds,  both  resident  and  migrant.  I am  per- 
sonally obliged  to  Mr  Vijaya  Sankar,  Manag- 
ing Director,  Mr  T.  Nandakumar  and  Mr 
Padmanabhan,  Officers,  of  the  FACT  Cochin 
Unit,  for  their  hospitality  and  help. 

K.  K.  NEELAKANTAN 


Reference 


Ali,  Salim  (1969):  Birds  of  Kerala.  Oxford 
University  Press,  Madras,  p.  41. 

10.  FLAMINGOS  BREEDING  IN  THOL  LAKE  SANCTUARY  NEAR 

AHMEDABAD 


On  21  June  1981,  I visited  the  Thol  Lake 
Sanctuary  about  30  km  from  Ahmedabad 
along  with  a party  from  Doordarshan  for 
making  a film  programme  on  Flamingos. 

The  flamingos  were  approximately  5000- 
6000  in  number,  and  other  water  birds  were 
also  seen  in  large  number.  The  most  surpris- 
ing sight  was  the  presence  70-80  of  Flamingo 
nests.  Young  ones  of  the  Flamingo  were  also 
noticed.  As  the  birds  had  remained  through- 
out the  whole  year  (May  80-May  81)  in  this 

17,  Swaraj  n agar, 

Ambawadi,  Ellisbridge, 

Ahmedabad  - 380015, 

June  27,  1981. 


area,  I wondered  whether  the  birds  had  bred 
also,  and  this  had  lead  me  to  search  for  their 
nests.  Finally  we  were  successful  in  locating  the 
nest  colony.  The  nests  were  70-80  and  in 
small  groups  of  5-6  at  different  places,  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  lake  . 

The  possibility  of  this  area  being  an  addi- 
tional breeding  ground  for  Flamingos  in  India, 
apart  from  already  known  breeding  ground  in 
Great  Rann  of  Kutch,  needs  to  be  placed  on 
record. 

P.  S.  THAKKER 


11  OCCURRENCE  OF  CERTAIN  WADERS  IN  SRI  LANKA 


Recently  I had  occasion  to  leaf  through 
Volume  2 of  the  2nd  Edition  of  the  hand- 
book and  a few  comments  in  regard  to  the 
occurrence  of  certain  Waders  in  Sri  Lanka 
seem  necessary. 

No.  374.  Large  Sand  Plover  ( Charadrius 


leschenaultii ) — Although  the  distribution 
map  shows  Sri  Lanka  as  a wintering  place  for 
this  species,  Sri  Lanka  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
text.  The  Large  Sand  Plover  is  reported  fair- 
ly often  (see  Bird  Club  Notes). 

No.  378.  Eastern  Ringed  Plover  — ( Cha - 


668 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


radrius  hiaticula  tundrae ) — There  have  re- 
cently been  several  authentic  sight  records  of 
this  species,  all  recorded  in  the  Bird  Club 
Notes,  by  Dr  T.S.U.  de  Zylva,  myself  and 
one  or  two  others.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
about  these.  1979  seems  to  have  been  a parti- 
cularly good  year  for  relatively  rare  Waders. 

No.  389.  Blacktailed  Godwit  ( Limosa 

limosa  limosa ) — “...  becoming  very  rare 
in  South  India  and  Ceylon”.  This  has  changed 
during  recent  years  and  these  birds  now 
come  to  Sri  Lanka  by  the  hundreds  every 
winter.  I myself  have  seen  large  congregations 
in  northern  lagoons  prior  to  the  return  migra- 
tion. These  observations  have  been  frequently 
reported  in  the  Bird  Club  Notes;  also  in  my 
annual  Notes  from  the  Ceylon  Bird  Club, 
published  in  the  June  issue  of  ‘Loris’  each 
year. 

No.  392.  Spotted  Redshank  ( Tringa  ery- 
thr opus)  — This  bird  too  is  now  regularly 
seen.  There  are  at  least  one  or  two  reports 
every  year.  I think  its  “rarity”  is  chiefly  due 
to  the  difficulty  of  distinguishing  it  from  the 
Common  Redshank.  I saw  one  in  unmistaka- 

Ceylon  Bird  Club, 
c/o.  P.  O.  Box  11, 

Colombo, 

Sri  Lanka, 

June  10,  1981. 


ble  breeding  plumage  on  the  east  coast  on  the 
16th  of  April,  1976  (see  Bird  Club  Notes, 
April  1976,  page  18).  I then  wrote  that  during 
that  winter  I had  seen  nearly  a dozen  Spotted 
Redshanks. 

No.  395.  Marsh  Sandpiper  ( Tringa  stagna- 
tilis ) — Very  large  congregations  of  this  Sand- 
piper have  been  seen  in  the  salterns  of  Ham- 
bantota. 

No.  400.  Terek  Sandpiper  ( Tringa  terek) 

— This  species  is  not  only  found  on  the  north- 
west coast,  but  all  along  the  coasts,  especially 
also  the  north-east  coast. 

No.  413.  Eastern  Knot  ( Calidris  tenuiros- 
tris)  — 4 birds  of  this  species  were  recently 
seen  near  Mannar  by  Ben  King  and  party  (see 
Notes  for  May  1981). 

No.  420.  Dunlin  ( Calidris  alpina  alpina) 

— Several  Dunlins  have  been  seen  in  Sri  Lanka 
in  recent  years  by  myself  and  other  observers. 
One  was  an  authentic  sighting  by  me  of  a bird 
moulting  into  breeding  plumage  at  the  edge 
of  a lagoon  in  Yala  East  on  the  10th  of  April, 
1979,  (see  Bird  Club  Notes  1979,  page  20). 

T.  W.  HOFFMANN 


12.  THE  CHESTNUT-HEADED  BEE-EATER  ( MEROPS 
LESCHENAULTI  VIEILLOT)  IN  GUJARAT 


While  accompanying  Shri  R.  Naoroji  on  an 
expedition  to  photograph  birds  in  the  Chandod 
and  Rajpipla  areas  of  Gujarat  State  I sighted 
a pair  of  what  seemed  to  be  Chestnut-headed 
Bee-eaters  while  walking  towards  Poecha  vil- 
lage across  the  Narmada  from  Chandod  which 
is  about  22°N  and  73.5°E.  The  pair  was  seen 


first  flying  around  some  bushes  and  then 
alighting  on  a large  rock  about  35  feet  from 
me.  Looking  through  8 x 30  binoculars  I 
clearly  noticed  the  chestnut  head  (colour  re- 
miniscent of  crow-pheasant  wings)  and  bright 
yellow  throat  under  which  was  a dark  and 
pale  chestnut  band.  Both  birds  did  not  have 


669 


12 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


the  central  tail  feathers  prolonged  and  the  birds 
were  slightly  bigger  than  the  Common  Green 
Bee-eaters  but  slightly  smaller  than  the  Blue- 
tailed Bee-eaters,  a colony  of  which  had  nest- 
ing holes  on  a vertical  sand  bank.  After  watch- 
ing them  for  sometime,  the  pair  flew  south- 
wards towards  Rajpipla.  When  I returned  to 
Bombay,  though  I had  with  me  Salim  Ali’s 
invaluable  book  of  Indian  birds,  for  reference 
I checked  up  my  notes  in  with  the  specimens 
and  also  the  handbook  of  Indian  Birds  Vol. 
4,  Ali-Ripley  at  the  BNHS  and  was  convinced 

45/46,  Madhurima, 

M.  G.  Road, 

Kandivli  (west), 

Bombay  - 400  067, 

August  17,  1981. 


that  the  pair  was  that  of  the  Chestnut-headed 
Bee-eaters.  Since  these  birds  are  not  recorded 
north  of  Goa  or  Belgaum,  it  might  be 
the  northernmost  record  for  the  species  in 
Western  India.  The  birds  were  recorded  on 
5th  June,  1981  in  the  morning.  These  birds  do 
have  sudden  local  migrations  as  stated  in  the 
handbook.  The  birds  seen  appear  to  be  migrat- 
ing and  were  not  found  in  regular  forest  but 
amongst  scattered  trees  and  shrubs  not  far  from 
the  Narmada  river. 

S.  G.  MONGA 


13.  SUNBIRDS  FOSTERING  FLEDGLINGS  OF  THE  PLAINTIVE 

CUCKOOS 


On  two  occasions  I have  seen  sunbirds  be- 
ing used  by  the  Plaintive  Cuckoo  as  foster 
parents  for  its  young.  Both  incidents  were 
observed  in  my  garden  in  Pune.  The  first  time 
I saw  this  was  during  the  1960s  when  I saw 
a pair  of  Purple  Sunbirds  ( Nectarinla  asiatica ) 
bring  up  a fledgling  cuckoo. 

More  recently,  in  1978,  I have  photographed 
the  Purplerumped  Sunbird  ( Nectarinia  zeyla- 
nica)  rearing  the  young  of  the  Plaintive 
Cuckoo. 

The  nest  was  in  a Jambul  tree  in  my  garden 
at  Bund  Garden  Road.  For  several  days  I had 
seen  a rather  large  head  poping  out  of  the 
nest  for  feeds.  Shortly  thereafter  there  was  a 
storm,  the  nest  broke  open  and  I saw  the 
cuckoo  fledgling,  clumsily  fluttering  around, 
and  noisily  following  its  little  foster  parents. 
It  had  dark  brown  bars  over  its  back  and 
wings  and  a lighter  streaked  buff  belly.  There 


was  a pale  patch  on  his  wing  better  seen  in 
flight.  I observed  them  for  more  than  a week 
by  which  time  he  had  grown  considerably 
larger.  The  foster  parent’s  head  would  be 
engulfed  in  his  gaping  mouth  during  each 
energetic  feed. 

Looking  for  references  I have  come  across 
one  published  by  M.  F.  Suter  (JBNHS,  45: 
235).  He  had  seen  a cuckoo  chick  fostered 
by  purple  sunbirds  and  being  also  fed  in  turn 
by  Tailor  birds  in  Pune  in  1944.  I believe 
another  similar  observation  has  also  been 
made  in  Pune  in  the  1980s. 

I have  thus  come  across  four  instances  of 
such  parasitism  all  from  Pune,  the  earliest  in 
1944.  This  might  indicate  a local  change  in 
the  pattern  of  parasitism? 

A female  cuckoo  is  believed  to  use  the  same 
host  for  parasiting  as  she  herself  was  reared 
by.  Thus  if  early  imprinting  results  in  the 


670 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


female  cuckoo  selecting  nests  similar  to  the 
one  she  was  bom  in,  these  birds  which  have 
been  reared  by  sunbirds  will  look  for  sunbird 
nests  to  lay  their  own  eggs  when  they  become 

23/5,  Bund  Garden  Road, 

Pune  - 411  001, 

August  24,  1981. 


adults.  The  new  pattern  should  then  become 
more  common.  Further  observation  especially 
in  Pune  may  throw  more  light  on  the  pro- 
blem. 

ERACH  K.  BHARUCHA 


14.  MAGPIE-ROBIN  FEEDING  ON  GECKOES 


Recently,  I have  observed  for  several  even- 
ings in  succession,  an  adult  female  Magpie- 
Robin,  late  in  the  evenings,  swooping  on  to 
medium-sized  (about  3 inches  in  total  length) 
Hemidactylus  leschenaulti,  on  the  outer  walls 
of  our  bungalow  in  the  scrub- jungle.  At  every 
swoop  from  its  hovering  in  the  air,  the  robin 
pecks  at  the  pelvic  region  of  the  gecko,  per- 
haps to  disable  the  gecko,  and  when  it  falls 


to  the  ground  ultimately,  the  bird  pecks  off 
the  contents  of  the  abdomen  first,  and  then 
eats  away  the  rest  of  the  body,  tearing  it  piece- 
meal. Just  one  gecko  a day,  but  the  same 
female  Magpie-Robin  everyday,  at  the  same 
time,  from  among  the  nearly  3 to  4 pairs  of 
these  robins  permanently  residing  and  nesting 
in  the  ceiling  of  our  bungalow. 


5,  College  Estate,  STEPHEN  SUMITHRAN 

Madras  Christian  College, 

Tambaram,  Madras  600  059, 

August  21,  1979. 


15.  OCCURRENCE  OF  FOREST  WAGTAIL  {MOT ACILLA  IND1CA 
GMELIN)  IN  NAGZIRA  SANCTUARY,  BHANDARA  DISTRICT 

(MAHARASHTRA) 


On  24th  April  1981  during  the  carnivore 
survey  of  Nagzira,  I spotted  a wagtail  which 
appeared  to  be  a Forest  Wagtail  (M.  indica) 
on  the  edge  of  a tank.  The  white  wing  bars, 
the  necklaces  and  the  habit  of  swaying  its  tail 
sideways  made  this  bird  quite  unmistakable. 


I watched  it  for  about  10  to  15  minutes  until 
it  took  flight  and  disappeared  into  the  woods. 
I searched  for  it  thereafter  but  never  saw  it 
again. 

This  is  apparently  the  first  record  for  this 
part  of  the  Peninsula. 

NITIN  JAMDAR 


27A/1,  Civil  Lines 
Nagpur, 

August  18,  1981. 

[The  Forest  Wagtail  has  a very  capricious  winter 
distribution  in  the  Subcontinent  and  may  sporadically 
occur  as  a vagrant  almost  anywhere,  even  in  the  most 
unlikely  localities  and  habitats.  One  has  been  record- 
ed from  Thatta  district  of  Pakistan!  (JBNHS  75:  218. 
1976)  — Eds.] 


671 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


16.  BIRDS  IN  650-1 100  MM  RAINFALL  ZONE  OF  RAJASTHAN 


During  faunistic  surveys  conducted  by  the 
Desert  Regional  Station,  Zoological  Survey  of 
India,  Jodhpur  in  November-December  1975, 
thirteen  species  of  birds  spread  over  nine 
families  were  collected  from  districts  of 
Boondi,  Tonk,  Jhalawar,  Dungarpur  and 
Banswara  in  south  Rajasthan.  This  region 
receives  annual  rainfall  ranging  from  650  mm 
to  1100  mm  (avg.  850  mm).  The  relative 
humidity  is  52  percent  with  35  rainy  days.  The 
forest  is  of  dry  teak  type  with  vegetation  domi- 
nated by  species  of  the  genera  Cardcimine, 
Crotalaria,  Cyperus,  Ipomoea,  Planera  and 
Lindernia.  Three  rivers  Mahi  near  Banswara 
and  Dungarpur,  Kali  Sindh  near  Jhalawar  and 
Banas  near  Tonk  attract  several  species  of 
migratory  birds. 

The  birds  observed  and  collected  during  the 
survey  under  the  respective  families  were: 

Ardeidae:  Cattle  Egret,  Bubulcus  ibis  coro- 
mandus,  Indian  Pond  Heron,  Ardeola  g. 
grayii ; Charadriidae : Red  Wattled  Lapwing, 
Vanellus  i.  indicus,  Ruff,  Philomachus  pugnaxe 
Apodidae:  Indian  House  Swift,  Apus  a.  affinis ; 
Meropidae:  Green  Bee-eater,  Merops  orien- 
talise Upupidae:  Hoopoe,  Upupa  epops\ 

Laniidae.  Bay-backed  Shrike,  Lanius  vittatuse 

Central  Arid  Zone  Research  Institute, 
Jodhpur  (Rajasthan),  India, 

August  31,  1981. 


Pycnonotidae : Red-vented  Bulbul,  Pycnonotus 
cafer  humayuni;  Muscicapidae : Indian  Robin, 
Saxicoloides  fulicata  cambaiensis,  Jungle  Bab- 
bler, Turdoides  striatus  sindianus,  Black  Red- 
start, Phoenicurus  ochruros  rufiventrise  Plocei- 
dae:  House  sparrow.  Passer  domesticus. 

Observations  on  the  spot  and  examination 
of  crop  and  gizzard  contents  showed  that 
species  like,  P.  domesticus,  T.  striatus , P. 
ochruros  and  P.  cafer  were  serious  pests  of 
agricultural  and  fruit  crops  like  millet,  barley, 
rice,  guava  and  grapes.  Whereas,  some  species 
viz.,  L.  vittatus , S.  fulicata,  U.  epops,  M.  orien- 
lalis,  A.  affinis,  B.  ibis  and  A.  grayii  were 
thriving  upon  various  polyphagous  insect  pest 
of  crops  like  grasshoppers  ( Hieroglyphus  sp., 
Oxya  sp.,  Chrotogonus  sp.),  termites  (Ana- 
canthotermes  sp.,  Microtermes  obesii,  Odon - 
totermes  obessus),  white  grubs  ( Holotrichia 
insularis ),  and  cutworms  ( Agrotis  spp.,  Spo- 
doptera  sp.).  Thus,  these  are  considered  to 
be  beneficial  to  agriculture  in  minimising 
populations  of  these  harmful  insects  in  the 
crop  ecosystem. 

Thanks  are  due  to  Dr.  A.  K.  Mukherjee, 
Supt.  Zoologist,  Zoological  Survey  of  India, 
Calcutta  for  confirming  identification  of  birds. 

RANJAN  ADVANI 


17.  DISPERSAL  OF  SANDALWOOD  {SANT ALUM  ALBUM)  BY 
BIRDS  IN  TAMILNADU1 

Introduction  the  pleasure  it  gives  one  and  had  been  taking 

notes  among  other  things,  on  their  feeding 

This  paper  has  no  pretensions  and  is  not 

an  outcome  and  product  of  any  purposive  , Paper  presented  at  the  Second  A11  India  SandaI 
research.  I have  been  watching  birds  just  for  Seminar,  Salem  — May  1981. 


672 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


habits.  The  period  of  fieldwork  for  the  Forest 
Resources  Survey  of  Ramnad  and  Tiruchira- 
palli  Districts,  and  service  as  warden  of  the 
Mundanthurai  and  Kalakad  Sanctuaries  in 
Tirunelveli  District  provided  opportunities  to 
work  in  sandalwood  areas  and  for  observing 
the  birds  feeding  on  sandalwood  fruits.  This 
article  is  based  on  those  notes. 

Materials  and  methods 

Avian  fauna  was  checklisted  during  the 
field  work  for  preparation  of  Forest  Resour- 
ces Survey  Reports  of  Ramanathapuram  and 
Tiruchirapalli  Districts  and  for  Kalakad  and 
Mundanthurai  Sanctuaries.  The  sandal  bearing 
areas  Srivilliputhur  R.  F.,  Pachamalai,  Mun- 
danthurai plateau  and  Valliyur  R.  F.  have 


rich  and  variegated  bird  life.  Ingestion  of 
sandalwood  fruits  by  birds  was  not  systema- 
tically noted.  Quantification  of  parameters  like 
feeding  rate,  dispersal  distances,  and  areas  of 
spread  relevant  to  the  quest  were  not  thought 
of.  Only  materials  collected  sporadically  are 
described.  The  birds  found  eating  sandalwood 
fruits  are  listed  below  in  the  sequence  of 
Ripley  (1961). 

Among  the  birds  listed  here,  bulbuls,  mynas, 
greenbilled  malkoha,  koels  and  fruit  pigeons 
appear  to  consume  large  quantities  of  fruits 
(more  than  10  observations).  Redvented  bulbul 
appears  solely  responsible  for  spreading  of 
sandalwood  upto  distances  of  3-4  Km.  in 
Vaigai  Dam.  Blackheaded  bulbul  consumes 
large  quantities  of  these  fruits  in  foothill  and 
hill  forests.  Common  myna  and  Brahminy  myna 


ORDER 

FAMILY 

SPECIES 

COLUM  BIFORMES 

Columbidae: 

1. 

Treron  phoenicoptera  Green  pigeon 

2. 

Ducula  badia  Imperial  pigeon 

3. 

Columba  livia  Blue  Rock  pigeon 

4. 

Streptopelia  chinensis  Spotted  dove. 

PSITTACIFORMES 

PSITTACIDAE : 

5. 

Psittacula  krameri  Roseringed  parakeet 

CUCUL I FORMES 

ClJCULIDAE : 

6. 

Clamator  jacobinus  Pied  crested  cuckoo 

7. 

Cuculus  varius  Common  hawk-cuckoo 

8. 

Eudynamys  scolopacea  Koel 

9. 

Rhopodytes  viridirostris  Small  greenbilled 
malkoha 

CORACIFORMES 

Bucerotidae 

10. 

Tockus  birostris  Common  grey  hombill 

11. 

Buceros  bicornis  Great  Indian  hornbill 

PICI  FORMES 

Capitonidae 

12. 

Megalaima  viridis  Small  green  barbet 

PASSERIFORMES 

PlTTIDAE 

13. 

Pitta  brachyura.  Indian  pitta. 

Oriolidae 

14. 

Oriolus  oriolus  Golden  oriole 

Sturnidae 

15. 

Sturnus  pagodarum  Brahminy  myna 

16. 

Acridotheres  tristis  Common  myna 

Corvidae 

17. 

Dendrocitta  vagabunda  Tree  pie 

18. 

Corvus  splendens  House  crow 

19. 

Corvus  macrohynchus  Jungle  Crow 

Irenidae 

20. 

Chloropsis  aurifrons  Goldfronted  chloropsis 

Pycnonotidae 

21. 

Pycononotus  atriceps  Blackheaded  bulbul 

22. 

Pycnonotus  jocosus  Redwhiskered  bulbul 

23. 

P.  cafer  Redvented  bulbul 

m 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


consume  considerable  quantities  of  these 
fruits.  As  these  birds  are  gregarious  and  cover 
long  distances  in  their  diurnal  movements,  they 
may  make  efficient  dispersers.  The  Evergreen 
Forest  dwellers  — Green  pigeon.  Imperial 
pigeon.  Great  Indian  hornbill  come  to  lower 
elevations  from  1000  m to  200  m as  in  Mun- 
danthurai  in  small  parties  of  5-7  during  the 
fruiting  season  and  consume  large  quantities 
of  fruits.  Green  pigeon  and  Imperial  pigeon 
were  seen  only  in  the  mornings,  throughout  the 
fruiting  season.  Great  Indian  hornbills  spend 
longer  duration  3-5  hours  consuming  these 
fruits  on  even  short  trees  5 m tall.  Koels  again, 
in  large  noisy  parties  spend  many  (3-6)  hours 
consuming  these  fruits  throughout  the  fruit- 
ing season  in  almost  all  areas.  On  Mundan- 
thurai  plateau,  small  greenbilled  malkohas 
were  seen  consuming  the  fruits  throughout  the 
day  all  through  the  fruiting  season.  Even  a 
small  bird  like  Indian  Pitta  consumes  the  fruit 
with  surprising  ease.  Roseringed  parakeets 
generally  damage  the  seeds  and  eat  cotyledons. 
Other  birds  were  seen  only  for  less  than  10 
observations. 

The  habitat  types  in  these  districts  where 
the  birds  were  seen  are  listed  below. 
The  Forest  types  are  based  on  Working  Plans 
of  the  relevent  areas  (Johnson  1976,  1977a, 
b). 


1A 

C4 

2A 

C2 

2A 

C3 

5A 

Cl(b) 

5A 

C3 

5 

DS  2 

5A 

DS  a 

6A 

Cl 

6A 

C2 

6A 

DS  1 

7 

Cl 

8A 

Cl 

In 

most 

West  Coast  Tropical  Evergreen  Forest. 
West  Coast  Semi-Evergreen  Forest. 
Tirunelveli  Semi-Evergreen  Forest. 

Dry  Teak  Forest 

Dry  Mixed  Deciduous  Forest. 

Dry  Savannah  Forest 

Southern  Tropical  Dry  Deciduous 

Scrub. 

Southern  Thorn  Forests 
Carnatic  Umbrella  Thom  Forest 
Southern  Thorn  Scrub. 

Tropical  Dry  Evergreen  Forest. 
Southern  Sub-tropical  Hill  Forest, 
of  our  forest  types  and  in  large 


areas  bird  life  is  abundant  and  all  frugivorous 
birds  have  the  potential  for  dispersing  the 
sandalwood.  Distribution  of  suitable  perches, 
abundance  of  fruit  bearing  trees  in  all  seasons 
and  availability  of  insect  food  during  breed- 
ing season  generally  govern  the  distribution  of 
the  birds.  The  location  of  mature  sandal  trees 
and  their  natural  dispersal  appear  to  be  signi- 
ficant. Natural  propagation  is  effective  in  the 
openings  between  two  forest  types  and  in 
clearings  fringing  two  or  more  habitat  types  as 
in  Valliyur  R.F. 

There  is  a forested  island  in  the  Lower  Dam 
reservoir  in  Mundanthurai  Sanctuary,  where  a 
good  number  of  sandalwood  trees  (about  300) 
aged  about  25-30  years  occur.  These  areas 
were  clearfelled  in  the  early  forties  and  only 
birds,  koels,  bulbuls  and  malkohas,  have  been 
responsible  for  the  propagation  of  the  sandal 
here.  Lantana  was  probably  the  first  to  in- 
vade the  island.  Attracted  by  lantana  berries, 
available  in  plenty  throughout  the  year,  birds 
visited  the  island  and  disseminated  sandal 
seeds  from  the  mainland. 

Fruiting  season 

Authorities  have  recorded  differently  the  sea- 
son of  flowering  and  fruiting  of  sandal.  Brandis 
(1906)  flowering  February- July;  Troupe 
(1921)  flowering  February- April,  fruiting 
May- June;  (Dickinson)  Flowering  at  the  end 
of  hot  weather  or  early  in  the  rains  and  ripen- 
ing in  a few  months  usually  by  the  close  of 
rains,  (Hutchins)  Venkataramanan  (1957) 
flowering  May- June  and  February-March,  fruit- 
ing October-December  and  July-August;  Bour- 
dillon  (1980)  flowering  and  fruiting  all  the  year 
round;  In  Vaigai  Dam  Forestry  Training 
School  there  were  seven  trees  close  to  the 
Principal’s  room,  three  to  six  years  old,  which 
were  being  watered  daily  and  were  in  flower 


674 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


and  fruits  all  through  the  year,  different  trees 
flowering  at  different  times.  In  other  parts  of 
the  School  Campus,  the  flowering  and  fruiting 
of  sandalwood  trees  had  direct  dependance  on 
the  first  heavy  showers.  On  Mundanthurai 
plateau,  flowering  and  fruiting  were  observed 
throughout  the  year  — flowering  first  ten  to 
fifteen  days  after  the  first  heavy  showers.  Older 
trees  flowered  later,  while  planted  young  trees 
flowered  earlier.  The  birds  do  not  feed  ex- 
clusively on  any  one  fruit,  though  abundant 
and  available  in  nearby  localities.  The  occur- 
rence of  a variety  of  fruit  trees  helps  in  keep- 
ing the  birds  in  a particular  habitat. 

Conclusion 

Dispersal  of  seeds  by  birds,  obviously  ap- 
pears to  be  beyond  our  control  and  establish- 
ed forestry  practices.  Production  of  seeds,  dis- 

Wildlife  Warden, 

Kalakad  Sanctuary, 

Tirunelveli  Dist., 

Tamil  Nadu, 

October  6,  1981. 


Ali,  Salim  (1972):  The  Book  of  Indian  Birds. 
Bombay  Natural  History  Society. 

Brandis,  Dietrich  (1906) : Indian  Trees.  Govern- 
ment of  India. 

Bourdillon,  T.  F.  (1980):  Flora  of  Travancore. 

Champion,  Sir  Harry,  G.  and  Seth,  S.  K.  (1968) : 
A Revised  survey  of  the  Forest  types  of  India. 
Government  of  India. 

Gamble,  J.  R.  (1902):  A Manual  of  Indian 
Timbers. 

Gamble,  J.  S.  (1935):  The  Flora  of  Madras 
Presidency. 

Johnson,  Mangalaraj  J.  (1976):  Forest  Re- 
sources of  Ramanathapuram  District  A Quantita- 
tive assessment. 

— — (1977a)  : Forest  Re- 


persal  at  right  places  during  the  right  season, 
germination  and  establishment  are  sequence 
of  factors  over  which  we  can  have  no  com- 
mand. However  conditions,  extant  and  obvi- 
ously congenial  for  the  propagation  of  sandal- 
wood can  be  maintained.  There  appears  to 
be  no  exclusive  preference  of  birds  towards 
sandal  fruits.  So  occurrence  of  other  fruiting 
trees  and  shrubs,  which  may  not  be  of  any  eco- 
nomic importance  may  have  to  be  left.  Creation 
of  sandalwood  patches  amid  other  plantations  of 
longer  rotation  may  enable  extensive  establish- 
ment in  due  course.  Depending  on  local  con- 
ditions the  distribution  pattern  of  sandalwood 
trees  can  be  planned,  to  a limited  extent. 

I am  thankful  to  Thiru  T.  Achuya  I.F.S., 
Chief  Conservator  of  Forests  for  the  interest 
evinced  and  general  encouragement  given  to 
me. 

J.  MANGALARAJ  JOHNSON 


EN  CES 

sources  of  Trichirapally  District.  A Quantitative 
Assessment. 

(1977b):  Manage- 
ment Plan  of  Mundanthurai. 

Prater,  S.  H.  (1965):  The  book  of  Indian  Ani- 
mals. Bombay  Natural  History  Society. 

Scott,  Thomas  G.  (1958) : The  Ornithologists 
responsibility  to  the  future.  In  Readings  in  Wildlife 
Conservation.  The  Wildlife  Society  (1974)  U.S. 

Ripley,  Sidney  Dillon  II  (1961) : A synopsis 
of  the  Birds  of  India  and  Pakistan.  Bombay  Natural 
History  Society. 

Troup,  R.  S.  (1921)  : The  Silviculture  of  Indian 
Trees  Vol.  VI. 

Venkataraman,  S.  V.  (1957):  Lectures  Notes  on 
the  Silviculture  of  species. 


675 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


18.  REDISCOVERY  OF  THE  FOREST  CANE  TURTLE,  HEOSEMYS 
(GEOEMYDA)  S1LVATICA  (REPTILIA,  TESTUDINATA, 
EMYDIDAE)  FROM  CHALAKUDY  FORESTS  IN  KERALA 


During  a recently  conducted  search  for 
Heosemys  silvatica  (Henderson  1912)  a single 
specimen  was  found  in  the  Chalakudy  forests 
of  Kerala  State  after  a period  of  70  years. 
The  forest  cane  turtle  or  choorel  amai,  as  it 
is  called  by  tribals  was  first  discovered  by  Dr. 
Henderson  in  1912  when  two  male  Heosemys 
silvatica  were  found  in  the  Kavalai  area  about 
1500  ft  high  in  the  Chalakudy  forests  (Smith 
1931).  A subsequent  search  for  the  turtle 
proved  unsuccessful.  (Groombridge,  in  prep.). 

Heosemys  silvatica  is  a small,  little  known 
turtle,  which  is  entirely  terrestrial.  All  the 
known  specimens  have  been  found  at  an  alti- 
tude of  above  1000  ft  in  the  rain  forests  of 
the  Western  ghats  within  Kerala  State. 


‘Ponna’  ( Dillenia  pentagyna),  Cordia  obliqua, 
and  fallen  jack  fruits  ( Artocarpus  integrifolia) . 
It  does  not  frequent  water,  usually  concealing 
itself  under  reed  bamboo  groves,  fallen  logs, 
rock  crevices  and  similar  dark  recesses. 

In  the  specimen  of  Heosemys  silvatica  col- 
lected, the  head  is  an  attractive  red  colour  — 
the  region  around  the  iris  within  the 
eye  also  being  red,  the  jaw-line  is  pale 
yellow,  the  neck  is  deep  brown,  limbs  and 
tail  are  pale  brown.  The  carapace  is  orangish, 
the  scutes  being  slightly  imbricate.  The  plas- 
tron is  yellow  with  two  irregular  brown  patches 
placed  on  the  bridge.  The  head  is  large  and 
the  upper  and  lower  jaws  are  deeply  hooked. 
There  is  a small  2 mm  long  scaly  protrube- 


Measurements  (in  mm)  of  Heosemys  ( Geoemyda ) silvatica 
(Henderson  1912) 


Carapace 

Carapace 

Plastron 

Plastron 

Shell 

Forelobe 

Bridge 

Hindlobe 

length 

width 

length 

width 

height 

length 

length 

length 

Total  length:  129.2 

93.5 

108.0 

77.0 

45.0 

45.5 

46.0 

38.0 

Notch  to  notch:  127.2 

— 

118.5 

— 

— 

Curve:  137.0 

117.0 

124.0 

86.0 

— 

According  to  the  tribals,  the  cane  turtles  are 
not  common  as  the  Travancore  tortoises  Geo - 
chelone  travancorica  (Boulenger  1907)  which 
shares  the  same  habitat.  The  specimen  col- 
lected was  found  by  using  native  hunting  dogs 
by  the  tribals.  This  small  turtle  is  much  re- 
lished by  them  for  its  flesh. 

This  terrestrial  emydine  is  herbivorous  in 
diet,  reportedly  feeding  on  fallen  fruits  of 


ranee  on  the  hind  feet  which  might  be  sexually 
diagnostic. 

In  captivity  the  turtle  is  generally  inactive 
during  the  day,  while  it  feeds  and  moves  in 
the  dark.  It  is  suspected  to  be  crepuscular  in 
its  activities  in  nature.  It  feeds  on  fruits  and 
greens. 

According  to  one  source  2 eggs  were  found 
within  a female.  Eggs  are  deposited  in  small 
cavity  on  the  ground. 


676 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Research  Associate,  J.  VIJAYA 

Madras  Crocodile  Bank  Trust, 

Tamil  Nadu, 

September  16,  1982. 

Referen ces 

Groombridge,  B.  (in  preparation)  : Red  Data  Vijaya,  J.  (1982) : Rediscovery  of  the  Forest 

Book,  Reptilia  and  Amphibia.  Cane  Turtle  ( Hoesemys  silvatica)  of  Kerala. 

Smith,  M.  A.  (1931):  Fauna  of  British  India  Hamadryad.  Sept.  7:  (3):  2-3. 
including  Ceylon  and  Burma,  vol.  I. 


19.  BEHAVIOUR  OF  THE  MALE  GHARIAL  DURING  THE 
NESTING  AND  POST-HATCHING  PERIOD 


Introduction 

During  the  first  captive  breeding  of  the 
gharial  in  1980  (Bustard  & Maharana  1980) 
observations  were  recorded  on  the  behaviour 
of  the  male  during  nesting  and  incubation  and 
also  following  hatching  of  the  young.  These 
data  provide  comparison  with  observations  re- 
corded elsewhere  on  other  species  of  croco- 
dilians.  Del  Toro  (1969)  and  Hunt  (1969), 
both  reported  on  parental  care  in  Caiman 
crocodilus . Del  Toro  stated  that  the  male  and 
female  remained  near  the  nest  all  the  time 
permitting  no  one  to  approach.  The  male  took 
the  main  defensive  role.  Both  individuals 
watched  the  nest  and  its  surroundings  even 
when  in  the  water.  The  male  opened  the  nest 
and  liberated  the  hatchlings  while  the  female 
remained  in  the  water  calling  to  the  young. 
Hunt  noted  that  humans  approaching  the  nest 
were  not  attacked.  Both  male  and  female  oc- 
cupied an  area  next  to  the  nest  by  day  and 
often  the  male  guarded  the  nest  at  night. 
Neither  parent  opened  the  nest  in  response  to 
croaking  of  the  young.  Hunt  (1975)  noted  for 
Crocodylus  moreleti  that  the  mother  crocodile 
chased  other  crocodiles  except  the  dominant 


male  away  from  the  hatchlings,  and  that  the 
dominant  male  chased  all  other  crocodiles  (in 
this  mixed  species  display)  except  the  two 
female  moreleti  out  of  the  water  but  he  allow- 
ed the  hatchlings  to  bask  on  his  back.  Lever 
(1975)  stated  that  in  C.  porosus  the  male 
assisted  in  nest  defence  in  captivity  and  Lever 
and  Balson  (1978)  recorded  in  C.  novae  gui- 
neae  that  the  male  also  helped  to  open  the 
nest  at  hatching  time  and  also  picked  up 
hatchlings  in  his  jaws  for  transportation  from 
the  nest  to  the  water. 

Materials  and  Methods 

Observations  were  recorded  on  the  beha- 
viour of  a 3.8  m male  gharial  which  had 
mated  with  a 3.17  m female  gharial  housed 
in  an  ideal  breeding  enclosure  (Bustard  & 
Maharana,  in  press),  the  pool  of  which  mea- 
sured 59.5  m x 29.7  m x 9.1  m in  maximum 
depth. 

Results 

1 . At  time  of  trial  nesting : 

During  the  pre-nesting  season,  when  the 
female  emerged  during  the  night  to  dig  trial 


677 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


nests,  the  male  gharial  was  sometimes  observ- 
ed in  the  water  near  the  edge  of  the  pool 
adjacent  to  the  area  where  the  female  was 
digging. 

2.  When  the  female  defended  her  nest 
(against  humans) : 

When  the  research  staff  approached  the 
nesting  sandbank,  the  female  gharial  immedia- 
tely emerged  from  the  water  and  approached 
the  nest.  At  such  times,  if  the  male  noticed 
this  behaviour  of  the  female,  he  swam  to  the 
edge  adjacent  to  the  pool  where  he  kept 
watch. 

Shortly  before  the  eggs  were  due  to  hatch, 
the  nest  was  excavated  and  15  of  the  25  eggs 
laid  were  removed  for  hatchery  incubation.  In 
order  to  prevent  disturbance  by  the  female 
during  this  operation,  the  water  level  in  the 
pool  was  reduced  by  1 m and  staff  were  posted 
at  the  adjacent  side  of  the  pool  to  prevent 
the  female  emerging.  During  the  entire  opera- 
tion, the  female  remained  at  this  area,  periodi- 
cally trying  to  emerge,  and  the  male  also 
came  to  this  edge  of  the  pool.  At  no  time 
during  this  operation  or  during  the  operation 
described  above,  did  the  male  emerge  from  the 
water. 

3.  At  the  time  of  opening  the  nest : 

The  role  of  the  male,  if  any,  at  the  time 
of  opening  the  nest  by  the  female  is  not  known 
as  the  actual  nest  opening  was  not  observed. 

4.  At  the  time  of  post-hatching  parental  care : 

The  male  contributed  to  post-hatching 

parental  care  by  his  periodic  presence  with  the 
hatchling  group.  However,  he  at  no  time  assist- 
ed the  female  in  chasing  away  the  other  five 
adult  /subadult  female  members  of  the  group. 
The  mother  gharial  did  not  tolerate  other 
members  of  the  group  approaching  the  area 
of  the  pool  where  she  remained  with  the 
hatchlings. 


The  hatchlings  emerged  from  the  nest  on  the 
morning  of  7th  May  1980.  On  12  May  1980 
the  male  was  first  observed  to  show  an  active 
interest  in  the  hatchlings.  The  following  obser- 
vations were  recorded  : 

1010  hours : 

The  male  approached  the  female/ hatchl- 
ing group  and  came  close  to  the  hatchlings 
some  of  which  were  attempting  to  climb 
onto  the  female’s  back.  The  female  showed 
no  response  to  the  male’s  close  approach, 
in  marked  contrast  to  the  behaviour  exhibit- 
ed towards  any  other  members  of  the  gharial 
group  to  approach  this  area  of  the  pool 
which  were  chased  off.  A hatchling  climbed 
onto  the  base  of  the  male’s  tail  and  crawled 
up  to  bask  on  his  back.  The  individual  was 
followed  by  two  further  hatchlings,  one  of 
which  basked  on  his  head  and  the  other  on 
his  back.  The  male  cruised  slowly  towards 
the  middle  of  the  pool  with  the  hatchlings 
basking  on  his  body  and  returned  to  the 
location  of  the  female  and  the  remaining 
hatchlings : 

Similar  observations  were  observed  ex- 
tending over  15  minutes  from  1620  hours. 

13th  May 

At  0600  hours  the  male  approached  the 
female  and  hatchlings  and  floated  near  them. 
Two  hatchlings  climbed  onto  his  head  and 
back  and  three  more  floated  near  him  in  the 
water. 

When  the  male  came  to  the  area  of  the 
female  and  hatchlings  at  0700  hours  several 
hatchlings  climbed  onto  his  back  and  head. 

At  0745  hours,  the  male  was  carrying  one 
hatchling  on  his  back.  The  other  five  gharial 
remained  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  pool. 
The  male  was  observed  visiting  the  female/ 
hatchlings  later  in  the  morning  and  again 
in  the  afternoon. 


678 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Similar  observations  were  observed  on  14 
May  and  again  on  15  May  when  both  the 
mother  and  the  male  were  providing  bask- 
ing sites  for  the  hatchlings  on  their  heads 
and  backs  between  0900  and  1100  hours 
and  again  between  1300  and  1700  hours. 

17th  May 

At  1700  when  male  approached  the  hatchl- 
ings, the  mother  gharial  was  lying  outside 
the  pool  on  the  sand  under  the  tree.  Three 
hatchlings  climbed  onto  his  head  and  back. 
He  remained  with  the  hatchlings  for  10 
minutes. 

18th  May 

At  1100  hours  the  male  came  to  the  group 
and  three  hatchlings  basked  on  his  back. 
Again  at  1400  hours  the  male  floated  near 
the  mother  and  some  hatchlings  came  to  the 
male  and  climbed  onto  his  head  and  back. 
Other  hatchlings  were  basking  on  the 
mother’s  back. 

19th  May 

When  the  male  came  to  the  group  at  0900 
hours  he  gathered  the  hatchlings  together 
by  placing  his  body  between  them  and  the 
edge  of  the  pool  and  slowly  moving  them 
backwards.  This  action,  frequently  seen  by 
the  female  serves  to  aggregate  the  hatchlings. 
This  is  the  only  time  that  the  male  was 
observed  to  do  this.  He  then  floated  with 
them  for  five  minutes,  with  three  hatchlings 
basking  on  his  back,  then  returned  to  his 
favourite  basking  site  in  shallow  water  at 
the  other  end  of  the  pool.  After  a further 
five  minutes  he  returned  to  float  near  the 
mother  and  the  hatchlings  climbed  onto  his 
back  and  remained  there  for  one  and  a half 
hours. 

At  1600  hours  the  male  again  returned 


to  the  group  and  he  floated  with  hatchlings 
on  his  head  and  back. 

20th  May 

At  0900  hours  the  male  came  to  the  group 
and  three  hatchlings  rode  on  his  back.  This 
was  repeated  at  1400  hours  when  two  hatch- 
lings rode  on  his  back  and  head. 

Similar  observations  were  recorded  during 
the  period  21-30  May  but  at  a lower  inten- 
sity. Since  this  was  equally  true  of  the 
mother,  it  would  appear  that  the  constant 
protection  afforded  the  hatchlings  group  by 
the  female  was  waning,  and  with  it  the 
attention  of  the  male. 

Discussion 

The  male  gharial  played  no  part  in  nest- 
guarding  unlike  the  observations  recorded  by 
both  del  Toro  and  Hunt  for  Caiman  crocody- 
lus  and  Lever  (1975)  for  C.  porosus.  However, 
this  behaviour  agrees  with  that  reported  by 
Whitaker  and  Whitaker  (1977)  for  the  Indian 
mugger  ( Crocodylus  palustris).  Nor  did  the 
male  gharial  take  part  in  nest  opening,  as  des- 
cribed by  del  Toro  (1969)  for  Caiman  croco- 
dylus and  Lever  and  Balson  (1978)  for  C. 
novaeguineae.  However,  the  male  gharial’s 
role  with  the  young  is  closely  paralleled  by  the 
descriptions  given  by  Hunt  (1975)  for  C. 
moreleti. 

It  is  noteworthy  both  that  the  male  gharial 
showed  interest  in  the  hatchling  group  and 
that  the  brood-guarding  mother  allowed  the 
male  to  closely  approach  the  hatchlings  and 
carry  them  on  his  back,  observations  parallel- 
ed by  Hunt  (1975)  for  Crocodilus  moreleti. 
Similarly  other  members  of  the  gharial  group 
were  not  tolerated  near  the  hatchlings. 
However,  at  other  times  all  members  of  the 
group  are  extremely  tolerant  towards  each 
other. 


679 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


It  is  not  known  how  far  captive  observa- 
tions such  as  these  can  be  extrapolated  to 
nature.  To  date  we  know  of  no  data  demon- 
strating parental  care  by  any  male  crocodilian 
in  the  wild  other  than  the  vigorous  response 
shown  by  crocodilians  of  both  sexes  to  the 
distress  call  of  hatchlings.  However,  in  the 
relatively  confined  space  available  in  captivity 
as  demonstrated  above  and  also  by  del  Toro 
(1969),  Hunt  (1969,  1973,  1975),  Lever  (1975) 
and  Lever  and  Balson  (1978),  the  male  may 
share  parental  care  duties  with  the  female. 

There  may  be  considerable  interspecific  dif- 
ferences in  parental  care  behaviour  by  either 
sex.  This  is  strongly  indicated  for  instance  for 
C.  porosus  in  the  wild  (Kar  1981)  and  by  the 
differing  parental  care  profiles  of  the  two  pairs 
of  Caiman  crocodylus  reported  on  by  del  Toro 
(1969)  and  Hunt  (1969). 

Nandankanan  Biological  Park, 

P.  O.  Barang  754  005, 

Cuttack, 

Orissa. 

Central  Crocodile  Breeding  and 

Management  Training  Institute, 

19-4-319  Lake  Dale, 

Rajendranagar  Road, 

Hyderabad  500  264, 

July  1,  1981. 

Refei 

Bustard,  H.  R.  & Choudhury.  B.  C.  (1980): 
Parental  care  in  the  saltwater  crocodile  ( Crocodylus 
porosus  Schneider)  and  management  implications. 
J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  77  (1)  : 64-69. 

Bustard,  H.  R.  & Maharana,  S.  (1980):  First 
captive  breeding  of  the  gharial  (Gavialis  gangeticus). 
Brit.  J.  Herpetol.  6(3)  : 106. 

— — (in  press). 

First  captive  breeding  of  the  gharial  ( Gavialis  gan- 
geticus) (Reptilia,  Crocodilia).  Interl.  Zoo  Year- 
book. 

Hunt,  R.  H.  (1969):  Breeding  of  spectacled  cai- 


As  discussed  by  Bustard  and  Choudhury 
(1980)  parental  care,  which  clearly  has  sur- 
vival value  is  also  limited  by  the  ability  of 
the  mother  to  efficiently  protect  the  typically 
large  hatchling  brood.  Any  part  of  the  paren- 
tal care  burden  shared  by  the  male,  therefore, 
will  further  increase  the  survival  value  of 
parental  care. 


ACK  N OWLEDGE  M E N TS 

We  acknowledge  facilities  provided  by  the 
Orissa  State  Forest  Department  and  the  oppor- 
tunity for  one  of  us  (S.M.)  to  carry  out  this 
research.  Thanks  are  also  due  to  the  research 
staff  of  the  Nandankanan  Crocodile  Project: 
Sri  Narayana  Sahoo,  Rabinarayan  Sahoo,  and 
Mangu  Munda. 

S.  MAHARANA 


H.  R.  BUSTARD 


EN  C ES 

man  ( Caiman  c.  crocodylus)  at  Atlanta  Zoo.  Interl. 
Zoo.  Yearbook  9:  36-37. 

(1973) : Breeding  Morelet’s  Croco- 
dile at  Atlanta  Zoo.  Inter!.  Zoo.  Yearbook  13:  103- 
105. 

(1975)  : Maternal  behaviour  in  the 

morelet’s  crocodile  Crocodylus  moreleti.  Copeia  1975 
(4):  763-4. 

Kar,  S.  K.  (1981) : Studies  on  the  saltwater  cro- 
codile ( Crocodylus  porosus  Schneider).  Ph.D.  Thesis 
submitted  to  Utkal  University. 

Toro,  M.  A.  del  (1969):  Breeding  the  spectacled 


680 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


caiman  at  Tuxtla  Guttierrej  Zoo.  Interl.  Zoo.  Year- 
book 9:  35-36. 

Lever,  J.  (1975)  : Behaviour  of  Crocodylus  poro- 
sus  — Defence  of  nest.  Privately  circulated  infor- 
mation. 

Lever,  J.  & Balson,  E.  (1978) : Excavation  of 


nest  by  C.  novaguineae.  FAO/UNDP  Project  of  the 
Government  of  New  Guinea  “Assistance  to  the 
Crocodile  Industry”. 

Whitaker,  R.  E.  & Whitaker,  Z.  (1977):  Notes 
on  captive  breeding  in  mugger  ( Crocodylus  palus- 
tris).  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  75  (1)  : 228-231. 


20.  GROWTH  AND  BEHAVIOUR  OF  A BLIND  GHARIAL 
GA  VI A LIS  GANGETICUS  (GMELIN) 


(With  a text-figure) 


Introduction 

During  the  operation  of  a large-scale  con- 
servation programme  for  the  gharial,  we  have 
incubated  1062  eggs  collected  from  the  Nara- 
yani  and  Kali  rivers  in  Nepal  and  the  Chambal 
river  in  Madhya  Pradesh.  Occurrence  of  eye 
defects,  among  a total  of  twelve  types  of  con- 
genital defects,  was  the  most  common  for 
eggs  collected  from  the  Narayani-Kali-Gandaki 
rivers  originating  in  Nepal  (Singh  and  Bustard, 
in  prepn.).  The  various  eye  defects  ranged 
from  simple  defects  relating  only  to  ciliary 
muscles  to  complete  absence  of  one,  or  more 
commonly,  both  eyes.  Seven  embryos  deve- 
loped without  eyes  four  of  which  were  found 
dead  in  the  egg.  In  addition  one  embryo  deve- 
loped with  only  the  left  eye  present.  The  indi- 
vidual reported  on  here  is  the  only  one  to  have 
survived.  The  present  paper  discusses  the  case 
history  of  the  only  surviving  blind  gharial,  in 
particular  its  growth  and  behaviour  from  its 
hatching  in  June  1975  to  January  1981  a period 
of  about  6 years. 

Materials  and  Methods 

The  individual  reported  on  here  hatched 
from  one  of  seventy-two  eggs  collected  imme- 
diately following  laying  and  incubated  in  hat- 
chery conditions  described  by  Singh  (1978)  and 


Bustard  and  Singh  (in  prep.).  Besides  40  nor- 
mal young,  one  young  with  defective  umbilical 
constriction,  and  two,  one  dead  and  the  other 
alive,  with  complete  absence  of  eyes,  were  sur- 
gically removed  from  their  eggs  by  the  second 
author  on  23rd  June  1975  after  a period  of 
76  days  incubation.  The  surviving  blind  hatch- 
ling was  the  heaviest  of  the  brood  with  a 
hatching  weight  of  94.8  g and  length  36.0  cm 
against  a mean  weight  of  75.3  g and  length 
of  35.8  cm  (N  = 40).  It  had  a normal  amount 
of  residual  yolk.  Along  with  the  normal  hatch- 
lings the  blind  hatchling  was  reared  under 
simulated  natural  conditions  in  captivity  at  the 
Gharial  Research  and  Conservation  Unit, 
Tikerpada.  The  normal  rearing  techniques  are 
described  by  Bustard  (in  FAO  1975)  and 
Singh  (1978).  The  blind  gharial  was  always 
kept  in  the  same  pool  with  its  own  hatch- 
mates,  ten  in  number,  and  trained  to  accept 
food  from  the  hand  (‘hand-fed’)  from  the  age 
of  three  months.  (In  force-feeding  the  food  is 
introduced  into  the  mouth  and  pushed  towards 
the  throat  when  normal  swallowing  takes 
place) . 

Observations 

1.  Swimming : The  blind  gharial  perform- 
ed typical  gharial  swimming  behaviour  using 
the  tail  aided  by  the  hind  limbs.  A peculiarity 


681 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


observed,  however,  was  that  it  often  showed 
a circular  swimming  pattern  as  if  moving 
around  a central  point.  There  was  no  indica- 
tion of  any  preference  for  clock  or  anti- 
clockwise movement. 

2.  Hauling  out  and  basking : Hauling  out 
of  the  water  was  extremely  rare  during  the 
non-winter  season  and  when  it  did  emerge  it 
usually  basked  on  the  half  submerged  pool 
wall  or  branches  of  aquatic  plants.  When  it 
hauled  out  of  the  pool,  it  usually  kept  a foot 


or  the  tip  of  the  tail  dipped  into  the  water 
like  a temperature  sink  in  thermoregulating 
gharial  (Singh  1978). 

3.  Feeding : As  a supplementary  diet,  com- 
mencing about  a month  after  hatching,  it  was 
‘force  fed’  daily  with  one  or  two  stunned  fish 
of  suitable  size.  When  it  and  its  pool  mates 
were  ‘hand-fed’  it  exhibited  normal  behaviou- 
ral displays  including  responding  to  the  sound 
of  water  splashing  in  a bucket  of  fish  and 
opening  the  jaws  when  a fish  was  thrown 


Table  1 


Measurements  of  the  blind  Gharial 
(Length  in  mm  and  weight  in  kg) 


Date 

Snout 

Snout  vent 

Tail 

Total  body  length 

Weight 

23.6.1975 



167 

193 

360 

0.095 

21.7.1975 

50.0 

179 

218 

397 

0.090 

21.6.1976 

111.0 

341 

382 

723 

0.580 

(1  year) 
7.6.1977 

155.0 

472 

505 

977 

1.550 

(2  years) 
10.7.1978 

195.0 

630 

685 

1315 

5.000 

(3  years) 
17.7.1979 

250.0 

840 

780 

1620 

10.2 

(4  years) 
16.6.1980 
(5  years) 

280.0 

950 

910 

1860 

15.4 

Table  2 

Measurements  for  normal  Gharial 
(Length  in  mm  and  weight  in  kg) 

Date 

Snout 

Snout  vent 

Tail 

Total  body  length 

Weight 

Hatchling 

29.7 

164.8 

193.0 

357.9 

0.075 

1 year 

125 

517 

500 

1017 

1.9 

2 years 

180 

738 

682 

1420 

6.9 

3 years 

252 

1086 

1010 

2096 

23.9 

4 years 

302 

1368 

1108 

2476 

48.9 

5 years 

326 

1538 

1250 

2788 

71.8 

682 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


kgW 


-L. L 


-1— L 


/ 

r ' 


4- 


3- 


2* 


1- 


By,*/ 

/ 

/ 


Btbl/ 


/ ^ - 


TBL^' 

*■ 


/ 

/ /*' 
I / 

I ' 

« / 

I / 


i 

0-* r^— *“ 


/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ ' 


s 


xlOcmTBL 


T 1 T —7 5 1 T" 

11  13  15  17  19  21  23 


A i — r 

27  29  31 


Fig.  1.  Comparison  of  growth  in  total  body  length  (TBL)  and  weight  (W)  between 
the  blind  gharial  (B)  and  normal  gharial  (N)  over  the  first  five  years  of  life. 


near  it.  It  was  further  noted  that  its  sense 
of  touch  and  hearing  were  even  better  deve- 
loped than  the  already  well  developed  condi- 
tion in  normal  animals. 

4.  Social  relation  with  other  animals : All 
its  pool-mates,  though  of  similar  age  soon  out- 
grew it,  yet  they  appeared  to  be  tolerant  of 
the  blind  individual  even  at  the  time  of  feed- 
ing. If  it  came  towards  them  they  preferred 
to  move  aside.  Similarly,  at  the  time  of  haul- 
ing out,  basking  and  surfacing,  if  it  climbed 
over  the  body  of  others,  they  did  not  object. 
Furthermore,  on  no  occasion  have  the  normal 
animals  been  seen  to  victimise  or  even  show 


their  ‘playful  snout-stroking’  behaviour  (Singh 
1978)  towards  it. 

5.  Growth : Five  years’  growth  data  for  the 
blind  gharial  is  presented  in  Table  1 and  for 
normal  gharial  in  Table  2.  As  indicated  in  the 
Tables,  the  blind  gharial’s  growth  was  slow 
in  comparison  to  normal  animals.  The  growth 
in  weight  and  length  for  the  blind  gharial  com- 
pared to  normal  individuals  is  shown  diagra- 
matically  in  Figure  1.  However,  at  no  time 
was  it  underweight  with  respect  to  its  length. 

Discussion 

The  cause  of  death  of  the  other  blind  indi- 
viduals is  not  known.  The  other  two  without 


683 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


eyes  died  after  nine  days  and  one  month 
respectively  and  the  one-eyed  individual  died 
after  twenty  days.  These  individuals  were  of 
normal  size  or  slightly  smaller. 

We  are  likewise  unable  to  explain  the  slower 
growth  of  the  surviving  individual  whose 
weight  in  proportion  to  its  length  has  been 
normal  throughout  (Figure  1).  There  would 
appear  to  be  deleterious  side  effects  to  blind- 
ness quite  apart  from  the  inability  of  such 
individuals  to  emerge  from  the  eggs  unaided. 

We  consider  the  reason  for  keeping  a foot 
or  the  tip  of  the  tail  in  the  water  when  it 
hauled  out  on  the  pool  perimeter  was  to  guide 

Gharial  Research  and  Conservation  Unit, 
Tikerpada  759  122,  Orissa. 

Central  Crocodile  Breeding  & Management 
Training  Institute,  Hyderabad  500  264, 
June  22,  1981. 


it  back  to  the  water  since  experiments  indicat- 
ed that  once  removed  from  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  pool  it  could  relocate  it  only 
by  trial  and  error  movements. 

Ack  no  wledge  m e n ts 

We  wish  to  express  our  thanks  to  Orissa 
Forest  Department,  Government  of  India, 
F.A.O.  and  U.N.D.P  for  assistance  during  the 
study.  LAKS  is  Research  Officer,  Orissa  Forest 
Department  and  HRB,  Chief  Technical  Advi- 
ser to  Government  of  India,  Crocodile  Breed- 
ing and  Management  Project. 

L.  A.  K.  SINGH 
H.  R.  BUSTARD 


References 


FAO  (1975)  : Gharial  and  crocodile  conservation  Singh,  L.  A.  K.  (1978) : Ecological  Studies  on 
management  in  Orissa,  India.  (Based  on  the  work  the  Indian  Gharial  [Gavialis  gangeticus  (Gmelin)] 
of  H.  R.  Bustard).  FO:  IND/71/033.  December,  (Reptilia,  Crocodilia).  Ph.D.  Thesis  Utkal  Univer- 
1975.  FAO  Rome.  sity,  Orissa. 

21.  TRAP  USED  FOR  CATCHING  A MUGGER  ( CROCODYLUS 
PALUSTRIS)  FROM  NATURE 

{With  three  text-figures) 


I NTRODU  CTION 

Between  1977  and  1979,  during  the  breed- 
ing season,  a female  mugger  of  the  Satkoshia 
Gorge,  River  Mahanadi,  Orissa  showed  strong 
sexual  attraction  towards  captive  males  at  the 
Gharial  Research  and  Conservation  Unit 
(GRACU)  which  is  situated  on  the  banks  of 
the  river.  On  31  Jan.  1979,  the  mugger  was 
sighted  near  the  mugger  enclosure  of  GRACU 


at  mid-night.  She  was  surrounded  from  all 
sides  with  suitable  strawed-bamboo  mat 
covers,  and  then  skilfully  directed  into  the 
muggei  enclosure.  On  August  4,  1980  she  broke 
through  the  wiremesh  wall  of  the  enclosure  and 
returned  back  to  the  river.  Data  collected  to 
this  stage  have  been  reported  earlier  in  Singh 
1979  and  Singh  (in  press). 

During  1980  post-monsoon  she  again  dis- 
played a behaviour  suggesting  her  intention 


684 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


hill 


Fig.  1.  Ground  plan  of  the  Mugger  enclosure  at  GRACU,  over  which  the  trap  was 
designed  to  catch  the  female  mugger  from  nature.  AB,  plane  through  which  section 
have  been  taken  for  Fig.  2.  D,  door. 


685 


13 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


to  enter  into  the  enclosure  where  captive  male 
muggers  had  still  remained.  This  situation  de- 
manded the  design  of  a trap  to  catch  her, 
because  waiting  to  see  her  near  the  enclosure 
and  then  to  catch  her  was  extremely  difficult, 
though  not  impossible.  Earlier  experience  was 
that  when  we  wait  for  her  to  climb  the  banks 
and  come  near  the  enclosure,  she  would  not 
do  so,  perhaps  because  she  was  able  to  detect 
our  presence. 

Conditions  of  the  Trap 

Any  live  trap  would  require  a precise 
knowledge  of  the  behaviour  of  the  animal  to 
be  trapped,  which  was  well  studied  in  the  pre- 
sent case.  The  work  of  trapping  was  facilitat- 
ed because  the  female  came  near  the  enclosure 
and  searched  for  a way  into  the  enclosure. 
The  males  in  the  enclosure  were  the  source 
of  attraction  for  the  female.  The  requirement 
in  designing  the  trap,  therefore,  was  to  pro- 
vide a passage  into  the  enclosure  which  could 
not  be  used  by  those  inside  to  come  out.  The 
other  requirement  was  to  trap  the  female 
unhurt. 


Trap  Design 

The  enclosure  in  which  the  male  muggers 
were  housed  (Fig.  1)  was  of  16  x 14  m area 
with  two  small  pools  and  one  large  pool.  Only 
the  pool  area  with  near  by  basking  areas  was 
provided  with  a roof  cover,  the  rest  was  open. 

Over  a surface  of  2.5  x 1 m the  lower  sheet 
of  wiremesh  was  removed  from  the  front  wall 
of  the  enclosure  facing  the  river.  The  removed 
sheet  was  folded  inside  over  a bamboo-frame 
platform,  held  from  the  roof  of  the  enclosure 
by  strong  wire  tied  at  two  points,  and  sup- 
ported from  the  bottom  by  strong  poles.  The 
inside  edge  of  the  platform  remained  hanging 
over  the  water  surface  of  the  large  pool  at  a 
height  of  1.5  m from  water.  The  outer  edge 
of  the  platform,  now  standing  on  the  outer 
massonry  wall,  0.35  cm  high,  of  the  enclosure 
was  provided  with  a gentle  slope  of  sand 
levelling  down  to  the  ground.  On  the  plat- 
form light  leafy  branches  were  spread  with 
straw  and  covered  with  a 10  cm  thick  layer 
of  earth  (Fig.  2). 

During  February  1931  the  female  mugger 


686 


Fig.  2.  Vertical  section  along  A-B  plane  (Fig.  1)  to  show  the  design  of  the  trap. 
P,  platform;  W,  wire  holding  the  platform  to  roof  ot  the  enclosure. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


entered  through  the  trap  and  fell  into  the 
pool,  to  be  detected  by  the  staff  of  the  Unit 
later. 


Discussion 

In  crocodile  management  catching  a croco- 
dile unhurt  may  be  required  at  times.  For 
example,  situations  may  arise  to  catch  a male 
or  a female  to  support  captive  breeding,  or 
to  catch  and  remove  a nuisance  crocodile 
from  the  natural  population.  Live  capture 
techniques  have  been  described  in  the  litera- 
ture for  the  American  Alligator  ( Alligator 
mississippiensis)  by  Chabreck  (1965),  Jones 
(1968),  and  Murphy  and  Findley  (1973),  and 
for  the  Saltwater  Crocodile  ( Crocodylus  poro- 
sus)  by  Webb  and  Messel  (1977). 

The  live-capture  technique  described  in 
the  present  paper  was  for  a specific 
situation,  where  enclosures  were  present  on 
the  river  bank,  the  males  acted  as  the  ‘bait’ 
and  the  female  from  nature  was  only  search- 
ing a way  into  the  enclosure.  The  requirement 
was  to  provide  a one-way  passage.  However, 
the  technique  can  be  suitably  modified  for 
use  in  the  field  in  catching  crocodiles  which 
come  out  of  water  being  attracted  towards  a 
putrifying  food  bait.  Such  a design  is 
made  in  Fig.  3 and  is  open  for  testing. 


Fig.  3.  Proposed  design  of  a ‘trap’  to  catch  Mugger 
and  Saltwater  Crocodile  in  the  wild.  B,  bait  (e.g., 
food  like  goat  intestine  or  any  other  meat) ; F,  fence 
to  direct  the  crocodile;  N,  a bag-like  net  held  from 
the  tree  and  spread  at  the  bottom  of  the  artificial 
pool  (W).  The  opening  into  the  net  is  fastened  at 
W-end  of  P.  the  platform  originating  from  the  main 
water  source. 

Once  the  crocodile  is  known  to  have  entered  into 
the  net,  it  can  be  untied  from  the  tree  and  closed 
at  its  mouth  fastened  near  P to  be  finally  pulled  out 
of  water. 

Acknowledgements 

I thank,  the  Government  of  Orissa  (Forest 
Department),  Government  of  India,  F.A.O.  and 
U.N.D.P.  and  the  staff  at  the  Gharial  Research 
and  Conservation  Unit,  in  particular,  Sri  D.  K. 
Sahoo  and  Sri  I.  C.  Sahoo,  Research  Assistants, 
for  their  help. 


Gharial  Research  and  Conservation  L.  A.  K.  SINGH1 

Unit, 

Tikerpada  759  122, 

May  31,  1982. 


References 

Chabreck,  R.  H.  (1965) : Methods  of  capturing,  used  to  capture  and  tag  alligators  in  Florida.  Proc. 
marking  and  sexing  alligators.  Proc.  17th  Annu.  19 th  Annu.  Conf.  S.E.  Assoc.  Game  and  Fish  Comm. 
Conf.  S.E.  Assoc.  Game  and  Fish  Comm.  17:  47-50.  19:  98-101. 

Jones,  F.  K.  jr.  (1968):  Techniques  and  methods 

1 Present  address:  Govt,  of  India,  Central  Croco- 
dile Breeding  and  Management  Training  Institute, 

19-4- 319?  Lake  Dale.  Bahadurpura,  Hydera- 
bad-500264. India. 


687 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Murphy,  T.  M.  jr.  and  Fendley,  T.  T.  (1973) : 
A new  technique  for  live  trapping  nuisance  alliga- 
tors. Proc.  Annu.  21th  Conf.  S.E.  Assoc.  Game  and 
Fish  Comm.  27:  308-311. 

Singh,  L.  A.  K (1979):  Sexual  attraction  of  a 
wild  mugger  ( Crocodylus  palustris  Lesson)  toward 
captive  muggers.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  76(1): 
167-172. 


(in  press) : The  Indian  Mugger, 

Crocodylus  palustris  Lesson  (Reptilia,  Crocodilia)  : 
Observations  on  the  behaviour  of  a female  from 
nature.  J.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc. 

Webb,  G.  J.  W.  and  Messel,  H.  (1977):  Croco- 
dile capture  techniques.  J.  Wildl.  Manage.  41  ( 3): 
572-575. 


22.  SEX1NG  AND  SEX  RATIOS  OF  GHARIAL  ( GAVIALIS 
GANGETICUS)  RAISED  IN  CAPTIVITY 

(With  a plate  & a text -figure ) 


I NTRODU  CTION 

Determination  of  the  sex  of  individual  ani- 
mals and  the  sex  ratios  of  populations  is  an 
important  tool  in  the  study  and  management 
of  Crocodilians.  A pot  like  ‘ghara’  or  narial 
excresence  on  the  snout  tip  of  adult  male 
gharial  distinguishes  them  from  females,  but 
otherwise  sex  of  Crocodilians  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished from  external  features.  Therefore 
probing  of  the  cloaca  and  examination  of  the 
penial /clitoral  organ,  hereafter  referred  to  as 
the  sex  organ,  is  the  only  method  of  identi- 
fying the  sex  of  individual  crocodiles. 

Whitaker  et  al.  (in  litt.)  on  the  basis  of 
cloacal  probing  of  20  gharial  between  1 to  3 m 
in  length  state  that  it  is  difficult  to  sex 
gharial  under  2 m in  length.  They  further 
point  out  that  a 2.7  m long  male  gharial  18 
years  of  age  had  a penis  only  a few  cm  long 
and  conclude  that  the  sexual  development  of 
gharial  is  considerably  slower  than  in  other 
Crocodilians.  M.  V.  Subba  Rao  (1981)  states 
that  the  sex  of  gharial  may  be  distinguished 
by  cloacal  probing  if  a minimum  limit  of  75 
cm  for  total  body  length  is  observed  while 
sexing  gharial.  V.  B.  Singh  (1979)  has  re- 
ported on  the  sex  ratios  of  gharial  observed 
in  nature. 

At  the  Gharial  Rehabilitation  Centre  at 
Kukrail  near  Lucknow,  sexing  of  juvenile 


gharial  hatched  from  eggs  collected  from  the 
Chambal  river  and  reared  at  the  centre,  was 
done  by  probing  of  the  cloaca  on  animals 
upto  4 years  of  age.  After  initial  difficulty  in 
unambiguously  distinguishing  the  sex  of  ani- 
mals, it  was  observed  that  in  relation  to  the 
total  body  length,  gharial  displayed  discretely 
differential  development  of  the  sex  organ.  This 
paper  describes  the  basis  for  sex  distinction 
in  cloacal  probing  of  juvenile  gharial  and  sex 
ratios  determined  in  different  age  classes  of 
captive  raised  juveniles.  Production  of  diffe- 
rent sexes  in  Crocodilians  has  been  discussed 
in  light  of  sex  ratios  of  captive  and  wild  popu- 
lations reported  for  other  Crocodilian  species. 

Methods 

Probing  of  the  cloaca  and  extrusion  of  the 
sex  organ  was  done  with  the  little  finger  of 
the  right  hand.  Prior  to  probing  the  finger 
was  neatly  manicured  and  the  hand  of  the 
examiner  and  the  cloacal  vent  of  the  gharial 
was  cleaned  and  freed  of  sand  particles  by 
washing  with  a solution  of  potassium  per- 
manganate. Vaseline  was  used  in  cases  to  faci- 
litate probing.  The  sex  organ  which  lies  for- 
ward of  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  cloacal 
vent  was  located  and  extruded  by  the  finger 
to  reveal  it’s  floral  tip  for  examination. 

The  sex  of  the  animal  was  then  distinguish- 
ed on  the  basis  of  appearance  of  the  sex  organ 


688 


J,  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc  79 

Lai  & Basu : Gavialis  gangeticus 


Plate  I 


Above : View  of  an  extruded  female  clitoral  organ. 
Below : View  of  an  extruded  male  penial  organ. 


EXTRUDIBLE  LENGTH  OF  SEX  ORGAN  IN  MMS 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


30  - 
28  - 
26  - 


ff 


22  - 
20  - 
I 8 - 
16  - 
14  - 
12  - 
10  - 


8 - 
6 - 


$ 


? 


s <f  <# 

9 

4 

4 999  9 

9 99 

9 9 9 

? * 

? W ? ? ? 

? f?  ? 

? ? ? 

? ? 


4 


9 

? 

? 9 

? ? 

9 9 9 

9 


0 L — 1_ ! — — . 1 . i ^ 1 . i . i . i i i 1 1 1 1— — 1 — 

90  100  NO  120  130  140  150  160  170  180  190  200 


total  body  length  of  gharial  sexed  IN  CMS. 

Fig.  1.  Relationship  of  total  body  length  of  gharial  to  penial /clitoral  organ  length 
in  different  sexes. 


(length,  thickness  and  floral  tip  development). 
This  fell  into  two  broad  categories  illustrated 
in  plate  1.  The  total  body  length  of  the  gharial 
and  the  length  of  the  exposed  portion  of  the 


sex  organ,  after  manipulating  for  maximum 
extrusibility  were  then  recorded.  The  extrusi- 
ble  length  of  the  sex  organ  was  plotted  against 
total  body  length  (figure  1). 


689 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Table  1 


Year 

Number  Number  of 

Number  of 

PercentageNumber 

Percen- 

Number 

Percen- 

Male is  to 

hatch- 

of clutches 

eggs 

Gharial 

survival 

of 

tage  of 

of 

tage  of 

female 

ing 

collected 

collected 

surviving 
at  the  time 

males 

males 

females 

females 

ratio 

of  sexing 

1976 

6 

225 

190 

84.4 

52 

27.4 

138 

72.6 

1 : 2 . 65 

1977 

12 

513 

282 

55.0 

187 

66.3 

95 

33.7 

1:0.51 

Results 

Cloacal  probing  was  not  possible  in  a group 
of  gharial  below  80  cm  in  length  (average 
length  80  cm),  as  the  size  of  the  cloacal  vent 
did  not  permit  insertion  of  the  finger  without 
causing  great  inconvenience  or  fear  of  injury 
to  the  animal.  The  length  of  the  smallest 
gharial  whose  cloaca  could  be  successfully 
probed  was  96  cm  and  the  length  of  sex  organ 
in  this  case  was  5 mm.  Of  the  81  gharial  whose 
sex  organs  were  measured,  the  mean  extru- 
sible  length  of  27  gharial  distinguished  as 
males  was  17.1  mm  (mean  total  body  length 
144.53  cm),  while  the  mean  extrusible  length 
of  the  sex  organ  of  54  gharial  distinguished 
as  females  was  6.9  mm  (mean  total  body 
length  147.23  cm).  See  also  fig.  1.  The  per- 
centage constituents  of  different  sexes  and  the 
sex  ratios  of  two  successive  age  classes  are 
given  in  Table  1. 

Discussion 

The  incubation  of  gharial  eggs  collected  from 
the  Chambal  river  for  hatching  at  the  Gharial 
Rehabilitation  Center,  Kukrail  is  generally 
semi -completed  (40  out  of  total  60-65  incu- 
bation days)  in  situ  and  the  development  of 
male  and  female  embryos  may  be  assumed  to 
be  the  same  as  that  in  nature.  Singh  (1979) 


reported  a male  to  female  ratio  of  1:2  in 
the  Chambal  river  and  1:4.5  in  the  Girwa 
river  for  wild  adult  gharial.  Although  the 
above  figures  deal  with  extremely  small  rem- 
nant populations  they  imply  that  greater  num- 
bers of  females  are  produced  in  nature  and / 
or  survive  to  adulthood.  This  is  in  agreement 
with  the  observed  proportion  of  females 
hatched  from  eggs  at  Kukrail  in  1976  (72.6%), 
see  Table  1. 

The  greater  proportion  (66.3%)  of  males 
observed  among  gharial  hatched  from  eggs 
in  1977  may  be  due  to  sex-specific  mortality 
among  the  females  of  that  year.  Of  the  gharial 
hatched  in  1977  only  55%  were  surviving  at 
the  time  of  sexing,  as  compared  to  84.4%  of 
gharial  of  the  1976  batch  which  were  surviv- 
ing at  the  time  of  sexing. 

Among  other  crocodilians  Kar  and  Bustard 
(1980)  have  reported  production  of  extremely 
high  proportion  of  females  for  Crocodylus 
porosus  hatched  in  captivity.  The  male  to 
female  ratio  observed  by  them  in  two  succes- 
sive age  classes  were  0:100  and  1:13.66  res- 
pectively. Cott  (1961)  quoted  in  Turner  (1977), 
judged  the  male  to  female  ratio  of  Croco- 
dylus niloticus  as  1:1  on  the  basis  of  a collec- 
tion of  324  males  and  327  females  while 
Chabreck  (1966)  also  quoted  in  Turner  (1977) 
states  that  a surplus  of  males  seem  to  be  typi- 
cal of  all  size  classes  in  alligator  population. 


690 


MISCELLANEOUS  A OTES 


on  the  basis  of  sex  determination  of  186  alliga- 
tors killed  at  random  by  hunters  (60.8%  males) 
in  one  instance  and  of  46  adults  (60.1%  males) 
in  another  instance.  However  Turner  (1977) 
comments  that  Chabreck’s  above  observation 
may  be  biased  in  favour  of  males  which  were 
selectively  killed,  as  “females  in  captivity  were 
extremely  timid  and  rarely  seen  except  dur- 
ing courtship  and  nesting  periods”,  Joanen  and 
McNease  (1971),  quoted  in  Turner  (1977). 

It  has  been  hypothesized  for  turtles  that 
embryonic  production  of  sexes  is  co-related  to 
incubation  temperatures  (reference  not  aavil- 

Divisional  Forest  Officer, 

National  Chambal  Sanctuary  Project, 

13  La j pat  Rai  Marg, 

Lucknow-226  001. 

Surveyor, 

Gharial  Rehabilitation  Project, 

Kukrail  Manoranjan  Van, 

Ghazipur,  Lucknow  226  010, 

October  1,  1981. 

R E F E ] 

Kar,  S.  K.  and  Bustard,  H.  R.  (1980) : Sexing 
of  the  Crocodiles  in  Captivity.  Indian  Forester,  Vol. 
106,  No.  8. 

Singh,  V.  B.  (1979) : The  Status  of  the  Gharial 
(Gavialis  gangeticus ) in  U.P.  and  it’s  Rehabilitation. 
/.  Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  75(3)  : 668-683. 


able  with  the  authors)  and  this  may  also  be 
true  for  Crocodilians,  but  a relevant  question 
which  emerges  in  this  context  is  whether  evo- 
lutionary selection  has  opted  for  selective  pro- 
duction of  males  or  females.  Either  case  may 
have  it’s  own  survival  significance.  Production 
of  greater  numbers  of  females  will  result  in 
optimum  utilisation  of  available  habitat  by  the 
polygamous  Crocodilians  in  terms  of  returns 
in  off-spring  production,  while  production  of 
greater  numbers  of  males  will  ensure  fertiliza- 
tion of  all  available  females. 

SHYAM  LAL 


D.  BASU 


ENCES 

Subba  Rao,  M.  V.  (1981) : Sex  determination  in 
living  Crocodilians.  Tigerpaper,  Vol.  8,  No.  1. 

Turner,  Fredric  B.  (1977):  The  Dynamics  of 
Populations  of  Squamates,  Crocodilians  and  Rhyn- 
chocephalians.  Biology  of  the  Reptilia,  Vol.  7,  Aca- 
demic Press,  London. 


23.  GECKO  FEEDING  ON  A MOUSE 


Our  bungalow  in  the  scrub-jungle  is  inha- 
bited by  a number  of  large  geckoes  ( Hemi - 
dactylus  leschenaulti) , and  one  evening  about 
8 p.m.  I observed  a large  gecko  (about  5 in- 
ches in  total  length),  in  our  kitchen,  snatching 
by  its  head,  a young  mouse  ( Mus  musculus ) 
(about  l\  inches  in  total  length),  running  on 
the  rafters.  It  then  started  hitting  the  mouse 
against  the  wall  repeatedly,  very  much  as  it 


does  with  cockroaches  or  other  insects,  or  as 
some  birds  do  with  their  live-prey.  At  the  same 
time,  the  gecko  squeezed  the  head  of  the  mouse 
within  its  mouth,  and  waited  for  a long  time, 
till  I presume,  life  was  extinct  in  the  mouse. 
It  then  started  swallowing  the  mouse,  head 
first  and  took  nearly  15  minutes  to  swallow 
the  whole  lot,  as  slowly  as  a python  does. 


691 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


5,  College  Estate, 

Madras  Christian  College, 

Tambaram,  Madras  600  059, 

August  21,  1979. 

24.  A NEW  RECORD  OF  SALMO 
GORINDSAGAR 

The  fish  fauna  of  Gobindsagar  and  its  asso- 
ciated waters  has  been  described  by  various 
workers  Bhatnagar  (1973),  Tilak  & Hussain 
(1977),  Sehgal  (1974),  and  Sharma  et  cd. 
(unpublished)  but  occurrence  of  trout  has  not 
been  reported  from  this  reservoir.  Observation 
on  occasional  occurrence  of  this  species  in  the 
reservoir  after  1977  were  made  in  6th  Work- 
shop Report.  However  the  first  confirmed  re- 
cord of  Salmo  trutta  jario  Linn.  (T.  L.  280 
mm;  T.  W.  250  gm.)  was  from  Damera  Ghat, 
in  Lathiani  area,  in  April  1981,  and  another 
weighing  2.250  kg,  caught  in  155  mm  mesh 
size  gillnet  near  Berighat  at  Bilaspur,  giving 
credence  to  the  information  about  stray  occur- 
rence after  construction  of  the  Beas-Sutlej  link. 
The  specimen  obtained  from  Lathiani  had  the 
following  characteristics : 

Fin  formula:  D.  12  (3/9);  A.  10  (3/7); 
P.  14;  V.  9 (1/8);  C.  18.  Total  length:  290 
mm;  Weight:  250  gm;  Standard  length:  253 
mm;  Furcal  length:  273  mm. 

Reservoir  Fisheries  Project, 

Central  Inland  Fisheries, 

Bilaspur  (H.P.)  174  001, 

October  19,  1981. 

Refer 

Anon.  (1980):  6th  Workshop  Report,  All  India 
Co-ord.  Research  Project  on  Ecology  and  fisheries 
of  fresh  water  reservoirs,  held  at  Simla  on  25  & 26 
Nov.  1980. 

Bhatnagar,  G.  K.  (1973) : J.  Inland  Fish.  Soc. 
India.  5:  135. 

Sehgal,  K.  L.  (1974):  Fisheries  survey  of  Hima- 
chal Pradesh  and  some  adjacent  areas  with  special 


STEPHEN  SUMITHRAN 


TRUTTA  FARIO  LINN.  FROM 
RESERVOIR 

Sutlej  has  trout  streams  (Baspa)  and  is 
serviced  by  trout  hatchery  (Sangla),  but  trout 
were  never  caught  below  Rampur.  There  was 
no  report  of  trout  from  this  reservoir  which 
came  into  existence  in  1964  after  construction 
of  dam  at  Bhakra;  or  till  the  Beas-Sutlej  Link 
canal,  completed  in  1977,  bringing  water  of 
Beas  river  in  considerable  quantity  from 
Pandoh  reservoir.  Beas  river  has  extensive 

trout  streams  in  its  course,  besides  Pandoh 
reservoir  itself  yielding  considerable  quantity 
of  trout  every  year,  from  its  inception;  besides 
it  is  serviced  by  two  hatcheries  (Katrain  and 
Patlikuhl  or  Naggar).  This  suggests  the  possi- 
bility of  trout  entering  Gobindsagar  from  the 
river  Beas  through  the  Beas-Sutlej  Link.  Which 
ever  may  be  the  source,  its  occurrence  in 

Gobindsagar,  that  too  in  Lathiani  area 
(Lunkhar  Khad)  and  Bilaspur  are  of  interest 
as  the  surface  water  temperature  remained 
between  24°C.  and  17°C.  in  the  area. 

V.  K.  SHARMA 

Y.  RAMA  RAO 


E N C E S 

reference  to  trout,  Mahseer  and  allied  species.  /. 
Bombay  nat.  Hist.  Soc.  70(3)  : 468. 

Sharma,  V.  K.,  Rama  Rao,  Y.,  Kaushal,  D.  K. 
& Pisolkar,  M.  D.  — A list  of  fishes  of  Gobind- 
sagar reservoir  of  Himachal  Pradesh  (in  press). 

Tilak,  R.  & Husain,  A.  (1977):  Zool.  Jb.  Syst. 
Bd.  104 : 265. 


692 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


25.  RECENT  RECORDS  OF  GARHWAL  MAHSEER  (TOR 
PUT1TORA ) WITH  A NOTE  ON  ITS  PRESENT  STATUS 

( With  a text-figure) 


This  contribution  deals  with  the  rare  records 
of  mahseer,  both  past  and  present  ones.  The 
latter  includes  28  Kg  and  23  Kg  putitor  mah- 
seer recorded  by  us  from  the  rivers  Alaknanda 
and  Nayar,  respectively.  Though  Tor  putitora 
is  a game  fish,  in  the  Garhwal  hills  it  has 
achieved  a commercial  status.  But  on  the 
other  hand  gradual  decline  can  not  be  totally 
ruled  out,  attributed  to  its  overexploitation. 
We  suggest  induced  breeding  as  a measure  to 
protect  and  propagate  mahseer  instead  of 
awaiting  for  convincing  proof  of  its  depletion. 
The  Central  or  the  State  Governments  should 
come  forth  with  financial  assistance  for  such 
projects. 

I N TROD  U CTIO  N 

For  the  past  one  century  mahseer  have  been 
known  to  provide  good  sport.  This  favourite 
game  fish  has  shown  a gradual  decline,  attri- 
buted to  indiscriminate  fishing  of  broodfish  and 
juveniles,  pollution,  low  fecundity,  cannibalism 
etc.  (Raj  1945,  Pathani  1977,  1978,  Das  & 
Pathani  1978,  Kulkarni  & Ogale  1978,  Nautiyal 
& Lai,  in  press).  The  principal  species  inhabit- 
ing the  rivers  and  lakes  of  the  Central  and  the 
Western  Himalayan  sector  are  Tor  putitora 
(Ham.),  Tor  tor  (Ham.)  and  Tor  progenius 
McClelland. 

The  Garhwal  region  lies  in  the  Central 
Himalayan  sector  and  the  hillstreams  of  this 
region  harbour  only  two  species,  namely  Tor 
putitora  and  Tor  tor  (Badola  1975).  In  the 
present  contribution  we  have  dealt  only  with 
Tor  putitora. 

One  of  us  (P.N.)  while  on  a collection 


trip  to  Banghat  (a  fish  landing  centre  of  river 
Nayar,  Fig.  1)  and  nearby  areas,  collected  a 
number  of  large  mahseers  of  which  a female 
specimen  of  Tor  putitora  weighed  c.  23  Kg. 
and  measured  137.7  cm  in  length.  Mahseer 
ranging  from  5 Kg  to  14  Kg  were  commonly 
landed  either  by  angling  or  by  gill  nets  (Nauti- 
yal & Lai,  in  press)  during  July-September. 
In  fact  they  migrate  upwards  from  the  Ganga 
to  the  foothill  stretches  to  spawn  in  some  of 
its  tributaries  during  these  months.  Similarly, 
we  have  recorded  heavy  mahseers  from  the 
river  Alaknanda  during  March- April  (1981) 
weighing  about  7.800  Kg  10.500  Kg,  and 
12.50  Kg.  Previously,  in  the  year  1978 
a large  mahseer  weighing  28  Kg  was  also 
observed  by  the  second  author  (M.S.L.).  It 
was  caught  by  a local  angler.  Besides  these 
records  we  have  unconfirmed  information 
from  the  fishermen  inhabiting  the  Nayar  valley 
that  they  landed  two  heavy  mahseers  weighing 
about  52  and  38  Kgs  during  August,  1981.  It 
is  obvious  that  giant  mahseers  still  frequent 
the  hillstreams  of  the  Garhwal  Himalayas. 

Present  status  of  Garhwal  mahseer 

Kulkarni  & Ogale  (1978)  have  discussed 
the  status  of  mahseers  and  have  com- 
mented that  sport  fishing  had  shrunk  consi- 
derably in  recent  years  and  had  resulted  in 
disappointing  reports  on  their  numbers  and 
size.  They  also  reported  that  the  status  of  T. 
khudree  was  in  no  way  better  in  Maharashtra 
rivers  like  Bhima,  Koyna  etc.  where  the  fish 
has  become  a rarity.  The  situation  is  similar 
in  South  India  also.  Karamchandani  et  al 
(1967)  have  reported  a remarkable  decline  in 
the  fishery  of  Tor  mahseer  from  Narbada  and 


693 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


4 SHRINAGAR 


Fig.  1.  Map  showing  the  rivers  explored 
surveyed  in  Pauri  Garhwal  District. 

Tapi  rivers  in  Madhya  Pradesh.  Sehgal  (1972) 
has  assessed  that  in  Jammu,  Himachal  Pradesh 
and  Uttar  Pradesh,  the  ascending  and  descend- 
ing mature  individuals  mainly  constituted  the 
putitor  mahseer  fishery.  SehgaFs  (1972)  and 
our  observations  tally,  for  in  the  Garhwal  re- 
gion of  Uttar  Pradesh  not  only  the  brood  fish 
but  also  the  juveniles  were  exploited  for  its 


and  some  important  fish  landing  centres 


fishery.  In  fact  the  latter  constitute  a major 
part  of  the  fishery,  the  brood  fish  being  avail- 
able for  a limited  period  only.  Thus  the  Garh- 
wal mahseer  has  achieved  a commercial  status 
in  this  region. 

Although  it  seems  from  the  recent  records 
of  the  mahseers  from  Nayar  and  Alaknanda 
rivers  of  Garhwal  Hills,  that  Garhwal  mahseer 


694 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


is  biologically  in  a better  position,  it  is  be- 
ing overexploited  in  this  region  also.  We  have 
observed  local  inhabitants  using  destructive 
fishing  methods  and  we  anticipate  a fall  in 
population.  Earlier,  M.  L.  Mehta  gave  a vivid 
pen  picture  in  Times  of  India  (6.6.1976) 
of  the  immoral  destruction  of  mahseer  in  the 
rivers  near  Dehra  Dun  (U.P.).  We  should  not 
await  further  proof  of  its  depletion  for  insti- 
tuting conservation  measure  as  then  it  may  be 
too  late  to  undertake  any  rehabilitation 
measures. 

C/o.  Shri  N.  M.  Mishra, 

Gola  Bazar, 

Srinagar  Garhwal, 

(U.P.)  246  174. 

Principal  Investigator  (UGC  Project), 
Fishery  Biology  Research  Laboratory, 

Dept,  of  Zoology, 

Garhwal  University, 

Srinagar  Garhwal, 

(U.P.)  246  174. 

October  1,  1981. 

Refei 

Badola,  S.  P.  (1975) : Fish  fauna  of  Garhwal  Hills 
III.  Pauri-Garhwal  (U.P.).  Indian  J.  Zoot.  16  (1)  : 
57-70. 

Das,  S.  M.  & Pathani,  S.  S.  (1978) : Biological 
resources  of  the  Himalayas  and  their  decimation  by 
man.  National  Seminar  on  Resources,  Development 
and  Environment  in  the  Hamalayan  region.  498-501. 

Karamchandani,  S.  J.,  Desai,  V.  R.  & Pisolkar, 
M.  D.  (1967)  : Biological  investigations  on  the  fish 
and  fisheries  of  Narmada  river.  Bull.  Cent.  Ind.  Fish. 
Res.  Inst.  19:  1-39. 

Kulkarni,  C.  V.  & Ogale,  S.  N.  (1978) : The 
present  status  of  Mahseer  (fish)  and  artificial  pro- 
pogation  of  Tor  Ichudree  (Sykes).  /.  Bombay  nat. 


Acknowledgements 

We  are  grateful  to  Dr.  H.  R.  Singh,  Pro- 
fessor & Head,  Department  of  Zoology,  Garh- 
wal University  for  his  valuable  suggestions  and 
the  laboratory  facilities  provided  to  us.  The 
first  author  (P.N.)  is  also  thankful  to  Dr.  S. 
S.  Pathani,  Department  of  Zoology,  Kumaun 
University  for  help  with  literature  pertaining 
to  his  work  on  mahseer. 


PRAKASH  NAUTIYAL 


M.  S.  LAL 


EN  CES 

Hist.  Soc.  75:  651-660. 

Nautiyal,  P.  and  Lal,  M.  S.  (in  press)  : Fishing 
techniques  in  river  Nayar  and  their  impact  on  the 
Garhwal  mahseer  ( Tor  putitora).  In  Symposium  on 
“Ecology  and  Resource  Management  in  Tropies,” 
Pathani,  S.  S.  (1977) : The  problems  of  Kumaun 
Mahseer.  Uttrakhand  Bharti  2(1)  : 65-68. 

(1978)  : A note  on  Ecology  and 

conservation  of  Mahseer,  Tor  tor  and  Tor  putitora 
Hamilton  in  Kumaun  lakes.  Env.  India.,  I (II)  : 36- 
37. 

Raj,  B.  S.  (1945)  : The  decline  of  Mahseer  fisheries 
of  Kumaun  lakes  and  possible  remedy.  Proc.  Nat. 
Inst.  Sci.  India.  77(31):  341-345. 


695 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


26.  EXTENSION  OF  RANGE  OF  ENNEAPTERYGIUS 
OBTUSIROST RE,  WITH  NOTES  ON  ITS  ECOLOGY 

{With  two  text- figures) 


In  the  handnet  catches  from  the  tidepools 
off  Visakhapatnam  (17°41'  N,  83°17'  E)  speci- 
mens of  Enneapterygius  obtusirostre  (Kluzin- 
ger)  were  a regular  feature.  The  species  is  so 
far  known  only  from  the  Western  Indian  Ocean 
(Smith  1961).  As  such  the  present  record  from 
Eastern  India  forms  an  additional  distribu- 
tional record. 

Description : D III,  XIII  (XII  in  one  speci- 
men, XIV  in  one  specimen),  9-10;  A I,  17-19; 
P 15-16;  V I,  2;  C 9;  lateral  line  series  34-36 
(33  in  one  specimen);  gill  rakers  0+1+6  (one 
may  be  rudimentary  on  long  arm). 

As  percentage  of  standard  length : total 
length  118.46-126.42;  body  depth  18.03- 
24.59;  head  length  30.0-35.85;  snout  length 

8.0- 11.54;  eye  diameter  0.8-11.48;  interorbi- 
tal distance  3 . 23-4 . 92;  postorbital  13.33-18. 75; 
pastoral  length  30.0-33.85;  ventral  length 

20.0- 25.0;  depth  of  caudal  peduncle  7.69-10.0; 
distance  from  snout  tip  to  dorsal  22.64-30.0; 
to  anal  50.0-56.14,  to  pectoral  29.51-35.09, 
to  ventral  18.87-28.07. 

As  percentage  of  head  length:  Snout  length 

25.0- 35.29;  eye  diameter  26.32-35.0;  inter- 
orbital distance  0.09-15.79;  postorbital  44.0- 
56.25. 

size: 

Body  deepest  below  first  dorsal,  scales 
ctenoid,  head  and  basal  part  of  first  dorsal 
naked,  head  dorso-ventrally  flattened,  mouth 
moderate  with  snout  slightly  produced,  teeth 
minute,  curved  and  sharp  in  a single  row  ante- 
riorly, vomer  and  palate  devoid  of  teeth;  eyes 
large,  maxilla  reaches  below  anterior  margin 
of  eye;  single  nasal  cirrus,  supra-orbital  cirrus 


leaf-like,  simple,  sometimes  with  2-4  free  tips; 
pre-opercular  margins  and  angle  smooth;  3 
dorsal  fins  present,  first  two  fins  with  delicate 
spines,  first  spine  of  the  first  dorsal  is  the 
longest,  dorsal  rays  longer  than  spines  and 
reach  1/3  of  caudal  peduncle;  anal  rays  longer 
than  the  spine  and  reach  2/3  of  caudal  pedun- 
cle when  folded  back,  ventral  does  not  reach 
vent,  pectorals  reach  beyond  vent,  caudal  trun- 
cate with  edges  round. 

Colour : female  (Fig.  1)  — Very  pale  brown 
with  orange  and  brown  melanophores  which 
more  or  less  form  5 irregular  oblique  bands 
on  body.  Chin  and  throat  possess  only  orange 
melanophores.  Chest  and  belly  white  without 
any  melanophores.  Dorsal  fin  hyaline,  the 
membrane  between  first  and  second  spines  of 
first  dorsal  is  black.  Other  fins  pale  yellow, 
base  of  pectoral  has  an  inconspicuous  brown 
blotch,  caudal  with  4 vertical,  discontinuous 
bands. 

male  (Fig.  2)  — Grey  with  vague  bands, 
nape  brown  with  black  melanophores.  The 
spaces  between  n^res,  postorbitals,  bases  of 
pectorals,  pelvics  and  belly  are  orange.  Cheeks, 
chin,  throat,  part  of  operculum  and  pectorals 
are  lustrous  green  with  blue  spots  in  live  con- 
dition and  turn  black  after  death.  A promi- 
nent blue  black  ocellus  on  the  base  of  pecto- 
ral, 2 black  longitudinal  lines  on  second  dorsal, 
dark  grey  anal  are  characteristic. 

Ecology : This  little  fish  occurs  only  in  lower 
level  tidepools  which  are  totally  exposed  dur- 
ing low  tides.  As  such  the  salinity  of  the  pool 
water  varies  from  time  to  time  and  some- 
times touches  43 %0  during  summer  when 
low  tides  prevail  for  long  periods.  The 


696 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Fig.  1.  Enneapterygtus  obtusirostre  (Kluzinger) : Female. 


Fig.  2.  Enneapterygtus  obtusirostre  (Kluzinger)  : Male. 


diel  oxygen  content  and  pH  varies  abnormally 
as  does  the  temperature.  It  is  an  excellent 
example  for  camouflage  and  concealment  and 
is  rather  difficult  to  locate  as  it  blends  per- 
fectly with  the  weeds.  They  are  encountered 
all  through  the  year  but  more  frequently  dur- 
ing October-February  which  is  apparently  their 
breeding  period.  The  chief  food  for  this  fish 
is  the  phytal  fauna  occurring  on  the  algal  thalli 

Dept,  of  Marine  Living  Resources, 

Andhra  University, 

VlSAKHAPATNAM  530  003. 


of  Enteromorpha,  Caulerpa,  etc.  This  tiny 
fish  picks  up  the  tinier  fauna  with  utmost  deli- 
cacy, aided  by  the  large  pectorals  and  wide 
eyes.  It  also  eats  small  molluscs. 

Acknowledgements 

One  of  us  (C.U.D.)  is  grateful  to  C.S.I.R. 
for  a Junior  Research  Fellowship.  Andhra 
University  is  acknowledged  for  facilities. 

N.  A.  V.  PRASAD  REDDY 


697 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Dept,  of  Zoology,  C.  UMA  DEVI 

Andhra  University, 

VlSAKHAPATNAM  530  003, 

August  10,  1981. 

References 

Smith,  J.  L.  B.  (1961) : The  sea  fishes  of  southern 
Africa.  4th  edit.  [Cape  Town].  Central  News  Agency 
Ltd.,  pp.  xvi+580, 

27.  ON  A FREAK  OF  ISTIBLENNIUS  STRI ATOMACULATUS 


While  studying  the  fish  fauna  of  rock-pools 
along  the  coastline  between  Visakhapatnam 
and  Bheemunipatnam  (17°40'-54'N,  83°  16- 
28'E),  a blennid  fish  possessing  abnormal 
vertical  fins  was  collected  on  August  10,  1979. 
It  was  identified  as  Istiblennius  striatomacula- 
tus  (Kner  1866)  Smith- Vaniz  & Springer 
(1971)  of  the  tribe  Salariini  in  the  family 
Blenniidae.  A brief  description  of  this  abnormal 
fish  is  provided  with  a comparison  of  its  fea- 
tures with  those  of  a normal  fish  of  about 
the  same  standard  length. 

The  specimen  is  characterised  by  D XIII, 
20;  A III,  22;  p.  14;  V I,  3;  C 3;  supra-orbital 
cirri  6;  nasal  cirri  2;  gill  rakers  2+1+12. 

Percentage  of  Standard  Length : 

Total  length  112.77;  body  depth  20.21; 
head  length  23.40;  eye  diameter  6.38;  inter- 
orbital distance  2.13;  orbital  cirrus  5.32;  nasal 
cirrus  2.13;  distance  between  dorsal  notch  and 
caudal  base  44.  68. 

Percentage  of  Head  Length : 

Eye  diameter  27.27;  inter-orbital  distance 
0.09;  orbital  cirrus  22.73;  nasal  cirrus  9.09. 

The  body  is  anguilliform  and  naked  with 
prominent  forehead  and  eyes,  nasal  cirrus 
twice  branched  and  supra-orbital  cirrus  having 
6 branches.  The  spinous  dorsal  is  a little  lower 
than  the  soft  dorsal,  mid-spines  being  longer; 


the  13th  spine  is  the  smallest,  lying  hidden 
in  the  notch  between  the  soft  and  spinous  parts 
of  dorsal.  Membrane  of  the  dorsal  fused  with 
that  of  caudal  fin.  Last  dorsal  ray  compara- 
tively much  elongated,  curved  and  continued 
parallel  with  caudal  fin  rays.  Anal  spines 
small  and  hidden,  first  spine  positioned  as  a 
small  papilla  after  the  vent,  and  anal  fin  base 
adjacent  to  that  a caudal  fin. 

Body  olive  with  brown  spots  and  streaks 
and  6 pairs  of  brown  bands  descend  rather 
irregularly;  under-parts  lighter  without  any 
markings.  A small  black  spot  between  the  1st 
and  the  2nd  dorsal  spine  and  another  between 
2nd  and  3rd  dorsal  spine.  Spinous  part  of  the 
dorsal  fin  with  brownish  wavy  lines  running 
posteriorly  and  inclining  gradually  towards 
the  base.  Rayed  portion  has  several  zigzag, 
lines.  Pectoral  fin  pale  with  semicircular  rows 
of  brown  spots.  Caudal  fin  olive  with  brown 
spots  arranged  in  semicircles. 

This  description  conforms  quite  closely  with 
that  for  /.  striatomaculatus  provided  by  Smith 
(1959).  However,  there  are  some  deviations. 
The  abnormal  fish  has  an  additional  anal  spine 
and  only  three  caudal  rays  in  the  retarded 
tail  as  against  13  in  the  normal.  Furthermore, 
the  dorsal  fin  is  united  completely  with  the 
caudal  fin  and  the  anal  has  come  to  be  very 
close  to  the  caudal  fin. 

In  taxonomic  studies,  it  is  a general  prac- 


698 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


tice  to  attach  significance  to  the  form  and 
number  of  anal  spines  and  caudal  rays.  The 
present  specimen,  as  already  indicated,  shows 
deviations  in  these  characters. 

Dept,  of  Marine  Living  Resources, 

Andhra  University. 

Dept,  of  Zoology, 

Andhra  University, 

Waltair  530  003,  (A.P.), 

April  5,  1981. 

Refer 

Smith,  J.  L.  B.  (1959) : Fishes  of  the  families 
Blenniidae  and  Salariidae  of  the  Western  Indian 
Ocean.  Rhodes  Univ.  ichth.  Bull.  14:  229-252. 
Smith-Vaniz,  W.  E.  & Springer,  V.  G.  (1971) : 


Acknowledgements 

We  thank  the  University  Grants  Commission 
and  Council  of  Scientific  & Industrial  Re- 
search respectively  for  financial  assistance. 

N.A.V.  PRASAD  REDDY 
C.  UMA  DEVI 


E N CE  S 

Synopsis  of  the  tribe  Salariini,  with  description  of 
5 new  genera  and  3 new  species  (Pisces:  Blenniidae). 
Smithson.  Contrib.  Zool.  73:  1-72. 


28.  ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  CRYPTOTERMES  BENGALENS1S 
SNYDER  (ISOPTERA:  KALOTERMITIDAE)  IN  GUJARAT,  INDIA 


Cryptotermes  bengalensis  Snyder  was  des- 
cribed in  1934  from  the  Sunderbans  (21°40'- 
22°50'N  and  88°10'-89°40'E),  West  Bengal 
(type  locality)  on  the  basis  of  imagos  and 
soldiers.  It  has  been  since  recorded  from  vari- 
ous places  in  India  and  Bangladesh  (vide  infra) . 
This  species  has  recently  been  collected  at 
Kaprada  Forests,  Bulsar  District  in  Gujarat, 
attacking  dead  portions  of  a living  tree  of 
Tectona  grandis  (Teak),  thus  extending  its 
range  westwards. 

Material:  A vial  with  six  soldiers  and  seve- 
ral workers,  Gujarat:  Kaprada  forest  (Bulsar 
District),  N.  S.  Rathore  coll.,  27.12.1980. 
Ex:  Tectona  grandis. 

Measurements  {in  mm.)  of  soldier: 


Total  body-length  with  mandibles  4. 9-5. 6 

Head  length  without  mandibles  1.47-1.51 

Maximum  length  of  head  up  to 

frontal  ridge  1.25-1.32 

Median  length  of  head  up  to 

frontal  ridge  1.05-1.12 

Maximum  width  of  head  1.33-1.37 


Length  of  mandibles  0.49 

Maximum  length  of  pronotum  0.84 

Maximum  width  of  pronotum  1.33 


Distribution:  India:  West  Bengal:  Sunder- 
bans, Jhingakhali  forest.  Assam:  Digboi,  Jokhai 
reserve  forest.  Madhya  Pradesh:  Mandla  fort; 
Surhi  village,  Lormi  range  (Bilaspur);  Kesli 
range  (Hoshangabad)  and  Jaisinghnagar 
(Sahdol).  Tripura:  Belonia  and  Paratia.  Uttar 
Pradesh:  Gorakhpur  and  Ramnagar.  Gujarat: 
Kaprada  forest  (Bulsar  District),  Present  re- 
cord. Bangladesh:  Dacca. 

Acknowledgements 

We  are  thankful  to  the  Officer-in-Charge 
Dr.  T.  D.  Soota,  Zoological  Survey  of  India, 
Jodhpur  for  providing  laboratory  facilities. 
We  are  also  grateful  to  Dr.  M.  L.  Roonwal 
for  useful  suggestions  and  to  Dr.  M.  L.  Thakur 
Senior  Research  Officer,  Regional  Forest  Re- 
search Centre,  Coimbatore  for  confirmation  of 
identification. 


699 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HiST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Zoological  Survey  of  India,  r.  k.  THAKUR 

Desert  Regional  Station,  n.  S.  RATHORE 

Paota  ‘B’  Road, 

Jodhpur  342  006, 

October  1,  1981. 

29.  INCIDENCE  OF  MASS  ATTRACTION  OF  CYDNUS  1NDICUS 
WESTW.  (HETEROPTERA  — PENTATOMIDAE)  TO  LIGHT 


Cydnus  indicus  Westw.,  the  common  black 
“geranium  bug”  has  been  found  living  in  soil 
in  large  numbers.  I observed  in  1980  a good 
number  of  insects  attracted  to  light  including 
Cydnus  indicus  in  this  locality.  In  1981  during 
the  months  of  July  and  August  an  unusual 
phenomenon  of  mass  attraction  of  this  black 
bug  was  observed  while  making  further 
studies  on  the  phototropic  responses  in  insects. 
On  29th  July  there  was  heavy  rainfall  at 
Saharanpur  (45.0  mm.)  and  at  9.00  p.m. 
when  rain  had  stopped,  forty  bugs  were  found 
around  light  source  (60  Watt  Bulb)  and  on 
the  ground  below.  The  same  phenomenon  was 
observed  on  2nd,  15th  and  22nd  August.  In 
another  locality  on  the  27th  August  at  8.00 
p.m.  these  bugs  were  watched  emerging  from 
soil  and  taking  flight  towards  light  source 
(fluorescent  tube)  situated  at  a distance  of 
four  metres.  After  taking  a short  flight  around 
light,  most  of  them  fell  down  on  the  ground. 

Department  of  Zoology, 

M.  S.  College, 

Saharanpur  247  001, 

September  11,  1981. 


Their  number  was  counted  and  recorded  as 
43.  Meanwhile,  a toad  Bufo  melanostictus 
suddenly  appeared  and  started  feeding  on 
the  insects.  Within  half  an  hour  it  had  con- 
sumed 35  bugs,  but  the  rest  were  beyond  its 
reach  on  the  wall  of  the  house. 

On  29th  July,  we  presume  that  the  flood- 
ing of  the  soil  compelled  the  bugs  to  emerge 
out  from  their  hide  outs  and  then  to  fly 
towards  light.  But,  on  2nd,  15th,  22nd  and  27th 
August,  there  was  no  rain  at  Saharanpur.  So, 
it  can  be  concluded  that  it  is  a normal  habit 
to  be  attracted  to  any  light  source  in  the 
vicinity  during  the  rainy  months,  i.e.,  from 
July  to  September,  in  this  region. 

Acknowledgements 

I am  thankful  to  Dr.  G.  D.  Garg,  Professor 
of  Entomology  for  encouragement  and  to  Prof. 
V C.  Chatterjee  for  help. 

S.  C.  DHIMAN 


30.  A NOTE  ON  THE  OVIPOSITION  OF  SPHAERODEMA 
RUSTICUM  (FABR.)  (HEMIPTERA) 

Sphaerodema  rusticum  is  an  aquatic  bug  and  Breeding  took  place  between  February  to  mid 
is  commonly  available  in  ponds  at  Dhar.  November.  It  is  an  interesting  example  of 
These  were  collected  and  reared  in  aquaria,  parental  care  by  the  male. 


700 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


In  mating  the  male  mounted  on  the  back  of 
the  female  and  copulation  lasted  for  an  hour. 
Oviposition  took  place  after  25  to  30  hrs  of 
copulation.  Female  selected  a male  mounted 
upon  it  and  laid  an  egg  on  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity of  the  abdomen.  The  female  then  got 
down,  again  mounted  on  the  same  male  and 
laid  another  egg  just  in  the  vicinity  of  the  first. 
This  procedure  continued  for  about  4 to  6 hrs. 
in  different  cases.  The  female  also  excluded 
some  adhering  secretion  which  helped  the  eggs 
to  adhere  to  the  back  of  the  male  and  a com- 
plete raft  of  eggs  was  formed.  A female  ovi- 
posited 60  to  70  eggs  at  a time.  The  male 
loaded  with  these  eggs  moved  about  till  the 

Lecturer, 

P.  G.  Department  of  Zoology, 

Govt.  College, 

Dhar  454  001,  (M.P.). 


hatching  took  place.  Generally  the  hatching 
took  place  in  about  10  days.  On  11th  October 
1980,  in  an  aquarium  two  females  selected  a 
male  and  started  lying  eggs  alternately  upon  it. 
The  number  of  eggs  laid  was  132. 

In  fresh  collections  of  the  animals  from 
ponds  also  many  males  were  found  with  the 
raft  of  eggs  on  their  back.  In  such  collection 
also  once  we  found  138  eggs  on  the  back  of  a 
male.  It  was  also  definitely  due  to  the  ovipo- 
sition by  two  females  on  one  male,  as  a female 
lays  only  60  to  70  eggs  at  a time. 

The  Male  Sphaerodema  is  an  excellent  exam- 
ple of  parental  care  in  hemipteran  insects. 

TEJ  PRAKASH  VYAS 


School  of  Studies  in  Zoology,  (MRS.)  MADHU  VYAS 

Faculty  of  Life  Science, 

Vikram  University, 

Ujjain  456  010  (M.P.), 

January  2,  1981. 


31.  NEW  RECORD  OF  PAUROPSYLLA  DEPRESS  A CRAWF.  ON 
FICUS  LUCESCENS  BLUME 


During  an  insect  collection  survey  in  district 
Saharanpur,  galls  of  Pauropsylla  depressa 
Crawf.  (Homoptera)  were  observed  in  large 
numbers  on  Ficus  lucescens  (=  F.  infectoria 
Roxb.).  This  is  a new  record  on  this  plant. 
Mathur  ( 1975) 1 has  described  the  psyllid, 
Psausia  indica  Mathur  from  F.  lucescens.  Obser- 
vations made  during  1979  and  1980,  on  the  in- 
cidence of  the  insect  on  F.  lucescens  are 
reported  here. 

1 Mathur,  R.  N.  (1975):  Psyllidae  of  the  Indian 
Subcontinent.  ICAR  publn .,  New  Delhi,  pp.  429. 


Ficus  lucescens  Blume.  has  been  found 
heavily  infected  by  these  galls  throughout  the 
year  except  September-November.  Nearly  90 
per  cent  leaves  bear  galls.  Leaf-fall  on  this 
Ficus  plant  occurs  during  mid  September  and 
continues  up  to  mid  October  in  this  locality. 
During  this  period,  the  older  leaves  contain- 
ing galls  fall  and  new  foliage  appears  by  early 
November.  Oviposition  by  Pauropsylla  depressa 
then  takes  place.  Young  galls  can  be  seen  in 
late  November.  Only  second,  third  and  fourth 
instar  nymphs  were  seen  up  to  mid  January, 
but  in  late  January,  fifth  instar  nymphs  were 

701 


14 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


found  in  the  galls.  In  first  half  of  February, 
the  adults  were  seen  wandering  over  the  foliage 
of  the  plant.  Thus,  in  winter  months  (Decem- 
ber and  January)  of  this  locality,  the  deve- 
lopment of  this  Psyllid  slows  down  to  pass  the 
colder  weather  in  nymphal  stages.  As  soon  as 
the  warm  weather  sets  in  during  February, 
the  adults  emerged  from  the  fifth  instars. 
During  the  rest  of  the  year,  i.e.,  from  Febru- 
ary to  October,  all  the  stages  were  seen. 

Distribution  in  Saharanpur  — Nakur 
(Sadholi,  Kharibans,  Gangoh),  Deoband 

Department  of  Zoology, 

M.  S.  College, 

Saharanpur  247  001, 

January  25,  1982. 


(Majri,  Nomehra),  Roorkee  (Iqbalpur,  Bhag- 
wanpur,  Haridwar,  Jwalapur),  Saharanpur 
(Panwarka,  Behat,  Rampur  Maniharan,  Kai- 
lashpur,  Gagalheri). 

Acknowledgements  . . 

We  are  extremely  thankful  to  Dr.  G.  D. 
Garg,  for  encouragement  and  to  the  authorities 
of  M.  S.  College,  Saharanpur,  for  providing  the 
facilities.  We  are  also  grateful  to  the  Director, 
Commonwealth  Institute  of  Entomology,  Lon- 
don, for  the  identification  of  the  insects. 

S.  C.  DHIMAN 
VINAY  KUMAR 


32.  BUTTERFLIES  FROM  ANDAMAN  ISLANDS  WITH  SOME  NEW 

RECORDS 


Introduction 

Andaman  and  Nicobar  Islands,  situated  in 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  between  6°  and  14°N;  and 
between  92°  and  94°  E,  have  been  explored 
by  several  naturalists  in  the  past.  A consoli- 
dated list  of  butterflies  was  published  Ferrar 
(1948)  in  this  journal.  Since  then  many  changes 
have  been  taken  place  in  the  islands  due  to 
deforestation,  and  refugee  settlement.  During 
a recent  visit  to  the  Island  with  Dr.  Salim  Ali, 
from  the  last  week  of  January  to  the  first  week 
of  March  in  1980,  I collected  several  specimens 
of  butterflies  and  other  insects.  In  this  paper 
the  status  of  the  species  collected  is  compared 
with  the  status  as  reported  by  Ferrar  (op.  cit). 
The  collection  was  made  at  Chirria  Tapu,  Ross 
Island,  and  Port  Blair  in  South  Andaman, 
Mayabunder,  Tugapur  and  Interview  Island 
in  Middle  Andaman  and  Northreef  Island, 


Aerial  Bay  (Diglipur)  in  North  Andaman.  One 
day  was  spent  at  Smith  Island,  Ross  Island 
and  Wharf  Island  all  in  the  North  Andaman. 
Though  climatically  the  islands  are  more  or 
less  uniform  there  was  difference  in  Vegetation. 
In  some  islands  the  tidal  zone  is  occupied  by 
thick  impenetrable  mangrove  swamps  and  in 
others  there  are  sandy  beaches.  In  the  latter 
the  littoral  or  beach  forest  consists  of  some 
flowering  bushes,  Andaman  bullet-wood  and 
Pandanus  trees.  This  zone  is  followed  by  semi- 
evergreen forest  and  Tropical  climatic  forest. 
It  was  observed  that  some  Nymphalids  and 
Pierids  like.  Maps,  Wanderers,  Orange  Tips, 
regularly  visit  the  seashore  and  settle  on  damp 
patches  for  a few  seconds,  while  others  like 
Sailers,  Lacewings,  Pansies,  Blues  confined 
themselves  to  the  forested  area.  The  Satyrs 
and  Skippers  remain  within  the  forest. 


702 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA 
Family  Danaidae 

8. 

1 . Euploea  andamanensis  andamanensis  Atk. 
Andaman  Crow 

As  described  by  Ferrar,  the  species  is 
very  common  throughout  Gt.  Andaman. 
Specimens  were  collected  from  Aerial 
Bay,  Mayabunder  and  Chirria  Tapu. 

2.  Danaus  chrysippus  (Lin.) 

Plain  Tiger 

Not  very  common  at  Portblair  as  des- 
cribed earlier.  A single  specimen  was  col- 
lected from  Portblair. 

Family  Satyridae 

3.  Orsotrioena  medus  medus  F. 

Nigger 

Common  throughout  Gt.  Andaman  as 
described  earlier  from  December  to 
March.  Collected  from  Mayabunder. 

4.  Melanites  leda  ismene  Crammer 
Common  Evening  Brown 
Very  common  throughout  Andaman,  I did 
not  see  a single  specimen  of  M.  zitenius 
andamanica  recorded  earlier  from  Anda- 
man. 

Family  Nymphalidae 

5.  Apatura  pari  satis  parisatis  Wd. 

Black  Prince 

Rare,  not  recorded  by  Ferrar.  Not  rare 
in  Burma.  Specimen  collected  from 
Aerial  Bay. 

6.  Euthalia  kesava  M. 

Powdered  Baron 

Not  rare,  not  recorded  earlier.  Collected 
from  Mayabunder. 

7.  Parthenos  sylvia  roepstorfii  C. 

Clipper 

Not  rare  as  described  earlier.  Seen  at 


Diglipur,  Mayabunder,  Chirriatapu.  Col- 
lected from  Wharf  Island  near  Aerial  Bay. 
Neptis  hylas  andamana  M. 

Common  Sailer 

Common  throughout  Andaman  as  describ- 
ed earlier  by  Ferrar  collected  from  Chir- 
riatapu, Mayabunder,  Diglipur,  Aerial  bay. 
9.  Neptis  soma  mananda  M. 

Sullied  Sailer 

Common,  collected  from  Aerial  bay  North 
Andaman. 

10.  N.  hordonia  Stoll 
Common  Lascar 

Common,  collected  from  Mayabunder. 

1 1 . Cyrestis  thyodamas  andamanica  W.M.  & 
de  N.  Common  Map 

Not  common  as  described  earlier  seen 
only  at  Chirriatapu.  Regularly  visits  sea- 
shore and  settles  on  damp  patches. 

12.  Hypolimnas  bolina  L. 

Great  Eggfly 

Not  common  in  February,  but  Ferrar  des- 
cribed it  as  common  in  September  and 
October  and  again  in  June- July. 

13.  Precis  hierta  F. 

Yellow  Pansy 

Very  common.  Found  in  areas  cleared 
for  settlement  at  Tugapur  near  Maya- 
bunder and  Diglipur. 

14.  Precis  almana  aimana  L. 

Peacock  Pansy 

Common  in  open  country.  Collected  from 
Diglipur. 

15.  P.  atlites  L. 

Grey  Pansy 

As  described  earlier  common  in  South 
Andaman.  Collected  from  Chirria  Tapu. 

16.  Phalanta  alcippe  andamana  Pruh 
Small  Andaman  Leopard 

Not  common  in  February,  but  Ferrar  had 
seen  these  butterflies  in  clouds  in  April 
and  again  in  October. 


703 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


17.  Cethosia  cyane  Drury 
Leopard  Lacweing 

Not  recorded  by  Ferrar.  It  is  common  at 
Chirria  Tapu  and  Mayabunder,  both 
sexes  were  collected.  Earlier  C.  biblis 
andamana  was  recorded  from  andaman. 

18.  Ergolis  merione  merione  Cr. 

Common  Castor 

Not  recorded  earlier.  Specimen  collected 
from  Diglipur. 

Family  Erycinidae 

19.  Abisara  chela  chela  De  N. 

Spot  Judy 

Specimen  collected  from  Aerial  Bay. 
Common  in  North  Andaman.  Not  re- 
corded by  Ferrar. 

20.  Castalius  rosimon  alarbus  Fr. 

Common  Pierrot 

Very  common  throughout  Andamans. 
Collected  from  Chirria  Tapu  and  Maya- 
bunder. 

21 . Jamides  celeno  blairana  Evans 
Common  Cerrulean 

As  described  by  Ferrar  very  common 
throughout  Andamans. 

22.  Heliophorus  epicles  indicias  Fruh 
Purple  Sapphire 

Collected  at  Mayabunder  and  Interview 
Island,  near  a stream.  Common.  Ferrar 
had  collected  it  from  Middle  Andamans 
in  June. 

23.  Curetis  saronis  saronis  M. 

Burmese  Sunbeam 

Common  in  North  and  middle  Anda- 
mans. Specimens  collected  near  streams 
from  Interview  Island. 

Bombay  Natural  History  Society, 

Horn  bill  House, 

SlIAHEED  BHAGAT  SlNGH  ROAD, 

Bombay  400  023, 

August  28,  1982. 


24.  Loxura  atymnus  prabha  M. 

Yamfly 

Common.  Specimens  collected  from  Mid- 
dle Andamans. 

Family  Pieridae 

25.  Leptosia  nina  nina  F. 

Psyche 

Common  in  February  whereas  Ferrar 
collected  them  in  June  and  December. 

26.  Cepora  nerissa  dapha  M. 

Common  Gull 

Very  common  in  North  Andaman.  Ferrar 
writes  ‘On  a brief  visit  to  Tillanchong 
Nicobars  in  1924  I took  two  DSF  females. 
They  may  have  been  stragglers  from 
Burma.’ 

27.  C.  nerissa  lichenosa  M. 

Common  throughout  Great  Andamans. 

28.  Catopsilia  crocale  pomona  F. 

Lemon  Emigrant 

Common  in  February-March.  Ferrar  had 
collected  specimens  in  October  and  April 
and  described  it  as  rare. 

29.  Gandaca  harina  andamana  M. 

Tree  Yellow 

Common  throughout  Andaman  Islands. 

30.  Eurema  blanda  silhetana  Wall. 

Common  throughout  Andamans. 

31 . Ixias  pyrene  latifasciata  Butler 
Yellow  Orange  Tip 

Common  throughout  Andaman  Islands. 

32.  Ixias  pyrene  andamana  M. 

Common  throughout  Andaman  Islands. 

33.  Valeria  ceylanica  naraka  M. 

Very  common.  Collected  from  Chirria 
Tapu. 

N.  C.  CHATURVEDI 


704 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


33.  EXTENSION  OF  RANGE  OF  THE  RIVER-CRAB  — POTAMON 
(POTAMON)  ATKINSONIANUM  WOODMASON  (BRACHYURA; 
CYCLOMETOPA;  POTAMONIDAE)  — TO  POONCH  VALLEY 
(JAMMU  AND  KASHMIR  STATE) 


Cyclometopan  crabs  of  the  family  Potamo- 
nidae  are  permanent  inhabitants  of  freshwaters 
such  as  rivers,  mountain  streams  and  canals 
as  well  as  ditches  in  the  lands  of  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  and  Asia  Minor.  Several  species 
of  river-crabs  of  the  genus  Potamon  occur  in 
Northern  India  even  at  altitudes  of  about  2100 
metres  (Alcock  1895-1909,  Rathbun  1904- 
1906,  Colosi  1920,  Ramakrishna  1950,  Serene 
1968). 

The  river-crab  — Potamon  ( Potamon ) 
atkinsonianum  Woodmason  — is  one  of  the 
most  abundantly  found  Decapod  crustaceans 
in  Poonch  Valley.  It  inhabits  shallow  rock- 
pools,  rice  fields  and  boulder- streams  flanking 
the  course  of  Poonch  River  and  Betarh  Nallah, 
lurking  in  the  crevices  between  large,  partially 
submerged  boulders  and  shares  its  niche  with 
typical  mountain-stream  teleosts  such  as  Noe - 

Professor  & Head, 

Department  of  Zoology, 

Islam ia  College  of  Science  & Commerce, 
Srinagar  1900  002  (Kashmir), 

April  25,  1982. 


macheilus  botia  (Ham.),  Crossocheilus  latius 
(Ham.),  Garra  gotyla  gotyla  (Gray)  and  Gly- 
ptothorax  lineatus  (Day),  as  well  as  aquatic 
insects  of  the  genera  Nepa  and  Ranatra.  Dur- 
ing the  day  these  crabs  leave  their  shelter  and 
move  about  actively  on  dry  land,  but  they  do 
not  venture  very  far  from  water.  There  being 
no  previous  record  of  this  species  of  crabs 
from  Jammu  and  Kashmir  State  so  far,  the 
present  report  of  Potamonid  crabs  from  Poonch 
Valley  is  a new  record. 

Acknowledgements 

I am  thankful  to  Dr.  B.  K.  Tikader,  Direc- 
tor, Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta,  for 
confirming  the  identification  of  the  specimens 
under  report. 

SURENDRA  NATH 


References 


Alcock,  A.  (1895-1900):  Materials  for  a carci- 
nological  fauna  of  India.  J.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal, 
Calcutta. 

(1909) : Diagnosis  of  new  species 

and  varieties  of  freshwater  crabs.  Rec.  Indian  Mus. 
3 (4):  375-382. 

Colosi,  G.  (1920) : I Potamonidi  del  R.  Museo 
Zoologico  di  Torino.  Bull.  Mus.  Zool.  Ana.  T. 
Comp.  Torino  35:  1-39. 


Ramakrishna,  G.  (1950) : Notes  on  some  Indian 
Potamonid  crabs  (Crustacea.  Decapoda).  Rec.  Indian 
Mus.,  48  (1):  89-92. 

Rathbun,  Mary  J.  (1904-1906):  Les  crabes 

d’eau  douce  (Potamonidae).  3 Parts.  Nouv.  Arch. 
Mus.  d’Hist.  Nat.  Paris,  vi,  vii,  viii. 

Serene,  R.  (1968):  The  Brachyura  of  the  Indo- 
West  Pacific  region.  UNESCO  — Singapore  (Mimeo- 
graph) . 


705 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


34.  CANNIBALISM  IN  THE  GARDEN  SNAIL  MACROCHLAMYS 
IN D1C A GODWIN- AUSTEN  (STYLOMMATOPHORA : MOLLUSCA) 


Macrochlamys  indica,  a minor  agri-horticul- 
tural  pest,  is  one  of  the  commoner  land  snails 
occurring  in  India.  It  is  found  in  abundance 
in  gardens  in  the  rainy  season.  As  a rule,  like 
other  land  snails,  this  species  is  phytopha- 
gous in  habit  (Raut  & Ghose  1982)  but  an 
unusual  feeding  on  the  flesh  of  their  own  kind 
was  observed. 

In  the  evening  of  July  22,  1976,  a cloudy 
day  in  monsoon,  while  studying  the  behaviour 
of  M.  indica  some  individuals  were  accidentally 
crushed  under  foot;  and  within  a few  minutes 
a good  number  of  M.  indica  of  different  size- 
groups  from  the  adjoining  areas  crawled  to- 
wards the  crushed  snails,  and  started  feeding 
on  their  flesh  avidly.  To  ascertain 
their  preference,  portions  of  choice  food 
plants  namely  the  leaves  of  marigold,  bean  and 
lettuce  were  placed  close  to  the  crushed  snails 
but  these  did  not  attract  the  snails  till  the 
last  bit  of  flesh  was  consumed.  Subsequent  ex- 
periments were  conducted  in  the  garden  and 
also  in  the  laboratory  to  determine  cannibalism 
in  M.  indica. 

A number  of  crushed  M.  indica  were  placed 
on  a brick.  The  leaves  of  preferred  food-plants 
were  placed  around  the  brick.  Within  four 
minutes  38  snails  moved  to  the  spot.  All  of 
them  crawled  over  the  leaves  to  reach  the 
crushed  snails  and  started  feeding  on  the  flesh, 

Department  of  Zoology, 

Calcutta  University, 

35,  Ballygunge  Circular  Road, 

Calcutta  - 700  019, 

June  28,  1982. 


and  they  started  eating  plant  materials  only 
after  consuming  the  flesh. 

M.  indica  were  supplied  with  fresh  flesh  of 
the  land  snails  Achatina  fulica,  Ariophanta 
interrupta  and  Rachis  bengalensis  but  they 
showed  no  interest.  In  another  experiment 
freshly  killed  M.  indica  and  partially  decom- 
posed ones  were  placed  side  by  side.  The  snails 
always  preferred  fresh  flesh,  though  the  other 
form  was  not  spared. 

Twenty  M.  indica  were  released  in  a terra- 
rium of  30  x 15  x 20  cm  on  August  10,  1977. 
The  snails  were  kept  active  by  artificial  means 
but  denied  food.  In  the  evening  of  August  16, 

16,  4 snails  were  consumed  by  the  rest  of  their 
fellows.  Subsequently,  2,  4,  3,  2,  2,  and  1 indi- 
viduals were  eaten  by  other  snails  on  August 

17,  18,  19,  20,  21  and  22  respectively.  The 
remaining  2 died  on  August  24. 

Necrophagous  habit  in  pulmonates  has  been 
reported  by  a number  of  workers  (Mitra  & 
Biswas  1974;  Moquin-Tandon  1855,  Watson 
1915,  Hyman  1967)  but  cannibalism  in  the 
family  Ariophantidae  is  not  on  record.  Possi- 
bly cannibalism  or  necrophagous  habit  is 
innate  in  pulmonates  in  general,  and  it  becomes 
pronounced  in  the  scarcity  of  the  normal 
plant-food  and/or  with  the  easy  availability  of 
dead  or  decomposed  flesh,  and  they  do  not 
ordinarily  kill  their  fellows. 

S.  K.  RAUT 
K.  C.  GHOSE 


706 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


R E FE  RE 

Hyman,  L.  H.  (1967) : The  Invertebrates.  VI, 
Mollusca.  McGraw-Hill,  New  York,  vii  + 792  pp. 

Mitra,  T.  R.  & Biswas,  S.  K.  (1974):  Necro- 
phagous habit  in  Opeas  gracile  (Stylommatophora : 
Subulinidae).  Malac.  Rev.  7:  136. 

Moquin-Tandon,  A.  (1855):  Histoire  naturelle 
des  Mollusques  Terrestres  et  Fluviatiles  de  France. 

II.  Paris,  646  pp. 

Raut,  S.  K.  & Ghose,  K.  C.  (1982)  : Food  pre- 

35.  TWO  NEW  COMBINATIONS 
(BENTH.)  BRENAN 

Brenan  (1957)  has  shown  that  the  correct 
nomenclature  of  the  plant  mentioned  in  Indian 
Floras  as  Acacia  arabica  Willd.  is  Acacia  nilo- 
tica  (Linn.)  Del.  subsp.  indica  (Benth.) 
Brenan.  In  this  treatment  he,  however,  has  not 
said  anything  about  the  two  varieties.  Acacia 
arabica  Willd.  var.  cupressijormis  Stewart  and 
A.  arabica  Willd.  var.  vediana  Cooke  dealt  by 
Cooke  in  the  Flora  of  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

A study  of  the  living  and  herbarium  materials 
clearly  indicate  that  these  two  varieties  are 
quite  distinct  from  the  plants  commonly  treat- 
ed as  the  typical  A.  arabica  Willd.  in  Indian 
Floras.  Stewart’s  var.  cupressiformis  has  a very 
peculiar  arrangement  of  the  branches  giving 
it  a remote  resemblance  to  a Cupressus  tree 
and  is  in  this  way  quite  distinct  from  the  typi- 
cal plants.  When  these  plants  grow  side  by 
side  nobody  can  miss  this  very  striking  differ- 
ence in  appearance.  We  are  of  the  opinion  that 
this  taxon  deserves  a varietal  status  under 
Acacia  nilotica  subsp.  indica. 

With  regard  to  A.  arabica  Willd.  var. 
vediana  Cooke,  Talbot  (1909)  in  the  Forest 
Flora  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  and  Sind, 
says  “This  is  a distinct  variety  and  may  even- 
tually be  separated  from  arabica  as  a species. 
‘Vedi-babhul’  is  distinguished  from  ‘godi- 


: n ce  s 

ference  and  feeding  behaviour  of  two  pestiferous 
snails,  Achatina  fulica  Bowdich  and  Macrochlamys 
indica  Godwin-Austen.  Rec.  Zool.  Surv.  India.  (In 
press). 

Watson,  H.  (1915):  Studies  on  the  carnivorous 
slugs  of  South  Africa,  including  monograph  on 
genus  Apera,  and  a discussion  on  the  phylogeny  of 
the  Aperidae,  Testacellidae,  and  other  agnathous 
Pulmonata.  Ann.  Natal.  Mus.  3(2):  107-267. 

UNDER  ACACIA  NILOTICA 
(MIMOSACEAE) 

babhuV  or  true  A.  arabica  by  its  quicker 
growth,  characteristic  fissured  bark  and  by  its 
very  different  pods  which  are  flat,  shortly 
stalked,  2.5"  x 0.15"  and  very  little  constrict- 
ed between  the  seeds.  The  spines  on  vedi- 
babhul  are  also  more  numerous,  stouter  and 
whiter  than  in  the  type”. 

The  collection  and  study  of  fresh  materials 
from  different  localities  resulted  in  finding 
more  distinguishing  characters  in  addition  to 
those  already  mentioned  by  Talbot.  The  two 
taxa  can  be  distinguished  as  follows: 

Bark  much  fissured,  pods  flat  and  with  very 
little  constrictions  between  seeds,  inflorescence 
heads  up  to  8 with  longer  peduncles,  involu- 
cel  below  the  middle  of  the  peduncle  (in 
blossomed  heads) A.  arabica  var.  vediana 

Bark  less  fissured,  pods  moniliform  with 
deep  constrictions  between  the  seeds;  inflores- 
cence heads  up  to  6 with  shorter  peduncle, 
involucel  above  the  middle  of  the  peduncle 

(in  blossomed  heads)  

A.  arabica  (of  Indian  floras). 

Considering  the  facts  put  forth  by  Talbot 
(1905)  and  the  additional  characters  observed, 
we  are  of  the  opinion  that  var.  vediana  Cooke 
deserves  a subspecies  rank  under  Acacia  nilo- 


707 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


lica.  The  two  new  combinations  as  discussed 
earlier  are  presented  here. 

Acacia  nilotica  (Linn.)  Del.  subsp.  indica 
(Benth.)  Benan  var.  cupressiformis  (Stewart) 
Vajravelu  & Kamble,  Comb.  nov. 

A.  arabica  Willd.  var.  cupressiformis  Ste- 
wart, Punjab  PI.  51.  1869;  Cooke,  FI.  Bombay 
Pres.  Part  3:  444.  1903;  1:  473.  1958  (Repr. 
ed.);  Talbot,  For.  FI.  Bombay  Pres.  Sind.  1: 
481.  1909. 

Local  name:  Ramkathi,  Ramkanti,  Ram- 
kantu. 

Specimens  examined : Maharashtra.  E. 

Vajravelu  and  S.  Y.  Kamble  154077;  S.  Y. 
Kamble  154082. 

Acacia  nilotica  (Linn.)  Del.  subsp.  vediana 
(Cooke)  Vajravelu  & Kamble  Comb,  et  Stat. 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Coimbatore  641  003. 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Western  Circle, 

Pune  411001, 

December  10,  1980. 


nov. 

A.  arabica  Willd.  var.  vediana  Cooke, 
FI.  Pres.  Bombay  part  3:  444.  1903;  1:  473. 
1958  (repr.  ed);  Talbot,  For.  FI.  Bombay 
Pres.  Sind.  1:  481.  1909. 

Local  name : Vedi  babhul. 

Specimens  examined : Maharashtra:  E. 

Vajravelu  & 5.  Y.  Kamble,  154076,  154078  & 
154079;  K.  P.  Janardanan  72751,  66470,  70045, 
69004,  76357;  R.  Hemadri  98295,  98024, 
83797;  K.  V.  Billore  113625,  J.  Cheriyan 
109294;  G.  S.  Puri  2649,  58438;  R.  S.  Rao 
71327,  76882,  78934;  S.  K.  Jain  8299;  L.  D. 
Garade  467.  gujarat:  G.  A.  Gammie  dt. 
18.12.1904.  MADHYA  PRADESH:  A.  S.  Rao 

84166,  79232.  diu  & daman:  M.  Y.  Ansari 
94184,  R.  S.  Rao  88966. 

E.  VAJRAVELU 


S.  Y.  KAMBLE 


Refe 

Brenan,  J.  P.  M.  (1957) : Notes  on  Mimosoideae. 
III.  Kew  Bull.  1957:  84. 

Cooke,  T.  (1903) : The  Flora  of  the  Presidency 
of  Bombay.  Part  3:  444.  1903;  1:  473,  1958  — 
repr.  ed. 

36.  TWO  INTERESTING  PLANT 

( With  two 

During  the  course  of  botanical  explorations 
in  Meghalaya  we  collected  two  interesting  or 
otherwise  rare  plants  in  certain  restricted 
localities,  which  were  identified  as  Styli- 
dium  kunthii  Wall,  ex  DC.  (Stylidiaceae) 
and  Poly  gala  tricholopha  Chodat  (Poly- 


fences 

Santapau,  H.  (1966)  : The  Flora  of  Khandala 
on  Western  Ghats  of  India.  Rec.  hot.  Surv.  India. 
16(1):  83. 

Talbot,  W.  A.  (1909):  Forest  Flora  of  the  Bom- 
bay Presidency  and  Sind.  1:  481. 

RECORDS  FROM  MEGHALAYA 
text-figures) 

galaceae).  Reference  to  literature  revealed  that 
Stylidium  kunthii  subsequent  to  its  first  report 
(FI.  Brit.  India  3:  420.  1881)  has  not  been 
collected  again  from  N.E.  Region  and  there 
are  no  specimens  of  this  in  the  Assam  herba- 
rium. The  present  collection  (after  about  100 


708 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


Fig.  1.  Stylidium  kunthii  Wall,  ex  DC. 

A Habit;  B.  flower  enlarged;  C.  dehiscence  of  capsule. 


years)  therefore,  forms  a significant  report  and 
is  described  here. 

The  other  species.  Polygala  tricholopha  has 
also  not  been  reported  from  this  region  by 


Kanjilal  et  al.  (1934-40).  There  is  however  a 
solitary,  not  well  preserved  sheet  in  the  Assam 
herbarium  collected  by  Kanjilal  himself  in 
1931.  But  following  Bennett,  (in  Hk.  f.  FI. 


709 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  VoL  79 


Fig.  2.  Polygala  tricholopha  Chodat. 
A.  Twig;  B.  flower  enlarged. 


Brit.  India  1:  200)  he  treats  this  taxon  under 
Polygala  arillata  Ham.  ex  Don  which  is  clear- 
ly distinct  from  the  present  species.  Mukherjee 
(1958)  reports  P.  tricholopha  from  Assam  and 


Meghalaya  based  on  old  collection  of 
King  deposited  in  CAL;  and  also  based  on 
Wallichian  Catalogue  (Wall.  Cat.  4191B,  in 
part) . This  species  has  not  been  collected  again 


710 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


after  1931  from  N.E.  region.  Therefore,  the 
present  collection  from  Meghalaya  forms  an 
interesting  report  from  the  area. 

Detailed  descriptions  of  these  two  species 
and  illustrations  are  provided  to  facilitate  their 
easy  identification. 

Stylidiuin  kunthii  Wall,  ex  DC.  Prodr.  7: 
335.  1839;  C.  B.  Cl.  in  Hk.  f.  FI.  Brit.  India 
3:  420.  1881.  (Fig.  1). 

Slender,  erect  herbs,  3-15  cm  high;  leaves 
alternate,  sessile  upper  often  resulate  or  false- 
ly whorled,  lower  ones  much  smaller,  scatter- 
ed, obovate  or  orbicular,  obtuse,  cuneate  at 
base,  entire,  glabrous,  nerves  obscure,  0.7-2  x 
0.3- 1.5  cm;  inflorescence  of  racemose  cymes; 
peduncles  usually  more  than  one,  dichotom- 
ously  branched,  glandular  hairy  as  are  the 
pedicels;  bracts  2,  opposite  in  the  forks;  flowers 
white;  calyx  bilabiate,  upper  2-lobed,  lower  3- 
lobed;  corolla  gamopetalous,  irregularly  5- 
lobed,  4 lobes  in  2 pairs  and  the  remaining  one 
smaller  and  recurved;  stamens  2,  connate 
with  the  style  in  a column;  anther  cells  con- 
fluent; ovary  inferior,  elongated  2-celled;  ovules 
many  in  each  cell;  fruit  a capsule,  0.8-1. 5 cm, 
splitting  at  the  apex;  seeds  minute,  brown. 

FIs.  & Frts.:  November-December. 

Distribution : Sikkim  Himalayas  eastwards, 
Khasi  Hills,  Bangladesh  and  Burma. 

One  of  the  ephemeral  plants  commonly 
associated  with  Utricularia  bifida,  mosses,  etc. 
along  the  moist  road  cuttings  in  forests. 

Specimens  examined : Meghalaya:  Garo 

Dept,  of  Botany, 

School  of  Life  Sciences, 

North-Eastern  Hill  University, 

Shillong  793  014, 

November  30,  1980. 


Hills,  Mahadeo  Y.  Kumar  5456;  Maheshkola 
K.  Haridasan  4108  (NEHU). 

Polygala  tricholopha  Chodat  in  Mem.  Soc. 
Phys.  Genev.  31,  2:  98.  1893;  Mukherjee  in 
Bull.  bot.  Soc.  Bengal  12:  33.  1958.  — P. 
hasskarlii  Merr.  & Chun,  in  Sunyatsenia  2: 
254.  1934-35.  — Chamaebuxus  paniculata 

Hassk.  in  Ann.  Mus.  Bot.  Lugd.  Bat.  1:  154, 
1863;  (Fig.  2). 

Climbing  shrubs;  leaves  5-15  x 2-5  cm,  alter- 
nate, entire  oblong-lanceolate  or  oblong-ellip- 
tic, abruptly  acuminate,  base  rounded,  nerves 
prominent  beneath;  inflorescence  a terminal 
panicle;  flowers  pink  or  pink-purple  with  an 
yellow  crest,  gibbous  at  base,  highly  zygomor- 
phic;  sepals  5,  imbricate,  2 laterals  (wing 
sepals)  Purple,  larger  and  recurved  in  open 
flowers  rest  3 obovate,  rounded;  petals  3,  2 
lateral  and  the  third  keeled  and  crested,  crest 
yellow,  multifid,  deeply  incised  stamens  8, 
united  below  the  middle;  anthers  oblong;  ovary 
2-celled;  fruit  a 2-seeded  capsule,  ovoid,  wing- 
ed; seeds  arillate. 

FIs.  & Frts.:  August-September. 

Distribution : Khasi  Hills;  very  rare,  collect- 
ed only  once  and  never  again. 

Specimens  examined : Meghalaya:  Khasi 

Hills  — Mawsmai  Sacred  forest  K.  Haridasan 
5959  (NEHU). 

We  are  thankful  to  Dr.  R.  S.  Raghavan, 
Regional  Botanist  at  Kew  for  determining  our 
specimens.  Our  thanks  are  also  due  to  the 
Deputy  Director,  Botanical  Survey  of  India, 
Shillong  for  Herbarium  and  Library  facilities. 

K.  HARIDASAN 
Y.  KUMAR 
R.  R.  RAO 


711 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Referen  ces 

Kanjilal,  U.  N.,  Kanjilal,  P.  G,  Das,  A.,  De,  Mukherjee,  S.  K.  (1958) : A synopsis  of  the  In- 
R.  N.  & Bor,  N.  L.  (1934-40):  Flora  of  Assam.  dian  and  Burmese  Polygala.  Bull.  bot.  Soc.  Beng. 
5 Vols.  Shillong.  12:  29-49. 


37.  A NAME  CHANGE  FOR  COLEUS  VETTIVEROIDES  JACOB 

(LAMIACEAE) 


Loureiro  (1790)  raised  the  genus  Coleus  to 
accommodate  the  species  of  Plectranthus 
L’Herit.  with  the  stamens  united  at  base.  This 
character  was  regarded  by  Bentham  (1832, 
1848)  as  of  over-riding  importance  and  thus 
these  two  genera  came  to  stay.  But  this  has 
been  a matter  of  discussion  since  then.  How- 
ever, Morton  (1962),  Keng  (1978)  and 
Willemse  (1979),  among  others,  considered  this 
character  as  unreliable  and  therefore  the  two 
genera  have  now  been  merged,  Plectranthus 
L’Herit.  (1788)  taking  precedence.  According- 
ly the  latter  two  have  transferred  all  the 
Malayasian  and  Sri  Lankan  species  of  Coleus 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Western  Circle,  Pune  411001, 

April  8,  1981. 


Lour,  under  Plectranthus  L’Herit.,  which  in- 
cidentally has  also  covered  7 of  the  9 Indian 
species  while  another  Indian  species  C.  spica- 
tus  Benth.  has  been  transferred  by  Wickens 
(1976).  Therefore,  the  following  new  combi- 
nation is  proposed  for  the  only  remaining 
Indian  species  Coleus  vettiveroides  Jacob. 

Plectranthus  vettiveroides  (Jacob)  Singh  et 
Sharma  comb.  nov. 

Coleus  vettiveroides  Jacob  in  J.  Bombay  nat. 
Hist.  Soc.  42:  320.  1941. 

Distribution : India:  Tamil  Nadu  (mostly 
cultivated).  Endemic. 

N.  P.  SINGH 
B.  D.  SHARMA 


References 


Bentham,  G.  (1832) : Labiatarum  Genera  et 
species,  part.  1 : 29-58.  London. 

(1948):  Labitae  in  A.P.  De  Can- 
dolle, Prodr  12:  55-79.  Paris, 

Keng,  H.  (1978):  Flora  Malesiana  I,  8:  382-393. 
Leyden. 

L’Heritier  de  Brutelle,  Charles-Louis  (1788): 
Stirpes  Novae  84,  t.  41.  Parish. 

Loureiro,  de  J.  (1970) : Flora  Cochinchinensis 
2 : 272.  Lisbon. 


Morton,  J.  K.  (1962) : Cytogenetic  studies  on  the 
West  African  Labiatae.  J.  Linn.  Soc.  Bot.  58:  231- 
283. 

Wickens,  G.  E.  (1976) : The  Flora  of  Jebel  Marra 
(Sudan  Republic)  and  its  geographical  affinities. 
Kew  Bulletin  Additional  Series  V.  152.  London. 

Willemse,  R.  H.  (1979) : New  combinations  and 
a new  name  for  Sri  Lankan  Coleus  species  (Labia- 
tae) . Blumea  25  (2)  : 507-5 1 1 . 


712 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 

38.  CAESALPINIA  HYMENOCARPA  (PRAIN)  HATTINK,  COMB.- 
NOV.  — A SUPERFLUOUS  NAME 


During  the  revision  of  Caesalpinia  Linn,  for 
‘the  wealth  of  India:  A Dictionary  of  In- 
dian Raw  Materials’,  the  following  observations 
have  been  made  by  us  regarding  the  nomen- 
clature of  C.  hymenocarpa  (Prain)  Hattink 
comb.  nov.  Since  the  monographic  revision  by 
Hattink  (1974)  was  for  ‘The  Flora  Malesiana’, 
the  authors  felt  the  urgency  for  necessary 
corrections. 

The  name  C.  hymenocarpa,  first  published 
by  Wallich  {Cat.  List.  No.  5832,  1831),  is  a 
nomen  nudum  and  hence  invalid.  Wight  and 
Arnott  (1834)  mentioned  that  C.  hymenocarpa 
Wall,  belongs  to  Mezonev{u)ron  Desf.,  but 
again  this  happened  to  be  a nomen  nudum. 
Hooker  /.  and  Jackson  (1895)  attributed  M. 
hymenocarpum  to  Wight  and  Arnott,  whereas 
Hattink  attributed  it  to  Jackson  (1895) 
(?  Hooker  f.  & Jackson,  1895).  This  reference 
also  happens  to  be  a nomen  nudum. 

Baker  (1878),  while  working  on  Legumi- 
nosae  for  the  flora  of  British  india,  men- 
tioned C.  hymenocarpa  Wall.,  as  a synomym, 
under  M.  pubescens  Desf.,  incidentally  vali- 
dating Wallich’ s binomial.  But,  this  placement, 
was  wrong,  since  the  plant  of  Desfontaines  is 
different  from  C.  hymenocarpa  Wall.  Prain 
(1897)  attributed  the  binomial  Mezoneuron 
hymenocarpum  to  Wight  and  Arnott  and  refers 
to  the  work  of  Baker  in  the  flora  of  British 
india  as  a synonym  {non  Desf.)  along  with 
C.  hymenocarpa  Wall,  and  C.  glenniei  Thw. 
Prain  distinguished  this  species  from  others  and 
discussed  their  relationships.  The  quotation  of 
the  name  of  Wallich  by  Baker,  and  later 
Prain  quoting  the  work  of  Baker  {non  Desf.) 

Publications  & Information 

Directorate, 

Hillside  Road, 

New  Delhi  110  012, 

March  7,  1981. 


in  the  flora  of  British  india  as  a synonym 
to  the  supposed  binomial  of  Wight  and  Arnott 
M.  hymenocarpum  validate  C.  hymenocarpa 
Wall,  as  well  as  M.  hymenocarpum  Wt.  & Arn. 
This  results  in  C.  hymenocarpa  Wall,  ex  Baker 
under  Caesalpinia,  and  M.  hymenocarpum 
[Wall.  (?  ex  Baker)]  Wt.  & Arn.  ex  Prain  under 
Mezoneuron;  if  Baker’s  validation  is,  for  any 
reason,  not  accepted,  the  binomial  should  be 
C.  hymenocarpa  Wall,  ex  Prain  under  Caesal- 
pinia and  M.  hymenocarpum  (Wall,  ex  Prain) 
Wt.  & Arn.  ex  Prain. 

These  observations,  perhaps,  escaped  the 
notice  of  Hattink  who  made  a new  combina- 
tion with  Wallich’s  plant  as  type  and  Wallich’s 
original  binomial  as  a base. 

In  our  view,  the  combination  of  Hattink 
happens  to  be  a superfluous  name  and  the 
details  of  the  taxon  shall  be  as  follows: 

Caesalpinia  hymenocarpa  Wall.,  Cat.  List 
No.  5832,  1831,  nomen  nudum;  ex  Baker  in 
Hooker  f.  FI.  Brit.  India,  2,  259,  1878. 

Mezonev{u)ron  pubescens  Baker,  loc.  cit .; 
non  Desf. 

M.  hymenocarpum  [Wall.  (?  ex  Baker)]  Wt. 
& Arn.,  Prod.  283,  1834,  nomen  nudum;  ex 
Prain,  J.  Asiatic  Soc.  Beng.,  66,  Pt.  ii  (2),  472, 
1897;  Hooker  f.  & Jackson,  lnd.  Kew.,  2,  223, 
1895,  nomen  nudum. 

C.  hymenocarpa  (Prain)  Hattink,  Reinward- 
tia,  9,  35,  1974. 

Thanks  are  due  to  Mr  Y.  R.  Chadha,  Chief 
Editor,  and  Mrs  K.  Ramachandran,  Scientist, 
Wealth  of  India,  PID,  for  the  facilities  pro- 
vided. 

TENJARLA  C.  S.  SASTRY 
G.  B.  KALE 


713 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


References 


Baker,  J.  C.  in  Hooker,  J.  D.  (1878):  The  Flora 
of  British  India,  L.  Reeve  & Co.  Ltd..  Kent,  Rep. 
1961,  259. 

Hattink,  T.  A.  (1974) : A Revision  of  Malesian 
Caesalpinia  including  Mezoneuron  (Leguminosae  — 
Caesalpiniaceae),  Reinwardtia,  9:  35. 

Hooker,  J.  D.  & Jackson,  B.  D.  (1895):  Index 
Kewensis  — Plantarum  Phanerogamarum.  Oxford 


University  Press,  London,  2:  223. 

Prain,  D.  (1897)  : Some  additional  Leguminosae. 
/.  Asiatic  Soc.,  Beng.,  66,  Pt  ii  (2),  472;  Noviciae 
lndicae : Some  additional  species  of  Indian  plants. 
West,  Newman  & Co.,  London,  1905,  306. 

Wight,  R.  & Walker- Arnott,  G.  A.  (1834): 
Prodromus  Florae  Peninsulae  India,  Orientalis.  Par- 
bury  Allen  & Co.,  London,  p.  283. 


39.  RECORD  OF  DATURA  FEROX  L.  FROM  MAHARASHTRA 


During  plant  collections  in  Akola  and  Pune 
districts  of  Maharashtra  an  interesting  species 
of  Datura  Linn,  was  collected,  which  after 
critical  studies  was  identified  as  D.  ferox  L. 
This  plant  is  a native  of  China,  so  far,  it  has 
been  reported  in  India  from  Rajasthan  only 
by  Bhandari  & Mehta  (1980).  It  is  reported 
here  for  the  first  time  from  Maharashtra.  This 
species  can  be  easily  identified  from  other 
species  of  Datura  L.  by  its  large  and  very 
stout  unequal  spines  covering  the  capsule.  This 
species  may  possibly  occur  in  other  parts  of 
India  also,  as  it  might  have  been  erroneously 
kept  under  other  species.  All  the  specimens 
examined  have  been  deposited  in  the  herba- 
rium of  Western  Circle,  Botanical  Survey  of 
India,  Pune  (BSI). 

Its  citation,  field  notes  etc.  are  as  follows: 

Datura  ferox  L.  Amoen.  Acad.  3:  403.  1756; 
Avery  et  al . in  Blakeslee,  Genus  Datura  21-22 
fig.  4.  1959;  Haegi,  Austr.  J.  Bot.  24:  415-435. 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Western  Circle, 

Pune, 

February  17,  1981. 


1976;  Bhandari  & Mehta  in  J.  Bombay  nat. 
Hist.  Soc.  76:  550-551.  fig,  5.  1980. 

Field  notes : An  undershrub,  upto  1.5  m 
high,  in  waste  places  along  with  Abudlon  in- 
dicum  (L.)  Sweet,  Amaranthus  spinosus  L., 
Cassia  tora  L.  and  Xanthium  strumarium  L. 
Flowers  white.  Fruits  green  drying  brown, 
erect.  Seeds  many,  black. 

Specimens  examined : Maharashtra:  Akola 
district:  Medhshi  village,  Kamble  150101, 

August  1977;  Pune  district:  Koregaon  Park, 
Anand  Kumar  66356,  December,  1980. 

FIs.  & Fr.  : August-December. 

Ack  nowledge  m e n ts 

We  thank  the  Director,  Botanical  Survey  of 
India,  Howrah  for  facilities  and  to  Dr.  B.  D. 
Sharma,  Deputy  Director,  Western  Circle, 
Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Pune  for  encourage- 
ment during  the  course  of  this  work. 

S.  Y.  KAMBLE 
ANAND  KUMAR 
S.  G.  PRADHAN 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


40.  HETEROSMILA X POLYANDRA  (LILIACEAE) : A RARE 
ENDEMIC  TO  INDIA 


Heterosmilax  Kunth  (Liliaceae) : Hook.  f. 
in  FBI  6:  314  (1894)  is  a small  genus,  dis- 
tinguished from  the  allied  genus  Smilax,  by 
tubular  perianth,  corolla  tube  smooth,  sta- 
mens-3  with  more  or  less  connate  filaments.  In 
India,  only  one  species  occurs  in  northern  part 
of  W.  Bengal,  Assam,  Arunachal  Pradesh, 
Meghalaya  and  Manipur. 

H.  polyandra 

Gagnep  Bull.  Bot.  France  71:70  (1934).  — 
H.  indica  A.  DC.:  syn.  nov.,  T.  Koyama,  1/ 
1981  ( Meebold , CAL  7163). 

Climbing  slender  shrubs,  leaves  — 3 nerved 
with  rounded  base,  suberect  petiole,  rather  thin 

Central  National  Herbarium, 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Howrah-711  103, 

W.  Bengal, 

February  3,  1981. 


and  sharply  acuminate.  Peduncle-solitary,  axil- 
lary flattened  umbellate  with  many  small 
flowers,  bracteoles  — minute,  ovate  acuminate. 
Flowers  — many  obovoid,  with  male  and 
female.  Fruit  — small  globose,  seeds-2  hemis- 
pheric. 

Specimen  examined : West  Bengal:  CB 

Clarke,  36359,  Mongpo  1700  m,  (North  Ben- 
gal). Arunachal  Pradesh:  Burkill,  35913, 

37040  (CAL,  1911),  Kobo,  Abor  Expdt. 
Meghalaya:  G.  Gallatly,  576,  607  (CAL,  1878), 
Khasia  & Jayantia  Cherapoonji  320  m.  Assam 
— Gowhati  hills,  478299  (CAL,  1853).  Moni- 
pur  — Meebold,  7163  (CAL,  1907),  Naga  Hills 
1700  m. 

C.  R.  DAS 


41.  INTERESTING  DISTRIBUTIONAL  RECORDS  OF  FIVE  TAX  A 

OF  CYPERACEAE 


The  paper  presents  new  distributional  re- 
cords of  five  species  of  Cyperaceae  in  India. 
Specimens  of  these  are  deposited  in  Forest 
Research  Institute  Herbarium,  Dehra  Dun 
(DD.). 

Cyperus  thonisonii  Boeck.  in  Linnaea  36:294. 
1870;  Clarke  in  Hook.  f.  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  6:608. 
1893;  Kern  in  FI.  Males,  ser.  1,7  (3):  552. 
1974;  Siddique  & Dixit  in  Journ.  Bombay  nat. 
Hist.  Soc.  72(2) : 620.  1975. 

This  species  is  known  from  Bengal,  Assam 
and  Bihar  in  India.  It  has  been  recently  re- 
ported from  Uttar  Pradesh  (Siddique  & Dixit 
/.  c.).  A collection  (L.  C.  Singhai,  14th  Sept 


1953,  Saugor)  is  now  a new  report  of  its  occur- 
rence from  Madhya  Pradesh. 

Fimbristylis  aphylla  Steud  (in  Zoll.  Syst. 
Verz.  1:61.  1854.  nom.  nud .)  Syn.  PI.  Glum. 
2:114.  1855;  Som  Deva  and  Naithani  in  Indian 
For.  100  (10):  649.  1974-F.  quinquangularis 
(Vahl)  Kunth  var.  crassa  Clarke  in  Hook.  f. 
FI.  Brit.  Ind.  6:644.  1893. 

It  is  distributed  in  Tamilnadu  and  Karna- 
taka. Recently  (Som  Deva  & Naithani  /.  c.) 
reported  its  occurrence  from  Dehra  Dun  dis- 
trict of  Uttar  Pradesh.  A collection  (O.  P. 
Sharma,  Dec.  1957.  East  Punjab)  indicates  its 
occurrence  in  Punjab. 


715 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Fimbristylis  insignis  Thwaits  Enum.  PI.  Zeyl. 
349.  1864;  Clarke  in  Hook  f.  FI.  Brit.  Ind. 
6:645.  1893;  Kern  in  FI.  Males,  ser.  1,  7 (3): 
555.  1974. 

From  India  this  species  is  known  only  from 
Tamilnadu.  An  old  collection  (/.  S.  Gamble, 
4513  (A),  4th  July  1877,  near  Simla  in  Hima- 
chal Pradesh)  is  now  a new  record  for  North 
India. 

Fimbristylis  salbundia  (Nees)  Kunth  En.  2 : 
230.  1837;  Clarke  in  Hook  f.  FI.  Brit.  Ind.  6: 
643.  1893;  Kern  in  FI.  Males,  ser  1,  7 (3) : 553. 
1974.  Trichelostylis  salbundia  Nees  in  Wight. 

New  Forest, 

Dehra  Dun  248  006, 

February  4,  1981. 


Contr.  105.  1834. 

It  is  known  from  Bengal,  Assam  and 
Madhya  Pradesh.  An  old  collection  ( Brandis 
3321,  Aug.  1864,  Kulu)  indicates  its  occur- 
rence in  Himachal  Pradesh. 

Fimbristylis  yunnanensis  Clarke  in  Jour. 
Linn.  Soc.  Bot.  36:  247.  1903;  Kern  in  Blumea 
10  (2) : 648.  f.  3.  J-S.  1960. 

Kern  in  FI.  Males,  ser  1,  7 (3):  591.  1974 
has  mentioned  its  occurrence  from  North  India 
without  giving  any  locality.  A collection  ( Bor 
638,  Year  1936,  Naga  Hills)  indicate  its  occur- 
rence in  Eastern  India  from  Naga  Land. 

H.  B.  NAITHANI 


42.  THE  RARE  AND  THREATENED  FERN  ADIANTUM  SOBOLl- 
FERUM  WALL.  EX  HOOK.  — A NEW  FIND  FOR  EASTERN  INDIA 


During  the  course  of  revisionary  study  of 
the  genus  Adiantum,  I examined  a few  speci- 
mens from  Eastern  India  representing 
Adiatum  soboliferum.  Scrutiny  of  literature  re- 
vealed that  A.  soboliferum  Wall,  ex  Hk.  was 
first  known  from  Ava  in  Burma.  Later  Bed- 
dome  (1883)  reported  its  occurrence  from 
Travancore  mountains  in  South  India.  Its 
occurrence  in  Eastern  India,  and  non  collec- 
tion of  the  plants  after  1901  upto  date  by  the 
Regional  circles  of  the  Survey  at  Shillong  and 
Coimbatore  may  indicate  the  endangered 
nature  of  the  species. 

A.  soboliferum  is  closely  allied  to  A.  lunu- 
latum  Burm.  f.  — a well  known,  widely  dis- 
tributed species  in  India.  As  such  a key  to 
distinguish  the  two  species  is  provided  for 
easy  identification. 

Key  to  species 

Stipes,  rachis,  stalks  of  the  pinnae  winged,  not 


glossy,  Texture  of  pinnae  sub-membranaceous... 

A.  soboliferum 

Stipes,  rachis,  stalks  of  the  pinnae  not  winged, 
but  glossy,  Texture  of  pinnae  membranaceous. . . 
A.  lunulatum 

Adiantum  soboliferum  Wall.  ex.  Hook.  Sp. 
Fil.  2:  13,  t.  74 A.  1851;  Bedd.,  Ferns  Brit. 
India  t.  19.  1866;  Christensen,  Index  Fil.  33, 
1906,  Holttum,  Ferns  Malaya  2:  598,  1954.  A. 
mettenii  Kuhn  ex  Hook,  et  Bak.,  Syn.  Fil.  ed. 
2.  472.  1874;  Christensen  Index  Fil.  30.  1906. 

A.  caudatum  var.  soboliferum  Bedd.,  Handb. 
84,  1883. 

A.  lunulatum  var.  mettenii  Bedd.,  Handb. 
83,  t.  83.  1883  et  suppl.  17.  1892. 

Rhizome  erect,  bearing  tuft  of  fronds,  scaly, 
scales  lanceolate,  brown,  margin  entire.  Stipe 
black,  scaly  at  base,  smooth  above,  winged 
throughout,  rachis  black  winged  with  a lateral 
wing  of  5 mm  wide,  wing  of  stipe  and  rachis 


716 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES 


plain.  Lamina  lanceolate,  simple  pinnate,  ter- 
minated by  deltoid  apical  pinnae.  Lateral 
pinnae  stalked,  sub-dimidiate,  glabrous,  stalk 
of  pinnae  winged,  wing  of  stalk  some  what 
crisped.  Lowest  pinnae  broader,  less  crescent 
shaped,  outer  edge  of  pinnae  lobed  to  depth  of 
equal  to  about  of  width  of  pinnae,  sterile 
lobe  often  denticulate,  texture  sub-membrana- 
ceous,  veins  free,  dichotomously  branched, 
raised  on  the  upper  surface,  grooved  on  upper 
surface,  lobes  soriferous  bearing  reflexed  soral 
flaps.  Spores  tetra-hedral  brown. 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Howrah, 

February  11,  1981. 


Specimens  Examined : 

Zamka,  150  m,  Nagahills,  H.  Collect  16 
(July  7th,  1882),  Sumding,  Assam,  N.  Gill 
115  (Feb.  24th,  1901). 


Ack  no  wledge  m e n t 

I am  grateful  to  Dr.  J.  N.  Vohra,  Regional 
Botanist,  (Cryptogams),  Cryptogamic  Section, 
Headquarters,  Botanical  Survey  of  India  for 
encouragement. 

S.  R.  GHOSH 


43.  ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  SELAG1NELLA  TAMARSC1NA  (P. 
BEAUV.)  SPRING  VAR.  PULVINATA  (WALL.  EX  HOOK.  ET  GREV.) 
ALSTON  IN  INDIA  AND  BURMA 


Alston  (1945)  reported  the  occurrence  of 
Selaginella  tamarscina  var.  pulvinata  (wall,  ex 
Hook,  et  Grev.)  Alston,  in  India  (Kumaon 
and  Assam)  based  on  two  herbarium  speci- 
mens in  the  Kew  Herbarium  (Wall.  cat.  no. 
7087  from  Kumaon,  collected  by  Robert  Blink- 
worth,  and  anonymous  s.  n.  from  Assam),  but 
remarked  that  “this  species  has  not  been  col- 
lected in  India  in  recent  years  and  it  is  possible 
that  existing  specimens  have  been  so  labelled 
in  error. . . .”.  Also,  he  held  that  its  reported 
occurrence  from  Burma  (Mason,  1883)  is 
doubtful,  as  no  herbarium  vouchers  are  avail- 
able. A duplicate  of  Wall.  Num.  List  No.  7087 
is  available  in  the  Central  National  Herbarium, 
Howrah,  but  it  bears  no  mention  of  the  loca- 
lity of  collection.  No  other  specimen  of  this 
taxon  is  available  in  any  Indian  herbaria,  nor 
has  it  been  collected  during  the  extensive  ex- 
ploration of  Kumaon  and  Assam  areas  under- 
taken by  the  Forest  Research  Institute,  Dehra 


Dun,  as  well  as  the  Botanical  Survey  of  India, 
for  the  past  25  years.  This  confirms  Alston’s 
surmise  that  Wall.  Num.  List.  No.  7087  is 
perhaps  not  from  India.  Similarly  the  other 
specimen  in  Kew  Herbarium,  reportedly  col- 
lected from  Assam,  is  also  from  source 
other  than  India.  S.  tamarscina  var.  pulvinata, 
thus,  does  not  occur  in  India. 

As  regards  its  occurrence  in  Burma,  Mason 
(1883),  while  reporting  it.  remarked  that  “the 
specimen  being  unmanageable  could  not  be 
placed  among  other  species  and  is  finally  lost”. 
This  accounts  for  the  absence  of  herbarium 
vouchers  noted  by  Alston.  The  Industrial  Sec- 
tion of  the  Indian  Museum,  Calcutta,  however, 
has  in  its  collection  a specimen  of  S.  tamars- 
cina var.  pulvinata  collected  by  the  Reporter 
on  Economic  Products  from  Mandalay  in  1908 
(Accession  no.  41904).  This  confirms  the 
occurrence  of  this  taxon  in  Burma. 


717 


15 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Acknowledgements 

I am  thankful  to  Dr.  A.  S.  Rao,  Joint  Direc- 
tor, Botanical  Survey  of  India  and  Prof.  B.  K. 

Botanical  Survey  of  India, 

Allahabad, 

September  1,  1980. 


Nayar,  University  of  Calicut,  Calicut  for  going 
through  the  manuscript  and  helpful  sugges- 
tions. 

R.  D.  DIXIT 


References 

Alston,  A.  H.  G.  (1945):  An  enumeration  of  tions  or  notes  on  the  fauna,  flora  and  Minerals  of 

the  Indian  species  of  Selaginella.  Proc.  nat.  Inst.  Sci.  Tenasserim,  Pegu  and  Burma.  Vol.  II.  ed.  2,  Stephen 

India  11  (3):  211-235,  Austin  & Sons,  England. 

Mason,  F.  (1883) : Burma  its  people  and  produc- 


718 


MINUTES  OF  THE  EXTRAORDINARY  GENERAL  BODY  MEETING  OF  THE 
BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY 


In 

requisition  to  a request  made 

by  13 

30. 

Mr  D.  J.  Panday  (In  the  Chair) 

members  in  accordance  with  rule  29, 

an  Ex- 

31. 

Mr  Narayan  Chhatbar 

traordinary  General  Body  Meeting 

of  the 

32. 

Mr  Sidney  D’Souza 

Society  was  held  on  Wednesday,  the  29th 

33. 

Mr  K.  N.  Naoroji 

September  1982  at  6.30  p.m.  at  Coomaraswamy 

34. 

Mr  Anil  Dave 

Hall 

in  the  Prince  of  Wales  Museum  when 

35. 

Mr  D.  S.  Gaitonde 

the  following  were  present: 

36. 

Miss  S.  G.  Khadilkar 

37. 

Dr  P.  J.  Deoras 

1. 

Mr  Mahesh  N.  Sanzgiri 

38. 

Mr  Humayun  Abdulali 

2. 

Mr  Nitin  Jamdar 

39. 

Mr  J.  B.  Dordi 

3. 

Mr  S.  G.  Monga 

40. 

Mr  R.  Holkar 

4. 

Mr  Oswald  Thayil 

41. 

Dr  R.  M.  Naik 

5. 

Mr  Sudip  D.  Bhaumik 

42. 

Mrs  P.  Mukherjee 

6. 

Mr  Rishad  Naoroji 

43. 

Mr  Parvish  Pandya 

7. 

Mrs  Parveen  Sisodia 

44. 

Mr  Premchand  Dabrai 

8. 

Mr  Hasan  Tyabji 

45. 

Mr  M.  R.  Almeida 

9. 

Mr  J.  P.  Irani 

46. 

Mr  Dilip  Patil 

10. 

Mr  Bansi  Mehta 

47. 

Miss  Arati  Kaikini 

11. 

Mrs  Panna  Raiji 

48. 

Mr  Farhan  Thakur 

12. 

Mr  V.  N.  Raiji 

49. 

Mr  M.  D.  Agharkar 

13. 

Mr  N.  M.  Mulla 

50. 

Mr  Ulhas  Rane 

14. 

Mr  Naresh  Dutt 

51. 

Mr  A.  G.  Nawalkar 

15. 

Mr  K.  D.  Gokhale 

52. 

Mr  K.  K.  Vajifdar 

16. 

Mr  Vasant  Gandhi 

53. 

Mr  A.  G.  Puranik 

17. 

Mr  R.  S.  Moral 

54. 

Mr  Shashikumar  Menon 

18. 

Mr  A.  D.  Kunte 

55. 

Mr  H.  K.  Divekar 

19. 

Mr  S.  N.  Mistry 

56. 

Miss  M.  M.  Haribal 

20. 

Mr  Y.  K.  Nagrath 

57. 

Mr  S.  R.  Nayak 

21. 

Mr  P.  R.  Cama 

58. 

Mr  AJ.T.  Johnsingh 

22. 

Mr  Jimmy  Ollia 

59. 

Mrs  S.  M.  Kothari 

23. 

Mr  R.  E.  Hawkins 

60. 

Miss  Raina  Potnis 

24. 

Mr  N.  D.  Mulla 

61. 

Miss  Nafisa  Khapra 

25. 

Mr  S.  T.  Tambe 

62. 

Mr  J.  C.  Daniel 

26. 

Mr  D.  N.  Goenka 

63. 

Miss  Saber  S.  Driver 

27. 

Miss  Heta  Pandit 

64. 

Mr  S.  A.  Ruparel 

28. 

Mr  A.  K.  Joshee 

65. 

Mr  Vijay  Porecha 

29. 

Dr  A.N.D.  Nanavati 

66. 

Mr  A.  G.  Patwardhan 

719 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


67.  Mr  Amir  J.  Ali 

68.  Mr  Ram  V.  Jethmalani 

69.  Dr  E.  Sequeira 

70.  Dr  Bipin  Chandriani 

71.  Mr  Ghansham  L.  Kalro 

72.  Mr  S.  P.  Bavdekar 

73.  Mr  V.  James 

74.  Dr  S.  R.  Amladi 

75.  Mr  R.  Sahgal 

76.  Mr  Bittu  Sahgal 

77.  Mr  Kiran  Srivastava 

78.  Mr  G.  C.  Patel 

79.  Mr  A.  V.  Ghangurde 

80.  Mr  P.  C.  Gandhi 

8 1 . Mr  Firoze  Mistry 

82.  Dr  C.  V.  Kulkarni 

83.  Dr  Salim  Ali 

Dr  Salim  Ali,  the  President  of  the  Society, 
requested  Mr.  D.  J.  Panday,  the  Vice-President 
to  take  the  Chair  and  conduct  the  meeting. 

Mr.  D.  J.  Panday  thanked  the  President  and 
began  with  an  apology  for  the  delay  of  half 
an  hour  in  commencing  the  meeting  owing  to 
a mistake  in  the  timing  announced  in  the 
papers. 

The  meeting  had  been  called  in  response  to 
a requisition  by  several  members  to  question 
the  proposal  for  the  BNHS  establishing  an 
Institute  of  Ornithology  and  Natural  History 
with  funding  and  support  from  the  Government 
of  India  and  either  to  approve  or  oppose  the 
move.  The  Chairman  therefore  requested  the 
Honorary  Secretary  to  give  a resume  of  the 
proposal  and  its  background. 

The  Honorary  Secretary,  Dr.  A.  N.  D. 
Nanavati,  explained  that  in  the  past  paucity 
of  funds  had  prevented  the  Society  from  be- 
ing as  active  as  it  should  be  in  field  research. 
The  current  research  projects  with  temporary 
financial  assistance  from  outside  agencies  had 
to  some  extent  remedied  the  shortcoming.  But 


the  fundings  for  the  projects  were  for  limited 
periods  at  the  end  of  which  they  would  have 
to  be  wound  up  leaving  such  scientific  work 
incomplete.  More  importantly  the  enormous 
investment  made  in  training  workers  in  tech- 
niques of  field  research  would  be  lost.  It  is 
therefore  essential  to  find  ways  and  means  to 
support  our  scientific  work  and  employment 
of  our  research  scientists  on  a continuing  basis. 

Dr  Nanavati  went  on  to  say  that  when  dis- 
cussing this  problem  with  the  Department  of 
Environment  we  were  informed  that  the  De- 
partment was  funding  elsewhere  an  Institute 
of  Ecology  and  an  Institute  of  Wildlife  Studies. 
They  therefore  did  not  wish  to  support  an- 
other institute  of  the  same  type  but  would  be 
prepared  to  support  an  Institute  of  Ornitho- 
logy at  the  BNHS  as  they  felt  that  our  main 
strength  was  in  this  field.  The  Department 
further  indicated  that  there  would  be  no  objec- 
tion to  the  BNHS  raising  independent  funds 
for  an  allied  Institute  of  Natural  History. 

During  the  prolonged  exchange  of  views  by 
a large  number  of  persons  the  Chairman  had 
to  urge  members  several  times  to  be  brief  and 
confine  discussion  to  matters  raised  in  the 
requisition  for  the  meeting.  He  had  to  rule 
out  of  order  remarks  bearing  on  extraneous 
issues  and  on  personalities. 

Several  members  both  in  favour  of  and 
opposed  to  the  proposal  raised  a number  of 
questions  seeking  clarification  of  certain  issues. 
Most  of  the  queries  were  answered  as  fully 
as  it  was  possible  to  do  so  within  the  limited 
time  available. 

In  response  to  inquiries  how  the  Society  was 
being  financed  by  Government  grants  and  the 
extent  of  control  by  such  financing  bodies,  the 
Honorary  Treasurer,  Dr  C.  V.  Kulkarni,  stated 
that  in  addition  to  a small  grant  by  the  Gov- 
ernment of  India  for  the  Journal,  the  Society 
since  1958  was  receiving  from  the  Government 


720 


MINUTES  OF  THE  E.G.B.M.  OF  THE  B.N.H.S. 


of  Maharashtra  Rs.  65,000  per  year,  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  collection,  but  this  year  it 
was  raised  to  Rs.  1,20,000  and  next  year  it 
would  be  Rs.  1,25,000.  These  grants  cover 
salaries  of  collection  maintenance  staff  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  building.  It  was  pointed 
out  that  grants  recently  received  from  the 
Centre  and  the  State  for  repairs  of  Hornbill 
House  and  the  charges  collected  for  the  work- 
ing of  the  Society’s  projects  have  saved  it  from 
financial  loss. 

Regarding  Government  control  a represen- 
tative of  the  Department  of  Science  and  Tech- 
nology was  appointed  as  an  ex-officio  member 
of  the  Executive  Committee.  But  there  is  no 
interference  by  Government  in  the  working  of 
the  Society. 

In  answer  to  an  inquiry  by  Mr  Agharkar 
about  the  actual  assets  of  the  Society,  the 
Honorary  Secretary  stated  that  assets  com- 
pletely owned  by  the  Society  were  its  Library 
and  its  records.  Under  an  agreement  between 
the  Government,  the  Museum  and  the  Society 
made  about  20  years  ago  when  the  Society 
was  being  moved  into  Hornbill  House,  the  So- 
ciety had  no  absolute  ownership  or  control 
over  the  collection.  At  this  stage  Mr  Humayun 
Abdulali  stated  that  he  was  one  of  the  signa- 
tories of  the  agreement  and  disagreed  with 
the  statement  just  made.  Dr.  Nanavati  then 
read  out  the  relevant  clauses  of  the  agreement 
in  support  of  what  he  had  said.  The  clauses 
of  the  agreement  are  recorded  as  follows: 

i)  a representative  of  the  Ministry  of  Scien- 
tific Research  and  Cultural  Affairs  will  be  a 
member  of  the  governing  body  of  the  Bombay 
Natural  History  Society; 

ii)  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society 
will  make  its  collections  available  to  the 
Zoological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta,  for  pur- 
pose of  research  and  reference; 

iii)  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society 


will  not  sell,  donate  or  give  in  exchange  or 
otherwise  dispose  of  to  any  person  or  body  its 
collections  without  the  prior  approval  of  the 
Government  of  India.  If  at  any  time  the  So- 
ciety decided  to  dispose  of  any  collections, 
these  shall  first  be  offered  to  the  Zoological 
Survey  of  India; 

iv)  if  at  any  time  the  Bombay  Natural  His- 
tory Society  ceases  to  exist  its  collections  will 
become  the  property  of  the  Zoological  Survev 
of  India. 

In  reply  to  a query  whether  an  agreement 
had  already  been  reached  with  the  Govern- 
ment regarding  the  proposed  Institute  it  was  ex- 
plained that  the  Society  had  been  asked  to 
put  up  a proposal.  If  Government  were  inte- 
rested it  would  appoint  a Committee  to  discuss 
the  terms  and  conditions  for  the  scheme.  The 
final  decision  would  be  taken  by  the  BNHS 
Executive  Committee  after  satisfying  itself 
about  reasonable  safeguards  for  preserving  the 
integrity  and  interests  of  the  Society  and  its 
control  over  the  new  Institution  and  its  staffing. 

Among  members  who  expressed  views  gene- 
rally critical  of  the  proposal  in  its  present 
form  were:  Mr  Humayun  Abdulali,  Mrs 

Phillippa  Mukherjee,  Dr  Deoras,  Mr  Narayan 
Chatbar,  Dr  A.  K.  Joshi,  Mr  Ulhas  Rane,  Mr 
K.  N.  Naoroji,  Mr  Debi  Goenka,  Mr  Parvesh 
Pandya,  Mr  Kiran  Gokhale.  Opinions  express- 
ed ranged  from  an  outright  rejection  of  the 
idea  to  conditional  support  of  the  proposal 
with  changes  both  in  its  content  and  in  the 
mode  of  preparation  of  the  proposal  and  pre- 
sentation to  Government.  The  opinion  for  re- 
jection was  based  on  the  apprehension  that  a 
large  Government  controlled  scientific  institute 
fostered  by  the  BNHS  would  swamp  the  in- 
dependent status  of  the  parent  body  and  would 
be  to  the  detriment  of  the  amateur  activities 
of  its  members  and  their  interest  in  its  assets, 
i.e.  the  library  and  collections.  Moreover  the 


721 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  WST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


new  Institution  would  increase  the  work  of 
the  existing  staff  and  cause  neglect  of  their 
routine  duties  and  services  to  members  over 
which  shortcomings  there  are  already  com- 
plaints. Some  members  said  that  though  they 
would  favour  a large  Institute,  the  Society  did 
not  have  the  managerial  talent  for  running  a 
big  project  which  should  be  kept  completely 
separate  from  the  Society.  The  Society  could 
only  act  as  a catalyst  for  setting  it  up  and  be 
associated  with  it  in  a consultative  capacity. 
Most  members  however  did  not  oppose  the 
formation  of  the  Institute  but  demanded  assu- 
rances on  several  heads  against  any  associa- 
tion between  the  BNHS  and  the  Institute 
which  should  be  detrimental  to  the  former, 
namely  the  extent  of  Government  representa- 
tion on  the  governing  body,  the  sort  of  parti- 
cipation by  amateur  members  in  the  activities 
of  the  new  Institution,  the  parity  of  salaries 
between  the  Society’s  and  the  Institute’s  staff 
etc.  Reference  was  also  made  to  the  Presi- 
dent’s letter  in  Hornbill  of  1977.  For  this 
purpose  it  was  sought  that  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee should  not  be  allowed  to  forward  the 
proposal  without  rediscussing  and  redrafting 
it  in  consultation  with  the  General  Body.  The 
arguments  were  crystalized  in  a resolution 
subsequently  introduced  by  Mr  Ulhas  Rane. 

Mr  M.  D.  Agharkar,  Dr  C.  V.  Kulkarni, 
Dr  R.  M.  Naik,  Dr  A.N.D.  Nanavati,  Mr 
Bansi  Mehta,  Mr  J.  C.  Daniel,  Mr  H.  K. 
Divekar,  Mr  Ratansinh  Moral,  Mr  Bittu  Sahgal, 
Mr  Dayanand  Gaitonde  spoke  in  support  of 
the  proposal  for  establishing  the  Institute  of 
Ornithology  and  Natural  History.  It  was  ex- 
plained that  the  apprehension  expressed  by 
members  about  the  new  Institute  was  unrea- 
listic. The  Society  should  go  ahead  with  the 
formation  of  the  new  Institute  and  during  nego- 
tiations ensure  against  the  Society  losing 
control  over  the  Institute  and  over  its  own 


affairs.  There  was  no  question  of  change  in 
the  status  of  the  Society’s  library  and  collec- 
tion which  would  continue  to  be  lodged  at 
Hornbill  House  and  available  for  use  of  mem- 
bers as  at  present.  Amateur  interest  in  Natural 
History  was  always  being  fostered  by  the  So- 
ciety. Members  have  participated  in  certain 
scientific  programmes,  but  amateurs  could 
only  devote  part-time  attention  to  these  pro- 
grammes which  could  only  be  conduct  of  by 
a staff  of  full  time  workers.  The  proposed 
Institute  could  initiate  a number  of  necessary 
study  projects  on  a proper  continuing  basis  in 
Ornithology  and  other  allied  branches  of 
Natural  History  without  which  Ornithology  in 
isolation  could  not  be  adequately  studied.  In- 
terested members  could  be  given  encourage- 
ment for  participating  in  the  new  facilities 
created  by  the  Institute.  Staffing  of  the  Insti- 
tute would  be  under  the  control  of  the  BNHS 
and  staff  salaries  would  have  to  be  on  a par 
in  the  same  organization.  It  was  pointed  out 
that  the  Society  has  a national  commitment 
gathered  over  the  last  100  years  which  it  has 
to  exploit.  We  should  independently  raise  funds 
by  having,  for  example,  a walk-in  aviary  at 
the  new  Institute.  Members  supporting  the 
proposal  were  emphatic  in  stating  that  the 
proposal  should  be  processed  by  the  Execu- 
tive Committee  which  had  been  elected  by 
and  represented  the  General  Body  of  the 
BNHS  and  was  the  proper  channel  for  nego- 
tiation with  the  funding  authority. 

Finally  the  following  Resolutions  were  in- 
introduced  : 

1.  By  Mr.  M.  D.  Agharkar , seconded  by 
Dr.  S.  R.  Amladi:  RESOLVED  that  the  Gene- 
ral Body  desired  that  the  Executive  Committee 
should  make  all  efforts  to  obtain  funds  from 
Government  and  establish  the  Institute  of  Orni- 
thology as  proposed. 

1.  a .An  amendment  to  the  above  Reso - 


722 


MINUTES  OF  THE  E.G.B.M.  OF  THE  B.N.H.S. 


lution  was  proposed  by  Dr  Deoras,  seconded 
by  Dr  A.  K . Joshi:  RESOLVED  that  any 
proposal  to  be  finalized  to  have  an  institute 
of  ornithology  under  the  Bombay  Natural 
History  Society  be  first  discussed  by  the  Gene- 
ral Body  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  So- 
ciety and  published  in  the  Hornbill  before 
being  sent  up  to  Government. 

2.  By  Mr  Ulhas  Rane , seconded  by  Mr  K. 
N.  Naoroji : RESOLVED  that  no  commit- 
ment be  made  on  the  proposal  in  its  present 
form  of  setting  up  an  Institute  of  Ornithology 
at/under  the  BNHS.  RESOLVED  further  that 
whilst  the  offer  of  • funds  for  setting  up  an 
Institute  of  Ornithology  or  an  Institute  of 
Natural  History  be  kept  open  and  live,  the 
actual  mechanics  of  how  to  implement  the 
setting  up  of  the  above  institute  should  be 
given  more  thought,  such  that  the  existence 
of  the  Society,  i.e.  the  BNHS  or  its  amateur 
status  or  its  independence  of  thought,  policy 


and  action  is  not  jeopardized;  that  to  this  end 
a further  meeting  and  dialogue  with  members 
be  arranged  within  a reasonable  period  of 
90  days  or  at  a suitable  time  to  discuss  alter- 
native methods  for  setting  up  of  the  proposed 
institute. 

The  Resolution  of  Mr  Ulhas  Rane,  repre- 
senting the  views  of  the  signatories  of  the 
requisition  was,  first  put  to  vote.  There  were 
24  votes  in  favour  and  34  votes  against,  the 
resolution  being  defeated. 

Dr  Deoras’s  amendment  to  Mr  M.  D. 
Agharkar’s  resolution  was  then  voted  on  and 
was  lost,  25  voting  in  favour  of  it  and  34 
against. 

Mr  M.  D.  Agharkar’s  resolution  was  then 
voted  on  and  was  passed  by  36  votes  in  favour 
of  it  and  28  against. 

The  meeting  terminated  with  a vote  of 
thanks  to  the  Chair. 


723 


ANNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SOCIETY  FOR  THE  YEAR  1981-82 


Executive  Committee 


President 

Dr.  Salim  Ali,  d.sc.,  f.n.a. 


Vice-Presidents 
Mr.  R.  E.  Hawkins 
Mr.  G.  V.  Bedekar,  i.c.s.  (Retd.) 
Mr.  D.  J.  Panday 


Ex-Officio 


Member 

Director,  Dept,  of  Science  & 
Technology,  Government  of  India. 


Elected  Members  Advisory  Committee 


Mr.  Humayun  Abdulali 

Mr.  H.  G.  Acharya 

A hmedabad 

Dr.  S.  R.  Amladi,  m.d. 

Mr.  F.  C.  Badhwar  o.b.e. 

New  Delhi 

Prof.  P.  V.  Bole 

Dr.  B.  Biswas 

Calcutta 

Mr.  Divyabhanusinh  Chawda 

Mr.  S.  Chaudhuri 

New  Delhi 

Dr.  B.  Dasgupta 

Dr.  Madhav  Gadgil 

Bangalore 

Mr.  H.  K.  Divekar 

Mr.  N.  D.  Jayal 

New  Delhi 

Mr.  David  Fernandes 

Mr.  Shi  vara  jkumar 

Dr.  C.  V.  Kulkarni,  m.sc.,  ph.d. 

Khachar 

Jasdan 

(Honorary  Treasurer) 

Mr.  Lavkumar  Khacher 

Rajkot 

Mr.  Bansi  Mehta 

Mr.  M.  Krishnan 

Madras 

Mrs.  Phillippa  H.  Mukherjee 

Mr.  Duleep  Matthai 

New  Delhi 

Dr.  A.  N.  D.  Nanavati,  m.d. 

( Honorary  Secretary) 

Mrs.  Dilnavaz  Variava 


724 


HONORARY  SECRETARY’S  REPORT  FOR  THE  YEAR  1981 
98TH  ANNUAL  REPORT 


Membership 

The  Executive  Committee  is  pleased  to  re- 
port that  for  the  first  time  in  many  years  the 
number  of  ordinary  members  crossed  the  1000 
mark  during  the  year  under  review. 

While  this  is  a matter  of  some  satisfaction, 
it  does  not  in  any  way  meet  the  needs  of  the 
Society.  On  current  rates  of  income  and  ex- 


lities  to  company  members  for  a period  of  25 
years.  I hope  members  employed  or  involved 
in  management  or  owning  progressive  com- 
panies will  enroll  them  as  members  and  pro- 
vide the  Society  with  a sound  financial  base. 

Details  of  membership  for  the  past  quin- 
quennium, showing  members  fully  paid  up  on 
31st  December  of  each  year  are  given  in  the 
statement  below: 


1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

Ordinary  members 

541 

640 

660 

764 

1044 

Corporate  members 

180 

184 

180 

168 

176 

Life  members 

257 

274 

305 

327 

349 

Compound  Corporate  members 

2 

9 

9 

20 

37 

Student  members 

39 

96 

83 

94 

165 

Honorary  members 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

Forest  Department  nominees 

— 

— 

— 

— - 

— 

1023 

1207 

1241 

1376 

1774 

Members  elected  in  1981,  but  not  paid 

28 

Members  paid  for  1980,  but  not  paid  for  1981 

104 

penditure  we  should  have  an  additional  5000 
ordinary  members  if  we  are  to  meet  our  mem- 
bership commitments  from  membership  sub- 
scriptions. 

We  repeat  our  appeal  to  members  to  recruit 
more  members,  particularly  Compound  Corpo- 
rate Members,  a field  of  recruitment  in  which 
we  have  done  poorly  indeed.  The  total  recruit- 
ment at  the  end  of  the  year  was  37  in  a target 
of  1000.  The  Compound  Corporate  Member- 
ship fee  of  Rs.  1500/-  offers  the  Society’s  faci- 


Pu  BLICATION  S 

Journal : 

Five  issues  of  the  Journal  were  published 
during  the  year  under  review  and  we  were 
finally  successful  in  our  efforts  to  publish  the 
journal  on  time.  The  August  and  December 
issues  for  the  year  were  published  during  those 
months. 

The  journals  published  in  1981  included  the 
August  & December  issues  for  1980  Vol.  77 


725 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


(2  & 3)  and  Vol.  78  for  1981.  The  1031  pages 
of  the  journal  published  during  the  year  con- 
tinued to  present  authoritative  data  on  the 
natural  history  of  the  oriental  region. 

Hornbill : 

The  Hornbill  now  in  its  5th  volume  con- 
tinued to  maintain  its  popular  appeal  to 
members  and  we  are  glad  to  report  that  it  has 
become  one  of  the  reasons  for  attracting  and 
retaining  members  on  the  Society’s  member- 
ship rolls.  We  again  remind  members  that  it 
will  be  difficult  to  maintain  its  popular  appeal 
without  support  from  members  in  the  form 
of  articles  and  photographs.  We  thank  the 
Seth  Purshotamdas  Thakurdas  Devaliba  Chari- 
table Trust  for  generous  financial  assistance 
for  the  publication  of  the  Hornbill. 

Books 

Our  popular  publications  the  book  of 
. Indian  birds  by  Salim  Ali  and  the  book  of 
Indian  animals  by  S.  H.  Prater  continued  to 
have  good  sales  as  is  evident  from  the  sales 
statement  given  below.  However  considering 
their  value  these  publications  could  sell  better 
with  more  publicity. 


Books  under  preparation : 

GRASSES  OF  WESTERN  INDIA 
By  T.  Hodd  (1st  edition): 

The  fully  illustrated,  handy,  field  guide  for 
the  identification  of  Grasses  of  Western  India 
will  be  available  in  1982. 

A SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  BIRDS  OF  INDIA  & 
PAKISTAN 

By  Dillon  Ripley  (2nd  edition) : 

The  printing  of  this  definitive  work  on  bird 
taxonomy  of  the  Indian  region  was  completed 
during  the  year  and  copies  will  be  available 
in  1982. 

SOME  BEAUTIFUL  INDIAN  CLIMBERS 
& SHRUBS 

By  Bor  & Raizada  (2nd  edition) : 

This  excellent  ready  reference  on  the  wild 
and  cultivated  shrubs  and  climbers  occurring 
in  India  will  be  published  in  1982. 


Sales  in 

1980 

1981 

Balance  stock 
31-12-1981 

The  Book  of  Indian  Birds 

2197 

1389 

5582 

The  Book  of  Indian  Animals 

1007 

1392 

2510 

Some  Beautiful  Indian  Trees 

264 

234 

1988 

Glimpses  of  Nature  in  India  Booklet 

353 

192 

1608 

Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Maharashtra 

(1st  edition) 

102 

106 

Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Maharashtra 

(2nd  edition) 



81 

1890 

Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Delhi,  Agra  & 

Bharatpur 

54 

89 

185 

726 


A.G.M.  1981-82— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  INDIAN  NATURAL 

HISTORY 

Centenary  Publication  1883-1983: 

It  is  hoped  that  the  Encyclopedia  when 
ready  will  provide  a ready  reference  volume 
for  students  in  schools  and  colleges  and  to  the 
general  readers  on  the  natural  history  of  the 
Indian  region. 

A CENTURY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY, 

Centenary  Publication  1883-1983: 

A book  of  selected  articles  of  natural  his- 
tory interest  covering  general  natural  history, 
expeditions  and  explorations,  hunting,  fishing, 
conservation,  wildlife  photography,  mammals, 
birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  insects,  other  inverte- 
brates and  botany  from  the  Society’s  journal 
published  during  the  hundred  years  of  its  exis- 
tence. The  selection  has  been  completed  and 
the  book  will  be  available  in  the  Centenary 
year. 

Conservation 

The  Society  is  recognised  by  the  Central 
and  State  Governments  in  India  and  by  Inter- 
national Organisations  abroad  as  an  authori- 
tative source  for  information  on  conservation 
of  wildlife  and  natural  resources.  This  recog- 
nition is  expressed  in  the  form  of  association 
of  its  officials  with  State  and  Central  Wildlife 
Advisory  Boards  and  representation  on  the 
Specialist  Groups  of  the  Species  Survival  Com- 
mission of  the  International  Union  for  the 
Conservation  of  Nature  and  Natural  Resources. 

As  the  Western  Regional  Representative  of 
the  Indian  Board  for  Wildlife,  the  Curator,  is 
a member  of  the  State  Wildlife  Board  of  Rajas- 
than, Maharashtra,  Madhya  Pradesh  and  Goa. 


The  Curator  was  a member  during  the  year 
of  the  following  committees  of  the  Central 
Government  and  other  organisations  concern- 
ed with  conservation: 

(a)  Expert  Committee  for  Management  Guide- 
lines for  National  Parks,  Government  of 
India 

(b)  University  Grants  Commission  on  Wild- 
life Studies 

(c)  Pine  Plantation  in  Bastar  Enquiry  Com- 
mittee, Government  of  India 

(d)  Goa  Afforestation  and  Natural  Resources 
Committee  of  the  Planning  Commission. 

Seminars  & Conferences 

The  Curator  attended  the  meeting  of  the 
Species  Survival  Commission  at  New  Delhi  in 
February  1981  and  the  meeting  of  the  Con- 
vention on  International  Trade  in  Endangered 
Species  at  New  Delhi  in  February. 

Mr.  V.  C.  Ambedkar  represented  the  So- 
ciety at  Bird  Watchers’  Camp  at  Lonavla, 
Maharashtra. 

Members’  Activities 

Sikkim  survey : 

An  application  was  made  to  the  Dorabji 
Tata  Trust  for  financial  assistance  for  Mr. 
Ulhas  Rane  and  other  members  of  the  Society 
for  a field  survey  to  Sikkim  to  study  birds, 
butterflies,  and  the  botany  of  the  area. 

Bird  counts: 

The  monthly  roadside  count  of  birds  at  the 
Borivli  National  Park  on  the  last  Sunday  of 
each  month  was  continued.  Apart  from  the 
collection  of  data  to  record  the  fluctuations  in 
the  bird  fauna  the  main  aim  is  to  introduce 
members  to  bird  watching. 


727 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


Nature  walks : 

Nature  walks  were  held  in  various  areas  of 
natural  history  interest  around  Bombay  for 
bird  watching,  vegetation  study  and  general 
natural  history.  The  programme  helped  in  re- 
cruiting new  members  and  fostering  interest 
in  natural  history  among  members. 

Nature  camp : 

A nature  camp  was  organised  at  Pachmarhi, 
Madhya  Pradesh,  from  8th  October  to  20th 
October  1981  and  85  members  participated 
(in  three  batches).  Members  also  prepared  list 
of  birds,  butterflies  and  a list  of  the  plants  seen 
and  studied  during  the  camp. 

Research  and  other  activities  funded 

FROM  FIELD  WORK  FUNDS 

The  field  work  funds  available  at  the  Society 
supported  the  following  activities: 

Salim  Ali  — Loke  Wan  Tho  Ornithological 
Research  Fund : 

Mrs.  K.  R.  Lalitha  studied  ‘Comparative 
Ecology  of  Drongos,  with  special  reference  to 
Ecological  Isolation  among  them’,  and  Mr. 
Shahid  Ali  on  ‘the  ecology  of  Grey  Partridge’ 
at  Point  Calimere. 

Financial  assistance  was  extended  to  Mr. 
Koneri  Rao,  a member  of  the  Society,  to  study 
the  Yellow-headed  Bulbul  in  the  Gingee  area 
of  Tamil  Nadu. 

Salim  Ali  Nature  Conservation  Fund : 

(a)  A study  of  the  disappearing  bamboo  stock 
in  Tamil  Nadu  and  its  socio-ecological 
impact  — by  Ramesh  Bhat.  The  study 
examined  the  status  of  bamboo  forests 
in  certain  selected  areas  of  Tamil  Nadu 
and  regeneration  of  bamboo  resources. 


(b)  Ecological  studies  on  the  Lions  of  the  Gir 
Forest:  by  S.  P.  Sinha.  Assistance  was 
extended  to  Mr.  S.  P.  Sinha  to  commence 
monitoring  the  possible  progressive 
changes  of  the  food  and  food  habits  of 
the  lion  with  reference  to  environmental 
conditions. 

In  addition  the  fund  subsidised  the  publication 
of  the  Hornbill  and  purchase  of  books  for 
the  library. 

Pirojsha  Godrej  Fund: 

Conservation  Education  — Assistance  was 
given  from  the  fund  for  the  Wildlife  Exhibition 
at  Patkar  College  and  Ruparel  College  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Nature  Education  Scheme 
of  the  Society. 

Research  funded  by  government  & 

GOVERNMENTAL  AGENCIES 

Studies  on  the  movement  & population 
structure  of  Indian  avifauna: 

A field  research  station  was  established  at 
Point  Calimere.  Operations  at  Point  Calimere 
laid  emphasis  on  netting,  trapping  and  ring- 
ing of  birds.  At  Point  Calimere  baseline  data 
on  weather,  botany,  entomology,  marine  bio- 
logy and  other  factors  such  as  mammals  and 
reptiles  were  collected  comprehensively. 

A total  of  45,378  birds  belonging  to  277 
species  were  ringed  and  released  in  all  the 
four  stations  worked  by  the  project. 

Data  on  plumage,  age,  physical  measure- 
ment, habitat  preference  etc.  were  recorded. 

The  capture/ recapture  trends  both  at  Point 
Calimere  and  Bharatpur  indicate  that  several 
resident  and  migrant  birds  tend  to  remain  in/ 
revisit  the  same  ecological  regimes.  This  sug- 
gests that  netting /ringing  causes  very  little  dis- 
turbance to  wintering /resident  species  in  these 
areas. 


728 


A.G.M.  1981-82— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


Station 

Duration 

Species 

Total 

Point 

July  1980  to 

153 

26040 

Calimere 

June  1981 

(19 

exclusive) 

Bharatpur 

November  1980 

127 

15535 

to  April  1981 

52) 

(166  days) 

exclusive) 

Chilka 

February  1981 

52 

2158 

March  1981 

(13 

(55  days) 

exclusive) 

Harike 

December  1980 

58 

1645 

March  1981 

(29 

(80  days) 

exclusive) 

Total 

277 

45378 

An  ecological  study  of  Bird  Hazards  at  Indian 
Aerodromes : 

The  years  programme  of  work  at  two  air- 
ports in  the  country  with  the  specific  aim  of 
identifying  all  birds  species  potentially  hazard- 
ous to  aircraft  and  the  habits  of  these  birds 
their  ecological  requirements  and  methods  of 
discouraging  problem  birds  from  the  vicinity 
of  aerodromes  was  completed. 

The  report  giving  details  of  work  and  re- 
commendations resulting  from  the  study  was 
sent  to  the  Aeronautics  Research  and  Deve- 
lopment Board.  A more  detailed  study  has  now 
been  approved.  This  study  will  spread  over  a 
period  of  4 years  and  will  cover  20  airfields 
in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

Hydrobiological  ( Ecological ) Research  Station 
at  Keoladeo  Ghana  Bird  Sanctuary : 

This  project  to  study  the  ecology  of  the 
water  bird  species  at  the  Ghana  Bird  Sanctuary 
and  the  ecology  of  the  Bharatpur  Sanctuary 
in  relation  to  its  bird  fauna  commenced  ope- 
ration. Dr.  V.  S.  Vijayan,  formerly  Wildlife 


Biologist  at  the  Kerala  Forest  Research  Insti- 
tute and  a former  student  of  Dr.  Salim  Ali 
took  over  as  Project  Scientist.  The  laboratory 
has  now  been  established  at  Bharatpur  and 
data  collection  started  on  a regular  program- 
med basis. 

Ecology  of  Certain  Endangered  Species  of 
Wildlife  and  their  Habitats : 

Financial  assistance  for  this  project  which 
aims  at  studying  the  ecology  of  the  Great 
Indian  Bustard  and  Indian  Elephant  as  a be- 
ginning was  received  during  the  year  and  work 
was  commenced  on  the  Great  Indian  Bustard. 
Two  field  stations  were  established,  one  at 
Solapur,  Maharashtra  and  one  at  Karera, 
Madhya  Pradesh.  Data  on  the  breeding  season 
at  Solapur  was  collected  during  the  year. 

Donations 

For  Salim  Ali  Nature  Conservation  Fund : 

1.  Dr.  Salim  Ali  Rs.  7500.00 

2.  Cheng  Kim  Loke  Foundation, 

Singapore  Rs.  180873 . 14 

3 . Darbar  Shri  Alakhachar  Public 

Charitable  Trust,  Jasdan  Rs.  4000.00 

4.  M/s  N.  S.  Gazdar  & Co.  Pvt. 

Ltd.  (for  Save  Silent  Valley 
Campaign)  Rs.  2500.00 

5.  M/s  Airfreight  Pvt.  Ltd. 

(for  Save  Silent  Valley 

Campaign)  Rs.  2500.00 

For  Charles  McCann  Vertebrate  Zoology  Field 
Work  Fund : 

6.  Mr.  S.  Chaudhuri  Rs.  600.00 

7.  Mr.  A.  A.  Faizee  Rs.  175.00 


729 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  19 


For  Salim  Ali  — Loke  Wan  Tho  Ornithologi- 


cal  Research  Fund: 

8 . Sir  Dorabji  Tata  Trust 

Rs.  50000.00 

For  Hospitality  Fund: 

9.  Dr.  Salim  Ali 

Rs. 

1000.00 

For  Publications  Fund: 
10.  Dr.  Salim  Ali 

Rs. 

6500.00 

For  Life  Membership  Fund: 
11.  Mr.  K.  M.  Khareghat 

Rs. 

2500.00 

12.  Mr.  R.  E.  Hawkins 

Rs. 

1000.00 

For  General  Fund: 
13.  Mr.  Bill  Harvey 

Rs. 

525.00 

14.  Mrs.  S.  R.  Grubh 

Rs. 

250.00 

15.  Prof.  P.  R.  Pisharoty 

Rs. 

300.00 

16.  Mr.  Usha  Kumar 

Rs. 

500.00 

17.  Grindlays  Bank,  Bombay 

Rs. 

1000.00 

Reference  collection 

During  the  year  under  reference  122  sped- 

mens  were  registered  into  the 

collections. 

Mammals 

1 

Birds 

92 

Reptiles 

15 

Amphibians 

14 

122 

Among  these  the  following  species  of  birds 
were  additions  to  the  collections. 

1 . Sterna  fuscata 

2 . Eurynorhynchus  pygmaeus 

Nature  Education  Scheme 

Students  from  84  schools  participated  in 
various  activities  of  the  Scheme.  Besides  school 
students,  108  trainee  teachers  and  85  college 


students,  took  advantage  of  our  programmes. 
In  addition  this  year  9 new  schools  from  Thane 
participated. 

Field  trips: 

A total  of  970  students  from  34  schools 
were  taken  on  field  trips. 

A camp  for  Municipal  School  children  was 
organised  by  the  National  Sponsorship  Coun- 
cil at  the  S.N.D.T.  College.  A series  of  lectures 
illustrated  with  slides  were  arranged  as  well 
as  film  shows  on  wildlife.  The  students  were 
taken  to  Victoria  Gardens  on  a field  trip  and 
also  guided  in  the  preparation  of  projects  on 
different  topics  such  as  migration  of  birds, 
resident  birds,  reptiles,  mammals  and  common 
trees. 

A Gulmohur  camp  for  Municipal  School 
children  from  Bandra  was  organised  by  the 
Society  for  Clean  Cities,  Children’s  Complex, 
Bandra.  Slides  and  films  on  wildlife  were 
shown,  and  talks  on  natural  history  given. 

Material  for  2 nature  booklets  on  insects  was 
completed.  Matter  for  the  3rd  booklet  on  rep- 
tiles and  amphibians  is  ready. 

Meetings 

J anuary , 25 : Nature  W alk : 

Kanheri  Caves. 

February,  1:  Nature  Walk: 

Sasunavagarh. 

„ ,4:  Slide  show: 

Fauna  & Flora  of  Sikkim  by 
Miss  Meena  Haribal. 

March,  21-22:  Nature  Camp: 

Murud  Janjira. 

April,  12:  Nature  Walk: 

Kakuli  Lake. 

„ ,27-29:  Film  Show: 

1.  Devil  Birds; 

2.  Marshes  of  Bharatpur; 

3.  Safari  by  Balloon. 


730 


A.G.M.  1981-82— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


June,  13-14:  Nature  camp : 

Matheran. 

July,  3:  Film  Show : 

1.  Crocodiles; 

2.  Great  Barrier  Reef. 

„ ,12:  Tree  Planting. 

September,  5:  Nature  Walk : 

Chinchota  Falls. 

„ ,11:  Film  Show : 

1.  Language  of  Birds; 

2.  Elsa  the  Lioness. 

October,  31:  Slide  Show: 

By  Dr.  Ralph  Schreiber,  Natu- 
ral History  Museum, 

Los  Angeles  County. 

Nov.,  29:  Nature  Walk: 

Palasdari  Lake. 


Dec.  ,16:  Slide  Show  : 

By  Mr.  Hanumantha  Rao. 

„ ,25-27:  Nature  Camp: 

Koynanagar. 

Revenue  & Accounts 

The  financial  situation  of  the  Society  has 
improved.  After  many  years  of  deficit,  the 
year’s  working  showed  a small  surplus. 

Staff 

The  Committee  wishes  to  record  its  appre- 
ciation of  the  willing  cooperation  of  the  staff 
in  the  activities  of  the  Society. 


731 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


s 

O 'C 
in 


O S 


p4 

o 

H 

in 


< 

OC 

O 

H 

£ 

< 

« 

s 

o 

PQ 


§ 

'w' 

i 


o 

£ 

*6 

bO 

CD 

od 


oo 

Os 


EH 

03 

§ 

8 

E*a 

Q 


U w 

3 

< d 

Q 

y±  S 

H 

W w 

tta 

D Q 

g > 

u H 

tta 

Co 

§> 

>N 

tta 

? 

CO 

Ss 

>H  D 

hn 

< o 

03  W 

D< 

CU 

s s 

o 

s ^ 

S*M 

CO 

Eta 

Eta 

? 

co 

I 

kI 

03 


8 8 

© © 

8 8 

m rj 


rQ  r- 

O Tj- 

Tf  OO 

O r4 

Os  Os 

l-H 

Os  Os 

os  r- 

Os  IT) 

m 

CJ 

00 

00 

<n 

i©  in 
O nl 

O *-< 

©\  T-l 


2 •§ 

1 1 
2 a 
53 

*3  ^ 

St 

o 

~5  3, 

M 

■»-  ^ 

Pi  £-< 

I'S 

"3  o 

•x,  « 

Si  ^ 

*S 

c 


3 1/3  £ 

^ <D  ~ 

tl| 

^ cd 
£«•§ 
EJ  tS  r! 


03 


<3  <D 

•>  s 

v.  c3 
O 

O 03  k] 


3 

03 


0) 

0) 

..  -G  U 

* w s 
& « >» 
S S 2 

•5"  ,2  +3 
S *<3  hft 

3<CQ  2> 

ki  w -9 

vj  CO  rj 
°$  « ^ 
vi  »-i  O 

5 <U  CO 

* &.§ 

« a I 

§■§!; 
Gj  JC3  *TS 
C « 5 

s ^ 

k< 


^ J3 
3 00 
3 

k<  « 


88 

8 8 
m 
e'- 
en c-l 


03 

0) 

>* 

J5 


K a> 
W •« 


a>  -a 
a g 

co  O 
03  | 

sl 

c . . 

J2  “3 
oS  "3 

03  X 


u 

o3 

>» 

J§ 


W) 

.3 

Sh 

G 

-o 

Xt 

8 .8 

« § 

a *» 

© -M 

•3  G 
q d 

S! 


„ <« 
i « 
« i 

o a 

o G 
G M 
,2  - 

03  G 

03  O 

+->  ^ 
CO 

• • o3  73 
"3  ~ « 

| £ fc 
a S§  § 

<U  I— i 

« H 


o 

o 

s 

a S 
§ R 

§ I 

§ o 

OS  ^ 


<D 

5 

^3 

00 

o 

a 

03 

^ « 

3 -M 
3 «2 
ki  -2 


60 

.9 

»-i 

3 

T3 

a 

.o 

.2 

s 

a 

(D 

Q 


S ^2 


a 


D 


X d 

1 •«  S3 

S(  B5  >J 


G 
O 
d ^ 
•—  .2 
'd  ’o 
C j> 

O >H 

& a 


S G 

u 

o 

d 9 
£ J2 

§ w 

O 


. 

>3  e* 

3 co 
3 03 

^ O 
6«  ^ 
.5  9 

3 3 

•=  W 


732 


A.G.M.  1981-82— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


o 

X 

oo 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

l" 

m 

ft 

© 

ft 

m 

ca 

r- 

oO 

© 

oo 

oo 

© 

vo 

VO 

oo 

T_J 

c4 

8 

t-H 

Os 

oo 

m 

m 

© 

X 

© 

© 

t-H 

m* 

o 

X 

O 

ft 

X 

oo 

© 

q- 

C\ 

oo 

in 

m 

00 

8 

ft 

o 

CO 

r- 

i — i 

q- 

© 

cn 

1—1 

a 

r~< 

C/5 

H 

/-s 

-ft 

O 

o 

pa 

C/5 

•S 

6J) 

C/5 

o 

T) 

< 

blj 

4) 

Vi 

> 

■S 

4) 

-a 

00 

P 

o 

Vi 

CQ 


a o 


& 


0) 


8 
Is 

O d 


3 

OJ  «) 

03  0) 

fl  <U 

SI 

s a 


5 O 


4> 
> 
o 

<D  O 
4)  4> 

E <» 

c W 

q ^ 

rrl  q 
■“<  0) 

,2  & 
H <u 


0) 

I 

X 

o 

00 

q 

.0 

3 

P 

X 

W 

o 

2 & 
Vi  m 

« 3 

X oj 
o £ 

H H 


& 

o 

c 

4)  4) 

> X! 

q ^ 
* 

4>  ■" 

°*T3 

g <£ 


>» 

C-< 

q 

■s 

8 

cu 

00 

E? 

q 

Vh 

O 

q 

o 

ffi 


v.  O 

cu 

"Q  «5 
a 72 
a •- 

,fflg 

? <D  3 

O .22 

'5  "■'  X 

§ vi— i q 

•2  o ft 


~a 

a 

ft 


o . 
U - 


CO 


00  ^ 

ft  ^ 
o .2 
q 3 
fc*  q 


o & 
<*  2 
X .2 

!« 
Is 
S' I 

q ,2 
W £ 


Oo 

.C 

Hi 

C 

e 


00 
<w  ft 
O — 


Ck 

QJ  ^ 

Q >> 

OJO 

cf  O 
3 2 
3 x 


. 8 

ca  ° H 
oo 

- t * 

00  ° o 
^ U u 


ft  q 

§<  £ 
£ o 


a 


£ 


X 

on 

q 

o 

Vi 

CQ 


8 


8 8 


§5J 
"q  3 

| IB 

! ’S 

S co 

<3  Vi 

* a 

J2 
ft:  < 


ft*  $ 
K -1 
a ._ 
ft  8 

ft 


e>  g 


00 

q 

"C 

q 

T3 

X 

0) 

’<3 

o 

4> 

Vi 


q 

0) 

ft 

x 

pa 

4) 

0 S 


-8 


^ 05 

o PQ 

ft 


a ^ 

ft  u 
a <u 
O ft 


O to 

„ <q 

5 L> 

•S  c 

vi  q 

"2  3 
g CQ 

ft 


><  c 

pa  5 

^ g 
2 £ 


4)  .5 

3 g 

«3  ft 
4>  8 


P <0 

q 3 

hH 

Vi 

a 3 

o 


q 

g 8 

° s 


00  3 
CO 
X 
etf 

*8 

a 

X 
< 


1 § 

<u  q 

IH 

«5  .. 

I! 

Hi 

■q  a 


T3 

3 

6 

U 

00 


4) 

113 
e -S 

+->  T3 

X oj 

o q 
V 5 c 
ft  X •- 

<m  .a 

® «4— i Jr4 

i_>  o ft 

a o 

s « <3 


CO  4) 
tj  4) 

> X 
a oo 

§ q 
a ^ 

■§  « 
.a 

G co 
4i  cO 

ft  7 


a u 
•2  c 
S5  q 

’>  3 

O CQ 


16 


733 


Centenary  Celebration  Fund: 

Transferred  from  Income  & Expenditure 

account  for  the  year  100000.00  Income  Tax  Refundable:  2355.40 


FUNDS  & LIABILITIES  I ASSETS 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST . SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


NO 

n 

m 

Tt 

VO 

VO 

O 

VO 

VO* 

ON 

^H* 

vn 

VO* 

Tj- 

00 

V/N 

1—1 

O 

o 

C^l 

r- 

m 

O 

vn 

<s 

ON 

m 

oo 

Tj- 

rx 

m 

tJ- 

Tf 

T-H 

cx 

m 

43 

W) 

3 

O 

u 

05 


m 

CX 

O 

O 

o 

Tl* 

Is  js 

* 3 a 

5 44  pq 
3 £ l"M 

8 s - 

o 


« 2 


^ <»  O 
- 

3 2 . 

sip 

o o S 


o ^ 

-O  1_ 

a <l> 

o ft 

^ vo 
• tJ- 


c © 

c3 

m ^ 

vo 

3 ON 
«-rt  ^ 
1 22 

O S 


cx 


>» 

43 

s 

o 

05 

44 
3 
c3 

05 

-O 

<u 


■g 

c 

3 

O 

o 

o 

5) 

.3 

5 

3 

CO 


8 

O 

o 

Tf 

& 

x> 

8 

o 

05 


M * 

rS 

c3 


a s 


>> 

Saj 

x> 

§ E 

00  o 

3 05 


a o 

1 9 

S3  S— i 
1—1  05 

l+H 

O 1/3 
OX) 

44  .5 

S > 

i2  3 
05  CO 


2 cn 
0)  CX 

> o 

*8  © 

•— \ o 

t-1  TI- 
CS >> 

o| 

s I 

« ffl 

14-1 

o J3 

* g 

C c3 
ca  »h 
05  05 


* m 
os  rx 

° 8 

•S  * 

w 3 
x> 
c £ 
.2  o 

■s  « 

i-i 

o 4-r 

ft  <u 
}-.  Q 
O £ 

U co 


•s  8 

£ ffl 

ft  S3 
hh 

Q <w 


• 3 OX)  ^ 

'ES 

co  o 

° 8 § 

■ ° - 

- — 33 

O O S3 

© -a  3 
8 H 
^ S3 
c3  43 

* £ 8 

* O S 

v>  C/D 

o 3 

O 

3 5 ^ 

.3  < O 


3 x) 
CQ  3 


>» 

3 

X> 


^ O O 


>> 

o3 

43 

8 

O 

05 


>*  Jq 

1 o 


6 ° 

05  ^ 

■2  ^ 


3 £ 

05  K 

t»  OD 

*g  3 
.8  T> 

s-h  S3 
O W 


OX) 

o 

2 

o 

.N 

© /«—N 

2 2 
Jg  § 
2 


CQ 


rx 

7— H 

O 

r^- 

rx 

NO 

in 

o 

rx 

ON 

VO* 

o’ 

o* 

On 

VO 

o 

cx 

m 

VO 

r- 

VO 

m 

m 

m 

T— C 

r- 

m 

oo 

3 

O 

1h 

CO 


8 

a 

<3 

2.3 

C/D 

+3  o 

■g  8* 
o 0 

GO  W 

g b ^ 

§3  2 

;§  s 5 -I 

jO  l-(  1-1  U 

»S  o o o 
« 


<u 

<u 

..  43 

•g  w 

§ I 

o S3 

0 03 
^ 2 

<0  « 

1 1 
*3S 

01  (D 

ft  ft 

feS  eg 

^ 8 

8 

cz 

i § 

o CQ 
3 


o 

1H 

a .4 
2 

S3  0) 
<D  ft 
ft  >C 
X nj 
O w 


c3 
<D  <U 


° 8 

o 2 ^ 

8 8 2 

O *-H 

O . 1-1 

.8  | 2 


3 
3 
O 

8 

<D  <! 

J-l  ^ 


2 8 

8 • 
on 

< 

3 <U 
os  »3 
^3  in  3 
"3  ^ ^ 


734 


FUNDS  & LIABILITIES 


A.G.M.  1981-82— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


00 

§ 

CQ 


^3  <D 

1 S 

^ Jb 

£P 

d 

o o 
s;  »h 
« « 
53 
CQ 

g 

£ 


l a 
-.5  -s 

s3-  M 

&I 

.o  P-< 

£ .b 

...s* 

t ^ § 

a o 
.■g  ffl  2 

Co 

g d . 
^ *3  cd 

q « 

b ^ 

-«  & .a 

Si  t?  T3 
•2  O d 

fe,  o 13 


VT) 


o 

£ 


53  5 


e 3 

.2  d 

-M  00 

<3 

*b  4-1 

d o 

o -L 
o 

VO 

r$ 

E 

-O  ^ 

O co' 

a p<  ; 


bO 

O 

o 

-5 

s 

o ^ 

T3 

o s 

fi  £ 


£ d g 
> .8  T3 

vw 

'B  % o 
S|  . 
§ § * 
O ".  s 


3 '5 


•r|  aJ 
es  CO 


VO 


O oo 
b ^ 
b ov 

Cj 

^ <$ 


bO 

J3 

'o 

,d 

*d 

t-4 

o 

o 

-d 

■H 

d 

cb 


§’  S 

2 * 
I:  § 

* £ 

> £ 

O I 

-o  ^ 

CO 


£ 

it 

it 


735 


Bombay  Natural  History  Society  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  Bombay  Natural.  History  Society 


JOURNAL,  BOMBA Y NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


CQ 

§ 

ttJ 

a 

Q 

hs 


u ^ 

CO  c*s 

fej 


hi 


fal 

CQ 

(fa 

O 

X 

A* 

KU 

£ 

£ 


O 

b3 

Q 

t*3 

§ 


w 

fa 

D 

O 

w 

X 

o 

CO 


£ ^ os 

slilf 

§!“s~ 


so 


o r 

— R 

fa  8 


R=S 


"R  ^ £ 
R .3.  R 

C< 


5-  S?  R 
C.Rg 

fa  | ^ 
^ -§^ 


S-.  05  vs 
O c 


1| 
fa  8 


<3 

^t 

cn 

Gri 


so 


vs 


!«  R 
d O 3 
fa 

cu 

"R  -R 
*>  *-  , 

F £?R 

o-S^ 

^ a 
*R 


■*—  R!  ^r* 

R h 

lit  sis 

R * 

X *■ 


- S 
■R 


■j-  cy 

5 R 
a ^ 

V.  *R  -R 

8.3  *> 


0 fa' 

s 

1 


I I 


os  n- 
oo  rr 
O cJ 


so 


1 I 


Tt  00 
Os  r- 
os  o 
8$ 
^ P; 


^ V) 
(N  O 

c*S 


a 8 


I i i i 


83 

-H  in 
(N  O 
r<s 


Tj- 

oo 

ri 

tJ-  OO 

O 

t— 

vs 

OS  *-H 

00 

Os 

00 

so 

n; 

oo 

so 

m 

CnI 

O 

m 

v-H 

^ OO 

m 

n 

t-H 

r~ 

so 

r<s 

oo 

vs 

I I 


O vs 
m <*s 
m 


8 ° 
VS  Tf 
l"'  C«S 

r-  n 


tj-  vs 
Os  Rs 
O d 
<N  m 
oO  vs 
os  os 
OS 


$ 


t"-  ^ 

<i  on 

3-  x 

os  r? 
(N  Z 
^ pa 


i i 


2 I I I I 

3 


8 8 8 8 3 


I I I I 


I I I I I 


Os 


8 8 


S 


S 


3 


vs 

y—i 

rf- 

1— 1 

VS 

o 

o 

Os 

VS 

Os 

o 

rl 

00 

00 

*— < 

on 

— * V) 

12  3 
S r1-1 
d H 
fa 

■a  | 

I:- 

X) 
to  a 

IS  o 
fa  Q 


d 

cd 

§ © 
Ll  ^ 

^ O 

© fa 
u sT 

,«j 

v 

d .§ 

5 S3 
on  co 


M 

O H 

tn  a 
cd  5 
« cd 

C/3  H-y 

o Z 


.1  o 

g1? 

2 oa 

X3 


S o 
O O 


i 

0 vi 

d *> 
cd  »h 
> cd 

a ^ 

2^  U 


t3  cd 
[u  £ 

E 

00 

o g 
o d 

O vcd 

N CO 


3 

cd 

z 

p 

cl 

0 'Cd 

d co 


g S' 

S 5 
2 > 


Igl 

d .2  'Cd 
3*!W 


d U 
d S O 

n 5>  © 
*2 

0> 


■g  d u d 
§ .SP  , § 
fa  g^C  g 

o I ’S  § 

d U O d 


cd 

d 

d ‘-i 

I ^ 

fa 

-d 

's’! 

d fa 
o 
° 

S 8 3 

ifa  K <3 


a «« 

O u< 

if 
1 1 


fa 


•&  d ’ob 

' < 3 

o 


fNj  fVS 


£3 

cd  

o e § 

d d d 

O 'Cd 

on  on  O 

o-s 


a? 


R a> 
cd  > 

z ^ 


ft  d 

■8  .2 

a| 

d 
o 
fa 

fa  d 


T3 
d 

fa 

'Cd  O * -i 

on  d fa 


S d 
•d  n tj 


•8  I 

o p 

cd  £ 

d M 

•%-v 

2 d 
d d 
fa  fa 


736 


Balance  as  Additions!  Interest  Transfers  Total  of  Spent  Refunds  j Total  of  Balance 

per  last  Amount  earned  from  columns  during  Adjust-  columns  as  at  31  st 
Name  of  the  Fund  ] Grant  Balance  received  during  the  other  2,  3, 4&5  the  year  ments  7 & 8 December 

Sheet  during  the  year  Funds  1981 

year  (6  minus  9) 


A.G.M.  1981-82— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


rx 


8 


3 


»n 

2 x 

a * 

£ PQ 


© 

ni 

00 

m 

in 

© 

00 

00 

«n 

in 

m 

m 

NO 

NO 

m 

© 

© 

© 

* 


• • 

a o 

ob 

o 00 

o M 

2 

5 HH 

2 

4-1  'O 

<4M  2 

d 

S 

5 

o 

S 9 

rx 

0)  ~ 

ll 

S ¥ 

pa  S 


on 

On 


,o  B 


C S 

2 B 

P V) 

o w 


8 * 
OS 


S-2  J 

C5  .“2 
a>  +j  P 
■g  d X 

.S  2 

lo>2 


- 

oo 

Os 

8 sl 

d to 
a>  3 
d d -g 

SOW 


00 
.s 

OO  2 

• d 
© 3 
00  CQ 
On 


| <3 
.S  & 

rt  * 

S o 


5 <*  - 


o 


o 

.B® 

o 


6 d 
oo  X) 

On 


O 

4-1  nl 
+->  00 
d J< 

s ss 

On 


<3  -6 

n c 

|« 

B 

6 ? 

03 


°?  3 
o d 

£ & 


5 ®o 
S o a 

13,  Kw 


00  2 
t".  - X 

• © -m 
r-  oo 


I ° 

CO 

Q o 
00  2 
.S  O 


3* 

d 

Qj 

OQ  S 


ON  O 

r-  <m 
ON 

rx 

oo 

ON  J* 

r-  oo 
ob  a 

2* 


= I ! 

d d *P 
8 HH  C/3 


o d £ 

vm  rij  .in 

^ -o 

t+-i 

oo  o 

2oo| 

es  .2 
Vh  O K-l 

o x d W 

•“  •“  =5  „ 

« §•  & e 

£ o d 
2 g o (3 

a -5 


737 


Balance  as  Additions  I Interest  Transfers  Total  of  Spent  Refunds/  Total  of  Balance 

■ per  last  Amount  earned  from  columns  during  Adjust 4 columns  as  at  3lst 

Name  of  the  Fund  I Grant  Balance  received  during  the  other  2,3,4  &5  the  year  ments  7 & 8 December 

Sheet  during  the  year  Funds  1981 

year  (6  minus  9) 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vdl.  79 


On 

ON 

NO 

VN 

NO 

rn 

ON 

OJ 

01 

NO 

On 

O 

O 

c<l 

<0 

<0 

OO 

On 

' • 

ITN 

G* 

•O 

Cl 

NO 

to 

m 

t-' 

>o 

r- 

cn 

10 

i :: 


G 


.5 

*3 

ti 

o 

T3  g 

1° 

g +2 

o s 


G u 

G O 

g ^ 
o 

S3  *2 

o 

0 « 

O 

1 5 


£ 


TO 

•tj  8 
ea  <l> 
< 


w G 
G 

-&1 
S3  ^ 


O SJ 


52  -s: 
•S  .2 


m K 


3 3 -o 

1|, 

-O  O 


g 

<0 

-> 

o 

..  a 

^ o 

^ O 

§ -2 
*C  G3 
■a  G 


o 

G G 
P G 
oc  3 
G 

. <4-1 

G ’> 
•2  < 

'I  c 

G o3 

O ^ 
On  £ 


° § 

O *43 

O C3 

w 


co 


G g 

■g1 

2 0> 

.2  e* 

>P 

o _ 


O .i 


Js  >> 
G ofi 
o 

is 

S “ 

CO 


o 
<0 

i g'  ^ 

^ 2 ~ 

W),  G 


>>  >> 
.S  -2 

-t  R 


2 G 
2 rG 


0) 

G3  ,G 
d>  +■* 


Dfl  ^ 

G ,2 

."O 

g 2 


o '3  £ 


CO  G 


ft 

£ 

% 

m 


o 
o 

2 E 

G 

.2  £ 

O . G 

73  ^ 

O 2 
0)  >> 


■ rv  >V 

t7  p 
o G 
O 00 


a 


rH  P 


1 -2 

is 

u P£3 


g .3 

-a  pq 


s 

3 

H 


A.G.M.  1981-82— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


s 

o 


PQ 


'xl* 


d 

£ 

bJQ 

o 

c* 


739 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


o c 


oj  Vd 

4) 

o 

d 

•2 

Q 

u 

4) 

0 

u 

4) 

> 

0 

8 

d 

.2 

n 

oo 

oo 

^.s 

11 

X 

X 

o 

00 

ON 

c« 

0) 

4)  rv 
>»  ^ 
O ^ 

&Q 

00 

d 

o 

00 

d 

o 

.a 

ft 

<4-1 

o 

Vh 

o 

<4-4 

t» 

8 

a fa* 
ft  o 

Id 

d 

n 

u 

PQ 

X 

u 

PQ 

c 

d 

4) 

>> 

00 

n 

4) 

<N  .2 

°?  ffi 

w 

d 

X 

4-*  ft/ 

• ^ d 

| & *6 

4)  0) 

OQH 


DO  00  — 

.2  s 2 

a k -g 
*3  D * 
o.  ft  z 


£ 2 
: l 

o ft 
<2  X 
0) 

£ 60 

S-8f 

1 1 •§ 
ft  < ft 


<4-4  4) 

° s 


si 

_r  d 
.2  o 

c “ 
£ < 

<4-1 

O 4> 
4> 

X d 

> £ 
o 

a q 


^ 4) 

oo  V,  £ 

2 5 2 

5-4  <4-4  "q 

o o 2 

<4-(  qj 

X 

cd  5 £ 

° W.2 
ft  X 

4_>  Cd  ^ 

c ° 

« wt; 
g jp 
ft  'o 
J2  o ^ 

4>  ft  Cd 
O d cd 

Q < X 


x 

•S, 

*c 

=3 

ft 

s 

X 

u 

o3 


00  o 

ON  O 

-H  •-; 

o £ 


5 x 


P ft  ^ 


X X 

U Q 


00 
c 

3 ’5b 

S .5 

§ T3 


=3 


ft  d 
c 

ft  .2 

.2  ts 

« ft 

2 | ^ 

<4-4  > 4) 

p 8 .a 

X w fa 

ft  D 0) 

u ^ W 

^ X X 
ro  ^ 
> d 

D > ft 


d 

<=3  .2 

X 

d 5 

4) 

£ 

4) 


£ 2 
° £ 

^ O 

°! 

</) 

.2  d 

If  § 

*11 
u Q,  ft 
O o > 
ft  ft  < 


ft'  cd 
o3  ej 
.2  d 

oo  ft 
jo  O 

8 o 

a-s 

03 


o 4>  ^ 


oo  ft 

O 

O d 


ft 


o 
d 

_ o3 
CO  C/5 


03 


1. 

5-4  Cfi 

o <u  .d 
ft  ft  OP 


8 

ft 

C/5 

X 

4> 


O d fa*  o 


<D  H 

00  oo| 


4> 


o 0)  X 

ft  u ^ 


>> 

ft 


X 

00 

d 

o 

5-4 

ft 


*fc» 

Cl 


0 0X0 

x o r-  o 

OO  w oo  N 
X *-<  o 
n n x h 


ft 

3 d 

ft 


e 

4/ 

ft 

rX 

ft  C/5 


o « 

5 d 

t> 

CD  4)  CD 
Cl  60  60 
v d C 
O 03  o3 

5-  x X 
ft  CD  tS 
X X 
c/5  <0  <D 


ft 


^ O ^ 

r;  4> 

q < — i y 

ft  d C 

S § o 


_ d d 
C3  S .£P  •" 


S S 

,o  .2 


oo  d 
d o 


d ts 

ft  .2 


^ft^o555ft 


o 

>* 

CJ 

o 

< 

<% 

4) 

U 

ft 

d 2 

cr1  o 
ft  g 

^5  vT 

<D  03 


« d o 

" r*^  S-h  _* 

O 3 O 

3 ft  S 

ft 

o d d 

Q O O 


O 

xh 

ft 

o 

OO 

ON 

00 

00 

o 

o 

00 

00 

00 

Tj- 

o 

ft 

m 

f<N 

'xf 

»n 

ft 

ft 

X 

<n 

«n 

O 

cn 

oo 

>«o 

ft 

ft 

X 

in 

r-~ 

in 

m 

ft 

O 

ft 

C3 

ft 

Jd 

.ft 

2 

m 

o 

2 

$ 

X 

C/3 

’V  2 

4)  d 

C/3 

C" 

4) 

u 

*— 

s-i  03 

X 

# ♦— 

d 

4> 

5-4  <— ; 

4)  cd 
H-c  ro 

C/3  ^ 

d _, 

d .£ 

4-4  5— 1 

d 

<H 

C/5 

X 

d 

d 

d 

d 

o 

X 

4) 

!h 

5-4 

.4) 

<4-4 

IS 

"o3 

ft 

06 

4) 

4) 

ft 

X 

£ 

4) 

S 

•8  E 

§4J 

r»  1/3 

ft  C 

OS 

O 5— ■ 
G C/5 

4)  -£ 

ft  2 
0 <3  d 


2^8 
>•  o d 
4)  c2 

g "o  d 

4)  03 

O 

__,  W5  23 


a q 


2 o t» 

*"’  4) 

0x3^ 
^ «j  d 

■»  fa  « 

d <D  03 

. 2 ^ ft 

? d 2 
d vh  x 
o 


1/3  -T-l 

4)  ^2 

a)  d 
ft  ^ 

^ ft 

.2  M 
X *H 
w 2 
Vj  X 
4)  c 

x 2 
g 5 

J 

fjB 


^4) 

• & <D  2 

x ^ ^ 

C/3  ^ 

5-h  ft 

4)  CD 

X O O 

i ? 

<5  O ol 

x:  ft  ft 


XI 
d d 

0 d 

1 

g Of 

Q % 

X d 

»s  s 
§ <2 
4)  o ; 


740 


A.G.M.  1981-82— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


© r- 

oo  oo 


oo  'sj-  o O 
— < On  O © 

\D  O in  O 
<N  tj-  in 
m m C'i 
<N  © r) 
r-  c) 


oo  ir> 

m m 

Tj-  *03 
O'!  — 

o t-i 


© 2;  O 
m © 103 

t>  Ti" 
© t fn 
cc  — n 
c4  «— 


§88 


ra  cm 
in  O iO 
Tt-  o r- 

CM»  m 
Tf  m 


oo 

d 

O 

Sh 

QQ 


g * 

n 

O <u 


x a 


o 


£ 

<D 

CD 

2 

u 

Id 

l t 

vj  ^ 

.&S  i 

§ 

0 

CU 

<D 

Oh 

O 

<D 

& 2 - 

%-H 

O 

O 

> 

B | 
8 ftq 

X 0 S= 

S E X 

cu  5 d 

"oo 

X 

P. 

ss 

s 6 53 

OD  03 

12  x 
o £ 
o ^ 
CQ 


OQ 


X 0 


JD 

" S.-S 
g S 3 


C/5 

*Tj 

5 < 


>3 

-ini 
O 
o 
CQ 

■+-. 

O 

d ^ 
^ .2  •- 
^ X *5 
B £ “ 

°^<S 
65  O O 


22  H 

Cd 


- .2 


« ^ A 

d 


a u 


X X 2 
5T  o o £ 
3 o O o 
CO  CQ  CQ  CO 


O 

PU 

«+H  j_, 

O tJ 
_ 

d x 

© a 

Cd  05 
CD  CD 

cd  x 

■-^  £ 
d d 
<3  oo 

X 


>> 

CQ 


OX) 

d 

o 

i-H 

CQ 


■§  > 
C o 
a _ 
^ xi 
o oo 
<c.  2 
o 2 

' &,« 

*>5 


s 5 

o 

B 8 
^ oq 

e2 


*0  d 

<D  03 
U<  cd 

<d  CQ 

tHH 

d ^ 
« 5 


pH  "c 

c«3 

% | 

03  03 

Qh  > 

CD 


o3 

^ t3 
<+_i  d 

o d 

£ fl 

a o 


x 

tw  -3 

O £ 
•3  o 

CD  't~‘ 

o> 

O 

>H  X 

a,  o 
_ o 


CQ 


CO  <D 

x t: 
.d  os 

CQ  X 

O 

4> 

X O 


0 o ^ 


a x o 


x 22 

o d 

CD  os 

X ±3 


cd 


w X 

x £ 
cd  d 
<d  2 

p | 

E,  ^ 
« o 

A 


X 

13 

pq 

o 

o 

o 

N 

3 

2 

x 

CD 

t5 

X -o 

> d 
. d 

§ ^ 

6 ^ 

CD  O 


x <3 

CD 

X <D 

E x 

d 8 

o a 


QD  O 


d x 

<D  _ 
1 -2 

1 a 

>>  cd 


^ O 

Cd  12 

co  ."2 

d g 
o ^ 
^ & 

‘g  2 


© © O 

© © © 

© © © 
© © © 
© © © 
© © © 
>0  © T-. 


l 


C3 


I 

s “ 

>>  'S  (D 

loss 

X . 4-C 

e fc  | 
- o s 

8 id  | 5Jd 

.S  2 § 2 

.52  00  o CO 


o Vh  »-<  5-« 

jC  o o o 
pH  fQ  fL, 


cx  O 

<d  .s: 

-«  d 

CD 

H-<  Oh 

0 CO 

V CD 

65  *1 

1 6 

2 

o 'w 

s 

O a 
65  g 


& *5 
hq  bq 


If 

‘d  ^ 
d u 
/d  CC 

c *5 

§ o 
O CO 
co  c*- 
(D  O 
co 

d ti 
CD  d 

u -g 


w rj 

K § 
a q 

1/3  £ 
cd  W 


0 (5 
a.§ 

0/ 
o 


X 

i § 

(f 

« -2 


XT  O 


« S' 

CO  X 

H 2 

3 dd 
d E 

^ O 
x 

d o 


d x 

° £ P 


d-5 
I tf 

^ . 

g 3D  » 

£ CD  ON 

CUD  d ’- 
CD 


c o 
« >. 


O X 

1/5  d 
<w  O 
O CD 


X C °® 

B £ 6 

« O g 


g.  X >» 
X d W) 
cd  h o 

J O 

< o d 


741 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY , Vol.  79 


742 


A.G.M.  1981-82— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol.  79 


s 


VC 

tj- 


m 

S 


8 

Z 


8 

o 


-d 

f 


u,  ^ 

> *■* 
O 


X) 

2?  t» 

2 <4> 

2 <> 

03  o 

« 

0 

). 

1 


0 TJ 

1 | 

fc.  CQ  Si 

£ 

$ "3  § 

Su| 

M s > 
3 o in 

0 3 Si 

d 

5*  5 

««  o 

CD 


*2  "8  ^ 

| £ 

8 g* 

CD  C 

* g 

.2  c 
60  5 
° & 
o d 
o ea 
PQ 


C4 

a °? 

C/3  -H 
_ 06 
d On 

*o  ~ 
ca 

£ 3 

d3  £ 

a 8 

H ^ 
^ 06 

a 6 

o 2? 


03 


d o 


£3  «M  ^ 


o)  3 
0,  +3 
* ca 

W 


8 «g 

CO  O 

|§ 

W co 


g 3 

a 3 

00  m 

<4-(  d 

o a 


ON 

On  rj- 

u~) 

»o  r-~ 

vc 

t— 

r- 

m to, 

C4 

O O 

06 

rn 

TT  Vo 

| 

*d  aJ 
d © 

&« 

“ I 

CD  5 

> dS 

O ca 

o « 

Is 

c - 

j> 

o 0 

wj  "O 
go  <D 

Si 

u S 


744 


Sd/-  Salim  Ali,  Sd/-  A.  N.  D.  Nanavati,  Sd/-  C.  V.  Kulkarni, 

President,  Honorary  Secretary,  Honorary  Treasurer, 

Bombay  Natural  History  Society  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  Bombay  Natural  History  Society 


A.G.M.  1981-82— PROCEEDINGS  AND  ACCOUNTS 


Pi  c^ 

oo  O 
££ 
do 

*§ 
^ hs 
< X 

s 

o 

CQ 


oo 

ON 


1 

CQ 

S 

Q 

hs 

03 


§ 

l 

ba 

ft! 

x 

tta 

Eta 

£ 

s 

1 

§ 

£ 

§ 

a 

ftN 

I 

s 

On 

s 

a: 


§ 

I 


On  cn  itn  v->  d- 

oo  d"  «o  On  •/-> 

N &\  t'  »h  oo 

(d  d"  fd 


3 s 

.a  ‘z 

£| 

s S3 

» 
c3 


S' 

X> 

O 

cq 


& 

jq 


3 

o p 
.2  P 

w 3 is 

_ £ ^ 

d . cd 

£ 3 O 

■3  cd  a 

a -r<  o 

z 3 o 


s -a 

3Q  « 

3>  ■*«  C* 
§£ 

5 ^ 12  g 
to  « -S  s 


a 
§ 

*3 


$ W) 

“=  s 

to  .c  *2 
o G o 

Oh  Ph  CQ 


a 5 
£ o 

n § 


t— I +H  *3 


•a  I 

«j  $7 

« Q 

eo 

>>  -O 

C3  1) 

=5  .a 

•§* 
O .S 


3 

cS 

z 

£ 

^ 9 
•s  £? 
9 o 

^ a 

8 3 

d 

js  a 

«*  P 
C«  T3 

O W 

ro 


o 

8 

NO 

td 

oo 

d- 

r- 

ON 

o 

On 

ON 

00* 

ON 

oo 

On 

ON 

OO 

NO 

o 

O 

tn 

d- 

NO 

OO 

00 

<d 

O O 

d-  o 

ON  O 

00  o 
oo  cd 
co 


& 

1 

o 

CQ 


0 

C/5 

1 

OX) 


£3 

3 hJ 


*.  ..  a 
^ g o S 

sfll 

^ 3 a ^ 
8.1  | 1 
8 a 5 z 

| £ a £ 

1?  °? 

H 


*-«  C 

6 | 

oo  •> 

ON  < 


^ 3 


g 1 

o a 


3* 

<u 

*o 

0 

CO 

1 


o fe 

-I 

T3  tCJ 
1/5 


-3 
3 
o 
o 
. CO 

i! 

& s 

Q^* 

?>n  a 

z IS 

. O d 

< § z 

" ! 
CQ 


* . 


3 

o 

*§ 
C/5 

>» 
lH 

o 

to 

s S S 
3 a _ 

< Jo  c3 

, 4 | 

— ^ C3 

S5 


>* 

oj 

! 

CQ 


3 


K - 


o 
o u 


& S 

u ca 


745 


Bombay,  15th  October,  1982.  Chartered  Accountants . 


MINUTES  OF  THE  ANNUAL  GENERAL  MEETING  OF  THE  BOMBAY  NATURAL 
HISTORY  SOCIETY  HELD  AT  BEST  CONFERENCE  HALL,  COLABA,  BOMBAY,  ON 
MONDAY,  THE  29TH  NOVEMBER  1982,  AT  6 P.M. 


When  the  following  were  present: 

1.  Mr  R E.  Hawkins  (in  the  Chair) 

2.  Dr.  P.  J.  Deoras 

3.  Dr.  C.  V.  Kulkarni 

4.  Dr.  Salim  Ali 

5.  Dr.  A.N.D.  Nanavati 

6.  Mr.  S.  D.  Bhaumik 

7.  Mr.  N.  D.  Mulla 

8.  Mr  M.  K.  Mistry 

9.  Mr.  M.  D.  Agharkar 

10.  Mr.  H.  K.  Divekar 

11.  Mrs.  P.  Mukherjee 

12.  Mr.  Humayun  Abdulali 

13.  Mr.  J.  C.  Daniel 

14.  Mr.  V.  K.  Paralkar 

15.  Mr.  Ashraf  I.  Macchiwalla 

16.  Mr.  J.  P.  Irani 

17.  Mr  Bansi  Mehta 

18.  Mr.  D.  J.  Panday 

19.  Mr.  S.  R.  Nayak 

20.  Mr.  K.  N.  Naoroji 

21.  Mr.  S.  G.  Monga 

22.  Mr.  R.  Naoroji 

23.  Mr.  Anil  Dave 

24.  Mr.  G.  L.  Kalro 

25.  Mr.  Parvish  Pandya 

26.  Mr.  Ulhas  Rane 

27.  Mr.  Bittu  Sahgal 

28.  Sanctuary  Magazine 

29.  Mr.  R.  S.  Moral 

30.  Mr.  S.  Mistry 

3 1 . Mr.  Oswald  Thayil 

32.  Miss  Meena  Haribal 

33.  Mr.  M.  R.  Patel 

34.  Mr.  G.  R.  Rege 


35.  Mr.  F.  A.  Thakur 

36.  Miss  Usha  Ganguli 

37.  Mr.  D.  N.  Goenka 

38.  Mr.  Ramani  N.  M. 

39.  Mr.  Suresh  Bhatkal 

40.  Mr.  Sam  J.  Bhacka 

41.  Mr.  A.  G.  Puranik 

42.  Mr.  K.  S.  Khambad  Kone 

43.  Mr.  M.  Bharucha 

44.  Mr.  Chandragupta  Bhogilal  Mehta 

45.  Mr.  Dhun  Mehta 

46.  Mr.  Dilip  Patil 

47.  Mr.  D.  P.  Bannerjee 

48.  Mr.  Hilla  Mewavala 

49.  Mr.  K.  K.  Vajifdar 

50.  Miss  S.  S.  Driver 

51.  Mr.  J.  H.  Thakkar 

52.  Mr.  Chandrakant  Wakankar 

Dr  Salim  Ali,  President  of  the  Society,  pro- 
posed that  Mr  R.  E.  Hawkins  take  the  Chair 
and  conduct  the  proceedings  of  the  Meeting. 
This  was  seconded  by  Mr.  D.  J.  Panday. 

1 . The  Chairman  suggested  that  as  the 
Honorary  Secretary’s  main  report  had  been 
previously  circulated  it  was  unnecessary  to 
read  it  but  questions  could  be  raised  about  it 
after  the  Honorary  Secretary’s  Supplementary 
Report.  There  was  no  objection  to  this  sug- 
gestion. 

2.  Dr  C.  V.  Kulkarni,  the  Honorary  Trea- 
surer, summarized  the  salient  points  of  the 
accounts  for  the  period  covered  by  the  meet- 
ing. Fortunately,  he  said,  there  is  a surplus  of 
Rs.  1350/-,  after  setting  aside  Rs.  38,000/- 
for  enhanced  salaries  and  dearness  allowance. 


746 


MINUTES  OF  THE  A.G.M.  OF  THE  B.N.H.S. 


Rs.  5000/-  for  medical  assistance  to  the  staff, 
Rs.  1,00,000/-  for  Centenary  celebrations,  Rs. 
50,000/-  for  staff  gratuity  fund,  and 
Rs.  10,000/-  for  the  staff  welfare  fund.  This 
surplus  had  been  generated  through  various 
donations  and  overhead  charges  received  from 
the  projects  which  were  being  handled  by  the 
Society. 

No  questions  were  raised  on  the  accounts, 
and  the  Chairman  declared  the  Balance  Sheet 
and  Statement  of  Accounts  for  1981  accepted 

3.  Dr  C.  V.  Kulkarni,  the  Honorary  Trea- 
surer, proposed  that  Messrs  Habib  & Co.,  the 
present  auditors  of  the  Society  be  reappoint- 
ed on  the  same  remuneration  as  before.  This 
was  seconded  by  Mr  D.  J.  Panday  and  was 
accepted. 

4.  In  his  Supplementary  Report  for  the 
period  since  January  1982  the  Honorary 
Secretary  stated  that  for  the  Avifauna  Project 
an  additional  bird-ringing  camp  had  been 
arranged  at  Harike  in  the  Punjab  and  later 
would  be  additional  camps  in  the  Siwaliks, 
Nilgiris  and  other  areas.  For  these  we  would 
welcome  assistance  from  competent  ornitholo- 
gists and  a notice  to  this  effect  would  be  circu- 
lated to  members  seeking  their  assistance. 

In  the  Hydrobiology  Project  problems  in 
regard  to  arranging  accommodation  and  labo- 
ratory premises  for  the  staff  had  arisen,  as 
the  old  Palace  quarters  used  for  this  purpose 
were  now  required  for  other  purposes  by  the 
owner.  These  problems  are  being  solved.  Labo- 
ratory has  been  established  and  data  collection 
is  in  progress  in  Bharatpur. 

For  the  Endangered  Species  Project,  the 
Honorary  Secretary  stated  that  two  permanent 
study  camps  for  conducting  studies  on  the 
Great  Indian  Bustard  have  been  opened  — 
one  at  Solapur,  Maharashtra,  and  the  other 
at  Karera,  Madhya  Pradesh.  A preliminary 
survey  of  the  Lesser  Florican’s  habitat  has 


been  initiated.  On  the  status  and  populations 
of  elephants  a preliminary  survey  is  being  con- 
ducted in  Chilla  Sanctuary  in  Uttar  Pradesh 
in  addition  to  other  areas,  where  work  is  in 
progress  already. 

As  regards  publications,  he  said  that  the 
second  edition  of  S.  D.  Ripley’s  A SYNOPSIS 
OF  THE  BIRDS  OF  INDIA  AND  PAKIS- 
TAN, the  second  edition  of  N.  L.  Bor  & M. 
B.  Raizada’s  SOME  BEAUTIFUL  INDIAN 
CLIMBERS  AND  SHRUBS,  and  T.  & P. 
Hodd’s  GRASSES  OF  WESTERN  INDIA 
had  been  published.  THE  BOOK  OF  INDIAN 
REPTILES,  by  J.  C.  Daniel,  is  now  in  the 
press  and  is  expected  to  be  available  in  1983. 
A selection  of  articles  published  in  the  So- 
ciety’s Journal  over  the  years,  under  the  title 
of  A CENTURY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 
is  hoped  to  be  ready  well  before  the  Cente- 
nary celebrations  commence.  However,  the 
ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  INDIAN  NATURAL 
HISTORY,  a second  Centenary  publication, 
may  be  delayed  as  some  contributions  are  still 
outstanding.  The  Honorary  Secretary  also  re- 
ported that  the  Society  is  concerned  with  the 
reproduction  of  coloured  plates  by  John  Henry 
Dick  for  a bird  book  to  be  published  by  the 
Oxford  University  Press. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  reported  that  he 
was  in  negotiation  with  the  Maharashtra  State 
Government  for  a piece  of  land  suitable  for 
the  Society’s  proposed  Institute.  A proposal 
for  the  Institute  had  been  sent  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Environment  in  accordance  with  the 
decision  taken  at  the  Extraordinary  General 
Body  meeting  held  on  29th  September  1982. 

He  explained  that  the  Extraordinary  Gene- 
ral Body  meeting  planned  for  29th  October 
1982  for  amending  the  Society’s  constitution 
had  had  to  be  postponed  as  the  day  was  (un- 
expectedly) declared  a public  holiday.  He  said 


747 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  VoL  79 


the  meeting  would  be  convened  on  a date  to 
be  notified. 

For  the  Centenary  Celebrations,  a Seminar 
will  be  held  from  15th  to  19th  September  1983. 
The  subject  of  the  seminar  is  CONSERVA- 
TION IN  DEVELOPING  COUNTRIES.  A 
number  of  proposals  from  people  who  would 
speak  on  this  occasion  have  been  received.  As 
soon  as  a synopsis  of  their  talks  is  received 
from  the  participants  they  will  be  refereed  by 
experts,  mostly  referees  of  the  Journal.  The 
last  day,  i.e.  19th  September,  of  the  seminar 
would  be  devoted  for  a general  discussion  of 
the  proceedings  and  formulation  of  goals  and, 
where  necessary,  recommendations  to  be  put 
up  to  the  Government. 

An  exhibition  of  the  activities  of  the  Society, 
including  the  activities  under  the  various  Re- 
search Projects,  will  be  held  along  with  a 
Snake  exhibition  around  Diwali  or  Dassera,  a 
few  weeks  after  the  Seminar,  to  sustain  inte- 
rest in  the  Society. 

A Photographic  Exhibition  of  wildlife 
photographs  from  India  and  the  neighbouring 
countries  will  be  arranged.  It  is  proposed  to 
limit  entries  to  not  more  than  5 photographs 
for  an  entrant.  It  is  also  proposed  to  publish 
the  best  photographs  in  a commemorative 
volume.  Suggestions  and  donations  for  the  two 
exhibitions  were  invited  from  members. 

On  conclusion  of  the  Honorary  Secretary’s 
supplementary  report  the  Chairman  invited 
members  to  ask  questions  and  make  comments. 

Dr  P.  J.  Deoras  made  the  following  sugges- 
tions : (1)A  special  issue  of  the  Journal  should 
be  published  on  the  occasion  of  the  Centenary 
Celebrations,  with  articles  on  a given  theme. 

(2)  That  the  papers  presented  at  the  Semi- 
nar on  Conservation  in  Developing  Countries, 
should  not  be  concerned  exclusively  with  bird 
ecology,  migration  and  other  ornithological 
items  but  with  Conservation  in  its  wider  and 


more  general  aspects. 

(3)  That  a snake  exhibition  should  be 
avoided  because  it  results  in  killings  snakes. 
The  exhibition  should  concentrate  on  the  col- 
lections at  the  Society.  He  was  of  the  opinion 
that  listing  of  the  various  taxa  in  the  Society’s 
collections,  with  their  localities  of  collection, 
and  comments  on  the  status  and  details  of 
collection,  if  published  would  be  valuable  for 
future  workers.  The  exhibition  should  be  de- 
signed to  educate  rather  than  to  raise  money. 
He  desired  that  a committee  be  appointed  to 
go  into  all  these  aspects,  and  exhorted  the 
Committee  to  consider  the  opinion  of  the  mino- 
rity and  not  to  go  only  by  the  opinion  of  the 
majority. 

Dr  Deoras  also  wanted  to  know  whether 
the  recovery  of  rings  had  first  been  statistically 
analysed  before  computerizing  it. 

Mrs.  Phillippa  Mukherjee  then  made  her  sug- 
gestions : 

(1)  She  deplored  the  absence  of  Nature 
Education  in  the  Secondary  School  Certificate 
syllabus,  and  exhorted  the  Society  to  take  up 
the  matter  with  the  Government  of  Maha- 
rashtra with  a view  to  correct  this  defect. 

(2)  While  appreciating  the  excellent  work 
done  by  the  Society’s  Nature  Education  Orga 
niser  single-handedly  Mrs  Mukherjee  said  that 
funds  ought  to  be  found  to  expand  the  scheme, 
and  extend  it  to  a greater  number  of  schools 
and  institutions.  She  said  the  Rs.  3000/-  or  so 
now  available  for  the  Nature  Education 
Scheme  was  ludicrously  inadequate.  She  sug- 
gested a deputation  should  request  the  Edu- 
cational authorities  to  change  the  Secondary 
School  Certificate  syllabus  and  introduce  more 
natural  history  for  the  primary  and  secondary 
standards. 

(3)  She  suggested  that  the  Brains  Trust 
sessions  once  held  by  the  Society  should  be 
revived. 


748 


MINUTES  OF  THE  A.G.M.  OF  THE  B.N.H.S. 


(4)  She  suggested  that  a larger  Editorial 
Board  should  be  constituted  to  assist  the  three 
Editors  of  the  Journal. 

(5)  She  suggested  that  much  more  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  children’s  education. 
Exhibitions  should  be  arranged  for  them  and 
a Children’s  Corner  organized  in  the  Hornbill. 

(6)  She  drew  attention  to  the  difficulties 
experienced  by  members  and  visitors  to  the 
Society  is  being  directed  to  the  right  person  to 
solve  their  problems.  Mrs  Mukherjee  suggest- 
ed that  a person  be  appointed  to  attend  to 
these  needs  efficiently. 

Mr  Humayun  Abdulali  then  spoke: 

(1)  He  deplored  the  poor  cooperation  he 
and  his  suggestions  received  from  the  Honorary 
Secretary  and  the  Executive  Committee.  He 
said  most  of  his  letters  did  not  reach  the  Exe- 
cutive Committee  at  all  and  were  being  either 
ignored  or  replied  to  by  the  Honorary  Secre- 
tary. 

(2)  Mr  Abdulali  pointed  out  that  an  Advi- 
sory Committee  has  not  yet  been  formed  after 
the  last  elections,  and  the  Society  is  without 
one  at  the  time  of  the  current  Annual  Gene- 
ral Meeting. 

(3)  Mr  Abdulali  pointed  out  that  though 
the  late  Dr  C.  D.  Deshmukh  was  a member 
of  the  Society  and  served  for  quite  some  years 
on  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Society, 
no  condolence  resolution  had  been  passed  by 
the  Society’s  Executive  Committee  to  mourn 
his  death. 

(4)  Mr  Abdulali  pointed  out  that  in  spite 
of  constant  reminders  indexes  for  nearly  15 
volumes  of  the  Society’s  Journal  were  not 
available  up  to  now,  the  last  being  for  Vol.  63. 

(5)  Mr  Abdulali  wanted  to  know  the  pro- 
gress made  in  regard  to  computerizing  of  the 
bird  ring  recovery  records. 

(6)  Mr  Abdulali  said  that  there  had  been 
a deliberate  attempt  at  the  Society  to  keep 


Mr  G.  V.  Bedekar’s  letter  of  resignation  as  a 
Vice-President  from  the  Executive  Committee, 
and  that  it  was  only  because  of  his  own  efforts 
that  it  had  been  brought  to  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee for  discussion. 

(7)  Mr  Abdulali  deplored  the  non-availa- 
bility of  staff  in  the  office  when  necessity 
arises.  The  experienced  staff  is  being  sent  to 
the  Projects,  and  the  newcomers  are  unable  to 
attend  specific  demands  made  by  the  members. 

(8)  Mr  Abdulali  pointed  out  that  he  had 
been  asked  to  select  some  articles  for  the 
A CENTURY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY, 
and  had  made  some  selections  but  had  heard 
nothing  more.  He  felt  he  was  entitled  to  know 
what  progress  had  been  made. 

(9)  He  asked  for  information  about  the 
papers  received  for  the  proposed  Centenary 
Seminar. 

(10)  Mr  Abdulali  pointed  out  that  there  had 
been  no  notice  of  the  current  Annual  General 
Meeting  in  the  local  papers.  He  said  that 
whenever  a meeting  or  a film  show  was 
arranged  jointly  by  the  Society  and  the  World 
Wildlife  Fund,  the  role  of  the  latter  was  notic- 
ed in  papers  while  the  Society’s  role  was  left 
unnoticed. 

(11)  Mr  Abdulali  suggested  that  short  bio- 
data of  candidates  desiring  to  contest  elections 
to  the  Society’s  Executive  Committee  should 
be  circulated,  and  wished  to  propose  a Reso- 
lution to  this  effect,  but  the  Chairman  ruled 
that  the  business  of  the  meeting  must  be  res- 
tricted to  the  Agenda  and  no  resolutions  could 
be  considered. 

(12)  As  an  afterthought,  Mr  Abdulali  re- 
ferred to  the  resignation  of  Mr  R.  E.  Hawkins 
as  a Vice-President  and  alleged  it  was  due  to 
dissatisfaction  with  the  conduct  of  the  Society’s 
affairs. 

Mr  M.  D.  Agharkar  asked  what  progress 
had  been  made  in  our  negotiations  with  the 


749 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HIST.  SOCIETY,  Vol  79 


Central  Government  regarding  the  proposed 
Institute  of  Ornithology. 

In  ersponse  to  the  remarks  on  the  death  of 
Dr  C.  D.  Beshmukh,  the  Chairman  ruled  that 
this  meeting  record  our  appreciation  of  his 
unfailing  helpfulness  to  the  Society  and  our 
regrets  on  his  demise  and  directed  the  Hono- 
rary Secretary  to  convey  our  condolences  to 
the  family. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  replied  as  follows: 

To  Dr  Deoras:  He  stated  that  certain  of 
the  suggestions  made  were  already  being  acted 
on,  and  the  rest  would  be  seriously  considered. 

To  Mrs  Mukherjee:  He  agreed  entirely  with 
her  remarks  on  the  Nature  Education  curri- 
culum and  the  entirely  inadequate  financial 
support  for  Nature  Education  activities  of  the 
Society.  He  would  do  his  best  to  implement 
her  suggestions  with  support  from  other  mem- 
bers. 

Mr  Abdulali’s  remarks  referred  to  letters 
which  had  already  been  answered,  as  in  the 
case  of  computer  analysis.  A digest  of  the 
preliminary  analysis  had  been  supplied  to  him, 
and  he  had  been  informed  that  300  sheets  of 
computer  printout  were  available  for  study  if 
he  so  desired.  Further  work  on  these  lines, 
which  is  expensive,  has  been  delayed  until 
some  of  the  fresh  data  from  the  projects,  which 
is  more  complete  and  comprehensive,  is  also 
recorded.  The  Society’s  Advisory  Committee 
has  been  formed,  and  he  would  inform  Mr 


Humayun  Abdulali  about  the  date  of  the  meet- 
ing at  which  this  was  decided.  The  question 
of  indexes  has  been  discussed  by  the  Execu- 
tive Committee  and  decisions  taken  are  being 
implemented.  Regarding  the  staff  going  to  the 
projects,  he  pointed  out  that  we  cannot  deny 
our  staff  an  opportunity  to  work  on  field  pro- 
jects, but  whenever  one  of  them  was  selected 
for  project  work,  a replacement  on  the  Gov- 
ernment grant  was  appointed  in  his  place. 
The  new  recruits  were  generally  untrained  and 
needed  some  time  to  learn  the  work.  They 
could  not  be  expected  to  answer  queries  as 
effectively  as  former  workers  who  may  have 
worked  at  the  Society  for  years.  There  had 
been  no  attempt  at  suppression  of  Mr  Abdul- 
ali’s letters,  but  he  was  unable  to  place  on  the 
agenda  letters  in  which  facts  were  incorrectly 
stated. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  informed  Mr 
Agharkar  that  the  proposal  for  the  Institute 
had  been  sent  to  the  Department  of  Environ- 
ment, but  so  far  no  response  had  been  re- 
ceived from  them. 

Referring  to  the  last  remarks  of  Mr 
Abdulali,  the  Chairman  said  he  had  reached 
the  age  of  75,  had  been  a Vice-Chairman  of 
the  Society  for  twelve  years,  and  felt  it  was 
time  for  a change. 

The  meeting  terminated  with  a vote  o 
thanks  to  the  Chair. 


750 


THE  SOCIETY’S  PUBLICATIONS 


Mammals 

The  Book  df  Indian  Animals,  by  S.  H.  Prater,  4th  edition  (reprint).  28  plates  in 
colour  by  Paul  Barruel  and  many  other  monochrome  illustrations.  Rs.  60.00 

( Price  to  members  Rs.  55) 

The  Ecology  of  the  Lesser  Bandicoot  Rat  in  Calcutta,  by  James  Juan  Spillett. 

Rs.  10 


Birds 

The  Book  of  Indian  Birds,  by  Salim  Ali.  11th  (revised)  edition.  74  coloured  and 
many  monochrome  plates.  Rs.  60.00 

( Price  to  members  Rs.  55) 

A Synopsis  of  the  Birds  of  India  and  Pakistan,  by  S.  Dillon  Ripley  II.  An  up-to- 
date  checklist  of  all  the  birds  resident  and  migrant,  including  those  of  Nepal, 
Bhutan,  Bangladesh  and  Sri  Lanka.  2nd  edition.  Rs.  100.00 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  80) 

Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Maharashtra,  by  Humayun  Abdulali,  2nd  edition.  Rs.  4 

Checklist  of  the  Birds  of  Delhi,  Agra  and  Bharatpur,  by  Humayun  Abdulali  & 
J.  D.  Panday.  Rs.  3.00 

Reptiles 

The  Book  of  Indian  Reptiles  By  J.  C.  Daniel  ( in  press) 

Identification  of  Poisonous  Snakes,  Wall  chart  in  Gujarati,  and  Marathi.  Rs.  5 

Plants 


Some  Beautiful  Indian  Trees,  by  Blatter  and  Millard.  With  many  coloured  and 
monochrome  plates.  3rd  edition  (Reprint).  Rs.  40.00 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  35) 

Some  Beautiful  Indian  Climbers  and  Shrubs,  by  Bor  and  Raizada.  With  many 
coloured  and  monochrome  plates.  2nd  edition.  Rs.  100.00 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  75) 

Grasses  of  Western  India,  by  Toby  & Patricia  Hodd.  With  64  monochrome  plates. 

Rs.  50.00 


{Price  to  members  Rs.  37.50) 

Miscellaneous 

Encyclopedia  of  Indian  Natural  History  Edited  by  R.  E.  Hawkins  {in,  press) 

A Century  of  Natural  History  Edited  by  J.  C.  Daniel  {in  press) 

Glimpses  of  Nature  Series  Booklets  : 

1.  Our  Birds  I (with  8 coloured  plates)  in  Kannada  Rs.  0.62 

2.  Our  Monsoon  Plants  (with  8 coloured  plates)  in  Hindi 

and  Marathi.  Rs.  0.80 

3.  Our  Animals  (with  8 coloured  plates)  in  English,  Gujarati, 

and  Hindi.  Rs.  1.25 

Glimpses  of  Nature  in  India  (with  40  coloured  plates)  in  English  Rs.  7.50 

{Price  to  members  Rs.  5) 

Back  numbers  of  the  Society’s  Journal.  Rates  on  application. 

The  Society  will  gratefully  accept  back  numbers  of  the  Journal , from  members 
who  may  not  wish  to  preserve  them. 


TERMS  OF  MEMBERSHIP 


Entrance  Fees : 

Ordinary  and  Life  Members  . . . . . . . . Rs.  25 

Student  Members  . . . . . ; . . Rs.  10 

Subscription : 

{a)  Ordinary  individual  Members  . . . . . . . . Rs.  60 

v (b)  Ordinary  Corporate  Members  . . . . . . . . Rs.  125 

(c)  Ordinary  Members  resident  outside  India  . . . . . . Rs.  95 

Life  Members  . . ....  . . . . Rs.  800 

(Rs.  250  after  20  years) 

Compound  Corporate  Members  . . . . . . . . Rs.  1500 

Student  Members  (without  Journal)  . . . . . . Rs.  . 15 

Annual  subscription  to  Journal  ..  ..  ..  ..  Rs.  135 


Members  residing  outside  India  should  pay  their  subscription  by  means  of  orders  on 
their  Bankers  to  pay  the  amount  of  the  subscription  to  the  Society  in  Bombay  on  the  1st 
January  in  each  year.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  then  the  sum  of  £6.50  should  be  paid  annually 
to  the  Society’s  London  Bankers—The  Grindlays  Bank  Ltd.,  13,  St.  James’s  Sq.,  London 
SW1Y  4LF.  Account  No.  1101091. 

The  subscription  of  members  elected  in  October,  November,  and  December  covers  the 
period  from  the  date  of  their  election  to  the  end  of  the  following  year. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Status  of  the  Grey  Wolf  ( Canis  lupus  pallipes  Sykes  in  India  — A preliminary 

survey.  By  S.  P.  Shahi  , . 493 

Foraging  behaviour  and  interactions  of  Whiteheaded  Babblers  Turdoides  affi - 
nis  with  other  species.  By  A.  J.  T.  Johnsingh,  K.  Paramanandham,  and  S. 

Murali  . . 503 

Studies  on  the  grasses  of  Kheri  District,  Uttar  Pradesh.  By  K.  K.  Singh  . . 515 

Predatory  behaviour  of  an  Assassin  Spider,  Chorizopes  sp.  (Araneidae),  and 

the  defensive  behaviour  of  its  prey.  By  William  G.  Eberhard  . . 522 

Studies  on  the  spawning  ecology  of  Kumaun  mahseer  Tor  tor  (Hamilton) 

and  Tor  putitora  (Hamilton).  By  S.  S.  Pathani  ..  525 

The  Gharial  ( Gavialis  gangeticus)  : A review.  By  Romulus  Whitaker  and  D.  Basu  531 

Breeding  habits  and  associated  phenomenon  in  some  Indian  bats.  Part  VII 
— Hipposideros  speoris  (Schneider)  (Hipposideridae)  from  Chandrapur, 
Maharashtra.  By  A.  Gopalakrishna  and  Deepa  Bhatia  ..  549 

First  records  of  Odonates  (Arthropoda:  Insecta)  from  the  Silent  Valley 
and  New  Amarambalam  Reserved  Forests.  By  K.  Ramachandra  Rao  and 
A.  R.  Lahiri  ' . . 557 

Notes  on  the  occurrence  of  some  plants  of  West  Bengal.  By  J.  K.  Sikdar  . . 563 

Some  interesting  aspects  of  the  Avifauna  of  the  Point  Calimere  Sanctuary, 

Thanjavur  District,  Tamil  Nadu.  By  R.  Sugathan  . . 567 

Taxonomic  significance  of  Ovipositor  in  some  Indian  Grasshoppers  (Orthop- 

tera:  Acrididae).  By  M.  Kamil  Usmani  and  S.  Adam  Shafee  ..  576 

The  Birds  of  Ranganathittu.  By  S.  G.  Neginhal  . . 581 

Material  for  the  Flora  of  Mahabaleshwar-4.  By  P.  V.  Bole  and  M.  R.  Almeida  594 

A Catalogue  of  the  Birds  in  the  Collection  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History 

Society — 26.  By  Humayun  Abdulali  . . 607 

Geographic  variation  in  the  Barasingha  or  Swamp  Deer  ( Cervus  duvauceli). 

By  Colin  P.  Groves  . . 620 

New  Descriptions  . . 630 

Miscellaneous  Notes  . . 658 

Minutes  of  the  Extraordinary  General  Body  Meeting  of  the 

Bombay  Natural  History  Society  719 

Annual  Report  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  for  the  Year  1981-82  724 

Statement  of  Accounts  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  732 

Minutes  of  the  Annual  General  Meeting  746 


Printed  by  Bro.  Leo  at  St.  Francis  Industrial  Training  Institute,  Borivli,  Bombay  400  103 
and  published  by  Editors:  J.  C.  Daniel,  P.  V.  Bole  and  A.  N.  D.  Nanavati  for  Bombay 
Natural  History  Society,  Hombill  House,  Shaheed  Bhagat  Singh  Road,  Bombay  400023. 


s SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOllflillSNI  NVINOSHlIiNS  S3IBVHan  LIBRARIES  SMITHSONIA 

Z r~  z > Z 2 

o ~ 2 m ^ — x^ir^vs  — o 

pitlv^  ^ /AiTFKA  ^ SS^ 

£ s> 


<o 


^ m x^yosv^x  ~ ^5*0^  rn  ' ^ xjvasv^x  m 

I_NVIN0SH1IWS</>S3  I d VH  3 II  ~u  B R AR  I ES  SMITHSONIAN'"lNSTITUTION</>NOIXriXIXSNI  NVINOSHXIW 
z «2  i,  5 \ £ ^ z \ ’ 


8 s jbkps  s x^*n  * m ji)  8 s (li 

x teE-  3lj  o JW0J--  x 2 x o wv  '#7J'  x V£® 

m 2 to  2 CO  *'*  Z CO 

S SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOIXnXIXSNI_NVINOSHXIIAIS  S3  I HVH  3 I1_U  B RAR  I ES  SMITHSONIA 
in  zz  <n  z \ ffj  z 


ii  NViNOSHiiiNs  ssiavaan  libraries  Smithsonian  institution  NoixnxixsNi  nvinoshxiw 

p-  2 r“  z r~ 

Z.  ____  __  O — * ^?usnTr> ^ 


3 .'/i 

t 

1/5  ri  ^ rn  Ns^SiL££^/  ^ ^i'uuSjV  m 

SU,SMITHSONIAN“lNSTITUTION  W NOI-LnilJLSNI_NVINOSHilWS  S3  1 avd  9 n_LI  B RAR  I ES  ^SMITHSONIA 

/ n M t r\  Z CO  z . CO 

< /<v'so^tX  SI  , < 


z 
o 

CO 
X 

§/  £ v V ± 

^ 2 ^ > XiouiS^ 

Jo  Z CO  * z 

H^NVINOSHilWS^Sa  IBVUanXlBR  ARIES  SMITHSONIAN  _ INSTITUTION  ^NO  IIfUliSNI_NVINOSHJ.il* 

z .xx*  . iii  x in, z ui  ^ ^ 


cn 
< 

m \SJWK7  g x v^i-y  m 

$Z  SMITHSONIAN-*  I NSTITUTION  Z NOIXDXIXSNI  NVIN0SHXIIMS__S3  IBVaai"l_LIBRARI  ES^SMITHSONI/ 
z r*  v 


CD 
PD 

* > 

’ P3 

m m ' ^ xjvas^x  m 

Jl  ~ NVINOSHXUNS^SB  I ava  a n~L,BRAR  1 ES  SMITHSONIAN_INSTITUTION^NOIXnXIXSNI~NVINOSHXIV 

CO  Z \ ^CCTT><«.  2 ^ 


^^1 

2 •>^r  g 2 ' \y  > ■ 2 X^QS^> 

S^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITUTION  </>^0liniliSNI_NVIN0SHilWS</’s3  I d VH  3IUI  B RAR  I ES^SMITHSONIA 

CO  HI  CO  Z * 60 


Hi 


tr 
. < 
cl: 

o Naygy>y  - 5 V>»F  3 o 

Nl_ NVINOSHXIWS2  S3  | a VU  a n"*1- 1 B R AR  ' ES  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOlinXIiSNI  NVINOSHXIl1 


TITUTION  NOlinillSNI  NVINOSH1IWS  S3iava8IT  LIBRARIES  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOI 
^ r v z r~  2 ’ z 


co 

23 
> 

iavyanIL,BRARI  ES^SMITHSONIAN  JNSTITUTION^NOIinillSNI^NVINOSHlIWS^Sa  I d Vd  a 11  2LI  b 


TITUTION  NOliOlllSNl  _ NVIN0SH1IWS  S3  IBVBail^LIBRARI  ES  ^SMITHSON  IAN__  INSTITUTION  J^01 

££ 

w i 

/>? 


lavnan  libraries  Smithsonian  institution  NosiniiiSNi  nvinoshjliws  saiavaan  lie 

r-  z r*  _ 2 r*  2 ^ 


rn  ^ m 2 m 

5TITUTION ^ N0I101I1SNI~NVIN0SH1IW$  S3  l B VB  8 1 1 L I B R AR  I ES  SMITHSONIAN ~ INSTITUTION  NO 


1 JBrJF  o x 

O X o 2 

*•.  2 CO  2 CO  * Z SO  2 

lavaan  libraries  Smithsonian  institution  NouniusNi  nvinoshiiws  saiavaan  lii 

2 ^ CO  5 ^ ^ w 5 ^ „ 2 

^ 1x1  , co  m . W CO 


O tt!  O ^<^DCjy  *Z  Ns^i|1c,r^Z  Q o 

STITUTION  Z NOIiDillSNI^NVINOSHilWS  SBIHVHail^LIBRARI  ES^  SMITHSON  IAN-*  INSTITUTION  MO 

” V 2 r*  2 w “ 


lava  an  libraries  Smithsonian  institution  NouniusNi  nvinoshuiais  saiavaan  lii 

2 S <2  - _ 2 t CO  2 to  ^ 2 

< 


^ 

►TITUTION  ^NOliniUSNI^NVINOSHlIWS^Sa  1 B VB  8 Il^Ll  B R AR  I ES^SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NO 


I av 


L I b4WIr  I E 


O 

2 _j  2 -J 

'SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  NOlinillSNI  NVIN0SH1IWS  S3iavaail  LI 
2 r*  2 r~  2