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JOURNAL
OF THE
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIEN
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VOLUME V— PART L
JANUARY-JUNE,
1888
PERMANENT SECRETARY
F. P. VENABLE, - CHAPEL HILL, N. C.
B. M. UZZELL, STEAM I'KINTEK AND BINDER.
kali:i<;ii, n. c.
1888.
OFFICERS
1888-1889.
PRESIDENT :
W. J. Martin,
VICE-PRESIDENT :
Davidson College, N. C.
George B. Hanna, U. S. Mint, Charlotte, N. C.
RESIDENT VICE-PRESIDENT:
R. II. Graves, C. and M. E., .... Chapel Hill, N. C.
PERMANENT SECRETARY AND TREASURER:
F. P. Venable, Ph. D., F. C. S., .... Chapel Hill, N. C.
RECORDING SECRETARY AND LIBRARIAN:
J. " W. Gore, C. E., Chapel Hill, N. C.
LIBRARY AND PLACE OF MEETING :
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
• PAGE.
North Carolina Deem ids — A preliminary list. \V. L. Potent 1
On the Bromination of Heptane. F. P. Tenable 5
Some New Salts of Camphoric Acid. G. W. Edwards 8
New Halogen Compounds of Lead. F. P. Venable and B. Thorp 10
On the Chord Common to a Parabola and the Circle of Curvature at any
Point. R. H. Graves 14
The Focal Chord of a Parabola. R. H. Graves.. 15
List of Fishes with Description of a New Species. V. S. Bryant 16
List of Butterflies collected at Chapel Hill, N. C. A. Braswell 19
Aquatic Respiration in the Musk-rat. W. L. Spoon 21
Changes in Bottled Samples of Acid Phosphate with Constant Percentage
of Water and Ordinary Temperature. W.B.Phillips 22
New Instances of Protective Resemblance in Spiders. G. F. Atkinson.... 28
Note on the Tube-inhabiting Spider, Lycosa Fatifera, Hentz. G. 1".
Atkinson 30
Temperature and Rain-fall at Various Stations in North Carolina. J. A.
Holmes 31
Reports of Officers -\>
List of Members 4f>
List of Exchanges 50
JOURNAL
OF THE
Elislia Mitchell Scientific Society
NORTH CAROLINA DESMIDS— A PRELIMINARY
LIST.
W. L. POTEAT.
When one considers the acknowledged richness of the flora of
North Carolina, it seems not a little strange that this peculiarly
interesting family of plants should have been so completely neg-
lected both by native and by visiting botanists. In the second
volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge may be
found Professor J. W. Bailey's " Microscopical Observations
made in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida," published in
1851 ; but these notes contain no reference to North Carolina.
With the poor exception of two or three species of Vauclwria
reported from this State by v. Schweinitz, and a few other Algae
by Curtis (1860), the great group of Fresh-water Algae as now
known to the world contains no North Carolina representatives.
And, if the view be restricted to the particular family that con-
cerns us here, so far as I have been able to learn the record is a
complete blank.
Moved partly by this consideration, for a few months past I
have been engaged, as my limited leisure afforded opportunity,
upon the determination of the species of Desmids found in the
vicinity of Wake Forest, and some of the results of this work
are presented below. The list is far from being exhaustive of
'1 JOURNAL OF THE
the material of this locality; nevertheless, it is offered in this
imperfect form in the hope that it may prove to be of some value
as a contribution to the Flora of North Carolina.*
The Desmidiese are microscopic, unicellular plants of the order
( 'onjugatse. They are possessed of chlorophyll and absorb
through their walls nourishment from the water in which they
float or swim. They are confined to fresh water. The cell is
usually constricted in the middle into two similar halves, and in
general outline varies from cylindrical, crescent, and dumb-bell
shape to the elliptic and circular, with margins smooth, or toothed,
or lobed. The all but endless variety of their forms, combined
with perfect symmetry of parts and exquisiteness of structure,
makes the study of them a never-failing source of instruction
and delight.
The following species in the vicinity of Wake Forest have
been identified :
Hyalotheca disilliens, Brebisson.
Hvalotheca mucosa, Ralfs.
Desmidium Schwartzii, Agardh.
Desmidium Bayleyi, Wolle.
Desmidium aptogonium, Brebisson.
Sphserozosma spinulosum? Delponte.
Mesotaenium Eudlicherianum, Naegeli.
Spirotrenia condensata, Brebisson.
Spirotamia obscura, Ralfs.
Penium digitus, Brebisson.
Penium interruptum, Brebisson.
Penium oblongum, De Bary.
Penium crassa, De Bary. 21 micros.
Penium lamellosum, Brebisson.
Penium margaritaceum, Brebisson.
Penium closterioides, Ralfs. 38 micros.
*In making the determination of species I have used the great works of Kev. Francis
Wolle on the Desmids and on the Fresh-water Algse of the United States. In case of
difference of size (diameter) from that given by Wolle, I have stated the size in micro-
millimetres.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 3
Closterium moniliferum, Ehrenberg.
Closterium Leibleinii, Kuetzing.
Closterium areolatum, Wood.
Closterium lunula, Ehrenberg.
Closterium lineatum, Ehrenberg.
Closterium striolatum, Ehrenberg. Var. elongatum, Raben-
horst.
Closterium rostratum, Ehrenberg.
Closterium dianse, Ehrenberg. (?)
Closterium gracile, Brebisson. 17 diameters long
Closterium obtusum, Brebisson.
Closterium acutum, Brebisson.
Closterium acerosum, Ehrenberg.
Closterium nasatlim, Nordstedt. (?) Not quite sure of the species, the
-ides of the suddenly contracted ends not being parallel, and the cell being 7 diameters
long.
Docidium crenulatum, Rabenhorst.
Docidium trabecula, Naegeli.
Caloeylindrus connatus, Kirchner.
Caloeylindrus connatus. Var. minor, Nordstedt.
Caloeylindrus minutus, Kirchner.
Caloeylindrus Thwaitesii, Ralfs. (?) 21 micros.
Cosmarium ovale, Ralfs. (?) Margins almost destitute of granules; ends
.somewhat truncate.
Cosmarium punctulatum, Brebisson.
Cosmarium Pvramidatum, Brebisson.
Cosmarium cucumis, Corda. (?) 32 micros.
Cosmarium botrytis, Meneghini.
Cosmarium botrytis. Var. tumidum, Wolle.
Cosmarium undulatum, Corda. Var. crenulatum, Wolle.
32 micros.
Cosmarium notabile, Brebisson. 21 micros
Cosmarium speciosum, Lundell. 32micros
Cosmarium portianum, Archer.
Cosmarium orbiculatum, Ralfs.
Cosmarium Schleiphackeanum, Grunow. lomicros.
Cosmarium pseud obroomei, Wolle.
4 JOURNAL OF THH
Cosmarium Braunii. Forma major, Reinsch. 21 micros.
Tetmemorus Isevis, Ralfs. (?)
Xanthidium fasicu latum, Ralfs. Var. hexagonum, Wolle.
Euastrum verrucosum, Ralfs.
Euastrum verrucosum. Var. alatum, Wolle.
Euastrum verrucosum. Var. reductuin, Nordstedt. (?)
Euastrum piuuatum, Ralfs.
Euastrum elegans, Kuetzing.
Euastrum binale, Ralfs.
Euastrum oblongum, Ralfs. si micros.
Euastrum ausatum, Ralfs. Var. major, Wolle.
Euastrum ilierme, Luudell. Does not quite agree with Wolle's figure:
the second erena on basal lobe is not so near end lobe.
Micrasterias Americana, Kuetzing.
Micrasterias laticeps, Nordstedt.
Micrasterias denticulata, Ralfs.
Micrasterias crenata, Ralfs.
Micrasterias decemdentata, Naegeli. si micros.
Micrasterias rotata, Ralfs.
Micrasterias conferta, Luudell.
Micrasterias ftircata, Ralfs. (?) 105 micros.
Micrasterias Rabenhorstii, Kirchner. (?) ks micros.
Micrasterias fimbriata, Ralfs. (?) Agrees with Wolle's text and figure,
except that it is much too small.
Staurastrum orbiculare, Ralfs;
Staurastrum hirsutum, Ralfs.
Staurastrum echinatum, Brebisson.
Staurastrum spongiosum, Brebisson.
Staurastrum botrophilum, Wolle.
Staurastrum pygmseum, Brebisson. Forma genuina, Brebis-
son.
Staurastrum pygmseum. Forma truncata, Wolle.
Staurastrum pygmaeum. Forma rhomboides, Wolle.
Staurastrum artiscon, Brebisson.
Staurastrum dilaratum, Ehrenberg. (?)
Staurastrum cyrtocerum, Brebisson.
Wake Forest College, .May 2, 1888.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCrENTIFIC SOCIETY.
( ONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY I'NIV. N. C.
No. XXXIX.
ON THE BROMINATION OF HEPTANE.
F. P. VENABLE.
Schorlemmer has shown that the heptane from Pinus sabini-
ana is probably identical with that from petroleum and is a
normal heptane. With regard to the action of the halogens
upon this heptane he says:* "By the action of chlorine upon a
normal paraffin not all the chlorides indicated by theory are
formed, lint only the primary and a secondary chloride which
contains. the group CHC1.CH3; by the action of bromine upon
normal paraffins from petroleum only secondary bromides cor-
responding to chloride- are formed."
In my inaugural dissertation (Gottingen, 1881, p. 14) I stated
that I found other products formed during the bromination of
normal heptane besides the secondary bromide, but did not exam-
ine them more closely. It seemed to me worthy of note at the
time that when the nnfractionated residue boiling ahove 170' C.
(the s ic uidary bromide boils at 1 65°-167°) was allowed to stand
-.me time and was then distilled, it yielded, under evolution <>t
hydrogen bromide, a fair proportion of secondary bromide boil-
ing at L65°-167°. Time and material have both been lacking
to me since the period of that research, and hence I have made
no closer examination of this point.
\- it would be :i -traii"v and not very easilv accounted for
fact if bromine yielded only secondary products acting on nor-
mal paraffins, I determined to make use of a recent opportunity
to examine t hi- ;i<'t inn more closely.
It may lie stated that in several brominations of this heptan .
made iii recenl years, I have found the yield of secondary bro-
mide to he only aboul 25 or •".<> per cent, of the theoretical.
: American < Ihemical Jotirn i *;.
6 JOURNAL OF THE
much of the heptane remaining unattacked ; and much having to
be rejected as boiling too high. The amounts of heptane bromi-
nated at one time varied from 100 to 300 grams, and the bro-
mine usually dropped in as fast as it could be absorbed by the
hot heptane. No quantitative data were preserved of these
experiments, however. The vield is seriously unsatisfactorv
with so expensive a material as the heptane.
The following experiments were quantitative and conducted
with especial care:
I. 100 grains of pure heptane and 160 grams of bromine. —
The heptane was kept boiling gently over a naked flame. The
flask containing it was provided with an inverted condenser and
a dropping funnel for the bromine. The bromine dropped in
the liquid, keeping it orange-red in color. The operation re-
quired five hours. The heavy oil was then washed with dilute
sodium carbonate, then with water, and finally dried over cal-
cium chloride. It was yellow, with an orange tint. It was
fractionated twice under a diminished pressure of 18-20 inches of
mercury; then four times fractionated under ordinary pressure.
The divisions were as follows:
Fraction I, 100°-120°, nearly all under 110°, 30 grams;
II, 120°-162°, 5
III, 162°-168°, mainly 164°-167°, 55
IV, 168°-173°, 2
V, 173°-183°, mainly between 176°-180°, 8
VI, 183°-210° 10
Probably one-fourth, in bulk, of the oil was left partly charred
in the fractionating flasks.
II. 100 grains of pure heptane and 160 grams of bromine. —
The same apparatus as above was used, only the dropping fun-
nel was drawn out to a capillary and about half an inch of this
was submerged under the heptane. The bromine entered thus
slowly and in the form of vapor. The heptane was at first at a
lower temperature than in the first experiment. The tempera-
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 7
ture had to be increased later on, but, so far as possible, all excess
over that necessary for the absorption of the bromine was
avoided. The time consumed by the reaction was about thirteen
hours. The oil was then treated as above. It was redder in
color. It was fractionated as above, only one time less under
ordinary pressure.
Fraction I, 100°-120°, mainly under 110°, 35 grams;
II, 120°-162°, 5
III, 162°-168°, mainly 1(U0-167°, 25
IV, 168°-173°, 6
V, 173°-183°, mainly 176°-180° 20
No higher fraction than V was taken, though several grams
could have been gotten by carrying the residue on to partial
charring. Fraction V was in this case much more stable than
the corresponding fraction in the first experiment. It did not
turn brown so quickly, nor deposit black spots on the glass.
III. 50 grams of pure heptane and 80 grams of bromine. —
No heat was used in this case. The heptane was in a small
open Erlenmeyer flask which was set in a vessel of water. The
bromine was poured in in small amounts and shaken until dis-
solved in the heptane, giving it a deep red color. Then it was
allowed to stand in the light until only a yellow color remained.
The temperature averaged about 6° C. The duration of tin-
experiment was twenty-five days. The resulting oil was washed
as above. It was bright yellow in color. It was fractionated
once under diminished pressure and once under ordinary pres-
sure. The following fractions were obtained:
Fraction I, 100°-120°, mainly under 110°, 12 grams;
II, 120°-162°, 2
III, 162°-173°, mainly 164°-167°, 4
IV, 173°-183°, 7
V, 183°- 11)5°, very little;
VI, 195°-205°, 7 grams;
VII, 205°-215°, 12
VIII, 215°-230°, '
8 JOURNAL OF THE
These fractions above 195° were heavy, of a brownish yellow
color, and not showing much decomposition on standing. This
third method of broniination was tried several times with simi-
lar results. Analyses of two proportions of the fraction coming
over about 210° gave 56.4 per cent, and 58.0 per cent, of bro-
mine; C7Hl5Br contains 44.69 and C7H14Br2 62.02 per cent, of
bromine.
The results may be summed up thus: If we take into consid-
eration the boiling points of the primary bromide (178.5°), sec-
ondary bromide, 164°-167°, and dibromide or heptylene bro-
mide, 209°-211°, it will be seen that no mode of broniination
tried yielded the secondary bromide alone. The first vields
principally the secondary; the second yields secondary and pri-
mary, whereas the third yields mainly compounds having a high
percentage of bromine, probably several isomeric bromides of
heptylene. The action of bromine then seems to be quite simi-
lar to that of chlorine.
I'niversity of North Carolina February, 1888
No. XL.
SOME NEW SALTS OF CAMPHORIC ACID.
G. W. EDWARDS.
This research is a continuation of the one in Volume IV.
Part I, page 52. The following additional salts were prepared:
Aluminium Camphorate. Pure aluminium hydroxide was
prepared, and this was then boiled with camphoric acid in ex-
cess, using only a little water. The resulting aluminium cam-
phorate is white and quite insoluble. It was dried at 100° and
analyzed.
< laculated for Found.
AI2(C,oH14o4)3. I. II.
Al 8.33 8.16 8.24
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 9
Nickel Camphorate. — Pure nickel hydroxide was prepared and
dissolved in camphoric acid, using as little water as possible.
On heating this solution on the water-bath a crust, whitish-green
in color, settled out. This was dried between bibulous paper
and analyzed.
Analysis:
( Calculated for
Ni(C,oH1504)2. Found.
Ni 12.76 12.03
The liquid poured off from this crust stood some days over
sulphuric acid. A further settling out of the crust mentioned
above was noticed; then small green crystals began to form.
The liquid was filtered away from the crust and once more
placed in the desiccator. The crystals obtained were dried on
bibulous paper and analyzed. It was impossible, however, to
separate them from the crust. The analysis gave 12.50 per
cent, of Xi. Hence the compound was the same as above.
Strontium Camphorate. — Strontium carbonate is but slightly
attacked by camphoric acid in the cold. On heating with water
the evolution of carbon dioxide is rapid. The resulting stron-
tium camphorate is soluble in water. Clusters of crystals are
easily gotten on evaporation over sulphuric acid. The first
analysis of the crystals was lost. Analysis of a crystalline
crust resulted as follows :
Calculated for
SrC10HuO4.6H2<>. Found.
Sr 22.23 21.50
H2() 27.45 27.75
10 JOURNAL OF THE
No. XLI.
NEW HALOGEN COMPOUNDS OF LEAD.
F. P. YEXABLE and B. THORP.
This research sprang from and is a continuation of the one
upon Lead Chlorosulphocyanide in Volume IV, Part I, page
55.
Action of ammonium hydroxide upon lead chlorosulphocyanide.
— Crystals of this salt, dried at 100° and kept several months,
turn partially yellow from the formation of persulphocyanogen.
Those merely dried in the air do not seem to undergo this change.
Some of these air-dried crystals were covered with ordinary aqua
ammonia in excess and allowed to stand for six days. The color
of the crystals was slightly changed, becoming dirty yellowish-
white. On analysis, after drying at 100°, they were found to
contain 3.08 per cent, of chlorine. Sulphocyanic acid was also
present, but was not determined. Another lot, after standing
for three hours, gave 5.28 per cent, of chlorine. Crystals cov-
ered in the same way with ammonia water and boiled occasion-
ally during six hours showed on analysis 2.76 per cent, of chlo-
rine, and gave qualitative tests for sulphocyanic acid. Others
boiled in this way during three or four weeks gave but a bare
opalescence with silver nitrate. Ammonium hydroxide, then,
does not remove either of the radicals combined with the lead in
preference to the other, but removes both at the same time, until
only lead hydroxide is left. Nor do there seem to be any distinct
steps of removal or regular basic compounds formed as in the
case of the action of ammonium hydroxide on lead chloride and
iodide,
*
Lead bromosulphocyanide. — Lead bromide crystallized from a
strong solution of potassium sulphocyanide gave slightly brown-
*rhemical News. 52, -13.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 11
ish crystals, apparently of the first system. These were dried
on filter paper and then over sulphuric acid. They contained
23.05 per cent, of bromine and 16.65 per cent. CNS. Calculated
for PbBrCNS, 23.02 percent, bromine and 16.85 percent, CNS.
Hydrobromic acid was added to the mother-liquor of these
crystals, and on evaporation a crop of clumpy, indistinctly yel-
lowish crystals was obtained. These were dried and analyzed,
giving 3.46 per cent, of CNS. Calculated 3.56 per cent, of
CNS for 8PbBr2.Pb(CNS)2.
Lead iodosulphocyanide. — The first attempt at preparing this
salt was by adding the excess of potassium sulphocyanide, in
solution, to freshly precipitated lead iodide. On washing with
hot water lead iodide alone crystallized out. Again sulphocyanic
acid was used to dissolve lead iodide, but the double compound
refused to form and again the iodide only crytallized out. When
equivalent amounts of lead iodide and lead chlorosulphocyanide
wore dissolved in boiling water and allowed to crystallize, the
iodide crystallized out by itself. Lastly, lead iodide was dis-
solved in a strong solution of potassium sulphocyanide. This
gave on cooling small glistening nearly white crystals. It is
interesting to note in this and other cases where double com-
pounds with lead iodide were obtained, that at one stage of the
cooling numbers of large, distinct crystals of lead iodide would
separate. On further standing and cooling these would entirely
disappear and all the erytals would be of the double compound.
Analysis gave for this compound figures corresponding to
57.22 per cent. Pb. Calculated for PbI2.3Pb(CNS)2, 57.83 per
cent, Pb.
Lead chlorocy ankle. — When lead chloride crystals were cov-
ered with a strong solution of potassium cyanide, a heavy and
quite insoluble body was formed which, on standing, rapidly
changed in color to a purplish brown. This was due to partial
decomposition and loss of hydrocyanic acid.* This heavy in-
"Chemical News, 51, iv
12 JOURNAL OF THE
soluble powder was washed and (hen dried at 100°. The analy-
ses gave the following results, the CN being found by difference:
< lalculated for
2Pb(CN)2.PbCI2.
77.118
Found.
Pb
78.4(5
78.32
CI
8.76
8.29
8,47
CN
13.22
13.25
13.21
Lead ferrocyanide could not be induced to crystallize with lead
chloride. It is so insoluble that few of the methods of forma-
tion used in this research could be put into practice. On cover-
ing lead chloride with a solution of potassium ferrocyanide, the
lead gave up its chlorine completely. The resulting lead ferro-
cyanide persistently retained some potassium ferrocyanide.
Again, when lead ferrocyanide was boiled for some time with
potassium chloride, neither filtrate nor residue contained the
desired double salt.
Lead ferrocyanide covered with ammonia water for several
weeks vields a brownish-^rav white mass which was free of am-
monia and contained 12.42 per cent, of ferroeyanic acid and .45
per cent, of ferric oxide. It is a basic ferrocyanide.
Of course the attempt to crystallize lead ferrocyanide from
hydrochloric acid ended in the decomposition of the ferrocyanide
with the formation of lead chloride and separation of Prussian
blue.
Lead bromiodide. When lead iodide is dissolved in hvdro-
bromic acid, the first crystals are of a deep yellow tint, approach-
ing orange. The crystals on analysis yielded 49.75 per cent.
Pb. Calculated for PbBr2.PbI2, Pb=49.93 per cent. These crys-
tals then have the composition represented by the formula
PbBr.Pbl.
2 2
The second crop of crystals have a straw-yellow color and
gave 52.99 and 52.57 percent. Pb, 30.61 percent, Br, and 16.20
per cent, I. Calculated for 3PbBr2.PbI2, 52.94 per cent, Pb,
30.77 per cent. Br, and 16.32 per cent. I.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 13
The third crop are white in color and yield <>n analysis 54.19
and 54.34 per cent. Ph. The calculated percentages for a sub-
stance of the composition 6PbBr2.PbI2 are=54.34 per cent. Ph.
The fourth crop are also white, and gave only a slight reaction
for iodine. They contained 50.12 per cent. PI), and are there-
fore nearly pure lead bromide. In form these crystals are all
alike, closely resembling ordinary lead bromide.
Lead ehlorobromiodide. — Lead chloride, lead bromide and lead
iodide were dissolved together in hot water and allowed to crys-
tallize. No special proportions were taken, though in the first
experiment an excess of lead iodide was probably present. In
the second, more lead bromide and lead chloride were present,
with the bromide probably in excess. In both cases the iodide
crystallized out abundantly, immediately on cooling-. The sec-
ond, third and fourth crops of crystals were taken separately.
They were like one another in appearance, forming masses of
long silky yellowish white needles. Thev combined chlorine,
bromine, and iodine. Analyses of the three last fractions in the
second experiment gave the following percentages of lead:
I. Pb=60.34; II. Pb=61.48; III. Pb=61.32. Analysis
of the fourth fraction gave, IV. Pb=61.57.
There seems to be only one compound formed, as in I. the
analysis was probably defective.
From these experiments it is evident that lead has quite a
facility for forming double compounds with the halogens and
analogous radicals, forming probably in many cases a series of
such salts with various ratios between the halogens, all being
(piite stable and crystallizing nicely.
14 JOURNAL OF THE
ON THE CHORD COMMON TO A PARABOLA
AND THE CIRCLE OF CURVATURE AT
ANY POINT.*
R. H. GRAVES.
It is known that if a circle meet a parabola in four points the
sum of the distances of the points on one side of the axis from
it is equal to the sum of the distances of the points on the other
side from it. If three of the points are coincident, the circle
becomes the circle of curvature, and the distance of the three
coincident points (P) from the axis is one-third of that of the
fourth point from the axis.
Hence the common chord of the circle and parabola is divided
by the axis in the ratio 1 : 3. But the shorter segment of the
chord is equal to the tangent at P, since they are equally inclined
to the axis. Therefore the chord is equal to four times the tan-
gent. Let y2=4ax be the equation to the parabala, and (x', y')
the co-ordinates of P. Then
y— y'=— p (x— x'), or yy' + 2ax— fy,2=o,
is the equation to the chord.
Differentiating with respect to y', y=3y/; hence y2= — 12ax
is the envelope of the chord. Also, from the relation y=3yr,
it follows that the longer segment of the chord is equal to the
corresponding tangent of the parabola y2= — 12ax.
The point P, and the point where the chord prolonged touches
y2= — 12ax, are harmonic conjugates with respect to the points
where it meets the axis and the tangent at the common vertex of
the parabolas.
The tangent at the end of the lotus rectum of y2= — 12ax is
normal to y2=4ax at the end of its lotus rectum, and therefore
touches its evolute. The chord is then a diameter of the circle
of curvature, and is bisected by its point of contact with the
evolute.
Hence the radius of curvature— twice the normal=4aj 2,
which agrees with a known result.
*This article and the following one have appeared in the ''Annals of Mathematics."
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 15
ON THE FOCAL CHORD OF A PARABOLA,
*
R. H. GRAVES.
Let y2=4ax be the equation to a parabola, S its focus, and
PSPr a focal chord. Let the tangent and normal at P' meet the
diameter through P at M and N.
It may be easily proved that PM=PN=PP' and that a simi-
lar property holds for the tangent and normal at P.
Therefore, if two equal rhombs be constructed on PP' having
two other sides of each parallel to the axis, their diagonals are
tangents and normals at P and P' ; and the tangent at one point
is parallel to the normal at the other.
Each normal chord divides the other in the ratio 1 :3.
The chord joining the other ends of the normal chords is
parallel to PP' and three times as long.
A line perpendicular to PPr at S, and terminated by this
parallel chord and the pole of PP', is divided by S in the ratio
1:4.
Hence the locus of the foot of the perpendicular dropped
from S on the parallel chord is a right line, whose equation is
x=9a.
Hence the envelope of the parallel chord is a con focal para-
bola, having for its equation y2=32a(9a — x).
It cuts the original parabola orthogonally where it is cut by
its evolute.
*This article has been translated and appeared in the Jornal de Sciencias Mathemat-
icas e Astronomicas, published at Coimbra.
16 JOURNAL OF THE
Contributions from the Biological Laboratory <>f the Univ. of N. (
No. X.
LIST OF FISHES IN THE MUSEUM OF THE UNI
VERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, WITH
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES.
V. S. BRYANT.
Family Sphyknid.k.
1. Reniceps tiburo (L.) Gill. Shovel-head Shark; Bonnet
Head.
Family Lepidosteidj:.
2. Lepidosteus osseus (L.) Agassiz. Long-nosed Gar; Bill-
fish ; Common Gar Pike.
Family SiLrRiD.E.
3. Amiurus platycephalus (Grd.) Gill.
4. Amiurus erebeunus (Holbrook) Jordan.
5. Amiurus vulgaris (Thompson) Nelson.
I). Ictalurus albidus (Le Senr) J. and G. White. Cat ; Chan-
nel Cat of the Potomac.
Family Cyprixidj:.
7. Mmmlus diplaemius (Raf.) Hay. Red-fin.
Family Clitpeid.e.
8. Clupea mediocris Mitchill. Hickory Shad; Tailor Her-
ring; Fall Herring.
9. Clupea cestirali* Mitchill. Glut Herring; Bine Back.
10. Clupea sapidissima Wilson. Common Shad.
Family Saemoxitu;.
1 1 . Salvelinusfontinalis (Mitch.) Gill and Jor. Brook Trout ;
Speckled Tront.
Family ANGUILIDJE.
\'2. Anguilla rostrata (Le Senr) De Kay. Common Eel.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC >< ;< IK IV. 17
Family Scomberesocid^:.
13. Tylosurus longirostr is (Mitch.) J. and (i. Gar-fish; Hill-
fish ; NeedJe-fish.
Family Mugilid^e.
14. Mugil albula L. Striped Mullet.
Family Carangidje.
1~>. Caranx hippus (L.) Gunther. CrevallS; Horse Crevalle.
16. Selem vomer (I,.) Lutken. Moon-fish; Look Down;
Horse-head.
Family Pomatomidje.
17. Pomatomus s<tlt<it<>r (L.) Gill. Blue-fish; Green-fish;
Skip-jack.
Family ( !entr archive.
18. Prornoxys annularis Raf. Crappie; Batchelor; New
Light : < 'ampbellite..
P.). Prornoxys sparoides (Lac.) Grd. Calico Bass; Grass
Bass; Barfish; Strawberry Bass.
20. Chaenobryttus gulosus (C. and V.) -I<»r. War Mouth.
Red-eyed Bream.
21 . Lepomis gibbosus ( L.) McKay. Common Sun-fish ; Bream ;
Pumpkin Seed ; Sunny.
22. Micropterus salmoides (Lac.) Henshall. Large-mouthed
Black Bass; Oswego Bass; Green Bass; Bayou Bass.
Family Pei:<ii>.i:.
23. Perca americana Schranck. Yellow Perch; American
Perch ; Ringed Perch.
24. Stigrostedium vitreum (Mitch.) Jor. and Copeland. Wall-
eyed Pike; Dory; Glass-eye; Yellow Pike; Blue Pike; Jack
Salmon.
Family Serranid.e.
25. Roccus tinea tus (Block) Gill. Striped Bass; Rock-fish;
Rock.
26. Rocciis americanus J. and G. White Perch.
27. Serranus atrarius (L.) J. and (i. Black-fish ; Black Sea
Bass.
Family Siwimiu:.
28. Pomadasys fulvomaculatus (Mitch.) J. and <i. Sailor's
( Jhoice ; I log-fish. 3
18 JOURNAL OF THE
2(.). Diplodu8 rhomboides (L.) J. and G. Pin fish ; Bream.
30. Dlplodus probatocephalu8 (Walb.) J. and G. Sheepshead.
Family Scianid.e.
31. Pogonias chromis (Linn.) C. and V. Drum.
32. Sciaena oeellata (L.) Gthr. Channel Bass; Red Horse;
Red Bass.
33. IAostomus xanthurus Lac. Spotj Goody; Oldwife; La
Fayette.
34. Cyonoscion maeidatum (Mitch.) Gill. Spotted Sea Tront.
Family Labrid.e.
35. Tautoga onitis (L.) Gthr. Tautog; Black-fish; Oyster-
fish.
Family Triglid.e.
36. Prionotus tribulus Guv. and Val.
37. Prionotus erolonus Linn.
Family Batrachid.k.
38. Bat rachus ton (Linn.) Cuv. and Val. Toad-fish; Oys-
ter-fish; Sarpo.
Family Pleuronectid.e.
39. Paralichthys dentatus (L.) J. and G. Common Flounder.
Family Tetrodontid.e.
40. Chilomyderus pentodon N. Sp. One specimen taken in
Beaufort in 1882. The character of the spines noted below
was first discovered by Mr. V. S. Bryant.*
Fa m i ly Dorosom atid a : .
41. Dorosoma cepedianum (L. S.) Gill. Gizzard Shad ; Hick-
ory Shad.
*Chilomycler us pentodon N. Sp. The promiuent character of this species is the
possession of four roots by some of the dorsal spines. There are seven of
these spines in this specimen, arranged as follows : Four in a transverse row,
forming the second row caudal of the eyes ; two in a transverse row behind
these, set a little to the right of the two middle ones of the first row ; two in a
median dorsal row behind them; and one in the centre of the face in line with
the anterior edire of the eyes. Color and markings much as in Chilomycterus
sc/ioepfi (geometricnn). but in addition to the black spots, above and behind pecto-
rals, and at base of dorsal, is a spot on each side a little in front of the caudal
peduncle. One specimen taken at Beaufort in 1882. The character of the spines
differing from other species of this genus was first discovered by Mr. V. S. bry-
ant. Geo. F. Atkinson.
E LIS HA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 19
No. XI.
LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES COLLECTED AT
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.
A. BR AS WELL.
Family Papilionidj:.
1. Papilio ajax Linn. Form walshii Edw.
2. Papilio ajax. Form telamonides Fekl.
3. Papilio philenor Linn.
4. Papilio asterias Fab.
5. Papilio troilus Linn.
6. Papilio palamedes Drury.
7. Papilio turnitx Linn.
8. Papilio turnvs glauca Linn.
5). Pivris rapa Linn.
10. Anthocaris (/eniitia Fab.
11. Ardhocaris olympia (?) Edw.
12. Callydrias euhale Linn. Seen, not taken.
13. Colias eurytherne Bd.
1 4 . Colias ph ilodice G od t .
15. Terias nieippe Cram.
16. Terias lisa Bd-Lec.
17. Terias deli a Cram.
18. Terias jnciinila Bd-Lec.
Family Xymphaliile.
11). Danais archippus Fab.
20. Argymw diana ('ram. Balsam, N. C.
21. Argymis cybele Fab.
22. Argymis aphrodite Fab. Balsam, X. C.
23. Eiiploieta claudia Cram.
24. Phydodes thoros Drury. Summer form morpheuSj var.
A — 1, and var. A — 2. Winter form marcia, var. B — 5, var.
20 JOURNAL OF THE
D— 11, var. D— 12, and var. D— 13. Determined by Prof. (J.
H. French, Carbondale, 111.
25. Grapta interrogationis Fab. Fabricii Edw.
26. Grapta interrogationis mnhrosa Lintn.
27. Grapta comma Harris, Jiarrisii, Edw.
28. Grapta comma dryas Edw.
29. Vanessa antiopa Linn.
30. Pyrantels atalanta Linn.
31. Pyrameis huntera Fab.
32. Pyrameis oardui Linn.
33. Junonia coenia Hiib.
34. IAmenitis insula Fab.
35. IAmenitis dissippus Godt.
36. Neonympha gemma, Hiib.
37. Neonympha eurytris Fab.
38. Satyrus alope Fab.
3 9 . Sa ty i • i ts peg ale Fab.
40. Libythea baehmanni Ki-rtl.
41. Theda halesus Cram.
42. Theda m. album Bd-Lec.
43. Theda calanus Hiib.
44. Theda smilaois Bd-Lec.
45. Theda humuli Han*.
46. Theda poeas Hiib.
47. Theda niphon Hiib.
48. Chrysophanus hypophleas Bd.
49. Lyccena pseudargiolus Bd-Lec.
50. Lyccena comyntas Godt.
Family HESPERIJ)JE.
51. Ancyloxypha numiter Fab.
52. Pamphi/a metea Scud.
53. Pamphila huron Edw. '
54. Pamphila otho Sm-Abb.
55. Pamphila accius Sm-Abb.
56. Pamphila maeulata Edw.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 21
57. Pamphila peekius Kirby.
58. Amblyeertes eos. Edw.
59. Amblyeertes via lis Edw.
60. Pyrgus tessellata Scud.
61. Nisioniades juvencdis Fab.
62. Nisioniades brizo Bd-Leo.
(>:5. Nisioniades icelus Lintn.
64. Nisioniades martialis Scud.
(i^). Pholisora catullus Fab.
G6. Eudamus pi/lades Scud.
67. Eadamus bathyllus Sm-Abb.
68. Eudamus tityrus Fab.
69. Eudamus lyddas Sm-Abb.
No. XII.
AQUATIC RESPIRATION IN THE MUSK-RAT.
W. L. SPOON.
During the winter of 1879-'80 I spent much of my time
trapping the musk-rat, and had rare opportunities for studying
their habits. I have frequently noticed an ingenious device, to
serve as an apparatus for aquatic respiration, resorted to by the
animal when driven from its burrow into a pond frozen over.
In attempting to cross the pond under the ice, if the pond is too
wide for the musk-rat to "hold its breath" until it reaches the
opposite shore, it will stop for a few moments, exhale the air,
which is held down by the ice. Interchange of gases takes
place between the air and water, when the animal re-breathes
the air and makes another start, repeating the act until the shore
is reached.
I do not claim this as an original observation. Others than
myself have noticed it. It is well known by those who have
22
.JOURNAL OF THE
observed the phenomenon that if the ice is struck immediately
above* the air, and the air thus scattered into numerous bubbles,
the musk-rat drowns. Having noticed an account by Professor
( lomstock* of the use, by the "water boatman," of a bubble of
air for a tracheal gill, I would call attention to this interesting
feature in the physiology of respiration of the musk-rat.
CHANGES IN BOTTLED SAMPLES OF ACID PHOS-
PHATE WITH CONSTANT PERCENTAGE OF
WATER, AND ORDINARY TEMPERATURE.
WILLIAM H. PHILLIPS.
Several years ago, when Chemist to the Navassa Guano Co.,
Wilmington, N. C, it occurred to me to determine the changes
taking place in a sample of acid phosphate drawn directly from
the mixer, bottled and cooled, and examined every week for
twelve consecutive weeks. The results have been on hand since
that time, as it was hoped to supplement them by others of the
same kind. The opportunity of adding to them does not pre-
sent itself, and as they may prove of interest they are given as
obtained then.
The rock used was Charleston rock of the following compo-
sition :
PER CENT.
Moisture @ 100°
V^.j
6.52
Loss at red heat,
. . 1
3.83
Insoluble Silica,
. .
17.84
Soluble Silica,
. .
0.10
Carbonic Acid, .
. .
2.80
Phosphoric Acid,
• • I
. 22.82
Lime,
. .
33.60
Oxide of Iron,
. . .
11.56
99.07
All of it passed a 60° seive.
^American Naturalist. June, 1887.
ELTSHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 23
The charge was :
Rock, ♦ 1,200 lbs.
Sulphuric Acid 47° B, 1,050 "
The temperature of the acid was 60° C. (140° F.), the tem-
perature in the mixer 82° C. (180° F.). The mixture was
stirred vigorously for three minutes, sampled, and dumped. The
sample was put into a tightly-corked bottle, cooled at once, and
analyzed. The analytical method throughout was that of the
Association of Official Chemists for 1884. For the 'determina-
tion of free phosphoric acid the following method was employed :
Two grams (2 grms.) substance were extracted with 200 c. c. 80°
alcohol, and the phosphoric acid estimated in the filtrate. The
calculation was :
X=free P205.
Y=P205 as CaH4P2Os.
P=P205 extracted by water.
Q=P205 extracted by 80° alcohol.
Th
en
P=X+Y.
Q=X+iY.
X=2Q— P.
Y=2(P— Q).
After finding, by several careful determinations, that the dry-
basis total P2()5 was 15.84 per cent., for convenience of compari-
son the following table was constructed :
24
JOURNAL OF THE
TABLE No. I.
c
/.
CS
/.
/.
>.
o!
-
P
S
>
At mixing.
End of ls< week
" 2d
" 3d
" 4th
" 5th
" 6th
7th
" 8th
" 9th
" 10th
llth
L2th
Bach Analysis on Watee-fbee Basis. Total
p2o5 for each=^15.84 pkr cent.
«
a
c
<
406
411
414
120
424
433
,,-,
441
445
150
4.-,:,
157
463
>
o
_.
-
-*-
eg
£
a
-0
•"
a
-
-
1
P
■i.
-
-=
*
s -
— o
C • -
x ■-
- T - c
■ - .<
/ < K _
Pr. ct.
11.81
1:5.34
13.45
13.45
13.44
13.09
12.89
12.42
12.27
13.62
12.83
12.92
13.08
Pr. ct.
4.04
2.50
2.39
2.39
2 K»
2.75
2.95
3.42
3.57
2.22
3.01
2.92
2.76
Pr.ct.'Pr. ct.
L.58
1.58
L.72
1.27
1.79
1.21
2.(56
2.90
3.19
1.78
3.01
2.60
2.4 1
2.45
0.92
0.G7
1.12
0.61
0.54
0.29
0.52
0.38
0.44
0.00
0.32
0.32
Phos. Acid.
- - "^
site
55 0 08
'•- —
< c
0
Pr. ct.
36 -
I -
— :.
-
-*-
OS
Pr. ct.
Pr. ct.
1.81
10.00
27.7.-.
5.90
7.43
27.65
4.68
8.77
27.7:;
6.24
7.20
27.80
6.16
7.28
27.78
4.31
8.78
27.80
0.17
6.72
27.711
6.33
0.08
27.70
5.24
7.03
27.70
4.77
8.85
27.711
5.56
7.41
27.70
5.89
7.03
27.70
6.22
6.86
27.70
T 9
|s
— -/
'5
<
< calculated
Analysis.
Pr. ct
13.39
1 1.112
15.17
14.72
15.23
14.30
1 5.55
15.32
15.46
15.40
15.84
15.52
L5.52
Pr. ct.
P205Tot. 16.00
" Sol. 12.29
" In-)
sol. in \ 3.71
Water )
Water 24.:. 1
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,
25
Another table was constructed, taking: the dry-lxasis total
phosphoric acid as KM* from cadi analysis,
TABLE No. II.
THE DRY-BASIS TOTAL PHOS ACID IN EACH ANALYSIS IS 10
J.
.•
^
•
: . &
u
-1 '
— Xs
• *
-r ~
~ —
—
3 a "Si
• f-l g*
— 1-^
7 >
— :o ~
' '.7 3
«-". -r ~
5 ^
- "*
JZ~Z
—
— 7
<
1 ~
p
Z
*— .~
"3 —
~3 '- —
/
c
i
£j
"5
- _ 7
'S . ~~
z
"7" —
C
i
*•"
-:
< -
—
<s-
pH
-*"" —
-
=
5
•J.
i.
:
»! •-
^
I
J. —
._
—
_*
B_*
— — —
r_
— {J
-
<
-
-
-
d,
—
-
At mixing.
Calculated.
76.S
23.20
..
IOC
74.C2
25. •
-
15.40
11.43
63.19
End of l -t week.
ill
84.74
15.2G
9.98
■
37.31
17.43
" 2< 1
<i
in
84.74
15.26
10.£
4.41
29.59
55.15
" 3d
-
120
84.74
15.26
8.02
7.24
1.52
15 22
" ■IMi
U
l 1
si. 71
L5.27
11.30
3.97
38.91
15.82
" 5th
u
133
'.1
17.36
7.63
27.25
" Gth
"
435
81.30
18.70
16.81
1.89
39.00
12.24
- 7th
-■
111
78.74
21.26
l- 31
2.95
10.00
:;>
" 8th
£<
i i:>
77.52
22.48
20.10
2.32
33.11
44.44
" 9th
M
ln(i
21
13.79
11.23
2.56
30.12
.V
- [nth
C<
155
81.30
L8.70
18.70
0.0(1
35.09
46.21
- llth
it
157
B1
i- ;i
16.42
2.02
54
•• i.'tl,
t(
82.64
17.36
15
1.98
■ 21
i .
26
JOURNAL OF THE
A third table was constructed showing the phosphoric acid
extracted by 80 per cent, alcohol, and the percentage of insolu-
ble phosphoric acid in the residue from alcohol. The total dry-
basis phosphoric acid is taken as 100 from each analysis.
TABLE No. III.
THE DRY-BASIS TOTAL P208 IN EACH ANALYSIS IS 100.
_■
DO
M
i — "
.—
o
*
— cj
o
o
go
.2
"o
o
o _ —
o
Xi
o
73 CJ
i<
<*-
O
C
Si
• a
c ®
'it
3 «
■o c <
ill
o> c —
-w X *C
•—
CO c ^
<B £ <u
a
o
6
ID J-
~»ft
is V
in 5?
£
£
dn
Oh
(£
c
At mixing.
406
42.95
57.05
34.06
22.99
End of 1st week.
411
61.38
38.62
9.08
29.54
" 2d "
414
60.13
39.87
7.62
32.25
" 3d "
420
65.61
34.39
6.93
27.4G
" 4th "
424
63.13
36.87
6.11
30.76
" 5th "
433
58.21
41.79
5.09
36.70
" 6th "
435
64.47
35.53
4.06
31.47
" 7th "
441
65.10
34.90
4.-71
30.19
" 8th "
445
59.10
40.90
3.51
37.39
" 9th "
450
59.84
40.16
2.53
37.63
" 10th "
4.V>
59.84
4M.16
3.51
36.65
" 11th "
457
63.11
36.89
3.22
33.67
" 12th "
40:;
64.43
35.57
2.59
32.98
What can be deduced from these results? Let us first con-
sider the soluble phosphoric acid, as exhibited in Table No. I?
with a constant amount of total phosphoric acid. Starting at
11.81 per cent, at mixing it rises to 13.34 (a gain of 1.57 per
cent.) in one week. The highest gain is at the end of the ninth
week — 1.81 per cent. — so that we may say that under the condi-
tions of the experiment there is but little change in the soluble
phosphoric acid after the first week. These conditions were
exclusion of air, constant moisture and ordinary temperature.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 27
PHOSPHORIC ACID INSOLUBLE IX WATER.
At mixing 4. 04 per cent., at end of first week 2.50 per cent.,
a loss of 1.54 per cent. The greatest loss was at the end of the
ninth week — 1.82 per cent., corresponding to the gain in soluble
phosphoric acid.
REVERTED PHOSPHORIC ACID.
At mixing 1.58 per cent., at end of first week 1.58 per cent.
The greatest difference was at the end of the fifth week, when it
had fallen to 1.2J per cent., a loss of 0.37 per cent. At the end
of the ninth week there was a gain of 0.20 per cent.
"insoluble" phosphoric acid.
At mixing 2.45 per cent., at end of first week 0.92 per cent.,
and at end of tenth week there was none.
It is unnecessary to proceed further in this way: the figures
stand for themselves.
The chief point of interest is that the changes taking place in
acid phosphates, whereby more or less insoluble reverted phos-
phates are produced, are due mainly to the high temperature in
the heaps. This temperature may at times he as high as 240'
F., and appears to induce the formation of iron-calcium phos-
phates, or, if aluminum he present, of iron-aluminum-calcium
phosphate-, li' some method could he devised by which a rapid
cooling of the freshly made acid phosphate could lie attained, we
would hear less of reversion. This is more particularly the
case when mineral phosphates containing considerable quantities
of iron and aluminum are w>v(\ for the manufacture of acid
phosphates.
With the present condition of the fertilizer trade, however,
the product must he made in large quantities and stored in ware-
houses, where it often reaches a higher temperature than in the
mixer. In the warehouse the stuff dries itself, becomes light
and porous, ami i- easily disintegrated, which i- uol the case if
it he rapidly cooled a- it <'<>ni«-- from the mixer. ( )n the whole,
28 JOURNAL OF THE
it is far better, both for the manufacturer and the consumer, to
secure a product easily pulverized, with a moderate amount of
insoluble phosphate remaining, than one in lumps, sticky and
unmanageable, though nearly all soluble in water. Reversion
takes place very quickly in the soil any way, and diffusihility is
of prime importance.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY OF THE UNIV. OF N. C.
No. XIII.
NEW INSTANCES OF PROTECTIVE RESEM-
BLANCE IN SPIDERS.
GEO. F. ATKINSON.
Within the past two years two interesting eases of protective
resemblance have come under my observation. A small species,
Thomisus aleatorius Hentz, is remarkable for having the two
anterior pairs of legs very long, while the two posterior pairs
are very slender and short. The spider is very common on
grass. One summer day, while reclining in the shade, I watched
an individual of this species as it passed from one culm to an-
other. Soon it ran up the stem a short distance and suddenly
disappeared from view. For some time I was greatly puzzled
as to the manner of its disappearance. Upon close scrutiny,
I saw the spider clinging with its posterior legs to the stem.
Its two anterior legs on each side were approximated and ex-
tended outward, forming an angle with the stem, strikingly
similar to the angle formed by the spikelets.
An undescribed species of Cyrtarachne mimics a snail shell,
the inhabitant of which during the summer and fall is very
abundant on the leaves of plants in this place. In the species
of Cyrtarachne the abdomen partly covers the cephalothorax, is
very broad at the base, in this species broader than the length
of the spider, and rounds off at the apex. When it rests upon
the underside of a leaf with its legs retracted it strongly resem-
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 29
bles one of these snail shells by the color and shape of its abdo-
men. The two specimens which I collected deceived me at first,
but a few threads of silk led me to make an examination. The
spider seemed so confident of its protection that it would not
move when I jarred the plant, striking it several hard blows.
I pulled the spider forcibly from the leaf, and it did not exhibit
any signs of movement until transferred to the cyanide bottle.
The cocoons which I have found here are also protected by
mimicry. They are essentially like those of Cyrtarachne bisac-
cata Emert.* They are dark brown, about 12mm in diameter,
and are provided on two opposite sides with stems made of the
same colored silk, about 5mm in diameter. The whole structure,
which is hung in the branches of some weed, strongly resembles
an insect gall made on the stem of some plant. As the species
seems to be new, I append a description.
Cyrtarachne multilineata, N. Sp. Middle eyes on a slight
elevation, forming a trapezium, the posterior a little larger and
farther apart than the anterior. Side eyes at a distance, very
close to each other, also on a slight elevation. Ceph'x brownish,
rising gradually from the low head to the abdomen, which partly
covers it, not narrowed behind the eyes, convex on the sides,
covered with minute tubercles, the two dorsal elongated promi-
nences ending each in two blunt points. Abdomen triangular,
sides slightly convex, angles rounded, ventral surface deeply
concave. Anterior one-third of abdomen hair brown mottled
with the ground color — ecru drab — a pair of large spots of the
ground color near the posterior edge of the brown. On the
posterior part of the abdomen are several transverse bars of hair
brown, becoming successively narrower and shorter toward the
apex. Four of the muscular impressions very deep. Sides and
posterior part of the abdomen marked with numerous hair brown
depressed lines, starting from near the ventral surface, and pars-
ing up over the dorsal surface of the edge, four of those on the
posterior part passing up nearly to the posterior pair of deep
muscular impressions. On the ventral surface there is a rect-
♦Trans. Conu. Acad. Sci., Vol. VI, 1884, p. 325.
30 JOURNAL OF THE
angular spot extending from the spinnerets to the anterior edge,
the anterior half of this brown, the posterior white; the de-
pressed lines arise from the sides of this spot. Legs light-col-
ored. Described from two females. Length of the larger
13mm, abdomen 15mm broad, 10mm long; length of the smaller
llmm, abdomen 13mm broad, 9mm long.
No. XIV.
NOTE ON THE TUBE-INHABITING SPIDER,
LYCOSA FATIFERA HENTZ.
G. F. ATKINSON.
There seems to be a general impression that the tube-building
1/ycosidce do not use their holes for such a permanent abiding
place as do the trap-door spiders. Good authorities hold that a
majority, and perhaps all, use the tube only as a winter resort,
or for a retreat in the summer during the time of moulting,
though the testimony on this point is by no means universal.
There seems good reason, however, for believing that nearly all
desert their tubes during the spring and summer at times, and
wander in search of their prey. Indeed, there are indications
that there are latitudinal as well as seasonal variations in the
habits of the family, i. e., that in northern latitudes propor-
tionately a greater number make no tubes than in southern lati-
tudes. The latitudinal variation might be called genetic, in that
many species of the genus in northern latitudes hide away under
stones, etc., making no tubes at all; while in southern latitudes
many other species of the same genus construct tubes, some few
using them habitually, many others temporarily. On the other
hand, seasonal variations might be called specific, in that most
species in any latitude which construct tubes use them only dur-
ing inclement seasons or during periods of weakness. One spe-
cies I have observed here, Lycosa fatifera Hentz, habitually uses
its tube at all seasons, never, or very rarely, wandering in search
of prey. I have many times watched them resting at the open-
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 31
ing of the tube, waiting for passing insects. ' They will dart
back into their tubes when alarmed. Hentz reported this spe-
cies from Massachusetts and Alabama. I have made special
investigations upon the species in North Carolina, with a view
to establish, if possible, the identity of Hentz's species fatifera,
and the correctness of his statement that it uses the tube habitu-
ally at all seasons. The species can be easily recognized from
Hentz's description. The one I find here is the piceous variety,
which Hentz reported from Alabama, and not the typical form
from Massachusetts.
TEMPERATURE AND RAIN-FALL AT VARIOUS
STATIONS IN NORTH CAROLINA.
J. A. HOLMES.
The accompanying tables of temperature and precipitation at
stations in North Carolina include the results of all observations
accessible, collected from different sources. As a basis for the
whole, I have made use of the MS. records of the Geological
Survey of North Carolina, from observations made under the
direction of the late Professor W. C. Kerr (stations marked "a':
in the tables). A few records (b) have been taken from Kerr's
Report on the Geology of North Carolina, 1875 (pp. 71 and
83); a considerable number have been taken from the Smith-
sonian Temperature Tables, 1876, and the Smithsonian MS.
records '(c), and from the published reports or MS. records of
the United States Signal Service (d). A few records (e) have
been furnished by the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment
Station at Raleigh.
Except where otherwise noted the observations have been
taken daily at 7 A. M., 2 p. M., and 9 p. m. The daily mean
has generally been obtained by dividing the sum of the 7 a. m.,
2 p. M., and twice the 9 P. M. (local time) observations by 4; the
monthly, by dividing the sum of the daily by the number of
days in the month. Temperatures for the region are averages
of stations in each region.
32
JOURNAL OF THE
Monthly, Seasonal, and Annual Mean Temperature (in Degrees
Commencement
[Records of stations are to be credited to the following sources, as indicated in each
logical Survey; b Kerr's Geology of N. C, 1875; c Smithsonian Temperature Tables,
e MS. records of the N. C.
Station.
Vlbemarle — b
Asheville— a and c.
(1) Attaway Hill— a.
Bakersville— a
Banner's Elk— a....
Beaufort — a
Boone— a and b 36°14'
Brevard— d 35°14'
«3
35°18'
35°3G'
35025'
360 3'
36°10'
34°42'
be
a
o
■J
J3
Z
-
(2) Carthage— a
Cashier's Valley— a
< Impel Hill— a and c...
( lharlotte — a and d
Coinjock — a
DAvidson College— b...
Edent6n — a
El worth— d 35O30'
Fayetteville— a and b..!35° 5'
Flat Rock— d 3503C
35°23'
35° 4'
35°54'
35°15'
36°20'
35°32'
30° 4'
Forest Hill— a
Franklin — a and b..
(4) Gaston— c
1 i dsboro — c
35°16'
35°] ?,'
3C°28'
35°21'
Greensboro — a and b... 36° 5'
35°38'
Greenville — a
Hanging Dog— d 35011'
Hatteras, Cape-c &d..J35°14'
Henry— a 35016'
Highlands— a ...
II": Springs— d
35° 5'
:;r,oin'
80° 11'
82e28'
MlOHO'
820 c'
81°52'
7GO40'
81°39'
82°46'
79°26'
83° 5'
79°17'
s(i°.:,i'
75°52'
80°51'
76°41'
82O20'
78°53'
81028'
83° 4'
83°15'
77°38'
78° 2'
79°50'
77°22'
so 43'
75°30'
82014'
83°25'
83°10'
650
2250
850
2550
12
3250
2200
3812
500
785
20
850
30
2400
170
2500
2141
152
107
843
35
. 3
- fa
X _L"
a. =
39
38
38
36
32
45
33
37
39
38
40
H
41
42
10
35
43
33
42
in
40
39
33
44
33
11
46
Yl
II
44
42
II
12
35
44
IT
46
47
3S
34
49
37
46
50
46
49
50
48
.Ml
45
4:;
54
>,
-a '-a
18 57
:,:; 65
59 68
36 44
38 39 45
38
37
42
11
II
20
4000
1330
40 II
42 48
I-
44
46
a
:l z_
- X 1
- X -
71 78
66 72
62 66
77 80
65 G9
68
70 57 46
64 53
69
71 65
7:, 78
76 80
7 'J 75 04 56 48
72
74
73
71
70
43 39
16 50
38 12
35 13
55 01
53 63
:,1 66
61
:,s
59
54
56
79
76
80
75
Ml
64
70
78
64
76
77
76
80
80
73
7>
62 18
34 30
:(
-
X
E
E
X 3D
56 77
54 71
56 76
50 71
42
72
60
63
.VI
13
17
40
7i; 00 5n
71 60 49
71 61 51
68 71
72 74
68 71
64 57
72 58
65 59
71 62
69 64 54
43
40
34
42
42
42
43
36
36
71
77
70
76
69
69
07
7n
65 74
71
7(i 62 53
70 '1 53
76168 58
79 73 62 51
70 71 61 48
77 72 62 51
19 ;:;
46 33
43 39
41 37
47 4(i
44
41
59
17
55
59
51
59
59
56
58
57
55
61
54
54
53
7'.' 7s
I
72 71
5 68 65
71
65 56
78
>\t;
78
04
70
78
76
77
78
73
78
69
72
7d
40
38
39
38
34
45
32
In
12
38
60 42
60 42
61
55
59
56
61
56
53
56 76
42
42
39
34
l:;
60
51
59
60
59
58
->
55
01
34153 18
39 55' 19
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
54 38
58*40
62 45
60 I-
62 II
57 43 :;•"> 54
59 51 41 33 50
76 7:; 69 55 4s 4(i
77
71
66
7:'.
65 16
55 36
50 34
:.7 ...
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
50 28
29
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY
33
Fahrenheit) at Stations in North Carolina. {Computed from the
of Observations).
ease by the letter or letters accompanying the name: a MS. records of the N. C. <*eo-
1876, and MS. records; d Annual Reports and MS. records of the U.S. Signal Service;
Agricultural Experiment Station.
SF.UIF.S.
Begins. Ends.
Aug.,
April,
Oct.,
Dec,
6 Feb.,
7
Jan.,
June,
Dec,
Jan.,
Sept.,
Jan.,
Nov.,
Jan.,
April,
Mar.,
Aug.,
April,
Mar.,
Oct.,
Jan.,
1S57 Mar., 1880
1861 Dec, is::',
1871 May, 187G
Is?:. July, 1877
L872 Dec, 1872
EXTENT.
Yrs. Mos.
Observers.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
10
20
21
22
23
_M
25
26
27
28
L884 Mar., 1885
1880 Dec, 1882
1881 Ian., 1883
1820 Dec, 1886
1871 Dec, 1883
is::, Dec, 1881
1857 Dec, 1859
1872 Tuly, Is::;
L880 Nov., 1881
1871 Dec, 1882
1884 June, 1—7
1872 Feb., 1880
1872 Dee., 1882
1856 Mar., 1861
1850 Dec, 1>'7:;
Mar.. lsT.". Nov., L881
Dec, 1886 May, 1887
Oct., 1874 Dec, L883
April, 1880 Nov.. 1881
Jan., 1877 Dec, 1882
June, 1887 De<- . is-
4
0
11
3
7
7
1
9
0
11
0
11
?,
1
1
3
9
T
1
2
8
0
6
2
2
0
1
1
r.
8!
0
l
9
4
8
8
7
4
6
7
0
10
9
6
9
u
5
T 6
1
8
G
0
T
I'. S. Agricultural Department.
J Drs. J. F. E. and J. G. Hardy.
(Dr. W. Gleitsman.
F. J. Kron.
J. H. Green.
J. S. Hill and E. H. Banner.
J. Rum ley.
W. B. Council.
United States Signal Service.
Hugh Leach.
Dr. H. P. Satchell.
Jos. Caldwell, Jas. Phillips, etc
G. B. Hanna and U. S. Signal Observer.
H. B. Ansell.
W. C. Kerr.
R. W. and M. A. Hines.
J. M. Worth.
J. M. Worth and others.
E. R. Memminger.
Mrs. D. D. Davis and Hattie E. Long.
Albert and Mrs. Siler.
Dr. G. F. Moore.
D. Morrille, etc.
S. A. Howard, etc.
Dr. C. J. O'Hagan, etc.
D. W. Deweese.
G. Onslow, etc.
J. M. Worth.
Baxter White, etc
34
JOriJXAL OF THK
Station.
so
E
O
Jackson 36°20' 77°25'
Kelly's 34°29'
Kenansville— e 34°58'
Kinston — a H-_>° 1 * ; '
Kitty Hawk— d 36° 4'
Leaksville— a 36O30'
Lenoir — a and b 35°57'
Lincolnton— d 35°29'
Lookout, Cape— c 34°36'
Lumberton— d 34°38'
Macon, Fort — c and a.. 34°41'
Manly. .. 35°13'
Marlborough— c |35°28'
Monroe— e |34°55'
Mount Airy— c 36°30'
Mount < Hive— c 35°14'
Mt. Pleasant— d and e.,35°22'
Morganton— c and a ... 35°46'
Murfreesboro — c 36°26'
Murphy— a 35° 6'
Newbern — a 35° 0'
New Garden— c 36° 0'
*(5)Oaka— a 36° 0'
78°23'
77°58'
77°33'
75°33'
79°47'
8l°34'
81°12'
76°36'
79° 0'
76O40'
79°22'
77°:Hi'
80O35'
S0°38'
77°55'
80°27'
81°55'
77° V
83°29'
77° 2'
79°55'
79° 0'
(6)Ogreeta— d 350 o' 84° 0'
Ore Knob— d 36°30'
Oxford— c 36°19'
Poplar Branch— b 36°14'
Portsmouth— d 35° 2'
Raleigh— a and c 35°47'
Reidsville— d 36°30'
:7i Roan Mountain— a.. 30° 7'
fRutherfordton— a & e
35°24'
Salem— e 36<>51'
Salisbury — d
35<>44'
81°28'
78°41'
75°52'
76° 4r
78°41'
79O407
82°n'
81°48'
80°15'
80°29'
41
60
45
22
496
1185
8718
15
■_'o
575
1048
156
500
1184
75
1014
12
SCO
152(1
4800
475
10
10
365
HUM)
6306
800
1000
760
n
38
11
10
1 5
36
39
29
29
38
43
16
40
31
S
lo 50
11
38
45
11
47
40
35
45
::s
12
11
49
45
36
Is
50
49
17
52
II
12
11
37
46
45
54
50
16
51 61
15
70,76
79
09 7fi 80
ro 79
>.
~ «
57 47
71
<;■)
79 71 63 50
79 7773 114 53
7s 75 68 57 15
76 7:j 67 56
76 71
7:, si 80
r,s 55
71
00 73
59 66
66
68 75
68 74
68 76
• 16
64
55
77
73
71
80
79
78
81
76
181
77
80
77
74
79
78
72
70
74
79
81
80
81
75
59
77
75
71
75
77
72 64
69
5s
69 56
69 57
26
42
10
13
15
37
38
37
15
18
48
43
37
7r,
56
60
77169 56
72 62 50
7.". 55 4 1
53 ...
68 59 5
68
57
SJL
57
71
— —
57 37
56 39
56
59
30
56 36
I
54 39
37
32
56 39
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
55 59
... 60
... 61
... 62
... 63
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.
OO
SERIES.
Begin t
EXTENT.
Ends. Vrs.
Mos.
Observers.
30
31
32
.33
34
35
36
37
38
39
W
41
42
13
44
16
4(1
47
48
49
51
52
53
.M
55
56
:-7
58
59
Mar.,
Jan.,
Sept.,
Feb.,
Jan.,
Aug.,
June,
May,
April,
Oct.,
Dec,
Jan.,
Jan.,
Aug.,
July,
April,
Dec,
Oct.,
Mar.,
Feb.,
July,
Jan.,
Feb.,
Dec,
July,
1852 1854 2 0
1882 Mar., 1883 1 1
1860 May. 1870 3 0
1880 May, 1882 1 91
1875 Dec, 1883 8. 11
is;:; Feb., 1879 2 2
1871 Dec, 1882 10 9
1884 Dec, 1887 3 7
187G Dec, 1880 4 8
1883 Oct., 1887 5 0
1833 Dec, 1883 11 0
1881 Dec, 1S83 1 3
1858 Aug., 1858 0 7
1887 Dec, ls87 d 9
1871 \ug., 1872 0 10
Oct., 1869 0 4
1874 Dec, 1887 ■>
L867 Julv, 1868
1876 1880
1856 April, 1861
L872 Dec, 1882 10 4
1872 Dec, 1882 10 0
1872 Nov., 1873 1 5
1850 Dec, 1850 1 0
1883 Inly, 1884 0 6
1882 Aug., 1883 (t 7
1866 Dec, 1873
July, 1S77 lune, 1883
^ug., 1866 Dec, lssc, 15
Aug., 1885 Sept., 1887 2 1
60June, 1879 Aug., 1880 0 4
Jane,
61 July,
62 Jan.,
63 .Ian.,
L849 Dec, 1849 0.
1872 April. L878 1.
1887 Dec, 1887
1-71 Oct., ;1887
G. Wald, etc.
J. M. Worth.
N. B. Webster and J. M. Sprunt.
K. EL Lewis.
Inited States Signal Service.
<;. W. Peay.
R. L. Beall.
Dr. L. R. Standemayer.
I'nited States Signal Observe]'.
Assist. Surgeon and IT. S. Sig. Observer.
G. H. Saddleson.
I '. C. Anderson.
Robert S. Gilmer.
E. D. Pearsall.
EL T. J. Ludwig.
Nelson Falls and E. B. Claywell.
N. and A. McDowell.
William Beall.
R. Berry and C. Duffy.
A. E. Kitchen.
William Bingham.
G. G. Whitcomb.
Frank Walter.
J. EL Mills and Dr. W. K. Hicks.
J. M. Woodhouse.
United states Signal < (bserver.
F. P. Brewer, T. < '. Harris and others.
F. J. Norcom.
L. L. Searleand Mrs. W. I'-. Phillips
Galloway.f
Mi~s Dickerson, etc.
Rev. John CleweJl.
H. F. J. Sudwick.
36
JOURNAL OF THE
Station.
as
9 otland Neck— a 36° 7'
- •uppernong — e 35°50'
(8) Smith ville— candd 33°55'
Stag's Creek— b.., ,30026'
Statesville (near)— d ... 35°47'
Sugar Grove— a 36°16'
Tarboro — a and c 35°52'
Thomburg— c 30°2i>'
Trinity College — c 35°45'
Wadesboro— d 34°58'
Wake Forest Col.— d.
30° 0'
Warrenton— c 3(i°-!4'
f Waynesville— a .
Weldon — a and d.
35°29'
c
o
77032'
76°18'
50
25
78° 1' 20
81°33' 3000
80°54'
81°47'
77040'
77°21'
79040'
80°05'
78O30'
78°10'
940
50
400
44:.
409
451
82058'! 275G
3(i°24' 77°30'
t Westminster— c 36°02' 79°52'
White Sul. Springs — d
Wilmington — e and d..
Wilson — c
35°30' 83° 0'
34°17' 77°58'
35°45'
77°47'
81
2710
50
105
Coast Division of the State
Sub- Eastern Division of the State.
Mi. Idle Division of the State
Piedmont Division of the State
W .-tern Division of the State
19
51
56
42
47
46
42
4! 1
17
GO
12
41
48
5 s
55
51
50
50
48
47
43
:,4
62
64
58
58
57
57
o2
61
7"
G7
68
67
66
66
60
bC
7". 7"
I
72 67
75 81 1
75
71
67 70
76 80
71
G6
77
77
74
75
74
73
G8
78
70
81
81
80
7'. 1
79
77
72
77
84
75
67
76
74
68
79
75
78
77
7G
75
69
71
7:;
71
74
71
69
68
63
:- a
— x
36 50
36 5G
30
37
7 38 59
56
58 l:i 7(i
49,38 54
44 15 52
48 40 58
46 37 58
54 48 62
51
42 61
■- A
* ~
E =
=_
7.
- =
75 53
70 54
76 58
B
C
<
77
08
7<i 59
,,
78 59
75
66
7:i U
78 6:
53 45 59
49 42 58
47 39 57
46 41
42 36
57
52 70 52
42
14
19
35
38
31
39
40
64
65
66
67
G8
52 69
J
57170
59
53
40
42
11
39
48
42
45
43
40
38
36
57
59
63
61
61
59
57
52
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
(1) Eight miles east of Albemarle.
(2) Station was located four miles east of Cartilage.
(3) Station near Webster, Jackson county.
(4) Green Plains.
(5) Formerly Bethmout.
(6) Cherokee connty.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY
37
SKUIEP.
Begins. Ends.
EXTENT.
Yrs. Mos.
64 Deo.,
65 Jan.,
66 -Ian.,
67
1872 Dee., 1882
1849 Sept., 1853
1822 Dec., 1883
Observers.
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
7!)
so
81
82
83
84
85
86
June,
Mar.,
Aug.,
Jan.,
Jan.,
April,
Oct.,
Aug.,
Feb., 1872 Dec.,
1843
Feb., 1879 Dec.
Jan., 1872 Dec,
1866
1866 Dec, 1887
1878 Mar., 1879
1871 Jan., 1873
1854 April, 1855
1861 May, 1869
1883 Oct., 1887
1885 July, 1887
1857 Dec, 1870
1887
1886
l»:;
9 1(> James N. Smith.
3 Oj Shepherd and Hardison.+
27 11 Ass't. U. S. Surg'n and U. S. Sig. Observ'r.
2 1 Dr. J. A. Allison.
18 G Sue Herman.
1.
1.
1.
0.
2.
1.
1
2
14.
. 1
. 7
. 4
. 5
. 0
. 4
. 4
. 9
.10
R. H. and R. W. and Th. Norfleet.
Rev. T. Fitzgerald and Prof. D. Morrelle.
O. W. Carr and others.
W. 't. Simmons.
Dr. W. Johnston and H. A. Foote.
T. A. Clark.
0 3 J. Watkins.
!
2 3 W. W. Stringfield.
12
1.
D. Morrelle and U. S. Signal Observers.
E. W. Adams.
Average elevation 15 feet, area(9) 9500 square miles.
150 " " 12000
650 " " 14000 "
JL200 " " 7500 "
" 2700 " " 5700 "
(7) At Cloudland Hotel.
(8) Formerly Fort Johnston. The name has recently been changed to Southport.
(9) These areas are approximate, and do not include the water surfaces.
* Observations taken at sunrise.
f Observations taken at sunrise, It a. m., :; and '.) p. u.
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■1.1
42 JOUKNAL OF THE
REPORT OF RESIDENT VICE-PRESIDENT.
W. B. PHILLIPS.
The fifth year of the Society's existence, just passed, has been one of prog-
ress and prosperity. The number of meetings, the attendance upon them and
the papers presented show gratifying interest and zeal for the Society's wel-
fare. The Society can well claim to be doing a good work for the State and
for the interests of Science in the South. Through its Journal it publishes t<>
the world the work of its members, giving proof of valuable work done ami
affording much information about the State.
Eight Regular Meetings were held during the year and three Public Lec-
tures delivered. These, with the Annual Meeting for Election of Officers,
make twelve meetings for the year or fifty-two meetings in all since the foun-
dation of the Society. The fifty-five papers presented during the past year
bring up the total number to 278. A large proportion of these have been
published in the Journal and many have appeared also in other scientific
periodicals. These papers have steadily improved in value and importance.
The eight monthly bulletins which have been issued have contained abstracts
of these papers, as well as general outlines of the meetings.
The Librarian reports 1,391 books and pamphlets in the Society's library.
Of these 124 are bound volumes. It would be well if the Society could bind
its complete volumes of Journals, &c, but this is at present impossible. A
pleasant room, conveniently arranged with shelving, desks and tables, has
been set aside for the receipt and storage of the library.
The list of exchanges for our Journal is already a large one and is con-
stantly increasing. It will be found at the end of this number. The addi-
tions to the library, through this and other channels, average one hundred
per month.
The Society has lost by death two Honorary and two Regular Members:
Dr. H. W. Ravenel, Aiken, S. C. ; elected Honorary Member 1886.
Dr. S. F. Baird, Washington, D. C. ; elected Honorary Member 1887.
Dr. A. M. Shipp, Nashville, Tenn. ; elected Regular Member 18S3.
Dr. J. R. Duggan, Wake Forest, N. C. ; elected Regular Member 1880.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 43
REPORT OF RECORDING SECRETARY
J. W. GORE.
business meetings.
May 19, 1887.
Dr. Phillips in the chair. The thanks of the Society were voted Hon. S.
F. Phillips for his contribution to the Publishing Fund, and he was elected a
Life Member.
Committees were appointed to report quarterly on the progress in the dif-
ferent branches of scientific work.
The Resident Vice-President and the Secretary were appointed a commit-
tee to arrange for Public Lectures, and also to make out the programme for
the Regular Meetings.
December 10, 1887.
Dr. Phillips in the chair. It was moved that the thanks of the Society be
tendered Professor Poteat for his lecture on December 6th.
Furthermore, that it be considered the duty of those accepting the office-^ of
President and Vice-President, in future, to meet with and address the Society
at least once during their term of office.
The following resolutions were passed:
1st. That a list of all publications received be published in each issue of
the Journal.
2d. That by payment of postage any member can have any book or pam-
phlet in the library mailed to his address. Postage must be pre-paid.
3d. The book or pamphlet must be returned at the close of two weeks, the
member borrowing it paying for the return.
Information as to articles on special subjects appearing in Journals can
generally be gotten by applying to the Secretary, enclosing a stamp for reply.
Where abstracts of articles are desired, the services of an associate member
can probably be secured.
It was further resolved that each member of the Council make a special
contribution to the fitting up of the library room.
May 5, 1888.
Dr. Phillips in the chair. The following officers were elected for 1888-1889 :
President — Professor W. J. Martin, Davidson College, X. C.
Vice-President— George B. Hanna, U. S. Mint, Charlotte, N. C.
Resident Vice-President — Professor R. H. Grave-. Chapel Hill, X. C.
Treasurer— Dr. F. P. Venable, Chapel Hill, X. C.
Recording Secretary and Librarian — Professor J. VV. < Jore, Chapel Hill.
X. C.
It was ordered that hereafter the Council pass upon all papers submitted
for publication, and that the Permanent Secretary have charge of the publi-
cation of the Journal.
44 JOURNAL OF THE
REPORT OF TREASURER.
F. P. VEXABLE.
Fees for 1887
SlOO 00
48 50
Fee< for 1888
100 00
23 15
Balance debit, 1886-87
8271 65
8 7 95
13 40
Plates
6 15
14 00
Printing
181 00
6 15
Balance credit May 5th, 188S
228 65
43 00
$271 65
S271 65
$250 00
LIST OF PAPERS
READ AT THE
REGULAR MEETINGS, SPRING TERM, 1888.
XXXII Regular Meeting. January 11, 1888.
25. Statistics on Rain-fall in Relation to Forest-Growth, J. W. Gore.
26. Report on Progress in Chemistry F. P. Venable.
27. Professor Kerr's Observations on Old Glacier Val-
leys in North Carolina J. A. Holmes.
28. Professor Kerr on the Action of Frost on Superficial
Layers of Soil J. A. Holmes.
29. Report on Mineralogy W. B. Phillips.
30. Abstract of Production of Minerals and Metals in
the United States W. B. Phillips.
31. Study of Local Flora Gerald McCarthy.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 45
32. Effect of Decomposing Organic Matter on Insoluble
Phosphate of Lime F. B. Dancy.
33. Secretary's Report.
XXXIII Regular Meeting. February 14, 1888.
34. Eruptions of the Volcano Kilauea J. W. B. Dail.
35. Some New Salts of Camphoric Acid G. W. Edwards.
3G. New Halogen Compounds of Lead. B. Thorp.
37. The Detection of Iodine in the Presence of other
Halogens F. P. Venable.
XXXIV Regular Meeting. March 13, 1888
38. A Supposed New Species of Ohilomycterus V. S. Bryant.
39. Aquatic Respiration in a Musk-Rat W. L. Spoon.
40. Determination of the Halogens in Insoluble Lead
Compounds B. Thorp.
41. Bromination of Heptane F. P. Venable.
42. Report on Progress in Chemistry F. P. Venable.
43. Triassic Rocks on New Hope Creek, near Chapel
Hill.. J. A. Holmes.
XXXV Regular Meeting. April 11, 1888.
44. Changes in the New Geological Map of N. C J. A. Holmes.
45. The Chlorination of Gold Ores at the Phoenix Mine,
N. C E. A. Thies.
40. Analysis of Diamond Dyes W. B. Phillips.
47. Some Observations upon a Meteorological Report
from Russia F. P. Venable.
XXXVI Regular Meeting. May 8, 1888.
48. North Carolina Desmids W. L. Poteat.
49. Climatology of North Carolina ./. A. Holmes.
50. Mica-Mining in North Carolina W. B. Phillips.
51. The Flight of Birds G. F. Atkinson.
52. On the Chord Common to a Parabola and the Circle
of Curvature at any Point R. H. Graves.
53. On the Focal Chord of a Parabola R. H. Graves.
54. A Method of Finding the E volute of the Four-cusped
Hypocycloid R. H. Graves.
46 JOURNAL OF THE
LIST OF MEMBERS.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
1887. Spencer F. Bairi>, Ph. D., LL. D.,f
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. ('.
3885. H. Carrington Bolton, Ph. D.,
University Club, New York City.
3886. VV. K. Brooks, Ph. D.,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
1885. A. W. Chapman, A. M., LL. D.,
Apalachicola, Fla.
1886. VV. M. Fontaine, M. A.,
University of Virginia, Virginia.
1884. Joseph Le Conte, M. D., LL. D.,
Berkeley, California.
1885. J. W. Mallet, M. D., LL. D., F. R. S.,
University of Virginia, Va.
1887. J. W. Powell, Ph. D., LL. D.,
U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
1886. H. W. Ravenel, LL. D.,f
Aiken, S. C.
1887. C. V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D.,
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
1884. Charles U. Shepard,
Charleston, S. C.
1884. James C. Southall, F. G. S.,
Richmond. Va.
corresponding members.
1884. W. G. Brown, B. S.,
W. & L. University, Lexington, Va.
1887. David S. Day,
U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
1886. A. M. Elliott,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
1884. Jas. Lewis Howe, Ph. D., M. D.,
Polytechnic Society, Louisville, Ky.
1887. J. M. McBryde, LL. D.,
Iniversity of South Carolina, Columbia, S. C.
1887. W. J. McGee,
U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
1884. G. E. Manigault, M. D.,
College of Charleston, Charleston, S. C.
1885. J. M. Pickel, Ph. D.,
State Agricultural College, Lake City, Fla.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 47
1884. H. E. Shepherd, A. M.,
College of Charleston, Charleston, S. G
1887. Eugene A. Smith, Ph. D.,
University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Ala.
regular members.
Prof. Geo. F. Atkinson, B. Ph Columbia, S. C.
H. T. Bahnson, M. I) Salem, N. G
President K. P. Battle, LL. D „ Chapel Hill, N. C.
K. P. Battle, Jr., M. D _ Raleigh, N. C.
H. B. Battle, Ph. D Raleigh, X. C.
R. H. Battle Raleigh, N. C.
T. H. Battle Rocky Mount, X. C.
Paul B. Barringer, M. D - Davidson College, X. G
Gen. Rufus Barringer Charlotte, X. C.
Prof. J. R. Blake Greenwood, S. C.
<Jol. W. H. S. Burgwyn Henderson, N. C.
Capt. William Cain, G E Charleston, S. C.
Hon. P. G Cameron Hillsboro, X. C.
Julian S. Carr Durham, X. C.
J. C. Chase Wilmington, X. C.
Hon. Kerr Craige Salisbury, X. C.
F. B. Dancy, B. A Raleigh, X. C.
Prof. J. R. Duggan, Ph. D.f Wake Forest, X. C.
H. E. Fries Salem, X. G
J. W. Fries Salem, X. C.
Prof. J. W. Gore, G E „ Chapel Hill, X. G
Prof. B. F. Grady, Jr Albertson's, X. C.
Prof. R. H. Graves, C. and M. E Chapel Hill, X. G
R. G. Grissom, B. S Raleigh, X. C.
Geo. B. Hanna Charlotte, X. C.
Wm. H. Hardin| Raleigh, X. C.
Prof. J. A. Holmes, B. Agr Chapel Hill, X. G
Prof. J. H. Horner Oxford, X. C.
Prof. J. DeB. Hooper! Chapel Hill, X. C.
Prof. F. M. Hubbard, D. D Raleigh, X. C.
Prof. Thos. Hume, Jr., D. D Chapel Hill, X. C.
W. R. Kenan Wilmington, X. G
J as. P. Kerr.... Haw River, X. C.
W. C. Kerr, Ph. D.f Raleigh, X. C.
A. R. Ledoux, Ph. D Xew York City.
R. H. Lewis, M. D Raleigh, X. G
Prof. J. L. Love, B. A •. Chapel Hill, X. G
Donald MacRae Wilmington, X. G
Hugh MacRae Wilmington, X. C
48 JOURNAL OF THE
Hon. John- Manning, LL. D Chapel Hill, N. C.
1. II. Manning Wilmington, N. C.
Prof. W. J. Martin, A. M Davidson College, N. C.
Eugene Morehead Durham, N. C
Rev. A L. Phillips Fayetteville, N. C.
Prof. < harles Phillips, D. D Chapel Hill, N. C.
Hon. S. F. Phillips Washington, D. C.
Prof. W. B. Phillips, Ph. D Chapel Hill, N. C.
Prof. W. L. Poteat.. Wake Forest, N. C.
W. S. Primrose Raleigh, N. C.
Prof. E. A. v. Schweinitz, Ph. D Lexington, Ky.
Prof. A. M. Shipp, D. D.f Nashville, Tenn.
J. M. Spainhour Lenoir, N. C.
Lieut.-Gov. C. M. Stedman Wilmington, N. C.
Benoni Thorp Raleigh, N. C.
Judge C. R. Thomas New Bern, N. C.
Geo. G. Thomas, M. D Wilmington, N. C.
Prof. W. D. Toy, A. M Chapel Hill, N. C.
Hon. Z. B. Vance, LL. D Charlotte, N. C.
Prof. F. P. Venable, Ph. D Chapel Hill, N. C.
Col. J. B. Wheeler| West Point, N. Y.
J. F. Wilkes Charlotte, N. C.
Maj. Jas. W. Wilson Morganton, N. C
Arthur Winslow, C. E Raleigh, N. C.
Prof. Geo. T. Winston Chapel Hill, N. C.
Thos. F. Wood, M. D Wilmington, N. C.
David G. Worth Wilmington, N. C.
associate members.
A. Braswell... Chapel Hill, N. C.
V. S. Bryant Chapel Hill, N. C.
.J. W. B. Dail Chapel Hill, N. C.
G. W. Edwards Chapel Hill, N. C.
T. J. Eskridge Chapel Hill, N. C.
J. R. Harris Chapel Hill, N. C.
J. S. Holmes Chapel Hill, N. C.
L. W. Lynch Chapel Hill, N. C.
T. L. Moore Chapel Hill. N. C.
E. A. Thies Chapel Hill, N. C.
T. W. Valentine Chapel Hill, N. C.
LIST OF DONORS TO THE LIBRARY.
Geo. F. Kunz New York City.
Dr. H. C. Bolton New York City.
T. H. Aldrich Cincinnati, Ohio.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 4!>
E. W. Doran. Greenville, Term.
Dr. Joseph Le Conte Berkeley, Cal.
Hon. Z. B. Vance Charlotte, N. C.
Prof. J. A. R. Newlands London, England.
Sir J. B. Lawes Rothamsted, England.
Dr. J. W. Mallet University of Virginia.
Prof. W. M. Fontaine University of Virginia.
Dr. W. B. Phillips Chapel Hill, N. C.
Prof. G. F. Atkinson Chapel Hill, N. C.
Hon. John Manning Chapel Hill, N. C.
Dr. F. P. Venable Chapel Hill, N. C.
50 JOURNAL OF THE
SOCIETIES, INSTITUTIONS, &c,
WITH WHICH PUBLICATIONS ARE EXCHANGED.
Amherst — Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
Baltimore — Johns Hopkins University Circulars.
Studies from Biological Laboratory.
Modern Language Notes.
Berkeley — California Agricultural Experiment Station.
Blue Hill — Meteorological Observatory.
Boston — American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Boston Scientific Society.
Massachusetts Horticultural Society.
Public Library.
Popular Science News (presented).
Brookville — Society of Natural History.
Cambridge — Entomological Club.
Harvard Museum Comparative Zoology.
Harvard Observatory.
Carson City — Meteorological Observatory.
Champaign — Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History.
Charleston — Elliott Society of Science and Arts.
Cincinnati — Society of Natural History.
Columbia — South Carolina Board of Health.
Crawfordsville — Botanical Gazette.
Davenport — Academy of Natural Sciences.
Denver — Colorada Scientific Society.
Geneva — New York Agricultural Experiment Station.
Grand Rapids — Michigan Horticultural Society.
Granville — Denison Scientific Association.
Denison University Scientific Laboratories.
Ithaca — Cornell University Bulletins.
Little Rock — Arkansas Geological Survey.
Madison — Wisconsin Academy of Arts and Sciences and Letter;-.
Manhattan — Kansas Academy of Natural Sciences.
Meriden — Scientific Association.
Milwaukee — Wisconsin Natural History Society.
Minneapolis — Academy of Natural Sciences.
Nashville — Tennessee Board of Health.
New Brighton — Natural Science Association of Staten Island.
New Haven — Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 51
New York — Academy of Sciences.
American Museum of Natural History.
Linnean Society.
Microscopical Society.
School of Mines Chemical Society.
Torrey Botanical Club.
Obono — Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.
Peoria — Science Association.
Philadelphia — Academy of Natural Sciences.
American Philosophical Society.
Franklin Institute.
Wagner Free Institute of Science.
Raleigh — North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station.
North Carolina Horticultural Society.
Rochester — Warner Observatory.
Saco — York Institute.
Salem — Essex Institute.
Peabody Academy of Science.
San Diego — West American Scientist.
.San Francisco — California Academy of Sciences.
California Mining Bureau.
Springfield — Illinois Geological Survey.
St. Louis — Academy of Science.
St. Paul — Minnesota Geological Survey.
Topeka — Washburn College Laboratory of Natural History.
Trenton — Natural History Society.
Tuscaloosa — Alabama Geological Survey.
University of Virginia — Leander McCormick Observatory.
Urbana — Central Ohio Scientific Association.
Washington — Chemical Society.
National Academy of Sciences.
Philosophical Society.
U. S. Department of Agriculture.
U. S. Bureau of Ethnology.
U. S. Fish Commission.
U. S. Geological Survey.
U. S. National Museum.
U. S. Signal Service Bureau.
Smithsonian Institution.
Surgeon General's Office.
U. S. Naval Observatory.
Wilmington — North Carolina Board of Health.
North Carolina Medical Society.
North Carolina Medical Journal.
52 JOURNAL OF THE
CANADA.
Halifax — Nova Scot i an Institute of Natural Sciences.
Montreal — Natural History Society.
Ottawa — Field Naturalists' Club.
Royal Society of Canada.
Geological Survey of Canada.
Port Hope — Canadian Entomologist.
Toronto — Canadian Institute.
Winnipeg — Historical and Scientific Society.
GREAT BRITAIN.
Belfast — Naturalists' Field Club.
Dumfries — Natural History and Antiquarian Society.
Glasgow — Natural History Society.
Halifax — Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.
London — Royal Society of England.
Manchester — Literary and Philosophical Society.
Rothamsted — Agricultural Experiment Station.
ITALY.
Pisa — La Societa Toscana di Scienze Natnrali.
NETHERLANDS.
Amsterdam — Royal Academy of Sciences.
Harlem — Musee Teyler.
L'trecht — La Societe Provinciale des Arts et des Sciences.
MEXICO.
Mexico— Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural.
SWITZERLAND.
Bern — Die Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Fribourg — La Societe Fribourgeoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Lausanne — La Societe Yaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Zurich — Die Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
RUSSIA.
Kieff — La Societe des Natural istes.
Moscow — La Societe Imperiale des Naturalistes.
Odessa — La Societe des Naturalistes de la Nouvelle-Russie.
FRANCE.
Amiens — La Societe Linneenne de Normandie.
Caen — La Societe Linneenne du Nord de la France.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 53
GERMANY.
Augsburg — Der Naturhistorische Verein.
Berlin — Der Entomologische Verein, Naturae Novitates.
Die Gesellschaft Naturforschender Frennde.
Bonn — Der Naturhistorische Verein.
Danzig — Die Naturforsehende Gesellschaft.
Frankfurt — Die Senckenbergische Naturforsehende Gesellschaft.
Frankfurt — Der Naturwissenschaftliche Verein, Societatum Literae.
Ciessen — Die Oberhessische Gesellschaft fur Natur 11. Heilkundr.
Hanau— Die Wetterauische Gesellschaft fiir die Gesammte Naturkunde.
Heidelberg — Der Naturhistorische-medicinische Verein.
Leipzig — Insekten-Boerse.
Magdeburg — Der Naturwissenschaftliche Verein.
Munster — Der Westfalische Provinzial Verein fiir Wissenschaft u. Kunst.
Kegensburg — Der Naturwissenschaftliche Verein.
Wiesbaden — Der Nassau ische Verein fiir Naturkunde.
BELGIUM.
Bruxelles — La Societe Royale Malacologique de Belgique.
BRAZIL.
Rio de Janeiro — Museu Nacional.
AUSTRIA.
Vienna — Der Wissenschaftliche Club.
JOURNAL
OF THE
EL1SHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,
VOLUME V— PART II.
JULY-DECEMBER,
1888
PERMANENT SECRETARY
F. P. VENABLE, - CHAPEL HILL, N. C.
B. M. UZZELL, STEAM PRINTER AND BINDER.
RALEIGH, N. C.
1888.
OFFICERS.
1888-1889.
PRESIDENT :
W. J. Martin, Davidson College, N. C.
VICE-PRESIDENT I
George B. Hanna, U. S. Mint, Charlotte, N. C.
RESIDENT VICE-PRESIDENT:
R. II. Graves, C. and M. E Chapel Hill, N. C.
PERMANENT SECRETARY AND TREASURER:
F. P. Venable, Ph. D., F. C. S., . . . Chapel Hill, N. C.
RECORDING SECRETARY AND LIBRARIAN:
J. W. Gore, C. E., Chapel Hill, N. C.
LIBRARY AND PLACE OF MEETING:
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE.
The Erection of the Monument to Elisha Mitchell on Mitchell's High
Peak. W.B.Phillips 55
Soaring of the Turkey Vulture (Cathartes Aura). G. F. Atkinson 59
Of the Three Crystallographic Axes. W. B. Phillips 66
Chlori nation of Auriferous Sulphides. E. A. Thies 68
A Method of Finding the Evolute of the Four-cusped Hypocycloid. R.
H.Graves 72
Mica Mining in North Carolina. W. B. Phillips 73
Recalculations of the Atomic Weights. F. P. VenaMe 98
The Change in Superphosphates when they are Applied to the Soil. H.
B. Battle Ill
A Partial Chemical Examination of Some Species of the Genus Ilex. F.
P. Venable 128
Report of the Recording Secretary. J. W. Gore 131
List of Exchanges... 134
JOURNAL
OF THE
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.
THE ERECTION OF THE MONUMENT TO ELISHA
MITCHELL ON MITCHELL'S HIGH PEAK.
^Abstract of an Address delivered before the Elisha Mitchell
Society, October 16th, 1888.
WM. B. PHILLIPS.
Thirty-one years ago this summer, on the 27th of June, 1857,
the Rev. Dr. Elisha Mitchell, Professor of Chemistry, Miner-
alogy and Geology in the University of North Carolina, lost his
life by falling over a precipice into a pool of water, while en-
gaged in the scientific exploration of the High Peak in Yancey
county which now bears his name. After the recovery of the
body it was interred at Asheville, N. C, until June 16th, 1858,
when it was removed to the summit of the Peak. Several
attempts have been made to erect a suitable monument to his
memory there, but, from some cause or another, they all came to
nought. Upon the death of his daughter, Mrs. E. N. Grant, in
1883, it was found that she had set aside a sum of money to be
expended for this purpose. This was increased from time to
time by donations from other members of the family, and in the
spring of 1888 a sufficient amount was available. At the request
*The full text of this address will be found in the University Magazine for
December, 1888.
r>6 JOURNAL OF THE
of Miss M. E. Mitchell, of Statesville, N. C, the University
assumed control over the undertaking. The deed to the site of
the grave was vested in the University, and a committee of the
Faculty was appointed to see to the work. This committee con-
sisted of President Kemp P. Battle, Prof. J. W. Gore and Dr.
Wm. B. Phillips.
The most suitable structure, perhaps, would have been a monu-
ment of rough hewn stone, but owing to the great difficulty and
expense of such work at such a place, after mature deliberation
and consultation with the surviving members of Dr. Mitchell's
family, it was decided to erect a monument of white bronze.
The plans, drawings and estimates were submitted to his family
and accepted by them. In May, 1888, the contract was let to
the Monumental Bronze Company, of Bridgeport, Conn. It
called for a structure of white bronze, of pyramidal shape, 3
feet square at the base, 12 feet high, cast in sections with interior
bolts of copper or brass, the heaviest piece not to exceed 140
pounds in weight, the whole to be delivered at Black Mountain
Station, on the W. N. C. Railway, by the middle of July, for
$400.
The other members of the committee not being able to attend,
Dr. Phillips was requested to undertake the work. From Mitch-
ell's High Peak to Black Mountain Station, the nearest availa-
ble point on the railway, is 19 miles. For the first seven miles
from the station the road is fairly good, but from Patton's, at
the foot of the cedar cliff on the North Fork of the Swannanoa
River, the road for the last 12 miles is a bridle trail. The dif-
ference in elevation between Patton's and Mitchell's High Peak
is about 3,600 feet, the former being about 3,000, and the latter
6,688 feet high. The average grade is, therefore, about 300 feet
to the mile, although for the first 7 miles it greatly exceeds this,
being nearly 500 feet to the mile for the first 5 miles. For the
first 3 miles above Patton's a tolerable wagon road was prepared,
leaving thus 9 miles for the "carry." Three weeks were spent
in repairing the trail, which in places had been blocked by fallen
timber and badly washed by the torrents of water that rush
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 57
down it after every rain. For several miles the trail was a ditch
from 1 to 4 feet deep, and from 2 to 3 feet wide, at places inter-
sected by hundreds of roots, at others rendered almost impassable
by shelving rocks, so that it was, on the whole, in a deplorable
condition. The work on the trail was begun July 18th, and by
August 7th was finished to the top of the Peak. The trans-
portation of the monument from the railway was begun August
7th. It was packed in 7 cases weighing in all 1,041 pound.-,
and was hauled in a wagon 2 miles above Pattern's, there un-
packed and the several sections, 9 in number, slung on poles and
the ft carry" was begun. It could have been hauled in the wagon
one mile further, but it was found more convenient to send the
wagon on with the provisions and tools, and to carry the monu-
ment from this point on men's shoulders. All the sections were
thus carried for ten miles. In three aud a half days after the
monument was received at the railway it was laid alongside the
grave on the Peak. It weighed about 900 pounds and required
for its transportation 13 men and one boy for 3 J days, and two
oxen and a wagon 1 J days. The cost of the transportation was
§46.96.
The work of quarrying out stone for the foundation was begun
Monday, August 13th. The rock on the Peak is a coarse gneiss,
very friable and brittle, so that it was found best to get out two
blocks and join them in a bedding of Portland cement. The
two together weighed about 1,800 pounds, and after drilling in
them the necessary anchor holes they were placed in position at
the head of the grave and leveled. The bottom section of the
monument, weighing 140 pounds, was then anchored to the
foundation by eight § in. copper bolts, screwed into the metal base
and -'leaded" into the rock, extending into this 4 inches. The
second section was then bolted to the first by eight h in. copper
bolts fastened from within. The third section was bolted to the
second by eight I in. copper bolts, and fastened to the bed-rock by
four 1 in. zinc bolts, screwed into the section and " leaded " into the
rock for 4 inches. The monument is thus anchored to the bed-
rock by eight § in. copper bolts, and four 1 in. zinc bolts. Each
58 JOURNAL OF THE
section was bolted to the one underneath by eight J in. copper bolts,
all of which fitted fairly well, except a few. All these bolts are
within the structure, none of them show from the outside.
Finally, the cap, weighing about 80 pounds, was hoisted up, and
screwed to the eighth section by four J in. copper screws with
ornamental zinc heads. These heads' being of the exact composi-
tion and color of the monument itself, are counter-sunk into the
cap, and are barely noticeable.
The last screw was fastened at 4:45 P. M., August 18th, and
the monument stood complete. It is severely plain, and has
upon it no figure work or ornamental design of any kind.
Upon the western side appears, in raised letters, the word
" MITCHELL"; on the side towards the grave is the following
brief inscription : " Here lies, in hope of a blessed resurrection,
the body of the Rev. Elisha Mitchell, D. D., who, after being
for 39 years a Professor in the University of North Carolina,
lost his life in the scientific exploration of this mountain, in the
64th year of his age, June 27th, 1857."
Below this are the words: " Erected in 1888."
There were no ceremonies connected with the erection of this
monument, the family having so requested. Dr. Phillips's ad-
dress before the University is alone commemorative of the event.
The material of which the monument is made is known as
white bronze. It is, in fact, almost pure zinc, which is treated
under the sand blast to impart a finely granular appearance, and
to cause it to resemble white granite. It does closely resemble
this stone. It is practically weather-proof and will not become
discolored. It crowns the summit of the highest Peak in the
United States east of the Mississippi River, and is probably the
" highest '; monument in this country which has been made
for the purpose and transported on men's shoulders so great a
distance.
Some idea of the difficulties connected with this undertaking
may be had by bearing in mind that the nearest house to the
Peak on the southern side, from which is the best ascent, is 12
miles away. All the tools, provisions, cement, blankets, &c,
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 59
had to be "packed" up from this house, and in many instances
had to be brought from Asheville, 32 miles off, by rail for 12
miles, and by horses and men for 20 miles. Not more than 13
men were employed at any one time. The total expense of erect-
ing this monument, inclusive of the first cost, will approximate
$750.
SOARING OF THE TURKEY VULTURE,
( Ca thartes aura) .
GEO. F. ATKINSON.
The problem of the soaring of birds has occupied the atten-
tion of different observers for more than a century, and although
many of the puzzling manoeuvres, and translations, of birds
with outstretched wings have been satisfactorily accounted for,
there still remain many observed facts unsatisfactorily ex-
plained because of the great obscurity in which the problem is
veiled. Probably from the earliest dawn of human conscious-
ness man has marveled at, and coveted, the ease with which birds
move through the air over vast distances, or rise in a few hours,
on motionless wing, from within a few hundred yards of the
earth to several miles up in the frigid air of the heavens. Dur-
ing the last century it is noteworthy that, along with the great
progress made in the discovery of the laws of motion, this prob-
lem lias received its due share of consideration, but is refractory
(if the phrase will be allowed) in the matter of yielding the
subtleties of its nature.
It may be interesting, in connection with the presentation of
this subject, to briefly review some of the chief discussions dur-
ing this period.
Old treatises on falconry describe the interesting evolutions of
the birds employed in hunting. Huber, in 1784, published at
60 JOURNAL OF THE
Geneva a large work in which he describes the curvilinear move-
ments of the falcons. The oblique downward motion "was
sufficient to carry it without effort as high as the elevation from
which it came." Monsieur Morey* says this is an exaggeration.
Observers say birds can sustain themselves in the air by the
use of the wind alone. Count d'Esteruo, in a remarkable mem-
oir on the flight of birds, says, " Every one can see some bird
practicing this method of flight; to deny it is to deny self-evi-
dent facts." M. Morey acknowledges that he has seen it, but
attributes it to the bird passing alternately from quiet air to a
current. •
A large part of the discussion iu Nature, through Vols. VIII —
XXVIII, hinged on a misunderstanding between the disputants
as to the meauing of the word hovering ; some discussing the
matter from the point of view of motionless wings, while others
treated it having in mind a slow flapping of the wings, while
the bird remained over one place on the earth.
It has loug been observed that some soaring birds, after rising
to the height of a few hundred feet by flapping their wings, soar
around in great circles on motionless wings and continually rise
higher and higher until they are several miles from the surface
of the earth. S. E. Peal, writing from Sapakati, Sibsagar,
Asam, gives an account of this manner of the translation of
soaring birds observed by him.f Whenever the birds attempted
to soar the wind was blowing. When they began to circle the
resultant course of motion was upward, and toward the point of
compass to which the current of air was moving. In soaring,
when facing the wind, the slant of the wing was such as to cause
the birds to rise, but as they turned with the wind the slant of
the wing was changed to give a slight downward motion, then
again turning to face the wind they rose higher than before, and
at each completion of the circle the bird was farther from the
earth. In this way the course of the bird through the aii was
-Phenomena of flight in the animal kingdom
fNature, Vol. XX IT, p. 10.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 61
spiral, the spire leaning in the direction of the current of air.
Lord Rayleigh, F. R. S.,.was the first to demonstrate, mathe-
matically, how this elevation might be attained under such cir-
cumstances without resort to flapping of the wings.* In mid
air the bird starts to soar with the momentum acquired by flap-
ping its wings in rising. Say, with outstretched wings, it faces
the wind, and gradually rises until the momentum it had acquired
is overcome by gravity; it then turns and gradually descends,
on a plain oblique to the horizontal, for a short distance. In
doing this its velocity is increased from the operation of two
causes. The first of these causes is the ever present action of
gravity. The second and more important cause requires some
introductory remarks. For the sake of clearness let us divide
the air into a number of strata parallel with the surface of the
earth. During a wind, the different strata of air, starting with
the lowest, move with successively increasing velocities. When
the bird, facing the wind, has used up the momentum it had
acquired, it turns with the wind and passes into a lower stratum
of air the velocity of which is less than that of the stratum from
which the bird came. In this position the simple act of trans-
position to a lower stratum of less velocity gives the bird a rela-
tively increased velocity. With this increment of velocity it
sails along in the lower stratum, and turning rises into the
stratum above. Here another increment of relative velocity is
acquired. This enables the bird to rise into a still higher stratum,
which moves with greater velocity, and another increment of
relative velocity is added.
Suppose the bird was in stratum b when it first turned, and
that 6 moves at the rate of 10 miles per hour. As the bird has
used up its acquired momentum, relatively to the air it is not
moving forward. Now as it passes to stratum a which has a
velocity of 5 miles per hour, the bird acquires a relative velocity
of five miles per hour. Now turning and facing the wind it
rises into b and has a relative velocity of 15 miles per hour,
*Xature, Vol. XXVII, p. 534.
62 JOURNAL OF THE
which would be sufficient to carry it to a poiut higher than that
from which it came in stratum b: i. e., to c. From c it would
descend into b and then rise into d and so on.
Lord Rayleigh says he would not have supposed a 'priori that
the increment in the velocity of wind at different heights was
sufficient, but "soirie explanation is badly wanted."
Hubert Airy* suggests the possibility of vortices of air cur-
rents that are constantly receding from the earth, and that the
bird may possibly keep in the rear of one of these.
R. Courtenayt states that the Black Vulture of Jamaica in
France utilizes currents of different velocities, and may even
make use of descending currents to acquire an increase of velocity.
In all of this discussion the bird's wing was treated of as if it were
a smooth plane. All who have carefully examined a bird's wing
know how well adapted it is to produce forward motion of the
bird by striking the air perpendicularly. This peculiar adapta-
tion of the wing has been described before quite frequently, but
I repeat it here briefly because of the important bearing it has
upon the subject. The work of the wing, either flapping or
motionless, is to compress air. The work of the elastic air, as
it tends to assume its normal condition, works on the wing and
produces forward motion. The uuder surface of the wing is so
constructed that air passing to the ulnar (rear) edge meets with
little or no resistance, but the air passing to the anterior, or
radial, edge meets with great resistance. The radial edge, also,
of soaring birds projects downward by the enlargements of the
bones and muscles of the brachium, manus, etc. This also catches
some of the air and impedes its movement. The ulnar edge
of the wing is made up of the tips of the feathers, called the
secondaries and tertiaries of the wing. These are bent upward
by the air which passes this edge. As there is a partial vacuum
above the wing, the air pushes forward on this upturned edge
as it flows past to fill it.
-Nature, Vol. XXVII, p. 590.
jlbid., Vol. XXVIII, p. 28.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 63
Then the action of all the compressed air which passes the
ulnar edge, and of all which passes forward upon the under sur-
face of the wing is to cause forward motion of the bird.
Thus we see there are two forces which combine to give a
bird, with outstretched wings, forward motion :
1st. Gravity ; 2d. The resistance offered by the wings to the
forward movement of the compressed air. The first acts per-
pendicularly to the earth; the second is subject to the will of the
bird, and may act horizontally, or obliquely toward the earth, or
obliquely from it. The resultant, however, when the air is
quiet, and the bird has no momentum, except that initiated by
gravity, is always toward the earth, though in some cases it may
be on a plane diverging only slightly below the horizontal. The
resultant from the two forces has somewhat the same effect upon
the bird that a string, in the hands of a running boy, has upon
a kite in quiet air. The bird does not move in the line of the
resultant of the two forces, but on a plane somewhere between
the resultant and the horizontal. This being true, the additional
force, or forces, necessary to carry the bird on a horizontal plane,
or a slightly ascending plane, would be far less than many would
think.
Many times have I watched the Turkey Vultures in soaring
flight, when without flapping their wings they would rise several
hundred feet. A case came under my observation in which the
bird could not possibly have depended upon successively increas-
ing velocities in the currents of air to supply the force necessary
to permit it to rise in an ascending plane. I stood on a hill, and
watched a Vulture which was soaring in the valley. The wind
was blowing a brisk breeze, but the configuration of the land
was such that it is not probable there was an upward current.
The remarkable thing is that the bird did not move off with the
wind as it rose, but the spiral course was perpendicular. In
three circles it rose two hundred feet above my head and then
passed off at a right angle to the direction of the wind. I
noticed that the bird slowly rocked first on one side and then on
the other, especially when it faced the wind. At the time I
2
64 JOURNAL OF THE
thought this was produced by unsteady currents of wind. It is
probable, however, that this slow rocking, which I have noticed
is quite common with the Turkey Vulture, gives the needed
additional force, in many instances, required to ascend. The
rocking is equivalent to a slow flapping of the wings.
To show how beautifully the wing is adapted to utilize to the
best advantage all of the compressed air, I wish to call attention
to a use of the primaries of a bird's wing, which up to this time
seems to have been overlooked. Indeed, in some cases the special
structure which I wish to point out has been regarded by some
eminent men as detrimental to the bird, so that they have, in
some cases, conceived that the bird resorts to some mechanical
contrivance to give to the wing the form which nature neglected
to give !
In looking up this question it has surprised me to see how
near the Duke of Argyll was to the truth in regard to the use
of the primaries, and yet missed it at last !
He says : *" Round-ended wings are also almost always open-
ended, that is to say, the tips of the quills (primaries) do not
touch each other, but leave interspaces at the end of the wing,
through wrhich, of course, a good deal of air escapes. Since
each single quill is formed on the same principle as the whole
wing — that is, with the anterior margin stiff and the posterior
margin vielding — this escape is not useless for progression ; but
the air acts less favorably for this purpose than when struck by a
more compact set of feathers."
The italics are my own. I wish to emphasize the fact that he
concludes a compact set of primaries would be more useful than
the natural separation of the primaries. I contend that the con-
verse is true, namely, that the natural separation of the prima-
ries, of a round-ended wing, is more useful for progression than a
compact set of feathers would be. Else, why did nature make
them so?
A careful examination of the structure of the primaries of the
Turkey Vulture's wing, and the length of the separated portion
-Reign of Law, 5th Ed., pp. 156-157.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 65
compared with the extent of compressing surface of the entire
wing, will be sufficient to convince one of the truth of the propo-
sition.
Take a single primary. The rachis (the portion of the quill
extending through the length of the feather) is quite stiff, rect-
angular in cross-section, and projects downward below the vanes
of the feather for their entire length. It is also near the anterior
edge of the feather and offers effective resistance to all air mov-
ing forward on the under surface. The posterior edge of the
vaue is easily bent upward by the passing air and forms a resist-
ance to the air passing forward over it, in the same manner as
the posterior edge of the entire wing presents resistance to the
air flowing in to fill the partial vacuum spoken of. About mid-
way of the feather both the anterior and posterior vanes are
suddenly narrowed; the anterior one is narrowed close down to
the rachis, so that the rachis forms the anterior edge of the
feather; the posterior vane is narrowed down to about one-half its
width. When the wing is outstretched the primaries are sepa-
rated from the point of narrowing of the vanes to their tips.
The development of the peculiar shape of the primaries, as de-
scribed, was for the purpose of admitting their separation at this
point. The distance from this point of separation to the tips of
the primaries is about eight inches; from the same point to the
body of the bird is about two feet. The depth of the wing from
anterior to posterior edge is about one foot. When the bird is
soaring the compact portion of the wing, a surface two feet by
one foot, compresses the air. The compressed air tends to rush
out in three directions, cephalad (anteriorly), eaudad (posteriorly),
and distad, i. e., toward the outer end of the wing, at a right angle
to the direction the bird is moving. All of the air which rushes
out at the distal end of the wing passes upward between the
separated primaries, and each one utilizes the air next to it in
forward motion. Did these feathers forma compact surface, the
only portion of air utilized would be the small amount passing by
the anterior primary and the posterior outstretched primary. All
the remainder would pass out at the tips of the primaries, and
66 JOURNAL OF THE
push toward the bird. The corresponding amount of air would
be lost at the tip of the other wing, and would work to coun-
teract the sideways thrust of the first one mentioned. This
amount of air beside being lost would actually work to the an-
noyance of the bird. Work would be performed only by one
primary, whereas, with the primaries separated, all work, and all
of the air is utilized. The value of the separation can be seen
when we consider the amount of air which passes out at the end
of such a large compressing surface, and especially when we
note in soaring the distal ends of the bird's wings are slightly
elevated.
It is difficult to conceive how Mr. Trowbridge could mistake
this natural emargination of the primaries of soaring birds* for
a wearing produced by a supposed artificial overlapping of these
primaries to which the bird had recourse in soaring. Were it
possible for such a bird to lock its primaries into a compact sur-
face, it could not soar so readily as when the primaries wTere in
their natural position.
OF THE THREE CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES.
\VM. B. PHILLIPS.
The study of Crystallography is considered by most young
students as something of a bugbear. This view of a really
beautiful study is perhaps not unnatural. So short a time is
devoted to it in most colleges that opportunity is not given for
the proper unfolding of it.
During the course in Mineralogy as offered in the University
of North Carolina for the past two years the greatest difficulty
that has been met is in the almost total lack of training in the
^Science, Nov. 18, 1887, Jan. 6, 1888.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 67
imagining of lines that do not exist, the so-called crystallographic
axes. Without a clear conception of this fundamental principle
it is well-nigh impossible to impress upon the mind of the stu-
dent the idea of a crystal.
The following scheme, after mature deliberation and consul-
tation with Dr. Chas. Phillips, Professor Emeritus of Mathe-
matics in the University, was adopted, and found to be of con-
siderable help in directing attention to these lines. It is given
here in the hope that other teachers, not only of Mineralogy but
of Mathematics as well, may find it of value.
In every crystal there are three imaginary lines termed crys-
tallographic axes. These three axes are either
(1). All of one length, or
(2). Two of one length, and the third of another, or
(3). All three of different lengths.
Under (1). we may have
a. Each perpendicular to the plane of the other two.
b. One perpendicular to the plane of the other two, which
(two) are oblique to each other.
c. One oblique to the plane of the other two, which (two)
are perpeudicular to each other.
The same is true under (2). and under (3).
Adopting the following notation
la lb 1c Id
2a 2b 2c 2d
3a 3b 3c 3d we have
la= Isometric system
lb has no crystal system
1,1 u u u a
2a=Tetragonal system.
2b=Hexagonal system, but as the 60° axis may lie on either
side of its principal this system has four axes instead
of three.
2c has no crystal system
2d " " " "
68 JOURNAL OF THE
3a=Rhombic system
3b=Monoclinic system
3c has no system
3d=Triclinic system.
By this conception we excinde from the possibilities of crystal
form lb. lc. Id. because equality of length among the three
axes is always connected with rectangularity of intersection.
We exclude also 2c. and 2d. because with axes of two different
values no other conceptions are crystallographically possible than
that of rectangularity of intersection, as in the Tetragonal sys-
tem, and obliquity of intersection as in the Hexagonal system.
Lastly we exclude 3c. because with axes of three different values,
we do not have, in crystals, one of the axes oblique to the rect-
angular intersection of the other two.
(Compare V. v. Lang, Lehrb. der Krystallog. S. 99; Sohncke,
Entw. einer Theorie der Krystallstructur, Leipzig, 1879, and an
article by Sohncke, Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem. Bd. 132).
CHLORINATION OF AURIFEROUS SULPHIDES.
E. A. THIES.
Chlorination is the name applied to the treatment of oxidized
gold ores with free chlorine, and the success of the process de-
pends upon thoroughness of the previous oxidation.
The material employed is auriferous pyrite containing also
from one to two per cent, copper in the shape of sulphide.
At the Phoenix Mine, in Cabarrus county, the gangue is
quartz with varying amount of heavy spar (Barite).
The ore from the mine is passed through a Blake crusher and
stamped in ordinary ten stamp mill for the purpose of pulver-
izing it to 40 mesh and saving most of the free gold, which is
always present. The shines are passed over True Vanuer con-
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 69
centrators for the purpose of separating the sulphurets from the
gangue; the proportion of sulphurets to gaugue varies from teu
to thirty-five per cent. The concentrates contain from 25 to 30
per cent, sulphur, with a value of $20 per ton, and contain from
1 to 2 per cent, copper, with small amount of silver. These are
dead roasted in a revolving hearth furnace, with frequent rab-
bling; each furnace will roast about one ton in twelve hours.
It is upon the thoroughness of this roast that the success of the
succeeding chlorination depends; it is the purpose to free the ore
as far as possible from sulphur compounds. Assay value of
roasted ore is about §30 per ton. The thoroughly roasted ore
is then charged into a lead-lined iron cylinder, 42 in. x 60 in.,
provided with discharge valve, with heads securely bolted on
each end ; by suitable gearing these cylinders are caused to revolve
horizontally at the rate of 20 revolutions per minute. Charge
for each cylinder is as follows:
Roasted ore, ... 1 ton.
Water, . . . . 100 to 125 gallons.
Bleach, . . . . 40 to 50 lbs.
Sulphuric acid 66°, . . 50 to 60 5bs.
The valve is closed, the cylinder set in motion and continued
so from 8 to 10 hours. The chemical action within the cylinder
is the evolution of free chlorine by the action of the sulphuric acid
on the bleach with formation of sulphate of lime; the free chlorine
attacks the oxide of copper formed in roasting, with formation
of chloride of copper, the free gold with formation of gold
chloride aud some of the oxide of iron with formation of iron
chloride. It is in the chlorinator that the necessity of a dead
roast becomes apparent, for the action of sulphuric acid upon the
undecom posed sulphides would yield hydrogen sulphide and
precipitate the gold from the gold chloride and any ferrous sul-
phate left in the ore would likewise cause a precipitation of the
gold. In neither case, then, could the gold be leached out in the
form of chloride.
It has been found by actual practice that it is better to divide
the charge of bleach and acid aud add them at least in two
70 JOURNAL OF THE
separate portions, maintaining, however, the proportion between
them.
After the gold has been converted into soluble chloride, which
generally happeus, as before stated, in 8 or 10 hours, the chlo-
rinator is discharged into the filter.
The filters are wooden boxes 6 feet wide, 8 feet long, 1J feet
deep, lined with lead and filled for 6 in. to 7 in. with gravel, as
follows: A false bottom is laid, provided with numerous small
outlets; this false bottom was formerly made of wood, but is
now made of perforated tiles. On it is placed first a layer of
very coarse gravel about 1 in. in thickness, and so on up to the
height of 6 in. to 7 in., the material of each succeeding layer being-
smaller than that underneath, the topmost layer being fine sand.
Made in this way a filter will last from 12 to 18 months without
being renewed. The material discharged from the chlorinator
is a mixture of solid and liquid substances, the solids being oxide
of iron, gangue, sulphate of lime and silver chloride if any sil-
ver is present. The liquid being aqueous solution of the chlo-
rides of gold, copper and iron with some free sulphuric acid, the
filter retains the solids, while the liquids drain away in suita-
ble vats. The filter is washed until all the gold chloride is
washed out, which is ascertained by observing whether the
last filtrate reacts with copperas solution. Time required for
filtering and washing a charge is from two to three hours,
and amount of wash-water used is about three hundred gallons;
the leached ore on filter is thrown away, unless by panning
it is found that the free gold has not been dissolved; .in this
case it is re-chlorinated, if the amount is sufficient to warrant
the expense. If much silver be present, it will be on the filter
as chloride and can then be leached out with " hypo," and pre-
cipitated with hydrogen sulphide. The gold solution is stored
in lead-lined wooden tanks holding about 1,800 gallons. A
sufficient quantity is from time to time run into precipitating
vats lined with lead and then precipitated as metallic gold
by ferrous sulphate. Thrown down in this way gold is a very
fine brownish powder and requires about four days to settle.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 71
When the gold is fully settled, the supernatant liquor is run off
into tanks in which scrap iron is thrown for the purpose of
recovering the copper in the solution. The gold precipitate is
scraped up, washed carefully with hot water and thrown on
paper filters. It is dried in stove and melted down in the
usual way into bullion. As a rule the auriferous sulphides in
North Carolina contain but little silver, and the bullion obtained
by this process is from 990 to 996 fine.
By this process 90 per cent, of the assay value in gold is
guaranteed; the actual return is never lower than this and for
the most part is higher.
No other process which has been applied to auriferous sul-
phides in this State has yielded such excellent results, and it is
hoped that a useful future is in store for it.
Mettalurgical Laboratory,
University of North Carolina.
72
JOURNAL OF THE
A xMETHOD OF FINDING THE EVOLUTE OF THE
FOUR-CUSPED HYPOCYCLOID.*
R. H. GRAVES.
The following is a method, based on the Theory of Roulettes,
of proving the well-known result, that the evolute of a four-
cusped hypocycloid is also a four-cusped hypocycloid :
Let AC=a move with its extremities always on the rectang-
ular axes Ox and Oy. The envelope of AC is the four-cusped
hypocycloid.
*Published also in the " Annals of Mathematics."
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 73
Complete the rectangle OABC; draw Ox' and Oy' bisecting
the angles between Ox and Oy; draw EBFG perpendicular to
AC; draw OK and OH parallel and perpendicular to AC; let
CAO=p.
B is the instantaneous centre, BF is normal to the envelope
of AC and its envelope is the required evolute.
ABF=p, FBC=90°— p, BEO=45°— p, OGK=45° + p
OK=HF=a — 2 a siu2p=a cos 2 p.
EG=OG cosec BEO^OK cosec OGK cosec BEO
=a cos 2 p cosec (45°-|-p) cosec (45° — p).
Hence, by reduction P]G=2a.
Since EG is of constant length, and its extremities move on
two rectangular axes, its envelope must be a four-cusped hypo-
cycloid, which is the required evolute.
Remark. — If M is the point where EG touches its envelope,
BM=BK. For, at the point (x, y) of the curve x%-j-y%=a%,
the radius of curvature is 3 (axy)^* and the perpendicular from
the origin on the tangent is (axy)^.
Or, it follows from the formula connecting the segments into
which the radius of curvature of the hypocycloid is divided by
the instantaneous centre. (See Williamson's Differential Cal-
culus, Art. 281).
*MICA MINING IN NORTH CAROLINA.
W. B. PHILLIPS.
Modern mica mining began in North Carolina in 1868— '69.
Some little work was done in 1867, but beyond opening two or
three pits, and getting out several hundred pounds of fine mica,
uot a great deal was accomplished. Reference has already been
madef to the fact that some of the mines had been worked by
This paper has appeared in the Engineering and Mining Journal.
f\V. C. Kerr, Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. XXXI, No. 13, p. 211
74 JOURNAL OF THE
the prehistoric inhabitants of the country, who disposed of the
mica, in part at least, to the mound-builders.* These "old men "
were possessed of considerable skill, not only in the location of
good deposits, but also in the extraction of the mica. The first
is proved by the fact that by following their "leads" modern
miners have found the best mica, and the second by the fact that
sheets of mica of considerable size have been found in old
mounds. Although some evidences of the use of other than
stone tools have been found in old drifts, the principal method
used by these "ancients" was fire-setting.
They did not penetrate into the hard rock to any great exteut,
nor is it likely that they sank shafts. Curiously enough, the
method employed for opening the deposits in those days, viz., by
open trench, is that at present used in New Hampshire. Shaft-
mining, vertical and underlie, is the exception in New Hamp-
shire; it is the rule in North Carolina. In 1867 the Hon.
Thomas L. Clingman, of Asheville, N. C, was induced by some
New York mica dealers to undertake investigations in North
Carolina for mica. Small sheets were then selling at §8 per
pound, and the supply was uncertain. He began operations in
Cleveland county, and found some good mica, which was shipped
to New York. This was late in 1867, or early in 1868, and
is the first instance I have been able to find of the prosecution
of mica mining, as a regular business, since the days of the In-
dian mound-builders. Some work was done at this time in
Burke and Rutherford counties, also, but with no very satisfac-
tory results. He then transferred his explorations to Yancey
and Mitchell counties, selecting as the best spots what was after-
wards the Ray mine, in Yancey, and the Silvers or Sink Hole,
and the Buchanan or Clarissa mines in Mitchell.
The first work done at the Silvers mine wTas not, however,
in searching for mica, but for silver. It was known that at this
place were great pits and treuches, amounting in all to some
1,800 feet in length, and in places 20 feet deep, with large trees
*Foster, Prehistoric Races of America, pp. 191 and 270.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 75
grown up on the debris, and with every appearance of age. The
very memory of these old miners had passed away, and nothing
was left to them but their pits and trenches here, and pieces of
mica found in the Indian mounds in the Ohio valley. Tradi-
tion, always busy with the unknown, had determined that these
workings had been undertaken for silver. Some specimens of
the rock from the Silvers mine were pronounced by the ubiqui-
tous practical miner to resemble some rich silver ores from Mexico,
but the assay proved them to be worthless. The first work done
at the Silvers mine was for silver, and it was not until it was
found that there was no silver that attention was turned to the
mica.
One at least of his New York friends had accompanied Cling-
man to Yancey county to search for mica, but did nut think well
enough of the enterprise to continue in it. Clingman, however,
continued the work of mica mining at the Silvers mine, aud ob-
tained several hundred pounds of fine mica.* Being called
away by more pressing business, he instructed his foreman to
collect the mica aud store it away. This, however, was not done,
and several large blocks were left on the ground. A stock-
drover passing that way with his wagon took one of these blocks
to Knoxville, Teun. It was seen by J. G. Heap, of Heap &
Clapp, dealers in stoves and tin-ware, who at once recognized its
value. He and his partner disposed of their business in Knox-
ville and went at once to Mitchell county, N. C, and began mica
mining. f This was in 1869. From that time and for several
years they conducted a very profitable business, realizing for
some of the mica, as Mr. Heap himself assured the writer, as
much as SI 1 per pound.
Heap & Clapp first worked the Silvers mine, and by follow-
ing the old leads obtained large quantities of excellent mica.
They cut new trenches, ran an adit in and sank several shafts.
They also worked the Buchanan or Clarissa mine, by shaft and
*Th<is. L. Clingman, priv. com., October 25th, 1887.
fU. H. Wiley, U. S. Treas. expert, Internal Commerce of the U. S., 1886,
i». 2:;5.
76 JOURNAL OF THE
adit, and found it equally good. Several other miues were
opened and worked, as the Deake and Flat Rock. As local ex-
perience was acquired (the sine qua non in mica mining as in
every other kind), they extended their operations, so that up to
1882 of the 400,000 pounds obtained Heap cv. Olapp must have
mined by far the greater part. The average spot value of cut
mica then was about $2 per pound, some, however, selling as
high as $11. Even at $2 the total value of the mica up to 1882
would be $800,000. As to the profits, no very definite informa-
tion can now be given. In 1880 the total real and personal
capital invested in the North Carolina mica mines was $6,900,
and the value of her product $61,675* — every dollar invested
returned $8.93 I cannot say of my own knowledge whether
these figures can be accepted or not. If true, if they can be
taken as fairly representing the capital and yield, they reveal a
most remarkable state of affairs. The waste in mica alone, as
we shall hereafter see, is from 85 per cent, to 95 percent, in mica
mining. That any mining operation utilizing at most only 15
per cent, of the stuff brought to bank should return $8.93 per
$1 invested is simply incredible. It is statedf that some of the
free milling gold ores of Dakota are worked at a profit on $2 a
ton, that some steam-tin works in Cornwall yield only two
pounds of black tin per ton,J and that the pay-dirt at the Eureka
claim, near San Juan, California, gave a profit on three cents per
ton.§ So far as the refuse matter is concerned these examples
show there are places where it far exceeds the North Carolina
mica mine waste. But it is not stated that there was anything
like such a profit as is reported from the mica mines. It is so
great as to be incredible. We shall hereafter see that the New
Hampshire mines in 1880 yielded twenty ceuts per $1 invested,
which figure, while iudeed somewhat low, is perhaps about right.
♦Tenth U. S. Census, Vol. XV, p. 843.
f Report of the Director of the Mint on Precious Metals, 1884, p. 251.
tj. A. Phillips, Mining and Metallurgy of Gold and Silver, p. 160.
^Collins, Metal Mining, p. 56.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 77
There has always been a curious reticence on the part of the
North Carolina mica miners and Healers, and a corresponding
difficulty in acquiring correct information. While indeed there
are some notable exceptions (and to' these I would return my
warmest acknowledgments of their kindness) they serve but to
make the background all the more obscure. I am often at a loss
to know to what this reticence is to be ascribed. There are no
more hospitable people in the world than the inhabitants of the
mountains of Western North Carolina, nor any upon whose
willingness to aid one in any laudable undertaking more assur-
ance could be placed. And yet when it comes to mica mining
they are reserved to the last degree, and it was only after repeated
visits to the mines, and extended acquaintance among the miners,
that I was able to acquire much information concerning the
business.
It is proposed in this paper to describe this business; the
geology of the mining districts; the formation of the veins;
dressing the mica; the percentage yield of cut mica from block
mica, etc., etc.
The success that attended the operations of Heap & Clapp in
1869 in Mitchell county soon induced others to enter the field.
The profit was large, the work comparatively easy and the mica
abundant. The Indians (I use the term for lack of a better)
had shown that good mica was to be had with very little expense
or trouble. The whites were indeed for some time in doubt as
to the purpose of the old works, but as on following the trenches
and re-excavating the old diggings they found only mica, they
soon came to understand this mystery. Had it not been for the
prehistoric operations much time and money would have been
expended on searching for the true veins. But, as it was, the
miners of 1869 took their cue from the miners of 1500-1600,
and with their modern appliances — rude, indeed it may be, but
far superior to those of their predecessors — they carried on the
business vigorously. It was not long before Mitchell and
Yancey counties were dotted with prospect holes of more or 1<
promise. The Ray mine, Westall, Joe Gibbs, Young, Baily
78 JOURNAL OF Tin:
Mountain and others in Yancey county, the Pizzle (now Cloud-
land), Deake, Flat Rock, Mart Wiseman (famous for rare min-
erals) and others in Mitchell county were opened and worked.
The fcver spread, and in the counties of Buncombe, Haywood,
Jackson and Macon other mines were added to those already in
operation. Strange stories were told of the curious minerals
found in some of the mines. J. G. Heap, the pioneer of regular
mica mining, and one of the shrewdest of men, told me that he
has seen masses of " uranium ore" as large as his head imbedded
in perfectly white kaolin. Not being then apprised of its value
(in 1869 some parts of Mitchell county were on the confines of
mineralogical knowledge) he paid no especial attention to it, and
it was thrown on the dump and lost. He knew better before
long, as did the others, and now uraninite and gummite, etc., are
saved. A few years ago, watching the emptying of the water
bucket at the Flat Rock mine, I was able to secure some very
handsome specimens of uraninite and gummite. Several old
miners standing near remarked that when the mine was first
opened those minerals were much more common and in much
larger pieces. The first miners mined for mica and paid but
little attention to other minerals, and they very likely threw on
the dump many interesting and valuable minerals as not being
their point d'appui.
Mitchell county has been the scene of the most extensive op-
erations, the deepest mines are located here, and by far the greater
amount of mica sent to market from North Carolina has been
obtained here.
The county lies between the Blue Ridge on the east and the
Smoky Mountains on the 'west, being a part of the great western
plateau between these two ranges. Its average elevation is not
far from 3,500 feet, and it slopes gradually from east to west,
the highest point, Roan Mountain, lying on the Tennessee boun-
dary. The eastern boundary, the Blue Ridge, attains a height
of 5,228 feet in the Sugar Mountain, while Roan Mountain on
the west rises to a height of about 6,400 feet. There is on the
whole, therefore, an upward slope towards the west. Some in-
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 79
termediate points, however, are much lower than the Blue Ridge.
Thus, for instance, Bakersville, the county-seat and the mining
town for the district, is 2,550 feet, while the Watauga River, at
the State line, is 2,131 feet. The most productive mines in
Mitchell county lie within ten miles of Bakersville, on the east,
north-east, south and south-east, at an elevation from 3,000 to
4,000 feet.
GEOLOGY OF THE VEINS.
The geology of Mitchell county has been described as follows :
"Another considerable area of Laurentiau rocks is found beyond
the Blue Ridge,* occupying most of the mountain plateau be-
tween that and the Smoky Mountains, and in the places consti-
tuting the materials of these chains. The rocks are foliated for
the most part and consist of indefinite alternations of metamor-
phic strata, gneiss, hornblende, feldspathic and micaceous schists,
and occasionally chloritic and talcose slates."
According to the same authorityf the roughly shaped hills
that occur through Mitchell county, scattered irregularly, and in
close connection with the greatest dislocations of the strata, are
to be referred to a very low horizon. He identified them as
chrysolyte ledges (dunite). Though they occur very frequently
in close association with the mica-bearing rocks proper, the con-
nection between the two has not yet been made out. These
chrysolyte or dunite ledges occupy the middle portion of the
plateau, and are sometimes "nearly a mile long and several hun-
dred yards wide."
It is still, I believe, an unsettled question whether this plateau
is Laurentiau or Lower Silurian, Cambrian. The abseuce of
all traces of animal or vegetable remains (unless, indeed, graph-
ite be considered vegetable remains), the well-nigh exclusive
occurrence of the older crystalline rocks, such as horublendic
and actinolytic rocks, schists, syenites, and more or less porphyr-
*W. C. Kerr, Geol. of X. C, Vol. I (1875), p. 128.
fldem, p. 129.
4
80 JOURNAL OF THE
oidal granites, and the extreme dislocation of all the members
of the series, would seem to indicate an age beyond the Silurian.
It would require patient and long continued observation, based
chiefly on strati graphical and petographical relations, to settle
this obscure problem. It is known, however, that the mica-
bearing rocks of the plateau between the Blue Ridge and the
Smoky Mountains do not cross the Smoky Mountains, except
sporadically, and then only for a short distance. On the western
side of the Smoky Mountains, in Tennessee, we meet with the
Silurian, but as it does not here carry mica, though ouly a few
miles from the North Carolina mica zone, the assumption that
the "mica zone" occurs in rocks older than the Silurian is some-
what strengthened, be that age Huron ian or Laurentian.
Assuming, therefore, for the present that the mica occurs in
the very oldest rocks, we may inquire as to its immediate con-
geners.
A mica vein is only a vein of very coarse granite, in which
the feldspar, quartz and mica have crystallized on a large scale.
It differs from ordinary granite chiefly in this respect, that while
in granite the crystallizing forces have, in a measure, interfered
with each other in a mica vein, each has had, so to speak, free
play. The difference between the two can best be conceived by
imagining the ingredients of granite magnified several hundred,
iudeed, several thousand, times. The crystals of mica in granite
seldom attain a greater size than one-sixteenth or one-fourth inch
across; a single mica "block" from Mitchell county made two
two-horse wagon loads and could not have weighed less than
2,000 pounds! A single block of "A" mica from the Mart
Wiseman mine in Mitchell county was (> feet long and 3 feet
wide. The crystals of feldspar in granite are seldom larger than
one-sixteenth or one-fourth inch across. A single feldspar crys-
tal from the Balsam Gap mica mine, Buncombe county, weighs
800 pounds, and is now in the State Museum at Raleigh. A
piece of a feldspar crystal, now in the possession of the writer,
obtained from the Deake mica mine, Mitchell county, weighs 30
pounds. It originally weighed 500 pounds, but was uufortu-
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 81
nately broken by careless handling in the mine. Although no
large quartz crystals have been obtained from these mines, large
masses of crystallized quartz (generally the darker colored sorts)
are constantly met with. The accompanying small red garnets
are generally sprinkled through the quartz, and not through the
mica or feldspar.
FORMATION* OF THE MICA VEIN-.
The free play which the crystallizing forces enjoyed between
the enclosing walls of the vein is one of the remarkable phe-
nomena to be observed in these mica mines. Now here else can
this be seen on such a scale. The development of a single min-
eral in a vein is not uncommon, but the wholesale crystallization
of all the chief constituents of a vein is very infrequent. It is
worthy of notice here that in a mica vein these constituents are
highly siliceous. Taking the percentage of silica in the quartz
as the standard, we have the percentages of silica as follows :
Per cent.
Quartz 100
Feldspar (orthoclase) 64.72
Mica imuscovite) 45.75 to 51.80
Garnet 35.00 to 52.11
Garnet is here included because, although it does not occur in
large crystals, it is nearly always present, and in considerable
quantities, sprinkled in the quartz. This, so to speak, excessive
extension of the crystals would seem to imply that they met with
but little resistance, or that the resistance was easily overcome.
W. C. Kerr was of the opinion* that many of the irregularities
of these veins, in form, size and position, were due to the efforts
of the vein matter to intrude itself. These irregularities, how-
ever, seem to me to be chiefly due not to this cause but to the
original Assuring forces. It may indeed be true that in the at-
tempt to crystallize the vein matter caused some irregularities in
the shape and size of the fissure, but this is a force different in
'Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. XXXII, No. 13, p. 211.
82 JOURNAL OF THE
kind and degree from the intrusive force referred to. In the
work of intrusion the temperature of the intruding mass would
have been lowered. As this process went on, and more and
more work was accomplished, the temperature would tend more
and more towards the point at which the crystallization would
set in, unless a new source of heat was at hand and available.
The amount of heat given out by the solidifying vein matter
would of course be the same as was absorbed by it in first assum-
ing the liquid state. Whether the amount of heat equivalent to
the effect of intrusion- would be less than equal to or greater than
the amount thus set free is a question upon which I do not now
propose to enter. The subterranean forces causing the ascension
of the vein matter in a liquid or semi-liquid condition could have
forced it into the various ramifications of the fissure and have
thus left it to follow its own crystallizing tendencies. That there
was little or no hindrance to it in passing to the solid state is
shown by the size of the resulting crystals. The great and ex-
tended irregularities iu these veins I would therefore attribute
primarily to the original Assuring forces, the small and more
local ones to local causes, among which may be included local
intrusion and local crystallization.
At whatever point within the fissure we consider the vein
matter, whether before or after crystallization, it will appear as
completely filling it. A "horse" within a mica vein is seldom
met with. There is one at the Sink Hole mine. Here the in-
closing rock is mica schist, and the following succession of sub-
stances has been observed from wall to wall:* 1st, mica; 2d, a
"horse'7 of mica schist; 3d, smoky quartz; 4th, mica; 5th,
smoky quartz; 6th, a "horse" of mica schist; 7th, mica.
The deposit of mica between the "horse" and the wall is nar-
row, but yields good mica. The greater part of the mica in the
vein crystallized first, and probably in this process tore off a piece
of the wall, the space left by it being subsequently filled with
mica. The pieces torn off are somewhat more decomposed than
the original walling.
*W. C. Kerr, ut supra.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 83
The direction taken by the mica crystals is not without in-
terest. As a rule the plane of crystallization, parallel to lamina?
of the mica, is more or less inclined to the line of strike, being
frequently perpendicular to it, so that the mica ou being uncov-
ered resembles a pile of thick planks laid flat on the sole of the
level. I do not recall an instance of a contrary arrangement, i. e.,
of a parallelism between the plane of lamination and the line of
strike. The tendency is strongly the other way.
An interesting question here is whether the mica, feldspar,
quartz, garnet, etc., existed as such within the vein, and had only
to segregate themselves by crystallization, or whether they are to
be regarded as forming within the liquid mass highly complex
silicates, which crystallized according to the chemical affinity of
their constituents under the existing circumstances. According
to the first view, the mica probably existed as H4K2 (Al2) Si6024,
the feldspar as K2 (Al2) Si6016, the garnet as R3 (R2) Si3012, where
R = Ca, or Fe, or Mg, and (R2) = (Fe2) or(Al2), and the quartz
as SiO2. They existed as such, and had only to crystallize to
become visible.
According to the second view, the potash, alumina, lime, mag-
nesia, iron and silica were all in a state of aqueo-igneous fusion
together; some of the potash and alumina lay hold of the requi-
site amount of silica and became mica ; another portion of the
potash and alumina and silica formed feldspar, etc.; the portion
of silica not needed for these compounds finally crystallized as
quartz. In neither case could crystallization occur until the
critical point (congelation point) for each substance was reached.
The various chemical elements in the vein matter would at the
moment of crystallization have affinities influenced by the tem-
perature, pressure, etc., and these affinities might or might not
be the same as at ordinary temperature and pressure. That a
high heat does influence chemical combination is a fact too well
known to be more than re-stated. Thus it is well known that at
a glowing heat oxygen has a greater affinity for carbon than for
either hydrogen or iron, strongly as it tends to combine with
these two elements. The chemical affinities existing between a
84 JOURNAL OF THE
number of elements under the circumstances of heat and pressure
in a liquid mass from which mica, feldspar and quartz were after-
wards to crystallize might well be different from what would
obtain if the limiting circumstances were withdrawn. Potash,
alumina and silica do not combine at ordinary temperatures, nor
do lime, iron and silica.
Whatever the affinities between these substances might have
been before crystallization, when this process was once established
it w7ent on to form perfectly definite compounds. Which one
crystallized first is not so quickly said. From evidence now in
my possession I am inclined to believe that the mica crystallized
first. I was led to this conclusion, not by theoretical considera-
tions, but by having found in a mica vein a piece of quartz hav-
ing on it evident impression of the edges of a block of mica,
forming a sort of pyramid with microscopic steps; iuclosures of
quartz between the lamina? of mica, the quartz being almost as
thin as the mica; iuclosures of feldspar in mica also very thiu,
and lying pressed between the mica sheets.
These three circumstances taken in conjunction would seem to
indicate a crystallization of the mica prior to that of the quartz
or feldspar. A synchronous crystallization would have given a
mass more nearly resembling granite, in which each substance
has interfered with the other. So far then as the moment of
crystallization is concerned, a mica vein differs from granite in
having suffered a succession of crystallizations instead of syn-
chronous crystallization. Had the mica, feldspar and quartz all
crystallized at the same time, there is no reason why there should
not have been granite in the fissures instead of a mica vein.
It will appear from the preceding discussion that a mica vein
is only a vein of very coarse granite in which the forces of crys-
tallization have had comparatively free play. The resulting
crystals are of great size, and have interfered but little in each
other's development. So far as the texture of the vein is con-
cerned it is as different from that of ordinary granite as a collec-
tion of single crystals of large size is from an agglomeration of
crystals of small size. The almost exclusive occurrence of well
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 85
crystallized quartz would seem to indicate a solidification from a
fluid or semi-fluid mass of aqueo-igneous origin, rather than
from a fused mass of purely igneous origin.
For the production of such large crystals the mass must have
solidified very slowly, and have met with but little resistance.
The view that the dislocation of the inclosing strata was in part
due to the intrusion of the vein can be accepted only with cau-
tion. What are the inclosing rocks, and how are they related
to the mica veins?
The inclosing walls are for the most part dark gray mica
schists, more or less horublendic, somewhat decomposed towards
the surface but becoming harder further down. At some mines,
for instance, the Presnel in Yancey county, and the Pt. Pizzle
(Cloudlaud) in Mitchell county, the inclosing rock has more of
the appearance of a schistose gneiss. But even where it is most
gneissic it is still highly micaceous and hornblendic. An inter-
esting occurrence is at the Balsam Gap mine, in Buncombe
county, on the Black Mountain, at an elevation of 3,500 feet.*
Here the walling on both sides is a slaty gneiss, which offered
such resistance to the Assuring force that the fissure stopped short
of the surface, and there lies above the mica a capping of gneiss.
It may be, of course, that the erosion there was not sufficient to
remove the capping, while at other mines now showing outcrops
of mica veins the rock did not oppose such resistance. Because
a mica vein outcrops now we may not be warranted in assuming
that it always outcropped. In cases where the original outcrop
has been covered over by newer formations the explanation is
simple; but where the vein never reaches the surface at all, as
probably at this mine, it is not so simple. Gaetzschmanf would
seek to explain such an occurrence by supposing a considerable
lapse of time between the opening and the Ailing of the fissure,
*Fiijnred and described by \V. C. Kerr, Engineering and Mining Journal,
Vol. XXI, No. 13, |>. 212 and Trans. Atner. Inst. Min. Engs., L880.
fAuf-und Udtersuchung Nntzb. Mineralien, Leipzig, 1865, p. 92, where
many similar occurrences are noted. Compare also Von Cotta, Erzlagerstatten,
1 Th., 18o9, p. 118. Grimm, Lagerst. der Nutzb. Miner, 1869, p. 100.
86 JOURNAL OF THE
especially if fragments of the walling were included in the vein.
That such fragments are thus included in mica veins will appear
from the discussion in Article II of this series.
The inclosing rocks, whether micaceous schists, slaty gneisses
or gneissoid micaceous schists, have a general strike toward the
north-east, and a general dip toward the south-east, at angles vary-
ing from 40 to 90 degrees. The mica veins share these charac-
teristics more or less completely, and are hence bedded veins.
So far as known the walling is the same on both sides of the
vein. Contact deposits do not occur in this region as they do at
the junction of sandstones and schists near Mts. Lincoln and
Bross, in Colorado.* When the Silvers or Sink Hole mine was
first opened in 1868-'69, the upper part of the vein was a decom-
posed feldspar; at 20 feet depth this passed into granite, and at
60 feet the vein narrowed so that work was suspended for a
while. f The vein was afterwards found to widen again, while
still in granite.
Good crystals of mica, sometimes of several inches in dimen-
sion, have been observed in Prozoic granites of the Sweetwater
Districts, Idaho,! as also iu the granite of the Black Hills.§
At this latter locality they form about 5 per cent, of the granite,
this proportion, as will hereafter appear, being somewhat below
the average yield of "cut" mica from North Carolina "block'
mica. It is interesting to note, also, that the crystals of mica in
the granite occur in bunches or segregations, a phenomenon
likewise characteristic of some Mitchell countv mines.
The inclosing rocks in North Carolina have suffered many and
great dislocations; they are bent, curved and twisted in a variety
of ways without, however, giving rise to faults in the vein. The
irregularities of the veins, therefore are those of form, size,
strike and dip, rather than of position. It must not be forgot-
ten that the rocks of this district have suffered enormous erosion
*U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey of Colorado, 1873, p. 269.
f D. A. Bowman, Mitchell county, priv. com., Nov. 5, 1887.
JU. S. Geol. and Survey of Idaho and Wyoming, 1877, p. 158.
§U. S. Geol. Survey, Black Hills, 1880, p. 70.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 87
and denudation. They are among the very oldest roeks of this
continent, and probably have not been .submerged since the Cam-
brian period. We have in them the unmoved remains of the
old crystalline rocks, and what is now exposed to our view was
formerly overlaid by rocks of the sanieage. When this plateau
was elevated, with its border of high mountains on every side,
the fissures now filled with the mica veins were opened. The
fissures mot naturally followed the line of least resistance.
Where this coincided with the line of bedding, a true bedded
vein resulted. Where, on the contrary, ;t ran somewhat trans-
verse to this line after having followed it for some distance, the
vein assumed more of the character of a lode. This seems to
me the true explanation of an occurrence sometimes met with,
as at the Pizzle mine, where the vein, after coinciding in strike
and dip with the inclosing schists, suddenly breaks across the
stratification and changes its dip.
The mica veins in North Carolina are true fissure veins, dif-
fering in this respect from the mica veins of New Hampshire,
which, according to X. S. Shaler,* "appear to be obscure beds
closely following the general run of the apparent bedding that
characterizes the granites in this part of the country."
Hitchcockf ranks the Grafton mica veins in the gneissic series,
and savs that valuable deposits are found only within the fibro-
lite area (mica schist \Vith fibrolite, one of the supposed divisions
of the Montalban Group). This fibrolite area lies in between
the two great areas of porphyritie gneiss, very well developed
between Rumney and Hebron.
Of the influence of the walling on the quantity and quality
of the mica but little is known. My own investigations on this
subject have not yet led to any definite conclusions. Some of
the more experienced miners in Mitchell county say that both
the quantity and the quality of the mica depend upon the char-
acter of the walling and of the vein, but the lack of careful and
*Tenlh U. S. Census, Vol. XV, p. 833.
fGeol. of New Hampshire, Vol! I, 1874, p. 26, and Vol. Ill, part V, p. '.hi.
88 JOURNAL OF THE
long-continued observations, conducted in a methodical and
scientific manner, preclude t he formation of definite and reliable
opinions. There are so many accessory circumstances that in-
fluence the quality of the mica — such, for instance, as the width
of the vein, the presence of flat and curved mica, of crystallized
feldspar, etc., that the time has not yet come for expressing an
opinion. These circumstances may depend more or less upon
the character of the walling; but if so, it is not known just what
the connection is. The same mav be said as to the influence of
width, depth, dip, strike, and accompanying minerals.
Below the zone of atmospheric influences, rarely extending
below 20 feet, and sometimes not below 10 feet, the vein becomes
more solid, and the quality of the mica improves. The width
of the veins varies widely, from 3 to 40 feet, sometimes in the
same mine varying from 3 feet to 20 feet, as at the Presnel mine,
Yancey county. Nippiug of the vein is a common occurrence,
occasionally to almost entire obliteration. It has frequently hap-
pened that one set of miners have quit work on account of a
"nip," and another set at a subsequent date have prosecuted
the "driving," and found good mica within a few feet. The
"stringers" that make off' from the main vein penetrate into the
wall-rock at various angles, and though narrow sometimes yield
fine mica.
The occurrence of well crvstallized feldspar is held to be a
f A-
sure indication of fine mica, though flesh-colored feldspar is re-
garded as exerting an injurious influence, as also the preponder-
ance of quartz, and the presence of uranium minerals. These
assertions must, however, be accepted with caution.
ASSOCIATED MINERALS.
The minerals found in mica veins are both numerous and in-
teresting. Some time before his ileath in 1885 the lamented W.
C. Kerr, for twenty years State Geologist of North Carolina,
prepared a list of the minerals found in mica veins, and this has
been corrected by F. A. Genth and one or two added by W. E.
Hidden.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 89
The list is as follows, according to Kerr:
Albite, Biotile, Linmnite, Thulite,
Allanite, Columbite, Magnetite, Torbernite,
Amazon stone. Euxenite, Menaccanite, Tourmaline,
Apatite, Glassy feldspar, Muscovite, Traninite,
Arethnnite, Garnet, Phosphuranylite, Uranocher,
Autunite, Gummite, Rogersite, CJranotil,
Beryl. Hatch ettolite, Samarskite, Yttrogummite.
F. A. Genth* cornets this list, and his criticisms are as follow- :
"Amazon stone, perhaps, doubtful.
"Autunite (torbernite?), all autunite.
"Biotite, probably, but I have uot seen it from mica veins, as
far as I remember.
"Euxenite, does uot contain Ti()2, and hence is not true
euxenite.
"Glassy feldspar (sanidin), very doubtful.
" Pyrochlore, in very minute octahedra at the Ray mine, with
black tourmaline.
"Yttroauinmita — 1 do uot know of any analysis having been
made; very doubtful.
"Fluorite, in pseudomorphous granular patches after apatite.
"Apatite, seems to be fluorapatite.
" Orthoclase, often completely altered to kaolinite.
"Quartz, of course."
Neither Dr. Genth nor myself are able to identify Kerr's
arethnnite; it is most likely a lapsus pennce. To this list Hid-
den has added fergusonite, which now sells for $5 a pound,
monazite and a?schynite(?). Large masses of samarskite are
found in some of the mines, a piece weighing 1)4 pounds being
taken from the Mart Wiseman mine, in Mitchell county. v This
formerly sold, I believe, for $1.50 per pound, but is now offered
at 75 cents per pound. The largest piece ever found have been
obtained from Mitchell county.
*Priv. com.. October 3d, 18S7.
fl). A. Bowman, priv. corn., November otli, 1887
90 JOURNAL OF THE
A rather curious bit of history and of etymology is associated
with the feldspar altered to kaolinite. W. C. Kerr, in the paper
previously referred to, says that the Indian name for the Smoky
Mountains, Unaka mountains, is derived from the Indian word
for white, tnakeh, and that they applied this name to them be-
cause they were accustomed to obtain white kaolin there, and to
" packr' it to the coast for exportation 150 years ago. He does
not give his authority for this statement, and I have not been
able to find it. He may have ascertained it himself, but if so,
he makes no mention of it.
The farmers near the mines are accustomed to apply the disin-
tegrated feldspar to their crops, and it has given good results,
containing as it does from 10 to 15 per cent, potash. Some
attempts have been made to utilize the feldspar as a source of
potash, but the experiment has not been successful on a commer-
cial scale. With kainit of 13 per cent, potash, selling at $11
per ton, it is doubtful whether the potash can be economically
extracted from feldspar. I am informed that interest in the
problem has somewhat revived of iate. The material can be
had in any quantities at an almost nominal cost, as it is obtained
in great abundance, and constitutes at least one-third of the
dumps.
From the list of minerals found in mica veins it will be seen
that many of them are rare, and some quite so. Whatever
agencies were at work during the formation of these veins they
seem to have conditioned the occurrence of some of the rarer
minerals in considerable quantities. It is not without interest
that fluorine was present at the time, occurring as it does in fluo-
rite and fluorapatites. The well-known decomposing power of
this element, when present as hydrofluoric acid, or combined
with lime, may have a bearing upon the constitution of the mica
vein itself and of the minerals found in it. I have examined
numerous specimens of apatite from Mitchell county, and so far
have not observed any chlorapatite. Dr. Genth's experience,
stretching over a much longer time than my own, and based on
many more examinations, would seem to be in the same direc-
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 91
tion. The apatite is generally of the greenish variety, is well
crystallized, and is usually imbedded in the feldspar. It does
not occur in sufficient quantity to be of much value, although
the fine crystals can of course be sold to mineral dealers, and
occasionally an extra fine crystal may be used as a gem stone.
Some large, and a few really handsome, beryls have been found,
notably at the Ray mine, in Yancey county. An hexagonal
crystal, now in the possession of the writer, but unfortunately
broken, is 8J inches long, and was originally 3 -J inches in diam-
eter. It is, however, quite opaque.
At the Giassy Creek mine, Mitchell county, crystals 2 feet
long and 7 inches in diameter have been found. f
The recent discovery of germanium in euxenite* lends some
interest to the reported discovery of this mineral in mica veins.
Dr. Genth, however, says that the mineral reported as euxenite
does not contain Ti02, and is hence not a true euxenite, and as
germanium, besides occurring in argyrodite, is supposed to ac-
company titanium, it is hardly likely to be present in the so-
called euxenite. Allanite is found in slender, black crystals,
6-12 inches long, at the Balsam Gap mine. Buncombe county,
and at the Clarissa (Buchanan) mine, Mitchell county.
Albite occurs at the Preslv mine, Haywood county, as an
alteration product of the decomposition of the corundum. t Co-
lumbite occurs imbedded in samarskite at the Wiseman mine,
Mitchell county, and rogersite at the same mine "in white ma-
millary crusts and little pearly beads upon samarskite."
Monazite occurs in feldspar at the Ray mine, autunite and
phosphuranylite on quartz and feldspar at the Flat Rook and
Clarissa mines, Mitchell county.
A piece of gummite weighing 6 pounds 6 ounces, but partly
altered to uraninite, has been found in Mitchell county accordiug
to W. E. Hidden.
^Minerals and mineral localities of North Carolina. 1881. F. A. Genth
and W. C. Kerr.
fSee abstract of ( ierhard K Hiss's {taper before Munich (hem 8oc, Dec. 16,
1887, in Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. XLV, No. 7, p. 125.
92 JOURNAL OF THE
DRESSING THE ROUGH MICA.
The rough mica is hoisted from the mine in blocks of consid-
erable size, weighing from 50 to 250 pounds, tabular in shape,
and more or less contaminated with fragments of feldspar, quartz,
waste mica, etc. It is the purpose of the dressing to free the
blocks from all materials not made use of in preparing cut mica.
This is all done by hand, and consists in cleaving a block with
thin steel wedges aloug the planes of lamination, separating it
into a number of tabular pieces about J inch thick, and as large
as the stock will allow. These pieces are then further cleaved
until the proper thickness for cut mica is attained, this being,
according to the use it is to be put to, from J to y1^ inch, or even
thinner. The workman doing this also frees the sheets from ad-
hering quartz, fragments of mica, etc., and passes them to the
"seriber."
Scribing is an operation demanding a considerable degree of
skill and experience. Upon it depends the yield of cut from
block mica. It is performed by laying upon the sheet the pat-
tern by which it is to be cut, and marking or scribing around ir
with a knife or similar instrument. The patterns are pieces of
tin, sheet-iron, etc., with the shape and size determined by the
order from the mica brokers or dealers in the lar«;e cities, or bv
the stove maker himself. In Mitchell county alone there are
about 100 different patterns, and their shape and size is constantly
varying according to the fashion of the stove windows. The
size of cut mica was formerly of much greater consequence than
at present. Several years ago there was a regular and systematic
increase in value with the increase in size, the quality of course
remaining the same. This is true to some extent now, though
there appears to be a decided tendency towards smaller patterns.
The first noticeable change in this respect was perhaps in 1 883— '84,
when the stove manufacturers were compelled by the scarcity of
large mica to use smaller sheets. They found the change so ad-
vantageous to their pockets that they persevered in it, and thus
influenced the mica trade no little.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 93
I would not be understood as saving that small mica is as
valuable as large mica, but that large sheets are not as valuable
as they were ten years ago. There is a limit beyond which it is
not safe to go, and I should be inclined to put it at 3 X 6 inches.
The patterns range in size from 1 X 1 inch up to 8 X 10, or as
large as the stock will permit, increasing one- fourth inch each
time. As the value of the mica increases at the same time it
becomes necessary to cut from a given rough sheet the largest
number of patterns of the highest market value. The price of
mica depends not only upon the size but also upon its freedom
from specks, stains, cloudiness and striations, these conditioning
its quality. Of late, too, a certain amber or rum colored mica
has become fashionable, and fancy prices are sometimes paid for
a good lot of extra "rum' mica. The regular colorless or
"white" mica, however, commands the bulk of the trade. Cer-
tain mines, as, for instance, the Clarissa, are famous for urnm,:
mica.
As, after the scribing, the sheets are cut with heavy shears
along the lines marked down it will at once appear that much
skill and experience are required of a good scriber. He must
be constantly on the alert to furnish from every piece the largest
number of valuable cut sheets. With the diversity in patterns
and prices, and the variation in the mica itself, this becomes no
easy task. A good scriber a' ways commands good wages, for
upon his skill depends the yield of cut from block mica. No
matter how much block mica is brought to bank, nor how good
the quality of it, if the sheet be not properly scribed the yield of
cut mica diminishes, and with it the profit. A really skillful
scriber will get from a given block twice as much cut mica as a
beginner. He sees at a glance just what patterns a certain sheet
should yield, he instantly detects flaws, stains, etc., and with a
few rapid movements of his marking implement he "scribes'
the sheet and passes it to the " cutter," who merely cuts the
sheet through along the lines marked. The different sizes are
then cleaned of the fine filaments of mica with a stiff brush,
wrapped in strong paper, generally in one pound packages, boxed
94 JOURNAL OF THE
and shipped. As most of the mines lie from 20 to 30 miles
from rail, the haulage aeross country is costly. A railroad now
being surveyed down the Toe River, between Mitchell and
Yancey counties, will give an outlet north via the East Tennes-
see, Virginia & Georgia Railroad, and south via the Richmond
& Danville (Western North Carolina Division), or the Charles-
ton, Cincinnati & Chicago Railroad, now building. I approach
the subject of the yield of cut mica from block mica with some
hesitation. Cut mica is the only product of a mica mine that
is sold on a commercial scale. It determines the value of the
mine. So much depends on the quality of the blocks and of the
rough sheets, whether they are stained, or cloudy, or flawey, or
striated, so much depends on the skill of the scriber, and other
local conditions that what is here said is to be taken as applica-
ble to average conditions.
On the average, therefore, 100 pounds of block mica should
yield from 10 pounds to 12 pounds of cut mica. Instances are
not unknown where the yield has fallen to 5 per eent. ; it has
risen at some mines to 33 per cent., and once to 75 per cent.
This last yield is very far above the average, and has been ob-
tained only once, so far as I know. With the general average
of block mica a 12 per cent, yield in cut mica is considered a
fair return. These 12 pounds will vary in value according to
the quality and size of the patterns, the highest price being $4
per pound, the average price being not far from $1.75.
A 12 per cent, yield with these figures will give an average
value of $21 per 100 pounds of block mica, or $420 per ton of
2,000 pounds. That the business has been profitable may be
realized bv remembering as stated already in this article, that
in 1880 there was invested in North Carolina mica mines 86,900,
and the value of their product was $61,675. As was remarked
then, I cannot say whether these figures are correct or not. One
may be allowed one's own opinion, and some would say it is too
good to be true. It has been stated that in the Carolinas the
mica is more apt to have a twisted structure and to be stained
or cloudy than the New Hampshire mica. This could be known
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 95
only by compariug the percentage yield of cut mica from block
mica, as twisted or A mica and stained mica is not included in
cut mica.
Prof. Shaler speaks also of the relatively small amount of
gangue in the richer parts of the vein compensating for the in-
creased expense of mining Carolina mica. This has less to do
with the yield of cut mica than the quality of the blocks. The
greater or less preponderance of gangue may, and doubtless
does, influence the mining account, and so, indirectly, the balance
sheet ; but the value of 100 pounds of block mica depends less
upon the percentage of gangue than upon the quality of the cut
mica obtained from it. The assertion that Carolina rough mica
yields less cut mica than that from New Hampshire remains to
be proved.
CONCLUSION.
In bringing this article to a close it seems necessary to ex-
plain why no statistics have been given. Such as are accessible
will be found in a compilation by the writer to be published
shortly in the "Mineral Resources of the United States for
1887," U. S. Geol. Survey. In this volume will be found also
a more concise and less technical account of the industry, and
those who wish a bird's-eye view of the matter are referred to it.
North Carolina, for several years past, has contributed over
(50 per cent, of the mica produced in the United States. With
New Hampshire, she produces fully 95 per cent, of the better
quality of mica in the country, and while, indeed, it cannot be
asserted that her mica is better than that from other sources, it
is just as good, and the statistics above referred to show that it is
mined at less cost than New Hampshire mica.
I must say, however, t hat in my opinion these statistics are
erroneous. There cannot exist such a difference between the
effective value of a dollar in North Carolina and New Hamp-
shire as they reveal. It is impossible to believe that one dollar
in North Carolina yielded $8.93, and in New Hampshire only
20 cents, especially when we consider that in the former State
G
96 JOURNAL OF TIIK
shaft mining is the rule and open cut the exception, and in the
latter open cut is the rule and shaft mining the exception.
The much vexed question of cost accounts should not be sub-
mitted to census-takers. It needs something more than mere
scientific information to settle the actual cost of even so simple
a product as mica, aud while the local conditions in North Caro-
lina favor cheap mining they do not necessarily imply it. After
devoting several years to the study of North Carolina mica
mines, and, what is a still more difficult subject, mica miners, I
do not as yet find myself in a position to give an opinion on the
cost of a pound of mica ready for shipment. That it is less
now than it was ten years ago there is good reason for believing,
as also for believing that it will be still farther diminished by
the introductiou of improved machinery, drills, hoists, etc.
The miners and dealers in North Carolina are not at present
at all happy over their prospects. The change to a smaller pat-
tern, the importation of foreigu mica (which pays no duty), and
the discovery of other mines, as in Dakota, Black Hills, Colo-
rado, etc., are among the chief causes of alarm.
The output is diminishing, and that in spite of many good
mines still unworked. The industry, while, indeed, never of any
very great dimensions, was of considerable consequence to the
immediate vicinity.
Probably $300,000 was the geatest value ever reached by any
annual yield, and for the 20 years in which the business has been
carried on it is not likely that the value of the product exceeds
$1,700,000.
Mitchell and Yancey counties have contributed most of the
mica from North Carolina. Good mines have also been opened
and worked in the counties of Stokes, Cleveland and Rutherford,
east of the Blue Ridge, and Buncombe, Haywood, Jackson,
Macon and Cherokee, west of the Ridge.
According to W. C. Kerr, a timbered shaft 100 feet deep
has been discovered on Valley River, Cherokee county.
F. W. Simonds* states that in the Guyer mine, Macon county,
*American Naturalist, 1881,7.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 97
at depths varying from 35 to 50 feet in a shaft of prehistoric
age, were found in 1875 some iron implements, as a pair of gud-
geons, a wedge, etc., of wrought-iron. Shaft mining has been
carried on in this State for 200 years or more. An exploring
party sent out by De Soto may have penetrated as far north as
the south-western corner of Xorth Carolina.
Prehistoric remains of open cuts and shafts for mica mining
are found in Alabama, along a line stretching from Chilton county
north-east through the counties of Coosa, Clay and Cleburne.
It is a little surprising that an industry so old, and yet s'o new,
should have received such scant attention. There is, perhaps, in
the whole country no better place for the study of fissures, and
of the forces causing them, than a well opened mica mine.
It is the purpose of the writer during the ensuing summer to
figure and describe more particularly some of the more interest-
ing of these mines in Yancey and Mitchell counties, and to seek
anew for the relations subsisting between the quality and quan-
tity of the mica, and the depth, dip, strike and walling of the
vein, and the influence exerted by accompanying minerals.
If what has been said shall lead those concerned in such mat-
ters to inquire more especially into them, this article has not
been written in vain. The mica mining counties will well repay
close study, not only on account of the mica, but even more on
account of other minerals, as iron ores, chrome ores, corundum,
asbestos, graphite, talc, etc. Some of the most magnificent forests
of virgin timber in this or any other country still adorn the
mountains and hills of these counties. Chestnut, locust, walnut,
poplar, pine, cherry, etc., flourish in great abundance and beauty.
The new railroad projected down the Toe river in Tennessee will
open a country that needs only to be known to be appreciated.
A fertile soil, an unsurpassed climate, varied and abundant natu-
ral products all combine to render this part of Xorth Carolina
the potential garden spot of the State.
98 JOURNAL OF THE
RECALCULATIONS OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHTS.
F. P. VENABLE.
Within the last five years several attempts have been made by
chemists of prominence to recalculate the many atomic weight
determinations upon a uniform basis and by uniform methods,
and so secure, if possible, a trustworthy table of these most im-
portant constants of nature. Our better knowledge of these ele-
ments and the iucreased accuracy of modern methods promised
favorably for the success of such an undertaking. That such a
revision was called for a glance at the text-books of the time
will abundantly show. The greatest variance was shown in the
tables of atomic weights given. They seemed to be chosen most
arbitrarily. No single authority was recognized, and in many
cases it would have been difficult to trace the source of the num-
bers given. Especially were the differences notable in text-books
of different nationalities. Taking two nearly contemporaneous
text-books widely used in England, America and Germany —
Watts (1878) and Richter (1881)— I find that out of 64 elements
37 per cent, only have the atomic weights the same in both; 22
per cent, differ by from .10 to .25; 20 per cent, differ from .25 to
.50; 10 per cent, differ from .50 to 1.00, and 11 per cent, differ
by more than 1, the difference in several cases ranging from 25
to 40.
To call such a list a table of constants seems ridiculous, nor
does it speak well for chemistry as a science that these, the very
foundation stones on which its building is reared, should be so
unstable and little trustworthy. Analyses calculated by num-
bers so different, as in these two tables, must give very different
results, one or the other, or perhaps both, of which must be
erroneous.
The evil was and is a crying one and demands the best ener-
gies of the wisest chemists to rectify.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 99
The general acceptation of the Law of Periodicity has been
another potent factor in drawing attention to the need for care-
ful revision, and in many cases re-determination of the atomic
weights. Those who have undertaken this revision have met
with many serious obstacles which are still very far from beinLi
overcome. This, I think, will be seen as we proceed in the dis-
cussion of the results obtained.
THE UNIT OR BASIS.
The first essential is the adoption of a unit of calculation or
basis, and this has proved one of the great obstacles in the way
of uniformity. Two elements suggest themselves as bases for
these calculations — hydrogen and oxygen. For fifty years or
more the strife has raged as to which of these should be adopted.
Hydrogen has been practically adopted and used, but the oppo-
sition to it has only slumbered at times and seems rising again
in the past few years. Dalton and Gmelin were the advocates
of the hydrogen unit in early days and Wollaston and Berzelius
advocated oxygen. Among the late revisers and recalculators
Becker* refers all the atomic weights to oxygen —16. Clarkef
gives tables calculated either for oxygen=16 or hydrogen=l.
Sebelien."!: uses the units, hydrogen=l or oxygen=100, as also
do Meyer and Seubert§. Ostwald^f uses bydrogen=l, giving to
oxygen the value 16. Van der Plaats|| has selected oxygeu=K)
as the basis for his recalculation.
There is a decided predominance of authority in favor of
oxygen as the standard and of giving it the value 16, though
-nine would make it appear that this is the same thing as adopt-
ing hydrogen=l.
^Constants of Nature, Part IV, Smithsonian Institution, L880.
fConstants of Nature, Pari V, Smithsonian Institution, 18s7.
JBeitrii ^e zur (icsdiichte der Atoragewichte, 1884.
MM'e Atomgewichte der Elemente, 1883.
^[Lehrbueh der Allgemeinen Cheruie, 1885.
| Annales de Chiruie et de Physique (6 serie) 7 April, 1886.
100 JOURNAL OF THE
What points should decide the choice of our unit? Thev have
been ably discussed by Meyer and Seubert,* but I must confess
they seem to me somewhat blinded themselves by the partisan-
ship of which they accuse their oppouents, and I cannot agree
with them in all of their conclusions.
I would state as the essentials for the unit element :
1st. That it must be one with which the greatest number of
the other elements can be directly compared, thus avoiding the
multiplication of error.
2d. Its own atomic weight must be reasonably small so as not
to make too great the higher atomic weights.
3d. The atomic weights of the other elements gotten by com-
parison with it should be, as many of them as possible, integers,
or nearly so, rendering calculation easier. In spite of all the
tabular aud other aids at the command of the chemist of the
present day, calculations with an atomic weight having an awk-
ward fraction cause the loss of much time.
Now, on examining, with a view to these requisites, the two
elements proposed as units oxygen alone will be found to answer
every requirement.
Nearly all of the present atomic weights have been determined
by the aid of oxygen.
Few can be directly compared with hydrogen, and this forms
the almost insuperable objection to hydrogen as a standard.
Hydrogen has been used for the past half century for the two last
reasons cited among the requisites. As it has the smallest atomic
weight, all the others would be above unity if it were taken as the
unit. Thus fractional atomic weights were avoided, and again a
large number of the other atomic weights compared with it are ap-
proximately integers. I am confident that this is mainly made use
of as a matter of convenience and of custom at the present day,
and that no special weight is attached to the coincidences with
whole numbers. It did give rise to a visionary sort of hypothe-
sis, first enunciated by the Rev. Mr. Prout in 1815, and hence
*Berichte der dentpchen Chem. Gesell., XVIII, 1,089.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 101
called Prout's Hypothesis, that all of the atomic weights were
multiples of that of hydrogen, and, as an inference to be drawn,
that hydrogen was the primal element of which thev were made.
This hypothesis has had many valiant defenders and a large
number of most determined opponents, and it has called forth
work that has been of immense benefit to the science. It is well
that this one good thing can be spoken of so many false suppo-
sitions and theories. As an hypothesis it is based on a few coin-
cidences which were to be naturally looked for in the light of
mathematics and the law of probabilities. One may say that
no absolute proof in its favor has ever been advanced, nor does
it seem capable of proof at the present day. A cursory exam-
ination would reveal proportionately similar coincidences for
some of the other elements. I say proportionately for, of course,
the smaller the atomic weight the greater the number of its
multiples and the greater the probability of coincidences within
the limits given.
I cannot believe that Meyer and Seubert* are serious when
they state it as a "striking fact that the atomic weights of more
than one-fourth of all the elements are very nearly multiples of
the half atomic, or equivalent weight of oxygen," giving a table
to show this, and adding that "such regularities are worthy of
note." They can scarcely be worthy of much note, for such
regularities or coincidences would be exceedingly probable where
we have sixty or seventy elements with atomic weights under
240 and take a small number with thirty or more multiples in the
same range. The smaller the number the more numerous will be
the multiples and consequently the coincidence-. To show this,
I have added to the table of Meyer and Seubert two other lists
of multiples and "regularities."
*Loc. cit.
102
JOURNAL OF THE
TABLE No. I.
-
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Cm
-
.2-11
3 5
L5.9C
23.94
31.02
39.90
47.88
55.8G
63.84
71.82
79.80
87.78
95.76
L03.74
111.72
119.70
127.68
17 135.66
18 143.64
1!)
20
21
22
23
24
2.".
26
27
151.62
159.60
167.58
175.56
183.54
L91.52
199.50
207.48
215.46
28 223.44
29 231.42
30
31
32
33
239.40
c
I
E
O
Mg....
S
Ca
Ti
Fe
Cu
Ge
Br
Sr
Mo....
Ru. ..
Cd.. ..
Sb
w.
Ill
Th.
11...
34
i.
o
c
0!
I
0
0
+.06
+.01
+.13
+ .02
—.66
+.50
—.01
—.48
+.14
—.24
0
—.10
Hg +.30
+ .011
—.18
+.54
+.40
Z .A
y
i —
'- •>
- iC
7,04
10.56
14.08
17.00
21.12
24.64
28.10
31.68
35.20
38.72
42.24
45.76
49.28
52.80
50.32
58.82
63.3G
66.88
70.40
73.92
77.44
80.96
84.48
88.00
91.52
95.04
98.56
102.08
105.60
L09.12
112.64
110.10
L19.68
123.20
a
-.
£
-
Li.
Be.
Ni
Mg.
si...
s....
01...
K...
Cr..
Fe.
Co
Cu.
Ga.
Sr..
Zr..
Mo.
o
□
CP
u
(I
+ .44
— .04
—.26
—.10
+.38
+ .2.".
+.41
—.50
—.32
+.28
—.03
.50
—.48
—.92
+ .86
p.l
—.60
Cd
—.56
Sb
+.61
en
C
'- O
i
Z--
a
-
W
12.00
18.00
24.00
30.00
36.00
42.00
48.00
54.00
(iO.OO
00.1 HI
72.00
78.00
84.00
90.00
96.00
L02.00
108.00
114.00
120.00
120.00
132.00
L38.00
144.00
150.00
1. 56.00
102 00
168.00
174.00
180.00
186.00
192.00
198.00
204.00
210.00
c.
Co..
Zn..
Ger
Zr..,
Mo.
Ag.
Ir..
Sb.
Te.
Cs..
La.
■j.
o>
o
=
CP
—
CP
Mg
+ .38
CI.
—.55
Ti
+ .12
—.90
—.62
+ -'!2
+
70
—
.10
-L
i
00
—
30
+
29
—
80
+
88
+
;,ii
ISm
+ .20
yb
—.80
TI
+.15
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.
103
TABLE No,. I— Continued.
c
3
■-
1
°C
a
w X
— OS
^ I-
a5
a
s
£
at/
a*
o
a
ep
-
5
Multiples of
3.52=% Li.
0
-
S
W
i-
■ <&
o
^-
CD
z
5
Multiples of
6 '.,C.
■j.
-43
a
s
o
o
a
a>
5
•>(i
126.72
129.24
132.76
136.28
140.80
144.32
172.48
183.14
193.70
197.22
200.7 1
204,26
■-'117.78
218.34
239.46
1
+.14
216.00
222.00
228.00
234.00
240.00
''~l
38
■ -
+ .12
+.76
T.70
+ .08
+ .72
-.34
—.59
—.48
—.30
—.11
+.23
+ .66
+.54
Th
D
•'■<>
Ba
Ce
Di
—1.00
10
—1.00
11
49
5°
Yb
Ta
Ir
All
Hg
Tl
55
56
57
. ...
59
Bi
Ng
U
62
68
i
I cannot think that the.se authors really mean this as in any
way a plea for oxygen=15.96. It must be intended to show the
ridiculous nature of the grounds upon which Front's Hypothe-
sis has been based. Certainly they are correct in their deduc-
tion that "to attempt to correct the atomic weights by them (■/. e.,
these regularities) would be just as incorrect as to round them off
into whole numbers." With such glaring and persistent excep-
tions as chlorine, chromium, copper, strontium, gold and others,
the hypothesis of Front must fail to take its place as a law, since
no law could be accepted with so large a percentage of exceptions.
It is not necessary to discuss the modifications of Front's Hy-
pothesis which have been proposed — the half-atom or fourth-
atom of hvdrogen as unit, etc. Such changes really do away with
all meaning to the hypothesis, and the valuable idea which
Meyer and Seubert acknowledge may lie concealed in it, is lost.
That the hypothesis is still doing yeoman's service to science
is shown by the number of new determinations, within the past
two years, of the ratio between hydrogen and oxygen. It is
104 JOURNAL OF THE
evidence of the struggle to retain the old unit hydrogen, and at
the same time secure accuracy for it, bv fixing; definitely its relation
to oxygen, by means of which nearly all comparisons with the
other elements must be made. I fear that much of this work
would not have been done if it had been made to appear that the
atomic weight of hydrogen, and not of oxygen, was aimed at.
The atomic weight of hydrogen has only the ordinary interest
of that of any of the elements. With the atomic weight of
oxygen they all stand or fall, no matter which we choose as our
theoretical unit. The new determinations referred to are:
Rayleigh (Chemical News, Vol. 57, p. 73), 0= 15.9 12.
Cooke & Richards (Am. Chem. Journal, Vol. 10, p. 81),
0=15.953.
Cooke & Richards (Am. Chem. Journal, Vol. 10, p. 91),
0=15.869.
Keiser (Am. Chem. Journal, Vol. 10, p. 250), 0= 15.949.
Morley,* is at work upon it and cites Scott, H:0 :: 1.994: 1,
by volume. This makes the atomic weight of oxygen less that
16, as all of the others do. None of them come up, indeed, to the
present assumption of 0=15.96, so if these investigators are
correct, or more nearly correct than those who have preceded
them, the whole table of atomic weights must be again shifted.
It is time, then, that hydrogen were finally discarded as the
unit. Oxygen is in every way preferable, and nothing like uni-
formity will be attained until it is adopted.
With oxygen as the standard, what value shall be assigned it?
Four values have been suggested: 1st, 0=1 ; 2d, O=10; 3d,
0=16; 4th, O=100.
If 0=1 we would have nearly 10 per cent, of the elements
represented by decimal fractious and the following partial table
would show other inconveniences:
Al. 1.694 Cr 3.2^4
F 1.194 Fe 3.501
Mg 1.500 Co 3.67
Na 1.4408 Cu 3.95
P 1.940 Mn 3.4:'.
S 2.0037 Ni 3.67
Ti 3.15
Si 1.754 V 3.20
♦American Chemical Journal, Vol. 10, p. 21.
ELISHA MITCHELL .SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 105
The differences between the elements are too small for speedy
recognition or for easy memorizing. 0=1 is manifestly too small.
Considering next the fourth suggestion, 0=100, we see that
just the opposite objection holds good. Over one-fifth of the
elements would be represented by numbers exceeding 1000. Few
of these could be accurately given as far as the fourth place.
For instance, shall gold be represented by the number 1229.4, or
1225.1, or 1234., or 1249., all of which are actual determina-
tions? From long custom we have come to regard a whole num-
ber as being correct and the decimals as indicating approxima-
tions. It would seem to be best still to hide our imperfections
under the decimals.
The only claim that can be adduced in favor of O=10 is that
we will then have ihe atomic weights on the decimal system.
This is not true, however, unless the other atomic weights are
multiples of ten. A glance at a few of the elements will show
that the numbers would be complicated, rather than simplified,
by such an unit.
H = o.2<;:> c = 7.502
Li = 4.39 N = 8. 77'. I
Be = 5.89 F =11.94
B =6.83 Na =14.408
C = 7.502 Fe =35.01
N = 8.779 Co =36.70
F =11.94 Mn=34.30
Na= 14.408 Cu =39.50
That is, the eight first elements which in our present tables are
approximately whole numbers and in ordinary calculations com-
monly taken as such (especially in technical analyses, and we
must not let theoretical considerations take us out of sight of
the practical side of chemistry) are when compared with 0=10
burdened with cumbrous fractions and brought inconveniently
near to one another. 'This last consideration is of especial weight
when the clearness of the Periodic Law is considered.
There remains, then, only 0=16 to be considered. The
advantage of this unit may be summed up as follow-:
1st. Every atomic weight is above unity and yet not inconven-
ientlv large.
106 JOURNAL OF THE
2d. The distance between the atomic weights renders them
easy to memorize and is more convenient for the illustration of
the Periodic Law.
3d. About two-thirds of the atomic weights are either whole
numbers or vary from whole numbers bv fractions of^-or less.
4th. The adoption of this as a unit practically means the re-
tention of most of the numbers so long in use. The valuable
literature of the past three or four decades need not be rendered
less useful and intelligible to the chemists of the present and
the future, as it would be by radical changes in these combining
numbers.
Some chemists seem to feel an especial repugnance to this unit
because it is too arbitrary and unusual, not bearing upon its face
the fact that it is the unit, and again because hydrogen is then
represented by the number 1.0025. The arbitrariness of it seems
unavoidable: as to why they should be troubled by the number
given hydrogen is not very apparent. The fraction is an easy
one to handle and may often be neglected. It can make no pos-
sible difference in the close calculations of organic chemistry
cited by Meyer and Seubert, whether H=l and 0= 15.96 or
H= 1.0025 and 0=16. The only thing is to keep the ratio
which most exact research reveals as existing between the two.
The tendency of the day is toward 0=16 and it should be
universally adopted. To avoid dangerous assumptions the other
atomic weights should be rigidly put down in accord with the
most accurate determinations available. This brings us to con-
sider another difficulty and cause of variation.
METHODS OF CALCULATION.
Clarke, Sebelien, and others, who have worked over this
problem, have been greatly troubled as to what data should be
used in the recalculations and what rejected. Manifestly the
results of many of the older experimenters can lay no great
claims to accuracy. Some, as Clarke says, are " chemically
worthless because of constant errors." Many have neglected
proper precautions or necessary corrections. And yet there are
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 107
reasons for retaining much of this, and the retention or rejection
is a point of judgment on which chemists may, and do, legiti-
mately differ. An additional sentence of Clarke's reveals the
extent of the trouble. " In fact, it is doubtful," he says, " whether
any two chemists, working independently, would handle all the
data in precisely the same way, or combine them so as to pro-
duce exactly the same final results."
The accompanying tables, giving the calculations of Clarke,
Meyer and Seubert (the 0=1(3 table was worked out from their
0=1), Van der Plaats, and Ostwald,* show the truth of this.
The two last agree more nearly than the others, and yet the va-
riations are numerous and sometimes as large as 5 in the case of
osmium; 3 in the case of mercury; 1 iu the case of uranium,
etc. (nanimity in regard to an atomic weight does not always
mean that the weight is correct. Paucity of data sometimes
limits the chances for variation. Indium, for instance, and
gallium and beryllium have been subjected to few investigations.
The mathematical side of the question, whether the method
of least squares should be adopted, or by what formulae the
probable errors should be calculated, and by what the results
combined, is, of course, of great importance, and the subject of
varying views, but cannot be discussed here.
*Ostwald's table is put down under the head of 0=16. He gives it as
H=l and also 0=16, but the numbers most nearly correspond with the latter.
108
JOURNAL OF THE
TABLE No. II.
OXYGEN Hi.
Symbol.
Clarke.
Meyer &
Seubert.
Ag
107.923
107.929
Al
27.075
27.1(17
A-
75.090
75.087
Au
190.606
196.690
B
10.966
10.927
Ba
L37.007
137.202
Be
9.106
9.103
Bi
208.001
208.019
Br
79.951
79.954
C
12.0011
11.999
Ca
41 ,082
40.009
Cd
112.092
111.979
Ce
140.747
141.553
CI
35.451
35.458
Co
59.023
58.746
Cr
52.127
52.581
Cs
132.918
133.032
Cu
63.318
63.338
Di
1 14.906
145.362
Er
166.273
L66 415
F
19.027
19.109
Fe
56.042
56.015
Ga
68.963
70.072
Ge
72.32
=Determ
H
1.0023
1.0024
Hg
2(1(1.171
20H.299
I
126.848
126.856
In
113.659
113.683
Ir
193.094
192.981
K
39.109
39.128
La
138.S44
138.sK;
Li
7.0235
7.028
Jig
24.014
23.999
Mn
54.029
54.937
Mo
95.747
96.139
N
14.029
14.045
Na
23.051
94.027
23.052
93.934
Nb
Ni
58.062
16.000
198.951
58.746
16.000
195.487
0
Os
P.
31.029
31.037
Pb
206.946
206.906
Pd
L05.981
106.465
Pt
194.867
194.826
Rb
85.529
85.413
Rh
104.285
I04.:j.<;o
Ru
104.457
103.759
s
32.058
120.231
32.059
119.899
8b
-
44. o.sl
44.07'.!
78.978
79.01 17
Si
28.260
28.07
8m
Sn
11 7. DCS
117.01:;
Sr
87.575
87.518
Ta
182.562
L82.455
Te
128.254
128.019
Th
233.951
232.539
Ti
49 '."ii
50.373
Tl
204.183
20 1.209
I"
239.030
240.399
V
51.373
51.228
W
184.032
184.059
Y
90.023
89.824
Yb
173.158
65.05-1
173.081
65.042
Zn
Zr
573
'90. 020
Van der
Plaats.
( >stwald.
107.9:;
27.08
75.0
196.7
11.0
137.1
ill
208.0
79.9.-).".
12.005
4o.o
112.1
141.5
35.456
58.8 or 60
52.3
132.8
03.:;:;
145
166
19.0
50 0
70.
ination of
l.oo
200.1
120.SG
113.7
193.0
39.144
138.0
7.02
24.4
55.0
90.0
14.05
23.05
9.40
58. or 58.8
10.01)0
195
30.95
200.91
106.5
194.9
85.4
104.
104.
32.06
120.0
44.
79.
28.0
1 51 )
L18.1
87.5
L82.8
125
233
48.1
204.2
2lo
51.3
Is 1.0
S9.5
17.;
05 3
90.5
107.938
27.os
75.0
190.7
11.0
137.04
9.10
208.01
7! 1.903
12.000
40.00
112.08
141.5
35.45:;
59.1
52.3
132.88
63.33
115
166
19.01
56.00
69.9
Winkler.
1.00
200.4
120.S04
113.7
193.11
39.130
138.5
7.030
2 1 38
55.02
95.9
14.041
23.058
94.2
5S.5
16.00
21 II )
31.03
206.911
106.
194. S3
85.44
103.05
L03.8
32.003
120.29
44.09
79.07
28.06
150.2
lis. 12
87.52
182.8
125.2
233
18.12
201.140
239
51.21
184.0
S9.(l
173.2
65.38
90.7
HYDROGEN=l.
Symbol. Clarke.
Ag..
Al..
As.
Au..
B ...
Ba..
Be..
Bi..
Br..
C....
Ca .
Cd .
CI ..
Co..
Cr..
Cs .
Cu..
Di..
Er .
F...
Fe ..
Ga..
Ge..
H...
Hg.
I ....
In..
Ir..
K .
La .
Li..
Mg.
M n .
Mo.
N...
Na..
Ml.
Ni..
<>....
Os .
p....
Pb .
Pd..
Pt..
Rb.
Rh .
Ru .
S ...
Sb..
So...
Se..
Si ..
Sm
Sr..
Ta..
107.675
27.0H9
74.918
190.155
10.9 11
130.7(13
9.085
207.523
79.768
11.9736
39.990
111.835
140.424
35.370
58.887
52.009
132.5s:;
03.173
144.573
105.891
18.9-1
55.913
68.854
1.(1000
199.712
1 13.3. is
113.398
192.051
39.019
138.520
7.007
23.95!)
53.900
95.527
14.021
22.99S
93.812
57.92S
15.903
198.494
30.9 •
200,171
105.737
194.415
85.251
104.055
Kil.217
31.984
119.955
43.9SO
78.707
28.195
Mover &
Seubert.
107.66
27.04
71.9
190.2
10.9
136.86
9.08
207.5
79.70
11.97
39.91
111.7
141.2
35.37
58.6
52.45
132.7
63.18
145.0
166.
19.oo
55.88
09.9
1.00
199.8
113.4
113.4
192.5
39.03
138.5
7.ol
23.94
54.8
95.9
14.01
22.995
93.7
58.6
15.90
195.
3O.90
206.39
100.2
194.34
85.2
104.1
10.3.5
31.98
119.0
43.97
78.87
28.0
Te
Th.
Ti
Tl ..
rj
V ..
w
Y...
Yb
Zn
Zr.
117.'
87.374
182.1 II
127.901)
233.414
49 846
203 715
238.482-
51.250
183.610
89.81C
172.701
64.9045
89.367
117.35
87.3
182.
127.7
231.96
50.25
203.7
239.8
51.1
1-3.0
89.6
172
04. ss
90.4
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 109
Out of 66 elements the revisers agree on 29 to the tenth place of
decimals, differing in the hundredth place only. In the reclam-
ing '-)!, or 56 per cent., the differences are mure or less great.
The increased interest in these re determinations of atomic
weights, giving fresh data for calculation and enabling us to
throw off some of the burden of faulty determinations, gives
promise of an approximately correct table in the near future.
I cannot close without adverting to the speculations of some
authors as to the question whether we are to expect these atomic
weights to be fixed quantities. In other words,
ARE THE ATOMIC WEIGHTS CONSTANT?
This question Stas proposed to himself, before starting upon
his classic work on the atomic weights. The conclusion he drew
from his experiments was that they were unchangeable. The
question has been raised again by Schiitzenberger and Butlerow.*
Butlerow does not doubt the results obtained by Stas, but slig-
hts that under changed conditions or with different bodies the
results might have been otherwise.
Of course, if the atomic weights are not constant, the law of
constant proportions is without support and must be given up,
and this would necessitate a revolution in chemistry as a science
These authors suppose the range of variation in the weights
to be verv slight, yet distinctly to be detected bv analysis. The
theories of both are supported by analytical data, in which the
authors seem to place the utmost confidence. If their results
art' not accurate, the variability of the atomic weights stands
unproven. To show the nature of their experiments, Sebelien
quotes from Schutzenberger's work his synthesis of water. Ac-
cording as this is carried out with copper oxide, at red heat, or
by the lowest possible temperature, or with lead chromate, the
*Bull. de la Soc. Chim. de Paris, 39, 258.
*BulI. de la Sue. Chim. de Paris 39, 263.
Cited in Zeitschrift fur Anal. Chemie, 22, 640, and Sebelien. Geschichte
der Atomgewichte, 5 I.
110 JOURNAL OF THE
relation between the oxygen and hydrogen varies from 7.89 to
7.98. Or again, the atomic weight of iron, determined from
the nitrate, he finds to be 54., whilst that from the oxalate is 56.
He found also that carbon dioxide prepared by burning pure
carbon at a high temperature contained more oxygen than that
prepared, by means of carbon monoxide, from organic bodies.
The generality of chemists will be more apt, I think, to suppose
the analytical work of these investigators faulty than to accept
their conclusions as to the inconstancy of the atomic weights.
Yet the matter is of the utmost importance and should be de-
cided with as great freedom from preconceived notions as possi-
ble. It is a question exceedingly difficult to decide and will require
great nicety and accuracy of work. Many of the most trusted
leaders of work and thought in the science will have to concur
in testimony derived from their own experiments before any
attempt at altering the science to suit the new facts will be made.
We must not say, because we are mentally satisfied with the
present theories and dread the trouble which so radical a change
would cause, that the supposition is impossible and need not be
considered.
Butlerow offers three possible explanations of his own and
Schutzeuberger's observations :
1. The absolute amount of matter has been increased in that
the so-called force or energy has been changed into matter.
2. The absolute amount of matter is unchanged, but its weight
is increased by means of a temporary increase in the intensity
with which the earth attracts matter.
3. The weight of matter is not increased in either way, but
the chemical value is changed. The atomic weight of carbon,
for instance, may be temporarily changed from 12 to 11.8 and
thus the saturation capacity of carbon raised by about -£§. The
amount of carbonic acid made from the same amount of carbon
would thus be increased and would be richer in oxygen.
The first two suppositions would be subversive of Natural
Philosophy generally. The last would simply be subversive of
Chemistry as now systematized. As Sebelien says, we must give
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Ill
up, under the third supposition, our idea of atoms, for au atom
is nothing if not a fixed weight of something. Vogel* 1ms
also come to the conclusion that the atomic weights vary
because those gotten by the use of certain compounds differ
throughout from those derived from other compounds. By this
assumption he also explains the cases in which analyses result in
a sum total of over 100 per cent. It seems much more plausi-
ble to explain these variations on the ground of errors of analysis,
constant errors of method, impurities of materials, and the many
other difficulties and obstacles which a chemist meets in such
work, than by the radical assumption of an inconstancy in the
very constants on which the science is founded and built up.
At any rate until much more proof is forthcoming the matter
must rest in abeyance.
Contribution from N. C. Agricultural Experiment Station.
No. XVI I.
OX THE CHANGE IN SUPERPHOSPHATES WHEN
THEY ARE APPLIED TO THE SOIL.
II. B. BATTLE.
Without discussing at this time the value of the soluble phos-
phoric acid of superphosphates over the phosphoric acid of
other forms, nor of the exact nature of the so-called reverted
phosphoric acid, I have attempted in this article to show the
change that takes place in superphosphate- when they are ap-
plied to the soil. How the various forms of phosphoric acid,
that soluble in water, that insoluble in water, and that insoluble
in the standard ammonium citrate solution, all are affected la-
this application ; in other words, when agriculturally the acid
•Nature, Vol. 41, |». 42.
8
112 JOURNAL OF THE
phosphate is applied to the field the original phosphoric acid
com pounds of the phosphate no longer remain unaltered, but
rapidly assume other forms and enter into new combinations.
Xor will any special discussion be entered upon as to the exact
chemical compounds which are formed by this change, beyond
those which may be classified under the general heads of soluble,
insoluble, and reverted phosphates.
That superphosphates, after being applied to the soil, when
partly dissolved by rains are not leached from the soil, as is the
case with some soluble compounds, such as kainit or ammonia
salts, is well known. H. Von Liebig* has shown by analysis
of the soil and subsoil at Rothamsted of certain plots of land
which had received 350 pounds of superphosphate per acre
yearly for a period of 22 years that in the first nine inches of
the soil three-fourths of the total amount of the phosphoric
acid found were present; in the next nine inches the remainder
was found ; while below this no appreciable quantity was detected
over the natural contents of the soil. It is seen, therefore, that
out of a total amount of nearly 40 tons applied to the acre dur-
ing these years none of the soluble phosphoric acid of the super-
phosphate had been leached or diffused below a depth of eighteen
inches, and nearly all had remained less than a foot below the
surface. From the result of this examination it is readily seen
that the soil prevents excessive diffusion of the soluble phos-
phoric acid and precipitates it by the action of some of its com-
ponent parts, in forming less soluble compounds. The cause of
this precipitation is due to the presence of lime,f also to the
sesquioxides of iron and alumina, X and to some extent silica and
silicious matters. §
The precipitation in the case of lime salts is undeniably fast;
so much so that Wagner^f thinks that is so great that no diffu-
sion of any kind can exist. While this may be true of soils
*Journal Royal Agricultural Society, 17, 1881, 281.
fVoelcker, Journ. Roy. Ag. Soc, 16, 1, 153.
JMillot, Jour. d'Ag. Prat., '74, 1, 166.
gColson, Bull, de la Soc. Chem., '80, p. 153.
^[Lehrbuch der Duiingerfabrikation, '87, 63.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.
113
where the content of carbonate of lime is exceptionally high,
still with such soils as those containing only a fraction of a per
cent, it is not likely that the action is nearly as great, unless it
is due to other causes.
The precipitation does not take place till the acid phosphate
is dissolved l>y the rain or soil moisture, and so conies in more
intimate contact with the various soil particles. This explains
the fact that the action of superphosphates is more apt to be
feeble in dry weather than at any other time. In some instances
particles of acid phosphate, after having been in the soil for six-
weeks of continuous dry weather, have been examined and have
been found acid and unchanged.
The following experiments are cited to illustrate the action of
various soils on superphosphates. The original calculations are
further extended so as to be more comparable one with the other:
I. Voelcker, in I860,* showed that every soil, without excep-
tion, acts at once on the superphosphate as soon as it comes in
contact with the moist surface. He experimented with various
descriptions of soils, using in each case, however, a very large
excess of water. To 12 oz. soil were added 109.24 grains or
nearly J oz. of superphosphate (containing 40.6 grains soluble
phosphate) dissolved in 1J pints of water; or to 12 oz. of soil
nearly J oz. soluble phosphate was used; equivalent to 1 part
of soluble phosphate to 100 parts of soil. With these amounts
he obtained the following results (Table 1):
TABLE I.
SHOWING ACTION OF SOILS OX srPERPHOSPHATES-VOELCKER'S RESULTS.
SOILS.
Containing per
cent. < >xide Iron
and Alumina.
Containing per
cent. Carbonate
Lime.
In 24 hours were
precipitated of
the Dissolved
Phosphate (con-
taining 40.6
grai
1. Red Loamy
6.10
7.54
17.38
7.85
12.16
1 .22
67.50
L.02
2.08
.15
24.29 grns.
31.40 "
'. I lalcareous
:;. stiff ('lav Subsoil
i9.:$o "
1. Stiff Clay Surface
■3 1.7,1 ••
•ji.it; "
*Cited by H. von Liel.ig, Roy. Ag. Soc, 19, 1, p. 283.
114 JOURNAL OF THE
Prof. Nessler, with loamy soil containing 18 per cent, of car-
bonate of lime, but with 3.4 times as much superphosphate (or
1 part soluble phosphate with 30 of soil), obtained like results.
We notice from the above table: 1st. That lime causes pre-
cipitation more than any other element in the soil, for with the
largest content of carbonate of lime we have the greatest pre-
cipitation; 2d. Nothing definite can be said in regard to the
precipitative power of the oxides of iron and alumina, for in
mixture 1, with a per cent, of 6.10, the precipitation is 24.29,
while in 3, with a content of iron and alumina nearly three
times as great, the precipitation is actually less. The same can
be said of mixtures 4 and 5, though in a less degree.
In these experiments, however, a very large excess of water
was used. While in the soil merely moistening would be the
actual condition, we have here a volume of water about three
times that of the soil. It is impossible, therefore, to approxi-
mate by these experiments the real action on the phosphate by
the soil; we must necessarily have a much smaller quantity of
water for the experimental mixing.
II. Wagner, in 1877,* records the following experiments.
In these the amount of water is much smaller than the forego-
ing, and much uearer represents what might actually be said to
take place in the soil :
Twenty-five grams bone ash superphosphate, containing ex-
actly 5 grams soluble phosphoric acid, was mixed with 60 grams
air dry clay soil, containing 5.11 per cent, carbonate of lime, and
6cc. water. After 24 hours in a closed vessel it lost 2.725
grams phosphoric acid: 100 parts of soil absorbed, therefore,
under these conditions, 4.81 grams phosphoric acid. In like
manner other results were obtained, which I have recorded in
Table II.
*Lehrbuch der Duungerfabrikation, p. 69.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.
115
TABLE II.
SHOWING ACTION OF SOILS ON SUPERPHOSPHATES- WAGNERS RESULTS
50
E
g Sol-
os.
ams.
GO
1 has per
ent. Carbo-
ate Lime.
o
I
a
5
f Soil
Sol.
•id.
O tD
ontiiinin
uble IMi
Acid, gi
s
5:
c:
C s-
I =
c °
= So
* —
- En
- C Ij
- /. c
— ^:^:
'o
•5oc
MJ3
£-<
o<£-
x
o
X
02
H
O
r— '
1.
■J.-.
5
60
.',.11
24
2.72*
4.81*
■1.
25
5
60
5.11
3
2.92
L87
3.
51
10
30
23.71
48
7.35
24.50
4.
51
10
30
23.71
:;
7.10
23.66
5.
25
5
60
23.71
3
4.66
7.7.-,
In order better to compare the above results, I have calculated
the following (Table III):
TABLE III.
SHOWING FINAL ACTION IN TABLE II.
G '/' —
/ a
0) c 0
a — •
- — X
le I'll
1 |08<
cent.
betw
ible 1
1 and
Z D
-Q~ U
-X
~ u CP
— <!a
0
X
300
~X«J
1.
54.40*
1: 12
2.
58.40
1 : 12
3.
73.50
1 : 3
4.
71.00
1 : 3
5.
93.20
1 : 12
The observations that can be drawn from these experiment-
give nearly the same results noticed in the experiments of
Voelcker, viz. :
1st. That presence of lime in the soil causes rapid precipita-
tion of the soluble phosphoric acid of the superphosphates.
2d. The larger the content of lime the greater is the action.
3d. That the duration of action increases the amount precipi-
tated, and
4th. The increase of the amount of the soil, where the super-
phosphate remains the same, naturally increases the precipitation,
just as the increase of the content of lime in the soil would so
increase it; for in each case the superphosphate is brought in
contact with a larger amount of lime.
♦The results here recorded contain a mistake which was noticed in the original cal-
culations; so in the comparison mixture 1 mn.-t be omitted.
116 JOURNAL OF THE
To illustrate these results: A given quantity of soluble phos-
phoric acid is brought in contact with a moist soil containing
5.11 calcium carbonate; after three hours 58.40 per cent, of the
phosphoric acid is precipitated. The same quantify of soluble
phosphoric acid is next mixed with the same quantity as before
of a moist soil containing 4J times as much calcium carbonate.
The precipitation now amounts to 93.20 per cent, after three
hours have elapsed, due, without much doubt, to the increased
amount of lime in the mixture. Next the same quantity of
soluble phosphoric acid is mixed with J of the quantity of the
soil of the last mixture, and after three hours 71.00 per cent.
phosphoric acid is found to be precipitated; and by continuing
the action after 48 hours 73.50 per cent, is precipitated, showing
that the amount of the soil and the time of contact are also
potent factors in the precipitation.
From these experiments we see that so far as lime soils are
concerned the precipitation takes place, and takes place rapidly,
when sufficient moisture is present to insure perfect contact. But
how is it in regard to other soils — for many localities soils
abounding in lime, such as the above experimental soils, are
most rare? And indeed many of our soils are sadly deficient
in this most useful of ingredients. Does iron and alumina act
in the same manner, and does the presence of organic matter or
other ingredients alter this action? And to what extent will this
action continue after the lapse of time? These and other ques-
tions will be discussed in the following investigation.
It was endeavored as far as possible in the following experi-
ments to imitate nature's action on the addition of superphos-
phates to the soil, and to retain the best conditions for obtaining
strictly accurate analytical results. The disadvantage which one
meets with at the first step in pursuing such investigation is the
impossibility of having these natural conditions, even in ca>es
where extreme care is taken ; at best we can only approximate
them. All of the conditions cannot be complied with : the effect
of the frost, the rains and snow with the dissolved carbonic acid,
the heat of the day and the cold of the nights; the variation
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 117
from the dry to the moist condition of the soil, all or nearly all
have to be partially neglected and only in a crude way can thev
be imitated.
And again, the proportion of the soluble phosphoric acid of
the superphosphate to the quantity of the soil in the experiment
cannot be made to agree with that in nature; this also, in a gen-
eral way, must be approximated.
The result, when reached, will express at least not absolute
but relative results.
The plan pursued was to mix an acid phosphate with soils of
different composition, and to observe by analysis the changes
resulting from such a mixture after the lapse of time. The main
difficulty experienced in the outset was that of procuring iden-
tical portions for analyses. One large heap mixed in the proper
proportions and sampled at stated times would not answer the
conditions; for the sampling itself might not contain the proper
quantity of the soil and fertilizer, and so prove a fruitful source
of error.
The difficulty was met by mixing at the same time many little
heaps in the same proportion and in such quantity that the whole
heap could be analyzed at stated intervals.
The details of the experiments were as follows:
A. The acid phosphate used was freshly prepared from S. C.
Rock, carefully ground to pass a 60 mesh seive, and carefully
mixed. Its analysis (using the method of Official Agricultural
Chemist for 1886-'87, where the insoluble phosphate is treated
for 30 minutes at a temperature of 65° C, shaking at intervals
of 5 minutes) resulted as follows (Table IV):
TABLE IV.
ANALYSIS OF ACID PHOSPHATE.
Moisture.
Total Phos. Acid.
Sol. Phos. Acid.
Insol. Phos. Acid.
, . I '.v fusion 15.26 Assoc. Method 12.63 Assoc. Method 0.92
By Assoc. Method... L5.29 Vssoe. Method 12.82 Assoc. Method 0.87
I Average 15.27 Average 12.72 Average I
B. The soils chosen were four in number and of varied char-
acter. The original field sample was air dried, crushed with the
118
JOURNAL OF THE
hand and put through a 60 mesh sieve. The fine earth (that
passed the sieve) alone was used in the analysis and experi-
ments. (See Table V).
The names of the varieties of soils below were given as sug-
ted by Boussingault,* dependent on actual contents of the
various ingredients, and were :
1. Sandy, with little Clay.
2. Stiff Clav.
4. Sandy, with Humus.
5. Clayey Sand.
table v.
SHOWING ANALYSES OF SOIL-
V
Variety of Soils.
3
c5
u
OS
o
---
6
CM
CM r*
C-5
ID
o
z w
-
d
0j
O
tJ3
—
5
CM
O
CM
at
—
c
D
36.11
63.89
w
>
GO
0.478
fe
O
.260
.108
X
.039
M
.100
.158
r*
1.520
2.797
91.220
3.845
100.095
•J. Stiff Clav
20.75
79.25
5.975
4.752
58.955
0.204
28.125
.830
.625
.062
.050
.004
99.882
Sandy — Humus
4.73
95.27
15.160
18.840
63.370
.048
1.795
.470
.077
.070
.Kil
99.931
II.Cll
99.40
6.497
7.S97
76.220
.118
8.275
.425
.ins
.3! Ml
.154
100.084
Each mixture consisted of 1 gram acid phosphate and 4 grams
of the soil, and was carefully and thoroughly intermixed and
stirred to a thick paste, by the addition of a few cubic centime-
tres of distilled water. A short glass rod was used for this pur-
pose, which was allowed to remain in the mixture. The vessel
containing the mixture was a small cylindrical glass jar, 50 mm.
in diameter and 62 mm. high. Sixty-four of these mixtures,
representing sixteen sets of each of the four varieties of soils,
were prepared at the same time, each containing 1 gram of acid
phosphate and 4 grams of soil. Each of the jars, covered with
a small glass plate, was placed on one of a series of shelves in a
covered wooden box about 12 inches square aud 12 inches high.
A thermometer inserted in the box registered a mean temper-
ature of 20° C. ; the extreme variation during the whole time,
'11 weeks, was 18°-24°, which was about the heat of the work-
ing laboratory.
*Rural Economy, Translated by Law, p. 226.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 119
Four of these portions, representing each of the above soils,
were analyzed immediately after mixing, four were analyzed two
days after, four three days after, one week after, and so on. At
the end of every week the contents of each of the vessels were
stirred, and again moistened if at all dry.
In analyzing, the whole mixture, consisting of 5 grams, was
treated with water and washed till no longer acid for the deter-
mination of phosphoric acid, then digested with lOOce. neutral
ammonium citrate (S. G.=1.09) for 30 minutes at a temperature
of 65° C. ; and continuing according to the Association Method,
referred to above, for the insoluble phosphoric acid, with some
slight modification made necessary by the larger bulk of the
materials. The total phosphoric acid of course remains the same
throughout.
Allowing -| of the acid phosphate to be soluble phosphoric acid,
we see that the ratio the soluble phosphoric acid bore to the soil was
in the experiments, 1 to 32; i. e., for every part of the soluble
phosphoric acid in the mixture there existed 32 parts of the soil ;
a mixture more nearly representing nature than is recorded in
the experiments of Wagner, where the rati') was 1 : 3 and 1:12.
(In the table (Table VI) the corrected percentages of insolu-
ble phosphoric acid are given, which were obtained by subtracting
from the insoluble phosphoric acid found in the mixture the
per cent, of phosphoric acid previously found in the different
soils.
9
120
JOURNAL OF THE
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ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.
121
CHART I.
THE PRECIPITATION OF THE SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID OF A HIGH GRADE
ACID PHOSPHATE (CONTAINING 12.72 PER CENT. SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID)
DUE TO THE ACTION OF FOUR VARIETIES OF MOIST SOIL, FOR A PERIOD
OF 27 WEEKS.
122 JOURNAL OF THE
Thinking that the wetting itself might have some effect on the
acid phosphate, a parallel line of experiments were carried on to
ascertain if any change was due to this cause alone The same
quantity (1 grm.) of acid phosphate was used as in the above
experiment with the result as indicated in Table VII.
"We see from this table that the change due to the mere wet-
ting of the acid phosphate may be said to be practically nothing,
and, therefore, that the change in the content of the different
forms of phosphoric acid when the superphosphate is applied to
moist soils is due entirely to the action of the soil upon them.
In order better to compare the results I insert a graphic chart
(Chart I) representing the variation of soluble phoshoric acid
clue to the action of moisture alone on the acid phosphate, and
to the action of the four varieties of moist soil, for the whole
period of 27 weeks. (See page 121).
The first noticeable effect is the immediate precipitation of a
portion of the soluble phosphoric acid in all the soils, except the
one containing a large quantity of organic matter, varying in
amount in the various soils according to their composition, even
to the extent of changing while in the course of analysis. Tiiat
further on the precipitation proceeds gradually, increasing as
time goes on. It will be noticed in soil 1 for the 4th week and
soil 3 for the 5th week and 6th week a variation from this
gradual increase occurs. I am inclined to think that some out-
side influence, such as the fumes of the laboratory or incomplete
washing, may have caused this variation, though oscillation simi-
lar to this has been noticed in the reversion of superphosphates
by Phillips,* and also Post,f quoted by Phillips. It is to be
regretted that duplicate determinations could not have been made
in order to settle this point.
It is plainly noticeable that the greatest precipitation occurs
from contact with the soil containing the largest amount of iron
and alumina, and the smallest precipitation with the soil with
least iron and alumina. For example, in soil 3, where the cou-
*Journal Mitchell Soc, I, p. 57
fChem. Indus., '82, p. 217.
ELLS HA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.
123
tent of sesquioxides of iron and alumina (the iron here is really
present as the protoxide) is only 1.795 per cent., the total pre-
cipitation during the whole period of 27 weeks is the slightest ; that
is, only 4.05 percent, soluble phosphoric acid (in this case, how-
ever, other ingredients exert their influences, as will be discussed
later), corresponding to 31.69 per cent, of the total soluble phos-
phoric acid present. In soil 1, containing the next highest con-
tent of iron and alumina (3.845 percent.), the total precipitation
is 7.55 per cent, soluble phosphoric acid, corresponding to 59.30
per cent, of the total soluble phosphoric acid. In soil 4, with
the third higher content of iron and alumina (8.275 per cent.),
the precipitation is 8.89 percent., or 69.90 per cent, of the whole
soluble phosphoric acid originally present. And lastly, in the
soil containing the largest amount of iron and alumina (28.125
per cent.) the precipitation amounts to 11.17 per cent, for the
whole period, corresponding to as much as 87.81 percent, of the
whole soluble phosphoric acid originally present. By referring
to Table VIII this change can more readilv be seen.
TABLE VIII.
SHOWING TOTAL PRECIPITATION OF SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID DURING
27 WEEKS WITH VARIOUS Soil.-.
SOILS.
Containing Iron
and Alumina,
per cent-.
Total Precipitation
of Sol. Phos. Acid,
per cents.
Equivalent to Pre-
cipitation of whole
Sol. Phos. Acid,
per cents.
.'}. Sandy, with Humus
1.795
3.845
8.275
28.125
1 05
7.55
8.89
11.17
::1.69
1. Sandy, with Little Clay
\. < llayey Sn 1 1 • 1
59.36
69.90
2. sen Clay
87.81
As was referred to above in the case of soil 3, the precipitation
is slight, due no doubt, 1st, to the small amount of iron and
alumina present, but principally to the large content of organic
matter present in the soil. The presence here of the organic
matter, and the formation of organic acid, retards the decompo-
sition of the soluble phosphate and consequently the change to
the precipitated form.
Let us now look at the effect of the soils on the acid phosphate
in regard to the insoluble phosphoric acid. With soils 1 and 4
there has been no change in the insoluble from the beginning to
the end of the period; or if any exists it is slight and within the
124 JOURNAL OF THE
limits of variation in analytical work. With soil 3, which con-
tains the largest percentage of organic matter, we notice a
decrease of insoluble phosphoric acid which, though slight, is
decided. This important result is due undoubted 1 v to the presence
of vegetable matter. It has been seen that organic matter pic-
vents the decomposition of the soluble phosphoric acid. Now
we see that another result is reached which is much more im-
portant; for the organic acids when formed actually act on the
insoluble phosphoric acid present in the fertilizer, effect its
decomposition, thus rendering it available to the plant, or it may
be that by so preventing the precipitation of soluble phosphoric
acid it furnishes the soluble with the means of acting on the
undecomposed tricalcic phosphate to render it soluble in ammo-
nium citrate. I am inclined to the former supposition ; in either
case the effect is the same.
On the other hand, in regard to soil 2 with the large percentage
of iron and alumina the effect is just the reverse, for the presence
of much ferric oxide and alumina renders some of the phosphoric
acid originally available to the plants useless for such purposes,
because some of the soluble phosphoric acid is changed to the
insoluble. This reversion has indeed gone on till at the end of
the 27th week it amounts to 2.15 per cent., or, in other words,
16.90 per cent, of the whole soluble phosphoric acid originally
present has been converted into the insoluble form. This is due,
I think, to the formation, with the large excess of ferric oxide
and alumina in the soil, of basic phosphate of iron and alumina,
which is, as stated by A. Millot,* not soluble iu ammonium
citrate at H5° C, as is the case with the normal phosphate.
The reverted phosphoric acid in the above series, embodying
as it does the phosphoric acid soluble only in ammonium ci-
trate, combines the change which has taken place in the soluble
phosphoric acid by which a part is rendered insoluble in water,
and also the change, if any, by which the phosphoric acid insolu-
ble in ammonium citrate has become soluble in that liquid;
consequently it is of much interest, and attention is called to it.
*Bnll. de la Soc. Chim., 1880, p. 98.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.
125
In the foregoing experiments the quantity of soil is constant ;
i. e., 32 times the content of soluble phosphoric acid in the super-
phosphate. It was thought desirable to ascertain if by increas-
ing the quantity of soil the precipitation would be correspond-
ingly increased, and to what extent this would take place.
Soil Xo. 2, with 28.125 per cent, ferric oxide and alumina,
was taken for these experiments, because the change in soluble
phosphoric acid would be more marked on account of the larger
content of ferric oxide and alumina than in either of the other
three.
The same acid phosphate was taken. The mixtures were made
in t he same way as previously but in different proportions, and
analyzed after seven weeks.
Mixture A. — 1 gram acid phosphate to 4 grams soil Xo. 2 (as
in previous series), corresponding therefore to 1 part soluble
phosphoric acid to 32 parts soil.
Mixture B. — J gram acid phosphate to 3 grams soil, corre-
sponding thus to 1 part soluble phosphoric acid to 96 parts soil.
Mixture C. — \ gram acid phosphate to 4 grams soil, corre-
sponding therefore to 1 part soluble phosphoric acid to 128
parts soil.
Mixture D. —\ gram acid phosphate to 6 grams soil, corre-
sponding to 1 part soluble phosphoric acid to 192 parts soil.
The results obtained are recorded in Table IX, in which the
percentages of insoluble phosphoric acid arc corrected by sub-
tracting the quantity of phosphoric acid present in the varying
amounts of the soil.
TABLE IX.
SHOWING ACTION OF VARYING QUANTITIES OF SOIL No. 2 (WITH 28.12:. PER
CENT. OF FE2'»3 AND AL2r>3) ON ACID PHOSPHATE (WITH 12.72 PER CENT
BOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID AND 0.89 PER CENT. LNSOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC
\< il>) AT THE END OF SEVEN WEEK8.
Mixture.
Ratio Sol. Pho.s.
Acid to Soil.
Actual per cent.
Sol. Phos. Acid
Fjound.
Total
Precipitation.
Actual per cent.
Insol. Phos.
Acid Found.
A
B
1 : ::_'
1 : 96
1 : 128
1 : 192
:; 1!
'Ml
i'
2.39
D
3.24
9.44
126 JOURNAL OF THE
Here we see that the increase of the amount of soil increases
the total precipitation, and increases also the amount of phos-
phoric acid rendered insoluble by the formation of basic phos-
phate of iron and alumina. The results are as would be ex-
pected in regard to the increase, but as to the amount of the
increase the results are somewhat surprising.
For here, when the quantity of soil is three times what it
was in the first experiment, the precipitation is only 0.14 per
cent, greater in phosphoric acid; and with 6 times as much soil
the total precipitation is only 0.30 per cent. And again, where the
soil is four times greater, the insoluble phosphoric acid remains
practically the same; and with six times as much soil gives an
increase of only 0.18 per cent, phosphoric acid. Results like
these, where would be expected a greater increase, seem to be
anomalous.
Probably the only rational explanation which can be given is
the following : When the superphosphate comes into intimate con-
tact with the soil the particles of the former are surrounded by
larger masses of the latter. Each separate particle of the phos-
phate, therefore, must be mingled with numerous particles of
the soil, so that the soil particles touch it at all possible points,
The number of the soil particles is of course limited by their
fineness, and it can be easily seen that the number can be fixed;
or, iu other words, that a given particle of acid phosphate can
only come in contact with a limited number of given soil par-
ticles. With this view, the anomaly can be explained by con-
sidering that the phosphate particle in the mixture is surrounded
by a definite number of soil particles, and that this number is
nearly reached when the mixture is 1: 32. A large increase
of soil, therefore, has but little effect on the subsequent precipi-
tation, for the additional soil particles cannot touch the already
surrounded particle of the phosphate.
If this theory be correct, then, the series of experiments
(Table IX) do not fall far short of what would actually be the
case when the superphosphate is applied to the soil, if the latter
remains in a continuous moist condition, and if the effect of
heavy rains be disregarded.
ELLSHA MITCHELL SCIENTlr.'C SOCIETY. 127
We see from the above experiments that consequent upon the
addition of acid phosphate to the soil a precipitation occurs by
which some of the phosphoric acid soluble in water becomes no
longer soluble in that liquid, but is readily dissolved by ammonium
citrate at 65° C. This precipitation may continue until later a
basic phosphate of iron or alumina, insoluble in ammonium
citrate, forms.
The resuits brought out by these investigations are:
1st. The sesquioxides of iron and aluminium present in the
soil, more than any other ordinary ingredients, precipitate to a
marked degree the soluble phosphoric acid of the superphosphate
applied to them.
2d. The precipitation varies in direct proportion to the content
of ferric oxide and alumina.
3d. That this precipitation commences immediately when moist-
ure is present, and contiuues to increase gradually till all the
soluble is so precipitated.
4th. In soils containing much of the oxides of iron and
aluminium basic phosphates of iron and alumina, iusoluble in
ammonium citrate at 65° C, commence to form at once, and
increase very slowly.
5th. Organic matter by decomposition furnishes organic acids
which prevent the precipitation of soluble phosphoric acid.
6th. The organic acids so formed either dissolve the tricalcic
phosphates of the superphosphates, or by preventing the precipi-
tation of soluble phosphoric acid allow it to act on the uudecom-
posed phosphate, rendering it available to plants.
7th. The greater the proportion of soil to soluble phosphoric-
acid the greater the precipitation, but this is not proportional to
the quantity of the soil.
8th. That a limit is soon reached beyond which an additional
quantity of soil has very little or no effect on the superphosphate.
9th. This limit is caused by the impossibility of a larger
number of soil particles coming in contact with the particles of
superphosphate.
10
128 JOURNAL OF THE
10th. The precipitate from the soluble phosphoric acid is readily
dissolved by ammonium citrate at 65° C, until the basic phos-
phates are reached.
11th. That such precipitated forms (excluding the basic phos-
phates), judging by the ammonium citrate standard, are readily
acted on by the juices of plants, and can be classed among the
"available phosphates."
[Note. — The above article, with but few corrections, was written during the
winter of '86-'87. Many additions and alterations which might safely be
made have been prevented by press of other work.]
A PARTIAL CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF SOME
SPECIES OF THE GENUS ILEX.
F. P. VENABLE.
Some years ago an analysis of the leaves of Ilex cassine was
given in this Journal.* In this analysis appeared the interest-
ing fact that these leaves contained a small percentage of caf-
feine. During the winter of 1885— '86, at the request of some
medical friends whose attention was drawn to the analysis, a more
thorough examination was undertaken, not only of the leaves
but of the berries. It was thought advisable, at the same time,
to examine the leaves and fruit of other representatives of the
Ilex family in this State — Ileal opaca and Ilex dahoon. This
was primarily a search after alkaloids and not intended as a
complete chemical examination. As no alkaloids were found,
other than the caffeine already mentioned, no account of the work
was published, and the results have been hidden away in my
note-books ever since. Thinking, however, that even negative
results are often of some value and that the partial analysis might
be of aid to others, I offer this paper for publication in the Jour-
nal of the Society.
'Vol. II, p. 39.
ELTSHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 129
A short preliminary account of these members of the Genus
Ilex, taken from the pages of Curtis,* will add to the value of
the paper and make it more intelligible.
Holly. {Ilex Opaca, Ait.). — Thirty to forty feet high and
twelve to fifteen inches in diameter. The wood is heavy, with
a fine, compact grain, and takes a brilliant polish. The berries
are purgative and fifteen or twenty of them will produce vomit-
ing.
Dahoon Holly. (I. Dahoon, Walt.). — A shrub or small
tree, from six to twenty-five feet high, growing on the borders of
the pine-barren ponds and swamps of our low country. The
leaves are one or two inches long, one-fourth to one-half inch
wide, entire, or with a few sharp teeth near the upper end, ever-
green. The berries are red.
Yopon. (I. Cassine, Linn.). — An elegant shrub, ten to fifteen
feet high, but sometimes rising into a small tree of twenty or
twenty-five feet. Its native place is near salt water, and it is
never found far in the interior. The leaves are small, one-half
to one inch long, very smooth, and evenly scolloped on the edges
with small, rounded teeth. In some sections of the Lower Dis-
trict, especially in the region of the Dismal Swamp, these are
annually dried and used for tea, which is, however, oppressively
sudorific — at least to one not accustomed to it. The berries are
a bright red.
According to Curtis there are in this State five additional spe-
cies of this Genus — I. decidua, Walt.; I. ambigua, Chapm.; /.
verticillata, Gray. ; I. glabra, Gray. ; I. coriaeea, Chapm. — but the
examination was not extended to them.
In searching for the alkaloids the directions of Dragendorff't
were first followed. The leaves (or crushed berries) were di-
gested at 40° — 60° with dilute sulphuric acid. This extract was
evaporated to a syrupy consistence, the residue mixed with three
or four times its bulk of alcohol, filtered after twenty-four hour-'
*The Woody Plants of North Carolina, 58 et seq.
fBlyth, Poisons; Effects and Detection, 224.
130 JOURNAL OF THE
standing and washed with alcohol. The alcohol was then dis-
tilled off from the filtrate, the watery residue was diluted with
water and filtered. Petroleum-ether, benzol and chloroform
were successively used to extract the alkaloidal principles, if any
were present in the acid liquid. Then, after rendering alkaline
with ammonia, the liquid was again extracted with the solvents
mentioned.
As, even with water hut slightly acidified with sulphuric acid,
some risk of the destruction or change of the alkaloids was run
during the long evaporation, a second method was made use of
as follows:
The leaves were digested for ten hours with 70 per cent, alco-
hol, the alcohol distilled off and the residue treated with lead
acetate and soda. The excess of lead was removed by means of
sulphuretted hydrogen and the filtrate from this evaporated to a
thin syrup. This was then treated with strong alcohol, filtered,
and the excess of alcohol distilled off. Bismuth-potassium
iodide and sulphuric acid was next used to precipitate any alka-
loid present. The presence of albuminoid matter rendered it
necessary to decompose this by means of soda, neutralize with
dilute sulphuric acid, and re-precipitate with mercuric chloride.
The solutions to which mercuric chloride had been added were
allowed to stand several days. The results may be tabulated as
follows :
I. opaca, leaves No alkaloid.
I. opaca, berries
I. dahoon, leaves
I. dahoon, berries ,
I. cassine, leaves Caffeine.
I. cassine, berries No alkaloid.
I regard these analyses as conclusive, at least, of the absence
of the known, well characterized alkaloids. It is, of course,
possible that other methods might reveal the presence of some of
the more elusive ones.
a a
a u
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 131
REPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRETARY
J. VV. GORE.
THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING.
Person Hale, September 11, 1888.
The Society was called to order by the Vice-President, Professor Graves,
who presented a paper on —
1. The Principle of Duality. (Abstract). The author's remarks were con-
fined to the application of the principle to plane figures. We may consider in
a plane figure either the point or the right line as the element. The co-exi-t-
ence of figures and their properties (correlative), as the different elements are
chosen, constitutes the Principle of Duality. Several illustrations were given
(c. f. Cremona's Projective Geometry).- The subject also may be considered
from an analytical stand-point (c. f. Clebsch's Lessons in Geometry;. Tan-
gential co ordinates were explained and compared with the more familiar
point co-ordinates. A series of parallel, and analytically identical, operations
may be executed on certain equations which lead to results which have a simi-
lar algebraic form but bear different and correlative interpretations.
2. An Account of the Meeting for 1888 of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science was then yiven by Professor Gore. Points of inter-
est with regard to this meeting, and statistics as to papers read, with titles
and outlines of same, were given. .
3. Report on Progress in Chemistry. (Abstract). Dr. Venable described
some of the recent discoveries in Chemistry and the progress made in that
branch of science.
The Vice-President announced the committees which were to report, at the
meetings during the year, on the progress in the different branches of scien-
tific work. There were nine of these committees and the reports were limited
to fifteen minutes each.
The Secretary reported large additions to the library during vacation. Since
the May meeting 484 books and pamphlets had been received. The list of
exchanges had increased to 184. The names of the following new members
were read :
Dr. S. J. Hinsdale, Fayetteville, N. C.
Dr. P. B. Barringer, Davidson College, N. C.
132 JOURNAL OF THE
THIRTY- EIGHTH MEETING.
Gerrard Hall, October 10, 1888.
Vice-President Graves introduced Dr. Wm. B. Phillips, who gave an account
of the —
4. Erection of the Mitchell Monument. An abstract of this paper is pub-
lished in this Journal (p. 55).
THIRTY-NINTH MEETING.
Person Hall, November 20, 1888.
Vice-President Graves presided. The meeting was opened by Professor
Alexander with a paper on —
5. References to Oil in Plutarch and Some of his Theories Concerning the
Moon. (Abstract). Passages from Plutarch's writings were cited to show the
use of oil in quieting the sea, also by divers for illuminating the depths, etc.
The petroleum spring near the ox us, discovered about 328 B. C, was referred
to and Strabo's mention of similar oil-springs given. Some of the quaint
theories as to the nature of oil were recounted. Professor Alexander also gave
Plutarch's theories about the moon, the faces appearing on its disc, etc.
0. The University Observatory. By Professor Love. The following hith-
erto unpublished faets about the North Carolina University Astronomical
Observatory have been lately gathered from old MS. records:
The foundations were laid in April, 1831, and the first eight feet of the wall
built. This portion was of stone. The remainder of the walls was put up in
March, April and May, 1832. The wood-work, painting and all were com-
plete by the middle of August, 1832. The building cost $430.29. It was paid
for by the University and not, as has been stated, by President Caldwell.
7. Report on Progress in Bacteriology. Presented by Professor Poteat ;
read, in the absence of the author, by the Secretary. • (Abstract).
The Report on "Microscopical Botany," after a brief historic il introduction,
called attention to the opening of laboratories for the study of microorgan-
isms, particularly to the Hoagland Laboratory of the Long Island College
Hospital, opened October 1st. The remaining portion was occupied with the
description of Hesse's and of Frankland's methods for the quantitative esti-
mation of the bacteria disseminated in the air, and of Koch's " plate-cultiva-
tion" process as applied to the dissemination of bacteria in water. Some of
the general results of these investigations were stated.
8. Mathematical Fiction. Read by Professor Graves. (Abstract). In
Natural Science fiction finds a place at the foundation of important theories.
In Mathematics, also, which claims to be the exact science, fictions are found
which, to the uninitiated, appear extravagant.
Illustrations: The properties of the right line at infinity, of the circular
points at infinity, of the imaginary foci of conies, etc., etc.
9. Recalculations of Atomic Weights. This paper by Dr. Venable appears,
in full, in this Journal (p. 98).
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 133
The Secretary reported 286 books and pamphlets received since the Septem-
ber meeting and fourteen new exchanges.
The following new members were reported:
Professor W. H. Michael, Wake Forest, N. C.
Professor A. L. Purinton, Wake Forest, N. C.
Professor H. L. Smith, Davidson, N. C.
Seventeen additional Associate Members were received as follows :
W. J. Andrews, F. L. Covington,
Gaston Battle, B. T. Green,
Wm. J. Battle, H. L. Harris,
J. D. Bellamy, W. E. Headen,
J. C. Braswell, T. M. Lee,
J. S. Lewis, W. H. Shaffner,
J. V. Lewis, W. L. Spoon,
W. H. Rankin, G. S. Wills.
P. L. WOODARD,
FORTIETH MEETING.
Person Hall, December 4, 1888.
Vice-President Graves presided. Professor Gore read a paper on —
10. Magnetic Variation for the State of North Carolina.
As this report was only a partial one its publication is postponed until it
can be completed.
11. Progress in Analytical Chemistry. Report made by Dr. Venable.
(Abstract). This report bore special reference to commercial methods of
analysis. Some of the difficulties in the way of the Technical Analyst and
the approximative nature of the methods pursued were pointed out. The
necessity for uniformity and recent efforts in that direction by associations of
chemists and interested bodies were mentioned.
12. "On the Chords of a Parabola and generally of a Conic." By Professor
Graves. (Abstract). This is the title of a paper by Professor F. Amodeo, of
Naples, Italy, published in Vol. IV, p. 92, of the Annals of Mathematics.
As the title indicates, it extends the properties proved by Graves for the
"Focal Chord of a Parabola" (Vid. Annals of Mathematics, Vol. Ill, p. 153;
also Journal Mitchell Soc, Vol. V, p. 15).
13. Chemical Examination of some Species of the Genus Ilex. Professor
Venable read this paper by title. (This paper is published in full in this
Journal.)
14. On the Change in Superphosphates when they are applied to the Soil.
By Dr. H. B. Battle. (Read by title). (Published in full in this Journal .
The Secretary reported nine additional exchanges since the November
meeting and 174 books and pamphlets received.
Photographs of the Mitchell Monument and interesting views in the
vicinity of Mt. Mitchell were shown.
134 JOURNAL OF THE
A LIST OF SOCIETIES, ETC..
EXCHANGING PUBLICATIONS WITH THE SOCIETY.
UNITED STATES.
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.
Albany— New York Museum of Natural History.
Boston — American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Boston Scientific Society.
Brookville — Society of Natural History.
Cambridge — Entomological Club.
Charleston — Elliott Society of Science and Arts.
Cincinnati — Society of Natural History.
Davenport — Academy of Natural Sciences.
Denver — Colorado Scientific Society.
Granville — Denison Scientific Association.
Madison — Wisconsin Academy of Arts and Sciences and Letters.
Manhattan — Kansas Academy of Natural Sciences.
New Brighton — Natural Science Association of Staten Island.
New Haven — Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
New Orleans — Academy of Sciences.
Newport — Natural History Society.
New York — Academy of Sciences.
American Museum of Natural History.
Linnean Society.
Microscopical Society.
Torrey Botanical Club.
Peoria — Science Association.
Philadelphia — Academy of Natural Sciences.
American Philosophical Society.
FVanklin Institute.
Wagner Free Institute of Science.
Providence — Franklin Geological Society.
Saco — York Institute.
Salem — Essex Institute.
Peabody Academy of Science.
San Francisco — California Academy of Science.
St. Louis — Academy of Science.
Trenton — Natural History Society.
URBANA — Central Ohio Scientific Association.
Washington — Chemical Society.
National Academy of Sciences.
Philosophical Society.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 135
AGRICULTURAL STATIONS AND SOCIETIES
Agricultural College— Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station.
Agricultural College — Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station.
Ames — Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.
Amherst — Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
Athens — Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station.
Auburn — Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station.
Raton Rouge — Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station.
Rerkeley — California Agricultural Experiment Station.
Rlacksburg — Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.
Roston — Massachusetts Horticultural Society.
Rrookings — Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.
Rurlington — Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station.
Champaign — Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.
Illinois State Laboratories of Natural History.
College Station — Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.
Columbia — Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station.
Columbia — South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station.
Columbus — Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.
Corvallis — Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.
Fayetteville — Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station.
Fort Collins — Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station.
Geneva — New York Agricultural Experiment Station.
Grand Rapids — Michigan Horticultural Society.
Hanover — New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station.
Ithaca — Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station.'
Knoxville — Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station.
Lexington — Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station.
Lincoln — Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station.
Manhattan — Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.
Minneapolis — Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.
Newark — Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station.
New BRUNSWICK — New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station.
New Haven — Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.
Orono — Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.
Raleigh — North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station.
North Carolina Horticultural Society.
Statp: College — Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station.
St. Anthony Park — Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.
(iEOLOGICAL SURVEYS.
Albany — New York State Geological Survey.
Cheyenne — Wyoming Territorial Geological Survey.
Columbus — Ohio State Geological Survey.
136 JOURNAL OF THE
Indianapolis — Indiana State Geological Survey.
Little Rock — Arkansas State Geological Survey.
Minneapolis— Minnesota State Geological Survey.
New Brunswick — New Jersey State Geological Survey.
Raleigh — North Carolina State Geological Survey.
San Francisco— State Mining Bureau.
Springfield — Illinois State Geological Survey.
Tuscaloosa — Alabama State Geological Survey.
boards of health and medical societies.
Albany — New York State Board of Health.
Appleton — Wisconsin State Roard of Health.
Boston — Massachusetts State Board of Health.
Columbia— South Carolina State Board of Health.
Lansing— Michigan State Board of Health.
Nashville— Tennessee State Board of Health.
Philadelphia — Pennsylvania State Board of Health.
Trenton — New Jersey State Board of Health.
Wilmington— North Carolina State Board of Health.
North Carolina Medical Journal.
North Carolina Medical Society.
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
Columbia School of Mines— Chemical Society.
Cornell University — Scientific Bulletins.
Denison University— Bulletins from the Scientific Laboratories.
Harvard University — Museum of Comparative Zoology.
Johns Hopkins University — Circulars.
Studies from the Biological Laboratory.
Washburn College— Laboratory of Natural History.
observatories.
Blue Hill — Meteorological Observatorv.
Cambridge — Harvard University Observatory.
Rochester — Warner Observatory.
University of Virginia — Leander McCormick Observatory.
INDEPENDENT PERIODICALS.
Baltimore — Modern Language Notes.
Crawfordsville — Botanical Gazette.
Boston — Popular Science News (presented).
San Diego — WTest American Scientist.
• GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.
Agricultural Department — Division of Botany.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 137
Agricultural Department — Division of Chemistry.
Division of Entomology.
Division of Forestry.
Division of Pomology.
Division of Statistics.
Bureau of Ethnology.
Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Department of State.
Fish Commission.
Geological Survey.
National Board of Health.
National Museum.
Naval Observatory.
Signal Service Bureau.
Smithsonian Institution.
Surgeon General's Office.
AUSTRIA.
Innsbruck — Der Natnrwissenschaftlich-medizinische Verein.
Wien — Der Wissenschaftliche Club.
BELGIUM.
Bruxelles — La Societe Royale Malacologique de Belgique.
Bruxelles — La Academie Royale de Medecine de Belgique.
BRAZIL.
Rio de Janeiro — Museu Nacional.
CANADA.
Grimsby — Fruit-Growers' Association of Ontario.
Halifax — Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Sciences.
Montreal — Natural History Society.
Ottawa — Entomological Society of Ontario.
Field Naturalists' Club.
Geological Survey of Canada.
Royal Society of Canada.
Toronto — Canadian Institute.
Winnipeg — Historical and Scientific Society.
CHILI.
Santiago — Der Deutsche Wissenschaftliche Verein.
FRANCE.
Amiens — La Societe Linneenne de Normandie.
138 JOURNAL OF THE
Caen — La Societe Linneenne du Nord de la France.
Paris — Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique.
Le Laboratoire Municipal de Chernie.
Rouen — La Societe des Amis des Sciences Naturelles.
GERMANY.
Augsburg — Der Naturhistorische Verein.
Berlin — Botanischer Verein fiir die Provinz Brandenburg.
Entomologischer Verein.
Gesellsehaft Naturforschender Freunde.
Naturae Novitates.
Bonn — Naturhistorischer Verein.
Braunschweig — Verein fiir Naturwissenschaft.
Breslau — Die Schlesische Gesellsehaft fiir vaterl. Cultur.
( arlsruhe — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Danzig — Naturforschende Gesellsehaft.
Frankfurt am Main — Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellsehaft.
Frankfurt am Oder — Der Naturvvissenschaftliche Verein.
Societatum Litterae.
Giessen — Oberhessische Gesellsehaft fiir Natur u. Heilkunde.
Halle — K. Leopoldinisch-carolinische Deutsche Akad. d. Naturforscher.
Hanau — Wetterauische Gesellsehaft fiir die gesammte Natnrkunde.
Hannover — Naturhistorische Gesellsehaft.
Heidelberg — Natur historisch-medizinischer Verein.
Kiel — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Sehleswig-Holslein.
Leipzig — Insekten-Borse.
Luxeburg — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Magdeburg — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Munster — Der Westfalische Provinzial-Verein f. Wissenschaft n. Kunst.
Offenbach — Verein fiir Natnrkunde.
Regensburg — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Wiesbaden — Nassauischer Verein fiir Natnrkunde.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Belfast — Naturalists' Field Club.
Bristol — Naturalists' Society.
Dublin — Royal Dublin Society.
Dumfries — Natural History and Antiquarian Society.
G lasgow — Geological Society.
Natural History Society.
Halifax — Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.
London — Royal Society of England.
Manchester — Geological Society.
Literary and Philosophical Society.
RoTHAMSTED — Agricultural Experiment Farm.
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 139
ITALY.
Catania (Sicily) — Academia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali.
Pisa — Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali.
Torino — Musee di Zoologia ed Anatomia com para ta della R. Universita di
Torino.
MEXICO.
Mexico — Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural.
NETHERLANDS.
Amsterdam — K. Nederlandische Akademie d. Wissenschaften.
Harlem — Musee Tevler.
Middelburg — Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetenschappen.
Utrecht — La Societe Provinciale des Arts et des Sciences.
RUSSIA.
Kharkow — La Societe des Sciences Experimental (Section Medicale).
Kieff — La. Societe des Naturalistes.
Moscow — La Societe Imperiale des Naturalistes.
Odessa — La Societe des Naturalistes de la Nouvelle-Russie.
SWEDEN.
Lund — Universitets Bihliotek.
SWITZERLAND.
Bern — Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Frauenpeld — Thurganische Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
FribOurg — La Societe Fribourgeoise des Sciences Naturalles.
Lausanne — La Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturalles.
Zurich — Die Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
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