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[/Stipplement  to  The  Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Victoria, 
Ydth  January,  1913.] 


THE    JOURNAL 


DEPARTMENT    OF    vVGRICULTURE 


OF 


VICTORIA, 

AUSTRALIA. 


PUBLISHED     FOR     AND      ON     BEHALF     OF     THE     GOVERNMENT     BY     DIRECTION 

OF  THE 

HON.    GEORGE    GRAHAM,    M.L.A., 
Minister  for  Agriculture. 


volume:  X. 

1912. 


ALBERT  J.   MULLETT,   ACTING  GOVERNMENT  PRINTER,   MELBOURNE. 

1912. 
172t)5. 


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THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

VICTORIA. 


VOliUME     X.     Parts  1-12. 


index:. 


Paffe 
Adcock,   G.    H.— 

Yield     of     Reconstituted     Vineyard 
at    Rutherylen    Viticultural     Col- 
lege    ...  ...  ...  ■••     339 

Afterbirth,   Removal   of        ...  •••        71 

Agricultural  Education — 

Grant   to   Agricultural    Soci' 
Agricultural    Imports    of    the 

Kingdom 
Agricultural      Research      in 

States  of  America 
Agriculture  in  Victoria 
Ailments — 

Eye  Blight  in  Cows 

Contagious   Diseases,    Etiology   of 

Cramps  in  Terrier 

Diseases  of   Farm  Animals 

Foot  Rot,   Device   for 

Itch 

Pregnancy-non     ... 

Worms 

Worms   in    Sheep 

Worms    in    Yearlings 
Answers  to  Correspondents 
Ants'   Nests,  Destroying 
Apple   Moth,   Light-brown   ... 
Apiculture — 

Location 

Bees,    The 

Bees,   Races  of   ... 

Hives     ... 

Hive  Floors  and  Covers  ... 

Water  for  Bees  ... 

How  to  Make  a  Start 

Use  of  Comb   Foundations 

Swarming 

Queen   Bees,   Rearing 
Archer,  R.  T.— 

Pig    Industry,    The 
Baker,  G.   H.   F.— 

Silos   and    Silage 
Bare  Fallow,  Benefits  of     ... 
Barr,  B.  A.— 

Bunyip   Agricultural    Society  ...     354 

Basis   Wines  ...  ...  321,488 

Baxter,   G. — 

Blacksmithing,   Farm         49,123,192,217 
Beekeeping  in  Victoria         i,  113,   176,  226, 

355>  413,  472,  529.  64g>  7S8 

Bees,  Queen,  Rearing  of     ...  ...  758 

Bees,   Races  of        ...              ...  ...  176 

Bees   and  Spraying                ...  ...  4 

Beet,  Sugar             ...             ,..  ...  483 


■ties  ... 

235 

United 

286 

Ignited 

229 

452 

391 

gy  of 

489 

390 

83 

572 

71 

71 

71 

154 

582 

7I'  39o> 

S82 

582 

III 

I 

"3 

176 

226 

355 

413 

472 

529 

649 

758 

73, 160 

,239 

15 

484 

Beet  Sugar,   A  Large 

Beet      Sugar     Industry     and     Closer 

Settlement 
Beuhne,   F.   R.— 

Bee-keeping  in  Victoria — 
Location 
Bees,    The 
Bees,     Races    of 
Hives 

Hive  Floors  and   Covers 
Water  for  Bees 
How  to  Make  a  Start  ... 
Use   of    Comb   Foundations 
Swarming 

Queen  Bees,   Rearing   ... 
Beuhne,   F.   R.,   and   French,   C.,  Jun. 

Bee  Moths 
Beuhne,  F.  R.,  and  Pescott,  E.  E.— 

Bees  and  Spraying 
Blacksmithing,    Farm         49,   123,   192, 
Blight  Eye   in  Cows 
Blight,    Irish 
Blight,     Irish,     Results    of    Spraving 

for  '    ... 

Blood   Smear,   How  to   Make 
Botany — - 

Weeds — Naturalized       Aliens      and 

Poison    Plants   of   Victoria 
Vernacular     Names     of     Victorian 
Plants  ...  ...  443, 

Bracken,   Eradication  of 
Breeding  Crop   Plants 
Breeds,    Pigs 

Bricks,   Cement   Machine-made 
Brittlebank,  C.  C— 

Eruptive  Disease  or  "  Exanthema  " 
of  Orange  Trees  in  Australia  ... 
Lucerne  Trouble,   A 
Building   Hints  for  Settlers — ■ 
Two-bail    Milking   Shed    ... 
Six-bail    Milking   and    Feed   Shed 
Durable    Whitewash 
Concrete   for  Cow   Sheds,   &c. 
Bunyip  Agricultural    Society 
Butter,  British  Imports  of  ... 
Butter    Export    Trade    and    Dairying 
Season,     1911-12,    Review    of    Vic- 
torian 
Butter   Fat,    Feeding    for    ... 
Butter,    High-grade 
Calves,  Care  of 
Calves,   Rearing  cf 


Pa^'e 
582 

^37 


113 

176 
226 
355 
413 
472 
529 
649 
758 

411 

4 
217 

391 

357 

745 

555 


359 

567 
286 

358 
239 
391 


401 
65 


576 
578 
578 
354 
719 


375 
483 
484 

357 
415 


IV 


Index. 


Cameron,  S.  S. — 

Farm    Animals,    Diseases    of    (An- 
thrax,  Blackleg)              ...              ■••  83 
Lime   in  Agriculture          ...              •■.  5^5 
Worms   in    Sheep                 ...              •.•  ^54 
Carmody,   P.   J. — 

Fruit     Prospects     for    the     Coming 

Season               ...             ...             ■••  753 

Lime  for  Orchards            ...              ..■  640 

Castella,   F.    de- 
Basis   Wines         .  -              ...              •■•  3^^ 
Grapes     and     Other     Soft     Fruits, 
Shipment  of     ...              ...              ..-  108 

Storage   Test   of    Shipping   Grapes  715 
Use    of    Lime    in    Victorian    Vine- 
yards                 ...              ...              •;•  628 

Vine    Diseases    in    France    (Fungi- 
cide Sprays)  ...  54'  n^,  i73 

Cattle   Breeding  and  Dairy   Records  409 

Cement   Bricks,    Machine-made          ...  391 

Certification    of    Stallions    ...              ...  288 

Cheddar    Cheese-making,    Spring      ...  642 
Cheese-making,    Spring    Cheddar      ...  642 
Cheeses,     Good     and     Faulty,     Exhi- 
bited at  the  Royal   Show^    1912     ...  713 
Chestnut  as  a  Shelter  Tree                ...  582 
Closer    Settlement    and     Beet    Sugar 
Industry                 ...              ...              •••  i37 

Cockerels,  Topping  up         ...              ...  7' 

Cold  Storage           ...             ...             ...  358 

Cole,  C.  F.— 

Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees — 

Pruning              ...              ...              ...  57 

Disbudding       ...              ...              ...  loi 

Topping             ...            •...              ...  169 

Lifting               ...              ...              ...  208 

Diseases  ...  ...   344,  425,  536 

Comb  Foundations,  The  Use  of       ...  529 
Competitions — 

Niiill    Farm,    1911               ...              ...  33 

Swan  Hill  iVTilking            ...              ...  232 

Egg-laying,    Burnley              67,    136,  200, 

263,   324>   385.  430,  448,    5iS>  574, 
644,  692,  774 

Concrete    for    Cow    Sheds    ...              ...  57^ 

Contagious   Diseases.    Etiology    of    ...  4S9 

Cool  Storage  of  Fruit           ..               ...  229 

Couch    Grass           ...             ...             ...  262 

Cow,  A  Profitable  Dairy     ...              ...  552 

Cows,  Eye  Blight  in             ...              ...  391 

Cramps  in   Terrier                 ...              ...  390 

Crop  Plants,  Breeding         ...              ...  358 

Crops,   Water  Requirements  of          ...  340 

Cropping   in   Victoria            ...              ...  719 

Crowe,   R. — 

Dairy    Products    from    the    London 

Market               ...              ...              ...  6 

Perishable     and      Frozen      Produce  135, 
386,   518,   708 
Review   of   the    Victorian    Dairying 
Season  and  Butter  Export  Trade, 

1911-12               ...              ...              ...  375 

Curlewis,  A.  W. — ■ 

Sheep   Dipping    ...              ...              ...  671 

Currajong  (Brachychiton),  Insect  Pest 

of            ...              ...              ...              ...  662 

Dairy   Herd,   Replenishing  the          ...  657 


Dairy     Products     from     the     London 

Market 
Dairy   Records  and   Cattle  Breeding 
Dairying — ■ 

Two-bail   Milking  Shed  ... 
Si.x-bail    Milking    Shed    ... 
Swan    Hill    Home    Milking    Com- 
petitions 
Dairy  Cow  Test,   Bunyip 
Review  of  Dairying  Season,  1911-12 
Rearing  of  Calves 
Profitable   Dairy    Cow,   A 
Red  Polls  as  Butter  Producers     ... 
Replenishing  the  Dairy   Herd 
Dairying    Season    and    Butter    Export 

Trade,    igii-12.    Review   of 
Decay  and  Putrefaction 
Dipping    Sheep 
Disbudding  Fruit  Trees 
Diseases  of   Animals — 
Eye   Blight  in   Cows 
Farm    Animals 

Contagious   Diseases,    Etiology    of 
Pregnancy-noa     ... 
Worms 

Worms   in   Sheep 
Worms  in  Yearlings 
Diseases  of  Fruit  Trees      ...     344,425, 
"  Exanthema,"  Eruptive  Disease  of 
Orange  Trees 
Dodder,  The  Mischievous   ... 
Douglas    Mixture    ... 
Downy      Mildew,      a     New     Lucerne 

Trouble 
Drain  Pipes,  Underground 
Drainage    Losses    ... 
Draining  with  Dynamite 
Drilling  versus  Broadcasting  Manures 
Dynamite,   Draining  with   ... 
Easterby,   H.  T.— 

Beet    Sugar    Industry     and    Closer 
Settlement,    The 
Kggl^ying   Competition — 

Burnle}-,    1911-12-13  67,    136, 

263,  324,   385,  430, 
515,   574,  644,   692, 
Eggs,    The    Fertility   of    Hen 
Ensilage   and   Lucerne 
Erosion 
Eruptive    Disease,    or    "  Exanthema  " 

of   Orange  Trees  in  Australia 
Ewart,  A.  J. — 

Influence   of   Radio   Active   Mineral 
on    the    Germination    and    on    the 
Growth   of   Wheat 
Influence    of     Superphosphates    on 

the    Germination   of   Wheat 
On   Wattles   and   Wattle   Bark 
Weeds — Naturalized      Aliens       and 
Poison    Plants   of   Victoria    (Wat- 
sonia   Meriana) 
Ewart,    A.    J.,    and    Sutton,    C.    S. — 
Vernacular     Names     of     Victorian 
Plants  ...  ...  443. 

"  Exanthema,"    Eruptive    Disease    of 
Orange  Trees  in  Australia 


6 

409 

12 

576 

232 
354 

375 
415 
552 
556 
657 

375 
761 
671 

lOI 

391 

83 

489 

71 

71 

154 

582 

536 

401 

535 
582 

65 
391 
665 

533 
533 
533 


137 


774 
357 
653 
262 

401 


417 

256 

684 


359 

567 
40  J 


Index. 


Export— 

Dair\'    Produce    from    the    London 

Market 
Shipment     of     Grapes     and     other 

Soft    Fruits       ... 
Pig    Industry,    The 
Hull   as   a   Distributing   Centre    for 

Australian    Produce 
Dairying   Season,   Review   of 
Fruit  Trade  of  Victoria,  The        :;64 
Storage  Test  of   Shipping  Grapes 
Export,   Statistics — • 

Fruit,    Bulbs,    Plants,    Grain,    &c. 

386,   518. 

Perishable     and     Frozen     Produce, 

&c.       ...  ...        135.    386,    51S, 

Eye   Blight   in   Cows 
Fallow,   Bare,   Benefits  of   ... 
Fallowing,    Early 
Fallowing   Land,   some   Result 
Farm  Animals,   Diseases  of 
Farm      Blacksmithing      (See      Black- 
smithing   farm) 
Fertilizers.    List  of   Registered  26, 

Flax,    New    Zealand,    Insect    Pest    of 

the 
Flowers — ■ 

Monthly   Notes 


63, 
325, 
579, 


1303 
387- 
645, 


i79> 
453, 
709. 


Fly    Pest,    The 
Foal,  Hand-rearing 
Fodder — 

Fodder    Crops    for    Northern    Areas 

Silos    and    Silage 

Lucerne 

Effect    of    Drought    on    the    Quality 

of    Straw 
Top-dressing    Pastures    ... 
Seed    Testing 
Manuring    for    Milk 
Lucerne    and    Ensilage 
Good  and  Bad  Pasfure    ... 
Phosphates  on   Pasture     ... 
Foods,   Comparative   Values  of 
Footrot,    Device    for 
French,   C,  jun. — 

An    Insect    Pest    of    the    Currajong 

(Brachycheton) 
Insect    Pest    of    the    New    Zealand 

Flax    ... 
Frontal    Shrike    Tit    (Insectivorous 

Birds   of   Victoria) 
Mealy     Bugs    destroyed    by     Lace 

wings 
Moth,   Light-brown  Apple 
New     Pest     to     Maize     (Harlequin 

Fruit    Bug) 
Vine     Moth     Caterpillar     Parasite 

The     ... 
White-headed     Stilt     (Insectivorous 
Birds  of   Victoria) 
French,   C.  jun.,  and   Beuhne,   Y.   R 

Bee    Moths 
FroDtal   Shrike   Tit 


108 
239 

282 

375 
666 


135, 
708 

708 

391 
484 
410 

^83 


422, 
683 


260, 

513, 

772 

664 

740 

I-- 

231 

410 

483 

534 
534 
653 
664 
718 
664 


662 


68 


450 
553 


411 


Fruit — 

Fruit     Prospects     for     the 

Season 
Fruit   Trade  of   Victoria 
Export    and    Imjjort   Statistics 


I'aee 


coming 

•••     753 
564,  666 

135,   386, 
518,  708 
Cool   Storage  of   Fruit     ...  ...     229 

Export  of  Grapes  from  Sjiain       ...     409 
Storage  Test  of  Shipping  Grai)es         715 
Grapes  and  other  Soft  Fruits,  Ship- 
ment of  .  .  ...  ...      108 

Fruit    Trees — • 

Propagation    of    Fruit    Trees         ...      57, 
loi,    169,    208,    344,    425,    536 
Fumigation      for      the     Destruction 

of  Scale   Insects  ...  ...      :566 

Fungus    Diseases  ...  ...     536 

Olive,   The      69,    127,   196,   212,   404,  465 
LTnprofitable         Orchards — Reasons 
and    Remedies  ...  ...      104 

Fumigation     for    the    Destruction    of 
Scale    Insects       ...  ...  ...     366 

Fungus    Diseases — 

Fungus  Diseases  (jf   Fruit  Trees  ...     536 
Irish    Blight         ...  ...  ...     357 

Irish    Blight,    Results    of    Spraying 
for       ...  ...  ...  ■    ...     745 

Garden — 

Monthly    Notes       ...     63,    130,    179,    260, 

325,  387,  453,  513,  579,  645,  709,  772 

General   Notes       ...  ...  ...      229, 

286,  357,  409,  483,   m,  664,  71S 
Geranium     Cultivation     for    Essential 

Oil  677 

Grants,       Annual,       to       Agricultural 
Societies  ...  ...  ...     235 

Grapes       and       other       Soft       Fruits, 
Shipment    of        ...  ...  ...      108 

Grapes,    Export  of,    from   S])ain        ...     409 
Grapes,   Storage  Test  of  Shipping  ...     715 
Grass,    Common    Love  ...  ...     391 

(Eragrostes  Brownii.) 
Hammond,    A.    A. — 

Fumigation    for   the   Destruction   of 
Scale    Insects    ...  ...  ...     366 

Harlequin    Fruit    Bug    (New    Pest    to 
Maize)  ...  ...  ...     4-0 

Hawkins,    H.    V.— 

Burnley    Egg    Laying   Competition, 

1911-12-13         67,    136,    200,    263,    324, 

385,  430,  448,  515,  574,  644,  692,  774 

Haystack    Building  ...  •••     763 

Herd    Testing  ...  ...  5",  665 

Hints  to   Settlers   ...  ...  •••576 

Holdings,  Land  of  Small  ...  ...     410 

Horses — 

Government    Certification    of    Stal- 
lions   ...  ...  •••  ■•■     288 

Foal,    Hand    Rearing        ...  ...     5S2 

Hull,    Port  as  a   Distributing   .Centre 
for  Australian    Produce      ...  ...   282 

Imports — • 

Fruit     Bulbs,     Plants,     Grain,     &c. 

135,    386,  .518,    708 
Imports,   Agricultural,   of   the   United 
Kingdom  ..,  ,..  ,-■     28P 


Index. 


Industries,  Small  Rural  316,  361,  478, 
Insectivorous  Birds  of  Victoria  68, 
Insect   Pests — 

An    Insect    Pest    of    the    Currajong 

(Brachychiton) 
Insect    Pest    of    the    New    Zealand 

Flax    ... 
Mealy    Bugs    Destroyed    bv    Lace- 
wings 
Moth,    Light-brown    Apple 
New     Pest     to     Maize     (Harlequin 

Fruit    Bug) 
Vine     Moth     Caterpillar     Parasite, 

The     ... 
Fumigation    for   the   Destruction   of 
Scale    Insects   ... 
Irish    Blight 
Irish  Blight,  Results  of  Spraying  for 

Itch  ... 

Kenyon,  A.   S. — 

Note  on  the  Occurrence  of  Lime  in 

Victoria 
Irrigation    in   the   Early    Days 
Kevs,    S.    J. — 

Swan   Hill   Home     Milking  Compe- 
tition.   Ton 
Knight,    J. — 

Lavender    Cultivation 
Mint    Cultivation 
Rose    Cultivation 
Geranium    Cultivation 
Kyle,  A.— 

Rearing   Calves    ... 
Lacewings    Destroying    Mealy    Bugs 
Lavender  Cultivation 
Lead,    Arsenate   of,    Analysis 
Leghorns  for  Central  Gippsland 
Leongatha    Labour    Colony,    Trustees' 

Report 
Lice,    Wood    or    Slaters 
Lick,   A  Good 

Lick,    Superphosphate   as   a   Cattle    ... 
Lifting,    Fruit   Trees 
Lime — 

The  Chemistry  of 
For  Orchards 
For  Tobacco  Land 
In  Agriculture     ... 
Use  in  Potato  Culture 
Occurrence    in   Victoria 
In    Victorian    Vineyards    ... 
Relation   to   Soil   Fertility 
Limestone  Deposits,  Victoria         1590, 
Liming,    the   practice  of   ... 
London   Market,  Dairy — 

Products    from    ... 
Lucerne — 
Lucerne 

Lucerne,    Proper   Time    for   Sowing 
Lucerne    and    Ensilage      ... 
Lucerne    Plants    ... 
Lucerne    Trouble,    a    new    (Downy 
Mildew) 
Macdonald,   L. — 

Olive^  The   69,  127,  196,  212,  404, 


Pag^e 

677 
258 


662 
720 

485 
III 

450 
553 


357 

745 

71 


76q 

658 


232 

316 
361 

478 

677 

415 
485 

316 

486 
391 

722 

582 
572 

20S 

602 
640 
6:i6 

58s 

6^9 

76q 

628 

610 

608 


231 

582 
653 

528 
65 

465 


Maize,     a     new     pest     to     (Harlequin 

Fruit    Bug) 
Manures,   Artificial — 

Analyses  ...  ...     22,    423, 

To    Wheat-growing    Land 

Drilling    versus    Broad    Casting    ... 

The  new   Nitrogenous 

Manuring   for   Milk 

Relative  Solubility  of  the  Phos- 
phoric Acid  in  Rock  Phosphate 
and    Bone-dust 

Notice  to  Manufacturers  and  Im- 
porters 

Superphosphates,  Influence  on  the 
Germination  of  Wheat  ... 

Unit    Values,    1912 
Mealy  Bugs  [Dactyl of iiis),  and  Lace- 
wings   (Chrysofa) 
Meat    Exports 
Meeking,  E.— 

P^ruit  Bulbs  Plants,  Grain  (exports 
and   imports)  135,   386,    518, 

Fruit  Trade  of  Victoria,  The       564, 
"  Metallica    Cape" 
Milk,    Manuring    for 
Milk    Records 
Milking,     Hours    for 
Milking    Shed— 

Two-bail 

Six-bail 
Mint    Cultivation    ... 
Moisture    Soil,    Influence    upon    Nitri- 
fication 
Moth,   Light-brown   Apple    ... 
Moths,    Bee 

Nhill    Farm    Competitions,    1911 
Nitrification,      Influence     of      Certain 

Soil    Constituents 
Nitrification,    Influence   of   Soil   Mois- 
ture    upon 
Nitrogenous   Manures,   the  new 
Oats,   Crushed,    for  Draught   Horses 
Olive,   The  69,    127,    196,    212,   404, 

Orange   Trees   in   Australia,    Eruptive 

Disease,    or    "  Exanthema," 
Orchard  and   Garden  Notes     63,    130, 
260,  325,   387,  453,   513,   579,  645, 
772 
Orchards,    Lime    for 
Orchards,    Unprofitable,    Reasons   and 

Remedies 
Packing   Fruit  Trees 
Paint,   White,    for   Buildings 
Parades,    Stallion,    1912 
Parasite,  The  Vine  Moth  Caterpillar 
Paspalum    for    Hill    Pastures 
Pasture,  Good  and  Bad 
Pasture,    Phosphate    on 
Pastures,    Paspalum   for   Hill 
Pastures,   Top   Dressing 
Paterson,   J.    W.    — 

Putrefaction  and   Decay... 
Soil    Moisture   and   Cropping 
Water  Requirements  for  Crops 
Paterson,  J.  W.,  and   Scott,   P.   R.— 
Influence   of   certain    Soil    Constitu- 
ents   upon    Nitrification 


Page 
450 

681 
391 
533 
231 

534 

676 

641 

256 
22 

485 
533 


421 

534 
230 


576 
361 

275 

III 

411 

33 

393 

275 
231 
262 

465 

401 
179. 
709> 

640 

504 
209 
262 
312 
553 
563 
664 
718 
563 
483 

761 
222 

349 


393 


Index. 


Paterson,  J.  W.,  and  Srott,   P.   R.— 
continued. 
Influence    of     Soil     Moisture    u])on 

Nitrification 
Lucerne   and    Ensilage    ... 
Relation  of   Lime  to  Soil    Fertility 
Some    Results    in    Fallowing    Land 
Pescott,  E.  E. — 

Orchard    and    Garden    Notes         63, 
179,   260,  325,   387,  453,   513,   579, 
709,   772 
Pescott,  E.  E.,  and  Beuhne,  F.  R. — 

Bees  and   Spraying 
Phosphates  on   Pasture 
Phosphoric      Acid      in      Rock      Phos- 
phate and  Bone-dust,  Relative  Solu- 
bility 
Pigs- 
Pig    Feednig  ...  287,   357, 
Pig    Industry,    The               •••735    160, 
Pigs,    Breed 
Plants — 

Vernacular  Names  of  Victorian    443. 
Potato   Culture,    the   use   of   Lime   in 
Potato  Digging  Machines     ... 
Potato  Diseases,    Spraying   against   ... 
Potatoes,     Result     of     Spraying     for 

Irish    Blight     ... 
Potatoes     ... 
Pregnancy-non 

Produce,   Perishable  and  Frozen      135, 

517.    518, 
Produce,  Port  of  Hull  as  a  Distribut- 
ing   Centre    for   Australian 
Propagation  of   Fruit  Trees — 
Pruning 
Disbudding 
Topping 
Lifting     ... 

Diseases  ...  344,  425, 

Pruning    Fruit    Trees 
Putrefaction    and    Decay 
Radio-active  Mineral  on  the  Germina- 
tion and  on  the  Growth  of   Wheat, 
Influence    of 
Rainfall  in  Victoria         134,  325,   519, 
Raspberry    Canes,    Fungus   in 
Reconstituted     Vineyard     at     Ruther- 

glen.   Yield  of      ... 
Records,   Milk 

Red   Polls  as  Butter   Producers 
Regulations — 

Examination  of  Stallions 
Annual    Grants   to   Agricultural    So- 
cieties 
Reminders  for — 
January 
February 
March     ... 
April 
May 
June 

July      

August    ... 

September 

October 

November 

December 


Page 


^75 
653 
619 


130, 

64s. 


4 
718 


676 

718 
239 
239 

,567 
639 
119 

534 

745 
390 
71 
386, 
708 


57 

lOI 

169 
208 
536 

57 
76. 


417 
762 

391 

339 
230 

556 
293 
235 

776 
72 
133 
199 
264 
328 
392 
456 
520 

584 
648 


1911    ... 
91,   181, 

457=    54.5 


Rhubarb     ... 

Richardson,    A.    E.    V. — 

Liming,  the   Practice  of   .. 

Nhill    Farm    Competitions 

Wheat  and  its  Cultivation 

265,   329, 

Robertson,   W.    A.    N.— 

Etiology  of  Contagious  Diseases  ... 
Herd    Testing 
How   to    make   a    Blood    Smear      ... 
Stallions,    Certification    of 
Regulations 
Robertson,  W.  C. — 

iNote  on  Limestone  Deposits  in  Vic- 
toria 
Relative    Solubility    of    Phosphoric 
Acid     in     Rock     Phosphate     and 
Bone-dust 
Rose    cultivation 

Rural  Industries,   Small     316,  3bi,  478 
Rutherglen    Viticultural    College — 

Yield    of    Reconstituted    Vineyard 
Saltbush,     Slender-Fruited     [Atriflex 

Leftocarpa) 
Salt  House,  A  Good 
Sawers,   G.    C. — 

Good  and  Faulty  Cheeses  E.xhibited 

at  the  Royal   Show,   1912 
Spring    Cheddar    Cheese    Making  ... 
Scale   Insects,   Destructive   ... 
Scale     Insects,     Fumigation     for     the 

Destruction    of    ... 
Scott,   P.    R.— 

Arsenate  of  Lead,  Analysis  of 
Unit       Values,        1912,        Artificial 

Manures 
List    of    Fertilizers 
Supplementary      List      of      Fertili- 
zers     ...  ...  ...  422, 

Manures,  Analyses  of  Samples     423, 
Chemistry   of   Lime 
Seed    Testing  ...  ...  ...  • 

Seeding    Operations    (Wheat    and    its 

Cultivation) 
Settlers,    Hints    to 
Seymour,   Geo.— 

Potato    Digging    Machines 

Results     of      Spraying      for      Irish 

Blight 
Use  of   Lime   in   Potato   Culture    ... 
Shearers'  Hut  Accommodation  Act  ... 
Sheep   Dipping 
Sheep,   Worms  in   ... 
Silage  and  Silos     ... 
Silos  and  Silage     ... 
Smith,  T.   A.   J. 

Fodder    Crops   for    Northern    Areas 
under   Irrigation  on  Small   Hold- 
ings    ...  ... 

Haystack    Building 
Lime  for  Tobacco  Land   ... 
Soft   Fruit  and   Grapes,    Shipment  of 
Soil   Moisture  and   Cropping 
Soils — 

Influence    of    Certain    Soil    Consti- 
tuents upon   Nitrification 
Influence    of     Soil     Moisture    upon 
Nitrification 


Patre 
391 

608 

33 
201, 

,   t)94 
480 


030 

288 
293 


598 

676 

478 

>677 

339 

391 


713 


366 


26 

683 
681 
602 
534 

265 
576 

119 

745 
639 
673 
671 

154 

15 


740 

763 
636 


393 

275 


Index. 


Page 
619 
222 

225 

4 
262 

28S 

298 
302 
312 

451 


Soils — continued. 

Relation   of   Lime   to   Soil    Fertility 
Some    Results  in    Fallowing    Land 
Soil  Moisture  and  Cropping 
Soya    Bean 

Sparrow  Trap,   An  Effective 
Spraying   and   Bees 
Stack   Covering 
Stallions — 
Certification 
Supplementary   List  of   Certificated 

Stallions 
Terminable  List  of   Stallions 
Parades 
Statistics —    ' 
Live    Stock 
Fruit    Plants,    lV:c.,    Perishable    and 

Frozen    Produce        135,    386,    518,    708 

Rainfall  ...         i34)  S^S)   SiQ.  7^^ 

Stilt,  White-headed,  The     ...  ...     258 

Storage,     Cold        ...  ...  ..••     35^ 

Straw,   Effect  of   Drought  on  Quality     410 
Sugar  Industry,   The  ...  ...     137 

Sunflower    Seed    for   Poultry   Feeding     390 
Superphosphate    as    a    Cattle    Lick    ...     391 
Superphosjjhates,      Influence     of,     on 
Germination  of  Wheat     ...  ...     256 

Sutton,    C.    S,.,    and    Ewart,    A.    J.— 
Vernacular      Names      of      Victorian 
Plants  ...  ...  443>   5^7 

Swan    Hill    Home    Milking    Competi- 
tion,   1911  ...  ...  .•■     232 

Swarming    (Bees)  ...  ...     649 

Swingle-bars  for  Five-horse  Team   ...     262 
Testing,    Herd         ...  ...  ...     511 

Thistles,    Harvesting   Through  ...     230 

Thomas,    M. — 

Replenishing  the  Dairv  Herd         ...     657 
Threlfall,   R.   G.— 

Paspalum    for    Hill    Pastures  ...     563 

Tobacco   Land,    Lime    for    ...  ...     636 

Top    Dressing    Pastures        ...  ...     483 

Topping   (Fruit  Trees)  ...  ...     i6g 

Trap,   Sparrow,   An   Effective  ...     225 

Underground  Drain  Pipes  ...  ...     391 

Unit   Value,    1912    (Manures)  ...       22 

United     Kingdom,     Agricultural     Im- 
ports of   the     ...  ...  ...     286 

Unprofitable    Orchards,    Reasons    and 
Remedies  ...  ...  ...     504 

Vegetables — 

Monthly   Notes       63,   130,   179,  260,  325, 

387=    453,    513,    579.   645,    709,    772 

Potato  Culture,  Use  of  Lime  in  ...     639 


Fag's 
Vegetables — continued. 

Potato   Diseases,    Spraying   Against     534 
Potatoes,    Result    of    Spraying    for 
Irish    IBlight      ...  ...  ...     745 

Potatoes  ...  ...  ...     390 

Rhubarb  ...  ...  ...     391 

Soya    Bean  ...  ...  ...     391 

Vernacular       Names       of       Victorian 
Plants  ...  ...  443,   567 

Viticulture — 

Vine    Diseases    in    France    (Fungi- 
cide   Sprays)    ...  ...    54,   116,   173 

Vine     Moth     Caterpillar     Parasite, 

The ...  ...     553 

Vineyards,     Use    of    Lime    in    Vic- 
torian ...  ...  ...     628 

"  Metallica   Cape"  ...  ...     421 

Grapes  and  other  Soft  Fruits,  Ship- 
ment   of  ...  ...  ...      108 

Grapes,   Export  of,    from    Sjxiin   ... 
Grapes,   Storage  Test  of   Shipping 
Wines,  Basis  ...  ...         321 

Wallis,   E.— 

Unprofitable       Orchards,       Reasons 
and    Remedies 
Water    Requirements    of    Crops 
"  Watsonia     Meriana "     (Weeds,     Na- 
turalized Aliens  and   Poison   Plants 
of   Victoria) 
Wattles  and  Wattle  Barks  ... 
Weed    Seeds,    Germination   of 
Welding   (Farm  Blacksmithing) 
Wheat — 

Wheat  and  its  Cultivation     gi,   181, 

265,    329,   457, 
Wheat    Germination,    Influence 

Superphosphates 
Wheat  Harvest,  The  Victorian 
Wheat,   Strength  in 
Wheat,     Influence    of    Radio-active 
Mineral   on   the   Germination   and 
on  the  Growth  of  ...  ...     417 

Whitewash,  A  Durable         ...  ...     576 

Wilson,   Austin — 

Hull,  Port  as  a  Distributing  Centre 
for  Australian    Produce  ...     282 

Wilson,    J. — ■ 

Building    Hints    for    Settlers         12,   576 

Sparrow  Trap,   An   Effective  ...     225 

Wines,    Basis  ...  ...  321,  488 

Worms       ...  ...  ...  ...       71 

Worms   in    Sheep    ...  ...  ...     154 

Worms    in    Yearlings  ...  ...     582 


543^ 
of 


409 

715 


504 
349 


359 
684 
229 
123 

201, 
694 

256 

387 
286 


iTol.  X. 


SILOS    AND    SILAGE. 
UNIT    VALUES    FOR    1912.  Part  1. 

rReari?tered  at  the  General  Post  Office,  Melbourne,  for  transmission  by  Post  as  a  Nevvspaper.l 


F.  H.  BRUNNING, 


PTY. 
LTD. 


ALL   ORCHARDIST'S    REQUIREMENTS. 

Spray  Pumps,   Secateurs,    Pruning  Saws,  Fruit  Tree  Nets, 

Fruit  Tree  Tags,   Surpazoll,   Nikoteen,    Bordeaux    Mixture, 

Gloves,    Aerial    Tree    Pruners,    Aphis    Brushes,    Syringes, 

Pruning    and    Budding    Knives,    Grafting    Wax. 


Seed  &Bulb 
Manual. 

Containing  over  130  pp. 
and  giving  full  prices 
and  information  of   our 

large  stock. 
Post  Free  on  application. 


DEMON 

BIRD 

SCARERS. 

The  best  and  most 

effective  machines  on  the 

marliet  for  keeping  birds 

away  from  fruit. 

Write  for   particulars. 


Corn  Queen 
Planters. 

Can   l»e   used  for  Peas, 

Beans,  &c.,  as  well 

as  Maize. 

With  Fertilizers,  £20  10s. 
Without    ,,  JE15  lOs. 

(See  Illustration  beloiv.) 


HEMINGWAY'S 

ARSENATE 

OF 

LEAD. 

Best  and  Purest  Make 
in  Commerce. 

Head  of  all  brands  in 
recent  Govt,  analysis. 
Prices  on  application. 


PLANET     JUNR.     IMPLEMENTS     OF     ALL     DESCRIPTIONS. 

AERATORS,    PLANTER'S    FRIEND   and   CAHOON    SOWERS,    SPADES,    HOES,    FORKS. 


MAIZE. 

LUCERNE. 

RAPE. 

RYE    GRASS. 

COCKSFOOT. 

SOY   BEANS. 


pUEEN 

(CORN     QUEEN     PLANTER.) 


PASPALUM. 

PHALARIS. 

SORGHUMS. 

MILLET. 

MANGELS. 
CHOU  MOELLIER. 


VEGETABLE,    FLOWER  &  TREE    SEEDS. 


64    ELIZABETH-ST.,    MELBOURNE. 


THE     -JOXJRXx^^L 


OF 


THE  DEPAPJWIENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


A.   T.   SHARP,   Editor. 


CONTENTS.— JANUARY,     1912. 


T^ee-keeping  in  Victoria — Location  ... 
Bees  and  Spraying 

l)airy  IVoducts  from  the  London  Market 
Building  Hints  for  Settlers — 

XVL  Two-bail  xMilking  Shed  ... 
.Silos  and  Silage   ... 
Artificial  Manures  Acts — 

Unit  Values  for  1912 

List  of  Registered  Fertilizers  ... 
Nhill  Farm  Competitions,  1911 
Farm  Elacksmithing — -Welding  (conrinued) 
Vine  Diseases  in  France^Fungicide  Sprays 
Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees — Pruning 
■Orchard  and  Garden  Notes 
A  New  Lucerne  Trouble — Downy  Mildew    ... 
Victorian  Egg-laying  Competition,  1911-12... 
Insectivorous  Birds  of  Victoria — Frontal  Shrike  Tit 
The  Olive — Propagation    ... 
Answers  to  Correspondents — 

Topping  up  Cockerels  ...     71  Worms 

Non-Pregnancy  ...  ...     71  Itch 

Removal  of  Afterbirth  ...     71 

^Reminders  for  February 


PAQB. 

F.  R.  Btuhne       1 

E.  E.  Pescotf  and  F.  R.  Beuhne      4 

R.  Crowe      6 

J.   Wihon     12 
G.  H.  F.  Baker    15 


P.  R.  Scott 

P.  R.  Scott 

A.  E.   V.  Richardson 

G.  Baxter 

F.  de  Ca^tdla 

C.  F.  Cole 

E.  E.  Pescott 

C.  C.  Brittlebank 

II.    v.  Haivkius 

C.  French.  Jiinr. 

L.   Maidoiiald 


22 
26 
33 
49 
54 
57 
63 
65 
67 
68 
69 

71 
71 

72 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

The  Articles  in  the  Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agiieulture  of  Victoria  are 
'protected  by  the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act.  Proprietors  of  newspapers  wishing 
to  republish  any  matter  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  provided  the  Journal  and  author  are 
both  acknowledged. 

The  Journal  is  issued  monthly.  The  subscription,  which  is  payable  in  advance 
and  includes  postage,  is  3s.  per  annum  for  the  Commonwealth  and  Xew  Zealand,  and 
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Subscriptions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 
A  complete  list  of  the  various  publications  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
will  be  supplied  by  the  latter. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,    1912, 


No  other  Windmill  has  a 
Speed-governing  Device  like 
the   ''Billabong's." 


This  important  improvement  of  ours 
is  protected  by  patent  rights.  It  has 
neither  springs  nor  weights — nothing 

to  get  out  of  order.  By  merely  turning  a  screw  you  can 
vary  the  speed  of  the  mill  to  your  desire.  This  will  be 
found  to  be  of  great  advantage  when  Windmill  is  sub- 
jected to  a  change  of  load,  and  in  heav}-  gales,  &c. 


Stop   and   Consider. 


you  want  a  mill  to  give  lifelong  service :  therefore,  it  must  be  made  of  good 
material.  Bearings  should  be  so  made  that  they  may  be  cheaply  and  quickly 
renewed.  Frictional  or  wearing  parts  should  be  few;  and,  what  is  most  im- 
portant, the  mill  should  have  a  lubricating  system  that  will  insure  its  being 
thoroughly  and  continuously  lubricated  while  working,  but  which  will  prevent 
waste  when  mill  is  not  required.  The  mill  should  be  responsive  to  a  very 
light  breeze,  yet  stantl  a  gale. 

In    oar   Mill    al!    these    Points    are    provided    for. 

We  know  what  is  required  of  a  good  mill — we  have  had  many  j-ears  of  windmill 
experience.  The  fact  that  we  have  obtained  ]iatent  rights  proves  our  pro- 
gressiveness;  and,  as  to  quality  and  workmanship,  our  being  established  for 
over  half  a  century  answers. 

Suppose  You   Save, 

say,  £1,  or  £1  10s.,  or  £2,  by  buying  a  cheaper  mill,  and  then  have  to  spend 
£2  to  £3  in  repairs — again  another  £3  or  £4 ;  or,  suppose  your  cheap  mi.l 
sticks  up  when  j'ou  most  need  it,  you  will  soon  lose  pounds  and  pounds' 
worth  of  stock ;   or,  if  it  blows  down  in  a  gale,  where  is  j-our  saving  then  ? 

Pay  a  Proper  Price  and  get  tlie  Right  Article  with 
a     Good     Manufacturing    Firm     to     back    it    up. 

But  the  truth  is,  while  our  mills  are  well  made,  the  price  is  so  reasonable. 
Write  for  Catalogue  and  Prices. 

We  can  supply  Tanks  and  Stands;  Pumps  of  all  kinds;  Piping,  Troughing, 
and  Fluming;    Farm  and  (Jarden  Tools,  Implements,  and  Requisites. 


JOHN  DANKS  &  SON 

391=395   Bourke  Street,   Melbourne. 


PTY. 
LTD. 


lo  Jan.,   19 1 2.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


Ill 


START    RIGHT  !  ! 


When  equipping  the  thiiry  with  maeliinery  don't  let  the  matter  of  a  £1  or  two  influence 
your  choice,  and  prevent  you  from  obtaining  the  best  and  most  up-to-date  plant  that 
money  can  buy.  A  mistake  made  at  the  outset  means  just  the  difference  between 
success  and  failure.  It  is  false  economy  to  purchase  machinery  of  any  description 
simply  because  it  is  "cheap" — the  sweetness  of  low  price  never  equals  the  bitterness  of 
poor  quality.  Before  purchasing  a  cream  separator,  milking  machine,  or  petrol  engine, 
visit  the  farms  of  the  prominent  and  successful  dairymen,  and  you  will  find  that  over 
90  per  cent,  of  them  have  either  the 

"ALFA-LAVAL"  SEPARATOR 
"L-K-G"  MILKING  MACHINES 
"FELIX"  INDUSTRIAL  MOTOR 

installed  in  their  dairies  or  milking  sheds.  You  run  no  risk  whatever  in  purchasing  any 
of  the  above  time-tested  machines,  because  they  are  guaranteed  to  be  as  rejn'esented, 
but  should  they  fail  to  make  good  wliat  is  claimed  for  them  we  will  take  them  back 

again  and  paj'  all  expenses. 

Our  full-line  Catalogue  No.  3583,  describes  in  detail  these 
best-of-all  machines ;  it  also  gives  full  particulars  and 
prices  of  the  most  modern  farm,  dairy,  and  cheese-making 
requisites. Posted  free   on  application.  — Write  for  it. 


J.  BARTRAM  &  SON  IV^..  19-23  KING  STREET,  MELBOURNE. 

SOLE  AGENTS :— Galvanized  all-steel  portable  Silos. 


Every  Farmer  and  Grazier 


should  have  a  Telephone  Service  con- 
necting with  tlie  nearest  Post  Office. 
Thousands  of  Austi-alian  farmers  have 
already  installed  Telephones,  the  ad- 
vantages of  which  are  so  numerous  and 
valuable  that  it  is  impossible  to  measure 
or  appreciate  their  worth  until  you 
have  one. 


A  well-known  Victorian  grazier,  Mr.  V/.  Gardiner, 
writes  regarding  The  "  ERICSSON  "  TELEPHONE  :— 

"  I  find  the  telephone  the  most  useful  inven- 
tion I  have  on  the  farm,  both  in  labour  and  time 
saving,  also  for  business  ))urposes.  It  has  often 
saved  me  the  price  of  itself  in  one  transaction,  and 
has  paid  for  itself  50  times  over  in  two  cases  of 
calling  medical  aid  when  no  one  could  go  for  it. 
The  "  ERICSSON  "  gives  satisfaction  in  every  way." 

^_^      Prices,  edimates,  and  full  particulars, 
''■■•.  on  application  to — 


J,  BARTRAi  I  m 


PTY. 
LTD., 


19-23    KING    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 

REPREStlNTING       THE       L.        M.        ERICSSON       TELEPHONE       COMPANY. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912. 


[F  you  want  to  have  them  up  in  a   //^' 

fraction  of  the  time  taken  with 
bar  and  spade  !   If  you  want  to  miss 
tlie  laborious  bar  work  and  ramming 
Then  .   .   . 


BUY 
THE 


"iWflN" 


POST    HOIiE   DIGGER. 

The  Greatest  of  all  Earth  Boring  Tools. 

It  cuts  the  hole  just  the  size  for  the  post,  in  a 
fraction  of  the  time  taken  with  bar  and  spade, 
and  no  time  is  lost  ramming.       Works  in  all 
conditions   and  kinds  of  soil — not  rock.     On  a 
fencing  job  120  ten-inch  holes  can  be  easily  bored 
in  a  day,   or  200  smaller  sizes.     By  extending  the 
pipe  bar  the  "  IWAN "  POST  HOLE  DIGGER  bores 
Empties  with  a  shake  ;  is  built 
-has  no  adjustable  parts  to  wobble 


down  to  35  feet, 
rigid — stays  rigid 
about  or  stick. 


EVENTUALLY-WHY   NOT  NOW! 

3        4       5       6        7       8       9       10       12       14  in. 

7/.  7/=  7/=  7/.  7/6  8/6  9/6  10/=  27/-  34/=  eacli. 

Thomas  McPherson  &  Son 

Established  51  Years, 

554-566  &  582-588  Collins-St.,  Melbourne. 


lo   Jan.,    TgiJ.I       r  Journal  of  Agriculiurc,    Vicforia- 

IS    YOUR    FRUITGROWING    A    HOBBY? 
OR    ARE    YOU    AFTER      £i        S.         D.  ?  ? 

In  either  case  it  will  PAY  YOU  to  use  .  .  . 

"AUSTRAL"  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD 

As  it  will  give  you  the  highest  percentage  of  clean  fruit, 

AND     COSTS     YOU     LESS. 

(Many  grrowers  get  100%  clean.  You  can  get  the  same.) 


TO  SAVE  THE  COST  OF  ONE  SPRAYING  you  should  combine— 

AUSTRAL    BORDEAUX    PASTE    -    4  lbs.  )      ^     gQ        „ 
AUSTRAL    ARSENATE    OF    LEAD    2  lbs.  j 

In    this    way   you   control   both   Black    Spot   and    Codlin    Moth,  and  the  time  saved 

means  extra  £  s.  d.  to  you. 
Write  for  Particulars,  nientionin;^  Journal  of  AgHculture. 


INTERSTATE  AGENTS. 

N.S.W.— F.     CHILTON,  ,  Tasmania— FRENCH     BROS., 

Belmore  Markets,  Sydney.  i  Patterson  Street,  Launceston. 

Queensland— COOKSLEY    &    CO.,  4*  ^'  Australia-R.     MANNING    &    CO., 

Turbot  Street,  Brisbane.  .j>  Wellington  Street,  Perth. 

S.  Australia— H.    C.     RICHARDS,  I  New  Zealand-ARCHER  &  HALLIBURTON, 

Blyth  Street,  Adelaide.  '  Cliri»tchur'  h. 


A        J        JENKINS      ^^STR^L    SPRAY    CHEMICAL    WORKS, 


368    Queen's    Parade,    Clifton    Hill,    Victoria. 


MAIZE    FOR    FODDER. 

Craig    Mitchell    Mammoth    White. 

ENORMOUS     GRAIN    YIELDER,     150    Bushels    to    the    Acre. 
Average  Yield  for  Green  Feed,  50  to  55  Tons  per  Acre. 

Pedigree  Seed,  9s.  per  bushel.  Cheaper  in  quantity.  Order  early  to  prevent 
disappointment.  Write  for  our  descriptive  Farm  and  Maize  List,  posted  gratis  ; 
also  General  Seed  and  Plant  Catalogue.     The  leading  house  for  Lucerne  and  Rape. 

Try  the  NEW    GIANT    KANGAROO    RAPE. 

For  Cattle,  Sheep,  Horses,  Pigs,  Fowls,  &c.,  it  is  unsurpassable.  WILL  FATTEN 
THREE  MORE  SHEEP  TO  THE  ACRE  THAN  OTHER  KINDS.  WUl 
grow  to  a  height  of  11  feet,  growing  2  feet  in  five  weeks,  7^  feet  in  under  twelve 
weeks.     Price,  8d.  per  lb.,  60s.  per  cwt. 

AGRICULTURAL    SEED    A    SPECIALITY. 


LAW,  SOMNER,  &  Co.,  Seed  and  Plant  Merchants, 

139-141   SWANSTON  STREET,  MELBOURNE. 

Established  61   Years.  'PHONE,    CENTRAL  729. 


vi  Journal  of  Agriculture .    Victoria.  [lo   Jan.,    1912. 

"AUSTRAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES. 

FIVE  YEARS   OF   UNBROKEN    SUCCESS 

Have  established  the  AUSTRAL  as  the  Premier  Milking  Machine,  and 

have  demonstrated  that  it  does  not  belong  to  that  class  of  appliances  whose 
efficiency  terminates  after  a  few  months  of  use.  It  has  stood  the  test  of  time,  and 
that  under  all  sorts  of  conditions. 

IT    IS    SIMPLE. 

Complexity  and  intricacy  are  the  bane  of  milking  machinery.  Both  in  principle 
and  construction  the  AustrRl  is  strikingly  simple.  Minute  pulsating  mechanism 
on  teat  cups  or  buckets  has  been  entirely  dispensed  with,  its  place  being  taken  by 
a  single  pulsating  pump,  simple  and  strong  in  construction,  which  serves  for  the 
whole  outfit,  whether  two  cows  or  ten  are  to  be  milked  at  a  time.  The  pulsating 
pump  is  placed  in  the  engine  room,  remote  from  the  cows. 

IT    IS    AN    EASY    MILKER. 

Fear  of  injury  to  cows  was  at  one  time  the  bogie  of  machine  milking.  The  Austra.! 
has  done  away  with  all  that.  Its  action  on  the  cow  is  as  gentle  as  that  of  the 
softest  hand,  and  much  easier  than  the  average  hired  help.  After  three  and  four 
years'  milking  with  the  machines,  cows  are  found  to  be  as  sound  in  the  quarters 
as  when  they  started.  Enquiry  from  any  AuStral  user  will  confirm  the  correct- 
ness of  this  statement. 

IT  IS  THE  LAST  WORD  IN  ECONOMICAL  DAIRYING. 

The  working  parts  are  so  few  and  the  construction  so  simple  and  solid,  that  wear 
and  tear,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  upkeep,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  An 
outstanding  feature  of  the  Austral  is  the  Tank  System,  whereby  the  milk  is 
conducted  direct  from  cow  to  separator  witliout  any  handling  whatever.  With 
this  system,  so  great  a  saving  is  effected  in  time,  labour,  and  trouble,  that  in 
ordinary  circumstances  its  advantages  are  overwheln  in/.  A  single  bucket  can  be 
supplied  for  testing  individual  cows ;  or  where  spec  al  requirements  render  it  pre- 
ferable, complete  bucket  plants  can  be  installed. 

GLOBE  CREAM   SEPARATORS.      .         CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES. 

Embodies  the   famous   Link-Blade    Bowl  I  The  world's  standard  Oil  Engine.      In  all 

Structure.     Official  tests  conducted  by  the  [  sizes  and  for  all  descriptions  of  farm  work. 

Swedish  Government  at  Alnarp  placed  the  ^ 

"Globe"  in  the  very  forefront  for  clean  ^^  VACCAR    PETROL    ENGINES. 

skimming    and    easy    running,   against    all  t 

competitors.  f  British    built.            Low    running    speed. 

All  sizes  from  14  to  200  gallons.  Economical  on  fuel. 

WINDWILLS,  SAW-GEHCHES,  CK/^FF-CUTTERS,  ar^d  all  Farq  and  Dairy  Machinery. 

W.;en  writing,  please  mention  this  Journal. 

W.  H.  BLflCKHflm,  =°"  ""^ ^"' 


J    MELBOURNE. 


[o   ]a\\.    191J.I 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Yictoria. 


M& 


Herd    of    Prize 

Winnings  and 
Heavy  Milk  ^ 
and  Butter  Pro- 
ducing  Strains* 


YOUNG      BULLS     AND      HEIFERS 


FOR     SALE. 


INSPECTION     3y     APPOINTMEN I 


WILIiIflJI  WOODlVIflSOK,  ""„*;"" 


MALVERN,     MELBOURNE,    Vic. 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,    Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,    191; 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT    LAND. 


The  followin;j  allotments  on  the  various  Estates  are  availalile  for  application  : — • 

Wheat  Growing". 

Estate.  ^,?,-j}  Area, 


Irrigation  Areas. 


tstale. 

No.  of 
Allots. 

Kovuya 

17 

Swan  Hill       .. 

6 

Cohuna 

36 

Sheppaiton    .. 

8 

Naniieella 

24 

Baniawm 

17 

Toiiyala 

71 

Dairying-  a 

nd  Mi 

Bona  Vista    . . 

3 

Deepdene 

13 

Eunieralla     . . 

12 

Meadowbank 

1 

AUanibee 

10 

Morven 

17 

Werribee 

24 

Kenihvfjrth  . . 

2 

Mooralla 

1 

Cremona 

6 

Glenaladale  . . 

4 

totalling 


Area. 

f      72  acres. 

492  „ 

2,656  „ 

77  „ 

2,020  „ 

GfiS  „ 

3,92G  ,, 


287  acres. 

2,294  „ 

4,896  „ 

51  „ 

1,GC.4  „ 

5,rs5  „ 

4,943  „ 

1,198  „ 

026  „ 

499  „ 

502 


Cornelia  Creek 
Oaklands 
Hurstwood     . . 
Mt.  Widderln 
Nerrin  Nerrin 


No.  of 
Allots. 

7        totalling-    2,755  acres. 

7  „  4,699  „ 

10  „  4,884  „ 

17  „  5,922  „ 

17  „  3,736  „ 


Beet  Growing-  and  Dairying-. 


Boisdale 
Kihnan\'  Park 


5        totalling'       361  acres. 
70  ,,  7,988    ,, 


Clerks'  Homes. 


Glen  Huntly 
Toorona'a 


7  allotments. 
62 


Workmen's  Homes. 

Pender's  Grove      . .  . .  . .        68  allotments. 

Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending:  over  31i  years,  with 
pajnnents  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  value  of 
permanent  impro\ements  effected,  repayments  extending  over  fifteen  years  bearing  5  per  cent,  interest. 

For  full  information  and  terms  apply  to  THE     SECRETARY , 

LANDS    PURCHASE    AND     MANAGEMENT    BOAR^. 

MELBOURNE. 


AUSTRALIA'S  WACON  ;i"  Tv," 


PATENT 

STEEL 
WHEELS. 

Patent  Felloes. 
Renewable  Carron 
Boxes  and  Oil  Caps. 

The  only  Steel  Wheel 

that  has  stood 

the  Test. 

Beware  of 
Imitations. 


A.  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningie,  South  Australia,  says: — 

Dear  Sir,  —  I  have  received  Sprinsj'  Wau'on.  I  am  well  pleased  with  same 
well,  and  I  think  those  who  have  Steel  Wheels  will  never  >ise  the  old  style  ayain. 
of  two  tons  of  potatoes  over  a  bad  road  of  30  miles,  wher 


I  never  thought  it  would  run  so 

Two  horses  carried  niy  first  load 

the  old  stvle  of  wagon  was  bogged,  and  is  still  there. 

August,  1903. 
ALBERT  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningie,  S.A.,  says  :— 

Dear  Sir,— In  answer  to  .\our  letter  wanting  to  know  how  tlie  wheels  of  my  wagon  are,  I  am  pleased  to  tell 
you  I  have  had  the  wagon  about  6i  years,  and  it  has  not  cost  me  a  shilling  ;  the' wheels  are  like  new,  and  I  have 
done  a  lot  of  heavy  carting.  Only  being  a  2-ton  Wagon,  I  lent  it  to  a  man  cartiny  wheat,  and  he  had  some  very 
rough  roads,  loads  being  about  50  liags.  Your  Wagons  are  worth  their  moncA',  and  I  would  not  be  without  one  of 
them.     I  think  this  Wagon  will  last  my  life  time.     40"  and  36*  Wheels.  "  August  13th.  1910. 


IPP"  TABLE  TOP— Truck  body,  and  a!l  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
\NRITE    FOR     CATALOG     TO-DAY. 


R.  J.  L.  HILDYARD, 


QUEEN'S    BRIDGE-ST., 
SOUTH   MELBOURNE,  V. 


lo  Jan.,    lyi^] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria. 


"CYCLONE" 


SPRING 
COIL  .  . 
FENCE. 


SENT    OUT     IN     ROLLS 
READY     FOR     ERECTION. 


VARIOUS     HEIGHTS     AND     SPACINGS. 

THE  Cyclone  Spring  Coil  Fence  is  sent  out  in  5-chain  rolls,  and  is  easily  erected.  The  crimps  in  the 
horizontal  lines  make  it  elastic.  Cross  ties,  1  ft.  apart,  form  a  perfect  web,  which  will  hold  any 
stock,  large  or  small.  Resistin<^  power  is  immense,  any  strain  being  distributed  over  the  whole  fence. 
It  is  an  advantage  to  have  posts  further  apart  than  in  ordinary  fences.  It  cannot  be  strained  past 
tension  point,  anfl  thus  needs  no  after  straining.  Top  and  bottom  lines  No.  9  gauge  wire ;  intermediate 
No.  11 ;  cross  ties  No.  13. 

"The  Cyclone  Spring  Coil  is  a  GOOD  Fence." 


v: 


GET    OUR     CATALOGUE    OF    FENCES    AND     GATES. 

CYCLONE    WOVEN o      459  SWANSTON  STREET, 

WIRE  FENCE    &   GATE    CO.      •  IVIELBOURNE 


. 


^ 


Jyurnal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912, 


GLEN  ELGIN'S   PHILANTHROPIST"  299  A.H.B.   of  Aus. 


(|)^ 


(|)(|) 


Winner  of  Champion,  Sydney  Royal  Show,  1909,  1910,  1911. 
Reserve  Champion,  Melbourne  Royal  Show,  1907,  1908,  1911. 

Also  holds  the  record  of  142  Firsts,  Chain[)ions,   Specials,  and  Gold  Medals  for  Ayrshire 

and  Dairy  Bull. 


The  '^GlengarDoek"  Stad 


of  Pure^i::^ 

flyrshit^e  Cattle 


Has  won  innumerable  prizes  in  the  ring.       The  females  in  this  herd  are  noted  for 
deep  and  heavy  milking  and  test  well  above  the  average,  and  are  kind  and  quiet. 

CHOICE   YOUNG    HERDBOOK    BULLS    FOR  SALE 

At  from  5  to  25  guineas  each. Special  Show  Bulls  higher. 

From  Best  Cows  only,  by  Pure  Herdbook  Bulls.      Full  pedigrees  and  particulars,  with 
photographs  of  animal  for  sale,  his  sire  and  dam,  will  be  forwarded  on  application. 


INSPECTION  CORDIALLY  INVITED. 

Address — 


VISITORS  MET  AT  LANC  LANG  RAILWAY  STATION. 


^4 


A.  T.  PRIESTLEY. 


Post       V'GLENCARNOCK," 

'  lelegSh'j  YANNATHAN,  Vic. 


o 
o 

z 


lo  Jan.,   19 1 2.] 


Journal  of  Ai^ricidtiirc ,    Victoria. 


XI 


^ 


■^^^ 


Vacuum 

Harness 

Oil 


vacuuw    oil  compANv 


Vacuum 

Harness 
Oil 


•i 


Vacuum 

Harness 
Oil 


Vacuum 

Leather  Oil 


replaces  the  original  and  natural    oils 
in   leather   which   quickly   disappear 
when  harness  is  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Vacuum  Leather  Oil 

preserves  the  leather;  keeps  it  soft  and 
pliable  as  a  kid  glove ;  gives  a  black 
finish;  makes  it  water-proof;  and  pre- 
vents it  from  breaking  and  cracking. 

Write  for  booklet:  "How  to  Take  Care  of  Leather.'* 

Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd. 

90  William  Street.  Melbourne. 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [lo  Jan.,   1912^ 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRrCULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

GOVERNMENT  STUD  BULLS. 

AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  BELONGING  TO  BONA-FIDE  SETTLERS  UNDER  THE 

CLOSER   SETTLEMENT   ACTS. 


Fee,  5s.  per  cow. 


Jersey  Bull  "DREADNOUGHT";    Calved,   22nd  October,  1908. 

girt  \ — Sir  Jack  (188).         Dam  : — Lady  Kitchener,  by  Lord  Melbourne. 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  H.  Crumpler,  Block  148,  Bamaiom. ) 

Jersey  Bull   "ROSE    FOX";    Calved,    19th  August,   1909. 

Sire  : — Starbright  Fox  (190).         Dam  : — Tuberose,  by  Magnet's  Progress  (54  A.J.H.B.). 
(In  charge  of  Mr.  E.  W.  Prater,  Block  106,  Bamawm.) 

Jersey  Bull  "VERBENA'S    BOY";   Calved,   10th  January,  1908. 

Sire  : — Acrobat.         Dam  : — Verbena  2nd,  by  Snowdrop's  Progress  2nd. 
{In  charge  of  Messrs.  Laing  and  Mundie,  Block  70,  Bamawm. ) 

Jersey  Bull  "NOBILITY";    Calved,  2nd  April,  1910. 

Sire  : — Lucy's  Noble  of  Oaklands.  Dam  : — Winnie  of  Melrose  3rd,  by  Royal  Blue. 

(In  charge  of  Mr.  E.  T.  Partington,  Block  136,  Bamawm.) 

Jersey  Bull  "MILKY   WAY";    Calved,  20th  June,   1909. 
Sire :— Starbright  Fox  (190).     Dam :— Milkmaid  34th  (590),  by  Plinliramon  (imp.  62  A.H.B.). 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  L.  S.  Hulands,  Block  91,  Nanneella.) 

Jersey  Bull  "GOLD   MEDAL";   Calved,  3rd  April,  1910. 

Sire  :— Golden  Fox  ( 1 42  A.J. H. B. ).         Dam ;— Melba,  by  Greystanes  2nd. 
{In  charge  of  Messrs.  Jacobs  and  Kennedy,  Blocks  43  and  44,  Nanneella.) 

Jersey  Bull  "MAGNET'S   FOX";   Calved,  6th  November,  1909. 

Sire  :— Fox's  Laddie.         Dam  :— Magnet  28th,  by  Defender  (imp.)  (2288  H.C.  J.H.B.). 
(In  charge  of  Mr.  C.  G.  Woods,  Block  29,  Koyuga.) 

Jersey  Bull  "CREAM    PROSPECT";   Calved,  22nd  March,  1910. 

Sire:— Lord  Creamer  (155  A.J.H.B.).  Dam  :— Daisy  of  Prospect  (347  A.J.H.B.), 

by  Cardigan. 
(In  charge  of  Mr.  L.  H.  Radclyffe,  Block  2,  Koyuga. ) 

Jersey  Bull  "ZODIAC";    Calved,   lOth  November,   1908. 

Sire  :— Starbright  Fox  (190).         Dam  :— Zoe  4th  (805),  by  Handsome  Hero. 
(In  charge  of  Mr.  R.  J.  Chappell,  Block  12F,  Swan  Hill.) 

Jersey  Bull  "GAY    FOX";   Calved,   12th  May,  1909. 

Sire  :— Starbriglit  Fox  (190).         Dam  :— Floss,  by  Plinlimmon  (imp.  62). 
(Di  charge  of  Mr.  F.  Co.v,  Block  6D,  Swan  Hill. ) 


lo   Jan.,    1912.]  Journal  of  Ai:^ricul!iirt\    Yicioria.  xiii 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

GOVERNMENT  STUD  BULLS. 

AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  BELONGING  TO   BONA-FIDE  SETTLERS  UNDER  THE 
CLOSER  SETTLEMENT  ACTS-'^^^^^*'^^^^. 


Fee,  5s.  per  cow. 


Jersey  Bull  "WILLIAM   OF  AYRE";   Calved,  February,  1910. 

Sire  : — Favourite's  Fox  2nd.         Dam  : — Bessie  McCarthy,  by  Snowflake's  Progress, 
(/n  charge  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Dickinson,  Block  13,  Nyah.) 


Jersey  Bull  "FOX'S    LAD";   Calved,  5th  October,  1908. 

Sire  : — Fox,  by  Suowdrop's  Progress  2nd.         Dam  : — Pansy  2nd,  by  Duke. 
{hi  charge  of  Mr.  Ernest  E.  Borley,  Block  6,  Nyah. ) 


Ayrshire  Bull  "PETER  OF  WILLOWVALE";  Calved,  30th  Sept.,  1909. 

tSiVe  :— Annetta's  Pride  (243).  Dam: — Madge  2nd  (Appendix  A.H.B.),   by  Red 

Chief  (359), 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  F.  Mclvor,  Block  12F,  Swan  Hill. ) 

Particulars  of   extended  pedigrees,  milking  records,  &c.,  can    be   obtained   from    each   bull 

holder,    from   the    resident   Dairy   Supervisors  (Mr.  O'KEEFE,  Rochester,  or  Mr.  S.  J.  KEYS, 

Swan  Hill),  or  from  The  Department  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 


AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  THE  PROPERTY  OF  BEET  GROWERS  AT  BOISDALE. 

Red  Danish  Bull  "CLAUDIUS";    Calved,   10th  November,   1909. 
Sire: — Ernst  Bellinge  (imp.).  Dam: — Kirsten  IX.  (imp.). 

Fee,  5s.  (available  to  30  cows). 


Red  Danish  Bull  "HAMLET";  Calved,  1st  August,  1910. 

Sire  : — Ernst  Bellinge  (imp.).      Dam  : — Marianne  IV.     G.  Dam  : — Marianne  III.  (imp.). 
Fee,  5s.  (available  to  10  heifers). 


Red  Polled  Bull  "TABACUM";   Calved,   12th  November,  1908. 

Sire  : — Acton  Ajax  (imp.).  Dam  : — Janet,  by  Primate  by  Laureate  (imp.). 

Fee,  7s.  6d.  (available  to  20  cows). 


Jersey  Bull  "GAY  LAD  II.";    Calved,  8th  August,  1906. 

Sire  : — Acrobat,  by  Cherry's  Pride  (imp.).     Dain  : — Gaiety,  by  Snowdrop's  Progress  II., 

by  Lady  Superior's  Progress  (imp.). 
Fee,  5s.  (available  to  40  cows).  (Winner  of  7  first  prizes.) 

Pai-ticulars   of  extended  pedigrees,  milking   records  and   prizes  may  be  obtained  from,  and 
arrangement  for  service  made  with,  Mr.  E.  STEER,  at  the  Homestead  Block  21,  where  the 

bulls  are  kept. 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912, 


The  "BAVE-U"  Power  Sprayer. 


THE  PIONEER   -   - 

POWER  SPRAYER 
OF  AUSTRALIA.    . 

Does  the  work  of 

TWO  Hand  Sprayers 

at  ONE-FOURTH 

the  cost. 


All  particulars  on  application  to — 

E,TJSSE]LILi     &     CO.      #      Engineers. 

Makers  of  Irrigation  Plants.        Engines  for  all  purposes. 

:^  o  3K     xs:  X  X.  X.,     tme  x3x<^oxtxs,:n'X3. 

To  GRAZIERS,  FARMERS,  and  DAIRYMEN. 

You  cannot  do  better  than  purchase  your  requirements  from 

THE    VICTORIA    VARNISH    Coy.  ^T4  1^ 

Who  are  Importers  and  Manufacturers  of  the  undeimentioned,  namely  : — 

Varnishes  for  all   uses,    Paints,    Dry  Colors,    Stainer's    Turpentine, 
Boiled    and    Raw    Linseed    Oil,    Resin,    Shellac,    White    Lead,    &c. 

OUR   MANUFACTURE     IS     OF     ONE     QUALITY— THE     BEST. 

Note  the  Address— 

The  VICTORIA  VARNISH  COY.  Proprietary  Ltd.,  Queen's  Bridge,  South  Melb. 


Tel.   Central  614.  Established   1853. 


A.    J.    BORTHWICK,    Manager. 


BONEDUST,  SUPERPHOSPHATE, 

AND     OTHER     HIGH-GRADE     FERTILIZERS 

DELIVERED  AT  RAILWAY  STATION,  FOOTSCRAY,  OR  ON  WHARF,  MELBOURNE. 

'9  IJ^ELZXVI.fa.CS'fc'UI.Z'^Z*. 

Office :— 407  POST  OFFICE  PLACE,  MELBOURNE. 

BONES  BOUGHT.      CONSIGN  TO  ME,  FOOTSCRAY.  Telephone  2098. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


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Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912. 


DON'T  WASTE  YOUR  TIME  AT  THE  PUMP  HANDLE. 


FOR  foolish  it  is  for  a  man  to  try  to  raise  water  for  stock  or  garden  by  means  of 
a  hand  pump.  Windmills  are  to  be  obtained  now  so  cheap  that  it  is  a  folly, 
rank  folly,  to  waste  one's  time  at  the  pump  handle ;  the  windmill  will  not 
only  do  the  work  better,  but  do  it  cheaper  than  any  other  method  of  raising  water. 
The  farmer,  or  the  farmer's  man's  time  would  be  much  better  employed  about  the 
farm.  The  first  cost  of  a  windmill  is  practically  its  only  cost.  All  that  is  re- 
quired to  keep  it  in  order  for  years  is  simply  to  lubricate  it  occasionally,  and  this, 
with  recent  improvements,  needs  only  to  be  done  about  once  a  month.  For  many 
j'ears  the  ALSTON  Windmill  has  become  a  household  word.  The  fame  of  the  ALSTON 
mill  has  spread  far  and  wide.  They  have  made  their  reputation  by  actvial  merit  on 
actual  service,  by  their  simplicity  and  superior  construction.  They  have  stood  the 
test  of  years.  They  have  been  erected  in  the  most  exposed  sites  with  impunity.  They 
have  been  used  successfully  on  wells  and  bores  three  and  four  hundred  feet  deep.  They 
have  been  used  for  pumping  through  miles  of  piping  to  higher  levels.  They  have 
been  used  for  pumping  for  stock  ;  for  irrigation ;  for  drainage ;  for  house  and  for 
garden,  and  almost  everything  that  a  pump  is  used  for. 


Thej'  have  been  imitated  and  envied  by  rival  makers  but  have  never  been  ex- 
celled. Every  ALSTON  mill  that  has  been  sold  has  been  an  advertisement  for  its 
maker,  and  the  demand  for  the  ALSTON  mill  has  increased  year  after  year,  and  still 
preserves  its  jiremier  position  in  the  Commonwealth.  Thousands  of  the  ALSTON 
Windmills  are  made  annually,  and  thousands  of  the  ALSTON  mills  have  been  in  constant 
use  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  faithfully  doing  the  work  of  water-lifting,  to  the 
satisfaction  and  delight  of  the  foresighted  and  enterprising  stock-owners  who  installed 
them  ;  now,  seeing  the  advantages  of  their  use,  thousands  of  others  are  following  their 
example.  The  windmill  is,  beyond  dispute,  the  simplest,  most  reliable,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  cheapest  method  of  raising  water  for  stock.  If  you  are  interested  further, 
write  for  a  full  and  descriptive  catalogue  from  the  maker. 

The  address  is 

JAMES     ALSTON, 

QUEEN'S  Bridge.    South  Melbourne. 

This  will  give  you  a  full  and  fair  description  of  all  different  size  mills  that  he  makes, 
from  the  six  to  the  twenty-live  foot  diameter  wheel  ;  what  each  size  will  do,  and  what 
they  will  cost.     IT  WILL  PAY  YOU  TO  DO  SO. 


OF 


THe    JOURNAL     -^r^oVc 


BOTANICAL 
aAKOBN. 


Tfte  department  of     Mgricufture 


ov 


VICTORIA. 


Vol.  X.       Part  1. 


10th  January,  1912. 


CD 

^- 

CD 

LU 

Li- 


bee-keeping  IX  VICTORIA. 

F.  R.  BtiiJiiic,  Bee  Expert. 

I.— LOCATIOX. 

Bee-keeping  in  Victoria  is  carried  on  under  different  conditions  to  those 
existing  in  otiier  countries.  In  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  also  in  New 
Zealand,  tiie  principal  supply  of  nectar  comes  from  ground  flora  on 
meadows,  roadsides,  fields  and  woods.  In  Victoria,  we  depend  almost 
exclusi\-elv  on  our  eucal\i)ts  and  a  few  other  native  trees  and  shrubs. 
Owing  to  our  hot  summers,  which  pre\ent  the  secretion  of  nectar  in  soft 
herbaceous  plants,  except  on  irrigated  land  and  in  exceptionally  cool 
districts,  the  amount  of  honev  obtained  from  other  than  native  flora  is 
small  in  comparison  with  the  quantity  harvested  from  eucalypts. 

Even  where  climatic  conditions  a,re  favourable  to  the  sc^cretion  of 
nectar,  the  system  of  closelv  feeding  down  pastures,  which  is  largely 
practised  in  Australia,  does  not  permit  of  the  proper  development  of  the 
nectar-producing  plants  and  the  maximum  production  of  nectar.  As 
probably  over  90  per  cent,  of  the  honev  produced  in  Victoria  is  obtained 
from  eucalypts,  this  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  when  sielecting  a  district 
in  which  to  commence  bee-keeping. 

With  the  opening  up  of  countrv  to  settlement,  the  natural  honey 
resourojs  are  to  a  large  extent  destroyed.  It  is  a  natural  and  inevitable 
result  and  no  claim  can  be  made  on  behalf  of  bee  culturie  to  have  the  whole 
of  the  country  kept  in  its  natural  .state. 

Everv  countr\ ,  however,  must  have  forests  and  timber  reserves  to 
maintain  the  supply  of  timber,  to  protect  the  sources  of  water  supply,  and 
to  exercise  a  beneficial  influence  on  the  climate.  As  the  forests  of  Victoria 
are  now  permanentlv  reserved  and  are  being  improved  by  thinning,  pro- 
tection against  fires,  and  new  plantations,  they  afford  ample  scope  for 
apicultural  enterprise  and  a  great  expansion  of  the  bee-keeping  indui^try. 
Moreover,    the  advent  of   irrigation   .settlement   on   a    large  scale,    together 

17!:  02.  A 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Yictoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912. 


with  the  practice  of  cutting  fodder  crops  instead  of  feeding  them  off,  will 
make  bqa-keeping  profitable  in  many  places  where,  under  the  old  system 
of  continuous  eating  off,  it  could  not  be  engaged  in. 

Selection  of  Locality. 
For  the  purpose  of  becoming  conversant  w'ith  the  habits  of  bees,  to  get 
some  practice  in  handling  them,  and  to  gain  the  knowledge  and  experience 
not  obtainable  from  literature,  bee-keeping  may  be  commenced  almost 
anywhere.  When,  however,  it  is  taken  up  as  a  business,  a  suitable  district 
is  essential  to  success.  In  selecting  a  site,  due  consideration  should  be  given 
to  the  two  main  factors ;  namely,  the  amount  and  \-ariety  of  bee  flora  within 
a  radius  of  two  or  three  miles  of  the  site  chosen.  The  permanency  of  the 
bee  flora  is,  however,  the  most  important  consideration,  and  the  intending 
bee-keeper  should  locate  on,  or  close  to,  some  permanent  forest  or  other 
reserve,  so  as  to  avoid  the  risk  of  having  his  honey  resources  destroyed  by 
the  ring-barking  of  the  trees. 


1 


^^■^   4tv. 


A  BEE   FARM   IN  EAST   GIPPSLAND AN  IDEAL    SITUATION   FOR  AN  APIARY. 

In  some  of  the  best  honey  country  in  Victoria,  consisting  almost  entirely 
of  yellow  box  and  red  gum  for  many  miles  in  extent,  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  pollen-producing  plants  befor'e  and  after  the  honey-flow.  With  a 
scarcity  of  pollen,  colonies  cannot  attain  their  maximum  development,  and 
therefore  the  best  results  can  only  be  obtained  where  the  bees,  prior  to  the 
honey-flow,  are  kept  elsewhere.  Thus,  a  practice  has  sprung  up  amongst 
bee-keepers  of  having  two  sites  for  an  apiarv — one  for  breeding  up  in  spring 
and  wintering;  the  other  for  securing  the  honey  crop.  The  moving  of 
the  bees  from  the  winter  site  to  the  honey  country,  and  back  again  when 
the  honey-flow  is  over,  entails  a  considerable  amount  of  work,  which  can 
be  avoided  if  a  site  is  secured  on  the  torder  line  of  the  two  classes  of 
country. 

Licences. 

When  locating  on  forest  or  other  Crown  lands,  it  is  necessary' to  obtain 
two  licences — a   bee-farm  licence  for  one  acre  upon   which   to  place  the 


lo  Jan.,   1 91 2.]  Bee-keeping  in  Victoria. 


apiary,  and  a  bee-range  licence  which  secures  to  the  holder  the  exchisive 
use  of  the  bee  flora  for  a  radius  of  one  male.  No  other  bee-farm  licence 
is  allowed  at  a  lesser  distance  than  two  miles.  The  payments  to  be  made 
are  is.  a  year  per  acre  for  a  bee-farm  site,  and  ^d.  per  acite  for  the  radius 
of  the  bee  range,  or  about  ^4  4s.  a  vear. 

Site  of  Apiary. 

Having  decided  upon  the  locality,  the  spot  upon  which  the  hives  are 
to  be  set  out  should  be  selected,  with  due  regard  to  its  suitabilitv  for  the 
bees  and  convenience  of  working  the  apiary. 

An  even,  gently  sloping  surface,  of  gravelly  or  sandy  soil,  will  be  found 
most  suitable.  It  should,  if  possible,  be  sheltered  by  a  natural  or  artificial 
breakwind  on  the  south  and  west.  A  slope  to  the  north  or  east  is  prefer- 
able to  one  to  the  south  or  west. 

The  honey-house  should  be  placed  at  the  lower  end,  and  the  hives 
arranged  in  such  a  way  that  a  good  general  view  can  be  obtained  from  the 
door  and  windows  of  the  building,  so  that  during  the  swarming  season  the 
apiary  may  be  under  observation  while  necessary  indoor  work  is  being 
done.  Having  the  building  at  the  lower  end  of  the  ground  has  the  double 
advantage  of  getting  a  better  view  of  the  whole  apiary  and  of  moving  the 
supers  of  heavy  honeycombs  down  hill  at  extracting  time 

It  is  not  advisable  to  stand  hives  under  evergreen  trees,  such  as  pines 
or  eucalypts.  Colonies  in  permanently  shaded  positions  never  thrive  so 
well  as  others  out  in  the  open.  If  placed  under  deciduous  trees,  as  for 
instance  in  an  orchard,  the  hives  will  have  shade  during  the  hottest  part  of 
the  day  in  summer,  and  sunshine  during  the  cold  months  of  the  year  when 
the  trees  are  not  in  leaf. 

Arrangement  of  Hives. 

In  laying  out  the  apiary,  it  is  better  to  place  the  hives  in  groups  of 
twos,  tlirees,  or  fours,  with  a  longer  distance  between  the  groups,  than  to 
stand  the  hives  singlv  in  rows.  The  group  system  lends  itself  better  to 
the  various  necessary  operations  of  uniting  or  dividing  colonies  and  in 
moving  about  amongst  the  hives  ;  it  gives  more  space  between  the  groups 
than  would  be  the  case  between  the  same  number  of  hives  placed  singly. 

When  grouping  hives,  the  entrances  should  point  in  different  direc- 
tions. None,  however,  should  face  the  south,  as  th,e  strongest  and  coldest 
winds  come  from  that  quarter.  It  is  also  advisable  to  vary  the  grouping 
so  that  no  two  adjoining  groups  will  be  exactly  alike.  This  will  to  a  gneat 
extent  prevent  the  straving  of  returning  field  bees  and  the  loss  of  virgin 
queens  returning  from 'their  mating  flight.  The  latter  frequently  occurs 
when  hives  stand  in  symmetrical  rows  and  without  any  variation  in  the 
arrangement  and  without  distingu'shing  landmarks. 

{To  be  continued.) 


Journal  of  Agriculture^  Victoria.  [lo   Jan.,    191 2. 


BEES  AXD  SPllAYING. 

E.  E.  Pcscott.  Principal.  Horticultural  School,  Burnley,  and 
F .  R.  Beulnic ,  Bee  Ex-pert. 

The  establishment  of  an  apiaiv  at  the  Burnley  Horticultural  Gardens 
has  furnished  an  opportunity  for  obser\-ing  and  recording  data  regarding^ 
the  working  of  bees  among  fruit  trees,  and  the  effect  of  the  various  orchard 
operations  upon  the  bees.  The  apiarv  was  established  during  the  spring 
of  last  yea;r  ;  and,  although  it  is  too  earl\  to  es'.tablish  any  definite  con- 
clusions, certain  observations  have  already  l<een  made  which  may  somewhat 
upset  \arious  theories  regarding  the  action  of  sprays  upon  the  bees. 

It  is  an  accepted  fact  that  the  bee  is  the  most  useful  of  all  insects 
for  the  purposes  of  conveying  pollen  from  flower  to  flower  for  fertilization 
purposes.     It  was  pointed  out  last  vear,  in  the  Januarv  and  April  numbers 


A    rORTION    OF   THE    BURNLEY    APIARY. 

of  the  Journal,  that  bees  were  of  great  service  to  the  orchardist  in  assisting 
to  increase  the  yield  of  fruit.  It  is  also  known  that  to  exclude  bees  and 
other  insects  from  the  trees  at  the  time  when  the}-  are  in  blossom  is  sure 
to  result  in  a  considerably  reduced  fruit  crop. 

It  is  often  considered  that  bees  are  able  to  collect  a  good  store  of  honey 
from  fruit  tree  blossom,  and  that  the  yield  of  frviit  tree  hone\-  comes  at 
a  time  when  the  bees  urgently  need  it  for  brood  rearing.  That  may  be  so 
in  other  countries,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  be  so  in  Australia.  Here, 
the  nectar  flow  seems  to  be  somewhat  weak,  and  insufficient  in  quantity  for 
the  necessities  of  the  bees.  A  Victorian  apiari.st  during  the  past  .season 
removed  his  bee  colonies  from  his  home  to  a  district  where  the  bees  had 
an  available  range  over  15,000  fruit  trees.  He  ultimately  found  that  the 
hers  were  starving,  and  he  had  to  remove  them  to  a  more  suitable  locality. 
It  may  thus  be  found  that  the  chief  use  of  bees  in  the  orcb.ard  will  l>e 
for  cross-fertilization  purposes. 


.'lo  Jan.,    191 2.]  Bees  and  Spravuig. 


It  has  been  frequently  stated,  especially  in  publications  dealing  exclu- 
:sively  with  the  honey  bee,  that  spra\ing  the  fruit  trees,  at  the  time  when 
the  trees  are  in  blossom,  will  cause  great  mortalitx  amongst  thf  bee 
colonies,  particularly   if  the  spray   be   a   poisonous  one. 

\Vhene\-er  losses  of  bees  occur  in  apiaries  located  in  or  near  orchards 
in  which  spraying  is  practised,  the  -owners  assume  that  the  mortality  is  due 
to  the  poisons  used  in  the  spraying  mixtures.  So  far.  there  appeals  to  be 
no  proof  that  bees  gather  poison  along  with  nectar  and  pollen,  nor  is  there 
any  instance  on  record  of  the  poisons  ha\"ing'  been  proved,  b\  anal}sis. 
to  be  present  in  dead  bees,  bee  hirvse,  pollen,  or  honey. 

Dead  bees  may  often  be  found  not  only  on  the  blossoms  of  fruit  trees 
which  were  not  sprayed,  l)ut  also  on  acacia  and  other  flowers  blossoming 
at  the  same  time.  Heavy  losses  of  bees  from  unknown  causes  occasionally 
■occur  at  the  time  of  fruit  bloom  in  localities  where  there  are  no  fruit 
trees  at  all  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  apiaries  located  close  to  orchards 
in  which  tlie  trees  were  sprayed  repeatedly,  suffered  no  perceptible  loss 
and  were  in  a  thri\-ing  condition.  Again,  bees  might  net  be  affected  b\ 
the  amount  of  poison  gathered  with  the  nectar,  but  it  might  be  sufficient 
to  kill  the  i)rood.  In  an  independent  experiment  made  last  season,  iron 
sulphate,  i  i)art  in  400  of  sugar  s\rup,  was  (juite  harmless  to  bees,  but 
killed  all  the  brood. 

In  the  ABC  and-  X  Y  Z  of  Bee  Culture  it  is  stated  definitely  that 
spraying  trees  during  bloom  is  destructive  to  bees  and  brood.     We  quote — 

Now  that  spraying  with  various  poisonous  liipiitls  has  come  to  be  almost  universal 
among  fruit-growers,  the  cpjestion  arises,  "  Shall  such  spravini;  be  done  during  the 
t'me  the  trees  are  in  bloom,  or  before  and  after .'"  If  it  is  administered  when 
"the  petals  are  out,  bees  are  almost  sure  to  be  poisoned,  much  brood  will  be  killed, 
and  many  times  valuable  cjueens  are  lest.  About  the  first  thing  one  notices  during 
fruit-blooming  time,  if  trees  are  sprayed  while  in  bloom,  is  that  a  good  deal  of 
the  brood  dies,  until  the  bee-kee])er  begins  to  wonder  whether  the  bees  have  foul 
brood,  black  brood,  or  ])ickled  brood — unless  the  truth  dawns  ujion  him  that  they 
have  been   carrying   in   poisonous   licpiids   from   the  trees  that  have   just  been   sprayed. 

It  is  not  advocated  in  this  article  that  fruit  trees  should  be  sprayed 
when  in  full  blossom  ;  the  spraying  operations  can  usually  be  conducted 
•either  before  or  after  the  flowering  stage. 

It  was  pointed  cut  in  the  January,  igii,  article  previously  referred  to, 
that  rain  at  the  blossom  time  seiliously  interferes  with  pollen  action,  and 
naturally  liquid  sprays  would  have  the  same  effect.  But  there  may  be  times 
when  necessity  compels  the  grower  to  spray  at  this  season. 

At  the  Burnley  orchards,  there  are  altogether  over  1,800  varieties  of 
fruit  trees,  which  bloom  at  ^•arious  times — fromi  the  end  of  August  t(j  the 
beginnmg  of  November.  Hence,  the  trees,  particularly  the  apple  and  pear 
trees,  must  be  sprayed  at  a  time  when  some  of  them  are  in  bl:,om,  with 
both  Bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead.  And  this  occurs  every 
season. 

During  last  year,  the  pear  trees  were  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
when  some  were  in  blossom  ;  while,  later  on.  a  number  of  apple  trees  were 
.sprayed  with  lead  arsenate  when  in  bloom.  Under  these  circumstances 
it  was  decided  to  make  observations  in  order  to  establish  reliable  data  on 
this  question. 

At  the  Burnley  apiary,  the  bee  hives  are  right  under  the  fruit  trees, 
and  at  the  time  of  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  the  gmund  had  not 
vet  been  ploughed,  so  that  the  spray  fell  not  only  on  any  fruit  blossoms 
which  were  open,  but  also  on  the  C'ape  weed  then  abundantly  in  bloom. 


Journal  of  Agricidiiirt ,  Victoria.  [lo   Jan.,    191 2. 


Neither  the  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  nor  the  subsequent  one 
with  arsenate  of  lead  had  any  effect  whatever  upon  the  bees,  the  colonies 
developing  normally  and  wi,thout  any  check ;  there  was  not  at  any  time 
dead  brood  in  the  hives.  There  is  no  doubt  that  under  the  atmospheric 
conditions  prevailing  at  thie  time  the  spraying  of  the  trees  proved  quite 
harmless  to  bees.  Observations  will,  however,  be  continued  in  future,  to 
demonstrate  whether  spraying  is  injurious  to  bees  at  all ;  or,  if  so,  under 
what  conditions. 


DAIRY  PRODUCTS  FROM  THE  LONDOX  MARKET. 

R.    Crowe,   Exports     Superintendent. 

Since  it  was  impracticable  to  afford  visitOTs  to  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society's  Show  a  trip  to  London  tO'  see  how  our  products  compare  there 
with  tho.se  from  other  countries,  the  next  best  thing  was  adopted.  Certain 
products  from  countries  with  which,  w^e  have  to  comipete  against  in  London 
were  procured  there  in  the  open  market  and  displayed  side  by  side  with 
our  own  at  the  last  Show  in  ■Melbourne  The  whole  of  the  exhibits  excited 
the  keenest  interest,  and  the  movement  proved  an  unqualified  success. 
The  educational  effect  upon  all  concerned  was  most  marked,  and  was 
greatly  appreciated. 

Butter. 

Butter  from  Denmark,  Siberia  and  Ireland  was  shown  alongside  some 
from  Victoria  that  had  been  purchased  on  the  London  market  at  the  same 
time  as  the  others  and  returned  to  Melbourne.  The  cask  of  Danish  butter 
contained  one  cwt.  The  butter  itself  was  of  excellent  quality,  and  as 
pleasing  to  the  eye  as  on  the  palate.  In  appearance,  it  was  of  a  nice 
straw  colour,  with  a  seemingly  transparent  surface  characteristic  of  fresh 
well-made  butter  which  has  not  been  overworked,  or  plastered  in  finishing. 
A  small  label  about  4  in.  x  2  in.,  bearing  the  national  trade  mark  (the 
"  Lur  "  brand — the  old  vikings'  trumpet)  rested  on  top  of  the  butter. 
On  endeavouring  to  remove  the  label  it  was  found  to  break  away,  the 
reason  being  obvious^ — to  prevent  its  transference  from  one  package  to 
another.  A  disc  of  fine  quality  butter  paper,  corresponding  in  diameter 
to  the  top  of  the  cask,  covered  the  butter  before  the  lining  paper  was 
folded  in.  The  folding  was  so  regularly  and  daintily  accomplished  as 
to  resemble  a  circular  fan.  The  cask  was  made  of  white  beech,  with 
white  willow  hoops.  One  of  the  staves  bore  the  impression  of  the 
national  trade  mark,  while  the  factory's  brand  occupied  a  place  on  the 
head  of  the  cask.  The  flavour  of  the  butter  was  all  that  could  be 
desired.  Upon  analysis,  it  was  found  to  contain  94.19  per  cent,  butter 
fat,  13.97  per  cent,  moisture,  1.2  per  cent,  salt,  0.64  per  cent,  casein, 
and  no  boric  acid.      Reichert  value,   30. 

The  cask  of  Siberian  butter  was  of  the  same  size  as  the  Danish,  but 
the  package  and  contents  were  inferior  to  it  in  every  respect.  The 
package  consisted  of  material  more  roughly  dressed  and  put  together. 
The  butter  was  lifeless  in  appearance  ;  in  flavour,  it  was  not  comparable 
to  the  Danish,  and  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  dairv  salt  was  spread 
over  the  top  surface.  There  was  no  national  brand,  and  the  contrast 
generally  was  quite  pronounced.  Upon  analysis,  the  butter  was  found 
to  contain  86.7  per  cent,  butter  fat,  10.88  per  cent,  moisture,  1.72  per 
cent,   salt,  0.7  per  cent,  casein,  and  no  baric  acid.      Reichert  value,   28. 


lo  Jan.,    191 2.]      Dairy  Products  from  the  London  Market. 


DANISH    BUTTER. 


SIBERIAN    BUTTER. 


IRISH    BUTTER. 


AMERICAN    LARD. 


Journal  of  AgricidUirc,  Victoria. 


[lo   Jan.,    1912. 


The  Irish  butter  was  packed  in  a  deal  box  containing  56  lbs.,  which 
was  slightly  wider  each  way  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  no  doubt 
to  enable  the  contents  to  be  more  readily  placed  on  the  grocer's  counter. 
As  regards  quality  and  appearance,  there  was  not  much  to  choose  between 
the  Siberian  and  Irish  butters.  The  latter  contained  84.53  P^r  cent, 
butter  fat,  12.8  per  cent,  moisture,  2.07  per  cent,  salt,  0.6  per  cent- 
casein,  and  no  boric  acid.      Reichert  value,   30.7. 

The  box  of  Victorian  butter  bore  the  Commonwealth  stamp  and  cer- 
tificate number,  and  upon  looking  up  its  record  it  was  discovered  that 
originally  it  comprised  portion  of  a  parcel  dealt  with  for  export  o^•er  five 
months  previously.  Notwithstanding  its  age,  the  butter  opened  up  in 
good  condition.  In  the  first  place,  it  was  not  a  superfine  butter,  and, 
of  cour.se,  was  not  up  to  the  Danish  standard.  In  any  case,  that  could 
not  be  expected,  as  the  Danish  was  probabh-  not  more  than  9  or  10  weeks 
old.  The  Victorian  butter  wms  decidedly  better  than  the  Siberian  or 
Irish,  and  it  opened  up  in  accordance  with  the  grade  originally  awarded 
to  it.  Slight  depreciation  had  taken  place,  but  not  sufificient  to  warrant 
it  being  placed  in  a  l(;wer  grade. 


Cheddar  Chel. 


ENGLISH     CHEDDAR    CHEESE. 


Canadian 

[HEODARCHtrSE 


CANADIAN     CHEDDAR     CHEESE. 


The  lessons  to  be  deduced  were,  first  of  all,  the  thoroughness  ap- 
parent in  every  detail  connected  with  the  Danish  product,  the  make  and 
cleanliness  of  the  package,  the  dainty  finish,  and  the  impression  of  the 
national   mark  ;    the  butter  itself  left  nothing  more   to  be   desired. 

Since  the  Show  it  is  pleasing  to  note  that  some  Victorian  butter 
factories  have  materially  improved  the  appearance  of  their  butter,  by 
paying  more  attention  to  the  finish  and  the  folding  in  of  the  paper,  and 
completing  it  with   an  attractive  paper  seal. 

Cheese. 

English  Cheddar.  Canadian  Cheddar,  English  Cheshire,  Dutch  Edam 
and  Gouda  cheeses  were  shown,  the  two  latter  being  typical  of  the  kind 
for  which  there  is  a  great  demand  in  the  Ea.st.  The  Cheshire  and 
Cheddar  cheeses  were  90  lbs.  each,  and  symmetrical  in  .shape.  The 
(]uality  of  all  varieties  was  very  fine  indeed.  Comparisons  could  not  be 
(h^awn,  .so  regular  and  characteristic  was  each  make.  Upon  cutting,  the 
texture  was  close,  meaty,  and  everything  that  could  be  wished  for. 

\\'hen  advising  makers  of  cheese  during  the  previous  season  as  to  the 
sizes  required  for  the  English  market,  the  greatest  difficulty  was  experi- 
enced in  persuading  some  manufacturers  to  depart  from  the  40   lbs.   size 


lo  Jan.,    19 1 2.]       Dairy  Products  from  the  Loudon  Market. 


and  to  make  cheese  of  60  lbs.  each.  Not  the  slightest  trouble  was 
encountered  in  convincing  all  who  saw  the  exhibits  of  the  advantages 
possessed  by  the  larger  cheese.  Locally,  small  cheeses  are  probably  pre- 
ferred because,  on  account  of  the  plentifulness  of  meat,  cheese  does  n.t 
enter  largely  into  the  diet  of  the  people,  and  the  average  grocer  takes 
a  long  time  to  cut  the  last  of  a  cheese.  In  England,  however,  where  the 
population  is  dense,  and  cheese  forms  no  inconsiderable  pioportion  of  the 
working  man's  d:et,  a  number  of  large  cheeses  mav  be  cut  out  in  a  single 
day. 

From  the  manufacturer's  point  of  view,  everything  is  to  be  gained 
by  making  the  large  sizes  for  export,  since  less  surface  is  exposed  for 
evaporation  and  loss  in  weight  per  lb.  than  is  the  case  with  small  sizes. 
In  a  climate  such  as  ours,  with  a  comparatively  dry  atmosphere,  this  is 
most  important.  In  addition,  two  large  90  lb.  cheeses  goi  in  one  case, 
whilst  a  slightly  smaller  case  will  hold  only  three  of  40  lbs.  each,  or 
two  of  60  lbs.  each.  It  will  therefore  be  recognized  that  a  ton  of  the 
larger  size  cheese  would  cost  much  less  for  casing  than  a  ton  comprising 
the  smaller  sizes.  Again,  the  grocer  in  London  is  prepared  to  pay  more 
for  the  large  sized  cheese,  because  there  is  less  rind  or  waste  per  \h.  than 
is  the  case  with  small  ones. 

Briefly,  then,  the  cheese-maker  bv  making  large  sized  cheese  has  more 
to  sell,  it  costs  less  to  pack  for  market,  and  a  higher  price  can  be  realized. 
The  analyses  were  as  follow  : — 


— 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Proteids. 

Fat. 

Milk  Suj?ar. 

0/ 
/o 

0/ 
/o 

% 
[      26-33      \ 
-    Nitrogen    V 
y        6-37       J 

0/ 
/o 

0/ 
/o 

English  Cheddar 

36-25 

3-75 

29-95 

3-74 

Cheshire 

39-11 

2-CO 

24-50 

31-28 

31 1 

(liouda 

40-12 

5  95 

25-01 

24-60 

4 -.32 

Canadian  Cheddar 

33  53 

3-55 

25  33 

35-58 

2  01 

Pig  Products. 

Bacon  from  Ireland,  Canada,  Denmark  and  Holland ;  hams  from 
Yorkshire,  Ireland  and  United  States ;  and  lard  from  Ireland,  Denmark 
and  L^nited  States  were  displayed.  All  of  the  sides  of  bacon  were  much 
larger  than  is  favoured  locally,  and  were  dusted  over  with  ground  pea  meal. 
Upon  cutting,  the  quality  did  not  impress  experts,  and  their  verdict  was 
confirmed  by  frying  rashers  in  the  pan.  They  were  mild  cured,  and  the 
flesh  was  coarse  and  flabby,  proving  that  feeding  had  not  been  considered 
in  order  to  "top  off"  and  harden  the  flesh.  In  curing,  also,  the 
minimum  loss  in  weight  was  evidentlv  aimed  at. 

The  one  great  lesson  was  that  baconers  from  130  to  170  lbs.  represent 
the  typical  weights  required  in  England,  150  lbs.  being  tlie  ideal  weight, 
whilst  here  the  weights  range  from  120  to  150  lbs.  Nearly  all  breeders 
know  that  it  costs  less  per  lb.  to  produce  a  pig  of  180  lbs.  weight  than  one 
of  130  lbs.  weight,  the  cost  per  lb.  for  the  last  50  11  js.  being  much  less 
than  for  the  first  130. 

The  hams  were  not  in  any  way  exceptional,  and  did  not  call  for  special 
mention.  The  Yorkshire  ham  was  unsmoked  aUvd  on  that  account  appeared 
less  attractive  than  the  others. 


Journal  of  Agricidiure,  Victoria.  [lo  Jan.,    191  2. 


BflCON 


IRISH   BACON. 


CANADIAN    BACON. 


DANISH    BACON. 


DUTCH   BACON. 


YORKSHIRE     HAM. 


IRISH     HAM.  AMERICAN   HAM. 


ic  Jan.,    igi2.]       Dairy  Products  from  the  London  Market.  ii 

The  lard  from  Irt-land  and  Denmark  was  put  up  in  bladders,  whilst 
the  American  was  packed  in  a  pail,  very  attractively  got  up.  It  is  im- 
probable, however,  that  either  of  these  forms  will  be  adopted  here  W'hen 
an  export  trade  is  de\eloped.  At  various  times  lard  has  been  exported 
from  Victoria  packed  in  butter  boxes  ;  the  stowing  on  board  ship  for  long 
voyages  is  the  determining  consideration. 

Poultry. 

Sussex,  Surrey,  Irish,  Canadian  and  French  chickens  were  shown, 
and  a  glance  was  sufficient  to  enable  one  to  recognize  the  difference  in 
breeding,  quality  and  packing.  The  case  of  French  chickens  stood  out 
from  all    the  rest  as   regards    regularity  of  size,   colour    and    plumpness. 


VICTORIAN    I'ORK. 


There  was  little  to  choose  between  the  Sussex  and  Surrey  chickens  ;  they 
were  uniform  in  colour,  size,  weight  and  condition,  with  white  legs,  and 
cleanly  got  up. 

In  the  case  of  12  Irish  chickens,  at  least  eight  different  colours  and 
shades  of  colour  could  be  distinguished.  The  birds  were  not  uniform  in 
size  and  condition,  and  of  course  were  discounted  in  consequence. 

The  get  up  of  the  Canadian  birds  was  even  worse.  The  variety  of 
colours  was  not  so  great,  but  the  want  of  regularity  in  size  and  condition 
was  more  apparent;  in  addition,  the  feet  had  not  been  washed  before 
killing. 

A  glance  at  the  exhibits  as  a  whole  was  sufficient  to  impress  one  with. 
the  advantages  resulting  from  grading  into  uniform  classes  and  exercising 
care  in  regard  to  everv  detail  in  trussing  and  packing. 


Journal  of  Agriculture.  Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912. 


BUILDING  HINTS  FOR  SETTLERS. 

XVI._TWO-BAIL   MILKING   SHED. 

/.    \Vilsoii.    Silo   Builder. 

The  accompanying  plan  of  a  milking  shed  is  the  first  of  a  series 
which  it  is  proposed  to  publish  from  time  to  time  in  the  Journal.  This 
is   a  simple  and   sanitary   shed  meeting   all   the  requirements   of   the   Milk 


<_ 


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m:. 


PLAN    OF    TWO-BAIL    MILKING    SHED. 

and  Dairy  Supervision  Act.  It  can  be  erected  at  a  small  cost,  without 
the  assistance  of  outside  labour.  The  Avoodwork  is  all  sawn  timber,  as 
follows  : — 

Angle  studs,  4  in.    x  4  in.   hardwood. 

Plates,   rafters,   runners   for  bails,   tongi.es,   and   two   short  braces   for   front   and 
all  other  studs,  4  in.   x   i^  in.   hardwood. 

Purlins  and  rxmners  for  iron,  3  in.  x   i|  in.  hardwood. 
Braces,  3  in.   x   i   in.   hardwood. 

The  shed   is   lined   on   the  inside  with   galvanized  corrugated  iron,   the 
small  corrugations  making  a  neat  finish.       Lining  the  walls  on  the  inside 


1  '■)    I  AN. ,    19 1  2.]  Building  Hints  j or  Sctihrs. 


13 


WPiS 


Hill'    'ill 


iiii 


W 


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ll^ n 


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FRONT    ELEVATIOX 


SiDE    ELEVATION. 


14 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Vicloria. 


[lo  Jan.,    1912. 


does  away  with  the  angles  and  corners  which  are  formed  wliere  the  usual 
practice  is  followed.  This  prevents  cobwebs,  dirt,  &c.,  from  accumu- 
lating, and  the  walls  can  also  be  more  readily  washed  with  a  mop  or  swab. 
As  shown,  the  floor  provides  a  raised  kerbing,  dung  space,  and  gutter 
at  the  rear  of  the  cow.  A  brick  cess  pit  is  also  provided  on  the  outside 
of  building ;  this  is  connected  with  the  brick  gutter  by  an  open  iron 
gutter,  the  end  of  which  projects  ih  in.,  and  allows  the  fluid  to  flow  into 
a  kerosene  tin  placed   in  the  pit. 


Timbers  should  be  tarred  or  painted,  preferably  before  trection.      The 
approximate  cost  of  material  landed  on  truck  at  Melbourne  is  jQ6  17s. 

Material  for  Tzvo-hail  Milking  Shed. 
Hardwood — 

4  in.  X  4  in. — two  g  ft.  ;   three  7  ft.   lengths. 

3  in.   X  3  in. — one  7  ft.   length. 

4  in.  X  i^  in. — four   12  ft.  ;  two  11    ft.  ;   eleven  9  ft.  ;  two  8  ft.  ;   four  5   ft.  ; 

two  4  ft. ;  two  3  ft.   lengths. 
3  in.   X   I5  in. — four  12   ft.  ;  seven  9   ft.   leng'.hs. 
3  in.   \-  I  in. — two  14  ft.  ;  one  12   ft.   length. 
Corrugated   galvanized   iron,   26   gauge — ten  6   ft.    lengths   (roof). 
Small   corrugated    galvanized    iron,   26    gauge — eleven    g    ft.  ;    four    S    ft.    lengths 
(walls). 

Springhead  nails,   2^  in. — 2   lbs. 


lo  Jan.,    19 1 3.]  Sil'>s  a)id  Silage. 

Galvanized  clout  tacks,    i^   in.  —  t^   lbs. 

Bolts  and  nuts — two  5  in.  x  5  in.  ;  two  7  in.   x  { 

Cement — two  bags. 

Sand — two  loads. 

Bricks— 268. 


SILOS  AXD  SILAGE. 

a.    II.    F.    Baker.   Silo   Supcrvh'n . 

A  silo  is  a  practically  air-tight  receptacle  in  which  green  fodder  is 
stored  in  a  succulent  state.  In  this  condition  it  will  remain  for  as  long 
a  period  as  required  without  deteriorating  in  value.  The  material  thus 
preserved  is  known  as  ensilage  or  silage.  Correctly,  the  word  "silo" 
means  a  pit;  but  it  may  be  a  square,  round,  or  oblong  receptacle  of  any 
size  below  or  above  ground. 

Methods  of  Silage-makixg. 

There  are  various  methods  of  silage-making,  and  it  is  immaterial 
which  is  followed,  as  long  as  care  is  exercised  and  a  good  sample  is 
obtained.  The  farmer  should  never  neglect  an  opportunity  to  have  some 
such  fodder  stored  on  the  farm. 

Pit  Silo. — The  underground  or  pit  silo  was  the  first  style  adopted 
in  Victoria  and  it  met  with  varying  success.  It  may  be  of  any  shape,  pro- 
vided the  wall  surface  is  comparatively  smooth  and  as  plumb  as  possible, 
the  bottom  being  the  full  width  of  the  upper  portion.  The  reason  for 
this  is  that,  as  the  silage  settles  down,  any  unevennes.s  of  the  wall  surface 
is  liable  to  allow  of  air  entering  the  mass  and  decomposition  occurring  at 
that  place. 

In  hillside  situations  or  porous  soil,  the  wall  or  floor  surfaces  may  be 
left  in  their  natural  conditions,  but  where  drainage  is  necessary  it  should 
be  walled  with  slab,  brick  or  cement ;  also  provide  a  pipe  or  other  means 
to  carry  off  any  .sub-surface  moisture  to  prevent  the  silage  being  damaged 
thereby. 

The  difficulty  of  properly  draining  the  underground  silo  and  of  hoist- 
ing the  silage,  together  with  the  cxDst  of  excavating,  bricking,  &c.,  has 
militated  against  the  adoption  of  this  system  to  any  great  extent. 

Stack  Silage. — Stack  silage  has  also  been  more  or  less  popular  in 
many  districts  for  a  few  years,  and  it  is  a  very  good  makeshift  method 
of  preserving  green  fodder  in  years  of  superabundant  growth. 

Tub  Silo. — Some  fourteen  years  ago  the  overground,  or  tub  silo  as  it 
is  now  called,  was  introduced  to  Victoria  from  America  ;  and,  owing  to 
the  ease  w^ith  which  it  is  both  filled  and  emptied,  it  has  almost  super.seded 
all  other  forms  of  silo.  It  was  first  introduced  to  the  Victorian  fanners 
by  the  late  David  Syme.  Professor  Cherry,  then  lecturer  on  Scientific 
Dairying  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  was  so  favourably  impressed 
with  its  utility  that  he  advocated  its  adoption  far  and  wide.  It  has  been 
considerably  improved  and  cheapened  since  its  introduction  ;  and  now. 
with  the  assistance  given  by  the  Government  by  the  extended  payment 
system,  it  is  within  the  reach  of  all  Victorian  farmers. 

The  tub  or  overground  silo  may  be  built  of  brick,  concrete,  all  .steel, 
all  wood,  or  wood  and  iron  combination,  all  of  \\hich  have  proved  satis- 
factory and  have  stood  the  test  of  time. 


16 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,\icioria.  [lo  Jan.,    1912. 


The  brick  and  concrete  silos  are  tiie  most  costl\',  l>ut  their  period  of  use- 
fuhiess  is  greater 


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PIT    SILO. 

The  all-steel   portable    silo,   known    as    the    Russell,   is    recommended 
where  white   ants   are  prevalent,    where   there   is   danger   from   l)ush   iires, 


[■Hill 


wliud    and   iron    Sii_0. 
or  where  the  farmer  is  on  a  leased  property.       Being  all  steel,   the  white 
ants  cannot  destroy  it.   there  is  no  fear  of  it  being  burnt,   and  it  can  be 
easily  dismantled  and  rebuilt. 


lo  Jan.,   191--] 


Silos  and  Sila^^^t. 


17 


The   all-wood    silo   can   be   cheaply   constructed    whfTe   sawn    tinilier   is 
readUy  [jrociiraljle. 


CONCRETE    SILO. 


STEEL    AND  ALL    WOOD    SILOS. 

The  wood  and  iron  type  of  silo  is  very  popular  in  all  parts  of  the 
State;  when  properly  constructed  and  limewashed  before  filling  and  after 
emptying,  it  will  last  many  years. 


i8  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  Jan.,    1912. 

When  to  Cut  a  Crop  for  Silage. 

The  time  at  which  to  cut  a  crop  for  silage  varies  with  the  different 
varieties  usually  ensiled.  Thus,  maize,  one  of  the  principal  crops  grown 
for  silage,  is  ready  when  the  bottom  leaves  are  drying  off  and  the  grain 
is  doughy  and  glazing.  The  same  applies  to  sorghum,  amber  cane, 
planter's  friend,  millet,  or  teosinte.  Oats,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  &c. ,  should 
be  ensiled  when  on  the  turn  from  the  green  to  ripening  stage ;  the  grain 
will  then  be  fairly  full  but  milky.  With  weeds,  thistles,  wild  oats,  &c., 
it  is  necessary  to  ensile  them  as  soon  as  the  pollen  appears,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  seed  from  fouling  the  ground  during  the  following  season. 
When  ensiling  any  immature  growth  it  is  necessary  to  mix  some  drier 
fodder  with  it  to  counteract  the  excessive  moisture  and  thus  prevent  a  soft 
mushy  sour  silage  resulting. 

As  legumes,  such  as  beans,  clovers,  lucerne,  peas,  and  vetches,  have 
been  found  to  give  as  good  value  when  dry  cured  as  hay,  it  is  not  ad- 
visable to  ensile  them,  except  as  portion  of  a  mixture.  When  ensiled  by 
themselves  the  loss  of  food  properties  is  greater  than  the  gain  in  palata- 
bility  and  digestibility,  the  loss  in  the  most  valuable  nutrients  being  the 
heaviest. 

Filling  the   Silo. 

Briefly,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  preservation  of  green  fodder  as 
silage  depends  on  the  fermentation  going  on  in  the  mass,  which  is  con- 
trolled by  the  amount  of  air  present.  Should  an  excess  of  air  be 
allowed  entry,   then  decomposition  sets  in  and  the  material  is  ruined. 

There  are  two  recognized  varieties  of  silage — sweet  and  sour.  By 
sour,  it  must  not  be  understood  that  the  material  is  in  any  way  offensive; 
it  is  pale  greenish  yellow  in  colour  with  a  vinous  odour.  Sweet  silage,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  of  a  brown  colour  and  has  a  sweet  luscious  odour.  The 
sour  variety  is  found  more  suitable  for  milking  cows,  while  the  sweet  has 
been   recommended  for    fattening   stock. 

Slow  filling  and  well  trampling,  by  keeping  a  minimum  of  air  in  the 
silo,  arrests  the  fermentation ;  the  temperature  does  not  rise  above  90  deg. 
Fahr.,  and  sour  silage  is  produced,  whilst  by  quick  filling  the  air  is  not  so 
well  drawn  out,  the  temperature  rises  to  120  deg.,  or  even  to  150  deg. 
Fahr.,  and  sweet  silage  is  obtained. 

Filling  too  quickly  is  not  considered  an  advantage  on  account  of  the 
liability  of  the  mass  to  generate  too  great  a  heat  with  the  result  that  the 
silage  is  liable  to  decompose.  On  the  other  hand,  filling  too  slowly  is 
liable  to  result  in  a  cooling  off  of  the  material  before  sealing  the  mass 
down,   with  the  result  that  loss  ensues. 

Before  commencing  to  fill  the  silo,  the  interior  wall  should  be  lime 
washed  with  a  thick  wash  made  of  lime  and  skim  milk.  This  may  be 
done  each  evening  after  filling,  using  the  silage  as  a  stage.  The  wash 
is  put  on  to  protect  the  lining  of  the  silo  against  the  acid  juices  of  the 
silage,   and  must  never  be  neglected  nor  applied  thinly. 

Unless  unavoidable,  the  crop  or  material  intended  for  silage  should 
not  be  cut  until   it  has  reached  the  proper  stage  of  maturity. 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to  ensile  the  material  the  same  day  as 
it  is  cut  in  the  field. 

In  order  to  exclude  as  much  air  as  possible  and  economize  space,  it 
is  necessary  to  reduce  the  fodder  to  a  fine  mass  before  filling  into  the 
silo.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  pass  it  through  a  chaff  or  silage  cutter 
and  cut  it  into  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length.        From    the 


lo  Jan.,   191 2.]  Silos  and  Silage.  19 

cutter  it  is  carried  by  means  of  an  elevator  or  blower,  which  should 
deliver  the  material  as  near  the  centre  of  the  silo  as  possible.  This  may 
be  done  by  the  aid  of  bag  chute  attached  to  the  mouth  of  the  elevator 
or  the  blower,  whichever  method  is  in  use. 

The  labour  of  distributing  the  fodder  is  thus  minimized,  and  an  even 
sample  of  the  material  will  be  distributed  all  over  the  silo.  If  the 
fodder  be  allowed  to  fall  direct  from  the  mouth  of  the  conveyor,  the 
heaviest  parts  will  fall  on  one  side,  and  the  lighter  parts  on  the  other — 
the  silage  will  not  settle  evenly  and  loss  will  eventuate.  To  assist  in 
the  close  packing  of  the  silage  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  well  trample 
it  all  over  the  silo.  Trampling  the  sides  or  around  the  edges  is  not 
sufficient,  for  with  the  shrinking  of  the  centre  the  outer  edges  creep 
towards  it  and  away  from  the  walls,  thus  allowing  access  of  air  and 
consequent  loss.  The  centre  should  always  be  kept  a  little  higher  than 
the  outer  edges. 

The  rate  of  filling  should  not  be  under  5  ft.  nor  over  12  ft.  per 
day.  Avoid,  as  much  as  possible,  delays  in  filling ;  a  day  or  less  is  not 
serious  but  a  longer  period  will  have  adverse  results.  The  amount  of 
settlement  that  takes  place  after  the  silo  has  been  filled,  sealed,  and 
weighted  is  a  fair  index  as  to  how  it  has  been  filled  and  packed.  In 
a  well  filled  silo  it  will  amount  to  close  on  3  ft.,  and  more  in  those 
that  have  not  received  proper  attention.  The  writer  has  seen  a  shrinkage 
of  10  ft.  in  a  2i-ft.  silo  that  had  been  filled  to  the  top  but  was  not 
trampled.  The  owner  of  this  silo  believed  that  trampling  was  injurious. 
but  after  one  season's  trial  he  is  now  a  greater  advocate  for  trampling 
and  packing  than  he  was  for  the  other  method.  Too  much  stress  cannot 
be  laid  on  the  importance  of  well  packing  tJie  silage  in  the  silo. 

Sealing  and  Weighting. 

The  satisfactory  sealing  and  weighting  of  the  silo  are  also  very  im- 
portant features  that  make  for  success.  Many  devices  have  been  tried 
with  more  or  less  success,  but  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  cover  the  green 
fodder  with  a  sheet  made  of  tarred  bags  and  upon  this  place  a  foot  of 
chaffed  straw  or  other  waste  material,  and  well  wet  same.  This 
is  to  encourage  mould  growths  which  act  as  an  air-tight  seal  and  thus 
preclude  air  from  gaining  access  to  the  silage.  Upon  the  top  of  this 
material  place  a  foot  deep  of  some  weighty  substances,  such  as  sand, 
earth,  logs,  brick  or  stone,  to  press  down  the  top  4  or  5  ft.  of  silage; 
all  under  that  depth  is  pressed  down  by  the  weight  ^'^ove.  If  the  pre- 
cautions mentioned  are  taken,  the  farmer  will  be  pleased  with  both  silo 
and  silage. 

The  same  precautions  are  necessarv  when  filling  a  pit  silo,  whether 
the  fodder  be  chaffed  or  not.  When  ensiling  whole  sheaves  in  a  pit  silo, 
start  building  from  the  centre  by  first  making  a  heap  there  and  laying 
the  sheaves  in  such  a  manner  that  they  are  placed  lengthwise  along  the 
walls,  not  butt  ends  as  in  a  stack.  In  this  case  the  order  is  reversed  to 
assist  in  excluding  the  air.  Always  build  with  centre  higher  than  the 
sides;     if   time  permits,    cut   the  bands   and   remove  them. 

If  the  pit  is  a  large  one,  the  ends  of  the  pit  should  be  sloped  to 
admit  of  the  waggons  or  drays  being  driven  right  through  the  silo  and 
over  the  silage ;  this  will  aid  very  much  indeed  in  consolidating  the 
silage.  If  a  small  silo  is  in  use,  take  a  draught  horse  into  it  and  walk 
him  around,   after  everv   load  is  added,  to  pack  the  fodder. 

Seal  in  the  same  way  as  a  tub  silo,  and  weight  with  the  earth  taken 
out  of  the  excavation.     As  shrinkacf?  will  be  considerable,  build  the  silage 


20  JonniaJ  of  Agr!cultiin\  Victoria.  [lo   Jan..    1912.. 

.several  feet  higher  than  the  .surface.  If  it  has  been  well  filled  and'' 
packed,  it  will  only  shrink  to  surface  level.  (^"ut  drains  around  the  -pit 
to    prevent    water    flowing    in. 

Stack    Silage. 

A  stack  of  silage  is  built  in  the  same  wav  as  a  stack  of  hay.  The- 
necessary  precautions  to  take  are  to  guard  against  building  the  stack  large- 
in  area  and  low  in  height,  as  a  large  amount  of  green  material  can  be- 
placed  in  a  .small  area.  Hav  stack  dimensions  are  of  nO'  value  for  silage- 
stacks.  In  general  practice,  it  is  found  that  one-fourth  the  area  of  a 
ton  of  hay  will  hold  a  ton  of  silage. 

During    building,    the     stack    sh;.ul(l    be     weighted    every    night     after' 
ceasing  work.       This  can  be  done  by  suspending  weights  on  wires  across 
the  stack,  or   placing  .some  weightv  material   on  it.      Finish  off  the  stack 
in  a   .suitable  shape  tO'  resist  the  weather,   and   weight  it  tO'  assist   settling - 
and   exclusion   of   air. 

Several  ilevices  for  weighting  suick  silage  have  been  tried,  but  none 
are  .so  satisfactory  as  the  dead  weight  on  top.  It  is  ever  doing  its 
duty  and  does  not  require  any  attention  after  being  placed  there.  I.ogs, 
stones,  sand,  bricks  or  earth  may  be  used  for  weighting.  One  good 
plan  is  to  make  a  framework  of  heavy  saplings.  Lav  these  around  the- 
edges.  cutting  notches  in  them  so  that  they  will  fit  intO'  each  other  where 
joined;  then  fill  between  them  and  all  over  the  stack  with  earth.  This  • 
device  will   do  good   work  and  give  satisfaction. 

Opening   the   Silo. 

When  opening  a  silo  carefully  remove  the  weight  and  seal.  The-- 
latter,  together  with  any  mouldy  silage  that  may  be  on  top.  should  be- 
placed  on  the  manure  heap  for  future  use  as  humus  for  the  soil. 

The  silage  required  should  be  daily  .scraped  off  in  layers  from  the  top- 
and  bagged  or  passed  down  a  chute  to  the  feed  truck.  Avoid,  as  far 
as  practicable,  sinking  holes  in  the  silage;  in  fact,  keep  as  little  of  the 
silage  exposed  to  the  air  as  possible.  Remember,  air  is  the  chief 
factor  in  destroving  silage.  Some  careful  farmers  cover  their  silage  with 
a  tarred  bag  sheet  immediately  they  have  removed  all  they  want  for  the- 
day. 

Datlv  Ration. 

The  dailv  ration  of  silage  for  a  dairy  cow  i-;,  fmm  30  to  40  lbs.,  when 
fed  wnth  other  fodders;  when  there  is  some  grass  available.  30  lbs.  per 
day  is  ample.  Sheep  will  eat  as  much  as  3  lbs.  a  day,  but  2  lbs.  will 
keep  big  wethers  or  ewes  in  good  condition.  .  It  is  advisal)le  tO'  give- 
horses  small  quantities  only  of  silage,  otherwise  there  may  be  trouble  from 
stomach  derangements  ;  limit  the  amoimt  fed  to  a  few  lbs.  per  day. 
Pigs  and  poultry   will   only  eat  .small  quantities. 

Advantages  of   Silage. 

Silage  mav  be  made  of  all   plants  that  animals   are  allowed  to  eat   in'" 

the  green  state  and   such   fodder  preserved  by  this  means   loses  but   littl'^ 

of   its   feeding   properties  in  the  process.  In  one  way   there  is   a   slight 

improvement,   that  is,   the  tougher   fibre  of  siloed   fodder  is   softened  and 
made   therebv   more    digestible   and    acceptable  to   animals. 

At  no  time  of  the  year   do  animals   do  better  than   in   the    height    of 

-spring;    they  then   rapidly   make  flesh   and  yield   their   maximum    flow   of 


lo  Jan.,    191--]  Si/os  and  Silage. 


milk.  It  is  tor  these  reasons  that  the  silo  is  recommended  to  the  farmer- 
so  that  the  surplus  growth  of  spring  may  be  carried  on  in  the  same  suc- 
culent condition  to  a  leaner  time.  Dry  fodder  never  ecjuals  the  rich 
spring  growths.  No  other  method  of  fodder  conservation  can  hope  to- 
approach  the  rational  one  of  ensiling,  for  by  that  all  the  succulent  juices 
are  retained,  the  fibre  is  .softened,  and  little  of  the  food  properties  are- 
lost;    while,  by  dry  curing  the  fodder,  all  the  natural  juices  are  lo.st. 

No  fodder  is  relished  .so  much  by  stock  as  silage.  Its  influence  is 
very  beneficial  to  the  animal  sy.stem,  is  invigorating,  and  prevents  cripples 
and  impaction.  Succulent  silage  makes  for  gcwd  health  and  heavy 
milk  flow^ 

With  the  help  of  a  silo  a  farmer  can  take  two  crops  off  the  same  area 
in  a  year,  for  when  a  crop  reaches  the  right  stage  of  maturity  it  can  be- 
chaffed  direct  from  the  field  into  the  silo,  leaving  the  land  free  to  be 
manured,    prepared,    and  sown   with   a   succeeding  crop   for  silage. 

The  silo  enables  a  farmer  to  make  good  use  of  all  undesirable  growths 
on  the  farm  and  to  eradicate  objectionable  weeds ;  seed  of  anv  kind  that 
has  passed  through  the  mild  fermentation  which  goes  on  in  a  silo  will  not 
germinate.  Silage  made  from  any  fodder  can  therefore  be  fed  to  animals 
without  fear  of  spreading  weeds. 

It  is  safe  from  the  ravages  of  birds  and  vermin.  There  is  no  danger 
from  fire,  and  when  properly  made  it  will  remain  in  a  tempting  easily 
digested  condition   for   years. 

In  times  of  drought,  as  many  animals  die  of  impaction  as  of  star- 
vation for  the  system  is  imable  to  deal  continuously  with  toughened  hard- 
to-digest  fodder  with  the  con.sequent  result  that  death  takes  place,  whereas 
had  the  crop  been  converted  into  silage  a  soft  succulent  easilv  digested 
fodder  would  have  been  available  to  tide  the  animals  over  the  period  of 
scarcity. 

Crops  can  be  ensiled  at  their  best  and  placed  ready  for  feeding  at 
any  time.  On  farms  where  green  fodder  crops  are  grown,  and  where 
ensiling  is  not  practised,  it  is  necessary  to  start  carting  the  fodder  for 
succuleiit  feed  before  it  is  at  its  best.  In  many  cases  where  the  crop 
is  an  autumn  one,  reaping  is  continued  into  winter  long  after  the  crop 
has  reached  maturity  and  been  damaged  by  frosts.  The  loads  must  of 
a  necessity  be  light  to  enable  the  horse  to  pull  it  out  of  the  paddock. 
The  land  is  cut  into  ruts,  making  ploughing  the  following  spring  very 
difficult,  whereas  if  this  crop  had  been  ensiled  it  could  have  been  left 
till  it  reached  the  right  stage  of  maturity  and  then  ensiled  in  the  long 
(lays  when  it  is  pleasant  to  work  and  when  the  ground  is  firm.  The 
silage  is  ready  for  feeding  in  the  short  days  of  winter  and  unpleasant 
tasks  are  escaped. 

Every  year,  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  there  is  a  shortage  of  succulent 
fodder,  from  late  summer  to  early  spring,  but  by  the  aid  of  the  silo 
cattle  can,  with  profit,  be  tided  over  this  time  of  stress.  The  dairy 
returns  can  be  kept  up — prices  for  dairy  produce  are  highest  in  the 
lean  times. 

Silage  therefore  keeps  up  the  dairy  returns,  keeps  the  stock  healthy 
and  thriving,  enables  the  farmer  to  carrv  more  stock,  spurs  him  on  to 
better  efforts  in  all  his  farming  pursuits  by  increasing  the  profits  of  the 
farm  and  aids  in  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  No  one  who  has 
fed  silage  to  his  stock  would  hesitate  a  moment  before  stating  that  a- 
farm  is  not  complete  without  a  silo. 


22  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  Jan.,    1912. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  the  State  every  spring  there  is  an  abundance 
of  growth  which  goes  to  waste.  A  few  weeks  later  it  would  be  ot 
great  benefit  and  assistance  to  the  animals  on  the  farm  in  enabling  them 
to  digest  the  hard  dry  innutritions  fodder  at  their  disposal,  which  is  only 
eaten  when  necessity  compels.  It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  every  farmer 
to  equip   his    farm   with   a   silo. 


THE  ARTIFICIAL  MANURES  ACTS. 

UNIT  VALUES  FOR  1912. 


P.    Rankin   Scott,    Chemist   for   Agriculture. 

The  Amending  Artificial  Manures  Act  of  1910  requires  that  manu- 
facturers or  importers  shall,  on  or  before  ist  November  in  each  year, 
register  the  brands  of  their  several  fertilizers,  and  at  the  same  time  supply 
to  the  Secretary  for  Agriculture,  under  declaration,  the  name  and  address 
of  manufacturer  or  importer,  the  place  of  manufacture,  the  raw  material 
from  which  the  manure  is  manufactured  or  prepared,  a  statement  of  the 
percentages  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  contained  in  the 
manures,  and  the  retail  price  per  ton.  From  these  percentages  of  plant 
foods  and  prices,  the  unit  values  of  the  constituents  which  have  a  com- 
mercial value  are  calculated,  and  these  unit  values  constitute  the  basis  of 
calculating  the  values  of  all  manures  for  the  period  during  which  the 
registered  brands  continue  in  force,  i.e.,  until  the  publication  in  the 
Government  Gazette  of  the  list  of  registered  brands  for  the  following 
season. 

A  fixed  limit  of  deficiency  is  allowed  in  all  fertilizers  (see  schedule 
hereunder).  When  a  manure  is  shown  to  contain  less  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  or  potash  than  the  proportions  stated  on  the  label  or  in  the  invoice 
certificate,  to  the  extent  set  forth  in  the  schedule,  the  vendor  is  liable  to 
a  fine  of  ;£io  for  a  first  offence,  and  ^50  for  any  subsequent  offence. 

vSCHKDULE. 


Description  of  Manuv 


All  manures  containins'  nitrogen 

All  manures  containing  potash 

All  manures  containing  water  soluble 

phosphoric  acid 
All  manures  containing  citrate  soluble 

phosphoric  acid 
All    manure     containing     citrate     in- 
soluble phosphoric  acid    . . 


Percentagss  of  Deficiency  allowed  in   regard   to   Ingredients 
of  Fertilizing  Value. 


XoTB.— Provided  that  the  total  phosphoric  acid  deficiency  shall  not  exceed  1-50  per  cent. 


lo  Jan.,    1912.]  Ariiflcial  Maiucres  Ads.  23 

The  label  and  invoice  certificate  referred  to  above  are  those  mentioned 
in  sections  5  and  7  of  the  principal  Artificial  Manures  Act  of  1904. 
These  clauses  require  the  vendor  to  attach  to  each  bag  a  label  or  tag, 
declaring  the  composition  of  the  manure  sold  in  quantities  exceeding  56 
lbs.,  and  to  deliver  to  all  purchasers  of  manures,  at  the  time  of  sale,  an 
invoice  certificate  conveying  similar  information  to  that  required  to  be 
stated  on  the  label. 

Practical  Utility  of  Unit  Value  System. 

From  the  unit  values  and  the  guarantee  contained  on  the  tags  or 
invoice  certificates,  it  can  be  readily  ascertained  whether  the  price  asked  for 
a  fertilizer  is  its  reasonable  commercial  value  (see  method  of  calculation). 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  price  asked  for  mixed  manures  is  generally 
higher  than  the  commercial  value  which  would  be  arrived  at  by  means  of 
a  calculation  from,  the  unit  value,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  in 
fixing  the  unit  values  no  allowance  is  made  for  the  cost  of  mixing  .and 
other  incidental  expenses,  but  only  the  actual  value  of  the  constituents 
which  have  a  commercial   value  is  taken  into  account. 

The  unit  values  and  methods  of  calculation  .are  shown  hereunder  : — 
Unit   Values    of    Manures    for    191 2. 

[Calculated    from     declared    f rices     of    Fertilizers   registered   at   the  Office  of  the 
Secretary  for  Agriculture.) 

s.  d. 

I   per  cent,  of   nitioyen   in   the    form   of   nitrate     ...              ...              ...  ...  17     5 

I  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  in  the   form  of  ammonia   ...              ...              ...  ...  14     9 

I    per  cent,    of   nitrogen    in   the    form  of   blood      ...              ...              ...  ...  12     9 

I  per   cent,   of   nitrogen  in   the    form   of    fine   bone                ...              ...  ...  i^     9 

I  per   cent,  of  nitrogen   in  the    form   of   coarse  bone   ami   unspecified  ...  12     o 

I    per  cent,    of    phosphoric    acid    as    water  soluble                 ...              ...  ...  4     9 

I    per   cent,    of   phosphoric  acid    as   citrate    soluble                ...              ...  ...  40 

I    per  cent,    of   phosphoric    acid    as    fine    bone        ...              ...              ...  ...  46. 

I    per  cent,    of  phosphoric   acid    ao    coarse    bone    ...              ...              ...  ...  40^ 

I    per   cent,    of    phosphoric  acid    as   insoluble,    in   bone    su[)erphosphates,   and 

Thomas     phosphates                  ...              ...              ...              ...              ...  ...  3     *^ 

I    per  cent,   of   phosphoric    acid   as   insoluble,  in   all   other   manures  ...  2     o 

I    per  cent,    of  potash    in  the    form    of    sulphate    ...              ...              ■■•  ••■  5     5 

I    per   cent,    of  potash   in    the    form  of    chloride    ...              ...              ...  .•■  4     ^ 

Method  of  Calculating  the  Commercial  Value  of  a  Manure. 

The  commercial  value  per  ton  of  a  manure  sold  in  Victoria  is  obtained 
by  multiplying  the  percentages  stated  of  the  fertilizing  substances  bv  the 
corresponding  unit  values  lixei"  "lerefor,  and  adding  the  separate  values 
t<\^:lhtr.      Examples  : — ■ 

1.  XiTKATE  OF  Soda — 

Invoirc  (■(■rtif\<-at(  or  tcKj,  \o '50  per  ci; lit.  niirof/cn. 

Colndatioii—  £    "■      dA 

1O-50   X    17s.  5d.    =  ...  ...  ...     13  10    0 

Calculated  vahie  per  ton    =  ...  ...     13  10     0 


24 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Yictoria.  [lo  Jan.,    1912. 


2.    .SuPliRPUOSPHATE  — 

Incolct  certi/fcdte  or  fag  — 


Water  soluble  phosphoric  acid 
Citrate  soluble  phosphoric  aci<l 
Insoluble  phosphoric  acid   ... 


]  7  per  cent. 
1 
2 

20 


Total  phosphoric  acid 

Calculation —  £  s.  d. 

Phosphoric  acid  (water  soluble)— 17  X  4s.  9d.  =  ...       4  0  9 

,,             ,,    (citrate  soluble)  — 1  X  4s.    -  ...0  4  0 

,,             ,,    (insoluble) -2   X   2s.    =  ...       0  4  0 

Calculated  value  per  ton      ...             ...  ...       4  S  9 


3.    BONEUUST — 

Incoict  certijifafe  or  tag — 

Nitrogen 
Phosphoric  acid 
Mechanical  condition — 

Fine 

Coarse 

Calculation —   . 
Nitrogen,  fine 


3-50  X  40 

100 
3;50  X^O 

100 
19  50x40 


3.50  per  cent. 
...     19.50 

...     40  per  cent. 
...     60 

£    s.  ,1. 
1-40   X    12s.  9d.   =   0  17  10 


=   210   X   12s.  =15    2 

=   7vS0   X     4s.  6d.    =    1   15     2 


Nitrogen,  coarse 
Phosphoric  acid,  fine 

19  50x60 
Phosphoricacid.coarse     -jqT)   -       =  11*70   X   4s.  =269 


Total  value  per  ton 


6     4  II 


4.  Mixed  Manuks— 

Invoice  certificate  or  tag~^ 

Nitrogen  as  sulphate  of  ammonia 
Phosphoric  acid — 
Water  soluble 
Citrate  soluble 
Citrate  insoluble 
Potash  as  muriate  (chloride) 

Cah  Illation — 

1-60   X    14s.  9d.    ^■ 
11-50   X   4s.  9d.    = 
•65   X  4s.    = 
^  l2o   X   2s.   = 

1-50   X   43.  6d.    = 

Calculated  value  per  ton 


1-60  per  cent. 

1150  per  3eut. 
•65        ,, 
125 
1-50 

£    .s. 
...     1     3 
...     2  14 
...     0    2 
...     0    2 
...     0     6 

d. 

7 
7 
7 
6 
9 

4  10     0 


General  Remarks. 

All  substances  containing  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  or  potash,  manu- 
factured or  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  fertilizing  the  .soil,  come  under  the 
i;peration  of  the  Artificial  Manures  Acts. 

Nitroo-en  is  the  most  expensive  of  the  three  essential  fertilizing  elements. 
It    exists     in     three     forms — organic,    ammonia,     and    nitrate.        Organic 


lo   Jan.,    T912.]  Artificial  Manures  Acts.  25 

nitrogen  is  widely  distributed  through  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom, 
and  its  chief  source  for  manurial  purposes  is  from  blood,  bones,  and  other 
organic  substances. 

Nitrogen  as  ammonia  is  obtained  chiefly  from  the  destructive  distillation 
of  coal  in  gas  manufacture.  It  combines  with  an  acid  radicle  forming 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  in  this  form  it  is  more  readilv  soluble  than 
organic  nitrogen. 

Nitrogen  as  nitrate  is  found  in  natural  deposits  in  South  America. 
It  exists  as  nitrates  of  soda  and  potash.  Like  ammonium-  sulphate,  it  is 
completely  soluble  in  water  and  diffuses  readily  through  the  soil.  It  is 
available  as  food  to  the  plant  without  further  change. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  derived  from  phosphates,  the  chief  source  of  which, 
is  phosphate  of  lime.  It  occurs  in  fertilizers  in  three  forms,  which  are 
distinguishable  by  their  solubility  (water-soluble,  citrate-soluble,  and  in- 
soluble), and  these  terms  express  the  forms  in  which  phosphoric  acid  is 
readily  available,  moderately  so,  or  difficultly  so,  respectively. 

The  first  mentioned  form  is,  of  course,  soluble  in  water,  the  second  is 
the  portion  soluble  in  citrate  of  ammonia  after  the  extraction  of  tlie  water 
soluble  content.  Citrate  soluble  form  is  generally  considered  to  be  avail- 
able as  plant  food,  and  is  of  importance  in  arriving  at  the  value  of  a 
fertilizer.  The  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  is  not  of  .any  immediate  value  to 
the  plant,  its  action  on  soils  is  slow,  and  its  value  doubtful.  Experience 
has  shown  the  necessity  of  fertilizers  which  are  immediately  available  to 
the  plant,  and  for  this  reason  insoluble  phosphate  is  treated  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  .so  converted  into  soluble  superphosphate. 

Bonedusts  contain  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen,  the  phospboric  acid 
content  being  insoluble  in  water  ;  but,  in  a  finely  divided  state,  the  particles 
have  more  surface  exposure,  and,  consequently,  decav  quicker  and  become 
available  to  the  plant.  The  fineness  of  a  bonedust  has,  therefore,  an 
important  bearing  on  its  availability. 

Bone  fertilizers  are  distinct  from  bonedusts,  in  that  some  are  composed 
of  bonedust,  animal  refuse,  ground  phosphate  rock,  and  generally  super- 
phosphate,  while  others  are  bonedusts  diluted  with  gypsum. 

Ground  phosphates  and  guanos  differ  from  the  organic  phosphates  such 
as  bonedusts  and  animal  fertilizers.  They  contain  practically  no  organic 
matter,  are  denser  in  structure,  and,  except  in  extreme  cases,  they  are  not 
used  to  any  extent  without  treatment  with  acid.  They  are  used  as  raw- 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  superphosphates. 

Thomas  phosphate  is  the  by-product  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of 
steel,  through  the  use  of  phosphatic  iron  ore.  The  phosphoric  acid  content 
is  more  readily  soluble  than  in  bones  or  rock  phosphates. 

Potash  is  obtained  from  natural  deposits,  and  is  supplied  in  the 
form  of  sulphate  and  chloride  (muriate).  Both  forms  are  readily 
soluble. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  fertilizers  registered  in  the  ofiice  of  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  for  the  year  191 2,  showing  the  particulars  of 
each  manure,  as  required  by  the  Artificial  Manures  Acts,  to  be  published 
in  the  Government  Gazette. 


26 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,    19 1 2. 


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Artificial  Manures  Acts. 


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lo   Jan..    19'--]  Artificial  Mciniires  Ads. 


29 


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30  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  Jan.,   1912. 


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lo  Jan.,    1912.]  Nhill  Farm' Comfetitious,   igii.  33. 

NHILL  FARM  COMPETITIONS,   1911. 

A.   E.   V.  Richardson,  M.A.,  B.Sc.   (Agric),  Agricultural  Superintendent. 

In  connexion  with  the  Nhill  Farm  Competitions  for  191 1,  entries  were 
received  in  the  following  sections  : — Large  Farms,  Small  Farms,  Crops, 
Fallow. 

SECTION  l.-LARGE  FARMS. 

The  following  scale  of  points  was  used  in  judging  these  farms  :^ 

A.  Best   system   of   cropping,    r-tation,    cultivation  ...  ...  35 

B.  Character^    condition,    and    value    of    fami    crops  ...  ...  20 

C.  Condition    of    the    fallow,    taking    area   into   consideration  ...  20 

D.  Live  Stock — 

[a]  Horses 

(b)  Sheep 
\c)  Cattle 

(d)  Pigs 

[e]  Poultry 

E.  General    farm    equipment 

F.  Boundary    and    subdWisional    fences   and    gates             ...  ...  20 

G.  The  most  complete  and   eiificient  system  of  water  storage  ...  45 
H.   Arrangement,   character,    and   condition  of   farm  buildings  ...  20 
I.   Best  kept  and  most  suitable  orchard   and  vegetable  garden  ...  10 
J.    Best   provision  of    reserve   fodder        ...              ...              ...  ...  20 

K.   Best  efforts   in   direction  of   tree   planting        ...              ...  ...  5 

E.   Farm    and    live    stock    insurance          ...              ...              •••  •••  5 

Details   of   Judging. 
System  of  Cropping,  Cultivation,  Rotation,  and  Manuring. 

The  general  scheme  of  rotation  and  cropping  varied  within  very  small 
limits  among  the  competitors  in  all  sections.  In  most  instances,  the 
general  plan  followed  was  a  four-course  rotation  in  which  wheat,  pre- 
ceded by  a  bare  fallow,  headed  the  series.  The  wheat  stubbles  are 
usually  burnt  off ;  and,  after  a  preliminary  discing,  oats,  either  with  or 
without  manure,  are  sown  as  the  second  crop  in  the  series.  These  oats 
are  invariably  stripped ;  and,  during  the  third  year,  the  self-sown  oats 
are  grazed  with  sheep.  Finally,  the  rotation  is  brought  to  a  close  with 
a  season  of  bare  fallowing,  which  .serves  as  a  preliminary  to  the  next 
wheat  crop.  Under  such  a  scheme  of  rotation,  it  is  apparent  that  only 
one- fourth  of  the  holding  is  under  wheat  and  one-fourth  in  bare  fallow, 
whilst  the  remainder  is  either  grazed  or  partially  devoted  to  oats.  On 
the  larger  holdings,  the  rotation  is  still  further  extended  by  interposing 
two  years  of  grazing  between  each  successive  round  of  wheat  crops.  The 
rotation  is  thus  a  five  years'  course,  comprising  i,  wheat;  2,  oats;  3, 
grazing;  4,  grazing;  5,  fallow;  6,  wheat;  i.e.,  one  wheat  crop  in 
five  years. 

In  other  cases,  two  wheat  crops  were  taken  off  in  succession,  thus 
necessitating  one  wheat  crop  being  placed  on  stubble  land — a  very  risky 
practice  in  a  dry  season — and  the  rotation  then  worked  out  as  follows  : — 
I,    wheat;    2,    wheat;   3,   oats;   4,    grazing;    5,    grazing;     6,    fallow. 

Whatever  may  be  the  merits  of  these  various  practices,  it  must  be 
clearly  apparent  that  they  may  only  be  profitably  practised  when  land 
values  are  comparatively  low,  and  when  each  individual  holder  has  a 
relatively  large  area  of  land.  With  a  considerable  rise  in  the  price  of 
land,  and  the  inevitable  increase  of  population  that  mu.st  be  ahead  of 
Victoria,  these  practices  must  undergo  considerable  modification  in  favour 

] 7862.  B 


34 


Jonnial  of  .\gri  culture  ,\  tetania.  [lo   Jan..    rgr:*. 


of    rotations    which 
will     yield     higher 
net       returns       per 
acre.      Indeed,    the 
time  will  soon  come 
— if  prices  for  land 
increase    at    a    rate 
even  approximating 
that  of  the  last  de- 
cade— before   those 
who  are  now  prac- 
tising such  rotations 
will    find    it    more 
profitable     to     sell 
their   land   and   in- 
vest  the  money   at 
fixed  deposit  rather 
than      continue      a 
svstem    of    rotation 
liy  which  only  one 
crop  of  importance 
is  obtained  in  four 
or  five  vears.        In 
this  connexion,  sys- 
tematic   and     con- 
tinued experimental 
work,     having     for 
its  object  the  test- 
ing   of    every    pos- 
sible rotation  likely 
to    be    suitable    to 
the    Wimmera    dis- 
trict,   would   be   of 
invaluable      service 
to  the  primary  pro- 
ducers  of   the   dis- 
trict.    Some  of  the 
farmers  of  the  dis- 
trict have  been  ex- 
perimenting in  this 
direction,      but      it 
must  be  recognized 
that    the    scope   of 
any       experimental 
work   that   may   be 
carried     out    on    a 
private  farm  under 
ordinary  conditions 
is  verv  strictly  lim- 
ited. 

The  Man  on  the 
Land,  though  he 
may    have    the    in- 


lo  Jan.,    1912.]  A7//7/  Farm  Comfctitiojis.    iqi  1. 


35 


cl'iiation  ami  the 
patience,  may  wX 
always  have  tlie 
necessary  time  and 
facilities  for  carry- 
ing on  experimental 
work  of  a  far- 
reaching  character. 
Tn  this  connexion 
it  is  pleasing  to 
find  that  there  are 
some  in  the  district 
who  do  find  time 
to  tackle  experi- 
mental work,  and 
not  solely  on  their 
own  account,  luit 
for  the  general  ad- 
vancement of  the 
agricultural  prac- 
tice of  the  district. 

Mr.  Batson,  for 
example,  has  a 
most  interesting 
collection  of  plots, 
which  include,  inter 
alia.  Swedish  oats, 
Polish  wheats  {Tn- 
ticiim  Poloniciiiii). 
Emmer  {T .  di- 
cocciim).  and  many 
American  wheats 
of  the  Durum 
class.  like  Ku- 
banka.  Chul.  (ial- 
galos,  Fretes.  Tur- 
key Red,  as  well 
as  Egyptian  wheat, 
rye  and  rye  grasses, 
rape,  barley,  and 
lucerne. 

The  American 
wheats  referred  to 
above  are  supposed 
to  be  very  drought 
resistant  in  the 
United  States,  but 
they  have  yet  to 
prove  that  claim  in 
competition  with 
the  be.st  of  our 
Australian  wheats. 

It  is  interesting 
to   note    that    these 


I 


B    2 


3*5  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  Jan.,    1912. 

American  wheats  did  radier  badly  when  first  introduced,  but  Mr.  Batson 
persevered  with  them;  and  now,  having  become  acclimatized,  they  are 
showing  up  well  in  comparison  with  varieties  like  Federation,  Dart's  Im- 
perial and  Jumbuck. 

Besides  these  variety  tests,  Mr.  Batson  has  conducted  manurial  tests, 
and  has  experimented  with  forage  crops  such  as  rape  and  barley.  This 
year,  he  has  a  fine  crop  of  wheat  grown  after  a  rape  crop  which  was 
fed  down  with  sheep.  Though,  with  Mr.  Batson  and  Mr.  H.  E.  Dahlen- 
burg,  the  rape  crop  has  not  been  too  successful,  the  principle  involved 
in  this  departure  from,  the  traditional  practice  of  the  district  is  of  the 
very  greatest  importance.  What  is  needed  in  the  Wimmera  is  a  hardy 
quick-growing  winter  forage,  which,  sown  in  autumn,  will  come  up  with  the 
first  rains ;  and,  maturing  quickly,  will  be  available  in  July  and  August 
before  the  natural  herbage  has  made  much  growth.  Could  such  a  fodder 
be  obtained,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it  would  lead  to  great  developments 
in  the  Wimmera  district,  and  the  necessity  for  relying  on  the  natural 
pasture  and  wild  oats  would  be  obviated.  Further,  if  such  a  fodder 
were  of  a  leguminous  character,  the  additional  advantage  of  increasing 
the  organic  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  would  be  gained. 

Barley  is  not  appreciated  to  any  large  extent  in  the  district,  and  this 
may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  most  attempts  to  grow  good  samples  of 
malting  barley  have  failed.  The  six-rowed  barleys  for  feed  are  very 
drought  resistant,  especially  if  suitable  varieties  are  chosen ;  and,  with 
proper  treatment,  they  will  be  found  a  most  profitable  adjunct  in  any 
system  of  mixed  farming  in  the  drier  districts  of  the  State. 

Experimental  work,  however,  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  con- 
tinuous and  progressive  advance  of  agricultural  practice,  and  Mr.  Batson 
stands  out  prominently  by  his  enterprise  in  testing  new  varieties  of 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  rape,  grasses  and  lucerne,  also  in  growing  those 
that  are  most  successful  on  a  large  scale,  as  well  as  in  conducting 
manurial   and  other  trials. 

The  system  of  cultivation,  manuring  and  rotation,  adopted  by  Messrs. 
Crouch  and  Dahlenburg,  differs  very  little  in  detail.  Mr.  Sanders, 
besides  lengthening  the  chain  of  rotation,  grows  two  wheat  crops  in  suc- 
cession, one  of  which  is  on  stubble  land.  It  is  not  a  practice,  however, 
which  could  be  generally  followed  with  success ;  and,  if  this  season  has 
not  fully  demonstrated  the  futility  of  growing  wheat  on  stubble  land  in 
the  A\'immera,  it  has,  at  least,  done  so  in  the  other  wheat-growing  por- 
tions of   the   State. 

Cleanest  and  Best  Crops. 
Many  of  the  crops  examined  were  not  nearly  so  clean  as  was  expected, 
owing  to  the  prevalence  of  wild  oats.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
presence  of  such  oats  in  the  vv'heat  crops  will  reduce  the  yield  in  the 
Nhill  district  by  bushels  per  acre  this  season.  As  these  oats  shed  their 
grain  long  before  harvest,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  191 1  crop  will 
leave  a  legacy  of  rubbish  for  future  crops ;  and,  providing  that  the  usual 
rotation  is  practised,  considerable  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  ridding 
the  land  of  this  pest. 

In  spite  of  the  acknowledged  damage  done  to  the  crop  by  wild  oats, 
many  wheat-growers  solace  themselves  with  the  fact  that  some  of  the 
damage  done  by  this  pest  will  be  counterbalanced  by  the  grazing  value  of  the 
wild  oats,  which  spring  up  spontaneously  from  the  stubbles  with  the  fall 
of  the  first  rains.  In  spite  of  the  prevalence  of  wild  oats,  some  tolerably 
good  crops   were  seen. 


Jan.,    1 91 2.]  Nliill  Farm  ComfeUtions,   igii. 


37 


Mr.  Batson's  crop  was,  on  the  whole,  the  best  and  most  regular  of 
the  large  farm  crops.  Mr.  Crouch's  crops  were  very  good,  but,  in  one 
paddock  of  Federation  pickled  with  J  lb.  of  bluestone  to  the  bag,  the 
crop  was  very  badly  smutted.  This  empirical  method  of  pickling,  as  I 
subsequently  discovered,  was  largely  practised  in  the  di'^trict,  and  should 
be  displaced  by  a  system  in  which  solutions  of  known  strength  and  con- 
centration are  used. 

Condition  of  the  Fallow. 

In  awarding  points  for  fallow,  the  area,  depth  and  character  of  the 
soil,  mulch,  freedom  from  weeds,  regularity  and  evenness,  and  amount  of 
moisture  conserved  below  the  mulch,   were  taken  into  consideration. 

Mr.  Sanders  lost  heavily  in  this  section  on  account  of  the  comparative 
absence  of  moisture  in  the  fallows,  the  rough  and  crusty  nature  of  a  fair 
area  of  fallow  and  the  prevalence  of  weeds. 


READY    FOR    WORK HORSES    AND    STABLE    ACCOMMODATION    AT 

MR.     C.    E.     DAHLENBURG's. 

Mr.  Crouch's  fallow  was  in  good  condition,  and  the  conservation  of 
soil  moisture  was  assisted  by  a  liberal  and  effective  soil  mulch. 

Live    Stock. 

Horses. — In  all  instances  the  display  of  horses  was  very  crefiitable, 
and  more  especially  was  this  the  case  with  draught  stock.  Messrs.  Sanders, 
Dahlenburg,  and  Crouch  each  possess  a  number  of  roorny,  strong-boned, 
^ood-quality  mares.  With  the  exception  of  Mr.  Sanders,  however,  little  use 
has  been  made  of  them,  for  there  were  only  a  few  young  stock  coming 
on.  Mr.  Batson's  horses  are  more  uneven  in  quality  than  the  other  com- 
petitors, and  he  has  allowed  them  to  get  in  rather  low  condition.  Mr. 
Dahlenburg's  horses,  I  think,  are  the  best  and  most  even  in  quality, 
though  Mr.  Sanders  has  more  voung  stock  of  good  quality. 

Sheep. — In  all  cases,  the  sheep  are  used  for  wool  only,  and  breeding 
Iambs  for   freezers   does   not,    therefore,    come    into    consideration.        The 


38  Journal  oj  \gnci(Uurc.\icior'ia.  [10   Jan..    1912. 

selection  of  pure  merino  ewes  and  rams  of  iiardx  c.jnstitulion,  witli  Iiifj 
frames,  good  length  of  siai)lf.  and  dense  in  tlie  flfttv,  is  therefore  a 
most  important  consideration. 

The  sheep  of  both  Messrs.  Sanders  and  Eatson  possess  the  char- 
actei-istics  mentioned  above,  and  they  haw  takt-n  care  to  .see  that  the  ewes 
are  mated  with  rams  of  good  quality. 

Otlnr  .S7/'r/\  -On  none  of  the  farms  were  c("\vs.  pigs  ^J-'d  poultry 
relied  upon  to  swell  the  farm  income.  AN'hile  the  holdings  of  the  district 
remain  comparatively  large,  it  is  perhaps  inevitable  that  wheat  and  sheep 
will  incnopolize  the  attention  of  the  large  wheat-farmer,  and  cattle,  pigs, 
and  poultry  l>e  considered  as  mere  appendages  to  the  faim. 

Certainly,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  an  adequate  supply  of  labour  in 
country  districts  will  prevent  many  from  undertaking  any  other  activities 
than  those  wdiich  can  be  immediateilv  perfomied  by  the  members  of  the 
family.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  certain  that  the  returns  from  every  fami 
could  be  greatly  augmented  by  the  systematic  exploitation  of  the.se  avenues 
of  profit.  '  The  cows,  poultry,  and  pigs  have  been  regarded  merely  as 
ministering  to  the  domestic  comforts  of  the  home,  and  a  policy  of  laissez 
faire  has,   therefore,  been  adopted  in  regard  to  these. 

Very  little  attention  was  given  anywhere  to  thti  housing  of  the  ])igs 
and  poultr)-.  The  most  popular  structure  for  pigs  was  the  familiar 
pole  and  thatch,  which  has,  at  least,  the  merit  of  coolness  on  a  summer 
day;  and,  for  feeding  receptacles,  the  hollowed-out  log  had  many  faithful 
devotees.  With  respect  to  the  policy  adopted  in  regard  to  poultry,  it  is 
\vith  some  satisfaction  I  noted  that,  even  if,  in  .some  ca.ses,  houses 
were  not  provided,  the  hens  were  at  least  prevented  from  roosting  on  the 
reels  of  the  binders  by  the  erection  of  wire  .screens  on  the  implement 
sheds,  and  b\  inducing  the  fowls  to  make  a  home  in  a  clump  of  shad> 
trees  adjoining  the  farm  buildings. 

Farm  1  mplcniints   and  Machinery. 

The  efficiency  of  the  farm  operation.s  is  largely  dependent  on  the  type 
of  implements  and  machinery  used.  Except  in  one  instance,  all  farms 
large  and  small  \vere  provided  with  portalile  engines,  either  oil  or  steani. 
and  these  performed  such  diver.se  duties  as  sawing  wood.  chafFcutting.. 
winnowing,   and  running  a  machine  shearing  plant. 

There  was  little  to  choose  between  the  various  farms  in  the  com- 
pleteness of  the  equipment.  A  comparison  of  the  present  day  implements 
with  those  in  use  a  decade  ago  affords  very  striking  proof  of  the  advance- 
ment made  in  recent  years  in  the  direction  of  improved  machinery.  The 
only  weak  point  in  an  otherwise  excellent  equipment  was  the  general 
absence  of  suitable  .seed  graders.  These  should  be  looked  upon  as  in- 
dispensable implements  on  every  wheat  farm,  and  their  systematic  use 
for  the  preparation  of  seed  wheat  will  lead  to  a  considerable  improvement 
in  the  average  yields. 

Among  many  ingenious  time  aiid  lab<un--saying  novelties  was  a  useful 
.seed -covering'  appliance  invented  liy  Mr.  Batson.  It  consists  of  a  .shaft, 
attachetl  to  the  footboard  of  the  drill,  and  fitted  with  a  number  of  long 
narrow  tines,  which,  bv  means  of  a  lever,  may  Ik-  inclined  at  any  obtuse 
angle  with  the  soil.  These  tines  act  as  a  set  of  harrows;  and,  ina.smuch 
as  they  are  attached  immediately  behind  the  hoes,  and  in  a  position  con- 
stantly fixed  with  respect  to  the  hoes,  they  firing  about  a  more  regular 
covering  effect  than   that  of   an  ordinary   harrow. 


lo  Jan.,    191 -.]  X Iiill  Fanii  CoDipctit/oiis.    loi  i. 


39 


For  mallee  land  where  stu;r,ps  have  nor  vet  l)een  eliminated,  the  tines 
are  provided  with  a  clock  s])rin;;-  attachment  which  lurmits  them  to  safely 
negotiate  the  stumps. 

Fences. 

The  lioundar\-  and  sulidi\isi;aial  fences  were,  for  rhe  most  part,  fairlv 
■suhstanlial,  in  good  ordf-r   and   sin  ep   pr:  of.         ^m'v.-   lin..^   ,<f    ff-.c-,    how- 


A    SEED   COVERING    ArPLIAXCE 
]n\('iiteii  by  Mr.  Gfoige  Bat>rn,  Miill. 


ever,    are  old   and  need    immediate    renewing.       (iood    litting,    well    swung 
gates   are  of   some   importance   in   economic    working,    and  much    delav    is 


I'ATEXl     StKD    COVERER    FOR    MALI  EE    LAND. 
Made  liy  Mr.  Davis,  Xhill. 

-caused,   as  well  as  mental   irritation,    when  the  familial    '"'  barb  wire  "  gate 
is   continually  encountered    in   passing    from   paddock    to   paddock. 


40 


Journal  of  Agricidture ,  Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912. 


Mr.  Crouch,  with  his  30  wooden  and  8  "cyclone"  gates,  has  now 
banished  these  nerve-racking,  unsightly  structures  from  his  property,  and 
the  equanimity  with  which  he  may  now  contemplate  his  gates  will  more 
than  compensate  him  for  the  trifling  cost  of  installation.  Mr.  Crouch  has 
also  replaced  several  miles  of  old  fence  by  a  neat  substantial  post  and 
dropper  structure. 

Water   Storage. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  features  to  be  considered  in  the  drier 
portions  of  the  State.  Though  Nature  has  not  provided  the  Wimmera 
farmer  with  running  creeks  and  rivers,  she  has  provided  an  unlimited 
supply  of  underground  water  of  very  good  quality  which  may  be  obtained 
from  wells  or  bores.  Over  the  greater  portion  of  the  district  the  sub- 
soil   is   eminently    suited    for  holding   water,    and   very     little     is     lost   by 


RESIDENCE    OF    MR.    C.    E.    DAHLENBURG.    KIATA. 

seepage  and  drainage  from  properly  constructed  dams.  However  large 
and  numerous  dams  may  be  on  any  given  property,  it  is  always  a  com- 
mendable practice  to  tap  the  unlimited  underground  stores  of  moisture,  by 
a  bore  or  a  well. 

Mr.  Sanders  has  a  well  278  feet  deep,  fitted  with  a  windmill  and 
pump.  A  7,000-gallon  storage  tank  is  located  on  the  highest  portion  of 
his  holding,  and  from  this  the  water  gravitates  through  pipes  and  ball 
taps  to  water  several  320-acre  blocks.  There  are  thirty-nine  dams,  con- 
veniently placed  in  various  parts  of  the  holding,  and  varying  in  capacity 
from  700  to  5.000  cubic  yards.  In  addition,  there  is  a  large  swamp 
occupying  over  1,000  acres  on  a  portion  of  the  property;  and  this,  in 
latter  years,   has  been  covered  with  a  fine  body  of  perfectly  fresh  water. 

Windmills  placed  conveniently  near  the  homestead  furnish  a  supply 
of  water  from  neighbouring  dams  for  the  houses  and  gardens  of   Messrs. 


lo  Jan.,    1 91 2.]  Nhill  Fartn  Competitions,   igii. 


41 


Batson   and  Dahlenburg,   whilst  Mr.    Crouch  has  a  windmill   attached  to 
a  well  160  feet  deep,  from  which  water  is  lifted  into  two  tanks  of  2,000 


THE    ..ESTHETIC    SIDE    OF    FARM    LIFE. 


gallons  each.     The  whole  of  the  rainwater  from  the  homestead  and  farm 
buildings  is  conserved,  either  in  underground  cement  tanks  or  in  numerous 


ANOTHER    VIEW    OF    MR.     C.     E.     DAHLENBURG's    GARDEN. 


overground    galvanized-iron    tanks,    at    the    properties   of    Messrs.    Dahlen- 
burg,   Crouch,   and  Sanders. 


4^ 


journal  of  Ai^rituitiirc.  Victoria. 


\io  Jan.,    I9I2_ 


Far  1)1    BiiUdiii<^s,    FJc. 

Pride  of  place  must  be  given  in  this  regard  to  Mr.  Dahlenlmrg.. 
Besides  the  modern  commodious  ii-ro(;med  brick  residence  with  all  con- 
veniences, there  is  a  fin.;  array  of  substantial  farm  buildings.  Fo.remost 
among  these  is  the  stable,  90  ft.  x  40  ft.,  well  ventilated,  solidly  built, 
and  blocked  throughout  with  well-set  sleepers.  Attached  to  this  is  a 
large  galvanized-iron  chalT  shed.  40  ft.  x  22  ft.,  and  engine  .shed.  Near 
by  is  a  barn  50  ft.  x  24  ft.,  built  on  piles.  Avith  a  fine  wooden  floor,  and 
capable  of  accommodating  3,000  bags  of  wdieat,  and  a  circular  iron  silo- 
15  ft.  x  10  ft.,  in  which  oats  for  feed  are  stored.  Other  features  of 
interest  are  the  impU-ment  shed,  dairy,  smithy,  fowdhoiise.  and  drafting 
yards    for   sheep. 


RESIDENCE  OF  MR.  GEORGE  BATSON.  NHILL. 


Mr.  Crouch's  homestead  and  buildings  have  not  been  laid  out  on  the- 
same  generous  plan,  but  they  are  very  well  suited  ff^r  the  purjDose  for 
which  they  were  intended.  Mr.  Crouch  has  a  fine  stable,  well  appointed 
implement  shed,  .smithy,  buggv  shed,  chaffhnuse  and  engine  house  ;  and, 
in  addition,  he  has  a  commodious  hayshed,  and  an  up-to-date,  well-l>uilt 
wonlshed.    55    ft.    x   27    ft.,    with   drafting  yards   attached. 


In    all    the    farms   examined    in 
litrhting   the   hou-e   with   ^as.   either 


this    section,    pmvision    was    made    for 
acet\lene  <;r  serogen. 


Orcliard  and  Garden. 

One  of  the  most  pleasing  features  in  the  competitioai  is  the  recognition- 
of  what  might  l>e  called  the  aesthetic  side  of  farm  life. 

On  Mr.  C.  E.  Dahlenburg's  property,  there  was  a  beiutiful  display 
f>{  flowers  in  the  gardens  and  greenhou-e.  Xeatb  clipp.-'d  privet  heflges. 
80  varieties  (if  roses,  a  bewildering  array  of  poppies,  godetias,  dahlias,  and! 


lo   Jan.,    ipi-.]  Xliill  Farm  Ci>iiip<.iiiioiis.    igii. 


43 


carnations,  ple.isantly  sti  in  lawns  of  \v«-ll-ke])t  buffalo  and  couch  grass, 
with  ornamt^ntal  tnt-s  and  shrubs  in  thr  background,  combine  to  make  a 
most  artistic  effect. 

One  cannot  hidj)  tVtling  that  here,  at  least,  an  eft'ort  has  l»-rn  made 
to  make  farm  life  .it'.ractive,  and  to  make  the  farm  what  it  should  be — • 
a  home.  Primarily,  of  course,  a  farm  must  be  profitable,  but  it  does 
not  succeed,  in  the  highest  sense,  unless  it  appeals  both  to  youth  and  old 
age,  by  reason  of  its  intrinsic  attractiveness.  The  practical  value  of  the 
gardens  is  not  overlooked  ;  for.  in  addition  to  a  well  regulated  series  of 
vegetable  beds,  there  are  over  2  acres  of  assorted  fruit  trees,  the  majoritv 
of  which  are  in  full  bearing. 

The  orchards  of  Messrs.  Bat.'on.  Dahlenburg.  and  Sanders  were  well 
kept   and   nicely   laid   out,    and  provide   an  excellent   varietv  of   fruit     for 


PORTION  OF  MR.  BATSON  S  ORCHARD  AND  VEGETABLE  GAKD 


domestic  purpo.ses.      The  vegt-tablf  garden  of  Mr.    Batson.   as  well   as  his 
well-kept  vineyard,  is  worthy  of  special  mention. 

Trt-:    Planting. 

Very  little  systematic  work  has  been  done  in  this  direction.  In  all. 
cases,  belts  of  natural  timber  have  been  reserved  in  various  paddocks  for 
shelter  purposes,  and  the.se,  it  may  be  considered,  to  a  large  extent,  render 
tree  planting  unnecessary.  The  native  bulloak  and  lx)x.  however.  ca.st 
very  little  shade,  and  small  clumps  of  thickly  planted  sugar  gums  and 
pines  would  serve  the  dual  purpose  of  adequate  shelter  and  subsefjuent 
profit. 

Siiiiiiuarv. 

Mr.  Dahlenburg  has  secured  first  place  in  the  comi)etition  with  a  fine 
all-round  display.  System  and  method  are  to  l>e  observed  in  everv  de- 
partment of  fami  work.  The  stock  are  very  creditable,  and  the  farm 
stands  out  prominently  w'ith  respect  to  the  equipment,  orchard  and  garden, 
farm  buildings,   reserves  of  fodder,   and  for  svstem  in  tree  olantinnf. 


44 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912. 


Mr.  Batson  is  a  creditable  second,  and  has  scored  consistently  ii> 
nearly  all  the  sections,  and  established  a  comfortable  lead  in  his  system 
of  cropping  and  condition  of  his  crops. 

Mr.  Crouch  is  deserving  of  the  greatest  encouragement,  especially  in 
view  of  the  trouble  he  has  evidently  taken  in  erecting  an  entirely  new 
set  of  farm  buildings.  By  attending  to  a  few  small  details  pointed  out 
in  the  above  discussion,   he  should    be    a    hard  competitor  to  beat  next 

season. 

Points  Awarded. 


D.— Stock.  (65). 

6 

-^ 

bb 

M) 

2 

bt) 

r3 

1 

<D 

C 

t3 

Competitor. 

P. 

%t 

0 

_£. 

a 

S 

2 

2 

3 

5 

0 

P=4 

i 

d 

6 

>. 

^ 

m 

0 

"f 

tl 

^ 

fl 

"d 

<^ 

1 

1 

J3 

00 

"§ 
0 

s 

3 
S 

1 

1 

1 

d 

1 

M 

i 

1 

1 

1 

35 

27 

20 

1.5 

20 
14 

25 

20 

20 
16 

10 

8 

5 

2 

5 

4 

20 
19 

20 
13 

45 
37 

20 
17 

10 
10 

20 

18 

5 

4 

5 

1 

285- 

1.  C.  E.  Dahlenburg 

225 

2.  G.  Batson 

31 

18 

16 

17 

17 

4 

4 

3 

lY 

13 

35 

14 

10 

15 

3 

2 

219 

3.  W.  Crouch 

27 

17 

17 

18 

16 

7 

2 

2 

18 

16 

38 

16 

5 

12 

2 

a 

aii) 

4.  W.  Sanders 

25 

15 

10 

20 

18 

6 

3 

2 

18 

14 

42 

lU 

7 

14 

2 

4 

210 

SECTION 


SMALL  FARMS. 


There  were  only  three  entries  for  these  sections  and  the  points  allotted 
were  as  follow  : — 

Points  Awarded. 


Competitor. 


1.  J.  Diprose 

2.  W.  Dahlenburg 

3.  J.  &  A.  Anderson 


T3 

ii 

3 

bB 

-s   . 

T) 

J3 

^ 

a 

B  S 

0 

•^ 

tit  t» 
.2"-S 

IS 

00 

a. 

a 

1 

1.1 

5| 

.2 

xn 
1 

•ri 

> 

1 

3 
7 

1  a 

<^ 

m 

0 

« 

WW 

W 

00 

w-y 

mW 

Hi 

M 

i-i 

30 

20 

20 

40 
31 

20 

15 

10 

10 

20 

10 

5 

5 

20 

14 

17 

17 

12 

9 

8 

15 

8 

2 

20 

12 

19 

32 

16 

10 

6 

5 

18 

4 

4 

3 

18 

12 

16 

16 

14 

14 

6 

10 

19 

3 

0 

205. 


153 
149^ 
13a 


The  Messrs.  Anderson  have  the  makings  of  a  first-class  farm;  and,, 
with  careful  management,  it  should  be  difficult  to  beat  next  season.  They 
stand  out  from  other  competitors  in  the  very  fine  provision  made  for 
water  storage  and  the  condition  and  arrangement  of  the  farm  fences  and 
gates.  There  is  an  excellent  orchard,  but  it  is  sadly  in  need  of  cul- 
tivation, and  fine  systematic  work  has  been  done  in  the  direction  of  tree 
planting.  The  Messrs.  Anderson,  however,  have  only  recently  purchased 
the  farm,  and  it  is  not  yet  in  full  working  order.  Neither  pigs  nor  cows 
are  kept  on  the  farm ;  and,  though  there  are  excellent  poultry  yards,  they 
are  practically  empty. 

Mr.  Diprose  has  a  fine  well-kept  orchard  in  full  bearing,  and  a 
vegetable  garden  showing  evidence  of  care  and  system  in  working.       His 


lo  Jan.,    1 91 2.]  NhilL  Farm  Competitions,   igii.  45 

draught  stock  were  good,  particularly  the  yearlings  and  2-year  olds.  He 
had  the  most  complete  collection  of  implements  and  the  best  all-round 
crops. 

Mr.  Dahlenburg  had  a  fine  set  of  buildings,  and  has  made  rapid 
strides  during  the  few  years  he  has  had  possession  of  his  farm.  The  out- 
buildings are  well  laid  out,  commodious  and  substantial.  More  attention, 
however,  needs  to  be  paid  to  the  fences  and  gates,  and  a  windmill  and 
tanks  with  water  laid  on  to  the  farm,  and  homestead  are  urgently  required 
for  economic  working, 

SECTION  III.— CROPS. 

There  were  10  entries  for  this  section;  and,  of  these,  3  were  for 
crops  grown  on  mallee  land.  Farmers  who  enter  for  such  crop  compe- 
titions naturally  wish  to  know  the  reasons  which  actuate  a  judge  in  award- 
ing the  prizes.  Before  discussing  the  details,  I  should  like  to  indicate 
what  I  conceive  to  be  the  objects  of  such  a  competition  and  the  manner 
in  which  such  objects  may  be  realized  by  a  scheme  of   ludging. 

These  competitions,  I  take  it,  have  for  their  general  object,  the  stimu- 
lation and  improvement  of  the  farm  practice  of  the  district,  and  they  are 
successful  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to  which  they  realize  such  an 
object.  In  crop  judging,  it  seems  natural  to  infer  that  the  best  crop 
and  the  one  most  deserving  of  the  prize  is  that  which  pans  out  financially 
the  best.  But,  if  this  is  to  be  the  sole  criterion,  I  am  inclined  to  the 
belief  that  the  general  object  of  the  competition,  namely,  the  stimulation 
and  improvement  of  farm  practice,  would  be  defeated.  To  award  the 
prize  to  the  heaviest  yielding  crop,  irrespective  of  other  considerations, 
would  mean  a  severe  handicap  for  those  necessarily  placed  on  holdings 
of  comparatively  poor  soil.  It  may  be  a  much  harder  proposition  to  raise 
a  20-bushel  average  on  some  types  of  soil  than  to  secure  30  bushels  off 
a  rich  black  flat.  The  yield  of  a  crop  in  any  given  district,  assuming 
other  things  to  be  equal,  is  dependent  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil  on  which 
the  crop  is  grown ;  and,  in  the  Nhill  district,  at  least,  there  are  areas 
on  each  farm  that  regularly  produce  bushels  better  results  than  others. 

Though  heaviness  of  yield,  therefore,  is  an  important  consideration. 
and,  in  a  measure,  an  indication  of  a  farmer's  calibre,  it  is  clearly  not 
the  only  consideration.  Under  normal  conditions,  the  efficiency  of  a 
fanner's  work  is  judged  by  the  condition  of  his  crop,  the  relative  freedom 
from  weeds  and  undergrowth,  its  regularity  and  evenness,  the  judgment 
displayed  in  sowing  the  right  quantity  of  seed  per  acre,  the  extent  to 
which  he  has  tried  to  suppress  diseases  such  as  smut  and  bunt,  and, 
lastly,  the  care  with  which  the  seed  has  been  chosen,  and  with  which  he 
has  attempted  to  keep  it  true  to  type  and  of  a  high  standard  of  pro- 
ductivity. In  nearly  all  crops,  wild  oats  were  very  prevalent,  and  in 
some  instances,  overshadowed  the  wheat.  Wild  poppv,  charlock,  and 
various  members  of  the  thistle  family  were  common  intruders,  though  the 
amount  of  damage  done  by  these  was  far  less  than  by  the  wild  oats. 

Disease  was  noticeable  in  all  the  crops  examined,  the  commonest  being 
ball  smut  {Tilletia  tritici)  loose  smut  {Ustilago  tritici)  and  flag  smut 
{Urocystis  occulta). 

The  dryness  of  the  season  evidently  had  a  very  salulary  effect  on  the 
development  of  rust,  as  well  as  on  takeall.  though  many  patches  of  the 
latter  were  noticeable.      An  interesting  occurrence  of  takeall   disease  was 


46  Joiinu'il  of  A  iirictiUiirc.  Viciona.  [ic   Jan.,    1912. 

observed  on  virgin  land  on  Mr.  (irec^nwotxl's  property.  Here  the  disease 
ivas  observed  on  stray  patches  of  barlev  grass  in  takeall  affected  patched' 
of  crop. 

The  prcvnlep.ce  of  ball  .smu:  this  season  in  the  Nhill  crops  raises  the 
(juestion  of  the  efficacy  of  ihe  i)ickl:ng  scluticns  adopted.  On  inquir\  it 
was  noticeable  that  many  of  the  crops  were  pickled  at  the  rate  of  j  lb. 
bluestone  to  the  bag.  How  much  water  was  used  in  preparing  the  solution 
does  not  seemi  tO'  have  troubled  the  farmers  concerned.  Bluestone  is  an 
efficient  fungicide  o)ily  if  proper  precautions  are  taken,  and  only  when 
solutions  of  definite  strength  and  concentration  are  employed.  It  js  not 
sufficient  to  merely  guess  the  strength  of  the  pickle  by  the  depth  of  colour 
or  tint.  Solutions  of  definite  strengths  should  be  employed,  say,  2  lbs. 
to  10  gallons  of  water,  and  the  inevitable  lo.sses  of  solution  due  tO'  con- 
tinued pickling  .should  be  made  up  by  adciing  a  definite  weight  of  water 
and  bluestone,  and  not  in  an  arbitrary  way  by  pitching  a  handful  of 
bluestone  at  occasional   intervals   into^  the  pickling  tub. 

So  far  as  the  regularity  and  tvcuness  of  the  crop  is  concerned,  this 
is,  in  many  ways,  an  indication  of  careful  farming,  though  it  is  not 
always  an  infallible  sign.  In  spitCf  of  the  variable  and  patchy  nature 
of  most  of  the  land  on  which  the  crops  were  grown,  it  is  pleasing  tO'  note 
that  many  of  the  crops  were  almost  perfectly  even  and  uniform  in  char- 
acter, displaying  care  in  handling  the  soil,  during  the  previous  fallowing 
season,  and  in  drilling  both  seed  and  manure. 

With  regard  to  trueness  tO'  t\pe,  it  is  a  matter  for  regret  to  find  that 
most  of  the  crops  are  very  badlv  mixed,  and  contain  an  inordinate  number 
of  strange  heads  of  wheat. 

One  would  experience  but  little  difficulty  in  gathering  a  large  sheaf  of 
"strangers  ""  from  a  square  chain  of  crop.  Not  only  is  it  evident  that 
the  crops  are  becomang  badly  mixed,  but  there  are  unmistakeable  signs 
of  degeneration  in  the  Federation  crops  of  the  district.  Evidences  of 
this  may  be  gathered  from  the  large  number  of  barren  spikelets  at  the 
basal  portions  of  the  ears,  amounting,  in  many  cases,  to  one-quarter  and 
one-third  of  the  total  number  of  spikelets.  Also,  the  marked  tapering 
nature  of  so  many  of  the  heads  is  another  indication  of  this  phenomenon. 
These  are  no  mere  physiological  derangements  due  to  the  effect  of  an 
abnormally  dry  sea.son,  but  are  undoubted  signs  of  a  falling  aw^ay  in 
character  and  type  from  the  original  square  headed  compact  variety  in- 
troduced some   years   ago. 

This  degeneracy  of  type  is  not,  however,  confined  to  the  Nhill  district, 
but  is  noticeable  in  other  portions  of  the  State,  and  it  is  what  might 
logically  be  expected  fronii  any  wheat,  or  indeed  any  crop  in  which  special 
pains  are  not  taken  to  prevent  the  natural  tendency  to  degeneration  ob- 
servable in  all  cultivated  plants.  We  have  heard  a  great  deal  lately 
about  selection  of  stock — draught  horses,  dairy  cattle,  stud  sheep.  We 
know  that  it  was  by  continuous,  patient  selection  that  the  famous  Booth 
and  Bates  types  of  Shorthorn  cattle  were  evolved.  Is  it  logical  to  assume 
that  selection,  which  has  had  so  potent  an  influence  in  raising  the  standard 
of  our  domestic  animals,  .shall  prove  unavailing  when  applied  to  the 
vegetable  kingdom?  In  systematic,  careful,  long  continued  selection,  we 
have  an  instrument  in  which  we  may  truly  mould  plants  at  will.  The 
sugar  content  of  beets  has  been  trebled,  the  percentage  of  starch  in  potatoes 
and  protein  content  of  maize  greatly   augmented  by  systematic  selection. 


lo  Jan.,    1912.]  N/ijIl  Fanu  Competitions,   igi  i . 


47 


Does  it  then  require  mucli  faith  to  believe  that  wheat — our  staple  crop 
— can  be  vastly  improved,  both  in  quality  and  in  prolificacy  bv  the 
aiDplication  of  those  scientific  principles  which  ha\t^  proved  so  useful 
with  other  crops  and  with  live  stock?  Will  it  be  admitted  for  one  moment 
that  this  degeneracy  of  type,  which  has  been  observed  in  the  crops,  cannot 
be  counteracted?  It  is  a  ccnimon  saying  amiOng  farmers  that  such  and 
such  types  of  wheat  are  ''  running  out."  This  will  be  the  fate  of  Federa- 
tion unless  some  entei-prising  individual  takes  it  in  hand,  and  prevents  it, 
by  a  rigorous  systematic  course  of  selection,  from  falling  with  ever- 
increasing  momentum   t(j   the    low    le\el    of    mediocritx . 

With  these  preliminary  oliservations  we  mav  pricenl  to  examine  the 
results  of   the   competition. 

Points   A-icardcd. 


Freedom 

Evenness 

Freedom 

Trueness 

Apparent 
Yield. 

from 

and 

from 

to 

Total. 

Competitor. 

Weeds. 

Regularity. 

Disease. 

Type. 

15 

15 

15 

20 

35 

100 

1. 

G.  Parkin 

14 

15 

11 

9 

35 

84 

2. 

W.  G.  Greenwood 

11 

\i 

12 

13 

25 

75 

3. 

G.  Crouch 

12 

13 

11 

12 

24 

72 

4. 

r  J.  and  A.  Anderson 

14 

11 

13 

10 

23 

71 

1.  P.  Bone 

12 

13 

12 

12 

22 

71 

6. 

W.  Dahlenburg     . . 

10 

12 

12 

12 

21 

67 

7. 

Eeichelt  Bros. 

10 

11 

12 

8 

'-'■' 

63 

Mr.  G.  Parkin  secures  the  highest  marks  in  this  .section.  His  was  a 
magnificent  crop  of  Federation  .standing  5  feet  high,  almost  perfectly 
level  and  remarkably  free  from  weeds.  He.  also  secured  the  maximum 
for  yield. 

Mr.  Greenwood  was  second  with  a  good  sample  of  Federation,  which, 
in  comparison  with  other  crops,   was  very  true  to  type. 

The  figures  for  the  apparent  yield  are  proportional,  but  not  equivalent 
to,  the  estimated  yield  per  acre. 

Crops  Grown  os  Mallee  Land. 
Points   Aicardcd. 


Freedom 

Freedom 

Regularity 

Trueness 

Apparent 
Yield. 

from 

from 

and 

to 

Total. 

Competitor. 

Weeds. 

Disease. 

Evenness. 

Type. 

15 

15 

15 

20 

35 

100 

1. 

E.  F.  Scliultz 

11 

10 

13 

11 

27 

72 

y 

R.  L.  Simon 

9 

13 

11 

14 

22 

69 

3. 

Marshall  Bros. 

l:i 

1:5 

in 

\-l 

19 

67 

SECTION  IV.— FALLOW   LAND. 

The  competition  in  this  section  was  very  keen ;  and.  with  one  or  two 
exceptions,  the  fallowing  was  very  thoroughly  done.  The  principal 
object  in  bare  fallowing  is,  of  course,  the  conservation  of  soil  moisture, 
and  fallowing  is  successful  just  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  moi.sture 
conserved.  The  amount  that  may  be  thus  conserved  i«  governed  by  the 
moisture  present  in  the  soil  at  the  ccmm.encement  of  fallowing  operations, 
and  by  the  amount  of  moisture  that  sub.sequently  falls  as  rain.  The 
ideal  is  to  conserve  all  the  moisture  that  falls.     That  ideal,   however,  can 


48 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  Jan.,    191: 


never  be  wholly  achieved,  simply  because  losses  through  evaporation  and 
percolation  are  inevitable.  The  farmer's  object,  hovi^ever,  should  be  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  loss  by  evaporation  to  a  minimum,  and  this  can  be 
done  by  providing  that,  at  all  times,  the  moisture  reservoir  of  the  subsoil 
shall  be  covered  with  an  adequate  and  loose  soil  mulch. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  surface  should  be  harrowed  down  to  the 
consistency  of  an  onion  bed,  for  this  may  defeat  the  object  in  view,  by 
assisting  rather  than  retarding  capillary  activity.  The  ideal  should  be 
to  have  a  fairly  liberal  surface  mulch  with  the  fine  particles  below  and 
clods  of  moderate  size  on  the  surface.  This  is  achieved  by  stirring  the 
surface  as  often  as  is  necessary.  This  means  that  the  soil  should  be 
stirred  only  when  it  becomes  apparent  that  the  loose  surface  mulch  is  in 
danger  of  becoming  consolidated  after  showers  of  rain.  Many  over- 
zealous  farmers  often  work  the  land  too  much,  though  this  is  far  less 
frequent  an  occurrence  than  those  who  do  not  put  sufficient  work  into  their 
fallow.  Hence,  in  judging  the  fallow,  the  following  points  have  been 
taken  into  consideration  : — 

(a)  The  amount  of  moisture  conserved  in  the  soil   and  subsoil  below  the  mulch. 
{b)  The    depth,    character,    and    efficiency    of    the    mulch    and    its    suitability    for 
the   prevention   of    further   losses  of   moisture   by    evaporation. 

[c)  Freedom    from    weeds. 

[d)  Regularity  and  evenness  of  the  surface,  for  this  is  an  indication  of  the 
judgment    displayed    in    working. 

[e)  The  size  and  condition  of  the  surface  particles  and   clods. 

The  following  table  summarizes  the  result: — - 
Points  Awarded. 


Depth 

Moisture 
conserved. 

and 

Freedom 

Regularity 

Condition 

Character 

from 

and 

of  Surface 

Total. 

Competitor. 

of  Soil 

Weeds. 

Evenness. 

Clods. 

Mulch. 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

50 

1.  W.  Greenwood 

10 

10 

9 

9 

9 

47 

■  (J.  E,eichelt 
^■\W.  Crouch.. 

9 

10 

8 

8 

9 

44 

9 

10 

8 

8 

9 

44 

4.    P.  Bone     . . 

9 

9 

8 

9 

8 

43 

,  ,/Borgelt  Bros. 
*•  \W.  Dahbnburg 

8 

8 

9 

8 

8 

42 

9 

9 

8 

8 

8 

42 

7.  B.  D.  McKenzie 

6 

8 

7 

7 

9 

37 

Mr.  Greenwood's  fallow  was  in  excellent  condition„  and  he  displayed 
great  judgment  in  handling  the  patchy  nature  of  the  soil  on  his  holding. 
He  gave  his  land  a  liberal  soil  mulch,  and  its  effectiveness  was  demon- 
strated by  the  amount  of  moisture  conserved  below.  It  was  also  very 
free  from  weeds  of  any  kind,  regular  and  even  in  character,  and  the  tracks 
letft  by  the  implements  displayed  system  and  method  in  working  the 
different  blocks 

Messrs.  Crouch  and  Reichelt  also  exhibited  very  creditable  areas  of 
fallow. 


In  conclusion,  I  would  like  to  add  that  these  competitions  have  been 
productive  of  a  vast  amount  of  good.  Not  only  have  they  attracted 
general  attention  to  the  different  aspects  of  rural  life  on  some  of  our 
best  farms,   but  they  have  evidently  had  a  most  stimulating  influence  on 


lo  Jan.,    igi2.]  Farm  Blacksmiihing.  49 

the  competitors  in  preceding  years,  inasmuch  as  very  considerable  improve- 
ments have  been  effected  on  many  of  the  farms  quite  recently,  with  a 
view  of  bringing  them  up  to  a  standard  suitable  for  competition.  It  is, 
of  course,  inevitable  that,  in  any  given  district,  there  will  always  be  a 
few  farmers  who  stand  out  conspicuously  from  their  fellows,  in  the 
efBciency  with  which  they  conduct  the  various  farm  operations,  and  in 
regard  to  the  general  standard  of  cultivation.  From  the  point  of  view  of 
the  State,  it  is  of  the  highest  degree  of  importance  that  the  great  bulk  of 
the  farming  population  should  follow  the  lead  set  by  the  more  progressive 
farmers  of  a  given  district. 

In  a  word,  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  encourage  the  many  to 
do  what  the  few  are  doing  at  the  present  time.  From  the  standpoint  of 
the  State,  true  progress  will  come,  not  bv  increasing  the  size  of  the 
individual  holding,  but  by  encouraging  higher  class  farming,  and  I  feel 
sure  that  the  yearly  focussing  of  the  farmers'  attention  on  the  merits  of 
the  best  farms  of  a  district  must  lead  to  great  general  improvement  in 
the  farm  practice  of  that  district.  In  this  direction,  the  Nhill  Agricul- 
tural Society  has  done  most  valuable  work  during  the  past  eleven  years, 
and  it  is  sincerely  to  be  hoped  that  this  good  work  will  continue. 

I  cannot  allow  this  opportunity  to  pass  without  pointing  out  the  great 
amount  of  good  work  Mr.  C.  H  Towns,  the  popular  secretary  of  the 
Nhill  society,  has  done.  The  success  of  a  society  is  very  largely  dependent 
on  the  energy  and  enthusiasm  of  its  chief  officers ;  and,  for  the  able  direc- 
tion of  the  work  of  the  farm  competitions  for  the  past  eleven  ^■ears, 
Mr.  Towns  is  almost  wholly  responsible. 


FARM  BLACKSMITHING. 

{Continued  from  -page  799,  Vol.  IX.) 

George  Baxter,  Instructor  in  Black  smithing,  Working  Men's  College, 

Melbourne. 

v.— WELDING  {Continued). 

Swingle-tree  Mountings. 

Figs.  42  and  43  show  two  methods  of  mounting  a  swingle-tree.  The 
first  is  much  simpler  than  that  depicted  in  Fig.  43,  but  is  not  as  strong. 
Holes  must  be  bored  through  the  timber  to  receive  the  ironwork,  whereas  in 
the  second  instance  the  iron  is  made  to  surround  the  wood,  thereby  prevent- 
ing it  from  splitting,  which  would  easily  happen  if  the  first  method  be 
adopted.  Notwithstanding  this  disadvantage,  it  is  commonly  used  ;  and, 
to  overcome  the  loss  of  strength  due  to  boring  the  holes  referred  to,  wood 
of  a  larger  section  is  employed. 

It  would  undoubtedly  be  advisable  to  first  make  one  of  the  simplest 
nature.  The  following  information  concerning  both  methods  will,  it  is 
hoped,  be  sufficiently  clear  to  enable  one  to  make  eitlier.  Fig.  42  will  be 
considered  first. 

Take  a  piece  of  \  in.  or  f  in.  round  iron  of  any  convenient  length  and 
start  by  making  a  wedge-shaped  point  in  the  same  manner  as  that  described 
for  the  hinge  (Fig.  40);  then  bend  it  over  the  beak  of  the_ anvil,  using  a 
drift  to  make  the  hole  the  correct  size  and  shape.  (See  a.  Fig.  42). 


5° 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Vicioria. 


[lo   Jan..    1912- 


In  taking  the  welding  lieat  care  must  be  exercised  to  pre\ent  the  eye 
being  Iiurnt.  Cooling  the  eye  occasionally  will  have  the  desired  effect. 
\\'hen  properly  heated,  weld  wdth  the  hand  hammer.  To  obtain  the  best 
results,  start  by  striking  light  and  quick  blows  on  the  thin  edge  of  the 
scarf  and  gradually  increa.se  the  weight  of  blows  as 
the  thicker  part  is  hammered.  It  is  desirable  that 
the  welded  portion  should  be  left  thicker  than  the 
original  bar  for  several  reasons,  one  of  which  is  that 
it  fits  the  hole  tightly,  and  therefore  prevents  it  from 
turning  round ;  another  reason  is  that  it  strengthens 
what  would  otherwise  be  the  weakest  part. 

One  welding  heat  should  be  quite  sufficient  to  insure 
satisfactory  results  ;  in  fact,  much  stronger  than  if 
two  or  more  heats  are  neexled  to  join  the  parts  together. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  each  welding  heat  wastes 


u 


42.     SWINGLE-TREE    MOUNTING. 
H.  Ready  for  weldiiiy  ;  ''.  Welded,  ready  for  serewiiij;' ;  c.  Coniiileted  s\viii|.sle-tree. 


away  so  much  metal,  and  the  inevitable  result  is  that  the  work  is  in  many 
cases  rendered  useless. 

Cutting  to  length  is  the  next  operation ;  then  screwing  to  fit  a  nut.     It 
is  always  best  to  purchase  nuts  already  screwed.      It  saves  a  lof  of  time 


43.     SWINGLE-TREE    MOUNTINGS. 

a.  Fullerin,:;  preiiaratorN'  lo  tlrauiiiy  down:  h.  End  drawn  and  swaged;  c.  Mitre;  i\.  .Sliows  cross 
section:  c.   Finished  foryiny ; /'.  Connileted  swindle-tree. 

and  they   are  .so  cheap  that  it  would  not  pa\-   to  make  them.     They  may 
be  purchased  from  any  ironmonger. 

The  eve-bolt  (Fig.  42 Z*)  may  be  usred  for  purposes  other  than  in 
the  ca.se  iilusti''ated ;  for  instance,  if  there  are  children  in  the  home  they 
will  want  a  swing,   and  no  safer  and  better  way  of  fixing  the  rope  tO'  the 


3  0  Jan..    191 -.j 


F arm   BlacksDiill/iii  s 


SI 


cross  beam  can  be  found  than  by  making  two  eye-bolts  out  of  f  in. 
diameter  iron  for  the  purpose.  Again,  it  is  sometimes  necessar\-  to  attach 
a  block  and  tackle  to  the  roof  for  lifting  heavy  weights — the  eve-bolt  is 
just  the  article  required  for  the  purpose.  Where  an  underground  tank  is 
on  the  farm  the  cover  requires  to  be  lifted  ;  if  an  eye-bolt  made  from  ^  in. 
diameter  iron,  with  a  round  ring 
attached  to  the  eye,  be  connected 
in  the  s;ur.e  manner  as  previously 
described  it  will  l)e  found  to  be 
very  con-venit^nt. 

To  accomplish  the  forging  con- 
nected with  Fig.  43  is  a  much 
more  difficult  matter.  The  sketches 
show'  the  various  stages  of  con- 
struction ;  a  is  a  piece  of  flat  iron, 
say  1 2  in.  x  %  in.,  with  grooves 
formed  in  it  with  the  fuller  and 
the  beak  of  the  anvil  in  such  posi- 
tion that  the  central  portion  will, 
■on  being  flattened  out,  be  of  the 
necessarv  length  for  the  swingle - 
tree.  As  the  size  will  varv,  't 
will  l>e  impossible  to  state  the 
length. 

After  the  fullering  is  done,  each 
end  is  rai.sed  to  a  welding  heat 
and  drawn  down  to  a  circular  shape 
like  b  (Fig.  43).  In  drawing  out 
work  of  this  nature  the  iron  is 
roughly  rounded  wdth  the  hammer 
iind  afterwards  swaged  smooth  and 
to  exact  size.  Illustrations  of 
swage  and  swage  block  appear::"d 
in  the  September.    191 1.   issue. 

The  next  operation  is  to  flatten 
■out  the  central  part  to  about  ^  in. 
thick  at  the  middle  section  and 
gradually  taper  it  aw^ay  to  I  in. 
at  the  edges  as  illustrated  at  d. 
The  breadth  is  allowed  to  increase 
to  about  2  in.,  whilst  flattening. 
The  mitre  (c)  is  made  with  the 
fuller  and  sett-hammer. 

When  this  is  satisfactorily  done 
it  is  bent  at  the  centre  of  the 
flatjened  portion,  to  fit  the  swingle- 
tree,  which  is  usually  made  semi- 
circular :  then  scarf  the  round 
ends  like  a  link  and  weld  up. 

To  attach  to  the  wood,  drill  a  small  hole  through  the  flat  part  ;  and. 
after  fitting  tightly,  either  put  a  screw  in  each  side,  or  bore  a  hole  through 
the  wood  and  drive  a  piece  of  iron  right  through  and  slightlv  rivet  the  ends 
to  prevent  it  dropping  out.     Another  method  of  fastening  'is  to  forge  the 


.  Cutting-  the 
c.  Collar  con 
weliliiis'  heat. 


FORGING    BOLTS. 

iidii    for    collar:     b.  Partly    hent  ; 
■ctl\    .shaped  :    d.  Prejiaring-  for    the 


52  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo   Jan.,    1912- 

mount  slightly  smaller  than  the  wood  ;  and,  by  making  the  iron  red  hot 
and  quickly  driving  on  and  cooling  out  before  the  iron  burns  too  deep, 
the  contraction  of  the  iron  will  hold  it  tight,  just  as  a  tvre  is  held  on  to^ 
a  wheel. 

Forging  a  Bolt. 

The  majority  of  bolts  are  made  by  machinery  ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
blacksmiths  are  continually  being  called  upon  to  make  them  for  special 
purposes  and  where  it  is  not  convenient  to  buy  them.  Machine  made  bolts 
are  short,  ra;rely  exceeding  10  in.  long;  so  that  when  a  longer  bolt  is  re- 
quired it  is  either  made  outright  by  the  smith  or  else  a  shorter  one  is 
lengthened.  Screwed  ends,  i.e.,  plain  circular  pieces  of  iron  cut  off  in 
9  in.  or  10  in.  lengths,  are  screwed  at  one  end,  and  a  nut  fitted  to  them 
at  the  bolt  factories  and  sold  cheaply  bv  most  ironmongers.  They  are 
very  convenient  and  save  a  great  deal  of  hard  work  in  screwing,  par- 
ticularly  in  large  bolts. 

If  a  long  boit,  say  2  ft.,  be  required,  a  head  would  be  made  on  a 
piece  of  iron  and  a  screwed  end  welded  on  to  the  other  end. 

A  bolt  head  is  made  by  wrapping  a  piece  of  square  or  flat  iron  around 
the  end  of  the  required  sized  round  iron ;  and,  after  raising  to  a  welding 
heat,  forging  the  head  to  shape. 

In  order  to  do  this  in  an  inteljigient  and  systematic  manner,  several 
things  require  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  In  the  first  place,  it  will 
be  understood  that  in  the  United  Kingdom  bolt-heads  and  nuts  are  made 
to  fixed  measurements,  known  as  Whitworth's  standard,  so  that  a  bolt 
made  in  one  shop  will  fit  a  nut  made  in  another ;  also,  that  a  spanner  may 
be  made  to  suit  the  nuts  of  all  bolts  of  a  given  size.  The  size  of  a  bolt 
is  known  by  the  diameter  of  iron  in  its  circular  part. 

The  farmer  who  has  an  American  as  well  as  an  Australian  made 
machine  has  no  doubt  found  out  that  a  nut  from  one  will  not  fit  a  bolt 
from  the  other.  This  is  on  account  of  the  United  States  engineers  having 
adopted  a  standard  known  as  the  Sellars,  which  is  slightly  different  to  the 
English.  But,  even  in  American  machines  made  by  different  makers,  the 
nuts  are  in  many  instances  not  interchangeable. 

The  importers  of  agtt'icultural  machinery,  besides  selling  the  com- 
pleted machine,  also  sell  duplicate  parts,  and  they  are  particularly  careful 
that  the  duplicates  of  their  machines  will  not  be  exactly  suitable  for 
others.  Consequently,  the  user  of  the  machine  is  practically  compelled  to 
buy  his  renewals  from  the  agent  from  whom  he  bought  his  machine. 
Whilst  one  cannot  blame  the  manufacturer  for  protecting  his  own  interests, 
the  practice  is  at  times  aggravating  to  the  farmer.  When  a  nut  drops  off 
a  screwed  end,  he  finds  that,  although  he  has  some  of  the  same  sized  nuts 
on  hand,  the  threads  are  differently  cut,  and  so  cannot  be  made  use  of, 
necessitating  a  journey  of  often  many  miles  for  the  proper  article. 

The  Whitworth  standard  of  sizes  for  bolt  heads,  nuts,  and  the  width 
of  spanner  jaws,  is  found  by  taking  the  diameter  of  the  iron  in  the  body 
of  the  bolt  as  the  unit,  and  multiplying  that  diameter  by  #  and  adding 
^  in.  to  the  product.  The  depth  of  nut  equals  the  diameter  of  the  bolt, 
whilst  the  depth  of  head  is  f  that  of  the  nut,  but  in  ordinary  practice,  is 
mad^  the  same.  When  making  a  bolt,  it  would  be  well  to  bear  this  in 
mind,  for  it  is  far  more  satisfying  and  no  more  difficult  to  make  the  head 
right  than  wrong. 


lo  Jan.,   1 91 2.] 


Farm  BlacksmiiJiing. 


=53 


The  ordinary  method  of  making  a  bolt  in  a  black.smith's  fire  is,  as 
previously  stated,  to  wrap  a  piece  of  square  or  flat  iron  around  a  circular 
bar.  Now,  as  the  heads  are  to  be  made  to  fixed  sizes,  the  size  of  the  bar 
used  for  forming  the  head  requires  to  be  carefully  selected  so  as  to  make 
the  bolt  with  a  minimum  of  labour.  The  following  table  is  compiled  to 
enable  the  maker  to  at  once  select  the  most  suitable  size  for  bolts  ranging 
from  \  in.  to  i   in  : — - 

T.AJBLE    OF    SIZE    OF    IRON    FOR    BOLT    HEADS,     WITH    FINISHED    DIMENSIONS 

OF    HEAD. 


Diameter  of  bolt 
Size  of  square  iron  for  head 
Width  of  head  across  the  fiats 
Depth  of  head 


in. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

1 

6 

3 

7 

2 

8 

4 

s 

1 

is 

i 

^ 

i 

life 

u 

lA 

h 

i 

1 

i 

1 
i 
If 
1 


The  correct  method  of  making  the  collar  to  fomi  the  head  is  to  first 
of  all  find  out  the  length  which  will  exactly  encircle  the  round  bar.  Thus, 
to  the  diameter  of  bolt,  add  the  thickness  of  square  bar  and  multiply  the 
sum  by  3)-.  The  end  of  the  square  bar  is  now  heated  to  bright  red  and 
placed  on  the  hardee  at  a  distance  from  the  heated  end  equal  to  the  re- 
quired length  when  it  is  cut  about  half-w^ay  through,  as  shown  at  a  in 
Fig.  44,  and  then  bent  to  b  when  it  is  broken  off,  and  the  circular  bar 
inserted  and  the  ends  knocked  down  as  shown  at  c. 

The   collar   is   now    driven 


off  and  the  round  bar  heated 

^    to  redness  and  placed  in  the 

collar  similar  to  d,  and  driven 
45.   BOLT-TOOL.  do^yn  on  the  top.    The  object 

is  to  swell  the  round  bar  slightly  where  it  will  be  wasted  by  obtaining 

the  wielding  heat.      By  altering  the  position  of  the  bolt  from  vertical  to 

horizontal  and  resting  the  collar  on  the  anvil,  a  blow  struck  on  it  tightens 

it  so  that  it  will  not  slip  off  in  the  fire 
In    welding,    the    head    is    struck 

sufficiently  hard    to    crush  the  metal 

and  so  form  a  flat  surface  on  oppo- 
site  sides.       It   is   quickly   turned  at 

right    angles    and    struck.        By    this 

means   the   square   head     is     roughly 

formed  ;    and,    at  the  same  time,   the 

weld   is   partly   made.      To  complete 

the    welding    and     to   obtain    correct 

shape  a  bolt-tool  (Fig.    45)  or  fork- 
tool  (Fig.   46)  is  required. 

When  a  bolt-tool  is  used,  the  bolt* 

is   immediately     placed     through    the 

hole  and  the  square  hole  of  the  anvil,    ^5.   method  of  using  a  fork-tool 

and  hammered  down   to  the  required 

depth,   then  removed,    and    again   hammered   on   the   sides.        A    pair   of 

calipers  should  be  previously  set  to  the  width  of  the  head  for  testing  the 

size. 

The  fork-tool  mnv  be  used  for  heading  various  sized  bolts,  and  in  that 

respect  is  a  better  tool  than  the  bolt-tool,  w'hich  can  only  be  used  for  one 

size,  so  that  a  set  of  such  tools  would  be  necessary. 


_54  Journal  of  Agriculture.  V icioria.  [lo   Jan..    1912, 

The  swage  block  has  a  number  of  njunil  holes  in  it  which  may  be 
used  in  the  place  of  a  bolt- tool. 

The  sketch  clearly  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  fork-tool  is  utilized. 
A  great  many  bolts  are  made  with  hexagonal  heads ;  but,  as  they  are  more 
difficult  to  forge  and  the  square  head  is  likely  to  fulfil  all  the  requirements 
of  the  farm,  they  will  not  be  described. 

{To  be  contiuiicd .) 


VINE   DISEASES   IN   FRANCE. 

{^Continued  from  page  OjO.   Vol.  IX.) 

F.   de   Castella,   Government   Yitlculturist. 
FUNGICIDE    SPRAYS. 

Though  there  is  no  reason  tO'  fear  that  copper  sprays  Avill  ever  be  re- 
quired in  Victoria  to  combat  the  various  vine  fungi  which  wreak  such  havoc 
in  French  \-ineyards,  since  we  are  protected  from  them  by  climatic  condi- 
tions, other  branches  of  our  agriculture  are  vitblly  interested  in  the  ques- 
tion. Orchardists  are  only  too  familiar  with  the  need  for  copper  sprays, 
and.  more  recently  still,  potato-growers  are  being  forced  to  resort  co  the 
same  specific  in  order  to  overcome  the  Irish  Blight. 

The  fungus  diseases,  W'ith  which  these  two  industries  have  to  deal, 
present  manv  features  in  common  with  those  against  which  French  ^'ine- 
growers  use  such  sprays.  The  mycelium  of  all  these  fungi  grows  in  the 
interior  of  the  tis.sues  of  the  host  plant,  the  spores  alone  appearing  on  the 
outside.  They  are,  therefore,  not  amenable  to  direct  treatment  and  can 
only  be  fought  by  the  indirect  or  preventive  method.  The  latter  consists, 
briefiv.  in  spreading  over  the  whole  of  the  growing  surface  liable  to  in- 
vasion, a  very  thin  coating  of  a  slightly  soluble  copper  salt  so  that  every 
drop  of  rain  or  dew  must  dissolve  sufficient  of  it  to  render  it  an  unsuitable 
medium  for  the  germination  of  the  spores  of  the  fungus. 

In  view  of  this  similarity  it  will  no  doubt  prove  of  interest  and  use,  to 
both  orchardists  and  potato-growers,  to  know  somiething  of  the  different 
•sprays  employed  in  France  since  there  is  no  country  where  they  are  more 
extensively  applied  nor  where  a  greater  variety  of  formulae  are  in  general 
use.  In  Victoria,  so  far,  we  only  know  copper  lime  and  copper  soda.  In 
France,  numerous  other  copper-containing  substances  are  in  every-day  use, 
some  of  which  present  advantages  in  certain  directions. 

Some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  spraying  is  practised  in  France  will 
be  gathered  from  the  total  quantity  of  sulphate  of  copper  used  for  the  pur- 
pose in  that  country  ;  this  was  estimated  by  Professor  Chuard,  in  1909,  to 
amount  to  no  less' than  50,000  tons  of  sulphate  of  copper  annually — a 
quantitv  equivalent  to  12,500  tons  of  metallic  copper.  This  was  prior  to 
1910.  In  view  of  the  extraordinary  prevalence  of  fungus  diseases  during 
that  disastrous  season,  even  the  above  huge  consumption  must  ha\e  been 
considerably  exceeded. 

Brief  reference  must  here  be  made  to  some  general  considerations 
which  ha\e  a  bearing  on  all  the  different  copper  sprays.  They  are  all 
based  on  the  original  Bordeaux  mixture,  the  efficacy  of  which,  as  a  specific 
against  Downv  Mildew,  was  accidentally  discovered  through  the  practice, 
common  among  se\eral  small  growers  whose  vines  abutted  on  main  roads, 
to  protect  themselves  from  the  depredations  of  passers,  by  sprinkling  their 


lo  Jan.,    191--]  Vhie  Diseases  in  France 


grapes  with  a  mixture  of  lime  aiul  bluestone.  Grapfc:.s  so  treated,  being 
looked  upon  as  poisonous,  were  left  severely  alone.  \\'hen  Downy  Mildew, 
iv.-centl\-  introduced  from  America,  commenced  to  ra\age  the  vineyards,  it 
was  noticed  how  free  from  mildew  were  these  poi.sciied  outer  rows.  The- 
general  adoption  of  the  copper  lime  spray  immediately  followed,  and  even 
now  it  is  the  most  widely  used  of  all  sprays,  though  several  other  com- 
pounds  tend  to  supersede  it  in  certain  quarters. 

The  hydrated  oxide  of  copper  which  is  formed  when  iinir  is  added  to 
a  copper  sulphate  solution*  is  the  active  agent  in  Bordeau.x  mixture ;  though 
only  slightly  soluble  in  w\at!er,  it  is  sufficiently  so  to  render  each  drop  of  rain 
or  dew  coming  in  contact  with  it  unfit  for  spore  germination.  Its  ^•ery 
slight  solubilitv.  in  fact,  causes  its  influence  to  be  more  lasting,  since  it  is 
only  entireh  washed  oft"  by  ver\  hea\'y  rain.  This  brings  us  to  one  of  the 
most  important  points  in  connexion  with  copper  compounds,  viz..  their 
power  of  adherence.  It  is  mainly  because  some  of  the  more  recent  sprays 
possess  it  in  a  high  degree  that  they  tend  to  displace  the  original  Bordeaux. 
Even  with  this,  however,  adherence  varies  considerably  according  to  the 
procedure  followed  in  its  preparation,  as  will  be  seen  later. 

^^'hate\■er  1)-  the  spraving  compound  used,  the  following  are  the  most 
important  points  to  be  considered  in  order  that  the  best  results  may  be 
obtained  :  — 

1.-  Even  distribution  of  spraying  material. 

2.  Sufficient,  but  not  excessive,   solubility. 

3.  Adherence,    so    that    frequent     repetition     of     spraying     may     be 

obviated. 

4.  Convenience  of  preparation. 

The  first  of  these  is;  no  doubt,  largely  dependent  on  the  spray  pmnp- 
employed.  It  cannot  be  too  emphatically  sfated  that  satisfactory  results- 
are  not  to  be  expected  from  a  faulty  pump.  Protection  cannot  be  com- 
plete unless  distribution  is  so  thorough  that  no  dew  drop,  however  small, 
can  escape  contact  with  some  of  the  spray  material.  The  fulility  of  throw- 
ing a  few  large  drops  every  here  and  there,  leaving  large  spaces  of  leaf 
surface  untouched,  and  consequently,  so  many  open  doors  for  the  entry  of 
the  fungus  parasite,  is  ol)\-ious.  Such  a  course  is  absolutely  incompatible 
with  the  essentially  preventi\e  nature  of  the  treatment.  The  subject  of  the 
present  article,  however,  is  .spraying  mixtures,  not  spray  pumps,  and  the 
composition  of  the  former  exercises  a  greater  influence  on  the  facility  for 
even  distribution  than  might,  at  first  sight,  be  imagined. 

Wetting  Power  of  Spraying  Mixtures. 

This  is  a  question  which  has  quite  recently  recei\-ed  a  good  deal  of  atten- 
tion in  France.  The  lower  the  surface  tension  of  a  liquid,  the  smaller  the 
drops  which  it  can  form,  and  consequently  the  greater  its  wetting  power. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  wett'ing  power  of  alcohol  is  much  greater 
than  that  of  water. 

By  the  addition  of  certain  substances  it  is  possible  to  reduce  the  surface- 
tension  of  the  spraving  liquid  and  consequently  its  wetting  power,  with 
the  result  that  the  facilitv  for  even  and  thorough  distribution  is  consider- 
ablv  increased.  Soap  is  one  of  the  substances  used  for  this  purpose,  but 
it  presents  the  drawback  of  combining  with  the  copper  hydrate  and  modi- 
fving  the  composition  of  the  mixture,   thus  necessitating  alteration   in  the 

*  Aoeordiiv  to  Pickerin<;- (£?pwfH{/i  Report  of  the  Woburn  Etperimental  Fruit  Farm)  the  active  agent 
would  be  a  bi^-ic  sulphate,  and  not  hydroxide.  Whetlier  this  view  be  correct  or  not  is  of  little  consec|uence,. 
so  far  as  its  mode  of  action  is  concerned. 


56  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [10  Jan.,   1912. 

proportions  of  its  constituents.  Several  copper  soap  formulae  are  recom- 
mended in  standard  French  works.  Only  certain  kinds  of  soap  are 
suitable;  with  others,  the  gain  in  wetting  power  is  either  insufficient,  or 
counterbalanced  by  loss  in  adherence. 

A  kind  of  mucilage  known  as  Saponine  appears  to  possess,  in  a  high 
degree,  the  power  of  reducing  surface  tension  without  the  drawbacks  of  the 
majority  of  soaps.  The  usual  source  from  which  it  is  obtained  is  the 
powdered  bark  of  certain  plants  such  as  Quillaia,  Saponaria,  &c.,  and 
these  have  been  successfully  tried  for  the  purpose.  Quite  recently,  the 
powdered  fruit  of  Sapindus  utilis,  the  Soap  Tree,  has  been  recommended 
for  the  same  purpose.*  Used  in  the  proportion  of  2  per  1,000  of  the 
spraying  liquid,  it  very  considerably  increases  its  wetting  power,  without 
exerting  any  chemical  action  on  the  copper  compounds  contained  in  it. 

Other  Conditions. 

Solubility  conditions  seem  to  be  fulfilled  by  all  the  sprays  in  common 
use. 

Adherence  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important  property  of  all,  especially 
when  dealing  with  severe  visitations.  It  stands  to  reason  that,  the  better 
the  deposit  adheres  to  the  foliage,  the  longer  will  its  protective  action  be 
felt  and  the  less  often  will  it  need  to  be  repeated.  If  adherence  be  satis- 
factory, it  will  require  heavy  rain  to  wash  it  off,  whilst  if  it  be  faulty  it 
will  be  removed  by  a  few  light  showers.  The  more  recently  a  mixture  has 
been  prepared,  and  the  cooler  it  has  been  kept,  the  better  it  will  adhere. 
This  applies  particularly  to  copper-soda  which  deterioraties  very  rapidly, 
especially  if  the  weather  be  warmf.  Copper-soda  deteriorates  much  more 
rapidly  in  this  way  than  copper-lime  (Bordeaux)  or  copper-potash ;  the 
latter,  strange  to  say,  is  not  at  all  generally  used.  In  order  to  increase 
adherence,  several  substances  are  added  to  mixtures.  We  may  mention 
the  following  : — Soap,  rosin,  sugar  or  molasses,  linseed  oil,  and  gelatine. 
Some  of  these  will  be  referred  to  later. 

As  regards  percentage  of  copper,  though  various  strengths  have  been 
recommended  at  different  times,  practical  men  now  seem  to  be  agreed, 
after  long  years  of  experience,  that  ij  to  2  per  cent,  is  most  satisfactory; 
2  per  cent,  is  the  most  usual  strength — anything  over  this  is  unnecessary.! 
These  percentages  are  estimated  as  sulphate  of  copper,  or  its  equivalent,  if 
other  copper  compounds  of  copper  be  employed. 

Convenience  of  preparation  is  of  great  practical  importance.  It  is 
mainly  on  this  account  that  several  of  the  newer  preparations  are  gradually 
displacing  Bordeaux  mixture  in  spite  of  their  higher  price.  Most  of  these 
innovations  require  to  be  merely  mixed  with  the  proper  quantity  of  water 
immediately  before  use.  Their  freedom  from  grit  or  lumps  of  any  kind 
obviates  trouble  through  the  clogging  of  nozzles,  so  frequent  with  badly 
prepared  Bordeaux. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  deal  here  with  more  than  a  few  of  the 
many  spray  formulae  now  in  use  in  France.  It  will  suffice  to  refer  briefly 
to  the  way  in  which  Bordeaux  is  prepared  and  to  those  of  the  newer  sub- 
stitutes which  appear  to  have  most  to  recommend  them. 

{To  be  continued.) 

*  G.  Gastine.  Revue  de  Viticvlture,  Ath  May,  1911,  p.  S'i.'i.  This  tree,  which  is  somewhat  extensively 
grown  in  Alsreria,  would  do  well  in  Northern  Virtoria.  Its  value  for  increasinsr  the  efficiency  of  spraying 
mixtures  alone  would  justify  its  introduction  to  Victoria. 

t  .T.  M.  Guillon  and  G.  Gouirand,  Revue  de  Viticulture,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  29. 

X  This  applies  to  France.  In  the  moist  climate  of  Switzerland,  where  downy  mildew  is  very  virulent, 
anything  less  than  2  per  cent,  is  considered  insufficient,  whilst  sprays  containing;  up  to  3  per  cent,  copper 
sulphate"  are  often  used. 


lo  Jan.,   1912.] 


Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees. 


57 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  TREES. 

{Continued  from  page  8ji ,  Vol.   IX.) 
C.  F.   Cole,  Orchard  Supervisor. 

Pruning. 

The  writer  wishes  it  to  be  dearly  understood  that  the  methods  advo- 
cated in  this  article  are  for  general  use  in  a  nursery,  and  not  when  planting 
out  trees  permanently  in  an  orchard.  When  planting  out  certain  of  the 
types  illustrated,  it  would^^  however,  be  as  well  to  practice  the  same  or  a 
very  similar  method  of  cutting,  if  the  grower  wishes  to  secure  suitable 
growths  so  as  to  enable  him  from  the  start  to  frame  his  trees  upon  sound 
lines. 

The  object  of  the  propagator,  when  pruning  young  trees  in  the  nursery 
rows,  should  be  to  start  the  future  head  growths  from,  or  as  near  as 
possible  to,  the  main  stem  of  the  young  tree.  This  can  only  be  accom- 
plished by  cutting  the  branches  hard  back  to 
the  basal  buds,  or  by  removing  all  branch 
growths,  thus  framing  a  straight-stemmed  tree 
and   pruning   it  as   such. 

By  practising  either  of  the  above  methods, 
the  future  trees  will  be  framed  with  uniform 
vertical  or  somewhat  similar  head  growths.  It 
is  not  only  an  advantage  to  the  propagator  when 
packing  for  transit,  but  also  to  the  grower,  who 
will  have  a  tree  framed  upon  sound  principles. 
Whichever  method  is  put  into  execution  will  be 
controlled  by  the  position  and  condition  of  the 
buds.  No  hard-and-fast  rule  can  be  laid  down 
of  how  and  where  to  cut.  owing  to  the  many 
different  types  to  be  found  growing  in  the  nur- 
sery row. 

Before  cutting,  the  propagator  will  need  to 
have  a  clear  conception  of  the  future  position  of 
the  growths  and  type  of  tree  he  wishes  to  attain. 
The  sole  object  is  to  get  good,   sound,   healthy 


•i 


52.    CARELESS    PRUNING. 


growth,  and  at  the  same  time  frame  a  tree  with  an  evenly-balanced  and 
shapely  head  carrying  no  more  than  three  or  four  healthv  vertical  growths. 
The  position  of  the  buds  upon  the  branches,  also  the  many  types  of  trees,, 
varies  considerably.  Hardlv  two  branched  trees  of  a  variety  are 
alike;  some  carry  buds  evenly  spaced  to  the  base  of  the  branches,  whilst 
others  have  them  irregularly,  and  in  many  instances  the  buds  near  the  base 
are  blind.  At  times,  the  most  expert  hand  is  at  a  loss  how  to  prune  some 
types  to  advantage. 

The  ten  different  types  selected  by  the  writer  for  illustrative  purposes- 
cover  a  fairly  wide  field  outside  of  the  simplest  types. 

Before  commencing  the  operation  examine  the  collars  upon  a  branched 
tree,  i.e.,  the  basal  portion  of  the  branches  where  they  join  the  main  stem, 
to  see  if  there  are  any  sound  collar  buds.  Should  any  be  present,  reduce 
the  centre  of  the  tree,  if  necessary,  and  leave  the  required  number  of 
branches — three  or  four.  Then  cut  these  branches  back  to  the  main  stem 
and  budsj  care  being  taken  not  to  cut  or  injure  the  buds.     The  result  will 


58 


Journal  of  AgricuUiircYictoria.  [lo   Jan.,    1912. 


lo  Jan.,    191^-]  Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees.  59 

be  that  the  full  flow  of  ascendini;-  sap  will  elaborate  the  collar  buds  and 
cause  them  to  make  stroii<;.  clean  jj;r(Avths.  and  so  form  a  tree  ecjual  to  one 
from  a  pruned   ''straight"  i.e.,  an  unbranched  yearling  tree. 

Many  propagators  prefer  pruning  \\\)qw  similar  lines  to  those  practised 
upon  trees  when  first  planted  out  in  the  orchard,  i.e  ,  leaving  three  to  four 
branches  and  cutting  them  back  to  within  3  or  4  in.  from  the  main  stem. 
This  method  is  sound  when  pruning  two-year-old  trees  in  the  nursery  rows, 
or  where  there  are  no  buds  at  the  basal  part  of  the  branches,  or  no  collar 
buds  to  operate  ui)on.  Hut,  where  possible,  especially  with  yearling  trees, 
cut  back  to  the  basal  or  collar  buds,  particularly  in  the  ca.se  of  almonds, 
apricots,   nectarines,   peaches,   plums  (all  kinds),   and  quinces. 

Another  method  that  may  be  practised  at  times,  more  so  upon  stone 
than  seed  fruits,  especially  nectarines  and  peaches,  is  to  reduce  the  tree 
back  to  an  inside  bud,  if  any,  upon  the  stem  clo,se  to  where  the  bud  and 
stock   are  united,    see   Fig.    59^,   where  the  position  of  the   bud   is   shown 

by >-  .        A    line  through    the    stem    indicates    where    to    cut.         This 

operation  is  performed  the  same  as  when  heading  back  a  budded  stock  to 
the  united  bud.  The  result  from  such  treatment  is  that  a  tree,  equal  to 
a  strong  one-year-old  from  an  inserted  bud,  is  produced. 

A  very  common  type  in  the  nursery  row  is  a  tree  on  which  the  branches 
on  one  side  are  stronger  than  those  upon  the  other.  If  the  head  formation 
is  similar  to  Fig.  601^?,  i.e..  with  regard  to  the  number  of  branches,  treat  it 
when  pruning,  the  same  as  Fig.  60*3:,  by  cutting  the  stronger  branches  back 
the  same  length  as  the  weaker  ones.  Then,  during  the  early  part  of  the 
vegetative  period,  and  when  the  stronger  shoots  have  made  about  12  in.  of 
growth,  check  them  bv  nipping  the  terminal  ends.  This  will  give  the 
weaker  ones  a  chance  to  pull  up. 

When  such  a  type  is  being  planted  out  in  the  orchard,  the  root  condi- 
tions .should  receive  attention,  if  necessary  (see  Fig.  25).  The  top  should 
receive  somewhat  similar  treatment  during  the  first  season  as  if  standing 
in  the  nursery  row. 

A  difficult  tree  at  times  to  prune  is  a  two-year-old  cherry,  especially 
varieties  that  are  free  bloomers,  and  of  which  the  bloom  and  wood  buds 
are  similar.  The  method  of  cutting  back  tO'  the  basal  buds  upon  the 
branches  should  not  be  practised,  owing  to  the  buds,  in  all  probability, 
being  bloom  ones.  Cherries  rareh-  break  growth  from  a  bloom  bud,  differing 
in  this  respect  from  most  fruits.  Therefore,  the  pruner  will  need  to 
exercise  care.  Cut  close  to  the  buds,  selecting  those  upon  the  outside  of 
the  branches.  It  is  only  upon  rare  occasions  that  it  is  necessary  to  cut  at 
an  inside  or  upper  bud  upon  a  branch  to  obtain  a  vertical  growth. 

^^  hen  pruning,  it  is  just  as  easv  to  cut  correctlv  as  incorrectly.  It  is 
purely  a  matter  of  making  one  cut.  Fig.  ^2  shows  a  pruned  tree  where 
the  cuts  ha\e  been  carelessly  done.  Compare  this  with  Fig.  55^  ;  the  cuts 
in  this  ca.se  are  neatly  made,   and  the  tree  correctlv  pruned. 

Fig-  S^(^  is  '^  common  type  of  a  yearling  apple  tree  carrying  a  head 
growth  of  four  branches.  The  central  branch  has  a  somewhat  crooked 
grow^th.  and  is  the  one  that  would,  if  left,  receive  the  direct  flow  of 
ascending  sap.  To  remedv  this,  and  bring  about  the  equalization  of  the 
sap,  which  means  uniform  growths,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remo^•e  the 
central  branch  where  indicated  by  line.  Having  done  this,  and  there  being 
no  collar  buds,  select  outside  buds  upon  the  three  remaining  branches  so 
that  when  cut  each  branch  will  be  of  equal  length  and  form  an  evenly- 
balanced  pruned  head.  This,  with  proper  treatment  and  care,  will  not 
only  be  a  perfect  specimen  of  a  two-vear-old  tree  bv  the  following  winter,. 
but  will   be  framed  upon   sound  lines. 


6o 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912. 


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10  Jan.,   191^-] 


Pn'pagdtuni  of  Fruit  Trees. 


6r 


Fig.  54a  is  another  type  of  a  strong  well  grown  one-year-old  apple 
tree  with  low  branch  growths.  With  trees  of  this  type  the  main  stem 
or  central  vertical   growth  should  never  be  reduced  back  to  the  branches 

— the  future  head  of  the  tree 
should  not  be  formed  by 
utilizing  these  branches.  All 
of  the  latter  should  be  cut 
away,  close  to  the  main  stem. 
Then  reduce  back  to  where 
there  are  three  or  four  good 
sound  buds,  see  Fig.  54/^. 
The  result  will  be,  by  the 
following  autumn,  a  tree  with 
sound  head  conditions  that 
may  be  packed  without  fear 
of  breakage  during  transit. 

F'g-  5  5'^  is  a  sound  t\-pe  of 
an  apple  tree,  produced  from 


•a  yearling  stiaiglit  or  from  a 
branched  yearling.  This  is 
achieved  by  first  reducing  the 
growths  of  the  latter  type  back  to 
the  main  stem,  making  a  straight  : 
and  then,  by  heading  back  this 
straight  to  sound  buds  the 
requisite  height  from  the  ground. 

When  pruning  sucii  a  type 
{Fig.  5  5«),  cut  away  the  central 
branch,  leaving  the  three  lower 
ones  which  form  a  well-balanced 
head.  As  there  are  sound  out- 
side basal  buds  upon  these 
branches,  cut  back  tcj  them  the 
same  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  5  ^b.  By 
the  winter  followingsuch  a  type  will 
be  what  is  termed  a  three-year-old, 
and  hard  to  separate  from  a  well- 


?o 


d 


-m 


m^y 


%, 


59.     YEARLING   PEACH   TREES. 
ii  and  6.  rupriined.     c  and  d.  Pruned. 

grown  one-year-old  branched  pruned.     When  planting  out  permanently  and 
pruning  a  tvpe  like  Fig.  55a  there  is  no  necessity  to  cut  so  hard  back. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,    1912, 


Fig.  ^6a  i.s  a  yearling  pear  tree  produced  from  ground  grafting  a  mis- 
budded  stock.  Such  a  type,  if  the  stem  is  long  enough,  should  be  treated 
by  reducing  it  l)ack  below  the  branches.  But  as  the  type  illustrated  has 
branched  too  low  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  away  the  two  outside  branches 
so  as  to  form  a  tree  having  a  stem  of  suitable  length.  The  central  growth 
should  then  be  cut  back  as  shown  in  Fig.   56^. 

Fig.    57«  shows  a   typical   branched  one-ye;ar-old  pear  tree  from  bud, 

well  grown  and  having  sound 
head  conditions.  As  there 
are  sound  collar  buds  at  the 
basal  end  of  the  branches, 
reduce  back  to  these  buds  : 
Irst,  by  cutting  away  the 
terminal  branch  upon  the 
main  stem.  Owing  to  the 
terminal  portion  being  some- 


4\ 


\ 


; 


4#1 


what  oblicjue,  this  is  necessary  il 
the  pruner  wishes  to  have  the 
main  stem  straight.  By  the  fol- 
lowing winter  there  should  be  a 
repetition  of  growth,  but  much 
stronger. 

Fig.  :,'?a  is  a  well-grown  one- 
year-old  Japanese  plum.  It  is 
rarely  that  this  variety  of  fruit 
is     not     plentifully     supplied     with  60.  yearling  cherry  and  peach  trees. 

collar     buds     Ul)On      the       main     stem  „.   Unpruned  cherry.         c.  Pruned  Cherry, 

at     the     base    of    the     branches,     and  *■  ^-'npruned  Peach.  d.   Pruned  Peacli. 

also  upon  the  stem  below  the  head  growtlis.  If  the  stem  is  long  enough 
to  form  the  future  head  of  the  tree,  cut  upon  the  stem  below  the  branches- 
where  indicated  by  line,  i.e.,  if  there  are  suitable  buds.  If  the  stem 
is .  too  short,  or  there  are  no  suitable  buds,  reduce  back  the  branches  to 
the  collar  buds,  the  same  as  Fig.  58^?.  Failing  collar  buds,  branch  prune 
at  the  basal  buds. 


lo  Jan..    191-.]  OrcJiard  and  Garden  Notes.  6^ 

Pig.  59^  and  b  are  common  types  of  yearling  peach  or  nectarine  trees. 
Fig.  59a  requires  to  be  differently  pruned  to  Fig.  59^1.  By  examining 
the  branches  upon  the  former,  it  will  Ite  seen  that  they  have  sound  basal 
buds  to  work  upon.  All  branches  not  required  to  form  the  future  head 
upon  this  type  (Fig.  ^ga)  should  be  cut  away  close  to  the  main  stem. 
Then  harden  back  the  vertical  growth  to  where  marked  thus  — .  and  prune 
back  the  three  branches  left  to  the  basal  buds.     (See  Fig.   S9'^-) 

Fig.  59^  is  a  very  simple  type  to  prune,  having  sound  buds  upon  the 
main  stem,  and  above  the  strong  oblique  growth,  to  operate  upon.  To  get 
clean  growth  and  form  an  evenly-balanced  head  condition,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  utilize  these  buds.  When  pruning  such  a  type,  the  correct 
method  is  to  remove  all  branches  close  to  the  main  stem.  Then  prune  back 
to  where  there  are  three  or  four  sound  buds  evenly  spaced  to  form  the 
future  head  growths.     (See  Fig.   59«/.) 

Fig.  60b  is  a  distinct  type  of  a  one-year-old  tree  from  Figs,  ^ga  and  b. 
Allowing  the  two  stronger  branches  to  grow  unchecked,  and  thereby 
utilizing  the  greater  quantity  of  the  sap  flow  and  plant  food,  has  been  the 
means  of  .starving  the  opposite  branches  and  the  top  of  the  tree.  If  such 
a  type  had  a  sound  bud  upon  the  stem  near  the  union  of  the  stock,  like 
Fig.  59^7,  the  better  plan  would  be  to  reduce  back  to  such  a  bud.  To 
correctl}-  prune  such  a  type,  so  as  to  get  an  evenly-branched  head,  the  two 
stronger  branches  as  well  as  the  three  low'er  ones  should  be  cut  back  close 
to  the  main  stem.  This  will  leave  the  three  higher  ones,  and  these  should 
be  cut  back  to  the  sound  basal  buds.     (See  Fig.  60^.) 

Fig.  60a  is  a  straight  type  very  easilv  pruned  correctl v,  but  is  so  often 
pruned  otherwise.  If  the  growth  made  is  long,  vigorous  and  straight,  it 
simply  means  reducing  back  to  a  bud  the  desired  height  from  the  ground 
so  as  to  form  a  tree  with  a  stem  the  requisite  length.  But  with  a  type  like 
the  one  illustrated,  having  made  a  short  sturdy  growth,  and  the  terminal 
-end  being  bent,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  so  as  to  form  a  well-balanced  head 
upon  a  straight  stem.  To  obtain  this  end.  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  at  bud 
marked  thus  — ,  and  not  at  bud  indicated  by  W^^.  This  type  of  yearling 
tree  is  more  prevalent  amongst  cherries  than  other  kinds  in  the  nursery  row. 

{To  be  coiii'nnied.) 


ORCHARD    AND    GARDEX    NOTES. 

E.    E.  Pescott.   Principal.    Horticultural  School.    Burnley. 

The  Orchard. 

The  necessity  for  constant  surface  cultiNation  is  apparent  every  summer, 
but  more  so  in  dry  seasons.  Not  only  in  non-irrigable  districts  is  this  a 
necessitv,  but  also  in  those  districts  where  the  trees  can  be  watered,  and 
more  so  in  the  latter  case.  In  irrigated  orchards,  the  tendency  of  the  soil, 
as  a  result  of  artificial  waterings,  is  to  set  and  harden.  Consequently, 
stirring  the  surface  must  be  resorted  to,  in  order  to  keep  up  a  good 
mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  and  also  to  prevent  loss  of  irrigation 
water  by  evaporation. 

In  non-irrigated  orchards,  the  cultivation  work  is  necessary  to  conserve 
what  water  has  entered  the  subsoil  as  a  result  of  the  winter  and  spring 
rains.  Soil  crusts  should  not  be  allowed  to  form.  Summer  showers  are 
not  alone  the  cause  of  these  formations ;  dry  w^eather  conditions  cau.se  the 
soil  to  consolidate,  and  anv  trampling,  or  vehicular  traffic  tends  to  harden 
the  surface,  and  thus  to  allow  of  the  escape  of  moisture  that  the  trees  must 
meed. 


64  Journal  of  Agriculturi,  Victoria.  [10   Jan.,    1912, 

Pests  and  Spraying. 

If  woolly  aphis  is  at  all  existent,  a  spraying  with  a  strong  nicotine 
solution  will  reduce  it  considerably.  A  paint,  the  basis  of  which  is  any  of 
the  petroleum  oils,  or  one  of  the  miscible  oil  preparations  now  on  the 
market,  will  be  useful  where  this  pest  is  not  very  frequent.  The  method  is 
to  mix  the  oil  with  lime,  or  sulphur,  potash,  or  some  other  crude  chemical 
of  an  insecticidal  value,  and  to  paint  the  parts  attacked  with  a  good  strong^ 
brush. 

The  sulphur-potash  remedy  has  been  previously  mentioned  in  these 
notes,  and  it  is  especially  effective  in  not  only  killing  out  the  pest  where- 
ever  applied,  but  also  iri  rendering  that  particular  spot  obnoxious  to  any 
other  aphides  that  may  come  along  later.  It  is  made  by  dissolving  2lbs. 
sulphate  of  potash  in  |  gallon  of  water  and  then  mixing  with  2  lbs.  of 
sulphur.  The  whole  is  worked  up  to  the  consistency  of  house  paint  with 
linseed  oil.     It  is  applied  to  the  affected  parts  with  a  brush. 

Codlin  moth  spraying  will  still  require  to  be  carried  on.  All  affected 
apples  should  be  gathered  and  destroyed.  None  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  trees  or  on  the  ground.  As  soon  as  the  workings  or  marks 
of  the  insect  are  observed,  the  fruit  should  be  gathered  and  destroyed.  If 
the  fruits  are  left,  there  is  always  the  danger  of  the  larvae  escaping  to  a 
crevice  or  hiding  place  and  so  continuing  the  loss. 

Cherry  and  pear  trees  may  be  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead  wherever 
the  slug  is  present ;  vines  may  be  sprayed  similarly  wherever  the  vine 
moth  caterpillars  are  found. 

Budding. 

January  and  February  are  the  suitable  months  for  budding.  In 
budding,  it  is  necessary  that  the  bark  shall  run  or  open  freely  ;  and,  to 
do  this,  the  ti1ee  must  have  a  good  sap  flow  at  the  time  of  performing  the 
operation.  If  such  does  not  occur,  the  trees  to  be  worked,  or  the  stocks, 
should  be  given  a  good  watering,  and  the  budding  deferred  for  a  day  or 
two.  Full  instructions  for  budding  were  given  in  Mr.  Cole's  articles  on 
the  Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees  in  the  September  and  October,  191 1, 
Jourtials. 

Summer  Pruning. 

In  January  and  February,  trees  that  require  it  may  be  summer- 
pruned.  In  performing  this  work,  care  should  be  observed  that  as  much 
of  the  leafalge  as  possible  is  retained  on  the  trees. 

Unduly  long  laterals  of  fruiting  trees  may  l>e  shortened  back,  always 
cutting  to  a  leaf.  Unnecessary  terminal  leader  growths,  of  which  there 
are  sometimes  three  or  four,  all  strong  growing,  may  be  reduced  to  one; 
retaining  this  one  as  a  leadei^  In  no  case  should  this  growth  be  cut  or 
interfered  with  in  any  wa\'. 

The  result  of  these  cuts  will  be  to  divert  the  sap  which  was  flowing 
into  growths  that  would  subsequently  be  pruned,  into  more  profitable 
channels,  so  that  weak  buds  and  growths  may  be  strengthened,  and 
induced  into  fruit  beariiig. 

Vegetable  Garden. 

The  \'egetable  section  should  be  kept  in  good  condition  by  alternate 
cultivation  and  watering.  A  good  surface  scarifying  with  the  Planet  Jr., 
or  with  a  hoe,  should  be  given  when  the  soil  has  well  settled  afteri  eadi 
watering.  This  will  keep  the  soil  in  good  condition,  and  the  crops  in  good 
growth.  Where  crops  are  growing,  an  occasional  overhead  watering  will 
be  beneficial .;  it  w  ill  clean  and  invigorate  the  leaves. 


lo  Jan.,    1912.]  A  New  Lucerne  Trouhlc.  65 

As  soon  as  a  crop  has  been  removed  from  a  plot,  the  ground  should 
be  well  manured  and  dug  over.  If  any  pest,  such  as  aphis  or  caterpillars, 
has  been  prevalent,  it  would  be  advisable  to  burn  all  crop  refuse,  to 
destroy  any  insects  that  may  remain. 

Seedlings  of  such  crops  as  cabbage,  celery,  lettuce,  cauliflower,  &c., 
may  be  transplanted;  and  seeds  of  peas,  French  beans,  turnip,  cauli- 
flower, &c.,   may  be  planted. 

Keep  the  tomatoes  well  watered  and  fed,  pinching  out  surplus  and 
strong  growing  laterals.  In  earl}  districts  the  onion  crop  will  be  ripening. 
In  late  districts,  or  with  late  crops,  the  ripening  may  be  hastened  by 
breaking  down  the  top.     An  autumn  crop  of  potatoes  mav  be  planted. 

Flower  Garden. 

The  lawns,  flower  beds,  and  shrubberies  will  need  frequent  waterings. 
Such  plants  as  cannas,  delphiniums,  perennial  phloxes,  and  penstemons, 
will  require  a  good  water  supply.  These  and  similar  plants  will  benefit 
by  a  good  mulching. 

Much  hand  work  will  be  of  great  benefit  in  the  flower  garden  and 
borders  at  this  season  of  the  year.  Regular  hoeings  do  much  to  improve 
the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  to  conserve  the  soil  moisture.  In  shallow  and 
undrained  soils,  constant  waterings  will  be  a  necessity,  if  the  plants  are 
to  be  kept  alive  ;  at  the  same  time,  there  is  alwavs  the  danger  of  excessive 
water  in  undrained  soils. 

Mulching  will  also  be  an  important  work  this  month.  This  work  will 
greatly  assist  the  retention  of  soil  moisture ;  at  the  same  time,  it  will 
greatly  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  soil.  Anv  material  that  will  ulti- 
mately be  incorporated  with  the  soil  in  the  form  of  humus  is  useful  for 
mulching  purpo.ses. 

Dahlias  and  chrysanthemums  should  be  kept  growing  and  in  good 
heart,  by  watering,  light  feeding,  and  mulching.  Thev  should  also  be 
tied  to  the  stakes  as  the  growths  extend. 

Pests,  such  as  caterpillars  of  several  species,  and  red  spider,  will  now 
shortly  appear.  For  the  former,  weak  sprayings  with  arsenate  of  lead, 
or  Paris  green,  may  be  given.  Wherever  the  red  spider  is  ob.served.  the 
attacked  parts  should  be  cut  off  and  burned.  Not  only  should  this  be 
done  to  the  chrysanthemums  and  dahlias,  but  also  to  all  plants  in  the  beds 
similarly  affected.  Constant  waterings  will  often  relieve  the  plants  of 
this  trouble,  but  the  most  efficacious  miethod  is  to  burn  all  parts  affected 
as  the  insect  makes  its  appearance. 

Carnations  may  now  be  layered  and  seeds  of  pansies  and  perennial 
and  biennial  plants  may  be  sown.  A  few  late  gladioli  and  a  few  spring 
iflowering  bulbs  for  early  flowering,  may  also  be  planted. 


A  NEW  LUCERNE  TROUBLE. 

Downy  Mildew   {Perouosfora  trifoliorum.    De  Bary). 

C .   C.  Brittlebank,  Assistant  to  the  Vegetable  Pathologist . 

Some  crowns  of  lucerne  were  recently  forwarded  to  the  office  of  the 
Vegetable  Pathologist  for  examination,  and  were  found  to  be  affected  with 
Downy  Mildew.  As  this  disease  is  evidently  a  recent  introduction,  the 
following  notes  will  be  of  interest. 

17862.  C 


^6  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo   Jan.,    1912.. 

Peronospora  tnfoliorurn  is  a  common  parasite  on  various  legumes  in. 
America  and  Europe,  and  in  the  former  country  there  is  record  of 
damage  to  lucerne  by  this  pest.  Until  the  specimens  under  notice  came  to- 
hand  there  was  no  record  of  it  for  Victoria. 

As  this  fungus  belongs  to  a  genus,  many  of  which  are  destructive  to 
cultivated  plants,  it  behoves  the  growers  of  lucerne,  especially  in  irriga- 
tion areas,  to  be  on  watch,  lest  their  crops  be  invaded  by  this  pest ;  if 
once  established,  it  would  be  most  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  ex- 
terminate. It  is  spread  not  only  by  conidia,  which  are  blown  from  plant 
to  plant,  but  also  by  oospores  or  resting  spores  formed  within  the  tissue- 
of  diseased  leaves.  The  latter,  falling  into  the  crowns  of  the  plants 
and  on  to  the  soil,  serve  as  fresh  sources  of  infection,  frorr.  which  the 
disease  spreads  during  the  foliowing  year.  Even  if  the  lucerne  be  eaten 
down  to  the  crowns  by  sheep  or  other  stock,  a  certain  number  of  fallen 
leaves  would  be  trodden  into  the  soil  and  start  the  disease  afresh  in  the 
following  spring. 

Although  onlv  a  few  specimens  of  this  disease  have  been  brought  under- 
notice,  and  probably  but  few  lucerne  growers  have  seen  it  up  to  the  pre- 
sent time,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  disease  is  of  no  econonrx  importance. 
Until  a  few  years  ago,  the  Lucerne  Rust  had  not  been  obser\ed  in  Vic- 
toria ;  the  first  specimens  obtained  were  found  by  the  writer  on  the  rail- 
way embankment  at  Garden  Vale,  near  Melbourne.  At  the  present  time, 
many  parts  of  the  State  are  infested  by  this  disease,  and  tons  of  valuable 
fodder  are  destroyed  every  year.  Lucerne  rust  was,  without  doubt, 
imported  with  consignments  of  seed  from  other  countries,  as  in  nearly 
every  shipment  of  lucerne  seed  spores  ccmld  be  ol)tained  in  abundance. 
Most  probably,  the  resting  spores  of  the  downy  mildew  of  lucerne  have 
reached  Victoria  in  fragments  of  diseased  leaves,  niixed  through  ship- 
ments of  seed. 

General  Appearance  of  Diseased  Plants 
The  specimens  under  notice  had  a  stunted  and  unthriliy  look,  the- 
upper  portions  of  the  stem  and  leaves  being  covered  by  a  thick  greyish, 
or  violet-grey  downy  layer  Many  of  the  diseased  leaves  were  coated 
on  both  surfaces  and  had  their  edges  curled  downwards  and  inwards 
towards  the  mid-rib.  Others  again,  were  of  a  yellowish  grey,  more- 
especially  those  exhibiting  the  downy  coating  on  the  under  side  only. 
Several  of  the  stalks  were  almost  bare  of  leaves  on  their  lower  portions 
and  clearly  showed  the  disastrous  effects  of  the  disease. 

If  a  small  portion  of  the  grey  felted  coating  be  mounted  for  examina- 
tion by  the  microscope,  it  will  be  found  to  consist  of  minute  tree-like- 
structures,  bearing,  at  the  tips  of  the  many  fo'-ked  branches,  oval  egg- 
shaped  bodies  known  as  conidia.  These  minute  bodies  are  capable  of 
infecting  any  lucerne  or  clover  plants  on  which  they  may  fall,  weather 
conditions  being  favourable. 

If  small  patches  only  of  the  field  be  attacked,  they  .should  be  at  once 
covered  with  straw  and  burnt  over  to  destroy  all  diseased  plants  and" 
fallen  leaves.  By  taking  this  precaution,  it  is  possible  that  the  disea.se 
mav  be  arrested  in  its   destructive  course. 

As   irrigation   colonies   become  more  numerous,    so   will    the  conditions 
be  more  favourable  to  the  spread  of  various  diseases — warmth  and  mois- 
ture constitute  suitable  conditions   for  the   development  of   fungoid   pests. 
Settlers  should  therefore  be  continually  on  the  lockout  for  the  appearance- 
of  anv  disease  such  as  the  one  under  review. 


lO  Jan.,  1912.]      Victorian  Egg-laying  Competition,  igii-12. 


67 


VICTORIAN  EGG-LAYING   COMPETITION,   1911-12, 

CONDUCTED   AT   BURNLEY   HORTICULTURAL  SCHOOL. 

{Continued  from  fage  820.   Vol.   IX.) 
H.  V.  Hawkins,  Poultry  Expert. 


Eggs  Lait 

during  Competition. 

No. 

Position  in 

of 

Breed. 

Name  of  Owner. 

April  to 

Total  to 

Competi- 

Pen. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Date  (8 
months). 

tion. 

12 

White  Leghorn 

W.  G.  Swift 

938 

153 

1,091 

1 

31 

II 

R.  W.  Pope 

901 

161 

1,062 

2 

40 

,, 

A.  J.  Cosh  (S.A.) 

905 

140 

1,045 

3 

20 

„ 

H.  McKenzie 

819 

141 

960 

4 

33 

" 

Range   Poultry    Farm 
(Old.) 

826 

130 

956 

5 

37 

„ 

E.  Wakion 

790 

143 

933 

6 

18 

„ 

S.  Brundrett 

775 

121 

896 

7 

13 

Black  Orpington     .  . 

D.  Fislicr     . . 

736 

117 

853 

8 

46 

Minorca 

G.  W.  fhalmers 

736 

114 

85U 

9 

21 

Wliite  Legliorn 

R.  L.  Appleford 

718 

126 

844 

10 

39 

,, 

A.W.  HaU 

093 

146 

839 

11 

25 

)> 

B.  Slitchell 

702 

127 

829 

12 

55 

„ 

W.  G.  McLlster 

698 

124 

822 

13 

44 

Black  Orpington    . . 

T.  S.  Goodisson 

700 

114 

814 

14 

38 

White  Leghorn 

Mrs.  C.  R.  Smee 

662 

138 

800 

15 

32 

Silver  Wyandotte  . . 

M.  A.  Jones 

696 

101 

797 

16 

10 

Black  Orpington    .  . 

H.  A.  Langdon 

659 

137 

796 

17 

9 

White  Legliorn 

J.  O'Loughhn 

661 

130 

791 

18 

36 

.> 

F.  A.  Silhtoe 

652 

128 

780 

19 

1 

» 

A.  Brebner 

647 

129 

776 

20 

67 

„ 

C.  L.  Shamiau 

657 

118 

775 

"t     0, 

49 

>» 

W.  J.  Thornton 

627 

148 

775 

/    ^^ 

24 

)» 

F.  Hannalord 

621 

148 

769 

23 

3 

1. 

K.  Gleghom 

634 

134 

768 

24 

28 

,, 

J.  Campbell 

628 

135 

763 

25 

2 

» 

E.  P.  Nash 

611 

150 

761 

26 

66 

White  Wyandotte 

J.  E.  Bradley 

662 

97 

759 

27 

50 

White  Leghorn 

C.  H.  Biisst 

619 

136 

755 

28 

19 

1) 

A.  Jaques 

682 

120 

752 

29 

4 

Golden  Wyandotte 

H.  BeU 

636 

112 

748 

30 

22 

Black  Orpington     . . 

P.  S.  Wood 

630 

116 

746 

31 

5 

White  Leghorn 

L.  C.  Pa>Tie 

609 

134 

743 

32 

65 

,, 

H.   Hammill   (N.S.W.) 

605 

128 

733 

33 

45 

„ 

T.  Kempster 

601 

131 

732 

34 

47 

„ 

C.W.Spencer  (N.S.W.) 

588 

141 

729 

35 

27 

,. 

Hill  and  Luckinan     . . 

593 

135 

728 

36 

51 

•»                    ■  • 

J.  W.  McArthur 

623 

104 

727 

39 

63 

Black  Orpington    .  . 

A.  J.  Treacv 

635 

92 

727 

8 

Wliite  Leghorn 

T.  W.  Goto' 

590 

128 

718 

62 

„ 

P.  Hodson  . . 

563 

149 

712 

40 

59 

„ 

W.  H.  Dmdop 

562 

126 

708 

41 

57 

» 

G.  E.  Edwards 

559 

144 

703 

}L42 

60 

„ 

J.  J.  Harrington 

575 

128 

703 

08 

Faverolles 

K.  Coiirtenay 

585 

117 

702 

44 

43 

White  Leghorn 

W.  B.  Crellin 

572 

128 

700 

45 

11 

Brown  Leghorn 

F.  Son  cum 

556 

141 

697 

46 

41 

White  Leghorn 

Morgan  and  Watson . . 

579 

109 

688 

47 

53 

>, 

A.  Stringer 

551 

135 

686 

48 

42 

White  Orpington    . . 

P.  Mitchell 

585 

93 

678 

49 

52 

White  Leghorn 

W.  J.  McKeddie 

540 

136 

676 

50 

30 

Black  Orpington    . . 

Rodgcrs  Bros. 

554 

112 

666 

51 

6 

Silver  Wyandotte  . . 

Mrs.  H.  J.  Richards 

552 

110 

662 

52 

35 

White  Leghorn 

J.  H.  Brain 

488 

143 

631 

53 

34 

u 

E.  Dettman 

508 

122 

630 

54 

54 

i» 

F.  N.  Hodges 

524 

97 

621 

55 

7 

H.  Stevenson 

480 

134 

620 

56 

16 

Silver  Wyandotte  . . 

Miss  A.  Cottam 

515 

104 

619 

57 

26 

White  Leghorn 

F.  Seymour 

488 

125 

613 

58 

23 

Oolden  Wyandotte 

G.  E.  Brown 

511 

88 

599 

59 

64 

White  Leghorn 

J.  D.  Read 

446 

146 

592 

60  J 

56 

Mrs.  C.  Thompson     .  . 

438 

130 

568 

61 

61 

Silver  Wyandotte 

J.  Reade 

456 

87 

543 

62 

17 

White  Leghorn 

W.  J.  Eckershall 

432 

104 

536 

63 

14 

Black  Orpington    . . 

W.  J.  Macauley 

425 

96 

521 

64 

15 

Minorca 

H.  McChesney 

351 

105 

456 

65 

48 

" 

3.  James     . . 

242 

104 

346 

66 

40,378 

8.240 

48,618 

68 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,    1912. 


INSECTIVOROUS   BIRDS   OF   VICTORIA. 

FRONTAL  SHRIKE  TIT. 

{Falcunculus  jrontatus,  Gould.) 

C.   French,    Junr.,    Acting    Government   Entomologist. 

The  Frontal  Shrike  Tit,  a  very  handsome  bird,  is  fairly  plentiful  in 
most  localities  a  few  miles  from  Melbourne.  Thev  are  usually  seen  in 
pairs,  generally  amongst  the  topmost  branches  of  eucalypts  and  other 
trees. 


FRONTAL    SHRIKE    TIT. 

{Falcunculus  jrontatus,  Gould.) 

The  male  has  a  beautiful  dark  coloured  crest,  and  a  black  throat  ;  but 
the  throat  of  the  female  is  green.  The  bill  of  this  bird,  being  short  and 
verv  strong,  is  admirably  adapted  for  destroying  the  hard  wing-cases, 
&:c.,  of  the  destructive  insects  which  hibernate  under  the  bark  and  in 
the  crevices  of  the  trees.  They  also  break  open  hard  galls  and  scales 
and  eat  the  insects  contained  therein.  They  are  very  active  and  seem 
to  devote  most  of  their  time  hunting  for  insects,  and  they  do  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  good  in  keeping  the  strawberry  cockchafer,  cherry 
green  beetle,  codlin  moth,  longicorns,  wire  worms,  and  other  pests  in 
check.  Remains  of  these  insects  have  been  found  in  stomachs  of  the 
Frontal  Shrike  Tit.    . 

The  nests  are  very  beautiful  structures.  In  form,  they  are  cup- 
shaped,    being   slightly   contracted    at    the    rim.      The  01.; side    is    generally 


lo  Jan.,   191 2.]  The  Olive.  69 

composed  of  the  inner  bark  of  the  eucalypt,  mosses,  lichens,  cobwebs, 
and  grasses,  whilst  the  inner  lining  consists  of  grasses  and  fine  shreds  of 
bark.  They  are  usually  placed  on  the  topmost  branches  of  eucalypts, 
and  though  often  found  are  most  difficult  to  obtain,  being  fortunately 
out  of  the  reach  of  boys. 

As  this  bird  is  one  of  the  best  destroyers  of  noxious  insects,  it  should, 
needless  to  say,   receive  every  protection. 


THE.  OLIVE. 

L.    Macdonald,   Horticulturist,   Dookie  Agricultural  College. 
{Continued  from  page  Sjg.   Vol.   IX.) 

Propagation. 

The  olive  is  one  of  the  easiest  trees  to  raise.  It  is  propagated  either 
from  seeds,  cuttings  (as  truncheons,  hard  wood,  or  terminal  cuttings), 
sprouts,  stools,  or  the  excrescences  found  on  the  base  of  the  tree. 

Seeds. — Like  the  peach,  apricot,  and  other  deciduous  trees,  the  olive 
fails  to  come  true  from  seed  ;  and,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  there  is  a 
rever'sion  to  more  or  less  wild  and  worthless  types.  Hence,  all  seedlings, 
except  those  that  are  retained  where  it  is  desired  to  raise  new  varieties, 
should  be  worked  over  with  selected  varieties,  either  by  budding  or 
grafting. 

The  .seed  mav  be  planted  out  'a  the  open  nursery  or  started  in  small 
l)eds  where  conditions  can  be  controlled  better,  and  planted  out  in  their 
second  season's  growth.  The  latter  is,  perhaps,  the  more  suitable  method. 
In  either  case,  the  soil  should  be  well  prepared.  The  seed  should  be 
obtained,  if  possible,  from  selected  trees.  The  pulp  should  be  thoroughly 
removed  before  planting.  A  good  method  of  doing  this  is  by  soaking 
the  .seed  in  an  alkaline  solution  made  up  of  j  to  |  lb.  of  caustic  soda 
to  I  gallon  of  water.  Cracking  the  outer  shell  can  also  be  adopted,  but 
should  be  carried  out  with  care  so  that  no  injury  may  be  done  to  the 
kernel.  This  is  a  slow  process  and  is  not  recommended  for  general  pur- 
poses. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  i  to  2  in.  in  depth  and  covered  with  some 
friable  material.  Where  surface  watering  is  adopted,  a  light  mulch  of 
short  horse  manure,  or  some  such  material,  is  advantageous,  as  it  prevents 
the  ground  "  caking  "  on  top  or  cracking. 

Germination  is  often  tardy  and  irregular  where  no  injury  has  been 
done  to  the  outer  .shell,  the  seed  sometimes  remaining  in  the  ground  many 
months  without  makmg  growth.  Quicker  results  are  obtained  with  those 
seeds  whose  outer  shell  has  been  injuried  in  some  way,  thus  permitting 
the,  moisture  to  gain  more  ready  access  to  the  kernel.  Seeds  may  be 
sown  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe  or  at  any  time  through  the  winter 
months,  say  from;  May  to  September. 

Cuttings. — ^The  various  sorts  of  cuttings  are  used  chiefly  for  repro- 
ducing selected  varieties.  They  mav,  however,  be  worked  over  with  other 
kinds  by  either  budding  or  grafting.  This  is  sometimes  done  to  diminish 
or  increa.se  the  vigour  of  certain  varieties. 

Truncheons. — These  may  be  obtained  from  heavy  limbs  split  in 
quarters,  or  from  round  branches  i  to  3  in.  in  diameter.  Those  of  a 
diameter  from   2   to  3  in.   are  the  most  suitable  for  planting  out.     They 


70 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,    1912. 


should  ba  about  15  to  20  in.  in  length  and  .should  be  taken  from  the 
tree.s  in  June,  July,  or  August.  All  side  shoots  should  be  removed  and 
care  taken  not  to  brui.se  the  bark.  When  planting  in  the  nursery,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  place  the  truncheons  at  an  angle  in  the  furrow,  tread  firmly, 
and  cover  over  completelv  with  .soil,  taking  care  to  leave  the  top  of  the 
cutting  close  to  the  surface  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  remain  moist  and 
gain  a  sufficiency  of  air.  Several  trees  may  be  obtained  from  each  trun- 
cheon in  this  manner,  as  thev  often  develop  sprouts  and  roots  along  the 
greater  part  of  their  length.  If  only  one  shoot  is  desirfed,  the  most  suit- 
able should  be  selected  and  the  others  remo\ed. 

Terminal  Cuttings. — The.se  are  made  from  the  tips  of  the  shrtots 
after  they  have  passed  the  herbaceous  stage  ;  they  should  be  cut  about  6  in. 
in  height.  All  of  the  lower  leaves  should  be  removed  immediately  after 
cutting,   to  prevent  evaporation  of  moisture  and  consequent   wilting.      The 


7.     OLIVE    TRUNCHEONS    AND    CUTTINGS. 

a,  b,  and  c.  Truncheons,  3in.,  2in.  and  lin.  diameter  respectively  ;  d  and  e.  Cuttings  ;    f.  Catting-   pre- 
pared for  planting  ;  g.  Terminal  cutting-;  h.  Terminal  cutting- prepared  for  planting-. 

end  for  planting  should  be  cut  off  close  to  a  node,  as  they  callus  and 
root  better  w^hen  cut  in  such  manner.  Those  cuttings  with  the  buds  close 
together  are  the  best.  They  should  be  planted  in  a  compost  containing 
a  good  proportion  of  sharp  sand  and  be  kept  continually  moist.  This 
kind  of  cutting  is  best  started  in  lath  or  shelter  hou.ses  or  in  frames, 
and  ])l anted  out  when  well  rooted.  Cuttings  of  old  wood  below  an  inch 
in  thi(.l.ness  should  be  of  lesser  length  than  the  truncheons,  and  should 
be  started  in  the  nur.sery. 

Cuttings  are  considered  the  quicker  method  of  raising  selected  varieties. 
They  come  into  bearing  earlier,  but  are  supposed  to  be  shorter  lived.  Tt 
is  possible  that,  in  poor  soils  or  trying  situations,  the  seedling  mav  be 
the  more  thriftv  and  long  lived  tree,  but  experience  in  this  country  has 
not  go;'?  to  prove  that  this  is  the  case.  Many  of  the  oldest  trees  in  Aus- 
tralia v,;re  raised  from  truncheons  and  are  still  doing  well.  However, 
their  age  is   comparative  vouth   in  the   life  of  the  olive  tree,   and  perhaps 


JO  Jan.,    191 2.]  Answers  to   Corres-poyidods.  7r 

it  is  as  well  to  accept  the  opinion  of  continental  writers  on  the  greater 
longevity  of  seedling  trees  until  there  is  greater  e\'idence  at  hand  to  the 
•contrary. 

Sprouts. — These  may  be  obtained  from  the  base  of  old  trees,  a  good 
.shield-shaped  piece  being  cut  off  with  each.  They  should  then  be  shortened 
and  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  terminal  or  small  cuttings.  They  may 
also  be  obtained  from  truncheons  where  good  growth  is  made  and  a  rapid 
jnultiplication  of  numbers  is  necessary. 

Stools. — This  is  a  rapid  and  effective  method  of  obtaining  rootlings 
for  transplanting  and  working  over  or  for  increa.sing  a  selected  variety. 
Well  established  young  trees  are  cut  down  close  to  the  ground.  A  number 
of  shoots  de\-elop  from  the  adventitious  buds  that  break  out  on  the  stub. 
The  earth  is  then  moulded  up  over  the  base  of  the.se  and  if  kept  moist 
rooting  soon  takes  place.  When  the  shoots  are  well-rooted,  the  soil  is 
broken  away  and  the  shoots  removed  with  a  sharp  knife  or  secateur.  A 
fresh  batch  may  then  break  out  and  can  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

Eyes. — This  is  a  term  used  for  the  excrescences  that  occur  around 
the  lower  part  of  aged  trees.  Thev  may  be  used  for  propagation  and 
succeed  best  where  bottom  heat  is  available.  After  removal  with  a  sharp 
knife,  they  should  be  planted  ah  out  an  inch  in  depth  in  the  same  manner 
as  seeds,  covered  with  some  friable  material,  and  kept  continually  moist. 
When  sprouting  occurs,  they  should  be  removed  to  the  nursery.  Thev 
require  skill  in  handling,  and  are  not  recommended  except  under  circum- 
stances  where  conditions  mav  f)e  controlled. 

{To  he  co)itiinied.) 


ANSWERS   TO   CORRESPONDENTS. 

The  Staff  of  the  Depirtment  has  been  orjranized  to  a  large  extent  for  the  purpose  of  n'w  in?  information 
to  farmers.  Questions  in  every  branch  of  atrrifulture  are  gla<:lly  answered.  Write  a  short  letter,  sriving  as 
full  particulars  as  possible,  of  your  local  conditions,  and  state  precisely  what  it  is  that  you  want  to  know. 
All  inquiries  forwarded  to  the  Editor  must  be  accompanied  by  the  name  ani  address  of  the  writer. 
This  is  verj'  necessary,  as  sometimes  insufficient  information  is  furnished  by  ihe  inquirer. 

Topping  up  Cockerels  for  M.^rket. — E.D.   inquires  as  to  method  of   feeding. 

Answer. — Give  equal  parts  pollard,  barley  meal,  and  bran,  with  the  addition 
•of  steamed  lucerne  chaff  (about  a  third),  and  sufficient  skim  milk  to  m>x  the  whole 
to  a  crumbly  consistency.  For  the  last  few  davs,  add  a  little  mutton  fat  or 
glycerine  to  mash.  Feed  a  little  at  first,  and  gradually  increase  quantity  as  the 
appeti'e  improves.  Avoid  grains.  Skim  m.ilk  to  drink  will  improve  and  whiten 
the  flesh.  Birds  should  be  kept  off  green  grass  when  fattening.  Grit  must  always 
be   available. 

NON-PkEGNANCY. — H.E.M.  states  that  he  has  a  cow  that  will  not  get  in  calf, 
but  has  returned  to  the  bull  regularly   for  the  past  year. 

Answer. — Syringe  out  with  2  per  cent,  solution  of  lysol.  The  day  previous 
to  service  flush  with  a  solution  of  baking  soda.  If  this  treatment  be  not  successful, 
an   impregnator   should   be  tried. 

Removal  of  Afterbirth. — H.E.M.  asks  how  to  remove  afterbirth  that  does  not 
come  away  naturally. 

Answer. — Insert  the  hand  and  detach  frjm  the  button-like  protuberances  to 
■which  it  is  attached  in  a  manner  somewhat  resembling  the  end  of  a  finger  in  a 
glove.  Pay  special  attention  to  cleanliness,  and  irrigate  the  womb  ^^ilh  an  anti- 
septic  solution,    such    as   lysol   or    Condy's   fluid. 

Worms. — E.C.P.  inquires  as  to  treatment  for  worms.  His  yearling  colt  is 
not  in  as  good  condition  as  he  shoTdfl  be,  evidentiv  owing  to  the  prevalence  of 
worms. 

Anszoer. — Give  one  teaspoonsful  of  liquor  arsenicalis  in  feed  twice  daily.  Most 
yearling   colts   suffer    from   worms. 

Itch. — E.J.D.  states  that  his  mare  is  suffering  from  itch,  near  the  mane  being 
affected   the  worst. 

AnsTner. — Wash  with  a  solution  of  phenvle,   and   smear  well  with  carron  oil. 


72  Joiinidl  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  Jan.,    1912. 


REIVllNDEHS     FOR     FEBRUARY. 

LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — At  Grass. — Supplement  dry  grass,  if  possible,  with  some  greenstuflf- 
Provide  plenty  of  pure  water  and  shade  shelter.  In  Stable. — Supplement  hard  feed 
with  some  greenstuff,  carro'.s,  or  the  like,  and  give  a  bran  mash  once  a  week  at 
least. 

Avoid  over-stimulating  foods,  such  as  maize  and  barley.  Give  hard  feed  in 
quantities  only  consistent  with  work  to  be  performed.  Stable  should  be  well 
ventilated  and  kept  clean.  Remove  manure  promptly  to  a  sufficient  distance. 
Exclude  flies.  When  at  work,  give  water  at  short  intervals.  Always  water 
before   feeding. 

Cattle. — For  milking  cows  the  food  should  be  of  a  succulent  nature.  Water 
should  be  pure,  plentiful,  and  easily  accessible.  Provide  shade  shelter  and  salt 
licks.  Keep  milking  sheds  and  feed  boxes  scrupulously  clean.  Remove  attractions 
for  flies.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  remainder  of  the  cows  required  to  calve 
next  spring   should   be   served    this    month. 

If  succulent  feed  not  available,  calves  should  be  given  milk  until  green  grass 
appears.  Their  condition  will  thus  be  maintained  and  enable  them  to  winter 
well. 

Pigs. — If  hard  fed,  some  green  vegetable  food  should  be  added.  Give  an 
ounce  of  Epsom  salts  in  the  feed  occasionally  ;  also  a  handful  of  charcoal.  Water 
baths  are  appreciated  in  hot  weather.  Keep  free  from  lice  by  brushing  occasionally 
with   an   oil  brush. 

Sheep. — Drench  any  weaners  scouring ;  Cooper's  tablets  are  handy  for  this 
work.  Lime  dams  and  pools ;  thick  water  and  dry  feed  are  responsible  for  many 
troubles   with   ewes   la'er   on.      Keep   salt   available. 

Do  not  wait  until  in-lamb  ewes,  or  good  wool-growing  sheep  are  poor,  before 
commencing  to  feed  a  little  oats  cr  oaten  hay;  it  means  better  mothers  and  more- 
shafty   fleeces. 

Coarse  crossbred  ewes  ;ire  not  in  season  till  now.  Downs'  rams  should  be  mated 
-with  this  class   for   lambs ;   merino   rams   for  graziers'   sheep. 

Poultry. — Chickens  should  now  be  trained  to  perch;  they  will  be  more  healthy 
and   less   liable   to   develop   wry   tails. 

Provide  plenty  of  green  feed  and  give  less  grain  and  me.\t.  Avoid  condiments. 
Keep  water  in  cool  shady  spot  and  renew  three  times  each  day.  Keep  dust  bath 
damp. 

Birds  showing  symptoms  of  leg  weakness  should  be  given  i  rrrain  of  <|uinine  per 
day   (three  months  old   chickens,   ^   grain)    and   plenty   of   skim    milk. 

CULTIVATION. 

Farm. — See  that  ha}  stacks  are  weatherproof.  Cultivate  stubble  and  fallow, 
and  prepare  land  for  winter  fodder  crops.  Get  tobacco  sheds  ready  for  crop. 
In  districts  where  February  rains  are  good,  sow  rye,  barley,  vetches,  and  oats  for 
earlv  winter   feed. 

Orchard. — Sjiray  for  codlin  moth.  Search  out  and  destroy  all  larvse.  Cultivate 
the  surface  where  necessary  and  irrigate  where  necessary,  paying  particular  attention 
to  young  trees.      Fumigate  evergreen  trees  for  scale.      Continue  budding. 

Flower  Garuen. — Cultivate  the  surface  and  water  thoroughly  during  hot 
weather.  Summer-prune  roses  by  thinning  out  the  weak  wood  and  cutting  back 
lightly  the  strong  shoots.  Thin  out  and  disbud  dahlias  and  chrysanthemums.  Layer 
carnations.  Plant  a  few  bulbs  for  early  blooms.  Sow  seeds  of  perennial  and 
hardv   annual    plants. 

Veget.able  (tARDEN. — Continue  to  plant  out  seedlings  from  the  seed-beds.  Sow 
seeds  of  cabbage,  lettuce,  cauliflower,  peas,  turnip,  and  French  beans.  Keep  all 
vacant   plots   well    dug. 

Vineyard. — February  is  ihe  month  for  the  "  Yema  "  or  Summer  bud_  graft. 
Select  scion-bearing  vines;  mark  with  oil  paint  those  conspicuous  for  quality  and 
quantity   of    fruit,    regular   setting   and   even   maturity. 

Sulphur  again,  if  necessary,  but  avoid  applying  sulphur  to  wine  grapes  too  short 
a    time   before    gathering. 

Cellars. — Prepare  all  plant  ana  casks  for  the  coming  vintage.  An  ounce  of 
bisulphite  of  potash  to  each  bucket  of  water  used  to  swell  press  platforms,  tubs, 
&c.,  will  help  to  keep  it  sweet.  Keep  cellars  as  cool  as  possible.  Complete  all 
manipulations    so   as   to    avoid   handling    older    wines   during    vintage. 


lo  Jan.,   1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


xvn 


ii 


ROYAL   MEDAL" 


MILKING    MACHINES 

There    ARE    radical   differences  in    the   "ROYAL    MEDAL" 

-distinctions  in  principle   and  construction ^which  make 

it  a  complete  departure  from  any  other  machine  on  the  market. 


TT  is  noteworthy  that,  previous  to  the 
advent  of  the  "ROYAL  MEDAL,"  practically 
all  milking  machines  were  constructed  on 
the  same  principle — most  had  certain  ad- 
vantages— all  had  certain  defects. 

In  the  "ROYAL  MEDAL,"  however,  an 
entirely  new  principle  has  been  conceived — 
and   carefidly   cairied    out  through   twenty 


THIS     SHOWS     THE 
"ROYAL    MEDAL"    MILKER 

WITH     CUPS     IN     POSITION 

«S 


IMPROVEMENT  on  improvement  has  been 

added,  until  to-day  the  machine  stands  out 

as  unquestionably  the  most  perfect  milker. 

The  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  is  no  experiment. 
It  has  been  carefully  tested  by  six  years'  use 
on  valuable  pedigreed  cows,  of  which  regular 
milk  records  were  kept,  and  by  an  extended 
test  at  the  Bedfordshire  County  Institute, 
which  resulted  in  its  being  awarded  the 
medal  of  the  Roj'al  Agricultural  Society  of 
England. 


LEARN     MORE 

ABOUT 
THIS     MILKER. 


By  filling  in  and  mailing 
this  coupon  below  you 
secure  the  "ROYAL  MEDAL" 
booklet.  Here  the  subject 
of  milking  machines  is  dealt 
with  full}'  and  completely, 
and  the  various  unique 
features  of  the  "ROYAL 
MEDAL"  are  described  and 
explained. 

No  up-to-date  dairyman 
should  fail  to  secure  a  copy. 


"  ROYAL  MEDAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES, 

34   Queen   Street, 
MELBOURNE. 


LONDON    OFFICE: 

Caxton  House,  Westminster,  S,W. 

JACK     H.     DAVIES,    Manauin<j  Director. 


POST  FREE  BOOKLET  COUPON. 

"■Royal  Medal"  Milking  Machine^*, 

34  Queen  Street,  Melhoui-ne. 

Please  foricard  a  copy  of  your  Free  Book:  It 
is  to  he  understood  that  I  consider  myself  under  no 
obligation. 

Name 

Address    

J4,  


XVlll 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria. 


\\o  Jan.,    1912. 


'Phone 

4881 
Central. 


The  Australasian  Mutual  Live  Stock 

Insupanee  Society  m, 

ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 

70  Elizabeth  St.,  Melbourne. 


directors : 

HON.  AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P.      HENRY  GARDNER,  Esq. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P. 

WALTER   G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 

FARMERS  AND  BREEDERS- 

Has    this   simple   truth   ever  struck  you? 
Ours  are  the  world's  minimum   rates. 
Our  terms  and  eonditions  are  equal  to  the 

best  obtainable. 
Every  pound  of  our  money  is  invested  in 
Australia. 
.^■~.  We  pay  promptly.  We  pay  in  full. 

INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY;  AND  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS. 


A    GOOD   AUSTRALIAN 
'  Why  didn't  you  put  your  penny  m  the  plate  ihii 
morning  t" 

'  Because  it  wat  a  foreign  mission,  and  dada   sayt 
it's  not  right  to  tend  capital  out  of  the  country." 


r 


For  ROOFS  of  all  de^scriptions 


USE 


RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING   of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


USE 

1*^ 


INDELIBLE  COLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


USE 


CALCIMO    ci.Vo'^^ 


These  Goods  are  UNEQUALLED   by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 


SOLE    AGENTS 


BROOKS.  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Melbourne. 


no  Jan.,    1912."!  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  xix 


Dairy  Science. 

The  last  word. 

Scientific  men  in  the  dairy  cenires  of  Europe  have  given  close 
attention  to  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  for  butter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  for  some  time, 
a  poor,  thin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  :  stating  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods.  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  same 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Dairy  Science. 

For  Post  Free  Book— 

"MILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding," 

By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 


SUNLIGHT 

Oil  CAKt 


Guaranteed  Pure. 

See  that  the  name  "Sunlight"  is 
branded  on  every  cake. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912. 


"HORNSBY"  Petrol  Engines 


iSTATIONARY    AND    PORTABLE) 

J-TAVE    a    World-wide    Reputation    for    all    round 

Superiority.     There   is   nothing  Equal  to  them. 

Just  as  suitable  for  Motive  Power  as  the  well-known 

HORNSBY     OIL     ENGINE. 

For  30   Years  the 


HORNSBY    BINDER 


Has  Led  and  still  Leads  the  Way. 

Winner  of  the  Six  Highest  Prizes  ever  offered. 

It  stands  unrivalled  for  Strength,  Simplicity,  Light- 
ness of  Draught,  Low  Cutting,  and  ease  of  Man- 
agement. Will  go  through  the  Harvest  without 
a  hitch. 

Hornsby  Mowers  are  Famous  the  World  over. 

Hornsby  Oil  Engines,  Gas  Engines,  and  Suction 
Gas    Plants  are  Unequalled. 


R.   HORNSBY  &  SONS,   LTD., 


MCLBOURNC.              SYDNEY. 
BRISBANE. 


DOOKIE    AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE. 

(SHEPPARTON     DISTRICT.) 

H.   PYE,  Principal 

The  College  offers  every  facility  to  students  to  become  competent  agriculturists  and 
dairymen.  The  work  is  carried  out  on  a  large  commercial  scale,  the  ploughing,  drilling, 
manuring,  harvesting,  threshing,  and  shearing  being  done  by  students  under  competent 
instructors.  Over  2,000  sheep  and  lambs,  150  cattle,  and  50  horses,  including  stallion,  are 
on  the  farm,  which  comprises  over  6,000  acres. 

Fees  (per  Annum)— First  Year,  £32  5s.  ;  Second  Ytar,  £27  5s.  ;  Third  Year,  £22  5s.  ; 
Payable  half-j'early. 

LONGERENONG    AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE. 

(HORSHAM     DISTRICT.) 

W.    D.     WILSON,    B.Sc,    Principal. 

One  aim  of  this  institution  is  to  fill  in  the  gap  betM^een  the  State  School  and  Dookie, 
i.e.,  to  take  students  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  years. 

The  farm  contains  an  area  of  2,386  acres,  and  is  admirably  adapted  for  demonstrating 
what  can  be  done  in  farming  with  irrigation.  There  is  a  large  area  of  the  farm  under 
cultivation,  and  the  orchard  and  vineyard  cover  an  area  of  30  acres. 

Fees — Beddent,  £20  per  annum  ;  Non-resident,  £5  per  annum  ;  Payable  half-yearly. 

Applications  relative  to  the  above  Collegfes  should  be  sent  to  the  Secretary,  Council  of 
Agricultural  Education,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne.  On  receipt  of  Post  Card  a 
copy  of  the  Prospectus  of  either  College  will  be  posted. 

NEXT    SESSION     COMMENCES     MARCH,     1912. 
INTENDING    STUDENTS     MAY    NOW     BE     ENROLLED. 


lo   Jan.,    191 2.]  Journal  of  Agricultnre ,    Victoria.  xxi 


l^fiTlOflflli  TRUSTEES 


Executors  &  Agency  Company 
of  Australasia,  Ltd.     .    .     . 


DIRECTORS: 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Managing  Director. 

EDWARD  FITZGERALD,  Esq.,  L.L.D.  MICHAEL  MORNANE,  Esq. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  Esq.  DAVID  HUNTER,  Es* 

This  Company  acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint  Executor  of  Wills,  Administrator, 
Trustee  of  Settlements,   and  Agent  for  Absentees  under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY      TO     LEND      ON      BROAD      ACRES     AND      FARM     LANDS. 

o.nc.  ^.,3  QUEEN  ST.  U£c"oir,?s'st)  MELBOURNE. 


Savings  BanRs  Loans 

ON     BROAD    ACRES     (Up  to  Three-fifths  of  Valuation), 

In   sums  from  £2,000  to  £25,000. 
Interest  at  4  per  cent. 

For  3  or  5  years,  with  option  of  paying  off  part  on  any  half-yearly  pay-day. 
ON   FARMS  (CREDIT  FONCIER)  (Up  to Two-thirds of  Valuation), 

In  sums  from  £50  to  £2,000. 
Interest  at  4.3  per  cent. 

Loans  Repayable  by  Instalments  spread  over  31 J  years,  or  may  be  paid 
off  on  any  half-yearly  pay-day,  subject  to  a  small  charge  if  paid  off  during 
the  first  five  years,  but  no  penalty  after  five  years. 

^^^^^^^  •  Inspector-General  of  Savings  Banks; 

29    MARKET    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


TREWHELLA  ::^='  GRUBBING  JAGKS. 

Quick.     Powerful.     Simple. 


Mr.  Chas.  Hamilton,  Molesworth,  Vic,  says: — "I  would  not 
be  without  one  of  these  Jacks  on  the  farm." 

Mr.  O.  C.  R  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  FYances,  S.A.  :— 
"Have  been  using'  Trewhella  Wallaby  Jacks  now  nearly 
six  year.-,  and  a.s  loufr  as  I  have  anything  to  lift  will  never  be 
without  one." 


Write  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  to— 

TREWHELLA   BROS.,  engineers,  TRENTHAM,  VICTORIA. 


XXIV 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Jan.,   1912. 


THE 


THB    "MITCHEU,- 

MITCHELL' 


COMPLETE     HARVESTER. 


Extract  from  Horsham  Time->i,   71  10. 

A   RECORD  WHEAT  YIELD. 

16   BAGS   PER  ACRE. 

"What  is  undoubtedly  a  record  wheat 
yield  for  the  locality  is  being  gathered  in  by 
Mr.  Samuel  Gross,  of  the  Three  Bridges, 
Drung  Drung.  With  a  Mitchell  6  feet 
Harvester  doing  excellent  work  and 
drawn  by  five  horses,  Mr.  Gross  has  taken 
up  to  18  bags  of  Federation  wheat  per  acre, 
the  field  harvested  yielding  a  magnificent 
average  of  sixteen  bags  From  other 
parts  of  the  district  excellent  returns  are 
also  being  harvested,  but  that  bagged  by 
Mr.  Gross,  so  far,  is  the  higliest  recorded." 


THE    USER'S    OPINION. 

"A  report  of  the  work  done  b}'  jour  6  feet 
Harvester  appeared  in  the  Horsham  Times 
of  7th  Januar\'  last,  and  you  will  probably  be 
pleased  to  hear  that  the  machine  has  given 
me  the  utmost  satisfaction.  You  will 
notice  by  the  report  that  I  had  a  record 
crop,  which  the  machine  had  no 
difficulty  in  dealing  with,  and  it 
made  a  splendid  sample.  It  was 
very  light  in  draught,  and  I  would 
have  no  hesitation  in  recommending  it  to 
any  one  who  stands  in  need  of  a  really  first- 
class  Harvester." 

SAMUEL  GROSS, 

Drung  Drung,  20;i,/10. 


This  is  the  "MITCHELL"  in  farm  work — not  what  WE  claim  in   an   advertisement, 

but  ITS  ACTUAL  WORK  IN  A  50  BUSHEL  CROP. 
As  it  handles  a  50  bushel  crop  "excellently,"  don't  you  think  it's  safe  to  handle  YOURS? 


PLOWS,  GRAIN  DRILLS,  ONE-WAY  DISCS,  HARROWS, 
WALTER  A.  WOOD  BINDERS,  MOWERS  &  RAKES,  "MAX" 
MILKING  MACHINES,  "DIABOLO"  SEPARATORS,  "WATERLOO 
BOY"  OIL  ENGINES,  "AUSTIN"  ROAD  GRADERS,  HORSE 
YOKES,   CHAFF    CUTTERS,   "LINKE    NOACK"    EARTH    SCOOPS. 


MITCHELL  &  COMPANY 


PTY. 
LTD. 


FACTORY    £    OFFICE:  :V  SHOW    ROOM: 

WEST  FOOTSCRAY,  MELBOURNE.     I      596  BOURKE-ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


Please  mention  this  Journal  when  writing  us. 


J^efFigeratiug  ^  ^ 


and 


lee  JYCakiixg 
j^CaekineFY  ^  ^ 


Made  by 
HUMBLE  «&  SONS, 

^< 

1 

m\ 

Geelong, 

*ei'i^R.-'  '" 

I^^^H^Jf 

r*v-'''M 

aaliiisi 

^^ 

Victoria. 

jHjjTifiJi'iir' 

ikSi 

''."i/'ii  ''.  11'', 

Specially  suitable  for  Butchers,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  lee 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  Machines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine  A  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration  work 
undertaken,  Including  coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


"  Ferrier's "  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distribntors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworlts,  &c. 

Full  Particulars  on  Application  to— 

Humble  and  Sons, 

General   Eng'ineers, 
VULCAN    FOUNDRY,   GEE  LONG. 


VICTORIAN 


RAILWAYS. 


VICTORIA    FOR    YOUR    VACATION. 


The  Victorian  Railways  issue 

SUMMER    EXCURSION    FARES 

To  the  Seaside,  Mountains,  Lakes,  and  Caves 

FROM    15th    NOVEMBER    TILL    30th    APRIL. 


LORNE. 

Waterfalls,  fern  glens,  sea  and  river 
fishing ;    splendid  accommodation. 

FLINDERS. 

Ocean  beach  and  golfers'  paradise. 

QUEENSCLIFF. 

Bay  and  ocean  beaches ;  rail  and 
steamer  services. 

THE    BUFFALO    PLATEAU, 

with  its  famous  gorge,  falls,  and 
peaks,  the  Horn  and  the  Hump, 
embraces  the  finest  mountain  scenery 
in  Australia.  Excursion  fares  all  the 
year  round. 

THE    AUSTRALIAN    ALPS. 

Mts.  Bogong,  Feathertop,  Hotham. 

The  Baw  Baw  Range. 

THE    DIVIDING    RANGE. 

Macedon,  Woodend,  Daylesford,  &c. 

Healesville  in  the  Hills. 

THE    GIPPSLAND    LAKES. 

The  most  charming  chain  of  lakes 
in  the  Commonwealth. 

THE    BUCHAN    CAVES. 

Indescribably  beautiful. 


CAMPBELL'S    FALLS, 
ON     FALLS     CREEK,     UPPER     YARRA. 


For  full  information  as  to  train 
services,  fares,  &c.,  "write  to  or  in- 
quire from  the  Government  Tourist 
Officer,  Tourist  Bureau,  opp.  Town 
Hall,   Collins   street,   Melbourne. 

E.    B.   JONES, 

A  ding-  Secretary  for  Railways. 


V^ol.  X.  WHEAT    AND    ITS    CULTJVATION.  Part  2. 

[Registered  at  the  General  Post  Office,  Melhoiirne,  for  transmission  by  Post  as  a  Newspaper.] 


Th  e  Pig  In  d us  try. 


RYE    GRASS. 

COCKSFOOT. 

PRAIRIE. 

PASPALUM. 

PHALARIS. 

TIMOTHY. 

DWARF    ESSEX 

RAPE. 

LUCERNE. 

ALSIKE. 

COW   GRASS. 

WHITE  DUTCH. 


VEGETABLE,  TREE, 
FLOWER,  SHRUB 
aCRIOULTURAL 

SEEDS. 


Samples  and  Prices  of  Agricultural  Seeds   Post  Free. 


Planet  Jr.  Seed  Drills  &  Cultivators. 
Planter's  Friend  Corn  Drills. 
Iron  King  Seed  Drills. 


Corn  Queen  Planters,  Aerators,   Firefly  Plows, 


"DEMON" 
BIRD  SCARER. 

Special  labour-saving 
device;  most  effective  for 
scaring  the  birds.  Goes  for 
16  hours  without  charging. 

WRITE  FOR  PAMPHLET. 

FULL 

& 

COMPLETE 

STOCK 

OF 

AGRICULTURAL 
SUNDRIES. 


HEMINGWAY'S  ENGLISH 

ARSENATE  OF  LEAD. 

The  purest  and  best  make  on  the  market. 

WRITE  US  FOR  FULL 

PARTICULARS  AND  PRICES. 


SPRAY   PUMPS. 
GARDEN  GLOVES. 

NIKOTEEN. 

MANILLA  LABELS. 

FRUIT  TREE  NETS. 


SEED  &  BULB  BOOK 

Containing  over  130  pages  of 

useful  information. 

POST    FREE    ON    APPLICATION. 


Manures  &  Fertilizers  of  all  descriptions. 


"ELECTRIC" 
GARDEN  HOSE. 

The  best  5 -ply  hose  on  the 
market.  Specially  non- 
kinkable,    and    does    not 

crack. In   any  length, 

^  in.,   I  in.,  and  1  in. 

PRICES  ON  APPLICATION. 

FULL 

& 

COMPLETE 

STOCK 

OF 

ORCHARD 
REQUISITES. 


MURCHISON'S     SCRUB    DESTROYER. 

Write  for  special  pamphlet  giving  full  prices  and  particulars. 


64  ELIZABETH-ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


THE     JOURKAL 


OF 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


-^XCTCDTIXj^,     J^XJ&TXIJ^JL.Xj^. 


T.   HOPKIMS,  Acting  Editor. 


CONTENTS.— FEBRUARY,     1912. 


The  Pig  Industry 
Diseases  of  Farm  Animals  ... 
Wheat  and  its  (..'ultivation... 
Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees 


R.  T.  Archer 

S.S.  Cameron,  D.  V.Sc,  M.R.G.  V.S. 

...    A.  E.  V.  Richardson,  M.A.,  B.Sc.  (Agric.) 

...  ...  ...  C.  F.  Cole 


Tlie  Shipment  of  Grapes  and  other  Soft  Fruits 

The  Liglit-Brown  Apple  Moth 

Bee-keeping  in  Victoria 

Vine  Diseases  in  France 

Potato  1  Jigging  Machines  ... 

Farm  Blacksmitliing 

The  Olive 

Orchard  and  Garden  Notes 

Reminders  for  March 

Statistics 

Victorian  Egg-laying  Competition,  1911-12  ... 


F.  de  Caslella 

C.  French,  Jvnr. 

F.  R.  Beuhne 

F.  de  Caslella 

G.  Si-ymonr 

G.  Baxter 

L.  Macdonald 

E.  E.  Pescott 


PAGB. 

73 
83 

91 
101 
108 
111 
113 
116 
119 
123 
127 
130 
133 
134 
136 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

Tlie  Articles  in  the  .Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  ^'iGto^ia  are 
protected  by  the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act.  Proprietors  of  ne\\s{)apers  wishing 
to  republish  anj'  matter  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  provided  the  .Journal  and  author  are 
both  acknotrledi/ed. 

.  The  Journal  is  issued  monthly.  The  subscription,  which  is  payable  in  advance 
and  includes  postage,  is  3s.  per  annum  for  the  Commonwealth  and  New  Zealand,  and 
5s.  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  Foreio:ii  Countries.     Single  copy  Threepence. 

Subscriptions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture.  Melliourne. 
A  complete  list  of  the  various  publications  issued  bj'  the  Department  of  .Agriculture 
will  be  supplied  by  the  latter. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo   Feb.,    1912. 


No  other  Windmill  has  a 
Speed-governing  Device  like 
the   "Billabong's." 


This  impoitunt  improvement  of  ours 
is  protected  by  patent  rights.  It  has 
neither  springs  nor  weights — nothing 

to  get  out  of  order.  By  merely  turning  a  screw  you  can 
vary  the  speed  of  the  mill  to  your  desire.  This  will  be 
found  to  be  of  great  advantage  when  ^'^^indmill  is  sub- 
jected to  a  change  of  load,  and  in  heavy  gales,  &c. 


Stop   and   Consider. 


You  want  a  mill  to  give  lifelong  service ;  therefore,  it  must  be  made  of  good 
material.  Bearings  should  be  so  made  that  they  may  be  cheaply  and  quickly 
renewed.  Frictional  or  wearing  ]jarts  should  be  few;  and,  what  is  most  im- 
j>ortant,  the  mill  should  have  a  lubricating  system  that  will  insure  its  bein;,' 
thoroughly  and  continuously  lubricated  while  working,  but  which  will  prevent 
waste  wlien  mill  is  not  required.  The  mill  should  be  responsive  to  a  very 
light  breeze,  yet  stana  a  gale. 

In    our    Mill    all   these    Points    are    provided    for. 

We  know  what  is  required  of  a  good  mill — we  have  had  many  years  of  windmill 
experience.  The  fact  that  we  have  obtained  patent  riglits  proves  our  pro- 
gressiveness;  and,  as  to  quality  and  workmanship,  our  being  established  for 
over  half  a  century  answers. 

Suppose  You   Save, 

say,  £1,  or  £1  10s.,  or  £2,  by  buying  a  ciieaper  mill,  and  then  have  to  spend 
£2  to  £3  in  repairs — again  another  £3  or  £4;  or,  suppose  your  cheap  mi  1 
sticks  up  when  you  most  need  it,  you  will  soon  lose  pounds  and  pounds' 
worth  of  stock ;    or,   if  it  blows  down  in  a  gale,  where  is  your  saving  then  ? 

Pay  a  Proper  Price  and  get  the  Rig^ht  Article  with 
a     Good     Manufacturings    Firm     to     back    it    up. 

But  the  truth  is,  while  our  mills  are  well  made,  the  price  is  so  reasonable. 
Write  for  Catalogue  and  Prices. 

We  can  supply  Tanks  and  Stnnds;  Pumps  of  all  kinds;  Piping.  Troughing, 
and  Fluming;    Farm  and  Garden  Tools,   Implements,  and  Requisites. 


JOHN  DANKS 


391=395   Bourke  Street,   Melbourne. 


lo  Feb.,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


START    RIGHT  !  ! 


When  equipping  the  dairy  with  machinery  don't  let  the  matter  of  a  £1  or  two  influence 
yoiu  (jjioice,  and  [)revent  you  from  obtaining  the  best  and  most  up-to-date  phuU  ihat 
money  can  buy.  A  mistake  made  at  the  outset  means  just  the  difference  between 
success  aiul  failure.  It  is  false  economy  to  purchase  machinery  of  any  description 
simply  because  it  is  "choap" — the  sweetness  of  low  price  never  equals  the  bitterness  of 
pooi-  qualify.  Before  ]urchasing  a  cream  separator,  milking  machine,  or  petrol  engine, 
visit  the  farms  of  the  prominent  and  successful  dairymen,  and  you  will  find  that  over 
90  per  cent,  of  them  have  either  the 

"ALFA- LAVAL"  SEPARATOR 
"L-K-G"  MILKING  MACHINES 
"FELIX"  INDUSTRIAL  MOTOR 

installed  in  their  dairies  or  milking  sheds.  You  run  no  risk  whatever  in  purchasing  any 
of  tlie  above  time  tested  midlines,  because  they  are  guaranteed  to  be  as  represented, 
but  should  ihcy  fail  to  make  good  what  is  claimed  for  th.em  we  will  take  them  back 

again  and  pay  all  expenses. 

Our  full-lino  Cat  xlogue  No.  35DS,  describes  in  detail  these 
tcst-of-.-ili  r.;nchines;  it  also  gives  full  particulars  and 
prices  oi  the  mocjt  modorn  farm,  dairy,  and  ehcesc-making 
requisites. Posted  free   on  application. — Write  for  it. 


J.  %mmm  &  son  ivo.,  19-23  king  street,  Melbourne. 

SOLE  AGENTS :— Galvanized  all-steel  portable  Silos. 


Every  Farmer  and  Grazier 


should  have  a  Telephone  Service  con- 
necting vrith  th(!  nearest  Post  Office. 
Thousands  of  Australian  farmers  have 
already  installed  Telephones,  the  ad- 
vantages of  which  are  so  numerous  and 
valuable  that  it  is  impossible  to  measure 
or  appreciate  their  worth  until  you 
have  one. 


A  well-known  Victorian  grazier,  Mr.  W.  Gardiner, 
writes  regarding  The  "  ERICSSON  "  TELEPHONE  :— 

"  I  find  the  telephone  the  most  useful  inven- 
tion I  have  on  the  farm,  both  in  labour  and  time 
saving,  also  for  business  purposes.  It  has  often 
saved  me  the  price  of  itself  in  one  transaction,  and 
has  paid  for  itself  50  times  over  in  two  cases  of 
calling  medical  aid  when  no  one  could  go  for  it. 
The  "  ERICSSON  "  gives  satisfaction  in  every  way." 


J. 


Prices,  estimates,  and  full  particulars, 
on  applicaticm  to — 


l\    PTY. 
LTD., 


19-23    KING    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


Represuntinq     the     L. 


M. 


ERICSSON     Telephone     Company. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Feb.,   1912. 


If  vou  \mj\ 


fervcGSiiQ 


[F  you  want  to  have  them  up  in  a 

fraction  of  the  time  taken  with 
bar  and  spade  !    If  you  want  to  miss 
the  laborious  bar  work  and  ramming  ! 
Then  .   .  . 


%%  ''mm'' 

POST    HOUE   DIGGER. 

The  Greatest  of  all  Earth  Boring  Tools. 

It  cuts  the  hole  just  the  size  for  the  post,  in  a 
fraction  of  the  time  taken  with  bar  and  spade, 
and  no  time  is  lost  ramming.       Works  in  all 
conditions   and   kinds  of  soil — not  rock.     On  a 
fencing  job  120  ten-inch  holes  can  be  easily  bored 
in  a  day,   or  200  smaller  sizes.     By  extending  the 
pilie  bar  the  "IWAN"  POST  HOLE  DIGGER  bores 
down  to  35  feet.      Empties  with  a  shake  ;  is  built 
rigid — stays  rigid — has  no  adjustable  parts  to  wobbk 
about  or  stick. 

EVENTUALLY-WHY   NOT  NOW 

3       i       5       6       7       8       9       10       12       14  in. 

7/-  7/-  7/-  7/-  7/6  8/6  9/6  10/-  27/-  34/=  each. 

Thomas  McPherson  &  Son 

Established  51  Years, 

554-566  &  582-588  Collins-St.,  Melbourne. 


lo  Feb.,    1912.]      I  JoiiDial  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


MAIZE    FOR    FODDER. 

Craig    Mitchell     Mammoth    White. 

ENORMOUS     GRAIN     YIELDER,     150    Bushels    to    the    Acre. 
Average  Yield   for  Green  Feed,  50  to  55  Tons  p3r  Acre. 

Pedij^ree  Seed,  9s.  per  bushel.  CiieajxT  in  quantity.  Order  eail}'  to  prevent 
disappointment.  Wi-ite  for  our  descriptive  Farm  and  Maize  List,  posted  gratis  ; 
also  General  Seed  and  Plant  Catalogue.     The  leading  house  for  Lucerne  and  Rape. 

Try  the  NEW    GIANT    KANGAROO    RAPE. 

For  Cattle,  Sheep,  Horses,  Pigs,  Fowls,  etc.,  it  is  unsuipassaWlo.  WILL  FATTEN 
THREE  MOKE  SHEEP  TO  THE  ACRE  THAN  OTHER  KINDS.  Will 
grow  to  a  height  of  11  feet,  growing  2  feet  in  five  weeks,  7^  feet  in  under  twelve 
weeks.     Price,  8d.  per  lb.,  60s.  per  cwt. 

AGRICULTURAL    SEED    A    SPECIALITY. 


LAW,  SOMNER,  &  Co.,  Seed  and  Plant  Merchants, 

139-141   SWANSTON  STREET,   MELBOURNE. 

Established  61   Years.  'PHONE,    CENTRAL  729. 


Journal  of  A^rictdture,    Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    1912. 

"AUSTRAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES. 

FIVE   YEARS   OF   UNBROKEN    SUCCESS 

Have  established  the  AUSTRAL  as  the  Premier  Milking^  Machine,  and 

have  demonstrated  1  liat  it  does  not  belong  to  that  class  of  appliancL-^  whose 
efficiency  terminates  after  a  few  months  of  use.  It  has  stood  the  test  of  fcime,  and 
that  under  all  sorts  of  conditions. 

IT    IS    SIMPLE. 

Complexity  and  intricacy  are  the  bane  of  milking  machinery.  Both  in  principle 
and  construction  the  Austral  is  striking]}'  simple.  Minute  pulsating  mechani."<m 
on  teat  cups  or  buckets  lias  been  entirely  dispensed  with,  its  place  being  taken  by 
a  single  pulsating  pump,  simple  and  strong  in  construction,  which  serves  for  the 
wliole  outfit,  whether  two  cows  or  ten  are  to  be  milked  at  a  time.  The  pulsating 
pump  is  placed  in  the  engine  room,  remote  from  the  cows. 

IT    IS    AN    EASY    IVilLKER. 

Fear  of  injury  to  cows  was  at  one  time  the  bogie  of  machine  milking.  The  Austral 
has  done  away  with  all  that.  Its  action  on  the  cow  is  as  gentle  as  that  of  the 
softest  hand,  and  much  easier  than  the  average  hired  help.  After  three  and  four 
years'  milking  with  the  machines,  cows  are  found  to  be  as  sound  in  the  quarters 
as  when  they  started.  Enquiry  from  any  Austral  user  will  confirm  the  correct- 
ness of  this  statement. 

IT  IS  THE  LAST  WORD  IN  ECONOIVIICAL  DAIRYINC. 

Tlie  working  parts  are  so  few  and  the  construction  so  simple  and  solid,  that  wear 
and  tear,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  upkeep,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  An 
outstanding  feature  of  the  Austral  is  the  Tank  System,  whereby  the  milk  is 
conducted  direct  from  cow  to  separator  witliout  any  handling  whatever.  With 
tliis  system,  so  great  a  saving  is  effected  in  time,  labour,  and  trouble,  that  in 
ordinarj'  circumstances  its  advantages  are  overwhelming.  A  single  bucket  can  be 
sujjplied  for  testing  individual  cows  ;  or  where  spec'al  requirements  render  it  pre- 
ferable, complete  bucket  plants  can  be  installed. 

GLOBE  CREAM   SEPARATORS.      ,         CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES. 

Embodies  the   famous   Link-Blade    Bowl  I  The  world's  standard  Oil  Engine.      In  all 

Structure.     Official  tests  conducted  by  the  T  sizes  and  for  all  descriptions  of  farm  work. 

Swedish  Government  at  Alnarp  placed  the  f 

"Globe-  in  the  very  forefront  for  clean  k  VACCAR    PETROL    ENGINES. 

skimming    and    easy    running,   against    all  t  t^  .  •  ,      1     •,.             t 

competitors.  \  ^I'^ish    built.            Low    runnmg    speed. 

All  sizes  from  14  to  200  gallons.  Economical  on  fuel. 

WINDMILLS,  SAW-BENCHES,  CHAFF-CUTTERS,  and  all  Farn]  a^d  Dairy  Machinery. 

When  writing,  please  mention  this  Journal. 

59-61   KING  ST., 
MELBOURNE. 


W.  H.  BLHCKHfljn, 


JO  Feb.,   1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


(9 


X 


Herd    of    Prize 

Winnings  and 
Heavy  Milk  ^. 
and  Butter  Pro- 
ducing  Strains* 


YOUNG      BULLS     AND      HEIFERS 


FOR     SALE. 


MYSr.^.RY    VI.    OF     MELROSE." 


INSPECTION     3Y     APPOINTMENT. 


WILltlflm  WOODlWflSOK, 


"  Melrose  " 
Dairy, 


MALVERN,     MELBOURNE,    Vic. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[lo  Feb.,   ipiz. 


G. 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT    LAND. 

List  showing  number  of  allotments  on  the  various  Estates  available  for  application  : — 

Estate.      Irrig-ation  Areas.      Area.  Wheat  Growing-. 


.Swan  Hill 

Coluina 

Sheiipavtoii 

Naniieella 

Bamaw.ii 

Tun-uUi 


15 
6 
2S 
10 
21 
14 


totalling-     124  arres. 

,,  454  „ 

„  1,956  „ 

,,  152  „ 

„  1,880  „ 

474  ,, 

,,  2,805  ,, 


Dairying-  and  Mixed  Farming-. 


Bona  \'ista     . 

Deepdeiie 

Eunieralla 

JIea(lo\vl)ank 

Allanibee 

Jliiixen 

Wurriliee 

Keniluorth  . . 

Jlcioi-alla 

Ci-eniona 

Glenaladale  . . 

Nniiinikah   .. 

Exfoi'd 

(ireeiivale     .. 

Wvuna 


3 
13 

12 
1 

10 


totallinij 


2S7 

2,291 

4,896 

51 

1,664 

5,785 

4,943 

1,198 

1,372 

499 

502 

234 

170 

251 

102 


Estate, 

Cornelia  Creek 
Oaklands 
Hurst  wood     .. 
Mt.  Widderin 
Nerrin  Nenin 


Area. 

2,755  acres. 
4,699   „ 
4,884.   „ 
5,922   „ 
3,736   „ 


Beet  Growing"  and  Dairying-. 


Boisdale 
Kihnanv  Park 


C        totalling-       301  acres 
69  ,,    ■      7,558    „ 


Clerks'  Homes. 


Glen  Huntly 
Tooronsa 


6  allotments. 
62 


Workmen's  Homes. 

Pender's  Ciro\e  ..  ..        68  allotments 


Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending:  over  Z\\  years,  with 
jiayments  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  value  of 
licrman<'nt  improvements  effected,  repayments  extending-  over  fifteen  years  bearing  5  per  cent,  interest. 

For  full  'ui  for  mat  ion  and  terms  apph/  to  THE,      SECRETARY , 

LANDS     PURCHASE    AND     MANAGEMENT    BOARD, 

MELBOURNE. 


AUSTRALIA'S  WAGON  ;2:„'S 

PATENT 

STEEL 
WHEELS. 

Patent  Felloes. 
Renewable  Carron 
Boxes  and  Oil  Caps. 

The  only  Steel  Wheel 

that  has  stood 

the  Test. 

Beware  of 
Imitations. 
A.  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningie,  South  Australia,  says:— 

Dear  Sir, — I  have  received  Spring  Wagon.  I  am  well  pleased  with  same.  I  never  thought  it  would  run  so 
well,  .-ukI  I  think  those  who  have  Steel  Wheels  will  never  use  the  old  style  again.  Two  horses  carried  my  first  load 
of  two  ions  of  iiotatoes  over  a  bad  road  of  30  miles,  where  the  old  style  of  wagon  was  bogged,  and  is  still  there. 

August,  1903. 
ALBCRT  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningie,  S.A.,  says:— 

Dear  Sir,— In  answer  to  your  letter  wanting  to  know  how  the  wheels  of  my  wagon  are,  T  am  pleased  to  tell 
you  I  ha\  e  had  the  wag-on  about  65  years,  and  it  has  not  cost  me  a  shilling ;  the  wheels  are  like  new,  and  I  have 
done  a  lot  of  heavy  carting.  Onlybeing  a  2-1  on  Wagon,  I  lent  it  to  a  man  carting  wheat,  and  he  had  some  very 
rough  roads,  loads  being  about  .50  bags.  Your  Wagons  are  worth  their  money,  and  I  would  not  be  without  one  of 
them.     I  think  this  Wagon  will  last  rny  life  time.     40"  and  36' Wheels.  August  13th,  1910. 


Ijgp- TABLE  TOP— Truck  body,  and  all  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
WRITE    FOR     CATALOG     TO-DAY. 


\J  a        b9i 


QUEEN'S    BRIDGE-ST., 
SOUTH   MELBOURNE,  V. 


10  Feb..   1912.] 


Journal  of  A(:^ricnlture,    Victoria. 


"CYCLONE" 


SPRING 
COIL  .  . 
FENCE. 


SENT    OUT     IN     ROLLS 
READY     FOR     ERECTION, 


VARIOUS     HEIGHTS     AND     SPACINGS. 

THE  Cyclone  Spring  Coil  Fence  is  sent  out  in  5-chain  rolls,  and  is  easily  erected.  The  crimps  in  the 
horizontal  lines  make  it  elastic.  Cross  ties,  1  ft.  apart,  form  a  perfect  web,  which  will  hold  any 
stock,  large  or  small.  Resisting  power  is  immense,  any  strain  being-  distributed  over  the  whole  fence. 
It  is  an  advantage  to  have  posts  further  apart  than  in  ordinary  fences.  It  cannot  be  strained  past 
tension  point,  and  thus  needs  no  after  straining.  Top  and  bottom  lines  No.  9  gauge  wire ;  intermediate 
No.  11  ;  cross  ties  No.  13. 

"The  Cyclone  Spring  Coil  is  a  GOOD  Fence." 


GET    OUR     CATALOGUE    OF    FENCES    AND     GATES. 


CYCLONE    WOVEN • 

WIRE  FENCE    &   GATE    CO.      • 


459  SWANSTON  STREET, 
MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo   Feb.,   1912. 


"GLEN   ELGLN'S   PHILANTHROPIST"   299  A.H.B.    of  Aus. 


@® 


(^(^ 


"^  THE 

HERD. 

BUY    A 

PURE 

ONE. 


Winner  of  Champion,  Sydney  Royal  Siiow,  1909,  1910,  1911. 
Reserve  Champion,  Melbourne  Royal  Show,  1907,  1908,  1911. 

Also  holds  the  record  of  142  Firsts,  Chani[nons,   Specials,  and  Gold  Medals  for  AjTshire 

and  Dairy  Bull. 


The  ''GlengaFDoek"  Stad  I 


Pure. 
Ayrshire  Cattle 


Has  won  innumerable  prizes  in  the  ring.       The  females  in  this  herd  are  noted  for 
deep  and  heavj'  milking  and  test  well  above  tlie  average,  and  are  kind  and  quiet. 

CHOBCE   YOUNG    HERDBOOK    BULLS    FOR  SALE 

At  from  5  to  25  j^ulneas  each. Special  Show  Bulls  higher. 

From  Best  Cows  only,  by  Pure  Herdbook  Bulls.      Full  pedigrees  and  particulars,  with 
photographs  of  animal  for  sale,  his  sire  and  dam,  will  be  forwarded  on  application. 


INSPECTION  CORDIALLY  INVITED. 


VISITORS  MET  AT  LANG  LANG  RAILWAY  STATION. 


Address 


A.  T.  PRIESTLEY. 


Post      .)««CLENCARNOCK," 

TelegJS/YANNATHAN,  Vic. 


O 
O 

z 

-I 


*^i^ 


lo  Feb.,   1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria. 


XI 


f             > 

A^^H— ^-^wa| 

Vacuum 
Harness 

^^ 

Oil 

Vacuum 

■Bs 

Vacuum    oil  cooipanv 

Harness 

Vacuum 
Harness 

•  - .;.;::;.r:v 

^ 

WCdUW  till  tOdd'HIIV 

...,^_»,..^... 

B^"--.  '__•:- .•■v^ii?5ai»=^ja 

?\ 

sr-*-~^ 

IC 

^ ^^ 

Vacuum 

Leather  Oil 


replaces  the  original  and  natural    oils 
in   leather   which   quickly   disappear 
when  harness  is  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Vacuum  Leather  Oil 

preserves  the  leather;  keeps  it  soft  and 
pliable  as  a  kid  glove;  gives  a  black 
finish;  makes  it  water-proof;  and  pre- 
vents it  from  breaking  and  cracking. 

Write  for  booklet:  "How  to  Take  Care  of  Leather." 

Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd. 

90  William  Street.  Melbourne. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   Feb..    19 12. 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

GOVERNMENT  STUD  BULLS. 

AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  BELONGING  TO  BONA-FIDE  SETTLERS  UNDER  THE 

CLOSER   SETTLEMENT   ACTS. 


Fee,  5s.  per  eow. 


Jersey  Bull  "DREADNOUGHT";    Calved,   22nd  October,   1908. 

Sire, : — Sir  Jack  (188).         Dam  : — Lady  Kitchener,  by  Lord  Melbourne. 
{In  charge,  of  Mr.  H.  Crumpler,  Block  148,  Bamawm.) 


Jersey  Bull  "ROSE    FOX";    Calved,    19th  August,   1909. 

Sire  : — Starbright  Fox  (190).         Dam  : — Tuberose,  by  Magnet's  Progress  (54  A.J.H.B.). 
{In  charge  0/  Mr.  E.  W.  Prater,  Block  106,  Bamawm.) 


Jersey  Bull  "VERBENA'S    BOY";   Calved,   lOth  January,  1908. 

Sire  : — Acrobat.  Dam  : — Verbena  2nd,  by  Snowdrop's  Progress  2nd. 

{In  charge  of  Messrs.  Laing  and  Mundie,  Block  70,  Bamawm.) 


Jersey  Bull  "NOBILITY";   Calved,  2nd  April,  1910. 

Sire  : — Lucy's  Noble  of  Oaklands.  Dam  : — Winnie  of  Melrose  3rd,  by  Royal  Blue. 

{Ill  charge  of  Mr.  E.  T.  Partington,  Block  136,  Bamawm.) 


Jersey  Bull  "MILKY   WAY";    Calved,  20th  June,   1909. 
Sire :— Starbright  Fox  (190).     i)am:— Milkmaid  34th  (590),  by  Plinlimmon  (imp.  62  A.H.B.). 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  L.  S.  Hidands,  Block  91,  Nanneella.) 


Jersey  Bull  "GOLD    MEDAL";   Calved,  3rd  April,  1910. 

Sire  : — Golden  Fox  (142  A.J.H.B.).         Dam  : — Melba,  by  Greystanes  2nd. 
{In  char-ge  of  Messrs.  Jacobs  and  Kennedy,  Blocks  43  and  44,  Nanneella.) 


Jersey  Bull  "MAGNET'S    FOX";    Calved,  6th  November,   1909. 

Sire  :— Fox's  Laddie.         Dain  :— Magnet  28th,  by  Defender  (imp.)  (2288  H.C.J.H.B.). 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  C.  G.   Woods,  Block  29,  Koyuga.) 


Jersey  Bull  "CREAM    PROSPECT";  Calved,  22nd  March,  1910. 

Sire  :— Lord  Creamer  (155  A.J.H.B.).  Z)am  :— Daisy  of  Prospect  (347  A.J.H.B.), 

by  Cardigan. 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  L.  H.  Badclyffe,  Block  2,  Koyiiga. ) 


Jersey  Bull  "ZODIAC";    Calved,   10th  November,   1908. 

Sire  :— Starbright  Fox  (190).         Dam  :— Zoe  4th  (805),  by  Handsome  Hero. 
{In  charge  0/  Mr.  I!.  J.  Chappell,  Block  12F,  Swan  Hill.) 


Jersey  Bull  "GAY    FOX";    Calved,   12th  May,   1909. 

Sire  : — Starbright  Fox  (190).         Dam  : — Floss,  by  Plinlimmon  (imp.  62). 
(In  charge  of  Mr.  F.  Cox,  Block  6D,  Swan  Hill. ) 


lo  Feb..    191 2-1  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  xiii 


DEPARTMENT     OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

GOVERNMENT  STUD  BULLS. 

AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  BELONGING  TO   BONA-FIDE   SETTLERS  UNDER  THE 
CLOSER  SETTLEMENT  ACTS-^-^'^^''^^^^- 


Fee,  5s.  per  cow. 


Jersey  Bull  "WILLIAM    OF   AYRE";   Calved,  February,  1910. 

Sire. : — Favourite's  Fox  •2nd.         Dam  : — Bessie  McCarthy,  by  Snowflake's  Progress. 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Dickinson,  Block  13,  Nyah.) 


Jersey  Bull  "FOX'S    LAD";    Calved,  5th  October,   1908. 

Sire  : — Fox,  by  Suowdrop's  Progress  2nd.         Dam  : — Pansy  2nd,  by  Duke. 
(In  charge  of  Mr.  Ernest  E.  Borley,  Block  6,  Nyah. ) 


Ayrshire  Bull  "PETER  OF  WILLOWVALE";  Calved,  30th  Sept.,  1909. 

Sire: — Annetta's  Pride  (2-4.3).  Dam: — Madge  2nd  (Appendix  A.H.B.),   by  Red 

Chief  (359). 
(In  charge  of  Mr.  F.  Mclvor,  Block  12F,  Swan  Hill.) 

Particulars  of  extended  pedigrees,  milking  records,  &c. ,  can    be   obtained   from   each   bull 

holder,    from   the    resident  Dairy   Supervisors  (Mr.  O'KEEFE,  Rochester,  or  Mr.  S.  J.  KEYS, 

Swan  Hill),  or  from  The  Department  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 

AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  THE  PROPERTY  OF  BEET  GROWERS  AT  BOISDALE. 

Red  Danish  Bull  "CLAUDIUS";    Calved,   10th  November,  1909. 
Sire: — Ernst  Bellinge  (imp.).  Dam: — Kirsten  IX.  (imp.). 

Fee,  5.S.  (available  to  30  cows). 


Red  Danish  Bull  "HAMLET";  Calved,  1st  August,  1910. 

Sire  : — Ernst  Bellinge  (imp.).      Dam  : — Marianne  IV.      G.  Dam, : — Marianne  III.  (imp.). 
Fee,  5s.  (available  to  10  heifers). 


Red  Polled  Bull  "TABAOUM";   Calved,   12th  November,   1908. 

Sire  :— Acton  Ajax  (imp.).  Dam  : — Janet,  by  Primate  by  Laureate  (imp.). 

Fee,  7s.  6d.  (available  to  20  cows). 


Jersey  Bull  "GAY   LAD    II.";    Calved,   8th  August,   1906. 

Sire  : — Acrobat,  by  Cherry's  Pride  (imp.).     Dam  : — Gaiety,  by  Snowdrop's  Progress  II., 

bj'  Lady  Superior's  Progress  (imp.). 
Fee,  5S.  (available  to  40  cows).  (Winner  of  7  first  prizes.) 

Particulars   of   extended  pedigrees,  milking   records  and   prizes  may  be  obtained  from,  and 
arrangement  for  service  made  with,  Mr.  E.  STEER,  at  the  Homestead  Block  21,  where  the 

bulls  are  kept. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    1912, 


To  GRAZIERS,  FARMERS,  and  DAIRYMEN. 

You  cannot  do   bettei-  tlian   pufciiase  your  lequiiemeuts  from 

THE    ViOTORIA     VARNISH    OOY.  '^7;^— 

Who  are  Importers  and  Manufacturers  of  the  undermentioned,  namel}'  :  — 

Varnishes  for  all   uses,    Paiiits,    Dry   Colors,    Stainer's    Turpentine, 
Boiled    and    Raw    Linseed    Oil,    Resin,     Shellac,    White     Lead,     &c. 

OUR    MANUFACTURE     IS     OF     ONE     QUALITY— THE     BEST. 

Note  the  Address— 

The  VICTORIA  VARNISH  COY.  Proprietary  Ltd.,  Queen's  Bridge,  South  Meib. 

Tel.   Central  614.  EsTABLrsHED    1853.  A.    J.    BORTHWICK,    Manager. 

BONEDUST,  SOPERPHOSPHATE, 

AND     OTHER     HIGH-GRADE      FERTILIZERS 

DELIVERED  AT  RAILWAY  STATION,  FOOTSCRAY,  OR  ON  WHARF,  MELBOURNE. 

Office :— 407  POST  OFFICE  PLACE,  MELBOURNE. 

BONES  BOUGHT.      CONSIGN  TO  ME,  FOOTSCRAY.  Telephone  2098. 


lo  Feb..    191^-] 


Journal  of   Agriculture ,    Victoria. 


XV 


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Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Feb.,   1912. 


piston  s  Patent  Wiudmills 


—AT    THE    ROYAL    SHOW.- 


At  the  recent  Royal  Show  a  tine  coUeeLiuu  of  Windmills  was  exhibited  by  James  Alston, 
of  Queen's  Bridge,  Melbourne.  Mills  of  all  diameters,  from  6  ft.  to  25  ft.  were  shown 
at  work,  suitable  to  all  requirements  of  farmers  or  stock  raisers,  the  small  Mills  being 
suitable  for  lifting  moderate  supplies  from  shallow  wells,  while  the  larger  sizes  are  capable 
of  dealing  with  almost  any  depths.  A  splendid  Mill,  25  feet  diameter  on  a  50-ft.  Steel 
Tower,  working  an  18"  pump,  and  throwing  a  stream  of  water  of  about  15,000  gallons  per 
hour,  attracted  much  attention.  This,  we  believe,  is  the  largest  Mill  ever  shown  on  the 
Show  Ground.  Alston's  Patent  Steel  Windmills  have  all  the  most  up-to-date  improve- 
ments in  their  construction.  Pumps  of  many  descriptions  were  shown,  including  the  latest 
Draw  Plunger  Pumps  for  bore  use,  which  admits  of  the  plunger  being  drawn  without 
disturbing  the  pipes  in  the  bore. 


en 


THe    JOURNAL 


OF 


^fie  department  of  ^^ncufture 


OP  »-'  ' 

NEW  Yi 

VICT^ORIA.  eoTANic 


Vol.  X.        Part  2.  lOth  February,  1912. 

THE  PIG  IXDUSTRY. 

I.— PRODUCTION  AND   CONSUMPTION. 

R.   T.  Archer,  Senior  Dairy  Inspector. 

In  all  the  leading  dairying  countries  the  revenue  from  the  pig  re- 
presents a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  farmer's  income  and  is  the 
means  of  utilizing  to  the  best  advantage  the  by-products  of  the  dairy, 
viz.,  skim-milk,  butter-milk,  and  whey.  While  this  applies  to  the  coun- 
tries against  which  we  have  to  compete  on  the  markets  of  the  world,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  the  condition  of  the  industry  in  the  State  of  Vic- 
toria is  at  present  very  unsatisfactory,  and  is  likely  to  continue  so,  until 
it  is  placed  on  a  better  basis.  The  problem  is  how  to  accomplish  it. 
Fortunately,  we  have  sufficient  information  to  indicate  the  lines  upon  which 
it  is  advisable  to  move. 

Twenty-two  years  ago  the  financial  conditions  of  Victoria  were  very 
depressed  and  the  various  products  of  the  soil  were  correspondingly  low 
in  value.  Fortunately,  other  countries  had  had  similar  experiences  and 
had  overcome  them.  Our  statesmen  found  a  solution  of  our  difficulties 
in  the  experiences  of  Denmark.  About  40  years  ago,  when  the  principal 
industry  in  that  country  was  the  production  of  grain,  the  farmers  had  a 
great  struggle  to  keep  their  heads  above  water.  Then  came  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  dairying  industry,  which  has  been  the  means  of  bringing 
prosperitv  to  them. 

It  was  the  experience  of  the  Danes  that  influenced  our  legislators  to 
do  so  much  to  develop  the  export  trade  of  dairy  produce  from  Victoria. 
This  had  the  desired  effect  on  the  finances,  and  paved  the  way  to  the 
present  prosperity.  It  has  become  our  third  staple  industry,  and  enabled 
us  to  export  in  the  season  1910-11  butter  to  the  value  of  two  and  a  half 
O^        million  pounds  sterling. 

DC 


74  journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo  Feb.,    1912. 

Later  on,  the  Danes  discovered  that  they  were  not  getting  all  that  was 
possible  out  of  their  industry,  and  that  thev  could  do  better  with  their 
skim-milk  and  butter-milk  by  converting  them  into  bacon  for  export  to 
Britain,  which  already  provided  the  outlet  for  the  bulk  of  their  butter. 

To'  enable  them  to  start  on  sound  lines,  qualified  men  were  sent  by 
the  Government  to  discover  the  class  of  meat  that  brought  the  best  returns 
and  how  to  produce  it,  with  the  result  that  they  forthwith  started  breed- 
ing stations.  These  were  placed  under  the  control  of  experienced  breeders 
who  were  subsidized  to  breed  pure  pigs,  so  that  pure  boars  should  be 
available  at  a  rea.sonable  rate  to  dairy  farmers  for  crossing  with  the 
native  breed  of  pigs.  The  breed  decided  on  was  the  Large  Yorkshire, 
and  regular  importations  are  still  being  made  to  keep  up  the  standard. 

Breeders'  associations  were  started  in  different  districts  to  provide 
boars  for  use  by  the  members.  This  system  of  breeding,  combined  with 
proper  methods  of  feeding,  has  enabled  them  to  produce  a  type  of  bacon 
which  commands  the  highest  price  on  the  British  markets.  The  im- 
portance of  this  will  be  evident  from  a  study  of  the  figures  given  below, 
taken  from  The  Grocer:  — 

Imports  into  Great  Britain,  1910. 


Source  of  Supply. 

Product. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

cwt. 

£ 

£ 

Denmark 

Butter 

1,726,091 

10,208.192 

Bacon 

1,794.416 

6.341,726 

Canada 

Butter 

117,000 

117,498 

Cheese 

1,607.074 

4,424,806 

Bacon 

411.935 

1.449,637 

Hams 

37,621 

138,232 

Lard 

25,052 

Pork 

1,768 

4,205 

Total  Pig  Products 

1.617,126 

United  States     . . 

Cheese 

38.247 

105,400 

Bacon 

1.306,921 

£4.453,293 

Hams 

665.771 

2.329,516 

Lard 

1,342.257 

4,201,013 

Pork  (Salt)      . . 

38,866 

101,645 

Total  Pig  Products 

11,085,467 

Holland 

Cheese 

231,318 

567,360 

Fresh  Pork 

366,180 

1,025,301 

Total    Fresh    Pork    Ex- 

465.229 

1,302,641 

ported 

Victoria 

Butter 

Cheese 

1909-10.      1910-11 

2,483,565 
13,601 

Ham  and  Bacon 

232.200 

£489        £6,772 

Pork  (carca.ses) 

4.439 

592         9,988 

£1,081      £16,760 

16,760 

lo   Feb.,    191 2.] 


The  Pig  Industry. 


75 


Exports   of   Pig   Products   from   United   States,    1910. 

(Kindly  supplied  hy  the  Consul  for  the  United  .States  of  America.) 


Country. 


Bacon 


Lard 


Hams 


Pork 


Belgium 

France . . 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Other  European  Countries 

British  North  America 

Other  Countries . . 

Total  Exports 


Belgium 

France . . 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Other  European  Countries 

British  North  America 

Other  Countries . . 


Total  Exports 


Belgium 

France . . 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Other  European  Countries 

British  North  America 

Other  Countries . . 

Total  Exports 


Belgium 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Other  European  Countries 

British  North  America 

Other  Countries . . 

Total  Exports 


cwt. 

£ 

19,699 

48,317 

210 

547 

2,482 

6,118 

9,511 

21,749 

23.331 

54,815 

16,852 

65,737 
261,456 

458,739 

80.361 

208,008 

4,206 

10,029 

833.416 

2,261,703 

212,121 

555,337 

90,512 

219,555 

.. 

85,949 

253.272 
370,480 

3,878,384 

47,368 

117.549 

455 

1.234 

972 

2.445 

-• 

2,863 

7.844 

24,328 

83,355 
232,966 

445,393 

. .  i 

1,242 

2.573 

3,561 

7.995 

415 

860 

15,010 

29,923 

111.881 

274,629 

368,433 

684,413 


These  tables  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  importance  of  the  trade  to  the 
United  States  and  what  a  large  proportion  of  the  whole  exports  is  sent 
to  Britain.  It  also  shows  that,  in  addition  to  the  United  Kingdom,  there 
are  many  other  ever-expanding  markets  the  trade  of  which  we  may  hope 

D  2 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo   Feb.,    1912. 


to  .share  should  we  choose  to  develop  the  industry.     The  English  figures  are 
the  Board  of  Trade  returns,  and  are  reproduced  from  The  Grocer:  — 

Imports  of  Pig  Products  to  Britain. 


Product. 

Source  of  Supply. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1908 

1909. 

1910. 

1908. 

1909. 

1910. 

Bacon] . . 

Denmark 

United  States . . 
Canada             . .    j 
Other  Countries 

Total 

United  States . . 

Canada 

Other  Countries 

Total      . . 

United  States . . 
other  Countries 

Total      . . 

United  States . . 
other  Countries 

Total      . . 

cwt. 

2,049,513 

2,858,312 

687,759 

90,158 

5,685,742 

cwt. 

1,809,745 

2,189.053 

443,386 

183,279 

cwt. 

1,794,416 

1,306,921 

411,935 

350,117 

£ 

5,680,923 

6,726,084 

1.827,636 

245,936 

£ 

5,801,382 

6,057,473 

1,364,357 

578,453 

£ 

6,341,726 
4,453,293 
1,449,637 
1,146,618 

4,625,463 

3.863,389 

14,480,579  'l3,801,665 

13,391,274 

Hams  . . 

1,169,601 

52,657 

2,969 

1,073,569 

53,593 

1,867 

665,775 
37,621 
15,730 

2,936,960 

138,472 

9,237 

2,952,084 

154,222 

6,590 

2,329,516 
138,232 

58,837 

1,225,227 

1.129,029 

719,126 

3,084,669 

3,112,896 

2,526,585 

Pork  (Salted)  '  . . 

81,119 
189,489 

55,639 
202,900 

38,866 
188,325 

139.178 
189,673 

113,555 
199,307 

101,645 
202,523 

270,608 

258,539 

227,191 

328,851         312,862 

304,168 

Lard?.. 

1,924,881 
62,610 

1,703,578 
57,022 

1,343,257 
109,236 

4,258,051  '  4,694,353 
149,359  i      163,673 

4,201,013 
319,061 

1,987,491 

1,760,600 

1,452,493 

4,407,410  j  4,858,026 

4,520,074 

Lard  (Imitation) 
Pork  (Fresh) 

174,064 

231,847 

275,402 

306,700 

438,909 
1,023,322 

603,444 
1,196,797 

7,343,132 

8,005,478 

6,537,601 

22,609,209 

23,547,680 

22,442,342 

Canadian  Bacon  Trade. 

In  a  report  on  trade  between  Canada  and  Britain,  published  in  The 
Grocer,   Lord    Strathcona,    High   Commissioner   for   Canada,    states — 

In  respect  of  bacon,  it  will  be  noted  that  a  decrease  of  £a,(i}„2']^  (or  25.35 
per  cent.)  took  place  in  1909  in  the  imports  of  this  important  product.  The  shortage 
in  the  supply  of  bacon  for  the  market  of  the  United  Kingdom  during  the  year 
under  revision  has  created  an  interesting  situation.  Bacon  is  unquestionably  the 
stai)le  breakfast  dish  in  England,  and  the  demand  has  been  a  steady  and  increasing 
one  for  some  years  past.  ITp  to  1905,  the  rapid  growth  and  expansion  of  the 
Canadian  bacon  exports  to  the  United  Kingdom  was  so  gratifying  that  it  was 
hoped  that  the  Dominion  would  eventually  find  it  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
profitable  of  her  industries.  This  hope  has  not,  however,  been  borne  out,  though 
a  leading  agricultural  journal  recently  pointed  out,  in  speaking  of  the  excellent 
reputation  established  on  the  British  market  for  Canadian  bacon,  that  had  the 
supply  been  equal  to  the  demand,  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  magnitude  that 
might  have  been  reached. 


lo  Feb.,   1912.] 


The  Pig  Industry. 


11 


A  glance  at  the  following  import  statistics  will  show  the  f 
the  supply  of  Canadian  bacon  which  has  taken  place. 

ailing  off  in 

Country. 

1907. 

1908. 

1909. 

1910. 

Canada 
Denmark 
United  States     . . 
•Other  Countries. . 

cwt. 
873,340 
1,799,787 
2,599,817 

92,661 

5,365,605 

cwt. 
687,759 
2,049,513 
2,858,312 

90,158 

5,685,742 

cwt. 

443,386 
1.809,745 
2,189,053 

183,279 

4,625,463 

cwt. 

411,935 
1,794,416 
1,306,921 

350,117 

3,863,389 

Unprecedented  Rise  in  Prices. 
Whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  this    decrease,   the    effect  of    smaller 
supplies  from  Canada  and  elsewhere  has  been  to  cause  a  serious  and  un- 
precedented  rise  in   price  of  bacon  in  this   country.        A    comparison    of 
prices  is  given  below  : — 


Bacon. 

1908. 

1909. 

1910. 

1911. 

Irish 

54s. 

to  63s. 

70s.  to  77.S. 

75s.  to  83s. 

64s.  to  733. 

Danish 

42s. 

,,  55s. 

66s.   „  75.S. 

68s.  „  78s. 

60s.   „  69s. 

Canadian 

47s. 

„  50s. 

69s.  „  71s. 

72s.  „  76s. 

57s.  „  67s. 

Swedish 

51s. 

„  53s. 

70s.   „  72s. 

743.  „  77s. 

62s.  „  66s. 

American 

428. 

„  47s.   6d. 

58s.   „  64s. 

Russian 

64s.  to  70s. 

50s.  to  583. 

Dutch 

72s.   ,,  76s. 

59s.   „  64s. 

Such  abnormal  prices  at  once  reduce  consumption.  It  has  been  stated 
that  70  per  cent,  of  the  households  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  main- 
tained on  45s.  per  week  or  less,  and  higher  prices  therefore  operate  at  once 
to  diminish  purchases.  The  prospect  of  Canadian  and  United  States 
supplies  of  bacon  continuing  to  be  restricted  causes  concern  in  the  provi- 
sion trade  in  Great  Britain,  and  it  is  being  pointed  out  that  attention  in 
that  country  could  profitably  be  directed  towards  increasing  home  supplies. 
It  is  urged  there  would  be,  in  consequence,  less  dependence  on  outside 
sources,  while  the  prohibitive  prices  ruling  at  the  present  time  may  per- 
haps be  avoided  in  the  future. 

New  Sources  of  Supply. 
New  sources  of  supply  are  being  found.  Russia,  Siberia,  and  Holland 
are  being  drawn  upon,  while  consignments  of  pigs  have  been  received 
from  China.  Canadian  farmers  must  maintain  an  abundant  supply  of 
Jiogs  if  the  Dominion  is  to  successfully  compete  with  a  country  like  Den- 
mark, where  painstaking  attention  is  devoted  not  only  to  the  successful 
production  of  bacon,  but  also  to  the  maintenance  of  regular  supplies  to 
this  great  market.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  a  large  British  co-operative 
society  has  decided  to  establish  three  factories  in  Denmark,  where  the 
conditions  are  so  favorable  for  production,  and  at  least  one  of  the  largest 
private  bacon  curers  in  the  United  Kingdom,  whose  products  have  a  high 
reputation  has  also  decided  to  follow  this  example. 


78  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [10   Feb..    1912. 

As  an  evidence  of  the  direct  interest  taken  by  tlie  Danish  Government 
in  the  development  of  this  important  trade,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that 
advertisements  are  officially  inserted  in  the  British  provision  trade  journals 
stating  that  the  business  is  under  Government  control,  and  that  bacon 
from  perfectly  sound  pigs  is  guaranteed  to  buyers.  It  must  be  realized 
that,  while  an  enormous  market  exists  in  Great  Britain  for  bacon,  there 
will  always  be  competition  of  a  formidable  character  to  meet  in  it,  and 
great  efforts  will  be  required  if  Canada  is  to  retrieve  the  position  which 
was  obtained  prior  to   1905. 

The  following  are  the  total  exports  of  bacon  from  Canada  :  — 

/ 


1903 
1904 
1905 
igio 


3,000,000 
4,000,000 
5,000,000 
1,617,126 


Consumption  in  Great  Britain  per  Head  of  Population. 


Product. 

190.). 

Bacon  and  Hams  . . 

lbs. 

17-28 

Beef  (Salt  and  Fresh) 

13-34 

Mutton  (Fresli) 

9-87 

Butter      . . 

10  -  .■)7 

Cheese 

6-19 

Eggs 

r)l-75 

Spu-its 

gals. 

■91 

Beer 

27-70 

1906. 


\1U 
14-49 
10-47 
10-92 
6-63 
51-48 
•90 
27-97 


190/ 


1612 
14-82 
11-61 
10-48 
5-89 
50-11 
-91 
27  •  58 


1908. 


17-07 
14-31 
11-01 
10-45 
5-65 
48-65 
-85 
26-62 


1909. 


14-06 

15-49 

11-83 

9-93 

5-80 

46-95 

-65 

25-83 


It  will  be  seen  from  this  that,  except  for  beef  and  mutton  which  show 
an  increased  consumption,  the  other  products  show  a  decrease.  But,  as 
we  have  seen  above,  the  price  has  increased,  and  this  goes  further  to 
illustrate  that  there  is  an  opening  for  us  to  develop  an  export  trade  in 
pig  products.  Especially  so,  as  it  can  be  shown  that  this  country  pos- 
sesses facilities  over  those  we  have  to  meet  in  competition,  so  as  to  admit 
of  product'on  at  a  cost  that  will  leave  a  fair  margin  for  profit. 

Fresh  or  Frozen  Pork. 
Supply  ill   SiiiitJi field  Market.    Lofidon. 


Source  of  Supply. 


United  Kingdom 

Australasia    . . 

Canada    and    United    States    of 

America 
South  America 
Holland  and  Other  Countries    . . 


Quantity. 


tons. 

8.520 

191 

136 


31.407  at  £56  per  ton  =  £1.758,792. 


lo   Feb.,    19 1 -^.l  Tlie  Pig  Industry.  79 

In  a  paper  bv  Mr.  London  M.  Douglas,  the  well-known  English 
authority,    is  the   following  comment  on  the  meat   industry  :  — 

The  year  igio  will  be  memorable  in  connexion  with  the  meat  industry  of 
England,  because  of  its  having  witnessed  such  a  crisis  in  the  history  of  the  meat 
supply  as  is  likely  to  have  far-reaching  results.  During  last  year  it  began  to  be 
realized  in  some  of  the  larger  European  States  that  the  home  supplies  of  meat  of 
all  kinds  were  not  keeping  pace  with  the  increase  in  the  jjopulation,  and  as  meats 
from  other  countries  and  from  British  colonies  were  refused  entry  into  these  States 
the  home  prices  became  consecjuently  higher  and  higher.  Agitation  has  now  gone 
so  far  that  it  is  most  likely  that  Germany,  Austria,  Hungary,  Switzerland,  France, 
and  Italy  will  be  compelled  to  open  their  frontiers  to  supplies  of  foreign  meat. 
In  Portugal,  the  ])rohibitions  have  already  been  removed,  with  the  result  that  in 
that   country    the   jirices  of    meat   have    fallen   to   their   normal    level. 

This  is  of  extreme  importance  to  all  interested  in  agricultural  matters- 
in  Australia,  as  it  means  in  the  near  future  the  opening  up  of  enormous 
markets.  Instead  of  having  a  share  of  the  British  trade  only  to  depend 
upon,  as  an  outlet  for  our  surplus  products,  we  shall  have  millions 
of  Europeans  as  customers.  In  the  Age  of  20th  December,  1911,  men- 
tion was  made  that  the  Minister  of  Customs  had  been  notified  that  the 
new  Swiss  duty  on  frozen  meat,  smoked  meat,  and  bacon  would  be  4s.  ofd. 
per  cwt  from  ist  January,  1912.  The  old  duty  varied  from  los.  2d.  on 
frozen  meat  to  4s.  ofd.  on  fresh  bacon. 

In  The  Grocer  of  i6th  September,  191  i.  it  was  stated  that  the  French 
Government,  owing  to  dearness  of  food  in  that  country,  is  allowing  live 
pigs  to  be  imported  from  Denmark  subject  to  duty,  the  late  prohibition 
being  removed.  The  import  duty  on  bacon  and  ham  to  France  is  15s. 
to  25s.  per  cwt.,  and  nearly  as  much  on  fresh  pork.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  greatest  quantity  of  the  fresh  pork  is  sent  from  Holland  to 
Britain. 

Considerable  shipments  of  frozen  pork  have  been  sent  to  Great  Britain 
from  China.  Two  shipments,  comprising  about  10,000  carcases,  were 
taken  to  Liverpool,  but  as  they  did  not  comply  wdth  the  regulations  of  the 
Local  Government  Board  in  certain  technicalities  the  health  authorities 
refused  to  allow-  them  to  go  into  consumption.  They  were  to  be  landed 
and  placed  in  bond  under  cold  storage  until  reshipped,  probably  to  the 
Isle  of  Man  for  curing  into  bacon  and  ham  for  re-exporting.  It  was 
stated  at  a  meeting  of  produce  merchants  that  the  Chinese  frozen  pork 
was  being  cured  and  .sold  as  English  bacon.  Whether  that  is  so  or  not 
it  is  certain  that  if  there  is  a  glut  of  frozen  pork  it  can  be  cured  and 
sold  as  bacon. 

In  a  report  in  an  English  paper  on  the  pork  trade  last  sea.son  appears 
the   following  statement:  — 

A  fair  quantity  of  Victorian  pork  is  on  Smithfield.  qo  to  100  lbs.  weight. 
It  is  said  to  be  rather  too  fat  for  the  pork  butchei,  but  it  is  of  first-rate  quality. 
About  5^d.  per  lb.  is  the  price.  The  pork  trade  is  a  disappointment  to  those 
people  who  were  last  year  anticipating  heavy  prices.  Old  sows  this  time  last 
year  were  making  Ggd.  ;'now  they  would  be  worth  only  half  of  that  figure.  There 
is  a  slump  in  pigs,  caused  partly  no  doubt  by  the  fact  that  the  Chinese  pigs  are 
iiow  arriving   regularly,   and  of  good  quality,   and   are  accepted  by  the   trade. 

In  support  of  this  we  have  copies  of  complete  account  sales  giving  the 
results  of  operations  of  Victorian  farmers  on  the  London  market,  but 
which  still  yielded  a  satisfactory  return.  The  charge  for  slaughtering 
has  since  been  increased  to  4s.   6d.   per  pig  over   100  lbs.   weight. 


8o  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo   Feb.,    iqiz. 

Cost  of  Makketing  Pork  in  London. 
Particulars  o/  11  Carcases  Pork  (1,621  lbs.)  j^er  s.s.  "  Aeneas." 

£  5.    d. 
By  11  carcases,  1,593  lbs.,  at  5|d.  ..  ..  ..  ..  . .     36  10     2: 

Melbourne  Charges  : — 

£    s.    d. 
To  Slaughtering  11   pigs,  and  delivery 

to  freezing  works,  at  3s.  6d.       . .        1   18     6 
„   Freezing  (iiicluding  handling,  wrap, 

baggmg,  and  storage),  at  Is.  6d.         0  16     6 
„    Ocean  freight,  1,621  lbs.,  at  |d.    ..       4     4     5 
„   Marine  insurance  . .  . .        1113 

,,    Railage  to  ship. .  . .  ..040 

,,   Labour    (loadmg    into    ship)    and 

stamps  B/s  Lading       . .         *    . .       0     19 
,,    Agency,    correspondence,    postage, 

&c.  . .  . .  . .  . .       0  10     6 

Toted  Melbourne  Charges  ..       9     6  11   =   1  •408d.  per  lb. 

London  Charges  : — 

£    s.    d. 

To  Discoimt,  2  months,  at  5  per  cent.  0     6     2 

„   Landing  charges,  &c.       . .              . .  0  18     0 

„   Port  rates           . .              . .              . .  0     10 

„   Commission  and  full  guarantee,  at 

3  per  cent.      . .              . .              . .  1111 

Total  London  Charges  ..       2     7     1   =  0  ■  355d.  per  lb. 

Charges— Grand  Total        ..     11   14     0  =   1  •  763d.  per  lb. 

Net  Proceeds  . .  . .  3  •  737d.  per  lb. 


(Loss  in  weight,  28  lbs.,  or  1  73  per  cent.) 

£    s.    d. 
Net  Return  per  Pig — (Average,  147  lbs.  dressed  weight)     . .  . .  . .       2     5     1 

Less  freight  ..  ..  ••  ••  ••  ..033 

Net  Return  ..  . .  '. .  •  •  •  •  . .       2     1   10 

Chinese   Pork. 
A  correspondent  of  the  Globe  writing  on  the  subject  of  Chinese  pork 
says  : — 

I  have  recently  returned  from  China,  and  am  able  to  state  that  the  frozen 
pigs  that  are  being'  exported  to  England  are  of  breeds  quite  equal  to  many  raised 
in  England  and  far  superior  to  those  coming  from  several  countries  in  Europe.  I 
had  an  opportunity  of  speaking  to  our  Ambassador  at  Pekin,  and  also  to  the 
Consul-General  in  the  town  from  which  the  pigs  are  imported,  upon  the  question. 
They  both  assured  me  that  the  English  company  which  inaugurated  this  business 
deserves  every  credit  for  its  enterprise  in  tapping  a  valuable  source  of  food  supply, 
that  the  pigs  were  of  a  special  breed  from  a  district  that  had  been  noted  for 
generations  for  their  excellence  in  quality,  and  that  they  were  fed  on  rice  which 
is  exceedingly  cheap  in  the  district.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  food  of  these 
pigs  is  far  and  away  superior  to  that  of  those  raised  in  the  neighbourhood  of  all 
large  towns  in  England. 

In  the  Argj/s  of  nth  November  last  is  published  the  following 
cable:  — 

Inspector  Farrar,  who  was  sent  to  China  by  the  Local  Government  Board  when 
charges  were  made  that  pork  bred  in  that  country  and  shipped  to  Great  Britaia 
was  not  sound,  has  made  his  report.  He  says  that  all  pigs  in  China  which  are 
intended  for  home  consumption  and  for  export  are  grain  fed  and  bred  on  farms, 
the  conditions  of  which  compare   favorably  with  those   in   England. 


lo  Feb.,  1912.] 


The  Pig  Industry. 


81 


Dear  Bacon  in  Great  Britain. 

While  Victorian  farmers  are  obtaining  low  prices  for  their  pigs  we 
frequently  see  comments  on  the  clearness  of  bacon  in  Great  Britain  and 
in  this  country  too.  In  Great  Britain  various  reasons  are  given  for  the 
decrease  in  the  number  of  pigs  kept,  the  principal  of  which  are : — 

1.  That  yearly  an  increased  amount  of  milk  is  being  consumed  in  its  natural 
condition  as  a  beverage,  making  less  skim  milk  and  whey  available  for  pig  feed. 

2.  Owing  to  more  stringent  sanitary  regulations,  fewer  pigs  are  kept  bv 
cottagers.       These   formerly   aggregated  a  considerable  total. 

In  the  trade  there  have  been  deductions  on  pigs  over  180  lbs.,  and  also  on 
overfat  bacon. 

Disease  has  played  its  part  in  checking  production,  as  swine  fever, 
tuberculosis,  and  measles  cause  considerable  loss  and  trouble.  This 
last-named  disease  is  not  known  in  Victoria,  but  in  America  nearly  every 
pig  has  to  be  examined  microscopically  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  its 
presence  or  otherwise.  All  these  are  handicaps  in  favour  of  Victorian 
farmers.  The  principal  cause,  however,  of  the  high  price  of  bacon  in 
Great  Britain  is  the  restricted  supply  from  foreign  countries.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  reason  that  pigs  in  Victoria  are  bringing  such  low  prices 
is  that  there  are  far  more  fat  pigs  produced  than  can  be  handled  by  those 
in  the  trade.      They  pick  what  they  require  from  those  offering. 

British   Bacon-curing    Factories. 
The  following  table  gives   the  products  of   British   bacon-curing   fac- 
tories principally  for  the  wholesale  trade.     The  products  by  farmers,  pork 
butchers,   provision  merchants,   &c.,   for  private  trade  are  as  far  as  pos- 
sible eliminated :  — 


Product. 


Bacon 

Hams 

Pork  (Salt) 

Lard 

Sausages 

Heads 

Sausage  Casing: 

Preserved  Meats  (Brawn 

Offals 

Other  Products 


Tinned 


Jleats,  &c.) 


Quant  ity. 

Value. 

cwt. 

£ 

1,716,000 

5.365,000 

457,000 

1.658.000 

18,000 

31.000 

587,000 

1,414.000 

751,000 

182,000 

290.000 

383.000 

278.000 

157,000 

10,509.000 

A  very  interesting  feature  of  these  figures  is  that  the  recognised  out- 
put of  the  bacon  factories,  viz.,  bacon,  hams,  pork,  and  lard,  total? 
^8,468,000,  while  the  by-products  give  ;^2,04i,ooo — nearly  one-fourth' 
additional.  So  it  appears  that  they  could  sell  bacon,  &c.,  at  cost  price 
and  have  25  per  cent,  over  for  working  expenses.  At  most  bacon  fac- 
tories in  this  country,  a  private  individual  can  get  a  pig  killed  and  cured 
for  id.  per  lb.  It,  therefore,  stands  to  reason  that  it  will  not  cost  id. 
per  lb.  to  turn  out  the  bacon,  as  the  work  will  not  be  done  for  nothing. 
As  about  one-fifth  the  weight  of  the  carcase  is  lost  in  curing,  it  should 
be  possible  to  buy  at  4d.  per  lb.  carcase  weight,  and  sell  at  5d.  for  bacon. 


82 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [lo    Feb.,    19 12. 


The  Byron  Bay  Co-operative  Bacon  Factory  Company  (New  South  Wales) 
claims  that  it  can  place  bacon  on  any  market  at  56.  to  5fd.  per  lb. 
At  the  present   time  we  see  the  market  quotations   as   follows  : — 

Best  Porkers,  suitable  for  first-class  counter  trade,  lealized  from  4d.  to  i\^d , 
a  few  medium  to  good  realized  from  2)k'^-  to  ji^d.  ;  prime  bacon  sizes,  3d.  to  3|d.  : 
medium,   from  2gd.  to  2|d.  ;  and  heovy   lots  less. 

Baco7i. — There  was  an  improved  demand  yesterday.  Prime  light-weight  sides 
are  selling  at  from  Ggd.  to  6|d.,  special  lines  commanding  higher  rates;  medium 
to  good  realize  from  5d.  to  5|d.,  and  occasionally  to  6d.  ;  shoulders  offering  at 
down  to  45d.   per  lb.  ;  middles,  S^d.   to  gd. 

Hams. — In  anticipation  of  Christmas,  trade  was  brisk.  Prime  light  weights 
are  quoted  at  from  lod.  to  lo^d.,  up  to  is.  being  mentioned  for  special  cures, 
whilst   for   medium   weights   and   quality,   down   to   qd.    is  being   accepted. 

These  quotations  show  a  considerable  margin  between  the  buving  and 
selling  prices. 

The  Future  Prospects  of  the  Industry. 

The  future  prospects  of  the  industry,  so  far  as  this  country  is  con- 
cerned, may  be  considered  decidedly  hopeful.  While  it  is  temporarily 
under  a  cldud,  experience  goes  to  show  that  all  that  is  required  is  proper 
organization  to  place  it  on  a  sound  footing.  With  this  it  should  develop 
into  a  very  important  branch  of  the  export  trade. 

Statistics  show  that  two  great  sources  of  supply  to  the  British  market 
(United  States  and  Canada)  are  gradually  but  surely  declining,  and  ere 
long  must  cease  altogether  on  account  of  the  rapid  increase  in  population 
and  the  consequent  increased  food  requirements  in  those  countries.  In 
Denmark,  we  cannot  expect  to  .see  any  great  increase  in  production  as 
the  limit  has  been  almost  reached.  Holland  and  Sweden  are  the  only 
other  European  countries  from  \\hich  we  may  anticipate  competition.  The 
rapid  growth  of  the  population  in  central  Europe  increases  the  food  re- 
quirements of  those  countries  where  there  is  already  a  short  supply  of 
animal  foods  generally.  As  we  have  seen,  China  is  likely  to  become  a 
rival. 


:hampion  pen  of  porkers  (labge  Yorkshires). 
{To  he  Continued^ 


lo   Feb.,    1912.]  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals.  83 

DISEASES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS. 

Anthrax  and  Blackleg. 

Ill  response  tu  many  enquiries  for  information  concerning  the  above  named 
diseases,  the  following  article  by  Dr.  S.  S.  Cameron,  M.R.C.V.S.,  is  reprinted 
from  the  Journal  of  Agriculture  for  July,   1906. — Editor. 

ANTHRAX. 

Synonyms  : — Cumberland  Disease — splenic  fever — splenic  apoplexy — 

black   rot. 

Anthrax  is  the  most  ancient  contagious  disease  of  animals  that  is 
known.  The  sixth  plague  of  Egypt,  referred  to  by  Moses,  was  anthrax, 
and  elsewhere  he  indicates  the  transmission  of  the  disease  from  cattle  to 
man  by  means  of  soiled  clothing.  Homer,  Ovid,  Plutarch,  Dionysius, 
Livius  and  other  ancient  writers  frequently  refer  to  this  disease  ;  and  in 
some  cases  their  descriptions  are  most  exact  and  plainly  manifest  the 
disease  as  we  know  it  now-a-day=. 

Anthrax  exists  in  most  countries  of  the  world  and  has  been  prevalent 
throughout  Australia  for  a  long  period,  affecting  cattle  and  sheep  prin- 
cipally but  horses  and  pigs  in  les.ser  degree.  In  New  South  Wales  it 
was  known  prior  to  the  seventies  as  Cumberland  Disease  (from  its 
particular  prevalence  in  the  County  of  Cumberland)  and  the  credit  of 
definitelv  identifying  and  announcing  this  disease  as  anthrax  belongs 
to  the  late  Graham  Mitchell,  F.R.C.V.S.,  of  Melbourne.  Early  in  1876 
there  was  great  mortality  of  sheep  in  the  Western  District  of  Victoria 
which  was  recognized  as  being  analogous  with  Cumberland  disease  and 
identified  by  Mitchell  as  anthrax.  His  announcement  was,  however, 
officially  discredited,  much  bitter  feeling  being  engendered,  and  it  was 
not  till  after  Mr.  Mitchell's  death  in  1888  that  the  correctness  of  the 
diagnosis  was  publicly  admitted.  A  detailed  history  of  the  controversy 
on  the  subject,  which  was  a  lengthy  one,  is  given  in  a  brochure  on 
"  Cumberland  Disease  in  Australian  Sheep  "  published  by  Graham  Mitchell 
in  1877. 

Definition. — An  acute  contagious  febrile  blood  disea.se.  affecting  her- 
bivorous and  omnivorous  animals  (including  man)  principally,  caused  by 
the  bacillus  anthracis,  and  characterized  by  a  general  haemolysis  with 
engorgement  of  the  spleen  and  other  organs  and  by  sudden  on.set,  rapid 
■  course  and  almost  uniformly  fatal  termination. 

Causation. — The  bacillus  anthracis  was  discovered  in  the  blood  of 
animals  dead  of  the  disease  in  1850  by  Davaine,  and  was  demonstrated  by 
him  to  be  the  specific  cause  of  the  disease  thirteen  years  later  (1863).  It 
was  the  first  disease-producing  organism  to  be  recognized,  and  the  science 
of  bacteriology  may  be  said  to  date  from  its  di.scovery.  Usually,  but  not 
without  exception,  it  is  found  in  the  blood  of  all  parts  of  the  body  and 
in  the  spleen  and  other  organs.  Compared  with  others  since  discovered 
it  is  a  large  bacillus  (5  to  20  microns  long  by  i  to  1.15  microns  thick) 
and  is  distinctly  rod-shaped  with  square  ends.  It  is  non-miOtile,  serboic, 
stains  by  Gram's  method  or  any  aniline  dye  and  grows  freely  on  a  variety 
of  culture  media.  Grown  outside  the  body  it  assumes  a  filamentous  form 
and  bears  spores  which  are  particularly  resistant  to  extremes  of  tem- 
perature. 

•  A  micron  equaU  o-^Vnn  P-'*''*  of  an  inch. 


84 


Journal  of  Agrictdture,  Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    1912. 


The  anthrax  bacillus  is  quickly  destroyed  in  the  presence  of  putre- 
faction and  septic  ferments,  and  as  decomposition  of  an  unopened  anthrax 
carcase  is  very  rapid  the  search  for  the  bacilli  may  be  fruitless  if  the 
examination  is  delayed  till  putrefaction  is  advanced.  Not  only  may  the 
bacilli  not  be  found  by  microscopic  examination,  but  the  blood  and  tissues 
will  not  be  infecti\"e  to  other  animals  after  a  few  days  except  in  those 
cases  where,  through  admission  of  air,  the  bacilli  have  sporulated.  In 
such  cases  the  bacilli  would  have  become  disintegrated  but  the  spores 
would  produce  anthrax  in  any  susceptible  animal  inoculated.  This  fact 
has  an  important  bearing  on  the  diagnosis  of  the  disease  and  also  upon 
the  suppression  of  its  spread.  It  will  be  obvious  that  microscopical  and 
bacteriological  methods  of  diagnosis  cannot  be  relied  on  except  when  the 
examination  is  conducted  on  comparatively  fresh  specimens,  taken  in  a 
manner  to  minimize  risk  of  contamination  with  putrefactive  organisms. 
Even  as  regards  inoculation,  Friedberger  and  Frohner  set  out  that  "  in- 
oculation gives  negative  results  when  the  matter  containing  the  bacilli  is 
soiled  by  other  microbes  or  is  in  a  state  of  putrefaction." 

On  the  second  point,  as  to  pre- 
venting the  spread  of  the  disease, 
seeing  that  spore  formation  in  the 
bacilli  does  not  occur  in  the  living 
animal  nor  in  the  carcase  to  any 
extent  if  air  and  oxygen  are  ex- 
cluded and  that  the  bacilli  them- 
selves are  quickly  destro^-ed  after 
the  death  of  the  animal,  it  follows- 
that  the  risk  of  spread  of  the  dis- 
ease is  greatly  lessened  if  the  car- 
case is  not  cut  or  opened  up  to  con- 
tact with  air.  The  germs  are  im- 
prisoned, so  to  speak,  and  die 
from  oxygen  starvation.  Any  risk 
there  is  lies  in  the  possibility  of 
the  discharges  from  the  carcase 
containing  bacilli  which,  on  contact 
with  the  air,  form  spores  by  which  the  contagion  may  be  propagated.  If,. 
however,  such  discharges  are  collected  and  burnt  along  with  the  carcase,, 
or  buried  deeply  with  it,  the  risk  of  spread  of  anthrax  may  be  reduced  to  a . 
minimum.  It  is  this  quick  destruction  of  the  bacillus  by  decomposition 
and  the  absence  of  sporulation  that  accounts  for  that  sudden  cessation  of  an 
anthrax  outbreak  which  is  so  frequently  observed  and  which  appears  so. 
inconsistent  with  the  expected  behaviour  of  a  contagious  disease. 

When  the  bacillus  has  become  liberated  from  the  carcase  it  may  be 
preserved  in  the  soil  and  propagate  for  an  almost  indefinite  length  of 
time.  This  is  more  likely  to  occur  if  the  soil  is  rich  in  organic  matter, 
and  hence  moist  alluvial  lands  are  notoriously  more  retentive  of  anthrax 
infection  than  dry  uplands.  A  paddock  with  anthrax-infected  soil  rnay 
not  produce  anthrax  for  years,  until  the  occurrence  of  conditions  which 
favour  the  transmission  of  the  germs  from  the  soil  to  the  herbage.  In 
very  damp  seasons  the  germs  may  be  brought  to  the  surface  by  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  water  level  on  swampy  ground ;  or  they  may  be  washed  out  by 
floods  and  deposited  on  the  surface ;  or  the  excessive  moisture  may  bring 
up  earth  worms  whose  earth  casts  may  contain  bacilli   from  an   anthrax- 


A.  Anthrax  bacilli  in  blood. 

B.  Filamentous    development     of     anthrax 

bacilli  on  artiticial  culture. 


lo   Feb..    191^-]  Diseases  i>f   Farm   Animals.  85 

grave  or  infected  soil  ;  also  grass  or  plants  springing  from  deeplv-buried 
seed  and  pushing  up  through  rain-loosened  soil  may  carry  bacilli  to  the 
surface  on  their  growing  leaves.  Again,  anthrax  may  occur  in  very  dry 
seasons  when  infected  water-holes,  swamps  and  morass  land  dry  up  and 
leave  the  germ-mixed  mud  accessible  to  stock.  A  growth  of  vegetation 
springs  up  on  the  mud  coating,  and  stock  often  pull  up  such  vegetation 
by  the  roots  and  so  run  further  risk.  Flies  and  insects  of  various  kinds  are 
also  much  more  numerous  during  the  dry  summer  season,  and  they  are 
undoubted  carriers  of  contagion. 

Method  of  Infection. — It  will  have  been  gleaned  from  what  has  been 
said  about  infection  from  pasturage  that  one  of  the  principal  ways  in 
which  the  germ  gains  entrance  to  the  system  is  in  the  food  by  ingestion. 
In  addition  to  pasture,  hay  or  other  fodder  grown  on  infected  land  is  a 
frequent  cause  of  anthrax  breaking  out  on  previously  uninfected  properties. 
In  New  Zealand,  anthrax  in  sheep  has  been  traced  to  the  feeding  of  grow- 
ing root  crops,  in  which  case  the  likelihood  of  ingesting  soil  along  with 
the  food  is  very  great.  Root  crops  that  have  been  manured  with  bone- 
dust  supposed  to  have  been  contaminated  with  anthrax  germs  have  been 
particuarly  blamed.  Since  the  investigation  of  this  phase  of  the  subject 
by  Professor  Gilruth,  when  Government  Veterinarian  in  New  Zealand,  im- 
ported Indian  bonedust  has  been  held  responsible  for  a  number  of  out- 
breaks in  Victoria  and  elsewhere  throughout  Australia. 

Inoculation  is  another  form  of  infection,  flies  and  insects  conveying 
the  germs  from  anthrax  carcases  to  wounds  and  abrasions  on  other  animals. 
Inoculation  may  also  occur  through  accidental  wounds  made  with  knives 
and  instruments  previously  used  on  an  anthrax  carcase ;  in  fact,  this  is 
the  most  common  way  in  which  man  becomes  infected  with  the  form  of 
anthrax  known  as  "malignant  pustule." 

It  is  questionable  whether  the  disease  in  animals  is  ever  caused  by 
Inhalation,  but  in  man  the  pulmonary  anthrax  called  "  woolsorters' 
disease"  is  most  likely  caused  through  inhalation  of  the  particles  con- 
taminated with  anthrax  germs  which  rise  when  dried  skins,  hides  and  wool 
are  being  handled. 

Forms  of  Anthrax  and  Symptoms. — As  a  general  infection  anthrax 
occurs  in  hyper-acute,  acute  and  siib-acute  forms.  The  first  of  these  is 
more  usually  described  as  Apoplectic  or  Fulminant  anthrax.  The  animals, 
cattle  or  sheep  mainly,  are  affected  suddenly  without  premonitory  symp- 
toms ;  they  have  convulsions  and  die  in  the  course  of  from  a  few  minutes 
to  an  hour.  The  earlier  cases  in  the  anthrax  outbreak  at  Keilor,_  Victoria, 
in  the  beginning  of  1903  were  of  this  form,  some  of  the  cows  being  found 
dead  within  an  hour  of  their  having  been  observed  feeding,  and  apparently 
perfectly  well.  Others  w-ere  seen  to  suddenly  stop  feeding,  look  round 
wildly,  stagger  and  fall  as  if  in  a  fit  and  die  after  struggling  for  a  few 
minutes.  The  fulminant  form  of  anthrax  appears  to  afford  an  illustration 
of  the  phenomenon  observed  by  various  investigators  that  the  bacilli  are 
less  numerous  in  the  blood  in  proportion  to  the  more  rapid  course  of  the 
infection.  Quite  often  in  these  cases  the  bacteriological  examination  of 
the  blood  gives  negative  results  because  the  bacilli  are  located  or  colonized 
in  one  particular  organ  or  spot ;  they  have  not  had  time  to  multiply  to  an 
extent  sufficient  to  pervade  the  whole  body  before  death  results  from  the 
lethal  effects  on  the  central  nervous  system  of  the  anthrax  toxin  formed 
locallv. 


86  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    19 12. 

Acute  General  Anthrax  is  a  little  less  rapid.  Death  occurs  in 
from  two  to  twenty-four  hours.  During  this  time  there  is  hig]i  fever 
with  increase  of  temperature,  tremors,  excitement,  grinding  of  the  teeth, 
groaning,  stupefaction,  or  frenzy,  staggering  gait,  spasms,  laborious 
breathing,  prostration  and  finally  the  convulsions  which  precede  death. 
There  mav  be  great  straining  to  pass  fagces  and  urine,  with  frothy  and 
blood-tinged  discharges  from  the  natural  orifices.  Emphysema  or  a 
gaseous  distension  under  the  skin  may  also  be  observed. 

Sub-acute  General  Anthrax. — In  this  the  features  are  somewhat 
similar  to  those  of  the  acute  form,  only  that  the  course  is  less  rapid  and 
the  steps  from  one  set  of  symptoms  to  another  are  more  prolonged  and 
defined.  There  may  be  intermission  of  symptoms  for  a  time  and  the 
fatal  culmination  does  not  usually  occur  until  the  lapse  of  36  or  48 
hours,  and  it  may  be  postponed  for  five  or  even  seven  days. 

Gloss-anthrax. — In  horses  and  pigs  anthrax  often  assumes  a  local 
form  affecting  the  tongue  and  region  of  the  neck  and  throat.  These 
become  swollen  and  there  may  be  also  swellings  on  the  shoulder  flank 
and  thigh,  which  are  at  first  hard,  hot  and  painful  and  later  on  become 
doughy,  fluctuating  and  cold.  The  tongue  is  greatly  enlarged  and 
blackened  and  may  protrude  from  the  mouth.  There  is  inability  to 
swallow  and  great  difficulty  in  breathing. 

Post-mortem  Appearances. — The  carcase  has  a  tendency  to  swell 
quickly,  decomposition  of  the  abdominal  contents  being  very  rapid.  There 
is  alsO'  a  gaseous  distension  (emphysema)  under  the  skin  which  on  pres- 
sure gives  out  a  crackling  sound.  Blood-tinged  fluid  effusions  are  noticed 
under  the  skin.  In  what  may  be  described  as  typical  cases,  but  to 
which  there  are  many  exceptions,  the  blood  is  profoundly  changed,  being 
black  in  colour  and  remaining  black  on  exposure  to  air.  It  does  not  clot 
freely  and  has  a  tarry  appearance.  The  lining  membrane  of  the  chest 
and  abdominal  cavities  is  dotted  with  patches  of  blood  extravasation 
(ecchymosis)  as  also  are  the  heart  sac,  the  kidneys  and  the  liver.  The 
heart  and  large  veins  leading  from  it  are  filled  with  black  liquid  blood 
and  the  heart  muscle  is  soft  and  relaxed.  The  lymphatic  glands  are 
always  congested,  and  may  be  spotted  with  hoemorrhages.  The  liver  is 
usually  enlarged,  soft,  friable  and  easily  broken  down.  The  lungs  are 
engorged  with  blood  and  dropsical.  The  trachea  and  bronchial  tubes 
contain  bloody  mucus.  The  mucous  lining  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  is 
reddened  and  spotted  with  blood  extravasations.  In  the  spleen  the 
most  decided  changes  are  observed.  It  is  enlarged  to  two  or  three  times 
its  natural  size,  and  its  structure  or  spleen  pulp  is  softened,  broken  down, 
and  heavily  charged  with  blood  and  fluid  of  a  deep  colour. 

The  appearances  described  are  not  likely  to  be  all  met  with  in  every 
case,  in  point  of  fact  "  in  the  rapidly  fatal  cases  the  changes  in  the 
blood  and  tissues  are  often  little  marked  "  (Law)  ;  but  even  in  fulminant 
anthrax  there  may  usually  be  found  localizations  of  the  described  appear- 
ances in  some  organ  or  group  of  lymphatic  glands  where  colonization  of 
the  bacilli  has  occurred,  and  blood  or  tissues  from  such  part  will  be  found 
loaded  with  bacilli. 

Prevention. — The  carca.ses  of  animals  dead  of  anthrax  and  all  matter 
likely  to  have  become  contaminated  should  be  destroyed  by  fire  as 
described  under  the  headings  "Disposal  of  Carcases  "  and  "  Disinfection  '" 


lo   Feb.,    19 1 2.]  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals.  87 

in  the  chapter  on  Prevention  of  Disease.  Lands  upon  which  anthrax 
has  become  "enzootic,"  i.e.,  where  the  soil  is  impregnated  with  the  bacilli 
and  the  disease  breaks  out  periodically,  should  if  possible  be  turned  from 
grazing  use  for  a  time  and  cultivated.  The  underdraining  of  low-lying, 
damp  land  is  also  to  be  recommended,  not  only  because  of  the  removal 
of  stagnating  moisture  but  also  because  of  the  soil  aeration  which  draining 
effects.  Under  the  slow  influence  of  oxygen,  anthrax  bacilli  are  gradually 
robbed  of  their  virulence.  Seeing  that  anthrax  is  not  usually  conveyed 
from  animal  to  animal  by  direct  contact  but  is  most  often  contracted  from 
the  pasture  or  food,  a  practical  measure  towards  the  prevention  of  its 
spread  is  the  removal  of  all  apparently  healthy  animals  from  the  paddock 
in  which  the  disease  has  been  occurring  to  dry  upland  country.  The 
mortality  will  almost  at  once  cease,  and  even  if  an  odd  animal  does 
succumb  after  removal  the  risk  of  contaminating  the  new  paddock  will  be 
small  if  the  precautions  previously  mentioned,  as  to  disinfection  and  the 
non-opening  of  the  carcase  before  iburning  or  deep  burial,  are  strictly 
observed.  Besides,  the  anthrax  germs  are  not  likely  to  become  perman- 
ently fixed  on  dry  sandy  soils. 

Preventive  Inoculation. — Immunization  of  flocks  and  herds  by 
inoculation  with  an  "  anthrax  vaccine  "  has  been  practised  for  many  years 
with  varying  degrees  of  success.  Some  of  the  "  vaccines  "  used  consist 
of  an  attenuated  or  weakened  culture  of  the  bacillus  and  others  of  sterilized 
anthrax  toxins.  They  are  prepared  in  various  ways — {a)  by  the  action  of 
heat  (Toussaint),  sunlight  (Arloing),  compressed  oxygen  (Chauveau)  or 
antiseptics  (Chamberlain  and  Roux) ;  {b)  by  the  cultivation  of  the  bacillus 
in  an  oxygen  atmosphere  (Pasteur) ;  and  {c)  by  sterilizing  anthrax  blood 
and  dissolving  out  the  soluble  toxins  (Law). 

Pasteur's  method  is  the  one  that  has  given  the  best  results  and  by  it 
protective  virus  of  two  grades  of  virulence  are  usually  used.  The  first 
is  a  very  weak  virus  ("  ist  vaccin  ")  resulting  from  cultivation  in  oxygen 
at  a  high  temperature  (42  degrees  C),  to  prevent  the  formation  of  spores 
for  twenty- four  days.  The  second  or  stronger  virus  ("  2nd  vaccin  ")  is 
got  when  cultivation  under  the  same  conditions  is  carried  on  for  twelve 
days.  To  inoculate,  the  prescribed  dose  of  ist  vaccin  is  injected  under 
the  skin  on  the  innei  aspect  of  the  thigh  (sheep)  or  behind  the  shoulder 
(cattle)  and  fourteen  days  later  the  2nd  vaccin  is  similarly  injected.  The 
dose  must  be  regulated  according  to  size  and  age,  but  the  average  is  Jth 
of  a  cubic  centimeter  for  sheep  and  double  that  amount  (Jth  c.c.)  for 
cattle.  The  protection  lasts  for  about  a  year  or  more,  after  which  re- 
inoculation  is  necessary. 

It  cannot  be  confidently  recommended  to  practise  inoculation  for  anthrax 
indiscriminately  It  should  never  be  practised  except  on  anthrax  lands, 
that  is,,  where  the  disease  occurs  periodically  as  an  enzootic,  as  "  elsewhere 
it  may  lead  to  the  stocking  of  a  new  area  with  a  malignant  germ  (the  anthrax 
bacillus)  which  in  young  and  susceptible  animals  re-acquires  its  original 
virulence."  Another  drawback  as  regards  sheep  is  that  different  breeds 
and  families  appear  to  possess  a  \ery  irregular  sensitiveness  to  the  same 
virus ;  hence  in  large  part  doubtless,  the  many  fatalities  that  result  from 
inoculation  of  sheep  on  the  one  hand  and  the  many  failures  to  protect  on 
the  other.  In  Australia  the  best  results  are  obtained  between  May  and 
September. 

Law's  method  of  anthrax  protection  by  injection  of  sterile  solution  of 
anthrax  toxins  has  been  practised  with  success  m  America.        The  blood 


88  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo  Feb.,   191 2. 

of  an  anthrax  animal  is  heated  for  half-an-hour  at  212  degrees  F.  to 
destroy  the  germs ;  it  is  then  washed  with  boiled  water  to  dissolve  out 
the  toxins,  and  the  resultinjj  solution  is  injected  in  doses  of  2  to  4  c.c,  as 
the  protecting  virus.  The  advantages  claimed  are: — {a)  That  the  material 
can  be  prepared  on  the  spot  when  dealing  with  an  outbreak ;  and  {b)  that, 
as  the  germs  are  destroyed,  the  risk  of  inoculating  virulent  anthrax  or 
introducing  it  to  a  new  area  is  avoided. 

BLACKLEG. 

Synonyms  : — Black-quarter — Quarter-Ill — Sym-ptomatic    Anthrax — 
Enifhysematous  Anthrax. 

Definition. — An  acute  infectious  febrile  disease,  affecting  almost 
solely  young  cattle,  cau.sed  by  the  bacillus  Chauveauii  and  characterized  by 
fever,  lameness  and  hot,  painful  swellings  on  the  quarter,  thigh,  neck, 
shoulder  or  elsewhere  which  tend  to  become  emphysematous  and  gan- 
grenous. 

This  disease  has  only  becom.e  prominently  prevalent  throughout  Aus- 
tralia during  recent  years.  It  is  a  disease  so  common  in  England  that 
it  would  be  well  known  to  imported  veterinarians,  and  its  occurrence  would 
scarcely  have  escaped  their  notice,  yet  it  was  not  till  the  late  nineties  that 
its  existence  was  chronicled.  Since  then  it  has  been  the  cause  of  con- 
siderable mortality  amongst  calves  and  young  stock  in  many  dairying 
districts.  The  incidence  of  the  disease  is  practically  confined  to  young 
cattle  between  the  age  of  three  months  and  two  years.  It  seldom-,  if  ever, 
attacks  calves  while  still  on  a  milk  diet  solely  ;  this  because  of  the  fact 
that  the  germ  is  usually  introduced  from  the  soil  when  grazing. 

Nature  and  Causation. — For  a  long  time  blackleg  was  looked  upon 
as  a  modification  of  anthrax  but  it  is  now  known  to  be  caused  by  a  dif- 
ference bacillus,  and  while  it  has  many  features  of  an  anthracoid  character 
its  clinical  history,  local  symptoms  and  age  period  of  incidence  serve  to 
easily  differentiate  it  from  true  anthrax. 

The  actual  cause  is  a  bacillus,  called  the  bacillus  Chauveauii  or  bacillus 
anthracis  emfhysematosus,  having  the  following  features  : — Rod-shaped 
with  rounded  ends  one  end  being  often  larger  than  the  other  on  account 
of  the  presence  of  a  spore,  so  making  the  bacillus  club-shaped.  It  is 
anserobic,  living  in  the  tissues  without  utilizing  the  oxygen  of  the  blood 
and  being  but  rarely  found  in  the  blood  in  which  oxygen  is  abundant; 
motile,  the  movements  being  both  undulatory  and  rotary;  and  sporulates 
within  the  body.  It  withstands  putrefaction,  and  is  found  abundantly 
in  the  tissues  a  long  time  after  death,  even  up  to  six  months.  A  refer- 
ence to  the  description  of  the  anthrax  bacillus  will  show  that  in  regard 
to  all  the  features  just  mentioned  the  bacillus  of  blackleg  is  the  direct 
antithesis  of  the  anthrax  bacillus.  Like  the  latter,  however,  this  bacillus 
persists  in  the  soil  for  an  almost  indefinite  period,  and  blackleg  can  be 
readily  produced  by  inoculating  the  washings  of  marshy  soils  that  have 
been  contaminated  a  long  time  previously.  The  disease  occurs  under  the 
same  conditions  and  on  the  same  class  of  country  as  anthrax.  An  obvious 
preventive  measure,  therefore,  is  to  avoid  depasturing  young  cattle  on  wet 
clayey  or  marshy  soils  during  the  age  period  of  this  disease.  It  would 
seem  to  be  necessary  for  there  to  be  wonnds  or  scratches  of  the  mucous 
lining  of  the  mouth  or  alimentary  tract  before  the  disease  can  be  con- 
tracted, for  it  is  probably  only  conveyed  by  inoculation.     In  this  connexion 


lo  Feb.,   1912.] 


Diseases  of  Farm  Animals. 


it  is  significant  that  the  age  period  of  tlie  disease  is  synchronous  with  denti- 
tion changes,  and  it  is  likely  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  inocu- 
lation occurs  through  the  raw  edges  of  the  gums  when  the  milk  teeth  are 
being  cast.  Pasturing  on  sciub  or  on  spear  grass  or  other  rough  herbage 
is  also  likely  for  obvious  reasons  to  predispose  to  the  contracting  of  the 
disease. 

Lack  of  vigour  through  high  condition  on  the  one  hand  or  through 
poverty  on  the  other  is  a  noticeable  auxiliary  cause,  as  also  are  chills 
and  sudden  changes  of  weather  during  the  spring  when  young  stock  are 
shedding  their  winter  hair. 

Symptoms. — The  period  of  incubation  or  time  elapsing  from  inocula- 
tion to  the  manifestation  of  symptoms  varies  from  one  to  five  days,  the 
average  being  two  days.  The  animal  then  becomes  dull,  feverish  and 
depressed ;  there  is  loss  of  appetite  and  rumination,  and  a  marked  increase 
of  temperature.  A  stiffness  or  lameness  in  walking  is  then  ob.served. 
This  is  usually  confined  to  one  limb  and  there  quickly  succeeds  a 
swelling    or    tumefaction    of    the 

affected  limb  or  of  some  other  part  ^^^^^  ^ 

of  the  body.  The  swelling  is 
small  at  first  but  extends  very 
rapidly  and  may  acquire  a  con- 
siderable size  in  a  few  hours.  It 
is  hot  and  painful,  and  when 
rubbed  or  pressed  with  the  hand  a 
crackling  noise  is  heard  due  to  the 
distension  of  the  tissues  beneath 
the  skin  with  gas.  Later,  the 
swelling  becomes  cold  and  insensi- 
tive, and  on  being  lanced  a  dark- 
red  frothy  and  offensive  fluid 
exudes  along  with  bubbles  of  gas. 
As  the  disease  advances  the  animal 
rapidly  weakens,  the  breathing  be- 
comes very  distressful  and,  pre- 
ceded by  a  rapid  fall  of  temperature,  death  results  in  from  one  to  three 
days. 

Post-mortem  Examination. — The  carcase — the  internal  organs  as  well 
as  the  tissues  underlying  the  skin — will  be  found  greatly  bloated  or  dis- 
tended with  gas.  The  tissues  in  the  region  of  the  swelling  are  engorged 
with  dark,  frothy  blood ;  they  are  friable,  breaking  down  readily  under 
finger  pressure  and  have  a  bruised  pulpy  appearance.  The  bacillus  is 
present  in  this  pulpy  mass  in  large  numbers.  The  lymphatic  glands  in 
the  neighbourhood  are  enlarged  and  congested.  The  lungs,  liver  and 
kidneys  are  also  usually  congested  but  the  spleen  is  rarely  enlarged. 

Prevention. — RecoA-ery  practically  never  occurs  and  curative  treat- 
ment is  useless  so  that  quick  destruction  of  all  cases  definitely  diagnosed 
as  blackleg  is  a  wise  procedure.  The  carcases  should  be  burnt  and  the 
disinfection  methods  and  other  preventive  measures  recommended  in 
anthrax  cases  and  for  infected  areas  should  be  carried  out  in  every 
detail.  Cultivation  of  infected  land  is  more  successful  in  eradicating 
blackleg  than  anthrax,  the  aeration  of  the  soil  effected  by  the  cultivation 
operations  being  inimical  to  the  development  of  the  anaerobic  germ. 


^^A 

M 

L 

^-     ^ 

A 

A.  Bacillus  of  blackleg. 

B.  Bacillus    of  blackleg  showing  drumstick 

development. 


po  Journal  of  Agriculture.   Victoria.  [lo    Feb.,    1912. 

Preventive  Inoculation. — Immunity  against  blackleg  can  be  pro- 
duced artificially  by  subjecting  the  systemi  of  an  animal  to  tlie  action  ol 
the  weakened  toxins  of  the  bacillus.  This  may  be  done  by  different 
methods,  but  that  which  has  been  most  successful  is  the  use  of  a  weakened 
virus  or  "  vaccine  "  prepared  from  the  diseased  flesh  according  to  the 
method  of  Arloing.  ''  P'orty  grammes  of  the  diseases  muscle  are  dried 
rapidly  at  32  degrees  C.  (90  degrees  F.)  and  triturated  in  80  grammes  of 
water.  This  is  divided  in  12  equal  parts  and  put  on  plates  in  two 
thermostats,  six  at  100  degrees  C.  (212  degrees  F.)  and  six  at  85  degrees 
C.  (185  degrees  F.)  where  they  are  kept  for  six  hours,  when  it  forms 
a  dry,  brownish  powder.  One-tenth  of  a  gramme  (li  gr.)  of  this  powder 
is  dissolved  in  five  grammes  of  distilled  or  boiled  water  and  will  furnish 
ten  doses.  The  animal  to  be  protected  is  first  injected  in  the  tip  of  tl"»e 
tail  or  elsewhere  with  the  virus  prepared  at  100  degrees  C,  and  ten  days 
later  with  that  prepared  at  85  degrees  C."  (Law.)  A  peculiar  fact  about 
the  weakened  virus  so  prepared  is  that  its  full  virulence  is  regained  by 
the  addition  to  it  of  a  small  quantity  of  lactic  acid. 

The  Pasteur  Institute  prepares  the  vaccine,  and  issues  it  in  the  form 
of  short  threads  that  have  been  soaked  in  a  virus  of  required  strength 
and  afterwards  dried.  The  threads  are  introduced  under  the  skin  by  a 
special  needle  after  the  manner  commonly  practised  in  inoculation  for 
pleuropneumonia.  An  American  firm  also  distributes  virus  prepared  by 
the  Arloing  method  but  in  the  form  of  solid  pilules  which  are  injected 
under  the  skin  by  means  of  a  syringe  fitted  with  a  canula,  needle  and 
spring  piston. 

F'or  the  successful  prevention  of  the  disease  on  infected  farms  or  in 
infected  districts  all  the  young  cattle  between  three  months  and  two  years 
old  should  be  inoculated  in  the  spring  and  autumn.  The  two  inoculations 
are  necessary  because  the  protection  which  it  conveys  only  lasts  about 
six  months. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  this  method  of  immunizing  stock  against 
blackleg  should  be  restricted  to  cattle  in  infected  areas  otherwise  there 
is  grave  risk  of  introducing  the  disease  into  new  country.  Such  risk  is 
much  greater  if  the  inoculation  is  carried  out  during  the  hot  summer 
season. 

In  New  South  Wales,  blackleg  is  a  notifiable  disease,  the  penalty 
for  failure  to  report  being  ^50.  and  for  selling  or  purchasing  stock 
affected  with  it  the  fine  is  ;^ioo.  Under  the  Noxious  Microbes  Act  1900 
])reventive  inoculation  by  private  owners  without  a  licence  from  the  Chief 
Inspector  of  Stock  constitutes  an  offence. 


lo   Feb.,    191-.]  Wheat  and  i/s  CnUivatio7i.  yi 

WHEAT  AND  ITS  CULTIVATIOiV. 

T.—INTRODUCTIOX. 

A.   E.    Y.   Richardson ,  M.A.,   B.Sc.   (Agric),   Agr'icuUtiral  Superintendent. 

Ever  since  the  dawn  of  history  civilized  man  has  used  wheat  as  a 
staple  article  of  diet;  and,  in  competition  with  foods  of  other  races,  it 
is  d;si)lacing  rice,  millet,  and  other  grains  to  such  an  extent  that  its  pro- 
duct'on  has  become  one  of  the  most  fundamental  problems  of  the  time. 
No  problems  in  the  realm  of  agriculture  should  be  of  greater  moment  than 
those  relating  to  the  production  and  distribution  of  our  daily  bread.  Par- 
ticularly is  this  true  with  respect  to  Australia,  for  the  prosperity  of  her 
people  and  the  stability  of  her  finances  are  in  a  very  large  measure  de- 
pendent on  the  success  of  her  wheat  harvests. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  world's  average  annual  production  of  wheat 
for  the  past  five  years  has  been  3,150  million  bushels.  Of  this  vast 
quantity,  Australia  has  only  contributed  about  2  per  cent.  Although 
the  wheat  industry  of  the  Commonwealth  has  made  enormous  progress 
during  the  past  decade,  it  will  be  many  years  before  Australian  production 
will  exert  any  appreciable  influence  on  the  price  of  wheat  in  the  great 
markets  of  the  world. 

Importance  of   the    Wheat   Industry. 

Some  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  wheat  industrv  to  Australia  mav 
be  gained  from  a  perusal  of  the  latest  figures  of  the  Commonwealth 
Statistician.  Of  the  total  area  under  cultivation  for  all  crops  in  1909-10, 
namely.  10,972,299  acres,  no  less  than  6,586,236  acres  were  reaped  for 
wheat,  or  60  per  cent,  of  the  total,  whilst  2,228,029  acres  or  20  per  cent, 
of  the  total  were  cut  for  hay,  the  greater  portion  being  wheaten  hav,  that 
is,  probably  75  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  under  cultivation  to  all  crops 
was  placed  under  wheat  in  1909-10. 

The  man  in  the  street  naturally  seeks  some  explanation  for  the  extra- 
ordinary popularity  of  this  cereal,  and  under  the  existing  economic  con- 
ditions convincing  reasons  are  readilv  forthcoming.  ^^'heat  is  an  excellent 
pioneer  crop,  and  it  lends  its?lf  admirablv  to  the  extensive  sy.stem  of 
farming  common  to  all  comparatively  new  countries,  where,  compared  with 
densely-populated  countries,  land  is  cheap,  and  individual  holdings  con- 
siderable, high  class  farming  is  rarely  practised,  and  the  object  of  the 
cultivator  is  rather  to  secure  a  small  average  return  from  an  extensive 
acreage  than  a  large  average  return  from  a  small  area.  With  our  multiple- 
furrow  ploughs.  20-tine  cultivators,  and  4-horse  drills,  large  areas  can 
be  cultivated  with  the  minimum  of  hand  labour,  and  the  complete  har- 
vesters enable  the  grain  to  he  taken  off  with  the  greatest  facility.  With 
the  increase  of  population,  and  the  inevitable  increase  in  land  values  ahead 
of  us,  this  system  of  farming,  particularlv  in  Victoria,  will  gradually  be 
modified,  and  a  new  era  will  be  ushered  in,  characterized  by  smaller  areas 
under  individual   cultivation  and  higher  averages  per  acre. 

Under  existing  conditions  of  cultivation,  it  does  not  require  the  exer- 
cise of  much  skill,  or  of  a  great  deal  of  labour,  to  secure  a  payable  crop 
of  wheat,  though  it  does  require  the  very  highest  skill,  ability,  and  in- 
telligence to  secure  the  maximum  crop  the  soil   and  season  will   allow. 


92  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    1912. 

As  long  as  the  wave  of  expansion  continues  in  Russia,  Canada,  Argen- 
tine and  Australia,  enormous  supplies  will  be  raised  for  many  years  to 
come  under  pioneer  conditions — under  conditions  of  extensive  farming — 
and  it  is  owing  to  the  capacity  of  these  countries  during  the  last  genera- 
tion for  raising  cheap  wheat  that  wheat  is  being  displaced  from  its  position 
in  the  rotation  systems  of  highly  farmed  and  densely  populated  countries. 

An  additional  reason  for  its  popularity  lies  in  the  fact  that  for  wheat 
there  is  always  a  ready  market,  and  that,  unlike  many  agricultural  pro- 
ducts, it  does  not  suffer  by  storage  or  transportation  over  long  distances. 
Moreover,  it  is  a  most  reliable  crop,  especially  when  treated  in  a  rational 
manner,  and,  being  more  resistant  to  drought  than  any  of  the  other 
cereals,  it  is  more  likely  to  succeed  under  arid  Australian  conditions  than 
other  crops. 

Finally,  during  the  last  decade,  prices  have  been  most  satisfactory, 
and  the  standard  of  efficiency  in  wheat  cultivation  has  been  considerably 
raised  by  the  recognition  of  the  value  of  fallowing,  judicious  crop  rota- 
tion, rational  soil  cultivation,  and  systematic  manuring.  The  wheat 
farmer  has,  therefore,  greater  confidence  in  the  future,  for  he  feels  that 
he  knows  more  of  the  essentials  for  successful  cropping  than  he  did  a 
decade  ago. 

In  subsequent  art'cles,  some  of  the  more  important  phases  of  the  wheat 
industry  will  be  discussed,  including  problems  relating  to  the  cultivation 
and  manurial  requirements  of  the  crop,  seeding  and  harvesting  operations, 
crop  rotation,  wheat  improvement,   and  experimental  and  research  work. 

To  pave  the  way  for  future  discussion,  it  would  be  well  to  indicate 
in  a  general  and  elementary  manner  the  position  of  our  staple  crop  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  the  nature  and  structure  of  the  grain  under  con- 
sideration. 

Classification. 

Wheat  belongs  to  the  great  family  of  grasses  {Graminece),  which  are 
characterized  by  the  possession  of  hollow  stems,  closed  joints,  alternate 
leaves,  with  sheaths  split  on  the  side  opposite  the  blade. 

Wheat,  rye,  barley  and  rye-grass  all  belong  to  the  tribe  Hordecc  of  this 
order.  In  all  these,  the  flowers  are  arranged  in  what  botanists  call 
spikes,  and  each  spikelet  is  one  or  many  flowered.  Other  important  farm 
crops  are  included  under  the  Gramiitca:.  and  the  following  rough  classi- 
fication shows  in  simple  manner  the  more  important  members  of  the  order. 

/  Maydejt  . .  . .  Maize. 

Spikelets  1  Andro  pogonea?  . .  Sorghum. 

(One  Flowered)     ^Panice;e  ..  ..  Millet. 

'  Oryzeie  . .  . .  Rice. 

Graminere  . .  \  ( Phalaride;^^  . .  . .  Canary  Grass. 

Spikelets  \  Avenett  . .  . .  Oats. 

I  (Many  Flowered)     JFestucea?  ..  ..  Fescue,  Brome  Grass. 

'  Horde;e  . .  . .  Wheat,  Barley,  Rye. 

Although  the  number  of  varieties  of  wheat  in  the  different  wheat- 
growing  countries  of  the  world  runs  into  thousands,  all  these  varieties 
are  included  in  the  one  genus — Triiiciim.  It  is  generally  admitted  thnt 
there  are  eight  general  types  in  cultivation,  with  differences  sufficiently 
great  to  enable  them  to  rank  as  separate  species  or  sub-species.  Hackel,* 
however,  recognises  but  three  true  species,  and  classifies  the  remainder  as. 
sub-species. 

*  Die  Naturlichen  Pflamen  famiUen. 


lo   Feb.,    191 2.]  Wltcat  a)id  Us  Cultivation. 


93 


Now,  though  many  of  these  species  are  likely  to  be  of  very  little  value 
to  the  Australian  farmer,  they  are  of  the  highest  interest  to  the  breeder 
of  wheats  suitable  for  our  local  conditions.  By  the  crossbreeding  of  some 
of  these  species  with  those  wheats  in  general  cultivation  in  Australia,  som,e 
very  desirable  characteristics,  e.g.,  drought  resistance,  non-shattering  of 
grain,  rust  resistance,  and  early  maturity,  may  deliberately  be  imparted 
to  our  local  varieties. 

The  eight  types  of  wheat  referred  to  above  may  be  classified  thus  : — 

Monococcum  ..     (1)  Einkorn. 

(2)  Spelta  =  Spelt. 

(3)  Dicoccum  =  Emmer. 
I                                   J       (4)  Compactum  =  Club  Wlieat. 

Triticum  ]  Sativum  |       (5)  Turgidum  =  Poulard  Wheat. 

(6)  Durum  =  Macaroni  Wheat. 


.       (7)  Vulgare  =  Common  Wheat. 
IPolonicum  . .     (8)  Polish  Wheat. 

(i)  Einkorn,  (2)  Spelt,  and  (3)  Emmtr. — Of  these  different  types, 
the  first  three  (Einkorn,  Spelt,  and  Emmer)  are  to  be  found 
on  most  wheat-breeding  stations,  and  are  frequently  of  service  in 
imparting  such  properties  as  hardiness,  drought  resistance,  abilitv  to 
hold  the  grain,  and  capacity  for  thriving  on  poor  soil.  They  have 
all  been  cultivated  from  the  very  earliest  times,  but  their  cultivation  is 
now  chiefly  confined  to  portions  of  Germany,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Russia. 
Both  for  forage  and  for  food  purposes,  however,  they  are  gradually  being 
displaced,  even  in  those  countries  by  varieties  of  Triticum  sativum  vulgare 
— common  bread  wheat. 

(4)  Club  or  square-head  wheat  differs  from  common  wheat,  principal Iv 
in  its  short  stiff  straw  and  short  but  compact  head.  Its  yield  is  unsatis- 
factory, however,  and  it  is  very  susceptible  to  rust. 

(5)  Poulard  wheat  is  grown  principallv  in  the  hot  dry  areas  bordering 
the  Mediterranean.  It  very  closely  resembles  the  durum  or  macaroni 
wheats  in  the  appearance  and  characteristics  of  the  grain.  Egyptian,  and 
the  so-called  mummy  wheat  with  branched  and  compound  heads,  belong 
to  this  sub-species. 

(6)  Polish  wheat  (T.  Polonicum)  has  not  done  well  in  experimental 
plots  under  Australian  conditions,  though  it  is  successfully  cultivated  in 
the  drier  portions  of  southern  Europe.  The  grains  of  this  wheat  are 
very  long  and  somewhat  resemble  rye. 

(7)  Sativum  vulgare — common  bread  wheat — is  the  most  widely  cul- 
tivated of  all  the  species,  and  it  enjoys  this  popularity  on  account  of  its 
high  yielding  power,  and  because  it  makes  such  excellent  bread.  The 
greater  majority  of  the  varieties  of  wheat  grown  in  Australia  belong  to 
this  important  sub-species. 

The  future  of  the  Australian  wheat  industry  is  largely  dependent  on 
Che  profitable  utilization  of  tho.se  vast  areas  at  present  considered  outside 
the  margin  of  "safe"   farming. 

From  the  remarkable  developments  that  have  resulted  during  the  last 
decade  in  the  profitable  opening  up  of  lands  that  hitherto  were  considered 
practically  useless,  it  is  quite  apparent  that  it  is  not  safe  for  any  one  to 
predict  the  possible  confines  of  profitable  wheat  farming  in  the  future. 
To  further  extend  the  zone  of  profitable  cultivation,  it  is  evident  that 
attention   must   be   concentrated   on   those   factors   which    will     enable    the 


94 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Yictoria.  [lo   Feb.,    1912. 


grower  of  the  fuUire  to  raise  wheat  successfully  on  the  more  arid  portions 
of  the  Commonwealth. 

In  the  past,  efforts  have  been  mainly  directed  to  the  question  of  culti- 
vation and  the  devising  of  methods  to  secure  the  maximum  conservation  of 
soil  moisture.  ^\'hile  great  improvements  have  been  effected  in  the  system 
of  cultivation  and  manuring  during  the  last  decade,  are  we  to  assume 
that  further   advance  with   respect  to  these  practices   is   impossible? 

There  is.  however,  another  important  factor  to  be  considered,  but  this 
is  frequentlv  ignored  in  discussions  relating  to  the  ultimate  utilization  of 
our  arid  areas,  viz.,  the  influence  of  the  plant.  Very  little  attention  has 
been  devo.ed  to-  the  question  of  raising  varieties  of  wheat  which  will  thrive 


i, 

^44ii||^/l^;^4i:#:^.  %^<ki 

w-  '^^^^■' 

^^^^ppfssf^ 

jttpR' 

^^^^^^^lif'' 

^^Bb>k  ■     '"■^fi,..  /v»  a: 

■HV  ^ 

^^B-^^                                                                                 — k«^^^l 

K"                                ''wHI 

FIG.    I.     LE  HUGUEI\C;  1  ,      h      i"'--'    "I-     i.>^     i  Imv    M\:E. 

under  extremely  arid  conditions,  though,  manifestly  this  is  a  problem 
worthy  of  the  best  efforts  of  our  wheat-breeders.  Though  the  wheats, 
which  are  at  present  popular  with  growers,  seem  to  be  well  adapted  to 
the  conditions  under  which  thev  are  grown,  there  is  not  a  single  variety 
w^hich  can  be  safely  described  as  free  from  defect. 

While  a  great  deal  may  b?  accomplished  by  scientific  effort  in  the  pro- 
duction of  new  varieties  suitable  for  our  driest  areas,  it  is  not  reasonable 
to  expect  that  more  would  be  accomplished  in  a  decade  in  this  way  than 
by  centuries  of  care  by  past  geneiations  of  wheat-giowers  under  arid  climes. 
That  is  to  sav.   the   production   of   drought-resistant   varieties   is   likelv   tc 


lo    Feb.,    191^-]  W'/ieai  and  its  Cultivation.  95 

be  successful  if  we  use  as  foiuidation  stocks  those  varieties  which  have 
been  grown  for  generations  under  the  very   driest  conditions. 

There  is  always  a  difficulty  attendant  on  the  introduction  of  varieties 
from  foreign  shores.  Very  rarely  does  an  introduced  wheat  do  well 
during  the  initial  stages  of  its  introduction  to  an  unfamiliar  climate,  and 
very  often  its  merits  are  overl(X>ked  by  those  who  are  inclined  to  hasty 
judgments.  This  ditlficulty  may  be  appreciated  from  the  experience  at  the 
Parafield  Wheat  Station  (South  Australia)  where  over  200  varieties  of 
wheat  from  different  portions  of  Russia.  India,  United  States,  Canada, 
and  Argentine  have  been  grown  for  some  years.  Many  of  these  varieties 
were  total  failures  during  the  first  season  or  two,  but  they  gradually 
became  "  acclimatized,"  and  some  of  them  promise  to  equal  and  excel 
the  very  best  of  the  local  varieties. 

The  most  probable  method,  then,  of  securing  suitable  varieties  for 
our  arid  areas  would  appear  to  be — 

{a)  The  systematic  testing  for  a  period  of  years  of  the  best  of  our 
local  wheats  and  foreign  wheats,  when  grown  under  conditions  similar  to 
those  that  obtain  in  the  very  driest  areas,   and 

{b)  The  gradual  improvement  of  such  varieties  either  by  systematic 
selection  or  by  crossbreeding  combined  with  selection. 

(8)  Triticum  sativum  durum — durum  or  macaroni  wheat.  Among  the 
many  thousands  of  varieties  grown  in  different  parts  of  the  world  the 
durum  wheats  promise  to  be  of  some  value  in  the  production  of  drought- 
resistant  varieties.  They  are  tall  and  erect,  with  smooth,  bright  green 
leaves,  and  long,  narrow  translucent  grain  of  exceptional  hardness,  which 
is  invariably  rich  in  gluten,  but  poor  in  starch.  The  heads  are  usually 
heavily  bearded  and  vary  in  colour  from  light  yellow  to  a  bluish  black. 
During  recent  years  these  durum  wheats  have  become  very  popular  with 
the  wheat-growers  of  the  arid  portions  of  the  United  States,  and  this  is 
simply  because,  under  the'r  conditions  of  climate,  these  wheats  are  more 
productive  than  tho?e  hitherto  cultivated. 

Durum  wheat,  on  account  of  its  relatively  high  gluten  content  and  its 
densitv.  is  well  suited  for  the  manufacture  of  macaroni,  but  it  is  not 
generally  regarded  as  suitable  fnr  milling  purposes,  on  arcount  of  the 
dark  colour  of  the  flour  and  of  the  resultant  bread. 

This  question  of  colour  in  flour  is  very  important,  both  to  the  miller 
and  the  baker.  The  consuming  public,  whether  rightly  or  wrongly  we 
:ieed  not  consider  here,  demands  bread  of  snov.-  white  colour,  and  looks 
upon  dark-coloured  bread  as  inferior  in  quality.  So  long  as  this  demand 
for  snow-w^hite  colour  in  bread  continues,  so  long  must  both  miller  and 
baker  consider  the  question  of  colour  in  flour  of  supreme  importance. 

Incidentally,  it  might  be  m.entioned  that  Victoria  and  South  Australia 
have  always  been  able  to  produce  wheats  which  on  milling  give  a  flour  of 
excellent  colour;  and  it  is  principallv  on  this  account  that  these  wheats 
have  met  with  a  ready  sale  on  the  English  market.  We  cannot,  however, 
overlook  the  fact  that,  generally  speaking,  thev  are  low  in  glutei  content 
and  in  strength.  It  may  be  that  these  deficiencies  are  a  characteristic  of 
the  climate,  and  if  so  we  might  be  inclined  to  infer  that  improvement  in 
these  respects  is  beyond  the  limit  of  possibility.  While  admitting,  how- 
ever, that  these  important  qualities  are.  in  a  large  measure,  dependent  on 
ihe  climate,  there  is  reascn  to  believe  that  these  properties  may  be  greatly 
improved  by  crossbreeding  and   selection. 


96 


Journal  of  Agricultme,   Victoria.         [lo   Feb.,   191 2. 


If  proof  of  this  were  necessary,  the  case  of  Comeback,  Bobs,  and 
John  Brown — varieties  j-aised  by  the  late  Mr.  Farrer — might  be  men- 
tioned. Whether  their  properties  can  be  retained  in  ordinary  cultivation, 
or  whether  they  will  gradually  fall  to  the  level  of  our  ordinary  wheats, 
can  only  be  determined  by  testing  the  milling  properties  of  these  varieties 
through  a  succession  of  years.  Bobs  and  Comeback,  however,  are  not 
grown  in  quantities  sufficient  to  influence  appreciably  the  f.a.q.  sample 
of  wheat.  Nor  are  they  likely  to  come  into  general  cultivation  until  it 
is  proved  that  they  will  yield  as  heavily  as  ttie  best  of  our  wheats,  or 
until  millers  encourage  farmers  to  grow  them  by  offering  an  increased 
price  sufficient  to  compensate  the  grower  for  any  monetary  loss  by  reason 


A    IIKA\\     CROP    OF    DURUM    WHEAT. 


of  a  possible  shortage  of  yield.  If  Comeback  and  Bobs  could  be  further 
improved  by  making  them  as  prolific  as,  say,  Federation,  the  farmer  would 
grow  them  as  readily  as  he  now  grows  Federation. 

The  Australian  wheats,  then,  at  present  have  the  reputation  of  pro- 
ducing.flour  of  unrivalled  colour,  and  for  this  reason,  they  are  always 
welcome  on  the  English  wheat  market.  Voller,*  who  is  regarded  as  an 
authority  on  milling  problems,  gives  the  following  useful  information  for 
British   millers   in   making   blends:  — 

For  largest  loaf,  use  good  Minnesota  or  Manitoba. 

For  whitest  flour,  use  good  white  English,   Oregon,   or   Australian. 

For  sweetest  flour,  use  good  English  and  Manitoba  in  equal  parts. 

*  Modern  Flour  Milling. 


lo   Feb.,   191 2.]  Wheat  and  its  Cultivation.  97 

The  production  of  flour  of  good  white  colour  is  therefore  a  matter  of 
considerable  importance.  Of  course,  it  does  not  follow  that  snow-white 
bread  is  more  digestible  or  more  nutritious  than  dark  bread.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  nutritive  qualities  of  whole  meal  bread  are  well  known. 
The  public,  however,  have  a  decided  preference  for  snow-white  flour  as 
against  dark  flour.  The  durum  wheats,  therefore,  when  first  introduced 
into  cultivation  in  America  were  looked  upon  by  millers  with  dismay. 
Thev  promptly  docked  the  growers  of  durum  wheat,  but  in  spite  of  the 
docking,  it  soon  became  evident  that  these  wheats,  on  account  of  their 
prolificacy  and  adaptability,  had  come  to  stay. 

To  meet  the  taste  of  the  consuming  public,  therefore,  they  had  no 
alternative  but  to  bleach  the  flour  with  various  oxidizing  agents  to  rid  it 
of  its  objectionable  colour.  Nitrogen  peroxide  is  most  commonly  used 
for  this  purpose,  and  ordinary  flours  as  well  as  the  durum  flours  are 
treated  in  this  way. 

As  much  controversy  has  been  waged  in  connexion  with  this  question  of 
bleaching,  a  short  summary  may  be  of  interest  to  possible  growers  and 
millers  of  durum  wheat. 

Ladd  utterly  denounces  the '  practice  of  bleaching  durum  and  other 
flours  as  "  undesirable,  dangerous,  and  fraudulent."!  He  contends  that 
injurious  nitrites  are  left  in  the  flour,  that  the  quality  of  the  gluten  is 
lowered,  and  that  the  bleaching  permits  of  low-grade  flours  being  used. 

On  the  other  hand,  Wesener  and  Teller|  examined  a  number  of  flours 
and  foodstuffs,  and,  inter  alia,  found  that  rain-water  contained  eight  times 
as  much  nitrogen  trioxide  as  ordinary  bleached  durum  flour,  and  that 
ham  contains  five  hundred  times  more  of  this  compound  than  the  highest 
amount  found  in  a  series  of  bleached  flours.  They  also  affirm  that 
bleaching  has  no  injurious  effects  on  the  gluten,  and  entirely  disagree  with 
Ladd's  views. 

Snyder,  §  in  an  exhaustive  review  of  the  subject  of  bleaching  of  flour, 
concludes  that  in  bread-making  tests  of  commercially  bleached  flours,  no- 
difference  could  be  observed  between  the  bread  made  from  bleached  and 
ordinary  flour  of  the  same  variety  of  wheat,  except  that  the  bleached 
flours  produced  a  whiter  bread  and  also  showed  a  tendency  to  produce 
larger  loaves.  No  difference  was  observed  in  the  digestibility  with  pepsin 
solution,  and  the  bleaching  did  not  impart  any  odour  or  taste  to  the  bread 
or  leave  in  it  any  residue. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  question  of  flour  bleaching,  both  of 
durum  and  ordinary  bread-wheats,  was  discussed  at  length  before  Lord' 
Warrington  in  the  High  Court  of  England  in  a  dispute  over  a  patent  for 
bleaching  flour  {vide  Reports  of  Patent  Cases,  xxvi.,  1909);  and.  after 
hearing  evidence  from  such  specialists  as  Ladd,  Halliburton,  Hehner, 
Dewar,  Ballantyne,  and  Wilcox,  His  Honour,  during  the  course  of  a 
lengthy  judgment,   found — 

(i)  That  there  is  no  substantial  difference  in  point  of  digestibility  between  bread 
made   from  unbleached   flour  and  bread   made   from  bleached   flour. 

(2)  No  deleterious  action  on  the  flour  is  caused  by  bleaching  with  nitrogen 
peroxide. 

It  might  be  mentioned  that  several  varieties  of  this  sub-species  are 
grown  in  different  parts  of  the  Commonwealth,  but  those  most  in  favour 
at  the  present  time  are  grown  entirely  for  forage  purposes,   and  not    for 

t  Bulletin  No.  72.  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station. 
%  American  Fool  Journal,  September,  1907. 
§  Bulletin  No.  Ill,  University  of  Minnesota. 


98  Journal  of  Agriadturc,   Victoria.  [to    Feb.,    191 2. 

grain.  Among  manv  that  might  be  mentioned  are  Kubauka,  Medeah, 
Atalanta,  and  Huguenot. 

The  first  three  are  heavily  bearded,  and  are  tiieretore  somewhat  ob- 
jectionable for  hay,  though  thev  give  exceptionally  heavy  cuts.  Huguenot 
is  quite  free  from  beard,  but  in  all  other  respects  closely  resembles 
Medeah. 

These  wheats  make  very  sweet  hay,  which  is  much  relished  by  stock. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  thev  tiller  rather  badly  it  is  necessary  to  sow  them 
rather  thickly,  otherwise  the  hay  is  very  coarse.  It  is  often  advantageous 
to  mix  these  varieties  with  wheats  like  Majestic  and  Baroota  Wonder,  when 
sowing  them  for  hay.  The  illustrations  represent  two  crops  of  hay 
grown  at  the  Parafield  Wheat  Station  on  stiff,  red  clay  .soil  during  1910. 
No.  I  weighed  4f  tons  per  acre,  whilst  No.  2  gave  over  5  tons  per  acre  of 
dried  hay. 

Though  the.se  two  varieties  give  heavy  yields  of  hav,  thev  give  poor 
y'elds  of  grain,  and  on  this  account  will  never  rank  as  dual  purpose 
wheats. 

Having  considered  in  outline  the  various  sub-species  of  the  genus 
Triticum,  let  us  now  consider  the  internal  structure  of  a  tvpica^  kernel. 
For  this  purpose,  we  will  take  the  variety  most  commonlv  grown,  viz., 
Federation. 

Microscopic  Structure  of  the  Wheat  Kernel. 

If  a  thin  .section  be  taken  longitudinallv  through  a  wheat  grain  and 
examined  under  a  microscope  with  a  lower  power  objective,  three  distinct 
structures  will  be  observed  (Fig.   3)  viz.  :  — 

1.  Embryo  or  germ. 

2.  Endosperm. 

3.  Protective   coats. 

Embryo. — At  the  end  opposite  the  bnisJi.  will  be  found  the  embrj'o  or 
germ,  which  is  destined  to  form  the  future  wheat  plant.  Careful  ex- 
amination of  the  embryo  will  reveal — 

{a)  The  -plmnale ,  that  portion  of  the  germ  which  develops  into  the 
stem  and  leaves  of  the  voung  plant,  consisting  of  minute  rudi- 
mentary leaves  enveloped  within  the  plumale  sheath. 
{b)  The  radicle  or  rudimentary  root,   with  its  root  sheath  and  root 

cap. 
(c)  Absorptive  epitJicUinu.  a  series  of  elongated  cells  Iving  between 
the  embroyo  proper  and  the  endosperm,  Iving  with  their  long 
diameters  being  directed  towards  the  endosperm. 
According    to    Brown    and    Morris,*    this    epithelium    secretes     diastase 
during  the  process  of  germination,  and  this  enables  the  starchy  contents  of 
the  endosperm  to  be  transformed  and  assimilated  by  the  developing  germ. 
It  is  thus  the  means  wherebv  the  germ  derives    its    sustenance    from    the 
stored   up   food   in   the  endosperm  until   it    has     developed   sufiiciently    to 
maintain  itself  by  its  own  root  activities. 

Compared  with  other  portions  of  the  grain  the  embryo  is  rich  in  pro- 
tein, fat,  and  ash  con.stitutents,  and,  though  it  contains  a  considerable 
amount  of  sugar,  it  has  but  little  starch.  Nearly  one-sixth  of  the  embryo 
consists  of  fat  and  oil  and  about  one-third  protein,  so  that  these  two  con- 
stituents make  up  practically   one-half  the   germ. 

Endosperm. — By  far  the  greatest  portion  of  the  kernel  is  made  up  of 
the  endosperm,   which  acts  as  a  storehou.se  of  food   for  the  young    plant 

*  Germination  of  the  Graminese. 


lo   Feb.,    1913. 


W/ieat  and  its  Cultivation. 


99 


during  the  time  it  is  seeking  to  establish  itself  in  the  soil.  The  endosperm 
occupies,  on  an  average,  about  80  per  cent,  of  the  kernel.  It  is  prin- 
cipally compcsed  of  what  are  known  as  starch  cells — large  elongated  cells 
with  their  long  diameters  arranged  radially  to  the  surface  of  the  kernel. 
These  starch  cells,   however,   are  found,   on  examination,   to  con.si.si  of  an 


Cellular  ileurcrt 

tissue  Elifssperm  cells    Tesfi  fnfoarfi    fpie>rp     .7; 


Photo.]  IC.  C    Brittlpbank 

FIG.    3.     LONGITUDINAL    SECTION   OF   A   GRAIN   OF   WHEAT    SHOWING   THE 

INTERNAL    STRUCTURE. 

outer  covering  of  cellulo.se  containing  within  a  large  number  of  starch 
grains.  Besides  these  starch  grains,  the  starch  cells  contain  a  consider- 
able amount  of  gluten,  and  Fleurent  has  shown  that  the  amount  of  such 
gluten  varies  with  the  position  of  the  starch  cell  in  the  endosperm.  From 
a   detailed   examinarion   of   a     number    of     Inrlian.    Russian,    and     French 


Photo.]  S-  C.  Bntrl.-i.aiik. 

FIG.     4.     LONGITUDINAL    SECTION    OF    FEDERATION    WHEAT. 

wheats,  he  was  able  to  show  that  the  amount  of  gluten  in  the  endosperm 
increased  from  the  centre  to  the  periphery.  In  an  Indian  variety,  e.g.. 
the  amount  of  gluten  varied  from  8  per  cent,  at  the  centre  to  \o\  per 
cent,    at  the  peripheral   portion  of  the  endosperm. 

It  is  the  endosperm  which  forms  the  tlour  in  thr  process  of  milling  the 
grain. 


loo  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    1912. 

Protective  coats. — The  starchy  endosperm  and  the  embryo  are  both 
protected  by  a  firm  tough  coat,  which,  on  superficial  examination  appears 
to  be   homogeneous   in   structure.        When   examined    under   a   microscope, 


Photo.]  [(■■  C.  Brittlebank. 

FIG.     V    TRANSVERSE    SECTION    OF    FEDERATION    GRAIN. 


ril(it(J.[  ,  '-  ■   '-       i-nttlrli;iUk. 

TIG.    6.    TRANSVERSE   SECTION   OF   FEDERATION   WHEAT.    X   400,    SHOWING 
STRUCTURE    OF    PROTECTIVE    COATS    AND    ENDOSPERM. 


lo  Feb.,   1912.]  Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees.  loi 

however,  this  covering  membrane  is  found  to  consist  of  several  layers  of 
sharply  differentiated  cells.  These  various  structures  serve  as  a  protec- 
tion for  germ  and  endosperm,  and,  in  the  process  of  milling,  become 
detached  from  the  remainder  of  the  kernel  and  collectively  form  the  bran. 
At  least  five  different  layers  may  be  distinguished  under  the  microscope 
besides  several  irregular,  vaguely  defined  intermediate  layers.  Examina- 
tion of  a  number  of  varieties  of  wheat  commonly  grown  in,  Victoria  reveals 
wide  differences  in  their  microscopic  appearance,  especially  in  regard  to 
the  structure  and  characteristics  of  the  layers  immediately  covering  the 
endospenn.  and  it  may  be  that  tnese  microscopical  characters  are  correlated 
with  important  external  characteristics  of  the  varieties  concerned. 
An  examination  of  Fig.  6  will  reveal  the  following  structures  : — 

{a)  The  epidermis,   which  consists  of  a  layer  of  longitudinal  cells 
with  their   long  axes  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the 
kernel . 
{b)  A  second  layer,  the  epicarp,  very  similar  to  the  former  in  gene- 
ral   appearance    resting    on    an    irregular    layer    apparently 
devoid  of  cellular  structure. 
{c)  The   etidocarp,    placed   at   right   angles   to  the  cells   above   de- 
scribed.     In  cross  section  the  cells  of  the  endocarp  appear 
to  be  very  regular  in  character,  with  thick  cell  walls  which  in 
longitudinal   section  display  minute  pits. 
{d)  The  testa,  consisting  in  the  unripe  kernel  of  two  distinct  layers 
of  cells  closely  applied  to  the  aleurone  layer.      The  testa  is 
very  tough  in  character,-  not  readily  permeable  to  water  and 
homogenous  in  structure. 
{e)  The  aleurone  layer,  consisting  of  large  more  or  less  rectangular 
cells,  with  thick  cell  walls  containing  oil  and  granular  nitro- 
genous  matter.        It   is   frequently    called   the   gluten   layer, 
though  this  is  a  misnomer,  as  the  gluten  found  in  the  flour 
is  derived  from  the  starch  cells  of  the  endosperm  and  not 
from  the   aleurone   layer. 

What  is  known  as  the  bran  consists  of  the  five  layers  described  above. 
The  micro-photographs  of  the  sections  illustrated  above  were  pre- 
pared by  Mr.  C.  C.  Brittlebank,  Acting  Vegetable  Pathologist  of  this 
Department. 

To  be  Continued . 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  TREES. 

{Continued  from  page  6j.) 
C.    F.    Cole,    Orchard   Supervisor. 

Disbudding. 

Cutting  off,  i.e.,  reducing  the  stocks  back  to  the  inserted  bud  will  be 
the  cause  of  numerous  shoots  pushing  out  around  and  below  the  bud.  The 
growth  of  these  shoots  is  generally  earlier  and  more  rapid  with  stone  than 
with  seed  fruits.  As  such  shoots  are  robbers  they  will,  if  neglected  too 
long,   seriously  affect  the  growth  of  the  buds.        The  probable  result  will 


I02 


Journal  of  Agriculture .  Victoria. 


[lo  Feb.,   1912. 


be  either  death  to  the  moving  bud  or  a  weakened  condition  of  growth. 
To  prevent  this,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  all  superfluous  shoots  before  a 
certain  period  elapses.  This  period  is  controlled  by  the  species,  variety 
of   fruit,   and  the  quickness  of  the  growths. 

Deciduous  stone  fruits,  such  as  the  apricot,  nectarine,  peach,  and  plum 
will  first  require  attention.  All  shoots  should  be  removed  before  they 
become  hardened  at  the  base  of  the  growth  and  before  they  are  more  than 
6  or  8  in.  in  length.  With  healthy  and  well  grown  stocks  there  is  no 
danger  of  leaving  the  shoots  to  attain  this  length.  Such  shoots  are  a 
protection  to  the  growing  bud  until  this  time.  With  the  apple,  cherry, 
pear,  &c. ,  the  shoots  should  be  removed  earlier. 

When  disbudding,  as  this  operation  is  termed,  the  operator  should 
carry  an  old  knife  to  remove  any  shoots  from  the  stock  just  below  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  Shoots  may  be  removed  fromx  the  stock  by  rubbing 
them  off  with  the  thumb  and  finger,  i.e.,  if  soft  enough,  or  cut  off  close 
to  the  .stock  with  a   sharp  knife. 


61.     DISBUDDING    STOCKS. 
a.  Stock  showiug  robber  shoot?,     b.  Same  stock  disbudded,  showing  growing  bud. 

Before  starting  to  remove  the  shoots,  first  locate  the  inserted  and 
growing  bud.  The  bud  is  the  terminal  point.  When  the  stock  is  reduced 
shoots  cannot  sprout  around  or  about  the  bud.  If  there  is  any  likelihood  of 
injuring  it  while  disbudding,  hold  the  growing  bud  carefully  with  the  one 
hand  to  insure  its  safety,  and  remove  the  useless  shoots  with  the  other. 
Growing  buds  are  very  easilv  broken  away  from  the  stocks.  When  dis- 
budding stone  fruits,  remove  all  shoots,  if  the  inserted  bud  has  not  started 
to  grow  and  is  alive. 

If  the  bud  is  dead,  and  one  wishes  to  save  the  stocKs  for  future  use, 
cut  off  to  a  shoot  close  to  the  ground  ;  failing  a  shoot,  reduce  to  ttie 
ground.  During  the  following  winter,  such  stocks  .should  be  carefully 
removed,   trimmed,  and  planted  out  again  for  budding  upon.       Almond. 


lo  Feb.,   191-.] 


Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees. 


103 


apricot,   and  peach  stocks  carrying  dead  buds  are  not  worth  while  bother- 
ing about  when  disbudding  ;    either  remove  or  rub  off  all  shoots. 

With  the  apple,  select  a  strong  vertical  shoot  and  remove  all  others. 
Trim  and  train  into  a  tree  the  same  as  a  growing  inserted  bud.  Such 
a  tree  should  either  be  Northern  Spy,  Winter  Majetin,  or  some  other 
blight-proof  varietv  used  for  stock  purposes.  If  not  wanted  for  sale 
during  the  winter,  it  may  be  head-grafted  the  following  spring  with  some 
other  desired  variety.  When  removing  trees  for  sale  from  the  nursery 
row  the  propagator  should  be  careful  not  to  mix  them  with  the  worked 
varieties.        To   guarf]    against   mistake    the   rows    should    be  carefully   ex- 


62.    DISBUDDING     STOCKS. 
a.  Yearling  tree,  pruned,  showing  robber  shoots.     6.  Same  disbudded. 

amined  in  the  autumn,  and  all  trees  marked  by  tving  a  short  piece  of 
raffia  or  some  other  suitable  material   around   the  stems. 

When  disbudding  the  pear  and  quince  it  will  repay  +he  operator  to  cut 
off  the  shoots  with  a  sharp  knife  close  to  the  butt  of  the  stock.  Whilst 
doing  so  he  should  be  careful  to  remove  the  fleshy  basal  portion  of  the 
shoots.  If  rubbed  off,  the  shoots  will  probably  sprout  again.  By 
cutting,   the  risk  of  doing  so  is  greatly  lessened. 

All  propagated  trees  unsold  and  left  standing  in  the  nursery  rows 
should  be  pruned.  Such  trees  require  to  be  disbudded  in  the  spring. 
Remove   all    superfluous   shoots  that  push   out   upon    the    stem,    &c..    only 


I04 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    1912. 


leaving  those  required  to  form,  or  reform,   tlie  future  head  of  the  young 
tree. 

Fig.  62A  shows  a  yearling  branched  tree  that  has  been  pruned  back 
to  a  straight  stem.  The  operation  of  disbudding  should  have  been  per- 
formed earlier,  i.e.,  when  the  shoots  were  soft  and  easily  removed  with 
the  thumb  and  finger.  Consequent  upon  this  delay,  it  has  thus  become 
necessary  to  remove  the  shoots  with  a  sharp  knife.  By  the  early  removal 
of  shoots  that  are  not  required  the  ones  left  to  form  the  future  head  benefit 
greatly   by   receiving   the   whole    of    the    nourishment.        When     removing 


67^.    DISBUDDING    STOCKS. 
a.  Two-year-old  tree,  pruned,  carrying  too  many  shoots.     6.  Same  disbudded. 

hardened  shoots  from  the  stems  of    young  trees,  cut    close    so    that    the 
cambium  will   heal   quickly   and   neatly   across   the  scars. 

Fig.  63A  shows  a  two-year-old  tree  that  has  been  branched  pruned, 
i.e.,  the  three  branches  operated  upon  to  form  the  future  head  have  been 
reduced  back  to  their  basal  buds.  Consequent  upon  this,  more  shoots 
than  what  are  necessary  have  shot  from  the  basal  buds.  Where  this 
occurs,  all  shoots  not  required  should  be  removed  either  by  rubbing  or 
cutting ;  the  former  action  takes  precedence  whilst  the  shoots  are  soft. 
With  two-year-old  trees  very  few  shoots  push  out  upon  the  stems.  This 
is  owing  to  the  previous  season's  disbudding. 


lo   Feb.,    191 2.]  Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees.  105 

With  several  varieties  of  plums,  such  as  Hill  F,nrl.  Grand  Duke  and 
Diamond,  that  start  and  make  strong  rapid  growth  at  the  beginning,  it 
is  not  unusual  for  the  stems  of  many  of  the  growing  buds  to  split  up- 
wards, starting  a  little  above  the  basal  portion  of  the  growth.  This 
splitting  occurs  if  the  stocks  are  strong  and  the  season  favorable  for 
vigorous  growths.  The  writer's  experience  is  that  the  sj) Fitting  is  more 
prevalent  when  worked  upon  the  myrobolan  stock,  and  attributes  this 
largely  to  the  stock  forcing  too  rapid  and  also  too  strong  a  growth  at  the 
beginning  upon  varieties  that  are  naturally  strong  growing.  To  mini- 
mize this,  disbudding  should  be  delayed  a  little  longer  with  varieties 
subject  to  splitting,  so  as  to  allow  the  superfluous  shoots  to  utilize  some 
of  the  rapidly  ascending  sap  and  nourishment.  Where  the  stems  have 
split,  cut  back  to  a  basal  bud  to  start  a  fresh  vertical  growih. 

Staking. 

Staking,  i.e.,  placing  a  wooden  stake  in  a  vertical  position  clo.se  to 
a  bud  requiring  support  so  that  its  growth  may  be  tied  to  it  and  thereby 
insure  its  safety  until  the  stem  is  sufficientlv  hard  to  be  self-supporting. 
The  stake  will  also  be  utilized  to  train  any  hud  that  is  growing  otherwise 
than  vertical. 

This  operation  is  an  important  one  and  should  not  be  overlooked. 
The  time  is  controlled  by  a  knowledge  of  the  growth  of  species  and  the 
varieties    that   are    being    propagated. 

Very  good  stakes  can  be  made  by  cutting  5  feet  palings  in  halves  and 
then  splitting  them  into  stakes  i  in.  wide.  Stakes  should  be  pointed 
with  a  tomahawk.  If  the  pointed  ends  are  dipped  into  tar  and  left  to 
dry  before  using  the  stakes  will  last  for  years.  Whatever  class  of  stake 
is  used  they  should  be  rigid. 

Immediately  after  disbudding  all  varieties  of  plums  the  growing  bud 
should  be  supported  by  tying  to  a  stake.  If  not,  there  is  a  great  risk 
of  the  bud  being  blown  out  by  the  first  strong  wnnd.  The  writer  has 
found  if  the  growing  buds  are  any  length,  that  the  best  plan  is  to  disbud 
a  few,  stake  and  tie  at  once,  and  so  on  until  finished.  If  a  strong 
wind  should  spring  up  the  superfluous  shoots  will  protect  the  growing  bud 
somewhat  until  operated  upon.  The  writer  has  seen  hundreds  of  plum 
buds  with  a  growth  of  fromi  6  to  8  inches  broken  off  by  a  sudden  gust 
of  wind  immediately  after  being  disbudded.  The  stakes  should  not  be 
removed  until  the  wood  of  the  bud  is  hardened.  About  December  is  a 
suitable  time.      Fig.  64B  shows  a  growing  bud  properlv  staked  and  tied. 

Citrus,  l(jquat,  medlar,  mulberrv,  and  walnut  buds  should  be  staked 
early  and  no  risks  with  them  taken.  With  the  almond,  apple,  cherry, 
nectarine,  peach,  and  quince  only  buds  of  crooked  growth  require  staking. 
But  the  propagator  should  alwavs  bear  in  mind  that  there  is  a  risk  of 
losing  unstaked  buds  up  to  a  certain  stage  of  growth. 

The  apricot  is  a  fruit  that  at  times  makes  strong  growth  in  late  summer 
and  early  autumn  if  the  weather  is  favorable.  It  should  therefore  be 
staked  after  being  topped  and  trimmed. 

Stakes  should  be  strong  and  of  a  fair  length.  If  the  stakes  are  short, 
there  is  a  big  risk  of  the  young  tree,  when  carrying  a  good  head  growth, 
breaking  off  at  the  terminal  end  of  the  stake  during  wet  windy  weather. 
Again,  if  the  apricot  is  growing  freely,  it  differs  from  other  trees  in  the 
nursery   row,    owing  to   that  part  of   the  stem   above  where  it  is  callused 

52.  E 


io6 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Yictona.  [lo   Feb..    1912. 


to  the  stock  not  hardening  simultaneously  with  the  part  l)elow.  Owing 
to  this  feature  there  is  always  the  risk  of  breakage  at  this  particular  place 
if  the  stakes  are  removed  previous  to  late  autumn,  especially  if  the  head 
growth  is  heavv.        Some  varieties  are  worse  than  others  in  this  respect. 

Although  staking  is  a  simple  operation,  it  takes  practice  to  place  the 
stakes  in  a  vertical  position.  The  butt  of  the  stock,  if  vertical  or  nearly 
so,  will  be  a  guide.  By  holding  the  stake  in  a  vertical  position,  and 
keeping  the  pointed  end  away  from  the  butt,  and  at  the  same  time  gauging 
the  same  distance  apart  becween  the  stake  and  the  terminal  end  of  the 
stock,  will  facilitate  this  operation.  In  Fig.  64A  the  dotted  line  indicates 
the  correct  position  of  the  stake,  the  butt  having  been  used  as  a  guide. 


STAKING. 


a.  Growing  bud  requiring  staking ;    clotted  lines  indicate  correct  position  of  stake. 

properly  stak?d  and  tied. 


h.  Same  bud, 


In  sandy  or  loose  soils  the  stakes  can  either  be  pressed  into  the  soil 
with  the  hands,  or  tapped  into  position  with  a  hammer,  or  mallet  ;  the 
latter  l)eing  necessary  if  the  soil  is  firm.  Fig.  64A  also  indicates  the 
position  of  the  stake  when  placed  in  position  alongside  a  bud  growinp- 
obliquely.      With  vertical  ones  the  .stake  .should  be  placed  directly  behind. 

The  operator  will  require  tO'  exercise  great  care  when  bending  the  growth 
upward,  .so  as  Xo  place  it  in  the  correct  position  against  the  fiat  of  the 
stake,  so  as  to  be  ready  for  tying.  Growing  buds  are  tender  and  brittle, 
some  more  so  than  others.       There  is  also  a  risk  of  causing  injury  if  the 


lo  Feb.,    1912.] 


Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees. 


107 


stake  is  placed  too  close  to  the  stock  or  growing  I.lkJ.  When  tying  to 
the  stake,  select  that  part  just  Ijelow  tlie  nodes,  i.e.,  the  swelling  or  knot 
below  the  buds.  Do  not  tie  too  close  to  the  terminal  end  of  the  buds. 
If  so,  there  is  every  likelihood  of  tlie  stems  buckling  owing  to  its  upward 
growth  being  checked  by  the  string. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  keep  going  over  the  rows  and  tying  the 
buds  as  thev  grow  until  they  attain  a  certain  height.  When  tying  bind 
twice  around  and  not  too  tightly.  By  doing  so  there  is  not  the  same 
risk  of  the  string  cutting  into  the  expanding  growth  of  stem  as  when  using 
a  single  strand.  Owing  to  the  rapid  growth  and  quick  expansion  a 
close  w^atch  should  be  kept  upon  the  buds  to  see  that  the  strings  are  not 
cutting.  If  so,  release  by  cutting  the  string  at  the  back  of  the  stake  ; 
renew  the  string,   if  necessary.        When  tying  to  the  stake  growing  buds 


65.     STAKING. 
n.  Results  of  not  staking,     h.  Results  of  staking. 

that  are  branching  see  that  the  growths  are  not  cramped  or  tied  so  as  lo 
cau.se  them  to  become  deformed  or  crooked.  Almonds,  apricots,  nec- 
tarines, and  peaches  should  be  staked,  if  necessary,  as  soon  as  trimmed.^ 

The  best  "material  to  use  for  tying  wdth  is  threads  drawn  from  sujee 
bagging  (Fig.   3). 

Much  unnecessar\  staking  can  be  prevented  by  budding  the  stocks  upon 
the  side  facing  the  prevailing  wmds  that  blow  during  the  first  five  months 
of  the  bud's  growth  and  previous  to  the  hardening  of  the  stems.  Such 
winds  generally  blow  from  a  northerly  direction.  Failing  a  knowledgr- 
of  the  winds  of  a  locality,  the  native  or  other  timber  is  a  guide  at  times  : 
it  has  a  tendency  to  lean  in  the  opposite  direction.  With  some  species 
of  trees,  the  growth  is  greater  and  denser  upon  the  sheltered  side.^  Young 
and  quick  growing  trees  that  branch  early  and  catch  the  wind,  like 
nectarines  and  peaches,   are  greatlv  influenced. 

{To  be  continued.) 


io8  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    191 2 

THE  SHIPMENT  OF  GRAPES  AND  OTHER  SOFT 

FRUITS. 

F.  de  Castella,   G  over  71m  ent  Viticulturist,   and  E.  Me  eking.   Senior 
Fruit  Inspector. 

The  shipments  of  soft  fruits  from  this  State  by  the  Somerset  and 
other  vessels  during  the  past  two  seasons,  and  also  the  shipments  forwarded 
from  South  and  Western  Australia  during  the  same  period,  have  demon- 
strated beyond  doubt  that,  provided  certain  conditions  are  complied  with, 
all  classes  of  soft  fruits  may  be  successfully  exported.  It  is  therefore 
considered  that  the  following  points  in  connexion  with  the  handling, 
transportation,  and  other  details  of  preparing  these  fruits  for  export  will 
be  of  value  to  growers  and  exporters. 

Condition  and  Maturity  of  Fruit. 

It  is  essential  to  ship  only  varieties  of  proved  carrying  power.  If 
from  irrigated  vines  or  trees,  the  final  watering  should  have  been  given 
some  weeks  before  time  of  shipment.  In  the  case  of  grapes  this  watering 
should  not  be  later  than  ist  January.  Grapes  or  fruits  from  recently- 
irrigated  vines  or  trees  will  not  carry  well. 

In  the  absence  of  up-to-date  pre-cooling  and  transport  arrangements 
in  this  State,  picking  peaches,  pears,  or  plums  on  the  unripe  side  is 
recommended,  since  slightly  unripe  peaches  and  plums  carry  better  than 
those  picked  quite  ripe.  Grapes,  in  particular,  ripen  but  little  after 
picking — far  less  than  most  other  fruits.  They  should,  therefore,  although 
not  quite  ripe,  be  nearly  so,  before  picking ;  otherwise,  on  arrival  at  their 
destination,  though  sound,  they  will  be  of  poor  quality. 

Packages  (Sizes,  Marking,  etc.). 

Any  shape  of  package  may  legally  be  used,  provided  the  nett  weight 
or  number  of  fruits  be  legibly  stamped  thereon.  In  addition  to  the 
weight  or  number,  the  name  or  registered  brand  of  the  grower  or  exporter, 
the  name  of  the  State,  the  word  "Australia,"  and  the  name  and  variety 
of  the  fruit  should  be  also  stamped  or  stencilled  on  cases.  The  variety 
of  fruit  need  not  be  shown  in  full,  but  may,  with  advantage,  be 
abbreviated;  for  example,  "Dora"  for  "  Doradillo "  grapes;  "  B. 
Bosc  "  for  "  Beurre  Bosc "  pears;  "  Dia  "  for  "Diamond"  plums; 
"  Yorks  "  for  "  Early  York  "  peaches.  The  following  are  the  different 
sizes  recommended  for  the  various  kinds  of  fruit :  — 

Grafts: — The  cases  used  by  West  Australian  shippers  are  recom- 
mended. These  are  made  in  two  sizes.  Larger  size: — 22|  in.  x  13I  in. 
x  7  in.;  nett  capacity  28  lbs.  grapes.  Smaller  size: — 26|  in.  x  13I  in. 
x  5  in.  ;  nett  capacity  25  lbs.  grapes.  Cases  should  be  lined  with  white 
or  coloured  lining  paper,  cut  to  size,  not  only  on  account  of  appearance, 
but  also  to  prevent  loss  of  cork  through  cracks,   joints,  etc. 

Peaches,  Pears  and  Plums: — These  should  be  packed  in  trays 
measuring  18  in.  x  14  in.  x  2\  in.  Three  of  these  trays  cleated  or  hoop- 
ironed  together  make  a  standard  bushel. 


lo   Feb.,    1912.]  Tlic  Shipment  of  Graf  a,  eye.  log 

Gathering. 

None  but  first  grade  fruits  should  be  exported.  They  should  be 
carefully  picked  the  day  before  they  are  packed  and  left  overnight  in  a 
shed  or  other  convenient  place,  protected  from  dew.  For  this  purpose, 
a  shed  with  open  sides,  allowing  free  ventilation  of  air,  may  be  recom- 
mended. The  very  slight  wilting  which  occurs  to  the  fruit  during  this 
period,  toughens  the  skin,  reduces  internal  pressure,  and,  in  the  case  of 
grapes,  minimizes  danger  of  berries  bursting  through,  compression  when 
lid  is  nailed  down.  During  this  time,  the  bunch  of  grapes  or  the  other 
fruits  must,  on  no  account,  be  stacked  one  on  top  of  another  but  should 
be  placed  in  layers,  side  by  side. 

No  fruit  should  be  handled  too  much.  It  should  be  carefully  severed 
from  the  tree  with  specially  made  clippers  having  blunt  points,  and 
handled  by  the  projecting  stalk,  thus  avoiding,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
hands  ccming  into  actual  contact  with  the  fruit  itself.  Grapes  should  be 
carefully  laid  in  the  picking  receptacle,  and,  during  the  whole  operation 
of  handling  and  packing,  should  be  manipulated  from  the  stalk.  The 
f.ame  rule  holds  good  regarding  the  handling  of  peaches,  pears  and 
plums. 

Packing. 

Grapes  .• — Export  grape  cases  are  packed  on  the  flat.  Line  with  white 
or  coloured  lining  paper,  cut  to  size,  not  only  on  account  of  appearance, 
but  to  prevent  loss  of  cork  through  crack  joints,  etc.  Clips  should 
be  used  to  avoid  tearing  by  the  wind.  Cover  bottom*  (side)  of  cases  with 
about  \  inch  of  finely  granulated  cork  free  from  dust  and  also  from  chips 
or  larger  fragments,  which  prevent  the  cork  penetrating  between  the  berries. 
On  this,  place  a  layer  of  bunches ;  if  these  are  very  large  and  especially 
if  berries  are  very  close,  the  bunch  should  be  cut  intO'  several  smaller 
ones.  Any  damaged  or  doubtful  berries  must  be  removed  with  scissors 
or  special  pointed  secateurs — on  no  account  pulled  off. 

Do  not  press  grapes  against  sides ;  leave  a  little  room  for  the  cork. 
When  the  first  layer  of  grapes  is  in,  cover  with  cork  ;  shake  well  and  add 
more  cork,  if  necessary  ;  then  more  grapes,  and  so  on  until  the  case  is 
full,  shaking  frequently.  The  whole  top  surface  is  then  covered  with 
cork  until  the  grapes  are  completely  hidden.  The  cork  should  be  slightly 
above  the  level  of  sides  of  case  so  that  some  pressure  must  be  applied 
before  the  lid  can  be  nailed  down.  Before  doing  this,  draw  the  paper 
carefully  and  evenly  into  place.  It  is  essential  that  the  fruit  be  tightly 
packed  and  that  plenty  of  cork  be  used.  When  the  case  is  opened,  only 
cork  should  be  seen,  all  grapes  being  buried  in  it.  Begirmers  are  apt 
to  use  too  little  cork.  The  larger  case  described  above  which  holds 
28  lbs.  of  grapes,  requires  nearly  5  lbs.  of  cork  to  pack  it  properly. 
Beginners  would  do  well,  at  least  for  the  first  few  cases,  to  weigh  both 
grapes  and  cork.  A  measure  capable  of  holding  5  lbs.  of  cork  will  be 
found  convenient. 

Peaches,  Pears  and  Plums: — The  trays  to  contain  these  should  be 
lined  with  a  layer  of  wood-wool  about  \  inch  thick.  The  fruits  should 
then  be  carefully  placed  in  layers  or  rows  with  a  very  thin  portion  of 
wood-wool  between  each.  Japanese  or  other  large  plruns,  peaches, 
nectarines,  and  pears  should  be  wrapped  in  paper  cut  to  size  according 
to  dimensions  of  fruits.     The  usual  sizes  to  which  wrapping-paper  is  cut 


Journal  of  Agricidfurc .   Victoria.  [lo    Feb..    1912. 


are: — 10  in.  x  7^  in.  for  smaller  sizes,  and  10  in.  x  10  in.  for  the  larger 
varieties.  To  carry  out  this  operation,  the  wrapper  should  be  placed  in 
the  left  hand,  the  fruit  carefully  lifted  by  the  stalk,  and  the  calyx  or 
"  eye  "  end  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  paper.  The  hand  holding  the 
fruit  and  wrapping-paper  is  then  closed,  bringing  the  edges  of  the  paper 
around  stalk  end  of  the  fruit,  and  the  operation  is  completed  by  twisting 
the  ends  of  the  paper  in  the  right  hand  around  the  stalk.  When  the  tray 
is  filled  a  thin  lining  of  wood-wool,  sufficient  to  pack  the  fruit  tightly 
W'ithout  undue  compression,   should  be  placed  on  top  of  the  rows. 

Three  trays  so  packed  should  be  placed  together,  the  lid  carefully 
nailed  on  the  topmost  tray  and  the  three  firmly  cleated  or  hoop-ironed 
together  to  form  a  rigid  package.  For  this  purpose,  hoop-iron  is  recom- 
mended as  forming  a  neater  and  firmer  package  than  those  fastened 
together  with  wooden  cleats.  The  method  for  fastening  the  trays  together, 
is  as  follows  : — One  end  of  the  hoop-iron  is  affixed  to  the  top  left-hand 
corner  of  the  uppermost  tray.  The  hoop-iron  is  then  brought  around 
the  edge  and  pulled  taut.  For  this  purpose  a  special  tool  is  used, 
consisting  of  a  piece  of  iron  having  a  handle  about  one  foot  in  length 
with  a  cross  handle,  which  is  about  3  inches  on  either  side.  From  the 
lower  end  of  this  tool,  two  rounded  pieces  of  iron,  each  about  2  inches  in 
length,  project  horizontally.  These  projections  are  separated  by  about 
|-  inch  from  each  other.  The  hoop-iron,  after  being  fastened  to  the  top 
end  of  the  tray,  is  carried  between  these  two  projections.  The  packer 
then,  by  using  the  package  as  a  fulcrum,  draws  the  iron  taut,  and,  holding 
it  in  this  position  with  his  body,  leaves  his  hand  free  to  nail  the  hoop-iron 
around  the  edges  of  the  trays. 

Forwarding. 

Where  nO'  district  cool  storage  accommodation  is  available,  fruit 
should  be  consigned  to  cool  stores  at  Melbourne,  and  not  to  the  ship's 
side  direct.  There  is  no  disadvantage  in  forwarding  a  w^eek  before  the 
ship  sails.  In  fact,  such  a  course  is  recommended.  Consignments  must, 
at  latest,  be  forwarded  in  time  to  get  into  cool  stores  in  Melbourne  at 
least  three  or  four  days  before  the  exporting  vessel  is  to  sail.  This  will 
enable  consignments  to  go  into  the  ship's  refrigerator  in  cool  condition 
and  give  them  a  better  chance  to  be  successfully  carried  than  if  shipped 
uncooled,  and,  moreover,  minimizes  risk  of  missing  the  boat.  They  must, 
at  latest,  be  forwarded  in  time  to  get  into  cool  stores  in  Melbourne  on 
the  Friday  before  sailing  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  handling  during 
the  intervening  Saturday  and  Sunday.  Where  facilities  are  available, 
fruit  should  be  cooled  to  30  degrees  Fah.  as  soon  as  possible  after  picking 
and  transported  direct  to  ship  in  refrigerator  cars. 

The  exporter,  or  prospective  exporter,  of  soft  fruits  must  remember 
that  to  place  soft  fruits  on  distant  markets,  attention  to  the  above  details 
must  be  rigidly  adliered  to.  Unfortunately,  many  other  details  of  equal 
importance  connected  with  the  transportation  of  his  fruits  do  not  come 
under  his  control.  But  the  effect  of  any  remissness  on  the  part  of  those 
concerned  in  the  transportation  side  of  the  business  may  be  greatly 
minimizes  if  avoidable  errors  on  his  part  are  not  committed. 


T.O  Feb.,    1912.]  The  Light  Brown  Apple  Moth.  iiK 

THE  LIGHT  BROWX  APPLE  MOTTL 

{Tortrix  {C acacia)  rcsponsaua.) 
C.   French,  Junr.,   Aciiiig  Gove r nine ut  Entomologist. 

During  last  October  several  growers  at  Mildura  forwarded,  for  ex- 
amination, several  bunches  of  young  Zante  currant  grapes  that  were  almost 
destroyed  by  caterpillars.  On  examining  them,  I  was  of  opinion  that 
the  cause  of  the  trouble  was  the  larva  of  the  Light  Brown  Apple  Moth,  a 
very  destructive  insect  which  attacks  almost  any  kind  of  garden  plant,  as 
well  as  apples,  and  other  fruits. 

This  moth  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Victoria.  The  larva  is  of  a 
greenish  colour,  and  measures  about  I  in.  in  length.  The  moth  itself  is 
about  the  size  of  the  well  known  Codlin  Moth,  and  is  of  a  pale  yellowish 
trown  colour.  The  accompanying  illustration  shows  the  life  history  of 
the  moth  : — 

EXPL.iXATIOX     OF    PLATE. 

Fig.  1.  Apple  branch  and  fruit,  sliowing  damage  done  to  pip.s.  witli  larvae  escaping.     Natural  size. 
,,     2.  Moths  on  wing.     Natural  size. 

„     3.   Upper  portion  of  apple    when  newly  formed,  sliowing  where  eggs  of  moth    are    deposited. 
,,     3.  Larvae.     Magnified. 

Some  additional  specimens  of  the  caterpillars  were  .sent  at  my  reque.st. 
These  I  placed  in  the  breeding  cages  on  19th  November,  and  on  the  24th 
they  pupated  or  turned  into  the  chrysalis  ;  on  the  12th  December  they 
emerged  as  perfect  moths.  When  about  to  pupate,  the  caterpillar  .spins 
a  loo.'^e  silken  web  in  which  it  turns  into  the  chrysalis.  In  this  stage  of 
its  existence  it  is  often  attacked  by  para.sitic  wasps  and  other  useful  in 
sects,  which  to  a  certain  extent  keep  it  in  check. 

Fortunately,  in  arsenate  of  lead,  we  have  an  excellent  remedy, 
The  sprav  must  be  forced  well  into  the  bunches  of  young  grapes  as  it  is 
in  the  middle  of  the  bunch  that  the  caterpillars  are  generally  found. 

Trapping  the  moths  by  lights  has  also  proved  effective.  An  ordinary 
hurricane  lamp  placed  on  a  brick  in  a  basin  of  kerosene  will  answer 
admirably.  The  moths  are  attracted  to  the  light,  fly  against  the  glass  and 
fall  into  the  kerosene,   and  are  destroyed. 

If  this  pest  is  not  kept  in  check  it  will  cause  hea^•y  losses  to  growers 

of  grapes.       It   is  therefore   advisable  that   immediate  action  be  taken    to 

stamp  it  out. 

*  *  *  *  -^f  -x  * 

Mr.  F.  de  Castella,  Government  ^'iticulturist.  submits  the  following 
note  :  — 

"  I  have  read  with  interest  the  proof  of  your  note  on  the  Light  Brown 
Apple  Moth,  now  api^earing  as  a  vine  pest.  I  have  long  known  vines,  in 
different  parts  of  the  State,  to  be  attacked,  at  flcAvering  time  and  after, 
by  small  green  caterpillars,  which  spin  a  web  and  make  a  nest  in  the 
young  bunches,  thereby  interfering  with  their  development  and  causing 
more  or  less  .serious  damage.  I  distinctly  remember  these  at  St.  Hubert's, 
on  the  Yarra,  as  long  ago  as  the  early  seventies  ;  in  general  appearance, 
at  least,  they  were  the  same  as  the  caterpillars  which  T  recently  saw  at 
Mildura. 

It  is  reassuring  to  know  that  this  is  an  Australian  native,  and  net 
one  of  the  French  bunch  caterpillars,  for  w^e  have  but  little  idea  here._  of 
the  fearful  havoc  which  is  sometimes  wrought  in  Europe  by  allied  species. 


Journal  of  Agriculture.  Victoria.  [lo   Feb..    1912. 


LIGHT    BROWN   APPLE   MOTH. 

(Tortrix  {Caccecia)  responsana.) 


lo   Feb.,    191 2.]  Bee-keeping  in   Victoria.  xix 

The  1 9 10  vintage,  in  parts  of  Burgundy  and  Champagne,  was  reduced 
by  fully  one-half,  owing  to  the  ravages  of  two  web- forming,  bunch  cater- 
pillars, known  locally  as  Cochylis  and  Eudemis.  Another  species  the 
common  name  of  which  is  Pyrale*  is  often  very  destructive,  especially 
near  Bordeaux. 

Though  satisfactory  to  know  that  we  have  not  to  deal  with  either  of 
these,  we  must  not  underestimate  the  enemy,  for  we  have  no  guarantee  that 
the  Australian  Cacacia,  if  left  to  itself,  might  not  develop  into  an  equally 
redoubtable  pest,  especially  under  such  conditions  as  prevail  at  Mildura. 
where  the  vine-planted  areas  are  so  continuous  as  to  practically  constitute 
one  vast  vineyard,  as  is  also  often  the  case  in  France.  I  do  not  wish  to 
be  thought  an  alarmist,  but  I  consider  that  we  have  here  a  pest  which 
requires  careful  watching,  and  I  am  glad  that  you  are  advising  growers 
to  take  immediate  steps  to  stamp  it  out. 

At  the  time  of  my  last  visit  to  Mildura  (15th  November)  though 
little  damage  had  been  done,  bunches  with  webs  in  them  were  quite 
numerous,  so  much  so  that  I  requested  several  growers  to  .send  you  speci- 
mens for  identification.  At  that  time,  most  of  the  insects  had  already 
left  their  webs.  It  was,  in  fact,  rather  difficult  to  find  one.  A  second 
generation  will  no  doubt  make  its  appearance  shortly,  when  I  hope  fresh 
specimens  will  be  forwarded  to  you;  it  is  not  impossible  that  we  have  to 
deal  with  more  than  one  species,  and  we  cannot  have  too  much  informa- 
tion on  the  subject.  Growers  would  not  only  be  studying  their  own  in- 
terests, but  also  those  of  the  industry  at  large,  if  they  would  immediately 
forward  to  you  specimens  of  any  strange  insects  that  may  appear  from 
time  to  time   in   their  vinevards  or  orchards." 


BEE-KEEPING  IN  VIOTOIUA. 

F .  R.  Beuline,  Bee  Expert. 
{Continued  from  page  J.) 

II.^THE    BEES. 

There  are  many  terms  used  in  connexion  with  bees  which  are  liable 
to  cause  misunderstanding  when  wrpngly  applied  by  the  uninitiated. 
Some  of  these  words  have  a  general  as  well  as  a  specific  meaning.  Any 
community  of  bees  m.ay  be  called  a  colony,  but  in  practice  the  term  is 
only  applied  to  bees  established  in  a  dwelling  provided  by  man.  Colonies 
in  trees,  rocks,  or  other  natural  abodes  are  known  as  bees'  nests.  While 
a  hive  of  bees  denotes  a  colony  in  an  artificial  dwelling  the  dwelling  itself 
without  bees  or  combs  is  known  as  a  bee  hive.  Communities  of  bees  on 
the  wing,  clustered  outside  away  from  the  hive,  or  inside  the  hive  without 
combs,   are  called  swarms. 

Every  normal  colony  of  bees  in  the  active  season  consists  of  three 
classes  of  individuals,  viz.,  the  queen,  a  large  number  of  workers,  and  a 
variable  number  of  drones.        The  queen  is  the  mother  of  all   the    other 

*  According  to  French  authorities  the  scientific  names  of  these  are — for  the  first.  Cochylis 
roserana  (or  Tortrix  ambiguelH) :  for  the  second,  Eudemis  botruna:  whilst  that  of  Pyrale  U  Tortri.v 
( (Enophtira )  Pille rian a. 


114  Journal  of  Agriciiliure.  Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    1912^ 

bees  and  the  only  fully-developed  female.  The  workers  are  sexually  un- 
developed females,  and  constitute  the  largest  part  of  the  colony,  numbering: 
from  40,000  to  70,000  in  a  strong  colony  in  the  height  of  the  .sea.son. 
On  the  average,  it  takes  4,500  worker  bees  to  equal  one  pound  in  weight. 
The  drones,  which  are  of  larger  size  than  the  workers,  are  the  males,  and 
their  only  use  in  the  economy  of  the  hive  is  to  mate  with  the  virgin  queen. 
Towards  autumn,  when  they  are  no  longer  required,  or  at  anv  time  during 
a  scarcity  of  nectar,  they  are  driven  out  of  the  hive  by  the  workers  and 
left  to  die  of  starvation,  except  in  the  case  of  a  colony  with  an  old  or 
failing  queen,  or  a  queenless  stock.  Both  of  these  will  retain  their 
drones  and  also  admit  these  expelled  from  other  hives — a  provision  of 
Nature  to  enable  the  mating  of  the  future  young  queen  to  take  place. 

Life  History. 

A  knowledge  of  the  life  historv  of  bees  will  assist  any  one  to  better 
understand  what  conditions  are  necessary  to  the  highest  welfare  of  the 
colony  and  the  maximum  profit  to  the  bee-keeper.      While  such  knowledge- 

/ 


WORKER    BEE,     QUEEN    AND    DRONE    OF    THE    ITALIAN    BEE. 


will  not  take  the  place  of  practical  experience  in  the  management  of  bees,, 
it  will  form  a  good  basis  for  an  understanding  of  the  various  mani- 
pulations. 

The  bee,   like  other  insects,   goes  through   four  stages  of  development, 
viz..   (i)  egg.   (2)  larva,   (3)  chrysalis,  and  (4)  imago  or  perfect  insect. 

The  ovaries  of  the  queen  contain  up  to  500,000  eggs,  which  she 
deposits  in  the  cells  of  the  comb  during  the  breeding  sea.son — after  the 
cells  have  been  prepared  for  her  by  the  worker  bees.  The  life  of  a 
queen  bee  is  about  three  years.  Under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  she 
will  deposit  up  to  3,000  eggs  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  eggs  in  the 
ovaries  of  the  queen  are  all  alike  as  to  sex.  The  act  of  fertilization 
takes  place  in  the  oviduct  when  the  egg  is  on  its  way  out,  i.e.,  it  is  ta 
produce  a  female — a  queen  or  a  worker  bee  ;  the  egg  producing  a  drone 
is  not  fertilized.  Thus,  even  a  queen  which  has  never  met  a  drone  will, 
after  a  delav  of  two  or  three  weeks,  deposit  eggs.  None  of  these,  how- 
ever, can  produce  anything  but  drones.  This  reproduction  without  fer- 
tilization was  first  discovered  bv  Dr.  D;^ierszcn  in  1853.  It  is  knowit 
as  parthenogenesis  cr  virgin-development,  and  has  a  verv  important  hearing; 
on   practical   bee  culture. 


lo   Feb.,   191 2.] 


/^ce-kccpi/ig   ill    YictOTia. 


115 


The  drones  of  a  pure  bred  queen  of  any  rare  are  alwav.s  pure  of  the 
same  race.,  even  though  the  queen  her.self  was  mated  to  a  drone  of  a  dif- 
ferent varietty.  Thus,  by  having  one  single  pure  bred  and  purely  mated 
queen,  and  raising  from  her  eggs  a  new  queen  for  each  colonv,  the  race 
or  strain  of  bees  oi  an  entire  apiary  of  hundreds  of  colonies  may  be 
changed  in  one  season.  As  each  young  queen  is  pure  bred,  her  drone 
progeny  are  also  pure,  irrespective  of  how  she  mated.  The  following 
season  there  will  therefore  be  none  but  pure  drones  in  the  apiarv.  All 
young  queens  will  then  be  mated  to  pure  drones  ;  and,  if  from  a  ])ure 
bred  mother,  will  produce  queens,  workers,  and  drones  of  pure  race. 
The  mating  takes  place  in  the  air,  often  a  con.'^iderable  di.stance  away  from 
the  apiary,  and  some  of  the  queens  will  most  likelv  be  mis-mated  when 
other  bees  exist  wilhin  two  miles  of  the  place. 

Fertilized  eggs  are  deposited  by  the  queen  in  the  smaller  or  worker 
cells  of  the  comb;  the  cells  are  1-5  in.  in  diameter — twenty-five  to  a  .square 
inch  of  comb  surface.  Unfertile  eggs  are  laid  into  drone  cells,  which 
are  \  in.  wide — sixteen  to  the  square  inch.  By  the  use  of  full  sheets 
of  comb  foundation  in  the  frames  of  the  modern  hive,  the  raising  of 
drones  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  because  the  wax  sheets  are  embossed  with 
the  pattern  of  worker  comb  only.  Any  egg  which  is  fertilized,  and  would 
in  the  ordinary  course  produce  a  worker  bee,  can  at  the  will  of  the  nur.se 
b  es  b?  made  to  produce  a  queen,  when  necessary.  This  fact  is  made  use 
of  in  what  is  known  as  artificial  queen-rearing,  by  depriving  a  suitable 
colony  of  its  queen  and  brood  and  substituting  a  comb  containing  eggs  or 
young  larvae  from  a  queen  of  the  race  or  strain  desired. 

After  the  egg  which  produces  a  worker  is  laid,  it  remains  unaltered 
for  three  days.  It  is  then  supplied  with  a  minute  quantity  of  larval  focd 
by  the  nurse  bees,  and  a  scarcely  visible  grub  or  larvae,  which  lies  coiled 
at  the  bottom  of  the  cell  in  the  shape  of  the  small  c  of  ordinary  type 
emerges.  It  grows  rapidlv  ;  and,  on  the  sixth  day  after  emerging  from 
the  egg,  it  assumes  an  upright  position  in  the  cell.  The  worker  bees  cap 
the  cell  with  a  paper-like  substance,  the  grub  meanwhile  spinning  a  cocoon 
round  itself  in  the  cell.  The  young  bee  has  now  entered  the  third  or 
chrysalis  stage,  from  which  it  emerges  as  the  perfect  insect,  eighteen  days 
from  the  time  the  larva  first  appeared,  or  twenty-one  days  since  the  egg 
was  laid.  In  the  case  of  the  queen,  the  time  of  development  is  five  davs 
less,  i.e.,  three  days  in  the  egg  stage,  six  days  in  the  larval  state,  and 
seven  days  as  chrysalis,  or  sixteen  days  in  all  from  the  time  the  egg  was 
laid  to  the  young  queen  emerging  from  the  sealed  cell. 

The  drone  is  in  the  egg  for  three  days,  larva  seven  days,  and  chrysalis 
fourteen  days,  or  a  total  of  twenty-four  to  twenty-five  days  from  the  egg 
to  the  perfect  in.sect.  The  following  table  mav  be  useful  in  showing  the 
variations  in  the  time  of   development:  — 


Ni'MBER  OF  Days  cif 

DkyeluP-ment. 

In  the  Egg-. 

Larva.              Sealed  Cell.              Total. 

Worker  Bee  ...              ...             ...          3  days 

Qaeen              ...               .               ...          3     « 

Urone              ...              ..               ...          3     " 

1                             1 
6  days            12  days       1     'J  1  days 

6  .                  1     „                16     „ 

7  „               U     „          i     24     „ 

i                        1 

{To  be  continued.) 


ni6  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    1912. 

VINE   DISEASES   IN   FRANCE. 

{Continued  from  page  jO.) 

F.   de   Castella,  Government   Viticulturist. 

FUNGICIDE    SPRAYS— coji//««ec?. 

French  Bordeaux  Mixture  or  Copper-Lime. 

The  usual  formula  is: — Sulphate  of  copper,  6  lbs.  ;  quicklime.  3  lbs.  ; 
water,  30  to  40  gallons;  according  as  one  wants  a  2  per  cent,  or  a  ij  per 
cent,  mixture.  The  copper  sulphate  is  dissolved  in  the  greater  part  of 
the  water  and  a  milk  of  lime  made  with  the  balance;  the  latiter  is  poured 
into  the  former  in  a  thin  stream,  with  constant  stirring.  Authorities  are 
emphatic  as  to  the  necessity  of  pouring  the  lime  into  the  copper  sulphate  ; 
if  the  reverse  were  done,  a  coarser  grained  and  less  adherent  form  of  copper 
hydroxide  would  be  obtained. 

The  chief  difificulty  in  properly  preparing  the  mixture  is  due  to  the 
variable  composition  of  the  lime ;  it  is,  on  this  account,  impossible  to 
exactly  gauge  the  proper  quantity  by  weight.  The  correctness  of  the  lime 
dose  is  of  vital  importance.  If  too  little  is  used  the  mixture  will  be  acid 
and  burn  the  foliage ;  if  too  much,  it  will  be  alkaline,  less  adherent,  and 
\vill  not  run  through  the  spray  nozzles  so  easily.  Exact  neutrality  is. 
most  desirable ;  in  order  to  obtain  it,  a  slight  excess  of  milk  of  lime  should 
be  prepared,  which  is  added  carefully  until  neutralization  is  shown  by  an 
indicator.  Litmus  paper  may  be  used  for  the  purpose,  but  phenolphthalein 
papert  is  more  convenient,  the  pink  colour  to  which  it  changes  being  more 
readily  noticed  than  the  blue  of  the  litmius.  The  following  instructions 
are  conci.se  and  easily  followed.  They  are  taken  from  a  sheet,  distributed 
by   the  Viticultural   Station  at  Lausanne   (Switzerland)  : — • 

Weigh  2  lbs.  of  bluestone,  and  dissolve  in  5  gallons  of  water  in  an  open  cask,  in 
which  the  10  gallon  level  is  marked  by  a  peg.  Solution  is  facilitated  by  suspend- 
ng  the  bluestone  in  a  basket  just  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  a  day  beforehand. 
Thoroughly  mix  the  blue  liquid  so  as  to  have  an  even  solution. 

Take  about  2  lbs.  of  quicklime  and  place  it  in  another  tub ;  slake  it  gradually 
with  small  quantities  of  water  at  a  time;  when  thoroughly  slaked,  make  up  to  about 
5  gallons  with  water  and  stir  carefully  so  as  to  make  a  thin  milk  of  lime. 

Prepare  the  mi.xture,  dipping  out  the  milk  of  lime  with  a  dipper  and  pouring" 
it  through  a  fine  sieve  into  the  bluestone  solution,  carefully  stirring  with  a  stick,. 
meanwhile  ;  do  not  dip  too  deeply  into  the  lime,  so  as  to  avoid  lumps.  As  soon. 
as  a  couple  of  gallons  have  been  thus  added,  an  assistant  (a  child  will  do)  with 
clean  hands  and  who  has  particularly  avoided  touching  either  bluestone  or  lime, 
takes  a  strip  of  the  white  indicator  paper,  cuts  off  a  small  piece,  and  drops  it  into 
the  mixture.  Usually,  if  the  milk  is  thin  enough,  the  first  piece  remains  white. 
The  operator  then  adds  more  milk,  stirring  well.  The  assistant  drops  in  a  second 
fragment  of  the  paper,  and  so  on  until  the  piece  of  paper  becomes  pink  ;  the  other 
pieces  previously  dropped,  change  colour  also.  There  is  now  enough  lime  ;  make 
up  to  10  gallons  with  pure  water  and  stir  well.  The  rest  of  the  milk  of  lime  may 
be  thrown  away. 

Thanks  to  the  indicator  paper,  weighing  the  lime  may  be  dispensed  with ;  alt 
that  is  necessary  is  good,   fresh  lime,   from  a  builder,   slaked  to  a  very  thin  milk. 

If  one  is  prevented  from  using  the  mixture  at  once,  add,  to  every  10  gallons, 
2  ozs.  of  sugar  dissolved  in  a  little  water.  This  will  cause  it  to  keep  its  power  for 
several  weeks.        It  is,  nevertheless,  better  to  use  freshly  prepared  mixture. 

Many  sub.stances  in  addition  to  sugar  are  often   added  to  increase  adher- 
ence.     Gelatine  seems  to  be  one  of  those  which  has  most  to  recommend  it. 

t  strips  of  white  blotting  pipL'rdippel  in  a  '2  jer  cent,  .solution  of  Phfnolpluh.ilein  and  allowed  to. 
dry,  make  a  very  g-ood  indicator. 


lo  Feb.,    19 1 2.]  Vine  Diseases  in  France.  u-j 

Burgundy  Mixture  (Copper-Soda). 

The  chief  objection  to  this  mixture  is  its  rapid  deterioration,  especially 
in  hot  weather.  It  must  therefore  be  prepared  in  small  quantities,  as  re- 
quired. The  usual  formula  is  : — Copper  sulphate,  2  lbs.  ;  crystallized 
carbonate  of  soda  (common  washing  soda),  2|  lbs.  ;  and  water,  10  gallons. 
Owing  to  the  variable  composition  of  washing  soda,  it  is  better  to  proceed 
according  to  the  last  directions  given  for  Bordeaux  mixture,  checking 
neutrality  with  phenolphthalein  paper.  The  sheet  quoted  above  recom- 
mends the  use  of  water  free  soda  (Solvay  soda)  instead  of  washing  soda. 
Two  solutions  are  made,  one  of  2  lbs.  copper  sulphate  in  5  gallons  water, 
and  one  of  i  lb.  of  Salvoy  soda  in  5  gallons  of  water.  The  second  is 
poured  into  the  first  with  constant  stirring. 

Any  dry  spraying  substance,  from  previous  lots,  causes  rapid  deteriora- ■ 
tion ;  all  vessels  must,  therefore,  be  kept  thoroughly  clean.  The  addition 
of  sugar  will  have  no  effect  in  keeping  it  in  good  order,  as  with  Bordeaux, 
but  cream  of  tartar  or  Rochelle  salt  may  be  used  for  the  purpose;  2  ozs. 
of  whichever  salt  is  preferred  should  be  dissolved  in  the  water  for  the 
second  solution  before  the  Solvay  soda  is  added.  In  other  respects,  the 
preparation  is  the  same.  The  addition  of  either  of  the  above  salts  will 
enable  the  copper  soda  mixture  to  keep  for  a  few  days.  Any  copper  soda 
mixture  whicli  shows  a  heavy  greenish  sediment  is  useless,  since  it  will  no 
longer  adhere. 

According  to  R.  Brunett  {Revue  de  Viticulture,  19th  January,  191 1), 
Burgundy  growers  were  dissatisfied,  last  season,  with  copper  soda,  which 
they  have  hitherto  mainly  used,  and  are  preparing  to  adopt  Bordeaux 
mixture  in  future. 

Copper-Soap  Mixtures. 

Owing  to  its  alkalinity,  soap  can  take  the  place  of  lime  or  soda  in  the 
preparation  of  copper  mixtures.  Its  action  in  lowering  surface  tension 
augments  the  wetting  power  considerably,  and  this  is  perhaps  the  main 
advantage  to  be  derived  from  its  use.  Adherence  is  good  whilst  fresh,  but 
diminishes  rapidly  with  keeping.  Like  copper-soda,  copper-soap  must  be 
prepared  immediately  before  it  is  used.  Equal  quantities  of  copper 
sulphate  and  soap  powder  are  used.  For  a  i|  per  cent,  mixture  this  would 
mean,  for  every  10  gallons  of  water,  \\  lbs.  copper  sulphate,  and  \\  lbs. 
powdered  soap.  Dissolve  each  substance  in  5  gallons  of  water  and  mix 
thoroughly,  pouring  soap  into  copper,  not  the  reverse.* 

Copper- soap  mixtures  are  not  new  ;  they  have  been  in  favour  in  some 
quarters  since  first  recornimended  by  M.  G.  Lavergne  at  the  close  of  the 
last  century,  but  they  have  not  come  into  very  general  use.  Se\-eral  of 
the  proprietary  spray  powders,  which  merely  require  mixing  with  water  to 
be  ready  for  use,  are  mixtures  of  soap  and  copper  sulphate. 

Quite  recently.  MM.  "\>rmorel  and  Dantony  have  recommended  a  new 
aopp\?r-soapt  which  seems  to  have  much  to  recommend  it.  It  is  of 
colloidal  nature;  when  diluted,  it  wets  well  and  does  not  deteriorate  on 
keeping.      It  is  prepared  as  follows  :  — 

Dissolve  I  lb.  of  copper  sulphate  in  10  gallons  of  water;  dissolve  4  lbs.  soan  (free 
from  alkali  in  excess)  in  10  gallons  of  water.  Pour  the  copper  into  the  soap  (con- 
trary to  the  usual  practice).  Opertain^  thus,  instead  of  the  usual  voluminous, 
grealsy  precipitate  of  copper  soap,  one  obtains  an  opaque,  greeny-blue  liquid,  with 
a  surface  tension  as  low  as  plain  soap  solution,  which  wets  the  bunches  just  as 
alcohol  would 

*  I..  Dearullx .  Progres  Agricole,  24th  .\pril,  1910. 
t  Revue  de  Viticulture,  1st  June,  1911. 


Journal  of  Agncidturt: ,  Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    191  2. 


The  kind  of  soap  used  is  important  ;  it  should  be  as  rich  as  possible  in 
oleate  of  soda  and  free  from  alkali  in  excess.  Australian  soaps,  mostly 
piade  from  animal  fat,  would  probajbly  prove  unsuitable  for  the  purpose, 
since  tihey  contain  much  soda  stearate. 

Stearate  of  soda  .  .  .  renders  the  preparation  of  colloidal  copper  soap 
difficult.  In  a  general  way,  stearate  should  be  proscribed  from  all  insecticide 
or  fungicide  formula?  containing  soap.  Our  e.xperimetits  show  that  its  presence 
brings  about  an  im])ortant  increase  in  surface  tension  and  a  decrease  in  the  solu- 
bility co-efficient. 

Acetate  of  Copper  or  "  Verdet." 

Two  sorts  of  acetate  of  copper  have  come  into  prominence  of  late  years 
for  spraying  purposes.  The.se  are  the  neutral  acetate,  known  in  French  as 
verdet  iieutre,  and  what  is  known  as  vcrdct  gris,  which  is  a  mixture  of 
several  basic  acetates.  This  substance,  of  which  the  English  common 
name  is  verdigris,  has  long  been  used  by  colour  manufacturers,  calico 
dyers,  &c.  Its  mianufacture  constituted  an  important  industry 
in  Southerii  France  manv  vears  ago,  where  it  was  a  by-product 
of  wane-making,  Ijeing  obtained  bv  treating  copper  plates  with  grape- 
marc  which  had  undergone  acetic  fertmentation.  It  is  therefore 
rather  curious  that  it  should  now  turn  out  to  be  a  valuable  specific 
for  the  treatment  of  vine  diseases.  This  use,  in  fact,  appears  likely  to 
bring  about  the  revival  of  the  almost  extinct  verdigris  industry. 

Neutral  acetate  is  readily  soluble  in  water;  verdet  gris,  though  not 
soluble,  mixes  readily  with  water  to  form  a  sort  of  semi-solution. 

In  water,  the  basic  verdets  do  not  give  a  true  solution,  such  as  neutral  acetate 
does.  Hydration  i)henomena  occur;  the  viscous  paste  at  first  formed,  if  diluted 
slightly,  becomes  colloidal.  If  maceration  is  sufficiently  prolonged  and  the  quantity 
of  water  is  sufficient,  dissociation  brings  about  the  separation  of  a  soluble  part 
which  colours  the  solution  blue  (neutral  acetate)  and  light  flakes  which  float  in  it, 
gradually  falling  tc  the  bottom,  but  which  the  slightest  agitation  again  places  in 
suspension.      .      .      .* 

Both  substances  constitute  excellent  fungicides.  On  the  whole, 
p.eutral  verdet  is  most  highly  recommended  by  authorities.  Though  quite 
soluble,  its  adherence  is  satisfactory,  owing  to  a  partial  decomposition 
which   takes   place   after   spraying. 

The  copper  salt'  must  undergo  a  chemical  change  and  pass  from  a  soluble  to  an 
insoluble  colloid  state,  in  order  that  it  may  both  adhere  to  the  surface  and  set  free 
a    sufficient    quantity    of    copper    to    contaminate    the    water    drops    in    which    conidia 

and    zoospores  might  (otherwise)  germinate With  neutral    verdet  it  is   an 

insoluble  and  colloid  basic  acetate  which  is  s])ontaneously  produced  after  spraying; 
whereas  with  dilute  liquid  mi.xtures  of  basic  verdets,  it  is  a  mixture,  difficult  to 
define,  so  far  as  proportions  are  concerned,  of  copper  hj-droxide,  gelatinous  basic 
acetate  and  soluble  neutral  acetate,  the  latter  itself  giving  rise  to  the  insoluble 
basic  salt  (Bencker).* 

Sufficient  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  verdets  should  constitute  an 
excellent  sprav,  insoluble  enough  to  insure  adherence,  and  yet  soluble 
enough  to  constitute  a  powerful  germicide.  These  theoretical  considera- 
tions have  been  am.ply  borne  out  in  practice,  and  the  verdets  are  coming 
into  general  use  in  France.  In  Switzerland,  where  downy  mildew  is 
particularlv  virulent,  they  are  held  in  high  esteem.  Either  the  soluble 
(neutral),   the  insoluble   (verdet   gris),   or  a  mixture   of  the   two  are  u.sed. 


*  A.  riejeanne — Les  Verdets.     Revue  de  Viticiitture,  3Uth  June,  lOl*"'. 

*  Ibid. 


]0   Feb..    jgi2.]  Vine  Diseases  i)i  France.  119 

The  solutions  or  semi-solutions  are  very  fluid,  and  never  clog  sprav 
nozzles. 

Being  richer  in  metallic  copper*  than  sulphate,  considerably  less  is 
required.  In  other  words,  \erdet  may  be  looked  upon  as  being  twice 
as  strong  as  sulphate,  so  that  i  Ih.  to  10  gals,  of  water  (i  per  cent.) 
would  be  equivalent  to  a  Bordeaux  mixture  containing  2  lbs.  to  10  gals. 
Preparation  is  almost  instantaneous  and  very  simple;  it  is  only  necessary 
to  thoroughly  mix  with  a  small  quantity  of  water  for  a  few  moments,  and 
then  to  dilute  to  the  required  bulk. 

As  ^•erdet  does  not  lea\e  such  \-isible  marks  on  the  sprayed  plants  as 
copper-lime  or  copper-soda,  supervision  of  the  work  done  is  more  diffi- 
cult. This  slight  defect  is  easily  corrected  by  the  addition  of  plaster 
of  Paris  at  the  rate  of  h  lb.  to  10  gals,  of  .spray  mixture. 


POTATO  DIGGING  MACHINES. 

G.    Scyiimiir,   Potato   Expert. 

The  harvesting  of  the  potato  crop  by  hand  has  always  proved  a  tedious 
and  expensive  operation.  Especiallv  so  has  this  been  the  case  in  late 
years,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  labour,  and  the  indifferent  manner  in  which 
the  work  is  carried  out  by  those  available.  Rates  for  this  w-ork  have 
increased  during  the  last  20  years  bv  50  per  cent,  to  75  per  cent.  This 
increase,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  the  delay  has  frequently  caused  the 
har\-esting  to  be  prolonged  into  the  wet  season,  and  thereby  injuring  the 
condition  of  the  soil  for  the  succeeding  cereal  crop,  especially  barley,  has 
created  a  want  for  a  satisfactory  potato-raising  machine  The  following 
points,  .some  of  which  have  hitherto  proved  insurmountable,  are  required 
in  a  satisfactorv  digger  :  — 

1.  That  it  shall   lift  the  crop  clean   from  the  soil   and  not  cover  those   lifted. 

2.  That   it   shall    leave   them   in   convenient   rows   for   ])icking   u\>. 

3.  That    it    shall    not   bruise    or   damage   the    tubers. 

4.  That  it   shall   leave   the   land   in   a   level   and   workable   condition. 

Inventors  have  followed  two  well-defined  lines  in  their  efforts  to  solve 
the.se  problems.  One  is  the  separation  of  the  tubers  from  the  soil, 
generallv  by  scattering  them  to  one  side  of  the  machine;  the  other,  by 
raising  the  soil  and  tubc^rs  as  with  a  scoop  or  shovel  and  passing  the 
whole  on  to  an  endless  band  or  elevator  provided  with  spaces  for  the  soil 
to  pass  through,  the  tubers  being  deposited  in  a  neat  row  at  the  rear  of 
the  machine.  The  soil  is  returned  to  its  place  again,  leaving  the 
field  quite  level. 

The  history  of  potato- raising  machinery  is  one  of  manv  failures  and 
some  partial  successes.  Probably  the  most  primitive  attempt  was  die 
potato  plough  made  by  Howard  and  others  more  than  40  years  ago.  This 
was  as  simple  as  it  was  possible  to  make  it,   being  neither  more  nor  less 

*  Neutral  acetate  contains  31-7  per  cent,  of  copper.  Verdet  .ijris,  which  is  a  mixture  of  bi-,  sesqui-,  and 
tri-basic  acetato  varie<?  somewhat  accordins;  to  the  preponderance  of  one  or  other  of  these  salts  ;  if  pure,  its 
copper  stren^nh  varies  between  34  and  35  per  cent.  The  coiMuercial  form  contains  abcut  33  per  cent. 
(Dejeanne). 


I20  Joiirtial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,   1912. 

than  the  sole  and  sock  of  an  ordinary  drill  plough  with  a  series  of  grids 
instead  of  breasts.  The  action  of  the  grids  was  to  raise  the  tubers  to 
the  surface  as  the  plough  passed  along  the  drill  under  the  crop.  Given 
a  friable  soil  and  dry  weather,  this  implement  gave  satisfactory  results  as 
far  as  recovering  the  tubers  was  concerned.  One  serious  drawback  was 
that  it  left  the  land  in  a  succession  of  ridges,  and  made  it  impossible  to 
restore  the  field  to  its  former  condition. 

This  drawback  was  recgnised  and  an  effort  was  made  nearly  40  years 
ago  to  overcome  it  by  Mr.  Cockerell,  of  Morang,  who  invented  an  attach- 
ment for  the  ordinary  single  plough.  It  may  be  described  as  a  wheel 
through  which  the  upturned  sod  containing  the  tubers  had  to  pass ;  this 
wheel  was  fitted  with  short  spokes  or  prongs.  The  machine  was  put  on 
the  market  with  the  very  comprehensive  title  of  "  Cockerell 's  Prize  Patent 
Potato  Raiser  and  Setter,  Moulder-up  and  Land  Cleaner,"  and  was 
awarded  First  Prize  at  Smeaton  Agricultural  Show  in  November,  1873. 
As  a  DOtato  raiser,   it  nroved  a  failure. 


JACK'S    IMPERIAL    POTATO    DIGGER. 

The  urgent  necessity  of  some  mechanical  means  of  harvesting  the  potato 
crop  was  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  Government  in  1891  by  the  Wert 
Bourke  and  olher  Agricultural  Societies,  with  the  result  that  the  sum  of 
^^250  was  offered  in  prizes  for  a  machine  capable  of  lifting  the  tubers 
without  damage  or  lo  s.  A  trial  was  arranged,  and  took  place  at 
Romsey  on  12th  July.  1892.  Forty-eight  machines  entered  for  the  com- 
petition, but  only  10  put  in  an  appearance.  The  judges'  report  stated 
that  only  3  of  the  machines  entered  did  work  that  came  near  the  condi- 
tions laid  down.      These  were: — - 

1.  F.   W.   Lee,  of  Woodend,  who  was  awarded  ^^25. 

2.  Garde   &   Chrystal,    "  The   Boss,"   ^20. 

3.  John    Hatch,    "  The    Hoover,"    ;^2o. 

The  machine  entered  by  Mr.  Lee  was  a  purelv  Victorian  invention,  and 
was  probably  the  first  attempt  to  raise  the  potato  crop  mechanicalh  bv 
forks.  This  machine  gives  satisfaction  in  dry  friable  soils.  The  other 
two  machines  were  of  American  make,  the  "  Boss  "  being  what  is  known 
as  the  spinner  pattern,  and  very  similar  to  machines  made  by  Alex.  Jack 
and  Sons,  of  Maybole,  Scotland.  The  object  of  this  and  the  fork  type 
is  to  remove  the  tubers  from  the  ground  without  handling  the  .soil.        The 


lo  Feb.,   191^-] 


Potato  Digging  Machines. 


Hoover,  on  the  otht-r  hand,  elevaies  the  tubers  and  soil  together,   trusting 
to  the  former  passing  through  spaces  between  tlie  bars  on  the  elevators. 

As  stated,  the  "Boss  "  was  of  the  spinner  pattern.  It  was  fitted  with 
a  strong  share  that  passes  under  the  drill,  the  upraised  crop  coming  in 
contact  with  a  set  of  arms  forked  at  the  end.  These  are  attached  to  a 
wheel  that  revolves  rapidly,  scattering  the  tubers  on  the  surface  up  lo 
6  ft.  in  breadth.  This  great  width  makes  the  work  of  gathering  the  crop 
very  tedious,  but  a  more  serious  objection  is  the  large  quantity  of  tubers 
bruised  by  the  rapidly  revolving  arms.  The  Hoover  or  elevator  principle 
has  many  points  to  commend  it.  This  machine  is  fitted  with  a  shovel - 
like  share,  which  passes  under  the  drill  and  raises  the  soil  and  tubers  on 
to  an  elevator,  through  which  the  earth  falls  as  it  is  carried  along  by  an 
endless  belt  fitted  with  slats.  The  tubers  are  deliveied  at  the  rear  of 
the  machine  in  an  even  row,  no  wider  than  the  space  in  which  thev  grew, 
and  very  convenient  for  gathering.  This,  together  with  the  fact  tnat, 
when  working  at  the  proper  depth,  the  tubers  are  not  damaged,  seemea 
to  stamp  it  as  the  most  perfect  machine  for  the  purpose.  But  when  the 
land  is  wet  the  bars  of  the  elevator  soon  become  clogged,  with  the  result 
thai;  the  whole  of  the  tubers  and  the  earth  are  carried  up  the  elevator 
which  soon  becomes 
blocked  up ;  the 
draught  is  increased 
so  enormously  that 
requires  four  horses 
to  work  the  ma- 
chine. 

On  reference  to 
the  illustrations,  it 
will  be  noticed  that 
the  Lee  machine 
digs  with  two  forks. 
In  this  respect  it 
imitates  hand  dig- 
ging very  closely. 
The  forks  throw  the  tubers  on  to  a  grid  where  they  are  separ.;ted  from  the 
soil  and  left  in  a  row  clear  of  the  track  where  the  horses  walk,  so  that 
digging  may  proceed  whether  the  tubers  are  picked  up  or  1  ot.  The  in- 
ventor of  this  machine  has  made  some  impro\ements  recently  which  he 
claims  will  render  it  perfect. 

Until  about  two  years  ago  no  important  improvement  was  to  be  found 
in  potato-raising  machinerv  since  the  Royal  Agricultural  Societv  of  Eng- 
land's trial  in  1896.  held  at  Leicester.  However,  several  new  designs 
have  come  on  the  market.  This  society  carried  out  trials  at  Littleworth 
on  27th  September,  191 1.  One  of  the  machines  at  this  competition, 
made  by  Alex.  Jack  and  Sons,  was  on  the  Harder  principle.  As  this 
machine  was  noticed  by  the  Hon.  the  Premier  when  in  the  past  season 
in  Scotland  to  be  doing  very  .'5at'sfactorv  work,  he  purchased  one  and  for- 
warded it  to  Melbourne. 

A  vtry  satisfactory  trial  of  this  machine  was  held  at  Messrs.  Clem-ent 
Bros.'  Market  Garden,  South  Oakleigh,  on  29th  November.  The  soil, 
a  very  hard  sandy  loam,  put  the  machine  to  a  good  test  as  regards 
draught,  which  was  satisfactory  as  it  was  worked  by  two  medium  draught 
horses  without  strain.     The  crop  was  a  light  one,   with  a  fair  amount  of 


LEE   S    POTATO    DIGGER. 


122 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo   P'eb..    1 91 2. 


weeds  and  haulm.      The  work  done  was  very  satisfactory — a  trial  with  the 
fork  proved  that  the  crop  lifted  clean  without  bruising  or  damage. 

A  second  trial  was  held  at  Mr.  Crowe's  farm  at  Crossley,  in  a  light 
friable  soil  very  suitable  for  machine  digging.  The  crop  here  was  very 
light,   and  the  field   free   from  weeds.        The    trial   was    witnessed    by    a 

large  number  of  local  growers. 
whO'  expressed  themselves 
well  pleased  with  the  work. 

A  further  trial  was  held  at 
Messrs.  Callaghan  Bros. 
farm  at  Wollaston,  near 
^^'arrnambool.  This  trial 
was  under  more  difficult  con- 
ditions. The  soil  was  rather 
lumpy,  and  there  was  also  a 
fairly  heavy  growth  of  talf 
weeds  and  green  potato  tops. 
The  crop  was  an  average  one 
containing  a  high  percentage 
of  large  tubers.  These  con- 
ditions gave  the  machine  a 
se\ere  test  on  the  most  vital 
points,  viz.,  cleanness  of  digging,  .small  amount  of  damage  tO'  crop,  ability 
to  handle  weeds  and  green  plants-  and  level  condition  of  land  after  the 
machine. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  bottom  of  the  drill  after  the  machine 
showed  that  fewer  potatoes,  were  left  in  the  ground  than  by  ordinar\-  fork 
digging.  Three  drills,  each  about  seven  chains  long,  were  carefully 
examined,    and  only   21    tubers   cut   by   the  share  could   be   found.       Two 


ransome's  rotary  potato  digger. 


HOOVER  POTATO  DIGGER. 


bags  were  turned  out  and  examined  carefully  for  potatoes  damaged  by 
the  forks,  but  none  were  fonnd.  The  result  of  these  trials  must  be  con- 
sidered very  satisfactory,  and  proves  that  this  machine  is  a  great  improve- 
ment on  any  yet  tried  in  this  State.  The  leading  growers  at  these  trials 
expressed  themselves  highly  pleased  with  the  way  the  crops  were  handled 
under  different  conditions  of  soil  and  crop. 


lo  Feb.,    191^-]  Farm  BlacksniiiJiDi^.  123 

FARM  BLACKSMITHING. 

{Continued   from   page   5./.) 

George   Baxter,    Instructor   in   Blacksmitking,    Working    Men's    College, 

.1/ el  bourne. 

v.— WELDING   (continued). 

Lengthening  Bolts. 

In  the  article  in  the  January  i.ssue  mention  was  made  of  lengthening 
or  shortening  a  bolt  by  welding.  The  success  of  doing  this  is  dependent 
to  a  great  extent  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  scarf  is  formed.  Whilst 
a  bolt  is  taken  here  as  an  illustration,  the  form  of  procedure  would  be 
similar  if  pieces  of  square,  flat,  or,  in  fact,  almost  any  shaped  bars  re- 
quired to  be  joined  together.  This  form  of  scarf  is  known  by  the  name 
of  the  lapped  scarf. 

So  that  the  finished  bolt  may  be  of  the  required  length,  allowance  must 
be  made  for  the  waste  of  material  which,  as  previously  mentioned,  occurs 
during  welding.  In  nearly  all  cases  this  can  be  taken  as  the  thickness 
of  the  bar.  Certainly  there  are  exceptions  to  the  rule,  but  as  some  of 
the  more  intricate  are  not  likely  to  occur  in  the  simpler  and  comparatively 
rough  work  of  a  farm,  no  mention  need  be  made  of  them.  To  do  so, 
might  have  a  tendency  to  bewilder  the  amateur  smith,  and  consequently 
the  information  would  be  more  harmful   than  beneficial. 

Still  using  the  bolt  as  an  illu.stration,  let  it  be  suppo.sed  that  one  2  ft. 
in  length  is  required  and  that  another  8  in.  long  is  at  hand.  It  would 
then  be  far  easier  to  lengthen  it  than  to  make  a  new  one  outright.  A  start 
would  be  made  by  cutting  the  existing  bolt  in  two  at  the  middle  section. 
Then  obtain  a  piece  of  iron  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  bolt.  It  need 
not  be  of  any  particular  length,  excepting  that  it  should  be  longer  than 
is  required  to  make  up  the  deficiency. 

Take  hold  of  the  bolt  head  in  a  pair  of  tongs  and  the  plain  bar  by 
the  hand,  or,  if  too  short  for  that,  in  another  pair  of  tongs.  Then  place 
both  in  the  fire  in  such  a  position  that  the  length  of  the  heated  part  wil! 
be  about  2  in.  When  a  white  heat  has  been  reached  take  either  to  the 
anvil  for  the  purpose  of  scarfing  ;  but,  previous  to  shaping  the  scarf, 
upsetting  or  "  jumping  up  "  is  necessary.  This  means  thickening  the 
part  at  and  adjacent  to  the  weld.  This  is  necessary  to  ensure  having 
the  welded  part  equally  as  strong  as  the  remaining  portion  of  the  bolt. 

In  the  several  cases  of  welding  already  dealt  with,  it  would  he  ob- 
served that  a  reduction  of  sectional  area  had  taken  place,  particularly  at 
the  part  where  the  point  of  the  scarf  joins  the  other  bar.  Therefore,  it 
is  Aveaker  there  than  anywhere  else.  In  the  case  of  a  bolt  where  there  is 
great  longitudinal  strain  placed  upon  it  by  tightening  up  the  nut,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  have  the  weld  securelv  made  without  any  reduction 
in    size. 

If  the  head  be  the  first  piece  taken  from  the  fire,  the  upsetting  is  best 
accomplished  by  standing  the  heid  on  the  anvil  in  an  upright  position 
and  striking  the  heated  end  with  the  hammer  until  it  becomes  increased 
to  about  one  and  a  quarter  times  its  original   diameter:    e.g..  if  the  bolt 


124 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo   Feb.,    1912. 


be  I  in.,  then  the  end  would  be  upset  to  f  in.  diameter  at  the  point.  At 
the  same  time,  it  would  gradually  become  smaller  as  the  distance  from  the 
end  increased,  until  the  original  diameter  of  the  bolt  is  reached,  which 
would  be  where  the  heat  does  not  rise  sufficiently  high  to  assume  the  red 
colour. 

If  the  plain  bar  be  long  enough  to  conveniently  hold  in  the  hand 
without  burning  it,  the  best  means  of  upsetting  it  is  to  catch  hold  of  the 
cold  end  and  hold  it  in  a  vertical  position.  By  repeatedly  raising  it  to 
a  good  height  and  bringing  the  heated  end  down  with  as  much  force  as 
possible,  it  will  become  enlarged.  In  most  cases,  the  bar  will  bend  before 
being  sufficiently  upset,  but  it  can  be  straightened  and  the  upsetting  pro- 
ceeded with. 

To  form  the  scarf,  the  best  plan  is  to  follow  each  successive  step 
shown  in  Fig.  47,  where  a  shows  the  bar  upset,  b  with  the  end  bent  so 
as  to  be  conveniently  struck  with  the  hand-hammer  in  the  direction  and 
position  of  the  arrow,  whilst  c  shows  the  shape  made  with  the  hammer, 
as  well  as  the  fuller  in  its  place  tO'  receive  the  first  blow.       As  each  blow 


M 


47.    LENGTHENING     BOLT. 

a.  Bar  upset.  6.  End  bent  tor  striking  with  hammer.  c.  Sliape  made  with  hammer.  Fuller 
in  position  to  receive  the  first  blow.  d.  Effect  of  using  fuller.  e  and  /.  Correct  position  for 
hammering. 

is  delivered,  the  fuller  is  moved  slightly  forward,  leaving  in  its  trail  a 
succession  of  little  steps  as  shown  at  d.  It  should  always  be  the  object 
of  the  operator  to  obtain  the  shape  shown,  for  a  bad  weld  is  sure  to  follow 
a  badly  formed  scarf. 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  also  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
pieces  are  laid  together ;  e  and  /  show  the  correct  position  previous  to 
hammering.  For  welding  small  iron,  the  hand-hammer  is  heavy  enough, 
but  the  blows  should  be  delivered  as  quickly  as  possible  so  that  the  union 
is  made  complete  before  the  temperature  has  fallen  below  the  welding 
point.  If  it  is  noticed  that  the  weld  is  only  partially  made,  then  the 
work  should  be  returned  immediately  to  the  fire  and  again  raised  to  the 
welding   heat    and    hammered. 

When  a  weld  is  properly  made,  there  should  be  no  part  of  the  scarf 
visible.  If  that  is  the  case  and  the  size  has  been  maintained,  then  there 
will  be  no  reduction  of  strength. 

Before  welding  on  the  screwed  end,  the  proper  length  should  be 
measured  off,   making  sufficient   allowance  for   the  waste.        To  upset   the 


10   Feb.,    191 2.]  Farm  Blacks niithing.  125 

screwed  end,  proceed  as  directed  for  the  head,  with  the  exception  that 
a  block  of  hardwood  should  be  substituted  for  the  anvil  as  the  latter 
would  damage  the  thread. 

Maul   Rings. 

Maul  rings  may  be  made  by  bending  and  welding  either  iron  or  mild 
steel,  or  from  a  solid  bar  of  mild  steel  by  splitting  and  forging.  The 
first  named  is  the  more  common  method  adopted. 

The  ring  made  from  the  solid  bar  of  mild  steel  is  the  strongest,  but 
entails  considerably  more  labour  than  one  made  by  bending  and  welding, 
either  from  the  same  material  or  from  iron.  One  made  from  iron  on  the 
splitting  and  forging  principle  would  be  weaker  than  a  bent  and  welded 
one.  This  is  entirely  due  to  the  nature  of  the  materials ;  iron  is  fibrous, 
whilst  mild  steel  is  granular  in  structure.  Mild  steel  is  equally  strong 
in  all  directions,  but  iron  is  weakest  when  the  strain  is  opposed  to  the 
direction  of  the  fibre.  To  obtain  the  greatest  amount  of  strength  when 
iron  is  used,  the  ring  should  be  bent  and  welded.  By  this  means  the 
fibre  is  placed  in  the  best  position  to  resist  the  internal  pressure. 


MAUL    RING. 
a.  Ends  up.set.         h  and  c.  Bending.        d.  Fini-^hed  ring. 

Mild  steel  possesses  greater  strength  than  iron,  as  well  as  the  pro- 
perty of  being  drawn  out,  punched,  split  and  forged  without  the  liability 
of  bursting  apart,  as  iron  would  if  similarly  treated.  It  is  therefore 
especially  adapted  for  intricate  forgings,  or  where  strength  combined  with 
lightness  is  desirable,  as  in  the  case  of  bridges,  girders,  agricultural 
machinery,   &c. 

To  make  an  iron  ring,  the  first  consideration  is  the  length  of  the  bar. 
A  suitable  size  of  bar  is  i  in.  x  \  in.  The  ends  are  upset  in  the  same 
manner  as  described  above,  one  end  being  scarfed  and  the  other  slightly 
bent,  as  shown  in'  Fig.  48  a.  It  is  then  further  bent  like  h,  and  after- 
wards heated  along  the  straight  part,  and  bent  as  at  c.  When  thus 
formed,  it  is  ready  for  the  welding  heat,  which  is  rather  more  difficult  to 
obtain  than  any  form  of  welding  previously  dealt  with.  ^  It  requires  close 
attention  whilst  in  the  fire.  It  will  be  found  by  practice  that  flat  bars 
are  always  harder  to  weld  than  square  or  round  ones. 

After  heating,  it  is  first  placed  on  the  beak  of  the  anvil  and  vigorous 
blows  are  directed  on  to  the  scarfed  part,  when  it  is  removed  to  the  face 
of  the  anvil,  and  knocked  down  edgewavs,  and  also  on  the  inside  at  the 
point  of  the  scarf,  with  the  hand-hammer.  When  the  weld  is  completed, 
the  rino;  should  be  rounded  on  the  beak. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [io   Feb.,    1912. 


To  make  a  solid  mild  steel  ring  of  the  same  dimensions,  a  piece  of 
i\  in.  s(]uare  steel  would  be  necessary.  In  order  to  make  it  the  right 
size,  it  is  requisite  that  the  quantity  of  metal  be  calculated.  This  may 
be  done  as  follows: — Ascertain  the  cubical  contents  of  the  ring  and  divide 
the  product  bv  the  cross  sectional  area  of  the  bar  it  is  to  be  made  from. 
If  the  required  internal  diameter  be  5  in.,  then  the  solidity  of  the  ring 
will  be  equal  tn  the  product  of  the  sum  and  difference  of  the  internal  and 
external  diameters  multiplied  by  the  depth  of  the  ring  and  11-14  or  .7854. 
This  product,  divided  by  i^  squared,  will  be  the  theoretical  length  re- 
quired. But,  in  forging  work,  this  quantity  is  not  sufficient,  because 
there  is  always  a  loss  of  material  by  heat  and  compression  in  hammering, 
foT  which  allowance  must  be  made.  This  allowance  is  variable,  according 
to  number  of  heatings  necessary  ;  but,  in  most  cases,  an  addition  of  5 
per  cent,  will  suffice  for  mild  steel,  whilst  10  per  cent,  is  requisite  for 
iron  forgings.  On  working  out  the  equation,  the  length  will  be  found 
to  be  i\  in.  nearly.  When  the  piece  is  cut  off  the  bar,  two  marks  should 
be  made  on  it.  each  one  being  -|  in.  from  the  ends. 
Heat  to  bright  red  for  the  entire 


^ 


^ 


J_/ 


M'         e           ^ 

f 

/ 

\. 

49- 

a.  End  scarfed, 
corner  bent, 
for  welding. 


OBLONG    FRAME. 

h.  First  corner  beut.      c.    Second 

d.  Third  corner  bent,  and   ready 

e.  Finished  frame. 


length,  and  then  split  with  the  hot 
chisel,  care  being  taken  to  make 
the  cut  through  the  centre  of  the 
bar  lengthwise,  and  between  the 
two  marks  before  mentioned,  so  as 
to  prevent  having  a  thick  and  thir. 
side.  In  cutting  anything  of  this 
description,  the  chisel  should  never 
be  driven  right  through  the  piece 
from  one  side.  The  cut  should 
be  made  about  half-way  through 
and  then  treated  the  same  from 
the  opposite  side.  After  splitting, 
it  is  opened  out  to  a  rough 
shaped  ring  by  up-ending  it  on  the 
anvil  whilst  the  middle  is  hot, 
and  l)v  striking  the  top.  By  heat- 
ing and  heating  out  on  the  beak  of 
the  anvil,   a   correct  circle  will   be   formed. 

The  bands 'on  the  nave  of  a  wheel  or  the  tyre  are  made  by  bending 
and  welding.  They  are  afterwards  "  shrunk  on. "  The  iron  for  nave 
bands  is  now  rolled  thinner  on  one  edge  than  the  other,  sO'  that  when  the 
band  is  made  the  inside  diameter  will  be  larger  on  one  side  than  the 
other,  which  will  enable  it  to  be  driven  on  rightly.  At  the  sanie  time, 
there  are  many  still  made  from  the  ordinary  flat  bars  and  the  taper  is 
given  to  the  band  in   forging. 

When  a  band  is  tO;  be  shrunk  on,  it  shnuld  be  forged  slightly  smaller 
than  the  external  diameter  of  the  wheel  or  whatever  it  is  intended  for. 
If  a  band  has  to  be  shrunk  on  to  wood,  it  would  be  made  smaller  than 
if  it  had  to  be  shrunk  on  tO'  iron,  on  account  of  wood  being  more  com 
pressible  than  iron,  and  also  for  the  reason  that  wood  becomes  charred  with 
the  heat  from  the  iron,   and  is  thereby  reduced   in  size. 

In  agricultural  machinery,  there  are  a  number  of  parts  made  of  cast 
iron,  such  as  the  cog  and  pulley,  which  are  connected  with  its  mechanism. 
Sometimes,     as    the    result     of     accident,     thev     are    broken,     and     there 


lo   Feb.,    191 --J  Far))/  Blacks)))itl)i)ig. 


are  occasions  when  the  break  can  be  repaired,  bv  making  a  band  of 
wrought  iron  and  shrinking  it  on  to  the  projecting  boss  of  the  wheel, 
together  with  patches  of  steel  plate  which  can  be  cut  out,  fitted,  drilled 
and  riveted  over  some  of  the  fractures.  For  making  tlie  ring  for^  the  boss 
of  a  wheel,  square  iron  is  usually  the  most  suitable.  In  making  a  ring 
of  round  or  square  iron,  the  ends  should  be  upset  and  bent  and  scarfed 
like  a  link. 

A  square  or  oblong  frame  or  band  is  sometimes  required.  One  use 
that  may  be  pointed  out  is  that  of  a  post  which  has  split  at  the  end  ; 
another,  the  anvil  block,  which  may  split  by  the  hammering  on  the  anvil. 
A  band  made  and  shrunk  on  will  prevent  any  further  damage  being  done. 

The  illustration,  Fig.  49,  should  not  be  hard  to  follow,  especially  as 
instruction   in   bending  a   pole  clip   has  been   previously   given. 

{To  be  coiiiimied.) 


THE   OLIVE. 

L.  Macdonald,  Horticidturist,  Dookie  Agricultural  College. 
{Continued  from  fage  71.) 

Budding  and  Grafting. 

It  was  pointed  out  in  connexion  with  propagation  that  the  olive  does 
not  come  true  from  seed.  Hence,  it  is  necessary  to  bud  or  graft  seedling 
stock  with  selected  varieties.  Undesirable  varieties  may  be  worked  o\er 
in  the  same  manner.  Either  method  of  propagation,  if  carried  out  in 
the  proper  manner  ,and  at  the  right  season,  should  be  attended  with  good 
results.  For  general  purposes,  however,  budding  is  considered  the  most 
suitable  method   of   working. 

It  is  not  intended  here  to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  operation  of 
either  budding  or  grafting,  as  in  almost  any  work  dealing  with  the  pro- 
pagation of  fruit  trees  such  details  will  be  found.  However,  as  there 
are  some  few  points  of  difference  between  the  nature  of  the  olive  wood 
and  its  treatment,  and  that  of  manv  other  fruit  trees,  it  is  thought  advis- 
able to  mention  some  of  the  more  important  points  to  observe  in  the  work. 
Therefore,  in  carrying  out  the  work  of  budding  or  grafting,  it  is 
important — 

1.  To  see  that  the  sap  layers  of  both  scion  and  stock  have  as  great  a  contact  as 
possible. 

2.  To  use  only  scions  and  stocks  that  '"  run  "'  well  and  on  which  the  barks  lifts 
easily. 

3.  To  exclude  the  air  from  the  wourd  as  soon  after  the  operation  as  possible  by 
using   some   bandage. 

4.  To  remove  the  leaves  from  nil  scions  shortly  after  cutting  and  keep  moist 
until  used. 

q.   To   see   that   the   necessary   tools   are   in    good   order,    so   that   the   work    mav   be 
carried  out  as  riuicklv  and  cleanly  as  possible. 
6.  To  carry   out   the  work   at  the   righ^t   *ime. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo   Feb.,    1912. 


8.    TONGUE    AND    CLEFT    GRAFTS. 

a.  Scion  ;  &    Prepared  Scion  ;  c.  Tongue  yraft ;  d.  Scion  ;    c.  Prepared  for  cleft  yraft ;    t.    Cleft  graft, 
on  old  tree. 


9.     SCIONS    FOR    TWIG    AND    AXILLARY    BUDS. 

a.    Scion  for  t\vi«-   bads  unprepared;  6.  Same,  prepare,!  ;  o.  ?cion    for  axillary    buds,   unprepared 
d.  Same,  prepared. 


lo  Feb.,   191; 


The   Olive. 


129 


Spring  is  the  most  suitable  time  to  carry  out  either  budding  or  grafting 
on  tlie  olive.  Budding  m,ay  also  take  place  again  in  late  summer- ;  but, 
unless  forced,  such  buds  remain  dormant  over  winter',  and  break  into 
growth  in  the  spring.  Spring  buds,  on  the  other  hand,  break  into  growth 
straight  away  ;  and,  as  they  gain  .a  good  hold,  the  tops  of  the  stock  or 
branches  are  shortened  back  to  concentrate  the  growth  of  the  tree  in  the 
bud. 

Scions. — The  same  care  should  be  exerci.sed  in  selecting  olive  .scions, 
either  for  budding  or  grafting,  as  is  taken  with  other  trees.  They  should 
l>e  obtained  from  the  strongest  and  most  prolific  trees,  and  should  be  of 
well-matured,  but  not  over-matured,  wood  and  of  a  suitable  size.  A  good 
method  of  obtaining  suitable  ones  where  little  growth  is  made  is  to  cut 
back  some  of  the  branches  on  a  selected  tree.  This  will  cause  the  growth 
of  vigorous  wood.  All  leaves  should  be  removed  from  the  scions  imme- 
diately after  cutting  to  prevent  evaporation  of  moisture, 
and  they  ought  to  be  placed  with  their  ends  in  water  or 
kept  moist  in  some  other  way  until  used.  Upright 
wood  of  good  growth  and  sufficiently  matured  should 
be  selected. 

Budding. — Quite  a  number  of  different  forms  of 
buddings  are  adopted  in  various  places  and  some  dif- 
ference of  opinion  exists  among  propagators  as  to 
which  is  the  better  method,  also  with  regard  to  the 
removal  of  the  wood  from  the  buds.  In  budding 
the  olive,  the  writer  favours  the  removal  of  the  wood, 
unless  the  stock  is  verv  sappy  or  unless  the  buds  are 
cut  in  such  manner  that  only  a  thin  film  of  wood 
fibre  is  left  adhering  to  the  bud.  The  two  chief  forms 
of  budding  that  are  adopted  and  generally  give  ex- 
cellent results  are — (i)  twig  buds  ;  (2)  axillary  buds. 

Twig  Buds. — These  are  made  from  small  shoots 
that  are  cut  from  the  scions  in  the  same  manner  as 
ordinary  leaf  or  axillarv  buds.  They  succeed  best 
in  spring.  Some  of  the  disadvantages  in  twig  budding 
are  that  the  right  kind  of  twig  is  not  always  easily  ob- 
tained. It  often  happens  that  these  short  twigs  have 
only  well  developed  fruit  buds,  not  onlv  at  the  axils 
of  the  leaves  but  also  at  the  terminal  point,  and  do 
not  make  the  best  stock.  Hence,  it  is  necessary  to 
use  some  judgment  in  selecting  only  the  right  class  of  scion.  More  time 
is  also  needed  in  this  form  of  budding,  but  if  it  is  carried  out  in  spring 
excellent  results  should  be  obtained. 

Axillary  buds. — These  are  the  common  forms  of  buds  used  in  the 
propagation  of  fruit  trees  generally.  They  are  easily  made  and  quickly 
inserted,  and  can  be  u.sed  with  success,  either  in  spring  or  late  summer. 

Grafting. — ^This  work  is  carried  out  in  early  spring  just  when  the 
trees  begin  to  make  new  growth.  Many  different  forms  of  grafting  may 
be  adopted.  For  general  purposes,  however,  the  tongue  or  whip  graft 
and  the  cleft  graft  will  be  found  suitable. 

The  tongue  or  whip  graft  is  used  chiefl\  on  young  stock,  or  where  the 
diameter  of  the  stock  is  not  great.  It  is  found  to  be  the  most  satisfactory 
graft  in  such  cases. 


10.    TWIG    BUD. 


130  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.         [10   Feb.,    19 12. 

The  cleft  graft  is  used  chiefly  for  working  over  old  trees  or  larger 
stock.  When  working  with  either  of  these  grafts  on  stock  of  greater 
diameter  than  the  scion,  care  should  be  taken  to  get  as  great  a  contact 
between  the  sap  layer  of  one  side  of  the  scion  and  stock  as  possible. 
Also,  materials  should  be  at  hand  for  bandaging  up  the  wound  to  exclude 
the  air  and  hold  the  scion  firmly  in  position.  Raffia,  strips  of  waxed 
paper,  or  clpth  will  be  found  suitable  for  this  purpose. 

TwO'  scions  are  usually  put  in  each  cleft  in  working  OA'er  old  trees;  if 
too  many  shbdts  spring  from  them,  they  should  be  removed  in  the  next 
season.  A  great  many  adventitious  buds  spring  out  on  limbs  that  have 
been  cut  back  for  grafting — these  should  be  thinned  out  so  as  not  to  inter- 
fere with  the  growth  of  the  scions. 

Old  trees  may  be  successfully  worked  over  by  heading  down  the  top. 
When  the  strong  young  shoots  develop  they  may  be  budded ;  the  l)uds 
usually  take  better  in  the  new  growths. 

{To    be   Coiitimied.) 


ORCHARD    AND    GARDEN    NOTES. 

E.    E.    Pescott,    Principal,    Horticultural    School,    Burnley. 

The  Orchard. 

Green  Manure. 

The  benefits  accruing  from  growing  a  cover  crop  for  green  manure  are 
evervwhere  recognised.  The  crop  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  early  autumn  rains  have  prepared  the  ground  for  the  plough. 
As  the  crop  makes  no  growth  in  winter,  and  very  little  in  the  spring  time — 
it  being  advisable  to  plough  it  in  as  early  as  possible  in  spring — it  is  ad- 
vantageous to  get  a  good  and  abundant  growth  in  the  autumn.  Conse- 
quently, the  earlier  the  crop  is  planted,  the  greater  the  amount  of  herbage 
there  will  be  for  manurial  purposes. 

The  crop  may  be  sown  towards  the  end  of  February.  A  leguminous 
crop  should  be  preferred  before  any  other,  owing  to  the  amount  of  nitrogen 
which  this  class  of  plants  contains.  The  sowing  will  need  to  be  a  plentiful 
one,  as  it  is  well  to  have  a  good  dense  growth.  Field  peas  and  tares  or 
vetches  are  generally  grown  for  the  purpose.  The  partridge  variety  of 
the  field  pea  is  coming  intO'  favour  for  this  work.  In  some  instances,  the 
tick  bean  has  also  been  used  with  good  success. 

In  ordinary  orchard  .soils,  it  is  often  advisable  to  sow  i  cwt.  each 
of  bonedust  and  superphosphate  per  acre,  to  stimulate  the  crop  into  a 
quick  and  good  growth. 


jO   Feb.,    1912.]  Orchard  and  Garden  Notes.  131 

Spraying. 

Another  spraying  for  codlin  moth  will  probably  be  required  for  the 
later  varieties  of  apples  and  pears.  The  coolness  of  the  pre.sent  summer 
has  not  been  favorable  tO'  the  rapid  de\-elopment  of  this  pest,  and  it  has  not 
been  so  prevalent  during  this  .season. 

A  spray  with  nicotine  solution  or  with  a  resin  wash  may  now  be  given 
for  either  woollv  aphis  or  bryobia  mite,  but  only  after  the  crop  has  been 
gathered.  If  these  pests  are  not  very  prevalent,  the  spraying  may  be  left 
until  winter,  when  a  good  red  oil  emulsion,  or  a  lime-sulphur  spray  may 
be  given. 

Fumigation. 

Citrus  and  other  evergreen  trees  that  are  attacked  by  scale  insects 
should  be  freed  from  the  scale  at  this  time.  Although  spraying  with  such 
mixtures  as  resin  compound,  crude  petroleum  emulsion,  and  lime-sulphur 
emulsion,  will  do  good  work  in  keeping  scale  insects  in  check,  the  only 
effective  means  of  complete  eradication  is  by  fumigation.  The  trees 
are  enclosed  in  a  tent  that  will  prevent  the  escape  of  any  gas  through  its 
texture.  The  gas  is  generated  inside  the  tent,  and  the  tent  is  kept  over  the 
tree  for  a  period  of  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  The  best 
remedy  is  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  which  is  generated  by  placing  cyanide  of 
potassium  in  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water.  As  both  the  cyanide 
and  the  gas  are  deadlv  poisons,  every  care  should  be  exercised  in  using 
them.  The  operator  must  take  care  that  not  the  slightest  portion  of  the 
fumes  is  breathed.  Fumigation  should  be  carried  out  at  nighttime,  or  on 
a  cloudy  day,  and  the  foliage  of  the  trees  must  be  thoroughly  dry. 

Young  Trees. 

Young  trees  of  the  citrus  family  should  now  be  making  a  good  thrifty 
growth.  The  foliage  should  be  glossv,  and  the  general  appearance  should 
be  a  healthy  one.  Occasional  light  waterings,  as  well  as  a  mulching  of 
grass  or  of  well  rotted  manure  will  be  helpful  to  the  trees. 

Young  deciduous  fruit  trees  will  also  benefit  by  having  a  manure  mulch  ; 
and.  if  it  has  not  been  previouslv  done,  unnecessary  growths  in  the  centre 
of  the  tree  should  be  removed. 

Budding. 
It  is  now  a  suitable  time  to  carry  out  any  required  budding  work.  In 
budding,  it  is  necessary  that  the  bark  .shall  run  or  open  freely  ;  and,  to  do 
this,  the  tree  must  have  a  good  sap  flow  at  the  time  of  performing  the 
operation.  If  such  does  not  occur,  the  trees  to  be  worked,  or  the  stocks, 
should  be  given  a  good  watering,  and  the  budding  deferred  for  a  day  or 
two.  Full  instructions  for  budding  were  given  in  Mr.  Cole's  articles  on 
the  Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees  in  the  September  and  October.  19 11, 
Journals. 

Cultivation  and  General  Work. 

Guava  trees  have  just  finished  flowering,  and  a  good  watering  will  be 
of  benefit  to  them.  Persimmon  and  loquat  trees  may  also  be  watered  to 
their  advantage. 

The  soil  should  be  kept  loose  and  well  worked  between  the  trees,  espe- 
cially if  the  weather  be  at  all  hot.  The  surface  must  also  be  well  worked 
after  every  irrigation. 


132  journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.         [10   Feb.,    1912. 

Vegetable    G-arden. 

Celerv  crops  will  now  be  a  prominent  feature  in  the  vegetable  section. 
The  seed  may  be  spwn  from  January  to  March,  and  succession  plantings 
should  be  carried  out  occasionally  during  those  months.  The  growth 
of  celery  should  be  quick ;  a  fair  supply  of  water,  and  a  good  rich  loose 
soil  are  helpful  to  its  growth.  The  plants  should  be  earthed  up  as  they 
make  growth. 

Ample  water  will  now  be  required  in  the  vegetable  garden.  The  sur- 
face- should  be  kept  well  hoed  and  mulchings  of  manure  should  be  given 
wherever  possible. 

Cabbage,  carrot,  turnip,  radish,  lettuce,  peas,  cauliflower,  &c.  seeds 
may  now  all  be  sown ;  and  young  plants  from  any  seed  beds  may  be 
planted  out. 

Flo^vver  Garden. 

Ample  waterings  and  sprayings,  with  subsequent  cultivation,  will  be 
helpful  in  hot,   dry  or  windy  weather. 

Weak  plants,  herbaceous  plants,  and  surface  rooting  plants  will  be 
greatly  benefited  by  a  cool  and  nutritious  mulch.  Old  stable  manure  will 
be  helpful. 

Dahlias  may  be  mulched  and  disbudded,  thinning  out  the  weak  and  use- 
less shoots.  Where  sufficiently  advanced,  chrysanthemums  may  be  dis- 
budded. Stake  all  tall  growing  plants  to  prevent  any  damage  from  winds 
or  from  their  own  weight. 

All  old  flower  heads,  and  weak  wood  may  now  be  removed  from  the 
rose  bushes.  They  should  then  be  well  watered,  so  as  to  induce  good 
growth  for  the  autumn  blooms.  They  may  be  fed  towards  the  end  of 
the  month. 

Flowering  trees  and  shrubs  that  have  passed  their  blossom  time  should 
be  pruned  and  thinned  out  freely. 

A  few  bulbs  may  be  planted  for  early  blooming ;  also  prepare  beds 
for  the  main  planting  next  month. 


<^^^)j^^V&^ 


lo   Feb..    1912.]  Reminders  for  March.  133 


REIVIINDERS     FOR     MARCH- 

LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Feed  as  advised  last  month.  Those  in  poor  condition  should  be  "  fed 
up  "   in   anticipation  of   winter. 

Cattle — Feed  as  last  month.  Where  grass  is  plentiful,  cattle  can  be  profitably 
bought  this  month.  Secure  heifers  to  calve  in  autumn  to  replenish  the  herd.  Old 
cows  in  good  condition  should  be  sold.  Cows  not  in  calf  should  also  be  sold  ; 
otherwise  they  will  come  in  next  season  too  late  to  be  profitable.  Only  exceptional 
cows,  and  those  required  for  town  milk  supplv,  should  be  served  between  now  and 
July. 

Pigs. — Feed  as  last  month.  Breeding  sows  should  be  served;  the  young  pigs 
will  sell  well  in  early  spring  when  milk  is  plentiful.  Fatten  stores  for  winter 
curing.  Weaners  should  not  be  allowed  to  go  back;  if  markets  are  favourable, 
may  be  sold  as  porkers  when  ready. 

Sheep. — Merino  and  fine  comeback  breeding  ewes  should  be  kept  strong  for 
lambing.  Crutch  those  most  woolly  and  clear  their  eyes.  Rams  should  not  be 
running  with  merino  or  fine  comeback  ewes  at  this  time.  Pure  British  ewes  and 
very  coarse  crossbreds  are  only  properly  in  season  now.  If  possible,  spell  a 
paddock    from   now,    to   draft   ewes   with    lambs   into    during   April. 

Poultry. — Cull  out  the  drones  and  get  rid  of  surplus  cockerels.  Keep  forward 
pullets  well  fed — eggs  are  rising  in  value.  Repairs  to  houses  should  be  done  this 
month.  Thoroughly  cleanse  all  houses  and  pens.  Spray  ground  and  houses  with 
a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  crude  carbolic  acid,  to  which  should  be  added  a  little 
lime — this  will  act  as  a  safeguard  against  chicken  po.x ;  burn  all  refuse  and  old 
feathers.  Provide  a  liberal  supply  of  green  food.  Add  a  small  quantity  of  sulphur 
to  mash;  also,  for  each  moulting  hen,  add  a  teaspoonful  of  linseed  to  the  morning 
mash.      Use  tonic  in  water,  which  should  be  kept  in  cool  shady  spot. 

CULTIVATION. 

Farm. — Work  fallow  where  possible  for  autumn  sowing  of  cereals.  Sow  winter 
fodder  crops,  such  as  rye,  barley,  and  vetches.  Prepare  land  for  lucerne  plots  for 
autumn  seeding.     Make  silage  of  maize  and  other  crops  for  winter  use. 

Orchard. — Prepare  new  land  for  planting ;  plough  deeply  and  sub-soil ;  leave 
surface  rough.  Plant  out  strawberries  after  first  rain.  Plant  crops  for  green 
manure.      Continue   to  fight  the  Codlin   Moth. 

Vegetable  Garden. — Prepare  ground  for  winter  crops.  Plant  out  seedlings  in 
moist  soil.  Sow  cabbage,  cauliflower,  lettuce,  early  peas,  swede  turnip,  beet, 
carrot,  radish,   and  early  onions. 

Flower  Garden. — Cultivate  and  water.  Feed  dahlias,  chrysanthemums,  and 
roses.  Plant  out  shrubs,  trees,  and  all  kinds  of  bulbs.  Sow  hardy  annuals.  Plant 
geranium  and  pelargonium  cuttings.      Spray   for  Aphis,   Red   Spider,   and   Mildew. 

Vineyard. — Select  scions,  if  not  done  last  month.  Where  ripening  is  difficult, 
assist  by  removing  basal  leaves  only,  as  soon  as  berries  change  colour.  This 
is  the  month  for  drying  currants,  sultanas,  and  gordos  (Le.xias  and  Clusters).  Do 
not  pick  before  grapes  are  properly  ripe.  For  instructions  for  packing  grapes  for 
export,  apply  to  Department.  Shipments  should  be  made  in  March  and  early 
April. 

Cellars. — Vintage  month.  For  light  dry  wines,  pick  as  soon  as  grapes  are  ripe  ; 
do  not  wait  for  over-maturity,  as  is  so  often  done.  Pay  attention  to  acidity  ;  correct 
same  if  necessary  with  tartaric  acid  or  late  grapes.  Acidimeter  supplied  by  Depart- 
ment;  price,  3s.  6d.  Sulphiting  and  the  use  of  pure  yeasts  are  strongly  recom- 
mended, as  thev  insure  production  of  sound  wine ;  further  information  supplied  on 
application. 


^34 


Journal  of  A^^^ncidturc.   Victoria.  [lo    Feb.,    191: 


STATISTICS. 


Rainfall  in  Victoria.— Fourlli  Quarter,  1911. 

Table  showing  average  amount  of  rainfall  in  each  of  the  26  Basins  or  Regions  con 
stituting  the  State    of  Victoria    for  each  month    and  the    year,  with  the  corre 
aponding  monthly  and  quarterly  averages  for  each  Basin,  deduced  from  all  available 
records  to  date. 


Basin  or  District. 


Glenelg   and   Wannon    Rivers 
Fitzroy,  Eumeralla,  and  Merri 

Rivers 
Hopkins    River    and     Mount 

Emu  Creek 
Mount    Klephant    and     Lake 

Corangamite 
Cape  Otway  Forest 
M'orabool  and  Barwon  Rivers 
Werribeeand  Saltwater  Rivers 
Yarra   River  and  JJandenong 

Creek 
Koo-wee-rup  Swamp 
South  Gippsland 
Latrobe  and   Thomson   Rivers 
Macallister  and   Avon  Rivers 
Mitchell  River 

Tambo  and  Nicholson  Rivers 
Snowy  River 
Murray  River 
Mitta  Mitta  and  Klewa  Rivers 
Ovens  River 
Goulburn  River 
Campaspe  River 
Loddon  River 
Avon  and  Richardson  Rivers 
Avoca  River 
Eastern  Wimmera  ... 
Western  Wimmera  . . . 
Mallee  District 

The  whole  State 


October. 


points. 

170 
242 

148 

167 

2:« 
156 
153 
270 

196 

211 

27« 

134 

82 

120 

197 

34 

103 

112 

91 

77 

52 

54 

58 

61 

71 

32 


points,    points. 


287 
290 

251 

243 


26 
29 

25 

30 


345  97 

247  46 

242  95 

338  )  157 


346 
386 
365 
233 
284 
300 
354 
183 
336 
337 
242 
207 
170 
145 
152 
201 
199 
121 


79 

120 

104 

121 

159 

141 

114 

77 

170 

92 

35 

13 

15 

7 

10 

16 

4 

21 


109   2.34 


55 


points. 

188 
193 

193 

191 

238 
196 
193 
269 

253 
264 
265 
187 
200 
180 
209 
137 
256 
235 
181 
169 
142 
123 
129 
161 
142 
96 


December. 


172 


points. 

314 
333 

355 

371 

429 
413 
386 
497 

536 
469 
591 
264 
296 
340 
353 
185 
419 
317 
213 
210 
222 
188 
179 
311 
257 
144 


283 


points. 

145 
156 

159 

157 

222 
185 
215 
320 

267 
.321 
305 
270 
247 
279 
279 
141 
2.39 
230 
175 
175 
120 
87 
108 
113 
82 
80 


166 


a 

s 
0 

a 

< 

< 

points. 

points. 

510 

620 

604 

6.39 

528 

603 

568 

591 

759 

80-5 

615 

628 

634 

650 

924 

927 

811 

866 

800 

971 

973 

935 

519 

690 

537 

731 

601 

759 

664 

842 

296 

461 

692 

sM 

521 

802 

339 

598 

300 

.551 

289 

4.32 

249 

355 

247 

389 

388 

475 

332 

423 

197 

297 

447 

572 

too  points  =  1  inch. 


10th  January,  1912. 


H.  A.  HUNT, 

Commnnwealth  M e.teorologist. 


lo   Feb..    1 91 2.] 


Riiiiiiidcrs   for   March. 


135 


Fruit,    Bulbs,    Plants,    Grain,   &c. 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Goods. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Goods. 

Inter- 
State. 

Oversea. 

Oversea. 

Inter- 
1      State. 

Oversea. 
146 

Oversea. 

Apples    ... 

7,150 

Ill 

100 

Linseed 



Apples,  Custard    ... 

2 

— 

— 

Loquats 

3! 

— 

— 

Ai3ricots... 

— 

— 

181 

Logs 

1,967 

18,655 

— 

Bananas,  bimches  .. 

24,639 

81,903 

— 

Mace 

99 

— 

Bananas,  cases 

3,992 

25,175 

— 

Maize 

449 

728 

— 

Barley    ... 

19,282 

22,702 

— 

Melons    ... 

136 

— 

""■ 

Beans 

37 

317 

— 

Nutmegs 

— 

285 

— ^ 

Bulbs      ... 

1 

261 

— 

Xuts 

103 

2,102 

— 

Cherries  ... 

1,019 

— 

3,064 

Oats 

3,856 

5 

— 

Chillies  ... 

1 

64 

— 

Oranges  ... 

112,315 

2,134 

3,127 

Cocoa  beans 

— 

1,272 

— 

Passion   ... 

275 

— 

— 

Cocoanuts 

— 

315 

— 

Paw  Paws 

14 

13 

— 

CofiFee  beans 

— 

506 

— 

Peaches  ... 

28 

— 

118 

Copra 

— 

76 

— , 

Pepper    ... 

— 

197 

— 

Cucumbers 

10,973 

— 

20 

Peas,  dried 

1,577 

3 

— 

Currants,  black     ... 

1 

— 

— 

Pineapples 

17,242 

217 

381 

Dates 

— 

13,734 

— 

Plants 

101  : 

274 

26 

Figs        

— 

780 

— 

Plums 

— 

— 

312 

Fruit- 

Potatoes 

5  ! 

— 

-- 

Canned 

— 

— 

4,303 

Rice 

6,670  1 

9,337 

— 

Dried 

_ 

3,013 

652 

Seeds 

477 

4,378 

— 

Mixed 

69 

18 

— 

Spice 

—  i 

177 

Grapes    ... 

1 

— 

— 

Strawberries 

1 

— 

— 

Green  ginger 

— 

87 

— 

Tomatoes 

4,649 

18 

35 

Hops 

— 

224 

Vegetables 

7,681 

482 

— 

Jams,  Sauces,  &c. ,  . 

— 

— 

1,377 

Wheat,   Grain,    &c. 

1,336 

14 

" 

Lemons 

2,817 

1,697 

1,948 

Yams 

36 

— 

— 

Totals 

69,984 

152,255 

11,645 

Grand  Totals  ... 

228,905  ' 

191,520 

15,044 

Total  number  of  packages  inspected  for  quarter  ending  31st  December,  1911  =  436,069. 

E.    MEEKING,  Senior  Fruit  Inspector. 


Perishable  and  Frozen  Produce. 


Exports  from  State 

Deliveries  from 

Produce. 

(Oversea). 

Government  Cool  Stores 

Description  of 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

31.12.1911. 

31.12.1910. 

31.12.1911.      1 

31.12.1910. 

Butter 

lbs. 

24,450,852 

25,253,752 

24,917,984  1 

19,941,600 

Milk  and  Cream 

cases 

2,930 

801 

51  i 

80 

Cheese 

...       lbs. 

15,480 

264,840 

500 

255,172 

Ham  and  Bacon 

II 

62,500 

46,560 

... 

Poultry 

head 

5,310 

9,879 

4,T59 

5,489 

Eggs... 

. . .    dozen 

30 

500 

3,811 

Mutton  and  Lamb 

carcases 

1,118,555 

998,883 

66,454 

113,287 

Beef 

quarters 

5,457 

2,759 

Veal 

carcases 

935 

1,468 

79 

343 

Pork 

// 

1,491 

1,078 

858^1 

851 

Rabbits  and  Hares 

pairs 

159,450 

5,490 

11,763  i 

3,804 

Sundries 

lbs. 

... 

52,365  1 

80,296 

R.  CROWE,  Superintendent  oj  Exports. 


136 


Joiir)ial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [10   Feb.,    1912. 


VICTORIAN  EGG-LAYING   COMPETITIOiN,   1911-12, 

CONDUCTED   AT   BURNLEY   HORTICULTURAL   SCHOOL 

{Co}itinued  from   -page  6j .) 
H.   V .  Hawkins,  Poultry  Expert. 


Eggs  Laid  during  Competition. 

No. 

Position  in 

of 

Breed. 

Name  of  Owner. 

April  to 

Total  to 

Competi- 

Pen. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Date  (9 

tion. 

months). 

12 

White  Leghorn 

W.  G.  Swift 

1,091 

152 

1,1:43 

1 

31 

» 

R.  W.  Pope 

1,06? 

143 

1,205 

2 

40 

» 

A.  J.  Cosh  (S.A.) 

1,045 

131 

1,176 

3 

20 

„ 

H.  McKenzie 

960 

148 

1,108 

4 

33 

" 

Range    Poultry    Farm 
(QUI.) 

956 

134 

1,090 

5 

37 

»» 

E.  Waldon 

933 

141 

1,074 

6 

18 

>i 

S.  Brundrett 

896 

114 

1,010 

7 

39 

j» 

A.W.  Hall   . . 

839 

150 

989 

8 

13 

Black  Orpington    . . 

D.  Fisher     . . 

853 

121 

974 

9 

21 

White  Leghorn 

R..  L.  Appleford 

844 

128 

972 

10 

46 

Minorca 

G.  W.  ChMlmers 

850 

95 

945 

11 

65 

White  Leghorn 

W.  G.  McLister 

821 

115 

937 

12 

25 

> 

B.  Mitchell 

829 

102 

931 

13 

38 

» 

Mrs.  C.  R.  Smee 

800 

130 

930 

14 

10 

Black  Orpington    . . 

H.  A.  Langdon 

796 

118 

914 

15 

9 

White  Legliorn 

J.  O'Louglilin 

791 

121 

912 

16 

49 

,, 

W.  J.  Thornton 

775 

135 

910 

17 

32 

Silver  Wyandotte  . . 

Mrs.  M.  A.  Jones 

797 

111 

908 

18 

44 

Black  Orpington    . . 

T.  S.  Goodisson 

814 

93 

907 

19 

li 

White  Loghorn 

F.  Hannaford 

769 

137 

906 

20 

1 

» 

A.  Brebner 

776 

1.5 

901 

21 

f 

» 

E.  P.  Nash 

761 

138 

899 

}    22 

28 

» 

J.  Canipl)ell 

763 

136 

899 

3 

K.  Gleghorn 

768 

129 

897 

)2. 

36 

,, 

F.  A.  SUlitoe 

780 

117 

897 

50 

i» 

C.  H.  Busst 

755 

136 

891 

26 

19 

n 

A.  Jaques 

752 

132 

884 

27 

5 

„ 

L.  C.  Payne 

743 

127 

870 

28 

45 

» 

T.  Kempster 

73:^ 

136 

868 

}., 

67 

» 

C.  L.  Sharman 

775 

93 

868 

47 

)  » 

C.  W.Spencer (N.S.W.) 

729 

135 

864 

}3, 

22 

Black  Orpington    . . 

P.  S.  Wood 

746 

118 

864 

62 

White  Leghorn 

P.  Hodson  . . 

712 

143 

855 

33 

4 

Golden  Wyandotte 

H.  Bell 

748 

10? 

850 

34 

57 

White  Leghorn 

G.  E.  Edwards 

703 

145 

848 

35 

8 

M 

T.  W.  Goto 

718 

127 

845 

36 

66 

White  Wyandotte 

J.  E.  Bradley 

759 

85 

844 

37 

65 

White  Leghorn 

H.   Hammill   (N.S.W.) 

733 

107 

840 

38 

11 

Brown  Leghorn 

F.  Soncum 

697 

139 

836 

39 

59 

White  Leghorn 

W.  H.  Dunlop 

708 

122 

830 

40 

27 

»» 

Hill  and  Luckman     . . 

728 

101 

8?.9 

41 

51 

)» 

J.  W.  McArthur 

727 

100 

827 

42 

60 

.) 

J.  J.  Harrington 

703 

113 

816 

43 

43 

W.  B.  Crellin 

700 

115 

815 

44 

63 

Black  Orpington    . . 

A.  J.  Treacy 

727 

80 

807 

45 

53 

White  Leghorn 

A.  Stringer 

686 

113 

799 

46 

41 

Morgan  and  Watson . . 

688 

108 

796 

47 

58 

Faverolies 

K.  Courtenay 

702 

93 

795 

48 

52 

White  Leghorn 

W.  J.  McKeddie 

676 

106 

782 

49 

42 

White  Orpington    . . 

P.  Mitchell 

67S 

97 

775 

50 

30 

Black  Orpington    . . 

Rodgers  Bros. 

666 

96 

762 

51 

6 

Silver  Wyandotte  . . 

Mrs.  H.  J.  Richards 

662 

97 

759 

52 

35 

White  Leghorn 

J.  H.  Brain 

631 

121 

752 

53 

34 

)) 

E.  Dettman 

630 

121 

751 

54 

7 

i> 

H.  Stevenson 

620 

1''.3 

743 

55 

64 

»» 

J.  D.  Read 

592 

146 

738 

56 

26 

»» 

F.  H.  Seymour 

613 

115 

7?8 

57 

54 

,, 

F.  Hodges 

6-:i 

89 

710 

58 

16 

Silver  Wyandotte  . . 

Miss  A.  Cottam 

619 

87 

706 

69 

56 

White  Leghorn 

Mrs.  C.  Thompson     . . 

568 

124 

69? 

60 

23 

Golde  1  Wyandotte 

G.  E.  Brown 

599 

84 

683 

61 

61 

Silver   Wyandotte .  . 

J.  Reade 

543 

108 

651 

62 

17 

White  Leghorn     . . 

W.  J.  Eckershall 

536 

88 

624 

63 

14 

Blaok  Orpington    . . 

W.  J.  Macauley 

521 

74 

595 

64 

15 

Minorca 

H.  R.  McChesney      . . 

456 

83 

539 

66 

48 

" 

G.  James     . . 

346 

87 

433 

66 

48,618 

7,680 

56,298      1 

lo  Fee..   T912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


XVll 


ii 


ROYAL   MEDAL" 

MILKING    MACHINES. 

ffy  LET  THEIR  USERS  TELL  THE  STORY  OF  THEIR  SUCCESS. 

Below  are  a  few  written  appreciations  of   "ROYAL  MEDAL"  excellence  from  well-known  dairymen 

throughout  the  world 

Let  their  experience  guide  you  at  least  to  the  extent  of  finding  out  more  about 


'X'lxe     IVExllsiex*     -tlxa.-t     ±s 


"It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  testify  to 
the  excellence  of  your  Milker  that  you  fitted 
up  here  two  years  ago." 

"It  has  done  its  work  beyond  my  expecta- 
tions, and,  if  properly  handled,  I  consider 
it  perfect. " 

"Our  herd  is  one  of  many  to  which  an  inde- 
pendent milk  expert  comes  round  every  few- 
weeks  and  takes  a  record  of  every  cow"s  milk. 
We  have  always  found  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  milk  most  satisfactory." 


TH/S     SHOWS     THE 
"ROYAL    MEDAL"    MILKER 

WITH     CUPS     IN     POSITION 


TDH;  "J?  ■jliJi-tE31>Drrr." 

"  Tiiere  has  been  no  troul)le  from  either 
sore  teats  or  swollen  quarters,  and  I  think 
that  in  itself  is  a  great  point  in  its  favour. 
Young  cows  do  particularly  well  with  it." 

"  It  milks  quite  clean." 

"The  quantity  of  milk  has  not  diminished." 

"  The  teats  are  left  in  perfect  condition." 

"It  leaves  the  teats  quite  soft  and 
natural,  and  milks  them  dry." 

"I  anticipate  a  great  future  for  your 
Machines." 


AWARDED  THE  MEDAL  OF  THE 
ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY 
OF  ENCLAND. 


Let  us  send  j-ou  the 
"ROYAL  MEDAL"  Booklet. 
It  M'ill  demonstrate  to  j'ou 
the  many  differences  which 
mark  the  "  ROYAL  MEDAL" 
as  a  complete  departure 
from  every  other  machine 
on  the  market,  and  give 
you  an  idea  of  its  many 
outstanding  advantages. 

The  coupon  below  brings 
this  book  post  free  and  by 
return  mail. 


"  ROYAL  MEDAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES, 

34    Queen    Street, 
MELBOURNE. 

LONDON    OFFICE: 

Caxton  House,  Westminster,  S.VV. 

JACK     H.     DAV/ES,    Managing  Director. 


POST  FREE  BOOKLET  COUPON. 

' '  Royal  Medal  "  Milking  Machines, 

34  Queen  Street,  Melbourne. 
Please  fonvard  a  copy  of  your  Free  Book.     It 
is  to  be  understood  that  I  consider  myself  under  no 
obligation. 


Name 

A  ddress 
J5. 


XVlll 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Feb.,   1912. 


'Phone 

4S81 
Central. 


The  Australasian  Mutual  Live  Stock 

Insupanee  Society  m, 

ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 

70  Elizabeth  St.,  Melbourne. 

directors : 

HON.  AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P.     HENRY  GARDNER,  Esq. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P. 

WALTER   G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 

FARMERS  AND  BREEDERS- 

Has   tliis   simple   truth   ever  struck  you  ? 
Ours  are  the  world's  minimum   rates. 
Our  terms  and  conditions  are  equal  to  the 

best  obtainable. 
Every  pound  of  our  money  is  invested  in 

Australia. 
We  pay  promptly.         We  pay  in  full. 

INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  AND  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS. 


A    GOOD   AUSTRALIAN    ^ 
'  Why  didn't  you  put  your  penny  in  Ike  plate  thit 
morning  f 

'  Because  it  mat  a  foreign  mission,  and   dada   say* 
i£i  not  right  to  send  capital  out  0/  the  country." 


For  ROOFS  of  all  descripti 


USE 


'1^'   RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


USE 


INDELIBLE  COLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


USE 

I*" 


CALCIMO 


IN     ALL 
COLOURS. 


These  Goods  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 


-SOLE    AGENTS- 


BROOKS,  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Melbourne. 


lo  Feb.,    19 1 2.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  xix 


Dairy  Science. 

The  last  word. 

Scientific  men  in  the  dairy  centres  of  Europe  have  given  close 
attention  to  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  for  butter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  for  some  time, 
a  poor,  thin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  :  stating  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods,  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  same 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Dairy  Science. 

For  Post  Free  Book— 

'MILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding," 

By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 


Guaranteed  Pure. 


SUNLIGHT 

^^-  -  See  that  the  name  "Sunlight"  is 

branded  on  every  cake. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


fio  Feb.,   1912. 


"HORNSBY"  Petrol  Engines 


iSTATIONARY    AND    PORTABLE) 

T-IAVE    a    World-wide    Reputation    for    all    round 

Superiority.     There   is   nothing  Equal  to  them. 

Just  as  suitable  for  Motive  Power  as  the  well-known 

HORNSBY     OIL     ENGINE. 

For  30  Years  the 


HORNSBY    BINDER 


Has  Led  and  still  Leads  the  Way. 

Winner  of  the  Six  Highest  Prizes  ever  offered. 

It  stands  unrivalled  for  Strength,  Simplicity,  Light- 
ness of  Draught,  Low  Cutting,  and  ease  of  Man- 
agement. Will  go  through  the  Harvest  without 
a  hitch. 

Hornsby  Mowers  are  Famous  the  World  over. 

Hornsby  Oil  Engines,  Gas  Engines,  and  Suction 
Gas    Plants  are  Unequalled. 


R.   HORNSBY   &  SONS,   LTD., 


MELBOURNE.              SYDNEY. 
■ BRISBANE. 


DOOKIE    AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE. 

(SHEPPARTON     DISTRICT.) 

H.  PYE,  Principal. 

The  College  offers  every  facility  to  students  to  become  competent  agriculturists  and 
dairyrnen.  The  work  is  carried  out  on  a  large  commercial  scale,  the  ploughing,  drilling, 
manuring,  harvesting,  threshing,  and  shearing  being  done  by  students  under  competent 
instructors.  Over  2,000  sheep  and  lambs,  150  cattle,  and  50  horses,  including  stallion,  are 
on  the  farm,  which  comprises  over  6,000  acres. 

Fees  (per  Annum)— i^'tVsi!  Year,  £32  5s.  ;  Second  Year,  £27  5s.  ;  Third  Year,  £22  5s.  ; 
Payable  half-yearly. 

LONGERENONG    AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE. 

(HORSHAM     DISTRICT.) 

W.    Z>.    WILSON,    B.Sc,    Principal. 

One  aim  of  this  institution  is  to  fill  in  the  gap  between  the  State  School  and  Dookie, 
i.e.,  to  take  students  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  years. 

The  farm  contains  an  area  of  2,386  acres,  and  is  admirably  adapted  for  demonstrating 
what  can  be  done  in  farming  with  irrigation.  There  is  a  large  area  of  the  farm  under 
cultivation,  and  the  orchard  and  vineyard  cover  an  area  of  30  acres. 

Fees — Resident,  £20  per  annum  ;  Non-resident,  £5  per  annum  ;  Payable  half-yearly. 

Applications  relative  to  tlie  above  Colleges  sbould  be  sent  to  the  Secretary,  Council  of 
Agricultural  Education,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne.  On  receipt  of  Post  Card  a 
copy  of  the  Prospectus  of  either  College  will  be  posted. 


NEXT     SESSION     COMMENCES     MARCH,     1912. 
INTENDING     STUDENTS     MAY     NOW     BE     ENROLLED. 


TO  Feb.,   19 1 2.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


j^RTlOflflli  TRUSTEES :; 


Executors  &  Agency  Company 
Australasia,  Ltd.     .    #     . 


DIRECTORS  : 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Managing  Director. 

EDWARD  FITZGERALD,  Esq.,  L.L.D.  MICHAEL  MORNANE,  Esd. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  Esq.  DAVID  HUNTER,  Esq. 

This  Company  acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint  Executor  of  Wills,  Administrator, 
Trustee  of  Settlements,   and  Agent  for  Absentees  under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY      TO      LEND      ON      BROAD      ACRES     AND      FARM      LANDS. 

<>"■"•■■  113  QUEEN  ST.  USSSSl st.)  MELBOURNE. 


/" 


SAVINGS  BANKS  LOANS 

ON     BROAD     ACRES     (Up   to  Three-fifths  of  Valuation), 

In  sums  from  .£2,000  to  .£25,000. 

Interest  at  4h  per  cent* 

For  3  or  5  years,  with  option  of  paying  off  part  on  any  half-yearly  pay-day. 
ON    FARMS    (CREDIT   FONCIER)    (Up  to  Two-thirds  of  Valuation), 

In  sums  from   £50   to   £2,000. 

Interest  at  Ah  per  cent. 

Loans  Repayable  by  Instalments  spread  over  3 1  J?  years,  or  may  be  paid  off" 
on  any  half-yearly  pay-day,  subject  to  a  small  charge  if  paid  off  during  the  first 
five  years,  but  no  penalty  after  five  years. 


ADDRESS 


-    Inspector-General   of   Savings  Banks^ 


29  MARKET  STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


TREWHELLA  ::= '  GRUBBING  JACKS. 

Quick.     Powerful.     Simple. 


Mr.  Ohas.  Hamilton,  Moleswortli,  Vic,  says:— "I  would  not 
be  without  one  of  these  Jacks  on  the  farm." 

Mr.  0.  C.  R.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Frances,  S.A.  :— 
"  Have  been  using  Trewhella  Wallaby  Jacks  now  nearly 
six  years,  and  as  long  as  I  have  anything  to  lift  will  never  be 
without  one." 


Write  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  to— 

TREWHELLA   BROS.,  ENGINEERS,  TRENTHAM,  VICTORIA. 


xxii  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo  Feb.,   1912. 


r 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 


JSuFnley    J^ortieultural    School. 


E.  E.  PESCOTT,       •;Wr       Principal. 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnley  Horticultural  School 
have  now  been  arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be 
given  to  students  of  both  sexes  in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Horticulture  for  male  students  includes  a  two 
years'  course,  students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum. 

Classes  have  been  formed  at  Burnley,  whereby  students  of  both  sexes  may 
receive  instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and  Fridays. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  work,  and  will  commence 
at  2  p.m.  This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  charged  will  be 
£2  per  annum. 

It  has  also  been  arranged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  shall  be 
given  on  subjects  which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Horticulture,  such  as 
Poultry  Farming,  Bee-keeping,  and  Fruit  Preserving,  and  these  courses 
will  be  open  and  free  to  the  general  public.  The  subjects  and  dates 
of  the  Short  Course  Lectures   will   be  announced   monthly  in   this   Journal. 


\^^2   Session   commences    J 2th   February. 


^t^aS::f:;^St  The   director  of  agriculture, 

PUBLIC    OFFICES,    MELBOURNE, 
OR    TO    THE    PRINCIPAL. 

^ - ^ 


TO  Feb..   1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


SPECIALISING 


-IN    THE    SUPPLY    OF     ALL 


FRIEND     NOZZLE. 

"Harvey"   Shifting-Handle   Ploughs. 
'*  Four  Oaks "   Bucket  Spray   Pump. 
'•  Myers  "  &  "  Deming  "  Spray  Pumps. 
"Jones"  High-pressure  Spray  Pumps. 
"  Friend  "   Power  Sprayer. 


pgUlTGHOWEf^S' 

REQUISITES  &  IMPLEMENTS 

Is  done  by  us  more  than  any  other  firm  in  Victoria. 
It  will  therefore  pay  you  to  call  and  see  us  or  write 
for  Illustrated  Catalogue  (A). 

Some  of  our  Lines  are — 


"  Excelsior  "  Fruit  Graders. 
Spraying  Hose— high  quality. 
Spraying   Materials  for  all   Pests. 
Pumps  for  all  Purposes. 
"COMET"     FARM    MOTORS. 


Our  Quality  is  Good.        Our  Prices  are  Right.         Call  and  See. 


IF.  I?.. 


-IV  yi rn-r-    -r-    A-^-f— >        ^"^O    ELIZ^^BETH    ST. 

_LVJ lLiJ iJ — iV ^_t\;_    DVEELBOXJR,3SrE. 


r 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

AGRICULTURAL     CLASSES,      1912. 

At  least  thirty  students,  exclusive  of  school  children,  must  be  enrolled  at  each  centre, 
the  rent  of  the  hall  and  all  local  charges  to  be  paid  b}'  the  Agricultural  Society  under 
wliose  auspices  the  Class  is  held. 

As  only  a  limited  number  of  classes  can  be  held  during  the  year,  it  is  essential  that 
Agricultural  or  other  Societies  should  make  early  application  prior  to  1st  March. 


LECTURES    ON     AGRICULTURAL    SUBJECTS,    1912. 

Agricultural  or  other  Societies  wishing  to  have  public  lectures  delivered  are  requested 
to  make  application  prior  to  1st  March.  The  hull,  advertising,  &c. ,  must  be  provided 
locally,  free  of  cost,  but  all  other  charges  are  borne  by  the  Department. 

Staff — The  Director  (Dr.  S.  S  Cameron),  and  Messrs.  Archer,  Carmody,  Carroll, 
de  Castella,  Cother,  Crowe,  French  Jr.,  Griffin,  Ham,  Hart,  Hawkins,  Johnstone,  Kendall, 
Knight,  McFadzean,  Pescott,  Richardson,  Robertson,  Sawers,  Seymour,  Smith,  Strong, 
Turner,  and  Expert  of  the  State  Rivers  and  Water  Supply  Commission. 


V: 


applications    relative    to    the    above    Institutions    and    Lectures    should    be   sent   to   the 
rector  of  Agfriculture,   Melbourne. 


J 


xwv 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Feb.,   1912. 


"WATERLOO  BOY"  4  h.p.  PORTABLE  OIL  ENGINE. 

ABSOLUTELY  THE  SIMPLEST  AND  CHEAPEST  EFFICIENT  ENGINE  IN  THE  WORLD. 

USES    BENZINE    OR    KEROSENE. 


IGNITIONi — Is  make  and  break  style,  charge  firerl  by  electric  spark.  Igniter,  which  in 
other  Engines  is  difficult  to  get  at,  in  the  "Waterloo"  can  be  completely  removed  by 
loosening  two  cap  screws 

Both    Magneto    and    Battery    Ignition, — a    very    useful    arrangement,    as    work 
can  never  be  stopped. 

SPEED  LEVERi — Acts  same  as  throttle  of  a  steam  engine.  You  can  speed  up  or 
down,  or  stop  altogether  with  it.  Makes  the  Engine  easj'  to  start,  prevents  "kicking 
back,"  and  saves  fuel. 

IVIIXER. — Is  a  great  idea,  patented  because  it  is  worth  patenting.  Has  an  adjustable 
mixing  cup  that  can,  by  a  winged  nut,  be  slipped  up  or  down  to  give  more  or  less  air. 
No  valve  springs  or  pump  to  get  out  of  order  ;  makes  Engine  easy  to  start ;  aids  the 
governor  and  speed  lever  in  getting  more  power  out  of  the  fuel. 

GOVERNORi — Centrifugal  type,  sure  and  sensitive.  Allows  a  charge  in  the  cylinder 
only  when  the  work  requires  it. 

PUELi  -Works  on  either  benzine  or  kerosene,  but  benzine  is  better,  as  it  is  not  so  dirty. 
The  speed-saving  devices.  Speed  Lever,  Patent  Mixer,  and  Governor  make  the 
"  Waterloo  "  con.sume  the  least  fuel.  Compare  it  for  simplicity,  fuel  cost,  and  power 
with  other  engines,  and  you  will  send  your  order  to  us. 

HOPPER  COOLED.— That  is,  there  are  no  Tank,  Pipes,  and  Pump  to  cool  the 
cylinder.  JNlakes  the  Engine  easy  to  move  about ;  less  space,  less  weight,  and  no 
water  pump  troubles,  as  there  is  no  Pump.     Also  lessens  the  fuel  bill. 

TRANSPORT^ — is  a  very  strong  one.  Through  axles  in  both  front  and  rear  wheels. 
Turntable  on  front  axle  is  simple  and  strong. 

Ijjp-  SEND  FOR  CATALOGUES  OF  OUR  OTHER  FARM  REQUISITES. 


MITCHELL  &  COMPANY 


FACTORY     &     office: 

WEST  FOOTSCRAY,  MELBOURNE. 


PTY. 
LTD. 

SHOW  ROOM: 

596  BOURKE  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


D^cfFigerafiug  ^  ^ 


and 


lee  JVCaking 
JM!aekiueFY  ^  ^ 


Made  by 

gUMBLE&SONS, 

Geelong, 

Victoria. 


Specially  suitable  for  Butchers,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  Machines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine.  A_  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration  work 
undertaken,  including  coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


"Ferrier's"  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distributors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworks,  &c. 


Full  Particulars  on  Application  to— 


Humble  and  Sons, 

General   Eng'ineeps, 
VULCAN   FOUNDRY,   GEELONG. 


VICTORIAN 


RAILWAYS. 


VICTORIA    FOR    YOUR    VACATION. 


The  Victorian  Railways  issue 

SUMMER    EXCURSION    FARES 

To  the  Seaside,  Mountains,  Lakes,  and  Caves 

FROM    15th    NOVEMBER    TILL    30th    APRIL. 


LORNE. 

Waterfalls,  fern  glens,  sea  ixiA  river 
fishing ;    splendid  accommodation. 

FLINDERS. 

Ocean  beach  and  golfers'  paradise. 

QUEENSCLIFF. 

Bay  and  ocean  beaches ;  rail  and 
steamer  services. 

THE    BUFFALO    PLATEAU, 

with  its  famous  gorge,  falls,  and 
peaks,  the  Horn  and  the  Hump, 
embraces  the  finest  mountain  scenery 
in  Australia.  Excursion  fares  all  the 
year  round. 

THE    AUSTRALIAN    ALPS. 

Mts.  Bogong,  Feathertop,  Hotham. 

The  Baw  Baw  Range. 

THE    DIVIDING    RANGE. 

Macedon,  Woodend,  Daylesford,  &c. 

Healesville  in  the  Hills. 

THE    GIPPSLAND    LAKES. 

The  most  charming  chain  of  akes 
in  the  Commonwealth. 

THE    BUCHAN    CAVEr.. 

Indescribably  beautiful. 


CAMPBELL'S    FALLS, 
ON     FALLS     CREEK,     UPPER     YARRA. 


For  full  information  f^s  to  train 
services,  fares,  &c.,  -write  to  or  in- 
quire from  the  Government  Tovirist 
Officer,  Tourist  Bureau,  opp.  To-wn 
Hall,   Collins   street    Melbourne. 

E.    B.    JONES, 

Acting  Secretary  for  Railways. 


\fb^ 


Vol.  X. 


WHEAT    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION. 


Part  3. 


[Rey^isterefl  at  the  General  I'ost  Otiiie,  Melbouirie,  for  transmission  by  Post  as  a  Newspaper.] 


M^FFRA    BEET    SUGAR    FACTORY, 


RYE    GRASS. 

COCKSFOOT. 

PRAIRIE. 

PASPALUM. 

PHALARIS. 

TIMOTHY. 

DWARF    ESSEX 

RAPE. 

LUCERNE. 

ALSIKE. 

COW   GRASS. 

WHITE  DUTCH. 


VEGETABLE,  TREE, 
FLOWER,  SHRUB 
AGRICULTURAL 

SEEDS. 


Samples  and  Prices  of  Agricultural  Seeds   Post  Free. 


Planet  Jr.  Seed  Drills  &  Cultivators. 
Planter's  Friend  Corn  Drills. 
Iron  King  Seed  Drills. 


Corn  Queen  Planters,   Aerators,   Firefly  Plows, 


"DEMON" 
BIRD  SCARER. 

Special  labour-saving 
device;  most  effective  for 
scaring  the  birds.  Goes  for 
16  hours  without  charging. 

WRITE  FOR  PAMPHLET. 

FULL 

& 

COMPLETE 

STOCK 

OF 

AGRICULTURAL 
SUNDRIES. 


HEMINGWAY'S  ENGLISH 

ARSENATE  OF  LEAD. 

The  purest  and  best  make  on  tlie  mnrket. 

WRITE   US  FOR   FULL 

PARTICULARS  AND  PRICES. 


SPRAY   PUMPS. 
GARDEN  GLOVES. 

NIKOTEEN. 

MANILLA  LABELS. 

FRUIT  TREE  NETS. 


SEED  &  BULB  BOOK 

Containing  over  130  pages  of 

useful  information. 

POST     FREE     ON    APPLICATION. 


Manures  &  Fertilizers  of  all  descriptions. 


"ELECTRIC" 
GARDEN  HOSE. 

The  best  5-ply  hose  on  the 
jnarket.  S[)ecially  non- 
kinkabie,    and    does    not 

crack. In    any  length, 

^  in.,  I  in.,  and  1  in. 

PRICES  ON  APPLICATION. 

FULL 

& 

COMPLETE 

STOCK 

OF 

ORCHARD 
REQUISITES. 


MURCHISON'S     SCRUB    DESTROYER. 

Write  for  special  pamphlet  giving  full  prices  and  particulars. — 


64  ELIZABETH-ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


THE     JOUKX.VI. 

OF 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


T.   HOFKLYS,   .Icting  Editor. 


CONTENTS.- MARCH,     1912. 

TA'iK. 

The  Beet  Sugar  Industry  and  Closer  Settlciiient         ...              ...        H.  T.  Eaaterby  137 

Worms  iu  Sheep  ...             ...             ...              S.  S.  Gaimron,  D.V.Sc,  M.R.C.V.S.  15-i 

The  Pig  Industry                  ...              ...              ...              ...              ...            R.  T.  Arrh'-r  KiO 

The  Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees         ..             ...             ...             ...                 C.  F.  Cok  lliO 

Vine  Diseases  in  France     ...             ...             ...             ...             ...           F.  de  Gaddla  173 

Bee-keeping  in  Victoria      ...             ...             ...             ...             ...           F.  R.  Bcukne  17ti 

Orchard  and  Garden  Notes                ...             ...             ...                            E.  E.  PescoU  179 

AVheat  and  its  Cultivation...             ...    A.  K.   V.  Rirhardson,  M.A.,  B.Sc.  (Ag-ric.)  181 

Farm  Elacksmithing          ...              ...             ...             ...             ...                  G.  Bo.xtcr  192 

The  Olive               ...             ...             ...             ...             ...             ...          L.  Macdonald  196 

Reminders             ...              ...              ...              ...              ...              ...               ...              ...  19!) 

Victorian  Egg-laying  Competition,  1911-12  ...             ...             ...        H.  V.  Hawhbis  200 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

The  Articles  in  the  .Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria  are 
protected  b}'  the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act.  Proprietors  of  newspapers  wishing 
to  republish  an}'  matter  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  jjrocidtd  the  Journal  and  author  are 
both  a  den  oide.  dged. 

The  Journal  is  issued  monthl}'.  The  subscription,  which  is  payable  in  advance 
and  includes  [lostage,  is  3s.  per  annum  for  the  Coninion wealth  and  New  Zealand,  and 
5s.  for  t!ie  United  Kingdom  and  Foreign  Countries,     Single  copy  Threepence. 

S!iliscri[itions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  .AL'riculture,  Melbourne. 
A  complete  list  of  the  \arious  publications  i.ssued  by  the  Depariinent  ot  Agriculture 
will  bs  sup!)lied  by  the  latter. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  March,  1912. 


No  other  Windmill  has  a 
Speed-governing  Device  like 
the   "Billabong's." 


This  important  improvement  of  ours 
is  protected  by  patent  rights.  It  has 
neither  springs  nor  weights — nothing 

to  get  out  of  order.  By  merely  turning  a  screw  you  can 
vary  the  speed  of  the  mill  to  your  desire.  This  will  be 
found  to  be  of  great  advantage  when  Windmill  is  sub- 
jected to  a  change  of  load,  and  in  heavy  gales,  ife    ' 


Stop   and   Consider. 


You  want  a  mill  to  give  lifelong  service ;  therefore,  it  must  be  made  of  good 
material.  Bearings  should  be  so  made  that  they  may  be  cheaply  and  quickly 
renewed.  Frictional  or  wearing  parts  should  be  few;  and,  what  is  most  im- 
portant, the  mill  should  have  a  lubricating  system  that  will  insure  its  being 
thoroughly  and  continuously  lubricated  while  working,  but  which  will  prevent 
waste  when  mill  is  not  required.  The  mill  should  be  responsive  to  a  very 
light  breeze,  yet  stand  a  gale. 

In   our   Mill    all   these    Points   are   provided   for. 

We  know  what  is  required  of  a  good  mill — we  have  had  many  years  of  windmill 
experience.  The  fact  that  we  have  obtained  patent  rights  proves  our  pro- 
gressiveness;  and,  as  to  quality  and  workmanship,  our  being  established  for 
over  half  a  century  answers. 

Suppose  You   Save, 

say,  £1,  or  £1  10s.,  or  £2,  by  buying  a  cheaper  mill,  and  then  have  to  spend 
£2  to  £3  in  repairs — again  another  £3  or  £4;  or,  suppose  your  cheap  mill 
sticks  up  when  you  most  need  it,  you  will  soon  lose  pounds  and  pounds* 
worth  of  stock ;   or,  if  it  blows  down  in  a  gale,  where  is  your  saving  then  ? 

Pay  a  Proper  Price  and  g:et  the  Right  Article  with 
a     Good     Manufacturing    Firm     to    back    it    up. 

But  the  truth  is,  while  our  mills  are  well  made,  the  price  is  so  reasonable. 
Write  for  Catalogue  and  Prices. 

We  can  supply  Tanks  and  Stands ;  Pumps  of  all  kinds ;  Piping,  Troughing, 
and  Fluming ;    Farm  and  Garden  Tools,  Implements,  and  Requisites. 


JOHN  DANKS  &  SON 

391=395   Bourke  Street,   Melbourne. 


PTY. 
LTD. 


lo  March,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


Ill 


I      I 


When  equipping  the  dairy  with  machinery  don't  let  the  matter  of  a  £1  or  two  influence 
your  choice,  and  prevent  you  from  obtaining  the  best  and  most  up-to-date  plant  that 
money  can  buy.  A  mistake  made  at  the  outset  means  just  the  difference  between 
success  and  failure.  It  is  false  economy  to  purchase  machinery  of  any  description 
simply  because  it  is  "cheap" — the  sweetness  of  low  price  never  equals  the  bitterness  of 
poor  quality.  Before  purchasing  a  cream  sejianitor,  milking  machine,  or  petrol  engine, 
visit  the  farms  of  the  prominent  and  successful  dairymen,  and  you  will  find  that  over 
90  per  cent,  of  them  have  either  the 

"ALFA- LAVAL"  SEPARATOR 
"L-K-G"  MILKING  MACHINES 
"FELIX"  INDUSTRIAL  MOTOR 

installed  in  their  dairies  or  milking  sheds.  You  run  no  risk  whatever  in  purchasing  any 
of  the  above  time-tested  machines,  because  they  are  guaranteed  to  be  as  represented, 
but  should  they  fail  to  make  good  what  is  claimed  for  them  we  will  take  them  back 

again  and  pay  all  expenses. 

Our  full-line  Catalogue  No.  350S,  describes  in  detail  these 
bcst'Of-all  machines;  it  also  gives  full  particulars  and 
prices  of  the  most  modern  farm,  dairy,  and  chc  ese-making 
requisites. Posted  free   on  application.  — Write  for  it. 


J.  BARTRAM  &  SON  IVd.  19-23  KING  STREET,  MELBOURNE. 

SOLE  AGENTS :— Galvanized  all-steel  portable  Silos. 


Every  Farmer  and  Grazier 


should  have  a  Telephone  Service  con- 
necting with  the  nearest  Post  Ollice. 
Thousands  of  Australian  farmers  lune 
already  installed  Telephones,  the  ad- 
vantages of  which  are  so  numerous  ami 
valuable  that  it  is  impossible  to  mea^iuro 
or  appreciate  their  worth  until  you 
have  one. 


A  well-known  Victorian  grazier,  Mr.  W.  Gardiner, 
writes  regarding  The  "  ERICSSON  "  TELEPHONE  :— 

"  I  tind  the  telephone  tlie  most  useful  inven- 
tion I  have  on  the  farm,  boili  in  labour  and  time 
saving,  also  for  business  piu'ijoses.  It  has  often 
saved  me  the  price  of  itself  in  one  transaction,  and 
has  paid  for  itself  50  times  over  in  two  cases  of 
calling  medical  aid  when  no  one  could  go  for  it. 
The  "ERICSSON"  gives  satisfaction  in  every  way." 


Prices,  estimates,  and  fall  particulars, 
on  application  to — 

J.  BSRTRHI!  k  m 


PTY. 
LTD., 


19-23    KING    STREET 


LBOURNE. 


Reprbsi^nting     the     L.     M.     ERICSSON     Telephone     Company. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  March,  19 12. 


If  vou 


fervcestoi 


f^-^ 
rf^ 


T^.  ''mw 


POST    HOliE   DIGGER. 

The  Greatest  of  all  Earth  Boring  Tools 

It  cuts  the  hole  jiL.it  the  size  for  the  po>it,  in  a 
fraction  of  the  time  taken  with  bar  and  spade, 
and  no  time  is  lost  ramming.       Works  in  all 
conditions    and   kinds  of  soil — not  rock.     On  a 
fencing  job  120  ten-inch  holes  can  be  easily  bored 
in  a  day,   or  200  smaller  sizes.     By  extending  the 
pipe  bar  the  "  IWAN  "  POST  HOLE  DIGGER  bores 
down  to  35  feet.      Empties  with  a  shake  ;  is  built 
rigid — stays  rigid — has  no  adjustable  parts  to  wobb 
about  or  sticlv. 

EVENTUALLY-WHY  NOT  NOW! 

3       i       5       6        7       8       9       10       12       U  in. 

7/.  7/-  7/-  71-  7/6  8/6  9/6  10/-  ?,7/-  34/=  each. 

Thomas  McPherson  &  Son 

'        Established  51  Years, 

554-56G  &  582-588  Goilins-St.,  Melbourne. 


lo  March,  191  2.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Yicioria. 


TIME  IS 


EY 


TO  THE  0RCHARDI8T. 


WELL  \    why  not  save  time  (and  money)  by  using 

"AUSTRAL"  gfL°  JELLY 

FOR  DESTROYING  WOOLLY  APHIS,  RED  SPIDER,  PEACH  APHIS,  AND  ALL  SCALE  PESTS. 

II      YOU  save  at  least  one  man's  time  in  mixing.  II 

YOU  are  using  a  better  and  more  effective  emulsion. 
YOU  run  no  risk  of  damaging   your  trees. 
YOU  have  no  loss  through  spoiled  batches. 

II      YOU  simply  mix  -with  cold  -water.  II 

Ii^OTE!    CJost    of  -75  gall.    fC.:E3X3   OXXii    EZl^^XTX-SIOlNr. 

HOME    MADE. 

3  gall.  Red  Oil  (a!  2s.     ... 
3  Ib^.  Soft  Soap  (w,  3d. 
Man's  time  and  fuel 
Spoiled  batches  (say  1  in  10) 

T(iT.\L 

(NOTE.— 30  lbs.  Jeliy  contains  3  gall.  Red  Oil.) 
You  therefore  SAVE   XS.  on  every  Vat    BY    USING    JELLY. 

Writf,  for  particular-^  awl  co/iles  of  (('■<fimonial-^^ 

A.I     .  I F  N  k'  I  Kl  Q    ^^AUSTR AU^  SPH AY  CHEMICAL  WORKS^ 
■     V-     V/^l^rVII^Wj      368    QUEEN'S    Parade,    Clifton    Hill,   Vic. 


MADE    WITH    JELLY. 

30  Ib.s.  Jelly  to;  3d.  (Barrel  lut.s) ... 

fo     7 

6 

1 

Soft  Soaj) 

nil 

^^ 

Time  anfl  fuel 

nil 

0 

Spoiled  batches 

nil 

Total 

£0     7 

6 

1 

...  £0 

6     0 

..       0 

0     9 

...      0 

1     0 

..       0 

0     9 

..    £9 

8     6 

i^yLLiiiJ 


MAIZE    FOR    FODDER, 

Craig    Mitchell     Mammoth    White. 

ENORMOUS     GRAIN    YIELDER,     150    Bushels    to    the    Acre. 
Average  Yield  for  Green  Feed,  50  to  55  Tons  per  Acre. 

Pedigree  Seed,  9s.  per  bushel.  Cheaper  in  quantity.  Order  early  to  prevent 
disappointment.  Write  for  our  descriptive  Farm  and  Maize  List,  posted  gratis  ; 
also  General  Seed  and  Plant  Catalogue.     The  leading  house  for  Lucerne  and  Rape. 

T'-y  the  NEW    GIANT    KANGAROO    RAPE. 

For  Cattle,  Sheep,  Horses,  Pigs,  Fowls,  &c.,  it  is  unsurpassable.  WILL  FATTEN 
THREE  MORE  SHEEP  TO  THE  ACRE  THAN  OTHER  KINDS.  Will 
grow  to  a  height  of  11  feet,  growing  2  feet  in  five  weeks,  7^  feet  in  under  twelve 
weeks.     Price,  8d.  per  lb.,  60s.  per  cwt. 

AGRICULTURAL    SEED    A    SPECIALITY. 


LAW,  SOMNER,  &  Co.,  Seed  and  Plant  Merchants, 

139-141   SWANSTON  STREET,   MELBOURNE. 


Established  61  Tfears. 


'PHONE,    CENTRAL    729. 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.  [lo  March,  1912. 


"AUSTRAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES. 


^   FIVE  YEARS   OF   UNBROKEN    SUCCESS 

Have  established  the  AUSTRAL  as  the  Premier  Milking  Machine,  and 

have  demonstrated  that  it  does  not  belong  to  that  class  of  appliances  whose 
efficiency  terminates  after  a  few  months  of  use.  It  has  stood  the  t«st  of  time,  and 
that  under  all  sorts  of  conditions. 

IT    IS    SIMPLE. 

Complexitj'  and  intricacy  are  the  bane  of  milking  machinery.  Both  in  principle 
and  construction  the  Austral  is  strikingly'  simple.  Minute  pulsating  mechanism 
on  teat  cups  or  buckets  has  been  entirely  dispensed  with,  its  place  being  taken  by 
a  single  pulsating  pump,  simple  and  strong  in  construction,  which  serves  for  the 
whole  outfit,  whether  two  cows  or  ten  are  to  be  milked  at  a  time.  The  pulsating 
pump  is  placed  in  the  engine  room,  remote  from  the  cows. 

IT    IS    AN    EASY    MILKER. 

Fear  of  injury  to  cows  was  at  one  time  the  bogie  of  machine  milking.  The  Austral 
has  done  away  with  all  that.  Its  action  on  the  cow  is  as  gentle  as  thai  of  the 
softest  hand,  and  much  easier  than  the  average  hired  help.  After  three  and  four 
years'  milking  with  the  machines,  cows  are  found  to  be  as  sound  in  the  quarters 
as  when  they  started.  Enquiry  from  any  Austrail  user  will  confirm  the  correct- 
ness of  this  statement. 

IT  IS  THE  LAST  WORD  IN  ECONOIVIICAL  DAIRYING. 

The  working  parts  are  so  few  and  the  construction  so  simple  and  solid,  that  wear 
and  tear,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  upkeep,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  An 
outstanding  feature  of  the  Austral  is  the  Tank  System,  whereby  the  milk  is 
conducted  direct  from  cow  to  separator  without  any  handling  whatever.  With 
this  system,  so  great  a  saving  is  effected  in  time,  labour,  and  trouble,  that  in 
ordinary  circumstances  its  advantages  are  overwhelminj.  A  single  bucket  can  be 
6upy)lied  for  testing  individual  cows;  or  where  special  requirements  render  it  pre- 
ferable, complete  bucket  plants  can  be  installed. 

GLOBE  CREAM    SEPARATORS.      ,         CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES. 

Embodies  the   famous   Link-Blade    Bowl  I  The  world's  standard  Oil  Engine.      In  all 

Structure.     Official  tests  conducted  by  the  j  sizes  and  for  all  descriptions  of  farm  work. 

Swedish  Government  at  Alnarp  placed  the  f 

"Globe"  in  the  very  forefront  for  clean  ^  VACCAR    PETROL    ENGINES. 

skimming    and    easy    running,   against    all  T  t,  .  .  ,      ,     ., 

competitors.  \  ^"tish    built.            Low    runnmg    speed. 

All  sizes  from  14  to  200  gallons.  Economical  on  fuel. 

WINDMILLS,  SAW-BENCHES,  CH/^FF-CUTTERS,  and  all  Farrn  ar^d  Dairy  Machinery. 

Wiien  writing,  please  mention  this  Journal. 


W.  H.  BLHD 


59-61   KING  ST., 
^    MELBOURNE. 


lo  March,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


Herd  of  Prize 
Winnings  and 
Heavy  Milk  ^ 
and  Butter  Pro- 
ducing  Strains* 


YOUNG      BULLS     AND     HEIFERS 


FOR     SALE. 


"MYSr?rRY    VI.    OF     MELROSE." 


INSPECTION     3Y     APPOINTMENT. 


"  Melrose  " 
?        Dait^y, 

MALVERN,     MELBOURNE,    Vic 


Journal  of  AgricuUurc,  Victoria. 


March,  iqi  2. 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT    LAND, 

List  showing  numljer  of  allotments  on  the  vaiiou.s  Estates  available  for  application  :— 


Estate.      Irrigation  Areas.      Area. 


Koyuga 

14 

totallii 

g-    114  acres. 

Estate.                                                       Area. 

Swan  Hill 

6 

j^ 

479      „ 

Cohuna 

30 

^^ 

2,249      „ 

Cornelia  Creek            . .        6        totalling    2,361  acres 

Shepparto;i    . . 

9 

^j 

36      „ 

Oakland^        ..             ..7               ,,          4,898      „ 

Nanneellu 

IS 

1,837      „ 

Hurstwood     ..             ..         S                ,,           3,942 

Baiiiawm 

14 

^j 

452      „ 

Mt.  Widderin               ..       15               ,,          5,460      „ 

Toii,i:ala 

..       I(i8 

,, 

7,114       „ 

Nerriii  Xerrin                . .       17                ,,           3,736       „ 

Dairying- 

Bona  Vistii     . . 

and  Mixed  Farming". 

4        totalling        287  ai;res. 

Beet  GroAving"  and  Dairying-. 

Deepflene 

9 

„ 

1,817       „ 

Boisdale          . .                       6        totalling       301  acres 

Eunieialla 

11 

,, 

4,870       ,, 

Kihiiany  Park                        67                ,,           7,000     ,, 

Meadowliaiik 

1 

,, 

.=)1       ., 

Allambee 

10 

,, 

i,Gf.4    ;, 

Morven 

15 

,, 

•'i.46(i 

Clerks'  Homes. 

Werribee 

■  . ,         22 

,, 

4,943 

Kenilwotth  . . 

2 

,, 

1,195' 

Glen  Hniitly            . .             . .             . .           5  allotniiiits. 

Mooralla 

2 

,j 

1,372       „ 

Tooronga                  ..             ..             ..         00            ,, 

Cremona 

6 

,, 

499       „ 

Nuniurka'i   .. 

2 

^^ 

234       ,, 

Greenvale     . . 

..           4 

„ 

251       „ 

V/orkmen"s  Homes. 

W.yiina 

1 

102 

Dunrobin 

10 

„ 

1,059       ,, 

Pender's  Grove      . .             . .             . .        03  allotment!?. 

Wheat  Growing-. 


Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending  over  31J  years,  with 
payments  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  value  of 
permanent  improvements  effected,  repayments  extending  over  fifteen  years  bearing  5  per  cent,  interest. 

For  full  information  and  terms  apply  to   THE     SECRETARY, 

LANDS    PURCHASE    AND     MANAGEMENT     BOARD, 

MELBOURNE. 


A.  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningie,  South  Australia,  says:— 

Dear  Sir, — I  have  received  Spring  Wagon.  I  aui  well  pleased  with 
well,  and  I  think  those  who  have  Steel  Wheels  will  never  use  the  old  style  ; 
of  two  tons  of  potatoes  over  a  bad  road  of  30  miles,  where  the  old  style  of 

ALBERT  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningie,  S.A.,  says:  — 

Pear  Sir, — In  answer  to  your  letter  wantiiii;-  to  know  how  the  wheels 
you  I  ha\  e  had  the  wagon  about  6;  years,  and  it  lias  not  cost  me  a  shilling 
done  a  lot  of  heavy  carting.     Only  being  a  2-ton  Wagon,  I  lent  it  to  a  man 
rough  roads,  loads  being  about  50  bags.     Your  Wagons  are  worth  their  uion 
them.     I  think  this  Wagon  will  last  mv  life  time.     40"  and  30'  Wheel: 


same.     I  never  thought  it  would  run  so 
;;ain.     Two  horses  carried  my  first  load 
wagon  was  bogged,  and  is  still  there. 
August,  1903. 

of  my  wagon  are,  I  am  pleased  to  tell 

;  the  wheels  are  like  new,  and  I  have 

arting  wheat,  and  he  had  some  very 

ev,  and  I  would  not  be  without  one  of 

August  13th.  1910. 


TABLE  TOP — Truck  body,  and  all  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
i/VRITE    FOR    CATALOG     TO-DAY. 


R.  J.  L  HILDYARD, 


QUEEN'S    BRIDGE-ST. 
SOUTH   MELBOURNE,  V. 


^smmm^^m^^ 


lo  March,  191  -•] 


Journal  of  Agrjcidture,  Victoria. 


LIGHT,  STROMG, 
PERFECTLY  RIGiO. 


(( 


YCLO 


(yQ'  vTi)  G  i/i)N 


9S 


WOVEN    GATE 

Q    ft.    to    16    ft. 

Will  hold  anything,  and  can  be  made  rabbit  proof  by  putting  rabbit  proof 

intersection  at  the  bottom.      The  wider  gates  have  three  stays. 
Get  our  Catalogue  of  this  and  many  other  Cyclone  Gates. "  THEY'RE  ALL  GOOD. " 


CYCLONE    FENCE  &   GATE   CO., 

^  459  SWANSTON  ST.,  corner  franklin  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


EMP'S     PATENT 

SHEEP-BRANDING  LIQUID 

AS  USED  BY  LEADING  PASTORALISTS  OF  AUSTRALIA. 
IN  THSREE  COLOURS,    BLACK,   RED  &  BLUE. 


Sold  in  8  gallon  cases,  4  G  grallon. 
1  gallon  tins,    5  "  each. 

-AGENTS    FOR    VICTORIA    AND    RIVERINA- 


DALGETY^°° 


LTD., 


ELBOURNE. 


1^ 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  March,  191 2. 


"GLEN   ELGIN'S   PHILANTHROPIST"   299  A.H.B.   of  Aus. 


(|)(|) 


Winner  of  Champion,  Sydney  Royal  Show,  1909,  1910,  1911. 
Reserve  Champion,  Melbourne  Royal  Show,  1907,  1908,  1911. 

Also  holds  the  record  of  142  Firsts,  Champions,   Specials,  and  Gold  Medals  for  Ayrshire 

and  Dairy  Bull. 


The  ''Glengarnoek"  Stud  'l 


Pure. 
Ayrshire  Cattle 


Has  won  innumerable  prizes  in  the  ring.       The  females  in  this  herd  are  noted  for 
deep  and  heavy  milking  and  test  well  above  the  average,  and  are  kind  and  quiet. 

CHOICE   YOUNG    HERDBOOK    BULLS    FOR  SALE 

At  from  5  to  25  guineas  each. Special  Show  Bulls  higher. 

From  Best  Cows  only,  by  Pure  Herdbook  Bulls.      Full  pedigrees  and  particulars,  with 
photographs  of  animal  for  sale,  his  sire  and  dam,  will  be  forwarded  on  application. 

INSPECTION  CORDIALLY  INVITED.        VISITORS  MET  AT  LANG  LANG  RAILWAY  STATION. 
Address 


^¥ 


A.  T.  PRIESTLEY. 


Post       V'CLENCARNOCK," 

""  T^ISSSj  YANNATHAN,  Vic. 


O 
O 


m 

r 
O 
O 

m 


i.','..<ii  -  -^r.^i^tS; 


lo  March,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


XI 


Vacuum 

Gargoyle 

Prepared 

Red   Spraying  Oil 


Needs  no  Soft  Soap 
OP  other  ingredient. 


Requires  only 
Clean  Soft  Water. 


Vacuum  Gargoyle  Red  Spray  Oil 
now  obtainable  in  prepared  form 
is  the  same  Oil  as  that  originally 
introduced  to  Australia  for  fruit- 
tree    spraying. 


Full  particulars — 
Horticultural  Department, 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd., 
90  William  Street,  Melbourne. 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.  [lo  March,  1912. 

BEET  &  DAIRY  FARMING. 

THE    IDEAL 

CLOSER  SETTLEMENT  COMBINATION. 


THE    RICH 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 


THE    FAR-FAMED= 


KILMANY     PARK. 


Both  of  these  Estates  have  been  specially  selected, 
purchased,  and  subdivided  for  Beet  Growing  and 
Dairying     combined,      and     to     afford     opportunity     to 

THRIFTY,  EXPERIENCED  MEN  WITH  SMALL  CAPITAL 

to     make    a    comfortable    living    while    acquiring    the 
freehold     of    the    land. 


For  the  possibilites  and  practical  results  read  the  article  on 
in  this  issue  of  The  Journal  of  Agriculture. 


iwa^^ 


lo  March.  iqiJ.i  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  xiii 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 

Subdivided   into    57    blocks,    and    already    settled    with   the  exception   of 
Six  Blocks  of  from  40  to  60  acres,  to  carry  10  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  3o25  10s.  to  £27  10s.  per  acre. 


KILMANY    PARK 


Now  open 

for 
Application, 
Subdivided 

into 


42  farm  blocks  from  56  to  195  acres,  to  carry  10  acres 
of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £7  lOs.  tO  £22  lOs.  per  acre. 

14  Workmen's  blocks  from  20  to  46   acres,    to   carry 
4  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £23  tO  £25  per  acre. 


For  particulars  and  conditions  of  purchase  and  as  to  blocks 
available,  apply  to  the 

SECRETARY,  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT 
BOARD,    MELBOURNE. 


For  information  concerning-  the  financial  aid  given  to  suitable 
Settlers  to  stock  the  farms,  apply  to 

THE    DIRECTOR    OF  AGRICULTURE, 
MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  March,  1912. 


r 


THE    STANDARD     FOR     FENCING. 


CC 


EPTUNE 


?? 


UNRIVALLED    PATENT   STEEL 


FE 


RE. 


5  0  %   SAVED 

in  your    Wire   Account,    and    then 
you  have 


THE  BEST  POSSIBLE  FENCE.      Y 


£9  8s.  6d.  saved 

on  3  miles  6  Wire  Fence 
^  by  using  "NEPTUNE," 
as  against  Ordinary  Wire. 


V. 


MORRIS  &  MEEKS,  agents,  MELBOURNE. 


To  GRAZIERS,  FARMERS,  and  DAIRYMEN 


Proprietary 
Ltd.  


You  cannot  do  better  than  purchase  your  requirements  from 

THE    VICTORIA    VARNISH    Coy. 

Who  are  Importers  and  Manufacturers  of  the  undermentioned,  namely  : — 

Varnishes  for  all   uses,    Paints,    Dry   Colors,    Stainer's    Turpentine, 
Boiled    and    Raw    Linseed    Oil,    Resin,     Shellac,    White    Lead,    &c. 

OUR    MANUFACTURE     IS     OF     ONE     QUALITY— THE     BEST. 

Note  the  Address— 

The  VICTORIA  VARNISH  COY.  Proprietary  Ltd.,  Queen's  Bridge,  South  Melb. 


Tel.   Central  614. 


Established   1853. 


A.    J.    BORTHWICK,    Manager. 


BONEDUST,  SUPERPHOSPHATE, 

AND     OTHER     HIGH-GRADE      FERTILIZERS 

DELIVERED  AT  RAILWAY  STATION,  FOOTSCRAY,  OR  ON  WHARF,  MELBOURNE. 

"i"  rf"^  ^'■^  ^"^  T^    t-JI   I     I        T  I^oxxed-uLst;       -      - 

eJ9  •  ^^^  ^^-^y  ^«~^  J-^     ■     g-*-  ^     »J..-5^       Ika:a,m.-ci.fac-tTa.rer. 

Office :— 407  POST  OFFICE  PLACE,  MELBOURNL 

BONES  BOUGHT.      CONSIGN  TO  ME,  FOOTSCRAY.  Telephone  2098. 


lo  March,  1912. J 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


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Joiinial  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


[lo  March,  1912. 


DON'T  WASTE  YOUR  TIME  AT  THE  PUMP  HANDLE. 

Foil  foolish  it  is  for  a  man  to  ti-y  to  raise  water  for  stock  or  garden  by  means  of 
a  hand  pump.  Windmills  are  to  be  obtained  now  so  cheap  that  it  is  a  folly, 
rank  folly,  to  waste  one's  time  at  the  pump  handle ;  the  windmill  will  not 
only  do  the  ■\\ork  better,  but  do  it  cheaper  than  any  other  method  of  raising  water. 
The  farmer,  or  the  farmer's  man's  time  would  be  much  better  employed  about  the 
farm.  The  first  cost  of  a  windmill  is  practically  its  only  cost.  All  that  is  re- 
quired to  keep  it  in  order  for  years  is  simply  to  lubricate  it  occasionally,  and  this, 
with  recent  improvements,  needs  only  to  be  done  about  once  a  month.  For  many 
years  the  ALSTON  Windmill  has  become  a  household  word.  The  fame  of  the  ALSTON 
mill  has  spread  far  and  wide.  They  have  made  their  reputation  by  actual  merit  on 
actual  service,  by  their  simplicity  and  superior  construction.  They  have  stood  the 
test  of  years.  They  have  been  erected  in  the  most  exposed  sites  with  impunity.  They 
have  been  used  successfully  on  wells  and  bores  three  and  four  hundred  feet  deep.  They 
have  been  used  for  pumping  through  miles  of  piping  to  higher  levels.  They  have 
been  used  for  pumping  for  stock;  for  irrigation;  for  drainage;  for  house  and  for 
garden,  and  almost  everything  that  a  pump  is  used  for. 


Thej'  have  been  imitated  and  envied  by  rival  makers  but  have  never  been  ex- 
celled. Every  ALSTON  mill  that  has  been  sold  has  been  an  adveroisc ms^nt  for  its 
maker,  and  the  demand  for  the  ALSTON  mill  has  increased  year  after  year,  and  still 
preserves  its  premier  position  in  the  Commonwealth.  Thousands  of  the  ALSTON 
Windmills  are  made  annually,  and  thousands  of  the  ALSTON  mills  have  been  in  constant 
use  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  faithfully  doing  the  work  of  water-lifting,  to  the 
satisfaction  and  delight  of  the  foresighted  and  enterprising  stock-owners  who  installed 
them  ;  now,  seeing  the  advantages  of  their  use,  thousands  of  others  are  following  their 
example.  The  windmill  is,  beyond  dispute,  the  simplest,  most  reliable,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  cheapest  method  of  raising  M'ater  for  stock.  If  you  are  interested  further, 
write  for  a  full  and  descriptive  catalogue  from  the  maker. 

The  address  is 

JAMES     ALSTON, 

QUEEN'S  Bridge,    South   Melbourne. 

This  will  give  j'ou  a  full  and  fair  desci  ijition  of  all  different  size  mills  that  he  makes, 
from  the  six  to  the  twenty-five  foot  diameter  wheel ;  what  each  size  will  do,  and  what 
they  will  cost.     IT  WILL  PAY  YOU  TO  DO  SO. 


THG    JOURNAL 


OP 


Y^e  department  of     Mgricufture 


OF 


VICTORIA. 


Vol.  X.        Part  3.  lOth  March,  1912. 

THE    BEET   SUGAR    INDUSTRY    AND   CLOSER     ^ 
SETTLEMENT. 

Harry  T .   Easterby,   General  Manager  Mafra  Sugar  Factory. 

Historical. 

The  fine  building  which  is  depicted  on  the  front  cover  of  the  Journal  in 
which  this  article  appears  was  erected  by  the  Maffra  Beet  Sugar  Company 
in  1897-8,  and  cost  for  machinery  and  plant  some  ;^7o,ooo.  This  com- 
pany was  subsidized  by  the  Victorian  Government  to  the  extent  of  ^2  for 
every  jQi  subscribed  by  shareholders.  They  carried  on  operations  for  two 
seasons. 

Due  to  a  number  of  adverse  conditions,  which  are  within  the  memory 
of  most  people,  the  factory  was  closed  after  the  second  campaign,  and  the 
Government  entered  into  possession  as  mortgagee.  The  adverse  conditions 
referred  to  exist  no  longer,  and  beet  growing,  which  was  then  totally  new 
to  farm-ers',  has  become  quite  a  familiar  operation  owing  to  the  efforts  of 
the  Government  during  the  interval  1900  to  1909  in  inducing  farmers  to 
carry  out  experiments.  For  the  best  crops  of  beet  a  series  of  prizes  has 
been  offered  each  year. 

In  1909  it  was,  upon  the  advice  of  Dr.  Maxwell,  the  eminent  sugar 
expert,  decided  to  re-open  the  Maffra  Factory  in  a  purely  experimental 
way  in  order  that  it  might  be  demonstrated:  — 

Firstly — That   beets   could    be   grown   commercially    and    profitably 

by  farmers,   and, 
Secondly — That  a  standard  marketable   sugar  could   be  produced. 

which  would  compare  favorably  with  the  best  manufactured 

in  the  Commonwealth. 

The  details  of   securing  the  necessary   acreage,    to  make   a   trial   run 
Vvorth  while,  were  put  into  the  hands  of  Mr.   F.   E.   Lee,   who.  originally 
2098.  F 


138  Journal  of ,  Agriculture ,  Yjctoria.        [10  March,  1912. 

an  officer  of  the  old  Beet  Company,  had  for  many  \ears  been  associated 
with  the  industry  and  with  the  carrying-  out  of  the  field  experiments.  To 
his  enthusiasm  arid  belief  in  the  ultimate  success  of  the  industry  must  be 
credited  the  fact  that  sufficient  growers  Avere  found  to  justify  the  re-open- 
ing. Upon  Mr.  Lee's  relinquishing  this  work,  to  take  up  a  position  on 
the  Closer  Settlement  Board,  the  writer  relieved  him  of  the  out-door  man- 
agement in  connexion   with   the  scheme.    The  next  step   was  the  selection 


MAFFRA  SUGAR  BEET   FACTORY BEEF    L;i: 


of  a  capable  factory  manager,  and  here  the  Government  were  fortunate  in 
securing  the  services  of  one  of  America's  most  prominent  Beet-sugar  men, 
Mr.  G.  S.  Dver,  whose  family  has  been  most  honorably  connected  wirh 
the  Beet  Industry  in  America  ever  since  its  inception. 

The  first  campaign  under  the  auspices  of  the  Government  was  started 
in  April.  1911,  and  despite  many  initial  difficulties,  it  has  successfully 
proved  that   which   it   was  intended  to  do.        Manv  of  the  crops   realized 


lo  March,  19  r2.]  Beet  Sugar  Industry.  139 

a  veiv  handsome  profit  after  paying  all  expenses,  and  it  was  clearly  shown 
that  beet-growing  could  he  made  a  most  successful  industry.  The  sugar 
produced  was  of  the  finest  quality,  notwdthstanding  the  fact  that  the 
machinery  had  been  lying  idle  for  tw^elve  years  and  that  a  totally  inex- 
perienced and  raw  crew  were  operating  in  the  factory.  When  placed  on 
tlie  market  it  commanded  the  highest  market  rates  for  first-class  sugar. 
The  success  of  this  experimental  campaign  was  considered  so  satisfiutory 
that  the  Government  decided  to  continue  operations  and  build  up  the 
Beet-sugar  industry  in  Victoria  upon  a  sound  foundation. 

Present  Development. 

Those  farmers  who  had  made  a  financial  success  of  beet  growing  with 
few  exceptions  replanted  on  a  larger  scale  for  this  year,  notable  increases 
being  from  5  to  17  acres,  2  to  10  acres.  5  to  9  acres,  18  to  28  acres, 
and  so  on.  But  beyond  this,  relatively  few  of  the  farmers  surrounding 
the  Maffra  Factory  have  undertaken  to  grow  beets.  The  majority  of 
them  are  successful  dairymen  and  graziers  rather  than  cultivators  of  the 
soil,  and,  as  thev  can  make  money  at  these  pursuits,  they  have  hitherto  not 
given  the  question  of  growing  beet  a  great  deal  of  attention. 

However,  it  was  clear  that  a  larger  acreage  must  be  secured  in  crdei 
to  provide  more  beet  for  the  factory  than  in  the  previous  year,  and  that 
this  securing  of  area  and  larger  supply  of  beets  must  be  progressive  until 
the  full  capacity  of  the  Maffra  Factory  (40,000  tons  of  beets)  wms  reached. 

This  will  necessarily  occupy  some  two  or  three  years,  for  farmers 
generally  will  only  com.e  in  by  degrees,  and  when  they  see  that  other 
people  can  make  good  money  from  beet-growing.  This  year  large  num- 
bers of  persons  are  beginning  to  recognise  the  advantage  they  derive  as 
beet-growers  from  lieing  able  to  obtain  supplies  of  pulp  as  fodder  for  their 
cows  and  pigs.  This  aspect  of  the  question  will  be  dealt  with  at  a  later 
stage. 

In  addition  to  the  Maffra  District^  other  parts  of  Victoria  have  this 
vear  been  given  an  opportunity  of  demonstrating  whether  beet-root  growing 
\-.  suitable  to  their  localities.  Tn  Gippsland  itself  beet  is  being  grown 
from  Bairnsdale  to  Nar-nar-goon. 

Experimental  half  acres  ha\-e  also  been  planted  at  Kcchester.  Bamawm.. 
Shepparton.  Colac.  Bacchus  Marsh,  Portland,  &c..  &c.  Upon  the  irri- 
gation areas  in  the  North  beet- root  can  undoubtedly  be  made  a  profitable 
crop,  and  one  which  the  settlers  would  be  keen  to  cultivate,  because  they 
know  it  has  an  assured  market  value. 

Seeing  that  beet  growing  will  not  be  taken  u})  by  the  farmers  of 
the  :Maffra  and  surrounding  districts  upon  a  large  scale  immediately,  the 
Victorian  Government,  recognising  clearly  the  value- of  the  Sugar-beet 
industry  as  an  important  asset  to  the  country,  determined  to  make  this 
question  in  some  respects  a  closer  settlement  one.  A  tide  of  immigra- 
tion is  now  setting  in  to  our  shores,  and  it  is  necessary  that  new  settlers 
should  have  a  staple  payable  crop  to  engage  upon.  What  better  crop 
could  there  be  than  sugar-beet,  with  its  sure  and  certain  market,  its  big 
monev  returns,  and  its  by-products  of  pulp,  tops,  and  molasses,  to  assist 
the  dairying  business  ?  Therefore  in  suitable  localities  the  growth  of  beet 
is  to  be  bound  u[)  with  closer  .settlement. 


F    2 


140 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.        [lo  March,  1912. 


Closer   Settlement — Boisdale   Estate. 

The  first  move  in  the  above  direction  was  the  purchase  of  some  2,500 
acres,  portion  of  the  well-knoAvn  Boisdale  Estate,  one  of  the  finest  areas 
in  Victoria.  The  land  was""  bought  in  two  sections,  the  first  subdivision 
consisting  of  785  acres,  being  divided  into  18  blocks.  These  were  thrown 
open  to  .settlers  in  August,  191 1,  and  were  immediately  applied  for.  The 
second  subdivision  was  bought  a  little  later,  and  was  not  ready  for  settle- 
ment till  September,  191 1.  This  consisted  of  1,728  acres,  and  was 
divided  into  39  allotments.  Of  these,  26  blocks  have  been  taken  up,  6 
of  the  remaining  blocks  are  still  open  to  applicants,  while  7  blocks  are 
held  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  present,  for  the  purpose 
of  growing  beet-root  and  assisting  to  make  up  the  supply  to  the  factory. 
The  land  thus  made  available  was  intended  for  combined  beet  and  dairy 


CORA    LYNN    BEET    CROP,    BUNVIP    DISTRICT. 

farming.       The  soil  is  a  rich  alluvial  deposit  and  is  several  feet  in  depth. 
Blocks  vary  from  40  to  60  acres. 

The  Boisdale  purcha.se  promising  so  well,  another  purchase  of  8,000 
acres  of  the  far-famed  Kilmany  Park  was  made  in  the  spring.  This  estate 
has  now  been  subdivided  and  made  available  for  settlement  in  blocks  of 
from  60  acres  upwards.  Particulars  concerning  the  settlement  of  this  estate 
are  given  at  the  end  of  this  article. 

The  first  fact  that  strikes  an  intending  settler  applying  for  land  at 
Boisdale  is  that  there  is  no  pioneering  work  to  be  done.  Here  is  no 
necessity  to  wrest  with  the  axe  a  hard- won  home  from  the  giant  forest  or 
the  tangled  scrub;   he  can  set  him.self,   his   familv   and   household   goods. 


-lo  March,  1912.] 


Beet  Sugar  Industry. 


141 


down  in  the  midst  of  a  well-ordered  community  with  most  of  the  adjuncts 
•of  civilization.  A  well-equipped  Butter  and  Cheese  Factory  is  upon  the 
Estate,  to  which  settlers  can  sell  their  milk. 

State   School,    Public   Hall,    Post   Office,    and   Railway   Station   are  all 
•within  easy  distance  of  settlers,  while  the  roads  are  good,  and  a  plentiful 


BOISDALE    CEIEESE    AND    BUTTER    FACTORY. 


STATE   SCHOOL. 


IBLIC    HALL. 


BOISDALE. 


supply  of  water  is  easily  obtained  by  sinking  from  15  to  25  feet.  Many 
of  the  blocks  are  also  well  w^atered  by  billabongs.  The  River  Avon 
bounds  the  property  on  the  East,    while  the  lofty   Australian  Alps   lend 


142 


Journal  of  Ai^riciiltun\  Yictorid. 


lo  March.  191  ?. 


beauty  to  the  landscape  on  the  North.       Ahogether,  the  settler  can  con- 
gratulate himself  upon  his  surroundings  and  the  value  of  his  land. 

The  tvpe  of  house  provided  varies  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
settler.  For  a  young  man  just  commencing,  the  style  of  house  shown 
below  is  all  that  is  at  present  needed. 


SETTLER  S   HOUSE—  TWO  ROOMS. 


The  man  with  a  family,  however,  requires  something  better  than  this^ 
and  the  Closer  Settlement  Board  accordingly  erect  a  house  of  the  follow- 
ing type  ;— 


SETTLER   S    HOLSE       FOUR   ROOMS. 


for  which  easv  terms  are  given  in  the  shape  of  annual  repayments  spread 
over  a  series  of  years.  The  settler  generally  builds  his  own  outbuildings, 
such  as  stables  and  cowsheds. 

The  houses  originally  upcn  portion  of  the  Estate  are  also  utilized, 
some  of  the  best  of  these  being  built  of  brick,  forming  most  substantial 
homesteads  with  necessarv  silos,  milkinc;  sheds,  stables.  &c. 


lo  March,  191:!.]  Beet  Sugar  Industry.  143 

Beet  Growing  and  Dairying  at  Boisdale. 
lo  order  to  provide  that  beet-root   growing  should  lie  made  part   and 
parcel  of  the  scheme  of  Closer  Settlement  at  Boisdale  the  following  clause 
^vas  inserted  in  the  terms  and  conditions  of  purcha^je : — 

For  a  period  of  at  least  ten  rears,  unless  remission  is  given  bv 
the  Agricultural  Department,  a  minimum  area  of  10  acres  shall 
be  utilized  for  beet  culture  each  }ear,  the  cultivation  of  the  crop 
to  be  carried  out  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment. A  system  of  three-course  rotation  to  be  followed  {i.e.,  the 
10  acres  under  beet  in  any  year  shall  not  be  put  under  beet  again 
until  the  third  year  following)  unless  remission  of  this  condition 
be  approved  by  the  Agricultural  Department,  and  the  whole  result- 
ing crop  of  manufacturable  beet  shall  be  supplied  to  the  Maffra 
Factory,  which  will  pay  for  same  at  a  rate  per  ton  of  topped 
clean  roots  delivered  at  the  factory,  such  rate  to  be  determined  by 
the  Factory  Manager  from  year  to  year  during  the  ten  years  or 
until  this  condition  is  remitted,  which  may  be  done  at  any  time  by 
the  Board.  At  the  present  time  ^i  per  ton  is  being  paid  for  beet 
roots. 


A  boisdale  beet  and  dairy  homestead. 

As  the  blocks  were  only  taken  up  between  August  and  October,  it 
v/as  necessary  for  the  Department  to  at  once  prepare  the  10  acres  of 
ground  upon  each  settler's  block  so  that  beet-growing  could  be  immedi- 
ately put  in  hand  for  the  present  campaign.  Accordingly  the  land  was 
ploughed,  rolled,  harrowed,  and  seeded,  in  most  cases  in  advance  of 
settlement,  each  successful  applicant  taking  over  his  beet  plot  upon 
arrival.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Government  did  not  obtain  posses- 
sion of  the  land  imtil  late  in  the  year,  no  autumn  fallowing,  which  is  very 
advisable,  could  be  carried  out.  but  omitting  this,  the  land  generally  was 
put  into  as  good  a  condition  for  seeding  as  the  circum.stances  would  per- 
mit. For  next  season,  however,  the  whole  of  the  preliminary  cultiva- 
tion for  beet-root  should  be  properly  carried  out.  While  the  beet  crops 
throughout  the  District  are  upon  the  lighter  side  this  year,  partly  on 
iiccount  that  sowing  was  a  little  late  and  partly  owing  to  the  season,  it 
is  evident   that   given   right   treatment   the   Boisdale  soils   can  be  made  to 


144 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria.        [lo  March,  191 2'. 


lo  March,  1912.] 


Beet  Sugar  lndiistr\ 


145 


produce  heavy  yields  of  beet.  The  following  two  photographs  are  of 
Messrs.  Raeburn  and  Bedggood's  crops,  which  are  equal  to  anv  in  the 
Maffra  District  and  are  superior  to  the  majority. 


bedggood's  beet  crop,  boisdale  (1912). 


The  first  subdivision  of  the  Estate  was  prepared  and  seeded  first,  and 
had,  on  the  whole,  better  preparation  in  the  shape  of  ploughing  and  sub- 
soiling.  Good  crops,  however,  are  also  to  be  found  upon  the  second  sub- 
division,   as  the  following  photograph   will   show  :  — 


MK      HLLION    s    BEET    CROP,    BOISDALE   (1912). 


146 


Ji'itnial  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.        [10  March,  1912. 


MR.    HARVEY   S    DAIRY   HERD,    BOISDALE. 


Dairying  is  being  carried  on  simultaneously  with  the  growing  of  beet, 
and  excellent  returns  are  being  secured  by  settlers  from  the  sale  of  their 
milk  and  cream  to  the  Boisdale  Butter  Factory.  Mr.  Trevor  Harvey, 
one  of  the  Boisdale  settlers,  has  a  herd  of  dairy  cows  which  are  mostly 
of  the  Jersey  type. 


RED    DANISH    BULL.    CLAUDIUS. 
Placed  bv  the  Govtrnment  for  the  u?e  of  settlers  at  Boisdale. 


10  March,  191 :;.] 


Beet  S//C(/r  l}idititr\ 


147 


Mr.  Harvey  weighs  all  his  milk  and  cream,  and  keeps  a  lalnilated 
lecord  of  the  yield  of  each  cow.  He  has  also  a  miniature  chemical 
laboratory,  and  makes  his  own  tests.  He  is  thus  enabled  to  know  exactly 
uhat  he  is  doing  and  what  progress  he  is  making.  His  milking  .sheds  and 
general  surroundings  are  the  most  advanced  of  the  new  beet  farms  on  Bois- 
dale. 

The  following  figures,  supplied  by  some  of  the  settlers,  show  that  a 
good  living  can  be  made  by  dairying  on  the  small  area  that  each  man 
holds  :  — 


Settler. 

Xo.  0:  Cows. 

Moiithl 

-  Rt 

turn-i. 

£ 

d. 

A. 

11 

21 

0 

0 

B. 

14 

20 

0 

0 

C. 

11 

19 

8 

0 

D. 

12 

18 

0 

0 

E.* 

10 

14 

0 

0 

F. 

12 

IS 

0 

0 

o.t 

28 

32 

(» 

0 

H. 

14 

21 

() 

(» 

I. 

17 

18 

0 

(J 

J. 

12 

16 

0 

0 

K. 

13 

18 

0 

0 

L. 

16 

21 

(J 

(J 

M. 

21 

18 

0 

0 

N. 

12 

16 

0 

0 

0. 

9 

12 

() 

() 

*  Si-X  of  these  are  two-year-okl  heifers, 
t  Two  blocks. 

The  Department  has  a  number  of  Red  Polled  and  Danish  cattle 
aX  Boisdale,  which  are  being  retained  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  dairy  herrl 
■on  one  of  the  State  experimental  farms. 

'    Lucerne  grovvs   exceptionally    well,    and   many   settlers   have   had   three 
fine  cuttings  recently. 

Beet  (trowing  for  next  Season. 
Farmers  whi  intend  growing  beet  for  next  season  (1913)  are  strongly 
advised  to  get  their  land  fallowed  as  early  as  possible — not  later  than  in 
the  Autumn,   so  that  the  final   ploughing  and  subsciling  and  the  working 
up  of  the  seedd^ed  can  be  carried  out  just  prior  to  sowing. 

Sowing  should  invariably  be  done  in  August,  and  early  thinning  is  an 
immense  advantage,  fully  25  per  cent,  greater  yield  being  secured  by 
carrying  out  this  important  act  in  the  cultivation  of  the  crop  at  the  right 
time,  viz.  : — upon  the  appearance  of  the  fourth  leaf.  Farmers  generally 
this  year  were  too  late,  both  with  sowing  and  thinning,  and  the  yields 
would  have  been. much  more  satisfactory  had  both  these  operations  been 
■carried  out  at  the  proper  time.  Cultivation  is  now  particularly  easy  w-ith 
the  special  beet  cultivators  imported  from  America  by  the  Department, 
and  which  are  lent  free  to  farmers  under  conditions  which  are  ascertain- 
able at  the  Sugjr  Factory. 


ncultiuc.    \  ictoria.        [ro  March,  191 2: 


Full  details  as  to 
preparation  of  ground 
for  beet,  and  subse- 
quent cultivation,  were 
given  in  the  last- 
August  number  of  this- 
Journal,  copies  of 
which  can  be  ob- 
tained upon  applica- 
tion to  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  or  tO' 
the  Sugar  Factory^ 
Maffra. 

These  may  be  briefly 
epitomized  as  under  : — 

Always  select  the 
best  lands  for  Sugar 
Beets.  Tilled  land  is. 
always  preferable. 

Avoid  poor  land — land^ 
where  sheep  have  just 
pastured,  sandy  land' 
tliat  will  blow  or  drift, 
cold,  wet  or  late  land. 

See  that  the  land  is 
cleared  of  all  corn- 
stalks and  roots,  and' 
rubbish  of  any  kind 
before  being  ploughed, 
so  that  nothing  will  in- 
terfere with  the  perfect 
working  of  the  Culti- 
vator. 

Use  only  well  rotted 
manure  or  artificial' 
fertilizers  approved  for 
beet  on  land  intended' 
for  beets.  Do  not  put 
a  coat  of  heavy,  coarse- 
manure  on  your  landi 
just  previous  to  plant- 
ing beets.  It  is  very 
apt  to  interfere  with. 
the  proper  seeding  and 
cultivating,  to  cause  a. 
poor  stand,  and  to  hurt 
the  quality  of  the- 
beets. 

The  land  should  be 
ploughed  in  the 
Autumn,  and  allowed) 
to     mellow     by     lying. 


lo  March,  1912.] 


Beet  Sugar  Industry. 


149 


fallow  through  the  early  winter 
inches  deep  and  subsnilini:    iiv 


l!v'r 


rhen  \\\  July  a  second  ploughing  8  or  10 
6  inches  should  be  catjied  out.      The 


SYNDICATE    BEET    CROP. 


subsequent  cultivation  before  seeding  involves  harrowing  and  rolling  to  an 
extent  sufficient  to  provide  a  smooth,  lev^el,  and  well-tilled  seed-bed. 


STACKING   LUCERNE  IJ 


Get  your  soil  in  the  very  best  possible  condition ;  put  beets  in  early, 
not  later  than  August,  and  work  them  early,  thinning  out  carefully  to  only 
one  in  a  place;  then  cultivate  the  soil  often.      This  always  pays  well. 


15°  Journal  oj  Agriculture .   Victoria.        [lo  March,  1912. 

Never  plant  more  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep  in  the  early 
part  of  the  season,  and  fnun  three-quarters  to  one  inch  in  the  latter  i)art 
of  the  season. 


BREAKING  UP  LAND  FOR  BEET  AT  BOISDALE. 


Plant 
thin  out 


the    beets    in    rows    never    more    than     :8     inches    apart    and 
to   8    inches    between    the    plants    in    a    row,    unless    the    land    is 


CULTIVATOR    FOR    BEET. 


very   rich,    when  the  beets   can   be   left   6   inches   apart,    so   as   to  control 
the  size  of  the  plant. 


lo  March,  191^-]  ^'^ 'V  S/tgar  hidititr\ 


In  thinning,  always  select  and  leave  the  strongest,  healthiest,  and 
most  uniform  sized  plants.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  leave  the 
voung  plant  in  as  good  a  condition  as  possible  by  placing  a  little  earth 
around  the  root,   so  that  it  cannot  fall  down  nor  get  sunburned. 

Start  vour  cultivator  as  soon  as  the  beets  are  well  through  the 
ground,  so  as  to  keep  the  weeds  from  starting.  Cultivate  often,  par- 
ticularly after  everv  rain,  always  leaving  the  surface  level  and  never 
hilling  or  ridging  up  the  beets. 

The  beet  is  one  of  the  best  crops  to  give  profitable  returns  in  pro- 
portion to  the  care  and  attention  bestowed  on  it.  Various  important 
p".ints  are: — Secure  a  good  stand  by  using  plenty  of  seed  and  properly 
preparing  the  soil ;  thin  properly  when  the  young  beet  has  reached  the 
proper  size;  avoid  thinning  out  too  far  apart  in  the  rows;  maintain  a 
good  state  of  cultivation. 

The  proper  time  to  thin  is  upon  the  marked  appearance  of  the  third 
or  fourth  leaf.  The  secret  of  raising  beets  cheaplv  and  of  good  yield 
and  qualitv  is — keep  a  clean  field. 

On  the  Value  of  Beet  Pulp  as  Tattle  Fodder. 
Ail  important  feature  of  the  beet-sugar  industry  is  the  supply  of  pulp 
which   it  returns  to  the  farmer.       This  beet-pulp   forms   a  valuable  stock 
food,  and  the  testimony  of  farmers  and  others  entitled  to  speak  upon  the 
subject  will  be  read  with  interest. 

The  United   States   Secretary   for  Agriculture   states  : — ■ 
"  In  order  to  get  the  benefit  of  beets   as  a  rotator  and  to  get  the   pulp   to   feed 
to   his   cows    the    farmer   could    actually    afford    to    furnish    to    the    factory    the    sugar 
from  his  beets  free,   and  then  would  be  only  selling  the   air — for  the  sugar  in  beets 
comes  wholly  from  the  air." 

I  take  the  following  from  a  recent  article  in  the  American  Sugar 
Industry  relative  to  the  value  of   beet   pulp   as   a   stock   feed  :  — 

"  Sugar  beets  will  yield  from  fifteen  to  twenty  tons  per  acre.  About 
two-thirds  of  this  will  be  returned  as  pulp  The  tops  make  additional 
feed.  The  dry  matter  contained  in  a  pound  of  beet  pulp  is  about  equal  to 
the  dry  matter  in  an  equal  amount  of  ordinary  roots,  such  as  mangels. 
It  has  been  found  that  one  pound  of  corn  is  equal  to  eight  pounds  of  wet 
beet  pulp  when  fattening  lambs.  Beet-pulp,  either  wet  or  dry,  constitutes 
an  important  addition  to  the  list  of  feeds  that  the  dairyman  may  feed  to 
his  cows."' 

"  Experiments  in  feeding  both  wet  and  dried  pulp  have  l^een  carried 
on  at  some  of  the  stations.  The  Utah  Station  found  that  horses  will 
eat  as  high  as  twenty  pounds  of  wet  pulp  daily  Combined  with  oats 
and  lucerne,  9.5  pounds  of  the  wet  pulp  were  found  equal  to  1.5  pounds 
of  oats.  At  this  rate,  with  oats  at  two  shillings  a  bushel,  wet  beet  pulp 
is  worth  about  sixteen  shillings  a  ton.  Nine  pounds  of  w^et  pulp  were 
equal  in  feeding  value  to  2.8  pounds  of  lucerne.  If  lucerne  is  worth 
^2   10s.   a  ton.   then  pulp  is  worth  nearly  sixteen  shillings," 

Some  Experiences   with   Wet   Pulp. 

Interesting  as  may  be  the  experimental  work,  the  experience  of  some 
of  the  farmers  who  have  been  using  the  feed  carries  much  weight.  The 
following  statements  are  from  men  who  have  been  feeding  wet  pulp  : — 

Xo.  I. — "  T  cannot  speak  too  highly  of  the  feeding  value  of  sugar-beet 
pulp  for  cattle.     I  have  had  nothing  but  excellent  results  from  feeding  it  to 


15-  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.        [lo  March,  1912. 

my  live  stock.  My  cows  have  increased  their  flow  of  milk  one-third 
through    feeding  the   wet   pulp.        Young   live   stock   will   get   fat  on   it." 

No.  2. — "  I  am  very  much  satisfied  with  wet  beet  pulp  as  a  cattle  food. 
My  cows  gave  an  increase  in  the  flow  of  milk  when  fed  with  the  pulp.  To 
the  best  of  my  knowledge  I  think  it  is  worth  about  £^\  per  ton." 

No.  3. — •'  Sugar-beet  pulp  is  another  good  feed  for  milch  cows.  I  am 
sorry  that  I  cannot  get  another  carload  at  the  present  time.  With  the  pre- 
sent prices  of  feed,  I  think  sugar-beet  pulp  is  worth  about  sixteen  shillings 
per  ton.  It  made  a  difference  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  of  milk  in 
one  day  when  I  quit  feeding  it.  I  earnestly  recommend  the  feeding  of 
beet  pulp  to  dairy  cows." 

Some  Experiences  with  Beet  Pulp  in  the  Maffra  District. 

"  I  am  feeding  my  cows  solely  on  beet  pulp.  I  cart  it  out  in  the 
paddock,  and  distribute  it  in  small  heaps  on  the  grass,  allowing  about 
a  heap  of  80  lbs.  per  day  to  each  cow,  and  find  they  waste  very  little.  I 
am  milking  65  cows,  and  since  I  have  been  using  pulp  the  milk  supply  has 
increased  from  113  gallons  to  140  gallons  a  day,  or  slightly  under  half 
a  gallon  pier  cow.  I  consider  beet  pulp  is  equal  to  green  oats  for  winter 
feeding — in  fact  I  proved  it  so  when  the  factory  was  working  last  May, 
and  I  have  also  proved  it  to  be  as  good  as  millet  for  this  time  of  the  year 
(Summer),  and  consider  these  two  crops  to  be  the  best  milking  fodder  in 
their  respective  seasons.  I  have  never  used  lucerne  or  bran  to  any  extent 
and  therefore  cannot  compare  them,  but  I  consider  it  far  ahead  of  green 
maize.  I  think  that  pulp  would  give  even  better  results  by  the  use  of  oaten 
hay  or  chaff  with  it."      W.  J.  Dwyer,  Maffra. 

"  Re  the  value  of  beet  pulp  as  fodder  for  milch  cows,  I  have  been 
feeding  mv  cows  on  the  pulp  alone,  and  the  quantity  of  milk  has  increased 
about  half  a  gallon  per  day  for  each  cow.  I  think  beet  pulp  is  equally 
as  good  as  any  other  fodder  grown. "^       A.  A.  Martin,  Maffra. 

"  I  have  been  feeding  beet  pulp  to  my  rows,  the  pulp  being  fed  alone, 
being  placed  in  the  paddock  in  small  heaps.  It  has  resulted  in  an 
Increase  in  the  daily  milk  yield  equal  to  about  half  a  gallon  per  cow.  In 
my  opinion  there  is  no  better  fodder,  and  at  the  present  price  is  cheapei 
than  chafT  or  bran,  and  cows  will  yield  more  milk  on  the  pulp."  /. 
Robertson,  Maffra. 

"I  have  been  feeding  my  cows  on  pulp  from  the  factory,  and  am 
desirous  of  informing  you  that  it  is  an  excellent  food  for  producing  milk. 
Since  I  have  been  using  the  pulp  my  cows  have  just  given  one-third  more 
milk  than  before  I  used  it.  I  am  feeding  my  cows  on  pulp  alone,  twice 
a  day,  and  I  consider  cows  fed  on  pulp  will  produce  more  milk  than  those 
fed  on  lucerne  or  green  oats.  My  cows  eat  the  pulp  greedilv  and  will  lick 
it  off  the  ground,  and  I  can  safely  say  that  any  one  who  can  get  pulp 
need  never  worry  about  growing  anything  else.  I  have  poddy  calves 
fed  on  beet  pulp,  and  they  are  all  vealers  and  could  be  sent  to  market 
I  would  thoroughlv  recommend  it  to  anybody  with  cows."'  Jo  Jin  A. 
Mitclielmore,  Maffra. 

KiLMANY   Park   Estate. 

This  property  abuts  on  the  main  Gippsland  Railway  line,  about  120 
miles  from  Melbourne  and  6  miles  fiom  Sale,  and  the  Nambrok  and  Ful- 
ham  railway  stations  are  practically  on  the  estate.  The  whole  of  the  blocks 
lie  between  the  railway  line  on  the  north  and  the  Latrobe  River  on  the 
south,  the  latter  being  one  of  the  finest  rivers  in  Gippsland. 

The  soil  ranges  from  light  grazing  and  cultivation  land  on  the  north- 
east,   thence    slopes    southwards    and    westwards    to    mixed    farming    and 


lo  March,  1912.]  Beet  Sugar  Industry.  153 

dairying  land,  and  finally  to  extensive  areas  of  river  flats,  highly  suitable 
for  dairying  and  beet  growing. 

Tliere  is  a  good  supply  of  timber  on  the  estate  for  fencing  and  firewood 
purposes.  Water  is  obtainable  at  easy  depths  on  tlie  lower  land  by  sinking, 
and  good  catchments  exist  on  the  higher  slopes. 

The  area  has  been  subdivided  in  such  a  way  as  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  practically  all  kinds  of  farming.  Some  of  the  blocks  range  up  to  270 
and  280  acres  of  a  lighter  class  of  land  suitable  for  cereal  growing,  and 
grazing,  at  values  from  below  ^10  to  ^6  los.  per  acre.  Then  there  are 
mixed  farming  blocks  of  somewhat  small  area,  and  finally  the  blocks 
carrying  beet-growing  conditions  similar  to  those  imposed  in  the  case  of 
the  Boisdale  settlement  previously  described.  There  are  56  beet  blocks 
available^  varying  in  size  from  20  acres  to  195  acres.  On  the  larger 
areas  10  acres  of  beet  are  to  be  grown  annually,  and  4  acres  on  the  smaller 
areas,  which  are  intended  as  small  farm  homes  for  workmen  on  the  estate. 
On  the  majority  of  the  blocks,  however,  it  is  contemplated  that  settlers 
will  combine  beet-growing  with  dairying,  for  which  latter  there  is,  in  every 
case,  a  suflficiency  of  land,  exclusive  of  the  beet  area,  and  they  will  be 
able  to  follow  the  plan  which  has  been  so  successfully  adopted  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Boisdale  Estate.  The  fact  that  some  of  the  lighter 
land  on  the  estate  is  relieved  of  the  beet-growing  conditions  is  an  indica- 
tion of  the  desire  of  the  Government  that  only  land  that  is  fully  suitable 
for  beet-growing,  and  on  which  profitable  crops  of  beet  may  be  grown, 
should  have  the  beet-growing  conditions  attached. 

In  the  acquirement  of  these  blocks,  the  transaction,  so  far  as  the  pur- 
cha.se  of  the  land  is  concerned,  will  be  with  the  Closer  Settlement  Board, 
it  being  a  requirement  that  the  deposit  and  subsequent  instalments  be  paid 
by  the  settler  without  assistance  from  the  Government.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that,  in  order  to  more  quickly  establish  the  industry  and  provide 
an  acreage  of  beet  up  to  the  maximum  capacity  of  the  factory,  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  will  be  authorized,  as  in  the  case  of  Boisdale,  to  make 
advances  to  desirable  and  suitable  settlers  of  a  sufificiency  of  money  to 
purchase  stock  and  implements  adequate  to  the  running  of  the  dairy 
portion  of  the  farm,  to  the  extent  of  making  a  living  in  the  interval 
between  the  acquirement  of  the  land  and  the  harvesting  of  the  first  beet 
crop.  The  repayment  of  all  such  loans  will  be  secured  by  a  lien  on  the 
stock  so  purchased  and  on  the  resulting  crop  of  beet ;  but  repayment  may 
not,  in  all  cases,  be  insisted  on  after  the  first  harvest. 


BOISDALE   BEET    SIDING    AND    STATION. 


154  Journal    of    Ag..    Yic.  [lo   March.    1912. 

WORMS  IX  SHEEP. 

By  S.  S.  Cameron,  D.V.Sc,  iM.R.C.V.S. 

Of  the  domestic  animals  that  are  kept  in  large  numbers  to  minister 
to  tlie  wants  of  man  the  sheep  is  the  least  subject  to  attacks  of  disease. 
True,  the  goat,  the  donkey,  the  mule,  and  the  cat  are  much  more  disease- 
resistant,  but  amongst  domesticated  animals  in  the  economic  sense  these 
may  be  considered  a  negligible  quantity.  Sheep  are  but  slightly  liable 
to  the  ordinary  ailments  of  an  inflammatory  or  sporadic  nature,  which  are 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  horses  and  cattle,  such  as  colic,  pneumonia, 
pleurisy,  enteritis,  impaction,  or  constipation.  They  are  also  remarkably 
immune  against  germ  diseases;  and  except  for  anthrax,  malignant  catarrh, 
foot  and  mouth  disease,  braxy,  and  one  or  twO'  other  contagious  diseases 
of  somewhat  mild  characLcr  the  ovine  species  is  free  from  the  attack  of 
disease  scourges  which  decimate  the  equine,  bovine,  and  porcine  species 
respectively,  such  as  glanders,  pleuro-pneumonia,  and  swine  fever. 
Nevertheless  sheep,  like  mortals,  have  "troubles  of  their  own" 
in  the  shape  of  a  truly  worrying  number  of  parasitic  diseases. 
Invasion  by  macroscopic  (naked  eye)  animal  parasites  such  as  w^orms — 
as  distingu^hed  from  microscopic  vegetable  parasites  called  bacteria — 
occurs  more  frequently  in  the  sheep  than  in  any  other  domestic  animal- 
and  the  diseases  caused  through  such  invasion,  by  their  untoward  effect 
on  growth  and  fattening  and  by  their  frequent  fatalities,  are  a  great 
source  of  loss  to  the  sheep  raiser.  These  losses  are  practically  perennial 
in  certain  districts,  but  in  other  localities  they  are  only  trouble.some  inter- 
mittently, i.e.,  during  certain  seasons. 

Preventive  Measures. — Before  proceeding  to  a  detailed  treatment  of 
the  diseases  of  sheep  caused  by  parasites,  it  will  be  well  to  discuss 
generally  the  factors  favorable  ta  parasitism  and  the  measures  which  can 
be  most  advantageously  adopted  tO'  counteract  them.  Nearly  all  the 
harmful  worm  parasites,  and  indeed  many  insect  parasites,  require  moist 
ground  or  stagnant  water  tO'  live  in  while  they  are  in  the  egg  or  larval 
stage.  Hence  if  sheep  could  be  kept  to^  country  free  from  stagnant  water, 
marshy  ground  and  boggy  spots,  the  chances  of  their  becoming  affected 
with  parasitic  diseases  would  be  practically  non-existent.  This  statement 
is  particularly  true  in  regard  to  such  diseases  as  fluke,  lungworm  and 
stomach  worm,  and,  apart  from  its  scientific  foundation,  is  supported  by 
the  practical  experience  that  during  and  after  years  of  drought  the  pre- 
valence of  fluke  and  worms  in  sheep  is  very  much  lessened.  In  England 
and  other  closely-settled  agricultural  countries  it  has  also-  been  found  that 
along  with  the  reclamation  of  swamps  and  marshes  and  the  under-draining 
of  wet  lands,  parasitic  di.seases  of  animals  have  declined  enormously. 
This,  because  the  natural  harbours  in  the  shape  of  stagnant  water  for 
snails,  molluscs,  and  the  like  animalculse.  in  which  the  parasites  have  to 
live  during  some  period  of  their  life  history,   is  done  away  with. 

Obviously  then,  to  avoid  infestation  with  parasites,  sheep  should  not 
be  grazed  on  low-lying,  damp  or  marshy  land,  and  for  this  reason  as  well 
as  because  it  also  predisposes  to  foot  rot,  it  is  an  axiom  of  the  sheep- 
breeder  that  such  land  is  not  good  sheep  country.  But,  equally  obviously, 
in  Australia,  where  the  runs  are  so  large,  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  confine 
sheep  grazing  to  dry  uplands.      On    many    runs,     at    all    events    in  some 


lo  March,  iqi:?  ]  ]Vor///s  ///  SJiccp.  i^- 

districts,  some  parts  of  the  extensive  paddocks  are  low-lying  and  wet.  and 
if  sheep  are  grazed  on  these  parts  during  the  spring  and  earlv  summer 
there  will  always  be  more  or  less  danger  of  them  becoming  infested  with 
Avcrms.  On  such  runs  great  efforts  should  lie  made  to  fence  off  the  wet 
parts  so  that  they  could  be  left  bare  of  sheep  during  the  months  when  the 
temperature  is  favorable  for  the  development  of  the  immature  stages  of 
the  various  parasites.  September,  October.  November,  and  December  are 
the  months  during  which  parasitic  developmental  processes  are  most  active. 
Before  this  the  eggs  of  the  parasites  have  either  not  been  passed  out  on 
10  the  ground,  or  if  they  have  thev  mav  be  eaten  with  impunitv,  becau.se 
/hey  are  only  in  a  "half-hatched  "  condition  and  incapable  of  develop- 
ment. Later  than  December  the  likelihood  of  their  development  is  not 
great,  because  as  a  rule  the  conditi(ms  of  the  land  as  regards  moisture  are 
not  favorable.  This  statement  does  not  at  first  sight  appear  to  be  in  accord 
with  the  fact  that  worm  troubles  in  sheep  are  most  markedly  manifested 
during  the  late  summer,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  considerable 
time  elapses  after  invasion  of  the  system  before  the  effects  are  pronounced. 
Associated  with  wet  land  as  a  causative  agency  in  the  prevalence  ot 
parasitic  diseases  is  the  fact  that  on  many  extensive  grazing  areas  the  onlv 
available  supply  of  water  for  stock  is  that  contained  in  natural  or  artificial 
waterholes  or  tanks.  Such  stagnant  water  supplies  frequently  become  foui 
and  foetid  from  pollution  by  animal  discharges  and  surface  drainage 
from  adjacent  camping  grounds,  and  they  are  always  likely  to  be  highlv 
charged  with  the  immature  forms  of  animal  parasites,  for  which  the\ 
constitute  an  ideal  developing  medium.  Hence  the  extraordinarv  prevalence 
of  intestinal  and  other  parasites  in  Australian  domestic  animials  ;  and 
hence  also,  perhaps  in  great  measure,  the  fact  that,  excepting  Iceland 
only,  hydatid  disea.se  in  man  is  more  prevalent  in  Australia  than  in  any 
other  country  in  the  world.  The  remedy,  and  it  is  one  that  will  have  to 
l>e  carried  out  if  the  prevalence  of  worm  diseases  is  to  be  minimized,  lies 
in  the  fencing  of  all  water-holes  so  that  no  stock  can  gain  access  to  them, 
and  the  provision  of  troughs  for  drinking  purposes.  The  troughs  to  be 
.-ituated  near  by  the  water  holes  and  automaticallv  supplied  with  water 
from  them  by  pumping  with  wind  mill  j^ower.  E\en  without  the  fencing- 
oft'  of  water  holes  the  provision  of  troughs  would  greatly  lessen  the  trouble 
because  there  is  nothing  in  the  objection  sometimes  raised  that  it  is  of  no 
use  providing  drinking  troughs  as  stock  wdll  not  make  u.se  of  them.  It 
will  be  found  on  trial  that  stock  will  alwavs  go  naturally  to  clean  water 
and  may  be  frequently  observed  to  refuse,  or  drink  but  sparinglv  of, 
contaminated   w^ater. 

Overstocking  of  sheep  pa.'ture  should  be  rigidly  avoided,  for  it  is  the 
opinion  of  those  best  qualified  to  judge  that  it  is  in  great  degree  responsible 
for  the  spread  of  the  worm  pest.  In  addition  to  the  excessive  fouling  of 
the  land  with  a  greater  amount  of  parasite-impregnated  droppings  from, 
infested  sheep,  the  depletion  of  the  land  of  its  most  nutritious  grasses  and 
plants  results  in  a  lack  of  thriving  which  predispcses  to  worm  infection. 
One  of  the  best  means  for  improving  fluke\-  or  wo-rm-infested  pastures  is 
to  burn  them;  but  it  is  not  usuallv  practicable.  For  lambing  ewes  nothing 
is  better  than  a  paddock  that  has  been  burnt  in  the  autumn.  The  feed  that 
springs  after  the  burning  produces  a  good  flow  of  milk  and  the  burnt 
ground  will  be  comparatively  free  from  the  eggs  of  parasites  with  which 
the  young  lambs  are  so  liable  to  become  infested.  The  periodical  dressing 
of  lambing  paddocks  with  freshly  burnt  lime  is  also  of  great  advantage. 


1^6  journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.         [lo  March,  1912 

but  such  preventive  procedure  is  scarcely  practicable  on  larger  areas. 
From  what  has  been  previously  said  as  to  the  beneficial  effects  of  draining, 
this  preventive  measure  should  not  be  neglected.  Of  course,  the  expense 
of  under-draining  will  be  an  effective  bar  to  its  adoption  on  a  large  scale, 
but  where  stud  sheep  are  being  reared  the  expense  will  show  ample 
recompense.  Pipe  draining  is  not  necessary  ;  an  equally  effective  and 
much  cheaper  plan  is  to  place  two  straight  saplings,  8  or  9  inches  thick, 
3  or  '4  inches  apart  in  the  bottom  of  the  cut  drain,  theri  put  'a  third 
sapling  on  the  top  to  keep  the  other  two  apart  and  form  an  eye  or  channel, 
and  fill  in  a  covering  of  scrub  or  brushwood  over  the  saplings  before 
replacing  the  earth.  vSurface  draining  by  the  running  of  plough  furrows 
and  helping  here  and  there  with  the  spade,  can  be  done  at  moderate 
expense  even  on  large  areas,  and  it  should  be  done  wherever  surface  water 
is  apt  to  remain,  so  that  likely  breeding  places  for  parasites  may  be  done 
away   with. 

Preventive  and  Tonic  Licks. 

Except  in  so  far  as  the  licks  usually  recommended  act  as  tonics  and 
alteratives  and  so  help  tO'  keep  the  sheep  in  robust  health  and  thriving 
condition,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  they  are  really  preventive  of  para- 
sitic invasion.  Their  use  should  certainly  never  be  allowed  to  excuse  the 
carrying  out  of  the  previously  detailed  measures  which,  being  based  on 
scientific  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  invasion  and  means  of  spread  of 
its  cause,  are  truly  preventive.  Nevertheless  custom  and  experience  have 
spoken  to  the  usefulness  of  these  licks  and  a  word  or  two  may  be  said 
about  them. 

Salt. — Experienced  authorities  hold  that,  apart  from  the  question  of 
preventing  attacks  of  parasites,  it  pays  well  to  give  sheep  all  the  salt  they 
will  take,  the  expense  and  trouble  showing  a  good  return  in  more  and 
better  mutton  and  more  and  better  wool.  In  some  districts  where  the  salt 
bushes  have  not  been  eaten  out  and  where  the  land  and  herbage  are  of  a 
saline  nature  sheep  may  not  need  an  artificial  supply,  but  wherever  on 
trial  it  is  found  they  will  take  it  an  ample  .supply  of  rock  salt  should 
always  be  made  available.  Liverpool  salt  {i.e.,  coarse,  crushed  rock  salt) 
is  preferred  by  some,  and  it  certainly  constitutes  a  good  vehicle  for  the 
admixture  of  other  worm  medicines.  Whatever  salt  or  lick  is  used  should 
be  protected  from  waste  by  rain  by  being  placed  in  covered  troughs. 

Salt  and  Iron. — Sulphate  of  iron,  finely  powdered  and  mixed  welT 
with  Liverpool  salt  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  (|  cwt.)  of  the  former  to- 
40  parts  (i  ton)  of  the  latter.  This  to  be  constantly  available  to  sheep 
in  country  at  all  subject  to  fluke  and  worms,  and  to  be  given  in  even 
S'Ound  country  (other  than  true  salt-bu.?h  country),  when  the  season  is  such 
as  is  likely  to  favour  parasitic  infection.  Where  sheep  are  actually  infested 
this  lick  may  be  improved  as  an  appetite  stimulant  by  the  addition  of 
flowers  of  sulphur  and  ground  ginger  in  the  proportion  of  one-half  the 
amount  of  the  sulphate  of  iron. 

Salt  and  Lime. — A  mixture  of  slaked  lime,  i  part,  and  Liverpool 
salt,  12  parts,  to  which  may  be  added  one  half -part  of  sulphate  of  irorr 
or  ground  ginger  or  both. 

Salt   and  Turpentine. — Mix  thoroughly  one  pint  of  turpentine  with 
from  28  lbs.   to  56  lbs.   Liverpool  salt  according  to  condition  and  age  of 
sheep  ;  spread  thinly  in  weather -protected  troughs.     As  an  active  vermifuge- 
for  tapeworms  half-a-p3und  of  powdered  areca  nut  mav  be  added  to  this- 
lick. 


ioMarch,  19T2.]  Won/is  m  S/n'cp.  157 

Remedial  Measures. — It  may  be  truly  said  that  while  it  is  com- 
paratively easy,  by  the  carrying  out  of  the  measures  previously  indicated, 
to  keep  sheep  free  from  worms,  it  is  a  heart-breaking  and  patience-taxing 
struggle  to  get  a  mob  in  order  again  that  has  got  low  from  worms  or 
fluke. 

So  far  as  fluke  is  concerned  a  flock  should  never  be  given  the  chance 
of  getting  emaciated  or  poor  from  it.  Whenever,  by  the  observance  of 
any  of  the  usual  symptoms  (which  in  regard  to  fluke  as  also  in  regard  to 
other  parasitic  affections  of  sheep  are  too  well  known  to  need  recapitula- 
tion in  an  article  of  this  character),  it  becomes  known  that  the  sheep  are 
infected  with  fluke,  advantage  should  be  taken  of  the  fact,  that  in  the  first 
stages  of  the  trouble  they  thrive  exceptionally  well,  to  draft  them  off  to 
the  butcher  before  the  wasting  stage  commences.  When  the  flukes  first 
invade  the  liver  their  presence  stimulates  an  increased  flow  of  bile  whereby 
for  a  time  the  process  of  digestion  is  greatly  assisted,  and  consequently  a 
fattening  tendency  is  promoted.  This  fact  is  so  well  known  that  many 
years  ago  it  was  seriously  proposed  in  England  (and  actually  put  into 
practice  by  some  breeders)  to  artificially  infest  sheep  with  fluke  so  as  to 
quickly  fatten  them.  If  the  sheep  are  closely  watched  and  preliminary 
fattening  noted,  not  much  loss  will  result ;  but  once  this  stage  is  past, 
and  emaciation  with  its  accompanying  dropsy  sets  in,  no  remedial  treatment 
is  of  much  avail  in  arresting  the  "  rot."  Where  it  is  possible  to  treat 
sheep  individually  or  where  stud  sheep  are  concerned,  the  following  pre- 
scription may  be  used  : — 

Powdered  oak  bark. 
,,  calamus  root. 

,,  gentian  root. 

,,  juniper  berries  of  each     i   lb. 

,,  sulphate  of  iron,   J  lb. 

,,  common  salt,   2  lbs.  for  sheep;  3  lbs    for  lambs. 

Mix  dry  and  give  at  the  rate  of  a  teaspoonful  per  sheep  once  a  day  mixed 
with  a  feed  of  chaffed  ensilage  or  green  oats,  bran,  crushed  oats  or  chaffed 
hay. 

As  regards  stomach,  intestinal  and  lung  worms  medicinal  treatment  is 
greatly  aided  by  the  provision  of  artificial  fodder ;  in  fact,  the  cure  of  a 
mob  is  less  certain,  and  certainlv  more  troublesome,  by  the  use  of  drenches, 
than  by  changing  them  on  to  lightly-stccked  artificial  feed  such  as  young 
oats,  rape,  prairie,  rye,  or  other  sown  grass,  or  by  giving  them  a  liberal 
allowance  of  chaffed  hay  or  ensilage  strengthened  with  crushed  oats  or 
bran.  The  latter  course  has  to  be  frequently  adopted  because  it  is  difiicult 
to  get  the  artificial  pastures  mentioned  in  the  green  state  during  the  months 
when  treatment  is  most  often  wanted,  viz.,  January  and  February,  unless 
its  requirement  has  been  anticipated,  as  it  should  be  on  a  well-managed 
sheep  farm.  Especially  is  this  artificial  feeding  needed  as  a  help  in  treat- 
ment when  it  is  found  that  lambs  are  affected  at  weaning  time. 

Worm  Drenches. — (i)  T/ie  Arsenic  drench. — For  stomach  worms  (the 
"  thread  "  worm  or  H amonchiis  contortus)  and  intestinal  worms  (the  sheep 
tape  worm  or  Moniezia).  The  dose  of  arsenic  is  about  2  grains  for  a 
grown  sheep,   \\  grains  for  a  weaner  and  up  to  i  grain  for  a  lamb: 

White  arsenic,    2  ozs.   avoirdupois. 
Washing  soda,  4  ozs.  ,, 

Water,    i    gallon. 


-158  J iiiinial  of  Agriculture,   Vicforia.         [10  March.  1912. 

Boil  slowly,  stirring  meanwhile  for  hali-an-]-iour  until  the  arsenic  is  all 
dissolved;  then  add  water  to  make  thf  mixture  measure  3  gallons;  let 
-sediment  settle  and  decant  clear  liquid  or  pour  it  quietly  off.  Bury  or 
•otherwise   destroy    sediment. 

Dosage. — For  groicn  sheep — i  fluid  ounce  (two  tablespoonfuls)  the  three 
j^allons  sufficing  for  480  grown  sheep.  For  zvemiers — Add  one  gallon  of 
water,  making  four  gallons,  which,  with  a  dose  of  one  ounce,  will  suffice 
for  640  weaners  For  lambs — Add  water  to  make  5I  gallons,  which,  with 
a  dose  of  one  ounce,   will  suffice  for  880  lambs. 

The  greatest  care  and  exactness  should  be  exercised  in  preparing  and 
measuring  the  drench.  The  arsenic  should  be  ordered  in  packages  which 
•do  not  require  breaking  or  re-weighing  and  the  quantity  prepared  should 
•correspond  to  the  number  of  sheep  to  be  drenched.  The  mixture  should 
be  frequently   shaken   while   drenching, 

(2)  Turpentine  drencli — For  lung  worm  {Filaria  tnonchialis)  or 
^{strongylus  filaria). 

Rectified  oil   of  turpentin'e,    i   oz. 
Milk  or  white  of  egg,   2  ozs. 

or  Rectified  oil  of  turpentine,  Linseed  oil  and  starch  gruel  of  each 

1   oz. 

Dose. — Grown  sheep,  3  ozs.  ;  weaners,   2  ozs.  ;  lambs,    i|  ozs.     If  the 

-sheep  are  weak  the  dose  to  be  proportionately  reduced.      The  turpentine 

•drench  has  also  been  found  to  be  very  effective  for  stomach  and  intestinal 

worms. 

(3)  Thymol  drench. — In  view  of  the  great  success  which  has  recently 
attended  the  treatment  of  allied  forms  of  intestinal   worms  in  man  with 

thymol,  this  drug  is  worthy  of  a  trial  for  stomach  worms  in  sheep.  The 
•dose  for  a  sheep  would  be  from  5  to  20  grains  according  to  age  and  con- 
■dition  and  it  should  be  given  dissolved  in  half  an  ounce  of  turpentine 
and  diluted  with  about  two  ounces  of  milk  or  linseed  oil. 

Directions  for  Drenching. — The  sheep  .should  be  yarded  on  the 
■evening  before  the  morning  on  which  the  drenches  are  to  be  given  and 
kept  without  food.  They  must  be  drenched  on  an  empty  stomach  and 
kept  away  from  food  and  water  for  three  hours  at  least  after  thev  are 
■drenched.  One  drenching  will  often  suffice,  but  if  no  improvement  occurs 
repeat  in  a  lortnight.  If  the  sheep  continue  to  show  signs  of  Avorms 
"drench  every  two  months. 

Intra- tracheal  Injection  for  Lung  Worm. — This  direct  method  of 
treating  lung  worm  is  certainly  very  tedious,  but  equally  certainly  it  is 
very  effective,  and  may  be  adopted  with  advantage  over  all  other  methods 
of  treatment  when  small  lots  of  sheep  are  concerned  or  in  the  case  o-f 
valuable  studs.  Its  efficiency  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  medicaments  used 
have  a  chance  of  coming  intO'  actual,  and  therefore  destructive,  contact 
with  the  worms  lodged  in  the  air  passages.  Coughing  fits  are  also  pro- 
moted by  which  the  worms  are  dislodged  and  expelled.  The  operation 
is  comparatively  simple  but  requires  care — otherwise  the  losses  may  be 
considerable. 

To  operate  the  sheep  is  "  turned,"  set  on  its  rump  and  held  between 
the  knees  of  a  standing  assistant  with  its  head  and  neck  outstretched. 
The  wool  must  be  carefully  "  parted  "  in  the  middle  line  of  the  throat 
midway  down  the  neck,  an  incision  lengthways  of  the  windpipe  and  about 
an  inch  long  is  then  made  with   a  sharp  blade   down  on  to  the  rings  of 


TO  March,  19' -■]  Woni/s  /;/  S//i\p.  i5«^ 

the  windpipe.  The  needle  of  the  syringe  is  then  inserted  in  a  downward 
direction  in  tlie  space  between  an\-  two  rings  and  tlie  contents  of  the 
syringe  injected  forcibly  towards  the  lungs.  A  dab  of  sheep  dip  or 
other  antiseptic  dressing  may  be  applied  to  the  wound  after  withdrawal 
of  the  syringe.  An  ordinary  hypodermic  syringe  of  large  size  may  be 
used,  but  if  it  is  fitted  (as  intra-tracheal  syringes  are)  with  short  stout 
needleii  the  preliminary  incision  of  the  skin  may  be  dispensed  with,  i.e., 
in  the  hands  of  an  expert  operator  who  by  practice  can  hit  the  windpipe 
between   the   rings  every   time. 

The  vermicidal  solution  to  be  injected  may  be  compounded  as  follows  :  — 

(i)  Syrup  of  poppies 

Rectified  oil  of  turpentine  of  each  one  fluid  ounce. 
Pure  carbolic  acid,   ten  drops. 
Olive  oil.   two  drams. 

Sufficient  for  eight  sheep.     Dose.  twO'  drams  (i  dessertspoonful). 

{2)  Rectified  oil  of  turpentine,   one  ounce. 
Laudanum  or  chloroform,   naif  an  ounce. 
Carbolic  acid,    pure  liquefied,   ten   drops. 
Olive  oil,   half  an  ounce. 

Sufficient  for  eight  sheep.  Dose,  two  drams  (i  dessertspoonful).  Half 
doses  of  either  prescription  for  young  lambs.  Two-third  doses  for 
weaners. 

Fumigation  or  Inhalation  for  Lung  Worm. — This  treatment  in- 
volves the  introduction  into  the  air  passages  of  some  gaseous  agent  which 
will  have  a  poisonous  effect  on  the  worms  lodged  there,  or  by  inducing 
coughing  will  cause  their  expulsion.  It  is  a  rapid  method  of  dealing  with 
large  numbers,  as  a  hundred  or  two  at  a  time  may  be  subjected  to  the 
treatment.  The  process  may  be  illustrated  by  instancing  fumigation  with 
sulphur,  although  chlorine  gas  or  volatilized  formalin  may  be  used  with 
equal  safety  and  success. 

The  sheep  are  placed  in  a  woolshed  or  other  building,  all  the  opening.s 
into  which  should  be  effectively  closed.  Bags  may  be  stuffed  into  air 
holes,  louvres  and  other  openings,  and  cracks  and  crevices  in  doors,  floors, 
ceilings,  and  windows  may  be  pasted  over  temporarily  with  paper.  Rock 
brimstone  or  flowers  of  sulphur  is  ignited  inside  the  building  and  kept 
burning  so  giving  off  sulphurous  acid  gas  (SOg-)  .  This  is  done  perhaps 
most  conveniently  by  placing  the  ignited  sulphur  on  an  iron  plate  or 
."^hovel  kept  at  a  dull  red  heat  by  the  flame  of  a  lamp  underneath.  It 
may  be  also  vaporized  bv  placing  it  on  top  of  a  layer  of  live  wood  or 
coal  ashes  on  a  shovel  or  plate.  Two  or  three  persons  should  remain  in 
the  building  .seated  on  their  haunches  at  different  parts  so  that  they  are 
practically  in  the  same  position  as  the  sheep  with  regard  to  the  inhalation 
of  the  sulphur  flames.  When  the  fume-laden  atmosphere  approaches  the 
unbearable  for  the  men  it  will  be  time  to  throw  open  the  doors  and  let 
the  sheep  have  some  fresh  air  but  they  may  be  left  in  the  building  (with 
open  doors)  until  the  fumes  have  dissipated.  If  any  of  the  sheep  cough 
violently  or  are  otherwise  overcome  they  should  be  immediately  removed 
to  the  outer  air  and  in  no  event  should  the  inhalation  be  pushed  to  the 
point  of  suffocation.  It  is  better  to  repeat  the  process  at  an  interval  of 
a  few  davs  rather  than  run  anv  undue  risk. 


i6o 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo  March,  1912. 


THE  PIG  INDUSTRY. 

{Continued  from  Page  82.) 
R.   T .  Archer,  Senior  Dairy  Inspector. 

II.— THE   NEED   FOR  CO-OPERATIVE   EFFORT. 

Denmark's   Example. 

What  is  the  remedy  for  these  unsatisfactory  conditions?  Co-operation. 
The  results  of  co-operation  in  Denmark  will  surely  indicate  the  lines  on 
which  we  should  act.  The  trade  in  that  country  was  entirely  controlled 
by  private  or  proprietary  firms  until  the  year  1888,  when  the  first  co- 
operative bacon  curing  factory  was  established.  The  following  figured 
will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  results  : — 


Year. 


1888 
1889 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 


Number  of 

Co-operative 

Bacon  Factories. 


1 
8 
14 
15 
17 
20 
25 
26 
26 
27 
29 


Number  of  Pigs  killed. 


23,400 
131,500 
317,780 
385,700 
528,800 
626,850 
583,400 
660,000 
651,000 
777,200 
About  800,000 


Average  Price  paid 

lor  Pigs. 

£    s.    d. 

2     9     0 

2  18     0 

3     5     0 

2  18     0 

2     8     0 

2     5     0 

2  15     0 

2  16     0 

3     0     0 

3     4     6 

In  addition  to  the  co-operative  factories,  there  were  25  private  factories. 

Each  factory  serves  a  tract  of  country  about  16  miles  in  radius,  within 
which  the  pigs  are  fattened,  and  the  average  number  supplied  by  each 
farmer  per  year  runs  from  10  to  12.  They  reckon  to  supply  a  pig  for 
each  cow  they  milk.  In  1902,  777,200  pigs  killed  by  the  co-operative 
factories  averaged  129  lbs.  in  weight.  The  price  realized  averaged 
64s.  6d.,  or  6d.  per  lb.   free  to  the  owner. 

In  the  Danish  factories  no  part  of  the  pig  is  lost,  even  the  bristles 
are  of  value.  The  blood  is  dried  and  prepared  for  feeding  horses,  cows, 
and  poultry.  For  the  disposal  of  the  cheaper  cuts  of  bacon,  liver, 
sausages,  &c.,  the  factories  have  established  shops  in  their  local  towns. 
The  tails,  feet,  and  heads  nearly  all  go  to  Ireland  in  barrels,  while  the 
cured  bacon  almost  wholly  goes  to  Great  Britain.  The  cost  per  pig  of 
killing  and  curing  averages  2s.  6d.,  while  the  charges  for  freight  and 
selling,  in  the  British  markets,  8i.c.,  come  to  about  2s.  9d.,  equal  to  about 
Jd.    per  lb. 


[o  March,   1912-] 


The  Pig  Industry. 


161 


Strong  evidence  of  the  soundness  and  prosperity  of  the  pig  industry 
is  shown  by  the  increasing  numbers  of  swine  in  Denmark:  — 


Year. 


1881 
1888 
1893 
1898 
1903 


Total  of  Pigs. 


527,000 

771,000 

829,000 

1,168,000 

1,456,699 


To  complete  their  wonderful  organization,  the  district  factories  are 
each  represented  on  a  Central  Association  of  Co-operative  Bacon  Curers 
in  Copenhagen.  Funds  of  ;^400  or  ;^5oo  a  year  are  subscribed  by  the 
local  factories  for  running  this  association,  which  costs  considerably  under 
a  farthing  per  pig. 

The  duties  of  the  Central  Organization  are:  — 

1.  To  deal   with   strikes  of   workmen. 

2.  To   deal   with  insurance   of   workmen   against   accidents. 

3.  To  deal  with  insurance  of  bacon  to  Britain. 

This  mutual  insurance  system  has  resulted  in  a  great  saving  over  the  former 
practice  of  each   factory   doing  its  own   insurance. 

4.  To   hold   exhibitions    of    bacon. 

The  simple  method  of  conducting  these  exhibitions  is  worth  noting, 
also  the  practical  steps  taken  to  benefit  by  the  results.  The  Exhibition 
Committee  of  Copenhagen  telegraphs  at  any  time,  and  without  notice,  to 
the  managers  of  local  factories  to  forward  some  sides  of  bacon,  just  as 
they  are  ready  for  shipment  to  the  British  markets.  The  judges'  deci- 
sions are  thereafter  intimated  to  the  managers  of  co-operative  factories, 
along  with  remarks  stating  whether  any  defects  are  due  to  faults  in  the 
manufacture,   or  to  the  breeding  and  quality  of  pigs. 

With  this  information,  managers  are  enabled  to  correct  and  improve 
their  methods,  while  an  expert  in  pig-breeding  is  sent  by  the  Central 
Association  to  visit  the  farmers  in  districts  where  the  quality  of  pigs  is 
defective,  and  to  instruct  them  in  the  breeding  and  feeding  of  a  better 
class  of  animal.  Of  paramount  importance  is  the  fact  that  no  skim 
milk  is  allowed  by  law  to  leave  the  creameries  or  butter  factories  without 
being  pasteurized.  It  is  believed  that  this  practice  has  almost  eliminated 
tuberculosis  from  pigs. 

Before  a  factory  is  started,  it  is  considered  necessary  to  make  sure  of 
a  supply  of  pigs  to  be  regularly  delivered,  and  to  obtain  security  for  a 
sufficient  loan  to  provide  buildings,  plant,  and  working  capital.  Farmers 
who  fail  to  supply  the  number  of  pigs  they  guarantee  are  liable,  according 
to  the  signed  conditions  of  co-operation,  to  a  fine  of  ns.  3d.  per  head 
on  the  deficiency,  but  the  fine  has  seldom;  been  incurred  or  imposed. 

In  providing  the  capital  no  money  is  actually  raised  from  the  farmers, 
but  is  obtained  by  loan  on  their  personal  security  from  banks  and  various 
other  sources.  "  Each  for  all  and  all  for  each  "  is  their  motto.  At 
the  beginning,  some  difficulty  was  experienced  in  getting  farmers  to  sign 
such  a  deed  ;    but,   since  the  benefits  of  co-operation  have  become  known,. 


i62  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.      [lo  March,   191:1. 

farmers  are  not  only  willing  but  anxious  to  share  in  all  the  responsibilities. 
Only  one  factory,  it  is  believed,  has  been  unsuccessful,  and  that  was  due 
entirely  to  the  want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  pigs. 

About  the  beginning  of  1903  the  Agricultural  Department  of  Ireland 
sent  a  representative  committee  to  Denmark  to  obtain  full  information 
with  regard  to  the  system  adopted  by  the  Danes  in  the  development  o>" 
their  bacon  industry.  The  Canadian  Government  also^  sent  a  delegation, 
and  later  a  body  of  Scotchmen  visited  Denmark  for  the  same  purpose. 

In  the  case  of  the  first  two  countries  reference  elsewhere  proves  that, 
by  following  the  Danish  methods,  great  improvement  in  their  trade  was 
effected,  and  the  relative  positions  of  the  produce  from  the.se  two  countries 
0:1  the  British  market  show  that  we  should  be  guided  by  their  experience. 
Although  the  United  States  of  America  produces  and  exports  the  greatest 
quantity  of  pig  products,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  prices  obtained  for  the 
same  are  \-ery  much  below  what  is  received  bv  the  other  countries  named, 
and  is  sufficient  proof  that  we  must  aim  at  the  quality  produced  by 
Denmark   and   Ireland. 

At  a  meeting  of  those  interested  in  the  improvement  in  the  condition 
of  trade  in  pig  products  in  England,  as  reported  in  The  Grocer  of  5th 
March,  1910,  Mr.  Hannon,  who-  was  one  of  the  delegates  sent  to  Den- 
mark, and  who  has  largf  experience  in  the  trade  in  Ireland,   said:  — 

There  was  needed  (i)  a  systematized  improvement  of  breeds;  (2)  assistance  in 
carrying  out  experiments  to  guide  the  farmer  in  producing  pigs  for  the  curers  at 
a  minimum  cost;  (3)  demonstrations  to  see  if  food  production  on  the  farms  for 
pigs  could  be  extended ;  and  (4)  increased  facilities  for  obtaining  information  on 
phases  of  the  question. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Butt,  President  of  the  Bristol  Grocers'  Association,  contirmed 
what  other  speakers,  had  said  about  consumers  preferring  lean  bacon,  and  stated 
that  there  had  been  a  considerable  imfrovenicni  in  Irish  bacon  in  the  last  five 
years.^  and  the  breeders  there  had  bred  to  produce  a  pig  to  meet  the  popular 
demand. 

That  improvement  in  Irish  bacon  dates  from  the  time  the  Commis- 
sion was  sent  to  Denmark  to  inquire  into  the  methods  of  breeding, 
feeding,  &:c.,  and  may  be  taken  as  an  additional  proof  of  the  lines  we 
should    follow. 

RoscREA   Farmers   Co-operative   Bacon    Factory. 

The  first  farmers'  co-operative  bacon  factory  in  the  United  Kingdom 
■was  inaugurated  at  Roscrea,  Tipperary.  Ireland,  in  January,  1908,  and 
it  was  able,  under  adverse  circumstances  to  show  a  successful  record  in 
its  first  year. 

The  Roscrea  factory  has  a  nominal  caputal  of  ^15.000.  of  which 
rather  less  than  ^12,000  was  subscribed,  about  ^"7,000  being  the  outlay 
for  site,  buildings,  and  plant.  The  initial  expenditure  left  a  little  over 
^4,000  for  working  capital.  Experience  showed  that  this  was  too  little, 
and  that  the  working  capital  of  such  a  factory,  having  a  capacity  of  about 
750   pigs   per   week,   should  be  at   least  ^lo'.ooo. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  year's  working,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
the  capital  was  limited  and  that  the  markets  had  been  unsettled,  the 
balance- sheet  showed  a  gross  profit  of  ;^4,ooo.  After  paying  all  ex- 
penses of  working  and  depreciation  there  was  a  credit  balance  of  ^308. 
The  experience  of  the  directors  of  the  factory  was  unique,  as  they  had 
■c. instantly  to  decline  business  which  they  could  have  secured  if '  more 
capital  had  been  available.        For  the  same  reason,  it  is  anticipated  that. 


lo  Marc£i,    191--] 


7'//i'  /'/i;  I)idustry. 


16^ 


with  an  additional  ^5.000    <;f  capital,   the  gniss  earnint^s  of  the  factory 
would  approximate  ;^8.ooo. 


3.  ROSCRAE  CO-OPERATIVE  BACON  FACTORY. 

Figures  like  these  speak  more  eloquently  than  words,  and  it  may  now 
be  safely  stated  that  the  principle  of  co-operation  in  bacon  curing  has 
been  established  in  the  Llaite  1  Kingdom,  and  the  recognition  of  this  will 
bear  fruit  in  the  immediate  future  in  the  general  impetus  which  will  thus 

be  given  to  the  pig  industry,  and 
the  general  construction  of  bacort 
factories  in  the  country  as  an  essen- 
tial part  of  agricultural  develop- 
ment. 

This  undertaking  is  purely  co- 
operative. r>ach  shareholder  has- 
to  sign  a  bond  under  a  penalty  of 
10s.  per  pig  to  supply  such  bacon 
pigs  as  he  produces  and  all  of  them- 
to  the  factory.  Every  shareholder 
shares  in  the  profits  in  the  form  of 
a  bonus  proportionate  to  the  num- 
ber of  pigs  he  supplies. 

Of  the  2.800  shareholders  the 
majority  were  small  farmers.  As- 
already  stated,  shareholders  sign  a 
guarantee  to  supply  all  their  pigs 
of  weights  required  in  the  bacon 
trade,  to  their  own  factory.  This 
defeats  unfair  competition,  where 
enhanced  prices  are  offered  to  in- 
duce them  to  send  pigs  away. 

In  constructing  the  buildings,  it  was  arranged  that  each  department 
or  set  of  operations  should  follow  \w  sequence  as  far  as  possible.        Pigs 


BLEEDING     PASSAGE. 


164 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   \  ictoria.      [10  March,    1912. 


are  landed  at  the  receiving  platform  where  they  are  weighed  alive,  and 
the  suppliers  can  be  paid  on  that  basis  at  once,  if  they  so  desire.  The 
dead  weight  is  ascertainable  usually  the  day  following  delivery,  and  aver- 
ages about  25  per  cent.   less. 

After  weighing,  the  pigs  are  driven  into  sties,  allowed  to  remain  over- 
night and  usually  killed  next  morning.  They  are  driven  one  by  one 
into  the  catching  pen,  where  they  are  shackled  or  caught  up  by  means  of 
leg  chains,  a  running  noose  being  formed  by  means  of  a  chain  slipped 
through  a  ring ;  this  noose  is  passed  over  one  hind  foot.  The  chain  is 
then  attached  to  a  hook  at  the  end  of  n  steel  rope  which  is  governed  by 
hand  or  power 
hoist.  Hoisted  to 
overhead  bar  in  this 
position,  they  are 
slaughtered  by  stick- 
ing in  the  direction 
of  the  heart,  letting 
the  blood  out 
quickly.  This  opera- 
tion does  not  take 
more  than  one 
minute. 

The  carcases  are 
pushed  along  the 
overhead  bar  to  the 
bleeding  passage 
and  allowed  to  hang 
some  little  time,  and 
are  then  pushed  off 
the  bar  on  to  the 
dumping  table.  This 
dumping  table 
forms  part  of  what 
is  known  as  a 
slaughtering  tack, 
which  is  the  main 
part  of  the  pig  abat- 
toir. While  on  the 
dumping  table,  the 
leg  chains  are  re- 
moved, and  the  car- 
cases are  then  rolled 
into  a  rectangular 
scalding  vat  capable  of  holding  some  five  pigs  at  once.  The  vat  is  partially 
filled  with  water  at  about  180  deg.  F.,  and  the  carcases  are  turned  round 
and  round  until  the  hair  becomes  loose.  One  by  one,  they  are  then  tilted 
on  to  a  scuttling  table  where  they  are  scraped  almost  free  from  hair.  A 
hook  is  inserted  into  the  apex  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  animals  suspended 
to  the  track  bar  head  upwards.  They  are  pushed  along  this  bar  until  they 
come  under  the  opening  of  a  vertical  singeing  furnace,  which  is  so  con- 
structed that  the  carcase  of  the  pig  may  be  hoisted  through  a  circular  fire, 
and  so  the  whole  carcase  is  burned  or  singed.  This  operation  takes  only  a 
quarter  of  a  minute,  and  the  carcase  is  again  lowered  to  the  track  bar,  pre 


5.    PIGS     HANGING     UNDER     SINGER. 


lo  March,    19^2.] 


T he  Pig  / ii(ii(str  i 


165 


senting  a  very  black  and  shrivelled  appearance.  Th's  Imrning  is  a  great 
advantage  to  Wiltshire  bacon,  giving  the  bacon  a  peculiar  piquant  flavour. 
The  fat  under  the  skin  becomes  momentarily  melted,  and  subsequently 
t>ecomes  firmer  than  it  would  be  otherwise. 

After  leaving  the  singeing  furnace,  the  carcases  are  thrown  into  a 
•cold  water  bath,  cooled,  and  the  sinews  of  the  hind  feet  exposed,  whilst 
a  gambrel  is  inserted  to  spread  the  hind  feet  apart.  By  the  gambrel 
the  carcases  are  hoisted  to  the  track  bar,  where  they  are  scraped  quite 
clean  and  washed.  The  intestinal  and  general  offal  are  removed  and 
taken  to  a  separate  apartment  to  be  sorted   for  various  u.ses.        The  flake 

lard  is  always  left 
with  carcases  and  is 
weighed  in  together 
with  head  and  feet. 
This  forms  the  dead 
jveigJit,  which  is 
sometimes  taken 

while  the  carcase  is 
v/arm,  and  some- 
times when  cold. 
The  difference  al- 
lowed between 
warm  and  cool 
weight  is  4  lbs. 
( 'ooling  in  the  open 
air  usually  occupies 
about  6  hours. 
After  weighing,  the 
carcase  is  split  up 
into  sides,  the  head 
and  fore  feet 
severed,  and  the 
lard  removed.  The 
head  and  feet  are 
chilled  and  put  into 
pickle  to  be  cured. 

Curing.  —  The 
sides  are  pushed 
into  the  hanging 
house,  in  case  they 
have  not  alreadv 
been  allowed  to 
hang,  after  which 
they  are  pushed 
along  the  track  bar  into  the  chill  room,  where  they  are  kept  at  a  temperature 
of  38  deg.  F.  until,  on  inserting  a  meat  thermometer  into  the  gammon 
end,  it  registers  40  deg.  F.  On  the  average,  it  takes  t^G  hours  to  reach 
this  degree  of  coolness.  When  it  has  been  attained,  the  sides  are  taken 
into  the  curing  cellar,  where  finally  they  are  trimmed  and  at  once  pumped 
with  a  recognised  pickle  in  fourteen  different  places.  They  are  then 
laid  on  the  cellar  floor  and  stacked  in  tiers  ten  sides  deep.  The  cellaf 
is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  42  deg.  F.  Each  side  is  covered  over, 
first  of  all,   with,  an  equal   mixture  of  curing  antiseptic  and  saltpetre,    in 


DISEMBOWELLING     DEPARTMENT. 


366 


Journal   of  Agriculture.    Yictona.      [lo   March.    1912. 


7.     VIEW     IN     HANGING    HOUSE    AFTER    BRANDING     OF    THE     SIDES     HAS     TAKEN 

PLACE. 

a   finely   granulated   state,    and   en  top  of  this   is   placed   a   thick   layer  cf 
salt. 

For  mild  cured  bacon,  this  is  all  the  curing  that  is  required,  and  in 
about  14  days  the  process  is  complete,  after  which  the  bacon  is  taken  out 
and  washed  in  cold  water,  and  then  should  be  in  a  state  for  selling  as 
green    bacon.       If    wanted    as    dried    bacon,    it    must   be   hung    in    a    drying 


8.     CURING    ROOJa^,     SHOWING    PICKLING    PUMP. 


10  March,    191^-] 


T he  Pig  Industry. 


167 


room  for  3   days   in   a   temperatuiv  of  90   deg.    F.,   and  is   then   available 

as  pair  liried   hacon.       If  it  is  wanted  as  smoked  liacrm.    it  must  li;'  Inuv 


9      LARD    ROOM. 

3  days  in  a  smoke  sto\e  where  the  temperature  does  not  exceed  90  deg. 
F..  and  where  a  thick  volume  of  smoke  is  produced  from  hardwood  saw- 
dust, i.e..  cak,  ash,  or  beech. 


10.     REFRIGERATING    MACHINE. 


These   operations    refer    to     what     is     technically    known     as    Wiltshire 
bacon,   i.e.,   whole  side  bacon.        In    conjunction  with  the  production  of 


i68 


Journal  of  Agriculture .    \uiona.      [lo  March,    191 2. 


Wiltshire  bacon,  are  sausage-making,  lard-refining,  hams,  middles,  rolls,  or 
other  special  products.  Competent  management  and  a  staff  acquainted 
with  the  various  operations  aie  indispensable. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Loudon  Vi.  Douglas,  the  authority  pre- 
viously referred  to,  for  the  descriptive  matter  and  illustrations  of  the 
Roscrea    Factory. 

MODEL   SIDES   OF   BACON. 


II.    A   TYPICAL    WILTSHIRE    FLITCH. 


British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association  Comparative  Prices. 


1.  Streaky  Quarter 

2.  Rib  Quarter 

3.  Middle  Quarter 

4.  Ham  Quarter    .  . 

5.  End  of  Neck     . . 

6.  Middle  of  Neck 

7.  Thick  Back  and  Side.s 

8.  Prime  Back  and  Ribs 

9.  Loin   . . 

10.  Fillet 

11.  Shoulder 

12.  Prime  Streaky 

13.  Thin  Streaky    . . 

14.  Flank 

15.  Middle  of  Gammon 

16.  Knuckle  of  Gammon 

17.  Fore  end 


d. 

11  i)er  lb. 

11 

8i 

n 

10 
11 
10 
10 

8 
11 
8^ 

11 

7 
6 


3  0  March,    1912.] 


The  Pig  Industry. 


169 


Weights  of  parts  of  a  Pig  of  total  dkad  weight  (without  offai.)  of  194  lbs. 

lbs.  oz. 
Tiones  from  back  (chine) 
Blade  bone 
Steaks 
Cuttings    . . 
Kidneys    . . 
Flake  fat 

Fat  (intestinal,  &c.) 
Feet 
Blades 

Skull  (upper  part  of  head)    .  . 
Chap  (lower  jaw)     .  . 
Two  sides 


5 

12 

2 

4 

2 

4 

2 

(» 

0 

fi 

i 

0 

'> 

4 

4 

(J 

0 

8 

14 

8 

2 

8 

1.50 

0 

Total 


193 


Standard  of  Excellence  for  Judging  a  Carcase  of  Pork. 

1 .  Dressing  of  carcase            . .              . .              . .              .  .              . .  . .  5 

2.  General  appearance  and  firmness  of  flesh  and  fat       . .              . .  . .  10 

3.  Proportion  of  meat  to  bone             .  .              . .              . .              . .  . .  1.5 

On  sijlitthig  the  caivase  into  halves,  the  following  pouits  are  to  be  noted  : — 

4.  Plumpness  of  legs              . .              .  .              . .              . .              . .  . .  20 

5.  Thickiiess  of  loin  and  smallness  of  proportion  of  fat  to  lean    . .  . .  20 

6.  Streakiness  of  belly  part                  . .              . .              . .              . .  .  .  10 

7.  Fleshiness  of  forequarter.  .              . .              . .              . .              . .  . .  15 

8.  Smallness  of  head              . .              . .              . .              . .              . .  . .  5 


(To  he  continued .) 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  TREES. 

{Ccntinued  from  -page   107.) 
C .  F .  Cole,  Orchard  Supervisor. 


100 


Topping. 

The  practice  of  topping  growing  buds  at  a  certain  period  to  encourage 
branched  growth,  and  then  trimming  away  superfluous  growths  not  re- 
quired to  form  a  head,  is  considered  by  manv  to  be  unnecessary.  Others 
maintain  that  it  is  a  faulty  practice,  the  forced  branched  growths  not 
being  suitable  to  prune  upon,  so  as  form  the  future  base  of  the  tree  when 
planting  out  permanently  in  the  orchard,  owing  to  the  wood  being  im- 
mature. 

Topping,  when  performed  at  the  proper  time  upon  certain  kinds  and 
varieties  of  growing  buds,  is  decidedly  an  advantage.  Under  normal 
conditions  a  tree  is  produced,  the  stability  of  which  is  unquestionably 
sound  and  equal  in  all  respects  to  a  two-year-old  tree  produced  from  a 
yearling   straight. 

With  many  varieties  topping  is  not  an  advantage,  and  should  no;    be 
practised.       Amongst   these  are   apples,    cherries,    pears,    and   plums   (Jap 
anepe  and  cherry  plums  excepted). 


I/O  Jouiiial  of  AgricnUnrc,    yici(^ria.      [lo  March,    1912. 

Before  practising  this  operation  a  tliorough  knowledge  of  the  varieties 
and  their  habit  of  growth  is  necessary,  the  climatic  conditions  of  the 
district,  and  the  action  of  the  soil  with  regard  to  growth.  When  per- 
formed upon  unsuitable  varieties  short  stunted  growths  are  generally  en- 
couraged. Such  growths  are  unsuitable  to  prune  upon.  With  varieties 
that  are  suitable  and  branch  freely  of  their  own  accord,  topping  will 
need  to  be  restricted.  Only  those  buds  growing  freely  and  strongly 
should  be  operated  upon,  e.g.,  take  the  Jonathan  apple  under  favorable 
conditions.  Growing  buds  of  this  variety  branch  freelv  and  strongly, 
yet  there  are  many  buds  of  this  variety  unsuitable  for  topping  to  be  found 
in  the  nursery  row.  Those  with  a  weak  tendency  should  be  left  un- 
tojjped.       If  operated  upon,  weakly  branch  growth  is  encouraged. 

Almonds,  apricots,  nectarines,  peaches,  and  plums  (Japanese  and 
cherry)   should   be  topped   when  the  buds  have  made  about   16  to   t8   in. 


66.    TOPPING   AND  TRIMMING. 
<i.  Uiitre.itod.     b.  Result  of  cnrrect  treatment. 


of  growth.  This  check  will  be  the  means  of  causing  the  rapidly  ascend- 
ing sap  to  excite  the  buds  upon  the  stem  into  strong  branch  growths. 
These  growths  will  be  dealt  with  when  trimming.  Fig.  66b  shows  the 
result  of  topping  a  growing  peach  bud  in  October.  The  bud  was 
trimmed  in  early  November,  and  photographed  late  in  the  same  month. 
This  young  tree  is  of  sound  tvpe.  Fig.  66a  shows  a  growing  peach  bud 
untopped  carrying  thin  and  weakly  branch  growths.  Compare  this  with 
Fig.  66b  which  is  the  same  age.  the  same  variety  (Hale's  early),  and 
w^orked  upon  the  same  kind  of  stock  and  growdng  in  the  same  row. 
Cherries,  if  not  branching  of  their  own  accord,  should  not  be  topped  to 
force  them  to  do  so. 

Fig.  67A  shows  a  strong  voung  apple-bud  growing  and  branching 
freely,  the  variety  is  Rome  Beauty.  By  topping  such  a  type,  and  re- 
moving the  lower  branch   growths,    the  terminal   buds   will   break,    making 


TO   March,    1912.]         Propagaiwn  of  bruit  2  rees 


strong  growths  in  a  few  weeks.       Fig 
ment.       This  young  tree,  two  months 
by   tlie  autumn  be  a  strong  and  well- 
matured  branch  growths  and  in  every 
out  in  the  orchard. 

Late  topping  should  be  avoided  ; 
middle  of  November  is  the  best  time 

The  reader  will   gather   from  the 
that,    if   the   method   of     topping    is 
kinds  of  fruits  and  varieties  suitable 
branched  yearling  trees  is  produced. 


.  67B  shows  the  result  of  such  treat- 
growth  from  the  dormant  bud,  will 
developed    tree    carrying  thoroughh 
respect  a  most  suitable  type  to  plant 

from  thf  middle  of  October  to    the 
to  operate  upon  deciduous  fruits. 

foregoing   remarks   and   illustrations 

intelligently  practised     upon     certain 

for  such  treatment,  a  sound  type  of 

But.   if  practi.secl  indiscriminately, 


67.     TRIMMING. 
a.   Untreated,     h.  Result  of  correct  treatment. 

unsuitable   trees,    inferior  to  untopped   ones   of   the   same   variety    will     be 
produced. 

Trimming. 

Trimming  growing  buds  carrying  branch  growths  upon  the  stem 
is  a  necessary  and  important  operation.  If  the  superfluous  shoots  are  not 
removed  from  the  stem,  the  basal  ones,  being  the  stronger,  will  utilize 
the  greater  quantity  of  the  nourishment  and  sap  flow.  Bv  so  doing,  the 
terminal  portion  is  weakened.  The  result  is  thit  a  mo.st  unsuitable  tree 
is   produced. 

Shortly  after  the  young  growing  buds  have  been  topped  in  the  nursery 
row,  and  when  the  lateral  growths  are  long  enough  to  operate  upon,  all 
shoots  that  are  not  required  to  form  the  head  growths  should  be  carefully 
removed.  If  using  a  sharp  knife,  cut  them  close  to  the  stem  so  that  thev 
will  not  break  again  from  the  basal  part. 

Soft  shoots  upon  certain  varieties  may  be  remoA-ed  with  the  thuml*  and 
finger.        If   the  propagator   wishes  to   produce  a   sound   tvpe   of   yearling 

G  2 


172  Journal  of  Agriculture,   'Victoria.      [10  March,    191 2. 


tree  he  must  now  take  the  oppoTtunity.  This  is  the  last  stage  in  pro- 
pagating a  sound  and  useful  type  of  tree. 

Stone  fruits  will  first  require  attention ;  remove  all  branches,  leaving 
only  those  to  form  the  head  (see  Fig.   66b). 

With  many  varieties  of  .seed  fruits  that  have  been  topped,  only  three 
to  four  of  the  terminal  buds  make  branched  growth.  Where  this  occur.s. 
/lo  trimming  is  necessary.  Again,  many  varieties  branch  well  before 
the  stem  growth  is  of  any  length.  Such  types  should  be  topped  at  a 
bud  when  the  necessary  height  is  attained,  and  all  branched  growths  re- 
moved. The  removal  of  these  growths  will  give  the  terminal  portion 
a  greater  supply  of  nourishment.  Fig.  67A  shows  such  a  type,  the  arrow 
marking  where  to  top  at  bud.  Fig.  67B  shows  the  result  of  this  treat- 
ment a  few  weeks  later.  Fig.  68a  is  a  type  more  often  found  amongst 
almonds,  apricots,  nectarines,  peaches,  and  plums.       This  type  should  not 


68.    TRIMMING. 
a.  Young  tree  being  ill-lormed.     b.  Correct  treatment. 

be  neglected.  If  so,  the  strong  growing  lower  branch  will  utilize  the 
greater  quantity  of  ascending  sap  and  nourishment,  and  starve  that  por- 
tion of  the  stem  above,  also  the  branch  growths  necessary  to  form  a  well- 
balanced  head.  Such  a  growth  should  be  removed  close  to  the  stem  as 
shown  in  Fig.  68b.  If  neglected  an  ill-shaped  tree  will  be  the  result, 
besides  being  a  most  unsuitable  type  to  prune  the  following  winter. 

Treatment   or   Stocks. 

Stocks  grown  for  budding  purpo.ses  should  be  attended  to  early  in  the 
vegetative  period  and  before  the  superfluous  shoots  are  of  anv  length. 
The  stocks  should  not  be  allowed  to  carry  heavy  head  growths.  The 
heavier  the  head  growth,   the  greater  the  draw   upon  the  soil. 

Some  stocks  require  different  treatment  from  others  at  the  beginning. 
Apricot  and  peach  stocks,  if  grown  direct  from  the  stone  for  working  upon. 


^lo  March,    1912.]  T'/z/r  Diseases  in  France.  173 

-should  be  stripped  with  the  thumb  and  finger  when  the  shoots  upon  the 
stems  have  just  started  growth.  Perform  this  operation  by  taking  hold 
-of  the  top  of  the  stock  with  the  one  hand  and  with  the  other  start  three 
parts  of  the  way  up  the  stock,  stripping  down  to  the  ground.  Remove 
all  shoots  and  leaves. 

With  planted-out  peach  stocks,  treated  the  same  as  Fig.  28,  all  shoot« 
•excepting  one  should  be  removed.  This  is  left  to  trim  and  bud  upon. 
When  removing  any  shoots  upon  the  stocks  below  ground  level,  do  not 
'break  them  off.  First  remove  the  soil,  and  then  lub  or  cut  off  close  to 
the  stock. 

Following  the  stripping  treatment  it  will  be  necessary  to  keep  all 
shoots  rubbed  off  upon  the  stems,  and  the  head  growths  reduced  to  a  few 
branches. 

Apples,  cherries,  pears,  and  plum  stocks  should  be  trimmed  to  carry 
not  more  than  three  branched  growths.  When  trimming  stocks,  do  not 
rub  off  any  shoots  that  are  hard  or  are  getting  hard,  as  there  is  a  risk 
•of  tearing  the  bark.       Remove  with  a  knife,   cutting  close  to  the  stem. 

'Cut  all  shoots  close  to,  not  \  in.  or  \  in.  from,  the  stem. 

The  stocks   should  be  kept   well   cultivated   in  order   to  conserve    the 

rmoisture  in  the  soil.  If  irrigation  is  possible,  keep  the  stocks  growing. 
Do  not  allow  them  to  get  a  check.  Pear  stocks  should  be  kept  growing 
well  from  the  beginning,  as  they  will  be  the  first  of  the  deciduous  fruits 

"to  be  budded.  If  they  have  not  made  suitable  growth  by  January,  there 
is  very  little  likelihood  of  them  being  suitable  for  budding  the  same 
summer. 

If  the  weather  is  dry  it  is  an  advantage  to  water  all   stocks,  if  pos- 

tsible,  a  few  days  before  budding.  If  the  budded  stocks  are  allowed  to 
suffer  from  the  want  of  moisture  before  the  autumn,  there  is  always  a  risk 

•of  the  buds  dying  out.  even  if  unity  with  the  stock  is  perfect. 

(To  be  co?itinucd.) 


VINE   DISEASES   IN   FRANCE. 

{Co7itinued  from  fage  119.) 

F .  de  Castella.  Goverutneiit  Viiiculturist. 

FUNGICIDE  SPRAYS. 

OXYCHLORIDE     OF     COPPER. 

The  introduction  of  this  novel  fungicide  is  due  to  Professor  Chuard, 
•of  Lausanne  University  (Switzerland),  who  was  anxious  to  find  some  spray- 
ing substance  capable  of  permitting  a  reduction  in  the  quantity  of  copper 
annually   absorbed   by   the  soil.*       The  use  of   verdet   already   permits     a 


*  Analysis  shows  that  as  the  result  of  twenty  years'  use  of  copper  sprays,  the  surface  foot  of  soil  in  the 

xineyards  of  the  Lausanne  "Station  Vitioole  "  contained  35  niilligrraninies  per  kiloiiraranie  (3'o   parts  per 

10U,C00).     This  was  rather  more  than  half  of  the  total  quantity  sprayed.     In  some  other  vineyards  hi^'her 

■  j|uantities  were  foiuid  ;  in  one  case  as  much  as  112  niilligranunes  (li'2  parts  per  lOfi.OOu).— Co>n7>tes  rendut 

de  I'academie  des  Sciences,  Paris,  29th  March,  1910. 


174  Journal  of  Agriculture,   'Victoria.      [lo  March,    191 2. 

saving,   as   pointed  out  above,   but  an  even  greater  saving  is  possible  by 
the  use  of  oxychloride.      To  quote  Professor  Chuard — 

This  product,  now  on  the  market,  is  obtained  directly  from  copper,  in  the 
electrolytic  manufacture  of  soda  or  potash  by  the  Granier  process,  which  is  based 
on  the  use  of  metallic  copper  anodes. 

It  is  a  pale  green,  non-crystalline  powder,  insoluble  in  water,  but  capable  of 
remaining  in  suspension  sufficiently  to  permit  of  its  regular  application.  It 
possesses  remarkable  adherence,  a  fairly  general  property,    in   fact,   of  oxychlorides. 

This  product  contains  50  per  cent,  of  copper.  At  the  rate  of  500  grammes 
per  hectolitre  (i  lb.  to  20  gals.)  it  has  regularly  given  results  at  least  equal  to  those 
obtained  from  a  mixture  based  on  2  per  cent,  copper  sulphate.  This  means  a 
reduction  of  50  per  cent,   in  the  quantity  of  copper  used. 

He  explains  the  efficacy  of  reduced  doses  of  tliis  substance  as 
fallows  :-  - 

Oxychloride  of  copper  exposed  to  air  and  moi'^ture,  as  it  is  after  its  application 
on  the  leaf,  undergoes  oxidation  which  gives  rise,  progressivel}-,  to  small  quantities 
of  soluble  cupric  chloride.  This  formation  ....  of  a  readilv  ionizable  com- 
pound, explains  in  the  clearest  and  most  satisfactory  manner  the  superiority  of 
copper  oxychloride  over  hydrate  or  carbonaLe^'"  those  much  less  dissociable  forms 
under  which  copper  is  to  be  found  in  copper-containing  spravs. 

Apart  from  theoretical  considerations,  however,  oxychloride  has  been 
extensively  tried  on  a  practical  scale  and  has  given  excellent  results.  It 
appears,  in  fact,  to  be  the  recent  introduction  which  has  most  to  recom- 
mend it  from  all  points  of  view.  In  addition  to  its  use  as  a  spray,  it 
constitutes  an  excellent  fungicide  powder  when  used  in  the  dry  state. 
As  we  shall  see  presently,  copper-containing  powders  are  becoming  very 
popular,  not  as  substitutes  for,  but  as  a  complement  to,  spray  mixtures. 

SUBSTITUTE.S    FOR    COPPER. 

Other  metallic  salts  besides  those  of  copper  possess  fungicide  pro- 
perties, and  some  of  them  have  been  tried  for  the  treatment  of  fungus 
vine  diseases  of  the  vine.  A  few  years  back,  mixtures  containing  mer- 
curv  were  recommended,  and,  after  trial,  abandoned  as  being  less  satis- 
factory than   the  copper   sprays  they   were  intended   to   replace. 

More  recently  still,  silver  has  been  suggested  as  a  substitute  for  copper. 
Though  the  employment  of  a  noble  metal  for  spraying  purposes  might 
seem  extravagant  at  first  sight,  it  is  economically  feasible,'  the  deadly 
effect  of  silver  salts  on  fungi  rendering  possible  the  use  of  very  much 
weaker  sprays.  The  strength  recommended  is  \  oz.  of  nitrate  of  silver 
to  10  gals,  of  water.  It  is  made  into  a  mixture  witli  soap,  of  which 
2\  ozs.  are  mixed  witli  the  above  quantities.  This  silver  soap  spray 
possesses  excellent  wetting  power,  which  renders  it  suitable  for  treatment 
directed  against  mildew  of  the  bunch  {Rot  Oris) ;  the  greasy  nature  of 
the  new-formed  fruit  causing  it  to  be  difficult  to  properly  wet  with 
Bordeaux  mixture.  It  appears  to  have  more  effect  on  hunch  mildew  than 
against  the  same  fungus  on  the  leaves.  It  has  been  tried  on  a  practical 
scale  with  contradictory  results,  and  does  not  appear  likely  to  displace 
copper  as  the  basis  of  fungicide  spravs   for  general   use. 

Copper-Containing  Powders. 

Being  much  easier  and  cheaper  to  apply,  powders  were  long  since 
extensively    experimented    with     as     substitutes     for    liquid     sprays.        It 

*  In  copper-soda  mixtures  the  copper  is  present  in  the  form  of  liydrated  rarbonrtte. 


lo  March.    191 -.]  V/)/r  Diseases  in  France. 


is  now  generally  recognised  that  they  cannot,  when  used  alone,  be 
relied  upon  as  efficient  protection,  and  for  a  good  manv  years  little  has 
been  heard  of  their  use.  Since  the  disastrous  mildew  visitations  of  the 
19 10  summer,  they  have  once  more  come  to  the  fore,  not,  however,  as 
•substitutes  for.  but  as  a  com])lement  to  the  usual  copper  sprays.  An 
application  of  suitable  powder,  applied  with  the  bellows  or,  preferablv, 
with  the  knapsack  machine,  in  the  same  way  as  sulphur,  immediatelv" 
after  spraying,  very  considerably  increases  the  efficiency  of  the  prntectinn 
afforded  by  the  latter.  It  will  be  readily  understood  that  a  powder  can 
easilv  be  blown  into  the  interior  of  the  vine,  thus  making  it  possible  to 
reach  parts  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  get  at  with  the  liquid  spray. 

Numerous  forms  of  copper-containing  powders  are  now  for  sale  in 
France.  Some  are  mixtures  of  sulphur  and  sulphate  of  copper,  .so  that 
the  same  application  mav  serve  to  combat  oidium  as  well  as  mildew. 
In  other  cases  the  copper  sulphate  is  simply  mixed  with  an  inert  sub- 
stance, serving  to  dilute  it  and  to  enable  it  to  be  ground  into  a  finer 
powder  than  would  otherwise  be  possible.  Such  is  Sulp  ho  steatite  a  very 
popular  preparation  which  is  a  finely  powdered  mixture  of  talc  and  copper 
sulphate.  In  some  powders,  again,  the  copper  is  in  the  form  of  oxide, 
or  of  acetate  (verdet).  whilst  the  oxychloride  of  copper,  previously  referred 
to  as  a  spray,  constitutes  an  excellent  powder  for  use  in  the  dry  state. 
These  latter  substances  have  the  advantage  of  not  burning  the  foliage. 
If  the  copper  is  present  in  the  form  of  sulphate  it  is  recommended  to  add 
a  certain  quantitv  of  lime  before  use  to  prevent  damage  to  the  foliage. 

Conclusion. 

The  abo\'e  is  a  brief  re\iew  of  modern  French  and  Sw^ss  opinions 
on  the  whole  question  of  fungicide  sprays,  so  far  as  their  composition  is 
concerned.  It  will  be  remarked  that  they  do  not  agree  on  all  points 
with  modern  English  views  ai  stated  in  the  Eighth  Report  of  the  Wobuni 
Experimental  Fruit  Farm  (1908)  which  was  reviewed  by  Mr.  McAlpine, 
late  Vegetable  Pathologist  for  ^'ictoria,  in  the  Journal  for  November, 
1910.  The  chief  difference  consists  in  the  proportion  of  copper  con- 
sidered necessary  in  order  to  secure  adequate  protection.  Even  with 
verdet  and  oxychloride,  which  permit  a  reduction  in  the  quantity  of  copper 
used,  very  much  stronger  mixtures  are  recommended  than  the  10  ozs.  to 
50  gals,   provided  for  by  the  Woburn  formula. 

A  point  of  the  most  vital  importance,  of  greater  importance,  perhaps, 
than  the  composition  of  the  spraying  mixture,  is  the  absolute  necessity 
for  early  treatment  if  protection  is  to  be  achieved.  The  first  spraying 
must  be  carried  out  before  there  are  any  visible  signs  of  the  disease. 
This  was  emphatically  impressed  upon  the  Socrete  des  Agriculteurs  de 
France  by  M.   Capus  in  February  last,  as  follows  : 

.  .  .  For  the  defence  of  leaf,  bunch  and  grape,  one  moment  alone  is  of 
importance  :  that  of  invisible  invasion  or  contamination,  after  which  the  enemy 
being  in  occupation,  any  intervention  by  the  vine-grower  is  rendered  futile.  ^^  hat 
we  must  guard  against  by  treatment  is  thus,  not  the  visible  invasion,  but  the  hidden 
invasion. 


1/6  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.      [lo  March,    191 2.. 

The  exhaustive  inquiry  conducted  by  La  Revue  de  Viticulture  on  the- 
results  obtained  during  the  disastrous  19 10  summer  led  to  the  following: 
conclusions* :  — 

The  efficacy  of  copper  salts  in  the  treatment  of  mildew  does  not  admit  of  any 
doubt,  provided  such  treatment  is  applied  at  a  suitable  time.  The  failures  which 
occurred  in  igio  were  due  in  the  majority  of  cases  to  late  treatments,  to  treatments- 
which  were  not  plentiful  enough,  to  incomplete  treatments  not  followed  up  by 
application  of  powders,  or  to  treatments  with  liquids  which  did  not  contain  a 
sufficient  dose  of  copper. 

As  the  result  of  its  inquiry,  La  Revue  issued  the  following  practical' 
instructions   as   to  what   should   constitute  efficient   treatment : — 

1.  Spray  with  copper  mixtures  in  a  preventive  way  before  mildew  appears  in  the- 
region,  no  matter  what  the  length  of  the  vine  shoots  may  be. 

2.  Repeat  such  spraying,  in  an  offortu7ie  manner,  every  time  the  vine  is  in  a 
receptive  state;  that  is,  each  time  that  a  fall  in  barometric  pressure  corresponds- 
with  a  fall  in  temperature. 

3.  Execute  sprayings  very  ra-pidly  over  the  whole  vineyard,  irrespective  of 
weather-;   even   if   it  be   raining. 

4.  Spray  abundantly  and  see  that  the  workmen  apply  the  liquid  to  all  organs- 
of  the  vine;  gangers  to  follow  up  workmen  instead  of  walking  in  front  of  them. 

5.  Each  spraying  to  be  simultaneously  carried  out  on  each  side  of  each  row. 

6.  In  districts  where  vines  are  trellised,  they  should  be  tied  up  as  early  as- 
possible. 

7.  As  soon  as  the  flowers  are  formed,  spraying  to  be  followed,  whilst  the  vines- 
are  still  wet,  by  sulphuring  with  sulphur  containing  10  per  cent,  of  copper  sul])hate 
or  applications  of  powders  of  talc,  &c.,  containing  5  to  lo  per  cent,  of  copper 
sulphate;  these  powders  to  be  spread  in  a  cloud  in  such  a  way  as  to  cover  the  whole 
surface  of  the  grapes;  such  applications  to  be  made  between  sprayings,  as  soon  as 
setting  is  over.  ATter  the  fruit  commences  to  colour  apply  no  more  sulphur,  but 
only   copper-containing   powders. 

8.  Vine-growers  should  make  the  necessary  arrangements  to  assure  rapid  execution 
of  copper  treatments. 

9.  Vines  should  be  kept  in  a  good  state  of  vegetation,  so  that  they  may  offer- 
greater  resistance'  to  the  attacks  of  mildew. 


BEE-KEEPING  IN  VICTORIA. 

{Continued  from,  page  115.) 
F.   R.   Beuhne,  Bee  Expert, 

III.— RACES     OF     BEES. 

Of  some  twenty  known  varieties  of  the  honey  bee  (Apis  mellifica)  four 
only  have  been  introduced  and  established  in  Australia,  viz..  the  Black 
Bee ;    the  Italian ;    the  Cyprian ;    and  the  Carniolan. 

TJie  Black  Bee,  it  has  been  stated,  was  first  brought  to  Tasmania  from 
Great  Britain  in  1824.      From  Tasmania  .some  hives  were  taken  to  Sydney 
and    from   thence   the  variety   has   spread   pretty   well   over   the   whole   of 
Australia.       It  is  hardy  and   will  fly    on  cold   and  wet  days  when  some- 

*  Raymond  Brunei,  Repoi't  read  at  the  Tours  Vitioultural  Congre.ss,  14tli  Januar.v,  1911. 


.to  March,    191 2.]  Bce-keefing  in  Victoria.  177 

of  the  other  races  will  not  leave  the  hive,  and  it  commences  brood  rearing 
very  early  in  spring — almost  in  midwinter.  As  in  the  raising  of  brood, 
pollen,  the  fertilising  dust  of  flowers,  is  required,  the  black  bee  is  a 
most  important  factor  in  the  fertilisation  of  the  blossoms  of  the 
earliest  flowering  kinds  of  fruit  trees.  In  cool  districts,  or  when 
the  pollination  of  fruit  blossom  is  of  greater  importance  than  the 
yield  of  honey,  the  black  bee  or  one  of  its  crosses  with  Italian  or  Cyprian 
is  probably  the  best  kind  of  bee  to  keep.  On  the  other  hand.  Blacks, 
although  commencing  to  breed  early,  do  not  maintain  a  high  rate  of  re- 
production for  long  and,  where  the  main  honey  flow  occurs  in  summer, 
do  not  give  as  good  a  yield  of  honey  per  hive  as  Italians.  They  are 
excessive  swarmers,  more  excitable  when  handled  than  the  other  races, 
offer  less  resistance  to  foulbrood,  and  often  allow  wax  moth  grubs  to 
.infest  their  combs. 

The  Italian  Bee  was  introduced  in  the  seventies.  It  is  of  somewhat 
lighter  build  than  the  Black  and  has  three  yellow  or  light  orange  coloured 
bands  across  the  abdomen.  It  is  gentle  and  little  inclined  to  sting  when 
properly  handled.  Italian  queens,  even  those  imported  direct  from  Italy, 
vary  greatly  in  colour,  some  are  quite  yellow,  and  some  almost  as  dark  as 
-black  queens ;  whilst  others  have  dark  and  yellow  bands.  The  colour 
of  the  queen  is  therefore  no  indication  of  purity  of  race,  the  best  proof 
of  which  is  the  uniform  markmgs  of  all  tier  worker  progeny.  Italian 
bees  cling  tightly  to  the  combs  when  the  frames  of  combs  are  handled, 
while  black  bees  or  hybrids  often  drop  off  without  shaking. 
Pure  bred  Italians,  and,  to  a  lesser  degree  their  crosses  with  others, 
are  more  immune  from  foulbrood,  and  rarely  allow  wax  moth  grubs  to 
get  into  their  combs.  They  begin  breeding  later  in  spring  than  Blacks, 
but  at  the  approach  of  warm  weather  soon  overtake  the  latter  and  main- 
tain a  greater  worker  force  throughout  the  season.  A  variation  of  the 
Italian  is  the  Golden  Italian  which  was  secured  by  select  breeding  for 
colour,  or  by  crossing  with  Cyprians.  It  has  five  yellow  bands  instead 
of  three — practically  the  whole  of  the  abdomen  is  yellow.  Bees  of  this 
variety  are  more  susceptible  to  cold  and  wet  than  the  three  banded  Italians 
.and  rather  predisposed  to  Bee-Paralysis.  Italians,  when  pure,  do  not  cap 
their  combs  so  white  as  black  bees  do,  and  are  therefore  less  suitable  for 
the  production  of  comb  honey. 

The  Cyprian  in  appearance,  and  many  other  respects,  resembles  the 
Italian.  It  is  somewhat  slimmer,  the  yellow  rings  are  of  a  deeper  shade, 
and  the  fuzz  rings  of  the  segments  whiter.  Cyprians  are  good  breeders, 
sometimes  continuing  brood  rearing  when  a  honey-flow  has  stopped  till  all 
stores  are  consumed.  They  raise  a  large  number  of  fine  queen  cells  at 
swarming  time  or  when  made  queenless.  Their  undesirable  characteristic 
is  viciousness  during  a  dearth  of  nectar,  when  even  the  use  of  smoke,  so 
effective  with  other  races,  will  not  subdue  them.  As  they  are  not  superior 
to  Italians  in  honey  gathering  they  are  not  desirable,  and  not  many  are 
now  kept  in  Victoria. 

The  Carniolan  is  one  of  the  more  recent  introductions,  in  appearance 
and  habits  resembles  the  black  bee,  from  which  it  is  distinguished  by  the 
greyish  colour  of  the  segment  rings.  Carniolans  are  excessive  swarmers, 
as  gentle  as  Italians  when  pure,  but  owing  to  their  close  resemblance  to 
blacks  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  purity  of  race.  Taking  the  experience  of 
the  largest  honey  producers  of  this  State  for  guidance  the  three  banded 
Italians  can  be  recommended  as  the  best  bees  to  keep  for  honey  produc- 
tion. 


i7i 


Joitnial  of  Agriculture .   Victoria,      [lo  March,    1912. 


Handling  of  Bees. 
The  sting  of  the  bee  is  an  important  factor  in  preventing  over  produc- 
tion of  honey.  There  are  many  persons  who  have  an  almost  unreasonable 
fear  of  bees,  or,  rather  of  getting  stung,  and  yet  there  are  very  few  people 
to  whom  a  sting  causes  more  than  a  sharp  pain  for  a  short  time  and  some 
discomfort  ihrough  swelling  of  the  affected  part.  Both  pain  and  swelling 
become  less  and  less  after  a  number  of  stings  have  been  received  and  the 
seasoned  beekeeper,  while  reducing  the  number  of  stings  he  receives  to  a 
minimum  by  observing  certain  rules,  takes  little  notice  of  the  stings  he 
does  receive  be}ond  removing  them  proniptlv.  There  are,  however,  some 
individuals  to  w^hom  a  sting  causes  serious  pain  and  protracted  discomfort, 
and  to  whom  bees  have  a  lasting  dislike — attackiiig  them  whenever  they 
come   near    hives.       Such    people    should    have   nothing   to    do   with    bees. 

Most,  however,  after  being  stung 
a  number  of  times  become  more  or 
less  immune,  even  though  the  first 
few  stings  caused  considerable 
pain  and  swelling.  With  the 
right  strain  of  bees;  an  under- 
standing of  their  habits  ;  correct 
methods  of  handling  ;  and  a  know- 
ledge of  irritatinp;  causes  the 
largest  apiary  can  be  run  without 
more  than  an  occasional  sting 
being  received. 

Of  late  years  bee  stings  have 
?  been  used  by  medical  men  for  the 
M  cure  of  certain  forms  of  rheuma- 
lism.  That  the  poison  of  the 
sting  has  no  lasting  injurious  effect 
upon  the  human  system  seems  evi- 
dent from  the  fact  that  many  pro- 
minent men  who  have  lived 
amongst  bees  all  their  lives  have 
attained  to  extreme  age,  e.g.,  Dr. 
Dzierszon,  Rev.  Langstroth,  Dr. 
C.  C.  Miller,  A.  T.  Root,  and 
others. 

To  avoid  stings  as  much  as  possible  one  should  dress  in  light  coloured 
clothes,  bees  have  a  rooted  objection  to  anything  black,  and  more  so 
when  it  is  rough  or  fuzzy  The  odours  of  such  things  as  camphor, 
kerosene,  turpentine,  eucalyptus  oil,  carbolic  acid,  lysol,  dogs,  horses, 
ants,  or  meat,  on  the  hands  or  clothes  of  the  operator,  or  anywhere  near 
the  hive,  will  cause  bees  to  sting.  In  their  attacks  on;  trespassers  (as  in 
their  search  of  nectar)  bees  are  largely  guided  by  the  sense  of  smell.  The 
odour  of  flowers  attracts  them  to  the  spot  where  the  flowers  grow,  while  the 
sense  of  sight  locates  the  blossom. 

When  approaching  a  hive  one  should  walk  lightly  and  avoid  standing 
in  the  line  of  flight  of  the  bees  leaving  the  hive  or  returning  to  it.  Before 
opening  the  hive  blow  a  whiff  of  smoke  from  the  smoker  in  at  the  entrance, 
and  another  one  or  two  over  the  top  of  the  frames  as  soon  as  the  hive  cover 
is  raised  sufficiently.  When  these  precautions  are  taken  there  need  be  little 
fear  of  stinging  unless  the  bees  are  of  a  vicious  strain,   in  which  case  the 


lo  March.    191-.]  Orcliard  and  Cardcji  Xotcs.  179 

queen  should  be  removed  and  one  from  a  gentler  stock  introduced.  There 
are.  however,  occasions  when  even  the  best  tempered  bees  will  sting  more 
or  less  viciously.  For  instance,  when  a  honey  flow  has  suddenly  cea?ed 
and  bees  have  had  access  to  honey  other  than  the  nectar  in  flowers  ;  or 
when  a  colonv  has  become  hopelessly  queenless,  which  means  that  they 
have  no  queen  and  no  brood  to  raise  one  from.  The  remedy  in  the  first 
case  is  never  to  allow  bees  access  to  honey  outside  the  hive,  and  not  to 
open  hives  when  robber  bees  are  seen  hovering  round.  In  the  second,  give 
the  queenless  colony  a  comb  of  Ijrood  from  another  hive,  or  introduce  a 
queen. 

To  reduce  the  effect  of  a  sting  to  a  minimum  it  sliould  be  quickly 
removed,  when  very  little  of  the  poison  will  have  entered  the  puncture. 
The  sting  itself  is  a  sharp-pointed  and  barbed  hollow  shaft  connected 
with  the  poison  sac  in  the  body  of  the  bee.  When  the  sting  has  entered 
the  rubberlike  human  skin  it  cannot  be  withrawn  on  account  of  the  barljs, 
and  in  the  effort  of  the  bee  to  free  itself  the  sting  with  the  poison  bag, 
and  the  actuating  muscles  attached,  is  torn  from  the  abdomen.  The 
muscles  may  be  seen  to  continue  working  sometimes  for  many  seconds 
after  the  sting  has  become  detached  from  the  bee  and  it  is  therefor  ad- 
visable to  immediately  remove  it  from  the  skin.  This  is  best  done  by 
scraping  it  away  with  the  fingernail  or  if  both  hands  are  engaged  rubbing 
it  off  on  your  clothes.  On  nO'  account  should  a  sting  be  picked  o&  with 
the  finger  tips  because  that  cann.ot  be  done  without  pressing  the  poisoii 
bag  and   injecting  the  whole  of  its  contents  into  the  skin. 

To  neutralise  the  effects  of  a  sting  a  number  of  remedies  are  recom- 
mended. The  blue  bag  is  the  most  commonly  advocated  cure — I  am  no', 
at  all  sure  whether  green  or  yellow  would  not  do  as  well. 

Ammonia  is  certainlv  more  effective,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of 
irritating  the  bees,  and  more  stings  are  likely  to  be  the  result.  Washing 
the  part  stung  with  soap  and  water  allays  irritation,  whil.st  if  manv  stings 
have  been  received  bathing  with  hot  water  will  diffuse  the  poison,  lessen 
the  pain,  and  reduce  the  swelling.  For  the  average  individual  the  best 
thing  to  do  is  to  quickly  remove  the  sting  and  think  no  more  about  it. 

(To'  he  confiniced.) 


ORCHARD    AND    GARDEN    NOTES. 

E.  E.  Pcscoit.  Principal.   Horticiilfural  School.   Biinilcy. 

The  Orchard. 

Green  Manure. 

As  emphasized  in  last  month's  notes,  the  importance  of  a  cover  crop 
for  green  manure  should  not  be  overlooked.  Where  the  physical  properties 
of  the  soil  require  improving,  or  where  the  soil  needs  humus,  this  class 
of  crop  is  an  urgent  necessity. 

The  sowing  of  the  crop  should  not  be  delayed,  so  that  a  good  herbage 
may  be  produced  before  the  cold  of  winter  stops  the  growth.  Tt  is  gene- 
rally found  that  it  is  far  better  to  secure  as  good  a  growth  as  possible  in 
the  autumn. 

Cultivation. 

Late  in  the  month,  or  early  in  April,  a  start  may  be  made  with  the 
autumn  ploughing.  Advantage  .should  be  taken  of  the  first  rains  to  get  this 
■work  done. 


i8o  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.      [lo  March,    1912.. 

The  present  season  has  been  entirely  opposite  to  that  of  last  year,  when- 
summer  and  early  autumn  rains  were  abundant,  and  the  first  opportunity 
must  be  taken  to  open  up  the  soil  to-  let  the  moisture  in. 

Planting. 

It  is  advisable  to  open  up  and  prepare  early  the  new  areas  for  plant- 
ing. If  at  all  possible,  the  soil  should  be  well  aerated  and  sweetened 
before  planting.  It  is  possible  to  grow  young  trees  in  freshly  opened  soil, 
but  the  general  experience  is  against  such  work,  it  being  preferable  to  have- 
the  soil  as  sweet  as  possible  for  the  young  orchard.  In  anticipation  of 
planting,  the  soil  at  first  need  only  be  ploughed  roughly,  and  it  should  not: 
be  afterwards  harrowed. 

Straivberries. 

Strawberries  may  be  planted  during  the  month.  If  planted  early,  they 
become  established  this  season,  and  so  are  enabled  to  bear  a  light  crop  in 
the  springtime.  Strawberries  require  good  soil ;  new  .soil,  or  old  grass  land 
is  always  preferable. 

In  planting,  ample  room  should  be  left  for  cultivation  between  the 
rows,  as  all  weeds  should  be  kept  down. 

Pest.':. 

No  codlin-moth-affected,  or  diseased  fruit  of  any  kind  should  be  left 
on  the  ground  after  the  crop  has  been  gathered.  These  should  all  be 
destroyed  by  boiling. 

Rust  infested  plum  and  peach  leaves,  as  well  as  all  foliage  of  stone 
fruits  that  have  been  attacked  by  this  and  other  fungus  diseases,  such  as 
shot  hole,  &c.,  should  be  burned  if  possible.  This  will  minimize  the 
possibility  of  future  attacks. 

The  same  treatment  should  be  given  to  foliage  where  either  red  spider- 
or  the  bryobia  mite  have  been  in  evidence. 

Vegetable    Garden. 

Autumn  weeds  must  be  kept  out  of  the  kitchen  garden.  These  rapidly 
grow,  and  remain  as  robbers  r'ght  through  till  springtime.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  any  chemical  means  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  weeds  in  check 
in  this  section.  Both  red  oil  emulsion  and  the  lime-sulphur  wash  have  been 
used  for  this  purpose ;  but  the  work  is  only  in  an  experimental  stage,  and 
this  treatment  cannot  be  generally  recommended.  It  will  be  best  for  the- 
present  to  resort  to  hoeing  or  to  hand  weeding. 

The  section  should  be  well  dug  over  for  planting  the  winter  crops. 
Before  digging,  a  light  sprinkling  of  bone  dust,  and  a  good  top  dressing  of 
stable  manure  should  be  spread  on  the  surface.  These  may  then  be  dug 
in,  as  they  provide  humus  for  the  soil. 

Large  plots  should  be  avoided  in  winter;  where  such  occur,  a  path 
should  be  run  down  the  centre.  This  will  provide  more  efficient  drainage. 
The  beds  too  may  be  more  raised  than  in  the  summer  time. 

Early  onions  may  be  planted  out  in  the  beds,  and  if  not  already  done, 
onion  seeds  should  be  planted  at  once. 

All  classes  of  seedlings  may  be  planted  out;  and  .seeds  of  lettuce,  early 
peas,  beet,  carrot,  radish,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  swede  turnip  may  be- 
sown. 

Asparagus  beds  should  be  cleaned  out  and  cut  down  as  soon  as  the- 
berries  begin  to  colour.     Celery  rows  should  be  kept  earthed  up ;  rhubarh 


7  0  March.   191^.] 


WHicat  and  its  Cultivation. 


beds  should  be  given  a  dressing  of  manure  to  encourage  the  coming  winter 
crop,  and  new  rhubarb  plantations  may  now  be  established. 

Flower  Garden. 

The  hot  dry  weather  has  made  havoc  in  some  flower  gardens,  and,  as  a 
result  of  this  weather,  red  spider  has  been  prevalent  on  some  succulent  and 
herbaceous  plants.  'I'hese  should  be  destroyed,  particularly  where  dahlias 
are  growing ;  or  a  good  nicotine  spraying  should  be  given  if  the  plants  are 
to  be  retained. 

Chrysanthemums,  roses,  and  dahlias  will  now  all  be  coming  into  bloom  ; 
and  as  these  show  their  bloom  buds,  they  should  be  fed  with  liquid 
manure  weekly. 

All  classes  of  spring  flowering  bulbs,  as  well  as  hardy  annual,  biennial, 
and  perennial  seeds,  should  be  planted  and  sown. 

Roses  should  be  watched  for  mildew  attacks,  and  the  sulphur  should  be 
freely  used  for  this.  Plantings  of  shrubs  and  trees  may  now  be  made, 
and  wherever  flowering  shrubs  have  ceased  to  bloom,  thev  may  be  pruned. 
Frequent  cultivation  and  watering  will  be  necessary,  especially  if  the 
weather  continues  hot  and  drv. 


WHEAT  AND  ITS  CULTIVATION. 

{Continueii  from  page   loi.) 
A.   E.   V.   RicJiardson,  M.A.,   B.Sc.    {Agric.)  Agricidiural  Superintendent. 

II.— ITS  STRUCTURE  AND  NUTRITION. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  chapters  in  the  h'story  of  agricultural 
science  is  that  relating  to  the  discovery  of  the  food  requirements  of  plants. 
More  than  a  century  of  careful  scientific  investigation  was  necessary  to 
establish  the  f'lndnrrental  facts  of  plant  nutrition  and  on  this  basic  know- 


91111 


7.     GERMINATING    Vi'HEAT    GRAINS. 

ledge  the  superstructure  of  modern  agricultural  science  rests.  The  aim 
of  the  present  article  is  to  supply  a  simple  account  of  the  more  important 
of  the  facts  of  plant  nutrition  by  using  our  staple  farm  crop  as  an  illus- 
tration. 


l82 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.      [lo  March.    191 2. 


LONGITUDINAL    SECTION 
THROUGH    THE   ROOTCAP    OF    A 
YOUNG    WHEAT    ROOT. 


In  the  preceding  article  we  noted  that  the 
wheat  kernel  consists  of  three  distinct  por- 
tions (i)  Embryo  or  germ  (2)  Protective 
coats  (3)  Endosperm — the  latter  consisting 
mainly  of  starch  and  serving  as  reserve  ma- 
terial for  nourishing  the  young  plant. 

To  bring  about  the  germination  of  this 
kernel  three  factors  are  necessary,  namely 
(i)  moisture,  (2)  air  (3)  warmth.  Under 
these  stimulating  agencies  the  germ  soon 
enlarges  and  the  plumule  and  radicle  burst- 
ing through  the  pericarp  form  respectixely 
the  miniature  stem  and  the  root  of  the  young 
plant. 

The  first  supply  of  food  for  the  young 
plant  is  derived  from  the  reserve  materials 
of  the  endosperm.  As  these  reserves  of 
food,  however,  are  insoluble  in  water,  they 
are  manifestlv  incapable  of  passing  out  of 
the  cell  walls  in  which  they  are  enclosed. 
They  must  be  brought  into  a  condition  in 
which  they  may  diffuse  readily  from  cell  to 
cell.  This  transformation  is  effected  by 
the  chemical  activity  of  a  substance  called 
diastase,  which  is  secreted  by  the  epithelial 
cells  of  the  scutellum  {vide  p.  99,  Fig.  3). 
Diasta.se  belongs  to  a  class  of  bodies  called  unorganized  ferments  or 
:-'nzymes  and  a  very  small  amount  of  diastase  is  able  to  transform  prac- 
tically .an  unlimited  "  '» 
amount  of  starch  into  a  *  -.^ 
soluble  form.  It  is 
diastase  which  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  con- 
version of  the  starch  of 
the  germinating  barley 
grain  into  maltose — 
one  of  the  sugars — in 
the  manufacture  of 
iBalt.  This  diastase 
transforms  the  starch 
of  the  grain  into  mal- 
tose which  being 
soluble  diffuses  from 
cell  to  cell  until  it 
reaches  the  growing 
points  of  the  develop- 
ing embryo'  and  sup- 
plies it  with  some  of 
the  nourishment  neces- 
sary to  its  growth. 

Similarly,  the  pro- 
tein matter  of  the  endo- 
sperm,  which,   like  the 


9.  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  A  YOUNG  WHEAT 
ROOT  SHOWING  ROOT  HAIRS  (/•//.),  VASCULAR 
BUNDLE  (v.b),  EPIDERMIS  (('),  AND  GROUND 
TISSUE. 


lo  March,   1912.] 


W'Jieat  and  its  Cultivation. 


starch,  is  insoluble  in  water,  is  acted  on  by  a  ferment  present  in  the  grain, 
and  is  broken  down  into  diffusible  proteids  called  peptones.  'J'hese  soluble 
peptones,  as  well  as  other  nitrogenous  compounds  of  lesser  importance 
(amides  and  amido-acids)  diffuse  from  cell  to  cell  and  nourish  the  growing 
tissues  of  the  young  embryo.  It  is  not  long  before  the  reserves  of  food 
in  the  .seed  are  exhausted,  and  henceforth  the  young  plant  must  lead  an 
independent  existence.  At  this  stage  an  examination  of  the  root  system 
will  reveal  several  interesting  feature.s. 

Along  the  greater  portions  of  the  roots,  minute  delicate  fibrils  will  be 
observed.  These  are  the  tender  root  hairs  which  push  their  way  through 
the    minute    interstices    between    the    soil    particles    and    apply    themselves 


ro.     TRANSVERSE    SECTION    OF    WHEAT    ROOT    (x    270). 

closely  to  the  uneven  edges  of  the  soil  grains.  Microscopical  examination 
proves  them  to  be  long  tubular  appendages — mere  delicate  prolongations  of 
the  epidermis.  The  epidermis  forms  the  external  Jayer  of  the  root.  and. 
as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  lo,  it  is  composed  of  cells  clo.sely  packed  together 
with  no  interstitial  spaces  or  openings  of  any  kind.  In  this  respect, 
as  will  be  shown  later,  it  differs  markedly  from  the  epidermis  of  the  leaf. 
From  this  absence  of  openings  it  will  be  clearly  apparent  that  the  plant, 
so  far  as  the  root  system  is  concerned,  is  quite  incapable  of  appropriating 
food  of  a  .solid  character  from  the  soil.  Whatever  nutrients  are  obtained 
from  the  soil,  therefore,  must  be  liquid  or  gaseous  in  character.  Now  the 
particles  that  compose  a   normal   soil   in  good  condition   are  very  irregular 


i84 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.     [lo  March,    191 2. 


in  shape,  and  are  invested  with  a  film  of  water.  This  film  of  moisture 
surrounding  each  soil  particle  is  really  a  very  dilute  solution  containing 
various  substances  dissolved  from  the  mineral  constituents  of  the  soil.  It 
is  this  film  surrounding  each  soil  particle  which  is  the  source  of  the  plant 
food  obtained  frorh  the  soil.  The  mode  of  entry  of  this  dilute  solution  to 
the  epidermal  cells  of  the  root  may  be  illustrated  by  a  very  simple  ex- 
periment. 

If  a  lamp  chimney  covered  over  one  end  with  a  piece  of  bladder  or  of 
parchment  be  partially  filled  with  strong  brine,  and  then  placed  m  a 
vessel  of  water,  the  two  liquids  will  be  separated  merely  by  the  thin  mem- 
brane. Under  these  circumstances,  each  of  the  liquids  will  diffuse  through 
the  membrane  and  mix  with  the  liquid  on  the  other  side.  The  attraction 
for  water  inwards  will  be  greater  the  stronger  the  brine.  The  movement 
will  continue  until  the  liquids  on  both  sides  of  the  diaphragm  have  the 
same  composition. 

This  process  is 
called  osmosis,  and  each 
cell  in  the  epidermal 
layer  of  the  root  is  a 
small  osmotic  appara- 
tus. The  cell  sap  corre- 
sponds tO'  the  salt  solu- 
tion, the  cell  wall  and 
protoplasm  to  the  dia- 
phragm or  the  bladder 
separating  the  liquids, 
and  the  soil  solution 
on  the  surface  of  the 
soil  particles  corre- 
sponds to  water  in  the 
vessel.  But  there  is 
one  important  differ- 
ence to  be  borne  in 
mind.  While  the  pro- 
toplasm of  the  cell 
readily  allows  the  soil 
water  bearing  in  solu- 
tion plant  food  to  dif- 
fuse inwards  and  mix 
with  the  cell  sap  it  refuses  to  allow  the  bulk  of  the  dissolved  sub- 
stances in  the  cell  sap  to  diffuse  outwards.  The  osmosis  of  plant  nutrition 
is  therefore  a  controlled  osmosis,  the  control  being  exercised  by  the  living 
protoplasm  of  the  cell. 

The  density  or  concentration  of  the  cell  sap  must  on  fertile  soil  be 
always  greater  than  that  of  the  dilute  solution  investing  the  soil  particles, 
so  that  the  solutions  outside  may  be  carried  inside  the  cell  and  tend  to 
make  it  tight  with  water  or  turgid.  The  solutions  which  penetrate  the 
epidermal  cells  by  osmosis,  pass  from  cell  to  cell  in  the  root  tissue  by  the 
same  process.  In  the  lower  types  of  plants,  such  as  the  algae,  which  are 
composed  entirely  of  simple  cellular  tissue,  the  movement  of  water  within, 
the  plant  may  be  accounted  for  by  osmosis  alone 


II.    EPIDERMIS    OF   ROOT   OF    FEDERATION 
WHEAT   (X   270). 


ao  March,   191^- 


W//caf  and  its  Cidiivatlon. 


In  the  higher  plants  the  transference  of  water  from  cell  to  cell  by 
'Osmotic  agencies  alone  would  be  far  too  slow  to  keep  ])ace  with  the  water 
'.requirements  of  the  leaves.  Specially  developed  structures  are  therefore 
found  in  these  plants,  and  serve  as  conducting  media  whereby  the  water 
taken  in  at  the  root  finds  its  way  rapidly  to  the  leaf.  Fig.  10  shows  a 
■cross  section  of  a  young  root  of  Federation  wheat.  Several  delicate  root 
hairs  {r.h.)  will  be  observed,  each  forming  simply  an  elongated  cell  of  the 
•epidermis.  In  the  centre  of  the  root  is  the  axillary  vascular  bundle  ((u.b.) 
which  runs  throughout  the  length  of  the  root  and  ultimately  merges  Into 
-similar  structures  in  the  stem. 

Fig.    15  is  a  longitudinal   section   through  one  of  the  vascular  bundles 
•of  the  stem. 

Each  bundle  consists,  mainly,  of  a  series  of  elongated  cells  with  ligni- 
fied  thickened  cell  walls,  and  a  variety  of  long  cylindrical  vessels  forming 
-continuous  open  tubes,  with  and  without  spiral  thickenings.  These  ves.sels 
originally  contained  protoplasm, 
but  during  the  course  of  growth 
the  protoplasm  was  used  for 
thickening  the  cell  walls,  and  the 
matured  vessels  are  merely  long 
tubes  specially  adapted  for  con- 
ducting water. 

The  dilute  solution  of  mineral 
plant  food,  which  has  diffused 
through  the  root  hair,  epidermis, 
and  root  tissue,  now  finds  its  wa\ 
to  the  conducting  tissues  of  thf 
axillary  vascular  bundle,  and  is 
conveyed  through  similar  tissues  in 
the  stem  to  the  leaf. 


^. 


LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  YOUNG 
WHEAT  ROOT  SHOWING  AXILLARY 
VASCULAR  BUNDLE  {v.h.)  FOR 
CONDUCTING  SAP,  ALSO  ROOT 
HAIRS    ir.h.). 


Structure  and   Function  of 
THE  Leaf. 

What  takes  place  when  the 
dilute  mineral  solution  reaches  the 
leaf  may  best  be  understood  by 
referring  to  the  structure  of  the 
wheat  blade.  Fig.  16  is  a 
transverse  section  of  a  leaf  of  Federation  wheat.  Above  and  below, 
the  leaf  is  bounded  by  a  single  layer  of  epidermal  cells,  and  lying 
between  is  the  mes^phyll.  The  upper  portion  of  the  mesophyll  is  typicalh 
closer  in  structure  than  the  lower  portion,  which  is  usually  spongy  in 
character  and  contains  a  large  number  of  intercellular  spaces.  These 
intercellular  spaces  form  labyrinthic  chambers  in  which  air  freely  circulates 
in  the  interior  of  the  leaf.  Scattered  through  the  body  of  the  mesophyll 
are  the  vascular  bundles  which  form  in  wheat  a  set  of  parallel  strands 
serving  not  only  as  a  skeleton  for  the  support  of  the  remaining  leaf  tissue, 
but  also  as  media  for  the  conduction  of  the  sap  to  every  part  of  the  leaf. 
The  cells  of  the  mesophyll  contain  a  large  number  of  green  bodies  called 
chloroplasts  or  chlorophyll  corpuscles,  which  give  the  leaf  its  characteristic 
green  colour.  The  epidermis  (Fig.  17)  of  the  leaf  in  contrast  to  that 
of  the  root  is  studded  with  microscopic  openings  called  stomata,  more  or 
less  regularly  placed.     Each  stoma  or  pore  consists  of  two  sausage-shaped 


1 86 


Journal  of  Agrkidfiire.    Victoria.      [lo   March.    1912. 


guard  cells  joined  together  at  the  extremities  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave 
a  very  narrow  slit-]ike  pore  between  them.  The  opening  and  closing  of 
these  stomata  are  brought  about  by  changes  in  the  curvature  o£  the  guard 
cells,  and  this  in  its  turn  is  dependent  on  the  turgiditv  or  water  content 
of  the  cells- 

Tt  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  this  specimen  of  wlieat  the  number  of 
stomata  on  the  uffer  surface  per  square  centimetre  amounted  to  3,681, 
whilst  the  number  on  the  lozver  surface  was  3.321  per  square  cm. 

Respiration. — These  stomato  are  the  breathing  pores  of  the  plant.  Re- 
spiration is  quite  as  necessary  for  fhe  life  process  of  plants  as  it  is  for 
animals  and  the  process  is  essentially  the  same  in  animals.  The  stems, 
roots  and  leaves  of  a  plant  are  constantly  in  need  of  oxygen  for  respiration, 
and  while  under  ordinary  conditions  the  aerial  portions  of  a  plant  can 
secure  a  sufficiency  of  oxygen  for  their  requirements,  it  not  infrequently 
happens  that  the  roots  suffer  from  lack  of  proper  supplies  of  air  in  the 

soil.  This  may  readily  be 
seen  in  the  unhealthy,  sickly 
yellow  appearance  of  wheat 
growing  in  low-lying  por- 
tions of  fields  after  heavy 
winter  rains,  or  in  badly 
drained  water-logged  soils. 
Respiration  goes  on  through- 
out a  plant's  existence  and 
its  general  effect  is  to  destroy 
the  carbonaceous  material  of 
the  plant  and  liberate  car- 
bonic acid  gas. 

Assimilation  or  Phoiosyn- 
tlicsis. — This  process  of  re- 
spiration in  green  plants  is 
overshadowed  by  the  oppo- 
site process  of  assimilation. 
The  leaf  is  the  medium 
'  whereby  all  green  plants  are 

13.  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  THE  STEM  OF  enabled  to  obtain  from  the  air 
FEDERATION  WHEAT,  SHOWING  VASCULAR  ^^e  carbon  which  forms  the 
BUNDLES.  greater  portion  of  their  bulk. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  is  present  in  ordinary  air  to  the  extent  of  about  four  parts 
in  10,000.  Air  containing  carbonic  acid  enters  the  stomata  and  circulates 
freelv  in  the  intercellular  spaces.  Under  the  influence  of  sunlight  which 
supplies  the  necessarv  energy  and  in  the  presence  of  the  chlorophyll  and 
moisture  in  the  leaf,  the  carbon  of  the  carbonic  acid  is  fixed  by  being 
converted  into  carbohydrates  and  oxygen  is  set  free  and  exhaled  by  the 
plant.  This  process  is  called  "  carbon  fixation,"  "  assmiilation,"  or  as 
it  is  dependent  on  light  "  photosynthesis."  The  energy  necessary  to  effect 
these  changes  is  of  course  obtained  from  the  light  and  the  leaf  has  trans- 
formed the  energy  of  sunlight  into  potential  energy  possessed  by  the  newly 
formed  carbohydrate.  Stephenson  for  this  reason  described  coal  as 
"bottled  sunlight,"  because  the  energy  it  possessed  was  derived  from  the 
sunlight,  which,  ages  ago  assisted  to  groA>  the  vegetation  which  we  now 
mine  as  coal. 


lo  March,    igi:;.] 


W/waf  aJid  its  Cuhiva1'to)i. 


187 


This  pnjcess  is  of  eiinrmuus  praclical  importance  in  the  economy  of 
nature.  All  animals  directly  or  indirectly  are  dependent  on  the  preliminary 
life  of  plants  to  store  up  food,  and  green  plants  have  the  power  of  securing 
the  greater  portion  of  the'  s  )lid  matter  of  which  thev  are  composed  from 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  of  the  air.  Much  discussion  has  taken  place  as  t<> 
exactly  what  happens  in  the  process  of  assiniilation.  Tn  any  case  starch 
may  be  regarded  as  the  first  visible  product  formed.  Starch,  however 
does  not  accumulate  in  the  leaf,  but  is  transferred  from  the  leaf  to  the 
stem  and  roots  to  be  stored  till  required.  The  starch  is  transferred  bv  the 
agency  of  an  enzyme — diastase — such  as  is  formed  in  the  germinating  grain. 
The  starch  is  thus  converted  to  sugar,  which  being  soluble  may  diffuse  to 
such  parts  as  require  it.  Photosynthesis  takes  place  only  in  the  day  time, 
whereas  respiration  is  constantly  in  progress.  Respiration,  however,  is 
never  so  rapid  as 
the  opi)Osite  process 
of  assimilation  so 
that  the  net  result 
is  an  increase  in 
dry  weight  as  a  re- 
sult of  assimilation. 

Traiisfiratiou. — 
A  third  function  of 
the  leaf  is  to  get  rid 
of  the  superfluous 
water  taken  in  by 
the  root-hairs.  As 
the  mineral  plant 
food  taken  in  hv 
the  ro<jt  is  in  the 
form  of  a  very 
dilute  solution,  it 
follows  that  a  large 
amount  of  water 
must  be  evaporated 
in  order  that  the 
plant  may  recei\-e 
sufficient  mineral 

matter  to  build  up  "'' 
its  tissues.  The 
superfluous  water  is  \aporized  in  the  intercellular  tissues  of  the  mesophyll 
and  passes  out  through  the  stomata,  whilst  the  mineral  substances  remain 
behind.  This  important  process  is  called  transpiration  and  by  its  means 
the  absorption  of  fresh  supplies  of  mineral  food  from  the  soil  is  rendered 
possible. 

A  large  number  of  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  the  amount 
of  water  lost  by  transpiration  from  the  ordinary  farm  crops.  Though 
the  actual  amount  is  very  considerable  it  is  less  than  would  be  evaporated 
from  an  equal  surface  of  water  exposed  to  the  same  conditions.  Lawes 
and  Gilbert's  experiments  tend  to  show  that  for  every  ton  of  dry  matter 
elaborated  in  ordinary  farm  crops  about  250  tons  of  water  require  to  be 
evaporated  from  the  lea^■es.  Hellriegel's  observations  in  Germany  show 
that  for  wheat  453  tons  of  water  are  required  for  each  ton  of  dry  matter 


TRANSVERSE    SECTION    OF    A    STEM    OF    FEDERATION 
WHEAT    (X    50). 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria,      [lo  March,    191 2„ 


produced.      It    is    probable   that    under    Australian   conditions   the    amountr 
required   would  be  even  higher   than  this.       Assuming,     however,     in    the- 
absence  of  definite  figures   for  Australian  conditions,   the  results  obtained 
by  Hellriegel,  and  as'^nming  that  the  ratio  of  grain  to  straw  in  an  average^ 

wheat  crop  is  2  :  3.  then 
a  20-bushel  wheat  crop 
would  need  to  transpire- 
an  equivalent  of  6  inches 
of  rain,  and  a  30-bushel 
crop  would  need  approxi- 
mately 9  inches  of  water. 
In  other  words  6  inches 
of  absolutel  v  effective 
rain  during  the  growing 
period  should  be  theore- 
tically sufficient  for  the^ 
requirements  of  a  20- 
bushel  crop  of  wheat  pro- 
\ided  the  soil  was  in  good 
condition  at  the  time  of 
germination.  Such  re- 
sults are  not  obtained  in 
practice,  however,  be- 
cause under  the  most  per- 
fect methods  of  soil  culti- 
\'ation,  losses  of  mois- 
ture from  the  soil  other 
than  by  the  transpiration 
Obviously   there   should  be   a   sort   of  equilibrium 


15.     LONGITUDINAL   SECTION   OF  A   FEDERATION 
WHEAT    STEM    THROUGH    THE    VASCULAR 
BUNDLE     SHOWING     THE     CONSTRUCTION 
OF    THE    CONDUCTING    VESSELS. 

current   are   inevitable. 


existing  between  the  amount  of  water  transpired  and  the  amount  absorbed 
by  the  roots.  Frequently  the  former  is  in  excess  of  the  latter  and  wilting 
results.     This  often  takes  place  in  a  wheat  field  in  early  spring  when  hot: 


16.    CROSS    SECTION    OF    A    WHEAT    LEAF    SHOWING    EPIDERMAL    CELLS, 
MESOPHYLL,    AND   VASCULAR   BUNDLES. 


winds  are  prevalent  or  when  wheat  has  been  thickly  sown  or  manuring 
has  been  excessive.  Under  these  circumstances  transpiration  from  leaf  and 
stem  is  not  infrequently  in  excess  of  the  amount  of  water  taken  up  by 
the  roots  and  injury  results.  The  water  is  mainly  transpired  through 
the  stomata  of  the  leaves  and  as  the  number  of  stomata  is  usually  greater 


ic  March,    1912.]  Wheat  and  its  Cultivation.  189- 

on  the  under  surface,  transpiration  is  more  active  from  that  surface.  The 
guard  cells  of  the  stomata  regulate  the  amount  of  diastomatic  transpiration' 
and  the  relative  position  of  these  cells  is  largely  dependent  on  their  tur- 
gidity.  The  more  turgid  the  guard  cells  the  more  they  curve  away  from- 
one  another,  the  wider  the  opening  and  the  greater  the  transpiration. 
Conversely  when  they  become  flaccid  they  straighten  out  and  completely 
close  the  aperture.  Transpiration  is  therefore  largely  influenced  by  the- 
turgidity  of  the  guard  cells. 

The  most  important  external  conditions  governing  the  processes  are — 

{a)  Temperature. 

{b)  Humidity.  ' 

{c)  Intensity  of  light. 

{d)  Air  movements. 

{e)  Water  content  of  soil. 

Some  of  these  influence  transpiration  through  the  agency  of  the  guard' 
cells  and  some  of  them  act  independently. 

The  absorption  of  the  dilute  mineral  solution  by  the  root  hairs  from 
the  soil  grains  and  the  mode  of  its  transference  to  the  manufacturing 
organs  of  the  plant — the  leaves — has  already  been  described.  It  is  now 
necessary  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  food  thus  absorbed. 

This  may  be  determined  synthetically  by  means  of  water  cultures,  i.e., 
by  growing  wheat  plants  in  vessels  containing  distilled  water  to  which 
certain  mineral  substances  of  known  chemical  composition  have  been  added. 
Carbon  we  have  already  seen  is  obtained  from  the  air,  hydrogen  and' 
oxygen,  which  are  also  necessary,  are  obtained  from  water.  Water  cultures- 
show  that  besides  these  three  there  are  other  seven  chemical  elements  neces- 
sary, and  that  these  can  only  be  obtained  from  the  soil. 

These  seven  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  iron  calcium  (lime), 
magnesium  and  potash.  If  the  soil  is  wanting  in  but  one  of  these  elements 
thf^re  is  no  crop.  Three  other  elements  drawn  from  the  soil  are  alwa\'S 
found  in  the  ash  of  plants  but  they  are  regarded  not  as  essentinl,  but  as 
accidental  elements.  These  are  silicon  (silica),  sodium  (soda),  and' 
chlorine.  A  number  of  other  accidental  elements  may  be  found  in  crops 
from  special  soils. 

For  the  farmer  practical  interest  centres  in  the  seven  essential  con- 
stituents of  the  ash  enumerated  above.  Each  of  these  is  usually  present 
in  sufficient  quantity  in  Australian  wheat  soils  save  phosphoric  acid.  Even 
on  such  soils  there  is  usually  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  times  more  phos- 
phoric acid  than  is  required  for  one  wheat  crop.  But  the  roots  have  no- 
openings  and  they  must  absorb  their  ash  constituents  in  solution  and  the- 
great  bulk  of  phosphoric  acid  in  soils  is  insoluble  in  water.  Given  suf- 
ficient soil  moisture  and  good  physical  condition  it  is  the  most  deficient 
soil  constituent  which  determines  the  size  of  the  crop,  and  for  this  reason 
it  is  usual  to  supply  a  little  soluble  phosphoric  acid  in  superphosphates  to 
improve  the  soil  in  its  weakest  point. 

Soils  may  be  classed  as  sand,  clay,  lime  and  peat  or  humus  soils.  As^ 
regards  the  grain  the  ash  varies  little  in  composition  according  to  the 
soil.  The  straw  however  varies  considerably — £.g-,  on  clay  soil  the  ash 
may  contain  about  70  per  cent,  of  silica,  on  peat  hardly  any.  A  20-bushel 
crop  of  wheat  may  contain  35  lb.  nitrogen,  14  lb.  phosphoric  acid,  and: 
20  lb.  of  potash,  the  first  two  being  chiefly  in  the  grain  and  the  last-named. 
in  the  straw. 


190 


Joiinial  of  Agriculture,    Victoria.      [10   March.    191 2. 


While  the  composition  of  the  ash  of  the  whole  crop  varies   according- 
to  the  soil  it  is  grown  on,  it  is  evident  that  the  crop  exercises  to  some  extent 

a  power  of  selection,  absorb- 
ing in  largest  quantity  those 
particular  constituents  which 
it  requires  : — Thus  the  ash 
of  wheat  contains  a  rela- 
tively high  percentage  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  a  low 
percentage  of  lime.  The 
ash  of  mangolds,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  rich  in  potash, 
whilst  that  of  clover  and 
lucerne  is  rich  in  lime.  What 
probably  happens  is  that  the 
nutrient  solution  for  any 
given  soil  is  more  or  less  of 
constant  composition.  The 
root  hairs  allow  this  soil 
solution  to  enter  by  osmosis 
until  the  concentration  inside 
the  cell  is  the  same  as  that 
17.   EPIDERMIS       OF       FED-RATION       WHEAT  ^^j^j^^^^^      No  mote  Can  enter 

(under      SURFACE     OF      LEAF)      SHOWING    ^^^^-j    ^j^^    jj^^j^^g    ^^jj^    ^f    ^^^ 

STOMATA     (3321     PER    SQUARE    CENTi-  ^^^^^^  withdraw  some  of    the 
metre).  nutrient      solution     for     con- 

structi\'e  purposes  and  thus  lower  the  concentration  of  the  cell  sap  in  that 
ingredient.  Soda  is  more  abundant  in  the  soil  than  potash,  yet  in  the  ash 
of  wheat  potash  is  far 
more  abundant  than  is 
soda. 

In  the  case  of  wheat 
the  plant  cells  keep  utiliz- 
ing the  potash  for  the 
construction  of  tissue  and 
thus  low^ering  the  concen- 
tration and  permitting 
more  to  enter.  On  the 
other  hand  very  little 
.soda  is  used  by  the  plant 
cells  and  the  cell  sap  is 
therefore  as  concentrated 
in  soda  as  that  of  the  soil 
solution. 

Storage  and  Migration 
OF  Food. 
The  leaf  is  the  manu- 
facturing organ  of  the 
plant.  It  has  already 
been  shown  that  it  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  forma- 
tion of  carbohydrates  such  as  starch  and  sugar  from  simple  inorganic 
materials.      It  also  builds  up  organic  compounds  containing  nitrogen  such 


epidermis     of    leaf     (x     300)     OF     WHEAT 
SHOWING   STRUCTURE   OF   STOMATA. 


lo  March,    1912.]^  W/nat  and  its  Cultivation.  191 

as  the  proteins.  The  intermediate  stages  between  tlie  absorption  of  nitrates, 
sulphates,  and  phosphates  by  the  roots  and  the  elaboration  of  proteins  by 
the  living  cells  of  the  leaf  are  not  known,  but  it  seems  probable  that  inter- 
mediate products  like  asparagine  and  other  amido  acids  are  first  formed  and 
that  these  are  subsequently  elaborated  intO'  protein.  Most  of  the  compounds 
elaborated  by  the  leaf  are  used  for  building  up  new  cells,  cell  walls  and  in 
nourishing  the  living  tissue.  During  active  vegetation  and  under  ordinary 
conditions  of  growth  there  is  more  material  constructed  than  is  needed  for 
the  immediate  requirements  of  plants.  In  tHe  case  of  wheat  .sown  in  April 
or  May  the  early  growth  is  usually  vigorous.  As  winter  comes  on  the 
temperature  of  the  soil  gradually,  lalls  and  growth  appears  to  be  at  a 
standstill. 

In  reality,  however,  assimilation  is  going  on  actively  but  the  products 
are  utilized  in  the  formation  of  new  roots  and  the  ultimate  success  of  the 
crop  is  in  a  large  measure  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  root  system 
built  up  in  this  stage  of  apparent  inactivity.  With  a  gradual  rise  of 
temperature  characteristic  of  early  spring  the  wheat  plant  enters  on  the 
most  vigorous  period  of  its  existence.  Assimilation  now  proceeds  actively 
and  the  products  move  off  as  fast  as  they  are  produced  and  are  stored 
in  the  stems  of  the  plant  for  future  use.  At  a  later  stage  the  lower  leaves 
begin  to  die  off,  and  the  carbohydrates  together  with  the  important  nitrogen 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  compounds  are  gradually  moved  to-  the  more 
active  portions  of  the  plant. 

After  the  fertilization  of  the  grain  take.s  place  the  absorption  of  food 
supplies  from  the  soil  practically  ceases  and  the  whole  energies  of  the 
plant  are  concentrated  on  the  migration  to  the  grain  of  the  already 
elaborated  material  stored  in  the  leaves  and  stem. 

There  is  a  general  movement  of  water  from  the  lower  portions  of  the- 
plant  to  the  upper  parts,  and  with  the  moisture  the  sugars,  amides  and 
proteins  are  transferred  to  the  grain.  Desiccation  now  sets  in,  and  in  the 
case  of  wheat  about  two-fifths  of  the  whole  dry  matter  of  the  plant  is  found 
in  the  grain.  Of  the  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  found  in  the  whole  plant  no 
less  than  three- fourths  of  the  former  and  about  two-thirds  of  the  latter 
substance  are  found  in  the  kernel. 

The  microphotographs  and  sections  illustrating  this  article  were  pre- 
pared b\-  the  Acting  Vegetable  Pathologist,  Mr.  C.  C.  Brittlebank. 

{Fo  he  continued.) 


192  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.      [10  March,   191 2. 

FARM  BLACKSMITHING. 

{Continued  from  -page  I2y.) 

George  Baxter,    Instructor    in    Blacksmithing,     Working    Men's    College,. 

Melbourne. 

v.— WELDING  {continued). 

Forging  a  Hook. 

It  is  not  a  very  difficult  matter  to  forge  a  hook  provided  one  has  a 
good  idea  of  the  shape  and  strength  required. 

An  easily  remembered  approximate  rule  to  determine  the  size  of  iron 
to  make  the  hook  is  to  reckon  the  diameter  of  bar  equal  to  the  square 
root  of  the  load  to  be  lifted,  and,  for  the  length  of  bar,  eight  times 
its  diameter. 

When  the  piece  has  been  cut  off  one  end  is  heated  and  upset  to  form 
the  eye ;  it  is  then  flattened  as  shown  at  A  (Fig  50).  A  hole  is  then 
punched  through  it  (see  B),  and  the  eye  worked  to  shape  on  the  beak  of 
the  anvil  so  as  to  make  the  iron  forming  the  eye  circular,  similar  to  C. 
The  hole  should  not  be  too  large;  it  is  sufficient  if  large  enough  to  allow 
a  link  of  the  chain  to  which  it  is  to  be  attached  to  work   freely.       In  a 


czz        ^  xo 


FIG.    50.    HOOK. 

{a)  The  bar  upset  and  flattened,      (b)   The  hole  punched.     (<:)  Eye  finished  and  point 
prepared.      [d)    Shows   ends   bent,      [e)   1  ae    finished    hook. 

hook  made  of  i  inch  diameter  iron  a  hole  |-in.  diameter  would  be  quite 
large  enough.      To  make  it  larger  would  weaken  it. 

When  the  eye  is  finished  the  opposite  end  is  heated  and  drawn  tapered, 
making  the  diameter  at  the  end  about  half  that  of  the  original  bar ; 
and  the  length  of  tapered  part  about  three  times  the  diameter  of  bar, 
as  shown  at  C. 

Bending  is  the  next  consideration,  and  the  best  way  to  effect  this  is 
to  finst  bend  the  point  and  eye  as  shown  at  D.  Then  heat  the  straight 
portion  evenly,  and  on  removing  it  from  the  fire  cool  off  each  end  so  as 
to  prevent  alteration,  and  bend  the  remaining  part  on  the  beak  of  anvil, 
bringing  it  to  the  shape  shown  at  E. 

When  a  hook  is  properly  made  a  line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  it 
should  pass  through  the  centre  of  its  eye. 

To  join  a  hook  of  this  kind  to  a  chain  either  a  connecting  link  is 
welded  in  or  a  shackle  is  used.      When  a  link  is  used  it  should  be  made 


TO  March,   1912.] 


Farm  Blacksmithing. 


193 


larger  than  the  links  comprising  the  chain,  to  permit  its  being  easily 
welded,  and  because  of  the  fact  that,  being  a  larger  link,  it  must  be 
forged  of  thicker  iron  to  be  of  equal  strength. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  proportions  of  a  chain,  hook,  and  connecting 
link,  let  it  be  supposed  that  a  piece  of  |-in.  chain  is  to  be  used.  Now 
the  safe  load  to  apply  to  a  |-in.  chain  of  good  quality,  would  be  .g  tons; 
e.g.,  the  number  of  eighths  of  inches  contained  in  the  iron  from  which 
the  chain  is  made,  being  squared  and  divided  by  10. 

The  size  of  iron  for  the  hook  would  be  the  square  root  of  load  which, 
taking  the  nearest  size  of  bar  obtainable,  would  be  i  inch  diameter  and 
the  length  to  make  it  8  inches. 

The  diameter  of  iron  for  the  connecting  link  would  require  to  be 
\  inch.  Adding  one-eighth  to  the  diameter  of  chain  will  in  most  instances 
be  sufficiently  correct. 

Welding  in  the  connecting  link,  particularly  when  the  link  is  small, 
is  a  rather  awkward  proposition,  requiring  a  fair  amount  of  practice. 
It  is  therefore  always  advisable  to  have  the  length  of  connecting  link 
about  double  that  of  the  links  in  the  chain. 

A   Pair  of   Tongs. 

This  is  a  very  useful  thing  to  be  able  to  make,  and  as  the  accomplish- 
ment embraces   such  exercises    as    punching,     forging,     riveting,     welding,. 


FIG    51.    BLACKSMITH   S    TONGS. 

[a]    Forming   the   handle,      (b)    Forming   the   eye.      [c)    Ready    for   welding,      (d)    The 

finished  jaw. 

making  two  objects  alike  and  fitting  them  together,  it  affords  excellent 
practice.  Tongs  are  not  made  t-o  fixed  measurements  and  so  the  symmetry 
of  the  work  is  dependent  upon  accuracy  of  eye,  combined  with  the  taste 
and  judgment  of  the  operator. 

Mild  steel  is  the  best  material  to  use  for  forging  the  jaws  of  tongs. 
It  is  much  stronger  than  iron,  and  consequently  the  tongs  can  be  made 
lighter  than  if  iron  be  selected.  The  size  of  steel  used  will  vary  with 
the  work  required  of  the  tongs.  The  smallest  size  generally  used  being 
|-in.  diameter. 

The  illustration,    Fig.    51,   shows  the  evolution  of  each  jaw  previous  to 
riveting  together. 

About  the  best  advice  that  the  writer  can  tender  the  novice  attempting 
his  first  tongs  is  to  obtain  a  well  shaped  pair  to  copy  from,  and  then 
proceed  by  drawing  out  similar  to  shape  .shown  at  A.       Next,   lay  on  the 


194 


journal  of  Agriculture ,    Victoria.      [lo   March,    1912. 


near  edge  of  the  anvil  about  f  of  an  inch  of  the  round  bar.  and  flatten  it 
out  to,  roughly,  |  inch  thick  (see  B).  The  fuller  should  then  be  requisi- 
tioned to  form  like  C\  ^Vhe^  the  two  jaws  are  thus  formed  the  handles 
are  prepared  for  welding  on.  For  a  light  pair  made  from  |-in.  diameter 
^g--in.  round  is  quite  heavy  enough.  Two  pieces  of  that  size  18  inches 
long  are  cut  off  and  one  end  of  each  upset  to,  say,  f-in.  at  the  end, 
gradually  tapering  back  about  3  inches.  The  welding  together  requires 
no  explanation  further  than  that  given  in  the  Journal  for  January. 

When  each  jaw  has  been  welded  on  to  its  handle,  it  is  reheated  and 
flattened  out  to  the  required  shape,  and  a  hole  punched  for  the  rivet. 
Fitting  the  jaws  tO'  each  other  and  ri\'eting  them  together    are    the    next 

operations.  To  make  the 
ri\'et,  select  a  round  bar 
.  about  -g-in.  larger  than  the 
O  hole  ;  heat  tO'  welding  and 
round  down  to  slightly  less 
than  the  diameter  of  hole. 
Cut  nearly  through  at  a  short 
distance  (about  j  inch  is 
usually  sufficient)  back  from 
the  shoulder  formed  hy  re- 
ducing the  bar;  this  en- 
larged piece  forms  the  head 
of  ri\et.  Cut  the  drawn  out 
part  oft,  just  long  enough  to 
go  through  both  jaws,  and 
project  out  sufficient  for 
riveting.  Heat  the  ri\et 
liefore  finally  .separating 
from  the  bar.  and  place  in 
the  hole.  By  a  backward 
and  forward  motion  the  bar 
will  break  off,  leaving  the 
rivet  in  the  hole  ready  for 
hammering. 

After  riveting    it    will    be 
found  that  the  tongs  will  not 


FIG.     52.    W'IRE     STRAINER. 
[a)    Shows   the  strainer  in  position,      (b)   The    barrel    and    stop.       (c)   The  key. 

work  unless  put  into  the  fire  and  made  red  hot.  This  has  the  effect  of 
releasing  the  tension  of  the  rivet.  Whilst  still  hot,  set  the  tongs  to  the  iron 
thev  are  intended  to  hold,  and  cool  out. 

A  Wire  Strainer. 

A  simple,  and  at  the  same  time  effective,  wire  strainer  may  be  cheaply 
and  quickly  made  by  pursuing  the  following  method  :  — 

The  materials  required  are  a  short  piece  of  gas  or  water  pipe  5  inches 
long  and  i  inch  internal  diameter;  a  piece  of  -^-in.  round  iron  to  make 
the  stop  ;  about  4  inches  of  i-in.  round  iron  or  mild  steel  (the  latter  for 
preference)    and    12    inches    of    f-in.    iron.        A.   Fig.   52,   is  a  sketch  of 


o  March,    lyi-.] 


Farm  /'>/di/<:s////f////ig 


195 


the  strainer  in  position,   with  the  wire  attached.       B  is  the  barrel,   and  C 
the  key  for  operating  it. 

To  make  the  strainer,  cut  the  pipe  to  length  and  bore  two  f-in.  diameter 
hole  through  it  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  about  i  inch  from  either 
end.  One  hole  is  to  receive  the  wire,  and  the  other  is  for  the  purpose* 
of  containing  the  stop.  The  stop  is  made  from  a  piece  of  f-in.  round 
iron  by  heating  one  end  immediately  at  the  point,  gripping  it  tightly  in 
the  vice,  leaving  half  an  inch  of  the  heated  end  projecting  above  the 
jaws,  and  hammering  it  down  to  form  the  head,  somewhat  similar  in  shape 
to  the  head  of  a  nail.  The  opposite  end  is  treated  in  the  same  way,  but 
before  making  tlie  head  the  iron  must  be  placed  through  the  hole  of  the 
pipe,  and  then  held  in  the  vice  and  beaten.  When  finished  the  stop  will 
resemble  the  handle  of  the  vice.  It  should  be  free  to  move  up  and  down 
when  the  pipe  is  revolved. 

The  key,  only  one  of  which  is  required  for  any  number  of  strainers, 
is  more  difficult  to  forge.  It  is  made  by  reducing  several  inches  of  the 
i-in.  bar  to  f-in.  diameter,  with  the  hammers  and  swages,  and  then  welding 
on  to  it  the  piece  of  §-in.  iron.  Before  bending  the  handle  to  shape,  the 
slot  requires  to  be  made  either  by  making  a  slot  hole  with  a  flat  punch, 
or  by  drilling  a  hole  at  the  back,  slitting  with  a  cliisel,  and  forging  to 
shape.  The  former  is  the  better  plan.  The  slot  must  be  made  sufficiently 
wide  to  easily  slip  over  the  fencing  wire  it  is  intended  to  tighten. 

The  fencing  wire  will  be  passed  through  a  hole  bored  in  the  straining 
post  and  reeved  through  the  strainer ;  then  doubled  back,  and  again  reeved 
through  the  hole  in  the  strainer  only,  and  thus  prevented  from  drawing 
out  when  the  strain  is  placed  upon  it.  To  tighten  the  wire  the  key  is 
placed  in  the  end  of  the  pipe  so  that  the  slot  fits  over  the  wire,  then  by 
revolving  it  the  wire  is  wound  around  the  barrel  and  at  each  half  revolution 
the  stop  drops  down,  and,  coming  into  contact  with  the  post,  prevents 
the  wire  from  unwinding.  When  the  \vire  is  sufficiently  tightened  the  key 
is  removed. 

Although  this  strainer  is  simple  in  construction  and  application  it  is 
thoroughly  efficient. 

(To  he  continued.) 


1196 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.      [10   March,    191 2. 


THE  OLIVE. 

By  L.    Macdonald,   Horticulttirist,   Dookie  Agricultural   College. 
{Continued  from  page   130.) 

Soil   Preparation. 

It  pays  to  give  soil  preparation  thorough  consideration  when  an  orchard 
is  being  planted,  and  the  same  applies  also  to  laying  out  an  olive  grove. 
If  the  soil  be  ploughed  and  subsoiled  to  a  good  depth,  the  young  trees  have 
a  much  better  chance  of  establishing  a  good  root  system ;  and,  in  future 
years,  are  able  to  withstand,  without  injury,  conditions  that  would  seriously 
affect  trees  planted  on  poorly  prepared  soil. 

The  soil  should  be  broken  up  to 
as  great  depth  as  possible  and  left 
with  a  fine  tilth  on  top.  This  is 
particularly  so  in  the  somewhat  dry 
lands  where  irrigation  cannot  be 
adopted,  as  it  admits  of  a  better 
conservation  of  available  moisture 
;ind  gi\es  the  young  roots  more 
genial  conditions  in  which  to 
tlevelop. 

Transplanting. 

Little  difference  exists  between 
the  actual  operation  of  planting 
olive  trees  and  that  of  any  other  of 
our  fruit  trees.  They  are  planted 
(luring  the  winter  months — May, 
June,  or  July.  However,  it  will 
l)e  found  that,  in  some  districts, 
they  succeed  better  if  planted  at 
certain  times  according  to  the 
locality.        Again,     some    varieties 

show  a  disposition  to  succeed  better 

II.  TPYiCAL   YOUNG  SEEDLING    OLIVES.  '^  pl^nted  early,  while  the  opposite 

is  the  case  with  others. 
In  transplanting,  it  is  important  to  see  that  the  roots  are  not  exposed 
to  the  sun  or  wind  and  not  allowed  on  any  account  to  become  dry.  In 
dry  districts,  where  irrigation  is  not  available,  it  is  advisable  to  plant 
-early  ;  that  is,  in  May  or  June,  so  that  the  winter  rains  will  set  the  soil 
well  around  the  roots.  With  late  planting  under  such  conditions  there  is 
always  the  likelihood  of  the  weather  taking  up  and  the  soil  drying  out. 
In  any  case,  however,  the  soil  if  moist  should  be  trampled  firmly  around 
the  roots ;  and,  if  dry,  watered  to  force  the  air  out  and  set  the  soil  well 
around  the  roots. 

The  tops  should  be  pruned  hard  back  in  proportion  with  the  root 
surface.  This  will  give  the  tree  a  better  chance  of  adapting  itself  to  its 
new  situation.  If  the  top  were  not  reduced,  it  would  mean  that  the  roots, 
many  of  which  wefe  lacerated  and  broken  in  removal,  would  not  be  able 
to  supply  a  sufficiency  of  sap  to  meet  the  demand  made  by  the  respiration 
of  such  a  large  leaf  surface.  Consequently,  drying  out  of  the  bark  and 
tissues  would  result  to  the  detriment  of  the  tree.  All  broken  or  damaged 
roots  should  be  removed. 


:io  March,    igi^.] 


The  Olive. 


197 


It  often  happens  that  the  young  trees  shed  their  leaves  after  trans- 
planting, sometimes  remaining  through  a  whole  season  without  making  any 
growth.  This  is  particularly  s.o  if  planited  out  of  season.  No  alarm, 
however,  should  be  occasioned  at  this;  so  long  as  the  bark  remains  green 
and  plump,  they  may  be  depended  on  to  start  into  growth  again.  In 
the  first  season  after  transplanting,  the  young  trees  should  be  allowed  to 
make  as  much  growth  as  possible,  even  though  a  number  of  shoots  come 
from  below  the  crown.  This  is  to  encourage  as  great  a  root  extension  as 
possible ;  shaping  up  can  be  undertaken  before  the  next  season. 

The  distance  to  plant  the  trees  apart  will  depend  chiefly  on  local  con- 
ditions,   variety   and   methods  of   culture.      Various   distances    from   20  to 
30   ft.    apart   are   recommended   bv    different   authorities.      Some  varieties, 
such  as  the  Verdale.  are  not  such 
strong   growers,    as.    for    instance, 
Polvmorpha ;   hence,    thev   can   be 
planted     closer     together.         The 
writer    is    inclined    to    favour    the 
lesser  distance,   between   20  to   25 
ft.  ;  that  is,  where  hand  picking  is 
intended.        This    will     necessitate 
the     practice     of    careful    pruning 
-each  vear.  as  with  our  other  fruit 
trees,  to  keep  the  trees  low  and  in 
proper    shape.       If    the   trees    are 
allowed  to  grow  unrestrained,  they 
will  eventually  crowd   at  this  dis- 
tance.      Such  crowding  will  cause 
the    exclusion    of    light    from    the 
lower  parts  of  the  trees  and  result 
in  bad   setting   of   the   fruit,    and 
■dying  back  of  the  lower  branches. 
The  tops  of  the  trees  will  become 
-so  broad  and  unwieldy  that  heat- 
ing down  the  fruit  will  have  to  be 
resorted   to.       Where  this   method 
-of  gathering  the  fruit  is  intended, 
the   trees   may   be   planted   further 
-apart  and  allowed  to  grow  to  a  great  size. 

In  some  localities,  it  is  found  that  certain  varieties  show  a  tendenc} 
to  be  self-sterile,  if  planted  in  isolated  blocks.  Hence,  it  is  advisable  to 
plant  other  varieties  adjacent  to  insure  cross-pollination,  which  is  likely 
to  result  in  more  regular  crops. 


CROWN    AND    TOP    OF    YOUNG    TREES 
SUITABLE    FOR  TRANSPLANTING. 


Cultivation. 
It  is  thought,  by  many,  that  good  cultivation  is  unnecessary  for  the  olive. 
In  fact,  it  is  claimed,  by  some  growers,  that  the  trees  do  better  where  culti- 
vation is  not  adopted.  Quite  a  number  of  the  plantations  in  this 
country  are  either  not  cultivated  at  all,  or  at  odd  times  with  intervals  of 
years  between.  This  system  of  cultivation  at  periods  of  long  intervals  is 
perhaps  more  detrimental  than  none  at  all,  owing  to  the  strong  tendency  of 
the  small  feeding  roots  of  olive  trees  to  rise  close  to  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
If  the  soil  is  undisturbed  for  several  years  it  becomes  a  netw^ork  of  fibrous 
roots,  these  will  be  destroyed  if  the  ploughing  takes  place  again.  '  Con- 
-stant  cultivation  encourages  deeper  rooting. 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,    Victoria.      [lo   March.    191 2. 


In  those  districts  where  the  rainfall  is  light,  and  the  conservation  of  all 
available  moisture  is  one  of  the  most  important  contributories  to  successful 
culture,  there  can  be  no  question  that  good  cultivation  is  essential.  The 
well  broken  surface  soil  absorbs  readily  any  water  that  falls.  The  "  run 
off"  is  minimized  and  the  maintenance  of  a  line  tilth  through  the  dry 
season  hinders  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  lower  soil  layers.  Although 
the  surface  soil  through  being  fre(]uently  disturbed  is  not  of  direct  value 
as  a  feeding  ground  for  the  roots  during  the  current  season,  it  serves  a 
valuable  purpose  in  maintaining  more  congenial  conditions  for  root  develop- 
ment in  the  underlying  soil.  Besides,  the  plant  foods  that  are  liberated 
bv  the  action  of  light  and  air  on  the  frequently  disturbed  soil  will  be 
washed  down  and  made  available  during  subsequent  seasons. 

Where  irrigation  is  practised,  constant  and  thorough  cultivation  should 
be  carried  out.  It  is  important  that  the  cultivation  following  irrigation 
should   take  place  as  soon   after   watering  as  pos.sible.   otherwise  cracking 


TOPS    OF    YOUNG    TREES    HEADED   BACK    READY    FOR    TRANSPLANTING. 


and  drying  out  of  the  .soil  will  quickly  take  place.  The  furrow  system 
of  irrigation  is  the  most  satisfactory,  and  two  or  three  waterings  will 
usually  be  found  sufficient  ;  this  will,  of  course,  be  governed  by  conditions 
and  the  nature  of  the  .soil.  It  is  a  mistake  to  use  water  too  frequently  01 
make  it  take  the  place  of  cultivation. 

In  some  soils  where  constant  irrigation  with  clean  cultivation  is  carried 
out,  the  land  eventually  becomes  inert,  cold,  and  irresponsive  to  the  use  of 
artificial  fertilizers.  The  trees  become  pale,  drawn,  and  vigourless,  owing 
to  the  physical  deterioration  of  the  soil.  In  such  cases,  provision  should  be 
made  for  the  addition  of  humus  or  plant  fibre  on  which  the  soil  bacteria 
may  continue  tlieir  activities.  This  is  usually  best  done  by  growing  legumi- 
nous crops  between  the  trees.  In  the  drier  parts,  such  crops  should  be 
grown  only  during  the  winter  months  and  turned  in  before  the  land  dries 
out  in  the  spring.  Owing  tO'  harvesting  operations  taking  place  during  the 
winter,  some  judgment  should  be  exercised  in  planting  such  crops,  other- 
wise the  best  results  will  not  be  obtained. 

(To  he  continued .) 


lo  March.    191^-]  Rcmi)idcrs  for  April .  199 


REIVIINDEHS     fOH     flPHlli. 

LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Those  stabled  should  be  fed  liberally.  Food  of  a  more  stimulating; 
nature  can  now  be  given  to  {^et  them  well  over  the  "  changing  coat  "  season.  Those 
doing  fast  or  heavy  work  should  be  clipped  ;  if  not  wholly,  then  trace  high.  The 
legs  should  not  be  clipped.  Those  not  rugged  on  coming  into  the  stable  at  night 
sweating  freely  should  be  wiped  down  and  in  half-an-hour's  time  rugged  or  covered 
with  bags  until  the  coat  is  dry.  Weaned  foals  should  have  a  little  crushed  oa's 
daily,  if  available. 

Cattle. — As  the  nights  become  colder  the  dairy  cows  should  be  rugged.  The 
rugs  should  be  removed  in  day-time  when  the  shade  temperature  reaches  60  degrees. 
If  new  grass  is  plentiful,  give  a  ration  of  hay  or  straw,  whole  or  chaffed,  to 
counteract  the  purging   effects  of   young   grass.      Cows  may   now  be  spayed. 

Pigs. — Sows  not  already  served  should  be  put  to  the  boar.  Supply  all  pigs  with 
plenty  of  bedding,  and  see  that  sties  are  warm  and  well  ventilated.  Supply  so^\s 
liberally   with  grain.      Castrate   young  boars. 

Sheep. — Where  early  lambs  are  being  bred  for  local  markets,  transfer  ewes 
and  lambs  to  best  pasture  as  soon  as  dropped.  Castrate  ram  lambs  when  a  few 
days  old;  defer  tailing  them  until  the  ewe  lambs  are  ready.  After  tirst  rain  (when 
dust  is  settled)  clear  wool  from  the  eyes  of  young  merino  sheep ;  whilst  yarded 
put  weak  weaners  in  hospital  paddock,  and  any  unprofitable  wooUed  sheep  in 
fattening    paddock. 

Poultry. — Do  not  feed  much  grain  this  month — soft  food  aids  moult;  add  a 
teaspoonful  of  linseed  to  each  bird's  ration  once  daily.  The  more  exercise  t3re 
hens  get  the  better  they  moult.  Remove  all  male  birds  from  pens.  Add  Douglas 
mixture  to  drinking  water.  Keep  a  sharp  look-out  for  chicken  pox.  Forwanl 
pullets  should  now  be  in  their  winter  quarters,  with  plenty  of  scratching  litter,  and 
fed   liberally — including   ration   of   animal    food. 

CULTIVATION. 

Farm. — Dig  potatoes  as  they  mature.  Cart  out  and  spread  stable  manure. 
Prepare  and  plough  land  for  main  cereal  crops.  Sow  Chou  Moellier  seed  in  beds 
for  transplanting.  Sow  the  following  mixture  per  acre  for  green  feed  during  the 
winter  months  for  the  dairy  herd  : — i^  bushels.  New  Zealand  Black  Oats;  5  bushel, 
Cape  Barley ;  ^  bushel.  Tick  Beans ;  ^  bushel,  Vetches.  Sow  Giant  Drumhead 
Cabbage  for  transplanting  (i  lb.  sufficient  for  i  acre,  in  rows  3  feet  apart)  ; 
provided  the  soil  is  in  good  friable  condition,  plants  from  seed  sown  last  month 
should  be  planted  out.  Sow  wheat  and  oats  according  to  locality  ;  also  rape  for 
winter  feed  or  green  manuring.  Prepare  clean  seed-bed  for  lucerne ;  and  sow 
Hunter  River,  Arabian,  Turkestan,  or  Peruvian  seed,  free  from  dodder,  in  drills 
7  inches  apart  and  at  the  rate  of  10  lbs.  of  seed  per  acre.  Sow  permanent  pastures 
with   grasses    and    clovers. 

Orch.\rd. — Prepare  land  for  planting;  plough  deejjly  and  sub-soil.  Plant 
legumes  for  green  manure.  Plant  out  strawberries.  Clean  up  Codlin  Moth  from 
trees  as  soon  as  all   fruit  is  gathered. 

Flower  Garden. — Plant  out  evergreen  shrubs,  trees,  and  Australian  plants, 
divisions  of  herbaceous  plants,  seedlings,  layers,  and  rooted  cuttings.  Feed 
chrysanthemums  with  liquid  manure  weekly  until  flowers  begin  to  open.  Prepare 
land  for    future   plantings   of    roses   and   shrubs. 

Vegetable  Garden. — Plant  out  seedlings  from  the  seed  beds.  Dig  all  vacant 
spaces  roughly.  Sow  onions  for  early  crop;  also  peas  and  broad  beans.  Clean  out 
asparagus  beds  wherever  the   seeds  are  ripening. 

Vineyard  : — 

Vintage  operations  occupy  the  greater  part  of  April.     See  last  month's  notes. 

Cellars. — Cleanliness  is  emphatically  urged.  Carefully  remove  all  fermentable 
refuse — skins,  lees,  skimmings,  &c.  Such  odds  and  ends  favour  multiplication  of 
vinegar  flies  {Drosofhila  junebris).  If  present,  destroy  these  with  formalin  or 
insecticide  powders.  A  little  bisulphite  or  sulphurous  acid  in  washing  water  is 
recommended  ;  also  free  use  of  lime  on  floors,  itc. 


Journal  of  Agriculture.  Viclona.       [lo  March,   1912. 


VICTORIAN   EGG-LAYING   COMPETITION,   1911-12, 

CONDUCTED   AT   BURNLEY   HORTICULTURAL  SCHOOL. 

{Continued  frojn   -page  6y .) 
H.  F.  Hawkins,  Poultry  Expert. 


Eggs  Laid  during  Competition. 

No. 

Position  iu' 

oJ 

Breed. 

Name  of  Owner. 

April  to 

Total  to 

Competi- 

Pen. 

Dec.  31. 
1,243 

Jan. 

Jan.  31 
(lOmths) 

tion. 

12 

White  Leglioru 

W.  G.  Swift 

132 

1,375 

1 

31 

R.  W.  Pope 

1,205 

145 

1,350 

2 

40 

A.  J.  Cosh  (S.A.) 

1,176 

132 

1,308 

3 

20 

H.  McKenzie 

1,108 

138 

1 ,246 

4 

37 

" 

E.  Waldon 

1,074 

136 

i.-uo 

6 

33 

Kange    Poultry    Farm 

(Qld.) 

1,090 

114 

1,204 

6 

39 

A.W.  Hall   . . 

989 

145 

1,134 

7 

18 

S.  Brundrett 

1  010 

97 

1,107 

8 

21 

R.  L.  Appleford 

972 

113 

1,085 

9 

13 

Black  Orpington    . . 

D.  Fisher     . . 

974 

104 

1,078 

10 

46 

Minorca  (Blacli)    . . 

G.  W.  Chalmers 

945 

98 

1,043 

11 

M 

White  Leglioru 

1"'    Haiinaford 

906 

135 

1,0-;  1 

12 

25 

B.  Jlitclieil 

931 

107 

1,038 

13 

66 

W.  G.  McLister 

937 

100 

1,037 

14 

10 

Black  Orpington    . . 

11.  A.  Langdon 

914 

121 

1,035 

15 

9 

White  Lefjhorn 

J.  O'jyoughlin 

912 

122 

1,034 

16 

38 

Mrs.  C.  J<.  Smce 

930 

100 

1,030 

IT 

2 

E.  P.  Nasli 

899 

130 

1,0_9 

18 

19 

A.  Jaques 

»84 

141 

1,025 

19 

50 

C.  H.  Busst 

891 

128 

1,019 

20 

36 

F.  A.  Sillitoe 

S97 

117 

1,014 

21 

28 

", 

J.  Campbell 

899 

114 

1,013 

22 

3 

» 

K.  Gleghorn 

897 

111 

1,008 

?3- 

49 

W.  J.  Thornton 

910 

97 

1,007 

24 

1 

A.  Brebner 

901 

104 

1,005 

•^5- 

44 

Black  Orpington    . . 

T.  S.  Goodisson 

907 

95 

1,002 

26. 

32 

Silver  Wyandotte  . . 

Mrs.  M.  A.  Jones 

908 

88 

996 

27 

45 

White  Leghorn 

T.  Kempster 

868 

124 

992 

28- 

62 

>> 

P.  Hodson  . . 

855 

131 

986 

29- 

5 

L.  C.  Payne 

870 

108 

978 

30- 

47 

'„ 

C.  W.Spencer (N.S.W.) 

864 

112 

976 

31 

11 

Brown  Leghorn 

F.  Soncum 

836 

136 

972 

32 

57 

White  Legiiorn 

G.  E.  Edwards 

848 

118 

966 

3a 

65 

H.   Hammill   (N.S.W.) 

840 

114 

954 

34 

67 

C.  L.  Sharman 

868 

84 

952 

3& 

8 

T.  W.  Coto 

845 

106 

951 

}    36 

22 

Black  Orpington    . . 

P.  S.  Wood 

864 

87 

951 

4 

Golden  Wyandotte 

H.  Bell 

850 

96 

946 

38 

43 

White  Leghorn 

W.  B.  Crellin 

815 

118 

933 

39^ 

66 

White  Wyandotte 

J.  E.  Bradley 

814 

85 

929 

40 

60 

White  Leghorn 

J.  J.  Harrington 

816 

109 

925 

41 

59 

W.  H.  Dunlop 

830 

93 

923 

42- 

53 

j> 

A.  Stringer 

799 

114 

913 

43- 

51 

»» 

J.  W.  Mc Arthur 

827 

83 

910 

1 

41 

Morgan  and  Watson .  . 

796 

114 

910 

V   44 

27 

II 

Hill  and  Luckman     . . 

829 

81 

910 

J 

63 

Black  Orpington    . . 

A.  J.  Treacy 

807 

86 

893 

47 

58 

FaveroUes 

K.  Courtenay 

795 

92 

887 

48 

35 

White  Leghorn 

J.  H.  Brain 

752 

130 

882 

49 

52 

! 

W.  J.  McKeddie 

782 

93 

875 

50 

84 

E.  Dettman 

751 

117 

868 

)M 

64 

11 

J.  D.  Read 

738 

130 

868 

30 

Black  Orpington    . . 

Rodgers  Bros. 

762 

105 

867 

53 

42 

White  Orpington    . . 

1>.  Mitchell 

775 

90 

865 

54 

6 

Silver  Wyandotte  .  . 

Mis.  H.  J.  Richards 

759 

101 

860 

55 

7 

White  Leghorn 

H.  Stevenson 

743 

110 

853 

56 

26 

F.  H.  Seymour 

728 

87 

815 

57 

56 

Mrs.  C.  Thompson     . . 

C9' 

119 

811 

58 

16 

Silver  Wyandott."  . . 

Miss  A.  Cottam 

706 

79 

785 

)    59 

54 

White  Leghorn 

F.  Hodges 

710 

75 

785 

( 

i3 

Golden  Wyandotte 

G.  E.  Brown 

083 

87 

770 

61 

61 

Silver   Wyandotte.. 

.T.  Reade 

651 

103 

754 

62 

17 

Wliite   Leghorn      .  . 

W.  ,T.  Ecker^hall 

624 

74 

698 

63 

14 

Bl.Tck  Orpington    . . 

W.  J.  Macaulcy 

595 

65 

660 

64 

15 

Minoica 

H.  R.  McChesney      . . 

539 

66 

605 

65 

48 

., 

3.  James     . . 

433 
56,298 

76 

509 

06 

7,062 

03  .360 

10  March,  1912.] 


Journal  of  AgricuUtire,  Victoria. 


a 


OYAL    MEDAL" 

LKING   MACHINES. 


^NLY  with  the  advent  of  these  Milkers  did  really 
^^  satisfactory  Machine  Milking  become  possible. 
For  in  the  **  Royal  Medal ''  all  those  defects  which  have 
hitherto  characterised  the  Milking  Machine  have  been 
remedied.  Where  others  have  failed,  the  ^^  Royal 
MedaP'  has  proved  entirely  successful. 
The  seal  has  been  placed  on  its  merits  by  the  u  \)  :l'd  of 
the  Medal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  England, 
and  by  the  unfailing  satisfaction  which  it  has  given 
during    seven  years^  use  on  valuable  pedigreed  cows. 


A  FEW  "ROYAL  MEDAL"   DIFFERENCES 

—Departures  in  Principle  and  Construction  which  Distinguish  the  Machine. 


The  "Royal  Medal"  has  less  than 
half  the  overhead  gear  of  most  other 
machines. 

The  "  Royal  Medal  "  has  less  than 
half  the  rubber  tubing-it  has  only  five 
small  tubes 


The  "  Royal  Medal"  stiijjs  the  cows 
right  out. 

There  is  not  a  bolt  or  screw  thread 
about  the  teat  cup.  You  can  easily  take  it 
to  pieces  with  your  fingers — no  corners  or 
crevices   in    teat   cup.       Brushes  go  right 


r^,      ,.r^         •  Kir    J    ix-n  1     ^      ,•„  ^;^       @     through  without  taking  cup  asunder 
The  "Royal  Medal"  Pulsator  is  sim-     J  =  of 

plicity  itself,  it  is  right  on  the  teat  cup,       I  Cups    pulsate    independently,     which 

which  means  a  great  saving  in  engine  fuel.  prevents  the  machine  from  falling  off. 

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ii 


MILKING  MACHINES, 

34   Queen   Street, 
MELBOURNE. 

LONDON    OFFICE: 

Caxton  House,  Westminster,  S.W. 

JACK     H.     DAVIES,    Managing  Director. 


POST  FREE  BOOKLET  COUPON. 

" Bo'jal  Medal"  Millcivg  Machines, 

34  Queen  Street,  Melboniiie, 
Please  forward  a  copy  of  your  Free  Book.     It 
is  to  he  nnderstocd  that  I  consider  myself  under  no 
obligation. 

Name 


Address 
J6. 


XVlll 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  March,  1912. 


'Phone 

4S81 
Central. 


The  Australasian  Mutual  live  Stoek 

Insupanee  Society  m, 

ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 
70  Elizabeth  St.,  Melbourne. 

HON.  AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P.     HENRY  GARDNER,  Es(|. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P. 

WALTER  G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 


FARMERS  AND  BREEDERS^ 

Has   this   simple   truth   ever  struck  yott? 
Ours  are  the  world's  minimum   rates. 
Our  terms  and  conditions  are  equal  to  the 

best  obtainable. 
Every  pound  of  our  money  is  invested  in 

Australia. 
We  pay  promptlj^         We  pay  in  fiill. 

INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  AND  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS. 


A    GOOD   AUSTRALIAN 
'  Why  didn't  you  put  your  penny  in  the  plate  thi» 
Morning  T 

'  Beeoute  it  vtaiaferexgn  mxssxon.  and  dada  layt 
ii'l  not  riglU  to  tetui  capital  out  of  the  country." 


For  ROOFS  of  all  descriptions 


USE 


RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


USE 


INDELIBLE  GOLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


USE 


OALOIMO 


IN    ALL 
COLOURS. 


These  Coods  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 
SOLE    AGENTS 


BROOKS,  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Melbourne. 


lo  March,  19x2.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


Dairy  Science. 

The  last  word. 

Scientific  men  in  the  dairy  centres  of  Europe  have  given  close 
attention  to  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  for  butter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  for  some  time, 
a  poor,  thin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  :  stating  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods,  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  same 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Dairy  Science. 

For  Post  Free  Book— 

'MILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding," 

By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 


SUNLIGHT  1  Q"^'*^"*^^'*  PnvQ. 

W%  #C       I        ^®®  ^^^^  ^^^  n&mQ  "Sunlight"  is 

mi      f^  A  l\b      I  branded  on  every  cake. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  March,  191: 


Britain's  BEST  Oil  Engine— 

^HORNSBY. 

The  recognized   essentials   of  Oil  Engine   Superiority 

are ... 


DESIGN 
SIMPLICITY 


QUALITY 
ECONOMY 


THESE   the   HORNSBY   possesses,    proved  by  the  Pact 
Made  in  Two  Types-Stationary  and  Portable.  ^"^^^  *^  ^^«  Won  all  the  Largest  Prizes  ever  offered. 


WHY  THE  .  .  . 

HORNSBY  7S  BIND 

It  has  the  Best  and  Lowest  Cutting  Finger  Bar. 

It  is  Lightest  in  Draught. 

It  has  Simplest  Mechanism. 

It  is  Strongest,  Most  Durable,  and  ]\Iost  Reliable 


"Hornsby"    Mowers 

are  Unequalled  for  CLEAN  CUTTING. 

Hornsby  Petrol  Engines,  Gas  Engines  and  Suction  Gas  Plants  are  unequalled. 


!.    HORNSBY   &  SONS   LTD., 


MELBOURNE.    SYDNEY. 
BRISBANE. 


SHORTHORN  Bull  (Milking  Strain)  "  Hayle  Duke  of  Pentland." 

Dropped  July  31st,  1905.         Bred  by  Jas.  Lidyett,  Myrniong. 

iSiVc .'—Hayle  Prince,  836 U  (imp.),  three  times  Champion  at  Melbourne  Royal  Show. 

Dam  .•—Jessamine  IH.     First  and  Champion  Melbourne  Royal  Show  1905  in  Milking-  Shorthorn  Class, 

and  gave  68  lbs.  of  milk  with  3  9  test. 

"Hayle  Duke  of  Pentland"  has  been  used  at  the  Wyuna  Irrigation  Farm  for  the  last  five  years,  and  most  of 
the  youns  cows  tested  to  remain  in  the  herd  are  by  him.     Hence  the  reason  for  sale. 


Price,  10  guineas. 


Inspection  at  Wyuna  Irrigation  Farm,  vid  Tongala. 


SHORTHORN  Stud  Bull  "John  Murray."       5  years. 

Sire  .-—Earl  Sumnicrton  4th.  Dmn  .—Oxford  Sunmierton  8th. 

Price,  5  guineas.  Inspection  at  AVyuna  Irrigation  Farm,  vi&  Tongala. 


JERSEY  Bull  "Cream  Prospect."        Dropped  March  22nd,  1910. 

Sire  .-—Lord  Creamer  (15".  A.  J.H.B,).        Dnia :-  Daisy  of  ProsineH  (347  A.J.H.B.). 
Price,  12  guineas.         In.s2:)ection  on  application  to  Dairy  Supervisor  O'Keefe,  Rochester. 

Extended  pedigrees  and  particulars  on  application  to   DEPARTMENT  OP  AGRICULTURE,  AlELBOURNE. 


10  March,  19 1--]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Vict'Oria.  xxi 


flflTIOflflli  THUSTEES 


Executors  &  Agency  Company 
of  Australasia,  Ltd.     .    .     . 


DIRECTORS  : 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Managing  Director. 

EDWARD  FITZGERALD,  Esq.,  L.L.D.  MICHAEL  MOKNANE,  Esq. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  Esq.  DAVID  HUNTER,  EsQ. 

This  Company  acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint  Executor  of  Wills,  Administrator, 
Trustee  of  Settlements,   and  Ag:ent  for  Absentees  under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY      TO      LEND      ON      BROAD      ACRES     AND      FARM      LANDS. 

V-  113  QUEEN  ST.  {Littair,n°Jst)  MELBOURNE. 


SAVINGS  BANKS  LOANS 

ON      BROAD     ACRES     (Up    to  Three-fifths   of  Valuation), 

In  sums  from  £2,000  to  £25,000. 
Interest  at  4^  per  cent. 

For  3  or  5  years,  with  option  of  paying  oflF  part  on  any  half-yearly  pay-day. 
ON    FARMS    {CREDIT    FONCIER)    (Up  to  Two-thirds  of  Valuation), 

In   sums  from   £50   to   £2,000. 
Interest  at  44  per  cent. 

Loans  Repayable  by  Instalments  spread  over  31.\  years,  or  may  be  paid  off 
on  any  half-yearly  payday,  subject  to  a  small  charge  if  paid  off  during  the  first 
five  years,  but  no  penalty  after  five  years. 


^ 


ADDRESS : 


Inspector-General   of   Savings  Banks^ 


V 


29  MARKET  STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


TREWHELLA  :=;'  CROBBINC  JACKS. 

^j^  Quick.     Powerful.     Simple. 


Mr.  Chas.  Hamilton,  Molesworth,  Vic,  says: — "I  would  not 
be  without  one  of  tliese  Jacks  on  the  farm." 

Mr.  O.  C.  R.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Frances,  S.A  :— 
"  Have  been  using;  Trewhella  Wallaby  Jacks  now  nearly 
si-x  year-^,  and  a.s  lougr  as  I  have  anything  to  lift  will  never  be 
without  one." 


Write  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  to— 

TREWHELLA   BROS.,  engineers,  TRENTHAIVI,  VICTORIA. 


xxii  journaL  of  Agriciature,  Victoria.  [lo  March,  1912. 


r 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 


JBuniley    J^ortieultural    School. 


E.  E.  PESCOTT,       -iWr       Principal. 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnley  Horticultural  School 
have  now  been  arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be 
given  to  students  of  both  sexes  in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Horticulture  for  male  students  includes  a  two 
years'  course,  students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum, 

'■[^  Glasses  have  been  formed  at  Burnley,  whereby  students  of  both  sexes  may 

"wr.   i^feceive  instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and  Fridays. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  work,  and  will  commence 
at  2  p.m.  This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  charged  will  bf 
£2  per  annum. 

It  has  also  been  arranged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  shall  be 
given  on  subjects  which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Horticulture,  such  as 
Poultry  Farming,  Bee-keeping,  and  Fruit  Preserving,  and  these  courses 
will  be  open  and  free  to  the  general  public.  The  subjects  and  dates 
of  the  Short  Course  Lectures   will   be  announced   monthly  in   this   Journal. 

Demonstrations  in  Fruit  Preserving  will  be  given  by  Miss  Mendoza, 
Fruit  Preserving  Expert,  in  the  Hall,  on  Maich  1st,  8th,  and  15th,  at 
2.45  p.ni;        These  Demonstrations  are  Free  to  the  Public. 

STUDENTS    SHOULD    ENROLL   WITHOUT    DELAY, 


Application  for  admission  should  be  made  to 

The  Director  of  Agriculture^  Public  Offices^  Melbourne, 


■Mm  : 


[lo  March,  1912. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


SPECIALISING 


-IN    THE    SUPPLY    OF    ALL- 


pt^UlTGHOWEl^S' 

REQUISITES  *,  IMPLEMENTS 

Is  done  by  us  more  than  any  other  firm  in  Victoria. 
It  will  therefore  pay  you  to  call  and  see  us  or  write 
for  Illustrated  Catalogue  (A). 


frIenD    nozzle.  Some  of  our  Lines  are — 

"  Harvey  "   Shifting-Handle   Plouglis.       :!:        "  Excelsior  "  Fruit  Graders. 

"  four  Oaks  "   Bucket  Spray  Pump.        i 


"  Myers  "  &  "  Deming  "  Spray  Pumps.     | 
"Jones'*  High=pressure  Spray  Pumps.     \ 

"Friend"   [:',vcr  Sprayer.  ''" 


Spraying  Hose— hijh  quality. 
Spraying   Materials  for  all   Pests. 
Pumps  for  all  Purposes. 
"COMET"     FARM    MOTORS. 


Our  Qit./ity  is  Good.        Our  Prices  are  Right.         Call  and  See. 


r 


^ 


depart;  ENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VJCTORIA. 

AGRICULTURAL     CLASSES,     1912. 

Ab  least  thirty  students,  exclusive  of  school  children,  must  be  enrolled  at  each  centre, 
thft  rent  of  the  hall  and  all  local  charges  to  be  paid  by  the  Agricultural  Society  under 
who3e  auspices  the  Class  is  held. 

As  only  a  limited  number  of  classes  can  be  held  during  the  year,  it  is  essential  that 
Agricultural  or  other  Societies  should  make  early  application 


LECTURES    ON    AGRICULTURAL    SUBJECTS,    1912. 

Agricultural  or  other  Societies  -wishing  to  have  public  lectures  delivered  are 
requested  to  make  early  application.  The  hall,  advertising,  &c. ,  must  be  provided 
locally,  free  of  cost,  but  all  other  charges  are  borne  by  the  Department. 

Stkff — The  Director  (Dr.  S.  S  Cameron),  and  Messrs.  Archer,  Carmody,  Carroll, 
de  Castella,  Cother,  Crowe,  French  Jr.,  Griffin,  Ham,  Hart,  Hawkins,  Johnstone,  Kendall, 
Knight,  McFadzean,  Pescott,  Richardson,  Robertson,  Sawers,  Seymour,  Smith,  Strono-, 
Turner,  and  Expert  of  the  State  Rivers  and  Water  Supply  Commission. 

Applications    relative    to    the    above    Institutions    and    Lectures   should    be  sent  to  the 
\1         Director  of  Agriculture,   Melbourne.  1 


XXIV 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


lo  March,  1912.] 


"WATERLOO  BOY"  4  h.p.  PORTABLE  OIL  ENGINE. 

ABSOLUTELY  THE  SIMPLEST  AND  CHEAPEST  EFFICIENT  ENGINE  IN  THE  WORLD. 

USES    BENZINE    OR    KEROSENE. 


IGNITION. — Is  make  and  break  style,  charge  fired  by  electric  spark.  Igniter,  which  in 
other  Engines  is  difficult  to  get  at,  in  the  "Waterloo"  can  be  completely  removed  by 
loosening  two  cap  screws 

Both    Magneto    and    Battery    Ignition, — a    very    useful    arrangement,    as     work 
can  never  be  stopped. 

SPEED  LEVER. — Acts  same  as  throttle  of  a  steam  engine.  You  can  speed  up  or 
down,  or  stop  altogether  with  it.  Makes  the  Engine  easj'  to  start,  prevents  "kicking 
back,"  and  saves  fuel. 

MIXER. — Is  a  great  idea,  patented  Jpecause  it  is  worth  patenting.  Has  an  adjustable 
mixing  cup  that  can,  by  a  winged  nut,  be  slipped  up  or  down  to  give  more  or  less  air. 
No  valve  springs  or  pump  to  get  out  of  order  ;  makes  Engine  easy  to  start ;  aids  the 
governor  and  speed  lever  in  getting  more  power  out  of  the  fuel. 


Allows  a  charge  in  the  cylinder 


GOVERNOR. — Centrifugal  type,  sure  and  sensitive, 
only  when  thp  work  requires  it. 

FUEL.  -Works  on  either  benzine  or  kerosene,  but  benzine  is  better,  as  it  is  not  so  dirty. 
The  speed-saving  devices,  Speed  Lever,  Patent  Mixer,  and  Governor  make  the 
"Waterloo"  consume  the  least  fuel.      Compare  it  for  simplicity,  fuel  cost,  and  power 

M'ith  other  engines,  and  you  will  send  your  order  to  us. 

HOPPER    COOLED.— That   is,    there   are  no    Tank,    Pipes,    and    Pump   to  cool  the 

C3'linder.       Makes   the  Engine  easy  to  move  about ;    less  space,    less   weight,  and  no 
water  pump  troubles,  as  there  is  no  Pump. 


Also  lessens  the  fuel  bill. 


TRANSPORT. — is  a  very  strong  one.     Through  axles  in  both  front  and  rear  wheels. 
Turntable  on  front  axle  is  simple  and  strong. 

SEND  FOR  CATALOGUES  OF  OUR  OTHER  FARM  REQUISITES. 


MITCHELL  &  COMPANY 


PTY. 
LTD. 


FACTORY     &.     office: 

WEST  FOOTSCRAY,  MELBOURNE. 


SHOW     ROOM 


596  BOURKE  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


D^efrigeFating 


«^ 


e^ 


and 


lee  JVCaking 
jYCaehiueFY  ^ 


,'e 


e$3 

Made  by 
HUMBLE  &  SONS, 

-^^^ 

Geelong, 

Victoria. 

: ,  ^''^  "    ""         ^^j^ 

Specially  suitable  for  Bucchers,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  Machines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine.  A  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration  work 
undertaken,  including  coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


"Ferriefs"  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distributors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworks,  &c. 

Full  Particulaps  on  Application  to— 

Humble  and  Sons, 

General  Eng'ineers, 
VULCAN   FOUNDRY,   GEELONG. 


VICTORIAN 


RAILWAYS. 


VICTORIA    FOR    YOUR    VACATION 


The  Victorian  Railways  issue 

SUMMER    EXCURSION    FARES 

To  the  Seaside,  Mountains,  Lakes,  and  Caves 

FROM    15th    NOVEMBER    TILL    30th    APRIL. 


LORNE. 

Waterfalls,  fern  glens,  sea  and  river 
fishing ;    splendid  accommodation. 

FLINDERS. 

Ocean  beach  and  golfers'  paradise. 

QUEENSCLIFF. 

Bay  and  ocean  beaches ;  rail  and 
steamer  services. 

THE    BUFFALO    PLATEAU, 

with  its  famous  gorge,  falls,  and 
peaks,  the  Horn  and  the  Hump, 
embraces  the  finest  mountain  scenery 
in  Australia.  Excursion  fares  all  the 
year  round. 

THE    AUSTRALIAN    ALPS. 

Mts.  Bogong,  Feathertop,  Hotham. 

The  Baw  Baw  Range. 

THE    DIVIDING    RANGE. 

Macedon,  Woodend,  Daylesford,  &c. 

Healesville  in  the  Hills. 

THE    GIPPSLAND    LAKES. 

The  most  charming  chain  of  Ukes 
in  the  Commonwealth. 

THE    BUCHAN    CAVE55, 

Indescribably  beautiful. 


CAMPBELL'S     FALLS. 
ON     FALLS     CREEK,     UPPER     YARRA. 


For  full  information  !.,a  to  train 
services,  fares,  &c.,  write  to  or  in- 
quire from  the  Government  Tourist 
Officer,  Tourist  Bureau,  opp.  To-wn 
Hall,    Collins   street,   Melbourne. 

E.    B.   JONES, 

Acting  Secretary  for  Railways. 


Vol.  X.  WHEAT    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  Part  4. 

[Re!,nstered  at  the  General  Post  Office,  Melbourne,  for  transmission  by  Post  as  a  Newspaper.] 


FARM  BLACKSMITHING. 


BB 


F.    H. 


BRUNNING 


PTY.    LTD. 


GRASSES    AND    CLOVERS. 


RYE    GRASS,    COCKSFOOT,     PRAIRIE,     PHALARIS, 
DWARF     ESSEX     RAPE,     PASPALUM,     TIMOTHY,     RIB     GRASS, 
WHITE  CLOVER,  ALSIKE,  COWGRASS,  TREFOIL,  BURR  CLOVER, 
CRIMSON    CLOVER,    SUCKLING    CLOVER,    FESCUES,    ETC. 

Samples  arid  Prices  of  All  Agricultural  Seeds.  Post  Free. 


SEED  &  BULB   MANUAL 

FOR        1912 

Containing  over  130  pp.   of  useful  and  instructive  information. 
-JUST     PUBLISHED. • 

POST     FREE     ON     APPLICATION     TO     THE     BULB     DEPARTMENT. 


SPRAY    PUMPS. 
LEAD  ARSENATE. 

SECATEURS. 
FRUIT  TREE  NETS. 

MANILLA   TAGS. 


BIRD   SCARERS. 

PLANET  JR.  DRILLS. 

AERATORS. 

CAHOON  SOWERS. 

NIKOTEEN. 


FRENCH 
PROVENCE 
LUCERNE. 


Onaranteed  dodder 
free  by  the  French 

(ioNernment. 
Special  Prime  Seed. 


INCOMPARABLE  CORN  SHELLER. 

Single  Hole,  £5.     Double  Hole,  £9  lOS. 


PRICE    ON 
APPLICATION. 


HUNTER 
RIVER 

LUCERNE. 


Special  True  Seed. 

Not  mixed  with 

Clieap  Seed. 

PRICE    ON 
APPLICATION. 


PLANET  JR.    IMPLEMENT.    (Write  for  Catalogue). 


64  ELIZABETH-ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


THE     JOURNAL 


OF 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


CONTENTS.— APRIL,     1912. 


FAOB 


\Vheat  and  its  Cultivation...  ...    A.  E.  V.  Richard-^^on,  M.A.,  B.Sc.  {Arjric.)  201 

Propagation  of  Friiil  Trees  ...  ...  ...  ...  C.  F.  Cole  208 

The  Olive  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  L.  Macdonald  212 

Farm  Blacksmithing  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  G.  Baxter  217 

Soil  Moisture  and  Cropping  ...  ...  /.    W.  Paterson,  Ph.D.,  B.Sc.  222 

An  Kffective  Sparrow  Trap  ...  ...  ...  ...  /.   Wilson  225 

Bee-keeping  in  Victoria      ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  F.  E.  Beuhne  226 

General  Notes       ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  229 

Swan  Hill  Home  Milking  Competition  ...  ...  ...  S.  J.  Keys  232 

Annual  Grant  to  Agricultural  Societies  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  235 

The  Pig  Industry  ...  ...  ...  ...  R.T.Archer  239 

The  Influence  of  Superphosphates  on  Wheat  ...    A.J.  Ewart,  D.Sc. ,  Ph.  D.,  F  L.  S.  256 

Insectivorous  Birds  of  Victoria        ...  ...  ...  ...       C»  French,  Jnr.  258 

Orchard  and  Garden  Notes  ...  ...  ...  ...  E.  E.  Petcott  260 

Answers  to  Correspondents  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  262 

Egg-laying  Competition     ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  263 

Reminders  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  204 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

The  Articles  in  the  Journal  of  the  Drpartment  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria  are 
protected  by  the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act.  Proprietors  of  newspapers  wishing 
to  republish  any  matter  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  provided  the  Journal  and  author  are 
both  acknowledged. 

The  J'-'urnal  is  issued  monthly.  The  subscription,  which  is  payable  in  advance 
and  incluuos  postage,  is  3s.  per  annum  for  the  Commonwealth  and  New  Zealand,  and 
6s.  for  the  United  Kiiig-dom  and  Foreign  Countries.     Single  copy.  Threepence, 

Subscriptions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 
A  complete  list  of  the  various  publications  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
will  be  supplied  by  the  latter. 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Vicioria. 


[lo  April,  1912, 


No  other  Windmill  has  a 
Speed-governing  Device  like 
the   "Billabong's. 


99 


This  important  improvement  of  ours 
is  protected  by  patent  rights.  It  has 
neither  springs  nor  weights — nothing 

to  get  out  of  ortler.  By  merely  turning  a  screw  you  can 
vary  the  speed  of  the  mill  to  your  desire.  This  will  be 
found  to  be  of  gieat  advantage  when  Windmill  is  sub- 
jected to  a  change  of  load,  and  in  heavy  gales,  &c. 


Stop   and   Consider. 

You  want  a  mill  to  give  lifelong  service ;  therefore,  it  must  be  made  of  good 
material.  Beatings  should  be  so  made  that  they  may  be  cheaply  and  quickly 
renewed.  Frictional  or  wearing  parts  should  Ije  few;  and,  wliat  is  most  im- 
portant, the  mill  should  have  a  lubricating  S3'stem  that  will  insure  its  bein;^ 
thoroughly  and  continuously  lubricated  while  working,  but  which  will  prevent 
waste  when  mill  is  not  required.  The  mill  should  be  responsive  to  a  \cvy 
light  breeze,  yet  stand  a  gale. 

In    our    Mill    all    these    Points    are    provided    for. 

We  know  what  is  required  of  a  good  mill — we  have  had  many  years  of  windmill 
experience.  The  fact  that  we  have  obtained  patent  rights  proves  our  pro- 
gressiveness;  and,  as  to  quality  and  workmanship,  our  being  established  for 
over  half  a  century  answers. 

Suppose  You   Save, 

say,  £1,  or  £1  10s.,  or  £2,  by  buying  a  cheaper  mill,  and  then  have  to  spend 
£2  to  £3  in  repairs — again  another  £3  or  £4;  or,  suppose  your  cheap  mid 
sticks  up  when  yon  most  need  it,  you  will  soon  lose  pounds  and  pounds' 
worth  of  stock  ;    or,   if  it  blows  down  in  a  gale,  where  is  your  saving  then  ? 

Pay  a  Proper  Price  and  get  the  Right  Article  with 
a     Good     Manufacturing    Firm     to    back    it    up. 

But  the  truth  is,  while  our  mills  are  well  made,  the  price  is  so  reasonable. 
Write  for  Catalogue  and  Prices. 

We  can  supply  Tanks  and  Stands;  Pumps  of  all  kinds;  Piping,  Troughing, 
and  Fluming ;    Farm  and  Garden  Tools,  Implements,  and  Requisites. 


JOHN  DANKS  &  SON 

391=395   Bourke  Street,   Melbourne. 


PTY. 
LTD. 


lo  April,  191 2. 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


BARTRAM'S 

CONSTELLATION 

FOR  DAIRY  FARMER 


Just  as  the  Southern  Cross  is  inseparably  associated  with  Australia, 
so  is  the  name  "  BARTRAM "  closely  allied  with  the  dairying 
industr}^  of  Victoria.  The  introduction  of  improved  methods,  and 
the  adoption  of  the  most  up-to-date  labor-saving  machinery,  has 
enabled  those  engaged  in  dairying  pursuits  to  get  out  of  their 
cows  the  maximum  return  at  the  least  cost.  The  five  "STARS" 
that  have  so  materially  helped  to  guide  hundreds  of  dairy  farmers 
to  fortune  and  sucness,   are  : — • 

"ALFA-LAVAL"  "L.K.C." 

CREAM  SEPARATORS  RHILKING  MACHINES 

"FELIX" 
IRRIGATION  OUTFITS 

"FELIX"  "ALFA" 

PETROL  MOTORS  STEEL  WINDMILLS 


In  buying  the  above  lines  you  run  no  risk  whatever.  Years  of 
everyday  use  on  hundreds  of  farms  in  Victoria  alone  have  demon- 
strated beyond  doubt  that  they  are  as  represented  in  our  catalogues, 
and  are  easily  the  best  manufactured.  They  carry  our  guarantee  of 
efficiencj'  and  long  service,  and  behind  the  guarantee  is  a  reputa- 
tion   of    40    years    of    unequalled    service   to  Victorian  dairymen. 

Write  for  our  Illustrated  Catalogue. It  is  Free, 

and  gives  much  valuable  advice.  When  in  town 
come  and  see  us.  Our  expert  knowledge  is  fully 
and  freely  at  your  service.  We  give  liberal 
terms  and  accept  easy  payments. 


J.  BARTRAf^  k  SON 


PTY      19-23  KING  ST., 
LTD..    MELBOURNE. 


^m 


oimn 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  V  id  aria. 


[lo  April,  19 12. 


1- 


ray  wi 
''  Climax' ' 


'^Ka!iiy:,'-r,'.T^v-'-''-ia^Bia^? 


The  "CLIMAX"  SPRAY  PUMP  is  in  use  throughout 
the  world,  and  is  the  most  economical  for  medium-sized 
orchards.        It   is   strong,    simple    in    construction    and 
operation,   and    will  do  good  work.     The  working  parts 
are  brass,  thus  thei-e  is  no  fear  of  corrosion  from  acids, 
the  cylinder  being  of  seamless  brass  tubing.    Other  parts 
requiring  strength  are  in  malleable  iron.    The  body  of  the 
pump  constitutes  an  air  chamber,  and  large  openings  make 
the  inside  easily  accessible.     One  Star  Nozzle  for  misting 
purposes,  and  one  Dayton-Vermorel  Nozzle  for  general 
spraying,  su[)i)lied  with  each  pump  without  extra  charge. 

No.  I— Uin.  Cylinder  (without  cask)  fitted  on 
3  iron  legs,  £2/7/6;  with  30  gal.  ca^k,  as 
shown,  and  8  ft.  ho5e,  £3/10/- ;  with  5Q  gal. 
cask,  as  shown,  and  8  ft.  hose,  £4.  No.  2— 
1^  in.  Cylinder  (without  cask)  fitted  on  3  iron 
legs,  £3/7/6;  with  30  gal.  cask  and  12ift.  hose, 
£4/10/-;  with  50  gal.  cask  and  12^ft.  hose,  £5. 


Water  Pipe  and  Fittings 

We  have  large  stocks  of  the  above.  Write  for  Price 
List.  Ask  for  Speci.al  List.  Our  256  page  Book  of 
Tools  is  also  Post  Free.  Illustrates  over  2,000  of 
the  Best  Tools  at  Money-Saving  Prices. 


/-  fop  ]V[yePs   Pump, 


Which   draws    1,500  galls,    per   hour,    and   throws   a 
jet  of  water  60  feet. 


Thos.  MePhepson  k  Son, 


Tool    Merchants, 


Collins-St.   West,    Melbourne. 


'^^^■■^'■""'^'^■^'^-iiiii^-'"^' 


lo  April,  1912] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


mmmmm^iiam&msM»iimaKS^:ff.:j:^x^m 


TIME  IS  MONEY 


TO  THE  ORCHAROIST. 


WELL  !    why  not  save  time  (and  money)  by  using 

'AUSTRAL"  gfL°  JELLY 

FOR  DESTROYIMC  WOOLLY  APHIS,  RED  SPIDER,  PEACH  APHIS,  AND  ALL  SCALE  PESTS. 

YOU  save  at  least  one  man's  time  in  mixing.  11 

YOU  are  using  a  better  and  more  eflfective  emulsion.         t  ^  >. 
YOU  run  no  risk  of  damaging   your  trees.  1°^"^ 

YOU  have  no  loss  througli  spoiled  batches. 
YOU  simply  mix  with  cold  -water.  II 

3Nr01*E:    C7os-fc    of  "75  S^H*    I^^E3I3    C3IX<    EZIVEXTX^SIOIM. 

MADE    WITH    JELLY.  HOME    MADE. 

30  lbs.  Jelly  @  3d.  (Barrel  lots) 
Soft  Soap 
Time  and  fuel 
Spoiled  batches 

Total 


£0     7 
nil 
nil 
nil 

6      1      3  gall.  Red  Oil  @  2.s.     ... 
*     3  lbs.  Soft  Soap  @  3d. 
Q      Man's  time  and  fuel 
Y     Spoiled  batches  (say  1  in  10) 

...  £0 
..       0 
...     0 
...      0 
...  £0 

6 

0 

1 
0 
8 

0 
9 
0 
9 

£0    7 

6      1                                            Total. 

b 

(NOTE.— 30  lbs.  Jelly  contains  3  gall.  Red  Oil.) 
You  therefore  SAVE   IS-  on  every  Vat   BY    USING    JELLY. 

Writt  for  partindars  and  copies  of  testimonials — 

A.I     .  I  r  N  l<r  I N  Q    "AUSTRAL"  SPRAY  CHEMICAL  WORKS, 
■       Urn       %Jhmml^r\tl^\^y        388     QUEEN'S     PARADE,      ClIFTON     HiLL,     ViC. 


tlL^lwNl?- "TIP-TOP"  SEEDS 


.«&    Oo.'s 


ESTABLISHED    62    YEARS. 

THREE    VALUABLE    GRASSES. 


PASPALUM  DILATATUM 

OR  GOLDEN    CROWN  GRASS. 

A  valuable  forage  grass  for  all  kinds  of  stock.  With- 
stands drought,  and  frost  will  not  kill  it ;  particularly 
suitable  for  dairy  cattle  as  it  will  stand  any  annmnt  of 
grazing,  and  trampling  of  stock  does  not  injure  it. 
Makes  a  very  efficient  rire-break  when  planted  in  strips 
throughout  natural  pastures,  as  it  remains  luxuriantly 
green  when  the  surroundings  are  in  a  dry,  parched, 
and  inflammable  condition.  Sow  6  lbs.  per  acre.  First 
quality  heavy  hand-shaken  seed,  1,  6  per  lb. 

PHALARIS  COMMUTATA 

The  King"  of  all  Winter  Grasses. 

Grows  between  6  and  7  feet  high.  Resists  frosts  and 
droughts.     This  marvellous  grass  has  been  known  to 


grow  quite  an  inch  a  day  on  poor  ground.  Recorn- 
niended  to  graziers  and  dairymen,  as  it  remains  par- 
ticularly luxuriant  in  winter,  and  behaves  remarkably 
well  during  the  hot,  dry  months.  It  seems  to  like  all 
kinds  of  weather,  8ow  2  lbs.  per  acre  in  drills  ;  or 
4  lbs.  broadcast.      7/  6  per  lb. 

TIMOTHY  GRASS. 

This  well-known  variety  adapts  itself  to  almost  any 
soil.  It  is  a  capital  grazing  grass,  and  produces  ex- 
cellent hay.  It  is  of  strong  growth  and  yields  afmndant 
feed.  Quantity  required  to  sow  an  acre,  30  lbs. 
Price,  1  /3  per  lb. 


WRITE   FOR  OUR   NEW  FARMER'S 
PRICE  LIST. SENT  POST  FREE. 


Law,  Somner,  &  Co.'s  "TIP-TOP"  Seeds, 

139-141  SWANSTON-ST.,  MELBOURNE,   Plione,  Cedtral  729. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  April.  T912. 


"AUSTRAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES. 

FIVE  YEARS   OF   UNBROKEN    SUCCESS 

Have  established  the  AUSTRAL  as  the  Premier  Milking:  Machine,  and 

have  demonstrated  that  it  does  not  belong  to  that  class  of  appliances  whose 
eflBciency  terminates  after  a  few  months  of  use.  Ifc  has  stood  the  t«si  of  time,  and 
that  under  all  sorts  of  conditions. 

IT    IS    SIMPLE. 

Complexit}'  and  intricacy  are  the  bane  of  milking  machinery.  Both  in  principle 
and  construction  the  Austral  is  strikingly  simple.  Minute  pulsating  mechanism 
on  teat  cups  or  buckets  has  been  entirely  dispensed  with,  its  place  being  taken  by 
a  single  pulsating  pump,  simple  and  strong  in  construction,  which  serves  for  the 
whole  outfit,  whether  two  cows  or  ten  are  to  be  milked  at  a  time.  The  pulsating 
pump  is  placed  iu  the  engine  room,  remote  from  the  cows. 

IT    IS    AN    EASY    iVIILKER. 

Fear  of  injury  to  cow  s  was  at  one  time  the  bogie  of  machine  milking.  The  Austral 
has  done  away  with  all  that.  Its  action  on  the  cow  is  as  gentle  as  that  of  the 
softest  hand,  and  much  easier  than  the  average  hired  help.  After  three  and  four 
years'  milking  with  the  machines,  cows  are  found  to  be  as  sound  in  the  quarters 
as  wiien  they  started.  Enquiry  from  any  Austral  user  will  confirm  the  correct- 
ness of  this  statement. 

IT  IS  THE  LAST  WORD  JN  ECONOMICAL  DAIRYING. 

The  working  parts  are  so  few  and  the  construction  so  simple  and  solid,  that  wear 
and  tear,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  upkeep,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  An 
outstanding  feature  of  the  Austral  is  the  Tank  System,  whereby  the  milk  is 
conducted  direct  from  cow  to  separator  witliout  any  handling  whatever.  With 
this  S3-stem,  so  great  a  .saving  is  effected  in  time,  labour,  and  trouble,  that  in 
ordinary  circumstances  its  advantages  are  overwheln  in  r.  A  single  bucket  can  be 
supplied  for  testing  individual  cows;  or  where  spec  al  requirements  render  it  pre- 
ferable, complete  bucket  plants  can  be  installed. 

GLOBE  CREAM   SEPARATORS.      .         CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES. 

Embodies  the   famous   Link-Blade    Bowl       1  The  world's  standard  Oil  Engine.      In  all 

Structure.     Official  tests  conducted  by  the     J.     sizes  and  for  all  descriptions  of  farm  work. 


Swedish  Government  at  Alnarp  placed  the 
"Globe"  in  the  very  forefront  for  clean 
skimming  and  easy  running,  against  all 
competitors. 

All  sizes  from  14  to  200  gallons. 


VACCAR  PETROL  ENGINES. 

British    built.  Low    running    speed. 


Economical  on  fuel. 


WINDMILLS,  SAW-BENCHES,  CHy^FF-CUTTERS,  a^d  all  Farir]  and  Dair,  Macliinery. 

W.ien  writing,  please  mention  this  Journal. 

W.  H.  BLflCKHflin,  ^'.t'sSu^r 


3  0  Apwl,  1912.] 


] oiinial  of  AgricuUiire ,  Victoria. 


Herd  of  Prize 
Winnings  and 
Heavy  Milk  ^ 
and  Butter  Pro- 
ducing  Strains* 


YOUNG      BULLS     AND      HEIFERS 


FOR     SALE. 


"MYSTERY    VI.     OF     rwlELF.OSE 


INSPECTION     BY     APPOINTMENT. 


wiLitiftin  wooDiyiflSON,  '"dX"" 

MALVERN,     MELBOURNE,    Vic. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  April,  1912-. 


R. 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT   LAND, 

List  showing  number  of  allotments  on  the  varioiis  Estates  available  for  application  : — 


Estate.      Irrig-ation  Areas.      Area. 


Kovug-a 

15 

totallii 

ff    191  acres. 

Estate.                                                       Area. 

Swan  Hill 

5 

395      „ 

Cohuna 

29 

2,193      „ 

Cornelia  Creek            ..        6        totalling    2,301  acres. 

Shepparton    . . 

9 

18      „ 

Oaklamls        ..            ..7               ,,          4,898      „ 

Nanneella 

15 

1,684      „ 

Hurstwood     ..             ..8                „           3,9 1 2      „ 

Bamawm 

14 

617      „ 

Mt.  Widderin                ..       15                „           5,400      „ 

Tongala 

79 

4,975      „ 

Nerrin  Nerrin               ..17                „           3,736      „ 
Pannoo            ..             ..       25                „           8,909      „ 

Dairying-  and  Mixed  Farming*. 

Marathon  &Willow  Grove    14               „          8,169      „ 

Bona  Vista    . . 
Deepdene 

4 
9 

totalling 

389  acres. 
1,817       „ 

Beet  Growing-  and  Dairying-. 

9 

3,802       „ 

1 

51        „ 

Boisdale          ..            ..        6        totalling       301  acres 

Allambee 

9 

J, 

1,619        „ 

Kilniany  Park              ..60               ,,          7,060    „ 

Morven 

14 

jj 

5,160       „ 

Werribee 

22 

4,H43       „ 

Clerks'  Homes. 

Kenihvorth  .. 

2 

1,198        „ 

Mooralla 

2 

'■       >) 

1,372       „ 

Glen  Huntly           ..             ..            ..          5  allotments. 

Cremona 

7 

I       ,, 

612       „ 

Tooronira                 ..            ..             ..60           „ 

Nuniuikah  . , 

2 

234       „ 

Oreenvale     .. 

4 

251       „ 

Workmen's  Homes. 

Wyuna 

1 

ltl2       „ 

Dunrobin 

5 

100 

Pender's  Grove                    ..             ..        03  allotments. 

Wheat  Growing-. 


Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending  over  31J  years,  with 
payments  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtainsd  >ip  to  00  j'er  cent,  of  the  value  of 
permanent  improvements  effected,  repayments  extending  over  fifteen  years  hearing  5  per  cent,  interest. 

For  full  information  and  terms  apply  to  TH  E     SECRE  TA  R  Y, 

LANDS    PURCHASE    AND     MANAGEMENT    BOARD. 

MELBOURNE. 


AUSTRALIA'S  WACON  2:^:^: 


PATENT 

STEEL 
WHEELS. 

Patent  Felloes. 
Renewable  Carron 
Bo-xes  and  Oil  Caps. 

The  only  Steel  Wheel 

that  has  stood 

the  Test. 

Beware  of 
Imitations. 


I  never  thought  it  would  run  so 
Two  horses  carried  my  first  load 


A.  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningle,  South  Australia,  says: — 

Dear  Sir, — I  have  received  Spring  Wagon.  I  am  well  pleased  with  same, 
well,  and  I  think  those  who  have  Steel  Wheels  will  never  use  the  old  style  again. 
of  two  tons  of  potatoes  over  a  bad  road  of  30  miles,  where  the  old  style  of  wagon  was  bogged,  and  is  "still  there. 

August,  1903. 
ALBERT  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningle,  S.A.,  says:— 

Dear  Sir, — In  answer  to  your  letter  wanting  to  know  how  the  wheels  of  my  wagon  are,  I  am  pleased  to  tell 
you  I  have  had  the  wagon  about  6i  years,  and  it  has  not  cost  me  a  shilling  ;  the  wheels  are  like  new,  .and  I  have 
done  a  lot  of  heavy  carting.  Onlj'  being  a  2-ton  Wagon,  I  lent  it  to  a  man  carting  wheat,  and  he  had  some  very 
rough  roads,  loads  being  about  50  bags.  Your  Wagons  are  worth  their  money,  and  I  would  not  b.;  without  one  of 
them.     I  think  this  Wagon  will  last  my  life  time.     40"  and  36'  Wheels.  August  13th,  1910. 

pj^ TABLE  TOP — Truck  body,  and  all  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
WRITE    FOR    CATALOG     TO-DAY. 

QUEEN'S    BRIDGE-ST., 
SOUTH   MELBOURNE,  V. 


R.  J.  L  HILDYARD, 


BB 


lo  April,  191 2.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


■\ 


LIGHT,  STRONG, 
PERFECTLY  RIGID. 


t-'G^p^ 


c^/3^ 


V 


*' CYCLONE" 
WOVEN    GATE 

9    r-t.   -to   16   ft. 

Will  hold  anything,  and  can  be  made  rabbit  proof  by  putting  rabbit  proof 
intersection  at  the  bottom.      The  wider  gates  have  three  stays. 

Get  our  Catalogue  of  this  and  many  other  Cyclone  Gates. "  THEY'RE  ALL  GOOD." 

CYCLONE    FENCE   &   GATE   CO., 

459  SWANSTON  ST.,  corner  franklin  ST.,  MELBOURNE.  1 


EM  P^S     PATENT 


SHEEP-BRANDING  LIQUID 

AS  USED  BY  LEADING  PASTORALISTS  OF  AUSTRALIA. 
IN  THREE  COLOURS,   BLACK,  RED  &  BLUE. 


Sold  in  8  gallon  cases,  4  6  grallon. 
1  gallon  tins,    5  -  each. 


-AGENTS    FOR    VICTORIA    AND    RIVERINA- 


DALGETY^g°;  MELBOURNE 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  April,  191 2. 


"GLEN    ELGIN'S   PHILANTHROPIST"   299  A.H.B.   of  Aiis. 


@(® 


Winner  oli  Champion,  Sydney  Royal  Sliow,  1909,  1910,  1911. 
Reserve  Champion,  Melbourne  Royal  Show,  1907,  1908,  1911. 

Also  holds  the  record   of   142  Firsts,   Cluiiniiions,   SiJOcials,  and  (iold  Medals  for  Ayrshire 

and   Dairy   Bull. 


The  '^GlenqaFnoek"  Stud 


of  Pure, 
Ayrshire  Cattle 


Has  uou  inimineralile  prizes  in  the  ring.       The  females  in  tliis  lierd  are  noted  for 
deep  and  heavy  milking  and  test  well  above  the  average,  and  are  kind  and  quiet. 

CHOICE   YOUNG    HERDBOOK    BULLS    FOR  SALE 

At  from  5  to  25  guineas  each. Special  Show  Bulli  higher. 

From  Best  Cows  only,  by  Pure  Herdbook  Bulls.      Full  pedigrees  and  particulars,  with 
photographs  of  animal  for  sale,   his  sire  and  dam,   will  be  forwarded  on  apjilication. 


INSPECTION  CORDIALLY  INVITED.        VISITORS  MET  AT  LANG  LANC  RAILWAY  STATION. 


Address 


A.T.  PRIESTLEY. 


Pof  •    V'CLENCARNOCK," 

TdL-aphj  YANNATHAN,  Vic. 


ro  April,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agricidtitre ,  Victoria. 


XL 


Vacuum 

Gargoyle 

Prepared 

Red   Spraying'  Oil 


Needs  no  Soft  Soap 
OP  other  ingredient. 


Requires  only 
Clean  Soft  Water. 


\';icuum  Gargoyle  Red  Spray  Oil 
now  obtainable  in  prepared  forni 
is  the  same  Oil  as  that  originally 
introduced  to  Australia  for  fruit- 
tree    spraying. 


Full  particulars^ 

Horticultural  Department, 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd., 
90  William  Street,  Melbourne. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  April,  1912. 


THE    rOEAL 

CLOSER  SETTLEMENT  COMBINATION. 


THE    RICH 


BOiSDALE    ESTATE 


AND    THE    FAR-FAMED^ 


KILMANY     PARK. 


Both  of  these  Estates  have  been  specially  selected, 
purchased,  and  subdivided  for  Beet  Growing  and 
Dairying-     combined,     and     to     afford     opportunity     to 

THRIFTY,  EXPERIENCED  MEN  WITH  SMALL  CAPITAL 

to     make    a    comfortable    living    while    acquiring    the 
freehold     of    the    land. 

For  the  possibilities  and  practical  results  read  the  article  on 

"THE     BEET     ID^TIDTJSTi?,"'^^," 

in  the  March,   1912,  issue  of  The  Journal  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria. 


lo  April,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  \  icioria. 


Xlll 


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[lo  April,  1912. 


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Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


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Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  April,  1912. 


j^IstoR  s  Patent  Windmills 


AT    THE    ROYAL    SHOW. 


At  the  recent  Pvoy.-il  Show  a  tine  collection  of  Windmills  was  exhibited  by  James  Alston, 
of  Queen's  Bridge,  Melbourne.  Mills  of  all  diameters,  from  6  ft.  to  20  ft.  were  shown 
at  work,  suitable  to  all  requirements  of  farmers  or  stock  raisers,  the  small  ^lills  being 
suitable  for  lifting  moderate  supplies  from  shallow  wells,  while  the  larger  sizes  are  capable 
of  dealing  with  almost  any  depths.  A  splendid  Mill,  25  feet  diameter  on  a  50  ft.  Steel 
Tower,  working  an  18"  pump,  and  throwing  a  stream  of  water  of  about  15,000  gallons  per 
hour,  attracted  much  attention.  This,  mb  believe,  is  the  largest  Mill  ever  sliown  on  the 
Show  Ground.  Alston's  Patent  Steel  Windmills  have  all  the  most  up-to-date  improve- 
ments in  their  construction.  Pumps  of  many  descriptions  Avere  shown,  including  the  latest 
Draw  Plunger  Pumps  for  bore  use,  which  admits  of  the  plunger  being  drawn  without 
disturbing  the  pipes  in  the  bore. 


THG    JOURNAL 


OF 


Yfie  department  of     Mgricufture 


OF  LJBJ^ARY 

New  vork 
VICTORIA.  b^jr^''   .1^ 


Vol.  X.        Papt  4.  loth  April,  1912. 

WHEAT  AND  ITS  CULTIVATIOX. 

{Continued  from  ptige   191.) 
A.   E.    Y.   Richardson,  M.A.,   B.Sc.    {Agric.)  Agricidtiiral  Superintendent. 
III._FOOD  REQUIREMENTS  AND  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. 

The  manner  in  which  the  young  wlieat  plant  builds  up  its  tissues  from 
simple  inorganic  m.aterials  has  been  described,  and  it  now  remains  to  con- 
sider from  an  analytical  point  of  view  the  composition  of  the  grain  and 
straw  elaborated  by  the  plant's  activity.  We  need  not  enter  at  this  stage 
into  a  discussion  of  the  effect  of  environment  on  the  chemical  composition 
of  the  product  or  on  the  milling  quality  of  the  kernel.  It  is  sufficient  to 
note  that  the  climate,  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  mode  of  fertilization,  and 
even  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  are  all  important  factors  in  influencing  the 
quality  and  character  of  the  grain.  It  has  already  been  remarked  that  the 
food  of  plants  consists  of  10  essential  elements,  namely,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  iron,  magnesium,  potassium  and 
calcium ;  and  that  three  other  elements,  though  invariably  present  in  the 
ash,  are  not  regarded  as  essential  to  plant  life. 

Now  of  these  essential  elements  seven  are  obtained  from  the  soil,  whilst 
three,  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  obtained  either  from  air  or  from 
water.  One  of  the  most  interesting  and  astonishing  facts  in  agricultural 
science  is  that  no  less  than  95  per  cent,  of  the  total  dry-matter  of  the  plant 
i=  obtained  not  from  the  soil  at  all. 

The  imp  >rtance  of  this  fact  is  m.ore  evident  when  we  consider  that, 
whilst  the  air  contains  practically  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  carbon,  con- 
stantly replenished  by  the  vital  activity  of  animals  and  by  the  processes  of 

3831.  H 


Journal   of   Agriculture,   Victoria.       [lo   April,    19 12. 


combustion,  the  soil  contains  a  limited  (|uantity  of  several  essential  mineral 
ingredients  which  mav  onlv  be  replenished  by  the  application  of  fertilizers. 

The  constituents  other  than  carljon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen  are 
called  the  inorganic  or  ash  constituents  of  the  plant. 

To  properly  appreciate  the  focd  requirements  of  wheat  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  the  amount  of  nitrogen  and  ash  constituents  removed  from  the 
.soil  by  an  average  crop.  For  our  purpose,  in  the  absence  of  sufficient  local 
data,  we  may  consider  a  summary  of  the  results  obtained  at  Rothamstead 
where  scientific  experimental  work  has  been  systematically  conducted  for 
o\'er  seventy  years. 

Tables  I.  and  II.  are  digests  of  the  elaborate  tables  given  in  the 
Rothamstcad  Memoirs  (Vol.  VI.),  p.  104.  Table  I.  represents  the  total 
produce,  dry-matter,  ash  constituents  and  nitrogen  obtained  from  plots  2, 
3,  5  and  10,  treated  respectively  for  20  years  with — 

{a)   Farmyard  manure. 
(]})   No  manure. 
(c)   Mixed  mineral  manures. 
{d)  Ammonium  Salts  only. 

TABLE  I. 

Quantity  per  Produce,  Dry-Matter,  Nitrogen  and  Ash  Constituents 
Removed  per  Acre  by  Wheat  Treated  with  Various  Manures. 

(Average  of   20  years.) 


No.  of  Plot. 


Plot  3 — No  manure 

Plot  5 — Mixed  minerah     . . 

Plot  10 — Ammon.  salt^ 

Plot  2 — Farmyard    manure 


Total 

[ 
1 

Drv 

Produce. 

Jiatter. 

Ib^. 

lbs. 

•2,36i 

1,988 

■2,  SOS 

2,360 

4,421 

3,727 

0.064 

5,098 

Ash  Con- 
stituents 
per  acre. 


lbs. 
93-44 
115-71 
145- 11 
246-84 


Nitrogen 
per  acre. 


lbs. 
20  -  3 
24-3 
40  -  0 
51-7 


Nitrogen 

and 
Asli  Con- 
stituents 
expressed 
as  per  cent, 
of  Drv 
Matter. 


5-72 
5-92 
4-96 

5-85 


Balance  of 

dry  matter 

obtained 

from  Air. 


94-28  % 
94- 08  % 
95-04  % 
94- 15   "o 


Of  these  four  plots  the  unmanured  plot  (plot  3)  approximates  more 
•closely  to  the  average  wheat  yield  of  Victoria  than  do  any  of  the  other 
plots,  and  may  therefore  be  studied  in  greater  detail. 

Its  yield  of  grain  (15-2  bush.)  is  commonly  reached  and  exceeded  in 
many  parts  of  the  State,  though  the  average  yield  of  the  State  has  never 
•equalled  it. 

Table  II.  has  been  arranged  to  show  the  following  details. — (i)  total 
yield;  (2)  dry-matter;  (3)  essential  soil  con.stituents,  and  (4)  non-essential 
plant  constituents  removed  by  the  grain  and  by  the  straw  of  a  15.2 
bush.  crop. 


lo  April,    1912.] 


W//eaf   and   its    Cultivalioii. 


203 


TABLE   II. 

Amount  of  Produce.  Dry-Matter.  Essential  and  Xon-essential  Soil 
Constituents  Removed  per  Acre  from  Plot  3  (unmanured). 

Average  of  20  Years"  Results. 


Plot  3. 

Grain. 

Straw. 

Total  Produce. 

Yield 

l,")  "2  bushels 

12  •96  cwt. 

2,364  lbs. 

Dry  Matter 

766  lbs. 

1,222  lbs. 

1.988     ,, 

Essentials — 

1.  Nitrogen 

14-1  lbs. 

6^2  lbs. 

20-c0n:s. 

2.  Phosphoric  Acid 

7-83  .. 

2^4     .. 

10-23     „ 

3.  Potash 

5-22  ,, 

11-92  ., 

1714    „ 

4.  Iron  Uxide  (ferric) 

•10  „ 

•53  „ 

•63    „ 

5.   Lime 

•49  ,. 

3-92  ,, 

4^42     ,, 

6.  Magnesia 

1-64  ,, 

1-18  .. 

2-82     „ 

7.  Siil])huric  Acid 

•22  .. 

2^99  ., 

3-21     „ 

Non-essentials — 

r.  Silica 

•10  .. 

52-98  ., 

53-08     ., 

2.  Soda 

■03  „ 

•20  ,. 

•23     ., 

3.  Chlorine 

•01  „ 

1-64  ,, 

1-65     „ 

Careful  perusal  of  the.se  tables,  representing  the  averages  of  20  years' 
work,  suggests  the  following  remarks  :  — 

(i)  In  a  15.2  bushel  crop  the  ratio'  of  grain  to  straw  is  approximately 
60  :  100 — that  is,  for  every  bushel  of  grain  obtained  there  are  100  lbs.  of 
straw. 

(2)  The  most  important  of  the  essential  ash  constituents  are  concen- 
trated in  different  portions  of  the  wheat  plant,  e.g.,  70  per  cent,  of  the 
nitrogen  and  75  per  cent,  of  the  phosphoric  acid  is  found  in  the  grain, 
whilst  70  per  cent,  of  the  total  potash  is  present  in  the  straw. 

(3)  Between  5  per  cent,  and  6  per  cent,  of  the  total  dry-matter  of  wheat 
is  obtained  from  the  soil,  whilst  no  less  than  94-95  per  cent,  is  obtained 
from  the  atmosphere. 

(4)  A  T5-bushel  crop  of  wheat  removed  from  the  soil  20  lbs.  of  nitrogen, 
10  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  17  lbs.  of  potash. 

(5)  Assuming  that  the  grain  is  carted  oft"  the  farm  and  the  straw  is  used 
for  litter  and  ultimately  returned  to  the  soil,  the  two  main  constituents  taken 
from  the  soil  are  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen,  whilst  the  greater  part  of 
the  potash,  together  wi!h  more  than  half  the  organic  matter  are  returned 
to  the  soil. 

(6)  Assuming,  however,  that  the  straw  is  burnt,  as  is  frequently  done 
in  Victoria,  and  the  whole  of  the  grain  is  sold,  then  1.145  lbs.  of  organic 
matter  of  the  straw  is  converted  into  carbonx  acid  gas,  water,  and  ammonia, 
and  thus  absolutely  lost,  whilst  77^  lbs.  of  ash,  of  which  53  lbs.  represent 
silica,  are  left  behind. 

The  loss  of  organx  matter  is  going  on  fairlv  rapidly  in  the  wheat  areas 
of  the  State,  owing  to  the  continual  oxidation  of  the  organic  matter  of  the 

H    2 


204 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victorid.       [lo  April,    1912. 


soil  consequent  on  fallowing,   and  partly   clue  to  the  continual  practice  of 
stubble  burning. 

In  later  articles  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  the  probable  ultimate 
effect  of  such  losses  and  the  possible  methods  of  counteracting  them. 

(7)  Each  of  the  essential  ash  constituents  mentioned  above,  though 
aggregating  less  than  5  per  cent,  of  the  dry-matter,  are  nevertheless  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  the  life  and  full  development  of  the  plant,  and  it  is 
the  most  deficient  of  these  constituents  which  determines  wiiat  the  harvest 
shall  be. 

(8)  The  four  constituents,  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  and  sulphur  are  con- 
tained in  such  small  quantities  in  the  w'heat  plant  and  in  such  large  quanti- 
ties in  the  soil  that  the  soil  supply  is  ne\'er  likely  tO'  be  depleted  in  these 
ingredients. 

Thus  in  most  cases  the  problem  of  maintaining  soil  fertility,  so  far  as 
it  is  governed  by  purely  chemical  consideration,  ceiitres  round  the  adequacy 
of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  content  of  the  soil. 

Lime  sometimes  becomes  of  great  importance  in  the  maintenance  of  soil 
fertility,  but  the  necessity  for  lime  in  such  cases  invariably  arises  from  a 
faulty  biological  and  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 

(9)  All  these  mineral  substances  can  enter  plants  only  through  the  roots 
and  root  hairs  and  in  the  form  of  a  dilute  mineral  solution. 

We  may  now  turn  from  the  elementary  composition  of  the  wheat  plant 
to  a  consideration  of  its  proximate  constituents,  and  particularly  with  the 
proximate  composition  of  the  kernel  itself. 

The  composition  of  the  kernel  may,  perhaps,  be  best  understood  by 
considering  it  in  relation  to  the  products  obtained  in  the  process  of  milling. 
To  gain  some  information  on  this  point  a  sample  of  Federation  wheat, 
grown  at  the  Parafield  Wheat  Station  (S.A.)  in  19 10,  was  milled  in  the 
Departmental  Flour  Mill,  and  the  original  wheat,  together  with  the  flour, 
bran,  and  pollard  was  analyzed  by  the  Chemist  for  Agriculture  of  this 
Department  (Mr.  P.  R.  Scott).  The  following  table  gives  the  amount 
of  the  proximate  constituents — water,  fat,  carbo-hydrates,  fibre,  protein,  and 
ash  in  the  bran,  flour,  pollard  and  wheat: — ■ 


TABLE   in. 


Constituents. 

Federation 

Federation 

Federation 

Federation 

Wlieat. 

Flour. 

Bran. 

Pollard. 

0/ 
/o 

0/ 
'0 

0/ 

/o 

0/ 

/o 

1.  Moisture 

10-99 

10-48 

9-47 

9-08 

2.  Fat 

2-37 

1-58 

4-42 

4-90 

3.  Carbo-hydrates,  Starcli.  &c'. 

73-54 

78-56 

60-72 

63-03 

4.  Fibre 

]-87 

■30 

7-62 

6-13 

5.  Ash 

1-34 

•63 

4-09 

2  94 

6.  Protein    . . 

9-89 

8-45 

13-68 

13-92 

I.  Water. — It  will  be  noted  that  this  particular  sample  of  Federation 
contains  about  11  per  cent,  of  moisture,  whilst  lesser  quantities  of  this 
ingredient  are    found  in    the  flour,   bran,   and    pollard  prepared    from  it. 


so  April.    191-^.]  W/zi-a/  a//d  its   Cultivation. 


This  discrepancy  is  accounted  for  by  the  evaporation  that  has  taken  place 
in  the  process  of  niilling,  during  which  process  considerable  heat  is 
developed. 

The  percenl:age  of  moisture  present  in  wheat  varies  within  very  vi^ide 
r.mits,  and  it  has  even  been  known  to  fluctuate  considerably  from  day  to 
day  with  variations  in  the  humidity  of  the  air.  The  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  grain  becomes  a  matter  of  considerable  commercial  importance  in 
the  drier  portions  of  ths  Commonwealth,  especially  in  parts  of  South 
Australia  where  at  harvest  time  the  temperatures  are  very  high  and  the 
atmosphere  exceedingly  diy.  Under  such  circumstances,  the  moisture 
content  of  the  ripe  grain  is  very  low.  When  such  gram  is  .stored  for  a 
considerable  time,  or  shipped  to  a  more  humid  climate,  a  considerable 
gain  in  weight  may  result.  For  example,  judging  from  the  evidence 
given  to  the  South  Australian  Royal  Commission  on  the  Marketing  of 
Wheat,  it  would  appear  that  .75  per  cent,  to  3.5  per  cent,  of  the  total 
weight  of  wheat  was  gained  by  merely  storing  the  Avheat  at  the  local 
railway  station  for  six  months. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  conceivable  that  transferred  from  a  moister 
district  the  grain  may  even  lose  in  weight  by  storage,  more  especially  if  it 
were  stored  in  a  district  relatively  drier  than  that  in  which  it  was  produced. 

2.  Fat. — It  will  be  noted  from  the  table  that  the  flour  contains  a 
m.uch  smaller  percentage  of  fat  than  either  bran,  pollard  or  the  grain 
itself.  Small  as  this  percentage  is,  however,  it  is  probably  much  higher 
than  the  amount  found  in  commercial  flour  m.ade  from  the  same  variety 
of  wheat.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that,  in  the  experim.ental  mill  with 
which  this  sample  was  milled,  it  is  rather  difficult  to  get  rid  of  the  whole 
of  the  germ  and  to  keep  it  out  of  the  flour. 

Fat,  of  course,  occupies  a  high  position  as  a  food  stuff,  but  the  amount 
present  in  flour  is  so  .small  as  to  make  it  of  secondary  importance.  The 
fat  of  wheat  is  not  found  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  kernel, 
but  is  almost  wholly  concentrated  in  the  germ  and  in  the  bran. 

It  is  owing  to  the  high  fat-content  of  the  germ  that  it  is  so  necessary 
to  eliminate  it  from  the  flour  in  the  process  of  milling.  The  germ  not 
only  discolours  the  flour,  but  is  also  a  positive  source  of  danger  to  the 
keeping  quality  of  the  product,  inasmuch  as  the  fat  of  the  germ  readily 
develops  rancidity  and  impairs  the  value  of  the  flour. 

3.  Carbo-hydrates. — The  principal  constituents  of  the  carbo-hydrate 
group  are  starch,  dextr'n,  and  sugar,  of  which  starch  is  by  far  the  most 
abundant.  It  forms  from  65  to  70  per  cent,  of  the  wheat  grain,  and 
the  great  bulk  of  the  endosperm  from  which  the  flour  is  ultimately 
derived.  The  amount  of  dextrin  and  sugar  vary  considerably  in  different 
varieties  of  wheat,  but  generally  speaking,  the  amount  is  very  small. 
In  sound  wheat  and  flour  the  sugar  is  usually  cane  sugar.  The  presence 
of  much  maltose,  however,  is  an  indication  of  unsoundness. 

Cellulose,  the  substance  which  makes  up  the  "  skeleton  "  of  vegetable 
organisms,  the  "fibre"  which  holds  the  various  parts  of  the  plant  to- 
gether, belongs  to  this  group,  and  is  found  in  the  kernel  in  three  forms — 

(«)  The  wTodv  fibre,  or  ligaified  cellulose  of  the  bran. 

{6;  Th'^  Darenchymxtous  cellulo-e  formina;  the  partitions  of  the  endosperm. 

(c)  The  delicate  fabric  forming  the  envelope  of  the  starch  colls. 

4.  Jisli. — The  composition  of  the  ash  or  inorganic  portion  of  the 
grain,  the  residue  left  on  igniting  the  crushed  grain,   is  very  interesting. 


?o6 


Journal  of  Agricidiiirc,  Victoria.       [.o  April,    1912. 


The  following  figures  give  the  mean  of  the  results  of  twelve  representative 
samples  of  Victorian  wheat  recently  analysed  in  this  Department  by  the 
Chemist    for   Agriculture  :—  - 

TABLE  IV. 

Composition  of  Ash  of  Twelve  Typical  Vap.ieties  of  Victorian  Wheat. 


Phosphoric  anhydride 

Potash  . . 

Magnesi?., 

Lime 

Soda 

Sulphuric  anhydrile 

Brown  oxile  of  manganes! 

Silica 

Chlorine 

Alumina 

Iron  oxide 


Less  oxygen  =  Chlorme 


(P,0,,)    . 

40-87 

(K.,0) 

29-93 

(MgO) 

14-61 

(CaO) 

3-72 

(Na.O) 

3-24 

(SO3) 

3-02 

(MnjO^ 

1-62 

(SiO,) 

1-51 

(CI) 

•90 

(AU03) 

•58 

(Fe.Og) 

•50 

100  50 

e 

•50 

100-00 


With  regard  to  the  essential  ash  constituents,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
the  relatively  large  amounts  of  phosphcric  acid  and  potash  present,  and 
it  is  not  d  flficult  to  understand  why  manuring  with  superphosphate  has 
produced  such  remarkable  results  during  the  last  decade  on  soil  naturally 
deficient  in  this  constituent.  Whtn  we  realize  that  practically  all  the 
phosphoric  acid  absorbed  bv  a  wheat  crop  is  transferred  to  the  grain  and 
thus  carted  off  the  farm  each  year,  it  is  not  hard  to  understand  the 
necessity  for  continuous  phosphatic  fertilization.  A  comparatively  large 
amount  of  magnesia  is  found  in  the  wheat  ash,  Init  soils  generally  contain 
an  abundance  of  this  constituent. 

Proiein. 

The  nitrogen  us  compounds  of  the  wheat  kernel  have  been  the  subject 
of  much  painstakin.g  research.  In  a  communication  to  the  American 
Chemical  Journal  of  1893,  Osborne  and  Voorhees  pointed  out  that  the 
nitrogenous  compounds  of  wheat  consist  principally  of  proteids,  of  wh'ch 
they   recognised   five. 

\\'igner,  however,  has  since  shown  that  nitrogen,  combined  in  other 
forms  than  prote'd,  is  present  in  the  wheat  kernel,  and  in  quantities  far 
larger  than  has  been  generallv  suppored.  He  shows  that,  Avhile  the  flour 
contains  very  little  ncn  coagulable  nitrogenous  matter,  there  is  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  non-proteid  nitrogen  in  the  bran  or  husk. 

The  principal  prote'd  of  wheat  is  glu'en,  which,  however,  really  con- 
s'sts  of  gliadin  and  gJntcnin.  If  a  small  quantity  of  flour  be  mixed  with 
waler  so  as  to  make  a  dough,  and  this  dough  be  kneaded  out  under  a 
gently  flowing  stream  of  wa'er,  the  starch  and  other  non-gluten  compounds 
are  gradually  washed  away,  and  a  sticky  elastic  mass  of  gluten  is  left 
behhid.  This  gluten  is  composed  of  two  proteids,  viz..  gliadin,  which  is 
soluble  in  dilute  solutions  of  alcohol,  but  is  insoluble  in  neutral  aqueous 
solutions,  and  glutenin,  which  is  insoluble  iii  alcoholic  solutions.  Gliadin 
may,   therefore,   be  separated   from  glutenin  by   digesting  the  gluten   with 


lo  April,    1912.] 


11 '//<■(?/   and   its   Cultivation. 


a  70  per  cent,  solution  of  alcoh  il.  If  thi.s  ."-olution  be  filtered  and  care- 
fu  Iv"  evaporated,  the  gliadin  may  be  obtained  in  tran.sparent  laminae. 
Ths  gliadin  forms  with  water  a  sticky  medium,  and  it  helps  to  bind  the 
particles  of  flour  toge:her,   making  the  di^ugh   tough  and  cohen?nt. 

The  glu'enin  imparts  solidity  to  the  gluten  and  evidently  forms  a 
nucleus  to  which  the  gliadin  adheres.  It  is  distinguished  from  gliadin 
-by  being  nr.n-adhesive  and  ncn-plastic,  and  by  the  fact  that  it  is  in- 
.'oluble  in  dilute  alcohol.  These  two  proteids  together  constitute  the 
gluten  of  wheaten  flour,  and  it  is  owing  to  the  presence  of  this  gluten  that 
it  becorr.es  possible  to  make  a  porous  bread  from  flour.  The  carbonic 
acid  gas  evolved  during  the  fermentative  action  of  the  yea.st  becomes  im- 
prisoned in  the  gluten,  and  the  expansion  of  this  gas  during  leavening 
and  baking  causes  the  bread  to  "  rise  "  and  become  light  and  porous. 
The  gliadin  and  glutenin  together  amount  to  80-90  per  cent,  of  the  total 
prjteids  of  the  wheat  kernel. 

It  i.s  founil  that  the  amount  of  gliadin  compared  v'lth  glutenin  varies 
very  considerably  in  d  fferent  wheats,  and,  on  this  account,  it  was  for- 
merlv  suggested  that  what  is  known  as  strength  in  wheat  was  dependent 
on  the  gliadin-glutenin  ratio.  Subs?quent  investigations,  however,  have 
failed  to  estab'ish  any  relation  between  the  strength  and  the  gliadin- 
glutenin  ratio. 

It  may  1  e  mentioned  that  the  gliadin-glutenin  ratio  of  four  different 
samples  of  Federation  wheat  from  the  Parafield  Wheat  Station  in  1909 
was  found  by  the  writer  to  be  42  :  58.  The  gliadin-glutenin  ratio  in 
these  samples  was  not  connected  by  any  definite  relation  to  the  strength 
-or  other  physical  properties  of  the  flour.  This  may  be  seen  from  Table 
v.*  The  four  samples  of  wheat  referred  to  were  all  samples  of  Federa- 
tion. Grade  I.  consisted  of  fine  plump  grain  weighing  68J  lbs.  y.ex 
bushel,  obtained  by  sieving  a  parcel  of  wheat  with  a  mesh  of  .275  cm. 
Grade  II.  we"ghed  67!  lbs.  per  bushel,  and  was  composed  of  grains 
passing  through  a  .25  cm.  sieve,  but  retained  by  a  .225  cm.  mesh. 
Grade  III.  weighed  63  lbs.  per  bushel  and  was  obtained  with  a  .2  cm. 
sieve,  wh'lst  ihe  lowest  grade  was  hand-picked  from  shrivelled  grain  which 
passed  through  the  .2   cm.   sieve. 

Taf)le  V.  summarizes  the  densitv.  volume,  and  milling  products  of  each 
grade  of  wheat  and  the  gliadin-glutenin  ratio  and  strength  of  the  resultant 
flours. 

TABLE  V. 


Percentage  of 

1        Gluten 

1 

^0 

£3  0 
•^0 

Milling  Products. 

Content. 

03 

5  <; 
5  0. 

a. 

IP 

5  c. 

X 

Grade. 

1 
'•^           ^           '" 

Wet  Gluten. 
Dry  Gluten. 

12 

I. 

lbs. 
08 -25 

grams. 
4-899 

arams. 
•489 

c.c.m. 
0369 

%          %          % 
77  4      11-7      10-9 

0/          0/ 

/o       1        /o 

•25-91   1  9-24 

2-71 

% 
42-51 

0/ 

i7  49 

49-0 

11. 

r.7-75 

4  048 

-405 

-0299 

74  4      12  5      13-1 

23-86  1  8-25 

2-89 

441 

j5-9 

48  3 

III.       .. 

H3-1 

2-687 

-268 

-0188 

69-1       15-3      15-6 

22-77  '   7-92 

2-87 

42  93 

i7-07 

48-1 

IV. 

55  2 

1-481 

•148 

■0124 

58-2      14-0   '   27-8 

26-7     ;   9-4 

2 -83 

42-44 

57-56 

46  5 

Vide  "  Milling  Qualities  of  High  and  Low-grade  Wheats"  by  A.  E.  V.  Richardson. 
S.A.  Djpartm^nt  of  Agriculture. 


Bulletin   Xo    61. 


Journal   of   Agriculture,   Viciona.       [:o  April,    1912. 


Besides  the  two  proteins  already  described,  namely,  gliadin  and. 
glutenin,  three  others  have  been  isolated  and  described.       These  are — 

(i)  Leucosin. — A  protein  soluble  in  water,  coagulating  at  50-60  degrees, 
and  similar  to  albumin. 

(2)  Globulin. — A  protein  soluble  in  a  dilute  salt  solution  and  coagulated 
by  heat. 

(3)  Proteose,  which  is  soluble  in  water  and  not  coagulated  by  heat. 

It  will  be  necessary  at  a  later  stage,  when  reviewing  the  milling 
qualities  of  various  wheats,  the  effect  of  environment  on  the  composition 
and  properties  of  the  kernel,  the  f;tctors  underlying  strength  in  wheat  and 
flour,  and  in  discussing  the  possibility  of  improving  the  quality  of  our 
wheats,  to  consider  in  greater  detail  the  elementary  notions  outlined  above 

{To  be  continued}) 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  TREES. 

{C oniinued  from  page  173.) 
C.  F .  Cole,  Orchard  Supervisor. 

Lifting. 

When  lifting  young  trees  from,  the  nur.sery  rows  for  sale  or  planting 
out  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  branches  are  not  broken  ox 
injured,  also  that  the  roots  are  not  mutilated.  If  a  branch  upon  a  tree 
carrying  well  balanced  head  growths  is  broken  it  will  probably  give  diffi- 
culty when  pruning  to  reform  such  head  conditions,  particularly  if  the 
tree  be  carrying  only  two  or  three  branch  growths  and  has  no  suitable 
buds  upon  the  stem  to  head  back  to.  The  method  of  removing  the  soil 
to  enable  the  trees  to  be  lifted  will  be  controlled  bv  the  class  of  soil,  the 
roots,  and  the  kind  of  tree  to  be  lifted.  Very  often,  in  light  or  sandy 
soils,  and  after  a  heavy  rain,  all  that  is  necessary,  with  kinds  that  are 
chiefly  surface-rooting,  is  to  force  the  spade  well  down  upon  each  side  or 
around  the  trees  to  be  removed,  keeping  the  spade  a  suitable  distance 
off  so  that  the  roots  will  not  be  cut  or  injured  close  to  the  butts.  Then 
by  taking  hold  of  the  tree  by  the  butt,  below  the  bud  mark,  with  one  hand 
gently  pulling  whilst  forcing  the  spade  upwards  beneath  the  tree  with  thf 
other,  it  will  be  removed  without  injury.  In  heavy,  deep  rooting,  or 
soils  having  a  stiff  clay  sub- soil,  it  will  be  necessary  to  open  out  well 
upon  each  side,  keeping  well  away  from  the  butts.  When  doing  this  the 
spade  should  be  used  side  on  to  the  trees,  the  opening  being  parallel  with 
the  row.  After  removing  the  soil  the  required  depth  upon  either  side 
the  spade  may  be  used  flat  on,  so  that  the  operator  may  be  enabled  to 
get  well  beneath  to  cut  any  small  tap  roots.  If  two  persons  are  working 
together  one  should  take  hold  of  the  tree  by  the  butt  whilst  the  other 
forces  the  spade  well  beneath,  using  it  as  a  lever  by  pressing  the  handle 
upwards  towards  the  trees  at  the  same  time  that  the  other  person  is  pulling. 
The  handle  should  not  be  pressed  downwards  or  away  from  the  trees  j  by 
so  doing  there  is  a  risk  that  the  blade,  when  forced  upwards,  will  scrape 
the  bark  upon  the  roots,    or  else  break   them   close  to  their  basal   parts. 


■lo  April,    1Q12.]  Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees.  209 

When  the  tree  has  been  lifted  the  soil  should  be  shaken  from  the  roots  by 
giving  the  butt  a  few  sharp  clouts  with  the  palm  of  the  hand.  Tne 
practice  of  tapping  the  butts  against  something  hard  is  faulty  in  that 
it  involves  great  risk  of  causing  injury  to  the  bark  or  cambium.  Deci- 
duou.s  trees  carrying  foliage  at  the  begmning  of  the  liftmg  season  shoukl 
have  the  foliage  removed  as  soon  as  they  are  lifted.  The  operation  of 
removing  the  leaves  from  most  kinds  is  easily  performed  by  drawing  the 
i\and  down  the  growths  towards  the  crown,  upwards  with  others.  It  is 
a  matter  of  choice  whether  the  leaves  are  removed  before  or  after  lifting, 
Lut  if  the  leaves  are  not  removed  the  trees  will  wilt  to  some  extent. 

When  evergreen  trees,  such  as  the  loquat,  are  destined  for  a  long 
journev  it  will  be  found  beneficial  to  remove  the  foliage,  and  any  tender 
or  immature  growths,  by  using  a  sharp  knife.  This  applies  also  to  the 
citrus  family   with  regard  to  tender  and  immature  growths. 

Apple  trees,  if  a  portion  of  the  roots  are  required  for  root-grafting, 
should  be  opened  out  well  in  order  that  all  the  length  of  root  possible  be 
obtained.  The  pieces  of  roots  cut  off  should  be  healed  in  and  not  allowed 
to  get  dry  before  being  grafted.  When  trees  having  brittle  roots,  like 
the  apricot,  cherry,  &c.,  are  being  lifted  care  must  be  exercised  in  pulling 
because  of  the  risk  of  breakage.  Yearling  loquats  worked  upon  the  quince 
stock  should  be  handled  with  care  when  being  lifted  from  the  soil,  tied 
together,  or  packed,  as  they  ate  very  liable  to  break  away  at  the  union  with 
the  stock.  As  soon  as  the  trees  have  been  lifted  all  those  belonging  to 
the  one  variety  should  be  tied  together  and  labelled,  the  name  being  written 
distinctly  upon  a  waterproof  tag,  such  tag  to  be  affixed  to  a  portion 
of  the  tree  where  there  is  least  likelihood  of  its  detachment.  Lifted 
trees  should  be  healed  in  if  not  required  for  early  despatch  or 
planting-out.  Deciduous  trees  will  receive  no  hurt  for  a  day  or  two 
if  packed  in  a  sheltered  position,  the  roots  being  kept  well  watered  and 
covered  with  sacks  or  some  such  suitable  material.  Evergreen  trees 
should  not  be  allowed  to  lie  about ;  they  should  not  be  lifted  until  re- 
quired,  and  packing  should  proceed  as  .soon  as  possible  if  for  transit. 

Packing. 

The  manner  in  which  trees  should  be  packed  for  transit  will  be  deter- 
mined chiefly  by  the  distance,  the  time  occupied  in  reaching  their  destina- 
tion, and  the  botanical  order  to  which  they  belong.  Evergreen 
require  rather  more  care  than  deciduous  trees.  The  chief  factor  in 
packing  is  to  keep  the  roots  moist  and  cool,  care  being  exercised  in  seeing 
that  no  material  is  used  that  will  develop  heat  when  damped  and  kept 
^way  from  the  air.  When  deciduous  trees  are  being  packed  for  a  short 
journey,  straw,  grass  hay,  rushes,  or  some  similar  suitable  material  may 
be  used  for  the  outside  covering.  No  obnoxious  grasses  or  weeds  should 
be  used  as  that  would  be  the  means  of  disseminating  the  seeds  of  such 
plant  pests.  Some  partly  decayed  straw  or  grass  hay  well  damped, 
should  be  packed  about  the  roots.  To  secure  this  class  of  packing  for 
the  roots  the  straw  or  grass  should  be  placed  in  a  heap,  kept  covered  and 
well  watered  some  short  while  before  using.  The  straw  or  grass  will 
thus  become  partly  decayed  by  the  time  it  is  required,  and  if  damped 
well  before  using  it  will  keep  moist  about  the  roots  for  some  weeks  with 
no  fear  of  heating.  When  straw  or  rush  is  used  for  packing  the  opera- 
tor should  place  upon  the  ground,    about    i    foot  apart,    and   parallel   to 


2IO  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.       [\o  April,    1912. 

one  another,  8  to  10  strands  of  hay  lashing  (rope),  first  tying  a  loop  upon 
one  end  of  each  of  the  strands.  Then  the  straw  or  rush  is  laid  upon 
the  strands,  beginning  from  the  centre  of  the  ropes  and  kept  as  nearly  as 
possible  all  one  way  ;  the  width  is  to  be  judged  by  the  quantity  of  trees- 
to  be  packed.  If  the  bundle  is  to  be  bottle-shaped,  i.e.,  a  bundle  in' 
which  the  roots  of  the  trees  are  placed  all  at  one  end,  about  18  inches 
of  the  material  used  should  overlap  the  last  strand  of  rope  at  the  bottom, 
or  root  end,  of  it,  and  the  bedding  should  be  laid  wider  at  the  bottom, 
and  tapering  off  to  the  top.  If  a  double  end  bundle  is  required,  that  is 
O'ue  having  the  roots  of  the  trees  placed  at  each  end,  the  packing  material: 
should  overlap  at  both  ends,  and  its  length  will  be  determined  by  the 
growth  of  the  trees.  The  ropes  and  packing  material  having  been  placed 
in  position,  a  light  covering  of  the  damp  root  material  is  to  be  spread 
upon  the  bedding  at  the  end,  or  ends,  where  the  roots  are  to  lie.  Then 
a  strand  of  rope  is  laid  across  the  top  of  the  bedding  parallel  to,  and  over, 
the  second  rope  from  the  bottom  ;  also  one  near  the  top  of  the  bundle. 
If  all  the  trees  to  be  packed  in  the  bundle  are  of  the  one  variety  there 
is  no  necessity  to  tie  them  up  into  small  lots,  and  each  lot  labelled  sepa- 
rately, but  they  may  be  allowed  to  lie  loosely,  and  only  the 
one  tag  affixed.  The  trees  are  laid  upon  the  bedding,  the 
roots  of  the  first  layer  or  two  placed  over  and  midway  between 
the  two  last  strands  of  rope  at  the  basal  end,  and  the  first  layer 
of  trees  having  been  placed  in  position  the  damp  root  material  is  packed' 
well  amongst  the  roots.  This  process  is  continued  until  all  the  trees  are 
placed  in  position.  It  is  not  necessary  to  place  all  the  roots  of  the  trees 
directly  upon  one  another  j  a  certain  quantity  of  them  may  be  worked 
forward  toward  the  head  growths,  care  being  observed  that  the  roots 
receive  attention  in  regard  to  damp  material  with  a  little  of  the  dry 
packing  worked  in  amongst  the  head  growths  to  prevent  them  from 
breaking.  The  ends  of  the  two  strands  that  were  placed  upon  the  top  Cif 
the  bedding  should  now  be  passed  through  the  loops,  drawn  taut,  and 
tied  off.  A  covering  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  trees,  equal  in 
length  to  the  bottom  bedding  and  overlapping  the  material  at  the  root 
end.  Each  strand  is  to  be  taken  separately,  one  end  passed  through  the 
loop,  drawn  fairly  taut  and  half-hitched  off.  All  the  strands  having  been 
fixed  each  rope  in  turn  is  to  be  undone  and  drawn  tight,  slacking  tO'  be 
prevented  bv  tying  off  with  two  half-hitch  knots.  The  bottom  of  the 
bundle  must  now  receive  attention  ;  the  roots  are  to  be  covered  with  moist 
material  and  a  piece  of  rope  tied  to  the  second  last  strand,  hitched  to  the 
last,  and  enough  length  of  rope  left  to  insure  that  where  a  loop  is  tied 
it  will  reach  to  the  centre  of  the  bottom  of  the  bundle.  Half  of  the- 
overlapping  material  is  to  be  folded  well  in,  the  loop  end  of  the  short 
rope  drawn  down,  and  a  short  stick  placed  through  the  loop  ;  press  care- 
fully into  the  bundle  in  order  to  keep  the  folded-in  material  in  position 
whilst  turning  the  bundle  over.  This  done,  take  a  strand  of  rope  and 
begin  strapping  half-way  along,  working  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
bundle  and  hitching  off  at  the  last  strand.  Finish  folding  in  the  other 
half  of  the  overlapping  material,  withdraw  the  stick,  pass  the  end  of  the- 
rope  through  the  loop,  draw  taut,  and  hitch  off  :  quarter  off  the  bundle 
by  strapping  in  the  same  manner ;  cut  away  anv  superfluous  ends  ot 
rope  and  the  bundle  is  finished.  To-  guard  against  breakage  care  must  be- 
ex<ircised  when  the  ropes  are  being  drawn  taut  over  the  basal  portion  of 
the  branched  growths.      When  fruit  trees  are  being  packed,   those  having: 


lo   April,    19 12.]  Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees.  211 

brittle  or  projecting  roots  should  always  be  placed  in  the  centre,  and  these 
having  fibrous  roots  upon  the  outside.     \Vhen  the  branch  growths  of  trees 
are  being  tied  together  preparatory  to  inclusion  in  a  bundle  straw  should 
be  carefully  and  liberally  used  to  prevent  breakage,   particularly  two-year- 
old  pruned  trees,  or  one-year-old  branched  pruned.      When  a  double-ended 
bundle  is  being  packed  it  is  treated  in  practically  the  same  manner  as  the 
bottom  of  a  single  or  bottle-shaped  one.     A  piece  of  hessian  or  bagging 
strapjDed  around  the  root  end  of  the    bundle    will    help    to    conserve    the 
moisture   for   a    longer   period.        Deciduous   trees    so   packed,    will   carry 
safely  over  a  seven  to  ten  days'"  journey  in  the  winter  months.     To  water 
the  root  end  of  the  bundles  when  packed  is  an  advantage;  the  roots  must 
always  be  well  watered  before  packing  takes  place.     The  number  of  trees 
and   the  name  of  the  variety   should   be  written  on   a   tag,   and   the  tag 
attached  to  that  particular  parcel  before  its  inclusion  in  the  bundle.     Ever- 
green trees,  such  as  citrus  and  loquats,  if  the  roots  are  packed  first  in  partly- 
decayed   straw   or   grass   hay,    then   in   bagging,    and   finally,    in   straw   or 
rush,  will  carrv  v^^ithout  hurt  upon  a  short  journey,  but  the  better  method 
is  to  pack  them  in  cases  standing  the  trees  upright  and  covering  the  top 
with  hessian.     This  is  done  by  nailing  two  pieces  of  wood  upright  about 
3  in  X  ^  in.,   the  height  being  controlled  by  the  growth  of  the  trees  to 
be  packed ;  nail  these  uprights  in  the  centre,  one  at  each  end  of  the  case, 
upon  the  outside.     Then  nail  a  crosspiece  to  the  top  of  the  uprights  (if 
the  case  is  a  large  one  it  will  be  necessary  to  duplicate  the  uprights  and 
crosspiece) ;   bore  two  holes   at  each  end  of  the  case,   horizontal  to  each 
other,   and  about   7   in.   apart ;  take  a  short  piece  of  stout  rope,   pass  the 
ends  through  from  the  outer  side,  tie  a  knot  at  each  end  and  nail  it  dawn 
to  the  inside  of  the  case.      The  rope  should   be  long  enough   that  when 
this  operation  is  finished  the  case  will  have  two  crude  handles  for  lifting 
purposes.     Before  the  trees  are  packed  in  the  box  all  bruised  or  injun^d 
roots  should  be  cut  away.     Then,  using  fresh  water,  puddle  clay,  until  it 
is  the  onsistencv  of  cream,   dab  the  roots  well  into  it,   and  having  done 
this,    pack   the  trees   closely   together   in  the  case  in   an   upright   position, 
iilling  in  amongst  the  roots  with  wet  sawdust.     Shake  down  the  sawdust 
well  to  ensure  that  the  roots  are  sufficiently  covered  ;  lightly  water  to  settle 
the  sawdust.     Finally,  draw  the  tops  of  the  branches  together,   if  neces- 
sary,  with  a  piece  of  twine  and  provide  a  covering  of  hessian,   tacked   to 
the  uprights,  cross  piece,  sides  and  ends  of  the  case.     If  the  package  is  to 
be  forwarded  by  steam-boat  it  should  be  clearly  labelled  by  stencilling: — • 
"  Keep  from  heat  of  engines."     Deciduous  trees  destined  for  a  long  sea 
voyage  should  be  packed  in  cases  ;  the  roots  first  puddled  in  clay  and  then 
packed  around  with  .some  suitable  material  that  will  hold  the  moisture  and 
not  generate  heat.      Sphagnum  moss  is   preferable.      The  trees   should   be 
laid  lengthwise  in  the  case ;  those  well  matured  and  not  overgrown  should 
be  selected  for  long  journeys.     Trees  properly  packed  will  carry  in  good 
condition  from  any  of  the  Australian  States  to  South  Africa  and   South 
Am.erica.     A  limited  number  of  trees  is  being  exported  annually  to  those 
•countries  from  Victoria. 

{To  be  c  on  tinned.) 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.       [lo  April,    1912.. 


THE  OLIVE. 

{Continued   from   page    198.) 
By   L.    Macdonald,   Horticulturist,   Dookie   Agricultural   College. 

Pruning. 

Compared  with  the  advances  that  have  been  made  in  the  treatment  of 
many  other  of  our  fruit  trees  very  little  has  been  done,  as  yet,  towards  the 
scientific  pruning  of  the  olive.  This  fact  is  more  remarkable  when  it  is- 
considered  that  the  olive  has  held  such  a  proud  position  in  the  economic 
field  for  so  many  centuries  and  is  destined,  no  doubt,  to  bear  its  great  repu- 
tation for  ages  yet  to  come. 

It  is  due  probably  to  the  longevity  and  hardihood  of  the  trees,  which 
have  proved  themselves  capable  of  bearing  good  crops  for  years  without 
pruning.  Hence  it  is  often  contended  that  pruning  is  unnecessary.  How- 
ever this  may  be  under  some  circumstances,  it  is  obvious,  nevertheless, 
that  careful  and  scientific  pruning  must  contribute  largely  towards  the  ulti- 
mate success  of  olive  culture. 

True,  in  some  places  pruning  is  performed  periodically,  but  in  such 
a  crude  manner  that  it  is  almost  unworthy  of  the  name.  The 
methods  referred  to  consist  of  thinning  out  some  of  the  large  branches  of 
the  trees  at  long  intervals  of  time  or  promiscuously  cutting  out  the  branches 
from  the  centre  of  the  tree.  Such  methods  are  not  based  on  the  lines  on 
which  proper  treatment  should  rest,  and  must  inevitably  fail  to  bring 
about  the  desired  end.  Sunscalding  frequently  takes  place  in  the  exposed 
portions  of  the  remaining  limbs  and  permanent  injury  is  thereby  caused. 

It  will  be  found  that  after  reaching  a  full  fruit  bearing  age,  the  olive, 
like  many  other  trees,  when  left  to  itself  has  a  strong  tendency  to  alternate 
between  the  production  of  heavy  crops  and  light  crops  during  a  series  of 
years.  The  wanton  prolificacy  of  the  good  years  carries  almost  as  many 
disadvantages  as  the  barrenness  of  the  lean  years,  for  many  reasons  that 
are  obvious.  Therefore  it  is  to  pruning  that  we  must  look  to  modify 
these  wayward  tendencies  and  maintain  uniformity  and  economy  in  crop- 
ping both  advantageous  to  the  grower  and  to  the  tree.  Furthermore, 
where  diseases  are  prevalent  pruning  will  facilitate  their  successful  treat- 
ment. 

It  is  first  of  all  essential  that  the  pruner  understands  the  nature  of  the 
fruiting  wood,  and  habit  of  the  tree's  growth,  before  he  can  make  any  in- 
telligent progress  in  carrying  out  the  work.  It  is  often  stated  that  the 
olive  bears  its  fruit  on  two-year-old  wood.  As  this  is  a  matter  that  vitally 
affects  any  theory  in  regard  to  treatment,  it  would  be  well,  at  the  outset, 
to  examine  it  closely,  so  that  the  beginner  may  understand  exactly  how 
far  it  is  true.  It  will  depend  greatly  on  the  time  of  the  year  at  which  the 
wood  is  examined,  to  define  what  is  m.eant  when  speaking  of  its  age.  If  the 
laterals  are  taken  when  the  fruit  is  on  the  tree  they  will  be  found  to  be 
carrying  the  bulk  of  their  fruit  on  the  previous  season's  growth  and  may  at 
that  time  be  spoken  of  as  two-years-old  or  in  their  second  season's  growth. 

However,  it  is  only  to  be  expected  that  any  classification  of  the  wood 
designed  to  assist  the  beginner  must  be  made  to  suit  the  wood  at  pruning 
time,  that  is  in  the  winter  after  the  crop  is  off  and  before  the  spring  growth, 
sets  in;  not  when  the  fruit  is  on  the  tree;  otherwise,  a  great  many  compli- 
cations might  occur.  Hence,  we  find  that,  like  other  drupaceous  fruits,  e.g., 
plum,  peach,  and  apricot,  the  olive  bears  its  fruit  chiefly  on  the  previous 


io  April,    1912.] 


T/n-    Olhr. 


213 


season's  growth.  It  differs,  however,  in  this,  that,  although  the  bulk  of 
the  crop  is  borne  on  last  season's  growth,  it  also  Ijears  on  the  wood  made 
the  previous  season  and  also  on  the  current  season's  growth.     So  that  fru't 


*\fM 


^ 


U> 


14.     DIFFERENT    TYPES    OF    LATERALS,     SHOWING    FRUITING    HABIT. 

will    sometimes    be    found    growing    on    three    separate    seasons'    growth. 
Although  this  takes  place  at  times,  the  quantity  of  fruit  Ix^rne  on  cth°r  than 


15.  DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  LATERALS  IN  BLOOM. 

the   previous   season's   growth   is   so  unimportant    that    it    should    not    be 
reckoned  with  in  the  pruning  of  the  tree. 

At  this  point,   perhaps,   the  different  types  of  fruiting  laterals  in  No. 
14  might  be  examined.     These  will  indicate,   to  some  extent,   the  manner 


214 


Jour}ial  of  Agriculture,  Vicloria.       [lo  April,    1912. 


in  which  those  laterals  that  are  classed  as  one-year-old  at  pruning  bear 
their  fruit  and  also  suggest  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  handling  them 
for  fruit  production. 

Fig.  B.  in  No.  14  shows  a  good  type  of  fruiting  lateral.  It  will  be 
observed  that  this  lateral  is  fruiting  right  to  its  terminal  point.  It  will  be 
of  no  value  for  fruit  production  during  the  following  season  owing  to  no 
fresh  growth  being  made.  If  allowed  to  remain  on  the  tree  it  may  e\-en- 
tually  break  into  fresh  growth  and  subsequently  bear  fruit.  However,  in 
a  well-regulated  tree  the  object  is  to  remove  such  shoots  after  they  have 
fruited  well,  and  encourage  fresh  ones  from  year  to  year. 

Fig.  C.  in  the  same  plate  shows  two  vigorous  laterals  carrying  a  good 
supply  of  fruit.  This  type,  and  that  shown  at  B.,  are  best  for  fruit 
production  on  the  olive.  They,  with  all  the  other  laterals  depicted  in  this 
plate  except  E.,  are  in  their  second  season's  growth,  or  are  what  would  be 
one-veir  (or  season)-old  at  pruning.     The  arrows  at  H  indicate  the  terminal 


BRANCH    SHOWING    DETERIORATED    LATERALS. 


point  of  the  previous  season's  extension.  Further  growth  is  being  made, 
which  may  fruit  in  the  ensuing  season. 

Fig.  D.  is  an  example  of  a  lateral,  bearing  fruit  both  on  the  previous 
season's  growth,  which  terminates  at  /,  and  on  the  current  season's  growth, 
which  is  indicated  at  /'. 

The  next  lateral  on  the  same  plate,  indicated  at  E.,  is  from  the  Poly- 
morpha  variety.  It  is  in  its  third  year's  growth.  The  fruits  borne  on  the 
old  wood  at  k  have  sprung  from  what  might  be  termed  adventitious  buds. 
This  frequently  takes  place;  more  especially  on  som.e  varieties,  as  Uvaria 
or  Polym.orpha,  that  are  in  a  vigorous  state  of  growth.  The  letter  /  indi- 
cates the  terminal  point  of  the  first  season's  growth,  while  ;«  is  the 
terminal  of  the  second  season's  growth.  Fruit  alone  has  been  pi'oduced  in 
its  third  season,  no  further  extension  of  wood  growth  being  made.  Al- 
though this  type  is  of  some  value  for  fruiting  it  is  by  no  means  amongst 
the  best  of  the  olive  laterals. 


lo  April,    19 12.]  Tlte   Olive.  215 

Two  different  types  are  again  illustrated  at  F  and  G.  The  former  are 
from  Conditiver  and  show  the  solitary,  terminal  fruiting  habit  of  this 
variety.  The  latter  are  from  Nigerrima  and  show  the  clustering  at  the 
terminal  jooint  that  often  occurs  on  this  and  other  varieties.  The  branches 
of  fruit  at  A  are  from  the  Uvaria  variety. 

Before  stopping  to  review  the  various  types  of  wood  depicted  on  No. 
14,  it  would,  perhaps,  be  better  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  various  types 
shown  on  No.  15.  They  represent  four  of  the  most  characteristic  laterals 
found  on  well-cared-for  trees. 

Fig.  A  is  a  branching  lateral  in  its  third  season's  growth.  A  couple 
of  lea\es  may  be  noticed  still  growing  on  that  portion  that  is  indicated  at 
e,  which  is  the  extent  of  the  first  year's  growth.  Wliere  those  leaves  re- 
main on  wood  of  this  age,  it  often  happens  that  fruit  is  born  from  buds 
that  break  out  at  their  axils,  as  was  shown  at  Fig.  E.  on  No.  14.  The 
fruit  buds  may  be  observed  at  /  springing  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 
This  is  on  the  second  season's  growth,  which  terminates  at  g.  A  further 
extension  is  being  made  at  //  during  the  third  season. 

The  three  remaining  types  shown  in  this  plate  belong  to  what  are 
known  as  one-year  (or  season)-old  laterals  at  pruning.  They  were  photo- 
graphed at  the  beginning  of  their  second  season's  growth,  in  whxh  they 
subsequently  develop  fruit.  A  very  free  development  of  fruit  buds  may  be 
noticed  practically  the  whole  length  of  those  at  B  and  C.  The  difference 
occurs  only  at  the  terminal  point.  On  those  shown  at  B  a  further  extension 
is  being  made  at  i,  while  at  j,  in  the  other  pair,  the  terminal  point  has 
ceased  to  make  any  further  wood  extension  and  has  developed  only  flower 
buds.  This  terminal  fruiting  habit  is  most  apparent  in  those  shoots  that 
have  a  downward  or  drooping  tendency  and  are  not  likely  to  recontinue  in 
active  growth.  Those  shown  at  D  are  what  are  commonly  known  as  barren 
laterals.  The  terminal  point  of  the  first  season's  growth  is  indicated  at 
K,  while  a  further  fresh  extension  is  being  made.  These  laterals  often 
serve  a  useful  purpose  by  sheltering  the  more  permanent  parts  of  the  tree, 
besides  sometimes  developing  fruit  in  their  third  or  fourth  season's 
growth. 

After  a  careful  examination  of  the  types  of  wood  illustrated  in  Nos. 
14  and  15  it  is  manifest  that  the  olive  is  essentially  a  "  lateral-bearing" 
tree.  That  is,  it  produces  its  fruit  chiefiy  on  comparatively  long  slender 
growths  that  extend  from  year  to  year  from  the  more  permanent  parts  of 
the  tree;  also,  that  the  great  bulk  of  the  fruiting  wood  is  of  last  season's 
growth.  The  best  class  of  this  fruit  bearing  wood  is  represented  by  those 
types  depicted  at  Figs.  B  and  C  in  No.  14  and  at  B  and  C  in  No.  15. 
In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  once  these  laterals  fruit,  their  decline  sets 
in.  This  tendency  is  more  marked  in  those  that  have  assumed  a  drooping 
or  downward  tendency.  Hence,  one  of  the  most  important  objects  in  the 
treatment  of  established  trees  is  the  encouragement  from  year  to  year  of  a 
good  supply  of  these  fresh  laterals  for  fruiting  in  the  following  season. 

If  the  trees  are  left  to  themselves  the  laterals  extend  very  slowly 
owing  to  the  crowding  that  usually  results  and  the  deterioration  that  takes 
place  in  the  wood.  The  fruit  is  then  borne  on  the  few  inches  of  growth 
that  is  made  at  the  terminal  points  and  chiefly  on  the  outside  of  the  tree. 
The  branch  shown  on  No.  16  gives  a  fair  indication  of  what  happens 
where  the  vigour  is  diminished  and  continual  subdivisions  take  place.  It 
is  plain  that  any  fruit  borne  on  the  terminals  of  these  many  deteriorated 
laterals  will  be  inferior  in  quality  and  more  difficult  to  gather  than  that 
which  is  produced  on  the  strong-growing  ones. 


2l6 


Journal   of   Agriculture,  Victoria.       [lo  April,    1912, 


The  crowns  of  the  young  trees 
should  be  formed  about  18  inches 
from  the  ground  and  a  good  set  of 
main  arms  encouraged.  The  stan- 
dard system  of  training  the  trees 
is  adopted  in  some  places.  This 
consists  of  training  the  tree  to  a 
single  stem  for  about  5  feet  from 
the  ground  and  then  allowing  the 
head  to  assume  a  globular  form. 
The  gooseberry  bush  method  of 
training  several  trunks  from  the 
ground  is  also  adopted,  but  neither 
of  these  methods  is  recommended 
here. 

The  writer  favours  the  establish- 
ment of  a  low  crown  and  the  main- 
tenance of  a  modified  vase  form  ; 
that  is,  more  branches  are  retained 
than  is  usual  with  some  of  our  other 
fruit  trees.  Care  should  be  taken, 
however,  that  ample  space  is  af- 
forded for  the  free  development 
of  laterals  on  all  the  main 
branches,  as  the  wood  will  not 
mature  when  crowding  takes  place 
17.   BRANCH  UNPRUNED.  '''"^    the    best    results    cannot    be 

mamtained.  For  the  fir-t  three 
or  four  years  after  planting  the  main  object  in  pruning  should  be  the 
establishment  of  a  good  frame-work  and  the  maintenance  of  good  growth 
in  the  tree. 

The  trees  should  be  kept  well  in  hand  and  fruiting  wood  encouraged 
right  from  the  base  upwards.  It  will  be  necessary,  as  stated  before,  that 
provision  be  made   for  the  re-  •  '^  ^    . 


newal  of  the  supply  of  fruiting 
wood  from  year  to  year.  This 
is  best  done  by  maintaining  a 
reserve  of  strength  in  the  tree, 
by  cutting  back  and  thinning 
out.  Thus  more  general  growth 
throughout  the  tree  is  encour- 
aged each  season,  and  the  possi- 
bility of  it  spending  its  strength 
in  any  one  season  by  excessive 
cropping  and  being  unable  to 
produce  sufficient  wood  for  a 
crop  in  the  following  season  is 
minimized. 

Owing  to  the  pliable  nature 
of  the  wood  the  direction  and 
rigidity  of  the  main  limbs 
should  be  carefully  maintained  ; 
otherwise     a     pronounced     ten- 


(Ui^ 


BRANCH  AS  IN  NO.  1 7  PRUNED 
SHOWING  THINNING  OF  LATERALS 
AND    CUTTING    BACK    OF    LEADER. 


to  April,    1912.] 


Farm   Black%miih'ni e. 


217 


dency  to  spread  will  be  observed  where  heavy  crops  occur  and  the  limbs 
will  not  easily  regain  their  original  position.  This  tendency  is  more  marked, 
of  course,  in  some  varieties  than  in  others,  owing  to  the  habits  of  growth 
being  entirely  dissimilar. 

The  pruning  season  may  start  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  off  the  trees,  and 
may  continue  until  just  before  the  spring  growth  sets  in.  That  is,  the 
work  should  be  carried  out  usually  about  June  or  July  in  most  of  our 
districts,  varying  somewhat  with  the  locality  and  variety. 

If  the  frame-work  has  been  properly  established  the  chief  care  at  each 
annual  pruning  will  be  the  selection  and  encouragement  of  the  right  class 
of  laterals  for  fruiting.  As  a  general  practice  the  spurring  back  of  the 
laterals  is  not  advised.  It  is  better  to  practice  thinning,  leaving  the  remain- 
ing ones  long. 

{To  he  cotilinued.) 


FARM  BLACKSMITHING. 

{Continued   from   page    195.) 

George  Baxter,    Instructor    in    Blacksmithing,     Working    Men's    College, 

Melbourne. 

v.— WELDING  {continued). 

Forging  Spanners. 

Figure  53  shows  two  methods  of  forging  spanners.  A  is  the  usual 
manner  in  which  they  are  made  from  steel  out  of  a  solid  bar,  and  B  is  the 
best  method  of  making  from  iron. 

To  forge  the  first  named  a  piece  of  mild  steel  is  required  equal  in 
thickness  to  the  depth  of  the  nut  and  in  width  about  one  and  three-quarters 
the  breadth  of  the  nut. 


FIG.     53.     SPANNER. 

{a)    Roughing   out.      [b)    Position    to   cut  off    bar.       [c)    The    completed    spanner. 

{d)  and  {e)   Scarfed   ready    for  welding. 

Such  a  piece  of  metal  is  first  drawn  down  to  form  the  handle,  as 
shown  in  A  ;  the  length  of  handle  requiring  to  be  fifteen  times  the  diameter 
of  the  bolt.  It  would  then  be  cut  off  at  B,  the  enlarged  portion  roughlv 
rounded,  and  a  hole  punched  as  shown  by  dotted  lines.  The  hole  being 
then  drifted  out  to  the  breadth  of  nut  the  gap  would  be  cut  out  with 
the  chisel  and  the  spanner  afterwards  forged  as  near  as  possible  to  shape 
shown  at  C.  The  handle  should  be  the  last  part  finished  bv  rounding 
the  edges  with  a  top  and  bottom  swage,  so  that  it  will  be  comfortable 
in  the  hand. 


2i8  Journal   of   Agriculture,   Victoria.       [lo  April,    1912- 

For  an  iron  spanner  (best  made  as  shown  at  D  and  E)  take  a  square- 
bar  equal  in  size  to  the  diameter  of  bolt  it  is  intended  for ;  cut  off  a  piece 
long  enough  to  make  the  handle,  upset  and  lap-scarf  it,  and  allow  the 
point  of  scarf  to  spread  out  as  shown.  To  make  the  jaw,  heat  and  upset 
the  bar  at  the  place  where  the  weld  is  to  be,  then  bend  and  scarf  with 
the  ball  end  of  the  hand  hammer.  After  welding,  forge  to  shape  by  cutting 
off  the  corners  to  dotted  line  and  finish. 

The  following  proportions  of  spanners  will  no  doubt  be  found  useful. 

Taking  the  breadth  of  the  nut  as  i,  then  the  outer  diameter  of  jaw  will 
be  2  ;  thickness  of  jaw  fths.  for  steel,  and  fths  for  iron;  length  of  handle- 
15  ;  greatest  breadth  of  handle  i  ;  least  breadth  of  handle,   g. 

Working  and  Tempering  Stlel. 

It  may  be  considered  an  accomplishment  to  know  sufficient  about  the 
nature  of  steel,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  manipulated  at  the  forge, 
to  be  able  to  make  a  useful  tool.  It  certainly  should  be  eminently  useful 
to  the  farmer,  removed  as  he  is,  in  many  cases,  by  miles  from  a  black- 
smith's shop.  Proficiency  in  the  art  of  tool-making  can  only  be  acquired 
by  long  practice,  close  observation,  and  extreme  care. 

Whilst  the  farmer  does  not  require  to  enter  into  all  the  intricate  detaiU- 
of  tool-making,  or  study  all  the  phenomena  connected  with  steel,  yet  if  he 
is  desirous  of  making  or  repairing  a  tool  he  wants  to  understand  more  about 
it  than  could  be  learned  by  simply  watching  some  one  else  do  the  work. 
He  wants  to  know  something  of  the  causes  of  failure,  and  of  the  effect  that 
heat  has  upon  the  metal,  etc.  By  carefully  following  the  directions  given 
in  this  article  he  should  be  able  to  meet  with  a  fair  measure  of  success  at 
first,  and  with  further  practice  there  is  no  reason  why  he  should  not  becom.e 
quite  an  expert. 

Steel  is  produced  by  mechanical  means,  the  process  chiefly  consisting  of 
adding  a  small  percentage  of  carbon  to  wrought  iron.  The  effect  of  the 
combination  is  that  the  character  of  the  iron  is  altered  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  almost  appears  to  be  a  different  metal.  The  structure  has  been 
altered  from  fibrous  to  granulur  j  the  hardness  intensified ;  the  weight 
increased,  and  the  property  of  welding  so  affected  that  it  becomes  extremely 
difficult  and  in  some  cases  impossible  of  accomplishment.  When  steel  is 
heated  to  redness  and  suddenly  cooled  it  becomes  very  hard  and  brittle, 
and  it  is  this  property  which  makes  it  the  most  useful  of  all  metals.  It  can 
be  made  to  cut  glass ;  it  can  be  rendered  so  soft  that  it  may  be  cut  by 
another  piece  of  steel  such  as  the  blade  of  a  pocket  knife  j  it  can  be  forged' 
and  bent  into  any  conceivable  shape.  It  can  be  made  so  elastic  that  thou- 
sands of  oscillations  will  not  alter  its  shape.  (For  example  take  a  watch 
spring,  which  will  remain  visibly  perfect  for  years).  It  can  also  be  made- 
of  any  degree  of  hardness  between  the  two  extremes,  and  the  process  by 
which  this  is  done  is  called  temfering. 

Tempering  by  which  elasticity  is  produced,  is  effected  by  reducing  some 
of  the  hardness  given  to  steel  by  heating  and  quickly  cooling  it.  The. 
degree  of  hardness  of  a  tool  varies  :  firstly,  by  the  hardness  of  the  material 
to  be  cut  and,  secondly,  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  cut ;  for  instance 
if  the  work  is  to  be  performed  by  means  of  a  blow  then  the  tool  needs  to  be 
made  as  elastic  as  possible  and  at  the  same  time  retain  sufficient  hardness 
to  maintain  a  cutting  edge ;  but  if  the  tool  be  required  to  work  in  a  lathe 
where  the  pressure  is  fairly  constant  then  it  may  be  made  much  harder. 

A  piece  of  steel  that  has  been  heated  to  redness  and  cooled  out  will  if 
polished  be  of  a  silvery  whiteness,   and  if  slowly  reheated  changes  in  the- 


]o   April,    \gi2.]  Farm   Blacksjiiithiiig.  219 

-colour  of  its  surface  will  be  noticed.  These  changes  are  due  to  the  oxida- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  metal  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  and  heat.  As 
the  temperature  rises  the  colours  darken.  The  first  indication  of  change 
takes  place  when  the  temperature  rises  to  250  deg.  Fahr.  It  will  then  be 
noticed  to  be  of  a  dirty  white  colour.  As  the  heat  increases  it  assumes  a 
yellow  colour,  then  dark  straw,  brown,  purple,  and  varying  .shades  of  blue. 
'J'he  changes,  which  are  called  the  tempering  colours,  are  followed  as 
guides  in  determining  the  hardness  of  the  steel. 

The  first  essential  to  the  production  oi  good  tools  is  the  selection  of 
suitable  steel.  Manufacturers  of  steel  make  it  in  many  grades,  and  as 
each  grade  is  intended  for  a  specific  purpose  if  steel  be  u.sed  for  a  purpose 
that  it  is  not  intended  for  then  good  results  cannot  be  obtained.  Notwith- 
standing this  there  are  many  who  have  an  idea  that  the  high  priced  qualities 
are  the  best  for  all  purposes.  That  is  a  mistake;  there  are  times  when  the 
cheapest  is  best.  In  purchasing  steel  it  is  always  well  to  state  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  to  be  used  and  the  merchant  will  know  what  grade  to  supply. 

The  tools  about  a  farm  do  not  as  a  rule  require  to  be  made  of  high- 
grade  steel,  e.g.,  steel  containing  a  large  percentage  of  carbon.  The  quality 
used  for  miners'  drills  would  suit  most  purposes  and  give  very  good  results 
if  properly  treated.      It  costs  about  4d.  per  lb. 

In  working  steel,  greater  care  must  be  exercised  than  in  forging  iron  or 
mild  steel  It  will  not  permit  of  beiiig  heated  to  a  temperature  above  bright 
red  without  injury,  because  when  so  heated  the  carbon  becomes  burnt  out 
and  so  it  is  destroyed.  Neither  must  it  be  hammered  after  the  redness 
has. left  it.  for  such  treatment  would  cause  it  to  crack.  Low  grade  steel 
may  be  welded,  but  the  operation  requires  considerably  more  skill  than  the 
welding  of  iron.  Welding  steel  should  therefore  be  avoided,  excepting 
in  the  case  of  pointing  picks,  crow-bars,  or  plough-shares.  What  is  known 
as  blister  steel  is  most  suitable  for  welding  purposes. 

Forging  a  Cold  Chisel. 

To  make  a  cold-chisel  (Fig.  54)  for  cutting  metal,  take  a  piece  of  f-in. 
octagonal  steel,  and  cut  off  a  piece  6 J  in.  long.  Heat  one  end  to  redness 
and  form  the  head,  which  is  done  simply  with  the  hand  hammer.  In  draw- 
ing out  the  chisel  end,  do  so  with  as  few  heats  as  possible,  for  the  rea.son 
that  each  heating  reduces  the  carbon  value.  For  ordinary  purposes  the 
shape  of  the  chisel  should  be  as  shown  in  the  sketch.  The  width  of  blade 
does  not  require  to  be  more  than  \  in.,  and  the  lengih  of  tapered  part 
alx>ut  3  in.     It  is  now  ready  for  tempering  and  grinding. 

To  temper,  heat  the  tool  slowly  and  evenly  to  a  low  red  for  a  distance 
of  about  2  in.  from  the  point,  place  about  i  in.  of  the  heated  portion  in 
water  which  has  previously  been  heated  to  about  70  deg.  Fahr.,  and  after 
a  period  of  about  five  seconds,  slowly  raise  the  tool  about  \  in.  ;  let  it 
remain  there  for  several  seconds  longer.  Remove  from  the  water,  and  with  a 
piece  of  sandstone,  brick,  or  emery  cloth  rub  vigorously  to  remove  the  scale 
from  the  surface,  when  the  part  which  was  cooled  will  be  white,  and  as  the 
heat  is  conducted  to  the  point  from  the  back  so  the  colours  will  appear  on 
the  surface.  When  the  point  assumes  a  purple  hue,  quickly  plunge  again 
into  the  water;  cool  right  out,  and  grind.  In  grinding  a  chisel  to  cut 
iron  the  angle  formed  at  the  point  should  not  be  le.ss  than  70  degrees.  If 
ground  too  thin  it  will  not  stand  up  to  the  work,  no  matter  how  well  it  may 
be  tempered. 

The  punch  (Fig.  55)  needs  no  further  comment  than  that  it  requires  the 
same  treatment  as  the  chisel. 


220  ] ounial  of  Agriculture.   Victoria.       [lo   April,    I9I2_ 

A  drill  (Fig.  56)  is  made  to  fit  the  socket  of  a  machine  or  ratchet-brace 
by  forging ;  the  cutting  end  is  first  formed  like  a  punch,  then  flattened 
at  the  end  as  shown,  and  the  corners  cut  off.  The  temper  of  a  drill  needs 
to  be  dark  straw  at  the  point,  which  is  slightly  harder  than  the  chisel. 

A  cross-cut  chisel  (Fig.  57)  is  used  for  cutting  key-ways  in  wheels  that 
are  fixed  to  a  revolving  shaft ;  or  when  it  is  necessary  to  remove  a  large- 
amount  of  metal  from  a  large  flat  surface  the  cross-cut  is  used  for  chipping  a 
number  of  grooves,  and  the  ridges  so  left  are  cut  off  with  a  flat  chisel. 
The  process  of  making  a  cross-cut  needs  but  little  description,  the  shape- 
being  suggestive  of  the  mode  of  procedure.  One  point  about  it  is  that 
the  end  of  the  chisel  needs  to  be  made  wider  than  the  remaining  part  of 
the  blade.  If  it  is  not  widened  out  as  shown  in  the  drawing  it  will  stick 
in  the  groove  formed  by  cutting,  and  so  cause  trouble.  It  is  tempered  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  the  cold  chise(. 

If  a  tool     when   put  to  use   after   forging   and   tempering   is   found     to- 
quickly    blunt,     it   shows  that   the  temper  has  been   reduced    too    much. 
In  such  a  case,  retemper  it  to  a  lighter  colour,  e.g.,  if  it  were  tempered,  say,. 


FIG.    54.     COLD   CHISEL. 


FIG.    55.    rUNClI. 


FIG. 


FIG.     57.    CROSS    CUT    CHISEL. 

to  a  purple  hue,  then  let  it  be  dark  straw.  It  will  further  be  found  that 
whilst  one  piece  of  steel  will  be  sufficiently  hard  at  purple,  another  will 
require  a  higher  temper — due  to  the  quality  of  the  steel. 

When  a  tool  breaks  in  working,  it  may  be  through  being  tempered  too 
hard,  or  through  overheating  in  forging  or  tempering.  If  from  the  first 
cause  the  fracture  will  be  quite  white,  and  on  examination  of  the  fracture 
it  will  be  found  to  be  of  a  very  fine  grain.  When  overheating  has  been  the 
cause  then  the  break  will  be  partly  black  and  partly  bright  and  the  fracture 
will  be  always  curved;  if  badly  burnt  the  break  will  show  a  very  coarse 
and  cry.stalline  grain. 

Pointing  a  Pick. 

Picks  are  made  of  iron,  with  a  small  piece  of  steel  welded  on  to  the- 
point.  This,  of  course,  wears  away,  and  necessarily  requires  to  be  relaid. 
Sometimes  only  a  very  short  piece  of  steel  has  been  welded  on,  and  when 
such  is  the  case  a  new  piece  may  be  welded  on  by  splitting  the  end  of  the 
pick  with  a  hot  chisel  (so  as  to  make  it  look  like  the  letter  Y),  a  piece  of 
steel  first  made  wedge-shaped  and  inserted  into  the  split ;  a  welding  heat 


lo  April,    1912.] 


Farm  Blacksmiili'nig. 


taken,  and  then  hammered  to  required  shape.  In  making  the  wedge,  have 
the  surfaces  roughened  by  driving  a  chisel  into  them,  and  previous  to  putting 
into  position  make  the  pick  point  red  hot;  the  v^^edge  cold.  The  reason 
for  doing  so  is  that  by  having  the  Y  heated,  and  the  steel  cold,  the  iron 
is  embedded  in  the  cuts  made  in  the  wedge  by  striking  a  good  hard  blow 
on  it,  and  the  wedge  is  thus  prevented  from  falling  out  in  the  fire. 

When  very  much  worn  it  becomes  necessary  to  lengthen  the  pick  point 
by  first  welding  a  wedge-shaped  piece  of  iron  on  the  back  of  the  pick  some 
distance  from  the  point,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  58,  so  that  the  point  of  the 
pick  and  the  piece  of  iron  form  the  Y  shape  for  the  reception  of  steel— 
B,  same  figure.  It  is  then  treated  as  mentioned  above.  The  best  steel 
for  welding  to  picks,  crow-bars,  or  plough-shares  is  blister  steel,  which  may 
be  bought  in  sizes  suitable  for  requirements  j  but  if  not  available  then  a  piece 
of  miners'  drill  steel  may  be  used.  In  taking  a  welding  heat  on  steel  great 
care  must  be  exercised  to  secure  good  results.  Steel,  being  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  weld  than  iron,  has  to  be  done  at  a  much  lower  temperature.  It  is 
always  advisable,  and  in  most  cases  necessary,  to  use  a  flux  for  the  purpose. 
For  welding  blister  steel  to  iron,  sand  will  do  for  a  flux,  or  if  a  small 
quantitv  of  borax  (about  i  in  4)  be  added,  the  work  is  facilitated.     When 


FIG. 


FIG. 


higher  grade  steel  is  to  be  welded,  there  are  special  welding  mixtures  that 
may  be  purchased,  but  if  borax  alone  be  used  it  makes  a  very  effective  flux. 
The  heat  for  welding  steel  is  of  a  yellowish  colour.      If  heated  the  same 
as  iron  the  steel  would  fly  to  pieces  when  struck  with  the  hammer. 

Relaying  a  Plough  Share. 

All  plough  shares  cannot  be  relaid.  Some  are  made  of  cast  iron,  which 
is  unweldable.  Those  made  of  wrought  steel  can  be  repaired  time  after 
time.  Fig.  59  shows  one  well  worn,  and  the  dotted  lines  indicate  the 
original  shape.  To  make  them  up  to  those  lines,  a  piece  of  iron  is  welded 
on,  a  start  being  made  at  the  top  corner  and  working  towards  the  point. 
It  is  impossible  to  weld  the  piece  all  the  way  along  at  one  heating,  about 
4  inches  being  about  the  maximum  length  that  can  be  done  at  once.  When 
the  iron  is  v.elded  on  a  piece  of  steel  is  then  put  on  the  point.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  describe  in  detail  how  this  may  be  done,  the  condition  of  the 
iihares  being  different  in  each  instance.  Ingenuity  and  common  sense  are 
required  to  carry  out  the  work  successfully. 

(Coiicluded.) 


-2  2  2  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.       [lo  April,    1912. 

SOIL  MOISTURE  AND  CHOPPING. 

By  John  W.  Pater  son,  B.Sc,  Ph.D.,  Exfcrimcntalist. 

A  twenty-bushel  crop  of  wheat  (grain,  straw  and  roots)  contains  at 
harvest  about  450  lb.  of  water.  This  water  is  present  as  water  in  the  crop. 
Chemical  analysis  further  shows  that  it  contains  about  170  lb.  of  hydrogen 
chiefly  in  its  starch  and  protein  compounds.  This  hydrogen  would  nearly 
all  come  from  water  which  was  decomposed  as  water  by  the  plant  while 
growing.     It  requires  1,530  lb.  of  water  to  yield  170  lb.  of  hydTOgen. 

Adding  450  and  1,530  we  get  1,980  lb.  of  water.  One  inch  of  rain- 
fall per  acre  weighs  just  over  100  tons,  so  that  1,980  lb.  of  water  equals 
0.0088  inches,  or  0.88  points.  If  water  only  played  the  part  of  phosphoric 
acid  or  any  ordinary  food  material  to  plants  then  0.88  points  of  rain  would 
satisfy  the  requirements  of   this  crop   for  water. 

The  insufficiency  of  such  a  ranifall  is  abundantly  manifest.  About 
2,000  times  as  much  rain  must  fall  on  the  ground  annually,  and  such  a 
rainfall  must  have  a  suitable  periodic  distribution,  to  give  a  yield  of  wheat 
such  as  is  here  contemplated. 

What  then  was  the  use  of  all  this  rain  of  which  the  crop  has  nothing  to 
show  at  harvest,  but  which  was  nevertheless  required  to  produce  the  desired 
yield?     There  are  three  answers  :  — 

(i)  Part  of  it  was  used  in  the  vital  processes,  and  afterwards  discarded 
from  the  stems  and  leaves  during  the  growth  ot  the  plant. 

(2)  Part  of  it  was  necessary  for  the  soil  changes  whereby  food  materials 
are  prepared  for  the  plant. 

(3)  Part  of  it  was  inevitably  lost  from  the  .soil. 

First: — As  to  the  water  discarded  by  the  plant. — The  crop  of  wheat 
under  consideration  would  weigh  dry  about  i|  tons.  In  producing  this 
dry  matter  it  is  essential  that  very  much  water  must  pass  through  the  plant 
during  growth.  It  has  been  variously  estimated  that  frqm  200  to  600  lb.  of 
water  must  pass  through  the  plant  for  each  i  lb  of  dry  increase.  Taking 
400  as  a  middle  figure,  it  would  thus  be  necessary  for  i  J  x  400  ^=  600  tons 
of  water  to  be  absorbed  from  the  soil  and  evaporated  from  the  leaves  to 
produce  the  crop  of  wheat. 

This  amount  of  water  equals  6  inches  of  rainfall.  Satisfactory  figures 
are  wanting.  It  is  certain  however  that  different  crops,  and  probably  in 
an  important  degree  different  varieties  of  the  same  crop,  make  widely 
different  demands  in  regard  to  water  per  unit  of  dry  matter  formed.  The 
subject  is  an  important  one  as  bearing  upon  the  best  crops,  and  the  best 
variety  of  crop  to  cultivate  in  dry  districts. 

Economy  in  the  use  of  water  is  not  howe\-er  everything  in  a  crop  ; 
ability  to  obtain  the  water  under  various  conditions  is  not  less  important. 
The  power  of  any  crop  to  obtain  water  depends  upon  several  factors  among 
which  are  : — - 

(i)  The  percentage  of  water  in  the  soil. 

(2)  The  readiness  with  which  its  water  is  gradually  given  up  by  the 
particular  class  of  land. 

(3)  The  amount  of  pure  air  (oxygen)  at  the  rootlets. 

(4)  The  soil  temperature. 

(5)  The  concentration  (osmotic  value)  of  the  weak  salt  solution  forming 
the  soil  moisture. 

(6)  The  variety  and  vigour  of  the  crop. 

(7)  Climate — particularly  as  regards  sunshine,  humidity  and  wind. 


lo  April.    i9I--]  Scil  Mniifurc  and  Cropping. 


Secondly: — .4^  to  zvaicr  necessary  for  the  soil  processes  ivlierehy  food 
materials  arc  rendered  available  for  crops. — On  the  average  a  soil  will 
contain  loo  times  more  plant  food  than  the  crop  then  growing  on  it  re- 
quires. But  the  crop  cannot  use  it  because  the  soil  constituents  must  be 
easily  soluble  before  thev  can  be  taken  up  or  ab.sorbed  as  plant  food.  The 
soil  constituents  which  the  crop  finds  most  difficulty  in  obtaining  enough  of 
in  soluble  forms  are  nitric  and  phosphoric  acids,  and  sometimes  potash. 

There  is  extremely  little  available  phosphoric  acid  and  also  sometimes 
little  available  potash  left  in  a  poor  soil  at  harvest.  For  the  next  crop, 
unless  manured,  the  chief  source  of  supply  is  the  amount  which  can  be 
rendered  available  in  the  intenal.  A  year's  fallow  gives  longer  time.  But 
in  order  that  the  process  whereby  the  phosphoric  acid  is  made  available  may 
go  on,  the  soil  must  be  sufficiently  moist.  Chemical  change  scarcely  occurs 
between  dry  solids.  In  addition  to  chemical  change,  solution  of  mineral 
plant  foods  is  to  some  extent  effected  by  tHe  soil  bacteria,  but  these  also 
require  moisture.  In  fallow,  it  is  desirable  to  conserve  moisture  apart  from 
the  water  requirement  of  the  next  crop,  because  the  moisture  facilitates  the 
solution  of  mineral  plant  food  during  the  period  of  fallow. 

But  probably  soil  moisture  is  most  important  from  the  point  of  view 
of  nitric  acid  formation.  Deficiency  of  phosphoric  acid  can  be  made  goo*! 
at  relatively  small  cost  by  a  small  application  of  superphosphate  and  its 
use  is  perfectly  safe.  Nitric  acid  on  the  other  hand  is  not  only  much 
dearer,  but  its  application  artificially  as  nitrate  tends  to  force  on  a  kind  of 
growth  which  renders  the  crop  more  subject  to  damage  by  drought  at  a 
later  date.  The  process  whereby  nitric  acid  is  formed  from  the  insoluble 
nitrogenous  compounds  of  decaying  crops  is  termed  nitrification. 

The  change  is  brought  about  by  several  different  kinds  of  bacteria. 
There  are  three  stages.  One  kind  attacks  the  nitrogen  of  the  decaying 
crop  residues ;  a  second  carries  the  work  through  another  stage ;  the  third 
yields  the  finished  nitric  acid.  It  is  known  that  sufficient  moisture  must 
be  present  to  allow  these  germs  to  work,  and  that  they  may  be  killed  by 
se\'ere  drought.  Exactly  how  much  water  they  require  to  do  their  best 
work,  and  at  what  stage  of  dryness  they  cease  work  altogether  is  a  subject 
however  upon  which  there  appears  no  reliable  information. 

Nitrification  is  a  necessary  antecedent  to  crop-production  on  any  land 
growing  grain  or  roots,  and  to  provide  suitable  conditions  for  it  is  of 
primary  importance.  It  is  of  particular  importance  on  soils  continuously 
under  crop  without  any  return  of  fresh  vegetable  matter  to  them,  because  en 
such  land  nitrification  becomes  each  year  more  difficult. 

Thirdly: — As  to  water  lost  inevitably  from  the  soil. — There  are  three 
ways  in  which  water  is  lost  from  soils  : — - 

(i)   Surface  drainage  into  ditches  and  watercourses. 

(2)  Percolation  into  underground  springs. 

(3)  Evaporation  from  the  surface. 

(i)  Surface  drainage  causes  most  loss  on  baked  surfaces,  lying  on  the 
slope,  and  when  the  rainfall  is  concentrated  in  a  short  period  of  time. 
N[ore  particularly  in  autumn  and  winter,  when  the  land  is  hard,  is  much 
water  lost  in  this  way.  Early  ploughing  after  harvest  avoids  loss,  as 
not  only  is  the  surface  left  rough  to  impede  surface  flow,  but  at  the  same 
time  the  upper  portion  of  the  soil  it  rendered  sufficiently  open  and  porous 
to  take  in  what  falls  upon  it. 

(2)  Percolation  into  underground  springs.  This  loss  is  unavoidable^ 
and  in  many  ca.ses  it  is  an  advantage  preventing  the  soil  becoming  water- 
logged.     In  some  classes  of  land,    particularly    clays,     when    no    natural 


224  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.       [lo  April,    191 2. 

escape   for  surplus   water  exists   it   is   necessary   to  underdrain   to  get   the 
«ame  result. 

(3)  Evaporation  from  the  surface.  All  soils  are  subject  to  this  loss  and 
the  amount  may  represent  the  total  annual  rainfall.  According  to  Greaves 
the  yearly  amount  evaporated  from  a  water  surface  in  the  vicinity  of  Lon- 
don equals  20.6  inches.  There  is  more  loss  than  this  from  a  soil  kept  fully 
saturated.  While  fully  saturated  all  soils  lose  water  at  the  same  rate.  As 
different  soils  are  allowed  to  dry  those  with  largest  particles  (sands)  lose 
water  fastest.  After  a  time  those  with  finest  particles  (clays)  lose  most 
because  they  have  most  to  lose.  Finally,  both  kinds  of  soils  come  to  a 
balance  losing  or  gaining  moisture  according  to  the  humidity  of  the  air. 

Evaporation  may  be  greatly  diminished  by  protecting  the  soil  from  the 
action  of  sun  and  wind.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  as  the  soil  loses 
moisture  by  evaporation,  more  water  reaches  the  surface  from  below.  It 
rises  by  capillary  attraction  through  the  pores  of  the  soil.  The  smaller 
these  pores  are  (within  limits)  the  higher  the  water  will  rise;  if  they  are 
very  large  it  will  practically  not  rise  at  all  Leaves  or  loose  litter  spread 
on  the  surface  have  very  wide  pores  and  water  cannot  rise  through  them. 
At  the  same  time  they  prevent  rapid  evaporation  because  they  shield  the 
soil  surface  from  sun  and  wind. 

Litter  spread  on  the  surface  to  limit  evaporation  is  called  a  mulch. 
Instead  of  spreading  litter  the  soil  itself  may  be  used  as  a  mulch.  For  this 
purpose  it  is  only  necessary  to  stir  it  to  a  depth  of  2  or  3  inches  when 
it  is  not  too  wet.  By  this  means  the  surface  pores  become  too  large  to  raise 
the  water  above  the  lower  layer  of  the  stirred  soil.  The  stirred  soil  soon 
appears  to  dry  while  an  unstirred  portion  may  appear  to  remain  wet,  but 
that  is  because  in  the  latter  case  the  water  is  continuing  to  rise  to  the  surface 
and  dissipate  by  evaporation,  while  in  the  former  case  no  water  is  rising  to 
the  surface  and  none  is  lost,  because  the  surface  layer  is  not  getting  any 
from  underneath  to  lose.  Beneath  the  apparently  dry  surface  water  is 
being  saved  from  loss  in  the  body  of  the  soil.  Working  with  a  3-inch  soil 
mulch  on  a  clay  loam,  Professor  King  of  Wisconsin  found  that  63.13  per 
cent,  of  the  evaporation  on  similar  unmulched  land  was  saved  in  100  days. 

When  referring  to  the  water  requirements  of  a  wheat  crop  it  was  ob- 
served that  about  400  tons  probably  was  required  to  produce  i  ton  dry  in- 
crease, equal  to  approximately  100  tons  for  each  ton  of  the  crop  in  the 
green  sappy  state.  In  greater  or  less  degree  the  same  is  true  for  the  re- 
quirements of  weed  plants,  and  so  weeds,  whether  in  the  crop  or  on  fallow, 
rob  the  land  of  much  moisture.  As  the  making  of  a  soil  mulch,  whether 
on  fallow  land  or  by  way  of  intertillage  in  growing  crops,  kills  weeds  at 
the  same  time  as  it  makes  a  mulch  it  has  thus  a  double  effect  in  conserv- 
ing moisture. 

The  particular  importance  of  soil  moisture  conservation  in  Australian 
farming  arises  in  large  part  from  the  powerful  evaporation  which  occurs 
■during  the  summer  months.  In  some  ways  the  conditions  are  special 
and  more  exact  information  is  required.  With  this  object,  experiments 
are  being  conducted  during  the  present  season  bearing  on  the  relation  of 
soil  moisture  to  the  requirements  of  the  plant,  to  the  conditions  for  nitri- 
fication in  soils,  and  to  different  methods  of  bare  fallowing  and  inter- 
tillage. To  the  reporting  of  the  results  of  the  experiments  designed 
under  those  heads  the  present  article  will  serve  us  as  an  introduction. 


lo   April,    191^-]  '4;/  Effective  Sparrozv  Trap. 


=  25 


AN  EFFECTIVE  SPARROW  TRAP. 

/.    Wilson,   Silo   Builder. 

The  prevalence  of  sparrows  throughout  the  State  frequently  causes 
great  loss  to  producers,  and  to  combat  this  pest  the  writer  has  designed 
a  simple,  yet  effective,  trap,  by  which  as  many  as  200  sparrows  have  been 
caught  in  a  single  day.  The  following  details  of  construction  and  the 
accompanying  illustrations  will  enable  readers  to  give  the  method  a  trial. 

Cut  a  i2-ft.  piece  of  3-ft.  x  2-ft.  hardwood  into  3-ft.  lengths,  and 
check  them  out  3-in.  x  i-in.  on  two  sides  at  both  ends  to  take  the  top 
and  bottom  rails,  so  as  to  make  all  the  outside  faces  flush.  Also  cut  four 
Q-ft.  lengths  of  3-in.  x  i-in.  Lay  two  lengths  of  3-in.  x  2-in.  on  edge 
on  a  level  piece  of  ground,  and  nail  the  3-in.  x  i-in.  pieces  temporarily 
in  the  checks.  Square  the  side  and  spike  together  firmly.  Then  deal 
with  the  other  side  in  the  same  manner.  Next  cut  six  3-ft.  lengths  of 
3-in.  X  I-in.  and  nail  them  in  the  other  checks  at  the  ends.  Fix  the  other 
two  lengths  12  inches  from  each  end  at  the  top  of  trap  to  carry  the  wire 
netting. 


T 

i 

1 

^T==3 

1 

1 
1 
1 

Q 

d=3 

\ 

Cover  the  frame  with  |-in  wire  netting.  Keep  the  netting  6  inches 
from  the  ground  in  the  centre  of  trap.  Cut  out  five  holes  of  i|-in. 
diameter  in  the  centre  of  the  netting.  Insert  points  of  snips  and  give 
a  turn  to  form  round  holes.  Co^-er  the  side  with  netting  and  lace  top- 
and  sides  together  with  wire.  Then  cut  out  sides  to  the  sweep  of  the 
top  wire.     Make  and  fix  two  ledge  doors  at  each  end  of  the  trap. 

The  following  material  will  be  required:  — 

Timber. — One    12    ft.,    3x2    hardwood.      Four    9    ft.  ;  one    18   ft.,    3   x    i  ;   35    ft-, 
6  X  |,  T.  and  G. 

Galvanized   wire   netting,   3-ft.   wide,   ^-in.    mesh,    11    yards. 
T-hinges   and    screws,    12    inches,    two   pairs. 
Clout  tacks,   2  inch,    i    lb. 
Wire   nails,   3   inches,    i    lb. 

As  sparrows  often  congregate  near  poultry  runs,  it  is  suggested  that 
one  or  two  fowls  be  placed  in  the  trap  for  the  first  day  to  attract  the 
sparrows.  It  is  also  advisable,  when  emptying  the  trap,  to  leave  one  or 
two  birds  to  act  as  decoys.     Bait  the  trap  with  a  handful  of  grain. 


226  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [lo  April,    191 2. 

BEE-KEEPING  IN  VICTORIA. 

{Continued  from  page  179.) 

F.  R.  Beuhne,  Bee  Expert. 

IV.— Hives. 

The  hive  most  generally  in  use  in  Victoria  is  the  "  Langstroth  "  either 
•eight  or  ten  frame.  There  are  however  a  number  of  beekeepers  who  use 
a  modified  form  of  the  Heddon  hive.  Whatever  hive  is  adopted  the  walls 
should  not  be  less  than  |  inch  in  thickness,  otherwise  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture will  affect  the  bees,  and  during  very  hot  weather  combs  may  melt 
down.  All  hives  sold  by  manufacturers  are  made  of  |-inch  wood,  and  1 
strongly  ad\'ise  beginners  who  intend  to  make  their  own  hives  not  to  use 
thinner  boards. 

The  eight-frame  Langstroth  hive,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  is  made  of  |-inch 
shelving,  pine,  or  Californian  redwood.  It  measures  20  in.  by  13^  in. 
outside,  and  is  9j  inches  deep,  giving  an  inside  measurement  of  i8j  x  i2g 
X  9J.  The  ten-frame  Langstroth  is  of  the  same  length  and  depth,  but  of 
16  inches  outer  and  14^  inches  inner  width,  thus  giving  room  for  two  more 
frames.  The  end  boards  of  the  hive  are  rebated  inside  to  a  distance  of 
\  inch  down  and  \  inch  into  the  thickness  of  the  board.  On  to  the  shoulder 
of  this  rebate  is  nailed  a  runner  of  folded  tin  so  as  to  project  \  inch  up- 
wards. On  this  metal  runner  rest  the  top  bars  of  the  frames,  and  its 
purpose  is  to  prevent  the  crushing  of  bees  when  handling  frames  and  to 
avoid  the  gluing  down  of  the  latter  by  the  bees. 

Two  kinds  of  frames  are  sold  by  dealers,  the  Simplicity  and  the  Hoff- 
mann. The  outer  dimensions  of  both  are  the  same,  viz.,  lyf  in.  x  95  in., 
with  the  top  bar  19^  inch  long,  but  while  in  the  Simplicity,  or  loose  hanging 
frame,  top,  side  and  bottom  bar  are  all  of  the  same  width,  viz.,  \  inch,  in 
the  Hoffmann,  or  self -spacing  frame,  the  upper  part  of  the  side  bars  is 
t|  inch  wide.  When  pushed  close  together  in  the  hive,  they  give  the  correct 
spacing  of  the  combs,  viz.,  i|  inch,  which  is  the  a\'erage  distance  at  which 
bees  build  combs  when  in  a  state  of  nature.  Eight  or  ten  frames  in  the 
respective  hives  leave  a  small  space,  this  is  occupied  by  a  thin  board  of 
the  dimensions  of  the  frames  and  called  the  follower  and  its  object 
\h  to  more  easily  remove  or  handle  the  frames  after  it  is  withdrawn.  The 
thickness  of  the  bars  of  the  Simplicity  frame  is  top  bar  \  inch  or  |  inch, 
reduced  to  |  inch  at  the  projecting  ends  ;  side  bars  |  to  7-16  inch  ;  bottom 
bar  J  to  I  inch.  In  the  Hoffmann  frame  the  thickness  and  width  of  the 
top  bar  varies  witli  different  manufacturers,  American  frames  having  a 
top  bar  I  inch  wide  and  |  inch  thick,  while  sorne  frames  of  local  make 
have  a  top  bar  |  inch  wide,  and  \  inch  or  f  inch  thick.  The  bottom  bar  is 
f  inch  X  \  inch  in  all  the  different  makes.  Whatever  the  thickness  of  the 
bars  the  outside  measurement  of  the  frame  is  always  the  same. 

The  Simplicity  frame  is  the  cheapest  and  easiest  to  uncap  for  the  ex- 
traction of  honey,  but,  being  a  loose  hanging  frame,  it  has  some  serious 
disadvantages.  Each  frame  has  to  be  spaced  separately  every  time 
bees  are  handled,  and  as  there  is  a  ^-inch  space  between  the  frames 
when  correctly  spaced  the  bees  will  often  build  comb  into  these  spaces  and 
on  to  the  end  wall  of  the  hive.     Further,  every  time  a  hive  is  moved  the 


ic  April,    1912.]  Bcc-kccpiuf^  in  Victoria. 


227 


Fig.    5.--Ei<^ht-franie    Langstroth    Hive,    Two    Storey. 


n 


Fig.  6.  —  End  and  General  View  of  Simi)licity   Fran:e. 


Fig.   7. — End  and  General   View  of   Hoffmann   Frame. 


Fig.  8. — End  and  General  View  of  New  France. 


528  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo  April,   1912. 

frames  have  to  be  secured  in  some  way  to  prevent  them  knocking  against 
one  another  and  crushing  bees,  and  for  these  reasons  self -spacing  frames 
^re  more  advantageous.  Tlie  difference  in  the  first  cost  between  Simplicity 
and  self-spacing  frames  is  only  2s.  to  2s.  6d.  per  hundred  frames.  Wide 
top  bar  Hoffmann  frames  as  used  in  America  are  somewhat  difficult  to  uncap 
when  extracting ;  as  the  comb  of  honey  when  sealed  does  not  project  beyond 
the  wide  top  bar,  it  cannot  be  used  as  a  guide  for  the  uncapping  knife,  as 
can  be  done  with  the  Simplicity  or  the  Hoffmann,  with  a  |  inch  x  |  inch 
top  bar  as  shown  in  Figure  7. 

One  drawback  of  Hoffmann  frames  is  that  the  bees  often  fasten  the  side 
bars  of  the  frames  together  with  wax  or  propolis.  The  latter  is  a  sub- 
stance gathered  by  the  bees  for  the  purpose  of  filling  up  any  interstices 
or  crevices  in  the  hive.  It  consists  of  resin,  wattle-gum,  tar,  paint,  cart- 
grease,  and  similar  substances.  In  some  districts,  propolis  is  a  great 
nuisance  to  the  beekeeper.  Some  strains  of  bees  will  daub  it  everywhere 
inside  the  hive.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  and  also  that  of  uncapping 
Hoffmann  wide  top  bar  frames,  .and  yet  have  a  self-spacing  frame,  a  number 
of  apiarists,  including  the  writer,  have  adopted  the  frame  shown  in  Figure 
8.  It  has  a  top  bar  |-  inch  wide.  |  inch  thick^  bottom  bar  |  inch  x  |  inch, 
and  side  bars  ig-  in.  x  h  in.  The  top  and  bottom  bars  are  nailed  on  so 
that  the  side  bar  projects  on  the  reverse  side  at  the  opposite  end.  The 
spacing  is  obtained  by  four  stout  flat-headed  nails  driven  into  the  side 
bars  and  projecting  J  inch,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  8).  These 
frames  are  not  stocked  by  manufacturers,  but  will  be  made  to  order  if 
ordered  in  sufficient  quantities.  They  can  however  easily  be  made  by  any 
one  at  all  handy  with  tools,  the  only  difference  between  them  and  the  Sim- 
plicity frames  being  that  the  side  bars  are  i  inch  instead  of  -J  inch,  and 
that  the  frames  are  nail  spaced  instead  of  loose  hanging. 

The  Heddon  hanging  frame  hive,  also  known  as  the  Bolton  hive,  is 
what  is  called  a  sectional  hive.  The  hive  consists  of  shallow  bodies  5f 
inches  deep,  with  self-spacing  fram.es  5I  inches  deep.  The  advantages 
•claimed  for  it  are  that  it  can  be  readily  expanded  or  reduced  in  size  ac 
■cording  to  conditions  and  season  by  adding  or  removing  stories ;  that 
swarming  can  be  prevented  or  controlled  by  means  of  inverting  the  sets 
of  frames  at  intervals,  thus  causing  the  destruction  of  queen  cells,  and 
that  shallow  supers  are  easier  to  lift  and  handle  when  full  of  honey,  and 
the  shallow  combs  easier  to  uncap  than  deep  ones. 

As  an  offset  against  these  advantages,   it  must  be  mentioned  that  the 
Heddon  hive  costs  more,   that   double   the  number  of  combs  have  to  be 
handled     when  extracting,    and  that  the  splitting  up  of  the  hi^'e  into  so 
many  sets  of  frames  bv  the  intervening  bee  spaces  has  a  tendency  to  re 
tard  breeding  up  in  spring. 

In  connexion  with  this,  I  should  like  to  say  that  the  correct  bee  space 
between  set  of  frames  in  the  stories  of  a  hive  is  \  inch.  In  the  hives  pur- 
chased from  manufacturers  too  much  allowance  is  made  (generally)  for 
shrinkage  of  timber,  leaving  up  to  f  inch  between  the  stories.  This  excessive 
space  first  acts  as  a  great  check  on  the  bees  entering  the  super  in  spring, 
while  later  on  it  is  filled  with  comb  and  honey,  and  is  a  hindrance  and 
nuisance  every  time  a  hive  is  opened,  also  causing  the  death  of  many  bees 
when  frames  are  replaced  in  supers  without  first  removing  the  pieces  of 
comb  which  connected  the  upper  and  lower  frames.  With  a  \  inch  bee 
space  between   the   stories   there   will   be   little   or   no  bur   comb. 

(To  be  continued.) 


ic   April.     191--]  General    Notes.  229 

GENERAL  NOTES. 

By  J.   \V.  P. 

AGRICULTURAL  RESEARCH   IN  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA— 

According  to  the  report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  of  the  United 
States  for  19 10,  there  are  now  62  agricultural  experiment  stations  in  active 
work  in  that  country.  Fifty-five  of  these  stations  receive  appropriations 
provided  for  by  Acts  of  Congress,  which  amounted  to  ^269,000  in  the 
fiscal  year  1909-10  ;  in  addition  ^^200, 000  was  contributed  by  the  State 
Legislatures,  and  ;^  150,000  was  received  by  the  stations  as  fees  for 
analyses  of  fertilisers,  sales  of  farm  products  and  from  other  local  sources. 
The  total  annual  revenue  is  over  _;^6oo,ooo  as  compared  with  half  that 
sum  in  1905.  Generally  speaking,  the  State  funds  are  mainly  used  for 
the  more  practical  work,  including  maintenance  of  sub-stations,  demon- 
stration fields,  agricultural  surveys  and  a  great  variety  of  local  experi- 
ments, while  the  funds  provided  by  Acts  of  Congress  are  chiefly  devoted  to 
original  research  in  difficult  problems  of  agriculture  generally. 


C50L  STORAGE  OF  FRUIT— 

Annually  for  some  years  past  the  New  Zealand  Department  of  Agri- 
culture has  placed  in  the  cool  chambers  of  the  Auckland  Farmers'  Co- 
operative Freezing  Company  considerable  quantities  of  fruit,  comprising  a 
large  number  of  varieties  of  apples  and  pears.  The  object  of  the  tests 
was  to  regulate  the  markets  during  periods  of  glut  and  thus  avoid  losses 
to  the  growers.  In  the  December  issue  of  the  Journal  of  the  Defartment 
the  following  important  points  are  noted  in  connexion  with  the  cool  storage 
•of  apples  and  pears  : — 

(i)  "  Cool  storage  retards  the  normal  rapid  or  fairly  rapid 
ripening  of  the  fruit.  Consequently,  most  varieties  should  be  well 
matured  and  well  coloured,  but  gathered  a  little  on  the  green  side, 
to  achieve  the  best  results." 

(2)  "  Bruised  or  blemished  fruit,  or  fruit  attacked  by  pest  or 
disease,  should  not  be  placed  in  cool  storage." 

(3)  "  Ripe  or  over-ripe  pears  will  not  keep  sound." 

(4)  "  Immature  fruits  shrivel." 

(5)  '■'  Apples  of  soft  texture  when  ripe  should  be  gathered  for 
cool  storage  before  becoming  fullv  ripe." 

It  is  believed  that  the  development  of  cool  storage  in  the  Dominion  will 
do  much  to  improve  the  prospects  of  fruit-growers  there. 


GERMINATION  OF  WEED  SEEDS— 

Wonder  is  often  expressed  at  the  sudden  appearance  of  weeds  upon 
land  under  cultivation  where  no  signs  of  the  same  plants  were  visible 
while  the  land  lay  in  pasture.  In  the  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agricid- 
iure  (London)  an  account  is  given  of  some  interesting  investigations.      The 


230  JournaJ  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [10  April.   1912.- 

weeds  experimented  with  were  the  ribwort  or  "rib-grass"  {Plantago 
lanccolatci)  and  wild  mustard  {Sinafis  arvens'is).  In  1899,  pots  containing 
100  seeds  of  each  weed  were  placed  at  a  depth  of  12  inches  below  the  sui- 
face  of  the  ground.  From  1900  onwards  a  pot  was  dug  up  each  year 
and  the  seeds  allowed  to  germinate.  With  rib-grass  two-thirds  of  the 
seeds  were  dead  by  1900,  but  after  ten  years  8  per  cent,  still  retained  their 
germinating  capacity.  With  the  yellow-flowered  mustard  the  germinating 
capacity  was  as  high  after  ten  years  (87  per  cent.)  as  after  one  year. 
For  purposes  of  comparison  seeds  kept  in  dry  storage  since  1899  have  been 
allowed  to  germinate  in  each  year  from  1900  onwards.  The  seeds  of 
rib-grass  germinated  fairly  well  the  first  few  years,  but  by  1909  were 
all  dead.  The  percentage  of  seeds  of  mustard  germinating  after  one 
year  was  82  per  cent.,  and  after  ten  years  24  per  cent.  In  other  experi- 
ments lasting  for  six  years  it  was  found  that  those  buried  deepest  in  the 
ground  retained  their  germinating  power  ';est  The  seeds  of  cultivated 
plants,  especially  grasses,  lost  their  germinating  power  in  the  soil  much 
more  quickly  than  the  related  weed  seeds.  Weed  seeds  were  found  to- 
retain  their  germinating  power  after  passing  through  the  digestive  tract 
of  a  cow  or  pig,  but  when  eaten  by  fowls  were,  as  a  rule,  destroyed. 


MILK  RECORDS— 

With  the  object  of  demonstrating  the  value  of  milk  records  to  the- 
dairy  farmer  the  Lancashire  (England)  County  Council  has  been  carrying- 
out  tests  during  the  last  three  years — in  1908  on  fourteen  farms,  in  1909 
on  twelve  farms,  and  in  1910  on  twelve  farms.  Each  herd  was  tested" 
as  regards  the  yield  and  composition  of  the  milk  once  every  three  weeks, 
this  having  been  found  to  give  results  sufficiently  correct  for  practical 
purposes.  The  total  yield  for  the  three  weeks  was  got  by  multiplying 
the  yield  on  the  day  of  te  ting  bv  10.5,  and  the  est'mated  yield  half-wav 
between  two  testings  by  10.5,  and  adding  the  two  results.  A  number  of 
points  elucidated  by  the  records  obtained  are  discussed  in  this  report. 
The  usual  great  differences  were  found  in  the  capacity  of  individual  cows. 
Taking  the  two  best  and  the  two  worst  cows  at  various  ages  (twelve  good 
and  twelve  bad  cows  in  all)  the  average  yield  of  milk  of  the  best  cows 
was  found  to  be  nearly  double  that  of  the  worst.  It  is  estimated  that 
in  the  case  of  the  former,  after  paying  for  the  cost  of  keep,  a  gross  profit 
of  ^10  per  annum  per  cow  is  left,  but  with  the  latter  a  loss  of  3s.  8d. 
per  cow.  This  Department  has  arranged  a  scheme  and  prepared  cards 
for  keeping  milk  records,  and  is  readv  to  supply  niformation  to  thore 
wishing  to  improve  their  milking  herds  along  those  lines. 


HARVESTING  THROUGH  THISTLES— 

An  ingenious  invention  has  been  made  by  Mr.  E.  N.  I'anson.  a  farmer 
in  the  Grenfell  district  of  New  South  Wales.  Last  year  he  sowed  a 
crop  of  wheat  in  an  old  thistly  paddock  ;  the  crop  was  put  in  late  and 
the  thistles  beat  it.  They  were  chiefly  star  thistles  and  a  few  black 
ones,  and  as  it  was  impossible  to  make  hay  owing  to  the  thistles  being  so- 
thick   it   was   decidfcd   to   strip   it.        This   however   was    also   found   to  be- 


Tio  April.     191--]  General    Notes. 


impracticable  as  they  clogged  up  the  combs  of  the  harvesters.  Mr. 
ranson  did  not  wish  to  abandon  the  crop,  however,  so  he  hit  upon  another 
i)lan.  He  fixed  a  bar  from  which  long  prongs  projected  in  front  of  and 
above  the  comb  of  the  harvester.  These  prongs  were  wide  enough  to 
allo'.v  the  wheat  to  pass  through  to  the  comb  of  the  harvester,  but  were 
sufficiently  close  to  catch  the  thistles.  The  arrangement  was  worked  bv 
a  lever  and  was  kept  pointing  forward  above  the  crop  when  a  clean  patch 
was  being  stripped,  but  on  coming  to  a  thistly  patch  the  prongs  were 
lowered  and  pointed  backward  beneath  the  comb,  so  that  the  thistles  were 
y)ushed  down  beneath  it.  Instead  of  having  to  abandon  t"he  crop  the 
inventor  stripped  16  bushels  to  the  acre.  A  brief  description  of  the 
above  is  given  in  the  Agricultural  Gazette  of  New  South  Wales  for 
January,  and  it  is  anticipated  that  the  contrivance,  which  the  inventor  was 
advised  to  patent,  will  prove  of  real  benefit  on  thistlv  crops. 


LUCERNE— 

Regarding  the  needs  of  lucerne  we  could  almost  sum  the  matter  up 
in  four  words — lime,  drainage,  humus  and  inoculation.  Perhaps  we  have 
given  these  in  the  order  of  their  relative  importance.  Lime  is  necessary 
on  soils  not  naturally  of  limestone  formation  or  filled  with  limestone 
pebbles.  The  importance  of  this  is  impressed  on  us  more  and  more  each 
year;  in  fact,  we  believe  to-day  that  there  have  been  more  failures  through- 
out the  United  States  on  account  of  insufficient  lime  in  the  soil  than  from 
any  other  cause.  Then  as  to  drainage  ;  there  is  no  use  in  planting  lucerne 
on  any  soil  where  water  may  ordinarily  be  found  at  a  depth  of  less  than 
3  feet.  The  lucerne  may  grow  all  right  until  its  roots  strike  this  water, 
but  then  it  will  d  e.  Fertile  soils  contain  enough  humus.  Impoverished 
soils  may  be  so  deficient  that  special  preparation  must  be  made  before 
lucerne  can  possibly  succeed.  Where  stable  manure  is  not  available, 
on  impoverished  soils  we  would  recommend  preparation  for  lucerne  one  or 
two  years  in  advance  growing  such  crops  as  crimson  clo-ver.  mammoth 
clover,  cow  peas,  Canada  field  peas  or  soja  beans,  and  preferablv  turning 
them  under,  or  else  pasturing  them  off  so  as  to  give  the  soil  the  greatest 
benefit  possible  from  them.  We  recommend  inoculation,  not  that  it  is 
always  necessary,  but  it  is  an  inexpensive  process,  and  in  five  cases  out 
of  six  it  will   actually   pay. — Irrigation  Age.    Chicago. 


THE  NEW  NITROGENOUS  MANURES— 

There  is  an  increasing  demand  fcr  nitrogenous  manures  in  the  more 
humid  districts  of  the  State,  and  this  is  likely  to  extend  as  cultivation 
l>ecomes  of  older  date.  In  view  of  this  fact  and  the  present  excessive 
price  of  some  of  these  manures  the  discovery  and  rapid  development  of 
two  chemical  proces.ses  wherebv  nitrogenous  manures  are  manufactured 
from  atmospheric  gases  has  m^cre  than  passing  interest.  The  two  new 
fertilirers  are  known  as  nitrate  of  lime,  and  cyanamid  of  lime.  They  are 
both  products  of  the  electric  furnace,  the  necessary  energy  being  obtained 


232  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [10   April,    1912, 

for  cheapness  at  waterfalls.  During  the  past  year  it  is  estimated  that 
from  170,000  to  180,000  horse-power  was  used  in  this  way  to  manufacture 
nitrates  and  20,000  horse-power  in  the  manufacture  of  cyanamid.  The 
new  manures  have  been  tested  against  the  old  at  a  number  of  experiment 
stations  in  Europe  and  America  with  most  satisfactory  results.  At 
Rothamsted  the  old  manures,  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
were  tested  alongside  the  new  manures — nitrate  of  lime  and  cyanamid  of 
lime;  and  it  is  reported  that  "  if  there  is  any  difference  as  regards  effec- 
tiveness on  the  Rothamsted  soil  between  these  sources  of  nitrogen  it  does 
not  exceed  10  per  cent."  From  experiments  elsewhere  it  would  seem 
that  with  the  cyanamid  certain  precautions  should  be  observed  as  to  harrow- 
ing or  otherwise  covering  the  material  after  it  is  applied,  and  also  as  to 
not  applying  too  much,  but  nitrate  of  lime  has  an  action  absolutely  similar 
to  nitrate  of  soda,  and  is  probably  superior  to  it  on  soils  poor  in  lime. 
So  far  no  bulk  samples  have  reached  Australia,  but  they  are  sure  to 
come. 


SWAN  HILL  HOME-MILKING  COMPETITION,  1911. 

5.   /.   Keys,   Dairy  Supervisor. 

The  above  competition  was  successfully  carried  out  under  the  auspice?, 
of  the  Swan  Hill  Agricultural  Society,  the  following  cond't'ons  being 
observed  by  competitors  :  — ■ 

1.  The  cows  to  be  milked  at  their  homes  under  the  supervision  of  officers  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  a  period  of  24  hours  during  the  two  weeks 
previous  to  the  show,  the  day's  butter  production  to  be  taken  as  the  basis  in  deciding; 
the  cow's  yield. 

2.  In  the  event  of  two  cows  obtaining  the  same  highest  yield  of  butter,  the 
prize  to  go  to  the  cow  that  gave  the  most  milk. 

3.  All   cows  entered  to  be  shown   on  the  day  of  show. 

4  Nc  test  or  butter  returns  to  be  made  available  un^il  cows  are  in  pens  in 
show  yard  on  the  day  of  show. 

Greatest  Butter  Production. 

In  the  section  for  cows  giving  the  greatest  butter  production  10  cow.s 
were  entered.  Last  year's  high  returns  were  easily  eclipsed,  notwith- 
standing that,  during  the  trial,  a  heavy  wind  prevailed,  which  no  doubt 
affected  the  yields. 

The  first  prize  fell  to  a  beautiful  Ayrshire  cow,  "  Pearl,"  owned  by 
Mr.  Robert  Hastings,  and  purchased  from  Mrs.  Smith  at  her  dispersal  sale 
two  years  ago.  Pearl  is  blood-red  in  colour,  showing  strong  constitution, 
beautiful  conformation,  and  splendid  condition;  she  had  jui:  come  into 
profit  from  a  somewhat  lengthy  spell,  was  full  of  vigor,  and  in  splendid 
heart  for  making  an  ideal   milker.      In  general  appearance  and   in  colour 


lo   Ai>RiL,    191-.]  SriiiJ/  11  ill  11  (line  Milking  Comfctilion. 


'-2>2> 


PEARL, 


WINNER    OF    TEST.      72    LBS.    MILK 2  I 

BUTTER     PER     WEEK. 


LBS.     COMMERCIAL 


this  coAv  appfars  to  show  as  much  of  the  North  Devon  breeding  as  of  the 
Ayrshire,  hut  Mr.  Hastings  assures  me  she  was  got  b\  n  pure  Ayrshire 
bull  and  is  out  oi  an  Ayrshire  cow — ;  she  gave  the  fine  yield  of 
72    lbs.    milk   showing   a    3.6   test,   equivalent   to   2.59    lbs.    butter    fat   per 


day.  (ir  a  Initter  ]iroduction  of  21.16  lbs.  weekly 


DULCIE,'      SECOND     PRIZE.     63^      LBS.      MILK — 20.2J4      LBS.       COMMERCIAL 
BUTTER     PER     WEEK. 
3S31.  1 


'34 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   April,    19 12. 


The  second  prize  was  won  by  "Dulcie, "  also  owned  by  Mr.  Hastings. 
"  Dulcie,"  5  years  old,  easily  beat  her  record  of  last  year  by  producing 
(i'^\  lbs.  of  milk  showing  a  3.9  butter  fat  test,  equivalent  to  2.47  lbs.  butter 
fat,  or  20.224  lbs.  of  commercial  butter  weekly.  Like  her  herd  mate, 
"  Pearl,"  she  was  bred  by  Mrs.  Smith  and  sold  at  the  high  figure  of 
^14,  which  was  a  record  for  Swan  Hill,  and  considered  ridiculous,  but 
Mr.  Hastings  has  never  regretted  his  bargain.  On  her  first  calf  she  gave 
up  to  50  lbs.  of  milk  daily.  "  Dulcie,"  a  medium  sized  cow,  of  an  even, 
quiet,  and  kind  temper,  with  light  bone,  and  carrying  no  surplus  flesh,  had 
had  only  6  weeks'  spell  before  calving,  and  had  been  in  milk  60  days 
when  tested.  She  was  got  by  the  same  Ayrshire  bull  as  the  winner,  and 
shows  a  good  deal  of  the  Ayrshire  type,  although  black  or  brown  and  white 
in  colour. 

Greatest  Weight  of  Milk. 

Section.  2  was  for  the  cow  giving  the  greatest  weight  of  milk  in  24 
hours.  The  first  and  second  prizes  went  to  the  same  cow?  and  in  the 
same  order  as  in  section  i,  with  the  third  prize  cow,  a  Jersey  and  Shorthorn 
cross,  18  lbs.  behind  the  winner. 

The  two  winning  cows  were  chiefly  run  on  a  growing  crop  of  oats, 
and  after  each  milking  were  given  a  little  damp  bran,  which  assisted 
them  materially.  The  rest  of  the  cows  competing  were  run  on  natural 
pastures,  as  well  as  lucerne.  Had  they  received  a  little  special  attention 
and  hand  feed  as  well,  no  doubt  some  of  them  would  ha\e  been  closer  up 
in  the  contest.  The  full  returns  from  the  whole  of  the  cows  competing 
are  as  follow  : — 


Milk,  lbs. 

Butter 

Butter 
Fat. 

Commercial 

Owner. 

few. 

in  24 

Fat 

Butter  p.T 

Hours. 

Test. 

Week. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

K.  Hastings    .  . 

"  Pearl  "      . . 

72 

3-6 

2  ■  59 

21-21 

K.  Hastings    .  . 

■•  Dulcie  "    .  . 

63  i 

3-9 

2-47 

20-224 

T.  Binns 

"  DoUv  "     . . 

43  i 

5-2 

2-20 

18-50 

r.JMciver 

••  Spot  "       .  . 

.50J 

4-2 

212 

17-36 

R.  Hastings    . . 

•■  Spot  "       .  . 

43 

4-4 

1-89 

15-47 

R.  Prince 

"  Darkey  " 

53  J 

3-4 

1-84 

15-06 

R.  Prince 

"  Jess  " 

47.1 

3-6 

1-71 

14-00 

R.  Prince 

"  Beaut V  " 

52 

3-0 

1-56 

12-77 

F.-Mclver 

"  Plum  "      . . 

46J 

3-0 

1  -41 

11-54 

R.  Prince 

••  Xancy  "    .  . 

m 

3-2 

1  -41 

11-54 

In  1 9 10,  eleven  cows  competed,  the  highest  butter  return  being 
16.986  or  4.182  lbs.  behind  this  year's  winner.  Tha  lowest  this  year 
was  1 1. 1 13  lbs.  of  butter,  while  last  year's  lowest  return  was  9-775,  being 
1.338  better  for  1911.  The  average  for  1910  was  15.171  lbs.,  and 
15.7   lbs.   for  191 1. 

The  greatest  weight  of  milk  given  by  one  cow  in  1910  was  63.75, 
while  in  1911  it  was  72  lbs.,  being  a  difference  of  8.25  lbs.  in  favour  of 
this  year's  winner.  The  lowest  weight  in  19 10  was  31I  lbs.,  while  in 
1911  the  lowest  was  43!  lb.,  being  12.25  l^s.  better  than  in  the  previous 
year.  The  average  weight  for  the  whole  of  the  cows  competing  was,  in 
1910,  41.25  lbs.,  and  51.56  lbs.  in  1911,  or  10.31  lbs.  in  favour  of  this 
year,  when  the  show  was  held  much  earlier  than  usual,  and  before  the 
lucerne  and  grasses  were  as  well  advanced. 


jc  April   19 12.]  Aiiimal  Grant  to  AgncnUural  Socictiis.  235 

Value  of  Irrigation  and  Lucerne. 

The  high  yields  of  these  cows  prove  plainly  the  special  value  of  the 
Northern  country  for  dairying  when  put  under  a  thorough  system  of 
irrigation,  and  sown  down  in  lucerne.  There  is  no  reason  why  all  of  the 
settlers  should  not  have  cows  competing  next  year,  and  keep  up  or  eclipse 
the  high  average  attained  this  year. 

The  best  of  the  Swan  Hill  flats  has  been  acquired  by  the  Lands  Pur- 
chase Board  for  closer  settlement  purposes,  and  has  been  subdivided  into 
blocks  containing  about  50  acres  each.  ■  This  land  is  equally  w^ell  suited 
for  citrus  fruit  growing,  and  will,  in  course  of  time,  return  a  large 
re\"enue  from  that  source  alone  to  the  occupiers. 

The  settlers  are  a  very  desirable  class  of  men  and  women,  who  are 
working  with  a  will.  Up  to  40  and  45  cows  are  being  carried  on  blocks 
of  53  acres  and  under,  and  throughout  the  winter  the  whole  of  the  stock 
were  in  splendid  condition.  A  better  class  of  dairy  cow  is  entering  the 
district  than  has  hitherto  been  seen  here.  The  Department  of  Agriculture 
is  doing  its  best  to  assist  the  settlers.  During  the  last  six  months  it  has 
purchased  four  pure  Jersey  bulls  and  one  Ayrshire  bull  from  leading  studs, 
and  located  them  amongst  the  settlers  at  Nyah  and  Swan  Hill,  where  they 
are  available  for  service  at  a  nominal  fee.  It  will  be  a  matter  of  only  a 
few  years  before  their  influence  will  be  felt  in  the  cream  results  from  their 
stock,  as  well  as  their  higher  value  in  the  open  market,  when  any  surplus 
stock  have  to  be  sold. 

So  well  have  the  settlers  taken  to  dairying  that  most  of  them  keep 
milk  charts,  and  numerous  applications  are  received  to  test  individual 
cows.  With  such  regular  attention,  and  the  growing  and  conservation  of 
fodder,   success  is  assured  to  the  settlers   in  the   Swan   Hill   district. 


ANNUAL  GRANT  TO  AGRICULTURAL  SO0JETIE8. 

AMENDED  REGULATIONS  FOR  1912. 

The  regulations  providing  for  the  conditions  hitherto  in  force  to 
qualify  for  participation  in  this  grant  have  been  amended.  Conditions  B, 
I  and  2  and  C  i  and  2  have  been  abolished,  but  condition  A  remains  as 
under : — 

The  awards  of  prizes  in  all  classes  for  stallions  three  years 
old  and  over  at  the  Society's  JShow  must  be  subject  to  the 
possession  by  the  exhibit  of  a  Government  certificate  of  soundness. 

Stallion  Inspection  Parades  will  be  held  at  different  centres  throughout 
the  State  prior  to  the  commicncement  of  the  Show  season  (Time  Table  of 
Stallion  Parades  for  1912  will  be  available  shortly  after  ist  April,  191 2). 
The  parade  centres  are  so  arranged  that  all  owners  of  Show  stallions  have 
the  opportunity  of  submitting  them  for  examination  for  the  Government 
Certificate  of  Soundness  before  the  closing  of  entries  for  the  Show.  Show 
Secretaries  will  require  to  obtain  evidence  of  the  possession  of  the  Govern- 
ment Certificate  in  respect  of  exhibits  at  the  time  of  entry,  and  should  not 
accept  entries  of  other  than  certificated  horses. 

Immediately  after  the  Show,  Secretaries  of  Societies  are  required  to 
forward  the  names  of  all  the   horses  that  have   won   the  prizes  in  stallion 

1  1 


2^6  j intnial  of  Agriculture.  Yicioria.  [lo   April.    1912. 


classes,    together   with    the    names    of    the    owners,     to    the    Director    ot 
Agriculture. 


The  new*  regulations  further  pro\ide,  in  lieu  of  the  compulsory  condi- 
tions concerning  the  holding  of  agricultural  classes  and  a  series  of  lec- 
tures, that  encouragement  shall  be  given  to  those  Agricultural  Societies 
which  carry  out  classes  or  lectures  by  providing  for  them  a  greater  pro- 
portional participation  in  the  grant.      Thus  :  — 

1. — Agricultural  Classes. 
A  sum  of  ^10  as  a  special  .subsidy  will  be  added  to  the  pro  raid  grant 
to  such  Societies  as  carry  out  agricultural  clas.ses  in  strict  conformity  with 
the  following  conditions  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Department:  — 

Applications  must  be  submitted  not  later  ilian  1st  Ma\\   jgi2. 

Thirtv  students  at  least  mast  be  enrolled  before  a  class  can  be  held. 

The  rent  of  hall  and  all  local  charges  are  to  be  paid  by  the  Agricul- 
tural Society ;  all  other  expenses  by  the  Department.  Arrangements  must 
be  made  to  insure  the  uninterrupted  use  of  the  hal)  during  the  tinte  the 
lectures  are  going  on. 

A  roll  of  attendances  at  lectures  and  demonstrations  shall  be  kept. 

The  agricultural  classes  will  extend  over  two  weeks,  five  days  a  week, 
a  demonstration  being  given  each  morning  and  afternoon,  and  fom* 
limelight  lectures  on  evenings  to  be  arranged  for  by  the  Secretary  of 
each  Society. 

At  the  conclusion  of  each  class,  a  written  examination  of  about  \\  houis 
duration  will  be  held,  a  medal  to  be  awarded  bv  the  Department  to  the 
student  in  each  district  obtaining  the  highest  number  of  marks  for  ex- 
amination work  and  regular  attendance  combined.  Two-thirds  of  the 
maximum  marks  obtainable  will  be  given  for  examination  work,  and  one- 
third  for  regular  attendance.  The  Department  reserves  the  right  to  with- 
draw the  offer  of  the  medals  in  the  event  of  there  being  less  than  five 
students  remaining:  for  examination.  Students  in  attendance  at  Agricul- 
tural Hifrh  Schools  and  Colleges,  or  at  the  Continuation  Schools,  and 
teachers  from  such  institutions  or  State  Schools  shall  not  be  allowed  to  sit 
for  such  examination. 

A  special  examination  for  the  Gold  Medal  offered  bv  the  Australian 
Natives"  Assocvation  will  be  held  at  tine  close  of  the  year,  and  only 
winners  of  Departmental  medals  will  l)e  eligible  to  compete  thereat. 

Subjects  of  First  Week. 
Agriculture. 
Live  Stock  and  Veterinary   Science. 

Subjects  of  Second  Week. 
Two  or  more  of  the  following,   to  be  .selected  : — (a)   Sheep   Breeding 
and  Management  (including  ^^'ool  Classing  and   Lambs   for   Export) ;   {b) 
Dairy    Farming    (including     Management     and     Breeding    of     Pigs) ;     {c) 
Poultry  Breeding  and  ^Linagement  ;  {d)  Orchard  and  Garden  Work. 

IL — Lectures. 
A  sum  of  ^5  as  a  special  subsidv  will  be  added  to  the  pro  rata  grant 
to  such   Societies   as   arrange   for   and   carrv   out   a   ser'ies  of   four   lectures 


lo  April    ioi^.]  Auiuial  Ciruiit  io  Ai^^ricidiural  Societies.  237 

throughout  the  year  in  strict  contormity  wirh  the  tollowing  comhtions  and 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Department  :  — 

Applications  must  he  sultmitted  not  hiter  than  1  st  May,  and  accompany- 
ing the  application  must  be  a  list  of  the  subjects  (see  l)elow)  which  the 
Society  chooses  for  the  series.  The  dates  of  lectures  will  then  be  fixed 
■by  the  Department,  and  if  Societies  will  state  the  most  suitable  seasons 
for  their  districts  the  lectures  will,  as  far  as  possible,  be  arranged  accord- 
ingly. 

An  attendance  of  at  least  fifteen  bona  fide  farmers,  farmers'  sons  or 
farm-hands  will  be  required,  otherwise  tht^  lecture  will  not  count  for  the 
special  subsidy. 

The  President  or  Secretary  or  a  member  of  the  Council  01  Committee 
of  the  Society  must  take  the  chair  at  each  lecture  and  must  certify  as  to 
ihe  number  and  bona  fides  of  the  attendance  as  above  required. 

The  rent  of  the  hall,  advertising  and  all  other  local  charges  are  to  be 
paid  by  the  Agricultural  Society  ;  all  other  expenses  by  the  Department. 

The  Department  will  recognise  any  suitable  lecture,  paper,  or  address 
that  a  Society  may  arrange  to  have  delivered  by  any  person  other  than  a 
Departmental  officer,  and  such  lecture  will  count  as  one  of  the  four  re- 
•fjuired,  provided  due  notification  prior  to  delivery  of  lecture  is  given, 
and  the  President  of  the  Society  afterwards  cenifies  as  to  bona  fides  and 
■suitability  of  the  lecture  and  the  number  and  character  of  the  attendance. 

SVN'OPSIS   OF   T.FCTURES   AND    DEMONSTRATIONS. 

Principles  of  Agriculture. 

r.  The  plant  food  of  the  sod. 

2.  Cultivation  methods  and  management. 

3.  Principles  of  manuring. 

4.  Valuation  of  artificial  manures. 

5.  The  management  of  the  farm. 

6.  Special   crops   and   catch   crops. 

■7.    Irrigation  principles  and  methods. 

Veterinary  Science  and  Live  Stock  Subjects. 

1.  The  structure  and  care  of  the  horse's  foot  (lantern). 

2.  Brood  mares  and  breeding  mishaps  (lantern). 

3.  Colic,  constipation,  and  other  bowel  complaints. 

4.  Ailments  of  dairy  cows — milk  fever,  impaction,  udder  complaints. 

5    Contagious     diseases     of     stock — abortion,     blackleg,     tuberculosis, 
anthrax,  pleuro  pneumonia,  &c. 

6.  Aihiients  of  swine,  or  ailm.ents  of  sheep. 

7.  Unsoundness  in  horses  (lantern). 

8.  Principles  of  stock  breeding — stud  horses. 

Dairy  Farminij. 

1.  Breeding  and  management. 

2.  Dairy  buildings. 

3.  Dairy  management. 

4.  Milk  and  cream  testing. 

5.  Foods  and  feeding. 

6.  Pig  breeding,  feeding,   and  m.inagement. 


238  Journal  of  Agricidliirc .   Victoria.  [10   April,    191 2., 

PouLTRV  Breeding  and  ^JANAGEMENT. 

1.  The    poultry    industry  :      its    importance.        Locality — suitability    or 

otherwise. 

2.  Housing    (construction    of,     materials,     insect    proof,     aspect,     &c.). 

How  to  select  stock. 

3.  Breeds:    payable   or   otherwise,    eggs    and    table.      Breeds    adaptec^' 

for  export — -modes  of  crossing. 

4.  Turkeys  :  their  care  and  management.      Chicken  raising  and  care. 

5.  Foods  and  feeding  demonstrated. 

6.  Common  ailments  of  poultry.      Incubation — natural  and  artificial. 

Orchard  and  Garden  Work. 

1.  Fruit    growing — Varieties    suitable    to   the    different    localities,    soils. 

and  sites. 

2.  Preparation  of  land — Planting  and  pruning. 

3.  Culti'vation — Manuring   and   management. 

4.  Insect  pests  and  fungus  diseases  and  their  treatment. 

Viticulture. 

1.  Wine  making. 

2.  Phylloxera  and  resistant  stocks — Preparation  of  land. 

3.  Propagation  and  grafting — Best  varieties  to  grow. 

4.  Pruning  and  seasonable  operations. 

5.  Wine-making  and  cellar  management. 

6.  Drying    raisins,    sultanas    and    currants — Packing    fresh    grapes    for 

export. 

7.  Vine  diseases  and  treatment. 

Potato  Culture. 

1.  The  soil  and  its  cultivation — Care  of  the  growing  crop,   manures. 

2.  Seed  and  its  selection — Keeping  of  seed  potatoes. 

3.  Diseases  and  their  treatment. 

Subjects  and  Siaff. 

Principles    of    Agriculture — Mr.   A.    E.   V.   Richardson,   M.A.,    B.Sc.  ;. 
Dr.  J.  W.   Paterson,  Ph.D.,  B.Sc;  and  Mr.  Temple  Smith. 

Veterinary   Science,    Stock   Management,    Dairy   Sanitation   and    Educa 
tion — Messrs.  Robertson,  Kendall,  Griffin,  Cother,  and  Johnstone. 

The  Dairying  Industry  and  Export  Trade — Messrs.  Crowe,  Archer,  and 
Carroll. 

Orchard  and  Garden  Work — ^lessrs.   Carmody  and   Pescott. 

vSheep  Breeding  and  Management — 

Viticulture — Mr.    F.    de  Castella. 

Flax  Culture  and  Demonstrations  at  Shows — Mr.  Knight  and  staff. 

Poultry  Breeding  and  Management — Mr.    H.   V.    PTawkins. 

Poultry  Dressing   Demonstrations — Mr.    A.    Hart. 

Potato  Culture — ^fr.  G.   Seymour. 

Tobacco  Culture — -^^r.   Temple  Smith. 

Pig  Breeding  and  Management — Mr.  R.  T.  Archer. 

Fruit  Industries — Mr.   J.   G.  Turner  and  staff. 

In.sect  Pests — Mr.   C.   French.  Junr. 

Plant  Diseases — Mr.  W.  Laidlaw  and  Mr.  C.   C.   Brittlebank. 

Irrigation — Expert  of   State  Rivers  and   Water  Supply   Commission. 


iic  Apr:'.   191  -•] 


TJie  Pis  Indusirv. 


239 


THE  PIG  INDUSTRY. 


{Continued  from  fj-ge  169.) 

R .  T.  Archer ,  Senior  Dairy  Insptctor. 

III.— BREEDS. 

VVe  have  now  to  consider  the  type  of  bacon  in  greatest  demand,  that 
.gives  the  highest  return,  and  liow  to  produce  it.  Years  ago  the  popular 
demand  was  for  heavy  fat  bacon  but  during  the  last  three  decades  the 
popular  taste  has  undergone  a  complete  change,  not  only  in  the  warmer 
climate  of  Australia  but  also  in  Britain,  and  now  the  requirement  is  young 
and  tender  bacon — juicy,  lean,  sweet,  mildcured.  Fortunately  for  the 
producer  this  is  what  should  return  the  greatest  profit,  for  the  light-weight 
pig    is    cheaper    to    produce    than   the    heavy-weight — for    two     reasons  : 


FIG.     12.     BERKSHIRE    EOAR,     •'lIIGHCLERE    TOPPER." 

rst — owuig  to  the  greater  powers  of  digestion  and  assimilation  of  the 
young  pig  a  greater  weight  of  meat  is  produced  from  a  given  weight  of 
food,  consequently  the  less  it  costs  to  produce;  2nd — the  lighter-weight 
pig  brings  the  highest  price  per  lb. 

In  this  country  the  most  popular  breed  has  been  the  Berkshire.  This 
breed  has  many  good  characteristics.  It  is  a  rapid  grower,  well  improved, 
which  enables  it  to  make  good  use  of  the  food  supplied,  and  it  can  be 
kept  ready  for  market  at  any  time  either  as  sucker,  porker,  or  baconer. 
Two  faults  of  the  Berkshire  lie  in  the  facts  that  they  average  small  litters 
(about  six)  and  they  produce  rather  too  great  a  proportion  of  fat  to  lean. 
There  are  strains  of  the  breed  however  that  average  litters  of  ten  or  twelve, 
and  those  are  the  pigs  to  breed  from,  provided  they  possess  the  good 
features  of  the  breed. 


240  Journal  of  AgriciiUiirc.  Yictoria.  [lo   April.    1912. 


FIG.     13.     VICTORIAN    BRED    BERKSHIRE    SOW. 


■I,     I'.i'l'K '-I  lll-'l"    1^0, \R. 


FIG.    15.     VICTORIAN  BRED   BERKSHIRE   SOW   WITH  LITTER. 


lo  April   191:;.]  T  lie  /Vc  Indusiry.  241 

The  "  Standard  of  I'.xcellence  "  adopted  by  the  Berkshire  Society  of 
Victoria,  as  published  in  the  first  volume  of  their  Herd  Book,  191 1,  is  as 
follows  : — 

Colour — Black,  with  wliite  on  face,  feet,  and  tip  of  tail. 

Skill — Fine,  and  free  from  wrinkles. 

Hair — Long,  fine,  and  plentiful.  "^ 

Head — Moderately  sliort.  face  dislied.  snout  broad  ;   and  wide  between  the  eyes  and  ear.s. 

Eir.s — -Fairly  large,  carried  erect  or  slightly  inclined  forward,  and  fringed  with  fine  hair. 

Xeck — Medium  length,  evenly  set  on  shoulders  ;    jowl  full,  and  not  heavy. 

Shoulders — Fine  and  well  sloped  backwards,  free  from  coarseness. 

Back — Long  and  straight,  ribs  well  sprung,  sides  deep. 

Haras — Wide  and  deep  to  hocks. 

Tail — Set  high,  and  fairly  large. 

Flank — Deep  and  well  let  down,  making  straight  iniderline. 

L?gs  and  feet — Short,  straight,  and  strong,  set  wide  apart,  and  hoofs  nearly  erect. 

^J'jjections — A  ]ierfectly  black  face,  foot,  or  tail ;    a  rose  back  ;    white  or  sandy  spots  or 
whit<?  skin  on  tlic  body  ;    a  white  ear;    a  very  coarse  mane,  and  inbent  knees. 


m^gm 

i^j^mm 

gjp^'* 

J 4 

^^^J 

^1^^ 

iJ^B 

■ 

-  .^ 

\ 

•    - 

■ 

r»- 

FIG.     16.     BERKSHIRE    SOW,     '"  MANOR   EMPRESS    QUEEN.'"' 

The  Large  ^VHITE  Yorkshire. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  large  White  Yorkshire  is  the 
breed  with  which  the  Danes  have  built  up  their  bacon  industry,  also  that 
many  other  European  countries  are  large  purchasers  of  the  breed  in 
England.  Jt  has  done  more  for  the  improvement  of  pigs  than  any  other 
breed.  In  1890,  the  Canadian  Government  introduced  pigs  to  its  Central 
Experimental  Farm,  the  breeds  first  introduced  being  Berkshire,  Large 
Yorkshire,  and  Essex.  Since  that  time  Chester  Whites,  Poland  Chinas. 
Tamworths.  Duroc  Jerseys,  and  Large  Blacks,  have  all  been  tested,  with 
the  result  that  the  only  breeds  now  kept  are  Large  Yorkshire,  Tamworths, 
and  Berkshiies  ;  the  others  having  been  found  more  or  less  faulty  for  the 
production  of  \Vilt.shire  bacon.  In  this  country  the  breeds  selected  bv 
the  Canadian  Government  have  proved  satisfactory,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Large  Yorkshire,  which,  I  believe,  is  only  to  be  found  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College.  Instead  of  the  Large  Yorkshire,  the  Middle  York- 
shire   is     largely   bred    here ;     it    makes  a   very   excellent    cross   with   the 


2  4-' 


Journal  of  Agricultiirc,  Victorui.  [lo   April,    1912, 


Berkshire,  although  the  large  Yorkshire  has  everywhere  proved  its- 
superiority  ;  and  in  all  those  countries,  especially  European,  where  the 
improvement  of  pigs  is  seriously  entered  upon,  the  Large  Yorkshire  is  the- 
most  favoured  breed. 


LARGE    WHITE    YORKSHIRE    SOW 


Large  Yorkshire. 


Scale  of  Points.     {By  Sanders  Spencer.) 


Colour — White,  freedom  from  blue  spots  on  skha  desirable 
Head — Long  and  light,  wide  between  the  ear.s 

d,  and  fringed  witli 


Ears— Thin,  long,  slightly  inclined  forwar 

Jowl — Small  and  light  . . 

Neck — Long  and  muscular 

Cliest — Wide  and  well  let  down  . . 

Shoulders — Oblique  and  narrow  on  toy 

Girth — Around  the  heart 

Back — Long  and  straight 

Sides — Deep     . . 

Ribs — Well  sprung 

Loin — Broad  and  not  droopmg   . . 

Belly — Full  and  thick,  with  at  least  twelve  teats    . . 

Flanks — Thick  and  well  let  down 

Quarters — Long,  wide,  and  straight  from  hip  to  tail 

Hams — Broad,  full,  and  meaty  to  the  hocks 

Tail — Set  on  high,  not  coar.se 

Legs — Straight,  with  flinty  flat  bone 

Ankles — Strong  and  compact 

Pasterns — Short  and  yet  springy 

Feet — Firm  and  strong 

Evenness — Freedom  from  wrinkles  on  skin 

Coat — Long,  straight,  and  silky  . . 

Action — Free,  clean,  and  not  rolling  in  hmdquarter 

Sj'mmetry— General  style  and  contour,  showing  evidence  of  cartful  breeding 


fine   hii 


100^ 


■fO    Al'RIL    1912.] 


The  Pig  Indusiry. 


245 


FIG.    19.     LAKGL:    will  IK    VORKSIIIKI-     B'JAI 


FIG.     20.    MIDDLE    YORKSHIRE    BOAR,     "  JUMBUNNA's    PRIDE." 
lit  prize  Royal  Agricultural  Show   Melbourne,  1911 — uuiler  15  iiiOiltLs. 


244 


Journal  of  AgricuUiirc,  Victoria.  [lo  April,    1912. 


Ohjection>i . 
Head — Narrow  forehead  or  short  pug  nose. 
Ears. — Thick,  coarse,  or  much  inclined  forward. 
Jowl — Fat  and  fuU. 
Neck — Short  and  very  tliick. 

Chest. — Narrow,  with  botli  forelegs  apparently  coming  from  almost  the  same  jioint. 
Shoulders — Coarse,  heavy,  wide,  and  open  on  the  top. 
Girth — Liglit  round  the  heart,  and  foreflank  light. 
Back — Weak  and  hollow  when  the  ])ig  is  standing  at  rest. 
Sides — Shallow,  not  well  let  down  between  the  forelegs. 
Ribs — Flat  and  short  curved  ;   light  back  rib. 
Loin — Narrow  and  weak. 

Belly — Flaccid  or  wantmg  in  muscle,  or  gutty  or  ])odgy. 
Fla,nk — Thm,  and  not  well  let  down. 
Quarters — Short,  narrow,  or  droopmg. 

Hams — Narrow,  wantmg  in  depth  or  deficiency  of  muscle  in  second  thigh. 
Tail — Coarse,  and  set  on  low. 

Legs — Crooked,  weak,  and  with  round  and  coarse  bone. 
Ankles — Extra  large,  round,  and  weak. 
Feet — Flat,  splayed,  and  e.xtra  wide  and  large. 
Evenness — Wrmkles  on  sides,  neck,  or  shoulders. 

Coat — Coarse,  curly,  bristly,  or  mangy,  with  frmge  along  top  of  neck  or  shoulders. 
Action — Sluggish  and  clumsy. 

Symmetry — Predominance  of  certain  points,  especially  heavy  shoulders  or  forequarters 
generally,  with  weak  loins  and  light  hams. 

Disqualifications. 

Colour— Black  hairs  or  black  spots. 

Boars — Rupture,  one  testicle  only  down. 

Sows — Deficiency  in  or  very  irregularly  placed  or  blind  teats,  injured  or  diseased  udder. 


FIG.     21.    MIDDLE    YORKSHIRE   SOW,    "  LADY-BIRD. " 
t'himpiou  Royal  Agricultural  Show,  Melbourne,  1911. 


The  "  Standard  of  Excellence"  for  Middle  White  Yorkshire. 
(Yorksliire  Herd  Book  of  Victoria.) 

Colour — White,  fi'eedom  from  blue  spots. 

Hair — Long,  plentiful,  and  silky. 

Head — Short  and  light,  wide  between  ears  and  eyes,  face  slightly  dished. 

Ears — -Medium,  carried  erect,  slightly  inclined  forward,  fringed  with  fine  hair. 

Shoulders — Well  sloped  backward  and  free  from  coarseness. 

Chest — Wide,  and  well  let  down. 

Neck — -Medium  length,  evenly  set  on  shoulders,  jowl  full  and  not  heavy. 

Back — Long  and  straight,  sides  deep,  ribs  well  sprung. 

Loin — Broad,  and  not  drooping. 

Belly — Full,  thick,  with  at  least  twelve  teats. 

Fla-ik— Thick  a-id  w°ll  let  down. 


lo  April   191  j. 


The  Pix  Indusi'i 


-45 


Haras — Broad,  full,  and  meaty  to  hocks. 

Tail — Set  on  hi<rh,  and  not  coarse. 

Leg.s — Short,  .straight,  a^id  strong  ;    feet  firm  and  .strong,  lioofs  nearly  ereet. 

Acti-jn — Free,  clean,  and  not  rolling  in  hiiid<iuari;ei.s. 


FIG.     22.     VORRSniRE    .SOW    "  AURUM   '  '     .\.\ 


FIG.    23.     MIDDLE   YORKSHIRES VICTTiKiAX    MRED. 


■  ^■^ 


FIG.     24.     TA.MWOKXil    SOW,    '''  WHITEACRE    BEAUTY. 


246  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [10   April,    1912. 

The  Tamworth. 
{By  Sanders  Spencer.) 


PoLats 
o 
4 
3 
2 
3 
5 
4 
4 
8 
6 
4 
3 
4 
7 
8 
3 
0 
4 
2 

3 
2 
3 
3 
4 

Too 


■Colour — Golden  red,  without  ble^ck  spots. . . 

Head — Long,  snout  straight,  wide  between  the  ears 

Ears — Thin,  pricked  and  fringed  with  fine  hair 

Jowl — Small  and  light  . . 

Neck — -Long  and  muscular 

'Cnest — Wide  and  well  let  down  .  . 

S'loulders — -Oblique  and  narrow  on  top     . . 

■Girth — Aroimd  the  heart 

Si'.les — Deep  and  long    . . 

Ribs— Well  sprang 

Loin — Wide  and  strong,  not  drooping 

Bjlly — Full  and  thick,  with  straight  imderline,  and  at  least  twelve  teats 

Flank^Tliick  and  well  let  down 

Quarters — Long,  wide  and  straight  from  hip  to  tail 

Hams — Broad,  full,  and  meaty  to  the  hocks 

Tail — Set  on  higli,  not  coarse 

I,3gg — Straight  and  with  flinty  flat  bone  . . 

Ankles — Strong  and  compact 

Pasterns— Short  and  yet  springy 

Feet — Firm  and  strong,  not  splayed 

Evenness — Freedom  from  wrinkles  in  skin 

Coat — Long,  straight,  and  silky  .  . 

Action — -Free  and  clean  .  .  •  • 

Symmetry — General  style  and  contour  givmg  evidence  of  good  breeding 

O'jjedions.  

H3ad — Narrow  forehead  or  upturned  nose. 

Firs — Tnick  and  coarse,  or  inclined  forward. 

J  5wl — Tnick  and  coarse,  fat  and  full. 

Ribs— Flat  or  short  curved  ;   light  back  ribs. 

L)in — Narrow  or  weak. 

Billy— Flaccid  or  wanting  in  muscle,  gutty  or  pjdgy. 

Disqw.difjcations. 
Colour — Black  hairs  or  black  patches  on  the  skin. 
Bsars^Rupture  ;   one  testicle  only  down. 
Sjw-3. — Deficiency  in  or  very  irregularly  placed  or  blmd  teats. 

The  Large  Black. 

Scale  of  Points  formulated  by  the  Large  Black  Pig  Society. 

Head — Medium  length,  and  wide  between  the  ears  . .  . .  . .  5 

Ears — Long,  thin,  and  inclined  well  over  the  face  . .  . .  . .  . .  6 

Jowl — Medium  size         . .              . .              •  ■              •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  ^ 

Neck — Fairly  long  and  muscular                 . .              •  •  •  •  •  ■  •  •  3 

Chest — Wide  and  deep  . .              .  .              •  •              •  •  ■  •  •  ■  •  •  -^ 

Shoulders — Oblique,  with  narrow  plate      . .              . .  . .  ■  •  •  •  *> 

Back— Long  and  level  (rising  a  little  to  centre  of  back  not  objected  to)  . .  12 

Sides — Very  deep            ..              •■              ••              ••  ■•  ••  ••  1*_* 

Ribs— Well  sprmig         . .              ■  •              •  •              •  •  •  ■  •  •  •  •  -l 

Loin — Broad    . .              . .              •  ■              ••              •  •  •  ■  •  •  •  ■  '^ 

Quarters — Long,  wide,  and  not  drooping  . .              . .  •  •  •  ■  ■  •  ^ 

Hams — Large  and  well  filled  to  hocks        .  .              . .  •  ■  •  •  •  -  10 

Tail — Set  high,  and  not  coarse     .  .              . .              •  ■  •  •  •  •  •  •  ^ 

Legs — Short  and  straight              . .              •  •              •  ■  •  •  •  •  •  ■  ^ 

Belly  and  Flank— Thick  and  well  filled      .  .              . .  •  •  •  •  •  •  8 

Skin — Fme  and  soft       .  .              . .              . .              •  •  ■  ■  •  •  •  •  •* 

Goat— Moderate  quantity  of  straiglit  silky  hair       . .  . .  . .  . .       4 

100 

Objection-^.  

Head — Narrow  forehead  or  dished  nose. 
Firs — Thick,  coarse,  or  ]iricked. 
Coat — Coarse  or  curly,  bristly  mane. 

Disqualifications. 

Any  other  colour  than  black. 


lo  April   19 12.]  The  Pig  Industry. 


FIG.    25.     TAMWORTH    EOAR,    "mIDDLETOX    MINSPRING. 


FIG.    26.     L.\RGE   BL.ACK    SOW".    ■'   H.V.SKETON   LONG   LADY, 


"rWIgiP^nKP^ 


FIG.     27.    LARGE    BLACK    BOAR,         ROYAL    BODMIN. 


248  Journal  of  Agriculture.  Yicforia.  [10  April,    1912. 

Herd-book  entries. — The  Regulations  for  tlie  registration  of  lx)ars  and 
sows  provide  that  no  boar  or  sow  is  eligible  for  registration  if  known  to 
have  a  cross  of  any  ether  breed  within  four  generations,  or  if  showing  any 
white  spot  or  mark.  The  name  and  registered  number  of  the  sire  and  dam 
must  be  stated,  and  a  distinctive  ear-mark  must  be  given  to  each  animal 
entered  for  registration.  In  the  case  of  animals  entered  by  persons  other 
than  the  breeder,  the  correctness  of  the  pedigree  must  (if  required)  be 
certified  by  the  signature  of  the  breeder.  Applications  for  registration 
are  received  subject  to  inspection  of  the  animals  entered,  if  deemed 
necessary.  All  entries  must  be  made  on  the  Society's  printed  form,  and 
must  be  accompanied  bv  the  necessary  fees  as  follows  : — Members. — Re- 
gistration fees  :  Boars.  5s.  per  head  ;  sows,  2s.  6d.  per  head.  Non-Mem- 
bers.— Boars  :  los.  per  head.  Boars  and  sows  must  be  entered  for 
registration  at  time  of  service,  or  at  not  exceeding  twelve  months  from  date 
of  birth.  Double  fees  wil]  be  charged  for  registration  of  animals  exceeding 
the  age  of  twelve  months  at  time  of  entry. 

Selection  of  Boar. 

In  breeding,  the  selection  of  the  boar  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  as 
he  directly  influences  every  pig  one  may  have  to  fatten,  and  it  depends 
on  his  breeding,  verv  largely,  whether  or  not  the  pigs  can  make  profitable 
use  of  the  food  given  to  them.  As  in  the  case  of  all  sires  the  boar  should 
be  pure  bred,  of  ai)proved  strain  both  with  regard  to  capacity  to  put  on  ilesh 
rapidly,  and  to  influence  the  sow  in  the  production  of  large  litters,  for 
certain  it  is  that  the  boar  does  exerci.se  that  influence,  and  in  proportion 
to  his  breeding. 

Bacon  Tvpe  of  Boar. 

We  have  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  object  in  view  is  the  procluc.ion  of 
pigs  that  will  give  the  greatest  weight  of  lean  meat  in  those  parts  which 
bring  the  highest  price  in  the  market.  All  meat  in  front  of  the  girth  is  of 
comparatively  low  value,  so  the  less  we  have  there  the  better  as  long  as  the 
conformation  is  consistent  with  constitutional  development.  The  boar 
should  have  a  masculine  appearance,  forelegs  set  wide  apart;  thick  throngh 
the  heart  or  behind  the  elbow  ;  deep  from  top  to  bottom  behind  the  shoulder, 
full  behind  the  shoulder,  giving  good  heart  girth;  jowl  broad  and  strong, 
but  not  fat  and  flabby  ;  forehead  Vjroad,  and  poll  broad  and  full  ;  neck  of 
medium  length,  stronglv  muscled  but  not  showing  heavy  crown  of  fat; 
eye  large,  full,  and  bright  (this  denotes  sexual  energy)  ;  general  appear- 
ance alert  and  active.  The  shoulder  should  l>e  compact  on  the  top,  and 
blend  well  with  the  top  line  and  ribs  at  this  point;  an  upright  shoulder, 
from  a  bacon  producer's  point  of  view,  is  not  regarded  as  a 
serious  objection  ;  the  lengthening  from  the  back  of  the  shoulder 
to  the  ham,  gives  the  largest  development  where  the  meat  is 
most  valuable;  ribs  well  sprung,  arching  out  l>oldly  from  the 
backbone,  then  dropping  suddenly,  almost  vertical!) ,  givmg  a  flat 
straight  side.  This  is  most  important,  indicating  strong  development  of 
muscle  along  the  back,  and  muscle  is  lean  meat.  The  top  line  should  rise 
very  slightly  above  the  straight  line,  giving  a  very  slight  arch,  the  highest 
point  being  over  the  loin  ;  back  medium  and  uniform  width  throughout  ; 
loin  same  width  as  the  back,  full,  strong,  and  heavily  muscled;  rump  same 
width  as  the  back  and  loin,  slightlv  rounded  from  side  to  side  over  the 
top  and  from  hips  to  tail  ;  ham  should  taper  towards  the  hock,  and  carry 


lo  April   1912.]  77;c  Pii^  /iidiisi'rv.  249 

flesh  well  down  towxinls  the  hock,  especially  on  the  inside;  underline  trim 
and  straight,  no  tendency  towards  a  sagging  l)elly  ;  hind  flanks  full,  giving 
a  g<x>d  thickness  of  meat  at  this,  point;  legs  of  medium  length,  bone  clean 
and  flattish  in  appearance  (rough  puff'y  legs  are  very  undesirable)  ;  pasterns 
should  be  upright,  causing  the  animal  tt)  walk  <jn  the  toes.  Pigs  with 
weak  pasterns  should  not  l)e  bred  from.  Hair  abundant,  but  fine,  straight, 
and  silky.  A  row  of  bristles  along  the  top  of  the  neck  and  shoulders  is 
extremely  objectionable.  Carriage  easy,  walking  without  apparent  exertion 
and  without  a  swaying  movement. 

In  selecting  a  boar  it  should  be  from  a  large,  and  above  all,  even 
litter,  which  is  a  good  indication  of  prepotency  on  the  influence  of  blood. 

-Mr.  Sanders  Spencer,  the  noted  English  breeder,  says  with  regard  to 
this  : — "  Although  some  persons  make  mere  size  a  great  point  when 
choosing  a  boar,  our  experience  leads  us  to  consider  this  to  be  a  mistake; 
a  very  large  boar  seldom  lasts  long;  he  becomes  too  heavy  for  the  sows; 
he  probablv  proves  to  be  slow,  and  his  litters  few  and  small  in  number. 
A  very  large  and  heavy  boar  is  also  more  likely  to  suffer  from  weakness 
of  the  spine  or  hindquarters,  and  is  frequently  weak  in  his  joints,  and 
crooked  in  his  legs.  These  latter  failings  especially  should  Lm?  avoided, 
as  they  are  hereditary,  and  will  frequently  crop  up  for  several  generations. 
Weakness  of  ankles  and  roundness  of  bone,  two  qualities  which  should  be 
avoided  in  a  sire,  are  often  allied  with  great  size.  A  medium,  compact 
boar,  heavv  in  the  hindquarters,  and  light  in  the  forequarters,  will  fre- 
quently continue  fruitful  for  at  least  twice  as  long  as  will  the  heavy 
shouldered  and  coarse  boned  boar.  Nearly  all  of  the  most  successful 
pigs  have  been  on  a  small  rather  than  a  large  scale." 

The  boar  should  be  purchased  from  a  breeder  of  repute,  thus  insuring 
that  the  pedigree  of  the  animal  will  be  reliable,  and  of  value.  The  longei 
the  pedigree  the  surer  will  be  the  result,  and  .so  even  greater  care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  he  is  of  proper  conformation.  If  he  is  a  bad  one  he  will 
just  as  surelv  leave  his  imprint  on  his  offspring.  If  one  is  not  sure  of  his 
own  judgment,  or  has  not  had  sufficient  experience,  the  advice  and  assist- 
ance of  a  good  judge  should  be  secured.  When  we  see  what  the  pig  i»> 
in  a  state  of  nature,  and  know  that  neglect  brings  about  verv  rapid 
degeneration,  it  should  make  us  extremely  careful  in  the  selection  of  the 
boar.  The  sexual  organs  should  be  well  developed.  This  dentites  con- 
stitutional vigour.  Never  use  a  ruptured  pig  nor  one  with  only  one  testicle 
showing.  These  conditions  are  hereditary.  A  ruptured  pig  may  be 
castrated  in  the  ordinary  Avay,  provided  a  few  stitches  are  inserted  in  the 
purse,  but  the  animal  with  only  one  testicle  showing  is  very  difficult  to 
treat.  On  no  account  use  a  savage  or  bad  tempered  boar,  for  besides 
being  a  continual  menace  to  his  attendants  and  to  live  stock,  his  offspring 
will  be  restless,  unsettled,  and  slow  feeders.  The  old  proverb  "a  con- 
tented mind  is  a  continual  feast  "  applies  undoubtedly  to  the  pig.  and  the 
be.st  feeders  are  those  that  do  not  waste  their  food  and  energy  in  uselessly 
tearing  about,  but  feed  and  rest  most  of  the  time  between  meals.  The 
teats  in  the  lioar  are  also  of  great  importance,  they  should  be  of  full 
number  and  well  de\eloped.  Sows  with  undeveloped  udders  should  not  be 
bred  from  as  the  defect  is  hereditary. 

Management  of  the  Boar. 
On  this  point  we  cannot  do  better  than  quote  Mr.  Sanders  Spencer,  as 
he  is  one  of  the  leading  and  most  successful  breeders.      "  We  hold  strongly 


250  Journal  of  Agriculture.  Yictoria.  [10  April,    1912. 

to  the  belief  that  it  is  advisable  to  select  the  boar  when  it  is  young;  if 
it  be  possible  to  see  it  on  its  dam,  and  to  see  its  sire,  so  much  the  better. 
We  will,  therefore,  assume  that  the  delivery  of  the  boar  follows  the 
weaning  of  it.  It  should  be  placed  with  other  pigs  of  about  the  same 
age,  and  fed  generously  on  pollard  with  a  little  barley  meal  added ;  this 
two  or  three  times  a  day ;  and  then  between  the  morning  and  the  midday 
meal  give  them  a  few  peas  ox  a  little  whole  wheat  or  oats.  If  skim  milk 
can  be  obtained,  the  young  pigs  will  pay  as  much  for  it  as  will  any  other 
kind  of  stock,  and  further,  they  will  make  far  greater  progress  with  than 
without  it.  A  run  in  a  small  paddock  or  enclosure  for  a  few  minutes  each 
day  will  help  to  keep  the  pigs  in  health.  This  system  may  be  followed 
until  the  young  boar  is  some  five  months  old,  when  any  unspayed  sow  pigs 
in  the  lot  should  be  weeded  out ;  the  food  may  be  increased  in  richness  by 
the  addition  of  more  meal,  without  any  fear  of  the  boar  becoming  too  fat, 
provided  sufficient  exercise  be  allowed ;  this  is  most  important,  as  good 
feet  and  ankles  can  only  be  retained  in  this  way,  and  further,  as  soon  as 
the  boar  has  been  used,  it  is  seldom  possible  or  advisable  to  allow  him 
much    liberty." 

As  strength  of  bone  without  coarseness  is  a  most  desirable  feature, 
the  best  way  to  obtain  this  is  by  mixing  with  the  feed  daily  about  a 
tablespoonful  of  bone  meal.  Repeated  trials  have  demonstrated  that  the 
density  or  breaking  strength  of  the  bones  in  those  pigs  fed  bone  meal  is 
more  than  double  that  of  those  not  fed  bone  meal.  If  the  boar  has  been 
well  reared  he  may  be  used  for  service  at  eight  months,  sometimes  they 
are  used  before  that  age.  It  is  a  mistake  to  let  him  run  with  the  sows, 
the  litters  are  smaller,  and  not  so  strong,  and  the  vigour  of  th^boar  is 
impaired  from  the  too  frequent  service  of  the  sows.  He  shoulcf  be  kept 
in  a  special  enclosure;  when  the  sow  has  been  in  use  a  day  or  two  put 
her  into  the  boar's  sty,  and  remove  her  after  one  complete  service.  Care 
must  be  taken  in  handling  the  boar,  never  trust  him,  but  don't  ill-use  him. 
Under  this  system  a  boar  will  serve  fifty  sows  in  a  season,  and  they  are 
known  to  work  up  to  150.  The  food  requirements  of  the  boar  depend 
largely  on  his  age,  and  the  amount  of  work  he  has  to  perform.  He  must 
be  kept  in  a  vigorous  healthy  condition,  not  allowed  to  get  too  fat.  If 
he  has  plenty  of  clover  or  lucerne  he  will  require  very  little  grain.  The 
more  work  he  has  to  do  the  more  grain  feed  will  he  require.  If  he  is 
used  too  frequently  the  litters  may  be  fewer  in  number  and  less  vigorous, 
but  on  the  other  hand  a  long  rest  is  not  likely  to  be  productive  of  the  best 
results.  The  generative  organs  are  in  th^  most  healthy  condition  when  in 
regular  use.  If  carefully  managed  the  boar  may  give  satisfaction  for 
eight  years  or  more.  When  finished  with  the  cheapest  way  of  disposing  of 
him  is  to  destroy  and  bury  him,  for  it  will  not  pay  to  fatten  him. 

Selection  of  the  Sow. 

The  sow  need  not  necessarily  be  pure  bred  provided  she  is  of  a  good 
type.  She  should  bo  selected  from  a  prolific  mother,  as  fecundity  is 
hereditary.  The  teats  should  number  at  least  twelve,  fully  developed 
(any  with  defective  teats  should  be  discarded),  set  well  apart,  even  in  size, 
and  the  front  teats  well  forward  on  the  body.  The  number  of  teats  does 
net  indicate  always  the  number  of  pigs  she  is  likely  to  have.  Sometimes- 
sows  with  ten  or  eleven  teats  will  have  big  litters. 


lo  April   191^]  The  Pig  Indusiry. 


]5acon  Type  of  Sow. 
The  head,  neck,  shoulder  and  bone  should  be  liner  than  in  the  boar, 
^Tud  except  for  these  points  the  description  of  the  boar  will  apply  to  the 
sow.  Extremes  should  be  avoided.  A  long,  scrawny  neck,  narrow  chest, 
iind  long  coarse  legs  indicate  a  slow  feeder  and  an  undesirable  quality  of 
bacon.  The  carcase  of  such  an  animal  contains  too  much  bone,  is  deficient 
in  muscle,  or  lean  meat.  The  thick  short  type  is  also  undesirable,  the  best 
bacon  type  being  between  the  two  extremes.  Weak  bones  which  tend  to 
break  down  at  the  pasterns  should  not  be  tolerated.  The  bone  should  be 
■clean  and  strong,  not  coarse,  there  should  be  enough  of  it  to  insure  a 
good  sized  animal.  An  overgown  or  clumsy  sow  should  not  be  used,  and 
a  savage  animal  should  be  got  rid  of,  for  often  it  is  necessary  to  be  in 
the  sty  with  her  for  various  purposes,  and  if  she  is  bad  tempered  there 
is  risk  of  loss  of  young,  and  she  will  not  milk  so  well. 

Management  of  the  Sow. 
Having  chosen  the  young  sow^,  she  must  be  well  reared  to  develop  her 
into  the  best  frame  possible.  Many  people  breed  the  young  sow  at  six 
months  old,  but  this  is  not  advisable,  as  it  is  more  than  likely  that  her 
growth  will  be  checked  to  such  an  extent  as  to  materially  lessen  her  value 
as  a  brood  sow.  If  she  is  put  to  the  boar  at  eight  or  ten  months  old  the 
result  will  be  more  satisfactory.  If  the  first  service  is  not  successful,  she 
will  return  in  three  weeks.  The  period  of  gestation  is  sixteen  weeks. 
The  variation  being  comparatively  slight.  Old  or  weakly  sows  frequently 
])ig  a  few  days  before,  but  those  in  fair  condition  usually  pig  on  the  112th 
day.  A  strong  and  vigorous  sow  may  go  a  day  or  two  over.  She  mav  run  out 
in  a  grass,  clover  or  lucerne  paddock  until  w-ithin  a  few  days  of  farrow-ing, 
when  she  may  be  put  in  a  sty.  The  sows  are  more  healthy  running  in  a 
paddock  than  kept  in  a  sty,  getting  plenty  of  exercise  and  green  food,  and 
it  is  the  cheapest  way  of  working  them.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  sow 
Jias  plenty  of  food  to  enable  her  to  keep  up  her  own  condition,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  develop  her  young.  In  the  paddock  she  must  be  pro- 
vided with  shade,  shelter,  and  water,  especially  shade  and  water  in  the 
summer.  The  approaching  parturition  is  generally  preceded  by  enlargement 
of  the  vulva,  the  distension  of  the  udder,  and  the  giving  way  of  the 
muscles  on  either  side  of  the  tail.  As  soon  as  the  udder  becomes  smooth 
and  heated,  and  milk  can  be  drawn  from  the  teats  by  the  pressure  of  the 
thum  and  forefinger,  the  arrival  of  the  pigs  may  be  confidently  looked  for 
within  the  next  twelve  hours,  unless  it  be  a  first  litter,  when  the  rule  will 
not  hold  good. 

A  few  days  before  she  is  due  to  farrow  she  may  be  put  into  a  roomy 
sty,  10  feet  square,  with  a  yard  for  exercise,  will  be  sufficiently  large, 
with  a  guard  rail  all  round  9  inches  from  the  floor  and  9  inches  from  the 
wall,  and  provided  with  a  limited  quantity  of  short  litter.  An  hour  or 
two  before  farrowing  she  will  begin  to  prepare  her  nest,  and  she  should 
then  be  continually  watched  to  prevent  overlaying  any  of  the  little  ones 
• — which  may  be  taken  away  as  they  appear,  first  being  rubbed  with  .a 
cloth,  put  to  the  teat  to  get  a  taste  of  the  milk,  and  then  placed  in  a  box 
in  which  some  dry  straw  has  been  laid.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  cover  the 
box  with  a  bag.  If  any  of  the  pigs  get  a  chill  and  turn  cold,  limp  and 
damp,  a  teaspoonful  of  spirit  will  help  to  revive  them,  and  a  suck  at  the 
teat   will   complete  the  cure.     The   little   pig   will   often   give   a   peculiar 


252  journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [10   April,    igi2, 

squeal  which  indicates  that  it  is  approaching  a  condition  of  helpless  uncon- 
sciousness. There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  how  many  pigs  a  sow 
should  be  "allowed  to  rear.  It  is  generally  considered  bv  those  of  the 
greatest  experience  that  seven  or  eight  for  a  first  litter,  and  ten  to  twelve 
for  mature  sows  are  sufficient.  Many  pick  the  best  up  to  the  required 
number,  and  either  destroy  the  rest  or  rear  them  by  hand,  or  it  may  so 
happen  that  they  may  be  reared  on  another  sow,  the  litter  of  which  is 
short  of  the  desired  number.  As  a  rule  the  placenta  will  come  away 
shortly  after  the  last  pig,  and  it  should  be  removed  right  aw\^y  at  once. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  a  little  pig's  teeth  are  so  sharp  and  long  that  it 
pricks  and  hurts  the  sow  so  much  that  she  will  refuse  to  allow  them  to 
suckle.  This  often  causes  serious  trouble,  and  the  little  ones  should  be 
examined,  and  the  offending  teeth  removed.  To  remo\'e  the  teeth  take 
the  pig  under  the  left  arm,  open  the  mouth  with  the  left  nand,  and  with 
the  right  hand  and  a  small  [)air  of  pinchers  break  off  the  offending  teeth, 
and  place  the  pig  back  to  the  teat.  A  little  coaxing  and  scratching  will 
make  the  sow  lie  down,  and  the  pigs  will  then  soon  relieve  the  distended 
and  inflamed  udder,  giving  her  comfort,  and  there  will  be  no  more  trouble 
from  that  source.  If  the  noise  of  the  little  pigs  squealing  excites  the 
sow,  take  them  out  of  hearing.  When  the  sow's  pen  is  cleaned  out  the  bed 
should  not  be  disturbed  as  it  unsettles  her. 

As  a  rule  the  sow  will  not  have  much  difficult\'  in  farrowing,  and,  if 
possible,  it  is  better  that  she  should  do  so  unaided  If  she  is  an  excep- 
tionally long  time  in  starting,  or  if  there  is  a  long  interval  after  the  first 
portion  of  the  litter  arrives,  and  the  sow  appears  to  be  in  pain,  the  hand 
should  be  smeared  with  carbolic  oil  and  gently  inserted,  and  if  a  pig  is 
presented  crosswise  it  should  be  gently  presse-d  back  into  the  womb  and 
turned,  or  if  the  head  is  presented  it  may  be  taken  away  gently.  Should 
the  little  one  have  difficulty  in  getting  its  breath,  open  the  mouth  and 
blow  down  the  throat.  If  the  pigs  are  not  removed  as  they  arri\e  they 
may  be  placed  to  a  teat,  and  will  imroediately  commence  to  suckle,  and 
will  nestle  up  to  the  mother,  and  the  heat  of  her  body  will  help  to  keep 
them   warm. 

In  two  or  three  days  the  little  ones  will  be  strong  enough  to  take  care 
of  themselves.  The  health  of  the  sow  must  be  carefully  wntchefl,  and 
any  indications  of  constipation  corrected  at  once.  3  oz.  of  sulphur  and 
a  pinch  of  nitre  may  be  mixed  in  the  food  as  a  corrective.  As  soon  as 
she  will  take  it  a  warm  slop  of  bran  and  milk  should  be  given.  Her 
feed  for  four  weeks  should  be  in  a  sloppy  condition,  consisting  of  bran 
and  pollard  with  skim  milk  if  available.  If  whev  is  u.sed  it  should  be 
.scalded,  or  it  may  have  the  effect  of  producing  diarrhoea  in  the  young  pigs. 
The  condition  of  the  excreta  is  one  of  the  best  indications  of  the  health 
of  the  pig,  and  this  should  neither  be  hard  formed  nor  yet  liquid.  Either 
of  these  conditions  requires  immediate  attention  ;  to  a  very  large  extent 
the  disability  may  be  regulated  by  the  proportion  of  bran  in  the  food. 
A  few  hours  after  farrowing,  if  her  bowels  and  other  organs  are  not 
acting  healthily,  the  .sow  should  be  given  a  little  gentle  exercise. 

A  sow  may  be  managed  to  bear  five  litters  in  two  years,  but  this  is 
not  advisable;  two  litters  a  year  will  be  more  satisfactory.  The  main  object 
now  is  to  bring  the  young  along  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  that  can  only 
be  done  by  feeding  the  sow  for  production  of  milk.  In  three  or  four 
weeks  the  little  pigs  may  be  taught  to  drink  from  a  small  trough,   fenced 


lo   Ai'RiL    iQi:;-]  TJic  ^^/i;  Iiidusiry.  253 

awav  from  the  sow  so  tliat  tlie  littlu  ones  can  run  under  the  rails  ;  skim- 
milk  to  commence  with,  and  then  a  little  pollard  added.  Any  males  not 
required  for  breeding  should  be  operated  upon  at  as  early  an  age  as 
possible,  say  at  two  or  three  weeks  old.  The  longer  it  is  delayed  the 
worse  the  effect  on  the  i)ig.  Great  care  must  be  taken  with  regard  to 
cleanliness.  The  parts  and  instruments  should  be  cleansed  with  an  anti- 
.septic  such  as  li  to  2  per  cent,  solution  of  lysol.  Hundreds  of  farmers  take 
no  sanitary  precautions  whatever,  and  probably  lose  no  pigs,  but  rne  has  only 
to  pay  a  visit  to  the  public  abattoirs  to  see  that  the  effect  of  this  neglect 
is  often  the  loss  and  destruction  of  much  valuable  meat.  The  little  extra 
care  does  not  make  many  seconds  difference  in  the  time  required  for  the 
operation.  In  England  the  female  pigs  not  required  for  breeding  pur- 
poses are  spayeil,  which  improves  them  for  fattening  and  curing.  The 
little  ones  may  be  weaned  at  six  to  eight  weeks.  The  sow.  if  in  good 
condition,  may  come  in  season  in  about  three  days  after  they  are  removed. 
If  she  has  suckled  herself  into  a  low  condition,  it  may  be  necessary  lo 
miss  once  or  twice  before  sending  to  the  boar,  or  a  good  plan  is  to  leave 
the  young  with  her  a  while  longer.  This  often  results  in  benefit  to  both 
sow  and  pigs,  and  the  trouble"  wdiich  somietimes  follows  from  a  rest  from 
breeding,  of  getting  the  sow  in  pig  when  she  is  mated,  is  avoided.  When 
there  is  trouble  in  getting  the  sow  to  breed,  particularlv  if  she  has  put  on 
too  much  condition,  it  may  often  be  overcome  by  feeding  rich  lather  than 
bulky  food,  for  instance,  a  few  beans  or  peas  will  prove  far  more  suitable 
food  for  a  sow  about  to  be  put  to  the  boar  than  a  comparatively  large 
quantity  of  sloppy  and  innutritious  food.  The  sow  is  more  likelv  to  hold 
if  put  to  the  boar  just  before  going  off  heat  than  when  she  first  comes  on. 
If  possible,  she  should  be  kept  for  a  day  or  so  by  herself  after  being  served. 
When  there  is  difficulty  in  getting  a  sow  to  breed  it  may  often  be  overcome 
by  trying  different  bears,  one  after  another.  As  soon  as  she  proves  in  pig 
she  should  be  fed  nutritious,  muscle  forming  food  to  keep  up  her  own 
condition,  and  to  develop  her  young.  She  should  not  be  fat,  but  in  good 
hard  condition  with  a  good  store  of  lean  meat  which  will  help  her  to  retain 
her  condition  while  providing  plenty  of  milk,  whereas  the  fat  would 
rapidly  waste  without  assisting  her  in  milk  production.  From  the  sixth 
to  the  fifteenth  week  of  the  sow's  pregnancy  she  should  be  fed  liberally 
<  n  those  kinds  of  food  which  are  best  suited  for  the  production  of  lean 
meat  and  muscle  rather  than  fat,  as  the  drain  on  her  system  in  building 
up  the  framework  of  some  fifteen  little  pigs  is  very  extensi\e.  A  week 
or  so  before  she  is  due  to  farrow  she  mav  be  fed  on  the  same  sort  of  feed 
she  will  get  after  farrowing.  Pollard  and  bran  with  skim-milk  if  available 
should  be  the  food  for  the  sow  for  a  month  after  farrowing.  Then  mav 
be  added  barley  meal  or  other  crushed  grain.  If  she  shows  signs  of 
constipation  the  proportion  of  bran  should  be  increa.sed.  If  oats  are  fed 
the  husk  should  be  removed,  as  this  is  likely  to  be  injurious  to  the  voung 
pigs.  She  may  now  be  fed  three  times  instead  of  twice  a  day.  If  it  is 
not  possible  to  give  the  sows  a  grass  run,  it  will  be  found  beneficial  to 
throw  tares,  lucerne,  or  other  green  stuff  to  them. 

Management  of  the  Young  Pigs. 

The  management  of  the  voung  pig  depends  upon  its  ultimate  desti- 
nation, whether  it  is  intended  for  stud,  show,  or  fattening.  The  show  mav 
Ije  looked  upon  as  an  advertisement,  and  it  is  not  always  the  animal  that: 


254  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  April,    1912. 

takes  the  prize  at  the  leading  shows  that  will  give  the  best  results  at  the 
stud.  This  depends  largely  on  its  treatment.  It  is  an  old  and  true 
saying  that  the  young  animal  must  never  be  allowed  to  lose  its  baby  flesh. 
As  above-mentioned,  we  fed  the  mother  in  such  a  way  that  the  little  ones 
have  a  good  start,  commencing  life  in  good  condition,  and  then  not  only 
maintain  that  condition,  but  continually  improve  upon  it.  The  sow  is  fed 
on  milk  producing  food,  pollard  and  bran,  with  skim-milk  if  available, 
or  water,  in  a  sloppy  condition.  When  the  little  ones  are  about  a  month 
old  she  may  have  barley  or  other  meal  in  addition.  Those  that  are 
intended  for  show  purposes  are  sometimes  kept  from  the  mother,  but  put 
to  her  at  regular  intervals  of  two  hours  for  a  feed,  and  at  the  same  time 
given  as  much  cow's  new  milk  as  they  will  take.  This  brings  them  along 
■evenly  and  rapidly,  and  is  responsible  for  the  wonderfully  even  litters  that 
we  see  in  the  show  pen.  For  stud  purposes  this  is  not  the  best  system  to 
work  upon.  Better  to  let  the  little  ones  run  with  the  sow,  and  when  about 
three  weeks  old  provide  them  with  a  little  trough  fenced  off  from  the  mother 
so  that  they  can  run  under  the  rail  at  will.  In  this  provide  them  with 
skim-milk  at  about  body  temperature,  giving  them  little  and  often  as 
much  as  they  will  take.  A  few  whole  peas  or  wheat  may  also  be  given 
them.  A  little  pollard  may  gradually  be  worked  into  it.  In  this  way 
they  will,  by  degrees,  learn  to  eat,  so  that  when  weaning  time  arrives  they 
will  hardly  feel  the  loss  of  the  sow,  and  it  will  also  take  a  great  amount 
of  the  strain  off  her.  It  must  be  remembered  that  a  pig  has  a  com- 
paratively small  storage  capacity,  that  is  why  it  must  be  fed  little  and 
often,  and  also  of  concentrated  food.  If  allowed  to  become  too  hungry 
it  will  feed  ravenously,  which  will  probably  upset  the  digestive  organs. 
The  food  must  be  continued  in  a  sloppy  condition  for  the  young  pigs. 
Injudicious  feeding  will  often  bring  about  feverish  conditions.  The  first 
indication  of  stomach  derangement  is  almost  invariably  by  the  droppings 
becoming  hard  and  dry,  like  peas.  This  is  followed  by  diarrhoea.  Any 
appearance  of  constipation  must  be  corrected  at  once.  A  supply  of  a 
condition  powder,  the  composition  of  which  is  given  below,  should  be 
kept  on  hand,  and  a  little  put  into  the  food  regularly.  It  has  been  proved 
that  young  pigs  will  keep  in  health  and  thrive  much  better  when  this  is 
done.  Another  great  trouble  in  young  pigs  is  a  sort  of  rheumatic  affection, 
especially  if  they  are  not  provided  with  suitable  houses  or  shelter.  What- 
ever form  this  shelter  may  take,  the  most  important  points  to  provide  for 
are  dryness,  freedom  from  draughts,  reasonable  warmth,  light,  ventilation, 
and  convenience.  Whatever  is  provided  for  a  bed,  it  must  be  dry.  In 
warm  weather  a  hurdle  O'f  close  lattice  providing  for  good  drainage  may 
suffice,  but  in  cold  weather  dry  straw  or  similar  material  on  the  hurdle 
will  be  necessary.  On  no  account  should  they  be  alloAved  to  lie  on  damp 
fermenting  bedding.  This  is  a  frequent  cause  of  pneumonia,  which  often 
results  in  death  in  twenty-four  hours.  Witli  young  pigs  in  cold  weather 
at  least,  the  food  should  be  given  to  them  warm,  about  100°  Fah.  This 
economizes  a  certain  amount  of  food,  and  anything  that  increases  the 
comfort  of  the  animals  will  favour  more  rapid  development.  After 
weanmg,  the  food  should  be  continued  for  some  time  about  the  same  as 
before.  As  they  advance  in  age  the  proportion  of  barley  or  other  meal 
may  be  increased.  If  oats  are  used  these  should  be  husked,  as  the  fibrous 
husk  often  acts  as  an  irritant  to  the  stomach  ot  a  young  pig.  A  few  whole 
peas  or  a  little  whole  wheat  may  be  given  to  them  at  midday  instead  of 


JO   April   191^-]  The  Pig  Imiusiry.  251; 

the  ordinary  food.      At  ten  or  eleven  weeks  old  they  may  be  fed  three  or 
four  times  daily. 

This  is  the  most  critical  stage  of  the  pigs  life,  and  the  treatment  that 
we  give  those  intended  for  the  stud  will  be  the  most  suitable  for  those 
destined  for  pork  or  bacon.  The  old  idea  of  allowing  the  pigs  to  become 
stores  is  wrong,  and  unprofitable  from  every  standpoint.  Provided  there 
is  a  demand  for  it,  the  younger  the  pig  the  more  per  lb.  you  will  get  for 
it,  and  the  less  per  pound  will  it  cost  to  produce.  The  young  pig  has 
greater  powers  of  digestion  and  assimilation,  and  can,  therefore,  produce 
a  greater  weight  of  meat  from  a  given  amount  of  food  than  an  old  one. 
The  younger  it  is  the  greater  the  proportion  of  lean  to  fat,  it  is  also  tender 
and  juicy,  and  when  mild  cured  is  what  the  consumer  will  pay  the  most 
money  for.  The  older  and  heavier  they  are,  the  greater  the  proportion  of 
fat,  the  more  it  costs  to  produce,  and  the  less  per  lb.  will  the  curers  pay  for 
it.  The  aim  should  be  to  fatten  the  pig  right  from  the  time  it  is  born, 
first  through  the  sow,  then  as  above  indicated,  then  if  the  price  for  porkers 
at  70  to  90  lbs.  is  good,  let  them  go.  If  not,  they  should  be  suitable  for 
the  bacon-curer  at  120  lbs.  carcase  weight.  This  is  the  weight  in  greatest 
demand,  and  should  be  produced  at  five  to  six  months  old.  To  obtain 
these  results  we  must  have  the  right  class  of  pig,  quick  growing,  and 
.strong  constitutioned,  of  those  breeds  that  naturally  produce  lean  or 
muscle  more  than  fat. 

Sometimes  little  pigs  are  affected  with  tits,  they  suddenly  fall  over,, 
remain  motionless  for  a  few  minutes,  and  gradually  recover.  After  repeated 
attacks  they  die.  This  is  due  to  over  feeding  or  too  rich  food,  but  with  the 
use  of  the  powder  above  mentioned  this  is  not  likely  to  occur.  Another 
way  of  working  the  little  pigs  is  when  they  are  about  three  or  four  weeks 
old,  to  turn  the  sow  out  for  an  hour  or  two  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and 
during  her  absence  give  them  some  milk  in  a  trough.  They  will  soon  learn 
to  feed,  and  by  degrees  add  some  pollard,  and  give  a  few  whole  peas  or 
wheat.  Any  left  in  the  trough  will  be  eaten  by  the  sow  on  her  return.  In 
this  way  they  wdll  learn  to  become  independent  of  the  mother,  so  that  in 
eight  or  nine  weeks  time  they  can  be  weaned  without  feeling  her  loss, 
and  the  sow  wdll  gradually  dry  off  without  any  inconvenience  to  herself. 
At  weaning  time  a  little  barley  meal  may  be  given  in  addition  to  the 
pollard,  and  at  ten  w^eeks  old  they  mav  have  about  one-fourth  meal  and 
three-fourths   pollard. 

About  a  tablespoonful  of  bone  meal  per  pig  pei  da^  should  be  given 
in  the  food.  This  will  greatly  economize  the  food,  and  help  to  keep  them 
healthy. 

Powder  for  Pigs. 

U.S..\.    Bureau   of  Animal  Industry. 


Wood  cliarcoal 

Sulphur 

Salt   .. 

Bi-carbonate  of  soda  (baking  soda) 

Hyposulphite  of  soda     .  . 

Sulphate  of  soda 

Sulphide  of  antimony  (black  antimony) 


]  lb. 
1 


Thoroughly  pulverize  and  mix  and  give   one   tablesi>oonful  daily   \)er  100    lb.  live 
"weight  of  pig. 


'-56 


]our)ial  of  Agriculture.    Yicforia.        [lo  April,    1912. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  SUPERPHOSPHATES  ON  THE 
GERMINATION  OF  AVHEAT. 

By  Alfred  J.  Eivart,  D.Sc..  Ph.D.,  F.L.S.,  Governmeni}  Botanist  of 
Victoria,  and  Professor  of  Botany  and  Plant  PJiysiology,  in  the 
Melbourne  University. 

It  has  frequently  been  stated  that  when  wheat  lies  in  a  dry  soil  for  a 
long  time  in  contact  with  superphosphate  of  lime,  its  germination  may  be 
very  seriously  affected.  The  fact  was  mentioned  as  long  ago  as  1905  in 
the  Journal  of  Agricidture  of  South  Australia,  page  135,  and  recent  work 
has  confirmed  this  fact.  It  appears  however  that  the  injurious  action  only 
becomes  pronounced  when  there  is  a  little  free  moisture  to  begin  with  and 
the  soil  subse(]uentlv  dries,  and  when  this  is  so,  any  seeds  which  had 
begun  to  germinate  would  die  in  any  case  if  the  soil  remained  dry  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time.  When  the  germination  takes  place  fairly  rapidly, 
a  stimulating  rather  than  an  injurious  action  appears  to  be  exercised.  In 
order  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  the  superphosphate  injuriously  affecting 
the  germination  of  the  grain  when  it  lay  for  a  long  time  in  contact  with 
the  seed  in  a  dry  soil,  a  drill  has  been  invented  and  placed  upon  the 
market  which  plants  the  grain  and  superphosphate  at  different  depth';. 
Some  plots  planted  iiT  the  ordinary  way  and  with  this  drill  were  inspected 
last  vear,  but  it  was  not  possible  to  make  any  definite  conclusions  from 
them,  except  that  the  planting  of  the  superphosphate  beneath  the  wheat 
did  not  seem  to  retard  the  growth  in  any  way.  Of  course  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  special  value  of  this  mode  of  planting  would  only 
become  strongly  apparent  when  the  special  condition  mentioned  prevailed, 
namelv,  a  long  period  of  delayed  germination  owing  to  the  dryness  of 
the  soil. 

In  any  case  it  seemed  worth  while  to  try  whether  mere  contact  with 
dry  superphosphate  would  affect  the  germination  of  wheat  and  also  to 
carry  out  small  plot  experiments  with  the  grain  and  superphosphate  planted 
at  exactly  measured  depths.  This  is  necessary  because  the  very  best  drill 
varies  a  little  in  the  depth  at  which  the  seed  is  planted,  particularly  where 
the  seed  bed  contains  many  stones  or  unljroken  clods. 

The  experiments  were  carried  out  by  the  Second  Year  Agricultural 
Students  (191 1)  under  supervision.  In  the  first  place  experiments  were 
tried  by  storing  dry  wheat  with  an  equal  quantity  of  dry  superphosphate 
for  three  to  six  weeks,  and  noting  the  germination  at  the  end  of  those 
times.     The  following  are  the  results  :  — 


Experiment. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 


Average 


Germination 
coutrol  3  weeks. 


90% 
96% 


91% 


'    Germination 
snperph.  3  weelvs. 


860^ 
940c 
91% 
9,o. 


9 


'     Germination 
superph.  6  weeks. 


84% 
92% 
93% 
80% 


87% 


Evidently  when  the  grain  and  superphosphate  are  dry,  little  or  no 
injurious  effect  is  exercised  in  a  moderate  length  of  time.  In  the  follow- 
ing plot  experiments,  in  the  plots  "  A,''  the  grain  and  phosphate  were 
planted  i  inch  deep.     In  "  B  "  the  grain  was  planted  i  inch  and  the  phos- 


lo  April,    191-.]       /iiliiniicc  ''/  SiipcrpJtosp/iaics,  >jr'c. 


257 


phale  2  incht's,  and  in  "•(""■  the  grain  was  i  inrh  deep  and  the  phos- 
phate 4  inches  deep.  The  heads  and  straw  were  har\-ested  and  weighed 
separately,  the  former  being  cut  off  just  before  tlie  grain  ripened.  All  the 
plots  were  slightly  affected  with  "  rust  "  and  plot  "  JV  in  series  5  was 
badly  affected.  They  were  carefully  hand  we'cded.  but  the  weeding  in 
series  6  was  not  quite  so  thorough  as  in  the  other  plots.  The  superphos- 
phate was  applied  at  the  rate  of  i  cwt.  per  acre  except  in  series  2  where 
the  quantity  was  doubled.     The  following  are  the  detailed  results  :  — 


Scries  I. 
Control. 


Xo  failure. 
Heads,  8 
Straw,  72 


Scrie.s  II. 


:  cwt.  super,  pi-r 
acre. 


c. 

Heads,  31 

Straw,   228 

B. 

Heads,  21 
Straw,    157 


Heads,  16 
Straw,   144 


Scries  III. 


I  L-\vt.  super,  per 
acre. 


c. 

Heads,  13 

Straw,    128 


B. 

Heads,  12 
Straw,    lie. 


A. 

Heads,  10 
Straw,   123 


Series 

IV. 

1  c^vt.  super,  per 

acre 

C. 

Heads, 

30 

Straw, 

180 

A. 

Heads, 

25 

Straw, 

160 

B. 

Heads, 

34 

Straw, 

19(i 

Series 

V. 

1  cwt.  super,  per 

acre 

C. 

Heads, 

33 

Straw, 

160 

B. 

Heads, 

16 

Straw, 

102 

Badly 

in- 

tested 

witli 

Rust 

A. 

Heads, 

10 

Straw, 

119 

Series  VT. 


1  cwt.  super,  per 
acre. 


c. 

Heads,  14 

Straw,  105 


B. 
Heads,  19 
Straw,  132 


A. 
Heads,  19 
Straw,  140 


A.  Grain  and  phosphate,  1  inch. 

B.  PJiosphate,  2  inches  ;    grain.  1  inch. 

C.  Phosphate,  4  indies";    grain,  1  inch. 

Summari/iiiL;-  these  results,   the  weights  were:  — 


A.  (irain  and  Pliosphate  1  inili 

B.  Piio^])liate  2  incites,  Grain  1  incli 
G.  Phosphate  4  inches,  (irain  1  incli 
Gontrol,  no  mannre 


Heads. 


89 

686 

103 

703 

121 

801 

i7 

240 

Apparently,  therefore,  so  far  as  experiments  on  a  small  scale  can  be 
relied  on,  phmting  the  superphosphate  from  i  to  3  inches  below  the  grain 
seems  to  slightly  increase  the  yield  both  as  regards  heads  and  siraw,  and 
.'-.'nee  with  the  e.xception  of  one  series  of  plots  and  with  the  badly  rusted 
plot  in  series  5,  the  results  in  each  series  are  consistent  with  the  averages 
of  the  whole  plots,  it  seems  probable  that  field  tests  would  give  similar 
results.  In  any  case  this  method  of  planting  is  worthy  of  extended  trial, 
since  it  is  impossible  to  predict  how  long  the  grain  may  have  to  lie  in 
the  ground,  and  planting  the  superphosphate  under  the  grain  instead  of  in 
contact  with  it,  certainly  does  not  seem  to  injuriouslv  affect  the  yield.  It 
is  possible  that  where  a  beneficial  influence  is  exercised  it  may  be  because 
the  presence  of  the  manure  under  the  grain  encourages  the  young  roots  to 
grow  more  vertically  downwards  and  so  obtain  a  better  supply  of  water. 
If  this  is  the  case  the  effect  would  be  most  pronounced  on  a  loose  friable 
soil  in  which  moisture  descends  quicklv.  It  was  in  a  soil  of  this  character 
that  the  above  tests  were  made. 


2s8 


Journal    of    Agriculture ,    Vicioria.        [lo   April.    19T. 


Mr.  A.  E.  V.  Richardson,  Agricultural  Superintendent,  adds  the  fol- 
lowing interesting  note  to  the  above  :  — 

With  reference  to  your  article  on  "  Influence  of  Superphosphates  on 
the  Germination  of  Wheat,"  there  is  one  point  which  perhaps  may  have 
■escaped  notice,  but  which  I  think  would  ser\e  to  make  the  figures  you  use 
still  more  striking. 

If  you  take  the  average  of  the  i  cwt.  A,  B  and  C  plots  and  compare 
them  with  the  2  cwt.  plots  they  work  out  something  like  this  : — ■ 


A.  Plots- 

Manure  sown  with  seed 

B.  1"  under  seed 
C  3" 


Head-*. 

Stra 

2  cwt. 

1  cwt. 

2  cwt. 

]6 

18i 

144 

21 

201 

157 

31 

22| 

228 

1  cwt. 


135. L 
136L 
1431 


The  manure  placed  deep  as  at  C,  was  an  advantage  all  round,  but 
the  advantage  was  much  greater  with  the  larger  than  with  the  smaller 
•dressing  of  manure.  Taking  the  whole  of  the  plots  (15)  the  best  yield 
was  obtained  from  2  cwt.  super.,  but  in  order  to  give  this  result,  the 
manure  had  to  be  drilled  deep. 

The  whole  of  the  results  indicate  that  deeper  drilling  of  the  manure 
may  enable  the  farmer  to  use  larger  quantities  of  manure  with  profit  than 
.has  hitherto  been  possible  with  the  ordinary  drill. 


IXSECTIVOROUS   BIRDS   OF   VICTORIA. 

THE    WHITE-HEADED    STILT. 

{Himantopus  leucocefhalus,  Gould.) 
By  C.  French,  Junior,  Acting  Government  Entomologist. 

During  the  months  of  October,  November  and  December  these  beautiful 
Ibirds  which  are  noted  destroyers  of  noxious  insects,  also  the  fre.sh-water 
snails  which  are  the  hosts  of  the  dreaded  Liver  Fluke,  ha\-e  been  breeding 
near  Laverton,  on  the  Geelong  line.  This  is  probably  the  first  authentic 
record  for  Victoria. 

The  nests,  about  10  to  15  feet  apart  in  the  middle  of  a  fairly 
large  swamp,  placed  on  clumps  of  the  dwarf  Salt-marsh  plant 
Salicorriia,  and  principally  composed  of  dried  Lyngoya  destuarii  and  other 
aquatic  plants,  measured  approximately  8  inches  across,  and  were 
built  up  about  9  inches  above  the  water.  Dead  twigs  of  the  Salicornia 
were  placed  on  the  tops  of  the  nests,  several  of  which  were  placed  on  burnt 
clumps  of  the  "  Awned  Sword  Sedge"  {Gahnia  tri-fidd)  about  12  inches 
above  the  water.  The  majority  of  the  nests  contained  4  eggs  (one  with 
■five  was  discovered)  and  most  of  the  eggs  were  placed  with  the  small 
ends  pointing  towards  the  middle  of  the  nest,  though  in  some  iuslances 
several  of  the  eggs  had  the  small  ends  pointing  outward. 

Unfortunately,  before  all  the  eggs  were  hatched  out  ihe  swamp  com- 
menced to  dry  up ;  the  old  birds  left  the  locality,  and  deserted  a  number 
■of  eggs  and  young  birds. 


lo  April,    191:;.] 


The    Whit.-Ucaded    Stili. 


'59 


Ihc  accompanying  photogiapli  is  t:iken  from  a  group  of  birds,  nests, 
eggs,  and  young,  in  the  National  Museum,  Melbourne.  The  specimens  were 
collected  by  myself  and  prrsrut.,]  to  the  Museum. 


26o  Journal  of  Agriculture .    Victoria.        [lo  April,    1912. 


OIlOHAllD    AND    GARDEN    NOTES. 

E.   E.    Pcscott,   Principal.   Horticultural  ScJiool.   Burulcy. 

The  Orchard. 

The  exceptionally  dry  season  has  ht^en  ruie  of  the  causes  in  reducing- 
the  fruit  crop  to  a  large  extent.  Large  quantities  of  fruit  have  not  fully 
developed ;  and  many  varieties,  notably  the  London  Pippin,  have  been 
badly  affected  with  the  so-far  mvsterious  trouble  known  as  "  pig  face  " 
or  ' '  crinkle. " ' 

Another  feature  was  the  prevalence  of  fruit  blossoms  early  in  March. 
Cherry,  plum,  pear,  apple,  and  other  fruit  trees  were  in  full  blossom,  the 
latter  varieties  carrying  at  the  same  time,  crops  of  fruit. 

This  was  mainly  the  result  of  the  hot  week  experienced  in  February. 
AVhere  the  trees  were  well  forward,  and  had  matured  their  foliage,  or 
\vhere  trees  were  shallow  rooted,  the  excessi\-ely  hot  weather  caused  the 
dropping  of  the  foliage.  The  subsequent  cool  change,  with  light  rains, 
was  sufficient  to  cause  the  fruit  buds  to  fullv  develop,  and  to  burst  into 
lilossom. 

The  blossom,  and  if  fruit  subsecfuently  formed,  the  fruit  should  be 
removed  from  the  trees,  so  as  to  bring  them  back,  as  far  as  possible,  to 
normal  conditions. 

The  continued  dry  weather  has  prevented  the  .sowing  of  green  manure 
crops.  But  with  the  .showers  that  have  fallen  at  the  end  of  March,  it 
will  now  be  possible  to  ha\e  the.'^e  sown  without  delay.  As  previously 
mentioned,  one  of  the  main  objects  in  connexion  with  cover  crops  should 
be  to  obtain  as  abundant  growth  as  possible  in  the  autumn,  so  that  a  greater 
quantity  of  organic  matter  may  be  added  to  the  soil. 

In  stiff  clay  and  in  sour  soils,  it  will  be  an  advantage  to  give  the 
autumnal  dressing  of  lime.  From  4  to  5  cwt.  per  acre  will  be  all  that  is 
necessary. 

For  the  successful  coping  with  the  Codlin  Moth  pest,  it  is  essential 
that  all  fallen  and  diseased  fruit  .should  be  gathered  and  destroyed. 
Where  bandages  are  u.sed,  the.se  should  be  remo\"ed  and  thoroughly  cleaned, 
or  preferably,  they  should  be  burned. 

Strawberries  may  now  be  planted  out ;  if  planting  is  carried  out  at 
once,  they  will  take  a  firm  roothold  of  the  soil  before  winter  sets  in. 

Vegetable    Garden. 

The  vegetaljle  garden  should  now  be  well  ilug  over  and  left  in  a  fairly 
rough  state  Various  seedlings  from  the  .seed-f)ed,  such  as  cabl)age, 
cauliflower,  onions,  and  celery  may  now  be  planted.  The  celery  beds 
should  be  well  drained,  as  blanched  stems  will  ret  in  the  winter,  if  much 
soil  water  accumulates  around  the  jilants. 

Asparagus  beds  should  be  cleaned  over,  and  all  plants  that  have  ripened 
their  seeds  should  be  cut  Ijack.  The  weeds  too  should  all  be  cleaned  out, 
and  their  seeds  should  not  be  allowed  to  settle  in  the  beds. 

Early  peas,  broad  l^eans,  and  onions  may  now  l>e  sown. 


JO   April,    iqt^.]  Orchard   and   Garden  Notes.  261 

Flower  Garden. 

Seeds  of  all  hardy  annual  and  perennial  plants  should  he  planted 
without  delay.  It  is  ad\isal)le  to  have  these  well  advanced  in  growth 
liefore  the  cold  weather  sets  in  and  retards  their  growth  for  the. winter. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  month  a  start  should  be  made  with  the  winter 
digging.  A  top  dressing  of  eitlier  manure  or  lime  may  he  given  hefore 
<ligging,  the  latter  wherever  the  soil  is  at  all  sour,  where  sorrel  is  present, 
-or  in  stiff  clav  .soils.  In  addition  all  garden  refuse  and  litter  should  be 
dug  in  ;  this  will  all  form  plant  food,  it  will  assist  in  lightening  the  soil, 
and  it  will  he  a  means  nf  easv  disposal  of  all  garden  rubbish. 

The  winter  digging  may  be  as  deep  as  possible,  and  the  soil  may  t)e 
left  in  a  fairly  rough  condition  for  the  rains  and  frost  to  mellow  down. 

Chrvsanthemums  will  now  re<]uire  weekly  supplies  of  liquid  manure, 
which  should  be  maintained  until  the  blooms  begin  to  open. 

All  bultjs  should  now  Ije  planted  and  these  should  be  preserved  from 
attacks  of  snails  and  slugs.  A  plentiful  supply  of  such  remedies  as 
tobacco  dust,  Pestend,  lime,  carbolized  sawdust,  &c.,  will  all  assist  to 
protect  the  )oung  growths. 

As  each  season  continues,  some  formerly  neglected,  and  so-called  old- 
fashioned  flower  is  brought  into  prominence  in  a  considerably  impro\ed 
form.  Previous  seasons  have  seen  improved  forms  of  Scabious,  the  old 
pincushion,  Zonale  Geraniums.  Sweet  Peas,  and  so  on.  The  pre.'-ent 
form  of  such  plants  are  vast  improvements  upon  the  old  strains,  and  are 
valuable  additions  to  our  garden  flowers. 

Among  the  latest  additions  to  this  class  of  flowering  plants  is  the 
iStrain  of  Gloxinia-flowered  Pentstemons.  For  years  the  cultivation  of  this 
useful  herbaceous  perennial  has  languished,  hut  with  the  advent  of  the 
improved  type,  we  are  enabled  to  furnish  our  gardens  with  clumps  of  a 
very  fine  improved  strain. 

The  late  Mr.  Kerslake  of  Sydney  was  the  pioneer  in  Australia  in 
advancing  this  plant  again  to  the  front,  and  some  very  fine  varieties  are 
now  purchasable.  The  flowers  are  unusuallv  large,  as  compared  with  the 
older  types,  and  well  merit  their  name  "  Gloxinia-flowered."  The  trusses 
carry  very  many  large  flowers,  and  for  summer  flowering  hardy  i)Ianis, 
the.se  pentstemons  are  extremely  desirable. 

Some  of  the  valuable  v'arieties  are: — Unique,  rose  pink,  with  dark 
streaked  throat;  Brilliant,  rich  pink,  white  throat ;  Iris,  petunia,  streaked 
throat;  Hercules,  pink,  streaked  throat;  John  Louder,  deep  purple;  A.  J. 
Tymms,  bright  rose  red.  with  marked  throat;  and  Louis  Laplastrier.  rose 
purple,  with  brightly  streaked  throat. 


">-' ^    ^ '<* 


^62  Journal  of   Agriciihiirc ,    Yicioria.        [lo   April,    1912. 


ANSAVERS   TO   CORRESPONDENTS. 

The  Staff  of  the  DepTrtinent  has  been  organized  lo  a  larije  extent  for  the  puiijosc  of  '^\\  iny  information 
to  farmers.  Question"  in  every  tiranch  of  af<-ricultiire  are  yladly  answered.  Write  a  short  letter,  >rivinj{  a* 
full  particulars  as  possible,  of  your  local  conditions,  and  state  precisely  what  it  is  that  you  want  to  know. 
/ill  inquiries  forwarded  to  the  Editor  tnuxl  be  accompanied  hi/  the  name  ani  address  of  the  writer^ 
This  is  very  necessary,  as  sometimes  insufficient  information  is  fui  nisiied  by  the  inquirer. 

Couch  Grass. — -E.S.  has  a  couch  grass  bowling  green  in  some  parts  of  which  the 
grass  is  not  growing  as  well  as  usual.  He  asks  whether  the  constant  watering  which 
it  gets  in  the  summer  is  likely  to  leach  out  some  of  the  requisite  plant  foods  in  the 
soil   and   affect  the   growth. 

Answer. — Couch  grass  thrives  in  the  poorest  as  well  as  in  the  richest  of  soils.- 
Consequently,  any  soil  leaching  from  excessive  watering  would  hardly  interfere 
with  its  growth.  This  grass  discolours  badly  in  winter,  and  loses  most  of  its 
foliage.  E.xcessive  rain  or  w^ater  in  winter  would  kill  out  the  weaker  grow;hs,  of 
which  there  would  be  a  considerable  quantity,  owing  to  the  close  cutting  in  summer 
necessary  for  bowling  greens.  It  would  be  advisable  to  re-sow  the  bare  patches- 
with  a  light  seeding,  'op  dressing  with  fresh  soil,  and  giving  a  light  sprinkling 
of   blood   manure,    about   3   ozs.    to   the   scjuare   yard. 

Erosion. — A.J.  writes  "  What  is  the  best  method  of  stopping  the  formation 
of  a  gully  bv  erosion  in  a  gentlv  sloping  paddock  with  a  clay  sub-soil?  The 
gully  is  forming  in  a  paddock  within  30  yards  of  my  fence.  It  is  12  to  14  feet 
deep,  and  about  6  feet  wide,  and  seems  to  be  advancing  at  about  the  rate  of  a 
yard  ever  year.  Prevention  would  have  been  better  than  cure  as  it  will  cost  a 
very  large  sum  to  repair  the  damage  already  done,  bat  I  am  apprehensive  for  my 
own  land  and  would  like  to  present  a  sche  r.e  before  the  owner  for  stopping  the 
trouble." 

Answer. — Your  best  plan  would  be  to  cut  drains  above  the  cutaway,  with  a 
slight  fall  to  prevent  the  water  running  into  the  gully,  and  fill  the  cutaway  w-ith 
scrub  placed  across  the  fall  of  the  wa'er  to  hold  the  silt.  When  the  scrub  is 
covered  put  in  fresh  layers  until  the  hole  is  full.  Plant  trees  (willows)  in  and 
around   the   edges,    and   sow   paspalum   or   other   grasses   on  the   top. 

White  Paint  for  Farm  Buildings. — H.C.B.  asks  for  directions  for  making 
white    paint   suitable    for   painting    farm   gates,    out-buildings,    &c. 

Ans7uer. — Dissolve  56  lbs.  of  white  lead  in  9  pints  of  raw  and  9  pints  of 
boiled  linseed  oil,  then  add  2  lbs.  of  ultramarine  blue  (previously  dissolved  in 
oil),  I  pint  of  turps  and  ^  lb.  of  patent  driers.  Mix  thoroughly,  and  strain 
through  a  fine  sieve.  For  porous  work,  add  more  oil,  and  use  less  oil  for  second 
coat.      This    quantity    will    cover    100    square    yards. 

Covering  Stack. — W.N.  inquires  as  to  cheap  method  of  covering  a  haystack.  He 
asks  whether  hessian  soaked  in  coal  tar  and  dried   would  keep  out  the   rain. 

Answer. — Thatching  with  straw  is  the  cheapest  and  safest  means  of  covering 
a  stack,  unless  a  proper  hay  shed  is  built.  Hessian  soaked  in  tar  would  not  be 
capable  of  keeping  out   all   rain  ;   a  good   tarpaulin   canvas   would  be  better. 

Swingle  Bars  for  Five-Horse  Team. — J.W.  writes  "  Can  you  give  particulars 
of  necessary  bars  and  chains  to  yoke  five  horses  three  and  two,  instead  of  all 
abreast,   so  as  to   avoid   having   to  work   offside   horse   on   the   ploughed   ground." 

Answer. — The  swingle  bars  required  for  a  team  of  five  horses  worked  two 
and  three  abreast  are  one  three-horse  bar,  one  two-horse  bar,  and  three  single 
bars.  The  leading  horses  (two)  can  be  yoked  wi'h  leading  chains  to  the  two  land 
and  furrow  horses,  or  a  furrow  and  land  horse  to  chains  behind  the  hames,  or 
can  be  yoked  to  a  double  set  of  birs  connected  with  a  cham  running  up  between 
the  back  furrow  and  land  horses  from  the  double  bar.  This  svstem  will  necessitate 
a  greater  length  of  the  three-horse  bar  to  distribute  the  draught  evenly  for  the 
outside  third  horse,  and  is  objectionable  in  turning  as  the  bars,  if  slackened,  are 
liable    to   interfere    with   the   back    horses. 

Crushed  Oats  for  Dr.\ught  Horses. — J.W.  asks  whether  there  is  any  advantage 
in  feeding  working  draught  horses  on  crushed  instead  of  whole  oats. 

Answer. — Crushed  oats  are  quite  20  per  cent,  better  as  feed  than  whole  oats, 
being  easily  and  more  completely  digested.  All  the  principal  firms  dealing  in 
agricultural    implements   sell    grain-crushing   machines. 


lo  April,    1912.]    Ei:^g-Laviii^^  C omfeiition,   1911-191 


263 


VICTORIAN   EGG-LAYING   COMPETITION,   1911-12, 

CONDUCTED    AT    BURNLEY    HORTICULTURAL    SCHOOL. 

(Continued  from  page  200.^ 
H.   F.  Haw^cins,  Poultry  Expert. 


Eggs  Laid  during  Compstition. 

Xo. 

Position  in 

of 

Breed. 

Xaine  ot   Owner. 

April  to 

Total  to 

Competi- 

Pen. 

Jan. 

F.-b. 
123 

date 
(llmthi) 

1,473 

tion. 

31 

White  Leghorn 

R.  W.  Pope 

1,350 

1 

12 

> 

W.  G.  Swift 

1,378 

81 

1,459 

2 

40 

. 

A.  J.  Cosh  (S.A.) 

1,S08 

111 

1,419 

3 

20 

H.  McKenzie 

1.246 

114 

1,360 

4 

37 

E.  Waldon 

1,210 

114 

1,324 

5 

33 

" 

Range    Poultry    Farm 
(Qld.) 

1,204 

71 

1,275 

6 

39 

i> 

A.  W.  Hall 

1,134 

112 

1,246 

7 

18 

.. 

T.  Brundrett 

1,107 

81 

1,188 

8 

13 

Black  Orpington    . . 

D.  Fislier 

1078 

84 

1,162 

)      » 

21 

\Vhit«  Legliorn 

R.  L.  Appleford 

1,085 

77 

1,162 

24 

M 

F.  Hannaford 

1,041 

106 

1,147 

11 

19 

)i                   •  • 

A.  Jaques 

1,025 

120 

1,145 

12 

2 

'> 

E.  P.  Xash 

1,029 

110 

1,139 

13 

10 

Black  Orpington    . . 

H.  A.  Langdon 

1,035 

103 

1.138 

14 

9 

White  Leghorn 

J.  O'Loughlin 

1,034 

103 

1,137 

}    » 

50 

» 

C.  H.  Busst 

1,019 

118 

1,137 

46 

Minorca 

G.  W.  Chalmers 

1,043 

84 

1,127 

17 

25 

White  Leghorn 

B.  Mitchell 

1,038 

83 

1,121 

18 

28 

J)                   •  • 

John  Campbell 

1,013 

107 

1,120 

19 

3 

» 

K.  Gleghorn 

1,008 

109 

1,117 

)    .0 

55 

»f 

W.  G.  McLister 

1,037 

80 

1,117 

38 

n 

Mlts.  C.  R.  Smee 

1,030 

81 

1,111 

22 

1 

»» 

A.  Brebner 

1,005 

94 

1,099 

23 

45 

)» 

T.  Kempster 

992 

106 

1,098 

24 

36 

,. 

F.  A.  Sillitoe 

1,014 

83 

1,097 

"t         •>=; 

11 

Brown  Legliorn 

F.  Soncum 

972 

125 

1,097 

-        2d 

62 

White  Legliorn 

P.  Hodson 

986 

105 

1,091 

27 

49 

>• 

W.  J.  Thornton 

1,007 

82 

1,089 

28 

32 

Silver  Wyandotte  . . 

Mrj.  M.  A.  Jones 

996 

79 

1,075 

29 

44 

Black  Orpington    .  . 

T.  S.  Goodisson 

1,002 

68 

1,070 

30 

57 

White  Legliorn 

G.  E.  Edwards 

966 

85 

1,051 

31 

5 

L.  C.  Pavne 

978 

70 

1,048 

}    .« 

65 

» 

H.  HammilKN.S.W.) 

954 

94 

1,048 

67 

C.  L.  Sharman 

952 

93 

1,045 

34 

22 

Black  Orpington    . . 

P.  S.  Wood 

951 

92 

1,043 

35 

47 

White  Leghorn 

C.W.  Spencer  (X.S.W.) 

976 

64 

1,040 

36 

4 

Golden  Wyandotte 

H.  BeU 

946 

91 

1,037 

37 

8 
60 

White  Leghorn 

T.  W.  Coto 

J.  J.  Harrington 

931 
925 

71 
97 

1.022 
1,022 

}    ^ 

06 

White  Hvyandotte 

J.  E.  Bradlev 

929 

92 

1,021 

40 

43 

White  Legliorn 

W.  B.  Crelliii 

933 

82 

1,015 

41 

35 

.,                    .  . 

J.  H.  Br.iin 

882 

130 

1,012 

42 

41 

,, 

Morgan  and  Watson .  . 

910 

84 

994 

43 

-51 

„ 

J.  W.  McArthur 

910 

69 

979 

44 

53 

„ 

A.  Stringer 

913 

64 

977 

45 

64 

„ 

J.  D.  Read 

868 

106 

974 

46 

59 

W.  H.  Dunlop 

923 

49 

972 

47 

58 

Faverolle- 

K.  Courtenay 

887 

84 

971 

48 

34 

White  Leghorn 

E.  Dettman 

868 

97 

965 

49 

52 

W.  J.  MiKeddie 

875 

80 

955 

50 

27 

I, 

Hill  and  Luckman     . . 

910 

42 

952 

51 

6 

Silver  Wyandotte 

Mrs.  H.  J.  Richards 

860 

89 

949 

52 

63 

Black  Orpington    .  . 

A.  J.  Treacey 

893 

55 

948 

53 

30 

Rodgers  Bros. 

867 

65 

932 

54 

42 

White  Orpington   .  . 

P.  Mitchell 

865 

64 

929 

55 

7 

White  Leghorn 

H.  Stevenson 

853 

47 

900 

56 

56 

.1 

Mrs.  C.  Thompson     . . 

811 

85 

896 

57 

26 

F.  H.  Sevnioiir 

815 

70 

885 

58 

16 

Silver  Wyandotte  .  . 

Miss  A.  Cottani 

785 

77 

862 

59 

54 

White  Leghorn 

F.  Hodges 

785 

71 

856 

60 

23 

Golden  Wyondotte 

G.  E.  Brown 

770 

79 

849 

61 

61 

Silver  vVyandotte  . . 

J.  Reade 

754 

90 

844 

62 

17 

White  Leghorn 

W.  J.  Eckershall 

698 

61 

759 

63 

14 

Black  Orpington    . . 

W.  J.  Macaulev 

660 

63 

723 

64 

15 

Minorca 

H.  R.  AlcCliesiiey      .  . 

605 

33 

638 

65 

48 

" 

G.  James 

509 

69 

5.66>t 

578 

66 

63,363 

69,031 

264  Journal  of  Agriculture ,    Victoria.       [10  April,    1912. 


REIVUNDERS     FOR     NAY. 

LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Those  stabled  can  be  fed  liberalh'.  Those  doinj^  fast  or  heavy  work 
should  be  clipped ;  if  not  wholly,  then  trace  high.  Those  not  rugged  on  coming 
into  the  stable  at  night  should  be  wiped  down  and  in  half-an-hour's  time  rugged  or 
covered  with  bags  until  the  coat  is  dry.  Old  horses  and  weaned  foals  should  be  given 
crushed  oats.  Cirass-fed  working  horses  should  be  given  ha\-  or  straw,  if  there  is  no 
old  grass,   to  counteract  the  purging  effects  of  the  young  growth. 

Catile. — Cows,  if  not  housed,  should  be  rugged.  Rugs  should  be  removed  in  the 
daytime  when  the  shade  temperature  reaches  60  degrees.  Give  a  ration  of  hay  or 
straw,  whole  or  chaffed,  to  counteract  the  purging  effects  of  voung  grass.  Cows 
about  to  calve,  if  over  fat,  should  be  put  into  a  paddock  in  which  the  feed  is  not  too 
abundant.      Calves  should  be  kept  in  warm  dry  shed. 

Pigs. — As  recommended  in  Remintlers  for  April. 

Sheep! — Attend  lambing  ewes  first  thing  each  morniu'/.  Avoid  overcrowding  in 
lambing  paddocks,  and  consequent  shortage  of  feed.  Scarcity  of  feed  means  inatten- 
tive mothers.  Breeds  of  ewes  having  more  than  half  of  British  blood  should  be  kept 
in  good  strong  condition,  as  they  will  not  lamb  until  Julv  or  August.  Yoiing  ram 
weaners  of  all  breeds  should  now  be  classed,  anvl  rejects  castrated  or' blocked.  Be 
suspicious  of  weak  fore-quartered  sheep.  If  castrating,  slit,  tie  with  fine  cord  soaked 
in  antiseptic,  cut  off,  and  apply  Stockholm  tar  liberally  inside  and  out.  Blocking, 
whilst  most  humane  in  the  case  of  rams  two  years  old  anrl  over  when  the  latest 
appliance  is  used,  is  not  desirable  for  two-tooths.  Clear  wool  from  e\es  of  merino 
rams,   and  cut  horns  with  pruning  shears. 

POLLTRV. — Feed  animal  food  to  forward  pullets,  about  ^  oz.  daih',  and  equal 
parts  short  oats  an<l  maize  at  night.  Give  2  ozs.  lucerne  chaff,  mixed  with  mash,  to 
each  bird  daily.  Watch  young  stock  for  Roup  (watery  discharge  from  nostrils,  with 
unpleasant  breath).  Late  chicks  are  likely  subjects.  Isolate  all  cases,  and  use  disin- 
fectants freely.  Keep  head  and  throat  clean  by  washing  with  either  Condy's  fluid  or 
boracic  acid.  In  cases  of  Chicken  Pox  isolate  birds  and  apply  to  affected  parts 
ointment  made  of  sulphur,  eucalyptus  oil  (three  or  four  drops),  carbolic  acid  (two 
drops),  and  a  little  vaseline  mixed  well. 

CULTIVATION. 

i- ARM. — Dig  main  crop  of  potatoes.  Push  on  with  ploughing  and  sowing  of  cereal 
crops,  including  peas  and  beans.  Green  fodder  (as  for  April)  may  still  be  sown. 
I-and  for  maize,  potatoes,  and  other  root  crops  should  be  prepared  and  manured. 
Flax  may  be  sown.  Transplant  Chou  Moellier  and  Giant  Drumhead  cabbage  plants 
in  rows  3  feet  apart.     Complete  sowing  permanent  pastures  with  grasses  and  clovers. 

Orchard. — Plough,  manure;  apply  lime  to  orchard  lands  at  rate  of  5  or  10  cwt. 
per  acre  where  soil  is  sour.  Spray  trees  infested  with  scale  insects.  Woolly  Aidiis, 
and  Bryobia  Mite  with  red  oil  or  crude  petroleum.  Clean  all  rough  bark  from  trees. 
Commence  pruning  at  end  of  month. 

Flower  Garden. — Digging,  manuring,  and  jiruning;  trench  and  drain  where 
necessary.  Dress  the  surface  with  lime.  Continue  to  sow  hardy  annuals.  Burv  .ill 
leaves,  soft-wooded  cuttings,  and  weeds.  Continue  to  ])lant  spring  blooming  perennials 
and  other  plants.      Plant  cuttings  of  carnations  and  roses. 

Vegelable  Garden. — Cut  down  and  clean  out  asparagus  bfds.  Apply  manure  and 
lime  dressings.  Cultivate  deeply.  Plant  out  seedHngs  and  early  potatoes:  sow  peas, 
broad  beans,  carrots,  and  parsnips. 

Vineyard. — Subsoil  land  for  new  plantations  if  not  already  done.  It  is  very 
undesirable  to  perform  this  work  immediately  before  planting.  Vine-growers  are 
warned  against  the  ten  common  practice  of  feeding  off  foliage  after  vintage.  Any- 
small  advantage  in  the  form  of  stock  feed  is  only  gained  at  the  cost  of  a  reduction 
in  the  following  season's  crop,  owing  to  interference  with  accumulation  of  reserves, 
which  continues  so  long  as  the  leaves  remain  green.  Sheep  should  not  be  allowed 
into  the  vineyard  until  all  leaves  have  changed  colour.  Earl\-  and  deep  ploughing  is 
strongly  recommended  (see  March  Journal,  page  198). 

Cellars. — Rack  or  fill  up  (preferably  the  former)  dry  wines  as  soon  as  a  I'ghted 
match,  introduced  at  bung  hole,  is  no  longer  extingui-,hed.  Sweet  wines  shouhi  also- 
be  racked  and    fortified  to  full  strength. 


lo  April,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


xvn 


a 


ROYAL   MEDAL" 

MILKING   MACHINES. 


A  Triumph  of  Mechanical  Simph'city  and  Skill 
and  Entirely  DIFFERENT  from  all  others. 


THE  MACHINE  WITH 
CUPS  IN  POSITION. 


THE  essential  features 
of  the  perfect  milker 
are  Ease  of  Cleaning, 
Efficiency,  Power  to 
Strip,  Non  -in  j  uriousness 
to  the  Cow,  Simplicity 
of  Construction  (either 
for  the  process  of  milk- 
ing or  for  obtaining  the 
vacuum),      Cheapness." 

JOURNAL  OF  THE 
ROVAL  SOCIETV, 
ENGLAND. 

TT    was     because     the 
"Royal    Medal" 

filled  all  these  require- 
ments and  proved  its 
efficiency  during  an  ex- 
tended test,  that  the 
Milker  was 


AWARDED    THE     MEDAL    OF    THE    ROYAL 
AGRICULTURAL     SOCIETY,     ENGLAND. 

The  "  ROYAL  MEDAL"  Booklet  will  give  you  the  fullest 
particulars  regarding  the  machine — its  censtruction  and  work- 
ing.      We   send   the   Book   FREE  on  receipt  of  the  Coupon. 


"  ROYAL  MEDAL" 

LKING  MACHINES, 

34   Queen   Street, 
MELBOURNE. 


LONDON    OFFICE: 

Caxton  House,  Westminster,  S.W. 

JACK    H.     DAVIES,   Managing  Director. 


POST  FREE  BOOKLET  COUPON. 


" Roijal  Aledal"  Milking  Machines, 

34  Queen  Street,  Melbourne. 
Please  forward  a  copy  of  your  Free  Book.     It 
is  to  he  understood  that  I  consider  myself  under  no 
oblirjation. 

Name 

Address    


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  April,  1912. 


'Phone 

4S81 
Central 


.  The  Australasian  Mutual  Live  Stock 

Insurance  Society  m, 


A    GOOD    AUSTRALIAN 
Why  didn't  you  put  your  penny  in  the  plate  tkit 
morning  f" 

'  Because  tt   was  a  foretgn  mission,  and  dada   s^'jt 
ii't  not  Tight  lo  send  capital  out  of  the  country." 


ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 
70  Elizabeth  St.,  Melbourne. 

"^XXtCtOXS: 

HON.  AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P.     HENRY  GARDNER,  Esq. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P. 

WALTER   G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 


FARMERS  AND  BREEDERS- 

Has   this   simple   truth   ever  struck  you? 
Ours  are  the  world's  minimum   rates. 
Our  terms  and  conditions  are  equal  to  the 

best  obtainable. 
Every  pound  of  our  money  is  invested  in 

Australia. 
We  pay  promptl}'.         We  pay  in  full. 


INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  AND  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS. 


For  ROOFS  of  .all  descriptions 


USE 


RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


USE 


INDELIBLE  GOLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


"''    CALCIMO     """'^ 


i0^ 


COLOURS. 


These  Goods  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 
-^ SOLE    AGENTS 


RROOKS.  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd..  Melbourne. 


lO  April,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


Dairy  Science. 

The  last  word. 

Scientific  men  in  tlie  dairy  cenues  of  Europe  have  given  close 
attention  to  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  for  butter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  for  some  time, 
a  poor,  thin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  :  staling  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods,  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  same 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Dairy  Science. 

For  Post  Free  Book— 

"MILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding," 

By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 

Guaranteed  Pure. 

See  that  the  name  "Sunlight"  is 
branded  on  every  cake. 


\x 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  April,  1912. 


"HORNSBY"  Petrol  Engines 


(.STATIONARY    AND    PORTABLE} 

J-IAVE    a    World-wide    Reputation    for    all    round 

Superiority.     There   is   nothing  Equal  to  them. 

Just  as  suitable  for  Motive  Power  as  the  well-known 

HORNSBY     OIL     ENGINE. 

For  30  Years  the 


HORNSBY    BINDER 


Has  Led  and  still  Leads  the  Way. 

Winner  of  the  Six  Highest  Prizes  ever  offered. 

It  stands  unrivalled  for  Strength,  Simplicity,  Light- 
ness of  Draught,  Low  Cutting,  and  ease  of  Man- 
agement. Will  go  through  the  Harvest  without 
a  hitch. 

Hornsby  Mowers  are  Famous  the  World  over. 

^^-^^ 

Hornsby  Oil  Engines,  Gas  Engines,  and  Suction 
Gas   Plants  are  Unequalled. 


R.   HORNSBY  &  SONS,   LTD., 


MELBOURNE.             SYDNEY. 
BRISBANE. 


1 0  April,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  VicHoria.  xxi 


flATIOflfili  THUSTEES :; 


Executors  &  Agency  Company 
Australasia,  Ltd.     .    •     . 


DIRECTORS  : 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Managing  Director. 

EDWARD  FITZGERALD,  Esq.,  L.L.D.  MICHAEL  MORNANE,  Es(i. 

UON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  Esq.  DAVID  HUNTER,  Es* 

This  Company  acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint  Executor  of  Wills,  Administrator, 
Trustee  of  Settlements,   and  Agent  for  Absentees  under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY      TO      LEND      ON      BROAD      ACRES     AND      FARM      LANDS. 

ornc.s  ^qg  QUEEN  ST.  (LitSSn°Jst)  MELBOURNE. 


'   SAVINGS  BANKS  LOANS 

ON      BROAD     ACRES     (Up    to   Three-fifths   of  Valuation), 

In  sums  from  £2,000  to  £25,000. 

Interest  at  4i  per  cent. 

For  3  or  5  years,  with  option  of  paying  off  part  on  any  half-yearly  pay-day. 
ON    FARMS    {CREDIT   FONCIER)    (Up  to  Two-thirds  of  Valuation), 

In  sums  from   £50   to   £2,000. 
Interest  at  4h  per  cent. 

Loans  Repaj^able  by  Instalments  spread  over  3H  years,  or  may  be  paid  off 
on  any  half-yearly  pay-day,  subject  to  a  small  charge  if  paid  off  during  the  first 
five  years,  but  no  penalty  after  five  years. 


ADDRESS 


Inspector-General   of   Savings  Banks^ 


29  MARKET  STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


TREWHELLA  :=;*  CRUBSINC  JACKS. 

Quick.     Powerful.     Simple. 


Mr.  Chas.  Hamilton,  Moleswoith,  Vic,  says:— "I  would  not 
be  without  one  of  these  Jacks  on  the  farm." 

Mr.  0.  C.  R.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Frances,  S.A  : — 
"Ha\e  been  usinj;  Trewhella  Wallaby  Jacks  now  nearly 
six  years,  and  as  lon?r  as  1  have  anything  to  lift  will  never  be 
\s-ithout  one." 


Write  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  to— 

TREWHELLA   BROS.,  ENGINEERS,  TRENTHAM,  VICTORIA. 


'^xii  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  April,  1912. 


r ~IM2. : \ 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 


JSutoIcy   J^ortieultural   School 


E.  E.  PESCOTT,  ^^C>  Principal. 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnlej'  Horticultuial  School  have  now  been 
arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be  given  to  students  of  both  sexes 
in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Horticulture  for  male  students  includes  a  two  years"  course, 
students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum. 

Classes  ha\"e  been  formed  at  Burnley,  whereby  students  of  both  sexes  ina}'  receive 
instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and  Fridays. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  M'ork,  and  will  commence  at  2  p.m. 
This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  charged  will  be  £2  per  annum. 

it  has  also  been  arranged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  sli  ill  be  given  on  subjects 
■which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Horticulture,  such  as  Poultry  Farming,  Beekeeping,  and 
Fruit  Preserving,  and  these  courses  will  be  open  and  free  to  the  general  puljlie.  The 
subjects  and  dates  of  the  Short  Course  Lectures  will  be  announced  monthly  in  this  Journal. 

STUDENTS    SHOULD    ENROLL   WITHOUT    DELAY, 


Application  for  admission  should  be  made  to 

The  Director  of  Agriculture,  Public  Offices,  Melbourne, 

OI^    TO    THE    :PE,I3SrCi:E>-A.IL,. 


J 


— ^'-■"'"Hii  ItiUMIirT 


YAN,    GOULDING,    &    CO. 

(JOHN    F.    GOULDING). 

WHOLESALE  GRAIN  &  PRODUCE  COMMISSION  AGENTS  &  GENERAL  BROKERS, 
546-552  COLLINS  STREET  WEST  (Near  King-st.) 

FARMERS!  Before  Selling  your  Grain,  Hay,  Potatoes,  Onions,  consult  or  write  us. 

It  will  pay  you.^ CONSIGNMENTS  Received  and  Sold  Daily  ex  Rail  or  Wharf. 

Storage  arranged  on  Liberal  Terms  and  Advances  made.       All  kinds  of  Seed  (irain  for  Sale. 
Prompt  Account  Sales.     Oats  Specialists.     New  &  Second-liand  Bags  for  Sale  at  Lo^vcst  Rates, 

I     When  In  the  CITY  Call  In. — Short  distance  from  Spencer-st.  RIy.  Station,    j 


lo  April,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


SPECIALISING 


-IN    THE    SUPPLY    OF    ALL- 


FRIEND     NOZZLE. 

"Harvey"  Shifting-Handle  Ploughs. 
"  Four  Oaks "  Bucket  Spray  Pump. 
"  Myers  "  &  "  Deming  "  Spray  Pumps. 
"Jones"  High-pressure  Spray  Pumps. 
"  Friend  "   Power  Sprayer. 


FHUlTQHOWEt^S' 

REQUISITES  i  IMPLEMENTS 

Is  done  by  us  more  than  any  other  firm  in  Victoria. 
It  will  therefore  pay  you  to  call  and  see  us  or  write 
for  Illustrated  Catalogue  (A). 

Some  of  our  Lines  are — 


"  Excelsior  "  Fruit  Graders. 
Spraying  Hose — high  quality. 
Spraying  Materials  for  all  Pests. 
Pumps  for  all  Purposes. 
"COMET"     FARM    MOTORS. 


Our  Quality  is  Good.        Our  Prices  are  Right.         Call  and  See. 

-m      -I=>      -K/r-CPT"  ~r  r^liP     ^^'^  Elizabeth  st. 
n  _      r~\i_      tvi    n  1  i 1  I    iV^JrX;^  [jvEELBOXJi^isrE. 


VICTOR  !  A. 

AGRICULTURAL   CLASSES,   1912. 

The  new  regulations  governing  the  grant  to  Agricultural  Societies  provide  for 
encouragement  to  those  Societies  which  carry  out  classes  or  lectures  by  providing  for  them 
a  greater  proportional  participation  in  the  grant. 

A  sum  of  £10  as  a  special  subsidy  will  be  added  to  the  pro  rat&  grant  to  such  Societies 
as  carry  out  Agricultural  Classes  in  strict  conformity  with  the  conditions  of  the  Department. 

Applications  must  be  submitted  not  later  tlian  1st  JMay,  1912. 

Thirty  students  at  least  must  be  enrolled  before  a  class  can  be  held. 

The  rent  of  hall  and  all  local  charges  will  be  paid  by  the  Agricultural  Society  ;  all  other 
expenses  by  the  Department. 

A  roll  of  attendances  at  lectures  and  demonstrations  shall  be  kept. 

The  Agricultural  Classes  will  extend  over  two  weeks,  five  days  a  week,  a  demonstration 
being  given  each  morning  and  afternoon,  and  four  limelight  lectures  on  evenings  to  be 
arranged  for  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Societj-. 

For  Subjects,  Staflf,  and  all  other  necessary  particulars,  see  page  235  of  this  Journal. 


Applications  for  Lectures,  &c.,  are  to  be  addressed  to  :-- 

THE    DIRECTOR    OF    AGRICULTURE,    MELBOURNE. 


XXIV 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


TO  April,  191: 


"WATERLOO  BOY"  4  h.p.  PORTABLE  OIL  ENGINE. 

ABSOLUTELY  THE  SIMPLEST  AND  CHEAPEST  EFFICIENT  ENGINE  IN  THE  WORLD. 

USES    BENZINE    OR    KEROSENE. 


IGNITION. — Is  make  and  break  style,  charge  fired  by  electric  spark.  Igniter,  which  in 
other  Engines  is  difficult  to  get  at,  in  the  "Waterloo"  can  be  completely  removed  by 
loosening  two  cap  screws 

Both    Magneto    and    Battery    Ignition,— a    very    useful    arrangement,    as    work 
can  never  be  stopped. 

SPEED  LEVERi — Acts  same  as  throttle  of  a  steam  engine.  You  can  speed  up  or 
down,  or  stop  altogether  with  it.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  start,  prevents  "kicking 
back,"  and  saves  fuel. 

MIXER. — Is  a  great  idea,  patented  because  it  is  worth  patenting.  Has  an  adjustable 
mixing  cup  that  can,  by  a  winged  nut,  be  slipped  up  or  down  to  give  more  or  less  air. 
No  valve  springs  or  pump  to  get  out  of  order  ;  makes  Engine  easy  to  start ;  aids  the 
governor  and  speed  lever  in  getting  more  power  out  of  the  fuel. 


GOVERNOR. — Centrifugal  type,  sure  and  sensitive, 
only  when  the  work  requires  it. 


Allows  a  charge  in  the  cylinder 


FUEL.  -Works  on  either  benzine  or  kerosene,  but  benzine  is  better,  as  it  is  not  so  dirty. 
The  speed-saving  devices,  Speed  Lever,  Patent  Mixer,  and  Governor  make  the 
"Waterloo"  consume  the  least  fuel.  Compare  it  for  simplicity,  fuel  cost,  and  power 
with  other  engines,  and  you  Avill  send  your  order  to  us. 

HOPPER  COOLED.— That  is,  there  are  no  Tank,  Pipes,  and  Pump  to  cool  the 
cylinder.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  move  about;  less  space,  less  weight,  and  no 
water  pump  troubles,  as  there  is  no  Pump.     Also  lessens  the  fuel  bill. 

TRANSPORT.— Is  a  very  strong  one.  Through  axles  in  both  front  and  rear  wheels. 
Turntable  on  front  axle  is  simple  and  strong. 

Ijgp-  SEND  FOR  CATALOGUES  OF  OUR  OTHER  FARM   REQUISITES. 


MITCH 


FACTORY     &     office: 

WEST  FOOTSCRAY,  MELBOURNE. 


! 


SHOW     ROOM 


596  BOURKE  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


D^efrigerating  ^  ^ 


and 


lee  JYCakirig 
jVCaehineFY  ^  ^ 


e$5 

»J 

Js. 

M 

^ 

Made  by 
HUMBLE  &  SONS, 

'In.  iiii 

Geelong, 

Victoria. 

liir'i I'l    -^ 

<^ 

HII 

Specially  suitable  for  Duiohers,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  iSIachines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine  A_  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration  work 
undertaken,  'including  coifs.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


"  Ferrier's "  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distribntors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworlts,  &c. 

Full  Particulars  on  Application  to— 

Humble  and  Sons, 

General   Eng'ineers, 
VULCAN   FOUNDRY,   GEELONG. 


PLAX  AND   SPECIFICATIOX    OF   SHEEP-SHEARING   SHED.     2s.    Od.     PoMag-.    Id. 

MILK  CHARTS  (Monthly  and  Weekly),  lid,  per  dozen,  post  free.  When  ordering,  dairy  farmers 
should  mention  "  Montlily  "  or  "  Weekly." 

By  Professor  A.  J.  Exvart,  Government  Bofanist. 

WEEDS.  POISON  PLANTS,  AND  NATURALIZED  ALIENS  OF  VICTORIA.  2s.  6d. 
PodcHje  :  Commonwealth,  Hd.  ;  N.Z.,  5d.  ;  British  and  Foreign,  lOd. 

PLANTS  INDKJENOUS  TO  VICTORIA.  Vol.  II.,  iO,s.  Postaqe  :  Com..  2d.  :  N.Z.,  8d.  : 
Brit.  &  For.,  Is.  4d. 

By  C.  French,  F.E.S.,  Government  Entomologist. 

DESTRITTIVE  INSECTS  OF  VICTORIA.  Parts  I..  II.,  III.,  IV.,  V.  2s.  6d.  each.  Postnqe  : 
Parto  I.  and  III..  C.  Id.  ;  N.Z..  3d.;  B.  &  F..  fid.  each.  Parts  II.  and  IV.,  C,  IM. ;  N.Z., 
4d.  ;  B.  &  F..  8d.  each.     Part  V.,  C,  Id.  ;  N.Z..  4d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  7d. 

By  D.  JIcAIpine,  Government  Vegetable  Pathologist. 

RUSTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     5s.     Postage  :  C,  2d.  ;  N.Z..  8d.  ;  B.  &  F..  Is.  4d. 

S.MUTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     4s.     Postage  :  C.  2-kl.  ;  N.Z.,  9d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  fid. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  CTTRUS  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  Postage  :  C.  \ A. ;  N.Z.. 
3d.  ;  B.  &  F..  fid. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  STONE  FRUIT  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  fid.  Pontage  :  C, 
lid.  ;  N.Z.,  od.  ;  B.  &  F..  lOd. 

SYSTEJIATIC  ARRANGE.AIENT  OF  AUSTRALIAN  FUNGI.  3s.  Postage  :  C,  2d. ; 
N.Z.,  8d. ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  4d. 

THE    DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

MELBOURNE,   VICTORIA. 

Remittances  from  places  outside  the  Commonwealth  to  be  by  Money  Order  only. 

Pamphlets  obtainable  from  the  Director  of  Agriculture^ 
Melbourne^  Free   on  Application. 

NEW    SERIES. 

1.  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.     A.  S.  Kenyon,  C.E. 

2.  HINTS  FOR  NEW  SETTLERS.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

3.  APPLE  GROWING  FOR  EXPORT.     P.  J.  Carmody. 

4.  BOOKKEEPING  FOR  FARMERS.     W.  Mclver.  A.I.A.V.,  A.S.A.A..  Evtf. 
.5.  CIDER  MAKING.     J.  Knight. 

i;.  FARM  PLUMBINC.     C.  H.  Wright. 

7.  CITRUS  FRUIT  CULTURE.     E.  E.  Pescoll. 

8.  BUILDING  HINTS  FOR  SETTLERS.     A.  S.  Kenyan,  C.E.,  and  othe>  s. 

9.  TOBACCO  CULTURE.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

10.  SILOS  AND  SILAGE.     G.  H.  F.  Baker. 

11.  THE  BEET  SUGAR  INDUSTRY  AND  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT.     H.  T.  EaMerhy. 


Vol.  X.  WHEAT    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION. 


Part  5. 


[Re:.  i?terefl  at  the  General  Po«t  Offioe,  Melhonriip,  for  fran=ini«sir.M  in   Post  as  a  Newspappr. 


A  PRESEMT  DAY  GLYDESDALE 


STALLJOM. 


F.    H 


UNNING 


PTY.    LTD, 


GRASSES    AND    CLOVERS. 


RYE    GRASS,    COCKSFOOT,     PRAIRIE,     PHALARIS, 
DWARF     ESSEX     RAPE,     PASPALUM,     TIMOTHY,     RIB     GRASS, 
WHITE  CLOVER,  ALSIKE,  COWGRASS,  TREFOIL,  BURR  CLOVER, 
CRIMSON    CLOVER,    SUCKLING    CLOVER,    FESCUES,    ETC. 

S.iiiiplcs  and  Prices  of  All  Agricultural  Seeds.  Post  Free. 


SEED  &   BULB   MANUAL 

FOR       1912 

Containing  over  130  pp.  of  useful  and  instructive  information. 
JUST     PUBLISHED. • 


P03T     FREE     ON     APPLICATION     TO    THE     BULB     DEPARTMENT. 


SPRAY    PUMPS. 
LE&D  ARSENATE. 

SECATEURS. 
FRUIT  TREE  NETS. 
MANILLA   TAGS. 


BIRD    SCARERS. 

PLANET  JR.  DRILLS. 

AERATORS. 

CAHOON  SOWERS. 

NIKOTEEN. 


FRENCH 
PROVENCE 
LUOFRNE. 


Guiiraiiteod  dodder 
free  liv  the  F'rench 

Oovernment. 
Special  Prime  Seed. 


IN  OMPARABLE  CORN  SHELLER. 
Single  Hole,  £5.     Double  Hole,  £9  10$. 


PRICE    ON 
APPLICATION. 


HUNTER 
RIVER 

LUCERNE. 


Speci.ll  Tiue  Seed. 

Not  mixed  with 

Cheap  Seed. 


PRICE    ON 
APPLICATION. 


PLANET  JR.    IMPLEMENT.    (Write  for  Catalogue). 


64  ELIZABETH-ST.,  MELBOURNE 


THE     JOURNAL 


OF 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


'VICTOK,!^^,    .A."CrSTE,-A.LI.A.. 


CONTENTS.— M  AY,     1912. 


I'AOB. 


Wheat  aud  its  Cultivation...             ...    A.  E.  V.  likharchon,  M.A.,  B.Sc.  (Arjric.)  265 

Influence  of  Soil  Moisture  upon  Nitrification  /.   W.  Paterson,  B.Sc,  Ph.D., 

and  P.  P.  Scott  275 

The   Port   of   Hull   as   a   Distributing   Centre  for    Australian 

Produce          ...             ...             ...             ...  ...             ...                 A.   Wihon  282 

General  Notes       ...             ...             ...             ...  ...             ...             ...             ...  286 

Certification  of  Stallions    ...             ...             ...  W.  A.  N.  Robertson,  B.V.Sc.  288 

Lavender  Cultivation          ...             ...             ...  ...             ...                 J.  Knight  316 

Basis  Wines          ...             ...             ...             ...  ...             ...          F.  de  Castella  321 

Egg-laying  Competition     ...             ...             ...  ...             ...             ...             ...  324 

Rainfall  in  Victoria             ...             ...             ...  ...             ...             ...             ...  325 

Orchard  and  Garden  Notes                ...             ...  ...             ...            E.  E.  Pescott  326 

Reminders  for  June             ...             ...             ...  ...             ...             ...             ...  328 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

The  Articles  in  the  Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria  are 
protected  by  the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act.  Proprietors  of  newspapers  wishino 
to  republish  any  matter  are  at  liberty  to  do  so.  provided  the  Journal  and  author  are 
both  acknowledged. 

The  Journal  is  issued  monthly.  The  subscription,  which  is  payable  in  advance 
and  includes  postage,  is  3s.  per  annum  for  the  Commonwealth  and  New  Zealand,  and 
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Subscriptions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 
A  complete  list  of  the  various  publications  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
■will  bs  supplied  by  the  latter. 


journal  of^  A. gr'f culture,  Yktoria.  [lo  May,  1912. 


No  other  Windmill  has  a 
Speed-governing  Device  like 
the   "Billabong's." 


This  important  improvement  of  ours 
is  protected  by  patent  rights.  It  has 
neither  springs  nor  weights — nothing 

to  get  out  of  order.  By  merely  turning  a  screw  you  can 
vary  the  speed  of  the  mill  to  your  desire.  This  will  be 
found  to  be  of  great  advantage  when  Windmill  is  sub- 
jected to  a  change  of  load,  and  in  heavy  gales,  &c. 


Stop   and   Consider. 


You  want  a  mill  to  give  lifelong  service ;  therefore,  it  must  be  made  of  good 
material.  Bearings  should  be  so  made  that  they  may  be  cheaply  and  quickly 
renewed.  Frictional  or  wearing  parts  should  be  few ;  and,  what  is  most  im- 
portant, the  mill  should  have  a  lubricating  system  that  will  insure  its  being 
thoroughly  and  continuously  lubricated  while  working,  but  which  will  prevent 
waste  when  mill  is  not  required.  The  mill  should  be  responsive  to  a  very 
light  breeze,  yet  stand  a  gale. 

In    our    Mill    all    these    Points    are    provided    for. 

We  know  what  is  i*equii'ed  of  a  good  mill — we  have  had  many  years  of  windmill 
experience.  The  fact  that  we  have  obtained  patent  rights  proves  our  pro- 
gressiveness;  and,  as  to  quality  and  workmanship,  our  being  established  for 
over  half  a  century  answers. 

Suppose  You   Save, 

say,  £1,  or  £1  10s.,  or  £2,  by  buying  a  cheaper  mill,  and  then  have  to  spend 
£2  to  £3  in  repairs — again  another  £3  or  £4 ;  or,  suppose  your  cheap  mill 
sticks  up  when  you  most  need  it,  you  will  soon  lose  pounds  and  pounds' 
worth  of  stock ;   or,  if  it  blows  down  in  a  gale,  where  is  your  saving  then  ? 

Pay  a  Proper  Price  and  g^et  the  Right  Article  with 
a     Good     Manufacturing:    Firm     to    back    it    up. 

But  the  truth  is,  while  our  mills  are  well  made,  the  price  is  so  reasonable. 
Write  for  Catalogue  and  Prices. 

We  can  supply  Tanks  and  Stands;  Pumps  of  all  kinds;  Piping,  Troughing, 
and  Fluming;   Farm  and  Garden  Tools,  Implements,  and  Requisites. 


JOHN  DANKS  &  SON 


PTY. 
LTD. 
391=395    Bourke  Street,   Melbourne. 


lo  May,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


BARTRAM'S 

CONSTELLATION 

FOR  DAIRY  FARMERS, 


Just  as  the  Southern  Cross  is  inseparably  associated  with  Australia, 
so  is  the  name  "BARTRAM"  closely  allied  with  the  dairying 
industry  of  Victoria.  The  introduction  of  improved  methods,  and 
the  adoption  of  the  most  up-to-date  labor-saving  machinery,  has 
enabled  those  engaged  in  dairying  pursuits  to  get  out  of  their 
cows  the  maximum  return  at  the  least  cost.  The  five  "STARS" 
that  have  so  materially  helped  to  guide  hundreds  of  dairy  farmers 
to  fortune  and  success,  are : — 

"ALFA-LAVAL"  "LK-C." 

CREAM  SEPARATORS  HilLKING  MACHINES 

"FELIX" 
IRRIGATION  OUTFITS 

"FELIX"  "ALFA" 

PETROL  MOTORS  STEEL  WINDMILLS 


In  buying  the  above  lines  you  run  no  risk  whatever.  Years  of 
everyday  use  on  hundreds  of  farms  in  Victoria  alone  have  demon- 
strated beyond  doubt  that  they  are  as  represented  in  our  catalogues, 
and  are  easily  the  best  manufactured.  They  carry  our  guarantee  of 
efficiency  and  long  service,  and  behind  the  guarantee  is  a  reputa- 
tion   of    40    years    of    unequalled    service   to  Victorian  dairymen. 

Write  for  our  Illustrated  Catalogue. It  is  Free, 

and  gives  much  valuable  advice.  When  in  town 
come  and  see  us.  Our  expert  knowledge  is  fully 
and  freely  at  your  service.  We  give  liberal 
terms  and  accept  easy  payments. 

J.  BARTRAM  &  SON  rTS.  MELBTu^rE': 


Journal  of_  Agrkulture,  Victoria. 


[lo  May,  19 12. 


Who  has 
an  Axe 
to  Grind? 


A  Mattock,  a  Pick,  a  Hatchet,  Scythe, 
Bush  Hook,  Slasher,  Knife,  Scissors,  or 
Chisel  ? 

Whatever  it  be,  if  it  has  an  edge,  you'll 

Sharpen  it  quicker 
and  better  with 

A  ''  Buff alo^^ 
Foot-power 
Grinder 


A  "Bufliilo"  Foot-power  Grinder  easily  beats  a  Grindstone, 
because  of  the  great  speed  attained,  the  quickness  of  the  grind- 
ing done,  and  the  fact  that  whatever  the  job  it  only  requires 
one  person  to  run  the  machine  and  grind  at  the  same  time. 

Any  kind  of  tool,  from  the  smrdlest  to  the 
■  largest,  may  be  ground—  and  without  draw- 
ing the  temper  or  heating.  A  simple,  easy 
motion  of  the  foot  sends  the  emery  wheel  spinning  at  3,000 
revolutions  per  minute. 


Big    Book    of   Tools    Posted    Free* 

It  illustrates  over  2,000  Modern  Tools 
for    Farmers  at  Money-Sa\ing  Prices. 


Tool   Merchants, 
554=66  &  582=88  Conins=street,  Melbcurne. 


'imtsKmrnmsmmMsmm 


lo  May,  191^-] 


] iiurual  of  A-grhuliure.  Victoria 


/~  IT  WILL  PAY  YOU  -^ 


TO    LEARN 


MODERN     METHODS     IN     AGRICULTURE 
LIVE  STOCK  &  FRUIT  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT. 


;  OWN  HOMK  how   to   MAKE   MOKE   ilOXEV   by  the  employment  of  up-to-date 

t.ranches  of  Agriculture  and  Live  Stock  Husbandry,  including  Drainage, 
and    Practical    Orchard     Management.        We  also  give   instruction   in   the 
following'  subjects  ; — 


Arithmetic 

Mathematics 

Languages 

Drawing 

Illustrating 


Electrical  Engineering 
Steam  Engineering 
Shire  Engineering 
Mining  Engineering 
Surveying 


Mechanical  Drawing 
Architectural  Drawing 
Building    Construction 

and  Estimating 
Timber  Measurements 


CANDIDATES   FOR   ALL   PUBLIC    EXAMINATIONS. 


can  teach  you  AT  YOUl 
methods.       We  teach  all 

Irrigation,    Dairying 

Bookkeeping 
Shorthand 
Accountancy 
Commercial  Law 
English 

WE    PREPARE 

The  instiuction  yoes  RIGHT  TO  YOUR  HOME,  no  matter  where  30U  live.  It  is  clear,  concise,  easily 
understood,  and  practical.  Every  student  is  handled  privately  and  separately  and  receives  individual 
attention  according  to  his  particular  requirements. 

Our  instructors  are  men  of  sound  technical  knowledge,  combined  with  years  of  practical  experience,  and 
the.v  are  at  the  service  of  every  student,  to  guide  him  with  their  valuable  advice.  Only  spare  time  stud\ 
is  required,  and  our  fees  are  exceedingly  moderate  and  within  the  reach  of  everybody. 

AVe  invite  you  to  WTite  at  once  for  a  free  copy  of  our  Handbook  D.  It  explains  our  system  and  shows 
how  we  can  teach  any  man  who  is  willing  to  be  taught  and  anxious  to  increase  his  earninj'  power.  It  costs 
nothing  to  inquire.  "  Don't  put  it  off.       Write  tO-day. 

STOTTS  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

54    MARKET    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


!^iSo™S "TIP-TOP"  SEEDS 


.«&    Co.'s 


ESTABLISHED    62    YEARS. 

THREE    VALUABLE    GRASSES. 


PASPALUM  DILATATUM 

OR  GOLDEN    CROWN  GRASS. 

A  valuable  forag^e  grass  for  all  kinds  of  stock.  With- 
stands drought,  and  frost  will  not  kill  it ;  particularly- 
suitable  for  dairy  cattle  as  it  will  stand  any  amount  of 
grazing,  and  trampling  of  stock  does  not  injure  it. 
Makes  a  very  etticieiit  fire-bi-eak  when  planted  in  strips 
throughout  natural  pastures,  as  it  remains  luxuriantly 
green  when  the  surroundings  are  in  a  dry,  parched, 
and  inflammable  condition.  Sow  6  lbs.  per  acre.  First 
quality  heavy  hand-shaken  seed,  1 , 6  per  lb. 

PHALARIS  COMMUTATA 

The  King  of  all  Winter  Grasses. 

Grows  between  6  and  7  feet  high.  Resists  frosts  and 
droughts.     This  marvellous  grass  has  been  known  to 


grow  quite  an  inch  a  day  on  poor  ground.  Recom- 
mended to  graziers  and  dairymen,  as  it  remain.""  par- 
ticularly luxuriant  in  winter,  and  behaves  remarkably 
well  during  the  hot,  dry  months.  It  seems  to  like  all 
kinds  of  weather.  Sow  2  lbs.  per  acre  in  drills  ;  or 
4  lbs.  broadcast.      7/6  per  lb. 

TIMOTHY  GRASS. 

This  well-known  variety  adapts  itself  to  almost  any 
soil.  It  is  a  capital  grazing  grass,  and  produces  ex- 
cellent hay.  It  is  of  strong  growth  and  yields  abundant 
feed.  Quantity  required  to  sow  an  acre,  30  lbs. 
Price,  1/3  per  lb. 


WRITE   FOR  OUR   NEW  FARMER'S 
PRICE  LIST. SENT  POST  FREE. 


Law,  Somner,  &  Co.'s  "TIP-TOP"  Seeds, 

139-141  SWANSTON-ST.,  MELBOURNE,    Phone,  Central  729. 


■B^SB^I^ 


Journal  of  Agnculture,  Victoria.  [lo  May,  1912. 


"AUSTRAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES. 

FIVE  YEARS   OF   UNBROKEN   SUCCESS 

Have  established  the  AUSTRAL  as  the  Premier  Milking  Machine,  and 

have  demonstrated  that  it  does  not  belong  to  that  class  of  applisinces  whose 
efficiency  terminates  after  a  few  months  of  use.  It  has  stood  the  t«gt  of  time,  and 
that  under  all  sorts  of  conditions. 

IT    IS    SIMPLE. 

Complexity  and  intricacy  are  the  bane  of  milking  machinery.  Both  in  principle 
and  construction  the  Austral  is  strikingly  simple.  Minute  pulsating  mechanism 
on  teat  cups  or  buckets  has  been  entirely  dispensed  with,  its  place  being  taken  by 
a  single  pulsating  pump,  simple  and  strong  in  construction,  which  serves  for  the 
whole  outfit,  whether  two  cows  or  ten  are  to  be  milked  at  a  time.  The  puls.ating 
pump  is  placed  in  the  engine  room,  remote  from  the  cows. 

IT    IS    AM    EASY    MILKER. 

Fear  of  injury  to  cows  was  at  one  time  the  bogie  of  machine  milking.  The  Austrftl 
has  done  away  with  all  that.  Its  action  on  the  cow  is  as  gentle  as  that  of  the 
softest  hand,  and  much  easier  than  the  average  hired  help.  After  three  and  four 
years'  milking  with  the  machines,  cows  are  found  to  be  as  sound  in  the  quarters 
as  when  they  started.  Enquiry  from  any  Austral  user  will  confirm  the  correct- 
ness of  this  statement. 

IT  IS  THE  LAST  WORD  IN  ECONOMICAL  DAIRYING. 

The  working  parts  are  so  few  and  the  construction  so  simple  and  solid,  that  wear 
and  tear,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  upkeep,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  An 
outstanding  feature  of  the  Austral  is  the  Tank  System,  whereby  the  milk  is 
conducted  direct  from  cow  to  separator  without  any  handling  whatever.  With 
this  system,  so  great  a  saving  is  effected  in  time,  labour,  and  trouble,  that  in 
ordinary  circumstances  its  advantages  are  overwhelming.  A  single  bucket  can  be 
supplied  for  testing  individual  cows ;  or  where  special  requirements  render  it  pre- 
ferable, complete  bucket  plants  can  be  installed. 


GLOBE  CREAM   SEPARATORS. 


Embodies  the  famous  Link-Blade  Bowl 
Structure.  Official  tests  conducted  by  the 
Swedish  Government  at  Alnarp  placed  the 

Globe"  in.  the  very  forefront  for  clean     <^.  VACCAR    PETROL    ENGINES. 


skimming    and    easy    running,   against    all 
competitors. 

All  sizes  from  14  to  200  gallons. 


CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES. 


The  world's  standard  Oil  Engine.      In  all 
sizes  and  for  all  descriptions  of  farm  work. 


British    built.  Low    running    speed. 

Economical  on  fuel. 


WINDMILLS,  SAW-BENCHES,  CH^FF-CUTTERS,  aqd  all  Farin  at^d  Dairy  Macl^inery. 

When  writing,  please  mention  tliis  Journal. 


W.  H.  BLHCKHflin. 


59-61   KING  ST., 
MELBOURNE. 


lo  May,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


Vll 


1^ 


Herd    of    Prize 

Winnings  and 
Heavy  Milk  ^ 
and  Butter  Pro- 
ducing  Strains* 


YOUNG      BULLS     AND     HEIFERS 


FOR     SALE. 


MYSTERY  VI.  OF  MELROSE. 


INSPECTION     BY    APPOINTMENT. 


WlLMflM  WOODflflSON,  ""dIT" 


MALVERN,     MELBOURNE,    Vic. 


Journal  of  Agriculture.   Victoria. 


[lo  May,  191; 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT    LAND, 

List  showing  number  of  allotments  on  the  various  Estates  available  for  application  : — 


Estate. 

Irrig-ation 

Areas, 

Area. 

Wheat  ( 

jrowing-. 

Koyuga 

9 

totallin 

g      27  acres. 

Estate. 

Area. 

Swan  HDl 

6 

4SS      „ 

Cohuna 

28 

2,084      „ 

Cornelia  Creek 

6        totalling    2,331  acres 

Shepparton 

8 

16      „ 

Oaklands 

6               „          4,140      „ 

Nanneella 

23 

2,509      „ 

Hurstwood     .. 

7               „          3,440      „ 

Bamawm 

52 

3,643      „ 

Mt.  Widderin 

15                 „            5,521       „ 

Tongala 

74 

4,876      „ 

Nerrin  Nerrin 

Pannoo 

Marathon  &Willow  Grove 

17                „           3,736      „ 
2r.                „           8,909      „ 
15                „           8,889      „ 

Dairying-  and  Mixed  Farming-. 

Bona  Vista 

4 

totalling- 

389  acres. 

Beet  Growing-  and  Dairying-. 

Deepdene 

7 
8 

" 

1,320       „ 
3,427       „ 

Boisdale 

5        totalling-       256  acres 

Sleadowbank 

1 

j^ 

51       „ 

Kilinany  Park 

48               „          4,281    „ 

Allambee 

9 

1,619       „ 

Morven 

15 

,, 

5,160       „ 

Clerks' 

Homes. 

Werribee 

•23 

4,389       „ 

Kenihvorth  . 

2 

1,198       „ 

Glen  Huntly 

3  allotments. 

Mooralla 

2 

1,372       „ 

Tooronsa 

5i 

Cremona 

7 

612       „ 

Nuniurkah  . 

0 

234       ,, 

Workmen's  Homes. 

Dunrobin 

100       „ 

Pender's  Grove 

63  allotments. 

Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending-  over  31J  years,  -w-ith 
payments  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  value  of 
permanent  improvements  effected,  repajTuents  extending  over  fifteen  years  bearing  5  per  cent,  interest. 

For  full  information  and  terms  apply  to  THE     SECRETARY, 

LANDS    PURCHASE    AND     MANAGEMENT    BOARD. 

MELBOURNE. 


"  The  Finest 
Wagon  Ever." 


PATENT 

STEEL 
WHEELS. 

Patent  Felloes. 

Renewable  Oarron 

Boxes  and  Oil  Caps. 

The  only  Steel  Wheel 

that  has  stood 

the  Test. 

Beware  of 

Imitations. 

BuUivant  Bros.,  Gillenbah,  Narrandera,  write :— 4/4/11— "  The  7-ton  "Wool  Wagon  I  got  from  you  four  years 
ago  has  given  every  satisfaction.     I  now  want  you  to  send  me  a  54  in.  and  48  in.,  diameter  wheel  x  6  in.  tyre  10-ton 
Wagon,  with  Table  19  ft.  x  8  ft.    Your  Wagons  are  the  Best."    Hundreds  of  others  say  the  same. 
When  you  get  a  Wagon  see  that  it  is  the  Genuine  "Hildyard  Patent." 

A  well-known  and  up-to-date  farmer  in  Victoria  (Mr.  E.  A.  Neald,  of  Nathalia)  says  :—"  I  had  last  season 
a  6-ton  Ordinary  Englisb  Wagon,  and  one  of  the  "Trusty"  type  Steel  Wheel  Wagons,  40  in. 

and  36  in.  dia.  -wheels,  carting  in  sheaf  hay.  Although  the  (j-tr>n  wagon  seemed  to  carry  the  larger  loads,  I 
found,  to  my  surprise,  after  keeping  careful  count,  that  the  Patent  Steel  Wheel  Wagon  carted  and  put  into 
the  stack  700  sheaves  a  day  more  than  the  big  wagon.     The  labour  was  tlie  same  for  both  wagons." 

agg^ TABLE  TOP — Truck  body,  and  all  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
\NRITE    FOR    CATALOG     TO-DAY. 


J.  L.  HILDYARD, 


QUEEN'S    BRIDGE-ST., 
SOUTH   MELBOURNE,  V. 


lo  May,  191--] 


journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


IX 


LIGHT,  STROMG, 
PERFECTLY  RIGID. 

"CYCLONE" 
WOVEN    GATE 

9    f-t.    -to    16    f-t. 

Will  hold  anything,  and  can  be  made  rabbit  proof  by  putting  rabbit  proof 
intersection  at  the  bottom.      The  wider  gates  have  three  stays. 

Cet  our  Catalogue  of  this  and  many  other  Cyclone  Cates. "  THEY'RE   ALL  GOOD." 

CYCLONE    FENCE  &   GATE   CO., 

459  SWANSTON  ST.,  corner  franklin  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


PAT  E  N  T 


SHEEP-BRANDING  LIQUID 


AS  USED  BY  LEADING  PASTORALISTS  OF  AUSTRALIA. 
IN  THREE  COLOURS,   BLACK,  RED  &  BLUE. 


Sold  in  8  gallon  cases,  4  6  grallon. 
1  gallon  tins,    5  "  each. 


-AGENTS    FOR    VICTORIA    AND    RIVERINA" 


DALGETYeTg°  MELBOURNE.    | 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  May,  191. 


"GLEN   ELGIN'S   PHILANTHROPIST"   299  A.H.B.   of  Aus. 


(^(^ 


(|)(^ 


Winner  of  Champion,  Sydney  Royal  Show,  1909,  1910,  1911,  1912. 

Reserve   Champion,   Melbourne   Royal  Show,   1907,   1908,   1911. 
Also  Winner  of  Bull  and  Progeny  Prize  of  £10  for  5  females  (the  progeny  of  any  one  bull) 
producing  the  largest  amount  of  commercial  butter  in  24  hours,  Sydney  Royal  Show,  19)2. 

Also  holds  the  record  of  150  Firsts,  Champions,  Specials,  and  Gold  Medals 
for  Ayrshire  and  Dairy  Bull. 


The  "GleDgaFnoek"  Stad 


of  PlXt«&- 

flypshipe  Cattle 


Has  won  innumerable  prizes  in  the  ring.      The  females  in  this  herd  are  noted  for 
deep  and  heavy  milking  and  test  well  above  the  average,  and  are  kind  and  quiet. 

CHOICE  YOUNG  HERDBOOK  BULLS  FOR  SALE  at  from  5  to  25  guineas  each. 

From  Best  Cows  onh*,  by  Pure  Herdljook  Bulls.     Full  pedigrees  and  particulars,  with 
photographs  of  animal  for  sale,  his  sire  and  dam,  will  be  forwarded  on  application. 


INSPECTION  CORDIALLY  INVITED.        VISITORS  MET  AT  LANG  LANG  RAILWAY  STATION. 


Address — 


A.T.  PRIESTLEY.  I 


Post       V'CLENGARNOCK," 

lelegra^Sj  YANNATHAN,  Vic. 


lo  May,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agricidtiire,   Victoria. 


Vaeuum 

Gargoyle 

Prepared 

Red   Spraying'  Oil 


Needs  no  Soft  Soap 
OP  other  ing-pedient. 


Requires  only 
Clean  Soft  Watep. 


Vacuum  Gargoyle  Red  Spray  Oil 
now  obtainable  in  prepared  form 
is  the  same  Oil  as  that  originally 
introduced  to  Australia  for  fruit- 
tree    S23  raying. 


Full  particulars — 
Horticultural  Department, 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd., 
90  William  Street,  Melbourne. 


Journal  of  Agnculture,  Victoria.  [lo  May,  1912. 


BEET  &  DAIRY  FARMING. 


THE    IDEAL 

CLOSER  SETTLEMENT   COMBINATION, 


THE    RIC 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 


AND    THE    FAR-FAMED= 


KILMANY     PARK. 


Both  of  these  Estates  have  been  specially  selected, 
purchased,  and  subdivided  for  Beet  Growing  and 
Dairying     combined,     and     to     afford     opportunity     to 

THRIFTY,  EXPERIENCED  MEN  WITH  SMALL  CAPITAL 

to    make    a    comfortable    living    while    acquiring    the 
freehold     of    the    land. 

For  the  possibilities  and  practical  results  read  the  article  on 

"THE     BEET     IDNrT)TJST:R"Y"/' 

in  the  March,   19 12,  issue  of  The  Journal  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria. 


lo  May,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agnculture,   Victoria. 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 

Subdivided  into    57    blocks,    and    already    settled    with  the  exception  of 
Six  Blocks  of  from  40  to  60  acres,  to  carry  10  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  £25  10s.  to  £27  10s.  per  acre. 


KILMANY    PARK 


Now  open 

for 
Application, 
Subdivided 

into 


42  farm  blocks  from  56  to  195  acres,  to  carry  10  acres 
of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £7  lOs.  tO  £22  lOs.  per  acre. 

14  Workmen's  blocks  from  20  to  46   acres,    to   carry 
4  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £23  tO  £25  per  acre. 


For  particulars  and  conditions  of  purchase  and  as  to  blocks 
available,  apply  to  the 

SECRETARY,  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT 
BOARD,    MELBOURNE. 


For  information  concerning  the  financial  aid  given  to  suitable 
Settlers  to  stock  the  farms,  apply  to 

THE    DIRECTOR    OF  AGRICULTURE, 
MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  May,  1912, 

THE     STANDARD     FOR    FENCING. 

"NEPTUNE" 

UNRIVALLED    PATENT   STEEL 

FENCING  WIRE. 


5  0  %   SAVED 

in  your    Wire   Account,   and   then 
you  have 


£9  8s.  6d.  saved 

on  3  miles  6  Wire  Fence 
1^      i^  by  using  "NEPTUNE," 


THE    BEST    POSSIBLE    FENCE.        V  as  against  Ordinary  Wire. 


-S^SnxriD     S^OFC     S.^^3VEf>X<:E3S.- 


.    MORRIS  &  MEEKS,  agents,  MELBOURNE. 

^^^ ^ 

To  GRAZIERS,  FARMERS,  and  DAIRYMEN. 


Proprietary 
Ltd.  


You  cannot  do  better  than  purchase  your  requirements  from 

THE    VICTORIA    VARNISH    Coy. 

Who  are  Importers  and  Manufacturers  of  the  undermentioned,  namely  : — 

Varnishes  for  all  uses,    Paints,    Dry  Colors,    Stainer's    Turpentine, 
Boiled    and    Raw    Linseed    Oil,    Resin,    Shellac,    White    Lead,    &c. 

OUR   MANUFACTURE     IS     OF    ONE     QUALITY— THE     BEST. 

Note  the  Address— 

The  VICTORIA  VARNISH  COY.  Proprietary  Ltd.,  Queen's  Bridge,  South  Melb. 

Tel.   Central  614.  Established   1853.  A.    J.    BORTHWICK,    Manager 

i^i^lBBIIIIWmiillillilillllllllillllllilMirii'lMWfl^ffifP'' 


tm.wmmimim.'.M.^^.ii^msmmi:^ 


BONEDUST,  SUPERPHOSPHATE, 

AND     OTHER     HIGH-GRADE     FERTILIZERS 

DELIVERED  AT  RAILWAY  STATION,  FOOTSCRAY,  OR  ON  WHARF,  MELBOURNE. 

Office :— 407  POST  OFFICE  PLACE,  MELBOURNE. 

BONES  BOUGHT.      CONSIGN  TO  ME,  FOOTSCRAY.  Telephone  2098. 


lo  May.  191  -•] 


Joiirjial  of_  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


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Journal  of  Agnculinrc,   Victoria. 


[lo  May,  191 2. 


DON'T  WASTE  YOUR  TIME  AT  THE  PUMP  HANDLE. 


FOR  foolish  it  is  for  a  man  to  try  to  raise  water  for  stock  or  garden  by  means  of 
a  hand  pump.  Windmills  are  to  be  obtained  now  so  cheap  that  it  is  a  folly, 
rank  folly,  to  waste  one's  time  at  the  pump  handle ;  the  windmill  will  not 
only  do  the  work  better,  but  do  it  cheaper  than  any  other  method  of  raising  water. 
The  farmer,  or  the  farmer's  man's  time  would  be  much  better  employed  about  the 
farm.  The  first  cost  of  a  windmill  is  practically  its  only  cost.  All  that  is  re- 
quired to  keep  it  in  order  for  years  is  simply  to  lubricate  it  occasionally,  and  this, 
with  recent  improvements,  needs  only  to  be  done  about  once  a  month.  For  many 
years  the  ALSTON  Windmill  has  become  a  household  woi'd.  The  fame  of  the  ALSTON 
mill  has  spread  tar  and  wide.  They  have  made  their  reputation  b}-  actual  merit  on 
actual  service,  by  their  simplicity  and  superior  construction.  They  have  stood  the 
test  of  years.  They  have  been  erected  in  the  most  exposed  sites  with  impunity.  They 
have  been  used  successfully  on  wells  and  bores  three  and  four  hundred  feet  deep.  They 
have  been  used  for  pumping  through  miles  of  piping  to  higher  levels.  They  have 
been  used  for  pumping  for  stock;  for  irrigation;  for  drainage;  for  house  and  for 
garden,  and  almost  everything  that  a  pump  is  used  for. 


The}'  have  been  imitated  and  envied  by  rival  makers  but  have  never  been  ex- 
celled. Every  ALSTON  mill  that  has  been  sold  has  been  an  advertisement  for  its 
maker,  and  the  demand  for  the  ALSTON  mill  has  increased  year  after  year,  and  still 
preserves  its  premier  position  in  the  Commonwealth.  Thousands  of  the  ALSTON 
Windmills  are  made  annually,  and  thousands  of  tlie  ALSTON  mills  have  been  in  constant 
use  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  faithfully  doing  the  work  of  water-lifting,  to  the 
satisfaction  and  delight  of  the  foresighted  and  enterprising  stock-owners  who  installed 
them  ;  now,  seeing  the  advantages  of  their  use,  thousands  of  others  are  following  their 
example.  The  windmill  is,  beyond  dispute,  the  simplest,  most  reliable,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  cheapest  method  of  raising  water  for  stock.  If  you  are  interested  further, 
write  for  a  full  and  descriptive  catalogue  from  the  maker. 

The  address  is 

JAMES     ALSTON, 

QUEEN'S  Bridge,    South   Melbourne. 

This  will  give  you  a  full  and  fair  description  of  all  different  size  mills  that  he  makes, 
from  the  six  to  the  twenty-five  foot  diameter  Avheel ;  what  each  size  Avill  do,  and  v.'hat 
they  will  cost.     IT  WILL  PAY  YOU  TO  DO  SO. 


THe    JOURNAL 

OF 

Yfte  department  of     Mgriculture 


LIBR. 

OP  NEW  ^ 

BOTAN 
VICTORIA.  GARD 


Vol.  X.       Papt  5.  loth  May,  1912. 

WHEAT  AND  ITS  CULTIVATIOX. 

{C ontinued  from  page   208.) 
No.   4.— SEEDING  OPERATIONS. 

By  A.  E.  T.  Ricliardson,  MA..  B.Sc.  {Agric),  Agricultural 
Superintendent. 

No  activities  in  the  farm  calendar  arou.se  sucli  .speculation  and  anxiety 
to  the  Australian  wheat-grower  as  those  pertaining  to  seeding  operations. 
The  nature  and  peculiarities  of  the  Au.stralian  climate  are  such  as  to 
render  a  clo.se  studv  of  the  factors  underlying  successful  seeding  quite 
imperative.  In  some  of  the  more  favoured  countries  of  Europe  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  rainfall  is  so  even  throughout  the  year  that  the  wheat- 
grower  may  sow  his  wheat  at  leisure  in  autumn  ;  or,  if  weather  conditions 
be  unfavorable  for  autumn  seeding,  he  may  defer  operations  until  the 
advent  of  spring,  and  still  secure  a  heavy  crop. 

The  uncertainty  of  the  spring  and  early  summer  rainfall  and  the  long 
hot  and  relativelv  dry  summers  characteristic  of  the  bulk  of  the  wheat- 
growing  areas  of  Australia,  preclude  such  spring  sowing  from  being  a 
success  in  these  districts.  Autumn  sowing,  or  early  winter  sowing,  must 
therefore  he  regarded  as  essential  to  success  over  the  greater  portion  of 
the  State. 

Wheat- growers  in  the  drier  districts  have  learned,  from  long  experi- 
ence, that  in  the  great  majority  of  sea.sons  the  ultimate  success  of  the  crop 
depends  very  largely  on  getting  the  seed  sown  on  soil  in  good  physical 
csl  condition  at  the  right  finic-  within  what  may  be  called  the  normal  seeding 
^  period,  which,  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  extends  over  some  six 
'-^  to  eight  weeks.  When,  however,  heavy  showers  fall  intermittently  during 
O^  this  period  the  seeding  is  considerably  delayed,  and  much  of  the  crop  must 
' — r  be  sown  too  late  to  secure  optimum  results.  Where  large  areas  are  to  be 
-^  sown,  and  difficulties  arise  either  from  a  dearth  of  labour  or  teams,  the 
:3  sowing  season  must  he  prolonged  beyond  the  period  necessary  to  insure 
~>  the  best  results. 

4878.  K 


266  Journal  of  Agricidturc.  Yictoria.  [lo   May.    19 12. 

Time  to  Sow. 

Autumn,  then,  is  the  season  for  seeding,  and  the  actual  date  to  com- 
mence operations  will  vary  with  the  district,  and  the  general  character  of 
the  season.  Much,  of  course,  depends  on  the  weather.  In  some  years  the 
rains  hang  back  until  late  in  autumn,  and  seeding  often  commences  on  a 
dry  seed  bed.  In  other  years,  again,  the  autumn  rains  are  timely,  frequent 
and  copious,  and  the  seed  is  sown  under  conditions  which  bring  about 
rapid,  even,  and  vigorous  germination.  Speaking  generally,  it  may  be  said 
that  it  is  safe  to  sow  seed  during  the  normal  seeding  period  when  the  soil 
is  either  sufficiently  dry  to  leave  the  seed  ungerminated,  or  else  when  the 
soil  is  so  thoroughly  moist  as  to  induce  immediate  germination.  There  is 
an  intermediate  stage,  howe\'er,  between  these  extremes  when  it  is  danger- 
ous to  sow  wheat.  This  condition  arises  when  the  soil  is  neither  dry  nor 
wet,  but  contains  sufficient  moisture  to  induce  germination,  yet  insufficient 
to  keep  the  young  plant  fully  supplied  with  moisture.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances, unless  rain  opjjortunely  falls,  the  soil  begins  to  dry  out  and 
the  grain  malts. 

While  wheat  and  other  naked  seeds  are  very  susceptible  to  malting  in 
slightly  moist  and  rapidly  drying  soils,  oats  and  barley,  with  their  tough, 
fibrous,  j^rotective  envelopes,  are  not  so  susceptible.  Hence,  while  it  may 
be  unsafe  to  sow  wheat  under  such  conditions,  barley  and  oats  may  be 
.sown  with  much  less  likelihood  of  loss.  Generallv  speaking,  the  latter 
portion  of  April,  and  the  month  of  May  are  the  most  favorable  months  for 
the  drier  areas,  whilst  the  .seeding  may  often  be  prolonged  till  June  in 
more  certain  districts.  AVhere  large  areas  are  to  be  sown  a  start  mu.st  be 
made  as  early  as  possible  to  finish  the  seeding  in  a  reasonable  time. 

Manv  farmers  in  their  anxiety  to  get  o\'er  large  areas  frequently  com- 
mence seeding  operations  earlier  than  is  indicated  above.  One  of  two 
things  may  happen.  Dry  weather  may  continue  after  the  seed  is  sown, 
and  induce  a  con.siderable  amount  of  malting,  in  which  case  some  re- 
sowing  will  require  to  be  done.  On  the  other  hand,  timely  showers  may 
supervene  and  bring  the  young  plants  on  with  exceptional  vigor,  and  re- 
sult in  rank,  heady  growth.  Not  only  are  such  crops  liable  to  be  cut  later 
on  with  frosts,  but  they  are  also  prone  to  lodge  with  the  hea^'y  winter  rains. 

These  contingencies  may  be  obviated  either  by  administering  a  check 
to  the  rapid  growth  by  judicious  feeding  down  with  sheep,  or  bv  taking 
the  precaution  to  sow  comparatively  late  maturing  varieties  in  the  early 
part  of  the  seeding,  and  reserving  very  early  varieties  till  the  end  of  the 
season. 

Very  late  .sowing,  in  the  drier  areas,  can  onlv  be  successful  when  the 
winter  pro\es  to  be  exceptionally  mild  and  the  spring  and  summer  rains 
ample,  frequent,  and  timely,  a  combination  ol'  circumstances  we  may 
hardlv  hope  for.  Hence,  in  the  drier  districts  the  wheat-grower  is  well 
?\dvised  to  reduce  the  late  sown  crops  to  a  minimum. 

Treatment  of  the  Land. 
To  adequately  discuss  the  possible  preparatory  modes  of  soil  treatment 
for  wheat  cultivation  would  take  more  space  than  can  be  given  here,  and 
discussion  will,  therefore,  be  reser\-ed  for  special  consideration  in  later 
articles.  For  the  present  it  is  assumed  that  the  wheat  is  to  be  sown  on 
well-prepared  bare  fallow. 

Varieties  to  Sow. 
The  choice  of   varieties  is   governed  by  the  physical   character   of   the 
soil,  the  climate  in  which  the  wheat  is  to  be  grown,   and  the  purpose  for 


lo   Mav.    191^.]  W/n'dt  and  its  Cultivation.  26^ 

which  the  wheat  is  required.  Tlie  farmer  must  select  those  part'cular 
wlieats  which  prove  the  most  favorable  and  profitable  under  his  particular 
conditions.  The  difference  between  the  yields  of  two  varieties  of  wheats 
grown  on  the  same  farm,  under  absolutely  identical  conditions,  is  often 
sufficient  to  more  than  pay  the  rent  or  interest  on  the  land  on  which  the 
crop  was  grown.  This  has  been  frequently  demonstrated  in  departmental 
experiments,  and  indicates  the  prime  importance  of  selected  experim.ental 
stations  in  each  of  the  important  districts  of  the  State  where,  among  other 
lines  of  investigation,  continuous  and  systematic  tests  of  all  app  oved 
varieties  of  cereals  may  be  made  in  the  interests  of  growers  of  that 
district. 

In  the  drier  districts,  in  normal  seasons,  the  earlier  varieties  are 
generally  the  most  suitable,  whilst  in  districts  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy 
and  growing  season  more  protracted  late  maturing  wheats  may  be  expected 
to  yield  better  results  than  early  wheats.  Some  wheats  of  outstanding 
excellence,  like  Federation,  may  do  well  in  any  district,  but  it  rarely  falls 
to  the  lot  of  any  variety  to  have  such  a  wide  range  of  usefulness.  It  is 
a  good  maxim  for  the  wheat-grower  not  to  confine  h'm.self  to  a  single 
variety  of  wheat. 

Fortunately,  owing  to  the  work  of  the  late  W.  Farrer,  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  to  the  enterprise  of  private  farmers  like  Mr.  W.  Marshall, 
of  Parkside,  South  Australia,  there  is  a  considerable  number  of  good 
wheats  to  choose  from.  A  portion  of  every  farm  is  usually  set  apart  for 
hay,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  well  to  grow  some  recognised  hay  varieties. 
A  good  hay-wheat  should  retain  its  colour  well,  produce  an  abundance  of 
straw  and  flag,  and  should  be  sweet  and  palatable  to  stock.  It  should 
be  fairly  solid  in  the  straw,  and  preferably  beardless.  For  purposes  of 
grain  production  the  principal  and  essential  requirement  is  prolificacy  under 
the  conditions  in  which  it  is  grown.  It  is,  of  course,  highly  desirable 
that  the  grain  should  be  of  good  milling  quality,  i.e.,  of  good  colour,  high 
flour  strength,  and  satisfactory  gluten  content.  It  very  frequently  happens, 
however,  that  the  high  quality  wheats  are  shy  vielders.  Comeback  and 
Bobs,  for  example,  stand  out  prominently  among  Australian  wheats  on 
account  of  their  high  flour  strength,  but,  unfortunately,  they  do  not  pro- 
duce such  heavy  yields  as  varieties  like  Federation  and  Yandilla  King. 
Under  conditions  existing  at  present  in  Victoria  the  farmer  has  no  alter- 
native but  to  grow  prolific  wheats  irrespective  of  quality.  Indeed,  it 
would  appear  that  the  best  he  can  hope  for  at  pre.sent  is  f.a.q.  pr'ces  for 
his  product.  Before  high  quality  wheats  can  be  popular  and  profitable  in 
this  State — (i)  The  millers  must  be  prepared  to  purchase  high  quality 
wheats  like  Comeback  and  Bobs,  at  prices  considerably  in  advance  of 
those  ruling  for  f.a.q.  wheat  in  order  to  give  adequate  encouragement  to 
the  grower;  (2)  the  wheat-breeder  must  produce  varieties  in  which  the  high 
quality  of  Comeback,  and  the  prolificacv  of  Federation,  will  be  combined. 

Among  the  numerous  varieties  now^  at  the  disposal  of  the  farmer  are  the 
following  :-- 

Hay-ivlieats. — Baroota  Wonder,  Correll's  Xo.  7.  Firbank,  Hugueno", 
Majestic,  Marshall's  Xo.  3,  Thew,  Triumph.  White  Tuscan 
and  Zealand. 

Grain-ii'heats. — Bayah  Bunyip,  Dart's  Imperial,  Federation,  Gluyas, 
King's  Early,  Steinwedel,  Marshall's  X^o.  3,  Yandilla  King. 

Forage  and  Ensilage. — Medeah.   Huguenot,   Kubanka. 

K    2 


268  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria,  [lo   May,    1912. 

Rate  of  Seeding. 
The  amount  of  seed  to  he  sown  varies  within  very  wide  limits,  and  is 
governed  by  several  considerations.     The  amount  of  seed  required  varies 
with — 

(i)  Climate. — The  lower  the  average  rainfall  of  the  district,  the 
less  seed  is  required.  The  minimum  is  required  in  dry, 
mallee  districts. 

(2)  Time   of  Solving. — Early   sown   wheat   requires   less   seed  than 

the  same  variety  sown  late.  As  the  seeding  progresses  it  is 
well  to  gradually  increase  the  amount  sown,  since  late  sown 
wheat  has  much  less  opportunity  to  stool  out  and  establish 
itself  before  the  winter  .sets  in  than  the  early  sown  wheat. 

(3)  Character  of  Seed  Bed. — Early  sowing  on  clean  land  requires 

the  minimum.  Land,  foul  with  weeds,  must,  if  it  has  to  be 
sown,  be  sown  thickly  to  give  the  wheat  an  opportunity  to 
choke  the  weeds. 

(4)  The  Character  of  the  wheat,   its  stooling  capacity,   the  size  of 

the  grain,  whether  it  is  aii  early  or  late  maturing  variety, 
and  its  germinating  capacity.  Obviously  all  these  influence 
the  amount  of  seed   required. 

(5)  TJie  Use  to  which  the  wheat  is  put — whether  for  grain,   hay, 

green  fo^rage  or  ensilage.  The  minimum  will  be  required  in 
the  former  casej  the  maximum  in  the  latter. 

(6)  Method    of    sowing— whether    drilled    or    broadcasted.       About 

20-25  per  cent,   more  seed  is  required  w-ith  the  broadcasted 

to  give  the  same  braird  as  the  drill. 

With  these  reservations,   it  may  be  said  that  the  average  amount  of  seed 

for  grain  is  45-60  lbs.,  while  for  hay  and  forage  1-2  bushels  may  be  used. 

For  grain  the  amount  sown  may  be  as  low  as  30  lbs.  in  dry,  mallee 

districts  to  65-70  lbs.,  in  moister  districts.     Generally  speaking,  sow  early 

crops  thin,   and  late  crops  thick;  sow  light  laiid  thicker  than  rich,  heavy 

land ;   and   be  sparing   with   good   stooling   ^'arieties,    and   correspondingly 

liberal  with  varieties  of  poor  tillering  capacity. 

Method  of  Sowing. 

Since  the  introduction  and  general  use  of  superphosphates  in  the  wheat- 
growing  areas  of  the  State  the  old  broadcaster  has  been  superseded  by 
drills  which  sow  seed  and  manure  through  the  same  hoes. 

The  advantages  of  broadcasting  are — (i)  The  small  cost  per  acre; 
(2)  the  large  areas  that  may  be  sown  in  a  day. 

Bearing  in  mind  what  has  already  been  said  regarding  the  necessity 
for  sowing  seed  quickly  wdien  once  the  "  normal  seeding  period  "  arrives, 
we  may  readily  appreciate,  even  in  this  age  of  drills,  the  merits  of  broad- 
casting ;  for,  should  unfavorable  weather  conditions  prevail  at  seed  time, 
the  broadcaster  may  be  useful  in  making  the  most  of  Avhatever  intervals 
of  fine  weather  mav  occur  in  an  unusual   seeding  season. 

In  a  normal  season,  however,  when  seeding  conditions  are  favorable, 
the  best  place  for  the  broadcaster  is  in  the  implement  shed.  The  ad- 
vantages possessed  by  the  drill  more  than  outweigh  those  of  the  broad- 
ca.ster.  With  the  drill  seed  and  manure  may  be  sown  in  the  one  operation. 
This  not  onlv  econimizes  labour,  but  it  also  enables  young  plants  to 
i-apidlv  find  ihe  superphosphate  and  make  vigorous  growth  in  the_  earlier 
stages  of  its  existence.  Whatever  weeds  may  lie  between  the  drills  are 
not  so  fortunatelv  situated  as  the  voung  wheat  plants,   and  the  latter  are 


lo   May,    [91:;.]  WJicaf  ami  its  Cnltivaticii.  269 

thus  better  able  to  cope  with  such  weeds.  Moreover,  the  drill  is  more 
economical  with  seed  than  is  the  broadcaster,  as  it  requires  at  least  25  per 
cent,  more  seed  with  the  broadcaster  to  get  the  same  braird.  Wherever  a 
farmer  values  his  seed-wheat  at  prices  considerably  above  those  ruling  for 
f.a.q.  wheat — ^wherever  selected  seed  of  high  quality  is  sown — this  saving 
of  seed  is  a  most  important  item. 

Moreover,   with  the  drill  the  germination  is  far  more  regular,   because 
it  is  sown  at  a  uniform  depth. 

Finally,   the  depth  of  sowing  may  be  regulated  with  the  drill  to  suit 
the  condition  and  nature  of  the  seed  bed. 

Treatment  of  the  Seed. 
(1)  Is  Change  of  Seed  Necessary? 
There  is  a  notion,  \-ery  prevalent  among  wheat-growers,  to  the  effect 
that  change  of  seed  at  periodical  intervals  is  more  or  less  necessary.  It 
is  very  difficult  to  obtain,  even  from  those  who  hold  thi.s  view  most  stoutly. 
the  grounds  which  render  such  a  change  of  seed  necessary.  Perhaps  the 
most  obvious  reason  lies  in  the  farmers"  expressive  phrase  that  the  "  wheat 
has  run  out."  This  is  an  expression  of  the  belief  that  the  continued 
cultivation  of  the  same  variety  of  wheat  under  the  same  soil  conditions 
for  a  number  of  years  results  in  the  deterioration  of  that  particular 
strain  of  seed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  a  change  absolutely  im- 
perative. In  other  words,  it  is  the  practical  farmer's  expression  of  the 
belief  that  varieties  of  wheat,  under  ordinary  conditions  of  cultivation, 
tend  to  degenerate.  Such  a  view  is  by  no  means  new.  It  dates  back 
at  least  to  Roman  times,  for  in  the  Georgics  Vergil  tell  us — 

"  Unless  the  peasant   with  his   annual  pain 

Renews  his  choice,  and  selects  the  largest  grain, 

Thus  all  belo'W,  by  Nature's  curse. 

Or  Fate's  decree,  degenerates  still  tO'  worse."" 
It  is  difficult,  indeed,  to  see  how,  if  careless  and  slipshod  methods  of 
cultivation  are  practi.sed,  and  no  care  taken  to  preserve  the  very  best 
of  the  crop  for  the  next  season's  seed,  the  prolificacy-  of  any  given  variety 
of  wheat  can  be  maintained  at  a  high  level.  It  is  still  more  difficult  to 
see  how  such  a  grower  can  improve  matters  by  securing  a  change  of  seed 
from  persons  equally  careless  as  himself.  Unless  the  change  he  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  a  better  variety,  or  more  vigorous  seed,  or  for  seed 
that  has  been  subjected-  to  careful  and  continued  systematic  selection, 
there  can  he  no  advantage  resulting  from  change  of  seed.  Indeed,  if  it  be 
merely  a  promiscuous  exchange,  it  is  more  than  probable  the  change  would 
be  a  decided  disadvantage.  This  would  happen  in  all  cases,  for  example, 
in  which  wheat  is  transferred  from  a  fa\orable  to  an  unfavorable  environ- 
ment. Again,  in  extreme  cases,  such  as  would  happen,  e.g.,  in  introduc 
mg  new  varieties  from  foreign  climes,  .several  years  must  elapse  before 
the  new  seed  becomes  "acclimatized."  {Vide  p.  95.)  Moreover,  such 
change  of  seed  is  often  the  cause  of  introducing  new  weed  pests  and 
diseases  from  one  district  of  the  State  or  country  tO'  another.  The  balance 
of  evidence  goes  to  prove  that  farmers  should  rely  on  locally- developed 
seed,  and  should  gi\'e  more  attention  to  their  own  seed,  and  the  prevalent 
idea  that  mere  change  of  seed  gives  good  results  would  appear  to  be 
founded  more  on  opinion  than  upon  well  ascertained  fact. 

(2)  Grading  the  Seed. 
Another    widespread    notion    which,    fortunatelv.    can     be     proved     ex- 
perimentally to  have  no  foundation  in   fact  is  that  shrivelled  grain  is  as 
good  for  seed  purposes  as  plump  grain.       Some  years  agO'  it  was  not  an 
uncommon    practice   for   some   farmers   to   sell    their   best   wheat   as   f.a.q. 


270  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Yictoria.  [10   May,    1912. 

to  the  miller  or  merchant,  and  keep  the  shrivelled  grain  for  seed.  If 
there  is  one  thing  that  has  been  conclusively  demonstrated  by  carefully 
conducted  experimental  work  it  is  the  fact  that  plump  grains  are  greatly 
superior  to  shrivelled  grains  from  a  productive  point  of  view. 

As  no  local  experimental  results  are  available  to  assist  us  on  this  sub- 
ject, we  may  consider  what  has  been  done  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College,  Canada.  Professor  Zavitz  reports  results  extending  over  six  suc- 
cessive years  with  winter  wheat,  and  eight  years  with  spring  wheats. 
Large,  plump  grain,  of  winter-sown  wheat,  gave  46.9  bushels  per  acre, 
as  against  39.1  bushels  of  shrivelled  grain  of  the  same  variety,  i.e.,  7.8 
bushels  per  acre  extra.  Again,  with  spring  wheats  the  difference  amounted 
to  5  bushels  in  favour  of  graded  grain,  the  large,  plump  grain  yeilding 
21.7  bushels,  whilst  the  shrivelled  grain  of  the  same  variety  gave  16.7 
bushels. 

In  view  of  what  has  been  said  above,  it  follows  that  growers  should 
make  every  endeavour  to  secure  the  very  best  seed —  large,  plump,  vigorous 
— and  if  the  seed  represents  the  progeny  of  strong,  selected,  vigorous  plants, 
good  results  will  be  assured.  Great  emphasis  must  be  laid  on  the  necessity 
for  the  selection  of  hardy,  vigorous  prototypes,  because,  under  favorable 
conditions,  small,  but  well-developed  seeds  from  highly  productive,  vigor- 
ous plants,  may  give  better  results  than  large  grains  from  unproductive 
plants. 

It  can  readily  be  shown,  however,  that,  in  general,  the  more  vigorous 
plants  possess  the  larger  kernels,  and  that,  by  mere  grading,  the  bulk  of 
the  grain  obtained  would  come  from  the  more  vigorous  plants. 

The  large  grains,  obtained  as  a  result  of  such  grading,  might  be  ex- 
pected to  give  more  v'gorous,  and,  inferentially,  more  productive  plants, 
because  of  the  greater  reserve  food  supplv  for  ihe  young  plant  in  the 
early  stages  of  its  growth. 

(3)  Pickling  the  Seed. 

Pickling  of  the  seed  for  the  prevention  of  "  stinking  smut,"'  or 
Bunt  (Tilletia  Tritici),  is  now  regarded  as  a  regular  part  of  the  farm 
routine.  Much  effort  has  been  spent  on  the  evolution  of  bunt-proof 
wheats,  and  it  would  appear  that  already  a  considerable  amount  of 
success  has  been  obtained.  Florence  and  Genoa,  e.g.,  have  been  shown 
in  experimental  trials  tO'  be  practically  immune  from  smut,  whilst  wheats 
like  Medeah  and  Huguenot  have  long  been  known  to  be  smut-resistant. 
The  same  cannot  be  said,  however,  for  the  varieties  in  general  culti\ation, 
for  some  of  the  most  prolific  yielding  wheats  we  grow  are  verv  susceptible 
to  smut. 

The  advantages  of  securing  a  bunt-resistant  prolific  wheat  must  be 
manifest.  The  process  of  pickling  would  be  unnecessary,  and  the  time, 
labour,  and  expense,  involved  in  the  operation,  would  be  saved  to  the 
farmer.  Seeing  that  the  quality  of  smut-resistance  has  already  been 
observed  in  a  few  varieties,  it  is  not  difficult  to  impart  the  quality  to 
other  more  prolific,   but  more  susceptible,   varieties. 

The  cost  of  the  actual  pickling  operations  is  not  great,  but  as  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  .seed  is  destroyed  by  most  of  the  fungic'des  in 
general  use,  it  follows  that  the  total  cost,  including  the  damaged  seed,  is 
verv  considerable. 

The  production  of  a  hunt- p> oof  prolific  warietv  is,  therefore,  a  legiti- 
mate aim  of  the  wheat-breeder,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  expect  that  such 
a  variety  will  materalize  in  the  near  future. 

To  understand  why  any  treatment  for  smut  should  be  effectual  it  is 
necessary  to  realize  that  bunt  is  caused  by  a  fungus  which  reproduces  itself 
by   small   bodies   called   spores,    which    are   analogous   to  the  seeds   of   the 


.10   May.    1912.]  ]]'//{■(!/  and  its  Ciilfivaiioii.  271 

higher  plants.  This  smut  fungus  is  parasitic  in  its  growth,  and  attacks  the 
A\heat  plant  just  when  germination  takes  place.  The  mycelium  of  the 
fungus  then  penetrates  the  wheat  plant,  lives  on  its  host,  grows  with  it, 
.and  ultimately  produces  myriads  of  spores  which  collectively  form  the 
"  bunt  balls'"  of  the  infected  heads.  The  effect  of  the  fungicides,  used 
in  pickling,  is  to  kill  all  the  spores  in  any  wav  adhering  to  the  grain. 

Most  of  the  spores  adhering  to  infected  grains  will  be  found  in  the 
^'  brush  "■  of  the  kernel,  whilst  a  lesser  number  are  usually  found  in  the 
•crease  of  the  grain.  If  a  number  of  grains  of  wheat  be  poured  into  a 
vessel  of  water,  it  will  be  noted  that  small  bubbles  of  air  invariably  be- 
come entangled  in  the  tuft  of  hairs  constituting  the  '.'  brush,''  and  in  such 
cases  the  grain  does  not  become  moistened  at  these  points,  even  after  pro- 
longed immersion.  This  will  explain  the  need  for  vigorous  agitation  of 
the  seed  whilst  immersed  in  the  pickling  solution. 

Reinfection  may,  and  often  does,  take  place  after  the  seed  has  been 
p'ckled.  This  commonly  occurs  where  the  pickled  .seed  has  been  trans- 
ferred to  smutty  bags  which  have  not  bt«n  treated  with  the  pickling  solu- 
tion. Again,  in  sowing  the  seed  the  bunt  balls,  left  among  the  grain 
by  careless  pickling,  may  be  broken  in  the  drill,  and  the  contents  of  the 
ball  scattered  o\er  the  seed.  It  must,  of  course,  be  borne  in  mind  that 
while  loo.se  bunt  spores  are  killed  by  contact  with  the  pickling  solution, 
the  spores  contained  within  the  unbroken  bunt  balls,  which  float  on  the 
surface  of  the  pickle,  are  unaffacted  by  the  fungicide.  Steps  must,  there- 
fore, be  taken  during  pickling  to  remove  or  break  any  bunt  balls  which 
may  be  present  in  the  seed. 

An  ideal  fungicide  for  pickling  purposes  would  require  to  be  {a) 
cheap;  (b)  efective,  i.e.,  capable  of  destroying  all  the  spores  adhering 
to  the  grain ;  {c)  capable  of  preventing  reinfection  of  the  seed ;  {d)  with- 
out effect  on  the  gerinination  of  the  grain.  The  fact  that  so  much  con- 
troversy has  arisen  respecting  the  various  fungicides  on  the  market  is 
proof  that  the  ideal   fungicide  has  not  yet  been  obtained. 

Bliiestone  is  a  most  popular  fungicide,  and,  when  properly  used,  is 
verv  eft"ecti\e. 

The  stronger  solutions  have  a  very  deleterious  effect  on  the  germination 
of  the  grain,  as  they  not  only  reduce  the  germinable  power  of  the  seeds, 
but  also  delay  the  germination  considerably.  Manv  instances  were  observed 
last  season  by  the  writer  when  judging  farm  crops  and  farm  competitions, 
in  which  crops  were  badly  affected  with  bunt,  although  the  seed  had  been 
pickled  with  bluestone.  In  all  these  cases,  however,  the  cause  was  un- 
doubtedly the  arbitrary  method  of  pickling  adopted.  Instead  of  using  a 
solution  of  fixed  and  definite  concentration,  the  practice  followed  w^as  that 
of  dissolving  a  handful  of  bluestone  in  a  small  but  unknown  quantity  of 
water  and  pouring  it  over  a  bag  of  seed.  Such  a  method  of  procedure 
is  most  unsatisfactory,  ^^'hat  the  grower  needs  to  realize  is  that  the  strength 
or  concentration  of  the  solution  is  all  important  to  successful  work,  for 
there  is  an  optimum  concentration  at  which  the  best  results  are  obtained. 
Below  this  strength  the  fungicide  is  ineffectual,  and  with  higher  concen- 
trations the  germinat'on  of  the  seed  is  greatly  interfered  with. 

In  practice  the  amount  of  bluestone  which  gives  the  best  results  is 
i|  lbs.  'to  10  gallons  of  water,  i.e.,  i|  per  cent.  Of  course,  smutty  seed 
may  require  as  much  as  2  lbs.  to  10  gallons,  but  the  farmer  should  make 
it  his  business  not  to  sow  dirty  seed.  He  should  make  it  an  habitual  prac- 
tice to  reserve  each  j^ear  the  very  cleanest  and  best-grown  portion  of  his 
crop  for  next  season's  .seed. 

Various  substances  ha^e  been  used  to  lessen  the  corrosive  action  of 
the    bluestone,    and    among   these    the    u.se   of    lime    and   salt    have   been 


/ 


272  JoKnial  of  AgriciilturL .  \"ictoria.  [10   May,    1912. 

recommended  ;  hut  the  results  of  experimental  work  at  present  tend  to  show 
that  the  benefit  obtained  is  not  commensurate  with  the  extra  labour  involved. 

ForwaUn  has  been  know^n  for  manv  years  to  be  an  effective  fungicide 
and  is  now  widely  used  for  pickling  wheat.     It  is  a  solution  of  formaldehyd 
gas   in   water,    and    the   usual    concentration   of   the   commercial    article   is 
37-38  per  cent. 

It  is  a  cheap  fungicide,  efficient  in  pre\enting  smut,  but  it  apparently 
has  little  power  to  prevent  reinfection.  -Bluestone,  however,  is  highly 
efficient,  both  in  destroying  spores  adhering  to  the  seed,  and  also  in  pre- 
venting further  reinfection  by  fresh  spores  falling  on  the  seed  after  it  has 
been  pickled. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  in  pickling  with  formalin  more  care  must 
be  taken  with  bunt  balls  than  when  pickling  with   bluestone. 

Formalin  is  generallv  considered  to  have  a  depressing  influence  on  the 
germination,  and  the  effect  depends  on  the  length  of  time  the  seed  has  been 
pickled  before  sowing,  the  nature  of  the  .seed  bed,  and  the  concentration  of 
the  solution  used,  I  may  remark,  however,  that  at  the  Parafield  Experi- 
mental Farm  a  packet  of  Federation  seed,  which  was  immersed  in  a  1/400 
solution  of  formalin  for  five  minutes,  on  ist  April,  1909,  gave  a  germi- 
nation of  89  per  cent,  when  planted  on  25th  May,  1910 — nearly  14  months 
later. 

The  .strength  usually  recommended  is  i  in  400,  i.e.,  i  lb.  of  formalin 
to  40  gallons  of  water.  It  is  not  desirable,  nor  is  it  necessary,  to-  use 
stronger  .solutions  than  this.  Indeed,  unless  the  seed  is  smutty,  it  may 
even  be  advisable  to  use  a  weaker  solution  than  this,  and  for  general  pur- 
poses I  lb.  to  45  gallons,  or  i  lb.  to  50  gallons,  i.e.,  i  in  450,  or  i  in  500, 
may  be  recommended. 

Fungusine  is  a  proprietary  preparation,  which  has  been  used  as  a 
fungicide  for  the  prevention  of  smut,  but  considerable  difference  of  opinion 
exists  as  to  its  merits. 

There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  fungusine  does  not  have  that 
deleterious  effect  on  the  germination  of  the  grain  which  has  been  noted 
with  formalin  and  bluestone.  Indeed,  in  nearly  all  cases  in  which  it  has 
been  tried,  the  germination  has  for  some  reason  or  other  been  materially 
stimulated  by  the  pickling.  Were  it  absolutely  effective  as  a  fungicide, 
and  proved  itself  capable  of  preventing  reinfection,  there  would  be  no 
question  as  to  its  value  as  a  pickle.  Before  one  can  come  to  a  conclusion 
in  this  matter,  it  is  necessary  to  test  it  o\er  a  period  of  years,  in  a  sys- 
tematic manner,  side  by  side  with  standard  fungicides. 

Until  such  experiments  have  been  conducted  it  is  not  safe  to  indulge  in 
hasty  generalizations.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  however,  that  in\'estigation.'; 
have  been  conducted  at  the  Cowra  Experimental  Farm.  New  South  Wales, 
with  these  \arious  fungicides  for  the  past  two  years.  The  results  are  given 
in  the  Agricultural  Gazette  of  New  South  Wales  (April,  191 1).  The 
following  table  has  been  extracted  from  the  results  to  illustrate  the  point 
at  issue :  — 


1.  Bluestone  2% 

2.  Formalin  1/400 

3.  Fungusine 


(1)  Efficiency  of  the 

Fungicide. 

Buntv  plants. 

(Average  1909-10.) 


1-4 
9-6 
3-4 


(2)  Effect  on  Germination., 

Plants  killed. 

(1909-10.) 

(3)  Efficacy  in  prevent 

ing  reiiifection. 

Clean  plants  after 

relnlection. 

(1910  only.) 

0/ 

/o                       ' 
22-4 
14-5 
—  "  ( 

% 
96-6 
67-2 
96-4 

Note. — In  all  tliesp  tests  tlie  seed  was  purposely  infected  until  it  was  literally  black  with  smut. 
Itwas  thus  infinitelv  dirtier  than  seed  sown  under  ordinary  farming  conditions. 


lo   -May,    191-.]  W'luat  and  its  Cultivation.  273 

The  results  of  these  experiments  are  thus  summarized — 

"  As  a  smut-preveiiti\e  fungusine  gave  practically  as  good  results 
as  any  method  tried,  and  had  no  injurious  effect  on  the 
germination  of  the  seed.      .  .      .       In    preventing    rein- 

fection    it     was    correspondingly     efficient.""         {Agricultural 
Gazette  of  Xew  South  "Wales,  April.    191  r.) 

This  result  is  in  accord  with  the  results  of  experiments  conducted  at  the 
Parafield  Wheat  Station  (South  Australia)  during  1909,  where,,  in  com- 
parati^'e  tests,  fungusine  ac(]uitted  itself  remarkably  well.  {Vide  Journal 
of  Agricidtiirc  of  South  Australia,  January.  1910 — Bunt  Tests — A.  E.  "V. 
Richardson). 

Hot  Water  Treatnieni.  —  This  has  been  recommended  at  -s-arious 
times,  but,  in  practice,  though  the  treatment  is  efficient,  the  method  is 
very  cumbersome,  slow,  and  unwieldy.  The  method  consists  in  immersing 
the  seed  for  10  minutes  in  hot  water  at  a  temperature  of  130°  to  132°  F. 
The  practical  difficulty  is  to  keep  the  temperature  constant.  A  considerable 
lowering  of  temperature  results  immediately  the  seed  is  introduced,  but  this 
may  be  avoided  bv  pre-heating  the  .seed  in  a  ^•essel  of  water,  the  temperature 
of  which  is  approximatelv  130°  F.,  before  immersing  it  in  the  main  bath. 
It  is  a  method,  howe\"er,  which  requires  skilful  handling  and  careful 
supervision. 

Methods  of  Pickling. — Seed-wheat  mav  be  pickled  with  formalin  cr 
bluestone,  either  by  immersion  for  a  stated  time  in  a  solution  of  given  con- 
centration, or  by  pouring  the  solution  o\er  several  bags  of  wheat  on  a 
cement  floor,  and  shovelling  over  the  mass  until  every  grain  has  been 
thoroughly  wetted  with  the  solution. 

The  advantage  of  the  barn-floor  method  of  pickling  is  the  rapidity 
with  which  it  may  be  done.  The  disadvantage,  however,  is  that  it  is  not 
possible  to  remove  any  bunt  balls  that  may  be  present,  and  reinfection  may 
subsequently  take  place.  This,  as  pointed  out  abo\e,  is  of  more  con- 
sequence with  the  formalin  pickle  than  with  the  bluestone,  for  the  reason 
that  formalin  appears  tO'  be  less  able  to  prevent  reinfection  than  bluestone. 
With  fungusine,  the  floor  method  is  the  only  one  possible.  Pickling  by 
immersion  is  less  expeditious,  but,  on  the  whole,  it  is  more  efficacious. 
The  whole  of  the  grain  comes  in  contact  with  the  pickle,  especially  when 
the  vessel  containing  the  grain  is  agitated.  Moreover,  any  bunt  balls  which 
may  be  present  can  be  removed  by  skimming,  and  danger  of  reinfection 
avoided.  Several  patent  picklers  are  now  on  the  market  for  expediting 
this  work,  and  with  these  much  of  the  old-time  drudgery  associated  with 
pickling  is  avoided.  "With  bluestone  pickling  the  apparatus  needs  to  be  con- 
structed of  copper  and  wood. 

M.A MURING    OF    THE    WhEAT    CROP. 

The  manurial  requirements  of  the  wheat  crop  under  diverse  soil  and 
climatic  conditions,  the  comparative  merits  of  different  forms  of  artificial 
manures  and  the  principles  upon  which  the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility 
depend  may  be  reserved  for  discussion   in  subsequent  articles. 

After-treatment  of  Wheat. 

A'er\  frequently  the  crop  requires  some  kind  of  attention  after  sowdng, 
and  the  treatment  will  vary  considerably  with  the  type  of  growth  made, 
the  character  of  the  season,  and  the  nature  and  preliminary  treatment  of 
the  seed  bed. 

Rolling  the  crop  after  it  has  grown  some  6  inches — 8  inches  is  frequently 
practised. 


274  journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.  \io   May,    1912^ 

With  hay  or  ensilage  crops  this  is  often  beneficial,  as  it  helps  to  make- 
a  level  surface  for  the  binder,  thus  facilitating  the  harvesting  of  the  crop. 
Moreover,  on  light,  open  land,  the  consolidation  of  the  soil  effected  by 
rolling  is  very  beneficial  to  the  growing  crop.  Rolling  may  also  be  prac- 
tised where  the  operations,  preparatory  to  seeding,  have  not  been  of  such 
a  character  as  to  provide  for  that  soil  consolidation  so  essential  to  the 
success  of  a  wheat  crop.  On  heavy  lands  which  tend  to  set  hard,  and 
which  are  likely  to  run  together  with  the  winter  rains,  the  roller  should  be 
displaced  by  the  harrows. 

Harrowing  is  always  beneficial  to  a  \oung  wheat  crop,  provided  it  be- 
not  already  too  thin.  Certainly,  a  percentage  of  the  young  plants  is 
dragged  out  in  the  operation,  but  it  is  well  in  this  connexion  to  remember 
the  healthy  proverb,  ''  The  man  who  harrows  should  never  look  behind." 

This  disadvantage  is  more  than  compensated  for  by  the  increased  vigor 
of  the  remaining  plants,  and  by  the  great  stimulus  given  to  stooling  ;  nor 
must  it  be  forgotten  that  the  harrows  assist  in  subjugating  the  weeds,  and 
in  the  drier  portions  of  the  State  it  assists  in  conserving  the  limited  sup- 
plies of  soil  moisture  by  retard'ng  capillary  activity  and  lessening  eva- 
poration. 

In  harrowing  the  growing  crop  the  work  should  be  done  at  right 
angles  to  the  drills. 

Feeding  Down  the  Crop. — It  has  already  been  remarked  that,  in 
favorable  seasons,  the  early  sown  crops  are  likely  to  come  away  very  rapidly 
and  make  heavy,  vigorous,  rank  growth  in  May  and  June.  Such  heady 
growth  is  exposed  to  two  dangers  : — ■ 

1.  Lodging  in  wet  weather. 

2.  Blighting  either  from  late  spring  frosts,  or  by  a  premature  burst 

of  hot  weather  in  spring. 

Such  growth  may  be  arrested  by  feeding  down  with  sheep.  This  is  a 
decided  advantage  on  light  land,  or  on  land  which  has,  for  various  reasons, 
not  been  consolidated  sufficiently  through  adequate  tillage  operations  ;  but 
on  heavy  land  it  may  be  a  positive  disadvantage  to  feed  down  a  crop  with 
sheep.  This  would  happen  if  the  land  were  wet,  ard  more  or  less  boggy  ;. 
under  these  circumstances  the  sheep  would  do  more  harm  than  good. 
In  any  case,  unless  the  feeding  be  done  fairly  rapidly,  little  benefit  will 
accrue  from  the  process. 

In  dealing  with  large  paddocks,  difficulty  arises  in  putting  on  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  sheep  to  carry  out  the  work  in  reasonable  time. 
Complications  arise  where  the  crop  is  not  uniform,  and  where  the  rank 
portions  occur  in  patches.  Under  such  circumstances  it  becomes  necessary 
to  "  shepherd  "  the  ffock,  as,  if  left  to  themselves,  the  sheep  will  invariably 
graze  those  portions  which  do  not  require  feeding  off. 

One  point  must  not  be  overlooked  in  this  connexion,  and  that  is  the 
time  such  operations  may,  with  .safety,  be  performed.  Late  feeding  down 
is  generally  decidedly  detrimental,  and  can  only  be  performed  with  any 
prospect  of  success  when  the  spring  rains  are  frequent  and  copious. 

In  the  drier  portions  of  the  State  it  is  a  good  maxim  for  the  wheat - 
grower,  at  all  times,  to  plan  his  work  with  the  expectation  of  the  present 
season  being  a,  dry  one,  and,  in  the  event  of  such  expectation  being 
realized,  crops  requiring  to  be  fed  off  will  give  best  results  when  fed 
early.  In  addition  to  checking  the  rank  growth,  judicious  feeding-off 
assists  the  stooling  propensities  of  the  plant,  and  reduces  the  pro]X>rt-on 
of  fiag  and  straw  to  grain,  thereby  avoiding  the  danger  of  blighting  by- 
hot,   spring  winds. 

(7'c  he  continued.) 


lo  May,  1912.]  Infltu'iice  of  Soil  Moisttire  tifon  Niirificaiioti. 


275 


THE 


INFLUENCE   OF   SOIL   MOISTURE   UPON 
NITRIFICATION. 


By  J. 


TF.   Paterson,  B.Sc,  Ph.D.,  Exferimentalist,   aud  P.   R.   Scott, 
C  lie  mi  St  for  Agriculture. 

Introduction. 

Xitric  acid  or  nitrate  contains  nitrogen  in  the  highest  state  of  oxidation. 
Ammonia  is  a  compound  of  nitrogen  which  has  no  oxygen.  To  convert 
ammonia  into  nitric  acid,  its  nitrogen  must  be  oxidized.  This  happens  in 
fertile  soil,  and  the  oxidation  is  brought  about  by  certain  bacteria.  The 
process  of  oxidizing  ammonia  to  nitric  acid  is  termed  nitrification. 

Besides  nitrogen  and  oxygen  plants  require  eight  other  elements  in  their 
food  materials.  Each  of  these  must  be  in  the  highest  state  of  oxidation 
commonly  occurring  in  Nature.  Phosphites,  sulphites,  nitrites,  and  ferrous 
salts  either  kill  the  plant  outright,  or  they  give  an  unsatisfactorv  return. 
This  is  also  true  of  ammonia  for  ordinary  crop  plants.  Ammonia  is  not 
poisonous  in  practical  amounts,  but  it  gives  a  much  smaller  vield  than  the 


With  nitrogen  in 
form  of  nitrate. 


With  nitrogen  in 
form  of  ammonia. 


highly  oxidized  nitrogen  found  in  nitrates.  The  accompanying  figure*^ 
shows  very  fairly  the  action  of  ammonia  and  nitrate  nitrogen  under  con- 
ditions where  nitrification  is  impossible. 

The  reason  why  nitrates  should  be  better  than  ammonium  salts  as  a 
food  of  plants  is  somewhat  obscure.  The  first  organic  compounds  formed 
by  plants  from  the  absorbed  nitrogen  are  amino-acids  and  their  derivatives. 
As  these  contain  the  amidogen  radical  (XHj)  which  is  closely  related  to 
ammonia  (NH3),  one  might  have  expected  the  ammonium  salts  to  give  the 
better  result.  As  the  primary  amide  formation  always  occurs  in  the  plant 
cell  where  oxidizable  carbohydrate  is  present  along  with  the  absorbed 
nitrogen  compound,   it  may  be  that  nitrate  pos,sesses  an  advantage  in  that 


•  From  A  Manual  of  Agricultural  Botany,  hy  Prof.  Frank,  Berlin 
Edinburgh  :  Wm.  Blackwood  and  Sons. 


translated  by  John  W.  Faterson . 


276 


Journal  of  Agriculture.  Victoria. 


[10  May,    1912. 


it  contains  easily  available  oxygen  which  is  useful,  while  at  the  same  time 
it  yields  NH5  in  the  nascent  state  in  the  process  of  its  reduction.  This,, 
however,  is  merely  a  suggestion;  whatever  the  physiological  reasons  the 
superiority  of  nitrate  to  ammonia  nitrogen  for  direct  crop  production  may 
be  taken  as  an  established  fact. 

It  has  been  indicated  that  nitrification  is  the  work  of  certain  soil  bac- 
teria. There  are  two  kinds  of  bacteria  and  two  stages  in  the  change,  but 
apparently  both  have  very  much  the  same  requirements,  save  in  the  nature 
of  their  nitrogenous  food'.  One  kind  changes  ammonia  into  nitrite,  the 
second  changes  nitrite  into  nitrate.  The  conditions  for  growth  of  these 
bacteria  are  therefore  the  conditions  for  nitrification.     They  require — 

1.  The  ordinary  plant  food  of  crops  except  iron. 

2.  An  available  base  to  neutralize  the  acids  produced — carbonate  of 

lime  being  the  best. 
An  ammonium  salt — probably  the  carbonate. 
Free  aeration  of  the  soil. 
Sufficient  moisture. 
Darkness. 
Temperature  between  41   deg.   and   130  deg.    F.,   97   deg.  being; 

the  best. 


I-'ILLIXG    THE    L'.Ol  [  i_E. 

If  moisture  is  necessary  for  nitrification,  it  follows  that  conservation  of 
soil  moisture  has  a  double  purpose.  The  moisture  is  held  in  reserve  for  the 
use  of  a  future  crop,  but  its  presence  meanwhile  tends  tO'  the  production  of 
nitrates.  To  find  how  far  exactly,  and  within  what  limits  the  presence  of 
soil  moisture  has  an  effect  upon  the  production  of  nitrates  was  the  object 
of  these  experiments. 

Method  of  Work. 

The  method  of  investigation  was  as  follows  : — Air-drv  soil  equal  to  300- 
grams  dry  soil  was  placed  in  a  bottle  of  3  inches  diameter,  6  inches  high,. 


lo  May,  1912.]  IiifliH'iiCi    of  Soil  Moisture  upon  Xiirificafinu. 


neck  il  inches,  and  of  500  c.c.  capacity.  Sufficient  tapping  was  given  to 
make  the  soil  compact.  A  mark  was  placed  on  the  bottle  at  the  soil  level, 
the  .soil  was  replaced  by  water  to  the  same  mark,  and  from  the  weight  of 
water  required  the  api)arpnt  S.G.  of  the  soil  was  determined.  From  this 
and  the  real  S.G.  as  found  by  the  disi)lacement  method,  the  porositv  of 
the  soil,  and  from  this  the  total  water-holding  capacity  was  found  bv 
calculation.  There  were  two  sets  of  experiments  in  consecutive  periods, 
using  about  100  bottles  each.  In  the  first  experiments  water  was  added  to 
bring  the  original  soil  moLsture  up  to  10,  20,  30,  40,  50,  60,  and  70  per 
cent,  of  its  total  water-holding  capacity  in  different  bottles.  In  the  second, 
the  steps  were  10,  20,  30,  50,  70.  and  90.  All  the  bottles  were  marked  to 
the  same  volume,  and  the  same  weight  of  dry  soil  was  used  in  everv. 
case. 

Before  charging  the  bottles,  tlie  weighed  soil  was  thoroughly  mixed 
with  its  proper  quantity  of  water  in  a  Wedgewood  mortar.  One-half  of 
the  bottles  got  water  only,  the  other  half  got  5  c.c.  standard  ammonium 
sulphate  solution  in  their  water.  After  filling,  the  bottles  were  placed  in  a 
dark  cupboard  in  the  laboratory,  and  the  temperature  of  the  cupboard  was 
read  daily  at  9  a.m.  and  5  p.m.  The  bottles  in  the  cupboard  were  corked. 
Twice  weekly  each  bottle  was  taken  out,  uncorked,  aspirated  for  5  seconds 
with  the  suction  pump,  corked,  and  replaced  in  the  locker. 

The  method  of  using  closed  bottles  and  aspirating  seemed  better  than 
the  method  of  using  open  bottles  and  adding  water  lost,  which  has  been 
adopted  elsewhere  in  investigating  this  subject.  In  order  to  judge  of  the 
two  methods,  six  bottles  were  left  open,  and  the  results  compared  with 
closed  aspirated  bottles  after  a  period  of  twenty-eight  days.  The  follow- 
ing figures  were  obtained  : — 

Table  I. 


Original  moisture  per  100  of  dry  soil 


Loss  from  Closed  Bottles 
Loss  from  Open  Bottles 


2-67 

5-35 

8-03 

13-38 

18-73 

0-31 
1-7 

0-31 

-to 

0-39 
6-3 

0-56 
9-5 

0-58 
8-3 

24-08 


0  -  68 

8-8 


With  closed  bottles  the  losses  were  insignificant,  while  with  open  bottles 
usually  more  than  one-half  of  the  original  moisture  was  lost.  The  lost 
water  in  open  bottles  cannot  be  replaced  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  because 
at  the  point  where  the  water  is  added  the  soil  will  be  much  wetter  than  at 
other  points  in  the  soil  mass.  To  demonstrate  this,  a  glass  tube  of  i-inch 
bore  was  packed  with  soil  to  the  same  degree  as  in  the  experiment  bottles, 
and  to  a  depth,  of  10  inches.  Water  was  then  added  from  the  top  equal 
to  10.70  parts  per  100  dry  soil  (40  per  cent,  of  its  water-holding  capacity). 
At  the  end  of  seventeen  days  the  tube  was  cut  into  four  sections  of  2| 
inches  and  the  moisture  in  each  determined.  Of  the  total  water  in  the 
soil  there  was  found  in  the  top  .section  35  ,;  in  the  second,  31  ;  the  third, 
24  ;  and  in  the  fourth.  10  per  cent.  With  a  smaller  quantity  of  water, 
or  with  a  shorter  time  allowed,  the  differences  would  probably  have  been 
greater  than  here  noted. 

In  each  experiment  the  ammonia  bottles  and  the  control  blanks  were 
done  in  duplicate,  and  the  average  results  are  taken  where  the  figures 
are  close,  when  wider,  the  average  is  marked  doubtful.  This  happens  in 
two  instances  with  the  very  wet  soils  of  the  second  experiments. 


278 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  \ictoria.  [lo   May.    1912. 


The  Soils. 

The  first  experiment  uses  one  sample  of  sandy  soil  from  the  Horticul- 
tural School,  Burnley.  The  second  experiments  employ  a  medium  clay  soil 
from  the  same  place  in  addition.  In  preparation  the  air-dry  soils  were 
put  through  a  2  mm.  sieve.  The  mechanical  analyses  of  the  prepared 
soils  were  as  follow  :  — 

Table  II. 


Diameter  in  millimetres. 

Sanely  Soil. 

Clay  Soil. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Fine  Gravel 

\           --1 

•10 

•48 

Coarse  Sand 

•5      -1 

•97 

1^61 

Medium  Sand 

•25    -    -5 

■75 

2-0(3 

Fine  Sand 

•1      -    -25 

6-76 

11-70 

Very  fine  Sand 

•05    -    -1 

74  10 

46-20 

Silt 

•01    -     -05 

3-29 

515 

Fine  Silt 

•005-    •Ol 

2  14 

7-25 

Clay 

•005  and  unde.-  . 

803 

1864 

Moisture 

•86 

215 

Loss  on  ignition 

300 

4-76 

The  clay  soil  contains  a  higher  percentage  of  the  finer  particles,  and 
inferentially  a  larger  superficial  area  of  soil  grains.  One  would  expect 
therefore  that  an  equal  quantity  of  water  would  be  further  spread  out 
and  form  a  thinner  film  in  the  clay  than  in  the  sand,  and  be  less  available 
for  the  purpose  of  nitrification.  As  will  be  seen  later,  this  result  was  ob- 
tained. The  higher  percentage  of  water  in  the  clav  analysis  is  con- 
nected with  the  same  cause. 

The  chemical   analyses   of  the  soils   were   as   follow  :  — 

Table  III. 


- 

Sandy  Soil. 

Oay  Soil. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Water 

•86 

2   15 

Loss  on  isjnition  (1) 

3-00 

4^76 

Soluble  Silica 

-31 

1-40 

Iron  and  Alumina   . . 

2-22 

411 

Manganese 

-037 

-03 

Lime 

-19 

•48 

Magnesia   . . 

■15 

-27 

Potash  (2) 

-046 

•134 

Soda 

-123 

-139 

Chlorine     . . 

•014 

-008 

Phosphoric  Acid  (3) 

■032 

-061 

Sulphuric  Acid 

•06 

•03 

Carbonic  Acid  (4)    . . 

•032 

•12 

Insoluble  Residue    . . 

92-96 

86-29 

(1)  Containing— Nitrate  Nitrogen 

■00094 

-000868 

Ammonia  Nitrogen    . . 

-00182 

•002460 

Organic  Nitrogen 

-09'2-24 

•116672 

Total  Nitrogen 

•095 

•120 

(2)  Containins  available  Kg 0 

•0353 

-0847 

(3)  Containing  available  PgO^ 

■0218 

-0179 

(4)  Equal  Carbonate  ol  Liine 

■073 

•273 

TO  May,  191-.]  I iiflKi-iicc  of  Soil  MoislKrc  upon  Nitrificaiion. 


•79 


In  the  chemical  analysis  the  larger  percentage  of  lime,  and  particularly 
of  carbonic  acid,  in  the  clav  is  notable  as  representing  available  base.  The 
.sandy  soil  with  .032  carbonic  acid  falls  below  the  minimum  requirements.* 
and  is  apparently  deficient  in  available  lime — a  point  which  will  be  referred 
to  later  on. 

Analytical  Methods. 

Before  going  on  to  the  results,  the  analytical  methods  must  be  briefly 
described. 

Moisture. — At  the  close  of  the  experiments,  the  soil  in  the  bottles  was 
mixed,  and  25  grams  dried  at  212  deg.   F.   for  five  hours  in  a  tarred  dish. 

Xitrate  Xitrogen. — Fifty  grams  of  the  mixed  moi.st  soil  from  the  bottles 
was  transferred  to  a  small  bag  of  nainsook,  and  250  c.c.  of  a  solution  con- 
taining 5.36  c.c.  sat.  potash  alum  +  .64  c.c.  formalin  was  poured  over  the 
soil  in  the  bag  placed  in  a  mortar.  After  kneading  for  2  min.  as  much  of 
the   solution   as   possible   was   transferred   to   a    Mason   jar.    and  'left  over 


READING   THE   RE.SULTS. 


night  to  settle.  Fifty  c.c.'s  of  the  clear  solution  was  evaporated  to  dryne.ss 
on  the  water  bath,  cooled,  and  20-30  drops  disulphonic  acid  (Gill)  added, 
stirred,  and  left  ten  minutes.  There  was  then  added  15  c.c.  distilled  water, 
potash  till  alkaline,  the  solution  was  filtered  if  necessary,  and  ma(ie  up 
to  50  c.c.'s.  This  solution  was  read  in  the  colorimeter  against  standard 
nitrate  of  potash.  Allowance  was  made  for  the  water  in  the  moist  soil. 
-\ll  solutions  and  salts  used  were  tested  for  nitrate,  and  care  was  taken  in 
washing  the  bags,  and  preparing  nitrate-free  water.  Chlorides  were  elimi 
nated  with  a  measured  quantity  of  saturated  silver  .sulphate.  The 
analytical  work  was  carried  out  bv  Mr.  \\".  (  .  Robertson,  chief  deputy 
chemist. 

Results  of  the  First  Experiments. 

Table  IV.  gives  the  progress  of  nitrification  in  sandy  soil,  with  difterent 
degrees  of  moisture.  Airunonia  nitrogen  added -^  .02121  gram  per  300 
grams  soil  =  70.7  parts  per  million.  Length  of  incubation  period — 
27  days.      Mean  temperature,  66  deg.   F. 

*  In  MinnesotA  soil*.  Suvder  regaifls  •!  per  cent,  combined  carbonic  acid  as  the  minimini  from  whitli 
good  results  can  be  got ;    Hall  at  Rothamsted  adopts  a  similar  view. 


2  8o 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  May,    1912. 


Table  IV 


Water  iu  Soil  as- 


Percentage  of 

Percentage  of 

Saturation. 

Dry  Soil. 

10 

2-67 

20 

5-35 

30 

8-03 

40 

10-70 

50 

13-38 

60 

16-05 

70 

18-73 

iS'itrate  Nitrogen  per  1,000,000  Parts  Dry  Soil. 


Control 

Ammonia 

Excess  with 

Blanks. 

Bottles. 

Ammonia. 

4-76 

4-86 

-10 

7-51 

14-24 

6-73 

10  08 

41-68 

31-60 

10  •  60 

52-41 

41-81 

11-64 

59-97 

48-33 

12-89 

57-64 

^44-75 

1302 

59-08 

46  06 

Percentage  of 

added  Ammonia 

Nitrified. 


-141 
9-52 
44-69 
59-14 
68-36 
63-29 
65- 15 


Between  40  and  70  per  cent,  of  the  water-holding  capacity,  rate  of 
nitrification  did  not  vary  in  any  important  degree.  At  the  variou.s  steps 
below  40,  there  w-as  a  notable  falling  away ;  10  per  cent,  practically 
stopped  nitrification,  and  at  20  the  rate  was  only  one-seventh  of  the  best 
case.  Another  duplicate  .set  of  bottles  set  up  at  the  same  time,  but 
analyzed  one  week  earlier,  showed  results  on  a  lower  plane  for  each  degree 
of  moistness,  but  placed  them  in  the  same  order  of  merit. 

Results  of  the  Second  Experiments. 
Here  two  classes  of  soil  were  used — -the  one  a  fresh  sample  from  tiie 
same  spot  as  in  the  first  experiments,  the  other  a  medium  clay.  The  water 
added  to  the  sandy  soil  formed  as  before  a  percentage  of  its  saturation  capa- 
city ;  the  clay  soil  was  brought  up  to  the  same  content  of  water  without 
reference  to  its  water-holding  capacity.  Ammonia  added=o.i  gram,  per 
300  grams  8011  =  333.33  parts  per  million.  Length  of  incubation  period, 
42  days.      Mean  temperature  taken  from  bi-dailv  readings,  68.=;  deg.  F. 

Table  V. 

{a)   Sandv  Soil. 


Water  ii 

Soil  as — 

Percentage  of 

Percentage  of 

Saturation. 

Dry  Soil. 

10 

2-67 

20 

5-35 

30 

8-03 

50 

13-38 

70 

18-73 

90 

-24  08 

Nitrate  Nitrogen  per  1.000.000  Parts  Dry  Scil. 


C'outro 
Blanks 


8-33 
16-30 
19-25 
21-71 
19-18 

9- lie?) 


Ammonia 

Bottles. 

10-03 

60 

12 

82 

79 

110 

35 

117 

65 

27 

68 

Excess  with 
Ammonia. 


1-70 
43-82 
63-54 

88-64 
98-47 

18-57  (?; 


Percent 

age 

of 

added  Ammonia 

Nitri 

tied. 

51 

13 

15 

19-06 

26 

59 

29 

55 

5 

57 

(?) 

The  results  here  agree  with  those  of  Tabk^  TIL.  and  indicate  that  for 
this  soil  there  is  a  long  range  in  the  medium  degrees  of  moistness  which 
are  about  equally  favorable  for  nitrification.  This  sandv  soil  contained  .86 
per  cent,  moisture  (see  analyses)  in  the  air-dry  condition;  when  exposed 
in  a  thin  layer  for  four  days  in  a  saturated  atmosphere  at  the  temperature 


lo  May.  1 912.]  /n-fliHin-c  of  Soil  Moisture  ufon  Nitrification.  j8r 

Df  the  laboratory,  it  held  2.35  per  cent,  of  moisture.  As  seen  from  the 
top  line  in  both  tables,  neither  of  these  amounts  is  sufficient  to  maintain 
nitrification.  In  the  90  per  cent,  of  saturation  introduced  in  the  second 
experiments,  the  result  was  poor  owing  probably  to  the  water  excluding  air 
from  the  pores  of  the  soil.  If,  as  would  appear,  the  best  degree  of 
saturation  for  this  soil  runs  from  40  to  70  per  cent.,  the  figures  indicate  that, 
beyond  those  limits,  increasing  wetness  acts  more  sharply  than  increasing 
dryness. 

Table  VI.  gives  the  results  on  the  clay  soil. 

Table  VI. 


Xitrate  Xitrogen  per  1,000,000  Parts  Dry  Soil. 

Water 

Percentage  of 

as  Percentage  of 

added  Ammonia 

Dry  Soil. 

Control 

Ammonia 

Excess  with 

Xitrified. 

Blanks. 

Bottles. 

Ammonia. 

2-67 

9-00 

10-55 

1  -55 

•46 

0-35 

13-65 

14-52 

■87 

-26 

803 

24-23 

198-80 

174-57 

52-37 

13-38 

34-65 

277-80 

243-15 

72-96 

18-73 

38-50 

340-50 

302  00 

90-61 

24-08 

1-78  (?) 

262-60 

260-82  (?) 

78-26  (?) 

Referring  to  their  mechanical  analyses,  and  the  water  content  of  the 
two  varieties  of  soil,  it  was  apparent  that  clay  holds  its  water  more  firmly 
than  the  sand.  The  effect  of  this  is  now  seen  upon  the  nitrifying  action, 
because  while  with  sand  it  was  the  driest  series  only  which  remained 
stationary,  with  clay  the  second  driest  also  failed  to  act.  With  sand,  5.35 
per  cent,  of  water  induced  nitrification  although  slowly,  with  clay  it  had  no 
effect.  With  sufficient  moisture,  nitrification  proceeded  rapidly  in  the  clay, 
and  the  water  optimum  is  apparently  higher  with  clay  than  sand.  This  is 
no  doubt  owing  to  its  greater  absorptive  power,  and  in  connexion  with  this 
it  is  further  noticeable  that  the  largest  supply  of  water  (24.08  per  cent.) 
which  ga\e  a  very  poor  result  with  sand  gave  a  high  return  with  the  clay 
soil. 

On  comparing  the  last  columns  of  tables  V  and  VI.  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  nitrification  was  altogether  more  active  in  the  clay  than  the 
sand.  In  the  best  case  of  the  former  just  over  90  per  cent,  of  the  total 
nitrogen  was  nitrified.  This  result  closely  agrees  with  Professor  Wagner's* 
investigations  into  the  comparative  effects  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate 
of  ammonia,  when  applied  as  manures.  Referring  to  the  chemical  analyses 
above,  it  was  noticed  that  the  clay  soil  probably  contained  sufficient  avail- 
able base,  while  the  sand  was  deficient  in  lime — as  are  a  large  number  of 
Victorian  soils.  It  is  not  clear  that  this  deficiency  has  affected  in  kind  the 
action  of  soil  moisture  in  promoting  nitrification,  although  in  the  sandv  soil 
it  has  probably  affected  it  in  degree.  Lime,  however,  lies  outside  the  scope 
of  the  present  experiments — their  object  was  rather  to  obtain  experimental 
data  on  the  relation  of  moisture  to  nitrification  in  two  types  of  Victorian 
.soils  as  they  came  to  hand. 

The  effect  upon  nitrification  of  lime  and  other  substances  added  to  the 
soil  will  be  investigated  in  a  future  set  of  experiments. 


*  Die  Stickstoflfdiinguug  der  landw.  ICultiirpflanzen,  by  Prof.  Dr.  Paul  Wagner.     Berlin,  Pru' Parey. 


282  journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [10  May,    1912. 

Summary. 

1.  Nitrification  is  inactive  in  these  soils  while  they  still  contain  about 
three  times  ni'ore  moisture  than  in  their  average  air-dry  condition. 

2.  At  the  lower  Imits  of  moisture  less  water  starts  nitrification  in  sand 
than  in  the  clay. 

3.  At  the  higher  limits  of  moisture  less  water  stops  nitrification  in  sand 
ihan  in  the  clay. 

4.  While  the  optimum  amount  of  water  probably  varies  for  each  soil, 
and  is  higher  for  clay,  still  for  both  soils  it  lies  within  the  range  of  four- 
teen to  eighteen  parts  per  100  of  dry  soil. 

5.  A  rise  above  the  optimum  amount  of  water  is  more  harmful  than  an 
equal  fall  below  it. 

6.  If  the  summer  working  of  fallow  land  helps  to  retain  water  in  the 
surface  soil,  this  water  may  have  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  produc- 
tion of  nitrates  for  the  next  crop. 

7.  A  growing  crop  may  reduce  the  nitrate  supply  for  the  next  crop  in 
two  ways — it  may  use  up  all  the  nitrates  actually  present,  and  it  may  so- 
dry  the  land  that  nitrification  in  the  interval  between  crops  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

8.  The  moisture  requirements  for  nitrification  suggest  that  in  dry- 
seasons  a  single  flooding  of  fallow  land  might  be  follow^ed  by  good  results. 


THE  PORT  OF   HULL   AS   A   DISTRIBUTING   CENTRE 
FOR   AUSTRALIAN   PRODUCE. 

By  Austin   Wilson,  Special  Trade  Commissioner,  Port  of  Hull,   England. 

The  object  of  my  visit  to  Australia  is  to  supplement  the  efforts  of  our 
agent,  Mr.  E.  Bechervaise,  of  Geelong,  in  endeavouring  to  arouse  interest 
in  the  Port  of  Hull,  and  to  bring  before  the  notice  of  growers  and  shippers, 
of  Australian  produce  the  special  advantages,  which  this  port  offers  in 
the  way  of  facilities,  for  reaching  the  .British  consumers  in  the  densely 
populated  northern  and  ni'dland  counties  of  England.  History  records 
that  in  the  year  1296  King  Edward  I.  granted  Hull  its  first  charter;  and 
the  city  was  named  Kingston  (or  Kingstown)-upon-Hull.  In  all  legal 
and  official  documents  it  still  bears  this  name,  although  in  general  use  it 
has  been  shortened  to  Hull.  Modern  Hull  is  the  largest  port  on  the  north- 
east coast  of  England,  and  is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Humber 
estuary.  This  estuary  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Rivers  Ouse, 
Trent,'  Aire  and  Calder,  and  Hull,  and  has  a  wide  and  deep  channel  leading 
directlv  to  the  sea.  Outside  the  Alexandra  Docks  there  is  40  feet  of  water 
at  low' tide  in  the  channel,  and  the  port  is  therefore  accessible  to  large 
steamers  at  any  time. 

The  decks  cover  a  river  frontage  of  about  6  or  7  miles  and  are  up-to-date 
and  well  equipped  At  present  a  new  dock  and  deep-water  quay,  both- 
of  which  will  be  available  this  year,  are  being  built.  The  new  dock  when 
fully  completed  will  be  the  largest  commercial  dock  in  the  world,  having 
a  water  area  of  85  acres,  and  will  be  equipped  with  all  the  best  modern 
appliances  for  dealing-  with  ships  and  their  cargoes.  At  the  deep-water 
quay,  steamers  will  be  able  to  come  alongside  at  any  state  of  the  tide  to- 
discharge  or  load.  Coaling  appliances  capable  of  delivering  600  tons  per 
hour  are  already  installed  on  this  quay  and  are  in  daily  use. 


lo  May.  1912.]      I'ort  0]  U nil  as  a  D-istributitig  Centre,  d:^c.  283 

Hull  is  served  by  five  railway  companies,  and  has  in  consequence  a  fast 
serv'ce  of  trains  to  al!  parts  of  the  country.  As  an  instance  perishable 
traffic  leaving  Hull  6.30  p.m.  arrives  in  London  2.30  a.m.  ne.xt  morning 
(200  miles).  In  addition  to  the  raihva\  services  there  is  an  unrivalled 
system  of  navigable  rivers  and  canals  radiating  north,  south,  and  we.st  of 
Hull  which  serve  over  i-6th  of  the  total  area  of  England. 

All  river  craft  have  the  privilege  (secured  to  them  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment) of  using  the  docks  free  of  dues,  and  they  compete  very  strongly  with 
the  railwav  companies  for  the  carriage  of  goods  to  and  from  inland  towns. 
In  consequence  of  this  competition  the  railway  rates  from  Hull  are  on  a 
lower  basis  than  from  ari)  other  United  Kingdom  port.  Rates  of  con- 
veyance, &c.,  consequently  as  cheap  or  cheaper  thin  from  any  other  port, 
serve  a  district  carrying  a  population  of  between  ten  and  twelve  million 
people,  or  more  than  quarter  of  the  total  Briti.sh  population. 

Hull  is  well  placed  as  regards  coal.  It  has  access  by  rail  to  over 
380  collieries,  and  during  1910  nearly  7,000,000  tons  coal  came  into  Hull 
by  rail  and  river  chiefly  for  export  abroad.  The  South  Yorkshire  Coal- 
field is  proven  nearer  to  the  sea  each  year,  and  new  pits  are  being  sunk 
from  time  to  time.  It  is  estimated  that  within  ten  years  from  now  over 
20,000  tons  of  coal  will  be  raised  per  day  in  excess  of  what  is  being  raised 
now,  and  over  100  000  more  people  w^ill  be  congregated  in  consequence  of 
these  developments.  With  the  geographical  position  of  the  port  and 
iijiand  transit  facilities,  and  the  vast  and  increasing  population  which  it 
serves,  it  is  contended  that  Hull  is  an  ideal  distributing  centre  for  Aus- 
tralian produce  and  well  worthv  of  the  serious  attention  of  producers  and 
shippers.  Australia  has  hitherto  sent  the  bulk  of  its  refrigerated  produce 
to  London  wh'ch  is  generalh  acknowdjdged  to  be  the  dearest  port  in  Great 
Britain.  The  dues  and  charges  on  goods  landed  there  form  a  serious 
handicap  when  in  competition  with  similar  produce  reaching  the  British 
consumers  through  cheaper  channels,  and  as  an  instance  of  that  Hull  can 
deliver  meat  and  apples  ex  ship  Hull  to  London  markets  at  practically 
the  same  cost  as  from  ex  ship  London  docks.  A  shipper  of  produce  there- 
fore who  uses  Hull  as  a  distributing  centre  can  serve  London  as  cheaply  as 
his  competitors  and  at  the  same  time  he  has  the  benefit  of  the  northern 
markets. 

In  sending  apples  to  London  a  grower  finds  usually  the  London 
expenses  amount  to  about  is.  3d.  per  case.  If  a  northern  wholesaler  buys 
at  Covent  Garden,  he  has  to  pay  cost  of  transit  from  London  and  delivery 
to  retail  shops,  and  also  to  allow  for  his  own  profit  on  the  transaction.  If 
he  pays  a  high  price  for  the  apples,  his  retailers  only  have  a  limited 
sale,  while  if  he  buys  the  apples  at  a  low  price,  the  grower  suffers.  Both 
conditions  are  unsatisfactory  as  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  grower  to  sell 
as  much  produce  as  possible  at  remunerative  prices.  Up  to  recent  times 
London  has  been  able  to  absorb  all  thaft  has  been  sent,  and  maintain 
uniform  prices,  but  this  market,  like  all  others,  has  its  limits,  and  for  some 
time  past  it  has  been  frequently  glutted  and  an  increasing  proportion  of 
the  produce  has  had  to  be  sold  to  buyers  away  from  London.  In  these 
instances  the  grower  not  only  gets  poor  prices  from  the  London  buyers, 
but  he  has  to  bear  the  cost  of  transport  from  London  on  the  produce 
which  is  sent  north,  as  buyers  when  bidding  always  bear  in  mind  the 
expenses  they  will  incur  in  getting  produce  to  the  ultimate  destination. 
The  cost  of  handling,  cataloguing,  and  selling  apples  by  public  auction  at 
Hull  does  not  exceed  6d.  per  case  as  against  is  2d.  to  is.  3d.  in 
London. 

In  the  case  of  butter  the  freight  to  London  can  be  reckoned  at  4s. 
per    cwt.,    cost    of    transit    to    Toolev-street    is.    per    cwt..    and    London 


284  Journal  of  Agriculture^  \icioria.  [10   May..    1912. 

commissions  at  3  per  cent.,  say,  3s.  per  cwt.,  making  altogether  8s.  per  cwt., 
without  reckoning  insurance  and  other  expenses,  which  will  probably  bring 
the  cost  up  to  I  OS.  per  cwt.  If  a  northern  wholesaler  buys  from  London, 
the  rail  transit  will  cost  at  least  2s.  per  cwt.  His  profit  and  cost  of  retail 
distribution  will  be  about  5s.  per  cwt.,  making  altogether  17s.  per  cwt. 
Danish  butter  can  be  delivered  from  Copenhagen  via  Hull  to  Leeds  for 
2S.  per  cwt.  against  17s.  for  Australian  butter,  and  the  producer  must 
bear  this  difference.  If  the  butter  for  northern  towns  was  sent  to  Hull 
for  distribution,  about  6s.  per  cwt.  would  be  saved  which  is  now  needlessly 
paid  awav.  There  is  a  large  and  densely  populated  area  served  by  the 
port  of  Hull  which  is  at  present  being  neglected  by  Australia,  and  we  con- 
sider it  is  worthy  of  consideration. 

In  regard  to  meat  sent  to  London,  it  is  well  known  to  many  that  the 
svstem  of  handling  there  is  far  from  perfect.  The  meat  is  landed  to  quay 
and  harrowed  round  to  lighters  which  convey  it  to  cold  stores.  These  cold 
stores  are  20  miles  from  the  Royal  Albert  and  Victoria  Docks,  and 
27  miles  from  Tilbury,  and  when  the  meat  arrives  at  the  cold  stores  it  is 
frozen  up  again.  If  sold  to  a  northern  buyer  it  is  carted  through  the 
London  streets  to  a  railway  station,  loaded  into  insulated  cars  and  for- 
warded to  its  destination  where  it  is  usually  carted  to  a  cold  store  before 
being  distributed  to  retail  shops.  This  means  that  the  meat  is  handled 
excessively  and  usually  frozen  twice  before  reaching  the  northern  retailer, 
besides  incurring  unnecessary  charges.  In  Hull  steamers  can  berth  along- 
side the  cold  stores  and  sling  the  meat  direct  from  their  holds  to  the  stores. 
Insulated  cars  load  alongside  and  convey  the  meat  quickly,  cheaply,  and 
what  is  extremely  important,  with  a  minimum  of  handling  to  the  towns  in 
the  area  which  are  served  by  Hull.  Another  most  important  point  is  that 
although  Australian  produce  ranks  amongst  the  finest  in  the  world,  it  very 
largely  loses  its  identity  before  reaching  the  British  consumer.  The  time 
has  surely  come  when  Australian  produce  should  make  a  name  for  itself. 
The  quality  is  all  right  and  the  price,  but  the  method  of  marketing  at 
present  does  not  give  it  a  fair  show. 

Most  of  the  emigrants  come  from  provincial  centres  in  Great  Britain. 
They  leave  friends  and  relations  behind  who  receive  letters  regularly, 
describing  the  splendid  quality  of  the  produce,  and  it  is  only  reasonable 
to  presume  that  there  is  a  good  chance  of  building  up  a  large  and  growing 
trade  amongst  these  people  if  they  are  catered  for.  It  is  claimed  justly 
that  people  at  home  have  vague  ideas  respecting  the  extent  and  general 
features  of  Australia,  but  I  think  the  people  in  the  pro\'inces  may  legiti- 
mately claim  that  Australians  have  so'  far  looked  upon  London  as  England 
so  to  speak  in  the  marketing  of  produce. 

There  are  30,000,000  people  outside  the  London  distributing  area  who 
can  be  reached  through  the  out  ports  at  a  lower  cost  than  via  London,  and 
Hull  being  the  third  po{|:  in  importance  in  Great  Britain  .serves  a  larger 
population  than  any  other  out  port.  So  long  as  it  is  endeavoured  to  serve 
this  area  via  London  the  cost  of  this  expensive  and  roundabout  method  of 
distribution  must  come  out  of  the  growers'  pockets.  Competitors  from 
Canada,  North  and  South  America,  Russia,  Denmark  are  sending  their 
produce  to  the  British  consumers  through  the  cheapest  channels.  Australia 
is  already  sufficiently  handicapped  by  its  distance  from  Great  Britain 
and  European  markets,  without  still  further  handicapping  itself  by  un- 
necessary transport  and  handling  charges.  At  the  rate  the  country  is 
progressing  it  will  be  more  and  more  dependent  on  the  oversea  markets 
each  year,  and  if  the  progression  continues  on  present  lines  the  London 
markets  will  be  glutted  more  and  more  frequently.      In  its  own  interests 


10  May.  1912.]     port  oj  Hull  as  a  Dhtribiitiug  Centre,  cr-'c. 


28s 


it  is  high  time  the  importance  of  the  British  out  ports  was  realized,  and  I 
have  shown  that  the  Port  of  Hull  is  a  proper  and  suitable  port  for  the 
distributing   of   Australian    produce.      Any   grower   or   shipper   of   produce 


Showing  method  of  discharging  meat,  ex  steamer,  Alexandra  Docks,  Hull.  The 
meat  is  slung  direct  from  hold  to  the  cold  store,  alongside  which  the  steamer  is 
berthed. 


This  shows  the  same  meat  being  landed  and  transferred  to  the  store.  The  sorting 
of  the  meat  is  done  in  the  store,  and  not  on  the  quay,  as  in  London.  Refrigerated 
cars  load  the  meat  direct  from  the  store  and  convey  it  to  inland  towns  with  a  minimum 
of  handling. 

desiring  information  at  any  time  regarding  Hull  can  obtain  same  on  appli- 
cation to  Mr.   E.  Bechervaise.  17  Malop-street.  Geelong. 


286  Journal  of  Agriculiuu .  Victona.  [lo  May,    1912. 

GENERAL   N0TE8. 

By  J.   ir.  P. 
ERADICATION  OF   BRACKEN— 

From  time  to  time  various  methods  liave  been  adopted  for  the  perma- 
nent removal  of  bracken  such  as  the  use  of  spiked  rollers  or  the  appli- 
cation of  manures  to  encourage  other  herbage,  but  apparently  the  old- 
fashioned  method  of  repeated  cuttings  is  the  most  effective  yet  tried.  In 
this  connexion  the  recent  experience  on  a  large  estate  in  England  is 
described  in  the  Mark  Lane  Express  of  19th  June.  When  the  bracken  Avas 
cut  down  continually  its  growth  became  less  vigorous  each  year.  Clean 
cutting  with  a  scythe  or  hook  was  the  most  effective,  and  care  should  be 
taken  to  cut  below  the  lowest  leaves  which  if  left  will  go  on  seeding. 
Cutting  should  begin  early  in  the  year,  and  the  more  the  growth  of  the 
plant  is  stimulated  by  the  process  the  quicker  will  be  its  ultimate  exhaus- 
tion. Burning  and  chain  harrowing  only  encourage  the  evil  by  manuring 
and  otherwise  improving  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

STRENGTH   IN  WHEAT— 

Much  of  the  wheat  exported  from  India  is  lacking  in  strength,  and 
except  for  its  remarkable  dryness  has  little  to  recommend  it  to  the  miller. 
For  some  years  the  Indian  Agricultural  Research  Institute  at  Pusa  has 
been  collecting  stock,  both  by  selection  and  breeding  new  varieties,  _  with 
.a  view  to  providing  a  higher  class  wheat  for  export.  From  Bulletin  22 
recently  issued  the  efforts  seem  to  have  met  with  success.  Wheats  have 
been  produced  which  in  the  climate  of  Western  Bengal  give  not  only  a 
much  higher  yield  than  the  native  wheats,  but  also  are  characterized  by 
great  strength,  and  are  therefore  likely  to  command  a  higher  price  in  the 
home  markets.  Commenting  on  the  successful  issue  of  the  experiments  the 
Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  (London)  observes: — "The  work  at 
Pusa  confirms  what  has  been  established  at  Cambridge — that  it  is  possible, 
by  the  scientific  methods  of  breeding  associated  with  the  name  of  Mendel, 
to  combine  high  quality  with  good  yield.  The  results  obtained  last  year 
with  Burgoyne's  Fife — a  new  Cambridge  wheat — shows  that  it  gives  a 
grain  equalling  the  Canadian  in  milling  quality  combined  with  the  cropping 
capacity  of  the  best  British  wheats."  There  is  a  considerable  field  here  for 
the  Australian  wheat  grower.        

AGRICULTURAL  IMPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM— 

The  value  of  the  principal  articles  of  food  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1911  was  ^190,712,000.  Of  this  vast  total  40  per  cent, 
represented  value  of  grain  and  flour,  24  per  cent,  live  and  dead  meat,  19 
per  cent,  dairy  produce,  and  4  per  cent  eggs.  The  leading  sources  of 
wheat  were  India  (20,161,518  cwts.),  Russia  (18,106,100),  Argentina 
(14,748,600),  Canada  (14,373,000),  Australia  (13,910,720),  and  United 
States  (12,939,229).  Of  beef  less  than  one-fourth  came  as  live  cattle,  the 
great  bulk  being  chilled  and  frozen  beef  (7,362,434  cwts.),  and  of  this 
Argentina  contributed  83  per  cent.  Live  sheep  were  unimportant,  frozen 
mutton  being  the  principal  source  of  supply.  Of  this  93  per  cent,  came 
from  three  countries,  New  Zealand  sending  1,981,467  cwts.,  Argentina 
1,782,066,  and  Australia  1,291,696.  Rabbits  were  imported  as  fresh 
rabbits  (57,808  cwts.)  chiefly  from  Belgium,  and  as  frozen  rabbits  from 
Australia  (394,155)  and  New  Zealand  (73-703)-  The  value  per  cwt.  of 
these  frozen  rabbits  was,  however,  only  about  one-third  of  the  value  per 
cwt.  of  the  fresh  Continental  supply.  Of  bacon  consignments  (4,868,738 
cwts.),  Denmark  sent  44  per  cent..  United  States  37.  and  Canada  13  per 


lo   May.    191:;.]  General  Xotcs.  287 

cent.  The  chief  imports  of  butter  (4.302.956  cwts.)  were  from  Denmark 
40  per  cent.,  Australia  20  per  cent.,  Russia  15  per  cent.,  Sweden  8  per 
cent.,  New  Zealand  6  per  cent.,  France  4  per  cent.,  Holland  2  per  cent. 
Of  cheese  (2,348,322  cwts.)  supplies  w^ere  draw^n  chiefly  from  Canada,  63 
p>er  cent.,  and  New  Zealand.  Russia  was  a  large  exporter  of  eggs.  Turn- 
ing to  wool  imports  (795,091,310  lbs.),  Australia  sent  41  per  cent.,  Xew 
Zealand  22  per  cent.,  .South  Africa  13  per  cent.,  and  India  7  per  cent. 
From  the  above  it  is  apparent  that  Australia  as  exporter  to  the  United 
Kingdom  stands  first  in  the  matter  of  wool  and  rabbits,  second  in  butter, 
and  in  mutton  third,  while  for  wheat  it  has  the  fifth  place. 

HOURS  FOR  MILKING  

It  is  the  common  practice  to  milk  cows  twice  a  day.  l)Ut  in  the  evening 
the  milk  will  usually  be  richer  in  butter-fat  than  it  is  in  the  morning. 
Milk  has  a  tendency  to  lose  fat  Avhen  it  remains  long  in  the  cow's  udder, 
and  as  there  is  usuallv  a  longer  interval  before  the  morning  milking  this 
causes  the  morning  milk  to  be  poorer  in  fat.  Did  twelve  hours  elapse  be- 
tween each  milking  this  result  would  not  be  found ;  indeed,  the  morning 
milk  might  be  slightly  richer  owing  to  the  greater  restfulness  of  the  animals 
t)ver-night.  Regarding  the  influence  of  times  of  milking  upon  the  per- 
centage of  fat  some  useful  facts  are  published  by  Professor  S.  H.  Collins, 
of  Durham  University,  England.  When  the  intervals  between  milking 
were  twelve  hours,  e.g.,  cows  milked  at  6  a.m.  and  6  p.m.,  the  morning 
milk  contained  0.18  per  cent,  more  fat  than  the  evening  milk  on  the 
a\erage  of  22  tests.  When,  however,  the  intervals  were  thirteen  and  eleven 
hours  by  milking  at  6  a.m.  and  5  p.m.  the  results  were  the  other  way,  and 
the  evening  milk  was  then  richer  in  fat  than  the  morning  milk  by  0.33  per 
cent,  on  the  average  of  192  tests.  With  intervals  of  about  fourteen  and 
ten  hours  (6  a.m.  and  4  p.m.)  the  excess  in  the  evening  milk  was  0.70  per 
cent,  on  the  average  of  18  tests.  With  greater  irregularity  in  the  intervals 
the  differences  became  still  greater,  and  when  the  cows  were  milked  at 
6  a.m.  and  3.30  p.m.  the  evening  milk  contained  more  fat  than  the  morn- 
ing bv  1.09  per  cent,  on  the  average  of  391  tests.  As  milk  usually  con- 
tains about  4  per  cent,  of  fat  (Official  Standard  —  3.5)  a  difference  of 
1.09  per  cent,  represents  about  one-quarter  of  the  total  fat  in  the  milk. 
The  other  milk-solids  are  not  affected  by  irregular  milking,  just  the  fat. 
From  two  milkings  therefore  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  milking  as 
nearly  as  practicable  at  equal  intervals  of  twelve  hours. 

PIG-FEEDING— 

Pig-feeding  experiments  with  sweet  and  sour  skim  milk  were  conducted 
at  the  Dairy  Institute,  at  Proskau,  by  J.  Klein  (Milekzc.  Zenthl.,  6  (1910), 
No.  5,  pp.  215-222). — Twelve  pigs,  three  months  of  age.  were  divided 
into  two  groups  and  fed  for  twelve  weeks  a  basal  ration  of  ground  barley 
and  potato  flakes  to  which  fish  meal  was  also  added  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  period.  Group  i  received  an  average  of  5.5  kg.  of  sweet  milk 
per  head  as  a  supplementary  ration  and  made  an  average  daily  gain  per 
head  of  0.661  kg.  and  dressed  81  per  cent,  of  the  live  weight.  Group 
2,  which  received  5.5  kg.  of  sour  milk  per  head  per  day,  made  a  corres- 
ponding gain  of  0.655  kg.  and  dressed  80.65  per  cent.  This  result 
agreed  with  that  of  previous  experiments. 

There  seemed  to  be  no  advantage  in  souring  the  milk  as  there  was 
a  slight  loss  of  sugar,  though  it  was  thought  that  sour  milk  had  a  slight 
dietetic  effect  which  offsets  the  loss  of  sugar.  There  was  no  noticeable 
difference  in  the  chemical  composition  of  the  flesh. — Experiment  Station 
Record . 


Ji^iinial  of  Ag/'iciiHitrt'.  Victoria. 


[lo  May,   1 9 12. 


CERTIFICATION  OF  8TALLI0NS. 

FIFTH  AxNNUAL  REPORT— (SEASON  1911-12). 
Bv  ir.    A.   A'.   RobcrfsPN.   B.Y.Sc. 

The  Stallion  Paradt-s  arranged  for  during  the  season  just  completed, 
marking  the  fifth  in  which  the  scheme  for  the  Examination  ,and  Certification 
of  Stallions  has  been  in  operation,  were  carried  to  a  successful  issue  by  th^i 
veterinary  officers  engaged  in  the  work.  As  in  previous  years,  the  major 
portion  of  such  work  was  performed  by  four  members  of  the  staff — the 
object  of  limiting  the  examining  staff  in  this  manner  being  an  endeavour 
to  a^ttain,  to  the  utmost,  uniformity  in  the  examination.  A  perusal  of  the 
table  showing  the  work  of  the  individual  officers  would,  at  first  sight,  tend 
to  indicate  that  this  uniformity  had  not  been  obtained ;  but  a  more  careful 
analysis  shows  that  the  variation  which  exists  is  due  to  a  difference  in  the 
number  of  stallions  rejected  for  type,  and  this  number  stands  in  inverse 
proportion  to  the  progressiveness  of  the  districts  visited ;  for  example,  in 
the  more  progressive  centres  the  unsound  sire  has  been  forced  to  make  way 
for  the  sound  and  the  animal  of  lower  type  for  that  of  a  higher  ;  whilst 
the  more  backward  portioas  of  the  State  ha'.'e  a  larger  percentage  of  horses 
which  are  below  a  reasonable  standard  ;  and  so  an  officer  attending  the 
majority  of  such  centres  will  reject  a  higher  percentage. 

The  work  of  the  officers  during  tht-  season  under  review  is  shown  in 
the  following  table ■: — 

Officers'    Examinations  of   Stallions.   Season   1911-12. 


Officers. 

No. 
Examined. 

No. 
Certificated. 

No. 

Rejected. 

58 
51 

74 
38 

Percentage 
Rejected. 

Mr.  E.  A.  Kendall,  B.V.Sc.     .. 
Mr.  R.  G.  Griffin,  M.R.  C.V.S. 

Mr.  G.  S.  Bruce,  F.R. C.V.S 

Mr.  R.  N.  Johnstone,  L.  V.Sc. 
Mr.  W.  .T.  Cother,  G.M.V.C.  .. 

305 
252 
243 
165 
10 

247 
201 
169 
J27 
10 

1901 
20-23 
30-45 
23-03 

«75 

754 

221 

Appeal  Boards 

4 

4 

Grand  Total     ... 

979 

758 

221 

22-57 

Of  the  130  parades  held,  97  were  carried  out  under  the  auspices  of  various 
agricultural  societies  ;  and  it  is  pleasing  to  note  that  in  the  majority  of 
cases  secretaries  rendered  all  the  assistance  in  their  power,  and  helped  to 
lighten  the  duties  of  the  examining  officer  by  adhering  to  the  official  time- 
table, and  making  suitable  arrangements,  for  presenting  all  stallions  sub- 
mitted for  examination. 

The  total  number  of  stallions  .examined  by  members  of  our  own  staff 
is  .shown  in  the  table  of  analysis  given  at  a  later  stage  of  this  report  to 
be  979;  to  this  must  be  added  91  for  which  certificates  were  transferred, 
making  a  total  of  1,070  certificated  in  this  State. 

The  season  stands  out  prominently  as  one  of  great  activity  in  the 
draught  horse  industry  as  evidenced  by  the  increase  in  the  importations 
from  New  Zealand  and  the  United  Kingdom,  the  figures  for  the  last  two 
seasons  Ix-ing  as  under  :  — 

Stallions   imported   to  Victoria. 


Year. 

From  New  Zealand. 

From  Great  Britain. 

1910  ..               .. 

1911  .. 

207 
254 

13 
53 

IO   May,    1912.] 


Ceriificatioji  of  Siallions. 


289 


Examination  and  K ejection. 
The  979  stallion.s  examined  were  dealt  with  as  is  shown  in  the  follow- 


ing table  :- 


Analysis  of  Defects  of  Rejects,   Season   1911-12. 


DR.iUGHTS. 

Lights. 

Ponies. 

Totals. 

No. 
Examined. 

092 

No. 
Certifi- 
cated. 

5.^4 

No. 
Examined. 

165 

No. 
Certifi- 
cated. 

1-21 

No 
Examined. 

122 

No. 
Certifi- 
cated. 

83 

No. 
Examined. 

979 

No. 
Certifi- 
cated. 

758 

No. 

Per  cent. 

No. 

Per  cent. 

No. 

Per  cent.. 

No. 

Per  cent. 

Rejected. 

Rejected. 

Rejected. 

Rejected. 

Rejected. 

Rejected 

Rejected. 

Rejected. 

rnsovindiiess. 

138 

19-94 

14 

-26-66 

39 

31-96 

221 

22-57 

Sidelione 

,58 

8-38 

58 

5-92 

Ringbone    . . . 

14 

2-0-2 

2 

r'21 

16 

1-63 

Spavin  (Bone) 

3 

-43 

6 

3-66 

3 

2-45 

12 

1-22 

Bog  Spavin... 

3 

•43 

1 

•6 

4 

•4 

Curb 

4 

•57 

4 

2-42 

2 

1-63 

10 

102 

Roaring 

... 

Shivering    ... 

2 

•28 

-2 

Nasal  Disease 

... 

... 

Total  unsouncl 

84 

1213 

13 

7-87 

5 

4-09 

102 

10-42 

Disapproved 

54 

7-8 

31 

18^78 

34 

27-86 

119 

12-15 

Total  rejected 

1.38 

19-94 

44 

26  •ee 

.39 

31-96 

221 

22-57 

It  will  be  seen  that  221.  or  22.57  P^"!'  cent.,  were  rejected.  This  is  a  de- 
crease of  4.12  per  cent,  as  between  the  number  refused  certificates  last  year 
which  in  turn  was  a  3  per  cent,  decrease  over  that  of  the  previous  season. 
Comparing  last  season's  work  with  that  of  1910-11  it  is  seen  that  the  per- 
centage of  draught  horses  rejected  has  fallen  from  28.58  per  cent,  to  19.94- 
This  great  reduction  is  due  entirely  to  the  diminished  number  of  unsound 
ones  met  with,  the  number  refused  as  being  below  standard  being  prac- 
ticallv  the  same,  yIz.,  7.01  per  cent,  in  1910-11  and  7.8  per  cent,  in 
i9-iT-r2.  Analysing  the  reasons  for  rejection  still  further  it  is  found  that 
sidebone  is  the  diminishing  factor,  for  whereas  19  per  cent,  of  draught 
horses  were  rejected  in  1910-11  only  8.38  per  cent,  were  rejected  on  this 
account  in  191 1 -12 — a  difference  of  10.62  per  cent.  Light  horses  show  an 
increase  of  2.05  per  cent,  in  the  number  rejected  and  this  is  seen  to  be  due 
to  a  decrease  of  2.61  per  cent,  in  respect  of  unsoundness  and  an  increase 
of  4.70  per  cent,  in  respect  of  type.  Ponies  show  a  similar  state  of  affairs  ; 
in  tlie  number  rejected  there  is  an  increase  of  10.87  per  cent.,_  being  due 
to  a  decrea.se  of  1.38  in  regard  to  unsoundness  and  an  increase  of 
12.34  per  cent,  in  regard  to  type.  It  would  be  premature  at  present  to 
claim  from  these  figures  a  general  decrease  of  unsoundness  in  our  stallions^ 
but  it  may  be  regarded  as  an  indication  of  the  trend  towards  the  goaf 
which  is  sought.  During  the  season  287  stallions  which  had  been  pre- 
viously certificated  were  presented  for  re-examination  They  \\ere  dealt 
with  as  follows  :  — 


290 


journal  of  Agriculture .  Victoru 


[10   May,    1912. 


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Ccrti fLCaiion   cf   Sial lions. 


291 


Horses   Submitted  for 

Renewal 

OF  Certificate. 

Season 

1911-12. 

Four  years  old. 

1 

Five  years  old. 

Passed. 

Rejected.         Percent.     |        Total.       j 

Passed.        Rejected. 

Per  cent. 
16-32 

Total. 

123 

17                1214 

140 

12:^              24 

147 

The  summary,  on  page  290,  of  the  five  years'  work  will  show  the  total 
mimber  of  anim,als  examined  and  the  action  taken.  The  detailed  analysis 
of  the  reasons  for  rejection  have  been  given  in  previous  reports,  and  may 
be  found  in  full  in  Rullt-tin  Xo.  30. 

English  Examinations. 
Considerable  zest  was  given  to  the  breeding  of  draught  horses  last 
season  by  the  great  increase  in  importations  from  Great  Britain,  a 
total  of  53  stallions  composed  of  39  Shires  and  14  Clydesdales  being 
introduced  as  against  nine  Shires  and  four  Clydesdales  the  previous  year. 
Importers  realizing  the  necessity  of  introducing  only  sound  animals  were 
careful  to  obtain  certificates  in  England  that  would  be  accepted  here. 
Thev  experienced  some  trouble  however  in  doing  this  in  respect  of  Scottish 
horses  ;  and  it  was  not  until  late  in  the  year  that  the  Glasgow  Agricultural 
Society,  realizing  the  difficulties  which  faced  both  breeders  and  shippers, 
took  the  matter  in  hand  and  appointed  four  veterinary  officers  to  examine 
on  their  behalf  horses  for  export  to  Victoria.  So  that  for  the  coming  season 
there  should  be  little  difficultv  encountered. 


Transferred  Certificates. 

The  number  of  stallions  examined  in  Great  Britain.  Xew  Zealand,  and 
other  States  of  the  Commonwealth  for  which  certificates  were  transferred 
by  this  Department  totalled  91,  44  being  from  New  Zealand,  42  frcm 
Great  Britain,  and  5  from  New  South  Wales. 

In  respect  of  the  certificates  issued  in  these  countries  some  little  con- 
fusion has  existed  in  the  mind  of  holders  thereof,  to  the  extent  that  they 
ha\-e  presented  them  at  shows,  &c.,  and  have  been  surprised  that  they  were 
not  accepted.  These  certificates  are  issued  as  a  guarantee  that  a  V'ctorian 
one  covering  a  s'rnilar  period  for  which  a  certificate  would  he  issued  if  the 
examination  were  carried  out  by  a  Victorian  officer,  will  be  issued  without 
further  examination.  Until  however  they  are  so  transferred  for. a  Victorian 
certificate  or  endorsed  by  the  Chief  Veterinary  Officer  of  this  State  as 
"  recognised  for  Victorian  Shows,"  they  cannot  be  regarded  officially. 
Importers  or  buxers  would  therefore  be  wise  in  effecting  a  transfer  as  soon 
as  con\-enient  after  entering  Victoria.  More  care  is  also  necessary  on  the 
part  of  buyers  in  noting  the  date  upon  which  a  certificate  expires.  This 
applies  more  particularlv  to  New  Zealand  certificates  which,  if  issued 
prior  to  April  the  ist  in  any  vear,  are  only  transferable  for  a  Victorian 
certificate  expiring  on  the  ensuing  30th  June,  whereas  New  Zealand  cer- 
tificates issued  after  that  date  are  exchanged  for  the  Victorian  one  termin- 
able the  30th  June  12  months.  In  respect  of  certificates  obtained  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  if  such  are  obtained  prior  to  January  ist,  they  are 
considered  as  certificates  for.  the  current  sea.son,  while  examinations  con- 
ducted on  or  after  January  ist  are  transferred  as  for  a  certificate  for  the 
subsequent  season.  These  months  of  grace  are  allowed  to  enable  stallions 
to  be  got  ready  in  Victoria  for  the  season's  sales,  &:c.,  opening  in  July. 


2g2  Joiirjial  of  Agriciilfiirc ,  Victoria.  [lo   May,    1912.' 

Alterations  to  Regulations. 

As  a  result  of  experience  gained  in  the  five  seasons  during  which 
examinations  have  been  conducted  it  has  been  found  that  some  alteration  of 
the  regulations  can  be  made.  Perusal  of  the  regulations  issued  with  this 
report  will  reveal  the  following  principal  alterations  and  additions  :■ — 

(i)  In  respect  of  stallions  refused  a  certificate  as  being  below 
standard — Part  II.  of  the  Regulations,  Clause  (3)  has  been 
added  which  for  the  future  will  allow  a  three  or  four  year 
old  stallion  refused  a  certificate  under  this  heading  to  be  re- 
presented the  following  year  for  examination,  unless  the 
owner  in  the  meantime  avails  himself  of  the  appeal  con- 
ditions, when  the  opinion  of  the  Board  shall  be  considered 
final.  Any  five-year-old  stallion  however  rejected  by  a 
veterinary  officer  under  this  heading  will  not  be  eligible  for 
re-examination  except  as  pro\-ided  for  by  the  appeal  con- 
ditions. 

{2)  With  regard  to  the  notification  of  reasons  for  rejection  a  new 
Clause  (3)  has  been  added  to  Part  III.  providing  for  an 
official  notification  being  sent  to-  owners  of  rejected  stallions 
intimating  the  fact  of  such  rejection  and  the  reasons  for  the 
same.  This  will  further  an  owner's  opportunity  of  appealing 
against  the  decision  within  the  stipulated  period  of  30  days. 
Clause  (8)  has  also  been  added  to  this  section  of  the  regu- 
lations which  may  be  regarded  as  a  machinery  section  and 
refers  to  the  dates  upon  which  certificates  will  be  issued. 

Appeals. 

During  the  season  six  appeals  were  lodged — four  being  on  the  question 
of  unsoundness  and  two  in  respect  of  type,  breed  and  conformation.  Two 
of  the  former  were  successful  and  both  of  the  latter. 

List  of  Certified  Stallions. 

The  list  of  certificated  stallions  issued  with  this  report  is  one  of  horses 
which  were  examined  in  the  past  season  only.  Those  which  have  received 
life  certificates  must  be  added  to  the  list  published  in  Bulletin  No.  30, 
whilst  the  list  of  terminable  certificates  published  in  that  Bulletin  is  now 
obsolete  and  need  not  be  further  considered,  whilst  in  its  place  must  be  read 
the  list  of  terminable  certificates  issued  herewith.  Secretaries  of  agricultural 
societies  are  specially  requested  to  make  themselves  familiar  with  this  prin- 
ciple, w^hich  it  is  intended  shall  be  followed  for  tlie  future.  In  order  to 
make  this  list  as  complete  as  possible  it  is  specially  requested  that  holder!^ 
of  certificates  become  familiar  with  the  notice  on  the  back  thereof  and 
report  to  the  Department  the  death  of  any  stallon  in  order  that  the  name 
may  be  removed. 


lo   .May,    1912.]  Ccrtificatiou   oj  Si al lions.  293 


REGULATIONS 

Governing   the    Examination    of    Stallions     for    the    Government 
Certificate  of  Soundness  and  Approval. 

I. — Examination  Parades. 

(i)  Societies  within  whose  district  an  Inspection  Parade  is  appointed 
are  required  to  provide  a  suitable  place  for  the  examinations  to  be  con- 
ducted, and  to  suitably  and  reasonably  advertise  the  holding  of  the  parade 
on  receipt  of  notice  from  the  Department  of  the  fixture.  The  secretary  or 
some  member  of  the  committee  of  the  society  is  required  to  be  in  attendance 
at  the  appointed  time  to  assist  the  examining  officer  in  the  arrangements  for 
the  inspection. 

(2)  The  Parades  will  be  conducted  and  the  Veterinary  Officer  will 
attend  without  expense  to  Societies  other  than  that  involved  in  advertising 
and  making  known  the  occasion  to  the  public  and  the  Stallion  owners  in 
the  district,  and  providing  the  examination  ground. 

(3)  The  Examining  Officer  will  attend  Inspection  Parades  held  at  times 
and  places  set  out  in  the  official  Time  Table^  for  the  year,  and  all  examina- 
tions of  Stallions  for  the  Government  Certificate  will  be  made  at  such 
Parades  or  on  some  such  publicly  advertised  occasion,  unless  under  special 
circumstances  as  provided  for  in  clause  5. 

(4)  In  the  event  of  it  being  found  imjjossible  for  local  reasons  to  hold 
the  Parade  in  any  district  at  the  time  and  date  set  out  in  the  Time  Table, 
notice  to  that  effect — together  with  suggestions  for  alternative  date  and 
time  compatible  with  the  rest  of  the  Time  Table — should  be  given  not 
later  than  1st  June,  after  which  no  alteration  in  the  Time  Table  can  be 
made. 

(5)  The  special  examination  of  stallions  for  the  Government  Certificate 
of  Soundness  at  other  than  the  advertised  stallion  parades  may  be 
arranged  for  in  cases  where,  through  accidental  circumstances,  the  owner 
has  failed  to  submit  the  horse  at  such  parade. 

Such  examinations  will  only  be  arranged  when  the  attendance  of  the 
Examining  Officer  will  not  interfere  with  the  requirements  of  the  Depart- 
ment for  his  services  in  other  directions. 

An  owner  requesting  such  special  examinations  will  be  required  to  pre- 
pay a  fee  of  ^i  is.  for  each  horse  examined ;  also  the  railway  fare  (first 
class  return),  and  travelling  expenses  at  the  rate  of  14s.  per  day,  of  the 
visiting  officer. 

II. — Grounds    for   Rejection. 
(i)  Refusal  of  Certificate  on  the  ground  of  unsoundness  will  be  made 
only  when  in  the  opinion  of  the  Examining  Officer  the  horse  is  affected 
at  the  time  of  examination  with  one  or  more  of  the  following  hereditary 
unsoundnesses  in  any  degree,  viz.  : — 

Thoroughpin   and   Bursal   Enlargements 
Nasal    disease   (Osteo-porosis) 
Chorea   ("Shivering"  or   "Nervy") 

or  such  Other  hereditary  unsoundness  as  the  Minister  may  at  any  time 
declare.  (Blemishes  or  unsoundness,  the  result — in  the  opinion  of  the 
Examining  Officer  on  appearances  then  presented — of  accident,  injury,  and 
over-strain  or  over-work,  will  not  disqualify.) 


Roaring 

Curb 

Ringbone 

Bog  Spavin 

Sidebone 

Bone    Spavin 

294  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo   May,    1912. 

(2)  The  Certificate  will  also  be  refused  in  the  case  of  animals  con- 
sidered by  the  Examining  Officer  to  be  below  a  reasonable  standard  for 
Government  approval,  as  regards  type,  conformation  and  breeding. 

(3)  Stallions  three  or  four  years  old,  which  are  refused  a  Certificate  a* 
regards  type,  conformation  and  breeding  may,  unless  dealt  with  under  the 
Appeal  Board  Condition,  be  re-submitted  annually  until  five  years  old, 
after  which  the  refusal  shall  be  subject  to  re\iew  under  Part  V.  of  there 
regulations  only. 

Ill . — Certificates  . 
(i)  Particulars  concerning  the  identity  of  the  horse — name,  breeder, 
pedigree,  age,  prior  ownership,  &c. — must  be  furnished  to  the  Examining 
Officer  at  the  time  of  examination.  If  deemed  necessary  in  anv  case  the 
owner  may  be  called  upon  to  furnish  a  statutory  declaration  as  to  the  cor- 
rectness of  such  particulars. 

(2)  Certificates  will  be  issued  within  sev(  n  days  of  the  holding  of  the 
Parades,  and  will  be  forwarded  to  the  Secietaries  of  the  Societies  under 
whose  auspices  the  Parades  are  held,  and  who  will  either  forward  them 
to  the  owner  direct,  or  deliver  them  to  him  on  application. 

(3)  The  owners  of  stallions  for  which  a  Certificate  is  refused  will  within 
seven  days  of  such  refusal  be  officially  notified  of  the  fact ;  the  rea.son 
for  such  rejection  will  also  be  given. 

(4)  Until  the  issue  of  a  certificate,  or  until  the  publication  of  the 
official  list  of  certificated  stallions,  the  result  of  the  Veterinary  examina- 
tion will  not  be  communicated  to  any  person  except  as  herein  provided  or 
under  circumstances  as  follow  : — The  Examining  Officer  may,  on  request 
on  proper  occasion,  communicate  to  the  owner  or  his  agent — dulv  authorized 
in  writing  to  inquire — the  result  of  the  examination.  In  case  of  refusal 
of  the  certificate  the  reasons  for  refusal  will  not  under  any  circumstances, 
save  in  legal  procerdings  under  the  direction  (f  the  Court,  be  communicated 
to  any  person  except  th;.'  owner  or  his  agent  duly  authorized  in  writing. 
Secretaries  of  Sixieties,  persons  in  charge  of  the  horse,  grcoms  or  relati\es 
of  the  owner  will  nnt  be  considered  authorized  agents  for  that  purpo  e  unless- 
they  deli^•er  to  the  officer  the  owner's  signed  authority  to  recei\e  the  in- 
formation. 

(5)  The  Victorian  Government  Certificate  of  Soundness  can  only  be 
issued  in  respect  of  horses  three  years  old  and  over,  that  have  been 
examined  by  a  Victorian  Government  Veterinary  Officer,  or  horses  in  respect 
of  which  any  of  the  following  certificates  are  produced  :  — 

The  Government  Certificate  of  Soundness  of  New  South  Wales, 
Queensland,   South  Australia  or  New  Zealand. 

The  Veterinary  Certificate  of  the  Royal  Shire  Horse  Society  (England)- 

The  Veterinarv  Certificate  of  Royal  Agricultural  Society  (England). 

The  Veterinary  Certificate  of  Royal  Dublin  Society  (Ireland). 

The  Veterinary  Certificate  of  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  (Scot- 
land). 

The  Veterinary  Certificate  of  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Agricul- 
tural Society. 

Any  horse  which  has  been  rejected  by  the  Veterinary  Examiners  for 
any  of  the  above  certificates  will  not  be  eligible  for  examination  for  the 
Victorian  Government  Certificate  of  Soundness. 


lo   May.    1912.]  Ccrti ficition  oj  Sta:lioiis.  295 

(6)  The  form  of  the  A'ictorian  Go\-ernment  Certificatr  of  Soundness  is 
as   follows: — "  G.R. — Department    of    Agriculture,    Victoria,     No. 
Certificate  of  Soundness  and  Approval,  issued  for  the  season 

{or  issjicd  for  Life  as  the  case  may  be),  given  in  res])ect  of  the  {breed) 
stallion  {name  and  description  of  stallion)  submitted  for  Government 
inspection  by  the  owner  {name  of  owner)  at  {place  of  examination)  such 
horse  having  been  found  suitable  for  stud  service  and  free  from  hereditary 
ur. soundness  and  defects  of  conformation  predisposing  thereto  on  examina- 
tion by  {signature  of  Examining  Officer)  Veterinary  Officer  on  the 
da\"  of  19         . 

(Signature). 

Chief  Vetermary  Officer. 
Issued  by  direction  of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture. 

(Signature). 

Secretary  for  Agriculture." 

(7)  Two-year-old  colts  may  be  submitted  for  examination  and  a  tem- 
porary certificate  will  be  issued  in  respect  of  such  as  pass  the  examination 
Such  temporary  certificate  must  not  be  taken  to  imply  suitability  for  stua 
service  of  approval  as  regards  type,  nor  is  the  issue  of  it  intended  as  ar: 
ir.dication  of  the  likelihood  of  a  certificate  being  issued  when  submitted 
for  examination  at  a  more  mature  age. 

(8)  The  season  in  respect  of  Government  Certificates  shall  be  con- 
sidered as  opening  on  July  ist,  stallions  passing  the  examination  any  time 
during  the  t.hree  months  previous  to  this  date  in  New  Zealand  or  Australia 
will  be  granted  a  Certificate  for  the  season  next  following.  In  respect  of 
stallions  examined  in  Great  Britain  examinations  on  or  after  ist  January 
will  be  considered  as  examinations  for  the  following  season. 

IV. — Tenure  of  CERXiriviiArE. 

(i)  Certificates  issued  during  the  seasons  1907  and  1908  are  life  certi 
ficates. 

(2)  Certificates  issued  during  the  season  1908  in  respect  of  horses 
four  years  old  and  over  are  life  certificates ;  those  for  three-year-olds  are 
season  certificates  only,  and  the  horse  must  be  submitted  for  re-examina- 
tion at  four  and  five  years  before  a  life  certificate  will  be  issued. 

(3)  In  1910,  and  subsequently,  only  stallions  five  years  old  and  over 
will  be  given  life  certificates.  Three-year-old  and  four-year-old  stallions 
will  be  certificated  for  the  season  only,  and  will  be  required  to  be  submitted 
for  r^-examination  each  season  until  five  years  old,  when  a  Life  certificate 
will  be  issued. 

(4)  The  Season  certificate  issued  in  respect  of  any  horse  must  be  handed 
to  the  Examining  Officer  at  the  time  of  re-examination  or  forwarded  to 
the  Chief  Veterinary  Officer  before  a  subsequent  Season  certificate  or  a 
Life  certificate  will  be  issued. 

(5)  The  Minister  retains  the  right  lo  at  any  time  have  a  certificated 
stallion  submitted  for  re-examination,  and  to  withdraw  the  certificate,  in 
the  event  of  the  animal  being  declared,  to  his  satisfaction,  unsound. 


'.^6  Journal  of  Agriciilinn .  Victoria.  [lo   May.    1912. 


V. — Board  of  Appeal. 
(i)  Any  owner  of  a  stallion  who  is  dissatisfied  with  the  refusal  of  a 
Government  certificate  in   respect  of    his  horse    may  appeal    against    the 
decision  to  the  Minister  at  any  time  within  thirty  days  of  the  examination, 
under  the  following  conditions  : — 

{a)  That  the  appeal  be  in  writing  and  be  accompanied  by  the  lodg- 
ment of  ;^5,  such  amount  to  be  forfeited  in  the  event  of  the 
appeal  not  being  upheld,  unless  the  Board  shall  for  good 
cause  otherwise  direct. 

(b)  That  the  appeal  be  accompanied  by  an  undertaking  to  pay  any 

railway  fares  and  hotel  expenses  incurred  by  the  Board  of 
Appeal  in  connexion  with  the  settlement  of  the  appeal. 

(c)  That,    in  the  event  of  refusal   having  been  on  the  ground  of 

unsoundness,  the  appeal  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate 
from  a  registered  Veterinary  Surgeon  setting  out  that  the 
horse  has  been  found  by  him  on  examination  since  the  re- 
fusal appealed  against,  to  be  free  from  all  the  unsoundnesses 
set  out  in  Part  II.  of  these  Regulations. 
{d)  That,  in  the  event  of  refusal  having  been  on  the  ground  of 
being  below  standard  for  Government  approval,  the  appeal 
be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  from  the  President  and  two 
members  of  the  Committee  of  the  Society  under  whose 
auspices  the  parade  was  held,  setting  out  that  in  their 
opinion  the  horse  is  of  fit  and  proper  type,  conformation, 
and  breeding  to  be  approved  as  a  stud  horse. 

(2)  On  receipt  of  Notice  of  Appeal  in  proper  form,  and  with  the  above 
conditions  complied  with,  the  Minister  will  appoint  a  Board  of  Appeal, 
which  shall  consist  of  : — 

[a)  In  the  case  of  appeals    against    refusal    of    certificate    on    the 

ground  of  unsoundness,    the    Chief    Veterinary   Officer  and 

two  practising  Veterinary  Surgeons. 

{b)  In  the  case  of  appeals  against   refusal   ol    certificate  as  being 

below      standard      for     Government     approval,      the      Chief 

Veterinary  Officer  and  two  horsemen  of  repute  and  standing. 

Such   Board   shall   act   and  decide  on  the  appeal,    and   its   decision   shall 

be  final,  and  not  subject  to  review. 

(3)  In  the  event  of  the  appeal  being  allowed,  refund  shall  be  made  of 
the  deposit,  and  any  expenses  paid  bv  the  appellant  under  Clause  i  {b). 
Further,  the  Board  may  recommend  to  the  Minister  the  allowance  of  such 
of  the  expenses  of  the  appellant  in  supporting  his  appeal  as  it  may  con- 
sider reasonable  under  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  and  the  Minister 
may,  in  his  discretion,  confirm  the  recommendation  in  whole  or  in  part, 
whereupon  allowance  shall  be  made  to  the  appellant  accordingly. 

(4)  No  stallion  in  respect  of  which  a  Government  certificate  is  refused 
will  be  allowed  to  be  re-submitted  for  examination  except  in  the  case  of  an 
appeal  or  in  such  case  as  when  a  three  or  four  years  old  stallion  has  been 
refused  on  account  of  type  as  herein  provided  for.  In  the  even't  of  any 
rejected  stallion  being  re-submitted  for  examination  under  another  name 
or  under  such  circumstances  as  in  the  opinion  of  the  Minister  are  cal- 
culated to  mislead  the  Examining  Officer  into  the  belit.;'  that  the  horse 
has  not  previously  been  examined,  the  owner  of  such  rejected  stallion,  if 
proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Minister  that  he  is  responsible  for  such 
re-submission,  shall  be  debarred  from  submitting  any  horse  for  examina- 
tion for  such  period  as  the  ^linister  shall  determine. 


io  May,    1912.] 


Cerfificatioii   of  Stallions. 


-^97 


NOTICE  TO  SECRETARIES  OF  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES. 

Section  "  A  "  of  the  conditions  to  be  complied  with  by  Agricultural 
Societies  before  being  eligible  for  participation  in  the  annual  Government 
grant   is   as   follows:  — 

"  A. — That  the  awards  of  -prizes  in  all  classes  for  stallions,  three 
years  old  and  over,   at  the  Society's  Show    must  be  subject  to  the 
possession  by  the  exhibit  of  a  Government  certificate  of  soundness.'' 
In   order   to   comply    with   the   above,    the   special    attention   of   show 
secretaries  is  invited  to  the  receiving  of  entries  in  stallion  classes.        No 
entry  should  be  received  unless  at  the  time  of  entry  the  Government  cer- 
tificate is  produced,  or  unless  satisfactory  evidence  is  given  that  a  Govern- 
ment certificate  is  held  by  the  owner  in  respect  of  the  exhibit.     The  award- 
ing  of  a  prize  card  and  the  withholding  of  prize  money  in  respect  of  any 
exhibit  shall  not  be  deemed  as  compliance  with  the  condition.    Care  should 
be  taken  also  to  see  that  the  certificate  is  not  out  of  date,  that  is  to  say  : — 

For  three-year-olds  a  191 2  three-) ear-old  certificate  must  be  held. 
For  four-year-olds,   a   1912   four-year-old  certificate  must  be  held   (the 

191 1   three-year-old  certificate  is  out  of  date). 
For  horses  five  years  old  and  over,   a  life  certificate  must  be  held. 

Secretaries  are  strongly  urged  to  become  familiar  with  the  regulations, 
particularly  Regulation  IV.,  which  deals  with  the  tenure  of  certificates. 

Secretaries  are  required  to  forward  immediately  after  the  show  a  return 
(forms  for  which  will  be  sent  to  each  society)  giving  required  particulars 
concerning  ist,  2nd,  and  3rd  prize  winners  as  under:  — 

Return     to    be    forwarded    to     the     Cliief    Veterinary    Officer    concerning 

Stallions  (3  years  old  and  over)  awarded  Prizes  at  the 

Agricultural   Society's   Show    held 


Name  of 

Certificate 
Number. 

Name  of 

Class  and  Section 

(not  Number). 

Prize  Awarded. 

Owner's  Name. 

Owner's 

Stallion. 

1st. 

2nd.          3rd. 

Address. 

* 

Date. 


(Signed) 

Seci etary Agricultural  Society. 


Particular  atteii..on  is  directed   to   the   method  now  in  vogue  of  classifying 
certificated  stallions.     The  list  is  now  divided   into  horses  carrying  a  life  cer- 
tificate  and   those   which   are  terminable,    and   supplementary   lists   will    be 
i.ssued  annually  which  should  be  added  to  tho.se  listed  in  Bulletin  Xo.  30. 
4878.  I- 


298 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  j^io   May,    1912. 


SUPPLEMENTARY    LIST    OF    LIFE    CERTIFICATED    STALLIONS. 


Cert. 


Name  of  Horse. 


Age. 


Date  of 
Exami- 
nation. 


Officer. 


DRAUGHTS. 


1999 

Admiral  Sperry 

5  years 

A.  Duff 

Maryborougli 

16.8.11 

R.N.J. 

1978 

Admiral  Sperry 

5  years 

W.  Barnes 

Rainbow 

8.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2022 

Advance     . . 

Aged 

H.  McGregor 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

29.7.11 

2149 

Albert  of  Tandridge 

5  years 

M.  J.  Caffrey 

English  Exam. 

30.10.11 

2045 

Aibyn's  Victor 

5  years 

Jas.  Rigney 

Ballan    . . 

26.8.11 

E.A.K. 

1979 

Biaoor's  Heir 

5  years 

C.  J.  Freeman 

Rainbow 

8.8.11 

E.A.K. 

1917 

B.iroii  Aldie 

5  years 

G.  and  W.  Lord  . . 

Rosedale  (Special) 

26.5.11 

W.J.C. 

2145 

Baron  Belmont 

5  years 

Falkiner  Bros. 

English  Exam. 

23.3.11 

1965 

Baron  Clinton 

5  years 

R.  N.  Herkes 

Clvde      . . 

2.8.11 

R.N.J. 

204S 

Barooae  Saxon 

5  years 

Jas.  Booth 

B-illan    . . 

26.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2063 

Birrow  Oak 

5  years 

J.  T.  Brown 

Seymour 

1.9.11 

E.A.K. 

1941 

Bengal  2nd 

5  years 

Arch.  Kirk 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.N.J. 

2125 

BlacK  Prince 

5  years 

Roberts  Bros. 

Trafalgar 

18.9.11 

G.S.B. 

1958 

Blair  Atliol 

Aged 

Caffrey  and  Murpliy 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

18.5.11 

2024 

Bjrderside 

5  years 

Geo.  Nield 

Swan  Hill 

22.8.11 

E.A.K. 

1910 

Bramliope  Druid 

5  years 

James  Cowie 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

1909 

Bramliope           Royal 
WiUiam 

6  years 

F.  W.  Griffin 

Melboiu-ne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

1911 

Bramliope  Sampson 

6  years 

F.  W.  Griffin 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

1920 

Braiser  2nd 

6  years 

F.  W.  Griffin 

Enghsh  Exam.     . . 

20.4.11 

2013 

Carol  Redwood 

5  years 

C.  H.  Feldtmanu 

Beualla 

18.8.11 

G.s'.B. 

2025 

Caviller 

Aged 

W.  TeagueaudSons 

Swan  HiU 

22.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2116 

Cedric's  Favourite    . . 

5  years 

J.  Wallace 

Warrnambool 

14.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2030 

Champion  of  Kelms- 

cott 
Clan  Donald 

5  years 

W.  A.  MUvaiu 

Kerang  . . 

23.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2100 

6  years 

A.  Kay 

Ballarat 

16.9.11 

R.G. 

1918 

Clydeside  . . 

Aged 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

2157 

Contraband 

5  years 

C.  W.  Tindall 

English  Exam.     . . 

28.12.11 

1922 

Copperplate 

5  years 

F.  W.  Griffin 

English  Exam.     . . 

21.4.11 

2002 

Coronation  2nd 

5  years 

Jno.  McGillivrav 

Geelong 

20.8.08 

G.S.B. 

1928 

Dalrymple  Jock 

6  years 

A.  Dufty 

N.S.W.  Exam.      . . 

10.4.11 

1974 

Dan 

5  years 

Christopher  Bourke 

Donald 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

1967 

Dreadnought 

5  years 

R.  Semmler 

Murtoa  . . 

2.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2018 

Drnmcolin 

5  years 

Quinn  Bros. 

Elmore  .  . 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

2001 

Danmore   . . 

5  years 

B.  J.  Huglies 

Inglewood 

17.8.11 

R.N.J. 

2014 

Ettrick       .  . 

5  years 

E.  Louby 

BenaUa 

18.8.11 

G.S.B. 

2083 

Ettrick  Lad 

6  years 

A.  Colvin 

Agricultural  Offices 

9.9.11 

G.S.B. 

1936 

Evanyett  . . 

5  years 

J.  R.  Kent 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

R.N.J. 

2102 

Everlasting  King     .  . 

5  years 

Geo.  Fraser 

Ballarat 

16.9.11 

R.G. 

2096 

Federal  Prince 

5  years 

J.  Pasco 

Sale 

14.9.11 

R.N.J. 

2019 

Federation  King 

5  years 

D.  Trewick 

Elmore  . . 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

2126 

Forest  King 

5  years 

A.  J.  Ryan 

Trafalgar 

18.9.11 

G.S.B. 

2008 

Frogmore  . . 

5  years 

J.  Giddings 

Melbourne 

18.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2103 

Gay  Garland 

5  years 

W.  R.  Clarke 

Romsey . . 

18.9.11 

R.G. 

1976 

Girvan  Chief 

Aged 

R.  C.  Hannali 

Donald  . . 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

1996 

Glenroy     . . 

5  years 

J.  Long 

Heathcote 

14.8.11 

R.N.J. 

1956 

Glen  Stuart 

5  years 

Geo.  Hill 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

26.1.11 

2016 

Glenview   . . 

5  years 

S  my  the  Bros. 

Daylesford 

21.8.11 

G.S.B. 

1927 

Glen  WiUiam 

5  years 

L.  Hutchessnn 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

E.A.K. 

1954 

Grampian  2ud 

5  years 

J.  McLeod 

Korumburra 

25.7.11 

R.G. 

2153 

Hacconby  Kingmaker 

5  years 

C.  W.  Tindall 

English  Exam. 

28.12.11 

2041 

Hamilton  Star 

5  years 

R.  Steer 

Hamilton 

24.8.11 

R.N.J. 

1945 

Heatlier  King 

5  years 

F.  Rae   . . 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.N.J. 

2112 

Hero  Ben 

5  years 

E.  Bodey 

Camperdowi 

13.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2057 

Highland  Laddie      . . 

5  years 

J.  Robbie 

Wangaratta 

28.8.11 

R.G. 

1991 

Hone'it  Oak 

Aged 

G.  R.  Burrell 

Balmoral 

11.8.11 

R.N.J. 

1988 

Ian  North . . 

5  years 

C.  H.  Warne 

Watcliem 

10.8.11 

R.G. 

1935 

Kelms  Pride 

5  years 

Jno.  Dugdale 

Agricultural  Offices 
(Special) 

17.7.11 

G.S.B. 

2020 

Kelsman    .  . 

5  years 

M.  O' Grady 

Elmore  . . 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

1914 

Kelvin  Lad 

6  years 

Walter  and  Agar . . 

Agricultural  Offices 

13.5.11 

G.S.B. 

2043 

Kingsway  2nd 

5  years 

Executors     of     1). 
Archibald 

Kyabram 

22.8.11 

R.G. 

2106 

Knight  of  Kildare    . . 

5  years 

E.  Boland 

Terang   .  . 

11.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2139 

King  Alexander 

5  years 

S.  McNabb 

Morwell 

3.10.11 

E.A.K. 

1948 

King  William 

5  years 

Benson  Bros. 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.N.J. 

2082 

L\ird  of  Burnbrae  . . 

5  years 

W.  Cameron 

Meiton   . . 

2.9.11 

R.N.J. 

1943 

Leek  Bvronet 

Aged 

W.  H.  Robinson 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.N.J. 

1953 

Lieutenant  Mac 

5  years 

R.  G.  Anderson    . . 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

E.A.K. 

2065 

Lome  Ruby 

5  years 

K.  C.  Harper 

Bundoora  (Special) 

31.8.11 

R.N.J. 

1913 

Luxall 

5  years 

A..  Robertson 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

lo   Ma\  ,    igi2.] 


Certification  of  Stallions. 


299 


Supplementary  List  of 

Life  Certificated  Stallions — continued. 

Cert 

Date  of 

No.' 

Xamc  of  Horse. 

Age. 

Owner. 

Parade. 

Exami- 
nation. 

Officer. 

I 

Dr.\ughts — contin  ued. 

1908 

Lyiiiiu  Bouncer 

5  years 

H.  S.  Ruddock     .  . 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

1    E.A.K. 

i086 

Lyuixu  Truffle 

5  years 

Jno.  Smith 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2122 

Lord  Clyde 

5  years 

H.  Re^-nokls 

Werribee 

16.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2077 

Lord  (.ileugyle 

5  years 

R.  AUen 

Numurkah 

29.8.11 

E.A.K. 

1929 

Lord  Harperlaiul      . . 

5  years 

E.  Harders 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

R.N.J. 

2094 

JIacauU'v   .  . 

5  years 

Jno.  Findlay 

Alexandra 

14.9.11 

G.S.B. 

1989 

MeLeish     .  . 

5  years 

W.  Crozier 

Agricultural  Offices 

12.8.11 

W.J.C. 

2120 

JIajor  Gordon 

5  years 

P.  Mcintosh 

Co  lac 

15.9.11 

E.A.K. 

1951 

Major  Mac 

5  years 

Stuckey  Bros. 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.N.J. 

1939 

Mauoravon  Rosasou 

6  years 

H.  G.  Leslie 

English  Exam.     . . 

11.4.11 

2127 

Master  Wattie 

5  years 

Brock  Bros. 

Tralalgar 

18.9.11 

G.S.B. 

1919 

Maze  moor  Topper    . . 

5  years 

M.  J.  Caffrey 

Newmarket 

12.6.11 

Appeal 
Board 
G.S.B. 

2131 

Mellingtoii    Colonel 

5  years 

T.  O'Donohue 

Bunyip  . . 

19.9.11 

1994 

Melville  Lad 

5  years 

F.  H.  Dunn 

Co  bra  m 

14.8.11 

G.S.B. 

2029 

Merry  Prince 

5  years 

G.  Pearse 

Swan  Hill 

22.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2032 

Xew  Blood 

5  years 

T.  BagnaU 

Pyramid 

24.8.11 

E.A.K. 

1982 

>'ewton  Stewart 

5  years 

E.  Devereaux 

Warrackuabeal     .  . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2044 

One  O'clock 

5  years 

D.  Robertson 

Bacchus  Marsh     . . 

28.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2006 

Orbost  Oak 

5  years 

J.  and  C.  Wallace 

Kaniva  . . 

17.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2070 

Orplian  Boy 

5  years 

J.  Bums 

Euroa     . . 

1.9.11 

R.G. 

1983 

Patrician   . . 

5  years 

R.  McKenzie 

Warracknabeal     . . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2107 

Peerless 

5  years 

J.  and  A.  Clarke 

Teraug   .  . 

11.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2071 

Pimpernel 

5  years 

F.  Cann 

Euroa     .  . 

1.9.11 

R.G. 

2034 

PowlsUmd  Pure  Blood 

5  years 

Chas.  Mills 

Pvramid  Hill 

24.8.11 

E.A.K. 

L959 

Premier's    Fancy    of 

5  years 

R.  Jack . . 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

9.6.11 

Willowbank 

962 

Premier  Ward 

5  years 

J.  Carrol 

Sea  Lake 

19.7.11 

G.S.B. 

924 

Pride  of  Aldowrie    . . 

5  years 

J.  Mackintosh 

Newmarket 
(Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

036 

Pride  of  Locliiel 

5  years 

J.  T.  Ovens 

Kyabram 

22.8.11 

R.G. 

148 

Prince  Aerial 

5  years 

O'Leary  Bros. 

Penshurst  (Special) 

22.2.12 

Appeal 
Board 

000 

Prince  Albert  2nd    . . 

5  years 

F.  Berger 

Maryborough 

16.8.11 

R.N.J. 

963 

Prince  Charlie 

5  years 

C.  Umbers 

Sea  Lake 

19.7.11 

G.S.B. 

952 

Prince  of  Albyn 

6  years 

J.  Rousch 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

R.N.J. 

925 

Prince  Percival 

5  years 

W.  Langlev 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

E.A.K. 

124 

Robin  Hood 

5  years 

C.  H.  Gimblett     . . 

Tallangatta 

19.9.11 

E.A.K. 

052 

Royal  Blue 

5  years 

Alf.  Buckley 

Hopetoun 

23.8.11 

G.S.B. 

964 

Royal  Conqueror     . . 

5  years 

J.  Millstead 

Sea  Lake 

19.7.11 

G.S.B. 

004 

Royal  Dandy 

5  years 

A.  W.  Warren      . . 

Geelong 

17.8.11 

G.S.B. 

109 

Royal  Favourite 

5  years 

M.  O'Keefe 

Port  Fairy 

12.9.11 

E.A.K. 

950 

Royal  Knight 

5  years 

Baldwin   and    Car- 
ruther-s 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.N.J. 

017 

Royal  Mint 

5  years 

Donald  Blair 

Boort 

15.8.11 

R.G. 

071 

Royal  Nugget 

5  years 

Papworth  Jjros.    . . 

Charlton 

17.8.11 

R.G. 

108 

Royal  Ribbon 

Aged 

B.  McNulty 

Terang   . . 

11.9.11 

E.A.K. 

058 

Sandy's  Heir 

5  years 

R.  J.  Mason 

Wangaratta 

28.8.11 

R.G. 

005 

Scotland's  Fancy     . . 

5  years 

D.  Lamb 

Geelong 

17.8.11 

G.S.B. 

059 

Scottish  King 

5  years 

Geo.  Luckie 

Wangaratta 

28.8.11 

R.G. 

934 

Scottish  King 

6  years 

Donald  Blah- 

Citv  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.N.J. 

079 

Severn  Marlow 

Aged 

A.  Lummis 

N.S.W.  Exam.      . . 

3.8.11 

054 

Shepherd  . . 

5  years 

J.  Liddle 

Beulah  . . 

22.8.11 

g.s!b. 

972 

Silver  King 

5  years 

S.  Farrell 

N.Z.  Go\-t.  Cert.  . . 

4.7.11 

142 

Solomon  IV. 

5  years 

J.  A.  Williams      .  . 

N.S.W.  Exam.      . . 

072 

Sunflower 

5  years 

S.  Dunn 

Tatura   . . 

31.8.11 

R.G. 

984 

Sir  Cliarles 

5  years 

S.  Atkin 

Warracknabeal     . . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K. 

136 

Sur  Principal 

Aged 

P.  Quirk 

Romsey. . 

18.9.11 

R.G. 

055 

Sir  Simon  Percival  . . 

5  years 

H.  Navlor 

Beulah   . . 

22.8.11 

G.S.B. 

915 

Tamhorn  Hugo 

6  years 

T.  Maddern 

English  Exam.     . . 

3.3.11 

921 

Thorney  Vulcan 

5  years 

R.  F.  Anderson    . . 

English  Exam.     . . 

20.4.11 

049 

Tongala     . . 

5  years 

J.  J.  Downey 

Ballan    . . 

26.8.11 

e.a!k. 

098 

True  Blue 

5  years 

J.  Strawhorn 

Kyneton 

12.9.11 

R.G. 

968 

The  Macdonald 

5  years 

A.  Wohlers 

Murtoa 

2.8.11 

E.A.K. 

955 

The  Standard 

5  years 

W.  J.  Plant 

Newmarket 

24.7.11 

G.S.B. 

007 

United 

5  years 

J.  McDonald 

Kaniva  . . 

17.8.11 

E.A.K. 

912 

WiUaston  Hero 

5  years 

Caflfrey            and 
Murphy 

English  Exam. 

3.3.11 

023 

Willaston     Matchless 

2nd 
Young  Bonaparte    . . 

5  years 

J.  McMurray 

English  Exam.     . . 

23.2.11 

993 

5  years 

J.  Mulraney 

Goroke  . . 

9.8.11 

G.S.B. 

078 

Young  Federation   . . 

5  years 

H.  J.  Hansen 

Numurkah 

29.8.11 

E.A.K. 

128 

Young  HighL-vnd  Lad 

5  years 

X.  G.  Martin 

Trafalgar 

18.9.11 

G.S.B. 

300 


Journal  of  Agric/ilfun.  Victoria.  [lo   May,    1912. 


Supplementary  List  of 

Life  Certificated  Stallions — continued. 

Cert. 

Date  of 

No. 

Xame  of  Horse. 

Age. 

Owner. 

Parade. 

Exami- 

Officer. 

!_  ' 

nation. 

• 

Draughts — continued. 

2050 

Young       Priuoe       of 
Albyu 

Aged 

C.  Lippiatt 

Ballan    . . 

1      26.8.11 

E.A.K. 

1931 

Young  Royal  Blue  . . 

Aged 

A.  C.  Hately 

1  Horsham 

1      12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

2074 

Young  Topgallant    .  . 

Aged 

J.  McKenna 

1  Nathalia 

1      30.8.11 

E.A.K. 

THOROUGHBREDS. 

2009 

Ambgrite   .  . 

Aged 

A.  Cairns 

Charlton 

17.8.11 

R.G. 

2075 

Berriedale 

Aged 

P.  Russell 

Beaufort 

30.8.11 

G.S.B. 

2114 

Blent 

Aged 

J.  Jenkins 

Warruambool 

14.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2111 

Calvauite  . . 

5  years 

E.  Manifold 

Camperdown 

13.9.11 

E.A.K. 

1980 

Crash 

6  years 

A.  J.  Pyers 

Minyip   . . 

10.8.11 

E.A.K. 

20S2 

Curtain  Lecture 

Aged 

J.  O'Keefe 

Shepparton 

25.8.11 

R.G. 

1930 

Emblem     . . 

Aged 

J.  R.  McDonald   .  . 

Balmoral 

11.8.11 

R.N.J. 

209.4 

Little  Gun 

5  ye.ir-i 

J.  C.  H.  Graves    .  . 

Mansfield 

15.9.11 

G.S.B. 

2146 

Mr.  John   .  . 

Aged 

C.  Bath 

Eltham  (Special) 

22.2.12 

R.G. 

2147 

Posture 

Aged 

J.  D.  Lewis 

Agricultural  Offices 

2.3.12 

R.N.J. 

208) 

Winteriga 

6  years 

D.  Coutts 

Condah  (Special) 

31.8.11 

G.S.B. 

LIGHT  HORSES. 

1941J 

Abydoj 

Aged 

D.  MitcheU 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.8.11 

W.J.C. 

2035 

Ajax 

5  years 

J.  T.  0\ens 

Kyabram 

22.8.11 

R.G. 

2110 

Almont,  J. 

5  years 

G.  J.  Vagg 

Camperdown 

13.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2141 

Anist 

6  year.s 

D.  C.  Chilcott       .  . 

Dookie  (Special)  .  . 

19.10.11 

Appeal 
Board 
R.G. 

1966 

Billv  I\rac  . . 

Aged 

W.  Greaves 

Bendigo 

2.8.11 

2069 

Bleriot 

5  years 

R.  W.  Storey 

Euroa 

2.9.11 

R.G. 

2039 

Brilliant 

5  years 

C.  and  E.  CanunDn 

Hamilton 

24.8.11 

R.N.J. 

2051 

Canary's  Pride 

5  year.s 

G.  W.  Anderson  .  . 

Hopetoun 

23.8.11 

G.S.B. 

1985 

Child  Abdallah 

Aged 

T.  Brennan 

Agricultural  Offices 
(Special) 

14.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2048 

Cosmopolitan  2nd    .  . 

5  years 

A.  Wade 

Ballan    .  . 

26.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2101 

Dashaway . . 

6  years 

Woolcock  and  S(in< 

Ballarat 

16.9.11 

R.G. 

1923 

Derando     .  . 

5  years 

W.  E.  J.  Craig     .  . 

Yuille      and      Co. 
(Special) 

23.6.11 

R.G. 

2063 

Dictator     . . 

5  years 

J.  McNamara,  jun. 

Yarrawonga 

29.8.11 

R.G. 

2117 

Dixie  Brown 

6  year.s 

W.  Vaughan 

Colac 

15.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2003 

Emulation 

5  years 

A.  McFarlane 

Geelong 

17.8.11 

G.S.B. 

2056 

Ercildoon  Dick 

5  years 

C.  Gardner 

Wangaratta 

28.8.11 

R.G. 

2012 

Fashion  Direct 

0  year.s 

T.  F.  Hogan 

Quambatook 

15.8.11 

R.G. 

1969 

Firestone  , . 

'5  years 

R.  N.  Scott 

Agricultural  Offices 

5.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2137 

Fitz  Bell    . . 

5  years 

G.  W.  Booth 

Frankston 

23.9.11 

G.S.B. 

1932 

General  Cass 

5  years 

E.  J.  Glossop 

Agricultural  Offices 

6.5.11 

G.S.B. 

2138 

Governor  Dixie 

5  years 

J.  Heffernan 

Kilmore 

28.9.11 

G.S.B. 

2067 

Gundaroo 

5  years 

G.  Howe 

Seymour 

1.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2130 

Harkaway 

5  J  ears 

M.  Harper 

Warragul 

19.9.11 

G.S.B. 

2028 

Honest 

5  years 

W.  J.  Gillard 

Swan  Hill 

22.8.11 

E.A.K. 

1961 

Jardiniere 

5  years 

Gunsser  Bros 

Sea  Lake 

19.7.11 

G.S.B. 

2053 

King  Almont 

5  years 

H.  Reid 

Beulah   . . 

22.8.11 

G.S.B. 

203  S 

Kingski      . . 

5  years 

H.  V.  McLeod      ,  . 

Casterton 

23.8.11 

R.N.J. 

1977 

Lyntourie 

5  years 

W.  A.  Morgan 

Donald  . . 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

1942 

October     . . 

5  years 

J.  Graham 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

K.G. 

2089 

Ohio 

5  years 

Howard  Smith 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

G.S.B. 

2064 

Oster  Huon 

6  years 

A.  J.  Pitman 

Yarrawonga 

29.8.11 

R.G. 

2033 

Ostermeyer  Direct  . . 

5  years 

McLaren  Bros. 

Pyramid 

24.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2093 

Ostrich       

Aged 

A.  Colvin 

Agricultural  Offices 
(Special) 

12.9.11 

G.S.B. 

2095 

Pasha's  Son 

5  years 

J.  P.  Buntine 

Bairnsdale 

13.9.11 

R.N.J. 

2010 

Prince  Almont 

5  years 

Geo.  Da  vies 

Charlton 

17.8.11 

R.G. 

1970 

Prince  Miurice 

5  years 

J.  B.  Zander 

Agricultural  Offices 

5.8.11 

G.S.B. 

2113 

P.S. 

5  years 

Wm.  Garvie 

Camperdown 

13.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2084 

Ringer 

6  years 

W.  Marshall 

Agricultural  Offices 

9.9.11 

G.S.B. 

2097 

Rob^ert  Alto 

6  years 

Thomson  Bros.     .  . 

Kyneton 

12.9.11 

R.G. 

2037 

Rockefeller 

5  years 

D.  McLeod 

Kyabram 

22.8.11 

R.G. 

2073 

Splendour 

5  years 

J.  McKenna 

Xathalia 

30.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2123 

.Staudish  Direct 

5  years 

W.  Walter 

Werribee 

16.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2105 

Togo            .  ; 

5  years 

H.  Tomkins 

Mansfield 

15.9.11 

G.S.B. 

21.35 

Tracer  Boy 

5  years 

Turner  Bros. 

Whittlesea 

22.9.11 

R.N.J. 

2143 

The  General 

6  years 

D.  Shelley 

Ballarat  Show 

16.11.11 

R.G. 

1998 

Yelretso     . . 

Aged 

— .  Grogan 

DunoUv . . 

15.8.11 

R.N.J. 

2144 

Young  Larrican 

6  years 

T.  Sutherland 

Ballarat  Show      .  . 

16.11.11 

R.G. 

lo   May,    191^.] 


Certification  of  Stallions. 


301 


s 

UPPLEMENTARY   LiST    OF 

Life  Certificated  Stallions 

— contin 

ued. 

Cert. 
No. 

Xanie  of  Hor.se. 

1 

Age. 

Owner. 

Parade. 

Date  of 
Exami- 

Officer. 

nation. 

PONIES. 

2134 

Bobby  D  I'.zler 

5  veirs 

H.  Samson 

Dandenong 

21.9.11 

R.X.J. 

2115 

Brigii  iiu  Agihi 

Aged 

Geo.  Smith 

Warrnambool 

14.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2047 

Bygiuley  .. 

5  yeirs 

J.  J.  Downey 

Ballan    . . 

26.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2051 

Ci'.iiry".i  Pride 

5  years 

G.  W.  Anderson  . . 

Hopetoun 

23.8.11 

G.S.B. 

1947 

Chuiunie  . . 

Aged 

A.  Bennett 

City  Horse  Bazair 

22.7.11 

R.G. 

2026 

Coaiiiidore  Niit 

5  years 

W.  D.  McCormic'k 

Swan  HQl 

22.8.11 

E.A.K. 

1973 

Cyairo  B  ic'i 

Aged 

W.  A-.  Morgan 

Donald  . . 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

1940 

Cvairo  Dlu 

6  years 

H.  C.  Lees 

English  E.Kam. 

11.4.11 

2027 

D.indy  B  ms  - 

5  years 

J.  L.  Loutit 

Swa-i  Hill 

22.8.11 

E.A.K. 

1975 

D.iudy  Brick 

5  years 

J.  W.  Biker 

Don  lid 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

1986 

Dandy  Chief 

5  ye  ITS 

E.  O'Meara 

Blrchip  . . 

9.8.11 

R.G. 

2133 

Dawnligiit 

6  years 

Wm.  Lobb 

Koru  uburra 

20.9.11 

R.G. 

2035 

Fiction 

5  years 

W.  G.  Wilkinson  .  . 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2140 

Gilbert 

Aged 

J.  Hancock 

Mildura 

5.10.11 

G.S.B. 

2040 

GQbert 

5  years 

SV.  J.  Brown 

Hamilton 

24.8.11 

R.X.J. 

1938 

Greyligiit  . . 

Aged 

E.  Jones 

English  Exam.     . . 

11.4.11 

2118 

Gwalia  Cae  ir 

5  yeirs 

P.  Sim   . . 

Colac      . . 

15.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2104 

Intere;t     . . 

5  yeirs 

W.  Marshall 

Romsey . . 

18.9.11 

R.G. 

2076 

Jocli  Frisk 

5  year. 

D.  Stewart 

Beaufort 

30.8.11 

G.S.B. 

2119 

King  Olie 

5  years 

J.  James 

Colac 

15.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2081 

Limerick    . . 

5  years 

M.  McKav 

Penshurst 

1.9.11 

G.S.B. 

1933 

Little  Jack 

5  years 

P.  W.  Pollo;c       .. 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

1949 

Look  He  Com?' 

5  years 

W.  E.  Ro;Ung 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

W.J.C. 

1937 

Lord  Towy\a!e 

6  years 

A.  E.  Bowman 

English  E-x:am. 

11.4.11 

2087 

Lou  Lou's  Daud\'    .  . 

5  ye.irs 

C.  Joaes  and  Sons 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

R.X.J. 

2033 

-Migic  Biend 

5  year> 

Frank  D.  Brown  .  . 

Royal  Siiow 

4.9.11 

E.A.K. 

1944 

Master  Brigii  i-u 

6  years 

W.  R.  Smith 

Jfewmarket 

22.7.11 

E.A.K. 

2132 

Monutiia  B3II- 

5  veirs 

R.  Clulow 

Leongatha 

20.9.11 

R.X.J. 

2042 

Piper 

Aged 

A.  Walter 

Hamilton 

24.8.11 

R.X.J. 

2090 

Prince  D.indy 

5  years 

F.Irish 

Royal  Show- 

4.9.11 

E.A.K. 

1957 

Prince  Hirol  I 

5  yeirs 

S.  PoUock 

Agricultural  Offices 

22.7.11 

G.S.B. 

1992 

Radium 

5  yeirs 

F.  H.  Lackma'iu 

Goroke   . . 

9.8.11 

G.S.B. 

2015 

Rubicon     . . 

Aged 

M.  Evans,  juu.     .  . 

B?nalla  .  . 

18.8.11 

G.S.B. 

1981 

Sarifleld     .  . 

5  years 

T.  Long 

Mmvip   .  . 

10.8.11 

E.A.K. 

2129 

Sirdiu 

5  years 

R.  Reid      .  . 

Tallangatta 

19.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2121 

Spectator  . . 

6  years 

W.  J.  Trask 

Colic 

15.9.11 

E.A.K. 

2091 

Sunrise 

Aged 

F.  Fountain 

Royal  Show 

4.9.U 

R.X.J. 

2092 

Trotting          Railway 

Aged 

Mrs.  D.  T.  Davie- 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

E.A.K. 

5080 

2nd 
Tiie  Doctor 

Aged 

H.  Younger 

Wangaratta 

28.8.11 

R.G. 

2031 

Valve 

6  years 

W.  Younger 

Wangaratta 

28.8.11 

R.G. 

1987 

Welsh  Flyer 

5  years 

J.  F.  Beasley 

Birchip  .  . 

9.8.11 

R.G. 

2021 

Welshman 

5  ye.irs 

— .  Hanson 

Rochester 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

1907 

Whit  is  Wanted 

5  years 

W.  E.  Rosling      .  . 

Agricultural  Offices 

25.3.11 

G.S.B. 

1971 

Wilkes  Jr. 

5  years 

S.  Armstrong 

Ararat    .  . 

8.8.11 

G.S.B. 

2068 

Young  Comet 

Aged 

T.  Bourke 

Seyni'iur 

1.9.11 

E.A.K. 

1995 

Youug  Dandy  Jr.     .  . 

5  years 

G.  Anderson 

Cobram 

14.8.11 

G.S.B. 

Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


[lo  May,    191 2. 


LIST   OF    TERMINABLE    CERTIFICATED    STALLIONS. 
(Four-year-old  Certificates  expiring  30th  June,  1912;. 


Cert. 
Xo. 

Jfame  of  Horse. 

Ownier. 

Parade. 

Date  of 
Exami- 

Officer. 

nation. 

1 
DRAUGHTS. 

270/4 

Abbotsford 

A.  Cameron 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  .. 

23.5.11 

254/4 

Abbotsford's  Pride 

H.J.  Kortum 

Elmore  . . 

22.7.11 

E.A.K. 

376/4 

Admiral  Sperry 

H.  S.  Gibson 

Traralgon 

13.9.11 

R.N.J. 

220/4 

Agate 

J.  Cafirey 

English  E.vam.     .  . 

4.3.11 

340/4 

Aladdin      . . 

Geo.  Muir 

Bacchus  Marsh     . . 

28.8.11 

E.A.K. 

302/4 

Albvn 

D.  Scott 

Maryborough 

16.8.11 

R.N.J. 

223/4 

Aldfield  Ben 

0.  WiUs 

Enghsh  Exam.     . . 

20.4.11 

349/4 

Attraction's  Pride    . . 

W.  Curtain 

Rutherglen 

30.8.11 

R.G. 

244/4 

Bardon  Napoleon    . . 

E.  Jones 

English  Parade    . . 

10.4.11 

357/4 

Baron 

Craven  Bros. 

Tatura   . . 

31.8.11 

r'.g. 

360/4 

Baron  Bombay 

Shields  Bros. 

Dookie   . . 

31.8.11 

E.A.K. 

416/4 

Baron  Bute 

Geo.  Chirnside 

Scottish  Exam.    . . 

5.8.11 

284/4 

Baron  Irvine 

C.  H.  Perkins 

Rainbow 

8.8.11 

E.A.K. 

382/4 

Baron  McLeod 

B.  Kerr 

Lilvdale 

15.8.11 

R.N.J. 

278/4 

Baron  McXair 

A.  E.  Bowman     .  . 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

7.4.11 

368/4 

Baron's  Best 

J.  Glenn 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

G.S.B. 

213/4 

Bellringer 

Caffrey               and 
Murphv 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

422/4 

Biddulph  Bondsman 

M.  J.  Caffrey 

English  Exam.     . . 

24.11.11 

211/4 

Birdsall  Harold 

F.  W.  Griffin 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

288/4 

Blue  Bell  . . 

H.  Collins 

Minyip   .  . 

10.8.11 

E.A.K. 

271/4 

Bonnie  Cliief 

J.  Roberts,  jun.   .  . 

Citv  Horse  Bazaar 

28.7.11 

G.S.B. 

359/4 

Bonnie  Clyde 

S.  Delvin 

Portland 

31.8.11 

G.S.B. 

333/4 

Bonnie  Scott 

Miss  Henty 

Castertou 

23.8.11 

R.N.J. 

248/4 

British  Leader 

W.  Under\\ood     . . 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.G. 

285/4 

Brown  King 

A.  G.  Cust 

Rainbow 

8.8.11 

E.A.K. 

309/4 

Cairnbrogie  Stamp  .  . 

J.  Biuns 

Nhill 

16.8.11 

E.A.K. 

338/4 

Carlyon 

A.  Kobinson 

Murchisou 

24.8.11 

R.G. 

326/4 

Cashman    .  .              . . 

Burke  Bros. 

Kerang  . . 

23.8.11 

E.A.K. 

411/4 

Centrewood 

C.  E.  Gomm 

Frankston 

23.9.11 

G.S.B. 

384/4 

Channel  Flight 

P.  Eraser 

Ballarat 

16.9.11 

R.G. 

286/4 

Charmer  Jun. 

Mackenzie  Bros. 

Rainbow 

8.8.11 

E.A.K. 

237/4 

Chieftain    . . 

Jno.  McLean,  jun. 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

R.N.J. 

215/4 

Clumber  Baronet     .  . 

M.  J.  Caft'rey 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

279/4 

Clyde  Boy 

J.      "Walder      and 

Sons 
Hill  Bros. 

Donald  .  . 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

219/4 

Coedy's  Forest  Hero 

English  Exam.     .  . 

23.2.11 

249/4 

Crown  Derby 

W.  S.  Graham      .  . 

22.7.11 

E.A.K. 

396/4 

Crown  Prince 

A.  Simon 

Tallangatta 

19.9.11 

E.A.K. 

257/4 

Croydon     . . 

R. H.  Lanyon 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.N.J. 

319/4 

Cundoden 

J.  Crawford 

Rochester 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

402/4 

Dainty  Davie 

J.  Low  .  . 

Korumburra 

20.9.11 

R.G. 

228/4 

Dalmuir  Prince  2nd 

A.  Ross 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

R.N.J. 

269/4 

Defiance    . . 

J.  E.  Small 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

26.5.11 

418/4 

Dominion  Cliief 

M.  Rocks 

Preston  (Special) 

21.11.11 

R.G. 

247/4 

Dougliis     . . 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.N.J. 

423/4 

Dreadnought 

M.  J.  Caffrey 

English  Exam.     .  . 

20.10.11 

364/4 

Dreadnought 

F.  Metherall 

Numurkah 

29.8.11 

E.A.K. 

336/4 

Drumflower's  Bud  . . 

Wm.  Stokes 

Echuca  . . 

22.8.11 

R.G. 

252/4 

Drum  Laddie 

C.  R.  Roper 

Newmarket 

22.7.11 

E.A.K. 

369/4 

Drummer  . . 

Anderson  Bros.    . . 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

G.S.B. 

394/4 

Drummer  Bov 

Jno.  BaU 

Werribee 

16.9.11 

E.A.K. 

335/4 

F>nfield 

A.  S.  Brewis 

Hamilton 

24.8.11 

R.N.J. 

273/4 

Evelyn  Lad 

J.  Carter 

Bendigo 

2.8.11 

R.G. 

24fl;4 

Earl  of  Newton 

R.  Ward 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

424/4 

Fairfield  Dray  King 

M.  J.  Caffrey 

English  Exam. 

20.10.11 

283/4 

Federal  Laddie 

J.  Kurtzmann 

Stawell 

7.8.11 

E.A.K. 

343/4 

Federal  Star 

C.  Gardner 

Wangaratta 

28.8.11 

E.G. 

274/4 

Fine  View. . 

H.  C.  Hately 

Murtoa 

2.8.11 

E.A.K. 

245/4 

Finstall  Forest  Victor 

J.  Archibald 

English  Exam.     .  . 

11.4.11 

306/4 

Gay  Lad    . . 

Phillips  Bros. 

Geelong 

17.8.11 

G.S.B. 

387/4 

General  Hunter 

R.  E.  MacArthur 

Camperdown 

13.9.11 

E.A.K. 

232/4 

Gentleman  Chief 

Jno.  Gifford 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

R.N.J. 

289/4 

Glenalbyn 

D.  McGilp 

Minyip  . . 

10.8.11 

E.A.K. 

225/4 

Glen  Avon 

J.  Patrick 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

421/4 

Glen  Donald 

J.  Henderson 

Leongatha  (Special) 

\    27.2.12 

.W.J.C. 

lo  May,   191 -.] 


Ccrtificatio7i  of  Stallions. 


303 


List  of  Terminable  Certificated  Stallioxs — continued. 


Cert. 
No. 


Xame  of  Hokc. 


Parade. 


Date  of 
E.xami- 
aation. 


1)r.vught.s — continued. 


Officer. 


212/4 

Glengarry 

A.  J.  Donaldson  .  . 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A. 

370/4 

Gleiimore  Again 

A.  Aitken 

Royal  Show 

5.9.11 

G.S.B. 

221/4 

Hawtou  Burly 

T.  McMillan 

English  Exam.     . . 

23.2.11 

216,4 

Highland  Boy 

P.  Mingan 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

209/4 

Highland   Chief   3rd 

H.  S.  Ruddock     . . 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

323/4 

Howlet 

Andrew  Scott 

Rochester 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

280/4 

Jack  O'Connell 

Letcher  Bros. 

Donald 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

206/4 

Joclv 

A.  Colvin 

Nathalia  (Special) 

31.3.11 

G.S.B. 

239/4 

Jolin  Hamilton 

A.  Mibus 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

350/4 

Jolly  Native 

Wm.  Wood 

Rutherglen 

30.8.11 

R.G. 

412/4 

Knight  Ounuiore     .  . 

D.  J.  Kelleher 

Kilmore 

28.9.11 

G.S.B. 

229/4 

Kuottingley        Presi- 
dent 

A.  and  J.  H.  Young 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

R.N.J. 

403/4 

King  Jimmy 

C.  N.  Byriell 

Korumburra 

20.9.11 

R.G. 

388/4 

King  of  Clubs 

M.  SkeyhiU 

Camperdown 

13.9.11 

E.A.K. 

287/4 

King    of    the    Shep- 

W. Gould 

R  ^.inbow 

8.8.11 

E.A.K. 

E 

herds 

20^/4 

Lavington  King 

H.  S.  Ruddock     . . 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

313/4 

Link  wood 

Robt.  Calms 

Charlton 

17.8.11 

R.G. 

281/4 

Lion  King 

J.  Maloney 

Donald  . . 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

320/4 

Locli  Albyu 

T.  Brown 

Elmore 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

372/4 

Lohvorth  Premier    . . 

P.  Hart 

Royal  Show 

6.9.11 

G.S.B. 

361/4 

Lorrymau 

W.  Grattan 

Dookie   . . 

31.8.11 

E.A.K. 

400/4 

Lord  Galloway 

R.  G.  KieU 

Corryong 

20.9.11 

E.A.K. 

267/4 

Lord  Garthlaud 

J.  F.  Nicholls       . . 

Newmarket 

22.7.11 

E.A.K. 

419/4 

Lord  Glenc.iirn 

R.  Gilby 

Melton  (Special)  . . 

18.12.11 

G.S.B. 

304/4 

Lord  Haldon 

N.  Ramsay 

Inglewood 

17.8.11 

R.N.J. 

282/4 

Lord  Hopetouu 

P.  Sullivan 

Donald 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

420/4 

Lord  Islington 

J.  W.  Wilson 

Tatura  (Special)  . . 

14.2.12 

E.A.K. 

404/4 

Lord  Jock 

W.  J.  Wilson 

Korumburra 

20.9.11 

R.G. 

299/4 

Lord  Leestou 

H.  Doidge 

Agricultural  Offices 

12.8.11 

W.J.C. 

250/4 

Lord  Lindsay 

D.  Lang 

Newmarket 

22.7.11 

E.A.K. 

227/4 

Lord  Newton 

J.  Patrick 

Melliourne 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

264/4 

Lord  Roland 

J.  S.  W.  Parker   .  . 

Newmarket 

24.7.11 

G.S.B. 

236/4 

Mac's  Fancy 

G.  W.  Francis 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

E.A.K. 

346/4 

Mijor 

E.  Walker 

Shepparton 

25.8.11 

R.G. 

337/4 

JiAjor  Style 

C.  Had 

Echuca  .  . 

22.8.11 

R.G. 

218/4 

Melbourne  Prince     .  . 

J.  Caffrey 

English  E.\am.      .  . 

23.2.11 

314/4 

Mick  O'Shanter 

P.  Glasheen 

Charlton 

17.8.11 

R.G. 

251/4 

Middlemxrch 

J.      and      M.      J. 

Egau 

Newmarket 

22.7.11 

E.A.K. 

347/4 

Milton's  Pride 

P.  Downes 

Yarrawonga 

29.8.11 

R.G. 

324/4 

Moira  Lad 

J.  W.  Barton 

Swan  Hill 

22.8.11 

E.A.K. 

231/4 

Montgomery 

A.  Robertson 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

E.A.K. 

392/4 

Montrave's  Pride     . . 

Geo.  Crabbe 

Colac      . . 

15.9.11 

E.A.K. 

217/4 

Mountain  Chief 

D.  White 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

266/4 

Nambrok  . . 

H.  J.  Nbcon 

Newmarket 

22.7.11 

E.A.K. 

329/4 

Napoleon  . . 

C.  Marfleet 

Pyramid  Hdl 

24.8.11 

E.A.K. 

365/4 

Newton's  Seusation 

J.  Meiklejohn 

Numurkah 

29.8.11 

E.A.K. 

303/4 

Newton's  Style 

Gordon    and    Wil- 

Maryborough 

16.8.11 

R.N.J. 

-  ~T 

liamson 

258/4 

Oakburn    . . 

A.  C.  Petrass 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.G. 

321/4 

Oliver  Twist 

Ingram  Bros. 

Rochester 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

253/4 

Patrick's  Pride 

E.  L.  Edwards     . . 

Newmarket 

22.7.11 

E.A.K. 

310/4 

Percy's  Hero 

J.  Yennell 

Kaniva 

17.8.11 

E.A.K. 

^94/4 

Peter's  Pride 

J.  Cameron 

Warracknabeal     . . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K. 

328/4 

Powisland             Blue 
Blood  2nd 

D.  J.  Milne 

Kerang  . . 

23.8.11 

E.A.K. 

207/4 

Primley  Achilles 

R.  A.  Smales 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

393/4 

Pride  of  Kelvern 

W.  Phalp 

Colac 

15.9.11 

E.A.K. 

315/4 

Pride  of  Milton 

J.  McKeuna 

Charlton 

17.8.11 

R.G. 

300/4 

Prince  Charlie 

A.      McClure     and 

Sons 
H.  F.  Ogilvie 

Goroke  . . 

9.8.11 

G.S.B. 

268/4 

Prm.ce  Charlie 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

29.5.11 

272/4 

Prince  Harold  Boy  . . 

Love,    Royle,    and 
Thurgood 

Agricultural  Offices 

15.7.11 

G.s'.B. 

259/4 

Prince  Margam 

H.  J.  Bodev 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

R.G. 

362/4 

Prince  Newton 

W.  G.  DowTi 

Dookie   . . 

31.8.11 

E.A.K. 

265/4 

Prince  of  Elderslie  . . 

W.  J.  Baikie 

Newmarket 

24.7.11 

G.S.B. 

366/4 

Prince  Robin 

E.  W.  Fowler 

Numurkah 

29.8.11 

E.A.K. 

348/4 

Ranfurly    . . 

J.  Blackwood 

Yarrawonga 

29.8.11 

R.G. 

330'4 

Red  Ensign 

Jno.  Er\nn,  sen.   . . 

Pyramid 

24.8.11 

E.A.K. 

304 


Journal  of  AgrtciiUurc ,  Victoria.  [lo  May,    19 12. 


List  of  Terminable  Certificated  Stallions — continued. 


Cert. 

No. 


Name  of  Horse. 


Owner. 


Parade. 


Date  of 
Exami- 
nation. 


Officer. 


Draughts — continued. 


417/4 

Royal  Charlie 

W.  J.  Black 

Benalla  (Special) 

19.10.11 

Appeal 
Board 

316/4 

Royal  Charlie 

Donaldson  Bros.  .  . 

Charlton 

17.8.11 

R.G. 

206/4 

Royal  Gift 

W.  McKnight 

Agricultural  Offices 

8.4.11 

G.S.B. 

351/4 

Royal  Park 

T.  Oliver 

Rutherglen 

30.8.11 

R.G. 

380/4 

Salisbury  Hero 

A.  and  J.  Rankin 

K>7ieton 

12.9.11 

R.G. 

317/4 

Sandy  McNab 

H.  S.  McFarlane 

Wycheproof 

17.8.11 

R.G. 

409/4 

Searchlight 

W.  J.  Craig 

Lang  Lang 

22.9.11 

G.S.B. 

234/4 

Shepherd  Chief 

P.  T.  Gildea 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

E.A.K. 

410/4 

Signaller    . . 

H.  E.  Mapleson    . . 

Lang  Lang 

22.9.11 

G.S.B. 

399/4 

Stirling  Castle 

R.  V.  Colliver 

Bunyip  . . 

19.9.11 

G.S.B. 

263/4 

Sunflower 

J.  C.  Wightman  . . 

Newmarket 

24.7.11 

E.A.K. 

390/4 

Surprise     .  . 

J.  Jenkins 

Warrnambool 

14.9.11 

E.A.K. 

344/4 

Sweet  William 

Geo.  Smith 

Wangaratta 

28.8.11 

R.G. 

241/4 

Sir  Isaac    .  . 

McCann  Bros. 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

275/4 

Sir  Malcolm 

A.  WoMers 

Murtoa 

2.8.11 

E.A.K. 

243/4 

Sir  Patrick 

H.  Hill 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

R.N.J. 

260/4 

Sir  Percival  Jun. 

G.  Hicks 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

R.N.J. 

226/4 

Sir  William 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Spec  ial) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

353/4 

Tam  McKenzie 

V.  C.  Reid 

Agricultural  Offices 

2.9.11 

E.A.K. 

352/4 

Tam  0' Again 

C.  Hands 

Boort 

15.8.11 

R.G. 

443/4 

Til)berton             Dray 

King 
Tom  Walton 

C.  W.  Tindall       . . 

English  Exam. 

28.12.11 

210/4 

F.  W.  Sallmann  . . 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

386/4 

Trafalgar   .  . 

R.  H.  Gibson 

Traralgon 

13.9.11 

R.N.J. 

325/4 

True  Scott 

W.  McKnaight     . , 

Swan  Hill 

22.8.11 

E.A.K. 

406/4 

The  Colonel 

Jno.  Wuchatsch 

Korumburra 

20.9.11 

R.G. 

242/4 

The  Pirate 

MeCann  Bros. 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

222/4 

The  Bigg  Fashion    .  . 

M.  J.  Dooley 

Agricultural  Offices 

24.6.11 

G.S.B. 

415/4 

Udale 

H.  A.  Currie 

Scottish  Exam.     . . 

28.7.11 

261/4 

IJxbridge  Fyvie 

J.  McCuUoch 

City  Horse  Ba/aar 

25.7.11 

E.A.K. 

262/4 

Victor's  Pride 

G.  Wright 

Newmarket 

24.7.11 

E.A.K. 

230/4 

Waikato     . . 

G.  H.  Hill 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

R.N.J. 

342/4 

Wally         

W.  E.  Poulton     . . 

Hopetoun 

23.8.11 

G.S.B. 

233/4 

Warkworth 

Haustorfer  Bros. 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

R.N.J. 

246/4 

Western  Herdsman . . 

H.  McCaU 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  .  . 

25.4.11 

341/4 

Young  Harrington  ,  . 

J.  P.  Arandt 

Bacchus  Marsh     .  . 

28.8.11 

E.A.K. 

331/4 

Young  Hopetoun     . . 

Fehring  and  Sons 

Pyramid 

24.8.11 

E.A.K. 

236/4 

Young  Officer 

0.  Bodey 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

R.N.J. 

377/4 

Young  Royal  Stuart 

A.  J.  Jessop 

Maffra    . . 

14.9.11 

R.N.J. 

290/4 

Young  St.  Albans    . . 

G.  R.  Goods 

Minyip   .  . 

10.8.11 

E.A.K. 

THOROUGH 

BREDS. 

391/4 

Beau  Brocade           .  .     T.  T.  Mulder 

Colac 

15.9.11 

E.A.K. 

356/4 

Harmattan                .  .     R.  W.  Storey 

Euroa    . . 

1.9.11 

R.G. 

354/4 

Kerrisdale . .              . .     T.  McKimmie 

LIGHT 

Seymour 

1.9.11 

E.A.K. 

408/4 

Almonfs  Pride         .  .    i  Jas.  Downie 

Lang  Lang 

22.9.11 

G.S.B. 

291/4 

Almont  S. . . 

F.  W.  Shickerling 

Warracknabeal 

11.8.11 

E.A.K. 

383/4 

Almont  2nd 

G.  Bryant 

BaUarat 

16.9.11 

R.G. 

301/4 

Arrel 

Jno.  Dempster 

'  Heathcote 

14.8.11 

R.N.J. 

345/4 

Ashville  Boy 

Thos.  Moore 

shepparton 

25.8.11 

R.G. 

238/4 

Black  Tracker 

Giftord  and  Sons  . 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

E.A.K. 

298/4 

Clarida 

O'Donnell  Bros.   . 

Birchip  .  . 

9.8.11 

R.G. 

305/4 

Decorator 

T.  Jennings 

Inglewood 

17.8.11 

R.N.J. 

292/4 

Gerald  Clive 

P.  Seclander 

Warracknabeal     .  . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K. 

395/4 

Glynne 

Geo.  Collis 

Yarram 

18.9.11 

R.N.J. 

378/4 

Honest  Laddie 

Grant  Bros. 

Kyueton 

12.9.11 

R.G. 

323/4 

Howlet 

A.  Scotf 

Rochester 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

385/4 

Jack  Huon 

P.  Donoyan 

BaUarat 

16.9.11 

R.G. 

327/4 

Joy  Bells  . . 

M.  Peacock 

Kerang 

22.8.11 

E.A.K. 

358/4 

Kent  Cleve 

Jno.  Devlin 

Tatura   . . 

31.8.11 

R.G. 

308/4 

King  Osterley  2nd  .  . 

Geo.  Anderson      . 

Geelong 

17.8.11 

G.S.B. 

371/4 

King  Osterley 

D.  Taylor 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

G.S.B. 

379/4 

Kingspring 

W.  McDonald 

Kyueton 

12.9.11 

R.G. 

214/4 

Lord  McKinney 

G.  H.  Dunlevey   . 

Agricultural  Offices 

29.4.11 

G.S.B. 

363/4 

Middy  Huon 

C.  Baurchier 

Numurkah 

29.8.11 

E.A.K. 

293/4 

Millionaire 

J.  Rossiter 

Warracknabeal     .  . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K. 

lo  May,    1912,] 


Certification  of  Stallions. 


305 


List  of  Terminable  Certificated  Stallions — continued. 


Cert. 
No. 


Name  of  Horse. 


Date  of 
Exami- 
nation. 


Lights — continued. 


373/4 

Oaliwootl   .  . 

J.  T.  FoUand 

Royal  Show 

9.4.11 

E.A.K 

256/4 

Ostenvyuue 

W.  R.  Smith 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

R.N.J 

311 '4 

Owylii'e  Chief 

Geo.  Showell 

Castlemaine 

18.8.11 

R.N.J 

277/4 

Prince  Ddu^jlas 

Mrs.  C.  White 

Agricultural  Offices 

5.8.11 

G.S.B. 

■n-2ii 

Prince  Harold  Boy 

Love,    Royle,    and 
Thurgood 

Agricultural  Offices 

15.7.11 

G.S.B 

322/4 

Reality  Rex 

S.  O'Brien 

Rochester 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

367/4 

Sir  Hampden 

J.  H.  Fraser 

Numurkah 

29.8.11 

E.A.K 

332/4 

S[»ort-;  Huon 

J.  T.  Ovens 

Kyabram 

22.8.11 

R.G. 

276/4 

Verm  McKinney 

M.  MuUigaii 

Bendigo 

2.8.11 

R.G. 

255/4 

Victiir  Direct 

J.  Schrieber 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11. 

W.J.C 

397/4 

Weeho 

Jos.  Park 

Taflangatta 

19.9.11 

E.A.K 

296/4 

Young  Almont  B.    .  . 

J.  Mitchell 

Wari-acknabeal     . . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K 

297/4 

Young  Harold 

E.  Wyatt 

PONIEf^ 

Warracknabeal     . . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K 

312/4 

Billie  Barlow 

Wm.  Donaldson  . . 

Charlton 

17.8.11 

R.G. 

414/4 

Bonnie  Argyle 

Wm.  Connors 

Myrtleford 

11.10.11 

G.S.B. 

389/4 

Brigham's  Last 

Wm.  Rodgers 

Warrnambool 

14.9.11 

E.A.K. 

398/4 

Chamberlain 

A.  L.  Hardie 

Warragul 

19.9.11 

G.S.B. 

407/4 

Dandy  G'More 

L.  Tatterson 

Daudenong 

21.9.11 

R.N.J. 

307/4 

General  Gordon 

H.  Dunn 

Geelong 

17.8.11 

G.S.B. 

355/4 

Little  Tarn 

L.  Moody 

Seymour 

1.9.11 

E.A.K. 

401/4 

Masher  Bov 

T.  Canty 

Leongatha 

20.9.11 

R.N.J. 

374/4 

Prince  Taff 

Mrs.    B.    F.    Saud- 
ford 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

E.A.K. 

322/4 

Reality  Rex 

S.  O'Brien 

Rochester 

21.8.11 

R.G. 

295/4 

Rob  Rov  2nd 

W.  T.  Clarke 

Warracknabeal     . . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K. 

318/4 

Rysharold      Hamble- 
tonian 

W.     B.     Metherall 
and  Son 

Agricultural  Offices 

19.8.11 

G.S.B. 

405/4 

Starlight    .  . 

J.  M.  Brown 

Korumburra 

20.9.11 

R.G. 

381/4 

Tich  bourne 

A.  E.  Godden 

KjTieton 

12.9.11 

R.G. 

334/4 

The  Hero  . . 

D.  G.  Tomkins     .  . 

Co"leraine 

22.8.11 

R.N.J. 

375/4 

Wonderful 

W.  H.  D.  McXal)h 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

G.S.B. 

339/4 

Young  Brighim 

R.  W.  Xichol 

Clunes    .  . 

25.8.11 

G.S.B. 

( Three-year- 9ld  Certificates  expiring  30th  June,  1912. 

DRAUGHTS. 


598/3 

Abbot  McArthur      . . 

J.  Lawson 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  .  . 

5.7.11 

536/4 

Abbot's  Fancy 

A.  Robertson 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.1] 

R.G. 

535/3 

Abbotsford 

Colvin  Bros. 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B 

669/3 

Abbot  Smith 

White  Bros. 

N.Z  Govt.  Cert.     . . 

5.5.11 

599/3 

Abbot's  Pride 

Jos.  Johnson 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

31,5.11 

735/3 

Abbot's  Pride 

W.  Haebich 

Tungamah 

29.8.11 

R.G. 

587/3 

Acorn 

W.  Bodey 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K 

728/3 

Admiral's  Champion 

H.  Cronk 

Wangaratta 

28.8.11 

R.G. 

790/3 

Admiral  Sperry 

Jno.  E.  Coulthard 

Yarram 

18.9.11 

R.N.J. 

463/3 

Albion 

Oakes  Bros. 

Nathalia  (Special) 

31.3.11 

G.S.B. 

755/3 

Aldebarou . . 

Abbot  Bros. 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

E.A.K 

725/3 

Alexander's  Best 

A.  Robertson 

Agricultural  Offices 

26.8.11 

R.N.J. 

537/3 

Alexander's  Own 

A.  Robertson 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

736/3 

Attraction 

J.J.  Mackay 

Tungamah 

29.8.11 

R.G. 

740/3 

Attraction's      Cham- 

W. Morley 

Rutherglen 

30.8.11 

R.G. 

782/3 

pion 
Australia's  Favourite 

M.  Mahoney 

Terang  . . 

11.9.11 

E.A.K 

646/3 

Avonmore . . 

J.  Harper 

City  Hor.se  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

E.A.K 

665/3 

Ayrshire     .  . 

Jesse  Stokes 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

5.5.11 

772/3 

Balfour's  Pride 

Jas.  Anderson 

Maffra    .  . 

14.9.11 

B.N.J. 

730/3 

Balmoral   .  . 

E.    S.    Green    and 

Son 
W.  Hegartv 

Shepparton 

25.8.11 

R.G. 

471/3 

Baron  Aravle 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

780/3 

B.^^on  Bold  2ud 

N.  W.  Quick 

Ballarat 

16.9.11 

R.G. 

640/3 

Baron  Erskine 

E.  Roberts 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.G. 

804/3 

Baron  Fenwick 

Jno.  H.  Sargood 

Raywood  (Special) 

25.10.11 

E.G. 

472/3 

Baron  Glaze  brook    .  . 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

664/3 

Baron  Gleniffer 

S.  J.  Ljnn 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert. 

28.4.11 

538/3 

Baron  Grant 

Jas.  Patrick 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

473/3 

Baron  Humber 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

Jo6 


Journal  of  Agriculture.  Victoria.  [lo  May,    1912-- 


LiST  OF  Terminable  Certificated  Stallions — continued. 


Cert. 
No. 


568/3 
509/3 
474/3 
747/3 
783/3 
775/3 
464/3 
671/3 
693/3 
622/3 
539/3 
567/3 
753/3 
600/3 
721/3 
675/3 
617/3 
732/3 
581/3 
475/3 
545/3 
639/3 
532/3 
533/3 
534/3 
528/3 
642/3 
578/3 
508/3 
808/3 
524/3 

540/3 

737/3 
476/3 

738/3 
733/3 

758/3 
601/3 
478/3 
511/3 
627/3 
479/3 
723/3 
791/3 
647/3 
756/3 
580/3 
541/3 
574/3 

480/3 
796/3 

624/3 
542/3 
481/3 
666/3 
482/3 
517/3 

748/3 
722/3 
569/3 
461/3 
602/3 
573/3 

809/3 


Name  of  Horse. 


Baron  Milton 
Barons  Prince 
Baron  Stuart 
Baron  Woodlea 
Barrabool 
Bay  Knight 
Bav  Star   . . 
Belted  Ben 
Ben  Hampton 
Ben  Lomond 
Bit  of  Fashion 
Black  Lion 
Black  Mac 
Black  Points 
Blue  Royal 
Bold  Baron 
Bold  McGregor 
Bonaparte 
Bonnie  Boy 
Bonnie  Charlie 
Bonny  Glen 
Border  Lad 
Boro'  Albert  Victor 
Boro'  Candidate 
Boro'  Marmion 
Boro'  Sportsman 
Boy  Model 
Bramhope  Paladin 
Braw  Scot 
Bridge  Hill  King 
Brilliant  Lad 

Britain's  Flag 

British  Heather 
British  Pride 

Captain  Grigg 
Camiichael 

Carolyn 

Carson's  Fancy 
Champion  Again 
Chatsworth  Warrior 
Clan  McArthur 
Clydesdale  BiU 
Clyoesdale  Prince 
Clydesdale  Prince 
Colonel  Keith 
Comet 
Coronation 
Cranbourne  Stewart 
Creslow  Kingmaker 

Crown  Tenant 
Darnley's     Pride     of 

Rythesdale 
Defender   . . 
Derby  Royal 
Devondale  Chief 
Diamond  Crest 
Diamond  King 
Dividend    . . 

Dreadnought 
Drummer's  Style 
Drummond  King 
Duncraig  Colt 
Dunmore   . . 
Dunsby        Menestral 

3rd 
Eaton  Charmer 


Parade. 


Date  of 
Exami- 
nation. 


Draughts — continued. 


A.  Slocum 

Ingram  Bros. 

A.  Robertson 

Wm.  WlUiams 

Jas.  Axford 

Jas.  McRae 

J.  and  M.  J.  Egan 

A.  Giddings 

W.  F.  Schiekerling 

G.  Carey 

W.  Kilpatrick 

Graham  Bros. 

J.  T.  Peterson 

J.  R.  Henry 

Balkiu  and  Gerdts 

H.  Jackman 

J.  P.  Belleville     . . 

• — .  McGregor 

Tucker  Bros. 

A.  Robertson 

H.  HiU 

W.  Foster  and  Son 

R.  N.  Scott 

Jno.  Widdis 

Arthur  Hart 

J.  P.  Belleville     . . 

J.  Mills 

F.  Hickman 
Alex.  Sands 
M.  J.  Caffrey 
Mitchell  and 

O'Brien 
Mitchell  and 

Brien 
S.  H.  WOson 
Mitchell  and 

O'Brien 
J.  Blackwood 
Jno.  Gooden 

Jno.  Wm.  Dean  . . 
Jas.  Lawson 
A.  Robertson 
J.  Caffrey 
E.  Roberts 
Hermann  Sclineider 
E.  and  A.  Breen  . . 
R.  C.  Buchanan  . . 
A.  J.  WiUiams     . . 
Brock  Bros. 

G.  Oxley 
W.  Abram 
Geelong        Harbor 

Trust 
W.  Langley 
Syme  Bros. 

Hooper  Bros. 
Jno.  Grant 
A.  Robertson 
Walter  and  Agar 
A.  Robertson 
Mitchell  and 

O'Brien 
J.  C.  Rockliffe      . . 
Neil  Anderson 
R.  C.  Pearse 
Alex.  Robertson 
.Jas.  Lawson 
Evan  Jones 

M.  J.  Caffrey 


Newmarket 
Digger's  Rest 
Melbourne  (Special) 
Numurkah 
Teiang 
Kyneton 

Agricultural  Offices 
Sea  Lake 

Warracknabeal     . . 
City  Horse  Bazaar 
Melbourne  (Special) 
Ne^\-market 
Melbourne  (Special) 
N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 
Hamilton 
Bendigo 
Newmarket 
Pakenham  (Special) 
Horsham 

Mellioume  (Special) 
N.Z.  Go^■t.  Cert.    .  . 
City  Horse  Bazaar 
English  Exam. 
English  Exam. 
Enghsh  Exam. 
English  Exam. 
City  Horse  Bazaar 
Horsham 
Digger's  Rest 
English  Exam. 
Agricultural  Offices 

Melbourne  (Special) 

Tungamah 
Melbourne  (Special) 

Yarrawonga 
Warmambool 

(Special) 
Royal  Show 
N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 
Melbourne  (Special) 
English  Exam. 
City  Horse  Bazaar 
Meiboume  (Special) 
Kyabram 
Tallangatta 
City  Horse  Bazaar 
Royal  Show 
Horsliam 

Jlelbounie  (Special) 
English  Exam. 

Meiboume  (Special) 
Dandenong 

City  Horse  Bazaar 
Melbourne  (Special) 
Melbourne  (Special) 
N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  .  . 
Melbourne  (Special) 
Melbourne  (Special) 

iS'umurkah 
Miirchison 
Xefliuarket 
.Asricultural  Offices 
N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   .. 
English  Exam. 

English  Exam. 


30.6.1 
22.5.1 
15.5.1 
29.8.1 
11.9.1 
12.9.1 

3.4.1 
19.7.1 
11.8.1 
24.7.1 

5.7.1 
30.6.1 

6.9.1 
31.5.1 
24.8.1 

2.8.1 
22.7.1 
28.8.1 
12.7.1 
15.5.1 

8.6.1 


20.4.1 
25.7.1 
n.7.1 
22.5.1 
20.10.1 
10.6.1 

5.7.1 

29.8.1 
15.5.1 

29.8.1 
29.8.1 

4.9.1 
31.5.1 
15.5.1 

3.3.1 
24.7.1 
15.5.1 
22.8.1 
19.9.1 
25.7.1 

4.9.1 
12.7.1 

5.7.1 
11.4.1 

15.5.1 
21.9.1 

25.7.1 
5.7.1 

15.5.1 
5.5.1 

15.5.1 

15.5.1 

29.8.1 
24.8.1 


R.G. 

R.G. 
G.S.B. 
E.A.K. 
E.A.K. 

R.G. 
E.A.K. 
G.S.B. 
E.A.K. 

R.G. 
G.S.B. 

R.G. 
E.A.K. 

R.N.J. 
R.G. 
E.A.K. 
R.N.J. 
R.N.J. 
G.S.B. 

W.J.C. 


R.N.J. 

R.N.J. 

R.G. 

E.A.K. 

G.S.B. 

R.G. 
E.A.K. 

R.G. 
R.N.J. 

R.N.J. 

G.S.B. 

R.G. 
G.S.B. 

R.G. 
E.A.K. 
E.A.K. 
E.A.K. 
R.N.J. 

R.G. 


G.S.B. 
R.N.J. 

R.G. 
R.G. 

G.S.B. 

G.S.B. 
E.A.K. 

E.A.K. 

R.G. 

R.G. 
E.A.K. 


lo  May,    1912.] 


Certification  of  Stallions. 


307 


List  of  Terminable  Certificated  Stallions- 

— continued. 

Cert. 
No. 

Name  of  Horse. 

Owner. 

1 

Parade. 

Date  of 
E.xami- 

Officer. 

nation. 

Draughts — co 

ntinued. 

591/3 

Earl  Erskine 

G.  F.  Meyers 

X.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

10.4.11 

663/3 

Erskine  Yet 

H.  Graham 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

6.5.11 

514/3 

Earl  of  Daralev 

W.  R.  Smith 

Agricultural  Offices 

27.5.11 

G.S.B. 

759/3 

Fairfield     . .     " 

Glenn  Bros. 

Royal  Sliow 

4.9.11 

G.S.B. 

712/3 

First  Clioice 

R.  H.  Lanyon 

Boort 

15.8.11 

R.G. 

777/3 

Fitz  Liou 

Mrs.  Roberts 

Kyneton 

12.9.11 

R.G. 

582/3 

Fla5lilight 

Graham  Bros. 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

R.N.J. 

694/3 

Flasliwood's  Model  . . 

Chas.  Mason 

Warraclaiabeal     . . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K. 

543/3 

Forest  Kiug 

A.  Chrystal 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

687/3 

Fyvie  Blacon 

R.  C.  Hannah 

Donald 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

717/3 

Gaer  Coaqueror 

Jno.  Archibald     . . 

Kyabram 

22.8.11 

R.G. 

577/3 

Gamekeeper 

Hermann  HLU 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

R.N.J. 

629/3 

Gay  Gordon 

J.  Ferguson 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.G. 

544/3 

Gay  Ife  ivton 

Jas.  Patrick 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

762/3 

Geaeral  Mac 

J.  K.  Marnm 

Royal  Sliow 

4.9.11 

E.A.K. 

786/3 

Gleu  Doaald 

Ale.^.  Gibson,  jun. 

Port  Fairy 

12.9.11 

E.A.K. 

631/3 

Glenhope   . . 

T.  Standmg 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.G. 

603/3 

Glea  Lyon 

Jas.  Lawson 

X.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

31.5.11 

483/3 

Glen  Lyon 

A.  Robertson 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

739/3 

Gleamuick 

Jas.  Clark 

I'^arrawonga 

29.8.11 

R.G. 

661/3 

Goldfiader 

A.  E.  Freshney    . . 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

6.5.11 

670/3 

Good  Baough 

Jno.  Mills 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

8.4.11 

606/3 

Good  Sliepherd 

D.  McClure 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.N.J. 

546/3 

Haldeii  Sliepherd     . . 

D.  McClure 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

691/3 

Halley's  Comet 

C.  Ruowldt 

Minyip   . . 

10.8.11 

E.A.K. 

727/3 

Hampden  Ben 

H.  Allen 

Beuiah  .. 

22.8.11 

G.S.B. 

462/3 

HaT-ry  Herd 

A.  Colvin 

Xathalia  (Special) 

31.3.11 

G.S.B. 

547/3 

Harry  Lauder 

Jas.  Patrick 

Melbourne  ( Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

469/3 

Hatfield's  Pride 

W.  J.  McKay 

Agricultural  Offices 

13.5.11 

E.A.K. 

46U/3 

Heather  Jock 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Agricultural  Offices 

25.3.11 

G.S.B. 

649/3 

Heather  Lad 

Geo.  Stokes 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

R.G. 

618/3 

Hector  Grant 

L.  BagueU 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.G. 

792,3 

Hiawatha 

A.  L.  Hamilton    . . 

Corrj-ong 

20.9.11 

E.A.K. 

570/3 

Highland  Fame 

C.  McMickmg 

Xewmarket 

30.6.11 

R.G. 

641/3 

Highland  Prince 

F.  Mentha 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.G. 

484/3 

His  Excellency 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

477/3 

His  Grace 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

519/3 

His  Lordship 

R.  Jack  and  Son  . . 

Agricultural  Offices 

3.6.11 

G.S.B. 

492/3 

His  Majesty 

H.  J.  Whittingham 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

761/3 

His  Majesty 

E.  J.  Rickey 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

R.N.J. 

485/3 

Ian  Moore 

Mitchell              and 

O'Brien 
P.  F.  D'Arcy 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

635/3 

Innismore 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.G. 

614/3 

Jack's  the  Lad 

H.  Hart 

Xewmarket 

22.7.11 

E.A.K. 

763/3 

Kelm's  Best 

L.  W.  Andrews    . . 

Royal  Sliow 

4.9.11 

R.N.J. 

531/3 

Kelvin's  Fancy 

A.  H.  Reed 

Newmarket 
(Special) 
Melbourne  (Special) 

19.6.11 

R.G. 

548/3 

Kia  Ora     . . 

Jno.  Grant 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

576/3 

Kingfisher.. 

R.  P.  Y'oung 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

R.N.J. 

773/3 

Kingston   . . 

Henebery           and 
Hawkins 

Maffra    .. 

14.9.11 

R.N.J. 

584/3 

Kinloch  Agaui 

W.  T.  Bodey 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

486/3 

Knight  Commander 

A.  Robertson 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

487/3 

Knight  of  the  Garter 

A.  and  A.  Kennedv 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

729/3 

King  George 

G.  Docker 

\Yangaratta 

28.8.11 

R.G. 

583/3 

King  Pippin  2ud 

A.  and  J.  H.  Y'oung 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

549/3 

Laird  of  Glengarry  .  . 

A.  Chrystal 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

575/3 

Laird  of  Glenkenich 

Geo.  GiU 

S.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

25.5.11 

781/3 

Landlord   . . 

D.  McCallum 

Ballarat 

16.9.11 

R.G. 

489/3 

Laudevar 

A.  Robertson 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

470/3 

Llynely's  First  Lord 

J.  Caffrev 

English  Exam.     . . 

3.3.11 

490/3 

Lock  Allen 

T.  Smith" 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

579/3 

Longford's  Fashion 

Jas.  Gildea 

Horsham 

11.7.11 

R.N.J. 

512/3 

Lymm  Champion  2nd 

J.  Caffrey 

Enghsh  Exam.     . . 

3.3.11 

513/3 

Lymm  Forest  Boy  . . 

J.  Caffrev 

English  Exam.     . . 

3.3.11 

510/3 

Lymm  Raider 

J.  CaflreV 

English  Exam. 

3.3.11 

764/3 

Lord  Ashmore 

R.  A.  Ash 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

E.A.K. 

793/3 

Lord  Donald 

A.  Harris 

Corn,-ong 

20.9.11 

E.A.K 

529/3 

Lord  Garthland 

J.  R.  Henry 

Newmarket 
(Special) 

19.6.11 

R.G. 

3o8 


Journal  of  Agricitlliirc,  Victoria.  [lo   May,    191 2. 


List  op  Terminable  Certificated  Stallions — continued. 


Cert. 

No. 


Name  of  Horse. 


Parade. 


Date  of 

E.\:anii-        Offlcer. 

nation. 


Draughts — continued. 


491/3 

Lord  Hampden 

Pat.  Mangan 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

653/3 

Lord  Islington 

R.  Hornbuckle     . . 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

607/3 

Lord  Lindsay 

Caffrey                and 
Murphy 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.'7.n 

R.G. 

571/3 

Lord  Mitchell 

H.  McLaren 

Newmarket 

30.6.11 

R.G. 

525/3 

Lord  Rose  berry 

Mitchell             and 
O'Brien 

Agricultural  Offices 

10.6.11 

E.A.K. 

649/3 

McGregor  . . 

J.  Lawson 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

E.A.K. 

608/3 

McKenzie's  Pride     .  . 

A.  Lawrie 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.G. 

700/3 

Maironga  Prince 

Wm.  Blair 

Watchem 

10.8.11 

R.G. 

768/3 

Major's  Pride 

Stuckey  Bros. 

Traralgon 

13.9.11 

R.N.J. 

493/3 

Marlisman 

D.  F.  Hourigan    . . 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

494/3 

Mark  Ward 

J.  Schinnick 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

707/3 

Marsliall     . . 

Jno.  Stafford 

Geelong.. 

17.8.11 

G.S.B. 

672/3 

Mataura     . . 

W.  Widdis 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   .  . 

23.5.11 

495/3 

Merry  Maker 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

749/3 

Merton's  Pride 

H.  Rolls 

Numurkah 

29.8.11 

E.A.K. 

658/3 

Model  Prince 

Jno.  Gifford 

N.Z.  Gov-t.  Cert.   .  . 

23.5.11 

526/3 

Monarch    . . 

Mitchell             and 
O'Brien 

Agricultural  Offices 

10.6.11 

E.A.K. 
1 

636/3 

Moravian  . . 

Hugh  Boyd 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.N.J. 

702/3 

Murray  King 

C.  Milson 

Cobram 

14.8.11 

G.S.B. 

465/3 

Neil  Marsliall 

T.  Coogan 

Agricultural  Offices 

8.4.11 

G.S.B. 

551/3 

Nelson  Lyon  2nd 

Jno.  Grant 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

696/3 

Neotsfield  Rufus      .  . 

Jno.  Munro 

N.S.W.  Exam. 

23.6.11 

552/3 

Netherhall 

Jas.  Patrick 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

637/3 

Never  Despair 

Thos.  Kelly 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.N.J. 

554/3 

Newton  Moore 

Jas.  Patrick 

Melbourne  (Special; 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

656/3 

Newton's  Best 

J.  J.  McCarron     . . 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   .  . 

23.5.11 

520/3 

Nobleman 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Agricultural  Offices 

3.6.11 

G.'s.B 

555/3 

Perfection 

Jas.  Patrick 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

609/3 

Perfect  Motion 

Peter  Byrne 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.G. 

683/3 

Powlett      . . 

Hocking  Bros. 

Bendigo 

2.8.11 

R.G. 

515/3 

Premier 

Geo.  Smith 

Rosedale  (Special) 

26.5.11 

W.J.C. 

468/3 

Premier  Grey 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Agricultural  Offices 

22.4.11 

G.S.B. 

596/3 

Premier  Lauder 

P.  KeUeher 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   .  . 

9.6.11 

673/3 

Premier  McNab 

Jno.  Burns 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

9.6.11 

662/3 

Premier  Millar 

C.  J.  Coles 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   .  . 

9.6.11 

674/3 

Premier  Montgomery 
of  Willowbank 

A.  Lummins 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

9.6.11 

690/3 

Purves 

F.  L.  Mcintosh     . . 

Jeparit  . . 

9.8.11 

E.A.K. 

556/3 

Pride  of  Albury 

A.  Chrvstal      '     . . 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

676/3 

Pride  of  Clifton 

W.  T.  Caldwell     . . 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

23.5.11 

677/3 

Pride  of  Cray 

A.  E.  Cockram     . . 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   .  . 

23.5.11 

557/3 

Prince  Albert 

A.  Chrystal 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

750/3 

Prince  Cedric 

Joseph  Jeffrey      . . 

Numurkah 

29.8.11 

E.A.K. 

724/3 

Prince  Edwin 

Jas.  Dwyer 

Rushworth 

24.8.11 

R.G. 

648/3 

Prince  Imperial 

Sir  S.  McCaughey 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

E.A.K. 

779/3 

Prince  Imperial 

J.  Mansfield 

Kyncton 

12.9.11 

R.G. 

496/3 

Prince  Thornley 

C.  McFarlane 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

521/3 

Quality 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Agricultural  Offices 

3.6.11 

G.S.B. 

751/3 

Quality  Prince 

J.  McMurray 

Numurkah 

29 . 8 . 1 1 

E.A.K. 

704/3 

Rantin  Robin 

Jas.  Galloway 

Maryborough 

16.8.11 

R.N.J. 

610/3 

Referendum 

J.  F.  Farrer 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.G. 

466/3 

Right  Royal 

Caffrey               and 
Murphy 

Melbourne  (Special) 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

731/3 

Robbin 

J.  R.  W.  Powles 

Sliepparton 

25.8.11 

R.G. 

621/3 

Roseneath  Clan 

W.  G.  NVilkinson 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.G. 

588/3 

Russell  Yet  2nd 

Graham  Bros. 

Horsliam 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

553/3 

Royal  Barclay 

A.  Robertson 

MelliDurne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

497/3 

Royal  Ben 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

795/3 

Royal  Carlyle 

R.  H.  Biggar 

Korumburra 

20.9.11 

R.G. 

716/3 

Royal  Champion 

W.  Hercus 

Pyramid 

24.8.11 

E.A.K. 

572/3 

Royal  Edward 

Graliam  Bros. 

Newmarket 

30.6.11 

R.G. 

498/3 

Royal  Edward 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

788/3 

Royal  Gartley 

Sydney  Knight     . . 

Warrnambool 

14.9.11 

E.A.K. 

lo  May,    1912.] 


Certification  of  Stallions. 


309 


List  of  Termixabli-:  Certificatku  Stallioxs — continued. 


Cert. 

Xo. 

i 

Xaiue  of  Horse. 

Owner. 

Parade. 

Date  of 
E.xami- 

Officer. 

nation. 

L 

1 
Dr.vcghts — continued. 

597/3 

Royal  Gordon 

Philip  Bolte 

X.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   .  . 

30 . 5 . 1 1 

558/3 

Royal  Gordon 

E.  S.  Bailliere 

Aielbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

499/3 

Royal  Hurry 

A.  Roliertson 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

611/3 

Roval  Xewton 

A.  G.  Hildvard     . . 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.G. 

550/3 

Royal  Oak 

J.  D.  Mitchell 

Agricultural  Offices 

8.7.11 

G.S.B. 

650/3 

Royal  Palmer 

McXabb  Bros. 

Xewmarket 

24.7.11 

E.A.K. 

566/3 

Royal  Review 

J.  D.  Mitchell 

Agricultural  Offices 

8.7.11 

G.S.B. 

500/3 

Royal  Review 

A.  Robertson 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

744/3 

Royal  llobiii 

P.  and  R.  Ferrari 

Xathalia 

30.8.11 

E.A.K. 

626/3 

Royal  Saxon 

E.  Roberts 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

E.G. 

657/3 

Royal  Signal 

P.  Rogers 

X.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

6.5.11 

518/3 

Royalty 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

501/3 

Royal  Willie 

Allan  Boyd 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

645/3 

Sandy  McKeuzie 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

E.X.J. 

530/3 

Saxon  Hall 

J.J.  Murphy 

Xewmarket 

(Special) 

19.6.11 

E.G. 

810/3 

Scarcliffe  Memento 

M.  J.  Caffrev 

English  Exam.     . . 

20.10.11 

742/3 

Scottish  Chief 

W.  Ford 

Dookie   . . 

31.8.11 

E.A.K. 

585/3 

Scottish  Lad 

A.  Hoff 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.X.J. 

638/3 

Scottish  Premier 

,Wm.  Walter 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

E.X.J. 

805/3 

Scottish  Pride 

A.  J.  Tozer 

Blackwood     Forest 

(Special) 
Xathalia 

3.11.11 

E.G. 

745/3 

Shepherd  Boy 

J.  H.  Tuckett 

30.8.11 

E.A.K. 

741/3 

Shepherd  Charlie 

E.  P.  BedweU       .  . 

Tatura     . . 

31.8.11 

E.G. 

619/3 

Shepherd  Signal 

J.  O'Brien 

X.Z.  Govt.  Cert.  . . 

21.4.11 

743/3 

Shepherd's  Pride 

W.  Church 

Dookie 

31.8.11 

E.A.K. 

746/3 

Shepherd's  Style 

Jas.  Ross 

Xathalia 

30.8.11 

E.A.K. 

811/3 

Sherwood  Royal  Tom 

M.  J.  Caffrey 

English  Exam. 

20.10.11 

604/3 

Silver  King 

James  Lawson 

X.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   .  . 

31.5.11 

800/3 

Son  of  Champion     .  . 

Turner  Bros. 

Whittlesea 

22.9.11 

E.X.J. 

697/3 

Southern  Star 

H.  Green 

Birchip  . . 

9.8.11 

E.G. 

713/3 

Spanish  King 

R.  Heywood 

Kerang  . . 

23.8.11 

E.A.K. 

559/3 

St.  Ambrose 

Jas.  Patrick 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

516/3 

Statesman 

X.  C.  Teychenne 

Melbourne  ( Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

634/3 

Sir  Edwin 

R.  H.  Landale 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

E.X.J. 

502/3 

Sir  James 

P.  Mangan 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

560/3 

Sir  John  Small 

A.  Chrvstal 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

678/3 

Sir  Xorman  Ivanhoe 

H.  J.  Bodey 

X.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

20.6.11 

705/3 

Sir  Regulus 

— .  Howe 

Inglewood 

17.8.11 

E.X.J. 

612/3 

Sir  Robin 

C.  H.  McCullocli  .  . 

Citv  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

E.X.J. 

660/3 

Sir  Thomas 

Catfrey                and 
Murphy 

X.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

6.6.11 

561/3 

Sir      Walter      Royal 
Bush 

Jno.  Grant. 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

E.G. 

704/3 

Rautin  Robin 

Jas.  Gallowav 

Maryborough 

16.8.11 

E.X.J. 

586 '3 

Sir  Walter  Scott 

S.  H.  Bleaklev     . . 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

659/3 

Sir  William 

Wm.  McClelland  .  . 

Lara  (Special) 

29.7.11 

G.S.B. 

714/3 

Tasman 

W.  G.  Hastie 

Kerang  .  . 

23.8.11 

E.A.K. 

632/3 

Time  o'Day 

Anson  Bros. 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

E.G. 

503/3 

Top  Sail    . . 

Olseu     and     Ham- 
mond 
P.  Mangan 

-Meiboume  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

504/3 

The  Baron 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

505/3 

The  Bruce 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

562/3 

The  Chief 

Jas.  Patrick 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

563/3 

The  Earl    . . 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

652/3 

The  Gift    . . 

T.  Maddy 

Xewmarket 

24.7.11 

E.A.K. 

488/3 

The  Laird  of  Craigie- 
burn 

P.  Mangan 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

703/3 

The  Liberal 

A.  Borland 

DunoUy . . 

15.8.11 

R.X.J. 

620/3 

The  McDonald 

Jas.  Hamilton 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.G. 

506/3 

The  Premier 

T.  Halev.  jun.      .  . 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

E.A.K. 

613/3 

The  Scout .  . 

W.  J.  White 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

22.7.11 

R.G. 

630-3 

The  Squatter 

J.  H.  Cornfoot      .  . 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

E.G. 

522'3 

The  Sta,r    . . 

Jno.  McLeod 

Agricultural  Offices 

3.6.11 

G.S.B. 

523/3 

The  Stockman 

Walter  and  Agar 

Agricultural  Offices 

3.6.11 

G.S.B. 

507/3 

The  Success 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Melbourne  (Special) 

15.5.11 

G.S.B. 

3IO 


Journal  of  AgricuUnre,  Victoria.  [lo  May,    191 2. 


List  op  Terminable  Certificated  Stallions — continued. 


Cert. 
No. 


527/3 

«15/3 
679/3 

593/3 
561/3 
651/3 
605/3 
668/3 

643/3 
565/3 
628/3 
784/3 
698/3 
655/3 
710/3 
699/3 
715/3 
692/3 
594/3 

633/3 


802/3 

807/3 
467/3 


686/3 
754/3 
684/3 
a03/3 
680/3 
760/3 
681/3 
706/3 
688/3 
806/3 
789/3 
718/3 
682/3 
799/3 
589/3 
778/3 
726/3 
701/3 
769/3 
695/3 
685/3 
752/3 
767/3 
734/3 


785/3 
720/3 
776/3 
787/3 
757/3 
689/3 
794/3 
625/3 
711/3 
719/3 
765/3 
766/3 


Name  of  Horse. 


Parade. 


Date  of 
Exami- 
nation. 


Draughts — continued. 


The  Thistle 

Mitchell              and 
O'Brien 

Agricultural  Oflacas 

10.6.11 

E.A.K 

The  Vet.    . . 

C.  K.  Peel 

Newmarket 

22.7.11 

E.A.K 

Undaunted  Knight  . . 

Hay    and    Thone- 
mann 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

23.5.11 

Union  Jack 

G.  W.  Pickford    . . 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

Urv  Park  . . 

Jno.  Rousch 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

G.S.B. 

Wallace      . . 

H.  J.  Nixon 

Newmarket 

24.7.11 

E.A.K. 

Wallace  2nd 

Jas.  Lawson 

N.Z.  Govt.  Cert.   . . 

31.5.11 

Wee  Laddie 

Andrew   M.    John- 
ston 

Sale  (Special) 

20.7.11 

R.N.J. 

Welcome  Boy 

J.  MiUs 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

R.N.J. 

Woodlands 

Jas.  Patrick 

Melbourne  (Special) 

5.7.11 

R.G. 

Wrangler   . . 

P.  S.  Oppenheim. . 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

24.7.11 

R.N.J. 

Young  Admiral 

D.  H.  James 

Terang   . . 

11.9.11 

E.A.K. 

Young  Ben 

King  Bros. 

Birchip  . . 

9.8.11 

R.G. 

Voung  Clyde 

0.  G.  Richaer 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

26.7.11 

E.A.K. 

Young  Coronation  . . 

W.  J.  Bennett      . . 

Quambatook 

15.8.11 

R.G. 

Young  Kelmscott    . . 

Thos.  BeUett 

Watcliem 

10.8.11 

R.G. 

Young  King 

E.  G.  Denyer 

Kerang  . . 

23.8.11 

E.A.K. 

Young  Kinloch 

Jno.  Maher 

Minyip  . . 

10.8.11 

E.A.K. 

Young       Laird       of 

W.  Johas 

Horsham 

12.7.11 

E.A.K. 

Lanark 

Young  Timekeeper  . . 

Anderson  Bros.    . . 
THOROUGHI 

City  Horse  Bazaar 
JREDS. 

24.7.11 

R.G. 

Brown  Peer 

Geo.  Nixon 

Orljost    . . 

3.10.11 

R.N.J. 

The  Bachelor 

J.  Bird 

Ballarat  Show 

16.11.11 

R.G. 

Warrough 

T.  McKimmis 

LIGHT  HOI 

Melbourne  (Special) 
ISES. 

10.4.11 

E.A.K. 

Abbey 

Harricks  Bros.      . . 

Ararat    . . 

8.8.11 

G.S.B. 

Admiral  Sperry 

E.  Batson 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

R.N.J. 

Bonny  McKinney    . . 

R.  Matchett 

Bendigo 

2.8.11 

R.G. 

Direction  . . 

R.  R.  Corbould    . . 

Mildura 

5.10.11 

G.S.B. 

First  Voyage 

W.  Greaves 

Bendigo 

2.8.11 

R.G. 

Game  Boy 

E.  Batson 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

R.N.J. 

Harold  Direct 

T.  Cawsey 

Bendigo 

2.8.11 

R.G. 

Highland  Clave 

T.  Larcombe 

Geelong 

17.8.11 

G.S.B. 

Jack  Christian 

R.  C.  Hannah      . . 

Donald  . . 

8.8.11 

R.G. 

King 

C.  Bartlett 

Agricultural  Offices 

4.11.11 

G.S.B. 

Lord  Lincoln 

Geo.  Trigg 

Co  lac 

15.9.11 

E.A.K. 

Lord  Lyndsey 

J.  T.  Ovens 

Kyabram 

22.8.11 

R.G. 

Oakwood  King 

R.  Matchett 

Bend  igo 

2.8.11 

R.G. 

Odd  Patch 

G.  A.  Finlay 

Lang  Lang 

22.9.11 

G.S.B. 

Osterly  Grange 

0.  Maroske 

Horsham 

13.7.11 

B.N.J. 

Preston  Junior 

McLure  and  Sons . . 

Kjnieton 

12.9.11 

R.G. 

Prince  Harold 

C.  Darley 

Hopetoun 

23.8.11 

G.S.B. 

Quickshot 

J.  Jackman 

Balmoral 

11.8.11 

R.N.J. 

Silver  Bells 

W.  Widdls 

Traralgon 

13.9.11 

R.N.J. 

Sir  Carlaw 

J.  Bunge 

Warracknabeal     .  . 

11.8.11 

E.A.K. 

Sir  Hambletoniaa    . . 

A.  J.  MitcheU 

Agricultural  Offices 

5.8.11 

E.A.K. 

Triport 

Jno.  Shinniek 

Numurkah 

29.8.11 

E.A.K. 

Walter  Bell  Boy      . . 

Alf .  West 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

R.N.J. 

Yarpeet 

J.  Fisher 

PONIES 

Hopetoun 

23.8.11 

G.S.B. 

Advance    . . 

L.  Harper 

Port  Fairy 

12.9.11 

E.A.K. 

Bantam     . . 

Brown  Bros. 

Hamilton 

24.8.11 

R.N.J. 

Black  Osterley 

H.  Morris 

Kyneton 

12.9.11 

R.G. 

Bobs 

W.  H.  Podger      . . 

Campordown 

13.9.11 

E.A.K. 

Coronation 

Jno.  EUis 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

R.N.J. 

Cutty  Sark 

J.  Oliver 

Jeparit  . . 

9.8.11 

E.A.K. 

Dandy  Boy 

Grieves  Bros. 

Leongatha 

20.9.11 

R.N.J. 

Dandy  Premier 

J.  Meheron 

City  Horse  Bazaar 

25.7.11 

R.G. 

Little  Wonder  2nd  . . 

H.  Burness 

Benalla 

18.8.11 

G.S.B. 

Lord  Lonsdale 

W.  Coe  . . 

Coleraine 

22.8.11 

R.N.J. 

Nimble  Boy 

R.  Ridley 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

E.A.K. 

Prince  Leo  3rd 

J.  R.  Brian 

Royal  Show 

4.9.11 

E.A.K. 

lo  May,    191 2.] 


Certification  of  Stallions. 


311 


List  of  Terminable  Certificated  Stallions — continued. 


Cert. 
No. 


Name  of  Horse. 


Owner. 


Parade. 


Date  of 
Exami- 
nation. 


Ponies — continued. 


798/3 
797/3 
771/3 
708/3 
774/3 
812/3 

709/3 


Robin 

Robin 

Roy 

Satan 

Wee  MacGregor 

What's    Wanted    3rd 

Young  Ballygauley 


R.  Masters 
L.  Beazley 
C.  F.  Jenkins 
Wm.  Day 
W.  S.  McCole 
Miss  S.  L.   Robin- 
son 
C.  Anderson 


Dandenong 

Dandenong 

Bairnfdale 

Geelong 

Maffra    .. 

Agricultural  Offices 

(Special) 
Geelong 


21.9.1 
21.9.1 
13.9.1 
17.8.1 
14.9.1 
23.3.1 


17.8.11 


R.N.J. 
R.N.J. 
R.N.J. 
G.S.B. 
R.N.J. 
R.N.J. 

G.S.B. 


(Two-year-old  Certificates  expiring  30th  June,  1912.) 

DRAUGHTS. 


123/2 

127/2 
146/2 
136/2 
122/2 
128/2 
147/2 
140/2 
130/2 
116/2 
117/2 
157/2 
115/2 

134/2 
118/2 
133/2 
139/2 
148/2 
150/2 
158/2 
144/2 
114/2 
119/2 
124/2 
126/2 
142/2 
129/2 
151/2 
152/2 
135/2 
131/2 
121/2 
138/2 
154/2 
132/2 
14.3/2 
153/2 
120/2 


Admiral  Gun 
Altona 
Baron  Again 
Blenheim  . . 
Bonnie  Carlyle 
Chile 

Cock  of  the  North  .  . 
Coronation 
Defender's  Pride 
Don  McDonald 
Dunmore's  Pride      .  . 
Eaton  Ensign 
Federal  Scot 

Gold  Link.. 

Hampton  Lad 

Hero's  Pride 

Kelm's  Champion    . . 

Legislator 

Lord  Ronald 

Lymm  Prime  Minister 

Major  Calboume 

Masher 

Merry  Hampton 

Morang  Fashion 

Perfection 

Pride 

Prince  Henry 

Prince  of  Albyn 

Roseneath  King 

Royal  Main 

Scottie 

Scottish  Prince 

Sir  Donald 

Sir  Roger  . . 

The  Laird 

Upward 

Young  St.  Albans    . . 

Young  Tatton 


McNabb  Bros.      . . 

G.  H.  Lister 

R.  Ralston 

C.  F.  Menzel 

H.  McCue 

A.  Ross 

L.  McLeod 

C.  Marshman 

Henry  Buuge 

F.  Mentha 

A.  and  J.  H.  Youiit; 

M.  J.  Caffrey 

A.  W.  Andrews    . . 

C.  Rhodes 
A.  and  J.  H.  Y'oung 
W.  Dowling 
Wm.  Luby 

C.  W.  Ludcmann 

E.  J.  Bickev 
M.  J.  Caffrey 
Chas.  Heal 
W.  R.  Smith 

A.  and  J.  H.  Young 

D.  McKenzie 

J.  Poulton  andSons 
J.  M.  Phillips 
A.  Parish 
P.  O'Dounell 
Jno.  Jamicson 
Stock  Bros. 
H.  Schmidt 
Jesse  Stokes 
J.  R.  Jackson 
J.  Allison 

F.  C.  Thomas 
.!.  y\.  Phillips 
P.  Mason 

P.  Byrne 


Newmarket 
Kyabram 
Euroa     . . 
Hamilton 

City  Horse  Bazaar 
Citv  Horse  Bazaar 
Tatura  .. 
Beulah  . . 
Minyip  . . 
Horsham 
Horsham 
English  Exam, 
Agricultural  OflRces 

(Special) 
Casterton 
Horsham 
Kerang  .  . 
Ballan    . . 
Dookie  . . 
Royal  Show 
English  Exam. 
Tungamah 
Agricultural  Office 
Horsham 
Newmarket 
City  Horse  Bazaar 
Shepparton 
City  Horse  Bazaar 
Kyneton 
Yarram 
Casterton 
Nhill       . . 
City  Horse  Bazaar 
Hamilton 
Leongatha 
Nhill      . . 
Shepparton 
Yarram 
City  Horse  Bazaar 


24.7.11 
26.7.11 

1.9.11 
24.8.11 
25.7.11 
26.7.11 
31.8.11 
22.8.11 
10.8.11 
11.7.11 
11.7.11 
24.11.11 

6.7.11 

23.8.11 
11.7.11 
23.8.11 
26.8.11 
31  8.11 
4.9.11 
24.11.11 
29.8.11 
27.5.11 
11.7.11 
24.7.11 
26.7.11 
25.8.11 
26.7.11 
12.9.11 
18.9.11 
23.8.11 
16.8.11 
24.7.11 
24.8.11 
20.9.11 
16.8.11 
25.8.11 
18.9.11 
22.7.11 


E.A.K. 
G.S.B. 

R.G. 
R.N.J. 
G.S.B. 
G.S.B. 

R.G. 
G.S.B. 
E.A.K. 
R.N.J. 
R.N.J. 

r'.g. 

R.N.J. 
R.N.J. 
E.A.K. 
E.A.K. 
E.A.K. 
R.N.J. 

r'.g. 

G.S.B. 
R.N.J. 
G.S.B. 
R.N.J. 

R.G. 
G.S.B. 

R.G. 
R.N.J. 
R.N.J. 
E.A.K. 
R.N.J. 
R.N.J. 
R.N.J. 
E:A.K. 

R.G. 
B.N.J. 
R.N.J. 


THOROUGHBREDS. 

137/2  1  Scotch  Mixture        . .  |  W.  C.  Bayley       . .  !  HamUton 


..  I    24.8.11  I    B.N.J. 


145/2  '  Dreadnought 


156/2 

149/2 
155/2 
141/2 


Commodore 

Gentleman  Charlie 
Major  Melrose 

Scottie 


LIGHT  HORSES. 

A.  Hunter  . .  |  Seymour 


PONIES. 


W.  L.  Webb 

F.  Gunner 

W.  Woodmason 

W.  W.  Vincent 


Narre  Warren 

(Special) 
Royal  Show 
Agricultural  Offices 
Wangaratta 


1.9.11  !    E.A.K. 


4.9.11 
2.12.11 

28.8.11 


R.G. 

R.N.J. 

G.S.B. 

R.G. 


31-. 


]onr7ial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  May,    1912. 


STALLION    PARADES,    1912. 

TIIVIE    TABLE. 


District  and  Date. 

Place. 

Time. 

Officer  Arrives. 

Officer  Leaves. 

SPECIAL. 

16th  to  20tli  July      .. 
22nd  to  27th  July     . . 

City        Horse 

Bazaar 
Newmarket 

Horse   Ba- 

10 a.m. 
10  a.m. 

Every  Saturday,  29th 
June  to  14th  Dec. 

zaar 
Agricultural 
Offices 

10  a.m.   to 
12  noon 

WIMMERA  No.  1. 

2nd  to  3rd  July 

Horsham*    . . 

10  a.m. 

MALLEE  No.  1. 

Wednesday.  17th  July 
Thursday,  18th  July 

Sea  Lake*   . . 
Charlton*    . . 

2  p.m. 
2  p.m. 

9.55  p.m.   (16th) 
12.3  p.m. 

6.40  am.    (18th) 
12.23  p.m.  (19th) 

MALLEE  No.  2. 

Tuesday,  30th  July  . . 

Tuesday,  30th  July  . . 
Wednesday,  31st  July 

Friday.  2nd  Aug. 

Quamba- 

tookf 
Boort* 
Bendigo*     . . 

Wycheprooff 

10  a.m.     . . 

3  p.m.     . . 
3  p.m. 

10.30    a.m. 

6.35   p.m.  (29th) 

12.29  p.m. 
11  a.m. 

6.5      p.m.      (1st 
Aug.) 

11.5  a.m. 

6.10   a.m.    (31st) 
12.15    p.m.     (1st 

Aug.) 
11.20a.m. 

WIMMERA  No.  2. 

Tuesday,  30th  July  . . 
Wednesday,  31st  July 
Thursday,  1st  Aug. 
Friday,  2nd  Aug. 

Hoi^etoun     .  . 
Murtoaf 
Beulah 
Warrackna- 
bealt 

10.15    r.m. 
2  p.m. 
10.30    a.m. 
1.30  p.m. 

10.15  a.m. 
4.50  p.m.  (30th) 
9.10   p.m.    (31st) 
2.25     p.m.     (1st 
Aug.) 

11.20  a.m. 
6.20  p.m. 
12.40  p.m. 
2.55  p.m. 

WESTERN  No.  1. 

Tuesday,  30th  July  . . 
Thursday.  1st  Aug.   . . 

Balmoral*    . . 
Portland*    .  . 

3  p.m. 
3  p.m. 

11.30  a.m. 
1.2  p.m. 

11  a.m.    (31st) 
8.10  a.m.  (2nd) 

WIMMERA  No.  3. 

Wednesday.  31st  July 

Goroke* 

3  p.m. 

2.20  p.m. 

6.30     a.m.      (1st 

Aug.) 
2.30  p.m.     (2nd) 

Thursday,  1  st  Aug.   .  . 

Edenliope* 

3  p.m. 

12  noon 

At  places  marked  *  a  lecture  can  be  arranged  for  the  night  of  the  Parade. 
At  places  marked  t  a  lecture  can  be  arranged  for  the  night  before  the  Parade. 


lo  May,    19 1 2.] 


Certification  of  Stallions. 


Z'^?> 


Stallion  Parades,  Time  Table — continued. 

District  and  Date. 

Place. 

Time. 

Officer  Arrives. 

Officer  Leaves. 

WIMMERA  No.  4. 

Monday,  oth  Aug.     . . 

Stavvell 

3  p.m.      .  . 

2.38  ]).m. 

10.13  p.m. 

Tuesday,  6th  Aug.     . . 

Rainliow 

2  p.m. 

1.15  p.m. 

8  p.m. 

Wednesday,  7th  Aug. 

Jeparit 

2  p.m. 

9.13    p.m. 

(6th) 

5.17  p.m. 

Thur-sday,  8th  Aug.  . . 

.Minyip 

2  p.m. 

6.53  a.m. 

4.8  p.m. 

Friday,  9th  Aug. 

Ararat 

1.30  p.m. 

9.25    p.m. 

(8th) 

3.39  p.m. 

MALLEE  No.  3. 

Monday,  5th  Aug.     .  . 

Heathcote   . . 

2  p.m. 

11.41  a.m. 

8.17  p.m. 

Tuesday,  6th  Aug.     . . 

St.  Arnaud 

3.30  p.m. 

3.22  p.m. 

9.42  p.m. 

Wednesday,  7th  Aug. 

Donald 

2  p.m. 

'.0.52   p.m. 

(6th) 

6  p.m. 

Tnursday,  8th  Aug.  . . 

WatehemI  . . 

2  p.m. 

7.27    p.m. 

(7th) 

7.20  p.m. 

Friday,  9th  Aug. 

Birchipt 

10  a.m.     .  . 

8.5     p.m. 

(8th) 

12.25  p.m. 

^ULLEE  No.  4. 

Monday,  5th  Aug.     . . 

Pyramid*     . . 

3  p.m.       .  . 

2.36  p.m. 

3.28  p.m.  (6th) 

Wednesday,  7th  Aug. 

Swan  Hill* 

2  p.m. 

7.15     p.m. 

(Gth) 

11  a.m.  (8th) 

Thursday,  8th  Aug.  . . 

Kerang* 

2  p.m. 

12.39  p.m. 

6  a.m.  (9th) 

Friday,  9th  Aug. 

Elmore 

2  p.m. 

1. 11  p.m. 

4.55  p.m. 

CENTRAL  No.   1. 

Monday,  12th  Aug.   . . 

Marybo- 
rough* 

2  p.m. 

12.32  p.m. 

6.5  a.m.  (13th) 

Tuesday,  13th  Aug.  .  . 

Inglewood   . . 

11  a.m.     .  . 

8.40  a.m. 

2.10  p.m. 

Tuesday,  13th  Aug.  . . 

DunoUy*      . . 

4  p.m. 

3.50  p.m. 

9.17   a.m.   (14th 

Wednesday,  llth  Aug. 

Chines 

2  p.m. 

1.43  p.m. 

6.45  p.m. 

Thursday,  15th  Aug. 

Ceelong 

2  p.m. 

12.10  p.m. 

5.50  p.m. 

NORTH-EASTERN 

No.  1. 

Monday,  12th  Aug.  .  . 

lienalla* 

2  p.m. 

11.15  a.m. 

7.41  p.m. 

Tuesday.  13th  Aug.  . . 

Wangaratta* 

2  p.m. 

5.24   p.m. 

(12th) 

12.34  a.m.  (14th 

Wednesday,  14th  Aug. 

Myrtlefoid* 

3  p.m. 

2.54  p.m. 

7.17  a.m.  (15th) 

Thursday,    15th    Aug. 

p]uroa 

•3  p.m.       .  . 

11.11  a.m. 

6.32  p.m. 

Saturday,  17th  Aug.. . 

( "astlemaine 

1 1  a.m.    .  . 

0.20  a.m. 

12.56  p.m. 

WIMMERA  No.  5. 

Wednesday,  14th  Aug. 

Xhill* 

2  p.m 

'.31  a.m. 

8.10  a.m.  (loth) 

Thursday,  15th  Aug. 

Kaniva* 

2  p.m. 

t.30  a.m. 

5.52  a.m.  (16th) 
2.18  a.m.  (17th) 

Friday,  16th  Aug.      .  . 

Dimboola*  . . 

2  p.m. 

).14  a.m. 

WESTERN    No.  3. 

Tuesday,  20th  Aug.  .  . 

Colerainef    . . 

2  p.m. 

i).35   ]).m. 

(19th) 

10  a.m.         (21st 
(Driving) 

Wednesday,  21st  Aug. 

Casterton* 

2  p.m. 

12  noon(D 

ri\-ing) 

8.15  a.m.  (22nd) 

Thursday,  22nd  Aug. 

damilton     . . 

2  ]i.m. 

'  .50  a.m. 

4.35  p.m. 

Friday,  23rd  Aug.      . . 

Penshurstf 

>.30  a.m. 

7.33  p.m.  ( 

22ndV 

10.17  a.m. 

Saturday,  24th  Aug. 

Ballan 

0  a.m.     . . 

8.18  a.m. 

12.2  p.m. 

3^4 


Journal  of  Agriciiliiire,  Victoria.  [lo  May,    1912. 


Stallion  Parades,  Time  Table — continued. 


District  and  Dat«. 


GOULBURN 
VALLEY    No.  1. 

Tuesday,  20tli  Aug.  . . 
Wednesday,  21st  Aug. 
Wednesday,  2 1st  Aug. 
Thursday,  22nd  Aug. 
Thursday,  22nd  Aug. 
Friday,  23rd  Aug.      . . 


GOULBURN 
VALLEY    No.  2. 

Monday,  19th  Aug.  . . 
Tuesday,  20th  Aug.  . . 
Wednesday,  21st  Aug. 
Thursday,  22nd  Aug. 
Thursday,  22nd  Aug. 
Friday,  23rd  Aug.     . . 


NORTH-EASTERN 

No.  2. 

Monday,  26th  Aug.  . . 
Tuesday,  27th  Aug.  . . 
Tuesday,  27th  Aug.  . . 
Wednesday,  28th  Aug. 
Thursday.  29th  Aug. 
Thursday.  29th  Aug. 
Friday,  30th  Aug.      . . 


CENTRAL  No.  2. 

Wednesday,  28th  Aug. 
Saturday,  31st  Aug. 


ROYAL  SHOW. 

Tuesday,  3rd  Sept.    . . 

WESTERN  No.  2. 

Monday,  9th  Sept.     . . 
Tuesday,  10th  Sept. 
Wednesday,  11th  Sept. 
Thursday,  12th  Sept. 

Friday,  13th  Sept.     . . 
Saturday,  14th  Sept. 


Daylesford 

Rochester 

Echuca* 

Murcliison 

Rushworth 

Cobram 


Dookie 

Nathalia 

Numurkahf 

Tatura 

Kyabram     . 

Shepparton"! 


Rutherglen 

Yarrawonga 

Tungamah* 

Seymour 

Yea$ 

Mansfield     . . 

Alexandra   . , 


Beaufort 
Meiton 


Royal     Show 
Grounds 


Terang* 
Port  Fairy  . . 
Camperdown* 
War  r  nam - 

bool* 
Colac 
Werribee 


Time. 


Officer  Arrives. 


2  p.m. 
11  a.m. 

3  p.m. 
9.30  a.m. 
2  p.m. 

2  p.m. 


2  p.m. 
2  p.m. 
2  p.m. 
10  a.m. 
2  p.m. 
2  p.m. 


2  p.m. 
10  a.m. 
4  p.m. 
2  p.m. 
9.30  a.m. 
2  p.m. 
2  p.m. 


2  p.m. 
11  a.m. 


a.m.    to 
10  a.m. 


2  p.m. 
10  a.m. 
2  p.m. 
2  p.m. 

2  p.m. 
10  a.m. 


Officer  Leaves. 


11.50  a.m. 
10.58  p.m.  (20th) 
2.15  p.m. 
8.30  a.m. 
11.48  a.m. 
1.57  p.m. 


12.52  p.m. 

1.40  p.m. 

4.10  p.m.   (20th) 

8.30  p.m.    (21st) 

12.50  p.m. 

8.23  p.m.  (22nd) 


1.48  p.m. 

10.22  p.m.  (26th) 

3.28  p.m. 

12.5  p.m. 

10.20  p.m.  (28th) 

1.53  p.m. 

12.35  p.m. 


12.27  p.m. 
8.35  a.m. 


3.25  p.m. 
1.36  p.m. 
5  a.m.  (22nd) 
10.58  a.m. 
5.20  p.m. 
3.10  p.m. 


4.11  p.m. 
3.25  p.m. 
4.43  p.m. 
11.42  a.m. 
4.20  p.m. 
5.49  p,m. 


3.22  p.m. 
2.45  p.m. 
7.45  a.m.  (28th> 
8.33  p.m. 
10.40  a.m. 
3.25  p.m. 
4.40  p.m. 


5.28  p.m. 
1.21  p.m. 


12.44  p.m. 

1.4  a.m. 

5.5  p.m.    (10th) 
11.55  p.m.  (13th) 

10.4  a.m. 
7.17  a.m. 


10.38  p.m. 
1.30  p.m. 
10.3  p.m. 
7.11    a.m.  (15th> 

6.52  p.m. 
1.25  p.m. 


X  Lecture  after. 


lo  j\Iav,    1912.] 


Certification  of  Stallions. 


315 


Stalliox  Parades,  Time  Table — continued. 


District  and  Date. 


GIPPSLAND  No.  1. 

Monday,  9th  Sept.  . . 
Tuesday,  10th  Sept. 
Wednesday,  lltli  Sept. 
Wednesday,  11th  Sept. 
Thursday,  12th  Sept. 
Friday,  13th  Sept.  . . 
Saturday,  14th  Sept. 


CENTRAL  No.  3. 

Tuesday,  10th  Sept. 
Wednesday,  11th  Sept. 
Wednesday,  11th  Sept. 
Wednesday,  11th  Sept. 
Thursday.  12th  Sept. 
Friday,  13th  Sept.     . . 


GIPPSLAND,   No.   2. 

Monday,  1 6th  Sept.  . . 
Monday,  1 6th  Sept.  . . 
Tuesday,  17th  Sept. 
Wednesday.  1 8th  Sept. 
Thursday ,"^19tli  Sept. 
Saturday,  21st  Sept. 


NORTH-EASTERN 
No.  3. 

Monday,  16th  Sept.  . . 
Tuesday,  17th  Sept. 
Wednesday,  18th  Sept. 


GIPPSLAND   No.   3. 

Monday,  16th  Sept.  . . 
Tuesday,  17th  Sept. 
Wednesday,  18th  Sept. 
Thursday,  19th  Sept. 
Saturday,  21st  Sept. 

Thursday,  26tli  Sept. 

Tuesday,  3rd  Oct.      . . 


Place. 


Morwell* 
Mirboo 
Traralgon    . 
Bairnsdale* 
Sale 
Li  1yd  ale 
Bacchus 
Marsh 


Whittlesea  . 

Berwick 

Dandenong 

Cran bourne 

Smeaton 

Kyneton 


Foster 
Leongatha* 
Lang  Lang . . 
Korumburra* 
Yarram* 
Frankston    .  . 


Wodonga  .  . 
Tallangatta* 
Corryong*    . . 


Romsey 

Trafalgar 

Warragul* 

Bunyip 

Ballarat 

Kilmore 

Orbost* 


Time. 


2  p.m. 
2  p.m. 
11  a.m. 
3.30  p.m. 
2  p.m. 
2  p.m. 
1 1  a.m. 


2  p.m. 
11  a.m. 

2  p.m. 
4.30  p.m. 

3  p.m. 
11  a.m. 


12.45  p.m 
4  p.m. 
3  p.m. 

3  p.m. 

4  p.m. 
11  a.m 


Z  p.m. 
2  p.m. 
3.30  p.m. 


2  p.m. 

2  p.m. 

3  p.m. 

10  a.m.    . 
11.15  a.m. 

2  p.m. 

3  p.m.      . 


Officer  Arrives. 


11.52  a.m. 

2  p.m. 

9.4    p.m.    (10th) 

3.25  p.m. 

12.15  p.m. 

1.34  p.m. 

8.55  a.m. 


12.50  p.m. 
9.8  a.m. 
12.35  p.m. 
4.7  p.m, 
3  p.m. 
9.19  a.m. 


12.38  p.m. 
3.56  p.m. 
9.25  a.m. 

8.30  p.m.  (17th) 
3.45  p.m. 
9.34  a.m. 


1.39  p.m. 

4.35  p.m.   (16th) 

3.30  p.m. 


10.10  a.m. 
11.16  a.m. 
7.25  p.m.  (17th) 
6.46  a.m. 
11.5  a.m. 

9.30  a.m. 

2  p.m. 


Officer  Leaves. 


(10th) 


12.20  p.m. 
4.15  p.m. 
12.20  p.m. 
9.30  a.m.  (12th) 
4.33  p.m. 
5.35  p.m. 
12.59  p.m. 


8  p.m. 
12.16  p.m. 
3.49  p.m. 
7.19  p.m. 

6.8  p.m. 

2.9  p.m. 


2.21  p.m. 

7.25  a.m.    (17th) 

7.2(5  p.m. 

10.42  a.m.  (19th) 

10.55  a.m.  (20th) 

1.1  p.m. 


3.5  \>.m. 
5  a.m.  (18th) 
(19th) 


7  a.m. 


5.25  p.m. 
6.51  p.m. 
6.15  a.m.  (19th) 
11.25  a.m. 
3.5  p.m. 

8.40  p.m. 

8.2  a.m.  (4th) 


,i6 


Journal  of  Agnculiiirc.  Victoria. 


[lo   ^Jav,    1912. 


SMALL  RURAL  INDUSTRIES. 

A.— LAVENDER   CULTIVATION. 

By  Josef  Ji  Knight. 

The  establishment  of  the  essential  oil  industry,  like  many  others  of  a 
similar  nature,  has  been  attempted  in  this  State,  but,  from  various  causes, 
has  not  been  followed  up — notwithstanding  that  liberal  assistance  was  offered 
by  the  State  Government,  and  satisfactory  results  as  to  yields,  &c., 
obtained.  Things  are  now,  however,  becoming  more  satisfactory  for  the 
grower  in  this  regard,    and,    with  proper  care  and  attention,   it  may  well 


LAvtiNDii-R    (i.A\  ENDERA    VERA). 

take  its  place  amongst  the  profitable  minor  industries  of  the  rural  popu- 
lation. The  producer  should  be  content  to  produce  the  flowers  and  dis- 
pose of  them  to  the  distiller,  or  where  this  is  inconvenient,  distill  them  and 
dispose  of  the  oil  to  the  wholesale  chemist,  and  not  try  to  manipulate 
it  further  by  attempting  the  making  up  of  perfumes.  Such  attempts  have 
often  been  made  heretofore  and  failed. 

Lavender  {Lavendera  Vera  or  Levendida  Augusiifolia)  is  one  of  the 
hardiest  of  herbaceous  plants,  and  thrives  under  a  wide  range  of  condi- 
tions of  both  soil  and  climate — even  poor,  sandy,  or  loamv  soils  are 
agreeable  to  it,  and  these  conditions  are  recognised  as  resulting  in  the 
production  of  the  finer  class  of  essential  oil.  One  condition  of  .soil  is 
very    necessary,    and    that    is,    it    should    be     free     from     pos.sibility     of 


lo  May,    191^.]  Lavender  Cidi'ivaiiou.  317 

water-logging.  Excessive  moisture  at  the  roots  soon  causes  the  plant  to 
p.  rish.  Low,  wet  land  should,  therefore,  ht*  avoiiled,  unless  it  is  well 
drained. 

Raising  Plants. 

Plants  may  be  obtained  from  either  seed  or  cuttings,  but  the  best 
method  of  propagating  is  by  cuttings,  and  these  should  always  be  selected 
from  the  best  plants  available.  Slips  from  4  to  5  inches  long — no  matter 
how  fine  or  .small — mav  be  planted  out  in  a  nursery  bed,  close  in  the  rows, 
e\en  touching.  If  the  cuttuig  be  4  or  5  inches  long,  i  inch  tO'  lo  inches 
abo\e  the  ground  is  sufficient.  The  nursery  rows  should  be  sufficiently  far 
apart  to  pei'mit  of  the  ground  being  kept  loose  and  clean.  The  cuttings 
should  be  planted  early  in  tiie  autumn,  when  they  will  reach  the  stage  in 
which  they  may  be  planted  out  in  their  permanent  place  in  the  following 
spring.  A  few  blooms  will  show  up  sufficient  to  indicate  what  the  plant 
is  like. 

Planting   Out. 

In  planting  out  permanently  the  distance  apart  must  be  regulated  by 
the  class  of  labour  to  be  subsequently  employed.  If  horse  labour  is  to  be 
used  in  the  after  cultivation  the  distance  between  the  rows  should  be  from 

4  to  5  feet.  If  manual  labour  only  is  available  then  the  plants  may  be 
grown  closer,  say,  3  to^  4  feet,  or,  if  it  can  only  be  ploughed  or  worked 
one  way  with  the  aid  of  horse  labour,  then  the  plants  may  stand  4  feet  x 

5  feet  or  3  feet  6  inches  x  5  feet.  The  plant,  when  developed,  will  spread 
out  to  co-\'er  ground  from  i  foot  6  inches  to  2  feet  in  diameter.  There  is 
no  economy  in  close  planting — the  plant  should  have  sufficient  feeding 
ground,  or  it  will  become  stunted,  and  the  yield  of  flowers  small  and 
pinched. 

The  securing  of  proper  cuttings  is  important,  and  care  should  be  taken 
in  this  respect.  There  are  a  number  of  mother  patches  available,  and  a 
limited  quantity  may  be  obtained  from  the  Labour  Colony,  Leongatha,  bv 
writing  to  the  manager,  who  will  supply  them  in  bundles  f.o.b.  rail 
Leongatha  at  3s.  pd.  per  i.ooo  cuttings.  In  commencing  this  business 
it  is  important  that  plants  should  be  secured  early.  Cuttings  may  be 
planted  out  at  any  time  in  the  autumn  or  spring,  but,  if  too  late  in 
autumn,  tbe  growth  will  be  retarded  by  the  cold,  wet  bed,  and,  if  late  in 
spring,  with  drv,  hot  weather.  In  planting,  little  can  be  done  by  way  of 
regulating  the  length  of  stem  above  or  below,  but  deep  planting  should  be 
avoided.  The  plant  should  stand  the  same  depth  as  when  in  the  nur.sery 
bed ;  mistakes  are  made  in  this  respect  frequently,  and  the  plant  too  much 
buried.  Spread  the  roots  well  and  tramp  the  soil  firm.  A\oid  planting 
when  soil  is  wet  or  otherwise  out  of  condition. 

Preparation  of  Soil. 
As  the  profitable  lifetime  of  the  plant  runs  for  seven  or  eight  years  the 
soil  should  be  properly  prepared  prior  to  planting,  as  it  is  impossible  to 
do  much  after,  beyond  cleaning  and  ploughing  shallow  betwixt  the  plants. 
The  plant  will  repay  the  labour  for  subsoiling.  as  the  roots  will  be  enabled 
to  penetrate  to  a  depth  that  wdll  enable  it  to  withstand  the  changes  of 
excessive  drought  and  wet.  Subsoiling  is  preferable  to  deep,  single  plough- 
ing, as  the  surface  soil  should  be  kept  to  the  surface;  and  the  cold,  stub- 
born bottom  soil  should  not  be  brought  to  the  surface,  as  this  soil  is  usually 
infertile  and  difficult  to  work.  Whatever  system  is  adopted,  the  .soil  should 
be  well  worked  and  pulverized  to  a  fair  depth,  so  that  the  young  plant 
mav  1:)e  enabled  to  push  its  roots  freelv. 


3i8  Journal  o]    \gricultiirc .  Victoria.  \\o   May,    1912. 

Cutting  or  Harvesting. 

The  flower  opens  out  on  the  stem  somewhat  irregularly,  so  care  should 
be  taken,  when  harvesting,  to  take  them  when  the  maximum  amount  of 
flower  has  opened  out.  The  flowers  are  gathered  in  one  hand  and  cut  with 
a  hook  (see  illustration  here)  or  knife  below  the  bloom  and  above  the 
foliage,  and  laid  out  on  sheets  of  hessian,  but  not  exposed  to  the  burning 

sun  any  more  than  can  be  helped, 
as  the  essential  oil  is  apt  to  escape. 
If  intended  for  sale  in  the  green 
state,  the  cut  flowers  may  be 
spread  out  for  a  few  hours  in  the 
shade,  but  the  quicker  it  is  taken 
to  the  still  the  better  for  all  con- 
cerned. A\oid  placing  in  bags,  as 
it  heats  readily,  and  damages.  If 
sending  it  away  any  distance  it 
should  be  sent  in  crates  and  packed 
in  thin  layers — not  more  than  2  or 
3  inches  thick,  so  as  to  avoid  pres- 
sure. The  present  price  for  this 
form  of  produce  is  3d.  per  lb.  in 
the  green  state,  delivered  in  Mel- 
bourne. If  it  is  inconvenient  to 
market  it  in  this  form  the  flower 
may  be  spread  out  on  trays,  boards,  or  hessian  in  the  shade,  and  dried, 
when  it  may  be  packed  carefully,  so  as  to  save  the  blooms,  which  separate 
freely  from  the  stem.  As  the  bloom  is  the  most  valuable  portion  of  the 
product,  care  must  be  taken  in  this  respect.  The  dried  flowers,  with 
stems,  are  valued  at  about  5d.  per  lb.,  but  buds  alone  are  also  sold  for  a 
price  much  beyond  that. 

The  cutting  of  lavender  commences  about  December,  and  arrangements 
should  be  made  beforehand  w^ith  the  distilleries,  as  their  intake  must  be 
regulated  by  their  capacity  for  treating  same.  Failure  in  this  respect  may 
mean  the  loss  of  the  crop. 

Treatment  of  the  Flower. 

As  stated  above,  the  flowers  are  gathered  and  laid  out  on  hessian  and 
taken  to  the  still.  If  they  are  sold  to  the  distiller  they  must  reach  him 
in  a  sound  condition,  and  it  would  be  advisable,  where  they  cannot  be 
delivered  within  twenty-four  hours  or  so,  to  spread  them  on  some  kind  of 
trays,  in  a  thin  layer,  so  as  to  avoid  heating,  which  destroys  the  blooms. 
It  is  better  to  market  in  boxes,  fitted  with  trays  inside,  to  prevent  the 
weight  of  flowers  pressing  on  each  other.  The  depth  of  these  on  the 
boards,  or  netting,  should  not  be  over  3  inches,  and  they  should  carry 
their  own  weight  of  flowers  separately.  By  this  means  there  would  be  little 
danger  of  it  damaging  by  heating.  It  is  frequently  the  case  that  flowers  are 
gathered  and  put  up  in  sacks  and  sent  on;  on  arrival  at  the  destination 
they  are  found  heated  and  black,  and,  of  course,  valueless. 

It  is  desirable  to  market  green  if  possible,  but  when  this  cannot  be 
done  then  the  flower  may  be  spread  out  on  any  clean  bottom  and  dried,  and 
marketed  dry,  but  the  drying  should  be  done  in  the  shade,  and  not  in  the  sun. 

The  other  alternative  is  distilling — particulars  of  which  are  given  below 
— and,  as  but  little  skill  is  necessary,  women  and  youths  can  be  intrusted 
with  the  work,  and,  with  proper  appliances,  should  be  light  and  pleasant 
employment 


lo  May.    191 3.] 


Lavender  Cultivation. 


319 


FIRST  YEAR  PLANTING. 


SECOND  YEAR  PLANTING. 


IHiRD  YEAR  PLANTING. 


320  Journal  of  Agficulfurc,  Victoria.  [lo  May,    19 12. 


After  Treatment  of  Plant. 
The  annual  cutting  back  of  this  low,  bushy  plant  forces  out  a  super- 
abundance of  branches,  and  the  plant  becomes  so  close  and  dense  that  it 
is  readily  attacked  by  fungoid  and  other  diseases  ;  and,  in  order  to  avoid 
this,  the  plant  should  be  thinned  out  during  the  dormant  season,  and  the 
air  let  in.  This  will  considerably  improve  its  vigor  and  increase  the  yield 
of  blooms,  which  is  the  object  aimed  at.  The  pruning  should  be  done  as 
low  down  as  possible  so  as  to  avoid  the  production  of  superfluous  buds,  and 
much  may  be  done  by  robbing  the.se  when  going  through  the  plants. 
Lavender,  like  most  other  plant-life,  when  employed  for  man's  use.  will 
repay  for  a  little  attention. 

Yield. 
It  is  somewhat  ditificult  to  give  actual  yields,  as  much  depends  on  the 
varying  conditions  under  which  they  are  produced.  For  instance,  the 
Governor  of  Pentridge,  Mr.  Cody,  planted  out  a  small  area,  about  half- 
an-acre  or  so,  and  the  returns  given  from  this  were  highly  satisfactory, 
but,  as  portions  were  taken  from  one,  two,  and  three  year  old  plantings, 
the  actual  returns  would  be  of  little  service.  Suffice  it  to  sav  that,  on  his 
retirement  from  the  Government  .service,  he  is  entering  into  la\'ender  cul- 
tivation on  a  much  larger  scale.  The  yield  of  flowers  per  acre  varies,  but 
may  be  put  down  to  about  3  to  4  tons.  The  price  at  present  is  3d.  per 
lb.,  and  gives  over  ^^50  per  acre. 

Mr.  J.  Blogg,  of  Messrs.  Blogg  Brothers,  Melbourne,  the  well-known 
perfumers,  estimates  the  yield  of  oil  at  40  lbs.  per  acre.  The  late  Mr. 
Slater,  who  was  well  up  in  this  business,  gave  the  vield  at  56  lbs.,  but 
when  we  come  to  the  price  of  this  we  are  lost.  Some  time  back  I  had  a 
parcel  of  a  few  lbs.  to  dispose  of  on  behalf  of  the  Department,  and  I 
invited  quotations  from  three  or  four  firms.  One  offer  was  made  to  me 
at  7s.  per  lb.,  and  another  at  14s.  per  lb.  The  third  said  he  would  give 
me  the  market  value,  but  could  not  say  what  that  was  until  testing  it,  so, 
on  the  second  offerer  rising  to  15s.  per  lb.,  his  offer  was  accepted.  The 
third  man  then  complained,  and  said  he  was  prepared  to  go  to  20s.,  or 
2 IS.,  had  I  given  him  a  chance.  Herein  lies  the  difficulty  in  dealing  with 
all  such  special  products,  viz.,  the  want  of  an  established  market  value 
to  regulate  the  price  j  but  this  will  remed^  itself  when  the  trade  becomes 
more  established. 

Distilling. 

Where  it  is  intended  to  extract  the  oil  a  still  may  be  secured  for  about 
^20 — sufficient  for  4  or  5  acres.  There  is  no  licence  or  fee  to  be  paid, 
but  a  permit  mu.st  be  obtained  from  the  Customs  Department,  and  a 
guarantee  furnished  to  the  extent  of  ^100,  that  the  Exci.se  laws  will  not 
be  violated.  The  skill  necessary  for  this  indu.stry  is  not  beyond  ordinary 
capacity,  and  instructions  can  be  obtained  by  calling  at  my  office,  581 
Flinders -street,  Melbourne. 

The  following  information  is  supplied  by  the  Customs  Department  to 
those  desiring  to  obtain  a  permit  to  hold  a  still  : — 

Commonivealtli  lnsirnctio)is  re  tlic  use  of  Stills  for   purposes   other  thait 

for  Distilling  Spirits. 

1.  Any  person  making  a  still  without  the  written  permission  of  the 

collector  is  liable  to  a  penalty  of  ^100. 

2.  Any  person  having  a  still  in  his  possession  or  custody,  without 

lawful  authority,   is  liable  to  a  penalty  of  ^500. 


lo   May,    Tpi^.]  Basis  Wiiics.  321 

3.  Anv  pt-rson  who  intends  to  use  a  still  for  any  purpose,  other 
than  the  distilling  ol  spirits,  must  give  notice  in  writing  to 
the  Collector  of  Customs,  and  furnish  full  details  respecting 
the  size  or  capacity  of  the  still,  the  specific  purpose  for  wh'ch 
it  is  to  be  used,  and  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  used.  Form 
of  notice  may  be  obtained  on  application  to  the  collector. 

4  Security  in  a  sum  not  exceeding  ^100  that  the  .still  shall  not  be 
used  for  distilling  spirits  must  be  entered  into. 

5.  When    due   notice    has   been    given,    and    the   .security    has   been 

dulv  completed,  the  collector  will  furnish  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  receipt  of  the  notice  and  security,  and  the 
acknowledgment  must,  at  any  time,  on  demand  by  an 
officer,  be  produced  by  the  person  using  the  stili. 

6.  If  anv  person   intends  to  use  more  than  one  .still   a   notice  and 

security  must  be  given  for  each  still. 
7     The  still,   or  stills,  must  not  be  sold  or  removed  to  an\    place 

without  the  written  permission  of  the  Collector  of  Customs. 

The  penaltv  for  selling  or  removing  a  still,   without   written 

permission  of  the  collector,  is  ^100. 
8.    When     written     permission     is   given   to   remove   a    still    a    fresh 

notice  and  security  must  be  furnished. 

General  Remarks. 

There  are  other  species  of  lavender  grown,  but  none  other  than  the 
one  under  re\iew  can  be  recommended  for  commercial  purposes,  as  the 
class  of  oil  produced  is  low  in  value.  Lavendera  Vera,  or  Lavendula 
AngustifoUa,  is  the  only  one  worthy  of  consideration,  and  this,  like  many 
other  plants  or  animals,  may  be  improved  by  careful  selection  and  other 
means.  This  should  be  the  aim  of  all  entering  into  its  cultivation.  W.th 
the  aid  of  a  small  test  still  individual  plants  may  be  treated,  and  those 
of  the  best  quality  carefully  .selected  for  propagation.  No  doubt,  if  this 
Were  carried  out  systematically,  the  yield  would  be  much  improved. 

If  we  look  over  a  field  of  la^•ender  in  bloom  we  cannot  help  noticing 
the  great  variation  of  colour  of  flower  and  form  and  quantity  of  bloom 
on  each,  and,  no  doubt,  the  oil  that  each  contains  would  vary  equally  so. 
Some  plants  are  much  more  robust  than  others,  but  the  plant  is  hardy,  and 
gi\es  but  little  trouble  if  properly  handled.  If  neglected,  it  suffers  from 
an  attack  of  fungus,  which  appears  to  kill  out  portions  of  the  plant,  but  if 
kept  open,  as  advised,  and  air  admitted  freely,  there  will  be  little  ground 
for  complaint  on  this  score. 


BASIS   WINES. 

By  F.    de   Casiilla,    Government   Yitlcitltnrtst. 

Wines  manufactured  in  England  from  such  materials  as  dried  grapes 
(currants,  raisins,  &c.),  evaporated  grape  juice  and  sterilised  must  are 
known  as  basis  wines,  since  they  are  mainly  used  as  a  basis  in  blends  of 
various  kinds. 

It  has  long  been  evident  that  such  wines  could  be  manufactured  in  Eng- 
land under  far  more  favorable  conditions  than  those  under  which  it  is 
possible  for  Australian  wine-makers  to  operate,  the  raw  material  paying 
little  or  no  duty,  whilst  fermented  wines  must  pay  a  duty  of  is.  3d.  per 
gallon,  on  entering  the  United  Kingdom.  Basis  wine  manufacturers  enjoy 
a  further  advantage  in  the  way  of  lesser  freight  charges,  owing  to  the 
concentrated   form  in   which  the  raw  material   is  carried. 


322 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  May.    191: 


Seeing  the  evident  unfairne.ss  of  such  a  state  of  affairs  to  our  wine- 
growers, the  attention  of  the  Director  of  Agriculture  was  drawn  to  the 
■matter  by  the  Government  ViticuUurist  in  October  last,  with  the  result 
that  the  Agent-General  was  asked  to  obtain  information  on  the  following 
points :  — 

(i)  Currants  imported  into  England  for  manufacturing  purposes. 

(2)  Evaporated  grape  juice  imported. 

(3)  The  quantity  of  wine  manufactured  in  England. 

(4)  The  amount  of  duty  payable  on  evaporated  grape  juice. 

(5)  Any  further  information  obtainable  on  the  subject. 

A  despatch  was  received  from  the  Agent-General  dated  the  8th  Decem- 
ber, accompanied  by  a  return  showing  importations  of  grape  juice  or  must 
as  follows  : — ■ 


Years. 

i^'iiantities. 

Value. 

Approximate  value 
per  Lialloii. 

1906-7      

1907-8       

1908-9       ... 
1909-10     ... 
1910-11     ... 

Galls, 
78,659 
99,230 
78,447 
88,203 
183,494 

10,346 

12,206 

7,548 

9,419 

16,047 

■■2/74 
•2,04 
1/11 
2/14 
1,9 

A  recent  very  marked  increase  is  here  show'n,  the  figures  for  1910-11 
being  more  than  double  those  for  the  previous  twelve  months,  an  increase 
for  which  the  steady  decline  in  value  is,  no  doubt,  largely  responsible. 

Further  information  was  promised  by  the  Agent-General,  and  a  de- 
spatch has  recently  been  received  by  the  Honorable  the  Minister  for  Agri- 
culture, dated  5th  January,  as  follows:  — 

"  Following  up  my  despatch  of  the  8th  ultimo,  the  Customs  Depart- 
ment inform  me  that  they  have  no  information  as  to  the  disposal  of  currants 
after  the  payment  of  duty.  The  quantities  and  value  of  currants  imported 
are  shown  in  the  Annual  Statement  of  Trade  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
are  as  follows,   namelv:  — 


1906. 
Quantity,  cwts.       ..         1,458,159 
Value,  £  ...         1,648,410 

"  Evaporated  Grafe  Juice. 
corded  in  the  official  statistics. 


1907.        1908         1909.        1910. 
1.18S,4S1    1,297,157    1,071,209    1,310,361 
1,392,271    1,464,091    1,156,118    1,708,710 

-This,  I  am  advised,  is  not  separately  re- 
Any  such  imports  will  be  classified  under 
the  general  heading  '  Grape  Juice  or  Must,'  the  imports  and  value  of 
which  are  given  in  the  Annual  Statement  of  Trade  as  follows,  namely:  — 

1906.  1907.  1908.  1909.  1910. 

Quantity,  gallons         ...         43,510         109,831         85,601         67,090         163,838 
Value,  £        ...  ...  5,422  15,047  8,527  7,967  16,513 

"  Wine  Manufactured  in  England. — The  Customs  Department  inform 
me  that  the  quantity  of  wine  made  by  licensed  manufacturers  of  the  United 
Kingdom  was  in  the  year  ended  31st  March,  1911,   1,234.512  gallons. 

"  There  is  no  duty  chargeable  on  grape  juice  or  must  as  such. 

"  I  am  sending  you  a  copy  of  the  Finance  Act  passed  in  the  last  few 
days  of  the  session.  You  will  observe  that  section  10  of  the  Act  imposes 
certain  restrictions  on  the  use  of  British  wine  for  blending  purposes.  Regu- 
lations as  to  the  registration  of  the  sales  of  British  w'ines  by  manufacturers 
have  not  yet  been  issued,  but  as  soon  as  they  are  I  will  send  you  a  copy. 
It  is  possible  that  under  the  new  regulations  we  may  be  able  to  obtain 
further  information  to  assist  us  in  the  matter. 


I  o   M  A  V .    1 Q  I  J .  I  Basis  1 T '/ //  es . 


323 


■■  I  regard  the  registration  of  the  sales  of  British  wines  by  manufac- 
turers as  being  important.  This  will  enable  us  to  watch  and  report  as  to 
what   is  going  on. 

"(Signed)  J    W.  TAVERNER, 

"  Agent -General." 

Though  it  has  long  been  known  that  "  Basis  wine  "  was  manufactured 
en  a  large  scale  the  fact,  that  1,234,513  gallons  of  wine  were  made  in 
England  last  year  will  probably  come  as  a  surprise  to  many.  In  this  is 
included,  no  doubt,  a  certain  quantity  of  British  fruit  wines,  such  as 
Gooseberry.  Blackberry.  &c.  To  the  manufacture  of  such  bond  fide  pro- 
ducts no  exception  can  be  taken ;  they  have  been  made  since  time 
immemorial,  from  British-grown  fruit ;  but,  that  foreign-grown  grape-  ■ 
juice  should  be  able  to  compete  with  our  wine,  over  which  it  enjoys  the 
advantage  of  a  Customs  duty  of  is.  3d.  per  gallon,  must  appear  somewhat 
of  an  anomaly  to  Australian  wine-growers. 

The  quantity  of  bo/id  fide  British  fruit  wines  made  cannot  be  con- 
siderable, and  it  would  appear  that  the  production  of  "  Basis  wine  "  is  at 
least  equal  to  our  annual  shipments  from  the  Commonwealth  to  the  United 
Kingdom.  Judging  from  the  recent  increase  in  the  imports  of  "  Grape 
Juice  or  Must"  the  industrv  appears  to  be  expanding. 

That  the  English  wine  trade  is  not  in  sympathy  with  such  manipu- 
lations is  evident.  The  London  Wine  Trade  Rev-iew,  of  15th  February 
last,  devotes  a  leading  article  to  the  question,  referring  to  it  as  "The 
'  Basis  wine  '  evil,  which  has  so  much  disturbed  legitimate  business  for  the 
past  ten  or  fifteen  years."  It  reproduces  the  official  circular  which  was 
recently  sent  to  the  trade,  as  follows  : — ■ 

The  Commissioners  of  Customs  and  Excise  desire  to  make  known  to  all  traders 
concerned  that,  in  pursuance  of  the  powers  vested  in  the  Commissioners  by  section  10 
of  the  Finance  Act  191  r,  they  are  about  to  issue  regulations,  to  come  into  force 
on  ist  April  next  : — 

(i)   restricting    within    certain    specified     limits    the     mixing    of     British    with 

foreign  wine,  and 
(2)   prohibiting  the  sale  of  wine  so  mixed,  except  such  as  may  be  mixed  under 
the  conditions  prescribed  in  the   regulations. 

In  order  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  inconvenience  to  traders,  a  period  which 
the  Commissioners,  as  at  present  advised,  propose  to  fix  at  three  months,  will  be 
allowed  for  the  disposal  of  existing  stocks  of  mixed  W'ine  remaining  in  hand  on 
1st  April. 

It  expresses  the  hope  "  That  the  contemplated  regulations  will  not 
lack  in  definiteness  "  so  that  traffic  may  no  longer  continue  "In  a 
fabrication.  .  .  .  which  can,  by  exemption  from  the  full  duty  applic- 
able to  imported  wines,  be  used  to  cut  into  legitimate  trade  or  to  detri- 
mentally affect  the  revenue."  It  uses  such  expressions  as  "  Those  counter- 
feits of  foreign  wine  which  find  their  way  as  cheapening  factors  into 
blends  with  the  imported  article,"  and,  further,  states  that  there  is  reason 
for  the  suspicion  that  "  The  '  basis  '  counterfeit  "  is  used  to  mix  with 
spirits.  It  concludes  b}'  noting  with  pleasure  "  That  the  opinion  of  the 
trade,  as  exemplified  by  the  recent  circulars  of  leading  firms,  is  wholly  in 
favour  of  the  powers  conferred  on  the  Customs  and  Excise,  and  that  the 
trade  is  already  looking  forward  to  a  considerable  revival  in  the  demand 
for  the  cheaper  classes  of  wine ;  more  especially  as  regards  clarets  and 
Tarragona. ' ' 

Further  information  as  to  the  exact  wording  of  the  regulations  should 
come  to  hand  shortly. 


324 


Jounial  of  AgricuUiirc.  Victoria. 


[lo  May,   19 1 2. 


FINAL  RESULT8  OF 

VICTORIAN  EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION,   1911-12, 

CONDUCTED    AT    BURNLEY    HORTICULTURAL    SCHOOL. 

{Concluded  from  page   200.) 
H.  V.  Hawkins,  Poultry  Expert. 


Eggs  Laid  during  Competition. 

No. 

Position  in 

of 

Breed. 

Name  of  Owner. 

April  to 

Total  to 

Competi- 

Pen. 

Feb. 

March. 

date 
(12mths) 

tion. 

31 

White  Leghorn 

E.  W.  Pope 

1,473 

93 

1,566 

1 

12 

W.  G.  Swift 

1,456 

90 

1,546 

2 

40 

. 

A.  J.  Cosh  (S.A.) 

1,419 

120 

1,539 

3 

20 

> 

H.  McKenzie 

1,360 

69 

1,429 

4 

37 

E.  Waldon 

1,324 

77 

1,401 

5 

33 

!! 

Range    Poultry    Farm 
(Qld.) 

1,275 

56 

1,331 

6 

39 

A.  W.  Hall 

1,246 

55 

1,301 

7 

18 

T.  Brundrett 

1,188 

78 

1,266 

8 

24 

F.  Hannaford 

1,147 

104 

1,251 

9 

10 

Black  Orpington    .  . 

H.  A.  Langdoa 

1,138 

102 

1,240 

10 

19 

White  Leghorn 

A.  Jaques 

1,155 

73 

1,228 

11 

13 

Black  Orpington    . . 

D.  Fisher 

1,162 

60 

1,222 

}     - 

50 

White  Leghorn 

C.  H.  Busst 

1,137 

85 

1,222 

21 

)) 

R.  L.  Appleford 

1,162 

50 

1,212 

}     " 

9 

)) 

J.  O'Loughlin 

1,137 

75 

1,212 

28 

„ 

John  Campbell 

1,118 

93 

1,211 

16 

2 

)i 

E.  P.  Nash 

1,139 

60 

1,199 

)     ■' 

3 

K.  G leghorn 

1,117 

82 

1,199 

11 

Brown  Leghorn 

F.  Soncum 

1,097 

98 

1,195 

19 

55 

White  Leghorn 

W.  G.  McLister 

1,117 

76 

1,193 

20 

46 

Minorca 

G.  W.  Chalmers 

1,127 

65 

1,192 

21 

25 

Wliite  Leghorn 

B.  Mitchell 

1,121 

68 

1,189 

22 

32 

Silver  Wyandotte  .  . 

Mr.s.  M.  A.  Jones 

1,075 

96 

1,171 

23 

38 

White  Leghorn 

Mrs.  C.  R.  Smee 

1,111 

51 

1,162 

24 

62 

» 

P.  Hodson 

1,091 

63 

1,154 

25 

45 

.1 

T.  Kempster 

1,098 

55 

1,153 

26 

67 

» 

C.  L.  Sharman 

1,035 

112 

1,147 

27 

49 

. 

W.  J.  Tiiornton 

1,089 

57 

1,146 

28 

22 

Black  Orpington    . . 

P.  S.  Wood 

1 ,043 

95 

1,138 

29 

44 

,. 

T.  S.  Goodisson 

1,070 

66 

1,136 

30 

1 

White  Leghorn 

A.  Brebner 

1 ,099 

34 

1,133 

31 

65 

ij 

H.  Hammill(N.S.W.) 

1 ,04>t 

81 

1,129 

32 

36 

19 

F.  A.  SiUitoe 

1,097 

25 

1,122 

33 

57 

i> 

G.  B.  Edwards 

1,031 

85 

1,116 

34 

35 

11 

J.  H.  Brain 

1,012 

90 

1,102 

35 

4 

Golden  Wyandotte 

H.  Bell 

1,037 

63 

1,100 

36 

60 

White  Leghorn 

J.  J.  Harrington 

1,022 

73 

1,095 

37 

47 

)» 

C.  W.Spencer  (N.8.W.) 

1,040 

49 

1,089 

38 

66 

White  Wyandotte 

J.  E.  Bradlev 

1.021 

64 

1,085 

39 

43 

White  Legliorn 

W.  B.  Crellin 

1,015 

59 

1,074 

40 

5 

)> 

L.  C.  Pavne 

1,047 

20 

1,067 

41 

8 

)i 

T.  W.  Coto 

1,022 

35 

1,057 

42 

41 

)) 

Morgan  and  Watson . . 

994 

56 

1,050 

43- 

6 

Silver  Wyandotte 

Mrs.  H.  J.  Richards 

952 

93 

1,045 

44 

64 

White  Leghorn 

J.  D.  Read 

964 

78 

1,042 

45 

51 

! 

J.  B.  McArthur 

979 

62 

1,041- 

46 

34 

» 

E.  Dettman 

965 

75 

1.040 

47 

58 

FaveroUes 

K.  Courtenay 

971 

59 

1,030 

48 

59 

White  Leghorn 

W.  H.  Dunlop 

972 

56 

1,028 

49 

30 

Black  Orpington    . . 

Rodgers  Bros. 

932 

81 

1,013 

50 

53 

White  Leghorn 

A.  Stringer 

977 

33 

1,010 

51 

63 

Black  Orpington    . . 

A.  J.  Treacev 

94s; 

48 

996 

52 

42 

Wliite  Orpington    . . 

P.  Mitchell 

929 

66 

995 

53 

52 

White  Leghorn 

W.  J.  McKeddie 

955 

3  6 

991 

64 

27 

)) 

Hill  and  Luckman     . . 

952 

21 

973 

55 

16 

Silver  Wyandotte  . . 

Miss  A.  Cottani 

862 

74 

936 

56 

56 

White  Leghorn 

Mrs.  C.  Thompson     . . 

896 

36 

932 

57 

23 

Golden  Wyandotte 

G.  E.  Brown 

849 

73 

922 

58 

€1 

Silver  Wyandotte  . . 

J.  Reade 

814 

75 

919 

59 

7 

White  Leghorn 

H.  Stevenson 

900 

18 

918 

60 

26 

F.  H.  Seymour 

SM,5 

31 

916 

61 

54 

.! 

F.  Hodges 

856 

58 

914 

62 

17 

W.  J.  Eckershall 

7.59 

56 

815 

63 

14 

Black  Orpington    .  . 

W.  J.  Macauley 

723 

72 

795 

64 

15 

Minorca 

H.  R.  McChesney 

638 

29 

667 

65 

48 

" 

G.  James 

578 

39 
4,327 

617 

66 

68,998 

73,325      1 

lo  May,  1912.] 


Orchard  and   Garden  Noics. 


STATISTICS. 

Rainfall  in  Victoria.— First   Quarter,  1912. 

Table  showing  average  amount  of  rainfall  in  each  of  the  26  Basii5s  or  Regions  con- 
stituting the  State  of  Victoria  for  eaeii  month  and  the  quarter,  with  the  corre- 
sponding monthly  and  quarterly  averages  for  each  Basin,  deduced  from  all  available 
record*  to  date. 


January. 

Febrinry. 

March. 

Quarter. 

Basin  or  District. 

•^ 

-t! 

a? 

■*a 

a5 

a 

a 

if. 

8 

be 

a 

it, 

3 

3 

d 

3 

d 

3 

g 

O 

o 

o 

b 

O 

a 

> 

S 

CJ 

a 

t 

a 

> 

points. 

< 

< 

< 

< 

< 

points 

< 

< 

points. 

points. 

points. 

points. 

points. 

points.  • 

Glenelg   and   Wannon    Rivers 

16 

121 

98 

87 

155 

167 

269 

375 

Fitzroy,  Eumeralla,  and  Merri 

36 

145 

111 

158 

178 

179 

325 

482 

Rivers 

Hopkins    River    and     Mount 

25 

14.5 

68 

100 

167 

178 

260 

423 

Emu  Creek 

Mount    Elephant    and     Lake 

20 

150 

76 

103 

151 

189 

247 

442 

Corangamite 

■Cape  Otway  Forest 

57 

210 

82 

142 

155 

268 

294 

620 

Moorabool  and  Barwon  Rivers 

23 

145 

92 

112 

135 

184 

250 

441 

Werribee  and  Saltwater  Rivers 

28 

142 

142 

128 

85 

188 

255 

458 

Yarra  River  and   Dandeuong 

87 

228 

133 

166 

138 

278 

358 

672 

Creek 

• 

Koo-wee-rup  Swamp 

69 

240 

120 

154 

73 

270 

262 

664 

"South  Gippsland 

82 

227 

117 

166 

114 

307 

313 

700 

Latrobe  and   Thomson  Rivers 

118 

233 

113 

162 

118 

280 

349 

675 

Macallister  and  Avon  Rivers 

73 

159 

107 

142 

72 

202 

252 

503 

Mitchell  River 

84 

248 

110 

210 

70 

214 

264 

672 

Tambo  and  Nicholson  Rivers 

48 

211 

15t 

155 

73 

269 

275 

635 

Snowy  River 

63 

26f> 

152 

209 

117 

265 

332 

743 

Murray  River 

46 

114 

100 

97 

54 

161 

200 

372 

Mitta  Mitta  and  Kiewa  Rivers 

68 

170 

143 

135 

121 

305 

332 

610 

Ovens  River 

127 

173 

78 

•124 

108 

286 

313 

683 

Goulburn  River 

89 

135 

70 

97 

70 

180 

229 

412 

Campaspe  River 

21 

116 

86 

91 

60 

160 

167 

m: 

Loddon  River 

14 

96 

113 

SO 

62 

126 

189 

302 

Avon  and  Richardson  Rivers 

1 

71 

79 

59 

68 

111 

148 

241 

Avoca  River 

4 

70 

80 

60 

68 

122 

152 

252 

Eastern  Wimmera  ... 

3 

85 

•     49 

68 

83 

145 

140 

298 

Western  Wimmera ... 

4 

67 

28 

57 

62 

115 

94 

239 

Mallee  District 

3 

57 

68 

55 

30 

98 

101 

210 

The  whole  State      ... 

48 

133 

91 

107 

86 

179 

225 

419 

100  points  =   1  inch. 


17th  April,  1912. 


H.  A.  HUNT, 
Commonwealth  Meteorologist. 


ORCHARD    AND    GARDEN    NOTES. 

E.   E.   PcscofU    Principal.   School   of   Horticulture,   Burnley. 

The  Orchard. 

There  are  indications  that  the  coming  planting  season  will  be  one  of 
•considerably  increased  activity.  The  prospects  for  the  fruit  trade  were 
never  so  good,  and  it  is  anticipated  that  this  industry  will  advance  in 
many  wavs  in  the  near  future.  Such  being  the  case,  it  will  be  wise  not 
to  unduly  rush  the  planting  of  the  trees,  but  to  make  every  endeavour 
to  have  them  planted  in  soil  which  has  been  well  and  truly  prepared  for 
:their  reception. 


326  Journal  of  Agriciiliid c .  Victoria.  [10   May,    1912. 

The  niuiiths  of  June  and  July  are  the  most  favouraL  u  for  planting  in 
this  State ;  the  warmer  the  climate,  the  earlier  the  planting  season. 

Tfiere  is  thus  ample  time  for  preparing  the  land  thoroughly  before 
the  planting  is  done.  The  land  must  be  in  a  first  class  physical  condi- 
tion for  the  planting  of  the  young  trees.  The  first  and  foremost  necessity 
is  good  soil  drainage;  and  this  may  be  accomplished  by  a  deep  system 
of  subsoiling,  or  by  the  laying  down  of  tile,   timber,  or  cinder  drains. 

In  the  northern  plain  areas  it  is  very  often  difficult  to  initiate  a  drain- 
age system,  owing  to  the  level  condition  of  the  country.  In  such  districts 
it  is  certainly  advisable  to  carry  out  a  scheme  of  deep  subsoiling. 

After  clearing  and  ploughing,  the  subsoil  should  be  well  ploughed  by 
following  the  furrows  with  the  plough  ha\ing  the  mould-hoard  removed. 
This  allows  for  the  stirring  of  the  clav  without  turning  it  over  or  bring- 
ing it  to  the  surface. 

This  breaking  up  of  the  clay  serves  the  dual  purpose  of  placing  it  in 
the  condition  that  a  good  water  percolation  or  soil  drainage  is  allowed, 
and  that  the  tree  roots  are  able  to  work  and  travel  better  in  the  loose  sub- 
soil. Where  the  subsoil  is  of  a  gravelly  character  or  otherwise  porous 
nature,  the  subsoiling  work  is  not  an  urgent  necessity.  Should  the  drain- 
age be  satisfactory  under  natural  conditions,  it  would  be  superfluous  to 
carry  out  this  work.  What  is  required  is  that  the  soil  shall  be  loose  and 
friable  enough  to  admit  of  the  drainage  of  all  superfluous  water,  and  that 
the  roots  shall  be  able  to  -travel  with  comparative  ease. 

For  the  purpose  of  fruit  culture,  soil  fertility  is  dependent  to  a  far 
greater  extent  on  the  suitable  physical  soil  condition  than  on  the  richness 
of  the  soil. 

The  second  factor  in  soil  fertility  is  the  richness  or  the  quality  of 
the  soil. 

It  is  only  fair  to  assume  that  whatever  is  removed  from  the  soil  by 
the  trees  should  be  replaced,  if  the  soil  is  to  maintain  its  original  fertility. 
The  most  useful  material  for  this  purpose  is  stable  or  farmyard  manure. 
Where  this  is  not  obtainable,  leguminous  green  manures  are  certainly  the 
best  substitute. 

It  is  not  advocated  that  solid  masses  of  farmyard  manure  should  be 
ploughed  into  the  soil ;  quite  the  reverse.  Light  dressings  annually  or 
even  biennially  are  the  most  suitable.  To  plough  into  the  soil  heavy 
and  compact  masses  of  manure  is  wasteful,  and  is  liable  to  set  up  sour 
and  unhealthy  soil  conditions. 

It  is  the  practice  of  many  successful  orchardists  to  manure  their 
orchards  every  other  year  with  either  stable  or  green  manure;  and  to  use 
such  artificial  fertilizers  as  bonedust,  sulphate  of  potash,  and  superphos- 
phate in  the  alternate  years. 

Where  it  is  not  intended  to  manure  this  season,  or  even  some  time  after 
manuring,  a  top  dressing  of  lime  will  greatly  improve  soil  conditions. 

Pests. 

It  is  now  a  favourable  time  to  spray  the  trees  where  such  pests  as 
Bryobia  mite,  woolly  aphis,  scale  species,  and  peach  aphis  have  been  or 
are  prevalent. 

Any  of  the  recognised  sprays  are  suitable,  these  being  red  oil.  crude 
petroleum,  kerosene  emulsion,  or  lime-sulphur  wash.  The  latter  wash  is 
again  becoming  popular,  partly  owing  to  its  effectiveness,  and  also  to  its 
possessing  certain  properties  as  a  fungicide. 

Flower  Garden. 

The  month  of  May  is  a  suitable  one  for  the  preparation  of  new  flower 
beds.        In   starting  on   this   important   work;   the  first  essential    is   good 


lo  May,    1912.]  Orchard  and  Garden  Notes.  327 

drainage.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  depends  so  much  on  its  ability  to 
free  itself  of  all  surplus  and  unnecessary  water,  by  being  in  a  good 
mechanical  condition. 

This  is  of  far  greater  importance  than  increasing  the  value  of  the 
soil  by  the  addition  of  organic  manures.  The  latter  is  by  no  means  to 
be  despised,  but  a  correct  condition,  with  good  drainage  is  the  first 
necessity. 

The  new  beds  should  be  well  trenched  into  the  clay,  or  the  subsoil. 
It  is  not  advocated  that  the  trenching  shaU  be  excessively  deep.  Much 
labour  has  been  lost  in  the  past  by  deep  trenching,  and  no  very  definite 
results  have  been  produced. 

The  subsoil  surface  should  be  trenched  so  that  the  soil  moisture  may 
soak  into  it,  and  so  that  the  plant  roots  may  be  able  to  penetrate  into  the 
subsoil.  Then  the  surface  soil  and  loam  should  be  thoroughly  cultivated 
and  broken  up.  These  remarks  apply  especially  to  the  preparation  of 
rose  beds.  If  new  ground  is  being  broken  up,  the  addition  of  from 
4  to  5  cwt.  of  lime  will  be  a  distinct  advantage.  The  lime  should  be 
well  worked  into  the  soil.  The  addition  of  stable  manures  to  the  soil 
may  now  be  carried  out.  Too  heavy  dressings  are  not  advised,  as  an 
accumulation  of  manure  in  the  soil  is  likely  to  set  up  sour  and  unhealthy 
conditions.        The  manure  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil. 

It  is  not  too  late  to  sow  sweet  pea  seeds,  but  the  best  results  come 
from  early  planting.  The  planting  of  these  seeds  .should  not  be  delayed. 
Sweet  pea  results  are  generally  poor  if  the  plants  are  over-crowded.  The 
individual  plants  should  be  given  ample  room,  planting  the  seeds  at  least 
an  inch  apart.  The  training  of  the  young  plant  is  also  an  important 
matter.  It  .should  not  be  allowed  to  trail  or  to  lie  on  the  ground.  As 
soon  as  the  tendrils  appear  on  the  young  plants,  they  should  be  given 
support  so  that  they  may  be  encouraged  in  the  climbing  habit  at  once.  A 
good  sap  flow  is  necessary  to  good  growth,  and  the  stem  of  the  plant 
should  be  trained  as  upright  as  possible  to  allow  of  this.  Stable  manure 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  plant  foods  for'  sweet  peas ;  but  if  a  chemical 
manure  is  needed,  sulphate  of  potash  in  very  small  quantities  may  be 
used.  It  must  be  understood  that  this  manure  is  used  to  produce  good 
and  free  growth  in  the  plant  itself.  If  this  be  obtained,  good  flowers 
will   naturally   follow. 

Several  inquiries  ha\e  been  received  regarding  the  condition  of  the 
sweet  pea  .seeds.  Some  of  the  varieties  produce  very  inferior  looking, 
spotted  and  wrinkled  seeds.  These  are  not  to  be  discarded,  as  they  will 
produce  good  and  free  flowering  plants. 

At  the  end  of  the  month  a  start  may  be  made  with  the  autumn  digging, 
pruning,  and  clearing  up.  Manure  may  be  dug  into  the  beds,  well  below 
the  surface.  All  leaves  and  light  litter  should  also  be  dug  in.  If  neces- 
sary, a  light  top-dressing  of  lime  may  be  given  after  the  digging  has  been 
completed. 

As  much  garden  litter  as  can  be  saved  should  be  rotted  down  for 
future  use ;  the  rough  litter  and  strong  stems  should  be  burned  and  the 
ashes  returned  to  the  soil. 

Flowering  shrubs  should  be  pruned  only  after  the  flowering  season  foi 
each  plant  has  passed. 

Vegetable    Garden. 

The  remarks  in  the  Flower  Garden  notes  referring  to  preparation  of 
new  beds  also  apply  to  the  kitchen  section ;  this  being  the  time  for  good 
soil  work.  Only,  where  deep  rooting  vegetables  are  to  be  grown,  such 
as  carrots,  and  turnips,  tlie  soil  and  subsoil  should  be  deeply  worked  so 
as  to  allow  a  ready  root  run  for  these  vegetables. 


3^8  Joifnial  of  Agriculture.  Victoria.  [lo   May.    1912.. 

A  dressing  of  lime  will  be  of  great  value  in  every  section  of  the 
kitchen  garden.  This  will  especially  help  to  minimize  future  attacks  of 
insect  and  fungus  pests. 

AH  asparagus  plots  should  be  cleaned  out,  cut  down,  and  kept  in  good 
order.       A  light  dressing  of  stable  manure  may  be  given  to  the  beds. 

Plantings  may  be  made  of  all  seedlings,  such  as  cabbage,  cauliflower, 
lettuce,  onions,  &c.  ;  and  seeds  of  carrot,  leek,  lettuce,  onion,  peas,  radish, 
turnip,    parsnip,    broad   beans,    &c.,    may   be   sown. 


REIVIINDEHS     fOH     JUNE. 

LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Those  stabled  can  be  fed  liberalh'.  Those  doing  fast  or  heavy  work 
should  be  clipped ;  if  not  wholl}-,  then  trace  high.  Those  not  rugged  on  coming 
into  the  stable  at  night  should  be  wiped  down  and  in  half-an-hour's  time  rugged 
or  covered  with  bags  until  the  coat  is  dry.  Old  horses  and  weaned  foals  should  be 
given  crushed  oats.  Grass- fed  working  horses  should  be  given  hay  or  straw,  if  there 
is  no  old  grass,  to  counteract  the  purging  effects  of  the  young  growth.  Old  and 
badly-conditioned   horses  should   be  given   some   boiled   barley. 

CATTLE. — Cows,  if  not  housed,  should  be  rugged.  Rugs  should  be  removed  in  the 
daytime  when  the  shade  temperature  reaches  60  degrees.  Give  a  ration  of  hay  or 
straw,  whole  or  chaffed,  to  counteract  the  ]jurging  effects  of  voung  grass.  Cows 
about  to  calve,  if  over  fat,  should  be  put  into  a  paddock  in  which  the  feed  is  not 
too  abundant.  Calves  should  be  kept  in  warm  dry  shed.  Cows  and  heifers  for 
early   autumn  calving   may  be  put   to   the  bull. 

Pigs. — Supply  plenty  of  bedding  in  warm,  well-ventilaicQ  =tyes.  Keep  styes 
clean  and  dry.  Store  pigs  should  be  placed  in  fattening  styes.  .^uu  b  w  fine 
weather  should  be  given  a  grass  run.  Young  pigs  over  two  mCAlt]!^  fid  should  be 
removed    from    lucerne   run. 

Sheep. — Wherever  j)Ossible,  castrate  all  ram  lambs  intended  for  export  soon  after 
they  are  a  few  days  old.  Leave  tailing  till  later.  Ewes  should  have  succulent 
fresh  feed.  Class  out  all  inferior-fleeced  and  ill-shaped  ewes;  ear-mark  and  dispose 
of  these.  Lamb-raising  flocks  should  be  classed  similarly  to  merino  flocks.  Apply 
early    to   breeders    for   rams   required    for  ne.xt   season. 

Poultry. — Forward  pullets  should  now  be  placed  in  winter  scratching  shed,  fed 
liberally,  and  given  fresh  water  daily.  Supplies  of  shell,  grit,  and  charcoal  should 
always  be  available.  Rest  the  breeding  pens;  dig  them  up  and  sprinkle  lime 
throughout.  Sow  a  mixture  of  English  grass  and  clover ;  this  not  only  removes 
taint  in  soil,  but  provides  excellent  green  fodder  for  stock.  Where  possible,  lucerne 
shou'd  now  be  sown  for  summer  feed.  Meat  (cooked)  and  maize  are  aids  to  egg 
Ijroduction   during  cold   weather.      Feed  hot  mash  at  daybreak.      Clean   drains. 

CULTIVATION. 

Farms. — Plough  potato  land.  Land  to  be  sown  later  on  with  potatoes,  mangolds, 
maize,  and  millet  should  be  manured  and  well  worked.  Sow  malting  barley  and 
hnish  sowing  of  cereals.  Lift  and  store  mango'ds,  turnips,  &c.  Clean  out  drains 
and  water  furrows.  Clean  up  and  stack  manure  in  heaps  protected  from  the 
weather. 

Orchard. — Finish  ploughing  ;  plant  young  trees  ;  sprav  with  red  oil  or  petroleum 
for  scales,  mites,  ai)his,  &c.  ;  carry  out  drainage  system:  clean  out  drains;  con- 
tinue pruning. 

\^EGETABLE  CtARIjen. — Pre])are  beds  for  crops;  cultivate  deeply;  practise  rotation 
in  ])lanting  out;  renovate  asparagus  beds;  plant  out  all  seedlings;  sow  radish,  pe-AS, 
broad  beans,   leeks,   spinach,   lettuce,   carrot,   &c.  ;   plant   rhubarb. 

I' r.owER  (tARDEx. — Continue  digging  and  manurin;^^;  dig  all  weeds  and  leafy 
growths ;  plant  out  shrubs,  roses,  &c.  ;  pl.ant  rose  cuttings ;  prune  deciduous  trees 
and   shrubs ;   sow   sweet  peas   and   plant  out   seedlings. 

Vineyard. — Thoroughly  prepare  for  plantation  land  already  subsoiled  for  the 
I)Urpose.  Remember  that  the  freer  it  is  kept  from  weeds  from  this  forward,  the 
less  trouble  will  there  be  from  cut-worms  neM  spring.  Pruning  and  ])loughing 
should  be  actively  proceeded  with.  In  northern  districts  plough  to  a  depth  of  seven 
or  e^ght  inches.      Manures  should   be   applied   as  early   as  possible. 

Cellar. — Rack  all  wines  which  have  not  been  previously  dealt  with.  Fortify 
sweet  wines  to   full   stren-'th. 


ioMay,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


ROYAL  MEDAL" 

MILKING    MACHINES. 


COMPLETE 
INDEMNITY. 

Statements  have  been  made  that  users 
of  ^^  ROYAL  MEDAL^^  Milking 
Machines    infringe   a    certain    patent. 

We  are  proceeding  to  force  an  action  to  be  brought 
against  ourselves  to  settle  this  matter,  because  we 
are  determined  to  put  an  end  to  this  sort  of  thing. 
We  have  pleasure  in  letting  you  know  that  we 
gladly  undertake  to  defend  and  indemify  everyone 
who  uses  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  Milking  Machines 
against   the   consequence  of   any  such  legal  action. 


"  ROYAL  MEDAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES, 

34   Queen   Street, 
MELBOURNE. 

LONDON    OFFICE: 

Caxton  House,  Westminster,  S.W. 
JACK    H.     DAVIES,   Managing  Director. 


POST  FREE  BOOKLET  COUPON. 


" Boyal  Medal"  Milking  Machines, 

34  Queen  Street,  Melhonrne. 
Please  forward  a  copy  of  your  Free  Book.     It 
is  to  be  understood  that  I  consider  myself _  under  no 
obligation. 


Name- 
Address 


^^■■™"ii^^^""i^    J8. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  May,  1912. 


TifniyeiiiniiffiiriiirimirrriTr"™^^^-^^'"'^ 


'Phone 

4881 
Central. 


The  Australasian  Mutual  Live  Stock 

Insupanee  Society  m, 

ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 
70  Elizabeth  St.,  Melbourne. 


HON.  AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P.     BENRY  GARDNER,  Esq. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P. 

WALTER  G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 

FARMERS  AND  BREEDERS- 

Has  this   simple   truth   ever  struck  you? 
Ours  are  the  world's  minimum   rates. 
Our  terms  and  conditions  are  equal  to  the 

best  obtainable. 
Every  pound  of  our  money  is  invested  in 

Australia. 
We  pay  promptly.         We  pay  in  full. 

INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  AND  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS. 


A    GOOD   AUSTRALtAN 
'  Why  didn't  x/ou  put  your  penny  in  tht  plate  thi» 
morning  f" 

'  Becavje  it  mai  a  foretgn  mittion.  and  dada  say* 
tl't  not  right  to  lend  capital  out  0/  the  country." 


r 


For  ROOFS  of  all  descriptions 


USE 


'1^'   RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


USE 


INDELIBLE  GOLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


USE 


'1^'    OALCIMO 


IN    ALL 
COLOURS. 


These  Goods  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 


-SOLE    AGENTS- 


BROOKS.  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Melbourne. 


lo  May,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  xix 


Dairy  Science. 

The  last  word. 


Scientific  men  in  the  dairy  centres  of  Europe  have  given  close 
attention  to  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  for  butter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  for  some  time, 
a  poor,  thin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  :  stating  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods.  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  same 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Dairy  Science. 

For  Post  Free  Book— 

'MILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding," 

By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brotliers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 

Guaranteed  Pure. 


5UNLIQHT 

Oil  CAKE- 


See  that  tlie  name  "Sunliglit"  is 
branded  on  every  calce. 


XX 


Journal  of  A gri culture,  Victoria. 


[lo  May,  1912. 


Britain's  BEST  Oil  Engine 


THE 


HORNSBY. 


The  recognized   essentials  of  Oil  Engine   Superiority 

are.... 

DESIGN  QUALITY 

SIMPLICITY  ECONOMY 

THESE   the   HORNSBY   possesses,   proved  by  the  Fact 
Made  in  Two  Types-Stationary  and  Portable.  ^^^'^  '^  ^^^  Won  all  the  Largest  Prizes  ever  offered. 


WHY  THE  .  .  . 

HORNSBY  9  BINDERS 

It  has  the  Best  and  Lowest  Cutting  Finger  Bar. 

It  is  Lightest  in  Draught. 

It  has  Simplest  Meclianism. 

It  is  Sirongest,  Most  Durable,  and  Most  Reliable. 


"Hornsby "   Mowers 

are  Unequalled  for  CLEAN  CUTTING.  ^~^'  '^     ^ -— '  ■-*■"-"  ^'-^--  "'^'-' 

Hornsby  Petrol  Engines,  Gas  Engines  and  Suction  Gas  Plants  are  unequalled. 


R.   HORNSBY  &  SONS   LTD., 


MELBOURNE.    SYDNEY. 
BRISBANE. 


No  Smoke,  No 
Smell. 

100 
Candle  Power. 


INVERTED 
SPIRIT 


Viking 


Lamps 


For  Shops, 

Butter  Factories, 
Verandahs,  &c. 

BENGALIA 

Spirit  Burners 
For  Table  Lamps, 
17/6 
each. 


EROS 

Gas  Burners 
Si  Mantles. 


Sole  Agents : 


Allen,  Ferpsson  &  Seiell 

508    COLLINS=ST.,    MELBOURNE.   I 


lo  May,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  xjci 


riRTlOflflli  THUSTEES  Z 


Executors  &  Agency  Company 
Australasia,  Ltd.     .    ,     . 


DIRECTORS  : 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Managing  Director. 

EDWARD  FITZGERALD,  Esq.,  L.L.D.  MICHAEL  MORNANE,  Esd. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  E8<J.  DAVID  HUNTER,  EsQ. 

This  Company  acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint  Executor  of  Wills,  Administrator, 
Trustee  of  Settlements,   and  Ag:ent  for  Absentees  under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY      TO      LEND      ON      BROAD     ACRES     AND      FARM     LANDS. 

o.nc.s  1^3  QUEEN  ST.  US^c^olfin^st)  MELBOURNE. 


SAVINCS  BANKS  LOANS 

ON     BROAD     ACRES     (^P    *<>  Three-fifths   of  Valuation), 

In  sums  from  ^62,000  to  ^25,000. 
Interest  at  4h  per  cent. 

For  3  or  5  years,  with  option  of  paying  ofi"  part  on  any  half-yearly  pay-day. 
ON    FARMS    (CREDIT  FONCIER)    (Up  to  Two-thirds  of  Valuation), 

In  sums  from  5650  to  062,000. 

Interest  at  4^  per  cent. 

Loans  Repayable  by  Instalments  spread  over  3H  years,  or  may  be  paid  off 
on  any  half-yearly  payday,  subject  to  a  small  charge  if  paid  off  during  the  first 
five  years,  but  no  penalty  after  five  years. 


ADDRESS 


Inspector-General   of   Savings  Banks^ 


29  MARKET  STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


TREWHELLA  ::= '  GRUBBING  JACKS. 

Quick.     Powerful.     Simple. 


Mr.  Chas.  Hamilton,  Molesworth,  Vic,  says:— "I  would  not 
be  without  one  of  these  Jacks  on  the  farm." 

Mr.  O.  C.  R.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Prances,  S.A.  :— 
"Have  been  using  Trewhella  Wallaby  Jacks  now  nearly 
six  years,  and  as  long  as  I  have  anything  to  lift  will  never  be 
without  one." 


Write  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  to— 

TREWHELLA   BROS.,  ENGINEERS,  TRENTHAM,  VICTORIA. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  May,  1912. 


r 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

JBupnley  Jfortieultural  School. 


E.     E.     I=E3COTT 


IPitiisrcn^-A-X., 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnley  Horticultural  School  have  now  been 
arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be  given  to  students  of  both  sexes 
in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Horticulture  for  male  students  includes  a  two  years'  course, 
students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum. 

Classes  have  been  formed  at  Burnley,  whereby  students  of  both  sexes  may  receive 
instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and  Fridaj'S. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  work,  and  will  commence  at  2  p.m. 
This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  chai-ged  will  be  £2  per  annum. 

It  has  also  been  arranged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  shall  be  given  on  subjects 
which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Hoi'ticulture,  such  as  Poultry  Farming,  Bee-keeping,  and 
Fruit  Preserving,  and  these  courses  will  be  open  and  free  to  the  general  public.  The 
subjects  and  dates  of  the  Short  Course  Lectures  will  be  announced  monthl}'  in  this  Journal. 

STUDENTS    SHOULD    ENROLL   WITHOUT    DELAY, 

Application  for  admission  should  be  made  to 

The  Director  of  Agriculture,  Public  Offices,  Melbourne, 

OR.   TO   THE   i=e,iitci:p.a.Xj. 


DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE,    VICTORIA. 

RED   POLL  DAIRY  HERD 

YOUNG  BULLS  FOR  SALE 

TO    VICTORIAN    DAIRYMEN. 


DAM. 

Date  of  Birth. 

RECORD  OF  DAM. 

PRICE. 

Milk. 

Butter  Fat. 

£      s.     d. 

Pennsylvania 
Muria 

Aug.  12th,  1911 
,,     14th      ,, 

462  galls. 
549     ,, 

190  lbs. 
240     ,, 

9    9    0 
12    0    0 

Carolina 

,,     16th      ,, 

570     ,, 

253     ,, 

12  12    0 

Cuba    ... 

,,     25th      ,, 

526     „ 

232     „ 

11    11    0 

Virginia 
Havana 

Sep.   1st         ,, 
,,     6th 

636     „ 
575     ,, 

254     ,, 

230     ,, 

12  12    0 
11    11    0 

Manila 

Dec.  9  til 

1st  calf 

no  record 

3    3    0 

Sire  : 

TABAOUM,"  by 

'ACTON    AJAX"  (imp. 

) 

The  prices  are  based  approximately  on  the  actual  milk  and  butter  fat  record  of  the  dam 
at  the  rate  of  Is.  per  lb.  of  butter  fat  yielded.    {See  Journal  of  Agricidture,  November,  1911). 

Inspection  by  arrangement  with  Mr.  E.  STEER,  Dairy  Overseer,  Boisdale,  Gippsland. 

Application  for  purchase  to    DIRECTOR    OF  AGRICULTURE,  MELBOURNE. 


lo  May,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agrfculture,  Victoria. 


"VICTOR"  RED  OIL 


A     CERTAI 
REMEDY  FOR 


GUARANTEED  PURE.      ONLY  ONE  QUALITY. 

K  PEACH  APHIS,  WOOLLY  APHIS,  SCALE,  &  RED  SPIDER. 


Never  Beaten  for  STRENGTH,  QUALITY,  or  EFFICACY. 
SPRAY  before  Pruning  if  possible.  Price,  in  42-gal.  Barrels,  Is.  lOd.  per  gal. 

"CARLTON"  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD 

Grows  more  popular  every  year.  Use  onlj^  4-lbs.  to  100-gals.  of  water. 

Guaranteed  17%  Arsenic  Oxide,  and  very  Finely  Ground  ; 

Therefore— SUSPENDS,    STICKS,    AND    SUCCEEDS. 

"NEW  CHAMPION"  Power  Sprayer 

SPECIAL    FEATURES- 

" BOSCH"  High  Tension  Magneto.     "FRIEND"  Nozzles,     Double  Pump,  with  (Renewable 
Plungers.  Machine  Cut  Gears.  Strong  Transport,  Light  and  Low  Down. 

FD         IVyiCI    I    ^D       440    ELIZABETH    STREET, 
.        n.       lYIQLi^Vi^n,      MELBOURNE. 

JARRAH. 


When  you  contemplate  erecting  fencing,  buildings,  dairies, 
woolsheds,  &c.,    be   sure  you  get  the  best  of  hardwoods. 

1*^     JARRAH    resists   white    ants,    dry  rot,   &c. 


Write 
to 


T  MILLAR'S  KARRI  &  JARRAH  CO.  mmi 

QUEEN'S    BRIDGE,    MELBOURNE. 


^DYAN,    GOULDING,   &    00."^ 

^^\  (JOHN    F.    GOULDING). 

'     *    WHOLESALE  GRAIN  &  PRODUCE  COMiVilSSIQN  AGENTS  &  GENERAL  BROKERS, 
546-552  COLLINS  STREET  WEST  (Near  King-st.) 

FARMERS  •  Before  Selling  your  Grain,  Hay,  Potatoes,  Onions,  consult  or  write  us. 

It  will  pay  you. CONSIGNMENTS  Received  and  Sold  Daily  ex  Rail  or  Wharf. 

Storage  arranged  on  Liberal  Terms  and  Advances  made.       All  kinds  of  Seed  Grain  for  Sale. 
Prompt  Account  Sales.     Oats  Specialists.     New  &  Second-hand  Bags  for  Sale  at  Lowest  Rates. 

.     When  in  the  CITY  Call  In. — Short  distance  from  Spencer-st.  RIy.  Station.     . 


XXIV 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  May,  1912. 


"WATERLOO  BOY"  4  h.p.  PORTABLE  OIL  ENGINE. 

ABSOLUTELY  THE  SIMPLEST  AND  CHEAPEST  EFFICIENT  ENGINE  IN  THE  WORLD. 

USES    BENZINE    OR    KEROSENE. 


IGNITIONi — Is  make  and  break  style,  charge  tired  by  electric  spark.  Igniter,  which  in 
other  Engines  is  difficult  to  get  at,  in  the  "Waterloo"  can  be  completely  removed  by 
loosening  two  cap  screws 

Both    Magneto    and    Battery    Ignition,— a    very    useful    arrangement,    as    \vork ' 
can  never  be  stopped. 

3PEED  LEVERi — Acts  same  as  throttle  of  a  steam  engine.  You  can  speed  up  or 
down,  or  stop  altogether  with  it.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  start,  prevents  "kicking 
back,"  and  saves  fuel. 

IVIIXERi — Is  a  great  idea,  patented  because  it  is  worth  patenting.  Has  an  adjustable 
mixing  cup  that  can,  by  a  winged  nut,  be  slipped  up  or  down  to  give  more  or  less  air. 
No  valve  springs  or  pump  to  get  out  of  order  ;  makes  Engine  easy  to  start;  aids  the 
governor  and  speed  lever  in  getting  more  power  out  of  the  fuel. 

GOVERNOR^ — Centrifugal  type,  sure  and  sensitive.  Allows  a  charge  in  the  cylinder 
only  when  the  work  requires  it. 

PUELi  —Works  on  either  benzine  or  kerosene,  but  benzine  is  better,  as  it  is  not  so  dirty. 
The  speed-saving  devices,  Speed  Lever,  Patent  Mixer,  and  Governor  make  tlie 
"Waterloo"  consume  the  least  fuel.      Compare  it  for  simplicity,  fuel  cost,  and  power 

with  other  engines,  and  you  will  send  your  order  to  us. 

HOPPER  COOLEDi — That  is,  there  are  no  Tank,  Pipes,  and  Pump  to  cool  the 
cylinder.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  move  about ;  less  space,  less  weight,  and  no 
water  pump  troubles,  as  there  is  no  Pump.     Also  lessens  the  fuel  bill. 

TRANSPORT^ — is  a  very  strong  one.  Through  axles  in  both  front  and  rear  wheels. 
Turntable  on  front  axle  is  simple  and  strong. 

|jgg~  SEND  FOR  CATALOGUES  OF  OUR  OTHER  FARM  REQUISITES. 


MITCHELL  &  COMPANY 


PTY. 
LTD. 


FACTORY     &.    office: 

WEST  FOOTSCRAY,  MELBOURNE. 


SHOW     ROOM 


596  BOURKE  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


J^GfrigeFafing  ^  ^ 


and 


IcG  JVCakiixg 
JVCaehinery  ^  ^ 


C$9 

Made  by 
HUMBLE  &  SONS, 

Geelongf, 
Victoria. 


Specially  suitable  for  Butclicrs,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  ^lachines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  En^^iiie  A  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  aie  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration  work 
undertaken,  including -coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


"  Ferrier's "  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distributors, 
Epgines,  Boilers,  Horseworks,  &c. 

Full  Papticulaps  on  Application  to— 

Httmble  and  Sons, 

General   Eng'ineers, 
VULCAN   FOUNDRY,   GEE  LONG. 


TO 


SUNNY 


QUEENSLAND 


HOWARD    SMITH 

LINE  OF  MODERN  STEAMSHIPS 


n 

I 

Hl^i" 

^^^p, 

^^9 

%H^.,  I'm 

HINCHINBROOK    PASSAGE,    NEAR    CARDWELL. 

Tliu  .Scenes  of  lieauty  reveriled  ou  the  tri])  between  To\vns\ille 
and  Cairns— first  Jlaynetii'  Islaiiil,  Palm  Island,  <&c.,  then  the 
world-famed  Hinchinbrook  Channel,  &c.— have  to  be  seen  to  be 
appreciated,  and  those  in  the  Southern  ports  who  have  not  ha  I 
the  ffood  fortune  to  make  the  trip,  cannot  realize  the  mag-nificenc  e 
and  splendoiu-  of  the  scenery  in  North  Queensland. 

The  islands,  clad  with  verdiu-e,  ever-ureen  and  pleasing-  to  the 
eye,  present  a  picture  of  beauty  which  to  recall  to  mind  is  alwai  s 
a  pleasure. 

We  arrive  at  Cairns  on  a  Saturday,  and  decide  to  go  on  to  tl  e 
Barron  Falls. 

The  Railway  from  Cairns  has  been  re-constructed,  and  one  of 
the  prettiest  train  rides  through  trojiical  scenery  is  to  be  had  on 
the  tri]>  to  the  Falls.  As  the  f.are  is  very  reasonable,  no  one  .should 
miss  the  trip.  The  Barron  Falls  in  flood  has  been  described  ty 
writers  as  amongst  the  grandest  siglits  in  the  World. 


S.S.   "COOWIA,"   4,000  TONS. 

A  Short  Description  oi  the  Trip  to 

CAIRNS. 

Leaving  Melbourne  on  a  Wednesday,  we  conuiience- 
a  delightful  tom%  which  invariably  leaves  plea.sant  re- 
collections. After  an  enjoyable  trip  to  S_\<lney,  we 
arrive  on  Friday,  We  visit  some  of  the  charming  places- 
of  interest  before  leaving  for  Brisbane,  and  upon  arrival 
there  on  Monday,  spend  the  time  very  comfortably 
viewing-  the  many  pretty  spots  before  thesteaiuer  leaves 
on  Tuesday  for  Keppel  Bay  (outside  of  Rockhampton). 

After  a  few  liours  here,  we  steam  onwai-d  to  Towns- 
ville,  riti  .Mai-ka,\ ,  yiassing  en  rontc  through  thefamoas- 
Whitsunday  Pas.sage,  which  has  been  described  as  an. 
e\er-changing-  panorama  of  islands  coming  and  going ; 
splendid  emeralds,  in  a  gorgeous  setting  of  sea  and 
sk.\ ,  with  a  sea  beautifully  calm. 

.\t  Towns\  ille,  we  join  the  new  twin-screw  Steamer 
"Mciurilyan,"  l.'^.W  tons,  which  was  built  specially  for 
the  T(  iwnsville-Cairns  .service  by  Howard  Smith  Co.  Ltd. 
She  is  a  beautiful  vessel,  up-to-date  in  every  respect, 
and  has  a  si>eed  of  1.5  knots.  Each  State  Room  has  an 
electric  fan.  and  the  ]iromenade  deck,  comliined  with 
all  the  other  modern  appointments,  provides  one  mth 
every  comfort. 

The  excellent  cuisine  of  the  Steamer  from  Meiliourne 
to  Townsville  is  equalled  on  the  "  Mourilyan." 

The  Artist,  Tovuist,  Health  or  Pleasure  Seeker 
should  not  hesitate  to  take  the  trip  to  Cairns,  for  it 
has  been  truly  said  that  North  Queensland  is  the 
wonderland  of  Australasia. 

The  trip  is  highly  recommended  by  medical  men 
from  a  health  point  of  view.  Excellent  acconuuodation. 
can  be  oljtained  at  Cairns  and  Kuranda,  near  the  falls. 


FARES 

To 

1st  Class. 

2iid  Class 

Single. 

3rd  Class 

CAIRNS 

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S.S.      BOMBALA,"  4,000  TONS. 


Vol.  X.  WHEAT    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  Parte. 

"  [He-.istered  at  the  General  Post  Office,  Melbourne,  for  transmission  by  I'ost  as  a  Newspaper.] 


A     V    \  A   PROLIFIC    V 


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BRUNNING 


PTY.    LTD. 


GRASSES    AND    CLOVERS, 


RYE    GRASS,     COCKSFOOT,     PRAIRIE,     PHALARIS, 
DWARF     ESSEX     RAPE,     PASPALUM,     TIMOTHY,     RIB     GRASS, 
WHITE  CLOVER,  ALSIKE,  COWGRASS,  TREFOIL,  BURR  CLOVER, 
CRIMSON    CLOVER,    SUCKLING    CLOVER,    FESCUES,    ETC. 

Samples  and  Prices  of  All  Agricultural  Seeds.  Post  Free. 


SEED  &   BULB   MANUAL 

FOR       1912 

Containing  over  130  pp.   of  useful  and  instructive  information. 
■ — -JUST     PUBLISHED. 


POST     FREE     ON     APPLICATION     TO     THE     BULB     DEPARTMENT. 


SPRAY    PUMPS. 
LEAD  ARSENATE. 

SECATEURS. 
FRUIT  TREE  NETS. 

MANILLA    TAGS. 


BIRD    SCARERS. 

PLANET  JR.  DRILLS. 

AERATORS. 

CAHOON  SOWERS. 

NIKOTEEN. 


FRENCH 

PROVENCE 
LUCERNE. 


Guaranteed  dodder 
free  by  the  French 

Government. 
Special  Prime  Seed. 


PRICE    ON 
APPLICATION. 


INCOMPARABLE  CORN  SHELLER. 
Single  Hole,  £5.     Double  Hole,  £9  1  ( 


HUNTER 
RIVER 

LUCERNE. 


Special  True  Seed. 

Not  mixed  with 

Cheap  Seed. 

PRICE    ON 
APPLICATION. 


PLANET  JR.    IMPLEMENT.    (Write  for  Catalogue). 


64  ELIZABETH-ST.,  MELBOURNE 


THE     JOIJR]ST^\L 


OF 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


'VICTOE.I.A.,    -A.XJSTE,A.LI^^. 


CONTENTS.— JUNE,     1912. 


PAGE. 


Wheat  and  its  Cultivation...             ...    A.  E.  V.  Rirhardson,  M.A.,  B.Sc.  {Agric.)  .329 

Yield  of  Reconstituted  Vineyard,  Rutherglen  ...  ...  G.  H,  Adcoclc  3.S9 

Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees                ...             ...  ...  ...  C.  F.  Cole  .344 

Water  Requirements  of  Crops           ...             ...  /.    W.  Pati-rmn,  B.Sr.,  Ph.D.  349 

Dairy  Cow  Test,  Bunyip    ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  B.  A.  liarr  354 

Bee-keeping  in  Victoria     ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  F.  R.  Bcuhne  .355 

Oeneral  Notes       ...              ...              ...              ...  ...  ...  .  35y 

"Weeds — Naturalized  Aliens  and  Poison  Plants  of  Victoria 

A.  J.  Eirart,  D.Sc,  Ph.D.  S-IO 

Mint  Cultivation  ...              ...             ...               ..  ...  ...  J.  Knight  .361 

Fumigation  for  the  Destruction  of  Scale  Insects  ...  ...   A.  A.  Hcimmond  366 

Review  of  Dairying  Season                ...             ...  ...  ...  i>^  Crave  .375 

Second  Victorian  Egg-laying  Competition     ...  .,.•  ...  ...  ^^o 

Statistics                ...             ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  .3gg 

Wheat  Harvest,  Victoria  ...             ...             ...  ,..  .3g'7 

Orchard  and  Garden  Notes                ...             ...  ...  ...  E.  E.  Pe^cott  387 

Answers  to  Correspondents               ...             ...  ...  ...  ._.  •^oq 

Reminders  for  July             ...             ...             ...  ...  .^.  ^  ono 


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journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


[lo  June,  191^. 


^ 


A  silent 
worker 
day  &  night 


No  expense 
for  power. 


Plenty  of  Water  for 
Household  &  Stock* 

The  "BILLABONQ"  Mill  is  powerful  and 
easy  running.  It  \\-oiks  in  a  remarkably  light 
breeze,  and  maintains  an  even  and  well- 
governed  motion  in  strong  winds  and  gusts. 
A  most  reliable  mill  for  supplying  water  for 
Household,  Farm  and  Stock  use.  Costs  you 
nothing  for  power,  and  except  an  occasional 
oiling  needs  no  attention.  This  Mill  is 
manufactured  l)y  us  at  our  Melbourne  Works. 
We  hold  Patent  Rights.       Send  for  Booklet. 


Stock  Water  Troughs. 


In  "  BILLABONQ  "  Troughing  you  have 
the  latest.  It  is  protected  by  recent  patent 
rights,  and  has  many  advantages.  Two 
are  : — The  corrugated  or  look  joint  at  each 
end  of  sections,  renders  them  im})Ossible 
of  being  pulled  apart.  The  Trough  is 
supported  underneath  by  the  semi-circular 
bed  each  standard  provides.  Body  is  of 
Galvanized  Iron.  Structure  of  Angle 
Steel.         Send  for  Price  List. 


Tools  for 
the  Farmer^ 
Carpenter  & 
Engineer* 

In  our  vast  assortment 
of  modern  tools  and 
appliances  there  are, 
no  dou])t,  many  labor- 
saving  devices  you  re- 
quire. Send  for  our 
priced  and  illustrated 
Tool  Catalogue  now, 
and  thus  get  in  touch 
with  our  goods  and 
their  very  moderate 
prices. 

&  SON 

PROPTY.      %^  M    %■  li  a  ^'^h:^     LIMITED, 
391-399     BOURKE     STREET,     MELBOURNE. 


J 


lo  June,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


ui 


BARTRA 


CONSTELLAT 


Just  as  the  Southern  Cross  is  inseparably  associated  with  Australia, 
so  is  the  name  "BARTRAM"  closely  allied  with  the  dairying 
industry  of  Victoria.  The  introduction  of  improved  methods,  and 
the  adoption  of  the  most  up-to  date  labor-saving  machinery,  has 
enabled  those  engaged  in  dairying  pursuits  to  get  out  of  their 
cows  the  maximum  return  at  the  least  cost.  The  five  "STARS" 
that  have  so  materially  helped  to  guide  hundreds  of  dairy  farmers 
to  fortune  and  success,  are :— ' 


"ALFA-LAVAL" 
CREAM  SEPARATORS 


"LK-G." 


(( 


}) 


"FELIX" 
PETROL  MOTORS 


IRRIGATION  OUTFITS 

"ALFA" 
STEEL  WINDMILLS 


In  buying  the  above  lines  you  run  no  risk  whatever.  Years  of 
everyday  use  on  liiuulrcds  of  farms  in  Victoria  alone  have  demon- 
strated beyond  doubt  that  they  are  as  represented  in  our  catalogues, 
and  are  easily  the  best  manufactured.  They  carry  our  guarantee  of 
efficiency  and  long  service,  and  behind  the  guarantee  is  a  reputa- 
tion   of    40    years    of    unequalled    service    to  Victorian  dairymen. 

Write  for  our  Illustrated  Catalogue. It  is  Free, 

and  gives  much  valuable  advice.  When  in  town 
come  and  see  us.  Our  expert  linowledge  is  fully 
and  freely  at  your  service.  We  give  liberal 
terms  and  accept  easy  payments. 


J.  BARTRAIVl  h  SON 


PTY. 
LTD., 


19-23  KING  ST., 
MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  June,  1912. 


^  "*  \'     '   '   »  '•*  -^  > 


This  is  the  Quick 


l^f^-l-'i^UJ^-KnggjrM 


and   Easy  Way ! 


Oiice  get  an  Earth  Scoop  on  the  job  making  Irrigation 
Channels,  Drains,  and  Dams,  and  you'll  wonder  how 
ever  you  did  without  it. 

No  laborious  pick  and  shovel  wcrk.  This  Scoop  of  ours 
cuts  its  way  quickly  and  cleanly.  It  enters  Ploughed  or 
Virgin  Soil  readily,  and  is  extremely  light  on  the  horse. 

The  body  of  the  Scoop  is  pressed  cold  from  a  solid  plate 
of  hardened  steel,  which  is  the  right  way;  hot  pressed 
Scoops  soon  show  their  weakness,  especially  at  the 
corners. 

This   Scoop   has  steel  runners  and   detachable  handles. 


No. 

Capacity. 

Weiulit. 

Price. 

0 

10  cub.  ft. 

133  lb. 

80/- 

1 

7        „ 

105  lb. 

37/6 

2 

5        „ 

95  lb. 

35/- 

3 

2        „ 

80  lb. 

32/6 

IF    WE    KNEW    YOUR    ADDRESS 

We'd  send  a  copy  of  our  Book  of  Tools  Post  Free.    It  illustrates 
over   2,000   up-to-date   Appliances   at    Money   Saving   Prices. 


^Phcrso^ 

Machinery  Merchants, 
554=66  &  582=88  Conins=st.,  Melbourne. 


lo  June,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


r"  IT  WILL  PAY  YOU  - 

TO    LEARN 

MODERN  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 
LIVE  STOCK  &  FRUIT  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

can  teach  you  AT  YOUR  OWN  HOME  how  to  MAKE  MOKIC  MOXEV  b\-  the  employment  of  up-to-date 
methods.  We  teach  all  branches  of  Agriculture  and  Live  Stock  Hustoandry,  including  Drainage, 
Irrigation,    Dairying    and    Practical    Orchard    Management.       We  also  give  instruction  in  the 

following  subjects  : — 


Electrical  Engineering 
Steam  Engineering 
Shire  Engineering 
Mining  Engineering 
Surveying 


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Building    Construction 

and  Estimating 
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Bookkeeping  Arithmetic 

Shorthand  Mathematics 

Accountancy  Languages 

Commercial  Law  Drawing 

English  Illustrating 

WE    PREPARE   CANDIDATES   FOR    ALL   PUBLIC    EXAMINATIONS. 

The  instruction  goes  RIGHT  TO  YOUR  HOME,  no  matter  where  you  live.  It  is  clear,  concise,  easily 
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is  required,  and  our  fees  are  exceedingly  moderate  and  within  the  reach  of  everybody. 

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STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

54    MARKET    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


t*«is?™!!!«' "TIP-TOP"  SEE 


■■&:    Co.'s^ 


ESTABLISHED    62    YEARS. 

THREE    VALUABLE    GRASSES, 


PASPALUM  DILATATUM 

OR  GOLDEN    CROWN  GRASS. 

A  valuable  forajje  grass  for  all  kinds  of  stock.  With- 
stands drought,  and  frost-will  not  kill  it;  particularly 
suitable  for  dairy  cattle  as  it  will  stand  any  amount  of 
grazing,  and  trampling  of  stock  does  not  injure  it. 
Makes  a  very  etticierit  tire-break  when  planted  in  strips 
throughout  natural  pastures,  as  it  remains  luxuriantly 
green  when  the  surroundings  are  in  a  dry,  parched, 
and  itiHainmable  condition.  Sow  6  lbs.  per  "acre.  First 
quality  heavy  hand-shaken  seed,  1,6  per  lb. 

PHALARIS  COMMUTATA 

The  King-  of  all  Winter  Grasses. 

Grows  between  6  and  7  feet  high.  Resists  frosts  and 
droughts.     This  marvellous  grass  has  been  known  to 


grow  quite  an  inch  a  day  on  poor  ground.  Recom- 
mended to  graziers  and  dairymen,  as  it  remain.^  par- 
ticularly luxuriant  in  winter,  and  behaves  remarkably 
well  during  the  hot,  dry  months.  It  seems  to  like  all 
kinds  of  weather.  Sow  .2  lbs.  per  acre  in  drills  ;  or 
4  lbs.  broadcast.      7/6  per  lb. 

TIMOTHY  GRASS. 

This  well-known  variety  adapts  itself  to  almost  any 
soil.  It  is  a  capital  grazing  grass,  and  produces  ex- 
cellent haj'.  It  is  of  strong  growth  and  3  ields  abundant 
feed.  Quantity  required  to  sow  an  acre,  30  lbs. 
Price,  1/3  per  lb. 


WRITE   FOR  OUR   NEW  FARMERS 
PRICE  LIST. Si^NT  POST  FREE- 


Law,  Somner,  &  Co.'s  "TIP-TOP"  Seeds, 

139-141  SWANSTON-ST.,  MELBOURNE.    Phone,  Central  729. 


vi  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  June,  1912. 


"AUSTRAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES. 

FIVE  YEARS   OF   UNBROKEN    SUCCESS 

Have  established  the  AUSTRAL  as  the  Premier  MilkingT  Machine,  and 

have  demonstrated  that  it  does  not  belong  to  that  class  of  appliances  whose 
efficiency  terminates  after  a  few  months  of  use.  It  has  stood  the  t«at  of  time,  and 
that  under  all  sorts  of  conditions. 

IT    IS    SIMPLE, 

Complexity  and  intricacy  are  the  bane  of  milking  machinery.  Both  in  principle 
and  construction  the  Austral  is  strikingly  simple.  Minute  pulsating  mechanism 
on  teat  cups  or  buckets  has  been  entirely  dispensed  with,  its  place  being  taken  by 
a  single  pulsating  pump,  simple  and  strong  in  construction,  which  serves  for  the 
whole  outfit,  whether  two  cows  or  ten  are  to  be  milked  at  a  time.  The  pulsating 
pump  is  placed  in  the  engine  room,  remote  from  the  cows. 

IT    IS    AN    EASY    MILKER. 

Fear  of  injury  to  cows  was  at  one  time  the  bogie  of  machine  milking.  The  Austral 
has  done  away  with  all  that.  Its  action  on  the  cow  is  as  gentle  as  that  of  the 
softest  hand,  and  much  easier  than  the  average  hired  help.  After  three  and  four 
years'  milking  M-ith  the  machines,  coms  are  funnd  to  be  as  sound  in  the  quarters 
as  when  they  started.  Enquiry  from  any  Austral  user  will  confirm  the  correct- 
ness of  this  statement. 

IT  IS  THE  LAST  WORD  IN  ECQNOIVIICAL  DAIRYING. 

The  working  parts  are  so  few  and  the  construction  so  simple  and  solid,  that  wear 
and  tear,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  upkeep,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  An 
outstanding  feature  of  the  Austral  is  the  Tank  System,  whereby  the  milk  is 
conducted  direct  from  cow  to  separator  without  any  handling  whatever.  With 
this  system,  so  great  a  saving  is  effected  in  time,  labour,  and  trouble,  that  in 
ordinary  circumstances  its  advantages  are  overwheln  in^.  A  single  bucket  can  be 
supplied  for  testing  individual  cows;  or  where  spec  al  requirements  render  it  pre- 
ferable, complete  bucket  plants  can  be  installed. 

GLOBE  CREAM   SEPARATORS.      ,         CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES. 

Embodies   the   famous   Link-Blude    Bowl  I  The  world's  standard  Oil  Engine.      In  all 

Structure.     Official  tests  conducted  by  the  [  sizes  and  for  all  descriptions  of  farm  work. 

Swedish  Government  at  Alnarp  placed  the  'f 

"Globe"  in  the  very  forefront  for  clean  k  VACCAR    PETROL    ENGINES. 


skimming    and    easy    running,   against    all 
competitors 


British    built.  Low    running    speed. 


All  sizes  from  14  to  200  gallons.  Economical  on  fuel. 

WINDMILLS,  SAW-BENCHES,  CHAFF-CUTTERS,  and  all  Farrn  and  Dairy  Machinery. 

When  writing,  please  mention  this  Journal.        


W.  H.  BLflCKHflni: 


59-Gl   KING  ST., 
MELBOURNE. 


i-o  June,  191  ^-J 


Journal  flf  Agriculture ,  Vic/or/a. 


Herd    of   Prize 

Winnings  and 
Heavy  Milk  ^ 
and  Butter  Pro- 
ducing  Strains* 


YOUNG      BULLS     AND      HEIFERS 


FOR     SALE. 


"MYSTERY    VI.    OF     MELROSE." 


INSPECT/ON     BY     APPOINTMENT. 


mmm  wooDiwflsoii,  """"'^" 


Dairy, 


MALVERN,     MELBOURNE,    Vic. 


VIU 


Journal  of  Agricidtiirc ,  Victoria. 


[to  June,  1912. 


R. 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT    LAND, 

Li>,t  showiiio-  nuinltei-  of  allotments  on  the  various  Estates  availaljle  for  application  : — 


Estate. 

lCovu<;a 

Swan  Hill 

Cohuna 

Sheppavto 

Nanneellu 

Bamawiu 

Ton.i;ala 


Irrigation  Areas.      Area. 


0 

20 

3S 

107 


40S 
•2,084 
1-2 
2,020 
2,834 
3,104 


Dairying"  and  Mixed  Farming-. 


liona  Vista 
I  )«•))(  li'iie 
Eunieralla 
Allaiiibee 
.  Morveii 
Werribee 
Keiiilwoitl 
Jlooralla 
Cremona 
Nuniurkah 
^Vyu^la 
Diuirobin 


4 

3 

8 

10 

13 

1 
1 


totallin" 


3S9  a- 

811 
3,075 
1,578 
4,40-2 
4,121 

601 1 

624 

61-2 

234 

102 

2SJ 


Wheat  Growing-. 


Estate. 


Area. 


Cornelia  Creek 

Oaklands 

Hurst  wood     . . 

Mt.  Widderin 

Nerrin  Nerrin 

Pan n 00 

JIarathon  &\\'inow  Grove    10 


15 

totalling 

2,384  a( 

:es 

G 

4,140 

6 

3,014 

10 

5,522 

17 

3,736 

24 

8,562 

10 

8,508 

. 

Beet  Growing-  and  Dairying-. 

5        totalli 
41 

Clerks'  Homes. 


Boisdale 
Kilnianv  Park 


5        totallin"-        256  arres 
41  ,,     '       3,994     ,, 


.  Tooroiua  ..  ••  ..         36  allotments. 

Workmen's  Homes. 

Pender's  Grove      ..  ..  ..       118  allotments. 


Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending-  over  3U  years,  with 
payments  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent.  ]ier  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  value  of 
l»-'rmanent  improvements  effected,  repajiuents  extending-  over  fifteen  years  bearing-  5  per  cent,  interest. 

Forfii/I  information  and  fernis  apply  to  THE     SECRETARY, 

LANDS    PURCHASE    AND     MANAGEMENT     BOARD, 

MELBOURNE. 


AUSTRALIA'S  WACON  ;i.^'/S' 

PATENT 

STEEL 
WHEELS. 

Patent  Felloes. 
Renewable  Carron 
Boxes  and  Oil  Caps. 

The  only  Steel  Wheel 

that  has  stood 

the  Test. 

Beware  of 
Imitations. 

A.  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningie,  South  Australia,  says:— 

Dear  Sir,— I  have  received  Spring  Wagon.  I  am  well  pleased  with  same.  I  never  thought  it  would  run  so 
well,  and  I  think  those  who  have  Steel  Wheels  will  never  use  the  old  style  again.  Two  horses  carried  my  first  load 
of  two  tons  of  potatoes  over  a  bad  road  of  30  miles,  where  the  old  style  of  wagon  was  bog:ged,  and  is  still  there. 

^  August,  1903. 

ALBERT  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningie,  S.A.,  says:— 

Dear  Sir,— In  answer  to  your  letter  wanting  to  know  how  the  wheels  of  my  wagon  are,  T  am  pleased  to  tell 
you  I  have  had  the  wagon  aboiit  6A  years,  and  it  has  not  cost  me  a  shilling  ;  the  wheels  are  like  new,  and  I  have 
done  a  lot  of  heavy  carting.  Onlj'being  a  2-ton  Wagon,  I  lent  it  to  a  man  carting  wheat,  and  he  had  some  very 
rough  roads,  loads  being  about  50  bags.  Your  Wagons  are  worth  their  money,  and  I  would  not  be  witbMit  one  of 
them.     I  think  this  Wagon  will  last  my  life  time.     40"  and  36'  Wheels.  August  13th,  1010. 

iJiF"  TABLE  TOP— Truck  body,  and  all  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
WRITE     FOR     CATALOG     TO-DAY. 

Rl         I  Ull     f^VADr^       QUEENS    BRIDGE-ST., 

.     U.      1-.       niL-L^  T  MnU',     SOUTH   MELBOURNE,  V. 

Si 


lo  June,  191 2.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


LIGHT,  STBONS, 
PERFECTLY  RIGID. 


c^tmJ', 


(r^/Qvj 


"CYCLONE" 
WOVEN    GATE 

Q    ft.    -to    10    ft. 

Will  hold  anything,  and  can  be  made  rabbit  proof  by  putting  rabbit  proof 
intersection  at  the  bottom.      The  wider  gates  have  three  stays. 

Cet  our  Catalogue  of  this  and  many  other  Cyclone  Gates. "  THEY'RE  ALL  GOOD." 

CYCLONE    FENCE  &   GATE   CO., 


B  459  SWANSTON  ST.,  CORNER  franklin  ST.,  MELBOURNE.  ^ 


KEMP'S     PATENT 

SHEEP-BRANDING  LIQUID 

AS  USED  BY  LEADING  PASTORALISTS  OF  AUSTRALIA. 
IN  THREE  COLOURS,   BLACK,  RED  &  BLUE. 


Sold  in  8  gallon  cases,  4  6  gallon. 
1  gallon  tins,   5-  each. 


-AGENTS    FOR    VICTORIA    AND    RIVERINA- 


V 


DALGETY*°° 


LTD., 


ELBOURNE, 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  June,  191. 


"GLEN   ELGIN'S   PHILANTHROPIST"  299  A.H.B.   of  Aus. 


(^(^ 


Winner  of  Champion,  Sydney  Royal  Show,  1909,  1910,  1911,  1912. 

Reserve   Champion,   Melbourne   Royal  Show,  1907,   1908,   1911. 

Also  Winner  of  Bull  and  Progeny  Prize  of  £10  for  5  females  (the  progeny  of  any  one  bull) 
producing  the  largest  amount  of  commercial  butter  in  24  hours,  Sydney  Royal  Show,  1912. 

Also  holds  the  record  of  150  Firsts,  Cham])ions,  Specials,  and  Gold  Medals 
for  Ayrshire  and  Daily  Bull. 


The  "Glengapnoek"  Stud 


of  Pium      — ^ 
Aypshipe  Cattle 


Has  won  innumerable  prizes  in  the  ring.      The  females  in  this  herd  are  noted  for 
deep  and  heavy  milking  and  test  well  above  the  average,  and  are  kind  and  quiet. 

CHOICE  YOUNG  HERDBOOK  BULLS  FOR  SALE  at  from  5  to  25  guineas  each. 

From  Best  Cows  only,  by  Pure  Herdbook  Bulls.     Full  pedigrees  and  particulars,  witn 
photographs  of  animal  for  sale,  his  sire  and  dam,  will  be  forwarded  on  application. 

INSPECTION  CORDIALLY  INVITED.        VISITORS  MET  AT  LANG  LANG  RAILWAY  STATION. 

Address-   h     T      ODirOTI  HV     ♦  ;°f\-    V'CLENGARNOCK," 

TelegSjYANNATHAN,  Vic. 


op^ 


A.  T.  PRIESTLEY,  t 


I o  June,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


Gargoyle 

Prepared 

Red   Sppaying  Oil 


Needs  no  Soft  Soap 
o?  other  ing-redient. 


Requires  only 
Clean  Soft  Water. 


Vacuum  Gargoyle  Red  Spray  Oil 
now  obtainable  in  prepared  form 
is  the  same  Oil  as  that  originally 
introduced  to  Australia  for  fruit- 
tree    spraying. 


Full  particulars — 
Horticultural  Department, 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd., 
90  William  Street,  Melbourne. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  June,  1912-. 


BEET  &  DAIRY  FARMING 

THE    IDEAL 

CLOSER  SETTLEMENT  COMBINATION. 


THE    RICH 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 


D    THE    FAR-FAMED^ 


KILMANY     PARK. 


Both  of  these  Estates  have  been  specially  selected, 
purchased,  and  subdivided  for  Beet  Growing  and 
Dairying     combined,     and     to    afford     opportunity     to 

THRIFTY,  EXPERIENOEO  MEN  WITH  SMALL  CAPITAL 

to    make    a    comfortable    living    while    acquiring    the 
freehold     of    the    land. 


-1  l> 

For  the  possibilities  and  practical  results  read  the  article   on 

"THE     BEET     IDSriDTJSTI?,"^^," 

in  the  March,   19 12,  issue  of  The  Journal  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria. 


I': 
10  June,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 

Subdivided   into  57    blocks,    and    already    settled    with   the  exception   of 
Six  Blocks  of  from  40  to  60  acres,  to  carry  10  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  £25  10s.  to  £27  10s.  per  acre. 


KILMANY    PARK 


Now  open 

for 

Application, 

Subdivided 

into 


42  farm  blocks  from  56  to  195  acres,  to  carry  10  acres 
of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £7  lOs.  to  £22  lOs.  per  acre. 

14  Workmen's    blocks   from   20  to   46   acres,   to  carry 
4    acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £23  tO  £25  per  acre. 


For    particulars    and     conditions    of   purchase    and    as    to    blocks 
available,  apply  to  the 

Secretary,  Closer  Settlement  Board,  Melbourne. 


For    information    concerning    the    financial    aid    given    to    suitable 
Settlers  to  stock  the  farms,   apply  to 

The  Director  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 


1^ 


TREES  THAT  CROW  I^TREES  THAT 


C.  J.  GOODMAN,  Nurseryman, 

Picnic  Point  Nurseries,  Bairnsdale,  Victoria, 

Has  for  Sale  one  of  the  Largest  and   Most  Varied  Stoi'ks  of  Fruit   Trees  in  Australia. 

All  the  Nurseries  are  under  Government  supervision,  and  every  Tree  sent  to  Planters 
is  Clean,  Healthy,  Well-Cxrown  and  Shaped  and  True  to  Name.  Nearly  all  Trees 
worked  from  Trees  proved  to  be  Good  Bearers.  Write  for  Catalogue.     Post  Free. 


JijKnial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  June,  19 12. 


r 


THE    STANDARD     FOR    FENCING. 


CC 


EPTUNE" 

UNRIVALLED    PATENT    STEEL 

FENCING  WIRE. 


5  0  %   SAVED 

in  your    Wire   Account,   and   then 
you  have 


£9  8s.  6d.  saved 

on  3  miles  6  Wire  Fence 
^      ^  by  using  "NEPTUNE," 

■y  as  against  Ordinary  Wire. 


THE  BEST  POSSIBLE  FENCE, 


[     MORRIS  &  MEEKS,  agents,  MELBOURNE. 
V ^ 


You  cannot  do  better  than  purchase  your  requirements  from 

THE    VICTORIA    VARNISH    Coy.  ^7- 

Who  are  Importers  and  Manufacturers  of  the  undermentioned,  namely  : — 

Varnishes  for  all   uses,    Paints,    Dry   Colors,    Stainer's    Turpentine, 
Boiled    and    Raw    Linseed    Oil,    Resin,    Shellac,    White    Lead,    &c. 

OUR   MANUFACTURE     IS     OF    ONE     QUALITY— THE     BEST. 

Note  tbe  Address— 

The  VICTORIA  VARNISH  COY.  Proprietary  Ltd.,  Queen's  Bridge,  South  Melb. 

Tel.   Central  614-.  Established   1853.  A.    J.    BORTHWICK,    WJANAGtR 


riBiu. 


BONEDUST,  SUPERPHOSPHATE, 

AND     OTHER     HIGH-GRADE      FERTILIZERS 

DELIVERED  AT  RAILWAY  STATION,  FOOTSCRAY,  OR  ON  WHARF,  MELBOURNE. 

Office :— 407  POST  OFFICE  PLACE,  MELBOURNE. 

BONES  BOUGHT.      CONSIGN  TO  ME,  FOOTSCRAY.  Telephone  2098. 


lo  June,  191 2.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria. 


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Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  June,  1912. 


piston  s  Patent  Windmills 


■AT    THE    ROYAL    SHOW.- 


At  the  recent  Iloyal  Show  a  fine  collection  of  Windmills  was  exhibited  by  James  Alston, 
of  Queen's  Bridge,  Melbourne.  Mills  of  all  diameters,  from  6  ft.  to  25  ft.  were  shown 
at  work,  suitable  to  all  requirements  of  farmers  or  stock  raisers,  the  small  Mills  being 
suitable  for  lifting  modei-ate  supplies  from  shallow  wells,  while  the  larger  sizes  are  capable 
of  dealing  with  almost  any  depths.  A  splendid  Mill,  25  feet  diameter  on  a  50ft.  Steel 
Tower,  working  an  18"  pump,  and  throwing  a  stream  of  water  of  about  15,000  gallons  per 
hour,  attracted  much  attention.  This,  we  believe,  is  the  largest  Mill  ever  shown  on  the 
Show  Ground.  Alston's  Patent  Steel  Windmills  have  all  the  most  up-to-date  improve- 
ments in  their  construction.  Pumps  of  many  descriptions  were  shown,  including  the  latest 
Draw  Plunger  Pumps  for  bore  use,  which  admits  of  the  plunger  being  drawn  without 
disturbing  the  pipes  in  the  bore. 


THe  JOURNAI9 


OF 


Yfie  ©eparfment  of     Mi^rmMre 


LJ8HAU 
*^'  NEW  YOl 

VICTORIA.  ZtZ 


Vol.  X.        Part  6.  loth  June,  1912. 

WHEAT  AXD  ITS  CULTIVATION. 

(^Continued  from,  page   274.) 

No.  5.— METHODS  OF  CULTIVATION. 

By  A.  E.  Y.  Richardson,  M.A.,  B.Sc.  (Agric),  Agricultural 
Superintendent. 

The  nature  of  the  Australian  climate  is  such  as  to  render  thorough 
tillage  a  prime  factor  in  successful  wheat  cropping.  A  glance  at  the  rain- 
fall map  of  Australia  will  reveal  the  fact  that  the  large  wheat-growing 
areas  of  the  Commonwealth  are  situated  in  districts  with  a  limited  annual 
precipitation.  To  make  the  fullest  use  of  these  areas,  systems  of  cultiva- 
tion must  be  practised  which  aim  at  conserving  as  much  of  the  scanty  rain- 
fall as  possible. 

More,  however,  is  required  than  this.  No  system  of  cultivation  can 
be  permanently  effective  and  adequate  unless  it  makes  provision  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  fact  that  fallowing  is  so 
largely  practised  in  the  drier  areas  is  proof  that  the  former  aspect  is  appre- 
ciated. The  fact  that  there  are  wheat  lands  in  this  young  State  which 
practical  farmers  and  the  press  frequently  describe  as  "  worn-out,"  shows 
that  the  latter  aspect  is  frequently  ignored. 

No  system  of  cropping  can  be  complete  and  adequate  under  our  con- 
ditions, unless  it  provides  both  for  the  conservation  of  soil  moisture  and 
for  the  conservation  of  soil  fertility.  Methods  which  lead  to  the  conserva- 
tion of  moisture,  but  not  to  the  conservation  of  soil  fertility,  may  be 
temporarily  effective  and  profitable,  but  ultimately  they  must  be  disastrous 
both  to  the  farmer  and  to  the  community. 

Two  points,  therefore,  require  consideration  in  discussing  the  merits 
or  demerits  of  any  system  of  cultivation  for  wheat  growing  under  dry  con 
difions,    namely — - 

(i)  Conservation  of  moisture, 
(2)  Conservation  of  fertility. 
6(X»4.  >r 


33°  Journal  of  AgncuUurc.   Y'lcior'ia.  [lo   June,   191: 


Attention  will  be  directed  to  the  former  in  considering  the  practice  of  fal- 
lowing, whilst  the  latter  aspect  will  receive  special  consideration  in  con- 
sidering the  question  of  crop  rotation  and  soil  fertilization. 

Wheat  may  be  grown  under  three  different   systems  of  cropping — 

1.  Continuous  cropping  with  wheat. 

2.  Wheat  after  bare  fallow, 

3.  Wheat  in  rotation  with  other  crops. 
We  shall  consider  these  seriatim. 

I. — Continuous  Cropping. 

Continuous  cropping  with  wheat  is  very  general  in  countries  where 
methods  of  cultivation  are  extensive  rather  than  intensive.  It  is,  therefore, 
very  general  in  the  Argentine,  in  parts  of  Canada,  and  the  United  States, 
and  it  is  not  uncommon  in  Australia. 

In  the  early  stages  of  a  new  country,  lands  are  cheap,  and  even  free; 
capital  and  human  labour  comparatively  scarce  and  dear.  To  suit  these 
circumstances,  large  areas  are  sown  under  pioneer  conditions  of  culture 
Large  areas  under  crop  and  small  average  returns  per  acre  are  the  rule. 
As  population  increases  and  land  values  in  the  settled  districts  rise, 
the  margin  of  cultivation  is  gradually  extended  into  new  territory, 
the  large  holdings  in  process  of  time  become  subdivided,  and  an  era 
of  intensive  culture  in  the  more  densely  settled  localities  is  gradually 
ushered  in.  In  these  localities  the  individual  areas  under  crop  are  small, 
but  the  average  yield  is  high,  and  the  system  of  cultivation  changes  from 
continuous  cropping  to  a  highly  developed  rotation,  in  which  far  more 
labour  and  much  better-directed  labour  is  required. 

Such  is  the  history  of  agriculture  in  every  civilized  country  of  the 
world,   and  such  will  be  the  progress  of  agriculture  in  Victoria. 

However  expedient  and  profitable  it  may  be  in  a  new  agricultural 
country  where  pioneer  conditions  prevail,  the  sowing  of  wheat  year  after 
}ear  on  the  same  land  is  condemned,  by  both  theory  and  practice.  While 
it  may  be  said  that  continuous  growing  of  wheat  on  the  same  land  year 
after  year  is  not  good  practice,  the  results  obtained  in  the  Broadbalk  field 
at  the  Rothamsted  Experiment  Station  show  that  it  is  possible.  For 
example,  wheat  has  been  grown  continuously  in  the  Broadbalk  field  for 
over  60  years.  The  highest  yield  was  obtained  from  Plot  8,  viz., 
37.1  bushels  per  acre;  but  in  order  to  secure  this  result  a  liberal  dressing 
of  nitrogenous  phosphatic  and  potassic  manures  was  applied  each  year. 

The  next  best  result  was  on  Plot  2,  which  gave  35.5  bushels  per 
acre;  but  to  get  this  result  15.7  tons  of  farmyard  manure  per  acre  had 
to  be  annually   applied. 

The  unmanured  plot  gave  an  average  for  55  years  of  12.9  bushels, 
whilst  the  average  of  the  last  five  years  was  but  10  bushels.  While  con- 
tinuous cropping  with  wheat  has  been  practised  at  Rothamsted  for  upwards 
of  60  years  for  purely  experimental  purposes,  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that  such  practices  could  be  followed  with  profit  in  the  drier  areas  of  this 
State. 

In  considering  the  results  obtained  at  Rothamsted,  it  is  necessary  to 
bear  in  mind  that  the  average  annual  rainfall  is  not  only  heavy,  but  is 
also  well  distributed  throughout  the  year.  Thus,  for  51  years,  the  average 
is  28.21  inches,  of  which  the  fall  from  January  to  March  is  5.94  inches, 
April- June,  6.47  inches;  July-September,  7.76  inches;  and  October-De- 
cember, 8.04  inches.  Continuous  cropping  has  been  practised  at  Ro.se- 
worthy  College  (South  Australia)  on  seven  d  fferc^nt  plots  in  the  Permanent 


TO   June,    iqij.' 


\V//cat   and   its   CiiltivaUoii. 


?>2>^ 


Experimental  P'ield.      The  results  are  highly  interesting,  and  indicate  what 
is  likely  to  take  place  in  districts  with  a  similar  rainfall  (17  inches). 

Table  I. — Showing  average  returns  from  Seven  Plots  continuously  under 
Wheat  (1905-7)  compared  with  averages  of  plots  under  Wheat  after 
Bare  fallow.     (Roseworthy  College,  S.A.). 


1.  1904— 

{a)  Average  of  seven  plots  (fallowed  1903) 
(h)  Wheat  after  hire  f-.Uow       .  . 

2.  1905— 

(«)  ('  v.itinuously  cropped  plots 
[b)  Wheat  after  b.re  fpllow 

3.  1906— 

(a)  Continuously  cropped  plot  ^ 
(h)  Wheat  after"  hve  frJlow 


Rainfall. 


inches 
1()-71 


19' 


lo-O.- 


Grain 
per  acre. 


bu'^h.  lbs. 

•28  30 

9  1.5 

20  3 

3  53 

Ml  8 


Total  Produce 
per  acre. 


tons  cwts.  lbs. 
2  17  54 
2     1  i     68 


12 


21 
33 


*  Professor  Perkins,  in  commenting  en  these  plots,  .says — "  We  see  here 
clearly  demonstrated  the  futility  of  attempting  to  grow  wheat  continuously 
under  local  conditions.  The  grain  crop  fell  from  over  29  bu.shels  per 
acre  to  a  little  over  9  bushels  in  the  second  year,  and  to  not  quite  4  bushels 
in  the  third  year.  In  the  second  year  the  yield  of  plots  continuously 
under  wheat  was  about  1 1  bushels  below  the  a\-erage  of  the  plots  that  had 
been  treated  as  bare  fallow  the  'preceding  season  ;  and  in  the  third  year 
about  12  bushels  below.  We  shall  not  be  blam.ed  for  having  thrown  up 
the  experiment." 

n. — \\'heat  after  Bare  Fallow. 

Bare  fallowing  is  the  most  popular  method  of  preparation  for  wheat 
in  alL  but  the  most  humid  portions  of  the  State.  According  to  the  Year 
Book  of  Victoria,  1910-11,  the  ratio  of  bare  fallow  to  the  area  under 
wheat  in  1900  was  13.88  :  50,  i.e,  i  acre  of  bare  fallow  to  every 
4^  acres  of  wheat.  Ten  years  later  the  ratio  had  risen  to  24.32  :  43.38. 
i.e.,  more  than  i  acre  of  bare  fallow  for  every  2  acres  of  wheat. 

The  fact  that  the  area  under  bare  fallow  in  this  State  annually  exceeds 
1,000,000  acres  is  a  silent  testimony  to  the  effectiveness  of  this  mode  of 
cultivation  under  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  wheat  areas.  Still  the 
fact  that  there  is  such  a  large  area  of  wheat  in  the  drier  portions  of 
Victoria  still  sown  on  stubble  land  seems  to  indicate  that  the  importance 
of  fallowing  in  a  dry  climate  is  not  vet  fully  appreciated. 

Advantages  of  Bare  Fallowing. 

I.  Bare  Fallowing  conserves  the  Soil  Moisture. — The  great  advantage 
of  liare  fallowing  in  a  dry  climate  is  that  it  enables  the  cultivator  t:)  make 
the  utmost  use  of  a  limited  rainfall.  In  the  drier  districts  the  rainfall 
during  the  growing  period  is  not  sufficient -to  ensure  high  yields  but,  by  a 
good  system  of  bare  fallowing,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  rainfall 
from  the  previous  year  is  conserved  and  carried  over  to  augment  the  supply 
which  falls  during  the  period  of  growth  of  the  crop. 

Just  how  much  moisture  may  thus  be  conserved  under  a  given  rainfall 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil   and  the  effidencv  of  cultivation.      The 


*  Fourth  Report  on  the  Permanent  Exp.  Field.  Roseworthy  College,  Bulletin   Xo.   C5.  Dept.  of 
Agric,  South  Australia. 


332  Journal  of  Agriculture.   Victoria.  [lo   June,   1912. 


amount  conserved  and  carried  over  is  considerable  when  the  land  has  been 
early  fallowed,  and  the  surface  mulch  maintained  through  the  summer. 

Some  idea  of  the  amount  conserved  may  be  gained  from  some  pre- 
liminary observations  at  Rutherglen  and  Longerenong  this  season.  In 
both  instances  the  land  was  not  fallowed  till  late  in  the  season  September, 
so  that  the  moisture  contents  are  not  nearly  as  high  as  what  might  have 
been  expected  had  fallowing  been  commenced,   say,   in  June. 

Table  II. — Percentage  of  Moisture  (in  terms  of  dry  soil)  on  Fallowed  and 
Non-fallowed  land  prior  to  seeding,  ist  May,  191 2  (Rutherglen 
Viticultural  College),  Victoria. 


Depth  of  Sample. 


0  to  12  inches 
12  inche.s  to  24  inches 
24  inches  to  36  inches 
36  inches  to  48  inches 

Average  content  of  first  4  feet 


Fallowed. 


/o 
7  •02 

1(1-37 
1(5-68 
21-26 


15-48 


Ifoii-fallowed. 

Difference. 

0/ 

/o 

3-12 

10-52 

12  -28 

19-68 

0/ 
/o 

4-50 

5-85 
4-40 
1-58 

11-40 

4-08 

Thus  the  fallowed  land  had  4.08  per  cent,  more  moisture  in  the  first  4  feet 
than  the  non-fallowed  land. 

Assuming  the  weight  of  i  acre  foot  of  dry  soil  to  be  approximately 
3,500,000  lbs.,  it  follows  that  in  the  first  4  feet  of  the  Rutherglen  fallow 
there  were  571,200  lbs.  more  water  per  acre  in  the  fallowed  than  in  the 
non-fallowed  portion,  i.e.,  an  amount  equal  to  approximately  2|  inches 
of  rain. 

Table  III.  summarizes  the  moisture  content  of  fallowed  and  non- 
fallowed  land  at  Longerenong  Agricultural  College  at  various  depths  dur- 
ing the  summer  and  autumn  of  191 2. 

Table   III. — Moisture  content  of  Fallowed  and  Non-fallowed  land  at 

Longerenong,    191 2. 


Depth  of  Sampling 


5th  January,  1912. 


1.  0  to  12  inches 

2.  12  inches  to  24  inches 

3.  24  inches  to  36  inches 

4.  36  inclies  to  48  inches 

5.  48  inches  to  60  inches 

Averae;e  first  5  feet 


Fallowed. 


31-49 
33-46 
31  -46 
31-34 
33-14 

32-18 


Non-fal- 
lowed. 


/o 
16-66 
23-31 
26-79 
29-47 
30-31 

•25-31 


25th  March,  1912. 


Fallowed. 

/o 
■25-84 
34-41 
33-69 
33-18 
35-67 


32-56 


1st  May,  1912. 


Non-fal- 

Fallowed. 

lowed. 

0/ 
/o 

26-39 

0/ 
/o 

16-92 

28-75 

20-26 

27-81 

•25-16 

28-65 

32-07 

33-78 

34-27 

29-07 

25-74 

It  will  be  noted  from  the  tables  that,  while  there  are  considerable  varia- 
tions at  corresponding  levels  at  different  periods,  the  average  moisture  con- 
tent of  the  fallowed  portions  was  considerably  in  e.vcess  of  that  of  the 
non-fallowed  portions.  The  difference  in  favour  of  the  fallowed  portion 
immediately  before  seeding  amounted  to  3.33  per  cent.  ;  this  means  that 
in  the  first  5  feet  the  fallowed  portion  has  moisture  equal  to  2.6  inches  of 
rain  more  than  the  non-fallowed   portion. 


10  June,    1912.] 


W/ieai  and  its  Cultivation. 


?>2>Z 


In  connexion  with  these  tables,  the  following  figures  dealing  with  the 
rainfall  from  ist  July,  191 1.  at  ^utherglen  and  Longerenong  will  prove 
interesting  :  — 

Table    IV. — Monthly    rainfall,    Rutherglen    and    Longerenong,    from 
July,  191 1,  till  ist  May,  1912. 


July.  1911 

August 

September 

October 

November. . 

December 

January,  1912 

February   . . 

March 

April 

Total 


■92 


Rutherglen. 

Longerenong. 

iiu-hes 

inches. 

1  -33 

l-ol 

1-27 

•84 

1  -32 

3  •69 

•29 

•48 

•40 

•07 

2  •OS 

2^25 

•44 

•00 

•19 

•47 

•49 

•55 

•14 

•67 

10-53 


{b) 


Comparing  the  extra  water  saved  by  fallowing  (Tables  II.  and  III.) 
with  rainfalls  (Table  IV.),  it  will  be  .seen  that  at  both  stations  the  water 
saved  formed  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  rainfall  for  the  preceding 
ten  months,  and  this,  too,  although  the  fallowing  commenced  too  late  in 
the  season.  As  moLsture  conservation  is  one  of  the  principal  objects 
aimed  at  in  bare  fallowing,  we  shall  now  consider  more  closely  the  means 
whereby  this  object  may  be  attained. 

In  considering  how  to  store  and  make  effective  the  maximum  quantit}" 
of  moisture  possible  in  the  soil  under  any  given  rainfall,  three  points  must 
be  kept  in  mind. 

{a)   Every  facility  must  be  given  to  allow  the  moisture  that_  falls  to 
penetrate  the  soil,  and  not  run  off  the  surface,  collect  in  pools, 
or  evaporate. 
Provision  must  be  made  to  allow  moisture  to  move  freely  within 
the  body  of  the  soil  and  sub-soil  in  all  directions,  i.e.,  the  soil 
must  be  got  into  good  capillary  condition. 
{c)  No  moisture  must  be  allowed   to  evaporate   from  the   surface  by 
injudicious  or  careless   handling  of   the   soil. 
These  points  are,   of  course,   simple  enough,   but  the  question   is   how   to 
make  them  materialize  in  practice. 

(a)  So  far  as  the  penetration  of  moisture  is  concerned,  it  will 
be  apparent  that  any  hard,  compact,  unbroken  surface  of  soil  is  not  cal 
culated  to  admit  moisture  readily.  In  fact  if  heavy  rains  fall  a  large 
proportion  runs  rapidly  off  the  surface,  collects  in  pools,  and  much  becomes 
lost  by  evaporation.  On  the  other  hand  a  loose  broken  surface  allows 
moisture  to  penetrate  readily,  and,  by  acting  as  a  mulch,  conserves  what 
ever  moisture  happens  to  be  in  the  soil.  Many  farmers,  realizing  this, 
are  beginning  fallowing  operations  early  in  autumn  by  discing  the  land  to 
catch  the  early  rains  as  a  preliminary  to  subsequent  ploughing  in  June  or 
July.  The  important  point,  however,  is  that  ploughing  .should  begin, 
-more  especially  in  a  dry  district,  as  soon  as  possible  after  seeding,  so  that 
ready  penetration  is  afforded  to  the  heavy  winter  rains. 

{b)  The  next  essential  is  to  get  the  .soil  in  such  condition  as  to  enable 
-the  imprisoned  moisture  to  move  freely  within  the  soil.  It  must  be 
■remembered  that  the  soil  particles  are  solid  bodies,  devoid  of  pores,  and. 


334  Journal  of   Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   June.    191. 


consequently,  they  cannot  hold  moisture  interstitially,  as  a  sponge. 
Moisture  is  held  by  the  soil  in  the  form  of  films  surrounding  the 
soil  particles.  The  water  holding  capacity  of  a  soil  is  dependent 
on  its  physical  constitution,  i.e.,  the  amount  of  organic  matter,  clay, 
sand,  &c.,  present,  and  also  on  the  minuteness  of  subdivision  of  the 
soil  particles,  i.e.,  the  tilth  of  the  soil.  A  soil  in  a  good  state  of 
tilth  is  not  only  capable  of  conserving  a  maximum  of  moisture,  but  it  is 
also  in  the  best  possible  capillary  condition,  i.e.,  the  moisture  from  the 
subsoil  is  able  to  move  up  more  freely  than  in  a  similar  soil  with  a  poor 
tilth,  composed  of  large  cloddy  particles.  Consolidation  of  the  soil  is 
an  important  factor,  because  the  presence  of  large  air  spaces  in  the  soil 
promotes  evaporation  and  interferes  with  the  movements  of  capillary  water. 
The  method  of  achieving  this  will  be  referred  to  later.  A  finely  divided 
and  firmly  consolidated  stratum  of  soil  resting  on  the  welbmoistened  sub- 
soil is  in  the  very  best  condition  not  only  for  the  storage  of  moisture,  but 
for  the  movement  of  that  moisture  upward  by  capillary  action. 

{c)  The  moisture  must  be  prevented  from  evaporating  at  the 
surface.  A  shower  of  rain  readily  causes  the  surface  to  run  together 
and  set.  The  hard  surface  then  enables  unbroken  capillary  connexion 
between  the  moisture-laden  subsoil  below  and  the  dry  crust  at 
the  top.  By  breaking  the  continuity  of  these  capillary  tubes  by  means 
of  a  cultivator  the  soil  is  effectively  mulched,  and  evaporation  is  reduced 
to  a  minimum.  In  this  connexion  it  may  be  mentioned  that  it  is  not  neces- 
sary, from  the  point  of  view  of  moisture  conservation,  to  have  the  surface 
of  the  soil  finely  pulverized.  We  often  observe  farmers  harrowing  away  at 
the  surface  of  the  soil  until  the  tilth  is  like  an  onion  bed.  The  important 
po:nt  is  to  have  the  finely  divided  and  firmly  consolidated  soil  below ;  and 
it  is  not  of  great  moment  if  the  surface  be  rather  rough  and  cloddy, 
provided  only  that  it  is  loose. 

2.  Bare  Fallowing  Increases  the  Supply  of  Available  Plant  l-'ood. — 
One  indirect  result  of  the  moisture  cnn.served  by  the  process  (jf  bare 
fallowing  is  that  during  the  suimiier  months  many  chemical  and  biological 
changes  take  place  within  the  body  of  the  soil,  and  result  in  the  liberation 
of  plant  food. 

Just  exactly  what  these  changes  are  has  not  been  completely  demon- 
strated. There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  process  of  nitrification  goes 
on  rapidly  in  well-tilled  bare  fallows  under  Victorian  conditions.  By  this 
process,  nitrogenous  organic  matter  is  slowly  converted  by  three  stages 
into  nitrates,  and  the  action  is  brought  about  bv  specific  bacteria.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  at  Rothamsted  80  lbs.  of  nitrogen  as  nitric  acid 
are  formed  in  i  acre  of  land  during  a  year  of  bare  fallow.  Further, 
losses  through  drainage  over  a  period  of  thirteen  years  v/as  37  lbs.  per 
acre.  The  rate  of  nitrification  under  Victorian  conditions  has  not  yet  been 
completely  worked  out,  but,  owing  to  the  high-soil  temperature  during 
summer,  it  is  fairly  rapid  in  our  well-tilled  bare  fallows.  For  example,  in 
the  fallowed  land  at  Longerenong,  on  7th  December,  191 1,  there  were 
57.75  lbs.  per  acre  of  nitrogen  present  as  nitrate  in  the  first  5  feet.  On 
ist  April,  191 2,  this  amount  had  increased  to  105  lbs.  in  the  same  volume 
of   soil. 

In  addition  to  the  increase  in  nitrates,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
other  important  plant  foods,  particularly  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  are 
converted  from  unavailable  to  available  forms. 

3.  Bare  Fallowing  Distributes  the  Farm  ^york  evenly  through  the  Year. 
-One  of  the  great  advantages  of  bare  fallowing  is  in  the  fact  that  it 
enables  the  wheat-grower  to  have  ready  in  autumn  large  areas  in  the  best 


lo   June.    1912.]  W/ieai  and  its  Cultivation.  335 

state  of  tilth  to  receive  the  seed,  as  soon  as  the  weather  conditions  are 
favorable  for  seeding.  This  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance  in  the 
drier  portions  of  the  State  where  the  normal  seeding  season  is  so 
restricted. 

When  favorable  conditions  for  seeding  exist,  it  is  necessary  for  the 
Victorian  farmer  to  concentrate  his  energy,  not  on  the  ploughs,  but  upon 
the  drills. 

If  ploughing  has  to  be  done  at  seed  time,  the  subsequent  seeding  must 
be  delayed,  and  danger  arises  from  the  ill  effects  of  a  non-consolidated 
seed  bed. 

Those  who  relied  this  season  on  the  early  autumn  rains  to  get  their 
ploughing  done,  have  had  an  experience  they  will  not  readily  forget.  Such 
an  abnormally  dry  autumn  as  we  have  just  experienced  brings  home  very 
forciblv  tne  benefits  obtained  by  having  land  ready  for  seeding  when  the 
rains  fall, 

(4)  Subsidiary  advantages  of  bare  fallowing  are  that  it  cleans  the  land 
of  weeds,  increases  the  amount  of  available  plant  food  formed  in  the 
soil,  and  enables  a  consolidated  seed  bed  to  be  formed. 

The  experienced  wheat-grower  knows  the  value  of  a  firm,  consolidated 
seed  bed  for  the  wheat  crop.  The  consolidation  necessary  for  success  is 
not  effected  in  a  week  or  a  month.  Time  is  a  necessary  factor  of  the 
process.  The  consolidation  is  effected  by  the  packing  action  of  the  rain 
and  frequent  cultivation,  and  is  one  of  the  benefits  accruing  from  early 
fallowing.  A  firm  seed  bed  is  an  essential  for  the  effective  utilization  of 
the  subsoil  moisture  bv  capillarity. 

Limitations  of  Bare  Fallow  under  Australian  Conditions. 
I.    Unnecessary  and  Unprofitable  in  Humid  Districts. 

It  must  be  obvious,  from  the  recital  of  the  advantages  of  fallowing  that 
it  can  only  be  completely  successful  in  the  drier  portions  of  this  State, 
and  in  a  relatively  dry  climate.  Obviously  the  most  serious  drawback  to 
bare  fallowing  is  that  only  one  crop  can  be  grown  in  two  years,  and  the 
crop  must  be  debited  with  two  vears'  rental  value  of  the  land.  Wherever 
large  areas  of  land  are  held,  and  land  values  are  low,  and  the  climate 
relativeh  dry,  this  is  not  really  a  very  serious  matter,  for  the  difference 
between  the  crop  grown  on  fallow  and  that  grown  on  stubble  land  may  be 
so  great  as  to  make  the  two  years'  rental  which  the  fallow  crop  bears  an 
item  of  little  importance. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  districts  where  land  values  are  high,  the  loss 
of  a  crop  is  a  matter  of  great  importance.  High  land  values,  however, 
are  restricted  to  the  relatively  humid  areas  of  the  State,  where  considera- 
tions of  moisture  conservation  are  of  secondary  importance.  In  such  cases, 
where  the  annual  rainfall  is  sufficiently  high  to  enable  heavy  crops  to  be 
taken  off  annually  fallowing  is  unnecessary,  and  even  unprofitable,  and 
should  be  substituted  by  a  skilled  system  of  rotation  and  catch  cropping, 
if  the  soil  resources  are  to  be  fully  utilized.  What  must  be  remembered 
in  such  cases  is  that  the  nitrates  formed  during  the  process  of  bare  fallow- 
ing are,  on  the  one  hand,  extremely  soluble  in  water,  and,  on  the  other, 
the  soil  has  no  power  to  hold  them.  Unless  bare  fallow,  therefore,  is 
supplanted  by  a  fallow  crop,  or  by  a  catch  crop,  the  practice  must  result 
in  a  loss  of  the  soil  nitrates. 

Evidence  both  of  the  extent  to  which  bare  fallowing  is  practised  and 
the  effectiveness  in  various  districts  may  be  gathered  from  figures  collected 
from  the  Year-Book  of  Victoria. 


33^ 


Journal  of  AgriciiUurc.    Yictoria.  [lo   June,    1912^ 


Table  V. — Wheat  grown  on  fallowed   and   unfallowed   land   in 
Victoria,   1908. 


Wimmera 
Mallee 
Northern 
Western 


Manured  Land. 


Fallowed. 


Area. 

Average 
Yield. 

Acres. 
6i),834 
31,963 
41,110 
'      4,821 

Bushels. 

11-82 
5-75 
9-50 

17-93 

147.728 

10-07 

N"  on-fallowed. 


Acres. 
27,520 
20,908 
28,946 

5,993 


83,367 


Average 
Yield. 


Bushels. 
5-75 
2*62 
4-06 

13-47 


4-93 


It  will  be  noted  that  the  three  relatively  dry  districts  in  the  Wimmera, 
Mallee,  and  Northern  the  yield  of  fallowed  land  was  in  all  cases  more 
than  double  that  of  the  non-fallowed  land.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
Western  District,  which  as  a  whole  is  considerably  more  humid,  the 
benefits  of  fallowing,  though  considerable,  were  relatively  less  marked  than 
those  of  the  three  former  districts.  Unfortunately,  these  statistics  were 
only  taken  in  four  districts,   and  for  the  one  year,    1908. 

2.   Bare  Fallowing  Heads  to  Depletion  of  Organic  Matter. 

A  continual  alternation  of  wheat  and  bare  fallow  must  ultimately  lead 
to  the  depletion  of  the  organic  content  of  the  soil.  As  a  permanent  prac- 
tice it  is,  therefore,  inadequate.  To  the  natural  depletion  of  the  humus 
brought  about  by  oxidation  in  well-tilled  fallows  must  be  added  the  further 
depletion  caused  by  the  burning  of  the  straw.  Any  serious  lessening  of 
the  organic  content  must  inevitably  result  in  a  lowering  of  the  crop-pro- 
ducing power  of  the  soil.  This  depletion  of  organic  matter  is,  to  a  large 
extent,  counteracted  by  the  practice  of  interposing  a  period  of  pasture 
between  the  wheat  crop  and  the  bare  fallow.  The  merits  of  such  simple 
rotations,  however,  lie  outside  the  scope  of  the  present  article. 

When  to  Fallow. 


Early 


Late     F  alloiving. 


When  it  is  considered  that  the  success  of  a  bare  fallow  depends  mainly 
on  the  amount  of  moisture  conserved,  dt  will  be  readily  seen  that,  generally 
speaking,  fallowing  should  commence  as  soon  as  other  important  operations- 
permit.  Inasmuch  as  the  whole  team  strength  of  the  farm  is  usually 
concentrated  on  seeding  operations,  it  is  rarely  possible  to  commence  fal- 
lowing simultaneously  with  seeding. 

The  general  advantage  of  early  fallow  is  that  it  exposes  the  soil  to  the 
ameliorating  influences  of  the  atmosphere  for  a  longer  period  than  late 
fallow,  and  that  heavy  winter  rains  readily  penetrate  the  subsoil  and  are 
conserved.  Moreover  it  is  easier  to  effect  a  satisfactory  consolidation  of 
the  .seed  bed  with  early  than  with  late  fallowed  land. 


so  June,    191 2.]  Wheat  and  its  Cultivation.  337 

As  was  remarked  above,  time  is  a  most  important  factor  in  the  con- 
-solidation  of  the  seed  bed,  and  the  most  effective  consolidation  results  from 
-early  fallowing. 

With  late  spring  fallowing  much  of  the  winter  rain  may  be  lost  by 
evaporation  and  surface  drainage,  and  the  main  benefit  accruing  from  fal- 
lowing thereby  lost.  Unfortunately,  results  of  continued  and  exhaustive 
local  experiments  on  this  important  subject  are  wanting.  Those,  however, 
who  annually  fallow  large  areas  of  land,  know  by  experience  how  promi- 
nently early  fallowed  land  shows  up  against  late  fallowed  land,  especially 
when  the  fallowing  season  happens  to  be  at  all  dry.  Though  early  fallow- 
ing is  justified  as  a  general  principle  in  wheat-growing  areas,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  with  some  soils  it  is  not  always  practicable.  Heavy 
-clays,  which  tend  to  break  down  rapidly  under  the  influence  of  winter 
rains,  and  set  like  a  macadamized  road  with  equal  rapidity  with  the  advent 
•of  dry  weather,  should  be  better  left  till  the  lighter  types  of  soil  have 
Teceived  attention. 

The  practice  of  early  autumn  discing  as  a  preparation  for  winter  plough- 
ing is  frequently  adopted  in  the  drier  areas  with  very  satisfactory  results. 

The  disc  ds  put  over  the  land  in  February  or  March,  and  the  ploughing 
done  at  leisure  after  seeding.  This  not  only  provides  a  satisfactorv  mulrh 
early  in  the  season,  but  it  enables  autumn  rains  to  readily  penetrate  ihe 
subsoil.  Ploughing  operations  are  greatly  facilitated,  and  the  loose,  finely 
divided  mulch  turned  over  by  the  plough  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  slice 
greatly  aids  in  establishing  a  satisfactory  capillarv  connexion  between  the 
subsurface  soil  and  the  moisture-laden  subsoil. 

The  practical  difficulty  in  carrying  out  this  process  is  that  in  many  parts 
of  the  State  the  soil  sets  so  hard  in  the  dry  summer  weather  that  discing 
is  precluded.  Otherwise  there  is  no  reason  why  the  operation  should  not 
be  commenced  as  soon  after  harvest  as  possible. 

Depth  of  Working. 

In  deciding  the  depth  to  which  he  should  plough  and  work  his  land, 
the  farmer  must  be  guided  mainly  by  the  character  and  depth  of  the  soil 
and  subsoil. 

No  arbitrary  rules  can  be  laid  down,  but  each  must  decide  for  himself. 
Obviously  deep  working  would  be  quite  undesirable  wherever  the  soil  was 
shallow,  or  where  is  rested  on  an  inferior  type  of  subsoil.  It  is  also  very 
undesirable  to  bring  a  crude,  raw  clay  subsoil  to  the  surface.  On  soils  that 
are  naturally  deep,  however  it  is  well  to  give,  wiierever  possible,  a  good 
stiff  furrow.  Provided  that  the  soil  is  of  sufficient  depth,  and  the 
subsoil  is  satisfactory,  deep  working  is  better  suited  to  the  requirements  of 
an  arid  climate  than  shallow  working.  Such  working  materially  increases 
the  storage  capacitv  of  the  soil  for  moisture,  and  provides  for  an  inter-play 
of  moisture  and  air  at  a  greater  depth  than  shallow  working,  and  thus 
leads  directly  to  the  formation  of  a  greater  supply  of  available  plant  food. 
Of  course  the  beneficial  effects  of  such  deep  working  are  not  always 
immediately  apparent,  and  in  conducting  investigations  into  the  relative 
merits  of  deep  and  shallow  working  the  test  should  be  continued  for  at 
least  a  number  of  years.  Wherever  deep  working  is  practised  it  is  neces- 
sary, if  wheat  is  to  be  sown,  that  the  ploughing  should  be  done  many  months 
before  seeding.  No  plant  suffers  more  from  the  effects  of  a  loose,  open, 
non-consolidated  seed  bed  than  wheat,  and  if  it  is  intended  to  give  deep 
tillage,   care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  fallowing  is  started  early  in  the 


33^  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   June,    191 2. 

season.     The  full  benefit  of  the  packing  action  of  the  rain,   and  of  the 
settling  of  the  seed  bed  by  cultivation  is  thus  secured. 

The  question  frequently  arises  as  to  whether  the  soil  should  be  worked 
down   immediately   after   ploughing,   or   left  in   the   rough   for   some  time. 

As  a  general  principle,  land  should  be  left  rough  during  the  winter  in 
a  wet  district,  whilst  in  the  very  dry  areas  the  sooner  the  land  is  worked 
down  the  better. 

Much,  of  course,  depends  on  the  area  one  has  to  fallow  and  the  number 
and  strength  of  the  teams  available.  In  most  districts,  and  on  most  soils,  it 
will  generally  be  found  best  to  plough  a  considerable  area  before  working 
down,  especially  if  an  early  start  is  made.  With  the  approach  of  spring, 
however,  the  stores  of  moisture  in  the  soil  must  be  jealously  guarded,  and 
the  soil  should  be  worked  down  with  a  scarifier  or  cultivator  to  make  a 
loose,   but  lumpy,  surface  mulch. 

Summer  Cultivation. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  a  hard  crust  be  allowed  to  form  on  the 
suriace.  A  crusty  top  will,  by  aiding  capillary  action,  rapidly  drain  the 
subsoil  of  its  reserves  of  moisture  A  loose  crumbly  layer  of  soil  will,  how- 
ever, act  as  a  mulch  and  reduce  the  losses  by  evaporation  to  a  minimum. 
Such  a  .soil  mulch  is  maintained  by  cultivating  as  often  as  the  summer  rains, 
bring  about  a  consolidation  of  the  surface.  Frequently  summer  cultivation 
is  over  done.  The  soil  may  be  reduced  by  continual  cultivation  to  the 
condition  of  an  onion  bed.  This  is  a  source  of  trouble  on  fine  clay  soils^ 
and  may  assist  rather  than  retard  capillary  activity. 

(To  be  continued .) 


The  fattening  ox  spends  about  77  per  cent,  of  the  food  digested  for 
heat  and  work,  the  sheep  74,  and  the  pig  57.  The  pig  is  the  most  econo- 
mical meat  producer,  but  it  requires  a  ruminant  to  deal  effectively  with  hay 
and  fibrous  crops. 


lo  June,    1912.]  Yield  of  Reconstituted  Vineyard,  Ruthcrglen.  339 

YIELD     OF     RECONSTITUTED     VINEYARD     AT     THE 
RUTHERGLEN    VITICULTURAL    COLLEGE. 

Vintage  19 12. 

By  G.  H.  Adcock,  F.L.S.,  Principal. 

Following  the  practice  adopted  during  recent  years  the  vintage  returns 
for  the  Viticultural  College  vineyard,  for  the  current  season,  are  here  sub- 
mitted for  the  information  of  readers  of  the  Journal : — 

In  justice  to  all  concerned  it  will  be  necessary  to  remember  that  the 
vineyard  is  on  the  comparatively  poor  soil,  typical  of  so  many  acres  in  this 
and  other  auriferous  areas.  \Vhile  not  specially  suited  for  general  agri- 
culture, yet  it  adapts  itself  to  viticulture  readily.  The  vines  in  the  College 
vineyard  are  planted  10  feet  x  3  feet,  trellised,  and  pruned  on  the  rod 
and  spur  system.  The  grafted  rootlings  were  planted  immediately  on  the 
spot  where  vines,  dead  and  dying  with  phylloxera,  were  uprooted.  All 
round  them  were  phylloxerated  vines.  Hence,  the  test  as  to  their  re- 
sistance was  as  severe  as  could  have  been  devised. 

This  season  has  been  the  opposite  extreme  from  last,  and  this  has 
naturally  influenced  the  yield  very  considerably.  The  191 1  returns  con- 
stitute a  record,  as  far  as  this  vineyard  is  concerned.  Unlike  the  previous 
one,  last  winter  brought  frosts.  Only  those  that  come  after  the  vine-shoots 
have  started,  are  feared  by  vignerons.  Unfortunately,  last  Spring,  we  had 
two  of  these  late  frosts  that  cut  back  the  shoots  of  the  vines  in  the  vine- 
yard, and  of  the  grafts  in  the  nursery,  entailing,  in  each  case,  serious 
losses. 

Some  varieties  suffered  severely,  much  more  than  others,  and,  con- 
sequently, these  returns  are  reduced  very  much. 

Nor  were  late  frosts  our  only  perplexity.  The  season,  generally,  has 
been  as  unfavorable  as  the  preceding  one  was  favorable.  This  has  been 
one  of  the  driest  summers  experienced  here  for  some  time.  For  months 
no  appreciable  quantity  of  rain  has  fallen.  Our  domestic  water-supply 
ran  out,  and  we  had  to  cart  from  Rutherglen.  Many  of  our  well-established 
ornamental  trees,  have  succumbed.  Ind'genous  trees,  e.g.,  Grevilleas. 
Hakeas,  Acacias,  &c.,  have  died,  owing  to  the  dry  weather  and  the  long- 
continued  heat.  Under  such  circumstances  vintage  and  other  yields  have 
been  greatly  reduced.  The  adverse  conditions  prevailing  here  have  ex- 
tended considerably  beyond  the  limits  of  our  own  State,  and  the  vintage 
is  a  short  one  almost  everywhere. 

Again,  we  have  suffered  from  the  depredations  of  birds.  This  year, 
for  the  first  time,  the  Starlings  caused  us  trouble.  Previously  we  had  only 
had  odd  birds  to  contend  with.  As  thev  are  rapidly  increasing  in  the 
district  it  is  likely,  judging  by  the  present  season,  that  they  will  make 
their  influence  se\erely  felt  in  the  future.  As  usual,  too,  pilferers  have 
caused  us  loss. 

Grapes  are  now  freely  purchased  at  high  rates  by  several  local  wine- 
makers.  Up  to,  and  occasionally  more  than,  jQ%  per  ton  can  be  obtained. 
This  is  an  immense  advantage  to  the  small,  grower  who  may  not  have  the 
experience  necessary  to  turn  out  a  marketable  wine,  nor  the  capital  to  pro- 
vide the  plant  for  the  purpo.se.  It  is  also  a  distinct  gain  to  the  industry, 
for  a  product  of  uniform  character  and  exactly  suited  to  the  requirements 
of  the  trade  is  assured. 

The  thorough  cultivation,  which  is  a  feature  in  the  College  vineyard, 
has  been  kept  up.     This  has  paid,  as  it  always  does.     As  far  as  possible 


340 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   June,    1912, 


lo  June,    191:;.]  Yield  of  Reconstituted  Vineyard,  Rutlierglen. 


34r 


we  also  replenish  the  material  removed  by  the  crop,  and  we  are  strongly 
impressed  with  the  efficiency  of  green  manuring.  As  in  the  previous  year 
we  have  carried  out  experiments  with  fertilizers,  supplied  by  the  manager 
of  the  Potash  Syndicate,  Sydney.  The  test  plots,  which  are  the  same  as 
those  treated  in  191 1,  are  each  :|:-acre  in  extent.  The  results  are  as 
follow  :  — 


Plot. 


No.  1 
No.  2 

No.  3 


Manure  per  Ac-re. 


Uninanured 

f  Superphosphate,  2  cwt. 

\  Sulphate  of  Ammonia,  f  cwt. 

j  Superphosphate,  2  cwt. 

-]  Suli^hite  of  Ammonii,  f  cwt. 

I  Sul])h  '.te  of  Potash,  1  cwt. 


Yields  II 
Acre. 


lbs. 
4,680 

4.724 


y  fi.360 


This  shows  a  gain  of  exactly  three-quarters  of  a  ten  between  the  unmanured 
and  plot  No.  3.  The  value  of  this  extra  yield,  at  current  rates,  is  jT^d. 
while  the  total  value  of  the  crop,  from  the  fulh -manured  acre,  is  worth 
£22  14s.  3d. 

In  tabulated  form  are  given  the  yields  of  the  grapes  from  each  stock. 
Once  again  a  caution  must  be  given  against  attributing  the  disparity  in 
returns  to  the  stocks.  As  previously  ■  pointed  out  the  crop  recorded  on 
Rupestris  du  Lot  is  not  fair  to  that  stcck,  for,  being  next  to  the  road, 
much  of  the  produce  does  not  reach  our  weighing  machine.  Growers  will 
also  note  that  some  of  the  stocks,  used  when  the  College  vineyard  was  re- 
planted to  test  their  value,  are  now  discarded  as  not  quite  satisfactory. 
Of  the  new  varieties  we  have,  as  far  as  possible,  made  the  wine  separately. 
We  have  16  lots  of  the.se  varying  from  5  to  10  gallons  each.  Wine- 
makers  will  realize  the  immense  amount  of  trouble  and  labour  the  careful 
handling  of  so  many  small  quantities  has  entailed,  but  will,  we  think, 
appreciate  the  results.  Some  of  the  newer  table  varieties  of  grapes  are  in 
cool  storage  to  test  their  keeping  qualities,  and,  consequently,  their  suit- 
ability for  the  export  trade. 

Of  the  newer  varieties,  from  which  wine  was  made,  we  have  the  fol- 
lowing; :  — 


Variety. 


Furmint 

Pinot  Chardonnay 

Pinot  Fin    . . 

Semillon 

Melon 

Colomb''.rd  .  . 

Sauvignon   .  . 

Aramon 

Corbeau 

Aspiran  Bouschet 

Chenii  blanc 

FoUe  blanche 

Picpoul 

Montils 

Rousette 

Terret  Bourret 


Sp.  Gr. 

of  Must. 

1-110 

1-120 

1-120 

1-106 

1-102 

1-110 

1  - 120 

1-090 

1-095 

1-085 

1-110 

1-092 

1-095 

1-090 

1-094 

1-080 

Quantit;, 
Made. 


5  gallons 


10 
5 
18 
10 
10 
5 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 


34- 


Joitrnal  of   Agriculture.   Yicioria.  [lo   June,    1912. 


lo  June.    191-'-]  Yield  of  Rcconstiiuied  Yhicyard,  Ruthcrglen. 
The  following  are  the  yields  for  vintage.    191 2  :  — 


Mi 


Variety,  Date  of  Planting, 
and  Stock. 


Shiraz  (1903)— 

Hybrid,  3306 

Rupestris  Met  llic:i  (Cape) 

Hybrid,  3309 

A.'R.G.I      . . 

Rupestris  du  Lot 
Burgundy  (1904)— 

Riparia  Grrnd  Glabre 

Hybrid,  3309 
JVMbec  (1904)— 

Riparia  Grand  Glabre 

A.R.G.l     . . 

Hybrid,  3309 

Rupestris  Met  Uica  (Cape) 

Hybrid,  101" 

Rupestris  du  Lot     .  . 


Sp.  Gr. 

of  Must. 

1-108 

1-108 

1112 

1-110 

1-117 

1-114 

1-113 

1-113 

1105 

1-110 

1110 

1-114 

1-108 

Yielrl 

per 

\  ine. 

lb 

s. 

1-2 

1() 

9 

64 

8 

55 

6 

84 

6 

03 

8 

78 

6 

47 

9 

9 

9 

77 

7 

56 

6 

8 

6 

0 

4 

16 

Yield  per 
Acre. 


tonscwt.  qrs.  lbs. 
2  19     0     7 


2     6 
2     1 


3     8 
2     4 


1  13  0  24 
19  14 

2  2  2  16 

1  11  1  21 

2  8  0  10 
2  7  1  23 
1  16  2  27 
1  13  0  3 
I  9  0  16 
1     0  0  23 


Value  per 
Acre  at 
£8  a  ton. 


£  s. 
23  12 
18  14 

16  12 
13  5 

11  14 

17  1 

12  11 


t> 


19  4  9 

18  19  8 

14  13  10 

13  4  3 

11  13  2 

8  1  8 


The  following  table  gives  the  yields  from  the  various  stocks   for  the 
years  1909-1912,  inclusive: — 


Variety,  Date  of  Plantin?, 
and  Stock. 


Shiraz  (1903)— 

Hybrid,  3306    . . 

Rupestris  Metallica  (Cape) 

Hybrid,  3309    . . 

A.R.G.l 

Rupestris  du  Lot 
Burgundy  (1904)— 

Riparix  Grind  Glabre 

Hybrid.  3309  . . 
Malbec  (1904)— 

A.R.G.l 

Riparia  Grand  Glabre 

Hybrid,  3309    . . 

Rupestris  ^letallica  (Cape) 

Hybrid,  101"    . . 

Rupestris  du  Lot 


Yield  per  Acre 
1909. 


t.  cwt, 
2  5 
1  15 
1  14 
1  9 
1  5 

1  5 
1   I 


q.  lbs. 

2  0 

3  4 
0  0 

0  1 
3  14 

1  23 

2  11 


2  3  0  8 

1  18  3  12 

1  16  1  26 

1  16  1  20 

0  14  3  14 


Yield  per  Acre 

1910. 

t.  cwt. 

q.  lbs. 

2     8 

3  23 

2     2 

2  22 

1   15 

1     3 

1   18 

0   10 

1   15 

1   17 

1   14 

2  25 

1   15 

3  19 

3     1 

2     3 

2  16 

1     5 

2     4 

1  20 

2     4 

3     9 

1     9 

2     0 

1     6 

1     0 

Yield  per  Acre 

1911. 

t.  cwt. 

q.  lbs. 

3     2 

1      0 

4     0 

1  27 

2  14 

2     9 

2  18 

0  18 

2  10 

0     5 

1      5 

2  20 

1     0 

3  23 

4  17 

0     6 

4   11 

1   17 

3  19 

1   19 

3     8 

1   16 

2  19 

3  12 

2     0 

0  18 

Y'ield  per 

4.cre 

1912. 

t. 

cwt 

q- 

Ib^. 

2 

19 

0 

/ 

2 

6 

3 

y 

2 

1 

2 

4 

1 

13 

0 

24 

1 

9 

1 

4 

1  11 

2  7 
2  8 
1  16 
1  13 
1  9 
1  0 


2  1(> 
1  21 

1  23 
0  10 

2  27 
0  3 
0  16 
0  23 


'-^^"^^^k^- 


344  Journal  of  Agruiilturc.   Y'lctona.  [lo   June.    1912. 

PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  TREES. 

{Continued  from  -page  211.) 
C.  F.  Cole,  Orchard  Supervisor. 

Diseases. 

In  compiling  the  diseases,  both  insect  and  fungi,  to  be  found  at  times 
attacking  the  stocks  and  young  trees  during  and  after  their  development  in 
the  nursery,  the  writer  wishes  to  strongly  impress  upon  propagators  the 
importance  of  keeping  a  sharp  look-out  for  the  first  signs  of  attack,  and 
•of  taking  immediate  steps  to  check  the  spread  or  eradicate  the  disease. 
To  do  this,  and  be  successful,  it  is  essential  to  have  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  the  different  diseases  with  regard  both  to  their  life  history  and  their 
methods  ot  attack.  As  there  are  several  illustrated  and  instructive  works 
published  dealing  with  destructive  insects  and  fungus  pests,  and  a  special 
staff  of  experts  attached  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  growers  or  those 
interested  have  no  excuse  for  remaining  ignorant  of  such  subjects.  To  be 
fully  conversant  with  the  habits,  the  manner  in  which  diseases  obtain  their 
food,  and  the  season  of  attack,  is  to  be  forewarned,  and  if  the  propagator 
is  intelligent,  he  will  be  prepared  for  an  attack  by  being  forearmed  with 
the  necessary  appliances  and  chemicals  needed,  which,  if  used  correctly, 
and  at  the  right  time,  will  give  him  the  victory.  The  insect  pests  dealt 
with  will  be  arranged  according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  attack  the 
plants  to  obtain  food,  those  that  eat  the  foliage,  twigs,  or  bark  being 
called  chewing,  whilst  those  that  puncture  to  obtain  the  sap  being  called 
suctorial.  Upon  classifying  them  as  such  will  depend  how  they  are  to 
be  attacked  and  destroyed. 

With  chewing  insects  it  will  be  necessary  to  control  them  by  applying 
with  a  tine  spray  poison  to  their  food,  so  that  when  taken  internally  it  will 
cause  death.  With  suctorial  insects  it  is  necessary  to  bring  them  in  direct 
contact  with  a  suitable  insecticide  which  causes  death  by  smothering,  com- 
bined with  its  caustic  action.  By  the  enumeration  of  the  following  insect 
and  fungus  pests,  the  novice  or  those  about  to  start  propagation  should  not 
be  frightened,  as  in  a  nursery  conducted  upon  sound  lines,  and  where  care 
is  exercised  in  securing  the  buds,  scions,  or  rooted  stocks  from  clean  trees  or 
localities  there  is  very  little  likelihood  of  diseases  giving  serious  trouble. 
Many  of  the  diseases  adapt  themselves  to  certain  localities  where  the 
weather  and  other  conditions  are  more  suitable  for  their  development.  But 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  if  such  diseases  are  transferred  from  one 
locality  to  another,  and  the  conditions  are  favorable,  there  will  be  trouble, 
e.g.,  take  the  root-rot  fungus  {Armillaria  mellea).  Although  it  is  commonly 
found  in  cool  mountainous  and  timbered  localities  having  a  fair  rainfall, 
yet,  if  transferred  upon  rooted  stocks  from  such  localities  to  a  warm  dry 
one,  and  the  spring  or  summer  following  planting  is  suitable  for  its  develop- 
ment, it  will  cause  trouble  if  imjnediate  steps  are  not  taken  when  first 
noticed  to  check  its  spread.  As  most  of  our  insect  pests  multiply  with 
astonishing  rapidity,  delay  in  attacking  them  is  dangerous ;  by  destroying 
the  first  brood  whole  days  of  toil  will  be  saved.  It  is  generally  through 
neglecting  this  brood  that  future  trouble  is  brought  about,  and  instead  of 
a  few  insects  to  fight  in  a  few  days  or  weeks  there  are  thousands.  A 
nurseryman  should  have  a  suitable  spray  pump,  an  8  or  10  gallon  hand-^ 
pump    will   answer   the  purpose,    and   also    keep    many   of    the    necessary 


lo  June,   191 2.] 


Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees. 


345 


■chemicals,  &c.,  to  combat  diseases  on  iiand.  Always  keep  the  old  adage 
well  in  mind — "A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine."  The  few  illustrations  of 
-diseases  are  from  original  photographs. 

Chewing  Insects. 

The  Pear  ami  Cherrv  Slug  {Selandria  Cerasi). — This  small,  dark-green 
or,  at  first  sight,  blackish-looking,  slimy  caterpillar  usually  makes  its  ap- 
pearance about  the  latter  end  of  October  or  early  in  November,  and  attacks 
the  foliage  of  the  cherry  and  pear,  and,  later  on,  the  cherry  plum  family, 
the  quince,  occasionally  the  plum.  The  eggs  are  readily  discernible,  being 
deposited  upon  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves,  and 
-are  of  a  yellowish  colour,  about  the  size  of  a 
pin's  head.  The  perfect  insect  is  a  glossy  black 
small  fly  belonging  to  the  saw  fly  order, 
Hymenoftera,  readily  seen  upon  the  foliage.  The 
William's  Bon  Chretien  pear  is  generally  the  first 
to  be  attacked  in  the  nursery  row.  If  this  pest 
is  neglected,  the  larvse  will  quickly  destroy  the 
foliage  by  eating  off  all  of  the  epidermis  or  upper 
surface  of  the  leaves,  thereby  checking  the  growth, 
and  bringing  about  debilitated  conditions.  Treat- 
ment.— Spray  as  soon  as  detected  with  any  of  the 
leading  brands  of  arsenate  of  lead — strength  i  lb. 
to  25  gallons  of  water — or  Hellebore  powder,  i  lb. 
to  30  gallons  of  water.  Moisten  the  powder  with 
a  little  water  to  make  a  paste  before  adding  the 
full  quantity  of  water ;  strain  before  using ;  keep 
well  agitated  whilst  applying.  Spray  upon  a  fine 
dry  day. 

Pinara  Apple  Grub  iPinara  Nana). — The  larvae 
of  this  pest  are  most  voracious,  stripping  the 
young  apple  trees  of  their  foliage  in  a  very  short 
while  j  also  eating  the  tops  of  the  growing  shoots. 
The  loss  of  the  foliage  gives  the  trees  a  serious 
check  through  interfering  with  the  assimilation  and 
elaboration  of  the  sap  and  plant  food.  Upon 
noticing  the  first  signs  of  attack  the  propagator 
should  carefully  examine  along  the  stems  of  the 
young  shoots  and  branches  for  the  larvse,  which, 
owing  to  their  protective  colour,  resembling  that 
of  the  bark,  combined  with  their  habit  of  lying 
close  to  the  bark,  make  them  hard  to  detect.  The 
larvse  when  full  grown  are  about  2  inches 
in  length.  From  observations  the  writer  finds 
chiefly  at  night,  lying  close  to  the  bark  during  the  day-time.  Treat- 
rnent. — As  a  serious  attack  from  this  pest  in  the  nursery  is  of  rare 
occurrence,  the  destruction  of  the  few  larvse  when  first  detected  generally 
suffices  to  check  its  spread.  If  indications  point  to  a  severe  attack,  spray 
with  arsenate  of  lead.  If  the  well-known  native  bird,  black-faced  cuckoo 
shrike,  Graucalus  Melanops  (Lath.)  is  in  the  locality,  it  should  be  rigidly 
protected,  as  the  writer  has  upon  many  occasions  watched  these  birds  doing 
great  service  in  a  nursery  eradicating  this  pest. 

Painted  Apple  Moth  {Teia  Anartoides)  (Walk). — The  small  hairy  cater- 
pillar "  larvse  "  of  this  moth  have  an  especial  liking  for  the  foliage  of  the 
apple,   eating  off  the  upper  portion,   or  epidermis,   very  quickly,    at  times 


346  Journal  of  AgriciiUurc.   Vicioria.  [lo   June.    1912. 

leaving  only  the  midrib  of  the  leaves.  Figure  69  shows  the  caterpillars- 
at  work  upon  an  apple  stock.  The  loss  of  foliage  seriously  affects  the 
elaboration  of  the  sap.  This  pest  does  not  confine  its  attack  solely  to  the 
apple,  but  attacks  the  foliage  of  other  kinds  of  fruit  trees,  and  at  times  the 
skin  of  the  fruit.  Treatment. — Very  often  killing  the  first  few  caterpillars- 
with  the  thumb  and  finger  will  prevent  a  further  attack.  Spraying  the 
foliage  thoroughly  with  arsenate  of  lead  will  have  the  desired  effect  of 
getting  rid  of  this  pest. 

Cherry  Green  Beetle  ( Diphucefhala  Colosfidoides)  (Gyll). — A  visita- 
tion from  these  small,  handsome  green  Vjeetles  is  to  be  taken  seriously. 
If  coming  in  swarms,  they  very  soon  strip  the  young  cherry  trees  of  their 
foliage,  and  cause  great  damage  to  the  young  growing  trees  and  cherry 
stocks.  When  first  noticed  immediate  action  should  be  taken.  The  trees- 
and  stocks  should  be  thoroughly  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead',  strength 
I  lb.  to  25  or  30  gallons  of  water. 

Vine  Moth  (Agarista  Glycine)  (Lewis). — This  common  pest  is  very 
easily  recognised  and  kept  in  check,  but,  if  neglected,  the  caterpillars  will 
very  soon  defoliate  the  vines.  Spraying  the  young  vines  in  early  summer 
with  arsenate  of  lead  generally  suffices  to  keep  this  pest  in  check  for  the 
whole  vegetative  period.  Strength,  i  in  25  to  30  of  water;  or  Hellebore 
powder  at  the  same  strength  recommended  for  pear  or  cherry  slugs. 

Silver  Strifed  Vine  Moth  {Chaerocamfa  Celerio)  ( Stephen). ^This- 
pretty  but  peculiar  looking  caterpillar  rarely  gives  trouble,  the  writer  once 
only  having  had  occasion  to  spray  the  vines.  Treatment. — Spray  with 
arsenate  of  lead,  or  Hellebore  powder. 

Slugs. — During  the  spring,  and  when  the  buds  begin  to  move  in  the 
nursery  row,  slugs  are  one  of  the  worst  pests  that  the  propagator  has  to 
deal  with,  destroying  hundreds  of  buds  in  a  single  night,  if  neglected. 
Treatment. — If  there  are  any  signs  of  this  pest  during  late  autumn  or 
the  winter  months,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  clearing  away  any  weed 
growths  in  the  rows,  particularly  before  the  buds  start  to  elaborate.  One 
of  the  chief  factors  in  combating  this  pest  is  to  keep  the  nursery  free  from 
anything  likely  to  harbor  ihem.  The  soil  should  be  kept  well  stirred 
between  the  rows,  applying  freshly  slackened  lime  immediately  after.  Thi.'v 
will  be  the  means  of  destroying  large  numbers  that  harbor  and  breed  be- 
neath [he  clods  of  earth.  Slugs  being  nocturnal  in  habit,  just  after  dark  is- 
the  best  time  to  attack  them,,  particularly  if  rain  has  fallen  during  the  day, 
and  the  evening  turns  in  mild. 

Treatment  of  Lime. — Secure  lump  lime,  slacken  by  sprinkling  with 
water.  If  using  any  quantity  place  the  lump  lime  in  a  hole  or  pit  made  in 
the  earth  for  the  purpose,  half  fill  with  lime,  applying  sufficient  water  to 
slacken.  Lime  should  be  prepared  in  the  morning,  using  it  the  same  even- 
ing. Bag  the  slackened  lime  during  the  afternoon,  placing  the  bags  in 
convenient  positions  in  the  nursery.  Under  no  conditions _  allow  the  lime 
to  get  damp  or  wet,  before  or  after  slackening,  or  any  time  previous  to 
being  applied.  Always  use  freshly  slackened  lime.  Apply  by  placing 
sufficient  slack  lime  in  a  piece  of  hessian  or  a  70  lb.  sugar-bag.  Walk  be- 
tween the  rows,  jerking  the  bag  up  and  down  smartly,  directing  the  dense 
lime  dust  caused  by  these  actions  chiefly  over  the  buds.  If  a  dark  night,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  carry  a  lantern  whilst  performing  this  operation.  If 
help  is  available  to  carry  the  light,  this  work  can  be  accelerated  by  using 
a  dusting  bag  in  each  hand.  Failing  help,  place  the  lantern  in  the  centre, 
i.e.,  between  two  rows  of  buds,  and  walk  whilst  dusting  straight  towards 
the 'light.  Stirring  and  dusting  lime  upon  the  soil  during  the  day-time,  and 
following  up  the  dusting  process  after  dark,  has  been  found  bv  the  writer 


lo  June,    191  2.] 


Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees. 


347 


to  be  the  most  effective  method,  particuhirly  if  the  area  to  be  treated  is  of 
■any  extent.  Besides  destroying  this  pest,  the  lime  is  very  beneficial  to 
the  soil,  especially  if  it  is  deficient  in  this  constituent.  To  be  effective  the 
lime  must  fall  direct  upon  the  slugs.  Once  it  becomes  moist,  its  power  of 
killing  is  gone.  When  liming  wear  old  boots  and  clothes.  Apply  lime 
when  the  weather  is  fine  and  calm,  if  possible,  but  remember  that  delay 
is  dangerous  to  the  buds. 

Suctorial  Insects. 

Some  of  the  most  difficult  insects  to  eradicate  coming  under  this  heading 
are  those  known  as  scale,  and  belonging  to  the  family  Coccidae.  Some 
species  confine  their  attacks  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  to  deciduous  trees  and 
plants,  whilst  others  only  to  evergreen  ones.  Some  species  attack  many 
kinds  of  plant  life  both  evergreen  and  deciduous.  When  treating  evergreen 
trees,  or  any  that  are  vegetative,  the  operator  .should  be  very  careful  to  use 
a  wash  at  a  strength  that  will  not  defoliate  or  injure  the  growth  of  the  yojng 
trees.  No  wash  should  be  used  that  is  not  correctly  made  and  tested,  nor 
applied  unless  the  operator  has  had 
previous  experience  or  secures  prac- 
tical advice  upon  the  particular  wash 
to  be  used.  One  important  factor 
that  should  not  be  o\"erlooked  before 
applying  a  caustic  wash  is  the  physio- 
logical condition  of  the  tree  or  plant 
a  I  the  time  it  is  to  be  sprayed,  such 
condition  varying  according  to  the 
season,  the  weather,  and  the  growth. 
Evergreen  trees  and  plants  when 
fully  active  and  making  growth 
cannot  stand  the  same  strength  as 
when  in  a  more  dormant  stage,  or 
when  the  weather  is  cool  and  equable. 
With  deciduous  trees  and  plants,  a 
far  greater  strength  can  be  used  in 
the  late  autumn,  or  when  they  have 
shed  their  foliage  in  the  winter,  than 
any  time  during  their  vegetative  period.  Two  or  three  somewhat  weaker 
ajjplications  given  at  regular  intervals  are  far  more  effective,  and  the  risk 
of  causing  injury  less,  than  if  one  application  at  the  ordinary  strength  is 
given. 

Olive  Scale  (Lecaniurn  Olcce). — This  common  scale  insect,  when 
fully  developed,  is  hemispherical  in  shape  (see  Fig.  70),  colour  brownish 
black,  is  easily  detected,  and  attacks  the  bark  and  foliage.  Trees  and 
plants  badly  attacked  have  a  sooty  appearance  caused  by  the  fungus  known 
as  sooty  mould  {Capnodium  Citricolum).  This  fungus  lives  upon  the 
sugary  secretion  from  the  scale  insects.  Another  indication  of  attack  is  the 
appearance  of  ants  and  flies  upon  the  trees  or  plnnis  attacked,  in  quest  of 
this  sugary  secretion.  It  is  the  commonest  scale  found  attacking  the  citrus 
family,  is  very  partial  to  the  pear  and  quince,  and  is  to  be  found  attacking 
numerous  species  of  plant  life  both  evergreeii  and  deciduous. 
Treatment. — If  attacking  deciduous  trees,  seed  and  stone  fruits  in  the 
nursery  row  during  their  vegetative  period,  spray  with  kerosene  emulsion, 
strength,  i  in  10  or  12.  If  attacking  citrus  trees  or  other  hard-foliaged 
evergreens,  spray  with  resin  wash.  The  best  time  to  spray  the  citrus  is  the 
winter  months,  and  after  the  spring  growth  has  hardened,  and  before  the 


348  Journal  of   Agriculture.    Vicforia.  [10   June,    1912.. 

autumn  growths  start.  Citrus  and  deciduous  fruit  trees  standing  in  the 
nursery  row  during  the  winter  months  may  be  sprayed  with  red  oil  or  crude 
petroleum  oil  emulsion,  but  great  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
emulsion  is  properly  made,  otherwise  injury  will  be  done  to  the  trees. 
Strength,  red  oil,  i  in  40  ;  crude  petroleum  oil,  i  in  30. 

Greater  Vine  Scale  (Lecaiiium  Berbcridis) — This  large  brown-coloured 
scale  insect  does  not  confine  its  attack  to  the  vine,  but  is  to  be  found 
severely  attacking  many  kinds  of  our  fruiting  trees,  chiefly  the  apricot, 
cherry  plum,  Japanese  plums,  mulberry,  and  persimmon,  also  many  of 
our  ornamental  trees,  shrubs,  and  creepers.  Owing  to  its  size  is  easy  to 
detect,  and  attacks  the  bark  of  the  branches  and  twigs.  Spreads  rapidly, 
but  is  the  easiest  of  all  the  scale  insects  to  destroy.  Treatment. — Spray 
the  vines  or  fruit  trees  if  attacked  during  the  vegetative  period  with  kero- 
sene emulsion.  Strength,  i  in  10  or  12,  giving  several  applications,  if 
necessary.  When  the  trees  or  vines  are  dormant  in  the  winter,  spray  with 
red  oil  or  crude  petroleum  oil  emulsion.  Strength,  red  oil,  i  in  40 ;  crude 
petroleum,    i   in   30. 

Red  Orange  Scale  (Aspidiotus  Coccincus). — Scale  in.sects  belonging  to 
the  genus  Aspidiotus  are  probably  the  hardest  of  all  scale  insects  to  eradi- 
cate by  spraying,  fumigation  by  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  the  most  effective 
treatment  where  it  is  possible  to  carry  it  out.  Although  a  small  scale,  it  is 
easy  to  detect  owing  to  its  colour^^and  attacks  the  bark,  fruit,  and  foliage. 
When  badly  attacked,  the  foliage  becomes  sickly  and  yellowish  in  colour, 
the  twigs  and  young  growth  die.  If  this  pest  should  make  its  appearance 
upon  the  citrus  trees  in  the  nursery  row,  immediate  steps  should-  be  taken  to 
thoroughly  eradicate  it.  By  exercising  a  little  care  when  and  where  select- 
ing the  buds  and  grafts,  a  nursery  should  be  kept  free  from  this  pest. 
Treatment. — Spray  thoroughly  and  often  with  resin  wash  until  eradicated. 
If  the  scale  is  very  bad,  give  one  or  two  sprayings  with  red  oil  or  crude 
petroleum  oil  emulsion  during  the  winter  months,  or  in  January  and  Feb- 
ruary, continuing  later  on,  if  necessary,  with  the  resin  wash.  Strength, 
red  oil,    i  in  45  ;  criide  petroleum,    i   in  35. 

Black  Flat  Scale  (Aspidtctus  Rossi). — A  \ery  common  scale.  Attacks 
hard  foliaged  evergreen  trees,  &c.  Once  it  is  firmly  established  is  hard  to 
eradicate.  From  its  shape  and  colour,  it  is  readily  detected  upon  the 
foliage,  hence  its  name.  In  a  nursery  producing  fruiting  trees,  this  scale 
is  not  likely  to-  give  serious  trouble;  to  the  writer's  knowledge,  the  only 
species  of  fruit  attacked  belonged  to  the  citrus  family,  viz.,  pomelo  or 
grape  fruit,  the  bitter-sweet  and  Seville  variety.  Treatment. — The  same 
as  Red  Orange  Scale. 

Wax  Scale  (Ceroplastes  Ceriferus). — This  scale  is  easy  to  detect  by  its 
re.semblance  to  small  pieces  of  white  wax,  and  sticks  close  to  the  bark 
up>n  the  boughs  and  twigs.  The  wax  substance  is  secreted  by  the  insects 
to  protect  and  cover  the  body.  Because  of  the  waxy  covering,  the  pest  is 
difficult  to  destroy.  This  scale  readily  attacks  the  citrus  family.  Treat- 
ment.— Spray  with  i^  lbs.  of  washing  soda  dissolved  in  2  gallons  of  water, 
or  resin  wash  when  the  scale  insects  are  young.     Apply  using  high  pressure. 

San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus  Perniciosus). — This  scale  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  species  to  detect,  owing  to  its  small  size  and  the  closeness 
with  which  it  sticks  to  the  bark.  To  the  propagator  of  deciduous  fruiting 
trees  this  scale  insect  is  to  be  feared  most.  Once  it  becomes  established,  it 
is  hard  to  dislodge.  The  writer's  observations  are  that  when  full  grown 
this  scale  varies  somewhat  in  colour.  Where  found  attacking  the  plum  and 
walnut,   it  is  lighter,   resembling  more  the  colour  of  the  bark  than  when 


lo   June,    191 2.]  Water  Rcq^uircmeiits   of   Crops.  349 

found  upon  the  apple,  pear,  &c.  Small  rusty  red-coloured  spots  upon  the 
bark,  the  scale  insect  occupying  the  central  position,  are  usually  one  of  the 
first  indications  of  attack  upon  the  apple,  pear,  peach,  and  cherry  plum. 
Description. — General  colour,  sooty  black,  with  a  yellowish-brown  spot  in 
the  centre;  shape,  round.  If  the  bark  directly  beneath  these  red  spots  is 
cut,  it  is  generally  a  carmine  shade  down  to  the  cambium.  With  badly  in- 
fested trees  the  bark  has  a  scurfy  appearance,  occasionally  being  pitted. 
This  pest  does  not  confine  its  attack  to  fruiting  trees,  but  has 
a  liking  also  for  the  hawthorn,  &c.  Treatment. — As  there  have 
been  several  outbreaks  of  this  pest  in  different  parts  of  the 
State,  all  buds  or  scions  secured  from  an  orchard  should  be 
thoroughly  examined,  particularly  about  and  behind  the  buds, 
with  a  pocket  magnifier.  If  there  are  any  suspicious  signs  of  attack  or 
scale  insects  to  be  seen,  destroy  by  burning.  Trees  or  stocks  badly  infested 
should  at  once  be  destroyed  by  burning.  If  the  trees  are  vegetative,  spray 
thoroughly  with  kerosene  emulsion,  strength  r  in  10.  Follow  up  with  fur- 
ther applications  at  not  more  than  ten  days  intervals.  Further,  treat  in 
late  autumn  and  the  winter  months  with  red  oil  or  crude  petroleum  oil  emul- 
sion. Strength,  red  oil.  i  in  30;  crude  petroleum,  i  in  25.  No  trees 
should'  be  sent  out  of  the  nursery  until  examined  bv  some  person  who  has 
an  expert  knowledge  of  this  disea.se. 

To  he  contimicd. 


WATER    RECn  IKEMENTS   OF    CROPS. 

By  Jo/ni   ir.    Patcrson,   B.Sc..   Ph.D.,   Exfcriiiu iitalist. 

Of  the  various  requirements  for  the  growth  of  a  crop  the  most  obvious 
is  a  sutificient  supply  of  water.  Ordinary  experience  points  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  quantity  required  must  be  large.  Green-house  plants 
require  frequent  watering  or  they  shrivel  and  dry  up.  A  crop  of 
lucerne  cut  in  the  morning  is  soon  withered,  because  it  ceases  to  receive 
water  from  the  roots.  Year  after  year  the  yields  from  dry  farming  depend 
more  upon  rainfall  than,  practically  speaking,  upon  anything  else.  In  the 
drier  wheat  areas  of  Victoria  the  soil  may  not  receive  enough  rainfall  to 
grow  a  crop  everv  year,  but,  by  fallowing  in  alternate  vears  the  water 
mav  suflficiently  accumulate  to  grow  a  crop  every  second. 

To  determine  exactly  how  much  water  is  required  by  growing  crops, 
attemqjts  have  been  made  by  different  investigators  in  different  countries  of 
the  world.  In  all  such  investigations,  apart  from  those  of  botanical  interest 
only,  the  method  is  the  same.  The  amount  of  water  evaporated  or 
"transpired"  by  a  crop  during  its  entire  growth  is  found  by  weighing. 
At  harvest,  the  crop  is  cut  off  close  to  the  ground  and  dried.  When  the 
weight  of  water  transpired  is  now  divided  by  the  weight  of  crop,  there 
is  found  what  is  called  the  ' '  transpiration  ratio. ' '  This  gives  the  number 
of  pounds  (parts)  of  water  transpired  by  the  crop  during  growth  for  each 
pound  (part)  of  drv  matter  produced. 

In  such  investigations  the  water  transpired  is  found  by  growing  the 
plants  in  pots.  A  pot  is  filled  with  a  certain  standard  weight  of  soil 
(usually  from  20  to  120  lbs.)  of  a  certain  wetness,  and  the  crop  is  planted 
or  sown.      The  pot  is  watered,  usually  daily,  or  four  times  a  week ;  and 


^5° 


Journal  of  Agriculture^   Victoria.  [lo   June,    1912. 


this  is  done  on  the  scales.  At  watering,  the  loss  of  weight  since  the 
previous  watering  is  noted  down,  and  the  pot  is  then  brought  up  to  its 
standard  weight  again  by  adding  more  water.  The  water  lost  from  a 
cropped  pot  will  include  water  transpired  by  the  plant,  also  water 
evaporated  directly  from  the  soil.  The  latter  is  most  simply  discounted 
by  setting  up  similar  pots  without  a  crop,  and  deducting  the  losses  there 
from  the  losses  on  the  cropped  pot.x  throughout  the  season.  In  transpira- 
tion experiments  the  pots  must  be  protected  from  rain  in  order  to  reserve 
control  of  the  water  supply.  This  is  usually  done  by  placing  the  pots  on 
low  trolleys  standing  on  rails,  so  that  they  can  be  run  under  cover  at 
night  and  on  wet  days. 

Proceeding  on  the  general  lines  of  investigation  indicated,  the  following 
results  have  been  obtained  by  different  workers  : — 

Table  I. 


Wheat 
Barley 
Oats     . 
Rye      . 
Maize   . 
Beans  . 
Peas 
■Clover 
Buckwheat 
Rape    . . 


Lawes  (1) 
(England). 


247 
2.57 


209 
259 
269 


Hellriegel  (2) 
(Germany). 


338 

37  (J 
353 

282 
273 
310 
363 

329 


King  (3) 

Leather  (4) 

(United  States). 

(India). 

850 

393 

680 

522 

870 

sio 

477 

830 

453 

(1)  Jour.  Horticultural  Soc,  V.  (1850). 

(2)  Grundlageu  des  Ackerbaues,  p.  622,  et  seq. 

(3)  Bep.  Wisconsin,  Expt.  Stn.,  1894,  p.  248. 

(4)  Mem.  Dept.  Agric,  India.     Chemical  series.     Vol.  I.,  No.  8,  p.  179. 

The  figures  state  the  transpiration  ratios  found  by  different  observers. 
Before  going  on  to  discuss  them,  it  is  necessary  to  glance  briefly  at  the 
uses  of  water  to  the  plant. 

Water  enters  the  plant  body  by  tlie  roots,  passes  upwards  through  the 
stem,  and  is  evaporated  by  the  leaves  during  transpiration.  In  its  passage 
through  the  plant,  the  water  performs  certain  useful  work.  It  carries 
dissolved  phosphates,  nitrates,  &c.,  from  the  soil  into  the  plant;  it  is 
necessary  for  the  life  and  growth  of  the  protoplasm  or  living  part  of  the 
plant,  and  for  the  action  of  ferments ;  a  small  part  of  the  water  absorbed 
■enters  chemically  into  organic  material  in  the  process  of  carbon  assimi- 
lation. 

Carbon  assimilation  is  the  process  whereby  green  plants  feed  from  the 
carbon  dioxide  gas  of  the  air  and  from  water.  About  95  per  cent,  of 
the  dry  matter  of  crops  is  formed  from  air  and  water  in  this  way. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  in  which  of  its  uses  to  the  plant  it  becomes  neces- 
sary that  so  much  water  should  pass  through  it  during  the  period  of 
growth.  The  inward  passage  of  soil  constituents  probably  does  not  alto- 
gether require  it,  as  the  water  current  and  the  soil  nutrient  movement  are 
within  inside  limits  independent.  It  is  more  likely  that  the  partial 
parching  of  a  crop  restricts  growth,  in  the  first  instance,  by  increasing  the 


lo  June.    191 -.]  Wahr  Rcq^uironents  of  Crop!,.  351 

difficulty  of  carbon  assimilation.  This  up-hill  chemical  change  requires 
the  presence  of  very  much  water  in  the  plant  leaf,  in  addition  to  the 
relatively  small  amount  which  is  decomposed  there. 

Transpiration  of  water  takes  place  chiefly  through  little  pores  or 
openings  called  stomata,*  which  are  most  abundant  on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaf.  These  pores  or  stomata  open  and  close  automatically,  according 
as  the  water  supply  is  greater  or  less  ;  but  sun  and  wind  modify  their 
control  by  tending  to  open  them.  With  the  pores  open,  transpiration 
proceeds  apace,  but  is  naturally  more  rapid  with  a  dry  than  a  humid- 
atmosphere.  It  is  also  very  much  greater  in  light  than  darkness,  and 
plants  wilted  at  night  may  appear  fresh  in  the  morning. 

Looking  to  the  effect  of  sun,  wind,  and  a  dry  atmosphere  upon  evapoia- 
tion  from  the  leaves  of  plants,  one  would  expect  that  the  amount  of  water 
lost  would  in  large  measure  be  dependent  upon  the  climate.  It  has  been 
mentioned  that  much  water  is  essential  to  carbon  assimilation.  This  takes 
place  in  the  green  leaves,  and  only  by  day.  As  water  is  continually 
passing  through  the  leaves  on  its  way  out  by  day,  it  follow's  that  the  water 
is  only  available  as  an  aid  to  assimilation  in  the  course  of  its  passage. 
Now,  as  transpiration  from  the  leaves  is  more  active  in  a  dry  sunny  climate, 
it  would  seem  that  more  w'ater  must  pass  through  the  plant  to  maintain  a 
suitable  supply  for  carbon- assimilation  in  such  a  climate  than  in  a  dull 
humid  one  where  it  lingers  longer  in  the  leaf.  In  other  words,  a  definite 
amount  of  water  may  be  necessary  fqr  carbon-assimilation  at  its  best,  in 
a  certain  plant,  under  a  certain  intensity  of  light,  and  at  a  given  instant, 
but  as  transpiration  is  more  rapid  in  a  dry  climate,  a  larger  amount  of 
water  must  be  absorbed  there  than  in  a  humid  one  in  order  to  maintain 
equally  good  water  conditions  in  the  leaf. 

Returning  now  to  the  figures  of  Table  I.,  it  will  be  seen  that  an 
attempt  has  been  made  in  each  case  to  fix  the  transpiration  ratio  as  a 
specific  character  of  the  crop.  If  however  as  we  have  endeavoured  to 
.show,  the  usefulness  of  water  is  dependent,  in  the  first  degree,  upon  the 
length  of  time  the  leaf  is  able  to  retain  it,  it  becomes  obvious  that  the 
transpiration  ratio  is  less  a  factor  depending  upon  the  kind  of  crop  than 
upon  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  country  in  which  the  experiments  are 
carried  out.  Comparison  of  the  results  of  the  different  workers  bears 
in  a  rough  way  this  theory  out.  The  transpiration  ration  for  production 
seems  to  be  low'est  in  the  country  with  the  most  humid  climate,  and 
differences  due  to  crop  are  generally  small  as  compared  to  differences 
due  to  country. 

While  the  rate  of  transpiration  from  plants  is  largely  dependent  upon 
the  physical  conditions  of  climate  which  determine  rate  of  drying,  it 
cannot  be  supposed  to  be  altogether  so.  The  cells  of  the  stomata  respond 
to  sun  and  wind,  but  this  response  bears  no  relation  to  their  drying  effect. 
Consideration  of  the  vigour  or  tone  of  the  plant  also  comes  in.  Neverthe- 
less it  is  certain  that  the  climatic  conditions  which  cause  drying  have 
a  very  great  influence  upon  the  transpiration  ratio  of  growing  crops,  and 
that  by  knowing  the  relative  rates  of  evaporation  from  a  free  water  surface 
at  two  places  the  transpiration  requirements  at  one  place  could  be 
approximately  calculated  for  the  other. 

*  See  Wheat  and  its  Cultivation,  by  A.  E.  V.  Richardson.    Jour.  Dept.  Agric,  Vic,  1912,  p.  187, 
«t  seq. 


352  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   June,   1912. 


As  transpiration  experiments  of  other  countries  seemed  unlikely,  for  the 
reasons  stated,  to  be  of  direct  application  to  Australian  conditions,  some 
test  pots  were  set  out  at  Burnley  Horticultural  Gardens  during  the  past 
season.  Wheat  and  oats  were  selected,  and  the  general  method  adopted 
was  that  already  described.  The  pots,  which  were  adapted  to  the 
Wagner  pattern,  contained  37  lbs.  i  oz.  of  dry  soil,  made  up  to  contain 
i8.5  per  cent,  of  water  (equal  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  water-holding 
capacity  reckoned  on  the  soil  volume).  The  pots  were  watered  on  the 
scales  with  a  fine  spray.  The  amount  of  water  transpired  by  the  plants 
was  got  by  deducting  the  loss  of  weight  in  similar  fallow  pots.  To  avoid 
rain,  the  pots  were  placed  under  cover  in  the  best  position  available;  but, 
soon  after  starting,  it  was  evident  there  was  too  little  light,  and  the  wheat 
pots  were  discarded.  The  "growing  oats  suffered  less.  The  experiments 
lasted  159  days,  starting  from  6th  September.  Fig.  i  shows  some  of  the 
pots  at  the  time  of  harvesting,  on  13th  February. 


Fig. 


At  harvest,  the  crops  were  cut  off  close  to  the  ground,   dried,  and  the 
transpiration   ratios   calculated   out.       The   results   were  as   follows:  — 

Table  II. 


Total 
Water  Lost 
(159  days). 

Excess  over 
Average  of 
Fallow  Pots. 

Weight 

of 

Dry  Crop. 

Grams. 

16 -32 
11-76 

Transpiration 
Ratio. 

Pot  4  (Fallow)    . . 
Pot  4'  (Fallow)  . . 
Pot  29  (Oats)     . . 
Pot  29'  (Oats)    . . 

Grams. 
12,785 
12,729 
17,832 
18,342 

Gr.ims. 

5.075 
5,585 

492 
475 

lo  June,   iqi-^-J 


WcUer  Req/{irc///e//is  of  Crops. 


355 


On  comparing  the  results  with  those  given  for  other  countries  on 
Table  I.,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ratio  is  higher  than  those  obtained  for 
cereals  in  Europe,  but  lower  than  American  and  Indian  results.  It  caniiot 
be  said,  however,  that  the  comparison  with  the  Burnley  pots  is  quite 
satisfactory.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  growth  the  crops  suffered  from 
undue  shading,  and  in  the  latter  stage  from  the  same  influence  at  certain 
hours  of  the  day.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  transpiration  is  most 
active  in  bright  light,  and  practically  ceases  at  night.  In  connexion  with 
this,  it  would  be  expected  that  the  transpiration  ratio  would  be  higher 
for  plants  grown  in  the  open  air  than  in  plants  partially  shaded  most  of 
the  time.  It  has  recently  been  shown  by  Dr.  H.  Brown  that  it  would 
be  about  one-half  greater.  Accepting  this  figure  instead  of  the  average 
figure  483,  we  should  then  have  a  transpiration  ratio  of  725  for  oat  plants 
grown  in  the  open.  The  Indian  figure  for  oats  is  870,  and  it  appears 
likely  that  725  more  nearly  expresses  the  ratio  for  the  Australian  climate 
than  the  results  given  in  the  table. 

In  discussing  the  question  of  assimilation  it  has  been  pointed  out  that 
the  transpiration  ratio  is  chiefly  dependent  upon  the  climate,  but  that  it  is 
not  altogether  so.  In  this  connexion  an  important  practical  point  was 
recently  established  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Leaiher  of  the  Agricultural  Research 
Institute,  Pusa.  In  the  dry  climate  of  India  the  transpiration  ratio  tends 
to  be  high.  It  was  found,  however,  that  crops  grown  with  manures  made  a 
better  use  of  the  water  than  crops  with  no  manure,  as  is  seen  by  the 
decreased  ratios  in  every  case. 

Table  III. 


— 

Unnianured. 

Manured. 

Wheat 

850 

550 

Barley 

680 

480 

Oats 

870 

550 

Peas 

830 

530 

Maize 

450 

330 

The  first  four  are  cold  weather  crops,  in  which  evaporation  is  rapid, 
the  last  a  monsoon  crop,  during  which  season  the  atmosphere  is  humid  and 
moist  giving  generally  low  ratios.  In  discussing  the  results  the  author 
points  out  that  not  only  does  superphosphate  have  effect  in  narrowing 
the  ratio,  but  that  nitrates  also,  if  required  for  plant  food,  and  as  might 
not  be  anticipated,  have  a  like  effect.  After  an  elaborate  series  of  experi- 
ments lasting  some  years,  it  is  stated  that  "  the  effect  of  a  suitable  manure 
in  aiding  the  plant  to  economize  water  is  the  most  important  factor  which 
has  yet  been  noticed  in  relation  to  transpiration." 

In  concluding  consideration  of  this  subject  it  should  be  pointed  out 
that  the  provision  of  a  pot-culture  house,  on  lines  similar  to  those  erected 
in  other  countries,  is  essential  if  the  influence  of  local  conditions  upon  the 
water  relations  of  plants  in  Victoria  is  to  be  successfully  studied.  At 
Burnley  a  large  number  of  pot  cultures  failed  owing  to  the  want  of 
suitable  equipment,  and  the  re.sults  from  those  few  which  have  completed 
have  had  to  be  discussed  with  reserve. 

The  following  conclusions  have  been  arrived  at :  — 

I.  In  cold  humid  climates,  from  200  to  300  tons  of  water  is  lost  by 
transpiration  for  each  ton  of  dry  crop  yield. 


354 


Journal  of   Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   June.    191 2. 


2.  Experiments  in  different  countries  indicate  that  this  ratio  is  increased 
in  drier  climates. 

3.  In  Victoria  the  ratio  for  crops  of  moderate  development  possibly 
lies  somewhere  about  700. 

4.  Suitable  manures,  by  rendering  the  plants  more  vigorous,  reduce  the 
■transpiration  ratio,  and  enable  them  to  make  a  better  use  of  available 
moisture. 

5.  Local  conditions  indicate  that  about  600  tons  of  water  (_  6" 
rain)  must  pass  through  a  13-bushel  crop  of  wheat  during  its  period  of 
growth. 


BUNYIP  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 

By   B.    A.    Barr,    Dairy   Sufervisor. 

This  society  merits  the  keen  appreciation  of  all  progressive  dairymen 
in  having  introduced  and  conducted  a  dairy  cow  test  in  the  district.  From 
such  test  much  benefit  must  result.  It  has  a  very  wide-spreading  educa- 
tional influence.  It  amply  demonstrates  that  the  key  to  payable  dairying 
is  sufficient  fodder  of  the  proper  kind,  and  careful  attention,  so  that  the 
activities  of  milk  secretion  may  be  maintained  to  the  highest  capacity 
'dependent  upon  individual  development ;  also  it  shows  a  record  of  each 
cow's  yield,  and  the  earnings  of  the  lactation  period  are  known.  The  only 
way  to  determine  the  cash  return  of  each  cow  is  by  the  continued  use  of 
the  scales  and  the  Babcock  tester. 

Such  a  contest  as  this  acts  as  an  incentive  to  others  to  emulate  the 
achievements  of  the  winner,  and,  consequently,  is  of  great  influence  in 
improving  the  productivity  of  district  herds.  It  aLso  brushes  aside  the 
so-called  records  of  incredible  yields.  The  results  of  the  competition  are 
such  as  one  would  find  in  any  ordinary  herd.  The  tests  for  morning's  milk 
— which  is  usually  somewhat  lower  than  evening's  milk — are  good.  The 
deductions  to  be  drawn  from  the  results  are  consistent  with  known  local 
dairying  conditions.  More  feed  and  weigh  the  milk,  so  that  the  exact 
amount  can  be  scheduled,  are  the  lines  to  follow. 

The  Bunyip  Agricultural  Society  is  to  be  congratulated  for  undertaking 
this  dairy  cow  test,  and  it  is  hoped  will  continue  to  hold  one  yearly,  when 
it  is  suggested  that  the  milk  of  tw^o  consecutive  milkings  be  taken. 
The  number  of  entries  for  a  first  occasion  is  encouraging. 

Results. 


Milk 

Name. 

m 
Morning. 

Test. 

Butter  Fat. 

Order. 

Fleming.  J. 

21-5 

5-1 

1-09 

1 

Downes.  J. 

22  0 

4-2 

0-92 

2 

Mclvor,  P. 

25  0 

.3-6 

0-90 

3 

Jenkin,  W.  H.    . . 

23-5 

3-6 

0-84 

Smethurst.  J.  H. 

18-5 

4-5 

0-83 

Strafford,  T. 

21   0 

3-9 

0-81 

Greaves.  F. 

19-75 

4-0 

0-79 

•Cook,  T.  M. 

16-25 

4-0 

0-73 

Greaves,  F. 

16-25 

3-8 

0-61 

Field,  M. 

18-0 

2-9 

0  •  52 

The  winner  is'a'cowllS  years  old. 


lo   June,    1912.]  Bee-keeping  in    Victoria.  35S 

BEE-KEEPING  IN  VICTORIA. 

{Coiiliiiued  from  page  228.) 

By  F.   R.   BciiJiiie,   Bee  Expert. 

v.— HIVE  FLOORS  AND  COVERS. 

Floors. 
The  hive  stand  generally  sold  by  manufacturers  and  dealers  consists 
of  a  single  board  22  inches  long,  i3|-  inches  wide,  and  |-inch  thick,  nailed 
or;  to  a  piece  of  3in.  x  2in.  at  each  end,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5  of  the  previous 
article.  On  the  top  of  this  board,  along  two  sides  are  nailed  strips  of  wood 
19^  inches  long,  ^-inch  wide,  and  5-16-inch  in  thickness.  A  piece  of  like 
dimensions,  but  only  13^  inches  long,  is  nailed  across  one  end.  These 
three  cleats  raise  the  hive  body  5-16-inch,  and-  form  a  bee-space  bet\yeen 
the  bottom  bars  of  the  frames  and  the  hive-stand,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
constitute  the  entrance  to  the  hive.  This  entrance  is  i2jin.  x  5-16-in.,  and 
may  be  contracted  in  winter  by  blocking  it  for  one-half  or  two-thirds  with 
pieces  of  ^in.  x  5-i6in.  wood.  It  is  not  advisable  to  have  entrances  larger 
than  5-16-inch.,  as  mice  may  enter  and  destroy  any  combs  not  occupied  by 
bees.  This  hive  stand  is  fairly  satisfactory,  but  rather  expensive.  The 
projection,  which  serves  as  an  alighting  board  at  the  entrance,  is  also  a 
somewhat  objectionable  feature,  as  it  prevents  close  packing  of  hives  in 
shifting  colonies  by  road  or  rail. 

A  hive  stand  can  be  made  of  half  the  weight,  and  at  only  two-thirds 
the  cost,  by  substituting  \-m.  x  6-in.  white  Baltic  lining  boards  for  the 
J-in.  shelving,  and  a  frame  of  |-in.  x  6-in.  white  Baltic  flooring  for  the 
pieces  of  3in.  x  2in.  This  frame  should  be  made  the  length  and  width  of 
the  hive,  and  2  inches  high,  the  lining  boards  being  nailed  on  top,  and 
the  three  cleats  on  top  again.  A  detachable  alighting  board,  sloping  down 
to  the  level  of  the  ground,  takes  the  place  of  the  projection.  This  stand 
rests  on  the  ground  all  round,  and  the  exclusion  of  draught  underneath 
compensates  for  less  thickness  of  the  floor.  If  pressed  down  tight  on  to 
levelled  ground,  it  affords  no  harbor  for  spiders  and  other  vermin,  nor  a 
hiding  place  for  queens  (where  queens  are  clipped)  at  swarming  time. 

In  some  districts,  particularly  in  forest  country,  trouble  occurs  with 
hive  stands,  and  even  hives,  through  white  ants  entering  the  wood  of  the 
stand  where  it  touches  the  ground,  and  destroying  it,  and  unless  checked, 
eventually  the  hive.  At  a  trifling  expense  in  the  first  instance,  this  risk 
may  be  entirely  avoided,  by  saturating  those  pieces  of  the  stands  which 
come  into  contact  with  the  ground  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  Copper, 
generally  known  as  Bluestone.  In  a  box  i-inch  longer,  inside,  than  the 
longest  pieces  to  be  treated,  and  made  water-tight  by  running  boiling  wax 
over  all  the  joints,  dissolve  sufficient  Bluestone  in  water  to  make  a  saturated 
solution,  so  that  in  about  a  day,  with  occasional  stirring,  .some  of  the  cry- 
stals remain  undissolved.  The  wood  to  be  saturated  should  be  thoroughly 
dry,  and  be  packed  into  the  box  of  solution,  with  bits  of  stick  between 
the  pieces  to  keep  them  apart,  and  a  weight  on  the  top  to  keep  them  under. 
Immersion  for  24  hours  will  be  sufficient,  when  the  wood  mav  be  exposed- 
to  air  and  sun  to  dry.  After  the  stands  are  made  up  the  pieces  impregnated 
should  be  painted  or  tarred  to  prevent  the  bluestone  being  soaked  out  by 
rain  water. 


356  Journal  of  Agriculture.   Y'lcloria.  [10   June.    191 2. 

Covers. 

In  the  matter  of  hive  covers  there  is  perliaps  more  neglect  on  the  part 
of  beekeepers  than  in  anything  else ;  and  vet  upon  the  cover  depends  in 
a  great  measure,  not  only  the  prosperity  and  health  of  the  colony,  but 
the  durability  of  the  hive  itself.  When  hives,  however  well  made,  are 
covered  with  bags,  palings,  bark,  or  pieces  of  tin  and  iron,  which  materials 
either  absorb  the  rain  or  conduct  it  into  the  hive  by  soakage  around  the 
edges,  one  need  not  wonder  to  find  hives  gaping  open  at  the  joints  with 
boards  warped  or  cracked,  and  mouldy  combs  inside.  A  hive  cover  should 
be  watertight  above  all  things,  but  it  should  also  be  constructed  so  that  it 
will  throw  the  water  clear  of  the  hive  walls,  and  prevent  the  fierce  heat 
of  summer  and  the  frost  of  the  winter  penetrating  from  the  top.  A  flat, 
single  board  cover  cannot  fulfil  these  requirements.  Even  when  kept  well 
painted  on  the  outside  and  strongly  cleated  at  the  ends  it  will  warp,  twist, 
or  crack  in. the  heat  of  summer,  and  will  then  not  fit  down  close  on  to  the 
hive  all  round.  This  will  give  rain  water  entrance  to  the  interior  of  the 
hive  and  robber  bees  an  opening  to  hover  round  during  a  dearth  of  nectar. 

A  gable  cover  with  base  board  resting  flat  on  the  hive  surmounted  by 
a  pitched  roof  with  eaves  projecting  down  a  little  below  the  top  of  the 
hive,  is  most  effective,  and  keeps  the  hive  dry  and  cool  in  summer,  and 
warm'  in  winter.  This  cover,  is  however,  somewhat  troublesome  to  con- 
struct, and  not  suitable  for  migratory  beekeeping,  being  bulky  and  of  an 
awkward  shape  for  transporting.  After  using  extensively  for  a  number  of 
years  about  six  different  patterns  of  hive  covers,  I  find  that  a  flat  one 
covered  with  plain  galvanized  iron  is  the  best  all  round.  This  is  made 
of  two  layers  of  boards  such  as  may  be  got  from  kerosene  and  jam  cases. 
The  boards  of  one  layer  run  crosswise  to  the  other,  and  are  nailed  together 
to  form  an  oblong  of  2o|in.  x  i4|in..  that  is  %  inch  longer  and  wider 
than  the  hive.  Strips  of  board  wide  enough  to  project  \  inch  all  round 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  cover  are  nailed  to  the  edge  of  it.  The  whole  is 
then  covered  with  a  piece  of  galvanized  (plain)  iron,  No.  26  gauge, 
measuring  28in.  x  i8in.,  and  cut  in  at  the  corners  to  allow  of  it  being 
turned  down  at  right  angles  and  secured  at  the  eaves.  A  sheet  of  26-gauge 
plain  galvanized  iron  72in.  x  36in.,  which  is  a  trade  size,  will  thus  cover 
six  hive  roofs.  A  hive  cover  of  this  description  will  outlast  any  other  kind. 
It  requires  no  paint,  as  the  wood  is  not  exposed.  There  is  no  warping, 
as  one  layer  of  boards  checks  the  other  ;  it  is  water  and  fire-proof ;  and  if 
layers  of  non-conducting  material,  such  as  paper,  are  inserted  between  ir  ;n 
and  wood,  it  is  also  heat  and  frost-proof. 

{To  he  conliiiued.) 


Fat  occurs  in  milk  as  little  globules  measuring  from  .0006  inches  in 
<]iameter  downwards.  Fleischmann  reckons  their  number  at  about  50.000 
iriillions  in  a  pint  of  milk. 


lo  June,    19 12.]  General  Notes.  357 

GENERAL  NOTES. 

PIG  FEEDING— 

In  the  last  Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  U.S.A., 
reference  is  made  to  feeding  tests  recently  concluded  at  the  North  Dakota 
Station.  It  was  found  that  barley  produced  a  better  quality  of  pork  than 
maize  corn,  but  it  required  18  per  cent,  more  of  barley  than  of  corn  to 
produce  a  given  gain  in  weight.  Another  test  showed  that  ground  rejected 
wheat  produced  good  gains  when  fed  to  swine  with  shorts.  In  comparison 
with  maize  corn  it  required  8.9  per  cent,  more  rejected  wheat  than  corn 
to  produce  the  same  gains,  but  the  quality  of  pork  produced  was  better 
than  that  produced  on  corn. 

IRISH  BLIGHT— 

There  is  pretty  general  agreement  among  potato  growers  that  the  injury 
to  be  expected  from  Irish  blight,  once  it  has  established  itself  in  a  country, 
will  depend  in  large  measure  upon  the  wetness  of  the  season.  For  the 
last  20  years  experiments  on  spraying  for  the  control  of  potato  diseases 
have  been  carried  out  at  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station,  U.S.A.  ;  and 
in  Bulletin  ijg  of  that  institution  the  relation  of  rainfall  to  blight  is  dis- 
cussed. There  is  said  to  be  a  close  connexion  between  the  two,  and  in 
general  a  rainy  season  is  likely  to  be  accompanied  by  an  epidemic  of 
blight  and  rot.  However  in  1901  the  raiixfall  was  small,  and  it  was  one 
of  the  worst  seasons  on  record  both  as  to  the  damage  done  to  the  foliage 
and  to  the  tubers.  Looking  to  this  report  one  i  ould  wish  that  other 
weather  observations  besides  rainfall  had  been  included  in  the  discussion. 
Absence  of  bright  sunshine  and  a  humid  atmosphere  would  probably  come 
next  to  excessive  rainfall  in  encouraging  a  spread  of  the  disease,  but  the 
data  for  these  in  1901  are  lacking.  Altogether  from  the  records,  one  seems 
warranted  in  believing  that  conditions  of  moderate  rainfall  and  plenty  of 
sun,  are  likely  to  act  as  powerful  checks  to  the  blight,  while  dull  muggy, 
and  wet  weather  will  encourag-e  it. 


THE  FERTILITY  OF  HEN  EGGS— 

How  long  after  the  removal  frcm  the  pen  of  the  male  bird  will  the 
^ggs  laid  by  the  hens  prove  fertile?  The  subject  was  essentially  one  for 
experiment,  and  the  results  of  some  tests  at  the  Roseworthy  Poultry  Station 
are  reported  in  the  Journal  of  Agriculture  of  South  Australia.  The  male 
bird  was  removed  on  12th  December,  and  each  day's  eggs  were  dated  as 
gathered.  It  was  intended  to  test  10  eggs  each  day,  but  the  moulting 
season  caused  irregular  laying.  The  eggs  laid  on  24  successive  days  were 
used  in  the  tests.  For  the  first  week  after  the  removal  of  the  male  bird 
the  results  were  good,  nearly  all  the  eggs  proving  fertile.  Thereafter 
there  was  a  gradual  falling  off,  the  eggs  of  the  tenth  day  hatching  just 
50  per  cent.  From  the  14th  day  there  were  no  fertile  eggs,  but  the  15th 
yfelded  two  and  the  i6th  one.  Thereafter  none  of  the  eggs  proved  fertile. 
The  general  rule  is  to  allow  seven  days  as  the  extreme  limit  up  to  which 
eggs  may  be  set.     In  this  test  the  fertility  was  high. 

CARE  OF  CALVES— 

Take  a  little  better  care  of  those  humped-up  discouraged-looking  young 
calves  that  stand  shivering  in  the  yard  all  day.  The  first  winter  is  the 
cheapest  and  easiest  time  to  make  substantial  gains.  Calf  fat  once  lost 
is  rarely  made  up,  even  though  extra  care  be  given  later  in  life.  A  stunted 
calf  means  a  dwarfed  cow.  A  mossy-coated,  thick-fleshed  calf  is  a 
pleasure  and  a  money  maker,  while  the  hat-rack  type  is  a  reproach  to  the 
farm  and  farmer. — The  Practical  Farmer,  Philadelphia. 


358  Journal  of  Agriculture.   Yichnia.  [10   June,    I9I2_ 

BREEDING  CROP   PLANTS— 

The  time  has  gone  by  when  any  kind  of  seed  will  do  in  farming,  and 
if  the  industry  is  to  hold  its  own  it  must  procure  the  best  for  each  purpose. 
The  difference  in  yield  from  good  and  from  indifferent  seed  often  amounts- 
to  more  than  the  annual  value  of  the  land.  Much  can  be  done  by  grading 
and  selection  from  existing  types,  but  in  many  cases  the  selective  process- 
must  be  preceded  by  artificial  crossing  in  order  to  obtain  the  characters 
desired.  The  cross-breeding  of  plants  follows  the  same  laws  as  the  cross- 
breeding of  animals,  but  it  is  a  more  tedious  affair,  and  it  has  another 
drawback  in  the  eyes  of  the  farmer.  A  good  breeder  of  live-stock  can 
obtain  high  prices  for  his  annual  drafts  for  stud  purposes,  and  hope  to  do 
as  well  again  next  year,  but  the  plant  breeder  when  he  begins  to  sell, 
ruins  his  market.  The  difference  lies  in  th'e  nature  of  the  case.  It  seems- 
to  be  for  this  reason  that  improvement  in  live-stock  has  progressed  under 
private  enterprise,  while  a  corresponding  improvement  in  crop  plants  must 
be  sought  for  under  public  control.  \n  the  Arb.  Deut.  Landw.  GeselU 
1910,  appears  a  history  of  German  plant  breeding,  including  a  description 
of  the  work  carried  on  at  the  present  time  in  both  public  and  private  insti- 
tutions. As  pointed  out  in  this  work,  Germany  has  to-day  43  breeders  of 
winter  rye,  3  of  spring  rye,  61  of  winter  wheat,  23  of  spring  wheat,  5  of 
winter  barley,  60  of  spring  barley,  53  of  oats,  23  of  fodder  beets,  21  of 
sugar  beets.  17  of  potatoes,  4  of  kale,  carrots,  and  similar  crops.  8  of 
clover.<%  and  grasses,  and  28  of  leguminous  plants.  As  the  best  variety  of 
any  crop  for  one  country  is  rarely  the  best  for  the  conditions  of  another^ 
there  is  an  immense  field  for  the  breeder  of  Australian  types. 


COLD  STORAGE— 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  {Annual  Report,  igii), 
has  just  concluded  a  special  investigation  into  the  economic  results  of  cold 
storage.  The  business  has  assumed  large  proportions.  Of  the  total  pro- 
duction during  the  last  year  13I  per  cent,  of  the  eggs  were  placed  in  cold 
storage;  fresh  beef  over  3  per  cent.  ;  mutton  over  4  per  cent. ;  fresh  pork 
ii|  per  cent.  ;  creamery  butter  25  per  cent.  The  cost  of  storage  includes 
charge  for  space  (either  by  month  or  season),  interest  on  the  value  of_  the 
stored  produce,  and  lastly  insurance.  When  these  three  costs  are  combined 
they  amount  per  month  to  0.437  of  ^  cent  for  fresh  beef;  for  mutton- 
C.352;  for  pork  0.398;  poultry  0.446;  and  for  butter  0.571.  all  per  lb. 
For  eggs  the  costs  are  0.593  of  i  cent  per  dozen  per  month.  Cold  storage 
has  with  certain  commodities  shown  a  strong  tendency  to  equalize  the 
monthly  prices  throughout  the  year  particularly  in  regard  to  butter,  eggs, 
poultry,  and  fresh  mutton.  This  fact  was  established  b\  converting  the 
mean  price  of  each  commodity  for  each  month  into  a  percentage  of  the 
mean  price  for  the  whole  year,  and  then  comparing  the  monthly  variations 
in  1902-11  with  the  variations  before  1893  when  cold  storage  first  became 
able  to  affect  prices.  For  butter  and  eggs,  besides  equalizing  prices  from 
month  to  month,  cold  storage  has  raised  the  average  prices  for  the  whole 
year ;  the  calculations  involved  here  were  complicated  and  were  not  applied 
to  the  other  commodities.  An  aspect  of  cold  storage  referred  to  is  the 
facility  which  it  affords  for  speculation  in  perishable  goods  by  wholesale 
dealers  holding  for  a  rise,  and  it  is  concluded  that  "  this  business  of  stor- 
ing goods  has  grown  to  such  proportions  that  consumers  have  a  rightful 
concern  with  its  management  for  economic  as  well  as  sanitary  reasons." 


lo  June,    191 2.]      Weeds,    Aliens,    and   Poison   Plants.  359 

THE    WEEDS,    XATLIRALIZED    ALIENS    AND    POISON 
PLANTS    OF    VICTORIA. 

By   Alfred  J.    Eivart,    D.Sc,    Ph.D.,   F.L.S.,    Government  Botanist  and 
Professor  of  Botany  and  Plant  Physiology  in  the  Melbourne  University. 

Watsinia  Meriana,  Mill.  Var.  Iridifolia  (iridese). 

This  plant,  often  known  as  Merian's  Bugle  Lily,  is  a  native  of  South 
Africa,  which  was  first  recorded  as  a  permanent  naturalized  alien  in  1907 
(Victorian  Naturalist,  vol.  24,  page  16).  The  plant  is  a  rather  handsome 
■one,  and  was  cultivated  in  gardens  long  before  this,  thence  spreading  and 
running  wild,  until  in  some  parts  it  is  quite  a  troublesome  weed,  particularly 
in  neglected  pastures  which  are  moist  or  somewhat  swampy  during  a 
portion  of  the  year.  It  also  shows  a  special  predilection  for  growing 
along  the  banks  of  small  water-courses,  even  where  these  are  dry  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  year.  Although  it  likes  moisture,  it  is  able  lo  remain 
green  over  prolonged  periods  of  dry  weather,  and  at  such  times  the  green 
colour  appears  sometimes  to  attract  stock  and  lead  to  their  eating  the 
plant,  although  it  is  surprising  how  little  of  it  is  usually  eaten,  in  spite 
of  its  externally  attractive  and  succulent  appearance. 

The  plant  is  often  reported  as  having  exercLsed  an  injurious  or  poisonous 
action  upon  stock,  and  since  it  belongs  to  an  ordei  which  includes  such 
poison  plants  as  the  Cape  Tulip  {Homeria  collina),  as  well  as  many  which 
are  injurious  without  being  strictly  poisonous,  all  such  cases  are  worthy 
■of  critical  experimental  investigation.  The  Iris  itself,  for  instance,  con- 
tains, particularly  in  the  rhizome,  a  peculiar  acrid  oleo-resin,  sometimes 
known  as  Irisin,  which,  apparently,  consists  of  a  mixture  of  a  bitter  acrid 
fixed  oil  or  soft  resin,  a  volatile  crystallizable  oil,  and  other  extractives. 
This  oleo-resin  of  Iris  appears  to  exercise  an  irritant  action  on  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and,  hence,  acts  as  a  purgative,  as 
well  as  a  powerful  stimulant  to  the  liver.  It  also  has  emetic  and  diuretic 
properties,  such  as  are  possessed  by  the  extracts  from  many  other  plants 
belonging  to  the  same  order.  In  the  case  of  the  Cape  Tulip,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  plant  contains  a  similar  oleo-resin  to  that  present  in  Iris, 
but  that  it  is  either  more  intense  in  its  action  or  more  abundant. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  reports  as  to  Watsonia  being  poisonous 
could  not  be  dismissed  without  full  investigation.  Accordingly,  Dr. 
Rothera  undertook  to  investigate  the  supposed  poisonous  character  of  this 
plant,  and  his  results  are  published  in  brief  in  the  Journal  for  November, 
1 9 10.  He  found  that  sheep,  goats,  and  rabbits  eat  it  readily,  and  that 
no  harmful  after-effects  were  noticeable.  He  could  detect  no  alkaloid 
either  in  the  bulbs  or  in  the  green  parts,  while  injections  of  extracts 
•designed  to  contain  active  principles  if  present,  produced  no  apparent 
poisonous  action.  One  possibility  still,  how^ever,  remained  open.  In 
some  cases,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  the  Darling  Pea  {Szvainsona 
^alegi folia),  a  poisonous  action  may  be  exercised  in  the  course  of  time  by 
plants  from  which  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  or  impossible  to  extract  any 
poisonous  principle,  and  if  such  plants  are  only  eaten  for  a  short  period 
of  time,  no  evil  effects  may  result.  In  the  case  of  the  Swainsona,  four 
to  six  weeks  are  required  to  produce  serious  svmptoms,  when  the  plant 
is  eaten  in  moderate  amount  mixed   with   other   food,   and  the  effects   are 


360  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [10   June,   i9I2> 

similar  to  those  produced  by  slow  poisoning  with  alcohol  and  certain 
toxic  proteids,  namely,  peripheral  neuritis  and  degeneration  of  the  nerve 
endings,  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  muscular  control.  In  addition,  Profes- 
sor Gilruth  showed  that  after  one  to  two  months'  continuous  grazing  on 
Ragwort,  cattle  and  horses,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  sheep  may  develop- 
cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  and  ultimately  die  as  the  result  of  it.  Experiments 
on  another  Senecio  in  South  Africa  showed  that  four  to  eight  ounces  a 
day  caused  death  in  oxen  in  a  few  days  to  a  month,  the  action  being 
usually  a  little  slower  on  hoi'ses,  and  one  result  being  the  production  of 
cirrhosis  of  the  liver. 

Accordingly,  an  experiment  was  tried  to  determine  whether  with  pro- 
longed feeding,  any  general  poisonous  action  was  exercised  by  Watsonia. 
Owing  to  the  quantity  of  material  required,  small  animals,  namely  guinea 
pigs,  were  used  for  the  test,  which  was  begun  on  June  30th,  and  extended 
to  the  7th  of  September ;  that  is,  nearly  eleven  weeks.  During  the  first 
half  of  this  period,  each  guinea  pig  received  mixed  bran  and  pollard,  and 
as  green  food  an  average  of  18  grams  a  day  of  the  green  leaves  of 
Watsonia.  These  were  taken  fresh  as  required  from  a  large  bed 
of  the  plants  grown  for  this  purpose  in  the  Herbarium  garden.  The 
controls  received  ordinary  green  feed,  together  with  bran  and  pollard. 
At  first,  the  guinea  pigs  did  not  eat  the  Watsonia  very  readily,  and  hence 
were  not  given  more  than  10  to  12  grams  a  day  apiece.  By  the  end  of 
the  first  week,  however,  they  eat  it  readily,  and  received  from  15  to  18 
grams  per  day  during  the  first  five  weeks.  During  the  latter  half  of 
the  experiment  they  were  fed  with  as  much  as  they  would  eat,  which, 
varied  from  20  to  40  grams  a  day  apiece.  The  average  amount  consumed 
by  each  animal  during  the  whole  period  was  1326  grams  ;  that  is,  more 
than  the  total  body  weight.  The  animals  remained  healthy  and  normal 
during  the  whole  period  of  the  experiment,  showed  no  signs  of  any 
poisonous  action  whatever,  and  one  pair  produced  a  batch  of  young 
towards  the  latter  part  of  the  experiment,  which  were  apparently  normal, 
but  were  destroyed  and  partially  devoured  by  the  parents,  probably  as  the 
result  of  confinement  or  of  fright,  and  not  as  the  result  of  any  nutritive 
hunger.  In  any  case,  the  experiment  is  sufficient  to  show  that  Watsonia 
does  not  contain  any  poisonous  principle  capable  of  exercising  any  general, 
slow,   accumulative  poisonous  action. 

In  order  that  those  unfamiliar  with  the  plant  may  be  able  to  recognise 
it,  the  following  brief  description  is  appended  : — ■ 

It  is  a  tall  erect  plant,  usually  2  to  3  feet  high,  but  sometimes- 
reaching  a  height  of  5  feet  on  rich  moist  soils.  The  underground  base 
of  the  stem  is  swollen  into  a  hard  bulb  (corm),  i  to  2  inches  in  diameter, 
covered  with  brown  fibrous  coats.  The  leaves  are  somewhat  like  those 
of  an  Iris,  and  arise  at  the  base  of  the  stem.  There  is  a  single  erect 
flowering  stem,  sometimes  slightly  branched  at  the  upper  end,  bearing 
numerous  rather  large  pink,  red,  or  very  occasionally  white  flowers,  which 
are  sometimes  partly  or  entirely  replaced  by  clusters  of  small,  fleshy, 
pointed  bulbils.  The  bulbils  when  they  fall  -off  are  able  to  strike  root 
and  produce  new  plants.  The  plant  has  no  special  smell  or  taste  by 
which  it  can  be  recognised,  but  once  seen,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  mistaken 
fot  an}  othei  plant.  The  flowers  are  much  like  those  of  a  Gladiolus, 
with  a  curved  tube  and  the  stamens  all  just  falling  short  of  the  tips  of  its 
segments. 


loTH  June,    19 12.] 


M'nit   Cultivation. 


36; 


SMALL    RURAL    INDUSTRIES. 

B.— MINT    CULTIVATION. 

{By  Jostfli  KnigJit.) 
Mint    {MciifJia)    includes    the    Penny-royal    {Mciitlia    Puleghim),     also 
Spearmint  {Mentha  vi/idis),  which  is  cultivated  for  culinary  purpos<:S,  be- 
sides  other    species.         Our    business 
here    is    with    the    plant    commonly 
known      as      Black      Mint      {Mentha 
fiferita).         Fnaii    this    is    produced 
the   weU-known    Oil   of    Peppermint, 
which    is    largely    used    in    medicine, 
confectionery,    and    in   the   manufac- 
ture of  cordials. 

Black  Mint  is  cultivated  largely  in 
England  and  other  countries  for 
the  extraction  of  oil,  it  is  a  hardy 
plant,  loving  a  cool  moist  climate 
and  a  free  soil.  It  thrives  well  on 
the  hillsides  in  Gippsland  and  similar 
situations,  is  easily  managed,  and 
gives  good  return  for  labour  be- 
stowed on  it. 

The  following  is  a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  its  cultivation  and  treat- 
ment : — - 

Planting  and  Cultivation. 

The  plant  used  to  establish  a  crop 
consists  of  pieces  of  the  stolons  or 
runners  taken  from  the  parent  plant ; 
like  most  of  the  "  Mint  "  tribe,  it 
is  very  prolific  in  producing  these  ^lack  mint  (mentha  piperita). 
runners.  Slips  with  three  or  four  joints  are  sufficient — they  should  be 
well   rooted,    and   the  stronger   they   are  the  more  prolific   the   first   year's 

crop    will    be.         The    runners 


V 

\1 

^ 

/^ 

^^M^'gJ^JB'MJI^^      ' 

J0^ 

^BkB^^ 

f^c^J^^^^^^ 

0^ 

are  planted  -out  in  well  pre- 
pared soil,  and  should  stand 
about  15  to  18  inches  apart 
from  plant  to  plant  each  way. 
The  land  should  be  clean  and 
free  from  weeds,  as  the  dis- 
tillation afterwards  of  the 
produce  renders  foreign  matters 
undesirable.  Care  with  the 
first  crop  will  save  much  trouble 
in  future  working,  as  the  plant, 
when  once  established,  will,  to 
a  large  extent,  protect  itself 
from  any  intrusion  of  weeds. 

Fairly    deep    cultivation    is 

necessary.    The  plant  is  chiefly 

a     surface     feeder,     but     requires     some     depth     of     soil     in     order     to 

obtain  the    best  results.        The    land  should    be  well    worked  to  a  fine  tilth 

6004.  X 


stolons  or  runners. 


.362  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [ioth   June,    1912. 

and  smooth  surface,  otherwise  the  cutting  is  difficult.  Little,  in  the  way 
of  cultivation  can  be  done  after  planting,  but  the  soil  round  the  crop 
may  be  kept  stirred  with  a  fork,  so  as  to  give  the  young  plant  freedom  in 
pushing  out  its  runners  for  the  summer  cutting.  In  some  cases,  in  fairly 
level  land  and  dry  situations,  furrows  are  run  between  the  rows  and  water 
run  down;  but  where  there  is  danger  of  "  scour,"  this  must  be  avoided. 
Light  forking  will  materially  assist  the  plant  in  its  development  prior  to 
cutting. 

The  sets  may  be  dropped  in  a  shallow  furrow  and  the  soil  turned  down 
with  a  plough  at  the  distance  decided  upon,  but  the  land  must  be  left 
with  a  level  surface  for  the  reason  stated  above.  The  time  of  planting 
must  depend  largely  on  the  parent  plant,  as  the  runners  have  to  be  taken 
from  the  season's  growth,  and  it  is  undesirable  to  rob  i't  to  the  extent  of 
impairing  its  yield  for  the  coming  harvest.  Li  Gippsland,  and  other 
timbered  localities,  ear'ly  in  November  would  be  time  enough,  in  ordinary 
seasons.  If  the  treatment  of  the  soil  has  been  suitable,  there  should  be 
a  fair  cutting  in  March,  and  this  may  be  treated  for  oil  extraction  straight 
away.  The  yield  should  then  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  expenses  of  labour 
for  the  first  year's  working. 

After  cutting  the  first  year,  the  plants  are,  in  .son^e  cases,  covered  up 
with  a  little  loose  earth,  which  gives  them  a  start  in  making  runners  for 
producing  the  second  crop.  When  the  plants  have  been  set  out  at  a 
sufficient  distance  apart  a  cultivator  should  be  worked  between  the  rows. 
It  will  be  found  more  economical  to  arrange  this  distance  and  employ 
horse  labour,  than  to  work  by  hand.  After  the  second  cutting, 
the  land  may  be  ploughed  and  the  plants  covered,  and  being 
well  established  they  will  stand  rough  treatment  as  far  as  the  cultivation 
is  concerned  ;  this  applies  to  all  subsequent  seasons.  It  may  be  found 
advantageous  to  renew  the  [ilantation  every  five  or  six  vears,  as  new  fields 
will  be  found  to  give  better  results. 

Harvesting. 

The  time  of  harvesting  caraiot  be  definitely  stated  but  the  crop  should 
be  taken  in  full  bloom.  This  is  usually  late  in  spring  or  early  in  autumn. 
The  crop  is  usually  cut  with  a  hook,  .sometimes  with  a  short-bladed  scythe, 
frequently  with  a  nipping  machine ;  it  is  gathered  in  rows,  then  placed  on 
sheets  of  hessian,  and  carried  direct  to  the  still.  While  many  allow  it  to 
dry  somewhat,  asserting  that  there  is  no  loss  of  oil,  but  only  moisture,  in 
the  evaporation,  others  again  claim  that  this  is  a  mistake.  It  may  not 
always  be  convenient  to  distill  the  whole  crop  in  the  green  state;  but  there 
is  no  doubt  that,  where  this  can  be  done,  it  is  advisable  to  do  so.  What- 
ever is  done,  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  self  heating  of  the  produce, 
which  readily  occurs  if  it  is  kept  in  heaps  while  green  ;  and  it  must  not  be 
permitted  to  get  wet  by  rain  and  become  mouldy,  as  the  oil  is  affected 
thereby,  both  in  quantity  and  quality. 

After  Treatment. 

The  bulky  nature  of  the  mint  crop  necessitates  the  treatment  of  it 
on  or  near  the  place  at  which  it  is  produced.  For  this  purpose,  a  fair- 
sized  still  is  necessary — the  size  must  be  regulated  by  the  amount  of  crop. 


lOTH  June,   1912.] 


Mint  Cultivation. 


363 


A  400-gallon  still  will  be  sufficient  for  20  acres  or  so.  The  cost  of  the 
still  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  material  employed,  and  other  such 
conditions. 

The  late  Mr.  Slater,  of  Mitcham,  Victoria,  who  was  a  suc- 
cessful grower  of  i)lants  for  essential  oils,  and  who  had  con- 
siderable experience  of  these  in  England,  carried  out  his  dis- 
tillation work  with  the  ordinary  iron  malt  tanks — 400  gallons  each— 
which  he  found  to  answer  the  purpose  well.  A  tank  was  set  iin  on  bricks 
(roughly)  in  such  a  way  as  to  admit  of  a  fire  being  placed  underneath. 
The  whole  of  the  top  of  this  tank  was  movable,  and  in  it  was  fitted  a  cage 
lined  with  wire  netting  to  hold  the  material.  This  cage  was  let  down  into 
the  tank,  which  was  filled  with  water.  The  lid  had  a  goose-necked  cone 
to  convey  the  steam  and  oil  to  another  tank  holding  the  condenser,   which 


PERFUME    STILL    MADE    BY    DONDEY    AND    TESTRO. 

was  simplv  a  spiral  of  tin-lined  copper  piping.  The  lid  of  the  first 
tank  was  made  to  screw  down  tightly  on  a  rubber  ring,  in  order 
to  prevent  any  escape  of  steam,  except  through  the  condenser.  The 
second  tank  was  open,  and  contained  the  condenser  only  ;  and  as  a  stream 
of  water  was  not  available  to  run  into  this,  a  third  tank  was  employed  to 
supply  a  current  of  cold  water  to  keep  the  condenser  cool.  A  steady 
stream  of  water  was  delivered  to  the  bottom  of  the  condensing  tank,  which, 
of  course,  as  it  heated,  rose  to  the  top  and  found  its  way  to  the 
overflow . 

These  simple  and  inexpensive  appliances  answered  the  purpose,  but 
where  a  more  elaborate  outfit  is  desired,  many  of  our  coppersmiths  can 
supply  it.  Messrs.  Dondey  and  Testro.  South  Melbourne,  have  a  very 
convenient  still,  made  of  the  latest  pattern,  and  no  doubt  will  be  reasonable 
in  their  charges.     Their  experience  in  still-making  should  be  a  warranty 

N  2 


364  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [ioth  June,    1912. 

that  a  suitable  article  will  be  supplied.  The  illustration  given  here  is  for 
a  small  still  about  twenty-five  (25)  gallons.  The  design  can  be  made  to 
kny  size  required. 

The  treatment  of  the  various  plants  from  wh'ch  oil  is  extracted  by  dis- 
tillation is  carried  out  in  the  same  manner  as  the  product  now  under 
consideration.  There  is  one  thing  very  necessary  when  changing  from 
one  product  to  another — a  thorough  deodorizing  and  cleaning  must 
take  place,  otherwise  much  of  the  product  will  be  destroyed. 

DiSTiLLING. 

This  operation  is  looked  upon  as  being  .somewhat  difficult,  but  it  only 
requires  a  little  practice  to  get  good  results.  It  may  be  mastered  by  the 
most  inexperienced  person  with  a  few  trials. 

The  oil  contained  in  the  leaves  and  stems  is  lighter  than  water,  and 
it  has  also  a  lower  boiling  point.  When  heat  is  applied  the 
oil  rises  and  passes  off  with  a  little  steam  before  the  boiling 
point  of  the  water  is  reached.  The  finer  and  better  part  of 
the  oil  escapes  first,  and  here  it  is  that  care  and  skill  is  required  to  make 
the  most  of  the  product,  and  to  secure  a  first  and  second  quality  of  oil. 

The  steam,  water,  and  oil  which  passes  through  the  condenser  referred 
to,  passes  out  through  the  lower  portion  of  the  cooling  tank  into  a  receiver 
known  as  the  "  Florentine."  This  somewhat  resembles  a  teapot  without 
a  handle.  The  oil  and  water  dropping  into  the  top  of  the  receiver 
separate,  the  oil  floating  on  the  top  whilst  the  water  escapes  slowly  at 
the  spout.  As  the  outlet  is  at  the  bottom  of  this  receiver  and  the  top  of 
the  spout  a  little  below  the  mouth  or  level  of  the  receiving  portion  of  the 
"  Florentine,"  the  water  and  oil  are  separated. 

One  mistake  frequently  made  is  in  forcing  the  distillation.  The  boiling 
should  be  .slow,  so  as  to  avoid  forcing  over  objectionable  matter.  A  tank 
of  400  gallons  should  be  allowed  four  or  five  hours  to  boil  ;  after  the 
first  two  hours  the  receiver  should  be  changed,  as  the  oil  to  follow  is  of 
secondary  quality,  and  should  be  marketed  separately.  It  is  said  that 
whatever  oil  the  stalks  contain  is  inferior  in  quality,  and,  being  the  last  to 
be  driven  off,  the  heat  must  be  regulated  and  the  boiling  a  simmer  only. 

In  distilling,  it  is  much  preferable  to  heat  the  water  in  the  boiling 
tank  with  superheated  steam,  as  it  is  more  under  control.  This  is  done 
by  having  a  steam  generator  close  by,  and  running  steam  through  a  per- 
forated coil  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  still.  The  heat  can  then  be  regu- 
lated to  a  nicety.  Some  eucalyptus  distillers  run  hot  steam  through  their 
leaves  without  water,  but  this  does  not  meet  with  general  approval  for 
the  finer  essential  oil  plants.  When  applying  direct  heat  greater  attention 
is  required  than  in  using  steam. 

Yields  and  Prices. 

A  good  crop  of  well-established  mint  will  yield  from  five  to  six  tons 
per  imperial  acre.  As  to  the  yield  of  oil,  some  growers  give  3  to  4  lb.;, 
per  ton,  whilst  others  state  5  to  6  lbs. ;  nothing  definite  can  be  given  in  this 
respect.  At  the  DunoPly  and  Leongatha  Government  Scent  Farm  mint 
was  the  last  crop  to  receive  attention,  and  it  was  riot  sufficiently  estab- 
lished to  give  any  reliable  data  to  quote  from. 


aoTH   June,    191^-]  Mint  Ctdtivation.  365 

Extract   from  the  Royai    Commission's  Report  on  Vegetable 

Products. 

(Evidence  given  \)y  the  late  Joseph  Bosisto,  Esq.,  C.M.G.,  M.P.) 

Now  peppermint  will  grow  on  loamy  and  moi.st  lands,  and  grow  in 
abundance ;  but,  like  everything  else,  it  wants  proper  gardening,  taking 
care  of,  and  keeping  free  from  weeds.  Its  habitat  is  in  loamy  and  moist 
lands.  If  this  be  neglected,  it  will  scon  lose  its  fragrance  and  flavour. 
The  districts  of  Melbourne,  Mount  iNIacedon,  and  North  Gippsland  were 
tried,  and  that  from  North  Gippsland  was  the  best.  Even  in  England 
the  qualities  vary  in  value;  thus  Mitcham  oil  realizes  40s.  per  lb.,  while 
Cambridge  brings  only  33s.  per  lb.,  American  i6s.  per  lb.,  and  French 
10s.  per  lb.  I  sent  home  to  London  a  large  quantity  that  I  myself  dis- 
tilled, but  other  persons  grew.  I  offered  to  distil  it  free,  provided  thev 
would  supply  me  with  the  material,  and  many  of  them  did  so — four  or 
five — and  here  are  the  reports  which  I  received  from  home  relative  to  the 
peppermint.  I  forwarded  several  samples,  together  with  the  followinj\ 
letter  :  — 

"  I  lierewith  semi  you  a  s;imj)le  of  .m  cssenti:il  oil  of  peppermint,  distilled  from 
the  green  and  cultivated  jjlant  grown  in  the  mountainous  districts  cf  Victoria,  with 
a  request  that  you  will  favour  mc=  ^vith  an  opinion  as  ta  its  quality  and  marketable 
value   if   forwarded   in   large  quantities." 

Here  are  the  reports.  One  is  from  W.  J.  Busii  and  Company,  one  of 
the  largest  essential  oil  buyers  in  England  :  — 

"  We  consider  it  very  good  quality — about  enual  to  our  Cambridge  mint.  We 
had  submitted  to  us  lozenges  (Meggeson  and  Company),  three  kinds  :  one  lot  con- 
taining Mitcham  oil,  another  lot  con'taining  Australian,  and  another  containing 
Hatchkiss'  (America).  We  picked  out  those  made  with  the  American  at  once  as  the 
worst,  but  were  wrong  with  the  other  two,  for  we  judged  the  Australian  oil-made 
lozenges  to  be  the  Mitcham  and  vice  versa.  We  think  2i;s.  to  be  an  outside  price 
tj  be  expected  at  first,  but  will  afterwards  improve  in  price.  There  is  a  herby 
flavour  about   it   that  ma}'  be  got  over  by  cultivation." 

Messrs.   Price  and  Hickman  report : — 

"  We  have  examined  the  Australian  oil  of  peppermint,  and  consiiler  it  to  be  of 
■excellent  quality,  and  but  little  inferior  to  Mitcham  oil.  If  it  could  be  produced 
a  trifle  less  yellow  in  colour,  we  have  no  doubt  we  could  dispose  of  it  in  this  markiit 
at  about  27s.  6d.   per  lb.        In  its  present  state,   we  think  it  would  be  worth  25s." 

Another  firm  report :  — 

"  It  certainly  is  the  best  foreign  oil  we  hove  seen  ;  but  still  it  is  foreign,  and  '.ve 
■doubt  if  at  first  it  can  compete  with  the  English.  We  think  it  will  soon  take  a  high 
place." 

Now     Cambridge    mint    is    the    second    quality,    onl}     second    to    the    best 
Mitcliam 


^0^^flf^^ 


^66  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [ioth  June,    1912. 

FUMIGATION  FOR  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF   SCALE 

INSECTS. 

By  A.    A.   Hammond,   Orchard  Supervisor. 

For  many  years  the  Red  Scale  {Aspidiotus  Coccineus)  was  known  to 
be  present  in  the  Doncaster  district.  When  first  noted,  only  a  few  trees- 
in  one  large  plantation  were  infected.  For  a  long  time,  the  scale  made 
no  headway,  and  consequently  growers  took  but  little  notice  of  its  presence. 
About  five  years  ago,  however,  the  pest  began  to  multiply  and  spread  to 
an  alarming  extent,  notwithstanding  that  every  effort  was  made  to  destroy 
it  by  spraying.  Emulsions  of  kerosene,  crude  petroleum  and  red  oil  were 
used,  as  well  as  several  patent  spraying  mixtures  ;  but  it  was  found  that, 
although  spraying  checked  the  pest  for  a  time,  it  soon  became  as  bad  or 
worse  than  ever,  and  continued  to  spread.  No  matter  how  carefully 
spraying  is  done,  only  about  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  scale  is  destroyed 
on  evergreen  trees,  because  it  is  practically  impossible  to  spray  the  under- 
side of  every  leaf  and  fruit. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  here  that  red  oil  emulsion,  i  in  30,  properly 
prepared,  gave  the  best  results.  Scalecide  also  gave  fair  results,  but  is- 
more  expensive  than  fumigation,  to  be  equallv  effective. 

In  1909,  scon  after  I  had  taken  charge  of  the  Doncaster  district,  the 
Red  Scale  was  found  in  most  of  the  citrus  plantations.  The  Olive  Scale 
was  also  causing  a  good  deal  of  trouble. 

When  it  was  deironstrated  to  the  Doncaster  growers  that  fumigation 
was  a  thoroughly  effective  means  of  destroying  scale  insects,  and  the  cost, 
in  the  long  run,  less  than  spraying,  the  leading  citrus-growers  adopted  it. 

To  Mr.  Ferdinand  Finger  is  due  the  credit  of  being  the  first  in  the 
Doncaster  district  to  demonstrate  the  efficiency  and  practicabilitv  of 
fumigation.  Mr.  Finger  had  five  sheets  made  from  strong  unbleached 
calico  selected  by  me.  I  supervised  and  assisted  in  the  fumigation  of 
several  orange  and  lemon  trees,  on  26th  March,  1909.  These  trees  were 
infected  with  Red  Scale,  and,  on  examining  the  trees  a  few  days  later, 
ail  the  scale  were  found  to  be  dead.  The  charge  used  was  i  ounce  each 
of  cyanide  and  sulphuric  acid  to  every  180  cubic  feet  of  inclosed  space. 
Mr.  Finger  and  his  son  continued  the  fumigation  at  intervals  during  April 
and  May.  The  Red  Scale,  on  all  trees  treated,  was  destroyed  ;  but  the 
charge  was  insufficient  to  kill  Olive  Scale  fumigated  earlv  in  May.  Tn 
all  subsequent  dem.onstrations,  i  ounce  each  of  cvanide  and  sulphuric  acid" 
to  160  cubic  feet  was  used,  and  was  found  to  be  effective  against  both 
the  Red  and  the  Olive  Scales,  as  well  as  the  eggs  of  the  latter.  It  is 
inadvisable,  however,  to  use  the  stronger  charge  when  treating  orange 
trees,  unless  they  are  treated  on  cloudy  days,  or  at  night,  as  they  are 
much  more  susceptible  to  injury  than  lemons  or  mandarins. 

The  value  of  fumigation  was  further  demonstrated  in  July,  1909.  In 
the  latter  end  of  June  of  that  year,  T  discovered  the  San  Jo.se  Scale  in  a 
Doncaster  orchard. 

As  this  dreaded  pest  had  net  previously  been  found  in  the  district,  and'" 
was  confined  to  one  orchard,  it  was  decided  to  have  the  infected  trees- 
fumigated. 


aoTH   June,    1912.]      Fumigation  for  ihc  Destruction  of  Scale  Insects.      367 


368  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [ioth   June,    1912. 

The  work  was  carried  out  in  July.  One  ounce  each  of  cyanide  and 
acid  to  120  cubic  feet  was  used,  i.e.,  about  a  quarter  strona;er  than  that 
used  on  evergreen  trees.  The  scale  was  completely  stamped  out.  It  is 
now  nearly  three  years  since  the  trees  were  treated,  and,  although  a  careful 
inspection  of  the  orchard  where  the  outbreak  occurred  has  been  frequently 
made,  no  trace  of  the  scale  could  be  found. 

Fumigation  for  Woolly  Aphis  was  also  tried  in  Mr.  Finger's  orchard 
in  May,  1909.  A  charge  of  the  same  strength  as  that  used  for  citrus  trees 
was  given.  On  examining  the  trees  a  month  later,  live  aphis  were  found 
in  the  knots  and  excrescences,  though  examination  immediately  after  treat- 
ment revealed  no  living  aphis.  These  were,  no  doubt,  protected  in  the 
interstices  of  the  bark  from  the  action  of  the  gas. 

Fumigation  Outfit. 

Sheets,  either  octagonal  or  square,  made  of  strong  closely  woven- 
unbleachtd  calico,  are  recommended.  The  octagonal  sheets  require  less 
material  to  cover  a  tree  of  a  given-  size  than  a  square  sheet,  but  there  is 
more  trouble  in  making  them  up,  and,  consequently,  the  square  sheets  are 
more  favored.  A  tree  13  feet  high  can  be  covered  by  a  sheet  36  feet 
square,  and  one  n  feet  high  by  a  30-ft.  square  sheet.  It  requires 
72  yards  of  calico,  double  width,  fo  make  the  form.er,  and  50  yards  the 
latter.  The  cost  of  the  calico  is  about  is.  3d.  per  yard.  Before  making 
up  the  sheets,  growers  should  measure  the  height  of  their  trees,  and  the 
height  multiplied  by  2|  gives,  roughly,  the  size  of  the  sheets  required. 

Loops  of  rope  or  rings  should  be  attached  to  two  sides  of  the  sheet, 
about  15  feet  apart,  and  equal  distances  from  the  corners.  These  are 
required  in  which  to  insert  the  poles  when  placing  the  sheet  over  the  tree. 

Chemicals  Required. 
Cyanide  of  potassium  (the  best  quality)   and  sulphuric  acid,    are  the 
chemicals   used    for   generating   the   gas.       Both    are   sold    by    avoirdupois 
weight,  but  the  quantities  given  in  the  fumigation  table  are  ounces  avoir- 
dupois and  fluid  ounces  respectively. 

This  has  to  be  taken  into  account  when  ordering  the  chemicals.  There 
are  but  9  fluid  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid  in  i  lb-  avoirdupois,  so,  in  order- 
ing, it  is  required  to  get  16  lbs.  of  acid  for  every  9  lbs.  of  cyanide. 
The  cost  of  the  cyanide  is  9d.  to  lod.  per  lb.,  and  sulphuric  acid  i|d.  per 
lb.  The  cost  of  a  charge  for  a  tree  11  feet  high  by  11  feet  in  diameter 
is    about    4d. 

A  pair  of  scales  is  required  to  weigh  the  cyanide,  and  a  measuring 
glass  for  the  sulphuric  acid  and  water.  The  scales  should  be  accurate 
and  in  good  order. 

Placing  Sheets  over  Trees,  Charging,  etc. 

Two  light  strong  poles  12  to  15  feet  long,  according  to  the  height  of 
the  trees,  are  required.  These  should  be  pointed  at  one  end,  and  have 
a  fork  at  the  other. 

The  forked  end  is  wanted  to  insert  in  the  loop  or  ring  attached  to  the 
sheet,  and  the  pointed  end  prevents  the  poles  from  slipping  on  the  ground. 

Two  men  can  with  the.se  easily  rai.se  the  sheet  and  draw  it  over  the  tree. 
The  operators   should,    if   there   is   a   breeze,    work   towards   it,    when   the 


lOTH  June,   191 -■]      Fumigation  for  the  Destruction  of  Scale  Insects.      369 

sheet  will  float  over  the  tree  without  danger  of  being  damaged.  The  sheet 
should  be  sufficiently  large  to  allow  of  a  foot  or  so  to  lie  on  the  ground 
all  round  the  tree.  Soil  is  then  thrown  over  this  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  gas,  except  a  few  feet,  which  is  left  for  the  purpose  of  placing  in  the 
■charge. 

When  branches  of  the  tree  lie  on  the  ground,  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  cover  them  up  when  tucking  the  sheet  around  the  tree,  otherwise,  scale 
occurring  on  these  parts  will  not  be  destroyed,  owing  to  the  protection 
afforded  by  the  tent  and  soil. 

To  ascertain  the  charge  required,  measure  the  height  and  diameter  of 
the  tree  after  the  sheet  is  on.  A  rod  marked  plainly  off  in  feet  is  used 
for  this  purpose. 


PLACING    SilEEl    OVER    TRIlL. 


Should  the  tree  be  very  irregular  in  shape,  it  is  advisable  to  take  the 
-diameter  two  ways,  and  then  take  the  mean  diameter.  This  also  applies 
in  measuring  the  height.  It  is  usually  sufficient  to  take  the  extreme  height 
and  diameter,  but  when  the  margin  of  safetv  is  small,  as  is  the  case  when 
treating  orange  trees  in  the  day  time,  particularly  large  ones,  a  good  deal 
must  always  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  tlie  operator. 

After  the  height  and  diameter  have  been  taken,  a  reference  to  the 
fumigation  table  will  show  the  charge  required. 

In  preparing  the  charge,  the  water  is  first  placed  in  an  enamel  or 
earthenware  vessel  large  enough  to  hold  the  liquid  without  danger  of 
boiling  over.  The  sulphuric  acid  is  then  slowly  added  to  the  water,  and 
the  vessel  placed  w^ell  under  the  tree.  When  all  rs  ready,  and  the  tent 
■closed  down,  with  the  exception  of  the  place  where  the  charge  is  put  in, 
the  cyanide  is  dropped  gently  into  the  vessel. 


37° 


Journal  of  Agriculfiirc,    1  u 


[lOTH  June,   19 12, 


The  operator  should  not  put  his  head  inside  the  tent  when  placing  the- 
c\anide  in  the  acid,  as  the  fumes  are  very  deadly.  As  soon  as  the  cyanide 
is  dropped  in,  the  sheet  should  be  quickly  closed  down  and  covered.  The 
sheet  should  be  left  on  for  45  minutes. 

As  a  certain  amount  of  gas  escapes  through  the  sheets,  it  is  advisable 
when  fumigating  for  the  operators  to  work  towards  the  wind,  so  that  the 
gas  fumes  are  blown  away  from  them. 

It  is  inadvisable  to  fumigate  when  it  is  very  windv,  or  when  the  sun 
is  hot.       There  is  also  a  danger  of  burning  if  the  foliage  is  wet. 

Time  for  Fumigation. 
The  best  time  to  fumigate  is  in  March.       I  have  found  that  both  the 
Red  and  Olive  Scales  are  much  more  easily  destroyed  at  this  time  of  the- 
year  than  when  the  cold  weather  sets  in.      This  applies  particularly  to  the- 


CHARGING. 

Olive  Scale,  as  in  jNIarch  and  early  April  the  majority  of  the  scales  are- 
young,  and  easily  destroyed.  The  foliage,  too,  at  this  season  is  tougher, 
and  not  so  liable  to  injury.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Spring  and  early 
Summer,  the  foliage  is  tender,  the  insects  more  difficult  to-  destroy,  and  if 
a  few  escape  destruction,  they  multiply  during  the  late  Summer  and 
Autumn.  The  Red  Scale  can  be  effectively  treated  in  Winter,  but  the 
ground  is  then  sloppy,   and  the  weather  usually  unfavorable. 

Another  objection  to  winter  treatment  is  that,  although  the  scale  on 
the  fruit  is  killed,  it  will  not  fall  off,  whereas,  if  done  in  early  Autumn, 
the  expanding  fruit  throws  it  off  before  picking  time. 

The  tables  which  have  been  prepared  will  probably  be  sufficient  for  all 
requirements,  but  the  required  charge  for  larger  trees  will  be  found  bv 
.•squaring  the  diameter,  multiplying  by  \\,  then  by  -i%  of  the  height,  and 
dividing  bv    160   for   the  stronger  charge   as  given   in   No.    i    table,   or  by 


lOTH  June,    19 12.]      Fu)tiigation  for  the  Destruction  of  Scale  Insects.      371 

180  as  given  in  N'o.  2  table.  For  example,  if  a  tree  is  20  feet  high  by 
1  8  feet  in  diameter,  theformulais  18  x  18  x  \\  x  20  x  ^"^5-  x  -^\^  =  2 8|  nearly. 
The  charge  therefore  is  28^  ounces  of  cyanide,  29  ounces  of  sulphuric 
.acid,  and  87  ounces  of  water.  It  will  be  noticed  that  i-oz.  weights  are 
often  required  in  weighing  the  cyanide.  As  these  are  not  always  obtainable, 
a  penny  can  be  used,  which  weighs  exactly  \  ounce. 

Observation  of  the  result  of  fumigating  trees  varying  considerably  in 
size,  show  that  small  trees  are  rarely  overcharged,  whilst  with  large  trees 
this  often  happens  when  the  margin  of  safety  is  small.  Great  care,  there- 
fore, must  be  taken  with  the  measurements  in  treating  large  trees,  especially 
•oranges,  during  the  day. 

It  has  been  noted  that,  when  the  sheet  has  been  taken  off  a  small  tree 
.after  being  on   for  45  minutes,   the  odour  of   the  gas  has   been   scarcely 


FUMIGATING    FOR    RED    SCALE    MR.    RIESCHIECK  S    PLANTATION, 
DONCASTER,     VICTORIA. 

perceptible ;    whereas,   in   the   case  of   large  trees,    the  odour  of   the   gas 
was  strong. 

The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  area  of  the  sheet  enveloping  a  large 
tree  is,  in  relation  to  the  .space  enclosed,  less  than  the'  area  of  the  sheet 
enclosing  a  small  tree.  As  there  is  an  escape  of  gas  through  the  undres.sed 
calico,  the  wastage  of  gas  is  relatively  greater  in  small  than  in  large 
trees. 

In  fumigating  deciduous  trees  during  winter  for  San  Jose  Scale,  a 
charge  one  quarter  stronger  is  necessary.  This  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  quantity  of  cyanide  given  in  No.  i  table  by  4,  and  dividing  by  3. 
Sulphuric  acid  and  water  are  increased  proportionately.  The  cyanide 
should  always  be  carefully  weighed,  and  the  exact  charge  given.  A  little 
more  than  the  prescribed  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  can  be  given  withouf 
harm,  and  this  is  done  when  small  fractions  are  involved. 

Cyanide  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  should  be  handled  with  great  care. 
It  should  be  kept  in  a  secure  place,  and  air-tight,  when  not  in  use. 
Sulphuric  acid  is  dangerous  also,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow  it 


^73  ■' Journal  of  Agriculture,   Yicioria.  [ioth   June,    191  j. 

to  come  in  contact  with  the  clothing  or  the  sheets.  After  handling  the 
acid  bottle,  the  operator  should  wipe  or  rinse  his  hands  before  touching 
the  sheets. 

When  breaking  the  cyanide,  which  is  in  lumps,  be  careful  that  none- 
gets  into  the  eyes. 

Always  place  the  water  in  the  vessel  first,  then  slowly  add  the  acid. 
When  the  vessel  is  in  pO'sition  under  the  sheet,  gently  drop  the  cyanide 
in.  Hold  the  breath  till  the  tent  is  closed  down.  Should  the  cyanide- 
be  very  fine,  it  should  be  wrapped  in  paper,  and  paper  and  all  put  in. 
This  prevents  the  too  rapid  generation  of  the  gas.  When  large  charges  are 
given,  it  is  advisable  to  place  a  board  a  few  inches  above  the  generator 
for  the  purpose  of  spreading  the  gas.  The  foliage  immediately  above  the- 
generator  is  sometimes  damaged  when  this  is  not  done. 

Avoid  treating  orange  trees  on  a  warm  sunny  day,  and  never  fumigate 
when  the  foliage  is  wet.  Always  dry  the  sheets  well  before  storing  them 
away.  Fumigation  can  be  done  at  any  time  of  the  year,  but  is  safer  and 
more  effective  in  autumn. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  fumigation  is  superseding  spraying  as  a  means 
of  destroying  the  scale  in  citrus  trees.  It  is,  in  the  long  run,  cheaper  than? 
spraving,  and  is  thoroughly  effective  if  properly  done.  Trees  arc 
invigorated  by  fumigation,  but  continual  spraying  injures  tnem,  more  c» 
less. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  San  Jose  Scale  was  stamped  out  in  the  Doncaster 
district  by  fumigation.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  Red  Scale  could  not  also 
be  stamped  out  if  the  fumigation  is  as  carefull)  and  as  thoroughly 
carried  out. 

Reinfection  is  often  caused  through  leaving  a  few  trees  in  the  planta- 
tion untreated  which  were  thought  to  be  clean.  It  should  be  remembered, 
also,  that  pear  trees  will  harbor  both  the  Red  and  the  Olive  Scales,  and 
these  should,  when  growing  near  citrus  trees,  be  either  fumigated  or  well 
sprayed  with  red  oil,   i  in  25,  in  the  winter. 

Citrus  trees  have  been  reinfected  through  neglecting  to  treat  infected 
pear  trees  which  were  growing  among  them. 

Herewith,  the  opinions  and  experiences  of  the  leading  citrus-growers  of 
the  Doncaster  district,  who  have  adopted  fumigation  for  the  destruction 
of  scale  insects  in  citrus  trees,  are  given  : — 

C.  Gill  writes  : — "Besides  getting  rid  of  the  scale,  it  improved  the  trees, 
also  the  fruit  was  far  superior,  commanding  a  better  price  on  the  market, 
and  a  readier  sale.  I  may  state  that  I  am  not  quite  free  from  it  yet ; 
but  it  was  not  the  fault  of  the  fumigation.  I  discovered  that  some  of  the 
branches  that  were  on  the  ground  got  covered  up  with  the  dirt  when  packing 
round  the  tent  j  therefore,  the  fumes  did  not  get  at  them.  I  may  state  that 
one  tree  in  the  badly  affected  part  got  missed,  and  it  was  marvellous  the 
difference  in  that  tree  and  the  ones  around  it." 

Mr.  Wm.  Rie.'^chieck,  Doncaster,  writes  : — "  I  found  the  fumigation 
tables,  which  you  supplied  me  with,  quite  satisfactory.  The  '  No.  i  ' 
table  was  quite  right  for  lemons,  destroying  both  the  Olive  and  tlie  Red 
Scale.  I  tried  the  '  No.  i  '  table  for  oranges  in  the  day  time,  but  found 
it  too  strong.  The  '  No.  2  '  table,  however,  did  no  harm,  and  was,  as 
far  as  I  can  see,  effective.  A  lad  and  myself  did  60  trees  per  day  com- 
fortably,   using    five    sheets.        The    largest    sheet    used    was    30    feet    by- 


lOTH  June,    1912.]      Fumigation  for  tJic  Dcsiniciiou  of  Scale  Insects.      373 


30  feet,  which  will  cover  a  tree  12  feet  hij^h  hy  14  feet  in  diameter.  And 
now  accept  my  best  thanks  for  heli)ing  me  with  the  fumigation,  as  I  knew 
nothing  about  it  at  the  start." 

Other  orchardists  have  written  in  appre(iati<jn  of  fumigation,  as  carri'ed 
out  under  instruction  from  the  Department. 

Fumigation  Table  No.  1. 


5 

a 

>. 

(S 

0. 

6 
"3. 
"a 

1  •- 
£'.'2 

i 

.2' 

2 

B 
o3 

1 

S 

^ 

c 

w 

•s 
0 

a 

0 

^ 

w 

(5 

^cS 

>^ 

^-^ 

^ 

ft. 

ft. 

cub.  ft. 

ozs.  av 

fl.  ozs. 

!  fl.  ozs. 

ft. 

i    ft. 

cub.  ft. 

ozs.  av 

fl.  ozs. 

fl.  ozs. 

4 

5 

71 

I 

2 

*     9 

1  12 

916 

5f 

6 

17 

4 

6 

102 

i 

'   2 

10 

12 

1,018 

6i 

7 

19 

5 

4 

57 

f 

2 

;     11 

12 

1,120 

7 

7 

21 

6 

4 

68 

i 

2 

12 

12 

].221 

7^ 

8 

22 

7 

4 

79 

3 

4 

2 

13 

i  12 

1,323 

8i 

9 

25 

5 

5 

88 

f 

2 

14 

12 

1,425 

'   8f 

9 

26 

6 

5 

106 

2 

15 

t  12 

1,527 

91 

9* 

28 

7 

5 

124 

1 

2 

16 

12 

1,629 

101 

101 

31 

8 

5 

141 

1 

3 

9 

13 

1,075 

6| 

7 

!  20 

5 

6 

127 

1 

3 

10 

13 

1,195 

7* 

n 

23 

6 

6 

153 

1 

3 

11 

13 

1,314 

8j 

H 

25 

7 

6 

178 

H 

H 

4 

12 

13 

1,433 

9 

9 

27 

8 

6 

204 

H 

H 

4 

13 

13 

1,553 

9| 

10 

29 

9 

6 

229 

H 

H 

4 

14 

13 

1,672 

lOi 

101 

31 

6 

7 

208 

U 

n 

4 

15 

13 

1,792 

Hi 

111 

34 

7 

7 

242 

H 

n 

5 

16 

13 

1,911 

12 

12 

36 

8 

7 

277 

If 

2 

5 

17 

13 

2,031 

12f 

13 

38 

9 

7 

312 

2 

2 

6 

10 

14 

1,385 

8f 

9 

26 

10 

7 

346 

2i 

H 

6 

11 

14 

1,524 

9i 

H 

28 

6 

8 

271 

If 

2 

5 

12 

14 

1,663 

lOi 

101 

31 

7 

8 

317 

2 

2 

6 

13 

14 

1,801 

lU 

Hi 

34 

8 

8 

362 

2* 

2* 

7 

14 

14 

1,940 

121 

m 

37 

9 

8 

407 

2i 

2i 

7    i 

15 

14 

2,078 

13 

13 

39 

10 

8 

452 

3 

3 

9     1 

16 

14 

2,217 

13| 

14 

41 

11 

8 

498 

H 

31 

10     1 

17 

14 

2,355 

14f 

15 

44 

12 

8 

543 

H 

3i 

10 

18 

14 

2,494 

Ui 

151 

46 

6 

9 

344 

H 

2i 

7 

10 

15 

1,590 

10 

10 

£0 

7 

9 

401 

2i 

H 

8 

11 

15 

1,749 

11  1 

11 

33 

8 

9 

458 

3 

3 

9 

12 

15 

1,909 

12 

12 

36 

9 

9 

515 

H 

3*  1 

10 

13 

15 

2,068 

13  1 

13 

39 

10 

9 

573 

H 

31  1 

11     ! 

14 

15 

2,227 

14 

14 

42 

11 

9 

630 

4 

4" 

12        ! 

15 

15 

2,386 

15 

15 

45 

12 

9 

687 

4i 

4^  i 

13 

16 

15 

2,545 

16 

16 

48 

7 

10 

495 

H 

31  : 

10 

17 

15 

2,704 

17 

17 

51 

8 

10 

565 

H 

3| 

11 

18 

15 

2,863 

18 

18 

54 

9 

10 

636 

4 

4 

12 

11 

16 

1,991 

121 

m 

37 

10 

10 

707 

4J 

4* 

13 

12 

16 

2,171 

131 

131  1 

40 

11 

10 

778 

4f 

5 

14 

13 

16 

2,352 

14f  j 

15  i 

45 

12 

10 

848 

5* 

51 

16 

14 

16  ! 

2,533 

15f 

16 

47 

13 

10 

919 

5f 

6' 

17 

15  1 

16  1 

2,714 

16| 

17 

50 

14 

10 

990 

6i 

6* 

19 

16 

16 

2,895  : 

18 

18 

54  • 

8 

11 

684 

4* 

5 

13 

17 

16 

3,076 

19 

19 

57 

9 

11 

770 

4| 

5 

14 

18 

16  1 

3,257  t 

20  ' 

£0 

eo 

10 

11 

855 

5* 

6 

16 

13 

17 

2,656 

15f 

16 

47 

11 

11 

941 

5| 

6 

17 

14 

17 

2,860 

17i 

18 

53 

12 

11 

1,026 

^ 

7 

20 

15 

17 

3.064 

19 

19 

57 

13 

11 

1,112 

7 

7 

21 

16 

17 

3,269 

19| 

20  ! 

59 

14 

! 

11 

1,197 

7* 

8 

22 

17 

17 

3,473 

211 

211 

64 

374  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [ioth  June,   19 12. 


Fumigation  Table  No.  2. 


J3 

.2 

a. 

5 

1 
0 

1 

ft. 

ft. 

cub.  ft. 

ozs.  av. 

fl.  OZS. 

fl.  ozs. 

4 

0 

71 

f 

2 

4 

6 

102 

1 

2 

5 

4 

57 

\ 

4 

2 

6 

4 

68 

1 

2 

7 

4 

79 

2 

5 

5 

88 

1 

2 

6 

5 

106 

i 

2 

7 

5 

124 

3 
4 

2 

8 

5 

141 

3 

5 

6 

127 

3 

6 

6 

153 

3 

7 

6 

178 

3 

8 

6 

204 

3 

9 

6 

229 

U 

H 

4 

6 

7 

208 

3 

7 

7 

242 

H 

1 1 

4 

8 

7 

277 

1 1 
^2 

U 

5 

9 

7 

312 

If 

2 

6 

10 

7 

346 

If 

2 

6 

6 

8 

271 

u 

14 

5 

7 

8 

317 

If 

2 

6 

8 

8 

362 

2 

2 

6 

9 

8 

407 

2J 

24 

7 

10 

8 

542 

2i 

24 

7 

11 

8 

498 

2i 

3 

9 

12 

8 

543 

3 

3 

9 

6 

9 

344 

^4 

2 

6 

7 

9 

401 

2i 

24 

7 

8 

9 

458 

2^ 

2i 

7 

9 

9 

515 

2| 

3 

9 

10 

9 

573 

3i 

34 

10 

11 

9 

630 

3i 

34 

10 

12 

9 

687 

31 

4 

12 

7 

10 

495 

2f 

3 

9 

8 

10 

565 

3i 

34 

9 

9 

10 

636 

3i 

34 

10 

10 

10 

707 

4 

4 

12 

11 

10 

778 

4J 

44 

13 

12 

10 

848 

4i 

5 

15 

13 

10 

919 

5 

5 

15 

14 

10 

990 

5i 

6 

18 

8 

11 

684 

3i 

4 

12 

9 

11 

770 

4i 

44 

13 

10 

11 

855 

4i 

5 

15 

11 

11 

941 

5i 

54 

16 

12 

11 

1,026 

5f 

6 

18 

13 

11 

1,112 

6i 

64 

19 

14 

11 

1,197 

6f 

7 

21 

. 

>. 

4 

3 

.SP 

1 

s 

1 

1 

J3  . 

1 

w 

«  ■ 

S3 
0 

0 

CO -5 

^ 

ft. 

ft. 

Cub.  ft. 

ozs.  av. 

fl.  ozs. 

fl.  ozs. 

9 

12 

916 

5 

5 

15 

10 

12 

1,018 

5| 

6 

18 

11 

12 

1,120 

6i 

64 

19 

12 

12 

1,221 

6f 

7 

21 

13 

12 

1,323 

74 

74 

22 

14 

12 

1,425 

8 

8 

24 

15 

12 

1,527 

84 

84 

25 

16 

12 

1,629 

9 

9 

27 

9 

13 

1,075 

6 

6 

18 

10 

13 

1,195 

6f 

7 

21 

11 

13 

1,314 

74 

74 

22 

12 

13 

1,433 

8 

8 

24 

13 

13 

1,553 

8f 

9 

27 

14 

13 

1,672 

94 

94 

28 

15 

13 

1,792 

10 

10 

30 

16 

13 

1,911 

lOf 

11 

33 

17 

13 

2,031 

111 

114 

34 

10 

14 

1,385 

7f 

8 

24 

11 

14 

1,524 

84 

9 

27 

12 

14 

1,663 

H 

94 

28 

13 

14 

1,801 

10 

10 

30 

14 

14 

1,940 

114 

114 

34 

15 

14 

2,078 

114 

12 

36 

16 

14 

2,217 

124 

124 

37 

17 

14 

2,355 

13 

13 

39 

18 

14 

2,494 

13f 

14 

42 

10 

15 

1,590 

8i 

9 

27 

11 

15 

1,749 

9| 

10 

30 

12 

15 

1,909 

10* 

m 

32 

13 

15 

2,068 

114 

114 

34 

14 

15 

2,227 

124 

124 

37 

15 

15 

2,386 

m 

iH 

40 

16 

15 

2,545 

144 

144 

43 

17 

15 

2,704 

15 

15 

45 

18 

15 

2,863 

16 

16 

48 

11 

16 

1,991 

11 

11 

33 

12 

16 

2,171 

12 

12 

36 

13 

16 

2,352 

13 

13 

39 

14 

16 

2,533 

14 

14 

42 

15 

16 

2,714 

15 

15 

45 

16 

16 

2,895 

16 

16 

48 

17 

16 

3,076 

17 

17 

51 

18 

16 

3,257 

18 

18 

54 

13 

17 

2,656 

14| 

15 

45 

14 

17 

2,860 

16 

16 

48 

15 

17 

3,064 

17 

17 

51 

16 

17 

3,269 

18 

18 

54 

17 

17 

3,473 

194 

19J 

57 

lOTH  June,    1912.]  Rcvietu  of  Dairying  Season,  igii-12.  375 


REVIEW  OF  THE  VICTORIAN  DAIRYING  SEASON  AND 
BUTTER  EXPORT  TRADE,   11)11-12. 

By  R.  Crowe,  Exports  Superintendent. 

Another  record  has  been  broken.  The  prices  realized  for  export  butter 
during  the  season  1911-1912  have  far  exceeded  any  enjoyed  during  the 
history  of  the  trade.  The  highest  average  comes  out  in  the  neighbourhood' 
of  125s.  per  cwt.,  against  iios.  for  the  previous  season,  and  the  mean 
average  may  be  placed  at  120s.,  against  105s.  for  the  year  before.  It  is 
to  be  regretted  that  the  same  cannot  be  asserted  in  regard  to  production. 
This  years  exports  from  Victoria  to  all  destinations  total  20,082  tons,  worth 
^2.409.840.  Included  in  this,  however,  are  805  tons  of  butter  from 
Tasmania,  so  that  Victoria  can  be  credited  with  19,277  tons,  valued  at 
^2,313,240.  against  25,793  tons  for  the  year  before,  worth  ^2,666,265. 
The  butter  exjjorted  from  Victoria  this  season  represents  more  than  half 
the  total  shipped  from  Australia. 

In  the  previous  season  two  springs  were  encountered,  and  it  was  more 
than  could  be  reasonably  expected  that  the  present  season's  output  would 
reach  the  previous  phenomenal  record.  At  the  moment,  however,  grave 
results  are  being  experienced  in  the  northern  districts  of  the  State  which  tend 
to  discount  next  year's  prospects.  There  are  two  causes  responsible  for 
this — a  scarcity  of  food  due  to  want  of  rain,  and  overstocking.  There 
were  more  stock  in  Victoria  this  year  than  in  the  previous  one,  which  was 
so  bountiful,  by  1,125,218  head,  made  up  of  975.139  sheep,  99.558  cattle, 
35,733  horses,  and  14,788  pigs.  Most  stock-owners  have  yet  to  learn  that  it 
is  essential  to  provide  fodder  to  carry  them  over  the  dry  months.  Horses 
are  never  expected  to  work  the  year  round  without  hand-feeding,  and  it  is 
strange  indeed  that  the  great  majority  of  dairymen  expect  cows  to  continue 
giving  milk  and  keep  alive  without  any  assistance  whatever.  In  an 
average  season,  the  grass  dries  up  in  January,  and  no  new  natural  growth 
can  be  relied  upon  until  the  month  of  May  or  later.  It  should  therefore 
be  regarded  as  essential  to  provide  and  conserve  fodder  during  that  period 
at  least ;  stock  should  also  be  cared  for  during  the  winter  months.  For- 
tunately, two-thirds  of  the  State  is  not  so  badly  off,  and  everything  is  fairly 
prosperous  in  the  Western  and  Gippsland  districts. 

Grading. 

The  amended  Commerce  Regulations  came  into  operation  at  the  com- 
mencement of  last  season,  and  these  provided  for  an  altered  standard — a 
reduction  in  the  maximum  for  moisture  from  16  per  cent,  to  15  per  cent., 
and  the  packing  of  56^  lbs.  of  butter  in  boxes  marked  56  lbs.,  together  with 
compulsory  grade-stamping.  In  previous  years,  "  Superfine  "  and  "  First 
Grade  "  butters  were  stamped  as  such,  when  exporters  made  special  request 
to  have  it  done.  During  the  present  year  all  butters  submitted  for  export 
were  graded,  and  the  "  Superfine "  and  "  First  Grades "  were  stamped 
accordingly.  Grave  and  serious  results  were  anticipated  by  a  number  who 
objected  to  the  innovation,  but  after  the  season's  experience  it  is  found 
that  grade-stamping  did  not  produce  the  dreadful  results  apprehended  by  the 
opponents  to  its  introduction.       The  system  is  running  well  and  smoothly. 


37^  "  ] ouriial  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [ioth  June,    19x2. 

Shortly  after  it  came  into  force  some  exporters,  whose  output  was  wanting 
in  uniformity,  with  some  justification  pointed  out  that  when  different  grades 
were  found  in  one  consignment  it  was  unfair  to  place  the  whole  parcel  in 
accordance  with  the  lowest  one.  It  was  agreed  that  in  such  cases  shippers 
should  be  notified  and  given  an  opportunity  of  separating  the  chury  marks 
of  different  grades.  It  was  held  that  one  of  the  objects  of  grading  and 
grade  stamping  was  to  secure  uniformity  of  quality  and  encourage  the 
grading  of  cream  in  line  with  the  standards  recognised  under  the  Commerce 
Act.  It  was  certainly  unreasonable  to  expect  the  Department  to  perform 
work  which  should  have  been  done  in  the  factory  when  the  produce  was  in 
the  cream  stage.  Already  a  great  step  in  advance  has  been  achieved  under 
this  heading.  Factories  which  previously  put  all  qualities  under  one 
brand  are  now  grading  their  cream  and  covering  each  grade  with  a  different 
brand  corresponding  in  quality  with  the  Government  grades.  Naturally 
the  outcome  will  be  the  adoption  of  a  differential  rate  of  payment  for 
cream,  so  that  the  suppliers  of  best-conditioned  cream  will  not  have  to  carrj 
on  their  shoulders  the  product  from  careless  producers.  Payment  for 
cream  according  to  its  suitability  for  making  a  good  or  bad  butter  will  have 
a  strong  tendency  to  make  all  dairymen  improve  the  care  and  treatment 
of  the  milk  and  cream. 

Churn   Marks. 

Unfortunately,  makers  were  left  to  employ  their  own  system  of  chum- 
marking,  and  at  the  height  of  the  season  the  method  became  most  complex 
and  difficult  to  follow.  It  was  found  necessary  to  issue  a  circular  recom- 
mending the  adoption  of  a  uniform  method,  and  quite  a  long  time  elapsed 
before  much  headway  in  that  direction  was  achieved.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  season,  however,  uniformity  was  reached  with  the  great  majority,  to  the 
relief  of  all  concerned.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  managers  will  see  the 
necessity  for  carefully  applying  the  churn  marks  in  the  prescribed  place 
on  both  ends  of  the  boxes.  It  will  be  to  the  advantage  of  every  one 
connected  with  this  work  if  the  requirements  be  fully  complied  with.  In 
a  few  instances  it  was  discovered  that  the  same  churn  mark  covered  different 
grades.  This  result  indicated  that  the  application  of  the  mark  was  either 
loose  or  intended  to  mislead.  No  points  are  gained  by  such  a  practice, 
as  it  is  patent  that  the  manufacturer  has  everything  to  gain  by  the  applica- 
tion of  identification  marks.  The  graders'  reports  on  each  mark  enable 
him  to  discover  weaknesses  and  promptly  apply  remedies  to  eradicate  same. 

Brands  and  Marks. 
It  is  becoming  more  apparent  that  something  will  have  to  be  done  to 
distinguish  unsalted  butters  from  salted.  The  consignments  reach  the 
Stores  bearing  the  same  brand,  portion  of  which  is  marked  "  U.S.",  indicating 
unsalted.  The  Department  cannot  be  expected  to  separate  the  "  U.S." 
portion  from  the  rest,  and  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  numbers  indicated 
on  the  advice  note  under  each  heading  are  correct.  When  shipped,  the 
shipping  companies  specifically  exonerate  themselves  in  the  bill  of  lading 
from  all  responsibility  regarding  sub-marks,  and  accept  the  goods  here,  and 
deliver  them  in  London  under  the  leading  brand  alone.  Everything  comes 
out  all  right  when  the  factory  engages  one  agent  only,  but  if  the  unsalted 
portion  be  consigned  to  one  agent  and  the  salted  to  another,  trouble  is 
encountered  at  every  stage.  Complaints  from  London  are  referred  to  me 
for  investigation  in  consequence  of   firms   getting   salted   butter   when  they 


lOTH  June,   191 2.]        Review  of  Dairying  Season.  377 

bargained  for  unsalted.  and  vice  versa.  It  will  therefore  be  seen  that 
some  better  method  of  distinguishing  salted  butter  from  unsalted  will  have 
to  be  adopted.  The  word  unsalted  indelibly  impressed  on  each  end  of  the 
boxes  is  the  least  effective  method  that  might  be  employed.  A  better  plan 
would  be  to  have  a  separate  brand  covering  the  unsalted  butter;  57.52  per 
Cent,  of  the  buttej  exported  from  the  State  to  oversea  destinations  was  salted, 
whilst  42.48  per  cent,  of  the  butter  was  unsalted. 

Mould  in   Butter. 

Mould  was  discovered  on  some  butters  upon  opening  for  examination. 
Certain  consignments  were  so  bad  that  every  box  had  to  be  re-papered  and 
packed  after  scraping  about  \  inch  off  the  surface  through  which  the 
mould  had  penetrated,  and  making  good  the  consequent  shortage  in  weight. 
In  no  case  did  the  managers  fail  to  overcome  the  trouble  upon  their  attention 
being  drawn  to  it,  and  instructions  given  as  to  the  proper  care  of  butter 
paper.  The  proprietor  of  a  certain  factory  was  greatly  concerned  about 
the  mould  reported  on  consignments  from  his  factory.  One  day  an  officer 
ot  the  Department,  when  speaking  to  him,  saw  the  paper  over  the  office 
■stool  fronting  a  desk  for  the  buttermaker's  use.  Presently  the  butter-maker, 
whose  garments  were  not  too  clean,  came  and  sat  on  the  paper  to  make  an 
■entry  at  the  desk.  A  few  minutes  afterwards  the  same  paper  was  utilized 
for  lining  the  butter  boxes,  and  although  this  action  may  not  have  been 
(Urectly  responsible  for  the  contamination  of  the  butter  paper,  yet  it  clearly 
showed  that  the  user  did  not  appreciate  the  necessity  for  keeping  it  away 
from  dust  pending  its  being  brought  into  requisition. 

Butter  Fat. 

Only  one  consignment,  representing  nine  boxes,  was  re-worked  under 
supervision  to  comply  with  the  standard  before  shipm_ent.  In  the  previous 
season  there  were  45  contraventions,  representing  1,697  boxes. 

Short  Weight. 

Fifty-six  consignments,  representing  1.9 15  boxes,  were  intercejoted  from 
shipment  on  account  of  short  weight.  By  checking  these  packages,  1,479 
were  passed  as  correct  and  released,  the  remaining  436  having  had  their 
contents  amended  under  supervision  before  export.  In  the  previous  year, 
62  consignments,  representing  3,276  boxes,  were  intercepted  from  shipment, 
out  of  which  947  were  found  short  weight.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore, 
that  less  than  half  the  contraventions  under  this  heading  were  encountered 
during  the  present  season.  Under  the  new  regulations  it  is  necessaiv  to 
brand  any  butter  weighing  less  than  56 J  lbs.  at  time  of  checking  with  the 
words  ''  Bare  ^Veight."  Thirty-nine  consignments,  representing  1,649 
boxes,  were  intercepted  from  shipment  under  this  heading,  1,072  of  which 
were  passed  on  checking  and  released.  Of  the  remainder,  372  boxes  had 
their  contents  amended  under  supervision,  and  one  consignment  only  of 
205  boxes  had  the  words  ''Bare  Weight"  indelibly  impressed  on  the  outside 
covering.  The  amended  regulations  under  the  Commerce  Act  have 
undoubtedly  brought  about  a  better  condition  of  affairs  in  regard  to  weights. 
A  margin  is  essential  to  insure  the  butter  turning  out  satisfactorily  at  the 
port  of  destination.       This  matter  is  furdier  dealt  with  later  on. 


378 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [ioth   June,    1912. 


Moisture  Contents. 
The   average   moisture   contents   of   all    samples    analyzed    is    13.91    per 
cent.,  against  13.82  per  cent,  for  1910-11. 


District. 

Western  District 

Gippsland 

North  and  North-east 

City 

Average. 

% 
14-12 
14  06 
1401 
13-74 

Co-(ipen.t:ve. 

0/ 

14-09 

1412 

13-96 

Proprittary. 

0/ 
0 

14-15 
13-89 
14-16 

One  hundred  and  thirty-one  consignments,  representing  5,008  boxes,  con- 
tained over  15  per  cent.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  3.394  sample'^, 
analyzed  :  — 

Over  16  per  cent.,  45  samples,  1.33  per  cent. 

Over  15  per  cent.,  154  samples,  4.53  per  cent. 

Over  14  per  cent.,  1,458  samples,  42.96  per  cent. 

Over  13  per  cent.,  1,231  samples,  36.27  per  cent. 

Under  13  per  cent.,  506  samples,  14.91  per  cent. 
It  was  forecasted  by  many  that  with  the  reduction  in  the  maximum  provided 
under  the  amended  Commerce  Regulations  which  came  into  force  at  the 
commencement  of  the  season,  the  dairymen  of  the  State  would  be  greatly 
handicapped  in  consequence.  Increased  buildings,  refrigerating  machinery 
and  plant  were  recommended  in  some  quarters.  It  was  pointed  out  by  me 
at  the  time  that  a  little  more  care  and  attention  would  enable  manufacturers 
to  comply  with  the  new  order  of  things  without  any  sacrifice.  Their  average- 
percentage  was  sufficiently  below  the  proposed  reduced  maximum  to  leave 
them  a  safe  working  margin, .  and  this  proved  to  be  the  case.  The  butter 
submitted  for  export  was  found  to  contain  more  moisture  than  that  for  the- 
p-revious  season,  when  the  maximum  allowed  was  i  per  cent,  higher. 

Boric  Acid. 
Only  ;^~)  results  of  analyses  were  received  regarding  boric  acid,  the- 
average  of  which  comes  out  at  0.46  per  cent.  These,  of  course,  do  not 
ijiclude  butters  analyzed  for  freedom  from  boric  acid.  Eleven  consign- 
ments, representing  247  boxes,  were  found  to  contain  more  than  the- 
maximum  0.5  per  cent.,  and  withheld  from  shipment  until  the  percentage- 
was  reduced. 

Investigation   Regarding   the    Efficiency   of    Boric    Acid    as    a 

Preservative. 
During  the  season  it  was  intimated  that  the  State  Pure  Foods- 
Committee  intended  recommending  the  abolition  of  boric  acid  in  butter, 
and  the  authorities  were  induced  by  the  trade  to  defer  action  in  regard  to- 
the  matter.  Every  butter-factory  manager  in  Victoria  at  some  time  or  other 
carried  out  tests  to  ascertain  the  effect  of  different  preservatives  in  varying 
proportions.  Without  exception,  the  butter  to  which  boric  acid  preservative 
v.'as  added  in  the  process  of  manufacture  to  an  extent  not  exceeding  0.5  per 
cent.,  was  found  to  be  more  palatable  at  the  end  of  six  or  eight  weeks 
than  the  control  samples  in  which  none  was  used.  Some  years  back  the 
belief  was  entertained  by  the  most  advanced  managers  that  a  set  of  conditions 
could  be  created  which  would  obviate  the  necessity  for  the  use  of  preser- 
vatives— sanitary  conditions  on  the  farms,  cleanliness,  low  temperatures, 
and  prompt  delivery  of  the  milk  at  the  skimming  stations,  would  enable  the 
product  to  come  within  expert  control  under  the  most  favorable  conditions. 


lOTH  June,   19 12.]        Review  of  Dairying  Season.  379 

Extreme  care  in  manufacturing  and  low  temperatures  immediately  after- 
wards were  expected  to  complete  the  precautions.  The  butter  so  made  was 
exported  as  well  as  being  i)laced  on  the  local  market,  but  it  never  at  any 
time  gave  the  same  satisfaction  to  retailers,  and  lower  prices  had  to  be 
accepted.  The  result  of  these  experiments  was  so  scattered  and  difficult 
t(j  collect  to  put  in  convincing  form,  that  it  was  arranged  to  carry  out  a 
iiew  series  on  the  widest  lines.  A  circular  was  issued  to  all  butter  factories 
asking  them  to  make  up  from  one  churning  two  boxes  of  butter  containing 
lioric  acid  within  the  limit  allowed  under  the  Commerce  Regulations  and 
by  the  authorities  in  Great  Britain,  and  two  boxes  without  any.  One  of 
each  set  was  shipped  per  R.M.S.  Orama  on  the  loth  January  last,  and 
examined  in  London  on  the  26th  February.  A  cable  was  received  reporting 
the  market  value  up  to  8s.  per  cwt.  in  favour  of  butter  with  preservative. 
Table  A  shows  the  difference  in  results  between  the  butter  containing  boric 
acid  and  butter  without  any,  together  with  the  composition  of  each.  The 
jiverage  points  scored  by  all  the  butters  containing  boric  acid  was  90,  and 
the  average  of  the  control  samples  87.4,  giving  a  difference  of  2.6  points  in 
favour  of  the  use  of  boric  acid.  The  average  boric  acid  contents  was 
0.183  per  cent.,  and  0.003  per  cent.,  in  the  control  samples,  due  to  a  number 
having  been  found  to  contain  a  small  percentage.  The  average  fat  content 
of  the  boric  acid  samples  was  84.92  per  cent.,  and  of  the  control  samples 
85.65  per  cent. ;  moisture  contents,  12.88  per  cent,  in  the  boric  acid  samples, 
and  12.19  psr  cent,  in  the  control  samples;  salt,  1,16  per  cent,  in  the  boric 
ocid  samples,  and  1.27  per  cent,  in  the  control  samples;  curd,  0.92  per  cent, 
in  the  boric  acid  samples,  and  0.85  per  cent,  in  the  control  samples.  A 
study  of  the.se  results,  which  relate  to  100  boxes  of  butter,  besides  proving 
interesting,  will  provide  food  for  reflection  to  those  so  inclined  for  months, 
if  not  years,  to  come.  All  my  spare  time  for  the  last  month  has  been  devoted 
to  it,  and  tables  were  taken  out  bearing  on  different  aspects  of  the  subject, 
to  see  if  any  definite  result  or  principle  could  be  deduced  other  than  the 
jirimary  one  for  which  the  test  was  made.  For  instance,  the  fourteen 
brands  showing  the  least  average  difference  between  the  grading  of  B  and 
C,  and  the  fourteen  showing  the  greatest  average  difference.  This  table 
involved  the  taking  out  and  re-arranging  of  the  full  details  of  56  of  the 
100  returns,  and  it  was  found  that  the  butter  to  which  the  greatest  per- 
centage of  boric  acid  was  added  showed  least  deterioration  ;  in  other  words, 
the  greatest  difference  between  the  scoring  of  the  boric  acid  samples  and 
control  samples.  The  butters  showing  the  least  difference  contained  rela- 
tively a  small  percentage  of  boric  acid,  that  is  to  say,  butters  which  had 
comparatively  a  small  percentage  of  boric  acid  added  to  them  deteriorated 
to  nearly  the  same  extent  as  the  control  samples.  Ten  butters  containing 
the  highest  fat  content  were  compared  wdth  ten  showing  the  least  fat  content. 
This  involved  taking  out  all  details  of  40  of  the  samples.  Likewise,  ten 
with  the  highest  moisture  content  and  ten  with  the  lowest  moisture  content 
were  compared.  The  same  was  done  from  a  salt  point  of  view,  without, 
however,  eliciting  data  of  much  value.  The  curd,  on  the  other  hand,  gave 
positive  results.  The  butters  containing  the  highest  percentage  of  curd 
showed  the  largest  variation  in  the  score ;  in  other  words,  the  control  sample 
deteriorated  more  in  the  case  of  butters  found  to  contain  a  high  percentage 
of  curd  than  they  did  with  those  having  lower  percentages.  Finally,  the  ten 
brands  showing  the  highest  boric  acid  content  and  ten  showing  the  least 
boric  acid  content  were  tabulated,  and  gave  results  confirming  the  first  extract 
relating  to  scores,  viz.,  that  there  was  less  difference  in  the  score  between 
the  boric  acid  and  control  samples  with  those  containing  a  low  percentage 
of  boric  acid  than  w\as  the  case  with  those  containing  the  higher  percentage. 
{Concluded  on  fage  384.) 


58o 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [ioth   June,    1912.. 


BUTTER   ANALYSIS. 

TABLE  A— SHOWING  DIFFERENCE  IN  RESULTS  BETWEEN  BUTTER 
CONTAINING  BORIC  ACID  AND  BUTTER  WITHOUT  ANY,  TOGETHER 
WITH  THE  COMPOSITION    OF    EACH. 


AN.iLTSES. 

PniTi^-c?      K  ttTnfAa.A 

No.  and 

Fat. 

MoUture. 

% 
13  88 
11   65 

Salt, 

Curd. 

Boric  Acid.% 

JTUII 

Mark. 

B. 

C. 

Dif- 
ference. 

B 

C 

85 

Dif- 
ference.- 

1     B 

C 

% 
83- 

85- 

74 

77 

% 
143 
171 

% 
•90 

•87 

•047 

■047 

86 

i' 

2     B 
C 

89- 
84- 

02 
30 

9  62 
14^46 

•47 
•37 

•75 

■87 

•142 

•142 

91 

90 

i' 

3     B 

C 

85- 
■84- 

13 
12 

12^10 
1318 

1   55 
2^03 

107 
•67 

•153 

•153 

89 

86 

3' 

4     B 
C 

84- 
84- 

73 
25 

13^18 
1339 

125 
175 

•80 
•61 

■035 

•035 

91 

89 

2 

5     B 

C 

84- 
85- 

47 
81 

14  05 
13  00 

■60 
■43 

•72 
•75 

•167 

■008 

•159 

88 

87 

1' 

6     B 

C 

85- 
83- 

45 

18 

11  -34 
13  25 

1-38 
2  07 

1   62 
1   50 

■210 

•2io 

90 

85 

5 

7     B 
C 

82 
83 

29 
90 

1419 
1347 

182 
1   79 

1-62 
•83 

■078 

•Oil 

•067 

88 

87 

1 

8     B 
C 

84 

87 

97 
00 

12  93 
11   20 

1   37 
1   30 

•63 
•50 

•103 

004 

•099 

90 

86 

4' 

9     B 

C 

82 
83 

82 
03 

13  53 
13  95 

2  33 

£•10 

1   00 
■92 

■319 

•319 

88 

84 

4 

10     B 
C 

84 
85 

35 
37 

12  65 
1147 

166 
215 

112 
1^00 

•220 

007 

■213 

90 

88 

2 

11     B 
C 

85 
84 

89 
40 

1122 
12   72 

1   55 
190 

1   23 

•98 

•107 

•107 

88 

86 

2' 

12     B 

C 

84 
87 

94 
54 

13  62 
11   42 

•49 
■40 

•66 
•63 

•293 

•667 

•286 

94 

92 

2 

13     B 

C 

85 
86 

21 
95 

13  08 
11   93 

•33 
•32 

1-0-2 
•80 

■361 

•361 

95 

92 

3' 

14     B 
C 

84 
85 

78 

85 

14  05 
1335 

•45 
•25 

•60 
•55 

•lis 

•118 

86 

86 

6' 

15     B 
C 

85 
86 

94 

86 

11^85 
11  06 

121 
149 

•87 
•59 

•132 

•i32 

88 

87 

i' 

16     B 
C 

84 
84 

•41 
•94 

14^10 
14^18 

■49 
•28 

•68 
•60 

■319 

•3i9 

95 

93 

2 

17     B 
C 

84 
86 

00 
•98 

1215 
10   40 

\-70 
2  07 

r80 
•55 

•347 

■347 

92 

96 

2- 

18     B 
C 

86 
87 

•49 

•48 

11   93 
10  32 

•36 

1^47 

r08 
•73 

•142 

•142 

88 

86 

2 

19     B 
C 

83 
86 

•92 
•62 

14^50 
11   95 

•43 

•90 

1^06 
•53 

■092 

■092 

90 

90 

6' 

20     B 

C 

84 
87 

■27 
■06 

1407 
11   93 

•74 
•30 

•63 

•70 

•293 

•007 

■286 

91 

89 

2' 

21     B 

0 

86 

87 

•27 
•92 

11   02 
9^48 

1   64 
1   42 

•86 
118 

•213 

•2i3 

93 

88 

5' 

22     B 
C 

83 
84 

•93 
•90 

14  28 
13  97 

•52 
•35 

1^02 

•78 

•252 

•252 

87 

85 

2 

23     B 
C 

85 
86 

•02 
■25 

1253 
10^44 

1^59 
237 

•73 

•94 

•128 

•i28 

89 

86 

3' 

24     B 
C 

84 
1       86 

•82 
■71 

13^70 
12  57 

•53 

•20 

•73 
(          ^52 

•224 

•224 

92 

88 

4 

lOTH  June,    191 2.]         Revietv  of  Dairyhig  Season. 


381 


Table  A. — Showinq  Difference  in  Results  of  BuTiEit,  Ere. — continued. 


Analyses. 

Points  Awa 

. 

No.  and 
Mark-. 

Fat. 

Moisture. 

Salt. 

Curd. 

Boric  Acid 

0/ . 

'Q-GQ. 

B. 

C. 

Dif- 
ference. 

B 

C 

Dif- 
ference. 

25     B 
C 

0/ 
82^29 
83-37 

% 
13-97 
12-82 

% 
2  36 

2-48 

1 

1 

26 
33 

-125 

•125 

90 

86 

26     B 
C 

85-59 
82-48 

11  -83 
14-48 

1  -71 

2  06 

66 

98 

■206 

-206 

91 

87 

27     B 

C 

84-02 

85-68 

12-48 
11-49 

2  02 
1  -94 

1 

21 

87 

•276 

021 

-255 

89 

88 

28     B 
C 

85-77 
88-11 

13-13 
10-70 

-33 
-73 

65 
45 

-107 

-007 

■100 

92 

gi 

29     B 
C 

84-32 

85-74 

14-55 
13-33 

•40 
•33 

66 
60 

-128 

-128 

91 

90 

30     B 
C 

84  21 
86  21 

14  35 
12-83 

-55 
•46 

60 
50 

•296 

■296 

95 

92 

31     B 

C 

83-44 

87-47 

15  23 
11-61 

•50 
-32 

67 
60 

■160 

■160 

95 

94 

32     B 

C 

83-24 

84-58 

13   43 
12-41 

2-17 
1  -62 

1 

88 
37 

■286 

-018 

-268 

88 

84 

33     B 
C 

86-94 
8612 

11  -57 

12  80 

•47 
•35 

80 
72 

-2-;o 

-220 

90 

89 

34     B 
C 

81-65 
85-01 

14-50 
11-92 

2-55 
2-20 

1 

05 

87 

-251 

■251 

92 

90 

35     B 

C 

81-62 
84-68 

14-55 
12-52 

2-65 
1-97 

1 

05 
83 

-135 

■135 

88 

84 

36     B 
C 

83-68 
85-30 

13-33 
11-35 

2-05 
1-66 

1 

85 
68 

-092 

-007 

■085 

92 

85 

37     B 
C 

88-10 
88-68 

9-87 
9-00 

1-15 
1  •aS 

87 

77 

■007 

■007 

87 

87 

6' 

38     B 
C 

87-86 
86-4 

11-33 
12-93 

•15 
•17 

51 
50 

■146 

■146 

87 

85 

2 

39     B 

84-94 
86-55 

13-63 
12-63 

•23 
•24 

92 

58 

■286 

•286 

89 

85 

40     B 
C 

87-74 
87-22 

9  53 

9-85 

1-82 
215 

70 

78 

-213 

-oio 

•203 

86 

82 

41     B 

C 

85-45 
85-40 

13-37 

13-78 

■33 

-20 

70 
62 

-149 

■149 

90 

89 

42     B 
C 

88-54 
86-50 

10-67 
12-83 

-22 

-30 

50 
37 

-074 

-O'i-4 

89 

86 

3' 

43     B 
C 

82-07 
83 -16 

12-70 
13-45 

2-26 

1-88 

1 

73 
51 

-238 

-238 

87 

80 

7' 

44     B 

C 

85-92 
85-25 

12-90 
13-75 

-38 
•44 

55 
55 

■255 

■oil 

-244 

91 

89 

2 

45     B 

€ 

83-80 
84-63 

13-07 
12-58 

2  22 

2-08 

65 
70 

■262 

■007 

-255 

89 

86 

3' 

46     B 
C 

82-07 
84-83 

13  90 

10-87 

2-30 
2-62 

1 
1 

60 

68 

-132 

-132 

89 

86 

3' 

47     B 
C 

83-95 
86-54 

14-47 
10-00 

•47 
2-38 

68 
85 

-231 

■046 

-185 

93 

92 

48     B 
C 

85-74 
83-51 

13-37 
13-63 

■24 
1-63 

1 

65 

18 

-231 

-231 

90 

86 

49     B 
C 

88-58 
86-23 

10-13 
9-97 

-44 

1 

85 
53 

90 

89 

50     B 
C 

85-61 
86-06 

12-83 
12-90 

-41 
-21 

93 
83 

•217 
•183 

•003 

•217 
•18 

91 

83 

8' 

Average 
B 
C 

84-92 
85-65 

12-88 
12-19 

1-16 
1-27 

92 
•85 

90 

87  ^4 

2-6 

382 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [ioth  June,   191 2. 


TABLE  B.— SHOWING  MELBOURNE  AND  LONDON  WEIGHTS  OF  98  BOXES 
OF  BUTTER  FROM  49  DIFFERENT  FACTORIES  LOCATED  IN  VARIOUS 
PARTS  OF  THE  STATE,  TOGETHER  WITH  THE  DISCREPANCY,  AND 
MOISTURE  AND  SALT  CONTENTS  IN  EACH. 


No.  and  Mark. 

Melbourne 
Weights. 

London 
Weights. 

Loss  in 
Transit. 

Moisture 
Contents. 

Salt 
Contents. 

Lbs.  ozs. 

Lbs.  ozs. 

Ozs. 

% 

% 

1  B 
C 

56  10 
56  11 

56   4 
56   5 

6 
6 

13 
11 

•88 
•65 

1-43 
1^71 

2  B 
C 

56  15 
56  14 

56  10 
56  11 

5 
3 

9 
14 

•62 
•46 

0-47 
0-37 

3  B 

C  . 

56  14 
56  11 

56   9 
56   5 

5 

6 

12 
13 

•1 
•18 

1  55 

2  03 

4  B 
C 

56  13 
56  15 

56   7 
56   7 

6 

8 

13 
13 

•18 
39 

1  -25 
1-75 

5  B 
C 

56   9 
56   5 

56   5 
56   1 

4 
4 

14 
13 

05 
0 

0-6 
0  43 

6  B 
C 

56  15 
56  13 

56   6 
56  11 

9 
2 

11 
13 

34 

25 

1-38 
2  07 

7  B 
C 

57   9 
57   9 

57   5 
57   6 

4 
3 

14 
13 

19 
47 

1^82 
1-79 

8  B 

C 

56  13 
56  15 

56   9 
56  10 

4 
5 

12 
11 

93 
20 

1  37 
1-30 

9  B 
C 

56  12 
56  10 

56   8 
56   5 

4 
5 

13 
13 

53 
95 

2  33 
210 

10  B 
C 

56   8 
56   2 

56   5 
56   0 

3 

12 
11 

65 
47 

1^66 
2  15 

11  B 
C 

56  11 

57  0 

56   5 
56   9 

6 

7 

11 
12 

22 

72 

1-55 
1-90 

12  B 

C 

56  12 
56  14 

56   4 
56   4 

8 
10 

13 
11 

62 
42 

0  49 
0-40 

13  B 
C 

56  10 
56  14 

56   4 
56   9 

6 
6 

13 
11 

08 
92 

0-33 
0-32 

14  B 
C 

56  13 
56  13 

56   4 
56   6 

9 

7 

14 
13 

05 
35 

0  45 
0-25 

15  J  B 

C 

57   6 

57   0 

56  13 

56   7 

9 
9 

11 
11 

85 
06 

1-21 
149 

16  B 
C 

56  12 
56  10 

56   5 
56   5 

7 
5 

14 
14 

10 
18 

0^49 
0-28 

17  B 
C 

57   0 
57   2 

56  10 
56  13 

6 
5 

12 
10 

15 
40 

1^70 
2-07 

18  B 
C 

57   5 
56  15 

56  15 
56   8 

6 

7 

11 
10 

93 
32 

0-36 
1-47 

19  B 
C 

58   9 
57  10 

58   2 
57   4 

7 
6 

14 

11 

50 

95 

0-43 

0-90 

20  B 
C 

56   9 
56  10 

56   3 
56   4 

6 
6 

14 
11 

07 
93 

0-74 
0  30 

21  B 
C 

56  15 
56  15 

56   6 
56   7 

9 

8 

11 
9 

02 

48 

1-64 
1^42 

22  B 
C 

57   3 
57   6 

56  13 

57  2 

6 
4 

14 
13- 

28 
97 

0^52 
0-95 

23  B 
C 

56   7 
56   8 

56   3 
56   4 

4 
4 

12- 

10- 

52 
44 

1-59 
2  37 

24  B 
C 

56  12 
67   1 

56   5 
56  11 

7 
6 

13- 
12- 

70 
57 

0-53 
0-20 

lOTH  June,    1912.]         Reviciv  of  Dairying  Season. 


385 


Table  B. — Showixg  Melbourne  and  London  Weights  of  Butter,  etc. — continued. 


Xo.  and  Mark. 

Melltourne 
Weights. 

London 

Weiglits. 

Loss  in 
Transit. 

Moisture 
Contents. 

Salt 
Contents. 

25     B 

C 

Lbs.    ozs. 
56     12 
56     12 

Lbs.    ozs. 
56       6 
56       7 

Ozs. 
6 
5 

% 
13  95 
12-82 

% 
2-36 
2-48 

26     B 
C 

56     10 
56       5 

56       2 
55     13 

8 
8 

11-83 
14-48 

1-71 
2-06 

27     B 
C 

56       8 
56       8 

56       3 
56       3 

5 
5 

12-48 
11-49 

2  02 
1-94 

28     B 
C 

57       9 

57       8 

57       1 
57       1 

8 
7 

13-13 
10-70 

0-33 

o-7a 

29     B 
C 

56     11 
56     14 

56       6 
56       8 

5 
6 

14-55 
11-33 

0-40' 
0-33 

30     B 
C 

56     12 
56       6 

56       6 
56       2 

6 
4 

14-35 
12  -83 

0-55 
0-45- 

31     B 
C 

56       6 
56       5 

56       3 
56       3 

3 
2 

15-28 
11-61 

0-50- 
0-32 

32     B 
C 

56  11 

57  0 

56       3 
56       9 

8 
7 

13-43 
12-41 

2-17 
1-62 

33     B 
C 

56       7 
56     10 

56       2 
56       3 

5 

7 

11-57 
12-80 

0-47 
0  35- 

34     B 

C 

57       1 
57       2 

56       5 
56       8 

12 
10 

14-50 
11  -2 

2-55- 
2-20 

35     B 

C 

57       0 
57       0 

56     12 
56     13 

4 
3 

14-55 
12-52 

2-65- 
1   97 

36     B 
C 

57       0 
57       1 

56     11 
56     11 

5 
6 

13-33 
11-35 

2-05 
1-66- 

38     B 
C 

56       8 
56       8 

56       5 
56       5 

3 

11-33 
12  -93 

0-15 
017 

39     B 
C 

56       3 

56       7 

55  14 

56  1 

5 
6 

13-63 
12-63 

0-23 
0-24 

40     B 
C 

57       4 
57       4 

56     14 
56     12 

6 

8 

9-53 

9-85 

1-82 
2  15 

41     B 
C 

56     10 
50       9 

56       6 
56       5 

4 
4 

13-37 
13-78 

0-33 
0-20 

42     B 
C 

57       2 
57       5 

56     12 
56     12 

6 
9 

10-67 
12-33 

0-22 
0-30 

43     B 
C 

56  12 

57  7 

56  7 

57  3 

5 

4 

12-90 
13-45 

2-26 
1-88 

44     B 

C 

56     15 
56     11 

56     11 

56       7 

4 
4 

12-90 
13-75 

0-38 
0-44 

45     B 
C 

56     10 
56     10 

56       6 
56       6 

4 
4 

13-07 
12-58 

2-22 
2-08 

46     B 
C 

56     11 
56       1 

56       6 
56     11 

5 

6 

13-90 

10-87 

2-30 
2-62 

47     B 

C 

56     14 
56     10 

56       6 
56       6 

8 
4 

14-47 
10  00 

0-47 
2-38 

48     B 
C 

56     12 
56     14 

56       8 
56       9 

4 
5 

13  37 
13-63 

0-24 
113 

49     B 

C 

56     10 
56     12 

56       3 
56       3 

7 
9 

10-13 
9-97 

0-44 
2-27 

50     B 
C 

56     11 
56     11 

56       3 
56       3 

Average 

8 
8 

12-83 
12-90 

0-41 
0-21 

5    705 

12  59 

1-20 

384  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [ioth  June,    1912. 

Loss  OF  Weight  in  Transit. 

Advantage  was  taken  to  have  the  matter  of  weights  investigated.  The 
question  of  loss  in  transit  had  never  been  satisfactorily  determined.  The 
weight  of  each  box  was  carefully  recorded  before  shipment,  and  a  request 
made  that  the  Agent-General  should  have  the  same  done  in  London  before 
they  were  examined.  Table  B  gives  all  the  particulars  of  98  boxes.  The 
average  loss  in  weight  encountered  during  transit  was  5.765  ozs.  Li  this 
table  are  included  the  moisture  and  salt  contents  of  each,  as  it  might 
reasonably  be  expected  that  these  would  have  some  influence  on  the  loss. 
The  average  loss  in  weight  during  transit  comes  to  5.765  ozs.  per  box,  the 
maximum  being  12  ozs.  and  the  minimum  2.  The  average  moisture  con- 
tents was  12.59  per  cent.,  and  salt  1.2  per  cent. 

By  taking  out  the  ten  showing  the  greatest  loss  in  weight  during  transit, 
Nos.  67,  24,  68,  II,  27,  29,  30,  41,  82,  and  96,  the  average  loss  amounts 
to  9.5  ozs.,  the  average  moisture  contents  of  which  are  11.87  per  cent.,  and 
salt  contents  1.38  per  cent.  The  ten  showing  the  smallest  loss  in  weight, 
Nos.  62,  12,  20,  4,  14,  61,  70,  73,  74,  and  19,  give  an  average  discrepancy 
of  2.7  ozs.  per  box,  whilst  the  average  moisture  contents  are  12.89,  and  salt 
7. 1 1  per  cent.  From  these  results  it  appears  that  no  inference  can  be 
drawn  as  to  the  cause  of  the  marked  difference  in  losses  in  weight.  Those 
encountering  the  least  loss  contained  i  per  cent,  more  moisture  than  the 
ones  which  gave  the  greatest  loss,  whilst  the  salt  contents  were  only  0.27  per 
cent,  more  in  the  case  of  butters  which  showed  the  most  pronounced 
discrepancy. 

The  ten  boxes  showing  the  highest  percentage  of  moisture,  Nos.  61,  69, 
575  37)  67,  52,  91,  4,  59,  and  43,  show  the  average  loss  of  6.2  ozs.,  whilst 
the  average  moisture  contents  were  14.54  per  cent.,  and  salt  1.5  per  cent. 
The  ten  containing  the  lowest  percentage  of  moisture,   Nos.   42,   77,  3,   78, 

96,  92,  95,  36,  34,  and  46,  indicate  an  average  loss  of  6.2,  ozs.  per  box, 
whilst  the  average  moisture  contents  are  9.97  per  cent.,  and  salt  1.68  per 
cent.  It  appears  from  this  comparison  that  butter  containing  a  high  per- 
centage of  moisture  is  not  more  subject  to  loss  in  weight  during  transit 
than  butter  containing  a  low  percentage. 

The  ten  boxes  containing  the  highest  percentage  of  salt,   Nos.   69,   90, 

97,  50,  92,  46,  49,  17,  89,  and  96  contained  an  average  of  2.43  per  cent, 
salt,  the  loss  in  weight  during  transit  averaging  5.9  ozs.  per  box,  whilst  the 
moisture  contents  averaged  12.45  per  cent.  The  ten  boxes  with  the  lowest 
percentages  of  salt,  Nos.  9,  73,  74,  80,  48,  98,  81,  75,  76,  and  93  show  an 
average  salt  content  of  0.19  per  cent.  ;  the  average  loss  in  weight  per  box 
Avas  4.9  ozs.,  whilst  the  moisture  contents  are  12.78  per  cent.  The  ten 
butters  containing  the  highest  percentages  of  salt  held  0.33  per  cent,  less 
moisture  and  lost  i  oz.  per  box  more  during  transit  than  the  boxes  showing 
the  lowest  percentages  of  salt. 

Conclusion. 
From  this  review,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  dairy  produce  export  trade 
is  now  well  organized,  and  the  elimination  of  the  various  faults  found  is  quite 
an  easy  matter  if  managers  concerned  direct  their  attention  to  them.  They 
can  rest  assured  that  departmental  ofiicers,  all  of  whom  are  enthusiastic, 
and  have  their  heart  in  their  work,  will  report  faithfully  on  every  churn- 
mark,  and  all  details.  It  therefore  only  requires  the  mutual  co-operation 
of  producers,  manufacturers,  and  others  concerned,  to  lift  the  reputation 
of  Victorian  butter  on  to  the  highest  possible  plane.  A  greater  need  than 
this,  however,  is  that  the  producers  should  profit  by  repeated  sad 
experiences,  and  provide  fodder  in  the  season  of  plenty  to  carry  them 
safely  through  the  time  of  scarcity. 


loTH  Junk,    1912.]  E^i^i^-layi/ii^  C omfctition,   i()i2-ij. 


38: 


SECOND    VICTORIAN    EGC-LAYING   COMPETITION,    1912-1:3, 

Commencing  15th  April,  1912. 

CONDUCTED    AT    BURNLEY    HORTICULTURAL    SCHOOL. 

//.   V.  Hawkins,  Poultry  Expert. 


Eggs  laid 

April  15 

Po 

sition   in 

No.  Pen. 

Breed. 

Name  of  Owner. 

to 

C 

3nipeti- 

May  14. 

tion. 

40 

White  Leghorns     . . 

Brown,  S.    . . 

Ill 

1 

47 

J5 

Bradley,  J.  E. 

109 

2 

8 

Black  Orpingtons  .  . 

Fisher,  D.    . . 

107 

3 

44 

Wliite  Leghorns     . . 

Hall,  A.  W. 

103 

4 

70 

jj                     •  • 

Beatty,  C.  J. 

101 

5 

23 

i> 

McLister,  Wm. 

99 

6 

30 

)j 

Stevenson,  Mrs.  H.    .  . 

93 

7 

31 

)) 

Edwards,  G. 

91 

8 

1 

,, 

Campbell,  J. 

88 

9 

7 

„ 

Padman,  A.  H. 

87 

10 

48 

)» 

Cant.  Griffin 

86 

11 

46 

Black  Orpingtons  .  . 

Langdon,  H.  A. 

85 

12 

20 

White  Leghorns     . . 

Waldon,  E. 

84 

13 

9 

,, 

Spotswood,  J.  S. 

83 

14 

62 

., 

Pope,  R.  W. 

80 

15 

28 

„ 

Eagleton,  F.  G. 

77 

16 

42 

Kempster,  Mrs.  T.  E. 

76 

17 

3 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

King  and  Watson 

75 

18 

29 

Wliite  Leghorns     . . 

Brigden,  J.  B. 

71 

} 

45 

,, 

Wooldridge  Bros. 

71 

19 

39 

,, 

Switt,  W.  G. 

69 

21 

88 

,, 

Moy,  Richard 

67 

58 

,, 

Stock,  W.  J. 

67 

-" 

64 

,j 

Merrick,  H. 

65 

24 

24 

>) 

Sargentri  Poultry  Yards 

63 

25 

6 

)> 

Macarthur,  J.  B. 

58 

26 

33 

a 

McKenzie,  H. 

58 

50 

i. 

Ahpee,  A.    . . 

53 

28 

35 

,, 

Bilsst,  C.  H. 

52 

29 

53 

,, 

Hodges,  H. .  . 

49 

30 

15 

J)                                      •  • 

Steer,  Mrs.  W.  H.      .  . 

47 

31 

14 

,, 

Wright,  J.  H. 

47 

56 

)) 

Monk,  M.  A. 

46 

33 

■2 

>> 

Rowlinson,  B. 

44 

34 

12 

yt                                 •  • 

Stafford,  T.  H.  C.      .. 

44 

37 

,j 

Bertelsmeier,  C.  B.    . . 

41 

36 

63 

,, 

Walker,  Percy 

41 

41 

,, 

Stringer,  A. 

39 

38 

21 

,,                                   .  , 

O'Loughlin,  J. 

38 

39 

25 

,, 

Appleiord,  E,.  L. 

35 

40 

4 

,, 

Blackburn,  J. 

35 

13 

CreUin,  W.  B. 

32 

42 

61 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

Ogdeu,  Jas. 

29 

43 

49 

White  Leghorns 

Purvis,  W. 

27 

44 

59 

Seabridge,  W. 

25 

45 

52 

Black  Minorcas 

Chalmer  Bros. 

23 

46 

19 

White  Leghorns 

Cowan  Bros. 

23 

43 

)) 

Purton,  G.  .  . 

21 

48 

54 

'» 

DeGaris,  F.  R. 

20 

16 

Silver  Wyandottes 

Jobling,  R. 

20 

49 

68 

White  Leghorns     . . 

McKeddie,  W.  J. 

20 

69 

11 

Morgan  and  Watson  .  . 

19 

52 

36 

Old  B.  Game 

Barrett,  K.  J. 

18 

53 

27 

White  Leghorns     . . 

Nash,  E.      .  . 

18 

65 

,> 

Thompson,  A.  H. 

17 

55 

66 

,, 

Moloney,  J. 

14 

56 

5 

,, 

Brain,  J.  H. 

13 

57 

18 

)j 

Mitchell,  B. 

13 

22 

1, 

Ling,  W.  N. 

11 

59 

60 

„ 

Rvan,  Miss  B.  E. 

11 

57 

,, 

Walker,  B. 

7 

61 

32 

Brundrett,  S. 

6 

62 

10 

R.C.      Brown     Leg- 
horns 

Giles,  S.  P 

4 

63 

17 

White  Leghorns     . . 

Childs,  S.     . . 

1 

64 

11 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

Goodisson,  T.  S. 

>L 

51 

White  Leghorns     . . 

Hammill,  H. 

1 

67 

Anconas  .  . 

Manning,  A.  E. 

Y 

65 

55 

Brown  Leghorns    .  . 

Matheson,  J. 

\ 

34 

White  Leghorns     . . 

Moore,  Reg.  F.  B.      . . 

} 

26 

(Reserved) 
Tnt-.l    . . 

3.227 

386 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria. 


[lOTH  June,   1912. 


STATISTICS. 

Fruit,   Plants,    Bulbs, 


Grain,    &c. 


Imports  and  Exports  Inspected  for  Quarter  ending  31st  Mxrcli,   1912. 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

L'fscription  of  Produce. 

Des/ripti  in  of  Produce. 

Inter- 
state. 

Oversea. 

Oversea. 

Inter- 
state. 

Oversea. 

Oversea. 

Apples  and  Tears  ... 

1,171 

1 

269,979 

M  ace 



91 



iJananas,  bunches  .. 

98,014 

30,773 

— 

.Maize 



53 

— 

Bananas,  cases 

2,222 

11,111 

— 

Mangoes 

9 

— 

— 

liarley    ... 

60,626 

6,066 

— 

Melons    ... 

9 

— 

— 

Beans 

— 

260 

— 

Nutmegs 

— 

253 

— 

Blackberries 

763 

— 

Xuts 

56 

4,107 

— 

Black  Currants 

293 

— 

— 

Oats 

49,382 

18,739 

— 

Bulbs 

28 

200 

— 

Oranges  ... 

510 

2,771 

— 

•Cherries... 

1 

— 

— 

I'assion   ... 

1,0S5 

— 

— 

Chillies   ... 



468 

—  ' 

Pe  iches  ... 

0 

— 

— 

Cocoa  beans 

— 

1,058 

— 

Pepper    ... 



34 

— 

Cocoanuts              ».. 

— 

6 

— 

Peas,  dried 

0,49(3 

66 

— 

•Coffee  beans 

— 

432 

— 

Persimmons 

136 

— 

— 

Copra 

_ 

317 

— 

Pineapples 

15,786 

29 

166 

Cucumbers 

5 

— 

Plants,  Trees,  &c. 

64 

296 

45 

DHes      ... 

— 

4,953 

Plums 

7,598 

— 

515 

Egg  Fr ait 

1 

— 

1 

Pomelos  ... 

— 

18 

— 

Figs 



601 

— 

Potatoes 

137 

1 

750 

Fruit- 

Prunes    .. 

— 

939 

— 

Canned 

— 

— 

7,524 

Quinces  ... 

— 

— 

50 

iJricd 

— 

115 

4,728 

Rice 

3,559 

75,473 

— 

Mixed 

2 

152 

— 

Seeds 

1,149 

9,536 

55 

•Grapes    ... 

32 

— 

437 

Spice 

— 

128 

— 

Green  ginger 

• — 

695 

— 

Strawberries 

2 

— 

— 

]Io]>s 

— 

2j7 

— 

Tomatoes 

332 

— 

4 

Jams,  Sauces,  &c 

— 

— 

631 

Vegetables 

774 

347 

— 

Lemons 

402 

2,900 

_ 

Wheat,   Grain,    &c. 

3,215 

— 

— 

Lentils    ... 

— ' 

23 
462 

— 

Linseed 

Logs 

327 

— 

- 

Totals 

254,198 

173,711 

•284,885 

Total  number  of  packages  inspected  for  quarter  ending  31st  March,  1912   =  712,794. 

E.   MEEKING,  Sznior  Fruit  In.ym-tor. 

Perishable  and  Frozen  Produce. 


Exports  from  State 

Deliveries  from 

(Oversea). 

Government 

Cool  Stores. 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

31.3.12. 

31.3.11. 

31.3.12. 

31.3.U. 

Butter 

lbs. 

12,066,660 

15,304,656 

13,309,016 

13,499,416 

Milk  and  Cream 

cases 

2,899 

1,.325 

10 

21 

Milk  and  Cream  (d 

ried)          n 

1,203 

Cheese 

...        lbs. 

.34,440 

127,080 

17,850 

135,529 

Ham  and  Bacon 

« 

102,720 

78,240 

Poultry 

head 

4,170 

2,850 

2,923 

2,51 1 

I^'^gs 

. . .    dozen 

8,182 

12,276 

Mutton  and  Lamb 

carcases 

438,564 

247,045 

13,078 

18, 96 J 

Beef  ... 

quarters 

8,041 

4,039 

232 

Teal... 

carcases 

1,075 

1,304 

13 

35 

Pork 

II 

2,319 

1,942 

1,1,34 

1,373 

Rabbits  and  Hares 

pairs 

155,676 

34,464 

86,984 

21,936 

Sundries 

lbs. 

24,393 

77,225 

R.  CROWE,  Superintendent  oj  Exports. 


lOTH  June,    1912.]  Yktorian  Wheat  Harvest. 


387 


THE   VICTORIAN   WHEAT   HARVEST. 

Tne  fol'.owin-^  return,  showing  the  actual  area  and  yield  of  wheat  for  the  seasons 
1911-12  and  1910-11,  has  bsen  issued  by  the  Government  Statist  (Mr.  A.  M. 
Laughton)  : — - 


Area  ir 

Acres. 

Produce  in 

Bushels. 

Average  per  Acre 

Counties  Geographically 

in  Bushels. 

Arranged. 

■     1911-12. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

1     1910-11. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

Grant 

17,565 

38,747 

183,982 

695,526 

10-47 

17-95 

Talbot 

14,751 

29,500 

162,168 

471,586 

10-99 

15-99 

Grenville 

43,657 

41,036 

516,402 

774,856 

11-83 

18-88 

Hampden     .  . 

20,333 

18,993 

195,258 

322,585 

9-60 

16-98 

Ripon 

68,162 

98,446 

554,715 

i  1,571,914 

8-14 

15-97 

Lowan 

160,384 

180,275 

1,592,602 

1,766,688 

9-93 

9-80 

Borung 

315,468 

336,633 

3,760,294 

5,314,410 

11-92 

15-79 

Ka^rp.  Kara 

127,289 

127,104 

1,541,418 

1,880,603 

12-11 

14-80 

Weeah 

66,332 

46,515 

328,113 

582,394 

4-95 

12-52 

Karkarooc  .  . 

332,984 

351,509 

1,943,436 

4,011,903 

5-84 

11-41 

Ta  telle  ra      .  . 

217,603 

261,972 

1,410,192 

3,259,777 

6-48 

12-44 

Gun  bower   . . 

38,351 

40,716 

380,245 

656.148 

9-91 

16-12 

Gladstone    . . 

122,830 

124,462 

1,428,613 

1,760,662 

11-63 

14-1^ 

Bendigo 

128,601 

135,897 

1,571,500 

2,571,624 

12-22 

18-92 

Rodney 

124,905 

152,827 

1,436,022 

2,3£6,845 

11-50 

15-23 

Moira 

279,761 

290,409 

3,028,612 

4,718,602 

10-83 

16-25 

Delatite 

12,316 

18,101 

123.713 

296,963 

10-04 

16-41 

Bogong 

41,714 

46,209 

400,242 

826,578 

9-59 

17-89 

Remainhig  Counties 

31,060 

58,738 

334,350 

1,003,355 

10-76 

17-08 

Cut  for  Gram 

2,164,066 

2,398,089 

Cut  for  Hay 

304,388 

240,026 

Total 

2,468,454 

1 

2,638,115 

20,891,877 

34,813,019 

9-65 

14-52 

1j^.  Note. — The  requirements  for  seed  and  consumption  in  1912  are  estimated  at  9,000,000  bushels. 


ORCHARD    AND    GARDEX    XOTES. 

E.   E.   P  CSC  oft,   Principal,   ScJiool  of   Horticulture,    Burnley. 

The  Orchard. 
Planting. 

The  time  has  now  arrived  \vlien  the  general  planting  of  deciduous  fruit 
trees  will  take  place.  The  soil  should  have  previously  been  well  ploughed 
and  subsoiled,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  drained.  Certainly,  to  insure  satis- 
factory results,  the  orchard  must  be  subsoiled.  Where  expense  is  a  con- 
sideration, drainage  may  be  left  for  subsequent  years;  but  once  the 
orchard  has  been  planted,  it  will  be  impossible  to  subsoil. 

When  planting  out,  the  distance  between  the  trees  will  be  determined 
by  the  kinds  to  be  planted.  For  ordinary  deciduous  fruiting  trees  it  is. 
the  custom  in  this  State  to  plant  them  20  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  the  rows, 
also  being  20  feet  apart.  Results  have  proved  this  to  be  a  satis- 
factory practice.  Almond  trees  may  be  planted  15  or  16  feet 
apart  each  way  ;  while  walnuts,  owing  to  their  spreading  habit,  require  a 
distance  of  30  feet  each  wav. 


388  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [ioth   June,    191 2. 

Deep  planting  is  not  advocaied,  the  general  practice  being  that  the 
depth  of  planting  in  the  nursery  should  be  followed.  If  holes  are  dug, 
they  should  be  shallow,  the  bottom  being  merely  loosened  to  allow  a  com- 
fortable friable  bed  for  the  tree  roots.  A  good  practice  is  to  dig  the  whole 
strip  along  which  the  trees  are  to  be  planted,  merely  removing  sufficient 
soil  when  afterwards  planting.  Another  satisfactory  custom  is  to  plough 
furrows  20  feet  apart,  and  to  plant  the  trees  in  the  furrows,  filling  in  the 
soil  over  the  roots  and  trampling  well  down. 

Before  planting,  the  roots  of  the  young  tree  should  be  well  trimmed, 
shaped  to  an  even  form,  and  cleanly  cut.  As  a  result  of  their  removal 
from  the  nursery  beds,  the  roots  are  generally  more  or  less  damaged  ;  and 
numbers  of  the  fibrous  roots,  becoming  dry,  shrivel  and  die.  These  all 
require  a  clean  trimming.  Then  it  is  often  desirable  to  remove  some  of 
the  roots  so  as  to  balance  the  root  system.  The  trimming  of  the  roots 
gives  the  young  tree  a  clean  root  system,  and  it  is  enabled  to  establish 
itself  with   young  vigorous   roots 

After  planting  the  top  should  be  well  cut  l^ack,  so  as  to  leave  three  01 
four  arms,  with  there  or  four  buds  on  each.  Where  it  is  not  possible  to 
have  this  number  of  arms  or  limbs  it  is  frequently  advisable  to  cut  back 
to  one  stem,  allowing  the  buds  to  break  out  strongly  and  frame  the  tree 
after  planting.  In  some  localities,  the  custom  of  not  cutting  back  the 
trees  the  first  year  is  favoured.  Local  experience  has  not  resulted  in  favour 
of  this  practice,  as  it  is  found  to  be  inadvisable  to  unduly  strain  the  young 
tree  by  leaving  a  heavy  top  to  be  sup})orted  by  the  weak-growing  root 
system. 

A  selection  of  varieties  will  be  dt-termined  bv  the  district,  some  fruits 
thriving  better  in  one  locality  than  in  others.  For  a  gcod  general  list,  re- 
ference may  be  made  to  the  Journal  for  June,  191 1.  It  is  unwise  to  plant 
a  large  number  of  varieties  in  a  commercial  orchard,  but  due  consideration 
should  be  given  to  planting  varieties  that  have  a  favorable  influence  on 
each  other  for  cross-fertilization  purposes, 

A  number  of  good  commercial  fruits  have  been  found  to  be  either 
wholly  or  partially  self-sterile,  requiring  other  varieties  near  them  to  enable 
them  to  set  their  fruit.  For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  that  the  bloom 
periods  should  be  somewhat  coincident. 

Spraying. 
The  dry  suimuer  and  autumn  have  been  favorable  to  the  increase  of 
certain  scale  insects,  woolly  aphis,  and  the  bryobia  mite  in  some  localities. 
The  use  of  red  oil  has  been  advocated  for  these  pests  ;  and,  as  well,  crude 
petroleum,  kerosene,  and  other  oil  emulsions  have  proved  satisfactory. 
Some  years  ago  the  u.se  of  the  lime,  sulphur,  and  salt  spray  was  much 
in  vogue  as  a  winter  spray.  Owing,  however,  to  the  diificulty  of  preparing 
the  spray,  and  to  its  caustic  effects!  on  the  skin,  it  was  practically  aban- 
doned as  an  insecticide.  Even  then  it  was  claimed,  and  rightly  so,  that 
this  spray  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  very  good  fungicide.  The  u.se  of 
this  mixture  as  a  winter  wash,  with  the  omission  of  the  salt,  which  has 
been  found  to  be  an  unnecessary  ingredient,  is  now  being  revived  ;  and 
as  the  lime-sulphur  wash  is  now  on  the  market  in  the  form  of  proprietary 
mixtures,  it  is  likely  that  this  spray  will  again  become  popular.  It  i> 
searching  in  its  action,  very  adhesive,  and  certainly  very  effective.  Its 
claims  too,  as  a  fungicide,  are  not  without  foundation,  as  some  years  ago, 
when  used  in  orchards  on  peach  trees  for  scale  insect  troubles,  it  was 
subsequently  found  that  the  trees  were  verv  much  more  free  from  leaf  curl 
and  shot  hole  than  during  previous  seasons. 


TOTH  June,    191--]         Orchard  and  Garden  Notes.  389 

It  possesses  objectionable  features  in  its  corroiive  effects  upon  any  iron 
or  steel  on  pumps  and  harness  ;  and  in  its  caustic  effects  on  exposed  parts 
of  the  bodv.  These  may  be  somewhat  obviated  by  greasing  the  metal,  and 
1)\-  rubbing  tlie  hands  and  face  with  olive  oil  or  vaseline  prior  to  spraying. 
The  hindquarters  of  the  horse,  too,  should  be  covered  with  a  sack. 

I'^xperiments  carried  out  in  Pennsylvania  in  1909  proved  conclusively 
that  in  addition  to  being  an  excellent  insecti^^^ide,  it  was  considerably  help- 
ful in  reducing  the  effects  of  fungus  diseases  on  apples,  pears,  cherries, 
peaches,   and   plums. 

General    Work. 

All  ploughing  should  now  be  completed  ;  if  not,  it  should  be  finished 
before  spraying  and  pruning  operations  are  proceeded  with. 

Any  autumn  manuring  or  liming  should  also  be  now  carried  out.  This, 
too,  should  be  finished  before  spraying  and  pruning.  Before  spraying  with 
oils  or  with  lime-sulphur  w'ash,  all  rough  bark  on  apple  and  pear  trees 
should  be  scraped  off";  this  will  mean  the  certain  destruction  of  any  codlin 
moth  larvse  hiding  underneath. 

Flower  Garden. 

General  cleaning  up  and  digging  will  be  the  work  for  this  month  in 
the  flower  section  and  shrubbery.  Where  the  soil  is  heavy  or  sour,  or 
where  sorrel  is  plentiful,  the  garden  should  be  given  a  heavy  dressing  of 
fresh  lime,  giving  a  fair  dusting  all  over  the  surface.  Lime  should  not  be 
used  in  conjunction  with  leaves,  garden  debris,  leaf  mould,  stable  manure, 
or  any  other  organic  matter  used  for  humus.  These  should  be  first  dis- 
posed of  by  digging  well  into  the  soil  ;  then  shortly  afterwards  a  top- 
dressing  of  lime  may  be  given.  Should  no  humic  material  Ije  used,  the 
lime  may  be  dug  in   with  the  autumn  digging. 

In  cleaning  up  the  gardens,  all  light  litter  and  dead  foliage  should 
either  be  dug  in,  or,  better  still,  it  should  be  placed  in  an  out  of  the  way 
corner  to  form  a  compost  heap.  Leaf  mould  is  especially  useful  in  any 
.garden,  and  where  such  plants  as  Azaleas,  Rhododendrons,  Liliums,  &c., 
are  grown,  or  for  pot  plant  work,  it  is  exceedingly  valuable.  In  forming 
the  compost  heap,  no  medium  whatever  should  be  added  to  help  the  rotting 
down  of  the  lea\es,  unless  it  be  a  little  sand.  Any  chemical  added  will 
render  the  mould  unsuitable  for  its  special  objects. 

Any  hardv  annuals  may  be  planted  out,  such  as  stocks,  pansies,  wall- 
flowers, &'c.,  and  cuttings  of  roses  and  hard-wooded  shrubs  may  also  be 
■planted.  In  planting  out  cuttings,  it  is  very  important  that  all  the  eyes 
should  be  remo\'ed  from  the  part  of  the  cutting  which  is.  to  be  below  the 
ground.  If  this  be  not  done,  there  will  always  be  the  subsequent  danger 
of  the  plant  suckering. 

Roses  and  any  summer  and  autumn  flowering  shrubs  that  have  finished 
flowering  may  be  pruned.  If  the  spring  flowering  shrubs  have  not  pre- 
viously been  pruned,  they  should  be  allowed  to  remain  until  after  the  next 
flowering  season.  This  especiallv  applies  to  such  plants  as  Spireas,  Phila- 
delphus  (Mock  Orange),  Deutzia,  Prumus  Mume,  and  other  early  flower- 
ing shrubs.  To  prune  these  now  would  mean  the  certain  loss  of  a  great 
proportion  of  their  flowers. 

In  pruning,  the  shrubs  may  be  well  thinned  out,  especially  removing 
any  weak  upright,  or  old  flowering  growths;  keep  the  shrub  always  at  an 
•outward  growth,  inclining  to  a  broad  bushy  type,  instead  of  to  an  upright 
•habit.  By  this  means,  the  lower  regions  will  always  be  furnished  with 
good  growth.  Shrubs  and  trees  of  all  descriptions  should  never  be  allowed 
'to  become  too  crowded  ;  they  require  to  be  opened,  so  as  to  allow  sunlight 


39°  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [ioth  June,   1912. 

and  air  into  the  interior,  Aviiere  it  is  most  needed.  Thisi  is  one  means  by 
which  this  class  of  plants  may  be  kept  healthy  and  free  from  disease. 
Very  few  shrubs  resent  pruning,  and  the  majority  of  them,  including  Aus- 
tralian shrubs,  such  as  Acacias,  are  very  amenable  to  the  pruning  knife. 

In  rose  pruning,  the  rule  is  that  strong  growing  plants  require  less^ 
severe  cutting  than  weak-growing  ones.  As  roses  always  flower  on  new 
wood,  it  is  essential  that  tO'  have  good  blooms  the  bushes  must  be  pruned 
regularly.  All  weak  growths,  exhausted  and  worn-out  wood,  must  be 
removed,  retaining  only  the  vigorous  growths.  It  is  generally  advisable 
to  always  prune  to  four  or  five  eyes  or  buds,  so  as  to  have  subsequent 
strong  growths,  always  pruning  into  the  previous  season's  wood.  Spindly 
growths,  especially  in  the  centres  of  the  bushes,  should  te  removed,  the 
plants  being  trained  with  an  open  and  angular  habit. 

To  prevent  loss,  by  decay,  it  will  be  advisable  to  lift  and  store  such 
herbaceous  plants  as  delphiniums,  perennial  phlox,  rudbeckias,  &c.,  also 
dahlia  tubers,  chrysanthemums,  cannas,  and  perennial  sunflowers  and 
asters.  Failing  the  possibility  of  dohig  this,  they  should  be  lifted  gently 
with  a  fork,  so  as  to  allow  of  a  slight  air  space  under  the  crown. 

"Vegetable    Garden. 

If  not  previously  done,  asparagus  beds  should  be  well  cleaned  out,  and 
a  top-dressing  of  manure  given.  To  insure  good  drainage,  the  soil  from 
the  paths,  or  between  the  beds,  may  be  thrown  up  on  to  the  beds,  so  as 
to  deepen  the  stirface  drainage,  and  to  consequently  warm  the  beds.  This- 
will  mean  earlier  growths.  A  heavy  dressing  of  manure  should  be  given, 
and  the  beds  well  and  roughly  dug  over. 

Plant  out  seeds  of  tomatoes,  and  the  pumpkin  family  in  the  frames  ; 
and  sow  in  the  open,  .seeds  of  peas,  lettuce,  spinach,  broad  beans,  raddish,. 
onion,  carrot,  and  leek.  Asparagus  crowns,  rhubarb  roots,  tubers  of  Jeru- 
salem artichokes,  shallots,  and  onions  may  now  be  planted  out.  Celery 
should  still  be  earthed  up,  taking  care  not  to  have  the  beds  too  wet. 


ANSWERS   TO   CORRESPONDENTS. 

The  Staff  of  the  Depn-tiiient  has  been  orj^'aiiized  to  a  lars'e  extent  for  the  inirpose  of  j^iving  information 
to  farmers.  Question"  in  every  branch  of  ayrieulture  are  >;la(lly  answered.  Write  a  short  letter,  giving  as 
full  pi'ti<'n1ars  as  possible,  of  3'our  local  conditions,  and  state  precisely  what  it  is  that  yon  want  to  know. 
All  inquifi.es  forwanied  to  the  Kditor  ■mu.-<t  be  accinitpanied  by  tite  name  ani  address  of  the  writer. 
This  is  very  necessary,  as  soni'-fiinr«  in^nllicipnt  infnvniation  is  fnrnisheil  liy  i  he  inquirer. 

Sunflower  Seed  for  Poultry  Feeding. — G.G.B.  asks  : — What  are  the  fooif 
elements  in  sunflower  seed,   and   generally  as  to  its  utility   as  food    for   pouUry  ? 

Answer. — Food  elements  consist  chiefly  of  Albuminoids,  13.0;  Carbo  hydrates,, 
17.7;  Fats,  21.0;  Water,  8.0;  and  Ash,  3.0.  In  excess  it  is  injurious  to  poultry, 
being  too  rich  in  heating  and  fattening  properties.  Useful  if  fed  sparingly  during 
moulting   period. 

Cr.^mps  in  Terrier. — T.F.C.  asks  how  to  treat  his  fox  terrier  for  cramp,  which 
attacks  it  after  a  journey  or  much  swimming.  Seems  in  great  pain  and  froths  a^ 
the    mouth? 

Ansjver. — Try  the  efi'ect  of  a  dose  of  areca  nut,  20  grains  in  the  form  of  a  [mII, 
for   three   consecutive   mornings. 

Potatoes. — "New  Chum"  wishes  to  know  if  it  is  advisable  to  soak  seed  potatoes 
in   a   solution  of   formalin,    and,   if   so,    what   is   the   right   strength? 

Answer. — Formalin,    i    lb.    to  30  gallons  of   water  steeped    for  two   hours. 
For   spraying   plants  : — ■ 

Bordeaux — 6  lbs.    sulphate   of   co[)]:)er    (bluestone)  ;   4    lbs.    lime  ;    ^o   gallons 

water. 
Burgundy — 8   lbs.    sulphate   of    copper;    10    lbs.    washing    soda;    40   gallons 

water. 
Time    of    application — When    plants    are    about    8    inches    high ;    after    that 
according   to   weather   conditions   as   often   as   necessary. 


lOTH  Ji'NE.    191 2.]  A//S2L'Crs  to  Correspondents.  391 

Fungus  in  Raspberry  Caxes. — W.J.S.  asks  if  any  cure  has  been  discovered  for 
fungus   in   raspberry   canes  ? 

Anszucr. — No  absolute  cure  known.  The  Government  Pathologist  discovered 
that  the  chief  factors  in  prevention  were  drainage,  and  liming  of  the  soil,  and 
burning  and  removing  all  diseased  plants.  A  mixture  of  two  j)arts  of  lime  and  one 
of  salt  is  highly   recommended. 

Rhubarb. — I^.J.W.  writes  that  he  procured  four  years  ago  root  of  giant  rhubarb. 
This  plant  has  gradually  deteriorated  until  leaves  are  no  longer  than  ordinarv 
rhubarb. 

A)iS7ver. — As  rhubarb  is  a  gross  feeder  annual  dressings  of  stable  manure  in 
•considerable  quantities  should  be  given  each  autumn.  Also  a  light  dressing  of  bone 
■dust   anil   blood   manure   in   early   spring.     The   beds   must  be   well   drained. 

Superphosphate  as  a  Cattle  Lick. — A.C.  writes  to  know  if  it  would  be  harmful 
■to   give  cows   No.    i    Superphosphate   as   a   lick  instead  of  bone   meal? 

Anszver. — Superphosphate  may  be  used  as  a  cattle  lick  prepared  as  follows  : — 
iiuperphosphate,  6  lbs.  ;  slaked  lime,  6  lbs.  ;  sheep  salt,  5  cwt.  ;  [ilaced  in  accessible 
boxes   protected    from   the   weather. 

Cement  Bricks,  Machine-made. — E.S.D.  asks  as  to  stabiliiy  and  suitability  of 
machine-made   cement   bricks   made   of    i    cement   and   6   sand  ? 

Answer. — One  to  six  is  too  wide  for  foundations.  One  to  four  is  advised,  and 
bricks  should   set  well   before  using.. 

Leghorns  for  Central  Gippsland. — G.G.B.  asks  if  it  is  advisable  to  rear 
leghorns    in    Central    Gippsland? 

Answer. — Black  orpingtons,  silver  and  white  wyandottes,  and  Plymouth  rocks 
will  thrive  better  in  Gippsland  than  any  of  the  Mediterranean  breeds.  The  latter 
should  be  kept  during  winter  months  well  housed  on  dry  straw  or  any  litter.  Protec- 
tion   from    wet    grass  and   cold    wind    is,   in    all    cases,    important. 

Eye  Blight  in  Cows. — B.H.L.  writes  that  his  cows  are  affected  with  eye  blight, 
which  seems  to  be  carried  from  one  to  another  by  flies.  Symptoms  are,  water 
running    from   eyes,    swelling,    and   finally    a   white   film    forms   on   pupil. 

Answer. — Bathe  eyes  with  warm  water  and  boracic  acid,  and  drop  into  the  eyes 
a  few  drops  of  the  following  twice  daily  : — Zinc  sulphate,  4  grains,  tincture  of 
beHadonna,    15   drops;    distilled   water,    i    ounce. 

Drain  Pipes  Underground. — C.N.W.  asks  whether  drain  pipes  underground 
must   have   an   outlet   to   the   surface   at   some   point   to   carry   off   such   drainage? 

Answer. — The  pipes  ultimately  pass  to  an  open  drain,  which  takes  the  water 
from  the  lowest  portion  of  the  field  to  a  n-?ighbouring  creek,  dam,  lagoon,  t\:c., 
into   which   the   field   is  drained. 

Atriplex  Leptocarpa,   Slender-fruited  Saltbush.— A.L.M.G.    forwards  specimen. 

Answer. — The  above  is  a  native  perennial  plant  which  is  drought-resisting,  and 
yields  a  fair  amount  of  forage.  Stock  of  all  kinds  fond  of  it.  When  not  too 
closely  fed  down,  produce  seed  in  abundance,  germinating  readily  under  ordinary 
conditions. 

Artificial  Manures  to  Wheat-growing  Land.— L.G.  asks  whether  long-continued 
application  injuriously  affects  the  soil  even  when  the  land  is  cropped  only  every 
third    year? 

Answer. — The  continued  application  of  phosphates  to  wheat-growing  land  will 
not  injuriously  affect  the  soil.  What  will  happen  is,  that  if  the  amount  of  phos- 
phate acid  applied  be  continually  in  excess  of  the  requirements  of  the  crop,  the 
phosphoric  acid  will  accumulate,  until  a  point  is  reached,  when  further  applications 
will  cease  to  be  profitable.  The  soil  will  then  be  comparatively  rich  in  phosphoric 
acid,  but  may  be  deficient  in  nitrates  or  in  potash,  in  which  case  the  money  invested 
in  phosphates  will  be  more  profitably  employed  in  adding  these  other  deficient 
elements.  In  any  case  the  intelligent' farmer 'should  occasionally  test  his  land  by 
means   of   small   experimental    plots   to  find   just   what   the   soil    reci'uirements   are. 

Er.\grostes  Brownh,  "Common  Love  Grass."— '■  Grass  Seed"  forwards  speci- 
men. 

Anstuer. — A  variable  native  j)erennial  grass,  valuable  as  a  pasture  grass,  pro- 
ducing for  many  months  of  the  year  abundance  of  palatable  and  nutritious  fodder. 
Stands  drought  well  even  in  poor  soil,  and  bears  hard  feeding.  In  cultivated 
ground   (orchards,   &c.),   it   is   easily   kept   down  by   ploughing   and   clean   cultivation. 

Soya  Bean. — J.S.McN.  asks  where  to  get  Soya  Bean,  what  quantity  of  seed 
per   acre   to   sow,   nature  of   soil,   and   if   it   is   good    for   pigs   and    fowls? 

Answer. — Can  be  purchased  from  the  leading  Melbourne  seedsmen,  half  a  bushel 
of  seed  per  acre  is  the  quantity  sown,  the  soil  best  suited  for  it  is' a  sandy  loam 
with  plenty  of  lime.  It  is  good  feed  for  pigs  mixed  with  other  food,  such  as 
maize.  Fowls  do  not  take  readily  to  the  matured  beans,  but  eat  them  green  witli 
iidvantatje. 


392  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [ioth   June,    1912. 


REIVIINDERS     FOH    JUliY. 

LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Those  stabled  can  be  fed  liberally.  Those  doing  fast  or  heavy  work 
should  be  clipped  ;  if  not  wholly,  then  trace  high.  Those  not  rugged  on  coming  into- 
the  stable  at  night  should  be  wiped  down  and  in  half-an-hour's  time  rugged  or 
covered  with  bags  until  the  coat  is  dry.  Old  horses  and  weaned  foals  should  be 
given  crushed  oats.  Grass-fed  working  horses  should  be  given  hay  or  straw,  if 
there  is  no  old  grass,  to  counteract  the  purging  effects  of  the  young  growth.  Old 
and  badly-conditioned  horses  should  be  given  some  boiled  barley. 

Cattle. — Cows,  if  not  housed,  should  be  rugged.  Rugs  should  be  removed  in  the 
daytime  when  the  shade  temperature  reaches  60  degrees.  Give  a  ration  of  hay  or 
straw,  whole  or  chaffed,  to  counteract  the  purging  effects  of  young  grass.  Cows 
about  to  calve,  if  over  fat,  should  be  put  into  a  paddock  in  which  the  feed  is  not 
too  abundant.  Calves  should  be  kept  in  warm,  dry  shed.  The  bull  may  now  run 
with  the  cows. 

Pigs. — Supply  plenty  of  bedding  in  warm,  well-ventilated  styes.  Keep  styes 
clean  and  dry.  Store  pigs  should  be  placed  in  fattening  styes.  Sows  in  fine  weather 
should  be  given  a  grass  run.  Young  pigs  over  two  months  old  should  be  removed 
from  lucerne  run. 

Sheep. — The  general  classing  of  merino  and  lamb-raising  ewe  flocks  should  be 
commenced;  none  but  roomy  thick  ewes,  carrying  a  bulky  fleece,  should  be  kept. 
Class  rams;  keep  only  the  best  in  shape  and  fleece,  castrate  all  others;  do  not 
allow  them  to  go  entire  to  be  used  bv  those  who  think  any  ram  good  enough.  Deep 
and  narrow  forequartered  rams  are  responsible  for  many  carcases  dressing  and 
freezing  plainly,  although  often  good  sheep  from  a  wool  point.  Sell  aged  or  barren 
fat  ewes  from  breeding  flocks.  Clean  filth  from  breech  of  ewes  of  British  breeds- 
now  commencing  to  lamb.  Wherever  possible,  send  lambs  weighing  60  lbs.  live 
weight  to  market.  Early  prices  are  always  best ;  avoid  waiting  until  the  rush  of 
the  season. 

Poultry. — Mating  of  birds  intended  for  breeding  purposes  should  receive  im- 
mediate attention.  Ten  second-season  I.eghorns  or  Minorcas,  or  six  of  the  heavier 
birds,  such  as  Orpingtons,  Plymouth  Rocks,  and  Wyandottes  (preferably  in  their 
second  year),  with  a  vigorous  unrelated  cockerel  will  be  found  satisfactory.  Tab'e 
birds  bred  in  July  and  early  August  will  pay  handsomely  prior  to  the  Cup  Carnival. 
A  tonic  in  drinking  water  as  a  preventive  against  chicken  pox  and  other  ailments  is- 
advantageous. 

CULTIVATION. 

Farm. — Finish  sowing  barley,  peas  and  beans,  and  late  white  oats  in  backward 
districts.  Trim  hedges.  P'allow  for  potatoes,  maize,  and  other  summer  crops  ;  in 
early  districts,   plant  potatoes.      Graze  off  early  crops  where  possible. 

Orchard. — Continue  to  plant  deciduous  fruit  trees,  bush  fruits,  and  strawberries. 
Continue  cultivating  and  pruning.     Spray  for  mites,   aphides,  and  scales. 

Flower  Garden. — Plant  shrubs,  climbers,  and  permanent  plants,  including 
roses;  also  annuals  and  herbaceous  perennials.  Gladioli,  Liliums,  Iris,  and  similar 
plants.     Continue   digging,   manuring,   trenching,   and   liming. 

Vegetable  Garden. — Plant  out  seedlings.  Sow  seeds  of  carrots,  parsnips,  cauli- 
flowers, onions,  peas,  broad  beans,  and  tomatoes.     Dig  all  vacant  plots. 

Vineyard. — Proceed  with  pruning,  burning  off,  and  ploughing.  Complete,  as- 
early  as  possible,  the  application  of  manures  other  than  nitrates  and  sulphate  of 
ammonia  if  not  already  done.  Mark  out  land  for  new  plantations.  If  ground  is 
in  good  order  and  not  too  wet,' proceed  with  plantation  of  young  vines  (unpruned;. 
Remove  cuttings  or  scions  from  vines  previously  marked,  and  keep  fresh  by  burying 
horizontally  in  almost  dry  sand  in  cool,  sheltered  place.  Permanently  stake  or 
trellis   last  year's  plantations. 

Cellars. — Rack  all  young  wines,  whether  previously  racked  or  not.  Rack  older 
wines  also.  For  this  work  choose,  as  much  as  possible,  fine  weather  and  high 
barometer.  Fill  up  regularly  all  unfortified  wines.  This  is  a  good  time  for 
bottling   wine. 


lo  June,  1912-] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


xvn 


THE 


J5 


BOOKLET. 

THIS  is  a  booklet  which  will 
prove  interesting  to  dairy- 
men everywhere.  IN  IT  are 
described  all  those  differences 
which  characterize  the  "  Ro3'al 
Medal,"  and  make  it  so  complete 
a  departure  from  all  others. 


n 


Milking 

Machines^ 


IT  places  before  you  opinions  of 
many  prominent  dairymen  throughout 
the  world,  telling  how  thoroughly  satis- 
factory and  valuable  their  experience 
has  proved  the  "Royal  Medal." 

It   also   contains   the   report   of    Mr, 
Druce,  the  principal  of  the  Bedfordshire 
County  Institute,  who  investigated  the 
machine  previous  to  its  being  awarded 
the  medal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England, 


J 


There  is,  besides,  much  gen- 
eral information  on  milking 
machines,  which  will  prove  of 
value  to  the  dairyman.  Fill 
in  this  coupon  and  mail  it  to 
us.  By  return  we  send  you  a 
free  copy. 

"ROYAL  MEDAL" 
MILKING  MACHINES 

34  QUEEN  STREET, 
MELBOURNE. 

London  OflSce  :  Caxton  House, 
Westminster,  S.W, 


POST  FREE  BOOKLET  COUPON. 


"Boyal  Medal"  Milking  Machines, 

34  Queen  Street,  Melbourne. 
Please  forward  a  copy  of  your  Free  Book.     It 
is  to  be  understood  that  I  consider  myself  under  no 
obligation. 

Name 

Address    

J.9 


J.    H.    DAViES, 


Managing    Director. 


Jojirnal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  June,  1912. 


i.  The  Australasian  Mutual  Live  Stoek 

Insupanee  Society  m,, 

ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 
70  Elizabeth  St.,  Melbourne. 


A    GOOD   AUSTRALIAN 
'  Why  didn't  you  pxU  your  penny  in  tht  plate  thi$ 
morning  f 

'  Seeatue  it  vu»  a  Jorexgn  mitnon.  and  dada  say* 
it't  not  righl  to  tend  capital  oul  of  the  country." 


"^ixtctoxe: 

HON,  AGAR  WYNNC,  IM.P.   HENRY  GARDNER,  Esq. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P. 

WALTER   G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 

FARMERS  AND  BREEDERS- 

Has    this   simple   truth   ever  struck  you? 
Ours  are  the  world's  minimum   rates. 
Our  terms  and  conditions  are  equal  to  the 

best  obtainable. 
Every  pound  of  our  money  is  invested  in 

Australia. 
We  pay  promptly.         We  pay  in  full. 


INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  AND  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS. 


For  ROOFS   of  all  desci-ipti 


USE 


'1^'   RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


USE 


INDELIBLE  COLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


D«"       CALCIMO      colour; 


RS. 


These  Goods  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  fronn  all  Storekeepers. 


-SOLE    AGENTS- 


BROOKS,  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Melbourne, 


ro  June,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


XIX 


Dairy  Science. 

The  last  word. 

Scientific  men  in  the  dairy  centres  of  Europe  have  given  close 
attention  to  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  for  butter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  for  some  time, 
a  poor,  thin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  :  stating  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods.  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  same 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Dairy  Science. 

For  Post  Free  Book— 

'MILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  PAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding," 

By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 


sunlight 
Oilcake 


Guaranteed  Pure. 

5ee  that  the  name  <<5unlight"  is 
branded  on  every  cake. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  June,  1912. 


"HORNSBY"  Petrol  Engines 


{STATIONARY    AND    PORTABLE) 

J-JAVE   a   World-wide    Reputation    for   all  round 
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HORNSBY    OIL    ENGINE. 


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The  recognized  essentials  of  Oil  Engine  Superiority  are 

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that  it  has  Won  all  the  Largest  Prizes  ever  offered. 


Hornsby  Gas  Engines  and  Suction  Gas  Plants  are  unequalled. 

R.  HORNSBY  &  SONS  LTD., 


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Sole  Agents: 


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508    COLLINS.ST.,    MELBOURNE. 


TO  June,  191 2.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  xxi 


NflTIOflflli  THUSTEES :; 


Executors  &  Agency  Company 
Australasia,  Ltd.     .    ,     . 


DIRECTORS  : 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Manag^ing  Director. 

EDWARD  FITZGERALD,   Esq.,  L.L.D.  MICHAEL  MORNANE,  Esq. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  Esq.  DAVID  HUNTER,  EsQ. 

This  Company  acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint  Executor  of  Wills,  Administrator, 
Trustee  of  Settlements,   and  Agent  for  Absentees  under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY      TO      LEND      ON      BROAD      ACRES      AND      FARM      LANDS. 


Offices  : 

C — i 


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SAVINGS  BANKS  LOANS 

ON     BROAD     ACRES     {'^V    ^  Three-fifths  of  Valuation), 

In  sums  from  £2,000  to  £25,000. 

Interest  at  Ah  per  cent. 

For  3  or  5  years,  with  option  of  paving  ofi'  part  on  any  half-yearly  pay-day. 
ON    FARMS    (ORED/T   FONGIER)    (Up  to  Two-thirds  of  Valuation), 

In  sums  from  £50  to  £2,000. 

Interest  at  Ah  per  cent. 

Loans  Repayable  by  Instalments  spread  over  3H  years,  or  may  be  paid  off 
on  any  half-yearly  payday,  subject  to  a  small  charge  if  paid  off  during  the  first 
five  years,  but  no  penalty  after  five  years. 


ADDRESS : 


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TREWHELLA   :='  GRUBBING  JAGKS. 

Quick.     Powerful.     Simple. 


Mr.  Chas.  Hamilton,  Molesworth,  Vic,  says:—"!  would  not 
be  without  one  of  these  Jacks  on  the  farm." 

Mr.  0.  C.  R.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Frances,  S.A  :— 
"Have  been  using  Trewhella  Wallaby  Jacks  now  nearly 
six  years,  and  as  long  as  I  have  anything  to  lift  will  never  be 
without  one." 


Write  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  to  — 

TREWHELLA   BROS.,  ENGINEERS,  TRENTHAM,  VICTORIA. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  June,  1912. 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

JSurnlev   J^ortieultural  School, 


E.     E.     lE'ESCOTT 


IF'E.iiq-cii'.A.li. 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnley  Horticultural  School  have  now  been 
arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be  given  to  students  of  both  sexes 
in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Horticulture  for  male  students  includes  a  two  years'  course, 
students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum. 

Classes  have  been  formed  at  Burnley,  whereby  students  of  both  sexes  may  receive 
instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and  Fridays. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  work,  and  will  commence  at  2  p.m. 
This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  charged  will  be  £2  per  annum. 

It  has  also  been  arranged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  shall  be  given  on  subjects 
which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Horticulture,  such  as  Poultry  Farming,  Bee-keeping,  and 
Fruit  Preserving,  and  these  courses  will  be  open  and  free  to  the  general  public.  The 
subjects  and  dates  of  the  Short  Course  Lectures  will  be  announced  monthly  in  this  Journal. 

STUDENTS    SHOULD    ENROLL   WITHOUT    DELAY, 

Application  for  admission  should  be  made  to 

The  Director  of  Agriculture,  Public  Offices,  Melbourne, 

CD:R    to    the     :F'JE?,I3NrCII=^A.3L,. 


^J 


LYSACHT'S  WIRE  NETTING 

MADE    IN    AUSTRALIA. 

All  Sizes  IVIaniifactured,  |  inch  to  4  inch  Mesh. 

The  Standard  Netting  of  the  State. 

LOOK     FOR     OUR     MARKER     IN     EVERY     ROLL. 


Our  manufacture  of 
Rabbit -proof  Wire 
Netting  is  known  as 
the  best  throughout 
Australia. 


ohxtcje:    xtsdesid 


Better  in  quality,  and 
owing  to  its  being 
loose  rolled  less  costly 
to  erect  than  any  im- 
ported Netting. 


lY  and  W  MESH. 


■-A.X--W-A.-52-S     XTSESID. 


LYSAGHT  BROa  &  CO,  Ltd., 

MANUFACTURERS.  SYDNEY. 

AGENTS:  GIBBS,  BRIGHT  &  CO.,  34  Queen  Street,  MELBOURNE. 


I o  June,  1912.]  Joiinml  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.  xxlii 


"VICTOR"  RED  OIL 


A     CERTA 
REMEDY  FOR 


GUARANTEED  PURE.      ONLY  ONE  QUALITY. 

I  PEACH  APHIS,  WOOLLY  APHIS,  SCALE,  &  RED  SPIDER. 


Never  Beaten  for  STRENGTH,   QUALITY,  or  EFFICACY. 
SPRAY''  before  Pruning  if  possible.  Price,  in  4-2-gaL  Barrels,  Is.  lOd.  per  gal. 

"CARLTON"  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD 

Grows  more  popular  every  year.  Use  only  4-lbs.  to  100-gals.  of  water. 

Guaranteed  17%  Arsenic  Oxide,  and  very  Finely  Ground  ; 

Therefore— SUSPENDS,    STICKS,    AND    SUCCEEDS. 

"NEW  CHAMPION"  Power  Sprayer 

SPEDIAL    FEATURES- 

" BOSCH"  High  Tension  Magneto.     "FRIEND"  Nozzles.     Double  Pump,  with  [Renewable 
Plungers.  Machine  Cut  Gears.  Strong  Transport,  Light  and  Low  Down. 

FD         MCTI    I    ^P       440    ELIZABETH    STREET, 
.       n>       IVIEll.L.V^n,     MELBOURNE. 


JARRAH. 


Write 
to 


When  you  contemplate  erecting  fencing,  buildings,  dairies, 
woolsheds,  &c.,   be   sure  you  get  the  best  of  hardwoods. 

i^^     JARRAH    resists   white    ants,    dry  rot,   &c. 

MILLAR'S  KARRI  &  JARRAH  CO,  0902)  Ltd. 

QUEEN'S    BRIDGE,    MELBOURNE. 


^DYAN,    GOULDING,   &    CO.  "^ 

^^\  (JOHN    F.    GOULDING). 

■     •    WHOLESALE  GRAIN  &  PRODUCE  COMMISSION  AGENTS  &  GENERAL  BROKERS. 
546-552  COLLINS  STREET  WEST  (Near  King-st.) 

FARMERS  .  Before  Selling  your  Grain,  Hay,  Potatoes,  Onions,  consult  or  write  us. 

It  will  pay  you. CONSIGNMENTS  Received  and  Sold  Daily  ex  Rail  or  Wharf. 

Storage  arranged  on  Liberal  Terms  and  Advances  made.       All  kinds  of  Seed  Grain  for  Sale. 
Prompt  Account  Sales.     Oats  Specialists.     New  &  Second-hand  Bag3  for  Sale  at  Lowest  Rates. 

When  in  the  CITY  Call  In. — Short  distance  from  Spencer-st.  RIy.  Station. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  June,  1912. 


"WATERLOO  BOY"  4  h.p.  PORTABLE  OIL  ENGINE. 

ABSOLUTELY  THE  SIMPLEST  AND  CHEAPEST  EFFICIENT  ENGINE  IN  THE  WORLD. 

USES    BENZINE    OR    KEROSENE. 


IGNITIONi — Is  make  and  break  style,  charge  fired  by  electric  spark.  Igniter,  which  in 
other  Engines  is  difficult  to  get  at,  in  the  "  Waterloo  "  can  be  completely  removed  by 
loosening  two  cap  screws 

Both    Magneto    and    Battery    Ignition, — a    very    useful    arrangement,    as     work 
can  never  be  stopped. 

SPEED  LEVERi — Acts  same  as  throttle  of  a  steam  engine.  You  can  speed  up  or 
down,  or  stop  altogether  with  it.  Makes  the  Engine  easj'  to  start,  prevents  "kicking 
back,"  and  saves  f.iel. 

IVIIXERi — Is  a  great  idea,  patented  because  it  is  worth  patenting.  Has  an  adjustable 
mixing  cup  that  can,  by  a  winged  nut,  be  slipped  up  or  down  to  give  more  or  less  air. 
No  valve  springs  or  pump  to  get  out  of  order  ;  makes  Engine  easy  to  start ;  aids  the 
governor  and  speed  lever  in  getting  more  power  out  of  the  fuel. 


GOVERNOR. — Centrifugal  type,  sure  and  sensitive.  Allows  a  charge  in  the  cylinder 
only  when  the  work  requires  it. 

FUEL.  -Works  on  either  benzine  or  kerosene,  but  benzine  is  better,  as  it  is  not  so  dirty. 
The  speed-saving  devices.  Speed  Lever,  Patent  Mixer,  and  Governor  make  the 
"Waterloo"  consume  the  least  fuel.  Compare  it  for  simplicity,  fuel  cost,  and  power 
with  other  engines,  and  you  will  send  your  order  to  us. 

HOPPER  COOLED.— That  is,  there  are  no  Tank,  Pipes,  and  Pump  to  cool  the 
cylinder.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  move  about ;  less  space,  less  weight,  and  no 
water  pump  troubles,  as  there  is  no  Pump. 


Also  lessens  the  fuel  bill. 


TRANSPORT. — is  a  very  strong  one.     Through  axles  in  both  front  and  rear  wheels. 
Turntable  on  front  axle  is  simple  and  strong. 

lag-  SEND  FOR  CATALOGUES  OF  OUR  OTHER  FARM  REQUISITES. 


MITCHELL  &  COMPANY 


PTY. 
LTD. 


FACTORY     4.     OFFICE: 

WEST  FOOTSCRAY,  MELBOURNE. 


SHOW     ROOM 


596  BOURKE  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


U^efFigeratiug 


e^        ^ 


and 


lee  JYCakirig 
JVCaehineFY  ^ 


e^ 


Made  by 

HUMBLE  &  SONS, 

Geelong, 

Victoria. 


Specially  suitable  for  Butchers,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  Machines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine.  A  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration  work 
undertaken,  including  coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


''  Ferrier's ''  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distributors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworts,  &c. 

Full  Papticulaps  on  Application  to— 

Humble  and  Sons, 

General   Eng'ineers, 
VULCAN   FOUNDRY,   GEELONG. 


PLAN   AND   SPECIFICATION   OF   SHEEP-SHEARING   SHED.     2s.   6d.     PosHue,    Id. 

jMILK  CHARTS  (Monthly  and  Weekly),  6d,  per  dozen,  post  free.  Wlien  ordering,  dairy  farmers 
sliould  mention  "  Monthly  "  or  "Weekly." 

By  Professor  A.  J.  Eurirf.  Government  Botanist. 

WEEDS.  POISON  PLANTS,  AND  NATUEALIZED  ALIENS  OF  VICTORIA.  2s.  6d. 
Postrtr/e  :  Commonwealth,  I|-d.  ;  N.Z.,  5d.  ;  British  and  Foreign,  lOd. 

PLANTS  INDIGENOUS  TO  VICTORIA.  Vol.  II.,  10s.  Postage  :  Com.,  2d. ;  N.Z..  8d. ; 
Brit.  &  For.,  Is.  4d. 

By  G.  French,  F.E.S.,  Government  Entomologist. 

DESTRUCTIVE  INSECTS  OF  VICTORIA.  Parts  I.,  II.,  IIL,  IV.,  V.  2s.  fid.  each.  Postage: 
Parts  I.  and  III..  C,  Id.  ;  N.Z..  3d.;  B.  &  P..  fid.  each.  Parts  II.  and  IV.,  C,  lid. ;  N.Z., 
4d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  8d.  each.     Part  V.,  C,  Id.  ;  N.Z.,  4d. ;  B.  &  F.,  7d. 

By  D.  Mc Alpine.  Government  Vegetable  Pathologist. 

RUSTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     5s.     Postage  :  C.  2d.  ;  N.Z.,  8d.  ;  B.  &  F..  Is.  4d. 

SMUTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     4s.     Postage  :  C,  2|d.  ;  N.Z.,  9d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  6d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  CITRUS  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  Postage  :  C,  Id.  ;  N.Z., 
3d.  ;  B.  &  F..  fid. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  STONE  FRUIT  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  fid.  Postage:  C. 
Ikl.  ;  N.Z.,  3d.;  B.  &  F.,  lOd. 

SYSTEMATIC  ARRANGEMENT  OF  AUSTRALIAN  FUN(  JI.  3s.  Postage  :  C,  2d. ; 
N.Z.,  8d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  4d. 

THE    DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE, 

MELBOURNE,   VICTORIA. 

Remittances  from   places  outside  tlie  Commonwealtli   to   be  by  Money  Order  only. 

Pamphlets  obtamable  from,  the  Director  of  Agriculture, 
Melbourne,  Free   on  Application. 

NEW     SERIES. 

1.  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.     A.  S.  Kemjor,.  C.E. 

2.  HINTS  FOR  NEW  SETTLERS.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

*  3.  APPLE  GROWING  FOR  EXPORT.     P.  J.  Garmody. 

*  4.  BOOKKEEPING  FOR  FARMERS.     W.  Mclver,  A.I.A.V.,  A.S.A.A.,  Eng. 

*  5.  CIDER  MAKING.     J.  Knight. 

*  G.  FARM  PLUMBING.     G.  H.  Wright. 

7.  CITRUS  FRUIT  CULTURE.     E.  E.  Pescott. 

*  8.  BUILDING  HINTS  FOR  SETTLERS.     A.  S.  Kenyan,  G.E.,  and  others. 
9.  TOBACCO  CULTURE.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

*10.  SILOS  AND  SILAGE.     G.  H.  F.  Baker. 
11.  THE  BEET  SUGAR  INDUSTRY   AND  CLOSER  SETTLEIMENT.     H.   T.   Easterby. 

*  Not  ^  et  available. 


REPORT    ON    EGG-LAYING 
ol.  X.  COMPETITION,    1911-12. 

[Reai'tered  at  the  General  Post  Office,  Melbourne,  for  transmission  by  Post  as  a  Newspaper.  1 


Part  7. 


:«  I 


111* 

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— 

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_i--  - 

t-     ^             r^Tl 

i 

sit '  - 

e 

■'■■■I.''.' 

OUR 

GREAT 

SPECIALTY 


OUR 

GREAT 

SPECIALT 


LUCERNE 

HUNTER   RIVER.    PERUVIAN. 
FRENCH  PROVENCE.    TURKESTAN. 

All   our  Lucerne  Seed  is  pure,  free  from  dodder  and  true  to  name.     Our  Hunter 

River  is  true  N.S.W.  grown,  not  half  French  seed.     New  crop  seed  of  the  celebrated 

'SI.  and   V.    Lucerne  just  to  hand. 

SAMPLES  AND  PRICES.     POST  FREE  ON  APPLICATION. 


fBRUNMINGB'^ 
iNCDHPAliBlE 
V  SEEDS  J 

1^  rff^P£^'^\  MPRH  ■ 


VEGETABLE 
SEEDS 

ALL  VARIETIES. 


NEW  SEED    MANUAL 

FOR       1912 

Containinq:  over  130  pa;;cs.  Post  Free  on  application. 


SEEDS 


ALL   VARIETIES. 


RYE  GRASS, 
COCKSFOOT, 


S,   DWARF  ESSEX  RAPE, 
PHALARIS,  PASPALUM. 


Samples  and  Price.s  on  application.  Correspondence  invited. 


VICTORIA    SEED    WAREHOUSE, 
64    ELIZABETH    ST.,   MELBOURNE. 


THE     JOUl^:\AL 


OF 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


CONTENTS.— JULY,     1912. 

HAljE. 

Influence  of  Certain  Soil  Constituents  upon  Xitrification 

John  W.   Farer.<<on,  B.Sc,  Ph.D.,  and  P.  B.  Scott  393 

Eruptive  Disease  or  '■Ivxantlienia"  of  Orange  Trees  in  Australia     C.  (J.  BrUflebank  401 

The  Olive               ...             ...             ...             ••■             •••             •••         L.  Macdonald  405 

General  Notes       ...             ...             ...             ...             •-•             ••■             ••■             •••  409 

Bee  Moths              ...              ...              ...              ...    C.  Fr< wh,  Jnr.,  and  F.  B.  Beuhiie  411 

Bee-keeping  in  Victoria      ...              ...              ...              ...              ...            F.  R.  Bei'hne  413 

Rearing  of  Calves                ...             ...             ...             .■               ...                     A.  Kijk  415 

Influence  of  Radio-active  Mineral  on  tin:  ( .'eimination  and  on 

the  Growth  of  Wheat                 ...                             ...  A.  J.  Eu-art,  Ph.D.,  D.Sr.  417 

"  Metallica  Cape "               ...             ...                             ...             ...             ...             •••  421 

Manures  -  Supplementary  List         ...              ...              ...              ...                P.R.Scott  422 

Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees                ...             ...             ...             ...                 G.F.Cole  425 

Report  on  the  First  Egg-laying  Competition  at  Burnley,  1911-12       //.  V.  Hawkins  4.30 
Vernacular  Xames  of  Victorian  Plants 

A.  J.  Ewart,  Ph.D.,  D.Sc.,  C.  S.  Sitttoi<,  M.B.,  Ch.B.,  and  others  443 

Second  Victorian  Egg-laying  Coriipetition,  1912-13    ...             ...             ...             ...  448 

Xew  Pest  to  Maize               ...              ...              ...              ...              ...       C.  French,  Jn7\  450 

Statistics                ...             ...             ...             ...             ...             ...              ...             ...  451 

■Agriculture  in  Victoria      ...             ...             ...             ...             ..               ...             ...  4.o2 

Orchard  and  Garden  Notes                 ...              ...              ...              ...            E.  E.  Pe^^cott  453 

■  Reminder's  for  August        ...             ...             ...             ...             ...             ...             ...  4.56 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

The  Articles  in  the  .Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria  are 
protected  by  the  provisions  of  the  Copvright  Act.  Proprietors  of  ne\vs}mpers  wishing 
to  republish  anj'  matter  are  at  libertj-  to  do  so,  pi-ocidecl  the  Journal  and  author  are 
both  acknowledged. 

The  Journal  i,s  issued  monthly.  The  subscription,  which  is  payable  in  advance 
and  includes  postage,  is  3s.  per  annum  for  the  Commonwealth  and  New  Zealand,  and 
5s.  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  Foreis"  Countries.     Single  cop\-,  Threepence. 

Subscriptions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture,  Melljourne. 
A  complete  list  of  the  various  publications  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
will  be  supplied  by  the  latter. 


Journal    of   Agriculture.    Yictoria. 


[jo  July,   1912. 


r 


The  ''Billabong, 

MAXIMUM    STRENGTH. 
MINIMUM     PARTS. 


TMs  Mill  has  been  specially  designed  to  obtain 
the  maximum  of  strength  and  minimum  of  wear- 
ing parts.  THERE  ARE  NO  OVERHANGING  MAIN 
BEARINGS— this  is  of  great  importance.  The  thrust 
is  central  between  two  bearings.  Thus  there  is  no 
possibility  of  the  thrust  getting  a  "crosswind"  and 
the  friction  increasing  as  the  mill  wears. 


Governing  Device. 

A  new  achievement  in  Windmill  design  is  our 

Patent  Governing  Device  (No.  19711).      Not 

only  does  the  "Billabong"  automatically  regulate  itself  against  sudden  wind  attacks, 

but  by  turning  the  fulcrum  screw,  you  can  set  the  speed  of  the  Mill  to  your  liking. 


Bearings. 


The  bearings  are  wide  and  long,  and  are  fitted  with  split  or  parted  liners  of  anti- 
friction bearing  metal.  This  method  renders  perfect  accessibility,  and  bearings  may 
be  replaced  (if  necessary)  quickly,  easily,  and  without  removing  any  gearing  or 
Mill  from  tower. 

The  "  Billabong  "  is  well  lubricated,  rigid,  powerful,  and  most  reasonable  in  price. 
Send  for  pamphlet  and  prices  now.  Another  point — We  make  this  Mill  at  our 
Melbourne  works — no  trouble  to  get  duplicate  parts  promptly  in  case  of  accident. 

From  experience  gained  as  manufacturers,  and  from  the  installing  of  irrigation  plants 
of  varied  capacities  during  a  course  of  over  50  years,  we  are  in  a  position  to  give 
practical  advice  to  those  requiring  water  supply. 


JOHN       P^ANTT^Q      &  SON 

PROPTY.         J-^  XjL  1  N  A^  ^^         LIMITED. 

WINDMILL,     PUMP    AND    TROUGHING     MANUFACTURERS, 

I  391-399  Bourke  St.,  Melbourne. 


lo  July,    1912.J  Journal   of   .\\:_riciiUiirc .    Vhloria. 


BARTRAM'S 

CONSTELLATION 

FOR  DAIRY  FARMERS, 


! 


Just  as  the  Southern  Cross  is  inseparably  associated  with  Au8t^aHJ^ 
so  is  the  name  "BARTRAM"  closely  allied  with  the  dairying 
industry  of  Victoria.  The  introduction  of  improved  methods,  and 
the  adoption  of  the  most  up-to  date  labor-saving  machinery,  has 
enabled  those  engaged  in  dairying  pursuits  to  get  out  of  their 
cows  the  maximum  return  at  the  least  cost.  The  five  "STARS'* 
that  have  so  materially  helped  to  guide  hundreds  of  d^iry  farmers 
to  fortune  and  success,  are  : — 

"ALFA-LAVAL"  "L.K.C." 

CREAM  SEPARATORS  MILKING  MACHINES 

"FELIX" 
IRRIGATION  OUTFITS 

"FELIX"  "ALFA" 

PETROL  MOTORS  STEEL  WINDMILLS 


In  buying  the  above  lines  j'ou  run  no  risk  whatever.  Years  of 
everyday  use  on  huntlreds  of  farms  in  Victoria  alone  have  demon- 
strated beyond  doubt  that  they  are  as  represented  in  our  catalogues, 
and  are  easily  the  best  manufactured.  They  carry  our  guarantee  of 
efhciencj^  and  long  service,  and  behind  the  guarantee  is  a  reputa- 
tion   of    40    years    of    unequalled    service    to  Victorian  dairymen. 

Write  for  our  Illustrated  Catalogue. It  is  Free, 

and  gives  much  valuable  advice.  When  in  town 
come  and  see  us.  Our  expert  knowledge  is  fully 
and  freely  at  your  service.  We  give  liberal 
terms  and  accept  easy  payments. 

J.  BARTRAM  &  SON  rTS;,  me!bTu°rSe: 


Journal   of    Agriculture,    victoria. 


[io   Juiv,    lyj 


Water 
Pipe  at 
Special 
Prices. 

We've  put  Special  Prices  on  a  big 
shipment  of  High  Grade  Black  and 
Galvanized  Water  Pipe  and  Fittings 
just  received. 

Don't  g^o  to  the 
Well  OP  Stream! 

A  small  outlay  heie  Mill  install  enough 
pipe   with    a])pliances    to    bring    yOUl 

water   supply    to   you.      You  car 

have  water  just  where  you  need  it. 

Send  for  Price  List  and  mention  your  re- 
quirements. \Ve"ll  quote  you  the  most 
suitable  pump  to  use,  too. 


The  Illustratiuii  deiiicts  tlie  Mjrer's 
Ratchet    Handled    Force    Pump 

fell-  <;fnfral  Kann  Work,  Has  a  (■apacity 
of  2,0U0  gallons  per  hour.  The  Ratchet 
Handle  reduces  energy  usually  required 
by  40  ]ier  cent.    Our  Price  is  4?/6  complete. 


Big    Sook 
of  Tools- 

a  jNIouey  ■  Saver — 
will  be  mailed  Free 
if    you   seud   yovlv 

address. 


M^PKcrsor^ 

Machinery  and  Tool  Merchants, 

554-66  &  582-88    Collins-st., 
MELBOURNE. 


July.    191^-] 


Journal    of    .\i:_riciiltiirc.    Victoria. 


r-  IT  WILL  PAY  YOU  -\ 

TO    LEARN 

MODERN     METHODS     IN     AGRICULTURE 
LIVE  STOCK  &  FRUIT  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

can  teach  you  AT  YOUR  OWX  HOMK  liow   t.)   MAKE  MoKK   MoNKV   liy  tlje  employment  of  up-to-date 
nietii.ids.     We  tearh  all  branches  of  Agi'iculture  ami  Live  Stock  Husbandry,  in<lu(liny  Drainage, 


Irrigation,    Dairying   ami 


Practical    Orctiard    Management. 

following.'  subjt 


We  also  "rive  instruction   in   the 


Bookkeeping 
Shorthand 
Accountancy 
Commercial  Law 
English 


Arithmetic 

Mathematics 

Languages 

Drawing 

Illustrating 


Electrical  Engineering 
Steam  Engineering 
Shire  Engineering 
Mining  Engineering 
Surveying 


Mechanical  Drawing 
Architectural  Drawing 
Building    Construction 

and  Estimating 
Timber  Measurements 


WE    PREPARE   CANDIDATES   FOR    ALL   PUBLIC    EXAMINATIONS. 

The  instnictioii  soes  EIGHT  TO  TOUIl  HOME,  no  matter  where  you  live.  It  is  clear,  concise,  easily 
understood,  and  practical.  Every  student  is  handled  privately  and  separately  and  receives  individual 
attention  according-  to  his  particular  requirements. 

Our  instructors  are  men  of  sound  technical  knowledgre,  combined  with  years  of  practical  experience,  and 
they  are  at  the  service  of  every  student,  to  <ruide  him  with  their  valuable  advice.  Only  spare  time  study 
is  required,  and  our  fees  are  exceed)n^:ly  moderate  and  within  the  reai'h  of  everxbody. 

AVe  invite  you  to  write  at  once  for  a  free  io]i\  of  our  Handbook  D.  It  explains  our  system  and  shows 
how  we  can  teach  any  man  who  is  willing-  to  he  tauuht  and  anxious  to  increase  his  earning-  power.  It  costs 
nothincT  to  inquire.      Don't  put  it  off.       Write  tO-day. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

563    MARKET    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


y!!illlB "TIP-TOP"  SEEDS 

ESTABLISHED    62    YEARS. 

THREE    VALUABLE    GRASSES. 


PASPALUM  DILATATUM 

OR  GOLDEN  CROWN  GRASS. 

A  valuable  forage  grass  for  all  kinds  of  stock.  With- 
stands droug-ht,  and  frost  will  not  kill  it ;  particularly 
suitable  for  dairy  cattle  as  it  will  stand  any  amount  of 
g-razing-,  and  trampUng  of  stock  does  not  injure  it. 
JIakes  a  very  etficient  tire-break  when  planted  in  strips 
throughout  natiu-al  pastures,  as  it  remains  luxuriantly 
green  when  the  surroundings  are  in  a  dry,  parched, 
and  inflammable  condition.  Sow  6  lbs.  per  "acre.  First 
quality  heavy  hand-shaken  seed,  1,6  per  lb. 

PHALARIS  COMMUTATA 

The  King  of  all  Winter  Grasses. 

Grows  between  6  and  7  feet  high.  Resists  frosts  and 
droughts.     This  marvellous  grass  has  been  known  to 


grow  quite  an  inch  a  day  on  poor  ground.  Recom- 
mended to  graziers  and  dairymen,  as  it  remain."  par- 
ticularly luxuriant  in  winter,  and  behaics  remarkably 
well  during  the  hot,  dry  months.  It  seems  to  like  all 
kinds  of  weather,  .Sow  2  lbs.  per  acre  in  drills  ;  or 
4  lbs.  broadcast.      7/6  per  lb. 

TIMOTHY  GRASS. 

This  well-known  variety  adapt-i  itself  to  almost  any 
soil.  It  is  a  capital  grazing'  grass,  and  produces  ex- 
cellent hay.  It  is  of  strong  growth  and  yields  abundant 
feed.  Quantity  required  to  sow  an  acre,  30  lbs. 
Price,  1/3  per  lb. 


WRITE   FOR  OUR   NEW  FARMER'S 
PRICE  LIST. SENT  POST  FREE. 


Lav;,  Somner,  &  Co.'s  "TIP-TOP"  Seeds, 

13S-141  SWANSTON-ST.,  MELBOURNE,    Phone,  Central  729. 


J'lunial    of   Agriculture,    Victoria.  [lo  July.    1912. 


"AUSTRAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES. 

FIVE  YEARS   OF   UNBROKEN   SUCCESS 

Have  established  the  AUSTRAL  as  the  Premier  Milking  Machine,  and 

have  demonstrated  that  it  does  not  belong  to  that  class  of  applianreH  who»<i 
efficiency  terminates  after  a  few  months  of  use.  It  has  stood  the  test  of  ume,  and 
that  under  all  sorts  of  conditions. 

IT    IS    SIMPLE, 

Complexity  and  intricacy  are  the  bane  of  milking  machinery.  Both  in  principle 
and  construction  the  Austral  is  strikingly  simple.  Minute  pulsating  mechanism 
on  teat  cups  or  buckets  has  been  entirely  dispensed  with,  its  place  being  taken  by 
a  single  pulsating  pump,  simple  and  strong  in  construction,  which  serves  for  the 
whole  outfit,  whether  two  cows  or  ten  are  to  be  milked  at  a  time.  The  puUaiing 
pump  is  placed  in  the  engine  room,  remote  from  the  cowi. 

IT    IS    AN    EASY    MILKER. 

Fear  of  injury  to  cows  was  at  one  time  the  bogie  of  machine  milking.  The  Austral 
has  done  away  with  all  that.  Its  action  on  the  cow  is  as  gentle  as  that  01  the 
softest  hand,  and  much  easier  than  the  average  hired  help.  After  tliree  and  four 
years'  milking  with  the  machines,  cows  are  found  to  be  as  sound  in  the  quarreis 
as  when  they  started.  Enquiry  from  any  Austral  user  will  confirm  the  corieci.- 
uess  of  this  statement. 

IT  IS  THE  LAST  WORD  IN  ECONOMICAL  DAIRYING. 

The  working  parts  are  so  few  and  the  construction  so  simple  and  solid,  that  wear 
and  tear,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  upkeep,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  An 
outstanding  feature  of  the  Austral  is  the  Tank  System,  whereby  the  milk  is 
conducted  direct  from  cow  to  separator  without  any  handling  whatever.  With 
this  system,  so  great  a  saving  is  effected  in  time,  labour,  and  trouble,  that  in 
ordinary  circumstances  its  advantages  are  overwheln  in?.  A  single  bucket  can  he 
supplied  for  testing  individual  cows  ;  or  where  spec  al  requirements  render  it  pre- 
ferable, complete  bucket  plants  can  be  installed. 

GLOBE  CREAM   SEPARATORS.      .         CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES. 

Embodies  the   famous   Link- Blade    Bowl  1  The  world's  standard  Oil  Engine.      In  all 

Structure.     OflScial  tests  conducted  by  the  1  sizes  and  for  all  descriptions  of  farm  work. 

Swedish  Government  at  Alnarp  placed  the  'f 

"Globe"  in  the  very  forefront  for  clean  «)  VACCAR    PETROL    ENGINES. 

skimming    and    easy    running,   against    all  i 

competitors.  \  British    built.            Low    running    speed. 

All  sizes  from  14  to  200  gallons.  Economical  on  fuel. 

WINDMILLS,  SAW-BENCHES,  CH^FF-CUTTERS,  at^ci  all  Farrq  at^d  Dairy  Macliinery. 

When  writing,  please  mention  this  Journal.        

59-61   KING  ST., 
MELBOURNE. 


W.  H.  BLHCKHflm, 


lo  July,   19 i:?-] 


Journal    flf   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


Herd    of    Prize 

Winnings  and 
Heavy  Milk  ^ 
and  Butter  Pro- 
ducing  Strains* 


YOUNG      BULLS     AND     HEIFERS 


FOR     SALE. 


MYSTERY  VI.  OF  MELROSE. 


INSPECTION     BY     APPOINTMENT, 


WlLLIflM  WOODIHASOJI,  '"*;"" 

MALVERN,     MELBOURNE,    Vic. 


\1U 


]  oil  Dial    of   Agnciihiirc,    Yuioria. 


[lo  July,  1912-. 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT    LAND. 


List  showing-  numl)er  of  uUotments  on  the  various  Estates  availuljle  for  a[)i)lication  :- 


Estate.      Irrigation  Areas.      Area. 


Swan  Hill 

C'ohuiia 

Sheiii'avtoii 

Naniieella 

Haniawin 

Ton-ala 


17 
33 
95 


217  anres. 
2,084  „ 
5,6011  ,, 
l,7-2.-)  ,, 
2,470  „ 
3,257       ,, 


Dairying  and  Mixed  Farming. 


Ikma  A'ista 

Deepdene 

Eumei'alla 

Allanibee 

Jlovven 

W'eri'ibee 

Kenihvorth 

Mooralla 

Cremona 

Dunrobin 


389  acres. 

811 
2,32(i 
1,578       „ 
4,402 
4,39(1 

Olio 

020        ,, 

409 


Estate.        Wheat    Growing.       Area. 


15 


Cornelia  Creek 

Oaklands 

IIiir.sfA-ood      ..  ..  0 

JVIt.  Widderin  ..  10 

Nerrin  Nerriii  .  .  17 

Pannoo            . .  . .  24 

JMarathon  &\Villn\v  (Jrove  10 


2,384  acres. 
4,140       „ 

3,014  „ 

.5,522  ,, 

3,713  ,, 

8,902  „ 

8,508  ,, 


Beet  Growing  and  Dairying. 


Koisdale 
Kihnanv  I'ark 


5        totalliuj;-        245  acres 
23  ,,     '       2,119     ,, 


Clerks"  Homes. 

Tooron.ii'a  101  allotments 


Workmen's  Homes. 


Pender's  Grove 


114  allotments. 


Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Pnrchase  leasehold  terms,  extendini;-  over  \Mh  years,  with 
}iayments  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  60  per  I'ent.  of  the  value  of 
)iei-manent  improvements  effected,  repayments  extendinjj  over  fifteen  years  bearing-  5  per  cent,  interest. 

For  full  information  and  terms  oiqihj  to  THE     SECRETARY , 

LANDS    PURCHASE    AND     MANAGEMENT    BOARD, 

MELBOURNE. 


m 


AUSTRALIA'S  WAG 


"  The  Finest 
Wagon  Ever." 

PATENT 

STEEL 
WHEELS. 

Patent  Felloes. 

Renewable  Carron 

Boxes  and  Oil  Caps. 

The  only  SteelWheel 

that  has  stood 

the  Test. 

Beware  of 
Imitations. 

Bullivant  Bros.,  Gillenbah,  Narrandera,  write: — 4/4/11 — "The  7-ton  Wool  Wag-on  1  g-ot  from  you  four  years 
ai-o  has  given  every  satisfaction.     I  now  want  you  to  send  me  a  .54  in.  and  48  in.,  diameter  wheel  x  6  in.  tyre  10-ton 
Wagon,  with  Table  19  ft.  x  8  ft.    Your  Wagons  are  the  Best."    Hundreds  of  others  sa3'  the  same. 
When  you  get  a  Wagon  see  that  it  is  tlie  Genuine  "Hildyard  Patent." 

A  well-known  and  up-to-date  farmer  in  Victoria  (Mr.  £.  A.  Neald,  of  Nathalia)  says  :^"  I  had  List  season 
a  6-ton  Ordinary  English  Wagon,  and  one  of  the  "  Trusty  "  type  Steel  Wheel  Wagons,  40  in. 

and  36  in.  dia.  wheels,  carting  in  sheaf  hay.  Although  the  O-ton  wagon  seemed  to  carrj'  the  larger  loads,  I 
found,  to  my  surprise,  after  keeping  careful  count,  that  the  Patent  Steel  Wheel  Wagon  carted  and  put  into 
the  stack  700  sheaves  a  day  more  than  the  big  wagon.     The  labour  was  the  same  for  both  wagons." 

lJJ^- TABLE  TOP — Truck  body,  and  all  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
WRITE    FOR    CATALOG     TO-DAY. 


R.  J.  L.   HILDYARD, 


QUEEN'S    BRIDGE-ST., 
SOUTH   MELBOURNE,  V. 


lo  July.   191  2.] 


Joiirual    of    Agriailliirc,    Victoria. 


IX- 


LIGHT,  STRONG, 
PERFECTLY  RIGID. 


^■Q^ 


d/l>j 


"CYCLONE" 
WOVEN   GATE 

9    f-fc.    -to    16    ft. 

Will  hold  anything,  and  can  be  made  rabbit  proof  by  putting  rabbit  proof 
intersection  at  the  bottom.      T'.ie  wider  gates  have  three  stays. 

Get  our  Catalogue  of  this  and  many  other  Cyclone  Gates. "  THEY'RE  ALL  GOOD." 

CYCLONE    FENCE   &   GATE   CO., 

^  459  SWANSTON  ST.,  corner  franklin  ST.,  MELBOURNE.  ^ 


]^^s*i^i,ii^stNmmMamm.^^ai 


KEMP'S     PATENT 

SHEEP-BRANDING  LIQUID 

AS  USED  BY  LEADING  PASTORALISTS  OF  AUSTRALIA. 
IN  THREE  COLOURS,   BLACK,  RED  &  BLUE. 


Sold  in  8  gallon  cases,  4  6  grallon. 
1  gallon  tins,    5"  each. 


-AGENTS    FOR    VICTORIA    AND    RIVERINA" 


V 


DALGETYeTg°;  MELBOURNE 


Journal   of   Agriculture ,    Victoria. 


[lo  July,  1912. 


"GLEN   ELGIN'S  PHILANTHROPIST"   299  A.H.B.   of  Aus. 


Winner  of  Champion,  Sydney  Royal  Shew,  1909,  1910,  1911,  1912. 

Reserve   Champion,    Melbourne   Royal  Show,  1907,   1908,   1911. 

Also  Winner  of  Bull  and  Progeny  Prize  of  £10  for  5  females  (the  progeny  of  any  one  bull) 
producing  the  largest  amount  of  commercial  butter  in  24  hours,  Sydney  Royal  Show,  1912. 

Also  holds  the  record  of  150  Firsts,  Champions,  Specials,  and  Gold  Medals 
for  Ayrshire  and  Dairy  Bull. 


The  "Glengarnoek"  Stad 


of  Puf^- 
flypshipe  Cattle 


Has  won  innumerable  prizes  in  the  ring.      The  females  in  this  herd  are  noted  for 
deep  and  heavy  milking  and  test  well  above  the  average,  and  are  kind  and  quiet. 

CHOICE  YOUNG  HERDBOOK  BULLS  FOR  SALE  at  from  5  to  25  guineas  each. 

From  Best  Cows  only,  by  Pure  Herdbook  Bulls.     Full  pedigrees  and  particulars,  with 
photographs  of  animal  for  sale,  his  sire  and  dam,  will  be  forwarded  on  application. 


INSPECTION  CORDIALLY  INVITED.        VISITORS  MET  AT  UNC  LANG  RAILWAY  STATION. 


Address 


A.  T.  PRIESTLEY,  i 


Pest      O^CLENCARNOCK," 

Kl^gJa^SjYANNATHAN,  Vic. 


lo  July,   191 2.]  Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria.  xi 

Vaeuum 

Gapg*oyle 

Prepared 

Red   Sppaying*  Oil 


Needs  no  Soft  Soap 
OP  other  ingredient. 


Requires  only 
Clean  Soft  Water. 


Vacuum  Gargoyle  Red  Spray  Oil 
now  obtainable  in  prepared  form 
is  the  same  Oil  as  that  originally 
introduced  to  Australia  for  fruit- 
tree    spraying. 


Full  particulars — 

Horticultural  Department, 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd., 
90  William  Street,  Melbourne. 


JoaniaJ   of   .\i^r/cNl///n\    Victoria. 


[lo  July,  1912. 


BOISDALE  &  KILMANY  PARK 

THE     IDEAL     CLOSER    SETTLEMENT     COMBINATION. 


BOTH 
di 


OTH  these  Estates  luive  been  specially  selected,   purchased,   and  sub- 
hided,    for    BEET     GROWING     AND     DAIRYING    combined. 

THRIFTY,  EXPERIENCED  MEN ^ 

with  small  capital  afforded  an  opportunity  of  making  a  comfortable  living  while  acquiring-  the  freehold. 

Particulars  from  Secretary,   Closer  Settlement  Board,   Melbourne. 


The 

New  Automatic 

Cream  Separator 

Separating  Finished  same  time  as  MilkinJ 

THE  AUTOMATIC  CREAM  SEPARATOR 
introduced  into  the  Dairy  means  lessening  the 
work  wonderfully — saves  time  and  expense.  At  last 
we  have  got  the  self-contained  Cream  Separator, 
automatic  in  action,  simple  enough  for  a  child  to 
work.  It  is  an  i  -genious  combination  of  a  powerful, 
perfectly  balanced  motor,  with  a  special  Separator, 
and  will  keep  running  continuously  for  6  hours. 
Cost  of  upk'ep  isridicuously  sma'l,  and  separates  as 
fast  as  seven  or  eight  mill;ers  can  supply.  No 
intricate  gears.  You  have  only  to  pull  the  cord  on 
the  side,  and  the  machine  ke :pj  going,  producing  a 
smooth  cream,   SKimming  to  .01. 

Know  more  about  this  great   boon  to  dairymen.      I 
will  be  an  excellent   investment  for  you. 

One  size     machine     for  any  siie  dairy. 
Write  ror  particulars. 

Sole   A,gents  : 

NEWELL 

43-45   KING   STREET, 


TREES  THAT 


TREES  THAT  CROW! 


C.  J=  GOODMAN,  Nurseryman, 

Picnic  Point  Nurseries,  Bairnsdale,  Victoria, 

Has  for  Sale  one  of  the  Lai-gest  and  Most  Varied  Stocks  of  Fruit  Trees  iu  Australia. 


All  the  Nurseries  are  under  Government  supr'-vision,  and  every  Tree  sent  to  Planters 
is   Clean,   Healthy,  Well-Grown  and  Shaped  and  True   to  Name.  Nearly   all  Trees 

■worked  from  Trees  proved  to  be  Good  Bearers.  Write  for  Catalogue.     Post  Free. 


=il| 


10  July.   19 12  ] 


Journal    of   Agriculture .    Victoria. 


"BARTRAM 

AUTOMATIC 

GAS  PRODUCER 

Cheaper  than   COAL   GAS   at  3/"  Per   1,000   cubic   feet. 

For  LIGHTING,  COOKING,  and  HEATING. 

MANUFACTURED       UNDER       LICENCE       BOOTY- LOFTH  O  US  E       PATENTS. 


SYSTEM    ADOPTED    BY 

STATE    AND    FEDERAL    GOVERNMENTS. 


Further  particulars  and  prices  apply 


J.   BARTRAM  &  SON  pty.  ltd., 

19,  21,  23  King-st.;  and  Bourke-st.,  Melbourne. 


SHIFT     THOSE     STUMPS ! 

EFFECTIVELY,    SAFELY,     AND    SATISFACTORILY.    ""■" 

RACKAROCK 

FOR 

STUMP  LIFTING,  TREE  FELLING,  LOG  SPLITTING  &  LAND 
CLEARING  GENERALLY,    SUB-SOILING  &  TREE  PLANTING. 


STANDING     TREE. 
SNAPSHOT     OF     EXPLOSION. 


It  is  absolutely  without  a  rival. 

This  is  owing  to  its  Great  Rending  Power. 

RACKAROCK  is  comprised  of  two  ingredients — a  solid 
anil  .1  liquid —which  are  not  explosive  until  mixed.  The 
ingredients  can  therefore  be  transported  and  stored  like 
candles  and  oil.  This  characteristic  makes  it  invaluable 
for  out-of-waj'  places. 

CHEAPER  THAN  NITRO -COMPOUNDS. 


^s. 


INT.  C3-TJTIH^roC3-E3  3L.tca.. 

PROPRIETORS    AND    MANUFACTURERS. 

525    COLLINS    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


xiv  Journal   of  Agriculture,    Victoria.  [lO  July,  1912. 

7- > 

THE     STANDARD     FOR    FENCING. 

"NEPTUNE" 

UNRIVALLED    PATENT   STEEL 

FENCING  WIRE. 


5  0  %  SAVED 

in  your    Wire   Account,   and   then 
you  have 


£9  8s.  6d.  saved 

on  3  miles  6  Wire  Fence 
^      ^  by  using  "NEPTUNE," 


THE   BEST    POSSIBLE    FENCE.        Y  ^s  against  Ordinary  Wire. 


MORRIS  &  MEEKS,  agents,  MELBOURNE. 

To  GRAZIERS,  FARMERS,  and  DAIRYMEN. 


You  cannot  do  better  than  purchase  your  requirements  from 

Pro 

Ltd. 


THE    VICTORIA    VARNISH    Coy.  '— 

Who  are  Importers  and  Manufacturers  of  the  undermentioned,  namely  : — 

Varnishes  for  all   uses,    Paints,    Dry  Colors,    Stainer's    Turpentine, 
Boiled    and    Raw    Linseed    Oil,    Resin,    Shellac,    White    Lead,    &c. 

OUR   MANUFACTURE     IS     OF    ONE     QUALITY— THE     BEST. 

Note  the  Address— 

The  VICTORIA  VARNISH  COY.  Proprietary  Ltd.,  Queen's  Bridge,  South  Meib. 

Tel.   Central  614.  Established   1853.  A.   J.    BORTHWICK,    Manager. 


BONEDUST,  SUPERPHOSPHATE, 


AND     OTHER     HIGH-GRADE     FERTILIZERS 

DELIVERED  AT  RAILWAY  STATION,  FOOTSCRAY,  OR  ON  WHARF,  MELBOURNE. 


J.     COOI5;:i3IlL.IL., 

Office :— 407  POST  OFFICE  PLACE,  MELBOURNE. 

BONES  BOUGHT.      CONSIGN  TO  ME,  FOOTSCRAY.  Telephone  2098 


lo  Jlxv.   19 1 3.] 


Journal    of   A^^^riciilturc .    Yicfona. 


XV 


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Journal   of   Agriciilfi(rc,    Victoria. 


[lo  July,   191: 


DON'T  WASTE  YOUR  TIME  AT  THE  PUMP  HANDLE. 


FOR  foolish  it  is  for  a  man  to  try  to  raise  water  for  stock  or  garden  by  means  of 
a  hand  pump.  Windmills  are  to  be  obtained  now  so  cheap  that  it  is  a  folly, 
rank  folly,  to  waste  one's  time  at  the  pump  handle ;  the  windmill  will  not 
only  do  the  work  better,  but  do  it  cheaper  than  any  other  method  of  raising  water. 
The  farmer,  or  the  farmer's  man's  time  would  be  much  better  employed  about  the 
farm.  The  first  cost  of  a  windmill  is  practically  its  only  cost.  All  that  is  re- 
quired to  keep  it  in  order  for  years  is  simply  to  lubricate  it  occasionally,  and  this, 
with  recent  improvements,  needs  only  to  be  done  about  once  a  month.  For  many 
years  the  ALSTON  Windmill  has  become  a  household  word.  The  fame  of  the  ALSTON 
mill  has  spread  far  and  wide.  They  have  made  their  reputation  by  actual  merit  on 
actual  service,  by  their  simplicity  and  superior  construction.  They  have  stood  the 
test  of  years.  They  have  been  erected  in  the  most  exposed  sites  with  impunity.  Tliey 
have  been  used  successfully  on  wells  and  bores  three  and  four  hundred  feet  deep.  They 
have  been  used  for  pumping  through  miles  of  piping  to  higher  levels.  They  have 
been  used  for  pumping  for  stock  ;  for  irrigation ;  for  drainage ;  for  house  and  for 
garden,  and  almost  everything  that  a  pump  is  used  for. 


They  have  been  imitated  and  envied  by  rival  makers  but  have  never  been  ex- 
celled. Every  ALSTON  mill  that  has  been  sold  has  been  an  advertisement  for  its 
maker,  and  the  demand  for  the  ALSTON  mill  has  increased  year  after  year,  and  still 
preserves  its  premier  position  in  the  Commonwealth.  Thousands  of  the  ALSTON 
Windmills  are  made  annually,  and  thousands  of  the  ALSTON  mills  have  been  in  constant 
use  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  faithfully  doing  the  work  of  water-lifting,  to  the 
satisfaction  and  delight  of  the  foresighted  and  enterprising  stock-owners  who  installed 
them  ;  now,  seeing  the  advantages  of  their  use,  thousands  of  others  are  following  their 
example.  The  windmill  is,  beyond  dispute,  the  simplest,  most  reliable,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  cheapest  method  of  raising  water  for  stock.  If  you  are  interested  further, 
write  for  a  full  and  descriptive  catalogue  from  the  maker. 

The  address  is 

JAMES     ALSTON, 

QUEEN'S  Bridge,    South   Melbourne. 

This  will  give  you  a  full  and  fair  description  of  all  different  size  mills  that  he  makes, 
from  the  six  to  the  twenty-five  foot  diameter  wheel ;  what  each  size  will  do,  and  what 
they  will  cost.     IT  WILL  PAY  YOU  TO  DO  SO. 


TH6    JOUHNAb 


or 


T^Iie  department  of     Mgricuffure 


OF  LIBRA 

NEW  Y 

VICTORIA.  ^^^'^^i 


Vol.  X.        PaPt  7.  loth  July,  1912. 

IiNFLUENCE  OF  CERTAIN  SOiL  CONSTITUENTS  UPON 

NITIUFICATION. 

By  John   W.   t'atcrscni,   B.Sc,   Ph.D..   Experimentalist,   and  P.   K.   Scott, 
Chemist  for  Agriculture. 

Nitrification  is  the  process  whereby  nitrates  are  formed  in  soils.  Some 
other  forms  of  nitrogen  can  be  used  by  crops,  but  the  nitrate  form  is  re- 
quired in  order  to  get  a  paying  crop.  The  nature  and  conditions  of  nitri- 
fication were  described  in  the  May  issue  of  this  Journal.  Experiments 
were  quoted  showing  how  the  moisture  conditions  of  the  soil  affected  the 
change. 

In  one  of  the  soils  used  in  the  moisture  experiments  there  appeared 
to  be  a  deficiency  of  lime  as  revealed  bv  chemical  analysis,  and  on  this 
soil  nitrification  was  somewhat  slow  even  under  the  best  moisture  condi- 
tions. It  seemed  desirable,  therefore,  to  set  up  a  new  set  of  experiments 
with  the  soil  in  (juestion  in  order  to  find  whether  an  addition  of  lime 
would  accelerate  matters.  The  results  form  the  principal  subject  of  this 
report. 

Lime  is  usually  applied  to  land  in  one  of  two  forms.  It  is  applied 
as  burnt,  hot,  or  caustic  lime — lime  proper — and  this  is  the  most  active 
form  in  which  to  appFv  lime.  Again,  it  may  be  applied  as  chalk  or 
ground  limestone — carbonate  of  lime — and  this  form  of  lime  is  milder  in 
its  action.  Slaked  lime  is  a  third  chemical  form  of  I'me,  but  it  acts  just 
like  hot  lime,  and  is  orie-third  heavier  than  hot  lime,  without  containing 
more  lime. 

In  these  experiments,  hot  lime  has  been  tried  on  the  soil  in  two  different 
quantities.  Mild,  lime  has  also  been  tried  in  two  quantities,  equivalent 
in  each  case  to  an  application  of  hot  lime.  With  pure  materials  56 
parts  of  hot  lime  contain  the  same  lime  as   100  of  mild  lime. 

7431.  o 


394 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Yictoria.         [lo   July,    1912. 


Besides  hot  and  mild  lime,  a  number  of  other  substances  have  alsa 
been  tried  to  find  their  effect  upon  nitrification.  These  include  gypsum 
(sulphate  of  lime)  and  superphosphate  (phosphate  of  lime),  both  of  which 
are  generally  available  for  application  to  land.  Then  magnesium  car- 
bonate, which  often  occurs  as  impurity  in  limestone,  has  been  tested.  Ferric 
hydrate  or  iron  rust  is  present  more  or  less  in  practically  all  soils,  and  it 
has  been  tried  as  to  its  effect  upon  nitrification.  It  can  neutralize  some 
acids  as  lime  does,  but  is  altogether  less  active.  Common  salt,  excess  of 
which  is  injurious  to  crops,  has  been  included.  Citric  acid  was  used  in 
order  to  imitate  the  acidity  of  sour  land,  which  lime  can  be  applied  to 
sweeten.  Finally,  sugar  and  starch  were  used  to  find  the  effect  of  too 
much  fresh  humus  in  soil,   and  also  when  the  soil  is  badly  aerated. 

The  scheme  of  experiments  is  set  forth  in  Table  I, 


Table  I. 

Test 
STumber 

1 
Constituent  .added 
to  Soil. 

Percentage 
Present 
in  Soil. 

Chemical 
Equivalents. 

Character  of  Materials. 

1 

Nothing 

2 

Garb,  of  Lime 

2-00 

Commercial  ^\hitening,  99  per 
cent. 

3 

0-50 

,,              ,,              ,, 

4 

Garb,  of  magnesia    .  . 

l'C8 

=  Test  2 

C'arbonate  and  Hydrate,  MgO  = 
40  ■  {J2  per  cent. 

5 

„ 

0-42 

=     »      3 

!, 

6 

Gypisum     . . 

3-44 

=     „      2 

Gheiuically  pure 

7 

0-86 

=     „      3 

„ 

8 

Lime 

1-12 

=     .,      2 

Freshly  ignited,  99  per  cent. 

9 

0-28 

=     .,      3 

.»                      >r 

10 

Ferric  hydrate 

1-43 

=     „      2 

Precipitated,  washed,  and  dried 

11 

Gommon  salt 

0-125 

t'hemically  pure 

12 

„ 

0-25 

=  2  X  Test 
11 

13 

Citric  acid 

0-104 

=     Garbte. 
in  soil 

(Commercial  crystals 

14 

" 

0-213 

=    Garbte. 
in       soil 
plus        ,!(, 
psr  cent. 

15 

Starch 

114 

Specially  prepared — water,  12-1 
per  cent. 

16 

Sugar 

1-00 

Org. 
matter  in 
15 

Castor  sugar,  99-5  per  cent. 

17 

1-00 

(Sealed) 

,,             „             ., 

18 

Superphospliate 

0-0025 

=    100    lb. 
plus  acic 
per    acre 

Phos.   acid,   20  per  cent.   (17.1.2) 

foot 

The  first  ten  tests  supply  equivalent  amounts  of  lime,  magnesia,  or  iron 
in  large  or  moderate  doses.  Regarding  the  use  of  magnesia,  which  in 
amount  here  is  about  one-sixth  too  little,  reference  is  made  later  on.  The 
amount  of  citric  acid  in  13  was  estimated  from  the  combined  carbonic 
acid  found  on  an  analysis  of  the  soil,  and  to  14  was  applied  o.i  per  cent, 
over  and  above  the  amount  required  for  neutralizing.  Each  of  the  mate- 
rials was  used  in  a  finely  powdered  condition. 


lo  July,   1Q12.]  Iiifiuciicc  of  Certain  Soil  Coiistiliicnts.  &c. 


395 


The  soil  used  was  that  described  as  "sandy"  in  the  previous  article, 
and  was  taken  from  the  same  bulk.  The  chemical  and  mechanical  analysis 
of  this  soil  has  already  been  published. 

The  method  of  experiment  was  essentially  the  same  as  that  adopted 
in  the  earlier  investigations.  Air-dry  soil,  equal  to  300  grams  of  dry 
soil,  includ  ng  the  added  substance,  if  any,  was  wetted  up  to  60  per  cent, 
of  its  water-holding  capacity,  and  5  c.c.  ammonium  sulphate  solution  con- 
taining 0.1  gram  nitrogen  was  mixed  with  the  wetted  soil.  This  nitrogen 
equalled  SSS-^S  P''irts  per  million  of  dry  soil.  After  adding  the  ammonia 
the  soil  was  transferred  to  a  bottle,  and  compacted  by  tapping  to  a  uniform 
volume  in  each  case.  With  any  substance,  there  were  always  two  bottles, 
one  getting  ammDnia,  and  one  getting  no  ammonia  (control).  Where  am- 
monia was  given,  the  water  of  solution  was  part  of  the  water  required  to 


ASPIRATl?vIG    THli    LOTTLES. 

give  the  desired  moisture.  The  bottles  were  corked  during  the  incuba- 
tion period,  and  were  placed  in  a  dark  cupboard  where  the  temperature 
was  read  daily  at  9  a.m.  and  5  p.m.  Twice  weekly  the  bottles  were 
uncorked,  and  aspirated  for  five  seconds  with  a  suction  pump  in  order 
to  maintain  fresh  air.  Number  17,  however,  was  sealed,  and  kept  closed 
throughout  the  whole  course  of  the  exper'ments. 

The  eighteen  tests,  with  their  controls,  required  thirty-six  bottles.  An- 
other set  was  filled  similar  to  these,  making  seventy-two  bottles.  In  addi- 
tion, four  extra  bottles  of  Nos.  i  and  2  were  placed  aside  in  order  to  get 
some  idea  when  the  tim-e  had  arrived  to  begin  the  full  analyses. 

The  methods  of  analys's  adopted  have  already  been  described.  The 
work  was  performed  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Robertson,  chief  deputy  chemist,  who 
also  attended  to  the  filling  of  bottles  and   keeping  of  records. 

o  2 


396 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo  July,    1912. 


The  four  extra  bottles  of  Xos.  i  and  2  were  filled  on  22nd  February, 
and  tested  on  8th  March.  Period  of  incubation,  fifteen  days ;  average 
temperature,   72.9  degrees  F.      The  results  are  stated  in  Table  IL 

Table  II. 


Test 

Constituent  Added. 

Nothing 
Carb.  of  lime 

Xitrate  Xitrogeu  per  1,000,000  p;irts 

Dry  Soil.                                     Percentage 
of  added 

N'umber 

1 
2 

Control 
Blanks. 

29-40 
42-62 

Ammonia 
Bottles. 

75-72 
352-67 

Excess  with 
Ammonia. 

46-32 
310-05 

Ammonua 
Nitrified. 

13-89 
93-01 

It  was  seen  from  these  observation  bottles  that  the  addition  of  mild 
lime  had  verv  greatly  increased  the  rate  of  nitrification,  and  it  was  decided 
therefore  to  commence  one  of   the  main   series   as   soon   as   possible. 

Table  III.  gives  the  results.  The  period  of  incubation  here  was 
twenty-one  days  ;  average  temperature,  72.1  degrees  F. 

Table  III. 


Test 

Constituent  Added. 

Nitrate  Nitrogen  per  1,000,000  parts 
Dry  Soil. 

Percentage 
of  added 

Xumber 

Control 
Blanks. 

Ammonia 
Bottles. 

Excess  with 
Ammonia. 

Ammonia 
Nitrified. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

Nothing 
Carb.  of  lime 

Carb.  of  magne.sia 

Gypsum 

Lime 

Ferric  hydrate 
Common  salt 

Citric  acid 

Starch    . . 
Sugar     . . 

Superphosphate 

22-01 
38-02 
33-26 
22-01 
26-40 
16-51 
13-20 
3-27 
14-61 
14-61 
16-50 
13-20 
6-53 
3-92 
Nil 
N'-l 
Nil 
19-01 

94-33 

347-37 

299-38 

55-12 

52-75 

94-33 

82-45 

4-04 

4-39 

94-33 

26-37 

4-40 

73-20 

33-02 

Nil 

Nil 

Nil 

94-33 

72-32 
309-35 
266-12 
33-11 
26-35 
77-82 
69-25 

79-72 
9-87 

66-67 
29-10 

75-32 

21-69 
92-86 
79-83 
9-93 
7-90 
23-34 
20-77 

23-91 
2-96 

26-00 

8-73 

22-59 

Referring  to  the  figures,  it  was  apparent  that  the  acceleration  of  nitri- 
fication found  in  twenty-one  days  scarcely  extended  beyond  the  carbonate 
of  lime,  consequently  it  was  decided  to  leave  the  duplicate  set  for  another 
month.  The  figures  of  Table  III.  stand  in  an  interesting  relation  to  the 
final   results,    and   will   be  referred   to  later. 

At  the  end  of  fifty-one  days,  the  remainder  of  the  bottles  were  analvzed. 
Mean  temperature  of  periods,  69.98  degrees  F.  The  results  were  as 
shown  on  the  following  page. 


lo  July,   191^.]  Influcucc  of  Certain  Soil  Coi/siititciits.  &c. 


39/ 


Tabu:  JV. 


Test 
Number 


Constituent  Added. 


Xitrate  Nitrogen  per  1,000,000  parts 
Dry  Soil. 


Control 
Blanks. 


Ammonia 
Bottles. 


E.xcess  with 
Ammonia. 


Percentage 
of  added 
Ammouia 
Nil  rifled. 


3 

4 

5 

(j 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

U 

15 

16 

17 

18 


Nothing 
Carb.  of  lime 

Carb.  of  magnesia 

Gypsiiim 

Lime 

Ferric  hydrate 
Common  .salt 

Citric  acid 

Starch    . . 
Sugar 

Su]ierphosphate 


Tlie  soil  (.f  tliese  4  Lotties  was 


33-03 
54  -00* 
39-92* 
38  -02 
(if) -53 
33-02 
29-35 

3-92 
38-02 
2(5-37 
26-37 
26-37 
10-93 
Ml 
10-93 

2-85 
Nil 
29-35 


108-99 

412-83* 

329-97* 

329-97 

299-97 

139-59 

131-97 

4-37 

13-09 

188-89 

(58 -90 

29-94 

70-09 

59-99 

55-84 

92-66 

Nil 

136-62 


75-96 
358-83 
2G0-G5 
291-95 
233-44 
106-57 
102-62 


162-52 
42-53 
3-57 
59-16 
59-99 
44-91 
89-81 
Nil 

107-27 


22-79 

100-00 
87  -01 
87-60 
70-03 
31  -97 
30-78 


48-75 
1L"75 
1-07 
17-74 
17-99 
13 -47 
26-94 

32-18 


nadvertently  missed,  and  refilled  alter  21  davs. 


1 

3 

i^^K 

,i- 

--1 

itlTrt 

iS^L     s 

%^  1-  I 

.  9 

.    1 

^IH(  'ffi 

,-    ■                                  -■ — 14 

r-^W^ 

«Mi.-                      --^ 

' 

^ 

■^^"^^fcl^fc. 

->5^^^ 

i-"^ 

^^49 

iLiMMta 

WiilGHING    THE    MATERIALS. 

We  may  now  procetd  to  consider  the  practical  lessons  of  the.se  experi- 
ments. 

Carbonate  of  Lime. — This  material  had  the  best  effect  on  nitrification 
of  all  the  substances  tried.  Xot  only  did  it  give  the  best  result  ulti- 
mately, but  its  action  was  also  the  sDonest  felt.  It  gave  a  better  result  in 
fifteen  days  (Table  TI.)  than  any  other  application  in  fifty-one  days. 
The   quantity   applied — 2   per   cent. — is   larger   than   would   be'  applied    in 


398  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [10  July,    191 2. 

practice,  yet  there  is  no  danger  of  giving  foo  mucli  of  tlie  substance  at  one 
time.  Indeed,  tlie  lieavier  application  (No.  2)  was  better  than  the  lighter 
(No.  3),  which,  however,  was  also,  good.  The  beneficial  action  of  mild 
lime  on  nitrification  is  not  new,  but  it  is  very  clearly  demonstrated  in  these 
results. 

Tables  11.  and  III.  show  that  about  93  per  cent,  of  the  ammonia 
nitrogen  given  was  nitrified  after  using  carbonate  of  lime  within  three 
weeks.  This  is  probably  as  large  an  amount  as  will  ever  be  recovered 
in  practice.*  The  final  analysis  shows  a  higher  figure,  but  the  bottles 
of  Nos.  2  and  3  were  emptied  by  mistake,  and  refilled  at  the  t"me  of  the 
second  analvsis,  and  these  particular  results  are  therefore  nitrated. 

Increased  production  of  nitrates  following  upon  the  use  of  carbonate- 
of  lime  is  one  of  the  chief,  if  not  the  chief,  reason  for  its  beneficial  effect 
on  crops.  The  results  obtained  in  this  experiment  may  be  confidently 
expected  in  the  field  where  the  land  is  deficient  in  lime,  and  sufficiently 
dry.  When  two  soils  in  Trinidad  were  limed,  and  subsequently  examined, 
a  striking  increase  in  the  percentage  of  nitrates  was  shown  over  similar 
unlimed  land.f 

Caustic  Lime  (Nos.  8  and  9)  had  a  bad  effect  in  the  fresh  state,  and 
practically  stopped  all  nitrification.  The  larger  application  did  most  harm. 
There  was  some  unavoidable  loss  of  ammonia  in  filling  and  aerating  these 
bottles,  but  as  care  was  taken  to  wet  the  .soil  before  adding  the  ammonia, 
the  loss  was  only  partial,  and  cannot  be  held  to  explain  the  result.  Table 
III.  shows  clearly  the  folly  of  applying  hot  lime  with,  or  .shortly  before, 
the  seed  of  any  crop,  as  thereby  the  nitrate  factory  is  effectively  closed 
down.  Table  IV.  indicates  that  the  smaller  application  was  beginning 
to  recover  at  the  end  of  fifty-one  days,  but  the  large  one  was  not.  The 
lesson  is  that  hot  lime  should  be  appled  some  months  before  seeding,  and 
the  heavier  the  dressing  the  longer  the  time  should  be.  When  hot  lime 
lies  a  few  months  in  the  soil,  it  unites  with  carbonic  acid,  and  is  then 
present  as  carbonate  of  lime.  The  beneficial  effects  of  carbonate  of  lime- 
have  already  been  noted.  Any  injurious  effect  of  applying  hot  lime  at 
the  wrong  t'me  may  be  expected  to  disappear  by  the  second  year. 

Hot  lime  eventually  will  stimulate  nitrification  just  like  mild  lime, 
because  it  will  be  converted  into  mild  lime.  Using  small  quantities,  it  may 
indeed  give  a  better  re.sult  the  second  year,  because  it  will  be  better  dis- 
tributed over  the  soil  particles.  For  the  same  reason,  its  effect  would 
be  sooner  expended. 

Gypsum  hadi  a  moderate  effect  in  encouraging  nitrification,  but  was  not 
at  all  equal  to  carbonate  of  lime.  The  heavier  application  (No.  6)  was  a 
trifle  better  than  the  smaller  (No.  7),  but  nothing  to  abide  by.  It  is 
suflficient  to  group  the  results,  and  note  that  gypsum  has  certainly  been 
of  benefit,  but  that  it  was  slow  (Table  III.)  in  beginning  to  act.  Gypsum 
contains  lime,  but  in  union  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  on  this  account 
gypsmia  will  not  generally  repair  the  defic'encies  of  a  soil  requiring  lime 
as  quickly   as  the  other  forms,   hot  or  mild. 

Carbonate  of  Magnesia  (Nos.  4  and  5)  seems  to  behave  in  a  curious 
manner.  It  was  intended  to  apply  the  neutral  carbonate,  but  by  mistake 
the  "  magnesii  carbonas  levis  "  of  the  pharmacopceia  was  used.  This  con- 
tains hydrate  as  well  as  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  is  weakly  alkaline.  At 
the  first  period,   therefore  (Table  III.),   this  material  delayed  nitrification 

*  Die  Stick-stoffd'imun'j  cler  Ir-nduK.  Kulturpflamyen,  by  Dr.  Paul  Wagner,  Berlin,  1892. 
t  Bui.  Depl.  Aji-lc.  Trinadad  9  (1910),  No.  66,  pp.  239,  240. 


ao  July,    191 2.]  Influetice  of  Certain  Soil  Constituents^   &^c.  399 

somewhat  after  the  manner  of  hot  lime,  which  is  strongly  alkaline.  After 
-a  longer  period  (Table  IV.)  apparently  it  had  all  become  converted  into  the 
neutral  carbonate,  and  it  then  exercised,  a  fine  effect  somewhat  resembling 
mild  lime.  Excess  of  magnesium  carbonate  may  be  harmful  to  crop  plants, 
but  apparently  this  eftect  will  nut  be  exercised  through  its  influence  on 
nitrification. 

SuperpJiosphatc  has  ap[)reciably  increased  the  nitrification  of  added 
ammonia  as  compared  to  the  soil  receiving  no  application  (No.  i),  and  on 
referring  to  the  chemical  analysis  of  the  soil,  it  is  seen  to  be  very  poor 
in  phosphoric  acid  (-032  per  cent.).  The  result  is  interesting  as  showing 
that  phosphates  may  help  to  nourish  the  nitrifying  organisms  as  well  as 
the  crop.  Still  the  nitrate  production  is  very  far  behind  that  of  .several 
other  materials  which  have  been  considered.  Where  it  is  not  required  to 
nourish  the  organisms,  superphosphate  being  acid  will  probably  do  hann. 
This  particular  subject  has  been  investigated  by  Dr.  Fraps  in  America.* 
Working  with  ten  different  soils,  he  found  that  phosphatic  acid  decreased 
the  nitrate  supply  from  100  tO'  70  on  the  average  of  five  soils,  and  in- 
creased it  from  100  to  196  on  the  average  of  the  five  others. 

Ferric  Hydrate  (No.  10)  has  been  distinctly  favorable  to  nitrification, 
although  it  was  slow,  and  the  effect  was  chiefly  noticeable  at  the  later 
date.  Some  recent  inve.stigations  at  Rothamsted,  by  Ashby,  indicate  a 
similar  beneficial  effect  of  iron  rust  (ferric  hydrate)  on  nitrification,  f  The.se 
experiments  were  conducted  in  water  cultures,  and  it  is  Interesting  to  con- 
firm the  result  here  under  .soil  conditions.  Red  and  chocolate  soils  con- 
tain most  ferric  hydrate,  and  this  may  contribute  to  their  fertility. 

Comiuoii  Salt  had  a  bad,  eftect  all  round,  and  the  larger  application 
{\  per  cent.)  Avas  worse  than  the  smaller  (|  per  cent.).  Crops  fail  on 
salt  or  alkali  soils,  and  no  doubt  the  effect  is  produced  in  part  by  the 
influence  of  this  constituent  in  checking  nitrification. 

Citric  Acid  (Nos.  13  and  14)  hindered  nitrification  very  .seriously,  and 
the  heavier  application  had  a  bad  effect  on  the  nitrate  production  through- 
'Out.  It  is  noticeable  with  these  sour  soils  that  the  nitrate  production  in 
the  controls  was  reduced  in  an  exceptional  degree.  These  controls  received 
no  ammoniacal  manure.  Looking  to  the  bad  effect  of  acidity,  and  com- 
paring it  with  the  effect  of  mild  lime,  the  advantage  of  liming  sour  land 
and  neutralizing  its  acid  becomes  manifest. 

Starch  and.  Sugar  in  the  aerated  bottles  (Nos.  15  and  16)  did  not  help 
nitrification  at  the  first  (Table  III.),  but  they  destroyed  the  nitrates  already 
present — denitrification.  This  may  happen  at  times  after  ploughing  in 
green  or  fresh  stable  manure,  especially  on  stiff'  wet  soils.  At  the  close  of 
the  experiments,  the  soils"  showed  no  trace  of  either  starch  or  sugar  by 
chemical  tests.  These  had  apparently  rotted  away,  and  the  sugar  would 
rot  fastest.  If  that  were  so.  then  the  sugar  bottle  would  soonest  be  able 
to  re-start  nitrification,  and  at  the  close  indeed  it  contained  considerably 
more  than  the  other. 

The  sugar  bottle  kept  sealed  (No.  17)  never  showed  nitrates  anywhere, 
and  one  may  conclude  that  working  and  tillage  to  admit  air  will  stimulate 
-nitrification.  This  will  be  particularly  useful  when  green  or  stable 
manure  has  been  applied  .some  time  before. 

While  conducting  these  experiments,  an  interesting  point  arose  as  to 
the  probable  effect  of  dry  storage  of  .soil  upon  the  vigour  of  the  nitrifying 
-organisms  contained  in  it.      Four  bottles  were  set  up  with  a  special  soil, 

*   Bui.  Texas  Airic.  Exp.  St.  159  (1908),  pp.  15,  16. 
t  Joiii-.  Ajrlc.  Sci.,  Vol.  II.  (1907-8),  pp.  52  et.  seg. 


400 


Journal  of  AgriculiKrc,    \  ictona.  [lo   July,    191 2. 


which  had  been  air-dried,  and  stored  at  the  laboratory  for  three  months. 
Two  of  those  bottles  marked  A  were  put  away  dry  on  23rd  February, 
while  other  two  marked  B  were  wetted  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  saturation 
capacity,  and  put  away  on  the  same  day.  After  fifty  days  (13th  April), 
the  contents  of  both  A  bottles  were  also  wetted,  and  at  the  same  time  one 
of  A  and  one  of  B  received  o.i  gram  ammonia  nitrogen  as  sulphate.  The 
bottles  were  again  set  aside,  and  after  twenty-three  days  (6th  May),  the 
progress  of   nitrification   was  determined   with   the   following   results: —    * 

Table  V. 


Test 

Constituent  Added. 

Nitrate  Nitrogen  per  1,000,000  parts 
Dry  Soil. 

Percentage 
of  added 

Mark. 

Control 
Blanlis. 

Ammonia 
Bottles. 

Excess  with 
Ammonia. 

Ammonia 
Nitrified. 

A 
B 

Wetted    13th  April 

23rd  Februray      .  . 

33  50 
41 -.50 

90-75 
307  -  50 

57-25 
266- 00 

17-17 
79-80 

The  soil  was  a  poor  one,  and  there  v\as  little  difference  in  the  unmanured 
blanks.  Where  ammonia  was  given,  nitrification,  however,  went  on  much 
more  quickly  on  the  soil  previously  kept  wet,  showing  that  continued 
existence  in  a  dry  soil  impairs  the  vigour  of  the  germs,  but  that  under 
moister  conditions,  they  recover.  This  question  does  not  affect  the  influence 
of  added  substances,  where  the  same  soil  is  used  throughout.  What  it 
shows  is  that  after  a  long  dry  spell,  nitrifving  activity  will  not  im- 
mediately revive  with  the  rain  because  the  organisms  require  some  time 
to  recover  their  normal  vigour. 

Summary. 

1.  Mild  lime  is  an  effective  means  of  promoting  nitrification,  and  its 
action  begins  at  once. 

2.  It  is  a  safe  dessing  both  as  regards  quantity  and  time  of  applica- 
tion. 

3.  Caustic  lime  requires  greater  caution  in  its  use. 

4.  It  should  not  be  applied  too  near  the  time  of  seeding. 

5.  It  should  not  be  applied  during  the  growth  of   any  crop. 

6.  It  should  be  used  in  smaller  quantities  than  mild  lime. 

7.  It  will   probably  have  a  similar  action  to  mild  lime  eventually. 

8.  Magnesium  carbonate  in  a  limestone  may  or  may  not  damage  crops, 
hut  it  appears  to  favour  nitrification. 

9.  Red  and  brown  soils,  other  things  being  equal,  favour  nitrification, 
as  they  contain  a  slow-acting  liase  in  the  form  of  iron  rust. 

10.  Gypsum  is  a  slow  form  in  which  to  apply  lime. 
Superphosphate  may   prove   a   useful   aid   to   nitrification   on   some 


II 
soils. 
12 

13 

14 


Salt  delays  nitrification. 

Sour  soils   are  verv   unfavorable  to  nitrification. 

Ploughing  in  of  green  or  fresh  stable  manure  may  cause  a  tempo- 
rary shortage  of  nitrates,   particularly  on  damp  soil. 

15.  The  nitrifying  organisms  are  weakened  by  continued  drought,  and 
where  the  surface  soil  becomes  unduly  parched  in  a  drv  spell,  nitrification 
will  begin  slowly  after  rain  comes. 


lo   July,    191--]     " E.xanthcma"  of  Orange  Trees  i)i  Australia.  401 

ERUPTIVE  DISEASE,  OR  "EXANTHEMA"  OF  ORANGE 
TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA. 

By  C.  C.  Brittlehank,   Vegetable  Pathologisf  s  OifLce. 

From  time  to  time  specimens  of  diseased  oranges,  together  witli  their 
leaves  and  branches,  have  been  forwarded  to  the  office  of  the  Vegetable 
Pathologist,  with  a  request  that  a  determination  of  the  disease  be  made, 
and,  if  possible,  a  remedy  suggested.  When  on  a  recent  visit  to  the  capital 
of  a  sister  State,  a  request  was  made  by  several  fruit-growers  that 
T  should  visit  a  number  of  orange  groves  in  which  an  unknown  disease, 
had  appeared.  As  this  was  causing  .serious  trouble  to  the  growers,  so  much 
.so  that  they  intended  to  grub  out  their  trees  if  relief  could  not  be  obtained. 
During  this  in'ierview  I  was  informed  that  they  could  not  obtain  anv  in- 
formation as  to  the  cause  or  control  cf  the  disease.  A  visit  was  paid  to 
the  district  and  an  examination  of  the  (lisea.sed  trees  made.  This,  together 
with  the  knowledge  gained  from  specimens  forwarded  to  Melbourne,  soon 
convinced  me  that  the  trouble  was  physiological,  and  not  due  to  anv  special 
fungi. 

Description  of  the  Disease. 

A  most  striking  feature  of  this  disease  is  the  general  healthy  appear- 
ance of  the  trees,  the  leaves  of  which  are  of  a  beautiful  dark-green,  and 
frequently  nearly  twice  the  normal  si/e.  This  apparent  symptom  of  health 
is  followed  by  a  yellowing  of  the  young  tender  shoots,  from  which  the 
leaves  fall.  Soon  after,  or  concurrent  with  the  fall  of  the  leaves,  the  shoots 
turn  reddish-brown,  owing  to  the  middle  layers  of  the  bark  becoming  en- 
gorged with  a  resin-like  substance.  Twigs  affected  as  described  die  back 
for  a  length  of  from  6  to  12  inches.  Numerous  bushy  twigs  arise  from 
the  smaller  branches,  these  however  .••oon  die  away.  gi\ing  the  characteristic 
appearance  to  diseased  trees.  When  a  number  of  affected  shoots  are  borne 
on  a  larger  branch  the  bark  of  the  latter  is  often  blistered,  split,  and 
ruptured  to  such  an  extent  that  the  injured  portions  become  almost  con- 
fluent. (Plate  I.,  Fig.  i.)  From  the.se  injuries  a  hard  rusty-coloured  resin- 
bke  gum  exudes;  this  granulates  on  the  edges  of  the  injuries  and  does  not 
run  or  collect  in  tears,  as  in  some  other  citrus  diseases.     (Plate  I.,  Fig.  n.) 

An  examination  nf  the  bark  shows  that  the  actual  ruptures  do  not  extend 
into  the  cambium  or  sapwood,  but  generally  only  affect  the  middle  laver 
of  the  bark  outwards.  Howe\er,  beneath  the  ruptures  numerous  minute 
gum  pockets  are  formed  in  the  sapwood  directlv  beneath  the  ruptures 
These  appear  as  clear  glass-like  specks,  if  a  shaving  be  removed  and  held 
against  the  light.  (Plate  II..  Fig.  IV.)  Sometimes  even  before  the  tree 
shows  any  sign  of  disease  in  leaf  or  shoot,  it  can  be  detected  by  the  pale 
unhealthy  colour  of  the  fruit,  which  often  falls  before  becoming  mature. 
Oranges  borne  on  affected  branches  are  frequently  stained  by  the  reddish- 
brown  exudation  which  hardens  the  skin,  causing  them  to  split  or  crack. 
(Plate  II..  Fig.  II Ia.)  In  some  instances  the  diseased  fruit  becomes  quite 
hard,  and  in  others  it  falls  early.  Eveai  those  which  remain  ripen  pre- 
maturelv,  and  are  of  a  pale-greenish -lemon  yellow,  and  quite  insipid  to 
taste,  as  are  also  the  green  immature  oranges. 

Nature  of  Soil  in  Affected  Areas. 
As   nearly    all    soils  ar-   determined    by   the  nature  of   the   underlying 
jreological  formation,  and  as  the  main  mass  is  composed  almost  entirely  of 


402 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [lo  July,    191 2. 


I.  Orange  branch  showing  ruptured  bark. 

II.  Confluent  blisters  on  small  twig. 


io   July,    1912.]     '•  ExaiitJiema'  of  Orange  Trees  in  Australia.  403 


FJflY.. 


III.  Oranges    showing  (a)   splitting,   (b)   woodiness. 

IV.  Transverse  section  of  twig  gum  pockets  at  (c),   normal  tissue  at  (d). 


404  Journal  of  Agriculture,   \ktoria.  [10  July,    1912. 

siliceous  sandstone,  this  is  broken  down  and  is  tlien  washed  from  the  higher 
levels  a.nd  deposited  on  the  lower  slopes  at  the  f(X>t  of  the  hills.  From 
the  nature  of  its  source  and  depositioir  ii:  is,  as  would  be  expected,  of  a 
light  porous  nature.  As  this  soil  was  being  formed,  more  or  less  vegetable 
matter  was  brought  down  adid  mixed  through  it,  but  this  would  be,  com- 
paratively speaking,  quickly  removed,  more  especially  if  the  surface  soil 
be  kept  free  from  plant  growth. 

Several  of  the  orange  groxes  are  on  this  type  of  soil,  some  of  these  were 
planted  many  years  ago,  and  as  a  consequence  they  have  withdrawn  a  large 
qua^ntity  of  the  available  plant  food  within  their  reach. 

Even  in  the  area  of  a  single  plantation  the  deficiencies  of  plant  food  in 
the  soil  \ary  to  a  considerable  extent,  affecting  both  the  growth  and  yield 
of  the  trees.  Generally  speaking  this  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  fertile 
sources  of  trouble  as  the  weakened  vitality  and  starved  condition  of  the 
trees  lay  them  open  to  attack  from  various  citrus  diseases.  So  far  as  I 
could  ascertaija  no  manure,  with  the  exception  of  bone-dust,  had  been  used 
in  the  affected  area.  That  this  disease  is  more  prevalent  in  those  areas 
which  are  of  a  dry  porous  nature  and  in  which  there  is  a  lack  of  organic 
matter  is  easily  seen.  Trees  growing  in  a  more  retentive  soil  are  in  this 
case  not  affected  with  "  Exanthema,"  although  they  may  be,  and  often 
are,  attacked  by  collar-rot  and  other  diseases.  All  the  evidence  collected 
in  the  field  points  to  the  lack  of  organic  miatter  a'nd  an  open  porous  sandy 
soil  bei'io-  the  chief  factors  in  causing  this  trouble. 

Methods   Suggested  for  the  Control  of  the  Disease. 

Such  being  the  case  methods  must  be  adopted  which  will  render  the 
soil  more  retentive  of  moisture  and  at  the  same  time  supply  food  for  the 
trees.  Ploughing  in  green  crops  of  oats,  barley,  rye,  or  wheat,  which  have 
been  previously  manured  with  superphosphates  would  be  the  easiest  and 
best  method  to  adopt.  Nitrogenous  manures  should  be  used  sparingly,  if 
at  all,  on  the  diseased  areas,  as  they  appear  to  have  a  deleterious  effect 
upon  the  trees.  Discretion  must  be  left  to  the  growers  as  to  the  best  method 
of  cultivation  and  crop  suited  to  the  district. 

Care  shoulrl  also  be  taken  that  no  bud  wood  be  taken  from  trees  which 
havi_  i)een  affected,  as  they  might  possibly  l:)e  more  susceptible  if  placed 
under  fa\orable  conditions  for  the  development  of  the  trouble. 

The  conditions  favouring  the  development  of  the  disease  are — i.  Porous 
light  deep,  coarse  or  sandy  soil,  lacking  organic  matter,  and  which  quickly 
dries  out  after  rain.  1.  Continued  drought  followed  by  heavy  rain.  3. 
Large  amounts  of  nitrogenous  manures. 


THE   OLIVE. 

Z.    MacdoiialiL    Horticulturist,    Doohic    Agricultural    College. 
(Continued  from  page  217.) 

Pests. 

The  Olive  in  the  older  European  countries  is  subject  to  the  attack  of 
a  number  of  enemies;  fortunately,  however,  it  is  endowed  with  a  constitu- 
tion specially  fitted  for  the  resistance  of  such  attacks,  otherwise  it  would 
not  to-day   be   in   its   proud   position   in   the   forefront   of  economic  trees. 


lo  July,    191 2.]  TJie  Olive. 


405 


]'robably  the  worst  pest  in  the  countries  referred  to  is  the  Olive  Fly 
{Dacus  oleae).  This  insert  attacks  the  matured  and  partially  matured 
fruit.  In  some  years  it  works  enormous  damage.  The  Olives  in  Aus- 
tralia appear,  so  far,  to  be  free  from  its  attack ;  yet  it  is  possible,  nay 
[probable,  that  in  the  warmer  districts  one  or  the  other  of  the  fruit  flies 
will  take  its  place.  Plantation  owners  and  prospective  growers  must  look 
with  serious  concern  at  the  possibilitv  of  the  introduction  of  this  fly.  For 
when  once  established  under  genial  conditions,  it  is  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult to  suppress. 

A  closely  related  species,  "  The  (Queensland  Fruit  Fly  ''  {Dacus 
{Tephritis)  Tryoni  Frogg),  is  one  of  the  most  formidable  pests  with  which 
the  fruitgrower  in  the  Northern  States  has  to  contend.  Any  insect  such 
as  this  little  fly,  that  directs  its  attack  towards  the  matured  or  nearly 
matured  fruit,  is  usually  most  difficult  to  suppress.  Its  presence  is 
usually  not  suspected  until  it  is  so  well  established  that  it  is  difficult  to 
cope  with.  Although  the  presence  of  the  "  The  Queensland  Fruit  Fly  " 
{Dacus  {Tephritis)  Tryoni  Frogg.),  "  The  Mediterranean  Fruit  Fly  " 
{Halterophora  {Ceratitis)  capitata^  Wied.),  and  "  The  Guava  Fruit  Fly'" 
{Tephritis  psidii)  may  cause  serious  forebodings  in  the  Northern  States 
they  are  not  be  feared  so  much  in  Victoria.  Our  climatic  conditions  do 
not  appear  to  be  entirely  suited  to  their  development.  Doubtless  many 
of  the  larve  were  imported  into  Victoria  in  oranges  and  Ijananas  before 
the  present  system  of  inspection  was  instituted,  but  they  do  not  appear 
to  have  survived  and  multiplied.  Although  the  Mediterranean  Fruit  Fly 
has  been  found  in  several  places  in  the  Goulburn  Vulle\  during  the  last 
five  or  six  years,  it  seems  to  have  had  a  somewhat  precarious  existence 
and  to  have  done  comparatively  little  damage.  It  would  seem  that  it  is 
only  in  those  years  when  the  summer  and  autumn  are  especially  dry  that 
its  attack  is  to  be  feared.  As  a  rule,  the  zone  of  its  activity  does  not 
reach  so  far  south.  The  vigilance  of  growers  should  not,  however,  be 
relaxed  on  that  account,  as  it  is  possible  that  it  may  in  time  become 
acclimatised. 

The  three  worst  pests  attacking  the  01i\e  in  Australia  at  the 
presenlt  time  are,  "  The  Curculio  Beetle."  "  The  Olive  Scale,"  and 
"  The  Red  Scale."  This  being  so,  the  prospective  planter  has  not  very 
serious  cause  for  alarm.  Providing  he  takes  care  in  obtaining  trees  or 
cuttings  that  are  free  from  any  of  these  pests,  he  is  not  likely  to  have  any 
trouble  for  years,  unless  he  is  adjoining  an  infected  area.  It  may  be 
mentioned  here,  that  it  is  the  writer's  intention  to  deal  chiefly  with  tho.sc 
diseases  that  are  at  present  infesting  the  Olive  groves  in  Australia,  on'y 
slight  reference  being  made  to  those  pests  that  have  not,  so  far,  gained  a 
foothold  here.  These  will  be  dealt  with  separately,  as  they  represent 
different  classes  of  pests  and  call  for  different  methods  of  treatment. 

The  Curculio  Beetle  {Ofiorhynchus  crihricollis)  : — This  pest  is 
undoubtedly  becoming  one  of  the  most  serious  of  those  attacking  the  Olive 
in  this  country.  Of  late  years  it  has  been  doing  a  considerable  amount  of 
damage  in  the  olive  plantations,  nurseries,  and  gardens  of  South  Australia. 
The  writer  has  not  so  far  met  with  it  in  the  olive  groves  of  this  State, 
although  it  is  possible  that  it  may  be  present  in  some  places.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  every  precaution  will  be  used  against  its  introduction,  and  if 
it  gains  admittance,  towards  its  suppression,  beca'.se  it  appears  to  be 
almost  omnivorous,  and  when  once  established  is  most  difficult  to  sup- 
press. When  one  food  is  not  present  it  appears  to  turn  its  attention 
with  equal   zest  to  another,   attacking  practically   all  kinds  of   fruit  trees 


4o6 


Journal  of  Agricidtiire ,  Victoria.         [lo  July,    191 2. 


to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  as  well  as  a  number  of  garden  plants.  It 
is,  however,  probable  that  on  the  whole  the  trees  that  suffer  most  from 
its  attack  at  the  present  time  are  Olives,  Almonds,  and  Figs. 

Owing  to  its  shyness  and  nocturnal  habits  this  insect  is  particularly 
hard  to  cope  with.  In  many  places  its  ravages  were  observed  long  before 
the  real  cause  of  the  trouble  was  discovered.  Growers,  being  at  a  loss 
to  understand  the  cause  of  the  damage  done  to  their  trees,  attributed  the 
mischief,  in  some  cases,  to  innocent,  inoffensive  insects  that  happened  to 
■be  present  at  the  time.  The  gnawed  and  ragged  edges  of  the  leaves, 
noticeable  where  it  has  attacked,  are  unfailing  indications  of  the  presence 
'of  a  chewing  or  mandibulate  pest.  Nevertheless,  its  extreme  shyness 
in  hastily  dropping  to  the  ground,  its  precipitate  efforts  at  concealment, 
and  its  cunning  instinct  in  feigning  death  in  the  presence  of  danger,  have 
often  robbed  the  grower  of  any  suspicion  that  he  may  have  had  regarding 


FIG.     19.    TERMINALS    OF    OLIVE    SHOOTS    ATTACKED    BY       CURCULIO       BEETLE 


its  destructive  work,  and  he  has  allowed  it  \o  go  unharmed.  This  power 
of  simulating  death,  the  natural  colour  of  the  adult  insect,  and  its  tend- 
ency to  seek  a  hiding  place  in  the  darkened  interstices  of  the  soil  or  among 
decaying  vegetable  matter  similar  in  colour  to  itself,  have  often  aided  it 
in  escaping  detection. 

"  The  Curculio'  Beetle"  belongs  to  the  great  family  {curculionida)  or 
weevils,  which  comprises  some  of  the  worst  pests  with  which  the  horticul- 
turist has  to  contend,  such  as  the  apple  root  borer  {Le flops  hofei) ;  the 
plum  curculio  (conotrachelus  nemipJiar),  etc.  With  seed  of  various 
kinds,  and  trees  and  plants,  both  indigenous  and  exotic,  the  members  of 
this  family  have  done  incalculable  damage,  and  are  likely  to  continue 
their  destructive  work  for  some  time  to  come  owing  to  the  many  difficulties 
in  the   way   of   their   suppression. 

The  adult  insect  usually  measures  about  5-1 6th  of  an  inch  in  length. 
That  is  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  posterior  end  of  the  wing  cases. 


TO  July,   191  2.]  The  Olive 407 

and  about  an  inch  across  the  back  or  dorsal  surface  of  the  wing  cases. 
The  beetles  are  of  a  reddish-black  or  brownish-black  colour,  varying  to 
almost  solid  black  in  some  of  the  older  insects.  They  usually  appear 
about  November  and  continue  their  ra\-ages  through  the  summer  months, 
disappearing   again  about   March. 

As  far  as  the  writer  can  ascertain,  it  appears  that  little  information 
is  available  regarding  the  life  history  of  this  particular  pest  under  our 
conditions.  In  all  probability  its  life  history  is  similar  in  many  respects 
to  that  of  some  other  members  of  the  same  family  with  which  we  are  more 
familiar.  That  is,  the  eggs  are  laid  close  to  the  surface  in  sheltered 
parts  of  the  soil,  chiefly  around  the  base  of  those  trees  or  plants  that 
provide  the  food  of  the  mature  insect.  The  larvae  hatch  out  and  live 
on  adjacent  roots,  pupating  in  early  spring,  after  which  the  beetles  soon 
make  their  appearance.  In  some  cases  the  adult  insects  have  beeri  found 
hibernating  in  crevices  around  trees  or  other  hiding  places  during  winter. 

Owing  to  the  meagreness  of  the  information 
regarding  the  habits  of  this  insect,  there  is  not 
sufficient  evidence  to  show  whether  the  larvae  live 
on  the  roots  of  the  plants  attacked  by  the  beetle. 
or  on  decaying  vegetable  matter,  or  on  the  roots  of 
weeds  and'  grasses.  This  lack  of  definite  know- 
ledge regarding  the  habits  of  this  pest  is  a  disad- 
vantage in  undertaking  any  means  of  combating 
its  destructive  work.  It  appears  to  be  fairly  certain 
though,   from  the  habits  of  the  aduft  insects,   that 

a  portion  of  its  life  has  been  a  subterranean  one.      ^____^ 

The  nocturnal  habits,  the  strong  aversion  to  bright    ^^^  ,q   ^^^  curculio 
daylight,  and  the  instinct  in  seeking  a  hiding  place     beetle  (magniiicd). 
in  the  soil,  seem  to  point  that  way. 

This  insect  cannot  fly.  In  consequence  its  distribution  has  been 
somewhat  restricted.  In  some  of  the  Olive  groves  where  it  is  present  its 
attack  is  confined  to  limited  patches,  but  there  is  always  a  tendency  to 
spread,  even  if  slowlv.  •        ,  ,        u 

In  Fig.  19  is  depicted  a  few  terminals  of  twigs  picked  by  the  writer 
at  random,  in  one  of  the  largest  South  Australian  plantations._  They 
give  a  fair  idea  of  the  u^ual  nature  of  this  insect's  attack  on  olive  trees. 
The  beetles  crawl  up  the  trees  when  darkness  arrives  and,  reaching  the 
terminals  of  the  branches,  usually  cling  from  the  underside  or  edge  of  the 
leaves  and  eat  into  them  from  the  margin,  giving  them  a  jagged,  irregular 
appearance  somewhat  similar  to  that  due  to  the  attack  of  the  leaf  cutting 
bee  The  attack  depicted  on  the  above  plate  is  not  a  very  bad  one.  In 
extreme  cases  all  the  green  fleshv  cellular  tissue  of  the  leaves  is  consumed 
and  nothing  but  the  stalk  and  ribs  are  left.  The  remnant  of  the  leaves 
left  in  such  cases  on  such  trees  as  figs  presents  an  appearance  somewhat 
like  those  of  melons  that  have  been  badly  attacked  by  the  black  banded 
pumpkin  beetle.  r     u     1    u-^ 

Treatme7it:—i:\xh  should  be  based  on  what  we  know  of  the  habits 
of  the  insect  and  .should  be  carried  out  in  the  most  economical  and  eftective 
way  possible.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  beetles  do  their  work 
at  night,  that  they  are  chewing  insects,  that  they  cannot  fly,  and  that 
they  take  shelter  during  the  day  under  any  cover  adjacent  to  their  host. 
The  fact  that  they  are  nocturnal  feeders  present  some  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  treatment.  It  .seems  like  hitting  in  the  dark  trying  to  combat  a 
jest   that   makes   its   attack   at   night.        This    disadvantage   is,    however, 


4o8  Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Ticioria.  [lo   July,    191^. 

counterbalanced  by  the  inability  of  the  insects  to  make  their  escape  in 
flight  and  by  their  natural  inclination  to  find  a  refuge  during  the  day 
somewhere  close  to  the  trees. 

Since  they  are  unable  to  fly  they  must  find  their  wav  on  foot  to  the 
trunk  of  the  trees  and  climb  up  to  get  at  their  food  supplies.  The  return 
journey  is  made  before  the  next  day.  Hence  the  use  of  a  bandage 
around  the  trunk  of  each  tree  is  a  means  of  diminishing  the  pest.  Crino- 
line bands  of  plate  tin  in  conjunction  with  bagging  will  be  found  useful 
in  this  respect.  The  tin  bands  are  cut  about  3  to  4  inches  in  width  and 
sufficiently  long  to  go  around  the  trees  and  provide  for  a  little  lap.  In 
putting  on  such  bands  the  uppermost  erlge  is  fitted  as  close  as  possible 
to  the  bark  all  around  the  trunk,  thus  pre\enting  any  beetle  from  squeez- 
ing between  it  and  the  bark  in  going  up.  The  lower  edge  is  spread  out 
at  some  distance  from  the  main  stem.  If  the  bandages  are  put  on  cor- 
rectly and  are  of  the  right  class  of  material,  the  beetles  will  fail  to 
negotiate  them  during  the  night,  and  numbers  will  be  found  in  the  early 
morning  underneath  the  bands.  These  should  be  collected  and  destroyed. 
Bandages  of  bagging  may  also  be  used  lower  down  than  the  tin  bands  as 
a  trap.  Tanglefoot  papers,  strips  of  cloth  or  paper  smeared  with  a 
strong  adhesive  will  often  serve  well,  although  it  should  be  remembered 
that  all  forms  of  adhesive  bandages  should  be  carefully  tended  and 
frequently  renewed  as  they  are  somewhat  troublesome  to  keep  in  a  proper 
state   of   efficiency. 

Frequent  cultivation  close  to  the  trees  will  also  kill  out  numbers  of 
the  pest,  especially  when  in  the  larvae  or  pupa  stages.  Many  of  the 
adult  insects  will  also  be  injured  and  dislodged  in  this  way. 

In  conjunction  with  bandaging  of  the  trunks  and  frequent  cultivation, 
spraying  with  arsenical  compounds  should  be  carried  out.  This  latter 
operation  is  probably  the  most  effective  and  economic  way  of  dealing  with 
this  class  of  pest,  and  I  would  recommend  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead  for 
the  pur[oose.  This  may  be  obtained  in  prepared  form,  there  being  quite 
a  number  of  good  brands  on  the  market.  In  everv  case,  however,  the 
spray  should  be  applied  at  high  pressure  and  through  a  fine  nozzle ;  care 
being  taken  to  strike  e\-erv  part  of  the  foliage.  It  is  also  ad\'amageous 
to  use  strong  solutions. 

If  the  grower  is  making  up  his  own  materials  they  should  be  pre- 
pared in  the  following  quantities  :  — 

12  ozs.  acetate  of  lead,  5  ozs.  arsenate  of  .soda,  50  gallons  of  water. 
Prepare  in   the   following   way: — Dis.solve  the   12   ozs.    of   acetate 
of  lead  in  2  quarts  of  water  and  the  5  ozs.   of  arsenate  of 
soda    in    3    pints   of    water    in    .separate   vessels,    wooden    or 
earthenware,    for    preference.  Then    pour    the    separate 

solutions  into  50  gallons  of  water. 

This  formula  may  ])e  increased  in  strength  up  to  double  quantities. 
I.e.,  24  by  10  by  50  and  used  without  fear  of  scorching  the  foliage.  In 
cases  where  the  pest  is  verv  bad  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  strong  solution. 

{To  be  continued .) 


One  inch  of  rain  over  i  acre  equals  loi  tons  of  water.       Therefore,  the 
weight  of  T  point  of  rain  to  the  acre  is  approximately  i  ton. 


At  Rothamsted  a  soil  growing  barley  lost  9  inches  more  water  from  the 
top  54  inches  than  a  corresponding  bare  fallow. 


10   Jl'LV.    191-'-]  General  Notes.  409 

GEXERAL   NOTES. 

EXPORT  OF  GRAPES  FROM  SPAIN— 

The  official  bulletin  of  the  Algerian  (jovernment.  in  its  issue  of  ist 
February  last,  gives  the  following  information  concerning  the  exportation 
of  fresh  grapes  from  Almeria  (Spain)  during  191 1: — 2,450,593  barrels 
in  all  were  shipped,  or  422,625  more  than  in   1910. 

The  (juality  of  the  fruit  was  superior,  but  growers  appear  to  have  been 
ui^able  to  regulate  supply  and  demand,  so  that  excessive  'juantities  were 
shipped  to  certain  markets  with  the  usual  disastrous  results.  Prices  were  as 
follows  :  — 

In  England         .  .  .  .      88.  to  lO.'^.  per  barrel  (40  lbs.  nett). 

(Special  lots  up  to  22s.  per  barrel.) 
In  .America         . .  . .      $3  to  $4  (12s.  to  16s.) 

In  Germany       ..  ..     floOM  to  lOoOM.  (9s.  (kl.  to  10s.  Od.) 

The  shipments  were  as  follows  : — 

United  Kingdom —  barrels.         Ijarrels 

Liverpool  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  537,710 

London  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  358,158 

Glasgow  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  125,379 

Hull,  Newcastle    Bristol,  Cardiff,  and  Manchester  . .  159,504 


United  Strifes — 

New  York  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..        808,717 

Philadelphia  and  Co-^ton    ..  ..  ..  ..  11,837 


1,180,757 


820.554 


(Jermani/ — 

Hamburs               . .              •  •              •  •              •  •  •  •  3<)4,665 

Bremen^                ..              ..              ..              ..  ..  23,288 

Other  Ports          ..              ..              ..              ..  ,..  01.329        449.282 

Total                       ..              ..              ..              ..  ..  ..     2.450,593 

In  addition  to  the  above,  17.948  half-barrels  were  exported  to  different 
ports. 

Rice  husks  were  experimented  with  as  a  substitute  for  granulated  cork 
by  some  shippers,  but  the  results  were  disastrous. 


CATTLE  BREEDING  AND  DAIRY  RECORDS— 

It  is  absolutelv  impossible  for  a  cow,  which  is  yielding  large  quantities 
of  solid  matter  in  her  milk  up  to  wdthin  the  or  six  weeks  of  calving,  to 
do  full  justice  to  the  reproduction  of  her  own  species,  and  thus  it  is  that 
so  manv  bulls  obtained  from  high-vielding  cows  are  a  failure  at  the  stud. 
The  practice  on  the  Government  Stud  Farm  has  been  to  subordinate  milk 
yields  to  the  production  of  the  species  in  a  high  order.  In  other  words, 
once  a  cow  has  shown  herself  to  be  first-class  there  is  no  effort  to  continue 
to  obtain  from  her  a  large  quantitv  of  milk  and  butter  per  year.  Agriciil- 
tiiral  Gazette.  New  South  Wales. 


Ripe  seeds  contain  about  12,  felled  timber  40,  grass  75.  potatoes  75,  and 
turnips  90  per  cent,  of  water.  There  is  3  per  cent,  more  water  in  turnips 
than  in  milk.  

Animals  give  out  carbonic  acid  when  they  breathe,  and  plants  form  the 
greater  part  of  their  substance  from  this  gas.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
an  acre  of  fore.st  producing  2  tons  of  dry  matter  annually  will  consume 
the  carbonic  acid  produced  bv  12  men. 


4IO  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo  July,    1912^ 

A   LAND  OF   SMALL   HOLDIKGS— 

Japan  is  a  country  of  which  the  agricultural  system  consists  chiefly  of 
small  holdings.  As  many  as  55  per  cent,  of  those  who  make  a  living  out 
of  the  soil  cultivate  less  than  2  acres  each,  30  per  cent,  less  than  3  acres, 
and  15  per  cent.  4  acres  or  more.  Few  of  the  small  farmers  own  horses  or 
other  traction  animals,  and  their  implements  are  of  a  very  primitive 
description,  but  as  large  quantities  of  manure  are  used,  and  the  soil  is 
cultivated  to  a  good  depth  and  frequently,  the  yield  obtained  is  very- 
abundant.  Usually  two  or  three  crops  are  taken  off  in  the  course  of  twelve 
months.  Rice  is  the  principal  crop,  and  occupies  about  two'-fifths  of  the 
arable  land  of  the  country,  although  the  mulberry  and  tea  are  also  largely 
grown.  Most  of  the  farmers  have  some  subsidiary  occupation,  such  as 
breeding  silkworms  and  weaving  silk.  They  are  a  hardy,  contented 
people,  and  do  well  except  in  times  of  severe  drought,  which  in  some  seasons 
causes  great  suffering. — Mark  Lane  Express. 


EFFECT  OF   DROUGHT  ON  THE  QUALITY  OF   STRAW— 

In  Europe  cereal  straw,  especially  oat  straw,  forms  a  considerable 
and  useful  part  of  the  winter  rations  for  cattle.  Last  year  owing  to  a 
remarkably  dry  summ.er  the  straw  in  many  districts  took  on  a  peculiar- 
violet  tinge,  and  farmers  were  anxious  to  know  whether  it  could  be  fed 
to  animals  without  danger.  The  matter  was  investigated  by  Professoi 
Menard,  who  has  communicated  his  views  to  the  Journal  d^ Agriculture 
Pratique.  He  says  that  the  discoloration  of  the  stalks  is  due  to  gro\vth 
having  been  suddenly  checked  by  drought,  and  that  the  organic  matter 
formed  in  the  foliage,  instead  of  passing  as  usual  into  the  heads  to  fill  the 
grain,  has  remained  in  some  measure  in  the  stalks.  From  this  it  appears 
that  not  only  is  the  straw  safe,  but  that  it  is  of  better  quality  than  the 
straw  of  normal  seasons.  Analyses  showed  that  the  albuminoids,  which 
normally  formed  about  3  per  cent,  of  the  straw,  were  nearly  doubled 
(5.8  per  cent.)  by  the  dry  weather.  This  finding  arouses  speculation  as  to 
the  possible  value  of  Victorian  straws  compared  to  those  of  wetter 
countries  where  threshed  straw  forms  a  staple  article  of  fodder.  The 
matter  is  worthy  of  investigation,  and  has  possibilities  of  application  in  a 
greater  use  of  mixed  rations  and  the  sacrifice  of  a  smaller  part  of  the 
cereal  area  for  hay  purposes  than  is  at  present  the  fashion. 


EARLY  FALLOWING— 

Speaking  at  the  Annual  Conference  of  the  Northern  Branches  of  the 
Agricultural  Bureau  of  South  Australia,  the  Director  of  Agriculture  (Pro- 
fessor Lowrie)  gave  good  advice,  which  is  equally  applicable  to  the  drier 
districts  of  this  State: — "A  subject  round  which  tliere  had  been  con- 
siderable controversy  was  the  time  of  the  year  at  which  to  begin  working 
the  fallow.  If  year  after  year  farmers  would  note  the  returns  per  acre 
from  the  land  that  they  fallowed  in  June,  and  compared  the  results 
with  those  from  land  which  they  fallowed  in  late  August  or  September, 
it  would  very  nearly  convince  them  that  it  would  pay  to  procure  an  extra 
team  in  order  to'get  the  fallowing  done  in  good  time.  It  was  also  neces- 
sary for  the  benefit  of  the  next  year's  crop  to  get  on  to  the  fallow  as  early 
as  possible,  and  so  gather  the  moisture  and  get  it  down  into  the  land." 


lo  July,    1912.]  Bcc  Moths.  411 

BEE   MOTHS. 

By  C.  French,  Junior ,  Acting  Government  Entomologist,  and 
F.   R.   BeuJine,  Bee  Expert. 

Bee  or  Wax  Moths  are  undoul>tedly  one  of  the  worst  pests  beekeepers 
Jiave  to  contend  with  in  Victoria.  There  are  two  species,  the  "  Larger 
Bee  Moth  "  {G alter ia  niellonella)  and  the  "  Lesser  Bee  Moth  "  {AcJirceca 
griselld) ;  both  species  are  frequently  found  in  the  same  apiary  ;  and  these 
pests  are  present  in  most  parts  of  the  world  where  bee-keeping  is  carried 
on.  The  larvae  of  both  moths  are  great  enemies  to  bees,  and  may  become 
very  destructive.  They  perforate  the  comb  with  burrows,  thereby  destroy- 
ing the  cells,  and  often  cover  it  with  a  network  of  silken  threads.  The 
destruction  of  the  cells,  and  the  impediments  caused  by  the  silken  network, 
partly  smother  the  larvae,  and,  as  the  adult  bees  are  greatly  hampered 
by  the  threads  in  feeding  them,  the  larvae  are  liable  to  be  starved. 

The  "  Larger  Bee  Moth,"  which  measures  about  i  inch  in  length,  is  of 
a  dark  brown  colour,  and  the  under  wings  are  a  light  grey  on  the  margin, 
with  a  lighter  colour  towards  the  centre.  When  young,  the  caterpillars  are 
yellowish  in  colour,   and   when  fully  grown,   are  a   dull  greyish  colour. 

The  "  Lesser  Bee  Moth  "  is  a  uniform  coloured  drab-grey  moth,  with 
a  yellow  head.  The  larvae  are  whitish,  with  a  brown  head.  They  are 
usually  found  in  Spring,  on  the  floor  of  hives,  amongst  the  waste  wax, 
which  consists  chiefly  of  the  caps  of  the  honey  cells,  emptied  by  the  bees 
during  the  Winter.  The  floor  of  the  hive  should,  therefore,  be  scraped 
clean  at  the  first  examination  of  hives  in  Spring,  and  the  debris  removed 
and  burnt.  When  quilts  or  mats  are  used  over  the  frames  the  larvae  and 
cocoons  of  the  lesser  wax  moths  are  often  found  between  the  top  bars  and 
the  quilt. 

In  Victoria  there  are  least  four  broods  in  a  season  ;  the  first,  appearing 
in  early  Spring  from  caterpillars  that  have  passed  the  Winter  in  a  semi- 
dormant  condition,  is  not  so  destructive  as  the  others  appearing  later,  be- 
cause the  larvae,  being  smaller,  eat  less  than  those  of  the  larger  sort,  and 
also  because  they  do  not  spin  quite  so  profusely.  Italian  or  Ligurian  bees 
are  not  attacked  to  any  extent. 

Prevention  and  Remedies. 

A  good  hive,  filled  with  a  strong  colony  of  Italian  bees,  is  the  besi: 
preventative  against  these  pests.  Cleanliness  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
and  to  obtain  this  use  frame  hives.  All  moths,  cocoons,  and  larvae  should 
l)e  destroyed  when  found.  All  hives  should  be  made  of  timber  sufficiently 
thick  to  prevent  splitting  or  warping,  and  the  boxes  should  fit  closely  to 
the  bottom  board.  If  the  timber  is  cracked  it  will  enable  the  moths  to 
-enter,  and  deposit  their  eggs  near  the  honeycomb. 

Empty,  or  partly  filled,  combs,  removed  from  the  hives  at  the  end  of 
the  season,  should  be  at  once  put  beyond  the  reach  of  the  wax  moth.  If 
left  standing  about,  even  for  a  few  hours,  the  odour  of  the  combs  attracts 
■the  female  moths,  who  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  combs.  The  eggs  hatch 
in  the  following  Spring  to  the  surprise  of  the  beekeeper,  who  carefully 
secured  his  combs  against  moths,  and  probably  only  left  them  about  for 
-a  little  time.  The  cocoons  are  attacked  by  a  small  spec'es  of  parasitic 
■wasp  which  helps  to  keep  them  in  check. 


412  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo  July,    1912. 


t. 


>o 


^'sIX- 


C  C/\aJ-H,J^m 


C,  ?^r-e:>7  r  A  T.Z7x>  -?xX^-. 


BEE  HOTHS. 


lo   July,    191^-]  Bn-kccpiiig  ui   Victoria.  413 

It  is  assumed  1j\  manv  bee-keepers  that  wax  moths  do  some  good  by 
destroying  the  combs  of  bees  in  trees  or  neglected  hives  which  had  suc- 
cumbed to  foul  brood.  Experiments  made  by  Dr.  E.  F.  Phillips,  of  the 
United  States  of  America  Department  of  Agriculture  have  proved,  how- 
ever, that  the  spores  of  foul  brood  still  remain  callable  of  producing  disease 
after  the  combs  have  been  totally  destroyed  by  wax  moths,  and  the  only 
point  in  fa\'our  of  these  moths  from  the  bee-keeper's  point  of  view  is  there" 
fore  disproved. 

KXPLANATION    OF    Pl.ATl.. 

Bee  Moths. 

"  The  Larger  Bee  Moth."     (Galleria  inellonella,  Linn.) 
"  The   Lesser   Bee    Moth."      [Achraca  grisella.   Fab.) 

Fig.  I.  Honeycomb    showing   appearance    when    attacked.      Natural    size. 

From   Nature 

Fig.  II.  Cocoons   of   GaUeria   melloncUa.      Natural   size.      From   Nature 

Fig.  III.  Perfect    Insect.      Male.      Magnified.      From  Nature. 

Fig.  IV.  Perfect  Insect.      Female.      Natural   size.      From   Nature. 

Fig.  V.  Larvae    of    GaUeria    mellonella.      Natural    size.      From     Nature. 

Fig.  VI.  Pupa  of  GaUeria  meUoneUa.     Enlarged.     From  Nature. 

Fig.  VII.  Perfect  Insect  of  Achrceca  griseUa.   Natural   size.    From   Nature. 

Fig.  VII. .4.  Perfect   Insect   of   Achrceca  griseUa.     Magnified.      From  Nature. 

Fig.  VIII.  Pupa  of  GaUeria  meUoneUa.     Natural  size.     From  Nature. 

Fig.  IX.  Cocoons  of   GaUeria   meUcneUa.      Natural    size.      From    Nature. 


BEE-KEEPL\G  IN  VICTORIA. 

F .  R.   Beuline,  Bee  Expert. 

{Continued  from  page   356.) 

PART  VI.     WATER   FOR  BEES. 


Few  bt^ekeepers  are  aware  what  amount  of  water  is  required  by  a 
colony  of  bees  during  the  summer  months,  and  how  important  it  is  that  a 
i:)ermanent  supply  should  be  a\'ailable  within  a  reasonablv  short  distance 
of  an  apiary.  As  a  general  rule,  bees  are  left  to  themselves  to  get  their 
supply  of  water  wherever  they  can.  There  is  usually  a  natural  water- 
course, dam,  or  waterhole  somewhere  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  if  per- 
manent and  within  a  few  hundred  yards  of  the  apiarv,  such  sources 
answer  well  enough.  When,  however,  water  is  not  permanentlv  avail- 
able within  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  it  is  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the 
apiarist  to  provide  an  artificial  supply  as  near  the  apiary  as  convenient. 
I  do  not  think  that  the  time  occupied  by  the  bees  in  carrying  water  over  a 
longer  distance  need  be  seriously  considered,  but  the  greater  liability  of 
being  caught  by  birds  and  insects,  blown  down  during  strong  winds,  or 
caught  in  rain-squalls  during  the  longer  journey  is  a  serious  matter.  At 
the  margins  of  dams  and  water-holes  hundreds  of  bees  are  often 
destroyed  within  a  few  minutes  by  cattle  or  hor.ses  stamping  them,  into  the 
mud  or  swamping  them  through  the  plunging  of  the  animals  into  the 
water.  Where  many  bees  are  kept,  and  the  water  supply  is  limited,  they 
become  a  nuisance  to  stock,  and  sometimes  a  source  of  ill-feeling  between 
neighbours  in  consequence.        Bees  are     also     very     annoving     about     the 


414  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [10   July,    191 2. 


apiarist's  own  hiome,  round  water-taps,  tanks,  and  tlie  drinking  dishes  of 
poultry,  wlien  tiie  weatlier  is  liot,  and  any  other  supply  of  water  rather  far 
from  the  apiary.  The  writer  was  confronted  with  all  the  troubles  enumer- 
ated when  first  establishing  his  apiary  in  its  present  location ;  an  automatic 
artificial  supply  close  to  the  apiary  has  overcome  these  difficulties,  and 
has  now  been  working  continuously  for  fourteen  years  without  a  hitch. 

The  water  is  obtained  from  the  roof  of  the  honey  house  and  stored 
in  two  tanks  of  1,000  gallons  each.  An  iron  water-pipe,  laid  underground 
(18  inches  deep)  so  as  to  keep  it  cool  in  summer,  conducts  the  water  to  the 
drinking  troughs,  which  are  at  a  distance  of  about  100  feet  from  the 
building,  and  the  same  distance  from  the  nearest  hives.  This  distance 
is  necessary,  otherwise  the  bee5,  when  flying  to  and  from  the  water, 
interfere  with  work  in  the  apiaiy,  and  also  cause  confusion  at  swarming 
time.  There  are  two  drinking  troughs ;  they  are  placed  on  a  stand  at  a 
height  of  3  feet  from  the  grou/id,  in  order  to  prevent  poultry  going  to 
them,  and  to  keep  drifting  leaves  and  other  material  out  as  much  as 
possible.  Each  trough  measures  36  inches  x  24  inches  insid?,  with  a 
depth  of  6  inches,  and  consists  of  a  frame  made  of  6  x  f  white  Baltic 
flooring  boards,  with  a  bottom  of  6  x  |  lining  boards.  It  is  lined  with 
plain  galvanized  iron,  No.  26  gauge,  neatly  fitted  inside  the  wooden 
casing,  to  which  it  is  secured  at  the  top  with  fine  tacks.  It  is  better  to 
have  two  or  even  three  of  such  troughs  instead  of  a  large  one  of  the  same 
surface  area  as  the  two  or  three  combined.  If  only  one  large  trough  i.^ 
used  the  bees  are  too  much  concentrated,  and  a  good  deal  of  fighting 
and  stinging  takes  place  occasionally.  It  is,  therefore,  better  to  have 
several  troughs  a  little  distance  apart,  and  if  they  are  placed  on  the  same 
level  and  connected  by  means  of  a  piece  of  garden  hose  attached  to  a 
stud  at  the  bottom  of  each,  one  stand  pipe,  with  automatic  tap,  will  supply 
them  all.  On  the  top  of  each  trough  floats  a  raft,  upon  which  the  bees 
alight  to  drink,  and  it  is  so  constructed  that  they  cannot  drown,  and  even 
dead  bees  cannot  drop  into  the  water  and  thus  pollute  it.  The  raft 
is  made  of  slats  of  |-in.  lining  boards,  35I  inches  long,  i5-i6th  inch  wide, 
^ind  J  inch  thick.  The  edges  on  the  upper  side  are  planed  away  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees,  so  that  when  the  slats  are  placed  side  by  side  they 
form  V-shaped  gutters,  with  an  opening  i-i6th  inch,  wide  at  the  bottom. 
Twenty-four  of  these  slats  are  nailed  on  to  three  cross-pieces  of  |-inch 
flooring  board  23^  inches  long  and  2  inches  wide,  in  such  a  way  that 
the  thin  bottom  edges  of  the  slats  are  1-15  inch  apart.  The  raft  is  then 
fitted  into  the  trough  and  dressed  till  a  space  of  not  more  than  \  inch 
remaims  all  around  between  the  raft  and  the  lining  of  the  trough.  _  To 
keep  the  raft  always  at  the  proper  level,  that  is,  with  the  water  not  highei 
than  about  |  inch  between  the  slats,  air-cushions  are  fastened  under- 
neath the  raft,  one  at  each  end.  They  are  made  of  light  zinc,  such  as 
the  lining  of  piano  or  drapery  cases.  Fold  a  piece  of  this  material,  cut  to 
the  correct  dimensions,  over  a  piece  of  wood  35  inches  x  5  inches  x  i  inch, 
solder  the  joints,  and,  after  withdrawing  the  board,  also  the  end.  It  may 
be  tested  as  to  being  air-tight  by  pressing  it  under  water  to  see  whether 
air-bubbles  escape;  if  so,  there  is  a  leak  which  has  to  be  re-soldered.  In 
soldering  zinc,  raw  spirits  of  salt,  diluted  somewhat  with  water,  should 
be  used,  not  killed  spirits  (chloride  of  zinc);  this  rule  also  applies  to 
galvanized  iron.  The  solder-iron  should  be  clean,  well  faced  with  solder, 
and  only  just  hot  enough  to  melt  the  solder,  but  not  the  zinc;  this  is  only 
possible  if  the  solder  is  of  good  quality.  If  the  air-cushions  raise  the 
raft  too  high  at  first  the  latter  should  be  weighted   down  to  the  proper 


lo  July,    19 12.]  Rearing  of  Calves.  415 

level  by  means  of  small  stones  evenly  distributed,  and  as  the  wood  be- 
comes saturated  with  water  they  may  be  removed  as  required.  The  raft 
of  the  trough,  which  is  under  the  stand-pipe,  has  an  upright,  iron  rod 
pivoted  to  it  in  the  centre.  This  rod  connects  by  means  of  a  hinge-joint 
with  a  lever  fastened  to  the  head  of  the  w"ater  tap,  which  is  screwed  into 
the  .stand-pipe,  so  that  the  cone  of  the  tap  is  in  a  horizontal  position,  and, 
therefore,  lowering  the  lever  will  open  the  tap,  and  raising  close  it.  No 
dimensions  for  rod  and  lever  can  be  given,  as  these  depend  upon  the  height 
of  the  tap  above  the  raft,  its  distance  from  the  centre  of  it,  and  the  size 
and  passageway  of  the  tap  itself.  The  measurements  and  the  angle  of 
bend  in  the  tap  lever  can,  however,  be  easily  ascertained.  The  tap  should 
be  completely  shut  when  the  raft  is  within  an  inch  of  the  top  of  the 
trough,  but  should  begin  to  run  as  soon  as  the  raft  sinks  and  draws  down 
the  lever,  when  the  water  level  is  reduced  by  the  bees  drinking. 

*The  accompanying  illustration  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  arrange- 
ment. The  troughs  shown  are  of  the  dimensions  stated,  and  give  drinking 
accommodation  for  150  colonies.  When  the  season  is  very  hot  and  dry, 
and  the  colonies  strong,  a  third  trough  is  added  by  means  of  a  hose  con- 
nexion, as  stated  before.  The  roof  of  the  honey  house,  with  a  ground 
measurement  of  21  feet  by  18,  collects  with  a  rainfall  of  20  inches  suffi- 
cient water  for  the  bees  and  the  ordinary  requirement  of  extracting,  &:c. 

There  are  many  well-timbered  areas  in  Northern  Victoria  where  bee- 
keeping could  be  carried  on  successfully,  but  which  remain  vacant  owing 
to  the  absence  of  a  water  supply  for  the  bees.  Every  beekeeper  requires- 
a  dwelling  and  a  building  for  the  requirements  of  his  business ;  if  these  are 
constructed  in  time  to  get  a  supply  of  water  for  the  following  season,  and 
if  the  roof  area  is  sufficient  to  give  the  required  quantity  with  the  rainfall 
of  the  locality  selected,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  some  of  the  waterless,, 
but  for  beekeeping,  odierwise  excellent  country,  being  utilized. 

To  be  continued. 


REARING    OF    CALVES. 

A.  Kyle,  Dairy  Supervisor. 

In  building  up  a  good  dairy  herd,  there  are  other  things  to  be 
considered  besides  the  dam  and  sire.  Provided  there  are  cows  and  bulls 
with  all  the  breeding  and  quality  necessary  for  the  foundation  of  a  good 
dairy  herd,  great  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  offspring  if  the  herd  of  the 
future  is  to  be  improved.  If  a  heifer  when  born  was  ready  for 
milking,  perhaps  every  attention  would  be  shown;  but,  as  she  is  not  profit- 
able for  about  three  years,  she  is  oftentimes  neglected,  or  even  subjected 
to  very  bad  treatment,  it  is  always  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  from 
poor,  half-starved,  pot-bellied  creatures  the  dairy  herds  of  the  country  can- 
not be  raised  successfully. 

Few  dairy  farmers  have  enough  land  to  enable  them  to  rear  all  the 
calves  dropped  on  a  place,  and  the  males  are  generally  sold  for  veal,  or 
killed  and  fed  to  pigs.  Many  heifers  born  should  share  the  same  fate,  as; 
they  will  never  make  good  dairy  cows,  and  only  take  the  milk  from  those 
which  have  all  the  milking  qualities  desirable.'  Each  heifer  calf  should 
be  examined  as  soon  as  possible  after  its  birth,  and  it  is  a  sign  of  future 
inferiority  if  the  teats  are  small  and  huddled  together.      If,   on  the  other 

*   Illustration  will  appear  in  August  issue  of  Journal. 


4i6 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria.  [lo   July,    1912. 


hand,  the  teats  are  a  nice  length,  good  colour  and  shape,  and  well  sepa- 
rated, it  is  indicative  of  milking  capacity,  and  she  may  be  depended  on 
to  come  into  the  bail  on  calving  with  a  nice-shaped  udder  and  teats. 

The  newly-born  calf  is  usually  straightway  introduced  to  the  poddy 
pen,  and  it  is  here,  in  most  cases,  that  trouble  arises.  It  should  first  be 
allowed  to  suck  the  mother  dry.  This  not  only  provides  the  calf  with  a 
laxative  to  clear  the  digestive  organs,  but  eases  the  cow,  often  preventing 
after  troubles. 

Care  and  patience  should  be  exercised  m  giving  the  calf  its  first  drink 
from  the  bucket  ;  if  taken  quietly,  it  can  nearly  always  be  induced  to  drink 
without  even  giving  it  the  finger.  After  allowing  it  to  suck  the  mother 
dry,  leave  it  in  the  pen  for  twenty-four  hours,  then,  with  a  little  patience, 
the  calf  can  readilv  lie  made  to  drink,  especially  if  the  mouth  is 
wetted  with  milk,  or  a  little  milk  dropped  from  the  fingers  into  the 
mouth.  New  milk  should  be  fed  to  the  calf  for  the  first  two  weeks  in 
small  quantities  at  frequent  intervals  ;  for  the  next  two  weeks,  half  new  and 
half  skim  ;  then  skim,   with  the  addition  of  some  recognised   food.      The 


HERKES    CALF-FEEDER. 

best  calves  the  writer  ever  saw  were  fed  according  to  this  plan,  and  after- 
wards on  skim-milk  and  boiled  linseed.  The  linseed  was  boiled  in  a  kero- 
sene tin,  and  when  cool  it  thickened  to  a  jelly.  A  cupful  of  the  jelly  was 
added  to  the  skim-milk  for  each -calf.  These  calves  were  pictures  of 
health,  and  the  cost  of  feeding  was  very  small ;  there  were  no  signs  of 
scouring,  and  their  coats  were  sleek  and  glossy. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  in  the  rearing  of  calves  is  to  keep 
them  going,  and  not  alloAV  them  to  get  a  check,  for  every  time  the  calf  is 
thrown  back,  through  scours  or  other  causes,  it  is  a  drag  on_  the  system, 
which  is  hard  to  make  up  ere  thev  are  introduced  into  the  milking  yard  ; 
therefore,  everv  attention  should  be  gi\-en  to  the  avoidance  of  scours  and 
the  like  set-backs. 

A  calf,  that  is  bred  for  the  dairy  herd,  is  bv-and-by  going  to  have  a 
big  strain  on  the  system,  and  that  system  should  be  well  nourished  from 
the  verv  first,  so  that  all  the  organs  of  the  body  may  grow  and  develop. 

In  serving  the  feed  out,  it  should  be  seen  that  each  calf  gets  its  proper 
allowance,  for,  if  all  are  allowed  to  rush  the  feed  together,  the  strongest 
calves    get    the   mo.st  ;    then,    again,    some   calves    stand    sucking    another's 


lo  July,  19  i:;-]     lii-jiiiciice  of  Radio- Aclivc  Miinral,  cr-"f.  417 

ear  instead  (jf  drinking,  and  in  tlie  end  are  left  witlujut  a  drink  at  all. 
Each  calf,  then,  should  get  its  proper  allowance,  which  should  always  be 
out  of  clean,  sweet  vessels.  The  best  method  of  feeding  is  to  construct 
a  set  of  small  bails,  and  arrange  by  means  of  rubber  teat  attached  to 
stout  piping,  a  system  whereby  the  calf  has  to  suck  up  its  m.ilk,  this 
insures  more  certain  digestion,  and  the  accompanying  illustration  shows 
the  "  Herkes  "  calf -feeder  in  operation.  Failing  this,  a  tin  should  be 
provided  for  each  calf  (kerosene  tins,  cut  in  half,  make  good  buckets  for 
this  purpose).  The  attendant  can  then  see  that  each  gets  its  proper  allow- 
ance, and  there  will  be  nO'  ear-sucking ;  if  ear-sucking  is  resorted  to  after 
they  are  allowed  out  of  the  bails,  the  ears  may  be  smeared  with  a  solution 
of  aloes. 

Good,  warm  sheds,  wdth  clean  straw  bedding,  should  be  provided  at 
night.  Even  if  straw  has  to  be  purcha.sed  clean,  it  will  pay,  as  there  is  a 
return  for  the  money  in  manure,  in  the  value  put  on  the  calves,  in  the 
prevention  of  the  onset  of  scour  and  other  filth-induced  ailments. 

The  straw  should  be  thrown  into  the  pens  about  three  times  a  week, 
and  the  whole  cleaned  out  once  a  week,  and  stacked  for  manure. 

When  a  calf,  properly  reared,  comes  into  the  bail,  it  comes  in  robust 
fully  grown,  and  ready  to  stand  the  years  of  milking  that  are  before 
it;  therefore,  all  the  time  that  is  devoted  to^  calves  is  time  well  spent,  and 
a  herd  of  long-milking,  strong,  and  healthy  cows  may  be  established.  A 
half-nourished  calf  will  grow  into  a  weedy  cow,  and  in  turn  bear  a  weedy 
calf,  hence  the  great  necessity  of  plenty  of  attention  and  proper  feeding 
during  the  growing  period. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  RADIO-ACTIVE  MINERAL  ON  THE 
GERMINATION  AND  ON  THE  GROWTH  OF  WHEAT. 

By  Alfred  J.  Eivart,  Ph.D.,  D.Sc,  &rc.  (Professor  of  Botany  and  Plant 

Physiology  in  the  fdelbonrne   University). 

A  long  series  of  experiments  carried  out  by  Victor  Nightingall,  Govern- 
ment Research  Scholar  in  the  Botanical  Laboratory  of  the  Melbourne  Uni- 
versity, have  shown  that,  under  suitable  conditions,  a  distinct  accelerating 
nction  is  exercised  upon  the  germination  of  wheat  and  other  cereals  when 
exposed  to  the  rays  emanating  from  a  sitronglv  radio-acti\e  mineral.* 
The  details  of  these  experiments  are  not  yet  ready  for  publication,  but  the 
accelerating  action  was,  in  some  cases,  so  pronounced  that  it  was  considered 
worth  while  to  proceed  without  delav  to  field  trials.  The  results  of  plot 
experiments  on  a  small  scale  are  published  in  the  Journal  for  191 1.  page 
155.  Though  somewhat  indecisive,  they  indicated  that  there  was  a  possi- 
bility that  field  trials  might  give  a  beneficial  result.  It  must,  however,  be 
lemembered  that  the  results  obtained  in  the  laboratory  were,  for  the  most 
part,  obtained  by  the  use  of  quantities  of  radio-active  mineral,  which  it 
would  be  impossible  to  apply  on  the  same  relative  scale  in  a  field  trial. 
In  addition,  it  does  not  always  follow  that  a  substance  which  accelerates 
germmation  will  necessarilv  benefit  the  plant  during  its  whole  development, 
or  even  give  it  anv   permanent   advantage.      Furthermore,    if  the  presence 

*  The  mineral  in  question  came  frnni  the  Olarv  HUl  mine.  South  Australia,  and  it  contained  0"il8per 
cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  (PjO.-J,  0-40  of  potash  (K2O),  0-400  of  calcium  (CaO).  and  214  per  cent,  of 
magnesia  (MgO). 


41 8  Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.         [lo  July,    191 2. 


of  radio-active  mineral  in  tlie  soil  injuriously  affected  the  development  of 
useful  soil  bacteria,  it  might,  on  the  whole,  injure  the  final  harvest, 
although  it  favoured  the  early  stages  of  germination. 

In  order  that  these  questions  might  be  answered  by  a  trial  in  the  field, 
the  Council  of  Agricultural  Education  consented  to  the  establishment  of 
test  plots  at  Longerenong,  and  the  Lirector  of  Agriculture  to  a  series  of 
similar  plots  being  used  for  the  tests  at  Rutherglen.  I  have  to  thank  Mr. 
Sinclair,  the  late  Principal  of  the  Longerenong  Agricultural  College,  and 
Mr.  Adcock,  Principal  of  the  Viticultural  College,  Rutherglen,  for  the 
interest  they  have  taken  in  these  experimental  plots. 

The  Influence  of  Radio-Active  Mineral  on  the  Development 

OF  Bacteria. 

The  first  point  to  be  determined  was  the  amount  of  radio-active  mineral 
required  to  influence  the  development  of  soil  and  other  bacteria,  or  if  any 
action  at  all  was  exercised.  To  determine  this,  a  series  of  flasks  each  con- 
taining 100  c.c.  of  nutrient  bouillon  were  each  infected  with  i  c.c.  of  a 
watery  extract  from  garden  soil,  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of  approxi- 
mately 15  degrees  centigrade.  At  the  end  of  fourteen  days  -Jq  of  a  c.c. 
was  withdrawn  from  each,  and  added  to  50  c.c.  of  sterilized  water.  The 
same  quantity  of  this  mixture  was  then  transferred  to  a  gelatine  plate 
culture,  and  from  the  number  of  organisms  developed  upon  the  plate,  the 
number  per  c.c.  of  the  culture  fluid  was  estimated.  The  results  were  as 
follow  : — 


Number  of 

Quantity  of 

Organisms 

Radio-Active 
Mineral. 

In  F 

ivc  Days. 

In  Fourteen  Days. 

per  c.c.  of 

Culture 

Fluid. 

A. 

60  grams 

Bacteria 

abundant     . . 

Liquid  very  nearly  clear  . . 

115.000 

B. 

10  grams 

,, 

,.               .  . 

Liquid  nearly  clear 

375,000 

C. 

1  gram 

Bacteria 
dant 

very     abun- 

Fairly  clear 

1,610,000 

D. 

0  •  1  gram 

,, 

j, 

1  About  equally  turbid       1 

11,200,000 

E. 

0*05  grams 

,, 

,, 

17,250,000 

F. 

0-005  grams   .. 

,, 

,, 

)             ■          1 

18,500,000 

G. 

10  grams  for  one 

J, 

,j 

12,600,000 

day  and  then 

the  liquid 

« 

poured  off 

These  results  show  that  bacteria  are  able  to  develop  even  in  the  presence 
of  large  quantities  of  radio-active  mineral,  but  that,  nevertheless,  a  distinct 
retarding  action  is  exercised  which  becomes  more  pronounced  with  longer 
exposures. 

Liquefying  organisms  were  relatively  more  abundant  in  A,  B,  and  C,  in 
the  order  given  than  in  the  other  cultures.  Possibly  organisms  of  the 
■bacillus  subtilis  type  may  be  more  resistant  to  the  rays  of  radio-active 
mineral  than  are  other  bacteria. 

That  the  retarding  influence  was  really  due  to  the  rays  of  the  mineral 
and  not  to  any  poisonous  substance  dissolved  from  it  is  shown  by  experi- 
ment G. 

The  flasks  were  then  sealed,  and  opened  after  two  months.  The  liquid 
•contents  were  distilled,  and  the  distillate  tested  for  formaldehyde.      Faint 


7  0  July,  19 t 2.]     lufiioicc  of  Radio- Active  Mineral,  ^'c. 


4rc^ 


traces  were  detected  in  A  and  B,  there  were  doubtful  traces  of  formaldehyde 
in  the  distillate  from  C  and  G,  and  none  at  all  in  those  from  E',  E,  and  F. 
Apparently,  however,  in  the  presence  of  bacteria,  carbon  dioxide  and  water, 
the  rays  from  a  radio-active  mineral  present  in  sufficient  quantity  are  able 
to  cause  a  formation  of  small  amounts  of  formaldehyde.  The  cultures 
were  in  darkness  during  the  whole  of  the  time,  so  that  the  action  could  not 
be  due  to  the  influence  of  ordinary  light  energy. 

Whether  the  retarding  action  is  a  direct  one,  or  is  due  to  the  formation- 
of  traces  of  formaldehyde  is  not  quite  certain,  but  the  amount  producedof 
the  latter  seems  to  be  altogether  too  small  to  wholly  explain  the  retarding 
action.  In  any  case,  however,  a  strong  retarding  action  is  exercised,  but 
onlv  if  a  relatively  large  amount  of  the  mineral  is  used,  and  it  remainedto 
be  determined  whether  any  pronounced  action  was  exercised  in  the  field  with 
dressings  of  radio-active  mineral  applied  in  the  quantities  customary  for 
other  mineral  manures.  Accordingly,  samples  of  the  soil  were  collected 
from  the  field  plots,  three  months  after  sowing,  and  the  numbers  of  the 
bacteria  present  determined.  From  each  o"f  the  quarter-acre  plots  forty- 
samples  of  soil  were  taken,  and  thoroughly  mixed  together.  Five  grams 
of  the  mixture  were  then  shaken  up  with  40  c.c.  of  sterilized  water,  allowed 
to  settle  for  five  minutes,  and  then  ^V  of  a  c.c.  of  the  water  inoculated 
on  to  gelatine  plates.  The  number  of  organisms  developing  on  the  plates 
at  20  degrees  centigrade  was  counted,  and  hence  the  number  of  the  organ- 
isms present  in  a  c.c.  of  the  .soil  was  calculated.  These  tests  were  carried 
out  bv  Dr.  Bull  in  the  Bacteriological  Laboratory  at  the  Melbourne 
University.       The  following  are  the  results:  — 


Number  of 

Organisms, 

one  c.c.  01'  Soil. 


Small  plot,  9  square  yards — 

A.  i   lb.    radio-active   mineral 
per  square  foot* 

One-third  acre  plots — 

B.  No  manure 

C.  1  cwt.  radio-active  mineral 
per  acref 

D.  .56  lbs.  superpliosphate   per 
acrej 


LONGERENONG    PlOTS. 

17,250,000 

750,000 
900,000 
1,800,000 


Many  liquefying  organisms 

Fewer  liquefying  than  non-liquefy- 
ing organisms 
Numerous  Uquefying  organisms 

Bacillus  coli-communis  present, 
very  numerous  liquefying  or- 
ganisms 


Small  plot,  9  square  yards — 

A.  J  lb.  of  radio-active  mineral 
per  square  yard* 

Quarter- acre  plots — 

B.  59  lbs.  superphosphate  and 
56  lbs.  radio-active  mineral 
per  acref 

C.  1  cwt.  radio-active  mineral 
per  acre-j- 

D.  59  lbs.  superphosphate  per 
acrel 


RUTHERGLEN    PlOTS 

450,000 

1,125,000 

1,800,000 
1,800,000 


Liquefying     and     non-liquefying: 
organisms  and  ten  moulds 

Less    liquefving    organisms    than- 
on  D. 

More  liquefymg    organisms    than 
on  D. 


Applied  as  top  dressing. 


t  Drilled  in  with  the  seed. 


420  Joiinial  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   July,    1912. 

In  the  case  of  the  two  plots  A,  owing  to  the  smaUness  of  them,  only 
a  few  samples  could  be  taken.  A  subsequent  microscopic  examination  from 
the  Longerenong  plot  A  showed  the  presence  of  an  unusual  amount  of 
decaying  \egetable  n:atter,  which  is  probably  the  explanation  of  the  un- 
usually high  number  of  organisms.  The  Longerenong  samples  were  also 
tested  on  agar  at  body  temperature.  The  sample  A  then  appeared  to  con- 
tain fewer  organisms  than  B,  C,  and  D,  and  they  consisted  mainly  of 
Bacillus  subtilis,  which  is  commonly  associated  with  rotting  hay  or  straw. 
Assuming  this  to  be  the  correct  explanation,  the  other  figures  would  show 
that  an  enormously  heavy  dressing  such  as  |  lb.  per  foot  does  reduce  the 
number  of  .soil  organisms,  but  to  nothing  like  the  extent  that  might  be 
expected,  while  ordinary  dressings  do  not  appear  to  produce  anv  distinct 
action  that  can  be  separated  from  the  normal  range  of  fluctuation. 

The  Rutherglen  samples  contained  more  mould  spores  than  those  from 
Longerenong,  possibly  owing  to  their  proximity  to  an  orchard  and  vineyard 
with  deciduous  trees. 

Field  Test  with  Radio-Active   Mineral   as   a  Manure. 

Longerenong  Plots. 

Four  drill  width  strips  were  used  for  this  experiment,  each  with  a  total 
area  oi  approximately  ^  of  an  acre.  The  wheat  used  was  "  Yandilla 
King,"  and  the  manure  and  wheat  were  drilled  in  together.  Plot  i  received 
I  cwt.  of  superphosphate  per  acre;  plot  2  received  |  cwt.  of  superphos- 
phate and  I  cwt.  of  finally  divivded  radio-active  mineral  per  acre;  plot  3 
received  \  cwt.  of  radio-active  mineral  per  acre,  and  plot  4  was  unmanured. 

No  distinct  sign  was  shown  of  any  acceleration  of  germination  by  the 
radio-active  mineral  at  any  of  the  early  stages  of  growth.  A  month  after 
planting  the  plots  i  and  2  appeared  to  be  about  equal.  Thev  were  much 
ahead  of  plots  3  and  4,  were  a  darker  green,  and  had  generally  a  more 
healthy  appearance.  Two  months  after  planting,  the  same  differences 
were  noticeable.  Plots  i  and  2  were  about  equal,  and  far  ahead  of  plots 
3  and  4,  which  were  about  equally  backward,  and  a  lighter  green  than  plots 
i_  and  2.  Apparently,  therefore,  in  quantities  capable  of  practical  applica- 
tion, the  radio-active  mineral  does  not  appreciably  affect  the  earlv  stages 
of  germination  of  wheat.  Unfortunately,  the  season  was  a  bad  one  for 
wild  oats,  and  these  developed  to  such  an  extent  on  the  plots  as  to  spoil 
them  for  harvesting.  As  far  as  could  be  judged,  however,  the  plots  i 
and  2  remained  ahead  right  up  to  har\esting,  and  tliese  two  plots  with 
equal  amounts  of  superphosphate,  and  one  with  and  one  without  radio- 
active mineral   were  about  equal. 

Rutherglen  Plots. 
A  similar  series  of  four  plots  was  used  in  this  case,  each  4  yards  2  feet 
broad  (tw'o  drill-widths),  and  approximately  \  of  an  acre  in  area.  Plot 
I  received  59  lbs.  of  superphosphate  per  acre;  plot  2  received  59  lbs.  of 
superphosphate,  and  59  lbs.  of  radio-active  mineral  per  acre ;  plot  3  re- 
ceived I  cwt.  of  radio-active  mineral  per  acre;  plot  4  was  unmanured.  In 
addition,  one  small  square  plot  received  |  lb.  of  radio-active  mineral  per 
square  foot  as  a  top  dressing.  On  the  large  plots  the  mineral  and  manure 
were  drilled  in  with  the  seed,  using  the  single  drill  which  deposits  manure  and 
seed  together.  In  this  case,  "Federation  Wheat"  was  used,  and  was  planted 
on  5th  May,  191 1.  Six  weeks  afterwards,  plots  i  and  2  were  much  ahead 
of  ]-lots  3  and  4,  were  greener,  stooleB  better,  and  were  slightlv  taller. 
The  small  plot  was  best  of  all,  Init  weeds  were  thriving  better  on  it  than  on 


lo  July,   1912.] 


'Mctallica  Cape.'' 


421 


the  other  plots.  Just  before  harvesting,  it  could  be  seen  that  on  the  small, 
very  heavily  dressed  plot,  the  wheat  averaged  4  to  6  inches  more  in  height 
than  on  the  large  plots,  the  straw  was  paler  and  stouter  than  is  usual  for 
"  Federation  Wheat,"  but  on  all  the  large  plots  the  straw  was  normal  in 
colour  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  odd  plants.  The  harvesting  results  from 
the  large  plots  are  given  beneath  : — 


Plot. 

Manure. 

Wlieat. 

Straw. 

1 

2 

3 
4 

59  lbs.  superphosphate  per  aci'e 

59  lbs.  superphosphate  and  59  lb.';,  radio-active  mineral 

per  acre 
1  cwt.  radio-active  mineral  ])er  acre 
Unmanured 

257  lbs. 

2.34     ., 

76     . 
121     .. 

495  lbs. 

330     .. 
165     „ 
.330     ., 

There  is  no  evidence  here  to  indicate  any  beneficial  action  of  the  radio- 
active mineral  upon  the  growth  and  germination  of  wheat,  when  quanti- 
ties wh'ch  could  be  used  in  agricultural  practice  are  employed.  Any  stimu- 
lating action  which  it  might  exercise  when  first  applied,  .seems,  if  anvthing, 
to  be  converted  into  an  injurious  action  when  in  prolonged  contact.  There 
is  nothing,  therefore,  in  these  results  to  show  that  radio-active  mineral  is  of 
the  least  benefit  to  wheat  when  applied  in  the  same  manner  as  manure,  and 
the  hopes  that  had  been  raised  by  the  stimulating  action  of  large  quantities 
upon  the  early  stages  of  germination,  that  this  sub.stance  might  he  of  use  in 
the  field,  have  failed  to  be  established  by  experiment  as  regards  wheat,  at 
least.  Whether  results  of  value  may  be  obtained  with  other  plants  is,  of 
course,  another  question,  but  the  radio-active  mineral  does  not  appear  to 
have  anv  direct  value  for  the  growth  of  wheat. 


"METALLICA    CAPE." 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  the  Preliminary  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  South  African 
Union  to  inquire  into  the  suitabilitv  of  the  American  stocks  thus  far  used 
to  reconstitute  the  vineyards  in  the  Cape  Province.  This  report  appeared 
in  the  South  African  Agricultural  Jourfial  of   12th  April  last. 

Though  "  Metallica  Cape  "  has  not  been  very  extensively  used  in 
Victoria,  manv  growers  are  well  satisfied  with  it — perhaps  after  too  short 
a  trial. 

Such  an  authoritative  expression  of  oi)inion  from  South  Africa — the 
only  viticultural  country  where  this  stock  is  well  known — should  serve  as 
a  warning  to  our  growers. 

"  Metallica  rupestris,  also  called  Constantia  metallica,  is  a  stock  that  cannot  stand 
much  moisture  in  the  soil,  and  that  suflfers  easily  from  drought.  It,  therefore,  does 
well  in  fairlv  deep,  loose,  cool  soils  that  have  never  too  much  and  never  too  little 
moisture.  As  such  soils  are  rather  rare  to  find,  the  result  is  that  many  thousands 
of  vines  grafted  on  this  stock  are  suffering  visibly  and  gradually  dying.  Thds  in 
the  reddish  Karroo  soils  in  the  Robertson  and  Worcester  districts,  in  clay  soils  near 
Darling,  Tulbagh,  and  at  Bosjesmansvlei,  near  Botha's  Halt  in  the  Breede  River 
Valley,  grafted  vines  on  Metallica  are  ^vorthless.  In  many  instances  the  roots  are 
infested  with  phylloxera,  and  the  vines  are  dying  off  in  patches.  In  a  fairly  deep, 
coarse,  sandy  soil  in  Dal  Josaphat  (Paarl  district)  these  vines  have  done  so  badlv 
that  they  will  be  taken  out  this  vear. 

In  most  of  the  Goudini  and  similar  soils,  Metallica  can  be  safely  used  :  but  in 
most  soils  it  is  .t  bad  stock,  and  hence  grafting  on  Metallica  ought  not  to  be  con- 
tinued in   future." 


Ad- 


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lo   Jllv.    tqij.]  /'ropii'^anflii  of   i'ru'it   7  rccs.  425 

PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  TREES. 

{Coiitiiiiitc/  from  page  349.) 
B)   C.  F.  Cole,  Orchard  Supervisor 

Diseases  {continued). 

Black   Peach   Aphis,| J/ (/;«••>■  Cemsi  (Fal)r. ) 
Green   Peach  Aphis,  Myzm  sp. 

The  black  and  green  peach  aphis  are  two  of  the  worst  insect  pests 
the  propagator  of  the  peach  and  other  stone  fruits  has  to  contend  with. 
Insects  belonging  to  the  family  Apludidoe  multiply  very  rapidly  by  deposit- 
ing living  young  ;  under  certain  conditions  they  propagate  by  means  of 
eggs.  If  immediate  action  is  not  taken  to  check  their  spread  when  first 
noticed,  they  will  give  trouble,  causing  serious  damage  to  the  seedlings, 
budded  stocks,  and  growing  buds.  Like  most  aphides,  these  two  species 
(black  and  green)  usuallv  attack  the  under  parts  of  the  twigs  and  shoots 
first,  finallv  covering  all  parts  as  they  multiply.  The  earliest  to  make  its 
api)earancp  is  the  black  species,  which  arrivt-s  in  the 
autumn  or  earlv  winter,  during  mild  weather.  The  ('eriod 
of  attack,  if  uncliecked.  t-xtt-iids  into  the  spring,  or  eaily 
summer.  These  in.sects  disapi)ear  after  the  first  few  hot 
days.  The  waiter  made  careful  observations  during 
November.  1908,  on  the  habits  nf  the  black  aphis.  The 
females  of  the  last  spring  brood  become  oviporous. 
depositing  small  oval  glossy-black  eggs  behind  the  buds, 
in  cracks  and  crevices  upon  the  trees,  and  upon  the  roots. 
The  eggs  remaining  unhatche<l  during  the  hot  summer 
months  were  hatched  in  the  autumn  or  earh  winter. 
With  the  green  species,  the  period  of  attack  is  much  later 
than  the  black.  The  first  appearance  is  usually  in  the  eggs  of  black 
earlv  spring  when  the  trees  are  vegetative,  and  the  young  peach  aphis. 
tender  shoots   and   foliage  are  preferred   to  the  matured  +   30. 

twigs.  There  is  verv  little  doubt  that  the  life  history  of  the  green  species 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  black  species,  i.e.,  the  last  brood  of  females  deposit 
eggs.  So  far  the  writer  has  failed  to  find  any  trace  of  the  green  aphis 
eggs,  and  has  not  met  any  person  who  has.  Se\'eral  indications  warn  of 
a  coming  attack.  With  the  black  species,  if  the  winged  in.sects  are  to  be 
seen  in  late  autumn  upon  the  underside  of  the  foliage,  and  while  the  trees 
are  shedding  their  leaves,  it  is  a  sure  sign  of  coming  trouble.  In  the  winter, 
when  trees  are  badly  attacked,  they  have  the  appearance  of  being  covered 
lightlv  with  soot.  Another  sure  sign  is  ants  and  flies  upon  the  trees  in 
quest  of  a  sweet  liquor  which  distils  from  the  aphis.  It  is  owing  largely 
to  this  liquid,  which  covers  the  bodv  of  the  aphis,  that  a  wash  has  to  V)e 
applied  with  force  in  order  to  destroy  the  pest. 

Young  and  growing  shoots  curl  when  attacked  by  either  species  (black 
or  green).  If  the  leaves  become  crinkled  arid  curled  near  the  terminal  end 
the  presence  of  green  a[)his  will  be  detected  upon  a  close  examhiation. 
Owing  to  the  leaves  curling  and  protecting  the  insects,  the  green  species 
is  hard  to  combat  :  such  foliage  conditions  make  it  hard  to  apply  a  wash 
that  will  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  insects,  which  is  necessary  if  the 
operation  is  to  be  successful. 

74s  1.  P 


10  maKe 

f 


426  Journal   of   Agriculture.    Vicforio.  [10   July.    1912. 

Treatment. — If  the  young  trees  are  attacked  in  the  autumn,  early 
winter,  or  previous  to  being  lifted  in  the  winter,  spray  them  thoroughly 
with  one  of  the  following  preparations  : — i  lb.  of  soft  soap  boiled  in  10 
gallons  of  tobacco  water,  applied  warm,  if  possible;  or  i  lb.  of  Lowe's 
soaparine  boiled  in  15  gallons  of  tobacco  water;  or  kerosene  emulsion — 
using  I  part  emulsion  to  10  of  water.  Directions  for  the  preparation  of 
spray   fluids  are  given  below. 

If  the  budded  stocks  are  attacked  during  the  autumn,  spray  as  advised 
for  young  trees ;  but  if  attacked  after  the  foliage  is  off.   reduce  back  to 
the  inserted  bud,  gatlier  up  the  tops,  and  burn  at  once.     The  butts  of  the 
reduced  stocks  carrying  the  inserted  buds  should  be  treated,  if  necessary  ; 
examine  well  round  the  inserted  buds  to  see  that  no  aphides  are  concealed 
in   or   about   the  old    incision    mark   that    was   made  in   budding.      If   the 
pre.sence  of  aphis  is  detected,   treat  by  spraying  or  hand  soaping.      When 
spraying,    drive  the   fluid   well   into  the  insects,    using   high   pressure,    and 
follow  up  the  first  application  with  a  second  the  same  day,   or  not  later 
than  the  day  following.      If  the  seedlings,   growing  buds,  or  shoots,   are 
attacked  in  the  spring,  they  may  be  treated  by  a  method  called  hand  soap- 
ing.    To  do  this,  dissolve  soft  soap  at  the  rate  of  i  lb.  to  4  gallons  of 
water  by  boiling,    and   place  sufficient  of  the   liquid   in  a   kero.sene  tin  or 
ordinary   bucket.      Make   a   swish   by   tying   several    fruit-tree   cuttings   to- 
gether.     Thrash  the  liquid   up    smartly   until   a  good    foam    is    obtained. 
Apply  by  taking  enough  of  the  foam  in  both  hands,   and  work  it  well  in 
amongst  the  foliage,   and  along  the  stems  with  the  fingers  to  the  affected 
parts.      This  method  is  very  effective,   thorough,   and  economic.      If  found 
practicable,    almonds,   nectarines,   or   peaches,    should,  not   be  grown   twice 
upon  the  same  soil  in  succession,  seed  fruits  should  follow  stone,  and  vice 
versa.     Those  kinds  of  fruits  subject  to  root  attack,  if  succeeding  a  similar 
crop,  are  more  prone  to  attack  than  those  planted  and  grown  upon  virgin 
soil,  especially  if  the  first  crop  were  attacked.      The  only  feasil>le  explana- 
tion to  this  is  that  the  insects  exist  upon  those  parts  of  the  roots  left  be- 
hind in  the  soil  when  removing  the  young  trees.      The  following  will  bear 
out  this  statement  : — During  the  month  of  July,   191 1,  a  prepared  bed  was 
planted   with   selected   almond   nuts.      During   early    November,    and   wheii 
the  seedlings  had  attained  an  average  iieight  of  6  inches,  numbers  of  them 
started  to  die  back  from  the  tips,   the -foliage  becoming  yellow,  in  coloui 
and  drooping.      There  being  no  signs  of  insect  or  fungoid   disease  above 
ground,   and  indications  pointing  to  root  trouble,   several  of  tTie  seedlings 
were  carefully  removed  ;  and,  upon  examination,  the  roots  were  found  to  be 
badly  attacked  by  the  black  peach  aphis.      The  crop  pre\ious  to  the  seedling 
almonds  were  peaches.      Soil  that  is  going  to  be  replanted  with  stone  fruit 
should  be  allowed,  to  remain  in  fallow  through  the  summer,  should  receive 
a  good  dressing  of  lime,  and  be  kept  stirred  in  the  autumn.     Use  a  suit- 
able chemical    fertilizer   when   planting.      Before   planting   peach   or   other 
stocks  liable  to  attack  from  aphis,  it  is  advisable  to  dip  them  whoHv  into 
a  decoction  of  strong  t>bacco  water,   or  tobacco  and  soft  soap  mixture. 

Orange  Aphis  {SiplioiiopJioraf  Sp.). — This  pest  usually  makes  its  ap 
pearance  in  early  autumn,  but  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  trees  attacked  dur 
ing  the  summer  months  particularly  if  the  weather  be  cool  and  unseason 
able.      Standard  or  established  citrus  trees  in  an  orchard  should  not  receive 
any  great  hurt  from  an  attack  by  these  aphides,  as  they  are  so  easily  con 
trolled ;  one  application,    if  thoroughlv   applied,   generally   is   sufficient  to 
arrest   their   spread.        With   growing   buds   or   young   and   tender   autumn 
growths  upon  citrus  trees  in  the  nursery,  this  aphis  can  do  severe  damage. 


lo  July.    1912. 


Pro pagaiio}!  of   I'niit    Trees. 


427 


Their  method  of  attack  is  similar  to  that  of  the  grten  peach  aphis.  The 
insects  concentrate  at  the  ends  of  the  young  and  tender  growths  which  curl, 
wilt,   and  die  hack.      This  pest  is  easily  recogni.sed.      The  majority  of  the 


insects  are  of  a  blackish  colour,   whilst  some  are  brownish  and  others  are 
green. 

Treatment. — The  methods  recommended  fcr  peach  aph's  attacking  seed- 
lings,  growing  buds,    &c.,   should   be   followed. 

p  2 


4::8  Journal  of   Agriciillnrc,   Yiciorla.  [lo   July.    191 2. 

Woolly  Aphis  or  American  Blight — Schizoneura  lanigera  {^Hausman). 
- — ^This  aphis  is  one  of  the  greatest  pests  the  apple-grower  has  to  contend 
with.  If  detected  in  the  nursery,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  dealing  with 
it.  'J'he  presence  of  woollv  aphis  is  easily  detected  by  the  white  woolly 
matter  produced  by  the  insects,  such  matter  forming  a  protective  covering, 
beneath  which  the  aphides  cluster  and,  carry  on  their  work.  When  com- 
mencing operations,  thev  usually  choose  the  under  or  sheltered  side  of  the 
branches  or  twigs  close  to  or  around  the  buds,  gradually  extending  along 
the  whole  branch  or  twig.  By  forcing  a  beak  or  sucker  intj  the  bark,  they 
are  enabled  to  live  upon  the  plant  sap.  The  irritation  produced  by  this 
piercing  operation  causes  swellings  or  excrescences  to  form,  eventually 
spoiling  the  tree.  Fig.  (71)  shows  the  result  of  a  neglected  attack.  Under 
and  upper  view   of  growths. 

Treatment. — In  a  well-conducted  nursery  this  pest  should  give  little 
or  no  trouble.  If  its  presence  should  be  detected  during  the  vegetative 
period  of  .the  young  trees,  first  paint  the  parts  attacked  with  a  brush 
dipped  into  kerosene  emulsion,  and  then  spray  thoroughly,  using  the  emul- 
sion I  part  to  10  of  water.  Place  the  nozzle  of  the  sprayer  close  up  to 
the  disease,  driving  the  emulsion  on  with  force  so  as  to  break  down  the 
woolly  barrier,  and  get  the  emulsion  well  into  the  insects  ;  follow  up  the 
first  application  l)y  another  the  same  day.  If  any  trees  should  be  badiv 
attacked,  cut  them  out,  and  burn  and  spray  those  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
If  attacked  in  late  autumn,  or  during  the  winter,  use  red  oil  or  crude 
petroleum  oil  emulsion  instead — strength,  red  oil,  i  in  25  ;  crude  petroleum, 
I  in  20.  This  pest  should  be  practically  unknown  in  a  nursery  during 
the  winter,  and  no  trees  should  leave  the  nursery  affected  by  it.  Anv 
grower  or  propagator  who  fails  to  treat  it  during  the  summer,  or  when 
the  trees  are  vegetating,  has  very  little  chance  of  keeping  it  in  check. 
Upon  rare  occasions,  the  woolly  aphis  has  been  found  attacking  the  peai 
Bryobia  Mite  {Red  Spider). — Usually,  the  propagator  of  fruit  trees 
gives  this  insect  but  litle  thought,  owing,  no  doubt,  to. the  fact  that  it 
causes  little  or  no  check  to  growth,  and  to  all  appearance  does  no  harm. 
Therefore,  why  worry?  But  the  orchardist  has  a  different  tale  to  tell. 
The  life  history  of  this  spider  is  simple.  Small  round  red  eggs  are  de- 
posited in  thousands  around  the  collars  of  the  branches,  buds, 
and  in  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  trees  during  the  late 
spring  and  summer  months.  These  hatch  in  early  spring,  the 
hatching  beling  largely  influenced  by  the  weather  and  the  sap  flow. 
The  eggs  deposited  upon  trees  that  vegetate  early  hatch  sooner  than  those 
upon  the  later  varieties.  On  emerging  from  the  eggs,  small  reddish- 
coloured  mites  swarm  upon  the  young  and  tender  foliage,  and  the  ex- 
panding blooms.  They  suck  up  the  natural  juices,  thus  causing  the  foliage 
to  become  sickly,  yellowi-sh  in  colour,  and  the  edges  of  the  leaves  to  dry 
and  curl.  Instead  of  the  trees  producing  strong,  bold  blooms,  the  organs 
of  the  blossoms  are  weakened,  and  the  setting  of  the  fruit  is  interfered 
with.  When  badly  attacked  in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  the  foliage 
has  a  scorched  look.  If  trees  in  the  nursery  rows  are  attacked,  and  no 
steps  be  taken  to  eradicate  "this  pest,  it  simply  means  that  the  onus  of  fight- 
ing it  will  eventuallv  fall  on  the  grower. 

Treatment. — The  best  time  to  attack  is  when  the  insects  are  hatched  and 
moving  about.  Use  soft  soap  and  tobacco  water,  or  tobacco  water  by 
it.self,  or  kerosene  emulsion — the  latter  i  in  15  of  water.  Drive  the  spray 
well  into  the  insects,  following  up  the  application  at  weekly  intervals  if 
necessarv.      For   a    winter   application   use  red   oil   or   crude   petroleum  oil 


lo  July.    191--]  I'ropui^a/ioii  of  h'ruil   Trees.  429 

emulsion  ;  strength,  red  (jil.   i  in  30.  rrude  petroleum,  i  in  25.  applying  the 
final   application  just  before  the  l)uds  start  growth   in  early  spring. 

The  following  directions  will  enable  growers  to  prepare  the  insect 
washes  which  have  been  recommended  : — 

Red  Oil  and  Crude  Petroleum  Oil  Emuhiou. — Slice  and  boil  i  lb.  of 
Lotus  soap  in  i  gallon  of  watrr  until  dissolved,  remove  from  fire,  add  i 
gallon  of  oil,  stir,  and  replace  on  the  fire  until  it  comes  to  the  boil.  Re- 
move from  fire  again,  and  work  up  thoroughly  with  a  hand  syringe  or  force 
pump  until  thoroughlv  enuilsified.  and  no  signs  of  loo.se  oil  appear  on 
the  surface.  To-  test  whether  the  emulsion  is  properly  made,  take  a  small 
quantitv  of  the  emulsion  and  add  to  it  five  times  the  quantity  of  cold 
water  ;  if  properly  emulsifiei],  the  effect  will  be  similar  to  pouring  milk  into' 
tea,  if  otherwise,  the  oil  will  separate  and  float  on  the  surface.  Soft  or 
any  other  hard  soap  may  be  used  in  making  an  emulsion.  Lotus  soap  is 
cheap,  and  contains  a  lot  of  soda,  which  assists  emulsifying.  A  properly 
made  and  diluted  emulsion  mav  be  kept  some  time  before  using,  but  it  is 
always  better  to  apply  when  freshly  diluted.  When  diluting,  take  i  part 
of  the  emulsion  and  add  the  required  quantity  of  cold  water,  e.g.,  i  pint 
emulsion  to  20  pints  of  water. 

Kerosene  Emulsion. — This  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as  red  oil  or 
crude  petroleum  oil  emulsion,  except  that  it  is  not  rejilaced  on  the  fire  after 
the  oil  is  added.  If  diluting  with  cold  water,  agitate  well  with  a  syringe 
or  force  pump  while  gradual! v  ailding  the  first  of  the  water.  If  the 
standard  or  undiluted  oil  emulsion  is  allowed  to  get  cold,  boil  and  work 
it  up  again  before  diluting. 

Resin  Wash  (No.  1).  —  Pulverised  resin  2  lbs.,  washing  soda  2  lbs.,  soft 
soap  I  lb.  Boil  i  or  2  gallons  of  water  and  add  the  soda  ;  when  dissolved 
add  graduallv  the  resin,  stirring  and  boiling  until  dissohed.  Add  soft 
soap  when  dissolved  ;  make  up  to  10  gallons. 

Resin  Wash  (No.  2). — Pulverised  resin  16  lbs.,  caustic  soda  8  lbs.,  fish 
oil  3  pints  (raw  linseed  oil  mav  be  used  as  a  substitute).  Boil  the  caustic 
soda  in  10  gallons  of  water,  then  add  gradually  the  resin,  stirring  and 
boiling  until  dissolved.  Add  the  oil,  and  keep  boiling  for  another  ten 
minutes  ;  then  make  up  to  100  gallons.  Warm  water  is  only  to  be  used. 
After  using  resin  wa.sh,  all  vessels  used  in  mixing,  including  the  spray 
pump  and  nozzle,  should  l>e  thoroughly  washed  out  with  boiling  water, 
otherwise  the  resin  will   clog  the  nozzle,    &c.,    when   dry. 

Soft  Soap  and  Tobacco. — Boil  1  lb.  of  soft  .soap  in  i  gallon  of  tobacco 
water;  when  dissolved  make  tip  to  10  gallons  with  tobacco  water;  soak 
tobacco  in  cold  water  and  let  it  infuse;  use  at  the  strength  of  strong  tea, 
and  strain  before  adding  to  soap  water. 

Arsenate  of  Lead. — Dissolve  11  ozs.  acetate  of  lead  in  half  a  gallon 
of  water.  In  another  ves.sel  dissolve  4  ozs.  arsenate  of  soda  in  half  a 
gallon  of  water.  Pour  the  soda  solution  into  the  lead  solution,  stir,  and 
add  from  40  to  50  gallons  of  water.  Hot  water  dissolves  these  chemicals 
more  rapidly  and  completely  than  cold  water.  Wooden  pails  should  be 
used.  This  wash  has  a  distinct  advantage  over  all  other  arsenical  prepara- 
tions. It  is  practically  harmless  to  foliage,  remains  longer  in  suspension, 
and  is  more  adhesive.  The  process  of  manufacture  is  simple  enough,  but 
as  there  is  often  a  difficulty  in  getting  chemicals  of  proper  purity,  it  is 
possible  that  the  grower  ma\-  prefer  some  of  the  leading  brands  of  arsenate 
of  lead  now  on  the  market  in  paste  frirm. 

To  be  continued. 


430  Journal  of  Agriculture.    Victoria.  [lo   July.    1912. 

REPORT  0^  FIRST  ECICtLAYING  COMPETITION  AT 
BURNLEY,  1011-12. 

By  H.   \ .  Hawkins,  Poultry  Expert. 

On  Sunday,  the  31st  March,  the  first  Burnley  Egg-laying  Competitioni 
came  to  a  close,  and  the  result,  both  as  to  the  high  standard  of  egg- 
production  attained,  and  the  general  health  of  the  birds  engaged  in  the 
test,   was  in  every  way  satisfactory. 

The  Egg-laving  Competition  has  proved  beyond  doubt  that  Victorian 
fowls  are  second  to  none  in  Australia  for  productiveness,  and  this  is  also 
tantamount  to  saying  that  in  utility  they  are  equal,  if  not  superior,  to 
anything  in  the  poultry  world.  That  this  should  be  so  is  only  a  reason- 
able outcome  of  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  for  years  past  by  poultry- 
keepers  to  obtain  breeds,  and  strains  of  such  breeds,  whose  powers  in 
relation  to  egg-production  were  above  the  common. 

The  recent  competition  was  not  the  first  inst'tuted  in  this  State.  Some 
few  years  since  two  very  successful  egg-laying  trials  were  held  at  the 
Dookie  Agricultural  College.  The  work  done  there  was  of  an  interesting. 
and  educative  nature.  The  experience  gained  showed  that  poultry  to  pay 
must  be  carefully  bred  for  the  purpose,  and  attended  tO'  in  an  intelligent 
manner  and  by  proper  methods.  I'here  were  396  birds  entered  for  ttie 
competition,  all.  or  nearly  all,  the  leading  breeds  being  repre.sented,  as. 
will  1)6  seen  by  the  following  table:  — 

Breed.  Pen*. 

White   Legnorns        ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  46 

Brown    Leghorns      ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  i 

Black    Orpingtons    ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  7 

White    Orpingtons    ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  i 

Silver  W'yandottes   ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  4 

Golden  Wyandottes  ...  ...  ...  ...  2 

White  Wyandottes  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  i 

Minorcas     ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  3 

FaveroUes                   ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  i 

66 

White  Leghorns. 

The  great  number  of  White  Leghorns  entered  indicates  the  i)opularit7 
of  the  breed.  A  note  of  warning  should,  however,  be  sounded  in  respect 
to  them.  It  has  been  found  that  they  are  far  more  difficult  to  handle 
than  many  of  the  heavier  types.  This  is  largelv  due  to  a  considerable 
amount  of  in-breeding  which  has  been  going  on  for  some  time ;  whilst 
the  system  of  housing  in  small  sheds  the  whole  year  round  has,  no  doubt. 
a  tendency  to  .soften  the  birds — resulting  in  loss  of  stamina,  and  rendering 
them  liable  to  catarrhal  troubles  and  diarrhoea.  Many  pullets  were  brought 
into  the  competition  that  had  never  tasted  green  grass,  nor  had  any  of 
nature's  favours,  such  as  insect  life,  and  the  many  varieties  of  seeds  which 
usually  abound  during  the  breeding  season.  In  nearly  every  case  those 
birds  raised  by  the  shedding  system  were  only  moderately  successful,  and 
were  the  cause  of  much  anxiety.  Some  of  them  broke  down,  and  most 
of  the  deaths  that  occurred  were  amongst  these.  This  grand  breed  runs 
a  great  risk  of  falling  in  public  favour  if  the  system  referred  to  is  carried 


io   J^L^■.    ii;!-'.]       Report  on  /-l^i^'lavii!^^  C o)npciiliou .   nj/i-ij.  431 

to  further  extreme.  Many  of  these  birds  were  delicate  feeders.  Some 
of  them  refused  maize,  otliers  oats;  some  would  not  look  at  soft  food; 
and  so  on ;  whilst  some  had  never  even  been  on  a  perch.  The  result  of 
ths  was  that,  in  some  cases,  the  hens  did  not  settle  down  to  work  for 
from  four  to  six  weeks.  Breeders  would  be  wise  to  develop  stronger  con- 
.-.titutions  in  the  young  birds  by  giving  them  absolute  liberty  to  pick  up 
insects,  seeds.  &:c..  in  the  natural  way — thus  building  up  frame  work  with 
plenty  of  stamina  to  hack  them  up  when  thev  are  required  for  the  'aying 
shed  or  pen. 

Orpingtons. 

Xext  to  the  White  Leghorns  in  numbers  come  the  Orpingtons,  and  with 
the.se  no  trouble  was  experienced.  They  were  docile,  blocky,  good  feeders'; 
and  in  no  case  was  it  necessary  to  handle  a  bird,  save  putting  the  leg  bands 
■on  their  shanks  when  they  arrived.  Not  a  single  death  or  replacement  took 
place,  and  they  showed  a  better  margin  of  profit  on  the  market  price  of 
•eggs  from  time  to  time  than  any  other  breed  in  the  competition ;  the 
average  gross  return  per  hen  among  the  Black  Orpingtons  being  shown 
in  the  following  table:  — 

Table  sJuming  Average  Gross  Return  from  Different  Breeds. 

Black    Orpingtons        ...  ...  ••■  iqs.    -d.  per  hen. 

White   Leghorns  ...  ...  ...  i8s.   od.  per  hen. 

Wvaudottes    and    Faverolles  ...  ...  15s.    id.  per  hen. 

Mi'nnrcas  ...  ...  •■•  •■■  ns.    5d.  per  hen. 

.Another  point  to  l^ar  in  mind  is  that,  after  their  season  of  usefulness 
for  laving  has  passed,  this  breed  commands  good  prices  as  boilers ;  and 
the  cockerels  double  the  returns  one  may  receive  when  marketing  White 
Leghorns.  Orpingtons  lay  a  large,  rich,  brown  egg,  and  are,  on  an 
.itverage,  the  best  winter  layers.  They  make  good  mothers,  and  are  not 
■so  liable  to  disea.se. 

Wyandottes. 

Xe.xt  in  importance  to  the  White  Leghorns  and  Orpingtons  come  the 
^^'yandottes — at  one  time  not  long  since  the  most  favoured  breed,  not 
■oniv  as  an  all-round  fowl,  but  one  much  sought  after  on  account  of  its 
nice  plump  size  and  beautiful  marking.  Three  varieties  of  this  breed 
were  represented,  i.e.,  Silver,  White,  and  Golden — the  former  holding 
pr.de  of  place.  They  gave  little  trouble ;  and  during  the  cold  weather, 
and  again  in  the  autumn,  they  produced  good  results.  They  are  found  a 
useful  utility  fowl — cockerels  at  seven  months  weighing  up  to  7  lbs. — and 
sickness  amongst  them  is  scarcely  known.  Wyandottes  in  pen  No.  32 
did  the  breed  credit,  going  through  the  twelve  months'  test  without  an  ail- 
ment, and  with  no  replacement,  producing  the  bulk  of  eggs  at  a  time  of 
the  greatest  scarcity  ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  compare  in  the  table  here- 
with the  market  value  of  eggs  laid  by  this  pen.  Some  others,  which, 
though  laying  more  eggs,  were  of  less  value  by  some  shillings — as  example 
in  pens  Nos.   3,   11,   28,  and  50. 

MlNORCAS. 

There  were  onlv  three  pens  of  Minorca s  in  the  competition — two  of 
them  being  positive  failures,  due  probably  to  the  desire  to  obtain  high, 
upstanding  birds  with  large  bodies,  heavy  combs,  and  coarse  heads  for 
the  show  bench  ;  characteristics  which  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  breed 


43- 


Jounial   of   Agriculture.    Yictoria.  [lo   July.    1912. 


lo  July,    191--]       Kcpart  au  l-.^^g-laynig  Com  petition,  1011-12. 


43.3 


lazy,  and.  consequently,  not  so  fertile.  It  is  regrettable  that  the  old  type 
Minorca  with  lighter  head  gear,  which  used  to  produce  an  egg  averaging 
2\  ozs.  in  weight,  has  almost  ceased  to  exist. 

Size  of  egg  is  a  matter  of  heredity,  and  should  he  caiefullx  considered 
when  mating  up  the  breeding  pens;  it  is  of  quite  equal  importance  as 
numbers.  It  i.s  not  uncommon  to  get  a  lid.  dozen  more  for  a  guaranteed 
2-oz.  egg  than  for  those  mixed  lots  too  often  seen  in  the  sale  rooms.  A 
few  years  back  Denmark  was  threatened  by  the  English  buyer,  that  unless 
the  eggs  improved  in  size,  the  firitish  ])ublic  would  look  elsewhere  for  the 
hen  product.  The  Danes  set  to  work  to  remedy  the  complaint;  and  in  a 
few  seasons  produced  what  is  known  at  the  present  time  as  [9  lbs.  weight 
for  long  hundreds  (120).  and  her  cash  receipts  for  hen  eggs  from  England 
is  e.stimated  at  nearly  ^3,000,000  per  annum.  Australian  poultrv  breeders 
would  be  wise  to  carry  this  fact  in  mind. 

Method  of  Housing. 
To    accommodate    the    competing    birds    commodious    pens    were    built. 
The  ground  on  which  thev  were  placed   was  cleared  and  drained.      They 


RESERVE    PEN    SHOWING    CONSTRUCTION    SHELTER    FRAME    AND    YOUNG    TREE 

BUDDLEIA    FORMOSA. 


were  built  under  the  supervision  of  the  Public  ^\  orks  Department ;  the 
dimension  of  each  pen  was  30  feet  by  12  feet.  The  pens  are  separated  by 
plain  sheet  iron,  3  feet  high,  and  this  is  again  surmounted  by  wire  netting 
(4  feet  by  2%  mesh  inches).  Xo  to]i  rail  finishes  off  these  partitions,  and 
consequentlv  there  is  no  inducement  for  the  fowls  to  reach  obstacles  that 
afford  no  footholil.  The  plain  sheet  iron  which  surrounds  the  runs  gives 
excellent  shelter  from  winds,  and  induces  (]uietude  amongst  the  birds. 
In  a  corner  of  each  pen  is  a  gahanized  iron  house  8  feet  by  4  feet — the 
frame  work  being  outside.  The  onlv  wood  seen  in  the  inside  of  ihe  house 
are  two  pieces  of  jarrah  15  inches  high  and  a  4-ft.  length  which  drops 
into  slots  in  the  uprights  and  forms  a  perch.     The-e  can  be  easily  removed 


434 


JouDial  of  Agriculture.   Victoria.  [lo   July,    1912- 


for  cleansing  and  [)eriodical  soaking  with  kerosene  to  prevent  vermin. 
On  tile  floor  is  6  inclies  of  sand,  which  goes  to  produce  both  cleanliness, 
and  comfort  to  the  birds.  It  is  also  a  safeguard  against  dirty  or  broken' 
eggs.  Outside  each  shed  a  triangular  sand  bath  was  provided  which, 
during  the  hot  weather,  was  kept  damp.  A  tin  is  kept  full  of  fresh 
water,  and  vessels  are  also  placed  conveniently  for  charcoal,  shell  and' 
earthenware  grit.  It  is  amazing  the  quantities  of  these  aids  to  digestion 
which  the  birds  consume.  Oaten  hay  is  placed  in  each  pen,  and  feed  is. 
scattered  amongst  this  to  induce  exercise.  Young  trees  (Buddleia  formosa) 
were  planted  in  the  centre  of  each  pen  ;  and  as  it  could  not  be  expected' 
they  would  provide  any  shade  during  the  first  year,  collapsible  frames  of 
light  timber  were  made  and  covered  by  hessian.  These  frames,  standing. 
like  an  inverted  V  (see  plate)  provided  excellent  shelter  from  the  blazing 
sun  during  summer,  and  allowed  free  circulation  of  air ;  and  it  is  pleasing. 
10  note  that  no  deaths  occurred  from  heat  apoplexy  during  the  whole  com- 
petition. The  general  health  of  the  birds  has  been  good  throughout,  with, 
the   exception   of    an   outbreak    of    chicken    pox    during    the   early    period. 


SHOWING    TRAYS    USED    IN    COI.LKCTING    AND    KGG    BOXES    FOR    DESPATCH. 

Twelve  deaths  occurred  throughout  the  competition,  principally  on  account 
of  troubles  of  the  reproductive  organs  ;  and  a  few  replacements  of  birds- 
took  place  owing  to  other  causes  incapacitating  them.  Of  the  three  lead- 
ing pens,  Mr.  Pope's  passed  through  without  sickness  or  replacement;. 
Mr.  Cosh  had  to  replace  one — a  wing  of  one  of  the  hens  having  been 
broken  ;  and  Mr.  Swift  had  also  to  replace  one,  owing  to  rupture  of  the- 
oviduct. 

Egg   Production. 

During  the  year  the  total  number  of  eggs  produced  was  73^325 ,  and 
these  were  sold  to  the  Victorian  Railways  at  is.  per  dozen — the  average- 
market  price  for  the  term  being  is.  2.38d.  per  dozen.  This  value  is  basecE 
on  the  figures  supplied  bv  the  Western  District  Co-operative  Association^, 
and  ranges  from  8fd.  on  17th  October,  to  is.   iid.  en  iith  May. 


so   July.    191J.]       Report  on  ligg-laying  Com pctiiioii ,   n)  11-12.  435 

Feeding. 
The  principal  constituents  of  all  food  are  proteids,  fats,  and  carbo- 
Jivdrates — each  of  which  plays  an  important  part  in  the  ration.  They 
ail  assist  in  producing  heat  to  the  animal  body,  though  fats  have  more 
than  double  the  heat  power  of  either  the  other  two.  Proicin  is  mainly 
for  the  repair  of  tissue,  and  is  considered  the  most  essential  part  of  a 
ration.  Carbo-hydrates  are  mainlv  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  body 
beat.  To  obtain  the  best  results,  these  substances  must  be  present  in  a 
well-balanced  proportion.  An  excess  of  any  one  of  them,  besides  being  a 
waste  of  food,  becomes  a  danger  to  the  birds  consuming.  The  proportion 
ii^.  which  they  should  exist  in  a  food  is  found  by  di\'iding  the  proteids 
present  into  the  sum  of  the  fats  multiplied  by  2^,  plus  carbo-hydrates; 
The  result  is  known  as  the  albumenoid  ratio.  Just  as  this  ratio  is  narrow 
(i  to  3)  or  wide  (i  to  12),  so  we  have  a  rich  or  poor  food.  If  too  rich,  the 
organs  of  digestion  become  weak  and  the  system  over-laden  ;  whilst  if  too 
poor,  the  organs  are  over-taxed  in  an  endeavour  to  obtain  sufficient  nourish- 
ment for  the  system.  When  the  hen  is  required  to  yield  a  large  number 
of  eggs,  the  ratio  should  be  narrow  ;  whilst  when  eggs  are  not  required, 
she  may  be  fed  on  a  wider  ratio.  A  certain  amount  of  moisture  is  re- 
quired, which,  if  in  excess,  and  the  food  sloppy,  has  a  tendency  to  pass 
through  the  system  too  rapidly,  and  even  to  induce  scouring — this  should 
be  avoided  at  all  costs.  The  system  of  feeding  mash  in  the  evening  and 
grain  in  the  morning — followed  by  some  poultry-keepers  in  order  to  save 
a  little  time — is  one  which  does  not  induce  the  best  results.  The  hot  meal 
in  the  morning  has  a  more  stimulating  effect,  carrying  the  bird  through  the 
day  in  good  fettle  ;  and  the  grain  fed  at  night,  being  .somewhat  slow^er  of 
digestion,  keeps  up  the  body  temperature  for  a  longer  period  through  the 
night. 

Analyses   of  Food   Used. 
Digestible   Constituents  in   100  lbs. 

Pollard        

Bran    (Wheat) 
Branning    (Oats)     ... 

Rye  

Oats 
Maize 
Wheat 

Lucerne    chaff 
Bullock's   liver 

The  feeding  of  the  birds  was  conducted  along  common-sense  lines, 
guided  in  all  cases  by  scientific  principles,  and  using  only  those  foods 
which  breeders  in  any  part  of  the  State  could  obtain.  There  has  been 
no  forced  feeding  of  the  birds  by  means  of  spices  or  expensive  ingredients 
at  any  time.  The  regime  of  feeding  throughout  the  competition  has  been 
as  follows  :- — • 

At  7  a.m.  a  hot  mash  was  fed, 'consisting  of  two  parts  pollard  (20  lbs.), 
one  part  of  oat-branning  (6  lbs.),  and  one  part  of  lucerne  chaff  (4  lbs.), 
which  was  scalded  over  night.  To  this  w^as  added  25  lbs.  of  boiled 
bullock's  liver  finely  chopped— the  whole  then  being  mixed  together  to  a 
crumbly  consistency  by  adding  sufficient  of  the  liquid  in  which  the  livers 
yvere  boiled.  Care  is"  necessary,  in  order  to  have  the  n^;^sh  as  friable  as 
possible.       The  ratio  of  such  a  mixture  is    i  :2.36,   which  is  a  narrow  one. 


•otein. 

Cai 

•boh\(lrates. 

Fat. 

12.2 

53-4 

3.8 

12.2 

39-2 

2.7 

14. q 

S1.8 

7.9 

9-9 

67.6 

I .  I 

9.2 

47-3 

4.2 

7-9 

66.7 

4-3 

10.2 

69.2 

1.7 

II. 0 

39.6 

1.2 

20.7 

1.5 

4-5 

436 


Jonnial  of   AgriciiUiirc.    Vutflna. 


[lo  July.    19 12. 


Each  pen  rfceixed,  approximately.  15  ozs.  of  this  mash.  Two  or  three 
times  a  week  lo  per  cent,  of  raw  onion  was  added,  and  this  was  found 
to  be  highly  beneficial. 


PEN    NO.    31.    R.    W.    pope's    WHITE    LEGHORNS. 

ist  in  competition,  greatest  number  of  eggs,   viz.,    1,566      Value,  £j'j  6s.  2d.      Net 

profit   per  hen,    17s.    lOgd.       ist   [irize,   ^neatest  weight   of   eggs,   1933  lbs. 

At  mid-da V  green  feed  in  the  form  of  lucerne,  chick-weed,  thistles,  and 
clo\er  mowings,  &c.,   from  the  lawns  in  the  Burnley  Gardens  were  given; 


pv 

VI 

■ 

^Md                 ^^^^^^^B 

A  .^^^^^^1 

H      -.^H 

^H'v^                      i^^^^^^^^^^H 

"  "    ^H^^^^^^^^^^ 

^^m 

^B               ^^^H 

wU^             t  <  ^I^^^^^^^H 

^IH 

v^ 

^^K^r  "^  tJT                       ^^^^1^9 

■i^_  -j^^B^^^HH 

Ktfnn| 

^3 

IHEftdflr  y^'..-  ^L  VH 

HH^^^HH 

HI 

H 

^^^^^^Q|Lk^ 

^.^^.^_^ 

PEN   NO.     \2.    W.    G.    SWIFT   S    WHITE   LEGHORNS. 

■Winners  of  Winter  Test,     zwd  in  com]ietition,   1,546  eggs  laid.      Value  £-;  3s.  q^d. 

Cost   of    feed,   £.\    i8s.    io^<l.       Profit   per   hen,    i-s.    6d. 

whilst  in  the  cold,  wet  weather  a  small  quantit)  (ai)proximately  5  ounces 
to  each  pen)  of  mash,  made  of  equal  parts  of  pollard  and  wheat  bran  was 
added. 


ic   July,    i(;i::.|       Report  on  Egg-layiiig  Competition,   igii-u.  437 

The  evening  nu'al  was  composed  of  a  grain  mixlun^  4  parts  wheat 
(approximately  19^  lbs.),  3  parts  broken  maize  (a])pr()\imately  ii|  lbs.), 
and  2  parts  of  short  oats  (approximately  6^  lbs).  The  allowance  lo  each 
pen  W'as,  approximately,  12^  ozs.  A  ratio  is  obtained  from  this  food  of 
I  :  8.6,  or  an  average  for  the  day  of  i  :  4.13. 

Variations  in  Feeding. 
It  is  impossible  in  dealing  with  a  large  number  of  birds  to  adhere  to 
any  strict  rule-of -thumb  methods  throughout  a  twelve-months'  competition. 
The  above  ration  may.  however,  be  taken  as  typical  of  that  given  during 
the  cold  weather.  Under  warmer  conditions  variations  were  made,  as,  for 
example,  the  meat  ration  was  reduced,  and  only  12  lbs.  of  meat  used  in 
place  of  the  25  lbs.,  whilst  the  quantitv  of  lucerne  chaff  was  increased  ;  ^also, 
the  mid-dav  mash  was  omitted,  and  a  handful  of  grain  scattered  in  each 
pen  to  induce  exercise.  For  the  evening  meal  the  maize  ration  was  reduced, 
and  in  some  cases  wheat  only  would  be  given.  Pens  containing  heavier 
breeds  received  a  slightly  increased  quantity  ;  whilst  occasionally  it  would 
be  found  that  a  pen  would  become  slightly  sluggish  in  appetite,  and  under 
such  circumstances  it  was  necessarv  to  reduce  the  ration  until  their  avidity 
for  food  returned.  Discretion  is  necessary  in  such  matters  to  prevent  the 
bringing  about  of  digestive  derangements  ;  and  a  large  measure  of  the 
success  achieved  is  attributable  to  care  in  this  matter,  for  in  no  cases 
throughout  the  competition  was  "sour  crop  "  or  other  digestive  troubles 
encountered.  A  con.stant  supplv  of  shell  grit,  charcoal,  &:c.,  was  main- 
tained in  separate  receptacles,   placed  within  easy  reach  of  the  birds. 

Amount  of  Food  Purchased. 


Bran,    11 72   bushels 

£5 

5 

; 

Pollard,    440    bushels 

25 

13 

8 

Pea  meal,  4  cwt.    i   (|r.    12   lbs. 

I 

15 

5 

Maize,   60  bushels 

8 

10 

9 

Wheat,    251I    bushels 

44 

19 

7 

Rye,    305    bushels 

A 

5 

0 

Branning,   2-20   bushels 

8 

3 

0 

Oats,     17    bushels 

4 

19 

9 

Onions,    5    cwt. 

0 

15 

0 

Lucerne   chaff,   twelve  bags 

3 

0 

0 

Shell   grit,   charccial,   bone-meal, 

,  &c.. 

16  cwt.   2   qrs. 

3 

14 

9 

Meat 

£ 

32 

0 

0 

143 

2 

6 

At  the  close  of  the  competition  there  was  op  hand  i  bag 
maize,  i  bag  of  lucerne,  i  charcoal,  2  of  oats  5  of 
bran,  2  of  pollard,  50*"  wheat,  and  half  a  bag  of 
bone-meal  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...      ^0     2     2 

The  cost  of  feeding  prior  to  the  opening  of  the  com- 
petition while   the  birds  were  in   the   peiis   was  .  .  ^     ;^     2 

The  cost  of  feeding  Pen  No.  29  (disqualified)  for  four- 
teen weeks  was     ...  ...  ...  ...  ...         oiio 


£^4   16     4 


Therefore,    ihe    cost    cf    feeding    66    pens    throiigiiout    the 

competition   was  ...  ...  •■•  ..._^i28     6     2 

If  allowance  were  made  for  the  amount  cA  food  eaten  by  rats,  which 
were,  unfortunately,  somewhat  numerous  at  times,  the  cost  of  feeding 
would  be  appreciablv  less. 


438 


J  oil  null  of  Agriculture.    Victoria.  [lo   July,    191 2. 


Prize    List. 
The   prizes   offered    in   the   c-ompetition   were  : — 

(i)   The    Greatest    Number    of   Eggs   Laid. 


Prize.                                     Wmii3ri. 

Breed. 

l,st_£10           ..         R.  W.  Pope 
2nd— £5           .  .         W.  G.  Swift 
3id— £3           . .         A.  J.  Co3h 

White  Leghorns. 

Number  of  Eggs. 


1,566 
1,546 
1,539 


(2)   Winter    Test — Greatest   Number   of   Eggs   Liid   for   Four   Months. 
1st— £4  ..        W.G.Swift  ..    I  White  Leghorns..    ,  479 


♦2nd— £2 


1st— £3 


A.  J.  Cosh  .  .  „  „         . .    I  470 

(3)   Greatest  Weight  of  Eggs  Laid. 
R.W.Pope  ..       White  Leghorns. .    I  3,075|  ozs. 


It  will  be  .seen  from  the  accompanying  table  that  Mr.   Cosh's  pen  put 
up  the  rather  remarkaljle  record  of  o\  er   100  eggs  each  month  throughout 


PEN   NO.    40.     A.    J. 
2u  1    I'rize  Winter  Test,  470  eggs 
Value  £~   ,ss.   S^i. 


COSII  S   WHITE  LEGi:o;<xs. 

3rd   Prize  comjietition  ;    eggs   laid,    1,539. 
Net   profit    ])er   lien,    17s.    tjd. 


the  year.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  how  often,  if  ever,  this  has 
been  done  in  any  tiovernment  ccmpetit'on.  The  record  of  three  separate 
pens  in  the  competition  attaining  a  score  of  over  1,500  eggs  each  is  also 
worthy  of  note.  The  table  also  shows  the  actual  number  of  eggs  laid  by 
each  pen,  together  with  those  which  were  rejected  for  being  under  weight 
or  soft-shelled.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  total  of  42  was  rejected  for  being 
under  weight,  and  64  for  being  soft-shelled.  Though  .some  of  the  pens 
do  not  show  an  average  weight  of  24  ozs.  per  dozen  on  the  twelve  months' 
work,  no  pen  was  disqualified  at  the  end  of  the  first  four  months,  all  pens 
having  conformed  to  the  rule  relating  to  this  aspect  of  the  competition. 


lo   JuLV.    K)!-^.]       Report  oil  lii^i^-lay'ni}:^  Com pcti/ioii .   n)ii-i2. 


4,i9 


Concerning  tht-  weight  of  eggs,  it  .should  be  pointed  out  that  the  figures 
are  actual  weights — not  those  based  on  averages  at  intermittent  weighings. 
The  eggs  laid  each  dav  were  weighed  and  recorded  daily.  The  winner's 
.score  of  192^  lbs.  was  a  fine  performance,  averaging  34  lbs.  of  eggs  from 
each  hen  (a  hen  may  l)e  estimated  to  weigh  5  lbs.),  and  thus  showing  a 
reiurn  of  practically  seven  times  their  own  weight  in  eggs. 

As  has  alreadv  been  stated,  the  eggs  were  sold  at  is.  per  dozen.  This, 
however,  was  not  the  market  price.  The  table  given  at  a  later  .stage  is 
worked  out  on  the  actual  market  price  obtainable  for  fresh  eggs  twice  in 
everv  week  during  the  competition.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that 
the  market  value  of  the  eggs  was  £,1^9  us  7|d.,  or  an  average  of  £,A 
1 6s.  loid.  per  pen,  and  i6s.  ifd.  per  bird.  The  cost  of  feeding  was 
6s.  6d.  per  hen,  so  that  an  average  profit  of  9s.  yjd.  is  shown.  The 
highest  score — pen  No.  31 — shows  a  return  of  ^7  6s.  2d.;  consequently, 
the  profit  over  feeding  was  ;^5  7s.  3|d.,  or  17s.  loW.  per  bird;  while 
the  lowest  pen.  No.  48,  with  a  return  of  £,2  7s.  11  id.  shows  a  profit  of 
only  9s.   id.  for  the  pen.  or  is.   6d.  per  bird, 

Brooditiess. — The  number  of  broodies  amongst  the  Leghorns  and 
Minorcas  was  27  ;  the  heavier  breeds  occupied  the  coops  frequently.  In 
no  case  was  there  much  difficulty  in  JDreaking  them — the  system,  as  .shown 
in    the   photo,    being   to  enclose   them   in   a    small    coop,    which    was   left    in 


SHOWING    THE    BROULiY    CAGE. 


their  own  yard.  By  following  this  system  it  is  claimed  that  they  return 
more  quickly  to  the  lay,  for  the  excitement  of  moving  them  from  their 
companions  and  excessive  handling  is  avoided,  and  they  are  found  to  return 
to  egg-production   within   seven  or  eight  days. 

Weather  Conditions. — Taken  as  a  whole,  the  weather  conditions  were 
favorable.  During  the  early  months  some  unpleasant  days  and  nights 
were  experienced,  considerable  rain  fell,  and  many  days  were  muggy;  later 
some  wind  and  frost  was  experienced.  During  the  summer  months  many 
changes  occurred,  frequently  extremes  following  in  quick  order  from  high 
temperatures  one  day  to  cold  the  next.  In  the  early  summer,  in  order  to 
keep  the  houses  as  cool  as  possible, they  were  painted  with  a  cooling  compo, 
which  had  the  effect  of  reducing  the  temperature  very  considerably. 


440 


Journal  of  Agriculture.    Victoria.  [lo    July.    1912. 


Summary. 
Number  of  ]jens,  66. 
Number  of  birds,  396. 
Total  number  of  eggs  laid,  73.3-25. 
Average  market  value  per  dozen,   is.   2-38d. 
Market  value,  ;^3iQ  ns.   ~^(^. 
Cost  of  feed,  ^128  6s.   2d. 
Profit  over   feeding,  /.191   5s.   5gd 
Greatest  number  of   eggs   laid,    1,566. 
Average  number  per  hen,  261. 
Second  greatest  number  of  eggs  laid,   1,^46. 
Third  greatest  number  ol   eggs  laid,    i  :;39- 
Highest  score  bv  pen,  one  week,  41. 
Highest  total   score  for  week,  2,072. 
Highest  total  score  for  day,  316. 
Average  number  of   eggs  per  pen,    1,110.9. 
Average  number  of  eggs  laid  per  hen,   185. i. 
Average  cost  of  food  per  hen,  6s.  6d. 
Average  profit  over  cost  of   feeding,   9s.    7fd. 
Highest  profit   obtained   per  hen,    17s.    lo^d. 
Lowest  profit   obtained   per  hen,   is.  6d. 
Weight  of  eggs  laid   bv   winning   pen — i    cwt. 
Weight  of  eggs  laid  by  second  pen — i  cwt 
\\'eight  of  eggs  laid  by  third  pen — i  cwt.   ; 


2   qrs.    24   lbs.   3I   ozs. 
2  qrs.  22  lbs.  45  ozs. 
qrs.   27,  lbs.  of  oz. 


PEN    NO.     50.     FAVEROLLE.S. 
Laid   1,030  eggs.       Value,   £^   los.   6d.       Profit,   8s.    7^d.    per  bird. 


lo  July.    191-.J       Report  on  /\g^-lciyiiii^  Com pcti'ioii.  njii-12. 


441 


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442 


Journal  of  Agriculture.    Victoria.  [lo   July.    191 2. 


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ID   July.    lyi^-]       Vcniacidar  Xamcs  of  Victorian  Plants.  ^43 


VERNACULAR   NAMES   OF    VICTORIAN   PLANTS. 

CoDimunkated  by  Alfred  J.  Eivart,  D.Sc.  Ph.D.,  F.L.S.,  Chairman,  and 
C.  S.  Sutton,  M.B.,  CJi.B.,  Secretary,  of  the  Plant  Xames  Committee 
of  the  Victorian  Field  Naturalists'  Club. 

In  the  Journal  of  Agriculture  for  191  i,  a  list  of  the  vernacular  names 
for  approximately  one-third  of  the  Victorian  flora  was  given.  The  present 
list  comprises  the  second  third  of  the  flora  extending  from  Dilleniaceae  to 
the  Myrtaceae.  As  in  the  previous  list  opportunity  has  been  taken  at  the. 
same  time  to  add  data  in  regard  to  the  economic  value  or  use  of  all  the 
native  plants  mentioned.  In  some  cases  in  particular  it  is  surprising  what 
little  importance  is  attached  to  many  native  plants  of  pronounced  decora- 
tive value  for  garden  purposes,  and  in  hardly  any  case  have  our  native 
plants  been  used  for  selective  garden  cultivation,  although  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  would  be  possible  to  raise  from  many  of  them  garden  plants 
equal  in  interest  and.  beauty  to  any  at  present  known.  Such  genera  as 
Pultenaea  and  Acacia  afford  an  almost  unlimited  opportunity  for  the 
activities  of  the  plant  breeder  in  search  of  garden  novelties,  and  our  native 
Violets,  Boronias,  Phebaliums,  Eriostemons,  and  others,  particularly  among 
the  Papilionaceae.  are  not  only  worthy  of  garden  cultivation  in  their  present 
form,  but  should  improve  under  cultivation  from  a  gardener's  point  of 
view. 

Even  in  the  case  of  plants  for  which  a  definite  economic  value  has  been 
recogni-sed,  it  cannot  be  said  that  in  all  cases  full  recognition  of  their 
economic  value  has  been  made.  For  instance,  although  the  value  of  salt- 
bushes  as  fodder  plants  for  dry  districts  is  recognised  in  theory,  it  is 
certainly  not  always  recognised  in  practice,  since  in  many  districts  the  more 
useful  saltbushes  have  been  allowed  to  be  eaten  right  out  by  stock,  and 
it  is  only  very  rarelv  indeed  that  any  attempt  at  replanting  has  been  made. 
The  fact  that  large  quantities  of  saltbush  seed  have  been  exported  abroad, 
particularly  to  America,  is  sufficient  to  show  that  other  countries  have 
recognised  the  value  of  these  plants  for  fodder  in  dry  districts,  and  have 
found  it  profitable  to  plant  them  and  encourage  their  spread.  Even  in 
the  case  of  the  Acacias,  which  are  among  the  best  appreciated  of  our  native 
plants,  it  is  surely  an  anomaly  that  Australia  .should  be  importing  wattle- 
bark  from  Australian  Acacias,  grown  in  other  countries.  Apart  from  the 
Acacias,  ..the  present  list  does  not  include  many  native  timber  trees,  but  the 
Sheokes,  Bulokes,  and  Belar,  the  Myrtle  Beech,  and  the  Yellow'  Wood, 
are  of  more  or  less  importance  as  supplying  firewood  or  timber  for  special 
purposes. 

In  regard  to  the  vernacular  names,  the  present  list,  like  the  previous  one, 
is  provisional,  and  is  open  to  suggestions  or  criticisms.  Many  criticisms 
or  suggestions  have  alreadv  been  received,  discussed,  and,  in  som.e  cases, 
adapted  by  the  Commitlee,  but  for  the  most  part  the  names  put  forward 
have  met  with  general  approval,  and  seem  likely  to  be  generally  accepted. 
The  working  Committee  has  undergone  but  little  alteration  since  the  last 
issue.      Mr.   McLennan,  owing  to  his  appointment  to  the  Principalship  of 


444 


Journal  of  Agriculture.    Victoria.  [lo   July.    1912. 


the  Agricultural  School  at  Warragul,  has  been  unable  to  take  an  active  part 
in  the  work  of  the  Committee.  The  remaining  active  members  of  the 
Committee  by  whom  the  final  decisions  have  been  made  are  : — 

Chairman:  A.  J.   Ewart,  D.Sc,   Ph.D..   F.L.S. 
Honorary  Secretary  :  C.  S.  Sutton.  M.B.,  Ch.B. 
Committee:    Messrs.    F.   G.   A.    Barnard.   J.   A.   Leach,   M.Sc.    F. 
Pitcher,  P.  R.  H.   St.  John,  and  J.  R.  Tovey. 

In  addition  to  those  mentioned  in  the  previous  list,  the  following  have 
forwarded  valuable  suggestions  or  criticisms  : — Messrs.  R.  Kelly,  G.  Wein- 
dorfer,  A.  G.  Campbell,  J.  P.  Eckert,  C.  French,  senior,  and  minor  sug- 
gestions have  been  received  from  a  large  number  of  correspondents.  One 
point  which  may  be  emphasized  is  that  the  Committee  prefers  criticism  to 
indifference,  and,  in  fact,  some  valuable  suggestions  have  come  from  corre- 
spondents who  disapprove  entirely  of  the  encouragement  of  the  use  of  ver- 
nacular names  for  native  plants. 


Botanical  Name. 


DICOTYLEDONE/E. 


Popular  Name. 


Use  or  Character. 


DlILENIACE.E. 

Hibbertia — 

densiflora,  F.v.M. 
stricta,  R.Br, 
humifusa.  F.v.M. 
Billardieri.  F.v.M. 
acicularis.  F.v.M. 
serpyllifolia,  R.Br. 

pedunculata,  R.Br, 
procumbens,  D.C. 
fasciculata,  R.Br. 
virgata,  R.Br.  .  . 
linearis,  R.Br.  .  . 
diffusa.  R.Br.  .  . 
dentata.  R.Br.    . . 


RANUNCUL.iCE.E. 

Clematis — 

aristeta,  R.Br.  . . 
glycinoides,  D.C. 
micropliylla.  D.C. 


Myosurus — 

minimus.  L. 
Ranunculus — 

parviflorus,  L.    . . 

hirtus,  Banks  &  Sol. 

rivularis.  Banks  &  Sol. 

Muelleri,  Bentham 

lappaceus.  Smith 

Gunnianus.  Hook. 

anemonens.  F.v.M. 

Millani.  F.v.M.    .. 

aquatilis.  L. 
Caltha — 

introloba.  F.v.M. 


CER.\TOPHyLLAC'E*. 

Ceratophyllum — 
demersum,  L. 


CHORIPETALE-li:    HVPOGYN^. 


Silky  Guinea  Flower 
Erect  Guinea  Flower 
Mountain  Guinea  Flower. 
Trailing  Guinea  Flower    . 
Prickly  Guinea  Flower 
Thyme-leaved  Guint 

Flower 
Stalked  Guinea  Flower     . 
Spreading  Guinea  Flower 
Bundled  Guinea  Flower 
Twiggy  Guinea  Flower 
Showy  Guinea  Flower 
Rigid  Guinea  Flower 
Toothed  Guinea  Flower 


Greater  Clematis 
Erect  Clematis  .  . 
Smaller  Clemati? 


Mousetail 

Small-flowered  Buttercup 
Hairy  Buttercup 
River  Buttercup 
Felted  Buttercu]! 
Common  Buttercup 
Tutted  Buttercuji 
Snowy  Buttercup 
Dwarf  Alpine  Buttercuji  . 
Water  Buttercup 

.\lpine  Marsh  Marigold     . 


Common  Hornwort 


,  Amost  all  very   common    bush   plants 
[      all  bearing  bright  yellow  flowers. 


1  Charming  climbers.  The  flrst  is  one  of 
I  the  most  beautiful  features  of  the 
r  vegetation  of  our  moist  gullies  and 
riversides,  and  the  last  of  the  coast 
■^       and  drier  districts,  like  the  Mallee. 

No  known  economic  value. 


All  are  acrid  and  unpalatable  to  stock 
and  R.  rivularis  has  been  suspected 

.  of  being  poisonous.  When  dried 
in  hay,  the  acrid  properties  are 
largely  lost. 


Of  no  known  economic  value. 


A  troublesome  water  weed  in  ponds  and 
small  slowly  flowing  stream.s. 


TO   July.    191 2.]       Vernacular  Names  of  Victorian  Plants. 


445 


Vernacular  Names  of  Victorian  Plants — continued. 


Botanical  Name. 


Popular  Xaiuc. 


Use  or  Character. 


Dicotvledoxe.t:  -Choripetale-"e  Hypduvx.^ — continupd. 

XyMPHACACE.B. 


Erase  nia — 

Si'lirel)eri.  Gnielin 


Magxoliace.i; 


Driiiiyg — 

aroniatica,  F.v.M. 


EupdlHUtiu — 

laurina.  R.Br. 


MOSIMIACE^. 


At)wrospeniin — 

inoscliatuni,  Labill. 


IledjfCarya — 

Cunniiighami.  Tulasne 


LArRACEiE. 

CKSsythd — 

glabella,  R.Br.    . . 
piibescens,  R.Br. 
phaeolasia.  F.v.M. 
paniculata,  R.Br. 
luplaiitha.  R.Br. 


MEXISPERMACEiE. 

SarcopetuJii  in — 

Harveyauuni.  P.v.il. 
Srepkmiia — 

hernandifolia.  Walpers 


Papaverace.e. 

Papaver — 

aculeatum,  Thuiili. 


t'APPARIDACEiE. 

Cappftris — 

Jritchellii,  Lindley 


CRl'CIFER^. 

yastiirtium — 

terrestre.  R.Br. 

Barbiirea — 

vulgaris.  R.Br. 
Afthis — 

glabra.  Crantz.   . . 
Ctrdamine — 

stylosa.  D.C. 

dictyosperma,  Hook?r 

laciuiata.  F.v.M. 

hir.^uta,  L. 

eiistylis,  F.v.M. 


Water  Shield 


Mountain  Pepper 


Southern  Sassafras 
Austral  Mulberrv 


Tangled  Dodder-laurel 
Downy  Dodder-laurel 
LouK-spiked  Dodder-laurel 
RibljiMl  Dodder-laurel 
Lart'e  Doihler-laurel 


Bigleaved  Vine 
Stephania 


Austral  Poppy 


Desert^Caper 


Yellow  Water-cress 

Bitter  Water-cress 

Smooth  Rock-cress 

Long-styled  Bitter-cress 
Forest  Bitter-cress 
Jagged  Bitter-cress 
Hairy  Bitter-cress 
Dwarf  Bitter-cress 


The  leaves  are  astringent,  have  been  em- 
ployed in  medicine. 


The  fruit  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute 
for  pepper  or  allspice.  The  leaves  and 
bark  also  have  a  hot  biting  cinnamon- 
like  taste. 


A   small  tree.     The   wood   is   soft,   close' 
coarse  grained. 


The    wood    is    close    grained,    useful    for 
cabinet  making,  A-c. 

The  wood  is    close    grained    and    tough, 
suitable  for  cabinet  making. 


^  These  unsightly  parasitic  plants  often 
V  have  a  detrimental  effect  on  ithe 
j      growth  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  which 

J      they  infest. 


i^Hardy    evergreen    climhers.^sonietinies 
f      grown  in  gardens. 


A^weed,  perhaps  feebly  poisonous 


Fruit  1  to  2  inches  in  diameter.     The  pulp 
is  eaten  by  the  natives. 


When   luxuriant,   mav   be  used  as  a  pot- 
herl). 


Of  uo  known  economic  value. 


\  Of  slight    fodder   value,    but    generally 
considered  to  be  weeds. 


446 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo  July,    1912. 


Vernacular  Names  of  Victorian  Plants — continued. 


Botanical  Name. 


Popular  Name. 


Use  or  Character. 


DicoTYLEDONE.E  — Choklpetale^  Hypog yn^  — cow^mMerf. 
CRtJCiFEii.«! — continued. 


Malcolmia— 

africana,  R.Br.  . . 
Blennodia — 

trisecta,  Beath. 

nasturtioides.  Benth. 

Lucae,  F.v.M.     . . 

cardaminoides,  F.v.M. 

curvipes,  F.v.M. 

brevipes,  F.v.M. 

lasiocarpa,  F.v.M. 

alpestris,  F.v.M. 
Alyssum — 

minimum,  Pallas 
Stenopetalum — • 

velutiQum,  F.v.M. 

lineare,  B.Br. 

sphaerocarpum,  F.v.M. 
Geococeus — - 

PusiUous,  D.  &  H. 
Menkea — 

australis,  Lehmanu 


elliptica,  C.A.  Meyer 

aatipoda,  F.v.M. 

pilosula,  F.v.M. 
Lepidium — 

leptopetalum,  F.v.M. 

phlebopetalum,  F.v.M. 

monoplocoides,  F.v.M. 

papillosum,  F.v.M. 

foliosum,  Desvaux 

ruderale,  L. 
CakiU — 

maritima,  Scopoli 


VlOLACE^. 

Viola— 

betonicifolia,  Smith 

hederacea,  Labill. 

Caleyana,  G.  Don. 
Hyhanthus — 

floribundus,  F.v.M. 

Veraonii,  F.v.M. 

flliformis,  F.v.M. 
UymenarUhera — 

Baaksii,  F.v.M. 


PlTTSOPOEACE^. 


PUtosporum — 

*undulatum,  Andrew.-: 


revolutum,  Alton 
phiUyraeoides,  D.C. 


bicolor,  Hook     . . 
Bursaria — 

spinosa,  Cavanillcs 


Malcolmia 

Woody  Blenaodia 
Yellow  Blennodia 
Robust  Blenaodia 
Sand  Blennodia 
Curved  Blennodia 
Short  Blennodia 
Hairy  Blennodia 
Mountain  Blennodia 

Desert  Alyssum 

Velvety  Thread-petal 
Narrow  Thread-petal 
Pea  Thread-petal 

Earth  Cress 

Fairy  Spectacles 

Oval  Shepherd's  Purse 
Southern  Shepherd's  Purse 
Hairy  Shepherd's  Purse   . . 

Slender  Pepper-cress 
Veined  Pepper-cress 
Winged  Pepper-cress 
Warty  Pepper-cress 
Leafy  Pepper-cress 
Rubble  Pepper-cress 

Sea-rocket 


Purple  Violet 
Common  Violet 
Forest  Violet 

Shrub  Violet 
Erect  Violet 
Slender  Violet 

Tree  Violet 


Allied  to  the  Virginian  stock. 


Has  a  certain  fodder  value  for  sheep, 
but  gives  an  unpleasant  flavour  to 
the  milk  and  butter  of  cows.  B.  lasio- 
eirp.i  is  perhaps  the  most  readily 
eaten. 


Sweet  Pittosporum 


Curled  Pittosporum 
Weeping  Pittosporum 


Banyalla 

Sweet  Bursaria  . . 


-All  have  a  slight  pasture  value,  but  are 
generally  classed  as  useless  weeds. 


-Of  very  slight  pasture  value,  but  usually 
classed  as  weeds. 


All  are  pretty  plants,  and  might  be  im- 
proved by  cultivation  in  gardens. 


A  shrub  adapted  for  formation  of  close 
hedges.  Stands  clipping  well.  Flowers 
very  fragrant. 


Wood  close  grained.  Easily  wrought  and 
well  adapted  for  turners'  purposes. 
Flowers  give.a  fr^gra^t.. volatile  oil  on 
distillation.     A  useful  hedge  plant. 

No  special  economic  value,  but  might  be 
used  for  hedges. 

A  valuable  stand-by  for  stock  in  drought 
time.     Timber  very  hard,  makes  excel- 
lent tool  handles,  and  can   be  recom 
mended  for  wood  engraving. 

Useful  for  hedges. 

Varies  from  a  shrub  to  a  small  tree.  Would 
form  a  fragrant  hedge.  Foliage  eaten 
by  sheep.  Often  covered  with  a  sooty 
fungus  (Capnodium). 


Plants  marked  thus  are  listed  either  as  growing  plants  or  as  seeds  by  one  or  more  of  our  florists. 


TO   July.    191 2.]       V crime iilar  Names  of  Vieforian  I'laiils. 


447 


Vernacular  Names  of  Victorian  Vl\^t&— continued. 


Botanical  Name. 


Popular  Name. 


Use  or  Cliaractcr. 


DiGOTYLEDOXE.E — Ohobipetale.e  Hypo3Yn.e — zoiitiriuzd. 


PITTOSPORACE.E — continued. 
Murianthus — 

procumbens,  Beuth. 

bigaouiaceus,  F.v.M. 
Billardieru— 

longiBora,  Labill. 

scandeas.  Smith 

cymosa,  F.v.M. 
C'heirarUhera — 

linearis,  Cuoniagham 


Droseiiace.e. 
Druserii — 

indica,  L. 
Arcturi,  Hook     . . 
glanduligera,  Lehmanii 
pygmaea,  D.C.    . . 
spathulata.  Labill 
binata,  Labill.    . . 
Whittakerii,  Planelion 
auriculata,  Backlioiise 
peltata,  Smith    . . 
Menziesii,  R.Br. 


Elatinace.e. 


Elatine — 

americaua,  Arnott 


Bergia — 

ammauuioides,  Roxb. 


GUTTIFERJS. 

Hypericum — 

japonicum,  Thunb. 


POLYGALACE/E. 

Polygala^ 

3ibirica,  L. 
Coinesperma — 

scoparium,  Steetz 

volubile,  Labill. 

retusum,  Labill. 

ericinum,  D.C.    . . 

calymega,  Labill. 

defoliatum,  F.v.M. 

polygaloides,  F.v.M. 


TREMANDEACE.E. 

Tetratheca — 

ciliata,  Lindley  .  . 
ericifolia,  Smith.  . 
pilosa,  Lab. 


RUTACEyE. 
Zierici — 

laevigata.  Smith 
aspalathoides.  Cuiiuiagli. 
cytisoides.  Smith 
Smithii,  Andrews 

veronicea,  F.v.M. 


White  Marianth 
Orange  Bell-climber 

Purple  Apple-berry 
Solid  Apple-berry 
Sweet  Apple-berry 

Finger  Flower  . . 


Desert  Sundew   . . 
Alpine  Sundew  . . 
Scarlet  Sundew 
Tiny  Sundew 
Spoonleaved  Sundew 
Forked  Sundew 
Scented  Sundew 
Tall  Sundew 
Erect  Sundew     . . 
Climbing  Sundew 


Wuter-pepper 
Water-nre  Tree 


Small  St.  John's  Wort 


Dwarf  Milkwort 

Broom  Milkwort 
Love  Creeper 
Mountain  Milkwort 
Heath  Milkwort 
Blue  Spiked  Milkwort 
Leatles.-i  Milkwort 
Small  Milkwort 


Variable  Pinkeyes 
Heath  Pinkeyes . . 
Hairy  Pinkeyes 


Angular  Zieria 
Hairy  Zieria 
Downy  Zieria 
Sandfly  Zieria 

Pink  Zieria 


Might  repay  garden  cultivation. 
One  of  our  most  beautiful  climbers 


>A11  are  worthy  of  cultivation  in  gardci; 


The  leaves  of  all  the  species  capture 
and  digest  insects.  Sometimes 
stated  to  be  dangerous  to  stock, 
but  Qu  unsatisfactory  evidence. 


Of  no  known  economic  value. 


A  useless  weed. 


Of  no  known  economic  value. 

Possibly  worthy  of  garden  cultivation. 
A  hardy  evergreen  twiner. 

1 
Some    are    possibly    worth  growing 
gardens. 


Among    the     be.st    known     and     most 
admired  plants  of  our  bush. 


\  Might   be  worth  adding  to   tli''  list   of 
1      our  garden  plants. 

The  yellow  inner  bark  of  this  species  is 
suitable  for  dyeing. 
I  Well   worth   adding   to    the  list    of   our 
j      garden  plants. 


448 


Journal   of   Agriculture.    \'ictoria.  [lo   July.    191 2. 


Vernacular  Names  of  Victorian  Plants — continued. 

Botanical  Name.                             Popular  Xaine. 

Use  or  Character. 

DicOTYLEDONE.E — Choripetale.e  Hypogyn.e — Continued. 


RriACE/E — continued. 
Boronia — 

algida.  F.v.M.     .  . 
*pinuata.  Smith  .  . 
pilosa,  Labill. 
coerulescens,  F.v.M. 
polygalifolia,  Smith 
anemonlfolia.  A.C'unn. 
parviflora.  Smith 
fllifolia,  F.v.M.   . . 
clavellilolia,  F.v.M. 


Alpine  Boronia  . . 
Pinnate  Boronia 
Hairy  Boronia    .  . 
Blueish  Boronia 
Waxy  Boronia    .  . 
Anemone  Boronia 
Swamp  Boronia .  . 
Tliread  Boronia 
Desert  Boronia  . . 


The  borouias  are  well  known  lor  their 
beauty  or  fragrance,  and  although 
the  best  come  from  West  .\ustralia, 
some  of  our  species  such  as  B.  pinnata, 
B.  pilosa,  and  B.  cknielli/nHd.  are 
verv  well  worth  cultivation. 


*  Plants  marked  thus  are  listed  either  as  growing  plants  o  ras  seeds  by  one  or  more  of  our  Horists 


SECOND   VICTORIAN   EGG-LAYING   COMPETITION,    191-M3. 

The  Second  Burnley  Egg-laying  Competition  was  commenced  on  15th 
April,  J9I2.  The  decision  to  tar-pave  the  houses  was  responsible  lor  this 
delay.  The  houses  are  now  perfectly  dry;  and  as  the  floor  has  been  raised 
by  means  of  ashes,  well  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  ground,  it  will 
remain  dry  and  increase  the  comfort  of  the  birds.  Sixty-nine  pens  were 
allotted  ;  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  birds  arrived  in  excellent  con- 
dition. One  or  two  that  showed  symptoms  of  chicken  pox  and  roup  were 
immediately  isolated,  and  not  placed  in  pens  until  after  the  infection  had 
passed.  One  Inter-State  pen  arrived  in  bad  condition;  one  of  the  birds 
died  soon  after  arrival.  It  was  considered  this  was  caused  by  the  kindly 
but  mistaken  action  of  .some  individual  feeding  them  with  large  whole 
white  maize  while  on  the  journey. 

As  regards  type,  the  birds  apjjear  on  the  a\erage  to  be  superior  10 
tho.se  of  last  year.  Some  of  the  birds  have  gone  into  a  false  mnult,  due, 
no  doubt,  to  the  removal  from  the  sandy  soil  of  their  homes  to  tht-  heavv 
clay  at  Burnley ;  whilst  the  leading  pen,  bred  in  a  cold  climate  with  a 
heavy  soil,  has  received  no  set-back. 

All  things  taken  into  consideration,  tlie  number  of  eggs  laid  uj)  to  the 
present  can  be  considered  entirely  satisfactorv. 

FEEDINf-- 

The  morning  mash,  given  at  daylight,  is  prepared  by  mixing  two  pan?? 
pollard,  one  of  oatmeal  branning,  and  one  of  lucerne  chaff,  scalded  over 
night;  three  or  four  mornings  of  a  week  25  lbs.  of  bullock's  liver  finely 
chopped  is  added  to  this — 2|  ozs.  approximately  being  given  to  each  bird. 
At  mid-day  equal  parts  of  pollard  and  wheat  bran  mash  is  prepared, 
5  ozs.  being  allowed  each  pen,  followed  by  a  handful  of  green  food — 
grass,  clover.  &c.  The  evening  meal  consists  of  four  parts  wheat,  three 
of  broken  maize,  and  two  of  white  oats.  2  ozs.  approximately  being  given 
to  each  bird.     Occasionally,   wheat  only  is  given  in  the  evening. 


Weathep. 

The   weather  has  been  mild,   isolated   showers   having 
of  the  birds  of  heavier  breeds  have  .shown  broodiness 


fallen.    A      few 


lo  July,   19 12]       Second  Egg-laying  Competition,   1912-1^ 


449 


SECOND  VICTORIAN  EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION,  1912-13. 

CommenciiKj  I5th  April,  1912. 

CONDUCTED    AT    BURNLEY    HORTICULTURAL    SCHOOL. 

H.   V.  Hawkins,  Poultry  Expert. 


Eggs  laid  during  competition. 

Po 

'ition  in 

Ncj.  Pen. 

Breed. 

Xame  of  Owner. 

April  15 

May  15 

Total  to 

Competi- 

to 

to 

Date  (2 

tion. 

May  14. 

June  14- 

months). 
247 

40 

White  Leghorns     . . 

(5.  Brown     . . 

Ill 

136 

1 

70 

C.  J.  Beatty 

101 

121 

222 

2 

47 

J.  E.  Bradley 

109 

105 

214 

3 

23 

W.  McLister 

99 

113 

212 

4 

31 

Geo.  Edwards 

91 

114 

205 

5 

9 

J.  S.  Spotswood 

83 

119 

202 

6 

20 

E.  Waldon 

84 

117 

201 

7 

28 

F.  G.  Eagleton 

77 

123 

200 

8 

3 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

King  and  Watson 

75 

118 

193 

9 

7 

White  Leghorns     . . 

A.  H.  Padnian 

87 

105 

192 

} 

10 

30 

Mrs.  Stevenson 

93 

99 

192 

48 

Griffin  Cant 

86 

103 

189 

"1 

12 

62 

R.  W.  Pope 

80 

109 

189 

/ 

1 

J.  Campbell 

88 

100 

188 

14 

44 

A.  W.  Hall 

103 

83 

186 

15 

8 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

D.  Fisher     . . 

107 

63 

170 

16 

46 

H.  A.  Langdon 

85 

84 

l69 

17 

38 

White  Leghorns     . . 

R.  Moy 

67 

100 

167 

18 

24 

I 

Sargenf  ri  Poultrv  Yard 

63 

99 

162 

19 

6 

J.  B.  Macarthur 

5.S 

103 

161 

20 

39 

W.  G.  Swift 

69 

90 

159 

21 

29 

J.  B.    Brigden 

71 

85 

156 

} 

22 

45 

Wodldridge  Bros. 

71 

85 

156 

25 

R.  L.  Appleford 

35 

112 

147 

24 

37 

" 

C.  B.  Bertelsmeier     . . 

41 

105 

146 

1 

/ 

25 

42 

Mrs.  T.  Kempster      . . 

76 

70 

146 

27 

50 

>! 

A.  Alipee     . . 

53 

99 

143 

2 

B.  Rowlinson 

44 

96 

140 

28 

35 

C.  H.  Busst 

52 

78 

130 

) 

29 

33 

H.  McKenzie 

58 

72 

130 

63 

Percv  Walker 

41 

8S 

129 

1 

3 

14 

J.  H.  Wright 

47 

82 

129 

/ 

64 

H.  Merrick 

65 

55 

120 

33 

49 

W.  Purvis 

27 

88 

115 

34 

58 

W.  J.  Stock 

67 

47 

lU 

35 

13 

W.  B.  CreUin 

32 

74 

106 

36 

56 

M.  A.  Monk 

46 

59 

105 

37 

15 

Mrs.  W.  H.  Steer 

47 

56 

103 

38 

53 

H.  Hodges  . . 

49 

51 

100 

39 

27 

1 

E.  Xash       .. 

18 

80 

98 

40 

19 

> 

Cowan  Bros. 

23 

74 

97 

41 

61 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

Jas.  Ogden 

29 

64 

93 

42 

12 

White  Leghorns     . . 

T.  H.  Stafford 

44 

48 

92 

43 

41 

!> 

A.  Stringer 

39 

51 

90 

44 

5 

I. 

J.  H.  Brain 

13 

69 

82 

1 

45 

43 

G.  Purton    .  . 

21 

61 

82 

J 

4 

» 

J.  Blackbunie 

35 

43 

78 

47 

54 

>> 

F.  R.  DeGaris 

20 

52 

72 

48 

51 

H.  HammiU 

71 

71 

1 

49 

65 

A.  H.  Thomson 

17 

54 

71 

/ 

52 

Black  Jlinorcas 

Chalmers  Bros. 

23 

40 

63 

1 

51 

57 

White  Leghorns     . . 

B.  Walker 

7 

56 

63 

/ 

22 

>i 

W.  X.  Ling 

11 

51 

62 

53 

21 

>> 

J.  O'Loughlin 

38 

19 

57 

54 

32 

S.  Bniudrett 

6 

50 

56 

1 

,. 

59 

»» 

W.  J.  Seabridge 

25 

31 

56 

/ 

30 

10 

R.C.     Brow-n     Leg- 
horns 

S.  P.  Giles       . . 

4 

51 

55 

] 

57 

60 

White  Leghorns     . . 

Miss  B.  E.  Ryan 

11 

44 

55 

1 

69 

., 

Morgan  and  Watson . . 

19 

33 

52 

59 

68 

W.  J.  McKeddie 

20 

30 

50 

60 

16 

Silver  Wyandottes 

R.  Jobling 

20 

29 

49 

1 

61 

18 

White  Legliorns 

B.  Mitchell 

13 

36 

49 

f 

36 

Old  English  Game 

K.  J.  Barrett 

1; 

22 

40 

1 

63 

66 

White  Leghorns 

J.  Molonev 

14 

26 

40 

1 

11 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

T.  S.  Goodisson 

31 

31 

65 

55 

Brown  Leghorns    . . 

J.  Matheson 

18 

18 

66 

17 

White  Leghorns     . . 

S.  Childs      .  . 

"l 

10 

11 

67 

34 

>? 

Reg.  F.  B.  Yioore      . . 

3 

3 

68 

67 

Ancouas  . . 

A.  E.  Manning 

69 

26 

1 

(Reserved) 
Totals  .. 

4.844 

8,071 

3  227 

45° 


Journal  of  Agriculfiirc.    Victoria.  [lo   July.    1912. 


A   NEW   PEST   TO   MAIZE. 

HARLEQUIN     FRUIT     BUG. 

{Dindymus  versicolor.) 
C.   Frencli,  jun.^   Acting  Govertuuoit   Eiito)}iologisi. 
During  the  last  few  weeks  letters  have  lieen  received  by  the  Entomolo- 
gical  Branch  from   Mr.    J.   A.    Bayford,    State  School.  Omeo,   Gippsland, 

in  reference  to  insects  causing 
damage  to  maize  cobs.  On 
asking  for  specimens  he  kindly 
forwarded  me  a  supply,  to- 
gether with  a  damaged  maize 
cob.  On  examination  I  found 
the  insects  were  the  well-known 
Harlequin  Rugs,  which  are 
natives  of  Australia.  They 
are  occasionally  destructive  to 
apples,  &c.,  as  they  insert 
their  rostrum  or  beak  into  the 
fruit,  causing  it  to  become 
spotted.  The  markings  re- 
semble the  disease  known  as 
"  Bitter  Pit." 

Mr.  Bayford  says: — ''  I  am 
sending  a  specimen  known  here 
as  the  Soldier  Beetle,  which  is 
doing  much  damage.  To-day 
the  local  surveyor  showed  me 
how  they  were  destroying  his 
maize  cobs  wherever  the  out- 
side covering  had  been  loosened 
in  any  way  that  gave  them  a 
chance  to  get  at  the  maize  in- 
side. The  maize  cobs  were 
covered  with  the.se  insects.'' 

"  I  am  forwarding  with  this 
a  maize  cob  from  the  patch  I 
mentiofled  to  you.  You  will 
notice  that  the  bugs  have 
damaged  the  end  of  the  cob, 
and  if  I  have  succeeded  in  im- 
prisoning anything  like  the 
number  that  was  on  the  cob 
when  I  picked  it,  you  will  be 
able  to  realize  how  they  are 
svvarming  in  the  garden. 
Huite  a  large  percentage  of  the 
cobs  are  damaged  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  one  I  am  for- 
warding. They  have  done  very 
much  damage  in  this  particular 
garden,  attacking  tomatoes, 
strawberries,  raspberries,  and 
MAIZE  COB  SHOWING  UPPER  PORTION  other  plants.     Another  garden- 

DAMAGED  BY  HARLEQUIN  BUG.  owner     tells     me      that      they 


ic  July,   1913.] 


Statistics. 


451 


caused  almost  all  his  peai  hes  to  fall  off  before  they  were  ripe  by  itta:king 
the  fruit  near  the  stem.'' 

The  maize  cob  submitted  to  me  was  attacked  towards  the  top,  the 
damaged  grain  being  of  a  dirty  white  coloui,  cau.sed  by  the  bugs  sucking 
its  juice. 

Prevention  and  Remedies. 
Should   the  insects  obtain  a   footing   in  the  maize-growing   districts  of 
Victoria,   they  will  cause  losses  to  growers;  therefore, 
when   the  bugs   are  first   noticed,   means   should   fe   at 
once  taken  to  prevent  their  spread. 

As  the  insects  deposit  their  eggs  amongst  rubbish, 
and  under  logs,  stones,  old  posts,  &c.,  it  is  advisable 
that  the  maize  field  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible.  All 
weeds  should  be  destroyed  by  burning.  They  should 
not  be  heaped  round  the  maize  field,  as  they  foim 
favourite  breeding  places  for  these  pests. 

Benzole   emulsion   spray,    being   particularly    deadly 
to  all  bugs,  is  strongly  recommended.      As  a  deterrent 
coal    tar    water    is    useful.       Boil    i    lb.    of    coal    tar 
in    2    gallons   of   water,    and    while   hot    add    from    50    to    100    gallons   of 
water. 


HARLEQUIN   FRUIT 
BUG. 


STATISTICS. 


LIVE    STOCK. 

The  following  return  of  the  live  stock  in  Victoria  at  the  end  of  March, 
1912,  has  been  issued  by  the  Government  Statist  (Mr.  A.  M.  Laughton)  :  — 


Horses. 

Cattle. 

Sheep. 

Districts. 

Dairy 

Cows 
(milking 
and  dry). 

other 
Cattle. 

Total. 

Pigs. 

Central     . . 
North-Central 
Western  . . 
Whnmera 
Mai  lee 
Northern .  . 
North- Eastern 
Gippsland 

lOO.lofi 
30,848 
75,057 
70,05( 
41.30.1 

100.005 
40,13? 
50,254 

507,813 
472,08C 

133.973 

44.886 
170,054 
24.253 
18.254 
89,001! 
65,054 
154,072 

699,555 
668.777 

30,778 

128,922 

57,931 

181,370 

32,237 

31,38.: 

121,984 

157,929 

235,814 

262.895 
102,817 
351.424 
56,490 
49,639 
210,993 
222,983 
3£9,886 

1,191,787 
1,109,763 
4,399,158 
2,264,108 

809,654 
2,027,841 

880.024 
1,175,469 

60,881 
19,809 
75,044 
11,962 
12,063 
44,832 
27,624 
95,854 

Total  March,  1912 
Total  March,  1911 

947,57^ 

878,792 

68,78C 

1.647.127 
1.547,56f. 

13.857,804 
12,882,665 

348,069 
333,281 

Increase 

35,733 

1 

99,558 

975,13! 

14,788 

452 


Journal  of  AgricitUiire.   Victoria.  [lo   July.    191. 


AGRICULTURE   IN    VICTORIA. 

ACREAGE    AND    CROP. 

AREA  AND  PRODUCE,   1911-12  AND  1910-11. 

The  following  agricultural  statistics  for  the  State  of  Victoria  have  been  issuetl   by  tlie 
(lOvernnient  Statist  (Mr.  A.  M.  Laughton)  : — 


Area. 

Produce. 

Average 

per  Acre. 

Name  of  Crop. 

1911-12. 

1 
1910-11. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

acres. 

acres. 

bushels. 

)  ushels. 

bushels. 

bushels. 

Wheat 

2,164,066 

2,398,089 

20,891.877 

34,813,019 

9-65 

14-52 

Oats 

302,238 

392,681 

4.585.326 

9.699,127 

15-17 

24-70 

Barley  (malting; 

36,748 

30,609 

725.803 

804,893 

19-75 

26-30 

Barley  (other) 

16,793 

22,078 

298.781 

535,494 

17-79 

24-25 

Maize 

18,223 

20,151 

* 

982,103 

* 

48-74 

Rye 

1,098 

2,640 

9,981 

32,647 

9-09 

12-37 

Peas  and  Beans 

11.535 

11,068 

181,113 

223,284 

15-70 

20-17 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

Potatoes  (early  crop) 

to.  142 

5,606 

17,498 

21.140 

3-40 

3-77 

Potatoes  (general  crop) 

42.550 

57,298 

* 

142,172 

* 

2-48 

Mangel-wurzel 

797 

1,254 

9,568 

17.654 

12-01 

14-08 

Beet,  carrots,  parsnips. 

turnips  for  fodder 

658 

872 

4.953 

7,481 

7-53 

8-58 

Onions 

3.652 

6,161 

20,911 

37,484 

5-73 

6-08 

Hay  (wheaten) 

304,388 

240,026 

357,379 

333,711 

1-17 

1-39 

Hay  (oaten) 

535,146 

575,791 

648,846 

929,781 

1-21 

1-61 

Hay  (lucerne,  &c.)     .. 

20,671 

16,852 

26,072 

28,918 

1-26 

1-72 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

Grass  cut  for  seed 

1.188 

1,295 

1,697 

2,904 

1-43 

2-24 

Green  fodder 

75,177 

71,826 

Vines 

24,193 

23,412 

Orchards  and  gardens 

59,985 

57,375 

Market-gardens 

10,331 

10,778 

Other  tillage 

5.662 

6,208 

1 

Total  Area  inider 

Crop  ..     3,640.241    3.952,070 

Land  in  Fallow         1,469.608    1,434,177 


Total  Cultivation      5,109,849   5.386,247 


*  Not  yet  available. 

t  The  early  crop  relates  to  potatoes  dug  before  1st  March. 

AREA  UNDER  POTATOES  IN   PRINCIPAL  COUNTIES.    1911-12   AND    1910  11. 


Principal  Counties. 


Area  in 

Acres. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

5,228 

7,230 

8,205 

9.451 

5,618 

6,877 

2,687 

3,891 

6,870 

8,590 

3,758 

7,256 

3,612 

6,371 

11,714 

13,238 

47,692 

62,904 

Bourke 

Grant 

Mornington 

Dalhousie 

Talbot 

VUliers 

Buln  Buln 

Remainder  of  State 

Total 


lo  JijLV.    1912.]  Orchard  ami  Garden  Notes.  453 

ORCHARD  AND  GARDEN  NOTES. 

E.   E.   Fcscott,  Friucipal,   Scliool  of  Horticulture ,   Burnley. 

The  Orchard. 

Planting. 

The  planting  of  deciduous  fruit  trees  will  still  be  continued  on  the 
lines  laid  down  in  last  month's  notes.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the 
soil  thoroughly  sweetened  and  aerated,  the  roots  should  be  well  trimmed, 
and  the  young  tree  firmly  planted.  Owing  to  the  time  that  elapses  between 
the  removal  of  the  tree  from  the  nursery  row  and  the  planting  of  the  tree 
in  its  permanent  situation,  practically  the  whole  of  the  fibrous  and  feeding 
root  system  has  been  destroved.  Tt  will  be  well  to  remove  all  of  the  finer 
roots,  and  to  thoroughly  trim  Itack  the  stronger  ones  ;  this  will  allow  the 
tree  to  make  a  new  root  system  for  itself. 

Stringfellow's  method  of  removing  the  whole  of  the  roots,  leaving  only 
a  stub,  as  referred  to  in  the  Journal  for  July,  1909,  is  not  advocated,  but 
a  modification  of  this  might  be  adopted,  whereby  the  root  system  of  the 
young  tree  will  be  vigorously  pruned,  in  order  that  no  detrimental  effect 
will  remain  as  a  result  of  the  transplanting  of  the  tree.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  a  vigorous  root  trimming  will  require  a  corresponding 
sewre  pruning  of  the  head.  In  trimming  or  cutting  the  roots,  all  cuts 
should  have  a  downward  face  ;  this  will  allow,  when  the  wound  callu.ses, 
of  a  downward  growth  of  roots  from  the  callus.  If  the  wound  or  cut 
be  on  the  upper  side  of  the  root,  in  all  probability  suckering  will  result. 

In  planting  a  commercial  orchard,  it  has  been  previously  advised  that 
the  number  of  varieties  should  be  limited,  and  that,  as  far  as  possible, 
these  varieties  should  have  a  corresponding  bloom  period.  The  necessity 
for  cross-fertilization  is  becoming  more  apparent  each  year,  and  it  is  now 
definitely  known  that  cross-fertilization  results  in  greatly  increased  crops, 
and  also  in  fruit  of  an  increased  size.  In  the  experiments  of  Waite  on 
the  "  Pollination  of  Pear  Floweis,"  and  of  Lewis  and  Vincent  on  ''  The 
Pollination  of  the  Apple,"  their  results  were  invariably  that  the  largest 
fruits  were  crosses.  Fruit-growers  in  this  State  have  observed  that  where 
blocks  of  different  varieties  of  the  same  kind  of  fruit  have  been  planted 
alongside  of  each  other,  the  adjoining  rows  of  the  two  varieties  have  always 
carried  the  heaviest  crops.  Experience  is  thus  against  the  planting  of 
large  blocks  of  any  one  \-arietv  ;  at  the  same  time,  the  varieties  must  not 
be  multiplied  indefinitely. 

The  Jonathan  apple  is  generally  considered  to  be  a  consistent  bearei 
and  self-fertile;  but  even  this  prolific  variety  may  be  made  to  largely 
increase  its  yield  by  intermingling  with  another  variety  having  a  similar 
bloom  period ;  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  Sturmer  Pippin  is  one  of 
the  best  for  the  purpo.se.  Dumeiow's  Seedling,  Reinette  du  Canada,  and 
Stone  Pippin  also  flowei  at  the  same  time.  For  fuller  information  on  this 
subject  reference  may  be  made  to  the  articles  in  the  Journal  for  January, 
191 1. 

Pruning. 

Pruning  operations  will  now  be  in  full  swing.  In  pruning  the  \oung 
trees,  heavy  pruning  will  be  required  in  order  to  produce  strong  growth 
and  a  good   frame  3   but  as  the  tree  advances  in  age.   the   pruning  will  be 


454  Journal  of  Agriculture.   Victoria.  [lo  July,    191 2. 

reduced  considerably.  It  should  be  remembered  that  strong,  heavy  prun- 
uig  results  in  wood  growth,  and  that  weak  pruning  steadies  the  tree,  and 
promotes  an  even  growth.  When  framing  and  building  a  tree,  the  former 
consideration  is  observed,  and  when  the  tree  is  coming  into  fruit  bearing 
or  is  mature,  it  will  be  pruned  according  to  the  latter.  Any  operation  that 
will  cause  the  tree  to  produce  less  wood  growth  will  induce  the  tree  to 
become  more  fruitful,  provided  the  tree  be  in  a  healthy  condition  ;  so  that 
when  trees  are  mature,  pruning  operations,  as  a  rule,  should  not  be  severe, 
lut  rather  the  reverse. 

Old  fruiting  wood,  and  dead  and  dying  wood  should  always  be  re- 
moved, and  aged  spurs  should  be  considerablv  reduced,  in  order  to  make 
them  produce  new  growths ;  crowded  and  overlapping  laterals  should  be 
shortened  back;  fruit  bearing  in  the  higher  portions  of  the  tree  should  not 
be  encouraged  ;  and  due  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  admission 
cf  light  and  air  to  all  parts  of  the  tree. 

Where  varieties  of  fruit  trees  are  prone  to  bearing  crops  every  second 
year,  their  lateral  system  .should  be  pruned  so  that  they  will  not  produce 
too  heavy  a  crop  in  the  fruiting  year  ;  and  at  the  same  time  they  will  pro- 
duce wood  in  their  fruiting  year  to  give  a  crop  the  subsequent  season. 

A  model  tree  will  always  be  light  on  its  topmost  leaders,  bearing  the 
major  portion  of  the  crop  in  the  lower  regions  of  the  tree.  The  main 
pomt  to  be  noted  is  that  a  heavy  wood  growth  in  the  upper  portion  of  the 
tree  tends  to  reduce  the  bearing  capalnlities  of  the  tree  in  its  most  useful 
parts. 

Sprayinc 

Spraying  should  be  carried  out  on  the  lines  indicated  in  last  month's 
notes,  and  it  should  be  completed  by  the  eml  of  the  month. 

Fio^wer   Garden. 

The  cleaning  up  and  digging  will  be  continued  this  month.  A  good 
top  dressing  of  stable  manure  may  be  given  before  digging,  and  all  leaves 
and  litter  should  be  dug  into  the  beds. 

Herbaceous  plants  may  be  lifted  and  stored  till  springtime  3  they 
should  not  be  allowed  to  become  too  drv.  Shrubs  and  small  perennial 
plants  may  now  be  removed  if  necessarv.  lifting  evergreen  ones  with  a 
good  ball  of  earth. 

The  planting  of  roses  will  now  be  carried  out.  The  soil  should  have 
been  well  sweetened  and  seasoned  beforehand.  The  plants  require  to  be 
firmly  planted  in  the  soil,  and  after  planting,  a  vigorous  pruning  should 
be  given  to  each. 

■Gladioli  corms  for  early  blooming  may  be  planted  ;  and.  as  well,  plants 
of  the  Japanese  Iris,  /.  Kccrnfferi,  and  the  German  and  English  "  Flag" 
Irises. 

Hardy  annuals  may  be  transplanted,  and  where  these  have  been  sown 
in  the  open,  the  clumps  should  be  considerablv  thinned  out.  The  young 
plants  should  be  given  ample  room ;  better  flowers  will  result  if  fewer 
plants  are  grown,  so  as  to  give  the  individual  plants  more  room,  and  to 
prevent  overcrowding  of  roots.  In  cool  districts,  a  few  seeds  of  late  sweet 
peas  may  still  be  sown,  and  seedlings  of  this  class  of  plant  may  be  trans- 
planted. 

Roses  will  now  require  pruning.  In  rose  pruning,  the  rule  is  that 
strong-growing  plants   require  less  severe  cutting  than   weak-growing  ones. 


lo   JuLV.    191-.]  Orcl'.ard  and  Gardoi  Notes.  455 

As  roses  always  flower  on  new  wood,  it  is  essential  that  to  have  good 
blooms  the  bushes  must  be  pruned  regularly.  All  weak  growths,  exhausted 
and  worn-out  wood,  must  be  removed,  retaining  only  the  vigorous  growths. 
Tt  is  generallv  advisable  to  prune  to  four  or  five  eyes  or  buds,  so  as  to 
have  subsequent  strong  growths,  always  prunuig  into  the  previous  season's 
wood.  Spindly  growths,  especially  in  the  centre  of  the  bushes,  should 
be  removed,  the  plants  being  trained  with  an  open  and  angular  habit. 

Vegetable  Garden. 

The  addition  of  gypsum  to  the  vegetable  plots  prior  to  digging  will 
rid  the  soil  of  a  large  number  of  insects  that  infest  the  vegetables  in 
spring  ;  and  thus  numbers  of  vegetable  pe.sts,  such  as  caterpillars,  aphis, ' 
&-C.,  will  be  killed.  The  gypsum  may  be  dug  into  the  soil,  at  the  rate  of 
about  2  ozs.  per  square  yard.  Another  trouble  in  the  vegetable  garden  at 
this  season  of  the  year  is  the  snail  and  slug  pest.  The  article  on  .slugs 
and  snails  in  the  December.  1910,  Journal  may  be  consulted,  but  one 
means  of  reducing  this  pe.st  is  to  keep  the  plots  free  of  weeds.  As  hoeing 
is  generally  out  of  the  question  in  winter,  the  weeds  should  be  hand  pulled. 
Where  any  foliage  is  in  direct  contact  with  the  ground,  it  should  be  lifted 
occasionally,   and  a   light  dusting  of  lime  sprinkled  underneath. 

All  seedlings  of  sufficient  size  should  now  te  planted  out ;  this  includes 
onions,    asparagus,    lettuce,    cabbage,    cauliflower,    &c.  A    planting    of 

broad  beans  may  be  made,  and  also  all  varieties  of  peas.  Seeds  of  summer 
cabbage,  lettuce,  leek,  onion,  radish,  parsnip,  may  now  be  sown.  Tubers 
of  Jerusalem  artichokes  .should  be  planted  out,  and  also  a  few  early 
potatoes. 

Seeds  of  tomatoes  may  be  planted  in  the  frames ;  and  also,  tow'ards  the 
end  of  the  month,  seeds  of  melons,  cucumt)ers,  marrows,  pumpkins,  may 
be  sown  under  irlass  on  the  hot-bed. 


456  Journal  of   A ^^nailtitrc.    \  ictoria.  [to   July.    1912. 

REMINDERS     FOR     AUGUST. 


LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Those  stabletl  can  be  fed  liberally.  Those  doing  fa^i  or  heav\-  work 
should  be  clipped;  if  not  wholly,  then  trace  hij^h.  Those  not  rugged  on  coming 
into  the  stable  at  night  should  be  wiped  down  and  in  half-an-hour's  time  rugged  or 
covered  with  bags  until  the  coat  is  dry.  Old  horses  and  weaned  foals  should  be 
given  crushed  oats.  Grass-fed  working  horses  should  be  given  hay  or  straw,  if 
there  is  no  old  grass,  to  counteract  the  purging  effects  of  the  young  growtli.  Old 
and   badly-conditioned   horses   should   be   given    some  boiled   barley. 

C.ATTLE. — Cows,  if  not  housed,  should  be  rugged.  Rugs  should  be  removed  in 
the  davtime  when  the  shade  temperature  reaches  60  degrees.  Give  a  ration  of  hay 
or  straw,  whole  or  chaffed,  to  counteract  the  purging  effects  of  voung  grass.  Calves 
should  be  kept  in  warm,  dry  shed.  Those  on  the  bucket  should  be  given  their  milk 
warm.       The  bull  may  now  run  with  the  cows. 

Pigs. — Supply  plenty  of  bedding  in  warm,  well-ventilated  styes.  Keep  styes 
clean  and  dry,  and  the  feeding  troughs  clean  and  wholesome.  Store  pigs  should 
be  placed  in  fattening  styes.      Sows  in  fine  weather  should  be  given  a  grass  run. 

Sheep. — Applv  to  breeders  for  rams  needed.  Ask  for  good  backed  sheep,  both 
in  flesh  and  fleece,  whether  British  breeds  or  merinos.  Fat  lambs  weighing  60  lbs. 
live  weight  will  sell  best  now — avoid  the  rush  of  the  season.  Stud  ewe  flocks 
should  be  gone  through  carefully ;  put  out  second-rate  ewes,  and  enter  approved 
ycung  ewes  in  stud  books. 

Poultry. — When  yards  become  damp  and  difficult  to  clean  a  little  lime  sprinkled 
on  surface  will  sweeten  soil,  and  also  act  as  a  germicide.  Keep  the  breeders  busy — 
oaten  hay  scattered  about  will  make  them  exercise.  As  the  hens  eat  twice  as 
quickly  as  the  male  bird,  feed  the  latter  bv  himself;  tack  a  piece  of  wire  netting 
on  a  light  frame,  and  jilace  it  across  an  angle  to  make  a  small  enclosure  for  him 
whilst  he  is  eating.  Overhaul  incubators ;  see  that  the  capsule  or  thermostat  acts 
properly  ;  thoroughly  clean  lamps,  egg  drawers,  and  chimneys.  Test  machine  for 
two  days  before  putting  valuable  eggs  in.  It  is  also  advisable  to  have  thermometer 
tested.'  When  additional  incubators  are  required,  it  is  more  satisfactory  to  keep 
to   the    one   make. 

CULTIVATION. 

F.ARM. — Second  fallow  where  necessir\  for  summer  crops.  If  rei|iiired,  roll  or 
harrow  crops.  Plant  very  early  potatoes  in  forward  districts.  Sow  mangolds. 
Apply   slow-acting   fertilizers,   such  as  blood   and  bone  manures,    for   maize. 

Orch.ard. — Complete  planting  and  prmiing  of  deciduous  trees.  Watch  for  peach 
aphis,  and  spray  with  tobacco  solution,  if  present.  Prepare  for  planting  citrus 
trees.     Spray   for  woolly  aphis  with  strong    tobacco   solution. 

Flower  G.arden. — Finish  digging  and  ])runing  of  roses,  &c.  Leave  pruning  of 
shrubs  till  after  flowering.  Keep  weeds  in  check ;  weed  out  seed  beds.  Divide 
and  plant  out  all  herbaceous  plants,  such  as  phlox,  delphiniums,  rudbeckia,  &c. 
Plant  out  gladior.       Complete  planting  of  shrubs.       Mulch  young   plants. 

Vegetable  Garden. — Top-dress  asparagus  beds ;  plant  new  asparagus  plots.  Plant 
herb  divisions,  and  potatoes.  Sow  cabbage,  cauliflower,  peas,  carrots,  beans,  radish, 
and   lettuce  seeds.       Sow  tomato  seeds  in   a  hot  frame.      Finish  digging. 

Vineyard. — August  is  the  best  month  for  planting  vines  (grafted  or  ungrafted). 
This  should  be  actively  proceeded  with  and  completed  before  end  of  month.  Scions 
for  field  grafting  may  still  be  preserved  as  detailed  last  month,  or  belter  still  by 
placing  them  in  tool  storage.  They  should  all  be  removed  from  vines  before  end 
of  month,  at  latest.  Conclude  prunrng  and  tie  down  rods.  Where  black  spot  has 
been  very  prevalent,  applv  ist  acid  iron  sulphate  treatment  (see  Journal  for  July, 
igii).  Apply  readily  soluble  rilrogenous  manures  (soda  nitrate  or  ammonium 
sulphate)  towards  end  of  month. 

Cellar  —Rack  again,  towards  end  of  month,  wines  which  have  as  yet  only  been 
once  racked  (spring  racking).  Fill  up  regularly  all  unfortified  wines.  t  lean  up 
"enerallv   in  cellar  and  whitewash  walls,   woodwork,   &c. 


July,  1912.] 


Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


xvn 


To  the  Dairyman. 

TF  you  knew  of  a  machine  which  was  entirely  perfect, 
■'•  would  you  still  suffer  the  much  heavier  expense  and 
greater  trouble  and  inconvenience  attached  to  hand  milking  ? 

There  IS  a  perfect  milker — a  machine  which  has 
been  awarded  the  medal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England. 


^ 


^ 


ff 


THE 

"ROYAL  MEDAL 

MILKING  MACHINE. 

Investigate  it. 
Write  to-day  for  the  ^^  ROYAL   MEDAU^   Booklet. 


SOME    IMPORTANT    FEATURES. 


1.  The  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  has  less  than  half 
the  overhead  gear  that  man\  others  have. 

■2.  The  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  has  half  the 
rubber  tubing  that  others  have,  and  less 
than  a  quarter  of  what  some  have. 

;;.  The  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  cannot  injure  the 
cows  if  left  on  after  the  milk  is  drawn. 

4.  The  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  strips  the  cows 
light  out. 

5.  The  "  ROYAL  JIEDAL"  Pulsator  is  sim- 
plicity itself. 

6.  The  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  Pulsator  is  right 
on  the  teat  cup,  which  means  a  great 
saving  in  eni;ine  power  required. 


7.  Tlie  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  has  not  a  bolt  or 
screw-thread  about  the  teat  cup.  You  can 
very  quickly  take  the  "ROYAL  MEDAL" 
teat  cup  to  pieces  with  your  fingers. 

8.  The  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  has  not  a  corner 
or  a  crevice  in  the  teat  cup.  Brushes  go 
through  every  tube  without  taking  them 
asunder. 

9.  The  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  cups  pulsate  in- 
dependently. That  is  why  the  "  ROYAL 
MEDAL"  is  the  machine  that  does  not 
fall  off. 

10.  The  "ROYAL  MEDAL"  milks  cows  that 
are  drying  off  perfectly,  because  it  strips 
the  cows. 


ROYAL  MEDAL" 
MILKING  MACHINES 

34  QUEEN  STREET, 
MELBOURNE. 

London  Office  :   Caxton  House, 
Westminster,  S.W, 

J.    H.    DAVIES, 

Managing    Director. 


POST  FREE  BOOKLET  COUPON. 

"Boyal  Medal"  Milking  Machi7ies, 

34  Queen  Street,  Melbourne. 
Please  forward  a  copy  of  your  Fret  Book.     It 
i-i  to  be  understood  that  I  consider  myself  under  no 
obligation. 

Name ; 

Address    

J.  10 


XVI  u 


Journal   of   Agriculture.    Victoria. 


[lo  July.  1912. 


'Phone 

4881 
Central. 


-^k- 


The  Australasian  Mutual  Live  Stock 

Insupanee  Society  m., 

ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 

70  Elizabeth  St.,  Melbourne. 


HON.  AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P.      HENRY  GARDNER,  Esq. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P. 

WALTER   G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 

FARMERS  AND  BREEDERS- 

Has   this   simple   truth   ever  struck  you  ? 
Ours  are  the  world's  minimum   rates. 
Our  terms  and  conditions  are  equal  to  the 

best  obtainable. 
Every  pound  of  our  money  is  invested  in 

Australia. 
We  pay  promptly.         We  pay  in  full. 

INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  AND  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS. 


A    GOOD   AUSTRALIAN 
'  Why  tfufn'l  you  pul  your  penny  in  the  plate  (^u 
tnoming  T' 

'  Beeaute  it  xittiajvrtxgn  mutton,  and   dada   sayt 
it'$  not  right  lo  lend  capital  out  of  the  country." 


For  ROOFS  of  all  descriptions 


USE 


's^'   RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


USE 


INDELIBLE  COLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


i^    O  A  LCI  MO    c'olo'il 


ALL 
RS. 


These  Goods  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 
SOLE    AGENTS 


BROOKS,  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Melbourne. 


lo  juLV.    19  r  J.]  Journal    of   Agriculture ,    Victoria, 


Dairy  Science. 

The  last  word. 

Scientific  men  in  the  dairy  centres  of  Europe  have  given  close 
attention  to  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  for  butter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  for  some  time, 
a  poor,  thin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  :  stating  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods,  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  same 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Dairy  Science. 

For  Post  Free  Book— 

"MILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding," 

By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 


SUNLIGHT  '  Guaranteed  Pure 

OlLCAKfi 


See  tiiat  tlie  name  "Sunlight"  is 
branded  on  every  cake. 


XJC 


Journal   of   Agriculture ,    Victoria. 


[lo  July,  1912. 


"HORNSBY"  Petrol  Engines 


(STATIONARY    AND    PORTABLE) 

T-JAVE    a    World-wide    Reputation    for    all   round 
Superiority.     There  is  nothing  Equal  to  them. 

Just  as  suitable  for  Motive  Power  as  the  well-known 

HORNSBY    OIL    ENGINE. 


<ai.#'si. 


Britain's  BEST  Oil  Eng^ine— 

w  HORNSBY. 


The  recognized  essentials  of  Oil  Engine  Superiority  are 

DESIGN  QUALITY 

SIMPLICITY       ECONOMY 


THESE  the  HORNSBY  possess,  proved  by  the  Fact 
Made  in  Two  Types— Stationary  and  Portable.  that  it  has  Won  all  the  Largest  Prizes  ever  offered. 

Hornsby  Gas  Engines  and  Suction  Gas  Plants  are  unequalled. 

R.  HORNSBY  &  SONS  LTD., 


MELBOURNE.    SYDNEY, 
BRISBANE. 


No  Smoke,  No 
Smell. 

100 
Candle  Powu'. 


each. 

Costs  ^d.  per 
hour    to    run. 


INVERTED 
SPIRIT 


Viking 


Iiamps 


For  Shops, 

Butter  Factories, 
Verandahs,  &c. 

BENGALIA 

Spirit  Burners 
For  Table  Lamps, 
17/6 
each. 


Sole  Agents : 


Gas  Burners 
&  Mantles. 


Allen,  Fergusson  &  Sewell 

508    COLLINS.ST.,    MELBOURNE. 


io  July,   1912.]  journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria.  Jcxi 


l^flTIOflflli  TRUSTEES :; 


Executors  &  Agency  Compftny 
Australasia,  Ltd.     .    •     . 


DIRECTORS  : 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Manag:ing  Director. 

EDWARD  FITZGERALD,  Esq.,  L.L.D.  MICHAEL  MORNANE,  Esq. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  Esq.  DAVID  HUNTER,  Esq. 

This  Company  acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint  Executor  of  Wills,  Administrator, 
Trustee  of  Settlements,   and  Agent  for  Absentees  under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY      TO      LEND      ON      BROAD      ACRES     AND      FARM      LANDS. 


Offices  ; 

c — i 


113  QUEEN  ST.  Uairn^fst)  MELBOURNE. 


r 


SAVINGS  BANKS  LOANS 

ON     BROAD     ACRES     C^V    to  Three-fifths  of  Yaluation), 

In  sums  from  £2,000  to  £25,000. 

Interest  at  4^  per  cent. 

For  3  or  5  years,  with  option  of  paying  oflf  part  on  any  half-yearly  pay-day. 
ON    FARMS    {CREDIT   FONCIER)    (Up  to  Two-thlrds  of  Valuation), 

In   sums  from   £50   to   £2,000. 

Interest  at  Ah  per  cent. 

Loans  Repayable  by  Instalments  spread  over  SH  years,  or  may  be  paid  off 
on  any  half-yearly  payday,  subject  to  a  small  charge  if  paid  off  during  the  first 
five  years,  but  no  penalty  after  five  years. 


ADDRESS 


Inspector-General   of   Savings   Banks^ 


29  MARKET  STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


TREWHELLA  :Z^^  GRUBBING  JACKS, 

Quick.     Powerful.     Simple. 


Mr.  Chas.  Hamilton,  Molesworth,  Vic,  saj's : — "I  would  not 
be  without  one  of  these  Jacks  on  the  farm." 

Mr.  0.  C.  R.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Frances,  S.A.  :— 
" Ha\e  been  using  Trewhella  Wallaby  Jacks  now  nearly 
six  years,  and  a-s  Ions:  as  I  have  anything  to  lift  will  never  be 
without  one." 


^X'2S:_v,''^p^  "■  Write  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  to— 

TREWHELLA   BROS.,  ENGINEERS,  TRENTHAM,  VICTORIA. 


xxii  Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria.  [ro  July,   ipli. 


r 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

J3uraIeY   J^ortieultural   School 

ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnley  Horticultural  School  have  now  been 
arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be  given  to  students  of  both  sexes 
in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Horticulture  for  male  students  includes  a  two  years'  course, 
students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum. 

Classes  have  been  fopmed  at  Burnley,  whereby  students  of  both  sexes  may  receive 
instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and  Fridays. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  work,  and  will  commence  at  2  p.m. 
This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  charged  will  be  £2  per  annum. 

It  has  also  been  arranged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  shall  be  given  on  subjects 
which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Horticulture,  such  as  Poultry  Farming,  Bee-keeping,  and 
Fruit  Preserving,  and  these  courses  will  be  open  and  free  to  the  general  public.  The 
subjects  and  dates  of  the  Short  Course  Lectures  will  be  announced  monthly  in  this  Journal. 

STUDENTS    SHOULD    ENROLL   WITHOUT    DELAY. 

Application  for  admission  should  be  made  to 

The  Director  of  Agriculture,  Public  Offices,  Melbourne, 
OR  TO  THE  i=Rinsroi:p.A.iL,. 


-J 


^B 


LYSACHT'S  WIRE  NETTING 

MADE    IN    AUSTRALIA. 
All  Sizes  Manufactured,  |  inch  to  4  inch  Mesh. 

The  Standard  Netting  of  the  State. 

LOOK     FOR     OUR     MARKER     IN     EVERY     ROLL. 


Netting  is  known  as  ^^^S  i J|5BPpB^EkI^^^B^       ^oose  rolled  less  costly 

\Y  anri  r/  ■!\rE,"n. 

LYSAGHT  BROS.  &  CO.  Ltd., 

MANUFACTURERS.  SYDNEY. 

AGENTS:  GIBBS,  BRIGHT  &  CO.,  34  Queen  Street,  MELBOURNE. 


10  July,  1912.]  Journal   of  Agriculture.    Victoria.  xxui 


"VICTOR"  RED  OIL 


A     C  E  R  TA  I 
REMEDY  FO 


GUARANTEED  PURE.      ONLY  ONE  QUALITY. 

S  PEACH  APHIS,  WOOLLY  APHIS,  SCALE,  &  RED  SPIDER. 


Never  Beaten  fur  STRENGTH,  QUALITY,  or  EFFICACY. 
SPRAY  before  Pruning  if  possible.  Price,  in  42-gal.  Barrels,  Is.  lOd.  per  gal. 

"CARLTON"  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD 

Grows  more  popular  every  year.  Use  only  4-lbs.  to  100-gals.  of  water. 

Guaranteed  17%  Arsenic  Oxide,  and  very  Finely  Ground  ; 

Therefore— SUSPENDS,    STICKS,    AND    SUCCEEDS. 

"NEW  CHAMPION"  Power  Sprayer 

SPECIAL    FEATURES- 

" BOSCH"  High  Tension  Magneto.     "FRIEND"  Nozzles.     Double  Pump,  wrth  Renewable 
Plungers.  Machine  Cut  Gears.  Strong  Transport,  Light  and  Low  Down. 

FD         IV/ICI    I    rM?       440    ELIZABETH    STREET, 
.     R.     IVIb.LLUn,    Melbourne. 


JARRAH.- 


When  you  contemplate  erecting  fencing,  buildings,  dairies, 
woolshcds,  &c.,   be   sure  you  get  the  best  of  hardwoods. 

I<^     JARRAH    resists   white    ants,    dry  rot,   &c. 

r  MILLAR'S  KARRI  &  JARRAH  CO,  m)l[i 

QUEEN'S    BRIDGE,    MELBOURNE. 

^DYAN,    GOULDING,   &    CO.    | 


R 


(JOHN    F.    GOULDING). 

WHOLESALE  GRAIN  &  PRODUCE  COMMISSION  AGENTS  &  GENERAL  BROKERS. 


546-552  COLLINS  STREET  WEST  (Near  King-st.) 

FARMERS  !  Before  Selling  your  Grain,  Hay,  Potatoes,  Onions,  consult  or  write  us. 

It  will  pay  you. CONSIGNMENTS  Received  and  Sold  Daily  ex  Rail  or  Wharf. 

Storage  arranged  on  Liberal  Terms  and  Advances  made.       All  kinds  of  Seed  Grain  for  Sale. 

Prompt  Account  Sales.     Oats  Specialists.     New  &  Second-hand  Bags  for  Sale  at  LoMest  Rates, 

Quotations  sfiven  for  Cliatf,  Grain,  Lucerne,  ^^'heaten  or  Oaten  Hay,  delivered  to  any  station 

in  Victoria  or  New  South  Wales. 

When  in  the  CITY  Call  In.— Short  distance  frcm  Spencer-st.   RIy.  Station,    j 


XXIV 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[to  July.  1912, 


"WATERLOO  BOY"  4  h.p.  PORTABLE  OIL  ENGINE. 

ABSOLUTELY  THE  SIMPLEST  AND  CHEAPEST  EFFICIENT  ENGINE  IN  THE  WORLD. 

USES    BENZINE    OR    KEROSENE. 


IGNITIONi — Is  make  and  break  style,  charge  fired  by  electric  spark.  Igniter,  which  in 
other  Engines  is  difficult  to  get  at,  in  the  "  Waterloo  "  can  be  completely  removed  by 
loosening  two  cap  screws 

Both    Magneto    and    Battery    Ignition, — a    very    useful    arrangement,    as    work 
can  never  be  stopped. 

3PEED  LEVERi — Acts  same  as  throttle  of  a  steam  engine.  You  can  speed  up  or 
down,  or  stop  altogether  with  it.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  start,  prevents  "kicking 
back,"  and  saves  fuel. 

IVIIXERi — la  a  great  idea,  patented  because  it  is  worth  patenting.  Has  an  adjustable 
mixing  cup  that  can,  by  a  winged  nut,  be  slipped  up  or  down  to  give  more  or  less  air. 
No  valve  springs  or  pump  to  get  out  of  order  ;  makes  Engine  easy  to  start ;  aids  the 
governor  and  speed  lever  in  getting  more  power  out  of  the  fuel. 

QOVERNORi — Centrifugal  type,  sure  and  sensitive.  Allows  a  charge  in  the  cylinder 
only  when  the  work  requires  it. 

PUELi —Works  on  either  benzine  or  kerosene,  but  benzine  is  better,  as  it  is  not  so  dirty. 
The  speed-saving  devices.  Speed  Lever,  Patent  Mixer,  and  Governor  make  the 
"Waterloo"  consume  the  least  fuel.      Compare  it  for  simplicity,  fuel  cost,  and  power 

with  other  engines,  and  you  will  send  your  order  to  us. 

HOPPER  COOLEDi — That  is,  there  are  no  Tank,  Pipes,  and  Pump  to  cool  the 
cylinder.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  move  about ;  less  space,  less  weight,  and  no 
water  pump  troubles,  as  there  is  no  Pump.     Also  lessens  the  fuel  bill. 

TRANSPORTi — is  a  very  strong  one.  Through  axles  in  both  front  and  rear  wheels. 
Turntable  on  front  axle  is  simple  and  strong. 

Dtp-  SEND  FOR  CATALOGUES  OF  OUR  OTHER  FARM  REQUISITES. 


MITCHELL  &  COMPANY  [li; 


FACTORY     &    office: 

WEST  FOOTSGRAY,  MELBOURNE. 


t 


SHOW     ROOM 


596  BOURKE  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


■r)..:„t„,      ivT^ll^r 


J^cfrigerating  ^  ^ 


and 


lee  jVCakiug 


4> 

Made  by 
OTMBLE&SONS. 

-^jff) 

Geelong, 

^ 

^^^^^^^^^ 

^^^^^ 

Specially  suitable  for  Butchers,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  Machines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine.  A  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration  work 
undertaken,  including  coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


"  Ferrier's "  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distribntors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworks,  &c. 


Full  Papticulaps  on  Application  to— 


Humble  and  Sons, 

General   Eng'ineeps, 
VULCAN   FOUNDRY,   GEE  LONG. 


LITEBATUBE  FOB  AKBICULTUBISTS. 

PLAN   AND   SPECIFICATION   OF   SHEEP-SHEARING   SHED.     2s.   6d.     Podcu.e,   Id. 

MILK  CHARTS  (Monthly  and  Weekly),  6d,  per  dozen,  post  free.  Wlien  ordering,  dairy  farmers 
should  mention  "Monthly"  or  "Weekly." 

By  Professor  A.  ./.  Ewart,  Government  Botanist. 

WEEDS,  POISON  PLANTS,  AND  NATURALIZED  ALIENS  OF  VICTORIA.  2s.  6d. 
Postage  :  Commonwealth,  l^d. ;  N.Z.,  5d. ;  British  and  Foreign,  lOd. 

PLANTS  INDIGENOUS  TO  VICTORIA.  Vol.  IL,  10,s.  Postage:  Com.,  2d. ;  N.Z.,  8d. ; 
Brit.  &  For.,  is.  4d. 

By  G.  French,  F.E.8.,  Government  Entomologist. 

DESTRUCTIVE  INSECTS  OF  VICTORIA.  Parts  L,  IL.  III.,  IV.,  V.  2s.  6d.  each.  Postage: 
Parts  I.  and  III.,  C,  Id.  ;  N.Z..  .3d.:  B.  &  F..  fid.  each.  Parts  IL  and  IV.,  C,  Ud. ;  N.Z., 
4d. ;  B.  &  F.,  8d.  each.     Part  V.,  C,  Id.  ;  N.Z.,  4d. ;  B.  &  P.,  7d. 

By  D.  McAlpine,  Government  Vegetable  Pathologist. 
RUSTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     5s.     Postage  :  C,  2d. ;  N.Z.,  8d.  ;  B.  &  P.,  Is.  4d. 
SMUTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     4s.     Postage  :  C,  2id.  ;  N.Z.,  9d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  6d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  CITRUS  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.     2s.     Postage  :   C,  Id. ;    N.Z., 

3d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  (3d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  STONE  FRUIT  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  6d.  Postage:  C, 
Ud. ;  N.Z.,  5d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  lOd. 

SYSTEMATIC  ARRANGEMENT  OP  AUSTRALIAN  FUNGI.  3s.  Postage:  C,  2d.; 
N.Z.,  8d. ;  B.  &  F..  Is.  4d. 

THE    DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

MELBOURNE,   VICTORIA. 

Remittances  from  places  outside  the  Commonwealth   to  be  by  Money  Order  only. 

Pamphlets  obtainable  from  the  Director  of  Agfriculture, 
Melbourne,  Free  on  Application. 

NEW    SERIES. 


1.  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.     A.  S.  Kenyon,  C.E. 

2.  HINTS  FOR  NEW  SETTLERS.     T.  A.J.  Smith. 

*  3.  APPLE  GROWING  FOR  EXPORT.     P.  J.  Carmody. 

*  4.  BOOKKEEPING  FOR  FARMERS.     W.  Mclver,  A.I.A.V.,  A.S.A.A.,  Eng. 

*  5.  CIDER  IMAKING.     J.  Kiiight. 

*  6.  FARM  PLUMBING.     C.  H.  Wright. 

7.  CITRUS  FRUIT  CULTURE.     E.  E.  Pescott. 

*  8.  BUILDING  HINTS  FOR  SETTLERS.     A.  8.  Kenyon,  C.E.,  arid  others. 
9.  TOBACCO  CULTURE.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

*10.  SILOS  AND  SILAGE.     G.  H.  F.  Baker. 
U.  THE  BEET  SUGAR  INDUSTRY  AND  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT.     H.  T.  Easterly. 
12.  WORMS  IN  SHEEP.     S.  S.  Cameron,  D.V.  Sc,  M.B.C.V.S. 

.  *  Xot  vet  available. 


ROSE    CULTIVATION    FOR 
Vol.  X.  ESSENTIAL    OIL    PRODUCTION. 

[Registered  at  the  General  Post  Office,  Melbourne,  for  transmission  by  Post  as  a  Newspaper. 


Part  8. 


F.  H.  BRUNNING 


PTY.  LTD. 


J 


RYE  GRASS. 

COCKSFOOT. 

PHALARIS. 

PASPALUM. 

PRAIRIE. 

TIMOTHY. 

WHITE  CLOVER. 

ALSIKE. 

COWGRASS. 

TREFOIL. 

LOTUS   MAJOR. 

LUCERNE. 

BURR  CLOVER. 

CREEPING   BENT. 

FESCUES. 

KENTUCKY  BLUE 

GRASS. 

Samples  and  Quotations  Post  Free. 


Specialists 


m 


AUSTRALASIAN 

TREE  &  SHRUB 

SEEDS. 

Eucalypti,    Acacias,    Boronias, 
Pittosporums,  etc. 

FOR     FULL     PARTICULARS    WRITE 
FOR  GUM  AND  ACACIA    CIRCULAR. 

1912  SEED  MANUAL ; 

]      POST     FREE     ON      APPLICATION.   

We  can  supply  Plants  of 
all  the  leading  varieties 
in   small   and   large    quantities. 

(Write  us  for  particulars.) 


PLANET  JR.  IMPLEMENTS. 

CORN    SHELLERS. 
SPRAY    PUMPS. 
ARSENATE    OF    LEAD. 
LIME   SULPHUR   SPRAY 
AERATORS. 

(See  Catalogue  for  descriptions.) 


MURCHISON'S   SCRUB   DESTROYER 

Write  for  Pamphlet  (post  free)  giving  directions  and  particulars. 


64  ELIZABETH  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


THE     JOURNAL 


OF 


THE  DEl^ARTMENT  OF  AGR[CULTURE, 


■VIOTOI?.I^A.,    .A.XJSTI?.^^I-.I-A.. 


CONTENTS.— AUGUST,     1912. 


PAQB. 


AVheat  and  its  Cultivation...             ...  A.  E.  V.  Uichfurhon,  M.A.,  B.Sc.  [Agric.)  457 

"i  he  Olive               ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...         L.  Macdonald  465 

Bee-keeping  in  Victoria      ...             ...  ...  ...  ...           F.  R.  Beuhne  472 

Rose  Cultivation...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...          Joseph  Knkiht  478 

(General  Notes       ...             ...               ..  ...  ...  ...             •••             .••  483 

Destructive  Scale  Insects  .. .             ...  ...  ...  ..       0   f  >-aich,  Jnr.  485 

^Arsenate  of  Lead...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...               P.  R.Scott  486 

Basis  Wines          ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...             ...             ...  488 

"1  he  Etiology  of  Contagious  Diseases  ...  W.  A.  X.  J'oherison,  B.V.Sc.  489 

Unprofitable  Orchards        ...              ...  ...  ...  ...                  E.   Wallig  504 

'Herd  Testing        ...             ...             ...  ...  W.  A.  X.  Jiobertson,  B.V.Sc.  511 

•Orchard  and  Garden  Notes                ...  ...  ...  ...            E.  E.  Pescott  513 

Second  Victorian  Egg-laying  Competition  ...  ...        H.  V.  Hau-hins  515 

Victorian  Produce                ...             ...  ...  ...  ...             ...             ...  517 

Import  and  Export  of  Perishable  Products    ...  ...  ...  ...             ...  518 

Kainfall                  ...             ...             ..  ...  ..  ...             ...             ...  519 

Reminders              ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...             ...             ...  520 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

The  Articles  in  the  .Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria  are 
protected  bj'  the  provisions  of  the  Copyrig-ht  Act.  Proprietors  of  newspapers  wishing 
to  republish  any  matter  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  prorl'led  the  Journal  and  author  are 
both  acknowledged.  '"^ 

The  Journal  is  issued  monthly.  The  sub.scription,  which  is  payable  in  advance 
And  includes  postage,  is  3s.  per  annum  for  the  Commonwealth  and  New  Zealand,  and 
5s.  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  Foreign  Countries.     Single  copy,  Threepence. 

Subscriptions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 
A  comi)lete  list  of  the  various  publications  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
will  be  supplied  by  the  latter. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  Aug.,  1912. 


C[^l^  £\^'Wr  "\^l5  O'l  "4'^\"1^0  T  ^  hearty-  invitation  is  extended  you 
J^iCXwVv  V  JLO J.  VWIX  C!>  •  to  in.specl  our  great  display  at  the 
loitlieotiiiiig    Meliiourue    Agricfiltural    Show    to   be    held    in    September.       It    will 

pay    .\n;i     to    closely    investigate    tlie    many    appliances    and    goods    shown.  The    List 

iv'low    will    serve    to    Ijrini;-    li.fore     voiii     notice    a    few    of    the    more    important    items. 


Leak  Proof  Troughing. 

A  strong-  rifjid  steel  trough  of  patented  desi^ni.      The 
sections -wliir-h   are   of  tcalvanized  steel— cannot  pull 


apart  when 
bolted  in 
position.  The 
ends  are  grooved,  and  the 
groove  of  one  section  rests 
within  that  of  the  other,  form- 
ing a  lock  joint.  Those  in- 
terested should  not  fail  to 
inspect  before  finally  deciding. 


The  Wind  a  Worker 
—no  wages  to  pay 

Economical    water    supply     is 
solved  by  tlii'  "  Billabong:  " 


It  will   cover  your  land  with  streams  of  Gold  ; 
You  shall  gather  its  wealth  a  hundred  fold. 


'Billabong"     Centrifugal     Pumps   nuub 


ire  raising-  water  witli 
tticiency  from  niuii\ 
throughout    Auslrulia. 


commendable   money-making 
a     creek,    dam,   or    billabong- 
A    well    made,    strong,    and 
Liri-uvatily     bal- 
anced    pump 
with   a   depend- 
able lubricating 
system    and    an 
improved  swivel- 
ling    device. 
Sizes    from    IJ' 
up  wards. 
One  of  these   pumps  will   be   belching  forth   large 
streams  of  water. Don't  fail  to  see  it. 


Windmill  and  pumping  plant 
These  Mills  have  specia 
features.  We  are  the  manu- 
facturers and  patentees.  A 
full  inipiiry  will  be  most 
profitable  to  you. 


great  variety. 


House  for<3e  and  lift.  Spray.  Centri- 
fugal, Windmill,  and  other  power 
pumps.  Working  Barrels,  Bore 
Cylinders,  Hydraulic  Rams,  &c.  It 
isn"t  necessary  that  you  have  a 
knowledge  of  water  supply.  Call  on 
US,  state  your  needs  as  clearly  as 
possible,  and  get  our  suggestion 
and  price  for  a  iimnji  most  suited 
to  your  re<|uirements. 


Tools  for  the   Farm 
and  Garden.    Forks,  noes. 

Rakes,   Implements,   Forges,   and  general 


Engineering,  Farming,  and  Carpentering 
Tools.  Come  and  handle  them— look 
them  over.  The  low  prices  will 
come  as  a  surprise  to  you. 


A  British  made  Engine. 

It's   waste   of  energy  to  depend  upon 
muscular  labour  when  it  is  possible  to 
procure   a  re- 
liable,  well 
built,     low 
priced    mach- 
ine which  will 
do  the   work. 
The     "Vic  = 
t  oria  "  will 
commend     it- 
self to  you.      It  does  a  vast  aiiiiiuiil  ijf  work  oi]  a  niiniiiuni 
Come  and  see  how  smoothly  it  runs  and  how  powerful  it  is 


of  fuel 


T^ -^j,"^,^-^  t    Should  you  not  be  able  to  attend  the  Show,  we  will  gladly,  at  your 
X^  KJ  B^l^U  •    request,  forward  information,  prices,  &c.,  of  items  you  are  interested  in. 


IV^ANUFACTURERS 
AN'O    IMPORTERS. 


ROPTY.      UAiNlVO      LI 


J 

PROPTY 


SON 

M'TD. 


ESTABLISHED 
OVER  50  YEARS. 


391  to  399  Boupke  Street,  Melbourne. 


Journal  oj  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


Sooner  or  Later 

every  dairyman,  producing  niilU  tor  [irorit,  \s  ill  iii'-tali  an  up-to-date  milking  outfit  which 
compiiM's  the  following  time-tested  machines  :--- 

"FELIX"  FARM  ENGINE 
"L.K.G."  MILKING  MACHINE 
"ALFA-LAVAL"    SEPARATOR 

The  above  labor-saving  machines  are  without  doubt  the  best  of  their  kind  manufactured, 
and  so  satisfied  are  we  of  their  absolute  superiority  over  all  other  makes,  that  we  will 
cheerfully  send  them  out  on  trial,  and  should  tliey  fail  to  do  what  is  claimed  of  them,  we 
will  take  them  back  at  our  own  expense. 

Dairymen  contemplating  the  purchase  of  a  modem 
milking  plant,  have  everything  to  gain  and  nothing 
to  lose  by  ordering  the  plant  on  the  above  terms. 


LIBERAL    TERMS. 


EASY    PAYMENTS. 


Write  for  full-line  Cataln-ue  i\o.  350  S.— Mailed  Free. 


J.  BARTRAM  &  SON  Z.. 


19.  21,  23  KING  STREET, 
MELBOURNE. 


Sole  Agents  : — All  Steel  Portable  Silos,  and  '•  Prairie-State "  Incubatora. 


Every  Farmer  and  Grazier 


should  have  a  Telephone  Service  con- 
necting with  the  nearest  Post  Office. 
Tht)usands  of  Australian  farmers  have 
already  installed  Telephones,  the  ad- 
vati'ages  of  wliich  are  so  numerous 
and  valuable  that  it  is  impossible  to 
measure  or  appreciate  their  worth  until 
vou  have  one. 


A  well-known  Victorian  Crazier,  Mr.  W.  Gardiner, 
writes  regarding  The  ERICSSON  Telephone: — 

"  I  tiud  tlie  tele))lione  the  mcst  useful  inven- 
tion I  lia\  c  on  the  faini,  both  in  labour  and  time 
.saving,  also  for  business  {jurposes.  It  has  often 
.saved  nie  the  price  of  itself  in  one  transaction,  and 
has  paid  for  itself  oU  times  over  in  two  cases  of 
calling  medical  aid  when  no  one  could  go  for  it. 
The    ERICSSON    gives   satisfaction   in  every  way." 

Prices,  eMimates,  and  full  particulars. 


on  application  tc 


J.  BARTRAIVI  &  SON  [ 


PTY. 
D., 


Suppliers  of  Telephones  to  tie  Postmaster-Ceneral.         Representing  the  L.  M.  ERICSSON  Telephone  Coy. 

p.9-23    is:inxrc3-    st:ei:e3e:t,     jvet^t  .:^c3XJ'n:3>r:E3. 


»M,^--.,v.m,<ji. -j.it  r        V  '  j^  ■.>«■-. 


_  -^^>-^^-^-■»-.■J^«u 


Ji)ii;iud  of  AgricultKrc ,    ]'ic!i-//.?. 


lo   AbG.,    1912. 


120  POST  nOL^  1/1 A  MY 


'-'*U;£t, 


Making  a  Fence 
72  Chains  long, 
you  can  save  12 
days  by  using  an 

"IWAN"  Post 
Hole   Dig'g'ep 


B^feMM^mikAdf 


Reckoning    that    posts    are    10  ft. 

apart,  you  couldn't  sink  moie  than 

30  holes  (about   4^  chains),    in  a 

day  with  crowbar  and  spade,  but — 

you  can  sink   120  holes  (about   18 

chains)  in  a  day  with  an  I  WAN 

DIGGER.       In  fact,  a  user  wrote  us  from  Yarck  (Victoiia) 

saying  he  had  put  down  200  post  holes  in  a  day. 

In  addition  to  the  speed,  an  IWAN  POST  HOLE 
DIGGER  cuts  the  hole  just  the  size  for  the  post,  which 
means  little  ramming  and  a  firmer'  fence.  Farmers  use  small 
sizes,  in  boring  for  water,  by  adding  lengths  of  pipe  to  the  bar. 

Every  Post  Hole  Digger  is  a  Post  Hole  Digger,  but  THERE  IS 
ONLY  ONE  IWAN,  and  it  has  no  adjustable  parts  to  wobble 
about  or  stick. 


3         4  5 

7/-     7/-     11- 


6 

7/- 


7  8  9 

7  6      8/6      9/6 


10 
10/- 


12         14  inch. 
27/-    34/- each. 


The  ^'IWAN''  is  sold  only  by 


MS^PIiersoit 


"  Tool    Merchants," 

554=66  &  582=88  Collins  Street,  Melbourne. 


'jioAuG..   iQi-.i  Journal  oj   A^:^/ icultn/ c .    Victoria. 


—  IT  WILL  PAY  YOU  -^ 

TO    LEARN 

MODERN  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 
LIVE  STOCK  &  FRUIT  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

fan  teach  you  AT  YOUR  OWN  HOMK  how  to  MAKE  MoKK  M()^^:^■  hy  tiie  emplo3nient  of  up-to-date 
methods  We  teanh  all  branches  of  Agriculture  and  Live  Stock  Husbandry,  including  Drainage, 
Irrigation,    Dairying    and    Practical    Orchard    Management.        We  abo  give  instruction  in  the 


oUouin;.;'  suljjt'c-t>  ; — 

Bookkeeping 

Arithmetic 

Electrical  Engineering 

Mechanical  Drawing 

Shorthand 

Mathematics 

Steam  Engineering 

Architectural  Drawing 

Accountancy 

Languages 

Shire  Engineering 

Building    Construction 

Commercial  Law 

Drawing 

Mining  Engineering 

and  Estimating 

English 

Illustrating 

Surveying 

Timber  Measurements 

WE    PREPARE   CANDIDATES   FOR    ALL   PUBLIC    EXAMINATIONS. 

The  instruction  i;oes  RIGHT  TO  YOUR  HOME,  no  matter  where  you  live.  It  is  clear,  concise,  easily 
understood,  and  practical.  Every  student  is  handled  privately  and  separately  and  receives  individual 
attention  according  to  his  particular  requirements. 

Our  instructors  are  men  of  sound  technical  knowledge,  <'onihiiied  with  years  of  practical  experience,  and 
they  are  at  the  service  of  every  student,  to  guide  him  with  their  valuable  advice.  Only  spare  time  study 
is  required,  and  our  fees  are  exceedingly  moderate  and  within  the  reach  of  everybody. 

We  invite  you  to  write  at  once  for  a  fr^e  copy  of  our  Handbook  D.  It  ex]ilains  our  system  and  shows 
how  we  can  teach  anj'  man  who  is  willing  to  be  taught  aiid  anxious  to  increase  his  earning  power.  It  costs 
nothing  to  inquire.      Don't  put  it  off.       Write  tO-day. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

56b    MARKET    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


r  LAW,  SOMNER  &  GO.'S  ^ 

SPEOCAL  GRADED  AND  SCREENED 

SEED  POTATOES 

(Pedigree    Seed). Prices  on  Application. 


HUNTER  RIVER.  ■        ■      ■   ^-^    ^m  h^  ^    ■  ^mt  FRENCH  PROVENCE. 

ARABIAN.  BIB  r^  ^  ^3  ^  B   ^  AMERICAN. 

PERUVIAN.  I U  1_#  r    r^  BAB   r  HUNGARIAN. 

TURKESTAN.  ^™  ^^   ^^  «■  ■     »  ■    ^  A^  SPANISH  (New). 

All  our  Lucernes  are  Specially  Machine-dressad,  Hand-sieved,  Free  from  Dodder,  and  True  to  Name. 


CRAIG  MITCHELL      |ii|  A  I  "7  C       and  other 

MAMMOTH    WHITE       lYIMI^El       leading   VARIETIES. 

Write    for    Maize    and    Potato    Circular. 

LAW,  SOMNER  &  CO.,  TS^cVi^l 

139-141  Sw^anston-st.,  Melbourne. 

ESTABLISHED    1850.  TELEPHONE    729    CENTRAL. 

BULK  STORES— MASON  LANE.  OFF  LITTLE  COLLINS  STREET. 


Journal  of  Agriculture^  Victoria.  [to  Aug.,  191 2. 


\ 


"AUSTRAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES. 

FIVE   YEARS   OF   UNBROKEN   SUCCESS 

Have  established  the  AUSTRAL  as  the  Premier  Milking:  Machine,  and 
have  demonstrated  that  it  does  not  belong  to  that  class  of  appliances  whose 
efficiency  terminates  after  a  few  months  of  use.  It  has  stood  tb«  tMt  of  time,  aod 
that  under  all  sorts  of  conditions. 

IT    IS    SIMPLE. 

Complexity  and  intricacy  are  the  bane  of  milking  machinery.  Both  in  principle 
and  construction  the  Austral  is  strikingly  simple.  Minute  pulsating  mechanism 
on  teat  cups  or  buckets  lias  been  entirely  dispensed  with,  its  place  being  taken  by 
a  single  pulsating  pump,  simple  and  strong  in  construction,  which  serves  for  the 
whole  outfit,  whetlier  two  cows  or  ten  are  to  be  milked  at  a  time.  The  pulsating 
pump  is  placed   in   the  engine  room,   remote  from  the  cows. 

IT    IS    AN    EASY    MILKER. 

Fear  of  injury  to  cows  was  at  one  time  the  bogie  of  machine  milking.  The  Austrfbl 
has  done  away  with  all  that.  Its  action  on  the  cow  is  as  gentle  as  that  of  the 
softest  hand,  and  much  easier  than  the  average  hired  help.  After  three  and  four 
years'  milking  with  the  machines,  cows  are  found  to  be  as  sound  in  the  quarters 
as  when  they  started.  Enquiry  from  any  Austral  user  will  confirm  the  correct- 
ness of  this  statement. 

IT  IS  THE  LAST  WORD  IN  ECONOMICAL  DAIRYING. 

The  working  parts  are  so  few  and  the  construction  so  simple  and  solid,  that  wear 
and  tear,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  u|)keef),  are  re()uced  to  a  minimum.  An 
outstanding  feature  of  the  Austral  is  the  Tank  System,  whereby  the  milk  is 
conducted  direct  from  cow  to  separator  without  any  handling  whatever.  With 
this  system,  so  great  a  saving  is  efiFected  in  time,  labour,  and  trouble,  that  in 
ordinary  circumstances  its  advantages  are  overwhelii  in?.  A  single  bucket  car  be 
flufiplied  for  testing  individual  cows;  or  wliere  spec  al  requirements  render  it  pre- 
ferable, complete  bucket  plants  can  be  installed. 

GLOBE  CREAM    SEPARATORS.      .         CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES. 

Embodies  the   famous   Link-Blade    Bowl  1  The  world's  standard  Oil  Engine.      In  all 

Structure.     Official  tests  conducted  by  the  [  sizes  and  for  all  descriptions  of  farm  work. 

Swedish  Government  at  Alnarp  placed  the  f 

"Globe"  in  the   very  forefront  for  clean  (^  VACCAR    PETROL    ENGINES. 

skimming    and    easy    running,   against    all  T 

competitors.  \  British    built.            Low    running    speed. 

All  sizes  from  1 4  to  200  gallons.  Economical  on  fuel. 

WINDMILLS,  SAW-BENCHES,  CH/^FF-CUTTERS,  aqd  all  Farrn  arid  Dairy  Machinery. 

Wnen  writing,  plestse  mention  this  Journal.        

W.  H.  BLflCKHflni:  "^  "'"^  "•■ 


^    MELBOURNE. 


lo  Aug.,  I  91  -.] 


JdiiDuil  Of  Agriculture ^  Victoria. 


Herd    of    Prize 

Winning,  and 
Heavy  Milk  ^ 
and  Butter  Pro- 
ducing  Strains. 


YOUNG      BULLS     AND      HEIFERS 


FOR     SALE. 


MYSTERY  VI.  OF  MELROSE. 


INSPECTION     BY     APPOINTMENT. 


WILLIfllfl  WCODiWflSOU,  ""olT" 

MALVERN,     MELBOURNE,    V.c. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  Aug.,  1912. 


G. 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT   LAND, 


Li^t  showing  iiunil)e 

•  of  allotments  on  the  various  Estates  available  for  application  : — 

Estate.      Irrigration 

Areas. 

Area. 

Estate.       Wheat   Growing-.      Area. 

Swan  Hill 

:; 

totalliui; 

217  ari-es. 

Cornelia  Creek             ..       15        totalling-    2,384  acres 

Cohnna 

-1' 

2,052       ,, 

Oaklands         ..             ..6                ,,           4,140      „ 

Sht'iipartoii    .. 

11:4 

5,014       „ 

Hur.stvvo<i<l     ..             ..6                „           3,014       „ 

Naniieella 

i<: 

1,();):-!      „ 

Mt.  Widdeiin               ..       15               „          5,13;l      „ 

Baiiiawni 

-7 

2,192       „ 

Nerrin  Nerrin                .  .       17                ,,           3,71  ;      „ 

Tonirala 

8ri 

2,192      „ 

Pannoo                           . .       24                „           8,242      „ 
Marathon  &Willow  Grove    16               „          8,.50s      „ 

Dairying-  and  Mixed  Farming-. 

Beet  Growing-  and  Dairying. 

Bona  \'ista     .. 

4 

totalling 

3sit  a<Tes. 

Boisdale           . .             . .         3        totallina:        142  acres 

Deepdem- 
Eumerall.i     .. 

6 

" 

2,82(i       „ 

Kilniany  Park                ..16                ,,           1,429    „ 

Allanihet- 
Moiveii 

10 
15 

1,578       „ 
4,2(12       „ 

Clerks'  Homes. 

Wei-rihee 

54 

4,3l)(;       „ 

Tooronjra                                                        91  allotments. 

Kenilworth  .. 

1 

Will        „ 

Mooralla       . .             . 
Oreiuoiia 

1 
6 

19 

62(;      „ 

49!»        „ 

Workmen's  Homes. 

Dunrobin 

6 

167       „ 

Pender's  Gro\'e                    . .             . .       112  allotments. 

Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending:  over  31 J  years,  with 
payments  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  6(1  per  cent,  of  the  %aUie  of 
permanent  improvements  effected,  repayments  extending  over  fifteen  years  bearing  5  per  cent,  interest. 

For fnU  information  and  terms  avphj  to  THE     SECRE TARY , 

LANDS    PURCHASE    AND    MANAGEMENT    BOARD. 

MELBOURNE. 


AUSTRALIA'S  WAGON  ;™  T;.'"- 


PATENT 

STEEL 
WHEELS. 

Patent  Felloes. 
Renewable  Carron 
Boxes  and  Oil  Caps. 

The  only  Steel  Wheel 

that  has  stood 

the  Test. 

Beware  of 
Imitations. 


I  never  thought  it  would  run  so 
Two  horses  carried  my  first  load 


A.  MAY,  Esq.,  Menlngle,  South  Australia,  says: — 

Dear  Sir, — I  have  received  Spring  Wagon.  I  am  well  pleased  with  same, 
well,  and  I  think  those  who  have  Steel  Wheels  will  never  use  the  old  style  again. 
of  two  tons  of  potatoes  over  a  bad  road  of  30  miles,  where  the  old  style  of  wagon  was  bogged,  and  is  "still  there. 

August,  1903. 
ALBERT  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningle,  S.A.,  says:— 

Dear  Sir, — In  answer  to  your  letter  wanting  to  know  how  the  wheels  of  my  wagon  are,  I  am  pleased  to  tell 
you  I  have  had  the  wagon  about  6i  years,  and  it  li.as  not  cost  me  a  shilling  ;  the  wheels  are  like  new,  and  I  have 
done  a  lot  of  heavy  carting.  Only  being  a  2-ton  Wagon,  I  lent  it  to  a  man  carting  wheat,  and  he  had  some  very 
rough  roads,  loads  being  about  50  bags.  Your  Wagons  are  worth  their  money,  and  I  would  not  be  without  one  of 
them.     I  think  this  Wagon  will  last  my  life  time.     40"  and  36'  Wheels.  August  13th,  1910. 

TABLE  TOP — Truck  body,  and  all  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
WRITE    FOR    CATALOG    TO-DAY. 

QUEEN'S    BRIDGE-ST., 
SOUTH  MELBOURNE,  V. 


R.  J.  L  HILDYARD, 


lo  Aug.,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


LIGHT,  STRONG, 
PERFECTLY  RIGID. 


\/li^ 


K 


^A^C), 


"CYCLONE" 
WCVEN    GATE 

O    f-t.    to    16    ft. 

Will   liold  anything,  and  can  be  made  rabbit  proof  by  putting  rabbit  proof 
intersection  at  the  bottom.      The  wider  gates  have  three  stays. 

Get  our  Catalogue  of  this  and  many  other  Cyclone  Gates. "  THEY'RE  ALL  GOOD." 

CYCLONE    FENCE  &   GATE   CO., 

459  SWANSTON  ST.,  corner  franklin  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


KEMP'S     PATENT 

SHEEP-BRANDING  LIQUID 

AS  USED  BY  LEADING  PASTORALISTS  OF  AUSTRALIA. 
IN  THREE  COLOURS,   BLACK,  RED  &  BLUE. 


Sold  in  8  gallon  cases,  4' 6  grallon. 
1  gallon  tins,   5-  each. 


-AGENTS    FOR    VICTORIA    AND    RIVERINA- 


DALGETYfTg°  MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[lo  Aug.,  1 912. 


"GLEN  ELGIN'S   PHILANTHROPIST"  299  A.H.B.   of  Aus. 


^^ 


^(^ 


Winner  of  Champion,  Sydney  Royal  Shew,  1909,  1910,  1911,  1912. 

Reserve   Champion,    Melbourne   Royal  Show,  1907,   1908,   1911. 
Also  Winner  of  Bull  and  Progeny  Prize  of  £10  for  5  females  (the  progeny  of  any  one  bull) 
producing  the  largest  amount  of  commercial  butter  in  24  hours,  Sydney  Royal  Show,  1912. 

Also  holds  the  record  of  150  Firsts,  Champions,  Specials,  and  Gold  Medals 
for  Ayrshire  and  Dair}^  Bull. 


The  "Glengarnoek"  Stud 


of  P1XIP&- 

Aypshipe  Cattle 


Has  won  innumerable  prizes  in  the  ring.      The  females  in  this  herd  are  noted  for 
deep  and  heavy  milking  and  test  well  above  the  average,  and  are  kind  and  quiet. 

CHOICE  YOUNG  HERDBOOK  BULLS  FOR  SALE  at  from  5  to  25  guineas  each. 

From  Best  Cows  only,  by  Pure  Herdbook  Bulls.     Full  pedigrees  and  particulars,  with 
photographs  of  animal  for  sale,  his  sire  and  dam,  will  be  forwarded  on  application. 


INSPECTION  CORDIALLY  INVITED. 


VISITORS  MET  AT  LANG  LANG  RAILWAY  STATION. 


Address- 


A.  T.  PRIESTLEY.  \ 


Post       V'CLENCARNOCK," 

JdegraSS/YANNATHAN,  Vic. 


ao  Aug.,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture^  Victoria. 


Vacuum 

Gargoyle 

Prepared 

Red   Spraying  Oil 


Needs  no  Soft  Soap 
OP  other  ing'pedient. 


Requires  only 
Clean  Soft  Water. 


Vacuum  Gargoyle  Red  Spray  Oil 
now  obtainable  in  prepared  form 
is  the  same  Oil  as  that  originally 
introduced  to  Australia  for  fruit- 
tree    spraying. 


Full  particulars — 
Horticultural  Department, 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd., 
90  William  Street,  Melbourne. 


Journal  of  'Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


[lo  Aug.,  191 2. 


The 

New  Automatic 

Cream  Separator 

Separating  Finished  same  time  as  Milking 

THE  AUTOMATIC  CREAM  SEPARATOR 
introduced  into  the  Dairy  means  lessening  the 
work  wonderfully—  saves  time  and  expense.  At  last 
we  have  got  the  se.f'Coniained  Cream  Separator, 
automatic  in  action,  simple  enough  for  a  child  to 
work.  It  is  an  ingenious  combination  of  a  powerful, 
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I  PROPRIETORS    AND    MANUFACTURERS. 

I  525     COLLINS    STREET,    MELBOURNE.  1 


Journal  of  Agriculture.   Victoria.  [loAuG.,  1912. 


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Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


XV 


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journal  of  Agriculture.   Victoria. 


[lo  Aug.,  1912 


ALSTON'S  Patent  '""'■le  crank 
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1910  Pattern.         Grease 
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Steel  Framed  Galvanized  Stock 


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Queen's-bridge,  Melbourne. 


THe    JOURNAL 

Tfie  department  of     M^nculture 


VICTORIA. 


Vol.  X.        Part  8.  lOth  August,  1912. 


WHEAT  AND  ITS  CULTIVATION, 


{Continued  from  page  JjS.)  New  vn 


Xo.  6.— METHODS  OF  CrLTIVATIOX. 

By  A.   E.    V.   Ricliardson,   M.A..   B.Sc.    {Agric), 
AgrieuliKral   Superintendent. 

In  the  preceding  article,  consideration  was  given  to  the  practice  of 
continuous  crojjping  with  wheat,  and  to  the  practice  of  baref allowing. 
L'ontinuous  cropping  with  wheat  year  after  year  stands  condemned,  both 
by  theory  and  by  practice.  Under  pioneering  conditions  it  may  be  justi- 
fiable as  a  temporary  expedient,  but  under  normal  conditions  of  cultivation 
it  should  be  abandoned.  Under  pioneering  conditions,  land  is  usually 
cheap,  whilst  capital  and  labour  are  comparatively  dear,  and  the  pioneer, 
therefore,  substitutes  the  cheaper  factors  of  production  for  the  more  costly. 
Hence  the  initial  system  of  farming  is  invariably  extensive,  for  as  much 
land  and  as  little  labour  and  capital  as  possible  are  used  in  production. 
The  individual  areas  are  relativelv  large,  and  the  average  yield  relatively 
small.  Continuous  cropping  is  commonly  resorted  to.  and  the  soil  is  of 
isuch  virgin  richness  that  it  will  produce  large  crops  in  spite  of  the  com- 
paratively crude  methods  of  cultivation.  When  the  soil  begins  to  show 
signs  of  diminished  fertility  and  production,  the  pioneer  frequently 
wanders  further  afield,  and  leaves  the  problem  of  soil  improvement  to 
others  than  himself. 

The  Hill  River  Estate,  in  1875,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
trations, is  a  typical  example  of  the  extensive  methods  of  cultivation 
Tira'tised  in  the  pioneering  days.  In  1875.  the  estate  was  60,000  acres  in 
exte:.:.  and  carried  50,000  sheep.  The  cultivated  land  was  in  large  fields, 
^one  of  which  was  3  miles  long,  and  contained,  in  1873,  no  less  than 
'4,250  acres  of  wheat  in  one  block.  According  to  Harcus"  "  History  of 
South  Australia  (1876).''  the  ploughing  was  ])erformed.  in  1874,  by  "Thirty 
f'^ur-horse  teams  drawing  a  double  plough,  and  five  single  ploughs  striking 
cut.     The  seed,  which  was  of  several  kinds,  to  ascertain  the  best,  was  sown 

8805.  I' 


458 


]oiir)tal   of   A.gricuUiirc.    Xiclt 


[lo  Aug.,    1912. 


the  first  week  in  June  with  six  of 
Adamson's  22-ft.  broadcast  machines, 
sowing  40  acres  a  day  each.  The 
pickling  used  is  bluestone,  and  an  in- 
genious dipping  apparatus  is  used  by 
which  a  bag  at  a  time  can  be  done  with 
great  rapidity.  The  lands  are  ploughed 
in  I -chain  widths,  and  harrowed  by 
fifteen  sets  of  six-leaved  harrows,  doing 
a  land  in  two  turns.  The  harrowing  is 
done  at  the  rate  of  500  acres  a  day. 
As  harvest  approaches,  2-chain  wide 
strips  are  cut  by  mowing  machines,  at 
intervals,  cutting  the  wheat  into  200-acre 
blocks,  and  then  the  strips  are  ploughed, 
for  the  prevention  of  fi.re.  Thirty-seven 
strippers  are  u.sed  to  take  off  the  crop 
(1874).  Three  crops  were  taken  off  in 
succession,  and  then  the  land  was  laid 
down  to  pasture.'' 

Four  years  later,  there  were  850 
working  horses  fed  under  cover  every 
day;  the  amount  of  land  under  crop  was 
11,000  acres  per  annum;  and  65 
strippers  were  used  in  taking  it  off.  I 
am  indebted  to  Mr.  John  Emery,  of 
Adelaide,  formely  Resident  Manager  of 
the  estate,  for  the  photographs  illus- 
trating the  teams  at   work. 

From  continuous  cropping  to  bare- 
fallowing  is  a  natural  transition, 
especially  in  a  relativelv  drv  district. 
Continual  cropping  with  the  same  crop 
encourages  weeds  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
ultimately  render  a  period  of  rest  and 
cleaning  absolutely  necessary. 

The  marked  advantages  of  this  period 
of  rest  and  cleaning  must  have  appealed 
\ery  strongly  to  the  early  pioneers.  So 
far  as  barefallowing  is  concerned,  we 
have  already  seen  that  it  is  an  indis- 
pensable preparation  for  a  maximum 
crop  in  all  districts  where  the  rainfall 
is  relatively  low,  and  that  it  enables  the 
wheat  crop  to  make  the  \ery  utmost  use 
of  a  limited  rainfall.  It  was  noted, 
too,  that  in  the  more  humid  districts 
]iroblems  relating  to  moisture  con- 
serxation  are  of  minor  importance, 
and  that  barefallowing  is  unnecessary, 
and  should  be  replaced  by  a  .skilled 
system  of  catch  cropping  and  rota- 
tion. Finally,  it  was  noted  that 
in  the  dry  districts  no  system  of 
cultivation   can   be   permanently   effective 


lo   AiG..    191:;.]  VV/na/   cdiJ   its    Culfivalion. 


459 


si 


J*;. 


^'-■M 


Q  2 


460  Journal    of    AgriciiTtiirc ,    Victoria.         [10  Aug.,    1912. 

unless  it  provides,  not  only  for  the  conservation  of  moisture,  but  also 
for  the  conservation  of  fertility.  Attention  was  concentrated  on  the  f(jrmer 
principle  in  the  preceding  article.  Let  us  now  c(jnsider  the  latter  prin- 
ciple. The  weak  point  in  the  i)ractice  of  barefallowing  is  that  it 
tends  to  deplete  the  soil  of  organic  matter.  Organic  matter — by  which 
is  meant  vegetable  or  animal  matter  in  the  process  of  decay — is  the  soil's 
iiio.st  valuable  constituent.  Tt  has  an  important  physical,  chemical,  and 
biological  effect  upon  the  soil.  It  acts  physically,  by  increasing  the 
capacity  of  the  soil  for  holding  moisture,  and  by  improving  its  texture  ; 
chemically,  by  supplying  nitrogen  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  crop 
and  by  unlocking  the  dormant  stores  of  plant  food  and  making  them  avail- 
able ;  and,  biologically,  by  affording  the  necessary  material  for  the  promo- 
tion of  vigorous  bacterial  growth  within  the  son. 

It  may  readily  Ije  understood,  therefore,  that  the  presence  of  this 
important  ingredient  in  ample  quantity  will  mean  success,  whilst  its 
absence  will  mean  disaster,  and  when  the  organic  content  of  the  soil 
becomes  lessened,   the  crop-producing  power  will  be  seriously  impaired. 

Alternate  barefallowing  and  wheat  cropping,  without  a  period  of  rest 
or  pasturage,  will  ultimately  deplete  the  soil  of  its  organic  matter,  and 
this  depletion  will  be  hastened  by  the  practice  of  burning  the  stubble. 
Local  figures  are  wanting  as  to  the  rate  at  which  organic  matter  is  lost 
by  slow  oxidation  in  the  process  of  fallowing ;  but  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  loss  in  dry,  hot  districts  is  considerable.  The  loss  through 
burning  of  the  stubble  of  a  15-bushel  crop,  however,  may  be  set  down  at 
1,145  lbs.  of  organic  matter  per  acre  {vide  page  203).  To  counteract 
these  losses  should  be  the  aim  of  every  practical  farmer.  It  is  a 
matter  of  common  observation  that  many  of  our  old  wheat  lands 
are  becoming  more  difficult  to  plough  and  reduce  to  a  satisfactory  tilth 
compared  with  virgin  land  of  the  same  character  in  the  same  locality. 
I'his  is  one  illustration  of  the  effect  of  a  reduction  of  the  organic  content 
of  the  soil.  There  are  three  general  ways  of  supplying  the  soil  with  the 
organic  matter  necessary  to  maintain  its  fertility — 
(i)   By  the  application  of  farmyard  manure. 

(2)  By    pasturing    and    by    rest. 

(3)  By  green  manuring. 

Lender  the  conditions  that  obtain  in  the  wheat  areas,  the  application 
of  farmyard  manure  as  a  practical  means  of  counteracting  the  depletion 
of  organic  matter  is  out  of  the  question.  The  average  wheat  holding  is 
far  too  large  to  be  appreciably  affected  by  the  totality  of  farmyard  manure 
produced  on  the  farm.  In  districts  where  intense  culture  is  practised, 
however,  and  where  individual  holdings  are  relatively  small,  the  use  of 
farmyard  manure  as  a  means  of  restoring  organic  matter  becomes  prac- 
ticable. The  average  wheat-farmer,  with  his  relatively  large  holding, 
must,  therefore,  depend  either  on  pasturing,  rest,  or  green  manuring  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  organic  content  of  his  soil. 

til. — Rotation  Systems  for  Wheat. 
Thus  arises  the  necessity  for  some  sort  of  rotation  in  a  system  of 
cropping.  Continuous  cropping  with  the  same  crop,  and  the  biennial 
system  of  cropping  and  barefallowing,  have  been  shown  to  fall  short 
of  the  requirements  of  a  permanent  system  of  agriculture.  It  is  very 
rarely,  however,  that  a  wheat-farmer  follows  the  strict  practice  of  alternate 
crojjping   and    fallowing.       Sheej)   have   now    become   an     integral     part   of 


TO   Aug..    191^.]  117/(7?/   and   its    CiiIfivafio)i.  461 

every  wheat  farm,  and  pnrtion.  at  least,  of  the  area  is  therefore 
periodically  reserxt-d  for  pasture,  and  a  more  or  less  regular  rotation  is 
practised. 

Advantages  of  Rotation. — The  most  important  advantages  accrumg 
from  a  rational  svstem  of  crop  rotation  is  that  it  leads  to  the  best  possible 
utilization  of  the  resources  of  the-  soil,  and  makes  for  maximum  crops. 
Different  crops  vary  very  widely  in  the  manner  in  which,  and  the  depth 
at  which,  they  obtain  their  nutriment  from  the  soil.  Some  obtain  it  from 
relatively  shallow  depths,  whilst  others  are  deep  rooted,  and,  by  alternat- 
ing such  crops,  the  store  of  fertility  is  more  evenly  used  up.  A  well- 
planned  system  of  rotation  leads  to  a  better  and  more  economical  distri- 
bution of  labour  throughout  the  farm  year,  and  thus  enables  a  farmer  to 
offer  permanent,  instead  of  casual,  employment  to  farm  hands.  Moreover, 
it  aids  in  [ireventing  the  ravages  of  disease,  for  crops  susceptible  to  the 
attack  of  specific  fungoid  pests  are  less  liable  to  be  attacked  when  grown 
in  rotation  with  other  crops.  An  illustration  of  this  may  be  seen  with 
regard  to  "  take  all  "  in  wheat.  It  enables  land  to  be  cleaned  without  the 
employment  of  special  labour,  for  where  one  kind  of  crop  is  grown 
repeatedly,  the  weeds  favoured  by  that  crop  cannot  be  kept  in  check. 
Finallv.  it  provides  a  means  whereby  the  fertility  of  the  soil  may,  by 
rational  treatment,  be  maintained,  and  e\"en  increased. 

A  regular  system  of  rotation — by  which  is  meant  that  different  kinds 
of  crops  are  made  to  succeed  one  another  on  the  same  ground  in  regular 
order — is  a  feature  of  the  advanced  forms  of  agriculture  practised  in  the 
older  countries  of  the  world.  We  must  not  fall  into  the  error  of  assuming 
that  because  certain  rotations  are  found  profitable  in  the  densely  populated 
countries  of  Europe,  that  they  would  be  equally  applicable  in  a  new 
country  like  Australia,    with  a   relatively   sparse  population. 

The  most  advanced  and  profitable  rotation  for  us  will  be  that  which 
is  best  adapted  to  the  exigencies  of  our  peculiar  climatic  and  economic 
conditions.  What  are  the  conditions  obtaining  in  the  wheat  areas?  The 
climate  is  such  that  the  greater  part  of  the  rain  falls  during  the  winter 
months.  The  spring  and  summer  rains  are  irregular,  and  rarely  copious. 
Hence,  in  the  wheat  areas  proper,  the  growing  of  summer  crops  is  more  or  less 
risky  and  uncertain,  and  for  securing  suitable  crops  for  rotating  wath  w^heat 
we  are  driven  back  to  the  use  of  winter-growing  forages  or  cereals. 

Among  the  economic  considerations,  the  labour  problem  is  of  great  im- 
portance. To  break  away  from  an  extensive  system  of  culture  and  adopt 
intensive  methods  is  to  change  from  a  system  in  which  a  minimum  of  labour 
is  required  to  one  necessitating  the  eniployment  of  a  maximum  of  labour. 
To  rear  and  feed  a  large  number  of  li\'e  .stock,  to  rotate  and  diversify 
crops,  and  to  follow  the  hundred-and-one  practices  of  the  intensive 
farmer,  imply  the  expenditure  of  additional  capital  and  labour.  In 
den.sely  crowded  countries,  the  latter  factor  of  production  is  usually 
abundant.  In  a  spar.sely  populated  country,  in  which  immigration  cannot 
keep  pace  with  local  requirements,  trained  farm  labour  is  at  a  premium.  The 
hicreasing  cost  of,  and  difficulty  in  securing,  efficient  local  labour  are 
already  inducing  many  farmers  to  lessen  the  area  devoted  to  cultivation, 
and  increase  the  area  devoted  to  grazing. 

The  size  of  the  holding  is  obviously  an  important  factor  in  determining 
the  method  of  cultivation  adopted,  for  the  smaller  the  holdings,  the  more 
intense  must  be  the  methods  of  cultivation.  According  to  the  Y ear-Book  of 
Victoria  for  1910-11.  more  than  one-half  of  the  total  area.  i.e.  2.916,671 
acres,  devoted  to  cultivation  in  the  whole  State  w^as  confined  to  holdings  in 
which  the  amount  of  privately  owned  land  varied  from  500  to  2.500  acres. 


462  Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria.         [10   Aug.,    1912. 

The  values  of  farming  lanfl  in  the  wheat  areas  have  an  important  bearing 
on  the  methods  of  cultivation  followed.  Throughout  the  wheat  areas,  land 
values  have  considerably  appreciated  during  the  past  decade,  and  this 
appreciation  has  been  largely  due  to  the  increased  producti\e  power  of  the 
soil,  brought  about  by  improvements  in  cultivation,  crop  rotation,  and  in 
the  adoption  of  artificial  manures.  It  may  be  contended  that  the  present 
prices  represent  high-water  mark,  and  that  values  are  not  likely  to  ascend 
beyond  the  present  limits.  This  belief,  however,  would  imply  that  we 
have  reached  such  a  high  stage  of  de\'elopment  in  wheat  growing  that 
further  improvements  are  impossible.  It  implies  that  the  system  of 
agriculture  practised  at  the  present  time,  which,  by  the  way,  is  quite 
normal  in  a  country  occupied  by  a  mere  handful  of  people,  nfust  be  a 
permanent  characteristic  of  a  country  with  an  ever  expanding  population. 
High  though  the  land  \alues  may  l)e,  it  is  certain  that  they  must  ulti- 
mately continue  to  rise  with  the  pressure  of  population,  and  those  who 
find  themselves  unable  to  make  satisfactory  interest  on  the  enhanced 
capital  values  will  gradually  make  way  for  those  who  can. 

Let  us  .now  consider  the  rotations  practised  under  existing  economic 
conditions,  and  endea\-our  to  see  whether  we  may  reasonably  expect  im- 
pro\"ed  rotations  in  the  future.  A  very  widely  practised  rotation  in  the 
wheat  areas  is  that  of  wheat,  pasture,  barefallow.  This  practice 
enables  but  one  crop  in  three  years  to  be  taken  off  a  gi\'en  piece  of  land. 
One-third  of  the  farm  area  is  devoted  to  pasture  for  sheep  and  lambs, 
whilst  the  remainder,  for  a  portion  of  the  year,  is  under  barefallow. 
Obviously,  such  a  rotation  could  only  be  practised  in  a  district  where 
land  values  are  relatively  low,  and  where  individual  holdings  are  con- 
.^iderable.  Since  but  one  crop  is  taken  oft"  in  three  years,  and  the  crop 
is  fallowed  by  a  vear  of  pasture,  the  system  is  not  exhausting,  and  with 
careful  working  one  would  expect  a  succession  of  heavy  crops  for  many 
years.  The  preparatory  year  of  careful  barefallow  guarantees  the  suc- 
cess of  the  wheat  crop,  Init  whether,  under  ordinary  conditions,  the  year 
of  pasture  will  accumulate  sufficient  organic  matter  to  coA'er  losses  through 
fallowing  has  not  been  determined.  Of  course,  only  a  portion  of  the 
organic  and  mineral  constituents  of  the  pasture  is  returned  in  the  animal 
droppings,  and  imder  ordinary  conditions  the  lambs  and  the  wool  are 
sold  off  the  farm.  The  important  point  about  this  rotation  is  that  it 
requires  a  minimum  of  hibour,  and  is  wel)  adapted  for  a  district  in 
which  holdings  are  large,  and  land  is  relatively  cheap,  and  the  rainfall 
.scanty. 

It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  with  the  increasing  land  values  the  time 
must  come  when,  in  the  more  favoured  wheat  districts,  the  returns  will  be 
insufficient  under  this  system  of  rotation,  to  cover  expenses,  and  leave  a 
profitable  margin  of  interest.  While  land  is,  say,  ^3  to  jQio  an  acre, 
one  15-bushel  crop  in  three  years  may  yield  a  fair  rate  of  interest  over 
and  aboA-e  expenses,  but  the  contrary  might  be  the  case  if  the  monetary 
value  of  the  land  doubles. 

A  modification  of  this  rotation  is  largely  practised  in  the  Wimmera, 
and  consists  of  Wheat:  Oats  (for  i)asture) :  Pasture:  Barefallow.  The 
wheat  is  sown  on  well-prepared  barefallow,  and  after  the  wheat  is 
harvested,  oats  are  disced  in  the  autumn  on  the  stubbles,  and  utilized  for 
pasture.  After  oats,  the  })addock  is  depastured  for  sheep  and  lambs,  and  the 
rotation  brought  to  a  close  by  a  season  of  barefallow.  Under  this  scheme  of 
rotation  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  organic  content  of  the  soil  may 
be  maintained,  as  two  vears  of  pasture  are  given  for  every  year  of  crop. 
As  will  be  shown  later.   !iowe\er,   the  nitrogen  content  of  the   soil   is  not 


lo   Aug.,    1912.]  \\'//c-ci/    and   its    C iiUivatioii.  463 

likfly  to  increase  unless  legumes,  such  as  trefoil  and  clover,  regularly  appear 
in  the  pasture.  As  with  the  three  course  rotation  the  labour  difificulty  is  reduced 
to  a  minimum.  The  area  of  wheat  actually  in  crop  will  be  smaller  than 
i[  the  former  rotation  were  practised,  but  the  number  of  sheep  that  may 
be  safeh  kejjt  on  the  farm  will  be  much  greater  than  with  the  correspond- 
ing three-course  rotation.  These  may  be  regarded  as  the  prevailing  rota- 
tions at  present  in  \-ogue  in  the  wheat  areas,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  they 
fit  in  well  with  the  existing  economic  conditions  in  the  wheat  areas. 

From  time  to  time  various  forage  crops,  such  as  peas,  rape,  rye  and  \etches, 
barlev.  &c.,  have  been  grown  in  more  or  less  regular  rotation  with  wheat 
and  barefallow  in  the  drier  areas,  and  the  results  have  been  such  as  to 
lender  it  extremelv  probable  that  these  crops  will  play  an  important  part' 
in  the  future  of  wheat  growing,  more  especially  as  the  laml)  industry  is 
now  lirmlv  established.  Many  individual  cases  are  on  record  where 
farmers  have  been  strikingly  successful  in  combining  the  cultivation  of 
these  crojjs  with  that  of  wheat  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  latter.  As  yet. 
however,  no  regular  and  definite  rotation  of  forage  crops  with  wheat  and 
barefallow  has  lie^n  applied  to  anv  consideral)le  area  of  the  wheat  belt 
proper.  In  this  direction  there  is  scope  for  much  useful  experimental 
work.  A  systematic  test  of  different  rotations  of  forage  crops,  with  cereals 
and  barefallow,  extending  over  a  sufficient  period  of  years  to  eliminate  the 
error  effect  of  season  and  climate,  would  pro\ide  data  of  very  material 
value  for  deciding  the  merits  of  different  rotations,  for  the  drier  districts. 
and  would  indicate  whether  it  is  possible  to  get  more  than  one  crop  in  three 
years  or  one  crop  in  four  years. 

The  fundamental  weakness  of  alternate  cropping  and  barefallowing 
was  seen  to  be  the  depletion  of  the  organic  content  of  the  soil.  It  is  only 
\\  hen  the  .soil  is  rich  in  organic  matter  that  the  highest  yields  may  be 
obtained  from  barefallowing.  and  the  feeding  oft'  of  forage  crops,  grown 
in  systematic  rotation  with  wheat,  provides  the  grower  with  a  means  of 
preventing  the  depletion  of  the  organic  content  of  his  .soil.  The  grow- 
ing and  feeding  down  of  forage  crops  should,  therefore,  be  made  to  sup- 
plement barefallowing,  and  the  problem  to  solve  is  "What  are  the  best 
forage  crops  to  grow  in  drv  districts,  and  what  should  be  their  position 
in  a   rotation?  " 

This  can  only  be  determined  bv  svstematic  experimentation,  i.e..  by  try- 
ing all  possible  combinations  of  forage  crops,  barefallowing  and  wheat,  and 
determining  accuratelv  the  monetary  net  return  from  each  possil)le  com- 
liination.  A  modest  eft'ort  has  been  made  this  season  at  Rutherglen  to 
test  the  merits  of  different  systems  of  crop  rotation  for  wheat.  These 
will  probal)ly  l)e  extended  next  season,  and  pr;:vision  made  for  tests  under 
drier  conditions  than  Rutherglen.  For  the  present  .season  the  following 
rotations  have  been  laid  down:  — 

(i)  Wheat  and  barefallow.  alternatelv. 

(2)  Wheat,   pasture,  barefallow. 

(3)  Wheat,  oats,  pasture,  barefallow. 

(4)  Wheat,  rape,  fallow. 

(5)  Wheat,  non-leguminous  forages,  leguminous  forages. 

(6)  Wheat,  forage  crops,  alternate!}. 

(7)  Wheat,  forage  crops,  fallow. 

(8)  Wheat,  forage  crops,  barlev  or  oats,  legumes. 

(9)  Wheat,  rape  or  kale,  barley  or  oats,  rye  and  vetches  mixed. 

(10)  Wheat,    non-leguminous    forage    crop,    leguminous    forage    crop, 

l;)arlev,  fallow. 

(11)  Wheat,  oats,  green  manure. 


464  Journal    of   Agriculture ,    Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    1912. 

It  is  not,  of  course,  expected  that  all  these  rotations  will  succeed.  In- 
deed, some  of  them  must  obviously  be  of  little  value  in  the  district.  The 
systematic  recording  of  the  results  of  the  tests  over  a  period  of  years,  how- 
ever, should  throw  considerable  light  on  the  subject  of  crop  rotations  for 
wheat  in  dry  districts.  The  best  rotation,  of  course,  will  be  the  one  which 
continues  to  yield  the  best  financial  returns  over  a  period  of  years,  under 
i.he  economic  and  climatic  conditions  of  the  district. 

The  restoration  of  organic  matter  to  the  soil  can  be  brought  about  by 
grccii  manuring,  as  well  as  by  the  feeding  down  of  forage  crops.  Green 
manuring,  i.e.,  the  ploughing  in  of  green  crops  such  as  peas,  rye,  and 
vetches,  &c.,  is  a  much  more  effective  method  of  restoring  organic  matter 
to  depleted  soils  than  the  feeding  down  of  forage  crops.  As,  however,  the 
feeding  value  of  a  green  crop  is  usuallv  greater  than  its  manurial  value, 
the  general  practice  is  to  convert  the  crop  into  milk,  mutton,  or  beef,  in- 
stead of  ploughing  it  under. 

Crof  rotation  mint  be  supplemented  hv  Soil  Fertilization. — Before 
leaving  the  subject  of  crop  rotation  there  is  one  important  point  to  bear 
in  mind.  No  system  of  crop  rotation — however  well  conceived  and  carried 
out — can  make  up  for  any  shortcomings  in  either  cultivation  or  manur- 
ing. There  are  manv  who  think  that  crop  rotation  is  a  substitute  for 
manuring,  i.e.,  rotation  of  crops  in  itself  will  maintain  the  fertility  of 
the  soil.  Crop  rotation  alone,  witJiout  adecjuate  manuring,  will  not  in- 
crease, nor  even  maintain,  the  soil's  fertilitv.  No  system  of  crop  rota- 
tion can  add  one  .single  pound  of  any  of  those  inorganic  elements  so 
essential  for  plant  growth.  Moreover,  unless  legumes  are  grown,  or  un- 
less they  appear  naturally  in  the  pastures,  even  the  nitrogen  content  will 
not  be  maintained.  A  rational  system  of  crop  rotation  does  increase  the 
organic  content  of  the  s;;il.  simply  because  the  plant  can  obtain  its  organic 
matter  from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  atmosphere.  We  have  already  seen 
(P.  201)  that  95  ])er  cent,  of  the  dry  weight  of  the  plant  is  obtained 
from  the  air.  and.  therefore,  when  a  crop  is  ploughed  in  as  a  green 
manure,  or  fed  down  on  the  land  with  stock,  the  soil  is  enriched  by  the 
organic  matter  which  the  plant  has  secured  from  the  atmosphere.  But 
no  scheme  of  crop  rotation,  in  itself,  can  add  one  iota  to  the  inorganic 
portion  of  the  .soil.  Rotation  of  crops  must,  therefore,  be  supplemented 
bv  the  application  of  inorganic  manures,  if  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  to 
be  maintained  or  increased.  Nothing  could  be  clearer  on  this  funda- 
mental point  than  the  results  obtained  during  the  last  seventy  years  at  the 
Rothamsted  Experimental  Station.  The  results  obtained  in  the  Agdell 
field  represent  the  world's  best  information  on  this  point.  In  the  Agdell 
field  the  famous  Norfolk  four-course  rotation — turnips,  barley,  clover, 
wheat — has  been  practised  for  over  se\-enty  years.  In  any  one  year  there 
were  three  plots  for  each  crop,  ^"iz.  : — 

(i)  Unmanured. 

(2)  Manured  regularlv   with   phosphates. 

(3)  Manured    regularly    with    phosphates    and   nitrogen. 

The  following  table  shows  very  clearlv  that  (i)  on  Section  I.,  where  rota- 
tion was  carried  on  without  soil  fermentation,  the  yields  in  turnips,  barley, 
and  wheat  have  regularlv  and  continuallv  declined.  After  the  first  year  the 
turnip  yield  on  this  plot  never  exceeded  3  tons  per  acre,  i.e.,  they  were 
always  grown  at  a  loss.  The  barlev  average  dropped  from  46.5  to  13.7 
bushels,   whilst  the  wheat  dropped  from   29.7  bushels  to   18.9. 


lo  Aug.,   19 1 2.] 


The  Olive. 


465 


Summary     of      Results     of     Crop     Kotation     in     Adgell      Field, 
rothamsted.  since  1 848. 


Section  \. 

.Section  II 

Section  III. 

Tn  manured 

• 

Phosphates. 

Phosphates  and  Nitrogen. 

Turnips.  Barley. 

Wheat. 

Turnips. 

Barley. 

Wheat. 

bush. 

Turnips. 

Barley. 

Wheat. 

lbs.      1    bush. 

bush. 

lbs.         bush. 

lbs. 

bush.   1    bush. 

(1)  First  Crop,  1848 

19,584  1     46-5 

29-7 

25.004        36-3 

30 

25,032 

35-9 

30-3 

(2)  Average   of    first 

1 

20  years 

5,264        38-0 

29-6 

18,561 

36-8 

32-5 

31,198 

46-3 

35-3 

(3)  Average  of  second 

20  vears 

1,723        22-5 

21   1 

17.669 

28-1 

30  1 

31.790 

41-1        32  0 

(4)  Average  of  third 

1 

20  years 

967         13-7 

18-9 

25,275        22-2 

38-9 

41,739   1     29-2         36  4 

(2)  On  Section  II.  the  application  of  phosphates  has  maintained  the 
yield  of  turnips,  and  has  increased  the  wheat  yield  by  25  per  cent.,  while 
on  the  unfertilized  plot  the  yield  of  turnips  dropped  to  less  than  i  ton 
per  acre,  the  plot  manured  with  phosphates  has  averaged  nearly  12  tons 
per  acre  during  the  last  twenty  years.  The  barley  crop  shows  a  falling 
off,  but  it  remains  twice  the  average  of  the  unfertilized  barley  crop. 

(3)  The  turnip  crop,  on  Section  III.,  manured  with  phosphates  and 
nitrogen,  has  increased  from  12  tons  to  20  tons  per  acre.  The  barley 
crop,  which  follows  the  turnips,  seems  to  have  suffered  from  the  increased 
demands  made  by  the  heavy  crops  of  turnips.  The  average  yield,  how- 
ever, is  more  than  twice  that  of  the  unfertilized  plot.  Finally,  the  high 
initial  wheat  yield,  30.3  bushels,  has  not  only  been  maintained  throughout 
the  whole  sixty  years,  but  has  even  increased  during  the  last  twenty  years 
to  36.4  bushels.  Soil  fertilization  is,  therefore,  bound  up  with  crop  rota- 
tion, and  is  indispensable  for  the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility. 

(J^o  be  continued.) 


THE  OLIVE. 

By  L.  Macdonald,  F.R.H.S.,  Horticulturist.  Dookie  Agricultural  College. 
{Continued  from  page  408.) 

Pests — continued. 

The  Rrowii  or  Black  Olive  Scale  {Lecatiium  olece)  :  This  pest  is  said 
to  be  the  most  general  among  our  olive  trees.  Owing  to  its  adaptability 
to  various  conditions  and  its  disposition  to  attack  such  a  large  number  ot 
plants,  it  is  found  to  be  one  of  the  worst  to  cope  with.  Citrus  trees,  many 
of  our  garde.i  shrubs,  and  even  deciduous  fruit  trees,  are  liable  to  its 
attack.  Usually  it  is  accompanied  by  another  serious  trouble,  the  Sooty 
Mould  Fungus.  This  pest  appears  to  be  the  natural  concomitant  of  the 
olive  scale  living  as  it  does  on  the  .sugary  .secretion  of  the  scale  insects. 


466 


Journal   of   Agriculture ,    Victoria.         [lo   Aug.,    191 2. 


The  eggs,  pinkish  in  colour,  are  very  minute,  and  hard  to  (Hstinguish. 
The  colour  and  appearance  of  the  scales  vary  through  the  different  stages 
of  their  life  history.  The  young  insects  that  have  just  hatched  out  have 
also  a  pinky,  somewhat  transparent  a])pearance.  As  the  .scales  begin  to  grow 
they  assume  a  vellowish  colour  with  darker  markings  ;  gradually,  as  they 
mature,  they  become  grey,  brown,  and  black,  and  vary  considerably  in 
size,   some  of  the  adult  insects  being  c]uite  large. 

The  adult  female  usually  occupies  the  whole  of  the  space  under  the 
shell-like  covering,  but  when  egg-laying  begins — and  it  continues  for  some 
time — a  gradual  diminution  takes  place  in  her  size,  until  there  is  practically 
nothing  left  but  a  filament  of  skin,  the  eggs  occupying  the  whole  of  the 
space  under  the  covering. 

With  regard  to  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  an  adult  female,  some 
difference  of  opinion  appears  to  exist,  between  200  and  300  are  said  by 
some  authorities   to   be   about  the   average.      In   observations  on   this   point 


FIG.     21.      -BLACK    OLIVE    SCALE    (MAGNIFIED). 


carried  out  by  the  writer,  the  number  of  eggs  found  under  each  scale  was 
much  greater.  In  no  case,  in  fact,  was  the  number  less  than  700,  and  in 
the  greater  number  of  cases  noted  considerably  oxer  1,000  were  found. 
It  must  be  stated,  though,  that  all  examined  were  well-developed  specimens, 
living  somewhat  isolated  from  others.  Probablv  the  number  of  eggs  found 
under  the  average  scale  shell,  where  they  are  crowded  together,  would  be 
much  less,  and  would  more  likely  approximate  the  numbers  first  mentioned. 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  this  insect  is  fairly  prolific,  and 
will  soon  spread  if  left  unmolested. 

The  usual  methods  of  combating  this  pest,  and  those  of  a  similar  kind, 
are  by  spraying  or  fumigation.  In  spraying  petroleum  compounds  are 
most  favoured  ;  they  are  cheap,  easy  to  prepare,  and,  if  properlv  applied, 
effective  in  reducing  the  pest. 

Red  oil,  crude  petroleum  oil  emulsion,  and  kerosene  emulsion  are  all 
prepared   in   the   following   way  : — Boil    i    gallon   of   water   and    1    lb.    of 


lo  Aug.,    191 


Tlic    Olrrc. 


467 


s!iced-up  hard  soap,  or  2  llis.  of  soft  soap,  until  the  soap  is  dissolved. 
Remove  from  the  fire  and  add  2  gallons  of  the  oil,  thoroughly  agitate  with 
0  force  syringe  for  about  five  minutes,  or  until  emulsified,  replace  on  the 
fire  again  after  adding  the  oil.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  that  it 
does  not  boil  over  or  drip  into  the  fire,  as,  owing  to  its  inflammat)le  nature, 
it  is  exceedingly  dangerous. 

If  the  mixture  has  been  properly  prepared,  it  will  set  when  cool,  and 
no  free  oil  will  be  noticeable  on  top.  The  presence  of  free  oil  indicates 
eitlier  an  insuffitnenry  of  soap  or  of  emulsification.  Sufficient  stock  may 
he  prepared  at  once  in  the  abo\e  way  to  last  all  through  the  season.  In 
making  up  for  u.se  the  stock  should  be  heated  up  or  diluted  in  hot  water. 

In  applying  the  red  oil  preparation  use  at  the  rate  of  i  in  20  to  i  in- 
30,  according  to  the  time  of  application.  In  autumn  or  late  summer,  or 
on    badlv    infested    trees    the    stronger    strengths    may    be    used,    while   the 


FIG.    22.-  -TERMINALS    OF    SHOOTS    ATTACKED    BY    BLACK    OLIVE    SCALE. 

weaker  solutions  should  be  used  in  spring,  when  the  new  growth  is  on  the 
trees.  The  olive,  being  an  evergreen  tree,  will  not  bear  the  winter 
strengths  used  on  deciduous  trees.  Crude  petroleum  and  kerosene  emulsion 
should  be  used  at  strengths  from  1  in  12  to  1  iii  15. 

Resin  w'ash  and  the  lime  and  sulphur  wash  may  also  be  u.sed.  Although 
all  the.se  sprays  are  of  value  in  reducing  the  pest,  it  is  very  rarely  that 
they  succeed  in  completely  eradicating  it  on  evergreen  trees.  The  only 
•effective  method  of  doing  this  economicalh  is  by  fumigation  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas.  Full  particulars  of  this  method  appear  in  the  Journal  of  Agri- 
culture, June  issue,  1912,  pages  366  to  374 

The  chemicals  used  and  the  gas  generated  are  exceedinglv  dangerous 
poisons,  and  should  be  handled  with  the  greatest  care.  The  gas  should 
never  be  inhaled.  The  chemicals  should  be  securelv  locked  awav  when 
not  in  use. 


468 


Journal   of   Agriculture ,    Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    1912. 


The  Red  Scale  {Aspidiotus  rossi)  :  This  pest  must  not  he  confused 
with  the  "  Red  Orange  Scale  ''  {Aspidiotus  aurantii).  It  belongs  to  the 
great  family  coccididse.  the  members  of  which  are  responsible  for  a  great 
amount  of  damage  every  year  to  both  fruit  and  ornamental  trees.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  common  of  the  scale  here.  It  appears  to  flourish  some- 
what better  in  the  coastal  regions  than  in  the  inland  areas ;  this  is  due,  in 
part,  perhaps,  to  the  presence  of  more  succulent  vegetation,  more  equable 
conditions,  and  the  greater  shelter  in  the  dense  foliage  of  .southern  wood- 
knds. 

This  scale  differs  considerably  from  Lecauium  olca,  inasmuch  as  it 
appears  to  secrete  very  little  honevdew,  con.sequently  very  little  of  the 
black  fumagine  that  lives  on  this  secretion,  and  is  so  conspictious  a  feature 
of  the  latter's  presence,  is  noticeable. 


OLIVE    LEAVES    SHOWING   ATTACK    OF    SOOTY    MOULD. 


The   treatment   adopted   for   the   Black   01i\e    Scale   should  be   applied' 
jilso   for   this  one. 

-The  White  or  Oleander  Scale  {Aspidiotus  nerii)  :  This  scale  sometimes 
attacks  the  olive  as  well  as  a  number  of  other  evergreen  trees.  It  has  a 
very  wide  distribution,  and  is  very  hard  to  dislodge  when  once  vi^ell  estab- 
lished. It  is  greyish  white  in  colour,  often  changing  to  greyish  brown. 
The  scales  are  about  i-25th  to  i-i2th  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  female- 
puparium  is  almost  circular  and  somewhat  larger  than  that  of  the  male, 
which  is  small  and  elongated.  Owing  to  the  absence  of  the  "  Scotv 
Mould  Fungus  "  with  this  and  Aspidiotus  rossi.  it  is  more  difficult  to 
detect  an  early  attack  than  in  the  case  of,  for  instance,  Lecanium  olece. 
When  once  they  are  discovered,  however,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  apply- 
ing the  most  effective  remedies. 

Treatment. — This  should  be  carried  out  with  contact  spravs  or  fumiga- 
tion, as  is  recommended  for  Lecanium  olecE. 


JO  Aug.,    19 1 2.] 


The   Oliv 


469 


A  small  [lar.isitic  fly  is  found  to  be  attacking  this  scale,  and  lending  a 
hand  towards  its  suppression.  However,  the  grower  must  as  vet  ]f)ok  to 
other  means  of  effectively  combating  it. 

The  Sootv  Mould  F'ungus. — This  fungus  is  known  in  many  places  as 
{Meliola  camel  lice.  Sacc).  Some  difference  of  o])inion  exists  as  to  whether 
this  is  its  right  name.  It  does  not  appear  to  Ije  definitely  settled  which  of 
the  species  of  this  fungus — if  the\  are  various — feeds  on  the  honeydew  of 
the  scale  insects  on  different  trees.  It  is  verv  probable,  as  pointed  out  by 
Mr.  McAlpine.  that  different  species  cause  the  trouble  in  different  countries 
and  on  difft-rent  trees.  The  Black  Blight  {Capiiodium  citricolum.  McAlp. ) 
which  attacks  citrus  trees  in  this  country,  appears  to  live,  like  allied  forms, 
on  the  sugary  secretions  of  aphides  and  scale  insects.  Hf)wever  this  may. 
be,  it  will  usually  be  found  sufficient  for  the  i)ur])ose  of  the  horticulturist 
to  know  that  thr  \arious  forms  of  this  fungus  have  a  similar  effect  in 
injuring  the  functions  of  the  leaves,  and  that  if  the  trees  are  ke[)t  free  from 
the  i)resencc^  of  scales  or  aphides  the  fungus  also  ceases  to  exist. 


FIG.    24. —  OLIVE   TWIG   ATTACKED    BY   RED    SCALE    (aSPIDIOTUS    ROSSI). 

Trees  attacked  by  the  Black  (31ive  .Scale  are  usuallv  easilv  distinguished 
by  the  dark  appearance  given  them  1)\  the  presence  of  the  Sooty  Mould 
Fungus ;  the  lea\es  also  become  shiny  and  sticky  in  cases  where  the  attack 
is  severe.  The  chief  injury  caused  by  the  fungus  is  the  clogging  up  of 
the  .stomata  of  the  leaves,  antl  in  cases  where  there  is  a  bad  attack  the 
branches  and  lea\es  become  almost  completely  covered  with  an  incrustation 
cf  this  fungus,  and,  consquently.  cannot  properlv  perform  their  functions. 

Treatment. — Since  this  disease  derives  its  food  supplies  from  the  secre- 
tions of  aphides  or  scale  insects,  it  is  obvious  that  by  destroying  such 
in.sects  you  also  do  away  with  the  food  supplies  of  the  fungus ;  and,  as  a 
result,  it  .soon  disappears.  Hence  the  grower  should  direct  his  attention 
firstly  to  the  destruction  of  the  scales.  However,  to  hasten  the  removal 
of  the  fungus    a  weak    solution    of    some    fungicide — such    as    Bordeaux 


470  Journal   of   Agriculture ,    \  ictoria.         [lo  Aug.,    1912. 

mixture — may  be  used  in  conjunction  with  tlie  spray  that  is  used  for  the 
treatment  of  the  scales. 

The  Olive  Tree  Bug  {Froggattia  olivina). — This  bug  does  not  appear 
\.o  have  claimed  the  attention  of  growers  in  this  State.  According  to  Mr. 
Froggatt,  it  has  a  wide  distribution  in  New  South  Wales,  where  its  native 
host  plant  is  the  mock  olive  {Notelecc  longifolia),  and  since  this  tree  is 
also  native  to  this  State,  it  is  possible  that  the  olive  bug  may  also  be 
present.  Though  instances  are  recorded  in  New  South  Wales  of  this  bug 
having  transferred  its  attention  from  the  native  olive  to  the  cultivated  olive, 
it  has  so  far  done  little  damage;  nevertheless,  where  sufficiently  numerous, 
a  great  deal  of  damage  can  be  done.  The  bug  itself  is  very  small  (being 
about  i-i6th  of  an  inch  in  length),  and  dark  linnvn  in  colour,  and  although 
h  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  olive  pests  here,  it  may  possibly 
become  one,  and  growers  should  be  on  the  look  out  for  its  appearance, 
especially  in  those  districts  where  the  native  olive  grows.  Where  it  is 
once  detected  precautionary  measures  should  be  immediately  adopted 
against  its  extens'on. 

Tuberculosis  {Bacillus  olccc). — It  is  found  that  this  disease  cau.^es  the 
formation  of  various  sized  tubercules  or  nodules  on  the  main  branches. 
They,  of  course,  interfere  with  the  healthy  development  of  the  shoots,  and 
if  allowed  to  remain  will  gradually  multiply.  The  trouble  takes  place  in 
the  wood-fibres  under  the  bark,  consequentlv  it  is  difficult  to  apply  any 
remedy  effectively.  The  affected  parts  should  be  cut  out  and  burned. 
This  disea.se  is  prevalent  in  the  Mediterranean  countries,  but  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  found  in  this  country. 

The  Olive  Fly  {Dacus  olca:  ossi). — This  is  i)robably  the  most  dreaded 
of  all  the  olive  pests  in  the  gro\es  adjoining  the  Mediterranean.  For  years 
•t  has  worked  enormous  damage.  Owing  to- its  habits  and  method  of  attack 
it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  tO'  cope  with.  Its  life  history  and  mode  of 
attack  appear  to  be  v&xy  similar  to  that  of  the  closely  allied  species,  the 
Mediterranean  Fruit  Fly  {Ceratitis  capitata.  Weid).  The  fly  itself  is  about 
one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  yellowish  red  in  colour,  with  dark  stripes 
on  the  abdomen.  The  eggs  are  of  a  golden  hue.  The  pest  is  most  preva- 
lent about  the  time  of  the  fruits  ripening,  and  if  the  affected  fruits  do 
not  fall  by  the  time  the  larvae  have  developed  .sufficiently  to  enter  the 
pupating  stage  they  fall  to  the  ground  and  .seek  some  harliour  in  which  to 
pupate.  The  larvae,  which  are  hatched  out  in  a  few  days,  burrow  through 
the  fruit,  l)reaking  down  its  tissues  and  quickly  rendering  it  unfit  for  use. 

As  before  stated,  the  method  and  period  of  this  fly's  attack  render  it 
very  difficult  to  carrv  out  any  effective  method  of  combating  it.  Since 
the  insect  is  concealed  in  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  during  those  stages  of  its 
life  history  where  its  damaging  work  is  carried  out,  it  cannot  be  attacked 
by  means  of  a  spray,  methods  of  suppression  must  be  directed  chiefly 
against  the  moth  itself.  The  traps  used  for  other  fruit  flies  would  probably 
Le  found  of  value  for  this  one.  They  are  made  of  shallow  tins  with  a 
liftle  kerosene  in  them,  and  hung  in  the  trees.  Experiments  made  with 
various  chemicals  would  reveal  something  which  would  attract  the  flies 
and  prove  of  value  in  minimizing  the  pest  ;  spraying  with  sweetened 
poLsoned  solutions  has  been  carried  out  in  Italv  with  some  degree  of 
success. 

The  Olive  Moth  {Qruga  minadora). — The  caterpillar  of  this  moth  is 
responsible  for  some  degree  of  damage  in  the  older  countries,  but  so  far  as 


lo  Aug.,    1912.]  The   Olive.  471 

the  writer  can  ascertain  it  is  not  doing  any  damage  in  the  phintations  here. 
It  attacks  chiefly  the  branches  at  the  l)utt.  sometimes  also  the  fruit.  Its 
attack  is  noticeable  by  the  formation  of  galls  on  the  shonts.  The  fullv- 
grown  insect  is  greenish  white  in  colour  and  the  larvae  yellowish. 

The  Olive  Twig  Borer  {Polycaon  confertiis). — This  beetle  is  reddish 
brown  in  colour  and  about  \  inch  in  length.  Tt  makes  its  attack  by  boring 
into  the  twigs,  usually  close  to  the  axile  of  the  leaves.  So  far  as  can  be 
ascertained,  it  is  not  present  in  this  country,  and  in  America,  where  it 
IS  found,  it  has  as  yet  done  so  little  damage  that  it  has  received  verv  little 
attention. 

Thrips. — During  the  flowering  season  of  the  olive  countless  millions  of 
these  tiny  insects  swarm  over  the  trees.  It  is  hard  to  estimate  the  extent 
of  the  damage  that  may  be  attributed  to^  their  presence,  or  to  what  extent 
they  affect  the  .setting  of  the  fruit.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the)-  interfere  to 
anv  great  extent  in  the  latter  case,  as  heavy  crops  have  been  observed  in 
seasons  when  the  insects  were  excessively  numerous.  Several  species  of 
the  familv  {Tliripidcc)  are  native  to  Au.stralia,  but  the  imported  ones  are 
most  commorilv  met  with.  Judging  by  the  varying  appearance  and  size, 
tl.ere  i.suallv  appears  to  be  more  than  one  species  present  on  the  olive. 

Treatment. — Owing  to  the  number  and  variety  of  our  spring  blooming 
plants,  Thrips  have  every  opportunity  of  multiplying  during  the  flowering 
season  of  the  olive,  so  that  it  seems  well  nigh  impossible  to  suppress  them. 
The  Cape  Weed  proves  a  great  harbour  for  them,  and,  consequently,  it 
should  be  got  rid  of  among  the  trees.  Fumigating  with  hvdrocvanic  acid 
gas  will,  no  doubt,  prove  an  effective  remedy,  if  it  can  be  economically 
applied.  Mr.  French  recommends  the  use  of  "  Benzole  Emulsion,"'  or 
white  oil  soap  (i  pound  to  each  gallon  of  water  used,  and  applied  at 
130  degrees  Fahr.). 

Dry-Rot. — Th^  Californian  (Station)  Report  for  1895-96.  1896-97 
(]j.  235),  gives  the  description  of  a  disease  which  is  not  defniitely  named, 
but  which  cau.ses  a  gradual  rotting  of  the  fruits  in  spots.  It  appears  in 
that  State  to  attack  chiefly  the  Nevadillo  olives.  Reference  is  also  made 
Id  a  similar  disease  in  Bulletin  62  of  the  Arizona  Experiment  Station.  In 
this  ca.se  it  appears  more  commonly  on  the  Columbella  olives.  A  similar, 
or  identical,  trouble  is  occurring  here  in  a  mild  form  on  two  varieties 
of  olives.  It  appears  fir.st,  just  when  the  fruit  is  ripening,  bv  a  slight 
indentation  or  contraction  of  the  skin  of  the  fruit,  gradually  as  the  fruit 
becomes  riper  the  spots  become  more  marked,  and  they  become  darker  in 
colour,  extending  in  diameter  and  depth,  and  reaching  right  to  the  stone. 
The  affected  parts  .subside  greatly,  and  tissues  become  dry  and  brown, 
similar  in  some  respects  to  the  effects  of  Bitter  Pit.  The  trouble  usuallv 
occurs  towards  the  apex  of  the  fruit,  and  is  more  marked  in  the  wet  years 
than  in  the  dry  According  to  Mr.  McAlpine,  it  is  one  of  the  Micro- 
diplodia.  Since  it  has  confined  itself  to  two  varieties,  and  then  appears 
only  in  a  very  mild  form,  it  has  not  called  for  any  special  investigation. 

(To  be  continued.) 


472  journal,    of    Agriculture,    \  ictoria.         [lo   Aug.,    1912. 


BEE-KEEPING  IN  VICTORIA. 

{Coutinued  from  fagc  -/-I5-) 

F.  R.   Beulinc,  Bee  Expert. 

VI. — Water   for   Bees. 


DRINKING    TROUGHS    FOR    BEES. 
Illustrition   of  article  appe.iriiig  in  July  issue  ot  Jdiirnal.  page   413. 

VII. — How  TO  Make  a  Start. 

How  to  make  a  .start  in  beekeeping  will  depend  upon  whether  the 
beginner  is  taking  up  bee-cul'aire  as  a  business,  or  as  a  side  issue  of 
some  other  occupation.  If  it  is  intended  tO'  adopt  it  as  the  only  calling, 
then  the  best  way  is  to  go  as  a  working  pupil  with  an  up-to-date  apiari.st 
for  a  season  or  two.  Even  if  a  premium  has  to  be  paid  for  the  fir.^t 
year,  it  will  be  less  costly  than  the  experience  gained  by  failure.  After 
the  first  season,  a  pupil  will  have  learned  enough  tO'  entitle  him  to  some 
pay  for  the  second  year,  or  he  ma\-  be  competent  enough  to  run  a  small 
apiary  on  shares  with  the  owner.  By  the  end  of  the  second  year,  sufficient 
confidence  and  experience  will  have  been  acquired  to  make  an  independent 
start. 

When  means  ot  circumstances  do'  not  permit  of  taking  a  position  as 
pupil  in  an  established  apiary,  or  when  beekeeping  is  to  be  only  a  side 
issue,  then  it  is  best  to  start  in  quite  a  small  way.  Begin  with  two  or 
three  hives,  and  as  experience  is  gained  by  practice,  and  knowledge  by 
reading,  gradually  increase  the  number  of  colonies.  A  book  of  reference, 
such  as  A.  I.  Root's  A.  B.  C .  of  Bee-culture,  will  greatly  assist  in  ma.ster- 
ing  the  principles  of  beekeeping,  and  will  supply  solutions  to  nearly  all 
the  problems  which  usually  present  themseh'es  to  the  novice.  Any 
opportunity  tO'  visit  an  apiary,  or  to  personally  consult  an  apiarist  of  somie 
standing,  should  be  made  good  use  of  whenever  it  occurs. 


lo  Aug.,    IQI2.] 


Bcc-kecp///i^ 


'  ici(>na. 


473 


Everybody  handling  bees  requires  two 
things  to  start  with,  namely,  a  bee-veil,  and  a 
smoker.  A  veil  will  cost  about  is.  6d.,  a 
smoker  4s.  to  7s.,  according  to  size,  and  whe- 
ther tin  or  brass.  There  are  two  kinds — one 
straight,  the  other  with  a  bent  nozzle.  T 
strongly  recommend  the  Latter  (Fig.  i),  be- 
caus;^  any  kind  of  fuel  may  be  used  in  '^^ 
without  risk  of  glowing  embers  dropping  from 
it  when  directing  smoke  downwards.  Dry 
decayed  wood  or  bark  is  better  smoker  fuel 
than  bagging,  rags,  or  fresh  wood,  the  former 
giving  a  cooler  smoke  and  less  tar  in  the 
smoker. 

There  are  se\eral  ways  of  making  a  start 
in  a  small  w^av  : — (i)  Full  colonies;  (2") 
Swarms;  (3)  Box-hives;  (4)  Nuclei.  With 
which  of  these  to  start  will  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  m<inev  it  is  proposed  to  expend  at 
once,   and  whether  bees  are  obtainable  in  one  form  or  another. 


FIG. 


I. — Full   Colonics   oj   Bees. 

Hives  with  finished  coml)s  and  brood,  and  sufficient  bees  to  cover  all 
the  combs,  may  be  obtained  from  supply  dealers  advertising  in  the  Mel- 
bourne weekly  papers,  at  prices  ranging  from  30s.  per  stock  for  Black  or 
Hybrid  bees,  to  45s.  for  Italians,  with  tested  Queen.  Bees  in  frame-hives 
can  often  be  purchased  direct  from  owners ;  but  for  a  beginner  this  involves 
some  risk  of  getting  disease  or  hives  with  poor  combs  to  start  with.  It  is 
usuallv  the  neglected  hives  which  are  for  sale. 


2. — Stvarms. 
Where  starting  with  natural  swarms,  and  new  hives,  all  danger  of 
introducing  disease  is  avoided.  Swarms  are  obtainable  from  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember to  the  end  of  December,  at  los.  to  15s.  each,  according  to  weight, 
2S.  6d.  per  lb.  being  the  price  usually  charged  by  dealers,  or  they  may 
be  advertised  for  and  bought  direct  from  beekeepers  having  a  surplus. 
With  swarms  there  is  little  danger  of  disease  l)eing  conveyed,  even  though 
the  bees  come  from  a  diseased  hive.  "When  obtained  from  a  distance  the 
boxes  in  which  they  are  sent  should  be  al:)Out  the  size  of  a  kerosene  case, 
with  wdre  screen  covering  an  opening  of  one-third  of  the  surface  on  two 
opposite  sides.  The  hives  and  frames  should  be  bought  beforehand, 
and  be  ready.  ^Vhen  the  swarms  arrive  they  should  be  placed  in  a  cool 
and  well-aired  spot  till  towards  evening,  when  a  cloth  or  bag  is  spread 
out  in  front  of  the  hive  entrance  upon  which  the  swarm  is  dumped  out  of 
the  transit  box.  As  a  rule  the  bees  will  quickly  run  into  the  hive ;  if  they 
cluster  outside  without  entering  some  should  be  brushed  off  with  a  large 
feather,  and  a  little  smoke  u.=;ed  on  all  of  them  to  start  them  running  in. 
If  swarms  are  emptied  out  of  transit  boxes  during  the  warm  hours  of  the 
day  or  left  hanging  outside  the  hive  overnight  they  will  sometimes  rise 
and  cluster  in  some  inconvenient  place,  or  may  even  abscond.  If  several 
days  of  inclement  weather  follow  the  hiving  of  the  swarms,  the  bees  should 
be  feed  with  sugar  syrup  made  bv  dissolving  sugar  in  an  equal  weight  of 


474 


Jo!ir)iaI   of   A^r/ailttirc .    Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    1912. 


boiling  water.       This  is  given  inside  tlie  hive  in  a  wooden  feeder  supplied 
by  dealers. 


Single  story  hives,  made  up  and  painted,  containing  eight  wired  frames 
supplied   with   strips  of  comb   foundation  cost    los.    each,  or   if  l)ought  in 


o  Aug.,    1 91 2. 


Bcc-kcc ping    ill    yictoiia. 


475 


^gB 


the  flat  and  nailfil  together  and  jiainied  at  home  8.s.  each.  The  hive.s 
when  phiced  in  position  ready  to  receive  the  bees  should  stand  perfectly 
level  crossvvays  to  the  frames,  utherwi.se  the  combs  may  have  the  wires 
on  the  outside  instead  of  in  the  centre,  because  comb  is  always  built  per- 
fectly perpendicular  by  the  bees.  The  hives  should,  if  jDossible,  be  shel- 
tered from  the  south,  with  entrances  facing  east,  north,  <,r  west.  When 
the  combs  are  nearly  tlown  to  the  Ixittom  l)ars  of  the  frames  (Fig.  2)  a 
super  or  up])ei-  .story  musi  l)e  put  on.  It  may  be  of  the  same  size  as  the 
lower  one  or  of  half  depth  with  shallow  frames.  Unless  full  sheets  of 
foundation  are  used  instead  of  starters  in  the  frames  of  an  upper  storv 
a  queen-excluding  honey  board  (Fig.  3)  sh<juld  be  inserted  between  the 
two  b(.xes  to  pre\fnt  the  queen  depositing  eggs  in  drone  comb  usually  built 
from  starters  in  the  super.  To  start  the  bees  building  comb  above,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  hang  a  comb  or  two  from  tlie  lower  into  the  upper 
story  taking  care  tO'  leave  the  f]ueen  l)el(:w  and  to  (ill  the  space  below  with 
a  frame  or  two  from  above. 

3.   Box- /lives. 

Good  colonies  in  box-hives  or  unworkable  frame  hives  may  sometimes 
be  bought  cheaply,  and  if  free  from  disease  the  bees  may  Ije  drummed  u]) 
into  a  frame  hi\e,  placed,  with- 
out its  bottom  board,  on  top  oj 
the  in\-erted  box-hive.  If  tin 
combs  containing  worker  bro(i(l 
are  fairly  straignt  they  may  be 
cut  out  and  fitted  into  frames 
in  which  they  are  held  in  posi 
tion  by  string  tied  over  the  out- 
side of  the  frame.  When  these 
combs  have  been  fastened  tn 
the  frames  by  the  bees  tlr 
string  may  be  removed,  an^! 
when  the  colony  is  strong 
enough  the  combs  may  be  hung 
in  the  .super  over  a  queen  excluder  till  all  l>rood  is  hatched,  when  they 
can  be  taken  away  and  melted  up  for  wax. 

If  a  box-hive  is  strong  and  it  is  earl\-  in  the  sea.son  the  most  con\enient 
way  of  transferring  the  bees  to  a  frame  hive  is  to  let  them  swarm,  hive 
the  swarm  in  a  frame-hive  on  the  spot  where  the  box-hive  stood,  and  re- 
move the  latter  some  distance  if  it  is  desired  tO'  make  two  colonies;  if  not, 
leave  it  near  the  new  hive  but  facing  in  a  different  direction.  Just  three 
weeks  later  all  the  worker  brood  in  the  box-hive  will  have  hatched  out, 
and  a  new  queen  will  be  laying.  The  bees  may  now  be  drummed  out 
into  another  frame-hive  or  into  the  hive  containing  the  swarm,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  old  box  containing  only  combs  without  brood  should  be 
taken  indoors  and  secured  against  bees,  and  as  soon  as  convenient  the 
combs  boiled  down  for  wax.  If  there  is  any  suspicion  that  a  box-hive 
colony  is  diseased,  it  is  l>est  to  drum  it  off  at  once,  and  destroy  the  box 
and  old  combs  by  burning.  The  bees  themselves  will  be  clean  in  their  new 
hive  provided  they  do  not  get  access  to  any  honey  or  comb  from  the  old 
box  after  being  driven  off. 

4.   .Yinii-i. 

Beekeeping  may  also  be  commenced  with  nuclei  colonies.  A  nucleus 
is  a  small  colony  of  bees  with  a  queen  and  two  or  three  frames  of  comb 


3i 


FIG. 


476  Journal   of   Agriculture ,    Victoria.         [10  Aug.,    191 2. 

with  lin.iod.  and  some  stores.  When  received  it  is  transferred  to  a  hive 
and  frames  with  starters  or  full  sheets  of  foundations  added  tOi  till  the  box. 
Three-frame  nuclei  may  be  obtained  of  Italian  Ijees  at  15s.  to  25s.,  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  of  queen  chosen  with  them,  and  black  or  hybrid  bees  at 
los.  tO'  20s.,  or  either  may  lie  bought  in  full-sized  hives  with  the  additional 
frames  in  pcsition  for  5s.  each  extra.  Under  favorable  conditions,  if 
obtained  early  enough  in  the  season,  nuclei  will  rapidly  build  up  into  full 
colO'uies  and  have  the  advantage  that  the  beginner  is  not  troubled  with 
hiving,  and  possibly  losing  swarms  during  the  first  sea.son. 

The  first  cost  of  hives,  frames,  and  comb-foundation  appears  high,  and 
manv  beginners  think  that  money  can  be  saved  by  making  their  own  hives 
and  frames.  It  will  be  found,  however,  that  when  timber  of  the  proper 
qualitv  is  purchased  in  small  quantities  the  cost  per  hive  is  verv  little  less 
than  that  of  one  bought  already  prepared.  In  any  ca.se,  it  is  advisable 
to  purchase  at  least  one  hive  and  frames  sO'  as  to  have  a  pattern  to  work 
by.  Californ'an  red  wood  is  decidedly  the  best  timber  for  hives,  it  is  free 
from  knots,  shrinks  very  little,  does  not  warp,  and  is  never  eaten  by  white 
ants,  which  in  some  localities  are  very  destructive  tO'  hives. 

If  the  first  cost  has  to  be  cut  down  to  a  minimum,  temporary  hives  may 
be  made  out  of  kerosene  or  petrol  cases.  The  frames  which  should  be 
of  the  self-spacing  kind  (Hoffman)  had  better  be  bought,  as  they  require 
to  be  made  very  accurately,  so  that  later  on  they  can  be  transferred  to  per- 
manent hives.  To'  construct  a  frame  hive  out  of  a  kerosene  case,  one  of 
the  broad  sides  is  taken  off,  while  the  opposite  one  serves  as  a  floor  for 
the  hive.  The  original  Ud  of  the  case  is  nailed  on  as  a  side,  the  former 
bottom  of  the  case  forming  the  other.  At  the  bottom  at  one  end  an  open- 
ing 6  in.  by  Yq  in.  is  cut  out  as  an  entrance  for  the  bees,  and  a  strip  of 
wood  3^  in.  thick  (such  as  the  thin  boards  of  the  case),  is  nailed  to  the 
inside  of  the  ends  of  the  case  Yq  in.  from  the  upper  edge.  This  is  to 
suspend  the  frames  from.  A  roof  for  this  hive  may  be  made  out  of  the 
broad  side  taken  off  the  case.  It  should,  however,  be  covered  with  some 
waterproof  material  and  shaded  to  prevent  excessive  heat  melting  the  combs 
in  the  hives.  Hoffman,  or  other  full-depth  frames  .should  always  be 
wired,  as  without  wires  new  combs  often  lireak  out  in  handling  the  frames, 
or  fall  down  in  hot  weather.  When  two  sets  of  half-depth  or  shallow 
frames  are  used  wiring  may  Ije  dispensed  with. 

If  in  making  two  shallow  bodies  out  of  a  kerosene  case,  Y  i'l-  ^s  cut 
off  the  ends  of  the  case  crossways  before  sawing  it  in  two  lengthways  the 
resulting  half-depth  bodies  will  exactly  lit  on  an  eight-frame  hive,  on 
which:  it  may  be  used  as  a  super  when  a  i)roper  hi\-e  is  adopted.  A  diffi- 
culty usually  experienced  by  beginners  is  that,  not  wishing  to  purchase  a 
honey  extractor  right  away,  they  attempt  to  raise  comb-honev  hi  i  lb. 
sections.  It  is  well  known  amongst  apiarists  that  the  profitable  produc- 
tion of  section  honey  requires  considerable  skill  and  a  good  honey  locality. 
In  the  case  of  beginners  both  these  factors  are  usually  absent,  wdth  the  re- 
sult that  the  bees  sooner  than  start  work  in  the  sections  will  repeatedly 
swarm,  and  the  season  will  be  over  before  the  swarms  have  become  strong 
enough  to  store  any  surplus  of  honey,  whereas  if  frames  had  been  used  in 
the  super  instead  of  sectious  swarming  would  have  been  prevented  to-  a 
great  extent,  and  a  fair  amount  of  honey  secured.  With  shallow^  unwired 
frames  the  honey  may  be  obtained  by  cutting  out  the  comb,  leaving  about 
y2  in.  on  the  top  bar  to  act  as  a  guide  for  a  new  comb.       The  dim.ensions 


:o  Aug..    191^.] 


Bcc-kLL  pnii:^    ni     Viclnria. 


of  shallow  I'lair.e  are: — Tnj)  har,  19  in  long,  i  in.  wide,  }%  in.  thick; 
hottoni  hnr.  ryys  in.  long.  1  in.  widt-,  ^g  in.  thick;  .side  l)ars,  3-;4  in. 
long,    i;8   in.   wide,    fs   in.   thick,   nailed  together  as  shown  in  Fig.   4. 

Locality. 

It  must  \k-  nnderstoiid  that  althi.ngh  hees  mav  be  kept  almost  anywhere, 
e\en  near  cities,  and  when  properly  managed  some  return  may  be  secured, 
no  one  should  take  up  beekeeping  for  profit  or  as  a  sole  means  of  living 
unless  prepared  toi  go  into  the  country  as  soon  as  the  elementary  knowledge 
and  some  experience  in  handling  bees  have  been  acquired.  As  wheat- 
growing  is  proiital)le  (.nlv  where  fair-sized  areas  of  easily  tilU-d  land  are 
available,    so   l)eekeeping    require-s    a    wide    range    of    hi:ney-i)roducing    flora 


FIG.    4. 


to  make  it  a  paying  occupation.  To  supplement  the  insufficient  honey 
resources  of  a  locality  by  growing  flowers  specially  for  bees  is  impractic- 
able. The  land  available  for  this  purpose  in  the  neighbourhood  of  cities 
and  towns  is  too  limited  in  area,  and  too  valuable.  While  in  remoter 
localities  where  large  areas  of  bee-pasture  might  be  planted,  the  expense 
would  be  out  of  proportion  to  the  return  .secured  even  if  neighbours"  bees 
and  wild  liees  could  be  prevented  from  trespas.sing.  Australia  has  such 
a  splendid  honey-producing  flora,  if  beekeepers  will  only  go  to  it,  there  is 
no  need  whatever  to  raise  plants  speciallv  for  honey.  In  Victoria  only 
a  fraction  of  the  nectar  produced  annual  I  v  by  our  native  flora  is  at  pre- 
sent being  gathered  by  iDees. 

{To    he    continued.') 


47< 


Journal    of    Agnciiltiirc ,    Victoria.         [lo   Aug.,    191 3. 


SMALL  ill  KAL  INDUSTRIES. 

0.— ROSE    CULTIVATION. 

By  JosC'p/i  Knight. 

Possibly  there  is  no  plant  grown  which  is  more  popular  than  the  rose, 
nor  any  perfume  produced  which  finds  more  favour  than  the  Oil  of  Rose, 
or,   as  it  is  generally  known,   "  Attar  of  Roses." 

Its  cultivation  is  simple.  If  grown  under  healthy  conditions,  the  plant 
adapts  itself  to  almost  any  soil  or  climate,  and  there  is  but  little  trouble 
with   insect   and   fungoid   pests. 

The  work  of 
gathering  the 
flowers  lasts  but  a 
few  weeks  —  gener- 
allv  from  four  to 
five  —  after  which 
the  plant  may  be 
left  to  itself.  '  All 
that  is  necessary  is 
to  i)rune  in  the 
autumn,  and  culti- 
vate the  soil  suffi- 
ciently to  keep 
weeds  in  check. 
It  takes  about  4 
tons  of  blooms  to 
make  i  lb.  of  oil, 
and  the  present 
wholesale  price  of 
the  oil  in  JNIelbourne 
is  ;2^3  per  oz..  or 
^48  per  lb.  It  is 
well,  therefore  to 
look  whether  regular 
labour  can  be  ob- 
tained to  gather  the 
blooms  every  se- 
cond day,  as  this 
is  necessary  to  en- 
sure success.  The 
work  is  light,  and  where  the  united  efforts  of  a  family  mav  be  utilized,  rose 
cultivation  has  much  to  recommend  it.  This  brief  paper  is  written  as  a 
guide  to  those  who  wish  to  give  rose-growing  for  essential  oil  production 
a  trial. 

Varieties  Suitable. 

In  dealing  with  this  (]uestion,  only  those  which  have  been  tested  in 
this  State,  and  found  to  be  satisfactory,  will  be  considered. 

The  late  Mr.  F.  Mellon,  who  had  experience  of  essential  oil  production 
in  the  South  of  France,  was  employed  many  years  ago  by  the  Department 
to  establish  a  Scent  Farm,  and  provide  plants.      He  introduced  the  variety 


ROSA     CENTIFOLIA     (PROVENCE     ROSE). 


ic   Aug..    ipi:;.]  I^osc    Cultivation.  479 

known  as  the  "'  Pr. )Vfncc  Rose."  which  is  much  cuhi\ated  in  the  large 
rose-producing  district  of  (irasse.   in  the  South  of  France. 

Mr.  Mellon,  in  giving  his  e\idence  before  the  Royal  Commission  on 
Vegetable  Products,  in  answer  to  the  question  of  the  suitability  of  Vic- 
torian soil  and  climate,  stated  that  it  was  much  better  than  that  of  the 
South  of  France.  He  stated  that  in  the  town  of  Grasse,  which  is  said  to 
be  the  centre  of  the  world's  floriculture,  there  were  52  distilleries,  some 
of  them  employing  500  people  at  a  time.  With  this  experience  before 
him,  Mr.  ^lellon  was  careful  to  introduce  the  Ijest  rose  for  his  purpose 
when  stocking  the  first  scent  farm  establi.shed  in  this  State.  He  discarded 
all  others  but  the  one  referred  to.  this  he  named  "  Rose  de  Gras.se."  which 
is  identical   with  ''  Rosa  centifolia,' '   or  "  Provence  Rose.'" 

On  Mr.  Mellon's  departure,  the  writer  took  charge  of  this  Farm,  and 
can  say  that  this  variety  supplie?  all  requirements,  as  it  is  hardy  and 
easily  cultivated,  and.  with  proper  attention  in  pruning,  gives  a  large 
amount  of  blooms. 

Another  variety  of  rose  will  be  dealt  with  se])aratelv  later  on. 

Soil. 
^lany  rose-growers  assert  that  special  soils  with  clay,  or  a  "  clay 
bottom.'"  are  necessary.  Possibly  this  may  be  the  case  with  some  varieties, 
but  with  the  "  Provence  Rose  '"  it  is  not  necessary.  A  warm,  dry  situa- 
tion, whether  sand,  loam,  or  clay,  answers  the  purpo.se  quite  well.  The 
onlv  situation  which  I  ha\e  found  unsuitable  is  one  with  a  wet  bottom. 

Climate. 

Most  parts  of  Victoria  are  suitable  for  rose  cultivation,  Those  that 
do  not  experience  excessive  rain,  but  sufficient  to  allow  the  plant  to  mature 
its  blooms,  give  the  best  results  in  "oil."  Rain  on  the  blooms  has  a  detri- 
mental effect. 

At  the  Dunolly  Flower  Farm,  North- western  District,  the  crop  could 
be  harve.sted  without  danger  of  rain  ;  while  at  Leongatha.  Southern  Dis- 
trict, the  reverse  was  the  ca.se,  considerable  rain  falling  during  the  four 
or  fi\e  weeks  the  plants  were  in  blcom  ;  but  under  these  conditions  the 
plants  were  more  vigorous,  and  gave  a  much  greater  yield  of  blooms. 

As  to  the  yield  of  oil.  I  had  no  opportunity  of  judging,  as  the  farm 
was  closed  down  before  a  proper  experiment  with  distillation  was  made. 
It  is  recognised  that  the  more  sunshine  the  greater  is  the  amount  of  oil, 
providing  there  is  sufficient  moisture  for  the  proper  development  of  the 
plant. 

Plants  were  distributed  to  almost  every  part  of  Victoria,  and  so  far 
as  growth  is  concerned.  I  knew  of  no  place  A\here  there  has  been  a  failure. 
The  "  Provence  Ro.se  ""  can  be  recomm.ended  to  any  part  of  this  State. 

Plants. 
Plants  may  be  obtained  from  shoots,  or  what  is  known  as  "  suckers."'" 
The  latter  may  be  ol)tained  from  any  plantation  which  has  been  established 
for  three  or  four  years,  when  the  plant  is  being  thinned  cut.  When  growing 
from  cuttings,  pieces  6  or  7  inches  long  are  planted  out  in  a  well-prepared' 
nursery  bed  in  autumn,  and  left  until  well  rooted  ;  thev  mav  be  put  out 
in  late  spring,  or  carried  over  until  the  following  autumn.  When  well 
rooted  suckers  can  be  obtained,  they  will  be  better,  as  the\  can  be  planted 
out  in  their  permanent  place  at  once.  The  plants  should  be  well  cut  back 
when  being  planted  out,    and  it  is  advisable  to  prune  back   straggling  or 


480  Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria.         [10  Aug.,    1912. 

wounded  roots.  The  stem  and  side  shoots  shouldi  be  trimmed  first  of 
all,  both  above  or  below  the  surface,  with  the  exception  of  two  or  three 
on  the  top.  These  should  not  be  more  than  i  foot  to  15  inches  above  the 
surface,  as  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  good  strong  stem  to  build  the  plant 
on,  so  that  it  can  fill  the  space  allotted  to  it.  In  selecting  plants,  it 
is  well  to  take  only  from  those  that  are  of  healthy  growth. 

Cultivation. 
The  soil  for  rose  culture  should  be  cultivated  tO'  some  depth.  If 
ploughed,  it  should  be  subsoiled,  as  m  most  cases  it  is  better  to  keep  the 
surface  soil  on  the  top,  and  loosen,  the  subsoil  to-  a  depth  of  at  least  10  or 
12  inches.  The  soil  should  be  well  pulverized  before  planting,  and,  where 
convenient,  it  would  be  better  to  lie  fallow  for  a  few  months  before  putting 
plants  out.  Where  drainage  is  necessary,  it  should  be  attended  to  as 
early  as  possible,  as  a  "  wet  bed  ''  is  most  objectionable.  All  that  is 
necessary  in  the  after  treatment  is  surface  cultivation  by  light  ploughing — 

3  or  4  inches  deep — and  extermination  of  weeds. 

The  plants  of  the  "^  Provence  Rose  "   should  be  set  out  in  rows  about 

4  to  5  feet  apart,  and  the  space  in  the  rows  should  be  about  3  to  4 
feet.  Where  it  is  intended  to^  employ  horse  labour,  the  wider  distance 
between  the  rows  should  be  selected,  or  even  more,  say  6  feet.  The  bush 
develops  considerably  under  favoral)le  conditions  ;  if  planted  too  close, 
it  would  be  most  difiicult  both  to  gather  the  flowers  and  cultivate  the  land. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  plant  too  deep,  for  if  it  is  planted  too 
deep  the  crop  becomes  s  unted  and  unhealthy.  This  is  a  mistake  commonly 
made  by  those  having  no  experience  of  rose  culture.  The  roots  should 
be  near  the  surface,  well  spread  out.  and  running  down  at  an  angle  of 
about  45  degrees,  and  the  fine  surface  soil  pressed  down  on  them  tightly. 
This  should  give  the  plant  a  good  start,  and  go  a  long  way  to  the  successful 
establishment   of   a   plantation   of   this   kind. 

Pruning. 
Rose  pruning  generally  is  a  much  debated  point,  and  methods  differ ; 
but  with  oil  extraction  as  the  object,  the  form  of  bloom  or  quality 
as  a  rose  is  of  no  consequence.  What  is  required  is  "quantity."  The 
bush  should  be  cut  back  sO'  as  to  produce  an  abundance  of  yormg  growth 
on  which  the  blooms  can  develop.  Care  must  be  taken  to  cut  out  the 
thinner  growth,  and  admit  light  and  air  through  the  plant,  and  at  the 
same  time  strengthen  the  leading  shoots  so  as  tO'  keep  it  in  proper  form. 
The  season  in  which  this  should  be  carried  out  is  important,  as  late  pruning 
does  not  give  time  for  strong  shoots  to  develop  before  the  flowering  season 
is  due.  The  usual  time  for  rose  pruning  about  the  cltv  is  July  and  August, 
but  June,  or  early  in  July,  is  to  be  preferred  when  pruning  for  the  pur- 
poses of  oil  distillation.  The  work  should  be  done  thoroughly,  so  as  to 
give  free  scope  tO'  work  the  land. 

Gathering  of  Blooms. 
The  blooms  must  be  gathered  every  second  day,  and  the  best  time  for 
this  operation  is  early  in  the  morning  before  the  sun  gets  at  its  height ;  the 
earlier  the  better.  The  blooms  should  be  taken  off  before  they  are  fully 
expanded,  but  not  before  they  are  opened  sufficiently  to  show  the  petals. 
There  is  less  risk  of  bruising  or  loosening  them  by  shaking  if  it  is  done 
at  this  time.  Care  in  this  respect  is  necessary  if  the  best  results  are  to  be 
obtained. 


lo  Aug..    191^-]  ^"^'^-f''    Cultivation.  481 

The  blooms  should  be  cut  as  near  to  the  flower  as  possible,  as  any 
matter  beyond  the  petals  reduces  the  c|uality  of  the  oil.  and  is  useless. 
When  gathered,  blooms  should  be  taken  direct  to  the  still-room  and  not 
exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  or  rain,  or  moisture  of  any  kind. 

Distilling. 

Rose  distillation  is  similar  to  that  of  other  essential  oil-producing 
plants,  but  somewhat  more  delicate,  and  extreme  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  force  the  "boiling."  This  is.  perhaps,  difficult  where  direct  heat  is 
applied,  but  with  superheated  steam  it  is  easily  regulated,  and  where  it 
can    be    done,    this   metriod    is    the   best    wav    of    raising    the   temperature. 

Tn  Bulgaria,  small  stills  are  scattered  all  over  the  flower-growing  dis- 
tricts, but  it  is  said  that  nothing  like  as  good  results  are  obtained  as  in 
the  South  of  France,  where  the  work  of  distillation  is  carried  out  in  large 
and  well -equipped  establishments,  which  sometimes  handle  150  tons 
of  roses  a  day.  Nevertheless,  with  proper  care  in  applying  the  heat,  and 
attention  to  little  details,  good  results  can  be  obtained  with  the  ordinary 
still   and  direct  heat. 

In  distillation,  two  methods  are  adopted.  The  oil  is  contained  on  the 
surface  of  the  petals.  Either  the  petals  are  stripped  from  the  calyx  and 
distilled  separately,  or  the  whole  flowers  are  employed.  The  former 
method  gives  a  superior  product,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  extra  labour 
is  repaid. 

The  time  during  which  the  boiling  should  continue  depends  on  the  size 
of  the  still.  In  a  20-gallon  still,  the  Inilk  of  the  oil,  and  the  best,  would 
be  pa5.sed  over  within  one  hO'Ur  from  the  time  of  boiling,  but  it  should  1)6 
carried  on  for  another  hour  at  least.  The  still  which  has  been  illustrated 
and  described  on  page  t^^2>  *'f  t'^i^  journal,  is  suitable  for  treating  roses, 
and  when  the  first  lot  of  water  has  passed  over  into-  the  "  Florentine," 
the  recep  acle  should  be  removed,  and  another  placed  in  position  to  secure 
the  balance.  The  two  lots  should  be  kept  separate.  The  second  lot  is 
usually  returned  to  the  still  with  the  next  lot  of  flowers. 

In  rose  distillat'on,  oelav  must  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible;  the 
flowers  should  be  treated  within  24  hours  from  the  time  of  gathering,  and 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  submit  the  roses  to  more  rough  treatment  than 
is  absolutely  necessarv.  The  place  of  treatment  should  be  free  from 
offensive  or  other  odours.  A  good  supply  of  cold  water  is  necessary  to 
supply  the  cooler,  and  where  a  running  stream  is  not  available  it  must  be 
supplied  from  a  well  <ir  tank  by  pumping  ;  this  water  may  be  used  over 
and  over  again. 

Many  small  growers  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  make  rose  water 
without  the  second  distillation  or  extracting  the  oil  in  any  way.  As  there 
is  no  licence-fee  demanded  for  holding  a  still  in  the  Commonwealth,  but  a 
permit  only,  with  a  guarantee  against  any  imposition  or  infraction  of  the 
Excise  laws,  it  may  be  worth  while  for  some  of  our  young  ladies  to  try 
this  as  a  pastime,  as  there  is  a  reaih-  sale  for  Rose  Water  if  properly  pre- 
pared.    It  is  used  largely  for  man\    ^lurposes. 

Enfleurage  and  Maceration. 

Roses  grown  in  France  and  elsewhere  are  also  utilized  for  perfume 
extraction  by  the  processes  known  as  "  Enfleurage  and  Maceration."  In 
the  latter  case  pure  olive  oil   is  generallv  u.sed       The  oil    is   placed   in  a 


Journal   of   Ai^r/c/zlf/zrc,    Victoria.         [lo  Aug..    1912. 


large  \'af.  and  the  rose  petals  are  subirerged  in  it  :  they  are  stirred  up 
occasionally,  and  after  about  24  hours  drawn  out.  and  the  oil  pressed  from 
the  spent  petals,  and  the  same  process  is  repeated  with  fresh  petals  until 
the  oil  is  sutificiently  impregnated  with  the  scent  of  the  flower,  when  it 
is  stored,  and  the  essence  extracted  by  some  highly  rectified  .spirit  solvent. 

The  "  Enfleurage  Svstem  "  is  very  popular  in  France,  and  a  very  con- 
siderable amount  of  "  Pomade  "  is  made  and  used  in  this  fcrm. 

"  Red  Ro.se." 

Rosa   Gallica. 

This  rose  i.s  cultivated  in  England  and  elsewhere  for  its  flowers,  which 

are  gathered  in  the  bud.     The  lower  portion  of  the  cal\x  is  cut  off,  and  it 

^  is    dried   in   this   form. 

Mr.  Slater  states  that 
it  finds  a  ready  sale  at 
3s.  6d.  per  lb.  The 
wholesale  chemLst  and 
druggist  purchases 

freely.  and  there 
should  be  a  good  open- 
ing bv  way  of  export. 

It  is  recommended  in 
the      British      Pharma- 
cofoeia,  but,  like  many 
other   articles,    to  have 
4  t^Hik-l^  \.  ^^*8|||^_Titi|i^SB^^  ^^'"^      proper      standing, 

^|i^Bp^3K?N'^^BPS8^^«r  ,,^^^-.  plants    must    be    culti- 

vated in  Great  Britain. 
This  rose  has  but  little 
perfume  in  its  fresh 
.state,  l)ut  develops 
a  beautiful  fragrant 
odour  when  dried. 

The  drying  is  ex- 
tremely simple  and  in- 
expensive. The  bud 
when  gathered  and 
trimmed  should  be 
spread  out  .so  rhat  the 

ROSA     GALLICA     (rED    ROSE).  ,^jj.     ,.^^j^     p^^,      through 

the  leaves.  The  most  suitable  method  is  to  make  a  few  trays,  about  3  feet 
long  by  2  feet  wide,  with  strong  hessian  for  a  bottom.  The  buds  are  spread 
evenly  over  this,  and  a  temporary  stand  is  made  after  the  style  of  a  "three- 
sided  clothes-hor.se"'  ;  then  these  trays  can  be  laid  across  the  two  side  bars, 
and  the  whole  built  up  to  whatever  height  is  desired,  and  if  just  sufficient 
room  is  left  between  each  tray  for  the  air  to  pass  through,  the  drving  can 
be  completed  without  further  trouble.  This  mav  be  carried  on  in  the  open 
air  or  within  doors;  if  out  of  doors,  there  should  be  some  sort  of  cover 
to  protect  from  rain  or  dews.  The  quicker  the  drying  is  done  the  better 
will  be  the  result  ;  the  blooms  should  not  be  exposed  to-  the  direct  ravs  of 
the  sun. 

Mr.  Slater  speaks  highly  of  this  industry,  having  supplied  the  Mel- 
bourne trade  with  this  product  manv  years  ago.  I  am  not  aware  that  fur- 
ther steps  have  been  taken  to  continue  the  supply. 


lo  Aug..    191:!.]  General  Nofis.  483 


GENERAL    N0TE8. 

SUGAR  BEET— 

The  sugar  licet  production  of  the  United  States  has  Ijeeome  one  of  the 
great  farm  factors,  and  promises  to  utilize  many  thousands  of  acres  of  land, 
especially  in  the  irrigated  States.  Tiiere  are  now  6r  factories  making  sugar 
from  beets.  They  have  an  annual  output  oi  about  510.000  tons  of  granu- 
lated sugar,  and  the  area  planted  to  beets  aggregates  almost  400,000  acres. 
— Calif or)i'ian   C ' idiivator . 


FEEDING  FOR   BUTTER    FAT— 

It  used  to  be  held  that  the  feeding  had  a  considerable  influence  upon  the 
richness  of  milk,  but  more  accurate  investigations  go  to  show  that  it  has 
verv  little  to  do  with  it.  The  subject  is  discused  by  Dr.  Crowther,  of 
Leeds  University,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agriculfurc  (London). 
He  finds  that,  provided  the  ration  is  sufficient  to  maintain  the  milk  yield 
and  general  "  condition  "  of  the  animal,  the  composition  of  the  milk  can,  in 
general,  be  but  little  affected  by  changes  in  the  nature  of  the  foods.  Even 
in  the  case  of  underfeeding,  the  composition  of  the  milk  is,  as  a  rule,  but 
little  affected  until  the  condition  of  the  animal  has  been  ^■ery  seriously 
reduced.  The  common  \iew  that  turnips  or  brewer's  grains  give  watery 
milk  has  received  but  litle  support  from  experimental  investigations, 
although  the  long-continued  use  of  these  foods  will  probably  lead  ulti- 
matelv  to  a  general  weakening  of  the  organs  of  the  body,  and  result  in 
poorer  milk.  Ability  to  yield  rich  mrlk  is  born  into  the  cow.  and  if  more 
butter  fat  is  to  be  got  from  anv  cow,  it  can  only  be  done  by  feeding  to  get 
a  greater  yield  of  milk  of  the  same  quality. 


TOP    DRESSING    PASTURES- 

For  some  \ears  past,  the  manuring  of  second-class  pastures  has  found 
much  favour  in  Great  Britain,  the  application  usuallv  consisting  of  Thomas 
phosphate,  or  of  a  mixture  of  ordinary  superphosphate  and  lime.  Re- 
ference has  been  made  to  the  matter  in  these  notes.  In  the  Massachusetts 
Station  Report,  19 10,  the  result  of  top-dres.sing  cow  pastures  in  America 
is  described.  The  manuring  consisted  of  500  lbs.  Thomas  phosphate  and 
300  lbs.  low-grade  sulphate  of  potash  per  acre.  The  author  notes  that 
the  preference  of  the  cows  for  the  forage  of  the  treated  plots  resulted  in 
their  being  more  closely  grazed  late  into  the  Autunm  than  was  fa\-orable 
to  their  best  development.  Nevertheless,  a  thick  mat  of  clover  appeared 
the  following  spring  in  place  of  a  dull,  lifeless,  moss-infested  turf,  thickly 
starred  with  "bluets"'  {Honstonia  cccriilea).  In  other  pasture  tests  on 
mowing  land  at  the  Station,  the  vield  of  grass  hay  was  rather  more  than 
doubled  by  the  use  of  Thomas  phosphate  and  potash.  The  proportion  of 
clover  was  increased.  Altogether,  the  experiments  suggest  that  trial  appli- 
cations of  Thomas  phosphate,  or  of  superphosphate  and  lime,  would  be 
desirable  for  many  farmers  in  this  State  owning  second-class  land.  Un- 
less on  soils  of  a  verv  light  sandv  nature,  the  potash  can  probably  be 
omitted.  Winter  is  the  best  time  to  apply  these  manures,  and  stock 
should  be  kept  off  until  the  herbage  has  been  washed  by  rain. 


484  Joiinial   of   A f^ri culture,    Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    1912. 

BENEFITS   OF   BARE    FALLOW— 

It  is  a  deplorahle  fact  that  proportionately  less  land  was  fallowed  last 
year  in  the  Southern  district  than  there  was  in  1909  and  1910.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  the  phenomenal  seasons  of  1909  and  1910  have  made 
farmers  careless  in  their  methods.  Fair  crops  were  obtained  in  these  two 
years  on  unfallowed  land,  but  surely  practical  men  must  know  that  such 
seasons  are  abnormal  and  not  likely  to  recur  often.  The  season  just  con- 
cluded has  been  a  bitter  lesson  to  those  who  put  their  faith  in  non-fallowed 
land.  Thousands  of  acres  have  yielded  less  than  6  bushels  per  acre,  not 
sufficient  to  cover  cost  of  putting  in  and  taking  off  the  crops.  Side  by 
side  in  every  district  in  the  south  are  to  be  met  instances  where  the  crop 
on  non-fallowed  land  is  hardly  worth  stripping,  whereas  the  yield  on 
adjoining  fallowed  land  is  20  bushels  or  more  per  acre.  .  .  .  Let 
every  wheat  farmer  make  a  firm  resolution,  no-  matter  what  happens,  to 
fallow  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  area  he  is  prepared  to  put  under  crop. — 
Aii^ric.    Gazette,    New    South   Wales. 


HIGH-GRADE   BUTTER— 

To  jDroduce  high-grade  butter  the  cream  must  be  free  from  faults  and 
taints,  and  an  extension  of  the  system  whereby  cream  is  graded  and  paid 
for  according  to  quality  at  the  butter  factory  appears  to  be  most  desirable. 
A  system  of  uniform  prices  for  butter  fat  removes  the  incentive  to  care 
and  cleanliness  on  the  farm,  and  helps  towards  a  general  low^ering  down 
rather  than  towards  improvement  in  the  condition  of  cream  deliveries. 
This  important  matter  is  discussed  by  Mr.  E.  Graham  in  the  Queensland 
Agricultural  Journal  for  April,  and  the  following  extracts  indicate  the 
line  of  argument  : — "  Most  factories  receiving  at  least  three  distinct  quali- 
ties of  cream  from  their  patrons  pay  a  uniform  price  for  the  resultant 
butters.  This  method  of  making  average  payments  to  cream  suppliers  is 
not  equitable,  and  positively  destroys  the  chief  incentive  to-  produce  high- 
quality  cream.  It  is  not  surprising  to  find  producers  negligent  in  the 
production  and  handling  of  milk-products  while  the  above  custom  of  pay- 
ments prevails.  Milk  or  cream  should  be  graded  and  paid  for  by  the 
factories  in  strict  accordance  with  its  quality.  The  redemption  of  quality 
requires  a  united  effort.  At  the  height  of  the  season,  fully  80  per  cent. 
of  the  butter  manufactured  in  Queensland  is  sold  on  the  over-sea  markets. 
It  is  particularly  under  the  stress  of  export  conditions  that  the  butters  made 
from  creams  of  inferior  quality  behave  unsatisfactorily,  and  unduly 
deteriorate  in  quality.  The  local  consumption  of  low-grade  butter  is  very 
limited,  and  it  naturally  follows  that  almost  all  the  butter  of  this  charactei 
is  forced  into  the  export  list.  Although  such  butters  have  a  market  value, 
they  are  not  of  sufficient  merit  to  build  up  anv  good  reputation  for  the 
State." 


Many  Victorian  soils  contain  about  i  ton  each  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash  per  acre  in  the  top  9  inches  of  soil,  but  by  far  the  greater 
bulk  is  in  a  form  which  the  crop  cannot  utilize. 


The  nitrogen  in  humus  must  be  changed  into  ammonia  and  nitrates 
before  it  is  available  to  crops.  Fresh  vegetable  residues  undergo  this  change 
more  readily  than  old  humus  matters.       Lin:ie  hastens  the  change. 


lo  Aug..    191 :?.] 


Dc:ifr/icti':'C  Scalt    Insects. 


48- 


DESTliUCTIVE  SCALE  INSEUTS. 

Mealy   Bugs   (Dactvlopius)   Destroyed   by   Lacewings   (Chrysopa). 

I\\    C.    /■'rciic/i.    iiiii/i'r.    Ac////i;    Cio:  cniiiui't    Eiitoniologisf . 

Some  time,  m\-  atten- 
tion was  drawn  to  some 
fine  nati\e  cherry  trees 
( ExocarjH)s  eupressifor- 
'ii-js),  which  were  infested 
witli  white  mealy-look- 
ing insects.  On  exam- 
ination I  lound  th-e 
trunks,  stems,  and 
liranches  to  be  simply 
covered  with  mealy-bugs. 
The  trunks  were  almost 
perfectly  white,  and  in 
the  distance  looked  as  if 
a  snowstorm  had  covered 
•"hem.  (Seeillustrations  I 
and  3.)  It  was  one  of  the 
worst  infestations  of 
mealv  bug  I  have  seen. 
The  leaves  of  the  trees 
were  dying  owing  to 
the  insects  sucking  out 
the  sap. 

Wishing  to  send  a 
few  perfect  specimens 
of  the  scales  to  a 
siJecialist    for    naming, 


mealy  bugs  on  branches  and  leaves  of 
nativ^e  cherry  tree. 

I  again  visited  the  localitv  a  few  weeks  later,  and  was 
surj^ri.sed  to  find  that  the  larvae  of  the  lacewings  had 
been  at  work,  and  partly  destroyed  everv  scale;  in 
fact.   I   was  unable  to  obtain  a  single  perfect  insect. 

Cocoons  of  the  lacewings  (illustration  2)  were  in 
dozens  over  the  tree,  showing  that  the  larvae  had 
pupated  after  finishing  their  u.seful  work.  Tt  is  the 
larvae,  which  have  strong  jaws,  that  destrov  such  large 
numbers  of  ai)hids 
and  scale  insects. 
The  fully-grown 

lacewings  ha\"e 

beautiful  greenish 
veined,  gauzv  wings, 
and  golden  coloured 
eyes.  At      times, 

lacewin2:s  are  ex- 
ceeding! v     plentiful. 


lacewings  (after  froggatt;. 

1.    Full  gn;wn     2.   Larva.     I'Jlagnified). 


486 


Journal   of   Agriculture ,    Victoria 


lo  Aug.,    1912. 


They 


and   (lo  a   great   amount  of  good   in   kee|)ing   insect   pests  in  ciieck. 
should  therefore  be  protected. 

As  mealy  bugs  are  very  destructive  to  our  \ahiable  wattles,  a  sharp 
look-out  should  be  kept  for  them.  and.  if  seen,  it  would  be  ad^■isable  to 
spray   with   weak  kerosene  emulsion,   benzole  emulsion,  or  red  oil. 


3.     MEALY   BUGS    UN    JkLiNK    AND    STEMS    OF   NATIVE    CHERRY   TREE. 

Specimens  of  the  insects  mentioned  in  this  short  article  can  be  seen  at 
the  Entomological  and  Ornithological  Museum  belonging  to  the  Agricultural 
Department. 


ARSENATE   OF  LEAD. 

For  the  purpose  of  comparison  and  guidance  to  all  interested  in  this 
spray,  an  examination  has  been  made  of  the  different  brands  obtainable 
OR  the  market  at  the  present  time.  This  list,  as  can  be  seen,  is  of  a 
fairly  comprehensive  character,  as  it  contains  not  only  the  ordinarv  moist 
samples,  but  also  some  of  the  dry  powder,  which  would  appear  to  be 
iriaking  some  headway — there  being  three  different  brands  of  that  grade. 
The  ordinary  samples  are  evidently  made,  some  by  using  Acetate  of  Lead 
and  others  by  using  Nitrate  of  Lead,   as  the  lead  base. 

A  pure  dry  sample  of  Arsenate  of  Lead  made  by  the  use  of  these 
ingredients,   by  calculation,    would  give  the  following  percentages  : — 

Arsenic  Acid.  Oxide  of  Lead. 

Arsenate  of  Soda  +  Acetate  of  Lead  ..      30-07  per  cent.      ..      69-93  per  cent. 

Arsenate  of  Soda  +  Nitrate  of  Lead  ..      34-94        „  ..      65-60 


lo  Aug..  191-.] 


Arsenate  of  Lead. 


487 


Analysis   of    Lead    Arsenate. 
Original   Sample. 


Marks 
Elect  ni 


Paragdii 
Our  Jack 


Blue  Bell     . 

<'nhra 

Heiuiii'iways 

Carlton 
Magi)ie 
Elephant 

Swift 

E.  De  Haens 


Blackhani  *  Co..  King-street 
Vie.   Orchardists'   Co-op.   As- 
sociation 
J.   W.   Moss   &  Co.,  William- 
street 
J.  G.  Mumford,  Flinder.^-lane 
J.   W.   Moss    A  Co..  William- 
street 
Vic.        Orchardists        Co-dj). 

Association 
F.  W.  Prell,  Queen-street 
Chandler   it   Co..   Bninswick- 

street.  Fitzroy 
F.    H.    Bniuning.    Elizalietli- 

street 
F.  R.  Mellor.  Elizabeth-street 
F.  K.  Mellor,  Elizabeth-street 
A.  Ferguson    ct   Co.,   Collins- 
street 
Rocke.  Tompsitt  &  Co..  Flin- 
ders-street 
Heyne.    Keislin    tt    Co..    St. 
James-street 


yi 

lis- 

ture. 

2(1 

44 

3(1 

(U 

39 

41 

44 

41 

84 

45 

34 

47 

04 

51 

66 

37 

77 

39 

68 

44 

37 

43 

29 

53 

94 

Arsenic 
Acid. 


2(1  37 
31    34 


Ifi  38 
18-35 


17   6(1 
15  (Id 


1718 
19  08 
1 5  90 

1 5   49 

13   11 


Oxide 

of 
Lead. 


75   (18 
63-49 


21  -16 
39   62 


35   34 

37   10 


43   12 

.38-48 
37-75 

39-74 

31-78 


Water-Soluble  Portion. 


Arsenic 
Acid. 

Oxide 

of 
Lead. 

Total 
Water 
Soluble 

-07 

Nil 

4  49 

■09 

■04 

2  39 

•48 

Xil 

2^54 

5-12 

10   70 

-43 

•88 

-17 

•23 

-40 

•98 

■31 

■48 

■18 

■27 

■54 

■09 

1   59 

■52 

Xil 

1   99 

■42 

1   53 

■16 

1  -64 

•18 

•80 

On  Dry  Basis. 


Merks 
Electro 
Our  Jack     . 
Paragon 
Our  Jack     . 
Vocal 

Blue  Bell     . 
Cobra 

Hemingways 

Carlton 

Magpie 

Elephant 

Swifts 

E.  De  Haens 


Agent. 


Blackhani  *  Co.,  King-street 
Vic,  Orchardists'  Co-op.  Association    .  . 
J.  W.  Moss  *  Co..  William-street 
J.  G.  Mumford.  Flinders-lane 
J.  W.  Moss  &  Co..  William-street 
Vic.  Orchardists"  Co-op.  Association    .  . 
F.  W.  Prell.  Queen-street 
Chandler  it  Co..  Brunswick-street.  Fitz- 
roy 
F.  H.  Brunning.  Elizabeth-street 
F.  K.  Mellor.  Elizabeth-street 
F.  R.  Mellor,  Elizabeth-street 
A.  Ferguson  &  Co.,  CoUins-street 
Rocke.  Tompsitt  &  Co..  Flinders-street 
Heyne,  Keislin  ct  Co.,  St.  James-street 


Ar-eiiic 

Oxide 

Arsenic 
Acid. 

of 
Lead. 

20   41 

75  23 

31   48 

63   77 

29  (14 

68  40 

46  (10 

59  42 

31   34 

67   66 

33  06 

66  57 

32  20 

64  66 

28  32 

70  06 

33   64 

65  03 

29  60 

69  29 

31   63 

63  80 

28  58 

67  86 

27  31 

70  08 

28  46 

69  02 

Water-Soluble  Portion. 


Arsenic 
Acid. 

Oxide 

of 
Lead. 

Xil 

Total 
Water 
Soluble. 

■07 

4  50 

■09 

■04 

2  40 

■48 

Xil 

2  55 

1438 

30  -05 

■73 

1   55 

■29 

55 

•73 

1   80 

•58 

•90 

•38 

■55 

■86 

14 

2  55 

■86 

Xil 

3  30 

■75 

2  75 

■29 

2  90 

.39 

1  -25 

From  the  chemical  composition,  as  determined  bv  analvsis.  all  the 
brands  appear  to  be  of  good  quality,  with  one  exception,  the  "  Paragon." 
It  contains  an  excessive  amount  of  water-soluble  arsenic,  which  would 
be,  no  doubt,  harmful  in  its  effect  on  the  plant,  while  the  others  all  con- 
tain a  small  percentage  of  water-.solufjle  arsenic.  Anv  brand  mav  be 
considered  safe  to  use  .so  long  as  the  percentage  of  soluble  arsenic  does 
not  exceed  i  per  cent.  The  matter  of  choice  can  be  left  to  the  individual 
fancy  as  far  as  the  quality  of  the  cliff erent  brands  is  concerned.  The 
difference  in  the  arsenic  acid  content  between  the  respective  brands  is  only 
one  of  many  points  connected  with  the  efficiency  of  the  spray,  and  one 
should  not  judge  any  arsenate  by  its  arsenic  content,  but  rather  by  its 
pro\ed  effectiveness,  which  can  onlv  be  ascertained  by  practical  experience. 

P.  Rankin  Scott, 
13th  July,    1912.  ("hemist   for   Agriculture. 


Journal   of   Agriculture ,    Victoria.         [lo   Aug.,    1912. 


BASIS  WINES. 

The  Hon.  the  Minister  for  Agriculture  ha.s  received  from  the  Agent- 
General  a  copy  of  the  new  regulations  which  were  foreshadowed  in  the 
letter  we  reproduced  in  our  May  issue  (p.   322). 

It  will  be  noted  with  satisfaction  that  these  provide  protection  against 
fraudulent  practices,    which   were  i)re\iously  only  too  easy. 

The  full  text  of  the  regulations  is  as  follows:  — 

British  Wines. 

The  Commissioners  of  Customs  raid  Excise,  in  {)ursuance  of  the  j)0\vers  vested 
in  them  by  Section  10  of  the  Finance  Act  iqii,  hereby  prescribe  the  following 
Regulations  which   are   to  be  observed   on   and   after  the  first  day  of  Ajiril,    iqi2  : — 

1.  A  manufacturer  f r  r  sale  of  British  wines  or  sweets  or  made  wines  (hereinafter 
referred  to  as  British  wine)  must  not — 

[a)   mix    anv    British    wine    with    anv     foreign    wine    except    in    the    course    of 

manufacture  ;  or 
(5)   in    course    of    manufacture    mix    with    anv    British    wine    any    foreign    wine 

in   any  quantitv   exceeding  the  jiroportion   of    15   gallons  of    foreign    wine 

to   100  gallons  of  British  wine  ;   or 
(c)   mix    anv    spirits    with    anv    British    wine    except    for    the    sole    purpose    of 

fortifving  the  wine. 

2.  Everv  manufacturer  for  sitle  of  British  wme  must,  on  sending  out  anv  British 
wine,  enter  in  the  entrv  book  obtained  by  him  from  the  Officer  of  Customs  and 
Excise  the  following  particulars,  that  is  to  say  : — 

[a)  The  name  and  address  of  the  person  to  whom  wine  is  sent  out  ;   and 
[1})  the  quantity  and   description  of   the   wine   sent   out  ;   and 
[c]  the   date  when  the  wine  is  sent  out. 
The   entries   must   be   made   before   the   exjnration   of    :he   dav   on   which    the    wine 
is    sent    out,    and    are    additional    to    the    entries    required    to    be    made    in    the    book, 
pursuant  to  the   regulations  made  on  the  8th  day  of  August,    1906,   under  sub-section 
(2)  of  section   7  of  the  Revenue  Act  1906. 

3.  A   dealer  in  or  retailer  of   foseign  wine  or  British  wine   must  not — 
[a]  mix   for  sale  anv  foreign   wine  v^-ith  any   British  wine  ;   or 

\b)  sell  or  expose  for  sale  an}-  British  wine  which  contains  foreign  wine  \\ 
anv  quantity  exceeding  the  proportion  of  15  gallons  of  foreign  wine 
to  100  gallons  of  British  wine;  or 

[c]  sell  or  expose  for  sale  anv  British  wine  to  which  spirits  have  been  added 
except  for  the  sole  purpose  of   fortifying  the  v.dne. 

4.  A  rectifier  or  compounder  of  spirits  must  not  mix  anv  British  wine  with  any 
spirits,  either  for  the  manufacture  of  British  compounds  or  for  any  other  purpose. 

5.  A  dealer  in  or  retailer  of  spirits  must  not  mix  any  British  wine  with  any 
spirits  exce]it   for  the  sole  purpose  of  colouring  or  fining  the  spirits. 

6.  British  wine  manufactured  in  conformity  with  these  Regulations  must  not, 
by  reason  of  the  admixture  therewith  of  foreign  wine,  be  sent  out  01  sold  or  exjiused 
for  sale,  otherwise  than  under  the  designation  of  a  British  wine. 

Dated  this  8th  day  of  March,   1912. 

Signed  bv  order  of   the   Commissioners  of  Customs  and  Excise, 

J.   P.  Byrne,  Secretary. 

Custom   House,  London. 

Sec.  '^ 
191Z. 


Stable  manure  when  stored  in  heaj^s  may  soon  lose  about  one-half  of  its 
nitrogen.  This  loss  is  greatly  diminished  by  compacting  and  wetting  the 
bean,  and  covering  it  with  a  thin  layer  of  earth  until  it  can  be  applied  to 
the  land. 


lo  Aug.,    1912.]       Tlic  Etiology  of  Contagious  Diseases.  489 

THE  ETIOLOGY  OF  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

TI'.    .4.   .V.    Robertson^   B.V.Sc. 

(Paper  read  before  the  Farmers"  Convention  at  Warrnambool.   July,   1912^ 
illustrated   with   lantern    slides.) 

There  is.  unfortunately,  a  feeling  amongst  a  large  numf)er  of  the 
farmers  of  this  State  that,  though  there  may  be  something  in  germs,  those 
Government  officers,  \vho.se  duties  are  somewhat  inspectorial,  are  germ-mad, 
and  delight  in  imposing  upon  the  farmers  a  lot  of  restrictions  which,  at 
Hrst  sight,  appear  unneoessary,  and  are  a  source  of  annoyance.  This,  in 
many  cases,  leads  to  a  desire  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  unfortunate 
enough  to  be  \isited  by  an  outbreak  of  some  contagious  disease  to  keep 
it  as  quiet  as  possible. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  the  folly  of  such  an  attitude,  either 
from  the  legal  point — for  it  is  a  punishable  oftence — or  from  the  moral 
aspect,  and  harm  likely  to  follow  in  a  district  where  certain  restrictions 
are  not  imposied.  The  subject  of  contagious  diseases  dealt  with  in  a  gene- 
ral way  would,  therefore,  not  be  out  of  place.  Apart  from  the  aspect 
of  controlling  diseases  existent  in  Australia  is  another,  and,  in  many  ways, 
more   important   one,    viz.,    the   prevention   of   the   introduction   of    disease 


(b) 


FIG.  I.  {a)    STAPHVLOCOCCLS.       [b)    STREPTOCOCCUS. 

from  other  parts  of  the  globe.  What  the  result  would  be  if  the  scourges 
of  India  and  Africa  were  introduced  to  this  land  it  is  hard  to  picture ; 
for  the  introduction  of  a  disea.se  into  a  new  land  is  always  found  a  much 
more  severe  affliction  than  in  the  land  from  which  it  came ;  as  exampled 
by  the  terrible  effect  of  Plcuro-fneumonia-contagiosa  when  it  first  appeared 
in  Australia. 

Later  the  causes  of  some  of  these  diseases  may.  therefore,  be  lightly 
touched  upon.  That  they  can  only  lightly  be  dealt  with  will  be  under- 
stood when  it  is  realized  that  each  and  every  disease  could  by  itself  be 
made  ttie  subject  for  a  lecture,  and  some  of  them,  indeed,  the  subject  for 
a  series. 

That  some  considerable  degree  of  confusion  exists  in  the  minds  of 
many  as  to  a  realization  of  the  actual  cause  of  disease  must  be  admitted. 

Organisms  or  germs  are  bodies  capable  of  life  and  death,  and  of  pro- 
ducing during  their  cycle  poisons  in  the  same  way  as  our  own  bodies  do, 
and  it  is  the  poisons  which  are  produced  which  are  mainly  the  cause  of  the 
sjmptoms  we  recognise  in  disease.  They  exist  in  many  forms,  all  of 
which  are  classified,  and  receive  names  indicating  their  forms,  &c.  The 
most  common  forms  are  small  round  cellular  bodies  to  which  the  name 
of  "  Coccus  "  is  applied.  Thev  mav  be  grouped  in  different  manners, 
as,  for  example,  in  clusters  or  in  chains  (Fig.    i),   singly,   in  pairs,   fours, 

8805.  i! 


490 


Journal  of  Agriciilinrc .   '['icti'ria.  [lo    Aug..    igiz. 


."ind  so  on,   each  form  being  suitably  named  with  a  name  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  germ  ;  for  it  must  be  clearly  understood  that  these 


crganisms   are   very   mniute. 


TIG.     2.   BACILLUS  ANTHRACIS 

IN    SPLEEN. 


rho.5e  responsible  for  the  formation  of  the 
pus  or  "  matter  "'  found  in  an  ab.scess  vary  in 
s'ze  from  i/ 51.000th  to  i/  i:r,oooth  of  an  inch 
in  length;  that  is  to  say,  12,000  to  51,000 
of  them  placed  side  by  side  would  be  required 
to  measure  i  inch.  Thev  may  also  exist  in 
the  form  of  small  rods,  termed  "  Bacilli,' 
which  varv  in  size  tO  that  from  3,000  to 
256,000  end  to  end  vrould  measure  i  inch. 
One  of  the  largest — the  "  Anthrax  Bacidi  '"' 
(Fig.  2)  is  from  i  3,000th  to  i/20,oooth  of 
an  inch.  This  organism  is  one  of  a  type 
which  has  two  stages  of  life :  PMrst,  the 
i);icilli,  the  actual  cause  of  the  sudden  deaths 
which  occur  ;  the  other  stage,  the  spore  which 
repren?nts   the  resting  stage,   and,    as   such,    is 

^■ery  difficult  to  eradicate  from  certain  districts  becau!-:e  of  its  long  life  and 

the    resistance    of    the    spore    to    the    influence    of    destructive    agencies. 

It  is  recorded  that  these  spores  are  capable  of 

living  in  the  soil  for  manv   years.      Cold  has 

no  effect  upon  them,  for  they  can  live  through 

freezing  at  minus   no  degrees  Cent.,   and  re- 
quire boding  for  some  hours  to  destroy  them 

.all.     Another  of  these  spore-bearing  organisms 

is    seen    in    the   bacillus   of    tetanus    (Fig.    3), 

Avhich    varies    in    length    from    1/8,550  h    to 

I /5,100th  of  an  inch,   and    1/ 12,600th  of  an 

inch  broad.     This  bacillus  is  also  an  organism 

which   it    is   extremely    difficult   to    deal    wdth, 

owing  to  the  fact  that  the  spores  which  occupy 

■one  end  of  the  bacillus  and  give  it  the  appear- 

.ance    of    a    minute    drum-stick,    are    capable 

of   prolonged    life    outside    the    animal   l;ody 

living  in  the  soil,   particularly   in  flirty,    undrained   stables.        On   entering 

ihe  animal    svstem  once  more.   the\-   are  capable  of  producing  the  original 


FIG.  3.  BACILLUS  OF 
TETANUS  WITH  STORES. 


TIG.  4.  BACILLUS  OF  BLACKLEG  :  Ul)    WITH  FLAGELLA  :  {b)    WITH  SPORES. 


l;3cillus,  the  toxins  cf  poison  from  which  .give  rise  to-  the  chain_  of  symp- 
toms known  as  "  lock-jaw.'"  Another  organism  somewhat  similar  is  the 
bacillus  of  Blackleg  (Fig.  4).       It  differs  in  that  the  bacilli  have  originally 


lo  Aug.,    1912.]       TJie  Etiology  of  CoiiiagioNs  Diseases. 


49T 


a  large  number  of  fine  filaments  or  flagellse  surrounding  them,   which,   by 
rapidly  moving,  are  capable  of  producing  motion  in  the  organism  ;  whilst 
later  in  their   life  history  they   assume  a   type   similar  to  that  of  tetanus- 
and  go  into  sporulation.   and   in   this   form   are  difficult   to  eradicate   from 
the  soil.     There  arc  Aarinus  t\pes  and 
forms    of    bacilli     in     which     flag-llse 
are  pre.sent,  such  as  typhoid,  cholera, 
&c.         Organisms    are    widely    d'stri- 
buted    through    nature    i.i    the    earth, 
air,   and  water,   and  nearly  all   differ 
.somewhat    from  others   in   their   food 
requirements  ;  also  in  the  temperature 
in    which    they     will    both    live    and 
thrive.     Those  which  are  d'sease  pro- 
ducing, or  pathogenic — for  it  must  be 
understood   that   not   all    are   harmful 
— grow    most    rapidK     at    about    the 
temperature     nf     the     human     body. 
That  they  are  capal)le  of  livi  ig  under 
a  wide  variety  of  circumstances,  how- 
ever,   is    shown    by    the    fact    already 
mentioned     in     respect     of     anthrax. 
Germs  rriay  gain  access  to  the  svstem 
in   various    ways   through   the   alimen- 
tary canal,    lungs,   skin,   mucus  mem- 
lirane.   &c..   but  they  are  not  capable 
of  producing  any  harmful   effect   un- 
less  there   is   a   predisposi'.ion   on    the 
part  of  the  animal  to  suffer  from  the 
products  of   the  organism   introduced 
— as,     for    example,    swine    fever    in 
pigs,  blackleg  in  cattle.      As  factors  of  their  power  to  do  harm,  the  chan- 
nel by  which  they  are    introduced  must    be    considered,  as    many  of    thertx 
grow  only  in  certain  tissues.       The  physical  condition  of  the  part  and  the 
miinl'T  (if  cr-nnisms    introduced    havf  also  to  be  considered,     whilst,     for 

ever  fighting  against  the  in- 
troduction of  organisms  intc* 
th.^-  s\stem,  there  are  the 
white  cells  of  the  blooc! 
(Fig.  5).  These  have  the; 
power  of  seizing  and  prac^ 
tically  digesting  within  them- 
selves nearly  all  clashes  o£ 
organ'sms.  The  process  i& 
known  as  phagocytosis. 
Should  the  vitality  of  the 
animal  be  lowered,  or  the 
organisms  introduced  in  ex.- 
FiG.  6.   TEST  TLKKs  WITH  cuLTURtis.  ^essive   numbers,    this    power 

.  .  is     not     sufficient     to     chect 

them  m  then-  progress,  and  the  result  is  that  disease  develops.  As  has 
already  been  .stated,  organi.sms  are  extrem.elv  small  bodies;  so  .small  that 
•special  methods  have  to  be  adopted  in  order  to  recognise  them.  In  the 
t.rst   place,    special    staining   is   necessary   in   order   to   display   their   fomi. 

Ml 


FIG.     5.     PH.4GOCVTOSIS     SHOWING 

DESTRUCTION    OF    ANTHRAX   BACILLI 

BY  WHITE    CELLS    OF   BLOOD. 


49- 


Jonnial  of  Agriculiure,  Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    191 2. 


INOCULATING  NEEDLE. 


FIG.  8.  INCUBATOR. 

method  is — Glas.s  te.st 
tubes  are  taken,  and 
material,  of  which 
gelatine  forms  a  basis, 
is  introduced  intothem. 
Certain  "  food  "  is 
added  in  the  shape  of 
meat  broth,  egg  albu- 
men, &c.,  and  all  life 
is  destroyed  in  this 
substance  by  means  of 
heat.  That  all  life 
is  destroyed  may  be 
shown  bv  the  fact  that 


Dyes  are  used,  and  counter  stains, 
it  being  found  that  different  tissues 
absorb  or  dye  more  readily  with 
certain  colours  than  others.  It 
is  thus  possible  to  obtain  contrasts. 
They  then  have  to  be  magnified 
very  considerably  imder  a  micro- 
scojie.  Consequenth ,  it  can  be 
readily  understood  that  very  few 
of  the  organisms  can  hi  definitely 
recogjnised  by  merely  examining 
them  under  the  microscope,  and 
further  means  are  necessary  for 
identification.  These       include 

cultivation,  for  nearly  all  organ- 
isms are  capable  of  growth  outside 
the  bcdv  on  special  soil  (Fig.  6) 
media.  Just  as  it  is  necessary 
for  the  farmer,  when  sowing  hi.s 
wheat  in  a  field,  to  have  nourish- 
ment, moisture,  and  warmth  for 
the  growth  of  the  wheat,  so  it  is 
necessary  for  these  three  things  to 
be  present  in  order  to  produce  a 
crop  of  organisms.  A  great  dif- 
ference, however,  exists  in  the 
time  occupied  in  growth,  and  also 
in  the  number  which  can  be  pro- 
duced from  the  original  amount 
introduced  into  the  medium.     The 


ITG.     9. 


PLATE    CULTURES    WITH    CHARACTERISTIC 
GROWTHS. 


TO  Aug.,   J91. 


The  Etiology  of  Contagious  Diseases. 


493 


a  tube  will  remain  sterile  for  an  indefinite  period,  providing  unfiltered 
air  does  not  gain  access  to  the  tute  (Fig.  7).  The  method 
of     cultivating     is     to    take     a     small     quantity     of     the     material     under 


FIG. 


10.     HIPPOBOSEA 
RUFIPES. 


A  transmitter  of  Trypauo- 
somes. 


FIG. 


1  I  .     PARASITE.S    IN    HIND    GUT 
OF    FLEA. 


consideration  on  the  point  of  a  fine  needle  (figure)  previously 
heated  to  destroy  life  on  it.  This  is  introduced  carefullv  into 
the  test  tube  and  the  surface  of  the  gelatine  slightly  touched  (figure). 
The  tube  is  then  plugged  with  cotton  wool  to  prevent  impure  air  entering. 


FIG.     12.    PIROPLASM    IN    RED    BLOOD    CELLS. 

and  warmth  is  supplied  by  means  of  an  incubator  (Fig.  8),  and  within  a 
few  hours  a  crop  will  appear  on  and  around  the  side  that  has  been  touched 
b\  the  needle.  The  growths  that  result — or.  as  they- are  termed.  "  cuU 
tures  " — have,    in    many    cases,    characteristic     appearances,    which     assist 


494 


journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    191 2. 


considerably  in  arriving  ai  a  correct  diagnosis.  Tliis  culture  method  can 
go  on  through  many  generations,  and  though  the  first  may  be  some- 
what mixed — that  is  to  say,  contain  more  than  one  distinct  organism — 
it  is  possible  by  sub-cultures  to  eventually  obtain  a  perfectly  pure  culture 
of  the  organism  concerned.  Microscopical  examination  of  these  cultures 
from  time  to  t'me  will  reveal  the  organism  originally  inoculated  into  the 
tube.  They  may  be  also  grown  on  plates  (Fig.  9).  In  order  to  prove 
that  a  micro-organism  is  the  cause  of  a  clisea.se,  it  is  necessary  (1)  that 
the  organism  in  question,  as  recognised  by  its  form,  mode  of  grovvth,  or 
products,  be  found  constantly  associated  with  the  disease  at  least  in  the 
earlier    stntres    nnd    in    sufficient    numbers    to    account    for    "he    svmptnms ;. 


A.  Mature  female  and  egg^. 

B.  Hide  showing  cattle  ticks. 

C.  Various  stages  of  cattle  ticks. 

(2)  that  pure  cultivation  of  thi; 
organism  through  sufficient  gene 
rations  be  made,  until  it  ma's 
reasonably  be  .supposed  tha 
everything  else  which  couh 
possibly  have  been  taken  fron 
the  animal  that  yielded  thi 
organism       has       disappeared  . 

(3)  that  other  susceptible  anima 
be  inoculated  with  the  culti- 
vated organism,  and  that  tht- 
disea.se  be  reproduced  ;  (4)  that 
the  same  organism  be  found  in 
the  tissues  of  the  successfully  inoculated  animals  in  such  numbers, 
and  with  such  a  distribution,  as  to  account  for  the  disease.  In 
many  cases  it  is  necessary  for  the  organism  which  produces  disease 
to  be  transferred  from  one  animal  to  another  by  means  of  inter- 
mittent hosts,  such  as  biting  flies,  ticks,  mosquitoes,  fleas,  &c.  (Figs.  10,  11) ; 
as  an  example,  the  disease  known,  at  any  rate  by  name,  to  nearly  all,  as 
"  Texas  "  or  "  Tick  Fever"  in  cattle.  This  is  caused  by  a  small  organism 
— from  12,000  to  80,000  being  required  to  measure  i  inch  (Fig.  12) — which 
gains  access  to  the  red  blood  corpuscles  of  the  animal,  and  produces  a 
train  of  symptoms,  of  which  fever  and  red  water  are  constant.  The 
organism  is  carried  from  animal  to  animal  by  means  of  the  tick  (Fig.  13). 

Another  disease,   which  many  in  the  northern  districts  will  be  familiar 
with,  is  tick  fever  in  poultry  (Fig.  14).    The  organism  in  these  cases  assumes. 


JO   Aug..    igr^.]       The  h'jiologv  of  Conta^^mus  Diseases. 


495 


I'lG.     14.     BLACK    LEGHORN    HEN    SUFFERING    FROM    ACUTE    SPIROCH AETOSIS. 

the  form  of  a  spirillum  (l^'ig.  15). 
and  is  transferred  from  bird  to  bird 
by  means  of  the  tick  ;  it  is  from 
I /600th  to  I / I, 600th  of  an  inch 
long.  The  difficulty  in  eradicatinjj; 
these  diseases  is  apparent,  for  so 
long  as  the  tick  remains  in  a  dis- 
trict, it  is  capable  of  continuing 
the  spread  ;  and  as  som.e  of  the 
t'cks  are  capable  of  long  life,  even 
without  food,  the  tlifficulties  are 
increased.  The  tick  concerned  in 
the  spread  of  the  disease  in  poultry 
is  capable  of  living  for  a  period 
•of  three  years  or  more  without 
food. 

A  variety  of  parasite,  which, 
fortunately,  is  not  present  in  Aus- 
tralia    producing    any     pathogenic 


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SPIROCHAETES      AND      TANGLES 
THE    ACUTE    STAGE. 


DURING 


TIG.    16.  TRVPANOSOMES    OF    I    AND 

5 


SURRA,  3  .AND  4  NAGANA, 
AND  6  MAL  DE  CADERAS. 


effect,  is  the 
Trvpanosoina 
(Fig.  1 6). These 
organisms  live 
in  the  blood  ot 
various  hosts 
and  cause  a 
\'  a  r  i  e  t  \'  o  t 
s  )'  ni  p  t  o  m  s . 
Some  of  the 
diseases  pro- 
duced may  be 
familiar  by 
name,  as  ex- 
ample," Surra" 


496 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    19 12, 


—  a  disease  which  produces  a  form  of  anaemia  with  intermittent 
fever,  wasting,  oedema  of  the  Hmbs  and  belly,  weakness,  and 
paralysis.  It  lasts  in  the  horse  from  one  to  two  months,  whilst  camels 
have  been  known  to  be  affected  with  it  for  as  long  as  three  years.  Dogs 
are  also  susceptible.  It  is  a  disease  which  has  caused  great  havoc,  being 
present  in  India.  China,  Burmah,  South  Africa,  Dutch  Indies,  Mauritius, 
Philippines,  the  Malav  States,  and  Persia.     In  Mauritius  the  first  outbreak 

was  recorded  during  1902,  and  by  June 
of  the  same  year  the  mortality  was  ap- 
palling—  the  majoTitv  of  the  draught 
animals  having  succumbed.  It  was  intro- 
duced by  a  cargo  of  cattle  in  September, 
1901  ;  and  in  June,  1902,  Dr.  Lesur  wrote 
— "  The  epizootic  at  first  appeared  to  be 
almo.st  exclusivelv  confined  to  oxen  ;  then 
it  attacked  dogs,  mules,  donkevs,  and 
horses.  The  destruction  of  draught 
FIG.   17.   TABANus.  animals   has    gone   to   such    an   extent    that 

farmers  are  anxiously  asking  themselves  whether  they  will  be  able  to 
gather  in  the  harvest."  By  29th  January,  1903,  the  ruin  was  complete. 
"  Horses  and  mules  had  practically  disappeared,  and  at  Port  Louis  it 
had  become  necessary  to  hand  o\er  the  work  of  scavengering  to  prisoners, 
who,  under  the  supervision  of  policemen,  were  used  to  pull  the  carts.  The 
organism  which  produces  this  death  is  about  1/ 1,000th  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  I /51,000th  of  an  inch  in  width.  It  is  known  to  be  carried  from  animal 
to  animal  bv  various  biting  flies.''     (Fig.   17.) 


FIG.    18.     DOURINE    SHOWING   CHARACTERISTIC   PLAQUE. 

Another  disease  which  this  parasite  is  re.sponsible  for  is  "  Dourine." 
It  is  a  disease  of  horses  that  is  peculiar  in  that  it  is  transmitted  only  by 
coitus.  Its  presence  has  been  recorded  in  Spain,  Germany,  Switzerland,. 
Austria,  Russia  and  Turkey,  Morocco,  Algeria,  Asia-Minor,  Persia,  India, 
United  States,  and  Java.  The  first  sign  of  the  disease  appears  in  from 
II   to  20   days  after  coitus ;   it  shows  with   swelling  at  the  lower  part  of 


lo  Aug.,    1912.]       Tlie  Etiology  of  Contagious  Diseases. 


497 


the   sheath,    extt^iiding    along    the    abdomen.       From    40    to   45    days    after 
plaques  are  noticed  on  the  skin  (Fig.    r8).      The  duration  of  these  is  very 


,.-<srs«ar/:-: '•■,.. 


FIG.    19.     HORSE   SUFFERING    FROM   DOURINE   AT   THE  END   OF   THE    SECOND 

STAGE. 

variable;  wasting  then  sets  in,  the  animal  can  rise  only  with  difficulty, 
and  the  limbs  are  paralyzed  (Fig.  19).  The  duration  is  usually  from  two 
to  six  months.  In  excep- 
tional cases  it  lasts  from  one 
to  four  years.  It  has  been 
recorded  that  certain  breeds 
of  horses  can  retain  the 
power  to  spread  the  disease 
in  their  system  for  one  or 
four  years.  It  is  estimated 
that  70  to  80  per  cent,  of 
affected  mares  die  of  the 
disease  in  India. 

"  Nagana,"  another  of 
these  diseases,  occurs  in 
horses,  donkeys,  oxen,  dogs, 
and  cats,  and  varies  in 
duration  from  a  few  days  or 
weeks  to  many  months.  It 
is  invariably  fatal  in  horses, 
donkeys,  and  dogs.  It  is 
present  almo.st  throughout 
the  whole  of  Africa,  except 
Cape  Colony  and  the  Trans- 
vaal. 

Glanders,    which    all    are 
familiar  with  by  name,  can,  fig.  20.  bacillus  of  glanders    penetrating 
fortunately,    be    detected    in  wall  of  pulmonary  artery. 


Journal  of  A^^ricitliurc .    Victoria.  [lo   Aug..    1912. 


the  system  by  the  Mallein  test  knig  before  symiJtoms  appear,  so  that 
it  rm.\  be  reasonably  hoped  we  \\ill  keep  our  shores  clear  of  this 
pest,  which  has  been  res])onsible  for  enormous  losses  in  countries  in  which 


FIG.     21.    EPIZOOTIC     LVMPIIANGITiS         '     HG.     23.     EPIZOOTIC     LYMPHAN- 
SHOWING     EYE     LESIONS.  GITIS  SHOWING  LESIONS  ON  LEG. 

it  has  appeared.      Great   Britain   in   21    years — 1887    to   1907 — lost   40>93^ 
head,    which,    valued   at   ^20.    equals   ^818,720.      The  organism   is   from 

8,000th    to    I  '5.ooofh     of 
an  inch   (Fig.    20). 

"  Epizootic  lymphangi- 
tis '  (Figs.  21,  22,  23)  i.^ 
present  in  India,  Africa, 
Japan,  China,  France,  Swe- 
(U'li,  Russia,  Germany,  and 
parts  of  the  United  States, 
and  is  produced  by  an 
organism  some  i  /  6000th  to 
I /8,000th  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  incubation 
[leriod  varies  from  three 
weeks  to  fourteen  months  or 
more.  Apparent  recovery 
may  occur,  and  later  the 
di,sea.se      re- appears.  The 

mortality  is  low,   only  about 
10  per  cent,   dying;  but  the 
after     effects      are      serious, 
EPIZOOTIC  LYMPHANGITIS   SHOWING  thickened        tendons,  _      &c., 
LESIONS  ON  SHOULDERS.  Causing    great    depreciation. 


FIG.     22. 


lo  Aug.,    1912.]        The  Etiology  of  Contagious  Diseases. 


499 


Next  there  are  a  series  of  diseases  which,  whilst  causing  serious  havoc, 
are  produced  by    an    organism  so    small    that    it    cannot  be  seen  except  in 


FIG.    2J[.    cows    AFFhCTED    WITH    FOOT    AND   MOL  TH    DISEASE. 


culture  masses.     An  example  is  seen  in  foot  and  mouth  di.sease  in  cattle 
<^Fig.   24).        In  188.^  500.000  animals  were  affected  in  Great  Britain  ;    in 


FIG.    25.    FOOT   AND   MOUTH    DISEASE.       BURIAL    OF    CARCASES    OF    CATTLE    IN 

DEEP    TRENCH. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    191 2. 


Bavaria,  100,000.  In  Germany,  in  1890.  800,000  were  affected,  and  in 
1892  over  4,000,000.  Though  the  mortality  is  not  high  in  the 
disease,  the  loss  from  wasting,  fever,  &c.,  is  enormous;  so  much  so,  that 
a  system  of  slaughter  of  all  affected  and  in  contact  animals  is  carried 
on  as  the  cheapest  method  of  checking  its  ravages  (Figs.  25,  26).  Its. 
seriousness  may  be  gauged  from  the  cablegrams  appearing  in  the  press  of 
the  last  outbreak  in  Great  Britain. 


FIG. 


26.   FOOT   AND  MOUTH   DISEASE.       CARCASES   OF   CATTLE   PILED 
WITH    WOOD    READY    FOR    BURNING. 


No  lecture  on  contagious  diseases  would  be  complete  without  some  re- 
ference to  tuberculosis,  the  disease  upon  which  there  is  mere  literature 
than  on  almost  any  other  subject.  It  is  known  as  the  "  White  Plague,"' 
and  has  been  regarded  by  scientists  as  the  only  disease  which  is  capable 
of  exterminating  the  human  race,  and  this  mainly  because  of  its  insidious- 
nature  ;  for  it  is  pnssibL'fnr  one  tO'  contract  the  disease  in  youth  or  infancy 

and  to  be  quite  unaware- 
nf  it  until  later  in  life — - 
say  upon  gaining  ma- 
turitv.  when,  owing  10' 
some  debilitating  in- 
fluence, the  protection 
aft'orded  up  to  that  time 
bv  the  white  corpuscles 
of  the  blood  is  broken 
down,  and  the  organism 
spreads  through  the 
system,  bringing  with  it' 
that  train  of  symptoms 
which  so  many  are  fami 
liar  with  either  through 
the  loss  of  relatives  c  r^ 
friends  from  consumption  (Figs.  27,  28). 

The    organism     responsible     for    the     disease    is     from     i /4.000th     to 
T/i2,oooth  of   an  inch   long,    and   from   1/ 24,000th   to   i /72,000th  of  an 
inch  broad  (Fig.  29).      The  disease  is  communicable  from  animal  to  man, 
and  vice  versa,   and^   unfortunately,   in  the  early   stages,,  does  not  produce- 
anv  visible  symptoms  (Figs.  30,   31).      The  symptoms  are  usually  recog- 


FIG    27.     CHRONIC    CHEESY    TUBERCULOUS 
PNEUMONIA.       SECTION  OF    LOBE  OF   COW's   LUNG. 


lo  Aug.,    1913.]       The  Etiology  of  Contagious  Diseases. 


501 


FIG.     2 


ni.sed  only  when  the  disease  is  well 
advanced,  and  most  are  familiar  with 
the  wasting,  cough,  &c.,  produced 
(Fig.  32).  A  verv  common  method 
of    spreading    is    per    medium    of    a 


LUNGS    AND    LIVER    OF    A 


COW'    AFFECTED    BY    TUBERCULOSIS. 


FIG.     J9.     BACILLUS    OF    TUBERCULOSIS. 


milk  supply  (Figs.  t^t^.  34).  A  cow  may  be  dangerousK  tubercular, 
yet  continue  to  look  and  act  like  a  healthy  animal ;  she  may  show 
neither    symptoms    of     disease    nor     discomfort ;      her     appetite    may     be 


Fu..    jo.    cuw    a)'I'.\i-;i:m  !,\     iiiAiim,    sikoxg    and    vigorous,    giving    a 

LARGE  QUANTITY  OF  MILK.  KNOWN  TO  BE  AFFECTED  WITH  TUBERCULOSIS 
FOUR  YEARS. 


good  ;  she  may  conceive  and  milk  like  an  ordinary  cow,  and  mav 
even  be  the  sleekest  and  fattest  in  the  herd.  The  illustrations  shown 
are    those    of    cows    apparentlv    in    the    best    of    health  ;     some    of  them. 


] ■iitrual  of  Agricu'rurc ,   Yicioria.  [lo   Aug.,    19 12. 


indeed,  in  fat  condition.  They  were,  howexer,  known  to  be  affected 
■with  tuberculosi.s,  di.strihuting  the  bacilli  through  their  faeces,  and  some 
oof   them    through    th-ir    milk.      The    necessity    for   cleanliness    in    m'lking 


'-  ^\i 

'^M 

f 

i. 

riG.  31.  cow  APPARENTLY  HTlALTHY,  GOOD  CONDI  FION  FOR  DAIRY  COW. 
KNOWN  TO  BE  TUBERCULOUS  FOUR  YEARS.  DUNG  OF  THIS  COW  CAUSED 
TUBERCULOSIS    IN    PIGS    THAT    WERE    PERMITTED    TO    EAT    IT. 

methods  in  the  yard,  and  hind-quarters  of  the  cow,  is  thus  evident;  for 
It  will  readily  be  seen  how  milk  can  be  contaminated  where  operations  are 
carr'ed  on  under  insanitar\'  conditions,  and  where  cows,  whose  flanks  are 
covered    with    manure,     which    may    possibly    contain    large    numbers    of 


AL)\'AN(,'L1)     11   liKKt/l    l_().sl 


"the  organisms,  are  milked.  The  spread  of  the  disease  to  the  pig  also 
x;curs  when  they  are  allowed  to  roam  at  will  and  root  about  in  the  manure 
heap  contaminated,  possibly,  by  only  one  cow  in  a  herd. 


lo  Aug.,    '9<--]       ^  /'i   Eiiologv  of  Conf anions  Diseases. 


FIG.    ^^3.     LONG   STANDIXG    CASE    OF    TUBERCULOSIS    WITH    TUBERCULAR 
SWELLING   IN    UDDER. 

Since  the  Milk  and  Dairy  Supervision  Act  l^as  been  in  operation  some 
500  cows  out  of  dairy  lierds  have  been  destroyed.      It  i.s,   indeed,   difficult 


FIG.     34.     TUBERCULOUS    UDDER    OF    COW. 

to  say  what  .sa\"ing  of  human  life  will  result  from  this  ;  but  if  only  one 
life  is  saved  for  everv  cow,  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  other  than  a  great 
work. 


^04  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    191 2. 

UNPROFITABLE    ORCHARDS:  REASONS   AND 
REMEDIES. 

E.  Wallis,  Orchard  Supervisor. 
Many  orchards  throughout  the  State  are  unprofitable,  owing  to  one  or 
more  of  the  following  causes  : — 
Area  too  large. 
Unprofitable  varieties. 
Want  of  proper  soil  drainage. 
Lack  of  systematic  cultivation  and  manuring. 
Improper  pruning  methods. 
Unsuccessful  eradication  of  insect  and  fungus  pests. 

Area  of  Orchard. 
Large  areas  under  orchard  require  much  manual  labour,  horse  and 
mechanical  power,  to  bring  them  into  and  sustain  them  in  a  highly  profitable 
condition.  In  many  instances  these  necessary  factors  to  profit-earning  are 
not  provided,  and  thus  some  essential  part  of  the  orchard's  well-being  is 
neglected.  It  may  be  cultivation,  manuring,  pruning,  or  spraying,  but 
whatever  it  is,  the  orchard  suffers.  Thus  it  cannot  possibly  yield  the  same 
quantity  or  quality  of  fruit  as  if  properly  managed.  Of  course,  large  places 
worked  thoroughly  under  proper  organization,  yield  large  profits. 
Unless,  however,  one  has  command  of  the  necessary  capital  and  labour,  it 
would  be  better  for  him  to  be  placed  on  a  small  holding,  which  could  be 
thoroughly  worked  in  every  detail.  Concentration  is  quite  essential  to 
success,  and  without  it  the  orchard  will  fail  to  yield  its  maximum  profits. 

Unprofitable  Varieties. 
There  is  no  greater  drawback  to  the  profit-earning  capacity  of  many 
established  orchards  than  unprofitable  varieties.  It  may  be  that  when  the 
trees  were  planted,  their  adaptability  to  the  climatic  and  soil  conditions  of 
the  locality  was  not  understood.  As  a  result  of  this  want  of  knowledge, 
much  labour  is  often  expended  without  any  appreciable  result  in  the  way 
of  profitable  crops.  In  most  cases,  none  can  be  expected.  Yet  some 
growers  persevere  year  after  year  with  such  trees,  thinking  that  at 
some  time  their  profitless  career  will  end,  and  their  profitable 
one  commence.  As  a  rule,  their  perseverance  remains  unrewarded. 
This  is  especially  so  with  such  varieties  of  apples  as  Cleopatra 
and  Munro's  Favourite  when  grown  in  the  southern  districts  of  Victoria. 
When,  however,  these  splendid  varieties  are  grown  under  congenial 
climatic  conditions,  such  as  obtain  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  State, 
they  produce  fru't  of  high-grade  quality  without  being  subject  to 
the  characteristic  scab  and  cracking  which  affect  them  in  the  south. 
Should  these  or  any  other  varieties  unsuitable  to  the  locality  be  established, 
no  time  should  be  wasted  with  them.  They  should  be  cut  back  and  worked 
over  with  some  variety  or  varieties  known  to  do  well  in  the  particular  place 
concerned.  This  method  is  shown  in  Plate  No.  i.  The  trees  shown  here 
are  two-year-old  grafts  of  Rome  Beauty  worked  on  eight-vear-old  stems 
of  Munro's  Favourite.  In  another  two  years,  they  should  be  capable  of 
bearing  a  good  crop.  These  Munro's  Favourite  trees  were  cut  back  on 
account  of  the  fruit  cracking  badly,  and  thus  rendered  unfit  for  market. 
This  is  not  a  singular  case,  but  one  of  many  which  has  come  under  the 
writer's  notice  in  the  Diamond  Creek  and  other  districts  south  of  the 
Dividing  Range. 


lo  Aug.,   191^.] 


Unprofitable  Orchards. 


.I'-'D 


5o5  ] oiinud  of  Agricidiiirc ,    Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    191 2. 

There  are  other  varieties  of  fruits  whicli  often  pro\-e  unprofitable  on 
account  of  their  non-  or  partial  fruiting.  This  sterility  or  partial  sterilitv 
is  to  a  great  extent  a  varietal  characteristic  due  to  underlying  causes  which 
may  sometimes  be  remedied  by  cross-fertilization,  whilst  in  other  cases  the 
thinning  out  of  the  fruit  spurs  has  often  the  desired  result.  In  the  Diamond 
Creek  district,  Keiffer  pear  is  extensively  grown,  and  in  many  ca.ses  is 
worthless  as  a  cropper.  This  unprofitable  condition  generally  occurs  where 
the  trees  are  planted  in  rich  soil,  producing  very  vigorous  perpendicular 
growth,  and  isolated  from  oiher- varieties  blos.soming  simultaneously.  When 
planted  in  poor  country,  the  vigorous  growth  is  checked,  and  trees  often 
bear  well.  This  varietv  is  very  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  cross-fer- 
tilization. Such  varieties  as  Harrington's  ATctoria,  Howell,  Le  Coute,  and 
others  have  proved  suitable  as  a  cross  with  Keiffer.  AVHiere  this  variety 
is  established  and  has  proAed  sterile  or  partly  so,  a  sufficient  number  for 
cross-fertilizing  purposes  should  be  cut  down  and  re-worked  with  one  of 
the  above  varieties.  Bailey's  Bergamot  is  another  variety  often  barren  of 
fruit,  though  blossoming  profusely  each  season,  l)ut  the  writer  has  brought 
it  into  a  state  of  fruitfulness  by  crossing  with  Williams'  Bon  Chretien. 
Spur-pruning  is  advised  as  a  remedy  for  want  of  bearing  in  Winter  Nelis 
pear.  Earlv  Guigne  cherrv  often  proves  a  very  light  cropper  when  grown 
isolated  from  other  helpful  varieties.  It,  however,  appears  to  be  very 
favourablv  influenced  by  such  varieties  as  Black  Bigareau  and  Early 
Lyons. 

Coe's  Golden  Drop  plum  ''also  is  prone  to  barrenness.  No  definite 
results  have  so  far  been  obtained  by  crossing,  but  Pond's  Seedling  is  recom- 
mended as  a  varietv  likely  to  prove  beneficial  as  a  cross.  In  the  case  of 
a  young  orchard  being  established  containing  any  of  the.se  self-sterile  or 
partially  self-sterile  varieties,  suitable  trees  should  be  planted  near  them 
for  cross-fertilization  purposes. 

Draining  of  Orchards. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  better  the  drainage,  the  .surer  the  water  supply. 
This  is  sound  advice,  for  land  well  drained  and  worked  is  enabled  to  draw 
up  by  capillarv  action,  and  hold,  sufficient  water  for  the  use  of  the  trees. 
Unrirained  land  is  cold,  and  being  filled  with  water  in  winter  time,  the 
beneficial  influences  of  soil  aeration  are  absent. 

In  hot  weather  such  soil  is  generallv  caked,  hard,  and  dry,  and  under 
such  conditions  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  the  reason  why  so  many 
trees  "  go  off  "  in  orchards,  and  become  unprofitable  during  the  existence  of 
such  conditions. 

Orchards,  to  prove  highly  profitable,  must  be  established  under  the  best 
possible  conditions  of  soil  drainage,  either  natural  or  artificial.  Few  are 
naturally  drained  ;  parts  of  them  may  be,  but  generally  weak  or  rather  wet 
patches  exist,  and  the  trees  "  go  off  "  in  those  places.  Plate  No.  2  .shows 
a  Reinette  du  Canada  apple  tree  groAving  vigorously.  This  tree  was  placed 
in  a  badly-drained  situation,  and  did  not  make  any  satisfactory  growth 
until  a  drain  was  laid  and  the  tree  cut  back.  The  strong  growth  seen  in 
the  photo,  is  the  direct  result  of  the  work. 

In  a  perfectlv-drained  orchard,  the  trees  develop  uniformly.  In  fact, 
when  looking  along  the  rows  of  trees  in  such  orchards,  it  is  difficult  to  notice 
any  difference  in  the  general  appearance  of  the  trees  of  same  variety 
and  agi8.  Plate  No.  3  shows  two  rov^s  of  such  trees.  It  will  be  seen  that 
these  trees  are  thrifty  in  giowth  and  even  in  general  development.  This  is 
the  kind  of  orchard  that  proves  profitable — every  tree  being  able  to  produce 
maximum  crops. 


ic  Aug.,   191^.] 


U II  pro  fit  able  Ore  hards. 


507 


Of  course,  it  is  better  to  do  the  necessary  work  of  draining  wlien  the 
orchard  is  being  established,  but  old  orchards,  not  too  far  gone,  respond  to 
the  work  of  draining,  even  when  done  late  in  their  existence.  Old  and 
stunted  trees  have  sometimes  become  quite  thriftv  in  growth  after  the 
orchard  has  been  drainrd. 


S.^f'^M^^ 


The  system  of  drainage  must  vary  according  to  local  conditions. 
Speaking  generally,  however,  if  the  soi'l  is  stiff  and  compact,  the  drains 
require  to  be  placed  at  smaller  distances  apart  than  in  ground  of  a  more 
open  texture.  Again,  if  the  surface  is  fairly  level,  more  drains  are  required 
than  in  land  having  a  good  slope.  Drains  should  be  arranged  so  that 
soakage  may  be  caught  in  the  easiest  and  most  complete  way. 


^o8 


]onr)ial  of  Ai-;r/culinn\   Victoria.  [lo  Aug.,    iqi2. 


Pipe  drains  should  be  placed  mid-\va\  between  the  rows  about  20  or  40' 
feel  apart,  and  usually  parallel  to  the  fall.  These  pipe  drains  should 
lead  into  the  main  open  drain  that  follows  the  natural  water-course. 


/  A'  -^  ri-    ''^^  ^^ 


In  laying  pipe  drains,  they  should  be  placed  well  into  the  subsoil  to 
draw  off  water  freely.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  lay  them  on  sand  if  readily 
available.  Sand  makes  a  good  bed  for  pipes,  and  they  are  then  not  so  apt 
to    become    displaced  as    when  put  on    a  hard    bottom.      In    laying  the.aiy 


lo   Aug.,    191--]  Unprofitable  Orchards.  509. 

extreme  care  must  be  taken  not  to  ha\e  any  unevenness  between  successive 
pipes  to  allow  dt  the  collection  of  sediment  in  the  interior  of  the  pipe  drain. 

Manuring. 

It  is  too  commonly  believed  tliat  fruit  trees  tliri\e  well  in  tlie  poorest  of 
soil.  This  idea  is  not  correct,  for  when  the  trees  are  called  upon  to  bear 
heavy  crops,  they  require  a  liberal  supply  of  the  necessary  plant-food  con- 
stituents. Soil  of  poor  (]ualitv  may  certainly  be  beneficial  in  bringing  trees, 
into  bearing  quickly  or  in  checking  the  over-vigorous  growth  of  some 
varieties ;  but  continued  cropping  will  surely  soon  exhaust  the  required 
elements  of  plant-focwl  in  such  soil,  so  that  the  trees  will  soon  become  incap- 
able of  producing  a  profitable  crop  of  fruit.  The  evils  of  soil -exhaustion 
may  be  seen  in  many  orchards,  as  evidenced  by  the  stunted  growth  of  trees,' 
depleted  buds,  and  fruit  of  very  inferior  quality.  In  fact,  it  may  be  said 
that  tlie  profits  of  the  majority  of  orchards  are  considerably  lessened  by 
the  lack  of  systematic  manuring.  The  appearance  of  trees  is  the  best  guide 
to  their  manure  requirements.  Young  trees  should  make  regular  and  thrifty 
growth.  Any  defect  in  this  respect  should,  be  remedied  by  the  application 
of  manure  rich  in  nitrogen.  Nitrogenous  manures  are  very  effective  in  pro- 
ducing growth,  either  in  young  trees  or  in  old  and  stunted  ones.  No  better 
manure  can  be  used  for  general  purposes  than  farm-yard  manure,  which, 
when  properly  prepared,  is  rich  in  all  the  essential  elements  of  plant-food 
— nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid.  In  addition,  the  organic  part 
of  it  has  a.  very  beneficial  physical  effect  upon  soil.  It  is,  therefore, 
known  as  a  general  manure  in  contrast  to  special  manures  which  contain 
one,  two,  or  more  constituents  of  plant  nutriment,  but  which  are  not  capable 
of  maintaining  the  general  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  chief  value,  however, 
of  special  manures  is  to  supply  the  soil  with  some  plant  food  which  it  lacks. 
In  order,  then,  to  apply  such  manure  profitably,  the  soil  deficiency  should 
be  first  ascertained,  otherwise  it  may  do  no  good.  Sometimes  a  soil  mav 
fail  through  the  absence  of  one  or  more  of  the  essential  elements.  The 
reason  of  failure  in  such  a  case  is  because  the  minimum  governs  the  whole 
in  the  same  way  as  the  strength  of  a  chain  is  governed  bv  its  weakest  link. 

The  mechanical  effect  of  farm-yard  manure  upon  soil  texture  is  very 
marked,  making  it  either  more  open  or  compact,  as  the  case  may  be.  Soil 
of  hea\y  texture  is  opened  up  by  the  decomposition  of  the  straw,  which 
forms  channels,  and  through  them  moisture,  air,  and  the  roots  of  trees 
penetrate. 

As  there  is  generally  a  difficulty  in  obtaining  sufficient  quantities  of 
farm-yard  manure,  a  system  of  green  manuring  is  stronglv  recommended 
for  soils  deficient  in  humus.  Such  soils  are  light-coloured,  dry,  and  harsh 
to  the  touch.  Those  containing  it  in  proper  proportions  are  dark-coloured, 
moist,  and  mellow.  The  properties  of  humus  are  that  it  renders  heavv  soils 
lighter,  more  open,  and  porous,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  soils  of  a  loose 
sandy  character  are  made  denser  and  better  enabled  to  absorb  and  retain 
moisture.  Hill  orchard  land  generallv  requires  a  liberal  application  of 
manure  to  firing  about  ideal  humus  r mditions. 

In  addition  to  the  production  of  humus,  green  manure  of  leguminous 
crops  is  rich  in  nitrogen.  This  is  produced  by  the  action  of  bacteria  working 
in  the  root  nodules  of  legumes,  such  as  beans,  peas,  lucerne,  &c.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  bv  the  use  of  green  manure,  not  only  is  the  soil  benefited 
physically,  but  also  one  of  the  most  expensive  manures — nitrogen —  is  added 
to  the  soil. 


jio  Journal  of  Agricidhire ,  Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    1912. 

Green  crops  should  be  sown  in  the  autumn,  and  ploughed  into  the  soil 
when  in  flower.  Special  manures,  such  as  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  sulphate  of  potash,  and  superphosphate,  are  soon  rendered 
soluble,  and  thus  should  be  appl'ed  to  soil  when  trees  are  becoming 
active  in  early  spring. 

Bonedust  is  a  valiiabie  manure  for  fruit  trees.  It  is  not  easily  rendered 
.soluble,  therefore  should  be  applied  in  autumn  or  winter. 

Pruning. 

This  all-important  factor  in  making  or  marring  the  profits  of  an  orchard 
cannot  be  dealt  with  at  any  length  in  such  an  article  as  this.  However,  no 
article  bearing  on  unprofitable  orchards  would  be  complete  without  reference 
to  the  common  mistakes  made  and  which  cause  so  much  profit-leakage  in 
many  orchards. 

Young  Trees. — Instead  of  cutting  leading  growths  of  young  trees  hard 
back,  some  growers  merely  tip  them ;  the  result  is  a  weakly  framework 
which  cannot  bear  the  weight  of  fruit  after  the  tree  has  come  into  bearing, 
the  limbs  often  break  off,  and  irreparable  injury  is  done.  Young  trees 
should  be  hard  cut  back  for  a  few  years,  in  order  to  form  a  strong  frame- 
work capable  of  bearing  heavy  crops. 

Leaders. — Frequently  the  leading  growths  are  improperly  placed,  and 
too  manv  allowed  to  remain.  The  leaders  should  be  spaced  as  equi-distant 
as  possible  and  rise  obliquely  at  an  angle  of  about  45  deg ;  generally 
speaking,  about   12-16  leaders  are  sufficient. 

Laterals. — A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  fruiting  habits  of  different 
kinds  and  varieties  is  essential  to  successful  pruning.  A  good  general 
policy  is  to  spare  the  knife  on  all  well-placed  light  lateral  growths.  If 
allowed  to  remain  for  a  season  to  ripen  and  develop  fruit  buds,  they  can 
then  be  shortened  in  as  required.  Especially  does  this  apply  to  such 
varieties  of  apples  as  Jonathan  and  Rome  Beauty.  Many  instances  are 
met  with  where  these  splendid  varieties  have  been  made  barren,  or  partly 
so,  by  the  improper  use  of  the  secateur  on  laterals.  A  good  plan  is  to 
observe  carefully  the  result  of  last  season's  cuts.  By  this  means  a  mistake 
should  be  made  only  once — -not  repeated. 

Pruning  the  Peach. — Many  peach  orchards  are  silent  witnesses  to 
improper  pruning  methods.  The  light  wood  growth  of  the  tree  is  often 
merely  a  tangled  mass  at  ends  of  leading  shoots,  instead  of  being  well  regu- 
lated and  placed  in  the  most  suitable  positions. 

As  a  result  of  such  management,  or  lack  of  management,  fruit  of  an 
uncertain  quantity  and  quality  is  produced. 

The  peach  bears  its  fruit  on  new  growth,  and  only  once  on  the  same 
spur.  Thus  a  regular  supply  of  well-placed  fruiting  wood  is  essential. 
This  caiTi  be  obtained  and  maintained  by  the  judicious  use  of  the  secateur — 
only  possible  when  there  is  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  different  kinds  of 
buds  and  growth. 

In  pruning  the  peach,  care  must  be  taken  to  supply  wood-growth  for 
the  succeeding  year's  crop  as  well  as  the  regulation  of  spurs  for  the 
development  of  large  fruit  during  the  year  the  pruning  is  carried  out.  All 
dead  wood  should  be  removed  as  well  as  the  over-weakened  laterals.  Cuts 
should  be  made  clean  to  permit  of  free  healing. 

Treatment  of  Insect  and  Fungu.s  Pests. 
This  subject  has  been  dealt  with  in  the  Journal  from  time  to  time,  and 
the  Orchard  Supervision  Branch  is  always  available  to  give  instructions  to 
growers  in  this  important  detail  of  orchard  work. 


lo   Aug.,    191-]  Herd  'l\si'iiig.  511 

HERD  TESTLXG. 

Government  Certification  of  Standard  Cows. 
By   II".    .4.    .A'.    Ro]>crlso,i,   B.V.Sc. 

The  desire  of  the  members  of  the  Victorian  branch  of  the  Jersey  Herd 
Society  to  introduce  a  scheme  for  the  official  registration  of  records  of  the 
Jersey  cow,  affording  as  it  did  an  opportunity  for  putting  into  "practice 
the  principle  advocated  by  the  officers  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
was  responsible  during  191 1  for  the  meeting  of  a  committee  of  their  mem-  . 
bers,  representatives  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  and  officers  of  the 
Department,  at  which  the  more  important  features  of  such  a  scheme  were- 
discussed.  Later  th's  led  to  a  deputation  waiting  upon  the  Hon.  G. 
Graham.  Minister  of  Agriculture,  and  placing  their  request  for  assistance 
from  Government  officers  before  him.  Being  in  accord  with  the  principle, 
the  Minister,  after  due  consideration,  agreed  to  the  issuing  of  certificates 
to  all  cows  of  any  pure  breed  attaining  a  definite  standard.  Eventually 
regulations  were  drawn  up,  which  are  reproduced  herewith.  The  testing 
is  to  apply  to  any  pure  breed,  but  only  to  those  animals  registered  in  a. 
recognised  herd  book,  whilst  every  such  animal  in  a  herd  must  be  entered. 
A  fee  of  jQ\  per  herd  and  5s.  per  cow  tested  will  be  made.  The  test 
will  occupy  nine  calendar  months,  commencing  one  week  after  calving, 
and  cows  attaining  the  standard  as  shown  in  Rule  1 1  will  be  granted  cer- 
tificates whereon  all  the  information  possible  as  showing  her  value  will  be 
recorded.  A  list  of  all  cows  gaining  the  standard  will  be  published  annu- 
ally. As  a  cow  must  enter  for  testing  within  one  week  of  calving,  it  is^ 
advisable  that  all  owners  desirous  of  participating  in  the  scheme  should 
enter  their  herds  as  early  as  possible,  for  it  will  be  seen  that  some  months 
must  elapse  before  even  the  majoriiy  of  animals  in  a  herd  are  undergoing 
the  test,  and  those  which  are  calving  at  the  present  time  will  be  handicapped 
by  missing  the  lactation  period  of  the  present  vear. 

Rkgilations   concermng    Herd    T?:sting    for   the    Government    Certification 

o:-"   Standard   Cows. 
Entrance — 

1.  The   owner   of    nnv   herd   of    pure   bred    (hiir\-    cattle   mav    submit   his   herd    for 

certification. 

2.  Onlv   those  cows  registered   in   a   recognised   herd   book  or   pure   stock   register 

will  be  accepted,  and  all  such  cows  in  the  herd  must  be  tested,  w'th 
such   exceptions  as  are   set  out   in   Clauses    14,    is,    and   16. 

3.  An   annual    fee  of  £1    per  herd   and    ;s.    per   cow   tested   shall   be   paid   to   the 

Department  of  Agriculture  on   demand. 

4.  Any    cow    entered    for    certification    mav    be    branded    in    such    manner    as    to- 

insure  identification,  and  all  stmdard  cows  will  be  marked  on  the  inside 
of  an  ear  with  the  Government  tattoo  mark  and   an  identification  number. 

Lactation    Period — • 

5.  Testing   and   recording   sh<all   occupv    a   period   of  nine   calendar   months,    com- 

mencing one  week  from  date  of  calving,  excepting  under  such  circum- 
stances as  set  forth  in  Clause  18.  This  period  shall  be  recognised  as 
the    official    lactation    period. 

Recording — 

6.  The    milk    from    each    cow    entered    shall    be   weighed    separately    immediately 

after  each  milking  by  means  of  tested  and  approved  scales,  and  the 
weight  recorded  on  a  printed  chart  supplied  for  the  pur])Ose,  which  shall 
remain  the  property  of  the  Department.  Such  scales  and  chart  shall 
be  available  for  inspection  by  <a  Government  Dairv  Supervisor  whea 
required. 


512  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    191 2. 

Sn'pervision — 

7.  A  Government  Dairy  Supervisor,  under  the  direction  of  the  Chief  Veterinary 

Officer,  will  make  periodical  visits  for  the  purpose  of  checking  records 
and  taking  samples  of  milk  for  testing.  There  shall  be  not  less  than 
nine  visits  during  the  official  lactation  period,  and  not  more  than  thirty 
days  shall  elapse  between  any  two  visits.  Additional  visits  may  be 
made  at  any  time  by  the  Supervisor  for  the  purpose  of  taking  supple- 
mentary records  and  samples  for  testing  as  often  as  may  be  deemed 
advisable. 

8.  Every    facility    shall    be    afforded    Government    officers    in    carrying    out    their 

duties  under  these  Regulations,  and  accommodation  must  be  provided 
over    night    when    required. 

9.  Particulars    as    to    date    of    calving,    service,    drying    off,    hours    of    milking, 

manner  of  feeding,  must  be  supplied  for  record  purposes  on  request 
of  the  Dairy  Supervisor.  If  deemed  necessary  in  any  case,  the  owner 
may  be  called  upon  to  furnish  a  statutory  declaration  as  to  the  correct- 
ness  of    such  or    any    particulars. 

Testing — 

10.  In-  collecting    samples    for    testing,    the    morning    and    evening    milk    will    be 

taken ;  the  tests  will  be  made  by  the  Chemist  for  Agriculture  or  his 
deputy  from  a  composite  sample  containing  quantities  of  the  morning  and 
evening  milk  proportionate  to  the  respective  yields;  and  the  results, 
/  unless  shown  to  be  abnormal,  sh.ill  be  considered  as  the  average  for  the 
period  intervening  since  the  next  previous  normal  test.  If  apparently 
abnormal,  the  results  may  be  discarded,  and  further  samples  taken  and 
tests   made. 

Standard  Cows — 

11.  Standard   cows    under    these    Regulations    shall    be    those    which,    during    the 

official  lactation  period,  yield — 

((7)  in    the    case    of    cows    commencing    their    first  lactation  period    and 

being   then   under  j  years  of  age — 150   lbs.  of  butter  fat; 

[b)  in    the    case    of    cows    commencing    their    first  lactation  period    and 

being   then   over  3   years   of   age — 200   lbs.    of   butter    fat  ; 

(c)  in    the    case    of    cows    of  any  age   commencing   a)iy   lactation    feriod 

other  than  the  first — 200  lbs.   of  butter  fat. 

Certification — 

12.  A   Government    certificate    shall    be    issued    in    respect    of    all    standard    cows. 

Such  certificate  shall  show  the  breed,  the  age  at  entry,  brands,  the 
official  lactation  period  recorded,  and  date  of  completion ;  the  weight 
of  milk  given,  the  amount  of  butter  fat  and  commercial  butter  (estimated 
on  a  14  per  cent,  over-run),  and  the  weight  of  milk  given  on  the  last 
day   of   the  official   lactation   period. 

13.  The    certificate    issued    in    respect   of    any    standard    cow    shall,    if    she    attain 

the  standard  during  any  subsequent  official  lactation  period,  be  returned 
to  the  Department,  when  a  fresh  certificate  will  be  issued,  which  shall 
show  her  record  for  each  and  every  lactation  period  in  which  she  was 
tested. 

Exemptions — 

14.  Cows    eight    years    old    or    over    whose   yields   have   been    recorded    for   three 

official   lactation  periods  may  be  exempt. 
ic.  Aged   or   injured   cows  in   the  herd   at   time   of   entry    and    kept    for   breeding 
purposes    may    be    exempt    on    the    recommendation    of    the     Government 
Supervisor.     Any    injury    interfering    with    lactation    received    subsequent 
to   entry  may   be   recorded   on   certificate   issued. 

16.  Any    cow    which    on    veterinary    e-amination    is    found    to    be    affected    with 

tuberculosis  shall  be  withdrawn  from  the  test,  and  her  milk  shall  not 
be  allowed  to  be  used  for  sale,  or  for  the  preparation  of  any  dairy 
produce    for    sale. 

17.  Any    cow    which    on    veterinary    examination    is    found    to    be    affected    with 

actinomycosis  of  the  udder,  or  any  other  disease  or  condition  which  may 
temporarily  render  her  milk  injurious,  may  remain  in  the  herd  for  testing, 
but  her  milk  shall  not  be  used  for  sale  or  for  the  preparation  of  any 
dairy    produce    for    sale    without    permission    of    the    Supervisor. 


lo   Aug.,    1912.]  Orchard  mid  Garden  Nofes.  515 

18.  When    any    newly-calved    cow    is    rendered    temporarily    unfit    for    testing    by 

being  affected  with  milk  fever,  mammitis,  retention  of  placenta,  or  other 
ailment  afTecting  newly-calved  cows,  the  period  elapsing  between  the 
calving  and  entrance  to  the  official  lactation  period  may  be  extended  on 
the  recommendation  of  a  Veterinary  Officer  or  Supervisor,  but  such 
period   shall  not  exceed  one  month   from  date  of  calving. 

19.  Any    interpretation  or   decision   in  respect  of  these  Regulations,  or  in   respect 

of  any  matter  concerning  the  certification  which  receives  the  written 
approval   of   the   Director  of   Agriculture   shall   be   final. 

20.  Should    the    owner  of    any    herd    entered   not    conform    to    these    Regulations, 

such  herd  shall  be  subiect  to  disqualification  for  such  period  as  the 
Minister  shall  determine.  The  Minister  retains  the  right  to  withdraw 
any  certificate  when  to  his  satisfaction   good  and  sufficient  cause  is  shown. 


ORCIIAllD    AND    GARDEN    NOTES. 

E.   E.   PescoU,  Principal,   School  of   Horticulture,  Burnley. 

The  Orchard. 

If  the  winter  spraying  has  been  delayed,  it  should  be  completed  as 
quickly  as  possible,  and  before  the  buds  begin  to  swell  and  burst. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  spray  stone  fruits  with  the  red  oil  emulsion  at 
this  time,  as  there  will  be  the  danger  of  burning  and  destroying  any  early 
buds  that  may  be  swelling,  aiid  consequently  loosening  their  outside  scales. 
It  will  be  safe,  if  the  work  be  done  at  once,  to  spray  apple,  pear,  and 
quince  trees  with  this  spray,  especially  where  the  Bryobia  mite,  scale 
insects,   or  woolly   aphis  are  prevalent. 

If  it  is  intended  that  the  lime  and  sulphur  wash  will  be  the  specific 
for  these  and  other  pests,  it  may  still  be  used  with  safety,  although  the 
spraying  should  be  completed  as  early  as  possible.  This  mixture  has  a 
certain  value  as  a  fungicide,  and  it  is  well  worth  trying  on  peach  trees- 
that  have  previously  been  affected  with  leaf  curl ;  more  especially  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  in  some  districts  severe  burning  has  occurred  in  peach 
orchards  as  a  result  of  using  Bordeaux  mixture  late  in  the  season. 

Where  peach  aphis  has  appeared,  it  will  be  advisable  to  spray  at 
once  with  a  strong  nicotine  solution.  Tobacco  stems  should  be  soaked 
in  cold  water  for  .some  days,  adding  a  teaspoonful  of  caustic  soda  to  a 
cask  of  steeping  stems.  The  liquid  may  be  used  strong,  and  eveiy 
endeavour  should  be  made  to  kill  out  the  first  insects  that  appear. 

The  pruning  of  deciduous  trees  should  be  at  an  end  this  month. 
Pruning  of  evergreens,  such  as  oranges,  lemons,  and  guavas.  may  be  left 
until  later. 

Young  deciduous  trees  should  be  planted  not  later  than  this  month, 
according  to  the  directions  given  in  last  month's  notes.  The  soil  should 
be  trodden  firm  around  the  roots,  and,  when  planting  has  been  completed, 
the  trees  may  be  headed  back  to  three  or  four  buds  on  each  arm. 

Preparation  may  be  made  for  planting  citrus  and  other  evergreen 
trees.  The  soil  should  be  well  ploughed  and  sweetened  in  anticipation 
of  planting  in  September  and  October. 

In  root-borer  affected  districts,  the  beetles  will  begin  to  appear  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  month.  A  close  observance  should  be  kept,  and 
the  insects  should  be  regularly  collected   and   destroyed. 


514  Journal  of  Ai^riciiliiirc .   Yktoria.  [10   Aug.,    1912. 

Vegetable    Garden. 

The  plots  should  l)u  well  dug  over  at  this  time,  adding  gypsum  or 
lime  where  any  pests  have  been  prevalent.  In  other  beds,  stable  manure 
should  be  well  worked  into  th.e  soil. 

The  soil  .should  be  rich,  well  worked,  and  warm,  so  that  a  quick 
growth  may  result.  Vegetables  grown  quickly  are  generally  more  tender 
than  slowly  grown  ones  ;  and  frequent  changes  of  crops  in  the  plots  will 
give  better  results.  At  this  season,  the  weeds  will  require  constant 
•checking;  frequent  use  of  the  hoe  will  therefore  be  necessary,  and,  in  the 
rows,  hand  weeding  should  be  re.sorted  to. 

All  seedlings  should  be  planted  out,  especially  seedlings  of  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  lettuce,  and  onion.  Seeds  of  peas,  carrots,  parsnips,  radish, 
lettuce,   tomato,   and  broad  beans  may  be  sown. 

Where  they  can  be  sheltered  and  protected  from  frosts,  young  tomato 
jjlants  may  be  planted  out  for  early  fruiting.  One  method  of  managing 
these  early  plants  is  to  place  the  young  plant  a  few  inches  below  the 
surface,  and  then  place  a  box,  8  or  9  inches  deep,  A\ith  top  and  bottom 
removed,  o\er  the  plant  at  ground  level.  This  can  then  be  covered 
iooselv  with  a  piece  of  glass  whenever  necessary. 

Potatoes,  artichokes,  and  asparagus  crowns  may  still  be  planted. 
Asparagus  beds  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  they  should  have  a  loose 
surface,  and  a  light  top  dressing  with  old  manure  would  be  beneficial. 

In   the   frames,    cucumber,    vegetable  marrow,    melon,    pumpkin,    water 

and  rock  melon  seeds  may  be  planted.  These  are  best  planted  in  pots, 

placing  three  or  four  seeds  in  each  pot.  They  then  suffer  no  check  when 

•being  transplanted   into  the  beds. 

Flower  Garder. 

Ro.se  pruning  should  now  be  completed.  At  this  time  the  buds  are 
beginning  to  swell  and  show  some  prominence,  and  no  check  should  be 
put  in  the  way  of  their  full  development.  A  careful  watch  should  be 
icept  for  the  appearance  of  aphis,  which  should  be  washed  off  as  soon 
.as  it  is  noticed.  It  is  advisable  to  have  a  specific  always  at  hand,  ready 
made  up,  so  as  to  kill  the  aphis  when  noticed.  The  aphis  is  a  very  rapid 
breeder,  and  delav  of  a  few  days  means  an  enormous  increase  of  this 
pest.  Quite  a  number  of  specifics  are  useful  in  combating  the  aphi.s — 
Soaperine,  tobacco  emulsion,  strong  soapsuds,  Robinson's  pine  spray,  and 
pestend  solution  are  among  the  useful  remedies.  Whatever  is  used,  a 
_good  a])iTlication  should  be  given,  and  it  should  be  repeated  at  frequent 
inter\-als.   if  the  aphides  remain. 

All  herbaceous  and  similar  plants  may  now  be  planted  out  in  the 
beds ;  these  include  delphinium,  cannas,  sha.sta  daisy,  rudbeckias,  salvias, 
perennial  phlox,  &c.  These  plants  should  be  well  fed,  so  as  to  allow 
them  to  make  a  rapid  and  vigorous  growth. 

Weeds  will  need  frequent  attention,  as  they  must  be  kept  in  check  at 
this  time  of  the  vear  j  they  should  be  prevented  from  seeding  in  the  beds. 

The  planting  out  of  shrubs  may  now  be  continued  and  completed  as 
early  as  possible,  so  as  to  allow  the  roots  to  get  a  good  hold  of  the  soil 
l.iefore  the  hot  weather  sets  is.  Gladioli  may  be  planted  for  early 
flowering,   and,   as  well,   a  few  di\-isions  or  tubers  of  dahlias. 


3  0   Aug..    1 91 2.]        Second    Yictoriiui   Egg-laying;   Conifctiiion. 


S^S 


SErONl)    VKJTUIJIAN    EdiMAYING   COMPETITION,    ll)l-M3. 


H.    V.   Haivkins.   Poultry  Expect. 

Monthly  Report. 

The  past  month  has  been  characterized  by  cold  bleak  weather,  with  at 
times  heavy  rain  and  occasional  frosts,  the  drinking  vessels  being  frozen, 
on  several  mornings.  The  lighter  breeds  have  felt  the  cold  very  much ;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  30  Orpingtons  competing  have  scored  remarkably  well, 
and  appear  to  relish  the  cold  weather.  A  few  cases  of  sickness  have  occurred, 
jirincipally  amongst  the  White  Leghorns;  up  to  the  present  one  White 
Leghorn  has  died  through  accident,  and  one  Silver  Wyandotte  succumbed 
to  heart  disease.  There  has  been  one  replacement,  due  to  paralysis,  and 
one  to  wasting,  in  both  cases  White  Leghorns.  The  scoring  of  the  present 
team  of  birds  compares  favorably  with  the  previous  year's  competition,  as 
mav  be  seen  from  the  following  figures:  — 


Comparative  Table  of  Eggs  Laid. 


1911-12  (396  Birds). 

1912-13 

(4U  Bir.ls). 

No.  of 

Egg5. 

Average 
per  Pen. 

Xo.  of 
Egg^. 

Average 
per  Pen. 

1st    Month 
2nd      „ 
3rd       „ 

2,958 
3,139 
3,873 

44-8 
47-5 
58-6 

3.227 
4,844 
5,688 

46-7 
70-2 
82-4 

Fee 

DING. 

Owing  to  the  cold  weather  experienced,  there  has  been  an  increase  in 
the  amount  of  meat  allowed,  the  bullock's  liver  being  given  four  times  a 
week;  whilst  on  cold  days  or  on  ap])roach  of  coid  nights  an  extra  ration 
ot  maiz5  has  been  given,  reversing  the  amount  of  maize  and  wheat  that  was 
given  last  month,  i.e.,  4  parts  maize,  3  parts  wheat,  and  2  parts  oats,  instead 
of  4  parts  wheat.  3  parts  maize,  and  2  parts  o:.ts.  In  other  respects,  the 
feeding  has  been  along  the  lines  indicated  in  the  July  issue  of  the  Journal. 

Very  few  of  the  birds  have  shown  signs  of  broodiness,  and  the  general 
health  has  been  good,  and  only  few  are  in  the  moult,  as  is  indicated  bv 
the  increased  egg  yield.  Keen  interest  is  being  shown  in  the  contest  this- 
year,  due  to  the  equalitv  of  a  number  of  the  contestants ;  although  the 
leading  pen,  No.  40,  has  maintained  its  position,  there  are  many 
rea-sonably  close. 

Unfortunately,  a  few  of  the  leading  pens  have  laid  a  number  of  double- 
yolked  eggs ;  this  will  handicap  them  as  the  warmer  weather  approaches, 
and  possibly  be  a  cause  of  loss. 


5i6 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [lo  Aug.,    1912. 


SECOND  VICTORIAN  EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION,  1912-13. 

Commencing  I5th  April,  1912. 
CONDUCTED    AT    BURNLEY    HORTICULTURAL    SCHOOL. 


Eggs  laid  during  competition. 

Position  in 

Pen. 

Breed. 

Name  of  Owner. 

April  15 

June  15 

Total  to 

Competi- 

to 

to 

Date  (3 

tion. 

June  14. 
247 

July  14. 
Ill 

months). 
358 

40 

White  Leghoras     . . 

S.  Brown     . . 

1 

31 

Geo.  Edwards 

205 

123 

328 

2 

23 

W.  McLister 

212 

115 

327 

3 

70 

C.  J.  Beatty 

222 

100 

322 

)    • 

28 

F.  G.  Eagleton 

200 

122 

322 

47 

J.  E.  Bradley 

214 

100 

314 

6 

3 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

King  and  Watson 

193 

120 

313 

7 

9 

Wliite  Legliorns     . . 

J.  S.  Spotswood 

202 

102 

304 

8 

20 

E.  Waldon 

201 

102 

3.)3 

9 

48 

Griffin  Cant 

189 

99 

288 

10 

1 

J.  Campbell 

188 

94 

282 

11 

62 

R.  W.  Pope 

189 

91 

280 

12 

8 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

D.  Fisher     . . 

170 

110 

280 

13 

46 

H.  A.  Langdon 

169 

109 

278 

14 

30 

White  Leghorns     . . 

Mrs.  Stevenson 

192 

72 

264 

15 

24 

Sargenf  ri  Po  ultry  Yards 

162 

98 

260 

1   ■« 

39 

W.  G.  Swift 

159 

101 

260 

38 

R.  Moy 

167 

92 

259 

18 

7 

A.  H.  Padman 

192 

64 

256 

19 

37 

C.  B.  Bertelsmeier     . . 

146 

108 

254 

20 

25 

11.  L.  Appleford 

147 

106 

253 

21 

60 

A.  Ahpe«     .  . 

143 

105 

248 

1 

29 

» 

J.  B.    Brigdcn 

156 

92 

248 

}      22 

45 

tj 

Wooldridge  Bros. 

156 

92 

248 

44 

A.  W.  Hall 

186 

56 

242 

25 

2 

B.  Rowlinson 

140 

100 

240 

26 

6 

J.  B-  Macarthur 

161 

75 

236 

27 

14 

J.  II.  Wright 

129 

104 

233 

28 

49 

W.  Purvis 

115 

110 

225 

29 

63 

Percv  Walker 

129 

89 

218 

30 

13 

W.  B.  Crellin 

106 

110 

216 

31 

15 

W.  H.  Steer 

103 

109 

212 

32 

53 

H.  Hodges  . . 

100 

103 

203 

33 

33 

II.  McKenzie 

130 

71 

201 

34 

35 

C.  H.  Busst 

130 

70 

200 

35 

19 

i> 

Cowan  Bros. 

97 

101 

198 

}      36 

64 

H.  Merrick 

120 

78 

198 

66 

M.  A.  Monk 

105 

90 

195 

38 

42 

Mrs.  T.  Kempster      . . 

146 

47 

193 

39 

61 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

J.  Ogden 

93 

88 

181 

40 

5 

White  Legliorns     . . 

J.  H.  Brain 

82 

85 

167 

41 

10 

R.C.     Brown     Leg- 
horns 

S.  P.  Giles 

55 

110 

165 

\   '- 

SI 

White  Leghorns     . . 

H.  Hammill 

71 

94 

165 

I 

58 

), 

W.  J.  Stock 

114 

46 

160 

44 

12 

T.  H.  Stafford 

92 

66 

158 

45 

54 

F.  E,.  DeGaris 

72 

83 

155 

60 

!, 

Miss  B.  E.  Ryan 

55 

100 

155 

43 

II 

G.  Purton    .  . 

82 

71 

153 

48 

4 

J.  Blackburne 

78 

72 

150 

j    « 

65 

A.  H.  Thomson 

71 

79 

150 

27 

E.  Nash       . . 

98 

51 

149 

51 

52 

Black  Minorcas 

Chalmers  Bros. 

63 

76 

139 

52 

18 

White  Leghorns     .  . 

B.  Mitchell 

49 

89 

138 

53 

59 

W.  J.  Seabridge 

56 

79 

135 

54 

41 

>, 

A.  Stringer 

90 

41 

131 

55 

69 

I. 

Morgan  and  Watson . . 

52 

69 

121 

56 

16 

Silver  Wyandottes 

R.  Jobling 

49 

71 

120 

57 

32 

White  Legliorns     .  . 

S.  Brundrett 

56 

63 

119 

58 

11 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

T.  S.  Goodisson 

31 

75 

106 

59 

22 

White  Leghorns     . . 

W.  N.  Ling 

62 

43 

105 

60 

57 

II 

B.  Walker 

63 

39 

102 

61 

21 

11 

.r.  O'Loughlin 

57 

42 

99 

62 

68 

11 

W.  J.  McKeddie 

50 

47 

97 

63 

55 

Brown  Leghorns    . . 

T.  Matheson 

18 

72 

90 

64 

36 

Old  English  Game 

K.  J.  Barrett 

40 

41 

81 

65 

66 

White  Leghorns     . . 

.1.  Moloney 

40 

34 

74 

66 

17 

I, 

S.  Childs      . . 

11 

37 

48 

67 

67 

Anconas  . . 

.V.  E.  Manning 

44 

44 

68 

34 

White  Leghorns     . . 

Reg.  F.  B.  Moore      . . 

3 

40 

43 

69 

26 

(Reserved) 
Totals  . . 

8,071 

5,688 

13,759 

lo  Aug.,   191  -j] 


Yictoriaii  Produce. 


VICTORIAN    PRODUCE. 

The  Government  Statist  (Mr.  A.   M.   Lau^^hton)  has  issued  the  following 
return  of  the  area  and  ])roduee  for   191  i-u  and   1910-11  :  — 

Potatoes. 


Principal  Counties. 


Bourke 

Grant 

Mornington   . . 

Evelyn 

Dalhousie 

Talbot 

Grenville 

Polwarth 

Ripon 

Villiers 

Norman  by     . . 

Delatitc 

Buln  Buln     .  . 

Remainder  of  State 

Total* 


1911-12. 

1910-11. 

5.228 

7.230 

8.205 

9.451 

5.(U8 

0,877 

8()0 

1,333 

2,087 

3,891 

6,870 

8,590 

1.310 

1.324 

7ti8 

1,227 

1.219 

1.208 

3.758 

7,256 

1.253 

1.368 

1.202 

1.348 

3.012 

6,371 

5,102 

5,430 

47.692 

62.904 

I'l'dduce  in  Tons. 


t^i.    4. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

13,686 

17,315 

21,813 

27,595 

14,695 

17,166 

1,952 

2.806 

4.855 

6,015 

16.599 

21,648 

2,699 

3.()39 

2,640 

4.174 

2,976 

4.281 

10,559 

20,386 

3,240 

5,709 

2,122 

4,545 

10,218 

11,929 

11,032 

15,504 

119,092 

163,312 

Average  per  Acre 
in  Tons. 


1911-12. 

1910-11. 

2-62 

2-39 

2-66 

2-92 

2-62 

2-50 

2-27 

2-10 

1-81 

1-70 

2-42 

2-52 

2-06 

2-75 

3-44 

3-40 

2-44 

3-54 

2-81 

2-81 

2-59 

4-17 

1-77 

3-37 

2-83 

1-87 

2-16 

2-80 

2-50 

2-60 

*  These  flgures  include  5,142  acres  of  early  crop  in  1911-12,  wliidi^yielded  17.498  tons,  being  an 
averse  ot  3 '40  tons  per  acre,  and  5,60(5  acres  in  1910-11,  whidi  yielded  21,140  tons,  an  average  of 
3  •11  tons  per  acre. 

Maize. 


Principal  Counties. 

Area  in 

Acres. 

Produce  in  Busliels. 

Average  per  Acre 
in  Bushels. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

Delatite 

241 

019 

3.309 

25.670 

13-98 

41-47 

Bogong 

999 

733 

23,217 

21.470 

23-24 

29-29 

Croajingolong 

2.634 

3,160 

150,960 

113,470 

59-59 

35-91 

Tambo 

3,197 

3,827 

159.562 

174.473 

49-91 

45-59 

Dargo 

4.228 

4.498 

174,024 

219,547 

41-10 

48-81 

Tanjil 

5,003 

5,320 

225,860 

331,383 

44-61 

62-29 

Buln  Buln     . . 

017 

785 

17,745 

50,381 

28-76 

04-18 

Remainder  of  State     . . 

1,244 

1,209 

31,923 

45,703 

25-66 

37-80 

Total 

18,223 

20.151 

792,000 

982,103 

43-50 

48-74 

Millet,  Chicory,  and  Hops. 


Crop. 

Area. 

Produce. 

,1911-12. 

1910-11. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

Chicory 
Hops    . . 

1    Acres. 
1      399 

122 

Acres. 
467 

121 

Tons.* 
333 

C«'t. 

777 

Tons.* 
432 
Cwt. 
936 

Crop. 

Area. 

Produce. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

1911-12. 

1910-11. 

Millet 
(broom) 

Acres. 
286 

Acres. 
680 

Cwt.t 
1,652 

Cwt.  J 
1,147 

Cvrt.t 
3,663 

Cwt.t 
4,000 

*   Dry.  t   Fibre.  X   Seed. 

Note. — Millet  is  princi)>ally  gro\vn  in  the  county  of  Delatite  ;  chicory  in  counties 
Mornington,  Dargo,  and  Tanjil;  and  hops  in  connties  Delatite,  Bogong,  Dargo,  and 
Tanjil. 


5i8 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [lo  Aug.,    191: 


Perishable  and  Frozen  Produce. 


Exports  from  State 

Deliveries  from 

Produce. 

(Oversea). 

Government  Cool  Stores. 

Description  of 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

30.6.12. 

30.6.11. 

30.6.1-2. 

80.6.11. 

Butter 

lbs. 

625,184 

7,507,892 

874,664 

7,780,584 

Milk  and  Cream 

cases 

148 

2,056 

1,205 

30 

Milk  and  Cream  (d 

riedj          II 

2 

Cheese 

...        lbs. 

26,040 

1 '94, 160 

4,800 

219,730 

Ham  and  Bacon 

„ 

38,520 

98,010 

Poultry 

head 

3,705 

2,910 

2,224 

1,898 

F'ggs 

. . .    dozen 

25,149 

24,574 

Mutton  and  Lamb 

carcases 

171,469 

3.5,155 

11,520 

1,328 

Beef 

quarters 

3,397 

1,427 

2.30 

Veal 

carcases 

777 

772 

65 

163 

Tork... 

// 

287 

1,.5.30 

820 

648 

Rabbits  and  Hares 

pairs 

183,444 

70,272 

1.30,361 

14,044 

Sundries 

lbs. 

24,316 

78.014 

R.  CROWE,  Superintendent  of  Exports. 


Fruit,    Bulbs,    Plants,    Grain,    &c. 


Imports  and  E. 

cports  Inspected  f 

ir  Quar 

er  ending  30th  June 

1912. 

Imp 

arts. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Inter- 
state. 

18 

Oversea. 

Oversea 

Inter- 
State. 

Oversea. 

Oversea. 

Apples  (Custu-d)  ... 

Mace 

44 

Apples  and  I'ears  ... 

1,.384 

1 

37,749 

Melons    ... 

— 

— 

& 

Apricots 

— 

257 

Nutmegs 

— 

195 

— 

Bananas,  bunches  .. 

71,720 

16,891 

—  : 

^UtS 

254 

3,211 

— 

Bananas,  cases 

2,867 

14,325 

— 

Oats 

26,824 

175,.340 

— 

Barley    ... 

10,907 

31,533 

— 

Olives 

0 

— 

Beans 

42 

478 

— 

Onions     ... 

— 

125 

2 

Blackberries 

48 

— 

- 

Oranges  ... 

54,251 

224 

61 

Bulbs      ... 

— 

28 

32 

Passion    ... 

1,310 

— 

25 

Chillies   ... 

— 

387 

- 

Paw  Paws 

9 

— 

— 

Cocoa  beans 

— 

l,:i85 

— 

I'e  iches  ... 

— 

— 

6. 

Cocoanuts 

— 

489 

— 

Pepper    ... 

— 

1 60 

— 

Coffee  beans 

— 

4,144 

— 

Peas,  dried 

17,917 

319 

— 

( 'opra 

— 

212 

—  , 

Persimmons 

.68 

— 

— 

Cucumbers 

ill 

— 

— 

Pineapples 

14,958 

— 

79^ 

D.i.tes       ... 

- 

2,067 

— 

Plants 

261 

133 

510 

Figs         

— 

50 

— ' 

Plums 

— 

— 

14 

Fruit — 

1  'otatoes 

233 

— 

718 

Canned 

— 

— 

.S,395 

Prunes    .. 

— 

200 

— 

Dried 

i7r) 

4,698 

Quinces    .. 

1,113 

— 

23 

Mixed 

34 

7 

25 

Kice 

3,883 

92,425 

— 

C  rapes    ... 

1.-) 

— 

6 

Seeds 

1  222 

15,850 

211 

Ginger     ... 

58 

1,005 

—  ' 

Spice 

— 

132 

— 

Hops 

— 

47.3 



'1  iimatoes 

50 

— 

— 

.Jamsand  Sauces,  &c. 

— 

— 

2,024 

Vegetables 

5,286 

277 

n 

Lemons 

1,003 

00 

J,  398 

Wheat,   (iraiii,    &c. 

4,673 

155 

— 

Lentils    ... 

— 

122 



Vams 

44 

— 

— 

Linseed 
Logs 

449 
117 

768 

Totals 

221,316 

363,788 

51,2.30> 

Total  number  of  packages  inspected  for  ijuarler  ending  30th  .June,  1912   =   630,354. 

E.   MEEKING,  Senior  Fruit  Inspector. 


]0  Aug..   191^.] 


Rainfall  St a'i sties. 


5^9 


STATISTICS. 


Rainfall  in  Victoria.  — Second   Quarter,  1912. 


Tablk  shuvving  average  aiiiomit  of  rainfall  in  eacli  of  tlie  26  Basins  or  Regions  con- 
stituting tiie  State  of  V^iotoria  for  each  niontii  and  tlie  quaiter,  witli  tlie  corre- 
sponding montiily  and  quai'ierly  averages  for  each  Basin,  deduced  from  all  available 
ifcoffl^  to  (Hte. 


April. 

y 

xy. 

June 

Qua 

ter. 

basil]  or  District. 

a 

3 

o 

a 
< 

poi:.tS. 

1 
< 

points. 

< 

points. 

v 
it 

points. 

5 

< 

p 
< 

points. 

o 
< 

c: 

< 

points. 

points. 

points. 

Olenelg   and   Wannoii    Rivers 

22(5 

217 

124 

290 

211 

357 

/>61 

864 

Fitzroy,  Eunieralla,  and  Merri 

3;)2 

248 

202 

325 

211 

373 

715 

916 

Rivers 

Hopkins    River     and     Mount 

24G 

204 

135 

260 

194 

305 

575 

769 

Emu  Creek 

Mount    Elephant    and     Lake 

2.S1 

200 

120 

246 

167 

274 

518 

720 

Corangamite 

Cape  Utway  Forest 

4;?7 

319 

238 

407 

313 

460 

988 

1,186 

Moorabool  and  Barvvou  Rivers 

226 

209 

113 

240 

227 

26() 

566 

715 

Werribeeand  Saltwater  Rivers 

167 

194 

77 

216 

215 

243 

459 

653 

Yarra    River  and   Dandeuong 

3;i() 

307 

189 

317 

224 

382 

743 

1,006 

Creek 

Koo-weerup  Swamp 

297 

306 

184 

315 

277 

384 

758 

1 ,005 

South  Cippsland 

.SoO 

386 

243 

313 

270 

427 

863 

1,126 

Latrobe  and   'i'homson  Rivers 

267 

295 

217 

28  i 

267 

384 

751 

965 

Macallister  and  Avon  Rivers 

112 

166 

118 

1.55 

132 

257 

362 

578 

Mitchell  River 

20S 

212 

184 

229 

99 

2b0 

491 

731 

Tambo  and   Nicholson  Rivers 

170 

165 

271 

im 

12S 

262 

569 

613 

Snowy  River 

299 

223 

291 

269 

187 

414 

777 

906 

Murray  River 

28 

143 

10 

188 

250 

268 

288 

S99 

Mitta  Mitta  and  Kiewa  Rivers 

92 

211 

35 

309 

408 

510 

535 

1,030 

Ovens  River 

85 

229 

16 

349 

435 

529 

536 

1.107 

Goulburn  River 

78 

183 

53 

261 

271 

357 

402 

801 

Campa.'-pe  River 

61 

164 

65 

260 

247 

317 

373 

741 

Lodilou  River 

3S 

141 

38 

200 

237 

250 

313 

f-91 

Avon  and    Richardson    Rivers 

28 

122 

32 

184 

246 

222 

;06 

528 

Avoca  River 

2.*^ 

1.S2 

24 

187 

270 

223 

317 

542 

Eastern  Wimmera  ... 

S!) 

J  42 

43 

240 

274 

302 

406 

684 

Western  Wimmera... 

41 

163 

50 

218 

263 

265 

354 

646 

Mallee  District 

IS 

"" 

12 

160 

281 

181 

311 

448 

Tile  whole  State 

1.S2 

IS.-. 

94 

238 

253 

306 

479 

729 

10)  paint? 


1  inth. 


10th  July,  191: 


11.  A.  HUNT, 

Common  wp'i/lh  M elenroloijiHt. 


520  Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.         [lo  Aug.,    1912. 


REMINDERS     FOR     SEPTEjVlBEH. 

LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses.— Still  continue  to  feed  stabled  horses  well;  feed  green-stuff  if  available. 
Continue  rugging  to  encourage  the  shedding  of  the  coat;  good  grooming  will  also 
be  beneficial.  Continue  giving  hay  or  straw  to  grass-fed  working  horses.  Feed 
old   and  badly-conditioned   horses   liberally 

Cattle. — Cows  should  still  be  rugged,  but  coverings  should  be  removed  frequently^ 
in  order  to  enable  the  animal  to  get  rid  of  the  old  coat ;  or,  better  still,  a  good 
curry-combing  may  be  given.  Continue  hay  or  straw.  Give  calves  a  good  warm 
dry  shed.      Give  the  milk  to  young  calves  at  blood  heat. 

Pigs. — Supply  plenty  of  bedding  in  warm  well-ventilated  styes.  Keep  styes- 
clean  and  dry,  and  feeding  troughs  clean  and  wholesome.  Sows  may  now  be 
turned  into  grass  run. 

Sheep. ^Prepare  for  shearing.  Clean  yards  to  minimize  dust :  also  remove  all 
straw,  chaff,  etc.,  from  sheds  and  wool  bins.  For  superior  wools,  procure  special- 
packs;  for  ordinary  wools,  the  usual  kind  will  do.  Clean  all  excessively  "  daggy  "^ 
sheep   before   bringing   them   on   to   the   shearing  board. 

Poultry. — September  is  one  of  the  best  for  hatching.  Incubators  should 
be  kept  going,  and  broody  hens  set.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  down  vermin, 
as  they  now  breed  quickly  ;  use  sprays  in  houses  and  Insectibane  or  Pestend  in 
nests — nothing  stunts  chickens  quicker  than  vermin.  The  food  for  young  chicks 
should  be  fine  oatmeal,  stale  bread  crumbs,  a  little  calcined  (dry)  bone,  and  a  pinch, 
of  powdered  charcoal.  Slightly  moisten  with  skim  milk,  and  add  very  finely 
pulped  raw  onion.  Make  the  whole  friable,  and  feed  frequently  ("little  tind  often")' 
just  as  much  as  they  will  readily  eat,  as  an  excess  of  food  only  sours  and  disturbs 
their  digestive  organs.  Do  not  feed  animal  food  yet.  Skim  milk  is  safer,  and 
answers  same  purpose.  Keep  chicken's  feet  dry — wet  grass  causes  a  chill ;  and" 
once   the  birds  are  chilled,   trouble   may   be  expected. 

CULTIVATION. 

Farm. — Plant  early  potatoes,  and  work  up  fallow  for  the  main  crop.  Keep' 
fallow  for  summer  forage  crops  well  worked  up  with  the  disc  and  harrows.  Make 
early  sowings  of  mangolds,  beet,  field  carrots,  and  turnips.  Push  on  with  the 
fallowing  in  the  Northern  Districts.  Prepare  land  for  tobacco  seed  beds  by  burning 
rubbish  on  the  site  ;   afterwards  work  up  to   depth   of   three  or   four   inches. 

ORCHARD. — Commence  spring  ploughing  ;  plough  in  leguminous  crops  for  green 
manure  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  in  full  flower.  Finish  grafting  early  in  the; 
month.  Spray  peach  and  apricot  trees  with  Bordeaux  mixture  as  the  blossom  bu^s 
are  opening,  as  a  preventive  against  "  leaf  curl  "  and  "  shot  hole  "  fungi  ;  watch. 
for  peach   aphis,    and   spray   when   present   with   tobacco   solution. 

Flower  Garden. — Cultivate  and  work  up  the  surface  to  a  fine  tilth — clear  out 
all  weeds.  Water  newly  planted  shrubs,  iSic,  if  the  weather  is  dry.  Plant  put 
cannas,   early   dahlias,   chrysanthemums,   gladioli,    and   other   herbaceous   plants. 

Vegetable  Garden. — Plant  out  seedlings.  Sow  seeds  for  summer  use,  such  as- 
tomatoes,  cucumbers,  marrows,  pumpkins,  melons,  &c.  Plant  out  tomatoes,  and 
shelter   till    frosts   are   over.       Hoe    and   work   up   the   soil   surface. 

ViNEYARiD. — -Plantation  of  young"  vines(grafted  or  ungrafted)  should  be  concluded 
before  the  commencement  of  Sejjtember;  pruning  of  old  vines  likewise.  Prune- 
vines  recently  planted  just  before  buds  commence  to  swell  (if  not  pruned  when 
planted),  cutting  strongest  cane  back  to  two  buds.  Do  not  delay  this  work  untiT 
buds  have  shot,  as"  this  seriously 'weakens  the  young  vine.  Towards  erfd  of  month,. 
field  grafting  may  be  commenced,  if  weather  be  fine  and  warm.  If  cold  and  wet, 
postpone  until  October.  Swab  with  acid  iron  sulphate  vines  which  showed  signs 
of  Black  Spot  last  season.  To  avoid  burning,  this  must  be  completed  before  the 
buds  commence  to  swell. 

Cellar. — Conclude  spring  racking  early  in  month,  if  not  already  done.  Fill  up. 
regularly,   all   unfortified   wines. 


•lo  Aug..  1 9 12.] 


Journal  oj  Agriculture .  Victoria. 


xvu 


The  Milker  that  is  DIFFERENT. 

ROYAL  MEDAL 

MILKING  MACHINE 


Critically  Tested 
through  Seven 
Years. 

The  '*  Royal  MedaP'  has  been 
more  critically  and  thoroughly 
tested  than  any  other  machine. 
For    over    seven    years     it    has 


TOYAL  MEDAL" 
iVfilkmg 
Machines, 

!THf»aLt,HOl1  r(#  I 


jm 


The  •'  ROYAL  MEDAL"  Booklet. 


been  in  continual  use  on  valuable 
pedigreed  cows,  of  which  regular 
milk  records  are  kept.  An  extended 
test  under  the  supervision  of  Edric 
Druce,  Esq.,  Principal  of  the  Bed- 
fordshire Agricultural  Institute,  .^ 
resulted  in  the  machine  being 
AWARDED  THE  MEDAL  OF  THE  ROYAL 
AGRICULTURAL   SOCIETY  OF  ENGLAND, 


THE   "ROYAL   MEDAL"  BOOKLET 

gives  fullest  particulars. 


FILL  IN  THE  COUPON 
AND  MAIL  TO-DAY. 


POST  FREE  BOOKLET  COUPON. 

''Royal  Medar'  Milking  Machines, 

34  Queen  Street,  Mdhournt. 
Please  forward  a  copy  of  your  Free  Booklet.     It 
it  to  he  understood  that  I  consider  myself  under  no 

ohhijation. 


Name... 
Address 
J.  11. 


ROYAL  MEDAL  MILKING  MACnVNES 

34    QUEEN    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 

London  Office :  Caxton  House,  Westminster,  S;W.  J.  H.  DAVIES,  Managing  Director 


Journal  of  Agricidiiire,  Victoria. 


[lo  Aug.,  igi2. 


er 


'Phone 

4881 
Central. 


The  Australasian  Mutual  Live  Stock 

Insupanee  Society  m., 

ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 
70  Elizabeth  St.,  Melbourne. 


HON.  AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P.   HENRY  GARDNER,  Esq. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P. 

WALTER   G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 

FARMERS  AND  BREEDERS- 

Has   this   simple   truth   ever  struck  you? 
Ours  are  the  world's  minimum   rates. 
Our  terms  and  conditions  are  equal  to  the 

best  obtainable. 
Every  pound  of  our  money  is  invested  in 

Australia. 
We  pay  promptly.         We  pay  ia  full. 

INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  AND  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS, 


A    GOOD   AUSTRALIAN 
'  Why  didn't  you  put  your  penny  in  ihs  plait  tKit 
morning  f" 

'  Becaute  U  vai  a  forttgn  munon.  and  dada   lay* 
tt'(  not  righi  to  lend  eapitat  out  oj  the  couiilry." 


! 


"OLDS"  PETROL 

Hopper  Jacket  or       CMlOIKIFC 
Tank  Cooling  Type,      t  1^  \J  I  1^  C-  O 

Al^Q  PREMIER  GAS  ENGINES. 
POWER    GAS    ENGINES. 

CLUTTERBUCK  BROS., 

585  Bourke-st.,  Melbourne. 


Visitors  to  Melbourne  Show 


~^ 


-CALL    AT- 


Showrooms,  585  Bourke  Street, 
or   Stand  112,   Show   Grounds, 

for  particulars  of 


BLAGKSTGN 

OIL  ENGINES 


STATIONARY 
&  PORTABLE 


ic  Aug.,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


Dairy  Science. 

The  last  word. 

Scientific  men  in  the  dairy  centres  of  Europe  have  given  close 
attention  to  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  for  butter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  for  some  time, 
a  poor,  thin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  :  stating  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods,  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  same 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Pairy  Science. 

For  Post  Free  Book— 

"  MILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding," 

By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 


Sunucht 
Oilcake 


Guaranteed  Pure. 

See  that  the  name  «•  Sunlight "  is 
branded  on  every  cake. 


Journal  of  Agriculture .   Victoria. 


[lo  Aug.,  191  j. 


"HORNSBY"  Petrol  Engines 


(STATIONARY    AND    PORTABLE) 

J^AVE   a    World-wide    Keputation    for    all   round 
Superiority.     There  is  nothing  Equal  to  them. 

Just  as  suitable  for  Motive  Power  as  the  well-known 

HORNSBY    OIL    ENGINE. 


<^^<^ 


Britain's  BEST  Oil  Engine— 
THE 


HORNSBY. 

The  recognized  essentials  of  Oil  Engine  Superiority  are 
DESIGN  QUALITY 

SIMPLICITY       ECONOMY 

THESE  the  HORNSBY  possess,  proved  by  the  Fact 
Made  in  Two  Types— Stationary  and  Portable.  that  it  has  Won  all  the  Largest  Prizes  ever  offered. 

Hornsby  Gas  Engines  and  Suction  Gas  Plants  are  unequalled. 

R.  HORNSBY  &  SONS  LTD.,  '1^°^^^^^^:^ 


loAuG..  191 -.]  Jiiurnal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria. 


"-orioll  WHITE  LEGHORNS  ^^gou^ 

All  Stock  raised  on  my  Farm  and  GUARANTEED  my  own  strain  and  breeding. 

GOVERNMENT  COMPETITION,  BURNLEY,  VICTORIA,  1911-12.— My  pen  of  6  Pullets  Won  Winter  Test, 

4  months,  47il  egyrs.  Laid  777  fuys  first  t;  niuMtlis,  Laiil  41  in  7  days.  Hi<,'-hest  for  whole  Competition  of  till 
pens.  heading  over  10  months.  Gained  World's  Record  Second  Prize,  total  \JA*3  egj^s.  Profit,  17/G 
jier  hen.     (See  Jminial  nf  AriylrKltiin'  .Jvily  issue.) 

Cockerels  from  21/-  each.  Settings,  21 '-,  30  -,  63  -,  Guaranteed. 

W.  G.  SWIFT,  Prospect  Grove,  Northcote, Victoria. 


For  ROOFS  of  all  descriptions 


USE 


RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  <fec., 


USE 


INDELIBLE  COLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


USE 


^1^'    C  A  LCI  MO    cJ,1o"u'i,'s 


These  Coeds  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any .  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 
SOLE    AGENTS 

BROOKS,  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Melbourne. 


FOR  BEST  QUALITY  IN  ALL  MAKES  OF  BINDER  TWINE 

The  "ANCHOR"  BRAND 


MANUFACTURED    BY 


JAMES    MILLER   &   CO.   PTY.  LTD., 

MELBOURNE.  Works— Yarraville  &  Brunswick. 


Journal  of  Agricidfure ,  Victoria. 


[lo  Aug..  191. 


Facts  are  Stubborn  Things.     Read  This. 

I  beg-  to  inform  you  that  t)ie  "  BUNYIP  "  Forest  De\  il  which  I  recently  purcliased  from  >  ou  has  amply 
borne  out  the  representations  made  by  you  respecting-  it.  With  its  aid  I  succeeded  in  clearing-  about  7  acres 
of  timber,  ringbarked  for  years,  in  less  than  four  days.  As  a  large  percentage  of  these  trees  measured  a  good 
3ft.  at  the  base,  the  hand  grubbing  method  would  obviously  have  entailed  weeks  of  hard  and  expensive 
labour.  A  point  which  I  have  not  yet  seen  emphasized  is  this :— The  hole  left  after  a  tree  is  pulled  by  the 
"  Forest  Devil "  is  nothing  like  so  large  or  laborious  to  refill  as  that  left  after  hand  grubbing— an  important 
point.  I  may  add  that  I  am  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  soundness  of  my  investment,  and  thank  you  for  the 
courtesy  and  promptness  with  which  the  transaction  of  purchase  was  carried  out. 

Bamawm,  Rocheste  . 


(Signed) 


GUY  H.  T.  LEiICK. 


JOHN    COOPER   &   SONS, 

287-9  ELIZABETH-ST.,  MELBOURNE.    (Op.  St. Franelss  Church). 


LYSACHT'S  WIRE  NETTING 

MADE    IN    AUSTRALIA. 
All  Sizes  Manufactured,  ^  inch  to  4  inch  Mesh. 

The  Standard  Netting  of  the  State. 

LOOK     FOR     OUR     MARKER     IN     EVERY     ROLL. 


Our  manufacture  of 
Rabbit -proof  Wire 
Netting  is  known  as 
the  best  throughout 
Australia. 


ohxtcje:    xtsibxs 


Better  in  quality,  p.nd 
owing  to  its  being 
loose  rolled  less  costly 
to  erect  than  any  im- 
ported Netting. 


\\'  and  IJ'   MESn. 


LYSAGHT  BROS,  &  CO.  Ltd., 

MANUFACTURERS.  SYDNEY. 

AGENTS:  GIBBS,  BRIGHT  &  CO.,  34  Queen  Street,  MELBOURNE. 


10  Aug..  191--]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


LITEHATURE  FOR  AGRICULTURISTS. 


PLAN  AND   SPECIFICATION    OF   SHEEP-SHEARING   SHED.     2s.   6d.     Po-<ta,:e,   Id. 

MILK  CHARTS  (Monthly  and  Weekly),  6d,  per  dozen,  post  free.  When  ordering,  dairy  farmers 
should  mention  "  Montlily  "  or  "  Weekly." 

By  Professor  A.  J.  Eivarf,  Government  Botanist. 

WEEDS,  POISON  PLANTS,  AND  NATURALIZED  ALIENS  OF  VICTORIA.  2s.  6d. 
Postage  :  Commonwealth,  I^d.  ;  N.Z.,  5d.  ;  British  and  Foreign,  lOd. 

PLANTS  INDIGENOUS  TO  VICTORIA.  Vol.  II.,  10s.  Postage  :  Com.,  2d. ;  N.Z.,  8d.  ; 
Brit.  &  For..  Is.  4d. 

By  C.  French,  F.E.S.,  Government  Entomologist. 

DESTRX'CTIVE  INSECTS  OF  VICTORIA.  Parts  L,  II.,  IIL,  IV.,  V.  2s.  6d.  each.  Postage: 
Parts  L  and  IIL,  C,  Id. ;  N.Z..  3d.;  B.  &  F.,  6d.  each.  Parts  II.  and  IV.,  C,  Hd. ;  N.Z., 
4d. ;  B.  &  F.,  8d.  each.     Part  V.,  C,  Id. ;  N.Z.,  4d. ;  B.  &  F.,  7d. 

By  D.  McAlpine,  Government  Vegetable  Pathologist. 

RUSTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     5s.     Postage  :  C,  2d. ;  N.Z.,  8d. ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  4d. 

SMUTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     4s.     Postage  :  C,  2W. ;  N.Z.,  9d. ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  6d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  CITRUS  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  Postage  :  C,  Id. ;  N.Z., 
3d. ;  B.  &  F..  (5d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  STONE  FRUIT  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  6d.  Postage  :  C, 
l^d. ;  N.Z.,  5d. ;  B.  &  F.,  lOd. 

SYSTEMATIC  ARRANGEMENT  OF  AUSTRALIAN  FUNGL  3s.  Postage:  C,  2d.; 
N.Z.,  8d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  4d. 

THE    DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE, 

MELBOURNE,   VICTORIA. 

Remittances  from   places  outside  the  Commonwealth   to   be  by  Money  Order  only. 

Pamphlets  obtainable  from  the  Director  of  Agriculture, 
Melbourne,  Free   on  Application. 

NEW    SERIES. 


1.  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.     A.  S.  Kenyan,  C.E. 

2.  HINTS  FOR  NEW  SETTLERS.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

*  3.  APPLE  GROWING  FOR  EXPORT.     P.  J.  Carmody. 

*  4.  BOOKKEEPING  FOR  FARIMERS.     W.  Mclver,  A.I.A.V.,  A.S.A.A.,  Eng. 
5.  CIDER  ]\L\KING.     J.  Knight. 

*  6.  FARM  PLUMBING.     C.  H.  Wright. 

7.  CITRUS  FRUIT  CULTURE.     E.  E.  Pescott. 

,S.  BUILDING  HINTS  FOR  SETTLERS.     A.  S.  Kenyan,  C.E.,  and  others. 

I).  TOBACCO  CULTURE.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

10.  SILOS  AND  SILAGE.     G.  H.  F.  Baker. 

11.  THE  BEET  SUGAR  INDUSTRY  AND  CLOSER   SETTLEMENT.     H.  T.   Easterby. 

12.  WORMS  IN  SHEEP.     S.  S.  Cameron,  D.V.  Sc,  M.R.C.V.S. 

*  Not  yet  available. 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.  [lo  Aug.,  1912.T. 


BEET  &  DAIRY  FARMING. 

THE    IDEAL 

CLOSER  SETTLEMENT  COMBINATION. 


THE    RICH 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 


AND    THE    FAR-FAMED^ 


KILMANY     PARK. 


Both  of  these  Estates  have  been  specially  selected, 
purchased,  and  subdivided  for  Beet  Growing  and 
Dairying     combined,     and     to     afford     opportunity     to 

THRIFTY,  EXPERIENCED  MEN  WITH  SMALL  CAPITAL 

to     make    a    comfortable    living    while    acquiring    the 
freehold     of    the    land. 


For  the  possibilities  and  practical  results  read  the  article  on 

"THE     BEET     IDNTID  XJSa?E,^/= 

in  the  March,   191 2,  issue  of  The  Journal  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria. 


lo  Arc..  19 1 2.] 


Joiinial  of  Agriculture ,  Yictoria. 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 

Subdivided  into  57  blocks,  and  already  settled  with  the  exception 
of  Three  Blocks  of  from  40  to  60  acres,  to  carry  10  acres  of 
Beet  annually. 

Price,  £26  to  £27  10s.  per  aero. 
Total  Value,  £1,040  to  £1,590. 


KILMANY    PARK 


Applications 
now- 
invited 
for  these 
Unsold 
Allotments. 


13  tarm  blocks  from  56  to  202  acres,  to  carry 
10  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £10  lOs.  to  £14  per  acre. 
Total  Value  from  £1,204  to  £2,200. 

9  small   farm  blocks  from  20  to  46  acres,   to 
carry  4  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £23  to  £25  per  acre. 
Total  Value  from  £500  to  £1,058. 


For  particulars  and  conditions  of  purchase  and  as  to  blocks 
available,  apply  to  the 

SECRETARY,  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT 
BOARD,  MELBOURNE. 


For   information    concerning   the   financial   aid    given    to 
suitable  Settlers  to  stock  the  farms,  apply  to 

THE  DIRECTOR  OF  AGRICULTURE, 
MELBOURNE. 


n 


Journal  of  Agriculiure,  Victoria.  [to  Aug.,  191. 


DEPARTMENT     OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

GOVERNMENT  STUD  BULLS. 

AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  BELOlCiHU  TO  BONA-FIDE  SETTLERS  UNDER  THE 

CLOSER  SETTLEMENT  ACTS. 


Fee,  5s.  per  cow. 


Jersey  Bull  "DREADNOUGHT";  Calyed,  22nd  October,  1908. 

(SjVe.--^Sir  Jack  (188).         Dam  .-—Lady  Kitchener,  by  Lord  Melbourne. 
{In  chargt  of  Mr.  H.  Grumpier,  Block  148,  Bamaiim.) 


Jersey  Bull   "ROSE    FOX";  Calved,   19th  August,   1909. 

Sire  .•— Starbright  Fox  (190).         Dam  .-—Tuberose,  by  Magnet's  Progress  (54  A.  J.H.B.). 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Vickers,  Bamaum). 


Jersey  Bull   "VERBENA'S    BOY";  Calved,    10th  January,   1908. 
Sire: — Acrobat.         Dam: — Verbena  2nd,  by  Snowdrop's  Progress  2nd. 
[In  charge  of  Messrs.  Laing  and  Mnndie,  Block  70,  Bamaicm.) 


Jersey  Bull  "NOBILITY";  Calved,  2nd  April,   1910. 

Sire: — Lucy's  Noble  of  Oaklands.  Dam: — Winnie  of  Melrose  3rd,  by  Rojal  Blue. 

{In  charge  of  Mr.  E.  T.  Parthigfon,  Block  136,  Bamau-m.) 


Jersey  Bull  "MILKY   WAY";  Calved,  20th  June,   1909. 
,s',Ve  ..—Starbright  Fox  (190).     Z>am .-—Milkmaid  34th  (590),byPlinlimmon  (imp.  62  A.H.B.). 
{In  charge  of  H.  Macanley,  Nanneella.) 


Jersey  Bull  "GOLD    MEDAL";  Calved,  3rd  April,  1910. 

Sire  .-— (iolden  Fox  (142  A.  J.H. B. ).         Dam .-— Melba,  by  Greystanes  2nd. 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  W.  F.  Hill,  Blocks  43  and^^,  Nanneella.) 


Jersey  Bull   "MAGNET'S    FOX";  Calved,   6th  November,   1909. 

Sire .-  -Fox's  Laddie.  Dam  .-—Magnet  28tli,  by  Defender  (imp. )  (2288  H.C.  J.H.B. ). 

{In  charge  of  Mr.  0.  C. 'Woods,  Block  29,  Koyuga.) 


Jersey  Bull   "ZODIAC";  Calved,    10th  November,    1908. 

Sire  : — Starbright  Fox  (190).         Dam: — Zoe  4th  (805),  by  Handsome  Hero. 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  B.  J.  Chtppell,  Block  12F,  Swan  Hill.) 


Jersey  Bull  "GAY    FOX";  Calved,   12th  May,   1909. 

(Sire .  — Starlnight  Fox  (190).         Dam  .-—Floss,  by  Plinlimmon  (imp.  62). 
(//(  charge  of  Mr.  Dyer,  Swan  Hill.) 


loArc.  191--]  JfliiniaJ  of  Agriculture.  Victoria. 


DEPARTMENT     OF     AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

GOVERNMENT  STUD  BULLS. 

AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COVI/S  BELONGING  TO  BONA-FIDE  SETTLERS  UNDER  THE 
CLOSER  SETTLEMENT  m^-continued. 


Fee,  5s.  pep  eow. 


Jersey  Bull  "WILLIAM   OF  AYRE";  Calvkd,  Februai-y,  1910. 

Sirt : — Favourite's  Fox  Snd.  X>aw  .■ — Bessie  McCartfay,  by  Snowflake's  Progress. 

(In  charye  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Dickinson,  Block  13,  Xyah.) 


Jersey  Bull   "FOX'S    LAD";    Calved,   5th  October,    1908. 

Sire: — Fox,  by  Snowdrop's  Progress  2nd.         Dam: — ^Pansy  2nd,  by  Duke. 
(In  charye  of  Mr.  Ernest  E.  Barley,  Block  6,  Nyah.) 


Ayrshire  Bull  "PETER  OF  WILLOWVALE";  Calved,  .30th  Sept.,  1909. 

^S'//-s  .— Annetta's   Pride   (243).  i>yw.— Madge  2iid  (Appendix  A.H.B.),  bv  Red 

Clifef  (3.59). 

(In  chanje  of  Mr.  F.  Mclvor,  Block  12F,  Sicau  Hill.) 

Particulars  of  extended  pedigrees,  milking  records,  &c.,  can  Ije  obtained  from  each  bull 
holder,  from  the  resident  Dairy  Supervisors  (Mr.  O'KEEFE,  Rochester,  or  Mr.  S.  J.  KEYS, 
Swan  Hill),  or  from  The  Department  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 


AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  THE  PROPERTY  OF  SETTLERS  ON  WYUNA  ESTATE. 

Red  Danish  Bull  "CLAUDIUS";   Calved,  10th  ^^ovember,  1909. 

Sire: — Ernst  Bellinge  (imp.)  Dam: — Kirsten  iX.  (imp.). 

Fee,  5s. 


Red  Danish  Bull  "HAMLET";  Calved,  1st  August,  1910. 

^'^/■e.• —Ernst  Bellinge  (imp.).      iMm  : — Marianne  IV.     G.  Dam: — Marianne  III.  (imp.). 

Fee,  5s. 

Particulars  of  extended  pedigrees,  milking  records  and  prizes  may  be  obtained  from,  and 
arrangement  for  service  made  with,  Mr.  E.  R.  EMERY,  Manager.  Government  Farm,  Wyuna, 

where  the  bulls  are  kept. 


AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  THE  PROPERTY  OF  BEET  GROWERS  AT  BOISDALE. 

Red  Polled  Bull   "TABAOUM";   Calved,    12th  November,    1908. 

.S("/e  .—Acton  Ajax  (inii). ).  Z>(U»  .-—.Janet,  by  Primate  by  Laureate  (imp. 

Fee,  7s.  6d.  (available  to  20  cows). 
Application   to  Mr.  E.  STEER,  Herdsman,  at  the  Homestead,  Block  21. 


Journal  of  Agricidiure ,  Victoria. 


[lo  Aug.,  1912- 


RED    POLL    DAIRY    HERD 

YOUNG  BULLS  FOR  SALE 


DAM. 

Date  of  liii-tli. 

RECORD    OF    DAM. 

PRICE. 

Mii;<. 

Butter  Fat. 

Pennsylvania 

Aug.  12th,  1911 

1  1911— 462  galls. 
I  1912—635  galls. 

/      190   lbs. 
\    272  lbs. 

£       s.      d. 

13  13    0 

Carolina      ... 

,,     Kitli      „ 

(1911— 570  galls. 
\  1912—580  galls. 

f    253  lbs. 
1.    254  lbs 

12  12    0 

Cuba 

,,     25th      ,, 

r  1911—526  galls. 
\  1912—701  galls. 

/    232  lbs. 
L    338  lbs. 

16  16    0 

Mllo* 

May  30t]i,  1912 

(548  galls. 

286  lbs. 

14  14    0 

Ardath**     ... 

June  6th,   1912 

1st  milking 

No  record 

10  10    0 

Hii-e      "  TabacKia" 
bi/  "  Acton  Ajax" 
(imp.). 

*  Rfc-ord  of  (Jraiid 

flam  "  CIGARETTE." 

*♦  Sire  of  ealf  "ACTON  DEWSTONE"  (imp.) 

The  pric-es  are  based  approximately  011  the  actual  milk  and  butter  fat  rerord  of  the  dam  at  the  rate  of  Is. 
per  lb.  of  butter  fat  yielded.     '{See  .Juurnnl  of  Agriculture,  ^'or^'lnber,  I'Jll,  and  Scjitcmber,  191,;). 

Inspection  by  arrangement  with  Mr.  E.  STEER,  Herdsman,  Boisdale,  Gippsland. 

Application  for  purchase  to    DIRECTOR    OF  AGRICULTURE,  MELBOURNE. 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


POULTRY  FOR  SETTLERS. 


SITTINGS  OF  EGGS 

Are   \\o\Y   available   from    the   Poultry    Pens  at  the  WYUNA  FARM  and  the 
BURNLEY  HORTICULTURAL  SCHOOL,  at  the  undermentioned  rates. 

Wyuna   White  Leghorns  (Cosh  Hens  and  Swift  Cockerel) 
White  Wyandottes  (Burnley  stock) 
,,         Black  Orpingtons  (Wyuna  stock) 
Burnley  White  Leghorns  (Imported  Hens  and  Padman  Cockerel) 

Bui-nley 
,,  ,,  „  (Burnley  stock) 

Black  Orpingtons  (Imported  pens) 
,,  „  ,,  (Burnley  stock) 

„         Minoreas  (Imported  pens) 
,,         Rhode  Island  Reds  (Imported  pens) 

The  Eg'S's  will  carry  the  Departmental  Stamp,  and  any  infertil"  eggs  will  be  replaced,  proxided  that  such 
em;s  are  returned  unbroken  within  IS  days  from  date  of  receipt.  Postal  Order  ov  Cheque  should  accompanj-  order, 
«lii.h  should  be  addressed  to  the  Manaj^er,  Government  Farm,  Wyuna,  vi&  Kyabram,  or  the  Principal, 
School  of  Horticulture,  Burnley. 


£1 

1 

0 

0 

7 

6 

0 

7 

6 

I 

0 

1 

0 

0 

7 

6 

1 

0 

0 

7 

6 

1 

0 

1 

0 

lo  Aug.,  1912.]  JDurnal  of  Agriculture,  Yictmia. 


NilTIOflflli  TRUSTEES  I 


Executors  &  Agency  Compainy 
Australasia,  Ltd.     .    .     . 


DIRECTORS  : 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Ohairman  and  M»nag:ing  Director. 

EDWARD  FITZGERALD,  Esq.,  L.L.D.  MICHAEL  MORNANE,  Esq. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  ESQ.  DAVID  HUNTER,  Eso. 

This  Company  acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint  Executor  of  Wills,  Administrator, 
Trustee  of  Settlements,   and  Agent  for  Absentees  under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY      TO      LEND      ON     BROAD     ACRES     AND      FARM     LANDS. 

O..C.S  ^^3  QUEEN  ST.  (Litt^°c"oirin°Jst)  MELBOURNE. 


—  GUARANTEED    BY  THE 


\. 


ESTABLISHED   1841.  YH£  GOVERNMENT  OF  VICTORIA. 

STATE  SAVINGS  BANK  OF  VICTORIA 

Grants    greater    facilities    to    Depositors 
than  any  other  Savings  Bank  in  the  World. 

All  prolit.s  earjied,  after  providing  for  a  reasonable  Reserve  Fund,  are  tli.stribute<i 
amongst  Depositors  by  giving  them  the  Highest  Bank  Rate  of  Interest  obtainable  in 
the  State  on  current  accounts. 

RESERVE    FUND    OF    FOUR     HUNDRED 
AND     FIFTY     THOUSAND     POUNDS. 

INTEREST  is  allowed  on  Deposits  up  to  £350,  namely  :— 3A  per  cant,  on  first 
£100  ;   and  3  i)er  cent,  on  excess  over  £100  up  to  £350. 

THE    TOTAL     AMOUNT     OF     DEPOSITS     IS     NOW     NEARLY 

TWENTY     MILLION     POUNDS. 

Depositors  can  lodge  money  with  the  same  pass-book  at  any  of  the  424  Branches  and 
Agencies  of  the  Bank  throughout  Victoria. 

GEO.    E.    EMERY, 
Head    Office— MELBOURNE.  Impector-a^vrai. 


TREWHELLA  ::='  GRUBBING  JACKS. 

Quick.     Powerful.     Simple. 

Mr.  Chas.  Hamilton,  Molesworth,  Vic,  says: — "I  would  not 
be  without  one  of  these  Jacks  on  the  farm." 

Mr.  O.  C.  R.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Frances,  S.A.  :— 
"  Have    been    usin?    Trewhella  Wallaby  Jacks   now  nearly 
six  years,  and  as  loujf  as  I  have  anything  to  lift  will  never  be 
^        without  one." 

Write  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  to— 

TREWHELLA   BROS.,  ENGINEERS,  TRENTHAM,  VICTORIA. 


Joiinial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [loAuc.  191: 


DEPARTMENT    OF     AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 


JSuruIeY    J^OFtieuItural    School. 


E.  E.  PESCOTT,        ^-t       Principal. 

ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnley  Horticultural  School 
have  now  been  arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be 
given  to  students  of  both  sexes  in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Horticultui-e  for  male  students  includes  a  tv,o 
years'  course,  students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum. 

Classes  have  been  formed  at  Burnley,  whereby  students  of  both  sexes  may 
recei\e  instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and  Fridays. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  work,  and  will  commence 
at  2  p.m.  This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  charged  will  be 
£2  per  annum. 

It  has  also  been  ari'anged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  shall  be 
given  on  subjects  which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Horticulture,  such  as 
I'oultry  Farming,  Bee-keeping,  and  Fruit  Preserving,  and  these  courses 
will  be  open  and  free  to  the  general  public.  The  subjects  and  dates 
of  the  Short  Course  Lectures   will   be  announced   monthly  in   this   Journal, 


STUDENTS    SHOULD     ENROLL    WITHOUT     DELAY. 

Application  for  admission  should  be  made  to 

The    Director    of    Agriculture,    Public    Offices,    Melbourne, 

OE.      TO      THE      I=E,Ilsr< 


V 


lo  Aug.,   1912.] 


Journal  of  A^^iiciiltitre .  Victoria. 


CARLTON 

ARSENATE  OF 
LEAD. 

THE  UKCHAKDIST  who  sieks 
the  finest  sprayinj;'  material  will 
do  well  to  sample  the  effectiveness 

and  ecoii.iniv  of  Carlton  Arsen- 
ate of  Lead.  Anals^is  sli.,\\<  it 
to   cuutiiin  17%  Aiseiiic  Uxide. 

It  is  finely  ground,  and  mixes  better 
with  water  than  any  other  brand. 

:i  to  4  lbs.  with  100  gallons  of  water 

iiuikes  a  most  s^tisfaotorv  solutinii. 


"  Harvey"  Orchard    I 

Ploug^hs     ::      :; 

Spray   Pumps    of  All   Sizes, 


V^ 


Spraying    Materials    for   all 

::  Pests.  ::  ;;    \ 


Four  Oaks  Bucket  ] 

Spray       ^         '=^ 
Pump 


The  Four  Oaks 
is  equaily  eflfer- 
tive  forsprayiu'.; 
f  r  u  i  t  t  r  e  e  s  , 
white  -  washing 
stahles,  poultry 
lioiises,  itc,  for 
sjiraying  disin- 
tei-t:int.  washing 
lnii:'_:irs,  s]>ra}'- 
in-  sheep,  &e., 
.vo. 


It  is  a  most  powerful  Pump,  entirely  British 
ma^le  in  best  brass,  and  has  a  malleable  foot 
rest. 

A  substantial  air  chamber  ensures  a  steady, 
even  pressure. 

The  Pump  is  simple,  and  easily  taken  to  pieces 


T«    •         /  Fitted  withx 
X^riCe  (  Bordeaux  : 


Nozzle  :: 


)  £1.1.0 


■■\^7"3r±-t^    for*    CsL-tsL^.csS'^^^    "to 

F.  R.  MELLOR    440  Elizabeth-St.,  Melbourne. 


JARRAH: 


Write 
to 


When  you  contemplate  erecting  fencing,  buildings,  dairies, 
woolsheds,  &c.,   be   sure  you  get  the  best  of  hardwoods. 

1^"     JARRAH    resists   white    ants,    dry  rot,   &c. 

MILLAR'S  KARRI  &  JARRAH  CO.  O902) Ltd. 

QUEEN'S    BRIDGE,    MELBOURNE. 


'^DYAN,    GOULDING,    &    OO.^ 

^^\  (JOHN    F,    GOULDING).  | 

'     *    WHOLESALE  GRAIN  &  PRODUCE  COMMISSION  AGENTS  &  GENERAL  BROKERS, 
546-552  COLLINS  STREET  WEST  (Near  ^ing-st.) 

FARMtRS  •  Before  Selling  your  C4rain,  Hay,  Potatoes,  Onions,  consult  or  write  us. 

It  will  pay  you. CONSIGNMENTS  Received  and  Sold  Daily  ex  Rail  or  Wharf. 

Storage  arranged  on  Liberal  Terms  and  Advances  made.       All  kinds  of  Seed  Grain  for  Sale. 
Prompt  Account  Sales.     Oats  Specialists.     New  &  Second-hand  Bags  for  Sale  at  Lowest  Rates. 

Quotations  i;iven  for  Chaff,  Grain,  Lucerne,  Wheaten  or  Oaten  Hay,  delivered  to  any  station 
in  Victoria  or  Xew  South  Wales. 

i     When  in  the  CITY  Call  In. — Short  distance  from  Spencer-st.  RIy.  Station,     / 


1  oiirnal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


[lo  Aug.,  191:;. 


"WATERLOO  BOY"  4  h.p.  PORTABLE  OIL  ENGINE. 

ABSOLUTELY  THE  SIMPLEST  AND  CHEAPEST  EFFICIENT  ENGINE  IN  THE  WORLD. 

USES    BENZINE    OR    KEROSENE. 


IGNITIONi — Is  make  and  break  style,  charge  fired  by  electric  spark.  Igniter,  which  in 
other  Engines  is  difficult  to  get  at,  in  the  "  Waterloo  "  can  be  completely  removed  by 
loosening  two  cap  screws 

Both    Magneto    and    Battery    Ignition, — a    very    useful    arrangement,    as    work 
can  never  be  stopped. 

SPEED  LEVERi — Acts  same  as  throttle  of  a  steam  engine.  You  can  speed  up  or 
down,  or  stop  altogether  with  it.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  start,  prevents  ' '  kicking 
back,"  and  saves  fuel. 

ly^lXERi — Is  a  great  idea,  patented  because  it  is  worth  patenting.  Has  an  adjustable 
mixing  cup  that  can,  by  a  winged  nut,  be  slipped  up  or  down  to  give  more  or  less  air. 
No  valve  springs  or  pump  to  get  out  of  order  ;  makes  Engine  easy  to  start ;  aids  the 
governor  and  speed  lever  in  getting  more  power  out  of  the  fuel. 


AUows  a  charge  in  the  cylinder 


QOVERNORi — Centrifugal  type,  sure  and  sensitive, 
only  when  the  work  requires  it. 

PU EL. —Works  on  either  benzine  or  kerosene,  but  benzine  is  better,  as  it  is  not  so  dirty. 
The  speed-saving  devices,  Speed  Lever,  Patent  Mixer,  and  Governor  make  the 
"Waterloo"  consume  the  least  fuel.  Compare  it  for  simplicity,  fuel  cost,  and  power 
with  other  engines,  and  you  will  send  your  order  to  us. 

HOPPER  COOLED. — That  is,  there  are  no  Tank,  Pipes,  and  Pump  to  cool  the 
cylinder.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  move  about ;  less  space,  less  weight,  and  no 
water  pump  troubles,  as  there  is  no  Pump.     Also  lessens  the  fuel  bill. 

TRANSPORT. — is  a  very  strong  one.  Through  axles  in  both  front  and  rear  wheels. 
Turntable  on  front  axle  is  simple  and  strong. 

Dgp-  SEND  FOR  CATALOGUES  OF  OUR  OTHER  FARM  REQUISITES. 


MITCHELL  &  COMPANY 


PTY. 
LTD. 


FACTORY     &.     OFFICE 


WEST  FOOTSCRAY,  MELBOURNE.     |     596  BOURKE  ST.,  MELBOURNE 


I 


SHOW     ROOM 


iJ^efFigeratirig  ^  ^ 


and 


lee  JVCakiug 
j^Caehiuery  ^  ^ 


Made  by 
HUMBLE  &  SONS, 

f< 

h 

1 

Geelong, 
Victoria. 

~4i 

jy^^r 

M  llflll 

-^ 

i^^lUii 

liiiiiiiii^ 

=^11  ill  -^ 

Specially  suitable  for  Biitcliers,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  Machines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine  A  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration  work 
undertaken,  including  coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  Colleg^e. 


"  Ferrier's "  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Foison  Distributors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworks,  &c. 

Full  Particulars  on  Application  to— 

Humble  and  Sons, 

i  General   Eng^ineers, 

VULCAN   FOUNDRY,   GEELONG. 


'^ 


VICTORIAN 


RAILWAYS. 


SPECIAL    NOTICE, 


SI)ow  Visitors  and  Olheis 


ARE    INVITED    TO    CALL    AT    THK 


Government  Tourist  Bureau,  Corner  Collins  and 
Swanston  Sts.,  Opposite  Town  Hall,  Melbourne. 


:     :  Full  :: 

Information 

freely  given 
respecting 

Rail, 
Coach,    and 
Steamer 
Travel, 
and  Tourist 
Accommo- 
dation. 


M?\(^  I3).  c 


::  Cheap  :. 
Excursions 

List  of 

Trains,  &c., 

Tourist  Haad» 

books,  Maps, 

and  Country  and 

Melbourne  and 

Suburban  Hotel 

and  Boarding 

House  Guides 

free  on 
application. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  TOURIST  BUREAU. 


Ask  for  Particulars  of  Trips  to  the  Buffalo  Plateau  (all  the  year  round);  and 
to  the  Gippsland  Lakes,  Buchan  Caves,  Victorian  Alpine  District,  Daylesford 
and  Midland  District,  Healesville,  Warburton,  Dandenong  Ranges  ;  and  to 
Queenscliff,  Lome,  and  other  Seaside  Resorts  (from  15th  Nov.  till  30th  April). 


WHEN  IN  TOWN  RING  UP  THE  GOVERNMENT   TOURIST   OFFICER. 


Telephone     174     Central. 


E.  B.  JONES,  Acting  Secretary  for  RaUways. 


^ 


Vol.  X. 


FRUIT    TRADE    OF    VICTORIA. 


Part  9. 


fReii'tered  at  the  General  Po=t  Office,  MelVjoiirne,  for  tranj-miasioii  by  Post  as  a  Newspaper.] 


VEGETABLE,  FLOWER, 
AGRICULTURAL,  TREE 

&  SHRUB  SEEDS. 


RYE  GRASS. 
COCKSFOOT. 

CLOVERS. 

JAP.    MILLET. 

SORGHUMS. 

PRAIRIE. 

MANGELS. 

PASPALUM. 

PHALARIS. 
ESSEX   RAPE. 

TIMOTHY 

BURR  TREFOIL 


TRADE 


MARK. 


PLANET     JR.     CULTIVATOR. 

PURE    BRED    SEED 

MAIZE 


HICKORY  KING. 

ECLIPSE. 

SIBLEY. 
EARLY  LEAMING. 


RED    KENTUCKY, 
SYDNEY  HORSETOOTH. 
YELLOW  MORUYA. 
EARLY  YELLOW  DENT. 


CORN     QUEEN     PLANTER. 

Price,  Without  Fertilizer        -        £15  10  0 
„      With  ,.  -        £20  10  0 


Write  us  lor  lull  list  oi  varieties  ami  jirices. 

THE  HEADQUARTERS  FOR 

LUCERNE 

IN    VICTORIA. 
HUNTER   RIVER.      PERUVIAN. 
FRENCH.  TURKESTAN. 

Sam]iles  ami  '^luotations  on  Application. 

WE   STOCK    ONLY  GOOD  SAMPLES  OF  THE 

STANDARD  VARIETIES  OF  LUCERNE. 

WE    DO    NOT  DABBLE  IN   FANCY  VARIETIES 

WHICH    ARE  VALUELESS. 


PLANET  JR.  IMPLEMENTS,  AERATORS,  SECATEURS, 

SPRAY  PUMPS,  NIKOTEEN,  CORN  SHELLERS 


H  E;  3Vr  I3>JC3-'W-A_3r' s 


PURE    "ARSENATE   OF   LEAD." 


NEW  WHITE  ONION.  MILD    AS     AN     APPLE. 

1/-  per  pkt.     "  Spanish  Silver  Globe."     1  /-  per  pkt. 


F.  H.  BRUNNING,  PTY.  LTD. 

64  ELIZABETH-ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


THE     JOLJK,NAL 


OF 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


■VlCOrOI?,!^^,    J^TJST:EiJ^lL.TJ^. 


CONTENTS.— SEPTEMBER,    1912. 


Some  Result.s  in  Fallowing  Land     ... 

Lucerne  Plants 
Bee-keeping  in  Victoria 
General  Notes 
Mischievous  Dodder,  The 
Propagation  of  Fruit  Trees 
Wheat  and  its  Cultivation 
Profitable  Dairy  Cow,  A    ... 
Vine  Moth  Caterpillar  Parasite 
How  to  make  a  Blood  Smear 
Red  Polls  as  Butter  Producers 
Paspaluin  for  Hill  Pastures 
Fruit  Trade  of  Victoria,  The 
Vernacular  Names  of  Victorian  Plants 


Good  Salt  House,  Lick,  and  Device  for  Foot  Rot 

Second  Victorian  Egg-laying  Competition,  1912-13 

Hints  to  Settlers   .. 

Orchard  and  Garden  Notes 

Answers  to  Correspondence 

Reminders 


NEW  YOf^K 
eOTANlCAl. 


John  W.  Pal^rson,  B.Sc,  Ph.D., 
and  P.  R.  Scott 

F.  R.  Beuhne 


C.  F.  Cole 
A.  E   V.  RirhardsoH,  M.A.,  B.Sc. 

C.  French,  Jnr. 
W.  A.  N.  Boher/son,  B.V.Sc. 

R.  G.  Thrdfall 

E.  AJeeking 

A.  J.  Ewart,   n  sv.,  Ph.D  ,  and 

C.  S.  S niton,  M.B.,  Ch.B. 


H.  V.  Hawkins 

J.   WilsoJi 

E.  E.  Pt'icott 


521 
528 
529 
533 
535 
536 
543 
552 
5.53 
555 
556 
563 
564 

567 
572 
574 
576 
579 
582 
584 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

Tlie  Articles  in  the  .Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria  are 
protected  by  the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act.  Proprietors  of  new  spapers  wishing 
to  re()ublish  anj'  matter  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  provided  the  Journal  a.»d  author  are 
both  acknoicledc/ed. 

The  .Journal  is  issued  monthlj-.  The  subscription,  which  is  payable  in  advance 
and  includes  postage,  is  3s.  per  annum  for  the  Commonwealth  and  New  Zealand,  and 
5s.  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  Foreign  Countries.     Single  copy.  Threepence. 

Subscriptions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 
A  complete  list  of  the  various  publications  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
will  be  supplied  by  the  latter. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Sept.,  1912. 


Cost  of  up -keep 
detepmines 
Economy. 

TT^HAT  would  be  the  vise  in  saving 
a  few  jiouncls  when  purchasing, 
to  tlii'ow  them  away  again  and  again 
in  fuel  for  a  greedy  engine ;  or  in 
repair  expenses  for  a  defective 
engine  ?  Better  let  Quality'  and 
Cost  of  Running  be  your  i>oints  for 
consideiaticiii.  "Victoria"  British  Made  Kerosene  Oil  Fngines  stand  the  quality 
test.  Simplicity  of  parts  is  also  a  feature.  For  instance— the  Governor  hasn't  tlie  com- 
plicated arrangement  of  vertical  spindle,  balls,  and  wheel  gearing,  yet  it  regulates  splen- 
didly. This  simplicity  of  parts,  which  is  featured  throughout,  reduces  wear  and  tear,  as 
well  as  enhances  smooth  and  sure  working.  The  cost  of  running  is  remarkably  low— unsur- 
passed by  any  engine  that  has  yet  come  under  our  notice.  PRICE— The  above  is  by  no 
means   a   plea   for  a   high-priced  engine.  You   will  admit  Victoria  i:ngines  are   very 

moderately  priced.      Send  NOW  for  complete  specification  and  prices.      SIZES— 3  B.H.P. 
and  upwards.      Stationary  or  Portable.     Suitable  for  pumping,  driving  farm  machinery,  &c. 

Larger  Crops  at  Reduced  Cost 

made  possible  by  the  Planet  Jr.  methotl  of  Planting  and. 
Cultivating.  One  man  equipped  with  the  tool  shown  can 
<l(i  the  \\(]i  k  of  a  number  of  men  with  hand  hoes,  and  the 
ground  will  be  better  worked.  The 
cut  shows  tlie  Planet  Jr.  Com- 
bined Hill  and  Drill  Seeder, 
Double  Wheel  Hoe,  Cultivator 
and  Plow.  This  tool  combines  in 
a  pract^ical  way  a  No.  4  Planet  Jr. 
Drill,  and  a  No.  12  Double  Wheel 
Hoe.  Outfit  consists  of  : — 1  pair 
6-inch  Hoes,  2  pair  Cultivator  Teeth, 
^'  2  Plows,  and  2  Leaf  (luards.  Wheels 
Has  automatic  device  for  stopping  feed,  and  an  improved  seed  index.  Holds 
Cultivator  teeth  are  narrow ,  and  do  thorough  work,  yet  leave  the  ground 
practically  level.  Refer  for  prices,  &c.  to  page  134  and  on  in  our  Tool  Catalogue.  Many 
other  Implements  are  also  shown  from  the  Single  Wheel  Hoe  up.  Those  not  possessing  a 
copy  should  send  for  one  at  once.  We  have  a  large  selection  of  Tools  foi'  the  Farmer, 
Carpenter,  Engineer,   Builder,   &c. at  Money-Saving   Prices. 


% 


11 J  inches. 
'1\  Quarts. 


JOHN 

PROPTY. 


&    SON 

LIMITED, 


DANKS 

Pump,  Windmill  and  Trough  Makers.     Tool  Merchants,  &c., 

391-399  Bourke  Street,  Melbourne. 


10  Sept.,  191 2.] 


Journal  of  Agricidturc ,    Victoria. 


Sooner  or  Later 

every  dairyman,  producing  milk  for  profit,  will  install  an  u[)  Lo-d.ac  milking  outfit  which 
comprises  the  following  time-tested  maehiiies  :— - 

"FELIX"  FARM  ENGINE 
"L.K.G."  MILKING  MACHINE 
"ALFA-LAVAL"    SEPARATOR 

The  above  labor-saving  machines  are  M'ithout  douht  the  best  of  tlieir  kind  manufactured, 
and  so  satisfied  are  ^^■e  of  their  absolute  superiority  over  all  other  makes,  that  we  will 
cheerfully  send  them  out  on  trial,  and  should  they  fail  to  do  what  is  claimed  of  them,  we 
will  take  them  Ijack  at  our  own  expense. 

Dairymen  contemplating  the  purchase  of  a  modern 
milking  plant,  have  everything  to  gain  and  nothing 
to  lose  by  ordering  the  plant  on  the  above  terms. 


LIBERAL    TERMS. 


EASY    PAYMENTS. 


Write  for  full-line  Catalo^'ue  Xo.  '.',:m  S. — Mailed  Free. 


J.  BARTRAM  &  SON  Z.. 


19,  21,  23  KING  STREET, 
MELBOURNE. 


Sole  Agents  : — All  Steel  Portable  Silos,  and  '•  Prairie-State  "  Incubators. 


M 


Every  Farmer  and  Grazier 


should  have  a  Telephone  Service  con- 
necting with  the  nearest  Post  Office. 
Thousands  of  Australian  farmers  have 
already  instnlled  Telephones,  the  ad- 
vantages of  which  are  so  numerous 
and  valuable  that  it  is  impossible  to 
measure  or  appreciate  their  worth  until 
vou  have  one. 


A  well-known  Victorian  Crazier,  Mr.  W.  Gardiner, 
writes  regarding  The  ERICSSON  Telephone: — 

"  I  liud  file  telephone  the  most  useful  inven- 
tion 1  have  nil  the  farm,  both  in  labour  and  time 
saving,  .ilso  for  business  purposes.  It  has  often 
saved  me  the  j)rice  of  itself  in  one  transaction,  and 
has  paid  for  itself  50  times  over  in  two  cases  of 
calling  medical  aid  when  no  one  could  go  for  it. 
The    ERICSSON    gives   satisfaction    in  every  way." 

Prices,   eMiiiiafes,  avd  full  jjarticulars, 
on  api.ficrtlioii  to — 


J.  BARTRAM  &  SON 


PTY. 
LTD., 

Suppliers  of  Telephones  to  the  Postmaster-Ceneral.        Representing  the  L.  M.  ERICSSON  Telephone  Coy. 

119-23    xciiNrc^    si"h:e3:e3T,     nvnErx-DBOTmjxnE:. 


Journal  of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[lo  Sept.,  191: 


These  Two  should  interest 
Fpuitgpowers,  Gardeners  and 
Farmers. 

The  "iron  AGE"  No.  6. 
No.  6  Horse  Hoe  and  Cultivator. 

Has  a  long,  liigh  steel  fianie  that  makes  the  tool  run  steady.       The 

hoe  standards  are  solid  steel,  securely  attached  to  the  frame  bars  by 

malleable  ratchet  castings.       These  give  several  easy  adjustments  to 

the  side  hoes,  both  sidewise  and  at  different  angles.      They  can  be 

reversed    for    hoeing 

^^       ^^,      ^  f>i'  changed  from  side 
Packed  weight,  83  lbs. 


ro  side  with  points 
forward,  for  covei'ing. 
The  Horse  Hoe 
when  used  as  a  culti- 
vator, expands  to  a 
width  of  30  inches 
and  closes  to  14, 
sutHcient  for  ordinaiy 
purposes.  The  ratchet 
castings.can.be  placed,  reversed,  on  the  inside  of  the  bai-s,  bringing 
the  side  hoes  together,  for  opening  furrows  for  manure,  ttc.  Cultiva 
tor  teeth,  attached  in  this  position,  are  1 1  inches  apart — the  teeth 
are  carried  on  the  hoe  standards.  A  lever  expander  changes  the 
tool  instantly,  while  in  motion,  from  extreme  width  to  the  narrowest 
position.  It  has  a  pair  of  double  steel  expander  bars  and  long  steel 
lever,  placed  in  easy  reach,  and  with  its  malleable  connections,  is 
perfectly  fitted  and  pivoted  to  work  smoothly — is  strong,  simple, 
rigid,    and    has    stood    the    test    of    many    years     without    change. 


TOOL  MERCHANTS, 

554=66  &  582=88  Collins=st., 
MELBOURNE. 


TO  Sept..  1912.]  Jounial  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


—  IT  WILL  PAY  YOU 

TO    LEARN 

MODERN  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 
LIVE  STOCK  &  FRUIT  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

can  teach  .vou  AT  YOUR  OWN  HOME  how  to  MAKE  MOKK  MONEY  by  the  employment  of  up-to-date 
methods.  We  teach  all  branches  of  Agriculture  and  Live  Stock  Husbandry,  includin<,'  Drainage, 
Irrigation,    Dairying    and    Practical    Orcliard    Management.       We  also  give  instruction  in  the 

following,'-  subjects  ;  — 

Bookkeeping  Arithmetic  Electrical  Engineering  Mechanical  Drawing 

Shorthand  Mathematics  Steam  Engineering  Architectural  Drawing 

Accountancy  Languages  Shire  Engineering  Building    Construction 

Commercial  Law  Drawing  Mining  Engineering  and  Estimating 

English  Illustrating  Surveying  Timber  Measurements 

WE    PREPARE   CANDIDATES   FOR   ALL    PUBLIC    EXAMINATIONS. 

The  instruction  sjoes  RIGHT  TO  YOUR  HOME,  no  matter  where  you  live.  It  is  clear,  concise,  easily 
understood,  and  practical.  Every  student  is  handled  privately  and  separately  and  receives  individual 
attention  according  to  his  particular  requirements. 

Our  instructors  are  men  of  sound  technical  knowledge,  combined  with  years  of  practical  experience,  and 
they  are  at  the  service  of  every  student,  to  guide  him  with  their  valuable  advice.  Only  spare  time  study 
is  required,  and  our  fees  are  e.xceedingly  moderate  and  within  the  reach  of  everybody. 

We  invite  you  to  write  at  once  for  a  free  copy  of  our  Handbook  D.  It  explains  our  system  and  shows 
how  we  can  teach  anj'  man  who  is  willing  to  be  tau'.4ht  and  anxious  to  increase  his  earning  power.  It  costs 
nothing  to  inquire.      Don't  put  it  off.       Write  tO-day. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

56b    MARKET    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


r  LAW,  SOMNER  &  OO.'S  ^ 

SPECIAL  GRADED  AND   SCREENED 

SEED  POTATOES 

(Pedigree    Seed). Prices  on  Application. 


HUNTER  RIVER.  ■       ■     ■      —      ^w  ^^  ^    ■  mm»  FRENCH  PROVENCE. 

ARABIAN.  Ill  r^  LT  Ij  K  I  L  AMERICAN. 

PERUVIAN.  I LJ^^rr^lAlL  HUNGARIAN. 

TURKESTAN.  ^"  ^^  ^^  ""^  ■     »  ■    ^  ^h  SPANISH  (New). 

All  our  Lucernes  are  Specially  Machine-dressed,  Hand-sieved,  Free  from  Dodder,  and  True  to  Name. 


CRAIG  MITCHELL      ll/l  A  I  7  C      and  other 

MAMMOTH   WHITE      IYIMIZ.[1      leading  varieties. 

Write    for    Maize    and    Potato    Circular. 

LAW,  SOMNER  &  CO.,  '^S^o\^^^l 

139-141  Sw^anston-st.,  Melbourne. 

established    1850.  TELEPHONE    729    CENTRAL. 

BULK  STORES— MASON  LANE.  OF?  LITTLE  COLLINS  STREET. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria.  [lo  Sept.,  191 2. 


"AUSTRAL" 

MILKING  MACHINES. 

FIVE  YEARS   OF   UNBROKEN   SUCCESS 

Have  established  the  AUSTRAL  as  the  Premier  Milking^  Machine,  and 

have  demonstrated  tliat  it  does  not  belong-  to  that  class  of  appliances  whose 
etficieney  terminates  alter  a  few  nioiiihs  of  use.  It  has  stood  the  test  of  time,  and 
tliab  under  all  sorts  of  conditions. 

\T    IS    SIMPLE. 

CV)ini)lexity  .nnd  intricacy  are  the  l^ane  of  milking  machinery.  Both  in  princi])le 
and  construction  the  Austral  is  strikingly  simple.  Minute  pulsating  mechanism 
on  teat  cups  or  buckets  has  Vieen  entirely  dispensed  with,  its  place  being  taken  by 
a  single  pulsating  pump,  sim[)le  and  sti'ong  in  construction,  which  serves  for  the 
whole  outfit,  whether  two  cows  or  ten  are  to  be  milked  at  a  time.  The  pulsating 
]iuin[)  is  placed  in  the  engine  room,   remote  from  the  cows. 

ST    IS    AN    EASY    MILKER. 


Fear  of  injury  to  cows  was  at  one  time  the  bogie  of  machine  milking.  The  Austrcll 
has  done  away  with  all  that.  Its.  action  on  the  cow  is  as  gentle  as  that  ot  the 
softest  hand,  and  much  easier  tlian  the  a\erage  hired  help.  Alter  three  and  four 
years"  milking  with  the  machines,  cows  are  found  to  be  as  sound  in  tiie  quarters 
as  when  they  started.  Enquirj'  from  any  AustrSll  user  will  coniiini  the  correct- 
ness of  this  statement. 

IT  IS  THE  LAST  WORD  IN  ECONQMICAL  DAIRYING. 

The  working  parts  are  so  few  and  the  construction  so  simple  and  solid,  that  A\"ear 
and  tear,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  upkeejj,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  An 
outstanding  feature  of  the  Austral  is  the  Tank  System,  whereby  the  milk  is 
conducted  direct  from  cow  to  sejwrator  without  any  handling  whatever.  With 
this  system,  so  great  a  saving  is  effected  in  time,  labour,  and  trouble,  that  in 
ordinary  circumstances  its  advantages  are  overwheln  in?.  A  single  bucket  can  he 
supplied  for  testing  individual  cows  ;  or  where  spec'al  requirements  render  it  pre- 
ferable, complete  bucket  plants  can  be  installed. 

GLOBE  CREAM   SEPARATORS.     ^        CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES. 

Embodies   the    famous    Link-Blade    Bowl  1  The  world's  standard  Oil  Engine.       In  all 

Structure.     Official  tests  conducted  by  the  J  sizes  and  for  all  descriptions  of  farm  work. 

Swedish  Government  at  Alnarp  placed  the  f 

"Globe"  in   the   very  forefront  for  clean  t  VACCAR    PETROL    ENGINES. 

skimming    and    easy    running,    against    all  T 

competitors.  J  Biiti^li     bnilt.             Low    rumnng    speed. 

All  sizes  from  14  to  200  gallons.  '  Econonu'cal  on  fuel. 

WINDMILLS,  SAW-BENCHES,  CH/^FF-CUTTERS,  and  all  Farrn  aqd  Dairy  Machinery. 

^  When  writiiiE:,  plense  nifiitioii  this  .Tournal. 

W.  H.  BLflCKHflni:  ""'  ""^  '"■ 


.J     MELBOURNE. 


3  0  Sept.,  19 12.] 


journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


19 


c^ 


Herd  of  Prize 
Winning,  and 
Heavy  Milk  ^ 
and  Butter  Pro- 
ducing   Strains* 


YOUNG      BULLS     AND      HEIFERS 


FOR     SALE. 


MYSTERY    VI.    OF    MELROSE.' 


INSPECTION     BY     APPOINTMENT. 


WILUflm  WOODfJASON,  """'°"" 


Daipy, 


MALVERN,     MELBOURNE,    Vic 


Vlll 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Sept.,  1912. 


G. 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT   LAND. 


List  showing  number  of  allotments  on  the  various  Estates  available  for  application  : — 

Estate.      Irrigrat 

ion 

Areas.         Area. 

Estate.        Wheat   Growing-.       Area. 

Swan  Hill 

4 

totalling      337  acres. 

Cornelia  Creek            ..       17        totalling    2,389  acres 

Cohuna 

..• 

28 

„          2,081      „ 

Oak'lancls         ..             ..6                „           4,140      „ 

Shepiiartoii    . . 

., 

64 

„          2,200      „ 

Hurstwood     ..             ..4                „           2,094       „ 

Nanneella 

., 

22 

„           1,320       „ 

Mt.  Widderin               ..16               „          5,913       „ 

Bamawin 

., 

20 

»           1,569       „ 

Nerrin  Nerrin               ..21               „          4,940      „ 

Tonsala 

•• 

52 

„          4,150      „ 

Pannoo            ..             ..18                „           6,412       „ 
Marathon  feWillow  Grove    12               „          6,363      „ 
Strathallan  ..             ..11                „              325      „ 

Dairying- 

I5ona  Vista     . . 

and 

Mixed  Farming-. 

6        tntalliiiH:       475  acres. 

Beet  Growing-  and  Dairying-. 

Deepdene 

2 

484        „ 

Boisdale           ..             ..         3        totallin,i>-        365  acres 

Eumeralla 

,, 

4 

l,94.n        „ 

KilmanyPark                ..21                ,.           1,860     „ 

AUambee 
Morven 

•• 

11 

9 

1,72(;      „ 
3,6U:!       „ 

Clerks'  Homes. 

Werribee 

.. 

47 

4,34^       „ 

Tooronsa                                 . .                        57  allotments. 

Kenihvorth     . 

1 

60(1       „ 

Mooralla 

.. 

1 

»               62(i        „ 

Workmen's  Homes. 

Cremona 

Dunrobiii 

1 

20       „ 

Pender's  Grove      . .                           . .       108  allotments. 

Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending*-  over  3U  years,  with 
payments  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  \alue  of 
permanent  impro\einents  effected,  repajniients  extending  over  fifteen  years  bearing  5  per  cent,  interest. 

For  full  inforinut.ion  and  terms  applij  to  THE     SECRETARY , 

LANDS     PURCHASE    AND     MANAGEMENT     BOARD. 

MELBOURNE. 


AUSTRALIA'S  WACON  ^il^;:^. 

PATENT 

STEEL 
WHEELS. 

Patent  Felloes. 

Renewable  Carron 

Boxes  and  Oil  Caps. 

The  only  Steel  Wheel 

that  has  stood 

the  Test. 

Beware  of 

Imitations. 

BulUvant  Bros.,  Gillenbah,  Narrandera,  write: — 4/4/11 — "Tlie  7-ton  Wool  Wagon  I  got  from  you  four  years 
ago  has  given  every  satisfaction.     I  now  want  you  to  send  me  a  54  in.  and  48  in.,  diameter  wheel  x  6  in.  tyre  10-ton 
Wagon,  with  Table  19  ft.  x  8  ft.    Your  Wagons  are  the  Best."    Hundreds  of  others  say  the  same. 
When  yoa  get  a  Wagon  see  that  it  is  the  Genuine  "Hildyard  Patent." 

A  well-known  and  up-to-date  farmer  in  Victoria  {Mr.  E.  A.  Neald,  of  Nathalia)  says  : — "  I  had  last  season 
a  6-ton  Ordinary  English  Wagon,  and  one  of  the  "Trusty"  type  Steel  Wheel  Wagons,  40  in. 

and  36  in.  dia.  wheels,  carting  in  sheaf  hay.  Although  the  (j-ton  ua^un  seemed  to  carry  the  larger  loads,  I 
found,  to  my  surprise,  after  keeping  careful  count,  that  the  Patent  Steel  Wheel  Wagon  carted  and  put  into 
the  stack  700  sheaves  a  day  more  than  the  big  wagon.     The  labour  was  the  same  for  both  wagons." 


Oj 


TABLE  TOP — Truck  body,  and  all  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
WRITE    FOR     CATALOG     TO-DAY. 


R.  J.  L. 


QUEEN'S    BRIDGE-ST., 
SOUTH   MELBOURNE,  V. 


TO  Sept..  191  2.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


LIGHT,  STRONG, 
PERFECTLY  RIGID. 


t^<jNP£ye>^ 


n 


I 


"CYCLONE 
WOVEN    GATE 

9    T±.    -to    IG    T-t. 

Will  hold  anything,  and  can  be  made  rabbit  proof  by  putting  rabbit  proof 
intersection  at  the  bottom.      The  wider  gates  have  three  stays. 

Get  our  Catalogue  of  this  and  many  other  Cyclone  Gates. "  THEY'RE  ALL  GOOD." 

CYCLONE    FENCE   &   GATE   CO., 

459  SWANSTON  ST.,  CORNER  FRANKLIN  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


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The  treatment  should  be  applied 
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FELTON,  GRIMWADE  &  CO.,  MELBOURNE, 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Sripr.,  1912. 


"GLEN   ELGIN'S  PHILANTHROPIST"  299  A.H.B.   of  Aus. 


Winner  of  Champion,  Sydney  Royal  Shew,  1909,  1910,  1911,  1912. 

Reserve   Champion,   Melbourne   Royal  Show,  1907,   1908,   1911. 

Also  Winner  of  Bull  and  Progeny  Prize  of  £10  for  5  females  (the  progeny  of  any  one  bull) 
producing  the  largest  amount  of  commercial  butter  in  24  hours,  Sydney  Royal  Show,  1912. 

Also  holdft  the  record  of  150  Firsts,  Champions,  Specials,  and  Gold  Medals 
for  Ayrshire  and  Dairy  Bull. 


The  "GlengarDoek"  Stad 


of  Pxiv^- 
flypshipe  Cattle 


Has  won  innumerable  prizes  in  the  ring.      The  females  in  this  herd  are  noted  for 
deep  and  heavy  milking:  and  test  well  above  the  average,  and  are  kind  and  quiet. 

CHOICE  YOUNG  HERDBOOK  BULLS  FOR  SALE  at  from  5  to  25  guineas  each. 

From  Best  Cows  only,  by  Pure  Herdbook  Bulls.     Full  pedigrees  and  particulars,  with 
photographs  of  animal  for  sale,  his  sire  and  dam,  will  be  forwarded  on  application. 


INSPECTION  CORDIALLY  INVITED.        VISITORS  MET  AT  LANC  LANG  RAILWAY  STATION. 


Address- 


A.  T.  PRIESTLEY,  i 


Post       V'CLENCARNOCK," 

Tei^graSSjYANNATHAN,  Vic. 


ioSept..  191  2. J  Journal  of  Aoriculture,    Victoria. 


Vaeuum 

Gargoyle 

Prepaped 

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Needs  no  Soft  Soap 
OP  other  ingredient. 


Requires  only 
Clean  Soft  Water. 


Vacuum  Gargoyle  Red  Spray  Oil 
now  obtainable  in  prepared  form 
is  the  same  Oil  as  that  originally 
introduced  to  Australia  for  fruit- 
tree    spraying. 


Full  particulars — 

Horticultural  Department, 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd., 
90  V/illiam  Street,  Melbourne. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Sept.,  1914. 


The 

New  Automatic 

Cream  Separator 

Separating  Finished  same  time  as  Milking 

THE  AUTOMATIC  CREAM  SEPARATOR 
introduced  into  the  Dairy  means  lessening  the 
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we  have  got  the  self-contained  Cream  Separator, 
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CHIEF  AGENTS  IN  VICTORIA  for  the 

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lo  Sept..  191  2.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


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V. 


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PROPRIETORS    AND    MANUFACTURERS. 

525    COLLINS    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


Journal   of  Agriculture,    Victoria.  [ioSept..  1912. 


Mp.  farmer. 


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AGENTS-  ASK    YOUR    STOREKEEPER. 

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1  o  Sept.,  191 2.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture .    Victoria. 


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Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Sept.,  191; 


ALSTON'S  Patent  "'"^^  "rank 
§^  WINDMILL 


1910  Pattern. 


Grease 
Lubricated 


Most  Perfect 
Windmill  Motion  in  Existence. 

Gives  a  direct  and  central  lift  of  the  pump  rod,  and 
an  even  wearing-  of  tlie  beariny:s. 

FITTED   WITH   STEEL  ROLLER  AND  BALL 
BEARINGS. 

No  Overhanging  or  Twisting  Strains 

COMMON  TO  ALL  OTHER  MAKES. 

Do   not  buy  a  mill  till  you   have  inspected   this 
latest  invention. 


RUNS  in  the  LIGHTEST  WIND. 

STANDS  the  STRONGEST  STORM 


Cheapest   and    Strongest  Mill   ever   offered, 

Patented  throughout  Avstralia.     Send  for  Catalogue. 


Alston's  Improved  Patent  Portable 
Steel  Framed  Galvanized  Stock 


The  Best  Trough 
ever  invented 


Trough 


WILL  NOT  CRACK,  LEAK, 
RUST,  OR  ROT. 

Packs  in  Small  Space. 


Supplied  "'feE_ 

In   AU   Lengths. 

The  Cheapest  and  Most   Durable 
Trough  Ever  Invented. 

Send  for  Price  List. 

JAMES    ALSTON, 

Patentee  and   Manufacturer, 
WINDMILL  FACTORY, 

Queen's-bridge,  Melbourne. 


WILL   LAST    A    LIFE-TIME. 

I'aenteil  Throu-liout  Australia. 


THe  JOURNAI9 


OF 

LIBRAR 

NBW  Y05 

''botanic 

QaRDGJ 
OP 


Y^e  department  of     Mgncufture; 


VICTORIA. 


Vol.  X.        Part  9.  loth  September,  1912. 

SOME   RESULTS  IN  FALLOWING  LAND. 

By  Joint   W .   Patcrsflii,   B.Sc.   FJi.D..   Experimentalist,   and  P.   R.   Scott, 
C  lie  mi  St  for  Agriculture . 

The  most  pressing  demands  of  an  ordinary  crop  are  for  water,  phos- 
phates, and  nitrates.  The  importance  of  these  arises  from  their  comparative 
scarcity  in  the  soil.  The  deficiency  of  phosphates  is  most  easily  made  good 
by  applying  some  phosphatic  manure  along  with  the  seed.  The  deficiency 
of  water  and  nitrates  can  usually  liest  lie  remedied  bv  some  svstem  of 
fallowing  the  land. 

Scheme  of  Experiments. 

In  order  to  fin<l  how  two  systems  of  fallowing  affected  the  water  and 
nitrate  content  of  a  soil,  three  plots  were  staked  off  on  the  farm  of  Sparro- 
vale,  Geelong,  last  September.  The  plots  each  measured  lo  by  5  yards, 
and  lay  side  by  side  with  2  yards  space  between  them.  The  land  had  been 
.sown  down  to  Algerian  oats  at  the  end  of  June,  and  the  crop  was  well 
brairded  in  September,  when  the  plots  were  laid  off.  The  scheme  of  the 
experiments  was  as  follows  : — ■ 

Plot  A. — Dug  over  on  12th  September,  and  the  surface  kept  stirred  from 
1 6th  October  onwards. 

Plot  B. — Dug  over  on  12th  .September,  and  no  further  cultivation  given. 

Plot  C. — Oat  crop  left  growing. 

The  experiments  continued  until  the  28th  Februarv  of  the  present  year. 

Working  Plan. 

The  effect  of  fallowing  and  cropping  upon  the  supply  of  water  and 
nitrates  was  determined  by  sampling  the  soil  of  each  plot  at  intervals  of 
about  six  weeks.  The  samples  were  taken  with  a  spade  from  a  freshly 
exposed  surface  in  holes  dug  on  the  central  line  of  each  plot.  One  of  u.s 
was  always  pre.sent.  They  were  forwarded,  for  analvsis  in  suitable  bottles 
the  same  day.  The  holes  were  filled  in  as  soon  as  the  samples  had  been 
taken,  and  on  any  plot  the  next  periodical  sampling  took  place  2  yards 
further  along  the  central  line  of  the  plot. 

At  the  outset,  each  plot  was  sampled  at  six  successive  depths  of  9 
inches.  1^  to  4^  feet.  Later  on,  it  became  apparent  that  the  lower 
subsoils  varied  so  considerably  in  character  that  it  was  useless  to  continue 

10513.  S 


5- 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo   Sept.,  1912. 


sampling  to  that   depth.      Attention   was  then  confined    to  the    upper     18 
inches,  where  the  d  fferences  of  soil  were  naturally  less  pronounced. 

In  conducting  the  analyses,  water  was  determined  by  drying  to  constant 
weight  in  a  steam  oven.  Nitrates  were  determined  according  to  the  method 
described  in  a  previous  article  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Robertson,  Chief  Deputy 
Chemist. 

Fallowing  and  Soil  Moisture. 

Table  I.  gives  the  percentage  of  water  in  the  top  18  inches  of  soil  at 
each  date  of  sampling.     The  results  are  calculated  on  the  dry   soil. 

Table  I. 


October  16 
November  28 
January  17 
February  28 


Worked 
FaUow. 


per  cent. 
25-22 
19-62 
20-66 
21-67 


Neglected 
Fallow. 


Per  cent. 
24-27 
15-95 
11-61 
12-38 


Oat 
Crop. 

Per  cent. 
24-95 
15-22 
10-01 
10-06 


In  viewing  the  results  the  conditions  regulating  the  loss  of  water  on 
good  fallow,  bad  fallow,  and  on  crop  may  be  briefly  recapitulated.  Water 
rises  in  a  moist  .soil  somewhat  rapidly  bv  capillarity.  In  a  good. fallow, 
the  upper  layer  of  soil  is  kept  loose  and  dry  by  cultivation,  so  that  its 
capillary  power  is  lost.  This  loose,  dry  layer  protects  the  water  within 
the  capillary  zone  underneath  from  sun  and  wind.  In  a  bad  fallow,  the 
surface  is  compaci;,  and  also  damper,  so  that  capillary  action  is  c»ntinued 
right  through  to  the  top,  which  is  unprotected  from  drying  influences.  A 
crop  requires  much  water  for  its  growth,  which  must  come  from  the  soil. 
Experiments  bearing  upon  the  water  losses  through  plants  were  previously 
reported.* 

Influence  of  Weather. 

Table  II.  gives  the  weekly  rainfall  at  Sparrovale  from  19th  August 
until   the  close  of  the  experiments. 

Table  II. 


Week  end 

lug. 

Points. 

Week  ending. 

Points. 

Week  ending. 

Points. 

August  26 

5 

October  14 

10 

December  16 

150 

September 

2 

124 

,.21 

9 

23     . . 

61 

jj 

9   .. 

158 

,.       28 

13 

30     . . 

32 

J, 

16    .. 

15 

November     4 

85 

January  13 

8 

,j 

23   .. 

70 

25      .  . 

27 

"^''ebruary  10 

42 

30   .. 

165 

December     2 

14 

24        .. 

20 

October 

7   .. 

12 

9     .. 

63 

28        .  . 

0 

In  the  weeks  omitted  no  rain  fell.  September  was  a  wet  month,  and 
the  plots  showed  a  fair  degree  of  uniformity  at  the  first  sampling  on  i6th 
October.  Witn  more  moderate  but  fairly  distributed  falls  in  the  next 
l)eriod,  the  water  contents  of  the  soils  varied  considerably  at  28th  Novem- 
ber. The  first  fallow  was  hoed  over  thrice  during  the  period,  and  the  oat 
<Top  was  growing  rapidly.  These  circumstances  explain  the  tendency  of 
the  results  at  the  second  sampling.  On  27th  December,  the  crop  was  cut, 
and  yielded  at  the  rate  of  2  tons  4I  cwt.  hay  per  acre.  From  this  date 
until  the  last  samples  were  taken   (two  months),   a   total  of   80   points  of 

•  June,  1912. 


lo  Sept.,  191 


Soa/e  Rcsitlts  i>i  Fal/mf/ni^  [.and. 


523 


rain  fell  on  four  dates.  It  was  a  dry  spell,  and  ga\e  no  chance  to 
equalize  matters.  At  the  final  sampling,  the  cropped  plot  contained  less 
than  half  the  water  present  in  the  worked  fallow;  the  neglected  fallow^  was 
also  bad.  It  had  become  caked  on  the  surface,  and  carried  a  fair  cover  of 
weeds,  both  of  which  reduced  its  water  content. 

When  taking  samples  at  the  later  dates,  it  was  evident  to  the  eye  th;it 
the  worked  fallow  had  much  more  water  than  the  others.  The  assistants 
also    noticed    it    when    digging    the    holes.      Th(>    worked    fallow    rould    be 


TAKING    SAMPLES    OF    SOIL. 

dug  ea.'yily  with  a  spade,  while  the  other  plots  required  a  pick  to  get  down 
to  them. 

The  Results  by  Weight. 
By   weighing  the  earth  from  a  measured  hole,    it   was  estimated    that 
I  acre  of  the  so  1  to  a  depth  of  18  inches  equalled  2,270  tons  in  the  dry 
condition.      Employ'ng  this  figure,   the   water   percentages   at  the  different 
dates  may  be  converted  into  tons. 

Table  III. 


Worked 
Fallow. 

Neglected 
Fallow. 

Oat  Crop. 

October  16 
November  28 
January  17 
February  28 

Tons. 
.572 
445 
469 
492 

Tons. 
.551 
.362 
26.3 

281 

Ton.«. 
.566 
345 
227 
228 

At  the  close  of  the  experiments,  the  cropped  soil  contained  264  tons,  and 
the  neglected  fallow  211  tons  less  of  water  per  acre  in  the  first  18  inches 
than  the  corresponding  w^orked  fallow.  One  ton  of  water  to  the  acre  equals 
almost  exactly  one  point  of  rain. 

s  2 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Yiciflria.  [lo   Sept.,  191 2. 


Results  Obtained  Abroad. 
While  it  did  not  appear  useful  to  carry  the  moi.sture  investigation.s  at 
Sparrovale  deeper  than  18  inches,  there  are  indications  in  the  above  figures 
that  the  effect  of  cropping  and  fallowing  upon  water  content  would  be  felt 
at  much  greater  dejJths.  l^xperiments  conducted  elsewhere  support  thi-s 
inference.  Moisture  determinations  of  the  soil  under  barley  and  bare- 
fallow  respectively  w^ere  made  at  Rothamsted  in  the  dry  summer  of  1870. 
Table  IV.  gives  the  results,  which  are  stated  as  percentages  of  the  wet  soil.t 

Table  IV. 


Bare  Fallow. 

Barley  Crop. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

First  9  inches 

20-36 

11-91 

Second       ,, 

29-53 

19-32 

Third 

34-84 

22-83 

Fourth       „    ■       . . 

34-32 

25-09 

Fifth 

31-31 

26-98 

Sixth 

33-55 

26-38 

Similar  results  have  since  been  obtained  by  King  and,  others  in  America. 
As  the  result  of  three  years'  trials  at  Nebraska,  Burr  reported  "  that  land 
under  summer  tillage  or  thorough  cultivation  had  accumulated  from  5.5  to 
7  inches  (557  to  709  tons)  m  ire  water  in  the  first  6  feet  of  soil  than  similar 
land  growing  a  crop."+ 

Effect  of  Australian  Climate. 

While  the  Rothamsted  figures  and  those  quoted  from  America  bear  out 
the  general  conclusion  that  water-saving  is  eTfected  to  considerable  depths 
by  a  good  fallow,  it  is  probable  that  they  understate  the  relative  advantage 
to  be  expected  in  Australia.  P\irther  investigations  on  the  subject  are  now 
proceeding.  Fallowing  operations  and  the  formation  of  mulches  are  most 
required  where  the  drying  conditions  are  most  powerful,  and  the  result  is 
the  same,  whether  the  evaporation  is  from  the  soil  direct  or  by  influencing 
the  tran.spiration  of  plants.  §  From  a  table  published  by  Hilgard,||  it  would 
seem  that  the  climate  of  Australia  is  somewhat  unique  in  causing  evapora- 
tion, and  it  is  primarily  to  prevent  such  losses  that  fallowing  is  carried  out. 
The  figures  are  given  in  Table  V.  The  first  column  states  the  number  of 
years  during  which  observations  were  made  ;  the  second  column  gives  the 
inches  of  water  evaporated  from  a  free  surface  of  water  during  twelve 
months. 

Table  V. 


— 

Years. 

Inches. 

Rothamsted  (England) 

9 

17-80 

London  (England) 

14 

20-66 

Munich  (Germany) 

("■) 

24-00 

Emdrup  (Denmark) 

10 

27-09 

Syracuse  (New  York) 

1 

50-20 

Fort  Collins  (Colorado) 

11 

41-00 

San  Disgo  (California) 

1 

57-60 

Pekin  (China) 

{•'■) 

38-80 

Bombay  (India)   . .               .  .               .  .               •  • 

5 

82-28 

Demerara  (South  America) 

3 

35-12 

Kimberley  (South  Africa) 

(?) 

98-80 

Alice  Springs  (South  Australia)         .  .               .  . 

(••) 

103-50 

t   The  Soil.     Bv  A.  D.  Hall;  London.     John  Murray.     19(13. 

t   Univ.  of  Nebraska,  Bui.  114,  by  W.  W.  Burr. 

§   Water  Requirements  of  Plants.     Jour  Agric,  Vic.  June.  1912. 

11    Soils.     By  Prof.  Hilgard.  Xew  York.     The  Macmillan  Co.     1906. 


lo   Sept.,  Tgu.]        Some  Results  in  FaUoivitii:^  Land. 


5^0 


While  the  figiiifs  for  Alice  Spriigs  cannot  be  regarded  as  tvpical. 
being,  according  to  ligun-s  published  by  the  Meteorological  Office,*  about 
one-half  greater  thin  those  tor  the  drier  wheat  areas,  still  the  rate  ot 
e\aporation  in  Australia  is  undoubtedly  \ery  great,  and  there  is  almost 
no  country  where  an  equal  need  for  fallowing  occurs,  nor  where  greater 
saving  in  .soil  moisture  may  be  expected  from  good  cultixation. 

Relation  of  Fallowing  to  Nitrates. 
Leaving  the  effect  of  fallowing  upon  moisture,   the  nitrate  contents  of 
the  plots  next  call   for  notice.       Table  VI.    states  the  results  obtained  in 
lbs.    per   acre  of   nitr.ite  nitrogen   for  each   plot   at   the   different   dates   of 
.sampling.       Depth,    i8   inches. 

Table  VI. 


Worked 
Fallow. 

Xeglected 
Fallow. 

Oat 
Crop. 

Ib.s. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

October  16 

14-04 

17-58 

trace 

November  28 

43-20 

44-35 

3-31 

January  17 

123-09 

60-2!) 

28-06 

February  28 

148-61 

58-63 

32-49 

Up  to  i6:h  October,  the  worked  and  the  neglected  fallow  had  received 
the  same  treatment,  and  the  results  show  that  the  worked  fallow  had  no 
-original  advantage.  Nevertheless,  at  the  end  of  February,  the  neglected 
fallow  contained  just  39  per  cent,  of  the  nitrate  present  in  the  worked  plot,  f 
The  latter  was  seen  to  be  much  moister  during  the  latter  half  of  the  experi- 
ments, and  the  extra  nitrates  are  proliably  due  in  large  measure  to  this  extra 
moisture  encouraging  nitrification.  This  is  in  accord  with  the  results  of 
•experiments  recently  reported  in  this  JoumalX  Sufficient  moisture  will  be 
of  greatest  benefit  in  aiding  nitrification  during  the  hot  months  of  the  year. 
In  addition  to  the  extra  water  present,  the  better  aeration  of  the  worked 
fallow  would  also  encourage  the  production  of  nitrates. 

Nitrates  Used  by  Crop. 
On  the  cropped  plot  the  nitrate  content  was  only  a  trace  at  the  date  of 
the  first  sampling.  Comparing  it  with  the  fallow  plots,  this  could  not  be 
due  to  lack  of  moisture,  as  at  that  date  the  moisture  content  of  each  plot 
Avas  approximately  identical.  It  appears  that  the  nitrates  of  this  plot  had 
been  absorbed  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  growing  crop.  Apparently  the 
crop  in  the  earlv  part  of  its  growth  was  taking  all  the  nitrates  it  could  find. 
This  fact  indicates  the  importance  of  nitrates  in  the  soil,  and  the  probability 
that  the  supplv  often  fails  to  meet  the  demand. 

Results  Obtained  Abroad. 
Similar  results  showing  the  demand  for  nitrates  by  cereals  were  obtained 
h-,  America  bv  King.  §  On  20th  June  (summer)  a  .strip  of  land  8  by  120 
feet  in  a  growing  oat  crop  was  cleared  by  shaving  everything  off  just  beneath 
the  surface.  At  this  date  nitrates  were  determined,  on  the  cleared  strip  and 
also  on  the  adjacent  land  growing  oats,  and  similar  determinations  were 
made  again  after  nineteen  da  vs.  Table  VII.  gives  the  results  in  lbs.  of 
nitrate  nitrogen  for  each  date  at  successive  depths  of  i  foot. 

*   Commonwealth  Y tar- Book.  '911. 

t  This  is  exclusive  of  25  lb.  nitrate  nitrogen  in  the  worked  fallow  and  i\  ll>.  in  the  neglected  fallow 
iound  below  the  18  inch  level  at  the  last  sampling. 
t  May.  1912.  p.  275. 
§   Univ.  of  Wisconsin.     Agric.  Exp.  St.  Bui.  93. 


526 


Journal  of  Agriculture .   Victoria.  [10   Sept..  tqi: 


Table  VII. 

Commencement  of  Fallowing. 

Alter  19  Days. 

Ground  Fallow. 

Oat  Crop. 

Ground  Fallow. 

Oat  Crop. 

First  foot 
Second  foot  . . 
Third       „     .. 
Fourth     „     . . 

lb. 

3-81 

2-78 

19-23 

41-64 

lb. 

3-78 

2-70 

21-37 

43-07 

57-87 

2-74 

13-12 

42-52 

3-32 

0-00 

3-08 

25-13 

Totals 

67-46 

70-92 

116-25 

31-53 

While  the  cleared  or  fallow  strip  made  a  gain  of  49  lbs.  nitrate  nitrogen, 
the  cropped  land  lost  39  lbs. 

Nitrates  Formed  Near  Surface. 

Looking  to  Table  VII.,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  increase  of  nitrates  ir^. 
the  fallowed  strip  during  the  nineteen  days  was  confined  to  the  top  foot 
of  soil.  The  reason  is  that  nitrate  production  requires  plenty  of  fresh  air, 
and  the  less  porous  the  soil  the  more  superficial  will  the  action  be.  Where- 
any  considerable  supply  of  nitrates  is  found  below  the  second  foot  of  soil, 
they  will  have  passed  down  by  diffusion  and  drainage.  As  the  upper  portion. 
of  a  soil  in  particular  may  become  very  dry  under  a  crop  or  neglected 
fallow  (Table  IV.),  it  is  the  more  necessary  in  a  dry  climate  that  the  land 
be  well  supplied  with  nitrates  before  the  vegetative  period  commences. 

At  Sparrovale  the  oat  crop  was  the  third  in  succession  on  the  ground. 
On  the  cropped  plot  during  the  experiments  no  nitrates  were  ever  found 
below  18  inches  at  any  date  of  sampling.  The  same  was  true  for  all  the- 
plots  at  the  first  sampling,  and  the  oat  crop  undoubtedly  started  growth 
under  bad  nitrate  conditions.  Had  September  not  been  exceptionally 
wet  (532  points)  it  would  have  been  still  worse.  The  interposition 
of  a  fallow  between  two  crops  allows  the  soil  to  lay  up  a  store  of 
nitrates.  With  moderate  winter  rains,  the.se  will  pass  more  or  less  down- 
wards in  the  soil,  and  can  be  drawn  upon  by  next  .season's  crop  for  the- 
purpo'ses  of  growth. 

Nitrates  Available  for  Next  Crop. 

That  the  nitrates  produced  in  fallow  must  exercise  a  beneficial  effect 
upon  the  next  crop  is  clearly  indicated  in  a  table  by  King  and  reproduced 
by  Hall.  Analy.ses  were  made  in  spring  of  two  similar  soils,  one  of  which 
had  been  fallowed  and  the  other  cropped  during  the  previous  year.  The- 
figures  represent  lbs.  of  nitrate  nitrogen  per  acre. 

Table  VIII. 


Land  previously  fallow 
Land  previously  cropped 


lb. 
212 

25 


lb. 
56 
15 


lb. 
22 
10 


lb. 
13 


Tio   Sept.,  1912.]         Soitw  Results  in  FalUnciiii:^  Land. 


527 


Warington*  (estimated  that  '"  the  production  of  nitrates  tor  the  next  crop 
is  probably  the  mo  t  important  result  of  a  bare  fallow."  While  this  is  no 
•doubt  true  for  F'.ngland,  it  hardly  holds  for  Australia,  where  moisture  con- 
servation takes  the  first  place.  At  the  same  time  we  have  the  authority  of 
Warington  added  to  King  for  stating  that  fallowing  greatly  increases  the 
nitrate  supply  available  for  the  next  season's  crop,  and  the  analyses  of  the 
Sparrovale  soils  (Table  VI.)  indicate  that  the  third  oat  crop  grown  on  the 
land  started  its  life  with  too  small  a  supply  of  nitrates. 


A  Manorial  Test. 

On  2nd  November  two  small  plots  of  j,\,  acre  were  staked  off  in  the  oat 
■crop  adjacent  to  the  plots  laid  down  for  sampling  the  soils.     One  cwt.  of 


WEIGHING     SAMPLES    FOR    MOISTURE    CONTENTS. 

nitrate  of  soda  per  acre  was  broadcasted  on  one  plot,  while  the  other 
received  no  manure.  The  object  was  to  determine  whether  the  addition  of 
nitrate  to  a  soil,  which  had  proved  .so  poor  in  nitrate  at  the  previous 
sampling,  would  benefit  the  crop.  The  oats  were  then  6  inches  high.  The 
<:rops  were  harvested  and  weighed  on  27th  December,  when  the  yield  from 
the  nitrated  plot  was  increasd  by  228  lbs.  dry  hay  per  acre,  or  2  cwt. 
(nearlv).  There  had  been  a  fair  rainfall  after  the  application  of  the 
manure,  but  the  crop  was  probably  too  far  advanced  to  make  a  good  u.se 
of  it. 

In  concluding  this  report,  we  desire  to  thank  Mr.  Baird,  manager  at 
iiparrovale,  for  granting  facilities  for  these  experiments,  and  for  furnishing 
ajs  with  the  rainfall  records. 

[Suiiuiiary  next  page.] 
*  Chemistry  uf  the  Farm.     By  R.  Wariugtou.     London.     Vinton  *  Co. 


5^8  Jonnial  of  Agriailtitrc,   Victoria.  [lo   Sept.,  1912. 

Summary. 

I.  A    well-workfd    falldw    i)revents    much    loss    of    soil -moisture    during" 
(Irv  wt^ather. 

J.    A  fallow  may  O/.y  little  good  if  neglected. 

3.  A  crop  leaves  the  soil  extremely  dry  in  the  autumn. 

4.  This    lack  of   moisture  must   affect   the    succeeding   crop    unless    the- 
winter  he  exceptionally  wet. 

5.  The  Australian  climate  indicates   in   a   special   degree  the  need   for 
fallowing. 

6.  Land  growing  a  crop  may  contain  only  a  trace  of  nitrates. 

7.  This  deficiency  may  starve  a  crop. 

8.  Xitj-ate  formation  stops  when  the  surface  .«oil  becomes  too  dry. 

9.  A  growing  crop  dries  up  the  surface  soil. 

10.  It   is  desirable,   therefore,   that   a  crop   should   start   with   a   ready- 
formed  nitrate  supply  In  the  soil  and  sub.soil. 

II.  Such  a  nitrate  supply  will  also  favour  a  downward  development  of 
the  roots. 

12.  A  well-worked  fallow  meets  the  nitrate  retjuirement  of  the  succeed- 
ing crop. 

13.  Fallowing  serves   the  doul)le  purpose  of  storing   soil-moisture   and' 
.supplying  nitrates. 


LUCERXE    PLANTS. 


Sam[)les  of  lucerne  plants  obtained  from  a  paddock  sown  nine  months- 
previously  in  the  Rochester  irrigation  district.  They  show  most  eft'ectivelv 
the  prolific  growth  possible  on  suitable  land  under  proper  methods  of 
irrigation. 


JO  Sept.  .  191-.] 


nt'c-kccpiHii  ill    Viitoria. 


529 


BEE-KEEPING  IN  VICTORIA. 

{Coiifiiiiicd    from    page    477.) 

/•'.  A'.  Hen  line,  Bee  Kxptrt. 

Part  VII 1. — The  L'se  of  Comb-foundation. 
Cumb-foundation  is  the  base  or  nii(lril>  of  the  comljs  in  the  frames  of 
the  modern  bee-hive.  It  consists  of  a  thin  sheet  of  l)ees\\ax  impressed  on 
h)Oth  sides  with  the  shape  of  the  basis  of  the  cells  of  honey-comb,  and  is 
supi)lied  to  the  liees  with  the  object  of  obtaining  a  larger  yield  of  honey 
than  would  be  possible  were  they  allowed  to  build  their  combs  in  their  own 
w.i\ .  The  better  results  obtained  by  the  use  of  full  sheets  of  comb-founda- 
tion, instead  of  a  comb-guide  or  narrow  strip  of  embossed  wax,  are  due  to 
three  factors: — i.   A  stronger  force  of  worker  bees  and  very  few  drones. 

2.  The  faster  building  of  the  combs  for  brood  and  the  storage  of  honey. 

3.  Stranger  and  straighter  combs. 

I.   Stronger  Colonies. 

Bv  the  use  of  full   sheets  of  comb-foundation,   the  numl)er  of   worker 
3>ees  is  greatly  increased,  and  the  number  of  drones  reduced  to  a  minimum, 


FIG.  I. COMB  BUILT  FROM  STARTER.  NEARLY  ALL  DRONE  CELLS. 


and  as  the  former  are  producers  and  the  latter  c msumers  onlv.  the  profits 
of  bee-keeping  depend  to  a  very  large  extent  upon  the  ratio  of  worker  bees 
to  drones,  and  this  is  best  regulated  by  the  prevention  of  the  l)uilding  of 
■drone-comb.  The  combs  built  by  bees  consist  of  two  kinds  of  cells,  one 
1-5  inch  in  diameter,  and  known  as  worker  cells,  the  other  j  inch,  called 
drone  cells,  the  former  being  the  cradle  of  the  worker  bee.  the  latter  that  of 
the  drone. 

In  a  state  of  nature  a  large  percentage  of  the  comli  consists  <>i  drone 
-cells,  and  immense  numbers  of  drones  are  raised,  a  provision  of  nature  to 
insure  the  fertilization  of  the  queen  from  one  hive  bv  a  drone  from  another 
colony,  which,  when  bees  are  in  their  wild  state,  is  often  a  considerable 
distance  away.  In  the  meeting  of  the  sexes,  which  alwavs  takes  place  in 
the  air  often  a  considerable  distance  from  the  hives,  a  further  safeguard 
against  inbreeding  is  the  aversion  of  the  voung  queen  to  drones  which  come 
from  her  own  hive,  and  have  the  same  family  odour.  When  a  number  of 
-colonies  occur  close  together,  as  in  an  apairy,  the  necessity  of  large  numbers 
of  drones  ceases,  as  a  limited  numl)er  are  alwavs  raised  in  each  liive.     Not- 


53° 


Journal  of  Ai^ric////Nrc.   Victoria.  [lo   Sept..  1912. 


withstanding  all  efforts  to  suppress  their  production,  the  aggregate  number 
is  quite  sufficient  under  the  conditions  of  closer  proximity  of  colonies. 

A  sheet  of  foundation  is  embossed  with  the  pattern  of  worker  comb,. 
25  cells  to  the  square  inch,  and  as  the  inside  dimensions  of  a  standard'' 
frame  are  17  inches  by  8  inches,  there  are  3,400  cells  on  each  sire,  a  total 
of  6,800.  Making  a  liberal  allowance  of  cells  for  the  storage  of  honey 
and  pollen  around,  the  brood,  a  comb  of  all  worker  cells  produces  fully 
4,500  worker  bees  (i  lb.  live  weight)  in  one  generation,"  while  the  same- 
comb,  but  composerl  of  drone  cells,  would,  with  the  same  allowance  for 
storage  cells,  produce  2,900  drones.  The  amount  of  food  and  labour 
necessary  for  the  raising  of  4,500  workers  is  probably  the  same  as  for  2,900- 
drones,  but  while  the  workers,  from  a  few  days  after  hatching  onwards,, 
engage  in  productive  work,   the  drones  remain  consumers  to  the  end. 

Further,  the  presence  of  large  numbers  of  drones  in  the  hive  stimulates.^ 
the  swarming  impulse  of  bees  by  causing  crowding  of  the  brood  combs  and' 
that  condition  of  the  colony  which  precedes  swarming.  It  will  be  seeii 
from  the  above  that  the  use  of  all  worker  combs  not  only  increases  the- 
amount   of    surplus    honey,    but    also   counteracts   in    a    large   measure   the 


H 

p 

^■■1 

■■■ 

P 

5w[p 

i 

V 

^m 

|wlj 

■ii^^ 

^^ 

^ 

^^ 

^^pijji 

l^BB'a  vfMSjSs^v 

^Aq^kS^ 

ff^^Sss^ 

jSbJjssS 

BsSsSsShS***** 

IP 

1 

1 

1 

B 

l^pi^^ 

^^^ 

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^ 

FIG.     2. COMB    FROM    FULL    SHF.E  1     (Jl      1  (  )1   Nl  lA  I  K  iN  .     ,\l,l.     WORKER    CELLS. 

swarming  propensity  of  bees.  Under  certain  conditions,  which  will  be 
dealth  with  later  on,  the  use  of  starters  instead  of  full  sheets  is  not  only- 
permissible  but  even  advisable. 

2.   Faster  Comb-building. 

Apart  from  the  advantages  of  using  full  sheets  of  foundation  enumer- 
ated above,  the  saving  of  the  time  of  the  bees  by  the  quicker  building  of 
the  combs  and  the  consequent  greater  and  earlier  storing  of  surplus  honey 
will  amply  repay  the  extra  cost  of  foundation.  Up  to  a  few  years  ago 
it  was  assumed  that  when  given  full  sheets  of  foundation  the  bees  used  no- 
wax  of  their  own  secretion  and  wasted  that  which  they  secrete  involuntarily 
when  swarming,  while  quite  recently  the  prevention  of  the  exercise  of  one 
of  their  natural  functions,  the  secretion  of  wax,  has  been  held  responsible 
for  impaired  vitality  and  consequent  predisposition  to  disease.  Experi- 
ments have  shown,  however,  that  no  wax  is  wasted,  and  wax  secretion  not 
interfered  with.  A  sheet  of  foundation  of  the  grade  generallv  used  weigh.s- 
2  ozs.,  while  the  finished  comb  built  from  it  weighs  35  to  4  ozs.,  shownig" 
that  an  equal  or  nearly  equal  quantity  of  wax  of  their  own  secretion  was; 
added  by  the  bees.  In  another  experiment,  when  foundation  of  a  different 
colour  to  that  of  the  wax  secreted  bv  the  bees  was  used,  a  cross-section  of 


30  Sept.,  1912.] 


Bec-ki'cpifii;^  in   Victoria. 


531 


the   resulting   comb   showed   that    nearly   one-half   of   the   total    was   newly- 

•secreted  wax. 

As  half  the  wax  composing  the  combs  is  given  to  the  bees  and  the  other 

Lhalf  secreted  by  them,  it  follows  that  without  any  interference  with  their 
natural  functions,  double  the  amount  of  comb  is  produced  in  a  given  time, 
thus  bringing  the  colony  much  sooner  into  the  condition  for  storing  surplus 
honey.     The  speed  of  comb-building  is  also  accelerated  by  the  larger  surface 

•to  work  ujjon  presented  by  full  sheets  as  compared  to  combs  from  .starters. 

3.  Stronger  and  Straighter  Combs. 
The  importance  of  good  combs  for  the  raising  of  brood  as  well  as  for 
<extracting  cannot  be  overestimated.  Even  under  the  mo.st  favorable  con- 
ditions, the  combs  built  from  starters  are  rarely  equal  to  those  from  full 
sheets  for  either  purpose.  To  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  frame-hive  system, 
all  combs  should  be  interchangeable  without  in  any  way  interfering  with 
■their  utility.  This  result  can  only  be  obtained  when  the  combs  are  perfectly 
:straight.  The  correct  spacing  of  the  brood  combs  is  if  inch  from  centre  to 
'Centre;  this  distance  is  necessarv  to  allow  of  all  the  cells  being  used  for 
(ttrood,  e\en  when  the  combs  are  rjuite  straight.      When  crooked  combs  are 


FIG. 


-COMB     SHOWING    CELLS     SEALED    BY    THE    BEES. 


Interchanged,  the  projecting  portions  prevent  that  part  of  the  adjoining 
comb  immediately  opposite  being  occupied  by  brood.  This  also  occurs 
in  combs  adjoining  drone-brood.  To  get  the  maximum  number  of  worker 
fcees  reared  in  the  combs  of  the  brood  chamber,  they  should  not  only  be  of 
all  worker  cells,  but  also  perfectly  straight.  When  the  surplus  honey  is 
taken  by  means  of  the  extractor,  and  the  empty  combs  returned  to  the  hive 
to  be  refilled  bv  the  bees  over  and  over  again,  straight  combs  are  not  only 
much  easier  to  uncap,  but  suffer  less  damage  in  the  process  than  crooked 
combs,  particularlv  those  built  from  starters,  while  much  time  is  saved  to 
the  operator  in  uncapping  and  to  the  bees  in  repairing  damaged  combs. 
Combs  built  from  full  sheets  of  foundation  are  also  less  liable  to  melt  and 
loreak  down  in  hot  weather,  owing  to  the  stronger  midrid  in  the  comb  and 
the  fastening  to  the  bottom  bar  of  the  frame,  and  no  bee-keeper  should 
-use  starters  except  under  conditions  as  set  forth  below. 

Worker  Comb  from  Starters. 

To  get  workei  comb  built  from  starters,   it  is  necessary  to  understand 

-the  factors  governing  comb-building,     ^^'orker  comb  is  built  so  long  as  cells 

are  required  by  the  queen  to  deposit  worker  eggs  in  ;  under  all  other  con- 

"ditions  more  or  less  drone  comb  is  produced.      The  production  of  worker 


r  ^  -> 


Jounial  of  .\gncuUiirc ,   Victoria.  [lo   Sept.,  1912. 


cells,  therefore,  depends  upon  the  rate  of  egg-production  by  the  queen  and 
the  absence  of  worker  comb  already  built.  The  ideal  condition  is  that  of 
a  newlv-hived  swarm  with  a  prolific  queen.  If  the  queen  is  defective  in 
laying  owing  to  age  or  lack  of  vigour,  and  cannot  keep  pace  with  the  comb- 
builders,  drone  comb  will  be  built.  The  same  result  will  occur  when  the 
l)ees  from  the  first-laid  eggs  hatch  out  before  the  combs  completely  fill  the 
frames.  As  soon  as  bees  hatch  out,  the  queen  again  deposits  eggs  in  the 
cells,  neglecing  the  new  comb  which  is  in  cour.se  of  construction,  and  thus 
causing  the  building  of  drone  cells.  After  having  hived  a  swarm  on  a  set 
of  frames  with  starters,  and  allowed  them  to  work  for  four  or  five  days, 
some  of  the  frames  in  which  little  or  no  work  has  bet^n  done  should  be 
removed,  and  the  number  thus  reduced  to  what  they  are  likely  to  fill  with 
coml)  in  the  first  three  weeks  after  hiving.  This  rule  also  applies  to  colonies 
which  have  been  shaken  down,  that  is,  deprived  of  their  combs,  on  account 
of  fnulbrood.  Once  bees  begin  to  hatch  from  the  new  combs,  it  is  extremely 
difiicult  to  get  further  worker  combs  built  from  starters,  except  by  removing 
all  the  combs  but  one  or  two,  a  procedure  better  left  alone,  as  it  would  tend 
to  run  the  colonv  down  to  :i  \<  i\    ^n  ill  (  lu         \<Iiliti(in  il   w  <  iki  1  ci  mbs  are- 


FIG.     4. TWO    SHALLOW    FRAMES    OF     SEALED    COMB. 

best  secured  by  frames  with  full  sheets  of  foundation  given  either  al)Ove  or 
alongside  the  existing  combs. 

In  a  good  district  with  a  fair  honey  flow  on,  large  swarm.s  with  \igorous 
queens  may  fill  a  section  super  with  honey  while  building  their  brood  combs 
from  .starters,  but  a  queen-excluder  should  l)e  used  between  sections  and 
frames.  Such  favorable  conditions  do  not  often  obtain,  however,  and 
miost  bee-keepers  prefer  to  hive  their  swarms  on  drawn  combs  of  the  pre- 
vious sea.son,  and  when  these  combs  are  occupied,  put  a  set  of  frames  with 
full  sheets  on  top  to  get  combs  for  the  next  season  and  for  extracting  pur- 
poses. Once  two  or  three  sets  of  combs  for  each  colonv  are  in  existence, 
there  is  no  necessitv  for  further  comb-building,  as  colonies  can  lie  kept  fullv 
occupied  by  extracting  the  coml)s  whenever  thev  are  ready  for  it  and  return- 
ing them  to  be  refilled,  while  all  the  v.ax  secreted  is  required  for  the 
capping  of  the  full  combs. 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  less  drone  coml)  there  is  in  a  hive,  the 
more  likely  will  drone  comb  be  built  when  starters  are  given  to  an  estab- 
lished hive  between  finished  combs.  Such  a  comb  is  shown  in  Fig.  i  of 
the  illustrations.  Fig.  2  is  an  unsealed  comb  built  on  a  full  sheet  of 
foundation.  Fig.  3  a  comb  completely  sealed  over,  and  Fig.  4  capped' 
combs  in  half-depth  or  shallow  frames. 

{I'o  be  continued.) 


lo   Sept..  1912.]  (iciiiral  Xotcs. 


GENERAL    NOTES. 

DRILLING   VI':RSUS  BROADCASTING  OF  MANURES. 

I'hospliatic  mamirt-s  hci\e  a  sprcial  t'llrct  in  encouraging  the  growth  of 
a  <r()[)  in  its  far]\-  stages  and  thus  establishing  a  good  ])lant.  In  order  to 
exercise  this  effect  the  manure  must  be  sowewhere  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
seed  as  the  voung  plant  has  no  wide-spreading  roots.  Drilling  the  manure 
with  the  seed  gives  the  desired  conditions  with  the  smallest  expenditure  of 
manure.  ^Experiments  were  conducted  in  Hungary  to  find  whether  drilling 
or  broadcasting  superphosphate  gave  the  better  return  on  cereal  crops,  and 
the  results  are  described  in  the  Dent.  Landic.  Pressc,  j8  (1911).  Barley, 
oats,  wheat,  and  rye  were  the  crops  grown,  and  it  was  found  that  102  lljs. 
of  superphosphate  api)lied  with  the  drill  gave  better  results  than  307  lbs. 
ap[)lied  broadcast  on  the  a\erage  of  all   the  tests. 


MEAT  EXPORTS. 

Four  of  the  Australian  States  sent  meat  to  the  L'nited  Kingdom  in 
191  r,  the  non-exporters  being  Tasmania  and  Western  Australia.  The 
exports  totalled  1,962.008  carcases  of  mutton.  1,649.043  of  lamli, 
and  521.654  quarters  of  beef.  Compared  with  the  figures  for  1910, 
the  exports  show  a  decrease  of  28  per  cent,  in  mutton,  an 
increase  of  12  per  cent,  in  lamb,  with  beef  nearly  steady.  In  the  ca.se  of 
each  class  of  produce,  more  than  one-half  of  the  total  export  came  from 
one  particular  State.  Thus  Xew  South  Wales  sent  59  per  cent,  of  the 
mutton,  Victoria  65  per  cent,  of  the  Iamb,  and  Queensland  95  per  cent,  of 
the  beef  shipped  from  the  Commonwealth.  The  Agent-General  in  London 
reports  the  prospects  for  trade  with  the  United  Kingdom  in  191 2  to  be 
"  \ery  satisfactory  '"  from  the  AustraliiUi  point  of  view.  From  time  to 
time  during  the  last  six  years,  efforts  have  been  made  to-  induce  the  Conti- 
nental Governments  to  allow  the  import  of  frozen  meat  into  their 
dominions,  but  regarding  this  he  states: — "  Speaking  generallv  of  European 
countries,  I  fear  that  they  are  all  imperxious  to  external  pressure  in  the 
matter  of  the  removal  of  trade  restrictions.  There  are  many  thousands  of 
workmen  in  all  the  great  indu.strial  countries  who  rarely  taste  fresh  meat; 
it  cannot  be  supposed  that  this  condition  will  last  for  ever,  and  when  the 
barriers  against  the  importation  of  frozen  meat  are  broken  down,  it  will  be 
by  pressure  frrim  within."'  The  position  is  encouraging  to  those  who  take 
lonnr  views. 


DRAINING  WITH   DYNAMITE. 

A  good  deal  has  been  heard  recentlv  of  the  use  of  dynamite  and  other 
high  explosives  in  the  removal  of  tree  stumps  and  for  breaking  up  hard 
subsoils  in  the  orchard,  but  the  latest  application  of  the  explosives  is  in 
the  drainage  of  swamps.  Such  swamps  are  often  caused  by  the  surface 
waters  which  collect  on  low  ground  failing  to  percolate  through  a  com- 
l)aratively  thin  layer  of  impervious  clay.  The  water  is  held  as  in  a  saucer. 
A  Kansas  farmer  owned  a  40-acre  swamp  of  this  kind  on  his  land,  and  he 
proceeded  to  tap  it.  Across  the  lowest  part,  where  the  water  was  about 
3  feet  deep,  he  blasted  a  row  of  holes.  Tn  a  few  days  the  water  had  dis- 
appeared, and  in  the  following  season  he  is  said  to  have  reaped  1.600 
bushels  of  oats  froai  the  40  acres.  Since  then  he  has  produced  four  cutting.? 
■of  lucerne  annuallv  on  this  land. 


534  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [lo   Sept.,  19 r 3. 

SPRAYING  AGAINST  POTATO  DISEASES. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  for  twenty  years  on  potato  spraying 
at  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station,  U.S.A.,  and  Bulletin  ijcp  gives  a 
summary  account  of  the  results.  It  is  stated  that  by  the  application  of 
iJordeaux  mixture  there  was  an  average  increase  for  the  twenty  years  of 
105  bushels  per  acre,  equal  to  64  per  cent.  gain.  The  gain  from  the  use 
of  the  spray  ranged  from  18  per  cent,  in  1910  when  there  was  no  disease, 
up  to  215  per  cent,  in  1901  when  diseases  were  very  prevalent.  While 
the  figures  quoted  show  most  satisfactory  results,  it  has  to  be  recollected 
that  much  depends  on  the  time  and  manner  of  applying  the  spray,  and 
also  upon  the  climatic  conditions.  In  the  absence  of  disease,  Bordeaux 
mixture  is  believed  to  increase  the  yield  by  toning  up  the  plant. 


SEED  TESTING 

A  knowledge  of  the  quality  of  seed  sown  is  necessary  in  the  case  of 
any  crop,  but  it  is  particularly  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  seeds 
such  as  grasses  and  clovers.  There  are  two  respects  in  which  samples  may 
fall  short.  First,  the  sample  may  have  a  low  percentage  of  purity  due  to 
the  presence  of  foreign  and  weed  seeds.  Second,  the  true  seeds  in  the 
sample  may  show  a  low  perceniage  of  germination.  Dealing  with  this  ques- 
tion, a  number  of  examples  of  the  need  for  seed-testing  are  given  in  the  ^ 
Journal  of  the  New  Zealand  Department  of  Agriculture.  One  of  these 
may  be  quoted.  The  price  for  a  certain  line  of  white  clover  was  is.  id. 
per  lb.,  and  good  white  clover  could  be  purchased  for  is.  6d.  The  cheaper 
sample  gave  a  purity  of  64  per  cent.,  and  a  germination  of  2td>  P^r  cent. 
From  these  figures  it  is  apparent  that  100  lbs.  of  the  "seed  "  contained 
just  over  21  lbs.  of  pure  white  clover  capable  of  growing.  The  germinat- 
ing capacity  of  the  weed  seeds  is  not  stated,  but  it  is  asserted  that  the 
greatest  factor  in  the  spread  of  weeds  in  New  Zealand  is  the  use  of  impure 
seeds.  Cheap  seed  is  always  bad,  and  there  are  no  "bargains"  in  the  seed 
trade.  The  sowing  of  cheap,  weed-infested  seed  is  the  most  expensive 
policy  that  a  farmer  can  adopt,  and  the  germination  of  grass  and  clover 
seeds  should  be  ascertained  before  buying. 


MANURING  FOR  MILK. 

Experiments  on  the  manuring  of  cow  pastures  were  started  in  1909  by 
the  Midland  Agricultural  and  Dairy  College,  England.  In  the  spring  of 
that  year,  8  acres  were  dressed  with  10  cwt.  ground  lime  per  acre.  A  few- 
days  later  one-half  of  this  area  received  4  cwt.  superphosphate  and 
I J  cwt.  sulphate  of  poLash  per  acre.  The  two  4-acre  plots  were  then  sepa- 
rately fenced  off,  and  no  further  applications  of  manure  have  been  made 
to  them.  The  method  of  the  experiments  was  to  graze  cows  on  the  plots 
each  summer  and  note  the  respective  milk  yields.  At  first  two  cows  were 
allotted  to  each  plot,  but  it  was  found  later  that  three  could  be  carried. 
The  two  lots  of  three  cows  exchanged  plots  every  fortnight  in  order  to 
eliminate  differences  in  the  milking  capacitv  of  the  cows.  The  experiments 
have  completed  their  third  year,  and  each  vear  the  manured  section  has 
yielded  most  milk.  The  original  cost  of  the  manures  was  jQi  9s.  per  acre, 
and  over  the  three  years  the  gross  revenue  from  the  manured  section  has 
been  increased  by  jQ6  5s.  6d.  per  acre,  leaving  a  net  profit  of  jQ^.  i6s.  6d. 
per  acre  from  the  use  of  the  manures.  It  is  estimated  that  the  manures 
are  not  vet  exhausted. 


lo  Sept.,  191 2.]  The  Mischievous  Dodder.  535 

THE    MISCHIEVOUS    DODDEII. 

Perhaps  no  more  striking  instance  of  the  necessity  for  seed  cleaning 
could  be  advanced  than  that  of  clover  seed.  When  it  is  delivered  from  the 
threshing  machine,  it  is  no  more  fit  to  send  out  to  farmers  for  sowing  than, 
so  much  sand  or  sawdust.  To  begin  with,  the  seed  is  mixed  up  with 
quantities  of  foreign  matter — earth,  small  stones,  vegetable  fibres,  frag- 
ments of  wood,  and  the  like.  Of  course,  this  miscellaneous  collection  is- 
not,  in  itself,  injurious  to  the  prospective  crop  ;  but  it  serves  to  "  make 
weight  "  in  a  manner  entirely  derogatory  to  the  interests  of  the  buyer.  So 
all  these  odds  and  ends  must  be  carefully  sifted  from  the  seed.  Nor  is- 
this  all.  For  among  the  newly-threshed  seed,  presumably  clover,  there 
is  certain  to  be  a  considerable  quantity  of  seed  which  will  germinate  and 
spring  up  as  weeds  of  different  varieties — all,  of  course,  harmful  to  the 
clover  crop.  Among  these  injurious  seeds  is  an  exceedingly  minute  one, 
to  detect  which  the  seed  merchant  must  be  constantly  alert.  The  plant 
which  springs  from  it  is  a  veritable  blood-sucker,  and  is  known  as  the 
dodder.  Now,  the  dodder  is  not,  as  some  suppose,  a  fungus,  but  a  true 
flowering  plant,  which  has  acquired  the  parasite  habit.  Out  of  its 
germinating  seed  comes  a  little  club-shaped  root,  which  seeks  the  soil, 
while  its  young  leafless  stem  grows  upward  like  a  thin  thread,  slowly 
moving  round  in  sweeping  circles.  Should  this  stem  fail  to  come  into  con- 
tact with  a  clover  plant,  it  eventually  falls  prone  upon  the  earth,  and  the 
embryo  dodder  soon  dies.  But  let  it  once  touch  its  prey — the  clover — 
and  it  grips  it  with  all  the  tenacity  <■  f  the  well-known  bind-weed,  to  which 
it  is  nearly  related.  Moreover,  it  not  only  holds  to  the  clover  for  support, 
but  actually  drives  its  "  sucking  roots"  right  into  the  substance  of  the 
clover's  stem,  and  absorbs  the  vital  sap  of  its  helpless  host. 

As  soon  as  the  dodder  has  thus  taken  hold,  its  root  dies  away.  There- 
after it  has  no  connexion  with  the  soil,  as  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  plant ; 
nor  does  it  produce  a  single  leaf.  It  becomes  a  rapidly-growing  mass  of 
red,  hair-like  fibres,  twisting  about  its  victim  the  clover,  and  sending  out 
sucker  roots  at  every  possible  point  of  contact.  Thousands  of  tiny  white 
flowers  are  produced,  each  destined  to  mature  many  seeds  ;  but  the  increase 
of  the  dodder  is  an  unmixed  evil,  for  it  is  a  hopeless  hanger-on  in  the 
economy  of  nature.  Fortunately,  the  seed  of  dodder  does  not  ripen  very 
freely  in  England ;  but  this  saving  clause  fails  to  apply  to  seed  brought 
from  abroad.  Thus  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  agriculturist 
shall  be  acquainted  with  the  history  of  his  clover  seed  when  he  makes  a 
purchase,  or  else  make  it  a  rule  only  to  buy  such  seeds  from  firms  of  recog- 
nised standing. 

The  seed  of  dodder,  as  already  mentioned,  is  exceedingly  small,, 
and  the  aid  of  an  expert  microscopical  botanist  must  be  invoked  b)efore  a 
given  quantity  of  clover  seed  can  be  pronounced  "  free."  All  big  seed 
merchants  are  scrupulously  particular  on  this  point.  After  the  clover  seed 
has  been  passed  through  delicately  adjusted  machinery,  which  extracts  the 
seeds  of  weeds,  parasites,  and  every  particle  of  rubbish  in  a  manner  as 
unerring  as  instinct,  numerous  samples  are  taken  from  the  bulk,  and  sub- 
jected to  the  closest  scrutiny  through  the  microscope.  If  this  final  test  fails 
to  reveal  impurity  of  any  kind,  then  the  clover  seed  is  pronounced  "clean," 
and  guaranteed  as  such. — (From  the  Southland  Times.) 


Cleanliness  comes  next  after  godliness.       Some  say  that  in  the  dairy   it 
should  come  before  it. 


536 


Journal  of  A\^ricnHiirc ,   Victoria  [lo   Sept.,  1912. 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  TREES. 

{Coiifi lined  frt'in  pa^c  ■\^<^-) 

C.   F.    Cole.   Orchard  Supervisor. 

Fungus  Diseases. 

Fungi,  like  mosses,  are  a  low  form  of  i)lant  life.      They  belong  to  the 
great   cryptogamir   grouj),    which   includes    phmts   that    are   flowerless   and 

'  hence  do  not  produce 
seed.  In  fungi,  pro- 
pagation is  l)v  si)ores  of 
various  kinds. 

Fungi  live  on  the 
substance  of  other 
l)lants.  Some  draw 
their  nourishment  from 
li\ing  plants  (parasites). 
Some  live  on  dead 
phmt  substance  (sapro- 
])hvtes).  When  a  para- 
site can  live  for  a  time 
on  dead  plant  tissue  it 
is  called  a  facultative 
saprophyte.  This  pro- 
pertv  is  of  importance 
in  securing  the  survival 
at  times  of  parasitic 
infection. 

An  attack  by  plant 
fungus  differs  from  an 
attack  bv  in.sect  life  in 
the  following  particu- 
lars : — (jenerally  with 
insects  the  attack  is 
gradual  and  may  be 
noticed  from  the  earli- 
est stages.  The  serious- 
ness of  an  attack  is 
generally  controlled  by 
the  rapidity  with  Avhich 
they  perpetuate  their 
kind.  But  with  most  of  the  fungi,  their  presence  is  not  observable  until  the 
harm  is  actuallv  done.  It  is  thus  specially  incumbent  upon  growers  to 
applv  a  suitable  fungicide  at  a  time  which  will  prevent  the  spores  from 
germinating,  and  so  destroy  the  fungus  in  its  early  .stages  of  growth. 

The  germination  of  spores  and  the  growth  of  fungi  attacking  fruit  trees 
is  largely  controlled  and  influenced  by  the  climatic  conditions  prevailing  at 
the  season  suitable  for  their  development.  During  a  phenomenally  wet 
spring,  summer,  or  autumn,  some  species  of  fungi  cause  considerable 
damage  that,  in  normal  seasons,  would  do  little  or  no  harm.  Dry  weather 
conditions  are  adverse  to  their  growth,  whilst  damp  .soil,  bad  drainage, 
excessive  irrigation,  and  a  moist,  humid  atmosphere  are  all  favorable. 


FIG.    7--- 


-PEACH    BUD    ATTACKED    BY    LEAF 
CURL    FUNGUS. 


lo  Sept.,  191 .2.] 


P) (,pagati())i  of  Fruit   Trees 


l\acli  Curl  (K.xoascits  df  form  tins.  Fckl.). — This  parasitic  fungus  disease 
is  confounded  with  the  crimping  and  curling  of  the  foliage  and  twisting 
of  the  terminal  ends  of  young  shoots,  caused  by  an  attack  from  Peach  Aphis 
(black  and  green  species).  However,  a  very  sligiit  practical  knowledge  of 
this  fungus  will  serve  to  distinguish  its  workings  trom  that  of  Ajjhides 
When  the  growing  buds  are  attacked,  the  leaves,  and  very  often  the  stems, 
become  swollen,  fleshy,  distorted,  and  curled,  changing  in  colour  from  green 
to  a  ruddv  or  dirty  gifcy,  whilst  from  aphis  attack,  the  foliage  and  shoots 
become  crimped  and  curled  only.  If  neglected  and  the  weather  and  other 
conditions  are  favorable,  this  fungus  will  spread  rapidly,  and  do  consider- 
able damage  to  the  growing  peach  and  nectarine  buds.  Some  varieties  are 
more  susceptiljle  to  attack  than  others.  If  neglected  the  inroad  of  the 
disease  on  the  well-known  variety  of  peach,  Elberta,  is  so  severe  that  the 
growing  buds  either  die  out  or  become  weakened 
and  useless  as  a  .sound  type  for  planting  out. 

Treatment. — When  selecting  buds  in  the  autumn 
for  propagation  purposes,  .secure  them,  if  possible. 
from  trees  that  were  free  from  attack,  or  trees 
that  were  well  sprayed  in  the  spring,  strictly 
avoiding  anv  growths  ha\ing  a  distorted  or  swollen 
appearance.  The  buds  should  receive  a  spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  Lime-sulphur  wash  as 
soon  as  they  start  to  move  in  the  spring.  Place  the 
nozzle  Oi  the  spray  close  to,  and  direct  the  wash 
well  into  the  buds,  using  high  pressure.  This  is 
an  all -important  factor  when  attacking  this  fungus 
and.  indeed,  most  other  disease  of  a  like  nature. 

The  buds  should  be  closelv  watched,  and  if 
there  is  the  slightest  sign  of  attack  a  further  spray- 
ing should  be  given.  This  will  be  when  the  growth 
of  the  buds,  which  is  rapid,  is  from  i  inch  to 
6  inches  in  length.  If  no  steps  have  been  taken 
to  spray  as  a  deterrent,  and  the  buds  are  attacked, 
all  sw^ollen  or  distorted  leaves  should  be  cut  away 
and  burnt,  and  spraying  proceeded  with  at  once  to 
prevent  spreading.  If  the  stem  is  attacked,  reduce 
the  growth  back  into  healthy  wood  and  at  a  basal 
bud.       (See  Fig.    73.) 

If  the  stem  is  attacked  along  its  whole  length, 
the  growing  bud  is  ruined  and  worthless.  Having 
to  cut  away  diseased  leaves  or  reduce  back  the  growth  at  all.  like 
I^ig-  73'  i'^  a  very  poor  secondary  operation  to  fall  back  upon. 
This  check  to  the  growing  bud  is  generally  so  severe  that  at  best  only 
a  poor  type  of  tree  is  produced.  The  di.sease  is  more  prevalent  in  wet, 
cold  districts,  and  where  trees  are  growing  in  wet,  cold,  and  undrained 
s?ils.  Well-drained  and  aerated  soil  is  an  all-important  factor  in  the  propa- 
gation and  cultivation  of  the  peach  and  nectarine.  Yearling  pruned  trees 
in  the  nursery  row  should  be  sprayed  when  the  buds  are  bursting  and  again 
when  the  leaves  are  developing. 

Prime  Rust  {Puccinia  prinii.  Pers.). — To  the  kinds  of  stone  fruit  trees 
-subject  to  attack,  this  disea.se  seldom  causes  serious  harm  in  the  nurserv 
row.  As  a  fact,  the  fungus  usually  appears  after  the  trees  have  made 
their  full  growth.  If  weather  conditions  are  at  all  favorable  after  a  good 
Tainfall   in   late   .summer   or   early   autumn,    the   rust   mav   spread   rai)idlv. 


FIG.   73. METHOD  OF 

TREATMENT. 


53^  Joiinial  of  Agriculture ,  Vicioria.         [lo  Sept.,  1912. 

attacking  first  the  lower  leaves  ui)on  the  branches,  and  working  upwards  to 
the  terminal  ones,  the  result  being  that  the  trees  are  divested  of  their  foliage. 
If  the  attack  is  confined  solely  to  the  leaves,  the  loss  of  foliage,  being  some- 
what gradual,  may  be  l<Toked  upon  as  of  no  great  detriment  to  the  young 
trees  growing  in  the  nursery  at  this  time  of  the  year.  To  a  very  large 
extent  this  is  true  so  far  as  the  propagator  is  concerned,  but  if  such  trees 
were  to  be  left  standing  in  the  nursery  row,  and  untreated  for  a  limited, 
period,  the  continuous  premature  shedding  of  the  foliage  would  have  such 
an  injurious  effect  upon  the  health  of  the  trees  that  they  would  become  ver}^ 
much  weakened.  By  neglecting  this  disease  in  the  nursery  it  is  dissemin- 
ated to  the  planter,  as  the  winter  spores  shelter  behind  or  around  the  buds. 
One  of  the  causes  that  may  induce  the  buds  of  stone  fruits  to  drop  away 
from  the  sheath  after  unity  has  taken  place  with  the  stock,  is  found  in  this 
disease.  Buds  selected  from  trees  attacked  are  weak  and  prematurely 
hardened  through  the  loss  of  healthy  leaf  actions  and  exposure. 

The  disease  is  easily  recognised.  The  upper  surface  of  the  foliage 
becomes  covered,  or  partly  so,  with  yellowish-coloured  blotches,  and  if 
the  under-surface  of  the  leaves  be  examined  directly  beneath  these  yellow 
patches,  numerous  small  dark-brown  spots,  known  as  pustules  will  be 
found.  Treatment. — Spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  Lime  sulphur  wash 
just  before  the  buds  burst  and  again  when  the  foliage  is  fully  expanded, 
directing  the  fungicide  well  beneath  the  leaves.  The  time  and  number  of 
sprayings  will  be  controlled  by  the  climatic  conditions  prevailing  at  the 
time.  Upon  the  first  signs  of  attack,  spraying  should  be  proceeded  with  at 
once.  Growers,  when  planting  stone  fruits  such  as  almonds,  apricots, 
nectarines,  peaches,  plums,  should  spray  the  young  trees  before  or  after 
planting  with  one  of  the  already-mentioned  fungicides,  either  as  a  deterrent 
or  to  destroy  or  prevent  germination  of  any  fungus  spores  that  may  be 
concealed  upon  any  parts  of  the  young  trees. 

Leaf  Scald  or  Fruit  Spot  {Entomosforium  maculatum  Lev.). — This 
fungus  disease,  which  has  been  shown  to  exist  in  Australia  by  Mr.  D. 
McAlpine  no  further  back  than  the  year  191 1,  is  in  respect  of  appearance 
and  method  of  attack  identical  with  an  old  leaf  trouble  which  attacked 
seedling  pears  and  at  times  worked  varieties  in  the  nursery  row,  and  was 
well  known  to  many  old  propagators  who  termed  it  pear  leaf  rust.  The" 
virulence  of  this  leaf  trouble  is  controlled  by  the  weather  conditions  pre- 
vailing during  midsummer  and  early  autumn.  If  the  seasons  happen  to  be 
wet,  this  leaf  rust  soon  defoliates  the  stocks  or  trees  attacked,  but  in  normal 
weather  little  harm  is  done.  After  the  discovery  and  actual  proof  was- 
made  known,  the  writer  submitted  pear  leaves  to  Mr.  McAlpine,  secured 
from  seedling  stocks,  where  this  old  leaf  rust  trouble  was  known  to  exist 
for  many  years,  and  it  was  diagnosed  as  Entomosforium  maculatum.  Like 
the  prune  rust,  its  attack  is  usually  too  late  in  the  nur.sery  row  to  cau,se 
serious  trouble,  but  if  untreated  there  is  the  danger  of  transmitting  it  to  the 
grower,  consequently  serious  harm  may  be  done  to  the  pear  crop.  The 
disease  is  readily  recognised,  and  the  following  description  by  Mv. 
McAlpine  will  enable  its  presence  to  be  detected  in  the  nursery  row  : — ■ 
"  The  foliage  becomes  pale  in  colour,  spotted  all  over,  chiefly  upon 
the  upper  surface,  and  falling  away  early.  The  spots  are  very 
definite  and  distinct,  generally  circular  in  outline  at  first,  of  a  ruddy  colour, 
then  they  run  into  one  another,  and  become  brownish,  and  ultimately  the 
black,  slightly-projecting  fructification  of  the  fungus  appears  upon  them."' 
Treatment. — Spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  Lime  sulphur  wash  as  a 
deterrent  when  the  buds  are  bursting  or  as  soon  as  the  presence  of  thi<> 


lo   Sept.,  191  i.j  Propagation  of  Fruit   Treei.  539 

<lisease  is  detectt-d.  When  selecting  buds  from  mature  trees  for  propa- 
gation purposes,  only  select  growths  that  carry  healthy  foliage.  In  some 
localities,  if  no  steps  are  tifKen  to  prevent  its  spread,  this  pest  may  make 
its  appearance  upon  the  seedling  pear  stocks  early  enough  to  prevent 
successful  budding  operations  being  carried  out. 

Potvdery  Mildew  of  Apple  {Fodosphaera  leucotriciia  Saint.). — This 
fungus  di.sease  is  troublesome  at  times  in  moist  localities,  or  where 
favorable  conditions  pre\ail.  causing  damage  to  the  growths  of  apple 
-stwks  and  growing  buds  in  the  nursery  row.  It  is  recognised  by 
attacking  the  terminal  ends  of  the  growing  shoots.  The  surface  of  the  leaves 
and  twigs  appear  as  if  covered  with  white  felt,  caused  by  the  great 
•quantity  of  spores  pre.sent,  hence  the  name  of  powderv  mildew.  The  result 
of  an  attack  is  that  the  foliage  becomes  dried  up,  and  the  terminal  end 
of  the  growths  and  branchlets  die  back.  If  this  disea.se  is  not  recognised 
•early,  the  trouble  may  be  attributed  to  root  or  other  causes.  Treatment. — 
If  discovered  and  recognised  in  its  early  stage,  spray  at  once  with  Bordeaux 
niixture  or  Lime  sulphur  wash.  If  in  an  advanced  stage,  cut  away  diseased 
jjarts  and  burn,  following  up  by  spraying  with  either  of  the  already- 
mentioned  fungicides.  flowers  of  sulphur  or  freshly  slaked  lime  will 
destroy  this  pest  if  dusted  on  as  soon  as  detected  in  its  early  stages  of 
development. 

Root  Rot  {Arrnillaria  niellea,  Vahl.). — This  deadly  fungus  is  not  to  be 
treated  lightly.  It  confines  its  attack  to  the  roots  and  that  portion  of  the 
stem  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  very  soon  brings  about  a  state  of 
debility  and  ultimately  death.  It  is  an  indigenous  fungus  preying  upon 
many  forms  of  nati\e  trees  and  shrubs,  and  is  prevalent  in  cool, 
moist,  timbered  localities,  particularly  mountainous  ones.  Symptoms 
of  Attack. — The  foliage  of  stocks  or  young  trees  attacked  in  the 
imrsery  row  becomes  sickly  in  colour,  finally  falling  if  the  attack  is 
severe,  and  the  terminal  ends  of  the  shoots  die  back.  Upon  removal  from 
the  soil  the  bark  upon  the  stem  or  roots  will  be  found  to  be  dead,  dying, 
or  decayed,  according  to  the  progress  of  attack,  the  black  cord-like  mycelial 
strands  of  the  fungus  covering  the  roots  like  a  dense  felt  or  network.  If 
the  dead  or  decaying  bark  is  removed  from  the  roots  or  stem  then 
white  sheets  of  mycelium  are  to  be  found  between  the  inner  bark  and 
wjod.  Treatment. — When  clearing  and  breaking  up  virgin  soil  for  plant- 
ing, all  roots,  bark,  &c.,  should  be  carefully  gathered  up  and  burnt.  If 
any  signs  of  white  mould  or  felt-like  substance  is  seen  upon  the  bark  or 
roots  when  clearing,  the  soil  should  be  given  a  good  dressing  of  fresh  lime 
Avhen  ploughing,  if  planting  is  to  follow  close  upon  clearing  and  breaking 
up.  Soil  should  be  broken  up  before  or  in  the  spring,  and  allowed  to 
remain  in  a  rough  state  through  the  hot  weather  to  sweeten  and  aerate  until 
the  autumn,  when  it  should  be  well  disced  and  finally  worked  into  a  suitable 
state  of  tilth  for  planting.  The  roots  of  stocks,  &c.,  secured  from  a 
locality  favorable  to  root  rot  should  be  dipped  into  a  fungicide  such  as 
I  lb.  of  sulphate  of  iron  dissolved  in  4  gallons  of  water  or  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture 6 — 4 — 50  formula.  Any  stocks  or  young  trees  showing  symptoms  of 
attack  should  be  carefully  dug  up  and  burnt.  Then  the  soil  from  where 
they  were  removed  should  be  stirred  up  and  watered  with  either  of  the 
above-mentioned  fungicides,  or  a  good  dressing  of  fresh  lime  given  to 
prevent  its  spread  to  other  stocks,  &c.,  close  by.  As  there  are  several  fungi 
causing  root  rot,  all  stocks  and  trees  showing  any  signs  of  a  whitish  mould 
about  the  roots  should  be  dipped  before  planting.  Although  an  attack  by 
this  fungus  may  not  have  been  noticed  until  the  trees  have  become  vege- 
tative and  are  well  on  into  the  growing  season,  the   actual  damage  to  the 


54°  Joiinia!  of  Aiiric/zltiirc .   Yictoria.  [lo   Sept.,  1912^ 

roots  or  stem  may  have  been  caused  in  late  autumn  or  during  the  winter 
months,  and  then,  owing  to  the  root  action  being  interfered  with  in 
supplying  moisture  to  the  active  top  at  a  season  when  moisture  is  all- 
essential,  symptoms  as  already  described  are  brought  about.  Good  drainage 
plays  an  all-important  part  in  controlling  and  checking  the  spread  of  this 
pest.  Very  often  the  damage  done  is  attributed  to  root-borers,  bad  drain- 
age, or  similar  conditions,  when  the  true  cause  is  ArmiUaria  mellea.  Exces- 
sive moisture  in  the  soil  through  irrigation  or  natural  causes  during  hot 
weather  may  be  the  rreans  of  developing  this  fungus  rapidly.  The  writer's- 
experience  is  that,  if  introduced  upon  stocks  or  trees  to  a  clean  locality,  this, 
fungus  will  remain  in  a  dormant  state,  or  nearly  .so,  for  at  least  two  vears 
W'ithout  the  stocks,  &:c.,  .showing  signs  of  attack.  As  soon  as  conditions 
favorable  to  it  are  bi-ought  about,  through  irrigation  or  other  causes,  its 
spread  is  rapid,  and  death  to  the  trees  certain. 

Collar  Rot  {Fiisnriiini  Iniioiiis.  /hois.) — l.ouo)!  Bark  Blotch  {Ascocliyta 
Corticola;  McAl[).). — Root  Rot  of  Lemon  {P/ionia  ommvora.  McAlp.). — 
The  worst  fungus  di.seases  that  the  propagator  and  grower  of  citrus  trees- 
have  to  contend  with  are  those  known  as  Collar  Rot,  Lemon  Bark  Blotch, 
and  Root  Rot  of  Lemon.  Although  the  same  conditions  favour  the  de^•e- 
lopment  and  spread  of  them  all,  in  appearance  they  are  different.  Collar 
Rot.  which  is  probablv  the  best  known,  is  no  doubt  often  confounded  with 
Bark  Blotch. 

Collar  Rot. — The  first  symptom  is  the  exudation  of  small  i)articles 
of  gum  from  the  bark  at  the  seat  of  trouble.  The  bark  eventually 
becomes  usualh-  deep  brown  in  colour.  It  is  generallv  when  the  bark  is 
changing  colour  that  the  physiological  coiiditions  of  the  tree  is  noticed  to 
be  undergoing  a  change.  The  foliage  appears  to  be  sickly  and  pale- 
yellowish  in  colour.  Matured  trees  generally  show  signs  of  heavy 
fruit  production.  Bark  Blotch. — The  symptom  of  attack  with  this 
disease  is  verv  similai^  to  that  of  Collar  Rot,  the  difference  being  that  the 
diseased  bark  is  usually  .sooty  black  in  colour,  instead  of  brown,  and  that 
gumming  is  absent.  The  bark  eventually  cracks,  and  peels  off.  Root 
Rot. — Generally  the  first  symptom  of  attack  is  observed  through  the  foliage 
becoming  unhealthy  and  pale  in  colour.  Upon  the  soil  being  remoAed 
around  and  close  to  the  butts,  the  bark,  if  attacked,  will  have  an  unhealthy 
appearance,  and  upon  scraping  the  bark  lightlv  it  will  be  found  to  be  dead 
or  decaying.  Such  conditions  generally  start  at  the  extremity  of  the  roots, 
working  u])wards  to  the  ground  level.  At  times  this  disease  works  rapidly 
in  the  nursery  row  if  over-irrigation  is  practised.  The  leaves  then  suddenly 
droop,  have  the  appearance  of  requiring  moisture,  and  if  a  tree  attacked 
in  the  nur.sery  row  is  pulled  it  will  leave  the  soil,  and  sometimes  the 
freshly-decayed  bark  upon  the  roots  will  be  left  behind. 

Trees  once  attacked  Avith  Root  Rot  rarely  recover  if  the  attack  of 
the  fungus  is  general  upon  all  the  roots.  \x\  some  instances  the  attack  is 
confined  to  the  roots  upon  one  side  of  the  tree  only.  If  conditions  favor- 
able for  the  development  and  spread  of  this  fungus  remain  for  any  length 
of  time,  its  action  is  rapid  and  deadly.  Should  anything  occur  to 
change  these  conditions,  then  the  trees  attacked  may  linger  for  years 
before  dying  out,  and  indeed,  in  rare  instances,  mav  e\'en  regain  their 
vigour,  particularly  those  branches  upon  the  side  of  the  tree  opposite  to 
that  part  of  the  trunk  or  roots  attacked.  With  Root  Rot.  if  the  upward 
spread  of  the  disease  should  become  checked  before  too  serious  harm  is- 
done,  very  often  fresh  roots  strike  out  from  the  health}-  basal  parts. 


Sepi  ..  191:;.] 


Propa\:^alii>)i  nj  bruit   Tree 


i4r 


Amongst  grijwrrs  tht'iv  is  a  dixersity  of  oijiiiiou  as  to  the  prexentiou 
of  Collar  Rot.  The  following  are  some  of  the  theories  : — (Xo.  i)  Worked 
trees  are  more  susceptible  than  those  propagated  by  layers  or  cuttings. 
(Xo.  2)  Trees  worked  low  (l(jwn  upon  the  stocks,  particularly  tho.se  grafted, 
are  more  subject  to  the  disease  than  budded  trees.  (Xo.  3)  Only  certain 
stocks  should  be  used  for  propagation  purpo.ses.  (Xo.  4)  X  >  trees  should 
be  propagated  from  one  that  had,  or  one  that  has  got,  Collar  Rf;t.  If  so. 
all  such  trees  will  die  sooner  or  later  from  the  di.sease,  arguing  that  the 
disease  is  hereditary.  After  clDSf  obser\ation  it  is  found  that  with  trees 
growing  in  a  certain 
soil,  locality.  ])osi- 
tion,  and  rtceiving 
certain  treatment, 

these  theories  to  some 
extent       are      sound ; 
but       if       the       same 
class      of      trees       is 
grown  under  different 
conditions     with     re- 
gard to  .soil,   locality, 
>S:c. ,    opposite    results 
are     obtained.      Take 
the       stock       theory. 
Trees  worked  upon  a 
certain    stcnrk,    grown 
in      a      certain      soil, 
with     a      free     natu- 
ral    drainage,    receix - 
ing    no    artificial     ir- 
rigation,   thrive     well 
and  remain  verv   free 
from        the       fungus 
diseases       mentioned. 
But        when       grown 
under  artificial  irriga- 
tion,     upon      another 
class      of      .soil,      the 
trees  become  diseased 
or  die  out.    X'o  hard- 
and-fast  rules  can  be 
laid    down    from    anv 
of  the.se  theories. 

The    chief     factor 
in    growing   and   pro- 
pagating   citrus    trees    fig. 
is  to  have  a  thorough 

knowledge  of  the  class  of  .soil  to  be  planted,  the  locality,  and  condi- 
tions under  which  trees  are  to  be  grown,  and  the  class  of  propagated 
tree  whether  suited  or  not  to  such  conditions.  When  propagating  citrus  trees 
in  the  nursery  row,  great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  soil  is  a  friable 
one,  naturally  or  easily  drained,  and  that  over-irrigation  is  not  practised, 
as  the  chief  causes  of  developing  the  fungus  di.sea.ses  mentioned  are  bad 
drainage,   unsuitable  soils,   and  excessive  irrigation.       With  the  citrus  tree 


"4- 


-LEMOX    TREE    ATT.ACKED   BY    COLLAR    ROT. 


542  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [lo   Sept..  19 ij. 

we  have  so  far  no  universal  stock  for  propagation  pur[)oses  suitable  for  all 
conditions. 

Treatment. — Seedling  stocks  or  young  trees  attacked  in  the  nursery  row 
t)y  any  of  these  three  fungus  diseases  should  be  dug  up  and  immediately 
burnt.  If  standard  trees  are  attacked  by  Collar  Rot  or  Bark  Blotch,  the 
•diseased  part  should  be  cut  away  as  soon  as  detected,  care  being  taken  to  see 
that  all  diseased  and  discoloured  bark  and  wood  is  removed.  Then  paint  the 
wound  with  equal  ptarts  of  liquid  carbolic  and  Stockholm  tar.  Give  a  good 
■dressing  of  lime  before  replanting  stocks  in  soil  in  which  trees  have  died 
irom  fungus  diseases.  Rank  weed  growths  should  be  ke[)t  down,  and  no  mulch 
allowed  to  lie  about  the  trunks,  particularly  during  late  autumn,  winter,  or 
■early  spring  as  damp  and  decaying  matter  close  to  the  butts  favours  the 
■development  of  fungus  disease.  If  using  stable  manure  or  other  matter 
as  a  mulch  durmg  the  dry  season,  keep  it  away  from  the  butt  about  6  inches, 
.and  remove  the  mulch  not  later  than  the  following  April  by  raking  it  away 
from  beneath  the  trees  to  the  centre  of  the  rows,  either  to  decay  or  be 
ploughed  in.  When  the  trees  have  attained  a  fair  size,  plough 
only  the  one  way  each  time ;  cross-ploughing  should  be  avoided. 
Ploughing  close  to  the  trees  should  not  be  practised.  Dusting 
lime  upon  the  butts  and  beneath  the  trees  is  very  beneficial  to  the 
health  of  citrus  tree^.  Spra)ing  the  butts  with  a  fungicide  once  or  twice 
.a  year  is  also  good.  Gross  growth  in  the  nursery  row  or  citrus  grove 
should  not  be  encouraged.  The  trees  should  be  kept  in  the  best  of  heart, 
.and  if  a  fertilizer  is  required  the  following  mixture  will  be  beneficial  :  — 
Sulphate  of  potash,  4  cwt.  ;  blood  and  bone  manure,  16  cwt.  It  is  far 
t)etter  to  apply  a  fertilizer  twice  in  the  year  than  all  at  one  time ;  early 
spring  and  autumn  are  the  suitable  seasons.  The  quantity  per  tree  is  con- 
trolled by  its  condition  and  size — roughly,  a  tree  ten  years  old,  of  average 
size,  should  receive  5  to  6  lbs.  at  each  dressing. 

The  following  will  enable  growers  to  prepare  the  fungus  washes  which 
have  been  recommended  : — Bordeaux  Mixture. — Bluestone  (sulphate  of 
•copper),  6  lbs. ;  fresh  unslaked  lime,  4  lbs.  ;  water,  50  gallons. 
Slake  the  lime  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  and  then  make 
up  to  25  gallons.  Pulverize  the  bluestone  and  dissolve  in  a 
small  quantity  of  hot  water,  then  make  up  to  25  gallons.  Stir 
lime  and  bluestone  water,  and  run  evenly  through  a  strainer  into  a  third 
Tessel.  Stir  well,  and  apply  with  a  fine  spray.  Lime-SuIpJiur  Wash  (Stock 
Mixture). — Best  lime,  10  lbs.  ;  sulphur,  20  lbs.  The  lime  is  added  to  2 
gallons  of  water  placed  on  a  fire  ;  when  slaking  is  well  started  the  sulphur 
is  added,  and  water  to  make  all  to  a  thin  paste  is  then  poured  in.  When 
slaking  and  mixing  are  complete,  10  gallons  of  water  are  added  and  the 
mixture  boiled  for  an  hour  stirring  all  the  time.  At  the  end  of  the  hour 
there  must  be  10  gallons  of  mixture.  Covering  lihe  stock  mixture  with 
paraffin  oil  will  prevent  air-ciusting.  When  diluting  for  spraying  take 
I  gallon  of  stock  mixture  and  dilute  to  8  gallons  with  water. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash  is  used  on  trees  when  dormant  or  just  when  buds 
are  beginning  to  open  at  a  density  of  1.03  and  at  a  density  of  i.oi  when 
huds  have  burst.  The  strengths  given  in  the  foregoing  i  in  8  and  i  in  25 
give  approximately  these  respective  densities,  if  the  mixture  is  made  as 
directed.  It  must  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  Lime-Sulphur  Wash  is  still 
in  an  experimental  stage  and  should  not  be  given  preference  over  Bordeaux 
Mixture.  Caution. — Lime-Sulphur  Wash  when  buds  &c.  are  vegetative 
should  only  be  used  at  a  strength  of  i  in  25. 

{Concluded.) 


lo   Sept.,  191 2.]  W'lieat  and  its  Ctdtivailon.  543 

WHEAT  AND  ITS  CULTIVATION. 

{Continued  from  page  465.) 

Xo.   7.— MANURIAL  PROBLEMS. 

A.  E.  V .  Rich  nd son,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  Agricultural  Superintendent. 

It  has  already  been  demonstrated  that  the  most  important  requirement 
of  a  permanent  system  of  agriculture  is  the  maintenance  of  the  productive 
power  of  the  soil,  and  that  the  permanent  efficiency  of  any  given  method 
of  cultivation  must  be  determined  by  its  effect  on  soil  fertility. 

Under  a  good  system  of  farming  the  soil  will  gradually  increase  iif 
productive  power.     Poor  soils  may  be  improved  and  rich  soils  made  richer. 

Bad  methods  of  cultivation,  however,  will  gradually  deplete  the  soil 
of  its  fertility,  and  render  rich  soils  incapable  of  producing  other  than 
mediocre  crops. 

Factors   Involved  in  Soil   Fertility. 

Soil  fertility,  in  practical  language,  is  the  cropping  capacity — the  pro- 
ductive power — of  the  soil.  It  is  a  complex  of  many  factors — some  external 
-^some  internal. 

Obviously,  the  climate  is  the  most  important  external  factor,  and  the 
amount  of  rainfall,  its  seasonable  distribution,  the  range  of  temperature, 
&.C.,  are  controlling  influences  in  successful  farming.  Excluding  these 
climatic  considerations,  however,  as  entirely  beyond  human  control,  we 
may  say  that  the  fertility  of  a  soil  is  dependent  on  the  chemical,  physical , 
and  biological  nature  of  the  soil.      Let  us  consider  these  points  seriatim. 

Chemical  Composition. — One  of  the  most  common  characteristics  of  a 
fertile  soil  is  that  it  contains,  in  a  soluble  or  available  form,  a  sufficiency 
of  those  elements  necessary  for  the  nutrition  of  plants.  These  are  ten  in 
number  fp.  200),  namely,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  potassium,  iron,  magnesium,  calcium  (lime).  The  first  three 
are  obtained  from  the  air  and  water,  the  remaining  seven  are  obtained 
from  the  soil. 

All  these  elements  are  essential  plant  foods.  Fortunately,  seven  of 
these  ten  essential  constituents  are  present  in  most  soils  in  overflowing 
quantities.  The  other  three— nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potash — are 
frequently  wanting  or  deficient.  As  the  yield  of  the  crop  is  governed 
by  the  amount  of  the  most  deficient  element  present,  it  is  obvious  that 
a  study  of  the  three  substances  referred  to  is  of  immediate  practical 
importance.  Lime  sometimes  becomes  of  considerable  practical  importance 
in  assisting  production,  but  the  necessity  for  lime  invariably  arises  from 
a  faultv  physical  and  biological  condition  of  the  soil,  and  not  because 
it  is  actually  required  for  plant  food. 

In  the  case  of  the  wheat  crop  (straw  and  grain),  of  the  to'al  amount 
of  food  taken  in  by  the  crop^ — 

(i)  No  less  than  93^  per  cent,   is  obtained   from  the  air  and  from 

the  rain. 
(-)  3l  P^r  cent,   consists  of  mineral  substances  with   which  the  .soil 

is  abundantly  supplied. 
(3)  About   3   per  cent,    consists   of   nitrogen,    phosphoric   acid,    and 
potash,  which  the  soil  contains  in  strictly  limited  quantities. 
Hence,  that  portion  of  the  plant's  needs  which  man  may  require  to  supplv 
is  only  a  small  fraction  of  that  which  is  yielded  by  crops.       But  it  is  an 


544  Joiinial  of  A^i;ric///f//ri\   Victoria.  [lo   Sept.,  191 2. 

indispeiisible  fraction,  and,  as  will  l)e  seen  later,  on  this  simple  fact  rests 
the  whole  practice  of  manuring. 

So  far  as  chemical  considerations  are  concerned,  it  would  appear  that 
a  fertile  soil  is  one  which  contains  a  suflficiency  of  plant  foods — and  par- 
ticularly nitrogen,  phosphoric  arid,  and  potash — in  an  available  or  soluble 
form.  J'>mphasis  must  be  laid  on  the  presence  of  available  plant  food, 
becau,se  the  greater  portion  of  the  plant  food  is  locked  up  in  inert  forms, 
i.e.,  in  forms  incapable  of  being  used  by  the  plant.  It  may,  therefore,  he 
readily  underst(x>d  that,  while  a  soil  may  contain  large  reserves  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  it  may  yet  be  unable  to  support  the  growth  of 
a  decent  crop.  Such  a  soil  would  pos.sess  potential  fertility,  but  could 
only  become  really  fertile  bv  methods  of  soil  treatment  which  would  bring 
about  a  conversion  of  the  dormant  plant  food  into  available  forms. 

It  must  be  clear,  also,  that  under  certain  circumstances  the  amount  of 
available  plant  food  in  the  soil  may  be  reduced  to  such  a  low  level  that 
there  is  insufticient  for  the  requirements  of  a  normal  crop.  Under  these 
circumstances,  the  soil  is  said  tO'  be  "  worn  out,''  or  "  exhausted." 

It  was  formerlv  supposed  that  the  fertility  of  a  soil  could  be  determined 
bv  chemical  analvsis.  Soils  were  analysed,  and  the  analyses  referred  to 
arbitrary  standards,  and  judgment  was  given  on  the  agricultural  possil)ili- 
ties  of  the  soil  under  re\'iew.  If,  for  example,  a  given  soil  was  analysed 
and  found  to  contain  o.i  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  o.i  per  cent,  of  phosi)horic 
acid,  and  0.2  ])er  cent,  of  potash,  it  was  judged  to  be  a  good  soil.  But  no 
agriculturist  who  knew  his  business  would  attempt  to  judge  a  soil  merely 
bv  the  results  of  its  chemical  analvsis.  and  to  say  what  crops  should  be 
grown  and  what  manures  should  be  a])[)lied. 

Soil  analysis  can  tell  us  the  total  reserves  of  food  stored  up  in  the  soil, 
or  it  may  inform  us  as  to  the  amount  of  food  soluble  in  dilute  solution  of 
citric  acid,  but  it  can  throw  very  little  light  on  the  forms  in  which  the 
elements  of  plant  food  actuallv  exist  in  the  .soil,  and  as  to  the  amount 
actually  available  for  a  wheat  crop. 

Physical  Condition,  of  the  Soil. — A  soil  exceedinglv  rich  in  total 
nitrogen,  phosi)horic  acid  and  potash,  and  also  in  its  available  i)lant  food, 
may  yet  be  incapable  of  growing  a  blade  of  grass,  much  less  a  satisfac- 
torx  crop.  This  may  be  the  case  with  naturally  rich  but  Ijadly  <lrained 
soils,  and  .sour  land,  such  as,  e.g.,  one  would  expect  in  a  swamp. 

Hence,  to  be  fertile,  a  soil  must  not  only  be  rich  in  plant  food,  but  it 
nmst  possess  a  satisfactory  physical  condition.  Howe\"er  rich  a  soil  may  be 
in  plant  food — total  or  available — its  fertility  will  be  low.  if  it  is  sour,  or 
in  need  of  draining,  unretentive  of  moisture,  or  of  poor  texture,  and  low 
capillary  power.  The  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  if  unsatisfactory^  and 
inimical  to  successful  cropping,  may  be  improved  by  tillage,  drainage,  and 
the  use  of  soil  amendments.  These,  however,  lie  outside  the  scope  of  the 
present  article. 

Closelv  correlated  and  intimately  bound  u})  with  the  physical  condition 
and  chemical  composition,  is  what  may  be  termed  the  biological  condition 
of  the  .soil. 

Biological  Condition  of  Soil. — The  soil  used  to  be  regarded  as  a  mere 
inert  mass  of  matter  void  of  all  vitality.  We  now  know  that  it  is  really 
a  vast  laboratory  swarming  with  millions  of  microscopic  bacteria,  and 
that  these  bacteria  play  a  most  important  part  in  the  nutrition  of  plants. 
The  importance  of  these  lowlv  organisms  may  be  appreciated  bv  briefly 
referring  to  the  functions  of  the  more  important  bacteria  found  in  every 
soil. 


lo   Sept.,  1912.]  ]V//i'ai  and  Its  Ciiltivalioii.  545 

Perhaps  the  most  imptjrtant  grou])  of  organisms  are  the  nitrifying 
bacteria.  The  nitrogen  required  by  the  wheat  plant  can  only  Ixi  taken 
in  bv  the  root  in  the  form  of  nitrates.  These  nitrates  are  formed  from 
thf  organic  matter  of  soil  bv, three  distinct  processes,  each  process  involving 
a  distinct  set  of  bacteria.  The  process  by  which  this  organic  nitrogen  is 
converted  into  nitrates  is  called  nitrification.  Detailed  experiments  relating 
to  this  process  have  alieady  appeared  in  this  Journal*  It  is  interesting 
to  note,  in  this  connexion,  that  these  nitrifying  organisms  require  for  their 
full  development — {a)  air  ;  {h)  warmth — they  thrive  best  at  99  degrees  F.. 
and  are  ten  times  more  acti\e  at  that  temperature  than  at  57  degrees  F.f  ; 
(c)  moisture  ;  (d)  pre.sence  of  lime  ;  {c)  organic  matter. 

Opposed  to  these  nitrifying  organisms  are  the  denitrifxing  bacteria, 
which  undo  the  valuable  work  of  the  nitrifying  organisms,  and  are  most 
active  when  the  soil  is  deficient  in  air.  as  a  result  of  bad  drainage  or  want 
of  tillage.  When  these  bacteria  are  active,  the  s(;hible  nitrates  quickly 
disappear,  and  even  dissipate  to  free  nitrogen,  and  crop  yields  are  reduced. 
Everv  effort  .should  be  made,  therefore,  to  reduce  the  activity  of  these 
organisms  to  a  minimum. 

Again,  in  well-tilled  well-drained  soils,  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil  be- 
comes slowly  oxidized  h\  a  group  of  putrefactive  bacteria  to  carbon  dioxide 
and  other  products.  It  is  through  the  direct  action  of  ..several  form  of  bacteria 
and  through  the  indirect  effects  of  the  products  of  these  organisms,  that  a 
large  portion  of  the  insoluble  mineral  plant  foods  of  the  soil  are  rendered 
available  for  the  use  of  crops. 

In  badly  drained  .soils,  where  the  organic  matter  decomposes  in  the 
absence  of  air.  marsh  gas  and  organic  acids  are  formed,  and  sourness  and 
acidity  in  the  soil  thereby  result. 

On  the  roots  of  well-grown  sjfecimens  of  the  Lt\:^niiiiiiosu — the  pea 
family  of  plant.s — colonies  of  bacteria  of  great  economic  importance  exist. 
The  curious  nodules  or  wart-like  growths  on  the  roots  of  clover,  peas, 
beans,  and  lucerne,  are  the  dwelling-places  of  teeming  millions  of  organisms. 
They  live  in  a  .sort  of  partnership  with  the  legume,  and  ha\-e  the  power 
of  fixing  free  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  making  it  available  for  the  plant 
in  return  for  a  supply  of  carbonaceous  food  given  by  the  plant.  Thus, 
they  enable  a  farmer  to  supply  his  soil  with  its  most  expensive  plant  food 
free  of  cost.  This  inteiartion  is  called  symbiosis,  and  may  be  de.scribed  as  a 
kind  of  partner.ship  in  which  two  organisms,  differing  widely  in  character, 
live  together  for  the  advantage  of  both. 

Organisms  have  been  i.solated  by  WinogradskV  and  Beyerinck  wh.ich 
are  able  to  fix  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  without  associating  themselves  with 
anv  leguminous  plant.  The.se  organisms  .secure  the  food  necessary  for 
their  energy  from  the  decaying  organic  m.atter  of  the  .soil. 

Finallv,  recent  research  has  revealed  the  presence  of  numerous 
organisms  called  protozoa,  which  prey  on  the  various  bacteria  in  the  soil. 
It  would  appear  that  the.se  organism.s — the  natural  en'-mies  of  the  bacteria 
— are  destroyed  by  exposure  to  moderately  high  temperatuies,  leaving  a 
free  field  for  the  de\elopment  of  the  bacteria. 

The  tendency  of  this  teeming  bacterial  population  of  the  .soil  is  to  arrive 
at  a  state  of  equilibrium  appropriate  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  its 
physical  condition.  In  well-tilled  soils,  in  good  '"  heart  ""  and  condition, 
containing  adequate  supplies  of  carbonate  of  lime,  the  useful  types  of 
bacteria    predominate.    In  l)adly-tilled  soils,  sour  through  want  of  drainage,. 

*  Journal  of  Aqricmture.  Victoria,  pp.  275  and  393. 
t  Schloesing  and  Muntz. 


54^  Journal  of  AgncuUitre ,  Victoria.         [lo   Sept.,  19 12. 

•or  from  an  absence  of  lime,  moulds,  fungi,  and  harmful  types  of  bacteria 
flourish  to  the  exclusion  of  the  useful   forms. 

Summing  up,  we  may  say  that  a  soil,  to  be  fertile,  must  be  satisfactory 
from  three  i)oints  of  view  :  — 

{a)   It    must    contain    a    sufficiency   of    plant    food   in     a    ])roperly 

assimilable  form. 
{b)  It    must    possess    a    satisfactory  physical    constitution,  i.e.,  be 
of  good  texture,  mellow,  well  drained,  retentive  of  moisture, 
and  good  capillary  power, 
(c)   It  must  be  in  good  biological  condition,  so  that  free  plav  may 
be  given  to  the  development  of  those  bacteria   which   work 
for  the  advantage  of  the  crop. 
Formerly,   the  importance  of  the  chemical  aspect  of  the  question   was 
greatly  exaggerated.    To-day  it  is  recognised  that  many  important  problems 
•connected    with    the    treatment    of    soils    and    manuring  of    crops,   which 
iiitherto  have  been  incapable  of  explanation  bv  the  chemist,   may,    in  the 
near  future,  be  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  biologist. 

Manuring. 

The  object  of  manuring  is  to  supplement  the  supplies  of  plant  food 
in  the  soil  to  such  an  extent  as  to  enable  a  full  crop  to  be  grown. 

The  substances  requiring  special  attention  are  those  in  which  the  soil  is 
likely  to  be  deficient,  namely,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash. 

Occasionally,  however,  manures  are  applied  with  a  view  of  improving 
the  physical  and  biological  condition  of  the  soil  rather  than  augmenting 
the  supplies  of  plant  food.  This  is  the  case  when  soil  amendments,  such 
-as  lime,  gypsum,  and  green  manures,  are  used. 

If  the  soil  is  deficient  in  any  one  of  the  necessary  ingrerlients,  no 
amount  of  tillage  can  put  it  into  good  "  heart;"  and,  as  the  yield  of  the 
-crop  is  governed  by  the  amount  present  of  the  most  deficient  soil  ingredient, 
it  is  imperative  that  the  deficiency  be  made  good  by  the  direct  applica- 
tion of  fertilisers  if  satisfactory  crops  are  to  be  obtained. 

How  TO  Determine  Soil  Deficiencies. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  soils  vary  very  considerably  in  their  chemical 
•composition,  it  is  most  important  that  every  farmer  should  be  able  to 
•determine  for  himself  in  what  elements  his  soil  is  deficient.  It  has  already 
been  observed  that  chemical  analysis  is  of  little  value  for  this  purpose. 

The  most  practical  method  of  determining  the  soil  requirements  is 
■establishment  of  a  simple  set  of  experimental  plots.  By  this  means,  the 
farmer  puts  questions  to  the  soil,  and  the  answers  to  the  questions  are 
indicated  by  the  amount  of  growth  and  the  yield  of  the  crop  for  each 
:separate  treatment. 

A  simple  and  effective  scheme  is  to  arrange  for  the  sowing  of  a  series 
of  plots  at  seed  time  with  the  following  treatment  : — (a)  No  manure ; 
■{h)  phosphates  alone  ;  {c)  nitrates  alone ;  {d)  potash  alone  ;  {e)  phosphates 
jnd  nitrogen;  (/)  phosphates  and  potash;  {^  phosphates,  nitrogen,  and 
potash.  If  the  growth  and  development  of  these  be  carefully  observed, 
and  the  yields  from  each  separately  determined,  the  experiments  will  be 
able  to  determine  what  class  of  manures  is  likely  to  prove  profitable  under 
his  particular  conditions.  On  badly  drained,  sour  soils,  lime  supplemented 
3jy  phosphates,  should  be  included.  Having  determined  which  ingredient 
is  deficient  in  his  soil,  the  farmer  may  now  proceed  to  determine,  in  a 
similar   manner,    the   most   profitable   and   economical    form   in   which   this 


lo   Sf.pt.,  191-'.]  W I/cat  and  its  Citllivation.  547 

ingredient  may  be  ,'(])i)lied,  under  his  conditions,  as  well  as  the  most  profit- 
able rate  at  which  it  may  be  applied. 

Classification  of  Manures. 

Manures  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes.  Those  which  supply 
the  soil  with  elements  in  which  the  soil  is  deficient  are  called  Direct 
manures;  whilst  those  which  act  by  improving  the  physical  and  biological 
condition  of  the  soil  rather  than  bv  augmenting  the  supply  of  plant  food 
are  called  Indirect  manures.  Again,  Direct  manures  may  supplv  all  the 
elements  of  plant  food,  in  which  case  they  may  be  called  General  manures  ; 
or  they  may  contain  one  dominating  plant  food  ingredient  such  as  phos- 
phorus, potash,  or  nitrogen,  in  which  case  they  may  be  called  Special 
manures.  Finally,  the  Indirect  manures  may  be  either  vegetable  in 
character,  such  as  green  manures,  or  mineral,  such  as  lime,  gypsum,  salt. 

The  following  tabulated  statement  may  assist  in  making  the  matter 
clear  :  — 

fi.   Nitrogenous 
(-Special     \2.   Phosphatic 
(Direct    J  '■3.    Potassic 

!  [(ieneral — Farmyard  manure 

.        J  Mmeral — Lime,  gypsum 
[  Indirect^  Vegetable — Green  manures 

We  will  consider  these  seriatim  : — 

Nitrogenous   Manures. 

The  most  striking  and  fundamental  difference  between  the  manurial 
practice  of  Europe  and  that  of  Australia  is  that,  in  the  Old  World, 
nitrogenous  manures  are  all  important,  whilst  in  Australia  they  are  generallv- 
unneces.sary  and  unprofitable.  In  European  agriculture,  the  controlling, 
factor  for  successful  cropping  is  the  amount  of  available  nitrogen  present 
in  the  soil.  In  Australia,  assuming  the  rainfall  be  sufficient,  the  limiting; 
factor  in  crop  production  is  the  amount  of  available  phosphoric  acid. 

The  importance  of  this  distinction  is  obvious.  The  cereal  farmer  of 
the  Old  World  must  supply  the  all-important  nitrogen,  either  through  the 
medium  of  costly  nitrogenous  manures,  or  by  providing  a  regular  scheme 
of  rotation  in  which  leguminous  crops  play  an  important  part. 

The  cereal  farmer  of  Australia  finds  expensive  and  costly  nitrogenou.s- 
manures,  like  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  ammonia,  quite  unnecessary, 
and  he  is  thereby  saved  the  great  expense  incidental  to  their  application. 

His  manure  bill  amounts  to  2s.  6d.  to  4s.  6d.  per  acre,  and  this  amount 
is  expended  on  the  purchase  of  soluble  phosphates. 

117/ V  XitrogCHOus  Manures  are  Unnecessary. 

Whv  is  it  that  nitrogenous  manures  are  unnecessary,  and  even  unpro- 
fital)le.' in  the  wheat  areas  of  the  State?  At  fir.st  sight,  oiie  might  be 
inclined  to  the  belief  that  our  soils  were  richer  in  supplies  of  nitrogen  than 
those  of  Europe.  Examination  of  typical  .soils  in  the  wheat  areas,  how- 
ever, prove  that  such  is  not  the  case. 

Many  instances  might  be  quoted  of  Australian  .soils  which  have  proved' 
unresponsive  to  the  application  of  nitrates,  even  though  they  would  be 
regarded  as  lamentably  deficient  in  total  nitrogen  if  judged  by  European- 
standards  of  fertility. 

The  .soils  in  our  wheat  areas  have  not  been  under  cultivation  for  such 
a  length  of  time  as  to  reduce  the  supply  of  available  nitrogen  below  the 


548 


Journal  of  Ai^ri(-//I///ri'.   Victoria.  [lo   Sept.,  191. 


yearly  requirements  of  crops. 
Moreover,  it  is  extremely  proh- 
iible  that,  owing  to  our  j)eculiar 
climatic  and  soil  conditions,  the 
percentage  of  nitrogen  in  an 
available  form  is  considerably 
higher  than  under  the  wet  con- 
ditions of  Europe,  where  nit- 
rates are  so  verv  necessary. 
Under  European  conditions,  the 
heavy  rainfall  causes  consider- 
uible  losses  of  nitrates  by  leach- 
ing, and  large  quantities  of 
nitrates  are  found  in  the  drain- 
.age  waters.  In  contrast  to  this, 
underground  drainage  is  quite 
unnecessary  over  the  greater 
portion  of  our  wheat  areas,  and 
the  losses  of  nitrates  by  leach- 
ing are  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Again,  our  system  of  crop- 
ping is  not  as  intensive  as  that 
which  obtains  in  Europe.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  but  one  crop 
is  grown  in  two,  or  even  three, 
years  in  the  wheat  areas,  the 
•demands  made  by  the  crop  on 
the  soil  are  not  nearly  so  heavy 
as  in  European  countries,  where 
heavy  crops  are  annually  re- 
moved. 

Finally,  the  conditions  of  soil 
and  climate,  and  mode  of  crop- 
ping in  our  wheat  areas,  are 
conducive  to  rapid  nitrification 
of  the  organic  matter,  result- 
ing in  the  formation  of  a  snffi- 
<:iency  of  available  nitrates  for 
all  demands  of  the  cereal  crop. 

Most  of  the  wheat  sown  in 
this  State  is  on  fallowed  land, 
and  during  the  progress  of  fal- 
lowing nitrification  proceeds  at 
a  very  rapid  rate.    (Page  335-) 

Some  idea  of  the  amount  of 
nitrates  produced  in  well -til  led 
fallows  may  be  gained  from  the 
results  of  investigations  at  Lon- 
gerenong  during  the  past  eight 
months.  Incidentally,  the  figures 
conclusively  show  why,  in  dis- 
tricts similarly  situated  to  Lon- 
gerenong,  nitrates  prove  unre- 
sponsive when  sown  on  fallow 
land. 


< 

o 

« 

K 
C 

o 

H 
< 

P 

o 

fa 


I-!     I     -^ 

^;:  s 

J.  ""^     fi< 
°  ^    I 

Oh       &4 

g  °  -s 

o  ^   g 

W    H     -£ 
^     S     'S 

H^        '-'         -S 

<  o   ^ 


"A 
O 

< 

o 


oi 

0-. 

< 

^  10  «  Ti<  i>J         00 
CO  CO  -^  -t  00          (M 

- 

is  5  (=. 

t-  0  fM  'M  iM         (M 
C  TP  t^  r-  t^        •-^ 

00  ic  0  0  ©       ic 

■6 

il 

■S. 

1-07 
1  -00 
Trace 
1-67 
2-31 

1-20 

■6 
■5 

20-60 
Trace 
Trace 
3-46 
2-17 

5-25 

(4) 
28th  March,  1912. 

Non- 
fallowed. 

2-10 
1-10 
2-8 
2  -02 
1-70 

1-94 

Fallowed. 

0  0  (M        0 
10  r-  Tt<  Tt  0       0 

0  CO  !M  ^  (M        ffi> 

(3) 
6th  February,  1912. 

Non- 
fallowed. 

1-60 
Trace 
Trace 
1-41 
2-47 

1-10 

c 

(M  -^  CO  t^  00        to 
•     •    CO  i>  t^       r^ 
10  Ol   •     •     • 

(N         -H  — (  (N         CO 

(2) 
4th  January,  1912. 

Non- 
fallowed. 

0  t~  10  t^  0       00 
(N  C-1  CO  CO  -H         yi 

CO  ■?!  -H  — 1  rvj         c^ 

Fallowed. 

13-28 
3-12 
3-16 
1-71 
1-73 

4-6 

(1) 
7th  December,  1911. 

Non- 
fallowed. 

•p9;s9^  ;oK 

•6 

% 

0 

■3 

10-3 
Trace 
1-4 
3-1 
1-9 

3-4 

C 

3  S 

(1)  0"  to  12" 

(2)  12"  to  24" 

(3)  24"  to  36" 

(4)  36"  to  48" 

(5)  48"  to  60" 
Average  nitrogen  content 

of  first  5  feet 

Sept.  .  19  rj. 


\\'//i'a/  and  its  Ciiliii'afioii. 


549 


Table  1.  shows  the  amount  of  nitrates  found  in  each  of  the  first 
5  feet  of  soil  when  fallowed,  and  when  allowed  to  lie  in  pasture  The 
soil  samples  were  taken  in  two  ])arallel  lines,  the  distance  between  the 
fallowed  and  non-fallowed  portions  being  10  yards,  whilst  the  distance 
between  each  successive  sampling  was  5  yards. 

The  nitrogen  determinations  were  made  by  Mr.  P.  K.  Scott,  Cliemist 
for  Agriculture. 

In  the  above  tallies,  it  will  be  ncjted  that  the  anmunt  of  nitrate  present 
in  each  layer  is  continually  changing.  These  changes  follow  closely  on 
the  changes  in  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil.  With  heavy  showers,  the 
nitrates  get  washed  down  to  lower  depths.  rndt-r  hot  dry  siiells,  they 
tend  to  concentrate  near  the  surface. 

The  table  clearly  shows  that,  throughout  the  whole  period  during  which 
the  investigations  were  made,  the  fallowed  land  contained  far  more  nitrate 
than  the  adjacent  non-fallowed  portion.  If  these  tables  are  condensed, 
and  the  figures  reduced  to  pounds  per  acre,  this  point  may  hv  more 
■clearly  seen. 

Table  II. — ^Total  Nitrate  Nitrogex  in  the  first  five  feet  of 
Fallowed  and  Non-Fallow^ed  Land  under  Ordinary  Field 
Conditions    at   Longerenong    (Victoria),    1912. 


Date  of  Sampling. 


(1)  7th  December,  1911 
<-2)  4th  January,  191-2 

(3)  6th  February.  191-2 

(4)  •28th  March,"  1912 

(5)  20th  May,  1912 
(<})  7th  August,  1912 


Amount  of  Nitrate  Nitrogen. 
(In  Parts  per  Million.) 


Fallowed. 

Non-fallowed. 

3-4 

Not  taken 

4-() 

2-18 

(i-70 

1-10 

0-00 

1-94 

5-25 

1-20 

5-12* 

1-28 

Amount  of  Nitrogen. 
(Reduced  to  lbs.  per  Acre.) 


Fallowed. 

Non-fallowed. 

lbs.  per  acre. 

lbs.  per  acre. 

59-5 

Xot  taken 

80-5 

38-15 

118-3 

19-25 

105-U 

33-9 

91  -87 

21-0 

89 -ti 

22-4 

*   Now  under  crop. 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  nitrate  in  the 
fallowed  land  gradually  rose  from  595  lbs.  in  December,  to  118. 3  lbs.  in 
the  first  week  in  February,  after  which  it  gradually  fell  to  91-87  lbs.  per 
acre,  as  contrasted  with  21  lbs.  in  the  non-fallowed  portion.  As  a 
1 5-bushel  wheat  crop  removes  in  its  grain  and  straw  about  21  lbs.  of  nitro- 
gen (p.  203)  per  acre,  it  will  be  observed  that  there  was  four  and  a  half 
times  more  available  nitrogen  in  the  fallowed  portion  at  seed  time  than  was 
required  for  a    i5-f)ushel  crop. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  non-fallowed  portion  there  was  barely  enough 
nitrogen  to  supply  the  requirements  of  one  such  crop  even  assuming  that 
e\ery  particle  of  nitrate  nitrogen  in  the  first  ^  feet  could  have  been  used 
by   thf  croi). 

Moreover,  at  seed  time,  the  nitrate  nitrogen  in  the  fallowed  land 
amounted  to  71   lbs.  per  acre  above  that  of  the  non-fallowed  portion. 

If  nitrate  of  soda  containing  15  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  he  worth  14s. 
per  cwt.,  then  the  cash  value  of  this  extra  nitrate  content  of  the  fallowed 
land  over  that  of  the  uiifallowed  portion  anir>unted  to  no  less  than 
jQ2  19s.  2d.  per  acre. 


55°  Journal  of  Ai:;^riciiltiirc .   Victoria.  [to   Sett..  191 2. 

We  see  at  a  glance  from  these  figures  the  reason  why.  in  the  northent 
areas,  under  the  existing  methods  of  cultivation,  the  application  of  nitro- 
genous manures  are  unnecessary  and  unprofitable. 

In  the  Southern  and  Western  Districts  of  Victoria,  however,  the  same- 
climatic  and  soil  advantages  as  regards  nitrate  production  do  not  hold,  for 
in  these  districts  fallowing  is  far  less  common  (p.  336),  and  the  rainfall 
is  heavier,  and  in  these  districts  it  might  be  inferred  that  nitrogenous, 
manures  would  prove  of  some  value. 

The  needs  of  the  North  and  South  in  this  respect  have  already  been 
made  the  subjects  of  separate  inquiry  by  this  Department. 

Experiments  conducted  in  1902,  and  following  years,  brought  out  their 
differences  as  resulting  from  climate.  Thus,  in  the  Northern  Wheat  Areas, 
the  addition  of  soluble  nitrogenous  manures  (sulphate  of  ammonia)  to- 
phosphate  gave  an  increase  of  only  3  lbs.  of  wheat  per  acre,  on  the  average 
of  94  farms,  and  in  no  single  case  of  the  twelve  local  groups  into  which 
the  94  farms  were  divided  did  the  nitrogenous  manure  repay  the  cost  of 
its  purchase.  In  many  cases,  it  did  actual  harm — probably  as  a  result  of 
increased  leafage  causing  too  rapid  a  drain  on  the  soil  moisture. 

In  the  moister  Southern  Districts,  the  need  for  some  nitrogenous 
manure  was  apparent  in  the  experiments,  for  an  increase  was  obtained  iiT 
47  of  the  50  farms  by  its  use. 

On  the  average  of  the  50  farms,  i  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda  increased 
the  yield  of  hay  bv  nearly  6  cwt.,  and  r  cwt.  of  sulijhate  of  ammonia 
bv  exactly  8  cwt.  per  acre. 

To  summarize,  then,  it  may  be  said  that  the  need  for  nitrogenous- 
manures  in  this  State  is,  to  some  extent,  dependent  on  the  length  of  time 
the  land  has  been  under  cultivation,  but  is,  in  a  verv  large  measure,  also-- 
dependent  upon  the  climate.  In  the  drier  portions  of  the  State,  the  use  of 
nitrogenous  manures  does  not  seem  to  be  called  for,  and  it  may  even  prove 
harmful.  In  the  wetter  districts,  a  limited  call  for  nitrogenous  manure.s- 
exists  at  the  present  time,  and  this  may  be  expected  to  develop  as  cultiva- 
tion becomes  of  older  date. 

Manures  Co}iiain'nig  Nitrogen. 

The  principal  nitrogenous  manures  are  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  blood  manure,  calcium  cyanamide,  and  nitrate  of  lime. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  is  obtained  principally  from  the  nitre  beds  of  Chili 
and  Peru,  and  Bolivia.  The  commercial  article  contains  about  \^\  per 
cent,   of  nitrogen. 

It  is  extremely  soluble  in  water,  and  is  very  readily  leach^^d  out  of 
the  soil  by  excessive  rains.  For  these  reasons,  it  is  generally  applied  as  a 
top  dressing,  more  especially  in  districts  with  a  heavy  rainfall.  In  order 
to  insure  its  uniform  distribution,  it  should  be  mixed  with  two  or  three 
times  its  weight  of  drv  loam,  and  broadcasted  over  the  crop.  According  to- 
Lawes  and  Gilbert,  nitrate  of  soda  ap])lied  in  earlv  winter  is  never  as 
effective  as  when  applied  in  spring. 

Nitrate  of  soda  can  only  give  the  best  results  when  the  soil  is  well 
supplied  with  phosphates  and  potash,  and  is  deficient  in  available  nitrogen. 
If  it  is  to  be  used  in  conjunction  with  superphosphate,  it  is  inadvisable 
to  mix  the  manures  together  long  before  sowing,  as  a  loss  of  nitric  acid 
may  result. 

The  most  profitable  rate  of  application  for  anv  particular  soil  and  crop, 
can  only  be  determined  by  experiment.  Generally  speaking,  however, 
from  I  to  I  cwt.  per  acre  is  used  for  hay  crops  where  nitrates  have  been 
proved  to  be  necessary. 


30   Sept.,  1912.]  ]V//ca/  a>id  its  Cultivation.  551 

It  is  generally  held  that  nitrate  of  soda  stimulates  the  vegetative  rather 
than  the  grain-ljearing  power  of  cereals,  and  that  it  appears  to  exercise  a 
retarding  influence  on  vegetation  which,  in  our  climate,  must  always  prove 
more  or  less  detrimental.  Experience  at  the  Roseworthy  Agricultural 
College  during  the  i)ast  six  years  i(i<ide  Journal  of  Agricidtiire  of  South 
Aus'ralia,  Aug.,  191  1)  .shows  that,  under  Australian  conditions,  the  nitrate 
of  soda  has  not  stimulated  straw  and  flag  growth  at  the  expense  of  grain 
yield,  nor  has  it  had  a  retarding  influence  on  the  general  character  of  the 
vegetation  and  the  ripening  of  the  crop. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia  is  a  by-product  in  the  destructive  distillation 
of  coal,  and  is  obtained  from  the  "  gas  liquor  "  of  gasworks  by  neutralizing 
it  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  commercial  article  is  a  greyish-white  crystal- 
line salt,  extremely  soluble  in  water. 

It  contains  about  20  to  21  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  is  the  moirt  con- 
centrated and  expensive  of  nitrogenous  manures.  If  pure,  it  should 
entirely  volatilize  when  placed  on  a  red  hot  spoon.  Lawes  and  Gilbert 
have  used  it  with  great  success  in  the  cultivation  of  wheat  at  Rothamsted, 
and  have  demonstrated  that,  for  every  5  lbs.  of  ammonia  added  to  the 
soil,  an  extra  bushel  of  wheat  was  produced.  It  is  similar  in  its  action 
to  nitrate  of  soda,  but  before  being  u.sed,  it  must  first  undergo  nitrification. 

It  is  more  readily  held  by  the  soil  than  nitrate  of  soda,  and  is  therefore 
preferable  to  nitrate  of  soda  in  wet  seasons  and  on  soils  of  a  light  loamy 
character.  On  clay  soils,  it  is  best  replaced  by  nitrate  of  soda.  The 
continued  application  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  to  soils  deficient  in  lime 
leads  to  the  removal  of  some  of  the  lime  in  the  form  of  gypsum,  and  the 
soil  becom.es  acid  and  unsuitable  for  the  growth  of  crops. 

It  may  be  safely  mixed  with  superphosphates,  but  not  with  Thomas' 
phosphate,  or  manures  containing  free  lime,  as  portion  of  the  ammonia 
may  be  lost.  It  may  be  applied,  like  nitrate  of  soda,  as  a  top  dressing, 
but  should  be  used  rather  earlier  in  the  season  than  nitrate. 

Dried  Blood  is  a  highly  nitrogenous  organic  manure,  containing  about 
10  to  12  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  It  is  not  so  rapid  in  its  action  as  nitrate 
of  soda,  as  it  must  first  undergo  a  preliminary  nitrification  before  it  becomes 
available.  It  is  of  considerable  value  in  light  loamy  soils,  and  is  an 
excellent  manure  for  market-gardening  purposes. 

Calcium  Cyanamide  and  Nitrate  of  Lime. — In  1898,  Sir  William 
Crookes  suggested  that,  by  the  utilization  of  water-power,  electrical  energy 
might  be  generated  at  such  a  cheap  rate  as  to  make  the  fixation  of  the 
nitrogen  of  the  air  by  electrical  means  a  financial  success. 

His  suggestion  has  been  adopted,  and  at  Nottoden,  the  Norwegian 
Nitrogen  Company  are  now  manufacturing  nitrate  of  lime  electrically  from 
the  nitrogen  of  the  air. 

The  fertilizing  powers  of  nitrate  of  lime  and  nitrate  of  soda  for  equal 
amounts  of  nitrogen  are  approximately  the  same.  Experiments  have 
recently  shown  that,  on  sandy  soils  deficient  in  lime,  nitrate  of  lime  has 
a  more  beneficial  effect  than  nitrate  of  soda. 

Calcium  Cyanamide  or  Nitro-lime  is  prepared  from  the  nitrogen  of  the 
air  by  causing  it  to  combine  with  calcium  carbide  at  the  high  temperature 
■of  the  electric  furnace. 

This  substance  has  already  found  its  way  to  Victoria,  and  experimental 
plots  have  been  laid  out  at  Rutherglen  to  test  the  efficacy  of  these  various 
forms  of  nitrogen.  It  is  stated  that  the  after  effects  of  nitro-lime  are 
far  greater  than  other  nitrogenous  manures.  Experience  this  season  at 
Rutherglen  demonstrates  unmistakahlv  that  it  must  not  be  sown  with  the 


55- 


journal  of  A^riciiltitrc,   Victoria.  [lo   Sept..  1912. 


seed,  as  the  germination  is  seriously  affected.  The  future  of  these  two 
manures  will  depend  on  wiiether  they  may  be  produced  at  such  a  rate  as  to 
comptte  with  sul])hate  of  ammonia  and  nitrate  of  soda. 

(To  be  co}iti lined.) 


A   PROFITABLE  DAIRY  COW. 


The  illustration  herewith  is  a  typical  dairy  cow  of  pure  Ayrshire  breed- 
ing, the  property  of  Mr.  T.  Cook.  "  Carpentaria,"  Glenroy.  For  the 
season  just  ending,  covering  a  period  of  seven  rnonths,  she  has  produced 
5,530  lbs.  of  milk. 

This  cow%  Edith  .2nd.  was  purchased  from  the  breeder,  Mr.  J. 
Thomp.son,  "  Hazelmount,"  Krowera,  near  Loch,  Gippsland.  by  Mr. 
Cook's  father  at  the  RoNal  Show  sales,  September,  1905,  for  the  purpose 
cf  supplying  milk  and  butter  to  the  household. 

Mr.  Cook  has  weighed  and  recorded  this  cow's  milk  night  and  morning, 
with  the  following  result:  — 


Calved. 


O.  ..     16,  lOO.'^ 

Jai.    28,  1907 

June  22,  1908 

Sept.  26.  1910 

Nov.   l.=i,  1911 


Dried  off. 

Period 

of 

Milking. 

Ace 

at 

Calvin 

g- 

Milk. 

months. 

yrs. 

n 

ths. 

lbs. 

Oct.    29,  1906 
Mar.  1.^,  190S 
May     4,  1910 
Sept.  28.  1911 
June  14,  1912 

22i 
12" 

7 

2 
3 
4 

7 
8 

0 
4 

8 
0 

1 

7,786 
8.512 
13,06oi 
9,023 
5,530i 

43  917 


Average  per  milking  period 
Average  per  annum     ... 


8,783  lbs. 
6,273    „ 


The   Editor  will  be   glad    to  receive,  and,  when   authenticated,  to  publish   recoids 
of  cows  or  herds  ot  exceptional  merit.—  Editok. 


TO   Sept.,  1912.]  Vine  Moth  Caterpillar  Parasite.  S.S3 


THE   VINE   MOTH   CATERinLLAR  PARASITE. 

By   C.    French,    juti.,    Acting   Government    Entomologist. 

During  the  months  of  January,  February,  March,  and  April  last,  many 
shrivelled-up  Vine  Moth  caterpillars  were  noticed  on  the  vine  leaves.  They 
were  of  a  dark  colour.  On  investigating  the  matter,  I  noticed  that  a  para- 
site had  been  at  work,  so  I  made  further  search,  and  found  that  all  the 
live  caterpillars  had  clu.sters  of  larvae  on  their  backs.  The  colour  of  the.se 
larvae  is  at  first  orange  yellow,  but  when  more  fully  grown,  it  is  brownish 
yellow. 

When  the  eggs  of  the  parasite  are  first  deposited  on  the  caterpillars, 
they  are  exceedingly  small,  but  soon  develop.  The  larvae  grow  fairly 
rapidly,  and  spread  all  over  the  backs  of  the  caterpillars.  The  time  occu- 
pied from  the  eggs  being  deposited  until  the  larvae  are  fully  grown,  is 
about  a  week.  About  the  second  day  after  the  larvae  are  hatched,  the' 
caterpillars  cease  eating,  and  remain  in  the  one  place,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  week  thev  are^  simply  sucked  dry  by  the  parasite. 

When  the  caterpillars  are  dried  up,  the  parasites  cover  them  with  a 
silken  covering,  and  form  their  cocoons,  emerging  from  same  as  perfect 
insects  in  a  couple  of  weeks'  time. 

When    the    perfect    Hymenopterous    in.sects    were    hatched  out    in    the 

observation  box,   livg  caterpillars  of  the  Emperor  Gum  Moth,  and  several 

species  of  Cutworm  Moth  larvae  were  placed  in  the  box.   but  the  parasite 
did  not  deposit  eggs  on  them. 

These  parasites  are  reported  to  he  doing  good  work  this  season  in 
many  parts  of  Victoria,  and  it  is  hoped  that  they  will  keep  the  Vine  Moth 
in  check. 

C  hale  id. 

V'vg.        I.    Perfect  vine-moth.     Natural  size.     From  nature. 

Fig.      II.    Pupa  of  vine-moth.     Natural  size.     From  nature. 

Fig.    III.   Vine   leaf   with   vine-moth   larvae.      Natural   size.      From   nature. 

[a)  Full  grown  larva  in  healthy  state.      Natural  size.      From  nature. 

[b)  Sickly   larva  owing   to   development   of   parasite   fly,    larvre   from 

deposited   eggs.     Natural   size.     From   nature. 

[c)  Sicklv    larva  owing   to   development   of   parasite   fly     li-jvae   from 

deposited  eggs.     More  developed  state.     Natural  size.       From 
nature. 

[d)  Further.     Natural    size.      From   nature. 

[e)  Larva   killed  by   the  parasite.     Natural   size.      From   nature. 
{/)  Larva  with  parasite  larvge  changing  to  pupae.     From  nature. 
(g)  With  pupae  of  parasitic  fly.      Natural  size.     From  nature. 

Fig.    IV.    Parasitic   fly.  (Dorsal   view.)     Natural   size.     From   nature. 

Fig.      V.    Parasitic  fly.  (Side  view.)     Natural  size.      From   nature. 

Fig.    VI.    Parasitic    fly.  (Enlarged.)     From    nature. 
10543.  T 


554 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   Sept.,  1912. 


VINE    MOTH    CATERPILLAR    PARASITE. 


lo   Sepi.,  191^-]  Hoic  to  make  a  Blood  Si>nar.  555 

HOW  TO   MAKE   A    BLOOD  SMEAR. 

By   IF.   A.   N.   Robertson.   B.V.Sc. 

Numerous  inquiries  are  made  annually  to  the  Stock  Department  for 
information  as  to  the  probable  cause  of  deaths  amongst  stock  which  occur 
throughout  the  State.  Occ-iisionally,  in  addhion  to  describing  the  .symp- 
toms of  sickness,  si)ecimens  of  parts  of  organs,  blood,  &c.,  are  forwarded, 
in  the  hope  that  some  information  can  be  obtained.  Such  specimens,  how- 
ever, are  almost  useless,  as  changes,  due  to  putrefaction,  commence  during 
transit,  and  the  organism  responsible  for  this  change  either  masks  or  destroys 
any  organism  which  may  have  been  present  as  the  cause  of  mortality.  Useful 
information,  however,  can  be  obtained  from  an  examination  of  blood  and 
tissues  if  correctly  taken  ;  consequently  the  accompanying  description  of 
"  How  to  make  a  Blood  Smear"  will  prove  useful  if  kept  for  reference. 
The  description  is  given  of  how  to  make  a  smear  on  microscopic  slides  ;  these 
are,  of  course,  not  always  obtainable  by  the  farmer,  Vnit  any  slip  of  flat 
glass  will  answer  the  purpose  equallv  well,  and  the  smear  may  be  made 
with  the  end  of  a  clean,  unburnt  wooden  match.  The  essentials  to  be 
borne  in  mind  in  following  the  method  described  are  cleanliness  and  atten- 
tion to  detail,  especially  in  regard  to  the  drying  of  the  smear  in  the  air. 
Glass  upon  which  is  a  wet  smear  should  never  be  put  against  another  slip ; 
each  slip  must  be  dried  separately  and  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  paper  by 
itself  before  forwarding.  In  addition,  a  very  careful  description  of  the 
symptoms  of  sickness  should  be  recorded,  and  on  fost-mortcm  examination 
a  minute  description  of  the  appearance  of  all  the  organs  given.  No  detail 
is  too  small  to  record  if  an  accurate  diagnosis  is  to  be  made. 

To  Make  a  Blood  Smear. 

{a)   From  tlie  Living  Aiiiinal . 

Blood  may  be  taken  from  one  of  the  \"eins  which  run  along  the  upper 
surface  of  the  ear.  The  animal's  head  should  be  firmlv  secured,  and  the 
ear  washed  in  solution  of  washing  soda.  A  prominent  vein  should  then 
be  pricked  with  a  needle  (an  ordinarv  clean  sewing  needle  will  do)  or 
with  the  point  of  a  clean,  sharp  knife,  or  a  fine  inci-sion  can  be  made  on 
the  margin  of  the  ear.  As  soon  as  the  blood  flows  the  smears  should  be 
made;  if  delav  occurs  in  spreading  the  film  the  blood  will  coagulate  and 
the  .smear  be  a  failure.  Do  not  squeeze  the  vein  in  order  to  make  the 
blood  flow  ;  it  shfiuld  occur  quite  naturally. 

{h)  From  the  Dead  Au'imal . 

Having  opened  the  carcass,  blood  should  be  taken  from  the  spleen  or 
lymphatic  glands,  and  in  the  forwarding  letter  it  should  be  stated  from 
which  organ  the  smear  was  made.  Cut  the  organ  with  a  clean  knife,  and 
scrape  a  small  piece  of  the  cut  surface  off  with  the  edge  of  the  glass  slide. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  prepare  the  glass  slides  on  which  the 
blood  is  to  be  spread.  The  glass  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  kept  free 
from  dust,  and  should  be  polished  with  a  cloth  or  handkerchief  imme- 
diately before  use. 

To  make  the  film,  a  very  small  drop  of  blo'-d.  about  the  size  of  a 
millet  seed,  should  be  put  on  one  end  of  the_siide  by  means  of  either 
the  end  of  a  wooden  match  or  by  the  point  of  a  knife,  or  by  the  needle 
used  for  pricking  the  ear,  or  bv  one  of  the  corners  of  another  glass  slide. 


556 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   Sept.,  191 2. 


Then  plac^  a  second  slide  oA'er  it,  arranging  that  tlie  two  slides  together 
form  an  acute  angle  wherein  the  blood  drop  lies  ;  the  inclined  glass  slide 
should  touch  the  drop,  and  the  blood  will  then  run  along  the  edge  of  the 
slide,  and  the  inclined  slide  should  then  be  immediately  drawn  along  the 
horizontal  slide,  as  shown  in  illustration    when  the  required  film  will  result. 

Scrapings  from  the  organ  made  with  the  short  edge  of  the  slide  can 
be  drawn  over  the  horizontal  slide  in  the  same  manner.  It  is  very  easy 
tc  spoil  a  smear  by  making  it  too  thick,  and  the  film  should  always  be 
made  as  iJiin  as  possible.  A  rough  way  of  ascertaining  whether  the  blood 
film  is  too  thick  or  not  is  to  hold  the  slide  with  the  blood  smear  on  it 
up  to  the  light,  and  if  the  colours  of  the  rainbow  can  be  seen  on  the  glass, 
the  film  can  he  considered  as  being  thin  enough.  When  the  smear  has 
been  made,  allow  the  blood  on  the  glass  to  dry  in  the  air ;  when  dry,  wrap 
each  glass  in  a  .small  piece  of  thin  paper,  pack  carefully  and  forward  to 

The  Chief  Veterinary  Officer, 

Department  of  Agriculture, 

Melbourne. 


Fig.    I. — Glass  slide  with  drop  of  blood. 

Fig  II. — First  position  showing  position  of  slides. 

A.   Direction    in   which   top   slide   is   drawn. 
Fig.    III. — Second   position  of  slides  after  blood  smear  is  drawn  out  as  indicated. 
Fig.    IV. — Slide  showing  blood  smear. 


RED  POLLS  AS  BUTTER  PRODUCERS. 


(Scaso/i's  Milk  and  Butter  Record  of  the  Govermntnt  Herd.) 

In  continuation  of  the  returns  published  in  the  November,  191 1,  issue 
of  the  Journal,  the  tables  following,  compiled  by  Mr.  C.  K.  Harrison, 
Dairy  Supervisor,  show  the  mircing  record  for  the  1911-12  season  of  the 
(jovernment  herd  of  Red  Polled  Cattle  stationed  at  Boisdale,  Gippsland. 
These  returns  furnish  som.e  very  interesting  data,  both  as  regards  butter 
fat,  and  quantity  of  milk.  During  the  period  under  review  the  herd  has 
been  ted  on  the  natural  pastures  without  hand  feed  of  any  kind  except 
for  less  than  10  tons  of  lucerne  hay  and  5  tons  of  sugar  beet  offal,  given 
during  the  dry  autumn  and  towards  the  end  of  the  milking  period. 


TO   Sept.,  191:?.]  Red  Polls  as  Buffer  Producers.  557 

On  referring  to  table  A,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  majority  of  the  cows 
show  an  increase  in  milk  yield  this  season  over  that  of  1910-11.  The 
only  cows  producing  less  milk  this  season  being  "Connecticut,"  "Bullion," 
"  Virginia,"  and  "  Havana."  The  three  last-named  were  also  below 
their  butter- fat  returns  of  last  season,  whereas  "  Connecticut's  "  butter-fat 
yield  for  this  season  shows  an  increase  of  95  lbs.  This  cow's  test  in 
1910-11  was  4.2  per  cent,  to  4.6  per  cent.,  and  in  1911-12  from  4.6  per 
cent,  to  6.2  per  cent.  ;  such  a  case  as  this,  and  indeed  some  of  the  others 
also  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  systematic  weighing  and  testing  from  year 
to  year,  and  not  resting  content  wilh  one  year's  records.  The  money 
values  of  the  returns  this  vear  show  a  considerable  increase  over  tho.se  of 
last  year,  partly  due  to  the  higher  market  price  of  butter-fat  during  the. 
l)ast  .season.  The  average  monthly  increase  in  the  price  since  September, 
1911,  over  the  corresponding  period  this  year  was  3- id.  per  lb.  of 
i)utter-fat. 

The  weights  of  the  daily  milk  yields  were  recorded,  and  weekly  fat 
te.sts  made  by  Mr.  E.  Steer,  Dairy  Herdsman,  who  has  taken  a  keen 
interest  in  the  herd  and  managed  it  with  success.  The  butter-fat  tests 
have  been  checked  by  the  Senior  Dairy  Inspector  (Mr.  R.  T.  Archer)  and 
ihe  Chemist  for  Agriculture  (Mr.   Rankin  Scott). 

The  stud  bull  "  Tabacum  "  has  been  made  available  to  settlers'  cows 
on  the  Boisdale  Beet  Farms.  The  plan  has  L^en  adopted  of  selling  the 
bull  calves  under  one  year  old  at  prices  based  on  the  preceding  season's 
butter-fat  return  of  the  dam.  For  instance,  the  cow  "  Muria  "  returned 
240  lbs.  of  butter-fat,  which,  reckoned  at  is.  per  lb.,  etijuals  ;^i2 — the 
price  realized  for  her  calf.  This  is  considered  a  fair  basis  for  fixing  the 
\alue  of  a  bull  intended  for  dairy  purposes.  After  all  is  said  and  done, 
the  value  of  a  bull  is  in  his  potentiality  for  getting  good  milking  heifers, 
and  the  hereditary  influence  in  this  direction  posse.ssed  by  the  bull  can 
probably  be  best  estimated  to  the  extent  of  one-half  at  any  rate  by  the 
yielding  capacity  of  the  dam.  This  basis  of  sale  seems  likely  to  become 
popular,  as  last  year's  crop  of  bull  calves  haye  met  a  ready  sale  under  it. 

The  yearling  bull  "  Vuelta's  Son  "  (sire  "  Tabacum,"  dam  "  Vuelta  ") 
has,  however^  been  reserved  from  sale,  notwithstanding  a  very  tempting 
offer  for  him  received  from  a  breeder  of  Red  Polls  in  New  2Lealand  after 
reading  the  record  of  the  dam.  Prior  to  this  it  was  decided  to  reserve 
the  bull  for  stud  purposes  and  breeding  experiments  on  the  Central 
Research  Farm  about  to  be  established  at  Werribee.  On  referring  to  the 
tables,  it  will  be  .seen  that  the  dam  ••  Vuelta'"  is  a  phenomenal  })roducer. 
In  the  sea.son  1910-11  she  gave  556I  gallons  of  milk,  returning  405  lbs. 
of  butter-fat,  value  jQi']  los.  lod.  ;  and  in  the  past  season  .she  yielded 
485  lbs.  of  butter-fat  from  775  gallons  of  milk,  with  a  money  value  of 
jQ26  5s.  9d.  During  the  month  of  November  (twenty  weeks  after  calving) 
''  Vuelta"  averaged  19  lbs.  4  ozs.  of  butter-fat  per  week. 

The  herd  has  recently  been  augmented  by  the  purchase  from  Captain 
Philip  Charley,  of  Belmont,  Richmond,  New  South  Wales,  of  twelve 
females  and  a  young  bull,  "Nicotine,"  sired  by  the  imported  bull 
"Acton  Dewstone."  dam  "  Chessie,"  by  "Magician"  (imported).  These 
cattle  are  descended  from  deep  milking  strains  in  the  Old  Country,  and 
appear  to  have  the  milking  qualities  well  developed  ;  but  as  weighing  and 
testing  the  milk  is  the  only  reliable  proof  of  individual  milking  qualities, 
it  will  remain  for  their  records  to  show  to  what  extent  the  augmentation  of 
the  herd  in  this  way  is  advantageous. 


558 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo   Sept.,  191 2. 


Table  A. 

COMPARATIVE  SUMMARY  OF  YIELDS  AND  RETURNS  OF  THE 
GOVERNMENT  HERD  OF  RED  POLL  DAIRY  CATTLE. 

(Seasons  1910-11   and   1911-12.) 


Cow. 


Vuelta 

Connecticut 

Bullion 

Beulah 

Cuba 

Cigarette 

Sumatra 

Kentucky 

Muria 

Pennsylvania 

Carolina 

Virginia 

Havana 


Seaso> 

1910-11 

Season  1911-12 

Weeks 
in 

MUk 
/      in 

Butter 
Fat. 

lbs. 

V 

aliip 

Weeks 
in 

Milk 
in 

Butter 
Fat. 

lbs. 

Values. 

Milk.  ' 

Gallons. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

Milk. 

Gallons. 

£    5.    d. 

38i 

556-5 

405-1 

17 

10 

10 

■iU 

775-2 

485-1 

26     5     9 

40J 

818-2 

269-0 

11 

17 

4 

401 

678-2 

364  0 

19  11   10 

401 

773-3 

356-7 

15 

17 

10 

431 

694  ■  8 

344  0 

18  10     7 

39| 

646-5 

342-6 

15 

3 

6 

(Not  c 

oniplet 

ed.) 

401 

526-9 

231-8 

10 

5 

11 

431 

701-4 

337-8 

18  10     4 

34 

504-4 

211-6 

8 

18 

9 

41i 

648-1 

285-9 

15  14     & 

41* 

43-6 

19-6 

0 

19 

2 

42 

666-2 

284-2 

15     6     2 

361 

531-1 

225-9 

9 

12 

7 

391 

669-5 

277-7 

15     1     1 

401 

548-9 

240-7 

9 

14 

9 

41 

580-2 

275-7 

14  14   10 

381 

461-9 

189-7 

8 

4 

3 

451 

634-8 

271-9 

14  13  10 

401 

570-5 

253  1 

11 

3 

4 

321 

580  -  6 

254-3 

13  11     4 

401 

636-2 

254-7 

11 

5 

1 

391 

551-2 

221-7 

12     0     7 

401 

575-5 

229  -  9 

10 

5 

0 

371 

535  -  6 

215-3 

11   15     4 

*  Short  lactation  period  due  to  accident. 


Table  B. 


YIELDS  AND  RETURNS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  HERD  OF 
RED   POLL   DAIRY   CATTLE. 

(Season    1911-12.) 


Cow. 


Vuelta 

€!onnecticut 

Bullion 

Beulah 

Cuba 

Cigarette 

Sumatra 

Kentucky 

Muria 

Pennsylvania 

Carolina 

Virginia 

Havana 


Days 
in 

Weeks 
in 

Milk 
in 

Tests. 

Butter 
Fat. 

Prices. 

V 

alues. 

Milk. 

Milk. 

Gallons. 



lbs. 

£ 

s.    d. 

289 

411 

775 

2 

5 

2-8-2 

485 

1 

121-141 

26 

5     9 

283 

401 

678 

2 

4 

6-6-4 

364 

0 

121-14J 

19 

11   10 

305 

431 

694 

8 

4 

8-6-2 

344 

0 

121-141 

18 

10     7 

278 

39J 

646 

5 

4 

9-6-4 

342 

(5 

91-121 

15 

3     6 

304 

m 

701 

4 

4 

4-8-4 

337 

8 

121-15 

18 

10     4 

291 

411 

648 

1 

4 

0-5-6 

285 

9 

121-15 

15 

14     6 

293 

42 

666 

2 

4 

0-5-0 

284 

9 

121-15 

15 

6     2 

277 

391 

669 

5 

4 

0-4-8 

277 

7 

121-15 

15 

1     1 

28() 

41 

580 

2 

4 

5-7-0 

275 

7 

12i-14i 

14 

14   10 

318 

45  .V 

634 

8 

4 

0-5-2 

271 

9 

121-15 

14 

13  10 

226 

321 

580 

6 

4 

0-5  0 

254 

3 

12i-14i 

13 

11     4 

277 

391 

551 

2 

3 

9-4-6 

221 

7 

121-15 

12 

0     7 

262 

37i 

535 

6 

3 

8-4-5 

215 

3 

121-15 

11 

15     4 

lo  Sept.,  19 12.]  Red  Polls  as  Butter  Producers. 


559 


YIELDS    AND    RETURNS    OF    INDIVIDUAL   COWS. 

(Season  1911-12.) 


Month. 


Yield  for  each  Month. 


Milk 

iti 

(iallnns. 

Test. 

liutter 
Fat. 

I'rice. 
d. 

lbs. 

£    .s.    d. 


Totals  from  Calvikq  to  Date. 


Butter 
Fat. 


lbs. 


Value 


£    s.  d. 


August 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

•Jan. 

Feb. 

Mxrch 

April 

May 


Viielta  (due  to  calve  7th  July,   1912). 

1  8 

2  18 

3  1 

4  (i 
.3  11 
.3  13 
2  U 
2  8 
1  5 
0  17 


.■)3-9 

5-2 

28-0 

l^i 

Mt.T-S 

.-)-2 

.-)7  -0 

i-'i 

i2r,-7 

4-7 

.-)')•(» 

I2.V 

18-7 

7-0 

83-0 

12J 

94-9 

7-U 

6()-4 

13 

95-6 

0-8 

6.5  -0 

13.1 

68  •  1 

7-0 

47-6 

13| 

()l-8 

7-0 

43-2 

13.V 

28-0 

7-4 

21-1 

\^ 

18-1 

8-2 

14-8 

i-ti 

7 

15 

53  -9 

28-0 

2 

45 

163-7 

85-0 

5 

76 

289-4 

144-0 

5 

106 

408  •  1 

227  -0 

1 

137 

503-0 

293  -4 

1 

168 

598-6 

358  -4 

() 

197 

666-7 

406-0 

/ 

228 

728-5 

449-2 

(i 

258 

757-1 

470-3 

7 

289 

775  -2 

485-1 

1 

8 

7 

4 

6 

9 

7 

8 

2 

11 

14 

7 

15 

6 

6 

18 

19 

7 

21 

14 

1 

24 

2 

8 

25 

8 

2 

26 

5 

9 

Connecticut  (due  to  calve  9th  July,  1912). 


August 

•Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dsc. 

J-in. 

Feb. 

Mirch 

April 

Miv 


23-1 

4-6 

10-5 

12] 

.       il3-7 

4-6 

.-)2-3 

12] 

.       123-5 

4-(i 

5'.t-5 

12i 

.       il2-l 

()-4 

71-7 

12i 

88-3 

6-0 

52-9 

13 

66-6 

5-8 

38-6 

131 

51) -9 

5-4 

27-4 

13a 

51-2 

5-2 

26-6 

13.1 

215-1 

5-6 

14-6 

141 

16-0 

6-2 

9-!t 

1^1 

1 
1 

0   17 
0   11 


10  8 

13  4 
1  11 

14  8 
17  3 

3  5 

11  4 
9  11 


9 


9 

23-1 

10-5 

39 

136-8 

62-8 

70 

266-3 

122-3 

loa 

378-4 

194-0 

131 

466-7 

246-9 

1<)2 

533-3 

285-5 

191 

584-2 

312-9 

222 

636  - 1 

3.39-5 

252 

662-2 

3.54  - 1 

283 

678-2 

364  -0 

0  10  8 

3  4  1 

6  5  11 

10  0  7 

12  17  10 

15  1  3 

16  12  7 

18  2  6 

19  0  1 
19  11  Ifl 


BuUion  (due  to  calve  17tli  July,  1912). 


August 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

:\[ir. 

April 

ilav 


81-1 

5-2 

42-1 

121 

87-4 

4-8 

41-9 

121 

)4-3 

4-8 

50 -0 

121 

'»7-6 

5-0 

48-8 

12i 

SB-0 

5-0 

43-0 

13 

72-1 

4-8 

34-6 

131 

57  -4 

4-8 

27-5 

13f 

58-8 

5-0 

2;) -4 

131 

.  ■      30 -7 

4-8 

!4-7 

141 

19-4 

i)-2 

12-0 

1-^1 

2     2  11 

30 

81-1 

42-1 

2     2     9 

61 

168-5 

83-0 

2   12     1 

92 

272-8 

134-0 

2   10   10 

122 

370  -4 

182-8 

2     6     7 

153 

456-4 

225-8 

1    18   11 

184 

.528-5 

260-4 

1    11      6 

213 

585-9 

287-9 

1    13     0 

244 

644-7 

317-3 

0    17     9 

274 

675-4 

332  -0 

0    14     3 

305 

694-8 

344-0 

2 

2 

1] 

4 

5 

8 

6 

17 

9 

9 

8 

7 

11 

15 

2 

13 

14 

1 

15 

5 

7 

16 

18 

7 

17 

16 

4 

18 

10 

7 

Feb. 

M-irch 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

Sept. 

Oct. 


Bt^uJah  (due  to  calve  8tli  February,  1913). 

1  10     3 

2  1  11 
2  1  10 
1  10  1 
1  11  9 

1  14     6 

2  1  7 
1  8  3 
0   14     4 


96-6 

5-0 

48-3 

n 

M)5-9 

5-0 

.-)2-5 

9.1, 

99-0 

5  "2 

51-4 

n 

72-3 

5-0 

36  •  1 

10 

70-8 

4-9 

34-6 

101 

61-6 

5-3 

38-8 

\\\ 

65-9 

6-2 

40-8 

V2\ 

44-7 

(i-2 

27-7 

121 

21-7 

(i-4 

13-8 

121 

33 

96-6 

48-3 

64 

202  -5 

101-2 

94 

301  -5 

152-7 

125 

373-8 

188-8 

155 

444-6 

223-5 

186 

514-2 

260-3 

217 

580  - 1 

301-1 

247 

624-8 

328-8 

278 

646-5 

342-6 

1  19  3 

4  1  2 

6  3  0 

7  13  1 
9  4  10 

10  19  4 

13  0  11 

14  9  2 

15  3  6 


560 


jouniaJ  of  Agriciiliure,   Victoria.  [10   Sept.,  1912. 


YIELDS    AND    RETURNS    OF    INDIVIDUAL    VOW^—continwd. 
(Season   1911-12.) 


Yield  for  each  Month. 


Milk 

in 

Gallons. 

Test. 

Butter 
Fat. 

Price. 
d. 

lb,s. 

£    «.    d. 


Totals  fkom  Calving  to  Date. 


Day.< 

in 
Milk. 


Cuba  (due  to  calve  25th  September,  191 2). 


Sept. 

89  T) 

4-7 

42-0 

12{ 

2     2   10 

30 

89-5 

42-0 

2     2  10 

Oct. 

113-2 

4-(> 

52-0 

12i 

2  14     2 

61 

202-7 

94-0 

4  17     0 

Nov. 

112-2 

4-6 

51-6 

\2l 

2  13     9 

91 

314-9 

145-6 

7   10     9 

Dec. 

94-5 

4-4 

41-5 

13 

2     4  11 

122 

409-4 

187-1 

9  15     8 

Jan. 

74-2 

4-6 

34-1 

131 

1    18     4 

153 

483-6 

221  -2 

11   14     0 

Feb. 

60-1 

4-6 

27-6 

13^? 

1   11     7 

182 

543-7 

248-8 

13     5     7 

Mirch 

60-4 

4-6 

30-5 

13i 

1   14     3 

213 

610-1 

279-3 

14  19  10 

April 

49-4 

5-0 

24-7 

141 

1     9  10 

243 

659-5 

304  -0 

16     9     8 

M  ly 

30-() 

8-0 

24-4 

14} 

1     8  1! 

274 

690  - 1 

328-4 

17  18     7 

June 

11-3 

8-4 

9-4 

15 

Oil     9 

304 

701-4 

337-8 

18  10     4 

Cigarette,  (clue  to  calve  14th  September.  1912). 


Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

March 

April 

May 

June 


17-7 

4-2 

7-4 

12} 

115-8 

4-2 

48-6 

121 

114-8 

4-6 

52-8 

121 

96-2 

4-6 

44-2 

13 

81-6 

4-0 

32-6 

13i 

57-5 

4-2 

24-1 

13a 

71-9 

4-2 

30-1 

131 

49-8 

4-5 

22-4 

14i 

30-2 

5-6 

16-9 

14i 

12-6 

5-4 

6-8 

15 

0  7  6 
2  10  7 
2  15  0 

2  7  10 

1  16  8 
1  7  7 
1  13  10 
1  7  0 
1  0  {) 
0  8  6 


17 

48 
78 
109 
140 
169 
200 
230 
261 
291 


17' 
133' 

248' 
344 
426 
483 
555 
605 
635 
648 


7-4 
56-0 
108-8 
153-0 
185-6 
209-7 
239-8 
262  -2 
279-1 
285-9 


0  7     6 

2  18     1 

5  13     1 

8  0   11 

9  17     7 

11  5 

12  19 

14  6 

15  6 
15  14 


Sumatra  (due  to  c^lve  7th  Aut;ii,st.  1912) 


August 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

M  irch 

April 

Miy 

June 


25  - 1 

4-4 

11-0 

12|1 

98-2 

4-4 

43-2 

121 

99-6 

4-2 

41-8 

12i 

96-3 

4-4 

42-3 

12i 

84-3 

4-4 

37-0 

13 

70-9 

4-0 

28-3 

13i 

58  -0 

4-0 

23-2 

12f 

64-6 

4-0 

25-8 

13J 

39-6 

4-4 

17-4 

14J 

26-5 

4-8 

12-7 

14i 

3-1 

5-0 

1-5 

15 

0  11 
2  4 
2  3 
2  4 
2     0 


4  7 

9  0 

1  0 

1 5  ] 

1  10 


9 

25-1 

11-0 

39 

123-3 

54  -2 

70 

222-9 

96-0 

100 

319-2 

138-3 

131 

403-5 

175-3 

162 

474-4 

203-6 

191 

532-4 

•226-8 

222 

597-!' 

252-6 

252 

636-5 

270  -0 

283 

663  -0 

282-7 

293 

666-2 

284  -2 

0 

11 

2 

2 

15 

3 

4 

18 

9 

7 

2 

9 

9 

2 

10 

10 

14 

8 

11 

19 

3 

13 

8 

3 

14 

9 

3 

15 

4 

4 

15 

6 

2 

Kentucky  (due  to  calve  11th  October.  1912) 


Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

M  irch 

Anril 

Miy 

June 


88-0 

4-0 

35-2 

12} 

117-8 

4-2 

49-4 

12  J 

115-6 

4-2 

48-5 

12.1 

95-1 

4-0 

38-0 

13 

79-1 

4-0 

31-6 

13J 

60-9 

4-2 

25-5 

13? 

57-0 

4-2 

23-9 

13.' 

29-7 

4-4 

13-0 

14i 

24-4 

4-8 

11-7 

141 

1-9 

4-8 

0-f 

15 

1  15  11 

2  11  5 
2  10  6 
2  1  2 
1  15  6 
1  9  2 
1  6  10 
0  15  8 
0  13  10 
0      1      1 


29 

88-0 

35-2 

60 

205-8 

84-6 

90 

321  -4 

133-1 

121 

416-5 

171-1 

152 

495-6 

202-7 

181 

556-5 

228-2 

212 

613-5 

252-1 

242 

643  -2 

265  - 1 

273 

667-6 

276-8 

277 

669-5 

277-7 

1  15   11 

4  7     4 

6  17  10 

8  19     0 

10  14     6 

12  3     8 

13  10     6 

14  6     2 

15  0     iV 
15  1      1 


lo   Sept..  19  ij.]  k'td  Fulls  as  Butter  Producers. 


56  r 


^■1KLI)S    AXl)    RETURNS    OF    INDIVIDUAL    COWS— <-ow<mMcrf. 

(Skason   1911-12.) 


ViKl.ll    FOR    EACH    MONTH. 

ToT.ALS  FROM  Calving  to  Date. 

M.)ritli. 

Milk 

in 

Gallons. 

Test. 

Butter 
Fat. 

Price. 
d. 

Value. 

Days 

in 
Milk. 

MUk 

in 

Gallons. 

Butter 

Fat. 

IKs. 

Value. 

lbs. 

£    .s.     d. 

£    s.    d. 

Mm  in  (due  to  c;;lve  lltth  August,  1912). 


August 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

March 

April 

May 


24-2 

4-.") 

10-8 

I-'l 

111-1 

4 -.5 

49-9 

12| 

107-7 

4-G 

49 -o 

12i 

8«-7 

4-8 

41 -r, 

12i 

ti7-3 

4-8 

.32-3 

13 

.-)7-8 

4-H 

2H-.-) 

1.3  J 

4(i-0 

4-8 

22  -0 

12? 

43-9 

•T-O 

21  -9 

13i 

23 -fi 

.•v4 

12-9 

14i 

1  1  -9 

7-0 

8-3 

in 

0   11      0 

12 

24-2 

10-8 

2   10  11 

42 

135-3 

60-7 

2   11      (1 

73 

243-0 

110-2 

2     3     4 

103 

.329-7 

151-8 

1    1.5     0 

134 

.397  -0 

184-1 

1      9     9 

ir.5 

454-8 

210-6 

1      3     4 

194 

500-8 

232-6 

1     4     7 

225 

544-7 

254-5 

0   15     7 

255 

568-3 

267-4 

0     9  10 

286 

580-2 

275-7 

0  II  0 

3  1  II 

5  13  5 

7  16  9 

9  11  9 

11  1  6 

12  4  10 

13  9  5 

14  5  0 
14  14  10 


August 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

April 

May 

June 


Pettnsylruiiin  (due  to  calve  16th  September,  1912) 

0  17  I 
2  5  6 
2  7  2 
2  0     5 

1  10  10 
1  8  8 
1  3  11 
1  4  9 
0  14  11 
0  13  9 
0  6  10 


37  -4 

4-5 

l()-8 

12| 

93-3 

4-5 

44 -H 

12} 

103-1 

4-4 

45-3 

121 

97-1 

4-0 

38-8 

12i 

67-9 

4-2 

28-5 

13 

63-8 

4-0 

25-5 

\n 

.V2-3 

4-0 

20-9 

12  J 

52-5 

4-2 

22-0 

13.V 

27-6 

4-5 

12-4 

14.1 

23-2 

5  -0 

11-6 

1^ 

10-6 

5-2 

o'H 

15 

14 

37-4 

16-8 

44 

136-7 

61-4 

75 

•2.39-8 

106-7 

105 

336-9 

145-5 

136 

404-8 

174-0 

167 

468-6 

199-5 

196 

5-20-9 

220-4 

•227 

573-4 

242  -4 

•257 

601  -0 

254-8 

288 

624  -2 

266-4 

318 

6.34-8 

•271-9 

0 

17 

1 

3 

2 

7 

5 

9 

9 

7 

10 

2 

9 

1 

0 

10 

9 

8 

11 

13 

7 

12 

18 

4 

13 

13 

3 

14 

7 

0 

14 

13 

10 

Carolina  (due  to  calve  13th  August,  1912) 


August 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

March 

April 


8-6 

4-0 

3-4 

1-21 

115-7 

4-0 

46-2 

1--^1 

114-6 

4-0 

45 -S 

121 

100-5 

5-0 

50-2 

121 

83-2 

5-0 

41-6 

13 

66  •  1 

4-2 

27-7 

13i 

45-5 

4-2 

19-1 

13^ 

45-1 

4-4 

19-8 

131 

1  -3 

4-5 

0-5 

14' 

0     3     5 

7 

8-6 

3-4 

2     7     2 

37 

1-24 -3 

49-6 

2     7     8 

68 

238-9 

95-4 

2   12     3 

98 

339-4 

145-6 

2     5     0 

129 

4-22-6 

187-2 

1    11     2 

160 

488-7 

214-9 

1      1   10 

189 

534-2 

234  -0 

1     2     3 

220 

579-3 

2.53-8 

007 

226 

.580-6 

254-3 

0 

3 

5 

2 

10 

7 

4 

18 

3 

7 

10 

6 

9 

15 

6 

11 

6 

8 

12 

8 

6 

13 

10 

9 

13 

11 

4 

Sept. 
Oct. 
Nov. 
Dec. 
Jan. 
Feb. 
March 
April 
May 
-June 


Vinjiiiia  (due  to  calve  11th  Julv.  1912). 


1 

2 

1    1 

1    1 

1 

1 

1 

0   1 

0 

0 


64-4 

3-9 

25  - 1 

121 

104-6 

3-9 

40-7 

12.1 

93  -9 

4-0 

37-4 

12.1 

77  -5 

3-9 

30-2 

13 

63-9 

4-0 

•25-5 

131 

52  - 1 

4-2 

21-8 

1.3f 

52  - 1 

4-4 

22-9 

131 

27-0 

4-2 

11-3 

141 

15-1 

4-4 

6-6 

1^ 

(f6 

4-6 

0-2 

15 

5     7 

29 

64-4 

25-1 

2     4 

60 

169-0 

65-8 

9     0 

90 

262  -9 

103  -2 

2     8 

121 

339  -4 

133-4 

8     8 

1.52 

403-3 

158-9 

4   11 

181 

455-4 

180-7 

5     9 

212 

507-5 

•203-6 

3     7 

242 

.534-5 

214-9 

7   10 

273 

.549-6 

221-5 

0     3 

277 

.551  -2 

•221  -7 

1 

5 

7 

3 

7 

11 

5 

6 

11 

6 

19 

7 

8 

8 

3 

9 

13 

2 

10 

18 

11 

11 

12 

6 

12 

0 

4 

12 

0 

7 

56? 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo   Sept..  1912. 


YIELDS   AND    RETURNS    OF    INDIVIDUAL   GOWii— continued. 
(Season   1911-12.) 


Month. 


Yield  for  each  Month. 


Milk 

in 

Gallons. 

Test. 

Butter 

Fat. 

lbs. 

Price. 
d. 

Value. 


£    s.    d. 


ToT.\L  FROM  Calving  to  Date. 


Milk. 


Milk 

in 

Gallons. 


Butter 
Fat. 


Iks 


Value. 


Havana  (due  to  calve  1 8th  August,  1912). 


Sept. 
Oct. 

Nov. 

D3C. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mirch 

April 

May 

June 


\r^•& 

3-8 

5-9 

121- 

98-8 

3-9 

38-5 

12  L 

96-4 

4-2 

40-4 

12  i 

86-4 

4-0 

34-5 

13 

68-3 

4-0 

27-3 

131 

59-6 

4-0 

23-8 

13  J 

64-1 

4-0 

25-() 

13i 

29-2 

4-0 

ll.H 

141 

16-3 

4-5 

7-3 

l-t} 

0-9 

4-0 

0-4 

15 

0 

6 

2 

0 

2 

2 

I 

17 

1 

10 

1 

7 

1 

8 

() 

14 

0 

8 

0 

0 

0 

15 

15-6 

5-9 

1 

4fi 

114-4 

44-4 

1 

76 

210-8 

84-8 

4 

107 

297  -2 

119-3 

8 

138 

365-5 

146-6 

3 

167 

425  •  1 

170-4 

fl 

198 

489-2 

196-0 

() 

228 

518-4 

207-6 

8 

259 

534-7 

214-9 

(3 

262 

535-6 

215-3 

0 

6 

0 

2 

6 

1 

4 

8 

2 

6 

5 

6 

7 

16 

2 

9 

3 

5 

10 

12 

2 

11 

6 

2 

11 

14 

10 

11 

15 

4 

RED    POLL    DAIRY    HERD,    BOISDALE. 


lo   Sept..  19 12.]  Paspalioii  for  Hill  Pastures.  563 

PASPALUM   FOR   HILL   PASTURES. 

Bv  P.  ('■  Tlircljall.  Dairy  Supervisor,  Yea  District. 

During  a  season  of  drought  such  as  the  greater  portion  of  this  State 
has  hUely  experienced,  the  question  of  improving  the  natural  pasture  by  the 
introduction  of  drought-resistant  grasses  cannot  fail  to  Cimmand  the  serious 
attention  of  every  one  interested  in  the  breeding  and  keeping  of  stock. 

While  the  cultivation  and  conservation  of  fodder  crops  in  the  form  of 
hay  and  silage  is  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  stock-owners  to  carry  their 
herds  and  flocks  safely  through  a  prolonged  period  of  drought,  yet  it  is 
plain  that  much  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  increasing  the  stock-carrying 
■capacity  of  the  pasture  lands.  There  are  thousands  of  acres  of  grass  land 
ill  this  and  other  districts  which  could^  be  made  to  support  at  least  twice  or 
three  times  the  quantity  of  stock  carried  on  the  natural  grasses.  That  this  can 
be  done  was  clearly  demonstrated  to  the  writer  while  recently  inspecting 
several  paddocks  of  Paspalum  dilaiatitm  grass  on  "  Glenmore "  sheep 
station,  owned  by  Colonel  McLeish  and  his  brother,  Mr.  Thomas  McLeish. 
The  station  is  situated  about  12  miles  from  Yea,  and  that  portion  of  the 
land  referred  to  is  fairly  typical  of  thousands  of  acres  in  the  Upper  Goul- 
burn  district,  being  composed  of  high  flats  of  second  quality  soil,  overlying 
a  dense  and.  clayey  subsoil,  with  very  little  natural  drainage. 

About  four  years  ago,  the  Messrs.  McLeish  Bros,  had  a  small  paddock 
ploughed  and  sown  down  with  Paspalum  dilatatiim,  and  so  successful  did 
the  experiment  prove  that  they  have  since  added  one  paddock  after  another, 
until  up  to  the  present  time  120  acres  have  been  planted,  and  it  is  intended 
to  considerably  add  tO'  this  area  in  the  near  future. 

The  method  of  planting  was  to  plough  and  harrow  to  a  fine  tilth,  then 
sow  on  the  surface  from  6  to  8  lbs.  of  the  .seed,  and  lightly  cover  with 
brush  harrows.  It  is  recommended  that  a  few  pounds  of  some  of  the 
winter-growing  grasses,  such  as  the  Subterranean  and  Alsyke  clovers,  rye 
grass,  and  PJialans  coiumutata,  be  sown  with  the  Pas])alum  to  provide  feed 
during  the  months  from  May  to  September,  when  the  last-named  grass 
is  making  comparatively  little  growth. 

Spring  or  earlv  summer  is  found  to  be  the  best  time  for  sowing  the 
Paspalum,  as  the  hotter  the  weather  the  quicker  the  seed  germinates,  pro- 
viding, of  course,  that  the  necessary  amount  of  moisture  is  present  in  the 
soil.  If.  after  sowing,  the  land  remains  in  a  drv  state  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  summer,  the  .seed  will  not  be  lost,  as  it  will  be  found  to  sprout 
safely  the  following  season.  Even  in  swampy  and  rough  places  that  could 
not  be  ploughed,  but  where  the  seed  was  lightly  scattered  among  the  tus- 
socks and  grass,  the  Paspalum  has  taken  complete  possession.  Where  the 
grass  has  been  growing  for  three  or  four  vears.  it  has  formed  a  complete 
mat  of  herbage  which,  during  the  spring,  summer,  and  autumn  months, 
has  carried  stock  equivalent  to  a  bullock  to  the  acre.  Owing  to  the  matted 
nature  of  the  crown  and  stems,  it  is  found  that  no  amount  of  heavy  stock- 
ing will  eat  it  out  ;  in  fact,  it  appears  to  spread  much  better  and  be  more 
succulent  when  kept  eaten  close  to  the  ground  than  if  allowed  to  grow  in 
the  form  of  tussocks.  Though  little  growth  takes  place  in  the  winter,  the 
severest  frost  or  flooding  will  not  kill  it.  The  writer  was  shown  a  swamp 
where  the  Paspalum  is  fa.st  killing  out  the  tussocks  and  reed.=5.  The  grass 
has  been  known  to  be  under  water  for  weeks  at  a  time  in  the  winter,  and 
then  strike  into  luxuriant  growth  when  the  water-level  was  lowered  in  the 
summer.  It  is  also  growing  well  on  the  more  hilly  land,  where  the  seed 
was  scattered  among  the  bracken  fern.     In  many  places  the  ferns  are  found 


564  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Vicforin.  [10   Sept..  1912. 

to  be  thinning  out  and  giving  way  before  the  e\er-spreading  Pasfalum. 
All  stock  are  very  fond  of  tlie  grass,  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle  alike  pre- 
ferring it  to  the  natural  grasses.  It  is  found  to  respond  freely  to  irriga- 
tion. 

It  is  not  recommended  that  Paspaluw  should  be  sown  as  a  rotation 
crop  in  cultivation  land,  as,  owing  to  its  tenacity  of  life,  considerable- 
trouble  would  be  experienced  in  breaking  up  land  once  overgrown  with  it. 
Nor  is  it  advisable  to  .sow  Paspalum  in  well-drained  soil  suitable  for 
lucerne  or  rye-grass,  and  other  finer  grasses ;  but,  as  it  thrives  under  dry 
conditions,  it  is  possible  it  would  greatly  improve  the  grazing  capacity  of 
the  poorer  hill  pastures. 

THE   FRUIT   TRADE    OF   VICTORIA. 

ITS  PRESENT  STATUS  FROM  A  COMMERCIAL  STAND-POINT. 

By  E.  Meekhtg,  Senior  Ijispcctor  of  Fruit. 

Part  1. 

Introductory. 

"  It  has  at   last   been   realized   that  too  much   attention   has   been 
given  in  the  past  to  the  business  of  inducing  people  to  plant  fruit 
trees,  and  not  enough  consideration  has  been  given  to  the  selling  of 
the  crop,  and  the  finding  of  a  profitable  market  for  the  fruit  that 
is  already  on  hand.      The  one  great  object  in  growing  fruit  is  to  sell 
at  a  profit.      Fruit-growing  is  a  business,  and  as  such  is  dependent 
upon  business  methods  and  principles  quite  as  much  as  the  manu- 
facture  and   sale  of   boots   and    shoes,    of   steel    implements,    or   of 
other  articles."' 
The  above  were  the  terms  in  which  the  ofiicer  in  charge  of  fruit  trans- 
portation in  the  United   States  of  America  reported  to  the   Secretary   for 
Agriculture  on  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of   the  fruit-growing   industry 
in   that   country,    wdiich    had    resulted    from   the   Government    Immigration 
Agencies  encouraging  new  settlers  to  undertake  the  business  of  fruit-grow- 
ing without   paying  sufficient  attention  to  the  matters  of  handling,   trans- 
porting,  and  marketing  of  the  fruits  when  raised.     This  state  of  affairs 
eventually  promised  to  create  such  financial  embarrassment  of  fruit-growers 
in  some  of  the   States  that  the   Goverrunent   undertook  to  investigate  the 
matter.      As  a  result,   the  application  of  combined  bu.sinesslike  and   scien- 
tific methods  is  now  widely  adopted  in  connexion  with  the  marketing  of 
fruits,  and  the  position  of  the  fruit  trade  in  the  United  States  has,   from 
a  commercial  point  of  view,   been  much  improved. 

It  is  to  be  feared  that,  unless  more  attention  is  given  to  the  proper  hand- 
ling, distribution,  and  marketing  of  our  fruits,  the  fruit  trade  in  Victoria 
will  drift  into  the  same  unsatisfactory  condition  as  was  the  case  with  the 
trade  in  the  United  States  some  years  ago.  Fruit-growing  is  now  becom- 
ing such  a  popular  branch  of  agronomy  in  this  State,  and  has  developed 
so  rapidly  during  recent  years,  that,  unless  the  demand  can  be  made  to  keep 
pace  with  the  supply,  the  position  of  the  local  fruit-grower  may,  in  the 
future,  be  very  unenviable.  The  predilection  amongst  our  agriculturists  to- 
take  up  fruit-growing  as  a  livelihood  is  accounted  for  bv  the  following  :  — 

1.  The  suitability  of  our  soils  and  climate. 

2.  The    profits    which    have    been    obtained    from    fruit-growing    in- 

the  past. 

3.  The  attra<'tive  nature  of  the  occupation. 


lo   Sept.,  1912.]  1  he  Fruit  Trade  of  Victoria.  565 

Suitability  of  Victoria  for  Fruit-Growing. 

Any  one  acquainted,  from  a  horticultural  point  of  view,  with  Victoria 
will  readily  agree  as  to  the  suitability  of  our  soils  and  climate,  for  here 
may  be  grown  in  profusion  a  wide  variety  of  fruits  of  superior  quality  and 
fascinating  flavour.  The  physiographic  diversity  which  obtains  in  different 
portions  of  the  State  furnishes  a  range  of  climate  which  renders  possible 
the  successful  cultivation  of  many  kinds  of  stone,  pip,  and  "  berry  "  fruits. 
So  much  is  this  so,  that  many  districts  have  become  noted  for  producing 
some  particular  variety  of  paramount  quality.  Thus,  the  vernacular  terms 
"  Bendigo  Tomatoes,"  "  Merrigum  Peaches,"  "  Mildura  Navels,"  "  Goul- 
burn  Valley  Gordos,"  "  Wandin  Raspberries,"  "  Trentham  Black  Currants, "^ 
may  often  be  heard  voiced  by  the  retailers  in  our  markets,  and  the  barrow- 
men  in  the  streets.  In  short,  there  is  scarcely  any  portion  of  Victoria 
where,  by  planting  varieties  suitable  to  the  locality,  and  under  proper 
management,  a  prolific  and  healthy  orchard  may  not  be  established.  In 
spite  of  this,  it  must  be  confessed  that  our  fruit  industry,  as  a  whole,  is 
at  present  in  anything  but  a  satisfactory  condition.  This  is  by  no  means 
due  to  want  of  knowledge  on  the  part  of  our  growers,  in  so  far  as  their 
part  of  the  business  is  concerned.  In  pruning,  spraying,  cultivation,  and 
all  matters  incidental  to  the  production  of  prime  quality  fruit,  it  is  ques- 
tionable whether  fruit-growers  in  any  country  are  more  advanced  than  those 
in  this  State.  Our  orchardists,  as  a  whole,  are  intelligent,  observant, 
and  painstaking,  with  the  result,  as  before  stated,  that  our  fruits,  both 
from  the  stand-point  of  quality  and  quantity  produced  per  acre,  compare 
more  than  favorably  with  those  grown  elsewhere. 

When  we  view  the  subject  from  a  commercial  stand-p.oint.  however, 
the  position  is  not  nearly  so  satisfactory.  This  is  primarily  due  to  want  of 
■organization  amongst  those  concerned.  The  consequence  is  an  absence  of 
necessary  collective  attention  to  the  matters  of  exploiting  new  markets,  dis- 
posal of  fruits  to  the  best  advantage  in  the  markets  already  secured,  the 
best  methods  of  harvesting,  handling,  and  transporting  fruits,  and  many 
other  minor  details,  each  apparently  unimportant,  but  each  requiring 
attention  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results. 

Special  Methods  Required  for  Handling  and  Transporting  Fruits. 
The  perishable  nature  of  fruit  obviously  renders  necessarv  the  applica- 
tion of  special  methods  to  its  harvesting,  transportation,  and  marketing. 
If  those  desiderata  of  the  grower — absence  of  gluts  and  regular  prices — 
are  to  be  brought  about,  every  factor  which  tends  to  shorten  the  life  of 
fruits  from  the  time  of  their  severance  from  the  tree  until  they  reach  the 
consumer,  must  be  eliminated  as  far  as  possible.  The  longer  fruits  can 
be  held  in  good  condition,  and  the  further  they  can  be  transported,  the 
'greater  their  relative  value  to  the  producer.  These  facts  have  long  been 
realized  ;  but  the  possibility  of  holding  even  the  better  keeping  varieties 
of  fruits  over  extended  periods  until  suitable  markets  may  be  obtained,  has 
not,  until  recent  years,  been  considered  practicable.  The  growers  of  this 
State  now  appear  to  be  awakening  to  a  realization  of  what  may  be  ac- 
complished in  this  direction.  This  is  evidenced  by  the  movement  towards 
the  erection  of  cold  storage  accommodation  in  many  of  our  fruit-growing 
centres.  In  this  regard,  Victoria  is  well  ahead  of  the  other  States.  These 
cool  stores  are,  at  present,  to  a  limited  degree,  serving  an  excellent  pur- 
pose in  providing  the  means  whereby  fruit,  intended  for  local  sale,  or 
Inter-State  export,  may  be  held  until  such  time  as  the  surplus  crop  has  been 
disposed  of  locally,  exported  to  other  States,  or  oversea  countries.  The 
present  accommodation,  however,  still  falls  far  short  of  requirements,  and 


566  Journal  of  Agriciilinrc,   Victoria.         [10   Sept.,  1912. 


last  year  many  thousands  of  cases  of  fruits  were  sold  at  extravagantly 
low  prices  through  the  necessity  which  existed  amongst  growers  to  rush  these 
on  the  market  within  a  limited  pmod.  This  would  have  been  avoided  in 
a  large  measure  had  sufficient  cold  storage  been  available  in  which  to  hold 
the  fruits 

The  Relative  Importance  of  Cold  Storage. 
Cold  storage  accommodation  in  the  various  fruitgrowing  centres,  how- 
ever, is  only  a  link  in  a  series  of  arrangements  which  must  be  entered  upon, 
and  the  carrying  out  of  which  must  be  carefully  observed,  both  wholly  and 
in  detail,  if  we  wish  to  extend  the  industry  on  profitable  and  businesslike 
lines.  Although  our  local  markets  could,  if  our  fruits  were  brought  into 
more  direct  touch  with  the  consumer,  at  present  almost  absorb  our  total 
supply,  vet  these  markets  cannot  be  expected  to  keep  pace  with  our  in- 
creasing production.  Even  were  there  sufficient  cold  storage  available  to 
hold  all  our  early  apples  and  pears  each  se'^.son,  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
prices,  all  round,  would  be  much  enhance(.i  without  the  aid  of  a  regular 
oversea  export  trade.  In  any  case,  these  j^ricc^s  would  certainly  be  much 
below  the  average  which  would  he  obtained  were  the  whole  of  our  available 
surplus  crop  exported  each  sea.son.  This  argument  applied  with  particular 
force  in  the  case  of  our  fruit  crop  last  year,  and  was  proved  by  the  results 
of  the  "  Somerset  "  shipment  of  pears.  The  prices  realized  for  this  ship- 
ment ranged  from  13s.  to  19s.  per  bushel.  At  the  time  these  prices  were 
being  obtained  on  the  London  markets,  pears  of  equal  qualitv.  and  belong- 
ing to  the  same  varieties,  and.  in  manv  instances,  picked,  no  doubt,  from 
the  same  trees,  were  being  disposed  of  locally  for  prices  ranging  from 
6d.  to  IS.  6d.,  per  bushel.  The  removal  of  .some  6,000  cases  from  this 
market  contributed  very  little  towards  easing  the  local  over-supply  ;  but 
had  this  shipment  been  followed  by  further  consignments  during  the  weeks 
when  the  local  markets  were  glutted,  and  pears  here  were  practically  value- 
less, the  markets  would  have  been  eased,  and  the  losses  occasioned  by  the 
glut  would  have  been  avoided.  The  cabled  reports  of  the  prices  realized 
for  the  Somerset  shipment,  arriving  as  they  did  at  a  time  when  similar 
pears  were  locally  being  sold  as  low  as  6d.  per  bu.shel,  furnished  a  forcible 
commentary  upon  the  necessity  on  the  part  of  our  growers  and  exporters 
to  open  up  a  profitable  trade  in  the  regular  oversea  export  of  pears.  The 
results  of  the  Somerset  shipment  show  what  may  be  achieved,  and  help  to 
confirm  the  belief  expressed  during  the  past  four  years  through  the  Journal 
of  Agriculture  that  not  only  pears,  but  soft  fruits,  such  as  peaches  and 
nectarines,  may,  if  proper  conditions  in  picking,  packing,  and  transporta- 
tion are  observed,  be  safelv  and  profitably  exported  to  oversea  markets. 

The  Example  of  Other  Countries. 
For  years  past,  certain  oversea  countries  have  been  showing  our  growers 
that  thousands  of  cases  of  oranges,  lemons,  apples,  and  even  soft  fruits, 
.such  as  peaches,  plums,  and  the  softer  varieties  of  pears,  may  be  success- 
fully shipped  over  long  distances,  and  that  uniformly  good  prices  may  be 
realized  by  carrving  out  specialized  methods  of  picking,  packing,  handling, 
tran.sportation.  and  marketing  ;  the  application  of  low  temperatures  tO'  fruits 
as  soon  as  possible  after  their  severance  from  the  tree;  the  uniform  main- 
tenance of  these  low  temperatures  until  the  arrival  of  fruits  at  their  final 
destination ;  and,  lastly,  organized  methods  of  disposal  to  the  consumer. 
It  is  the  intention  of  this  article  to  show  that  this  is  possible,  and  that, 
at  the  same  time,  the  status  of  the  industry  generally  may  be  raised,  and 
that  the  huge  percentage  of  waste  and  deterioration  which  annually  occurs 
may,   in  large  measure,  be  avoided. 


lo   Sept.,  1912.]     Venuic/ilar  iVa/iics  0/  VictoricDi  Plants. 


567 


Before  dealing  with  tliese  matters,  it  will  be  as  well  to  hriefly  outline 
the  present  conditions  which  obtain  in  connexion  with  the  local,  inter- 
State,  and  oversea  disposal  of  our  fruits  in  order  to  ascertain,  if  possible, 
our  shortcomings.  By  this  means,  any  suggestions  for  improvement  should 
be  more  readily  apprehended,  and  the  criticisms  of  sucli  suggestions  be 
rendered  more  easy  of  accomplishment. 

(To  be  coiitiiuicd . ) 


VERNACULAR   NAMES   OF    VICTORIAN   PLANTS. 

{C o>itiu!icd   from    pa^c    448.) 

Coiiniiiinicafcd  bv  Alfred  J.  Eicart.  D.Sc,  Ph.D.,  F.f..S.,  CJienrman, 

and  C.  S.  Sutton,  M .B.,  Ch.  B..  Secretary,  of  the  I^lant  Names  Committee 

of  tlic  Victorian  Field  Naturalists''   Club. 

DICOTYLEDONE^C— ro«/«»Mfrf. 


DicoTYLEDONE.E — Choripetale.e  Hypogyn.e — Continued. 


RUTACE.E — continued. 
Phebalium — 

puageus,  Benth. 

pliylirifdliuiu.  F.v.M. 

deiitatuiu,  Sm.    .  . 

Ralstoni.  Benth. 

bilobuiu.  Liudl. 

lamprophyllum,  Beiitli. 

araplifi)lium,  F.v.il. 

diosineum,  A.  Juss. 

ozothaiunoides.  F.v.M. 

glaudulosum.  Hook 

sqiiaiiiuliisuiii.  Vent. 

stfiKiphvlliiui.  F.v.M. 

podiicarpuides,  I'.v.JI. 

Billardieri,  A.  Juss. 

ovatit'olium,  F.v.M. 
Microcybe — 

pauciflora,  Tiuez 
Asterukma — 

Muelleri  Benth  . . 
Pie  urandropsis — 

phebalioides,  Baill. 

trymalioides,  F.v.M. 
Crowea — 

exalata,  F.v.M.  . . 
EriostemoH — 

lanreolatus,   (Tacrtner 

tnu-hyphyllus.  F.v.M. 

*niyoiiiii(]idi_'s.  1).C. 

obovalis,  Cunnaighani 

scaber.  Paxton   . . 

difformis,  Cuunhighaiu 
Correa — 

aemula,  F.v.M.  . . 

alba,  Andrews    .  . 

speciosa,  Andrews 

speciosa,  var.  nonualis 

speciosa,  var.  glabra 

Lawreuciana,  Hook 
Geijera — 

parviflora,  Lindley 


Acronychia — 

laevis,  R.  &  G.  Forster 


Prickly  Pliel)aliuni 
Mountain  Plit-balium 
Umbellate  I'liebalium 
Shy  PlielialiuM  .  . 
Truneati"  Plielialiuni 
Shining  Phebalium 
Broadleaved  Phebalium    . 
Slender  Phebalium 
Everlasting  Phelialium     . 
Desert  Plielialium 
Scaly  Phebalium 
I  Xarrowleaved  Phebalium 
Alpine  Phebalium 
Satinwood  Phebalium 
Ovate  Phebalium 

Microcybe  Phebalium 

Lemon  Star-bush 

Downy  Star-bush 
Leathery  Star-bush 

Crowea 

Lance-leaved  Waxflower  . 
Bluut-leaved  WaxHower  . 
Long-leaved  WaxHuwer   . 
Fairy  WaxHower 
Rough  Waxfliiwer 
Small-leaved  Waxflower  . 

Hairy  Correa 
White  Correa 
Red  Correa 
Green  Correa 
Smooth  Correa   .  . 
Mountain  Correa 

Wilga  . . 


Yellow  Wood 


There  is  hardly  an  unattractive  member 
In  this  group,  and  Eriostenum  obovalis, 
Asterolasia  Muelleri,  Phebalium  bilo- 
bum,  P.  Billardieri,  P.  glandulosum, 
Eriostemon  difformis,  and  E.  myo- 
poroides  (Eriostemon  nerii/olius  of  the 
florists'  catalogues)  are  specially  re- 
commended for  cultivation. 


All  the  species  of  correa  are  worthy  of 
cultivation  in  gardens,  particularly 
some  forms  of  Correa  speciosa. 


Yields  valuable  feed  for  stock  in  timejof 
drought,  sheep  being  particularly  fond 
of  it.  Timber  light  coloured,  hard, 
close  grained,  and  used  for  naves  of 
wheels,  blocks,  &c. 

Timber  light  coloured,  close  grained,  but 
is  not  much  used. 


*  Plants  marked  thus  are  listed  either  as  growing  plants  or  seeds  by  one  or  more  of  our  florists. 


568 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo   Sept.,  191 2. 


Vernacular  Names  of  Victorian  Vlx^t^— continued. 


Botanical  Name. 


Popular  Name. 


Uae  or  Character. 


DicoTYLEDONE^ — -CHORiPETALBiE  Hypocjyn^e — Continued. 
Zyoophyllace*. 


Nitraria — 

Schoberi,  L. 

Zyjophyllum — 

apiculatum.  F.v.M. 
glaucescen?,  F.v.M. 
crenatum,  F.v.M. 
iodocarpum,  F.v.M. 

ammophilum,  F.v.M. 
Billardieri,  D.C. .  . 
fruticulosura,  D.C. 
Tribulus — 

terrestris,  L'Obel 


Linuin — ■ 

margiuale,  CLiiiulugham 


Geraniace.'e. 

Geranium — 

dissectum,  L. 

se3siliflorum,  Cav. 
Brodium — 

cygnorum,  Nees 


Pelargonium— 

australe,  Willd. 
Rodneyanum,  Mitchell 

OXALIDACE.E. 

Oxaiis — 

magellanica,  G.  Fowter 
coraiculata,  L.    . . 


Livatera — 

plebeja,  Sims 


Plajianthus — 

pulchellus,  A.  Gray 

spicatus,  Bentham 

glomeratus,  Bentham 

microphyllus,  F.v.M. 
Sida— 

corrugata,  Linlley 

intricata,  F.v.M. 
Abut  Hon — 

otocarpum,  F.v.M. 

Avicennae,  Gerard 
Howittia — 

trilocularis,  F.v.M. 
Hibiscus — - 

Krichauffl,  F.v.M. 

tTrionum,  L. 


Nitre  Bush 


Pointed  Twinleaf 
Pale  Twinleaf  .. 
Notched  Twinleaf 
Violet  Twinleaf  . . 

Sand  Twinleaf  . . 
Coast  Twinleaf  . . 
Shrubby  Twinleaf 


Caltrop.s 


Cut-leaved  Geranium 
Mountain  Geranium 
Blue  Eiodium     . . 


Austral  Pelargonium 
Rosy  Pelargonium 


White  Wood-sorrel 
Yellow  Wood-sorrel 


Austral  Hollyhock 


Hemp  Bush 

Salt  Plagiauth    . . 

Thorny  Plagianth 
Small-leaved  Plagianth 


Dwarf  Sida 
Bushy  Sida 


Desert  Chinese  Lantern 
Swamp  Chinese  Lantern 


Shrub  Mallow 


Desert  Hibiscus 
Bladder  Hibiscus 


It  produces  fruit  of  the  size  of  an  olive, 
of  a  red  colour,  and  agreeable  flavour. 


(  No  known  economic  value. 

A     suspected    poison    plant,    but    stock 
usually  avoid  it. 

(-  No  knowii  economic  value. 


Has  been  said  to  kill  stock  if  eaten  when 
starving,  possibly  owing  to  the  prickly 
fruits. 


Though  only  a  small  plant,  it  yields  a 
flbre  of  good  quality,  and  is  used  by 
the  blacks  for  making  fishing  nets  and 
cordage. 


Stock  very  fond  of  the  succulent  herbage 

of  this  plant. 
Of  slight  pasture  value. 

1  Affords  good  herbage  in  the  young  state. 
Can  be  made  into  capital  hay  and  might 
be    turned     into    ensilage    with    good 

results. 

Might  be  improved  by  garden  culture. 


I  Usually  avoided  by  stock.     The  leaves 
i      resemble  clover  but  are  acid. 


Stock  very  fond  of  this  in  its  young  state. 
Root  edible.  Fibre  can  be  prepared 
from  the  inner  bark. 

The  flbre  is  soft  and  glossy  and  should 

form  a  good  warp  yarn. 
When  in  seed,  if  eaten  in  quantity,  may 

injure  stock  by  inflaming  the  stomach. 


Of  no  known  economic  value. 


Several  of  these  are  worth  the  notice  of 
Y     our  florists. 


Sometimes  grown  in  gardens. 


t  Naturalized  in  Victoria  from  the  other  States,  where  it  is  native. 


ioSeft.,  ]gi2.]     Vcnuicular  Names  ,>J    Victoriau  Plants. 


Vernacular  Names  of  Victorian  Plants— con;^>mfi(Z. 

Botanical  Name. 


Popular  Name. 


Use  or  Character. 


.S69 


DiCOT  VLEDONE.^  -C'HURIPETALE.i; 
STERHUHOEiB. 


llrachyehiton — 

•populneus,  R.Br. 


liuelingia — 

pannosa,  R.Br.   .  . 

■Co  mmerson  ia — 

Praseri,  J.  Gay  .  . 

Thomasia — 

:        petalocalj'.x,  F.v.M. 

Liis  irroetalum — 

dasyphyllum,  Siebar 
Behrii,  F.v.M.     . . 
parviflorum,  Rudge 
Baueri,  Steetz    . . 
ferrugineum.  Smith 
Schuizenii,  F.v.M. 


EL.\EO0.=iRP.iCE.B. 

Elaeocarpus — 

holopetalus,  F.v.M. 

'cyaneus,  Ait. 


EUPHORBIACE-E. 

Euphorbia — 

erythrantha,  F.v.M. 
Drummondii.  Boissier 
eremophila.  Cumi. 

Poranthera — 

ericoides,  Klotzsoh. 

eorymbo.sa,  Brongu. 

microphylla,  Brongu. 
Mierantheum — 

hexandrum,  Hook.  f. 
Psfudanthus — 

ovalifolius,  F.v.M. 

divaricatissimus,  Beiith. 
Bejeria — 

viscosa,  Miquel  . . 


lasiocarpa,  F.v.M. 
opaca,  F.v.M. 
Ricinocarpus — 

pinifolius,  Deitcmt. 

Bertya — 

Cuaninghamii,  Plaudion 

oleaefolia.  Plaucli. 

:(Mitchelli.  J.  Mueller) 

Findlayi,  F.v.M. 
A  iiipdrea — 

spirtioides.  Brougn. 
Phyllanthus — 

Fuerarohrii,  F.v.M. 

lacunarius,  F.v.M. 

trachyspermus,  F.v.M. 

thymoides,  Sieber 

(jtunnii.  Hook.  f. 


Kurrajoiig 


Kerrawan 

Blackfellow's  Hemp 

Paper  Flower 

Shrubby  Velvet  Busli 
Pink  Velvet  Bush 
Small-flowered  Velvet  Bus 
White  Velvet  Bush 
Rusty  Velvet  Bush 
Drooping  Velvet  Busli      . 


Blaek  Olive-berr.i 
Blue  Olive-berry 


YiypoiiYS  M~conlinui>d. 


The  tap-roots  or  young  trees  are  used  as 
tood  by  the  aborigines.  In  drought 
periods  the  leaves  and  branches  are  used 
as  fodder  A  strong  fibre  is  obtained" 
from  the  bark.  Timber  is  soft,  fibrous 
and  useless. 

The  timber  is  comparatively  close  grained 
and  fairly  hard,  but  is  difficult  to  season. 

Sometimes  grown  in  gardens. 

No  known  economic  value. 


Red  Spurge 
Flat  Spurge 
Desert  Spurge 


Heath  Poranthera 
ClusteredPoranthera 
Small-leaved  Poranthera  .  . 

Bo.v  Micrantheum 

Oval-leaved  Pseudauthus 
Round-leaved  Pseudauthus 

Sticky  Wallaby-bush 


Large  Wallaby-bush 
Small  Wallaby-bush 

Wedding-bush    .  . 


Sticky  Bertya     . . 

Olive  Bertya 

.Mountain  Bertya 

Broom  Spurge    . . 

Sand  Spurge 
Lagoon  Spurge   . . 
Dwarf  Spurge     . . 
Thyme  Spurge    .  . 
Shrubby  Spurge 


Some    species    may    prove    worthy    of 
garden  cultivation. 


The  wood  is  white,  close  grained,  and  good 

tor  joiners   work. 
Wood  dark  coloured  ;   very  tough  ;   makes 

good  handles  and  i)oles. 


^  Frequently  stated  to  poison  sheep  but 
L  in  the  case  of  E.  Drummondii^  this 
r      has  been  shoun  to  be  incorrect      E 

J      eremophila  may  be  actually  poisonous' 


-No  known  economic  value. 


is  considered  a  poison  plant  inN.S.  Wales 
The  wood  is  very  hard,  and  is  used  for 
turnery. 

I  No  known  economic  value. 

A  handsome  shrub,  well  worth  cultivating 
in  gardens. 

Yields  a  clear  gum-resin,  but  its  economic 
value  is  unknown. 


.No  known  economic  value. 


*  Plants  marked  thus  are  listed  either  as  growing  plants  or 
;  Now  included  in  B.  oleiefolia. 


as  seeds  by  one  or  more  of  our  florist*. 


57° 


JcuTual  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo   Sept.,  1912. 


Vernacular  Names  op  Victorian  Plants — continued. 


Botanical  Name. 


Popular  Name. 


Use  or  Character. 


DicoTYLEDONE.E — Choripetai.e.e  Hvpogyn^ — Continued. 
BVPHORBIXCE.E— continued. 


Claoxylon — 

australe,  Biillon 

Adriana — 

tomentosa,  Gaurlich. 

qiiadripirtita,  Gaiidicli.  .  . 
Omalanthus^ 

Lescheniultiauus,  A.  de 
Jussieu 


URTICAC'E.E. 


Trema — 

aspera,  Blume    . . 


Ficus^ 

scabra,  G.  Forster 

Parietaria — 

debilis,  G.  Forster 
Australina — ■ 

Muelleri,  Wedd. . . 
Urtica — 

incisa,  P.jiret. 


Fagace.e. 

Vagus — 

Ciininii''hanui.  Hooker 


Casuarinace.e. 


Casuarina — • 

*quadrivalvis,  Libill. 


lepidoplilola,  F.v.M. 
Luehiiianni,  R.  T.  Baker.  . 

Belar 
Buloke 

*glauca,  Sieber     . . 

Grey  Buloke 

*suberosa,  Otto  &  Dietrich 

Black  Sheoke 

paludosa,  Sieber 
distyla,  Veiitenat 
nana.  .Sieber 

Marsh  Sheoke 
Stunted  Sheoke 
Dwarf  Sheoke 

Celastrace.b. 

Celastrus — 

australis,  Harvey  &  F.v.M. 

Staff-climber 

SAPINDACEJi!. 

Nephelium— 

*leiocarpum,  F.v.M. 

Smooth  Ramboi 

Heterodendron — 

oleaefolium,  Desfont. 


Brittlewood 


Woolly  Bitterbush 
Common  Bitterbush 


Poplar  Spurge 


Rough  Hemp  Nettle 

Sand  Paper  Fig 

Forest  Pellitory 
Smooth  Nettle    . . 
Scrub  nettle 


Myrtle  Beech 


Drooping  Sheoke 


Berrigan 


Wood,   light   yellow   colour,   hard,    close 
grained,  useful  for  cabinet-work. 


No  known  economic  value. 


A  suspected  poison  plant,  but  no  poisonous 
substance  has  been  extracted. 


Is  generally  considered  poisonous  to  stock 
in  dry  seasons,  but  probably  is  only 
mechanically  injurious. 

Of  no  known  economic  value,  but  might 
be  used  for  polishing  or  scouring. 


Useless    weeds,    of    which  the  last  has 
severe  stinging  properties. 


Useful   for  .sash   and   door-work   and   all 
kinds  of  light  joinery,  also  for  furniture. 


All    tlie  casuarinas  can  be  pollarded  for 

cattle    fodder.     Foliage    eagerly    eaten 

by  cattle,  and  useful  to  stock  of  all  sorts 

in  drought  time. 
A  first-class  fuel  wood. 
A    hard    close    grained   wood,    useful    for 

cabinet  and  ornamental  work. 
Of    rapid    growth.     Wood    valuable    for 

staves,  shingles,   &c.     Useful  as  forage 

for  stock  in  time  of  drought. 
Timber  tough,   coarse-grained  and   useful 

for  many  purposes.  Stock  fond  of  the 

young  growth. 

Of  some  fodder  value  intimesof  scarcity. 


A  hardy  evergreen  climber. 


Greedily  eaten  by  stock  when  otherherbage 
is  scarce.  Wood  hard  and  useful  for 
tool  handles. 

Wood  a  yellowish  colour  with  a  black  or 
dark  brown  heart ;  used  for  rollers  and 
rolling  pins. 


"Plants  marked  thus  are  listed  either  as  growing  plants  or  as  seeds  by  one  or  more  of  our  florists. 


lo   Sept..  19  r2.]     Vernacular  Names  of  Victoria}/  Plants. 


57  i 


Vernacular  Names  of  Victorian  Plants — continued. 


Botanical  Name. 


Popular  Name. 


Use  or  Character. 


DlCOTYLEDONE.-E  — CHORIPETALEiE   H\TOGYN.E — Continued. 
Sapind  ACE.E  —continued. 


D}dona?.i — 

triquetra,  Wendl. 
•visco.sa,  L. 

procumbent.  F.v.M. 
lobulata,  F.v.M. 


calycina,  Cunningham 
bursarifolia.  Behr.  it  F.v.M. 
Baueri,  Endlicher. 
humilis.  Endlicher. 
boronifolia,  G.  Don. 
tenuifolia,  Lindley 
stenoz}-ga,  F.v.M. 


STACKHOrSIAC'E.E. 

Stackhousia — 

pulvinaris.  F.v.M. 
linarit'olia.  Cunning. 
flav"a,  Hook, 
viminea,  Smith  . . 
spathulata,  Sieber 


Frankexiace.^;. 


Frankenia — 

nauciflora.  D.C. 


PLUMBAGIN'ACE.E. 


Statice — 

australis,  Spreng. 


POETULACACE^. 

Portulucu — 

oleracea,  L. 
Calandrinia — • 

volubilis,  Benth. 

calyptrata.  Hook.  f. 

corrigioloides   F.v.M. 

brevipedata,  F.v.M. 

pygmaea,  F.v.M. 
C'lii'jtonia — 

australasica,  Hook.  f. 
Montia — • 

fontana.  L. 


Caryophyllace.e. 

Stellaria — 

pungens,  Brongn. 

palu.stris,  Retzius 

flaccida,  Hook. 

multiflora,  Hook. 
Sajina — 

procumbens,  L. 

apetala,  L. 


Large-leaved  Hopbush 
Giant  Hopbush 

Trailing  Hopbush 
Tall  Hopbush     . . 


Angular  Hopbush 

Lessor  Hopbush 
Crinkled  IIoi)bush 
Dwarf  Hopbush 
Hairy  Hopbush 
Thin-leaved  Hopbush 
Desert  Hopbush 


Alpine  Stackhousia 
Creamy  Stackhousia 
Yellow  Stackhousia 
Slender  Stackhousia 
Coast  Stackhousia 


Yellow  Sea-lavender 


Common  Purslane 

Twining  Purslane 
Pink  Purslane     . . 
Strap  Purslane   . . 
Short-stalked  Purslane 
Dwarf  Purslane 

\yhite  Purslane 

Waterblinks 


Prickly  Starwort 

Marsh  Starwort 

Limp  Starwort   . . 

Many  Flowered  Starwort. . 

Spreading  Pearlwort 
Small  Pearlwort 


Wood  light  coloured,  close  grained. 
Wood  of  a  l)ro«Ti  colour,  close  grained  and 

hard.    Used  in  India  for  tool  handles,  &c. 
No  known  economic  value. 
Timber  hard,  tough,  close  grained.     One 

of  the  best  forage  shrubs.     Sheei)  are 

particularly  fond  of  it. 


No   special  economic  value,   but  some 
-     formerly    provided    a   substitute   for 
hops. 


^ Herbs  of  some  decorative  value. 


Of  no  known  economic  value. 


Might  he  wortliy 
garden  plants. 


II  ad<litii>n  tu  the  list  of 


Of  slight   pasture    value   when    better 
>     fodder  is  scarce,  but  generally  classed 
as  useless  weeds. 


No  known  economic  value. 


*See  over  page. 


*  Plants  marked  thus  are  listed  either  as  growing  plants  or  as  Reeds  by  one  or  more  of  our  florists 


572 


Joiiriia]  of  A  i^^ri culture.   Victoria.  [lo   Sept..  1912^ 


Vernacular  Names   of  Victorian  Plants — continued. 


Botanical  Namn. 


Popular  Name. 


Use  or  Character. 


DlCOTVLEDONE.^ CHORIFETALEiE    HYPOGVK^':  -   COntivVfd. 

CARYOPHYlLACEiE — continued.    I 


Colobanthus — 

subulatus,  Hook.  f. 

Billardieri,  Fcnzl. 
Scleranthus — 

pungens,  R.  Br. 

di.mder,  R.Br.    .  . 

minusculus,  F.v.M. 

bitlorus,  Hook.  f. 

mniaroides,  F.v.M. 
Gypsophila — 

tubulosa,  Boissier 
Spergularia — 

rubra,  J.  &  C.  Presl. 
Drymaria — 

filiformis,  Benth. 
Polycarpun — 

tetraphyUum,  L. 


AmarantacEjE. 

Atternanthera — 

nodiflora,  R.Br. 
Trichinium — 

obovatum,  Gaud. 

alopecuroideun,  Lindl. 

nobile,  Lindl. 

macrocephaluni,  R.Br. 

e.xaltatuni,  Benth. 

erubescens,  Mog. 

spathulatum,  R.Br. 
Amaranthus — 

maorocarpus,  Benth. 


Alpine  Colebanth 
Coast  Colebanth 

Prickly  Knawel .  . 
Tutted"  Knawel  .  . 
Cushion  Knawel 
Twin-flowered  Knawel 
Mossy  Knawell  .  . 

Chalk  wort 

Sand  Spurrey 

Thread  Spurrey 

Four-leaved  Allseed 


Joy  weed 

Silvertails 
Long  Tails 
Yellow  Tails 
Feather  Heads   . . 
Lamb  Tails 
Hairy  Tails 
Pussy  Tails 

Desert  Amaranth 


1  ! 


The  native  members  ot  this  order  have- 
no  special  commertdal,  pastoral,  or 
horticultural  value,  e.vcept  perhf-ps  a. 
variety  of  Stellar  a  paluftr  s,  which 
would  make  a  pretty  edging  to  flower 
beds.  The  species  of  Stelhwia  and 
Sagina  though  sometimes  troublesome- 
as  weeds  of  cultivation  have  a  slight 
fodder  value  in  pastures. 


Nil  known  economic  value. 


All  the  species  of  Trichinium  have  a 
certain    decorative    va.lue.   and   some 

-  are  eaten  by  stock,  particularly  in 
dry  seasons  (especially  T.  obovatum,. 
T.   nobile.  and  T.  erubescens). 


No  special  economic  value. 


{To  be  coi/ti)iiied .) 


A  G(30D  SALT  HOUSE,  LICK,   AND  DEVICE  FOR 

FOOT  ROT. 

During  the  past  season  there  have  been  many  deaths  from  starvation,, 
impaction,  &c.,  and  in  the  latter  case  many  animals  have  been  in  good 
condition.  Numerous  licks  have  been  recommended  in  these  columns  from 
time  to  time,  and  it  is  of  interest  to  know  that  favorable  reports  on  their- 
use  are  being  made.  Mr.  Temple  Smith,  Chief  Field  Officer,  in  a  recent 
visit  to  the  North-Eastern  District  found  one  farmer  who,  having  lost  a 
con.siderable  number  of  cattle  and  sheep,  resorted  to  a  lick  made  of  100 
lbs.  coarse  salt,  10  lbs.  slaked  lime,  10  lbs.  bone  meal,  3  lbs.  sulphur, 
^  lb.  sulphate  of  iron,  and  molasses  sufficient  to  allow  of  the  whole  being 
made  into  a  stiff  lolly.  After  this  he  only  lost  two  head  of  cattle, 
although  the  weather  and  general  conditions  had  gone  from  bad  to  worse. 
A  great  saving  of  life  was  attributed  to  the  use  of  the  lick  by  farmers 
who  had  adopted    it   early   in   the   season.        Salt   and    sulphur   encourage 


lo  Sept.,  igi2.]  Gofld  Salt  House.  Lick,  and  Device  jor  Foot  Rot . 


5  7> 


salivation,  and  thus  assist  as  an  aid  to  digestion.  The  latter  is  al.so  a 
laxative ;  the  lime  and  bone  meal  supply  certain  elements  of  food,  and  the 
sulphate  of  iron  is  a  good  tonic  for  the  blood  ;  while  the  molasses  makes 
the  mixture  more  palatable  and  is  a  food  that  helps  to  supply  warmth 
to  the  animal  body. 

One  farmer  who  has  had  great  success  has  arranged  an  ingenious 
method  of  supplying  the  lick  and  at  the  same  time  a  method  of  treatment 
for  foot  rot.  A  shed  made  of  bush  timber  and  roofed  with  iron,  shingles, 
or  bark,  has  been  made  in  each  paddock  to  protect  the  lick  from  the 
weather.  The  dimensions  are  9  feet  by  3  feet  by  3  feet  in  height  to  the 
eaves,  with  an  overlap  of  the  roof  of  at  least  i  foot  at  the  eaves.  Rails 
and  saplings  are  nailed  to  the  sides  and  ends,  through  which  the  sheep 
gam  access  to  the  salt,  without  being  able  to  stand  in  the  troughs  in  which 
the  mixture  is  placed.  For  cattle  a  higher  shed,  with  rails  so  fixed  that 
they  can  be  reached  over,  is  constructed.  A  still  further  addition  for  the 
treatment   of   foot    rot    is   the   placing  of   trays   on   each   side   of   the   shed 


2  inches  deep  and  2  feet  wide,  in  which  burnt  lime  is  spread  from  time 
to  time,  and  in  which  the  sheep  must  stand  while  engaged  at  the  lick. 
This  has  been  found  of  excellent  assistance  in  keeping  in  check  the  disease, 
though  not  a  cure  in  bad  cases,  where  more  stringent  treatment  is  neces- 
sary. The  lime  carried  away  by  the  sheep  and  spread  in  the  paddocks 
is  also  beneficial  to  the  land,  and  in  time,  when  sufficient  quantity  has 
been  used,  will  materially  improve  the  quality  of  the  grasses,  encouraging 
the  growth  of  trefoils  and  clovers,  and  generally  sweetening  the  soil. 
The  sketch  appended  will  give  some  idea  as  to  the  construction  of  the 
sheds. 

The  troughs  can  be  hewn  out  of  a  log,  the  depth  of  the  cut  being  not 
more  than  5  inches  for  sheep  and  10  inches  for  cattle.  They  should  be 
raised  off  the  ground  a  few  inches  to  preserve  them  from  rotting.  The 
trays  for  holding  lime  can  be  made  of  strong  galvanized  sheet  iron. 
Spouting  should  be  provided  to  prevent  water  from  the  roof  dripping  into 
the  travs. 


574  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo   Sept.,  191 2. 

SECOND   VICTORIAN   EGG-LAYING   COMPETITION,    1912-13. 

H.  V.  Hawkins,  Poultry  Exfert. 

The  Winter  Test,  in  connexion  with  the  Second  Burnley  Egg-laying 
Competition,   came  to  a  conclusion  on  the   14th  August. 

As  will  be  seen.  U'hite  Leghorns  again  won  the  prize  for  the  greatest 
number  of  eggs  laid  during  the  period  (first  four  months).  The  Black 
Orpingtons,  however,  have  scored  well,  and  for  many  weeks  past  have  put 

u|)  the  highest  weekly  scores. 

During,  the  last  month  many  frosts  have  been  experienced,  together  with 
cold,  sleety  showers.  The  necessity  for  providing  good  accommodation  for 
profitable  results — a  feature,  too,  often  overlooked  in  the  selection  of  a 
j)Oultry  farm  site — has  been  well  emphasized,  for,  in  spite  of  the  elements, 
the  yield  of  eggs  has  been  very  satisfactory;  21,182  having  been  laid,  or 
an  average  number  of  307  per  pen,  as  against  15,021  laid  last  year,  01 
an  average  of  224  per  pen,  when  Mr.  W.  G.  Swift's  pen  won  the  contest 
with  a  total  of  479  eggs. 

The  prizes  offered  in  connexion  with  the  Winter  Te.st  are  for  the  greatest 
total  number  of  eggs  laid  by  a  pen  during  the  first  four  months  of  the 
competition,    terminating  on   the  evening   of    14th   August — the   first   prize 

b-ing  ^4  4s.,    and  the  second  ^2   2s.  :  — 

No.  eggs 

First  Prize — iNIr.  Samuel  Brown,  Gembrook  South  ;  White  Leghorns  480 

.Second  Prize — Mr.  George  Edwards,  Mentone,  White  Leghorns      ...  456 

Mr.   W.   McLister,   Melbourne-road,   Spotswood,  White  Leghorns  454 

Mr.  F.  G.  Eagleton.  Ballarat  Hospital,  Ballarat.  White  Leghorns  451 

The  winning  pen  opened  the  competition  in  perfect  condition,  and 
established  a  lead  which  has  been  well  maintained. 

One  pen,  under  Rule  12,  has  been  disqualified  on  account  of  not  having 
attained  the  standard  weight  of  24  oz.  to  the  last  dozen  eggs  laid.  This 
was  pen  No.  2i^  (Old  English  Game). 

The  remainder  of  birds  competing  are  producing  eggs  ranging  from 
24  to  27  ozs.  per  dozen. 

Within  the  last  month  very  few  birds  have  become  broody,  due,  no 
doubt,  to  the  cold  weather  experienced.  Two  replacements  have  occurred — 
one  of  the  birds  became  paralyzed,  and  one,  due  to  wasting,  had  to  be 
returned  to  the  owners. 

Feeding  has  been  carried  out  on  practically  the  same  lines  as  pub- 
lished in  the  August  issue  of  the  Journal — the  only  alteration  being  an 
increase  of  one  part  of  maize  to  the  evening  meal  to  compensate  for  the 
extremely  cold  weather  being  experienced. 


lo   Sept.,  igii.]  Second  Viclorian  Egg-lay'ui}:^  Compctitio)!. 


575 


SECOND  VICTORIAN  EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION,  1912-13. 

Commencing  I5lh  April,  1912. 
CONDUCTED    AT    BURNLEY    HORTICULTURAL    SCHOOL. 


Eggs  laid  during  competition. 

Position   in 

Pen. 

Breed. 

Xauie  of  Owner. 

April  15 

to 
July  14. 

358 

July  15 

to 
Aug.  14. 

122 

Total  t(i 

Date  ( 4 

months). 

Competi- 
tion. 

40 

White  Leghorns     . . 

S.  Brown     . . 

480 

1 

31 

Geo.  Edwards 

328 

J  28 

456 

2 

23 

W.McLister 

327 

127 

454 

3 

28 

F.  G.  Lagleton 

322 

129 

451 

4 

47 

J.  E.  Bradley 

314 

127 

441 

5 

70 

C.  J.  Beatty 

322 

113 

435 

6 

20 

E.  Waldon 

303 

127 

430 

7 

9 

.1.  S.  Spotswood 

304 

122 

426 

8 

3 

Black  Orpingtnu  ;  . . 

King  and  Watson 

313 

100 

413 

9 

1 

White  Legliorns     . . 

J.  Campbell 

282 

126 

408 

10 

46 

Black  Orpingttjns  . . 

H.  A.  Laugdou 

278 

124 

402 

11 

8 

D.  Fisher     . . 

280 

118 

398 

12 

48 

White  Loglwrns     . . 

Griffin  Cant 

288 

105 

393 

13 

C2 

R.  W.  Pope 

280 

105 

385 

14 

a7 

C.  B.  Bertelsmeier     .  . 

254 

126 

380 

15 

24 

Sargentri  Poultry  Yards 

260 

119 

379 

16 

45 

Wuoldridge  Bros. 

248 

127 

375 

17 

-J 

11.  L.  Applelord 

253 

117 

370 

j     w 

20 

J.  B.    Brigden 

248 

122 

370 

38 

11.  Moy 

259 

109 

368 

20 

9 

B.  K/Jwlinson 

240 

124 

364 

21 

30 

Mrs.  Stevenson 

264 

99 

363 

22 

14 

J.  H.  Wright 

233 

129 

362 

23 

39 

W.  G.  Swift 

260 

100 

360 

24 

50 

A.  Ahpee     . . 

248 

106 

354 

25 

6 

J.  B.  McArthur 

236 

116 

352 

26 

49 

W.  Purvis 

225 

125 

350 

27 

13 

W.  B.  CreUin 

216 

132 

348 

28 

44 

A.  W.  Hall 

242 

105 

347 

29 

15 

W.  H.  Steer 

212 

127 

339 

30 

63 

Percy  Walker 

218 

120 

338 

31 

61 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

J.  Ogden 

181 

152 

333 

32 

7 

White  Leghorns     . . 

A.  H.  Padman 

256 

69 

325 

33 

33 

H.  McKenzie 

201 

118 

319 

34 

19 

Cowan  Bros. 

198 

116 

314 

35 

56 

M.  A.  Monk 

195 

118 

313 

36 

35 

C.  H.  Busst 

200 

112 

312 

37 

42 

Mrs.  Kempster 

J  93 

112 

305 

38 

53 

H.  Hodges  .. 

203 

101 

304 

39 

5 

J.  H.  Brain 

167 

127 

294 

40 

10 

E.C.     Brown     Leg- 
liorns 

S.  P.  Giles 

165 

121 

286 

41 

64 

Wliite  Legliorns     . . 

H.  Merrick 

198 

St; 

284 

42 

51 

)» 

H.  Hanimill 

165 

il8 

283 

43 

60 

.. 

Miss  B.  E.  Ryan 

155 

lU 

269 

44 

54 

,, 

F.  R.  DeGaris 

155 

106 

261 

45 

43 

,, 

G.  Purton    . . 

153 

106 

259 

46 

58 

,, 

W.  J.  Stock 

ito 

93 

253 

47 

65 

,, 

A.  H.  Thomson 

150 

97 

247 

48 

16 

Silver  Wyandottes 

R.  Jobling 

120 

123 

243 

49 

52 

Black  Minorcas 

Chalmers  Bros. 

1?9 

1(13 

242 

1      50 

57 

White  Leghorns     .  . 

B.  Walker 

135 

107 

242 

27 

>. 

E.  Xash       .  . 

149 

S6 

235 

}       - 

12 

„ 

T.  H.  Stafford 

158 

77 

235 

4 

I! 

J.  Blackbume 

150 

84 

234 

54 

69 

>> 

Morgan  and  Watson  .  . 

121 

112 

233 

55 

32 

1. 

S.  Briindrett 

119 

112 

231 

t           r,^ 

11 

Black  Orpingtons  .  . 

T.  S.  Goodi-sson 

106 

125 

231 

J       56 

41 

White  Leghorns     . . 

A.  Stringer 

13  i 

79 

211) 

58 

18 

„ 

B.  Mitchell 

13S 

70 

208 

59 

68 

,y 

W.  J.  McKeddie 

97 

109 

206 

60 

55 

Brown  Leghorns    . . 

J.  Matheson 

90 

115 

205 

61 

21 

White  Leghorns     . . 

J.  O'Loughlin 

99 

176 

62 

66 

.. 

J.  Moloney 

74 

95 

169 

63 

22 

»j 

W.  N.  Ling 

105 

59 

164 

64 

59 

„ 

W.  J.  Seabridge 

102 

51 

153 

65 

36 

Old  English  Game 

K.  J.  Barrett 

81 

69 

150 

66 

67 

Anconas  . . 

A.  E.  Manning 

44 

103 

147 

67 

17 

White  Leghorns 

S.  Childs      . . 

48 

60 

108 

34 

„ 

R.  F.  B.  Moore 

43 

65 

108 

1      68 

26 

(Reserved) 

Totals  . .             . .  1 

— 

13,759 

7,423 

21.182      1 

57<5  journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [lo   Sept.,  191 2. 

HINTS   TO   SETTLERS. 

Bv  ] .   W'Uson,  Silo  Builder. 

A. — Six -hail  Milking  and  Feed  SJied. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  are  for  a  6-l>ail  milking  and  feed  shed. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  material  required  :  — 

Hardwood. 

4  inches  x    I5   inches,   thirty-nine   y-ft.   Wall    Studs. 

4   inches  x  3  inches,  two   ii-ft.    Front   Studs. 

4   inches   x   4   inches,    five   7-ft.    and   five   6-ft.  6-in.   Bail   Posts. 

4   inches   x   2    inches,    five    n-ft.    Bail   Rails. 

3    inches    x    2    inches,    seven    5-ft.    and    six    6-ft.   Studs    and    Tongues. 

3  inches  x   ig  inches,    four  9-ft.    and   four   17-ft.    Runners    for    Bails. 

4  inches  x  2   inches,   two   17-ft.    Collar  Ties. 
4  inches  x  2   inches,   eighteen    12-ft.    Rafters. 

3  inches  x  2  inches,  two  17-ft.  and  two  9-ft.  Capping  for  troughs. 

3  inches  x   I5   inches,   ten    17-ft.    and   ten   9-ft.    i'urlins. 
6  inches  x  1  inch,  two  i4-ft.  Ridge. 

4  inches  x  2   inches,    four   17-ft.    and   four    14-ft.    Plates. 
4  inches  x  3   inches,  one   r7-ft.   and  one   lo-ft.   Plates. 

3  inches  x  i   inch,  four  17-ft.   and  four  20-ft.   Braces. 

4  inches  x  2  inches,  50-ft.   Gable  Studs. 

3   inches  x    I5   inches,   thirteen   i-ft.    9-in.    Trough   Bearers. 
3  inches  x  2  inches,  thirteen  4-ft.  6-in.   Trough  Studs. 
3  inches  x  I5  inches,  thirteen  i-ft.  3-in.   Trough  Studs. 

Red  Deal. 
Weatherboards,   1,400  feet. 

Barge  and   Cover  Boards,  6  inches  x  |  inch,  T.   &  G.,  eight   13-ft. 
Flooring,  6  inches  x  |  inch,  T.   &   G.,   for  Feed  Troughs  and  Door,   260   feet. 
Angle  stops,  3  inches  x  i^  inches,  four  9-ft. 

Ironmonger,  &^c. 

Iron   for  Roof,  56  sheets,  6  feet,  26-gauge,   galvanized,  corrugated. 

Ridging,  galvanized,   16  inches,   26-gauge,   five  lengths. 

Spring-head    Nails,   ten   packets. 

Wire  Nails,  6  lbs.  4  inch  ;  8  lbs.   3  inches  ;  42  lbs.   2   inch. 

T  Hinges,  one  pair,   18  inches. 

Bolts,  6  inches  x  5  inch.,  six. 

Spouting,   galvanized,   5   inches,   O.G.,   ten   lengths. 

Down   Piping,  galvanized,  2  inches,  seven  lengths. 

Brackets  for  5-in.   Spouting,  two  dozen. 

At  present  price  of  material  in  Melbourne  it  would  cost  ^24  landed 
on  trucks  at  Spencer-street  station.  If  the  walls  are  covered  with  iron 
instead  of  weatherboards,  10  more  packets  of  spring-head  nails  will  be 
required,  also  32  sheets  of  9-ft.  galvanized  corrugated  iron  and  battens 
for  iron  3  inches  x  i|  inch  hardwood — four  13-ft.,  four  17-ft.  (Weather- 
boards and  nineteen  9  ft.  4  in.  x  i|-in.  wall  studs  would  not  be  required 
or  any  2-in.  wire  nails.)  The  difference  in  cost  of  weatherboard  and  iron 
walls  is  ;^i  for  material,  but  there  is  a  big  saving  in  labour  if  iron  is 
used  and  fixed  to  the  inside  of  the  walls.  The  need  for  limewashing  is 
done  away  with,  and  the  smooth  surface  can  be  more  quickly  and  effectively 
cleaned  by  swabbing  it  at  required  intervals  with  a  swab  or  broom. 

Specifications  for  Shed. 

The  studs  of  back  and  two  end  walls  are  4-in.  x  i|-ini.  hardwood, 
spaced  18  inches  centre  to  centre,  checked  in  |  of  an  inch  into  4-in.  x  2-in. 


lo   Sept..  191 -.]  Hi)its  to  Settlers. 


'r^ll 


Section 


rf«nw'"ii*/i  ,,'"1" 
Ifiiiillil  ill  i;<yli'  ""'I'll'' 

I i II  ij] , 

liil 1 11""' '! 

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n                      n 

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= 

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U 

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LET 

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:'___l 

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-j^ 

i---i 

IT 

■^ 

J          _|_ 

front  Elevation 


Plan 

Six    BAIL    MILKING    AND    FEED    SHED. 


57^  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [lo   Sept.,  1912. 

plates  set  on  blocks  sunk  in  ground  2  feet  and  spaced  not  more  than  4  ft. 
■centres.  The  front  top  plate  is  of  4-in.  x  3-in.  hardwood  carried  by 
two  4-in.  X  3-in.  studs  sunk  2  feet  in  the  ground  as  .shown,  fix  a  collar-tie 
■on  each  of  these  studs.  All  studs  to  be  well  nailed  and  braced  with 
3-in.  X  i-^in.  battens,  and  cover  the  studs  externally  with  weatherboards 
showing  a  55-in.  weather  to  each  lioard,  and  fix  an  angle-stop  3  inches 
X  i|  inch  at  each  corner.  If  iron  is  used  for  walls  the  studs  are  then 
3  feet  centre  to  centre.  The  top  and  lx>ttom  plates  will  do  to  fix  the  ends 
of  iron  and  divide  the  .space  between  with  two  horizontal  3-in  x  i^-in. 
battens,  sinking  them  in  flush  with  studs.  The  rafters  of  4-in.  x  2-in. 
hardwood,  spaced  about  3  ft.  centres,  well  nailed  to  top  plate  and  ridge 
(ridge  6-in.  x  i-in.  hardwood).  Fix  purlins,  3-in.  x  i|-in.  hardwood  to 
carry  iron  spaced  not  more  than  3  feet,  and  well  nailed  to  rafters.  Cover 
the  roof  with  26-gauge  galvanized  corrugated  iron,  allowing  a  6-in.  lap 
at  joint  cover  Ridge  with  i6-in  galvanized  ridging,  use  2|-in  galvanized 
spring-head  nails  for  fixing  on  iron. 

Bails  are  formed  with  4in.  x  4-in.  posts  sunk  2  feet  in  ground  and 
mortised    to    receive   the    partition    rails,    4-in.    x    2-in.    hardwood.  Fix 

runners  of  3-in.  x  i^-in.  hardwood.  The  first  one  from  floor  to  top 
edge  of  runner  is  9  inches,  and  the  second  comes  level  wath  top  edge  of 
bail  post  5  feet  from  the  floor.  The  posts  will  require  to  be  checked  out 
to  receive  runners,  leaving  2\  inches  on  posts  to  allow  the  bail  tongues  to 
work  freely.  Fix  studs  as  shown;  the  first  stud  is  12  inches,  from  post, 
then  allow  7  inches  between  this  stud  and  bail  tongue,  when,  the  bail  is 
closed  a  6-in.  bolt  is  provided  for  tongue.  The  feeding  troughs  are  made 
as  shown  on  plan  ;  studs  of  3  inches  x  2  inches  sunk  i  foot  in  floor,  and 
spaced  about  2  feet  apart;  fix  bearers  (3  inches  x  i|  inches),  keeping  the 
top  edge  of  bearer  18  inches  from  ground.  Cover  framing  with  6-in. 
X  f-in.  T.  and  G.  flooring.  Make  a  movable  partition  for  each  bail,  which 
when  removed  will  allow  the  troughs  to  be  cleansed  from  end  to  end. 
Caps  of  3  inches  x  2  inches  rounded  on  one  side  are  well  fastened  to^  top 
edges  of  trough.  The  quantity  of  concrete  required  to  cover  the  floor  as 
shown,  5  inches  deep,  is  4  cubic  yards,  and  the  approximate  cost  of  labour 
and  material  jQ\  i5-s.  per  cubic  yard.  The  whole  woodwork  on  outside 
of  building  should  have  at  least  two  coats  of  paint,  but  paint  or  wash 
should  not  be  applied  until  the  timber  is  thoroughly  sea.soned,  otherwise 
it  will  hasten  the  decay. 

B. — A  Durable  White-wash. 

The  following  is  a  durable  white-wash  (American  Congress  recipe), 
used  on  White  Hou.se,  Washington  : — Slack  \  bushel  of  unslacked  lime 
with  boiling  water,  covered  to  keep  in  steam.  Strain  through  fine  sieve. 
Add  a  peck  of  salt  previously  dissolved  in  warm  water.  3  lbs.  ground  rice, 
boiled  to  a  thin  consistency ;  \  lb.  powdered  whiting ;  i  lb.  clean  glue 
previously  dissolved.  Boil  the  mixture  one  hour  in  a  small  kettle,  then 
add  5  gallons  of  hot  water,  stir  it  well  and  let  it  stand  for  a  few  days,  and 
put  on  hot  with  a  brush.  It  remains  brilliant  for  many  years.  Colouring 
matter  mav  be  added  if  desired.      One  pint  covers  one  yard. 

C. — Concrete  for  Cow-sheds,  g'c. 

In  mixing  concrete  it  is  just  as  important  to  .select  good  stone,  sand,  and 
clean  water  as  to  choose  the  brand  of  cement.  Experience  proves  that  the 
most  reliable  stone  is  basalt. 

The  cement,  sand,  gravel,  or  broken  stone,  should  first  be  thoroughly 
mixed   in   a    dry    state,    and   then   again    when   moistened    witli    water.      A 


lo   Sept.,  1912.]  Orchard  and  Garden  Notes.  579 

watering  can  with  a  rose  can  be  used  for  the  purpose.  The  proportions 
for  concrete  for  general  pur[)Oses  is  one  part  cement,  three  parts  sand,  and 
.six  parts  broken  stone,  gravel,  or  ashes.  AH  concrete  should  be  lightly 
rammed  and  a  surplus  of  water  should  be  avoided,  as  otherwise  the 
strength  and  density  of  the  concrete  is  affected.  The  proportion  of  water 
is  correct  if  after  only  light  ramming  the  liquid  appears  on  the  surface. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  quick  drying  of  concrete  by  protecting 
it  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  and  sprinkling  from  time  to  time  with 
water.  When  placing  a  s'.'cond  layer  of  concrete,  it  is  best  to  do  so  betort,- 
the  first  is  dry,  otherwise  the  first  layer  will  require  to  be  scratched, 
cleaned,  and  wetted,  so  as  to  insure  a  firm  hold.  Three  inches  of  con- 
crete, with  I  inch  of  facing,  is  sufficient  for  silo  floors ;  while  for  cow- 
sheds and  other  floors,  where  there  is  a  lot  of  traffic,  4  to  6  inches  of 
concrete,  with  2  inches  of  facing,  is  required.  The  facing  for  cow-shed 
floors  should  be  made  with  a  greater  proportion  of  cement  than  ordinary 
concrete,  and  the  metal  should  be  finer  and  the  surface  have  a  slightly 
rough  finish ;  this  will  prevent  the  cows  from  slipping. 

To  prepare  the  floor  it  should  be  levelled  off,  well  rammed,  then 
covered  w-ith  2  inches  of  sand ;  this  should  be  well  wetted.  The  concrete 
is  laid  in  sections,  dividing  each  section  with  a  batten,  which  is  removed 
when  the  concrete  is  set,  and  the  spaces  where  battens  are  taken  from  are 
grouted  in  with  cement  mortar ;  this  prevents  cracking  caused  by  the 
shrinkage  of  concrete.  The  facing  should  be  put  on  before  the  concrete 
is  set.  Gutters,  corners,  and  edges  should  be  rounded  off.  For  cement 
mortar  the  cement  and  clean  sharp  sand  (not  too  fine)  should  be  thoroughly 
mixed  in  a  dry  state.  Cement  mortar  of  one  part  cement  and  two  parts 
sand  is  us(h1  when  a  high  degree  of  strength  and  density  is  required,  such 
as  machinery  foundations,  damp  cellars,  &c. ,  but  for  masonry,  plaster- 
ing, and  general  purposes,  one  part  cement  and  three  parts  sand  is  a  suit- 
able mixture.  A  smooth  surface  or  platform  is  required  for  mixing.  A 
board  for  this  purpose  can  readily  ht  made  from  any  surplus  timber  avail- 
able. Gauge  boxes  are  necessary  for  measuring  the  quantities  ;  and  in 
making  boxes  it  is  advisable  to  allow  the  side  boards  to  project  past  the 
ends  of  the  box,  so  as  to  form  handles  for  shifting  the  boxes.  Do  not 
make  more  concrete  than  can  be  used  in  half-an-hour  ;  set  or  hardened 
cement  mortar  or  concrete  is  quite  useless.  Its  initial  set  should  not  be 
disturbed.  Cement  work  should  never  be  applied  on  dry  or  absorbent 
surfaces,  unless  those  surfaces  have  been  previously  wetted. 


ORCHARD    AND    GAllDEX    NOTES. 

E.  E.  Pcscoii,  Principal,  School  of  Horticulture ,  Burnley. 

The  Orchard. 

The  winter  seasonable  works,  such  as  pruning  and  planting,  with  the 
exception  of  Citrus  fruits  in  the  latter  case,  will  now  be  completed  ;  and 
the  time  has  arrived  for  the  new  season's  work  to  be  commenced. 

The  spring  ploughing  should  now  be  prcceeded  with  as  earlv  as  possible, 
so  as  to  conserve  all  soil  moisture.  If  the  ploughing  be  delayed,  it 
frequently  happens  that,  owing  to  dry  weather  setting  in,  the  soil  surface 
becomes  hardened  and  compacted,  and  in  that  condition  it  is  very  difficult 


580  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.         [10   Sept.,  1912. 

to  turn  over.  Cultivation  .should  quickly  follow  ploughing,  so  that  there 
shall  be  no  lumps  or  clods  on  the  surface.  Where  it  is  intended  to  use 
•stable  manure,  or  to  spread  fresh  soil  in  the  orchard,  this  should  be  done 
before  ploughing,  so  that  it  may  be  well  ploughed  under. 

As  soon  as  cover  crops  are  in  full  flower,  they  should  also  be 
ploughed  in. 

If  the  soil  be  warm,  Citrus  trees  of  all  descriptions  may  be  planted, 
the  ground  having  been  previously  prepared  for  their  reception.  The 
planting  of  these  trees  may  be  spread  over  September  and  October ;  and  in 
■cooler  districts  they  may  even  be  left  until  November. 

Spraying. 

Peach  aphis  will  be  makmg  its  appearance  on  peach,  nectarine,  and 
Japanese  plum  trees,  if  it  has  not  already  done  so.  As  soon  as  it  appears, 
frequent  sprayings  with  a  nicotine  solution  will  be  required  to  keep  it  in 
•check.  It  is  advisable  to  spray  early,  and  to  spray  a  second  time  a  few 
hours  after  the  first  spraying  has  been  completed.  After  the  first  spraying, 
the  aphides  that  remain  alive  generally  endeavour  to  find  a  more  congenial 
position.  These  moving  ones,  as  well  as  the  weakened  ones,  are  then 
readily  dealt  with  by  the  second  application.  Red  oil  emulsion  should  not 
be  used,  as  this  is  only  a  winter  spray. 

As  soon  a.s  the  flower  buds  of  the  apple  and  pear  are  opening,  these 
*rees  siiouid  be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture  for  black  spot.  Peach  and 
nectarine  trees  will  need  a  Bordeaux  spraying  for  leaf  curl ;  and  plum 
trees  also,   for  plum  or  prune  rust. 

In  spraying  peach  trees  for  peach  aphis  and  leaf  curl,  or  for  aphis 
and  prune  rust,  the  tobacco  solution  and  Bordeaux  mixture  may  be  safely 
u.sed  as  a  mixture  without  any  fear  of  damage  to  the  trees. 

In  some  cases  the  copper-soda  spray  is  joreferred  by  orchardists,  in 
lieu  of  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  is  certainly  good  in  many  instances ;  and, 
where  fresh  lime  is  not  procurable,  or  where  the  climate  is  dry,  the  copper- 
soda  mixture  is  useful  as  a  fungicide.  It  is,  however,  not  so  adhesive  as 
Bordeaux,  and  is  readily  washed  off  by  rain  or  heavy  dews.  The  copper - 
soda  mixture  .should  not  be  used  on  stone  fruits,  particularly  peaches,  as 
the  foliage  of  these  trees  is  too  delicate  for  the  use  of  this  spra}-.  The 
recognised  formulae  are:  — 

Bordeaux  :  6  lbs.  bluestone,  4  lbs.  fresh  lime,  and  50  gallons  of  w^ater. 
Copper-soda  :  6  lbs.  bluestone,  81bs.  washing  soda,  and  50  gallons  of 
water. 
If  the  winter  spraying   for  the   Bryobia  mite   has   been  neglected,   the 

trees  should  be  given  a  good  spraying  with  a  nicotine  solution,  or  with 
Robinson's  Pine  Spray,   Soaperine,  or  some  other  similar  preparation. 

The  work  of  grafting  should  be  completed  early  in  the  month.  The 
most  useful  method  of  re-working  old  trees  is  to  cut  the  head  right  awav. 
leaving  only  the  .stump.  Then  grafts  can  be  put  in  according  to  the  fancy 
of  the  grower.  The  old  method  of  cleft  grafting  has  been  superseded  b) 
the  bark  or  crown  graft.  The  latter  method  does  not  cause  any  damage 
to  the  wood,  and  thus,  with  care,  no  rotting  can  take  place.  The  best 
method  of  bark  grafting  is  the  saddle  graft ;  that  is,  the  graft  is  inserted 
in  the  bark,  and  a  strip  of  bark  is  carried  right  across  the  trunk  and 
inserted  in  the  bark  on  the  opposite  side.  This  method  is  much  slower 
than  the  ordinary  bark  graft,  but  it  insures  a  much  quicker  healing  over  of 
the  old  stump. 


lo   Sept.,  1915.]  OrcJiard  and  Garden  Xotes.  581 

Vegetable  Garden. 

The  vegetablt^  plnt.s  .should  be  cleaned  from  all  weeds,  having  the  light 
Aveeds  dug  in  and  the  stronger  ones  pulled  out  and  rotted  in  the  compost 
heap.  The  suriace  should  be  worked  up  to  a  very  fine  tilth  after  digging  : 
it  must  be  kept  constantly  loose  with  the  hoe  to  keep  the  soil  cool  ;  an(J 
prior  to  digging  it  will  be  advantageous  to  give  a  top  dressing  of  lime. 

If  the  weather  be  dry  or  windy,  all  newly-planted  plants  should  be 
frequently  watered.  In  transplanting  seedlings,  it  is  a  help  to  dip  the 
Avhole  plant  in  water  \/efore  planting. 

Any  seedlings  that  are  ready  may  be  planted  out;  tomato  plants  may 
l)e  planted  out  under  shelter  until  the  frosts  are  over.  At  the  end  of  the 
month  a  sowing  of  French  bean  seeds  may  be  made.  Seeds  of  peas, 
broad  beans,  beet,  cabbage,  Kohl  rabi,  radish,  turnip,  cauliflower,  lettuce, 
oarrot,  parsnip,  &c.,  may  be  .sown  in  the  open.  Seeds  of  melons, 
■cucumbers,  pumpkins,  marrows,  and  similar  plants  may  be  planted  in 
frames  for  transplanting  after  the  frosts  have  gone. 

Flower  Garden. 

After  digging,  the  surface  mu.st  be  kept  constantly  stirred  with  the 
hoe,  so  as  to  have  it  lojse  and  friable  for  cooling  and  for  moisture  con- 
.serving  purpose.^.  All  weeds  must  be  kepr  down,  as  they  are  robbers  of 
plant  food  and  moisture  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

Shrubs  of  all  kinds  may  still  be  planted  out,  and  these  should  be  well 
Avatered  after  planting. 

Rose  and  other  aphides  must  be  watched  for,  and  treated  according  to 
instructions  given  in  last  months'  notes.  Rose  scale  should  be  sprayed  with 
lime-sulphur  wash,  or  with  kerosene  emulsion.  This  pest  will  soon  dis- 
appear if  the  bu.shes  are  kept  open  to  admit  the  air  and  the  sunlight  freely. 
Rose  mildew  will  now  be  appearing,  and  the  plants  as  well  as  the  soil 
should  be  .sprinkled  with  liberal  dustings  of  sulphur.  Sulphide  of  potas- 
sium is  also  a  good  specific  for  this  fungus  trouble,  using  it  at  the  rate  of 
I  ounce  to  3  gallons  of  water. 

Cannas,  early  chrysanthemums,  and  early  dahlia  tubers  may  be  planted 
•out,  as  well  as  all  kinds  of  herbaceous  plants,  such  as  delphiniums,  per- 
■ennial  phlox,  and  asters,  &c.  The  clumps  of  these  should  be  well  divided, 
and  in  planting  they  should  be  fed  with  a  liberal  quantity  of  stable 
manure.  Beds  should  be  prepared  and  well  dug  over  for  exhibition 
chrysanthemums  and  dahlias. 

Wattles  of  all  kinds  mav  be  planted  out,  and  many  of  these  are  suitable 
for  garden  work.  For  trees.  A^cacia  Baihyana  (C'ootamundra),  A.  saligna 
(West  Au.stralian  willow  wattle).  A.  sfectabilis  (w^eeping),  A.  vernicif.ua, 
A.  luttata,  A.  prominens,  A.  leprosa,  A.  longi folia.  A.  cultriformis,  and 
A.  data  are  all  u.setul.  While  as  shrubs,  the  following  may  be  grown  : — 
A.  ruhida,  A.  Fame  si  ana.  A.  myrti  folia.  A.  acinacea,  A.  Mitchelli,  and 
A.  pod vlari folia. 

Acacias  may  l)e  readily  pruned,  the  work  being  done  after  flowering  ; 
and  if  this  work  be  commenced  when  the  plants  are  fairly  young,  they  may 
l)e  trained  into  beautiful  and  shapely  bushes  and  trees. 

It  is  also  a  good  time  to  sow  the  seed.  The  outer  covering  of  acacia 
seed  is  very  hard,  and  the  growing  root  is  not  able  of  its  own  accord  to 
penetrate  it.  The  seed  must,  therefore,  be  immersed  tor  a  few  moments 
in  boiling  water,  and  allowed  to  soak  for  at  least  twelve  hours.  After 
this,  they  may  be  planted  direct  into  the  garden  or  into  pots  for  subsequent 
transplanting 


582  Jounial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [10   Sept.,  1912. 

SUGAR  ]5EET. 

The  phenomenal  sugar  beet  rcx>l  represented  ujjon  the  opposite  page  was- 
produced  by  a  local  syndicate  of  Maffra  growers  upon  their  land  in  the 
Sale-road.  The  beet  measured  from  the  crown  to  the  tip  48  inches,  and  is 
properly  shaped,  that  is,  it  is  of  the  type  desired  in  factory  operations. 
This  shape  of  beet  can  only  be  secured  by  deep  subsoiling.  which  is  one 
of  the  prime  essentials  in  beet  root  cultivation. 


ANSWERS  TO   CORRESPONDEiNTS. 

The  Staff  of  the  Depivtment  has  been  or<jaiiized  to  a  larsre  extent  for  the  purpose  of  jiiving  information 
to  farmers.  Question"  in  every  branch  of  aiifriculture  are  gladly  answered.  Write  a  short  letter,  sfivinif  as 
full  particulars  as  possible,  of  your  local  conditions,  and  state  precisely  what  it  is  that  you  want  to  know. 
Ail  inquiries  forwarded  to  the  Editor  imist  be  accompanied  by  the  name  and  address  of  the  ivriter. 
This  is  very  necessary,  as  sometinies  insufficient  information  is  furnished  by  the  inquirer. 

Hand-rearing  a  Foal. — N.L.S.  wishes  to  know  what  food  to  give  to  hand-rear 
a   foal? 

Anszver. — Give  at  blood  heat  g  pints  new  milk  (whole)  six  feeds  daily.  Sugar 
may  be  added  at  the  rate  of  a  teaspoonful  to  a  jMnt.  When  a  month  old  give 
3  quarts  of  milk  in  three  feeds,  gradually  increase  milk  and  decrease  number  of 
feeds  as  foal  gets  older.  At  two  months  old  work  skim  milk  into  ration,  until  at 
four  months  old  it  is  all  skim  milk,  to  which  i  lb.  of  linseed  jelly,  or  boiled 
oatmeal  has  been   added.      After  this  give   i    lb.    oats   for  each   month   of   age. 

Chestnut  as  a  Shelter  Tree. — F.C.B.  asks  if  chestnut  is  a  good  shelter  tree 
suitable  for  Gippsland  Lakes  district? 

Answer. — A  good  shelter  tree  from  the  sun,  being  deciduous,  is  no  shelter  in 
winter  from  weather.     Would  grow  in  district. 

Lucerne^   Proper  Time  for  Sowing. — B.   Bros,   ask  the  best  time  to  sow  lucerne? 

Answer. — Best  time  of  year  to  sow  lucerne  is  either  in  autumn  with  a  light  cover 
crop,  such  as  half  a  bushel  of  oats,  or  in  early  spring,  without  any  covering.  If 
district  subject  to  heavy  frosts,  it  can  do  without  cover  crop  in  autumn,  but  young 
plants  are  very  susceptible  at  early  stages  of  growth  to  frosts.  As  to  manures,  if 
soil  deficient  in  lime  a  dressing  of  3  to  5  cwt.  per  acre  of  lime  a  month  before 
seeding  will  be  foimd  advantageous.  If  no  lime  required,  70  lbs.  suljihate  of  potash 
and  100  lbs.  mixed  super  and  bone  dust  per  acre  applied  a  month  before  seeding 
will  be   sufficient  to  give   the   crop  a  good   start. 

Worms  in  Ykarlings. — P^armer  wishes  to  know  how  many  doses  of  liquor 
arsenicalis   prescribed    for   complaint   must   be   given? 

Answer. — The  length  of  time  treatment  with  liquor  arsenicalis  should  be  con- 
tinued is  guided  largely  by  the  improvement  shown  by  the  animal.  Generally 
speaking,  treatment  may  be  discontinued  when  progressive  improvement  in  appetite 
and  general  condition   are  sliown. 

Destroying  Ants'   Nests. — J.G.V.   asks  how  to  destroy   ants? 

Answer.- — The  best  remedy  is  to  make  a  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  nest  with  a 
stick  and  pour  into  it  a  cup  of  bisulphide  of  carbon.  Soil  should  be  immediately 
thrown  into  the  hole  and  stamped  firmly  down.  This  will  destroy  all  ants  and" 
their  larvae. 

Wood  Lice  or   Slaters. — E.J.S.   would   like   to  know   how   to   destroy  same? 

Answer. — Boisoned  parsnips,  carrots,  or  beetroot.  Cook  in  a  solution  of  arsenic 
and  place  in  haunts  of  the  wood  lice,  they  will  eat  the  poisoned  material  greedily 
and  be  destroyed.  Traps  may  be  made  by  filling  lo-inch  flower  pots  with  half-dry 
horse  droppings,  and  placed  where  insects  are  most  numerous.  Once  a  week  turn 
droppings  into  the  fire  and  put  fresh  into  pots.  If  this  is  persisted  in,  a  riddance 
will  soon  be  made.  Spraying  cabbage,  lettuce,  or  any  other  vegetable  leaves,  with 
arsenate  of  lead  in  places  frequented  by  wood  lice  will  soon  get  rid  of  the  pest. 
The  poisoned    leaves   must   be   kept   out  of    the    reach   of    cattle. 

Douglas    Mixtiire. — E.W.H.    would    like    the    formula    of    Douglas    mixture. 

Answer. — 100  drops  sulphuric  acid  (poison)  ;  2^  ozs.  sulphate  of  iron  ;  2  gallons- 
of  water.  Thoroughly  stir  and  after  an  hour's  time  stir  again;  then  give  birds  to 
drink  without  further  diluting.  Earthenware  vessels  should  be  used.  Give  to  birds 
one   day   each   week. 


lo  Sept.,  1912.J 


Sugar  Beet. 


583 


SUGAR    BEET. 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.         [lo   Sept.,  1912. 


REIVIINDERS     FOR     OCTOBER. 

LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Continue  to  feed  stabled  horses  well ;  add  a  ration  of  greenstuff.  Rug 
at  night.  Continue  hay  or  straw,  chaffed  or  whole,  to  grass-fed  horses.  Feed  old' 
and  badly-conditioned  horses  liberally.  If  too  fat,  mares  in  foal  should  be  put 
on   poorer  pasture. 

Cattle. — Except  on  rare  occasions,  rugs  may  now  be  used  on  cows  at  night  only. 
Continue  giving  hay  or  straw  Give  calves  a  warm  dry  shed  and  a  good  grass  run. 
Continue  giving  milk  at  blood  heat  to  calves. 

Pigs. — Supply  plenty  of  bedding  in  warm  well-ventilated  styes.  Keep  styes 
clean  and  dry,  and  feeding  troughs  clean  and  wholesome.  Sows  may  now  be 
turned   into  grass  run. 

Sheep. — When  shearing  is  in  progress,  well-bred  fleeces  should  be  skirted  care- 
fully— the  better  the  class  of  wool  the  greater  the  need.  Where  the  wool  is  burry, 
take  the  heaviest  off,  keeping  bellies  and  pieces,  &c.,  separate.  In  country  free 
from  burr,  only  the  heavy  fribs  from  arm  and  flank  need  be  removed.  It  is  better 
management'  to  have  ample  table  room,  and  extra  men  skirting  carefully,  than  to 
hurriedly  tear  off  unnecessary  wool  and  then  employ  men  at  the  piece  table  to  sort 
what  is  known  as  "  broken  fleece "  or  "  first  pieces."  All  stains  must  come  off 
fleeces,  and  weather  stains  from  bellies.  With  crossbreds,  separate  all  coarse 
fleeces  from  the  finer  sorts ;  and,  with  merinoes,  the  yellow  and  mushy  ones  from 
the  shafty  and  bright.  Skirt  off  any  rough  thighs  from  crossbred  fleeces.  Press- 
in  neat  bales;  avoid  "  sewdowns."  Brand  neatly.  If  any  likelihood  of  lambs  not 
going   for  export   before   dry    feed   comes,   shear   at  once. 

Poultry. — Incubation  should  cease  this  month — late  chickens  are  not  profitable. 
Devote  attention  to  the  chickens  already  hatched  ;  do  not  overcrowd.  Feed  a  little 
lightly-boiled  liver,  chopped  finely  and  mixed  with  mash.  Also  add  plenty  of 
green  food  to  ration,  ordinary  feeding  to  be  2  parts  pollard,  i  part  bran,  a  little- 
dry  bonemeal,  and  plenty  of  finely-cut  raw  onion.  Mix  with  the  gravy  from  liver. 
Give  a  little  three  or  four  times  a  day,  according  to  the  weather.  Feed  crushed 
wheat  or  hulled  oats  at  night  tor  a  few  days;  whole  wheat  may  then  be  given. 
Avoid  whole  oats.  Grit  (broken  crockery)  should  be  available  at  all  times.  Variety 
of  food  is  important  to  growing  chicks;  insect  life  aids  growth.  Remove  brooders 
to  new  ground   as  often   as  possible;   tamted   ground  will   retard   development. 

CULTIVATION. 

Farm. — Plant  main  crop  of  potatoes  in  early  districts  and  prepare  land  for  main, 
crop  in  late  districts.  Fallow  and  work  early  fallow.  Sow  maize  and  millets  where 
frosts  are  not  late,  also  mangolds,  beet,  carrots,  and  turnips.  Sow  tobacco  beds 
and  keep  covered  with  straw  or  he^sian. 

Orchard. — Ploughing  and  cultivating  to  be  continued,  bringing  surface  to  a  good' 
tilth,  and  suppressing  all  weeds.  Spray  with  nicotine  solution  for  peach  aphis,, 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  for  black  spot  of  apple  and  pear,  and  with  arsenate  of  lead? 
for  codlin  moth  in  early  districts. 

VEGEfABLE  GARDEN. — Sow  seeds  of  Carrot,  turnip,  parsnip,  cabbage,  peas,  F"rench 
beans,  tomato,  celery,  radish,  marrow,  and  pumpkins.  Plant  out  seedlings  from 
former  sowings.       Keep  the  surface  well   pulverized. 

Flower  Garden. — ^Keep  the  weeds  down  and  tlie  soil  open  by  continued  hoeing. 
Plant  out  flel])hinium5,  chrysanthemums,  salvia,  early  dahlias,  &c.  Prepare  ground 
by  digging  and  manuring  for  autumn  dahlias.  Plant  gladioli  tubers  and  seeds  of 
tender   annuals.       Spray   roses   for   aphis   and    mildew. 

Vineyard. — This  is  the  best  month  for  field  grafting.  If  stocks  bleed  toO' 
copiously,  cut  off  24  hours  before  grafting.  Field  grafts  must  be  staked,  to  avoid 
subsequent  straining  by  wind  and  to  insure  straight  stem  for  future  vine.  Stakes- 
are  also  necessary  for  grafted  rootlings  for  same  reasons.  Temporary  stakes  3  feet 
long  will  suffice.  Keep  a  sharp  look-out  for  cut  worms.  (See  Journal  for  July,. 
1911.)  Disbud  and  tie  up  all  vines,  giving  special  care  to  young  plantations. 
Beware  of   spring   frosts.       (See  Journal   for   September,    1910.) 

Conclude  spring  cultivation  (second  ploughing  or  scarifying  and  digging  or 
hoeing  round  vines).  Weeds  must  be  mastered  and  whole  surface  got  into  good 
tilth.       Sulphur   vines  when   shoots  4  to  6  inches   long. 

Cellar. — Taste  all  young  wines;  beware  of  dangerous  symptoms  in  unfortified 
fruity  wines,  which  may  need  treatment.       Fill  up  regula'  'y   all   unfortified   wines. 


Sept..  191-] 


Joiinial   (>i  Agridiliurc,    Victoria. 


"ROYAL  MEDAL 


99 


The  Machine  Does  all  the  Work* 

Every  dairyman  who  v/ould  enjoy  the  utmost  in  results 
with  a  minimum  of  working  expense^  labour,  and  worry, 
will  do  well  to  investigate  the  money-making,  labour- 
saving,  leisure-giving  merits  of  the  '^  Royal  Medal  *^ 
Milking  Machine — the 
Milker  that  is  different 
—  and  write  for  the 
^^Royal  Medar^  Booklet. 

ROYAL     MEDAL 
MILKING    MACHINES 


34    QUEEN     ST., 
MELBOURNE. 

London  OKice— Caxton  House,     J.  H.  DAVIES, 

Westminster,  S.W.  Manar/inij  Director, 


POST  FREE  BOOKLET  COUPON. 

"■^ Royal  Medal"  Milkiiii).  Machines, 

34  Queen  Street,  Melbourne, 

Please  forward  a  copy  0/  your  Free  Booklet,  It 
is  to  be  understood  that  I  consider  inyself  under  no 
obligation. 


Name.. 
A  ddres: 
J.  12. 


JouriiaJ  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


lo  Sept.,  19 12.]! 


CB 


'Phone 

4881 
Central. 


The  Australasian  Mutual  Live  Stoek 

Insuranee  Society  lw,, 

KOYAL    BAMK    CHAMBERS, 

70  ELIZABETH-ST.,  MELBOURNE. 

^tvcctcirs: 

Hon,  AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P.    HENRY  GARDNER,  Esq. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P. 

WALTER  G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 

FARMERS  and  BREEDERS. 

We  will  undertake  to 

INSURE     YOUR      LIVE     STOCK 

at  the  Lowest  Current  Rates  obtainable  in  Australia, 

OTHER  DEPARTMENTS  OF  BUSINESS.    ^ 

Fire,  Marine,  P'idelity  Ouarantee,  Plate  Glass,  Personal 
Aixident  and  Sickness,  Employers'  Liability,  Workmen's 
Compensation,   Public  Risk,   Motor  Car,   and  Burglary. 

INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  and  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS. 


A    GOOD   AUSTRALIAN 
*  Why  didn't  you  put  your  penny  m  the  plate  thii 

Tnorwhig  f" 
"  Pxause  it  was  a  foreign  mission,  and  dada   say» 

it's  not  right  lo  send  capital  out  of  the  country," 


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Hopper  Jacket  or       C  Kl  ^  I  Nl  F  O 
Tank  Cooling  Type.      tl^Nall^CiO 

Also  PREMIER  GAS  ENGINES. 
POWER    GAS   ENGINES. 

CLUTTERBUCK  BROS., 

585  Bourke-st.,  Melbourne. 


Visitors  to  Melbourne  Show 


^ 


CALL    AT- 


Showrooms,  585  Bourke  Street, 
or   Stand  112,    Show   Grounds, 

for  particulars  of 


BLAGKSTGNE 


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STATIONARY 
&  PORTABLE 


OIL  ENGINES 


lo  Sept.,  19' 2.]  Journal  of  Agric/tlfi/rc.   Victoria.  xix 


Dairy  Science. 


The  last  word. 


Scientific  men  in  the  dairy  cenires  of  Europe  have  given  close 
attention  to  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  for  butter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  for  some  time, 
a  poor,  ihin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  :  stating  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods,  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  same 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Dairy  Science. 


For  Post  Free  Book- 


MWILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding," 

By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 


SUNLIGHT  I  ^"^'■^"teed  Pure. 

^^^  ^^1        I  *^**  thnt  the  name  ««5unlizht"  is 

Oil  c  AKfi  ] 


See  tliat  the  name  "Sunlight' 
branded  on  every  cake. 


Journal  of  /Agriculture ,   Victoria. 


[lo  Sept.,  1912. 


"HORNSBY"  Petrol  Engines 


{.STATIONARY    AND    PORTABLE") 

J-JAVE   a    World-wide    Reputation    for   all   round 
Superiority.     There  is  nothing  Equal  to  them. 

Just  as  suitable  for  Motive  Power  as  the  well-known 

HORNSBY    OIL    ENGINE. 


^^#<^ 


Britain's  BEST  Oil  Eng^e— 


THE 


Made  in  Two  Types— Stationary  and  Portable. 


HORNSBY. 


The  recog:nized  essentials  of  Oil  Engine  Superiority  are 
DESIGN  QUALITY 

SIMPLICITY       ECONOMY 

THESE  the  HORNSBY  possess,  proved  by  the  Fact 
that  it  has  Won  all  the  Largest  Prizes  ever  offered. 


Hornsby  Gas  Engines  and  Suction  Gas  Plants  are  unequalled. 

R.  HORNSBY  &  SONS  LTD., 


MELBOURNE.    SYDNET. 
BRISBANE. 


n>. 


No  Smoke,  No 
Smell. 


For  Shops, 

Butter  Factories, 
Verandahs,  &c. 

BENGALIA 

Spirit  Burners 
For  Table  Lamps, 
17/6 


EROS  WkMfm 

Gas  Burners 
&  Mantles. 


Sole  Agents : 


Allen,  Fergusson  k  Seiell 

508    COLLINS-ST.,    MELBOURNE. 


ioSept.,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  \xi 


^J^GOL^  WHITE  LEGHORNS  ^fcoLi 

All  Stock  raised  on  my  Farm  and  GUARANTEED  my  own  strain  and  breeding. 

GOVERNMENT  COMPETITION,  BURNLEY,  VICTORIA,  1911-12— My  pen  of  C  Pullets  Won  Winter  Test, 
4  months,  479  ej?;,^s.  Laid  777  i-^;;>  tii^t  f,  niontlis.  Laul  41  in  7  days.  Hifjhest  for  whole  Conii.ietition  of  (id 
pens.  Leatlinjf  over  10  months.  Gained  World's  Record  Second  Prize,  total  1,540  ej^jrs.  Profit,  17/0 
I>er  hen.     (See  Journal  of  Ar/ricultiire  .July  issue.) 

Cockerels  from  21/-  each.  Settings,  21/-,  30/-,  63/-,  Guaranteed. 

W,  G.  SWIFT,  Prospect  Grove,  Northcote,  Victoria. 


pj.i-u«jj,»  'J-.!  ■  ujjj.i,  itn'rirai  t  fit 


For  ROOFS  of  all  descriptions 


USE 


RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


"g^'  INDELIBLE  GOLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


"J^    C  A  LCI  MO    ci>Vu^p'^s 


These  Goods  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 
SOLE    AGENTS 

BROOKS,  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Melbourne. 


FOR  BEST  QUALITY  IN  ALL  MAKES  OF  BINDER  TWINE 

■  .A-Si^       nEPOE^ 

>  The  "ANCHOR"  BRAND 


MANUFACTURED    BY 


JAMES    MILLER   &   CO.   PTY.  LTD., 

MELBOURNE.  Works    Yarraville  &  Brunswick. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Sept.,  1912. 


r 


Facts  are  Stubborn  Things.     Read  This. 

I  beg  to  inform  you  that  the  "BUNYIP"  F'orest  Devil  which  I  recently  purchased  from  you  has  amply 
borne  out  the  representations  made  by  you  respecting  it.  With  its  aid  I  succeeded  in  clearinjr  about  7  acres 
of  timber,  ringbarked  for  years,  in  less  than  four  da3's.  As  a  large  percentage  of  these  trees  measured  a  good 
3ft.  at  the  base,  the  hand  grubbing  method  would  obviously  have  entailed  weeks  of  hard  and  expensive 
labour.  A  point  which  I  have  not  yet  seen  emphasized  is  this: — The  hole  left  after  a  tree  is  pulled  by  the 
''  Forest  Devil "  is  nothing  like  so  large  or  laboriovis  to  refill  as  that  left  after  hand  grubbing — an  important 
point.  I  may  add  that  I  am  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  soundness  of  my  investment,  and  thank  you  for  the 
courtesy  and  promptness  with  which  the  transaction  of  purchase  was  carried  out. 

Bamawm,  Roihestc  .  (Signed)  GUY  H.  T.  LEV'ICK. 

JOHN    COOPER   &   SONS, 

287-9  ELIZABETH-ST.,  MELBOURNE.    (Op.  St. Francis's  Church). 


HE 


EB 


LYSACHT'S  W[RE  NETTING 

MADE    IN    AUSTRALIA. 

All  Sizes  Manufactured,  1  inch  to  4  inch  Mesh. 

The  Standard  Netting  of  the  State. 

LOOK     FOR     OUR     MARKER     IN     EVERY     ROLL. 


Oup  manufacture  of 
Rabbit -proof  Wire 
Netting  is  known  as 
the  best  throughout 
Australia. 


onxrcES    tjsesij 


Better  in  quality,  and 
owing  to  its  being 
loose  rolled  less  costly 
to  erect  than  any  im- 
ported Netting. 


\\'  and  IJ'  MESH. 


■-A.X-XV.A-"52'S     XTS3E:I3. 


LYSAGHT  BROS.  &  CO.  Ltd., 

MANUFACTURERS.  SYDNEY. 

AGENTS:  GIBBS,  BRIGHT  &  CO.,  34  Queen  Street,  MELBOURNE. 


te 


SEPT..TyT2.1  Jiutnial  of  \gricidiure.   Victoria. 


LITERATURE  FOR  AGRICULTDRISTS. 


PLAN   AND   SPECIFICATION    OF   SHEEP-SHEARING   SHED.     2s.    6d.     rosta(,e,    Id. 

MILK  CHARTS  ( IMonthly  and  Weekly).  6d.  per  dozen,  post  free.  When  ordering,  dairy  farmers 
should  mention  "  iMonthly  "  or  "  Weekly." 

By  Professor  A.  ./.  Eivart,  Government  Botanist. 

WEEDS,  POISON  PLANTS,  AND  NATURALIZED  ALIENS  OF  VICTORIA.  2s.  6d. 
Postage  :  Commonwealth,  IJd.  ;  N.Z.,  5d.  ;  British  and  Foreign,  lOd. 

PLANTS  INDIGENOUS  TO  VICTORIA.  Vol.  II.,  10s.  Postage  :  Com.,  2d. ;  N.Z.,  8d. ; 
Brit.  &  For.,  Is.  4d. 

By  C.  French,  F.E.S.,  Government  Entomologist. 

DESTRUCTIVE  INSECTS  OF  VICTORIA.  Parts  L,  IL,  IIL,  IV.,  V.  2s.  6d.  each.  Postage: 
Parts  I.  and  III..  C,  Id.  ;  N.Z..  3d.;  B.  &  F.,  fid.  each.  Parts  II.  and  IV.,  C,  Ud. ;  N.Z.. 
4d.  J  B.  &  F.,  8d.  each.     Part  V„  C,  Id.  ;  N.Z.,  id. ;  B.  &  F.,  7d. 

By  D.  McAIpine,  Govermnent  Vegetable  Pathologist. 

RUSTS  OF  AUSTRALIA,     os.     Postage  :  C,  2d.  ;  N.Z.,  8d. ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  4d. 

SMUTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     4s.     Postage  :  C,  2Jd. ;  N.Z.,  9d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  6d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  CITRUS  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  Postage  :  C,  Id. ;  N.Z., 
3d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  6d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  STONE  FRUIT  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  6d.  Postage  :  C, 
lid.  ;  N.Z.,  od.  ;  B.  &  F.,  lOd. 

SYSTEJIATIC  ARRANGEMENT  OF  AUSTRALIAN  FUNGI.  Ss.  Postage:  C,  2d.; 
N.Z.,  8d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  4d. 

THE    DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE, 

MELBOURNE,   VICTORIA. 

Remittances  from   places  outside   the  Comino:r.vealtIi   to   be   by   Money  Order  only. 

Pamphlets  obtainable  from  the  Director  of  Agriculture, 
Melbourne,  Free   on  Application. 

NEW    SERIES. 


1.  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.     A.  S.  Kenyon,  C.E. 

2.  HINTS  FOR  NEW  SETTLERS.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

*  3.  APPLE  GROWING  FOR  EXPORT.     P.  J.  Carmody. 

*  4.  BOOKKEEPING  FOR  FAR.AIERS.     W.  Mclver,  A.I.A.V.,  A.S.A.A.,  Eng. 
5.  CIDER  MAKING.     J.  Knight. 

*  6.  FARM  PLUMBING.     C.  H.  Wright. 

7.  CITRUS  FRUIT  CULTURE.     E.  E.  Pescott. 

8.  BUILDING  HINTS  FOR  SETTLERS.     A.  S.  Kenyon,  C.E.,  and  others. 

9.  TOBACCO  CULTURE.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

10.  SILOS  AND  SILAGE.     G.  H.  F.  Baker. 

11.  THE  BEET  SUGAR  INDUSTRY  AND  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT.     H.  T.  Easterhy. 

12.  WORMS  IN  SHEEP.     S.  S.  Cameron,  D.V.  Sc,  M.R.C.V.S. 

*  Not  yet  available. 


Journal  oj  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [lo  Sept.,  1912. 


[3^31EQ 


BEET  &  DAIRY  FARMING. 


THE    IDEAL 

CLOSER   SETTLEMENT   COMBINATION. 


THE     RICH 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 


AND    THE    FAR-FAMED^ 


KILMANY     PARK. 


Both  of  these  Estates  have  been  specially  selected, 
purchased,  and  subdivided  for  Beet  Growing  and 
Dairying     combined,      and     to    afford     opportunity     to 

THRIFTY,  EXPERIENCED  WIEN  WITH  SMALL  CAPITAL 

to    make    a    comfortable    living    while    acquiring    the 
freehold     of    the    land. 


For  the  possibilities  and  practical  results  read  the  article   on 

"THE      BEET     insriDXJSTI^^^/' 

in  the  March,    191 2,  issue  of  The  Journal  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria. 


lo  Sett.  .191 


] (Utnial  (if  Agriculture ,    Victoria. 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 


Subdivided  into  57  blocks,  and  already  settled  with  the  exception 
of  Five  Blocks  of  from  40  to  60  acres,  to  carry  10  acres  of 
Beet  annually. 

Price,  £26  to  £27  10s.  per  acre. 
Total  Value,  £1,040  to  £1,590. 


KILMANY    PARK 


Applications 

now 

invited 

for  these 

Unsold 

Allotments. 


12  farm  blocks  from  56  to  202  acres,  to  carry 
10  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £10  lOs.  to  £14  per  acre. 
Total  Value  from  £840  to  £2,200. 

9  small  farm  blocks  from  20  to  46  acres,   to 
carry  4  acres  of  Beet  annuallv. 

Price,  from  £20  to  £25  per  acre. 
Total  Value  from  £500  to  £800. 


For  particulars  and  conditions  of  purchase  and  as  to  blocks 
available,  apply  to  the 

SECRETARY,  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT 
BOARD,   MELBOURNE. 


For   information   concerning   the   financial   aid    given    to 
suitable  Settlers  to  stock  the  farms,  apply  to 

THE  DIRECTOR  OF  AGRICULTURE, 
MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  AgrictiUiire ,   Victoria.  [lo  Sept.,  1912. 


DEPARTMENT     OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

GOVERNMENT  STUD  BULLS. 

AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  BELO-^GINQ  TO  BONA-FIDE  SETTLERS  UNDER  THE 

CLOSER  SETTLEMENT  ACTS. 


Fee,  5s.  pep  cow. 


Jersey  Bull  "DREADNOUGHT";  Calved,  22nd  October,   1908. 
Sire: — Sir  Jack  (188).         Dam  .-—Lady  Kitchener,  by  Lord  Melbourne. 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  H.  Crumpler,  Block  148,  Bainawm.) 


Jersey  Bull  "ROSE    FOX";  Calved,   19th  August,   1909. 

Sire: — Starbright  Fox  (190).         X'am ."—Tuberose,  by  Magnet's  Progress  (54  A.J.H.B.). 
[In  charge  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Viewers,  Bamaicm). 


Jersey  Bull   "VERBENA'S    BOY";  Calved,   10th  January,   1908. 
Sire: — Aci-obat.         Dam  . — Verbena  2nd,  by  Snowdrop's  Progress  2nd. 
(7/1  charge  of  Messrs.  Laitig  and  Mundie,  Block  70,  Bamawm,. ) 


Jersey  Bull  "NOBILITY";  Calved,  2nd  April,   1910. 

Sire: — Lucy's  Noble  of  Oaklands.  Z'am  .-Winnie  of  Melrose  3rd,  by  Royal  Blue. 

[In  charge  of  Mr.  E.  T.  Partington,  Block  136,  Bamaicm.) 


Jersey  Bull  "MILKY    WAY";  Calved,  20th  June,   1909. 
Sire  .-—Starbright  Fox  (190).     Dam  .—Milkmaid  34th  (590),  by  Phnlimmon  (imp.  62  A.H.B. ). 
{In  charge  of  H.  Macaidey,  Nanneella.) 


Jersey  Bull  "GOLD    MEDAL";  Calved,  3rd  April,  1910. 

Sire  .-—Golden  Fox  (142  A.J.H.B.).  Dam  .•— Melba,  by  Greystanos  2nd. 

{In  charge  0/ Mr.  W.  F.  Hill,  Blocks  43  arid  44,  Nanneella.) 


Jersey  Bull  "MAGNET'S    FOX";  Calved,  6th  November,   1909. 

Sire  .-—Fox's  Laddie.  Dam  .-—Magnet  28th,  by  Defender  (imp. )  (2288  H.C.  J.H.B. ). 

{In  charge  of  Mr.  C.  C.  Woods,  Block  29,  Koyuga. ) 


Jersey  Bull   "ZODIAC";  Calved,    lOth  November,   1908. 

Sire  : — Starbright  Fux  (190).         Dam : — Zoe  4th  (805),  by  Handsome  Hero. 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  B.  J.  ChappeU,  Block  12F,  Stuan  Hill.) 


Jersey  Bull  "GAY   FOX";  Calved,  12th  May,   1909. 

(Si?-e  .-—Starbright  Fox  (190).         Dam  : — Floss,  by  Plinlimmon  (imp.  62). 
{In  charge  of  Mr.  Dyer,  Swa?i  Hill.) 


10  Sept.,  1912.]  Journal  of  AgrictiUure,   Victoria. 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

GOVERNMENT  STUD  BULLS. 

AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  BELONGING  TO  BONA-FIDE  SETTLORS  UNDER  THE 
CLOSER  SETTLEMENT  m^-co>ucuued. 


Fee,  5s,  per  cow. 


Jersey  Bull   "WILLIAM    OF    AYRE";  Calved,   February,   1910. 

Hire: — Favourite's  Fox  2nd.  Dam: — Bessie  McCarthy,  by  Snowflake's  Progress. 

{In  rharr/e  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Dickinson,  Blork  13,  Xyah.) 


Jersey  Bull  "FOX'S    LAD";    Calved,  .5th  October,   1908. 

Sirt : — Fox,  by  Suowclioiis  Progress  ind.         Dam: — Pansy  2nd,  by  Duke. 
{In  rh/irgf  of  Mr.  ErncM  E.  Borley,  Block  6,  Nyah.) 


Ayrshire  Bull  "PETER  OF  WILLOWVALE";  Calved,  30tli  Sept.,  1909. 

Siri  : — Annectas   Piide   (243).  Dam: — Madge  2ad  (Appendix  A.H.B.),  by  Red 

Chief  (359). 

{In  charge  of  Mr.  F.  Mclvor,  Block  12F,  Swan  Hill.) 

Particulars  of  extended  pedigrees,  milking  records,  &c.,  can  be  obtained  from  each  bull 
holder,  from  the  resident  Dairy  Supervisors  (Mr.  O'KEEFE,  Rochester,  or  Mr.  S.  J.  KEYS, 
Swan  Hill),  or  from  The  Department  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 


AVAILABLE  FOR  SER;IGE  OF  COWS  THE  PROPERTY  OF  SETTLERS  ON  WYUNA  ESTATE. 

Red  Danish  Bull   "CLAUDIUS";    Calved,    10th  November,    1909. 
Sire: — Ernst    Bellinge  innp.)  Dam: — Kirsten  IX.  (imp.). 

Fee,  5s. 


Red  Danish  Bull  "HAMLET";  Calved,  1st  August,  1910. 

Sire:  -Ernst  Bellinge  (imp.).     />«/h  .—Marianne  IV".     G.  Z>aw.— Marianne  III.  (imp.). 

Fee,  5s. 

Particulars  of  extended  pedigrees,  milking  records  and  prizes  may  be  obtained  from,  and 
arrangement  for  service  made  with,  Mr.  E.  R.  EMERY,  Manager,  Government  Farm,  Wyuna, 

where  the  bulls  are  kept. 


AVAILABLE  FOR  SERVICE  OF  COWS  THE  PROPERTY  OF  BEET  GROWERS  AT  BOISDALE. 

Red  Polled  Bull   "TABAGUM";   Calved,    12th  November,   1908. 

Sire:— Xctou  Ajax  (imp.).  Z)«?7t  .-—Janet,  by  Primate  by  Laureate  (imp.). 

Fee,   7S.   6d.   (available  to  2)  cows). 

Application   to  Mr.  E.  STEER,  Herdsman,  at  the  Homestead,  Block  21. 


Journal  of  Agriculfurc,   Victoria. 


[lo  Sept.,  ipia-- 


RED    POLL    DAIRY    HERD 

YOUNG  BULLS  FOR  SALE 


Date  of 
Birth 


Test  of  L>am- 
Buttoi-  Fal. 


jion  4-2-4-S 

1191-2  4-4 -8-4 

/1911  4- 0-5-0 

1 191-2  4 --2-4-8 


Cuba  ..  -25.8.11 

Carolina  ..  16.8.11 

Carolina  ..  10.8.12 

Milo*  ..  29.5.1-2 

Ardath*'  ..  14.6.12 

Virginia  ..  14.7.12 

Bullion  ..         20.7.12 

Sumatra  12 . 8 .  12 

*  Record  of  Granddam  "  CIGARETTE  ' 
AH  of  tlie  above  Calves  are  sired  liy  "TABACUM"  \<\  "ACTON  AJAX' 


/1911  4  0-4-6 

[1912  4-0-5-6 

1st  milking- 

/1911  3-8-4-6 

\1912  3-9-4-6 

/1911  4-2-5-0 

(1912  4-8-6-2 

1912  4-0-5-0 


Record 

jf  Dam. 

Gals. 

I'"at. 

526 
701 

2321 
338  f 

570 
580 

2531 

254/ 

504 
648 

211\ 
2S6i 

(no 

record) 

636 

551 

2541 
-22^/ 

773 
694 

3561 
344/ 

666 

2S4 

Price  of  Calf. 


19  19 

15  15 

12  12 

14  14 


10 
12 


17    17 
14    14 


of  the  one  marked  **,  which  is  hy  "ACTON  DEWSTONE"  (im]!.) 


\\ith  the  exception 


The  prices  are  liased  ajiproxmiately  on  the  actual  milk  and  butter  fat  record  of  the  dam  at  the  rate  of  Is. 
per  lb.  of  butter  fat  yielded.      {See  Journal  of  AriricuUure,  yovemher.  1011,  and  September,  1912). 

Inspection  by  arrangement  with  Mr,  E.  STEER,  Herdsman,  Boisdale,  Gippsland. 

Application  for  purchase  to    DIRECTOR    OF  AGRICULTURE,  MELBOURNE. 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


Are    iijw    available    from    the    Poult ly    I'cus  at  the  WYUNA  FARM  and  the 
BURNLEY  HORTICULTURAL  SCI-IOOL,  at  the  undenr.entioned  rates. 

Wyuna   White  Leghorns  (Cosh  Hens  and  Swift  Coekerel)  ..  £1    1    0 

White  Wyandottes  (Burnley  stoek)           ...           ...  ...  0    7    6 

Black  Orpingtons  (Wyuna  stoek)              ...           ...  ...  0    7    6 

Burnley  White  Leghorns  (Imported  Hens  and  Padman  Coekerel)  1    1    0 

,,             ,,               M                     „                „         Burnley  ,,  110 

,,            ,,              „           (Burnley  stoek)               ...  0    7   6 

„         Black  Orpinctons  (Imporited  pens)                       ...  ...  110 

,,            „              ,,            (Burnley  stock)             ...           ...  ...  0   7    6 

,,         Minoreas  (Imported  pens)                        ..            ...  110 

,,         Rhode  Island  Reds  (Imported  pens)          .           ...  ...  110 

The  Eg-ijs  will  carry  the  Departmental  Stainp,  and  any  intertill-  e:4gs  will  be  replaced,  jirovidcd  that  such 
eg-gs  are  returned  unbroken  within  18  days  from  date  of  receijit  I'ostal  Order  or  Cheque  should  accompany  order, 
which  should  be  addressed  to  the  Manager,  Government  Farm,  Wyuna,  rid  Kyatoram,  or  the  Principal, 
School  of  Horticulture,  Burnley. 


10  Sept.,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


XXlJt 


NATIONAL  TRUSTEES 

Executors    and    Ag^ency   Company  of  Australasia,   Ltd. 


i^ 


DIRECTORS: 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Managing  Director. 

EDWARD   FITZGERALD,  Esq..  L.L.D.  MICHAEL   MORNANE,  Esq. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  Esq.  DAVID  HUNTER,  Esq. 


This  Company  Acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint    Executor  of  Wills,    Administrator, 
Trustee  of   Settlements,   and   Agent   for  Absentees   under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY     TO      LEND      ON      BROAD      ACRES      AND      FARM      LANDS. 

Offices^llS  QUEEN  ST.  (Corner  of  Little  Collins-st.)  MELBOURNE. 


ESTABLISHED   1841. 


—  GUARANTEED    BY  THE  — 
THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  VICTORIA. 


^ 


STATE  SAVINGS  BANK  OF  VICTORIA 

Grants    greater    facilities    to    Depositors 
than  any  other  Savings  Bank  in  the  World. 

All  profits  earjied,  after  providing  for  a  reasonable  Reserve  Fund,  are  distributed 
auioiigst  Depositors  by  giving  them  the  Highest  Bank  Rate  of  Interest  obtainable  in 
the  State  on  current  accounts. 

RESERVE    FUND    OF    FOUR     HUNDRED 
AND     FIFTY     THOUSAND     POUNDS. 

INTEREST  is  allowed  on  Deposits  up  to  £350,  namely :— 3i  per  cent,  on  first 
£100  ;   and  3  per  cent,  on  excess  over  £100  up  to  £350. 

THE     TOTAL     AMOUNT     OF     DEPOSITS     IS     NOW     NEARLY 

TWENTY     MILLION     POUNDS. 

Depositors  can  lodge  money  with  the  same  pass-book  at  any  of  the  424  Branches  and 
Agencies  of  the  Bank  throughout  Victoria. 

GEO.    E.    EMERY, 

hispector-General. 


Head    Office— MELBOURNE. 


TREWHELLA  "^ 


"WALLABY' 


QUICK 

POWERFUL 

SIMPLE 


GRUBBING  JACKS 


Mr.  (.'has.  Hamilton,  Mulesworth,  \'u:,  says; — "I  would  not 
be  without  one  of  these  .Jacks  on  the  fann." 

Mr.  O.  C.  R.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Frances,  SA.: — "Have 
been  using  Trewhella  Wallaby  .Jacks  now  nearly  six  years,  and 
as  long  as  I  have  anjthing  to  lift  will  never  be  without  one." 


WRITE    FOR    ILLUSTRATED    CATALOGUE    TO- 


TREWHELLA  BROS.,  Engineers,  TRENTHAM,  Victoria. 


Joinnal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo  Sept.,  1912-. 


DEPARTMENT    OF     AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 


JBurnlcy    J^ortieultural    School. 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnley  Horticultural  School 
have  now  been  arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be 
given  to  students  of  both  sexes  in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Horticulture  for  male  students  includes  a  two 
years'  course,  students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum. 

Classes  have  been  formed  at  Burnley,  whereby  students  of  both  sexes  may 
receive  instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and  Fridays. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  work,  and  will  commence 
at  2  p.m.  This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  charged  will  be 
j£2  per  annum. 

It  has  also  been  arranged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  shall  be 
given  on  subjects  which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Horticulture,  such  as 
Poultry  Farming,  Bee-keeping,  and  Fruit  Preserving,  and  these  courses 
will  be  open  and  free  to  the  general  public.  The  subjects  and  dates- 
of  the  Short  Course  Lectures   will   be  announced   monthly  in   this  JournaU 


STUDENTS    SHOULD     ENROLL    WITHOUT     DELAY. 

Application  for  admission  should  be  made  to 

The   Director    of    Agriculture,    Public    Offices,    Melbourne, 

OK.      TO      THE      I=E,I3SrCi:F'^^3L.. 

V , J 


lo  Sept.,  191-.]  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria. 


66 


CARLTON — V 


ARSENATE  OF  LEAD 

The    Uver-S^tccessful    Orchard    Spray. 

THE  ORCHARDIST  wlio  would  h;ive  his  g;irden  free  from  pests  will  do 
well  to  siunple  the  effectiveness  of  Carlton  Arsenate  of   Lead.      The 
oertificiites  of  analysis  of  the  last  sliipments  sliuw  it  to  contain  19",)  to 
■      20%  of  Arsenic  Oxide.     This  high  proportion  of  |)oison  gives  "Caiiton" 
a  strength  much  greater  than  that  of  any  other  brand. 

"Carlton"  is  very  finely  ground,  and  so  remains  in  suspension  and  adheres  much 
longer  to  the  trees  than  coarser  grained  articles.  Its  strength  makes  it  the  most 
economical  of  all  spraying  materials. 

PRICES— 7d.  per  lb.  in  Cwt.  Drums  .  .  .  7Jd.  per  lb.  in  56  lb.  Drums. 
8d.  per  lb.  in  28  lb.  Drums. 

The  "FRIEND "-a  Money-Saving^  Nozzle     7/6  post  free. 

WRITE    FOR    CATALOGUE    OF   ORCHARDIST'S   SUNDRIES 


< F.  R.   MELLOR 


J 


440     ELIZABETH    ST.,    MELBOURNE. 


) 


JARRAH.' 


When  you  contemplate  erecting  fencing,  buildings,  dairies, 
woolsheds,  &c.,    be   sure  you  get  the  best  of  hardwoods. 

1^"     JARRAH    resists   white    ants,    dry  rot,   &c. 

r  MILLAR'S  KARRI  &  JARRAH  CO,  mHii 

QUEEN'S    BRIDGE,    MELBOURNE. 


'^DYAN,    GOULDING,    &    CO.^ 

I"*^  (JOHN    F.    GOULDING). 

■     *    WHOLESALE  GRAIN  &  PRODUCE  COMMISSION  AGENTS  &  GENERAL  BROKERS. 
546-552  COLLINS  STREET  WEST  (Near  King-si) 

r  ARMERS  I  Before  Selling  your  Grain,  Hay,  Potatoes,  Onions,  consult  or  write  us. 

It  will  pay  you. CONSIGNMENTS  Received  and  Sold  Daily  ex  Rail  or  Wharf. 

Storage  arranged  on  Liberal  Terms  and  Advances  made.      All  kinds  of  Seed  Grain  for  Sale. 
Prompt  Account  Sales.     Oats  Specialists.     New  &  Second-hand  Bags  for  Sale  at  Lowest  Rates. 

Quotations  K'ven  for  Chaff,  Grain,  Lucerne,  Wheaten  or  Oaten  Hay,  delivered  to  any  station 
in  Victoria  or  New  South  Wales. 

i     When  in  the  CITY  Gail  In. — Short  distance  from  Spencer-st.  RIy.  Station,  j 


journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Sept.,  191; 


"WATERLOO  BOY"  4  h.p.  PORTABLE  OIL  ENGINE. 

ABSOLUTELY  THE  SIMPLEST  AND  CHEAPEST  EFFICIENT  ENGINE  IN  THE  WORLD. 

USES    BENZINE    OR    KEROSENE. 


IGNITIONi — Is  make  and  break  style,  charge  fired  by  electric  spark.  Igniter,  which  in 
other  Engines  is  difficult  to  get  at,  in  the  '*  Waterloo  "  can  be  completely  removed  by 
loosening  two  cap  screws 

Both     Magneto    and    Battery    Ignition, — a    very    useful    arrangement,    as     work 
can  never  be  stopped. 

SPEED  LEVERi — Acts  same  as  throttle  of  a  steam  engine.  You  can  speed  up  or 
down,  or  stop  altogether  with  it.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  start,  prevents  "kicking 
back,"  and  saves  fuel. 

MIXERi — Is  a  great  idea,  patented  because  it  is  worth  patenting.  Has  an  adjustable 
mixing  cup  that  can,  by  a  winged  nut,  be  slipped  up  or  down  to  give  more  or  less  air. 
No  valve  springs  or  pump  to  get  out  of  order  ;  makes  Engine  easy  to  start ;  4iids  the 
governor  and  speed  lever  in  getting  more  power  out  of  the  hiel. 


GOVERNORi — Centrifugal  type,  sure  and  sensitive, 
only  when  the  work  requires  it. 


Allows  a  charge  in  the  cylinder 


FUELi —Works  on  either  benzine  or  kerosene,  but  benzine  is  better,  as  it  is  not  so  dirty. 
The  speed-saving  devices.  Speed  Lever,  Patent  Mixer,  and  Governor  make  the 
"  Waterloo  "  consume  the  least  fuel.  Compare  it  for  simplicity,  fuel  cost,  and  power 
with  other  engines,  and  you  will  send  your  order  to  us. 

HOPPER  COOLED.— That  is,  there  are  no  Tank,  Pipes,  and  Pump  to  cool  the 
cylinder.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  move  about ;  less  space,  less  weight,  and  no 
water  pump  troubles,  as  there  is  no  Pump.     Also  lessens  the  fuel  bill. 

TRANSPORT.— Is  a  very  strong  one.  Through  axles  in  both  front  and  rear  wheels. 
Turntable  on  front  axle  is  simple  and  strong. 

Dgp-  SEND  FOR  CATALOGUES  OF  OUR  OTHER  FARM  REQUISITES. 


MITCHELL  &  COMPANY  [fi; 


FACTORY     &     office: 

WEST  FOOTSGRAY,  MELBOURNE. 


! 


SHOW  ROOM 


596  BOURKE  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


By    Authority;     Aldert    J.     Mullett,    Acting'    Government    Printer,    Melbourne. 


J^cfrigeFating  ^  ^ 


and 


lee  JVCakiug 
JVCaekinerY  ^  ^ 


Made  by 
HUMBLE  &  SONS, 

Geelong, 
Victoria. 


Specially  suitable  for  Butchers,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  Machines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine.  A  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration  work 
undertaken,  including  coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


Ferrier's "  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distributors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworlts,  &c. 


Full  Particulars  on  Application  to— 


Humble  and  Sons, 

General   Eng-ineeps, 
VULCAN   FOUNDRY,   GEELONG. 


1 

DEPARTMENT  ^^^^  OF  AGRICULTURE 

"VICTORI^^. 

isrO'V^r      ^A^^T-^^IL^^BLE. 

H[.A.]M^I3BOOZ£^     OF 

POTATO  DISEASES 

1 

;:     IN    AUSTRALIA     » 

AND    THEIR    TREATMENT. 

By     D.     McALPINE, 

Government  Vegetable  Pathologist. 

WITH    APPENDICES    BY 

W.    LAIDLAW,    B.Sc,   Biologist,    on    Eel-Worms. 

C»  FRENCH,  Junr.,  Acting:- Goveinment  Entomologist, 

on    Insect    Pests    of   the    Potato. 

235  pages  (cloth).     58  Full  Plates.      170  Illustrations. 

PRICE  FIVE  SHILLINGS. 

(Postage— Connnnu-rteallli.  -Jd.  :    New  Zealand,  Sd.  ;    British  &  Foreign,  Is.  od.) 

Applications    accompanied    by    Postal    Note    or    Cheque,    covering 

Price  and  Postage,  to  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture, 

Melbourne,    Victoria. 

Remittances  from  beyond  the  Commonwealth  to  be  made  by  Post  Office  Order. 

— 

Vol.  X. 


LIME    IN    AGRICULTURE. 


Part  10. 


(Registered  at  the  General  Post  Offine,  Melbourne,  for  transmission  by  Post  as  a  Xeuspaper.] 


RUNNINGS. 


DEMON 

AUTOMATIC 

BIRD 

SCARER 

The   new   labour-saving   device  for   protecting  fruit. 

A  new  form  of  insurance  for  the  orchardist. 

When  once  charged  will  go  continuously  for  16  hours. 

Requires  no  attention  whatever. 

Prices. 


DEMON    BIRD     SCARER. 


DEMON  BIRD  SCARER    -      -    £1  5  0 
CRACKERS  FOR  SAME  (per  box  of  soo)    1  0  0 

FUSE        -  -  .  (per  hank)       0   4    6 

Full  particulars. Post  free  on  application. 


WRITE     AT     ONCE     FOR     OUR     NEW     BOOKLET 

"HOW  AND  WHEN  TO  SPRAY" 


A  useful  treatise  on  tlie  vrxvious  motliorls  of  spraying 


Post  Free  on  Application. 


1912 

Seed  &  Farm 

Handbook 

Containing  over  130  pp. 

POST  FREE. 

Apply  to  "Mailing  Dept." 

for  above  piilihcations. 


SEED     MAIZE 

All  the  leading  varieties. 
HICKORY  KING.   YELLOW  MORUYA. 

ECLIPSE.  SIBLEY. 

LONGFELLOW.      NINETY-DAY. 

LEAMING.  EY.  DENT. 

Full  list   of  varieties,  jjrices,  <bc,, 

Post  free  on  application. 


RHODES  GRASS 

THE  NEW  SUMMER  FODDER. 

Thi~  '^rass  is  unequalled  for  its 

(Iruuuht-resisting  qualities. 
Speiially    suited    for  hot,  dry 
districts. All   stock   like  it. 

Plants  &  Seed  now  obtainable. 

J'rir.  an  „,,,,lirHi;„n. 

TEOSINTE,  JAPANESE  MILLET,  SORGHUM,  IMPHEE, 
AMBER  CANE,  PASPALUM,  PRAIRIE,  LUCERNE, 
MANGELS,   SWEDES,    PUMPKINS,    COUCH    GRASS. 

(Samples  and  Quotations  on  application.) 

All    branches   of  Cultivators,   Plows,    Drills,   Spray    Pumps,   Spray 
Compounds,    Orchardists'    Requirements,    &.C.,    stocked. 


64  ELIZABETH  STREET,  MELBOURNE. 


(please  mention  this  advt.  when   writing.) 


THE     JOURNAL 


OF 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


'VIOTOE.I-A.,    -A.XJSTI?,-A.LIA.. 


CONTENTS.— OCTOBER,    1912. 

PASE 

Lime  in  Agriculture            ...             ...             ...             ...        Vy  Dr.  S.  S.  Cameron  585 

Victorian  Limestone  Deposits               ...             ...             ...             ...              ...  59(> 

Note  on  Limestone  Deposits  in  Victoria            ...             ...      W.  G.  EohertHon  598 

The  Chemistry  of  Lime          ...              ...              ...             ...       P.  Rankin  ScoU  603 

Tlie  Practice  of  Liming           ...             ...    A.  IJ.  V.  Richardson,  M. A.,  B.Sc.  608 

The  Relation  of  Lime  to  Soil  Fertility         John  W.  Paterson,  B.Sc,  Ph.D., 

and  P.  P.  Scott  619 

The  Use  of  Lime  in  Victorian  Vineyards           ...             ...          F.  de  CasteUa  628 

Lime  for  Tobacco  Land            ..             ...             ...                Temple  A.  J.  Smith  6.36 

The  Use  of  Lime  in  Potato  Culture     ...             ...             ..,           Geo.  Seymour  639 

Lime  for  Orchards   ...             ...             ...             ...             ...        P  J.  Carmody  640 

Notice  to  Manufacturers  and  Lnporters  of  Artificial  Manures                 ...             ...  6-11 

•Spring  Cheddar  Cheese-making        ...             ...             ...             ...            G.  G.  Sawert  642 

Second  Victorian  Egg-laying  Competition,  1912-13     ...             ...        II.  V.  Hawkins  644 

Orchard  and  Garden  Notes                 ...             ...             ...             ...            E.  E.  Pescott  645 

Reminders  for  Nfivember    ...             ...             ...             ..               ...             ...             .  .  64g 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

The  Articles  in  the  Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria  are 
protected  by  the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act.  Proprietors  of  newspapers  wishing 
to  republish  any  matter  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  provided  the  Journal  and  atUhor  arc 
both  acknowledged. 

The  .Journal  is  issued  monthly.  The  subscription,  which  is  pa3'able  in  advance 
and  includes  postage,  is  8s.  per  annum  for  the  Commonwealth  and  New  Zealand,  and 
5s.  for  the  United  Kin^alom  and  Foreisru  Countries.     Single  copy,  Threepence. 

Subscriptions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture,  Melbonme. 
A  complete  list  of  the  various  publications  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculfcure 
'will  be  sui)plied  by  the  latter. 


Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[lo  Oct.  ,  1912. 


Cost  of  up -keep 
detepmines 
Economy. 

■^^HAT  would  be  the  use  in  saving 
a  few  pounds  when  purchasing, 
to  throw  them  away  again  and  again 
in  fuel  for  a  greedy  engine ;  or  in 
repair  expenses  for  a  defective 
engine  ?  Better  let  Quality  and 
Cost  of  Running  be  your  points  for 
consideration.  "Victoria"  British  Made  Kerosene  Oil  Engines  stand  the  quality 
test.  Simplicity  of  parts  is  also  a  feature.  For  instance— the  Governor  hasn't  the  coin- 
I'licated  arrangement  of  vertical  spindle,  balls,  and  wheel  gearing,  yet  it  regulates  splen- 
dir'ly.  This  simplicity  of  parts,  which  is  featured  throughout,  reduces  wear  and  tear,  as 
\\v\\  as  enhances  smooth  and  sure  working.  The  cost  of  running  is  remarkably  low— unsur- 
pas.sed  by  any  engine  that  has  yet  come  under  our  notice.  PRICE — The  above  is  by  no 
)neans   a   plea   for  a   high-priced  engine.  You    will  admit  Victoria  Engines  are  very 

moderately  priced.      Send  NOW  for  complete  specification  and  prices.      SIZES— 3  B.H  P. 
and  u{)wards.      Stationary  or  Portable.      Suitable  for  pumping,  driving  farm  machinery,  &c. 


^gSS^'Tr 


Crops  at  Reduced  Cost 


<:* 


»sible  by  the  Planet  Jr.  method  of  Planting  and 
in<j:  One  n)<in  equipped  with  the  tool  shown  can 
A  A  number  of  men  with  hand  hoes,  and  the 
ground  will  be  better  worked.  The 
cut  shows  the  Planet  Jr.  Com- 
bined Hill  and  Drill  Seeder, 
Double  Wheel  Hoe,  Cultivator 
and  P!ow.  This  tool  combines  in 
a  })iactical  way  a  No.  4  Planet  Jr. 
Drill,  and  a  No.  12  Double  Wheel 
Hoe.  Outfit  consists  of  : — 1  pair 
6-inch  Hoes,  2  pair  Cultivator  Teeth, 
^  2  Plows,  and  2  Leaf  Guards.  Wheels 
1 1 A  inches.  Has  automatic  device  for  stopping  feed,  and  an  improved  seed  index.  Holds 
•1\  Quarts.  Cultivator  teeth  are  narrow,  and  do  thorough  work,  yet  leave  the  ground 
practically  level.  Refer  for  prices,  &c.  to  page  134  and  on  in  our  Tool  Catalogue.  Many 
other  Implements  are  also  shown  from  the  Single  Wheel  Hoe  up.  Those  not  possessino-  a 
copy  should  send  for  one  at  once.  We  have  a  large  selection  of  Tools  for  the  Farmer, 
Carpenter,  Engineer,   Builder,  &c. at  Money-Saving   Prices.' 


JOHN 

PROPTY. 


&   SON 

LIMITED, 


DANKS 

Pump,  Windmill  and  Trough  Makers.     Tool  Merchants,  &c., 

391-399  Bourke  Street,  Melbourne. 


^o  Oct.,  191  2.1 


Journal    of    Agriculture ,    Yictoria. 


;u 


DEPARTMENT 

OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 

RED   POLL    VniIMP 

Dill  1  Q  porC 

C^  A  1  r   TO  VICTORIAN 

DAIRY  HERD   1UU1IU 

DULLd''0^OHLC    DAIRYMEN. 

DAM. 

Date  of 
Birth 

Test  of  Dain  — 
Butter  Fat. 

Record  of  Dam. 

Price  of  Calf. 

llilk-  Ga's. 

Fat-  lbs. 

Cuba 

■Ih.s.W 

%      % 
flOll     4-2-4-s 
\1912     4-4-  S-4 

,^20 
TUl 

232-1 

33S( 

19    10    0 

MUo* 

29.. "■.!■: 

J 1911     4-0-4  (i 
(.191:2    4-0-.5  (i 

.^(.'4 
648 

2111 
2ft0j 

14    14    0 

Ardath*  ♦ 

i4.(;.i_' 

1st  milking 

(no 

record) 

10    10    0 

Virginia 

i-i.r.iii 

/ion    3-8-4-6 
(.1912     3-9-4-6 

C3I) 
5.=.! 

2.-i4| 
22- 1 

12    12    0 

Carolina 
Sumatra 

10.S.12 

/"1911     40-50 
U912    4-2-4-8 
1912     4'0-5-0 

57U 
600 

2.^4/ 

284 

12    12    0 
14    14    0 

Havana 

21.^.1-J 

/1911     3-8-4-6 
U912     :j-S-4-5 

530 

230) 
210/ 

11    11    0 

India  . . 

27.. ^.li 

1st  milking 

(no  record) 

10    10    0 

Turka 

27..S.1.' 

.. 

11        .. 

10    10    0 

Braziii:  ** 

1.9.12 

•  •         » 

.,        „ 

10    10    0 

Colorado"     . 

22.9.12 

11                   1! 

„        ,. 

10    10    0 

*  Record  of  Granfldam  "  CIGARETTE." 

All  the  above  Calves  are  sired  by   "TABACUM"  by  "ACTON  AJAX"  (imp.)  except  the  ones 

marked  **,  which  are  by  "ACTON  DEWSTONE"  (imp.) 

Bull  calves  bespoken  and  paid  for  will  be  reared  until  .si.\  month<  old,  when  delivery  must  be  taken  In  tlie 
event  of  death  or  ill-development,  another  choice  will  be  allowed. 

The  prices  are  based  approximately  on  the  actual  milk  and  butter  fat  record  of  the  dam  at  the  rate  of  Is. 
per  lb.  of  butter  fat  yielded.      (See  J'lunial  of  Agriculture,  November,  1911,  and  September,  1912.) 

Inspection  by  arrangement  with  I\lr.  E.  STEER,  Herdsman,  Boisdale,  Gippsland. 

Application    for    purchase    to    DIRECTOR     OF    AGRICULTURE,    MELBOURNE. 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


POULTRY  FOR  SETTLERS. 


SITTINGS  OF  EGGS 

Are    now    available    from    the    Poultry    I'ens  at  the  WYUNA  FARM  and  the 
BURNLEY  HORTICULTURAL  SCHOOL,  at  the  underiEentioned  rates. 

Wyuna    Wiiite  Leghorns  (Cosh  Hens  and  Swift  Coekerel) 
White  Wyandottes  (Burnley  stock) 
Blaek  Orpingtons  (Wyuna  stock) 
Burnley  White  Leghorns  (Imported  Hens  and  Padman  Cockerel) 
,.  M  M  „  „         Burnley 

,,  ,,  (Burnley  stock) 

Blaek  Orpingtons  (Imported  pens) 

,,  ,,  (Burnley  stock) 

Minorcas  (Imported  pens) 
Rhode  Island  Reds  (Imported  pens) 

The  Eggs  will  carry  the  Departmental  .stamp,  and  any  infertile  eggs  will  be  replaced,  provided  that  such 
eggs  are  returned  unbroken  within  IS  days  from  date  of  receipt.  Postal  Order  or  Cheque  should  accompany  order, 
which  should  be  addressed  to  the  Manager,  Government  Farm,  Wyuna,  vid  Kyatoram,  or  the  PrincipaL 
School  of  Horticulture,  Burnley. 


£1 

1 

0 

0 

7 

6 

0 

7 

6 

1 

1 

0 

1 

1 

0 

0 

7 

6 

1 

1 

0 

0 

7 

6 

1 

1 

0 

1 

1 

0 

Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[lo  Oct.,  1912. 


This  Bench 
soon  Saw^s 
a  big"  stack 
of  fipew^ood 

And  allows  you  to  get  on  with  other 
jobs,  which  you  couldn't  do  if  you  had 
to  peg  away  all  day  with  a  crosscut 
saw.  By  saving  time  you  save  money. 
The  Saw  Bench  soon  pays  for  itself. 

Lots  of  other  sawing  jobs,  besides 
firewood,  can  be  undertaken,  too.  This 
is  an  up-to-date  bench,  and  quite  the 
best  value  on  the  market. 

Special  Iron  Bow  prevents  accidents 
from  saw  dragging  in  blocks  when 
cutting  short  lengths. 

Travelling  Table  is  made  from  angle 
and  sheet  iron.  Cannot  shrink.  Can 
neither  tilt  nor  cant  when  placing  heavy 
logs  on  the  bench. 

The  trouble  with  ordinarj'  benches — 
that  of  wood  stays  shrinking — has  been 
overcome  by  providing  long  wedges 
which  can  be  driven  in  at  any  time — 
thus  preventing  a  rickety  bench . 

For  all  round  work  on  Farm  and 
Station,  and  for  Firewood  Merchants, 
this  Saw  Bench  has  no  equal. 

£12  lOs^ 

Complete  with  30  inch  Saw. 
Ripping  Attachment  30/=  extra. 


38/-  buys 
this  Fine 
Lowr  Dow^n 

Force  Pump. 


It  is  a  Double  Acting  Pump  with 
a  5-inch  cylinder,  and  2-inch 
openings  for  suftion  and  dis- 
charue.  A  powerful  water  trans- 
mitter, and  a  real  farmer's  pump. 
Grand  for  irrigating,  spraying, 
and  general  work,  such  as  wash- 
ing buggies,  windows,  &c.  The 
fact  that  it  throws  a  solid  jet  of 
water  60  ft.  with  great  force, 
should  recommend  it  for  all 
country  fire  carts.  Sucks  water 
on  each  stroke  of  the  lever,  draw- 
ing 1,500  gallons  per  hour. 

COMPLETE  WITH 

Hose  Nipple,  Hose 
Band,  and  Strainer. 


Water  Pipe 

at  Special  Prices. 

Send  us    Rough  Draft 
ot  your  Requirements. 


jV|f.piTcrso^ 

"  Machinery  &  Tool  Merchants," 

554-66  &  582-88   Collins-st., 
MELBOURNE. 


lO  Oct.,  1912.]  Journal   of   Agriculture.     Victoria. 


IT  WILL  PAY  YOU 

TO    LEARN 

MODERN  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 
LIVE  STOCK  &  FRUIT  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

can  teach  you  AT  YOUR  OWN  HOMK  how  to  MAKE  MORK  MONEY  by  the  employmtnt  of  up-to-date 
methods.  We  teaoh  all  branches  of  Agriculture  and  Live  Stock  Husbandry,  including  Drainage, 
Irrigation,    Dairying    and    Practical    Orchard    Management.       We  also  g-ive  instruction  in  the 

followin;,^  subjects  : — 

Bookkeeping  Arithmetic  Electrical  Engineering  Mechanical  Drawing 

Shorthand  Matlieinatics  Steam  Engineering  Architectural  Drawing 

Accountancy  Languages  Shire  Engineering  Building    Construction 

Commercial  Law  Drawing  Mining  Engineering  and  Estimating 

English  Illustrating  Surveying  Timber  Measurements 

WE    PREPARE   CANDIDATES   FOR   ALL   PUBLIC    EXAMINATIONS. 

The  instruction  ijoes  RIGHT  TO  YOUR  HOME,  no  matter  where  you  live.  It  is  clear,  concise,  ea.sily 
understood,  and  practical.  Every  student  is  handled  privately  and  separately  and  receives  individasj 
attention  according  to  his  particular  re<iuirements. 

Our  instructors  are  men  of  sound  technical  knowledo^e,  combined  with  years  of  practical  experience,  and 
they  are  at  the  service  of  every  student,  to  guide  him  with  their  valuable  advice.  Only  spare  time  study 
is  required,  and  our  fees  are  exceedingly  moderate  and  within  the  reach  of  everybody. 

We  invite  you  to  write  at  once  for  a  free  copy  of  our  Handbook  D.  It  explains  our  system  and  showa 
how  we  can  teach  any  man  who  is  willing  to  be  taught  and  anxious  to  increase  his  earning  power.  It  cost* 
nothing  to  inquire.      Don't  put  it  off.       Write  tO-day. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

56b    market    street,    MELBOURNE. 


LAW,SOIVINER&GO.'S^ 

SPECIAL  GRADED  AND  SCREENED 

SEED  POTATOES 

(Pedigree    Seed). •  Prices  on  Application. 


HUNTER  RIVER.  ■        ■      ■      —      ^m  ^^  ^    ■   ^h  FRENCH  PROVEl^ICE. 

ARABIAN.  Ill  M^  iU    lj  K.  I   L  AP.IERICAN. 

PERUVIAN.  I ll^^r^    r^  1^   L  HUNGARIAN. 

TURKESTAN.  "^  ^^  ^^  "^  ■     *  ■    ^  ^h  SPANISH  (New). 

All  our  Lucernes  are  Specially  Machine-dressed,  Hand-sieved,  Free  f rjm  Dodder,  and  True  to  Name. 


V 


CRAIG  MITCHELL      |\/|  A  I  7  C      and  other 

MAMMOTH   WHITE      lYIMI^C      leading  varieties. 

Write   for   Maize   and    Potato    Circular. 

LAW,  SOMNER  &  CO.,  ^^^l^^i^^s. 

139-141  Sw^anston-st.,  Melbourne. 

established    1850.  TELEPHONE    729    CENTRAL- 

BULK  STORES— MASON  LANE.  OFF  LITTLE  COLLINS  STREET. 


Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria.  [ro  Oct.,  1912. 


%fi^,l  WHITE  LEGHORNS  ^rol,"J 

All  Stock  raised  on  my  Farm  and  GUARANTEED  my  own  strain  and  breeding. 

GOVERNMENT  COMPETITION,  BURNLEY,  VICTORIA,  1911-12.— My  pen  of  6  Pullets  Won  Winter  Test, 

4  months,  479  egys.  Laid  777  eyxs  fii'st  0  months.  Laid  41  in  7  days.  Highest  for  whole  Competition  of  66 
pens.  Leading  over  10  months.  Gained  World's  Record  Second  Prize,  total  1,546  eggs.  Profit,  17/6 
per  hen.     (See  Jmtrnal  of  Agriculture  July  issue.) 

Cockerels  from  21/-  each.  Settings,  21/-,  30  -,  63/-,  Guaranteed. 

W.  G.  SWIFT,  Prospect  Grove,  Northcote,  Victoria. 


For  ROOFS  of  all  descriptions 


USE 


RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


"i^'  INDELIBLE  COLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


"^^    OALCIMO    ciTuo^^n^ 


These  Goods  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 
SOLE    AGENTS 

BROOKS,  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Melbourne. 


FOR  BEST  QUALITY  IN  ALL  MAKES  OF  BINDER  TWINE 

T^  The  "ANCHOR"  BRAND 


MANUFACTURED    BY 


JAMES    MILLER   &   CO.   PTY.  LTD., 

MELBOURNE.  Works— Yarraville  &  Brunswick. 


lo  Oct..  191  2.] 


Journal   of   Agricitlture,    Victoria. 


Herd  of  Prize 
Winning,  and 
Heavy  Milk  ^ 
and  Butter  Pro- 
ducing  Strains* 


YOUNG      BULLS     AND      HEIFERS 


FOR     SALE. 


"MYSTERY    VI.     OF     MELROSE." 


INSPECTION     BY     APPOINTMENT. 


WlLIiIfljVI  WOODlWflSON,  "'""°"' 


Dairy, 


MALVERN,     MELBOURNE,    Vic. 


Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[lo  Oct.,  1912. 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT   LAND. 

List  showing:  number  of  allotments  on  the  various  Estates  available  for  application  : — 


Estate. 
SwsaHni 
Cohuna 
She|>parton 
Nanneella 
Bamainn 
foognb 


Irrigration  Areas. 

3         totalling' 


Area. 

263  acres. 
2,081  „ 
2,200  ,, 
1,846  „ 
1,885  „ 
5,183      ,, 


Dairying"  and  Mixed  Farming-. 


Bom  Vista 

Deepdene 

lilumerulla 

Albunbee 

Morveii 

Werribee 

Kenilwortli 

Mooralla 

Cremona 

Dunrobin 


6        totalling' 


475  acres. 

484 

1,945  ,, 

1,726  „ 

3,663  „ 

4,348  „ 

600  „ 

1,226  „ 

403  „ 
20 


Estate 

Cornelia  Creek  . .  17 

Oaklands  . .  6 

Hurstwood     . .  . .  4 

Mt.  VViddenn  ..  14 

Nerrin  Nerrin  .  .  IS 

Pannoo  . .  IC 

Marathon  feWillow  Grove  12 

Strathallan  . .  11 


Wheat  Growing-.    Area. 


2,389  acre*. 

4,140  „ 

2,094  „ 

6,115  „ 

4,022  „ 

6,733  „ 

6,363  „ 

325  „ 


Beet  Growing-  and  Dairying^. 


Boisdale 
Kihuany  Park 


7        totalling       400  acres. 
21  „  1,766    .. 


Clerks'  Homes. 


57  allotmenta. 


Workmen's  Homes. 

Pender's  Grove  . .       108  allotments. 


Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending  over  31 J  years,  with 
pa3-inents  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  value  •( 
penuaiM-nt  improvements  effected,  repayments  extending  o\er  fifteen  years  bearing  0  per  cent,  interest. 

FwfvU  information  and  terms  apply  to  TH  E     SEC  RE  TA  RY , 

LANDS    PURCHASE    AND     MANAGEMENT    BOARD, 

MELBOURNE. 


AUSTRALIA'S  WAGON 


"The  Finest 
Wagon  Ever." 

PATENT 
STEEL 
WHEELS, 

Patent  Felloes. 
Renewable  Carroa 
Boxes  &  Oil  Caps, 

The  only  Steel 
Wheel  that  has 
stood  the  Test. 

BEWARE   OF 
IMITATIONS. 

Wheels  Guaranteed  for  3  years  against  Breakage,  &c, 

A.  MAir,  Esq.,  Meningie,  South  Australia,  says:—  ,  .,.      ux  ^        u 

Dear  Sir  —I  have  recei\  ed  Spring  Wagon.  I  am  well  pleased  with  same.  I  never  thought  it  would  run  so 
welL  and  I  think  those  who  have  Steel  Wheds  will  never  use  the  old  style  again.  Two  horses  carried  my  first  load 
U  tw^ionsof^tatoes  over  a  bad  road  of  30  miles,  where  the  old  style  of  Wagon  was  boK&ed.^Jjdj^st^^there. 

AIiBERT  MAY.  Esq.,  Meningie,  S.A.,  says :—  ,^      ^    ,     .       „,  ^         ,        , .    f  ,1 

Dear  Sir  —In  answer  to  your  letter  wanting  to  know  how  the  wheels  of  my  Wagon  are,  I  am  pleased  to  teU 
TOO  I  have  had  the  Wagon  about  Ci  years,  and  it  has  not  cost  me  a  shilling,  the  wheels  are  like  new  and  I  hav« 
flmw-  n.  \nt  of  heavv  c^rtin'^  Only  Veins  a  2-ton  Wagon,  I  lent  it  to  a  man  carting  wheat,  and  he  had  some  very 
'o^h^l  Ws^Tn^about  50  bags,"  Your  Wagons  are  worth^their  money,  and  I  would  not  be^  without  one 
of  tbem.     I  think  this  Wa^fon  will  last  my  life  time. 


40'  and  36'  Wheels. 


August  13th,  1910. 


TABLE  TOP— Truck  body,  and  aU  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
Wagons  Shipped  to  aU  Ports  in  Australia. WRITE  FOR  CATALOG  TO-DAY, 

Rl       I  Ull     nVARH      QUEEN   S     BRIDGE-ST.. 

.  O-  L.  rilL.LJ  T  MriUj  south  Melbourne,  v. 


lo  Oct.,  191  2.] 


Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


"CYCLONE" 
WOVEN   GATE 

8  f*.  -to  le  f-t. 

Will  hold  anything,  and  can  be  made  rabbit  proof  by  putting  rabbit  proof 

intersection  at  the  bottom.      The  wider  gates  have  three  stays. 
Get  our  Catalogue  of  this  and  many  other  Cyclone  Gates. "  THEY'RE  ALL  GOOD." 

CYCLONE    FENCE  &   GATE   CO., 

459  SWANSTON  ST.,  corner  franklin  St.,  MELBOURNE* 


PERFECTUS 


APPARATUS 

FOR  THE 


TREATMENT  OF  MILK  FEVER  IN  COWS. 

BY  THE  METHOD  RECOMMENDED  IN  THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


"  I  'HE  treatment  by  this  apparatus  is 
•^       effective    and    easy    to    perform, 
and  it  is  indeed  rare  that  the  severest 
case  does  not  yield  to  it. 

The  treatment  should  be  applied 
directly  the  symptoms  of  the  fever 
become  manifest. 

The  set  contains  everything  neces- 
sary to  effect  a  cure,  including  a  ther- 
mometer for  aiding  the  recognition  of 
the  disease. 

PRICE    COMPLETE 


ll^pl^l 

j^        VauOul 

j 

^^^^ 

*■'      '"  "  ■'■" '     "   , '"  -^' " ~ 

12s.   6(i.  (Postage,   9d.) 


Ask  your  nearest  Chemist  for  it,  and  if  he  cannot  supply,  apply  to  us  direct. 

FELTON,  GRIMWADE  &  CO.,  MELBOURNE. 


Journal   of   Agriculture.    Victoria. 


[lo  Oct.,  1912. 


"GLEN   ELGIN'S   PHILANTHROPIST"   299  A.H.B.   of  Aus. 


^(^ 


(|)(|) 


Winner  of  Champion,  Sydney  Royal  She^.v.,  1909,  1910,  1911,  1912. 

Reserve   Champion,    IVlelbourne   Royal  Show,  1907,   1908,   1911. 

Also  Winner  of  Bull  and  Progeny  Prize  of  £10  for  5  females  (the  progeny  of  any  one  bull) 
producing  the  largest  amount  of  commercial  butter  in  24  hours,  Sydney  Royal  Show,  1912. 

Also  holds  the  record  of  150  Firsts,  Champions,  Specials,  and  Gold  Medals 
for  Ayrshire  and  Dairy  Bull. 


The  "GlengaFDOGk"  Stod 


of  Pure — ..- ^ 

flypshipe  Cattle 


Has  won  innumerable  prizes  in  the  ring.      The  females  in  this  herd  are  noted  for 
deep  and  heavy  milking  and  test  well  aliove  the  average,  and  are  kind  and  quiet. 

DISPERSAL   SALE   OF   THIS    HERD 

Will  take  ])lace  on  the  31st  October,  1912.         Send  for  Catalogue. 


INSPECTION  CORDIALLY  INVITED. 


Address — 


«rv 


A.  T.  PRIESTLEY.  \ 


VISITORS  MET  AT  UNG  UNG  RAILWAY  STATION. 

Post      .V«CLENCARNOCK," 

Td^'JaSSj  YANNATHAN,  Vic. 


Z 

J 

o 
o 
z 

-I 


m 

r 
O 
O 

m 


lo  Oct.,  19  I  2.]  Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


Vaeuum 

Gargoyle 

Prepared 

Red   Spraying'  Oil 


Needs  no  Soft  Soap 
OP  other  ing'pedient. 


Requires  only 
Clean  Soft  Water. 


Vacuum  Gargoyle  Red  Spray  Oil 
now  obtainable  in  prepared  form 
is  the  same  Oil  as  that  originally 
introduced  to  Australia  for  fruit- 
tree    spraying. 


Full  particulars — 
Horticultural  Department, 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd., 
90  William  Street,  Melbourne. 


Journal    of    Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[lo  Oct.  .  1912^ 


The 

New  Automatic 

Cream  Separator 

Separating  Finished  same  time  as  Milking 

THE  AUTOMATIC  CREAM  SEPARATOR 
introduced  into  the  Dairy  means  less^ni  ^g  the 
work  wonderfully — saves  time  and  expense.  At  last 
we  have  got  the  seif'Contained  Cream  Separator, 
automatic  in  action,  simple  enough  for  a  child  to 
work.  It  is  an  ingenious  combination  of  a  povi^erful, 
perfectly  balanced  motor,  with  a  special  Separator, 
and  will  keep  running  continuously  for  6  hours. 
Cost  of  upkeep  is  ridicuously  small,  and  separates  as 
fast  as  seven  or  eight  milkers  can  supply.  No 
intricate  gears.  You  have  only  to  pull  the  cord  on 
the  side,  and  the  machine  ke  ps  going,  producing  a 
smooth  cream,   SKimming  to  .01. 

Knov<  more  about  this  great   boon  to  dairymen.      It 
vvill  be  an  excellent   investment  for  you. 

One  size    machine    for  any  size  dairy. 
vA^rite  ror  particulars. 

Sole   A.gents  : 

NEWELL    &    CO. 

>       43-45  RING  STREET,   MELBOURNE 


NEW  ZEALAND  LOAN  & 
MERCANTILE  AGENCY 


€3€>.    X«  X  TIX  X  ^F  X3  Z3 


Head  Office— 
LONDON. 


Melbourne  Offlce- 
COLLINS-ST.  W. 


LIBERAL    CASH     ADVANCES. 


Wool,  Grain,  Skins,  Hidesjallow, 
Bark,  Stock  and  Station  Brokers 

ON    COMMISSION    ONLY. 

Butter  Shipments  Undertaken  on  Owner's  Account 
AGENTS    FOR 

COOPER'S    DIP 

FOR  VICTORIA  AND  RIVERINA, 

PACE'S    PATENT   WIRE    STRAINER 
and    IRONSIDE'S   WIRE   CUTTER. 

CHIEF  AGENTS  IN  VICTORIA  for  tlie 

PALATINE   INSURANCE  CO. 


o  Oct.,  1912.] 


Journal   of    Agrictiltvre .    Victoria. 


TRADE 
MARK 


o 


o 


24.C 


GAS  PRODUCTION 

I    Cheaper  than   COAL  GAS   at   3  -  Per   1,000   cubic   feet. 
FOR    LIGHTING,    COOKING,    AND    HEATING. 

MANUFACTURED       UNDER       LICENCE       BOOTY- LOFTHOUSE       PATENTS. 


SYSTEM  ADOPTED  BY  STATE  AND  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENTS. 


For  further  particulars   and  prices  apply 

PTY.        19,    21,    23    ] 

LTD.,       586    BOURKE    ST.,     MELB. 


J.  BARTRAM  &  SON  ""    "  ''- ''  •^™^^'^^  ^"'^ 


■i 


V^ 


LYSACHT'S  WIRE  NETTING 

MADE    IN    AUSTRALIA. 

All  Sizes  Manufactured,  ^  inch  to  4  inch  Mesh. 

The  Standard  Netting  of  the  State. 

LOOK     FOR     OUR     MARKER     IN     EVERY     ROLL. 


Our  manufacture  of 
Rabbit -proof  Wire 
Netting  is  known  as 
the  best  throughout 
Australia. 


Better  in  quality,  p.nd 
owing  to  its  being 
loose  rolled  less  costly 
to  erect  than  any  im- 
ported Netting. 


IJ*  and  IJ*  MESH. 
OnxrOE:     TTSE3X3  ■A.X^'V^.A.'g'S     XTSTTT^. 

LYSAGHT  BROS.  &  CO.  Ltd., 

MANUFACTURERS.  SYDNEY. 

AGENTS :  GIBBS,  BRIGHT  &  CO.,  34  Queen  Street,  MELBOURNE. 


Journal   of   AgrixuUure,    Victoria.  r[oOcT..iQi 


Mr.    FARMER. 


This    is    what    concerns    yau 


5  CVfft    Galvd.  Because  it  concerns  your  pocket. 

NEPTUNE" ^Teel  Fencing  Wire 

\2\   Gauge,    will   cost   you    £5       2S«       OQ. 

and  will  give  you  7,150  yds.  of  Single  Wire  Fence. 

10  ewt.    Galvd.    ORDINARY   Fencing"   Wire 

No.  8,  will  cost  you  £5  2s.  6d.  and  will  only  give  you  5,280  yds.  of  Single  Wire  Fence. 


GUARANTEED   l^^^'l%  "NEPTUNE" 

12^  Gauge,   is   1,140  lbs. 

Breaking  Strain  ORDINARY  No.  8,  is  1,125  lbs. 

Railway  Freight  and  Cariiage  is  about  one-third  of  that  on  Ordinary  Wire. 


"NEPTUNE"   Unrivalled   WIRE    is    not  influenced  by    climatic    changes. 
AGENTS-  ASK    YOUR    STOREKEEPER. 

MORRIS  &  MEEKS,  Lt.  Collins-st,  Melbourne. 


To  GRAZIERS,  FARMERS,  and  DAIRYMEN. 


Proprietary 
Ltd.  


You  cannot  do  better  than  purchase  your  requirements  from 

THE    VICTORIA    VARNISH    COY. 

Who  are  Importers  and  JNianufacturers  of  the  undermentioned,  namely  : — 

Varnishes  for  all   uses,    Paints,    Dry  Colors,    Stainer's    Turpentine, 
Boiled    and    Raw    Linseed    Oil,    Resin,    Shellac,    White    Lead,    &c. 

OUR    MANUFACTURE     IS     OF     ONE     QUALITY— THE     BEST. 

Note  the  Address— 

The  VICTORIA  VARNISH  COY.  Proprietary  Ltd.,  Queen's  Bridge,  South  Melb 

Tel.   Central  614..  Established   1853.  A.    J.    BORTHWICK,    Managir. 


BONEDUST,  SUPERPHOSPHATE, 

AND     OTHER     HIGH-GRADE     FERTILIZERS 

DELIVERED  AT  RAILWAY  STATION,  FOOTSCRAY,  OR  ON  WHARF,  MELBOURNE. 

Office :— 407  POST  OFFICE  PLACE,  MELBOURNE. 

BONES  BOUGHT.      CONSIGN  TO  ME,  FOOTSCRAY.  Telephone  2098. 


lo  Oct..  19 1  2.] 


Journal   of   Agriculture ,    Victoria. 


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Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[lo  Oct.,  191 2. 


ALSTON'S  Patent  """'■le  crank 


§^  WINDMILL 


Beyond 

Dispute 

the 


1910  Pattern. 


Most  Perfect 
Windmill  Motion  in  Existence. 


Gives  a  direct  and  central  lift  of  the  pump  rod,  and 
an  even  wearing  of  the  bearings. 

FITTED   WITH   STEEL  ROLLER  AND  BALL 
BEARINGS. 

No  Overhanging  or  Twisting  Strains 

COMMON  TO  ALL  OTHER  MAKES. 

Do  not  buy  a  mill  till  you  have  inspected   this 
latest  invention. 


RUNS  in  the  LIGHTEST  WIND. 

STANDS  the  STRONGEST  STORM. 


Cheapest   and    Strongest  MiU   ever   offered, 


Patented  throughout  Australia.     Send  for  Catalogue. 


Alston's  Improved  Patent  Portable 
Steel  Framed  Galvanized  Stock 


The  Best  Trough 
ever  invented 


Trough 


WILL  NOT  CRACK,  LEAK, 
RUST,  OR  ROT. 

Packs  in  Small  Space. 


Supplied 
In   All   Lengths, 


The  Cheapest  and  Most   Durable 
Trough  Ever  Invented. 

Send  for  Price  List. 

JAMES    ALSTON, 

Patentee  and   Manufacturer, 
WINDMILL  FACTORY, 

Queen's-bridge,  Melbourne. 


H^    WILL  LAST    A   LIFE-TIME. 
^'     Patented  Throughout  Australia. 


THe  JOURNAI9 

or 

Tfie  department  of     Mgncufture 


VICTORIA. 


Vol.  X.        Part  10.  loth  Oetober,  1912. 

LIME   I\  AGRICULTURE. 
I. 

Introduction. 
By  the  Director  of  Agriculture  {Di.  S.  S.  Cameron). 

It  has  become  almost  a  commonplace  to  say,  in  respect  of  a  large  pro- 
portion of  land  in  this  State,  that  it  would  be  the  better  for  a  dose  of  lime. 
In  many  ways,  both  direct  and  indirect,  the  liming  of  land  has  a  proven 
beneficial  influence  in  both  the  maintenance  and  enhancement  of  soil  fer- 
tility. 

It  is  die  function  of  the  agricultural  specialists  to  explain  and  make  clear 
the  varied  actions,  physical,  chemical  and  biological,  as  the  case  may  be, 
b}  which  lime  produces  its  beneficial  effects  ;  but  in  a  foreword  to  a  serie.s 
of  articles  on  the  subject  by  officers  of  the  Department,  it  may  not  be  out 
of  place  to  indicate  the  character  of  the  efi^ort  that  is  being  made  by  tbe 
Department  to  demonstrate  the  exact  value  of  lime  in  agricultural  practice, 
and  for  the  guidance  of  agriculturists  in  the  profitable  and  economical  use 
of  it. 

Hitherto  the  use  of  lime  in  this  State  has  oftentimes  been  regarded  by 
many  practical  agriculturists  as  an  expensive  luxury,  and  much  the  same  in- 
credulity has  been  expressed  concerning  its  benefits  as  a  regular  means  of 
maintaining  or  increasing  soil  fertility,  as  was  voiced  regarding  the  use  of 
superphosphate  at  the  time  of  its  first  introduction  by  Professor  Cunstance 
of  the  Roseworthy  Agricultural  College  (S.A.),  and,  indeed,  until  the  ex- 
periments conducted  by  Mr.  A.  N.  Pearson,  formerly  Chemist  for  Agri- 
culture of  this  State,  placed  its  value  beyond  doubt,  and  demonstrated 
the  profitable  quantities  in  which  it  could  be  economically  and  regularly 
used. 

The  fact  is,  that  in  the  evolution  of  agriculture  in  this  State,  and  from 
the  stand-point  of  soil  fertility,  we  have  not  yet  quite  reached  unto  the 
third  stage.  Our  first  was  the  cultivation  of  virgin  land,  unassisted  by 
manure  of  any  kind.  The  second  stage  was  reached  when  it  was  realized 
that  the  surface  soils  of  this  continent  were  below  the  average  in  phosphatic 
content,  and  by  frequent  cropping  became  quickly  depleted  to  a  point  below 

12315.  i; 


5^6  JiHinial  (>]  Agnciilturc,   \  ictorui.  [lo  Oct.,  1912. 

essential  fertility  of  such  as  they  contained  naturally;  then  the  use  of  super- 
phosphate was  advised  and  became  general.  Now,  the  increase  in  market 
value  of  land  demands  that  its  productive  value  must  be  increased  also;  and 
the  continuous  cropping  and  the  use  of  superphosphate  has  tended  to  a 
'■  stiffening  ""  and  "  souring  "  of  the  soil,  which  demands  that  further  assi.st- 
tance  shall  be  given  in  the  maintenance  of  fertility.  One  of  the  directions 
— and  there  are  doubtless  many,  but  in  each  case  the  cost  or  value  ratio  will 
be  the  prime  consideration — in  which  this  assistance  may  be  given  is  in  the 
judicious  use  of  lime,  at  all  events  for  the  soils  of  certain  districts. 

As  with  the  use  superphosphate  in  the  past,  and  as  is  inevitable  for  the 
amelioration  of  at  present  inferior  soils  by  under-drainage  in  the  future,  so 
the  liming  of  land  is  one  of  those  refinements  of  agricultural  practice  which 
is  always  brought  about  whenever  production  has  to  be  pushed  in  order  to 
square  increase  of  cost  or  compensate  for  competition. 

It  has  been  said  repeatedly  that  the  main  thing  standing  in  the  way  of 
the  general  use  of  lime  was  its  cost.  Not  so  much  its  initial  or  actual  cost 
as  the  cost  of  carriage  on  the  railways.  Doubtless  there  is  much  in  this  con- 
tention, and  the  example  of  some  American  railway  companies,  and  of  the 
Government  of  New  Zealand,  in  carrying  lime  at  a  loss,  might  well  be 
followed  by  the  Railways  Commissioners  of  this  State.  The  increased 
freightage  resulting  from  the  more  abundant  production  following  on  the 
use  of  lime  would  doubtless  amply  compensate  the  loss.  That  there  are 
other  factors,  however,  operating  against  the  more  general  use  of  lime  in 
agriculture  is  obvious  when  last  year's  experience  of  the  Maffra  Sugar  Fac- 
tory is  related.  The  factory  had  some  hundreds  of  tons  of  high  class  lime 
on  hand,  as  a  by-product  of  the  manufacturing  operations.  Failing  to 
secure  local  buyers,  attention  was  drawn  to  it  by  paragraphs  in  the  daily 
papers,  and  it  was  advertised  in  the  weekly  agricultural  press  for  two 
months  at  los.  per  ton  in  bags  f.o.r.  Maffra.  Not  a  single  application  or 
offer  was  received,  and  such  as  was  not  required  for  departmental  use  was 
ultimately  disposed  of  in  one  line  to  a  Lyndhurst  farmer  at  4s.  per  ton. 

One  of  the  means  of  lessening  the  carriage  cost  of  lime  would  be  the 
opening  up  of  lime  quarries  that  could  be  practically  worked  in  as  many 
different  localities  as  possible,  so  that  each  district  requiring  lime  could  be 
served  from  the  nearest  deposit.  There  are.  of  course,  scores  of  lime  de- 
posits throughout  the  State,  but  many  of  them  are  composed  of  an  inferior 
or  unsuitable  quality  of  lime.  Others  are  of  high  quality,  but  .so  small  in 
exterit  as  to  be  worthless  to  work,  and  others  again,  suitable  as  regards 
quality  and  extent,  are  so  awkwardly  situated  as  to  be  impossible  of  ex- 
ploitation. 

In  October  last  year,  and  as  a  step  concurrent  with  the  initiation  of 
district  liming  experiments,  this  Department  .sought  the  aid  of  the  Geological 
Branch  of  the  Mines  Department  as  to  the  location  of  lime  deposits  through- 
out the  State  of  a  character  that  could  be  profitably  worked  for  agricultural 
purposes.  In  response  the  Mines  Department  furnished  the  report  published 
herewith,  which  may  be  regarded  as  both  valuable  and  accurate,  compiled 
as  it  is  from  the  researches  of  such  men  as  those  whose  names  are  attached 
to  it. 

Equally  important  as  the  matter  of  initial  and  carriage  cost,  and  pos 
sibly  in  a  greater  degree  accounting  for  the  small  extent  to  which  lime  is  at 
present  used,  is  the  uncertainty  of  knowledge  as  to  the  exact  nature  and  re- 
lative value  of  the  different  limes  available,  and  the  uncertainty  of  know- 
ledge of  the  effect  of  lime  in  different  districts,  for  different  soils,  in  small 
or  large  quantities,   for  different  crops,   at  long  or  short  intervals,   and  so 


loOcT..  1912.]  Lime  in   Agriculture.  ^S] 

on.  The  application  of  lime  has  been  advocated  in  a  Hght  and  airy  way  by 
many  advisers,  but  all  sorts  of  confusing  advice  as  to  quantities,  periodicity 
of  application,  and  the  like  have  been  given.  Farmers,  however,  with  that 
conservative  wisdom  which  is  sometimes  charged  to  their  detriment,  but 
which  is  really  their  abiding  safeguard  against  irresponsible  advisers  and 
wasteful  expenditure,  have  been  loth  to  act  on  the  exhortation  of  other  than 
dependable  investigators  who  can  advance  sound  research  and  .scientific 
proof  for  their  guidance.  So  it  was  with  superphosphate  so  it  will  be  as 
regards  lime. 

The  demand  of  the  moment,  therefore,  is  that  exact  research  should  be 
undertaken  to  demonstrate:  — 

(a)  the  districts  in  which  lime  is  likely  to  be  generally  required ; 

(b)  the  soils  in  such  districts  that  are  already  in  a  state  of  lime  hunger, 

or  are  approaching  thereto ; 

(c)  the  varying  or  constant  quantities,   as  the  case  may  be,   in  which 

lime  can  Ije  profitablv  applied  ; 
{d)  the  profitable  or  economical  periodicity  of  application  ; 
{e)  the  proportion  in  which  the  yields  of  different  crops  are  influenced 

by  applications  varying  or  constant  in  amount ; 
(/)  the  form  of  lime  best  suited  to  different  crops  and  different  soils ; 
{g)  the  season  and  method  of  application  ; 
(h)  the  cost  of  varying  quantities  relative  to  resultant  crop  yields. 

Such  work  has  not  been  previously  undertaken  in  this  State,  or,  indeed, 
in  Australia.  There  have,  doubtless,  been  fugitive  experiments  carried  out 
in  these  directions,  but  the  results,  even  when  recorded,  have  been  largely 
estimations  or  opinions  or  guesswork.  Actual  weighing  of  yields  from 
treated  and  control  areas,  or  comparative  feeding  off  tests  of  results  have 
not  been  carried  out.  and  without  these  conclusions  cannot  be  accurate,  or 
other  than  speculative. 

That  such  work  has  not  been  so  undertaken  may  be  charged  as  a  sin 
against  this  and  other  State  Departments  of  Agriculture.  If  so.  it  is  not 
desired  to  extenuate  the  neglect  further  than  to  repeat  what  has  been  already 
said,  viz. :  —  that  the  conditions  of  agriculture  in  this  State  have  but  re- 
cently become  such  as  to  require  aid  in  this  direction,  and  State  Govern- 
ments are  not  notoriously  prone  to  authorize  expenditure  ahead  of  require- 
ments. 

Agricultural  research  is  slow  of  process.  There  can  be  but  one  set  of 
observations  in  each  year,  and  these  subject  to  so  great  a  margin  of  experi- 
mental error  as  to  be  useless  on  which  to  base  conclusions  until  they  have 
been  several  times  repeated  under  naturally  varying  seasonal  conditions, 
particularly  rainfall;  so  that  some  years  must  elapse  before  definite  data 
can  be  authoritatively  pronounced  concerning  the  problems  for  solution  and 
the  questions  for  answer  set  out  above.  Nevertheless,  belated  though  it  be 
(culpably  so,  some  critics  will  smugly  aver),  a  start  has  been  made. 

During  last  autumn  the  Agricultural  Superintendent  (Mr.  A.  _E.  V. 
Richardson,  M.A.,  R.Sc.)  initiated  a  series  of  district  experiments  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  State,  and  also  commenced  in  the  North-Eastem  district, 
at  the  Rutherglen  Viticultural  Station,  and  in  the  Goulburn  Valley  at  the 
Wyuna  Irrigation  Farm,  permanent  lime  plots  designed  to  elucidate  the 
problems  that  have  been  indicated.  These  will  be  elaborated  in  required 
directions  from  year  to  vear,  and  at  the  Central  Research  Farm,  at  Werribee. 
they  will  be  triplicated  and  extended.  The  objectives  of  these  experiments 
are  indicated  by  Mr.  Richardson  in  his  contribution  to  this  brochure,  in  the 
article  on  "  The  Practice  of  Liming." 

V  2 


Journal  of  Agriculture.  Victoria. 


[lo  Oct..  1912. 


As  year  succeeds  year  the  accumulating  results  will  be  published  until, 
it  is  hoped,  reliable  data  can  be  put  forth  as  having  stood  the  test  of  time 
and  repetition  under  such  a  sufficiency  of  varying  conditions  as  to  be  axio- 
matic for  practice. 

In  the  meantime,  and  in  order  that  as  much  reliable  information  on  the 
subject  as  possible  may  be  made  available  for  the  benefit  af  farmers  at  the 
present  time,  it  has  been  deemed  desirable  to  put  forward  a  concise  com- 
pendium dealing  with  such  of  the  aspects  of  the  lime  in  agriculture  ques- 
tion as  is  likely  to  prove  informative  and  helpful  in  a  practical  sense  to 
all  who  wish  to  undertake  this  method  of  soil  renovation. 

Accordingly,  in  addition  to  Mr.  Richardson's  article  just  mentioned, 
Mr.  Rankin  Scott,  Chemist  for  Agriculture,  deals  with  the  chemistry  of 
lime,    and    at   the   same   time    indicates   a    simplified    nomenclature  of    the 


CURDIE  S    RIVER    LIME    COMPANY.       FIRST     KILN. 

various  forms  of  lime  which  will  be  used  throughout,  and  which  it  is 
hoped  will  tend,  to  do  away  with  the  confusion  that  at  present  exists  in 
the  minds  of  farmers  concerning  the  many  forms  in  which  lime  may  be 
purchased. 

Dr.  J.  W.  Paterson,  B.Sc,  Ph.D.,  Experimentalist,  and  Mr.  Scott,  deal 
with  the  "Relation  of  Lime  to  Soil  Fertility,"  and  indicate  results  of  ex- 
periments already  obtained  in  the  laboratory. 

The  Viticulturalist  (Mr.  F.  De  Castella)  supplies  information  with 
respect  to  the  use  of  lime  in  viticulture;  and  Mr.  Temple  Smith,  Chief 
Field  Officer,  as  regards  lime  for  tobacco  land. 

The  Chief  Orchard  Superviser,  Mr.  P.  J.  Carmody,  advises  on  the  use 
of  lime  for  orchard  soils ;  and  Mr.  G.  Seymour,  the  potato  expert,  relates 
practical  experiences  of  the  use  of  lime  on  certain  classes  of  soil  for 
potatoes. 


lo  Oct..  igi2. 


Lime   in   Agriculture. 


589 


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•  LOCALITIES. 

1  Curdie's  River,  Timboon 

2  Karwarren,  near  Colac 

3  Howe's  Creek,  near  Mansfield 

4  Tvers  River,  Gippsland 

5  Tnompson  River,  Gippsland 

6  Merrimu,  near  Comadai 

7  Yalloak  Vale 

7a  Merriman's  Creek,  Sale 

8  Woornyaloak,  near  Geelong 

9  Mitchell  River,  Gippsland 

10  Lilydale 

11  Mitchellvale,  Gippsland 

12  Bindi,  East  Gippsland 

13  Waratah,  South  Gippsland 

14  Dookie 

15  Warrnambool 

16  Limestone  Creek 

17  Buchan,  Gippsland 

18  Moyne,  Port  Fairy 

19  Wombat  Creek,  Gippsland 

20  Batesford,  near  Ceelong 

21  Mt.  Wellington,  Gippsland 

22  Netherby,  Border  District 

23  Deutgam,  Werribee 

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590  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [loOcx.,  1912. 

II. 

VICTORIAN  LIMESTONE  DEPOSITS. 

The  information  contamed  in  this  report  was  compiled  from  depart- 
mental records  and  Victorian  scientific  journals,  the  authorities  being— - 
I-..  J.  Dunn,  F.G.S.,  Director  of  Geologv  ;  R.  A.  F.  Murrav.  F.G.S.  ; 
J.  Stirling.  F.G.S.  ;  F.  Chapman,  A.L.S.  ;  A.  W.  Howitt,  F.G.S.  ; 
D.  Mahonv.  l''.G.S.  ;  and  Messrs.  S.  B.  Hunter,  W.  Baragwanath,  and 
W.  H.  Ferguson.  The  analvses  were  made  by  J.  Cosmo  Newbery,  B.Sc.^ 
and  the  Geological  Sur\ev  laboratory  officers. 

A.   W.  HowiTT. 

30.7. 19 1 2. 
Locality  map  attached. — A.W.H.,   30.7.12. 

(i)  Curdie's  River.   Timeoon. 
Locality. — On  Curdie's  River,   where  the  railway   crosses   it.   parish  of 
Timboon,  in  the  county  of  Heytesbury. 

Occurrence. — Tertiary  calcareous  ::trata  carrying  bands  of  limestone  of 
varying  quality. 

Ecoiio)iiic.—  Large  deposits  occur  in  this  locality,  and  have  been 
specially  examined  at  Tallent's  Hill,  on  the  railway  line.  Fuel  is  abun- 
dant, and  the  forest  should  be  conserved,  so  as  tO'  provide  a  constant  and 
cheap  fuel. 

Analyses. — Nos.   172  and  173,  from  Tallent's  Hill- — 

No.    17  5   (North  face)  No.    173   (Ea.st  face). 

Ca  CO.,   ^  92.61%  88.39 

Insol.    vSilica  3-54%  A-2>o 

Magnesia  Trace.  Trace. 

The  analyses  show  that  the  limestone  ranges  from  good  to  fairly  good 
quality,   and   for  agricultural   purposes  the  deposit  is  most  valuable. 

(2)  Kam'arren,   near   Colac. 
Locality. — These    deposits    are    2g    chains    west    of    Kawarren    railway 
station,   and    13  miles  south  of  Colac. 

Occurrence. — Tertiary  deposits  of  sands  and  clavs,  &c..  amongst  which 
the  lime.stone  occurrence  seems  to  be  abnormal  and  different  from  the  sur- 
rounding   rocks.      The    deposit    is    composed    of    organic    remains,    corals, 
shells,   &c. 

Economic. — The    limestone    presents    an    abrupt    face    of    eight}     feet 
(80  feet)  thick,  and  the  quarry  is  eighty  feet  (80  feet)  wide. 

Fuel   is   abundant,   and   the  occurrence  of   this  deposit   so   clo.se  to  the 
railway  renders  it  a  very  valuable  one. 
Analysis. — No.    174 — - 

Ca.    Cr  3  ...  ...      88.02 

In.sol.    Silica  ...  ...        3-48 

Magnesia  ...  ...     Trace 

The  analysis  shows  the  limestone  to  be  of  fairly  good  quality,  and 
quite  good  enough  for  agricultural  purposes. 

(3)  HowE.s'    Creek,    near    Manspield. 
Locdlitv.    ~\n    allotments   94,    131.    132,    and    133,    parish   of   Loyola, 
and   6    miles    from   the    Mansfield   railway    station.      The   quarry   is   known 
as  Griffith's. 


TO  Oct..  191--]  \ictoiiaii   LtniestoUi    Dtpoxits.  ^91 

Occurrence.       I'Ik-it    aif    3   acres    ot    blue    dense    limestone    with    small 
•calcite   veins.      These    limestone   areas  occur   in    Silurian    formations,    and 
they  are  fairly  extensive,  one  being  said  to  be  300  feet  in  length  and  50 
feet  wide. 

Economic  -  This  limestone  has  been  worked  in  a  small  way  from  time 
to  time,   and  yields  an  excellent  lime.      It  is  very  similar  to  the  Lilydale 
limestone,  and  is  of  value  both  for  agricultural   and  building  purpcses. 
Analysis   (/.    Cosmo   Neivbery) — 

Percentage. 
Ca.    CO3  .  .  ...      95.55 

Mg.    CO3  ...  ...     Trace 

Fe  and  Al  .  .  ...        2.92 

Clav    and    sand        .  ...        1.53 


(4)  Tyers    River,    Gippsland. 

Locality. — Tyers  River.  8  miles  from  the  Traralgon  railwav  station, 
in  a  deep  gully  emptying  into  the  Tyers  River. 

Occurrence. — Grey,  dense  limestone,  seamed  with  small  calcite  veins, 
and  occurring  in  Silurian  strata.  There  is  a  large  formation  of  the  lime- 
stone, which  shows  for  100  yards  in  length  along  the  gully,  and  for  a 
considerable  height  up  either  bank. 

Economic. — It  appears  to  be  a  tirst  class  limestone,  and  the  analyses 
made  by  the  late  J.  Cosmo  Xewbery.  F.G.S..  show  that  it  is  of  high 
•(juality. 

Analyses. —  No.    i.  No.    2. 

Ca.    CO;,  ...      96.20  ...  93.50 

Fe   CO3  .        1.25  ...  1.47 

Si    Og        ...  ...        1.70  ...  4.00 

Mg   CO.^     ..  ...     Trace         ... 

Moisture  ...        0.50  ...  0.70 

(5)  Thompson  River. 
Locality. — Thompson   Ri\er.    between   Walhalla    and   Toongabbie.    and 
about   10  miles  in  a  westerly  direction  from  Toongabbie. 

Occurrence. — Several  small  areas  occur  on  the  Thompson  River,  east 
of  the  Deep  Creek  junction,  and  one  on  Deep  Creek  is  se\-eral  chains  long 
and  200  feet  high.  Another  small  outcrop  occurs  nearer  Walhalla,  and 
•close  to  the  copper  mine  area.  All  are  of  Silurian  age,  and  occur  as  a 
dense,  compact  limestone. 

Limestone. — These  deposits  of  lime.stone  would  be  suitable  for  building 
or  agricultural  purposes. 

Analyses .—-T\\om]i^on   Ri\er — 

No.    445.  No.   448. 

Insoluble  ...       0.75  ...  0.72 


Fe    and    Al 

0.75 

0.42 

Ca    CO-t    ... 

...     07.12 

97.64 

Mg  CO.,    . 

1.6^ 

[.TI 

H=,   0 

C.08 

COS 

100.33  •  ••  99-94 


59-  Journal  of  A.griciilture,  \"icioria.  [lO  Oct.,  1912. 

(6)  Merrimu,    near   Coimadai. 

Locality. — One  mile  east  of  the  Lerderberg  P.  R.,  parish  of  Merrimu, 
county  of  Bourke. 

Occtirrencc. — Limestone  bands  of  Tertiary  age.  These  bands  have 
their  partings  of  sand,  clay,  and  gravel,  and  they  rest  on  glacial  forma- 
tions. 

Economic. — A  considerable  body  of  limestone  occurs,  and  extensive 
works  have  been  carried  on  here.  About  half-a-mile  to  the  north-east  of 
the  main  deposits,  another  deposit  of  workable  size  occurs. 

The  main  deposit  is  over  24  acres  in  area  and  thirty  feet  (30  ft.) 
thick  in  one  place.     Mainly  of  use  for  building  purposes. 

Analvsis — 

41.00 


Ca  CO. J 
Mg  C63 
Fe  and  Al 
Si  O2  ... 
Ho-  O  and 


1.90 

2.05 

•05 


100.00 


(7)  Yaloak  Vale. 

Locality. — Southward  from  bores.  Yaloak  Vale,  parish  of  Yaloak,. 
Bacchus  Marsh  district. 

Occurrence. — White,  earthy  limestone  of  Tertiary  age.  An  extensive 
deposit  occurs  with  harder  hands  of  excellent  quality. 

(8)  Merriman's   Creek,    Sale. 

Locality. — Between  Merton  and  Stradbroke,  on  Hodinots  Creek,  above 
the  Sale-road. 

Occurrence. — Dense  grey  Tertiary  limestone,   with  soft  layers. 
Economic. — Yields  excellent  lime,  similar  to  the  Boggy  Creek  deposits. 

(9)  Wqornyaloak. 

Locality. — Near  Duck  Ponds  railway  station.  Woornvaloak.  and  north 
from  Geelong. 

Occurrence. — Yellow,  sandy  limestone  occurring  over  a  large  area^ 
and  twenty  feet  (20  ft.)  thick  in  places. 

Economic. — The  limestone  varies  in  character  and  quality,  as  can  be 
seen   from  the   following  analyses:  — 

Analyses. — 

No.  I. 

Carbonate  of  lime  ...  47.80 

Cartonate  of  magnesia  ...  26.70 

Carbonate  of    iron  ...  2.90 

Silica                      ...  ...  18.10 

Water                     ...  ...  1.05 

Alkaline   salts      ...  ...  2.90 

(10)  Mitchell  River. 

Locality. — Over  a  wide  area  from  west  of  the  Mitchell  River  to  the 
east  side  of  Take  Tyers.  At  Lake  Tyers  showing  as  the  banks  of  an 
estuary  ;  and  on  the  Mitchell  River  as  banks  bounding  alluvial   flats. 


No.   II. 

No.  Ill 

77.60      . 
Trace 

.  88.38 
0.76 

4.05      . 

1 1 . 1 5      . 

6.80      . 

0.51 
7.02 

ioOcT.,  ipi-.J  Victorian  Limestone  De-posits.  593 

Occurrence. — Tertiary    limestone.      Being    ;i    yellow,    friable   calcareous 
rock  to  a  hard,    yellow   limestone.      It  ma)    be  regarded  as  being  about 
two  hundred   and    lifty    feet    (J50  ft.)   thick    in    place.s,    and   has   a    slight 
dip  towards  the  south-east. 

Economic. — It  affords  a  rich  soil,  and  has  been  burnt  for  lime.     For 
agricultural  purposes  it  has  been  used  at   Ho.spital   Creek  in  the  natural 
state  with  benefit,  the  limestone  being  soft  and  friable. 
Analysis. — No.    144   (Ho.spital    Creek,    1910) — 

Insoluble  ...  ...  ...        4.28 

i-e^    O3  ...  ...  ...        2.65 

Ca  CO;j  ...  ..  ...     84.10 

Mg  ...  ...  ...  ...     Trace 

(11)  L1LVD.4LE. 

Locality. — Cave  Hill,  Lil\dale  district.  Allotment  20.  parish  of 
Mooroolbark,   county  of  Evelyn. 

Occurrence. — Blue-grey  to  pink-brown  limestone  of  Silurian  age.  In 
texture  it  is  a  hard  and  semi-crystalline  limestone,  lenticular  shaped  and 
occurring  between  quartzite  and  shales. 

Economic. — A  large  area  occurs  close  to  the  railway  line,  but  its  exact 
extent  is  not  known.  In  1892  its  greatest  width  was  over  three  hundred 
feet  (300  ft.).  In  good  times  it  is  reported  that  as  much  as  seventy  tons 
(70  tons)  per  day  has  been  sent  away. 

Analysis  (/.    Cosmo  Nciubery). — 

Percentage. 
Ca  COv,  ..  ...  ...     92.60 

MgCOg  0.36 

Fe   CO3  ...  ..  ...        2.12 

Clay    and    .sand     .  ...  ...        3-24 

Other  constituents  .  .  ...        1.68 


100.00 


(12)     MiTCHELLVALE. 

Locality. — At  Ostler's,  south  of  the  junction  of  the  Wentworth  and 
]\iitchell  Rivers. 

Occurrence. — Limestones  sliading  into  calcareous  sandstone,  and  highly 
fossiliferous.  Seams  of  calcite  occur  in  places.  Of  Middle  Devonian 
age. 

Economic. — About  30  miles  from  the  Lindenow  railway  .station.  The 
country  is  rough  mountain  ranges.      No  analyses  have  been  made. 

(13)    BiNDI. 

Locality. — Old  Hut  Creek  and  Tambo  River,  parish  of  Bindi.  in 
the  county  of  Tambo,  Ea.st  Gippsland. 

Occurrence. — Dense  blue  to  grey  crystalline  limestone,  with  .some 
chalky  and  impure  lower  calcareous  beds.  The  formation  is  of  Middle 
Devonian  age,  and  covers  about   18  square  miles  of  country. 

Economic. — It  is  nearly  80  miles  by  road  from  the  Bairnsdale  railway 
station  ;  but  on  the  completion  of  the  Orbost-Bairnsdale  line,  the  distance 
from  that  line  will  be  only  about  55  miles. 

Analysis. — There  is  no  record  of  any  analysis  of  the  Bindi  lime.stone. 
but  the  percentage  of  Ca  CO^  should  be  nearlv  as  high  as  that  found  in 
the  Buchan  limestone. 


=594  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  Oct.,  1912. 

(14)   Waratah. 
Locality. — On  the  west  shore  of  Waratah   Bay,    and  near   Bird  Rock,, 
parish  of  Waratah,  in  the  county  of  Buln  Buln. 

Occurrence. — Crystalline    granular    fine    to    coarse    limestone.         The 
deposit  shows  up  to  five  chains  (5  chs.)  wide  at  the  base  and  one  hundred 
and  ten  feet  (no  ft.)  high.     Of  Silurian  age. 

Economic. — From   an  area   of    2    acres  over    1,000,000   bags   of    lime 
were  obtained.     There  is  every  facility  for  direct  shipment.     It  is  easily 
worked,  and  upon  burning  yields  a  perfectly  white  lime.     There  are  also, 
large  deposits  of  limestone  at  Bell  Point  and  Point  Grinder. 
Analysis. — 

Ca    CO;j  ...  ...  ...      94-9° 

Mg  ...  ...  ...  ...     Trace 

Fe  2.85 

Si  O^      ...  ...  ...  ...       2.85 

H.    O      ...  ...  ...  ...       0.50 

(15)     DOOKIE. 

Locality. — Allotment  169,  in  the  north-east  of  parish  of  Dookie^ 
county  of  Moira. 

Occurrence. — As  a  large  calcite  vein  traversing  diabase  rocks.  It 
appears  to  occupy  a  fissure,  and  is  sometimes  seen  as  a  calcareous  breccia. 

Economic. — In  one  of  the  quarries  the  vein  has  been  worked  for  a 
length  of  3  chains,  and  to  a  depth  of  10  feet,  and  12  feet  wide  in  places. 
Other  quarries  occur  along  the  course  of  the  vein  for  a  total  length  of 
eight  chains  (8  chs.).  This  limestone  was  burnt  and  sent  long  distances 
in  former  years,  and  the  old  kiln  is  still  standing. 

Analysis. — 

Ca  CO;^  ...  ...  ...     94.10% 

[16)  Warrnambool. 

Locality. — Between  Warrnambool  and  Port   Fairy,   a  distance  of  about 
fifteen  (15)  miles,  county  of  Villiers. 

Occurrence. — Extensive    sand    dunes    up   to    50    feet    high    in    places. 
These  sand  dunes  in  many  places  consist  almost  entirely  of  small  broken 
pieces  of  sea   shells,    and  this  shell   sand  has  the  composition  of  a   fairly 
pure  limestone. 

Economic. — The  deposits    contain    many    millions    of    tons  of    finely- 
crushed  limestone,   apparently  in  a  form    most    suitable    for    agricultural 
purposes.      It    is   close   to  the   railway    line,    and    could   be   very   cheaply 
handled ;  but  before  any  operations  are  undertaken,   the  dunes  should  be 
thoroughlv    examined    and    sampled    to  determine    the    relative    values    of 
the  various  parts. 
Analysis. — 

Ca    CO3  ..  ...  ...      84.46 

Insol.    (SiO?)  ...  ...  ...        vio 

AU    O3        ^  ...  ...  ...       0.57 

Fe.,    O.,  ...  ...  ...       0.87 

Mg'COg  Hs'O  &r.  (by  differenrt^)        ...        9.00 
Na    CI.        '  ..."  ...  ...     Trace 

P.   O5    ...  ...  ...  ...     Trace 

100.00 


lo  Oct.,  1912. j  Victorian  Lunestotie  Deposits.  595 

A  bore  at  Albert  Park,  Warrnambool,  was  put  down  for  a  depth  of 
398  feet  through  81  ft.  9  in.  of  limestone;  at  times  this  limestone  contains 
flints.     At  a  depth  of  115  feet  there  was  9  ft.  5  in.  of  calcite. 

(17)   Limestone   Creek. 
Locality. — On  Limestone  Creek,    25  miles   from  Omeo  Plains  Station, 
parish  of  Enamo,  in  the  county  of  Benambra. 

Occurrence. — An   extensive     area     of     dense     subcrystalline    to    white 
crystalline  limestone  and  marble  of  the  Middle  Devonian  series. 

Economic. — One   of    the   outcrops   covers    thirty-five    (35)    acres.      The 
locality   is    over    one    hundred    (100)    miles    from    the    Bairnsdale    railway 
station. 

Analysis  (/.  Cosmo  Newbery). — 

Ca  CO3  ...  ...  ...     96.80 

Mg  COu  ..  ...  ...       2.80 

Soluble    silica         ...  ...  ...       0.20 

Insol.  silica  ...  ...  ...        o.io 

H^   O      ...  ...  ...  ...       o.io 


(18)     BuCHAN. 

Locality. — Buchan,    in     the    county     of     Tambo,    Eastern     Gippsland, 
including    Gelantipy,    Buchan,    South    Buchan,    Canni    Creek,    and    New 
Guinea  Point,   Snowy  River. 

Occurrence. — Blue-grey   limestone  of   Middle  Devonian  age,   some  ex- 
tremely pure.       It  is  by   far  the  most  extensive  outcrop  of  limestone  in 
Victoria,  being  in  extreme  length  15  miles,  by  5  miles  wide,  and  of  great 
thickness. 

Economic. — The    southern    area    would    be    about    6    miles    south    of 
Buchan,  and  on  the  completion  of  the  Bairnsdale-Orbost  railway  line  this 
area  will  be  more  accessible. 
Analyses. — 

No.  395/1905  (Dr.  Mackieson's,  South  Buchan). 
Ca   CO^  ..  ...  ...     93.20 

Insol.       ...  ...  .  .  ...        2.07 

Fe   and    Al  ...  ...  ...       0.60 

Indeterminate         ...  ...  ••■       4.20 

100.07 


No.  396   1 
Ca    CO3 

Insol. 

Fe  and  Al 

Indeterminate 

905 

(Spring  Creek,   Buchan). 

...      92.97 

2.80 
.  .                ..               ...        1.80 

2.70 

100.27 

(19)  Moyne.  Port  Fairy. 
Locality. — Hanging  Rock  Quarry,   Moyne,   Port  Fairy.       It  is  situated 
a    little    to   the    south  of   the   Moyne    siding,    between    Koroit    and    Port 
Fairv. 


596  Journal  of  Agriculture.  Victoria.  [10  Oct.,  1912. 

Occurrence. — Tertiary  limestone  exposed  in  a  small  quarry,  and  from 
the  general  appearance  of  the  country  there  appears  to  be  a  very  consider- 
able amount  of  similar  material  to  that  submitted  for  analysis. 

Economic. — Its  position  is  convenient  for  transport,  being  about  i  mile 
from  the  railway,  and  the  quality  of  limestone  as  collected  for  analysis 
is  excellent, 

Analysis.  —No.   38/ 1907 — 
Ca    CO3    ... 
Insol. 
AI2    O3    Fe^    U3    ... 

Mg  COs 

Ho    O      ... 
Undetermined 


(20)  Wombat  Creek. 

Locality. — On  Wombat  Creek,  about  2  miles  west  of  the  Wombat- 
Mitta  River  junction,  parish  of  Tongaro,   in  the  county  of  Bogong. 

Occurrence. — Blue  to  grey  crystalline  lime.stone  bands  of  Silurian  age. 
The  area  is  extensive. 

Economic. — The  values  of  Ca  CO3  should  be  high,  and  somewhat 
similar  to  the  other  crystalline  Silurian  limestones  as  at  Mansfield,  &c. 
The  locality  is  in  rough  mountain  country,  and  too  far  from  railway  com- 
munication at  present  to  be  of  commercial  value. 

(21)  Batesford. 
Locality. — Just  east  of  the  Dog  Rocks,  on  the  Moorarbool  River,  and 
about   I  mile   south-east   of  the   Batesford    bridge,   parish  of   Gheringhap, 
in  the  county  of  Grant. 

Occurrence. — Yellow  to  reddish    limestone    of    Tertiary  age.        A  hilt 
section  shows — 

Feet. 
Basalt  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...       75 

Incoherent   sandy   material   with  calcareous   concretions        50 
Yellow    clay,    with    calcareous   concretions    ...  ...  5 

Polyzoal   limestone  ...  ...  ...  ...        25 

Orbitoidal    limestone         ...  ...  ...  ...        20 


175 


Economic. — The  Upper  Quarry  shows  a  fairly  hard  limestone  passing^ 
upward  into  a  friable  limestone,  making  about  45   feet  in  all. 

The  Dryden,  or  Filter  Quarry,  is  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  lower 
down  the  Moorarbool,  and  here  the  deposits  are  very  extensive,  and  are 
being  worked  by  P.  McCann  and  Sons,  of  Fyansford,  for  cement  pur- 
poses, &c.  The  beds  vary,  being  at  one  place  22  feet  vertical  of  pure 
white,    friable   limestone,    but    generally    less. 

Analyses  made  by   Mr.    P.    G.   Bayly  gave — 

No.    735    (Upper   Quarry)    (Ca    CO.5)        ...  ...     99.12 

No.    736   (Filter  Quarry)  ...  ...  ...      96.66 


loOcT..  1912.J  \'ictoria)i   Limestone  Deposits  597 

(22)   Mt.    Wellington. 

Locality.— Ko.\\\  Horse  Gully,  near  Dolodorook  Creek,  parish  of  Nap 

Nap   Marra,   county  of  Tanjil. 

Occurrence.  -^Vih-cx:\st:x\\\i\i:^  grey  limestone  of  Upper  Cambrian  age, 
forming  a  lenticular  patch. 

Economic. — There  are  three  outcrops  of  limestone,  one  of  which  is 
said  to  be  traceable  at  intervals  for  i  mile  in  a  south-west  direction. 
Eventually  this  limestone  should  prove  of  great  value  for  building  pur- 
poses, and  also  for  fertilizing  the  land.  The  locality  is  about  forty  (40) 
miles  northward   from   the    Heyfield   railway   station. 

Analysis. — No.    412/1907 — 

Ca    CO3    ...  ...              ...  ...  65.0 

Insol.          ...  ..              ...  ...  23.0 

Fe^    0:5  Alo-  Oj  ...  ...  6.0 

Mg"  CO..J     '  ...              ...  ...  6.0 

{2^)   Netherby. 

Locality. — At  Netherby,  in  the  parish  of  Warraquil,  county  of  Lowan, 
in  the  Horsham  district. 

Occurrence. — Tertiary  friable  limestone  was  proved  in  a  bore,  and 
was  found  to  occur  from  a  depth  of  245  feet  to  657  feet.  In  some  other 
adjacent  bores,  the  limestone  beds  were  cut  at  a  much  shallower  depth. 

Economic. — An  analysis  of  a  sample  of  limestone  from  Netherby  was 
as  follows:  — 

Si    O^  ...              ...              ...  2.883 

Fe  and   Al  ...              ...              ...  1.283 

Ca   CO3  ...              ...              ...  92.270 

Mg  CO3                 3-^05 

Unestimated  and    loss         ...               ...  .359 


(24)    Deutgam    (Werribee    District). 

Locality. — At  a  point  160  feet  east  of  the  north-west  corner  of  allot- 
ment J3,  section  HI.,  parish  of  Deutgram,  county  of  Grant,  in  Bore  Xo.  4, 
which  was  put  down  under  Government  supervision  in  the  year  1902. 

Occurrence. — At  a  depth  of  forty-eight  (48)  feet  from  the  surface  large 
deposits  of  limestone  were  met  with,  and  were  as  follows: — 48  feet  to 
70  feet  limestone  and  calcareous  clay,  90  feet  to  270  feet  fossiliferous 
limestone,  &c.,  and  other  beds  at  various  depths,  down  to  606  ft.  5  in., 
where  the  bore  was  di-scontinued. 

Economic. — These  deposits  are  near  the  \Verril:)ee  railway  Ihie,  and 
the  bore  only  4  miles  south-east  of  that  station.  There  are  no  depart- 
mental  analyses  of  these  denosits. 


59^  J ournai  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [loOcx.,  1912. 

III. 
NOTE  ON   LIMESTONE  DEPOSITS  IN  VICTORIA. 

Will  C.   Robertson,   Chief  Deputy  Chemist. 

An  extensive  deposit  of  limestone  of  a  fair  degree  of  purity,  say,  90 
per  cent,  calcium  carbonate,  may  be  a  valuable  asset  in  any  country,  but 
from  the  stand-point  of  agriculture,  especially  in  a  State  where  closer 
settlement  is  in  its  infancy,  this  asset  becomes  dead  stock  if  the  environ- 
ments preclude  facilities  for  economical  working. 

The  lime  required  by  the  builder  is  a  different  thing  to  the  lime  needed 
by  the  agriculturist,  inasmuch  as  the  former  looks  for  a  product  with  as 
high  a  percentage  of  lime  as  possible,  and  is  prepared  to  pay  a  price  for 
it.  On  the  other  hand,  whilst  the  agriculturist  would  not  say  no  to  very 
pure  lime,  still,  for  the  purposes  for  which  he  requires  it,  the  high  price 
that  builders  pay  might  not  be  justifiable.  At  present,  therefore,  the 
agriculturist  is  content  with  a  product  of  a  lower  degree  of  purity  sup- 
plied at  a  much  cheaper  rate.  Consequently  a  limestone  deposit,  to  be 
of  any  practical  value  to  the  agricultural  community,  must  possess  the 
following  advantages — 

(a)  It  must  be  of  great  extent. 

(b)  It  must  occur  near  the  surface,  and  be  easily  quarried,  thereby 

removing   the   difficulty    of   overburden,    and    minimizing   the 
cost  of  labour. 
ic)  Means  of  railway  or  seaboard  transport  must  be  handy. 
{d)  An  abundance  of  fuel  adjacent. 

{e)  The  percentage  of  calcium  carbonate  in  the  raw  material  should 
be  at  least  80  per  cent.  This  would  give  on  burning  a  pro- 
duct containing  approx.  69  per  cent,  caustic  lime. 
These  conditions  are  necessary  if  the  limestone  is  to  be  burnt  with  the 
object  of  using  "free  caustic  lime,"  but  if  "mild  lime,"  in  the  form 
of  ground  limestone,  is  to  be  the  object,  then  the  same  conditions  apply 
with  the  single  exception  of  fuel  abundancy  for  which  condition  there 
needs  to  be  substituted  the  pro\ision  of  the  raw  material  being  of  a  soft 
tendency  to  perm  it  easy  grinding. 

The  chemist's  branch  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has  paid 
especial  attention  for  years  past  to  the  all  important  subject  of  limestone 
deposits  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  whenever  possible,  investigations 
have  been  conducted  and  analyses  made,  with  the  object  of  .solving  a  verv 
difficult  problem. 

A  glance  at  the  Mines  Department  list,  showing  the  occurrences  of 
limestone  deposits  in  Victoria,  elicits  the  information  that  40  per  cent,  of 
these  deposits  are  unavailable  through  the  depth  of  occurrence  and  trans- 
port difficulty  ;  amongst  such  are  those  situated  at  Mitchellvale,  Bindi, 
Limestone  Creek,  Buchan,  Wombat  Creek,  and  Mount  Wellington,  whilst 
those  at  Netherby  and  Deutgam  (Werribee)  occur  far  too  deep  for  economi- 
cal working. 

The  deposits  at  Curdie's  River,  Coimadai,  Dutson,  Lilydale,  Waratah 
and  Batesford  are  being  rrined  extensively,  whilst  those  at  Kawarren,  Mans- 
field and  Mitchell  River  are  being  worked  in  a  smaller  way. 

The  remaining  deposits  at  the  present  moment  are  not  being  utilized. 
It  will,  therefore,  be  .seen  that,  of  the  twenty  limestone  occurrences  listed, 
45  per  cent,  are  being  worked,  40  per  cent,  are  unavailable,  whilst  the  re- 
maining 15  per  cent,   are  in  abeyance. 


7oOcT.,  1912.]     Xoh'  on  Limestone  Deposits  in   Victoria. 


599 


The  analyses  of  the  deposits  show  them  to  be  of  great  purity  with  one 
exception,  viz.,  Duck  Ponds,  ^^'oornyaloak. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  ('oimadai  deposit  is  dolomitic,  containing 
over  40  per  cent,  magnesia,  which,  according  to  authorities,  somewhat 
tletracts  from  its  usefulness  for  agricultural  purposes. 

In  addition  to  the  limestone  deposits  mentioned  above,  there  are  marl 
beds,  consisting  mainly  of  calcium  carbonate  in  an  amorphous  form,  scat- 
tered through  the  limestone  eras  of  the  State,  several  of  which  are  being 
quarried  for  agricultural  purposes. 

Some  of  these  are  situated  in  the  Geelong  district,  whilst  others  are 
at  Cobden.  The  following  analyses  of  marl,  from  Mount  Duneed  and 
Cobden,  may  be  of  interest — 

Marl  from  Ford's  Pit,  Mt.  Duneed. 


Xo.  1. 

No.  2. 

.\().  :i. 

No.  4. 

VcUdW  Marl. 

Samplf  I'loni 
loft.  face. 

Uiulwlviiig 
Clay. 

White  Marl. 

0/ 

/O 

% 

% 

0/ 

/o 

Insoluble 

86  01 

60-61 

78-62 

12  17 

Fe.303-Alj03      .. 

3-90 

2-86 

4-44 

1-22 

Lime     . . 

0-60 

14-08 

0-32 

45-78 

(=  Ca.  Carb.) 

107 

25-12 

0-57 

81-75 

Magnesia 

108 

1-97 

0-98 

1-51 

(=  Mg.  Carb.) 

2-26 

413 

205 

3-17 

COBDF 

X    M.\RL.S. 

Xo.  1. 

Xo.  2. 

No.  i. 

Moisture 

(ibO 

15-68 

25  •  63 

2-30 

Insoluble 

2-40 

1602 

29-47 

11-51 

FeoOj-Al.O.r      .. 

0-82 

2-80 

3  •  65 

2-55 

Lime     . . 

.50  Of) 

35-30 

21-40 

46-25 

(-:  Ca.  Carb.)     .. 

89-37 

63  03 

38-21 

82  -  59 

Magnesia 

0-22 

0-52 

0-40 

0-50 

(  =  Mg.  Carb. )    .  . 

0-4() 

1-09 

0-84 

1  -05 

'SO3 

0  09 

0-10 

0  06 

0  •  14 

Phos.  acid 

Traoe 

Trare 

Trace 

Trace 

Soft   marl   deposits   have   also  been   discovered   in   the   Gippsland   district. 
The  following  is  an  analysis  of  a  sample  from  the  Gipp.sland  Lakes — 


M.\RT.    FROM    NiCOLSON    RiVEE. 


Insoluble 

Fe.Oj-AUOs 

Lime 

(=  Ca.  Carb.) 

Magnesia 

(=  Mg.  Carb.) 

As  will  be  noticed  from  the  tables  marls  vary  in  lime  content,  and  as 
a  general  rule  white  marls  are  the  purer.  The  impression  that  the  blue 
pug  underlying  the.se  deposits  contains  the  most  lime  is  erroneous,  and 
should  be  dismissed. 


7o 

2-47 
104 
51-88 
92-64 
0-91 
1-91 


6oo 


Journal  of  A^^nculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  Oct.,  1912. 


Marl  deposits  come  as  a  boon  and  blessing  locally,  owing  to  the  shallow 
depth  at  which  they  occur,  and  the  easy  manner  in  which  the  marl  can  be 
dug  out,  carted,  and  distributed.  Unfortunately  these  deposits  are  never 
of  very  great  extent,  and  they  only  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  their  own 
immediate  locality,  where  the  cost  of  handling  is  the  only  expense  attached 
to  their  use. 


A   FARMER  S    MARL   F-IT,    GEELONG    DISTRICT.  (Ste    also   page   610). 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  the  deposit  of  limestone  sand  occurring  as 

"  Dunes  "  or  "  Hummocks,"  and  running  from  the  mouth  of  the   Hopkins 

River,  at  Warrnambcdl,  to  Port  Fairy — a  distance  of  from  15  to  20  miles. 

^  The   following   is   a    list   of    analyses   of    samples    taken    from    various 

points  around  Warrnambool — 

LiM-i:sTONE  Sand  Dunes,  Warrnambool. 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

No.  5. 

Sand  Dune 

Sand  at 

Sand  Dune 

Sand  Dune 

Waste  from 

near  Pampas 

near  Rifla 

at  Levy's 

Steere's 

Plantation. 

Butts. 

Point. 

Quarry. 

Insoluble 

0/ 

/o 

16  06 

% 
9-39 

0/ 

/O 

5-26 

O/ 
/O 

11-28 

0/ 
/o 

2-79 

FegOs-AloOa 

102 

104 

1-26 

1-40 

0-96 

Lime 

42  12 

46-28 

47-21 

44-48 

52-88 

(=  Ca.  Carb.) 

75-21 

82-64 

84-31 

79-43 

94  -  43 

Magaesia 

3-54 

3-17 

3-88 

3-72 

1-29 

(=  Mg.  Carb.) 

7-43 

6-65 

8-15 

7-81 

2-71 

Salt 

Trace 

Trace 

Trace 

Trace 

Nil 

Phos.  acid 

Trace 

Trace 

Trace 

Trace 

Trace 

Regarding  the  quantity  of  this  material  available,   suffice  it  to  say  that 
the  Dunes  are,  in  some  places,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide  and  80  feet  hio-h. 


loOcT..  1912.]     Note  oil  LiiHcstone  Deposits  hi  Victoria. 


601 


l"he  deposit  coukl  be  readilv  and 
cheaply  worked  by  running  a  side 
line  in  from  the  main  Port  Fairy 
railroad,  preferably  on  the  Koroit 
side  of  Warrnambool,  towards  Levy's 
Point,  or  half-a-mile  on  the  Mel- 
bourne side  of  the  Warrnambool 
station,  close  to  the  Breakwater-road. 
The  extremity  of  this  side  line  could 
lie  made  portable,  and  bv  means  of 
a  steam  scoop  the  sand  lifted  and 
deposited  in  trucks  at  a  \ery  small 
cost,  probably  not  more  than  a  shilling 
per  ton. 

The  Dunes  on  the  seaward  side 
only  should  be  worked,  for  those 
extending  inland  are  of  much  lower 
grade,  being  contaminated  with  debris 
and  the  adjacent  soil. 

The  fine  state  of  dixision  makes 
burning  for  caustic  lime  out  of  the 
question.  The  degree  of  division, 
however,  is  hardly  fine  enough  for 
agricultural  purjioses,  and  this  is  the 
main  disadvantage  of  the  deposit,  and 
it  is  questionable  whether  grinding  to 
a  finer  state  of  di^■ision  would  be  a 
profitable  undertaking.  A  test,  con- 
ducted in  the  laboratory,  showed  the 
lime  in  Geelong  marl  to  be  more 
readily  available  than  that  in  the  sand 
dunes. 

At  Steer's  limestone  quarry,  in  the 
heart  of  Warrnambool,  a  certain 
amount  of  limestone  sand  and  dust 
accumulates.  This  is  available  at 
7$.  per  ton,  and,  although  rather 
coarse  in  texture,  it  is  a  xery  pure 
material  and  well  worthy  of  note. 

Unfortunately,  here  again  one  is 
beset  with  the  "quantity  available" 
difficulty.  From  the  stand-point  of 
disintegration  the  soft  yellow  lime- 
stones, such  as  tho.se  occurring  at 
Bellevue  and  Picnic  Point,  Bairns- 
dale,  are  more  readilv  ground  than 
the  hard,  dense,  and  compact  blue 
and  grey  limestones  occurring  at  Lily- 
dale,  Mansfield,  and  other  parts. 
Some  of  the  yellow  limestones  contain 
up  to  I  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid — 
an  important  advantage. 


6o. 


Journal  oj  .\i:^r'icultHrc .   Victoria. 


[jo  Oct..  191  . 


Like  unto  the  marl  deposits.  Ijut  more  rare,  are  the  beds  of  small  sea 
or  freshwater  shells.  The  only  deposit  of  this  description  at  present 
being  worked  is  that  occurring  on  the  Harbor  Trust's  Sparrovale 
jjroperty.        The  price  charged  for  this  shell  deposit  is  3d.  per  load. 


STEER   S    LIMESTONE    QUARRY,     WARRNAMBOOL.     SHOWING    ACCUMULATION    OF 
LIMESTONE    S  \ND    IN    THE    FOREGROUND. 

This  shell  grit  is  much  more  in.soluble  and  unavailable  than  either  marl 
or  ground  limestone,  in  that  the  glaze  of  the  shell  acts  as  a  waterproof 
roating,  and.  together  with  the  density,  prevents  the  action  of  solvents- 
The  deposits  are  small  in  extent. 


TV 


THE  CHEMISTRY   OF   LIME. 


By  P.    Raiihiii  Scott.    C/iciiiist  for  Agriculture. 

Lime  is  a  term  somewhat  looselv  applied  in  a  general  way  to  various 
forms  of  compound  substances  which  have  for  their  base  the  oxide  of 
calcium,  represented  by  the  chemical  formula  CaO,   and  commonlv  termed 


lo  Oct.,  1912. J  I'lic  Chemistry  of  J. .me.  603 

Lime  is  therefore  a  compouml  of  two  elements,  calcium  (Ca)  and 
oxygen  (O).  This  compound  possesses  such  a  strong  affinity  for  acids 
that  it  is  ntvtT  found  free  in  nature.  Combined  with  carbonic  acid  gas 
(CO.,),  however,  large  deposits  of  calcium  carbonate  (CaCO^)  are  found 
in  various  forms,  chief  amongst  which  may  be  noted  the  limestones, 
marbles,  chalks,  and  shells.  Any  one  of  these  deposits  can  be  utilized 
for  the  production  of  calcium  oxide  (CaO)  or  quicklime  by  depriving  it 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  by  heat,  thus  CaCO.^  +  heat  =  CaO  +  COg.  In  actual 
practice  there  are  three  distinct  forms  of  lime  compounds  applied  to  the 
soil,   namely  :  — 

Calcium  oxide   (CaO)   lime. 

Calcium  hydrate  (CaH^Oj)  slaked   lime. 

Calcium  carbonate  (CaCO;, )  chalk,    limestone,   shell.   &c. 

What  these  forms  are  and  the  relation  they  l>ear  one  to  the  other  can 
be  seen  by  means  of  the  lime  cycle  :  — 

Calcium   Carbonate 


CaCO 


j^  Limestone,  (S:c.  ^. 

/  M 

Calcium    Hydrate  Calcium  Oxide 

CaH.p,  CaO 

.Slaked  lime.  Lime. 

\  J 


The  above  cycle  illustrates  the  changes  of  one  form  into  the  other. 
From  calcium  carlx)nate  we  obtain  directly  the  oxide  by  driving  off  the 
carbonic  acid  gas,  then  the  hydrate  is  formed  by  the  combination  of  one 
part  of  water  (H^O)  with  the  oxide,  thus  CaO  +  H2O  ^  CaHjOs,  and 
finallv  the  carbonate  is  formed  by  the  substitution  of  one  part  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  for  one  part  of  water,  thus  CaH^O^  +  CO2  =  CaCO..  +  H^O 
The  changes  occurring  are  brought  about  by  means  of  the  following  treat- 
ment :  Lime  is  obtained  when  calcium  carbonate  is  submitted  to  a  red 
heat,  the  carbonic  acid  content  is  driven  off  as  a  gas,  or  is  '"'  burnt  out,"' 
and  lime  remains.  Henct  the  term  ''  burnt  lime  ''  as  applied  to  the 
oxide  of  calcium  (CaO).  On  the  addition  of  water  to  the  lime  a  chemical 
combination  takes  place,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  slaked  lime.  This 
slaked  lime  when  left  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  combines  graduallv  with 
carbonic  acid  gas,  and  continues  to  do  so  until  all  the  lime  is  converted  back 
again  into  calcium  carbonate,  identical  in  composition  with  the  original 
material.  These  changes  can  be  explained  more  in  detail  by  the  u.se  of 
chemical  equations — 

ist— 

Calcium  Carbonate  Calcium  Oxide  Carbonic  Acid 

CaCOa  =  CaO  +  C0._, 

This  change  is  brought  about  bv  heat  :  the  molecular  weight  of  each 
substance   being — 

CaCOg  =  CaO  +  CO. 

100  =  -6  +  ^4 


6o4  Journal  oj  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo  Oct.,  1912. 

therefore,  100  lbs.  of  calcium  carbonate  yield.s  56  lbs.  of  calcium  oxide, 
which  remains  as  a  solid,  and  44  lbs.  of  carbonic  acid,  which  is  driven' 
off   as  a   gas. 

2nd — 

Calcium  Oxide  Water  Calcium  Hydrate 

CaO  +  H/J  =  CaH.O, 

This  change  is  brought  about  b\  wetting  the  (calcium  oxide  CaO> 
lime;    the  molecular  weight  of  each   substance  being — 

CaO  +  Water  =  CaH.,0.^ 

56  +  18  ^  74 

56   lbs.    of  calcium   oxide  and    18   lbs.   of   water  yield   74   lbs.   of  calcium 
hydrate. 
3rd— 

Calcium  Hydrate    +    Carbonic  Acid    =    Calcium  Carbonate    +    Water 
CaHoO,  +  CO.,  =  CaCOg  +     H,0 

This  change  is  brought  about  bv  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air  and  soil  ;. 
the  molecular  weight  of  each  substance  being — 

CaH.p.,  H-  CO.,         =         CaCO,  +  H.^O 

74  +  44  =  100  +  iH 

therefore,  74  lbs.  of  calcium  hydrate  and  44  lbs.  of  carbonic  acid  yield 
100  lbs.  of  calcium  carbonate,  and  18  lbs.  of  water.  This  was  the 
quantity  of  water  combined  with  the  calcium  oxide  to  form  calcium 
hydrate,   so  the  cycle  is  completed. 

From  the  above  results  it  is  evident  that  heat  applied  to  calcium  car- 
}x>nate  alters  its  composition  with  reduction,  of  weight ;  that  the  residue 
of  lime  left  combines  first  with  water  to  form  calcium  hydrate,  and  this 
calcium  hydrate,  if  left  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  reverts  back  again 
to  calcium  carbonate,   with  no  actual   loss. 

There  is  another  important  compound  of  lime  which  lies  outside  of 
the  cycle  given  above,  viz.,  the  bi-carbonate  of  calcium  CaHo  (COg)^, 
formed  by  the  addition  of  one  part  of  water,  and  one  part  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  to  the  ordinary  carbonate,  thus  CaCO;,  +  H.^0  +  CO2  =  CaH._, 
(COg).^.  It  is  through  this  form  of  lime  compound  that  the  chief  losses 
of  lime  from  the  soil  occur.  Unlike  the  single  carbonate  of  lime  (chalk, 
limestone,  &c.)  this  double  carbonate  is  .soluble  in  water,  and  when  it  is 
formed  by  the  carbonic  acid  dissolved  in  the  soil  water  coming  in  contact 
with  particles  of  calcium  carbonate,  the  latter  is  dissolved  and  pas.ses 
away,  or  leaches  out  of  the  .soil  by  means  of  drainage  or  in  gravitational 
water. 

Lime    Proper   or    "  Burnt   T.ime." 

Lime  (calcium  oxide  CaO)  is  always  made  commercially  by  taking 
advantage  of  the  action  of  heat  on  limestone  or  other  form  of  calcium 
carbonate.  The  general  procedure  adopted  consists  in  burning  the  natural 
deposit  in  a  specially  constructed  kiln,  into  which  carbonate  of  lime  and 
fuel  are  added  in  alternate  layers  from  the  top  until  the  kiln  is  filled. 
The  fuel    is  then   ignited,   and    the  process  of    burning  can    be  kept   on 


loOcT.,  I9I2-J  '/'//f  Clifiinstry  of  Lime.  605 

continuously  by  removing  the  burnt  lime  at  the  base  of  the  kiln,  replacing 
with  a  fresh  supply  of  carlx)nate  and  fuel  at  the  top  Natural  deposits 
of  limestone,  &c.,  are  never  pure,  but  usually  contaminated  with  varying 
proportions  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  iron  and  alumina  and  silica.  The 
higher  the  percentage  of  these  in  the  deposit,  the  less  pure  will  be  the 
lime  produced  on  burning. 

The  Quality  of   Lime. 

This  depends  upon  several  circumstances  ;  impurities,  as  just  men- 
tioned, in  the  limestone,  affect  the  quality.  But  quality  may  also  be 
affected  in  other  ways.  If  the  lime  is  not  thoroughly  burned,  pieces  of 
imperfectly  burned  stone,  which  will  not  slake,  will  be  contained  in  it. 
With  limestone  containing  much  silicious  matter  (sand),  over-burning  may 
take  place,  and  calcium  silicate  be  formed.  Again,  if  some  time  has 
elapsed  since  burning,  the  lime  will  deteriorate  owing  to  partial  slaking, 
and  subsequent  formation  of  calcium  carbonate  as  explained  above.  The 
essential  points  in  connexion  with  lime  burning  is  that  limestone  of  good 
quality  should  be  used,  combined  w^ith  careful  burning.  Well  burned 
lime  should  contain  practically  all  its  lime  as  calcium  oxide  (CaO). 

Slaked  Lime  (C'alcium  Hydrate,  ("aH._,0;a). 

Slaked  lime  is  produced  when  freshly  burned  limestone  is  treated  with 
water.  The  material  will  swell  up  considerably,  and  give  off  steam, 
owing  to  the  heat  generated  by  the  chemical  combination  of  the  lime  and 
water,  thus.  CaO  +  HoO  =  CaHjO.^.  Eventually  the  mass  will  crumble 
into  a  fine  powder. 

Air  Slaked  Lime. 

This  material  differs  from  the  water-slaked  lime,  in  that  it  is  a  mix- 
ture of  slaked  Ume  and  calcium  carbonate  formed  by  reason  of  the  fact 
that  air  contains  both  moisture  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  both  of  which  have 
a  combining  affinity  with  the  burnt  lime.  The  relative  proportion  of 
each  constituent  of  air-slaked  lime  varies  according  to  the  time  of  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere  after  burning,  for,  as  already  mentioned,  lime, 
if  left  long  enough  exposed,  will  eventually  all  become  calcium  carbonate 
again.        Tliis  is  the  form  of  lime  usually  su])i)lied  as  agricultural   lime. 

Carbonate  of  Lime. 

This  is  present  in  agricultural  lime,  having  been  formed  from  slaked" 
lime  on  exposure.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  also  obtained  in  chalk  and  all 
forms  of  limestone  direct.  If  applied  as  a  land  dressing  this  form  cf 
lime,  to  be  of  the  best  .service,  must  be  in  as  fine  .state  of  division  as  pos- 
sible, and,  therefore,  when  purchasing  limestone  for  such  use  it  should 
be  stipulated  for,  that  it  be  finely  gicund.  When  finely  ground,  it  can 
be  more  evenly  distributed.  Its  effectiveness  is  also  increased,  owing  in 
a  great  measure  to  the  greater  surface  exposed  by  the  fineness  of  rhe 
particles  to  the  action  of  the  soil  acids.  Some  deposits  of  carbonate  of 
lime  are  better  adapted  on  that  account  for  dressing  soil  than  others. 
Chalk  will  easily  crumble  into  a  fine  powder  when  dug  out  and  allowed" 
to  become  dry  with  exposure.  Other  forms  which  bear  a  striking  re- 
semblance to  ordinary  sandstone  are  also  easily  ground.  Shells,  both- 
of   fresh   and   salt   water  origin,    are  much    denser   in   structure,    and   offer 


6o6  Jonnial  of  Agriculture.   \"utoria.  [loOcx..  1912. 

considerali!^  resistance  to  the  grinding  process.  Tliey  are  generally  less 
bulky  weight  for  weight,  as  compared  with  the  more  friable  deposits, 
and   proportionately  less   likely  to  disintegrate  as  readily   in  the  soil. 

Gypsum  (Sulphate  of  Lime). 

Besides  the  natural  deposits  obtainable  as  carbonate  of  lime,  consider- 
able depcsits  exist  of  gypsum.  Gypsum  is  lime  (CaO)  in  combination 
with  one  part  of  sulphuric  acid  (H2SO4)  and  two  of  water  (HgO).  It 
possesses  the  following  formula:  — 

CaSO^   •   2H.,0 
The  molecular  weight  being  :  — 

Sulphate  of     ^^j       ,  Oxide  of  Calcium  Sulphuric  ,,. 

Calcmm.  nmie).  Anhydride. 

CaSO^     .      2H.p  =  CaO  +  SO3  +  2H2O 

172  56  80  ^6 

therefore  as  172      :      100      :    :      5^      :      the  percentage  of  lime  (CaO) 

56   X    100 


172 


32.51  CaO 


Thus,  100  lbs.  of  gypsum  will  yield  32.54  lbs.  of  lime.  Gypsum 
being  already  in  combination  with  an  acid  (H-0SO4)  does  not  possess  the 
power  of  combining  with  and  neutralizing  the  acids  in.  the  soil,  so  that 
it  is  useless  as  a  dressing  for  sour  land.  Furthermore,  as  its  lime  con- 
tent is  only  about  one-third  that  of  lime  as  shown  above,  its  claims  to 
recognition  as  a  substitute  for  burnt  lime  can  only  be  reasonably  enter- 
tained when  the  price  and  convenience  of  the  deposit  are  such  as  to 
counter-balance  the  extra   cost   of  handling,    rail,   carriage,    &c. 

The   Relative  Value  of  the   Different   Forms   of  Lime. 
56  li)s.  of  fresh  burnt  lime  contains  the  same  amount  of  lime  as — 

56  lbs.  of  fresh  ground  lime. 

74   lbs.    of   water-slaked   lime. 
100   lbs.   of  carbonate    of    lime    (as    a   powder — ground    limestone, 

chalk,    &c.). 
100   lbs.   of  old   air-slaked   lime. 
172   lbs.   of  sulphate  of  lime  (as  gypsum). 

The  equivalent   value  is.    therefore,    as   follows:  — 
100  lbs.  of  fresh  burnt  lime  is  equivalent  to — 
135   lbs.   of  water-slaked  lime. 
178.6  lbs.  of  carbonate  of  lime  (as  a  powder). 
307.3  lbs.  of  sulphate  of  lime  (as  gypsum). 

Standards. 

Zime. A  good  quality  lime  should  contain  at  least  85  per  cent,  com- 
bined oxide  and  carbonate,  of  which  not  more  than  10  per  cent,  shall 
be  present  as  carbonate. 

Slaked  Lime. — A  good  quality  slaked  lime  should  contain  at  least 
85  per  cent,  of  combined  oxide,  hvdrate,  and  carboi  ate.  of  which  not 
more  than    10  per  cent,    .shall   be   present   as  carborate. 


lo  Oct..  1 91 2. J 


The  Cl/eniistr  \,'  of  L.me. 


607 


Carbonate  of  Lain. — A  good  quality  carbonate  of  lime  should  contain 
at  least  85  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  pass  through  a  sieve  of 
50  meshes  to  the  linear  inch. 

Gyfsiim. — A  good  quality  gypsum  should  contain  at  lea.st  30  per  cent, 
of  calcium  oxide. 

All  other  grades  should  be  sold  on  a  guarantee,  stating  their  calcium 
oxide  content. 

MoNKv  Value  of  Lime  to  the  Farmer. 

On  some  land  the  beneficial  effect  of  lime  may  l>e  worth  ^3  per 
ton.  On  other  land  it  may  be  worth  only  ^i  per  ton.  according  to  the 
greater  or  less  ill-effect  on  the  crop  returns  of  the  defect  which  it  remedies. 
What,  therefore,  is  the  money  value  of  lime  delivered  on  the  farm  can 
only  be  ascertained  as  a  result  of  experiment  and  careful  record  of  die 
cost  compared  with  the  increase  of  crop  returns  over  a  period  of  years. 

Assuming  standard  lime  as  above  (75  per  cent.  CaO.  and  10  per  cent. 
CaCOg)  to  be  worth  £,1    los.   per  ton  on  the  farm,  then — 

Standard  slaked  lime  (75  per  cent.  CaO  and  CaH^O^.  and  10  per 
cent.   CaCOg)  is  worth  ^i   2s.  3d.   per  ton  on  the  farm. 

Standard  carbonate  of  lime  (85  per  cent.,  finely  ground  CaC^Oo  (ground 
limestone,   &c.)  is  worth   i6s.    lod.   per  ton  on  tbi  farm. 

Standard  gvpsitni  (30  per  cent.  CaO)  is  worth  9s  gd.  per  ton  on  the 
farm. 

It  does  not  follow  that  if  a  farmer  can  get  gypsum  landed  at  the 
nearest  railway  station  to  him  for  9s.  9d.  per  ton  that  it  would  pay 
him  as  well  as  to  buy  freshly  burnt  lime  landed  at  the  station  at  30s. 
per  ton,  for  the  cartage  to  the  farm  and  the  cost  of  distribution  would 
be  three  times  as  much  in  the  former  case  as  it  w^ould  in  the  latter. 
Still  less  would  it  pay  to  buy  the  bulkier  form  of  lime,  paying  the  above 
rates  at  the  sending  end.  for  the  freight  of  3  tons  would  have  to  be  paid 
for  in  the  ca.se  of  gyp.sum  additional  on  the  cost,  as  against  the  freight 
charges  for  i  ton  in  the  case  of  liurnt  lime. 


Table    showing   the    Names,    Chemical    Formula,    and    Synonyms    of 
THE  Different   Forms  or  Lime. 


Name. 

Chemical  Foniiula. 

Synonyms. 

No. 

1. 

— Lime  ... 

1 

1 

Calcium    Oxiile 
CaO 

Quicklime,  .stone  lime,  lump  lime, 
caustic  lime,  builders'  lime, 
burnt  lime,  ground  lime 

Xo. 

^} 

— Slaked  Lime 

Calcium  Hydrate 
1                  CaH.O, 

Hydiate  of  lime,  water  slaked, 
ail-  islaked,  slacked  lime 

Xo. 

3. 

— Carbonate 

of 

Calcium    ("arbonate 

Limestone,    chalk,   marble,    shell. 

Lime 

CaCO, 

shell-sand.  marl,  grfiuud  lime- 
stone 

No. 

4. 

— Gypsum 

Calcium    Sulphate 
CaSO^  &  2H,0 

Copi,  sulphate  of  lime,  land 
plaster 

Note. — Nos.  i  and  2  are  known  as  hot  lime.     Xos.  3  and  4.  are  known  as  mild  lime 
Hot  lime  is  much  stronger  in  its  action  in  decomposing  organic  matter  than  the  miUL 
linifs. 


6o8  Journal  of  AgncuLiure^  Victoria.  [lo  Oct..  191 :;. 

V. 

THE    PRACTICE    OF    LIMING. 
By  A.  E.   V.   Richardson,  M.A.,  B.Sc,   Agricultural  Suferintcndent. 

The  value  of  lime  a.s  a  means  of  ameliorating  certain  classes  of  soil 
has  been  known  from  the  very  earliest  times,  and  was  the  subject  of  com- 
ment by  many  of  the  ancient  writers.  During  comparatively  recent  time; 
there  are  many  instances  on  record  where  liberal  dressings  of  marl  and 
chalk  have  had  a  most  marked  and  favorable  effect  on  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  for  generations.  According  to  Hall,  there  are  certain  fields  on  the 
Rothamstead  Experimental  Station  known  to  have  received  heavy  appli- 
cations of  marl  more  than  a  century  ago,  which  to-day  exceed  in  productive 
value  adjoining  fields  which  were  not  so  treated. 

That  the  presence  in  the  soil  of  a  sufficiency  of  lime  in  the  form  of 
carbonate  is  a  fair  guarantee  of  its  fertil  ty  and  productive  power  is 
indeed  generally  recognised,  and  this  view  finds  its  expression  in  the  well- 
known  maxim,  "  A  limestone  country  is  a  rich  country." 

In  this  article  will  be  considered  briefly  the  forms  in  which  lime  may 
be  applied,  its  action  on  the  soil,  the  rate,  time,  frequency,  cost,  and 
mode  of  application,  and  the  method  of  determining  the  soil  requirements 
with  regard  to  Hme. 

I.    Forms  in  which  Lime  may  be  Applied. 

These  will  be  dealt  with  in  greater  detail  in  Mr.  Scott's  article.  It 
is  only  here  necessary  to  mention  that  lime  may  be  applied  in  four  distinct 
forms  :  — 

(i)  As  Carbonate,  CaCOg,  in  the  form  of  ground  limestone,  marl, 
chalk,    "  unburnt   lime,"    "dilute   lime,'"    shells,    &c. 

(2)  As    Oxide,     CaO,     in    the    form    of    quicklime.     "  hot     lime," 

"  caustic     lime."     or     "'  burnt     lime,"     "  unslaked     lime," 
"  lump  lime.'' 

(3)  As  Hydrate,  Ca(OH)o,   m  the  form  of  slaked  lime. 

(4)  As  Sulphate,  CaS04   .   2H2O,  in  gypsum,  or  "  land  plaster." 
It  is  of  importance  to  the  farmer  tO'  realize  that  the  relative  value  of 

these  substances  depends  mainly  on  the  percentage  of  lime  present  in  the 
respective  compounds.  Now,  if  178.6  lbs.  of  pure  ground  limestone 
(carbonate  of  calcium)  are  burnt  in  a  kiln,  78.6  lbs.  will  disappear  into 
the  air  as  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  100  lbs.  of  quicklime  (oxide  of  calcium) 
will  be  left  behind.  That  is  to  say,  100  lbs.  of  quicklime  are  equivalent 
to  178.6  lbs.  of  ground  limestone  or  any  other  form  of  pure  "  carbonate 
of  lime." 

Again,  if  the  100  lbs.  of  quicklime  be  thoroughl\-  slaked  with  water, 
132  lbs.  of  slaked  lime  (hydrate  of  calcium)  will  be  obtained.  Finally, 
if  this  amount  of  slaked  lime  be  properly  neutralized  with  sulphuric  acid, 
307  lbs.  of  "  land  plaster  ''  or  gypsum  (sulphate  of  calcium)  will  be 
produced. 

These  figures  are  of  practical  importance.  It  will  be  seen  that  there 
is  precisely  the  same  amount  of  "lime"  in  178.6  lbs.  of  carlmnate  or 
ground  limestone.  100  lbs.  quicklime,  132  lbs.  of  slaked  lime,  and  307  lbs. 
of  gypsum. 

That  is,  if  a  farmer  wished  to  purchase  the  equivalent  of  i  ton  of 
pure  lime,  he  would  requ're  approximately  the  following  quantities:  — 
I  ton  of  quicklime,  1.3  tons  of  slaked  lime,  1.8  tons  ground  limestone,  or 
3.1  tons  of  gvpsum. 


loOcT..  1912.'  'L'hc  Fracticc  oj   Uni'mg.  609 

2.   AciioN  OF  Lime  on  the  Soil. 

The  object  of  applying  lime  to  the  soil  is  not  the  same  as  that  involved 
in  the  application  of  ordinarv  fertilizers.  Fertilizers,  such  as  super- 
phosphate, Thiiinas'  phosphate,  guano.  &c.,  supply  the  soil  with  elements 
of  plant  food  in  which  the  .soil  is  actually  deficient,  and  they  are  applied 
in  relativelv  small  amounts,  i.e.,  from  \  cwt.  to  i  cwt.  per  acre  under 
ordinarv  farming  conditions.  I.ime.  however,  is  applied  becau.se  of  its 
indirect  effect  upon  the  soil.  i.e..  because  of  the  effect  it  produces  upon 
the  chemical  composition  and  i)hysical  and  biological  condition  of  the 
soil,  and  not  because  it  is  actually  wanted  to  supply  the  plants'  immediate 
requirements.  It  is  not  in  itself  a  plant  food,  as  phosphoric  acid  is, 
except  to  a  very  limited  extent,  but  nevertheless,  the  application  of  lime 
in  suitable  quantities  has  a  most  marked  effect  on  soils  wanting  in  lime. 

Lime  corrects  soil  acidity. — Perhaps  the  most  important  effect  is  that 
lime  being  alkaline  neutralizes  the  acidity  of  the  soil,  and  thus 
promotes  vegetation.  Most  of  our  agricultural  crops  cannot  thrive 
in  a  soil  that  is  sour  or  acid,  but  must  have  a  .soil  that  is 
neutral  or  basic  in  character.  Soils  tend  to  become  sour  from 
various  cau.ses.  In  regions  of  heavy  rainfall,  lime  is  being  constantly 
washed  out  of  the  surface  layers.  At  Rothamstead  this  loss  amounts  to 
800  lbs.  of  lime  per  acre  per  annum.  Carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is 
present  in  all  soil  water,  has  the  power  of  dissolving  lime  and  carrying 
it  off  in  the  drainage  waters.  It  is  the  presence  of  lime  in  solution  that 
causes  the  "  hardness  "  of  certain  waters,  and  it  is  owing  to  the  power 
of  the  .soil  waters  to  dissolve  lime  that  the  formation  of  limestone  caves 
is   brought   about. 

Again,  the  organic  matter  or  the  humus  of  the  soil  is  constantly  under- 
going decomposition,  and,  as  a  result,  various  organic  acids  are  formed 
in  much  the  same  wa\,  as  ensilage  becomes  acid  and  sour  on  exposure. 
Now.  lime  is  the  natural  base  by  means  of  which  these  acid  substances  in 
the  soil  are  neutralized.  Hence,  if  for  any  reason  the  soil  has  become 
acid,  then  a  dressing  of  lime  is  an  indispensable  preliminarv  for  satis- 
factory crops.  This  is  more  particularly  true  of  such  leguminous  crops 
as  clover  and  lucerne,  for  these  will  not  thrive  on  soils  that  are  sour  and 
acid  in  character. 

Lime  liberates  flant  fi'od. — Lime  is  a  very  powerful  soil  stimulant, 
and  is  very  effective  in  liberating  plant  food.  Most  of  the  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  present  in  the  .soil  is  present  in  insoluble  combinations  that 
cannot  be  used  by  the  plant. 

The  application  of  liberal  dressings  of  lime  renders  such  insoluble 
compounds  as  iron  and  aluminium  phosphates  more  susceptible  to  the 
solvent  action  of  the  soil  water  bv  con\erting  them  into  phosphate  of  lime,* 
and  thus  making  them  immediately   available  to  the  crop. 

Lime  also  replaces  potash  in  its  insoluble  combinations  in  the  soil,  and 
this  probablv  accounts  for  the  beneficial  action  of  lime,  particularly  when 
applied  in  the  form  of  gvpsum,  on  those  crops  which  require  relatively 
large  amounts  of  potash,  e.g.,  lucerne,  clover,  and  other  legumes.  The 
action  of  lime  on  the  organic  portion  of  the  soil  is  extremely  important. 
It  hastens  the  decay  and  decomposition  of  the  organic  matter,  and  greatly 
promotes   the   process  of  nitrification. 

Lime  imfroves  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil. — The  effect  of 
lime  on  the  physical  constitution  of  the  soil  is  verv  marked.  Stiff  clay 
soils  are  rendered  more  friable,   far  less  adhesive,  more  open  and  porous 


6ro 


Journal  ol  A  f-//i/////irc\   Mctoria. 


[lo  Oct..  1912. 


in  character  by  the  application  of 
a  liberal  dressing  of  lime.  Lime 
cau.ses  the  very  fine  particles  of 
silicate  of  alumina,  which  are  re- 
sponsible for  the  tendency  of  clay 
soils  to  set  hard,  to  coagulate  or 
curdle  and  aggregate  into  relatively 
large  particles.  Thus  the  soil 
becomes  more  open,  its  porosity 
and  permeability  are  increased, 
and  the  soil  tends  to  become  drier, 
more  friable,  and  more  easily 
culti\ated.  and  thus  more  con- 
genial conditions  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plants'  roots  are 
provided. 

With  light  sandy  soils  quick- 
lime should  be  used  with  discre- 
tion. When,  however,  lime  is  ap- 
])lied  to  such  soils  in  the  form  of 
carbonate,  it  has  the  opposite 
effect  tO'  that  exerted  on  clay  soils, 
and  tends  to  hold  the  soil  particles 
together,  and  to  increase  the  capa- 
city of  the  soil  for  retaining 
moisture. 

/.line  improves  the  biological 
coudition  of  the  soil. — On  rich 
peaty  soils,  lime  may  be  u.sed 
with  considerable  freedom.  These 
soils  are  very  liable  to  become  sour 
owing  to  the  decomposition  of  the 
lai'ge  amount  of  organic  matter 
they  contain,  and  the  consequent 
formation  of  \arious  organic  acids. 
This  decomposition  is  brought 
al)out  through  the  agency  of  count- 
less millions  of  microscopic 
bacteria,  and  one  may  say  that  the 
fertility  of  any  given  soil  is  very 
largely  dependent  on  the  nature 
and  activity  of  the  teeming  bac- 
terial population  it  holds.  The 
functions  of  some  of  these  soil 
germs  have  been  discussed  else- 
where.* It  need  only  be  added 
that  the  presence  of  adequate  sup- 
])lies  of  lime  in  the  form  of  car- 
l)onate  will  insure  in  the  soil  a 
vigorous  and  beneficial  bacterial 
flora,  and  will  consequently  en- 
hance the  fertility  and  productive 
power  of  the  soil. 


JoiirnaJ  oj  A/ricxIture  (Victoria),  Spptember.  1912. 


lo  ()(!..  191-2. J  The  Practice  oj  Liming.  611 

Quantity  per  Acre  and   Frequency  of   Application. 

The  quantity  of  these  various  lime  compounds  to  be  used  will  depend 
on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  ol)ject  of  the  application,  the  form  in  which 
the  lime  is  applied,  and  the  cost  of  the  mat<  rial.  The  maximum  dressing 
will  be  required  on  stiff  clay  soils,  in  which  it  is  desired  to  effect  an  im- 
provement in  the  physical  condition,  or  on  peaty  soils  rich  in  decaving 
organic  matter.  The  minimum  dressing  is  required  for  light  open  soils 
deficient  in  organic  matter.  On  these  latter  soils,  indeed,  the  use  of 
(luicklime,  especially  in  large  quantities,  should  be  avoided.  Ground 
limestone  or   "  unhurnt  lime  '"   will   give  far  more  satisfactory  results. 

For  stiff  cla\  soils  or  sour  peatv  soils  which  have  never  yet  received 
any  lime,  very  little  material  effect  will  be  observable  with  a  lighter 
dressing  than  10  cwt.  of  quicklime,  or  its  e(]uivalent  in  slaked  lime,  while 
con.siderably  heavier  dressings  mav  be  applied  with  profit.  To  bring 
about  a  material  improvement  in  the  mechanical  condition  of  very  stiff 
clays  from  i  to  2  tons  of  lime  mav  be  necessary  for  an  initial  dressing, 
and  this  will  be  sufficient  for  a  number  of  years.  Such  a  heavy  dressing 
ma\  seem  at  first  sight  a  verv  improfitable  venture  to  farmers  accustomed 
to  an  annual  expenditure  of  js.  di^.  to  5s.  per  acre  for  artificial  manures. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  with  a  dressing  of  lime  the  effects 
last  for  a  long  period,  and  the  initial  cnsi  mu.st  be  spread  over  a  period 
of  years. 

On  lands  rich  in  decaying  organic  matter,  and  in  reclaimed  swamps,  a 
very  liberal  application  of  lime  will  also  be  necessary  to  insure  the  best 
results.  On  light  soils,  loose  and  open  in  character,  application  of  lime 
must  be  smaller.  If  these  soils  are  wanting  in  organic  matter,  carbonate 
of  lime  should  be  used  in  preference  to  quicklime  or  slaked  lin;;e.  Car- 
bonate of  lime  is  mild  in  its  action,  and  it  may  be  applied  to  anv  .soil 
without  danger. 

Marl,  which  is  an  impure  form  of  carbonate  of  lime,  is  usually  applied 
in  very  heavy  dressings,  amounting  to  tons  per  acre,  but  on  account  ot 
freight  its  use  must  necessarily  be  confined  to  the  neighbourhood  of  marl  pits. 

Many  years  ago  it  was  the  custom  in  Europe  to  apply  lime  in  very 
larg^^  dressings  at  long  intervals  of  time.  Frequently  5  tons  per  acre  were 
applied.  Recent  investigations  in  America  have  conclusively  demon- 
strated the  futilitv  of  this  practice.  It  is  now  generally  recognised  th.it 
the  secret  of  success  in  liming  iand  is  to  apply  the  lime  in  comparatively 
small  doses  at  frequent  intervals  and  to  stiff lement  the  dressing  of  lime 
with  organic  matter  and  phosphites. 

Professor  Wright,  of  Glasgow,  carried  out  a  series  of  experiments  with 
lime  over  a  period  of  eight  years.  He  applied  4  tons  of  lime  per  acre 
in  one,  two,  four,  and  eight  applications  to  four  different  experimental 
plots.  As  a  result  of  the  first  eight  years'  work,  he  says.  "  The  largest 
increases  of  crops  were  obtained  in  this  experiment  from  annual  applications 
of  TO  cwts.  of  burnt  lime  per  acre.  Applications  of  5  to  10  cwts.  per 
acre  per  annum  gave  profitable  results,  but  larger  dressings  of  i,  2.  and 
4  tons  proved  very  unprofitable." — (Tenth  report.  West  of  Scotland  Agri- 
cultural College,  1 91 1.)  It  must  be  added  that  the  soil  on  which  Professor 
Wright  was  working  was  a  loam  in  high  condition. 

Mode  of  Application. 
Lime  may   be  applied  bv   hand,    with  ordinarv  fertilizer   drills,   or   by 
means  of  specially  constructed  limespreaders.     The  advantages  of  the  lime- 
spreaders  are  that  comparatively  small  amounts  may  be  spread  with  great 
regularity,  and  with  the  minimum  of  labour  and  of  physical  discomfort. 


<6i2  Journal  oj  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [ioOct..  1912. 

{a)  If  spread  by  hand,  the  lime  may  be  placed  on  the  ploughed 
land  in  small  heaps  at  regular  inter\al.s.  and  co\ered  with  fine  soil. 
If  quicklime  be  used,  it  may  be  allowed  to  ''air  slack"  by 
atmospheric  moisture  or  by  showers  of  rain,  in  which  case  a  mixture 
of  carbonate  and  hydrate  is  obtained ;  or  it  may  be  slaked  quickly 
by  the  adBition  of  sufficient  water  to  break  down  the  mass  into 
fine  powder.  If  this  latter  operati(jn  be  judiciouslv  performed,  and 
■excessive  amounts  of  water  be  avoided,  the  whole  mass  will  break  down 
into  very  fine  powder  which  will  act  most  beneficially  on  the  soil.  After 
slaking,  the  lime  may  be  mixed  with  earth  (to  facilitate  evenness  in  d  stri- 
bution  and  render  it  less  objectionable  to^  handle),  and  then  spread  with  a 
shovel  and  harrowed  in. 

Since  lime  naturally  tends  to  ' '  sink  ' '  in  the  soil  and  to  be  remo\ed 
by  solution  from  the  surface  layers,  it  is  unad\isable  to  plough  it  in  and 
thus  place  it  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  The  bett<-r  practice  is  to 
spread  it  on  the  surface  and  harrow  it  in. 


FIG.     I. LIMESPREADER. 

{b)  Lime  and  ground  limestone  may  be  sown  with  an  ordinary  seed 
drill,  but  only  in  relatively  small  quantities,  i.e.,  a  few  cwt.  per  acre. 
If  larger  dressings  are  to  be  applied  with  the  drill,  it  becomes  necessarv 
to  go  over  the  land  twice,  which  obviously  increases  the  cost  of  the  appli- 
cation. 

{c)  There  are,  however,  a  number  of  specially  constructed  limespreaders 
now  on  the  market,  which  will  satisfactorily  sow  from  2  or  3  cwt.  up  to 
2  tons  per  acre  with  great  uniformity.  The  general  principle  of  these 
spreaders  is  that  the  lime  is  fed  into  a  V-shaped  hopper  containing  a 
series  of  slots  either  at  the  bottom  or  .side  of  the  box,  through  which  the 
lime  is  forced  by  means  of  a  revolving  chain,  a  set  of  teeth,  or  by  a  set 
of  beaters.  The  amount  of  lime  sown  is  regulated  bv  an  alteration  in  the 
size  of  the  exit  slots.  Figures  I.,  II..  III.  represent  three  limespreaders 
procurable  on  the  Melbourne  market.  These  limespreaders  do  very  satis- 
factor\-   work,    and   will   spread   from   3   cwt.    to   2   tons  of   lime   per  acre 


lo  Oct.,  191  -J 


/'//(•  /'racticc  0]   LiinDig. 


613 


with  regularity  and  accuracy.  It  would  be  a  distinct  advantage  to  have 
larger  hoppers,  more  especially  when  fairly  liberal  dressings  are  used. 
-SO  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  for  filling  up  so  often.  The  price  of  the 
spreaders  also  .Sieems  rather  high,  especially  for  the  small  settler.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  farm  dray  is  being  adopted  for  limespreading. 
Figure  IV.  represents  a  limespreader.  made  by  Sir.  H.  W.  Kerle,  of 
New  South  Wales,  attached  to  the  back  of  an  ordinary  dray  ;  and  Figure  V. 
shows  a  field  in  the  act  of  being  limed  with  this  machine.  The  advantage 
■of  this  arrangement  is  that  a  good  load  of  lime  may  be  started  with  in  the 
dray,  and  the  hopper  replenished  as  the  .spreading  proceeds.  I  am 
indebted  to  Mr.  Geo.  Valder,  Superintendent  of  Agriculture  of  New  South 
^Vales.  for  the  photograph  of  this  machine  in  action. 

If  a  simple  and  cheap  limespreading  device  could  be  made  and  attached 
to  the  back  of  an  ordinary  farm  dray,  and  worked  by  a  sprocket  from 
the  box  of  the  wheel,  it  would  be  a  great  con\-enience  to  a  farmer  desirous 
■of  applving  lime  in  liberal  dressings. 

Time  of  Application. 
The  most  suitable  time  to  apply  lime  is  in  the  autumn—  a  month  or  two 
T>efore  seeding.     O'licklime  or  staked  l^ne  mav  interfere  wdth  the  germina- 


FIG.    2.- -FORCE    FEED    LIMESPREADER. 

tion  of  the  seed  if  sown  too  close  to  seeding,  but  its  power  to  injure  seeds 
gradually  disappears  as  it  changes  into  the  form  of  carbonate  by  contact 
"with  the  soil,  and  in  this  form  it  is  quite  innocuous  to  germination  or  plant 
life.  Quicklime  and  slaked  lime  mav  be  applied  at  other  seasons  of  the 
year,  provided  the  lime  is  \-er\  thoroughlv  and  uniformly  worked  into  the 
soil  by  means  of  the  harrows  before  the  crop  is  sown.  Carbonate  of  lime. 
I.e.,  chalk,  ground  limestone,  ■"  unburnt  lime"  or  ground  limestone, 
may  lie  applied  at  any  time  without  risk,  and  the  farmer  may,  therefore, 
consult  his  own  convenience  in  applying  these. 

Cost  of  Material. 
An  important  practical  consideration  to  the  farmer  is  the  cost  of  the 
lime.  At  present,  good  agricultural  lime  containing  over  90  per  cent,  of 
calcium  oxide  may  be  purchased  for  25s.  per  ton.  This  agricultural  lime 
Js  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  builders'  lime,  which  costs  over 
jQ2  per  ton.     Now,  as  a  source  of  lime,  this  burnt  lime  is  relatively  much 


6i4 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  Oct..  1912. 


cheaper  than  ground  limestone,  mor-  especially  when  freights  are  taken 
into  consideration.  As  previously  stated,  i  ton  of  burnt  lime  is  equivalent 
in  lime  content  to  1.3  tons  of  slaked  lime,  and  1.8  tons  of  ground  lime- 
stone or  carbonate.  Hence,  if  burnt  lime  is  quoted  at  25s.  per  ton,  ground 
limestone,  leaving  freights  out  of  consideration,  is  worth,  as  a  source  of 
lime,  only  14s.  per  ton.  The  present  price  is  jQi  per  ton.  The  freight  on 
a  ton  of  burnt  lime  is  5s.  4d.  per  150  miles.  The  freight  on  an  equivalent 
amount  of  lime  in  the  form  of  ground  limestone  would  therefore  be  5s.  4d. 
X  1.8  =  9s.  7d.  In  other  words,  if  a  farmer,  situated  150  miles  from  a 
lime  quarry,  were  to  purchase  the  equivalent  of  a  ton  of  pure  lime  in  the 
form  of  burnt  lime  and  ground  limestone,  his  purchase  would  pan  out  as 
follows  :  — 

I  ton  of  burnt  lime  at  35s..  ])lus  freight.  5s.   4d   =  30s.   4d. 

Equivalent  in  ground  limestone  ==  i  .8  tons  at  ^r    per  ton,   freight, 
9S.   lA.^£2  5s.  7d. 
So  that  the  lime  in  ground  limestone  would  really  cost  him  50  per  cent, 
more  than  in  burnt  lime.       This  should  not  lie.       ^^'ith  the  vast  deposits  of 


FIG.     3. LIMING    LAND   FOR    LUCERNE. 

high  quality  limestone  in  this  State,  and  the  improved  rockgrinding  ma- 
chinery now  available,  it  should  be  possible  to  bring  the  price  of  ground 
limestone  to  nearly  half  its  present  level.  With  an  increasing  demand  for, 
and  an  increasing  output  of  ground  limestone,,  the  price  will  doubtless  drop 
considerably.  The  price  must  drop  if  it  is  to  be  used  extensively.  In 
other  countries  the  ultimate  cost  to  the  farmer  has  been  reduced  by  free 
haulage  on  the  railways.  Whether  Victoria  should  follow  in  this  regard 
is  a  matter  of  railwav  policy.  It  is  to  the  farmers'  interest,  however,  that 
lime  and  ground  limestone  or  carbonate  of  lime  should  be  railed  at  bedrock 
rates.  It  is  also  to  the  farmers'  interest  that  the  various  lime  compounds 
on  the  market  should  be  sold  on  a  guarantee  basis  just  as  is  now  done  with 
phosphatic  nitrogenous  and  potassic  fertilizers. 

What  Form  of  Lime  to  Use. 
^^'e  have  already  seen  that  lime  may  be  applied  in  the  mild  form  of 
carbonate,  in  the  active  form  of  burnt  lime,  slaked  lime,  or  quicklime,  and 
in  the  form  of  ''  land  plaster  ""  or  gypsum.  With  regard  to  gypsum,  it 
must  be  understood  that  on  some  soils  it  has  little  or  no  value.  It  improves 
the  mechanical  condition  of  stiff  clay  soils,  and  liberates  large  amounts  of 
potash,   but  it   does  not  correct  the  soil   acidity.       It  is  not  alkaline,    and 


lo  Oct..  1  9 1  -J 


'[' he  I'ractiLL   oj  Liming. 


6i 


therefore  it  cannot  take  the  place  of  lime  in  acid  soils.  It  has  a  \alue  for 
stiff  clay  soils,  and  under  certain  circumstances  for  potash  loving  plants 
like  clover  and  lucerne,  but  it  will  not  relieve  a  soil  of  its  sourness.  More- 
over, as  a  source  of  calcium,  it  is  very  expensive,  containing  but  34  per 
cent,  of  lime,  and  therefore  worth  about  8s.  per  ton  compared  with  present 
market  values  of  the  other  forms. 

With  regard  to  the  remaining  forms  of  lime,  viz.: — lime  (carbonate), 
and  quicklime  (oxide),  much  depends  on  the  cost  and  the  nature  of  the 
soil  to  which  the  compounds  are  applied.  The  relative  cost  of  ground  lime- 
stone and  burnt  lime  has  already  been  discussed. 

It  may  be  said  that  to  the  farmer  in  outlying  districts,  remote  from  lime- 
stone quarries,  where  freights  must  enter  into  consideration,  the  most  con- 
centrated form,  i.e.  burnt  lime,  will  be  cheapest.  In  the  neighbourhood  of 
marl  pits  and  quarries,  ground  limestone  or  mar]  will  probal)ly  be  the  most 
•economical  form  to  use. 


-LIMESPKEADER    ATTACHED    TO    A     FARM    DRAY, 


On  stiff  clay  soils.  i)eatv  lands,  and  reclaimed  swamps,  burnt  lime  is 
most  efficacious.  On  other  soils,  carbonate  of  lime  will  give  more  beneficial 
and  more  lasting  results. 

The  most  extensive  investigation  ever  made  into  the  relative  merits  of 
burnt  lime  and  ground  limestone,  in  comparative  tests,  is  that  conducted 
by  the  Pennsylvania  Experimental  Station.  Equivalent  quantities  of  lime 
in  the  form  of  ground  limestone  and  burnt  lime  were  u.sed  e\ery  four  years, 
and,  as  a  result  of  25  vears'  work.  Dr.  Frear  says — "  The  yields  from  car- 
bonate of  lime  (ground  limestone)  showed  superiority  under  the  conditions 
of  this  experiment  over  those  following  the  application  of  an  equivalent 
application  of  caustic  lime." 

Precautions  to  be  Observed  in  using  Lime. 

Several  matters  need  to  be  guarded  against  in  applying  lime — (i)  Lime 

has  a  constructive  and  a  destructive  effect  on  the  soil.     Its  constructive  effect 

is  observed  in  the  correction  of  soil  aciditv,  the  stimulation  of  leguminous 

growth  in  the  pastures,  the  promotion  of  nitrification  and  other    liacterial 


6i6  Journal  of  Agnciilture.  Mctoria.  [loOcT..  1912-- 

activity,  and  the  improvement  of  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil.  Its 
destructive  effect  is  due  to  its  caustic  character.  It  rapidly  destroys  humus, 
and  thus  tends  to  rob  the  soil  of  its  most  valuable  constituent.  According 
to  the  Pennsylvania  experiments  quoted  above,  this  loss  was  equivalent  to 
the  loss  of  375  lbs.  of  nitrogen  per  acre  in  the  first  9  inches  of  soil  in 
sixteen  vears,  i.e.  equal  to  37^  tons  of  stable  manure  per  acre.  Hence,  in' 
liming,  provision  must  be  made  for  the  restoration  of  this  organic  matter 
by  green  manuring  or  the  use  of  organic  manures,  like  farmyard  manure,, 
and  also  by  the  avoidance  of  stubblt-  burning. 

Furthermore,   on   soils  deficient  in  organic  matter,   ground   limestone  or 
dilute  lime  should  be  used  in  preference  to  caustic  lime. 
(2)  There  is  an  old  couplet  which  runs — 

"  Lime  and   lime  without   manure 
Make  both   farm  and   farmer  poor." 

Liming  must  not  l)e  regarded  as  a  substitute  for  manuring.  Phosphates 
nnist  be  used  in  conjunction  with  lime  to  secure  the  best  results,  and  the 
supply  of  organic  matter  or  humus  must  also  be  maintained.  Unless  these 
points  are  borne  in  mind,  liming  will  deplete  the  soil  of  its  fertility. 

When  does  a  Soil  need  Lime. 

1.  The  nature  of  the  vegetation  often  indicates  whether  lime  is  wanting 
or  abundant  in  a  given  soil.  The  habitual  presence  in  the  crops  of  such 
weeds  as  sorrel  and  plantain,  which  are  fairlv  tolerant  of  acid  soil  con- 
ditions, is  an  indication  of  the  lack  of  lime,  just  as  the  continual  appear- 
ance of  vigorous  clovers  and  trefoils  in  the  pastures  is  a  fair  indication  of 
the  presence  of  a  sufficiency  of  lime.  The  nature  of  the  vegetation  is  a 
reliable,  but  not  an  infallible  indication  of  the  requirements  of  a  soil  as 
regards  to  lime. 

2.  There  are  several  simple  tests  which  roughly  indicate  whether  or 
not  a  soil  is  in  need  of  lime.  If  a  soil  is  acid  or  sour  in  character,  it  is 
deficient  in  lime.  A  rough  practical  method  of  determining  whether  a  given 
.soil  is  acid  is  to  take  a  strip  of  blue  litmus  paper  (which  may  be  purchased 
from,  any  druggist),  and  place  it  between  the  broken  halves  of  a  ball  of 
moist  soil.  If,  after  standing  for  some  little  time,  the  litmus  turns  red  in 
colour,  the  soil  is  clearly  acid  in  character  and  in  need  of  lime. 

3.  If  a  soil  contains  a  sufficiency  of  lime  in  the  form  of  carbonate,  it 
cannot  be  acid  in  character.  A  rough  test  of  the  amount  of  carbonate  of 
lime  in  a  soil  may  be  made  by  taking  a  hollowed  out  ball  of  soil  and  pour- 
ing in  a  few  drops  of  strong  spirits  of  salts  or  hydrochloric  acid.  If  much 
lime  in  the  form  of  carbonate  exists,  a  brisk  effervescence  will  take  place, 
while,  if  small  quantities  only  are  present,  only  a  few  bubbles  will 
appear. 

4.  Some  idea  of  the  requirements  of  a  soil  for  lime  may  be  gained  by 
studying  its  chemical  analysis.  The  total  amount  of  lime  present  in  the 
the  soil  may  be  determined  with  accuracy  by  chemical  analysis,  but  such 
analysis  can  throw  little  light  on  the  form  in  which  the  lime  is  present. 
If  the  greater  portion  of  the  lime  is  present  in  the  form  of  phosphate,  or 
silicate,  or  sulphate,  it  will  be  of  practically  little  value  in  keeping  the 
soil  "  sweet."  Paradoxical  as  it  may  appear,  some  soils  known  to  contain 
large  quantities  of  lime  have  given  increased  returns  when  dressed  with 
this  ingredient ;  whilst,  conversely,  some  soils  with  a  relatively  low  per- 
centage of  lime  have  proved  unresponsive  to  further  applications.  Hence 
the  form  in  which  the  lime  is  pre.sent,  rather  than  its  total  amount,  is 
the   important    factor   in   deciding    whether    lime   is   required.       The   four 


loOcT..  1912.]  1' he  Practice  of  l.'nu'mg.  Oiy 

indicators  descrited  above  all  have  their  limitations,  but  to  the  experienced 
worker  they  are  of  service  as  rough  guides  in  feeling  the  pulse  of  the  land 
with   r<'sp('ct  to  the  nt'ed  of  lime. 

5.-  -Experiments    with    Lime. 

Bv  far  the  most  satisfactory  and  practical  method  of  testing  the  land 
is  by  the  establishment  of  experimental  plots  with  varying  dressings  of 
lime.  By  this  means  every  farmer  can  test  the  requirements  of  the  soils 
on  his  farm.  In  order  that  the  information  gained  should  be  of  value, 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  conduct  the  experiments  over  a  length v  period. 
Indeed,  the  most  satisfactory  results  can  onlv  be  obtained  when  the  plots 
are  permant-nt  in  character,  so  that  the  effects  of  ea-^h  particular  dres.sing 
can  be  noted.  Tlu'  full  effects  of  lime  are  never  immediately  discernible. 
Time  must  be  a  I  lowed   for  the  beneficial  changes  to  be  wrought. 

Experiments  were  laid  down  last  autumn  at  Rutherglen,  Wyuna,  and 
on   private   farms  in  the  Western  district.   Central   district,    and  in   Gipps- 


LIMING    LAND. 


land,  to  test  the  value  of  lime  under  var\  ing  conditions.      The  experiments 
were  designed  to' seek  deliniie  information  on  the  followiiig  points:  — 

(a)  The  value  of  dressings  of  lime  var\ing  from  5  cwt.  up  to  2  tons 
per  acre  when  applied  to  lucerne,  barley,  wheat,  and  rape 
crops,  in  order  to  determine  the  effect  of  lime,  and  the  most 
suitable  amounts  to  appiv  for  legumes,  cereals,  and  nan- 
leguminous  forages. 

(h)  The  periodicity  of  application  that  will  lead  to  the  most  profit- 
able results. 

(c)  The   value  of    lime    when    used   in    varying   (juantities    with    and 

without  phosphates,  iiitrales,  and  potash,  singly  and  in  com- 
bination. 

(d)  The  effect  of  lime  when  used  with  and  without  green  manures. 
(i )  The  eff'ect  of  lime  when  used  in  various  two,   three,   four,   and 

rive  course  rotations. 
(/)  The  relative  merits  of  equivalent   forms  of  lime  when   applied 
in  the  form  of  quicklime,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  gypsum,  to 
different  crops  and  different  soils,  with  and  without  supple- 
mentary dressings  of  phosphates  and  organic  matter. 
1-231.").  "  X 


6i8  ] oiiniaJ  oj  AgrHuUurc .  Victoria.  [loOcx..  1912. 

Some  timr  must  elapse  before  anv  delinite  conclusions  can  l)e  drawn 
from  these  field  experiments,  hut  each  \ear  indications  of  value  should  be 
obtained.  The  experiments  will  be  extended  and  laid  down  in  permanent 
plots  at  the  Central    f^xixTiniental  Farm,  probal)lv  next  autumn 

Unfortunately.  \ery  little  ex])erimental  work  has  been  done  on  the 
lime  question  in  Australia.  It  is  admitted  that  tnere  are  wide  divergences 
in  Australian  and  European  agricultural  practice.  This  was  referred  to 
in  dealing  with  the  nitrogen  question  in  the  September  issue.*  It  may  so 
happen  that  in  some  details  of  liming,  Australian  soils  mav  require  special 
treatment.  If  so,  the  prosecution  of  definite  experiniental  work  in  each 
of  the  climatically  different  districts  of  the  State  under  varying  conditions 
of  soil  treatment  will  indicate  the  direction  in  which  improvements  in 
existing  and  traditional  practic-  may  be  brought  aliout. 

Summary. 

1.  Lime  mav  l:>e  applied  in  one  of  four  ft)rms  :  quicklime,  slaked  lime, 
ground  limestone,   and  gvpsum. 

2.  One  ton  of  quicklime  is  equivalent  to  1.3  tons  slaked  lime,  1.8  ton.s^ 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  3.1  tons  gypsum. 

3.  Lime  has  an  important  chemical,  mechanical,  and  bi<ilogical  effect 
on  the  soil. 

4.  It  liberates  phosphates  and  potash,  decomposes  organic  matter,  pro- 
motes nitrification,  and  corrects  the  soil  aciditv. 

5.  It  makes  clay  soils  more  friable,  and  tends  to  bind  sandy  soils. 

6.  It  stimulates  bacterial   activity,   and  promotes  soil  fertilitv. 

7.  It  may  be  applied  in  dressings  from  5  cwt.  to  2  tons  per  acre, 
according  to  the  kind  of  soil,  kind  of  crop,  and  according  to  the  frequency 
of   application. 

8.  Small  dressings  frequently  applied  are  more  profitable  than  heavy 
dressings  applied  at  long  intervals. 

9.  Lime  is  best  applied  by  special  limespreaders.  A  good,  handv  man 
can  make  one  to  work  from  the  back  of  a  farm  drav. 

10.  Quicklime  and  slaked  lime  are  best  applied  in  autumn,  at  least 
some  weeks  before  the  seed  is  sown.  Carbonate  of  lime  may  be  applied 
when  con\'enient. 

11.  If  quicklime  can  be  purchased  for  25s.  per  ton.  then  carlionate  of 
lime  is  worth  about   14s.  per  ton. 

12.  Quicklime  and  slaked  lime  give  quickest  results.  Carbonate  of 
lime  is  slower,  but  is  ultimately  the  most  profitable. 

13.  Lime  destroys  humus,  therefore,  keep  up  the  supplv  of  organic 
matter  to  the  soil  bv  green  manuring. 

14.  Lime  must  be  supplemented  with  phosphates  to  keep  the  soil  pro- 
ductive. 

15.  There  is  urgent  need  for  systematic  and  permanent  experimental 
work  in  connexion  with  liming  problems. 


Jiiurnnl  nf  Agriculture  (Victoria),  September,  1912.  \\.  .jiS. 


loOcT..  iQi^.J  Relation  of  Lime  to  Soil  Fertility.  619 

vr. 

IHl-:  RliLATlOX  OF  LlMl-:  'JO  SOIL  FERTILIIV. 

By  ] villi    \\ .  I'aiersoii,   B.Sc.   Ph.D.,   Experiiiientalist ,   and  P.    R.    Scott, 
Clnniist   for   Agriculture. 

A  manure  is  a  substance  used  to  supply  a  necessary  plant  food  to  the 
soil.  Phosphoric  acid  is  a  necessary  plant  food  which  is  often  deficient 
in  soil,  and  superphosphate  may  lie  employed  to  supply  this.  Super- 
phosphate is  thus  a  manure. 

Lime  is  also  a  necessary  plant  food.  But  in  practice  a  soil  never  con- 
tains too  little  lime  to  serve  as  plant  food  for  the  next  crop.  In  the  strict 
.sense  of  the  term,  therefore,   lime  is  not  a  manure. 

The  beneficial  action  exerted  by  lime  in  a  soil  is  indirect.  Lime  is  a 
strong  base.  An  acid  is  a  sour  substance.  When  a  .strong  l)ase  is  added 
to  an  acid,  it  combines  with  it,  and  the  .sourness  disappears.  Most  of  the 
improvements  effected  in  soils  bv  lime  are  due  to  its  basic  character.  Its 
action  is  to  keep  the  land  from  getting  sour. 

Lime    in    Soil.s. 

I-ime  exists  in  a  soil  in  various  forms,  lait  always  comlnned  with  an 
acid.  It  is  combined  with  sulphuric  acid  in  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum), 
W'ith  phosphoric  acid  in  phosphate  of  lime  (bones,  super,  &c.),  and  with 
silicic  acid  in  silicates  of  lime  of  various  degrees  of  complexity.  In  all 
these  compounds  the  acids  are  strong,  and  they  hold  the  lime  firmly.  In 
sulphate,  phosphates,  and  silicates  of  lime,  the  lime  is  held  so  firmly  that 
it  is  not  available  as  a  base.     Gypsum  or  bones  cannot  remove  soil  acidity. 

Carbonate  of  lime  is  another  form  of  lime  existing  in  soils.  It  is  a 
compound  of  lime  with  carbonic  acid.  Carbonic  acid  is  a  weak  acid,  and 
is  also  volatile,  so  that  it  is  easily  driven  out  from  carbonate  of  lime. 
When  this  happens  the  lime  is  available  as  a  base. 

So  far  as  the  lime  content  of  a  soil  is  concerned,  carbonate  of  lime  is. 
for  most  purposes,  the  only  form  that  counts.  It  is  valuable  becau.se  it  is 
easilv  decomposed,  thus  vielding  free  lime  on  demand.  If  a  soil  has  not 
got  a  suitable  supply  of  carbonate  of  lime,  then  liming  is  necessary. 

FoRM.S    IN    WHICH    LiME    MAY    BE    AppLIED. 

Lime  may  Ije  applied  to  soils  in  various  forms,  viz.,  as  free  or  hot 
lime,  as  slaked  lime,  or  as  carbonate  of  lime  (see  Mr.  Scott's  article  herein). 
The  value  of  lime  in  these  forms  lies  in  the  fact  that  if  not  alreadv  car- 
bonate of  lime,  they  are  soon  changed  to  carbonate  by  the  carbonic  acid 
of  the  .soil.  The  .soil  has  then  a  supjilv  of  lime  tit^d  up  as  carbonate,  but 
available  when  required. 

l^FFECT  Depending  on  Fineness  ov  Division. 
^^■hen  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil  is  decomposed  to  furnish  available 
lime,  the  action  takes  ijlace  on  the  outside  of  the  particles  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  The  larger  these  particles  the  smaller  is  the  surface  exposed 
for  the  same  weight  of  carbonate,  and  the  slower,  consequently,  will  it 
act.  The  benefit  derived  from  the  presence  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  a  soil 
depends,  therefore,  not  only  upon  the  quantity  present,  but  also  upon  its 
fineness  of  division. 

X  2 


620  J ouDuil  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [loOcx..  1912. 

Burnt  and  slaked  lime  give  very  finelv  divided  carlmnatf  of  lime  in  a 
soil  because  of  the  chemical  action  of  slaking.  Lime  added  as  carbonate 
(ground  limestone)  is  always  more  active  the  more  finely  it  is  ground. 
With  this  material  it  is  recommended  that  at  least  35  per  cent,  should 
pass  a  sieve  with  10.000  meshes  to  the  square  inch.  Fineness  of  grinding 
becomes  more  important  when  the  quantity  applied  is  small. 

The  Soil  Loses  Lime. 

Under  natural  conditions  there  is  a  marked  tendency  for  the  supply 
of  carbonate  of  lime  to  diminish  in  the  surface  soil.  Carbonate  of  lime 
is  practically  insoluble  in  pure  water,  but  in  water  containing  carbonic 
acid  it  goes  into  solution  as  bi-carbonate,  which  forms  the  chief  ingredient 
in  the  drainage  waters  from  many  soils.  Again,  a  certain  quantity  is 
removed  in  farm  crops,  while  earth  worms  in  certain  cases  contribute  by 
graduallv '  burying  the  coarser  fragments.  The  use  of  certain  manures 
such  as  superphosphate  and  the  potash  salts,  and  notably  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  gradually  deplete  the  soil  in  carbonate  of  lime.  The  combined 
result  of  these  withdrawals  may  be  verv  considerable,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  certain  of  the  experimental  fields  at  Rothamsted  ha\-e  lost  from  the 
surface  soil  during  the  past  32  vears  carbonate  of  lime  at  the  rate  of  800 
to  1,050  lb.  per  acre  per  annum. 

It  is  an  old  saying  that  "  lime  sinks  in  the  soil.''  So  much  is  this  the 
case  that  even  soils  on  the  limestone  formation  may  be  found  to  require  a 
fresh  application  of  lime  at  the  surface. 

nuANTiTv  OF  Lime   Required  in   Soils. 

Di-scussing  the  percentage  of  carbonate  of  lime  required  in  soil.  Hall* 
places  the  danger  limit  between  \  and  h  per  cent.  Judging  from  numei'ous 
analyses  of  Victorian  soils  made  by  the  Department,  it  is  apparent  that 
the  great  majority  of  them  fall  into  the  category  of  soils  which  require 
lim.e.  Notable  exceptions  are  found  in  the  Mallee  and  in  the  dark  soils 
of  the  Wimmera. 

When   is   Liming  Necessary? 

Chemical  analysis  can  tell  wiien  a  soil  requires  lime,  because  the  per- 
centage of  carbonate  of  lime  falls  too  low.  It  is  a  less  sure  guide  as  to 
when  a  .soil  does  not  require  lime,  becau.se  the  carbonate  of  lime  present 
may  exi.st  in  relatively  large  lumps. 

Clay  and  peaty  soils  require  more  lime  to  be  present  than  do  sandy 
soils  low  in  organic  matter  to  maintain  them  in  good  working  order. 

Litmus  paper  is  stained  blue  with  a  vegetable  colouring  matter.  Acids 
change  the  blue  colour  to  red.  If  a  little  soil  is  placed  on  litmus  paper, 
mo'stened.  and  left  standing  for  a  few  minutes,  the  soil  mav  be  washed 
oft'  and  the  paper  examined.  If  the  paper  is  clearly  reddened,  this  indi- 
cates that  the  soil  is  aciH  and  requires  lime.  But  a  soil  may  require  liming 
when  it  fails  to  give  the  acid  test. 

There  are  limits  to  the  usefulness,  therefore,  both  of  chemical  analysis 
and  of  the  litmus  test,  when  we  inquire  whether  or  not  a  soil  requires 
lime.  The  surest  way  to  know  is  to  make  trial  applications  of  lime,  and 
watch  the  results.  This  matter  will  be  referred  to  later  on.  "Meanwhile 
it  may  assist  to  an  understanding  of  the  effect  of  such  applications  if  we 
proceed  to  consider  some  of  the  more  important  actions  exercised  by  lime 
upon  the  soil  and  crop. 

*   Jour.  Bd.  Agric.  I>oik1.,  1906. 


loOcT..  191-3]  Rcliitioii  of  Lime  to  Soil  Fertility.  621 

Mechanical   Effect  of   Lime. 

When  a  clay  deficient  in  lime  is  wetted  it  becomes  sticky  and  swells 
up  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  starch  paste  or  glue.  On  drying  it 
becomes  very  hard.  If  lime,  however,  is  added,  the  cla\  will  not  juiddle 
well,  and  or.  drying  it  crumbles.  Fig.  i  shows  an  ordinary  clay  from 
the  Western  Plains  rubbed  up  with  water.  The  photograph  was  taken 
20  hours  after  the  cylinders  were  .set  up.  No.  i  had  nothing  added  to  the 
■clay;  the  clay  remains  swollen  up  in  the  water,  which  is  still  muddy. 
In  No.  2  the  addition  of  lime  has  caused  coagulation  (sometimes  referred  to 
as  flocculation)  of  the  clay,  which  has  then  settled  down  as  a  fine  powder. 
No.  3  got  neutral  carbonate  of  lime,  which  is  practically  insoluble,  and 
'hence  had  no  immediate  action.  Xo.  4  got  gypsum,  which,  like  lime,  is 
sufficiently  soluble  to  act.  Soluble  lime  compounds  produce  this  coagulat- 
ing effect  on  clay  soils  which  then  become  more  friable  and  porous,  suffer 


■  ^^Bi^^H 

llii^^^^H^ 

IP 

li 

'  ^^^^^B  "vr  'V  "  '^^^^^H 

!■' 

^p-^ 

H^  1 

H 

! 

■It    ■ 

1 

Hi  ^1 

I 

Jm 

1^,.;?? 

1.  Control  blank.     2.   With  liuif.     3.  Carbonate  of  lime.     4.  With  suliihate  of  lime. 
FIG.     I. COAGULATING    EFFECT    OF    VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    LIME. 


less  from  working  wet,  and  shrink  and  cake  less  on  drying.  Gypsum  has 
not  the  other  effects  of  lime  in  soils,  but  it  has  that  of  coagulating  heavy 
clay.  Hot  lime  will  generally  be  preferred  on  stiff  clay  to  all  others — ■ 
to  gypsum  because  it  has  basic  character  and  can  correct  sourness,  and 
to  ground  limestone  (carbonate)  because  the  latter  is  slow  to  effect  coagula- 
tion. In  time,  however,  carbonate  will  also  coagulate  clay,  as  it  gradually 
passes  into  solution  as  bicarbonate  in  the  soil   water. 

Where  gypsum  can  be  obtained  cheaply,  it  will  form  a  useful  applica- 
tion to  heavy  clay  soils. 

When  the  drainage  waters  from  a  district,  and  the  water  puddles  in 
the  fields  remain  long  muddv.  we  have  an  indication  of  want  of  lime. 
Clear  puddles  in  a  clay  district  show  sufficient  solnfc'.e  lime  compounds 
to  be  present.  The  waters  of  the  Lower  Goulburn,  for  example,  have 
obviously   drained  from  an  area  deficient  in  lime. 


62  2 


Journal  of  Agriculture.  Yicforia. 


[lo  Oct..  I  91  j. 


Lime  and  Nitrification. 

Lime  is  important  in  the  production  of  nitrates.  Wliere  land  show.s. 
signs  of  being  "  run  down  "or  exhausted  in  fertility,  this  is  more  frequently 
due  to  its  failure  to  produce  sufficient  nitrates  than  to  anything  else. 
Additional  superphosphate  manure  will  not  help  this,  because  if  nitrates- 
are  deficient,  extra  phosphates  given  will  not  remove  the  defect.  Lime- 
does  not  contain  nitrates,  but  it  causes  a  m.ore  rapid  production  of  nitrates 
from  the  supply  of  organic  nitrogen  within  the  soil. 

The  organic  nitrogen  in  soils  is  not  in  a  form  which  the  crop  can; 
utilize.  It  is  converted  into  the  nitrate  form  by  different  kinds  of  bacteria. 
The  changes  may  be  viewed  in  two  stages.  The  first  stage  results  in 
the  formation  of  ammonia  from  the  organic  matter  ;  the  second  stage  results 
in  the  conversion  of  the  ammonia  into  nitrates. 


First  Stage  of  Nitrification. 
The  first  stage  may  be  considered  first.     When  fresh  vegetable  residues 


are  incorporated  in  the  soil,   this   kind   of  organic  matter   yields  ammonia 


].   With  lime.     2.  Cuiitrul  Ulaiik.     3.    With  gypsum,      i.   Witii  cai  Ijuiiatc  ut  limr. ' 
FIG.    2. SHOWING   HOW    LIME  HELPS   NITRIFICATION. 

with  comparatixe  ease.  Where  land  has  been  long  under  cultivation  without 
any  return  of  fresh  organic  matter,  the  production  of  ammonia  becomes- 
each  year  a  matter  of  greater  difficulty.  As  it  gets  older,  the  soil  organic 
matter  gets  "  tougher,"  and  the  fir.st  stage  in  nitrate  production,  viz.,  the 
production  of  ammonia,   becomes,   in  consequence,   more  difficult. 

Lime  helps  the  change.  Ammonia  is  a  product  of  the  decomposition 
of  soil  organic  matter,  but  it  is  onlv  the  last  link  in  a  chain  of  complex 
intermediate  products.  Except  under  specially  favorable  circumstances 
a  certain  amount  of  acidity  is  developed  in  these  intermediate  bodies,  and 
where  there  is  no  lime  as  carbonate  to  neutralize  the  acid  produced,  the 
activity  of  the  bacteria  producing  ammonia  is  greatly  hindered.  Bacteria 
cannot  flourish  when  the  reaction  passes  from  neutral  to  acid,  and  when 
the  acidity  becomes  marked,  the  decay  processes  are  left  to  noxious  fungi 
and  moulds,  which  prefer  an  acid  medium.  Carbonate  of  lime  by  neutral- 
izing the  acid  incidentally  formed  in  the  decav  of  soil  organic  matter,  thus 
.stimulates  the  production  of  ammonia  from  the  relatively  large  supply  of 
inactive  organic  nitrogen  which  all  soils  possess. 


roOCT..  igi2.]  Rchitniii  "j  l.inu  to  Soil  h\rtilit\.  623 

Tn  the  absence  of  iime,  the  production  of  ninmonia  is  hampered  by 
iicidity.  The  e\il  will  be  most  marked  (jn  stiff  soils  which  are  badly 
aerated,  and  on  peatv  soils  rich  in  organic  matter.  These  classes  of 
soils,  therefore,  require  heaxier  a])i)lic;ations  of  lime  than  sandy  soils  poor 
in  organic  mattrr  or  humus. 

Second  Stage  of  Nitrification. 

The  second  stage  in  the  production  of  soil  nitrates,  \iz..  tlie  change 
from  ammonia  to  nitrate,  is  also  helped  by  limi\  J'"ig.  2  shows  the  relative 
amounts  of  nitrate  produced  from  ammonia  in  a  soil  during  21  days.  Th^y 
experiments  from  which  the.se  results  are  abstracted  were  conducted  in  the 
laboratory  of  the  Department,  and  are  fully  de.scribed  in  the  July  i.ssue 
•of  the  Journal  of  Agriculture.  No.  i  shows  the  nitrate  formed  where 
hot  lime  was  added  to  the  soil.  No.  2  with  no  addition  made  to  the  soil. 
\().  3  with  gypsum  added,  and  ^so.  4  with  carlKmate  of  linif.  In  the 
te.sts  free  or  combined  lime  was  used  in  equivalent  amounts. 

On  contrasting  the  cylinders,  the  different  compounds  of  lime  are  se^n 
to  act  in  different  wavs.  Gypsum  was  of  but  little  help  to  nitrification, 
■carbonate  of  lime  increased  it  fourfold,  while  hot  lime  stopped  nitrification 
.altogether.  Corroborative  results  w-ere  obtain;^fl  in  a  second  series  of  tests 
la.sting  51   days. 

The  first  .and   second   stages  of   nitrification   are  alike  due  to  bacteria 
both   of  them  tend   to  produce  acid,   and  in  both   the  production  of   acid 
inhibits  the  organisms.      The  effects  of  lime  upon  the  second  stage  may 
therefore  be  discu.ssed  with  reference  to  the  whole  process  of  nitrate  pro- 
■fluction  from  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil. 

The  Best  Form  of  Lime  for  Nitrification. 

The  most  effective  form  of  lime  is  the  carl)onate.  The  .soil  organi.sms 
•cannot  endure  acid,  but  neither  can  they  enrlure  free  alkali  or  soluble  base 
as  this  is  present  in  hot  lime.  It  is  tho.se  facts  which  explain  the  results. 
Carbonate  of  lime  removes  any  acid  which  mav  be  produced,  but  it  is  not 
alkaline  in  reaction.  Gypsum  is  not  alkaline  in  reaction,  but  it  is  unable 
to  neutralize  acid  substances  produced  bv  the  germs.  Hot  lime  can 
neutralize  the  acids  all  right,  but  it  is  too  strongly  alkaline  to  allow  the 
bacteria  to  work. 

In  Great  Britain  the  old  usage  in  applying  lime  was  to  spread  4  or  5 
tons  of  hot  lime  to  the  acre.  It  was  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that 
such  applications  tended  to  diminish  the  yield  for  the  first  one  or  two 
years.  The  chief  reason  was  that  the  land  was  rendered  too  alkaline  for 
nitrification  to  proceed.  During  the  fir.st  years  the  heavy  dressing  was 
gradually  converted  into  carbonate  of  lime  by  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air 
and  .soil,  and  the  lime  then  began  to  be  of  benefit. 

Such  heavy  dressings  of  hot  lime  are  now  seldom  employed  in  agricul- 
ture, about  I  ton  being  a  usual  amount.  Comparatively  light  dressings  are 
quickly  converted  to  carbonate,  and  in  such  cases  a  benefit  is  expected 
(luring  the  first  vear.  Even  light  dressings,  however,  should  not  l)e  applied 
with  the  seed  of  any  crop,  but  are  better  put  on  several  months  l)efore, 
in  order  that  the  hot  lime  mav  be  converted  into  carbonate. 

Direct  applications  of  carbonate,  as  in  ground  limestone  or  marl,  may 
Tk?  given  at  any  time  without  danger  to  nitrification,  and.  practically  speak- 
ing,  to  any  amount. 

Gypsum  has  no  important  action  in  stimulating  the  production  of 
jiitrates. 


624  Jonnuil  of  AgriculUirc.  Vicloria.  [lo  Oct..  1912. 

Other  Results  of  Lime. 
\\W\\i'  tht^  effect  of  lime  ui  lil)er;iting  plant  food  from  the  soil  is  chiefly 
seen  in  an  increased  production  of  nitrates,  it  has  also  some  effect  in. 
rendering  a\ailable  the  mineral  co nstituents.  This  action  is  most  important 
in  connexion  with  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  for  both  of  which  farm: 
crops  make  considerable  demands. 

The  Libe  ation  of  Potash. 

The  effect  of  lime  in  liberating  potash  from  insoluble  compounds  will" 
be  chieflv  felt  in  the  heavier  class  of  soils.  Like  lime,  potash  is  a  base, 
and  in  the  less  stable  hydrated  double  sil'cates  of  potash  and  alumina' 
(zeolites)  present  in  clav  soils,  lime  and  potash  tend  to  change  places. 
The  liberation  of  potash  by  lime  is  less  important  for  cereals  than  for  roots 
and  legumes,  the  latter  of  which  require  large  amounts  of  potash.  The- 
largely  increased  vield  of  lucerne  and  clover  which  commonly  follows  an- 
applicat'on  of  lime  mav  often  be  traced  to  the  liberation  of  potash  within- 
the  soil. 

The   Liberation   of    Phosphoric   Acid. 

The  addition  of   lime  also  increases   the  availability  of  the  soil   phos- 
phoric acid,  particularly  where  this  exists  in  union  with  iron  and  alumina.. 


FIG.    3. — SH(.)\\ING    HOW    LIME    HELI'.S    IXSCJUELE    PHOSPHATES    TO    ACT. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  stage,  at  the  time  of  writing  (15th  September),  of 
some  experiments  conducted  by  the  Department  during  the  present  .season. 
The  primary  object  of  these  experiments  is  to  test  the  relative  efficiency 
of  phosphates  from  different  sources,  but  in  certain  cases  lime  has  been  in- 
troduced in  order  to  obtain  greater  variety  in  the  conditions.  Pot  5  receives 
a  native  lime  phosphate,  Pot  6  the  mineral  Wavellite — an  aluminium 
phosphate,  and  Pot  7  the  mineral  Vivianite — a  phosphate  of  iron.  The- 
phosphates  were  ground  up,  but  not  dissolved.  No  lime  was  given  in- 
these  pots.  Pots  25,  26,  and  27  received  the  same  phosphates  respec- 
tively as  Pots  5.  6,  and  7,  but  get  carbonate  of  lime  in  addition.  A 
uniform  and  sufficient  quantity  of  easily  available  nitrogen  and  potasb 
was  appled  to  all  the  pots,  and  the  phosphoric  acid  in  each  case  A-as 
used  in  equivalent  amounts.     Federation  wheat  is  the  crop  grown. 

From  the  results  at  the  present  stage  it  appears  that  lime  has  in- 
crea.sed  the  action  of  all  the  insoluble  phosphates,  but  the  improvement 
is  more  marked  with  the  phosphates  of  alumina  and  iron  than  with  the- 
lime  phosphate.  Much  of  the  phosphoric  acid  occurring  in  Victorian 
soils  is  combined  with  iron  and  alumina,  and  as  there  is  a  general  ('■ 
ficiency  of  available  phosphoric  acid  partly  on  this  account,  the  liberatior* 
of  phosphoric  acid  by  lime  may  have  considerable  practical  moment. 


loOcT..  191^-]  Rcl'ition  of  Lime  to  Soil  Fertility 


62s 


Kfi-ect  of  Lime  on   Plant  (.«ro\vth. 

From  the  nature  of  the  action  which  lime  exercises  in  soils  it  would" 
naturally  be  expected  that  the  result  would  be  seen  in  the  character  of 
the  vep;etation.  This  is  so  both  in  rt^gard  to  the  quantity  and  quality 
•of  the  produce. 

Heavier  Yields. 

Fig.    3   represents   a   stronger  growth  of  wheat   following   upon   the  u.se 

•  of  lime.  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  stimulating  effect  of 
lime   upon   lucerne  and   clover.        Several   years  ago    a    few   experiments 

•with  lime  were  conducted  by  the  Department  in  the  northern  wheat  areas. 
On  most  of  the  farms  an  increase  was  recorded— this  increase  ranging 
from  0.67  to  3.25  bushels  per  acre.     Unfortunately,  these  tests  lasted  for 

•one  season  only,  and  it  is  impossible  to  test  the  full  effect  of  lime  within 

-one  year. 

Improved  (Quality  in  Roots. 

In  root  and  forage  crops  the  effect  of  lime  will  often  l>e  seen  in  the 
^better  quality  of  the  produce  as  much  as  in  the  quantity.  A  few  years 
ago  some  experiments  were  conducted  in  the  south  of  Scotland  to  deter- 
mine this  point  with  turnips.*  At  each  of  three  farms  2  acres  of 
turnips  were  grown,  i  acre  with  acid  phosphate  (super)  and  i  acre  with 
lime  and  phosphate.  After  lifting,  the  roots  were  separately  fed  to 
equal  lots  of  sheep,  which  were  weighed  at  the  beginning  and  again  at 
the  end  of  the  feeding  tests.  The  same  weight  of  turnips  was  given  to 
•each  lot,  and  the  feeding  lasted  twelve  weeks.  The  results  were  as 
follows  :  — 


Name  of  Farm. 


Auchneel 
Awhirk 
Torr      .. 


X  umber 

of 

Shcop  fed. 

Relative  Feeding  Values. 

Acid-phosphate. 

Lime  and 
Phosphate. 

8(1 
80 
40 

I  (1(1 
1011 
lIKl 

1141 
122 

121 

The  roots  from  lime  and  phosphate  were  better  feeding  than  the  roots 
from  superphosphate  alone  on  every   farm. 

Profitable    Returns    from    Pasture 

In  England  a  number  of  experiments  have  been  carried  out  to  find 
how  the  top-dressing  of  pastures  affected  its  mutton-producing  capacity.! 
The  experiments  with  lime  lasted  nine  years,  and  were  conducted  at 
three  farms.  At  each  farm  two  separate  blocks  were  fenced  off,  and 
each  received  100  lb.  phosphoric  acid  per  acre  the  first  year,  and  again 
in  the  fourth  year.  In  addition  one  block  at  each  farm  got  h  ton  ground 
lime  per  acre  in  the  first,  third,  and  seventh  years.  Each  year  the 
blocks  carried  what  sheep  they  could  feed,  and  the  sheep  were  weighed 
when   put  on,   and   again   when  taken    off.        The    following  table  shows 


Bui.  2.3,  W.  of  Scot.  Agric.  Col. 


t  Supp.  Jour.  Bd.  Agric,  Lond.     Jan.,  -811. 


626  Joiinial  of  AgnciiliKrc.  Victoria.  [10  Oct..  1912. 


the  aggrt-gate  gains  in   live-weight  per   acre   from  the   limed   and  unlimed 
blocks  at  each  farm  at  the  end  of  nine  vears :  — 


Cockle 

I'ark. 

Sevii 

gtoi;. 

(ran 
No  Lime. 

-ley. 

No  Lime. 

Lime. 

No  Lime. 

Limo. 

Lime. 

Mutton      ))rofhi(ed      (9 

years) 

513  lbs. 

713  lbs. 

402   lbs. 

435  lbs. 

1(30  lbs. 

402  lbs. 

Increase  due  to  lime   .  . 

200  lbs. 

33  lbs. 

233  lbs. 

Value  of  increase  at  3d. 

per  lb. 

50s. 

8s.  3d. 

58s.  3d.. 

Cost  of  lime  at  20s.  per 

ton 

30s. 

30s. 

30s. 

Profit 

20s. 

*21s.  9d. 

28s.  3d.. 

Loss. 


.\t   Cockle    Park   the   l.me   returned   a   net  ])roiit  of   66    per   cent,    after 
paying  outlay    for   lime,    and   from  the  last   yearU    returns   it   appears    tf> 


LIG.     4. LIMED    PASTURES     WILL    OFTEN    CARRV    MORE    SHEEP. 


be  not  nearly  exhausted.  Sevington  is  on  the  chalk,  and  lime  here  gave- 
<i  loss,  becau.se  it  was  not  required.  Cransley  shows  94  per  cent,  profit 
on  expenditure  ;  here,  however,  the  no  lime  block  was  to  some  extent 
prejudicially  affected  by  flooding  in   1903. 

Clover  Eincouraged 
In  the  Rothamsted  pasture  experiments  the  effect  of   lime  has  been  to 
increase   the   percentage   of    clover    in    the     mixed     herbage.         Here     the 
relative  value  of  the  herbage  is  improved  through  a  change  in  its  botanicaf 
compo8iti<iii.        Clovers   have   a   higher   nutritive   value   than   grass. 

Lime  and   Soprel. 
Some   plants  grow    well    on   an  acid   .soil.        Such     plants     are    always- 
more   or    less    worthless    for    stock.         Sorrel    and    dock>     are     acid-loving 
plants.        A  g(X)d  application  of  lime  is  the  surest  method  of  eradicating- 
them,   and  encouraging  tlie  kind  of  plants  the  farmer   wants. 

Precautions  in  using  Lime. 
This   article   deals   with   the   application  of   lime   to   land.        We   shall 
now    conclude   by    drawing    attention    to   certain   precautions    which    should 
be  observed  in  the  use  of  lime. 


10  Oct..  191-']  Rcldtioii  of  T.iiiic  l<>  Soil  Fertility.  62 j 

Sufficient  Phosphates   I-.ssential. 

Lime  will  not  g'.ve  a  good  result  on  land  which  is  too  ])(K)r  in  avail- 
uihle  ])ho.sphoiic  acid.  This  may  occur  very  frequently.  Where  'iine 
is  used,  phosphates  should  be  used  just  as  usual.  On  pasture  land  ih*" 
need  for  lime  cannot  be  determined  until  it  has  tjeen  tried  with,  as  well 
as  without,  phosphates.  In  Victoria  lime  will  seldom  fail  to  act  L-e- 
KL-ause  of  a   deficiency  of  potash. 

Wet   Land  must   first   be   Drained 

It  is  no  use  applying  lime  to  land  that  is  swampy  and  requires  drain- 
ing. On  wet  land,  owing  to  the  exclusion  of  air,  the  production  of 
soil  acids  is  too  great  for  the  land  to  be  sweetened  by  ordinary  aj)];l 
cations  of  lime.  Drainage  b\  admitting  air  removes  the  cau.se  of  extreme 
acidity,  and  lime  cm  only  remove  the  effect.  To  continue  liming  vvet 
soil  in  order  to  keep  it  sweet  is  like  trying  to  keep  a  leaking  bucket  full 
-of   water. 

Lime   Diminishes    Soil   Humus. 

An  important  constituent  in  a  soil  is  the  organic  matter  or  humus 
which  it  contains.  Soil  humus  is  important  in  that  it  increases  ihe 
water-holding  capacity  of  a  soil,  opens  up  stiff  clavs,  and  provided  lime 
is  present  has  a  binding  action  on  sands.  In  its  decay  it  also  furni.shes 
nitrates  directly  from  itself,  and  mineral  con.stituents  of  plant  food,  both 
•directly  and  also  indirectly  from  the  fine  rock  mas.ses  of  the  soil.  Good 
soils  are  always  well  supplied  with  organic  matters,  and  market  gardeners 
rightly  place  great  confidence  in  farm  yard  manure  because  it  forms  humus. 

Lime  hastens  the  decay  of  the  .soil  organic  matter.  While  fresh 
vegetable  residues  as  in  stubbles,  green  manures  and,  where  practicable, 
farm-yard  manure  should  be  returned  to  cultivated  land  in  any  case, 
lime  increases  the  necessity  of  doing  so.  The  farmer  who  neglects  this 
matter  is  living  upon  his  capital  in  so  far  as  his  land  will  steadilv 
deteriorate  under  continued  cropping.  If  he  still  neglects  it  after  using 
Imie  he  will  be  living  upon  his  capital  more  quickly  than  ever. 

Lime  may  help  to  add  Humus 
But  while  I'me  increases  the  need  for  returning  fresh  vegetable  matters 
to  the  soil,  it  also  makes  the  operation  more  easy.  It  may  do  so  m 
^veral  ways  During  the  year  of  pasture,  which  is  commonlv  allowed 
in  the  wheat  areas  between  successive  crops,  the  growth  of  clover  and 
trefoil,  where  these  are  indigenous  to  the  soil,  will  be  stimulated.  Lime 
will  also  assist  in  giving  a  good  stand  of  rape  and  rye,  but  particularly 
of  vetches  where  these  can  be  sown  in  autumn  for  feeding  or  ploughing-in 
in  spring  before  the  land  dries  out.  Phosphate  .should  be  used  with 
those  catch  crops.  Then,  again,  if  the  use  of  lime  brings  the  deter- 
mination to  plough  in  stubbles,  instead  of  burning  while  preparing  lanrl 
for  fallow,  the  lime  will  be  a  profitable  investment.  Such  ploughing 
should  be  overtaken  early,  so  that  in  the  damp  soil  the  lime  will  help 
the  stubble  to  rot.  Lime  increa.ses  alike  the  practical  feasibility,  and 
the  need,   of  returning  fresh  organic  matter  to  the  land. 

When  is  Lime  Required. 

It  is  by  the  combint^d  use  of  lime  and  organic  or  green  manures  that 

the  regeneration  of  worn-out  land   will   most   frequentlv  be  accomplished. 

As  to  the  question  of  whether  anv  particular  piece  of  land   requires  lime 

iLSf   mav   be  made  of  the  chemical    analvsis  of  the   soil,    or  of  the   litmus 


628  Journal  of  Agriculture.  \'ictoria.  [1  o  Oct..  1912. 

test,  both  of  which  have  beeu  described.  As  a  guide  each  has  its  uses 
and  its  limitations,  but  in  most  cases  the  question  can  best  be  decided  on 
the  spot.  To  the  practised  eye  the  colour  of  the  vegetation  may  often 
indicate  acid  soil  conditions,  and  here  lime  is  required.  Such  a  result, 
however,  may  simply  be  due  to  an  excessively  wet  season,  and  in  this  case 
and  in  all  others  where  the  need  for  lime  is  suspected  the  surest  test  is 
to  try.  For  this  purpose  trial  strips  should  be  treated  with  lime  at 
different  parts  of  the  farm,  and  the  situation  of  these  plots  should  be 
indicated  by   suitable  marks. 

Where  the  trial  applxations  are  made  on  grass  land  too  much  atten- 
tion should  not  be  paid  to  the  bulk  of  herbage  produced,  as  stock  usually 
prefer   limed   pasture,    and  eat   it   more   closely   down. 

Summary    and    Conclusions. 

1.  Lime  tends  to  leave  the  surface  soil  through  various  channels,  and 
fresh   applications   become  necessary   to  maintain   fertility. 

2.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  the  best  form  of  lime  for  the  soil. 

3.  Burnt  and  slaked  lime  are  rapidly  changed  to  carbonate  when: 
they  are  applied  to  land. 

4.  The  rate  at  which  lime  acts  depends  on  its  fineness  of  division. 

5.  Lime,  but  especially  hot  lime,  has  a  good  effect  upon  the  mechanical 
condition  of  stiff  clays. 

6.  Gypsum  also  coagulates  clay,  but  it  has  not  the  beneficial  action 
of  lime  in  other  directions. 

7.  Lime  greatly  hastens  the  production  of  nitrates. 

8.  It  has  a  good  effect  in  lil-)erating  potash  and  phosphoric  acid, 
especially   when  the  latter  is   combined   with   iron  or   alumina. 

9.  Where  required  by  soil,   lime  produces  larger  crops. 

10.  It  produces  root  crops,  which  are  of  greater  feed'ng  \alue  per  ton. 

11.  It  may  often  be  a  profitable  application   to  grass  land 

12.  Lime  kills  sorrel,  docks,   and  other  acid-loving  weeds. 

13.  It  is  specially  stimulating  to  lucerne,  clovers,  and  leguminous. 
plants. 

14.  Lime  will  not  act  if  phosphates  are  deficient. 

15.  It  increases  the  need,  everywhere  present,  of  ploughing  in  green 
manures  or  stubbles.       \ 

16.  It   facilitates   this   operation. 

17.  The  surest  method  of  determining  the  need  for  lime  is  to  dress 
trial   strips   and   await   results. 


VII. 
THE  USE  OF  LIME   IN  VICTORIAN  VINEYARDS. 

By  Francois  de  Castclla,   Government  Viticnlturist. 

The  object  of  the  present  article  is  to  briefly  set  out  the  reasons  which 
make  it  logical  to  anticipate  that  our  vine-growing  industry  will  benefit 
quite  as  much  as  any  other  branch  of  our  agriculture,  from  the  judicious 
application  of  lime  to  the  soil.  As  will  be  shown  pre.sently,  the  soils  of 
mo.st  of  our  vine-growing  districts  have  a  low  lime  contents.  Though 
those  of  our  vignerons  who  have  planted  their  vines  properlv  and  culti- 
vated them  carefully  have  usually  obtained  profitable  results,  the  progres- 
sive grower  must  ever  strive  to  do  t>?tter  than  he  has  done  in  the  past, 
and  there   appears  every  reason  to  anticipate  that  in    the   supplementing^ 


loOcT..  iQi:;.]      The  I'sc  of  Livic  in  Victorian  Vineyard!'. 


629 


of  ihtr  lime  content  <it  soils  lies  an  eas\    way  ot   lirin_^ing  about  a  very  con- 
siderable   imjirovement. 

Th'i-  application  of  lime  to  the  soil  of  a  vineyard  may  he  considered 
from  two  distinct  points  of  view,  viz.,  as  supplying  a  i)lant  food  and 
as  affecting  soil   improvement. 

LiMK  AS  A  Plant   Food. 

The  vine,  like  all  other  plants,  demands  a  certain  quantity  of  lime 
for  its  normal  and  healthy  growth.  Lime  is,  in  other  words,  an  essen- 
tial plant  food  in  the  same  way  that  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  p()tash 
are.  Notwithstanding  its  vital  importance,  however,  it  is  a  noteworthy 
fact  that  this  phase  of  the  question  is  scarcely  ever  considered  l)y  con- 
tinental writers  on  vineyard  manuring.  Its  utility  as  a  soil  improver  is  ■ 
frecjuently  mentioned  ;  but  its  manurial  value,  or  value  as  a  plant  food, 
the  yearly  removals  of  which  must  be  returned  to  the  soil,  if  production 
is   to  l>e  maintained,   receives  no  consideration   whatever. 

Perhaps  the  explanation  is  that,  as  compared  with  the  other  three 
plant  foods,  lime  is  usually  present  in  such  enormous  quantities  in  luiro- 
pean  soils  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  its  ever  l:)eing  exhausted  ;  under 
such  conditions  it  cannot  present  anv  mterest  from  a  strictly  manuriid 
stand-point. 

.So  generalh  rich  in  lime  are  the  vine  soils  of  France  that  excess 
of  this  constituent  was,  in  the  early  days  of  reconstitution,  a  very  fre- 
quent cause  of  non-success,  ur^til  the  introduction  of  stocks  less  sensitive 
to  lime  in  excess  than  those  first  tried. 

Nevertheless,  the  quantity  of  lime  annualK  removed  from  each  acre 
of  vineyard  is  considerable.  Though  it  naturally  varies  a  good  deal 
from  one  locality  to  another,  according  to  yield,  variety,  climate,  &c., 
the  figures  arrived  at  by  Rousseau  and  Chappaz,  as  the  result  of  their 
investigations  in  the  Chablis  district  of  J'rance,  will  give  .some  idea  of 
the  annual  lime  requirements  of  the  vine  as  compared  with  the  other 
plant  f(X)d  materials  usually  taken  into  account.  The  yield  being  at  the 
rate  of  320  gallons  per  acre,  requirements  would  be  similar  to  tho.se  of 
Victorian  vineyards — 

Firtilizi)ig   Stibstaiiccs    Ahsorbed    per    Acre. 


Xitrogen. 


Phosplioric 
Acid. 


Dry  leaves 
Dry  prunii'igs 
Marc       .. 
Wine 
Lees 


lbs. 


933  01 
904-72 
3-JU>14 
310-47 
9-25 


lbs. 

16-626 

5-121 

5-716 

-8.33 

•584 

28-880 


lbs, 
2-351 
1-240 
1-653 
-200 
-1.39 

5-583 


lbs. 

8-220 
6-360 
6-668 
2  174 
-699 

24-121 


lbs. 

55-981 
12-66e 

5  004 
■34.> 

1114 

75-110 


*  Kxtiact  iroiii   ■  Etude  sur  le  Vignoble  de  Chablis."      By  E.  Rousseaux  and  G.  Chai)paz.      Rertu  de 
Viticulture,  23rd  Febnuny.  190.-,. 


From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  vine  extracts  more  of  Hrpe 
than  of  all  the  other  plant  food  elements  put  together,  and  nearly  three 
times  as  much  lime  as  potash.  It  is  true  that  the  bulk  of  the  lime  is 
contained  in  the  leaves;  these,  however,  are  largely  blown  away  bv  the 
wind,  only  a  small  proportion  returning  to  the  soil. 


6;o 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


[lo  Oct.,  1912. 


The  most  striking  difference  between  tlie  soils  of  the  greater  part  of 
Victoria  and  those  of  France,  Spain,  &c.,  is  the  low  lime  content  of  tbt^ 
former,  and  the  very  consideral)le  quantity  of  it  present  in  the  latter. 
In  European  vine\ards,  except  in  a  few  isolated  districts,  it  is  rare  to 
find  a  soil  containing  less  than  5  per  cent,  of  lime.  In  Victoria,  if  we 
except  the  Wimmera,  the  Mai  lee,  Geelong,  and  a  few  parts  where  vines 
are  not  extensively  grown,  it  is  unusual  to  find'  a  soil  containing  i  |-er 
cent,   of   lime,   whilst  the  great  majority  contain   less  than   .1    per  cent. 

Many  of  our  vineyards  are  in  auriferous  country,  and  belong,  geo- 
logically, to  the  Silurian  backbone  of  the  State.  Such  hilly  formations, 
as  well  as  the  sedimentary  valley  soils  resulting  from  their  decomposi- 
tion, are  alike  poor  in  lime.  So  poor  are  they  in  this  element  that  it 
is  reasonable  to  question  whether,  in  manv  Victorian  vineyards,  lime  may 
not  possess  a  real  manurial  value  whirli  it  is  not  recognised  as  having 
under   European  conditions. 

Lime   Contents   of   Victorian  Vineyard   Soils. 

Thanks  to  the  co-operation  of  the  Chemist  for  Agriculture,  a  good 
many  analyses  of  typical  vineyard  soils  have  been  made  during  the  past 
three  years.  On  examining  these  it  is  possible  to  divide  that  portion  of 
the  State  comprised  between  the  main  Dividing  Range  and  the  Murray 
River,  which  contains  fully  95  per  cent,  of  the  vineyards  of  Victoria,  into 
two  distinct  regions;  in  one  of. these  the  soil  is  remarkably  poor  in  lime, 
whilst  in  the  other  this  element  is  very  plentiful. 

The  low  lime  region  is  of  very  considerable  extent,  and,  if  Mildura 
(in  the  high  lime  region)  be  excluded,  it  contains  92  per  cent,  of  the  remain- 
ing vineyards  of  the  State.  It  is  separated  from  the  high  lime  region  by 
a  somewhat  irregular  line  from  the  junction  of  the  Murray  and  Goulburn 
Rivers,  n^ar  Echuca,  to  the  Grampian  Mountains.  As  might  be  ex- 
pected, the  line  of  demarcation  is  not  well  defined,  and  in  its  vicinity 
soils  of  high,  medium,  and  low  lime  contents  are  somewhat  mixed  up. 

The  following  table  contains  analyses  of  typical  vineyard  soils  through- 
out this  extensive  area ;  the  North-East.  Goulburn  Valley,  and  Great 
Western  being  represented,  as  well  as  Whitfield,  which  is  typical  of  the 
lower  levels  of  the  main  Dividing  Range: — - 

Table  A. — Low  Lim^.  Reghn. 


Nitrogen. 

I'hosphoric 
Acid. 

Potasli. 

Limp. 

Magnesia. 

Rutherglen. 

Per  c:>nt. 

Per  e?nt. 

Per  c^-nt. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Hillside— 

1a       Surface  to  G  inches 

•075 

•057 

•220 

132 

•197 

1b       Subsoil,  6  to  15  inches 

•064 

•051 

•255 

084 

•223 

Ic             „       15  to  24       „ 

•061 

•065 

•281 

096 

•267 

Flat  near  Brown's  Plains — 

2a       Surface  to  11  inches 

•092 

•083 

•193 

136 

•166 

2b       Subsoil,  11  to  24  inches      .  . 

•050 

•039 

•239 

082 

•196 

Viticultural  College  Flat — 

3a       Surface  to  8  inches 

•039 

•022 

•135 

080 

•152 

3b       Subsoil,  8  to  14  inches 

•040 

•022 

•154 

086 

■185 

3c            „       14  to  20       „ 

•040 

•024 

•335 

124 

•263 

3d            „      20  to  26       „ 

•030 

•024 

-.350 

125 

•367 

Wahgunyah  (sandliill  soil) — 

4a       Surface  to  12  inches 

•043 

•043 

•120 

099 

•212 

4b       Subsoil,  12  to  24  inches 

•028 

•038 

■1.34 

076 

•213 

4c             „        24  to  3fi 

•019 

■037 

•140 

070 

•260 

10  Oct.,  191:?.]     Tlie  Use  of  Lime  in  Yictonaii  Vi//evards, 


\V 


Tabi.k  a. — L'lW  LiMK  Region — conliimed. 


Whitfield. 
.~)\       Surface  to  12  inches 
OB       Subsoil,  12  to  24  inches 


Goidburn   ]'iillei/. 
Shepjjarton    Irrigation    Settk 
nient  (loamy  clay  soil) — 
Surfate  to  8  inches 
Subsoil,  8  to  20  inches 
..       20  to  2(j 
Tatura  (stiff  clay  soil) — 
Surface  to  o  inches 
Subsoil,  o  to  12  inches 
„       12  to  20       ., 
Cobrani  (sand  hill  soil) — 
Surface  to  7  inches 
Subsoil.  7  to  18  mches 
..       18  to  .30       ,. 
Tabilk  (fairly  sandy  soil) — 
Surface  to  12  inches 
Subsoil.  12  to  24  inches 
24  to  36       „ 
3<5  to  48       „ 
Dookie  (red  soil) — 
Sui'facc  .  . 


«)A 
<)B 
<)C 

7  A 

7b 

7c 

8a 
8b 
8c 

9a 
9b 
9c 
9d 

10a 
10b 


11a 

llB 


12a 
12b 
12c 

13a 
13b 
13c 

13 1) 


Subsoil 

Cosgrove 

soil)- 

Surface 

Subsoil 


(exceptional      lime 


Great  Western. 
Surface  to  7i  inches 
Subsoil,  Ih  to  14i  inches 
Hl  to  20'      ... 
Rhymney — 

Surface  to  8  inches 
Subsoil.  8  to  18  inches 
„       18  to  2.5       ., 
..       2.1  to  30       .. 


Xitrogi'ii. 


'Per  cent. 
■137 
■050 


048 
033 

028 

0!».") 
055 
042 

034 
014 
Oil 

084 
007 
050 
047 

095 
050 


■2,38 
•210 


•022 
•017 
•041 

■  10() 
■078 
■058 
•045 


Phosph"!; 
Acid. 


Per  c  -lit. 

•ooo 

•047 


•023 
■026 
■027 

•068 
(».-)2 
041 

•  023 
•013 
■018 

•067 

•  0(50 
•054 
■05() 

•043 
•043 


•045 
■153 


•012 
•013 

•  022 

•046 
•049 

•  055 
•054 


Per  cent. 
•289 
•238 


•120 
•299 
334 

442 

•62t) 
•  ()56 

•147 
•140 
•134 

■  308 
201 
•Kil 
•161 

•319 
•477 


•386 
■379 


■056 
•0()5 
•214 

•108 

•088 

133 

•258 


Per  cent. 

080 
024 


096 
276 
316 

308 
208 
204 

132 
096 
078 

182 
118 
156 
096 

156 
248 


1  960 
13  240 


056 
048 
108 

250 
190 
202 
322 


Magnesia. 


Per  cent. 
•180 
•125 


•174 
273 
•  697 


].-)5 
134 
1.38 

210 
161 
277 
241 


•036 
■  070 

•  220 

•  290 
•349 

402 
.544 


All  t'xaniination  ot  Tablf  A  show.s  clt^-arly  the  remarkable  deliciencv 
of  lime  which  characterizes  the  soils  of  this  large  portion  of  the  State. 
The  great  majority  of  the  samples  analyzed  contain  twice  as  much  potash 
as  lime.  I.solated  exceptions  are,  of  course,  to  be  met  with  occasionally, 
such  as  Xo.  II  A  and  B,  at  Co.sgrove.  near  Dookie.  which  show  up  to 
13  per  cent,  of  lime  in  the  sub.soil.  This  is  a  local  lime  deposit  of 
very  limited  area.  Such  cases  are  rare,  and  do  not  affect  the  main 
contention,  that  our  silurian  .soils  and  the  .soils  of  valleys  resulting  from 
the  decomposition  of  silurian   formations  are  invariably  poor  in  lime. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Xo.  13  A.  B.  C,  and  D,  one  of  the  few-  in 
which  lime  exceeds  potash,  is  the  lieaviest  bearing  vineyard  in  the  Great 
Western  and  Rhymney  districts.  It  was.  in  fact,  its  excellent  v:eld.s 
Avhich   led  to  the  samples  being  taken  for  analysis. 

Between  the  low  and  high  lime  regions  there  exists  an  intermediate 
ione  shown  in  Table  B  in  which,   as  vet.  there  are  few  \inevards.        The 


6;- 


Joiirnal  of  Agriculture.  Victoria. 


[lo  Oct..  1912. 


foliowing  analyses  show  a  markeil  increase  in  lime,  the  percentage  of  which 
slighth    exceeds  that  of  potash  :  — 

Taki.k  B. — Intermediate  Lime  Rec.ion. 


— 

Nitrogen. 

I'liosplioric 
Acid. 

Totasli. 

Lime. 

Magnesia. 

Per  cent. 

r.T  cent. 

IVr  cent. 

I*er  cent. 

IVr  cent. 

Bnmnwm. 

Pine  ridcfe  country — 
14a       Surface  to  12  inches 
14b       Subsoil,  12  to  24  inclies      . . 

•042 

•028 

■024 
■027 

•089 
•292 

174 
214 

•189 
•318 

Medium  soil — 
15a       Surface  to  fl  inches 
15b       Subsoil.  9  to  15  inciies 
15c             ..       15  to  24      „ 

■  045 
■025 

•022 

■026 
■026 
■  02() 

■  I!»9 

•  297 

•  .)t»9 

260 
230 
520 

245 
•464 
•490 

Sw-xn  HiU. 

Eel  soil— • 
16a       Surface  . . 
16b       Subsoil  . . 

■017 
•014 

■056 
■0(iO 

2()0 
■M)l 

466 
418 

•814 
1189 

Black  soil— 
17b       Subsoil.  7  to  IS  inrhes 

•  1  (15 

•  070 

•048 
035 

•:U9 
•  ..35 

390 
414 

445 

•  576 

In  striking  contrast  with  the  soils  of  tables  A  and  B  are  those  of  the 
Mallee  and  Wimmera  districts  shown  in  Table  C — 

Table  C. — Hum  Ltme  Region. 


— ■ 

Nitrogen. 

Plinsi)horic 
Acid. 

J'otasli. 

Lime. 

Magnesia. 

!'■■"  cent. 

I'er  cent. 

I'er  cent. 

I'er  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Xijali. 

Mallee.     jiine.     and     honey- 

suckle— 

18a       Surface  to  10  inches 

■  059 

026 

•403 

348 

•487 

18b       Sub.soil,  10  to  20  inches      .  . 

•037 

•025 

•  535 

1  836 

•769 

18c             „        20  to  30     ,. 

•  028 

•027 

•  756 

6  450 

1095 

Wimmera. 

Longerenong  (red  soil) — 

19a       Surface  .  . 

1.54 

•026 

•617 

213 

•461 

19  b       Subsoil  .  . 

•118 

•02(i 

•960 

253 

•620 

Longerenonii^  (black  soil) — 

20  V       Surface  .  . 

•151 

033 

1  •042 

3  580 

•137 

20b       Subsoil  .  . 

134 

•045 

1  ■070 

4  300 

076 

Mild  lira. 

L^arge  Mallee — 

21a       Soil 

•069 

•065 

•  529 

3  500 

— 

21b       Subsoil   .  . 

•046 

•051 

■488 

8  610 

— 

Blue  Bush  — 

22  V       Soil 

•071 

•069 

•826 

820 

— 

22b       Subsoil  .  . 

•046 

•050 

•676 

9  960 

— 

Murray  pine — 

23a       Soil 

•022 

•  020 

•261 

808 

— 

23b       Sub.soil  . . 

■024 

•019 

293 

5  480 

— 

Blue  bush  country — 

24a       Surface  to  8  inches 

■089 

•  0(55 

.571 

9  160 

•  990 

24b       Subsoil,  8  to  22  inches 

■  058 

•048 

•497 

19  360 

1  •  1 50 

24c             ..      22  to  36       .. 

.  053 

.045 

.575 

17  280 

1 .  <)20 

loOcT..  1912. J      'r lie  I'sc  of  /.inw  III  Victorian  ]'i/ie yards.  635 

III  ihis  part  of  thf  State  lime  is  almost  ever\  where  present  in  almndance. 
Occasional  exceptions,  such  as  No.  ig  A  and  B,  where  the  potash  exceeds 
th'e  lime,  are  rare,  and  in  a  general  wav  the  soils  of  the  Mallee  and 
Wimmera  cfintain  enormous  quantities  of  lime.  They  are  in  this  respect 
similar  to  the  hulk  of  P^uropean  vine  sods.  Table  C  is  given  for  the 
purpose  of  showing,  hv  comparison,  how  verv  deficient  in  lime  ar-'  the 
soils  of  table  A,  and  that  it  is  essentially  logical  to  expect  that  the 
correction  of  this  defect  by  liberal  lime  dressings  cannot  fail  to  have 
\ery  beneficial  results.* 

South  of  the  Dividing  Range  but  few  samples  of  soils  have  been  sub- 
mitted for  analysis  by  the  writer.  Some  of  these  re\eal  lime  deficiency 
similar  to  that  shown  in  table  A.  At  Geelong,  in  many  parts  of  the 
south-western  district,  and  of  Gippsland  calcareous  formations  occur.  1t 
is  scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  the  value  of  .soil  analysis  in  this 
conne-xion. 

Lime  and  Magnesia. 

The  arguments  so  far  adduced  in  favour  of  the  application  of  bme 
are  based  on  the  natural  deficiency  of  this  t'lement  in  the  soil.  The 
analyses  quoted  above  reveal  another  rea.son  why  such  application  should 
prove  beneficial,  viz.,  on  account  of  the  large  quantity  of  magnesia  manv 
of  our  soils  contain.  Authorities  on  soils  are  agreed  that  it  is  desirable 
for  lime  to  be  present  in  greater  quantity  than  magnesia.  Hilgard  is 
•emphatic  on  the  point — ■ 

"  Soils  containing  large  proportions  of  magnesia  generally  are  found 
to  h^  unthrifty,  the  lands  so  constituted  being  frequently  designated  as 
'  barrens.'  Lowe  finds  that  certain  proportions  of  lime  to  magnesia  must 
be  preserved  if  production  is  to  l>e  satisfactory,  the  proportion  varying 
with  different  plants,  some  of  which  {e.g.,  oats)  will  do  well  when  the 
proportion  of  lime  to  magnesia  is  as  i  to  i.  while  others  require  that 
that  ratio  should  be  as  2  or  3  is  to  i,  to  secure  best  results.  In  general 
it  IS  best  that  lime  should  exceed  magnesia  in  amount.'"     And  again — 

■'  In  the  case  of  soils  containing  much  magnesia  the  proper  proportion 
between  it  and  lime  may  easily  be  disturbed  by  the  greater  ea.se  with 
which  lime  carbonate  is  carried  awav  by  carbonated  water  into  the  sub- 
soil, thus  leaving  the  magnesia  in  undesiraljle  excess  in  the  surface 
soil.  Hence  the  great  advantage  of  having  in  a  soil,  from  the  outset, 
an  ample  proportion  of  lime.  From  this  point  of  \iew  alone,  then,  the 
analytical  determination  of  lime  and  magnesia  in  soils  is  of  high  practical 
value. ' ' 

On  reference  to  table  A  it  will  be  seen  that  the  .soils  of  the  low  lime 
region  contain,  very  generally,  from  two  to  three  times  as  much  magnesia 
as  lime.  The  correction  of  this  defect  by  applications  of  lime  appears 
to  be  most  desirable. 

Lime  as  a  Potash  Liberator. 

The  Avhole  of  the  analyses  quoted  above  show  that  our  vine  soils 
usually  contain  a  satisfactory  proportion  of  potash.  Some  are  exceed- 
ingly rich  in  this  element,  which,  in  view  of  the  considerable  quantities 
removed  annually,  in  the  shape  of  cream  of  tartar,  is  of  great  importance 
in  viticulture. 

*  In  the  viticultural  districts  of  France  where  lime  is  deficient  e.xcellent  results  follow  its 
application  to  the  soil.  According  to  Guillon.  for  instance.  "  Granitic  soils  are  nearly  always  rich  in 
potash,  but  the  majority,  excepting  those  with  calcic  feldspar,  are  almost  completely  devoid  of  lime, 
anl  only  become  fertile  if  thi^  elem^at  is  brought  to  them  in  the  course  of  soil  improvement 
■an\^i\Amer^ls)."     J.  M.  Guillon.  Etude  G6n6rale  de  la  Vigne,  p.  349. 


634 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[jo  (Jct.,  1912. 


The  question  arises:  Ts  tliis  potash  readily  avaihtble?  In  the  case 
of  the  soils  of  table  A  this  appears  doubtful.  In  view  of  the  low  (ime 
contents  a  large  proportion  of  the  potash  is  probably  held  in  zeolitic  and 
other  combinations,  largely  in  the  shape  of  double  silicates.  From  such  some- 
what loose  comljination  lime  is  able  to  displace  potash.  An  application  of 
lime  is  coiisecjuentlv  equivalent  to  an  application  of  potash,  and  when  the 
very  considerable  difference  in  Drice  in  favour  of  the  lime  is  taken  inta 
account,  this  means  of  unlocking  the  latent  potash  supplies,  is  thus,  not 
onlv  desirable,  but  financially  easy.  Such  theoretical  considerations  re- 
ceive practical  confirmation  in  a  striking  manner  in  parts  of  the  Goulburn 
Valley,  where  several  growers  are  satisfied  that  thev  have  obtained  greater- 
benefit  from  the  application  of  lime  than   potash. 

The  f'oRRKCTioN  OF  Acidity. 
Aciditv  or  sourness  is  well  known  to  be  an  undesirable  condition  in  a 
soil  ;    and  vet  very  manv   Victorian  soils  present  an   acid  reaction.        Thc^ 


J^uukiiig  towaids  ll(i|ikiiis  J{i\(i.     Tin-  uiiiguig  sand  dunes  contain  SU  per  cent,  ealeium  carbonate. 
Cross  on  tlu'  left  shows  position  of  railway  line. 


whole  of  the  soils  of  which  analyses  are  given  in  table  A  are  more  or  less; 
acid,  with  the  exception  of  No.  11  ;  on  the  other  hand  those  of  table  B 
are  neutral  or  alkaline,  whilst  those  of  table  C  are  distinctly  alkaline. 
Lime  poverty  and  acidity  are  thus  directly  connected.  Lime,  being 
stronglv  alkaline,  is  a  direct  corrective  of  soil  aciditv  as  well  as  being  the- 
cheapest  obtainable.  Its  use  for  this  reason  alone  is  most  desirable  in 
all   soils,   presenting  the  defect  of  an  acid  reaction. 

Lime  as  a  Soil  Improver. 

In  addition  to  the  chemical  actions  mentioned  abo\e,  lime  is  capable- 
of  bringing  about  considerable  physical  improvem,ent,  especiallv  in  soils 
containing  much  clay.  It  flocculates  or  curdles  this  substance,  thereby 
rendering  soils  containing  it  in  considerable  proportion  more  friable  and 
more  easy  to  work. 

^^"ith  the  exception  of  sandy  formations,  su^di  as  the  pine  ridges 
occurring  at  intervals  throughout  Northern  Victoria,  the  .soils,  and  more 
especially  the  sub.soils  of  the  State,  are  of  a  clayey  nature,  and  are- 
capable  of  lieing  much   improxed  by  the  application   of  lime.      A   striking- 


loOcT.,  lyi-'.J      77/1'  Use  of  Lime  in  Vicionaii   Vineyards.  635 

instance  uf  this  case  may  be  given.  Mr.  H.  J-:.  Ireland,  of  St. 
Leonard's  vineyard,  near  Wahgunyali,  planted  with  vines  a  block 
of  land  on  which  were  a  couple  of  small  patches  of  unusually 
stiff  land  on  which  reeds  grew.  Instead  of  leaving _  these  patches  un- 
planted,  Mr.  Ireland  dt^cided  to  attempt  their  correction  by  the  use  of 
lime.  Gypsum  (sulphate  of  lime)  was  the  form  u.sed  ;  this  was  applied 
at  the  rate  of  about  5  tons  per  acre,  about  three  years  ago.  The  result 
was  entirelv  satisfactory,  and  at  the  present  time  the.se  patches  are  com- 
pletely transformed.  From  on  almost  liopelessly  stiff  clay,  which  seemed 
unfit  to  grow  vines,  they  have  been  converted  into  good  friable  soil,  quite 
equal  to  the  rest  of  the  block.  The  dressing  was  no  doubt  a  very  heavy 
one,  but  the  cost  of  such  could  easily  be  borne  in  the  case  of  a  permanent 
and  profital)le  culture,  such  as  that  of  the  vine.  The  case  was  a  rather 
exceptional  one,  and  in  view  of  the  apparently  intractable  nature  of  the 
clav  patches,  an  heroic  dose  was  judged  necessary.  Very  much  lighter 
applications  would   probably  be  ample  in  most  clay  soils. 

The  application  of  lime  as  a  soil  improver  is  often  found  advantageous 
in  French  vine  soils,  notwithstanding  their  being  already  well  supplied. 
In  tho.se  of  our  Victorian  soils  which  are  deficient  in  lime  it  is  surely 
reasonable  to  look   for  far  greater  benefit. 

Different   Forms   of  Lime. 

Lime  mav  be  applied  to  the  soil  in  several  distinct  forms,  each  of  which 
has  its  advantages  and  defects,  and  ma\  be  well  suited  or  otherwise  to 
any  given  case.        The  three  principal  foims  are — 

J.   Lime   properly    so  called,    or   burnt    lime,    whether    '"quick"    cr 

"  slaked." 
2..   Ground  limestone  or  lime  carbonate. 
3.    Gvpsum  or  lime  sulphate. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  phosphatic  n:anures  in  general  use 
contain  much  lime ;  superphosphate  contains  nearly  half  its  weight  c^f 
lime  sulphate,  whilst  Thomas'  phosphate  (basic  slag)  contains  even  more 
lime,   but  combined   in  a  different  form. 

The  first  is  the  most  concentrated,  a  given  weight  of  burnt  lime  con- 
taining more  lime  (pure  calcium  oxide)  than  any  other  form ;  hence,  at 
anything  like  equal  price  it  is  also  the  most  economical,  both  as  regards 
cost  of  the  lime  unit  and  carriage.  Being  strongly  alkaline  it  immediately 
neutralizes  .soil  acidity,  but  being  also  caustic  it  is  rather  severe  on  the 
organic  matter  (humus)  of  the  soil  ;  for  the  latter  reason  the  rate  cf 
application  should  not  exceed  half  a  ton  per  acre.  Used  in  conjunction 
with  green  manuring,  to  supply  organic  matter,  we  have  in  lime  a  most 
poAverful  means  of  increasing  the  fertility  of  our  vineyards. 

Ground  limestone,  containing  considerably  less  calcium  oxide  than  burnt 
lime,  is  a  less  economical  form.  It  parts  readily  with  its  carbonic  acid 
in  acid  soils,  and  is  therefore  well  suited  for  their  neutralization.  Since 
it  is  not  in  any  way  caustic  it  ma\-  be  .supplied  in  almost  any  quantity 
without  affecting  humus.  Insolubility  is  its  chief  defect,  but  this  is  also 
shared  In  burnt  lime,  which  rapidly  becomes  carbonated  on  exposure  to 
the  air. 

Gypsum  po.ssesses  undoubted  good  qualities  as  well  as  serious  draw- 
hacks.  A  great  part  of  its  weight  being  made  up  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
water,  the  unit  cost  of  lime  in  this  form  is  very  high.  It  is  a  neutral 
salt,  and  as  such  it  is  valueless  for  the  correction  of  acid  soils.        On  the 


636  Joitnial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [70  Oct..  191:;. 

other  hand  its  solubility  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the  carbonate  (166 
times) ;  its  dissemination  throughout  the  soil  is  therefore  niore  rapid,  every 
shower  carrying  a  certain  quantity  further  into  the  subsoil.  As  a  source 
of  lime,  where  this  element  is  deficient,  as  a  potash  liberator  and  as  a 
soil  improver,  its  efficiency  is  unquestionable.  Its  successful  use  in  the 
latter  connexion,  at  St.  Leonard's  yineyard,  has  already  been  mentioned, 
(iypsum  is  very  highly  thought  of  in  France,  where  it  enters  into  all  the 
most  popular  vine  manure  formulas.  \\'ere  it  not  for  its  high  cost,  per- 
haps even  in  spite  of  it,  it  would  seem  to  merit  further  trial  in  our  vine- 
yards. Possibly  a  mixture  of  lime  and  gypsum,  the  former  on  account 
of  alkalinity  and  cheapness,  and  the  latter  owing  to  its  greater  solubility, 
may   prove  the  most  suitable  form   for  vineyard  use 

Practical   Results. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  experiments  to  practically  test  the  influrnce 
of  lime  as  a  means  of  increasing  yield  have  not  yet  been  carried  out  ; 
at  least,  not  on  a  sufficient  scale  to  give  definite  information.  It  is  true 
that  in  some  experiments  conducted  by  the  writer  both  lime  and  gvpsum 
have  been  applied  in  conjunction  with  otherwise  complete  manures.  In 
a  general  wav  the  plots  receiving  either  of  these  substances  have  yielded 
better  crops  than  those  to  which  complete  manure-  without  lime  in  any 
quantity  were  applied.  Owing  to  the  unevenness  of  the  plots  and  their 
small  number,  the  information,  so  far,  is  less  definite  than  one  could 
wish.  Nor  have  the  experiments  been  in  force  for  a  sufficient  time.  In 
vineyard  manuring  results  are  not  so  immediate  as  in  the  case  of  an 
annual   crop. 

Reference  must  be  here  made  to  the  numerous  practical  growers  who, 
as  the  result  of  their  past  experience  of  Ume  application,  are  quite  con- 
vinced on  the  subject,  and  have  become  strong  advocates  of  the  practice. 

Further  experiments,  in  order  to  practically  test  the  application  of 
lime  in  its  different  forms,  are  to  be  shortly  undertaken.  It  is  con- 
fidently expected  that  the  results  will  confirm  the  theoretical  considerations 
outlined  above,  and  that  they  will  be  in  complete  accordance  with  the 
experience  of  tho.se  progressive  growers  who  already  applied  lime  exten- 
sivelv  to  their  vinevards. 


VIII. 

LIME  FOR  TOBACCO  LAND. 

By  Temple  A.  J.  Smith. 

The  \-alue  of  lime  for  soils  in  which  tobacco  is  produced  has  not  yet 
been  sufficiently  recognised  by  growers  in  Victoria.  Most  of  the  land  used 
for  this  purpose  has  been  shown  by  analysis  to  be  deficient  in  lime,  and 
even  where  the  land  is  known  to  have  a  fair  percentage,  applications, 
especially  in  some  new  form,  have  advantageous  results. 


loOcT..  1912.]  T.uiic  for  Tobacco  Land.  637 

The  ash  of  the  tobacco  plant  contains  large  proportionate  amounts  of 
lime  and  potash,  with  a  low  ])eMcentage  of  jjhosphoric  acid,  as  the  following, 
figures  show,  viz.  : — - 


Xitrogen 
Potash 

Phosphoric   acid 
Lime 
Magnesia 


4.12 

6.20 

.62 

5-50 
1.67 


Tobacco  is  evidently  largely  dependent  on  lime  as  a  food,  and  for  that 
reason  alone  a  supply  should  be  provided  where  it  is  known  a  deficiency . 
exists.      It   is   also   necessary   that   considerably   more   than   is   actually    re- 
quired bv  the  crop  be  present,  as  the  period  of  growth  is  short.  "  being  from. 
twelve  to  twenty  weeks,"  to  enable  the  tobacco  to  obtain  a  full  supply. 

A  crop  of  Connecticut  seed  leaf  from  i  acre,  including  stalks  and  leaves,, 
w-eighing  4,075  lbs.  in  all,  takes  from  the  soil :  — 

138  lbs.  of  potash. 

94  lbs.  of  lime. 

97  lbs.  of  nitrogen. 

16  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid. 

30  lbs.  of  magnesia. 

The  application  of  lime,  apart  from  its  \alue  as  a  food  in  itself,  is  of 
even  greater  importance  in  regard  to  its  effect  in  releasing  and  indirectly 
supplying  potash  and  nitrogen  for  the  crop's  benefit.  As  the  analysis- 
shows  that  potash  is  the  element  of  food  taken  in  the  greatest  quantity  from 
the  soil,  and,  as  is  well  known,  lime  has  the  effect  of  liberating  and  making 
available  potash  for  the  quickly  growing  crop,  it  is  evident  that  for  this 
purpose  dressings  of  lime  sHould  be  applied. 

^     "^  •         •     • 

Potash  in  sufficient  quantity  is  not  only  necessary  to  tobacco  to  insure 

a  heavy  yield,  but  its  influence  on  the  quality  of  the  leaf  is  highly  beneficial, 
counteracting  the  bad  effect  on  the  combustion  or  burn  of  tobacco  caused 
by  an  excess  of  magnesia  or  chlorine  in  the  soil.  Lime  also  assists  in 
supplying  nitrogen  indirectly,  and  at  a  greater  rate,  owing  to  its  influence  on: 
nitrification,  and  the  temperature  of  the  soil  is  slightly  increased,  an  impor- 
tant matter  in  regard  to  tobacco. 

The  mechanical  effect  of  lime  on  the  soil  in  relation  to  tobacco-growing- 
is  especially  valuable.  All  tobaccoes  thrive  best,  and  are  of  better  quality, 
when  produced  from  free  and  well  aerated  soils,  consequently  the  floccu- 
lating power  of  lime  on  those  soils,  liable  to  set  closely,  renders  them  more 
open  and  friable,  bringing  about  the  desired  result. 

Its  effect  on  sour  soils  is  highly  beneficial  in  counteracting  acidity,  and  in 
this  way,  not  only  inducing  a  better  growth  of  the  crop,  but  materially  in- 
fluencing the  curing  processes  and  fermentation  later  on  in  the  sheds, 
this  being  due  to  the  effect  of  the  alkali  supplied  to  the  plant,  which,  if 
deficient  in  quantity,  interferes  with  the  development  and  action  of  the 
enzyme,  or  ferment,  through  whose  agency  the  cure  and  fermentation  of 
the  leaf  is  perfected. 


638  J o II r}ial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [10  Oct..  191-'. 

An  application  of  lime  will  often  save  laliour  and  loss  from  insect 
pest.s.  killing  the  larvge  of  cutworms,  caterpillars,  grasshoppers.  &c.  It 
is  likewise  to  some  extent  a  fungicide,  and  though  not  a  cure  for  the  disease 
known  as  blue  mould,  acts  more  or  less  as  a  preventive.  Weeds  of  the 
most  trouble.some  kind,  .such  as  sorrel,  will  not  grow  w^here  lime  is  plentiful 
in  the  soil,  another  important  consideration  in  tobacco-growing,  where  weeds 
must  be  kept  out  of  the  plot.  Clovers  and  trefoils  always  grow  more  pro- 
fusely after  liming  practices  are  adopted,  and  very  beneficial  results 
follow.  Tobacco  is,  as  a  rule,  har\ested  in  the  early  autumn,  and  if  the 
trefoils  grow  well  during  the  winter,  they  act  as  a  catch  rotation  crop,  sup- 
plving  humus  to  the  soil,  and  releasing  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  in 
arldition  to  storing  up  nitrogen  in  the  soluble  form.  Experience  proves 
that  tobacco  in  Victoria,  and  elsewhere,  when  grown  in  soils  containing  large 
amounts  of  lime,  matures  from  four  to  eight  weeks  earlier  than  when  grown 
in  sour  land.  Quickly-grown  tobacco  leaf  is  generally  of  better  quality, 
and  naturally  labour' is  .saved  in  keeping  down  weeds  and  in.sect  pests,  and 
the  risk  of  loss  l:)v  frost,  hail,  &c:.,  diminished. 

'J"he  different  forms  of  lime  procurable  have  somewhat  different  effects 
en  tobacco  soils.  Where  heavy  swamp  land  or  peaty  soils  are  cultivated, 
the  use  of  builders'  lime,  "  burnt  lime,"'  will  be  found  most  advantageous. 
Too  much  rough,  organic  matter  in  the  shape  of  undecomposed  roots,  weeds, 
tv:c..  has  the  effect  of  causing  the  tobacco  to  grow  rank,  and  with  too  great 
a  nicotine  content.  The  builders'  lime  applied  at  the  rate  of  from  5 
cwt.  to  10  cwt.  per  acre  in  the  autumn  w-ill  assist  in  decomposing  this 
excess  of  vegetable  matter,  and  render  the  soil  sweeter  and  better  fitted  to 
produce  good  quality  leaf.  On  clay  or  silty  soils,  the  burnt  lime  also  is 
desirable,  as  it  improves  the  temperature  in  cold  soils,  and  makes  them  more 
friable  and  open.  On  .sandy  loams,  gypsum,  "sulphate  of  lime,"  gives 
good  results,  as  also  on  chocolate  soils ;  larger  amounts,  howe\'er,  should 
l)e  used,  from  10  cwt.  to  2  tons,  as  its  effects  are  not  so  pronounced  as 
those  of  the  burnt  lime.  In  all  soils  short  of  humus,  gypsum  is  safer  to 
u.se  than  burnt  lime,  not  having  the  caustic  properties,  and  consequently 
Jiot  destroying  the  vegetable  matter  to  the  same  extent. 

Ground  limestone  is  a  valuable  form  of  lime  for  tobacco  land,  and  is 
more  easily  handled  and  applied  than  burnt  lime.  At  the  price,  it  will  be 
found  no  more  expensive  than  burnt  lime,  although  it  is  necessary  to  use 
about  twice  the  amount  to  obtain  equal  results ;  it  is  also  slower  in  its 
effects. 

On  the  whole,  I  am  of  opinion  tliat  lime  for  tobacco  land  is  of  more 
importance  in  Victoria,  especially  in  the  mountainous  districts,  than  any 
other  treatment,  and  that  it  would  pay  to  use  it.  I  have  no  doubt  what- 
ever a  larger  crop  of  better  quality  would  pay  the  cost  of  purchase  and 
application  of,  say,  10  cwt.  per  acre,  twice  over  in  one  vear,  and  the 
effect  of  the  lime  would  be  felt  over  three  years  at  least.  For  the  seed-beds 
in  which  tobacco  plants  are  raised,  the  use  of  lime  as  an  insect  and  weed 
<lestroyer  would  be  found  useful,  but  the  application  should  be  made  at 
least  a  month  or  six  weeks  before  the  seed  is  sown.  Some  of  the  best 
tobacco  leaf  produced  in  America  is  grown  on  limestone  country,  contain- 
ing as  high  as  17  per  cent,  lime,  while  it  is  used  on  all  soils  in  which  lime 
is  deficient. 


lo  Oct..  191  .^-l  The  I'sc  of  L:»n  ni  Potato  Culture. 


639 


[X. 

THI-.    LSK   OF   LIMK   I\    POTATO   (  LLTLRK. 

A'r  Geo.   Seymour,   Potato   Expert. 

The  use  of  lime  in  potato  culture  has  not  hitherto  received  much  atten- 
tion from  the  growers  of  this  State.  The  reason  generally  assigned  for  this- 
is  that  the  cost  of  freight,  a(Jded  to  that  of  the  lime,  makes  it  \erv 
expensive. 

Though  the  potato  crnii  remoxes  a  comparatiwly  .<mall  quantity  of 
lime  from  the  soil,  the  haulm,  like  other  plants,  requires  a  considerable 
quantity.  It  is  generally  recognised  that  to  haye  a  satisfactory  crop  of 
tubers,  we  must  have  a  vigorous  and  well  developed  plant,  and  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  use  of  lime,  in  some  .soils,  would  contribute  largely 
to  that  vigorous  growth  of  the  plant  which  results  in  an  increa.sed  yield. 

The  following  figures  will  show  the  difference  in  the  quantities  of  lime 
per  acre  removed  l>y  a  six-toii  crop  of  i)Otatoes  and  the  haulm  of  the 
crop — 


<(  tons  ])er  acre 


Lime  Rpiuovpd  por  Aoro. 


Tubers. 


■1\)  1I)S 


•1-1    -,   II) 


Total. 


1>.}()    1I)S 


Taking  the  average  of  the  Victorian  crop  of  potatoes  at  3  tons  per  acre 
the  total  loss  would  be  nearly  13  lbs.  per  acre.  This,  it  must  be  re- 
membered, is  often  from  a  soil  already  deficient  in  lime,  so  that  growers 
would  do  well  to  test  the  value  of  the  use  of  lime  on  their  potato  fields. 

The  benefits  of  lime  mav  be  stated  as  follows: — • 

1.  It  acts  as  plant  food. 

2.  It  corrects  the  acidity  of   the  soil,   causing  coarse  vegetation  to- 

give    place    to  more    nutritious   plants   and     discourages  the 
growth  of  sorrel. 

3.  It  acts  ra|)idly  on  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  and  prepares  it 

for  plant  food  by  liberating  the  nitrogen  which  it  contains. 

4.  It  decomposes  the  dormant  mineral  matter  of  the  .soil.  esi)ecially 

clay  .soil. 

5.  It  improves  the  physical  condition  of  heavy  clav  lands. 

This  Dei)artment  carried  out  .some  experiments  on  the  5-acre  fora^-e 
fields  in  the  seasons  1905/6  and  1906/7,  the  results  of  which  are  given 
ui  the  table  below.  The  soils  embraced  the  following — Heavy  clay  .soil,  at 
<  'arrum  :  clay  loam,  of  a  gravelly  nature,  at  Digger's  Rest  ;  peat.'  drained 
swamp,  at  South  Bunyip  ;  heavy  clay  soil,   at  Turkeith  (Colac). 

The  above  soils  were  all,  more  or  le.ss,  benefited  by  a  dressing  of  ^  cwt. 
per  acre,  whilst  tlie  rich  volcanic  soil,  at  Illowa.  and  the  light  volcanic 
soil,    at   Kilmore.    showed   a   decreased   return,    but   looking   at   the   returns 


<640 


Joiinial  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria. 


[lo  Oct.,  1912. 


1 10111  tlie  [leaty  and  heavy  clay  soils  it  will  he  seen  that  even  so  moderate 
n  dressing  as  5  cwt.  proved  beneficial.  The  action  of  lime  on  the  peaty 
soil  of  the  drained  swamp  at  Bunyip  South,  in  1905/6,  was  repeated  in 
a  more  emphatic  rr.anner  in  the  1906/7  operations  with  an  increase  to 
12  cwt.  per  acre  over  the  unlimetl  section.  Its  action  was  equally  satisfac- 
torv  in  the  clay  loam  at  Digger's  Rest,  also  in  the  stiff,  heavy  clays  at 
ihe  widely  separated  centres  of  Carrum  and  Turkeith,  near  Colac.  The 
soils  at  the  two  latter  places  being  almost  identical. 

The  results  of  these  experiments  go  to  show  that  lime  may  be  used 
with  advantage  to  the  potato  crop  on  the  soils  which  contain  abundance 
of  organic  matter,  such  as  the  peaty  soils  of  drained  swamps  and  the  heavy 
clav   land,   whilst  it  mav  do  harm  on  the  lighter  soils. 


Digger's  Re.st 
Digger's  Rest 
Whittlesea 
YMiTiun 
Bu'iyi)!  South 
Bunyip  South 
Condah 


Carruiu 
Turkeith 
Illovva 
Kilmore 


0  ew 

1 

+ 

Increase. 

Class  of  Soil. 

Lime 

No  l.iiiie. 

Decrease. 

Season. 

t. 

C. 

q- 

t. 

e. 

q- 

t.    c.    q. 

Gravelly  clay  loam 

1 

0 

0 

0 

l(i 

0 

+ 

0     4     0 

1905-6 

Gravelly  clay  loam 

() 

l(i 

0 

0 

12 

0 

+ 

0     4     0 

1906-7 

Litiht  loam 

1 

2 

0 

1 

2 

0 

1905-6 

Liiiht  loam 

(1 

10 

0 

0 

12 

0 

— 

0     2     0 

1905-6 

Peat 

2 

2 

0 

1 

18 

0 

+ 

0     4     0 

1905-6 

Peat 

.3 

4 

0 

2 

12 

0 

+ 

0  12     0 

1906-7 

Gravellj'    loam    vol- 

4 

2 

0 

4 

4 

0 

0     2     0 

1905-6 

canic  soil 

Heavy  clay 

4 

18 

0 

4 

8 

0 

+ 

0  10     0 

1905-6 

Heavj'  clay 

2 

4 

0 

1 

18 

0 

+ 

0     6    0 

1906-7 

Rich  volcanic 

3 

Ui 

0 

4 

0 

0 

— 

0     4    0 

1905-6 

Light  volcanic 

■^ 

4 

0 

4 

16 

0 

— 

0  12     0 

1906-7 

X. 


LIME    FOR    ORCHARDS. 

By  P.  J .   Carmody,  Chief  Orchard  Supervisor. 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  average  crop  of  fruit  requires  more 
plant  food  for  its  development  than  an  average  crop  of  wheat,  and,  more- 
over, that  the  fruit  demands  the  same  soil  constituents  year  after  year, 
the  necessity  for  a  sweet  and  favorable  medium  for  root  pasturage  is 
apparent;  and  as  no  other  application  is  at  all  comparable  to  the  in- 
fluence of  lime  for  this  purpose,  its  frequent  use  is  urgently  required. 
It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  the  fruit-buds  of  trees  grown 
on  sour  soils  are  of  a  weak  or  indefinite  character,  while  the  bark  is  harsh 
and  dry  in  appearance,  and  the  growtii  more  or  less  stunted.  Under 
such  conditions  it  is  practically  impossible  to  develop  trees  on  the  most 
profitable  lines  without  first  correcting  soil  acidity  bv  the  free  use  of  lime 
in  the  same  manner  as  re(}uires  to  be  adopted  for  other  farm  crops. 

In  many  parts  of  the  State  insufficient  attention  has  been  given  to  this 
feature  of   soil   management  in   the   orchards.        Particularly    is    this   the 


loOcT.,  1Q1-]  LiDic  for  Orc/iards.  641 

case  wlwre  fruit  is  grown  on  heavy  clay  soils.  In  these  soils  fruit  trees; 
grow  through  a  lengthy  period,  so  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  im- 
mature wood  is  produced  to  the  detriment  of  suijsequent  crops  of  fruit. 
Measures  have  not  hitherto  been  adopted  to  definitely  determine  the  actual 
effect  of  lime  on  the  different  parts  of  the  tree ;  but  investigations  in- 
other  countries  show  that  on  soils  rich  in  lime  the  wood  is  matured  earlier 
and  the  fruit-buds  are  mere  stock\  and  robust  than  is  the  case  with  trees 
grown  on  soils  deficient  in  lime.  This  is  very  apparent  tn  any  one 
acquainted  with  the  fruit  areas  of  many  parts  of  Cipjisland  and  other 
places  in  Southern  Victoria,  and  one  is  struck  with  the  unusual  prominence 
or  length  of  the  fruit-buds,  the  relative  distance  between  the  nodes,  and 
the  softness  of  the  wood  in  these  districts  when  compared  with  the  same 
varieties  grown  in  fruit  centres  known  to  possess  lime  in  abundance. 

It  may  not,  however,  be  correct  to  assign  these  differences  solely  tot 
the  effect  of  lime,  as  other  soil  constituents  bear  an  important  ])art  orr 
the  character  of  the  tree  and  its  fruit-buds,  particularly  potash.  It  i.s- 
generally  recognised  that  the  trees  are  not  so  manageable  nor  so  prf)!ific 
in  bearing  in  soils  where  lime  is  deficient,  and  growers  who  have  rectified 
this  have  had  excellent  results,  though  as  artificial  fertilizers  were  sub- 
sequently applied  the  same  year,  the  relative  va.lue  of  the  lime  could  not 
be  ascertaineil.  Though  lime  plavs  an  important  part  in  the  apple  and 
pear  tree^  it  is  in  the  stone  fruits  that  its  value  is  most  apparent.  It 
is  a  familiar  fact  that  in  .soils  rich  in  lime  the  stone  fruits  set  their  crops 
well,  and  are  not  so  j)rone  to  cast  off  their  fruit  at  the  period  of 
"  stoning  "  as  is  otherwi.se  the  case.  Where  trees  are  making  extensive 
wood  grouch  with  abundant  foliage  there  is  buL  little  doubt  that  the  ap- 
plication of  lime  at  the  rate  of  7  to  8  cwt.  to  the  acre  would  be  of  pro 
no'.inccd  benefit. 

No  class  of  fruit  is  more  eloquent  in  its  retjuest  for  specific  soil  con- 
stituents than  the  citrus.  A  light  yellowish  appearance  of  the  leaves- 
demands  an  application  of  nitrogenous  manures,  whilst  the  want  of 
phosphoric  acid  is  evidenced  by  manv  of  the  light  laterals  dying  off.  In 
a  soil  where  lime  is  abundant  the  thinness  of  the  rind,  the  deep  colour 
and  delicate  aroma  of  the  f.ruit  are  special  features  of  the  orange,  so 
that  beneficial- effectS'.are. obtained  .bv  the  use.  of  lime  in  almost  all  classes 
of  fruit. 


ARTTFiriAL  MANURES  ACT.   No.   2274. 
Sfxtion  14. 


NOTICE     TO     MANUFACTURERS     AND     IMPORTERS     OF 
ARTIFICIAL     MANURES. 

Applications  for  registration  of  brands  of  all  manures  which  are 
intended  for  sale  during  the  ensuing  season  mu.st,  with  declarations  and 
regulation  fees,  be  lodged  with  the  Secretary  for  Agriculture  on  or  before 
the   I  St   November. 


hl2  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Yicioria.  [lo  Oct..  1912. 

8PRTN(;  CIIKDDAR  CHEESE-MAKING. 

By  G.  C.  Sawcrs,  CJiecsc  Expert. 

As  the  season  approaches  for  the  making  of  cheese,  it  is  important 
1c-  overhaul  the  Imildings,  and  have  the  interior,  plant,  Sec.  thoroughly 
renovated  and  brought  up  to  date  with  modern  utensils.  Provision  should 
he  made  for  the  supply  of  clean,  sweet  milk,  perfect  samples  of  which  in 
.such  quantities  as  are  accumulated  at  factories  are  far  too  rare,  and  those 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese  commence  their  efforts  under  con- 
ditions which  make  perfection   impossible. 

Sometimes  it  is  found  that  the  milk  when  recei\ed  appears  in  fairly 
good  condition,  hut  after  the  heat  is  applied  to  the  curd  in  the  whey, 
develops  a  very  bad  flavour.  This  is  owing  to  some  of  the  milk  containing 
germs — probably  entering  in  the  milking  shed  by  reason  of  insanitary 
and  careless  methods — which  had  not  developed  their  characteristic  odour 
at  the  time  the  milk  was  being  received. 

A  good,  clean-flavoured  .starter  is  one  of  the  fir.st  essentials  in  the 
manufacture  of  prime  cheese.  Every  utensil  which  comes  in  contact  with 
The  starter  .should  be  previously  sterilized.  Spring  cheese  is  generally 
made  too  firm  due  mainly  to  it  receiving  the  same  treatment  as  that  made 
from    richer   milk. 

Curd  from  spring  milk  containing  a  comparatixely  small  percentage  of 
fat  expels  moisture  more  rapidly  than  curd  from  richer  milk  ;  therefore,  it 
must  be  treated  so  as  to  retain  more  moisture,  or  the  resulting  cheese  will 
.he  too  firm  and  cure  slowly. 

A  test  of  the  milk  should  l>e  made,  and  the  treatment  varied  according 
to  the  quality.  In  spring,  when  the  milk  is  testing  low.  it  is  found  that 
.setting  at  a  lower  temperature  and  using  a  correspondinglv  larger  quantity 
of  rennet,  tends  to  make  a  quicker-curing  cheese. 

If  it  is  intended  that  the  cheese  shall  go  into  market  in  fourteen  to 
twenty  days,  which  is  usually  the  case  in  the  earlv  part  of  the  season, 
sufficient  should  be  used  to  insure  the  process  of  coagulation  commencing 
in  from  eight  to  ten  minutes. 

Spring  milk  testing  3  to  3.5  may  Ije  set  at  82  to  84  degrees  Fahr.,  and 
enough  rennet  used  to  have  it  ready  for  the  knives  in  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  minutes;  this  usuallv  requires  4  oz.  to  4^-  oz.  rennet  extract  per  i.ooo 
Ihs.    milk. 

This  treatment  should  only  be  for  a  few  weeks,  and  should  be 
gradually  changed  as  the  fat  increases  and  the  weather  gets  warmer.  The 
setting  temperature  must  then  be  raised  and  the  quantitv  of  rennet  de- 
•creased,   in  order  to  get  a  firmer  and  slower-curing  cheese. 

The  milk  should  be  set  in  the  vat  early  enough  to  allow  the  curd 
sufficient  time  to  get  fairly  firm  in  the  whev  before  the  acidity  develops. 
A  great  deal  of  curd  is  injured  at  this  stage  of  the  process.  Cheese 
made  from  milk  working  fast  will  always  tend  to  break  down  soft  and 
Aveak  in  body. 

Experience  has  shown  that  when  the  curd  is  not  properly  cooked,  and 
the  whey  hurried  off.  the  resulting  cheese  will  go  off-flavour  much  more 
readilv  than  that   from  curd  which   has   remained   in  the  whev  the  proper 


loOcT..  191-.]  Spr/j/g  Llicddar  C lice>iL-makiii\:^.  6.)_:j 

length  ot  tinif,  and  lias  bt-en  firmed  and  cooked.      \\  ith  spring  milk  good 
results  will  be  obtained  by  heating  or  cooking  to  96  or  98  degrees  Fahr. 

It  is  very  important  to  know  when  the  curd  may  be-  separated  from 
the  main  bodv  of  whey.  It  is  advisable,  if  the  acidity  is  developing  fast, 
or  in  hot  weather,  to  draw  off  most  of  the  whey  before  dipping,  or  racking. 
in  order  that  the  remainder  may  be  drawn  quickly  when  ready. 

The  proper  test  of  aci<lity  before  racking  is  .J9  tf)  .195.  The  time 
taken  between  renneting  and  having  the  curd  stirred  dry  on  the  racks  is 
from  two  hours  to  two  hours  and  a  half ;  the  richer  the  milk,  the  longer 
the  time. 

If  too  much  acid  develops  in  the  curd  before  the  whey  is  removed,  it 
causes  an  extra  loss  of  fat  in  the  whey,  con.sequently  less  chee.se  is  made, 
which  becomes  dry  and  crumbly.  When  the  curd  is  sufficiently  matted 
together  it  should  be  cut  in  strips  6  to  8  inches  wide,  and  turned  every 
ten  minutes,  or  often  enough  to  avoid  ha\ing  uhev  pools  forming  between 
the  pieces  of  curd. 

If  the  curd  is  on  the  firm  side  it  may  Vje  piled  not  higher  than  two 
deep,  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of  aVx)ut  94  degrees,  until  it  becomes 
meaty,  and  the  whev  which  comes  awav  shows  .7  to  .75  per  cent,  of  acid. 

As  a  rule  milling  should  come  about  half  wav  between  racking  and 
salting.  After  the  curd  is  milled  it  should  be  turned  only  often  enough 
to  keep  it  from  matting  and  to  have  it  well  matured  before  salting. 

The  curd  is  in  a  fit  condition  to  salt  when  it  feels  silky  and  mellow, 
and  when  the  whev  leaving  the  curd  contains  i.o  to  1.5  per  cent.   acid. 

The  acidimeter  test  should  be  used  to  determine  the  time  of  salting 
and  thus  .secure  uniform  results  from  day  to  day.     The  effects  of  salt  on 
curd   are   to  expel   moisture,    improve   flavour,    body,    and   texture  of   the 
cheese,  to  retard  ripening  or  curing,  and  to  add  keeping  quality. 

Nothing  but  pure,  clean-flavoured,  drv  salt  should  be  u.sed,  coarser 
in  the  grain  than  used  for  butter,  as  curd  contains  more  moi.sture  to 
dissolve  the  salt,  and  less  of  the  coarse  salt  will  leave  the  curd  and  be 
lost.  The  amount  of  salt  to  be  added  depends  upon  the  moisture  in  the 
curd,  and  upon  the  length  of  time  for  ripening  ;  moist  or  tainted  curd 
requires  more  salt,  and  quick-ripening  cheese  should  have  less. 
With  spring  milk  and  proper  moisture  and  fair  flavour,  2^  to  2%  lbs. 
per  1. 000  lbs.  of  milk,  according  to  butter  fat  test,  is  found  to  give  good 
results. 

The  curd  should  be  spread  evenly  over  the  Ijottom  of  the  vat,  and 
half  the  salt  applied.  After  stirring  this  thoroughly  and  everdy  through 
the  mass  of  curd,  the  remainder  should  be  put  on  and  also  be  well  mixed. 

In  about  twenty  minutes  after  the  salt  has  been  thoroughly  incor- 
porated with  the  curd,  and  the  har.sh  feeling  caused  by  the  salt  removing 
the  moisture  has  disappeared,   it  is  readv  for  the  hoops. 

The  temperature  at  this  stage  should  not  be  lower  than  84  degrees,  as 
the  curd  cools  rapidly  when  going  to  press. 

In  order  to  get  uniformitv  in  size  of  the  cheese,  the  curd  should  be 
weighed  in  a  bucket  by  means  of  a  spring-balance  suspended  over  the 
vat. 

Pressure  should  be  applied  very  gradually  to  the  curd,  following  it 
up  closely  as  the  cheese  slackens,  until  the  maximum  pressure  is  reached 
before  leaving  them  for  the  n'ght. 


644 


Journal  of  Agriculture.  Vktoria. 


[lo  Oct..  1912. 


SECOND  VICTORIAN  EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION,  1912-13. 

Commencing  lUlh  April,  1912. 
CONDUCTED    AT    BURNLEY    HORTICULTURAL    SCHOOL. 


Eggs  laid  during  competition. 

No.   of 

Position  in 

Pen. 

Breed. 

Name  of  Owner. 

April  15 

Aug.  15 

Total  to 

Competi- 

to 

to 

Date  (5 

tion. 

S.  Brown     . . 

Aug.  14. 

Sept.  14. 

months). 

40 

White  Leglioms 

480 

142 

622 

1 

23 

W.  McLister 

454 

J  40 

594 

2 

31 

Geo.  Edwards 

456 

134 

590 

3 

47 

J.  E.  Bradley 

441 

142 

583 

4 

28 

F.  G.  Eagleton 

451 

130 

581 

5 

9 

1 

.1.  S.  Spotswood 

426 

151 

577 

6 

20 

E.  Waldon 

430 

132 

562 

7 

70 

C.  J.  Beatty 

435 

124 

559 

8 

46 

Black'  Ori>ingtous  . . 

H.  A.  Langdon 

402 

147 

549 

9 

3 

King  and  Watson 

413 

134 

547 

10 

1 

Wliite  Legliorns     . . 

J.  Campbell 

408 

133 

541 

11 

62 

R.  W.  Pope 

385 

144 

529 

12 

37 

C.  B.  Bertelsmeier 

:i80 

139 

519 

)    ■» 

48 

Griffin  Cant 

393 

126 

519 

8 

BUick'orpingtoiis  . . 

D.  Fislier     . . 

398 

116 

514 

)    ,. 

24 

White  Legliorns     . . 

Sargenlri  Poultry  Yards 

379 

135 

514 

45 

Wooldridge  Bros. 

375 

]:i7 

512 

17 

25 

R.  L.  Appletord 

370 

134 

504 

18 

29 

J.  B.    Brigden 

370 

132 

502 

19 

38 

K.  Moy 

3t8 

133 

501 

}      20 

14 

I. 

J.  11.  Wright 

362 

139 

501 

2 

B.  Rijwlinson 

364 

132 

496 

22 

«1 

Blacli  Orpingtons  .  . 

J .  Ogden 

333 

161 

494 

23 

13 

White  Legliorns 

W.  B.  CreUin 

348 

141 

4H9 

^       24 

39 

W.  G.  Swift 

360 

129 

489 

i       '^* 

6 

J.  B.  McArthur 

:^52 

134 

486 

26 

44 

A.  W.  Hall 

347 

137 

484 

27 

30 

" 

Mrs.  Stevenson 

363 

120 

483 

28 

49 

W.  Purvis 

3.50 

132 

482 

29 

60 

>• 

A.  Ahpee     .  . 

354 

123 

477 

30 

15 

Mrs.    Steer 

339 

MO 

469 

31 

■63 

.. 

Percy  Walker 

338 

124 

462 

32 

19 

.. 

Cowan  Bros. 

314 

136 

450 

33 

33 

H.  McKenzie 

319 

130 

449 

34 

7 

1. 

A.  H.  Padman 

325 

122 

447 

35 

53 

>> 

n.  Hodges  .. 

304 

138 

442 

36 

35 

J 

C.  H.  Busst 

3l2 

127 

439 

37 

56 

> 

M.  A.  Monk 

313 

124 

437 

38 

42 

)» 

Mrs.  Kempster 

305 

1l6 

431 

39 

5 

!. 

J.  H.  Brain 

:!94 

136 

430 

40 

10 

It.C.     Brown     Leg- 
hums 

S.  P.  Giles 

286 

127 

413 

41 

64 

White  Leghorns     . . 

11 .  Merrick 

284 

128 

412 

42 

51 

»» 

H.   HanimiU 

283 

128 

411 

43 

•60 

i> 

Miss  B.  E.  Ryan 

269 

li9 

398 

44 

54 

)» 

F,  11.  DeGaris 

261 

126 

387 

45 

43 

,» 

a.  I'lirton    . . 

2J9 

127 

386 

46 

16 

Silver'  Wyandottes 

K.Jobling 

243 

139 

382 

)    " 

65 

Wliite  Leghorns 

A.  11.  Thomson 

247 

135 

382 

■69 

it 

Morgan  and  Watson  . . 

233 

135 

368 

49 

57 

»                    ■  ■ 

B.  Walker 

242 

124 

366 

50 

32 

,,                     . . 

S.  Hrundrett 

231 

134 

365 

)   " 

11 

Blai  k  Orpingtons  . . 

T.  S.  Goodisson 

231 

134 

365 

27 

Wliite  Leghorns     . . 

E.  .Vash       . . 

:35 

125 

360 

53 

4 

J.  Blackburn 

234 

124 

358 

54 

.52 

Black  .Minorcas 

Chalmers  Bros. 

242 

114 

35*^ 

j      5,-, 

58 

White  Leghorns     . . 

W.  J.  Stock 

253 

103 

356 

41 

, 

A.  Stringer 

210 

130 

340 

57 

12 

„ 

T.  H.  C.  Stafford 

235 

J02 

337 

58 

55 

Brown  Leghorns    . . 

.1 .  Matheson 

205 

124 

3-9 

59 

68 

White  Leghorns     . . 

W.  J.  McKeddie 

206 

101 

307 

1       60 

18 

B.  Mitchell 

208 

99 

307 

66 

)» 

J.  Moloney 

169 

130 

i99 

62 

21 

J.  O'Loughlin 

176 

119 

:'95 

63 

22 

W.  N.  Ling 

164 

Vi3 

277 

64 

67 

An'.onas  . . 

A.  E.  Manning 

147 

V21 

268 

65 

59 

White  Leghorns 

W.  J.  Seabridge 

153 

106 

2?.9 

16 

36 

Old  English  Game 

K.  J.  Barrett 

ioO 

106 

256 

67 

34 

White  Leghorns 

R.  F.  B.  Moore 

108 

J18 

2-^6 

68 

17 

.. 

S.  Childs      .  . 

108 

89 

197 

69 

26 

(Reserved) 
Totals  . . 

'    21.182 

8,836 

30,018 

io()cr..  191--]     Secdiid   Victorian  Egg-layiiig  C ompcthiDu.  645 

SErOND   VICTOHIAN    EGG-LAYING   rOMPETITION,    1912-13. 

//.   T'.   Hawkins,  Poultry  Expert. 
Report  i-uR  Month  ending    \  yiw  September,   1912. 

The  month  ending  14th  Septeml»t-r  iias  been  decidedlv  cold  and  gusty, 
with  a  fair  rainfall.  However,  as  the  birds  are  well  protected  from  wind 
and  draughts,  and  provided  with  ample  litter  scattered  in  the  pens,  they 
have  Wen.  kept  busy,  and  the  production  of  eggs  has  l>een  well  maintained. 
There  has  been  no  case  of  sickness. 

Mr.  S.  Brown's  White  Leghorns  still  maintain  pride  of  place,  with 
-a  score  of  621  for  the  five  months;  followed  bv  W.  McLister's  White 
Leghorns,  with  594. 

A  feature  of  the  Competition  during  the  past  few  weeks  is  that  of  a 
pen  of  Black  Orpingtons,  owned  bv  Mr.  Jas.  Ogden.  Their  w^eekly  record 
since  26th  July  is  as  follows  :— 33,  36.  35,  7,^,  $2,.  37.  37,  and  39  respec- 
tively— making  a  total  of  286  eggs  in  eight  weeks.  The  total  number  of 
■eggs  laid  is  30.018 — an  average  of  435  per  pen. 

The  feeding  during  the  period  under  review  has  been  on  similar  lines 
to  that  mentioned  in  my  former  report  ;  and  there  is  no  reason  for  any 
diminution  of  the  meat  or  maize  (heating  foods)  whilst  the  present  cold 
conditions  continue.  Possibly  next  month  we  shall  dispense  with  a  part 
of  the  jnesent  grain  ration,  and  reduce  slightly  the  amount  now  used  of 
animal   food. 


ORCHARD    AND    GARDEN    NOTES. 

E.   E.   Pescott.  Principal.   School  of   Horticulture,  Burnley. 

The  Orchard. 

Cultivation. 

Orchard  ploughing  should  now  be  finished,  and  the  main  work  for  the 
Tiext  few  months  will  be  an  endeavour  to  keep  the  soil  surface  loose,  friable, 
and  well  opened.  The  consolidation  of  the  surfaces  must  be  avoided;  as  a 
hard,  compact  surface  means  the  loss  of  much  soil  moisture  by  means  of 
capilliary  attraction.  So  that  after  rains,  heavy  dews,  spray  pump  and  other 
traffic,  it  will  be  advisable  to  run  the  harrows  through  the  orchard,  to  keep 
the  surface  well  broken,  so  as  to  maintain  a  good  earth  mulch.  If  after 
ploughing  it  be  found  that  the  surface  is  cloddy,  and  that  the  harrows  will 
not  break  the  clods  down,  the  soil  must  be  well  rolled  with  a  spike  or  an 
■ordinarv  round  roller,   and  then  afterwards    harrowed. 

Green  manure  crops  should  now  be  ploughed  under;   if  these  crops  are 

at  all   aluindant   in   growth,   thev   should  be  well   rolled  or  dragged  down 

with  a  chain,  or  thev  should  be  run  oxer  with  a  disc.     Any  of  these  means 

will    assist    in    getting    the    whole   of    the    crop    underground,    which    is    a 

-desideratum. 


64t>  ]o!(riial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [lo  Oct. ,191: 


In  addition  to  the  retention  of  soil  moisture,  cultivation  of  the  orchards 
will  suppress  all  weeds,  which  rob  the  trees  of  both  water  and  food.  The 
suppression  of  weeds  is  an  important  work  in  the  spring  and  early  summer, 
and  they  should  be  rigorously  hoed  or  cultivated  out. 

Sfraying. 
Peach  aphis  will  be  claiming  attention,  as  it  will  now  be  present  in  full 
force,  if  no  winter  spraying  has  been  carried  out.     The  spray  for  the  pre- 
.sent  time  is  a  strong  nicotine  solution,  to  be  sprayed  frequently,  so  long  as 
the  insects  are  present. 

Until  its  action  upon  young  foliage  and  fruit  is  well  known,  it  will  not 
Ije  wdse  at  the  present  time  to  spray  with  the  lime-sulphur  wash  for  either 
peach  aphis,  peach  leaf-curl,  or  black  spot  of  apple  and  pear.  In  all 
recent  American  experiments,  this  mixture  has  been  used  upon  either  dormant 
trees,  or  upon  trees  with  mature  foliage.  Neither  will  it  be  wise  to  spray 
peach  trees  at  this  stage  for  leaf-curl  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  If  this  be 
done  now,  the  trees  will  probably  lose  their  foliage.  For  this  disease  and 
for  shothole  and  scab  of  apricots,  the  trees  should  have  been  sprayed  earlier 
in  the  season  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

As  apple  and  pear  blossoms  are  bursting,  the  trees  should  be  sprayed 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  for  black  spot.  If  this  has  been  delayed,  the  sul- 
phate of  copper  may  be  added  to  the  first  arsenate  of  lead  spraying  for 
codlin  moth,  using  one  pound  of  copper  sulphate  to  fifty  gallons  of  the 
spray. 

As  soon  as  the  apple  and  pear  blossoms  drop,  it  is  time  to  prepare  for 
the  arsenate  of  lead  spraying  against  the  larvae  of  the  codlin  moth.  Early 
applications  are  necessary  ;  and  one  of  two  applications  at  the  beginning  of 
the  season,  while  the  apples  are  growing  quickly,  will  be  very  efficacious. 

General.  ■ 

Grafts  on  young  and  old  trees  will  need  constant  observation  ;  they  must 
not  be  allowed  to  become  too  dry ;  the  sap  and  growth  must  not  be  restricted 
by  the  ties ;  and,  if  the  growths  become  unduly  long,  they  should  be  pinched 
back  to  make  the  growths  sturdy.  The  foliage  will  always  be  benefited 
by  a  water  spraying  when  the  weather  is  hot,  dry,  or  w-indy. 

Citrus  trees  may  be  planted  out ;  watering  at  planting  and  giving  the 
foliage  an  occasional  water  sprinkling  will  be  beneficial  to  the  young  trees. 

Vegetable    Garden. 

The  surface  soil  re-.|uires  to  be  well  pulverized  at  this  time  of  the  year; 
ii  should  be  kept  well  hoed,  especially  after  the  necessary  frequent  water- 
ings, and  all  weeds  must  be  suppressed.  Apart  from  their  harmfulness  in 
robbing  plants  of  food  and  moisture,  the  weeds,  if  allowed  to  remain  and 
seed,  become  a  menace  to  future  economical  work. 

The  top  dressing  and  weeding  of  Asparagus  beds  will  now  be  necessary  ; 
the  beds  should  be  well  cut  over  as  often  as  necessary,  removing  all  growths, 
small  and  large.  It  is  a  mistake  to  allow  the  small  stems  to  grow  on,  be- 
cause they  may  be  to<:)  small  for  cutting. 

Plantings  of  tomatoes  may  now  be  carried  out ;  all  early  planted  plants 
should  be  fed.  staked,  and  the  laterals  pinched  back.     A  little  bonedust  or 


TO  Oct..  T91:!.]  Orchard  and   Garden  Xn/cs.  647 

superphosphate  mav  he  given,  hut  these  are  not  equal  t(.)  animal  manures, 
if  the  latter  are  availahle.  Chemical  manures  .'^^hould  only  Ix-  given  in  a 
limited  quantitv.  Six  or  seven  cwt.  i)er  acre  would  he  a  heavy  dressing,  and 
this  works  out'  at  nearly  3  ounces  per  square  yard.  Vegetable  growers 
may  easilv  trv  this  for  themselves,  and  it  will  .soon  be  seen  that  3  ounces 
scattered  over  a  square  yard  of  surface  will  appear  to  be  a  very  light 
dressing. 

French  beans,  carrot,  parsnip,  celery,  radish,  peas,  and  lurnii)  seeds  may 
now  be  sown.  Seeds  of  cucumber,  melon,  and  yjumpkin  family  may  now  be 
sown  in  the  open  ground.  All  seedlings  may  be  transplanted  on  favorable 
days,  and  it  will  be  well  to  sprinkle  the  tops  when  planting  out.  as  v^ell  as 
to  water  the  roots. 

Flower  Garden. 

As  in  other  sections,  there  should  be  no  clods  on  the  surface,  the  soil 
should  be  friable,  and  no  surface  cracking  should  \>e  allowed.  As  often  as 
::i  watering  is  given,  .so  a  hoeing  should  succeed  this  work.  Flowering  plants 
suffer  exceedingly  through  loss  of  soil  moisture,  and  hard  and  compact 
surfaces  are  detrimental  to  their  .successful  growth.  It  is  always  helpful  to 
plants,  and  especially  .so  on  hot,  sunny  and  windy  days,  to  have  the  sur- 
face well  hoed.  In  addition  to  conserving  the  soil  water,  it  creates  cool 
soil  conditions,  which  is  so  helpful  to  good  root  action  at  this  season  of  the 
year.  Hoeing  also  keeps  down  the  weeds,  which  need  keeping  down,  and 
which  should  not  be  allowed  to  seed  in  the  beds. 

Roses  will  need  attention,  as  both  rose  aphis  and  mildew  will  be  making 
-their  appearance.  For  the  former,  strong  tobacco  and  soap  sprays.  Robin- 
son's pine  spray,  Benzole  emulsion,  and  Soaperine  are  all  very  helpful  in 
its  eradication.  For  mildew  the  plants  should  be  dusted  with  sulphur  when 
the  foliage  is  moist ;  a  dusting  of  sulphur  on  the  ground  under  the  bu.shes 
will  be  useful,  as  the  fumes  will  l)e  helpful  in  checking  the  fungus.  All 
leaf  eating  insects  on  any  plants  may  now  be  suppressed  with  arsenatf  of 
lead  or  with  Paris  Green. 

Beds  should  be  well  dug  over  in  preparation  for  chrysanthemum  or 
dahlia  planting;  if  these  plants  are  not  to  be  grown  in  separate  beds,  a  few 
may  be  planted  out  for  early  flowering. 

Bulbs  that  have  finished  flowering,  and  that  have  lost  their  foliage 
should  be  lifted  and  stored.  The  foliage  must  not  be  cut  off  while  it  is 
still  green,  as  this  means  loss  of  sap  and  energy. 

Tender  and  half-hardy  and  other  annuals  may  be  planted  out  for  summer 
and  autumn  flowers.  These  include  asters,  zinnia,  salvias,  balsams,  amaran- 
thus,  celosias.  Sec,  lobelia,  bedding  begonias,  iresines.  and  altemantheras 
may  also  be  planted  in  the  beds  and  borders. 

Among  the  new  garden  plants  now  in  cultivation  one  that  is  worthy  of 
notice,  and  one  that  will  be  of  great  value  for  early  spring  and  summer 
flowers  is  the  new  red  perennial  pea  or  Lathyrus  Waratah.  This  is  a  fitting 
companion  to  the  blue  perennial  pea,  Lathyrus  pubescens.  now  so  popular. 
The  colour  is  a  rich  Waratah  red,  and  the  plant  is  extremely  floriferous. 
The  flowers  are  larger  than  those  of  the  blue  pea ;  the  plant  is  very  hardy, 
and  a  good  vigorous  grower.  It  flowers  at  the  same  time  as  the  Lathyrus 
pubescens.  and  is  in  every  way  worthy  to  be  planted  with  it. 


6^8  Journal  of  Agriculture.  Victoria.  [loOcT..  igu. 


REIVIINDERS     FOR     ]^0VE|V1BER. 


LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Continue  to  feed  stable  horses  well  ;  add  a  ration  of  greenstuff.  Rug 
at  night.  Continue  hay  or  straw,  chaffed  or  whole,  to  gra.ss-fed  horses.  Feed  old 
and  badly-conditioned  hovses  liberally.  If  too  fat,  mares  in  foal  should  be  put 
on   jioorer   pasture. 

Catti.k. — Except  on  rare  occasions,  rugs  may  now  be  used  on  cows  on  cold  and 
wet  nights  only.  Continue  giving  hay  or  straw.  Give  calves  a  warm  dry  shed  and  a 
good  grass  run.     Continue  giving  milk  at  blood  heat  to  calves. 

Tigs. — Supply  plenty  of  bedding  in  warm  well-ventilated  styes.  Keep  ^tyes 
clean  and  drv,  and  feeding  troughs  clean  and  wholesome.  Sows  may  now  be  turned 
into  grass  run. 

Sheep. — Prepare  for  dii)])ing.  Powder  and  paste  di]is  are  most  effective,  par- 
ticularly where  lice  are  prevalent.  Ascertain  exact  conienls  of  bath  before  ailding 
dip.  Keep  sheep  in  bath  not  less  than  half  a  minute.  Submerge  heads.  Dip  big 
sheep  first,  lambs  last.  Commence  early  in  the  day  ; '  sheep  can  then  dry  before 
nightfall.  Do  not  dip  sheep  when  heated  or  full.  Clean  out  baths  occasionally. 
A\oid  having  to  travel  sheep  too  far.  Yard  over  night.  Dip  early  in  the  day. 
Avoid  filthy  baths  in  dry  areas  particularly.  Merino  and  fine  comeback  ewes  are 
in  season  from  middle  of  November.  Join  Lincoln  and  Leicester  rams,  English 
Leicester  especially   for  small   ewes,  thick  nuggety  type    for   fat   lambs  preferable. 

I'ciri.'iKV. — Provide  i)lent\-  of  green  food  and  shade.  \Vatch  for  vermin;  s]iray 
perches  with  kerosene  and  houses  with  a  solution  of  3  per  cent,  crude  carbolic  acid 
mixed  with  a  little  lime  and  soft  soap.  Keep  water  clean  and  cool.  Discontinue 
ieeding  maize  and  reduce  meat  ration.  Some  Epsom  salts  should  be  placed  in  water 
weekly.  Fresh  skim  milk,  if  available,  should  be  given.  Remove  all  male  birds 
from  the  flock.  Infertile  eggs  only  should  be  used  when  pickling  or  when  placed 
in   cool   storage. 


CULTIVATION. 

Farm.  —  Plant  main  crop  of  ])otatoes.  Cut  hay  and  silage.  ^Yeed  early  poialnej. 
Sow   maize   and   millets.     Weed    tobacco   beds,    and   water,    if    dry. 

Orchard. — Ploughing,  harrowing,  and  cultivating  to  be  continued.  Weeds  in  be 
kept  down.  Secure,  pinch,  and  spray  grafts  with  water.  Spray  frequentl)  for 
codlin   moth,   pear   and  cherry   slug,   and   peach   aphis.      Plant   out   citrus   trees.  ' 

Vegetable  C.artjex.— Hoe  and  mulch  surface.  Suppress  weeds.  Water  where- 
dry  and  hoe  afterwards.  Disbud  and  pinch  back  tomato  idanls.  Sow  celery,  French 
beans,    peas,    lettuce,    cuciunber,    melon,    &c.,    seeds. 

Flower  Garden.— Water  and  mulch.  Cultivate  and  keep  down  weeds.  Thin 
out  weak  wood  from  roses.  Prune  early  all  flowering  shrubs  that  have  finished 
flowering.  Lift  and  store  bulbs.  Plant  out  dahlias  and  chrysanthemums.  Liijuid- 
nianure  herbaceous  perennials. 

Vineyard. — Cultural  work,  such  as  scarifying  and  hoeing,  should  be  actively 
pushed  forward,  so  as  to  provide  as  good  a  "  mulch"  as  possible  during  summer. 
Proceed  with  ty.ng  up,  stopping,  and  topping.  Avoid  excessive  topping,  summer 
pruning  being  usually  more  injurious  than  useful  in  warm,  dry  climates.  Cincture 
Zante  currant  vines  as  soon  as  flower  caps  have  fallen.  Apply  second  sulphuring^ 
just  before  blossoming,   wherever  Oidium   was  prevalent   last  year. 

Cellar. — Same  as  last  month. 


^TO  Oct.,  1912.] 


Journal   of   Agncutture.    Victoria. 


Xvii 


GUARANTEED. 


T 


HE  "ROYAL  MEDAL *^  GUARANTEE 
means  that  if  anything  happens  to  any 
part  of  the  Mechanism  so  that  you  cannot  use  it, 
you  can  send  it  back  and  get  another.  No 
red   tape.  ^  ^  No   question   about   it. 


THE  COUPON  BRINGS  THE 
"ROYAL  MEDAL"  BOOKLET. 
FILL  IN  AND  MAIL  TO-DAY. 

ROYAL  MEDAL' 
MILKING  MACHINES 

34    QUEEN     ST., 

M  ELBOURNE. 

London  Office— Caxton  House, 

Westminster,  S.W. 

J.  H.  DA  VIES,  Manarjlnn  Dir<\-t,,r. 


POST  FREE  BOOKLET  COUPON. 

"Boi/al  A/edctl"  Milking   Machim^^, 

34  Queen  Street,  Mefhonrne. 
PUufse  foncard  a  ropy  of  your  Fret  Booklet.     It 
is  to  he  understood  that  I  consider  myself  under  no 
ohiifjation. 


Name.... 
Address 
J.  13. 


Journal  of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[to  Oct.,  1912. 


'Phone 

4881 
Central. 


The  Australasian  Mutual  Live  Stoek 

Insuranee  Society  m., 

ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 

70  ELIZABETH-SI,  MELBOURNE. 

Hon.  AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P,    HENRY  GARDNER,  Esq. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P, 

WALTER  G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 

FARMERS  and  BREEDERS. 

We  will  undertake  to 

INSURE     YOUR     LIVE     STOCK 

at  the  Lowest  Current  Rates  obtainable  in  Australia. 

OTHER  DEPARTMENTS  OF  BUSINESS. 

Fire,  JIarine,  Fidelity  Guarantee,  Plate  Glass,  Personal 
Accident  and  Sickness,  Employers'  Liability,  Workmen's 
Compensation,   Public  Risk,   Motor  Car,   and  Burglary. 

INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  and  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS. 


A    GOOD   AUSTRAL! Aff 
'  W\y  didn't  you  put  your  penny  in  llu  plate  tht» 

morning  t" 
'  Pscatue  it  was  a  foreign  mtsnon,  and  dada   sa-j» 

it'i  not  right  to  send  capital  out  of  ifte  eounir^." 


c 


LOTTERBDCK  Bros. 


SOLE    AGENTS    FOR 

BLAGKSTGNE 


STATIONARY 
OR     PORTABLE 


OIL  ENGINES 


FAMED  FOR  DURABILITY. 
ECONOMY.     RELIABILITY. 

WRITE  or  CALL  for  PARTICULARS. 


"OLDS"  PETROL 

Hopper  Jacket  or       CM  f^  I  M  C  C 
Tank  Cooling  Type.       C  1^  \Ji  I  1^  dO 

Also  PREMIER  GAS  ENGINES. 
POWER     GAS     ENGINES. 

CLUTTERBUCK  BROS., 

585  Bourke-st.,  Melbourne. 


lo  Oct.,  1912.]  Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria.  xix 


Dairy  Science. 

The  last  word. 

Scientific  men  in  the  dairy  centres  of  Europe  have  Riven  close 
attention  to  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  fur  I. utter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  for  some  time, 
a  poor,  thin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  ;  stating  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods,  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  -ame 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Dairy  Science. 

For  Post  Free  Book— 

'  MILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding," 

By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 

^ ---*«■  •-..-    ^1  Guaranteed  Pure. 


See  that  the  name  "  Sunlight "  is 
branded  on  every  cake. 


Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[lo  Oct..  1912. 


A  WORLD-WIDE   REPUTATION. 

"HORKSBY"  Petrol  Engines 


{STATIONARY     AND     PORTABLE) 

THERE  IS  NOTHING  EQUAL  TO  THtM. 

Just  as  suitable  for  Mcjtive  Power  as  tlie  Renowned 

"HORNSBY"     OIL    ENGINE. 


Britain's  BEST  Oil  Eng^ine— 

^m^  -^  HORNSBY. 

The  recognized  essentials  of  Oil  Engine  Superiority  are 

DESIGN  QUALITY 

SIMPLICITY        ECONOMY 

THESE  the   HORNSBY  i.u.ssess,  proved  by   the   Fact 
Made  in  Two  Types— Stationary  and  Portable.  that  it  has  Won  all  the  Largest  Prizes  ever  oifered. 

Hornsby  Gas  Engines  and  Suction  Gas  Plants  are  unequalled. 

R.  HORNSBY  &  SONS  LTD.,  "^"^Sk^^S"-^^ 


Facts  are  Stubborn  Things.     Read  This. 

I  beg  to  inform  j-ou  that  the  "IJUNYIP"  Forest  Devil  which  I  recently  purchased  from  you  has  amply 
borne  out  the  representations  made  by  you  respecting  it.  With  its  aid  I  succeeded  in  clearing  about  7  acres 
ot  tnnber,  ringbarked  for  years,  in  less  than  four  days.  As  a  large  percentage  of  these  trees  measured  a  good 
3ft.  at  the  base,  the  hand  grubbing  method  would  obviously  have  entailed  weeks  of  hard  and  expensive 
labour.  A  pomt  which  I  have  not  yet  seen  emphasized  is  this :— The  hole  left  after  a  tree  is  pulled  by  the 
■  1;  orest  Devil "  is  nothing  like  so  large  or  laborious  to  refill  as  that  left  after  hand  grubbing— an  important 
point.  I  may  add  that  I  am  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  soundness  of  my  investment,  and  thank  you  for  the 
courtesy  and  promptness  with  which  the  transaction  of  purchase  was  carried  out. 


Bamawni,  Rocheste. 


(Signed) 


GUY  H.  T.  LKVrOK. 


JOHN    COOPER   &,   SONS, 

287-9  ELIZABETH-ST.,  MELBOURNE.    (Op.  St. Franciss  Church). 


lo  Oct..  19  I  -■] 


Journal  of   Agriculture.    Victoria. 


XXI 


NATIONAL  TRUSTEES 

Executors    and    Agency    Company   of   Australasia,    Ltd. 


DIRECTORS: 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Managing  Director. 

EDWARD    FITZGERALD,  Esq.,  L.L.D.  MICHAEL   MORNANE.  Esq. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  Esq.  DAVID  HUNTER,  Esq. 


This  Company  Acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint    Executor  of  Wills,    Administrator, 
Trustee  of   Settlements,   and   Agent   for   Absentees   under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY     TO      LEND      ON      BROAD      ACRES      AND      FARM      LANDS. 

Offices-113  QUEEN  ST.  (Corner  of  Little  Collins-st.)  MELBOURNE. 


ESTABLISHED   1841. 


THE 


—  GUARANTEED    BY  THE  — 
GOVERNMENT  OF  VICTORIA. 


STATE  SAVINGS  BANK  OF  VICTORIA 

Grants    greater    facilities    to    Depositors 
than  any  other  Savings  Bank  in  the  World. 

All  profits  earned,  after  providing  for  a  reasonable  Reserve  Fund,  are  distributed 
among.st  Depositors  by  giving  them  the  Highest  Bank  Rate  of  Interest  obtainable  in 
the  State  on  current  accounts. 

RESERVE    FUND    OF    FOUR     HUNDRED 
AND     FIFTY     THOUSAND     POUNDS. 

INTEREST  is  allowed  on  Deposits  uj)  to  £350,  namely  :— 3*  per  cent,  on  first 
£100  ;   and  3  per  cent,  on  excess  over  £100  up  to  £350. 

THE     TOTAL     AMOUNT     OF     DEPOSITS     IS     NOW     NEARLY 

TWENTY     MILLION     POUNDS. 

Depositors  can  lodge  money  with  the  same  pass-book  at  any  of  the  ■424  Branches  and 
Agencies  of  the  Bank  throughout  Victoria. 

GEO.    E.    EMERY, 
Head    Office— MELBOURNE.  Imptctor-Gemrzl. 


TREWHELLA 


"MONKEY"  & 
"WALLABY" 


GRUBBING  JACKS. 

Quick.     Powerful.     Simple. 


Mr.  Chas.  Hamilton,  Jlolesworth,  Vic,  says:— "I  woulil  not 
be  without  one  of  these  .lacks  on  the  farm." 

Mr.  O.  C.  R.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Frances,  S.A  :— 
"Have  been  nsing  Trewhella  Wallaby  .Jacks  now  nearly 
six  years,  and  as  long  as  I  have  anytliinj;"  to  lift  will  never  be 
without  one." 


Write  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  to  — 

TREWHELLA   BROS.,  ENGINEERS,  TRENTHAM,  VICTORIA. 


xxu 


Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


[lo  Oct.,  1912. 


r 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 


JSurnleY   J^orfieuItuFal   School 


E.  E.  PESCOTT    -    Principal. 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnley  Horticultural  School 
have  now  been  arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be 
given  to  students  of  both  sexes  in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Hoi'ticulture  for  male  students  includes  a  two 
years'  course,  students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum. 

Classes  have  been  formed  at  Burnley,  whereby  students  of  both  sexes 
may  receive  instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and 
Fridays. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  work,  and  will  commence 
at  2  p.m.  This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  charged  will  be 
£2  per  annum. 

It  has  also  been  arranged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  shall  be 
given  on  subjects  which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Horticulture,  such  as 
Poultry  Farming,  Bee-keeping,  and  Fruit  Preserving,  and  these  courses  will 
be  open  and  free  to  the  general  public.  The  subjects  and  dates  of  the  Short 
Course  Lectures  will  be  announced  monthly  in  this  Journal. 

BEE-KEEPING. 


A  series  of  Lectures  on  Bee-keeping  will  be  given  bv  Mr.  F.  R.  Beuhne, 
the  Bee  Expert,  on  the  following  dates: — October  4th,  11th,  18th,  25th, 
at  2.30  p.m. 

STUDENTS    SHOULD    ENROLL   WITHOUT    DELAY, 


Application  for  . 
Admission  should 
be  made  to    .    . 


THE   DIRECTOR   OF  AGRICULTURE, 
PUBLIC     OFFICES,      MELBOURNE, 


OR  TO   THE 
PRINCIPAL 


v_ 


lO  Oct.,  1912.] 


Journal   of   Agriculture,    Victoria. 


laan 


Invaluable    on    the    Farm 

The  Foup  Oaks 
Bucket  Spray 

X  Ump    It  has  many  uses. 

It  is  equally  effective  for 

Spraying  Cattle  and  Sheep  for  fly  and  other  pest. 

Spraying  Fruit  Trees,  Roses,  Vines,  &c. 

Whitewashing   Cow   Sheds,   Dairies,   Stables   and   Poultry   Houses, 

Spraying  Disinfectant, 

Washing  Buggies,  &e. 


The  "FOUR   OAKS"  is  a  most  powerful  Pump,  entirely  British  made 
from  best  brass.        It  is  simple  in  construction,  easily  taken  to  pieces, 

and  never  gets  out  of  order.      A  substantial 

air  chamber  ensures  a  steady  even  pressure.     "1*1      •  _  /Fitted  wilh\       f\  A      A       ^\. 

LI  'Bordeaux.)    3^1.1,0. 


Nozzle    .     ./ 
Spraying-   Materials  for  all   pests. 


Price  ( 

Spray  Pumps   of  all   sizes. 

"Write  for  Catalog'ue  to 

F.  R.  MELLOR...440  Elizabeth-st,  Melbourne. 


JARRAH; 


Write 
to 


i 


When  you  contemplate  erecting  fencing,  buildings,  dairies, 
vvoolsheds,  &c.,   be   sure  you  get  the  best  of  hardwoods. 

1^"     JARRAH    resists   white    ants,    dry  rot,   &c. 

MILLAR'S  KARRI  k  JARRAH  CO.  (1902) Ltd. 

QUEEN'S    BRIDGE,    MELBOURNE. 


R 


YAN,    GOULDING,   &    CO. 

(JOHN    F.    GOULDING). 

WHOLESALE  CRAiH  &  PRODUCE  COMMISSION  AGENTS  &  GENERAL  BROKERS. 
546-552  COLLINS  STREET  WEST  (Near  King-st.) 

r  ARMERS  •  Before  Selling  your  Grain,  Hay,  Potatoes,  Onions,  consult  or  write  us. 

It  will  pay  you. CONSIGNMENTS  Received  and  Sold  Daily  ex  Rail  or  Wharf. 

Storage  arranged  on  Liberal  Terms  and  Advances  made.       All  kinds  of  Seed  Grain  for  Sale. 

Prompt  Account  Sales.     Oats  Specialists.     New  &  Second-Iiand  Bags  for  Sale  at  Lowest  Rates! 

Quotations  given  for  Chaff,  Grain,  Lucerne,  ^^^leaten  or  Oaten  Hay,  delivered  to  any  station 

in  Victoria  or  New  South  Wales. 

.     When  In  the  CITY  Gall  In.— Short  distance  from  Spencer-st.  RIy.  Station. 


> 


XXlV 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Vicioria. 


[lo  Oct.,  191^. 


"WATERLOO  BOY"  4  h.p.  PORTABLE  OIL  ENGINE. 

Absolutely  the  Simplest  and  Cheapest  EFFICBENT  Engine  iq  the  World. 


IGNITION  — Is  make  and  break  !<t.vle,  charge  fired 
by  electric  spark.  Igniter,  whicli  in  other  Engines 
is" difficult  to  get  at,  in  the  "Waterloo"  can  be 
comiiletelv  removed  by  loosening  two  cap  screws, 
liotli  Magneto  and  Battery  Ignition, -a  veiy  use- 
ful arrangement,  as  work  can  never  be  Stopped. 

SPEED  LEVER — Acts  same  as  throttle  of  a 
steam  engine  Vou  can  speed  up  or  down,  or  stop 
altogether  with  it.  Makes  the  Engine  easy  to 
start,  prevents  "  kicking  back,"  and  saves  fuel. 

MIXER, —  Is  a  great  idea,  patented  because  it  is 
worth  patenting.  Has  an  adjustable  mi.xing  cup 
that  can,  by  a  winged  nut,  be  slipped  up  or  down 
to  give  more  or  less  air.  No  valve  springs  or 
pump  to  get  out  of  order  ;  makes  Engine  easy  to 
start ;  aids  the  governor  and  speed  lever  in  getting 
more  power  out  of  the  fuel. 


GOVERNOR — Centrifugal  type,  sure  and  sensi- 
tive. Allows  a  charge  in  the  c^vlinder  only  when 
the  work  requires  it. 

FUEL.  — Works  on  either  benzine  or  kerosene,  but 
benzine  is  better,  as  it  is  not  so  dirty.  The  speed- 
saving  devices.  Speed  Lever,  Patent  Mi.^er,  and 
Governor  make  the  "Waterloo"  consume  the  least 
fuel.  Compare  it  for  simplkity,  fuel  cost,  and 
power  witli  other  engines,  and  vou  will  .send  your 
(irder  to  us. 

HOPPER  COOLED.-That  is,  there  are  no 
Tank,  Pipes,  and  Pump  to  cool  the  cylinder. 
Makes  the  Engine  easy  to  move  aliout ;  less  space, 
less  weight,  and  no  water  pump  troubles,  as  there 
is  no  Pump.     Also  lessens  the  fuel  bill. 

TRANSPORT._ig  a  very  strong  one.  Through 
axles  in  both  front  and  rear  wheels.  Turntable 
on  front  a.xle  is  simple  and  strong. 


PRICE The  "Waterloo"  is  so  simple,  and  the  enormous  sales  enable  them  to  be  made  in  such  large  numbers, 

that  the  cost  of  production  is  very  low.  This  is  why  you  pay  less  for  the  "  Waterloo"  than  for  any  other  engine 
not  even  equal  to  it.  "Waterloo"  material  and  workmanship  are  fully  guaranteed.  Compare  it  with  other 
engines  for  SIMPLICITY,  FUEL  COST,  POWER  and  PRICE,  and  you  are  certain  to  have  a  ''Waterloo  Boy." 

Send  for  Catalogues  of  Harvesters,  Drills,  Mouldboard  and  Disc  Plows, 
1  Way  Discs,  Harrows,  "Diabolo"  Separators,  "Max"  Milking  Machines, 
"  Austin"  Road  Graders,  Pumping  Plants,  Chaffcutters,  Horseworks,  Rollers,  &c. 


MITCHELL  &  COMPANY 


PTV. 
LTD. 


FACTORY  AND  OFFICE-  SHOWROOM 

WEST  F00T8CRAY,  MELBOURNE.    S06  BOURKE-ST.,  MELBOURNE, 


By    Authority  :     Alueht    J.     Mullett,    Acting-    Government    Printer,     Melbourne. 


J?efrigeFatiug  and 
j^       lee  JYCakiug 
JVCaehiuery 


Made  by 
HUMBLE  &  SONS, 

Geelong, 
Victoria. 


Specially  suitable  for  Butchers,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  Machines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwai'ds,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine.  A  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration 
work  undertaken,  including  coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


"Ferrier's"  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distributors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworks,  &g. 

Full  Particulars  on  Application  to — 

Humble  and  Sons, 

General   Engineers, 

Vulcan     Foundry,     GEELONG 


H 


VICTORIAN 


RAILWAYS. 


SUMMER  EXCURSIONS. 


The  Victorian  Railways  issue  SUMMER 
EXCURSION     FARES     to    the 

SEASIDE  ::  MOUNTAINS 
::  LAKES     and     CAVES  :: 

from    1 5th    November     till    30th    April 


THE    YARRA    AT    WARBURTON. 


THE  BUFFALO  PLATEAU 

with  its  famous  Gorge,  Falls  and 
Pealvs,  embraces  the  Finest  Moun- 
tain Sceneiy  in  Australia.  Excur- 
sion Fares  all  the  year  round. 
Splendid  Accommodation  at  the 
Government  Clialet.  Special  in- 
clusive Week  Tickets,  covering- 
transport  and  accommodation, 
issued  on  F'lidays  bj-  the  Express 

train  from  Melbourne. 

First-class    •    £4  10s. 

THE  AUSTRALIAN  ALPS 

Mounts  Boj^'ong,  Featliertop, 
Hotliani.  The  Baw  Baw  Uan;;e, 
The  Dividing-  Range,  Macedon, 
Woodcnd,  Daylesford,  &o. 

HEALESVILLE. 

Seven  Days  Trip,  including  Rail, 
Accommodation  &  Coacii  Drives. 

a. 
WARBURTON  (Mt.  Dor)na  Buaqg). 

THE  GIPPSLAND  LAKES 

The    Jlost    C'liarming    Chain    of 
Lakes  in  the  Conunonwealth. 

THE  BUCHAN  CAVES 

Indesi-ribably  Beautiful, 

LORNE. 

Waterfalls,  Fern  Glens,  Sea  and 

River  Fishing. Splendid 

Accommodation. 

FLINDERS. 

Ocean  Beach  &  Golfers'  Paradise. 

QUEENSCLIFF. 

Bay  and  Ocean  Beaclies 
and  Steamer  Services. 


Rail 


PICTURESQUE 


New  Edition  issued  shortly. 
Price,  6d.        Postage  extra. 


VICTORIA, 


For  full  information  as  to  train  services,  fares,  &c.,  write  to  or  enquire  from  the 
Government  Tourist  Officer,  Tourist  Bureau,  0pp.  Town  HaU,  CoUins-st.,  Melbourne. 
Handbooks,  Maps  and  Hotel  Guides  free  on  application. 


E.     B.     JONES,     ACTING  SECRETARY  FOR  RAILWAYS. 


Vol.  X.      ON    WATTLES    AND    WATTLE    BARK.       Part  11. 

[Retfistered  at  the  General  Post  Otfir-e,  Melbourne,  for  transmission  by  Post  as  a  Xeu>i>a|iir.l 


PRICE  THREEPENCE.     (Annual  Subscription — Victoria,  Inter-State,  and  N.Z.,  3  •;  British  and  Foreign,  5/-.i 


BRUNNINGS. 


DEMON 
AUTOMATIC 

BIRD 

SCARER 

The   new   labour-saving   device  for  protecting  fruit. 

A  new  form  of  insurance  for  the  orchardist. 

When  once  charged  will  go  continuously  for  16  hours. 

Requires  no  attention  whatever. 

Prices. 


DEMON    BIRD     SCARER. 


DEMON  BIRD  SCARER    -      -    J&1  5  0 
CRACKERS  FOR  SAME  (per  box  otsoo)    1  0  0 

FUSE        -              -              -  (per  hank)       0   4    6 

Full  particulars. Post  free  on  application. 


WRITE     AT     ONCE     FOR     OUR     NEW     BOOKLET 

"HOW  AND  WHEN  TO  SPRAY" 


A  useful  treatise  on  the  vaiimis  methods  of  spraying. 


Post  Free  on  Application. 


RHODES  GRASS 

THE  NEW  SUMMER  FODDER. 

Tliis  grass  is  unequalled  for  its 

(lrou'4'ht-rcsistin}r  qualities. 
Siiecially    suited    for  hot,  drj' 
districts. All   stock    like  it. 

Plants  &  Seed  now  obtainable. 

I'lii-c  nil  nppJifiitiiiii. 


1912 

Seed  &  Farm 

Handbook 

Containing  over  130  pp. 
POST  FREE. 

Ai>pl3'  to  "Mailina:  Dept." 
for  above  publications. 


SEED     MAIZE 

All  the  leading  varieties. 
HICKORY  KING.  YELLOW  MORUYA. 

ECLIPSE.  SIBLEY. 

LONGFELLOW,      NINETY-DAY. 

LEAMING.  EY.  DENT. 

Full   list   of  varieties,  prices,  die., 

Pout  free  on  application. 


TEOSINTE,  JAPANESE  MILLET,  SORGHUM,  IMPHEE, 
AMBER  CANE,  PASPALUM,  PRAIRIE,  LUCERNE, 
MANGELS,    SWEDES,    PUMPKINS,    COUCH    GRASS. 

(Sample.s  and  Quotations  on  application.) 

All    branches   of  Cultivators,   Plows,    Drills,    Spray    Pumps,   Spray 
Compounds,    Orchardists'    Requirements,    &.C.,   stocked. 


64  ELIZABETH  STREET,  MELBOURNE. 


(please  mention  this  advt.   when    writing.) 


TliE     JOURJNAL 


OF 


m 


rilE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


•\7-lOTORIA.,     -A.'CrSTK.A.LI^A.. 


CONTENTS.— NOVEMBER,    1912. 


.2A5t,. 

PAOB. 

Bee-keeping  in  Victoria      ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  F.  R.  Beuhne  649 

Lucerne  and  Ensilage  ...        John  W.  Pafer-ion,   B.Sc,  Ph.D.,  and   P.  B.  Scott  653 

Replenishing  the  Dairy  Herd  ...  ...  ...  ..  Af.  'J'homas  657 

Irrigation  in  the  Early  Days  ...  ...  ...  ^..9.  Keinjon,  G.E.  658 

An  Insect  Pest  of  the  "  Cmrajong  "  ...  ...  ...        C.  French,  J nr.  662 

General  Notes       ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  664 

Fruit  Trade  of  Victoria      ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  E.  Meeking  666 

Sheep  Dipping      ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...      A.   W.  CurltwiH  671 

Shearers' Hut  Accommodcition  Act  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  673 

Relative  Solubility  of  the  Pliosphoric  Acid  in  Rock  Phospliate  anil  Bonedust     ...  676 

Geranium  Cultivation  for  Essential  Oil  ...  ...  ...  J.  Kniyht  677 

Analysis  of  Artificial  Manures  ...  ...  ...  ...  P.  B.  Scott  681 

On  Wattles  and  Wattle  Bark  ...  ...  A.  J.  Ficart,  D.Sc,  Ph.D.  684 

Second  Victorian  P>gg-laying  Competition,  1912-13    ...  ...       H.   V.  HatvHns  692 

Wheat  and  its  Cultivation  ...  ...     A.  E.  V.  Uicliardson,  M.A.,  B.Sc.  694 

Exports-  Perishable  and  Frozen  Produce      ...  ...  ...  ...  B.  Croive  708 

Imports  and  Exports— Fruit  Plants,  Bulbs,  &c.  ...  ...  C.   T.  Cole  "JO^ 

Orchard  and  Garden  Notes  ...  ...  ...  ...  F.  F.  Pescott  709 

Reminders  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  712 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

The  Articles  in  the  .Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria  are 
protected  bj'  the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act.  Proprietors  of  newspapers  wishing 
to  republish  an\'  matter  are  at  liljerty  to  do  so,  provided  the  Journal  and  author  are 
both  acknoivledqed. 

The  Journal  i.s  issued  monthly.  The  subscription,  which  is  payable  in  advance 
and  includes  postage,  is  3s.  per  annum  for  the  Commonwealth  and  Xew  Zealand,  and 
5s.  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  Foreiirn  Countries.     Single  copy,  Threepence. 

Subscriptions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture,  Melbourne. 
A  complete  list  of  the  various  publications  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
will  be  supplied  by  the  latter. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[i  I  Nov.,  1912. 


The  Wind  a  Worker 
-no  wages  to  pay! 


The  "Billabong"  Windmill  and  Pumping  Plant 
will  supply  water  under  pressure  for  the  Kitchen, 
Bathroom,  Wash  House  ;  for  the  Lawn  ;  for  the 
Stock,  Ac,  at  no  expense  for  power— the  wind 
does  the  work.  Hand  pumping  and  the  back- 
breaking  occupation  of  carrying  water  are  done 
away  with— water  is  right  where  you  want  it. 
But  be  sure  you  get  the  right  Mill— buy  a 
"  Billabong."  The  "  Billabong  "  is  made  at  our  Melbourne  works,  and  embodies  features 
which  decidedly  merit  your  investigation.  Features  which  we  have  protected  by  patent 
rio-hts.   Wouldn't  you  be  unwise  not  to  inquire?    Send  now  for  printed  matter  and  prices. 

It  also  pays  to  buy 

Billabong'  Tpoug-hing" 

Without  doubt  the  prices  of  "  Billabong  "  Sheep  and  Cattle  Troughing  are  very  low 
when  you  reckon  the  special  features  of  this  Troughing  : — Extra  strength  of  structure. 
Interlocking,  Watertight  body  joints,  Beds  to  support  body  provided  by  T  steel 
standards,  Boltless  Trough  Plug,  and  good  quality  of  materials.       This  Patent  of  ours  is 

rapidly    finding   favour.         May   we   send   you 
prices  and  descriptive  matter? 


JOHN 

PROPTY. 


&SON 

LIMITED, 


DANKS 

391-99  Bourke-st,  Melb. 

PUMP,  WINDMILL  &  TROUGH  MAKERS 


1 1  Nov.,  1912. 


Journal  of  Agriculture.  Victoria. 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE,    VICTORIA. 


RED    POLL 

DAIRY  HERD 


YOUNG  BULLS  FOR  SALE 


TO  VICTORIAN 

DAIRYMEN. 


MUo* 

Carolina 

Sumatra 

Havana 

India    . 

Turka 

Brazilia** 

Colorado** 


Date  of 
Birth 


Te-t  of  Dani- 
Butter  Fat. 


Record  of  Dam. 


,  Milk-  Gal.s.      Fat-  lbs. 


0/       0/ 
/o        /o 

/1911  4-0—4 

U912  4-0-5 

/19U  40-5 

\1912  4-2-4 

1912  4  0—5 


57.5 
536 


29.5.12  ^^^^    ^  ^_^ 

10.8.12  fiail     4-0-50 

12.8.12  1912    4-0-50 

21.8.12 

I.J 

27.8.12  1st  milking  (no  record) 

27.8.1L' 
1.9.12 
22.9.12 

*  Record  of  (Iranddani  "  CIGARETTE." 


504 
648 
570 
580 
066 


211) 

286/ 
253) 
254/ 

284 

230\ 
216/ 


Price  of  Calf. 


£  s. 

14  14 

12  12 

14  14 

11  11 

10  10 

10  10 

10  10 


10    10    0 


All  the  above  Calves  are   sired  by    "TABACUM"  by  "ACTON  AJAX"  (imp.)  except  the  ones 
marked  **,  which  are  by  "ACTON  DEWSTONE"  (imp.) 


Bull  calves  bespoken  and  paid  for  will  be  reared  until  si.\  months  old,  when  delivery  must  be  taken.  In  the 
event  of  death  or  ill-development,  another  choice  will  be  allowed. 

The  prices  are  based  a]  proximately  on  the  actual  milk  and  butter  fat  record  of  the  dam  at  the  rate  of  It 
per  lb.  of  butter  tat  yielded.      {See  Journal  oj  Agriculture,  Xoveviber,  lull,  and  September.  1'J12.) 

Inspection  by  arrangement  with  Mr.  E.  STEER,  Herdsman,  Boisdale,  Gippsland. 

Application    for    purchase    to    DIRECTOR     OF    AGRICULTURE,    MELBOURNE. 


DEPARTMENT     OF     AGRICULTURE. 


POULTRY  FOR  SETTLERS. 


SITTINGS    OF    EGGS 

Are  now  avaihihle  from    the    Poultry    Pen.s    at  the  WYUNA    FARM    and  the 
BURNLEY  HORTICULTURAL  SCHOOL,  at  the  undermentioned  rates. 

NOTE.— No  more  sittintfs  of  Wyuna  White  Le<fhorns  (Cosh  Hens  and  Swift  Cockerel)  can  be  booked  until  June  1st, 
1912.     A  limited  number  cf  Cockerels  from  the  above  strain  may  he  obtained  at  10s.  6d.  each. 

Wyuna  White   Leghorns    (Cosh   Hens   and    Swift   Cockerel)  ..  £110 

White   Wyandottes    (Burnley   stock)  ..  0     7     6 

Black   Orpingtons    (Wynna   stock)  ..  0     7     6 

Burnley  W^hite   Leghorns    (Imported  Hens  and  Padnaan  Cockerel)    ..  110 

Burnley           „  ..  110 

(Burnley  stock)       ..                             ..  ..  0     7     6 

Black    Orpingtons    (Imported   pens)    ..                               ..  110 

(Burnley   stock)    ..               ..              ..  .  0     7      6 

„           Minorcas    (Imported  pens)                                     ..              ..  ..  110 

Rhode   Island   Reds    (Imported   pens)                              ..  110 

The  EjrtJS  will  carry  the  Departnieiitai  .Stamp,  and  any  infertile  esr'-'S  will  be  replaced,  provided  that  such  eg^gs  are 
returned  unbroken  within  IS  days  from  date  of  receipt.  Postal  Order  or  Cheque  should  accompany  order,  which 
should  be  addressed  to  the  Manasrer,   Government   Farm,  Wyuna,   via  Kyabram,  or  the  Principal 

School  of  Horticulture,  Burnley. 


Journal  of  AgricuU itrc,   Victoria. 


[ii  Nov.,  1912. 


i,  ' .  ^  ,'  !•'  V*  -y^ 


This  is  the  Quick 
and    Easy   Way  ! 


Once  get  an  Earth  Scoop  on  the  job  making  Irrigation 
Channels,  Drains,  and  Dams,  and  you'll  wonder  how  ever 
you  did   without  it. 

No  laborious  pick  and  shovel  work.  This  Scoop  of  ours 
cuts  its  way  quickly  and  cleanly.  It  enters  Ploughed  or 
Virgin   Soil    readily,  and  is  extremely  light  on  the  horse. 

The  bod}'  of  the  Scoop  is  pressed  cold  from  a  solid  plate  of 
hardened  steel,  which  is  the  right  way;  hot-pressed  Scoops 
soon  show  their  weakness,  especially  at  the  corners. 
This    Scoop    has    steel    runners     and     detachable  ■  handles. 


No. 

0 

1 

2 
3 


Capacity. 

10  cub.  ft. 

7  „ 
5  „ 
3        „ 


Weight. 

133  lb. 

105  lb. 
95  lb, 
80  lb. 


Price. 

80/- 
37/6 
35/- 
32/6 


Tilting'  Scoops  for  Making  Dams 

No.  1-7  cub.  ft.  75/-     No.  2—5  cub.  ft.  67  6     No.  3—3  cub.  ft.  59/- 

The  vast  stock  here  presents  a  tield  of  money-saving  oppor- 
tunities for  Farmers,  Craziers,  Orchardists— in  fact,  all 
who  use  Tools.     Write  for  detail  of  any  Tool  you  require. 


"  Machinery  and  Tool  Merchants," 

554-66  &  582-88    Collins-st.,   Melbourne. 


II  Nov.,  1912.]  Journal  of  Ai^r/ci/l/i/rc.   Victoria. 

IT  WILL  PAY  YOU 

TO    LEARN 

MODERN  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 
LIVE  STOCK  &  FRUIT  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

can  teach  you  AT  YOUR  OWN  II0M1-:  how  to  MAKE  MOKE  MONEY  by  tlie  employni«nt  of  up-to-date 
methods.  We  teach  all  branches  of  Agriculture  and  Live  Stock  Husbandry,  including  Drainage, 
Irrigation,    Dairying    and    Practical    Orchard    Management.       We  also  give  instruction  in  the 

following  subjects  : — 

Bookkeeping  Arithmetic  Electrical  Engineering  Mechanical  Drawing 

Shorthand  Mathematics  Steam  Engineering  Architectural  Drawing 

Accountancy  Languages  Shire  Engineering  Building    Construction 

Commercial  Law  Drawing  Mining  Engineering  and  Estimating 

English  Illustrating  Surveying  Timber  Measurements 

WE    PREPARE   CANDIDATES   FOR    ALL   PUBLIC    EXAMINATIONS. 

The  instruction  goes  RIGHT  TO  YOUR  HOME,  no  matter  where  j'ou  live.  It  is  clear,  concise,  easily 
understood,  and  practical.  Every  student  is  handled  privately  and  separately  and  receives  individual 
attention  according  to  his  particular  re<iuirements. 

Our  instructors  are  men  of  sound  technical  knowledge,  combined  with  years  of  practical  experience,  and 
they  are  at  the  service  of  every  student,  to  guide  him  with  their  valuable  advice.  Only  spare  time  study 
is  required,  and  our  fees  are  e.xceedingly  moderate  and  within  the  reach  of  everybody. 

We  invite  yon  to  write  at  once  for  a  free  copy  of  our  Handbook  D.  It  explains  our  system  and  shows 
how  we  can  teach  any  man  who  is  willing  to  be  taught  and  anxious  to  increase  his  earning  power.  It  costs 
nothing  to  inquire.      Don't  put  it  oflf.       Write  tO-day. 

STOTT'S  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

56b    market    street,    MELBOURNE. 


f  LAW,  SOMNER  &  GO.'S  . 

SPECIAL  GRADED  AND  SCREENED 

SEED  POTATOES 

(Pedigrree    Seed). Prices  on  Application. 


?^?oT^*^T^^^^-  I        I      ■  ^^  ^  V^  ^    ■  ■—  FRENCH  PROVENCE. 

ss..     LUCERNE  =»^^, 

Allour  Lucernes  are  Specially  Machine-dressed,  Hand-sieved,  Free  from  Dodder,  and  True  to  Name. 


CRAIG  MITCHELL      IVyi  A  I  T  IT      and  other 

MAMMOTH   WHITE      VtlfWJLm^      leading  varieties. 

Write    for    Maize    and    Potato    Circular. 

LAW,  SOMNER  &  CO.,  ^".\V/.'j,^^ 

139-141  Swanston-st.,  Melbourne. 

established    1850.  TELEPHONE    729    CENTRAL. 

BULK  STORES— MASON  LANE,  OFF  LITTLE  COLLINS  STREET. 


Journal  of  AgricuUure,  Victoria. 


[i  I  Nov.,  1912. 


For  ROOFS  of  all  descriptions 


USE 


RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


"s^'  INDELIBLE  GOLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


USE 


CALCIMO    c!>Vo'^^ 


RS. 


These  Goods  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 
SOLE    AGENTS 

BROOKS.  ROBINSON  fi  Co.  Ltd.,  MeltoUFDe, 


BEET  &  DAIRY  FARMING. 


THE  IDEAL  CLOSER   SETTLEMENT   COMBINATION. 


THE    RICH 

BOISDALE    ESTATE 

AND    THE    FAR-FAMED 

KILMANY    PARK. 


Both  of  tliese  Estates  have  been  sjieciallj'  selected,  purchased,  and  subdivided  for 
Beet  Orowinsc  and  Dairying  comlMned,  and  to  afford  ojiportunity  to  THRIFTY, 
EXPERIENCED  iviEN  WITH  SMALL  CAPITAL  to  make  a  com- 
fortable living  while  acquiring  the  freehold  of  the  land. 

For  the  possibilities  and  practical  resvilts  read  the  article  on 

''^THIE    BEET    IJN^'nDTJSTi^'^^," 

in  this  issue  of  the  Journal  Of  Agriculture. 


II  Nov.,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 

Subdivided  into  57  blocks,  and  already  settled  with  the  exception 
of  Six  Blocks  of  from  40  to  60  acres,  to  carry  10  acres  of 
Beet  annually. 

Price,  £25  10s.  to  £27  10s.  per  acre. 


KILMANY    PARK 


Now  open 

for 

Application, 

Subdivided 

into 


13  farm  blocks  from  56  to  195  acres,  to  carry 
10  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £7  lOs.  to  £22  lOs.  per  acre. 


7  Workmen's  blocks  from  20   to    46    acres,   to 
carry  4  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £23  to  £25  per  acre. 


For  particulars  and  conditions  of  purchase  and  as  to  blocks 
available,  apply  to  the 

SECRETARY,  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT 
BOARD,   MELBOURNE. 


For   information    concerning   the   financial   aid   given    to 
suitable  Settlers  to  stock  the  farms,  apply  to 

THE  DIRECTOR   OF  AGRICULTURE, 
MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  Agricidtiire,  Victoria. 


[ii  Nov.,  1912. 


G. 


R. 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT    LAND, 


List  showing 

nunibe 

•  of  allotments  011  tliu  > 

arious  Estates  available  for  application  : — 

Estate.      Irrig 

ation 

Areas. 

Area. 

Estate.        Wheat   Growing-.       Area. 

Swan  Hill 

4 

tot;illiiit. 

337  acres. 

Cornelia  Creek            ..      22        totalling       713  acres. 

Cohuna 

27 

2,414      „ 

Oaklan.ls         ..             ..6                „           4,140      „ 

Shepparton    . . 

52 

1,886      „ 

Hurstwood     ..             ..4                „           2,074      „ 

Nanneella 

19 

1,884      „ 

Mt.  Wiildeiin                 ..       13                „           4,723      „ 

Baiuawm 

21 

1,774      „ 

Nerrin  Nerrin               ..18                „           4,022      ,, 

Tongala 

SC 

4,896      „ 

Pannoo           ..            ..15               „          5,403      „ 
Marathon  &Willow  Grove    12               „          6,363      „ 
Strathallan  ..              ..11                „              325      „ 

Dairying"  and  Mixed  Farming-. 

Bona  Vista     ..             ..           0        totiiUinjr       463  ai  rus. 

Beet  Growing-  and  Dairying-. 

Deepdene 

■7 

1^ 

484 

Boisdale          . .             . .        S        totalling       366  acres. 

Eumeralla 

6 

2,706       „ 

Kilman\  Park                .20                ,,           1,626     ,, 

Allambee      ..            . 
Morven 

13 

10 

2,062       ., 
3,364 

Clerks'  Homes. 

Werribee 

24 

4,348       ,, 

Toorona-a                               . .             . .        43  allotments. 

Kenilwoith  .. 

1 

600       ,, 

Mooralla 
Cremona 

2 
5 

1,226       ., 
403       „ 

Workmen's  Homes. 

Dunrobin 

1 

20       „ 

Pender's  Grove      ..              ..             ..       105  allotments. 

Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending  over  31 J  years,  with 
payments  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  value  of 
permanent  improvements  effected,  repayments  extending  over  fifteen  j'ears  bearing  5  per  cent,  interest. 

For fiUi  information  and  terms  apply  to   THE     SECRETARY, 

LANDS    PURCHASE    AND     MANAGEMENT    BOARD. 

MELBOURNE. 


AUSTRALIA'S  WAGON 


'*The  Finest 
Wagon  Ever." 

PATENT 

STEEL 
WHEELS. 

ratent  FeU*M. 

Renewable  Carran 

Box£8  and  Oil  Caps. 

The  only  Stael  Wkeel 

that  has  atoad 

the  Test. 

Bewar*  of 

Imitations. 

BnUiTant  Bros.,  OiUenbah,  Narrandera,  write  :-4/4Al-"The  7-ton  Wool  Wagon  I  got  from  you  four  years 
ago  has  given  every  satisfaction.     I  now  want  you  to  send  me  a  54  in.  and  48  in.,  diameter  wheel  x  6  in.  tyre  10-ton 
Wagon,  with  Table  19  ft.  x  8  ft.    Your  Wagons  are  the  Best."    Hundreds  of  others  say  the  same. 
When  j'ou  get  a  Wagon  see  that  it  is  the  Genuine  "Hildyard  Patent." 

A  weU-known  and  up-to-date  farmer  in  Victoria  (Mr.  E.  A.  Neald.  of  Nathalia)  says  :-"  I  had  last  season 
a e-ton  Ordinary  English  Wagon,  and  one  of  the  "Trusty"  type  Steel  Wheel  Wagons,  40 in. 
and  36  in.  dia.  wheels,  carting  m  sheaf  hay.  Although  the  6-ton  wagon  seemed  to  carry  the  larger  loads  I 
found,  to  my  surprise,  after  keeping  careful  count,  that  the  Patent  Steel  Wheel  Wagon  carted  and  put  into 
the  stack  700  sheaves  a  day  more  than  the  big  wagon.     The  labour  was  the  same  for  both  wagons." 

g)gp- TABLE  TOP— Truck  body,  and  all  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Farm  and  Station  work. 
WRITE    FOR    CATALOG     TO-DAY. 

RJ    L    HILDYARD    queens  bridge-st, 
■     ^"      ^"       ■   lit-l^   I  A^riL^,     SOUTH  MELBOURNE.  V. 


1 1  Xov^,  191 2.] 


Journal  of  AgricuHnre.   Victoria. 


IX 


LIGHT,  STRONG, 
PERFECTLY  RIGID. 


"CYCLONE 
WOVEN    GATE 

9  ft.  -to  xe  f-t. 

Will  hold  anything,  and  can  be  made  rabbit  proof  by  putting  rabbit  proof 

intersection  at  the  bottom.      The  wider  gates  have  three  stays. 
Get  our  Catalogue  of  this  and  many  other  Cyclone  Gates. "  THEY'RE  ALL  GOOD." 

CYCLONE    FENCE  &   GATE   CO., 

459  SWANSTON  ST.,  corner  franklin  ST.,  MELBOLRNE. 


PERFECTUS 


APPARATUS 

FOR  THE 


TREATMENT  OF  MILK  FEVER  IN  COWS. 

BT  THE  METHOD  RECOMMENDED  IN  THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


I  'HE  treatment  by  this  apparatus  is 
■*■       effective    and    eas}'    to    perform, 

and  it  is  indeed  rare  that  the  severest 

case  does  not  yield  to  it. 

The  treatment  should  be  applied 
directly  the  symptoms  of  the  fever 
become  manifest. 

The  set  contains  everything  neces- 
sary to  effect  a  cure,  including  a  ther- 
mometer for  aiding  the  recognition  of 
the  disease. 

PRICE    COMPLETE 


12s.  6d.  (Postage,  9d.) 


Ask  your  nearest  Chemist  for  it,  and  if  he  cannot  supply,  apply  to  us  direct). 

FELTON,  CRIMWADE  &  CO.,  MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [ii  Nov.,  1912. 


LITERATURE  for  AGRICULTURISTS. 

PLAN   AND    SPECIFICATION    OF   SHEEP-SHEARING   SHED.     2s.    6d.     Postage,   Id. 

MILK  CHARTS  (Monthly  and  Weekly),  6d,  per  dozen,  post  free.  When  ordeiing,  dairy  farmers 
should  mention  "  Monthly  "  or  "  Weekly." 

By  Professor  A.  J.  Ewart,  Government  Botanist. 

WEEDS,   POISON    PLANTS,   AND    NATURALIZED    ALIENS    OF   VICTORIA.     2s.    6d. 

Postage  :  Commonwealth,  Hd.  ;  N.Z.,  5d.  ;  British  and  Foreign,  lOd. 

PLANTS  INDIGENOUS  TO  VICTORIA.  Vol.  II.,  10s.  Postage  :  Com.,  2d. ;  N.Z.,  8d.  ; 
Brit.  &  For.,  Is.  4d. 

By  C.  French,  F.E.S.,  Government  Entomologist. 

DESTRUCTIVE  INSECTS  OF  VICTORIA.  Parts  L,  IL,  III.,  IV.,  V.  2s.  6d.  each.  Postage: 
Parts  I.  and  III.,  C,  Id.  ;  N.Z.,  3d.;  B.  &  F.,  6d.  each.  Parts  II.  and  IV.,  C,  l-Jd. ;  N.Z., 
4d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  8d.  each.     Part  V.,  C,  Id. ;  N.Z.,  4d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  7d. 

By  D.  Mc Alpine,  Government  Vegetable  Pathologist. 

RUSTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     5s.     Postage  :  C,  2d.  ;  N.Z.,  8d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  4d. 

SMUTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     4s.     Postage  :  C,  2id. ;  N.Z.,  9d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  6d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  CITRUS  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  Postage  :  C,  Id. ;  N.Z., 
3d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  6d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  STONE  FRUIT  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  6d.  Postage  :  C, 
Ud.  ;  N.Z.,  5d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  lOd. 

SYSTEMATIC  ARRANGEMENT  OF  AUSTRALIAN  FUNGI.  3s.  Postage:  C,  2d.; 
N.Z.,  8d..;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  4d. 

THE    DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

MELBOURNE,   VICTORIA. 
Remittances  from   places  outside  the  Commonweaitii   to   be  by  Money   Order  only. 

Pamphlets  obtainable  from  the  Director  of  Agriculture, 
Melbourne,  Free  on  Application. 

NEW    SERIES. 

1.  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.     A.  8.  Kenyon,  C.E. 

2.  HINTS  FOR  NEW  SETTLERS.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

3.  APPLE  GROWING  FOR  EXPORT.     P.  J.  Carmody. 

*  4.  BOOKKEEPING  FOR  FAR^MERS.     IF.  Mclver,  A.I.A.V.,  A.S.A.A.,  Eng. 
5.  CIDER  MAKING.     J.  Knight. 

*  6.  FARM  PLUMBING.     C.  H.  Wright. 

7.  CITRUS  FRUIT  CULTURE.     E.  E.  Pescott. 

8.  BUILDING  HINTS  FOR  SETTLERS.     A.  S.  Kenyon,  C.E.,  and  others. 

9.  TOBACCO  CULTURE.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

10.  SILOS  AND  SILAGE.     G.  H.  F.  Baker. 

11.  THE  BEET  SUGAR  INDUSTRY  AND  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT.     H.  T.   Easterhy. 

12.  WORMS  IN  SHEEP.     S.  S.  Catneron,  D.V.  Sc,   M.R.O.V.S. 
*I3.   CHEESE  MAKING  (Cheddar).     C.  S.  Sawers. 

14.  FARM  BLACKSMITHING.     G.  Baxter. 

15.  BROOM  FIBRE  INDUSTRY.      T.  A.  J.  Smith. 
*16.  PIG  INDUSTRY.     B.  T.  Archer. 

17.  GOVERNMENT  CERTIFICATION  OF  STALLIONS,   1911-12. 

W.  A.  N.  Robertson,  B.V.  Sc. 

18.  REPORT   ON  FIRST  EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION  AT  BURNLEY,   1911-12. 

*  Not  yet  available.  JI.   V.  Hawkins. 


II  Nov..  191 3.]  journal  of  Agr'cuU iirc .   Victoria. 


Vaeuum 

Gapg^oyle 

Prepared 

Red   Spraying  Oil 


Needs  no  Soft  Soap 
OP  other  ingredient. 


Requires  only 
Clean  Soft  Water. 


V^cicuum  Gargoyle  Red  Spray  Oil 
now  obtainable  in  prepared  form 
is  the  same  Oil  as  that  originally 
introduced  to  Australia  for  fruit- 
tree    spraying. 


Full  particulars — 
Horticultural  Department, 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd., 
90  William  Street,  Melbourne. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[i  I  Nov.,  191  2.. 


YOUR  LAND 

INCREASED  IN  VALUE  50°/ 


o 


Land  properly  irrigated  increases  ils  productiveness  from 
50%  10  100%.  This  practically  means  an  equal  increase  in 
its  value  The  more  efficient  the  method  of  irrigation,  the 
greater  the  incn-ase. 

The  Nunan  Patent  Spray  System  of  Irrigation 

Distributes  water  in  a  natural  manner,  similar  to  rain.  With  this  system  you  secure  a 
greater  and  more  efficacious  irrigation  with  half  the  amount  of  water  required  by  the 
flooding  method.  Again,  the  water  by  being  sprayed  through  the  air,  is  freshened  antl 
sweetened,  and  increased  in  nutritive  value.  The  Nunan  system  is  lieing  adopted  throughout 
Australia  and  is  giving  highly  satisfactory  returns.  We  have  published  a  book  fully  describ- 
ing the  Nunan  system,  if  you  send  us  your  name  and  address  we  will  send  y.ni  a  copy  free. 


NEWELL  &  CO. 


AGENTS 


43=45  KING=ST. 
MELBOURNE. 


NEW  ZEALAND  LOAN  & 
MERCANTILE  AGENCY 


c:o.  x^xiMEx^riESH) 


Head  Office— 
LONDO.N. 


Melbourne  Office — 
COLLINS-ST.  W. 


LIBERAL    CASH     ADVANCES. 

Wool,  Grain,  Skins,  Hidesjallow, 
Bark,  Stock  and  Station  Brokers 

ON    COMMISSION    ONLY. 

Butter  Shipments  Undertaken  on  Owner's  Account 
AGENTS    FOR 

COOPER'S    DIP 

FOR  VICTORIA  AND  RIVERINA, 

PAGE'S    PATENT    WIRE    STRAINER 
and    IRONSIDE'S    WIRE    COTTER. 

CHIEF  AGENTS  IN  VICTORIA  for  the 

PALATINE   INSURANCE  CO. 


1 1  Nov.,  191  3.] 


Journal  of  At^r/c/z/fi/re,  Yictoria. 


TRADE 
MARK 


r 


o 


24.C 


'o 


-A-TJTTOIMC 


OTICJ 


GAS  PRODUCTION 

Cheaper  than   COAL   GAS   at  3/"  V^^   1,000  cubic   feet. 
FOR    LIGHTING,    COOKING,    AND    HEATING. 

MANUFACTURED       UNDER       LICENCE       BOOTY-LOFTH  O  US  E       PATENTS. 


SYSTEM  ADOPTED  BY  STATE  AND  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENTS. 


For  further  particulars   and  prices  apply 

PTY.         19,    21,    23    ] 

LTD.,        586    BOURKE    ST.,     MELB. 


J.  BARTRAM  &  SON  "^    "  '''  "  •'"'*' ^"^^  ^""^ 


MADE    IN    AUSTRALIA. 


The  Standard  Netting  of  the  State. 

LOOK     FOR     OUR     MARKER     IN     EVERY     ROLL. 


Our  manufacture  of 
Rabbit -proof  Wire 
Netting  is  known  as 
the  best  througliout 
Australia. 


Better  in  quality,  p.nd 
owing  to  its  being 
loose  polled  less  costly 
to  erect  than  any  im- 
ported Netting. 


1\'  anfl  \V  MKSn. 

LYSAGHT  BROS.  &  CO.  Ltd., 

MANUFACTURERS.  SYDNEY. 

AGENTS:  GIBBS,  BRIGHT  &  CO.,  34  Queen  Street,  MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  Agriculture.  Victoria.  [n  Nov.,  1912. 


Mp.  farmer. 


~         This    is    what    concerns    you 

5  C>vt    Galvd.  Because  it  concerns  your  pocket. 

NEPTUNE  I'S  Fencing  Wire 

12^   Gauge,    will   cost   you    £5       2S.       OQ. 

and  will  give  you  7,150  yds.  of  Single  Wire  Fence. 

10   cwt.    Galvd.    ORDINARY    Fencing*   Wire 

No.  8,  will  cost  you  £5  2s.  6d.  and  will  only  give  you  5,280  yds.  of  Single  Wiie  Fence. 


GUARANTEED   ^^k^In'of  "NEPTUNE" 

12|  Gauge,   is   1,140   lbs. 

Breaking  Strain  ORDINARY  No.  8,  is  1,125  lbs. 

Railway  Freight  and  Carriage  is  about  one-third  of  that  on  Ordinary  Wire. 


"NEPTUNE"  Unrivalled  WIRE    is    not  influenced  by    climatic    changes. 
AGENTS-  ASK    YOUR    STOREKEEPER. 

MORRIS  &  MEEKS,  Lt.  Collins-st.,  Melbourne. 


DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE,  VICTORIA. 


POTATO  DISEASES 

IN    AUSTRALIA 

.A.3SriD       THIEIE,       T  E,  E  ^^T  JVC  E  IsT  T - 

By    D,    McALPlNE,  ' 

Government  Vegetable  Pathologist.  235  PAGES  FULLY  ILLUSTRATED. 

T\^\^^              r^"  /          /Postage— Commonwealtli,  2d. ;  New  Zealand,  8d.  ;\ 
irriCe      -       I^/"     \ British  and  Foreign,  Is.  3d. / 

Applications,  with  Postal  Note  or  Cheque  covering  price  and  postage,  to  be  made  to  the  Director  of  A|ricuiture, 
Melbourne,   Victoria.  Remittances  from  beyond   the   Connnonwealth   to  be  made  by  Post  Othce  Order. 


With  Appendices  by 

W.  LAIDLAW,  B.Sc.,  Biologist, 

on  Eel  Worms ; 

and 

C.  FRENCH  (Jnr.),  Acting 

Government  Entomologist, 

on 

Insect  Pests  of  the  Potato. 


BONEDUST,  SUPERPHOSPHATE, 


AND     OTHER     HIGH-GRADE     FERTILIZERS 

DELIVERED  AT  RAILWAY  STATION,  FOOTSCRAY,  OR  ON  WHARF,  MELBOURNE. 

«         ^^^  ^,^ '^-.^  Jl^     W     li^.  Mil     B^       n^^^M.-ui.fa.cs'fcxi.r^r. 

Office :— 407  POST  OFFICE  PLAGE,  MELBOURNE. 

BONES  BOUGHT.      CONSIGN  TO  ME,  FOOTSCRAY.  Telephone  2098. 


II  Nov..  191 2.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


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jonniAl  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [ii  Nov.,  191 2. 


r 


WINDMILLS  that  Give  Satisfaction : 


ALSTON'S 


1  91  2 
PATENT. 


The  most  perfect  windmill  motion  in  existence.  Ball-bearing 
throughout.  All  moving  parts  are  enclosed  in  dust-proof  case, 
and  run  in  oil  bath.  Gives  a  direct  and  central  lift  of  the  pump 
rod.  No  overhanging  or  twisting  strains  that  are  common 
in  all  other  makes.   Runs  in  the  A^r;^^        lightest  winds. 

Stands  the  strongest  storms.  <^5r^C^,  ^^  ^ot  buy  a 
Mill  till   you   have    inspected      ^^:^^:^      the   ''Alston.*' 


16  ft.  Alston  Mill  Pumping  from  Bore  into  Trough. 

OVER  30,000  OF  THESE  MILLS  IN  USE  THROUGHOUT  AUSTRALIA. 


WATER    TROUGHING 

The  Alston  Patent  Trough  is  the  only  reliable  article.  It  is  manu- 
factured by  the  inventor.  The  Patent  Water=Tight  Joint  of  the 
Alston  Trougfh  is  perfection.  It  is  made  by  the  overlap  of  the 
curved  steel  sheets  securely  held  by  the  inside  and  outside  bands. 
The  sheets  are  not  grooved,  as  this  only  fractures  the  coating 
of  galvanizing,  and  exposes  the  iron  to  the  action  of  the  water. 


JAMES  ALSTON,  - 


QUEEN'S   BRIDGE, 

MELBOURNE, 


THe    JOURNAL 


or 


^fie  department  of    Mgricufture 


VICTORIA. 


Vol.  X.        Part  11.  11th  November,  1912. 

BEE-KEEPLXG   IX   VICTORIA. 

{Continued  from   Page   532.) 
F.  R.  Beitline,  Bee  Ex-pert. 

IX.   Swarming. 

Swarming  i.s  a  natural  impulse  with  bees,  and  the  means  of  multiplying 
the  species.  In  Victoria  it  occurs  from  September  till  December,  October 
being  the  principal  swarming  month  in  most  localities. 

In  abnormal  seasons,  when  copious  rains  succeed  a  period  of  drought, 
swarming  may  take  place  a  second  time  in  January  or  February. 

To  the  beginner  the  issue  of  swarms  is  a  source  of  delight,  and  the 
most  convenient  way  of  increasing  the  number  of  his  colonies.  When, 
however,  stocks  have  increased  to  the  number  intended  to  be  kept,  or  to 
what  the  locality  will  carry  with  profit  to  the  owner,  then  swarming  be- 
comes a  trouble,  involving  a  considerable  amount  of  unprofitable  work, 
and  unless  it  is  counteracted  by  re-uniting  of  swarmed  stocks  may  result  in 
the  loss  of  all  surplus  honey.  This  is  particularly  so  in  districts  having  a 
plentiful  supply  of  pollen  in  spring  and  a  honev  flow  in  early  summer  only. 
Taking  as  an  illustration  two  colonies  of  equal  strength,  and  assuming  that 
one  swarms  several  times,  and  that  the  other  does  not  swarm  at  all,  the 
worker  force  of  the  former  is  broken  up  into  two,  three,  or  more  com- 
munities, none  of  which  is  in  a  condition  to  store  surplus  honey  for  a 
month  or  longer,  because  the  parent  colony  is  depleted  of  field  bees  by  the 
issue  of  one  or  more  swarms.  The  voung  queen,  hatched  after  the  swarm 
left,  does  not  commence  to  lay  for  fourteen  to  twenty-one  days,  and  this 
interruption  in  the  succession  of  bee  generations  seriously  affects  the  storing 
ot  honey  later  on,  while  every  swarm  put  down  in  a  separate  hive  has  first 
to  build  sufficient  comb  to  fill  the  frames  of  the  lower  story,  establish  a 
brood -nest,  and  accumulate  stores  before  it  is  in  a  condition  to  store  surplus 
honey.  This  point,  at  whicti  productiveness  commences,  is  in  some  locali- 
ties, such  as  the  country  surrounding  Melbourne    not  reached  till  the  main 

13941.  V 


650  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victona.  [11    Nov.,    1912. 

honey  flow  is  practically  over,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  season  the  bees 
are  only  able  to  gather  sufficient  to  maintain  themselves,  and  sometimes  not 
enough  to  last  them  through  the  winter.  In  the  following  season  the 
colonies  which  survived  will  again  undergo  division  by  swarming,  little  or 
no  honey  will  be  obtained,  and  the  owner  will  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
bees  are  not  profitable  in  his  locality.  It  should  be  understood  that  in- 
crease of  colonies  always  takes  place  at  the  expense  of  honey  production, 
except  in  exceptionally  good  bee-country,  with  a  late  honey  flow  ;  but  in 
passing  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  Spring  bees  are  as  much  a  saleable 
commodity  as  honey,  that  apiarists  in  the  best  honey  districts  of  the 
State  purchase  swarms  in  large  numbers,  and  that  in  localities  better  suited 
to  the  breeding  of  bees  than  the  production  of  honey  better  profits  may 
be  obtained  by  the  sale  of  bees  than  of  honey. 

Taking  now  the  case  of  a  colony  which  does  not  swarm  at  all,  although 
ot  the  same  strength  as  another  one  which  does,  it  will  be  seen  that  as  the 
laying  queen  remains  in  the  hive  there  is  no  interruption  in  the  rearing  of 
bees,  and  as  all  the  work  which  is  done  by  swarms  during  the  first  three 
or  fours  weeks  is  done  by  bees  which  come  from  the  parent  colony,  it  follows 
that  when  the  total  worker-force  remains  in  the  parent  hive  whatever 
would  be  needed  in  the  establishment  of  the  new  colonies  is  available  as 
surplus ;  in  other  words,  the  nectar  available  in  the  fiora  of  the  locality  is, 
in  one  instance,  turned  into  surplus  honey  for  the  benefit  of  the  owner  of 
the  bees,  and  in  the  other  into  more  bees  which  cannot  do  more  than  exist 
for  the  remainder  of  the  season. 

What  has  been  said  so  far  does  not  apply  to  the  best  honey  districts  of 
this  State  where  the  honey  flow  is  heavy,  and  more  or  less  continuous  for 
the  greater  part  of  Spring,  Summer,  and  Autumn ;  but  even  when  the  limit 
to  increase  is  one  of  labour  and  material  rather  than  of  sources  of  nectar 
it  is  found  more  profitable  to  have  the  same  total  force  of  bees  in  a  lesser 
number  of  colonies.  More  surplus  can  be  obtained  from  one  colony  contain- 
ing 30,000  bees  than  from  two  containing  15,000  each,  because  the  number 
necessary  to  attend  to  dome.stic  work  such  as  the  rearing  of  brood,  carry- 
ing water,  &c.,  is  practically  the  same  in  the  smaller  as  in  the  larger 
colony,  the  latter  has  therefore  a  much  larger  number  of  bees  available  for 
the  gathering  of  nectar  and  is  less  influenced  bv  changes  of  temperature. 

The  prevention  or  control  of  swarming  is  one  of  the  most  diflUcult 
problems  of  bee  culture.  Systematic  efi'orts  to  eliminate  the  swarming 
impulse  by  breeding  all  queens  from  the  mothers  of  non-swarming  stocks 
have  so  far  only  resulted  in  reducing  the  percentage  of  swarming,  owing  to 
the  inability  of  queen  breeders  to  control  the  mating  of  the  sexes  as  is 
done  in  the  case  of  animals  and  birds.  Beekeepers  are  therefore  compelled 
to  confine  their  efforts  to  cope  with  the  swarming  problem  to  the  removal  of 
contributing  causes  and  to  counteracting  the  eff"ects  which  swarming  has 
on  honey  production.  Apart  from  the  natural  impul.s.e,  which  is  much 
stronger  in  some  races,  .some  strains,  and  even  some  individual  colonies 
of  bees  than  in  others,  climate,  season,  and  flora  have  great  influence  upon 
the  swarming  propensity.  These  are  factors  beyond  the  control  of  the 
beekeeper ;  there  are,  however,  others  which  mav'  be  controlled,  more  or 
less,  and  excessive  swarming  prevented  thereby.  The  principal  inducements 
for  bees  to  swarm  are — 

1.  A  crowded  condition  of  the  bees. 

2.  The  presence  of  large  numbers  of  drones. 

3.  An  old   or   failing  queen. 


Nov. 


1912. 


Bee-keeping  in    Victoria. 


651 


I.  Hives  may  become  crowded  with  bees  early  in  September  if  win- 
tered in  single  stories;  as  soon  as  the  bees  occupy  all  the  combs,  an  upper 
story,  with  drawn  empty  combs,  should  be  put  on  to  allow  the  bees  to 
spread  out  as  their  numbers  increase  and  the  weather  becomes  warmer. 
The  beginner  is  at  a  great  disadvantage  in  not  having  another  set  of  combs, 
and  the  only  thing  he  can  do  is  to  remove  one  or  two  combs  from  the 
brood  chamber  to  the  super  (upper  story)  and  put  two  frames  with  full 
sheets  of  foundation  alongside  the  outside  brood  combs  in  the  lower  hive 
body.  The  bees  will  soon  draw  the  foundation  into  comb,  and  the  combs 
removed  to  the  super  will  induce  them  to  commence  work  there.  Frames 
with  starters  only  should  not  be  used  before  swarming  time,  as  drone 
comb  is  invariably  built  in  them  at  this  period.  It  must  be  pointed  out 
that  the  addition  of  a  set  of  frames  with  starters,  or  a  section  super,  does 
not  spread  the  bees  out,  because  there  is  no  connexion  between  the  brood 
combs  and  the  starters  in  the  super.  In  a  wild  bees'  nest,  or  when  a  set 
of  drawn  combs  are  given,   the  comb  is  continuous,  and  therefore,   in  the 


FIG.     I. SPRING    EXAMINATION    OF    HIVES. 

latter  case,  accepted  by  the  bees  as  part  of  their  home  as  soon  as  required 
and   the  crowded  condition  relieved. 

2.  The  presence  of  large  numbers  of  drones  is  best  avoided  by  the  use 
in  the  brood  chamber  of  combs  built  from  full  sheets  of  foundation,  or 
combs  which  have  been  built  by  swarms  during  the  first  three  weeks.  The 
cutting  out  of  drone  comb  or  the  shaving  off  of  the  heads  of  drone  brood 
is  of  very  little  use,  because  drone  comb  is  again  built  by  the  bees  in  the 
same  space,  and  the  queen  again  lays  drone  eggs  into  the  cells  from  which 
the  bees  have  removed  the  decapitated  drones. 

3.  Old  or  failing  queens  may  be  discovered  during  the  first  or  second 
examination  of  hives  in  Spring  (Fig.  i)  by  noting  the  irregular  way  eggs 
are  laid,  as  they  are  found  scattered  about  instead  of  in  compact  circles. 
Colonies  having  three-year-old  queens  will  be  found  most  inclined  to 
swarm  ;  thos.e  with  two-year-old  queens  less  so,  and  the  previous  season's 
queens  still  less,  while  later  on.   when  young  queens  of  the  same  season's 

Y   2 


652 


Jonnuil  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.         [ii    Nov.,    1912. 


rearing  are  laying,  their  colonies  will  not  swarm  the  same  season.  Defective 
and  old  queens  should  be  replaced  as  soon  as  ripe  queen  cells  are  available. 
In  weak  colonies  the  queen  may  be  destroyed  and  a  queen  cell  given  at 
the  same  time,  the  interruption  of  brood  rearing  can  be  made  good  by 
gi\-ing  a  comb  of  brood  a  few  days  after  the  young  queen  hatched.  If 
the  colony  contains  sufficient  bees  it  may  be  divided  into  two  on  the  same 
stand,  the  old  queen  being  kept  laying  in  one  till  the  young  queen  is  laying 
in  the  other,  when  the  former  may  be  removed  and  the  two  stocks  united 
by  alternating  the  brood  combs  after  smoking  both.  Uniting  is  best  done 
at  or  after  sunset. 

Even  when  e\"erything  possible  has  been  done  to  discourage  swarming, 
there  will  be  a  number  of  swarms,  but  they  will  be  larger  (Fig.  2)  than 
they  would  have  been  had  che  colonies  swarmed  earlier.  Examining  the 
hives  once  a   week  and  destroving  any  queen  cells  that  are  found  will,   to 

some  extent,  prevent 
swarming  or,  at  any 
rate,  delav  it.  How- 
ever, unless  the  bees 
are  shaken  off  the 
brood  combs  e\"ery 
time,  a  small  queen 
cell  on  the  face  of  the 
comb,  or  one  well 
covered  with  newly- 
built  comb,  is  very 
likely  to  be  over- 
looked and,  if  condi- 
tions continue  favor- 
able, colonies  which 
have  been  thwarted 
will  often  swarm  with- 
out having  built  cells. 
Taking  into  account 
the  trouble  involved 
by  a  careful  weekly 
examination  and  the 
risk  of  failing  to  pre- 
vent swarming,  it  will 
be  found  best  to  allow 


FIG.    2. A    LARGE    SWARM,    lO    LBS. 

45,000    BEES. 


OR   ABOUT 


the  swarm  to  come  off  and,  if  no  increase  but  a  yield  of  honey  is  desired,  to 
re-unite  the  swarm  and  the  parent  colony.  This  is  done  in' the  following 
manner: — When  the  swarm  has  issued  and  clustered  somew'here,  hive  it  in 
a  new  box  on  a  set  of  wired  frames  with  starters  on  the  spot  occupied  by 
the  hive  from  which  it  came;  remove  the  latter  a  little  to  one  side,  with 
the  entrance  facing  at  right  angles  to  its  former  position.  All  flying  bees 
remaining  in  the  parent  stock,  on  returning  from  the  fields,  will  join  the 
swarm,  because  they  will  return  to  the  spot  they  are  used  to.  The  swarmed 
colony  will  thus  be  so  depleted  of  flying  bees  that  usuallv  the  first  virgin 
queen  which  hatches  from  one  of  the  cells  will  be  allowed  by  the  bees  to 
destroy  the  remaining  queen  cells.  To  make  sure,  however,  that  no  after- 
swarms  come  off,  it  is  best  to  examine  the  stocks  within  a  day  or  two  and 
destroy  all  the  queen  cells  except  one,  selecting  for  the  purpose  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  forward  in  development.      In  from  fourteen  to  twenty-one 


II    Nov.,    1912.]  Lnccnic  and  Ensilage.  65 


DO 


days  the  young  queen  will  be  laying  and,  under  normal  concJilions,  the 
combs  in  the  hive  containing  the  swarm  will  have  been  built  down  to  the 
bottom  bar  of  the  frames.  In  the  meantime  the  parent  hive  has  been 
gradually  turned  round  till  it  stands  close  alongside  to  the  swarm,  with  the 
entrance  facing  the  same  way,  and  the  two  stocks  may  be  united  into  one 
hive,  the  old  queen  (that  with  the  swarm)  being  removed,  the  young  queen 
taking  her  place  on  the  new  combs,  with  the  old  combs  over  a  queen-excluder 
in  the  super  to  be  extracted  when  full,  or  replaced  by  frames  with  full 
sheets  of  foundation,  if  unsuitable  for  further  use. 

As  previously  stated,  uniting  should  be  done  towards  evening,  first 
blowing  smoke  between  the  combs  of  both  colonies,  and  then  alternating 
the  frames  of  the  two  colonies,  thus  thoroughly  mixing  the  bees.  They  will 
have  settled  down  by  next  morning,  and  will  work  peaceably  together;  the 
combs  intended  for  the  brood  nest  and  the  queen  are  then  put  in  the  lower 
chamber,  the  other  combs  in  the  super  above  a  queen-excluder. 

The  old  queen  may  be  removed  the  day  before  uniting,  which  should  not 
be  attempted  till  the  young  queen  has  been  laying  for  some  days,  as  much 
stinging  and  balling  of  the  queen  may  take  place  if  uniting  is  done  before 
or  too  soon  after  the  young  queen  commenced  laying. 

The  united  stock  is  in  the  best  condition  for  storing  surplus  honey,  the 
brood  combs  ha\e  been  renewed,  and  the  queen  being  of  the  same  season's 
raising,  there  will  be  no  further  swarming. 


{To  be  continued.) 


LUCERNE   AXD   ENSILAGE. 

By  John  W .   Paierson,  B.Sc.,  Ph.D.,  Experimentalist ;  and  P.   R.  Scott, 
Chemist  for  Agriculture. 

In  order  to  determine  the  changes  or  losses  which  may  occur  in  locally 
grown  forage  during  the  process  of  ensilage,  a  preliminary  .series  of  experi- 
ments was  carried  out  at  Geelcng  during  the  past  summer.  The  silo  was 
of  the  reinforced  concrete  type,  and  in  filling  it  the  material  was  chaffed 
and  elevated  in  the  ordinary  way..  Second-cut  lucerne  was  the  crop 
employed. 

The  method  of  working  was  simple.  About  50  lbs.  of  the  material 
as  it  came  from  the  cutter  was  well  mixed  on  a  clean  floor.  From  this 
30  lbs.  was  sewed  up  in  a  clean  Hessian  bag  and  dropped  in  the  centre  of 
the  silo  where  it  was  soon  buried  in  the  ordinary  course  of  work.  At  the 
same  time  10  lbs.  was  weighed  frcm  the  same  heap  and  set  out  to  dry  as 
a  thin  layer  in  a  lock-up  room.  When  dry  this  10  lbs.  was  carefully  col- 
lected and  preserved  for  analysis. 

The  bag  was  placed  in  the  silo  on  27th  December.  Chaffing  went  on 
from  that  time  until  the  silage  was  from  10  to  12  feet  deep  over  the  bag  at 
the  end  of  three  days.  The  material  was  then  fed  to  cows  straight  away, 
a  quantity  being  taken  from  the  silo  daily.  On  27th  February  the  bag 
was  reached  and  it  was  then  taken  out  and  weighed.  It  had  been  buried 
in  the  silo  62  davs. 

The  silage  when  taken  out  weighed  2^  lbs.  9  oz.  It  was  forwarded  the 
same  day  in  a  sealed  milk  can  for  analysis.  At  the  same  time  the  air- 
dried  chaff  from  10  lbs.  of  the  original  material  was  sent  on  as  a  separate 


654 


Journal  of  Agrkidtiire,   Victoria.         [ii    Nov.,    191 2. 


parcel.      One  of  us  was  present  at  all  weighings  on  the  farm  to  check  the 
results. 

The  silage  was  of  a  brownish-green  colour  and  had  a  somewhat  pungent 
smell  suggesting  the  presence  of  butyric  acid.  The  dairy  herd  at  the  farm 
ate  it  readily.  There  was  no  mould  of  any  sort  on  it  and  the  farmer  was 
well  pleased  with  the  general  appearance  of  the  material  and  the  way  it 
was  turned  out. 

Table  I.  gives  the  percentage  composition  of  the  silage  and  dried  chaff, 
and  also  of  the  original  green  lucerne  as  calculated  from  the  dried  chaff 
it  produced.  The  items  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  table  are  those  ordi- 
narily determined  in  stock  food  analysis,  and  they  were  determined  in  the 
ordinary  way.  In  the  lower  division  of  the  table  the  true  protein  was 
estimated  by  Stutzer's  method,  and  the  amides,  &c.,  w^ere  then  found  by 
difference  from  the  crude  protein.  Each  of  these  represents  nitrogen  x  6.25. 
Sugar  was  determined  by  the  gravimetric  copper  method.  Furfurol  was 
obtained  by  distillation  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  subsequently  precipi- 
tated by  phloroglucin.  Furfurol  represents  the  pentosans  and  less 
resistant  celluloses  (oxy-celluloses)  of  the  fodders,  the  latter  being  of  most 
importance.  The  analys^es  werq  made  by  Mr.  V.  Deschamp,  who  has 
long  experience  of  this  class  of  work. 

Tablk  I. 


Water 

Ether  Extract    . . 
Crude  Protein     . . 
Sol.  Carbohydrates 
Woody  Fibre 
Ash       . . 


Protein 
Amides,  &c. 
Sugar   . . 
Furfurol  obtained 


Green  Lucerne. 

Lucerne  Hay. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

74-63 

9-80 

-83 

2-94 

4-60 

16-37 

1118 

39-75 

6-35 

22 -.58 

2-41 

8-56 

100-00 

100-00 

3-31 

11-75 

1-29 

4-62 

-27 

-97 

3-7.5 

13-32 

Lucerne  Silage. 


Per  cent. 

75-00 
1-29 
3-66 

10-43 
6-90 
2-72 


100-00 

2-19 

1-47 

-02 

3-28 


The  percentage  composition  of  the  fodders  indicates  that  chemically 
any  one  of  them  may  be  a  useful  feed  for  ruminants,  but  weight  for  weight 
they  vary  in  the  nutrients  supplied.  Comparing  the  green  lucerne  with  the 
silage  the  latter  contained  less  crude  protein  and  considerably  less  true 
protein,  while  it  contained  a  larger  amount  of  amide  or  non-protein  nitro- 
gen. The  silage  had  also  somewhat  less  carbohydrates,  and  of  the  sugar 
which  belongs  to  this  group  it  had  practically  none  while  the  furfurol  shows 
that  the  more  digestible  cellulose  w^as  diminished.  The  silage  had  some- 
what more  fibre.  It  had  more  ether  extract.  Not  much  importance, 
however,  should  be  credited  to  the  ether  extract  in  rough  fodders  of  the 
kinds  under  review.  While  the  ether  extract  of  concentrated  foods  such 
as  corn  or  linseed  consists  almost  entirely  of  true  fats  which  are  wholly 
digestible  and  have  a  high  value  in  feeding,  the  ether  extract  of  rough 
fodders  generally  contains  about  50  per  cent,  of  chlorophyll  and  waxes 
which  are^  indigestible.  In  silage  it  contains  in  addition  a  number  of 
organic  acids,  such  as  lactic  and  butyric  acid  which  have  a  low  heat  value 
and  are  in  no  way  comparable  to  fats.      The  water  in  the  silage  happens  to 


Nov.,    191 2. 


Luc  erne  and  Ensilage. 


655 


be  about  the  same  as  in  the  original  lucerne.  Weight  for  weight  the  dried 
chaff  is  a  much  more  concentrated  food  than  the  others,  for  the  reason  that 
it  contained  less  water. 

The  important  practical  points  in  a  comparison  of  silage,  green  fodder 
and  hay  lie  not  so  much  however  in  percentages  as  in  the  actual  amounts 
of  feeding  material  obtained  from  the  different  methods  of  curing.  Thus 
it  is  conceivable  that  a  gain  in  quality  during  ensilage  might  be  purchased 
at  too  great  an  expense  as  regards  the  quantity  of  feed.  Table  II.  shows 
for  100  lbs.  of  the  original  material  how  manv  lbs.  of  each  food  constituent 
were  put  in  and  how  manv  taken  out  of  the  silo. 


WEIGHING    AT    THE    FARM. 
Table  II. 


5g 

Ether 
°3          Extract. 

S--3 

•0  -S 
=  0 

oil 

c 
1118 

>> 

5  J 

< 

c' 
0 

Ph 

m 

•§ 

u 

a 

Si 

•27 

£S 

fc.O 

Put  in  (lbs.)  .  . 

25-37 

4-60 

6-35 

2-41 

3-31 

1-29 

3-75 

Taken  out(lbs.) 

21-87 

1-09 

311 

9^50 

5-86 

2-31 

1-86 

125 

•02 

3-28 

Loss  (lbs.)     . . 

3-50 

•26* 

1-49 

1-68 

-49 

-10 

1-45 

•04 

•25 

•47 

Loss  (per  cent.) 

13-8 

31-3* 

32-4 

150 

7.7 

4-1    1 

43-8 

3^1 

92-6 

12-5 

•  =  Increase. 


Of  the  total  dry  matter  put  in  13.8  per  cent,  was  lost  in  62  days.  Of  the 
•soluble  carbohydrates  15  per  cent,  was  lost  including  all  the  sugar,  and  also, 
as  the  furfurol  shows,  the  more  decomposable  cellulose.  Analysis  and 
theory  alike  indicate  that  during  ensilage  it  is  the  most  digestible  part  of  the 
carbohydrates  which  are  lost.  The  fibre  showed  less  actual  loss  and  the 
ash  practically  none.  The  bag  was  several'  feet  from  the  floor  of  the  silo. 
The  most  apparent  loss,  however,  has  been  in  the  crude  protein,  and  still 
more  in  the  true  protein  of  the  silage.  In  the  last  case  the  loss  approached 
50  per  cent,  of  the  protein  in  the  original  material. 


6s6 


Journal  of  AgrkiiUure,   Victoria.         [ii   Nov.,    1912. 


"  Alhuminoid  ratio"  is  the  ratio  of  tile  digestible  albuminoids  (proteins) 
to  the  digestible  non-albuminoids  in  a  food,  the  fat  being  multipled  by  2.4 
in  making  the  calculation.  Adopting  Wolff's  digestion  coefficients  for  the 
fodders  concerned  the  ratios  work  out  at  i  :3.3  for  the  fresh  lucerne  and 
I  :.4.38  for  the  silage  on  the  basis  of  crude  protein;  calculating  from  true 
protein  the  figures  are  1:4.1  and  1:6.1  respectively.  The  American 
standard  is  i  :6 — 8,  so  that  all  the  figures  show  the  silage  to  be  sufficiently 
rich  in  protein. 

This  result  is  obtained  because  fresh  lucerne  is  particularly  rich  in 
protein  as  compared  to  ordinary  forage.  This  however  offers  no  reason 
why  the  protein  should  be  wasted.       Protein  isjthe  expensive  constituent 

in  a  fodder.  In  the 
case  of  maize  or  the 
ordinary  cereals  there 
is  less  protein  to  start 
with — there  is  66  to 
50  per  cent.  less. 
These  therefore  are 
■  rops  which  seem 
•nore  suitable  for  en- 
siling. They  will  lose 
less  protein  because 
hey  have  less  to  lose. 
Ensilage  has  its 
advantages  and  its 
disadvantages.  When 
succulent  food  fails  or 
at  certain  seasons  in 
■he  dairy  its  advan- 
tages outweigh  every- 
thing else.  For 
ruminants  succulent 
fodder  is  necessary  to 
keep  them  in  bloom, 
and  continued  dry 
feed  is  incompatible 
with  heavy  milking. 
The  disadvantages  of 
ensilage  are  connected 
with  an  inevitable  loss 
of  food  materials. 
This  indicates  that  it 
is  wasteful  to  make 
silage  to  be  u.sed  at  a  time  when  satisfactory  green  feed  will  be  available. 
But  the  loss  during  ensilage  falls  more  hea\-ily  upon  certain  of  the  con- 
stitutents  of  foods  than  upon  others.  From  these  experiments  it  seems  to 
fall  heavily  upon  the  proteins.  Aaid  as  lucerne  is  particularly  rich  in 
protein  it  seems  better  that  lucerne  should  be  cured  as  hay  rather  than 
en.siled.  Such  hay  would  fo^rm  an  admirable  addition  to  silage  made  from 
less  nitrogenous  fodders  such  as  wheat,  oats  or  maize. 

There  are  few  farms  which  do  not  produce  a  variety  of  forage  crops. 
If  is  proposed  to  continue  these  investigations  from  the  chemical  side  in 
order  to  find  which  crops  can  V)e  converted  into  silage  with  greatest 
econom\-. 


WEIGHING     AT    THE     LABORATORY. 


II    Nov.,    191 2.]  Kcpleius/iiiig  the  Dairy  Herd.  657 

REPLENISHING   THE  DAIRY  HERD. 

By  M.  Thomas,  Dairy  Supervisor. 

The  dairy  farmers  of  this  State  will,  before  many  years  have  passed, 
have  to  face  a  serious  situation  unless  a  change  in  present  methods  is 
adopted.  This  will  be  how  to  replenish  their  dairy  herds,  which  are  con- 
tinually being  depleted  by  various  causes. 

The  cutting  up  of  large  estates,  under  the  Closer  Settlement  Act,  into 
dairy  farms,  and  the  extension  of  the  dairying  industry  generally  through- 
out the  State,  has  created  a  large  demand  for  dairy  heifers  of  good 
quality   which  seems  very  hard  to  satisfy. 

This  is  a  subject  that  requires  very  careful  consideration  on  the  part  of 
our  dairy  farmers.  The  ruthless  destruction  of  large  numbers  of  heifer 
calves  is,  to  my  mind,  a  great  waste  of  raw  material,  which  should  be 
utilized  to  better  advantage  especially  in  securing  a  certain  supplv  of 
well-bred  and  well-reared  heifers  to  replace  any  gaps  that  may  occur 
in  the  herd. 

When  one  thinks  of  the  number  of  heifer  calves,  from  cows  of  a  5, 
6,  and,  in  many  cases,  7  gallons  a  day  capacity,  that  are  annually 
slaughtered  for  pigs'  food,  one  can  only  conclude  that  eventually  there 
must  be  a  dearth  of  dairv  heifers,  and  our  herds,  instead  of  improving,  as 
they  should  do,  will  become  of  an  inferior  class.  It,  no  doubt,  seems  to 
be  the  easiest  way  for  the  farmer  to  go  to  a  cattle  saleyard  and  purchase 
a  few  heifers,  every  now  and  then  as  wanted ;  but  this  is  altogether 
wrong,  for  he  is  generally  buying  the  calves  that  have  been  carelessly 
reared  for  throe  months,  and  then  turned  out  to  take  their  chance.  The 
farmer  who  has  fed  his  calves  for  five  months,  and  reared  them  well,  does 
not  part  with  them  unless  forced  to  do  .so.  For  a  good  milking  cow  to 
stand  the  wear  and  tear  on  her  system  for  years,  a  heifer  must  be  reared 
from  birth  properly,  so  as  to  have  stamina  in  her  as  a  cow  when  she 
comes  to  the  bail. 

A  lot  of  the  heifers  that  are  purcha.sed  in  the  saleyards  are  not  so 
-well  reared  as  they  require  to  be,  and  hence  we  often  hear  a  farmer  say, 
"  1  bought  a  couple  of  heifers  in  the  yards  a  few  weeks  ago,  but  they 
are  no  good."  This  means  that  he  will  sell  them  for  whatever  sum  the 
dealer  likes  to  offer,  and  purchase  others,  from  the  same  source,  that 
possibly  may  turn  out  as  bad,  if  not  worse,  than  the  first  ones.  Therefore 
the  farmer  who  depends  on  this  haphazard  method  of  replenishing  his 
herd  will  be  far  behind  the  careful  farmer  who  rears  the  heifer  calves 
from  his  own  best  cows,  and  rears  them  properly. 

The  correct  method  of  rearing  a  calf  has  been  described  in  previous 
issues  of  the  Journal ;  it  will,  therefore,  suffice  to  say  that  we  have  at 
our  disposal  many  valuable,  scientifically-tested,  substitutes  for  the  butter 
fat  extracted  from  milk ;  whilst  the  farmer  who  will  grow  his  own  lin.seed 
will  have  all  there  is  need  of  to  rear  good  calves.  Another  important 
reason  why  the  farmer  should  rear  his  own  stock  is  to  minimize  the  danger 
of  introducing  disease  into  his  herd  through  purchasing  a  beast  from  an 
unknown  and  possibly  infected  source,  and  which  may  7ause  the  loss  of 
a  whole  year's  profit  to  him. 

In  order  to  attain  a  high  milking  standard  in  a  dairy  herd,  it  is  not 
essential  that  only  pure-bred  stock  should  be  kept,  for  many  of  the  most 
prolific   milkers   are  of   mixed   breeds,    and   many   of   the   pure-breds   are 


658  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [11    !\ov.,    1912. 

absolute  failures  at  the  bucket.  It  is,  however,  absolutely  necessary  that 
prolific  cows  should  be  bred  from  along  the  lines  of  pure  breeding,  and 
that  instead  of  their  offspring  losing  the  milking  character  by  being  bred 
from  mongrel  bulls,  the  function  that  is  so  well  developed  in  the  dam 
should  be  made  more  and  more  of  a  fixed  character  by  the  use  of  a 
pure-bred  bull  of  milking  strains.  In  no  class  of  breeding  is  the  influence 
of  the  sire  so  well  marked  as  in  the  breeding  of  dairy  cattle.  Therefore 
serious  attention  should  be  given  to  the  rearing  of  heifers,  but  they  should 
be  only  from  the  good  cows  of  a  herd,  and  got  by  none  other  than  a 
pure-bred  bull. 


IRRIGATION  IN  THE  EARLY  DAYS. 

By  A.   S.   Kenyon,   C.E. 

Recently  a  paragraph  appeared  in  the  daily  press  that  the  first  attempt 
at  irrigation  in  Victoria  was  made  at  Kerang  by  the  late  Mr.  W.  J.  W. 
Patchell.  No  detraction  from  the  credit  due  that  enterprising  settler  is 
intended  in  disputing  that  claim.  That  his  was  the  first  system  which 
was  continuously  successful  is  probable ;  but  it  was  not  the  first  attempt. 

From  the  very  outset  of  settlement  on  this  continent,  it  was  recognised 
that  its  peculiar  climatic  conditions ;  its  rivers — then  known  only  as 
''chains  of  ponds" — with  their  intermittent  flows,  rendered  irrigation  an 
essential  accompaniment  to  the  full  and  profitable  occupation  of  the 
interior.  The  discovery  of  gold  and  the  consequent  dislocation  for  the 
time  of  the  ordinary  conditions  of  life  delayed  the  advent  of  irrigation, 
for  the  efforts  of  the  station  gardener,  generally  a  Chinaman,  or  of  an 
occasional  pastoralist,  in  flooding  some  paddocks  by  damming  the  creeks, 
are  hardly  worthy  of  the  name,  though  in  Ta.smania  a  considerable  amount 
of  work  took  place  in  the  forties.  It  wais  not  until  the  gold  fever  had 
nearly  run  its  cour.se  that  the  attention  of  the  people  was  directed  to 
winning  wealth  from  the  soil  by  the  less  attractive  but  much  more 
profitable     method   of   agriculture. 

In  the  Victorian  Government  Prize  Essays,  i860,  Mr.  William  Storey, 
in  his  essay  upon  the  Agriculture  of  Victoria,  says  "  Irrigation  is  pre- 
de.stined  to  be  a  prominent  feature  in  Australian  husbandry,  and  though 
It  may  seem  parodoxical,  it  is,  nevertheles.s,  my  impression  that  irrigation 
will  be  more  general,  and  will  be  earlier  and  better  developed  in  Australia 
than  it  would  have  been  had  its  rivers  been  without  drawback  and  fluvial 
at  all  sea.sons  of  the  year."  Notwithstanding  this  and  many  similar 
opinions,  so  little  impression  was  made  by  the  various  efforts  at  irrigation 
that  Henniker  Heaton,  in  his  Australian  Dictionary  of  Dates,  1879, 
makes  no  reference  to  them  whatever.  Yet,  in  1859,  an  extensive  and  costly 
pumping  scheme  was  being  put  into  operation  at  Heidelberg,  and  in  the 
succeeding  year  an  elaborate  system  was  established  at  Adelaide  Vale,  on 
the  Campaspe  River,  for  Messrs.  Elms  and  Bladier.  The  following 
extracts  from  the  Farmers'  Journal  and  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  a  remark- 
ably well-edited  paper,   will  be  of  interest:  — 

"  Irrigation  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important  subject  that  can  engage 
the  study  of  the  Australian  farmer.  In  this  dry  climate,  with  its  length- 
ened   droughts  and    scorching   hot    winds,    crops   are   often    blighted    and 


II    Nov.,    1912.]  Irrigation  in  the  Early  Days.  659 

destroyed  before  the  grain  has  had  time  to  ripen;  and,  again,  the  whole 
of  the  summer  is  lost,  so  far  as  production  or  vegetation  is  concerned. 
During  the  very  months  when  the  glowing  heat  of  the  sun  would,  with 
abundance  of  moisture,  force  and  stimulate  the  most  luxuriant  vegetation, 
the  whole  face  of  the  land  is  scorched  and  burnt  up.  The  peculiarities 
of  our  climate,  no  doubt,  ari.se,  in  great  measure,  from  the  vast  extent 
of  land  we  have  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  wide  ocean  on  the  other.  Any 
summer  rains  we  have  are  not  of  much  value,  for  the  periods  between  one 
rainfall  and  another  are  so  long  that  we  have  not  only  no  summer  vegeta- 
tion, but  the  withered  grass  and  dry  herbage  of  the  previous  spring  months 
are,  in  our  opinion,  often  much  damaged. 

"If  at  any  future  time  in  the  liistory  of  Victoria  a  general  system  of 
irrigation  should  be  adopted  and  carried  out,  the  greatest  advantages 
would  be  gained  by  the  agriculturists;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  climate 
will  become  completely  changed  from  a  dry  region  to  a  land  of  showers 
and  clouds  and  thunderstorms. 

"  Two  days  ago  we  paid  a  hurried  visit  to  the  farm  of  S.  Ricardo, 
Esq.,  on  the  Yarra,  near  Heidelberg,  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  his 
Avorks  for  irrigating  his  land.  That  gentleman  deserves  very  great  credit 
for  his  enterprise  in  being  the  first  in  this  Colony  to  employ  irrigation 
on  an  extensive  scale;  but  it  is  highly  probable  the  undoubted  gain  the 
scheme  will  yield  to  him  will  come  first,  the  credit  afterwards. 

"  Mr.  Ricardo's  farm  is  185  acres  in  extent,  situated  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  Yarra,  opposite  to  Heidelberg,  and  consists  of  two  descriptions  of 
soil — one  of  rich  alluvial  river  flats,  the  other  of  sandy,  undulating  ground, 
with  a  clay  substratum,  bedded  on  rock  of  silurian  formation.  The 
highest  ground  is  120  feet  above  the  river,  and  on  it  is  formed  the  reser- 
voir, which  will,  when  full,  contain  523,000  gallons.  This  reservoir  is 
simply  a  square  excavation,  of  about  30  yards  by  60,  and  5  or  6  feet 
deep.  The  soil  and  clay  stripped  from  the  rock  form  an  embankment 
on  all  sides.  From  the  engine-house,  which  stands  by  the  river  bank,  a 
main  pipe,  sunk  beneath  the  surface,  leads  the  water  up  to  the  reservoir. 
To  perform  this  work,  a  12 -horse-power  engine,  with  double  action  pump, 
is  provided.  It  was  intended  that  this  engine  should  force  up  200  gallons 
per  minute,  but  it  has  not  been  able  to  do  this.  Of  course,  the  resistance 
to  be  overcome  at  each  stroke  is  great — equal  to  about  60  lb.  per  square 
inch  in  120  feet  of  elevation.  Over  a  considerable  extent  of  the  rich 
river  flats  piping  has  been  laid  2  feet  under  the  surface,  with  plugs  at 
intervals  of  78  yards,  so  that  two  men  with  a  hose  can  throw  the  water 
over  the  whole  extent  of  intervening  ground,  and  for  this  portion  of  the 
farm  the  water  need  not  be  taken  from  the  reservoir,  but  may  be  supplied 
direct  from  the  engine.  In  applying  the  water  in  this  way,  it,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  falls  upon  the  growing  crop,  and,  under  a  burning  sun, 
might  be  supposed  likely  to  injure  it ;  but  such  is  not  the  case.  Mr. 
Ricardo  states  that  the  water  falling  on  the  plants,  even  under  the  hottest 
sun,  does  them  no  harm  whatever.  Probably  it  is  the  radiation  and  reflec- 
tion of  heat  from  perfectly  dry  ground  in  the  neighbourhood  of  plants 
that  usually  injures  them  if  watered  during  sunshine. 

"  This  mode  of  irrigation  has  been  greatly  recommended  by  Mr. 
Mechi,  of  Tiptree  Farm.  Mr.  Ricardo,  however,  finds  that  it  is  a  very 
imperfect  method ;  that,  in  short,  the  supply  is  never  equal  to  the  demand ; 
that  the  ground  is  no  sooner  watered  than  it  requires  to  be  watered  again. 
Besides,  he  finds  that  the  surface  becomes  caked  by  applying  water  from 


66o  Joiinial  of  Agriculture,  Yicioria.         [ii   Nov.,    \g\z.. 

a  jet  or  hose.  He  is,  therefore,  determined  to  irrigate  the  rest  of  the- 
farm  upon  the  Italian  principle,  or  a  modification  of  it.  This  consists. 
in  conveying  the  water  along  small  open  channels  from  the  main  pipe  on 
various  le\-els,  allowing  the  liquid  to  flow  gently  and  continually  over  the 
surface. 

"  Last  summer  the  works  were  not  completed  early  enough  to  test  the 
full  value  of  irrigation.  Mr.  Ricardo  states,  however,  that  he  had  a  crop 
of  turnips  ready  two  months  after  sowing  the  seed. 

' '  In  reference  to  expense,  he  puts  down  the  cost  of  pumping — that  is, 
for  fuel  and  attendance  of  one  man — at  15s.  per  day.  Two  men,  with 
hose,  can  water  5  acres  per  day.  The  whole  cost  of  the  works  amounts 
to  about  ^3,000  ;  but  a  great  deal  of  this  sum  might  have  been  saved 
had  all  parties  concerned  posses.sed  more  practical  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  had  Mr.  Mechi's  stand-pipe  system  not  been  followed.  The 
chief  outlav  should  consist  in  raising  the  water  to  the  required  height, 
wnere  such  is  necessary,  and  in  making  arrangements  for  its  distribution- 
by  gravitation. 

"  At  the  present  time  the  works  in  question  are  incomplete,  and  until 
next  summer  it  will  be  impossible  to  say  what  will  be  the  gain.  Mean- 
while, Mr.  Ricardo  has  secured  the  services  of  a  "  duly  qualified  "  Italian 
— one  who  thoroughly  understands  the  practice  followed  in  Italy,  and 
he  hopes,  and,  may  we  add,  is  certain,  to  obtain  great  results." — 
(7th  July,    i860.) 

Further  particulars  are  given  in  the  issue  of  20th  October,  of  the  same 
year — - 

"  The  necessity  for  irrigation  in  this  country  is  now  a  recognised 
fact.  One  of  the  first  to  discern  this  want  and  to  take  measures  for 
supplying  it  is  Mr.  Ricardo,  on  whose  farm  at  Heidelberg  a  system  of 
irrigation  by  underground  pipes,  hose,  and  jet,  .similar  to  that  practised 
in  our  streets,  has  been  for  some  time  in  operation.  This  plan  was 
projected  by  Mr.  Mechi,  the  well-known  agriculturist,  of  Tiptree  Hall, 
Essex,  but  whatever  the  amount  of  success  that  may  have  attended  its 
use  under  his  auspices,  it  is  now  being  discarded  by  Mr.  Ricardo,  on 
the  ground,  we  believe,  of  its  expensive  working  and  general  inefficiency. 
In  its  stead  he  has  adopted  the  Italian  system,  which  can  be  carried  out 
at  considerably  less  expense  than  the  plan  adopted  by  Mr.  Mechi.  The 
most  difficult  part  of  the  ground,  which,  on  account  of  its  irregularity, 
requires  a  great  amount  of  work  in  the  way  of  levelling,  has  been  under- 
taken for  £iK,  per  acre,  while  the  more  level  portions  of  the  farm  will 
be  completed  for  about  £6  per  acre.  Mr.  Mechi's  system,  on  the  other 
hand,  co.sts  something  like  ;^ioo  per  acre. 

"A  portion  of  the  works  being  sufficiently  advanced  to  allow  of  a 
trial,  the  water  was  laid  on  last  Tuesday,  and  the  trial  was  in  every 
respect  a  success.  A  steam-engine  erected  on  the  bank  of  the  Yarra 
pumps  the  water  into  a  tank  capable  of  containing  about  20,000  gallons. 
This  tank  is  merely  an  excavation  in  the  ground,  and  is,  therefore,  very 
inexpensive  hi  its  construction.  It  is  45  feet  in  length,  22  feet  in  width, 
and  4  feet  in  depth.  From  either  end  proceeds  the  main  channel,  3  ft. 
6  in.  wide  at  top,  i  ft.  3  in.  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  15  inches  deep. 
Twenty-five  chains  only  of  this  channel  are  yet  finished,  and  they  are 
intende;!  f->r  the  irrigation  of  about  10  acres  of  land.     The  whole  len^^th 


II    Nov.,    19 1 2.]  Irrigation  in  tlic  Early  Days.  661 

of  main  cliannel  required  for  the  supply  of  the  flat  portion  of  the  farm 
(about  100  acres)  will  be  no  chains.  The  experiment  consisted  in  testing 
the  efficiency  of  the  part  already  completed.  Several  portions  of  land 
of  about  half-an-acre  each  having  been  ploughed,  a  flood-gate  at  the  tank 
was  raised  and  the  channel  was  speedily  filled  to  overflowing,  irrigating 
the  land  regularlv  and  most  completely." 

While  claiming  for  Mr.  Ricardo  the  honour  of  being  the  first 
irrigationist  on  a  large  scale,  the  names  of  Messrs.  Robinson  (Dutson), 
Eason  (Buninyong),  Vince  (Bridgewater),  Miller  (Lerderderg),  Pearce 
(Bacchus  Marsh),  Troy  (Gannawarra),  and  Patchell  (Kerang),  should  be 
placed  on  the  roll  of  honour.  The  two  first-named,  though  only  irrigating 
on  a  small  scale  from  springs,  commenced  in  the  fifties,  the  others  not 
until  the  next  decade.  Any  reference  to  the  beginnings  of  irrigation  in 
Victoria  would  hardly  be  complete  without  mention  of  Mr.  Garden,  of 
Cohuna,  who,  though  not  starting  until  1882.  was  probably  the  most 
successful  of  all. 


Footnote  by  the  Hon.  Geo.  Graham.  M.L.A..  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Water  Suppli/. 

I  do  not  think  the  name  of  Messrs.  Learmonth  Bios.,  of  Ereildoiine,  should  be 
omitted  from  any  list  of  early  irrigators  in  Victoria.  As  far  back  as  lS(i(),  Mr.  Thomas 
Learmonth  j)repared  a  piece  of  land  about  1^  acres  in  extent,  and,  after  carefully 
grading  the  same,  had  it  planted  with  lucerne.  He  watered  it  by  gravitation  from  a 
large  reservoir  situated  on  a  hill  at  the  back  of  the  station,  and  irrigated  with  a  S3'stem 
of  mitre  drains  about  9  feet  apart.  To  my  personal  knowledge  he  supplied  a  dail\- 
ration  of  lucerne  to  over  200  pigs  for  five  months  in  the  year  ivom  this  small  plot. 

I  saw  the  crop  growing  in  February,  1861,  when  thej'  were  just  preparing  to  take 
off  the  fourth  cutting,  and  the  lucerne  was  from  18  inches  to  2  feet  high. 

What  Mr.  Kenyon  has  stated  with  regard  to  Mr.  Ricardo  is  perfectly  correct  as  I 
had  the  information  from  Mr.  Ricardo  himself  many  years  ago.  Mr.  Ricardo  was  a 
very  advanced  and  enthusiastic  agriculturist,  and  was  one  of  the  very  first  men  who 
purchased  land  in  the  Ballarat  district  foi-  farming  jjurposes. 


Milk  contains  4!  per  cent,  of  sugar.  This  milk  sugar  is  not  so  sweet 
as  cane  sugar.  On  standing,  bacteria  form  lactic  acid  from  the  milk  sugar, 
and  when  the  quantity  becomes  sufficient  this  acid  causes  the  casein  to 
coagulate.  Casein  can  also  be  curdled  by  rennet,  but  the  product  is  dif- 
ferent to  the  curd  produced  by  acid. 


662  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [ii    Nov.,    1912. 


AN  INSECT  PEST  OF  THE  "CURRAJONG" 
(BRACHYCHITON). 

By  C.   French,  Junr.,   Acting  Government  Entomologist. 

From  time  to  time,  leaves  of  the  native  Currajong  tree  (Brachychiton 
populneum,  R.  Brown)  are  forwarded  to  the  Entomological  Branch  by 
correspondents,  who  state,  that  the  leaves  are  being  discoloured  by 
"  insects  which  have  white  tails."  On  examining  the  specimens  I  find 
them  to  be  covered  with  the  remarkable  Psyllid  (Tyora  sterculiae,  Frog- 
gatt)  which  resembles  an  aphid  and  is  often  mistaken  for  one. 

This  insect  was  first  discovered  at  Forbes,  New  South  Wales,  by  Mr. 
W.  W.  Froggatt,  Government  Entomologist  of  New  South  Wales,  and  the 
following  is  a  quotation  from  his  description  of  the  insect  :  — 

"This  is  one  of  the  most  anomalous  species  I  have  found;  and  the 
living  psyllid  with  its  bright  green  tints,  delicate  transparent  wings,  and 
long  slender  legs  and  antennae,  might  easily  be  passed  over  at  first  sight 
as  an  aphis.  The  deeply  cleft  head,  absence  of  face  lobes,  and  the 
peculiar  venation  of  the  wings  render  it  a  very  distinctive  insect.  The 
eggs  are  horn-colour,  elongate-oval  in  form,  and  deposited  in  patches  con- 
taining 30-40  in  number  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves.  The  larvae 
and  pupae  cluster  together  where  they  emerge  from  the  eggs,  the  long 
filaments  trailing  out  all  round  giving  them  a  star-like  appearance  and  each 
family  makes  a  large  white  blotch  on  the  foliage." 

Many  Currajong  trees  are  now  cultivated  in  Victoria,  in  large  private 
gardens,  public  parks,  avenues,  &c.  They  are  fine,  evergreen,  shady  trees, 
easily  grown  and  very  shapely.  The  flowers  are  fairly  large,  downy  on 
the  outside,  and  on  the  inside  red  and  yellow,  variegated.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  they  are  being  attacked  by  an  insect  pest,  which  causes  discoloration 
of  the  leaves  and  the  trees  themselves  to  become  unsightly. 

In  times  of  drought,  in  some  parts  of  the  interior  of  Australia,  starving 
stock  have  been  saved  by  eating  the  leaves  of  these  trees,  and  also  the 
roots  if  they  happen  to  be  exposed. 

Remedies. 
The  most  effective  means  of  dealing  with  this  pest  is  to  spray  the  trees 
with  kerosene  or  benzole  emulsion,  pine  oil  spray,  or  any  other  mixture  that 
kills  insects  by  contact.  Formulas  for  any  of  these  mixtures  can  be 
obtained  on  application  to  the  Entomological  Branch,  Crown  Law  Offices, 
Melbourne. 

EXPLANATION    OF   PLATE. 
(Tyora    sterculiae,    Froggatt.) 
Fig-       I-     Eggs.      Magnified.      From    Nature. 

Fig.     II.     Leaves  with  insects  and   cast  skins.      Natural   size.      From    Nature 
Fig.   III.     Young    leaves    with    cottony    filaments.      Magnified.      From    Nature 
Fig.    IV.      Pupa.      Magnified.      From    Nature. 
Fig.    IVa.  Pupa.      Natural   size.     From   Nature. 
Fig.      V.     Perfect    Insect.       Magnified.      From    Nature. 
Fig.    VI.     Antennae.      Magnified.       From  Nature. 
Fig.  VII.     Leg,    anterior.       Magnified.      From   Nature. 


II    Nov..    19 1 2.]         Insect  Pest  of  the  ''Ciirrajong." 


66^ 


INSECT  PEST   OF  THE   "CURRAJONG"   (bKACHYCHITON). 


664  journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [ii    Nov.,    1912. 

GENERAL   NOTES. 

THE  FLY  PEST— 

A  simple  method  of  destroying  house  flies,  which  is  well  spoken  of, 
is  described  in  the  Agricultural  Journal,  Queensland.  Formalin  is  the 
agent  employed.  One  ounce  of  commercial  (40  per  cent.)  formalin  is 
added  to  one  pint  of  equal  parts  milk  and  water.  A  trace  of  sugar  added 
makes  it  more  attractive.  The  mixture  is  exposed  in  shallow  plates,  and 
a  piece  of  bread  or  blotting  paper  in  each  plate  offers  more  space  for  the 
flies  to  alight  on.  The  preparation  has  been  tried  in  cow  houses,  stables, 
dairies,  and  dwelling  houses,  and  in  most  cases  seems  to  have  been  very 
destructive.       Mixed  with  syrup  it  was  eaten  by  ants  with  impunity. 


COMPARATIVE  VALUES  OF  FOODS— 

The  unit-value  system  of  ascertaining  the  prices  of  manures  is 
described  by  the  Chemist  for  Agriculture  in  the  January  issue  of  this 
Journal..  It  is  useful  as  showing  whether  the  purchaser  of  manures 
is  getting  value  for  his  money  according  to  current  rates.  From  time 
to  time  proposals  have  been  made  for  the  application  of  the  unit  system 
to  a  comparison  of  food  values,  and  Leaflet  7^  of  the  Board  of  Agri- 
culture suggests  the  following  method  : — In  a  cattle  food  the  ingredients 
commercially  important  are  the  albuminoids  (proteids),  fats,  and  carbo- 
hydrates. In  working,  multiply  the  percentage  of  albuminoids  and  fats 
by  2h,  and  to-  the  product  add  the  percentage  of  carbohydrates.  The 
result  gives  the  number  of  food  units  in  the  material.  Take  an  ex- 
ample. If  a  food  contains  32  per  cent,  albuminoids,  11  per  cent,  fats 
or  oils,  and  34  per  cent,  carbohydrates,  then  2^  (32  +  11)  -I-  34  =  141 J 
food  units.  If  the  price  is  ^g  per  ton  then  each  unit  costs  is.  3|^d. 
The  same  calculation  may  then  be  conducted  for  another  food  at  another 
price  in  order  to  see  which  is  purchasable  at  the  cheaper  rate  per  unit. 
In  making  this  comparison  between  different  foods  it  must  be  confined 
to  foods  of  essentially  the  same  character,  and  where  each  is  dietetically 
suited  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  required.  To  compare,  say,  barley 
meal  with  oaten  chaff  under  this  method  would  give  misleading  results. 


GOOD  AND  BAD  PASTURE— 

In  any  stretch  of  comitry  one,  pasture  establishes  a  reputation  as  good 
fattening  land,  while  another  is  known  as  only  fit  to  carry  store  stock 
or  lambing  ewes.  The  reason  for  those  differences  is  often  hard  to 
trace.  In  the  Romney  district  of  England  there  occur  fields  of  per- 
manent pasture  capable  of  fattening  six  or  eight  sheep  to  the  acre,  while 
immediately  adjoining  may  be  found  others  of  apparently  the  same 
character,  which  will  only  keep  sheep  in  growing  condition.  In 
the  Jour.  Agric.  Sci.,  June,  19 12,  Mr.  A.  D.  Hall  and  Dt.  Rus'sell, 
of  Rothamsted,  describe  some  investigations  of  this  subject.  They 
compared  a  good  with  an  adjoining  bad-feeding  pasture  at  thrlee 
stations.  At  each  place  both  pastures  were  situated  in  flat  silt 
land,  and  appeared  to  ha\e  been  formed  in  the  same  way.  There 
was  no  regular  difference  in  the  water  content  of  the  good  and  bad  soils, 
and  temperature  differences  were  small.  The  ordinary  chemical  and 
mechanical  analyses  of  the  soils  revealed  nothing  to  account  for  their 
great  differences  in  fertility ;  the  good  soils  generally  contained  rather 
more  total  phosphoric  acid,  but  not  of  citric  acid  soluble.  Their  inves- 
tigations point   to  only  one  feature  in  which  the  good   soils  excelled    in 


II    Nov.,    19 1 2.]  General   Notes.  665 

marlcfd  degree — they  contained  much  more  nitrates  and  ammonia 
early  in  the  season.  No  reason  could  be  given  Tor  this.  Botanically, 
there  was  very  little  difference  in  the  types  of  herbage.  The  feeding 
value  of  the  pasture  was  thus  largely  independent  of  its  botanical  00m- 
position.  Habit  of  growth  appeared  the  important  thing.  On  the  good 
land,  with  plenty  of  nitrates  and  ammonia,  the  grasses  were  leafy,  with 
little  tendency  to  form  heads;  on  the  bad  fields  the  herbage  was  s'temmy, 
and  flower  heads  came  early  and  abundantly.  Altogether  the  investi- 
gations indicate  that  the  bacterial  activity  of  pasture  lands  is  of  first- 
rate  importance.  They  suggest  that  the  application  of  lime  (a  germ 
tonic)  would  often  bring  marked  improvement.  Lime  increases  the 
natural  supply  of  nitrates.  Incidentally  it  helps  clovers  in  another 
way.  On  some  soils  phosphates  are  required  in  addition  to  lime.  It 
is  by  experimenting  along  these  lines  that  the  right  means  of  improving 
poor  pasture  can  be  determined. 

HERD  TESTING— 

Six  years  ago  Mr.  Burgess,  a  New  Zealand  farm.er,  started  testing  his 
dairy  herd,  and  a  lucid  account  of  his  experience  appears  in  the  ]ournal 
of  Agriculture  of  the  Dominion.  In  the  first  season  of  testing  the 
cows  averaged  198  lbs.  of  butter  fat.  As  a  result  of  always  weeding 
out  the  worst  cows,  the  average  for  the  second  season  was  222  lbs.  ; 
for  the  third  season  234  lbs;  for  the  fourth,  241  lbs.;  in  the  fifth 
season  the  yield  was  affected  by  the  dry  summer,  and  consequent  scarcity 
of  feed;  in  the  sixth  season  the  average  was  261  lbs.  Six  year's  testing 
thus  increased  the  yield  by  63  lbs.  butter  fat  per  cow.  The  cost  of 
testing  is  calculated  at  8s.  iid.  per  cow,  including  cost  of  apparatus 
and  the  farmer's  own  time  at  is.  per  hour.  He  estimates  that  improve- 
ment will  continue,  because  in  the  period  under  review  an  exceptional 
number  of  heifers  ^^as  introduced  to  replace  culls.  The  herd  was  of 
mixed  breeding,  but  at  two  dates  a  pure-bred  Ayrshire  bull  of  good 
milking  strain  was  obtained.  The  writer  would  prefer  pure  breeds  to 
work  on  as  these  perpetuate  their  qualities  with  greater  certainty,  but 
points  out  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  this  class  of  stock  with  good  records 
well  authenticated.  The  scheme  for  officially  testing  pure  herds  recently 
introduced  by  this  Department  will  furnish  a  guarantee  to  those  purchasing 
pure-bred  animals  with  the  object  of  grading  up  their  herds. 


DRAINAGE    LOSSES— 

Phosphoric  acid,  potash,  lime,  and  nitrogen  are  the  soil  constituents 
which  the  farmer  wi.'-hes  to  conser\'e,  and  each  of  them  stands  in  a 
different  relation  to  drainage  losses.  A  discussion  of  the  subject  and 
the  analysis  of  drainage  waters  from  the  fields  of  five  farms  which 
appeared  recently  in  the  Illustrated  Landw.  Zeit,  which  serve  to  draw 
attention  to  the  subject.  The  results  were  typical.  There  was  no 
phosphoric  acid  lost  by  drainage.  The  loss  of  potash  was  not  serious, 
but  there  was  considerable  loss  of  nitrogen  (11.8  parts  per  million) 
almost  wholly  as  nitrates.  There  was  no  loss  of  nitrogen  as  ammonia. 
The  most  serious  loss  was  in  lime,  amounting  to  215  parts  per  million. 
In  nearly  all  cases  lime  will  be  the  chief  constituent  in  drainage  waters. 
The  loss  is  greater  on  cultivated  land  than  on  pasture,  and  most  of  the 
manures  in  use  tend  to  increase  it.  The  waste  is  inevitable,  and  in 
the  long  run  must  be  made  up  by  fresh  applications  of  lime  at  the  surface. 


666  Joiinial  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.         [ii    Nov.,    191 2. 

FRUIT   TRADE   OF   VICTORIA. 

ITS  PRESENT  STATUS,  FROM  A  COMMERCIAL  STANDPOINT. 

{Continued  from  Page  567.) 


LOCAL  TRADE. 

By  E.   Meeking,  Senior  Inspector  of  Fruit. 

Part  2. 

It  is  intended,  in  this  number,  to  show  the  present  position  of  the  local 
fruit  trade,  and  to  point  out  some  of  the  disabilities  connected  therewith. 
Suggestions  will  be  furnished  later  as  to  the  manner  in  which  these  may 
be,  in  large  measure,  surmounted.  Before  doing  so,  it  may  be  as  well  to 
indicate  the  channels  whereby  our  fruits  reach  the  consumer,  in  order  that 
the  suggestions  for  improving  the  present  methods  of  disposal  may  be 
rendered  more  clear. 

Approximately  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  fruits  raised  in  Victoria  never 
leave  the  State,  being  consumed  or  otherwise  dealt  with  locally.  Lideed, 
so  far  as  the  small  fruits  (berry  fruits,  currants,  olives,  &c.)  are  con- 
cerned, it  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  99  per  cent,  of  these  are  con- 
sumed within  the  State.  This  is  also  true  concerning  a  great  proportion 
of  the  softer  kinds  of  our  large  fruits,  as  the  following  figures  will 
show  :  — 

Low  Consumption  of   Fruit  in  Victoria. 

Li  the  year  1910-11  (the  latest  year  for  which  figures  are  available),  a 
total  of  3,641,977  bushels  of  fruits,  exclusive  of  grapes,  was  raised  in 
Victoria.  This  total  consisted  of  3,583,059  bushels  of  large  fruits,  and 
58,918  bushels  of  small  fruits.  Of  this  total,  a  quantity  of  484,413 
bushels,  or  13.5  per  cent.,  was  exported  to  the  other  States  of  the  Com- 
monwealth; 318,297  bushels,  or  8.8  per  cent.,  were  exported  oversea; 
997,454  bushels.  Or  27.3  per  cent.,  were  manufactured^  into  jams,  jellies, 
&c.,  and  59,600  bushels,  or  1.09  per  cent.,  were  converted  into  dried 
fruits.  This  gave  a  total  of  1,859,764  bushels  exported,  manufactured, 
or  otherwise  disposed  of,  and  left  a  total  of  1,782,213  bushels,  or  slightly 
under  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  raised,  to  be  consumed  locally.  If  we 
add  to  the  quantity  raised  locally  a  quantity  of  785,106  bushels  imported 
from  the  other  States,  and  81,560  bushels  imported  oversea,  we  get  a  total 
of  2,648,879  bushels  consumed  in  Victoria  in  the  year  1910-11. 

Taking  the  population  of  the  State  for  the  year  under  notice  at 
1,305,000  souls,  it  will  be  seen  that  approximately  80  lb.  of  fruit  per 
head  of  population  was  consumed  during  the  12  months.  This  gives  a 
daily  consumption  of  3I  oz.  of  fruit  per  day  per  individual.  Com- 
paring this  consumption  with  the  consumption  of  such  staple  articles  of 
food  as  meat  and  bread,  it  would  appear  that  the  proportion  of  fruit  con- 
sumed is  relatively  very  small,  as  in  1910-11  there  were  consumed  per 
head  of  population  in  Victoria  223  lb.  of  meat  per  annum,  or  9.6  oz.  per 
day,  and  272  lb.  of  bread  per  annum,  or  12  oz.  per  day. 

Large  Amount  of  Waste. 
As  no  figures  are  available  to    indicate  the    amount    of    waste    which 
annually  takes  place,  the  figures  quoted  do  not  allow  for  the  fruits  which 
are  raised    but  never  reach  the  consumer,   and  are  either  fed  to  stock  or 


II  Nov.,   1912.] 


Fruit  Trade  of  Victoria. 


667 


carted  to  municipal  rubbisli  tips.  There  is  everv  reason  to  believe,  how- 
ever, that  this  amount  of  waste  is  much  larger  than  most  people  imagine, 
and  would  be  ([uite  sufficient  to  bring  the  total  consumption  per  head  to 
below  3  oz.   per  day. 

Present   Methods   of   Distribution. 

The  two  points  most  forcibly  emphasised  by  these  figures  are — firstly, 
that  we  import  a  great  deal  of  fruit  which  might  be  raised   locally  ;  and, 


secondly,  that  in  a  climate  such  as  ours  the  use  of  fruit  as  a  staple  article 
of  diet  is  much  less  than  it  should  be.  If  we  seek  for  reasons  as  to  why 
this  state  of  affairs  exists,  the  following  facts  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  causes  are  mainly  due  to  the  want  of  appreciation  of  the  dietetic  value 
of  fruit  on  the  part  of  the  public,  and  to  improper  methods  of  placing  our 
fruits  before  the  consumer.       The  latter  cause  may  be  chiefly  attributed  to 


668 


journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.         [ii    Nov.,    1912;. 


our  incomplete  methods  of  distrilnition.  Within  the  City  of  Melbourne 
and  suburban  radius,  the  total  population  of  which  in  1911  was  estimated 
at  600,160,  there  are  only  three  principal  retail  markets,  viz.,  the  Queen 
Victoria  (situated  within  the  city).  South  Melbourne,  and  Prahran  Markets. 
In  addition  to  these  three  retail  markets,  one  wholesale  market,  the  Western 
Market,  is  situated  between  Market  and  William  streets,  Melbourne.     None- 


of  the  markets,  retail  or  wholesale,  are  connected  with  the  railway.  The 
following  are  the  number  of  fruit  retailers  in  these  different  markets:  — 
Victoria  Market,  .^50;  South  Melbourne  Market,  35;  Prahran  Market,  20 
— a  total  of  505.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are,  on  an  average,  60 
barrowmen  in  the  city,  20  in  South  Melbourne,  and  90  in  Prahran.  The 
total  number  of  fruiterers  and  greengrocers  in  the  city  and  suburbs  is  769. 


II   Nov..    1912.] 


Fruit  Trade   of   Victoria. 


669 


The  wholesale  distributors,  who  are  situated  in,  or  adjacent  to,  the  Western 
Market  and  Queen  Victoria  Market,  number  about  20.  This  gives  a  total 
of  slightly  over  1,400  distributors,  or,  approximately,  one  distributor  to 
every  360  inhabitants  in  the  metropolitan  area. 

Improvement  in  Distribution  Needed. 

It   would  appear,   from  the  above  figures,   that  the  number  of   distri- 
butors is  quite  sufficient  to  place  the    fruit    before    the    public ;    but    the 


expensive  and  cumbersome  methods  by  which  these  retail  fruiterers  and 
barrowmen  are  supplied  add  so  much  to  the  cost  of  the  fruit  as  to  render 
it  a  luxury,  instead  of  being,  as  it  should  rightly  be,  a  necessary  article  of 
diet.       This  contention  will  be  rendered  more  clear  when  it  is  explained 


670  Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria.  [11    Nov.,    1912. 

that  the  only  means  by  which  the  suburban  fruiterers  and  barrowmen  can. 
obtain  their  supplies  is  by  attending  the  early  morning  markets,  or  by  pur- 
chasing the  fruit  required  at  the  Western  Market,  in  _  the  city.  To 
compensate  for  the  wear  and  tear  incurred  through  the  journey  into  the 
city  and  back,  tlie  long  hours  worked,  and  the  great  length  of  time  occupied 
in  obtaining  his  supplies,  the  retailer  has  necessarily  to  charge  high  prices 
for  his  fruit.  This  has  the  effect  of  lowering  the  average  consumption, 
and  also  curtails  the  profits  which  would  accrue  if  more  direct  methods 
were  in  force  whereby  the  fruiterer  could  secure  his  goods.  The  necessity 
for  working  half  the  night  during,  at  least,  three  nights  of  the  week 
precludes  the  possibility  of  the  fruiterer  conveying  his  fruit  to  the  houses 
of  the  consumers  in  his  locality,  and  he  has  therefore  to  depend,  in  large 
measure,  upon  the  residents  calling  at  his  shop  to  make  their  purchases. 
Many  of  the  growers  adjacent  to  the  metropolis  bring  their  fruit  to  the 
Queen  Victoria  and  South  Melbourne  Markets  and  sell  direct  to  the 
retailers  and  consumers.  The  growers  other  than  those  adjacent  to  the 
metropolis  are  dependent  for  the  distribution  of  their  fruit  upon  the 
Western  Market  alone.  The  retailers  in  the  Prahran  Market  consist 
mostly  of  Chinese  and  Greek  vendors  of  an  itinerant  type.  The  grower 
whose  residence  is  so  contiguous  to  the  metropolitan  markets  as  to  enable 
him  to  convey  his  fruits  to  the  city  and  sell  these  direct  to  the  consumer 
would,  at  first  sight,  appear  to  possess  an  advantage  over  his  fellow-grower 
who  resides  in  a  more  distant  portion  of  the  State,  as,  by  such  direct  sales, 
he  is  enabled  to  eliminate  the  profits  of  the  middleman.  When,  however, 
the  time  occupied  in  travelling  between  the  orchard  and  the  market,  in  the 
disposal  of  his  fruits,  and  in  the  return  journey,  and  also  the  cost  of  wear 
and  tear  to  his  plant,  is  considered,  the  advantage  is  more  apparent  than 
real.  The  expense  of  placing  his  fruits  on  the  markets  is  almost  as  great 
to  the  grower  adjacent  to  the  city  as  it  is  to  the  grower  of  the  outlying 
district. 

The  foregoing  facts  tend  to  show  that,  consequent  upon  our  cumber- 
some methods,  the  contingent  expenses  incurred  in  distributing  our  fruits 
for  local  sale  are  such  as  to  lower  the  profits  to  the  grower  and  raise  the 
prices  to  the  consumer.  Whether  the  grower  elects  to  convey  his  own 
fruits  to  the  market  and  personally  dispose  of  same,  or  whether  he  depends 
upon  the  wholesale  merchant  in  the  only  wholesale  market  in  the  metro- 
politan area  to  dispose  of  these,  the  time  and  labour  involved  under  our 
present  methods  of  distribution  are  such  as  to  render  in  some  seasons  both 
the  production  and  consumption  of  fruits  an  unprofitable  proposition. 
That  fruit  is  a  special  product  and  needs  special  methods  in  connexion 
with  its  harvesting,  handling,  transportation  and  marketing  has  not  yet 
been  fully  realized,  and  consideration  also  has  not  been  given  to  the  fact 
that  our  conditions  are  constantly  changing,  and  that  our  methods  of  distri- 
bution should  be  altered  accordingly. 

The  following  outline  of  the  marketing  facilities  and  methods  which 
have  recently  been  adopted  in  Sydney  since  the  erection  of  new  municipal 
fruit  markets  there  may  serve  to  show,  by  comparison,  how  very  urgent 
reform  in  our  own  methods  is  necelssary.  These  markets  cover  a  total 
area  of  i2|  acres  of  ground,  and  the  section  reserved  for  the  disposal  of 
fruit  occupies  2|  acres.  The  market  contains  34  stalls,  of  two  stories, 
and  34  offices.  The  ground,  or  floor  space,  will  accommodate  500  vendors, 
with  ample  room  for  the  display  and  disposal  of  fruit.  A  branch 
fumigating  chamber  and  cold-storage  accommodation  containing  30,000 
feet  of  air  space  is  also  provided  on  the  ground  floor.      The  space  on  this 


II    Nov.,    19 1 2.]  Slieep  Dipping.  671 

floor  is  equally  allotted  to  the  grower  and  the  agent,  or  fruit  merchant. 
The  two  classes  are  divided  by  a  central  roadway  running  through  the 
market.  The  growers  are  placed  into  five  districts.  The  fruit  is  distri- 
buted to  the  public  and  shopkeepers  and  about  2,500  dealers,  who  have 
districts  and  sell  both  fruit  and  vegetables  to  the  public. 

In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  facilities,  the  municipality  has 
erected,  within  100  yards  of  the  market,  twenty  large  stores,  of  three 
stories,  for  the  use  of  tlie  large  fruit  merchant. 

The  market  is  connected  with  the  rail,  and  fruit  may  be  forwarded 
direct  to  it  from  country  districts. 

The  method  in  which  the  fruit  is  distributed  from  the  market  through- 
out the  city  and  suburbs  is  by  cars  and  motor  w-aggons. 

It  will  tiius  be  seen  that  at  present  the  city  of  Sydney  is  much  in 
advance  of  this  city  with  regard  to  the  disposal  and  marketing  of  fruit. 

If  the  projected  scheme  in  connexion  with  the  new  markets,,  which  it 
is  intended  to  shortly  erect  on  the  south  side  of  the  Yarra,  is  carried  out 
as  completely  as  proposed,  Melbourne  should  then  be  well  abreast  of  any 
other  city  in  the  Commonwealth  with  regard  to  the  marketing  and  distribu- 
tion of  fruit. 

{To  be  continued.) 


SHEEP  DIPPING. 

By  A.   VJ .   Curlewis,  Inspector  under  SJiecp  Dipping  Act. 

As  shearing  time  in  this  State  is  again  approaching,  a  few  words  on 
sheep  dipping  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

A  large  majority  of  the  sheep-owners  of  Victoria,  including  all  who 
have  had  a  lengthened  experience  on  the  subject,  are  fully  aware  of  the 
benefits  which  accrue  from  careful  and  systematic  dipping  and  strongly 
approve  of  the  general  provisions  of  the  Sheep  Dipping  Act.  The  small 
minority  consists,  firstly — of  those  who  are  averse  to  taking  any  progressive 
steps  which  entail  trouble  and  expense,  and  to  measures  taken  to  protect 
others  from  the  effect  of  their  carelessness  and  lack  of  management ;  and 
secondly,  of  those  whose  first  experience  of  dipping  has  for  .some  reason 
been  unfortunate.     And  to  the  latter  a  few  hints  may  be  acceptable. 

Various  reasons  may  be  given  for  the  failure,  or  partial  failure,  of  the 
operation,  such  as  the  use  of  inferior  dipping  medicaments,  errors  in 
mixing,  over  dilution  with  the  false  idea  of  economy,  failure  to  keep  the 
dip  at  the  proper  strength,  and  faulty  methods  of  actual  dipping. 

Owners  who  have  not  had  experience  in  dipping  sheep  are  advi.sed  to 
procure  a  dip  strongly  recommended  by  one  who  has  used  it,  to  mix  and 
use  according  to  instructions  received  with  it ;  if  a  powder,  roll  to  break 
all  lumps  and  mix  in  a  paste  over  night,  and  in  the  morning  complete 
mixing  with  the  pre.scribed  quantity  of  water,  take  care  to  keep  dip  at  a 
uniform  strength,  use  a  plunger  frequently  whilst  the  sheep  are  going 
through  to  prevent  any  powder  settling  at  the  bottom  of  the  dip.  The 
sheep  should  be  yarded  over  night  and  put  through  as  early  as  possible ; 
dipping  should  not  be  carried  on  in  a  fierce  heat,  and  failing  shelter  trees 
being  available  rough  shelter  sheds  should  be  provided  near  draining  yard. 
When  a  small  dip  is  used  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  every  sheep  is 
thoroughly  soaked,  the  head  should  be  immersed  a  couple  of  times,   and 


672  Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria.  [11   Nov.,    1912. 

each  sheep  should  be  in  about  a  minute.  If  it  is  necessary  to  drive  the 
sheep  away  from  the  dip  do  so  quietly,  after  allowing  them  to  stand  under 
shelter  for  a  time,  and  avoid  dusty  roads  until  they  are  dry. 

Numerous  cas.es  have  come  under  notice  the  last  few  months  of  sheep 
which  were  dipped  after  last  shearing  and  are  nevertheless  carrying  ticks 
or  lice.  Imperfect  dipping,  together  with  the  bad  time  most  of  them  have 
gone  through  consequent  on  the  drought,  has  had  a  good  deal  to  do  with  it, 
the  frequently  expressed  opinion  is  that  "poverty  breeds  ticks  and  lice"; 
and  whilst  this  is  not  correct  it  is  true  that  vermin  thrive  and  increase  best 
when  their  hosts  are  in  low  condition. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  freedom  from  lice  and  ticks  observed  in  num- 
bers of  dipped  sheep  suffering  from  the  effects  of  the  bad  season — recent 
yaraings  at  Yarck  and  Nagambie  for  example — is  very  encouraging  to  all 
advocates  of  dipping,  and  goes  to  prove  that  poverty  is  not  the  only  factor 
to  be  considered.  One  of  the  reasons  why  dipping  does  not  absolutely 
eradicate  vermin  is  the  practice,  followed  by  some  who  are  not  aware  that 
they  are  infringing  the  Sheep  Dipping  Act,  of  leaving  the  lambs  unshorn 
and  undipped  when  the  ewes  are  so  dealt  with ;  the  majority  of  the  former 
may  be  marketed  before  they  can  infest  dipped  sheep,  but  others  fatten 
late  and  some  are  not  fattened  at  all.  These  are  generally  shorn  and 
dipped  later,  but  not  before  they  have  to  some  extent  reinfested  the  flock. 
Granted  that  it  is  undesirable  to  dip  lambs  nearly  fat  and  intended  for 
early  marketing,  those  which  are  to  be  kept  any  time  after  the  dipping  of 
the  flock  might  well  be  shorn  and  dipped  with  the  sheep  and  thereby 
secured  from  grass  seeds  and  freed  from  vermin ;  it  should  not  be  detri- 
mental to  their  improvement  or  sale  but  the  reverse,  and  as  all  sheep  dipped 
should  be  immune  from  contagion  from  the  early  lambs  up  to  the  time  the 
latter  were  sold,  a  great  benefit  should  result  to  the  flock. 

Opinions  vary  very  mucH  as  to  the  length  of  time  which  should  inter- 
vene between  shearing  and  dipping.  Some  dip  "  off  the  shears,"  but 
many  prefer  to  put  it  off  from  three  to  six  weeks,  and  others  go  so  far  as 
to  object  to  the  period  allowed  by  the  Act,  i.e.,  sixty  days,  as  not  long 
enough. 

Whilst  it  is  no  doubt  advisable  when  practicable  to  allow  three  or  four 
weeks  to  elapse,  especially  in  cases  of  machine  shorn  sheep,  it  is,  I  think, 
a  mistake  to  leave  them  undipped  longer  than  six  weeks ;  and  in  any 
case,  farmers'  sheep  should  be  dipped  before  harvesting  operations  are 
commenced. 

Dipping  "off  the  shears"  frequently  gives  excellent  results;  as  an 
example,  I  may  instance  cases  of  sheep  which  are  depastured  in  the  moun- 
tains near  Alexandra.  There  bemg  no  facilities  for  holding  the  sheep 
near  where  they  were  shorn,  they  were  mustered,  shorn  and  dipped  straight 
away  and  turned  out  in  the  hills  again,  and  when  mustered  and  offered  for 
sale  recently  were  found  on  being  handled  to  be  absolutely  free  from 
vermin,  the  wool  being  clean  and  bright. 

When  practicable,  owners  of,  say,  upwards  of  200  sheep  should  have 
their  own  dipping  baths  ;  it  is  a  mistake  to  drive  sheep  far  and  have  to 
'return  them  over  dusty  roads,  after  being  dipped.  The  cost  of  a  dip 
suitable  for  small  flocks  is  very  moderate,  portable  iron  baths  are  quoted 
at  about  jQ"] ,  and  with  a  small  additional  cost  may  be  put  down  and 
small  draining  yards  provided.  Small  brick  and  cement  or  concrete  and 
cement  dips  and  draining  yards  may  also  be  constructed  at  from  ;^io  to 
;^i5,  which  are  permanent  and  answer  the  purpose  admirably  :  it  is  only 
a  question  of  a  little  more  time  in  putting  the  sheep  through. 


II    Nov..    1912.]       Shearers'  Hut  Accommodaiion  AcL 


673 


The  clubbing  together  of  farmers  and  using  a  large  dip  between  them  is 
not  altogether  satisfactory,  for  the  last  to  use  the  bath  has  a  fouled  wash 
and  frequently  has  to  wait  his  turn  until  late  in  the  day ;  the  result  is  the 
sheep  do  not  dry  before  night  :  this  is  very  undesirable.  In  putting  a 
flock  through  it  is  advisable  for  the  largest  sheep  to  go  in  first,  the  lambs 
and  smaller  ones  last  when  the  bath  is  shallower;  broken  legs  are  avoided 
in  this  way. 

Particulars  of  various  styles  of  dips  have  already  been  given  through 
these  columns  and  directly  to  owners  by  the  Department,  and  further  de- 
tails may  be  obtained  on  application.  Finally,  1  strongly  advise  sheep- 
owners,  who  have  already  been  referred  to  as  having  had  somewhat  unfor- 
tunate experiences  in  the  matter,  to  continue  to  dip,  but  to  do  so  with  care 
and  judgment,  and  they  need  have  no  fear  but  that  their  trouble  will  be 
well  repaid. 


SHEARERS'  HUT  ACCOMMODATION  ACT. 

The  Shearers'  Hut  Accommodation  Act,  No.  2341,  came  into  opera- 
tion on  1st  July,  when  the  Hon.  the  Minister  for  Agriculture  decided 
that  it  should  be  administered  by  the  Live  Stock  Division  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  and  that  the  inspections  necessary  should  be  under- 
taken by  the  present  staff,  without  additional  appointments  being  made. 

The  first  requirement  was  to  define  the  districts,  as  ordered  in  Section 
5  (i),  and  appoint  inspectors  thereto.  This  was  done,  and  the  Order 
in  Council  passed  on  19th  August,   191 2. 

The  following  table  shows  the  districts  defined,  together  with  the 
names   and   addresses  of  the  inspectors  :  — 


Name  of  Inspector. 

Address. 

Shires  under  his  Control. 

Mathieson,  John 

Warrnambool .  . 

Warrnambool,  Portland,  Belfast, 
Minhamite.  Hej-tesbury,  Colac, 
Mortlake,  Hampden 

Gresson.  George  Leslie 

Casterton 

Glenelg 

Keys,  Stanley  Jeffrey  . . 

Coleraine 

Wannon 

Fisher,  Albert  William. . 

Hamilton 

Mount  Eouse,  Dundas 

Temple,  John  Mc Vicar 

Ararat 

Ararat,  Ripon,  Lexton,  Avoca, 
Stawell.  Wimmera.  Dunmunkle, 

~ 

Borung.  Ara  piles.  Ko^^Tee 

Wilson,  Thomas 

Melbourne 

La^loit,  Lowan,  Dimboola,  Mil- 
dura,  Karkarooc,  Swan  Hill, 
Walpeup 

Edwards,  Charles  Basil 

Bendigo 

Wycheproof.  Birehip.  Charlton.  Gor- 
don. East  Loddon,  Korong,  Kara 
Kara,  Bet  Bet,  Kerang 

O'Keefe.  Peter  Bernard 

Rochester 

Rochester 

MeKenzie,  John  William 

Kvabram 

Deakin 

Henderson,  George 

Bendigo 

Huntlv.  Strathfieldsaye 

Close.  John 

Bendigo 

Marong.  Donald 

Ash.  Ethelbert  Ebenezer 

Castlemaine    .  . 

Maldon,  ^letcalfe 

Marshall,  John  Carlyle.  . 

Melbourne 

Tullaroop,  Talbot,  CresA^-ick,  New- 
stead,  ]\Iount  Alexander,  Mount 

Franklin,  Glenlyon.  K^^leton, 
Mclvor.  Ne\\ham  and  Woodend, 
Romsey.  Springfield,  Gisborne, 
Lancefield 

674 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria.  [ii    Nov.,    1912. 


Districts,  Etc. — continued. 


Name  of  Inspector. 


Ross,  Alexander  John  . . 
Kyle,  Albert  . . 
Kyle,  John 

Thomas,  Moses 
Madden,  Thomas 
O'Bryan,  Patrick  Francis 
Morris,  Edgar  Gordon  . . 
Budd,  Hubert  Walton 
Comans,  Michael 

Gemmell,  Thomas 

Parfitt,  Henry  Francis 


Porter,  William  Thomas 

i>-  -J 

Thrclfall,  Robert  George 
Younger,  William 

McDougall,  Edgar  Wallace 

Turner,  Ernest  James  . . 

Sherlock,  Samuel 


McKenzie,  George 
McKenzie,  Robert  Taylor 

Grant,  James 
Morton,  Charles  James 
Fleming,  James 
O'Keefe,  Dennis  Francis 
Corney,  Charles  Edwin  Macdougall 


Curlewis,  Alfred  William 


Ballarat 
Ballarat 
Geelong 

Winchelsea 

Geelong 

Melbourne 

Bacchus  Marsh 

Melbourne 

Melbourne 

Seymour 

Melbourne 


Wangaratta 

Yea  .. 
Melbourne 

Melbourne 

Melbourne 

Frankston 


Cranbourne 
Korumburra 

Leongatha 

Foster 

Alberton 

Berwick 

Baimsdale 


Melbourne 


Shires  under  his  Control. 


Ballarat,  Bungaree 

Buninyong,  Grenville 

Meredith,  Leigh,  Corio,  Bannock- 
burn 

Winchelsea,  Barrarbool 

South  Barwon,  Bellarine 

Werribee,  Bray  brook 

Bacchus  Marsh,  Ballan,  Melton 

Broadmeadows,  Bulla.  Keilor 

Preston,  Merriang,  Whittlesea.  Ep- 
ping 

Seymour,  Broadford,  Kilmore,  Pya- 
long 

Goulburn,  Waranga,  Euroa,  Mans- 
field, Rodney,  Shepparton,  Nu- 
murkah,  Tungamah,  Violet  To^vn, 
YarraA\onga 

Benalla,  Oxley,  North  Ovens, 
Rutherglen,  Chiltern,  Wodonga, 
Yackandandah,  Beechworth, 

Bright,  Onieo,  Towong 

Yea.  Alexandra,  Howqua 

Heidelberg,  Eltham,  Doncaster, 
Healesville,  Templestowe 

Nuna\\'ading,  Lilydale,  Upper 
Yarra 

Mulgrave,  Fern  Tree  Gully,  Dan- 
denong 

Moorabbin,  Mornington,  Frankstom 
and  Hastings,  Flinders  and  Kaa- 
gerong  * 

Cranbourne 

Poowong  and  Jeetho,  Phillip  Island, 
and  Woolamai 

Woorayl  j  ^^ 

South  Gippsland 

Alberton 

Berwick 

Buhl  Buln,  Warragul,  Narracan, 
Morwell,  Traralgon,  Walhalla, 
Maffra,  Rosedale,  Avon,  Orbost, 
Tambo,  Bairnsdale,  Mirboo 

Whole  of  State 


In  order  that  all  pastoralists  may  be  made  familiar  with  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Act,  an  epitome  showing  the  principal  provisions  has  been 
drawn  up  for  circulation  throughout  the  State.  This  epitome  is  in  the 
f ol  1  ow  i  n  g   form:  — 

SHEARERS'    HUT  ACCOMMODATION    ACT,    No.    2341. 

Notice  to  Employers  of  Shearers. 

Notice  is  hereby  given  that,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Shearers' 
Hut  Accommodation  Act,  No.  2341,  if  six  or  more  shearers*  are  to  be  employed 
in  or  about  a  shearing  shed,  the  employert  must  give  to  an  Inspector  at  least  three 
clear  days'  notice  of  intention  to  commence  shearing — Section  12  (i).  Penalty  for 
failure  to  notify,   £2 — Section    12    (2).      Shearing   sheds   where   five  or   less   shearers 


II    Nov.,    191 2.]       Shearers    Hut  Accomrtiodaiion  Act.  675 

are    employed    and    those    situate    in    cities,     towns,     and     boroughs,     are     exempt — 
Section  3. 

An  employer  must  provide  sufficient  accommodation  for  the  comfort  and  health 
of  shearers  in  buildings  at  least  fifty  yards  from  the  shearing  shed — Section  6  (i) — 
unless  such  accommodation  has  been  provided  prior  to  the  passing  of  the  Act,  and 
conforms  to  the  other  requirements  of  the  Act,  which  are — Section  6  (2)  : — 

{a)  Separate  buildings  for  sleeping  accommodation  of  Asiatics; 

[b)  Sleeping    bunks    not    placed    one  above    another,    and    240    cubic    feet    air 

space  to  each  person  ; 

[c)  Sleeping-room   apart   from   kitchen   and   dining-room  ;    if   cooking   and    serv- 

ing is  done  in  same  room,  then  it  must  be  at  different  ends  thereof  ; 

[d)  Separate   dining   accommodation    for  Asiatics ; 

[e)  Latrine   not   less   than   25    yards   from   building,    and    50    yards    from    water 

supply; 
(/)    Sufficient   good    drinking   water ; 
(g)   Meat  house  or  safe  constructed   to  keep   out   flies ; 
[h]    Separate   compartment   for   stores   and   rations; 
[i]    Sufficient   clean   straw  or  chaff   for   filling   mattresses ; 
(7)    Proper   vessels   for   kitchen   slops   and    refuse,    and    provision    for    disposal 

of   same ; 
[k)  Light  and   ventilation  in  sleeping  and   dining   rooms  ; 
(/)    Floors   of    approved    material ; 
[m]   Proper   cooking    and    washing   vessels; 

Tent   accommodation   to   the   satisfaction   of   an    Inspector   shall   be   deemed 
sufficient — Section    14. 

Buildings  must  be  kept  clean  by,  and  must  not  be  damaged  by  the  shearers. 
Where  an  employer  is  put  to  the  expense  of  cleaning  or  repairing  damage  by 
shearers,  the  cost  thereof,  when  certified  to  by  an  Inspector,  may  be  deducted  from 
the  wages  due  to  such  shearer — Section  7  (1-5).+ 

Where  any  expense  is  incurred  by  a  tenant  in  providing  any  of  the  requirements 
of  the  Act,  such  expense  shall  be  borne  by  the  tenant  and  landlord,  in  the  absence 
of   any   agreement   to   the   contrary,    in   the    following   proportion — Section  15   (i)  : — 

If   the   tenant's    interest    is — 

(a)  for  less  than   three  years,   the   whole   shall   be   payable  by   the   landlord ; 

(b)  for  three  years  or  less  than   five   years,   three-fourths  by   the   landlord   and 

one-fourth  by   the   tenant ; 

(c)  for  five  years  or  upwards,   the   whole  by   the   tenant ;   provided   that   if  the 

interest  of  a  tenant  be  for  less  than  five  years,  and  he  commences 
sheep-farming  without  the  written  consent  of  the  landlord,  the  tenant 
shall   bear  the   whole  cost — Section   15    (2). 

The  Governor  in  Council  may  appoint  Inspectors,  who  shall  have  free  entry 
into  any  shearing  shed  or  building  provided  for  accommodation  of  shearers — 
Section  15  (1-2) — Penalty  for  obstruction,  ^20 — Section  5  (3).  Every  Inspector  shall 
carry  a  certificate  of  his  appointment,  which  shall  be  shown  to  an  employer  on 
demand. 

An    Inspector    may    order    the    requirements    of  the    Act    to    be    complied    with  ; 

failure    to    carry    out    same    renders    the    employer  liable    to    prosecution ;    and    the 

penalty    for   not    fulfilling    the   order    of    the    Court  entails    a    fine    of   ;i^io,    and    £1 
for  each  day  in  default — Section   11    (1-4). 

By  direction  of  the   Hon.    the    Minister   for  Agriculture, 

W.   A.   N.   ROBERTSON,   B.V.   Sc, 

Live    Stock    Division,    Department    of    Agriculture. 

*  "  Shearer  "  means  any  person  employed  in  work  connected  with  shearing,  but  does  not  include 
regular  employes  or  members  of  employers  family. 

t  "  Employer  "  means  any  person  owning,  having  control  of,  or  superintending  at  any  shearing 
shed. 

%  The  1911  award  of  the  Commonwealth  Court  of  Conciliation  and  Arbitration  provides  that  the 
employer  may  deduct  such  cost  after  notifying  the  shed  representative  in  writing. 


676 


Journal    :>t   Agriculture ,    \ictoria.  [11    Nov.,    1912. 


THE  RELATIVE  SOLUBILITY   OF  THE  PHOSPHORIC 
ACID  IX  ROCK  PHOSPHATE  AND  BONE-DUST, 

TV.   C.  Robertson,  Chief  Deputy  Chemist. 

The  following  table  gives  the  results  from  an  experiment  recently  con- 
ducted at  the  Agricultural  Laboratory. 

The  object  of  the  test  was  to  ascertain  the  availability  of  the  phosphoric 
acid  in  rock  phosphate  and  bone-dust  respectively. 

A  preliminary  experiment  was  carried  out  by  placing  two  perforated  tin 
vessels  containing  pulverised  rock  phosphate  and  bone-dust  respectively,  in 
a  garden  soil  and  covering  them  to  a  depth  of  12  inches. 

The  soil  was  watered  every  morning  and,  by  a  launder  arrangement, 
the  drainings  were  separately  collected  in  two  glass  vessels. 

After  the  expiration  of  one  month,  the  drainage  water  in  each  vessel 
was  tested  for  phosphoric  acid,  with  the  result  that  the  drainings  from  the 
bone-dust  gave  a  distinct  affirmative  reaction,  whereas  the  test  on  the  liquid 
from  the  rock  phosphate  gave  an  entirely  negative  result. 

In  the  experiment  under  review,  the  mode  of  procedure  was  as 
follows  : — 

Two  lots  of  virgin  soil,  each  weighing  7  lbs.,  were  placed  in  two 
earthenware  jars  having  an  outlet  at  the  bottom. 

From  the  latter,  a  tube  with  stop  cock  attached,  led  to  a  glass  jar  con- 
taining in  one  case  100  grammes  of  finely  ground  rock  phosphate,  and  in 
the  other  the  same  amount  of  bone-dust. 

The  following  diagram  will  serve  to  show  the  arrangement  of  the 
apparatus: — ■ 


or     ' 
'fi,one  dust- 


The  sod  in  the  earthenware  receptacles  was  kept  saturated  with  water 
and  the  dramage  conducted  through  the  outlet  tube  to  the  glass  jars  and 
thus  allowed  to  act  upon  the  material  contained  therein.  The  experiment 
was  conducted  over  a  period  of  four  months,  but  progress  analyses  were 
conducted  at  the  end  of  {a)  one  week,  {b)  one  month,  {c)  four  months. 

The  soil  in  the  first  instance  was  analysed  for  humus  and  available 
phosphoric  acid  and  was  found  to  contain  2.3  per  cent,  humus,  whilst  the 
available  phosphoric  acid  content  was  infinitesimal.  The  soil  water  was 
of  an  acidity  equal  to  .012  per  cent,  citric  acid. 


II    Nov.,    Tgi2.]      (icrdiiiu)ii   C iillivation  jar   /i-'<xciituil   Oil. 


677 


The  suhioiiifd  tahlt-  gives  the  results  :- 


Material  Treated. 

I'er  cent,  of  Total  Phosphoric  Acid  dissolved  in- 

Ratio  of 

One  Week. 

One  Month. 

Four  Months. 

Solubility 

Bone  dust 
Rock  Phos])h;ite 

per  cent. 
41 

Nil 

per  cent. 

•75 
■0019 

per  cent. 
102 
■0042 

243 

1 

The  bone-dust  originally  contained  23.5  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid, 
whereas  the  rock  phosphate  contained  37.91  per  cent. 

The  result  of  the  experiment  shows  the  phosphate  in  bone-dust  to  be 
more  soluble  in  soil  water  than  the  phosphate  in  rock  phosphate. 


SMALL  RURAL  INDUSTRIES. 

D.— GERANIUM  CULTIVATION   FOR  ESSENTIAL  OIL. 

By  JoscpJi  Kiiiglif. 

The  plant  from  whicli  oil  of  geranium  is  obtained  is  known  botanically 
as  the  pelargonium.  It  is  a  native  of  South  Africa,  where  many  different 
species  are  found.  It  is  the  intention  of  the  present  article  to  enter  into 
:i  description  of  only  two  of  these,  namely,  "  The  African,"  whose 
botanical  name  cannot  readily  be  fixed,  and  "  Pelargonium  roseum." 
Both  these  varieties  were  grown  at  the  Dunolly  Scent  Farm,  and  their 
value  as  essential  oil  producers  has  been  established  by  actual  experience. 
"  The  African  "  yields  a  large  quantity  of  oil  of  a  quality  suitable  for 
the  use  of  soap-makers  and  other  purposes,  and  should  find  a  ready  sale 
in  this  State. 

"  Pelargonium  roseum,"  on  the  other  hand,  yields  an  oil  of  superior 
quality,  but  the  quantity  is  so  scanty  that  for  practical  purposes  its 
cultivation   at   present  need   hardly  be  considered. 

The  illustrations  show  No  i  as  "  The  African,"  and  No.  2  "  Pelar- 
gonium roseum." 

Soil. 

Geranium  will  grow  in  any  soil — either  clay,  loam,  or  sand.  The 
licher  the  soil  the  greater  will  be  the  yield. 

The  natural  situation  of  the  plant  is  sandy  loam,  and  in  many  parts 
It  is  cultivated  on  dry  sandy  hill-sides.  The  quality  of  the  oil  produced 
under  these  conditions  is  of  a  superior  quality,  but  lately  it  is  considered 
that  when  rich  bottom  land  is  employed  the  yield  is  considerably  in- 
creased ;  but  the  oil  is  said  to  be  inferior,  rank,  and  somewhat  coarse. 
Irrigation,  also,  has  been  employed  in  many  cases,  and  enormous  cuttings 
obtained.  Dry  or  well-drained  soil  will  answer  the  purpose ;  but  the  plant 
will  not  withstand  exoessi\e  moisture  at  the  roots. 

Cultivation. 
The    soil,    prior    to   planting,    should    be    deeply   stirred — subsoiling    is 
preferable  to  trenching,   as  the  bottom  soil  is  usually  stubborn  and  stiff  to 
work.       If   rich   low-lying   land  is  chosen,    then   the  drainage  should   be 
attended  to. 


678 


Journal   of  Agriculture,    Victoria.  [11    Nov.,    191 2. 


Likie  some  others  of  the  essential  oil-producing  plants,  rich  soil  is  not 
absolutely  necessary  ;  but  where  there  is  poor  or  medium  soil,  its  cultiva- 
tion can  be  undertaken  with  the  expectation  of  success.  The  only  after- 
cultivation  is  the  usual  ploughing  to  keep  the  surface  in  good  tilth  and 
free  from  weeds. 

The  planting  may  be  done  either  in  autumn  or  spring.  If  a  good 
bed  of  cuttings  is  put  out  in  August  or  September  these  will  be  suitable 
to  plant  out  early  in  March,  or  as  soon  as  there  is  sufficient  moisture  to 
continue  a  growth. 

Good  results  are  also  obtained  by  planting  good  strong  cuttings  in 
early  spring,  and  this  may  be  adopted  where  a  bed  of  cuttings  has  not 
been  provided.  A  bed  should  be  well  prepared  and  the  set  pressed  firmly 
in  at  the  base.  A  good  solid  tramping  at  the  bottom  is  important,  so  as 
to  exclude  the  air  from  the  soil,  but  it  should  not  be  tramped  on  the  surface. 


NO.     I.    THE   AFRICAN. 


NO.    2.    PELARGONIUM   ROSEUM. 


The  distance  at  which  the  plants  should  be  placed  in  their  permanent 
position  should  be  regulated  by  the  class  of  labour  employed  in  the 
cultivation.  The  rows  should  stand  about  4  feet  apart,  and  the  plants 
3  feet  in  the  rows;  but  if  hand  labour  is  to  do  the  work,  then  3  feet 
each  way  may  be  sufficient  for  carrying  out  operations.  The  plant  is  a 
strong  grower  and  requires  liberal  feeding  room,  and  nothing  is  lost  by 
giving  plenty  of  space. 

Plants. 

No  plants  are  more  easily  raised — a  geranium  cutting  of  any  size  stuck 
into  the  ground  grows  rapidly  into  a  strong  plant — and  if  planted  out  in 
the  autumn   a    fair  clipping   may   be  obtained   the   following    summer. 

Cuttings  may  be  struck  almost  at  any  time.  If  planted  out  in  a 
well-prepared  bed  in  spring,  they  will  give  strong,  well-rooted  plants 
for  the  following  autumn.  When  planting  out,  all  that  is  necessary  is 
to  trim  the  top  so  as  to  give  a  well-balanced  head,  and  all  long  trailing 
branches  should  be  cut  back — this  should  be  accomplished  without  regard 
to  the  depleting  of  the  top,  as  the  plant  will  soon  adjust  any  loss  in 
this  respect.     All  long  trailing  roots  .should  also  be  trimmed  off. 


II    Nov.,    191 2.]     Geranium  Culttvation  for  Essential  Oil. 


679 


A  well-balanced  plant  should  be  the  aim,  so  that  the  growth  will  be 
even  all  over. 

Season  for    Cutting. 

The  cutting  season  extends  over  two  or  three  months,  and  the  best 
time  for  this  purpose  is  when  the  plant  is  in,  or  coming  into,  bloom ;  but 
it  must  be  understood  that  no  oil  is  obtained  from  the  flower — but  from  the 
leaf  and  green  portion  of  the  plant.  The  plants  should  be  matured,  and 
this  is  indicated  by  the  tinge  of  yellow  that  .shows  itself  in  the  foliage. 

The  young,  unmatured  foliage  does  not  give  off  that  amount  of  oil 
which  is  obtained  from  the  more  matured  portion  of  the  plant.  In  many 
cases  the  plant  will  be  found  to  throw  out  a  second  and  third  course  of 
blooms     ^vhpn  the  cutt'ng  may  be  prolonged. 


CUTTINGS    FOR    THE    STILL. 

The  plant  should  be  cut  back  every  season,  or  it  becomes  coarse  and 
woody. 

The  above  illustration  shows  the  parts  which  are  cut  for  the  still; 
the  lower  or  strong  portion  of  the  plant  .should  be  shortened  back,  to  give 
that  bushy  growth  which  alone  is  useful. 

Distilling. 

The  treatment  of  this  plant  in  the  extraction  of  the  oil  is  similar  to 
that  of  others,  which  have  been   fully   described   in  previous  papers. 

The  boiling  should  be  carried  on  slowly ;  and  where  a  good  class  of 
oil  is  desired,  the  receiver  should  be  changed  when  half  is  taken  off,  and 
the  last  received  returned  to  the  still,  and  the  first  put  aside  to  cool,  when 
the  oil  may  be  easily  lifted  off  from  the  surface  of  the  water.  Unlike 
roses,   no  second   distilling   is   necessary,    as  the  oil   separates   freely. 


68o  journal  of  Agriculture,    Vicioria.  [ii    Nov.,    191 2. 


In  many  cases  the  whole  is  run  off  in  the  one  receptacle,  and  the 
operation  completed  at  one  time;  but  as  water  has  to  be  added  to  each 
charge,  it  is  as  well  to  utilize  that  which  has  a  modicum  of  oil  remaining 
in  it,  and  the  second  portion  of  the  distilling  may  be  employed  for  that 
purpose. 

The  illustrations  below  represent  vessels  for  receiving  the  discharge 
from  the  still,  and  are  usually  known  as  "  Flonentines.  "--Illustration 
No.  I.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  discharge  of  water  is  taken  from  the 
bottom  of  this  receptacle,   whilst  the  oil  is  allowed  to  float  on  top. 

Illustration  No.  2  is  a  simliar  vessel,  but  it  is  fitted  with  a  special 
funnel  when  distilling  oils  that  have  a  greater  specific  gravity  than  those 
already  described.  The  object  of  this  will  be  clearly  seen.  It  is  to  check 
the  downwvird  tendency  in  the  drop  of  the  oil  from  the  still,  and  to  assist 
in  the  separation  of  the  oil  from  the  water  by  giving  it  an  upward 
tendency. 


NO.     I.  FLORENTINE.  NO.     2. 

There  are  various  forms  of  these  receptacles  employed,  and  which  are 
similar  to  those  illustrated. 

Yield. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  give  the  yield  of  oil  per  acre,  as  the 
character  of  the  soil  mu.st  be  taken  into  consideration.  At  DunoHy  the 
soil — as  before  stated — was  so  unsuitable  for  this,  and  other  similar 
plants,  that  nothing  of  a  reliable  nature  can  be  given  ;  but  it  is  generally 
estimated  that  from  5  to  6  tons  of  green  leaf  stems  may  be  cut  to  an 
average  acre,  and  about  3  lbs.  of  oil  may  be  obtained  per  ton.  And, 
again,  a  second  and  third  cutting  can  be  obtained  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions of  growth.  This  may  not  be  quite  so  heavy,  yet  help  to  swell 
the  returns  per  acre. 

In  many  parts  where  "  geranium  cultivation  "  is  carried  on,  three 
crops  in  one  season  are  obtained,  and  the  operation  of  distilling  extends 
over  a  considerable  time.  With  the  aid  of  irrigation  in  various  parts  of 
this  State,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  getting  equally  good,  if  not 
better,  results. 


ri    Nov..    [912.]  Analyses   of   Artificial  Maniirex. 


68r 


13941. 


682 


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684  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [ii    Nov.,    1912. 

OiY  WATTLES  AND  WATTLE-BAKK. 

I      Alfred  J.  Eivart,  D.Sc,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Botany  and  Plant 
Physiology  in  the  Melbourne  University. 

The  efforts  of  the  Field  Naturalists'  Club  and  of  the  Wattle  League 
have  recently  drawn  considerable  attention  to  our  native  wattles  as 
plants  of  sufficient  bt^auty  to  be  regarded  as  the  national  Hower  of 
Victoria  or  of  Australia,  and  also  as  being  possessed  of  sufficient 
economic  value  to  be  worthy  of  cultivation  and  to  be  protected  from 
destruction  when  growing  wild.  In  regard  to  the  question  of  the 
wattle  as  the  national  tlower  for  Australia,  several  points  of  interest 
may  be  noted.  In  the  tirst  place,  the  name  "  wattle  "  is  an  instance 
of  one  of  those  misnomers,  or  at  least  words  with  altered  meanings, 
which  are  so  common  in  Australia.  The  word  "wattle"  is 
usually  applied  to  the  fleshy  appendages  hanging  from  the  heads  of 
such  birds  as  fowls,  and  hence  the  Australian  wattle  bird  receives 
its  name,  not  from  any  association  with  the  plants,  but  from  the  fleshy 
appendages  which  hang  from  its  ears.  The  name  wattle  applied  to 
acacias  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  word  "  watel,"  meaning 
a  hurdle,  and  hence  came  to  be  applied  to  the  osier,  Salix  viminalis, 
one  of  the  common  European  willows  from  whose  flexible  twigs 
hurdles  were  usually  woven.  The  early  colonists  in  New  South  Wales, 
using  the  branches  of  acacia  for  similar  purposes  and  for  stiffening 
the  mud  walls  of  their  huts,  applied  to  these  acacias  the  name  of 
wattle,  which  has  since  persisted  and  passed  into  general  popular 
use.  Strictly  speaking,  the  name  wattle  should  not  be  used  as  a 
general  term  for  all  acacias,  but  only  to  a  certain  limited  number  of 
species,  and  it  would  not  be  correct  to  apply  it  to  acacias  which  grow 
outside  Australia. 

With  regard  to  the  wattle  as  the  Australian  national  flower, 
this  is  of  course  entirely  a  matter  for  public  opinion,  and  in  time  the 
latter  is  bound  to  crystallize  aroimd  some  particular  plant.  The 
wattle  has  much  in  its  favour  as  regards  beauty  and  fragrance  as 
a  national  floral  emblem.  From  a  botanical  stand-point,  however, 
the  acacias  are  not  nearly  as  typically  Australian  as  certain  other 
genera,  notably  eucalyptus.  Out  of  a  total  of  296  species  of 
eucalyptus,  only  25  occur  elsewhere,  and  of  these  few  species  all  are 
natives  of  districts  not  widely  separated  from  Australia.  On  the 
other  hand,  out  of  a  total  of  767  species  of  acacia  known  to  science, 
some  417  species  are  Australian,  112  species  are  native  to  Africa, 
and  234  species  grow  in  other  countries. 

Hence  there  would  be  no  valid  cause  of  objection  if  any  other 
country — South  Africa,  for  instance— were  also  to  adopt  the  wattle 
as  its  national  flower;  and  although  the  eucalyptus  is  peculiarly 
Australian,  it  now  grows  in  such  abundance  in  many  parts  of  the 
world  as  to  form  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  forest  flora,  and  to 
give  rise  to  the  possibility  of  its  being  adopted  as  a  national  flower 
for  certain  of  the  States  in  North  America,  or  for  some  of  the  smaller 
Principalities  in  Europe,  not  as  yet  provided  with  a  national  floral 


II    Nov.,    191-^.]  On  Wattles  and  Wattle-Bark.  685 

emblem.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  botanical  considerations  usually  play 
little  part  in  the  adoption  of  national  flowers.  There  is.  for  instance, 
no  special  botanical  reason  why  the  rose  should  be  the  national  flower 
for  England,  or  the  lily  the  national  flower  of  France;  while  in  the 
case  of  Scothmd,  the  national  flower  a  botanist  would  have  selected 
would  probably  have  been  the  heather. 

In  our  own  case,  the  special  merit  of  the  wattle  probably  lies  in 
the  fact  that  so  many  species  flower  at  the  same  time,  early  in  spring, 
forming  a  conspicuous  feature  in  the  landscape  and  giving  the  first 
relief  from  winter's  floral  monotony.  Regarding  the  fears  that  have 
been  expressed  that  the  popularization  of  the  wattle — if  it  needs  any 
popularizing — and  its  adoption  as  the  national  flower  may  lead  to 
its  destruction,  this  is  not  a  very  serious  danger.  The  adoption  of 
the  thistle  as  the  national  flower  of  Scotland  has,  for  instance,  not 
caused  this  plant  to  become  extinct,  nor  have  roses  or  lilies  suffered 
in  any  way  through  being  national  flowers.  Wattles  in  particular 
are  easily  planted  and  quickly  grown,  and  are  able  to  re-establish 
themselves  year  after  year  on  ground  where  they  have  once  grown, 
provided  the  conditions  are  suitable.  It  is  probably  no  exaggeration 
to  say  that  there  are  sufficient  dormant  wattle  seeds  lying  in  the 
surface  soil  of  Victoria  to  cover  the  whole  of  Australia  with  a  dense 
crop  of  wattles,  if  planted  out  and  given  the  conditions  necessary 
for  development.  The  only  damage  done  to  wattles  by  people 
removing  blossoms  is  when  large  branches  are  broken  off,  spoiling 
the  symmetry  of  the  tree  and  leaving  a  ragged  injury  aiding  the 
penetration  of  borers  or  starting  decay.  Small,  slender  flowering 
branches  may  be  cut  or  broken  off  without  injuring  the  tree  in  the 
least;  and,  in  fact,  priuiing  off  all  the  flowering  branches  each  season 
would  increase  the  life  of  the  tree  and  give  it  a  more  compact  growth. 
Most  wattles  can,  in  fact,  be  pruned  much  more  severely  than  is 
generally  imagined  without  suffering  or  being  permanentl.y  injured, 
and  in  gardens  a  little  judicious  priming  will  often  considerably 
improve  the  appearance  of  various  acacias,  particularly  when  indi- 
vidual branches  show  signs  of  disease. 

Wattles  for  Gardens  and  Parks. 
Although  wattles  or  acacias  in  general  are  well  suited  for  garden 
cultivation,  they  are  not  suitable  plants  for  street  planting,  particu- 
larly in  large  towns.  For  the  most  part  they  are  very  apt  to  become 
begrimed  and  dingj^  in  appearance  in  an  atmosphere  which  is  at  all 
smoky.  In  addition,  the  duration  of  life  is  short  and  also  irregular. 
The  best  selected  and  tended  avenue  of  acacias  could  rarely  be  relied 
upon  for  more  than  ten  years,  and  after  that  time  would  need  continual 
replanting  as  single  trees  died,  so  that  the  symmetry  would  always  be 
broken  by  a  series  of  gaps.  Apart  from  the  attacks  of  the  borer 
beetle,  the  acacias  in  general  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of  various 
plant  and  animal  parasites,  which  may  injure  the  trees  or  may  com- 
pletely distort  its  natural  appearance.  The  natural  habitat  of  most 
of  our  common  acacias  is  on  the  fringes  of  forests,  in  open  forest 
glades,  and  generally  among  other  trees  wherever  a  sufficient  opening 
occurs.  They  do  best,  in  fact,  when  given  a  certain  amount  of 
protection    by   other   vegetation.       This    applies    particularly   to    the 


686  JoiirJial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [ii    Nov.,    1912.. 

species  with  tender  leaflets  and  to  a  somewhat  lesser  extent  to  those 
with  large  flat  phyllodes.  The  species  with  prickly  or  needle-like 
leaves,  on  the  other  hand,  stand  exposure  much  better,  but  have  no 
special  decorative  or  economic  value  for  the  most  part. 

Many  of  our  Australian  acacias  are  very  suitable  plants  for 
cultivation  in  gardens  and  parks.  A  list  of  these  was  compiled  by 
Mr.  F.  I'itcher,  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  and  issued  as  a  leaflet  by 
the  Wattle  League.  With  a  few  slight  alterations  the  list  in  question 
is  given  beneath,  and  though  it  does  not  entirely  exhaust  all  the 
acacias  which  may  be  worthy  of  cultivation,  it  is  sufficiently  compre- 
hensive for  ordinary  purposes. 

Acacia  acinacea,  "Gold  DiLst  Acacia."  Approximate  height, 
5-8  feet.  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  and  South 
Australia. 
„  •  armata,  "Hedge  Acacia."  10-15  feet.  Western  Australia, 
South  Australia,  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  and 
Queensland. 
,,       Baileijana,    "Cootamundra    Wattle."      10-15    feet.      New 

South  Wales. 
,,       drachybotrya,  "Silvery  Acacia."       4-8  feet.       Victoria, 

New  South  Wales,  and  South  Australia. 
,,       huxifolia,  "Box  Acacia."      3-5  feet.      New  South  Wales 
and  Queensland. 
cardiopUyUa,    "Wyalong    Wattle."        8-10    feet.        New 
South  Wales. 
„       cultriformis,  "Knife-leaved  Wattle."      8-15   feet.      New 

South  Wales  and  Queensland. 
„       ci/a«op/ij/^?a,  "Blue-leaved  Wattle."    12-20  feet.    Western 
Australia. 
dealhata,  "Silver  Wattle."      80-100  feet.      Victoria.  New 
South  Wales,  Queensland,   South  Australia,  and  Tas- 
mania. 
decurrens,  "Early  Black  Wattle,"  or  "Green  Wattle." 
10-20  feet.      New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  Queens- 
land. 
„       diffusa,  "Spreading  Acacia."      3-5  feet.      Victoria,  New 
South  Wales,  and  Tasmania. 
discolor,  "Sunshine  AVattle."     10-20  feet.     Victoria,  New- 
South  Wales,  and  Tasmania. 
elata,  "Cedar  Acacia,"  or  "New  Year  Wattle."      60-80 

feet.      New  South  Wales. 
/(0}*(fl./o^:»/(2///o,  "Yarram  Acacia. "      15-40  feet.      Victoria, 
New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  and  South  Australia. 
„       implexa,  "Lightwood  Acacia."     30  feet.      Victoria,  New 
South  Wales,  and  Queensland. 
iteapliyUa,  "South  Australian  Wattle."    8-12  feet.    South 

Australia. 
Jonesii,  "Jones  Acacia."      5  feet.      New  South  Wales 
„       juniperina,    "Juniper    Acacia."        8-10    feet.       Victoria, 

New  South  AVales,  Queensland,  and  Tasmania. 
„       leprosa,   "Leper   Acacia."       15-30   feet.        Victoria   and 
New  South  Wales. 


Xov..    TQT2.]        .    Oil  ^Vatth's  and   Waffle-Bark.  68- 


Aracia    hprosa     var.   donnata,   "Seville   Wattle."       K)-20    feet. 

Victoria. 
linearis,  "  Narrow-leaved  Acaeia."      5-8  feet.      Victoria, 

New  South  Wales.  Queensland,  and  Tasmania. 
lincifolia,   "P'lax    Acacia."       8-12    feet.       Victoria.    New 

South  Wales,  and  Queensland. 
JongifoUa,  "Sallow  Acacia."      15-30  feet.      Victoria,  New 

South  Wales,  Queensland.  South  Australia,  and  Tas- 
mania. 
JongifoUa,     var.    forlhunda,     "  Marrai-us,"    or   "'  ]\Iany- 

flowered  Acacia."       8-12    feet.       Victoria   and   New. 

South  Wales. 
JongifoUa  var.  Sophorae,  "  Coast  Acacia."  3-8  feet.     Vic- 
toria. New  South  Wales.  Queensland.  South  Australia, 

and  Tasmania. 
„       lunata,   "Crescent   Acacia."      3-5   feet.      Victoria,   New 

South  Wales,  and  Queensland. 
„       Macradenia,    "  :\lackay    (Myall)    Wattle."       10-12    feet. 

Queensland. 
Maidcnii,  ":\[aiden  Acacia."     50  feet.     New  South  Wales 

and  Queensland. 
„       melano.rijlon,  "Blackwood  Acacia."      40-100  feet.      Vic- 
toria.    New     South     AVales,     South     Australia,     and 

Tasmania. 
MitchelU,  "  Fringe    Wattle."       2-6  feet.       Victoria  and 

South  Australia. 
„       moJUssima,   "Late   Black  Wattle."      30-100   feet.      Vic- 
toria.    New     South     Wales,     South     Australia,     and 

Tasmania. 
montana,  "Mountain  Acacia."      4-6  feet.      Victoria,  New 

South  Wales,  and  South  Australia. 
myrtifoUa,  "JNIyrtle  Acacia."      5-8  feet.      Victoria,  New 

South  Wales,  Queensland,  South  Australia.  Western 

Australia,  and  Tasmania. 
„       oxycedrus,  "Spike  Acacia."      3-10  feet.      Victoria,  New 

South  Wales,   South  Australia,  and  Tasmania. 
„       pendula,   "Weeping   :\Iyall,"   or  "Boree."      30-40   feet. 

New  South  Wales  and  Queensland. 
,,       penninervis,  "Hickory  Wattle."      30-40  feet.      Victoria, 

New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  and  Tasmania. 
,,       podalyrifoUa,  "Queensland  Silver  Wattle."      10-15  feet. 

New  South  Wales  and  Queensland. 
,,       pravissima,  "Ovens  Acacia."      10-20  feet.      Victoria  and 

New  South  Wales. 
,.       prominens,    "  Golden-rain    Acacia."       10-15    feet.       New 

South  Wales. 
,.       pruinosa,    "Frosty   Acacia."       10-15    feet.       New    South 

Wales. 
„       pycnantha,    "Golden    Wattle."       20-40   feet.       Victoria, 

New  South  Wales,  and  South  Australia. 
„       retinodes,  "Wirilda  Acacia."      10-20  feet.      Victoria  and 

South  Australia. 


688 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [ii    Nov.,    1912. 


Acacia  Eiceana,  "Kice  Wattle."      8-10  feet.      Tasmania. 

„       salicina,  "Willow  Acacia."      15-25  feet.      Western  Aus- 
tralia,  South  Australia,  Victoria,  New  South  Wales, 
Queensland,  and  North  Australia. 
saligna,  "Western  Wattle."  12-20  feet.      Western  Aus- 
tralia. 

„  spectabiUs,  "Showy  Acacia."  8-12  feet.  New  South 
Whales  and  Queensland. 

„  stricta,  "Straight-leaved  Acacia.  2-10  feet.  Victoria,. 
New  South  Wales,  and  Tasmania. 

„       strigosa,  "Hairy  Acacia."     2-4  feet.     Western  Australia. 

„  suaveolens,  "Sweet  Acacia."  6  feet.  Victoria,  New 
South  Wales,  Queensland,  South  Australia,  and  Tas- 
mania. 

„  verniciflva,  "Varnish  Acacia."  5-10  feet.  Victoria, 
New  South  Wales,  South  Australia,  and  Tasmania. 

„  verticillata,  "Prickly  Acacia."  8-15  feet.  Victoria,. 
New  South  Wales,  South  Australia,  and  Tasmania. 

Economic  Value  of  Acacias. 

Acacias  have  both  a  direct  and  an  indirect  economic  value.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  they  are  plants  which  bear  nitrogen-assimilating  root 
tubercles,  they  are  important  agents  in  maintaining  the  nitrogenous 
constituents  of  a  fertile  soil,  and  hence  making  good  the  loss  occasioned 
by  forest  fires.  The  hard  seeds  of  various  species  of  acacia  are  able 
to  remain  living  in  the  soil  for  long  periods  of  time.  The  following 
are  a  few  of  the  longest  records  obtained  by  me  for  different  species 
of  acacia,  whose  seeds  had  been  kept  dry  for  the  periods  of  time 
mentioned : — 


As-e. 

Gevmination 

Acacia 

acinacea        .  . 

51  years 

.       4 

per  cent 

5) 

alata              .  . 

.      30  "   „ 

.       4 

„ 

,, 

aneura 

.      20      „ 

.     56 

„ 

,^ 

armata 

•     51      „ 

.     11 

J? 

>J 

hossiaeoides 

.     57      „ 

3 

J? 

hrachyhoirya 

■     57      „ 

4 

J> 

calamifolia    .  . 

.     18      „ 

.     80 

?j 

T> 

dealhata 

.     15      „ 

.     65 

ij 

J> 

decurrens 

.     17      „ 

.     63 

?j 

}i 

diffusa 

.     59      „ 

.     10 

*? 

)) 

doratoxylo)i 

•     20      „ 

6 

57 

,, 

data 

.     30      „ 

.     16 

J  J 

)J 

Farnesiana    .  . 

.     15      „ 

5 

M 

;> 

glaucescens    .  . 

.     20      „ 

.     46 

J  J 

,, 

lanigera 

.     20      „ 

.     20 

?J 

J> 

leprosa 

•     51      „ 

.     28 

5  J 

!> 

longifoUa 

•     52      „ 

.     21 

J) 

>y 

longifolia 

.     68      „ 

5 

JJ 

!7 

lunata 

.     48      „ 

.       8 

J  J 

„ 

melanoxylon 

•     51      „ 

.     12 

3? 

1 1    Nov.,    1912.] 


On  Wattles  and  Wattle-Bark. 


689 


Ag 

( 

iLTiniiiation. 

.     10 

years      . 

6 

per  fent 

.  .     58 

2 

.  .     55 

.       5 

.  .      17 

4 

.  .     80 

.       4 

..      10 

.     50 

,, 

.  .     67 

3 

.  .     30 

< 

>) 

.  .     51 

0 

)) 

.  .     81 

.      15 

.  .     51 

4 

.  .     41 

.       4 

Acacia  Merralli 

„         montana 

„         vujrtifolia 

„         neriifolia 

,,         nervosa 

„         Oswaldi 

,,         pcnninervis 

„         pentadenia 

.,         Senegal 

;,         Simsii   . 

.,         suaveolens 
verniciflua 

In  each  sample  of  air-dried  seeds  it  is  the  hard  seeds  whicli  last 
longest,  and  in  the  soil  it  is  only  these  hard,  non-swelling  seeds  which 
•can  last  for  any  length  of  time.  In  my  paper  on  the  "Longevity  of 
Seeds,"  I  have  used  the  term  "macrobiotic"  to  denote  seeds  of  this 
■character  which  are  specially  adapted  for  dispersal  in  time  rather  than 
in  space.* 

To  some  extent  these  macrobiotic  seeds  are  adaptations  to  l)iish 
fires,  which  were  probably  of  common  occurrence  long  before  the  advent 
of  civilized  or  even  uncivilized  man,  and  must  have  been  far  more 
frequent  than  at  present  when  the  lava  was  flowing  from  the  volcanoes 
<of  Victoria. 

Such  bush  fires,  after  burning  off  the  humus  more  or  less,  not  only 
partly  expose  the  seeds,  but  leave  behind  an  alkaline  ash,  which  the 
next  rain  falling  on  the  warm  ground  aids  in  softening  the  coats  of 
the  hard  seeds,  and  bringing  about  their  germination.  When  the  ash 
is  abundant  and  very  alkaline  the  seedlings  may  be  killed,  but  some 
will  always  survive.  In  addition,  slight  charring  of  the  surface  of 
the  seed  makes  it  permeable  to  water  without  necessarily  destroying 
the  vitality  of  the  contents.  The  acacias  or  other  leguminous  plants, 
by  the  aid  of  their  root-nodules,  can  grow  in  soil  from  which  all,  or 
nearly  all,  the  humus  has  been  burnt  aw^ay,  and  the  source  of  nitrates 
hence  removed.  They  steadily  enrich  the  soil  again,  and  produce  the 
conditions  for  the  growth  of  large  forest  trees.  These,  if  destroyed 
by  a  devastating  bush  fire,  may  once  more  be  replaced  by  the  humus- 
forming  acacias,  &c.,  whose  seeds  have  lain  dormant  in  the  soil  during 
part,  at  least,  of  the  growth  of  the  forest. 

I  have,  in  fact,  found  acacia  seeds  deeply  buried  in  the  soil  of 
gum  forests,  where  no  other  signs  of  their  presence  could  be  seen, 
and  where  no  other  acacias  were  present  within  at  least  a  mile.  In 
iiddition,  the  following  data  on  page  690  may  be  given  of  the  number 
of  germinable  acacia  seeds  per  2-in.  cube  of  soil  found  at  various 
■depths  mider  old  acacias  growing  in  undisturbed  primeval  bush. 

A  square  pole  of  such  soil  would  in  the  top  18  inches,  in  some  cases, 
contain  sufficient  germinable  seed  to  stock  several  square  miles  of 
territory,  so  that  the  amount  of  margin  allowed  for  accident  is  very 
great,  and  even  a  very  low  percentage  germination  would  suffice  to 
re-cover  the  soil  with  the  original  vegetation  after  the  severest  bush 

»  See  "  Longevity  of  Seeds"  in  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Vict.,  21  (N.S.)  Pt.  1  1908. 


6go 


Journal  of  A<^rkuUurL\  Victoria.  [ii    Nov.,    1912. 


fire.  The  percentage  germinations  are  high,  beeanse  as  soon  as  the 
seed  becomes  permeable  in  the  eonrse  of  time  and  swells,  it  either 
germinates  or  dies,  so  that  in  the  deeper  layers  the  only  seeds  found 
are  likely  to  be  hard  macrobiotic  ones.  In  fact,  all  the  seeds  found 
in  the  soil  below  the  surface  needed  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid 
to  produce  swelling  and  germination.  Once  they  are  swollen,  the 
seeds  are  incapable  of  remaining  long  living  in  a  latent  condition 
without  germinating,  and  this  applies  generally  to  the  seeds  of 
Leguminosa\  whether  cuticularized  or  not. 


Acacia  dealbaia 


leprosa     .  . 
melanoiri/lon. 


lonrjifolia 

Vaf.  mucronata 

verlirilln/a 


Depth. 


(i 
fl 

12 

18 
4 
8 

12 
I) 

12 
4 
8 

12 
(i 

l(i 
4 
8 

12 


Seeds 

Present  in 

Eiglit  Cubic 

Inches. 


28 
17 
Hi 
1  1 
3 
1 


28 
15 
11 


0 
32 


Xunilter 
Gerniinable. 


2() 
13 
10 
!l 
3 
1 
2 

0 
24 
14 
10 

4 


Per  Cent. 


03 

77 

03 

82 

1 00 

1 00 

100 

0 

86 

93 

91 

80 

100 

100 

0 

81 

8(J 

100 


Hence  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  it  has  been  found  possible 
to  establish  a  breakwind  of  acacias  on  land  where  they  had  previously 
grown  by  merely  fencing  off  a  broad  strip  of  land,  letting  a  fire  run 
over  the  surface  and  then  ploughing.  Sufficient  seed  was  present  in 
the  surface  soil  to  germinate  under  this  treatment  and  establish  a 
good  wind-break  of  acacias  without  any  planting  or  seeding  being 
necessary.  It  will,  of  course,  only  succeed  on  ground  where  acacias 
were  formerly  abundant,  and  the  interval  of  time  since  acacias  were 
originally  present  must  not  be  too  great,  probably  not  much  more  than 
fifty  years  or  so. 

On  new  ground,  acacias  can  only  be  established  either  by  planting 
or  sowing  seed.  Every  sample  of  acacia  seed  will  contain  a  variable 
percentage  of  hard  seed  according  to  the  conditions  under  which  the 
seed  ripens,  and  occasionally  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  seed  in  a  particular 
sample  may  he  hard.  This  hardness  is  due  to  the  impregnation  of 
tlie  outer  skin,  either  the  cuticle  or  also  part  of  the  epidermal  layers, 
with  a  waxy  substance,  making  the  seed  impermeable  to  M'ater."^  If 
a  little  nick  is  made  in  the  skin  with  a  file,  water  enters  the  seed  at 
this  point,  making  it  begin  to  swell  and  separating  the  particles  in 
the  wax  layer,  so  that  the  whole  seed  is  able  to  absorb  water  and  swell. 


II    Nov.,    191 2.]  0)1  Wattles  and  Wattle-Bark.  691 

The  same  effect  may  be  produced  by  soaking  the  seeds  in  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  for  one  to  six  hours  until  the  waxy  layer  is  eaten  away, 
ancl  then  washing  them  well  with  water  and  lime  water  to  remove  or 
neutralize  any  traces  of  acid  adhering  to  the  skin.  This  method  needs 
some  care  in  its  application,  since  the  seeds  must  not  remain  either 
too  long  or  too  short  a  time  in  the  acid,  and  this  is  best  determined 
by  a  previous  trial  of  a  small  sample.  It  is  in  all  cases,  however, 
best  to  test  the  seed  by  soaking  in  water  a  few  of  the  seeds  for  a  couple 
of  days  or  so.  and  noting  how  many  swell  and  how  many  become  hard. 
If  onl}"  10  per  cent,  or  so  of  the  seeds  remain  hard,  it  is  not  worth 
while  treating  the  bulk  at  all.  but  if  only  a  minority  of  the  seeds  swell 
after  two  to  three  days  in  water,  then  unless  the  hard  seeds  are 
softened  there  will  be  great  waste,  since  it  is  usually  the  hard  seeds 
which  give  the  best  percentage  germination  when  softened. 

The  simplest  method  of  softening  the  seed  is  to  droj)  them  into 
water  which  has  just  boiled,  and  then  allow  them  to  remain  in  the 
water  until  it  is  cold.  Seeds  treated  in  this  way  should  be  planted 
at  once,  whereas  those  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  or  tiled  can  be  kept 
dry  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  Filing  the  seeds,  however, 
is,  of  course,  only  possible  where  small  quantities  are  used. 

Sowing  seeds  broadcast  on  ploughed  or  burnt  land  involves  a  con- 
siderable waste  of  seed,  and  is  not  always  satisfactory  in  its  results. 
Planting  seedlings  or  individual  seeds  appears  at  first  a  more  expensive 
and  troublesome  way  of  establishing  a  plantation,  but  is  in  the  long 
run  more  satisfactory  in  its  results,  ancl  enables  the  plants  to  be 
spaced  out  the  proper  distance  apart  without  an,y  subsequent  thinning 
being  necessary.  If,  however,  the  seedlings  are  grown  in  masses  in 
trays,  they  are  apt  to  suffer  when  planted  owing  to  the  disturbance 
of  their  roots.  On  the  other  hand,  growing  singly  in  pots  in  the 
ordinary'  way  means  considerable  expense.  For  raising  seedling  trees 
on  a  large  scale,  the  Forests  Department  uses  a  very  cheap,  ingenious, 
and  indestructible  pot.  This  consists  of  a  strip  of  thin  metal  (tin, 
zinc,  or  galvanized  iron  may  be  used)  something  like  an  ordinary 
collar,  but  shorter  ancl  broader,  and  with  the  free  ends  bent  over,  one 
inwards  and  one  outwards,  so  as  to  form  an  interlocking  flange.  When 
bent  round  and  the  flange  interlocked,  it  forms  a  flower  pot  with 
sloping  sides  but  no  bottom.  As  it  stands  on  a  slab  no  bottom  is 
necessary,  and  by  the  time  the  seedlings  are  large  enough  to  plant 
out  the  roots  have  bomid  the  soil  in  the  pot  together.  When  planting, 
a  little  lateral  pressure  imlocks  the  flanges,  the  strip  of  metal  unrolls, 
and  the  roots,  with  the  soil  around  them,  can  be  planted  with  a 
minimum  of  disturbance.  Another  method  is  to  raise  seedlings  in 
short  lengths  of  bamboos  filled  with  soil,  simply  splitting  the  bamboo 
and  planting  the  whole  in  the  soil  when  the  seedling  is  old  enough. 
The  tubes  should  be  4  to  6  inches  long,  and  hollow  throughout.  If 
the  tube  is  already  soft  it  need  not  be  split  before  planting.  Where 
preferred,  however,  plantations  may  be  established  by  broadcasting 
the  seed.  In  the  case  of  the  "Golden  Wattle,  Acacia  pycnantha, 
]Mr.  Gill  recommends  ploughing  to  a  depth  of  6  inches  or  so,  and 
broadcasting  about  half  a  pound  of  seed  to  a  quarter  of  a  bushel  of 
sand,  subsequently  covering  the  seed  to  a  depth  of  about  an  inch  by 


692  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [11    Nov.,    1912. 

using  a  light  harrow  if  the  hmd  is  rough,  or  a  brush  harrow  if  sandy. 
The  sowing  of  the  seed  may  take  place  during  autumn  or  winter  in 
light,  well-drained  soils;  but  in  heavy,  wet,  cold  land  it  is  best  to 
delay  sowing  until  spring-time.  Frequently,  in  thin  or  patchy  forest 
land,  the  patches  may  be  filled  up  with  acacias  by  burning  away  the 
undergrowth  and  putting  in  seeds  at  distances  of  8  or  10  feet. 
INIr.  Gill  states  that,  according  to  some,  the  best  wattle-bark  is  usually 
obtained  from  wattles  grown  under  the  shelter  of  larger  trees;  but  it 
is,  of  course,  more  difficult  to  protect  such  plantations  from  fire, 
cattle,  and  bark-strippers. 

{To  he  continued.) 


SECOND   VICTORIAN   EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION,    1912-13. 

//.  T".  Hawkins,  Poultry  Expert,  report  for  month  ending  14:th  October. 

Good  average  results  were  obtained  from  the  69  pens  engaged  in 
the  present  competition  for  the  month  ending  on  the  14th  inst.  The 
weather  has  not  been  too  favorable  for  high  averages,  due  to  the  varia- 
tions of  temperature  and  at  times  rain  squalls,  accompanied  by  much 
wind,  which  has  severely  tried  the  light  breeds.  The  general  health  of 
the  birds  has  been  good.  Three  deaths  occurred  during  the  month,  all 
three  being  "White  Leghorns,  due  in  each  case  to  oviduct  troubles; 
replacements  were  made  according  to  the  rules. 

Mr.  Samuel  Brown's  White  Leghorns  are  well  in  front,  having  laid 
consistently  for  the  half-year,  and  their  condition  is  very  satisfactory. 
As  there  are  indications  of  broodiness  amongst  others  which  are  well 
up  in  the  list,  INlr.  Brown's  pen  may  retain  its  position  throughout. 

The  total  number  of  eggs  laid  during  the  half-year  is  38,621,  an 
average  of  559.7  per  pen.  The  feeding  has  been  somewhat  changed, 
the  meat  ration  being  reduced  one-half,  due  to  the  necessity  of  narrow- 
ing the  ratio  as  the  warmer  weather  approaches ;  very  little  maize  has 
been  fed  during  the  past  few  weeks,  wheat  and  short  oats  being  used 
together  with  ample  green  lucerne,  chopped  finely. 

The  present  test  has  so  far  again  demonstrated  the  superiority  of 
the  small  combed  birds.  The  lowest  pen  in  the  competition  is  one  of 
large-bodied,  big-combed  AVhite  Leghorns,  coarse  in  the  head,  whilst 
the  leading  20  pens  have  small  combs,  are  more  active,  and  will  be- 
found  less  subject  to  heat  apoplexy  as  the  hot  weather  approaches. 


IT    Nov..    1912.]     Second  Victoria}!  Egg-Laying  Competition. 


693 


SECOND  VICTORIAN  EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION,  1912-13. 

Commencing  I5th  April,  1912. 
COxNTDUCTED    AT    BURNLEY    HORTICULTURAL    SCHOOL. 


Eggs  laid  during  competititn. 

No.   of 

Position  in 

fea. 

Breed. 

Name  of  Owner. 

April  15 

Sept.    15 

Total  to 

Competi- 

to 

to 

Date  (6 

tion. 

Sept.  14. 
622 

Oct.  14. 

months). 
756 

40 

White  Leglioms     . . 

S.  Brown     . . 

134 

1 

28 

11 

F.  (J.  Eagleton 

581 

142 

723 

2 

23 

»)                      •  ■ 

W.  McLister 

594 

127 

721 

3 

9 

j> 

J.  Spotswood 

577 

141 

718 

4 

31 

>> 

Geo.  Edwards 

590 

126 

716 

5 

47 

)> 

J.  E.  Bradley 

583 

124 

707 

6 

20 

,. 

E.  Waldon 

562 

134 

696 

7 

7U 

iy 

V.  3.  Bealty 

559 

115 

674 

1          a 

4t) 

Black  Ori)iiigtous  .  . 

H.  A.  Langdon 

549 

125 

674 

)         ^ 

62 

White  Leghorus     . . 

R.  W.  Pope 

529 

142 

671 

10 

1 

■  1 

J.  Campbell 

541 

128 

669 

11 

3 

Black  Orpingtons  . . 

Iving  and  Watson 

547 

121 

668 

12 

37 

Wliite  Leghorns     . . 

C.  B.  BerteLsmeier     .  . 

519 

138 

657 

13 

40 

,> 

Wooldridge  Bros. 

512 

135 

647 

14 

24 

.) 

Sargenfri  I'oultry  Vards 

514 

131 

645 

15 

48 

.. 

Grittin  Cant 

519 

123 

642 

16 

25 

)> 

R.  L.  Applelord 

504 

133 

637 

)   " 

14 

.. 

J.  U.  Wright 

501 

136 

637 

29 

») 

J.  B.    Brigden 

502 

127 

629 

19 

13 

)) 

W.  B.  CreUin 

489 

132 

621 

\ 

38 

»j 

R.  Moy 

501 

120 

621 

\      20 

39 

11                       ■  • 

W.  G.  Swift 

489 

132 

621 

J 

61 

Black  Orpingtons  .  . 

Jas.  Ogden 

494 

126 

620 

23 

2 

White  Legliorns 

B.  Rowhnson 

496 

121 

617 

24 

6 

»» 

J.  B.  MoArtluir 

486 

127 

613 

25 

44 

>) 

A.  W.  Hall 

484 

126 

610 

26 

60 

>j                      ■  ■ 

A.  Ahpee     .  . 

477 

129 

606 

)   " 

49 

,1 

W.  Purvis 

482 

124 

606 

8 

Black  Orpingtons  .  . 

D.  Fisher     . . 

514 

84 

598 

1      29 

15 

White  Leghorns     .  . 

Mrs.    Steer 

469 

129 

598 

30 

j> 

Mrs.  Stevenson 

483 

111 

594 

31 

33 

it 

II.  McKenzie 

449 

137 

586 

32 

7 

,, 

A.  H.  Pad  man 

447 

138 

585 

33 

63 

>) 

Percv  Walker 

462 

114 

576 

34 

53 

„ 

H.  Hodges  .. 

442 

130 

572 

35 

19 

>.                       ■  • 

Cowan  Bros. 

4.50 

119 

569 

36 

35 

»» 

C.  H.  Biisst 

439 

129 

568 

37 

5 

jj 

J.  il.  Brain 

430 

131 

561 

38 

42 

If 

Mrs.  Kempster 

431 

125 

556 

39 

56 

„                       ■  ■ 

-M.  A.  Monk 

437 

112 

549 

40 

10 

K.C.     Brown     Leg- 
horns 

S.  P.  Giles 

413 

126 

539 

41 

51 

White  Leghorns     . . 

H.  HammiU 

411 

125 

536 

42 

64 

)»                      ■  ■ 

H.  Merrick 

412 

117 

529 

43 

54 

>> 

F.  11.  DeGaris 

387 

132 

519 

44 

60 

i»                      ■  ■ 

Miss  B.  E.  Ryan 

398 

119 

517 

45 

65 

11 

A.  H.  Thomson 

382 

128 

510 

46 

16 

Silver  Wyandottes 

R.  Jobling 

382 

124 

506 

)    " 

69 

White  Leghorns     . . 

Morgan  and  Watson  . . 

368 

138 

506 

43 

,, 

G.  Purton    . . 

386 

117 

503 

49 

32 

11 

S.  Bruudrett 

365 

134 

499 

50 

11 

Black  Orpingtons  .  . 

T.  S.  Goodisson 

365 

133 

498 

51 

27 

White  Leglioms     . . 

E.  Xash       . . 

360 

123 

483 

52 

4 

»j                      •  • 

J.  Blackburne 

358 

116 

474 

1      53 

57 

j» 

B.  Walker 

366 

108 

474 

58 

» 

W.  J.  Stock 

356 

117 

473 

55 

41 

„ 

A.  Stringer 

340 

131 

471 

56 

12 

,, 

T.  H.  Stafford 

337 

132 

469 

57 

52 

Black  Minorcas 

Chalmers  Bros. 

356 

97 

453 

58 

55 

Brown  Leghorns    .  . 

J .  Jlathieson 

329 

120 

449 

59 

68 

White  Leghorns     . . 

W.  J.  MoKeddie 

307 

118 

425 

60 

66 

))                      .  . 

J.  Moloney 

299 

125 

424 

61 

21 

»» 

J.  O'Loughliu 

295 

117 

412 

62 

18 

„ 

B.  Mitchell 

307 

103 

410 

63 

22 

„ 

W.  N.  Ling 

277 

125 

402 

64 

67 

Anconas  . . 

A.  E.  Manning 

268 

121 

389 

65 

36 

Old  English  Game 

K.  J.  Barrett 

256 

116 

372 

66 

59 

White  Leghorns     . . 

W.  J.  Seabridge 

259 

102 

361 

67 

34 

,, 

R.  F.  B.  Moore 

226 

118 

344 

68 

17 

»» 

S.  Childs      . . 

197 

143 

340 

69 

26 

(Reserved) 

Tntnis  .  . 

30  ni  i? 

8.603 

38.fi?l 

Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [ii    Nov.,    1912. 


WHEAT  AND  ITS  CULTIVATION. 

{('oiifi)ti(cd  from  page  552.) 

Xo.  8.— IMANURIAL  PROBLEI\IS— ro/ffnn/ff/. 

A.  E.  y.  Richardson,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  Agricultural  Superintcndoit. 

In  the  September  issue  consideration  was  given  to  the  factors 
involved  in  Soil  Fertility,  and  to  the  position  of  Nitrogen  in  Victorian 
agricnltnre.  It  was  shown  that  soils  of  the  wheat  areas  of  Victoria 
differed  very  widely  from  those  of  Enrope,  in  regard  to  available 
nitrogen  supplies,  owing  principally  to  the  exceptional  rate  at  which 
nitrification  proceeds  under  the  conditions  which  obtain  in  our  wheat 
areas.  It  is  now  necessary  to  consider  the  requirements  of  the  wheat 
areas  with  respect  to  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

T*HOSPIIATIC    ^IanTRES. 

Importance. — Phosphatic  manures  are  of  the  greatest  practical 
importance  to  the  cereal  farmer.  One  striking  peculiarity  in  Australian 
soils,  as  compared  with  these  of  Europe,  is  the  uniformly  low  phos- 
phatic content. 

We  need  not  here  enter  into  a  speculative  discussion  as  to  the  prob- 
able causes  of  this  deficiency.  It  is  sufficient  to  note  that  practical 
experience  and  experimental  work  throughout  the  wheat  belt  of  Aus- 
tralia has  conclusively  demonstrated  the  value  and  necessity  of 
phosi^hates  in  cereal  culture.  In  many  of  the  wheat  areas  the  use  of 
soluble  phosphates  is  absolutely  essential  to  secure  a  crop.  The  import- 
ance of  soluble  phosphates  in  Australian  cereal  culture  is  strikingly 
demonstrated  by  the  Commonwealth  Statistics  for  1911-12.  The 
following  table,  taken  from  the  Year-Book  for  1911-12,  indicates  the 
amount  of  artificial  manure  (nearly  wholly  phosphates')  used  in  the 
four  wheat-growing  States  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  the  percentage 
of  the  manured  area  to  the  total  area : — ■ 


state. 

Artiticial  Manures 
used. 

Total  Area  under 
Crop. 

Area  manured. 

Percentage  of 
Crop  manured. 

New  South  Wales 

Victoria 

South  Australia 

Western  Australia 

Tons. 
25,017 
86,316 
81,899 
33,194 

Acres. 
3,386,017 
3,952,070 
2,746,334 

855,024 

Acres. 
1.030,554 
2,714,854 
2,235.578 

773,561 

Per  cent. 
30-43 
68-69 
81-40 
90-47 

Sources  of  Phosphatic  Fertilizers. — The  most  important  sources  of 
phosphorus  are  the  minerals  apatite  and  phosphorite,  the  various 
deposits  of  phosphatic  guanos,  and  the  widely  distributed  natural 
rock  phosphates.  The  inorganic  portion  of  bones  contains  a  large 
percentage  of  phosphates  of  lime,  which  is  the  principal  fertilizing 
constituent  of  bone  manures. 

Another  source  of  phosphates  is  the  phosphatic  slag  obtained  in 
the  Bessemer  process  for  making  steel  from  iron  ores  rich  in  phosphorus. 


Nov..    191:^.] 


Wheat   and  its  Cultivation. 


69: 


From  the  mineral 
phosphates  and 

l)oii('s,  such  mannfac- 
tiired  phosphatic  fer- 
tilizers as  super- 
phosphate, dissolved 
bones,  concentrated 
superphosphate.  are 
obtained. 

,  Phosphates  of  Lime. 
— The  calcium  com- 
pounds are  by  far  the 
most  important  of  the 
compounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  a 
knowledge  of  these  is 
of  practical  impor- 
tance to  the  farmer. 

Phosphoric  acid 
(P.2O.,  WH.A))  forms 
with  lime  three  dis- 
tinct compounds, 
namely,  tricalcic,  di- 
calcic,  and  monocalcic 
phosphate. 

In  these  three  com- 
pounds, one  part  ot 
phosphoric  acid  com- 
bines with  three,  two, 
and  one  part  of  lime 
respectively.  The  de- 
gree of  solubility 
of  these  compounds 
varies  considerably. 
Thus,  the  tricalcic 
form  (3Ca,  <  )!%<),) 
containing  one  part 
of  phosphoric  acid 
combined  with  three 
parts  of  lime,  is  in- 
soluble in  water,  in 
weak  organic  acids, 
and  is  oidy  soluble  in 
mineral  acfds.  such  as 
sulphuric  acid.  It  is 
the  form  found  in 
bones  and  in  rock 
phosphate  and  guano. 
It  corresponds  to  the 
insoluble  phosphate 
on  the  manure 
guarantee  tags. 


696 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [11    Nov.,    191 2. 


Dicaleic  phosphate  (2('a(),  H-iO,  P2O5)  is  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  wealc  organic  acids  and  in  citrate  of  ammonia.  It  is  the 
form  in  which  the  phosphate  is  found  in  "reverted"  superphosphate. 

Monocalcie  phosphate  (CaO,  2H-2(  >,  P2O;,).  so  named  because  one  unit 
of  phosphoric  acid  is  combined  with  one  unit  of  lime,  is  freely  soluble 
in  water,  and  is  of  innnediate  value  as  plant  food.  It  is  the  form 
found  in  superphosphate,  dissolved  bones,  &c.,  and  corresponds  to  the 
"water  soluble  phosphate"  of  the  manure  guarantees. 

The  following  table  summarizes  these  facts : — 


1.  Tricalcic     phos-~» 

phate       (iiisol-  I" 
uble  phosphate  ' 

2.  Dicalcic      phos- 

phate 
verted 
phate,' 

ly 

phosphate  ") 

3.  Monocalcie  ^ 

phosphate  | 

(water    soluble  j 
phosphate)        J 


Re-/ 

phos-  V 

'  slow-  / 

soluble  \ 


Composition. 


Lime  "I  Phosphoric 
Lime  c     acid 


Lime  ->  Phosphoric 
Lime    J      acid 
WaterJ 


Lime    \  Phosphoric 
Water  \     acid 
Water  > 


Formula. 


3Ca0  PaO- 

or 
Ca.,  (POj^j 

2CaO  HjjO  P}0- 

or 

CajH^PjOs 

Ca0  2HsO  PjO, 

or 

CaHiP,0. 


Insoluble  in  water 
and  citrate  of 
ammonia 

Insoluble  in  water ; 
soluble  in  citrate 
of  ammonia 


Soluble  in  water  .  . 


Bones,    guano, 
mineral        phos- 
phate 

Reverted  super. 


Superphosphate, 
dissolved  bones 


Note. —  in  addition,  there  is  a  fourth  form  of  phosphate  called  tetracalcic  phosphate,  which  has  the 
composition — 4CaO  P.^O- — which  is  found  in  basic  slag  or  Thomas'  phosphate.  The  precise  composition 
of  Thomas'  phosphate  is  not  known,  but  it  is  possible  that  the  phosphoric  acid  is  present  in  the  form 
of  a  double  silicate  and  phosphate  of  lime,  while  smaller  amounts  are  present  as  tetracalcic  phosphate. 


Superphosphate. 

This  is  deservedly  the  most  popular  and  profitable  artificial  manure 
used  in  the  wheat  areas  of  Australia  at  the  present  time.  There  are 
very  few  soils  in  the  wheat  areas  proper  which  will  not  favorably  and 
profitably  respond  to  applications  of  super.,  and  in  dry  seasons  many 
soils  fail  altogether  to  produce  a  crop  without  soluble  phosphates. 

In  1840,  Liebig,  the  great  German  chemist,  suggested  that  insoluble 
tricalcic  phosphate — the  form  in  which  phosphoric  acid  exists  in  bones 
and  rock  phosphates — could  be  changed  into  the  soluble  monocalcie 
phosphate  by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  product  obtained 
as  a  result  of  this  action  is  superphosphate. 

The  change  which  takes  place  may  be  simply  represented  thus. 
When  the  sulphuric  acid  acts  on  the  tricalcic  phosphate,  two  parts  of 
lime  are  abstracted  from  the  latter  compound  and  two  parts  of  water 
substituted.  A  mixture  of  monocalcie  phosphate  and  gypsum  is,  there- 
fore, formed,  which  constitutes  the  superphosphate  of  commerce.  The 
action  may  be  represented  thus — • 

3CaO.P,0,      +      iMH.O   SO3)      =      CaO  •2H,0  P.,0,      -+-      2CaS04 
(Tricalcic  (Surphuric  (Monocalcie  (Gj'psum) 

phcspliate)  acid)  phosphate) 


Superphosphate. 

"Reversion"  op  Superphosphate. 
The  rapidity  of  the  action  of  superphosphate  is  due  to  its  great 
solubility.      But  under  certain  circumstances  the  soluble  phosphate  in 


II    \ov.. 


191 


Wlicat   and  it 6   Cultivation. 


69: 


super.  undergoes 

change  and  becomes 
converted  into  less 
soluble  forms.  This 
change  in  the  solu- 
bility is  known  as 
"  reversion."  Such 
reversion,  whatever 
may  be  its  cause, 
obviously  depreciates 
the  value  of  the 
manure. 

This  reversion  may 
be  considerable  in 
manures  made  from 
raw  phosphate  con- 
taining large  per- 
centages of  iron  and 
alumina  compounds. 
For  this  reason, 
manufacturers  gene- 
rally refrain  from 
using  natural  phos- 
phates containing 
much  iron  and  alu- 
mina. A  slight 
amount  of  reversion 
may  take  place  when 
super,  is  kept  for  any 
length  of  time.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact 
that  manufacturers 
usually  iLse  less  sul- 
phuric acid  than  is 
actually  required  to 
change  the  whole  of 
the  triealcic  phos- 
phate to  soluble  phos- 
phate, in  order  to 
avoid  the  presence  of 
free  acid  in  the 
manure.  Hence,  the 
undissolved  triealcic 
phosphate  reacts  with 
the  soluble  and  forms 
reverted  phosphate. 
When  applied  to  the 
soil,  however,  the 
process  of  reversion 
goes  on  at  a  Avhole- 
:sale      rate,      due      to 


698  .       J oiiriial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [11    Xov.,    1912. 

the  action  of  lime,  alumina,  and  iron  compounds  in  the  soil.  If  this 
is  so,  one  might  naturally  ask  why  superphosphate  is  so  superior  to 
other  forms  of  phosphate,  if  it  begins  to  revert  to  more  insoluble  forms 
immediately  it  is  applied  to  the  soil;  and,  why  should  the  manufacturer 
go  to  the  trouble  of  converting  it  into  water  soluble  phosphate? 

The  reason  for  the  efficacy  of  the  super,  may  probably  be  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  when  it  is  applied  to  the  soil,  the  soluble  phosphate 
is  dissolved  by  the  soil  water  or  by  the  rains,  and  it  immediately  becomes 
thoroughly  and  intimately  diffused  through  the  soil  before  the  process 
of  reversion  actually  takes  place.  Moreover,  in  the  form  of  a  solution, 
the  particles  of  monocalcic  phosphate  are  in  the  finest  state  of  sub- 
division possible — in  a  far  more  finely  divided  state  than  could  ever 
be  obtained  by  any  process  of  grinding.  It  is  owing  to  the  infinitely 
minute  state  of  subdivision  of  the  soluble  phosphate  and  its  intimate 
mixture  with  the  soil  particles  that  its  action  is  more  rapid  than  the 
other  phosphates. 

Hate  of  Application  of  Superphosphate . — Opinions  differ  very 
widely  as  to  the  most  suitable  quantity  of  manure  to  use  per  acre  for 
a  wheat  crop.  Many  farmers  apply  as  little  as  30  to  40  lbs.  per  acre, 
and  consider  the  dressing  quite  sufficient ;  whilst  there  are  many  who 
use  relatively  heavy  dressings,  namely,  1  to  2  cwt.  per  acre.  The  rate 
of  cipplicatiun  will  naturally  vary  with  the  soil  and  rainfall.  In 
regions  of  light  rainfall  the  dressings  are  generally  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  whilst  in  moister  districts  much  larger  quantities  can  be 
used  with  profit.  In  the  drier  districts  heavy  dressings  may  not  infre- 
quently lead  to  rank  and  vigorous  growth,  and  in  seasons  of  short 
rainfall  transpiration  from  leaf  and  stem  goes  on  so  rapidly  that  the 
available  moisture  supplies  give  out  with  disastrous  results  to  the  crop. 
Obviously,  such  a  contingency  is  less  likely  to  happen  with  crops  sown 
on  well-prepared  fallows.  In  considering  the  most  profitable  amount 
to  apply,  it  must  be  remembered  that  conditions  are  such  in  the  wheat 
areas  that  the  farmer  derives  a  considerable  portion  of  his  income  from 
sheep.  Consequently,  in  determining  the  most  profitable  dressing 
to  apply,  it  becomes  necessary  to  consider  the  indirect  effect  of  the 
manure  on  the  pasture  as  well  as  its  mere  direct  effect  upon  the  crop. 

Now,  it  is  a  well  established  fact  that  relatively  heavy  dressiugs  of 
superphosphate  produce  in  Australian  wheat  soils  a  remarkalile  effect 
on  the  pastures.  A  marked  stimulation  of  the  leguminous  growth  on 
the  stubble  and  pasture  succeeding  tlie  wheat  crop  invariably  results 
from  heavy  dressings  of  soluble  phosphates,  and  the  stock  carrying 
capacity  of  the  pasture  is  greatly  increased. 

Increased  stock  carrying  capacity  is  quite  as  important  to  the  cereal 
farmer  as  the  direct  effect  of  the  manure  on  his  crop,  for,  on  the  avei'age 
wheat  farm,  the  returns  from  sheep,  wool,  and  lambs  do  not  fall  far 
short  of  those  from  wiieat.  This  being  the  case,  it  would  appear  that, 
if  the  indirect  effect  on  the  pastures  is  taken  into  consideration,  it  is 
probable  that,  in  moister  districts  at  least,  relatively  heavy  dressings 
will  be  far  more  profitable  than  light  dressings. 

Just  what  quantities  may  be  most  profitably  applied  in  any  given 
district  can,  of  course,  only  be  determined  by  actual  trial.  In  such 
trials,  however,  we  should  look  further  ahead  than  the  mere  results  on 
the  season's  crop. 


Nov. 


W/fcaf   and  its   CuU'ivation. 


699 


The  residual  value 
of  various  applications 
should  be  carefully  mea- 
sured by  their  effect  on 
the  resultant  stubble  and 
pasture.  Unfortunately, 
the  residu.d  value  of 
various  heavy  and  light 
dressings  of  super,  on 
the  sheep  carrying  capa- 
city of  the  pasture  has 
not  been  the  subject  of 
systematic  and  continued 
experiment  in  this  State, 
and  there  is  no  local  data 
as  a  guide. 

In  any  case  it  is  well 
to  remember  that,  even 
if  the  value  of  the  extra 
yield  obtained  from 
heavy  dressings  merely 
covers  the  increased  cost 
of  the  manure,  it  will 
pay  to  use  the  heavy 
dressing,  because  the 
soil  is  being  enriched  in 
phosphoric  acid  without 
extra  cost. 

It  may  be  thought 
that,  if  more  soluble 
phosphates  are  applied 
than  are  really  necessary 
for  a  wheat  crop,  the 
excess  is  lost  for  succeed- 
ing crops.  Such,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  case. 
Phosphates,  unlike  ni- 
trates, are  not  generally 
found  in  the  drainage 
waters.  They  become 
fixed  in  the  soil  shortly 
after  their  application. 
As  explained  above, 
soluble  phosphates,  when 
applied  to  the  soil,  be- 
come dissolved  and  inti- 
mately mixed  with  the 
soil  particles,  and  then 
rapidly  imdergo  conver- 
sion into  less  soluble 
forms.      In  tliis  manner 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [ii    Nov.,    1912. 


they  are  fixed  in  the  soil  and  prevented  from  becoming  lost.  This  is 
borne  out  by  the  investigations  of  Dyer  in  the  permanent  plots  of  the- 
Rothamsted  experimental  station.  Dyer's  results  show  that  practi- 
cally no  loss  of  phosphoric  acid  has  taken  place  on  the  plot  heavily- 
manured  with  super,  for  over  fifty  years. 

It  is  often  asked  whether  the  continual  use  of  superphosphate  will 
impoverish  or  exhaust  the  soil.  Real  soil  exhaustion,  of  course,  can 
never  take  place.  Bad  farming  practices,  however,  may  reduce  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  to  such  a  low  level  as  to  render  cropping  operations 
unprofitable.  For  practical  purposes  we  say  that  such  a  soil  is  ' '  worn 
out "  or  "  exhausted. ' ' 

Now,  the  repeated  use  of  superphosphate  will  not  bring  about  any 
such  soil  exhaustion,  if  the  farm  operations  are  intelligently  conducted. 
The  continued  use  of  phosphates  will  merely  bring  about  a  state  of 
things  in  which  further  applications  of  phosphate  will  no  longer  prove 
profitable.  The  soil  will  not,  however,  be  exhausted.  It  will  merely 
contain  an  excess  of  phosphates,  and  it  may  then  be  necessary  to  apply 
other  manures  such  as  nitrates  in  order  to  maintain  production  at  a 
high  level. 

In  soils  deficient  in  lime,  the  continual  application  of  heavy 
dressings  of  superphosphate  may  cause  the  soil  to  become  acid  or  sour 
in  character,  thus  impairing  vegetation.  In  such  cases,  however,  this 
acidity  may  be  corrected  by  suitable  applications  of  lime  {vide  Journal 
of  Agriculture,  Victoria,  October,  1912). 

Time  and  Mode  of  Application. — In  the  majority  of  seasons  the  best 
results  are  obtained  with  superphosphate  when  the  seed  and  manure 
are  drilled  in  together  in  the  normal  seeding  season. 

Many  farmers  frequently  sow  the  manure  some  weeks  before  seeding,, 
either  by  means  of  a  cultivator  with  a  drill  attachment  or  with  the- 
ordinary  fertilizer  drill.  The  cost  of  cultivation  is  slightly  increased 
by  sowing  the  seed  and  manure  in  two  operations,  but  a  compensating 
advantage  is  perhaps  gained  at  seed  time  by  the  expediting  of  seeding 
operations.  This  is  sometimes  a  matter  of  importance,  especially 
where  the  seeding  is  likely  to  be  delayed  by  want  of  strength,  or  by 
not  having  the  land  properly  prepared. 

The  advantage  of  sowing  seed  and  manure  together  is  that  the  young 
plants  very  readily  find  the  manure  and  make  vigorous  growth  early 
in  the  season.  They  thus  become  well  established  and  develop  a  good 
root  system  before  the  winter  sets  in — a  point  of  great  importance  in 
relatively  dry  districts.  If  the  autumn  has  been  unfavorable  to  the- 
destruction  of  weeds,  the  sowing  of  seed  and  manure  gives  the  young 
crop  a  decided  start,  and  materially  assists  it  in  overcoming  the  weeds. 

Basic  Slag. 

This  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  steel 
from  iron  ores  rich  in  phosphorus.  It  is  sold  as  a  fine,  heavy 
black  powder.  It  is  a  very  popular  manure  in  Europe,  both  for  wheat 
crops  and  for  the  improvement  of  pastures.  It  contains  from  15  to- 
18  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  about  40  per  cent,  of  lime. 

In  the  wheat  areas  it  is  used  at  present  only  in  relatively  small 
quantities,  and  experience  proves  that,  though  a  valuable  manure,  it 


Nov..    1912.] 


W/ieaf    and  its   CuUivalion. 


is  less  effective  than  an  equivalent  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the 
form  of  super])hosphate.  The  probable  explanation  of  the  sui)eriority 
of  superphosphate  has  already  been  indicated.  It  is  not  likely  to  dis- 
place superphosphate  in  the  wheat  areas,  especially  in  districts  where- 
the  soil  has  a  high  lime  content.  On  sour  peaty  land,  however,  it  will 
be  found  a  most  useful  and  valuable  manure.  The  application  of  super- 
phosphate alone  to  these  latter  soils  would  only  aggravate  their  acidit}'. 
Basic  slag,  however,  by  reason  of  the  lime  it  contains,  tends  to  correct 
the  acid  conditions,  and  thus  acts  as  a  soil  amendment  as  well  as  a 
phosphatic  manure.  Basic  slag  is  extremely  valuable  in  the  top- 
dressing  of  impoverished  pastures.  The  results  of  a  large  number  of 
pasture  experiments  in  Europe  indicate  that  Thomas'  phosphate  does 
not  always  give  a  greater  weight  of  herbage  than  super.  The  grazing- 
value  of  the  herbage,  however,  manured  with  Thomas'  phosphate  proved 
superior  to  that  of  super.  A  greater  increase  in  live  weight  of  sheep 
has  been  secured  from  the  pastures  manured  with  Thomas'  phosphate 


CLOSER    VIEW   OE   NO.    3.   SHOWING  PEAS   EOR   EEEDIXG   OFF. 


than  those  treated  with  super.      The  rate  of  application  to  wheat  land.s 
is  similar  to  that  of  superphosphate. 


BONEOrST. 

Bone  consists  of  an  organic  and  an  inorganic  portion.  The  organic 
portion  comprises  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  raw  bone,  and  consists  of 
(o)  ossein  or  bone  cartilage,  which  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen;  and  (&) 
fat.  The  inorganic  portion,  comprising  about  60  per  cent,  of  the 
raw  bone,  consists  principally  of  tricalcic  phosphate  (phosphate  of 
lime). 

Hence,  the  fertilizing  principal  constituents  of  raw  bones  are 
organic  nitrogen  and  phosphate  of  lime. 

The  presence  of  fat  is,  however,  highly  objectionable,  for.  in  addi- 
tion to  being  useless  as  plant  food,  it  prevents  the  bones  from  being 
finely  ground,  and  also  protects  the  fertilizing  ingredients  from  being 


702  Journal  of  AgricuUurc ,  Victoria.  [[i    Nov.,    1912. 

made  available.  Ilenee,  in  the  preparation  of  bonedast,  the  fat  is 
first  removed  from  the  bones  by  steaming  or  by  treatment  with  benzine, 
and  the  treated  bone  ground  to  fine.  meal. 

The  value  of  a  bonedust  will  depend  on  its  composition  and  its 
fineness  of  subdivision.  The  purchaser  should  always  insist  on  a 
guaranteed  analysis  for  b(medust.  for  there  is  no  fertilizer  on  the 
market  so  liabh^  to  vary  in  composition  like  the  so-called  bone 
fertilizers. 

The  phosphoric  acid  in  bonedust  is  in  a  most  insoluble  condition. 
It  is  only  very  slowly  made  available  in  the  soil,  and  therefore  it  has 
a  very  limited  use  in  most  of  the  wheat  areas.  It  gives  best  results 
on  soils  rich  in  organic  matter,  for  with  these  there  is  a  possibility 
of  the  insoluble  phosphate  being  slowly  made  available.  On  limestone 
soils  in  the  drier  districts,  however,  it  has  been  proved  of  little  value, 
because  it  takes  so  long  for  the  tricalcie  phosphate  to  be  rendered 
available. 

Other  sources  of  phosphoric  acid  are  the  phosphatic  guanos  and  raw 
ground  i)iiosphate  rock.  In  both  these  substances  the  phosphoric  acid 
is  insoluble,  and  they  are  of  very  little  value  in  the  majority  of  our 
Avheat  areas. 

Potash  Manures.    ~ 

Potassic  manures  do  not  figure  very  largely  in  Australian  manu- 
rial  practice.  ^lost  of  the  strong  soils  characteristic  of  the  wheat  areas 
are  well  suj)plied  with  potash,  and  further  supplies  in  the  form  of 
artificial  manures  are  generally  unnecessary.  There  are  some  soils, 
however,  on  which  potash  may  possibly  be  of  considerable  benefit. 
These  are  the  light,  sandy  loams,  and  possibly  heavy,  j)eaty  soils. 
Dressings  of  potash  are  fre([uently  necessary  to  secure  a  full  crop  from 
these  soils,  more  especially  with  root  crops  such  as  potatoes,  onions, 
beets,  &e.  On  the  clay  loams  and  stiff  clay  soils  of  the  wheat  areas,  the 
application  of  potassic  manures  is  generally  unnecessary  and  unprofit- 
able. This  may  be  gathered  from  the  results  of  many  field  experiments 
conducted  by  the  Department  some  ten  years  ago.  The  addition  of 
potassic  manures  to  phosphates  did  not  materially  increase  the  yield. 
In  fact,  in  many  cases  the  effect  of  the  application  was  to  depress  the 
yield,  and  resulted  in  actual  loss. 

The  principal  potassic  manures  are  Sulphate  and  JMuriate  of 
potash  and  kainite.  These  are  obtained  from  the  Stassfurt  potash 
mines  which  form  the  principal  source  of  the  world's  potash. 

Sulphate  of  potash  contains  from  50  to  52  per  cent,  of  potash,  and 
costs  from  £13  to  £14  per  ton. 

Muriate  of  potash  contains  an  equivalent  of  60-62  per  cent,  of 
potash,  and  is  quoted  from  £14  to  £14  10s.  per  ton. 

Kainite  is  (me  of  the  crude  potash  minerals  of  the  Stassfurt  mines. 
Its  composition  varies  considerably,  but  it  generally  contains  from 
12-13  per  cent,  of  potash,  most  of  which  is  in  the  form  of  sulphate, 
whilst  a  lesser  quantity  is  present  as  chloride.  It  is  quoted  at  £5  per 
ton. 

Potash  is  required  in, fairly  large  c^uantities  by  leguminous  plants, 
such  as  clover  and  lucerne,  but  the  drain  on  the  soil  reserves  of  potash 


II   Nov.,    1 91 2.] 


Wheat   and  its  Cultivation. 


by  wiu^at  ri'ops  is  very  siiiall  iiidt-pd.  It  is  not  likely  to  he  of  vahic  in 
the  wheat  areas,  except  in  the  ease  of  certain  sandy  soils  deficient  in 
this  ingredient.  With  legnininous  crops  the  most  economical  method 
of  supplying  potash  will  prol)ably  be  the  application  of  compounds, 
such  as  lime  and  gypsum,  which  will  lil)erate  the  insoluble  potash  com- 
pounds and  render  tliem  available.  This  matter,  however,  was  dis- 
ctissed  in  tlu'  Sc])teniber  issue  of  the  Jounial. 

General  ^Manures. 

These  supply  all  the  elements  required  l)y  plants  for  their  perfect 
development. 

The  most  important  manures  of  this  section  are  Stable  and  Green 
manures. 

Stable  Manure  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  manures  that  can  be 
applied  to  any  soil  to  increase  its  fertility.  In  the  older  agricultural 
countries  of  the  world  the  greatest  care  is  taken  in  the  preservation  of 


,*N^i?^^^ 


FEEDING  Off  TESTS 
I9I2BARLEY  SHEEP 
1913 

1914 

1915 


5. FEEDINi 


iF   BARLEY   PLOT   WITH   SHEEP. 


all  the  nianurial  resources  of  the  farm.  Under  the  conditions  which 
obtain  in  the  wheat  areas  of  Australia  at  the.  present  time,  farmyard 
manure  is  practically  neglected,  and  regarded  as  of  minor  importance. 
The  average  wheat  holding  at  the  present  time  is  so  large,  and  the 
amount  of  stable  manure  produced  in  a  year  so  small,  that  the  effect 
of  the  stable  manure  on  the  fertility  of  the  farm  will,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  be  inappreciable.  This  state  of  affairs  will  not.  however,  con- 
tinue indefinitely.  With  the  rapidly  increasing  population,  and  the 
inevitable  increase  in  land  values  ahead  of  us.  individual  holdings  must 
gradually  become  much  smaller  in  size,  and  the  system  of  farming  more 
diversified.  Live  stock  will  become  more  and  more  prominent,  and 
ultimately  the  amount  of  farmyard  manure  produced  on  the  farm  will 
be  sufficient  to  have  a  distinct  effect  on  the  fertility  of  the  farm.  On 
the  dairy  farm,  however,  as  contrasted  with  the  wheat  farm,  farmyard 
manure  is  of  great  importance.  The  majority  of  such  farms  are  situ- 
ated in   the  moister  districts,   where   systematic   rotation  is   possible. 


^04  J oiir?iaL  of  Agriculture,  Yictona.  [i  i    Nov.,    1912. 

Moreover,  tlie  average  dairy  liolding  is  considerably  smaller  than  the 
average  wheat  farm,  and  the  number  of  live  stock  per  unit  of  area 
considerably  larger.  Farmyard  manure,  therefore,  becomes  an  item 
of  considerable  economic  importance.  It  is  of  even  greater  importance 
to  the  small  irrigation  farm  or  orchard. 

The  composition  of  stable  manure  varies  very  considerably,  as  might 
be  expected.  The  nature  of  the  food  eaten,  kind  of  bedding  used,  the 
amount  and  nature  of  the  fermentation,  all  have  important  bearing  on 
the  composition.  Generally  speaking,  a  good  sample  will  contain  about 
.6  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  .35  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  .6  per 
€ent.  of  potash,  i.e.,  about  13  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  7  lbs  of  phosphoric 
acid,  and  13  lbs.  of  potash. 

The  most  important  principle  to  be  observed  in  the  care  of  stable 
manure  is  to  prevent  any  loss  of  plant  food  constituents.  No  difficulty 
arises  with  regard  to  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  compounds,  but  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  prevent  losses  in  nitrogen  and  organic  matter. 

The  loss  of  nitrogenous  organic  matter  may  be  avoided  by  the  use 
of  good  absorbents  for  bedding  purposes,  and  of  substances,  such  as 
gypsum,  which  assist  in  fixing  ammonia  compomids  and  preventing 
loss  by  volatilization.  Losses  may  also  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  by 
(a)  Controlling  the  fermentation  of  the  manure,  and 
(6)  By  prevention  of  leaching. 
If  a  plentiful  supply  of  air  is  admitted  to  the  manure  heap,  fermenta- 
tion and  nitrification  proceed  very  rapidly,  and  the  temperature 
quickly  rises.  Under  these  circumstances,  a  great  deal  of  the  organic 
nitrogen  escapes  as  ammonia  in  its  compoimds,  or  even  as  free 
nitrogen. 

The  fermentation  may  be  controlled  by  keeping  the  manure  heap 
well  compacted,  and  keeping  it  moist. 

Losses  by  leaching  may  be  avoided  by  building  the  manure  heap 
<)n  a  raised  cemented  floor,  with  sloping  sides.  The  liquid  manure 
drains  towards  the  side  of  the  floor  and  collects  in  a  pit,  and  is  periodic- 
ally pumped  over  the  manure  heap.  This  system  of  conserving 
manure  is  already  practised  on  several  large  wheat  farms. 

Green  Manuring. — The  object  of  green  manuring  is  to  increase  the 
organic  content  of  the  soil,  which  we  have  already  seen  is  a  dominating 
factor  in  soil  fertility.  There  can  be  doubt  that  many  of  the  soils  in 
the  wheat-growing  areas,  which  have  been  under  cultivation  for  a 
comparatively  long  period,  have  lost  a  considerable  amount  of  the 
organic  matter  they  formerly  contained.  This  loss  has  been  accentu- 
ated by  the  practice  of  bare-fallowing,  and  by  stubble-burning.  The 
restoration  of  this  organic  matter  is  a  problem  of  fundamental  im- 
portance to  the  wheat  areas.  Modes  of  restoration  of  this  organic 
matter  that  are  practicable  in  the  wheat-growing  areas  have  already 
been  discussed.  {Jour.  Agric,  Victoria,  1912,  p.  460.)  The  turning 
in  of  green  crops  is  one  of  the  most  rapid  methods  of  increasing  the 
organic  reserves  in  the  soil.  Whether  this  practice  may  be  profitably 
worked  in  with  the  ordinary  rotations  in  the  wheat  areas  has  not 
hitherto  been  the  subject  of  experimental  investigation.  The  crops 
to  be  used  for  this  purpose  may  be  nitrogen  gatherers,  such  as  peas, 


IT    \ov..    iQiJ.l  Wheat   audits   Cultivation.  705 

vetches,  and  other  leguminous  crops,  or  nitrogen  consumers,  such  as 
rye,  rape,  mustard,  &c. 

The  former  crops  restore  to  the  soil  all  the  organic  matter  secured 
from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air  during  the  course  of  their  growth, 
but  they  also  secure,  for  the  use  of  the  succeeding  crop,  a  large  quan- 
tity of  combined  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere.  Thus  they  enrich  the 
soil  in  organic  matter  and  in  nitrogen. 

On  the  other  hand,  crops  like  rye,  rape,  mustard.  &c.,  produce  large 
quantities  of  organic  matter,  but  they  cannot  make  use  of  the  free 
nitrogen  in  the  air  in  the  same  manner  as  leguminous  crops.  In  the 
M'hcat  areas,  however,  at  the  present  time,  the  most  important  require- 
ment is  organic  matter.  The  increase  of  the  nitrogen  reserves  is  at 
present  a  secondary  consideration.  The  important  point  to  bear  in 
mind  is  that  crops  which  produce  a  maximum  weight  of  green  stuff  that 
can  be  turned  under  in  early  spring,  before  the  soil  becomes  too  hard 
and  dry  to  plough,  should  be  grown  rather  than  crops  which  give  a 
relatively  small  yield  of  green  stuff  of  high  quality.  Such  crops  re- 
quire for  our  conditions  to  be  sown  early  in  autumn,  so  that  they  may 
be  ready  by  August  or  September. 

The  immediate  effect  of  these  green  manures  is  to  greatly  increase 
the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil — a  point  of  fundamental  im- 
portance in  arid  agriculture — and  to  improve  its  mechanical  condition. 

Feeding  Down  of  Forage  Crops. 
The  system  of  feeding  down  of  crops,  specially  grown  for  ii\'estock. 
provides  a  means  for  increasing  the  organic  content  of  the  soil.  As  the 
feeding  value  of  a  green  crop  is  usually  greater  than  its  manurial 
value,  the  practice  of  raising  green  crops  and  converting  them  into 
mutton,  beef,  or  milk,  instead  of  ploughing  them  under,  will  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  practice  of  green  manuring.  For  this  purpose  rape,, 
mustard,  peas,  rye,  vetches,  &c.,  will  be  found  extremely  useful. 
Summer  crops  such  as  sorghum,  millet,  and  maize,  cannot  be  recom- 
mended in  the  drier  wheat  districts  under  ordinary  farming  conditions, 
as  the  yield  of  the  succeeding  wheat  crop  is  invariably  lowered, 
especially  if  the  rainfall  is  short.  Winter  growing  forages  are  most 
suitable  for  the  wheat  areas,  and  if  these  are  sown  early  in  autumn 
so  as  to  germinate  with  the  first  rains  they  make  a  large  amount  of 
growth  while  the  soil  is  still  warm,  and  make  invaluable  winter  forage 
for  stock. 

NOTES  ON  THE  USE  OF  ARTIFICIAL  MANURES. 

Always  Buy  on  Guarantee  Analyses. — In  purchasing  artificial 
manures  farmers  should  always  study  closely  the  guaranteed  analyses 
of  each  manure.  In  the  January  number  of  the  Journal  of  Agriculture 
each  year  the  Chemist  for  Agriculture  publishes  a  statement  of  all 
manures,  registered  under  the  Artificial  ^lanures  Act,  together  with 
their  guaranteed  percentages  of  the  fertilizing  ingredients  present,  and 
the  unit  values  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  These  tables 
should  be  closely  scrutinized  by  each  farmer.  The  unit  values  will 
enable  him  to  calculate  the  commercial  value  of  any  artificial  manure 
selling:  on  the  market. 


7o6 


Journal  of  AgriciiUure ,  Victoria.  [ii    Nov.,    1912. 


Mixing  of  Manures. 

Care  needs  to  be  exercised  in  the  mixing  of  manures.  Fertilizers 
cannot  be  mixed  indiscriminately  without  risk  of  loss,  or  of  lowering 
the  value  of  some  of  the  plant  food  constituents. 

With  regard  to  nitrogenous  manures,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  nitro- 
genous guanos,  animal  and  blood  manures,  should  not  be  mixed  with 
substances  of  a  strongly  alkaline  character. 

Quicklime,  slacked  lime,  wood  ashes.  Thomas'  phosphate,  or  basig 
slag'  should,  under  no  circumstances,  be  mixed  with  these  manures,  since 
considerable  loss  of  annnonia  will  result. 

"With  regard  to  nitrate  nitrogen,  loss  is  liable  to  occur  with  nitrate 
of  soda  if  nnich  free  sulphuric  acid  is  present  in  superphosphates; 
especially  if  the  manures  are  mixed  some  time  before  application,  and 
are  kept  in  a  warm  place.  Provided,  however,  the  super  is  well  made 
and  drv.  and  the  mixing  is  performed  at  the  time  of  sowing,  very  little 
loss  will  occur. 


"tKtM^^^t 


i-  FEEDING  OFF  TESTS 
,^'|||f*fE  SHEEP 

-1914 


!    -'ISIS  V-Vt'-'>^^- 


6. FEEDING    OFF    OF    RAPE    PLOT    WITH    SHEEP. 

With  regard  to  phosphatic  manures,  reversion  will  take  place  with 
soluble  phosphates  when  placed  in  contact  with  lime,  iron,  or  alumina 
compounds.  This  has  already  been  referred  to  in  dealing  with  the  re- 
version of  superphosphate. 

In  purchasing  mixed  manures  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
guaranteed  analyses. 

The  farmer  should  study  particularly  the  guarantee  for  nitrogen 
and  see  whether  it  is  in  the  form  of  nitrate,  ammonia,  blood.  &c.,  also 
the  percentage  of  water  soluble,  citrate  soluble,  and  insoluble  phosphate 
should  receive  close  attention.  Frequently  the  prices  asked  for  certain 
mixed  manures  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  their  real  commercial  value, 
and  in  such  cases  the  mixing  can  be  most  profitably  done  by  purchasing 
fertilizers  separately,  and  mixing  them  on  the  farm.  A  study  of  the 
unit  values  published  each  year  in  the  Journal  will  enable  each  pur- 
chaser to  determine  for  himself  whether  the  prices  asked  for  a  given 
mixed  manure  is  reasonable. 


II    Nov..    1912.] 


W//caf   and  its   Cultivatioji. 


Mamiriiifi  not  a  Suhstifiifr  for  TUJaiio. 

It  imisl  not  l)c  jissuuu'd  tliJit  tlie  Mpplicjitioii  of  arlificinl  iiuiiiiifcs 
will  relieve  the  fai'iner  of  the  respoiisibilil y  of  thoronjih  cultivation. 

There  are  some  who  appear  to  think  that  heavily  manured  crops  do 
not  require  the  same  amount  of  tillage  as  unfertilized  crops.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  heavy  dressings  of  mannre  cannot  be  used  at  a  full  pro- 
fit without  thorough  preparatory  tillage.  Thorough  tillage  always  was^ 
and  always  will  be,  a  prime  factor  for  the  ])roduction  of  heavy  crops. 
Jethro  Tull  doubtless  placed  an  exaggerated  value  on  tillage  operations 
when  he  stated,  more  than  a  century  ago.  that  manures  were  absolutely 
unnecessary  if  tillage  operations  were  thoroughly  performed,  and  that 
thorough  tillage  was  the  best  substitute  for  manure.  We.  in  the 
twentieth  century,  should  remember  that  while  fertilizers  are  essential 
on  many  soils  for  the  production  of  profital)le  crops,  they  do  not  give 


7. GREEN    AJANURIAL  TESTS,  KUTHERGLEX  EXPERIMENTAL  FARM. 

their  full  measure  of  benefit  unless  the  soil  receives  a  tliorough  pre- 
paratory cultivation . 

How  TO  Determine  Soil  Deficiencies. 

The  most  satisfactory  and  practical  method  of  finding  out  the 
requirements  of  the  soil  is  by  systematic  experimental  work.  Th(^  most 
important  i)oints  requiring  investigation  with  respect  to  mauurial 
practice  is  to  determine  in  each  of  the  more  important  divisions  of 
the  State  the  value  of  the  various  phosphatie,  nitrogenous,  and  ))otassic 
manures  singly  and  in  various  combinations,  the  value  of  lime  when 
applied  in  different  forms,  the  cumulative  as  well  as  the  immediate 
efl:'ect  of  each  application,  and  the  most  economical  method  of  restoring 
the  organic  matter.  Permanent  experimental  plots  have  been  laid 
down  at  the  Rutherglen  Experimental  Farm  with  the  object  of 
securing  exact  information  on  these  points.  The  results  will  be  made 
available  from  time  to  time. 

{To  he  confiniK d.) 


7o8 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[i  I    Xov. ,    1912. 


Perishable  and  Frozen  Produce. 

Exports  from  State 

Deliveries  from 

Produce. 

(Oversea). 

Government  Cool  Stores. 

Description  of 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

Quarter  ended 

30.9.12. 

30.9.11. 

30.9.12. 

30.9.11. 

Butter 

lbs. 

1,397,160 

4,823,228 

1,564,976 

5,148,752 

Milk  and  Cream 

cases 

559 

360 

90 

20 

Milk  and  Cream  (dried)          // 

650 

60 

Cheese 

lbs. 

12,480 

11,520 

14,210 

Ham  and  Bacon 

n 

13,200 

28,560 

Poultry 

head 

10,875 

10,065 

2,987 

2,658 

»ggs 

. . .    dozen 

2,232 

4,.375 

Mutton  and  Lamb 

carcases 

11,077 

162,844 

19,789 

Beef  ... 

quarters 

2,699 

2,600 

53 

Veal 

carcases 

80 

743 

83 

53 

Pork 

// 

1,009 

289 

1,476 

Rabbits  and  Hares 

pairs 

676,176 

909,390 

320,184 

198,545 

Sundries 

lbs. 

72,803 

14.010 

R.  CROWE,  S^qnrintendent  oj  Mxporln. 


Fruit,    Plants,   Bulbs,    Grain,    &c. 

Imports  and  Exports  Inspected  for  Quarter  ending  30th  8eptenil)er,  1912. 


Goods 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1  mports. 

Exports. 

Inter- 
State. 

Oversea. 

Oversea. 

Inter- 
State. 

Oversea. 

Oversea. 

Apples    . 

18,514 

259 

Maize 

1,715 

2 

Apples  (Custird)  ... 

1 

— 

— 

Millet      ... 

76 

_ 

101 

Bananas,  bunches... 

41,749 

20,556 

— 

Nutmegs 

205 

— 

Bananas,  cases 

4,371 

17,622 

— 

Nuts 

156 

2,152 



Barley    ... 

6,952 

19,971 

— 

Oats 

1,437 

73,566 



Beans 

1 

419 

26 

1  )at  Hulls 

887 





Bulbs      ... 

2 

17 

6 

Onions     ... 



1,200 



Chillies   ... 

— 

446 

— 

Oranges  ... 

138,483 

— 

1,207 

Cocoa  beans 

— 

1,264 

— 

Passion  ... 

5,449 



8 

Cocoanuts 

37 

755 

_ 

Paw  Paws 

37 



Ooffee  beans 

— 

2,448 

- 

Pears 

20 





Copra 

— 

260 



Peas,  dried 

3,4,34 

94 

1 

Cucumbers 

441 

— 

— 

Pepper    ... 

318 

Figs 

— 

8 

— 

Pineapples 

17,455 



301 

Fruit- 

Plants,  Trees,  &c. 

547 

221 

406 

Canned 

— 

— 

2,903 

Potatoes 

774 

196 

329 

Dried 

■— 

89 

7,425 

Rice 

7,983 

9,003 

— 

Mixed 

— 

10 

— 

Seeds 

1,636 

6,174 

159 

Granadillas 

7 

— 

— 

Spice 



89 



Creen  Ginger 

— 

70 

— 

Strawberries 

21 

__ 

Hops 

— 

464 



!  Tomatoes 

2,579 





Jams,  Sauces,  &c 

— 

— 

1,178 

Turnips  ... 

5,350 

21 



Lemons 

3,500 

— 

2,880 

Vegetables 

346 

476 

20 

Lentils    ... 

— 

82 



Wheat,   Grain,    &c. 

2 

210 



Linseed 

— 

1,255 



Yams 

19 



Locjuats  ... 

406 

_ 



Logs 

173 

Miice 

34 

•   — 

Totals 

i 

264,560 

159,097 

17,209 

Total  number  of  packages  inspected  for  quarter  ending  30tli  September,  1912  =  441,466. 

C.   T.  COLE,  pro.  Senior  Fruit  Inspector. 


II    Nov.,    191 2.]  Orchard  and   Garden  Notes.  709 

ORUllARD    AND    GARDEN    NOTES. 

E.  E.  Pcscott,  Principal,  School  of  llorticultnre,  Burnley. 
The  Orchard. 

Spr.vying. 

The  spray  pump  should  now  be  in  thorough  working  or(hn',  so  tluit 
ihe  various  spring  sprayings  may  be  carried  out  witli  as  litth^  interrup- 
tion as  possible.  It  is  always  wise  to  clean  out  the  pump  after  each 
■spraying,  so  that  it  will  be  ready  for  the  next  mixture.  Putting  a  dif- 
ferent spray  into  a  pump  barrel  that  has  not  been  washed  out  very 
-often  causes  the  formation  of  a  sediment  which  blocks  the  nozzle  and 
interrupts  the  work. 

During  November,  it  will  be  necessary  to  spray  for  codlin  moth, 
peach  aphis,  pear  slug,  and  various  leaf-eating  insects.  In  addition, 
black  spot  of  the  apple  and  pear,  shothole,  and  other  fungus  diseases 
must  be  kept  in  cheek.  Various  sprays  are  required  for  all  of  these 
troubles,  and  the  necessity  of  always  having  a  clean  pump  will  thus  be 
admitted. 

At  the  present  time,  the  wisest  spray  to  use  for  peach  aphis  will  be 
a  strong  tobacco  solution,  and  the  same  spray  may  also  be  used  for  the 
pear  slug.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  the  better  spray  for  this  insect,  but 
it  should  not  be  used  when  the  fruit  is  approaching  the  ripening  stage; 
hellebore  may  also  be  used  for  the  slug  with  good  effect. 

As  a  preventive  against  codlin  moth,  the  trees  should  be  kept  well 
sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead.  It  has  been  definitely  ascertained  that 
this  is  the  best  remedy,  and  all  other  mixtures  should  be  discarded  in 
its  favour.  Its  permanent  cfualities.  combined  with  an  effective  killing 
strength,  render  this  mixture  invaluable ;  at  the  same  time,  it  is  easily 
mixed,  and  so  very  few  brands  leave  any  sediment,  that  the  work  of 
spraying  is  now  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

If  the  spraying  is  careful  and  thorough,  no  bandaging  need  be  car- 
ried out.  The  time  spent  in  bandaging  will  be  far  better  employed 
in  an  extra  spraying.  The  first  spraying  should  have  been  given  at 
the  time  of  the  falling  of  the  petals;  the  second  spraying,  owing  to 
the  rapid  expansion  of  the  fruit,  should  be  given  a  fortnight  later. 
After  that,  the  grower  must  use  his  own  judgment  as  to  the  necessity 
for  subsequent  sprayings.  If  the  moths  be  at  all  prevalent,  other 
sprayings  will  be  quickly  necessary. 

Now  that  arsenate  of  lead  is  produced  with  such  an  excellent  degree 
of  killing  strength,  it  is  not  necessary  to  spray  nearly  so  frequently  as 
it  was  in  former  years;  and  it  may  be  foimd  that  four  sprayings,  and 
perhaps  only  three,  will  be  sufficient  to  keep  this  pest  in  check.  Last 
season,  a  number  of  Gravenstein  apple  trees  at  the  Burnley  Horticul- 
tural Gardens  were  sprayed  once  only,  and  out  of  2,804  apples,  includ- 
ing windfalls,  only  nineteen  fruits  were  moth  infected,  which  gives  a 
j)ercentage  of  only  .67  of  loss.       Three  Rokewood  trees  were  sprayed 


7IO  Joiir)ial  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  [i  i    Nov.,    1912. 


twice,  and  870  fruits,  ineludiug  windfalls,  were  gathered.  Only  three 
apples  were  inoth  infected,  or  a  percentage  equal  to  .35.  One  Mellon 's 
Seedling  tree  was  sprayed  twice,  and  out  of  202  apples  gathered,  also 
including  windfalls,  one  fruit  Avas  moth  infected,  equal  to  .54  per  cent. 
These  figures  must  not  be  taken  as  conclusive,  as  it  will  be  remembered 
that  the  attack  of  the  codlin  moth  last  season  was  very  light. 

As  the  woolly  aphis  is  increasing  at  this  season  of  the  year,  it  will 
mean  a  saving  of  a  good  numl^er  of  buds  if  this  insect  is  sprayed.  Nico- 
tine solution  or  Pine  Spray  may  be  used  with  good  effect. 

Cultivation. 

The  work  of  ploughing  and  harrowing  should  be  completed  imme- 
diately. The  frequent  rains  have  rendered  cultivation  easy,  and  there 
should  be  no  difficulty  in  carrying  out  this  work  at  once.  It  is  always 
advisable  to  have  the  land  well  tilled  before  the  dry  weather  sets  in. 

All  crops  for  green  manure  should  be  now  under  cover;  and,  if  the 
orchard  soil  is  at  all  heavy  or  sticky,  the  grower  should  make  up  his 
mind  to  grow  a  cover  crop  next  season  in  order  that  this  condition  may 
be  reduced. 

The  orchard  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  not  only  for  the  con- 
servation of  moisture,  but  in  order  to  do  away  with  all  hiding  places 
of  the  Rutherglen  fly,  cut  worm  moths,  &c. 

General  AVork. 

Grafted  and  newly  planted  trees  should  be  frequently  examined, 
and  given  an  occasional  watering  and  overliead  spraying,  in  order  to 
encourage  their  growth  and  to  prevent  loss  of  moisture  from  the  foliage. 
It  is  also  advisable  to  mulch  young  trees  with  light  grass  or  straw 
mulching,  not  too  rich  in  animal  manure. 

The  disbudding  of  unnecessary  shoots,  and  the  pinching  back  or 
stopping  of  growths,  to  prevent  them  being  unduly  prolouged,  may 
now  be  carried  out.  This  work  is  particularly  important  on  young 
trees. 

Graft  ties  should  be  examined,  and  the  ties  cut  wherever  any  growth 
is  being  made.  AVhere  the  grafts  are  likely  to  make  any  long  growth, 
they  should  be  well  staked  and  tied. 

Citrus  trees  may  be  planted  out,  watering  and  mulching  them  after 
planting. 

Vegetable    Garden. 

Tomato  plants  should  now  receive  attention  every  day;  laterals  will 
require  pincliing  liack,  crowded  bunches  and  shoots  should  be  thinned, 
the  plants  should  be  well  tied  to  the  stakes,  and  liberal  supplies  of  water 
and  manure  should  be  given.  One  or  two  more  plantings  of  tomato 
plants  may  still  be  made,  so  that  there  may  be  strong  sturdy  plants  for 
the  production  of  late  fruits.  By  planting  three  or  four  successions 
of  plants,  it  is  possible  to  have  a  good  supply  of  fruits  from  December 
to  June. 

Celery  may  now  be  sown  for  winter  crops.  French  beans  should 
be  largely  sown.  Cucumber,  melon,  pumpkin,  and  all  seeds  of  this 
family  may  now  be  sown  in  the  open. 


Xo'.'.,    iyi-2.]  Orchard   and   dardoi  Xotes. 


AVhcro  these  phiiits  are  already  growing  the  h)ngest  and  strongest 
runners  may  l)e  pinched  hack,  to  throw  tlie  strength  into  the  tlowering 
and  lateral  growths.  Watch  the  plants  for  mildew,  and  use  the  sul- 
phur freely  wherever  present,  especially  on  the  yoinig  plants. 

Peas,  lettuce,  radish,  turnip,  eahhage.  and  sweet  eorn  seeds  may  be 
sown  this  month.  Seedlings  from  former  sowings  may  he  planted  out, 
and  it  may  be  well  to  dip  the  whole  plant  in  water  before  planting. 
This  greatl.v  assists  the  young  plant  while  taking  hold  of  the  soil  in  its 
new  location. 

Frequent  waterings  and  frequent  eultivati(m  will  now  he  jiecessary ; 
and  all  weeds  must  he  hoed  or  hand-weeded  out ;  mulching  with  stable 
manure  will  greatly  assist  the  plants. 

A  few  beds  should  now  be  deeply  worked  adding  a  liberal  dressing 
of  stable  manure.  These  plots  will  be  then  ready  for  the  celery,  cab- 
bage, and  otlun'  seeds  i)lanted  during  this  month. 

Flower  Garden. 

Continue  to  plant  out  various  bedding  and  foliage  plants,  corms  of 
gladioli,  tubers  of  dahlias,  and  seeds  of  such  tender  annuals  as  Phlox 
Drummondi.  Balsam.  Zinnia.  Nasturtimn.  Celosia.  Aster.  Cosmos,  and 
Portulaca. 

AVhile  seeds  germinate  and  grow  fairly  well  planted  out  in  the  open, 
it  is  more  advisable  during  the  summer  months  to  plant  these  in  shel- 
tered seed  beds,  or  in  a  canvas  or  calico  frame.  The  protection  need 
onl}^  be  on  the  one  side,  preferably  the  west  or  north-west ;  the  seedlings 
are  then  protected  during  the  hottest  portion  of  the  diy.  At  the  same 
time  the  shading  is  not  sufficient  to  unduly  "  draw  "  them. 

The  seeds  should  not  be  deeply  sown,  and  all  waterings  should  be 
light.  A  little  water  and  often  should  be  the  rule  for  seedlings.  An- 
nuals should  be  given  plenty  of  room  when  planted  out  in  the  garden. 
Being  quick  growers,  they  are  generally  gross  feeders,  and  they  must 
have  room  to  develop  a  good  root  system. 

Feeding,  too,  with  liquid  manure  is  helpful  when  they  are  reaching 
the  flowering  stage. 

Dahlias  should  now  be  planted  out,  either  from  tubers  or  from 
young  rooted  cuttings.  These  will  give  good  summer  blooms.  For 
autunui  and  show  blooms,  the  })lanting  should  be  deferred  until  the 
middle  of  December. 

Herbaceous  and  succulent  plants  should  be  staked  for  their  protec- 
tion ;  included  in  this  section  are  Delphinia,  Gladioli,  perennial 
Phlox,  Rudbeckia,  &c.  These  plants  will  all  benefit  from  liberal 
nnilchings  and  watering  with  liquid  manure  when  approaching  the 
blooming  period.  Spring  flowering  bulbs,  corms.  and  tubers  should 
now  be  all  lifted  and  stored. 

The  soil  surfaces  will  now  benefit  from  frequent  hoeings  and  stir- 
rings. Constant  waterings  will  be  required  if  the  weather  be  hot 
or  windy ;  the  cultivation  should  quickly  follow  the  waterings  in  order 
that  the  moisture  may  be  thoroughly  conserved.  ]\Iulching  with  stable 
manure  is  also  beneficial  at  this  season. 


712  Joiir)ial  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.  [t  i    Nov.,    igiT.. 


REMINDERS     FOR     DECEIVIBER. 

LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Slabled  Horses. — Over-stimulating  and  fattening  foods  should  be 
avoided.  Give  water  at  frequent  intervals.  Eub  down  on  coming  into  the 
stables  overlieated.  Sujiply  a  ration  of  greenstuff  to  all  horses.  Brood  Mares. — - 
Those  with  foals  at  foot  should  be  well  fed.  Early  Foals  may,  with  advantage, 
be  given  oats  to  the  extent  of  1  lb.  for  each  mouth  of  age  daily. 

Cattle. — Eugs  may  now  be  dispensed  with.  Supply  succulent  fodder. 
Milk  should  be  given  at  blood  heat  to  calves. 

Pigs.- — Sows. — Su])ply  those  farrowing  with  plenty  of  short  bedding  in  well- 
ventilated  sties.  Those  with  litters  old  enough  may  be  turned  into  grass  run. 
All  pigs  should  be  given  a  plentiful  supply  of  clean  water. 

8HEEP. — To  insure  even  lambing,  see  that  a  sufficient  number  of  rams  ru!i 
with  the  ewes  for  six  weeks.  In  cases  of  non-pregnancy,  this  period  admits 
of  the  ewes  coming  in  season  a  second  time  whilst  with  the  rams.  Merino 
and  fine  come-back  ewes  have  been  in  season  for  some  weeks,  whilst  cross- 
bred ewes  (i.e.,  first  cross)  will  now  begin  to  come  on.  Coarse  three-quarter 
bred  ewes,  and  those  approaching  any  of  the  British  breeds,  will  not  be  in 
season  until  February.      Ewes  carry  their  lambs  for  five  months. 

Poultry. — Add  a  little  peameal  to  morning  mash,  and  give  less  bran.  Feed 
equal  parts  wheat  and  short  white  oats  at  night.  Supply  plenty  of  green 
food — at  this  time,  lettuce  is  invaluable.  Discontinue  salts  and  condiments. 
Avoid  salt  meat  of  any  description.  Put  Douglas  mixture  in  drinking  water. 
Keep  ample  supplies  of  sand,  ashes,  &c.,  in  pens,  and  moisten  same.  This 
will  enable  the  birds  to  keep  themselves  cool  and  clean.  Top  off  geese,  ducks, 
and  cockerels  for  the  Christmas  markets.  Hens  will  do  better  this  month  by 
having  free  range.      Remove  all   male  birds  from   flock. 

CULTIVATION. 

Farm. — Cut  hay  in  late  districts.  Cut  oats  and  barley  in  early  place.s. 
Finish  planting  potatoes.  Put  in  late  maize  for  fodder,  also  millet  and  imphee.. 
Plough  fire-breaks  where  required.      Get  stackyard  and  stages  ready  for  hay. 

Orchard. — Keep  the  surface  loose  and  free.  Suppress  weeds.  Spray  as 
often  as  necessary  for  codlin  moth  and  pear  slug.  Mulch  and  spray  yuung 
trees  and  grafts  with  water  in  the  early  morning  during  hot  weather. 

Vegetable  Garden. — Keep  the  surface  hoed,  and  allow  the  plants  plenty  of 
moisture.  Stake,  pinch  out,  manure,  and  water  tomatoes.  Pinch  back  long 
runners  of  pumpkin  and  melon  family.  Sow  autumn  and  winter  varieties  of 
cabbage  and  cauliflower.  Plant  out  seedlings  in  cool  weather.  Sow  French 
beans.     Cease  cutting  asparagus  beds,  and  top-dress  with  manure. 

Flower  Garden. — Plant  out  dahlias  for  autumn  blooming.  Lift  and  store 
spring  flowering  bulbs.  Stake,  tie,  and  train  growing  plants.  Sow  zinnias 
and  asters.  Layer  carnations,  camelias,  daphnes,  &c.  Water  well  and  keo]> 
the  surface  loose. 

Vineyard. — Inspect  young  grafted  vines  (field  or  bench)  and  carefully 
remove  any  scion  roots.  Tie  up  young  vines.  Beware  of  cut  worms  on  young 
vines — See  Journal  for  July,  1911.  Tying  up  of  bearing  vines,  if  practised, 
should  be  completed  early  in  month.  Avoid  excessive  and  indiscriminate 
topping,  far  too  frequent  in  Victoria.  Scarify,  if  soil  is  not  sufficiently  loose, 
and  after  heavy  rain.  Look  out  for  oidium  and  repeat  sulphurings  on  first 
appearance  of  disease. 

Cellar, — Fill  up  regularly  and  keep  cellars  as  cool  as  possible. 


Journal  of  AgricuUure,   Victoria. 


MILKING  MACHINE 


The  Essentials  of 
the  PERFECT  Milker. 

Extract  from  the  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  of  England : — 

The    following    are    the   essential   points   that   should  be 

observed  in  the  construction  of  Milking  Machines :  —Ease  of 

cleaning,  efficiency,  power  to  strip,  non-injuriousness  to  the 

cow,    simplicity    of   construction   (either    for    the    process    of 

milking  or  for  obtaining  the  vacuum),  cheapness. 

rS"  All     these     are     Features     of 
"ROYAL    MEDAL"    Construetion, 

It  is  easy  to  clean.  It  strips  the  cows  right  out.  Its  action 
is  perfectly  natural,  and  cannot  injure  the  cow.  It  is  sim- 
plicity itself,  and  no  machine  is  more  economical  to  use. 


The  "ROYAL 
PROOF.      ^ 


MEDAL '^   BOOKLET   brings   you 
^       Send   the   Coupon   TO-DAY. 


ROYAL  MEDAL 

MILKING    MACHINES, 

34   Queen   Street,   Melbourne. 


Loudcjii  Oflice  :  Cuxtou  House,  Westminster,  S.W. 


J.    H. 


Booklet"  Coupon 


DAVIES, 

Managing 
Director. 


"Royal  Medal"  Milking  Machines, 

34  Queen  Street,  Melbourne. 
Please  forward  a  copy  of  your  Free  Book.    It 
is  to  be  understood  that  I  consider  myself  under 
no  obligation. 
.r.i4.  Name 

Address — — 


Journal  of  Agriciilfure.   Victoria. 


[i  I  Nov.,  1912. 


EH 


'F'lione 

4881 
Central. 


The  Australasian  Mutual  live  Stoek 

Insupanee  Society  ud., 

ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 

70  ELIZABETH-SI,  MELBOURNE. 

^iifctnvs  : 

Hon.  AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P.    HENRY  GARDNER,  Esq. 

CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P. 

WALTER  G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  Manager. 

FARMERS  and  BREEDERS. 

We  will  undertake  to 

INSURE     YOUR     LIVE     STOCK 

.at  the  Lowest  Current  Rates  obtainable  in  Australia. 

OTHER  DEPARTMENTS  OF  BUSINESS. 

I'lre,  Marine,  Fidelity  Guarantee,  Plate  DLiss,  Personal 
Accident  and  Sickness,  Employers'  Liability,  Workmen's 
Compensation,    Public   Risk,    Motor  Car,    and   Burf;lary. 

INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  and  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS. 


A    GOOD   AUSTRALIAN 
'W}iy  didn't  you  put  y OUT  penny  m  the  plate  thii 

morniTip  '" 
'  Ptcause  It  was  a  foreign  mission,  and   dada   sayt 

C  j  not  Tight  to  send  capital  out  0/  llie  country  " 


"OLDS"  PETROL 

Hopper  Jacket  or       C  KJ  f^  I  Kl  C  O 
Tank  Cooling  Type.       dN  VJI  I  IN  dO 

<Vlso  PREMIER  GAS  ENGINES. 
POWER     GAS     ENGINES. 

CLUTTERBUCK  BROS., 

585  Bourke-st.,  Melbourne. 


PLUTTERBUCK  Bros. 

SOLE    AGENTS    FOR 

BLAOKSTONE 

ir;rr.^  OIL  ENGINES 

FAMED  FOR  DURABILITY, 
ECONOMY,     RELIABILITY. 

WRITE  or  CALL  for  PARTICULARS. 


II  Nov.,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agrictilfure,  Victuria. 


Dairy  Science. 

The  last  word. 

Scientific  men  in  the  dairy  cenires  of  Europe  have  p^iven  close 
attention  lo  the  question  of  feeding  for  milk  and  feeding  for  butter 
fat.  It  has  been  laid  down  by  one  of  the  leading  German  Scientists 
that  where  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food  is  used  tor  some  time, 
a  poor,  thin  milk  is  obtained  :  and  he  particularly  recommends, 
when  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  wanted,  to  use  a  cake  made  exactly  from 
the  same  material  as  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  :  stating  that,  by  the  use  of 
such  a  cake,  an  increase  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed. 
Further,  where  the  butter  is  inclined  to  be  soft  when  the  animal  is 
fed  on  certain  foods.  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  substituted  in  the  ration  will 
make  the  butter  firmer.  Every  animal  will  not  show  the  same 
corresponding  result  with  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  but  Sunlight  Oil 
Cake  will  produce  the  highest  milk  flow  and  butter  fat  from  a 
good  milker  and  will  increase  the  average  from  a  poor  milker. 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  is  the  last  word  in  Dairy  Science. 

For  Post  Free  Book— 

"\IILK  FLOW  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

increased  by  Scientific  Feeding,' 


M 


By  H.  M.  SOMER,  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited  (Dairy  Department)  Sydney. 


Guaranteed  Pure. 

Oilcake 


junlicht 

"^  ^  See  that  the  name  "Sunlight"  is 

branded  on  every  cake. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  V    wia.  [ii  Nov.,  1912. 


A  WORLD-WIDE   REPUTATION. 


"HORNSBY"  Petrol  Engines 


{STATIONARY    AND    PORTABLE) 

THERE  IS  NOTHING  EQUAL  TO  THEM. 

Just  as  suitable  for  Motive  Power  as  the  Renowned 

"HORNSBY"     OIL    ENGINE. 


Britain's  BEST  Oil  Engine 
THE 


HORNSBY. 

The  recoK-nized  essentials  of  Oil  Engine  Superiority  a  IP 

DESIGN  QUALITY 

SIMPLICITY        ECONOMY 

THESE  the  HORNSBY  possess,  proved  by  the  Fact 
Made  in  Two  Types— stationary  and  Portable.  that  it  has  Won  all  the  Largest  Prizes  ever  offered 

Hornsby  Gas  Engines  and  Suction  Gas  Plants  are  unequalled. 

R.  HORNSBY  &  SONS  LTD., 


MELBOURNE.    SYDNEY. 
BRISBANE. 


200  "REX" Separators  to  be  Sacrificed! 

Solely  because  we  are  relinquishing 
the  agency  in  favour  of  the  improved 
"Perfect"  Separators.  They're  splendid 
machines  for  the  small  dairyman. 
No.  1,  19  gal.  capacity  -  £7  10s. 
No.  3,  42  gal.  capacity  -  -  £13 
■ Fi'ee  trial  anywhere.  

Tlie    "FAVORITE"    Separator 

The  most   popular   small    machine   on 
the  market.  .... 

No.  1,  11  gal.  capacity  £3   3s. 

No.  2,  15  gal.  capacitv        -        -       £5 

THE      FAVORITE."  )  »  r  . 

Write   for   full   information. 

Langwill   Bros.   &   Davies   Pty.  Ltd. 

110-114  STURT  STREET  (Near  Prince's  Bridg-e), 
SOUTH    MELBOURNE 


II  Nov.,  iqi2.]  Journal  of  Agriculture .  Victoria. 


NATIONAL  TRUSTEES 

Executors    and    Agency    Company  of  Australasia,   Ltd, 

DIRECTORS: 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Managing  Director. 

EDWARD    FITZGERALD,  Esq.,  L.L.D.  MICHAEL   MORNANE,  Esq. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  Esq.  DAVID  HUNTER,  Esq. 


This  Company  Acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint    Executor  of  Wills,    Administrator, 
Trustee  of   Settlements,   and   Ag^ent   for  Absentees   under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY     TO      LEND      ON      BROAD      ACRES      AND      FARM      LANDS. 

Offices -113  QUEEN  ST.  (Corner  of  Little  Collins-st.)  MELBOURNE. 


—  GUARANTEED    BY  THE 


ESTABLISHED   1841.  JH  £  GOVERNMENT  OF  VICTORIA 

STATE  SAVINGS  BANK  OF  VICTORIA 

Grants    greater    facilities    to    Depositors 
than  any  other  Savings  Bank  in  the  World. 

All  profits  earned,  after  providing  for  a  reasonable  Reserve  Fund,  are  distributed 
amongst  Depositors  by  giving  them  tlie  Highest  Bank  Rate  of  Interest  obtainable  in 
the  State  on  current  accounts. 

RESERVE    FUND    OF    FOUR    HUNDRED 
AND     FIFTY     THOUSAND     POUNDS. 

INTEREST  is  allowed  on  Deposits  up  to  £350,  namely  : — 3^  per  cent,  on  first 
£100  ;   and  3  per  cent,  on  excess  over  £100  up  to  £350. 

THE     TOTAL     AMOUNT     OF     DEPOSITS     IS     NOW     NEARLY 

TWENTY     MILLION     POUNDS. 

Depositors  can  lodge  money  with  the  same  pass-book  at  any  of  the  424  Branches  and 
.\gencies  of  the  Bank  throughout  Victoria. 

GEO.    E.    EMERY, 
Head    Office— MELBOURNE.  Impector.Gen$ral. 


TREWHELLA  "L^ 
GRUBBING  JACKS 


QUICK 

POWERFUL 

SIMPLE 


■&»^^,       Mr.  Chus.  Hamilton,  .Mulesworth,  \'v\.  ^a\  ~  ■ — "  I  wonUi  not 

'^S^  be  without  one  of  these  J.icks  on  the  farm." 

*-^        Mr  O.  C.  R.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Frances,  S..\.:-  "Have 

Ci-^t-   been  using-  Trewliella  Wallaby  Jacks  now  nearly  six  years,  and 

"  as  long  as  I  ha^■e  anythinjf  to  lift  will  never  be  without  one." 

WRITE    FOR    ILLUSTRATED    CATALOGUE    TO- 

TREWHELLA  BROS.,  Engineers,  TRENTHAM,  Victoria. 


Journal  of  Agriculture .  Victoria. 


[ii  Nov.,  1912. 


r 


""^ 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

VICTORIA. 


JSuFRleY   J^ortieultural   School 


E.  E.  PESCOTT    -    Principal. 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnley  Horticultural  School 
have  now  l)een  arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be 
given  to  students  of  both  sexes  in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Horticulture  for  male  students  includes  a  two 
years'  course,  students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum. 

Classes  have  been  formed  at  Burnley,  whereby  stu<lents  of  both  sexes 
may  receive  instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and 
Fridays. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  work,  and  will  commence 
at  2  p.m.  This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  charged  will  be 
£2  per  annum. 

It  has  also  been  arranged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  shall  he 
given  on  subjects  which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Horticultui'e,  such  as 
Poultry  Farming,  Bee-keeping,  and  Fi-uit  Preserving,  and  these  courses  will 
be  open  and  free  to  the  general  public.  The  subjects  and  dates  of  the  Short 
Course  Lectures  will  be  announced  in  this  Journal. 

STUDENTS    SHOULD    ENROLL    WITHOUT    DELAY, 


Application  for  . 
Admission  should 
be  made  to    .    . 


THE   DIRECTOR   OF  AGRICULTURE, 
PUBLIC     OFFICES,      MELBOURNE, 


OR   TO   THE 
PRINCIPAL. 


v.. 


I  I  N^ov. ,  19 1  2.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


xxni 


r~^ \ 

SAVE  TIME-SAVE  WORK    SAVE  WORRY-SAVE  MONEY- 

Wash  with  an 

"O.  K."  ROTARY 


^ 


WASHING  MACHINE 


No  liuiisewifi;  should  be  without  an  "O.K." 
Washer.  With  it  the  lon^-  tedious  wasliiu;; 
day  is  110  iiioi-t.  A  very  short  time  serves 
to  air.diiphsli  well  and  qiiirUly  the  bi{,'{resl 
^\^lsh.  The  niaehine  is  siuii)le  to  use,  atiu 
will  wash  anything-  from  Sheepskin,  Alats, 
Blankets,  &c.,  &c.,  to  the  daintiest  of  Lin- 
uerie.  It  is  guaranteed  not  to  tear  the 
finest  fabrics.  The  tub  is  made  of  cypress — 
a  wciiid  which  will  last  for  years.  It  is 
fitted  with  a  steam-tiyht  lid,  which  prevents 
the  steam  risins;  in  the  face  of  the  user, 
and  keei)s  water   liot. 


Full  particulars  from 


Sole 

Victorian 

Agent: 


F         R         MFI    I    OR        440  ELIZABETH-ST, 
r,       n-       lYI^^L-Vyilj  MELBOURNE. 


-  To  FARMERS  and  OTHERS.  _i_^.. 

For    voui-   House,    Uani,    Woolshed,    Dairy,    l'>iicin"-    etc  — 

^    JARRAH   OR  TASMANIAN 
k      HARDWOOD    TIMBERS 

THERE    ARE    NONE    BETTER 

Larg^e  Stocks  of  Scantlings,  Weather  Boards,  Floorings,  &c. 

WKITE    TO     IS. 

MILLAR'S  KARRI  &  JARRAH  CO.  (1902)  Ltd., 

wmamm^mm^^K^aaam^mm^mm  queen's  bridge,  Melbourne,  ihi 


^  DYAN,    GOULDING,    &    CO.^ 

1^^  (JOHN    F.    GOULDING). 

'     ■    WHOLESALE  GRAIN  &  PRODUCE  COMMISSION  AGENTS  &  GENERAL  BROKERS. 
546-552  COLLINS  STREET  WEST  (Near  Kingst.) 

FARMERS  •  Before  Selling  your  Grain,  Hay,  Potatoes,  Onions,  consult  or  write  us. 

It  will  [.ciy  you. CONSIGNMENTS  Received  and  Sold  Daily  ex  Rail  or  Wharf. 

Storage  arranged  on  Liberal  Terms  and  Advances  made.       All  kinds  of  Seed  Grain  for  Sale. 
Prompt  Account  Sales.     Oats  Specialists.     New  &  Second-hand  Bags  for  Sale  at  Lowest  Rates 

Quotations  ijiven  for  Chaff,  Grain,  Lucerne,  WlieuLcn  ur  Oaten  Hay,  delivered  to  an,\  station 
in  Victoria  or  New  South  Wales. 

i     When  in  the  CITY  Call  In. — Short  distance  from  Spencer-st.  RIy.  Station,   j 


Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[ii  Nov.,  T91 


^n 


THE  WALTER  A.  WOOD 

NEW  CENTURY 

BEST  CUTTER.     BEST  TIER.     STRONGEST. 


REEL.— Can  be  set  in  any  position  to  deal  with  long,  slioit,  or  tangled  crop. 

CUTTING. — Guards  are  fixed  to  a  heavy  piece  of  Angle  Steel.  This  gives  a  clean  cut  by 
stopping  vibration.  It  also  reduces  draft  and  wear  by  preventing  Sections  from  rubbing  heavily 
on  the  Leger  Plates.    It  also  takes  shocks  from  stones,  thus  saving  the  Platform  from  strain  and  wear. 

ELEVATING. — Elevator  extends  in  front  of  the  Knife,  preventing  the  straw  from  bending  up 
and  choking  it.  Straw  is  carried  up  evenh  in  good  shape  for  the  Packers  to  take  it  to  the  Knotter. 
Any  length  crop  can  be  successfully  dealt  with,  without  loss  or  damage.  Roller  Bearings  lessen  draft 
hy  eliminating  friction.     All  Canvases  ha\  e  adjustable  spring  tension. 

PACKING.  -Three  Packers,  instead  of  the  usual  two,  gently  press  the  Straw  instead  of  hitting 
it  as  only  two  must  do,  so  the  "New  Century"  doesn't  spoil  or  lose  grain  here.  Each  one  works  a 
little  ahead  of  the  other,  and  disappears  without  )>ulling  the  straw  down.  The  needle  lias  all  strain 
taken  off  it  by  one  of  the  Packers  working  just  ahead  of  it,  so  it  cannot  get  bent  or  fail  to  take  the 
twine  to  the  right  spot  for  tying. 

TYING. — Knotter  is  an  improved  type,  very  simple,  with  \  ery  few  parts.  Is  made  of  \  ery  best 
material,  put  together  with  great  care,  and  then  tested  to  prove  it  faultless,  so  you  can  depend  on  it  to 
see  you  through  every  season  \Aithout  e.Kpensive  delays.  Wastes  no  twine.  Adjustments  to  take  up 
natural  wear.     A  si|uare-butted  Bundle  is  made,  and  you  can  place  the  twine  where  you  like  on  it. 

CONSTRUCTION.— Frame  is  extra  strong,  well  supported,  and  trussed  to  prevent  sagging. 
Extra  Higli  Driving  Wheel  gi\'es  light  draft  and  ample  cutting  and  tying  power.  Roller  and  Ball 
Bearings  wherever  necessary  or  ad\ isable.     DriNer's  Seat  adjustable  to  take  neck  weight  off  horses. 


ASK   FOR   CATALOGUES    OF    OUR   FULL   LINE    OF    FARM    and    DAIRY 
IMPLEAIENTS    and    MACHINES. 

YOU   CAN    SEE   THE   MACHINES   AT   ANY   OF   OUR    MANY    COUNTRY  AGENCIES. 


MITCHELL  &  GO. 


PPTY. 
LTD., 


Office  and  Factory: 

WEST     FOOTSCRAY, 
MELBOURNE. 


Show-room : 

596    BOURKE-ST.   W., 
MELBOURNE. 


MENTION     THIS     PAPER     WHEN     ASKING     FOR     PRICES. 

By    Authority;     Albert    J.    Mtillett,    Acting    Government    Printer,    Melbourne. 


jPefrigeratiug  and 
lee  JVCakiug 
JVCaehiuerY 


Made  by 
HUMBLE  &  SONS, 

Geelong-, 
Victoria. 


Specially  suitable  for  Butchers,  Breweries,  Squatters,  Butter,  Bacon,  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  Machines  can  be  supplied  from 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine.  A  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Australian  States,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction.  All  classes  of  Refrigeration 
work  undertaken,  including  coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


"Ferrier's"  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distributors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworks,  to. 

Full  Particulars  on  Application  to — 

Humble  and  Sons, 

General   Eng'ineers, 

Vulean    Foundry,     GEELONG. 


x. 


VICTORIAN 


RAILWAYS. 


SUMMER  EXCURSIONS 


The  Victorian  Railways  issue  SUMMER 
EXCURSION     FARES     to    the 

SEASIDE  :t  MOUNTAINS 
::  LAKES     and     CAVES  :t 

from    J  5th    November     till    30th    April. 


THE     YARRA     AT     WARBURTON. 


PICTURESQUE   Sli.'^i' 


THE  BUFFALO  PLATEAU 

with  its  famous  Gorge,  Falls  and 
Peaks,  embraces  the  Finest  Moun- 
tain Scenery  in  Australia.  Excur- 
sion Fares  all  the  year  round. 
Splendid  Accommodation  at  the 
Government  Chalet.  Special  in- 
clusive Week  Tickets,  covering- 
transport  and  accommodation, 
issued  on  Fridays  by  the  Express 

train  from  Melbourne. 

First-class    -   £4  10s. 

THE  AUSTRALIAN  ALPS 

Mounts  Bogong,  Feathertop, 
Hotham.  The  Baw  Baw  Range, 
The  Dividing  Range,  Macedon, 
Woodend,  Dajlesford,  &c. 

HEALESVILLE. 

Seven  Days  Trip,  including  Rail, 
Accommodation  &  Coach  Drives. 
£3. 

WARBURTON  (Mt.  Doriria  Buaqg). 

THE  GIPPSLAND  LAKES 

The    Most    Charming    Chain    of 
liakes  in  the  Commonwealth. 

THE  BUCHAN  CAVES 

Indescribably  Beautiful. 

LORNE. 

Waterfalls,  Fern  Glens,  Sea  and 

River  Fishing. Splendid 

Accommodation. 

FLINDERS. 

Ocean  Beach  &  Golfers'  Paradise. 

QUEENSCLIFF. 

Bay  and  Ocean  Beaches.       Rail 
and  Steamer  Services. 


Edition  issued  shortly. 
Postage  extra. 


VICTORIA. 


For  full  information  as  to  train  services,  fares,  &c.,  write  to  or  enquire  from  the 
Government  Tourist  Officer,  Tourist  Bureau,  0pp.  Town  Hall,  ColUns-st.,  Melbourne. 
Handbooks,  Maps  and  Hotel  Guides  free  on  application. 


B.     JONES,     ACTING  SECRETARY  FOR  RAILWAYS. 


Vol.  X.  HAYSTACK    BUILDING.  Part  12. 

[Rejiistered  at  the  General  Post  Otfice,  Melbourne,  for  transmission  by  Post  as  a  Newspaper.! 


PRICE  THREEPENCE.     (Annual  Subscription     Victoria,  Inter-State,  and  N.Z.,  3  -;   British  and  Foreign,  5  -.) 


F.  H.  BRUNNING, 


PTY. 
LTD. 


EZST-A-^X-ISmSID    O'^U^ESH    60    '52"E:.A.n.S. 


ONLY 

THE 

BEST. 


PURE  SEED  MAIZE. 


HICKORY  KING. 

ECLIPSE. 
NINETY-DAY. 
LONGFELLOW. 
N.W.  DENT. 


EARLY  YELLOW  DENT. 

EARLY  LEAMING. 

YELLOW  MORUYA. 

SOMERTON   WHITE. 

SIBLEY  IMPD. 


For  full  list  of  varieties,  cultivation  notes,  prices, 
&c.,  see  our  1912     MAIZE     BOOKLET. 

POST    FREE    ON   APPLICATION. 


ONLY 

THE 

BEST. 


"HOW    AND    WHEN    TO    SPRAY." 

Our   new   handbook  on    Spraying  for  Codlin  Moth,  Black  Spot,  &c.       Fullest  particulars 
and  many  useful  hints. Post    free  on  application. 


RYE  GRASS,  COCKSFOOT,  PRAIRIE,  TIMOTHY, 
CLOVERS,  PASPALUM,  COW  PEAS,  MANGELS, 
SUGAR   BEETS,    SORGHUMS,    AND    MILLETS. 


Samples  and  Prices. 


Post  free  on  application. 


A 

WONDERFUL 
DROUGHT 
RESISTER. 


RHODES  GRASS 

(CHLORIS     VIRGATA.) 

The  New  Summer  Fodder  Grass.  Withstands  the  most  extreme 
dry  weather.  All  cattle  are  fond  of  it  whether  g-reen,  dry,  or  chaffed. 
Full  particulars  and  prices Post  free  on  application. 


SOW 
OCTOBER 

TO 
JANUARY. 


PLANET  JUNR.  IMPLEMENTS,  CAHOON  SOWERS, 
MOLINE  PLANTERS,  CORN  QUEEN  SEED  DRILLS, 
HEMINGWAY'S  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD,  SPADES, 
HOES,  RAKES,  SPRAY  PUMPS,  NIKOTEEN, 
PARIS  GREEN,    FRUIT  TREE  TAGS,    TREE   NETS. 


SEE  OUR  1912    SEED   MANUAL   FOR   full  list. 

Post  free  on  application, 


64    ELIZABETH     ST.,    MELBOURNE,    j 


THE     JOURNAL 


OP 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


"V^IOTORI^^,    -A-XJSTE,- 


BO'!. 

QAKDtiN. 


CONTENTS.— DECEMBER,    1912. 


Cood  and  Faulty  Cheeses  Exhibited  at  the  Royal  Show,  1912  ... 

Storage  Test  of  Shipping  Grapes 

General  Notes 

Insect  Pest  of  the  New  Zealand  Flax 

Leongatha  Labour  (/olony  (Trustees' Report) 

Fodder  Crops  for  Northern  Areas   under  Irrigation  on  Small 
Holdings     ... 

Results  of  Spraying  for  Irish  Blight 

Fruit  Prospects  for  the  Coming  Season 

Bee-keeping  in  Victoria 


O.  C.  Sawers 
F.  dt  Ca-stdla 

G.  French,  Jnr. 


T.  A.  J.  Smith 

O.  Seymour 

P.  J.  Carmody 

F.  R.  Beuhne 


Putrefaction  and  Decay 

Rainfall  in  Victoria 

Haystack  Building 

Notes  on  the  Occurrence  of  Lime  in  Victoria 

Orchard  and  Garden  Notes 

Second  Victorian  Egg-laying  Competition,  1912-L^ 

Reminders  for  January 


J  no.  W.  Paterson,  B.Sc,  Ph.D. 


T.  A.  J.  Smith 

A.  S.  Kenyon,  C.E. 

E.  E.  Pescott 

H.  V.  Hawkins 


713 

715 
718 
720 
722 

740 
745 
753 
758 
761 
762 
763 
769 
772 
774 
776 


COPYRIGHT    PROVISIONS    AND    SUBSCRIPTION    RATES. 

The  Articles  in  the  Journal  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria  ar« 
protected  by  the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act.  Proprietors  of  newspapers  wishing 
to  re[)ublish  any  matter  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  provided  the  Journal  and  author  are 
both  acknowledged. 

The  Journal  is  issueu  monthlj'.  The  subscription,  which  is  payable  in  advanc* 
and  includes  postage,  is  3s.  per  annum  for  the  Commonwealth  and  New  Zealand,  and 
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Subscriptions  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture,  Melbourn*. 
A  complete  list  of  the  various  publications  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
'Will  be  supplied  by  the  latter. 


Journal   of   AgriculLure,    Victoria. 


[lo  Dec.  1912. 


A  silent 
wcrker 
day  &  night 


No  expense 
for  power. 


Plenty  of  Water  for 
Household  &  Stock 

The  "BILLABONQ"  Mill  is  powerful  and 
easy  running.  It  works  in  a  remarkably  light 
breeze,  and  maintains  an  even  and  well- 
governed  motion  in  strong  winds  and  gusts. 
A  most  reliable  mill  for  supplying  water  for 
Household,  Farm  and  Stock  use.  All  contem- 
plating the  purchase  of  a  Wind  Mill  should 
send  at  once  for  descriptive  matter  and  prices 
of  the  "BILLABONG."  This  mill  is  rapidly 
coming  into  favour  on  account  of  its  patented 
features,  and  being  an  Australian  made  mill, 
certainly  de.serves  your  full  inquiry. 


Stock  Water  Troughs. 


In  "  BILLABONQ"  Troughing  you  have 
the  latest.  It  is  protected  by  recent  patent 
rights,  and  has  many  advantages.  "  BIL- 
LABONG  "  Patent  Steel  Troughing  is 
giving  all-round  satisfacti(jn.  Buyers  like 
the  interlocking  and  leak-proof  joints,  the 
good  materials,  and  strong  structure.  We 
make  Cattle,  Sheep,  Calf,  and  Pig  Troughs. 
Prices  no  higher  than  those  chargeil  for 
ordinary  troughs.  Send  now,  or  call  for 
lists. 


Tools  for 
the  Farmer^ 
Carpenter  & 
Engineer* 

In  our  vast  assortment 
of  modern  tools  and 
appliances  there  are, 
no  doubt,  many  labor- 
saving  devices  you  re- 
quire. Send  for  our 
priced  and  illustrated 
Tool  Catalogue  now, 
and  thus  get  in  touch 
with  our  goods  and 
their  very  moderate 
prices. 


JOHN 

PROPTY. 


DAIMKS  t^?^. 

G91-399     BOURKE    STREET,    MELBOURNE. 


lo  Dec,  191  2.]  Joiinial  of  Agriculture,    Victoria. 


m 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


TO  OWNERS  OF  PEDIGREED  STOCK  OF  ALL 
KINDS  ::  DAIRY  FARMERS  ::  AND  OTHERS. 


The  Department  has  compiled  a 


Stock  Breeding  Record  Book 


Comprising — 


Table  of  Service  and  Due  Dates,  Females  with  Record 
of  Progeny,  Sires  with  Record  of  Service,  General 
Service  Record,  Pedigree  Charts,  Milk  Fat  and 
Butter    Records    for    Dairy    Stock. 


Price,  10/6 

Postage— Victoria  1/6,    other  States  and  New  Zealand  2/8  extra. 


This  Book  contains  234  pages  on  stiff  paper,  and  is  strongly 
bound  in  half   leather. —  A    limited   number   available. 


DEPARTMENT     OF     AGRICULTURE. 


POULTRY  FOR  SETTLERS. 


SITTINGS    OF   EGGS 

Are  now  availaljle  from    the   Poultry    Pens   at  the  "WYUNA   FARM   and  the 
BURNLEY  HORTICULTURAL  SCHOOL,  at  the  undermentioned  rates. 

NOTE.— No  more  sittings  of  Wjuna  White  Le<,'horns  (Cosh  Hens  and  Swift  Cockerel)  can  be  booked  until  June  1st, 
1912.     A  limited  number  cf  Cockerels  from  the  above  strain  may  be  obtained  at  10s.  6d.  each. 

"Wyuna  White   Leghorns    (Cosh   Hens   and    Swift   Cockerel) 
„  "White   Wyandottes    (Burnley   stock) 

Black    Orpingtons    ("Wyuna   stock) 
Burnley  "White   Leghorns    (Imported  Hens  and  Padman  Cockerel) 
..  >.  „  „  Burnley  „ 

..  ..  „  (Burnley  stock) 

Black   Orpingtons    (Imported  pens)    .. 
..  ..  ..  (Burnley   stock)    .. 

Minorcas    (Imported  pens) 
„  Rhode   Island   Reds    (Imported  pens) 

The  Eggrs  will  carry  the  Departmental  Stamp,  and  any  infertile  e??s  will  be  replaced,  provided  that  such  eg<fs  are 
returned  unbroken  within  18  days  from  date  of  receipt.  Postal  Order  or  Cheque  should  accompany  order,  which 
should  be  addressed  to  the  Manager,   Government  Farm,  Wyuna,  vid  Kyabram,  or  the  Principal 

School  of  Horticulture,  Burnley. 


;i 

0 

0 

6 

0 

6 

0 

0 

6 

0 

6 

0 

0 

Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Dec,  1912. 


Don't  go  to  the  Well 
—Pump  the  Water 
where  you  want  it 


We've  put  Special  Prices  on  our  big  stock  of  Black  and 
Galvanized  Water  Pipe  and  Fittings,  and  a  small  outlay 
will  install  enough  of  it,  with  appliances,  to  BRING 
YOUR  WATER  SUPPLY  TO  YOU. 

You  can  have  a  splendid  little  water  service  in  the 
homestead  to  raise  water  to  Upper  Floors  and  into  Tanks 
to  supply  Kitchen  and  Bathroom,  also  into  Troughs  for 
stock  watering.  This  is  your  opportunity  to  have  water 
where  you  need  it.     Don't  carry  buckets  any  longer. 

Sit  down  and  plan  out  a  rough  draft  of  your  require- 
ments, then  send  it  along  to  us.  We'll  send  our  price 
without  delay. 

38/-  buys  this  Force  Pump 

We  illustrate  it  below.  It's  a  Low  Down  DouWe  Acting  Pump 
with  a  5-inch  cylinder,  and  2  inch  openings  fof  suction  and  dis- 
charge. A  powerful  water  transmitter,  and  a  real  farmer's  pump. 
Grand  for  irrigating,  spraying,  and  general  work,  such  as  washing 
buggies,  windows,  &c.  The  fact  that  it  throws  a  solid  jet  of 
water  60  ft.  with  great  force,  should  recommend  it  for  all  country 
fire  carts.  Sucks  water  on  each  stroke  of  the  lever,  drawing  1,500 
gallons  per  hour.  Supplied  as  illustrated  with  connections  for 
2-inch  Suction  Hose  and  1-inch  Delivery  ^^    ^^ 

Hose,  or  with  Fittings  for  2inch  Iron         ^-^  ^^^  /  ^ 
Pipe,  both  Suction  and  Delivery 

Douglas  Hydraulic  Rams 

Give  wonderful  results  where  it  is  desired  to  elevate  or  force 

water.     We  sell  most  every  kind  of  Hand  and  Power  Pump  in 

addition  to  Tools  for  farm  and  workshop.       Get  acquainted  with 

the  Money-Saving  Prices  at 


jv^s^PKcrsoi^ 

Machinery  &  Tool  Merchants, 

554-66  &  582-88  Collins-st. 
Melbourne, 


lo  Dec,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 

IT  WILL  PAY  YOU 

TO    LEARN 

MODERN  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 
LIVE  STOCK  &  FRUIT  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT. 

STOTTS  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 

can  UMh  you  AT  YOUR  OWN  HOME  how  to  MAKE  MORE  MONEY  by  the  employment  of  up-to-date 
methods.  We  teach  all  branches  of  Apiculture  and  Live  Stock  Husbandry,  including  Drsin&ge, 
Irrigation,    Dairying    and    Practical    Orchard    Management.       We  also  g:ive  instruction  in  the 

following  subjects  : — 

Bookkeeping  Arithmetic  Electrical  Engineering  Mechanical  I>rr!,wiD£ 

Shorthand  Mathematics  Steam  Engineering  Archltecttiral  Drawing 

Accountancy  Languages  Shire  Engineering  Building    Constmctlon 

Commercial  Law  Drawing  Mining  Engineering  and  Estimating 

English  Illustrating  Surveying  Timber  Measnremonts 

WE    PREPARE   CANDIDATES   FOR    ALL    PUBLIC    EXAMINATIONS. 

The  instruction  ffoes  RIGHT  TO  YOm  HOME,  no  matter  where  you  live.  It  is  clear,  concitw,  easily 
understood,  and  practical.  Every  student  is  handled  pri\'ately  and  separately  and  receives  individual 
attention  according  to  his  particular  requirements. 

Our  instructors  are  men  of  sound  technical  knowledgfe,  combined  with  years  of  practical  experienc«,  and 
they  are  at  the  service  of  every  student,  to  guide  him  with  their  valuable  advice.  Only  spare  time  study 
is  required,  and  our  fees  are  exceedingly  moderate  and  within  the  reach  of  everj'body. 

We  invite  you  to  write  at  once  for  a  free  copy  of  our  Handbook  D.  It  explains  our  system  aiid  shows 
how  we  can  teach  any  man  who  is  willing  to  be  taught  and  anxious  to  increase  his  earning  power.  It  costs 
nothing  to  inquire.     Don't  put  it  off.       Write  tO-day. 

STOTTS  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  | 

56b    market    STREET,    MELBOURNE.  I 

f  LAW,  SOMNER  &  GO.'S  ^ 

SPECIAL  GRADED  AND  SCREENED 

SEED  POTATOES 

(Pedigree   Seed).  Prices  on  Application. 


HUNTER  RIVEE.  ■        ■      .  ^^  mm  b^.  m.    ■  va  FRENCH  PEOVQTOE. 

ARABIAN.  I        I     I^^CTDKICr  AMERICAN. 

IB^J}^-  L  U  V-#  t  T\  IM  t  HUNGARIAK. 

TURKESTAN.  ■"  ^^  ^^  ^  ■     1  I   ^  Iim  SPANISH  a>TewX 

All  our  Lucernes  are  Specially  Machine-dressed,  Hand-sieved,  Free  from  Dodder,  and  Tri>8  to  MBAe. 


CRAIG  MITCHELL      11/1  A  IT^  C      and  other 

MAMMOTH   WHITE      lYIMI^Q      leading  varieties 


Write    for   Maize    and    Potato    Circular. 

LAW,  SOMNER  &  CO,  ^"e\Vh^^ 

139-141  Sw^anston-st.,  Melbourne. 

established    1850.  telephone    729    CENTRAL 

BULK  STORES— MASON  LANE,  OFF  LITTLE  COLLINS  STREET. 


J 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Dec,  1912. 


'irraiMTiMiiBa 


For  ROOFS  of  all  descriptions 


USE 


RUBEROID    ROOFING. 


For  OUTSIDE  PAINTING  of  barns,  stables,  fences,  &c., 


"i^  INDELIBLE  GOLD  WATER  PAINT. 


For  INSIDE  PLASTERED  WALLS 


USE 


CALCIMO    ci)V;R^ 


RS. 


These  Goods  are  UNEQUALLED  by  any  others,  and  are  obtainable  from  all  Storekeepers. 


-SOLE    AGENTS 


BROOKS,  ROBINSON  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Meltarie. 


BEET  &  DAIRY  FARMING. 


THE  IDEAL  CLOSER   SETTLEMENT   COMBINATION. 


THE    RICH 

BOISDALE    ESTATE 

AND    THE    FAR-FAMED 

KILMANY    PARK. 


Both  of  these  Estates  have  been  specially  selected,  purchased,  and  subdivided  for 
Beet  Growing  and  Dairying  combined,  and  to  afford  op|)ortunity  to  THRIFTY, 
EXPERIENCED  MEN  WITH  SMALL  CAPITAL  to  make  a  com- 
fortable  living  while  acquiring  the  freehold  of  the  land. 

For  the  possibilities  and  practical  results  read  the  article  on 

''^THE    BEET    I3SriDXJSTE;^X"/' 

in  this  issue  of  the  Journal  Of  Agriculture. 


lo  Dec,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  vi'i 


BOISDALE    ESTATE 

Subdivided  into  57  blocks,  and  already  settled  with  the  exception 
of  Eight  Blocks  of  from  40  to  60  acres,  to  carry  10  acres  of 
Beet  annually. 

Price,  £25  10s.  to  £27  10s.  per  acre. 


KILMANY    PARK 


Now  open 
for 

Application, 

Subdivided 

into 


13  farm  blocks  from  56  to  195  acres,  to  carry 
10  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £7  lOs.  to  £22  lOs.  per  acre. 


7  Workmen's  blocks  from  20   to    46    acres,   to 
carry  4  acres  of  Beet  annually. 

Price,  from  £23  to  £25  per  acre. 


For  particulars  and  conditions  of  purchase  and  as  to  blocks 
available,  apply  to  the 

SECRETARY,  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT 
BOARD,   MELBOURNE. 


For   information    concerning   the   financial   aid   given    to 
suitable  Settlers  to  stock  the  farms,  ^pply  to 

THE  DIRECTOR  OF  AGRICULTURE, 
MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Dec,  1912.    ', 


R. 


CLOSER    SETTLEMENT    LAND. 

List  showing  number  of  allotments  on  the  various  Estates  available  for  application  : — 


Estate. 
Swan  Hill 
Cohuna 
Shepparton 

Nanneella 
Baniawm 
Toiijrala 


Irrig-ation  Areas. 

totallinu' 


Area. 

41u  acri 
2,554 
1,811 
1,874, 
1,774 
4,672 


Wheat  Growing". 

totalling 


Dairying"  and  Mixed  Farming". 


Bona  Vista 

Deepdene 

Eumeralla 

AUanibee 

Morven 

Werribee 

Kenilworth 

Mooralla 

Cremona 

Dunrobin 


totalling 


15 
10 
24 

1 

5 
14 


463  acres. 

484 
2,706 
2,062 
3,364 
4,348 

600 
1,226 

403 
36 


Estate. 

Cornelia  Creek  . .  20 

Oaklands        ..  ..  6 

Hurstwood     ..  ..  4 

Mt.  Widderin  ..  13 

Nerrin  Nerrin  , .  18 

Pannoo            . .  . .  15 

Marathon  &WilIow  Grove  12 

Strathallan  .  11 


Area. 

653  acrev. 
4,140 

2,074 
4,723 
4,022 
5,403 
6,368 
325 


Beet  Growing-  and  Dairying. 

Boisdale  . .  . .        3        totalling       366  »crei. 

Kilmany  Park  ..20  ,,  1,626    ,, 

Clerks'  Homes. 

Tooron<;a  . .        39  allotments. 

Workmen's  Homes. 

Pender's  Grove  . .       103  allotmenti. 


Allotments  on  these  estates  are  sold  under  Conditional  Purchase  leasehold  terms,  extending'  over  31 J  years,  with 
payments  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  Advances  of  money  can  be  obtained  up  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  value  of 
permanent  improvements  effected,  repayments  extending-  over  fifteen  years  bearing  5  per  cent,  interest. 

Fur  full  iu/'ormation  and  terms  apply  to   THE     SECRETARY , 

LANDS     PURCHASE     AND     MANAGEMENT     BOARD, 

MELBOURNE. 


AUSTRALIA'S  WACON 


"The  Finest 
Wagon  Ever." 

PATENT 
STEEL 
WHEELS. 

Patent  Felloes. 
Renewable  Carron 
Boxes  &  Oil  Cap*. 

The  only  Steel 
Wheel  that  has 
stood  the  Test. 

BEWARE    OF 
IMITATIONS. 


Wheels  Guaranteed  tor  3  years  against  Breakage,  &c. 


A-  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningie,  South  Australia,  says:— 

Dear  Sir,— I  have  received  Sjirin^'  Wagon.  I  am  well  pleased  with  same.  I  never  thought  it  would  run  so 
well  and  I  think  those  who  have  Steel  Wheels  will  never  use  the  old  style  again.  Two  horses  carried  my  first  load 
of  two  tons  of  potatoes  over  a  bad  road  of  30  miles,  where  the  old  style  of  Wagon  was  bogged,  and  is  still  there. 

August,  1903. 
ALBERT  MAY,  Esq.,  Meningie,  S.A.,  says :—  ,       ^         „ 

Dear  Sir, — In  answer  to  your  letter  wanting  to  know  how  the  wheels  of  my  Wagon  are,  I  am  pleased  to  tell 
you  I  have  had  the  Watron  about  6^  years,  and  it  has  not  cost  me  a  shilling,  the  wheels  are  like  new,  and  I  have 
done  a  lot  of  heavy  carting.  Onlv  being  a  2-ton  Wagon,  I  lent  it  to  a  man  carting  wheat,  and  he  had  some  very 
rou"h  roads  loads  being  about  50  bags.  Your  Wagons  are  worth  their  money,  and  I  would  not  be  without  one 
ot  them.     I  think  this  Wagon  will  last  my  life  time.      40'  and  36'  Wheels.  August  13th,  1910. 


TABLE  TOP— Truck  body,  and  all  classes  of  little  Wagons  for  Fann  and  Station  work. 
Wagons  Shipped  to  aU  Ports  in  Australia. WRITE  FOR  CATALOG  TO-DAY, 


R.  J.  L.  HILDYARD, 


QUEEN'S     BRIDGE-ST.. 
SOUTH    MELBOURNE,  V. 


lo  Dec,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


LIGHT,  STRONG, 
PERFECTLY  RIGID. 


^'CYCLONE" 
WOVEN    GATE 

o  ft.  -to  le  f-t. 

Will  hold  anything,  and  can  be  made  rabbit  proof  by  putting  rabbit  proof 
intersection  at  the  bottom.      The  wider  gates  have  three  stays. 

Get  our  Catalogue  of  this  and  many  other  Cyclone  Gates. "  THEY'RE  ALL  GOOD." 

CYCLONE    FENCE  &   GATE   CO., 

459  SWANSTON  ST.,  corner  franklin  ST.,  MELBOURNE. 


PERFECTUS 


APPARATUS 

FOR  THE 


TREATMENT  OF  MILK  FEVER  IN  COWS. 

BY  THE  BEETHOD  RECOMMENDED  IN  THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


'  I  'HE  treatment  by  this  apparatus  is 
^       effective    and    easy    to    perform, 
»nd  it  is  indeed  rare  that  the  severest 
case  does  not  yield  to  it. 

The  treatment  should  be  applied 
directly  the  symptoms  of  the  fever 
become  manifest. 

The  set  contains  everj'thing  neces- 
sary to  effect  a  cure,  including  a  ther- 
mometer for  aiding  the  recognition  of 
the  disease. 

PRICE    COMPLETE 


\ 

1 

Ia 

K-pERFECTUSr  =-    \ 

mmier—  '■ — i— — '-"^^s«: 

fcL         VatVwi 

( 

.■'.T~r^^^ 

W>T-~"^    ■"■ 

12s.   6d.  (Postage,   9d.) 


Ask  your  nearest  Chemist  for  it,  and  if  he  cannot  supply,  apply  to  us  direct. 

FELTON,  GRIMWADE  &  CO.,  MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo  Dec,  1912. 


LITERATURE  for  AGRICULTURISTS. 

PLAN   AND    SPECIFICATION    OF   SHEEP-SHEARING    SHED.     2s.    6d.     Postage,   Id. 

MILK  CHARTS  (Monthly  and  Weekly),  6d,  per  dozen,  post  free.  When  ordering,  dairy  farmers 
should  mention  "  Monthly  "  or  "  Weekly." 

By  Professor  A.  ./.  Ewart,  Government  Botanist. 

WEEDS,   POISON   PLANTS,   AND   NATURALIZED    ALIENS    OP   VICTORIA.     2s.    6d. 

Postage  :  Commonwealth,  Hd. ;  N.Z.,  5d.  ;  British  and  Foreign,  lOd. 

PLANTS  INDIGENOUS  TO  VICTORIA.  Vol.  II.,  10s.  Postage  :  Com.,  2d. ;  N.Z.,  8d. ; 
Brit.  &  For.,  is.  4d. 

By  G.  French,  F.E.S.,  Government  Entomologist. 

DESTRUCTIVE  INSECTS  OF  VICTORIA.  Parts  L,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  V.  2s.  6d.  each.  Postage  : 
Parts  I.  and  III.,  C,  Id.  ;  N.Z.,  3d.;  B.  &  F.,  6d.  each.  Parts  II.  and  IV.,  C,  l-Jd. ;  N.Z., 
4d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  8d.  each.     Part  V.,  C,  Id. ;  N.Z.,  4d. ;  B.  &  F.,  7d. 

By  D.  Mc Alpine,  Government  Vegetable  Pathologist. 

RUSTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     5s.     Postage  :  C,  2d.  ;  N.Z.,  8d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  4d. 

SMUTS  OF  AUSTRALIA.     4s.     Postage  :  C,  2id. ;  N.Z.,  9d. ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  6d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  CITRUS  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  Postage  :  C,  Id. ;  N.Z., 
3d.  ;  B.  &  F..  6d. 

FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  STONE  FRUIT  TREES  IN  AUSTRALIA.  2s.  6d.  Postage  :  C, 
l|d.  ;  N.Z.,  5d. ;  B.  &  F.,  lOd. 

SYSTEMATIC  ARRANGEMENT  OF  AUSTRALIAN  FUNGL  3s.  Postage:  C,  2d.; 
N.Z.,  8d.  ;  B.  &  F.,  Is.  4d. 

THE    DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

MELBOURNE,  VICTORIA. 

Remittances  from  places  outside  the  COiiimonwealth   to   be  by  Money  Order  only. 

Pamphlets  obtainable  from  the  Director  of  Agriculture, 
Melbourne,  Free  on  Application. 

NEW    SERIES. 


1.  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.     A.  S.  Kenyon,  C.E. 

2.  HINTS  FOR  NEW  SETTLERS.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

3.  APPLE  GROWING  FOR  EXPORT.     P.  J.  Carynody. 

*  4.  BOOKKEEPING  FOR  FAR:\IERS.     \V.  Mclver,  A.I.A.V.,  A.S.A.A.,  Eng. 
5.  CIDER  MAKING.     J.  Knight. 

*  6.  FARM  PLUMBING.     C.  H.  Wright. 

7.  CITRUS  FRUIT  CULTURE.     E.  E.  Pescott. 

8.  BUILDING  HINTS  FOR  SETTLERS.     A.  S.  Kenyon,  G.E.,  and  otJiers. 

9.  TOBACCO  CULTURE.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 

10.  SILOS  AND  SILAGE.     G.  H.  F.  Baker. 

11.  THE  BEET  SUGAR  INDUSTRY  AND  CLOSER  SETTLEMENT.     H.  T.  EatUrhy. 

12.  WORMS  IN  SHEEP.     S.  S.  Cameron,  D.V.  Sc,  jU.P.C.V.S. 
*13.   CHEESE  MAKING  (Cheddar).     C.  S.  Sawers. 

14.  FARM  BLACKSMITHING.     G.  Baxter. 

15.  BROOM  FIBRE  INDUSTRY.     T.  A.  J.  Smith. 
*16.  PIG  INDUSTRY.     P.  T.  Archer. 

17.  GOVERNMENT  CERTIFICATION  OF  STALLIONS,  1911-12. 

W.  A.  N.  Robertson,  B.  V.  Sc. 

18.  REPORT   ON  FIRST  EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION  AT  BURNLEY,  1911-12. 

*  Not  yet  available.  IT.    V.   Hawkins. 


10  Dfx.,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


Vacuum 

Gargoyle 

Prepared 

Red   Sppaying  Oil 


Needs  no  Soft  Soap 
OP  other  ingredient. 


Requires  only 
Clean  Soft  Water. 


\'aciium  Gargoyle  Red  Spray  Oil 
now  obtainable  in  prepared  form 
is  the  same  Oil  as  that  originally 
introduced  to  Australia  for  fruit- 
tree    spraying. 


Full  particulars — 

Horticultural  Department, 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.  Pty.  Ltd., 
90  William  Street,  Melbourne. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Dec,  1912. 


The 

New  Automatic 

Cream  Separator 

Separating  Finished  same  time  as  Milking 

T^HE  AUTOMATIC  CREAM  SEPARATOR 
1  introduced  into  the  Dairy  means  lessening  the 
work  wonderfully— saves  time  and  expense.  At  last 
we  have  got  the  se.f-contained  Cream  Separator, 
automatic  in  action,  simple  enough  for  a  child  to 
work.  It  is  an  ingenious  combination  of  a  powerful, 
perfectly  balanced  motor,  with  a  special  Separator, 
and  will  keep  running  continuous  y  for  6  hours. 
Cost  of  upkeep  is  ridicuously  small,  and  separates  as 
fast  as  seven  or  eight  milkers  can  supply.  No 
intricate  gears.  You  have  only  to  pull  the  cord  on 
the  side,  and  the  machine  ke  ps  going,  producing  a 
smooth  cream,   sKimming  to  .01. 

Know  more  about  this  great   boon  to  dairymen.      It 
will  be  an  excellent  investment  for  you. 

One  size    machine    for  any  size  dairy. 
Write  for  particulars. 

Sole   A.gents  : 

NEWELL    h,    CO. 

43-45  KING  STREET,  MELBOURNE 


NEW  ZEALAND  LOAN  I 
MERCANTILE  AGENCY 

3ead  Oflace —         Melbourne  Offlce- 
LONOON.  COLLINS-ST.  W 


LIBERAL    CASH    ADVAINit^E^. 

Wool,  Grain,  Skins,  Hides,  Tallow, 
Bark,  Stock  and  Station  Brokers 

ON    COMMISSION    ONLY. 

Butter  Shipments  Undertaken  on  Owner's  Account 
AGENTS    FOR 

COOPER'S    DIP 

FOR  VICTORIA  AND  RIVERINA, 

PAGE'S    PATENT   WIRE    STRAINER 
and    IRONSIDE'S    WIRE    CUTTER. 

CHIEF  AGENTS  IN  VICTORIA  for  the 

PALATINE   INSURANCE  CO. 


lo  Dec,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriadiure,   Victoria. 


TRADE 
MARK 


o 


.24.C 


o 


.xn:' o  3MC  ^A-o?  I  o 


GAS  PRODUCTION 

Cheaper  than   COAL  GAS   at  3/'  V^^   1,000  cubic   feet. 
FOR    LIGHTING,    COOKING,    AND    HEATING. 

MANUFACTURED       UNDER       LICENCE       BOOTY-LOFTH  OUSE       PATENTS. 


SYSTEM  ADOPTED  BY  STATE  AND  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENTS. 


For  further  particulars   and  prices  apply 


J.  BARTRAM  &  SON 


PTY.       19,    21,    23    KING  ST. ;    and 
LTD.,        586    BOURKE    ST.,     MELB. 


M 


LYSACHT'S  WIRE  NETTING 

MADE    IN    AUSTRALIA. 

All  Sizes  Manufactured,  ^  inch  to  4  inch  Mesh. 

The  Standard  Netting  of  the  State. 

LOOK     FOR     OUR     MARKER     IN     EVERY     ROLL. 


Our  manufacture  of 
Rabbit -proof  Wire 
Netting  is  known  as 
the  best  throughout 
Australia. 


Better  in  quality,  Rnd 
owing  to  its  being 
loose  rolled  less  costly 
to  erect  than  any  im- 
ported Netting. 


IJ'  *nd  1}'   MESH. 

LYSAGHT  BROS.  &  CO.  Ltd., 

MANUFACTURERS.  SYDNEY. 

AGENTS:  GIBBS,  BRIGHT  &  CO.,  34  Queen  Street,  MELBOURNE. 


Journal  of   Agriculture ,    Victoria.  [lo  Dec,  1912. 


MP.    FARMER. 


This    is    what    concerns    you- 


5  cwt.   Galvd.  Because  it  concerns  your  pocket. 

NEPTUNE^^Tee:  Fencing  Wire 

\i\   Gauge,    will   cost  you    £5       2S.       6cl. 

and  will  give  you  7,150  yds.  of  Single  Wire  Fence. 

10  cwt.    Galvd.    ORDINARY   Fencing   Wire 

No.  8,  will  cost  you  £5  2s.  6d.  and  will  only  give  you  5,280  yds.  of  Single  Wire  Fence. 


GUARANTEED   ^^Y™'^?  "NEPTUNE" 

12^  Gauge,  is  1,140  lbs. 

Breaking  Strain  ORDINARY  No.  8,  is  1,125  lbs. 

Railway  Freight  and  Carriage  is  about  one-third  of  that  on  Ordinary  Wire. 


"NEPTUNE"  Unrivalled  WIRE    is    not  influenced  by    climatic    changes. 
AGENTS-  ASK    YOUR    STOREKEEPER. 

MORRIS  &  MEEKS,  Lt.  Collins-st,  Melbourne. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  VICTORIA. 


POTATO  DISEASES 

IN    AUSTRALIA 

.A.3Sr3D       THEII?.      T  K,  E  ^^T  ]yC  E  IST  T - 
By    D.    McALPINE, 

Government  VegeUble  Pathologist  235  PAGES  FULLY  ILLUSTRATED. 

Tk^X^r.  r^  I /Postage— Commonwealth,  2d. ;  New  Zealand,  8d.  ;\ 

JrriCe      -       5^/"     I British  and  Foreign,  Is.  3d. / 

Applications,  with  Postal  Note  or  Cheque  covering  price  and  postage,  to  be  made  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture, 
Melbourne,   Victoria.  Remittances  from   beyond  the   Commonwealth  to  be  made  by  Post  Office  Order. 


With  Appendices  by 

W.  LAIDLAW,  B.Sc.,  Biologist, 

on  Eel  Worms ; 

and 

O.  FRENCH  (Jnr.),  Acting 

Government  Entomologist, 

on 

Insect  Pests  of  the  Potato. 


BONEDUST.  SUPERPHOSPHATE, 

AND     OTHER     HIGH-GRADE     FERTILIZERS 

DELIVERED  AT  RAILWAY  STATION,  FOOTSCRAY,  OR  ON  WHARF.  MELBOURNE. 


9       'SJI.sLT^-VLT&.cs'trvLir^r. 


. 


Office :— 407  POST  OFFICE  PLACE,  MELBOURNE. 

BONES  BOUGHT.      CONSIGN  TO  ME,  FOOTSCRAY.  Telephone  2098. 


lo  Dec,  1912.] 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria. 


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Journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 


[lo  Dec,  1912. 


WINDMILLS  that  Give  Satisfaction : 


ALSTON'S 


1  91  2 
PATENT. 


The  most  perfect  windmill  motion  in  existence.  Ball-bearing 
throughout.  All  moving  parts  are  enclosed  in  dust-proof  case, 
and  run  in  oil  bath.  Gives  a  direct  and  central  lift  of  the  pump 
rod.  No  overhanging  or  twisting  strains  that  are  common 
in  all  other  makes.   Runs  in  the  i-^*,^        lightest  winds. 

Stands  the  strongest  storms.  ^^^^k  ^^  ^^^  buy  a 
Mill  till   you   have    inspected      ^~^&^.     the   ''Alston.*' 


16  ft.  Alston  Mill  Pumping  from  Bore  into  Trough. 

OVER  30,000  OF  THESE  MILLS  IN  USE  THROUGHOUT  AUSTRALIA. 


WATER    TROUGHING 

The  Alston  Patent  Troug-h  is  the  only  reliable  article.  It  is  manu- 
factured by  the  inventor.  The  Patent  Water-Tig-ht  Joint  of  the 
Alston  Trough  is  perfection.  It  is  made  by  the  overlap  of  the 
curved  steel  sheets  securely  held  by  the  inside  and  outside  bands. 
The  sheets  are  not  grooved,  as  this  only  fractures  the  coating 
of  galvanizing,  and  exposes  the  iron  to  the  action  of  the  water. 


JAMES  ALSTON,  - 


QUEEN'S   BRIDGE, 
MELBOURNE, 


THe    JOURNAL 


or 


^fie  department  of    Mgricufture 


or 


VICTORIA. 


Vol.  X.        Part  12. 


loth  Deeembep,  1912. 


GOOD    AND     FAULTY  CHEESES    EXHIBITED   AT  THE 
ROYAL   SHOW,   1912. 

Report  by  G.  C.  Saivers   (Cheese  Expert). 

Fig.  1. — This  lot  of  cheese  is  regular  in  make  and  size,  and  most 
suitable  for  exporting  to  the  London  market.  The  English  grocers 
prefer  it  to  the  smaller  size,  as  they  claim  there  is  less  waste  in  cutting 
up  on  the  counter. 


CHEESE    FOR    EXPORT. 


Bemarls. — The  flavour  is  clean,  body  and  texture  solid,  firm  and 
smooth.     Finish — neat  with  close  rinds. 

The  flavour  of  a  prime  Cheddar  cheese  should  have  both  the  aroma 
and  flavour  of  a  nut.  It  should  melt  in  the  mouth,  producing  not  only 
an  agreeable  flavour,  but  leaving  a  most  pleasant  after-taste.     If  either 

]-v>4  2  a 


M 


JdiiniaJ  of  Agriculture.   Yicforia.  [lo   Dec,    1912. 


in  smell  or  in  taste,  or  in  after-taste,  there  is  anything  the  least 
nnpleasant,  such  taste  or  smell  is  termed  a  taint. 

The  body  and  texture  should  be  absolutely  uniform,  solid  and 
smooth.    Cheese  open  in  body  dries  up  more  quickly  wlien  cut. 

The  finish  should  show  close  rinds  with  the  bandage  well  pressed 
into  the  sides  and  ends  of  cheese,  allowing  not  more  than  1/2  inch  lap 
each  end. 


FK;.    2. — CIIEK8E    FUR    J.OCAL    AND    INTER-STATE    TRADE. 


-This  lot  is  the  most  suitable  size  for  local  and  Inter-State 

body    and 


Fig.  2. 
trade. 

Remarks. — The  flavour  is  not  so  clean  as  lot  Fig. 
texture  fairly  close.     Finish — fair. 

The  fault  in  flavour  is  due  to  a  taint  in  the  milk,  or  to  the  lactic 
acid  starter  being  over-ripe.  Body  and  texture  being  slightly  open, 
and  furry,  is  due  to  insufficient  acid  being  developed  in  the  curd  before 
saltine:  and  hooping,  and  containing  too  mnch   moisture.      Too    much 


FIG.    3. CHEESE   IRREGULAR    IN    SIZE   AND  POORLY   FINISHED. 


cloth  lapped  over  ends  of  cheese,  which  is  liable  to  work  loose,  and 
give  a  rough  and  ragged  appearance. 

Fig.  3. — This  lot  is  very  irregular  in  size,  a  matter  which  cheese 
merchants  dislike.  For  shipping  they  require  special  crates  made  to 
fit  the  cheese  at  extra  cost. 

The  flavour  is  not  clean,  being  very  pronounced ;  body  and  texture 
too  firm  and  dry.  The  finish  is  rough  and  very  poor,  showing  cracks 
on  sides  of  cheese  and  mold. 


lo  Dec.    1912.]     Good  and  l''aiilfv  Cheeses  at  Koyal  S/ioic,    [912.        715 

The  fault  ill  flavour  is  due  evidently  to  lack  of  clcauliricss.  result- 
ing in  fermentations  eaused  l)y  bacteria,  which  develoj)  only  at  a  high 
temperature.  Body  and  texture  being  too  firm.  dry.  and  rough,  is 
due  to  over-cooking  the  curd  in  the  whey,  causing  the  curd  to  l)e<'ome 
greasy,  and  producing  excessive  loss  of  l)ut1ei-  fat  in  ])ressiiig  the 
cheese. 

A  cracky  condition  in  the  rind  is  diu^  to  ()vei--cooking.  or  sour  i-ui-d  ; 
the  fat  adhering  to  the  outside  ])rcventing  ])ar1icles  of  curd  from  join- 
ing into  one  mass. 

Fig.  4. — This  lot  is  of  very  infiM'ior  make:  only  saleable  at  a  very 
low  })rice. 


FIG.    4. CHEESE    OF    VERV    INFEKlOU    (^1   .\I.1T^     DIJE    TO    ['XCLEANLINESS 

PRIOR    TO    PRESSING. 

Remarks. — The  flavour  is  putrid,  sour;  body  and  texture  weak, 
soft,  and  mealy.     Finish — very  poor. 

The  fault  in  flavour  is  due  to  lack  of  cleanliness,  and  holding  the 
milk  several  days  at  a  low  temperature  before  being  manufactured 
into  cheese. 

Body  and  texture  weak.  soft,  and  mealy,  is  due  to  the  milk  being 
sour — insufficient  cooking  allowing  too  much  acid  in  the  curd  before 
drawing  the  whey  off.  causing  excessive  moisture;  and  at  times  leak  on 
the  shelf. 

Cheese  of  this  descrii)tion  dries  up  readily  on  the  rind,  and  shrinks 
in  size.     It  is  shown  as  a  striking  examph^  of  what  to  avoid. 


STORAGE  TEST  OF  SHIPPIXG  GRAPES. 


F.   de  Casfella,   Govcnuirent  Vificulturiit. 

Experiments  similar  to  those  conducted  last  year,  to  test  the  keeping 
power  of  several  varieties  of  grapes.*  were  again  undertaken  this  year 
with  a  similar  object,  namely,  to  test  the  suitability,  for  exporting  in  a 
fresh  state,  of  several   recently  introduced  table  grapes. 

The  grapes,  which  were  all  grown  in  the  Rutherglen  district,  and 
without  irrigation,  were  packed  in  granulated  cork  in  ordinary  export 
grape  cases.  West  Australian  i)attern,  holding  28  lbs.  of  fruit  net.  They 
were  conveyed  to  Melbourne  in  ordinarv  fruit  trucks  (not  cooled),  actual 
transit  occupying  eight  hours,  but  the  total  time  spent  in  the  truck  was 
about  24  hours. 

*   Sec  Joi/mo/ for  Julv.  1911. 
2    A   2       " 


7i6  Journal  of  Agriculture.   Victoria.  [lo   Dec,    191 2. 

Teneron  du  Cadenet  (white),   8i  points. 
Condition    nearly    as   good   as   Ohanez.       Flavour   superior.       In   fact, 
this  is  one  of  the  best  flavoured  grapes  tried. 

Trifere  du  Japan  (black),  8  points. 

This  grape,  which  is  identical  with  the  one  long  known  in  Victoria 
under  the  name  of  Wortley  Hall,  has  opened  up  in  better  order  than 
previous  trials  would  lead  one  to  expect.  Though  not  in  such  good  order 
as  Ohanez,  it  flavour  is  superior.  The  berries  are  of  very  fine  size,  and 
adhere  fairly  well  in  spite  of  their  rather  thin  skin. 

On  arrival  in  Melbourne,  they  were  placed  in  the  Government  Cool 
Stores,  where  they  were  kept  at  a  temperature  of  33  and  35  degrees  F. 

Four  cases  were  experimented  with  ;  three  of  the.se,  from  the  Viticultural 
College,  Rutherglen,  went  into  the  Cool  Stores  on  14th  March,  1912;  the 
fourth,  grown  by  Mr.  J.  M.  Grimmond,  of  Wahgunyah,  went  into  the 
same  chamber  about  a  week  later.  The  time  the  grapes  remained  in  cool 
storage  was  thus  only  a  few  days  short  of  four  months. 

The  cases  were  opened  and  contents  examined  on  9th  July  last,  in 
the  presence  of  several  officers  of  the  Agricultural  Department,  and  some 
gentlemen  interested  in  the  shipment  of  grapes. 

The  cases  from  the  College  were  somewhat  at  a  disadvantage  owing  to 
the  granulated  cork  being  rather  coarse;  occasional  berries  were  injured 
by  pressure  by  the  angular  fragments. 

The  case  from  Mr.  Grimmond  was  packed  in  fine-grained  cork.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  met  with  a  slight  mishap  at  the  time  of  the  Fruit  and 
Floral  Carnival,  held  from  26th  to  30th  March,  having  been  sent  thither 
in  error  with  some  other  fruit.  The  mistake  was  noticed  on  its  arrival 
at  the  Exhibition  Buildings,  and  it  was  placed  in  the  working  model  cool 
store,  where  it  remained  until  the  close  of  the  Exhibition,  when  it  was 
returned  to  the  Government  Cool  Stores.  It  was  not  opened  at  the 
Exhibition.  Extra  handling  in  transit  and  removal  from  cool  storage  do 
not  appear  to  have  injuriously  affected  the  fruit. 

The  points  awarded  refer  to  marketable  condition,  according  to  a  scale 
from  I  to  10. 

College  Grapes. 
Case  No.    i. — Ohanez  (white),   9!  points. 
The  fruit  was  in  first  class  order        Practically  no  waste;   but  a   few 
berries  were  slightly  wrinkled. 

Case   No.    2. — Valensy   (white),   5   points. 
Very  poor  order,    about   50  per  cent,   waste.       The  state  of  this  case 
bears  out   last   year's  experience   with   the  same  grape.       It  is   not   suited 
for  lengthy  storage. 

Case  No.   3. — Mixed  case,   containing  the  following  varieties  : — 
Ohanez   (white),    9^   points. 
Almost  in  as  good  order  as  Case  No.   i.      Probably  the  proximity  of 
some  grapes  which  had  not  kept  so  well,  accounts  for  the  slight  difference 
in  condition. 

Raisin  de  Noel  (black),  8  points. 
This  grape  has  kept  very  well  for  a  juicy  variety.       It  is  quite  black, 
round,    and   of   medium   size.       Seeing   the   demand    for   black   grapes,    it 
deserves  further  trial. 


lo   Dec.    i9[2.1        Storatic    Test    of    S/iippirit:    Grapes.  jiy 

MavTon  (pink),   ■]\  points. 
Very  fair  order.     A  remarkably  crisp  grape  of  peculiar  texture.     Firm, 
and  of  good  flavour.       Worthy  of  further  trial. 

Malvoisie  des  Chatreux  (white),  7  points. 
This   has   not   kept   so   well   as   last   year's  trial   lot.       A   good   many 
berries  have  decayed  near  the  .stalk.       Excellent  flavour,   almost  as  good 
as  Teneron  du  Cadenet. 

Malaga  Rose.   7  points. 
A   medium   sized   very   pale   pink    grape.        These   dropped    from    the 
bunch  somewhat,  but  were  in  fair  order,  and  good  flavour. 

Olivette  Rose,   about  6  points. 
Scarcely  equal  to  last  year's  trial  ior. 

Kobou,  6j  points. 
A  juicy   white  grape  of  good  flavour,   but  not  very   large.        It  kept 
fairly    well. 

Valensy,  5  points. 
About  the  same  as  the  single  case  of  this  variety. 

Sabalkanskoi,   3  points. 
This  large,  elongated,  pink  grape,  though  remarkably  handsome  when 
freshly  gathered,  has  proved  it.self  to  be  a  poor  keeper.      Very  few  berries 
are  altogether  sound.      Evpn  the  sound  berries  are  deficient  in  flavour. 

Mr.  Grimmoud' s  Ca.:e. 
This  case  contained  the  following  four  varieties  : — 

Red  May,  gh  points. 
Excellent  order,  practically  as  good  as  Ohanez.      This  grape  certainly 
appears  to  be  a  shipper.       It  is  a  handsome  bright   red,   somewhat  oval 
grape,    which   does   not   detach   easiiy,    and   is   more   juicy   and   of   better 
flavour  than  Ohanez. 

Red  Portugal,  9  points. 
This  appears  to  be  identical  with  Red  Malaga.       Almost  as  good  as 
Ohanez. 

Grimmond' s  Black,  8^  points. 
This  black  grape,  the  correct  name  of  which  is  unknown,  has  stood 
the  trial  remarkably  well.  The  slight  muscat  flavour  which  characterizes 
it  when  fresh  had  almost  disappeared  after  cool  storage.  It  is  fairly 
juicy,  and  in  good  order.  Seeing  the  demand  for  black  grapes  on  the 
English  market,  it  is  worthy  of  further  trial. 

Gros  Caiman  (black),  7  points. 
In   fair  condition.       Scarcely   in  as   good   condition   as   Wortley    Hall 

referred  to  above.      It  does  not  promise  well  as  a  shipping  grape. 
*  -^  *  *  * 

Seeing  the  accident  referred  to  above,  it  is  remarkable  that  Mr.  Grim- 
mond's  grapes  opened  up  in  such  good  order.  Each  of  his  bunches  were 
broken  up  into  several  smaller  ones  when  packing — a  verv  desirable  prac- 
tice. This,  as  well  as  the  finer-grained  cork,  no  doubt,  contributed  to  the 
good  condition  in  which  this  case  opened  up.  It  must  be  noted,  also,  that 
Mr.  Grimmond's  grapes  are  grown  on  almost  pure  sand,  whilst  the  College 
grapes  ore  from  very  stiff  soil.      Grapes  grown  on  sand  usually  carry  well. 


7i8  Journal  of  Agriciiliiirc .    Vicioria.  [lo   Dec.    1912. 

GENERAL   NOTES. 

PIG  FEEDING— 

The  Central  P^xperiment  P'arm,  Ottawa,  lias  carried  out  a  series 
of  pig-feeding  experiments,  and  the  conclusions  arrived  at  include 
the  following  points: — It  will  not  pay  to  cook  feed  (grain  and  meals) 
for  swine  if  econom^y  of  production  is  alone  considered.  More  food 
is  required  to  produce  1  lb.  of  gain  after  the  live-weight  exceeds 
100  lbs.,  and  the  most  economical  time  to  slaughter  swine  is  when 
they  weigh  175  to  200  lbs.  The  average  dressed  weight  of  swine  is 
about  76  per  cent,  of  the  fasted  weight.  Slrim  milk  is  a  valuable 
addition  to  a  grain  ration  where  hard  flesh  is  desired,  and  700  lbs. 
skim  milk  equals  100  lbs.  mixed  grain,  unless  the  milk  is  used  in  undue 
proportion.  The  greatest  gains  from  a  given  amount  of  grain  are 
made  when  the  grain  is  ground  and  soaked  for  24  hours.  ^Nlixed 
grains  are  more  economical  than  grains  fed  pure. 


PHOSPHATES  ON  PASTURE— 

The  soils  of  A^ictoria  generally  show  a  marked  deficiency  in  avail- 
able phosphates,  and  as  a  result  the  use  of  phosphatic  manure  upon 
cereal  crops  has  become  almost  universal.  As  wheat  and  oats  belong 
to  the  order  of  Grasses,  one  might  infer  that  common  pasture  grasses 
Avould  likewise  benefit  from  an  application  of  phosphatic  manure. 
In  this  connexion  the  results  obtained  by  the  Federal  Institution  of 
Agriculture,  at  Lausanne,  make  suggestive  reading.  Two  adjoining 
sections  of  pasture  were  selected,  and  one  of  them  received  4  cwt. 
superphosphate  each  year,  while  the  other  got  no  manure.  The  experi- 
ments lasted  three  years.  In  the  first  year  the  yield  on  the  unmanured 
plot  was  9  cwt..  and  on  the  manured  plot  14  cwt. ;  in  the  second  year 
the  yields  were  6  cwt.  and  18  cwt. ;  and  in  the  third  year  7  cwt.  and 
29  cwt.  respectively.  The  size  of  the  plots  is  not  stated.  Besides 
increasing  the  yield,  the  phosphate  also  improved  the  quality  of  the 
herbage,  and  at  the  close  of  the  experiments  clovers  formed  45  per 
cent,  of  the  herbage  on  the  phosphate  plot,  as  compared  to  9  per  cent, 
without  manure.  The  profit  from  the  superphosphate  was  calculated 
at  £1  8s.  6d.  per  acre  each  year.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  soils  here 
were  rich  in  humiLs,  and  showed  no  deficiency  of  phosphates  by 
chemical  tests;  consequently  the  only  sure  means  of  testing  the  need 
for  phosphates  was  a  trial  in  the  field.  The  quantity  of  manure  used 
at  Lausanne  is  considerably  in  excess  of  that  indicated  for  application 
to  pastures  in  this  State  for  reasons  that  are  partly  climatic  and 
partly  commercial.  It  is  a  well  known  law  of  manuring,  however, 
that  if  a  heavy  dressing  of  manure  yields  a  profit  a  small  dressing 
will  give  a  better  return  relatively  to  outlay,  although  the  total  profit 
may  be  less.  For  pasture  trials  in  Victoria,  from  1  cwt.  to  2  cwt. 
superphosphate  per  acre  would  be  a  suitable  dressing  for  the  land. 


JO   Ukc.    191^-]  General    Notes.  719 

CROPPING  IN  VICTORIA- 

According  to  the  latest  volume  ot  the  C  oiin)i<inueaUh  Year-Book, 
Victoria,  in  1910-11,  had  3,952,070  acies  under  crop.  This  was  equal 
to  one-third  of  the  total  cropped  area  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  to  7 
per  cent,  of  the  total  superficial  area  of  the  State.  Of  the  cropped 
area  nearly  61  per  cent,  was  devoted  to  wheat,  21  to  hay,  10  to  oats, 
while  no  other  crop  formed  as  much  as  1  per  cent.  Among  the  various 
States,  Victoria  in  wheat  sowed  the  largest  area,  and  reaped  the  largest 
crop — also  in  oats  and  barley.  In  maize  (grain)  Queensland  planted 
nine  times  as  much  as  Victoria,  and  Xew  South  Wales  about  eleven  times 
as  much,  but  in  Victoria  the  yield  i)er  acrt-  was  double  that  of  any  other 
State.  In  beans  and  peas  Victoria  came  second  to  Ta.smania  in  pomt 
of  area  with  11,068  acres,  and  in  rye  with  2.640.  S€-cond  to  New  South 
Wales.  In  hay  it  cut  194,000  acres  more  than  any  other  State.  In 
orchards  and  fruit  Victoria  showed  57,375  acres,  or  about  10,000  in 
excess  of  New  South  Wales,  which  came  .second.  In  vines  it  tied  with 
South  Australia  for  first  place  at  23,412  acres.  Victoria  had  most 
market  garden,  10,778  acres,  and  the  largest  area  under  potatoes,  62,904 
acres.  In  onions  it  had  almost  a  monopolv — 6,161  acres.  Tobacco, 
329  acres,  was  about  one-sixth  of  the  Australian  total,  and  in  hops  Vic- 
toria was  a  poor  second  with  121  acres.  Hops  are  chief! v  grown  in 
Tasmania.  A  poor  place  taken  by  Victoria  was  in  the  matter  of  green 
forage.  In  this  it  took  third  place  with  71,826  acre^s,  or  nearly  no. 000 
acres  below  the  figures  for  New   South  Wales. 


BRITISH  IMPORTS  OF  BUTTER— 

In  the  vear  ending  30th  June  last  there  were  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom  200,195  t'^'^s  of  butter,  of  which  52,857  tons,  or  26  per  cent 
came  from  British  Dominions.  Of  the  latter  Australia  contributed 
33,677,  Canada  2,997,  ^"d  New  Zealand  16,183  tons.  In  their 
eighteenth  Annual  Revieztf,  Messrs.  W.  Weddel  and  Company.  I>imited, 
mention  some  interesting  facts  in  connexion  with  the  dairy  produce  trade. 
So  far  as  butter  is  concerned,  Canada  is  dropping  out  from  the  export 
business.  Of  the  European  countries  most  ha\-e  declined  .somewhat  in 
butter  exports  to  England  in  the  last  few  years,  Sweden  alone  showing 
a  considerable  increase.  Holland  has  been  sending  increasingly  to  Ger- 
many. Imports  from  the  Argentine  shows  a  decrease  in  recent  years, 
and  United  States  exports  are  now  small.  Comparing  the  prices  during 
the  quinquennial  period.  1893-98,  with  the  prices  for  1908-12.  there  has 
been  a  rise  in  butter  from  all  countries,  but  it  has  not  l^een  unifonnly 
distributed.  In  fifteen  years  Dutch  butter  has  improved  by  i8s.  lod. 
per  cwt.,  Russian  by  18s.  3d.,  Irish  by  r5s.  6d.,  Xew  Zealand  13s.  iid., 
Danish  and  Swedish  9s.  gd.,  Australian  8s.  lod..  and  French  5s.  2d. 
During  the  final  period  the  prices  were — Danish,  121s.  iid.  :  French, 
120s.  6d.  ;  Dutch.  ii8s.  7d.  ;  New  Zealand,  115.S.  9d.  ;  Irish,  115s.  7d.  ; 
Australian,  ins.  iid.  ;  and  Russian,  109s.  7d. — all  per  cwt.  The 
process  of  cream  pasteurization  and  careful  handing  in  New  Zealand  is 
noted,  and  it  is  remarked  that  Australian  butter  has  not  given  to  buyers 
of  finest  qualitv  the  same  complete  satisfaction  as  New  Zealand  butter. 
As  regards  the  markets  in  the  coming  .sea.son  it  is  anticipated  that  prices 
will  rule  considerably  lower  than  those  for  1911-12.  but  will  exceed  the 
average  of  the  preceding  four  years. 


720  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Vicfcria.  [lo   Dec,    191 2. 

INSECT   PESTS   OP   THE   NEW   ZEALAND   FLAX 

{Phormium). 

The  "White  Mussel  Scale   {Phenacaspis  eugeniae,  Maskell). 

C.  French,  Jun.,  Acting  Government  Entomologist. 

This  scale,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  is  spreading  in 
many  parts  of  the  State.  Recently  numbers  of  fine  New  Zealand  flax 
plants  (PJiormium  tenax)  have  been  attacked;  and,  in  some  instances, 
especially  after  the  predaceous  insects  have  pulled  the  scales  to  pieces^ 
the  plants  look  as  if  a  snowstorm  had  passed  over  them.     (See  plate  1.) 

When  the  leaves  are  badly  attacked,  they  develop  a  fungus  which 
causes  them  to  become  rusty-red  in  colour,  and  in  some  instances  they 
turn  brown  and  curl  up.  Mr.  C.  C.  Brittlebank,  the  Acting  Govern- 
ment Pathologist,  informs  me  that  the  fungus  is  one  of  the  stages  of 
Capnodium. 

Numbers  of  the  scales  are  attacked  by  parasitic  wasps,  other 
Hymenoptera,  and  Coccinellids  (ladybirds),  which  help  materially  to 
keep  them  in  check. 

This  scale  insect  is  recorded  from  most  parts  of  Australia,  Ceylon, 
Japan,  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  has  been  found  on  various  plants  and 
trees,  amongst  which  are  the  following: — Castor  Oil  Tree  {Ricinus 
commnnis),  Eugenias  (a  very  ornamental  and  highly  useful  genus 
of  plants).  Palms,  Tea  Tree  {Leptospcrmum  and  Melaleuca),  Native 
Sassafras  Tree   (Atherosperma  moschatum),  &c. 

.  Remedies. 

A  spraying  with  Pine  Spray,  Prepared  Red  Oil,  Kerosene  or 
Benzole  emulsion  will  soon  rid  the  plants  of  this  pest.  Formulas  for 
any  of  the  above  sprays  can  be  obtained  by  applying  to  the  Entomo- 
logical Branch,  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  Ivy  or  Oleander  Scale  {Aspiditous  hederae,  Vail'). 

This  is  another  common  scale,  which  attacks  flax  plants  in  Vic- 
toria. It  causes  similar  damage  to  that  done  by  the  White  Mussel 
Scale,  and  congregates  on  the  leaves  in  larger  numbers.  In  some 
instances  leaves  5  feet  in  length  are  simply  covered  with  them,  the 
scales  often  overlapping  each  other. 

When  the  young  scales  are  hatched — generally  in  September  and 
the  following  warm  months — they  are  of  a  dark-yellow  colour,  and 
soon  form  a  white  round  covering  over  themselves,  which  after  a  few 
weeks  alters  to  a  dirty  white,  greyish,  or  light-brown  colour.  This 
covering  has  a  small  cream-coloured  dot  in  the  centre. 

This  is  a  variable  species,  and  has  received  considerably  more  than 
40  names  from  writers  on  Coccids  (scale  insects).  It  has  been  found 
on  oranges  and  lemons  coming  into  Melbourne  from  foreign  parts, 
bananas  from  Fiji,  olives,  palms,  oleander,  ivy.  apples,  cherry,  plum, 
currant,  grass,  clover,  and  many  other  garden  and  native  plants. 
It  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the  world. 

Remedies. 
The  remedies  recommended  for  the  White  Mussel  Scale  will  suffice. 


lo  Dec,    1912.]      Imcct   /'esLs  of  ilie  N civ  Zealand  Flax. 


721 


THE    WHITE    MUSSEL    SCALE     (PHENACASPIS    EUGENIAE,    MASKELL), 


H 
H 

^1 

^^^H 

' '»    .»        « T      »'       1        M.A  ,j^*    -        »     r-      #<<«M 

THE    IVY    OR   OLEANDER   SCALE    (aSPIDIOTUS   HEDERAE,    VALL'), 


722  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Yiiforia.  \\o   Dec,    191 2. 


LEONGATHA  LABOUR  COLONY. 

Trustees: — E.  J.  Nevell  (Chairman),  Dr.  S.  S.  Cameron,  P.  J.  Carroll, 
J.  H.  Mullally,  and  J.  R.  Pescott. 

In  presenting  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Leongatha  Labour  Colony, 
the  Trustees  desire  to  place  on  record  a  complete  and  comprehensive 
statement  of  the  transactions  and  conduct  of  the  farm  for  the  year 
ending  80th  June,  1912. 

We  wish  to  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  institution  is  now 
in  the  twentieth  year  of  its  existence,  and  during  this  term  some 
1,200  men  have  received  assistance.  In  the  case  of  those  that  have 
been  physically  fit  a  good  sound  training  in  agricultural  work 
generally  has  been  obtained.  Many  of  the  colonists  have  become 
competent  farm  labourers,  and  in  a  few  instances  successful  farmers 
in  the  district. 

In  1893  the  farm  comprised  822  acres  of  virgin  land;  since  then 
some  400  acres  have  been  disposed  of  at  prices  ranging  from  £12  to 
£25  per  acre,  and  this  land  is  to-day  studded  with  prosperous  farm 
houses.  The  portion  retained  for  Colony  purposes  forms  one  of  the 
best  improved  farms  in  South  Gippsland.  An  additional  40  acres 
have  recently  been  excised  for  the  purposes  of  a  High  School,  and  the 
balance,  consisting  of  382  acres,  is  valued  on  the  Colony  books  at 
£26  per  acre.  After  taking  full  credit  for  the  improvements  effected, 
and  the  value  of  land  sold  and  excised,  the  debit  balance  stands  at 
£1.700.  When  the  number  of  men  relieved  and  the  benefit  received 
by  them  is  taken  into  consideration,  the  position  should  be  considered 
satisfactory. 

For  the  year  under  review,  117  acres  of  land  were  put  under 
cultivation,  the  whole  of  the  produce  being  used  on  the  farm  as  food 
for  dairy  stock  and  pigs.  For  the  coming  season,  the  following  areas 
have  been  either  put  under  crop  or  brought  into  a  good  state  of 
cultivation  preparatory  to  cropping : — 

61  acres  Oats.       Estimate  yield,   122   tons. 

21  „  Oats  and  Tares,  silage.      Estimate  yield,  168  tons. 

30  ,,  fallowed   for   Millet,   Maize,   and   Sorghum.       Estimate   yield, 

300  tons. 

23  ,,  Peas   (10  acres  in  now).       Estimate  yield,  445  bushels. 

8  ,,  Pumpkins.      Estimate  yield,  120  tons. 

7  ,,  Mangels.       Estimate  yield,    105   tons. 

8  „  Potatoes.      Estimated  yield,  40  tons. 
15  „  Millet,   for   grazing  purposes. 

13       „       New  pasture  sown  down.  Rye  and  Clover  (mixed). 

The  advantage  in  this  respect  will  be  readily  understood  when  it 
is  pointed  out  that  the  area  the  previous  year  was  only  117  acres. 
The  yield  for  the  season  just  closing  must,  however,  in  view"  of  the 


TO   Dice.    igiJ.l      Report   on   Leongaf lid   Labour   Coloiiv.  723 


dryness  c'x[)t'rieiic(_'(l,  ?^rl)e  con- 
sidered tiiirly  siitisf'jictory.  the 
uverim'e  ri'tiirns  Iicjul;-  ;is  fol- 
lows : — 

Oats  for  silayH — yield,  3  tons  jjcr  acre. 
Peas — yield,  20  busliels  per  acre. 
Hay  (oats  and  wheat) — yield,  2  tons 

per  acre. 
Sorghum — yield,   10   tons  ]ier  acr<'. 
Maize  and  millet — fed  off. 
Potatoes — yield.  3  tons  per  acre. 
Apples,  exported — 600  cases. 

,,        local  sales — 667  cases. 
Plums — 28  cases. 
Peaches — 9   cases. 
Quinces — 8  cases. 
Pears — -k^^   cases. 
Strawberries — 1,596  lbs. 
Red  currants — 29  lbs. 
Black   currants — 304  lbs. 
Raspberries — 397  lo   lbs. 
Almonds — 25  lbs. 
Walnuts   (green) — 44  lbs. 
Tomato  plants— 4,102. 
Cabbage  plants — 920. 
Rhubarb  bunches — 472. 
Tomatoes — 46  cases. 
Lavender  cuttings — 32,600. 

Buildings. 

The  l)iiildiiig's  consist  of  iiiauii- 
ger's  house,  stores  and  otiices, 
staff  and  men's  quarters,  six 
men's  huts,  and  dining-rooms, 
fruit-house,  stables,  harn.  and 
im]»lement  slieds,  engine  and 
pum]ting  plant  l)uilding,  dairy- 
man's house,  milking  and  shelter 
sheds,  piggery  and  accommoda- 
tion yards,  milkers'  and  pigmen's 
huts,  and  several  cattle  shelter 
sheds.  Most  of  these  have  been 
erected  by  colonists ;  they  are 
complete  and  modern  without 
being  extravagant,  and  will  bear 
comparison  for  economy  and 
utility  with  similar  farm  build- 
ings in  any  i)art  of  the  State. 
These  improvements  a'-e  kept 
in  thorongh  re])air  by  the 
colonists.  During  the  past  year 
commodious  piggeries  have  been 
erected  on  the  farm  capalile 
of    holding     15<»    pigs     in    the 


724  Journal  of  Agriculture .   Victoria.  [10   Dec,    1912. 

fattening  pens,  in  addition  to  convenient  sheds  and  runs  for  the 
brood  sows  and  store  pigs.  The  floors  of  the  main  building  are  of 
machine-made    bricks,    cement    grouted;    the    walls   are   on    pivots   to 


admit  air  and  sunshine,  with  a  lantern  roof  with  glass  lights  for  light 
and  ventilation.  In  every  respect  this  building  presents  a  model 
of  perfect  hygiene  in  farm  buildings,  and  accounts  in  a  very  great 


10  Dec,   191 


Report   0)1   T.conii^af lift   LahoKr   Colonv. 


725 


measure  for  the  freedom  from  disease  that  has  been  the  happy  experi- 
ence of  the  farm.  The  two  silos,  which  are  capable  of  holding 
250  tons  of  fodder,  are  kept  constantly  in  use,  and  are  usually  filled 
twice  a  year.  Persistent  effort  is  put  forth  to  conserve  a  full  and 
complete  ration  for  the  dairy  stock,  a  purpose  for  wliich  the  silos 
have  been  found  indispensable.  The  cow  shed  is  constructed  on 
sanitary  lines,  and  will  accommodate  32  cows  at  a  time ;  while  shade 
and  shelter  sheds  and  water  are  provided  in  the  yards  for  the  cows 
waiting  to  be  milked ;  those  milked  are  turned  direct  into  the 
paddocks.  Stables,  hay  shed,  fruit  storage  rooms,  and  men's  quarters 
are  substantial  and  convenient,  the  latter,  in  addition,  being 
thoroughly  sanitary. 

Stock.  ' 

There  are  altogether  383  head  of  stock,  including  120  dairy  herd, 
8  commercial  cattle,  13  draught  horses,  3  light  horses,  and  239  pigs; 
the  total  value  being  £1,879  14s. 


INTERIOR    OF    MILKING    SHED. 


As  evidence  of  the  improved  financial  aspect  of  this  institution 
since  being  handed  over  to  the  present  management,  it  may  be  pointed 
out  that  in  1904,  the  year  immediately  prior  to  present  control,  the 
Government  grant  to  carry  on  was  between  £4.000  and  £5.000. 
while  to-day  it  stands  at  £400  only.  This  means  that  the  farm  has, 
in  the  meantime,  been  made  almost  self-supporting,  a  fact  considered 
most  gratifying  in  view  of  the  purpose  it  serves,  and  the  fact  that  in 
many  cases  the  unfortunates  admitted  have  not  for  some  time  after 
admission  been  in  a  fit  state  to  give  labour  adequate  to  the  cost  of 


72.6 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria.  [re   Dec.    191 2. 


rlieir  kce]).  Every  effort  has,  of 
course,  been  made  to  bring'  about 
tliis  result  hy  in(;reasing-  tlie  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  farm,  and,  at 
tlie  same  time,  reducing-  ex})endi- 
ture  by  economical  working. 

The   following  is  a   statement  of 
tlie  revenue  for  each  vear  from — 


]  904-5 
:  905-6 
1906-7 
]  907-8 
1908-9 
1909-10 
1910-11 
1911-12 


£ 

s. 

d. 

1,266 

2 

1 

1,172 

4 

8 

1,382 

18 

3 

1,408 

3 

10 

1,847 

0 

4 

2,111 

( 

8 

2,044 

18 

4 

2  212 


Particulars  of  the  transactions 
for  the  past  year  will  be  shown 
on  a  later  page.  Taking  the 
])articular  items  of  revenue,  i.e., 
})igs.  dairy,  and  garden,  it  is 
evident  that  the  Colony's  produce  is 
earning  a  reputation  for  soundness 
and  ([uality. 

Pigs. 

Although  tlie  receipts  are  less 
this  year  than  the  previous  one, 
it  must  be  borne  in  ndnd  that 
the  prices  were  fully  ;>0  per 
cent,  lower  ;  but,  notwithstand- 
ing this  ftxct,  the  undertaking 
shows  a  substantial  profit.  Pig 
raising  and  fattening  is  a  fluctuat- 
ing business,  but  it  is  felt  that 
l)y  keeping  the  stock  up  to 
the  maximum  at  all  times  we 
will  be  enabled  to  reap  the  ad- 
vantage when  ])rices  go  up.  It 
is  anticipated  that  with  the 
])rospect  of  high  prices  a,  very 
large  increase  in  receipts  will  be 
shown  in  the  present  year's  trans- 
actions. 


lo   Dec,    1912.]      Report   on   I.congafh<i    Labour  Colony. 


■^7 


The  class  of  pius  ;it  itrcsciit 
on  the  (.V)loiiy  are  made  \\\)  as 
follows  : — 

24  podigreod   Yorkshire    sows. 

2  pedigreed   Yorkshire   sows    (young). 
10  pedigreed  Berkshire  sows. 

2  pedigreed   Berksiiiro   sows    (young). 

25  cross-bred  sows. 

3  pedigreed  Yorkshire  boars. 
1  pedigreed   Berkshire    boar. 

5  pedigreed  Yorkshire  boars   (young) 
40  porkers. 
60  stores   (large). 
49  stores  (small). 

18  suckers. 

239 


The  Berkshire  -  Yorksliire  cross 
is  used  extensively,  and  the  pro- 
geny of  these  breeds  seem  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the 
trade,  no  difticulty  hein^t;-  exj)eri- 
enced  in  obtaining  top  market 
})rices  either  on  the  Melbourne 
or  local  markets.  A  pleasing" 
feature  in  connexion  with  our 
pig  business  is  that  not  a  singh' 
case  of  disease  has  occurred. 
This  is  attributed  in  a  large  mea- 
sure to  the  fact  that  all  the 
])igs  arc  bred  on  the  establisli- 
ment,  and  tliat  the  conditions 
under  which  the  animals  arc 
housed  are  of  a  thoroughly  sani- 
tary nature. 

Dairy. 

The  receipts  for  the  year 
were  £624  ;  but  we  ho])e  to  in- 
crease this  sum  very  materially 
in  the  future  without  adding  tn 
the  number  of  cows,  some  'J<» 
or  30  of  which  have  been 
rejected  with  the  object  oi' 
filling  their  jdaces  with  young 
heifers  which  are  coming  into  profit. 


728 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.         [lo  Dec,    191 2. 


and  which  are  mostly  from  selected  pure  bred  Jerseys,  Ayrshires,  and 
Jersey-Holstein  cows  by  a  Jersey  bull.  By  this  means  it  is  antici- 
pated that  the  future  must  show  a  satisfactory  yearly  increase  in 
receipts. 

Dairy    cattle    on    the    establishment    number     120,     made   up    as 
follows : — 


Dairy    cows    .  . 

2-year-old  Jerseys 

2-year-old  cross-bred   Jerseys 

1-year-old  .Jerseys 

1-year-old  cross-bred   Jerseys 

4-year-old  Jersey  bull,   pure 

1-year-old  Jersey  bull,   pure 

2-year-old  Ayrshire 


also   8  commercial   cattle 


82 
10 
10  due  to  calve  next  autumn. 

4 
11 

1 

1 

1 

120 


128 


Garden  and  Orchard. 

This  branch  of  the  work  has  greatly  improved  under  the  present 
management,  as  some   three  years  ago  we  were  only  able  to  make 


JERSEY   CALVES. 

available  for  export  300  cases  of  apples,  while  during  the  past  season 
600  cases  were  despatched  to  London,  which,  considering  the  labour 
troubles  that  existed  there,  realized  very  fair  prices,  ranging  from 
8s.  9d.  to  13s.  9d.  per  case.  In  addition,  something  like  800  cases 
were  sold  on  the  Melbourne  and  local  markets,  averaging  about  6s.  6d. 
per  case.  Fruit  and  vegetables  were  provided  for  the  consumption 
of  the  men  on  the  Colony  to  the  value  of  about  £60  for  the  year. 

It  may  be  pointed  out  here  that  all  our  meat  for  food  for  the  men 
and  staff  is  purchased  on  the  hoof  and  killed  on  the  establishment,  the 
average  cost  coming  out  at  lis.  8d.  per  100  lbs.;  and  the  sum  of 
£93  8s.  Id.  was  received  for  the  sale  of  hides  and  skins  from  same. 

During  the  year  under  review  266  men  have  passed  through  the 
Colony,  and  37  of  these  were  still  in  residence  on  the  30th  June,  1912. 
The  table  herewith  shows  the  various  occupations  represented  by  the 
colonists.      The  task  of  adapting  these  men  to  work  foreign  to  their 


lo   Dec,    19 1 2.]     Report  on  Leongatha  Labour  Colony. 


729 


training  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  that  the  management 

has  to  solve,  and,  to  a  very  great  extent,  minimizes  the  value  of  the 
labour  which  they  perform : — 

Labourers     .  .               .  .               .  .               .  .               .  .               .  .               .  .               .  .  87 

Milkers          .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .  32 

Cooks              .  .               . .               . .               . .               . .               . .               . .               . .  18 

Gardeners     .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              . .              . .              . .  10 

Farm    labourer,    clerks             .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .  14 

Drapers          .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .  5 

Aecountauts,    usefuls,    engine-drivers,    bakers    .  .               .  .               .  .               .  .  12 

Ironmoulders,    confectioners,    miners    .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .  16 

Kitclienmen,  solicitors,  farm  hands,  waiters,  firemen,  tinsmiths   .  .               .  .  27 

Butchers,  bullock-drivers,  seamen,   bootmakers,   wheelwrights,   tentmakers, 

frenchpolishers,    bricklayers            .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .  16 

Cabinetmaker,  engineer,  bushman,  baker,  engine-fitter,  school  teacher, 
bookkeeper,  blacksmith,  grocer,  machinist,  shearer,  brass-fitter,  boiler- 
maker,   sailor,   printer,   plumber,   sailmaker,   tailor,   painter,    plasterer, 

canvasser,    &c.     .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .              .  .  29 


266 


Their  ages  were  as  follow: — 

Under  30  years  of  age 
Between  30  and  40  .  . 
Between  40  and  50  .  . 
Over    50 


46 

78 

101 

41 


266 


Work  has  been  secured  in  the  district  at  remunerative  wages  for 
about  40  per  cent,  of  these  men,  others  have  left  with  sufficient  money 


COLONISTS    HOEING   BEANS. 

earned  on  the  establishment  to  carry  them  along  while  looking  for  em- 
ployment ;  a  few  left  without  giving  any  notice  of  their  intention  to 
leave,  and  five  were  sent  to  Melbourne  for  medical  treatment.  Thirty- 
five  were  sent  to  work  in  and  round  Melbourne  by  the  Secretary  direct 
from  the  head  office;  this  number  is  not,   however,   included  in   the 


73° 


Journal  of  Agriculture.   Yicforia.  [lo   Dec,    191 


above  list,  as  the  men  did  not  pass  throngh  the  Colony.  During  the 
onion  season  all  colonists  who  were  physically  capable  w^ere  sent  out, 
weeding  and  bagging,  and  were  allowed  on  payment  of  a  reason- 
able sum  to  board  on  the  Colony.  The  men  availed  themselves  of 
this  convenience  readily,  and  the  practice  is  much  appreciated  by 
employers.  The  question  of  rationing  the  men  is  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  manager,  and  the  following  constitutes  the  bill  of  fare 
for  each  day:— Meat,  I14  lb.;  bread,  li/4  lb.;  potatoes,  1  lb.;  sugar, 
14  lb. ;  tea,  2  oz. ;  oatmeal  and  rice,  2  oz. ;  treacle,  1  oz. ;  vegetables, 
ad  lib.;  fruit,  when  in  season;  salt,  pepper,  mustard,  and  curry,  as 
required. 

The  existence  of  the  Labour  Colony  is  a  great  boon  to  the  class 
of  people  who  avail  themselves  of  its  shelter.  It  is,  indeed,  pitiable 
that   there   are   so   many   men    representing   professions,    trades,    and 


COLONISTS    CUTTING    l-'llvEW  UUD. 


occupations  who  are  unable  to  follow  their  usual  avocations.  Whilst 
such  a  condition  of  affairs  exists,  so  long  will  an  institution  similar 
to  the  Labour  Colony  be  required.  Owing  to  the  alienation  from  the 
original  area  of  land  vested  in  the  Trustees,  and  the  highly  improved 
condition  of  the  remaining  portion,  it  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty 
to  find  reproductive  work  for  so  many  men.  If  it  be  proposed  to 
continue  this  form  of  relief,  it  will  be  necessary  for  fresh  areas  of 
virgin  land  to  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Trustees  so  that  the 
work  of  reclamation,  which  is  the  more  profitable  as  well  as  the  more 
suitable  kind  of  employment  for  this  kind  of  labour,  may  be  under- 
taken. With  the  present  farm  as  a  base,  much  valuable  work  could 
be  carried  out.  and  many  of  the  initial  difficulties  likely  to  be 
encountered  when  operating  in  an  entirely  new  field  would  be  obviated. 
When  such  lands  were  sufficiently  improved  to  warrant  the  plant  and 


lo   Dec.    lyij.]      Report   on   /.cannot ha   Labour  Colonv.  731 

managenicnl  hciiio-  ti-jmsferrod  thereto,  the  present  farm  wouhl  no 
doubt  be  fouiitl  innnensely  siiitabh'  for  other  purposes,  and  should 
prove  a  valual)le  asset  to  the  State.  The  reclaiming  of  land,  which 
would  not  otherwise  warrant  the  expenditure  involved  in  clearing, 
would  soon  answer  a  double  purpose  by  providing  employment  for 
the  class  of  man  the  Colony  caters  for,  while  at  the  same  time  bringing 
into  a  state  of  productiveness  land  which  would  otherwise  be  of  little 
use.  Such  land  would  not  ])roduce  any  return  for  some  time,  and 
the  expenditure  would  at  first  liave  to  be  met  from  a  grant,  which,  as 
the  land  becomes  profitable,  could  be  gradually  reduced,  as  has  been 
done  in  the  case  of  the  Leongatha  Lal)our  Colony. 

The  Trustees  naturally  feel  proud  of  the  achievement  of  tlu'  farm 
as  a  revenue  producer,  and  the  financial  improvement  generally  which 
has  been  manifested  since  it  was  handed  over  to  them;  whih'  its 
benefit  as  an  educational  factor  in  the  district  has  been  evidenced  by 
the  large  number  of  farmers  and  others  interested  in  such  pursuits 
in  this  and  other  parts  of  the  world  who  have  from  time  to  time 
visited  it  and  sought  advice  from  the  management  regarding  various 
phases  of  the  work.  Requests  have  been  made  and  granted  for 
demonstrations  in  fruit  culture,  while  the  Farm  jManager  was  chosen 
as  a  representative  of  the  farmers  on  the  Board  of  Control  of  the 
Agricultural  High  School  at  Leongatha. 

The  staff  of  the  Labour  Colony  at  present  consists  of  ]\Iessrs. 
J.  J.  Willoughby  (farm  manager),  A.  P.  Prout  (gardener),  J.  Dick 
(dairyman),  W.  Wilson  (general  farm  hand)  ;  and  all  of  these  have 
carried  out  their  duties  with  zeal  and  intelligence.  The  Trustees  are 
also  indebted  to  their  Secretary  {"Sir.  W.  H.  Crate)  for  the  valuable 
assistance  he  has  at  all  times  given  in  the  performance  of  his  duties. 

Farm  Manager's  Report. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  rainfall  for  this  season  has  been  low 
as  compared  with  the  previous  year,  being  24.72  inches  as  against 
■43.]  G  inches  for  1911;  a  difference  of  19.56  inches. 

Owing  to  the  dry  season  and  early  autumn,  the  growth  of  crops 
and  grass  has  been  below  the  average.  These  conditions  proved 
advantageous  in  one  respect,  as  they  facilitated  flie  work  of  ploughing 
and  preparing  land  for  sowing. 

Nineteen  acres,  comprising  different  kinds  of  summer  fodder  crops, 
were  sown  last  year,  including  sorghum,  millet,  mangolds,  and 
pumpkins.  Of  these,  only  the  firstnamed  (8  acres)  gave  any  returns, 
the  others  being  destroyed  by  the  absence  of  rain  and  the  prevalence 
of  late  frosts.  The  sorghum  Mas  converted  into  silage,  and  produced 
80  tons  of  that  valual)le  fodder.  It  is  evident  from  the  ahove  that 
under  adverse  conditions  sorghum  is  a  more  valuable  summer  crop 
in  South  Gippsland  than  either  maize  or  millet.  It  is  necessary, 
however,  to  state  that  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  feeding  to  the 
stock,  as  it  has  been  known  to  cause  mortality  as  a  result  of  the 
development  of  prussie  acid  at  a  certain  stage  of  its  growth. 

The  potato  crop  was  attacked  Avith  eel  worm  and  moth,  and  partly 
destroved. 


732 


Journal  of  Agricuhiire,   Victoria.         [lo  Dec,    19 r 2. 


STATEMENT   OF   RECEIPTS   AND    EXPENDITURE    FOR 

TWELVE    MONTHS 

ENDED  30th  JUNE 

1912. 

Receipts. 

1911. 

£     s. 

i. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

Julv  1.     Bank  balance.  Trust  account 

.    114     0 

2 

Wages  account 

5     1 

6 

119 

\ 

8 
0 

Grant  from  Treasury 

400 

0 

Pigs 

.   441   1.3 

9 

Horses 

.      86     8 

6 

Dairy  herd 

.     27     4 

3 

Daily 

.   624  12 

5 

Nursery  and  garden 

.   509  19 

1 

Food  (sale  of  hides,  &c.) 

.      93     8 

1 

Colonists 

.    164  18 

7 

Boots  and  Clothing 

.      62     3 

9 

Tobacco 

.     50  17 

2 

Farm  produce 

.      16     9 

9 

Stamps 

0     5 

9 

Rail  fare  (refunded) 

5     1 

10 

Stores 

.      14     7 

10 

Freights 

1     4 

0 

Board  and  lodging 

.    113     4 

5 

Grazing 

.       0     6 

0 

2,212 

5 

2 

i 

,2,731 

6 

10 

Payments. 

£      s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

rf. 

Railway  fares 

.      88  15 

7 

Railway  freights 

.     61     7 

2 

Dairy 

1   11 

8 

Maintenance  and  plant 

.     35  17 

10 

Printing  and  stationery 

4  18 

0 

Building  materials 

5  13 

11 

Stamps 

8     9 

i> 

General  expenses 

.     46  18 

11 

Furniture     . . 

2   10 

9 

Insurance     . . 

.     36  10 

3 

Implements . . 

.      59     0 

0 

Fencing 

1      1 

0 

Tobacco 

.     34     1 

9 

Stores 

.    185     9 

5 

Food 

.   204  17 

0 

Boots  and  clothing     . 

.     94  19 

4 

Plant  and  tools 

5     9 

3 

Fodder,  seeds,  &c. 

.   332     4 

1 

Nursery  garden 

.   215  15 

2 

Salaries  and  wages     . 

1.034  16 

4 

Dairy  herd  .  . 

6     6 

0 

Horses 

.      50  13 

0 

Pigs 

5     1 

8 

2,522 
13 

7 

7 

3 

Less  discounts  allowed 

- 

0 

2,509 

0 

3 

Bank  balances,  Trust  account 

.    188  17 

6 

Wages  account 

.     33     9 

1 

222 

6 

r» 

i 

/ 

t2,731 

6 

10^ 

lo   Dec.    ig\2.]      Report   on   Leongaihn   Labour  Colony. 


733 


VALUE   OF    STOCK,    30th   JUNE,    1912. 

£,     s.     d.     £     s.     d. 

Nmsery,  garden,  &c. 

.    132  U     3 

Boots  and  clothinfr    . . 

.      11  12     7 

Growing  crops 

.    145  10    0 

Water  service 

.    100    0    0 

Tanks 

.     58     5     0 

Fencing 

1   10     0 

Bedding 

.     60     3     0 

Manure 

.     47  16     6 

Printing  and  stationery 

2  15     7 

Dairy 

6  10  10 

Harness 

.     60  17    0 

Furniture 

.   121  18     9 

Implements 

.   491   14     0 

Fodder,  seeds,  &c.      . . 

.   259  14     4 

Tobacco 

.      11     4     4 

Stores 

.    158  19     9 

Food 

.     .36  19  10 

Plant  and  Tools 

.   447     6     0 

Building  Material 

1     2     0 

Stamps 

1   14     9 

Horses 

.   454  10     0 

Cattle 

.   860  15     0 

Pig^              

.   532     9     0 

PROFIT  AND  LOSS  FOR  TWELVE  MONT 

4  OOfi       •">       fi 

T,OV7U        ^        u 

HS  ENDED  30th  JUNE,  1912. 

Dr.                                                                             £     s.    d.     £     s.    d 

Boots  and  clothing     . . 

.      12     3     9 

Building  materials 

.      13     1     2 

Food 

.    160  16     9 

Fodder,  seeds,  &c.      . . 

.  488  17     2 

Freight 

.     48     8     9 

General  expenses 

.     46     4     7 

Harness 

3  14     0 

Maintenance  and  plant 

.      55     5  11 

Insurance 

.     36  10     3 

Manure 

.      17     6     0 

Printing  and  stationery 

3     8     5 

Railway  fares 

.     58  14     5 

Salaries 

.   575     S     0 

Stores 

.    145  14     7 

Wages 

.   285  15     0 

Water  service 

.       0     5     0 

Cr. 

1  OtI    1*^      0 

£     s.    d.       £       -s.    d. 

Board  and  lodgings    . . 

.    113     4     5 

Bedding 

.      12     0     3 

Discounts  allowed 

.      13     7     0 

Dairy  herd   . . 

.     49  19     3 

Dallying 

.   625     7     9 

Fencing 

.       0     1     9 

Furniture     . . 

9  19     6 

Growing  crops 

.     47  15     0 

Glazing 

.       0     6     0 

Horses 

.      18     3     0 

Implements 

.     43     8     0 

JJursery,  garden 

.    171   19     2 

Plant  and  tools 

.     30  15     4 

Pigs              

.   492  17     7 

Tobacco 

.       6     6     5 

1  fi^*!    10      5 

734 


JoiiDial  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


lo  Dec,   1912. 


The  ])i'eseut  conditions  are 
favoral)le  to  a  plentiful  season, 
and  I  anticipate  mu(*li  larger 
returns,  wliicdi  should  result  in  an 
increase  of  revenue  from  the 
dairy  and  pi,i;gerY.  The  pastur.' 
lands  on  the  farm  are  very  de- 
ticient,  and  require  re-so\vin,n'. 
Havin,i>'  again  got  possession  of 
the  o()  acres  of  land  which  had 
lieen  ntilized  l»y  the  De}»artment 
of  Agriculture  for  the  ]iurpose  of 
carrying  out  Hax-growing  experi- 
ments, this  has  l)een  placed  under 
fodder  crops  and  pastnre  grasses, 
which  are  growing  splendidly. 
Strawberry  clover  is  establishing 
itself  in  all  the  swampy  lands, 
and  improving  the  carrying 
capacity  of  the  farm  immensely. 

Improvement  AVork. 

Subdivision  fences  have  heen 
erected,  and  all  old  fences  re- 
I)aired,  while  six  old  gates  have 
l)een  re])laced  by  new  ones.  All 
the  land  which  was  under  New 
Zealand  flax  has  been  cleaned  u]) 
and  brought  into  a  good  state  of 
cultivation.  It  is  proposed  to 
subdivide  the  flax  ground  and 
eventually  get  the  whole  of  it 
mider  grass,  the  opinion  being 
that  this  is  the  best  pasture 
land  on  the  farm.  An  a,ddi- 
tijnal  7  acres  have  been  cleared 
of  tussocks  and  stnm])s.  The 
trees  in  the  old  orchard  have 
been  taken  out,  ;ind  the  land  pre- 
pared for  cropping.  Noxious 
weeds,  such  as  ragwort  and 
thistles,  have  been  kept  in  check, 
and  ferns  cut  twice.  Poi-tions 
of  the  low  lands  have  been  cleared 
up  and  sown  with  grass. 

Labour. 

Althougli  the  number  of  colo 
nists  has  been  up  to  the  average, 


lo  Dec,    191 


Report   oil   LciiHi^af //(I   Labour  Colt 


735 


the  value  of  their  work  is  only  a  fractional  part  of  what  one  would 
expect  from  the  number,  considerable  difficulty  being  experienced  in 
some  cases  in  sretting  any  returns  Mt  all.      The  absence  of  competent 


OATS,    PEAS,    AND    liEAXS    FOR    SILA(iK. 

men  to  carry  out  the  dififerent  branches  of  farming  operations  has 
been  a  severe  handicap  in  the  past.  This  difficulty  has  now  to  a  great 
extent  been  overcome  by  the  decision  of  the  Trustees  to  permit  of  the 


engagement  of  a  permanent  farm  hand.  Ample  evidence  of  the 
value  of  this  departure  is  apparent  on  the  farm  to-day  in  the  shape 
of  advanced  growing  crops  and  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil,  in 


736 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.         [lo  Dec,    1912- 


addition  to  which  I  am  relieved  of  duties  that  hitherto  have  prevented 
me  from  exercising  the  close  supervision  necessary  to  get  the  best 
results. 

Stock. 

The  dairy  herd  consists  of  117  head  and  3  bulls,  and  8  commercial 
cattle  for  killing  purposes.  Twenty  of  the  oldest  and  least  profitable 
cows  have  been  rejected  from  the  milking  herd,  and  will  be  used  for 
beef  or  disposed  of  as  opportunity  offers.  The  places  of  these  will  be 
filled  by  young  heifers  out  of  selected  cows  by  the  Jersey  bull  ' '  Canary 
Lad  IX."  The  herd  is  being  steadily  improved  both  in  character 
and  yield,  and  many  excellent  young  heifers  by  the  above  bull  are  on 
the  farm  at  present.  A  heifer,  the  progeny  of  this  bull,  on  her  first 
calf  has  given  up  to  3  gallons  per  clay,  with  a  test  of  5.2  per  cent, 
fat,  and  promises  to  be  a  much  superior  cow  to  her  mother,  whose 
test  was. 4.5  per  cent.  This  fact  is  of  considerable  importance,  and 
very  encouraging  for  the  future,  and  I  anticipate  still  better  results 
in  the  direction  of  type  as  well  as  production.      The  young  Jersey  bull 


BERKSHIRE    BOAR. 

"Gold  Brew,"  purchased  by  Mr.  P.  J.  Carroll,  Superintending 
Trustee,  commands  the  admiration  of  every  farmer  who  inspects  him, 
and,  having  come  from  a  noted  butter  producing  family,  should 
further  enhance  the  value  of  the  herd  as  butter-fat  producers. 
Another  valuable  t>ull  on  the  farm  is  the  pure  bred  Ayrshire 
"  Newport,"  out  of  that  noted  cow  "Edith,"  whose  photo  and  record 
appeared  in  the  September  number  of  the  Journal  of  Agriculture. 
This  bull  is  being  mated  with  some  Ayrshire  and  Ayrshire  cross  cows 
in  addition  to  some  of  the  Jerseys  which  it  is  thought  would  not  mate 
to  advantage  with  the  Jersey  bull. 

Pigs. — The  season  just  closed  has  not  come  up  to  expectations, 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  slump  in  prices  in  pigs  and  the  increased 


lo  Dec,  19 1 2.]  Report  on  Leongafha  Labour  Colon  v. 


737 


cost  of  food  purchased.  The  number  of  pigs  was,  however,  Ivept 
up  to  the  full  complement,  and,  with  the  advent  of  the  high  prices 
now  prevailing,  a  good  year  in  this  branch  of  our  farming  operations 
is  anticipated.      The  number  of  pigs  on  hand  at  present  is  239. 

Some  splendid  specimens  of  the  breeds  kept  are  at  present  on  the 
farm,  including  boars  and  sows  from  imported  strains  purchased  at 
the  Royal  Show  of  1911.  The  progeny  of  these  are  much  sought 
after  by  the  dairymen  along  the  line.  Although  very  little  thought 
or  attention  is  given  to  the  matter  of  exhibiting  at  the  shows,  we 
have  been  fairly  successful  where  our  pigs  have  competed,  having 
secured  second  place  with  a  Yorkshire  boar  at  the  Royal  Show,  1911; 
champion,  first,  and  second  at  Foster ;  and  at  Leongatha,  five  firsts  and  • 
champion,  three  seconds,  and  first  for  porkers  and  haconers. 

Horses.- — There  are  15  horses  on  the  farm,  3  having  been  sold 
during  the  year;  one,  a  ten-month  old  colt,  realizing  £25.  The  foals 
last  year  numbered  3,  two  draught  and  one  light,  all  being  good  speci- 
mens and  thriving  well. 


BROOD    MARES. 

A  two-year  old  colt  and  a  filly  of  the  same  age  have  been  broken 
in  and  are  working  splendidly.  Four  draught  mares  have  been  served 
this  year  and  have  all  proved  in  foal. 

General  Remarks. 
For  the  year,  266  men  have  been  sent  to  the  farm  from  the  Mel- 
bourne office,  excluding  the  37  on  the  establishment  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  year.  Of  these,  37  remain  on  the  farm  at  the 
present  time.  After  putting  in  various  terms,  266  have  left, 
chiefiy  to  accept  employment  in  the  neighbourhood.  Every  considera- 
tion is  given  to  the  farmers  requiring  labour,  and  they  are  permitted 
to  select  the  best  men  on  the  farm  for  their  own  purpose  at  all  times. 
I  am  pleased  to  say  that  some  of  those  who  have  passed  through  the 
Colony  are  now  farming  on  their  own  account.  A  large  number  of 
the  men  coming  to  the  Colony  are  physically  unfitted  for  hard  work, 
and  have  to  be  given  light  employment  which  is  not  at  all  times  of  a 
reproductive  character. 


738 


Journal  of  Agriculture.   Yicforia.  [lo   Dec.    191 2. 


Gardener  's  Report. 

Orchard. 

On  the  whole,  the  liealth  of  the  trees  and  plants  is  \evy  good, 
though  as  a  precaution  the  usual  spraying  had  to  be  carried  out.  The 
worst  diseases  to  be  combated  were  woolly  aphis  and  mussel  scale,  but 
by  constant  spraying  these  were  kept  in  check  and  almost  eradicated. 
Black  spot  proved  a  very  difficult  disease  to  cope  with,  more  particu- 
larly on  the  pears,  the  trees  having  to  be  sprayed  several  times  to  keep 
it  down;  but.  as  the  spraying  was  done  at  the  right  time,  the  result 


pear  tree  in  bloom. 

was  an  almost  clean  crop.  Codlin  moth  was  also  in  evidence  to  a 
slight  extent,  but  was  no  worse  than  in  previous  years.  The  old 
raspberry  patch  is  gradually  failing,  but  the  yoiuig  plants  are  looking 
very  promising.  The  strawberries  are  looking  very  well,  in  spite  of 
the  hot  dry  summer  just  passed.  Red  and  black  currants  are  also 
thriving. 

Yield. — As  regards  apples,  last  season  was  a  record  crop,  a  few 
of  the  old  trees  only  being  light.  The  pear  crop  was  light,  but  had 
it  not  been  for  the  destruction  caused  by  the  birds  they  would  have 


lo   Dhc.    19 1 2.1      Ripnrt   (III   l.coii^iaf  lid   Labour  Colony.  73g 

given  a  much  better  return.  The  damage  done  to  the  ])e^ll■  tind  apple 
crops  by  starlings  was  enormous,  niany  of  the  trees,  owing  to  this 
pest,  wearing  a  very  sorry  appearance;  the  only  traces  of  fruit  being 
the  skins  left  hanging  on  the  trees.  Other  fruit  trees  were  only  fair. 
Bush  fruits  did  fairly  well  on  the  whole,  strawberries  being  very 
prolific,  yielding  approximately  1,600  lbs.  from  l-5th  acr«.  Red 
currants  fi-uited  well,  but  the  sterlings  made  sad  havoc  with  these, 
and  got  most  of  the  crop.  Black  currants  had  a  fair  crop.  Rasp- 
berries were  somewhat  light,  owing  to  the  dry  season. 

Prices  for  all  fruits  were  very  good.  Strawberries  sold  from 
4d.  per  lb.  in  the  buckets  to  9d.  per  lb.  in  baskets.  Raspberries 
averaged  3'od.  per  lb.,  black  currants  4d.,  and  red  currants  3d. 
Apples  sold  locally  and  in  ]\Iell)ourne  realized  from  2s.  to  6s.  per  case, 
rejects  for  export  bringing  from  3s.  to  os.  The  f(nv  pears  which  were 
saved  sold  well.  We  were  fairly  successful  with  our  export  of  apples, 
600  cases  being  shipped  to  Loudon  in  three  consignments,  the  fruit 
being  fair  and  of  uniform  size.  The  best  prices  were  realized  by 
Dumelow's  Seedling,  which  brought  from  9s.  6d.  to  12s.  6d.  per  case, 
Jonathans  bringing  8s.  9d.  only.  The  fruit  was  all  good,  and 
beautifully  clean,  especially  the  Dumelows.  which  evidently  opened 
up  very  attractively.  Jonathans  were  not  so  good,  not  having  suffi- 
cient colour.  Next  seas(;n  it  is  proposed  to  keep  Reinettes  for  local 
sales,  and  ship  mainly  Jonathans.  Five  Crown,  and  Dumelows.  On 
the  whole,  the  shipment  sold  well,  realizing  as  good  prices  as  those  of 
other  exporters.  The  dock  strike  in  London  affected  adversely  the 
sales  of  the  last  two  sliipments. 

Snows. 

A  good  exhibit  of  fruit  and  vegetables  was  staged  at  the  local 
Leongatha  show,  and  secured  first  prize  as  a  collection  of  garden  pro- 
duce ;  also  eleven  first  prizes  and  two  second  prizes  in  the  fruit  section. 
A  very  attractive  exhibit  was  also  shown  at  the  Fruit  and  Floral 
Carnival,  in  the  ^Melbourne  Exhibition,  in  ]\larch.  This  secured  a 
certificate  of  merit,  and  was  much  admired  by  visitors. 

New  Plantations. 

Since  last  year,  a  small  plot  of  raspberry  canes  (1,500)  was 
planted.  These  have  made  good  progress,  and  should  yield  a  fair 
crop  this  season.  Three  more  rows  of  strawberries  has  also  been 
added. 

Old   Orchard. 

This  has  been  abandoned,  and  the  trees  uprooted,  the  ground  now 
being  put  under  fodder  crops.  The  trees  were  very  old.  and  for 
many  seasons  have  not  been  profitable.  In  addition,  they  were  a 
menace  to  the  clean  trees  in  the  main  orchard;  being  old  and  very 
weak  they  afforded  excellent  harbor  for  the  various  kinds  of  insect 
and  fungus  pests. 

Vegetable    Garden. 

In  this  section  there  was  a  slight  decrease  in  the  sales,  the  demand 
for  several  lines    falling  off.      The    spring    crops  were  quite  up  to 


74°  Journal  of  Agriculture.    Vicforia.  [lo   Dec,    191 2. 

expectations,  but  owing  to  the  dry,  hot  summer  the  others  were  not 
so  good.  The  onion  crop  was  very  satisfactory.  Parsnips 
did  not  germinate  as  well  as  was  expected,  and  were  conse- 
quently short;  but  carrots  did  very  well,  and  there  is  still  a  supply 
in  hand.  There  was  a  successful  crop  of  early  cabbages,  but  those 
planted  later  were  adversely  affected  by  the  very  dry  summer.  Early 
peas  yielded  well,  but  late  ones — like  all  late  crops  last  season — were 
very  light.  Pumpkins,  turks'  caps,  and  marrows  yielded  fairly,  and 
proved  a  good  stand-by  during  the  winter.  There  was  not  a  very 
great  demand  for  tomato  plants.  Fortunately,  there  were  not  many 
grown  last  season ;  and  the  balance,  after  sale  of  young  plants,  was 
planted  out ;  the  yield  from  these  was  good  and  prices  were  profitable. 

Details  of  the  yields  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  together  with  prices 
obtained,  will  be  found  in  the  Manager's  report.  In  addition  to  the 
sales  of  produce  from  the  garden,  a  very  large  quantity  is  consumed 
on  the  Colony.  "When  the  value  of  this  is  taken  into  consideration, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  orchard  and  garden  have  proved  profitable. 

Finally,  the  year  on  the  whole  has  been  very  satisfactory.  The 
area  under  fruit  and  vegetables  is,  approximately,  20  acres,  the  return 
from  which,  including  sales  and  the  value  of  produce  used  on  the 
place,  being  estimated  at  £570. 

The  fruit  trees,  pears  particularly,  are  looking  exceedingly  well, 
and  show  promise  of  a  heavy  crop  during  the  coming  season. 


FODDER  CROPS  FOR  NORTHERN  AREAS  UNDER 
IRRIGATION  ON  SMALL  HOLDINGS. 

By  Temple  A.   J.   Smith,  Chief  Field  Officer. 

There  are  various  crops  which  can  be  grown  in  succession  under 
irrigation  which  will  not  only  supply  constant  green  fodder  for  dairy 
cows  or  sheep,  but  will  also  prove  a  useful  rotation  so  far  as  preserving 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  concerned,  provided  a  system  of  manuring  is 
adopted  suited  to  the  land,  and  such  a  system  can  be  followed  with 
slight  expenditure.  It  is  proposed  to  outline  a  rotation  for  the  above 
purpose  covering  the  whole  of  the  year,  giving  the  reasons  from  a 
restorative  point  of  view  as  concerns  the  soil,  and  fodder  values  in 
relation  to  the  crops  produced.  Cultivation  must  also  be  thorough  in 
order  to  achieve  the  highest  possible  measure  of  success.  Starting  in 
the  early  autumn  the  land  should  be  well  fallowed  to  a  depth  of  at 
least  6  inches  unless  the  surface  soil  is  shallower,  under  which  circum- 
stances the  ploughing  should  not  be  so  deep  as  to  turn  up  the  colder  sub- 
soil. The  land  should  be  worked  down  with  cultivators  or  harrows 
after  each  day's  ploughing,  as  it  will  be  found  that  this  practice  con- 
serves moisture  better  than  where  the  ploughing  is  allowed  to  dry  out, 
and   a  better   tilth   is   obtained. 


ioDec,  1912.]      Fodder  Crops  for  Northern  Areas  under  Irrigation.      741 

In  April  or  May  the  land  should  be  again  worked  with  the  one-way 
disc  or  cultivator  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  inches  if  clean,  or  skim  ploughed 
if  dirty  with  weeds,  and  the  following  mixture  sown  for  dairy  cows  or 
silage: — I  bushel  rye;  ^  bushel  dun  peas;  7  lbs.  golden  vetch;  and 
\  bushel  of  barley  or  white  oats. 

In  many  cases  double  the  amount  of  rye  and  peas  is  sown  on  rich 
land.  The  peas  are  sown  broadcast,  and  the  rye,  vetches,  and  oats,  or 
barley  drilled  in  to  a  depth  of  not  more  than  2  inches.  A  mixture 
of  half-and-half  i)one  dust  and  superphosphate,  at  the  rate  of  60  lbs. 
per  acre,  with  20  lbs.  of  blood  manure  or  sulphate  of  ammonia  is 
advisable,  particularly  on  long-cultivated  paddocks  or  poor  land.  If 
the  soil  is  deficient  in  lime,  and,  in  addition,  of  a  heavv  character,  10 
cwt.  of  gypsum  (sulphate  of  lime)  or  Thomas'  phosphate  in  lieu  of  bone 
and  super,  will  be  found  suitable.  Quicker  results  are  obtained  if  manures 
are  applied  three  to  four  w-eeks  before  seed  is  sown.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  sow  the  mixture  while  the  land  is  still  warm  in  order  to 
give  the  crop  a  good  start  before  the  cold  weather  sets  in.  The  advan- 
tages connected   with  the  sowing  of  this  combination  of  crops   are  many. 


CHINESE   MILLET    GROWN    AT    NYAH. 

In  the  first  place  a  larger  body  of  feed  is  produced  as  compared  with 
separate  seedings.  The  peas  and  vetches  being  legumes  supply  nitrogen 
in  excess  of  their  own  requirements  for  the  rye,  oats,  or  barley,  and  the 
latter  then   naturally   make  greater   growth. 

A  better  balance  ration  is  also  secured,  as  the  legumes  supply  a 
larger  proportionate  amount  of  protein,  which  element  of  food  provides 
a  larger  milk  supply  or  induces  a  better  growth  in  lambs  The  rye 
and  barley  provide  the  carbohydrates  which  make  for  the  fats  and  the 
warmth   necessary   to   animal    life. 

The  rye,  peas,  and  vetches  are  useful  rotation  crops,  the  former 
owing  to  its  greater  rooting  system,  leaving  more  decaying  organic  matter 
in  the  soil  than  any  of  the  other  cereals,  thus  supplying  humus.  While 
all  three  have  the  effect  of  leaving  the  soil  in  better  condition  so  far  as 
available  nitrogen  is  concerned  for  following  crops. 

Instances  are  on  record  of  this  mixture  when  cut  yielding  28  tons 
of  green  fodder  per  acre,  and  better  returns  can  always  be  had  from 
cutting  the  crops  than  feeding  off,  though  grazing  is  a  practice  often 
followed.        Cutting   can,    if   good  autumn   rains   have    fallen,    or   irriga- 


742 


j oiirnal  of  Ag) 


iJii 


Victoria.  [lo   Dec,    191 2. 


lion  applied.  l)e  begun  eight  weeks  after  sowing,   though   full  growth  will 
not  obtain   until    four   weeks   later. 

If  sheep  only  are  to  be  fed.  3  lbs.  of  rape  (Dwarf  Essex  variety) 
can  be  added,  but  where  it  is  intended  for  cows  and  silage  rape  is  not 
recommended.  If.  however,  rape  is  sown,  it  should  be  broadcasted  after 
the  other  seed  is  sown,  and  lighl\'  harrowed.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find 
twelve  to  sixteen  sheep  fattened  per  acre  on  this  fodder  mixture,  and 
either  for  cows  or  sheep  feed  will  be  available  right  up  to  the  end  of 
the  spring.  Meantime  a  .second  paddock  should  be  under  fallow  for 
a  spring  crop  with  a  view^  to  a:  supply  of  green  succulent  fodder  for  the 
early  and  midsummer,  so  that  no  check  in  the  milk  supply  or  growth 
of  lambs  will  ensue.  The  most  suitable  crops  for  this  purpo.se  are  the 
Millets,  Japanese,  German,  and  Chinese,  or  White  Millet.  The  first- 
mentioned  is  the  hardiest,  and  gives  from  6  to  10  tons  of  green  fodder 
per  acre.  It  should  be  sown  after  the  danger  of  frosts  is  passed,  in 
October  and   Novemlier,  at  the  rate  of  9   11)S.   of  seed  per  acre,   in   drills 


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LUCERNE,  MILLET,  AND  MAIZE  CROPS. 

2  feet  apart  and  3  inches  in  the  drill.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
put  the  seed  down  too  deep,  or  it  will  perish,  an  inch  to  an  inch  and 
a  half  being  the  best  depth  to  sow.  The  scuffler  should  be  used  between 
the  drills  until  the  crop  is  well  established,  commencing  soon  after  the 
rows  are  well  defined.  This  crop  if  cut  before  the  seed  is  formed  will 
come  again  two  or  three  times  if  it  gets  rain  or  water  after  cutting  and 
cultivation  with  the  scuffler  is  followed,  as  soon  as  the  land  is  sufficiently 
dry  for  the  purpose.  It  can  also  be  grazed  if  required,  but  the  yield 
will  not  be  so  great  if  this  course  is  followed.  Any  surplus  can  be 
made  into  fair  hay  or  silage  for  cow  feed.  German  Millet  grows  a 
finer  straw,  and  gives  a  lighter  yield,  but  makes  a  nice  hay,  and  makes 
excellent  grazing  for  sheep,  seeding  at  the  rate  of  7  lbs.  per  acre  is 
sufficient,  broadcast.  Chinese  or  White  Millet  should  be  sown  in  the 
same  Avay  as  Japanese,  and  treated  in  the  same  manner,  giving  a  heavy 
yield.  The  .seed  from  all  the  millets  is  readily  bought  by  seed  mer- 
chants.       The  rrop   should  be   readv   for   the    flrst-cut,    about   the   middle 


ioDec.  1Q12.";     Fodder  Crops  for  Norihcrti  Areas  under  Irrigation.      743 

of  December,  and  ran  l)e  relied  upon  to  keep  tilings  going  until  the  end 
of  February.  Millets  make  good  milk  producers,  and  are  easily  handled  ; 
thev  are  also  suitable  for  silage.  Farm  manures  suit  the  millets  best. 
A  third  paddock  should  he  in  preparation  for  maize,  which  can  be 
sown  in  Septemlier,  October,  Xovember.  and,  where  irrigation  is  possible. 
December.  The  best  fodder  varieties  are  Hickory  King.  Yellow 
Moruva,  and  Eclipse.  These  kinds  give  heavier  \  ields.  and  keep  green 
longer  than  most  others,  have  a  large  leaf  system  with  the  least  pro- 
portionate amount  of  woody  fibre.  The  land  should  be  fallowed  and 
well  worked,  and  seed  sown  at  the  rate  of  20  to  30  lbs.  per  acre  in 
drills  3  feet  apart,  and  the  seed  9  to  u  inches  in  the  rows,  two  to  three 
seeds  in  each  place  or  hill   as  it  is  termed. 

The  rows  should   be  worked   between   with  the  scufifler  at  intervals  to 
conserve   moisture,    admit   air.    and   keep    down    weeds    until    6    feet  high, 


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MAIZE   CROP  SOWN  INT  DRILLS. 

the  later  working  being  shallow,  when  the  crop  itself  should  protect  the 
soil  from  the  sun's  ra\s.  Relays  of  seeding  each  month  to  keep  a  con- 
tinuous supply  should  be  sown,  and  the  first  cutting  under  favorable 
conditions  should  be  ready  about  the  end  of  January,  and  the  last  right 
into  June.  Broadcasting  maize  is  a  bad  system,  as  if  grown  too  thickly 
the  lower  leaves  will  drv  off  and  become  useless  as  fodder,  and  the  stalk 
will  be  hard  and  woody,  and  less  digestible;  scarifying  cannot  be  done, 
and  the  result  is  smaller  and  less  succulent  fodder.  Yields  of  from  10 
to  30  tons  are  possible  per  acre,  and  the  best  time  to  cut  is  when  the  crop 
comes  into  flower,  and  before  the  grain  hardens  in  the  cob.  Maize  is  not 
only  a  fine  fodder  for  cows  and  silage,  but  contrary  to  general  opinion 
makes  a  fine  fattening  crop  for  sheep,  especiallv  crossbreds,  if  good  fodder 
varieties  are  used,  as  thev  soon  learn  to  straddle  the  stalks  after  cleaning 
up  the  bottom  leaves.  &c..  and  will  eat  it  ba'^k  to  within  a  couple  of  feet 


744  Journal  of  AgricuHure,   Victoria.         [lo  Dec,    191 2. 

of  the  ground.  If  the  crop  is  not  allowed  to  become  too  dry  before  they 
are  turned  in  there  is  also  very  little  waste  after  sheep.  Broken-mouthed 
sheep  should  not  be  turned  on  to  maize.  Amber  cane,  Imphee, 
Farmer's  Friend,  are  all  treated  for  growth  similarly  to  maize, 
except  that  less  seed  is  required,  8  to  10  lbs.  being  sufficient  per  acre. 
They  have  a  slight  advantage  over  maize  for  winter  fodder  in  that 
they  are  late,  and  of  use  after  frost  has  attacked  them  in  the  early 
winter.  They  can  also  be  cut,  and  stored  dry,  and  fed  through  the 
winter  to  stock,  or  made  into  silage.  In  regard  to  the  last  three  crops 
care  must  be  taken  to  have  good  fences  enclosing  them,  as  they  are  liable 
to  cause  hoven  or  bloat  if  stock  gain  access  to  them  before  the  ripening 
stage;  if  cut  before  ripe  for  fodder  they  should  be  allowed  to  wilt  for 
a  few  hours  in  the  sun  before  feeding.  For  very  early  winter  feed 
skinless  barley  sown  at  the  rate  of  2  bushels  per  acre  in  early  autumn 
will  be  found  of  value.  Bonanza  or  Clydesdale  oats  are  also  early 
growers.  They  should  be  sown  in  the  autumn  while  there  is  still  warmth 
in  the  ground  to  get  good  re.sults,  and  be  well  dressed  with  well-rotted 
manure  ploughed  in  before  sowing. 

Adjuncts  such  as  pumpkins,  kale,  mangels,  turnips,  can  also  be  grown  ; 
the  chief  difficulty  in  regard  to  these  root  crops  being  the  labour  of 
handling.  Pumpkins  are  easily  grown  on  good  river  bottoms,  and  a 
cheap  crop  to  produce;  they  are  .sown  10  to  12  feet  apart,  and  if  a 
few  shovelfuls  of  good  farm  manure  are  deposited  at  each  hill  will  be 
found  to  give  satisfactory  returns.  They  are,  however,  not  ideal  food 
for  cows,  as  their  mushy  condition  prevents  the  act  of  rumination,  and 
the  seed  is  liable  to  pass  into  the  second  stomach  and  cause  trouble. 

Nothing  has  been  said  about  lucerne,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  as  a  fodder  no  better  crop  can  be  grown.  The  above  system,  if 
followed  where  lucerne  cannot  be  successfully  grown  or  as  an  adjunct, 
has  proved  a  fine  rotation.  The  addition  of  good  oaten  hay,  chaff,  and 
bran  will  improve  the  food  value  of  all  the  green  fodder  crops  dealt 
with,  and  a  subdivision  of  at  least  four  paddocks  is  necessary  to  pro- 
perly carry  out  the  system  of  rotation  advocated.  As  each  strip  of 
the  crop  is  finally  cut  the  plough  should  be  put  in  and  the  land  well 
worked  for  the  following  crop  ;  any  delay  means  loss  of  moisture,  and 
a  prospect  of  weeds,  and  trouble.  No  mention  is  made  as  to  the  areas 
of  each  crop  required  as  that  will  depend  on  tiu  scale  of  _ operations 
of  each  individual,  and  the  average  yields  of  the  crop.>  will  give  a  good 
idea  as  to  the  area  to  be  planted ;  at  the  same  time,  a  surplus  would 
be  always  advisable.  The  average  cow  in  milk  will  consume  70  to 
100  lbs.  of  green  fodder  daily;  a  sheep  20  to  30.  Where  dairying 
is  the  main  industry  on  the  farm  a  silo  is  indispensable  to  make  full 
use  of  surplus  fodder  crops  to  the  best  advantage. 


Horses  and  ruminants  digest  about  the  same  percentage  of  albuminoids 
(protein)  from  a  food,  but  the  ruminants  digest  10  per  cent,  more  of  the 
carbohydrates  and  20  per  cent,  more  of  the  fibre.  They  also  make  a 
better  use  of  the  fat. 


lo   Dec,    19 1  :^.]      Ri'sulf!<  of  Sprayit/g  for  Irish  Blight.  745 

RESULTS  OF  SPRAYING  FOR  IRISH  BLIGHT. 

B\j  Geo.  Seymour,  Potato  Expert. 

IMiich  difference  of  opinion  exists  among  potato-growers  as  lo 
whether  it  pays  to  spray  their  potato  crops.  It  is  well  known  that  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  where  the  climate  is  more  humid,  and 
therefore  more  favorable  to  the  development  of  late  blight,  spraying 
will  check  the  disease,  and  increase  the  yield  of  sound  tubers;  but  the 
majority  of  growers  in  this  State  argue  that,  with  our  dry  climate, 
the  disease  is  not  likely  to  do  much  harm.  This  may  be  true ;  but 
spraying  must  be  done  regularly  as  it  is  impossible  to  foretell  a  visi- 
tation of  the  disease.  Then  again,  if  spraying  is  to  do  the  greatest 
amount  of  good  possible,  it  is  necessary  that  growers  should  carry  out 
the  work  simultaneously. 

In  order  to  gain  reliable  data,  based  on  local  conditions,  it  was  de- 
cided by  this  Department  to  carry  out  experiments  at  different  centres. 
For  this  purpose,  plots  were  established  at  Crossley  and  Wollaston. 
near  Warrnambool.  for  early  crops.  A  plot  on  the  same  lines  was 
established  at  Warragul,  on  the  farm  of  ]\Ir.  S.  jNIcKay.  for  mid-season 
crop,  and  at  ]Mr.  P.  H.  Ibbott's  farm,  Pootilla,  2y-2  miles  from  Bun- 
garee,  for  late  crop.  The  scheme  embraced  five  sections  in  each  plot; 
three  of  these  sections  were  sprayed  from  one  to  three  times.  In  the 
case  of  the  Warrnambool  plot  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  divide  the 
three-spray  section,  and  spray  half  four  times.  This  fourth  spraying 
evidently  had  a  beneficial  effect,  as  this  is  the  only  section  that  was 
free  of  diseased  tubers. 

Varieties. 

The  varieties  planted  in  the  plots  were  as  follow : — 
New  Zealand  Pinkeye,  at  Crossley  and  Warrnambool. 
Carman,  at  Warragul. 
Snowfiake,  at  Pootilla. 
All  the  fields  were  carefully  inspected  before  operations  were  com- 
menced.    Crossley  and  AVarrnambool  were  inspected  on  October  3rd. 
Previous  to  this  date  the  weather  had  been  showery,  and  the  soil  was 
in  a  very  moist  condition,  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  Late 
Blight,  which  was  found  evenly  distributed  in  a  mild  form  over  the 
fields;  but  the  tubers,  which  were  just  forming,  had  not  been  attacked. 
In  the  case  of  the  mid-season  plot  at  Warragul,  a  similar  condition 
existed.     In  the  late  plot  at  Pootilla.  the  disease    did    not    make    its 
appearance  at  any  stage. 

The  mixture  used  was  copper-soda  solution,  or  Burgundy  mixture, 
of  the  following  strength : — 

12  lbs.  sulphate  of  copper. 
15  lbs.  carbonate  of  soda. 
100  gallons  of  water. 
This  mixture  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  80  to  100  gallons  per  acre. 
The  latter  quantity  was  found  necessary  when  the  plants  were  large 
and  well  grown.     The  cost  of  material  worked  out  at  about  3s.  per  acre 
for  bluestone.  and  Is.  per  acre  for  soda;  total,  4s.  per  acre.    The  cost  of 
15584.  2  1; 


746 


Journal  of  Agriculture.   Victoria.  [lo   Dec,    191 2. 


applying  the  mixture  is  regulated  largely  by  the  distance  the  water 
has  to  be  carried  and  the  supply  of  vessels  for  mixing,  also  the  number 
of  rows  covered  by  the  machine.  The  machine  used  in  these  experi- 
ments was  a  five-row  "  Fleming  "  sprayer.  The  total  cost  for  spray- 
ing an  acre  works  out  at  about  7s.  6d. 

T.\BLE  I. — Plot  1. 
SPRAYING  EXPERIMENTS,  1911-12. 
Mr.  p.  Crowe's  Plot,  Crossley,  Near  Koroit. 


Number  of  Times 
Sprayed. 

Date  of  Spraying. 

Yield  per  acre  of 
Crop. 

Weight  of 
Diseased 
Tubers. 

Proportion  of 
Diseased 
Tubers. 

Tons  cwts. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Per  cent. 

Once 

13th  October 

1          5 

34 

14 

•6 

Uns  prayed 
Twice                     I 

13th  October 
21st  October 

I 

1 

1          5 
1          3 

50 
56 

18 
11 

•6 
■4 

Unsprayed 

( 

13th  October 

) 

1        13 

82 

14 

■3 

Three  Times        \ 

21st  October 

( 

1         9 

21 

3 

■09 

\ 

1st  November 

In  the  case  of  the  Crossley  plot,  it  was  found  that  about  the  time 
of  the  first  spraying,  on  October  13th,  the  crop  received  a  check.  The 
set-back  was  very  marked  on  the  sprayed  sections.  The  showery 
weather  of  the  early  part  of  October  was  followed  by  an  exceptionally 
dry  November,  during  which  month  rain  only  fell  on  seven  days, 
giving  31  points  at  Crossley  in  six  weeks.  This  dry  spell,  no  doubt, 
checked  the  disease,  and  was  responsible  for  the  light  yields.  The 
Crossley  plot  was  harvested  during  this  month,  and  the  Warrnambool 


T.\BLE  II.— Plot  2. 
SPRAYING  EXPERIMENTS,  1911-12. 

Messrs.  Callagh.\n  Bros.  Ltd..  Wollaston.  Warrnambool. 


Number  of  Times 
Sprayed. 

Dates  of  Spraying. 

Yield  per  acre  of 
Crop. 

Weight  of 
Diseased 
Tubers. 

Proportion  ot 
Diseased 
Tubers. 

Tons  cwts. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Per  cent. 

Once 

10th  October      . 

3         6 

88 

19t3 

2-5 

T\vice                    { 

10th  October        \ 

3         7 

IH 

105 

1  -4 

24th  October        / 

Unsprayed 

f 

10th  October        1 

2       10 

4 

213 

4-3 

Three  Times        < 

24th  October        > 
14th  November   1 

2       13 

42 

31 

0 

Unsprayed 

10th  October       ^ 
24th  October        1 
14th  November    | 
22nd  November  j 

2       14 

22 

298 

4-7 

Four  Times           \ 

3         0 

22 

nil 

lo   Dec,    191^-]     Results  of  Spraying  for  Irish  Blighi . 


747 


plot  a  month  later,  the  latter  thus  receiving  the  benefit  of  the  Decem- 
ber rain,  which  amomited  to  393  points  at  Warrnambool. 

The  amount  of  disease  in  the  Crossley  plot  was  insignificant,  the 
only  indication  of  any  benefit  being  a  decrease  in  the  percentage  of 
Blight  as  the  number  of  sprayings  increased,  but  the  average  yield  was 
in  favour  of  the  unsprayed  sections  by  13  ewt.  67  lbs. 

The  results  of  the  Wollaston  plot  were  more  satisfactory,  showing 
in  a  marked  manner  that  spraying  checks  the  disease  even  in  a  dry 
season.  It  will  be  noted  that  both  the  unsp rayed  sections  have  practi- 
cally the  same  percentage  of  diseased  tubers,  viz.,  4.3  and  4.7  per  cent., 
whilst  that  sprayed  only  once  has  the  largest  amount  of  disease  in  the 
spi'ayed  sections,  viz..  2.5  per  cent.  Another  spraying  reduced  the 
percentage  to  1.4,  the  third  to  .5,  and  the  fourth  to  nil. 

In  the  case  of  the  Wollaston  plot,  it  will  be  noted  that  the 
yield  showed  an  average  increase  of  12  cwt.  92  lbs.  per  acre  in 
favour  of  the  sprayed  sections.  This  increase,  no  doubt,  appears 
small ;  but,  taking  into  consideration  the  very  dry  weather  experienced 
during  the  growing  period,  it  may  be  regarded  as  satisfactory,  and 
proves  beyond  doubt  that  spraying  increases  the  quantity  of  sound 
tubers. 

Table  III. 

SPRAYING  EXPERIMENTS,   1911-12. 

Plot  3. — Mid-seasok  Crop. 
Mr.  S.  Mackay,  Warragul. 
Variety — Carman. 


Number  of 

Date  of 

Yield  per 

jcre 

+ 

Increase 

Weight  of 

Percentage 

Times  Sprayed. 

Spraying. 

of  Crop 

Decrease. 

Tubers. 

Tubers. 

Tons  cwts. 

Ihs, 

Tons 

Tons  cwts.  lbs. 

% 

Once 

2.12.11 

4         1 

28 

— 

0         9       84 

Nil 

Nil 

10-8 

Unsprayed    .  . 

4        11 

0 

\ 

Twice               1 

2. 12. 11 

16.12.11 

2.12.11 

]•     3        13 

1 

22 

— 

0       17       90 

14-6 

Three  Times   < 

16.12.11 
12.1.1:; 

^2        12 

21) 

4- 

0         3       48 

*7 

Unsprayed    . . 

2          8 

84 

+ 

* 

Plot  4. 
Mr.  Ibbott,  Pootilla. 
Varietj' — Snowflake. 


Once 

15.2.12 

3 

15 

50 

0 

11 

68 

Nil 

Nil 

13-2 

Unsprayed    . . 

4 

7 

6 

Twice                { 

15. 2. 12  \ 
7.3.12/ 

3 

12 

80 

0 

14 

38 

16-4 

Reference  to  table  5  will  show  that  at  Warragul  for  the  period 
embracing  December,  January,  February,  December  had  seven- 
teen wet  days,  resulting  in  704  points  of  rain,  and  January  had  eight 
wet  days  before  the  11th,  with  121  points,  with  only  5  points  for  the 
remainder  of  the  month.  Such  conditions  were  favorable  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  disease,  with  the  result  that  it  made  its  appearance  in 

•2  V.  2 


748 


Journal  of  Agriculture,    Victoria.  [lo   Dec,    191 2. 


the  plants,  but  no  disease  was  found  in  the  tubers  of  the  sprayed  and 
unsprayed  sections.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  dry  weather  at  the 
end  of  January  and  beginning  of  February  checked  the  disease.  That 
the  dry  weather  had  a  marked  influence  on  the  crop  is  borne  out  by 
the  yields  obtained  on  sections  4  and  5  of  plot  3,  marked  thus  *, 
which  were  planted  three  weeks  later  than  the  sections  1,  2,  and  3, 
consequently  the  results  of  sections  4  and  5  must  be  considered  sepa- 
rately. In  this  case  the  sprayed  section  shows  an  increase  of  7  per 
cent. 

Yields. 

The  returns  from  plots  1,  3,  and  4  show  a  marked  decrease  in  the 
yield  on  the  sprayed  sections  compared  with  the  unsprayed,  ranging 
from  7  per  cent,  to  16  per  cent.  The  only  increase  is  in  plot  No.  2,  and 
the  late  planted  portion  of  No.  3.  This  decrease  is  consistent  through- 
out, and  is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  sprayings. 

Table  IV. 
AVERAGES  OF  SPRAYED  AND  UNSPRAYED  SECTIONS. 


Plot. 

Sprayed. 

Unsprayed. 

Increase. 

Decrease. 

Mr.  C!ro\ve's 
Mr.  Callaghan's 

Tons   cwt. 
1          5 
3         1 

lbs. 

Ill 

98 

Tons    cwt.   lbs. 

1  9       66 

2  9         6 

Tons    cwt. 
0       12 

lbs. 
92 

cwt. 
3-67 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  in  one  case  spraying  increased  the  yield  ;  in 
the  other  there  is  an  apparent  decrease. 


SPRAYING  EXPERIMENTS,  1911-12. 
Plan  of  Mr.  Crowe's  Plot  at  Crossley. 


133  links. 


Sprayed  three  (3) 
times 


50  links. 


Uns]irayed 


133  links. 


Sprayed  twice 


50  links. 


[Tnspi'ayed 


133  links. 


■>prayed  once 


Public  road. 

SPRAYING  EXPERIMENTS,  1911-12. 
Plan  of  Plot  at  Messrs.  Callaghan  Bros.,  Wollaston,  Warrnambool. 


•285  links. 

100  links. 

285  links. 

100  links. 

2Si 

)  links. 

Sprayed  once  .  . 

Unsprayed  .  . 

Sprayed  twice 

Unsprayed  .  . 

Sprayed 
three  timet 

Sprayed 
four  times. 

lo   Dec.    191:!.]      Ri'snltK  of  Spraying;  for  Irish  Bliglif.  749 

It  has  been  claimed  for  spraying  that  it  is  beneficial  to  the  crop, 
apart  from  checking  diseases,  because  it  prolongs  the  life  of  the  plant. 
It  cannot  be  said  to  have  had  that  result  in  any  operations  carried  out 
by  this  Department.  It  has  been  noted  that  the  sprayed  sections  kept 
green  longer  than  the  unsprayed,  but  it  does  not  necessarily  follow, 
because  the  leaves  are  green,  that  the  crop  of  tubers  will  show  an  in- 
creased yield.  The  results  of  plot  4,  at  Pootilla,  are  interesting  in  this 
connexion,  the  section  sprayed  once  showed  a  decrease  of  11  cwt.  68  lbs. 
as  compared  with  the  unsprayed  section,  and  the  twice  spra.yed  section 
a  decrease  of  14  cwt.  H8  lbs. 

In  these  experiments  information  has  been  sought  on  the  following 
points : — 

1.  "What  effect  has  spraying  on  the  disease  ? 

2.  How  many  times  should  the  crop  be  sprayed? 

3.  Will  spraying  increase  the  yield  of  the  crop? 

4.  Does  it  pay  to  spray? 

5.  What  influence  has  the  weather  on  the  disease? 

6.  Data  in  regard  to  the  rainfall  during    the    growing   period    at 

different  centres. 

1.  Spraying  checks  the  disease  and  results  in  a  larger  percentage 
of  sound  tubers.  The  increase  was  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
times  the  crop  was  sprayed  (see  table,  plots  1  and  2). 

2.  The  number  of  times  the  crop  requires  to  be  sprayed  must  be 
determined  by  the  weather  conditions  during  the  growing  period. 
Results  obtained  on  plots  1  and  2  in  this  experiment  indicate  very  little 
difference  between  the  section  sprayed  once  and  the  unsprayed  section, 
whilst  the  section  sprayed  four  times  was  the  only  one  free  from 
disease. 

3.  In  these  experiments  the  balance  of  evidence  is  that  spraying 
decreases  the  total  yield  of  the  crop,  and  that  the  decrease  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  times  the  crop  is  sprayed. 

4.  Judged  by  the  results  obtained  in  these  experiments,  the  answer 
is  No,  but  owing  to  the  season  being  unfavorable  for  the  development 
and  spread  of  the  disease,  this  reply  must  be  considered  in  conjunction 
with  question  No.  1. 

5.  A  prolonged  dry  period  cheeks  the  disease  in  the  plants,  and  is 
the  controlling  factor  in  its  attack  on  the  tubers.  (See  results  of 
plot  No.  3,  sections  1  and  2).  It  has  been  stated  that  the  disease  was 
found  in  the  plants  of  this  plot  before  spraying  commenced ;  but  no 
disease  was  found  in  the  tubers  of  the  unsprayed  sections. 

6.  Remarkable  variations  in  the  rainfall  at  different  centres  is  re- 
vealed by  table.  Plot  No.  1  had  44  wet  days,  with  658  points  of  rain ; 
plot  No.  2,  33  wet  days,  with  537  points ;  plot  No.  3,  34  wet  days,  with 
946  points;  plot  No.  4,  19  wet  days,  with  537  points,  showing  difference 
of  68  per  cent,  between  the  highest  and  lowest  records. 

The  Water. 

It  was  evident,  in  these  experiments,  that  the  quality  of  the  water 
has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  effect  of  the  copper-soda,  and  Bordeaux 
mixtures,  on  the  plants.  It  is  recognised  that  rain-water,  or  soft  river- 
water,  is  best  for  preparing  the  solution ;  that  used  at  Warrnambool 


75°  Jo/inial  of  Agrui/ltiirc,   Victoria.  \^o   Dec,    1912. 

Table  V. 

The  sites  for  the  plots  were  selected  witli  due  regard  to  the  raiiilall  and  its  effect  on  the  crops  maturing 
at  different  seasons  ;  Nos.  1  and  2,  for  the  early  Spring  rains  on  the  first  early  crcp  ;  No.  3  for  early  Summer 
rain  on  the  mid-season^crop,  and  No.  4  for  the  late  Summer  and  Auliimn  rains  en  the  late  crops.  The 
following  table  will  show  the  number  of  wet  days  and  total  rainfall  during  the  growing  period  at  each 
station  : — 


1911. 

1912. 

Station. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

January. 

February. 

March. 

No. 
Wet 
Days. 

Points. 

No. 
Wet 
Days. 

Points. 

Wet  ^°'°**^- 
Days. 

No. 
Wet. 
Days. 

Points. 

^°il  Point.. 
Days. 

No. 
Wet 
Days. 

Points. 

1.  Crossley 

2.  Warrnambool 

3.  Warragul 

4.  PootiUa 

(Kirk's  Dam) 
PootiUa 

(Beale's  Re- 
servoir) 

17 
12 

166 

128 

7 
4 

31 
16 

20   :       411 
17  i       393 

17  j       704 

'9 
5 

6 

126 
47 

35 

's  ]     lie 

4  1       119 
4           126 

7 
9 

155 
141 

and  Koroit  was  hard  spring-water,  highly  mineralized,  and  required 
a  much  larger  quantity  of  soda  than  the  standard  formula  to  preci- 
pitate the  copper.  On  applying  the  litmus  and  cyanide  test,  the  solu- 
tion contained  too  much  copper,  and  instead  of  the  standard 
6 — 7I/2 — 50,  it  required  6  lbs.  soda-copper,  12  lbs.  soda,  to  50  gallons  of 
water.  At  "Warragul,  with  soft  water,  the  proportions  were  6  lbs.  soda- 
copper,  8  lbs.  soda,  to  50  gallons  of  water.  It  is  a  question  for  the 
future  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  use  the  lime-water  prepara- 
tion, which  has  proved  quite  as  effective,  and  much  cheaper.  The 
latest  formula  is  as  follows : — 

Copper-sulphate — 10  ounces. 

Lime-water — 8I/2  gallons. 

Add  water  to  make  up  50  gallons. 

When  considering  the  results  of  these  experiments,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  season  w^as  an  abnormally  dry  one,  consequently 
the  results  are  no  indication  of  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from  early  and 
systematic  spraying,  in  such  a  season  as  1910-11.  The  actual  benefit 
to  be  derived  from  spraying  every  season  is  far  from  settled.  In  other 
countries,  the  results  are  not  conclusive ;  in  some  seasons  they  are 
slightly  in  favour  of  the  sprayed  sections ;  and  in  others  it  is  in  favour 
of  the  unsprayed.  But,  allowing  that  the  decreased  yield  in  these  ex- 
periments is  due  to  the  effect  of  the  mixture  on  the  plants,  it  amounts 
only  to  about  15  per  cent.,  whilst  the  loss  from  the  Blight  in  1910-11 
ranged  from  25  per  cent,  to  a  total  loss.  As  many  fields  were  not 
harvested,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  if  spraying  had  been  imdertaken 
early,  and  persistently  followed  up,  many  of  these  abandoned  fields 
would  have  given  a  fair  percentage  of  sound  tubers.  It  is  most  de- 
sirable that  those  growers  w^ho  have  a  spraying  plant  should  be  on  the 
alert  for  any  appearance  of  an  outbreak  in  the  coming  season,  and 
in  carrying  out  the  work  are  advised  to  have  one  or  more  unspraj^ed 
control  sections. 


IP  Dec,    1912.]     Resulti!  of  Spraying  for  Irish  Blight. 


751 


I  am  indebted  to  the  Commonwealth  Meteorologist  for  the  daily 
rainfall  registered  during  the  period  of  experiment  at  each  centre. 
The  thanks  of  this  Department  are  also  due  to  Mr.  Crowe,  Crossley; 
IVIessrs.  Callaghan  Bros.,  Warrnambool;  Mr.  S.  McKay,  Warragulj 
and  Mr.  Ibbott,  of  Pootilla.  for  setting  apart  portions  of  their  crop  for 
experimental  purposes,  and  the  assistance  rendered  in  carrying  out  the 
Avork. 

Table  VI. 
SPRAYING  EXPERIMENTS.  1911-12. 

R.\INFALL  AT  KOBOIT   AND  WaRKNAMEOOL. 
Early  Fields. 


Date. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

Points. 

Points. 

Points. 

1 

3 

2 

8 

12 

3 

23 

1 

4 

9 

5 

Ill 

6 

7 

8 

■T 

8 

4 

.") 

6 

9 

29 

10 

■1 

2 

11 

2 

12 

(i9 

13 

2 

6 

4(i 

14 

2 

1 

15 

16 

6 

1 

•)•> 

17 

2 

18 

3 

19 

49 

20 

20 

21 

4 

22 

4 

(i 

23 

2 

3 

24 

t) 

3 

25 

12 

36 

26 

1 

09 

27 

1 

28 

1 

29 

30 

0 

31 

47 

3 

Total  rain 

Kit) 

31 

411 

17  days 

7  days 

20  days 

Warrnambool. 


October.  November.         December. 


Points 


19 
6 


10 


39 


128 


12  days 


Points 
6 


16 


4  d;i 


Point6. 


130 

1 

8 

1 

()2 
35 

12 

7 
28 


3 
30 
20 

1 


393 


17  days 


75^ 


Journal  of  Agric7iltnre,   Vicforia.  [lo   Dec.    iqi2. 


Table  VII. 
SPRAYING  EXPERIMENTS.  1911-12. 


Mid-season  Plot. 

Late  Plot. 

Pootilla  Plot.     Records  taken  at 

Warragul. 

Beale's  Reservoir. 

1911. 

1912. 

1912. 

1912. 

1912. 

1912. 

Date. 

Date.     - 

December. 

January. 

February. 

.January. 

February. 

March. 

Points. 

Points. 

Points. 

Points. 

Points. 

Points. 

1 

9 

1       .. 

10 

2 

14 

2 

1 

3 

3      .. 

4 

71 

47 

4      .. 

3 

i 

5 

12 

4 

5      .. 

8 

2 

6 

8 

4 

6      .  . 

7 

'o 

75 

7      .. 

62 

8 

5 

8      .. 

24 

9 

16 

9      .  . 

62 

10 

17 

10      .. 

10 

25 

11 

94 

8 

11      .. 

3 

12 

149 

12      .. 

3 

13 

12 

13      .. 

14 

14     .. 

15 

29 

15      .  . 

16 

22 

5 

15 

16      .. 

17 

2 

17      .. 

18 

50 

IS      .. 

19 

40 

19     .. 

20 

4 

20      .. 

21 

67 

21      .. 

22 

21 

22 

23 

6 

23     '.. 

24 

5 

24     . 

36 

25 

88 

2 

25      . 

26 

34 

26      . 

27 

1 

4 

27      ., 

4 

8 

28 

28     . 

25 

29 

29     ., 

13 

30 

30     .. 

2 

31 

31      . 

Total  Rain 

704 

126 

116 

35 

126 

141 

Number 

1 

of    Days' 

\    " 

9 

8 

6 

4 

9 

Rainfall. 

lo   Dec,    IQI2.]     Fruit  Prospects  for  the  Coming  Season.  753 

FRUIT  PROSPECTS  FOR  THE  COMING  SEASON. 

p.  J.   Carmody,   Chief  Orchard  Supervisor. 

The  subjoined  reports  of  the  district  supervisors  indicate  the  fruit 
prospects  of  the  coming  year  to  be  particularly  good. 

Owing  to  mild  winter  and  to  the  fact  that  last  season's  crop  was 
light,  the  trees  are  in  excellent  condition ;  and  the  bright  and  sunny 
weather  prevailing  at  setting  time  has  resulted  in  leading  one  to 
believe  that  a  record  yield  will  be  harvested.  In  only  a  limited  area 
have  frosts  been  reported  to  be  injurious. 

Jonathan,  the  principal  export  apple  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
State,  gives  promise  of  a  very  heavy  crop  where  the  trees  are  under 
the  influence  of  other  varieties  blooming  at  the  same  time.  Where 
large  areas  of  these  apples  are  planted  out  on  their  own,  crops  are 
light  and  irregular.  Rokewood,  Yates,  and  Statesman  are  amongst 
those  having  the  greatest  influence  in  interpollination  with  the 
Jonathan,  and  it  is  remarkable  to  see  young  trees  three  and  four  years 
old  with  this  advantage  laden  with  fruit,  while  without  it  trees  eight 
years  old  have  but  a  few  apples  on  them.  It  is  advisable,  not  only 
with  this  variety,  but  with  all  other  kinds  of  fruit,  to  adopt  a  method 
of  planting  whereby  interpollinating  influences  can  have  the  fullest 
scope. 

Now  that  the  work  of  spraying  is  facilitated  by  the  general  use 
of  motor  spray  pumps,  it  is  only  reasonable  to  expect  growers  to 
take  every  precaution  against  diseases  so  that  the  fruit  may  be  in  a 
•condition  to  bring  remunerative  prices  on  the  market. 

The  reports  from  the  different  districts  are  as  follow : — 

Mr.  H.  W.  Davey,  Geelong  and  Western  District,  reports: — 

Geelong,  mcludiiig  Freshwater  Creek  and  part  of  Moorahool  Valley. — Apricots: 
from  light  to  heavy,  the  average  on  the  light  side.  Peaches:  excellent. 
Plums:   fair.       Pears:    very  heavy.       Apples:   good. 

Inverleigh,  Native  Creek,  and  Bannockhurn. — Apricots  from  light  to  heavy, 
average  a  fair  crop.  Cherries  and  peaches:  good.  Plums:  fair.  Apples:  good. 
Pears:  heavy. 

Mt.  Cole. — Apricots:  not  much  grown.  Plums:  good.  Apples:  good. 
Pears:   heavy. 

Ocean  Grove,  Fenwick,  and  Wallington. — Apricots:  light  to  fair.  Apples: 
good.       Pears:   heavy. 

Portland,  Gorae,  and  Bolwarrah. — Apricots:  good,  but  little  grown.  Pears: 
very  heavy. 

Panmure. — Apricots:    fair.        Apples:    good.        Pears:    heavy.        Plums:    fair. 

Eoketcood  Junction. — Apricots:  fair  to  good  Apples:  good.  Pears:  very 
heavy   crops. 

TVarncoort  and  Yea. — Apricots:  fair  to  good.  Peaches:  very  little  grown. 
Apples:    good;   some  fine  crops  of  Jonathans.        Pears:    heavy. 

Mr.  E.  Meeking  reports: — 

Prospects  of  the  coming  season 's  fruit  crop  in  the  Mornington  Peninsula 
are:  — 

Apples. — .Jonathan:  a  good  setting  is  the  rule  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
Mornington  Peninsula  and  the  greater  part  of  South-eastern  Gippsland. 


754  ] oiinial  of  Agnculture.   Victoria.  [lo   Dec,    1912. 

Eeinotte  du  Canada:  generally  speaking,  throughout  the  Mornington  Pen- 
insula and  South-eastern  Gippsland  this  useful  and  hardy  variety  has  again 
set  well. 

Williams'  Favorite:   very  fair  all  round. 

Gravenstein:  fair  to  medium  in  all  the  centres. 

Eome  Beauty:  on  the  Mornington  Peninsula  there  is  promise  of  a  fair 
crop;  but  with  this  particular  variety  it  is  rather  early  to  speak  definitely. 
In  the  Gippsland  portion  of  the  district  the  variety  is  not  much  cultivated. 

London  Pippin:  this  being  a  late  variety,  the  remarks  on  Eome  Beauty 
pertain  to  London  Pippin  also. 

Delicious:  where  planted  on  the  Peninsula,  the  setting  has  been  very  fair. 

Sunnyside:  a  very  fair  setting  in  most  of  the  centres. 

Aesopus  Spitzenberg:  not  a  heavy  setting  in  any  of  the  centres. 

Statesman:   generally  good  everywhere. 

Pears. — Williams'  Bon  Chretien:  the  setting  has  been  good;  quite  different 
from  last  season. 

Beurre  de  Capiaumont:  good  generally.  Black  Spot  has  made  its  appear- 
ance, and  will  tend  to  lessen  the  crop. 

Beurre  d'Anjou:  usually  a  poor  setter,  this  season  there  is  promise  of  a 
fair  crop. 

Napoleon:   a  good  setting.      Black  Spot  threatens  to  cause  havoc. 

Keiffer's  Hybrid:  promise  of  a  very  fair  crop  generally. 

Beurre  Bosc:  a  good  setting  wherever  grown. 

Ajmcots. — OuUin's  Early  Peach:  a  very  fair  promise. 

Moor  Park:  a  good  promise. 

Beuge:   fair  to  good. 

Plums. — All  varieties  have  set  well,  and  with  favorable  weather  should 
yield  a  good  harvest. 

Strmvberries, — Most  varieties  set  well,  but  hailstorms  caused  a  certain 
amount  of  loss.      The  crop  generally  in  Eed  Hill  will  be  fair. 

Mr.  A.  A.  Hammond  reports  on  the  fruit  crops  in  the  Doncaster 
district : — 

Apfiles. — Good.      All  the  leading  varieties  promise  a  good  crop. 

Apricots. — Good.  Very  little  grown,  but  the  crop  is  the  best  for  a  number 
of  years. 

Pears. — Very  good. 

Peaches. — Very  good.  Late  varieties  are  heavy.  Brigg's  and  Hale's  Early 
have  only  a  medium  crop,  but  on  the  whole  the  prospects  of  the  peach  crop 
are  good. 

Plums. — Light.  All  the  leading  varieties  are  light.  The  Washington, 
Greengage,  and  Late  Black  Orleans  promise  a  medium  to  good  crop,  but  these 
varieties  are  not  so  largely  grown. 

Lemons. — Good. 

The  prospects  for  the  coming  season 's  fruit  crop  are,  on  the  whole,  very 
satisfactory.  With  the  exception  of  plums,  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees  are 
carrying   a   good   crop. 

The  plum  crop  will  probably  be  only  about  one-fifth  to  one-sixth  of  the 
1910-11  season's  crop. 

Mr,  J.  Farrell  reports : — 

Bayswater.- — Apples:  all  varieties  medium  to  heavy.  Pears:  heavy.  Plume: 
medium.      Peaches:  heavy.      Apricots:  light.      Strawberries:  heavy. 

Blackiurn. — Apples:  medium  to  heavy.  Pears:  heavy.  Peaches:  heavy. 
Apricots:   medium.       Plums:   light. 

Brighton. — Apples:  heavy,  particularly  Fillbasket.  Pears:  Williams'  Bon 
Chretien,  Keiflfer's  Hybrid,  and  Howell,  heavy;  others,  medium.  Peaches 
and  apricots:    medium.        Figs:    light    (first   crop). 

Burwood. — Apples:  medium  to  heavy.  Pears:  heavy,  particularly  Williams'' 
Bon  Chretien.     Peaches  and  apricots:  light.     Plums:  light  to  medium. 


lo   Dec,    191-'.]      bruit  Prospects  for  the   Coming  Season.  755 

Croydon. — Apples:  Jonathau,  medium  to  heavy;  Five  Crown  and  Eome 
Beauty,  heavy;  other  varieties,  good.  Pears:  Williams'  Bon  Chretien,  Howell, 
Keiffer,  Beurre  Bosc,  and  Beurre  Capiaumont  heavy;  other  varieties,  medium 
to  heavy.       Peaches,  plums,  and  apricots:   medium. 

Emerald. — Apples:  Five  Crown  and  Rome  Beauty,  heavy;  Jonathan,  medium; 
others,  light.  Pears:  medium.  Plums:  light  to  medium.  Strawberries: 
heavy.  '^\W 

Fern  Tree  Gully. — Apples:  medium.  Pears:  heavy.  Peaches:  heavy.  Plums: 
medium.        Strawberries:   good. 

Eingtvood. — Apples:  all  varieties,  medium  to  heavy.  Pears:  heavy.  Plums: 
medium.      Peaches,  heavy.      Apricots:    light.      Strawberries:    good. 

Scoresby. — Apples:  medium  to  heavy.  Pears:  heavy.  Plums:  medium. 
Lemons  and  oranges:    medium. 

Vermont. — Apples:    medium    to    heavy.       Pears:    heavy.       Plums:    medium.- 
Peaches  and   apricots:    light.        Lemons  and   oranges:    medium.        Strawberries: 
heavy. 

Wandin. — Apples:  medium.  Pears:  heavy.  Plums,  peaches,  and  apricots: 
light  to  medium.  Oranges  and  lemons:  medium.  Quinces:  heavy.  Loquats: 
medium.  Walnuts:  light.  Almonds:  medium.  Mulberries:  heavy.  Figs: 
light.  Gooseberries:  heavy,  particularly  Eoaring  Lion.  Passion  fruit:  very 
light.  Raspberries:  show  prospects  of  good  crop.  Blackberries:  all  varieties 
look  well  for  a  croji.  Currants:  medium.  Filberts:  light.  Strawberries: 
Edith,  Marguerite,  Royal  Sovereign,  and  Sunbeam,  heavy;  Up-to-date,  medium; 
except  where  irrigated,  heavy. 

Waverley. — Apples:  most  kinds,  medium  to  heavy.  Pears:  heavy.  Plums: 
medium.        Peaches   and  apricots:    light.        Lemons   and    oranges:    medium. 

]\Ir.  E.  Wallis  reports: — 

Diamond  Creek,  Doreen,  Eltham,  Greenshorougli,  Ee.9eareh,  South  Morang, 
Tanclc's  Corner. — Apples:  heavy.  Apricots:  medium  to  heavy.  Peaches: 
heavy.       Pears:   heavy.       Plums:    heavy.       Quinces:   medium  to  heavy. 

Arthur's  CreeTc,  Kinglalce,  Eunning  Creel'.  Stratheicen,  Wallan,  Whittlesea. — 
Apples:  heavy.  Apricots:  medium.  Peaches:  heavy.  Pears:  heavy.  Plums: 
heavy.     Quinces:   medium  to  heavy. 

Allicood,  Cottle's  Bridge,  Kangaroo  Ground,  Panton  Hill,  Queenstown.  Summer 
Hill. — Apples:  heavy.  Apricots:  medium.  Peaches:  heavy.  Pears:  heavy. 
Plums:   heavy.       Quinces:   medium. 

Digger's  Eest,  Keilor,  Macedon,  Eiddell's  Creelc,  Werribee. — Apples:  heavy. 
Apricots:  medium.  Peaches:  medium.  Pears:  heavy.  Plums:  medium  to 
heavy. 

Mr,  A.  G.  McCalman   (Goulburn  Valley)   reports: — 

Apricots  both  in  the  Goulburn  Valley  and  North-east  will  be  extremely 
light,  especially  Moor  Park,  the  principal  canning  variety.  Total  yield  will 
probably  not  be  one-fifth  of  last  season 's  yield. 

Peaches. — The  early  varieties  Brigg's  Red  May  and  Hale's  Early  will  be 
a  light  crop.  The  later  kinds,  including  all  those  suitable  for  canning  and 
drying,  will  be  a  good  crop,  approaching  that  of  last  season,  both  in  the  Yallev 
and  Xorth-east.  Of  the  late  varieties  of  peaches,  the  Elberta  has  set  well, 
but  the  Comet  will  be  light;  Foster  is  light.  Nicholl's  Orange  Cling,  rather 
light;  Pullar's  Cling  is  light  on  the  young  trees,  and  light  to  medium  crop 
on  older  trees;  Lady  Palmerston  is  light,  and  Late  Orange  Cling  a  very  light 
crop. 

Pears. — Williams'  Bon  Chretien,  the  principal  canning  pear,  will  be  extremely 
heavy,  except  at  Toolamba  and  Ardmona,  where  the  crops  will  be  medium 
only.  The  total  will  probably  exceed  that  of  any  previous  year,  as  manv  young 
trees  are  coming  into  full  profit.      The  yield  of  pears  generally  will  be  good. 

Apples. — Heavy  yields  aa-III  be  obtained  with  nearly  all  varieties  in  the  Valley 
and  Xorth-east. 

Plums. — Crops  will  be  medium  only  in  both  districts. 

Nectarines. — Crops   will   be   good. 


756  Journal  of  Agriciilt?(rc ,   Victoria.  [10  Dec,    191 2. 

Oranges  and  lemons. — Promise  of  heavy  yields,  but  it  is  too  early  to  say. 

Grapes. — Damaged  by  frost  in  many  places.  The  total  yield  will  be  much 
lighter  than  last  year. 

Lo(iua1s  have  everywhere   set   heavy   crops. 

Almonds. — The  crop  will  be  very  good,  Hatch's  Nonpariel  having  the  biggest 
yield.      The  Jordan  shows  well  in  most  places. 

Mr.  AV.  P.  Chalmers  reports  on  the  various  localities  in  his 
district : — - 

Bet  Bet  and  Dunolly. — Apricots:  very  light.  Peaches:  early  varieties, 
medium;  late  varieties,  very  heavy.  Plums:  medium.  Apples:  heavy.  Pears, 
very  heavy. 

Amphitheatre,   Elmhurst,   Eversley. — Pears:    heavy.       Apples:    medium. 

Pomonal. — Apples:    exceptionally   light.       Pears:    heavy. 

Horsham. — Apricots:  exceptionally  light.  Peaches:  early,  light;  late,  heavy. 
Plums:   medium.      Apples:   medium.      Pears:   heavy. 

Guildford  and  Newstead. — Apples:   heavy.      Peais:    very  heavy. 

Smnmary  for  District. — Apples:  medium.  Pears:  very  heavy.  Plums: 
medium.       Apricots:   very  light.       Quinces:   abundant. 

Mr.  S.  A.  Cock  reports  on  the  prospects  of  the  frviit  crop  in  the 
Bendigo  district: — 

Apricots. — The  crop  is  a  light  one  generally.  Extremely  light  in  the  Bendigo 
district,  and  medium   to   light   in  the  Murray  district. 

Apples. — Every  variety  is  heavy,  especially  New  York,  Munroe,  Newtown 
Pippin,  and  Jonathan.      Harcourt  should  produce  a  record  crop  this  season. 

Citrus. — Oranges  and  lemons  are  showing  abundant  blossom,  and  the  con- 
ditions favorable  to  setting  a  very  heavy  crop  in  all  the  northern  irrigated 
areas. 

Currants. — Black  and  red  promise  a  good  crop  at  Taradale,  Woodend,  and 
Kyneton. 

Figs. — Bendigo  and  the  Murray  districts  should  produce  a  record  first  crop 
of  figs.      All  varieties  have  set  well. 

Grapes. — Both  table  and  drying  grapes  give  excellent  promise  of  a  heavy 
crop  at  Bendigo  and  the  Murray  districts. 

Gooseberries. — The  crop  is  a  medium  to  good  one. 

Loquats. — A  good  crop  in  the  Bendigo  district. 

Pears. — The  crop  is  light  to  medium;  Williams'  Bon  Chretien,  Beurre  de 
Capiaumont,  and  Eyewood  are  the  heaviest,  and  Gansel  's  Bergamot  and  Winter 
Nel^s  extremely  light. 

Plums. — Early  ]:)lums  will  be  light,  and  late  plums  heavy.  Generally,  taking 
Bendigo  and  the  Murray  districts,  the  crop  is  medium  to  heavy. 

Peaches. — Bendigo  and  the  Murray  districts  should  have  a  splendid  crop  in 
all  varieties. 

Quinces. — A  heavy  crop  in   all  districts. 

Strawherries. — At  Campbell's  Creek  a  good  crop;  and  in  the  new  irrigation 
settlements  of  the  north,  Tongala,  Bamawm,  Nanneella,  and  Swan  Hill  the 
promise  is  good. 

Tovtaloes. — A  heavy  crop  at  Echuca,  Swan  Hill,  and  all  the  Murray  district. 
Bendigo  a  heavy  crop,  but  late,  owing  to  cold  conditions  of  September  and 
October.  There  is  also  a  large  planting  in  the  irrigation  settlements,  and 
promise  of  heavy  crops. 

Mr.  L.  Pilloud  reports  on  the  fruit  crop  in  the  Gippsland  district : — - 

Peaches  are  good  at  Bruthen,  Bairnsdale,  and  Drouin;   a  heavy  crop. 
Pears. — Williams'  Bon  Chr  tien,  Keiffer's  Hybrid,  Josephine,  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field are  very  heavy  all  through  Gippsland. 
Plums  promise  a  good  crop. 

Quinces. — Not  many  grown;    a  good   crop   on  the   few  trees  here  and  there. 
Apricots. — Not  many  grown;  a  good  crop  on  those  that  have  them. 
Apples. — Jonathans  and  Yates  will  have  a  good  crop. 


10  Dec,    19 12.]     Fruit  Prospects  for  the  Coming  Season.  757 

Mr.  J.  T.  Grossmann  reports  on  the  IMildura  Settlement  and 
adjacent  orchards  in  the  district: — 

Apjdes  promise  a  good  yield  in  practically  all  the  varieties  grown.  The 
early  varieties,  such  as  Eed  Astrachan,  are  yielding  exceptionally  heavy. 

Pears. — Varieties  grown  are  principally  Bartletts.  The  older  trees  are  pro- 
mising a  heavy  yield.  The  younger  trees  in  most  cases  are  only  showing  light 
to  fair. 

Peae]ics. —  Varieties  cultivated  are  chiefly  P^lbertes,  Lady  Palmerston,  and 
Crawfords.  These  three  varieties  in  good  jieach  land  are  promising  a  good  crop, 
although  not  exceptionally  heavy. 

Apricots. — The  varieties  cultivated  are  Moor  Park,  Blenheim,  Royal,  and 
Oullin 's  Early  Improved.  The  Moor  Park  are  promising  best,  in  some  cases 
heavy;  Blenheims  are  light;  and  Royals  and  Oullin's  Early  Improved  only  a- 
sprinkling  to  fair  generally. 

Plums  and  Prunes. — Although  not  cultivated  yet  to  any  large  extent,  the 
season  appears  to  be  a  favorable  one  for  this  fruit.  The  Sugar  Prune  is 
bearing  heavy  crops,  also  the  Prune  D  'Agen,  and  most  of  the  Japanese  varieties 
are  carrying  a  good  crop. 

Figs  promise   a  good  crop. 

Almonds. — Principally  Brandes  Jordan  and  Nonpariel  varieties  are  carrying 
a  good  crop. 

Oranges. — Varieties,  including  the  Washington  Naval,  Valencia  Late,  Medi- 
terranean, sweet  as  well  as  the  more  common  varieties,  have  all  bloomed  well, 
and,  according  to  present  appearances,  promise  a  heavy  crop  for  the  coming 
year. 

Lemons. — Chiefly  Lisbon  variety;  good  healthy  trees,  have  also  bloomed  well, 
and,  so  far,  the  setting  is  equally  good. 


STRENGTH  IN  WHEAT— 

A  strong  wheat  is  one  which  yields  a  strong  dough  in  baking,  and 
English  w^heats  are  lacking  in  this  respect.  Speaking  at  a  conference 
recently,  in  Cambridge,  Professor  Biffen  gave  some  interesting  par- 
ticulars as  to  the  efforts  of  the  Home  Grown  Wheat  Committee  to 
improve  the  strength  of  English  wheats.  Rating  the  best  Canadian 
at  100  in  strength,  a  good  average  wheat  might  be  reckoned  at  80, 
while  ordinary  English  wheats  could  only  be  classed  at  60.  English 
wheat  has,  consequently,  to  be  mixed  with  hard  imported  wheats  in 
order  to  get  the  desired  strength ;  and  it  is  stated  that  strong  imported 
wheat  may  be  worth  10s.  more  per  quarter  to  the  inland  miller  than 
the  home  grown.  In  experiments  conducted  by  the  Committee  it 
was  found  that  neither  soils  nor  manures  can  raise  the  quality  of 
English  wheats  to  the  desired  standard  of  strength,  and  that  improve- 
ment nuist  be  sought  in  the  introduction  of  new  varieties.  Of  these 
many  have  been  tested,  seed  being  obtained  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
In  England  the  imported  variety,  however,  has  alwaj^s  deteriorated 
under  cultivation  with  one  exception — Red  Fife — which  was  found  to 
retain  its  strength. 


758  Journal  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria.  [10  Dec,    1912. 

BEE-KEEPING  IN  VICTORIA. 

{Continued  from  page   653.) 

F.  R.  Beuhne,  Bee  Expert. 

X.— THE  REARING  OF  QUEEN  BEES. 

The  selection  of  a  queen  from  which  to  Ijreed  for  the  purpose  of  super- 
seding old  or;  inferior  queens,  or  the  queens  oif  colonies  showing  a  piredisr 
position  to  disease,  viciousness  or  some  other  undesirable  trait,  is  not  only 
of  the  greatest  importance  but  also  a  most  difficult  problem. 

It  is  upon  the  prolificness  of  the  queen  and  the  longevity  and  \igour  of 
her  worker  progeny  that  the  larger  or  smaller  amount  of  surplus  honey 
depends;  but  the  most  prolific  queen  is  not  necessarily  the  best  to  breed 
from.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  queen  progeny  of  an  exceedingly  pro- 
lific queen  rarely  equal  their  mother ;  when  they  do,  they  produce  workers 
which  are  constitutionally  delicate,  and  these  never  yield  the  amount  ot 
surplus  which  one  should  expect  from  the  great  number  of  bees  raised. 
A  prolific  queen  producing  vigorous  long-lived  workers  is  very  soon  re- 
stricted in  egg  production  by  the  relatively  large  number  of  old  field  bees, 
the  honey  gatherers  filling  much  of  the  comb  with  honey  once  the  colony 
has  attained  normal  strength.  In  the  case  of  a  colony  having  a  queen 
producing  short-lived  workers  the  position  is  reversed.  Many  of  the  bees 
ii;  such  a  colony  die  soon  after  reaching  field  bee  age ;  therefore  the  young, 
the  nurse  bees,  predominate.  It  is  the  work  of  the  young  bees  to  feed 
larvae,  prepare  cells  for  egg-laying,  and  attend  the  queen.  As  the  number 
of  field  bees  bringing  in  honey  is  little  more  than  sufficient  to  supply  what 
is  needed  for  immediate  consumption,  the  colony  will  show  a  very  large 
amount  of  brood  in  all  stages  right  through  the  season  but  will  store  less 
honey  for  the  apiarist  than  colonies  which,  with  a  smaller  amount  of  brood, 
have  far  more  old  field  bees. 

As  a  breeder,  I  prefer  the  queen  of  a  colony  which  has  the  maximum 
number  of  bees  from  a  moderate  amount  of  brood  during  a  season.  This 
results  naturally  in  a  good  yield  of  honey,  and  indicates  longevity  of  the 
bees.  There  are,  however,  other  desirable  characteristics,  such  as  purity 
of  race,  gentleness,  and  absence  of  excessive  swarming,  which  are  needed. 
The  number  of  queens  which  conform  to  all  these  requirements  is,  even  in 
a   large  apiary,   usually  rather  limited. 

Important  as  the  selection  of  the  queen  mother  is,  the  raising  of  the 
young  queens  by  the  best  possible  method,  and  under  the  most  favourable 
conditions,  is  not  less  so.  Poor  queens  may  result  when  queens  are  raised 
under  unfavourable  conditions,  no  matter  how  suitable  the  mother  queen 
is.  There  are  many  different  methods  of  raising  queens  and  good  queens 
may  be  obtained  by  any  one  of  them  if  everything  is  just  right.  The 
difficulty  is,  that  many  bee-keepers  fail  to  oKserve  when  conditions  are 
suitable  and  when  not.  A  prosperous  condition  of  colonies,  an  income  of 
pollen  and  honey,  and  a  warm  moist  atmosphere,  are  essential.  A  heavy 
honey  flow  is  not  the  best  time  for  queen  rearing,  particularly  when  it 
occurs  during  hot  dry  weather.  There  may  be  both  pollen  and  honey 
coming  in,  and  yet  the  right  conditions  may  not  exist,  even  though  atmos 
pheric  conditions  appear  favourable.  This  is  probably  owing  to  some 
deficiencv  in  qnalitv  of  the  stores  gathered.     It  may,  however,  be  taken  as 


lo   Dec,    191 2.]  Bee-keeping   in    Victoria.  .759 

an  indication  that  conditions  are  favourable  when  the  voung  larvae  are 
surrounded  by  a  plentiful  supply  of  pure  white  food.  The  colony  selected 
for  raising  cells  from  the  eggs  or  larvae  of  the  chosen  breeding  queen 
should  be  strong,  particularly  in  nurse  bees. 

The  "  Doolittle  "  method  of  transferring  young  larvae  to  artificial  cell 
cups  and  getting  the  cells  raised,  either  in  a  queenless  colony  or  over  the 
queen-excluding  honeyboard  in  the  .super  of  a  strong  colony,  has  the 
advantage  of  enabling  one  to  know  exactly  when  the  queen  cells  will  hatch. 
The  same  advantage  can  be  obtained  by  the  "  Alley  "  method  without 
disturbing  the  young  larvae.  Queenless  bees  are  compelled  to  raise  queen 
cells  under  the  impulse  of  self-preservation,  whether  the  conditions  are 
suitable  or  not.  Often  they  appear  to  raise  them  rather  hurriedly.  There- 
is  no  doubt  that  good  queen  cells  are  produced  by  bees  bent  on  swarming 
(in  the  proper  season).  They  are  raised  deliberately,  and  only  when  con- 
ditions as  to  food  supply  and  strength  in  bees  are  suitable.  But  the  bees 
of  queens  from  swarm-cells  inherit  the  swarming  impulse,  which  the  best 
apiarists  of  all  countries  are  trying  to  eliminate,  and  .such  queens  are 
therefore  not  desirable  in  any  numbers. 

There  is  yet  another  impulse  under  which  bees  will  raise  good  cells  ; 
the  super.seding  impulse.  When  a  queen  is  in  her  third  season,  and  long 
before  the  apiarist  can  notice  any  decline  in  her  prolificness,  the  bees  usually 
prepare  to  supersede  her  by  raising  one  or  more  queen-cells.  They  do  this 
at  a  time  when  the  conditions  are  most  favourable  ;  they  are  usually  better 


r.     COMB    CUT    FOR   QUEEN    RAISING. 

judges  of  this  than  their  owner,  excepting  in  the  case  of  a  queen  suddenly 
failing  from  disease  or  accident.  If  the  bees  are  inclined  to  swarm  there 
may  be  a  swarm  issuing  before  or  after  the  cell  or  first  cell  hatches 
Where  the  bees  are  less  inclined,  the  virgin  queen  on  emerging  from  her 
cell  will  destroy  all  other  cells  but  will  take  no  notice  of  the  remaining 
old  queen,  her  mother. 

The  number  of  cells  raised  under  the  superseding  impulse  is  not  large 
— from  one  to  three  usually  ;  but  they  are  invariably  fine  large  cells  pro- 
ducing splendid  queens.  For  a  number  of  years  I  have  obtained  some  of 
my  best  queens  in  this  way.  but  as  the  number  is  limited  I  could  not  get 
suflficient,  till  I  made  use  of  the  superseding  impulse  for  raising  them 
from  larvae  supplied  repeatedly  to  the  superseding  colonies  from  selected 
breeding  queens.  For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  ages  of  all 
queens.  Colonies  having  queens  in  their  third  year  are  examined  periodic- 
ally when  conditions  are  favourable.  If  there  are  indications  of  super- 
seding, the  cells  are  removed  and  larvae  from  the  breeding  queen,  over 
which  cell  cups  have  previously  been  started  by  temporarily  queenless  bees, 
are  given  in  place  of  those  removed.  The  colony  should  naturally  be 
populous  and  thriving  enough  to  raise  good  cells.  If  the  queens  which 
are  not  up  to  standard  are  replaced  every  year  irrespective  of  age,  these 
three-year-olds  are  those  which  passed  all  the  musters  and  there  will  be  no 
lack  of  the  necessarv  condition.     Should  none  of  the  superseding  colonies 


760 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [10   Dec,    1912. 


be  of  sufficient  strength  other  strong  ones  may  be  made  by  exchanging 
queens  between  colonies  with  old  queens  and  strong  colonies  with  younger 
ones. 

To  have  all  the  queen-cells  mature  at  the  same  time,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  leave  them  where  they  are  raised  till  the  day  before  they  hatch,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  young  larvae  from  which  the  queens  are  to  be  raised  to 
be  all  of  the  same  age.  This  is  not  a  difficult  matter  for  any  one  knowing 
from  experience  the  size  of  the  grubs  at  different  ages.  At  eighteen 
hours  old,  they  are  of  about  the  size  of  the  small  c  of  ordinary  type  and 
will  hatch  on  the  twelfth  day.  For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  larvae  of 
the  right  age  in  sufficient  numbers,  I  do  not  find  it  necessary  to  insert  an 
empty  comb  into  the  brood  chamber  of  the  colony  with  the  selected  queen, 
because,  at  a  time  suitable  for  queen  rearing,  sufficient  larvae  for  the  pur- 
pose should  be  in  every  hive.  To  obtain  the  larvae  I  cut  a  piece,  four  to 
six  inches  long  and  the  width  of  three  rows  of  cells,  out  of  a  comb  in  a 


.•••;•••••"•   •• 


•!>J^n% 


fifj 


asaa^^^*^».ui»r-^S 


2.    QUEEN    CELLS    GROUPED    IN    COMB. 


suitable  place.  By  cutting  it  again  through  the  middle  row  of  cells  two 
single  rows  are  obtained.  These  are  fastened  with  liquid  wax  cell  end  on, 
to  a  thin  strip  of  wood.  The  open  row  of  cells  is  then  cut  down  to  half 
the  depth  (Fig.  i)  by  means  of  twirling  a  wooden  match  head  first  into 
the  surplus  larvae.  Those  of  the  wrong  age  and  any  eggs  which  may  be 
pre.sent  are  removed,  leaving  as  far  as  possible  one  larva  of  the  right  age 
in  every  third  cell.  These  strips  of  comb  are  then  fixed  in  gaps  cut  into 
a  comb  and  given  to  queenless  bees  for  6  to  12  hours  to  mould  queen-cups 
round  the  larvae.  They  are  then  fitted  into  an  outside  brood  comb  of  the 
superseding  colonies. 

When  the  cells  are  sealed  the  strips  may  be  remo\ed  and  grouped  into 
a  comb,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  This  is  placed  into  the  super  of  a  strong 
colony  over  a  queen  excluder  where  they  may  remain  till  distributed  in 
cell  protectors  to  nuclei  about  the  tenth  or  eleventh  day  after  they  are 
started.      Started   queen-cells   may   again   be   given    to   the   colonies   which 


lo  Dec.    1912.'^  Putrefaction  and   Decay.  761 

raised  the  cells  as  soon  as  the  sealed  cells  are  removed  but  the  brood 
combs  should  be  examined  occasionally  for  a  cell  they  may  be  raising  on 
their  own  account.  Three  to  six  cells  are  all  I  raise  in  a  superseding 
colony  at  a  time.  When  greater  numbers  are  raised  they  are  not  so  perfect. 
The  thirteen  cells  in  P'ig.  2  are  on  three  strips,  each  from  a  different 
superseding  colony. 

The  great  advantage  of  this  method  of  queen-rearing  is  that,  having 
a  laying  queen  in  the  hive,  the  bees  will  not  rai.se  the  cells  given,  unless 
conditions  are  as  they  should  be.  No  inferior  queens  will  therefore 
result. 

{To   be   continued. ) 


PUTREFACTION    AND   DECAY. 

Jno.  ir.  Paterson,  B.  Sc,  Ph.  D. 

It  is  a  matter  of  everyday  experience  that  when  organic  substances 
or  mixtures  such  as  milk,  wines,  flesh  products,  or  wood  are  exposed 
to  ordinary  atmospheric  influences  they  luidergo  chemical  change  and 
become  unwholesome  or  useless.  At  one  time  it  was  believed  that 
those  changes  were  due  to  instability  in  the  complex  chemical  molecule, 
and  that  decay,  therefore,  was  a  spontaneous  result.  More  modern 
investigation  has  shown  this  view  to  be  wrong,  and  that  the  whole 
series  of  changes  variously  known  as  souring,  rotting,  decay,  fermenta- 
tion and  putrefaction  are  caused  by  various  low  forms  of  life,  especially 
by  bacteria  and  moulds.  As  these  latter  are  plants — bacteria  are  very 
small  plants  indeed — it  will  easily  be  understood  why  perishable  com- 
modities can  be  preserved  in  various  ways.  As  all  plants — including 
bacteria — require  water,  it  will  be  seen  that  dried  milk  or  dried  fish 
can  be  kept  indefinitely.  Again,  as  all  plants  have  a  temperature  at 
which  they  grow  quickest — generally  between  80  and  100  degrees  F. — 
decay  is  quicker  in  warm  weather.  Then,  again,  each  plant — including 
bacteria — has  a  temperature  below  which  it  cannot  grow — usually 
between  32  and  50  degrees  F. — therefore,  freezing  prevents  decay. 
Boiling  kills  all  sorts  of  plants,  and  a  tin  of  meat  sealed  up  while  hot 
is  free  from  bacteria,  and  will  keep  indefinitely ;  but  if  a  cold  tin  be 
opened  decay  soon  starts  because  decay  germs  are  floating  about  in 
the  air.  Again,  plants  may  be  poisoned  just  like  animals,  and  anti- 
septics are  things  which  are  poisonous  to  the  bacteria  causing  decay. 
Borax,  formalin,  and  carbolic  acid  are  used  in  different  cases  to  pre- 
vent decay — they  are  germ  poisons.  Lastly,  crops  cannot  grow  in 
soils  too  salty  because  the  soil  water  has  too  much  dissolved  matter — 
it  is  too  strong  a  solution — to  pass  into  the  roots  by  osmosis.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  putrefactive  germs  cannot  work  in  meat  that  has 
been  made  too  salt  for  them ;  and  also  why  jam  and  preserves  keep  all 
right  when  enough  sugar  has  been  used  in  the  making.  Altogether, 
the  many  and  different  methods  of  preventing  putrefaction  and  decay 
all  have  the  same  immediate  object — it  is  to  render  the  conditions  of 
life  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  the  little  plants  which  cause  the 
damage. 


76. 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [lo   Dec,    191. 


STATISTICS. 
Rainfall  in  Victoria. — Third  Quarter,  1912. 

Table  showing  average  amount  of  rainfall  in  each  of  the  26  Basins  or  Regions  con- 
stituting the  State  of  Victoria  for  each  month  and  the  quarter,  with  the  corre- 
sponding monthly  and  quarterly  averages  for  each  Basin,  deduced  from  all  available 
records  to  date. 


July. 

August. 

September. 

Quarter. 

Basin  or  District. 

a 

S) 

fl 

^ 

■s' 

0) 

a 

S> 

0 

a 

5 

c« 

s 

<a 

i 

> 

0 

> 

0 

S 

> 

0 

a 

0 

> 

<; 

< 

< 

points. 

< 
points. 

< 

< 

< 

points. 

points. 

points. 

points. 

points. 

points. 

Glenelg   and  Wannon    Rivers 

214 

3.37 

2.=-.9 

301 

549 

294 

1,022 

932 

Fitzroy,  Eumeralla,  and  Merri 

162 

374 

275 

322 

538 

310 

975 

1,006 

Rivers 

Hopkins    River    and     Mount 

169 

250 

200 

256 

431 

271 

800 

777 

Emu  Creek 

Mount    Elephant    and     Lake 

126 

239 

165 

244 

455 

268 

746 

751 

Corangamite 

Cape  Otway  Forest 

275 

407 

362 

400 

696 

388 

1,333 

1,195 

Moorabool  and  Barwon  Rivers 

183 

230 

164 

244 

536 

249 

883 

723 

Werribee  and  Saltwater  Rivers 

207 

194 

131 

210 

324 

248 

662 

652 

Yarra  River  and  Dandenong 

314 

315 

254 

300 

549 

331 

1,117 

946 

Creek 

Koo-wee-rup  Swamp 

281 

311 

254 

320 

414 

349 

949 

980 

South  Gippsland 

247 

371 

258 

.381 

554 

407 

1,059 

1,1.59 

Latrobe  and   Thomson  Rivers 

288 

312 

254 

339 

652 

375 

1,194 

1,026 

Macallister  and  Avon  Rivers 

337 

146 

89 

218 

272 

204 

698 

568 

Mitchell  River 

373 

218 

92 

202 

3.>7 

264 

802 

684 

Tambo  and  Nicholson  Rivers 

427 

194 

93 

180 

18S 

237 

708 

611 

Snowy  River 

522 

286 

139 

241 

201 

.317 

862 

844 

Murray  River 

371 

206 

176 

188 

291 

184 

838 

578 

Mitta  Mitta  and  Kiewa  Rivers 

586 

435 

256 

322 

701 

310 

1,543 

1,067 

Ovens  River 

610 

456 

272 

340 

446 

327 

1,.328 

1.123 

Goulburn  River 

405 

291 

172 

255 

407 

244 

984 

790 

Campaspe  River 

369 

267 

141 

245 

516 

258 

1,026 

770 

Loddon  River 

256 

188 

135 

194 

378 

183 

769 

565 

Avon  and  Richardson  Rivers 

252 

159 

153 

174 

343 

169 

748 

502 

Avoca  River 

215 

188 

135 

180 

387 

168 

737 

536 

Eastern  Wimmera  ... 

302 

242 

164 

244 

5.36 

229 

1,002 

715 

Western  Wimmera ... 

233 

245 

204 

211 

579 

206 

1,016 

662 

Mallee  District 

167 

1.38 

162 

141 

247 

142 

576 

421 

The  whole  State      ... 

291 

250 

185 

235 

407 

241 

883 

726 

100  points  =   1  inch. 


H.  A.  HUNT, 

Commonwealth  Mete  irol.O'iisi 


lo  Dec.    191^]  Haystack    Building.  763 

HAYSTACK  BUILDING. 

T.  A.  J.  Smith,  Chief  Field  Officer. 

As  with  all  other  arts,  in  haj  stack  building  proficiency  is  attained  only 
by  experience  and  practice.  The  builder  requires  a  good  eye  for  straight 
lines  and  the  faculty  of  concentrating  his  mind  on  the  work  before  him. 
The  main  purpose  is  so  to  build  the  stack  that  water  will  not  penetrate  it, 
and  that  it  be  able  to  resist  the  wind ;  but  it  is  always  desirable  that  it  be 
syinmetrical.      A  really  well  built  stack  is  a  fine  sight. 

Forms   of   Stacks. 

There  are  various  forms  of  stacks;  they  may  be  round,  oblong,  square, 
or  oval,  according  to  the  fancy  or  purpose  of  the  owner.  As  compared 
with  small  ones,  large  stacks  have  less  waste  in  proportion.  At  the  same 
time,  small  stacks  have  the  advantage  in  being  more  easily  built,  and 
often  obviate  the  necessity  for  opening  a  fresh  stack  ;  any  size  from  10  to 
150  tons  is  the  practice  in  this  State. 

The  old  practice-  of  kneeing  the  sheaves  is  still  followed  by  some 
builders,  i.e.,  kneeling  on  each  sheaf,  when  placed  in  position.  The 
majority  of  stacks,  however,  are  now  built  with  a  short  handled  pitch 
fork,  with  which  the  sheaves  are  put  in  position  by  the  builder.  At  least 
three  hands  are  required  for  any  fair-sized  stack,  viz..  the  pitcher  from 
the  load,  the  stack  builder,  and  a  sheaf  turner.  The  business  of  the 
latter  is,  with  a  fork,  to  place  the  sheaf  as  received  from  the  pitcher  in 
a  convenient  position  for  the  builder,  so  that  the  latter  need  not  leave  his 
place  to  reach  for  each  sheaf  in  turn.  A  good  sheat  turner  can  materi- 
allv  assist  the  builder    and  save  valuable  time  and  temper. 

.  .  Site. 

The  first  consideration  is  the  choice  of  a  site  for  the  s^tackyard,  which 
should  be  a  good  solid  piece  of  land,  with  drainage,  either  natural  or 
artificial,  on  all  sides.  A  substantial  fence  should  be  erected,  leaving 
sufficient  room  for  the  stacks  and  a  passage  way  around  them  for  a  dray 
after  they  have  been  completed.  If  the  stacks  are  to  be  threshed,  room 
for  the  straw  stack  should  also  be  included.  The  size  of  the  yard  will 
depend  on  the  amount  of  hay  available.  If  more  than  four  fair-sized 
stacks  are  necessary,  it  is  best  to  have  two  yards,  fifty  or  more  yards 
apart,  so  that  in  the  event  of  fire  the  whole  of  the  crop  will  not  be  en- 
dangered. 

Where  the  stacks  are  luiilt  on  the  ground,  the  grass  and  all  rubbish 
should  be  scraped  off  to  the  extent  of  at  least  4  ft.  wider  and  longer  than 
the  stack  itself. 

Building  on  Stage. 

A  better  system  is  to  build  on  a  stage.  This  can  be  cheaply  con- 
structed, and  will  last  for  years.  It  should  be  erected  on  piles.  6  in.  in 
diameter,  of  some  durable  hard  wood  j  red  gum,  box,  stringybark  all 
stand  well  in  the  ground.  They  should  be  not  less  than  3  ft.  in  length  ; 
and.  when  erected,  be  18  in.  in  the  ground  and  not  more  than  4  ft.  apart. 

Before  the  floor  or  platform  is  built  on  the  piles,  a  piece  of  galvanized 
iron,  not  less  than  12  in.  square,  should  be  placed  on  the  top  of  each  pile 
to  prevent  mice  climbing  up  and  getting  into  the  stack.        A    still    better 


764 


Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.  [10  Dec,    1912. 


practice  is  to  cut  the  top  out 
of  a  kerosene  tin  and  place  it 
upside  down  on  the  pile. 
When  climbing  up,  mice  will 
then  get  inside  the  tin,  pro- 
vided the  piles  are  not  larger 
than  specified,  and  it  will 
be  impossible  for  them  to 
jump  to  hanging  straws  or 
anything  else  that  will  carry 
them  up  to  a  stack.  The 
floor  of  the  stage  is  then  built 
on  top  of  the  tins  on  joists 
laid  across,  and  saplings, 
rails  or  slabs  are  put  on  the 
joists  close  enough  together 
to  form  a  good  floor,  which 
should  be  well  nailed  down. 
This  stage  will  last  for 
years,  and  will  soon  repay 
the  co.st  in  the  saving  of 
waste  at  the  bottom,  which 
is  .so  common  in  stacks  built 
on  the  ground,  to  say  no- 
thing of  the  damage  done  by 
mice. 

A  stage,  36  ft.  long  by  20 
ft.  wide,  will  be  large  enough 
for  a  stack  of  hay  contain- 
ing 50  to  60  tons,  according 
to  the  height  of  the  eaves, 
which  should  be  12  to  15 
ft.  when  first  erected.  It  is 
best  to  begin  building  from 
the  outside,  placing  the 
sheaves  with  the  butts  to  the 
outside.  Keep  a  straight 
line  along  the  edge  of  the 
staging,  and  the  sheaves  clo.se 
together  side  by  side,  until 
the  whole  row  right  around 
is  completed.  At  the  corners, 
the  best  system  is  to  draw 
the  heads  together  so  that 
only  the  butts  are  seen  from 
outside  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
The  next  row  of  sheaves  is 
placed  with  the  heads  out- 
wards on  top  of  the  first  row, 
lapping  the  outside  sheaves 
to  within  a  foot  of  the  end 
of  the  butts,  and  so  on  with 
each  row  of  sheaves  until  the 


lo  Dec.    1912.] 


Haystack    Building. 


765 


centre  of  the  stack  is  filled  up.  As  the  centre  is  approached,  put  tlie 
sheaves  closer  together,  so  as  to  make  the  middle  of  the  stack  tighter  and 
higher  than  the  outside ;  always  lap  each  succeeding  row  at  least  as  far  as 
the  band  on  that  preceding.  From  then  on,  as  each  fresh  layer  of  sheaves 
is  applied,  keep  the  centre  well  trampled  and  slightly  higher  than  the 
outside  sheaves,  and  the  butts  of  the  sheaves  in  each  row  to  the  outside  of 
the  stack. 

Many   builders  commence   from  the  centre,   especially   on  small    stacks 
where  no  stage  is  used,  and   the  practice  is  a  good  one,   though   the  one 
y/////////////////////////////////////////////////. 


FIG.     2. STAGE. 

recommended  will  be  found  even  better  where  a  stage  is  built.  Both  styles 
of  building  are  similar  after  the  first  two  layers  have  been  laid ;  everv  fresh 
layer  of  sheaves  should  be  commenced  from  the  out.side  of  the  stack,  always 
working  to  the  centre  and  keeping  the  surface  even  with  an  elevation  to  the 
centre  to  give  a  pitch  for  any  water  that  might  penetrate  the  roof  of  the 
stack.  If  this  is  done  and  the  middle  well  tramped,  the  stack  should  be 
safe  from  rain. 


FIG.    3. SYSTEM    OF    BEGINNING    LAYERS    AFTER    FIRST    TWO    ARE    PLACED. 

The  sheaf  turner  should  always  stand,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the 
centre  of  the  stack,  and  should  not  trample  on  the  outside  row  under  any 
circumstances,  as  he  will  displace  or  push  out  the  sheaves  and  spoil  the 
shape  of  the  stack.  Each  layer  of  sheaves  should  be  put  on  in  the 
same  way  as  the  first,  except  that,  after  the  second  layer  is  put  down,  the 
butts  should  be  kept  to  the  outside  in  the  rows.  The  loose  or  ungainly 
sheaves  should  be  used  to  keep  up  the  middle.  The  very  outside  row 
of  sheaves  in  each  layer  should  not  be  as  tightlv  packed  as  those  tow^ards 
the  centre.  This  will  admit  of  the  outside  settling  as  the  stack  pro- 
gresses,  and  give  a  fall  to  the  exterior  which  will  allow  the  water  to  run 


766 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  [to   Dec,    191 2. 


off.  The  corners  want  carefully  watching  to  see  that  tliey  are  even  and 
level.  As  each  load  or  so  is  put  on,  the  builder  should  get  down  and 
with  a  board,  12  in.  by  10  in.  nailed  to  a  handle  7  ft.  to^  8  ft.  long,  pat 
back  any  sheaves  that  work  out  from  their  position.  Keep  the  sides 
perpendicular  as  the  building  is  continued,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the 
stack  will  spread  slightly  of  itself  until,  when  the  eaves  are  reached,  the 
width  will  be  greater  than  when  commenced. 


FIG.     4. MAKING    THE    CORNERS. 


It  is  better  not  to  unload  the  waggon  always  from  the  same  side  or 
position,  as  the  constant  tossing  of  the  sheaves  on  to  one  portion  of  the 
stack  will  harden  that  particular  place;  and,  later  on,  it  will  not  settle 
uniformly  and  will  become  lopsided.  Where  possible,  it  will  be  found 
easier  to  toss  the  sheaves  from  the  windward  side.  A  good  ladder  of  not 
less  than  20  ft.  in  length  will  be  necessary  for  the  men  to  get  on  and 
off  the  stack. 

The  building  is  continued  until  the  eaves  are,  say.  74  ft.  from  the 
floor  of  the  stage.      When  it  is  decided  to  put  on  the  top.   the  last  row 


FIG.     5. 


-FIRST    ROW. 


of  sheaves   is   projected   .^   in.    further   than   the  previous   outside    row    to 
make  an  eave,  after  which  each  successive  row  is  drawn  in. 


Roof. 

The  top  or  roof  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  body  of  the  stack, 
except  that  each  layer  of  sheaves  is  drawn  in  about  6  in.  Always  re- 
member to  keep  the  centre  of  the  stack  closely  packed  and  slightly  higher 
than  the  outside;  this  will  give  a  gable  end  to  the  stack.  As 
the    roof    is    drawn    in.    the     rows     of     sheaves     become    less    until    the 


lo   Dec. 


91 


Ha  vsiac  k    Build  in  \^ . 


767 


last  sheaves   are  practically   stocked   along  the   top,    being  lightly   packed 

together  with  the  heads  interlocked  by  opening  them  and  dovetailing  them 

into  one  another.        It  will  be  found  best  to  save  a  load  of  well-shaped 

sheaves  of  rather  short  length  for  finishing.        The  biggest  and  roughest 

sheaves  should  go  into  the  body  of  the  stack.        After  the  top  has  been 

put  on,   it  sliould  be  lightly 

raked    down    to   remove    all 

loose  straws.     Provided  due 

care  has  been  taken  to  kee]) 

the  middle   high   and   solid. 

such  a  stack  should  resist  any 

fall   of    rain,    and   the   only 

waste  should  be  the  butts  of 

the  sheaves  on  the  roof. 

Round  and  Oblong  Stacks. 
Stacks  of  practically  all 
shapes  can  be  built  on  the 
lines  indicated,  with  slight 
alterations  such  as  square 
ends  instead  of  gable.  The 
butts  of  the  sheaves  are  kept 
out  square  with  the  end  eave. 
instead  of  being  drawn  in 
with  the  sides.  Round 
stacks  are  perhaps  the  easies. 
to  make,  bui:  are  suitable 
only  for  small  quantities. 
say,    15   to   25   tons  of   hay. 

Round  stacks  and  small  oblong  stacks  are  often  started  from  the  centre. 
Make  a  stook  in  the  middle  and  gradually  work  out  to  a  circle  previously 
marked  out  on  the  ground  on  the  stack  site.  After  the  first  layer  of 
sheaves  is  laid  each  succeeding  layer  is  started  from  the  outside.  Work 
back  to  the  centre  and  so  continue  until  the  stack  is  finished. 


FIGS.    6    AND 


—DIFFERENT    STYLES    OF 
RIDGING. 


Thatching. 
All  stacks  that  are  to  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time  exceeding  three 
months  should  be  thatched  to  save  waste,  and  insure  immunity  from  the 
effects  of  rain.  This  can  be  done  with  straw.  Rye  straw  is  the  best, 
and  should  be  straightened  out  and  tied  in  bundles.  The  thatcher  sits 
on  a  ladder  thrown  over  the  roof  and  anchored  b\-  a  rope  on  the  other 
side.       Operations  are  commenced  bv  sewing  nn   to  the  sheaves,   with    a 

fig.  8.—  sewing  on  thatch. 

curved  needle  and  twine,  a  layer  of  straw  about  3  in.  thick.  The  straw- 
is  taken  in  the  hand  and  each  fresh  handful  laid  close  up  against  the  pre- 
ceding one.  The  twine  is  taken  over  the  top  of  the  straw,  about  half 
way  up  the  length,  and  through  the  one  laid  previously,  the  needle  being 
brought  a  couple  of  inches  further  out,   ready  for  the  next  handful. 

The  first   layers  of    straw   should  project  beyond  the    eaves    and    be 
afterwards  trimmed  with  a  pair  of  shears.        The  second  layer  should  lap 


768  Journal  of  Agriculture ,  Victoria.  [10  Dec,    1912. 

over  the  first  sufficiently  to  thoroughly  cover  the  twine  on  the  first,  and 
so  on  until  finished.  The  top  or  ridge  can  be  finished  by  bending  the 
straw  over  on  both  sides  and  sewing  each,  or  by  cutting  the  ends  of  the 
thatch  square  on  the  side  from  which  the  least  rain  comes,  and  bringing 
the  thatch  from  the  opposite  side  well  up  against  the  square  end  and  pro- 
jecting a  few  inches  higher.       The  latter  should  then  be  trimmed. 

Thatching  machines  can  be  bought  for  ^7.  With  these,  mats  of 
thatch  can  be  made,  and  these  can  be  pegged  on  or  sewn,  simplifying  the 
work  very  greatly. 

If  the  winds  are  bad,  or  birds  troublesome,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  cover 
the  whole  roof  with  wire  netting.  This  will  keep  the  roof  from  being 
blown  about,  and  also  prevent  biids  from  scratching  or  pulling  it  to 
pieces. 

Fencing. 

A  fence  of  plain  galvanized  iron  2  ft.  8  in.  high  should  be  built  all 
around  the  stack,  at  least  2  ft.  away,  to  prevent  access  of  mice.  If  built 
nearer  than  this  it  will  be  found  as  the  stack  spreads  and  settles  it  will 
be  liable  to  injure  the  iron. 

A  good  tarpaulin  is  of  great  use  during  building  and  afterwards.  It 
should  be  18  ft.  by  24  ft.,  and  made  of  good  canvas,  sufficiently  close 
to  prevent  water  penetrating.  It  often  happens  that  a  rainstorm  will 
come  up  when  a  stack  is  in  course  of  erection.  A  tarpaulin  will  be  found 
most  useful  at  such  a  juncture. 

A  good  fence  should  be  erected  around  the  whole,  at  least  8  ft.  from 
the  stacks,  with  more  room,   if  possible,  and  all  should  then  be. safe. 

Insurance 
Insurance  is  always  advisable  when  stacks  are  kept  for  any  length  of 
time,   and  can  be  effected  for  periods  ranging  from  one  month  to    twelve 
months.        The  following  system  for  measuring  the  contents  of  a  stack  is 
useful   for  insurance  and  other  purposes  :  — 

Measurement  of   Stacks. 

Scale  showing  the  minimum  number  of  cubic  feet  to  be  given  to  the 
ton,  according  to  age  and  condition  (coarse  reedy  stuff,  besides  being  less 
valuable,  is  more  bulky) — 

Ohlong  Stacks—  "'°^^ 

1.  Measure  length  and  breadth  of        /  :\ 

Stack    in    feet,     half-way      /    \  \ 

between    the    ground    and    /  \ 

the  eaves — from   A  to   B,/  \  eaves 

B  to  C,  as  per  sketch.       V         %  j 

2.  Measure    height    from    ground  A  /b  /o 

to  eaves,   D  to  E.  V  / 

3.  Measure  height  from  eaves  to     \       i        / 

ridge-cap,    E  to   F.  \    ni      /  ground. 

4.  To  the  number  of  feet  between  D  and  E  add  one-half  of  th  ■ 

number  of  feet  between  E  and  F. 

5.  Multiply    length,    breadth,    and    average   height   together,    which 

will  give  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  stack. 

6.  Divide  this   by  the  requisite  number,   as  shown  in  scale  below, 

to  ascertain  the  number  of  tons. 


lo  Dec,    1912.]     Notes  on   ihe  Occurrence  oj  f.'inic  in   YktarKi. 


769 


63   Feet   Round 


Round  Stacks — 

Multiply  hcilf  the  circumference  by  half  the 
diameter,  and  the  sum  of  this  by  the 
height  (ascertained  in  accordance  with 
the  rule  already  given). 


Scale  showing  the  minimum  number  of  cubic  feet  to  be  given  to  the 
ton,  according  to  age  and  condition  (coarse  reedy  stuff,  besides  being  less 
valuable,   is  more  bulky) — 


Immediately  on  compk  tion  of  stack 
One  week  after  completion 
One  month  after  completion 
Twelve  months  after  completion 


Oaten  Hay. 

Wheaten  Hay. 

Sheaf. 
350 

Loose. 

Sheaf. 

Loose. 

400 

400 

500 

3-25 

375 

375 

450 

300 

350 

350 

400 

oOO 

325 

350 

400 

NOTES  ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  LIME  IN  VICTORIA. 

Supplementary  to  the  articles  in  the  October  issue  of  this  Journal, 
Mr.  A.  S.  Kenyon,  Engineer  to  the  State  Rivers  and  Water  Supply 
Commission,  and  formerly  Engineer  for  Agriculture,  furnishes  the 
following : — 

The  list  of  limestone  deposits  given  may  be  considerably  increased. 
Mr.  F.  Chapman,  A.L.S.,  in  a  paper  on  the  "Victorian  Limestones." 
Journal  of  Proceedings,  Royal  Victorian  Institute  of  Architects.  ]\Iel- 
bourne.  ^Mareh,  1912,  gives  the  following  additional  localities : — 

Mornington. — Balcombe's  Bay.    Septarian  nodules,  and  layers 
of    an  impure  limestone.      These    have    been  worked  for 
cement. 
Waurn   Ponds. — Rather   impure    limestone,    of    a    sDuff-l)rown 
colour.        Analysis   (Barnard  and  Dunn)  : — 


Percentage. 

CaCOg 

.  .     79.60 

MgC03 

traces 

FeCOg 

.  .     11.95 

SiO.. 

3.70 

Water 

.  .       0.25 

Several  quarries  are  worked  both  for  building  stone  and 
builder's  lime. 


yyo  journal  of  Agriculture,  Victoria.  \\o  Dec,    1912. 

Torquay,  Drysdale,  &c. — Some  of  the  yellow  limestone  of  these 
localities  are  very  compact,  and  would  form  excellent 
building  stone.  Other  beds  in  the  series,  which  are  more 
friable,  from  their  comparative  purity  would  be  suitable 
for  lime  burning.  The  marls  used  from  the  pits  between 
Geelong  and  Torquay  run  about  60  per  cent.  CaCOg.  The 
harder  portions  contain  over  90  per  cent.,  while  the  under- 
lying clays,  locally  considered  of  value,  only  have  about 
2  per  cent. 

Flinders. — This  deposit  is  of  a  very  limited  extent,  and  is,  more- 
over, too  soft  to  be  of  use  for  building  purposes.  It  occurs 
in  a  low  cliff  on  the  ocean  beach,  near  the  point  where  the 
extension  of  the  main  road  from  Bittern  railway  station 
to  Flinders  strikes  the  coast. 

Sorrento. — The  greater  part  of  the  lime  used  in  building  Mel- 
bourne in  the  early  days  was  burnt  at  Sorrento.  The 
limestone  occurs  as  dune  rock.  It  is  also  used  for  building 
purposes. 

Grange  Burn. — This  rock  occurs  along  the  valley  of  the  Grange 
Burn,  near  Hamilton,  towards  its  junction  with  Muddy 
Creek.  It  is  a  polyzoal  limestone  of  a  conspicuous  rose- 
pink  to  yellow,  and  is  composed  of  remains  of  polyzoa, 
shellfish,  and  eehinoids.  This  limestone  is  of  similar  age 
to  the  Batesford  limestone. 

Portland. — This  is  a  whitish  polyzoal  limestone,  which  has  a 
reputation  of  hardening  on  exposure.  The  yellow  Port- 
land stone  is  softer  in  texture,  and,  therefore,  not  so  well 
suited  for  a  building  stone.  Analyses  (Barnard  and 
Dunn^  : — 

White.  Yellow. 


Percentage. 

Percentage, 

CaCOg 

94.50 

91.10 

MgCOg 

1.95 

3.20 

FeCO, 

1.05 

2.20 

SiO., 

3.20 

1.50 

Water 

0.20 

0.30 

Alkaline 

salts 

traces 

Besides  these  quoted  by  Mr.  Chapman  there  are  many  other  occur- 
rences. At  I\Iarlo,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Snowy  Kiver,  there  are  large 
beds  of  tertiary  limestone  showing  in  the  cliffs,  probably  connected 
with  the  Bairnsdale  beds.  No  analysis  is  given  in  the  October  Journal 
of  the  Merriman's  Creek  limestone.  The  following  is  an  analysis  of 
the  marl  or  limestone  found  at  Seldom  Seen,  in  the  same  district: — 

Percentage. 

CaC03  ..  ..     86.2 

FegOg,  AI2O3  .  .       2.9 

Insoluble  matter  .  .        6.4 

Along  the  coast  west  of  Torquay  tertiary  limestones  exist  at  Airey's 
Inlet,  Cape  Patten,  Johanna  River.  Moonlight  Head,  and  near  Warr- 
nambool.      In  the  Heytesbury  and  Otway  forests  there  are  many  out- 


Percentage. 

Percentage. 

Percentage. 

Percentage, 

89.85' 

63.00 

38.21 

82.62 

0.82 

2.80 

3.65 

2.55 

0.22 

0.52 

0.40 

0.50 

trace 

trace 

trace 

trace 

0.09 

0.10 

0.06 

0.14 

2.40 

16.02 

29.47 

11.51 

0.52 

1.87 

2.57 

0.38 

lo  Dec,    1912.]     Notes  on  t/ie  Occurroice  of  Lniic  in    Victoria.  771 

crops  of  similar  beds  to  those  at  Ka warren,  Love's  River,  and  Timboon. 
Tliese  vary  in  composition  from  40  to  over  90  per  cent.,  and  are  largely 
availed  of  by  the  surrounding  farmers.  The  following  analyses  are 
from  various  deposits  on  the  Cobden  to  Princetown  road : — 


CaCO,      .. 
FeA.  Al.,0,       , 
MgO     .  . 
P.,0,      .  . 
S63 

Insoluble 
Organic    matter . 

On  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Corangamite  there  are  deposits  of  both 
limestone  and  gypsum. 

In  addition  to  the  polyzoal  beds  at  Portland  there  are  extensive 
dune  rock  deposits  extending  for  some  distance  inland. 

Along  the  Glenelg  River  from  its  mouth  to  above  Dartmoor  cliffs 
of  tertiary  limestone  form  the  principal  feature.  Outcrops  of  similar 
formation  as  well  as  dime  limestones  are  frequent  throughout  the 
districts  between  the  Glenelg  and  the  South  Australian  boundary. 

Boring  operations  have  proved  the  existence  of  beds  of  polyzoal 
limestone  of  many  hundreds  of  feet  in  thickness  from  Portland  to 
Wilcannia  on  the  Darling  River,  New  South  Wales,  underlying  the 
whole  of  the  Victorian  mallee  country  and  the  county  of  Lowan,  and 
that  part  of  South  Australia  east  of  the  Murray  River,  but  they  are 
of  no  industrial  value  owing  to  their  inaccessibility. 

The  most  extensive  lime  deposits  in  Victoria,  however,  are  on  the 
surface  of  the  mallee  country,  and  occur  in  three  forms.  Limestone 
rubble  generally  only  a  few  feet  in  thickness  and  of  concretionary 
origin,  spread  over  the  whole  district.  It  is  not  very  rich,  but  has 
been  extensively  used  for  building  purposes.  Analysis  (limestone 
near  Mildura)  : — 

Percentage. 

CaCO,  ..  ..  '..     57.45 

Insoluble  matter   (sand)  .  .  .  .      35.91 

Undetermined    .  .  .  .  .  .        6.64 

Fresh-water  limestone  deposits  occur  at  Rainbow.  Cow  Plains, 
Ned's  Corner,  and  at  Sunset.  These  are  very  rich,  but  at  Cow  Plains, 
at  any  rate,  are  rather  high  in  magnesia  for  agricultural  use.  They 
cover  many  square  miles  of  country,  and  are  30  feet  and  over  in  thick- 
ness.     Analysis  (Cow  Plains  limestone)  : — 

Percentage. 

CaCO,  ..  ..     67.89 

MgCd,  .  .  .  .     18.59 

Insoluble   (sand)  .  .      11.22 

The  third  mode  of  occurrence  is  as  gypsum,  locally  termed  copi  or 
cow.  the  aboriginal  term  for  white.  As  a  creamy-white  floury  powder, 
apparent^  amorphous,  but  really  minute  typical  crystals,  gypsum 
occurs  as  mounds  of  20  or  30  feet  in  height,  some  few  chains  in  width, 


77-  Journal  of  Agriculture.   Victoria.  fio   Dec,    1912. 

and  up  to  a  mile  or  more  in  length  at  Oiiyen,  Cow  Plains,  Ned's 
Corner,  The  Raak,  Yatpool  (near  Mildura),  Lake  Tyrrell,  and  Towan 
Plain  (near  Nyah).  Smaller  deposits  are  found  throughout  the 
mallee.  The  supply  is  enormous,  and  the  quality  exceptionally  good. 
Although  not  quite  within  the  confines  of  the  mallee  country,  fairly 
large  deposits  of  the  floury  form  of  gypsum  are  to  be  found  near 
Natimuk  and  north  of  Mount  Arapiles  on  some  salt  lakes.  Large 
quantities  have  been  excavated  and  used  by  the  Mildura  orchardists 
and  the  Melbourne  manure  manufacturers.      Analvses: — 


Yatpool. 

Cow  Plains. 

'ercentage. 

Percentage. 

98.19 

94.01 

CaSO^    +    2H2O 

It  is  also  found  in  beds  of  large  crystals  at  Boort,  Boga,  Lake 
Tyrrell,  Cow  Plains,  &c.  These  deposits  can  be  loaded  on  trucks  for 
a  nominal  sum. 


ORCHARD    AND    GARDEN    NOTES. 

E.  E.  Pescott,  Principal,  School  of  UorUculture,  Burnley. 

The  Orchard. 

As  a  preventive  against  codlin  moth,  apple  and  pear  trees  should 
be  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead  whenever  there  is  danger  from  the 
prevalence  of  the  moth. 

By  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead  the  codlin  moth  pest  is  very  easily 
kept  in  check,  and  from  being  one  of  the  most  formidable  of  orchard 
troubles,  it  has  come  to  be  one  of  the  least  feared  of  all  pests.  By 
constantly  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  the  use  of  bandages  as 
a  trap  for  the  codlin  larva  is  now  quite  unnecessary.  In  fact, 
bandages,  more  often  than  not,  become  a  harbor  and  a  breeding 
ground.  Further,  the  time  spent  in  overlooking  and  attending  to 
the  bandages  may  be  employed  far  more  profitably  by  giving  the  trees 
an  extra  spraying. 

There  are  a  few  growers  who  still  make  use  of  lamps  at  night  time 
to  destroy  the  codlin  moth,  irrespective  of  the  fact,  which  has  been 
pointed  out  again  and  again,  that  the  codlin  moth  is  not  attracted 
by  lamps  or  lights.  These  traps  do  incalculable  harm  to  an  orchardist, 
as  they  are  responsible  for  the  destruction  of  hundreds  of  lace-wing 
flies — insects  that  are  most  useful  as  destroyers  of  aphides  and  scales. 

The  question  of  trapping  the  codlin  moth  by  means  of  attractive 
and  sticky  baits  is  again  being  advanced  by  growers  and  experi- 
mentalists. But  it  will  be  well  to  await  definite  results  before  this 
method  is  adopted  to  any  large  extent.  Spraying  has  proved  so 
effective  that  growers  should  hesitate  before  changing  their  methods 
for  something  new. 

One  of  the  secrets  of  success  in  codlin  moth  spraying  is  the 
destruction  of  as  many  as  possible  of  the  insects  of  the  first  brood. 


lo   Dec.    iqi:;.]  Orchard   and   Ciardcn   \offs.  773 

Thus,  if  i)articular  care  is  given  to  the  eai-ly  sprayings,  keeping  the 
fruit  covered  with  spray  for  a  month  or  six  weeks  after  setting,  this 
result  is  easily  accomplished.  l^ome  growers  prefer  to  gather  all 
fruit  infected  by  the  first  brood,  spraying  only  for  the  second  and 
later  l^roods.  Even  if  all  the  fruits  attacked  are  gathered,  which 
very  rarely  happens,  the  grower  suffers  from  the  loss  of  fruit,  which 
he  can  ill  afford,  unless  his  crop  be  a  heavy  one. 

Another  feature  for  consideration  is  the  fact  that  the  presence  of 
any  arsenical  spray  on  the  foliage  is  responsible  for  the  destruction 
of  the  pear  and  cherry  slug,  root-borer  beetle.  ;-uid  all  forms  of  leaf- 
eating  insects. 

Spraying  the  cherry  trees  for  the  slug  will  now  be  necessary. 
Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used,  provided  the  fruit  is  not  far  advanced. 
Hellebore,  and  also  tobacco  water,  are  effective  against  this  pest. 

Cultivation. — All  orchard  soils  should  be  kept  well  worked  during 
the  summer  months.  It  is  very  essential  that  the  trees  should  have 
an  abundant  supply  of  moisture  during  the  whole  of  the  growing 
season.  The  transpiration  from  fruit  and  foliage  is  considerable  at 
any  time ;  but  during  hot  and  windy  weather  the  amount  of  moisture 
which  is  required  by  a  tree,  and  which  is  ultimately  transpired  from 
the  tree,  is  very  exceptional. 

Excessive  transpiration  is  often  the  cause  of  loss  of  young  trees 
and  of  new  grafts.  They  are  found  to  part  with  a  large  amount  of 
moisture,  and  are  not  able  to  retain  or  obtain  sufficient  for  their 
nourishment;  they  then  very  soon  wither  and  die.  The  soil  around 
these  should  always  be  kept  well  stirred ;  they  may  be  also  given  a 
good  straw  or  grass  mulching,  and  an  occasional  overhead  sprinkling 
will  greatly  benefit  them. 

The  planting  out  of  citrus  trees  may  be  continued,  slieltering  the 
tender  plants  from  winds  with  hessian  or  breaks  of  scrub. 

The  general  aims  in  summer  cultivation  should  be  to  keep  up  a 
good  loose  earth  mulch  during  the  whole  season,  and  to  keep  down 
all  weeds  and  useless  orchard  growths. 

Pruning. — Summer  pruning  may  now  be  commenced,  particularly 
on  apple,  pear,  and  plum  trees.  The  removal  or  reduction  of  surplus 
leader  growths,  the  shortening  of  unduly  long  laterals,  and  the 
thinning  out  of  crowded  shoots,  will  all  tend  to  strengthen  other 
I)arts  of  the  tree,  and  to  increase  the  development  of  new  fruit  buds. 

Vegetable    Garden. 

Tomatoes  will  require  a  good  amount  of  attention  at  this  time  of 
the  year.  If  the  plants  have  been  well  looked  after,  they  should  be 
making  vigorous  growth.  It  will  be  to  advantage  to  tie  the  plants 
to  stakes,  training  them  to  two  or  three  main  growths,  and  pinching 
out  all  the  laterals  as  they  come. 

The  plants  should  be  well  watered,  and  occasionally  a  handful 
of  bonedust  and  blood  manure  mixed  should  be  forked  in  around  the 
roots.  Where  stable  manure  is  used,  it  should  be  used  as  a  mulch, 
forking  it  in  every  three  or  four  weeks,  and  making  a  fresh  mulch. 


774  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria.  \^o   Dec,    1912. 

All  plants  of  the  cucumber  and  melon  family  should  now  be 
constantly  supplied  with  ample  water.  Pinch  out  unnecessary  lateral 
growths,  and  also  the  terminals. 

The  following  seeds  may  now  be  sown : — French  beans,  cabbage 
and  cauliflower  for  winter  crops,  parsnip,  lettuce,  and  celery. 

The  side  shoots  of  celery  plants  should  be  removed,  afterwards 
earthing  up  the  plants.  Asparagus  beds  should  be  top-dressed,  and 
allowed  to  grow  without  any  more  cutting.  The  vegetable  beds  will 
need  frequent  forking  and  hoeing  to  keep  the  soil  sweet,  and  to  keep 
down  all  weeds. 

Flo"W"er  Garden. 

Plant  out  dahlias  this  month ;  tubers  early,  and  plants  grown  from 
cuttings  for  exhibition  blooms  later  in  the  month.  Water  well  at 
planting,  and  keep  well  cultivated  afterwards. 

Rose  bushes  and  beds  may  be  given  a  good  mulch  with  light  stable 
manure,  straw,  grass,  or  lawTi  clippings.  The  beds  should  be  kept 
rather  dry,  so  as  to  allow  the  plants  rest  before  the  autumn  period  of 
growth. 

Sow  seeds  of  cosmos,  asters,  zinnia,  balsams,  cockscomb,  and  other 
late  summer  and  autumn  blooming  annuals. 

Cut  down  delphiniums  that  have  yielded  their  first  crop  of  flowers, 
so  as  to  allow  a  succession  of  flowers  to  come. 

Daffodil,  hyacinth,  tulip,  ranunculus,  anemone,  and  other  bulbs 
and  tubers  may  be  taken  up  and  stored ;  while  gladioli  corms  may  still 
be  planted. 

The  gaixien  must  be  kept  well  watered  and  well  cultivated,  so  as 
to  tide  the  plants  over  the  hot  and  dry  season. 


SECOND   VICTORIAN   EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION,    1912-13. 

H.   V.  Hawkins,  Poultry  Expert. 

Report  for  Month  ending  14th  November,  1912. 

The  past  month  has  been  for  the  most  part  dry,  with  some  changes 
and  showers  of  rain.  The  meat  ration  has  been  reduced  and 
additional  green  feed,  principally  lucerne,  has  been  given,  save  when 
the  weather  changed  to  cold  and  wet  the  maize  was  withheld,  and  then 
a  small  quantity  was  added  to  the  wheat  ration  in  order  to  maintain 
the  body  temperature.  Unfortunately,  three  White  Leghorns  died 
during  the  month,  pens  70,  44  and  15  each  losing  one,  oviduct  troubles 
being  responsible.  Broodies  are  more  numerous  now,  and  the  heavy 
breeds  are  not  laying  as  well  as  in  October ;  this  also  applies  in  a  lesser 
degree  to  the  Leghorns.  Mr.  Samuel  Brown's  White  Leghorns  still 
continue  in  the  lead  with  the  good  score  of  897,  although  less  than 
Mr.  Swift's  pen  for  the  corresponding  period  in  the  first  competition, 
yet  they  bid  fair  to  reach  good  figures  by  the  end  of  the  test.  The 
total  number  of  eggs  laid  during  the  seven  months  was  47.172,  an 
average  of  approximately  683.6  eggs  per  pen. 


ioDec.,  1912.]  Second  Victorian  Egg-layitig  Cotnpetitton.   1912-13.      775 


SECOND  VICTORIAN  EGG-LAYING  COMPETITION,  1912-13. 

Commencing  15th  April,  1912. 
CONDUCTED    AT    BURNLEY    HORTICULTURAL    SCHOOL. 


No.  of 
Pen. 


40 
28 
23 
47 
31 

9 
20 
62 

1 
37 
70 
45 
46 
25 
14 

3 
24 
48 
29 
39 
61 
13 
49 
38 

2 
44 
50 

6 
33 
15 

7 
53 
63 
30 

5 
35 
19 
42 
51 
10 

8 
64 
56 
69 
60 
32 
65 
54 
16 
43 
11 
27 
12 
41 

4 
57 
58 
52 
55 


21 
22 
67 
18 
17 
59 
34 
36 
26 


White  Leghorns 


Black  Orpingtous 
White  Leghorns 

Black  Orpiugtons 
White  Leghorns 


Black  Orpingtons 
White  Legliorns 


Leg- 


R.C.     Brown 

horns 
Black  Orpingtons 
White  Leghorns 


Silver  Wyandottes 
White  Leghorns 
Black  Orpingtons 
White  Leghorns 


Black  Minorcas 
Brown  Leghorns 
White  Leghorns 


Auconas  . . 
White  Leghorns 


Old  English  Game 


Xanie  of  Owner. 


S.  Brown     . . 
F.  G.  Eagle  ton 
W.  McLister 
J.  E.  Bradley 
Geo.  Edwards 
J.  Spotswood 

E.  Waldon 
K.  W.  Pope 
J.  Campbell 
C.  B.  Bertelsmeier 
C.  J.  Beatty 
Wooldridge  Bros. 
II.  A.  Langdon 
11.  L.  Applelord 
J.  H.  Wright 
King  and  Watson 
Sargenfri  Poultry  Yards 
Griffin  Cant 

J.  B.    Brigdeii 
W.  G.  Swift 
J  as.  Ogden 
W.  B.  CreUui 
W.    Purvis 
K.  Moy 

B.  Rowlinsou 
A.  W.  Hall 
A.  Ahpee 

J.  B.  Macarthur 
IL  McKeuzie 
Mrs.    Steer 
A.  H.  Padman 
H.  Hodges  . . 
Percy  Walker 
Mrs.  Stevenson 
J.  H.  Brain 

C.  H.  Busst 
Cowan  Bros. 
Mrs.  Kenipster 
H.  Hammill 

S.  P.  Giles 

D.  Fisher     . . 
H.  Merrick 
M.  A.  Monk 
Morgan  and  Watson 
Miss  B.  E.  Ryan 

S.  Brundrett 
A.  H.  Thomson 

F.  R.  DeGaris 
R.  Jobling 

G.  Purton    .  . 
T.  S.  Goodisson 

E.  Nash 

T.  H.  Stafford 

A.  Stringer 

J.  Blackbume 

B.  Walker 
W.  J.  Stock 

I  Chalmers  Bros. 
J.  Mathieson 
J.  Molonev 
W.  J.  Mckeddie 
J.  O'Loughlin 
W.  N.  Ling 

A.  E.  Manning 

B.  Mitchell 
S.  Childs      . . 
W.  J.  Seabridge 
R.  F.  B.  Moore 
K.  J.  Barrett 
(Reserved  I 

Totals 


Eggs  laid  during  competiticjn. 


April  15 

Oct.  15 

Total  to 

to 

to 

Bate  (7 

Oct.  14. 

Nov.  14. 

months). 

75(i 

141 

897 

'2:', 

1:52 

855 

721 

1:52 

S53 

707 

1:59 

846 

7  It; 

1:50 

Hi6 

7hH 

127 

«45 

G9ti 

1:56 

«:52 

(571 

142 

813 

669 

1:57 

806 

(i.i7 

1:54 

791 

(574 

115 

7K9 

ti47 

l:i6 

7>s:5 

(i74 

1114 

778 

():i7 

1:57 

774 

mi 

1:51 

768 

66« 

99 

767 

(345 

120 

765 

fi42 

118 

760 

029 

128 

757 

621 

i:s6 

757 

620 

136 

756 

621 

132 

753 

606 

147 

753 

621 

129 

750 

617 

119 

736 

610 

122 

732 

606 

124 

730 

61  :i 

116 

729 

fj.sO 

l:!6 

722 

59,s 

119 

717 

585 

1:50 

715 

572 

140 

712 

576 

1:5:5 

709 

594 

109 

703 

561 

1:54 

695 

568 

127 

695 

569 

115 

684 

556 

12:5 

679 

6:56 

i:56 

672 

539 

128 

667 

598 

66 

664 

529 

129 

658 

549 

106 

655 

506 

1:56 

642 

517 

125 

642 

499 

1:55 

634 

5111 

124 

6:54 

519 

111 

630 

51 16 

11:5 

619 

5(i:5 

115 

618 

498 

116 

614 

4K:i 

127 

610 

469 

133 

602 

471 

130 

601 

474 

122 

596 

474 

115 

589 

47:5 

115 

588 

45:5 

128 

581 

449 

116 

565 

424 

127 

551 

42.5 

111 

536 

412 

114 

526 

402 

118 

520 

:589 

122 

511 

410 

99 

509 

:540 

1:57 

477 

:561 

114 

475 

;544 

124 

468 

372 

94 

466 

:58.621 

S.551 

47,172 

Position   in 
Competi- 
tion. 


3 

4 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

16 

16 

17 

18 

19 


24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 


37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 

44 


48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 


77^  journal  of  Agriciilfure .    Victoria.  [lo   Dec.    1912. 


HEIVIINDERS     FOR    JANUARY. 


LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Stabled. — Over-stimulating  and  fattening  foods  should  be  re- 
stricted. Water  should  be  allowed  at  frequent  intervals.  Eub  down  on 
coming  into  stables  in  an  overheated  condition.  Supply  a  ration  of  greenstuff 
to  all  horses.  Brood  mares  should  be  well  fed  on  succulent  food  if  available; 
otherwi.se,  oats  and  bran  should  be  given.  Foals  may  with  advantage  be  given 
oats  to  the  extent  of  1  lb.  for  each  month  of  age  daily.  Provision  should 
be  made  for  shade  shelter  for  paddocked  horses. 

Cattle. — Provide  supply  of  succulent  fodder,  clean  water,  and  shade  shelter. 

Pigs. — Sons. — Supply  those  farrowing  with  plenty  of  short  bedding  in  well- 
ventilated  sties.  Those  with  litters  old  enough  may  be  turned  into  grass  run. 
AH  pigs  should  be  given  a  plentiful  supply  of  clean  water. 

Sheep. — Disturb  sheep  as  little  as  possible  during  hot  spells.  Remember, 
rams  work  mostly  in  the  cool  of  the  day,  and  crossbred  ewes  are  only  now 
coming  in  season.  The  older  the  feed  becomes  the  greater  the  necessity  for 
salt  in  northern  areas;  in  wormy  country  it  should  be  available  at  all  times. 
If  the  least  sign  of  worms  exists,  commence  drenching  weaners  at  once,  and 
enable  them  to  become  strong  before  winter.  Salt,  2  cwt. ;  Stockholm  tar, 
2  pints;  and  powdered  resin,  1  pint  (or  1  lb.);  is  a  useful  lick  for  young 
lambs  in  wormy  areas. 

Poultry. — Separate  the  sexes;  the  cockerels  should  now  be  fattened  and 
marketed.  Grade  the  young  stock  according  to  age  and  size,  otherwise  the 
younger  birds  will  not  thrive.  Avoid  overcrowding.  Do  not  force  pullets 
too  much  with  animal  food;  build  them  up  with  a  good  variety  of  food,  bat 
avoid  maize,  and  give  but  little  meat.  Increase  the  green  feed;  thoroughly 
spray  houses  and  perches.  Keep  water  vessels  in  shady  spot,  and  renew 
water  twice  daily.       Moisten  dust  bath. 

CULTIVATION. 

Farm. — Get  all  crops  harvested  and  stacked  as  soon  as  possible.  Horse-hoe 
maize,  potatoes  and  other  summer  crops.  See  to  insurance  of  stacks  of  grain 
and  hay. 

Orchard. — Keep  the  soil  well  scarified  and  weed  free.  Cultivate  after 
irrigation  or  rain.  Do  not  allow  the  surface  to  become  caked.  Spray 
against  codlin  moth,  pear  slug,  vine  caterpillar,  and  woolly  aphis.  Summer 
prune  strong  growing  shoots  and  laterals. 

Vegetable  Garden. — Plant  out  all  seedlings  when  ready,  from  former 
sowings.  Stir  and  mulch  the  surface.  Dig  each  plot  as  it  becomes  vacant. 
Sow  seeds  of  cauliflower,  cabbage,  peas,  French  beans.  Kohl  Eabi,  &c. 

Flower  Garden. — Keep  the  soil  moist  and  cool  by  watering,  hoeing,  and 
mulching.  Stake  tender  and  lengthy  plants.  Water  and  shade  young 
plants.        Sow  pansy,  Iceland  poppy,  cosmos,  aster,   &c. 

Vineyard. — This  is  the  slackest  month  in  un-irrigated  vineyards — all  ordi- 
nary work  should  be  completed  before  Christmas.  It  is  only  exceptional 
operations,  such  as  scarifying  after  rain  or  sulphuring  in  case  of  oidium,  that 
must  be  carried  out.  In  irrigated  vineyards  the  application  of  water,  and 
the  cultivation  it  necessitates,  must  receive  attention. 

Cellar. — Fill  up  regularly  and  keep  cellar  as  cool  as  possible.  Towards  end 
of  month  commence  to  make  preparations  for  the  coming  vintage. 


INDEX    OF    VOLUME    X. 

The  Index  of  Vol.  X.  will  be  supplied  with  the  first  number  of 
Vol.  XI.,  viz.,  10th  January,  1913. 


lo  Dec,  1912.] 


journal  of  Agrictiliiire,   Victoria. 


ROKALtlEDAi: 

MltKinQ-nACHINES 


The  Milke: 


s 


THAT 


j  is  Different* 


Important  Features  which 
distinguish    the   Machine* 

In  Exact  Accordance  with  Natural 
Law. 

Complete  Immunity  from   Hurtful 

Effect. 
Strips  Right  Out. 
Overmilking   Impossible. 
Easily  Cleaned. 
Cups  Se!f=sustaining — 

all  pulsating    independently  of 

each  other. 


DAIRYMEN'S 
OPINIONS. 

"The  machines  are  woiking 
extremeh'  well,  and,  so  far, 
(luite  satisfactorily,  but  we 
think  that  a  third  machine 
\v(juld  save  more  time,  and 
would  ask  you  to  send  us 
another."' 

J.   A.   LATTA, 
Narnaigoon, 
loth  April,  1912. 


Awarded  the  Medal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural    Society    of    England. 


"Just  a  line  to  lei  _\ou  know 
that  we  are  getting  on  well 
with  the  machines,  and  that 
they  have  exceeded  vay  antici- 
pations." 

J.  R.  LOGAN, 
Allansford,  2/9/12. 

(One  of  Mr.  Logan's  cows  <rives  3 
trals.  in  four  miniitei  to  th**  nia<^hines.) 


Get  the   "  ROYAL  MEDAL" 

BOOKLET. the  Coupon 

below     bring-s     it     FREE. 


ROYAL 
MEDAL" 

Milking  Machines 

34  QUEEN=ST., 
MELBOURNE. 

T^ondon  Office ; 

Caxton  House,  Westminster,  S.W. 

J.    H.    DAVIES, 

.Manasfinp  Director. 


Post  Free  Booklet  Coupon. 

■  Royal  Medal  '  Milking'  M.achines. 

34  t^ueen-street,  Melbourne. 

Please   forward   a  copy   of  your  Free 
'.••oklet.     It  is  to  be  understood  that  I 

■iisider  nivself  under  no  obligation. 


Xanie 


journal  of  Agriculture .   Vufona. 


[lo  Dec.  1912. 


'Phone 

4881 
Central. 


The  Australasian 


Mutual  Insupanee 


ROYAL    BANK    CHAMBERS, 

70  ELIZABETH  ST., 

MELBOURNE. 


Soeiety  ltd. 


pircclors  : 

Hon.   AGAR  WYNNE,  M.P. 
HENRY  GARDNER,  Esq.  CHAS.  YEO,  Esq.,  J.P 
WALTER  G.  HISCOCK,  A.C.P.A.,  rv,,/.  Mainnier 


FARMERS  &  BREEDERS. 

We  will  iiiidei-takf  ti> 

INSURE  YOUR  LIVE  STOCK 

at  the  Lowest  Current  Rates 

obtainable  in  Australia   

OTHER     DEPARTMENTS    OF    BUSINESS.— Kre, 

Marine,  Fidelity  Guarantee,  Plate  Glass,  Personal 
Accident  and  Sickness,  Employers'  Liability,  Work- 
men's Compensation,  Public  Risk,  Motor  Car,  and 
Burfilarv. 


INSURE  WITH  THIS  SOCIETY,  and  RECOMMEND  IT  TO  YOUR  NEIGHBOURS 


0 


LDTTERBDCK  Bros. 


SOLE   AGENTS   FOR 

BLAGKSTONE 


S  TAT  I  O  N  A  R  Y 
OR     PORTABLE 


OIL  ENGINES 


FAMED  FOR  DURABILITY, 
ECONOMY,     RELIABILITY. 

WRITE  or  CALL  for  PARTICULARS. 


"OLDS"  PETROL 

Hopper  Jacket  or       CM^IKICC 
Tank  Cooling  Type,      b  1^  VA  I  1^  CO 

/vise  PREMIER  GAS  ENGINES. 
POWER     GAS     ENGINES. 

CLUTTERBUCK  BROS., 

585  Bourke-st.,  Melbourne. 


ioDec,  1912.]  Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


THE  EGGS  INCREASED 

The     "Australian    Hen  "     reports  in  a  recent  issue:— 

"  We  recently  selected  20  young  hens,  picking  them 
so  as  to  get  two   pens  of  ten  as   near  alike  as  possible. 

"These  birds  were  put  on  a  ration  composed  of  equal 
parts  by  measure  of  pollard,  bran,  and  scalded  lucerne 
chaff,  on  December  ist,  and  allowed  to  run  on  that  for  a 
month  to  test  their  equaUty. 

"  The  ration  was  mixed  with  liver  souj),  and  they  had 
boiled  liver  added  to  the  mash  twice  weekly.  That  was  all 
the  animal  food  they  had,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
in  the  table  of  results  no  account  has  been  taken  of  the 
meat  food,  as  they  were  both  impartially  served  during  the 
whole  of  the  test. 

"On  the  ist  of  January,  to  the  ration  of  pen  No.  i 
was  added  scalded  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  replacing  half  the 
bulk  of  bran.  By  a  careful  test  -we  found  that  bran  and 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake  gave  about  the  same  amount  of  scalded 
food  for  a  given  sum — that  is,  while  the  Sunlight  Oil  Cake 
was  dearer  to  buy,  weight  fur  weiglit,  it  swelled  to  a  much 
greater  extent  than  bran,  and  a  quart  of  scalded  bran  would 
cost  as  much  as  a  quart  of  scalded  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  as 
near  as  it  was  possible  to  compute  it.  Thus,  in  doing  away 
with  half  the  bran,  and  keeping  up  the  same  bulk  of  mash 
w  ith  Sunlight  Oil  Cake,  the  cost  of  feed  was  not  increased  ; 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  after  the  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  was  added. 
we  found  that  the  birds  did  not  consume  quite  as  mucli 
food  as  they  did  before  its  addition.  It  is  to  be  understood, 
therefore,  that  the  addition  of  Sunlight  Oil  Cake  was  not  an 
expense,  but  rather  inclined  to  be  a  saving,  as  far  as  cost  of 
food  is  concerned. 

"The  trial  was  continued  for  three  months,  and  the 
birds  were  then  again  put  on  the  i)lain  ration,  without  the 
Sunlight  Oil  Cake. 

"The  results  of  the  test,  as  far  as  the  production  of 
eggs  is  concerned,  were  as  under  : — 

No.    I   (Sunlight  Oil  Cake). 

Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  Total. 

157  201  117  920 

No.   2.   (without  Oil  Cake). 

Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  Total. 

150  83  67  721 

In  all  other  respects  but  those  mentioned,  the  birds 
were  treated  alike.  The  number  of  eggs  laid  by  even  the 
plain  pen  is  proof  that  they  w^ere  not  neglected." 

Write  to  Lever  Brothers  Limited,  Poultry  Department,  Sydney,  for 
Post  Free  32  page  Booklet— 

MONEY  IN  POULTRY 


Dec. 

Jan. 

^is 

210 

Dec. 

Jan. 

247 

174 

Jiinrnal  of  Agriculture ,    Victoria. 


[lo  Dec,  1912. 


A  WORLD-WIDE   REPUTATION. 


"HORNSBY"  Petrol  Engines 


{STATIONARY    AND    PORTABLE) 

THERE  IS  NOTHING  EQUAL  TO  THEM. 

■lust  as  suitable  for  Motive  Power  as  the  Renowned 

"HORNSBY"    OIL    ENGINE. 


Britain's  BEST  Oil  Eng^ine— 

^"^  HORNSBY. 

The  recog-nized  essentials  of  Oil  Engine  Superiority  are 

DESIGN  QUALITY 

SIMPLICITY        ECONOMY 

THESE  the   HORNSBY  possess,  proved  by  the   Fact 
that  it  has  Won  all  the  Largest  iPrizes  ever  offered. 


Made  in  Two  Types— Stationary  and  Portable 

Hornsby  Gas  Engines  and  Suction  Gas  Plants  are  unequalled. 

OURNE.    S"! 
BRISBANE. 


R.  HORNSBY  &  SONS  LTD.,  ^^■^^•"""'^  ^^^'^ 


REX"  Separators  to  be  Sacrificed! 

Solely  because  we  are  relinquishing 
the  agency  in  favour  of  the  improved 
"Perfect"  Separators.  They're  splendid 
machines  for  the  small  dairyman. 
No.  1,  19  gal.  capacity  -  £7  10s. 
No.  3,  42  gal.  capacity  -  -  £13 
Free  trial  anywhere. 


THE      FAVORITE. 


Tlie    "FAVORITE"   Separator 


The  most  popular  small  machine  on 
the  market.  .... 
No.  1,  11  gal.  capacity  -  £3  3s. 
No.  2,  15  gal.  capacity  -  -  £.5 
■ Write   for   full   information. 


THE      REX.' 


Langwill   Bros.  &   Davies   Pty.  Ltd. 

110-114  STURT  STREET  (Near  Prince's  Bridg-e), 
SOUTH   MELBOURNE 


ioDec,  i9i-.]  Journal  of  Agncnlture ,    Victoria. 

"national  trustees 

Executors    and    Agency   Company  of  Australasia,   Ltd. 

DIRECTORS: 

HON.  WALTER  MADDEN,  Chairman  and  Managing  Director. 

EDWARD   FITZGERALD,  Esq..  L.L.D.  MICHAEL   MORNANE,  Esq. 

HON.  DUNCAN  E.  McBRYDE,  M.L.C.  HENRY  MADDEN,  Esq.  DAVID  HUNTER,  Esq. 


This  Company  Acts  as  Executor,  or  Joint    Executor  of  Wills,   Administrator, 
Trustee  of  Settlements,   and  Agent  for  Absentees   under  Power  of  Attorney. 

MONEY     TO      LEND      ON      BROAD      ACRES      AND      FARM      LANDS. 

Offices— 113  QUEEN  ST.  (Corner  of  Little  Collins-st.)  MELBOURNE. 


GUARANTEED    BY  THE 


w 


ESTABLISHED  1841.  -pj^  £  GOVERNMENT  OF  VICTORIA. 

STATE  SAVINGS  BANK  OF  VICTORIA 

Grants    greater    facilities    to    Depositors 
than  any  other  Savings  Bank  in  the  World. 

All  profits  earned,  after  providing  for  a  reasonable  Reserve  Fund,  are  distributed 
amongst  Depositors  by  giving  them  the  Highest  Bank  Rate  of  Interest  obtainable  in 
the  State  on  current  accounts. 

RESERVE    FUND    OF    FOUR    HUNDRED 
AND     FIFTY     THOUSAND     POUNDS. 

INTEREST  is  allowed  on  Deposits  uj)  to  £350,  namely  :— 3^  per  cent,  on  first 
£100  ;   and  3  per  cent,  on  excess  over  £100  up  to  £350. 

THE     TOTAL     AMOUNT     OF     DEPOSITS     IS     NOW     NEARLY 

TWENTY     MILLION     POUNDS. 

Depositors  can  lodge  money  with  the  same  pass-book  at  any  "f  the  424  Branches  and 
Agencies  of  the  Bank  throughout  Victoria. 

GEO.    E.    EMERY, 
Head   Office— MELBOURNE.  Impector-Gen^mf. 


TREWHELLA   :=*  GRUBBING  JACKS. 

Quick.     Powerful.     Simple. 


Mr.  Chas.  Hamilton,  Molesworth,  Vic,  says:— "I  would  not 
be  without  one  of  these  Jacks  on  the  farm." 

Mr.  O.  C.  B.  Brown,  Timber  Merchant,  Frances,  S.A.  :— 
"Have  been  using  Trewhella  Wallaby  Jacks  now  nearl.v 
six  years,  and  a.s  long  as  I  have  anything  to  lift  will  never  be 
without  one." 


Write  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  to— 

TREWHELLA   BROS.,  ENGINEERS,  TRENTHAIVI,  VICTORIA. 


xxn 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Dec,  1912. 


r 


'\ 


DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 
VICTORIA. 


JSufhIcy   JKortieuItuFal   School 


E.  E.  PESCOTT    -    Principal. 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 

The  curriculum  and  management  of  the  Burnley  Horticultural  School 
have  now  been  arranged  so  that  greater  advantages  and  facilities  will  be 
given  to  students  of  both  sexes  in  Horticulture  and  allied  subjects. 

The  present  course  of  Horticulture  for  male  students  includes  a  two 
years'  course,  students  being  charged  a  fee  of  £5  per  annum. 

Classes  have  been  formed  at  Burnley,  whereby  students  of  both  sexes 
may  receive  instruction  on  two  afternoons  of  each  week — Tuesdays  and 
Fridays. 

Instruction  includes  theoretical  and  practical  work,  and  will  commence 
at  2  p.m.  This  will  be  a  two  years'  course,  and  the  fee  charged  will  be 
£2  per  annum. 

It  has  also  been  arranged  that  several  short  lecture  courses  shall  be 
given  on  subjects  which  are  suitable  adjuncts  to  Horticulture,  such  as 
Poultry  Farming,  Bee-keeping,  and  Fruit  Preserving,  and  these  courses  will 
be  open  and  free  to  the  general  public.  The  subjects  and  dates  of  the  Short 
Course  Lectures  will  be  announced  in  this  Journal. 

STUDENTS    SHOULD    ENROLL    WITHOUT    DELAY, 


Application  for  , 
Admission  stiould 
be  made  to    .    . 


THE   DIRECTOR   OF  AGRICULTURE, 
PUBLIC     OFFICES,      MELBOURNE, 


OR  TO   THE 
PRINCIPAL. 


J 


lo  Dec.,  tgl:?.] 


Jnitnial  of  Agriculture ,   Victoria. 


SAVE  TIME-SAVE  WORK-SAVE  WORRY-SAVE  MONEY 

Wash  w^ith  an 


"O.K."  ROTARY 

WASHING  MACHINE 


No  housewife  should  be  without  an  "  O.K." 
Washer.  With  it  the  long  tedious  washitiij 
day  is  no  more.  A  very  short  time  serves 
to  accomiilish  well  and  quickly  the  hijjgest 
wash.  The  machine  is  simple  to  use,  and 
will  wash  anything  from  Sheepskin,  Mats, 
Blankets,  &c.,  &c. ,  to  the  daintiest  of  Lin- 
gerie. It  is  guaranteed  not  to  tear  the 
finest  fabrics.  The  tub  is  made  of  cjpress — 
a  wood  which  will  last  for  years.  It  is 
fitted  with  a  steam-tight  lid,  which  prevents 
the  steam  rising  in  the  face  of  the  user, 
and  keeps  water   hot. 


Full  particulars  from 


Sole 

Victorian 

Agent: 


F.    R.   IVIELLOR, 


440  ELIZABETH-ST., 
MELBOURNE. 


To  FARMERS  and  OTHERS. 

For    vour  House,   Barn,   "Wool.shed,    Dairy,    Fencinij,   etc. — - 

^     JARRAH    OR  TASMANIAN 
k      HARDWOOD    TIMBERS 


THERE    ARE    NONE    BETTER. 


Large  Stocks  of  Scantlings,  Weather-boards,  Floorings,  &c. 

Millars'  Timber  &  Trading  Co.  Ltd. 


(Formerly   named   Millars'    Karri    and    Jarrah   Company   (1902)   Limited), 

QUEEN'S    BRIDGE,    MELBOURNE.    Hi 


r" 


^ 


RYAN,    GOULDING,   &    CO. 
(JOHN    F.    GOULDING). 
WHOLESALE  GRAIN  &  PRODUCE  COMMISSION  AGENTS  &  GENERAL  BROKERS. 
546-552  COLLINS  STREET  WEST  (Near  King-st.) 

FARMERS  1  Before  Selling  your  Grain,  Hay,  Potatoes,  Onions,  consult  or  write  us. 

It  will  pay  you. CONSIGNMENTS  Received  and  Sold  Daily  ex  Rail  or  Wharf. 

Storage  arranged  on  Liberal  Terms  and  Advances  made.      All  kinds  of  Seed  Grain  for  Sale. 
Prompt  Account  Sales.     Oats  Specialists.     New  &  Second-hand  Bags  for  Sale  at  Lowest  Rates. 

Quotations  given  for  Chaff,  Grain,  Lucerne,  \\'heaten  or  Oaten  Hay,  delivered  to  any  station 
in  Victoria  or  New  South  Wales. 

^  When  in  the  CITY  Call  In. — Short  distance  frcm  Spencer-st.  Riy.  Station,    j 


Journal  of  Agriculture,   Victoria. 


[lo  Dec,  191:2. 


LL  Harvester 


Is  the  Best  Harvester  for  YOU,  because 

It  is  undeniably  the  STRONGEST  Machine  made. 
It  will  therefore  outlast  any  other,  and  is  thus  CHEAPER. 
It  has  beaten  all  noted  makes  in  DRAFT  Tests. 
Farmers  say  it  V70RKS  BETTER  EVERY  YEAR. 
It  harvested  a  SO-BUSHSI,  WHEAT  CROP  ex-jcllontly. 
It  has  taken  off  up  to  201  BAGS  IN  ONE  DAY  (190  lb.  bags). 
It  couldn't  possibly  do  this  unless  it  was  STRONG,  RELIABLE,  SIMPLE, 
and  EASY  to  PULL. 


EXTRACT    FROM     'HORSHAM     TIMES." 

A  Record  Wheat  Yield,  18  bags  per  acre. 

"What  is  undoubtedly  a  re<.'ord  wheat  yielil  tor  the  locality  is  being-  gathered  in  b\  Mr.  Samuel 
Gross,  of  the  Three  Bridffes,  Drung  Drnng.  'With  a  Mitchell  Harvsster  doing'  exce'.lent 
work  and  drawn  by  five  horses,  Mr.  Gross  has  taken  up  ta  18  bag-s  of  Federation  wlieat  per  acre, 
the  fielri  harvested  yieldin"-  a  magnificent  average  of  sixteen  bags.  From  other  parts  of  the  district 
excellent  returns  are  also  being  harvested,  but  that  bagged  by  Mr.  Gross,  so  far,  is  the  highest 
recorded." 

TESTIMONIAL    FROM    THE    USER. 

"  A  report  of  the  work  done  by  your  G  ft.  Hai-\ester  appeared  in  the  Horxhavh  Times  of  Tth 
January  last,  and  you  will  probably  be  pleased  to  liear  that  the  machine  has  given  me  the  utmost 
satisfaction.  You  will  notice  that"  I  had  a  record  crop,  which  the  machine  had  no  ditticulty  in 
deahng  with,  and  it  made  a  splendid  sample.  It  was  very  light  in  draught,  and  I  would 
have  no  hesitation  in  recommending  it  to  anyone  who  stands  in  need  of  a  really  first=class 
Harvester." 

SAMUEL  GR<»SS, 

(irosses  Bridge,  Drung  Drung. 


Ask  for  Catalogues  of 


Grain  Drills,  Mouldboard  and  Disc  Ploughs,  One-way  Discs,  Harrows, 
Yokes,  Walter  A.  Wood  Binders,  Mower?,  Raker,  Waterloo  Boy  Oil 
Engines,  Austin  Road  Graders,  Diabolo  Separators,  and  Max  Milkers. 


MITCHELL  &  CO,  PTY.  LTD. 

Show  Room  :     596   BOURKE   ST.,   MELBOURNE. 

Offices  and   Factory  : 

WEST  FOOTSCRAY,   MELBOURNE. 


MENTION      THIS      PAPER      WHEN      ASKING      FOR      PRICES. 

By    Authority  :     Albert    J.    Mxtllett,    Acting    GoYernment    Printer.    Melbourne. 


3?efFigeratiug  and 
lee  JYCakiixg 

JYCaehinerY 


Made  by 
HUMBLE  &  SONS, 

Geelong, 
Victoria. 


Specially  suitable  for  Butchers,  Breweries,  Squatters  Butter  Bacon  and  Ice 
Factories,  and  all  classes  of  Cold  Storage,  &c.  The  Machines  can  be  supplied  frora 
3  cwt.  capacity  upwards,  and  either  belt-driven  or  fitted  with  Engine  A  large 
number  of  these  Machines  are  working  in  the  Austrahan  States,  New  Zealand  and 
South  Africa,  and  are  giving  universal  satisfaction  All  classes  of  Refrigeration 
work  undertaken,  including  coils.  One  of  these  Machines  is  installed  at  the  Dookie 
Agricultural  College. 


^^errier's"  Woolpresses  and  Rabbit  Poison  Distribntors, 
Engines,  Boilers,  Horseworks,  &c. 

Full  Particulars  on  Application  to— 

Humble  and  Sons, 

General   Engineer's, 

Vulcan    Foundry,     GEELONG. 


VICTORIAN   P^J,»lff|^  RAILWAYS. 


SUMMER  EXCURSIONS. 


The  Victorian  Railways  issue  SUMMER 
EXCURSION     FARES     to    the 

SEASIDE  ::  MOUNTAINS 
::  LAKES    and    CAVES  :: 

from    1 5th    November    till    30th    April. 


THE     YARRA     AT     WARBURTON. 


THE  BUFFALO  PLATEAU 

with  its  famous  Gorge,  Falls  and 
Peaks,  embraces  the  Finest  Moun- 
tain  Sfenery  in  Australia.  Excur- 
Stun  Fares  all  the  year  round. 
Splendid  Accommodation  at  the 
Government  Chalet.  Special  in- 
clusive Week  Tickets,  covering 
transport  and  accommodation, 
issued  on  Fridays  by  the  Express 

train  from  Melbourne. 

First-class   -   £i  lOs. 

THE  AUSTRALIAN  ALPS 

Mounts      Bogong',      Fea.,    "top, 
Ilotham.   The  Baw  Baw^'v      ';e. 
The    Dividing   Range,    ^doa 
Woodend,  Daylesford,  I       -fi» 

HEALESVILLE. 

Seven  Days  Trip,  including  Rail, 
Accommodation  &  Coach  Drives. 
£3. 

WARBURTON  (Mt.  Dorii^a  Buaqg). 

THE  GIPPSLAND  LAKES 

The    Most    Charming    Chain    of 
Ijakes  in  the  Commonwealth. 

THE  BUCHAN  CAVES 

Indescribably  Beautiful, 

LORNE. 

Waterfalls,  Fern  Glens,  Sea  and 

River  Fishing. Splendid 

Accommodation. 

FLINDERS. 

Ocean  Beach  &  Golfers'  Paradise. 

QUEENSCLIFF. 

Bay  and  Ocean  Beaches, 
and  Steamer  Services. 


Kail 


PICTURESQUE    SS^^t^tifeS.    VICTORIA. 


For  full  informal  m  as  to  train  services,  fares,  &c.,  write  to  or  enquire  from  the 
Government  Tom  ist  Officer,  Tourist  Bureau,  0pp.  Town  Hall,  CoUins-st.,  Melbourne. 
Ha.fi.dbooks,  Maps  and  Hotel  Guides  free  on  application. 


E.     B.     JONES,     ACTING  SECRETARY  FOR  RAILWAYS. 


New   York  Botanical   garden   LiDrar 


3  5185  00265  0990 


M.  '^- 


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